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     Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation

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Python
******

     Python 3.13.7, 9월 01, 2025

     Author name not set

     Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation

* Menu:

* 파이썬의 새로운 기능::
* 파이썬 자습서::
* 파이썬 설정 및 사용법::
* 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스::
* 파이썬 표준 라이브러리::
* 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장::
* 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서::
* 파이썬 모듈 설치하기::
* 파이썬 HOWTO::
* 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들::
* Deprecations::
* 용어집::
* 이 설명서에 관하여::
* 버그 다루기::
* 저작권::
* 역사와 라이센스::
* Python 모듈 목록::
* 색인::

 -- The Detailed Node Listing --

파이썬의 새로운 기능

* What’s New In Python 3.13: What’s New In Python 3 13.
* What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12.
* What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11.
* What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10.
* 파이썬 3.9의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.8의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.7의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.6의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.5의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능.
* What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4.
* What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3.
* What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2.
* What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1.
* What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0.
* What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7.
* What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6.
* What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5.
* What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4.
* What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3.
* What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2.
* What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1.
* What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0.
* Changelog::

What’s New In Python 3.13

* Summary – Release Highlights::
* New Features::
* Other Language Changes::
* New Modules::
* Improved Modules::
* Optimizations::
* Removed Modules And APIs::
* New Deprecations::
* CPython Bytecode Changes::
* C API Changes::
* Build Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13.
* Regression Test Changes::
* Notable changes in 3.13.1: Notable changes in 3 13 1.
* Notable changes in 3.13.4: Notable changes in 3 13 4.

New Features

* A better interactive interpreter::
* Improved error messages::
* Free-threaded CPython::
* An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
* Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals.
* Support for mobile platforms::

Improved Modules

* argparse::
* array::
* ast::
* asyncio::
* base64::
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* configparser::
* copy::
* ctypes::
* dbm::
* dis::
* doctest::
* email::
* enum::
* fractions::
* glob::
* importlib::
* io::
* ipaddress::
* itertools::
* marshal::
* math::
* mimetypes::
* mmap::
* multiprocessing::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* pdb::
* queue::
* random::
* re::
* shutil::
* site::
* sqlite3::
* ssl::
* statistics::
* subprocess::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* time::
* tkinter::
* traceback::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* venv::
* warnings::
* xml::
* zipimport::

Removed Modules And APIs

* PEP 594; Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library.
* 2to3::
* builtins::
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* locale::
* opcode::
* optparse::
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re: re<2>.
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix.
* turtle::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unittest::
* urllib::
* webbrowser::

New Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions::

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Changed C APIs::
* Limited C API Changes::
* Removed C APIs::
* Deprecated C APIs::

Deprecated C APIs

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>.

Porting to Python 3.13

* Changes in the Python API::
* Changes in the C API::

Notable changes in 3.13.1

* sys: sys<2>.

Notable changes in 3.13.4

* os.path: os path<2>.
* tarfile::

What’s New In Python 3.12

* Summary – Release highlights::
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>.
* New Modules: New Modules<2>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* CPython bytecode changes::
* Demos and Tools::
* Deprecated::
* Removed::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<2>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<2>.

New Features

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

Improved Modules

* array: array<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis: dis<2>.
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* math: math<2>.
* os: os<2>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform::
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* random: random<2>.
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* tokenize::
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* uuid::

Deprecated

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>.

Removed

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum: enum<2>.
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* imp::
* io: io<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.
* Others::

Porting to Python 3.12

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<2>.
* Removed: Removed<2>.

Deprecated

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>.

What’s New In Python 3.11

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* New Modules: New Modules<3>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Faster CPython::
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Removed: Removed<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<3>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<3>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.

New Features

* PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
* PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

Improved Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<3>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging::
* math: math<3>.
* operator::
* os: os<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* re: re<3>.
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* string::
* sys: sys<4>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time: time<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* zipfile::

Faster CPython

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* About::

Faster Startup

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::

Faster Runtime

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.

FAQ

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::

CPython bytecode changes

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::

Deprecated

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Standard Library::

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Removed: Removed<4>.

Notable changes in 3.11.4

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.

Notable changes in 3.11.5

* OpenSSL::

What’s New In Python 3.10

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>.
* New Modules: New Modules<4>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<5>.
* Removed: Removed<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<4>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<4>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.

New Features

* Parenthesized context managers::
* Better error messages::
* PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.
* PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching.
* Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::

Better error messages

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::

PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching

* Syntax and operations::
* Declarative approach::
* Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal.
* Patterns with a literal and variable::
* Patterns and classes::
* Nested patterns::
* Complex patterns and the wildcard::
* Guard::
* Other Key Features::

Simple pattern: match to a literal

* Behavior without the wildcard::

Patterns and classes

* Patterns with positional parameters::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
* PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
* PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.

Improved Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* argparse: argparse<2>.
* array: array<3>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64: base64<2>.
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* encodings::
* enum: enum<4>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob: glob<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* linecache::
* os: os<4>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* site: site<2>.
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* types: types<3>.
* typing: typing<5>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml: xml<2>.
* zipimport: zipimport<3>.

dataclasses

* __slots__::
* Keyword-only fields::

Porting to Python 3.10

* Changes in the Python syntax::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.

C API Changes

* PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
* New Features: New Features<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<6>.
* Removed: Removed<6>.

Notable changes in 3.10.12

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.

파이썬 3.9의 새로운 기능

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항::
* 여러분의 코드에서 DeprecationWarning을 확인해야합니다::
* 새로운 기능::
* 기타 언어 변경::
* 새 모듈::
* 개선된 모듈::
* 최적화::
* 폐지::
* 제거::
* 파이썬 3.9로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기.
* 빌드 변경::
* C API 변경::
* 파이썬 3.9.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.9.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.9.3의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 3의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.9.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 3.9.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능: 3 9 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
* 3.9.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 3 9 17의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

새로운 기능

* 딕셔너리 병합과 업데이트 연산자::
* 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드::
* 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭::
* 새로운 구문 분석기::

새 모듈

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::

개선된 모듈

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE과 idlelib::
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* nntplib::
* os: os<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<3>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* xml: xml<3>.

파이썬 3.9로 이식하기

* 파이썬 API의 변경::
* C API의 변경::
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경::

C API 변경

* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<2>.
* 파이썬 3.9로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>.
* 제거: 제거<2>.

파이썬 3.9.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* typing: typing<7>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) 및 Apple Silicon Mac 지원: macOS 11 0 Big Sur 및 Apple Silicon Mac 지원.

파이썬 3.9.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.

파이썬 3.9.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.

3.9.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* tarfile: tarfile<4>.

파이썬 3.8의 새로운 기능

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<2>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<3>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<2>.
* 새 모듈: 새 모듈<2>.
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<2>.
* 최적화: 최적화<2>.
* 빌드와 C API 변경::
* 폐지: 폐지<2>.
* API 및 기능 제거::
* 파이썬 3.8로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.8.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.3의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 3의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.8의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 8의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.9의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 9의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항<2>.
* 파이썬 3.8.12의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 12의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 3.8.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능: 3 8 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
* 3.8.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 3 8 17의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

새로운 기능

* 대입 표현식::
* 위치 전용 매개 변수::
* 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시::
* 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.: 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.
* f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다.: f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다.
* PEP 578; 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅: PEP 578 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅.
* PEP 587; 파이썬 초기화 구성: PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성.
* PEP 590; 벡터콜; CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜: PEP 590 벡터콜 CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜.
* 아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5::

개선된 모듈

* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* builtins: builtins<2>.
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE과 idlelib: IDLE과 idlelib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<5>.
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* os.path: os path<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* sys: sys<7>.
* tarfile: tarfile<5>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* time: time<4>.
* typing: typing<8>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* venv: venv<4>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<4>.
* xmlrpc::

파이썬 3.8로 이식하기

* 파이썬 동작의 변경::
* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
* C API의 변경: C API의 변경<2>.
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<2>.
* 데모와 도구::

파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.

파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.

파이썬 3.8.12의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<3>.

3.8.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* tarfile: tarfile<6>.

파이썬 3.7의 새로운 기능

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<3>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<4>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<3>.
* 새 모듈: 새 모듈<3>.
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<3>.
* C API 변경: C API 변경<2>.
* 빌드 변경: 빌드 변경<2>.
* 최적화: 최적화<3>.
* 기타 CPython 구현 변경::
* 폐지된 파이썬 동작::
* 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드.
* 폐지된 C API의 함수 및 형::
* 플랫폼 지원 제거::
* API 및 기능 제거: API 및 기능 제거<2>.
* 모듈 제거::
* 윈도우 전용 변경::
* 파이썬 3.7로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.7.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.6의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 6의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.11의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 11의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능: 파이썬 3 7 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.

새로운 기능

* PEP 563 ; 어노테이션의 지연된 평가: PEP 563 어노테이션의 지연된 평가.
* PEP 538; 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경: PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
* PEP 540; 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드: PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
* PEP 553; 내장 breakpoint(): PEP 553 내장 breakpoint.
* PEP 539; 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API: PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API.
* PEP 562; 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의: PEP 562 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의.
* PEP 564; 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수: PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수.
* PEP 565; __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시: PEP 565 __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시.
* PEP 560; typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원: PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원.
* PEP 552; 해시 기반 .pyc 파일: PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일.
* PEP 545; 파이썬 설명서 번역: PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역.
* 파이썬 개발 모드 (-X dev): 파이썬 개발 모드 -X dev.

새 모듈

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.

개선된 모듈

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* decimal::
* dis: dis<3>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib 및 IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<6>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<2>.
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue: queue<2>.
* re: re<4>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* time: time<5>.
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.

폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<9>.
* wave::

파이썬 3.7로 이식하기

* 파이썬 동작의 변경: 파이썬 동작의 변경<2>.
* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<4>.
* C API의 변경: C API의 변경<3>.
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<3>.
* 윈도우 전용 변경: 윈도우 전용 변경<2>.
* 기타 CPython 구현 변경: 기타 CPython 구현 변경<2>.

파이썬 3.6의 새로운 기능

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<4>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<5>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<4>.
* 새로운 모듈::
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<4>.
* 최적화: 최적화<4>.
* 빌드와 C API 변경: 빌드와 C API 변경<2>.
* 기타 개선 사항::
* 폐지: 폐지<3>.
* 제거: 제거<3>.
* 파이썬 3.6으로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.6.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.7의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 7의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.13의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 13의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.14의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 14의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

새로운 기능

* PEP 498; 포맷 문자열 리터럴: PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴.
* PEP 526; 변수 어노테이션 문법: PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법.
* PEP 515; 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄: PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄.
* PEP 525; 비동기 제너레이터: PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터.
* PEP 530; 비동기 컴프리헨션: PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션.
* PEP 487; 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의: PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의.
* PEP 487; 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상: PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상.
* PEP 519; 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가: PEP 519 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가.
* PEP 495; 현지 시간 명확성: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성.
* PEP 529; 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
* PEP 528; 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경: PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
* PEP 520; 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지: PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지.
* PEP 468; 키워드 인자 순서 유지: PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지.
* 새로운 dict 구현::
* PEP 523; CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가.
* PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수::
* DTrace와 SystemTap 프로브 지원::

새로운 모듈

* secrets::

개선된 모듈

* array: array<4>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* Binascii::
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<2>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib와 IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* os: os<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<4>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<6>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<9>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<5>.
* warnings: warnings<4>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::

폐지

* 새 키워드::
* 폐지된 파이썬 동작: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<2>.
* 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>.
* xml: xml<6>.
* C API의 폐지된 함수와 형::
* 폐지된 빌드 옵션::

폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* os: os<9>.
* re: re<6>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* venv: venv<6>.

제거

* API와 기능 제거::

파이썬 3.6으로 이식하기

* ‘python’ 명령 동작의 변경 사항::
* 파이썬 API의 변경 사항::
* C API의 변경 사항::
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경 사항::

파이썬 3.6.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상::
* make touch 빌드 대상 제거::

파이썬 3.5의 새로운 기능

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<5>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<6>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<5>.
* 새로운 모듈: 새로운 모듈<2>.
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<5>.
* 기타 모듈 수준 변경::
* 최적화: 최적화<5>.
* 빌드와 C API 변경: 빌드와 C API 변경<3>.
* 폐지: 폐지<4>.
* 제거: 제거<4>.
* 파이썬 3.5로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.5.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 5 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

새로운 기능

* PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴::
* PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위(infix) 연산자: PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자.
* PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화::
* PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원::
* PEP 484 - 형 힌트::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터.
* PEP 475; EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도.
* PEP 479; 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경.
* PEP 485; 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수.
* PEP 486; 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기.
* PEP 488; PYO 파일 제거: PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거.
* PEP 489; 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화.

새로운 모듈

* typing: typing<10>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.

개선된 모듈

* argparse: argparse<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>.
* configparser: configparser<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<3>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib 및 IDLE: idlelib 및 IDLE<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<5>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<6>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<8>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<10>.
* pathlib: pathlib<10>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<7>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* Shutil::
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<7>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<8>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<8>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.

ssl

* 메모리 BIO 지원::
* 응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원::
* 기타 변경 사항::

폐지

* 새 키워드: 새 키워드<2>.
* 폐지된 파이썬 동작: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<3>.
* 지원되지 않는 운영 체제::
* 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<3>.

제거

* API 및 기능 제거: API 및 기능 제거<3>.

파이썬 3.5로 이식하기

* 파이썬 동작의 변경: 파이썬 동작의 변경<3>.
* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<5>.
* C API의 변경: C API의 변경<4>.

파이썬 3.5.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항

* 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상: 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상<2>.
* make touch 빌드 대상 제거: make touch 빌드 대상 제거<2>.

What’s New In Python 3.4

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<9>.
* New Modules: New Modules<5>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<7>.
* Removed: Removed<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

New Features

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>.

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::

New Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<11>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<11>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<6>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.

Improved Modules

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<5>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<3>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* doctest: doctest<4>.
* email: email<4>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<4>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<9>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal: marshal<2>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<8>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<6>.
* types: types<6>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* venv: venv<7>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.

CPython Implementation Changes

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements::
* Significant Optimizations::

Deprecated

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Deprecated Features::

Removed

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals::
* Code Cleanups::

Porting to Python 3.4

* Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>.

Changed in 3.4.3

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.

What’s New In Python 3.3

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* New Modules: New Modules<6>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3.

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

* Features::
* API changes::

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

* SimpleNamespace::

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

New Modules

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.

Improved Modules

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<5>.
* base64: base64<4>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<6>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<9>.
* mmap: mmap<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<12>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<9>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<6>.
* sys: sys<13>.
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<8>.
* types: types<7>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* urllib: urllib<4>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<3>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.

decimal

* Features: Features<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

email

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::

Deprecated

* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Deprecated features::

Porting to Python 3.3

* Porting Python code::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::

What’s New In Python 3.2

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* email: email<6>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<7>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<10>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<7>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<10>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<5>.
* os: os<13>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<11>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<12>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<11>.
* random: random<5>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<5>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<5>.
* dbm: dbm<7>.
* ctypes: ctypes<3>.
* site: site<4>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<8>.
* configparser: configparser<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::

What’s New In Python 3.1

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.

What’s New In Python 3.0

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.

Common Stumbling Blocks

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.

Overview Of Syntax Changes

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::

Miscellaneous Other Changes

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::

What’s New in Python 2.7

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Acknowledgements::

Other Language Changes

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.

New and Improved Modules

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

Build and C API Changes

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

What’s New in Python 2.6

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>.

Changes to the Development Process

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.

PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

* Writing Context Managers::
* The contextlib module::

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

* The fractions Module::

Other Language Changes

* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

New and Improved Modules

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

What’s New in Python 2.5

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The ‘__index__’ method: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>.

PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.

Other Language Changes

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.

New, Improved, and Removed Modules

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes::

What’s New in Python 2.4

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::

Other Language Changes

* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<5>.

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.

What’s New in Python 2.3

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.

Other Language Changes

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.

What’s New in Python 2.2

* Introduction::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.

PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::

What’s New in Python 2.1

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.

What’s New in Python 2.0

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* List Comprehensions::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML Modules::
* Module changes::
* New modules::
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.

Other Core Changes

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::

XML Modules

* SAX2 Support::
* DOM Support::
* Relationship to PyXML::

Changelog

* Python next::
* Python 3.13.7 final: Python 3 13 7 final.
* Python 3.13.6 final: Python 3 13 6 final.
* Python 3.13.5 final: Python 3 13 5 final.
* Python 3.13.4 final: Python 3 13 4 final.
* Python 3.13.3 final: Python 3 13 3 final.
* Python 3.13.2 final: Python 3 13 2 final.
* Python 3.13.1 final: Python 3 13 1 final.
* Python 3.13.0 final: Python 3 13 0 final.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 4: Python 3 13 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 3: Python 3 13 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 2: Python 3 13 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.

Python next

* Tools/Demos::
* Security::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::
* C API::
* Build::

Python 3.13.7 final

* Library: Library<2>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.

Python 3.13.6 final

* macOS::
* Windows::
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests::
* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* Build: Build<2>.

Python 3.13.5 final

* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<2>.

Python 3.13.4 final

* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.

Python 3.13.3 final

* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.

Python 3.13.2 final

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* C API: C API<5>.
* Build: Build<5>.

Python 3.13.1 final

* macOS: macOS<4>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Security: Security<6>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* C API: C API<6>.
* Build: Build<6>.

Python 3.13.0 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.

Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3

* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* C API: C API<7>.
* Build: Build<7>.

Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2

* macOS: macOS<6>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Security: Security<7>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* C API: C API<8>.
* Build: Build<8>.

Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1

* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Security: Security<8>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* C API: C API<9>.
* Build: Build<9>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 4

* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* C API: C API<10>.
* Build: Build<10>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* C API: C API<11>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* C API: C API<12>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* C API: C API<13>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* C API: C API<14>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* C API: C API<15>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<16>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* C API: C API<17>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<18>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<19>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<20>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<21>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* C API: C API<22>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<23>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<24>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* C API: C API<25>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<26>.

Python 3.11.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<27>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<28>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<29>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<30>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* C API: C API<31>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* C API: C API<32>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* C API: C API<33>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<34>.

Python 3.10.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<35>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 7

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<36>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<37>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* C API: C API<38>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<39>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<40>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<41>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* C API: C API<42>.

Python 3.9.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<43>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<44>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<45>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* C API: C API<46>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* C API: C API<47>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* C API: C API<48>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<49>.

Python 3.8.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<50>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<51>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<52>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<53>.

Python 3.7.0 final

* Library: Library<58>.
* C API: C API<54>.

Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 3

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<55>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* C API: C API<56>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<57>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<58>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* C API: C API<59>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<63>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<60>.

Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<61>.

Python 3.6.5 final

* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<65>.

Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<66>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.
* C API: C API<62>.

Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Build: Build<67>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* macOS: macOS<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* C API: C API<63>.

Python 3.6.3 final

* Library: Library<72>.
* Build: Build<68>.

Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<69>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<45>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* C API: C API<64>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.

Python 3.6.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Build: Build<71>.

Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* C API: C API<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.
* Build: Build<72>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.
* Build: Build<73>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.
* Build: Build<74>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* C API: C API<67>.
* Build: Build<76>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* Build: Build<78>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* C API: C API<69>.
* Build: Build<79>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<80>.
* C API: C API<70>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Build: Build<81>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.
* C API: C API<71>.

Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<85>.

Python 3.5.4 final

* Library: Library<86>.

Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<51>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Library: Library<87>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* Build: Build<82>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.
* C API: C API<72>.

Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.
* C API: C API<73>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Build: Build<83>.

Python 3.5.2 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.

Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<89>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.
* Build: Build<84>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.

Python 3.5.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.

Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Build: Build<85>.
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.

Python 3.5.0 final

* Build: Build<86>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4

* Library: Library<91>.
* Build: Build<87>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<92>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<93>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* IDLE: IDLE<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Build: Build<88>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Documentation: Documentation<78>.
* Build: Build<89>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<97>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* IDLE: IDLE<64>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Documentation: Documentation<79>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<100>.
* Library: Library<99>.
* Build: Build<90>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* C API: C API<74>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<101>.
* Library: Library<100>.
* Build: Build<91>.
* Tests: Tests<85>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<102>.
* Library: Library<101>.
* Build: Build<92>.
* C API: C API<75>.
* Windows: Windows<77>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<103>.
* Library: Library<102>.
* IDLE: IDLE<65>.
* Build: Build<93>.
* C API: C API<76>.
* Documentation: Documentation<80>.
* Tests: Tests<86>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<52>.
* Windows: Windows<78>.

파이썬 자습서

* 입맛 돋우기::
* 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기::
* 파이썬의 간략한 소개::
* 기타 제어 흐름 도구::
* 자료 구조::
* 모듈::
* 입력과 출력::
* 에러와 예외::
* 클래스::
* 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기::
* 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부::
* 가상 환경 및 패키지::
* 이제 뭘 하지?::
* 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환::
* 부동 소수점 산술; 문제점 및 한계: 부동 소수점 산술 문제점 및 한계.
* 부록::

파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기

* 인터프리터 실행하기::
* 인터프리터와 환경::

인터프리터 실행하기

* 인자 전달::
* 대화형 모드::

인터프리터와 환경

* 소스 코드 인코딩::

파이썬의 간략한 소개

* 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기::
* 프로그래밍으로의 첫걸음::

파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기

* 숫자::
* 텍스트::
* 리스트::

기타 제어 흐름 도구

* if 문::
* for 문::
* range() 함수: range 함수.
* break 와 continue 문::
* 루프의 else 절::
* pass 문::
* match 문::
* 함수 정의하기::
* 함수 정의 더 보기::
* 막간극; 코딩 스타일: 막간극 코딩 스타일.

함수 정의 더 보기

* 기본 인자 값::
* 키워드 인자::
* 특수 매개 변수::
* 임의의 인자 목록::
* 인자 목록 언 패킹::
* 람다 표현식::
* 도큐멘테이션 문자열::
* 함수 어노테이션::

특수 매개 변수

* 위치-키워드(Positional-or-Keyword) 인자: 위치-키워드 Positional-or-Keyword 인자.
* 위치 전용 매개 변수: 위치 전용 매개 변수<2>.
* 키워드 전용 인자::
* 함수 예제::
* 복습::

자료 구조

* 리스트 더 보기::
* del 문::
* 튜플과 시퀀스::
* 집합::
* 딕셔너리::
* 루프 테크닉::
* 조건 더 보기::
* 시퀀스와 다른 형들을 비교하기::

리스트 더 보기

* 리스트를 스택으로 사용하기::
* 리스트를 큐로 사용하기::
* 리스트 컴프리헨션::
* 중첩된 리스트 컴프리헨션::

모듈

* 모듈 더 보기::
* 표준 모듈들::
* dir() 함수: dir 함수.
* 패키지::

모듈 더 보기

* 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기::
* 모듈 검색 경로::
* “컴파일된” 파이썬 파일::

패키지

* 패키지에서 * 임포트 하기::
* 패키지 내부 간의 참조::
* 여러 디렉터리에 있는 패키지::

입력과 출력

* 장식적인 출력 포매팅::
* 파일을 읽고 쓰기::

장식적인 출력 포매팅

* 포맷 문자열 리터럴::
* 문자열 format() 메서드: 문자열 format 메서드.
* 수동 문자열 포매팅::
* 예전의 문자열 포매팅::

파일을 읽고 쓰기

* 파일 객체의 매소드::
* json 으로 구조적인 데이터를 저장하기::

에러와 예외

* 문법 에러::
* 예외::
* 예외 처리하기::
* 예외 일으키기::
* 예외 연쇄::
* 사용자 정의 예외::
* 뒷정리 동작 정의하기::
* 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들::
* Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions::
* Enriching Exceptions with Notes::

클래스

* 이름과 객체에 관한 한마디::
* 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간::
* 클래스와의 첫 만남::
* 기타 주의사항들::
* 상속::
* 비공개 변수::
* 잡동사니::
* 이터레이터::
* 제너레이터::
* 제너레이터 표현식::

파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간

* 스코프와 이름 공간 예::

클래스와의 첫 만남

* 클래스 정의 문법::
* 클래스 객체::
* 인스턴스 객체::
* 메서드 객체::
* 클래스와 인스턴스 변수::

상속

* 다중 상속::

표준 라이브러리 둘러보기

* 운영 체제 인터페이스::
* 파일 와일드카드::
* 명령행 인자::
* 에러 출력 리디렉션과 프로그램 종료::
* 문자열 패턴 매칭::
* 수학::
* 인터넷 액세스::
* 날짜와 시간::
* 데이터 압축::
* 성능 측정::
* 품질 관리::
* 배터리가 포함됩니다::

표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부

* 출력 포매팅::
* 템플릿::
* 바이너리 데이터 레코드 배치 작업::
* 다중 스레딩::
* 로깅::
* 약한 참조::
* 리스트 작업 도구::
* 10진 부동 소수점 산술::

가상 환경 및 패키지

* 소개::
* 가상 환경 만들기::
* pip로 패키지 관리하기::

대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환

* 탭 완성 및 히스토리 편집::
* 대화형 인터프리터 대안::

부동 소수점 산술: 문제점 및 한계

* 표현 오류::

부록

* 대화형 모드: 대화형 모드<2>.

대화형 모드

* 에러 처리::
* 실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트::
* 대화형 시작 파일::
* 커스터마이제이션 모듈::

파이썬 설정 및 사용법

* 명령 줄과 환경::
* 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기::
* Configure Python::
* 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기::
* macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기::
* Using Python on Android::
* Using Python on iOS::
* 편집기와 IDE::

명령 줄과 환경

* 명령 줄::
* 환경 변수::

명령 줄

* 인터페이스 옵션::
* 일반 옵션::
* 기타 옵션::
* Controlling color::
* 사용해서는 안 되는 옵션::

환경 변수

* 디버그 모드 변수::

유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기

* 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치::
* 파이썬 빌드하기::
* 파이썬 관련 경로와 파일::
* 잡동사니: 잡동사니<2>.
* Custom OpenSSL::

최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치

* 리눅스::
* FreeBSD와 OpenBSD::

리눅스

* Installing IDLE::

Configure Python

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Configure Options::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::

Generated files

* configure script::

Configure Options

* General Options::
* C compiler options::
* Linker options::
* Options for third-party dependencies::
* WebAssembly Options::
* Install Options::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options: Linker options<2>.
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* iOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::

Python Build System

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::

Main Makefile targets

* make::
* make platform::
* make profile-opt::
* make clean::
* make distclean::
* make install::
* make test::
* make buildbottest::
* make regen-all::

Compiler and linker flags

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::

윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기

* 전체 설치 프로그램::
* Microsoft Store 패키지::
* nuget.org 패키지: nuget org 패키지.
* 내장 가능한 패키지::
* 대체 번들::
* 파이썬 구성하기::
* UTF-8 모드::
* 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처::
* 모듈 찾기::
* 추가 모듈::
* 윈도우에서 파이썬 컴파일하기::
* 기타 플랫폼::

전체 설치 프로그램

* 설치 단계::
* MAX_PATH 제한 제거하기::
* UI 없이 설치하기::
* 다운로드 없이 설치하기::
* 설치 수정하기::
* 자유 스레드 바이너리를 설치합니다::

Microsoft Store 패키지

* 알려진 문제::

알려진 문제

* Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.

nuget.org 패키지

* 자유 스레드 패키지::

내장 가능한 패키지

* 파이썬 응용 프로그램::
* 파이썬 내장하기::

파이썬 구성하기

* 보충 설명; 환경 변수 설정하기: 보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
* 파이썬 실행 파일 찾기::

윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

* 시작하기::
* 셔뱅 줄::
* 셔뱅 줄의 인자::
* 사용자 정의::
* 진단::
* Dry Run::
* 필요 시 설치::
* Return codes::

시작하기

* 명령 줄에서::
* 가상 환경::
* 스크립트에서::
* 파일 연결에서::

사용자 정의

* INI 파일을 통한 사용자 정의::
* 기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의::

추가 모듈

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::

macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기

* python.org에서 제공하는 macOS용 파이썬 사용하기: python org에서 제공하는 macOS용 파이썬 사용하기.
* Alternative Distributions::
* 추가 파이썬 패키지 설치하기::
* GUI 프로그래밍::
* Advanced Topics::
* 기타 자원::

python.org에서 제공하는 macOS용 파이썬 사용하기

* Installation steps::
* 파이썬 스크립트를 실행하는 방법::

Advanced Topics

* Installing Free-threaded Binaries::
* Installing using the command line::
* 파이썬 응용 프로그램 배포하기::
* App Store Compliance::

Using Python on Android

* Adding Python to an Android app::
* Building a Python package for Android::

Using Python on iOS

* Python at runtime on iOS::
* Installing Python on iOS::
* App Store Compliance: App Store Compliance<2>.

Python at runtime on iOS

* iOS version compatibility::
* Platform identification::
* Standard library availability::
* Binary extension modules::
* Compiler stub binaries::

Installing Python on iOS

* Tools for building iOS apps::
* Adding Python to an iOS project::
* Testing a Python package::

편집기와 IDE

* IDLE — Python editor and shell::
* 다른 편집기와 IDE::

파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

* 개요::
* 어휘 분석::
* 데이터 모델::
* 실행 모델::
* 임포트 시스템::
* 표현식::
* 단순문(Simple statements): 단순문 Simple statements.
* 복합문(Compound statements): 복합문 Compound statements.
* 최상위 요소들::
* 전체 문법 규격::

개요

* 대안 구현들::
* 표기법::

어휘 분석

* 줄 구조(Line structure): 줄 구조 Line structure.
* 다른 토큰들::
* 식별자와 키워드::
* 리터럴::
* 연산자::
* 구분자::

줄 구조(Line structure)

* 논리적인 줄::
* 물리적인 줄::
* 주석::
* 인코딩 선언::
* 명시적인 줄 결합::
* 묵시적인 줄 결합::
* 빈 줄::
* 들여쓰기::
* 토큰 사이의 공백::

식별자와 키워드

* 키워드::
* 소프트 키워드::
* 식별자의 예약 영역::

리터럴

* 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴::
* 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기::
* 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 포맷 문자열 리터럴<2>.
* 숫자 리터럴::
* 정수 리터럴::
* 실수 리터럴::
* 허수 리터럴::

문자열과 바이트열 리터럴

* 이스케이프 시퀀스::

데이터 모델

* 객체, 값, 형: 객체 값 형.
* 표준형 계층::
* 특수 메서드 이름들::
* 코루틴(Coroutines): 코루틴 Coroutines.

표준형 계층

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* 시퀀스들::
* 집합 형들(Set types): 집합 형들 Set types.
* 매핑(Mappings): 매핑 Mappings.
* 콜러블(Callable types): 콜러블 Callable types.
* 모듈(Modules): 모듈 Modules.
* 사용자 정의 클래스(Custom classes): 사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
* 클래스 인스턴스(Class instances): 클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
* I/O 객체 (파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다): I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
* 내부 형(Internal types): 내부 형 Internal types.

numbers.Number

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.

시퀀스들

* 불변 시퀀스::
* 가변 시퀀스::

매핑(Mappings)

* 딕셔너리(Dictionaries): 딕셔너리 Dictionaries.

콜러블(Callable types)

* 사용자 정의 함수::
* 인스턴스 메서드(Instance methods): 인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
* 제너레이터 함수(Generator functions): 제너레이터 함수 Generator functions.
* 코루틴 함수(Coroutine functions): 코루틴 함수 Coroutine functions.
* 비동기 제너레이터 함수(Asynchronous generator functions): 비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions.
* 내장 함수(Built-in functions): 내장 함수 Built-in functions.
* 내장 메서드(Built-in methods): 내장 메서드 Built-in methods.
* 클래스(Classes): 클래스 Classes.
* 클래스 인스턴스(Class Instances): 클래스 인스턴스 Class Instances.

사용자 정의 함수

* Special read-only attributes::
* Special writable attributes::

모듈(Modules)

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::

사용자 정의 클래스(Custom classes)

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::

클래스 인스턴스(Class instances)

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.

내부 형(Internal types)

* 코드 객체(Code objects): 코드 객체 Code objects.
* 프레임 객체(Frame objects): 프레임 객체 Frame objects.
* 트레이스백 객체(Traceback objects): 트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
* 슬라이스 객체(Slice objects): 슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
* 스태틱 메서드 객체(Static method objects): 스태틱 메서드 객체 Static method objects.
* 클래스 메서드 객체(Class method objects): 클래스 메서드 객체 Class method objects.

코드 객체(Code objects)

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>.
* Methods on code objects::

프레임 객체(Frame objects)

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>.
* Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>.
* Frame object methods::

특수 메서드 이름들

* 기본적인 커스터마이제이션::
* 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션::
* 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션::
* 인스턴스 및 서브 클래스 검사 커스터마이제이션::
* 제네릭 형 흉내 내기::
* 콜러블 객체 흉내 내기::
* 컨테이너형 흉내 내기::
* 숫자 형 흉내 내기::
* with 문 컨텍스트 관리자::
* Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching::
* Emulating buffer types::
* 특수 메서드 조회::

어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션

* 모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션::
* 디스크립터 구현하기::
* 디스크립터 호출하기::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.

클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션

* 메타 클래스::
* MRO 항목 결정하기::
* 적절한 메타 클래스 선택하기::
* 클래스 이름 공간 준비하기::
* 클래스 바디 실행하기::
* 클래스 객체 만들기::
* 메타 클래스의 용도::

제네릭 형 흉내 내기

* The purpose of __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__::

코루틴(Coroutines)

* 어웨이터블 객체(Awaitable Objects): 어웨이터블 객체 Awaitable Objects.
* 코루틴 객체(Coroutine Objects): 코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects.
* 비동기 이터레이터(Asynchronous Iterators): 비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators.
* 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자::

실행 모델

* 프로그램의 구조::
* 이름과 연결(binding): 이름과 연결 binding.
* 예외: 예외<2>.

이름과 연결(binding)

* 이름의 연결::
* 이름의 검색(resolution): 이름의 검색 resolution.
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* builtins 와 제한된 실행::
* 동적 기능과의 상호작용::

임포트 시스템

* importlib: importlib<10>.
* 패키지(package): 패키지 package.
* 검색::
* 로딩(loading): 로딩 loading.
* 경로 기반 파인더::
* 표준 임포트 시스템 교체하기::
* 패키지 상대 임포트::
* __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려::
* 참고문헌::

패키지(package)

* 정규 패키지::
* 이름 공간 패키지::

검색

* 모듈 캐시::
* 파인더(finder)와 로더(loader): 파인더 finder 와 로더 loader.
* 임포트 훅(import hooks): 임포트 훅 import hooks.
* 메타 경로(meta path): 메타 경로 meta path.

로딩(loading)

* 로더::
* 서브 모듈::
* 모듈 스펙::
* 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트::
* 모듈 repr::
* 캐시된 바이트 코드 무효화::

경로 기반 파인더

* 경로 엔트리 파인더::
* 경로 엔트리 파인더 프로토콜::

__main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.

표현식

* 산술 변환::
* 아톰 (Atoms): 아톰 Atoms.
* 프라이머리::
* 어웨이트 표현식::
* 거듭제곱 연산자::
* 일 항 산술과 비트 연산::
* 이항 산술 연산::
* 시프트 연산::
* 이항 비트 연산::
* 비교::
* 논리 연산(Boolean operations): 논리 연산 Boolean operations.
* 대입 표현식: 대입 표현식<2>.
* 조건 표현식(Conditional expressions): 조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
* 람다(Lambdas): 람다 Lambdas.
* 표현식 목록(Expression lists): 표현식 목록 Expression lists.
* 값을 구하는 순서::
* 연산자 우선순위::

아톰 (Atoms)

* 식별자 (이름): 식별자 이름.
* 리터럴 (Literals): 리터럴 Literals.
* 괄호 안에 넣은 형::
* 리스트, 집합, 딕셔너리의 디스플레이(display): 리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
* 리스트 디스플레이::
* 집합 디스플레이::
* 딕셔너리 디스플레이::
* 제너레이터 표현식 (Generator expressions): 제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions.
* 일드 표현식(Yield expressions): 일드 표현식 Yield expressions.

식별자 (이름)

* Private name mangling::

일드 표현식(Yield expressions)

* 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드::
* 사용 예::
* 비동기 제너레이터 함수::
* 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드::

프라이머리

* 어트리뷰트 참조::
* 서브스크립션(Subscriptions): 서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
* 슬라이싱(Slicings): 슬라이싱 Slicings.
* 호출::

비교

* 값 비교::
* 멤버십 검사 연산::
* 아이덴티티 비교::

단순문(Simple statements)

* 표현식 문::
* 대입문::
* assert 문::
* pass 문: pass 문<2>.
* del 문: del 문<2>.
* return 문::
* yield 문::
* raise 문::
* break 문::
* continue 문::
* 임포트(import) 문: 임포트 import 문.
* global 문::
* nonlocal 문::
* type 문::

대입문

* 증분 대입문(Augmented assignment statements): 증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
* 어노테이트된 대입문(Annotated assignment statements): 어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.

임포트(import) 문

* 퓨처 문::

복합문(Compound statements)

* if 문: if 문<2>.
* while 문::
* for 문: for 문<2>.
* try 문::
* with 문::
* The match statement::
* 함수 정의::
* 클래스 정의::
* 코루틴::
* Type parameter lists::

try 문

* except clause::
* except* clause::
* else clause::
* finally clause::

The match statement

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

Patterns

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::

코루틴

* 코루틴 함수 정의::
* async for 문::
* async with 문::

Type parameter lists

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

최상위 요소들

* 완전한 파이썬 프로그램::
* 파일 입력::
* 대화형 입력::
* 표현식 입력::

파이썬 표준 라이브러리

* 소개: 소개<2>.
* 내장 함수::
* 내장 상수::
* 내장형::
* 내장 예외::
* 텍스트 처리 서비스::
* 바이너리 데이터 서비스::
* 데이터형::
* 숫자와 수학 모듈::
* 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈::
* 파일과 디렉터리 액세스::
* 데이터 지속성::
* 데이터 압축 및 보관::
* 파일 형식::
* 암호화 서비스::
* 일반 운영 체제 서비스::
* Command-line interface libraries::
* 동시 실행::
* 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신::
* 인터넷 데이터 처리::
* 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구::
* 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원::
* 멀티미디어 서비스::
* 국제화::
* Graphical user interfaces with Tk::
* 개발 도구::
* 디버깅과 프로파일링::
* 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포::
* 파이썬 실행시간 서비스::
* 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터::
* 모듈 임포트 하기::
* 파이썬 언어 서비스::
* MS 윈도우 특정 서비스::
* Unix-specific services::
* Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI.
* 대체된 모듈::
* Removed Modules::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>.

소개

* 가용성에 대한 참고 사항::

가용성에 대한 참고 사항

* 웹어셈블리 플랫폼::
* 모바일 플랫폼::

내장 상수

* site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들::

내장형

* 논리값 검사::
* 논리 연산 — and, or, not: 논리 연산 — and or not.
* 비교: 비교<2>.
* 숫자 형 — int, float, complex: 숫자 형 — int float complex.
* Boolean Type - bool::
* 이터레이터 형::
* 시퀀스 형 — list, tuple, range: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range.
* 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str::
* 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview.
* 집합 형 — set, frozenset: 집합 형 — set frozenset.
* 매핑 형 — dict::
* 컨텍스트 관리자 형::
* Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union.
* 기타 내장형::
* 특수 어트리뷰트::
* Integer string conversion length limitation::

숫자 형 — int, float, complex

* 정수 형에 대한 비트 연산::
* 정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드::
* 실수에 대한 추가 메서드::
* 숫자 형의 해싱::

이터레이터 형

* 제너레이터 형::

시퀀스 형 — list, tuple, range

* 공통 시퀀스 연산::
* 불변 시퀀스 형::
* 가변 시퀀스 형::
* 리스트: 리스트<2>.
* 튜플::
* 범위::

텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str

* 문자열 메서드::
* Formatted String Literals (f-strings): Formatted String Literals f-strings.
* printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅::

바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview

* 바이트열 객체::
* 바이트 배열 객체::
* 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산::
* printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅::
* 메모리 뷰::

매핑 형 — dict

* 딕셔너리 뷰 객체::

Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union

* 제네릭 에일리어스 형::
* Union Type::

제네릭 에일리어스 형

* Standard Generic Classes::
* Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects::

기타 내장형

* 모듈: 모듈<2>.
* 클래스와 클래스 인스턴스::
* 함수::
* 메서드::
* 코드 객체::
* 형 객체::
* 널 객체::
* Ellipsis 객체::
* NotImplemented 객체::
* 내부 객체::

Integer string conversion length limitation

* Affected APIs::
* Configuring the limit::
* Recommended configuration::

내장 예외

* 예외 컨텍스트::
* 내장 예외를 상속받기::
* 베이스 클래스::
* 구체적인 예외::
* 경고::
* 예외 그룹::
* 예외 계층 구조::

구체적인 예외

* OS 예외::

텍스트 처리 서비스

* string — 일반적인 문자열 연산::
* re — Regular expression operations::
* difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미::
* textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기::
* unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스::
* stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비::
* readline — GNU readline 인터페이스::
* rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수::

string — 일반적인 문자열 연산

* 문자열 상수::
* 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅::
* 포맷 문자열 문법::
* 템플릿 문자열::
* 도움 함수::

포맷 문자열 문법

* 포맷 명세 미니 언어::
* 포맷 예제::

re — Regular expression operations

* 정규식 문법::
* 모듈 내용::
* 정규식 객체::
* 일치 객체::
* 정규식 예제::

모듈 내용

* Flags::
* Functions::
* Exceptions::

정규식 예제

* 쌍 검사하기::
* scanf() 시뮬레이션: scanf 시뮬레이션.
* search() 대 match(): search 대 match.
* 전화번호부 만들기::
* 텍스트 뒤섞기::
* 모든 부사 찾기::
* 모든 부사와 그 위치 찾기::
* 날 문자열 표기법::
* 토크나이저 작성하기::

difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

* SequenceMatcher 객체::
* SequenceMatcher 예제::
* Differ 객체::
* Differ 예제::
* difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스::
* ndiff 예제::

readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

* 초기화 파일::
* 줄 버퍼::
* 히스토리 파일::
* 히스토리 목록::
* 시동 훅::
* 완성::
* 예제::

바이너리 데이터 서비스

* struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석::
* codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스::

struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석

* 함수와 예외::
* 포맷 문자열::
* 응용::
* 클래스: 클래스<2>.

포맷 문자열

* 바이트 순서, 크기 및 정렬: 바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
* 포맷 문자::
* 예::

응용

* 네이티브 포맷::
* 표준 포맷::

codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

* 코덱 베이스 클래스::
* 인코딩과 유니코드::
* 표준 인코딩::
* 파이썬 특정 인코딩::
* encodings — Encodings package::
* encodings.idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름: encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
* encodings.mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지: encodings mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지.
* encodings.utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱: encodings utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱.

코덱 베이스 클래스

* 에러 처리기::
* 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩::
* 증분 인코딩과 디코딩::
* 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩::

증분 인코딩과 디코딩

* IncrementalEncoder 객체::
* IncrementalDecoder 객체::

스트림 인코딩과 디코딩

* StreamWriter 객체::
* StreamReader 객체::
* StreamReaderWriter 객체::
* StreamRecoder 객체::

파이썬 특정 인코딩

* 텍스트 인코딩::
* 바이너리 변환::
* Standalone Codec Functions::
* 텍스트 변환::

데이터형

* datetime — Basic date and time types::
* zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원::
* calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수::
* collections — 컨테이너 데이터형::
* collections.abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스.
* heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘::
* bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘::
* array — 효율적인 숫자 배열::
* weakref — 약한 참조::
* types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름::
* copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산::
* pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기::
* reprlib — 대안 repr() 구현: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
* enum — 열거형 지원::
* graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능::

datetime — Basic date and time types

* 어웨어와 나이브 객체::
* 상수::
* 사용 가능한 형::
* timedelta 객체::
* date 객체::
* datetime 객체::
* time 객체::
* tzinfo 객체::
* timezone 객체::
* strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior.

사용 가능한 형

* 공통 속성::
* 객체가 어웨어한지 나이브한지 판단하기::

timedelta 객체

* 사용 예; timedelta: 사용 예 timedelta.

date 객체

* 사용 예; date: 사용 예 date.

datetime 객체

* 사용 예; datetime: 사용 예 datetime.

time 객체

* 사용 예; time: 사용 예 time.

strftime() and strptime() Behavior

* strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes.
* 기술적 세부 사항::

zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

* ZoneInfo 사용하기::
* 데이터 소스::
* ZoneInfo 클래스::
* 함수: 함수<2>.
* 전역::
* 예외와 경고::

데이터 소스

* 데이터 소스 구성::

데이터 소스 구성

* 컴파일 시간 구성::
* 환경 구성::
* 실행 시간 구성::

ZoneInfo 클래스

* 문자열 표현::
* 피클 직렬화::

calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수

* Command-Line Usage::

collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

* ChainMap 객체::
* Counter 객체::
* deque 객체::
* defaultdict 객체::
* 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple() 팩토리 함수: 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
* OrderedDict 객체::
* UserDict 객체::
* UserList 객체::
* UserString 객체::

ChainMap 객체

* ChainMap 예제와 조리법::

deque 객체

* deque 조리법::

defaultdict 객체

* defaultdict 예::

OrderedDict 객체

* OrderedDict 예제와 조리법::

collections.abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스

* Collections 추상 베이스 클래스::
* Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명::
* 예제와 조리법::

heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘

* 기본 예::
* 우선순위 큐 구현 참고 사항::
* 이론::

bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘

* Performance Notes::
* 정렬된 리스트 검색하기::
* 예제: 예제<2>.

weakref — 약한 참조

* 약한 참조 객체::
* 예: 예<2>.
* 파이널라이저 객체::
* 파이널라이저와 __del__() 메서드의 비교: 파이널라이저와 __del__ 메서드의 비교.

types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름

* 동적 형 생성::
* 표준 인터프리터 형::
* 추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수::
* 코루틴 유틸리티 함수::

pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기

* 함수: 함수<3>.
* PrettyPrinter 객체::
* 예제: 예제<3>.

reprlib — 대안 repr() 구현

* Repr 객체::
* Repr 객체 서브 클래싱::

enum — 열거형 지원

* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<2>.
* Data Types::
* Utilities and Decorators::
* 참고 사항::

Data Types

* 지원되는 __dunder__ 이름::
* 지원되는 _sunder_ 이름::

graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능

* 예외: 예외<3>.

숫자와 수학 모듈

* numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스::
* math — 수학 함수::
* cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수::
* decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic::
* fractions — 유리수::
* random — 의사 난수 생성::
* statistics — 수학 통계 함수::

numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스

* 숫자 계층::
* 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항::

형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항

* 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스(ABC) 추가: 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스 ABC 추가.
* 산술 연산 구현::

math — 수학 함수

* 수론적 함수::
* 부동 소수점 산술::
* 부동 소수점 조작 함수::
* 거듭제곱, 지수 및 로그 함수: 거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
* 합과 곱 함수::
* 각도 변환::
* 삼각 함수::
* 쌍곡선 함수::
* 특수 함수::
* 상수: 상수<2>.

cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수

* 극좌표 변환::
* 거듭제곱과 로그 함수::
* 삼각 함수: 삼각 함수<2>.
* 쌍곡선(hyperbolic) 함수: 쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
* 분류 함수::
* 상수: 상수<3>.

decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

* Quick-start tutorial::
* Decimal 객체::
* Context 객체::
* 상수: 상수<4>.
* 자리 올림 모드::
* 신호::
* Floating-point notes::
* 스레드로 작업하기::
* 조리법::
* Decimal FAQ::

Decimal 객체

* 논리적 피연산자::

Floating-point notes

* 증가시킨 정밀도로 자리 올림 오차 줄이기::
* 특수 값::

random — 의사 난수 생성

* 관리 함수::
* 바이트열 함수::
* 정수 함수::
* 시퀀스 함수::
* 이산 분포::
* 실수 분포::
* 대체 생성기::
* 재현성에 대한 참고 사항::
* 예제: 예제<4>.
* 조리법: 조리법<2>.
* Command-line usage::
* Command-line example::

statistics — 수학 통계 함수

* 평균과 중심 위치의 측정::
* 분산 측정::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* 함수 세부 사항::
* 예외: 예외<4>.
* NormalDist 객체::
* 예제와 조리법: 예제와 조리법<2>.

예제와 조리법

* 고전적인 확률 문제::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::

함수형 프로그래밍 모듈

* itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping::
* functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산::
* operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자::

itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

* Itertool Functions::
* Itertools 조리법::

functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산

* partial 객체::

operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자

* 연산자를 함수에 매핑하기::
* 제자리 연산자::

파일과 디렉터리 액세스

* pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths::
* os.path — 일반적인 경로명 조작: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
* stat — stat() 결과 해석하기: stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
* filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교::
* tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성::
* glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장::
* fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치::
* linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스::
* shutil — 고수준 파일 연산::

pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

* 기본 사용::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.
* 순수한 경로::
* 구상 경로::
* Pattern language::
* Comparison to the glob module::
* Comparison to the os and os.path modules: Comparison to the os and os path modules.

순수한 경로

* 일반 속성::
* 연산자: 연산자<2>.
* 개별 부분에 액세스하기::
* 메서드와 프로퍼티::

구상 경로

* Parsing and generating URIs::
* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* Reading directories::
* Creating files and directories::
* Renaming and deleting::
* Permissions and ownership::

Comparison to the os and os.path modules

* Corresponding tools::

filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교

* dircmp 클래스::

tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성

* 예: 예<3>.
* 폐지된 함수와 변수::

glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장

* 예제: 예제<5>.

shutil — 고수준 파일 연산

* 디렉터리와 파일 연산::
* 아카이브 연산::
* 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기::

디렉터리와 파일 연산

* 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산::
* copytree 예::
* rmtree 예::

아카이브 연산

* 아카이브 예::
* base_dir을 사용한 아카이브 예::

데이터 지속성

* pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화::
* copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록::
* shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성::
* marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화::
* dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스::
* sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.

pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

* 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계::
* 데이터 스트림 형식::
* 모듈 인터페이스::
* 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?::
* 클래스 인스턴스 피클링::
* 형, 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원: 형 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원.
* 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼::
* 전역 제한하기::
* 성능::
* 예제: 예제<7>.

다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계

* marshal 과의 비교::
* json 과의 비교::

클래스 인스턴스 피클링

* 외부 객체의 지속성::
* 디스패치 테이블::
* 상태 저장 객체 처리::

아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼

* 제공자 API::
* 소비자 API::
* 예제: 예제<6>.

copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록

* 예제: 예제<8>.

shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성

* 제약 사항::
* 예제: 예제<9>.

dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스

* dbm.sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드: dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드.
* dbm.gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자: dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
* dbm.ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자(New Database Manager): dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
* dbm.dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현: dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.

sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

* Tutorial::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

Reference

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* 예외: 예외<5>.
* SQLite 와 파이썬 형::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface::

How-to guides

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::

Explanation

* Transaction control::

Transaction control

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::

데이터 압축 및 보관

* zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축::
* gzip — gzip 파일 지원::
* bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원::
* lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축::
* zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업::
* tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기::

gzip — gzip 파일 지원

* 사용 예: 사용 예<2>.
* 명령 줄 인터페이스::

명령 줄 인터페이스

* 명령 줄 옵션::

bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원

* 파일 압축(해제): 파일 압축 해제.
* 증분 압축(해제): 증분 압축 해제.
* 일괄 압축(해제): 일괄 압축 해제.
* 사용 예: 사용 예<3>.

lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축

* 압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기::
* 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제::
* 기타::
* 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정::
* 예: 예<4>.

zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

* ZipFile 객체::
* Path 객체::
* PyZipFile 객체::
* ZipInfo 객체::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<2>.
* 압축 해제 함정::

명령 줄 인터페이스

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<2>.

압축 해제 함정

* 파일 자체에서::
* 파일 시스템 제한::
* 자원 제한::
* 중단::
* 추출의 기본 동작::

tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

* TarFile 객체::
* TarInfo 객체::
* Extraction filters::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<3>.
* 예: 예<5>.
* 지원되는 tar 형식::
* 유니코드 문제::

Extraction filters

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

명령 줄 인터페이스

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<3>.

예

* Reading examples::
* Writing examples::

파일 형식

* csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기::
* configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기::
* tomllib — Parse TOML files::
* netrc — netrc 파일 처리::
* plistlib — 애플 .plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석: plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.

csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기

* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<3>.
* 방언과 포매팅 파라미터::
* 판독기 객체::
* 기록기 객체::
* 예제: 예제<10>.

configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

* 빠른 시작::
* 지원되는 데이터형::
* 대체 값::
* 지원되는 INI 파일 구조::
* Unnamed Sections::
* 값의 보간::
* 매핑 프로토콜 액세스::
* 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의::
* 레거시 API 예제::
* ConfigParser 객체::
* RawConfigParser 객체::
* 예외: 예외<6>.

tomllib — Parse TOML files

* Examples::
* Conversion Table::

netrc — netrc 파일 처리

* netrc 객체::

plistlib — 애플 .plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석

* 예제: 예제<11>.

암호화 서비스

* hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약::
* hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱::
* secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성::

hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

* 해시 알고리즘::
* 사용법::
* 생성자::
* 어트리뷰트::
* 해시 객체::
* SHAKE 가변 길이 요약::
* 파일 해싱::
* 키 파생::
* BLAKE2::

BLAKE2

* 해시 객체 만들기::
* 상수: 상수<5>.
* 예: 예<6>.
* 크레딧::

예

* 간단한 해싱::
* 다른 요약 크기 사용하기::
* 키 해싱::
* 무작위 해싱::
* 개인화::
* 트리 모드::

secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성

* 난수::
* 토큰 생성::
* 기타 함수::
* 조리법과 모범 사례::

토큰 생성

* 토큰은 몇 바이트를 사용해야 합니까?::

일반 운영 체제 서비스

* os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces::
* io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구::
* time — 시간 액세스와 변환::
* logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설::
* logging.config — 로깅 구성: logging config — 로깅 구성.
* logging.handlers — 로깅 처리기: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기.
* platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스::
* errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호::
* ctypes — A foreign function library for Python::

os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

* 파일명, 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수: 파일명 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수.
* Python UTF-8 Mode::
* 프로세스 매개 변수::
* 파일 객체 생성::
* 파일 기술자 연산::
* 파일과 디렉터리::
* 프로세스 관리::
* 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스::
* 기타 시스템 정보::
* 난수: 난수<2>.

파일 기술자 연산

* 터미널의 크기 조회하기::
* 파일 기술자의 상속::

파일과 디렉터리

* Timer File Descriptors::
* 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트::

io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구

* 개요: 개요<2>.
* 텍스트 인코딩: 텍스트 인코딩<2>.
* 고수준 모듈 인터페이스::
* 클래스 위계::
* 성능: 성능<2>.

개요

* 텍스트 I/O::
* 바이너리 I/O::
* 원시 I/O::

텍스트 인코딩

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

클래스 위계

* I/O 베이스 클래스::
* 원시 파일 I/O::
* 버퍼링 된 스트림::
* 텍스트 I/O: 텍스트 I/O<2>.

성능

* 바이너리 I/O: 바이너리 I/O<2>.
* 텍스트 I/O: 텍스트 I/O<3>.
* 다중 스레드::
* 재진입::

time — 시간 액세스와 변환

* 함수: 함수<4>.
* 시계 ID 상수::
* 시간대 상수::

logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

* Logger 객체::
* 로깅 수준::
* Handler 객체::
* Formatter 객체::
* Filter 객체::
* LogRecord 객체::
* LogRecord 어트리뷰트::
* LoggerAdapter 객체::
* 스레드 안전성::
* 모듈 수준 함수::
* 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트::
* warnings 모듈과의 통합::

logging.config — 로깅 구성

* 구성 함수::
* 보안 고려 사항::
* 구성 딕셔너리 스키마::
* 구성 파일 형식::

구성 딕셔너리 스키마

* 딕셔너리 스키마 세부사항::
* 증분 구성::
* 객체 연결::
* 사용자 정의 객체::
* 처리기 구성 순서::
* 외부 객체에 대한 액세스::
* 내부 객체에 대한 액세스::
* 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::

logging.handlers — 로깅 처리기

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

* Cross platform::
* Java platform::
* Windows platform::
* macOS platform::
* iOS platform::
* Unix platforms::
* Linux platforms::
* Android platform::
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<2>.

ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

* ctypes 자습서::
* ctypes 레퍼런스::

ctypes 자습서

* 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드하기::
* 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기::
* 함수 호출하기::
* 기본 데이터형::
* 함수 호출하기, 계속: 함수 호출하기 계속.
* Calling variadic functions::
* 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기::
* 필수 인자 형 (함수 프로토타입) 지정하기: 필수 인자 형 함수 프로토타입 지정하기.
* 반환형::
* 포인터 전달하기 (또는; 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기): 포인터 전달하기 또는 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기.
* 구조체와 공용체::
* 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서::
* 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드::
* 배열::
* 포인터::
* 형 변환::
* 불완전한 형::
* 콜백 함수::
* dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기::
* 의외의 것들::
* 가변 크기 데이터형::

ctypes 레퍼런스

* 공유 라이브러리 찾기::
* 공유 라이브러리 로드하기::
* 외부 함수::
* 함수 프로토타입::
* 유틸리티 함수::
* 데이터형: 데이터형<2>.
* 기본 데이터형: 기본 데이터형<2>.
* 구조화된 데이터형::
* 배열과 포인터::

Command-line interface libraries

* argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
* optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기::
* getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력::
* fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기::
* curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리::
* curses.textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯.
* curses.ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
* curses.panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장.
* cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원::

argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

* ArgumentParser 객체::
* add_argument() 메서드: add_argument 메서드.
* parse_args() 메서드: parse_args 메서드.
* 기타 유틸리티::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.

ArgumentParser 객체

* prog::
* usage::
* description::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::

add_argument() 메서드

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* help::
* metavar::
* dest::
* deprecated::
* Action 클래스::

parse_args() 메서드

* 옵션값 문법::
* 잘못된 인자::
* - 를 포함하는 인자들::
* 인자 약어 (접두사 일치): 인자 약어 접두사 일치.
* sys.argv 너머: sys argv 너머.
* Namespace 객체::

기타 유틸리티

* 부속 명령::
* FileType 객체::
* 인자 그룹::
* 상호 배제::
* 파서 기본값::
* 도움말 인쇄::
* 부분 파싱::
* 파일 파싱 사용자 정의::
* 종료 메서드::
* 혼합 파싱::
* Registering custom types or actions::

Exceptions

* Argparse 자습서::
* Migrating optparse code to argparse::

Argparse 자습서

* 개념::
* 기본::
* 위치 인자 소개::
* 옵션 인자 소개::
* 위치 및 옵션 인자 결합하기::
* 조금 더 발전시키기::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* 맺음말::

옵션 인자 소개

* 짧은 옵션::

조금 더 발전시키기

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* 충돌하는 옵션들::

optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

* Choosing an argument parsing library::
* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* 배경::
* 자습서::
* 레퍼런스 지침서::
* 옵션 콜백::
* optparse 확장하기::
* 예외: 예외<7>.

배경

* 용어::
* 옵션은 무엇을 위한 것입니까?::
* 위치 인자는 무엇을 위한 것입니까?::

자습서

* 옵션 액션의 이해::
* store 액션::
* 불리언 (플래그) 옵션 처리하기: 불리언 플래그 옵션 처리하기.
* 다른 액션들::
* 기본값::
* 도움말 생성하기::
* 버전 문자열 인쇄하기::
* optparse가 에러를 처리하는 방법::
* 모두 합치기::

도움말 생성하기

* 옵션 그룹화하기::

레퍼런스 지침서

* 구문 분석기 만들기::
* 구문 분석기 채우기::
* 옵션 정의하기::
* 옵션 어트리뷰트::
* 표준 옵션 액션::
* 표준 옵션 형::
* 인자 구문 분석하기::
* 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기::
* 옵션 간의 충돌::
* 정리::
* 기타 메서드::

옵션 콜백

* 콜백 옵션 정의하기::
* 콜백이 호출되는 방법::
* 콜백에서 에러 발생시키기::
* 콜백 예제 1; 간단한 콜백: 콜백 예제 1 간단한 콜백.
* 콜백 예제 2; 옵션 순서 확인: 콜백 예제 2 옵션 순서 확인.
* 콜백 예제 3; 옵션 순서 확인 (일반화): 콜백 예제 3 옵션 순서 확인 일반화.
* 콜백 예제 4; 임의 조건 확인: 콜백 예제 4 임의 조건 확인.
* 콜백 예제 5; 고정 인자: 콜백 예제 5 고정 인자.
* 콜백 예제 6; 가변 인자: 콜백 예제 6 가변 인자.

optparse 확장하기

* 새로운 형 추가하기::
* 새로운 액션 추가하기::

curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리

* 함수: 함수<5>.
* 창 객체::
* 상수: 상수<6>.

curses.textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯

* Textbox 객체::

curses.panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장

* 함수: 함수<6>.
* Panel 객체::

cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원

* Cmd 객체::
* Cmd 예::

동시 실행

* threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리::
* multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing.shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
* concurrent 패키지::
* concurrent.futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기.
* subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리::
* sched — 이벤트 스케줄러::
* queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스::
* contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수::
* _thread — 저수준 스레드 API::

threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리

* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* GIL and performance considerations::
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* with 문으로 록, 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기: with 문으로 록 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기.

Reference

* Thread-local data::
* Thread objects::
* Lock objects::
* RLock objects::
* Condition objects::
* Semaphore objects::
* Semaphore example::
* Event objects::
* Timer objects::
* Barrier objects::

multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

* 소개: 소개<3>.
* 레퍼런스::
* 프로그래밍 지침::
* 예제: 예제<12>.

소개

* Process 클래스::
* 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법::
* 프로세스 간 객체 교환::
* 프로세스 간 동기화::
* 프로세스 간 상태 공유::
* 작업자 풀 사용::

레퍼런스

* Process와 예외::
* 파이프와 큐::
* 잡동사니: 잡동사니<3>.
* Connection 객체::
* 동기화 프리미티브::
* 공유 ctypes 객체::
* 관리자::
* 프락시 객체::
* 프로세스 풀::
* 리스너와 클라이언트::
* 인증 키::
* 로깅: 로깅<2>.
* multiprocessing.dummy 모듈: multiprocessing dummy 모듈.

공유 ctypes 객체

* multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈: multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.

관리자

* 사용자 정의 관리자::
* 원격 관리자 사용하기::

프락시 객체

* 정리: 정리<2>.

리스너와 클라이언트

* 주소 형식::

프로그래밍 지침

* 모든 시작 방법::
* spawn 과 forkserver 시작 방법::

concurrent.futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

* Executor 객체::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future 객체::
* 모듈 함수::
* 예외 클래스::

ThreadPoolExecutor

* ThreadPoolExecutor 예제::

ProcessPoolExecutor

* ProcessPoolExecutor 예제::

subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

* subprocess 모듈 사용하기::
* 보안 고려 사항: 보안 고려 사항<2>.
* Popen 객체::
* 윈도우 Popen 도우미::
* 오래된 고수준 API::
* 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기::
* 레거시 셸 호출 함수::
* 노트::

subprocess 모듈 사용하기

* 자주 사용되는 인자::
* Popen 생성자::
* 예외: 예외<8>.

윈도우 Popen 도우미

* 윈도우 상수::

이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

* /bin/sh 셸 명령 치환 교체하기::
* 셸 파이프라인 교체하기::
* os.system() 교체하기: os system 교체하기.
* os.spawn 패밀리 교체하기: os spawn 패밀리 교체하기.
* os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 교체하기: os popen os popen2 os popen3 교체하기.
* popen2 모듈의 함수 교체하기::

노트

* Timeout Behavior::
* 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기::
* Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn.

sched — 이벤트 스케줄러

* 스케줄러 객체::

queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스

* 큐 객체::
* SimpleQueue 객체::

큐 객체

* Waiting for task completion::
* Terminating queues::

contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수

* 컨텍스트 변수::
* 수동 컨텍스트 관리::
* asyncio 지원::

네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

* asyncio — 비동기 I/O::
* socket — Low-level networking interface::
* ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects::
* select — I/O 완료 대기::
* selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화::
* signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정::
* mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원::

asyncio — 비동기 I/O

* Runners::
* 코루틴과 태스크::
* 스트림::
* 동기화 프리미티브: 동기화 프리미티브<2>.
* 서브 프로세스::
* 큐::
* 예외: 예외<10>.
* 이벤트 루프::
* 퓨처::
* 트랜스포트와 프로토콜::
* 정책::
* 플랫폼 지원::
* Extending::
* 고수준 API 색인::
* 저수준 API 색인::
* asyncio로 개발하기::

Runners

* Running an asyncio Program::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

코루틴과 태스크

* 코루틴: 코루틴<2>.
* 어웨이터블::
* 태스크 만들기::
* Task Cancellation::
* Task Groups::
* 잠자기::
* 동시에 태스크 실행하기::
* Eager Task Factory::
* 취소로부터 보호하기::
* 시간제한::
* 대기 프리미티브::
* 스레드에서 실행하기::
* 다른 스레드에서 예약하기::
* 인트로스펙션::
* Task 객체::

Task Groups

* Terminating a Task Group::

스트림

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* 예제: 예제<13>.

예제

* 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이언트::
* 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버::
* HTTP 헤더 가져오기::
* 스트림을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록::

동기화 프리미티브

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

서브 프로세스

* 서브 프로세스 만들기::
* 상수: 상수<7>.
* 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기::

서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기

* 서브 프로세스와 스레드::
* 예제: 예제<14>.

큐

* Queue::
* 우선순위 큐::
* LIFO 큐::
* 예외: 예외<9>.
* 예제: 예제<15>.

이벤트 루프

* 이벤트 루프 메서드::
* 콜백 핸들::
* 서버 객체::
* 이벤트 루프 구현::
* 예제: 예제<16>.

이벤트 루프 메서드

* 루프 실행 및 중지::
* 콜백 예약하기::
* 지연된 콜백 예약::
* 퓨처와 태스크 만들기::
* 네트워크 연결 열기::
* 네트워크 서버 만들기::
* 파일 전송::
* TLS 업그레이드::
* 파일 기술자 관찰하기::
* 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기::
* DNS::
* 파이프로 작업하기::
* 유닉스 시그널::
* 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기::
* 에러 처리 API::
* 디버그 모드 활성화::
* 자식 프로세스 실행하기::

예제

* call_soon()을 사용하는 Hello World: call_soon 을 사용하는 Hello World.
* call_later()로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다.: call_later 로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다.
* 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기::
* SIGINT 및 SIGTERM에 대한 시그널 처리기 설정::

퓨처

* 퓨처 함수::
* Future 객체: Future 객체<2>.

트랜스포트와 프로토콜

* 트랜스포트::
* 프로토콜::
* 예제: 예제<17>.

트랜스포트

* 트랜스포트 계층 구조::
* 베이스 트랜스포트::
* 읽기 전용 트랜스포트::
* 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트::
* 데이터 그램 트랜스포트::
* 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트::

프로토콜

* 베이스 프로토콜::
* 베이스 프로토콜: 베이스 프로토콜<2>.
* 스트리밍 프로토콜::
* 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜::
* 데이터 그램 프로토콜::
* 서브 프로세스 프로토콜::

예제

* TCP 메아리 서버::
* TCP 메아리 클라이언트::
* UDP 메아리 서버::
* UDP 메아리 클라이언트::
* 기존 소켓 연결하기::
* loop.subprocess_exec() 와 SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec 와 SubprocessProtocol.

정책

* 정책을 얻고 설정하기::
* 정책 객체::
* 프로세스 감시자::
* 사용자 정의 정책::

플랫폼 지원

* 모든 플랫폼::
* 윈도우::
* macOS: macOS<50>.

윈도우

* 윈도우에서의 서브 프로세스 지원::

Extending

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::

고수준 API 색인

* 태스크::
* 큐: 큐<2>.
* 서브 프로세스: 서브 프로세스<2>.
* 스트림: 스트림<2>.
* 동기화::
* 예외: 예외<11>.

저수준 API 색인

* 이벤트 루프 얻기::
* 이벤트 루프 메서드: 이벤트 루프 메서드<2>.
* 트랜스포트: 트랜스포트<2>.
* 프로토콜: 프로토콜<2>.
* 이벤트 루프 정책::

asyncio로 개발하기

* 디버그 모드::
* 동시성과 다중 스레드::
* 블로킹 코드 실행하기::
* 로깅: 로깅<3>.
* await 하지 않은 코루틴 감지::
* 전달되지 않은 예외 감지::

socket — Low-level networking interface

* 소켓 패밀리::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<4>.
* 소켓 객체::
* 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항::
* 예제: 예제<18>.

모듈 내용

* 예외: 예외<12>.
* 상수: 상수<8>.
* 함수: 함수<7>.

함수

* 소켓 만들기::
* 기타 함수: 기타 함수<2>.

소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항

* 시간제한과 connect 메서드::
* 시간제한과 accept 메서드::

ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

* 함수, 상수 및 예외: 함수 상수 및 예외.
* SSL 소켓::
* SSL 컨텍스트::
* 인증서::
* 예제: 예제<19>.
* 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항::
* 메모리 BIO 지원: 메모리 BIO 지원<2>.
* SSL 세션::
* 보안 고려 사항: 보안 고려 사항<3>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

함수, 상수 및 예외

* 소켓 생성::
* 컨텍스트 생성::
* 예외: 예외<13>.
* 난수 생성::
* 인증서 처리::
* 상수: 상수<9>.

인증서

* 인증서 체인::
* CA 인증서::
* 결합한 키와 인증서::
* 자체 서명 인증서::

예제

* SSL 지원 검사하기::
* 클라이언트 측 연산::
* 서버 측 연산::

보안 고려 사항

* 가장 좋은 기본값::
* 수동 설정::
* 다중 프로세싱::

수동 설정

* 인증서 확인::
* 프로토콜 버전::
* 사이퍼 선택::

select — I/O 완료 대기

* /dev/poll 폴링 객체::
* 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 (epoll) 객체: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
* 폴링 객체::
* Kqueue 객체::
* Kevent 객체::

selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화

* 소개: 소개<4>.
* 클래스: 클래스<3>.
* 예제: 예제<20>.

signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정

* 일반 규칙::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<5>.
* 예제: 예제<21>.
* SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항::
* 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항::

일반 규칙

* 파이썬 시그널 처리기의 실행::
* 시그널과 스레드::

mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원

* MADV_* 상수::
* MAP_* 상수::

인터넷 데이터 처리

* email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지::
* json — JSON 인코더와 디코더::
* mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기::
* mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑::
* base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 데이터 인코딩: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
* binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환::
* quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩::

email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

* email.message; 전자 메일 메시지 표현: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
* email.parser; 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석.
* email.generator; MIME 문서 생성: email generator MIME 문서 생성.
* email.policy; 정책 객체: email policy 정책 객체.
* email.errors; 예외와 결함 클래스: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
* email.headerregistry; 사용자 정의 헤더 객체: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
* email.contentmanager; MIME 콘텐츠 관리: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
* email; 예제: email 예제.
* email.message.Message; compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
* email.mime; 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
* email.header; 국제화된 헤더: email header 국제화된 헤더.
* email.charset; 문자 집합 표현: email charset 문자 집합 표현.
* email.encoders; 인코더: email encoders 인코더.
* email.utils; 기타 유틸리티: email utils 기타 유틸리티.
* email.iterators; 이터레이터: email iterators 이터레이터.

email.parser: 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* 추가 사항::

email.contentmanager: MIME 콘텐츠 관리

* 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스::

json — JSON 인코더와 디코더

* 기본 사용법::
* 인코더와 디코더::
* 예외: 예외<14>.
* 표준 준수와 상호 운용성::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<4>.

표준 준수와 상호 운용성

* 문자 인코딩::
* 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값::
* 오브젝트 내에서 반복된 이름::
* 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값::
* 구현 제약 사항::

명령 줄 인터페이스

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<4>.

mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기

* Mailbox 객체::
* Message 객체::
* 예외: 예외<15>.
* 예: 예<7>.

Mailbox 객체

* Maildir 객체::
* mbox 객체::
* MH 객체::
* Babyl 객체::
* MMDF 객체::

Message 객체

* MaildirMessage 객체::
* mboxMessage 객체::
* MHMessage 객체::
* BabylMessage 객체::
* MMDFMessage 객체::

mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑

* MimeTypes 객체::

base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 데이터 인코딩

* RFC 4648 Encodings::
* Base85 Encodings::
* Legacy Interface::
* Security Considerations::

구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

* html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원::
* html.parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기.
* html.entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
* XML 처리 모듈::
* xml.etree.ElementTree — ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API.
* xml.dom — 문서 객체 모델 API: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API.
* xml.dom.minidom — 최소 DOM 구현: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현.
* xml.dom.pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원: xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
* xml.sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원: xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
* xml.sax.handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
* xml.sax.saxutils — SAX 유틸리티: xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
* xml.sax.xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
* xml.parsers.expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.

html.parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기

* HTML 구문 분석기 응용 프로그램 예제::
* HTMLParser 메서드::
* 예제: 예제<22>.

XML 처리 모듈

* XML security::

xml.etree.ElementTree — ElementTree XML API

* 자습서: 자습서<2>.
* XPath 지원::
* 레퍼런스: 레퍼런스<2>.
* XInclude 지원::
* 레퍼런스: 레퍼런스<3>.

자습서

* XML 트리와 엘리먼트::
* XML 구문 분석하기::
* 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀(pull) API: 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀 pull API.
* 흥미로운 엘리먼트 찾기::
* XML 파일 수정하기::
* XML 문서 구축하기::
* 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기::

XPath 지원

* 예: 예<8>.
* 지원되는 XPath 문법::

레퍼런스

* 함수: 함수<8>.

XInclude 지원

* 예: 예<9>.

레퍼런스

* 함수: 함수<9>.
* Element 객체::
* ElementTree 객체::
* QName 객체::
* TreeBuilder 객체::
* XMLParser 객체::
* XMLPullParser 객체::
* 예외: 예외<16>.

xml.dom — 문서 객체 모델 API

* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<6>.
* DOM의 객체::
* 규격 준수::

DOM의 객체

* DOMImplementation 객체::
* Node 객체::
* NodeList 객체::
* DocumentType 객체::
* Document 객체::
* Element 객체: Element 객체<2>.
* Attr 객체::
* NamedNodeMap 객체::
* Comment 객체::
* Text와 CDATASection 객체::
* ProcessingInstruction 객체::
* 예외: 예외<17>.

규격 준수

* 형 매핑::
* 접근자 메서드::

xml.dom.minidom — 최소 DOM 구현

* DOM 객체::
* DOM 예제::
* minidom과 DOM 표준::

xml.dom.pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원

* DOMEventStream 객체::

xml.sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원

* SAXException 객체::

xml.sax.handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스

* ContentHandler 객체::
* DTDHandler 객체::
* EntityResolver 객체::
* ErrorHandler 객체::
* LexicalHandler 객체::

xml.sax.xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

* XMLReader 객체::
* IncrementalParser 객체::
* Locator 객체::
* InputSource 객체::
* Attributes 인터페이스::
* AttributesNS 인터페이스::

xml.parsers.expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석

* XMLParser 객체: XMLParser 객체<2>.
* ExpatError 예외::
* 예: 예<10>.
* 콘텐츠 모델 기술::
* Expat 에러 상수::

인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

* webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기::
* wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현::
* urllib — URL 처리 모듈::
* urllib.request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
* urllib.response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스: urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
* urllib.parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
* urllib.error — urllib.request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스: urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
* urllib.robotparser — robots.txt 구문 분석기: urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
* http — HTTP 모듈::
* http.client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
* ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체::
* socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크::
* http.server — HTTP 서버: http server — HTTP 서버.
* http.cookies — HTTP 상태 관리: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
* http.cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
* xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈::
* xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스.
* xmlrpc.server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버.
* ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리::

webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기

* 브라우저 제어기 객체::

wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

* wsgiref.util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
* wsgiref.headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
* wsgiref.simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
* wsgiref.validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
* wsgiref.handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
* wsgiref.types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
* 예제: 예제<23>.

urllib.request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

* Request 객체::
* OpenerDirector 객체::
* BaseHandler 객체::
* HTTPRedirectHandler 객체::
* HTTPCookieProcessor 객체::
* ProxyHandler 객체::
* HTTPPasswordMgr 객체::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체::
* HTTPHandler 객체::
* HTTPSHandler 객체::
* FileHandler 객체::
* DataHandler 객체::
* FTPHandler 객체::
* CacheFTPHandler 객체::
* UnknownHandler 객체::
* HTTPErrorProcessor 객체::
* 예: 예<11>.
* 레거시 인터페이스::
* urllib.request 제약 사항: urllib request 제약 사항.

urllib.parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석

* URL 구문 분석::
* URL 구문 분석 보안::
* ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석::
* 구조화된 구문 분석 결과::
* URL 인용::

http — HTTP 모듈

* HTTP 상태 코드::
* HTTP 상태 범주::
* HTTP 메서드::

http.client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

* HTTPConnection 객체::
* HTTPResponse 객체::
* 예: 예<12>.
* HTTPMessage 객체::

ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

* 레퍼런스: 레퍼런스<4>.

레퍼런스

* FTP 객체::
* FTP_TLS 객체::
* 모듈 변수::

poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트

* POP3 객체::
* POP3 예제::

imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트

* IMAP4 객체::
* IMAP4 예::

smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

* SMTP 객체::
* SMTP 예::

uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체

* 명령줄 사용법::
* 예제: 예제<24>.
* 명령줄 예제::

socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크

* 서버 생성 노트::
* 서버 객체: 서버 객체<2>.
* 요청 처리기 객체::
* 예: 예<13>.

예

* socketserver.TCPServer 예: socketserver TCPServer 예.
* socketserver.UDPServer 예: socketserver UDPServer 예.
* 비동기 믹스인::

http.server — HTTP 서버

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.
* Security considerations::

http.cookies — HTTP 상태 관리

* 쿠키 객체::
* Morsel 객체::
* 예제: 예제<25>.

http.cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

* CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체::
* FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력::
* CookiePolicy 객체::
* DefaultCookiePolicy 객체::
* Cookie 객체::
* 예: 예<14>.

xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

* ServerProxy 객체::
* DateTime 객체::
* Binary 객체::
* Fault 객체::
* ProtocolError 객체::
* MultiCall 객체::
* 편의 함수::
* 클라이언트 사용 예::
* 클라이언트와 서버 사용 예::

xmlrpc.server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* XMLRPC 서버 문서화::
* DocXMLRPCServer 객체::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 예제::

ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

* 편의 팩토리 함수::
* IP 주소::
* IP 네트워크 정의::
* 인터페이스 객체::
* 다른 모듈 수준 함수::
* 맞춤 예외::

IP 주소

* 주소 객체::
* 문자열과 정수로의 변환::
* 연산자: 연산자<3>.

연산자

* 비교 연산자::
* 산술 연산자::

IP 네트워크 정의

* 접두사, 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크: 접두사 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크.
* 네트워크 객체::
* 연산자: 연산자<4>.

연산자

* 논리 연산자::
* 이터레이션::
* 주소 컨테이너로서의 네트워크::

인터페이스 객체

* 연산자: 연산자<5>.

연산자

* 논리 연산자: 논리 연산자<2>.

멀티미디어 서비스

* wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환::

wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기

* Wave_read 객체::
* Wave_write 객체::

국제화

* gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스::
* locale — 국제화 서비스::

gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스

* GNU gettext API::
* 클래스 기반 API::
* 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화::
* 감사의 말::

클래스 기반 API

* NullTranslations 클래스::
* GNUTranslations 클래스::
* Solaris 메시지 카탈로그 지원::
* Catalog 생성자::

프로그램과 모듈의 국제화

* 모듈 현지화::
* 응용 프로그램 현지화::
* 실행 중 언어 변경::
* 지연된 번역::

locale — 국제화 서비스

* 배경, 세부 사항, 힌트, 팁 및 경고: 배경 세부 사항 힌트 팁 및 경고.
* Locale names::
* 확장 작성자와 파이썬을 내장하는 프로그램의 경우::
* 메시지 카탈로그에 액세스::

Graphical user interfaces with Tk

* tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스::
* tkinter.colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자: tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자.
* tkinter.font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼: tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
* Tkinter 대화 상자::
* tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
* tkinter.scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯.
* tkinter.dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
* tkinter.ttk — Tk 테마 위젯: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯.
* IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸::
* turtle — Turtle graphics::

tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

* Architecture::
* Tkinter 모듈::
* Tkinter 구명조끼::
* Threading model::
* 간편한 레퍼런스::
* 파일 처리기::

Tkinter 구명조끼

* Hello World 프로그램::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I…? What option does…?::
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::

간편한 레퍼런스

* 옵션 설정::
* 패커::
* 패커 옵션::
* 위젯 변수 결합하기::
* 창 관리자::
* Tk 옵션 데이터형::
* 바인딩과 이벤트::
* index 매개 변수::
* 이미지::

Tkinter 대화 상자

* tkinter.simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자: tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
* tkinter.filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자.
* tkinter.commondialog — 대화창 템플릿: tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿.

tkinter.filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자

* 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자::

tkinter.ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

* Ttk 사용하기::
* Ttk 위젯::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk 스타일링::

Widget

* 표준 옵션::
* 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션::
* 레이블 옵션::
* 호환성 옵션::
* 위젯 상태::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.

Combobox

* 옵션::
* 가상 이벤트::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.

Spinbox

* 옵션: 옵션<2>.
* 가상 이벤트: 가상 이벤트<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.

Notebook

* 옵션: 옵션<3>.
* 탭 옵션::
* 탭 식별자::
* 가상 이벤트: 가상 이벤트<3>.
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.

Progressbar

* 옵션: 옵션<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.

Separator

* 옵션: 옵션<5>.

Sizegrip

* 플랫폼별 노트::
* 버그::

Treeview

* 옵션: 옵션<6>.
* 항목 옵션::
* 태그 옵션::
* 열 식별자::
* 가상 이벤트: 가상 이벤트<4>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.

Ttk 스타일링

* 레이아웃::

IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸

* 메뉴::
* 편집과 탐색::
* 시작과 코드 실행::
* 도움말과 환경 설정::
* idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현::

메뉴

* File 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): File 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Edit 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Edit 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Format 메뉴 (편집기 창 전용): Format 메뉴 편집기 창 전용.
* Run 메뉴 (편집기 창 전용): Run 메뉴 편집기 창 전용.
* Shell 메뉴 (셸 창 전용): Shell 메뉴 셸 창 전용.
* Debug 메뉴 (셸 창 전용): Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용.
* Options 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Options 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Window 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Window 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Help 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Context 메뉴::

편집과 탐색

* 편집기 창::
* 키 바인딩::
* 자동 들여쓰기::
* 검색과 치환::
* 완성: 완성<2>.
* 콜팁::
* 코드 컨텍스트::
* 셸 창::
* 텍스트 색상::

시작과 코드 실행

* 명령 줄 사용법::
* 시작 실패::
* 사용자 코드 실행하기::
* 셸의 사용자 출력::
* tkinter 응용 프로그램 개발하기::
* 서브 프로세스 없이 실행하기::

도움말과 환경 설정

* 도움말 소스::
* 환경 설정::
* macOS의 IDLE::
* 확장::

turtle — Turtle graphics

* 소개: 소개<5>.
* 시작하기: 시작하기<2>.
* Tutorial: Tutorial<2>.
* How to…::
* Turtle graphics reference::
* RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수::
* TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수::
* 공개 클래스::
* Explanation: Explanation<2>.
* 도움말과 구성::
* turtledemo — 데모 스크립트::
* 파이썬 2.6 이후의 변화: 파이썬 2 6 이후의 변화.
* 파이썬 3.0 이후의 변화: 파이썬 3 0 이후의 변화.

Tutorial

* 거북이 환경 시작하기::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::

Basic drawing

* 펜 제어::
* 거북이의 위치::

How to…

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* 스크립트에서 거북이 그래픽 사용하기::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::

Turtle graphics reference

* Turtle 메서드::
* TurtleScreen/Screen의 메서드::

RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

* 거북이 움직임::
* 거북이의 상태 보고::
* 측정 설정::
* 펜 제어: 펜 제어<2>.
* 거북이 상태::
* 이벤트 사용하기::
* 특수 Turtle 메서드::
* 복합 모양::

펜 제어

* 그리기 상태::
* 색상 제어::
* 채우기::
* 더 많은 그리기 제어::

거북이 상태

* 가시성::
* 외관::

TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

* 창 제어::
* 애니메이션 제어::
* 화면 이벤트 사용하기::
* 입력 메서드::
* 설정과 특수 메서드::
* TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은, Screen만의 메서드: TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드.

도움말과 구성

* 도움말 사용법::
* 독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역::
* Screen과 Turtle을 구성하는 방법::

개발 도구

* typing — Support for type hints::
* pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템::
* 파이썬 개발 모드::
* doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트::
* unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크::
* unittest.mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리.
* unittest.mock — 시작하기: unittest mock — 시작하기.
* test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지::
* test.support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티: test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티: test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구: test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
* test.support.threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티: test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티: test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.

typing — Support for type hints

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* 형 에일리어스::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* 제네릭::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* 사용자 정의 제네릭 형::
* Any 형::
* 명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<7>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

모듈 내용

* 특수 타이핑 프리미티브::
* 프로토콜: 프로토콜<3>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* 함수와 데코레이터::
* 인트로스펙션 도우미::
* 상수: 상수<10>.
* Deprecated aliases::

특수 타이핑 프리미티브

* 특수형::
* 특수 형태::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* 기타 특수 지시자::

Deprecated aliases

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

파이썬 개발 모드

* 파이썬 개발 모드의 효과::
* ResourceWarning 예::
* 잘못된 파일 기술자 에러 예::

doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

* 간단한 사용법; 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기: 간단한 사용법 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기.
* 간단한 사용법; 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기: 간단한 사용법 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기.
* 명령줄 사용법: 명령줄 사용법<2>.
* 작동 방법::
* 기본 API::
* Unittest API::
* 고급 API::
* 디버깅::
* 맺음말: 맺음말<2>.

작동 방법

* 어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?::
* 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?::
* 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?::
* 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?::
* 옵션 플래그::
* 지시자::
* 경고: 경고<2>.

고급 API

* DocTest 객체::
* Example 객체::
* DocTestFinder 객체::
* DocTestParser 객체::
* TestResults 객체::
* DocTestRunner 객체::
* OutputChecker 객체::

unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

* 기본 예시::
* 명령행 인터페이스::
* 테스트 탐색(Discovery): 테스트 탐색 Discovery.
* 테스트 코드 구조 잡기::
* 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기::
* 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패::
* 부분 테스트(subtest)를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기: 부분 테스트 subtest 를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기.
* 클래스와 함수::
* 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐::
* 시그널 처리하기::

명령행 인터페이스

* 명령행 옵션::

클래스와 함수

* 테스트 케이스::
* 테스트 분류::
* 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기::

테스트를 로드하고 실행하기

* load_tests 프로토콜::

클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐

* setUpClass 와 tearDownClass::
* setUpModule 과 tearDownModule::

unittest.mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

* 간략 지침::
* Mock 클래스::
* 패처::
* MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원::
* 도우미::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

Mock 클래스

* 호출: 호출<2>.
* 어트리뷰트 삭제::
* 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트::
* 모의 객체를 어트리뷰트로 연결하기::

패처

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* 패처 메서드; start와 stop: 패처 메서드 start와 stop.
* 내장 패치::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기::
* 패치할 곳::
* 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기::

MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원

* 매직 메서드 모킹하기::
* 매직 모의 객체::

도우미

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* 자동 사양::
* 실링 모의 객체 봉인하기::

unittest.mock — 시작하기

* 모의 객체 사용하기::
* 패치 데코레이터::
* 추가 예::

모의 객체 사용하기

* 메서드를 패치하는 모의 객체::
* 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체::
* 클래스 모킹하기::
* 모의 객체 이름 붙이기::
* 모든 호출 추적하기::
* 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기::
* 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기::
* 부작용 함수와 이터러블::
* 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기::
* 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기::
* 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기::
* Using side_effect to return per file content::

추가 예

* 연쇄 호출 모킹하기::
* 부분 모킹::
* 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기::
* 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기::
* 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기::
* 모의 객체로 여러 호출 확인하기::
* 가변 인자에 대처하기::
* 중첩 패치::
* MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기::
* Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트::
* patch.dict로 임포트를 모킹하기: patch dict로 임포트를 모킹하기.
* 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션::
* 더 복잡한 인자 일치::

test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지

* test 패키지를 위한 단위 테스트 작성하기::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기::

디버깅과 프로파일링

* 감사 이벤트 표::
* bdb — 디버거 프레임워크::
* faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프::
* pdb — 파이썬 디버거::
* 파이썬 프로파일러::
* timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정::
* trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적::
* tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적::

faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

* 트레이스백 덤프하기::
* 결함 처리기 상태::
* 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기::
* 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기::
* 파일 기술자 관련 문제::
* 예제: 예제<26>.

pdb — 파이썬 디버거

* 디버거 명령들::

파이썬 프로파일러

* 프로파일러 소개::
* 즉석 사용자 설명서::
* profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스::
* Stats 클래스::
* 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?::
* 한계::
* 보정::
* 사용자 정의 타이머 사용하기::

timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정

* 기본 예제::
* 파이썬 인터페이스::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
* 예제: 예제<27>.

trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적

* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<2>.
* 프로그래밍 인터페이스::

명령 줄 사용법

* 주요 옵션::
* 수정자::
* 필터::

tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적

* 예: 예<15>.
* API::

예

* 상위 10개 표시::
* 차이 계산::
* 메모리 블록의 트레이스백 얻기::
* 예쁜 탑(top): 예쁜 탑 top.

예쁜 탑(top)

* 모든 추적한 메모리 블록의 현재 및 최대 크기를 기록::

API

* 함수: 함수<10>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::

소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포

* ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩::
* venv — 가상 환경 생성::
* zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리::

ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩

* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<6>.
* 모듈 API::

venv — 가상 환경 생성

* 가상 환경 만들기: 가상 환경 만들기<2>.
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* EnvBuilder 확장 예제::

zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

* 기본 예: 기본 예<2>.
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
* 파이썬 API::
* 예: 예<16>.
* 인터프리터 지정하기::
* zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기::
* 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램 아카이브 형식::

zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기

* 경고: 경고<3>.

파이썬 실행시간 서비스

* sys — System-specific parameters and functions::
* sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
* sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기::
* builtins — 내장 객체::
* __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경::
* warnings — 경고 제어::
* dataclasses — 데이터 클래스::
* contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티::
* abc — 추상 베이스 클래스::
* atexit — 종료 처리기::
* traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회::
* __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의::
* gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스::
* inspect — 라이브 객체 검사::
* site — 사이트별 구성 훅::

sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::

Tool identifiers

* Registering and using tools::

Events

* Local events::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::

Turning events on and off

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::

Registering callback functions

* Callback function arguments::

sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

* 구성 변수::
* 설치 경로::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* 설치 경로 함수::
* 기타 함수: 기타 함수<3>.
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<3>.

User scheme

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::

Home scheme

* posix_home::

Prefix scheme

* posix_prefix::
* nt::

__main__ — 최상위 코드 환경

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages.
* import __main__::

__name__ == '__main__'

* “최상위 코드 환경” 이란 무엇인가요?::
* Idiomatic Usage::
* Packaging Considerations::

__main__.py in Python Packages

* Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.

warnings — 경고 제어

* 경고 범주::
* 경고 필터::
* 일시적인 경고 억제::
* 경고 테스트::
* 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신::
* 사용 가능한 함수::
* 사용 가능한 컨텍스트 관리자::

경고 필터

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* 경고 필터 설명::
* 기본 경고 필터::
* 기본 필터 재정의::

dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

* Module contents::
* 초기화 후처리::
* 클래스 변수::
* 초기화 전용 변수::
* 고정 인스턴스::
* 계승::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* 기본 팩토리 함수::
* 가변 기본값::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티

* 유틸리티::
* 예제와 조리법: 예제와 조리법<3>.
* 일회용, 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자: 일회용 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자.

예제와 조리법

* 일정하지 않은 수의 컨텍스트 관리자 지원::
* __enter__ 메서드에서 발생하는 예외 잡기::
* __enter__ 구현에서 정리하기::
* try-finally와 플래그 변수 사용 교체하기::
* 함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기::

일회용, 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자

* 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자::
* 재사용 가능 컨텍스트 관리자::

atexit — 종료 처리기

* atexit 예제::

traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

* 모듈 수준 함수: 모듈 수준 함수<2>.
* TracebackException 객체::
* StackSummary 객체::
* FrameSummary 객체::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* TracebackException을 사용하는 예제::

__future__ — 퓨처 문 정의

* Module Contents::

inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

* 형과 멤버::
* 소스 코드 가져오기::
* Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기::
* 클래스와 함수: 클래스와 함수<2>.
* 인터프리터 스택::
* 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기::
* 제너레이터, 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태: 제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
* 코드 객체 비트 플래그::
* Buffer flags::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<8>.

site — 사이트별 구성 훅

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline 구성::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<8>.
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<9>.

사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터

* code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스::
* codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일::

code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스

* 대화형 인터프리터 객체::
* 대화형 콘솔 객체::

모듈 임포트 하기

* zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트::
* pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티::
* modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기::
* runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행::
* importlib — import의 구현::
* importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
* importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
* importlib.metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스: importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스.
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.

zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트

* zipimporter 객체::
* 예제: 예제<28>.

modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기

* ModuleFinder의 사용 예::

importlib — import의 구현

* 소개: 소개<6>.
* 함수: 함수<11>.
* importlib.abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
* importlib.machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
* importlib.util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
* 예: 예<17>.

예

* 프로그래밍 방식으로 임포트 하기::
* 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기::
* 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* 임포터 설정하기::
* importlib.import_module() 근사하기: importlib import_module 근사하기.

importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access

* Functional API::

importlib.metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스

* 개요: 개요<3>.
* 기능적 API::
* 배포::
* 배포 발견::
* 검색 알고리즘 확장하기::

기능적 API

* 진입 지점::
* 배포 메타데이터::
* 배포 버전::
* 배포 파일::
* 배포 요구 사항::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::

검색 알고리즘 확장하기

* 예제: 예제<29>.

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

* Virtual environments::
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::

파이썬 언어 서비스

* ast — Abstract Syntax Trees::
* symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스::
* token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수::
* keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사::
* tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저::
* tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지::
* pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원::
* py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일::
* compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기::
* dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode::
* pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구::

ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

* 추상 문법::
* 노드 클래스::
* ast 도우미::
* 컴파일러 플래그::
* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<3>.

노드 클래스

* Root nodes::
* 리터럴: 리터럴<2>.
* 변수::
* 표현식: 표현식<2>.
* 문장::
* 제어 흐름::
* Pattern matching::
* Type annotations::
* Type parameters::
* 함수와 클래스 정의::
* Async와 await::

표현식

* 서브스크립팅::
* 컴프리헨션::

문장

* 임포트::

symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스

* 심볼 테이블 생성하기::
* 심볼 테이블 검사하기::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.

tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저

* 입력 토큰화하기::
* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<4>.
* 예제: 예제<30>.

pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원

* Function 객체::
* Class 객체::

py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일

* 명령줄 인터페이스::

compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기

* 명령 줄 사용::
* 공용 함수::

dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* 바이트 코드 분석::
* 분석 함수::
* 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어::
* 옵코드 모음::

pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구

* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<5>.
* 프로그래밍 인터페이스: 프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>.

명령 줄 사용법

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<5>.

MS 윈도우 특정 서비스

* msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴::
* winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스::
* winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스::

msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴

* 파일 연산::
* 콘솔 I/O::
* 기타 함수: 기타 함수<4>.

winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스

* 함수: 함수<12>.
* 상수: 상수<11>.
* 레지스트리 핸들 객체::

상수

* HKEY_* 상수::
* 액세스 권한::
* 값 형::

액세스 권한

* 64비트 특정::

Unix-specific services

* shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석::
* posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출::
* pwd — 암호 데이터베이스::
* grp — 그룹 데이터베이스::
* termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어::
* tty — 터미널 제어 함수::
* pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티::
* fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출::
* resource — 자원 사용 정보::
* syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴::

shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석

* shlex 객체::
* 구문 분석 규칙::
* 셸과의 호환성 향상::

posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출

* 대용량 파일 지원::
* 주목할만한 모듈 내용::

termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어

* 예제: 예제<31>.

pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티

* 예제: 예제<32>.

resource — 자원 사용 정보

* 자원 제한: 자원 제한<2>.
* 자원 사용량::

syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴

* 예제: 예제<33>.

예제

* 간단한 예제::

대체된 모듈

* getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기::

Removed Modules

* aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기::
* asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기::
* audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작::
* cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원::
* cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자::
* chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기::
* crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수::
* distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치::
* imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단::
* imp — 임포트 내부 액세스::
* mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리::
* msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* nis — Sun의 NIS(옐로 페이지)에 대한 인터페이스: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스.
* nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스::
* pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스::
* smtpd — SMTP 서버::
* sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단::
* spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스::
* sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트::
* uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩::
* xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩::

파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장

* 권장 제삼자 도구::
* 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기::
* 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 CPython 런타임을 내장하기::

제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기

* C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기::
* 확장형 정의하기; 자습서: 확장형 정의하기 자습서.
* 확장형 정의하기; 여러 가지 주제: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제.
* C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기::
* 윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기::

C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

* 간단한 예::
* 막간극; 에러와 예외: 막간극 에러와 예외.
* 예제로 돌아가기::
* 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수::
* 컴파일과 링크::
* C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기::
* 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기::
* 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수::
* 임의의 값을 구축하기::
* 참조 횟수::
* C++로 확장 작성하기::
* 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기::

참조 횟수

* 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기::
* 소유권 규칙::
* 살얼음::
* NULL 포인터::

확장형 정의하기: 자습서

* 기초::
* 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기::
* 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기::
* 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기::
* 다른 형의 서브 클래싱::

확장형 정의하기: 여러 가지 주제

* 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제::
* 객체 표현::
* 어트리뷰트 관리::
* 객체 비교::
* 추상 프로토콜 지원::
* 약한 참조 지원::
* 추가 제안::

어트리뷰트 관리

* 범용 어트리뷰트 관리::
* 형별 어트리뷰트 관리::

C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기

* setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기::

윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기

* 요리책 접근법::
* 유닉스와 윈도우의 차이점::
* DLL을 실제로 사용하기::

더 큰 응용 프로그램에 CPython 런타임을 내장하기

* 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기::

다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

* 매우 고수준의 내장::
* 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서; 개요: 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서 개요.
* 순수한 내장::
* 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기::
* C++로 파이썬 내장하기::
* 유닉스 계열 시스템에서 컴파일과 링크하기::

파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

* 소개: 소개<7>.
* C API Stability::
* 매우 고수준 계층::
* 참조 횟수: 참조 횟수<3>.
* 예외 처리::
* 유틸리티: 유틸리티<2>.
* 추상 객체 계층::
* 구상 객체 계층::
* 초기화, 파이널리제이션 및 스레드: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드.
* 파이썬 초기화 구성::
* 메모리 관리::
* 객체 구현 지원::
* API와 ABI 버전 붙이기::
* Monitoring C API::
* Generating Execution Events::

소개

* 코딩 표준::
* 인클루드 파일::
* 유용한 매크로들::
* 객체, 형 그리고 참조 횟수: 객체 형 그리고 참조 횟수.
* 예외: 예외<18>.
* 파이썬 임베딩하기::
* 디버깅 빌드::
* Recommended third party tools::

객체, 형 그리고 참조 횟수

* 참조 횟수: 참조 횟수<2>.
* 형::

참조 횟수

* 참조 횟수 상세::

C API Stability

* Unstable C API::
* 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스::
* Platform Considerations::
* Contents of Limited API::

안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스

* Limited C API::
* Stable ABI::
* Limited API Scope and Performance::
* Limited API Caveats::

예외 처리

* 인쇄와 지우기::
* 예외 발생시키기::
* 경고 발행하기::
* 에러 표시기 조회하기::
* 시그널 처리하기: 시그널 처리하기<2>.
* 예외 클래스: 예외 클래스<2>.
* 예외 객체::
* 유니코드 예외 객체::
* 재귀 제어::
* Exception and warning types::

Exception and warning types

* Exception types::
* OSError aliases::
* Warning types::

유틸리티

* 운영 체제 유틸리티::
* 시스템 함수::
* 프로세스 제어::
* 모듈 임포트 하기: 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
* 데이터 마샬링 지원::
* 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축::
* 문자열 변환과 포매팅::
* PyHash API::
* 리플렉션::
* 코덱 등록소와 지원 함수::
* PyTime C API::
* Support for Perf Maps::

인자 구문 분석과 값 구축

* 인자 구문 분석::
* 값 구축::

인자 구문 분석

* 문자열과 버퍼::
* 숫자: 숫자<2>.
* 기타 객체::
* API 함수::

코덱 등록소와 지원 함수

* 코덱 조회 API::
* 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API::

PyTime C API

* Types::
* Clock Functions::
* Raw Clock Functions::
* Conversion functions::

추상 객체 계층

* 객체 프로토콜::
* 호출 프로토콜::
* 숫자 프로토콜::
* 시퀀스 프로토콜::
* 매핑 프로토콜::
* 이터레이터 프로토콜::
* 버퍼 프로토콜::

호출 프로토콜

* tp_call 프로토콜::
* 벡터콜(Vectorcall) 프로토콜: 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜.
* 객체 호출 API::
* 호출 지원 API::

벡터콜(Vectorcall) 프로토콜

* 재귀 제어: 재귀 제어<2>.
* 벡터콜 지원 API::

버퍼 프로토콜

* 버퍼 구조체::
* 버퍼 요청 유형::
* 복잡한 배열::
* 버퍼 관련 함수::

버퍼 요청 유형

* 요청 독립적 필드::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* 연속성 요청::
* 복합 요청::

복잡한 배열

* NumPy-스타일; shape과 strides: NumPy-스타일 shape과 strides.
* PIL-스타일; shape, strides 및 suboffsets: PIL-스타일 shape strides 및 suboffsets.

구상 객체 계층

* 기본 객체::
* 숫자 객체::
* 시퀀스 객체::
* 컨테이너 객체::
* 함수 객체::
* 기타 객체: 기타 객체<2>.

기본 객체

* 형 객체: 형 객체<2>.
* None 객체::

형 객체

* 힙에 할당된 형 만들기::

숫자 객체

* 정수 객체::
* 불리언 객체::
* 부동 소수점 객체::
* 복소수 객체::

부동 소수점 객체

* Pack and Unpack functions::

Pack and Unpack functions

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::

복소수 객체

* C 구조체로서의 복소수::
* 파이썬 객체로서의 복소수::

시퀀스 객체

* 바이트열 객체: 바이트열 객체<2>.
* 바이트 배열 객체: 바이트 배열 객체<2>.
* 유니코드 객체와 코덱::
* 튜플 객체::
* 구조체 시퀀스 객체::
* 리스트 객체::

바이트 배열 객체

* 형 검사 매크로::
* 직접 API 함수::
* 매크로::

유니코드 객체와 코덱

* 유니코드 객체::
* 내장 코덱::
* 메서드와 슬롯 함수::

유니코드 객체

* 유니코드 형::
* 유니코드 문자 속성::
* 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스::
* 로케일 인코딩::
* 파일 시스템 인코딩::
* wchar_t 지원::

내장 코덱

* 일반 코덱::
* UTF-8 코덱::
* UTF-32 코덱::
* UTF-16 코덱::
* UTF-7 코덱::
* 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱::
* 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱::
* Latin-1 코덱::
* ASCII 코덱::
* 문자 맵 코덱::
* 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱::

컨테이너 객체

* 딕셔너리 객체::
* 집합 객체::

함수 객체

* 함수 객체: 함수 객체<2>.
* 인스턴스 메서드 객체::
* 메서드 객체: 메서드 객체<2>.
* 셀 객체::
* 코드 객체: 코드 객체<2>.
* Code Object Flags::
* Extra information::

기타 객체

* 파일 객체::
* 모듈 객체::
* 이터레이터 객체::
* 디스크립터 객체::
* 슬라이스 객체::
* MemoryView 객체::
* 약한 참조 객체: 약한 참조 객체<2>.
* 캡슐::
* Frame Objects::
* 제너레이터 객체::
* 코루틴 객체::
* 컨텍스트 변수 객체::
* DateTime 객체: DateTime 객체<2>.
* Objects for Type Hinting::

모듈 객체

* C 모듈 초기화::
* 모듈 조회::

C 모듈 초기화

* 단단계 초기화::
* 다단계 초기화::
* 저수준 모듈 생성 함수::
* 지원 함수::

슬라이스 객체

* Ellipsis 객체: Ellipsis 객체<2>.

Frame Objects

* Frame Locals Proxies::
* Internal Frames::

초기화, 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

* 파이썬 초기화 전::
* 전역 구성 변수::
* 인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션::
* 프로세스 전체 매개 변수::
* 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록::
* 서브 인터프리터 지원::
* 비동기 알림::
* 프로파일링과 추적::
* Reference tracing::
* 고급 디버거 지원::
* 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원::
* Synchronization Primitives::

스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

* 확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기::
* 파이썬이 만들지 않은 스레드::
* fork()에 대한 주의 사항: fork 에 대한 주의 사항.
* Cautions regarding runtime finalization::
* 고수준 API::
* 저수준 API::

서브 인터프리터 지원

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* 버그와 주의 사항::

스레드 로컬 저장소 지원

* 스레드별 저장소 (TSS - Thread Specific Storage) API: 스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API.
* 스레드 로컬 저장소 (TLS) API: 스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.

스레드별 저장소 (TSS - Thread Specific Storage) API

* 동적 할당::
* 메서드: 메서드<2>.

Synchronization Primitives

* Python Critical Section API::

파이썬 초기화 구성

* Example::
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* PyConfig를 사용한 초기화::
* 격리된 구성::
* 파이썬 구성::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* 다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API::

메모리 관리

* 개요: 개요<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* 원시 메모리 인터페이스::
* 메모리 인터페이스::
* 객체 할당자::
* 기본 메모리 할당자::
* 메모리 할당자 사용자 정의::
* 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅::
* pymalloc 할당자::
* mimalloc 할당자::
* tracemalloc C API::
* 예: 예<18>.

pymalloc 할당자

* pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의::

객체 구현 지원

* 힙에 객체 할당하기::
* 공통 객체 구조체::
* Type Object Structures::
* 순환 가비지 수집 지원::

공통 객체 구조체

* 기본 객체 형과 매크로::
* 함수와 메서드 구현::
* 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스::

확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::

Type Object Structures

* 간략 참조::
* PyTypeObject 정의::
* PyObject 슬롯::
* PyVarObject 슬롯::
* PyTypeObject 슬롯::
* Static Types::
* 힙 형::
* 숫자 객체 구조체::
* 매핑 객체 구조체::
* 시퀀스 객체 구조체::
* 버퍼 객체 구조체::
* 비동기 객체 구조체::
* 슬롯 형 typedef::
* 예: 예<19>.

간략 참조

* “tp 슬롯”::
* 서브 슬롯::
* 슬롯 typedef::

순환 가비지 수집 지원

* 가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기::
* 가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기::

Generating Execution Events

* Managing the Monitoring State::

파이썬 모듈 설치하기

* 핵심 용어::
* 기본 사용법: 기본 사용법<2>.
* 어떻게 …?::
* 흔히 만나는 설치 문제::

어떻게 …?

* … 파이썬 3.4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?: … 파이썬 3 4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?.
* … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?::
* … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?::
* … 병렬로 설치된 여러 버전의 파이썬으로 작업합니까?::

흔히 만나는 설치 문제

* 리눅스에 시스템 파이썬 설치하기::
* Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다.: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다.
* 바이너리 확장 설치하기::

파이썬 HOWTO

* A Conceptual Overview of asyncio::
* 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기::
* 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Enum HOWTO::
* 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO::
* 로깅 HOWTO::
* 로깅 요리책::
* 정규식 HOWTO::
* 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO::
* 정렬 기법::
* 유니코드 HOWTO::
* urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법::
* ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개::
* DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기::
* Python support for the Linux perf profiler::
* Annotations Best Practices::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* timer file descriptor HOWTO::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.
* Python experimental support for free threading::
* C API Extension Support for Free Threading::

A Conceptual Overview of asyncio

* A conceptual overview part 1; the high-level: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level.
* A conceptual overview part 2; the nuts and bolts: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts.

A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level

* Event Loop::
* Asynchronous functions and coroutines::
* Tasks::
* await::

A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts

* The inner workings of coroutines::
* Futures::
* A homemade asyncio.sleep: A homemade asyncio sleep.

파이썬 curses 프로그래밍

* curses란 무엇입니까?::
* curses 응용 프로그램 시작과 종료::
* 창과 패드::
* 텍스트 표시::
* 사용자 입력::
* 추가 정보::

curses란 무엇입니까?

* 파이썬 curses 모듈::

텍스트 표시

* 속성과 색상::

Descriptor Guide

* 입문::
* 완전한 실용적인 예::
* 기술적인 자습서::
* 순수한 파이썬 등가물::

입문

* 간단한 예; 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터: 간단한 예 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터.
* 동적 조회::
* 관리되는 어트리뷰트::
* 사용자 정의 이름::
* 마무리 생각::

완전한 실용적인 예

* 유효성 검사기 클래스::
* 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기::
* 실용적인 응용::

기술적인 자습서

* 요약::
* 정의와 소개::
* 디스크립터 프로토콜::
* 디스크립터 호출의 개요::
* 인스턴스에서 호출::
* 클래스에서 호출::
* super에서 호출::
* 호출 로직 요약::
* 자동 이름 알림::
* ORM 예제::

순수한 파이썬 등가물

* 프로퍼티::
* 함수와 메서드::
* 메서드의 종류::
* 정적 메서드::
* 클래스 메서드::
* 멤버 객체와 __slots__::

Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

Prerequisites

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::

Using the python-gdb extension

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::

Enum HOWTO

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration::
* Comparisons::
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::

Derived Enumerations

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Others: Others<2>.

When to use __new__() vs. __init__()

* Finer Points::

Finer Points

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::

How are Enums and Flags different?

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::

Enum Cookbook

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* MultiValueEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::

Omitting values

* Using auto::
* Using object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.

함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

* 소개: 소개<8>.
* 이터레이터: 이터레이터<2>.
* 제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션::
* 제너레이터: 제너레이터<2>.
* 내장 함수: 내장 함수<2>.
* itertools 모듈::
* functools 모듈::
* 작은 함수와 람다 표현식::
* 개정내역 및 감사의 글::
* 참고 문헌::

소개

* 형식적 증명 가능성::
* 모듈성::
* 디버깅과 테스트 용이성::
* 결합성::

이터레이터

* 이터레이터를 지원하는 데이터형::

제너레이터

* 제너레이터에 값 전달하기::

itertools 모듈

* 새로운 이터레이터 만들기::
* 요소에 대한 함수 호출::
* 요소 선택하기::
* 조합 함수::
* 요소 분류::

functools 모듈

* operator 모듈::

참고 문헌

* 일반::
* 파이썬 특정::
* 파이썬 설명서::

로깅 HOWTO

* 기초 로깅 자습서::
* 고급 로깅 자습서::
* 로깅 수준: 로깅 수준<2>.
* 유용한 처리기::
* 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외::
* 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기::
* 최적화: 최적화<6>.
* 기타 자료::

기초 로깅 자습서

* 로깅을 사용할 때::
* 간단한 예: 간단한 예<2>.
* 파일에 로깅 하기::
* 변수 데이터 로깅::
* 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경::
* 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시::
* 다음 단계::

고급 로깅 자습서

* 로깅 흐름::
* 로거::
* 처리기::
* 포매터::
* 로깅 구성::
* 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가::
* 라이브러리 로깅 구성::

로깅 수준

* 사용자 정의 수준::

로깅 요리책

* 여러 모듈에서 로깅 사용하기::
* 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기::
* 다중 처리기 및 포매터::
* 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기::
* Custom handling of levels::
* 구성 서버 예제::
* 블록 하는 처리기 다루기::
* 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기::
* 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기::
* 파일 회전 사용하기::
* 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기::
* 사용자 정의 LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예::
* rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기::
* 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제::
* SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기::
* 구조적 로깅 구현::
* dictConfig()로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기: dictConfig 로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기.
* 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기::
* dictConfig()로 필터 구성하기: dictConfig 로 필터 구성하기.
* 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅::
* 로깅 메시지 말하기::
* 로깅 메시지를 버퍼링하고 조건부 출력하기::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* 구성을 통해 UTC(GMT)로 시간을 포맷하기: 구성을 통해 UTC GMT 로 시간을 포맷하기.
* 선택적 로깅을 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기::
* CLI 응용 프로그램 시작 템플릿::
* 로깅을 위한 Qt GUI::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources::

네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기

* Running a logging socket listener in production::

로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가

* 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기::
* 문맥 정보 전달에 필터 사용하기::

문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기

* 딕셔너리 이외의 객체를 사용하여 문맥 정보 전달하기::

여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기

* concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기: concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기.
* Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기

* LogRecord 팩토리 사용::
* 사용자 정의 메시지 객체 사용::

Patterns to avoid

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::

정규식 HOWTO

* 소개: 소개<9>.
* 단순한 패턴::
* 정규식 사용하기::
* 더 많은 패턴 기능::
* 문자열 수정하기::
* 일반적인 문제들::
* 피드백::

단순한 패턴

* 문자 일치::
* 반복하기::

정규식 사용하기

* 정규식 컴파일하기::
* 백 슬래시 전염병::
* 일치 수행하기::
* 모듈 수준 함수: 모듈 수준 함수<3>.
* 컴파일 플래그::

더 많은 패턴 기능

* 메타 문자 더 보기::
* 그룹::
* 비 포착 그룹과 이름 있는 그룹::
* 미리 보기 어서션::

문자열 수정하기

* 문자열 분할하기::
* 검색과 치환: 검색과 치환<2>.

일반적인 문제들

* 문자열 메서드를 사용하십시오::
* match()와 search() 비교: match 와 search 비교.
* 탐욕적 과 비 탐욕적 비교::
* re.VERBOSE 사용하기: re VERBOSE 사용하기.

소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO

* 소켓::
* 소켓 만들기: 소켓 만들기<2>.
* 소켓 사용하기::
* 연결 끊기::
* 비 블로킹 소켓::

소켓

* 역사::

소켓 만들기

* IPC::

소켓 사용하기

* 바이너리 데이터::

연결 끊기

* 소켓이 죽을 때::

정렬 기법

* 정렬 기초::
* 키 함수::
* operator 모듈 함수와 부분 함수 평가::
* 오름차순과 내림차순::
* 정렬 안정성과 복잡한 정렬::
* 장식-정렬-복원::
* 비교 함수::
* 잡동사니: 잡동사니<4>.
* Partial Sorts::

유니코드 HOWTO

* 유니코드 소개::
* 파이썬의 유니코드 지원::
* 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기::
* 감사 인사::

유니코드 소개

* 정의::
* 인코딩::
* 참조::

파이썬의 유니코드 지원

* 문자열 형::
* 바이트열로 변환::
* 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴::
* 유니코드 속성::
* 문자열 비교::
* 유니코드 정규식::
* 참조: 참조<2>.

유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기

* 유니코드 파일 이름::
* 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁::
* 참조: 참조<3>.

유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁

* 파일 인코딩끼리 변환::
* 알 수 없는 인코딩의 파일::

urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

* 소개: 소개<10>.
* URL을 가져오기::
* 예외 처리: 예외 처리<2>.
* info와 geturl::
* 오프너와 처리기::
* 기본 인증::
* 프락시::
* 소켓과 계층::
* 각주::

URL을 가져오기

* 데이터::
* 헤더::

예외 처리

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* 마무리::

HTTPError

* 에러 코드::

마무리

* 1번::
* 2번::

ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

* 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기::
* 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 검사::
* 주소 리스트로서의 네트워크::
* 비교: 비교<3>.
* 다른 모듈과 함께 IP 주소 사용하기::
* 인스턴스 생성 실패 시 세부 사항 가져오기::

주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기

* IP 버전에 대한 참고 사항::
* IP 호스트 주소::
* 네트워크 정의::
* 호스트 인터페이스::

DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

* 정적 마커 활성화하기::
* 정적 DTrace 프로브::
* 정적 SystemTap 마커::
* 사용 가능한 정적 마커::
* SystemTap 탭셋::
* 예제: 예제<34>.

Python support for the Linux perf profiler

* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::
* How to work without frame pointers::

Annotations Best Practices

* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer.
* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older.
* Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations::
* Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version::
* __annotations__ Quirks::

Isolating Extension Modules

* Who should read this::
* Background::
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types::
* Open Issues::

Background

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::

Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::

Heap Types

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::

Garbage-Collection Protocol

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::

Open Issues

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

timer file descriptor HOWTO

* Examples: Examples<2>.

The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Examples: Examples<3>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

Python experimental support for free threading

* Installation::
* Identifying free-threaded Python::
* The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python::
* Thread safety::
* Known limitations::

Known limitations

* Immortalization::
* Frame objects::
* Iterators::
* Single-threaded performance::

C API Extension Support for Free Threading

* Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C::
* Module Initialization::
* General API Guidelines::
* Borrowed References::
* Memory Allocation APIs::
* Thread State and GIL APIs::
* Protecting Internal Extension State::
* Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::

Module Initialization

* Multi-Phase Initialization::
* Single-Phase Initialization::

General API Guidelines

* Container Thread Safety::

Container Thread Safety

* PyDict_Next::

Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

* Limited C API and Stable ABI::
* Windows: Windows<79>.

파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

* 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ::
* 프로그래밍 FAQ::
* 설계와 역사 FAQ::
* 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ::
* 확장/내장 FAQ::
* 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ::
* 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ::
* “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ::

일반적인 파이썬 FAQ

* 일반적인 정보::
* 현실 속의 파이썬::

일반적인 정보

* 파이썬이 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬을 사용할 때 저작권 관련 제한이 있습니까?::
* 파이썬은 애초에 왜 만들어졌습니까?::
* 파이썬의 강점은 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬 소스를 어떻게 얻을 수 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?::
* 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다. 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?.
* 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?::
* 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?::
* 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 관련 책이 있습니까?::
* 도대체 www.python.org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?.
* 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?::
* “몬티 파이튼의 플라잉 서커스”를 좋아해야합니까?::

현실 속의 파이썬

* 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?::
* 얼마나 많은 사람이 파이썬을 씁니까?::
* 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?::
* 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?::
* 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?::
* 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?::

프로그래밍 FAQ

* 일반적인 질문::
* 핵심 언어::
* 숫자와 문자열::
* 성능: 성능<3>.
* 시퀀스 (튜플/리스트): 시퀀스 튜플/리스트.
* 객체::
* 모듈: 모듈<3>.

일반적인 질문

* 중단점, 단일 스테핑(single-stepping) 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?.
* 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?::

핵심 언어

* 변수에 값이 있을 때 UnboundLocalError 가 발생하는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬에서 지역과 전역 변수에 대한 규칙은 무엇입니까?::
* 다른 값으로 루프에서 정의된 람다는 왜 모두 같은 결과를 반환합니까?::
* 모듈 간에 전역 변수를 공유하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 모듈에서 임포트를 사용하는 “모범 사례”는 무엇입니까?::
* 객체 간에 기본값이 공유되는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 인자와 매개변수의 차이점은 무엇입니까?::
* 리스트 ‘y’를 변경할 때 리스트 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 (참조에 의한 호출)?: 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 참조에 의한 호출 ?.
* 파이썬에서 고차 함수(higher order function)를 어떻게 만드나요?: 파이썬에서 고차 함수 higher order function 를 어떻게 만드나요?.
* 파이썬에서 객체를 어떻게 복사합니까?::
* 객체의 메서드나 어트리뷰트를 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?::
* 코드에서 객체 이름을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?::
* 쉼표 연산자의 우선순위는 어떻게 되나요?::
* C의 “?;” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?: C의 “? ” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?.
* 파이썬에서 난독화된 한 줄 코드를 작성할 수 있습니까?::
* 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시(/)는 무엇을 의미합니까?: 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시 / 는 무엇을 의미합니까?.

숫자와 문자열

* 16진수와 8진수 정수는 어떻게 지정합니까?::
* 왜 -22 // 10 이 -3을 반환합니까?::
* How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?::
* 문자열을 숫자로 어떻게 변환합니까?::
* 숫자를 문자열로 어떻게 변환합니까?::
* 제자리에서 문자열을 어떻게 수정합니까?::
* 문자열을 사용하여 어떻게 함수/메서드를 호출합니까?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::

성능

* 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다. 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?: 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
* 많은 문자열을 함께 이어붙이는 가장 효율적인 방법은 무엇입니까?::

시퀀스 (튜플/리스트)

* 튜플과 리스트를 어떻게 변환합니까?::
* 음수 인덱스는 무엇입니까?::
* 시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트 하려면 어떻게 합니까?::
* 리스트에서 중복을 어떻게 제거합니까?::
* 리스트에서 여러 항목을 어떻게 제거합니까?::
* 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?::
* 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?::
* How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?::
* 덧셈은 작동하는데, 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?: 덧셈은 작동하는데 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?.
* 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다; 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?: 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?.
* 한 리스트를 다른 리스트의 값으로 정렬하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::

객체

* 클래스는 무엇입니까?::
* 메서드는 무엇입니까?::
* self는 무엇입니까?::
* 객체가 주어진 클래스나 그 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인지 어떻게 확인합니까?::
* 위임이란 무엇입니까?::
* How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?::
* 베이스 클래스를 쉽게 변경할 수 있도록 코드를 구성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 정적 클래스 데이터와 정적 클래스 메서드를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬에서 생성자(또는 메서드)를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?: 파이썬에서 생성자 또는 메서드 를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?.
* __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다.: __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다.
* 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다.: 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다.
* 주어진 클래스의 모든 인스턴스 목록을 어떻게 얻습니까?::
* id()의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?: id 의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?::
* How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?::
* How do I cache method calls?::

모듈

* .pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?: pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?.
* 현재 모듈 이름을 어떻게 찾습니까?::
* 서로 임포트 하는 모듈을 어떻게 만들 수 있습니까?::
* __import__(‘x.y.z’)는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?: __import__ ‘x y z’ 는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?.
* 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때, 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다. 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?: 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?.

설계와 역사 FAQ

* 파이썬은 왜 문장의 그룹화에 들여쓰기를 사용합니까?::
* 간단한 산술 연산으로 이상한 결과가 나오는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 부동 소수점 계산이 왜 그렇게 부정확합니까?::
* 파이썬 문자열이 불변인 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능(예를 들어 list.index())에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능(예를 들어 len(list))에는 함수를 사용합니까?: 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능 예를 들어 list index 에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능 예를 들어 len list 에는 함수를 사용합니까?.
* join()이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?: join 이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?::
* 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?::
* 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬을 기계 코드, C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?.
* 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?::
* CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?::
* CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?::
* 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* list.sort()가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?: list sort 가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?::
* goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 날 문자열(r-strings)이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?: 날 문자열 r-strings 이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?::
* Why don’t generators support the with statement?::
* if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬은 왜 리스트와 튜플 끝에 쉼표를 허용합니까?::

라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

* 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문::
* 일반적인 작업::
* 스레드::
* 입력과 출력: 입력과 출력<2>.
* 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍::
* 데이터베이스::
* 수학과 숫자::

일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

* 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?::
* math.py (socket.py, regex.py 등) 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?: math py socket py regex py 등 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?.
* 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬에 C의 onexit()와 동등한 것이 있습니까?: 파이썬에 C의 onexit 와 동등한 것이 있습니까?.
* 시그널 처리기가 작동하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?::

일반적인 작업

* 파이썬 프로그램이나 컴포넌트를 어떻게 테스트합니까?::
* 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?::
* 한 번에 하나의 키 입력을 받는 방법은 무엇입니까?::

스레드

* 스레드를 사용하여 어떻게 프로그래밍합니까?::
* 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다; 왜 그런가요?: 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다 왜 그런가요?.
* 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?::
* 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?::
* 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?::

입력과 출력

* 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? (그리고 다른 파일 질문들…): 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? 그리고 다른 파일 질문들….
* 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?::
* 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 (또는 쓰는) 방법은 무엇입니까?: 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 또는 쓰는 방법은 무엇입니까?.
* os.popen()으로 만든 파이프에서 os.read()를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?: os popen 으로 만든 파이프에서 os read 를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?.
* 직렬 (RS232) 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?.
* 왜 sys.stdout(stdin, stderr)을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?: 왜 sys stdout stdin stderr 을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?.

네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍

* 파이썬에는 어떤 WWW 도구가 있습니까?::
* HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 소켓의 connect() 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?: 소켓의 connect 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.

데이터베이스

* 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬에서 영속 객체를 어떻게 구현합니까?::

수학과 숫자

* 파이썬에서 난수를 어떻게 생성합니까?::

확장/내장 FAQ

* C로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?::
* C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?::
* C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?::
* C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?::
* C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?::
* Py_BuildValue()를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?: Py_BuildValue 를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?.
* C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?::
* PyErr_Print()의 출력(또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것)을 어떻게 잡습니까?: PyErr_Print 의 출력 또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것 을 어떻게 잡습니까?.
* C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?::
* 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?::
* Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?::
* 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?::
* 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만, 일부 파일이 없습니다. 왜 그렇습니까?: 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만 일부 파일이 없습니다 왜 그렇습니까?.
* “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?::
* 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?::
* 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 (예를 들어 상속을 통해) 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?: 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 예를 들어 상속을 통해 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?.

윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

* 윈도우에서 파이썬 프로그램을 실행하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?::
* *.pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?: * pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?.
* 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?.

그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ

* 일반적인 GUI 질문::
* 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?::
* Tkinter 질문::

Tkinter 질문

* Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정(freeze)합니까?: Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정 freeze 합니까?.
* I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?::
* Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다; 이유가 무엇입니까?: Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다 이유가 무엇입니까?.

“왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ

* 파이썬이 무엇입니까?: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?<2>.
* 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬을 삭제할 수 있습니까?::

Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>.
* C API Deprecations::

C API Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>.

이 설명서에 관하여

* 파이썬 설명서의 공헌자들::

버그 다루기

* 설명서 버그::
* 파이썬 문제 추적기 사용하기::
* 파이썬에 직접 이바지하기 입문::

역사와 라이센스

* 소프트웨어의 역사::
* 파이썬에 액세스하거나 사용하기 위한 이용 약관::
* 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인::

파이썬에 액세스하거나 사용하기 위한 이용 약관

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0: BEOPEN COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2 0.
* CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1: CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1 6 1.
* CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 2.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::

포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

* 메르센 트위스터::
* 소켓: 소켓<2>.
* 비동기 소켓 서비스::
* 쿠키 관리::
* 실행 추적::
* UUencode 및 UUdecode 함수::
* XML 원격 프로시저 호출::
* test_epoll::
* Select kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod 와 dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N 테스트 스위트::
* mimalloc::
* asyncio: asyncio<12>.
* Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS): Global Unbounded Sequences GUS.



File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬의 새로운 기능,  Next: 파이썬 자습서,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 파이썬의 새로운 기능
**********************

“파이썬의 새로운 기능” 수필 시리즈는 주요 파이썬 버전 간의 가장 중요한 변
화를 둘러 봅니다.  새로운 릴리스 이후에 최신 상태를 유지하고자 하는 사람
들에게는 “꼭 읽어야 할” 문서입니다.

* Menu:

* What’s New In Python 3.13: What’s New In Python 3 13.
* What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12.
* What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11.
* What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10.
* 파이썬 3.9의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.8의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.7의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.6의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능.
* 파이썬 3.5의 새로운 기능: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능.
* What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4.
* What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3.
* What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2.
* What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1.
* What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0.
* What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7.
* What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6.
* What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5.
* What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4.
* What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3.
* What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2.
* What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1.
* What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0.
* Changelog::


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 13,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.1 What’s New In Python 3.13
=============================


Editors: Adam Turner and Thomas Wouters

This article explains the new features in Python 3.13, compared to 3.12.
Python 3.13 was released on October 7, 2024.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

더 보기
.......

PEP 719(1) – Python 3.13 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights::
* New Features::
* Other Language Changes::
* New Modules::
* Improved Modules::
* Optimizations::
* Removed Modules And APIs::
* New Deprecations::
* CPython Bytecode Changes::
* C API Changes::
* Build Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13.
* Regression Test Changes::
* Notable changes in 3.13.1: Notable changes in 3 13 1.
* Notable changes in 3.13.4: Notable changes in 3 13 4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0719/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights,  Next: New Features,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.1 Summary – Release Highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.13 is the latest stable release of the Python programming
language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation and
the standard library.  The biggest changes include a new *note
interactive interpreter: 13e., experimental support for running in a
*note free-threaded mode: 13f.( PEP 703(1)), and a *note Just-In-Time
compiler: 140.( PEP 744(2)).

Error messages continue to improve, with tracebacks now highlighted in
color by default.  The *note locals(): 141. builtin now has *note
defined semantics: 142. for changing the returned mapping, and type
parameters now support default values.

The library changes contain removal of deprecated APIs and modules, as
well as the usual improvements in user-friendliness and correctness.
Several legacy standard library modules have now *note been removed:
143.following their deprecation in Python 3.11 ( PEP 594(3)).

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full details
refer to the documentation, such as the *note Library Reference: 144.
and *note Language Reference: 145.  To understand the complete
implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept
up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented.  See *note Porting
to Python 3.13: 146. for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of
Python.

__________________________________________________________________

Interpreter improvements:

   * A greatly improved *note interactive interpreter: 13e. and *note
     improved error messages: 147.

   * PEP 667(4): The *note locals(): 141. builtin now has *note defined
     semantics: 142. when mutating the returned mapping.  Python
     debuggers and similar tools may now more reliably update local
     variables in optimized scopes even during concurrent code
     execution.

   * PEP 703(5): CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with
     the *note global interpreter lock: 148. disabled.  See *note
     Free-threaded CPython: 13f. for more details.

   * PEP 744(6): A basic *note JIT compiler: 140. was added.  It is
     currently disabled by default (though we may turn it on later).
     Performance improvements are modest – we expect to improve this
     over the next few releases.

   * Color support in the new *note interactive interpreter: 13e, as
     well as in *note tracebacks: 147. and *note doctest: 149. output.
     This can be disabled through the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. and
     NO_COLOR(7) environment variables.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note __static_attributes__: 14b. stores the names of attributes
     accessed through ‘self.X’ in any function in a class body.

   * *note __firstlineno__: 14c. records the first line number of a
     class definition.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * Add a new *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d. exception, raised
     when an operation is blocked during *note finalization: 14e.

   * The *note argparse: 6. module now supports deprecating command-line
     options, positional arguments, and subcommands.

   * The new functions *note base64.z85encode(): 14f. and *note
     base64.z85decode(): 150. support encoding and decoding Z85 data(8).

   * The *note copy: 25. module now has a *note copy.replace(): 151.
     function, with support for many builtin types and any class
     defining the *note __replace__(): 152. method.

   * The new *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. module is now the default *note dbm:
     31. backend.

   * The *note os: a1. module has a *note suite of new functions: 153.
     for working with Linux’s timer notification file descriptors.

   * The *note random: b8. module now has a *note command-line
     interface: 154.

Security improvements:

   * *note ssl.create_default_context(): 155. sets *note
     ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and *note
     ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. as default flags.

C API improvements:

   * The *note Py_mod_gil: 158. slot is now used to indicate that an
     extension module supports running with the *note GIL: 159.
     disabled.

   * The *note PyTime C API: 15a. has been added, providing access to
     system clocks.

   * *note PyMutex: 15b. is a new lightweight mutex that occupies a
     single byte.

   * There is a new *note suite of functions: 15c. for generating PEP
     669(9) monitoring events in the C API.

New typing features:

   * PEP 696(10): Type parameters (*note typing.TypeVar: 15d, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 15e, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f.) now
     support defaults.

   * PEP 702(11): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 160. decorator
     adds support for marking deprecations in the type system and at
     runtime.

   * PEP 705(12): *note typing.ReadOnly: 161. can be used to mark an
     item of a *note typing.TypedDict: 162. as read-only for type
     checkers.

   * PEP 742(13): *note typing.TypeIs: 163. provides more intuitive type
     narrowing behavior, as an alternative to *note typing.TypeGuard:
     164.

Platform support:

   * PEP 730(14): Apple’s iOS is now an *note officially supported
     platform: 165, at tier 3(15).

   * PEP 738(16): Android is now an *note officially supported platform:
     165, at tier 3(17).

   * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now supported as a tier 2(18) platform.

   * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer an officially supported platform.

Important removals:

   * *note PEP 594: 143.: The remaining 19 “dead batteries” (legacy
     stdlib modules) have been removed from the standard library:
     ‘aifc’, ‘audioop’, ‘cgi’, ‘cgitb’, ‘chunk’, ‘crypt’, ‘imghdr’,
     ‘mailcap’, ‘msilib’, ‘nis’, ‘nntplib’, ‘ossaudiodev’, ‘pipes’,
     ‘sndhdr’, ‘spwd’, ‘sunau’, ‘telnetlib’, ‘uu’ and ‘xdrlib’.

   * Remove the ‘2to3’ tool and ‘lib2to3’ module (deprecated in Python
     3.11).

   * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module (deprecated in Python 3.6).

   * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function.

   * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces.

   * Remove chained *note classmethod: 166. descriptors.

Release schedule changes:

PEP 602(19) (“Annual Release Cycle for Python”) has been updated to
extend the full support (‘bugfix’) period for new releases to two years.
This updated policy means that:

   * Python 3.9–3.12 have one and a half years of full support, followed
     by three and a half years of security fixes.

   * Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support, followed by
     three years of security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/

   (7) https://no-color.org/

   (8) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-2

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features,  Next: Other Language Changes,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* A better interactive interpreter::
* Improved error messages::
* Free-threaded CPython::
* An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
* Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals.
* Support for mobile platforms::


File: python.info,  Node: A better interactive interpreter,  Next: Improved error messages,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.1 A better interactive interpreter
........................................

Python now uses a new *note interactive: 169. shell by default, based on
code from the PyPy project(1).  When the user starts the *note REPL:
16a. from an interactive terminal, the following new features are now
supported:

   * Multiline editing with history preservation.

   * Direct support for REPL-specific commands like ‘help’, ‘exit’, and
     ‘quit’, without the need to call them as functions.

   * Prompts and tracebacks with *note color enabled by default: 16b.

   * Interactive help browsing using ‘F1’ with a separate command
     history.

   * History browsing using ‘F2’ that skips output as well as the *note
     >>>: 16c. and *note …: 16d. prompts.

   * “Paste mode” with ‘F3’ that makes pasting larger blocks of code
     easier (press ‘F3’ again to return to the regular prompt).

To disable the new interactive shell, set the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:
16e. environment variable.  For more on interactive mode, see *note
대화형 모드: 16f.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, and Lysandros
Nikolaou in gh-111201(2) based on code from the PyPy project.  Windows
support contributed by Dino Viehland and Anthony Shaw.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypy.org/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201


File: python.info,  Node: Improved error messages,  Next: Free-threaded CPython,  Prev: A better interactive interpreter,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.2 Improved error messages
...............................

   * The interpreter now uses color by default when displaying
     tracebacks in the terminal.  This feature *note can be controlled:
     16b. via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. environment variable as
     well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2) environment
     variables.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-112730(3).)

   * A common mistake is to write a script with the same name as a
     standard library module.  When this results in errors, we now
     display a more helpful error message:

          $ python random.py
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/me/random.py", line 1, in <module>
              import random
            File "/home/me/random.py", line 3, in <module>
              print(random.randint(5))
                    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/me/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and prevents importing that standard library module)

     Similarly, if a script has the same name as a third-party module
     that it attempts to import and this results in errors, we also
     display a more helpful error message:

          $ python numpy.py
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 1, in <module>
              import numpy as np
            File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 3, in <module>
              np.array([1, 2, 3])
              ^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/me/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a library you intended to import)

     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-95754(4).)

   * The error message now tries to suggest the correct keyword argument
     when an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function.

          >>> "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
              "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Shantanu Jain in
     gh-107944(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://no-color.org/

   (2) https://force-color.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944


File: python.info,  Node: Free-threaded CPython,  Next: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Prev: Improved error messages,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.3 Free-threaded CPython
.............................

CPython now has experimental support for running in a free-threaded
mode, with the *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) disabled.  This
is an experimental feature and therefore is not enabled by default.  The
free-threaded mode requires a different executable, usually called
‘python3.13t’ or ‘python3.13t.exe’.  Pre-built binaries marked as
'free-threaded' can be installed as part of the official *note Windows:
172. and *note macOS: 173. installers, or CPython can be built from
source with the *note -disable-gil: 174. option.

Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available
processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.
While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs
designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.
'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve
it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.
Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 175.
or the command-line option *note -X gil=1: 176.

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note
python -VV: 177. and *note sys.version: 178. contain “experimental
free-threading build”.  The new ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function can be
used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running
process.

C-API extension modules need to be built specifically for the
free-threaded build.  Extensions that support running with the *note
GIL: 159. disabled should use the *note Py_mod_gil: 158. slot.
Extensions using single-phase init should use *note
PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(): 179. to indicate whether they support
running with the GIL disabled.  Importing C extensions that don’t use
these mechanisms will cause the GIL to be enabled, unless the GIL was
explicitly disabled with the *note PYTHON_GIL: 175. environment variable
or the *note -X gil=0: 176. option.  pip 24.1 or newer is required to
install packages with C extensions in the free-threaded build.

This work was made possible thanks to many individuals and
organizations, including the large community of contributors to Python
and third-party projects to test and enable free-threading support.
Notable contributors include: Sam Gross, Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Itamar
Oren, Matt Page, Brett Simmers, Dino Viehland, Carl Meyer, Nathan
Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, and many others.  Many of
these contributors are employed by Meta, which has provided significant
engineering resources to support this project.

더 보기
.......

PEP 703(1) “Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython”
contains rationale and information surrounding this work.

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(2): A
community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/


File: python.info,  Node: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Next: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Prev: Free-threaded CPython,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.4 An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler
...................................................

When CPython is configured and built using the
‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option, a just-in-time (JIT) compiler is
added which may speed up some Python programs.  On Windows, use
‘PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit’ to enable the JIT or
‘--experimental-jit-interpreter’ to enable the Tier 2 interpreter.
Build requirements and further supporting information are contained
at(1) ‘Tools/jit/README.md’.

The ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option takes these (optional) values,
defaulting to ‘yes’ if ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is present without
the optional value.

   * ‘no’: Disable the entire Tier 2 and JIT pipeline.

   * ‘yes’: Enable the JIT. To disable the JIT at runtime, pass the
     environment variable *note PYTHON_JIT=0: 17b.

   * ‘yes-off’: Build the JIT but disable it by default.  To enable the
     JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable *note PYTHON_JIT=1:
     17b.

   * ‘interpreter’: Enable the Tier 2 interpreter but disable the JIT.
     The interpreter can be disabled by running with *note PYTHON_JIT=0:
     17b.

The internal architecture is roughly as follows:

   * We start with specialized 'Tier 1 bytecode'.  See *note What’s new
     in 3.11: 17c. for details.

   * When the Tier 1 bytecode gets hot enough, it gets translated to a
     new purely internal intermediate representation (IR), called the
     'Tier 2 IR', and sometimes referred to as micro-ops (“uops”).

   * The Tier 2 IR uses the same stack-based virtual machine as Tier 1,
     but the instruction format is better suited to translation to
     machine code.

   * We have several optimization passes for Tier 2 IR, which are
     applied before it is interpreted or translated to machine code.

   * There is a Tier 2 interpreter, but it is mostly intended for
     debugging the earlier stages of the optimization pipeline.  The
     Tier 2 interpreter can be enabled by configuring Python with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’.

   * When the JIT is enabled, the optimized Tier 2 IR is translated to
     machine code, which is then executed.

   * The machine code translation process uses a technique called
     'copy-and-patch'.  It has no runtime dependencies, but there is a
     new build-time dependency on LLVM.

더 보기
.......

PEP 744(2)

(JIT by Brandt Bucher, inspired by a paper by Haoran Xu and Fredrik
Kjolstad.  Tier 2 IR by Mark Shannon and Guido van Rossum.  Tier 2
optimizer by Ken Jin.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/jit/README.md

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/


File: python.info,  Node: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Next: Support for mobile platforms,  Prev: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.5 Defined mutation semantics for ‘locals()’
.................................................

Historically, the expected result of mutating the return value of *note
locals(): 141. has been left to individual Python implementations to
define.  Starting from Python 3.13, PEP 667(1) standardises the
historical behavior of CPython for most code execution scopes, but
changes *note optimized scopes: 17e. (functions, generators, coroutines,
comprehensions, and generator expressions) to explicitly return
independent snapshots of the currently assigned local variables,
including locally referenced nonlocal variables captured in closures.

This change to the semantics of *note locals(): 141. in optimized scopes
also affects the default behavior of code execution functions that
implicitly target ‘locals()’ if no explicit namespace is provided (such
as *note exec(): 17f. and *note eval(): 180.).  In previous versions,
whether or not changes could be accessed by calling ‘locals()’ after
calling the code execution function was implementation-dependent.  In
CPython specifically, such code would typically appear to work as
desired, but could sometimes fail in optimized scopes based on other
code (including debuggers and code execution tracing tools) potentially
resetting the shared snapshot in that scope.  Now, the code will always
run against an independent snapshot of the local variables in optimized
scopes, and hence the changes will never be visible in subsequent calls
to ‘locals()’.  To access the changes made in these cases, an explicit
namespace reference must now be passed to the relevant function.
Alternatively, it may make sense to update affected code to use a higher
level code execution API that returns the resulting code execution
namespace (e.g.  *note runpy.run_path(): 181. when executing Python
files from disk).

To ensure debuggers and similar tools can reliably update local
variables in scopes affected by this change, *note FrameType.f_locals:
182. now returns a write-through proxy to the frame’s local and locally
referenced nonlocal variables in these scopes, rather than returning an
inconsistently updated shared ‘dict’ instance with undefined runtime
semantics.

See PEP 667(2) for more details, including related C API changes and
deprecations.  Porting notes are also provided below for the affected
*note Python APIs: 183. and *note C APIs: 184.

(PEP and implementation contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in
gh-74929(3).  Documentation updates provided by Guido van Rossum and
Alyssa Coghlan.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929


File: python.info,  Node: Support for mobile platforms,  Prev: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.6 Support for mobile platforms
....................................

PEP 730(1): iOS is now a PEP 11(2) supported platform, with the
‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ targets at tier 3
(iPhone and iPad devices released after 2013 and the Xcode iOS simulator
running on Apple silicon hardware, respectively).
‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’ (the Xcode iOS simulator running on older
‘x86_64’ hardware) is not a tier 3 supported platform, but will have
best-effort support.  (PEP written and implementation contributed by
Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(3).)

PEP 738(4): Android is now a PEP 11(5) supported platform, with the
‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ targets at tier 3.
The 32-bit targets ‘arm-linux-androideabi’ and ‘i686-linux-android’ are
not tier 3 supported platforms, but will have best-effort support.  (PEP
written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in
gh-116622(6).)

더 보기
.......

PEP 730(7), PEP 738(8)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes,  Next: New Modules,  Prev: New Features,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.3 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The compiler now strips common leading whitespace from every line
     in a docstring.  This reduces the size of the *note bytecode cache:
     187. (such as ‘.pyc’ files), with reductions in file size of around
     5%, for example in ‘sqlalchemy.orm.session’ from SQLAlchemy 2.0.
     This change affects tools that use docstrings, such as *note
     doctest: 3a.

          >>> def spam():
          ...     """
          ...         This is a docstring with
          ...           leading whitespace.
          ...
          ...         It even has multiple paragraphs!
          ...     """
          ...
          >>> spam.__doc__
          '\nThis is a docstring with\n  leading whitespace.\n\nIt even has multiple paragraphs!\n'

     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-81283(1).)

   * *note Annotation scopes: 188. within class scopes can now contain
     lambdas and comprehensions.  Comprehensions that are located within
     class scopes are not inlined into their parent scope.

          class C[T]:
              type Alias = lambda: T

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-109118(2) and gh-118160(3).)

   * *note Future statements: 189. are no longer triggered by relative
     imports of the *note __future__: 0. module, meaning that statements
     of the form ‘from .__future__ import ...’ are now simply standard
     relative imports, with no special features activated.  (Contributed
     by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual in gh-118216(4).)

   * *note global: 18a. declarations are now permitted in *note except:
     18b. blocks when that global is used in the *note else: 18c. block.
     Previously this raised an erroneous *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111123(5).)

   * Add *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18e, a new environment variable
     that determines whether frozen modules are ignored by the import
     machinery, equivalent to the *note -X frozen_modules: 176.
     command-line option.  (Contributed by Yilei Yang in gh-111374(6).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 18f. working without frame
     pointers(7) through the new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. and command-line option *note -X
     perf_jit: 176.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-118518(8).)

   * The location of a ‘.python_history’ file can be changed via the new
     *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 191. environment variable.  (Contributed by
     Levi Sabah, Zackery Spytz and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-73965(9).)

   * Classes have a new *note __static_attributes__: 14b. attribute.
     This is populated by the compiler with a tuple of the class’s
     attribute names which are assigned through ‘self.<name>’ from any
     function in its body.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-115775(10).)

   * The compiler now creates a ‘__firstlineno__’ attribute on classes
     with the line number of the first line of the class definition.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118465(11).)

   * The *note exec(): 17f. and *note eval(): 180. builtins now accept
     the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments as keywords.  (Contributed by
     Raphael Gaschignard in gh-105879(12))

   * The *note compile(): 192. builtin now accepts a new flag,
     ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     except that the returned AST is optimized according to the value of
     the 'optimize' argument.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-108113(13)).

   * Add a *note __name__: 193. attribute on *note property: 194.
     objects.  (Contributed by Eugene Toder in gh-101860(14).)

   * Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d, a new exception derived
     from *note RuntimeError: 195. and used to signal when operations
     are blocked during *note finalization: 14e.  The following
     callables now raise ‘PythonFinalizationError’, instead of *note
     RuntimeError: 195.:

        * *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 196.

        * *note os.fork(): 197.

        * *note os.forkpty(): 198.

        * *note subprocess.Popen: 199.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-114570(15).)

   * Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace(): 19a. to be a
     keyword.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-106487(16).)

   * Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a
     file descriptor argument.  This can help catch some errors earlier.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(17).)

   * Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed and archived
     file-like objects in the *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 8a, *note
     tarfile: de, and *note zipfile: 131. modules.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73965

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules,  Next: Improved Modules,  Prev: Other Language Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.4 New Modules
-----------------

   * *note dbm.sqlite3: 35.: An SQLite backend for *note dbm: 31.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-100414(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules,  Next: Optimizations,  Prev: New Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.5 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse::
* array::
* ast::
* asyncio::
* base64::
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* configparser::
* copy::
* ctypes::
* dbm::
* dis::
* doctest::
* email::
* enum::
* fractions::
* glob::
* importlib::
* io::
* ipaddress::
* itertools::
* marshal::
* math::
* mimetypes::
* mmap::
* multiprocessing::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* pdb::
* queue::
* random::
* re::
* shutil::
* site::
* sqlite3::
* ssl::
* statistics::
* subprocess::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* time::
* tkinter::
* traceback::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* venv::
* warnings::
* xml::
* zipimport::


File: python.info,  Node: argparse,  Next: array,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.1 argparse
................

   * Add the 'deprecated' parameter to the *note add_argument(): 19e.
     and ‘add_parser()’ methods, to enable deprecating command-line
     options, positional arguments, and subcommands.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-83648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648


File: python.info,  Node: array,  Next: ast,  Prev: argparse,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.2 array
.............

   * Add the ‘'w'’ type code (‘Py_UCS4’) for Unicode characters.  It
     should be used instead of the deprecated ‘'u'’ type code.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-80480(1).)

   * Register *note array.array: 1a0. as a *note MutableSequence: 1a1.
     by implementing the *note clear(): 1a2. method.  (Contributed by
     Mike Zimin in gh-114894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894


File: python.info,  Node: ast,  Next: asyncio,  Prev: array,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.3 ast
...........

   * The constructors of node types in the *note ast: 8. module are now
     stricter in the arguments they accept, with more intuitive behavior
     when arguments are omitted.

     If an optional field on an AST node is not included as an argument
     when constructing an instance, the field will now be set to ‘None’.
     Similarly, if a list field is omitted, that field will now be set
     to an empty list, and if an ‘expr_context’ field is omitted, it
     defaults to *note Load(): 1a4.  (Previously, in all cases, the
     attribute would be missing on the newly constructed AST node
     instance.)

     In all other cases, where a required argument is omitted, the node
     constructor will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  This will
     raise an exception in Python 3.15.  Similarly, passing a keyword
     argument to the constructor that does not map to a field on the AST
     node is now deprecated, and will raise an exception in Python 3.15.

     These changes do not apply to user-defined subclasses of *note
     ast.AST: 1a6. unless the class opts in to the new behavior by
     defining the *note AST._field_types: 1a7. mapping.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105858(1), gh-117486(2), and
     gh-118851(3).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 1a8. now accepts an optional argument 'optimize'
     which is passed on to *note compile(): 192.  This makes it possible
     to obtain an optimized AST. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-108113(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio,  Next: base64,  Prev: ast,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.4 asyncio
...............

   * *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa. now returns an object that is
     both an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. and a plain *note
     iterator: 1ac. of *note awaitables: 1ad.  The awaitables yielded by
     asynchronous iteration include original task or future objects that
     were passed in, making it easier to associate results with the
     tasks being completed.  (Contributed by Justin Arthur in
     gh-77714(1).)

   * *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae. will now
     automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.
     (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-111246(2).)

   * *note DatagramTransport.sendto(): 1af. will now send zero-length
     datagrams if called with an empty bytes object.  The transport flow
     control also now accounts for the datagram header when calculating
     the buffer size.  (Contributed by Jamie Phan in gh-115199(3).)

   * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 1b0. and *note QueueShutDown: 1b1. to
     manage queue termination.  (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves
     Duprat in gh-104228(4).)

   * Add the *note Server.close_clients(): 1b2. and *note
     Server.abort_clients(): 1b3. methods, which more forcefully close
     an asyncio server.  (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-113538(5).)

   * Accept a tuple of separators in *note StreamReader.readuntil():
     1b4, stopping when any one of them is encountered.  (Contributed by
     Bruce Merry in gh-81322(6).)

   * Improve the behavior of *note TaskGroup: 1b5. when an external
     cancellation collides with an internal cancellation.  For example,
     when two task groups are nested and both experience an exception in
     a child task simultaneously, it was possible that the outer task
     group would hang, because its internal cancellation was swallowed
     by the inner task group.

     In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also
     must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, it will now call the
     parent task’s *note cancel(): 1b7. method.  This ensures that a
     *note CancelledError: 1b8. will be raised at the next *note await:
     1b9, so the cancellation is not lost.

     An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve
     the cancellation count (*note cancelling(): 1ba.).

     In order to handle some corner cases, *note uncancel(): 1bb. may
     now reset the undocumented ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the
     cancellation count reaches zero.

     (Inspired by an issue reported by Arthur Tacca in gh-116720(7).)

   * When *note TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc. is called on an inactive
     *note TaskGroup: 1b5, the given coroutine will be closed (which
     prevents a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. about the given coroutine
     being never awaited).  (Contributed by Arthur Tacca and Jason Zhang
     in gh-115957(8).)

   * The function and methods named ‘create_task’ have received a new
     ‘**kwargs’ argument that is passed through to the task constructor.
     This change was accidentally added in 3.13.3, and broke the API
     contract for custom task factories.  Several third-party task
     factories implemented workarounds for this.  In 3.13.4 and later
     releases the old factory contract is honored once again (until
     3.14).  To keep the workarounds working, the extra ‘**kwargs’
     argument still allows passing additional keyword arguments to *note
     Task: 1be. and to custom task factories.

     This affects the following function and methods: *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 1bf, *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 1c0,
     *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Grainger in gh-128307(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77714

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115199

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104228

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81322

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307


File: python.info,  Node: base64,  Next: compileall,  Prev: asyncio,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.5 base64
..............

   * Add *note z85encode(): 14f. and *note z85decode(): 150. functions
     for encoding *note bytes: 1c2. as Z85 data(1) and decoding
     Z85-encoded data to ‘bytes’.  (Contributed by Matan Perelman in
     gh-75299(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75299


File: python.info,  Node: compileall,  Next: concurrent futures,  Prev: base64,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.6 compileall
..................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c5.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures,  Next: configparser,  Prev: compileall,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c5.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: configparser,  Next: copy,  Prev: concurrent futures,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.8 configparser
....................

   * *note ConfigParser: 1c8. now has support for unnamed sections,
     which allows for top-level key-value pairs.  This can be enabled
     with the new 'allow_unnamed_section' parameter.  (Contributed by
     Pedro Sousa Lacerda in gh-66449(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449


File: python.info,  Node: copy,  Next: ctypes,  Prev: configparser,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.9 copy
............

   * The new *note replace(): 151. function and the *note replace
     protocol: 152. make creating modified copies of objects much
     simpler.  This is especially useful when working with immutable
     objects.  The following types support the *note replace(): 151.
     function and implement the replace protocol:

        * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca.

        * *note dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb.

        * *note datetime.datetime: 1cc, *note datetime.date: 1cd, *note
          datetime.time: 1ce.

        * *note inspect.Signature: 1cf, *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0.

        * *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1.

        * *note code objects: 1d2.

     Any user-defined class can also support *note copy.replace(): 151.
     by defining the *note __replace__(): 152. method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108751(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes,  Next: dbm,  Prev: copy,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.10 ctypes
...............

   * As a consequence of necessary internal refactoring, initialization
     of internal metaclasses now happens in ‘__init__’ rather than in
     ‘__new__’.  This affects projects that subclass these internal
     metaclasses to provide custom initialization.  Generally:

        - Custom logic that was done in ‘__new__’ after calling
          ‘super().__new__’ should be moved to ‘__init__’.

        - To create a class, call the metaclass, not only the
          metaclass’s ‘__new__’ method.

     See gh-124520(1) for discussion and links to changes in some
     affected projects.

   * *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4. objects have a new *note _align_: 1d5.
     attribute which allows the alignment of the structure being packed
     to/from memory to be specified explicitly.  (Contributed by Matt
     Sanderson in gh-112433(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124520

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433


File: python.info,  Node: dbm,  Next: dis,  Prev: ctypes,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.11 dbm
............

   * Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 35, a new module which implements an SQLite
     backend, and make it the default ‘dbm’ backend.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414(1).)

   * Allow removing all items from the database through the new
     ‘clear()’ methods of the GDBM and NDBM database objects.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-107122(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122


File: python.info,  Node: dis,  Next: doctest,  Prev: dbm,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.12 dis
............

   * Change the output of *note dis: 38. module functions to show
     logical labels for jump targets and exception handlers, rather than
     offsets.  The offsets can be added with the new *note -O: 1d8.
     command-line option or the 'show_offsets' argument.  (Contributed
     by Irit Katriel in gh-112137(1).)

   * *note get_instructions(): 1d9. no longer represents cache entries
     as separate instructions.  Instead, it returns them as part of the
     *note Instruction: 1da, in the new 'cache_info' field.  The
     'show_caches' argument to *note get_instructions(): 1d9. is
     deprecated and no longer has any effect.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-112962(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962


File: python.info,  Node: doctest,  Next: email,  Prev: dis,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.13 doctest
................

   * *note doctest: 3a. output is now colored by default.  This can be
     controlled via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. environment
     variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2)
     environment variables.  See also *note Controlling color: 16b.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-117225(3).)

   * The *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1dc. method now counts the number of
     skipped tests.  Add the *note DocTestRunner.skips: 1dd. and *note
     TestResults.skipped: 1de. attributes.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-108794(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://no-color.org/

   (2) https://force-color.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794


File: python.info,  Node: email,  Next: enum,  Prev: doctest,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.14 email
..............

   * Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output.  The *note
     generator: 40. will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that
     are improperly folded or delimited, such that they would be parsed
     as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  If you need to
     turn this safety feature off, set *note verify_generated_headers:
     1e0.  (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in
     gh-121650(1).)

   * *note getaddresses(): 1e1. and *note parseaddr(): 1e2. now return
     ‘('', '')’ pairs in more situations where invalid email addresses
     are encountered instead of potentially inaccurate values.  The two
     functions have a new optional 'strict' parameter (default ‘True’).
     To get the old behavior (accepting malformed input), use
     ‘strict=False’.  ‘getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing',
     False)’ can be used to check if the 'strict' parameter is
     available.  (Contributed by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for
     gh-102988(2) to improve the CVE 2023-27043(3) fix.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043


File: python.info,  Node: enum,  Next: fractions,  Prev: email,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.15 enum
.............

   * *note EnumDict: 1e4. has been made public to better support
     subclassing *note EnumType: 1e5.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions,  Next: glob,  Prev: enum,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.16 fractions
..................

   * *note Fraction: 1e7. objects now support the standard *note format
     specification mini-language: 1e8. rules for fill, alignment, sign
     handling, minimum width, and grouping.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in gh-111320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111320


File: python.info,  Node: glob,  Next: importlib,  Prev: fractions,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.17 glob
.............

   * Add *note translate(): 1ea, a function to convert a path
     specification with shell-style wildcards to a regular expression.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-72904(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904


File: python.info,  Node: importlib,  Next: io,  Prev: glob,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.18 importlib
..................

   * The following functions in *note importlib.resources: 7b. now allow
     accessing a directory (or tree) of resources, using multiple
     positional arguments (the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments in the
     text-reading functions are now keyword-only):

        * *note is_resource(): 1ec.

        * *note open_binary(): 1ed.

        * *note open_text(): 1ee.

        * *note path(): 1ef.

        * *note read_binary(): 1f0.

        * *note read_text(): 1f1.

     These functions are no longer deprecated and are not scheduled for
     removal.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608(1).)

   * *note contents(): 1f2. remains deprecated in favor of the
     fully-featured *note Traversable: 1f3. API. However, there is now
     no plan to remove it.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
     gh-116608(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608


File: python.info,  Node: io,  Next: ipaddress,  Prev: importlib,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.19 io
...........

   * The *note IOBase: 1f5. finalizer now logs any errors raised by the
     *note close(): 1f6. method with *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f7.
     Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only
     logged in *note Python Development Mode: 1f8. or when using a *note
     Python debug build: 1f9.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-62948(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress,  Next: itertools,  Prev: io,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.20 ipaddress
..................

   * Add the *note IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped: 1fb. property, which returns
     the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-109466(1).)

   * Fix ‘is_global’ and ‘is_private’ behavior in *note IPv4Address:
     1fc, *note IPv6Address: 1fd, *note IPv4Network: 1fe, and *note
     IPv6Network: 1ff.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in gh-113171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171


File: python.info,  Node: itertools,  Next: marshal,  Prev: ipaddress,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.21 itertools
..................

   * *note batched(): 201. has a new 'strict' parameter, which raises a
     *note ValueError: 202. if the final batch is shorter than the
     specified batch size.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-113202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202


File: python.info,  Node: marshal,  Next: math,  Prev: itertools,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.22 marshal
................

   * Add the 'allow_code' parameter in module functions.  Passing
     ‘allow_code=False’ prevents serialization and de-serialization of
     code objects which are incompatible between Python versions.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113626(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626


File: python.info,  Node: math,  Next: mimetypes,  Prev: marshal,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.23 math
.............

   * The new function *note fma(): 205. performs fused multiply-add
     operations.  This computes ‘x * y + z’ with only a single round,
     and so avoids any intermediate loss of precision.  It wraps the
     ‘fma()’ function provided by C99, and follows the specification of
     the IEEE 754 “fusedMultiplyAdd” operation for special cases.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner in gh-73468(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes,  Next: mmap,  Prev: math,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.24 mimetypes
..................

   * Add the *note guess_file_type(): 207. function to guess a MIME type
     from a filesystem path.  Using paths with *note guess_type(): 208.
     is now *note soft deprecated: 209.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-66543(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543


File: python.info,  Node: mmap,  Next: multiprocessing,  Prev: mimetypes,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.25 mmap
.............

   * *note mmap: 20b. is now protected from crashing on Windows when the
     mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access
     violations.  (Contributed by Jannis Weigend in gh-118209(1).)

   * *note mmap: 20b. has a new *note seekable(): 20c. method that can
     be used when a seekable file-like object is required.  The *note
     seek(): 20d. method now returns the new absolute position.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Sylvie Liberman in gh-111835(2).)

   * The new UNIX-only 'trackfd' parameter for *note mmap: 20b. controls
     file descriptor duplication; if false, the file descriptor
     specified by 'fileno' will not be duplicated.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz and Petr Viktorin in gh-78502(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing,  Next: os,  Prev: mmap,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.26 multiprocessing
........................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c5.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: os,  Next: os path,  Prev: multiprocessing,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.27 os
...........

   * Add *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. function to get the number of
     logical CPU cores usable by the calling thread of the current
     process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).)

   * *note cpu_count(): 1c5. and *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. can be
     overridden through the new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 210. or the new command-line option *note -X
     cpu_count: 176.  This option is useful for users who need to limit
     CPU resources of a container system without having to modify
     application code or the container itself.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na in gh-109595(2).)

   * Add a *note low level interface: 153. to Linux’s ‘timer file
     descriptors(3)’ via *note timerfd_create(): 211, *note
     timerfd_settime(): 212, *note timerfd_settime_ns(): 213, *note
     timerfd_gettime(): 214, *note timerfd_gettime_ns(): 215, *note
     TFD_NONBLOCK: 216, *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 217, *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME:
     218, and *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 219. (Contributed by Masaru
     Tsuchiyama in gh-108277(4).)

   * *note lchmod(): 21a. and the 'follow_symlinks' argument of *note
     chmod(): 21b. are both now available on Windows.  Note that the
     default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘lchmod()’ is ‘False’ on
     Windows.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-59616(5).)

   * *note fchmod(): 21c. and support for file descriptors in *note
     chmod(): 21b. are both now available on Windows.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113191(6).)

   * On Windows, *note mkdir(): 21d. and *note makedirs(): 21e. now
     support passing a 'mode' value of ‘0o700’ to apply access control
     to the new directory.  This implicitly affects *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f. and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(7).
     Other values for 'mode' continue to be ignored.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in gh-118486(8).)

   * *note posix_spawn(): 220. now accepts ‘None’ for the 'env'
     argument, which makes the newly spawned process use the current
     process environment.  (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113119(9).)

   * *note posix_spawn(): 220. can now use the *note
     POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM: 221. attribute in the 'file_actions'
     parameter on platforms that support
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’.  (Contributed by
     Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: os path,  Next: pathlib,  Prev: os,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.28 os.path
................

   * Add *note isreserved(): 223. to check if a path is reserved on the
     current system.  This function is only available on Windows.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569(1).)

   * On Windows, *note isabs(): 224. no longer considers paths starting
     with exactly one slash (‘\’ or ‘/’) to be absolute.  (Contributed
     by Barney Gale and Jon Foster in gh-44626(2).)

   * *note realpath(): 225. now resolves MS-DOS style file names even if
     the file is not accessible.  (Contributed by Moonsik Park in
     gh-82367(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib,  Next: pdb,  Prev: os path,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.29 pathlib
................

   * Add *note UnsupportedOperation: 227, which is raised instead of
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. when a path operation isn’t
     supported.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-89812(1).)

   * Add a new constructor for creating *note Path: 229. objects from
     ‘file’ URIs (‘file:///’), *note Path.from_uri(): 22a.  (Contributed
     by Barney Gale in gh-107465(2).)

   * Add *note PurePath.full_match(): 22b. for matching paths with
     shell-style wildcards, including the recursive wildcard “‘**’”.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73435(3).)

   * Add the *note PurePath.parser: 22c. class attribute to store the
     implementation of *note os.path: a2. used for low-level path
     parsing and joining.  This will be either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

   * Add 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note Path.glob():
     22d. and *note rglob(): 22e.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-77609(4).)

   * *note Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e. now return files
     and directories when given a pattern that ends with “‘**’”.
     Previously, only directories were returned.  (Contributed by Barney
     Gale in gh-70303(5).)

   * Add the 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note
     Path.is_file: 22f, *note Path.is_dir: 230, *note Path.owner(): 231,
     and *note Path.group(): 232.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-105793(6) and Kamil Turek in gh-107962(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107962


File: python.info,  Node: pdb,  Next: queue,  Prev: pathlib,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.30 pdb
............

   * *note breakpoint(): 234. and *note set_trace(): 235. now enter the
     debugger immediately rather than on the next line of code to be
     executed.  This change prevents the debugger from breaking outside
     of the context when ‘breakpoint()’ is positioned at the end of the
     context.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118579(1).)

   * ‘sys.path[0]’ is no longer replaced by the directory of the script
     being debugged when *note sys.flags.safe_path: 236. is set.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao and Christian Walther in gh-111762(2).)

   * *note zipapp: 130. is now supported as a debugging target.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118501(3).)

   * Add ability to move between chained exceptions during post-mortem
     debugging in *note pm(): 237. using the new *note exceptions
     [exc_number]: 238. command for Pdb.  (Contributed by Matthias
     Bussonnier in gh-106676(4).)

   * Expressions and statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now
     correctly identified and executed.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in
     gh-108464(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118579

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111762

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118501

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106676

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108464


File: python.info,  Node: queue,  Next: random,  Prev: pdb,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.31 queue
..............

   * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 23a. and *note ShutDown: 23b. to manage
     queue termination.  (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat
     in gh-104750(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104750


File: python.info,  Node: random,  Next: re,  Prev: queue,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.32 random
...............

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 154.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-118131(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131


File: python.info,  Node: re,  Next: shutil,  Prev: random,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.33 re
...........

   * Rename ‘re.error’ to *note PatternError: 23e. for improved clarity.
     ‘re.error’ is kept for backward compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: shutil,  Next: site,  Prev: re,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.34 shutil
...............

   * Support the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments in
     *note chown(): 240.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag and Tahia K in
     gh-62308(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62308


File: python.info,  Node: site,  Next: sqlite3,  Prev: shutil,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.35 site
.............

   * ‘.pth’ files are now decoded using UTF-8 first, and then with the
     *note locale encoding: 242. if UTF-8 decoding fails.  (Contributed
     by Inada Naoki in gh-117802(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117802


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3,  Next: ssl,  Prev: site,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.36 sqlite3
................

   * A *note ResourceWarning: 244. is now emitted if a *note Connection:
     245. object is not *note closed: 246. explicitly.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in gh-105539(1).)

   * Add the 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note
     Connection.iterdump(): 247. for filtering database objects to dump.
     (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-91602(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602


File: python.info,  Node: ssl,  Next: statistics,  Prev: sqlite3,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.37 ssl
............

   * The *note create_default_context(): 155. API now includes *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157.
     in its default flags.

          참고: *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. may reject pre- RFC
          5280(1) or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL
          implementation might otherwise accept.  Whilst disabling this
          is not recommended, you can do so using:

               import ssl

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
               ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     (Contributed by William Woodruff in gh-112389(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112389


File: python.info,  Node: statistics,  Next: subprocess,  Prev: ssl,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.38 statistics
...................

   * Add *note kde(): 24a. for kernel density estimation.  This makes it
     possible to estimate a continuous probability density function from
     a fixed number of discrete samples.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-115863(1).)

   * Add *note kde_random(): 24b. for sampling from an estimated
     probability density function created by *note kde(): 24a.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess,  Next: sys,  Prev: statistics,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.39 subprocess
...................

   * The *note subprocess: d6. module now uses the *note posix_spawn():
     220. function in more situations.

     Notably, when 'close_fds' is ‘True’ (the default), *note
     posix_spawn(): 220. will be used when the C library provides
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’, which includes recent
     versions of Linux, FreeBSD, and Solaris.  On Linux, this should
     perform similarly to the existing Linux ‘vfork()’ based code.

     A private control knob ‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ can be set to
     ‘False’ if you need to force *note subprocess: d6. to never use
     *note posix_spawn(): 220.  Please report your reason and platform
     details in the *note issue tracker: 24e. if you set this so that we
     can improve our API selection logic for everyone.  (Contributed by
     Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: sys,  Next: tempfile,  Prev: subprocess,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.40 sys
............

   * Add the *note _is_interned(): 250. function to test if a string was
     interned.  This function is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-78573(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78573


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile,  Next: time,  Prev: sys,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.41 tempfile
.................

   * On Windows, the default mode ‘0o700’ used by *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f. now limits access to the new directory due
     to changes to *note os.mkdir(): 21d.  This is a mitigation for CVE
     2024-4030(1).  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: time,  Next: tkinter,  Prev: tempfile,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.42 time
.............

   * On Windows, *note monotonic(): 253. now uses the
     ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock for a resolution of 1
     microsecond, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a
     resolution of 15.6 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-88494(1).)

   * On Windows, *note time(): 254. now uses the
     ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock for a resolution of 1
     microsecond, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock which
     has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-63207(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter,  Next: traceback,  Prev: time,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.43 tkinter
................

   * Add *note tkinter: f0. widget methods: ‘tk_busy_hold()’,
     ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’, ‘tk_busy_forget()’,
     ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’.  (Contributed by
     Miguel, klappnase and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-72684(1).)

   * The *note tkinter: f0. widget method ‘wm_attributes()’ now accepts
     the attribute name without the minus prefix to get window
     attributes, for example ‘w.wm_attributes('alpha')’ and allows
     specifying attributes and values to set as keyword arguments, for
     example ‘w.wm_attributes(alpha=0.5)’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-43457(2).)

   * ‘wm_attributes()’ can now return attributes as a *note dict: 256,
     by using the new optional keyword-only parameter
     'return_python_dict'.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-43457(3).)

   * ‘Text.count()’ can now return a simple *note int: 257. when the new
     optional keyword-only parameter 'return_ints' is used.  Otherwise,
     the single count is returned as a 1-tuple or ‘None’.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-97928(4).)

   * Support the “vsapi” element type in the *note element_create():
     258. method of *note tkinter.ttk.Style: 259.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-68166(5).)

   * Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets.  (Contributed by
     Cheryl Sabella in gh-77020(6).)

   * Add a new ‘copy_replace()’ method to ‘PhotoImage’ to copy a region
     from one image to another, possibly with pixel zooming,
     subsampling, or both.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-118225(7).)

   * Add 'from_coords' parameter to the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘copy()’,
     ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and 'subsample' parameters
     to the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-118225(8).)

   * Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an image from a file
     and ‘data()’ to get the image data.  Add 'background' and
     'grayscale' parameters to the ‘write()’ method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118271(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77020

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271


File: python.info,  Node: traceback,  Next: types,  Prev: tkinter,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.44 traceback
..................

   * Add the *note exc_type_str: 25b. attribute to *note
     TracebackException: 25c, which holds a string display of the
     'exc_type'.  Deprecate the *note exc_type: 25d. attribute, which
     holds the type object itself.  Add parameter 'save_exc_type'
     (default ‘True’) to indicate whether ‘exc_type’ should be saved.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(1).)

   * Add a new 'show_group' keyword-only parameter to *note
     TracebackException.format_exception_only(): 25e. to (recursively)
     format the nested exceptions of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.
     instance.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105292(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292


File: python.info,  Node: types,  Next: typing,  Prev: traceback,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.45 types
..............

   * *note SimpleNamespace: 1d1. can now take a single positional
     argument to initialise the namespace’s arguments.  This argument
     must either be a mapping or an iterable of key-value pairs.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191


File: python.info,  Node: typing,  Next: unicodedata,  Prev: types,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.46 typing
...............

   * PEP 705(1): Add *note ReadOnly: 161, a special typing construct to
     mark a *note TypedDict: 162. item as read-only for type checkers.

   * PEP 742(2): Add *note TypeIs: 163, a typing construct that can be
     used to instruct a type checker how to narrow a type.

   * Add *note NoDefault: 262, a sentinel object used to represent the
     defaults of some parameters in the *note typing: 104. module.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-116126(3).)

   * Add *note get_protocol_members(): 263. to return the set of members
     defining a *note typing.Protocol: 264.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-104873(4).)

   * Add *note is_protocol(): 265. to check whether a class is a *note
     Protocol: 264.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873(5).)

   * *note ClassVar: 266. can now be nested in *note Final: 267, and
     vice versa.  (Contributed by Mehdi Drissi in gh-89547(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116126

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata,  Next: venv,  Prev: typing,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.47 unicodedata
....................

   * Update the Unicode database to version 15.1.0(1).  (Contributed by
     James Gerity in gh-109559(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559


File: python.info,  Node: venv,  Next: warnings,  Prev: unicodedata,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.48 venv
.............

   * Add support for creating source control management (SCM) ignore
     files in a virtual environment’s directory.  By default, Git is
     supported.  This is implemented as opt-in via the API, which can be
     extended to support other SCMs (*note EnvBuilder: 26a. and *note
     create(): 26b.), and opt-out via the CLI, using
     ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     gh-108125(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108125


File: python.info,  Node: warnings,  Next: xml,  Prev: venv,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.49 warnings
.................

   * PEP 702(1): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 160. decorator
     provides a way to communicate deprecations to a *note static type
     checker: 26d. and to warn on usage of deprecated classes and
     functions.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. may also be emitted
     when a decorated function or class is used at runtime.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104003(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003


File: python.info,  Node: xml,  Next: zipimport,  Prev: warnings,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.50 xml
............

   * Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral ( CVE
     2023-52425(1)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 26f.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 270.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          271.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          272.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

     (Contributed by Sebastian Pipping in gh-115623(2).)

   * Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by *note
     iterparse(): 273. for explicit cleanup.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-69893(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport,  Prev: xml,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.5.51 zipimport
..................

   * Add support for ZIP64(1) format files.  Everybody loves huge data,
     right?  (Contributed by Tim Hatch in gh-94146(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_(file_format)#ZIP64

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94146


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations,  Next: Removed Modules And APIs,  Prev: Improved Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Several standard library modules have had their import times
     significantly improved.  For example, the import time of the *note
     typing: 104. module has been reduced by around a third by removing
     dependencies on *note re: b9. and *note contextlib: 23.  Other
     modules to enjoy import-time speedups include *note email.utils:
     50, *note enum: 56, *note functools: 5f, *note importlib.metadata:
     7a, and *note threading: ed.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood,
     Shantanu Jain, Adam Turner, Daniel Hollas, and others in
     gh-109653(1).)

   * *note textwrap.indent(): 276. is now around 30% faster than before
     for large input.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-107369(2).)

   * The *note subprocess: d6. module now uses the *note posix_spawn():
     220. function in more situations, including when 'close_fds' is
     ‘True’ (the default) on many modern platforms.  This should provide
     a notable performance increase when launching processes on FreeBSD
     and Solaris.  See the *note subprocess: 24d. section above for
     details.  (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules And APIs,  Next: New Deprecations,  Prev: Optimizations,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.7 Removed Modules And APIs
------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 594; Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library.
* 2to3::
* builtins::
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* locale::
* opcode::
* optparse::
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re: re<2>.
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix.
* turtle::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unittest::
* urllib::
* webbrowser::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library,  Next: 2to3,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.1 PEP 594: Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library
..................................................................

PEP 594(1) proposed removing 19 modules from the standard library,
colloquially referred to as ‘dead batteries’ due to their historic,
obsolete, or insecure status.  All of the following modules were
deprecated in Python 3.11, and are now removed:

   * ‘aifc’

        * standard-aifc(2): Use the redistribution of ‘aifc’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘audioop’

        * audioop-lts(3): Use ‘audioop-lts’ library from PyPI.

   * ‘chunk’

        * standard-chunk(4): Use the redistribution of ‘chunk’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’

        * ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ can typically be replaced with *note
          urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279. for ‘GET’ and ‘HEAD’ requests,
          and the *note email.message: 44. module or the multipart(5)
          library for ‘POST’ and ‘PUT’ requests.

        * ‘cgi.parse()’ can be replaced by calling *note
          urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27a. directly on the desired query
          string, unless the input is ‘multipart/form-data’, which
          should be replaced as described below for
          ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’.

        * ‘cgi.parse_header()’ can be replaced with the functionality in
          the *note email: 3b. package, which implements the same MIME
          RFCs.  For example, with *note email.message.EmailMessage:
          27b.:

               from email.message import EmailMessage

               msg = EmailMessage()
               msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"'
               main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params

        * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ can be replaced with the functionality
          in the *note email: 3b. package, which implements the same
          MIME RFCs, or with the multipart(6) library.  For example, the
          *note email.message.EmailMessage: 27b. and *note
          email.message.Message: 27c. classes.

        * standard-cgi(7): and standard-cgitb(8): Use the redistribution
          of ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ library from PyPI.

   * ‘crypt’ and the private ‘_crypt’ extension.  The *note hashlib: 68.
     module may be an appropriate replacement when simply hashing a
     value is required.  Otherwise, various third-party libraries on
     PyPI are available:

        * bcrypt(9): Modern password hashing for your software and your
          servers.

        * passlib(10): Comprehensive password hashing framework
          supporting over 30 schemes.

        * argon2-cffi(11): The secure Argon2 password hashing algorithm.

        * legacycrypt(12): *note ctypes: 2a. wrapper to the POSIX crypt
          library call and associated functionality.

        * crypt_r(13): Fork of the ‘crypt’ module, wrapper to the
          ‘crypt_r(3)(14)’ library call and associated functionality.

        * standard-crypt(15) and deprecated-crypt-alternative(16): Use
          the redistribution of ‘crypt’ and reimplementation of ‘_crypt’
          libraries from PyPI.

   * ‘imghdr’: The filetype(17), puremagic(18), or python-magic(19)
     libraries should be used as replacements.  For example, the
     ‘puremagic.what()’ function can be used to replace the
     ‘imghdr.what()’ function for all file formats that were supported
     by ‘imghdr’.

        * standard-imghdr(20): Use the redistribution of ‘imghdr’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘mailcap’: Use the *note mimetypes: 8f. module instead.

        * standard-mailcap(21): Use the redistribution of ‘mailcap’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘msilib’

   * ‘nis’

   * ‘nntplib’: Use the pynntp(22) library from PyPI instead.

        * standard-nntplib(23): Use the redistribution of ‘nntplib’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘ossaudiodev’: For audio playback, use the pygame(24) library from
     PyPI instead.

   * ‘pipes’: Use the *note subprocess: d6. module instead.  Use *note
     shlex.quote(): 27d. to replace the undocumented ‘pipes.quote’
     function.

        * standard-pipes(25): Use the redistribution of ‘pipes’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘sndhdr’: The filetype(26), puremagic(27), or python-magic(28)
     libraries should be used as replacements.

        * standard-sndhdr(29): Use the redistribution of ‘sndhdr’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘spwd’: Use the python-pam(30) library from PyPI instead.

   * ‘sunau’

        * standard-sunau(31): Use the redistribution of ‘sunau’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘telnetlib’, Use the telnetlib3(32) or Exscript(33) libraries from
     PyPI instead.

        * standard-telnetlib(34): Use the redistribution of ‘telnetlib’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘uu’: Use the *note base64: e. module instead, as a modern
     alternative.

        * standard-uu(35): Use the redistribution of ‘uu’ library from
          PyPI.

   * ‘xdrlib’

        * standard-xdrlib(36): Use the redistribution of ‘xdrlib’
          library from PyPI.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner and Zachary Ware in gh-104773(37) and
gh-104780(38).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/standard-aifc/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/audioop-lts/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/standard-chunk/

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/

   (7) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgi/

   (8) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgitb/

   (9) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/

   (10) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/

   (11) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/

   (12) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/

   (13) https://pypi.org/project/crypt_r/

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt_r(3)

   (15) https://pypi.org/project/standard-crypt/

   (16) https://pypi.org/project/deprecated-crypt-alternative/

   (17) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (18) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (19) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (20) https://pypi.org/project/standard-imghdr/

   (21) https://pypi.org/project/standard-mailcap/

   (22) https://pypi.org/project/pynntp/

   (23) https://pypi.org/project/standard-nntplib/

   (24) https://pypi.org/project/pygame/

   (25) https://pypi.org/project/standard-pipes/

   (26) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (27) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (28) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (29) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sndhdr/

   (30) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (31) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sunau/

   (32) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/

   (33) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/

   (34) https://pypi.org/project/standard-telnetlib/

   (35) https://pypi.org/project/standard-uu/

   (36) https://pypi.org/project/standard-xdrlib/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780


File: python.info,  Node: 2to3,  Next: builtins,  Prev: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.2 2to3
............

   * Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module, previously
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-104780(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780


File: python.info,  Node: builtins,  Next: configparser<2>,  Prev: 2to3,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.3 builtins
................

   * Remove support for chained *note classmethod: 166. descriptors
     (introduced in gh-63272(1)).  These can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors, such as *note property: 194.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and led to several problems.  To
     “pass-through” a *note classmethod: 166, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Raise a *note RuntimeError: 195. when calling *note frame.clear():
     280. on a suspended frame (as has always been the case for an
     executing frame).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-79932(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63272

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<2>,  Next: importlib metadata,  Prev: builtins,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.4 configparser
....................

   * Remove the undocumented ‘LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in
     the docstring since Python 3.2, and at runtime since Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104886(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata,  Next: locale,  Prev: configparser<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.5 importlib.metadata
..........................

   * Remove deprecated subscript (*note __getitem__(): 283.) access for
     *note EntryPoint: 284. objects.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in
     gh-113175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175


File: python.info,  Node: locale,  Next: opcode,  Prev: importlib metadata,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.6 locale
..............

   * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function, deprecated in Python
     3.11.  Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104783(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783


File: python.info,  Node: opcode,  Next: optparse,  Prev: locale,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.7 opcode
..............

   * Move ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ to
     ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’.  This field was added in 3.12, it
     was never documented, and is not intended for external use.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481(1).)

   * Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo()’, ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, and
     ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which were added in Python 3.12, but
     were neither documented nor exposed through *note dis: 38, and were
     not intended to be used externally.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel
     in gh-105481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481


File: python.info,  Node: optparse,  Next: pathlib<2>,  Prev: opcode,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.8 optparse
................

   * This module is no longer considered *note soft deprecated: 209.
     While *note argparse: 6. remains preferred for new projects that
     aren’t using a third party command line argument processing
     library, there are aspects of the way ‘argparse’ works that mean
     the lower level ‘optparse’ module may provide a better foundation
     for 'writing' argument processing libraries, and for implementing
     command line applications which adhere more strictly than
     ‘argparse’ does to various Unix command line processing conventions
     that originate in the behaviour of the C ‘getopt()’ function .
     (Contributed by Alyssa Coghlan and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-126180(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126180


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<2>,  Next: re<2>,  Prev: optparse,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.9 pathlib
...............

   * Remove the ability to use *note Path: 229. objects as context
     managers.  This functionality was deprecated and has had no effect
     since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-83863(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863


File: python.info,  Node: re<2>,  Next: tkinter tix,  Prev: pathlib<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.10 re
...........

   * Remove the undocumented, deprecated, and broken ‘re.template()’
     function and ‘re.TEMPLATE’ / ‘re.T’ flag.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka and Nikita Sobolev in gh-105687(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter tix,  Next: turtle,  Prev: re<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.11 tkinter.tix
....................

   * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated in Python 3.6.  The
     third-party Tix library which the module wrapped is unmaintained.
     (Contributed by Zachary Ware in gh-75552(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552


File: python.info,  Node: turtle,  Next: typing<2>,  Prev: tkinter tix,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.12 turtle
...............

   * Remove the ‘RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ method, deprecated in the
     documentation since Python 3.1 and at runtime since Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104876(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876


File: python.info,  Node: typing<2>,  Next: unittest,  Prev: turtle,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.13 typing
...............

   * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces, deprecated since
     Python 3.8.  The items in those namespaces can be imported directly
     from the *note typing: 104. module.  (Contributed by Sebastian
     Rittau in gh-92871(1).)

   * Remove the keyword-argument method of creating *note TypedDict:
     162. types, deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Tomas Roun
     in gh-104786(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786


File: python.info,  Node: unittest,  Next: urllib,  Prev: typing<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.14 unittest
.................

   * Remove the following *note unittest: 106. functions, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28e. methods instead:

        * *note loadTestsFromModule(): 28f.

        * *note loadTestsFromTestCase(): 290.

        * *note getTestCaseNames(): 291.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104835(1).)

   * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘TestProgram.usageExit()’
     method, deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-104992(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992


File: python.info,  Node: urllib,  Next: webbrowser,  Prev: unittest,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.15 urllib
...............

   * Remove the 'cafile', 'capath', and 'cadefault' parameters of the
     *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 293. function, deprecated in Python
     3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter instead with an *note SSLContext:
     294. instance.  The *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 295.
     function can be used to load specific certificates, or let *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): 155. select the operating system’s
     trusted certificate authority (CA) certificates.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser,  Prev: urllib,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.1.7.16 webbrowser
...................

   * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in
     Python 3.11.  Use the ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class (introduced in Python
     3.2) instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104804(1).)

   * Remove the deprecated ‘MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute.  Use the
     *note MacOSXOSAScript.name: 297. attribute instead.  (Contributed
     by Nikita Sobolev in gh-105546(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105546


File: python.info,  Node: New Deprecations,  Next: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Prev: Removed Modules And APIs,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.8 New Deprecations
----------------------

   * *note User-defined functions: 299.:

        * Deprecate assignment to a function’s *note __code__: 29a.
          attribute, where the new code object’s type does not match the
          function’s type.  The different types are: plain function,
          generator, async generator, and coroutine.  (Contributed by
          Irit Katriel in gh-81137(1).)

   * *note array: 7.:

        * Deprecate the ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) at runtime.  This
          format code has been deprecated in documentation since Python
          3.3, and will be removed in Python 3.16.  Use the ‘'w'’ format
          code (*note Py_UCS4: 29b.) for Unicode characters instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-80480(2).)

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘SetPointerType()’ function, to be
          removed in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
          gh-105733(3).)

        * *note Soft-deprecate: 209. the *note ARRAY(): 29c. function in
          favour of ‘type * length’ multiplication.  (Contributed by
          Victor Stinner in gh-105733(4).)

   * *note decimal: 36.:

        * Deprecate the non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal:
          29d. format specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the
          ‘decimal’ module’s C implementation.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-89902(5).)

   * *note dis: 38.:

        * Deprecate the ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ separator.  Check membership in
          *note hasarg: 29e. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
          gh-109319(6).)

   * *note gettext: 63.:

        * Deprecate non-integer numbers as arguments to functions and
          methods that consider plural forms in the ‘gettext’ module,
          even if no translation was found.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-88434(7).)

   * *note glob: 64.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘glob0()’ and ‘glob1()’ functions.
          Use *note glob(): 29f. and pass a *note path-like object: 2a0.
          specifying the root directory to the 'root_dir' parameter
          instead.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-117337(8).)

   * *note http.server: 72.:

        * Deprecate *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1, to be removed in
          Python 3.15.  Process-based CGI HTTP servers have been out of
          favor for a very long time.  This code was outdated,
          unmaintained, and rarely used.  It has a high potential for
          both security and functionality bugs.  (Contributed by Gregory
          P. Smith in gh-109096(9).)

        * Deprecate the ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’
          command-line interface, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096(10).)

   * *note mimetypes: 8f.:

        * *note Soft-deprecate: 209. file path arguments to *note
          guess_type(): 208, use *note guess_file_type(): 207. instead.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543(11).)

   * *note re: b9.:

        * Deprecate passing the optional 'maxsplit', 'count', or 'flags'
          arguments as positional arguments to the module-level *note
          split(): 2a2, *note sub(): 2a3, and *note subn(): 2a4.
          functions.  These parameters will become *note keyword-only:
          2a5. in a future version of Python.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-56166(12).)

   * *note pathlib: a4.:

        * Deprecate *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a6, to be removed in
          Python 3.15.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 223. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
          gh-88569(13).)

   * *note platform: aa.:

        * Deprecate *note java_ver(): 2a7, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.  (Contributed by
          Nikita Sobolev in gh-116349(14).)

   * *note pydoc: b5.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘ispackage()’ function.
          (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-64020(15).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf.:

        * Deprecate passing more than one positional argument to the
          *note connect(): 2a8. function and the *note Connection: 245.
          constructor.  The remaining parameters will become
          keyword-only in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-107948(16).)

        * Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the callable
          as keyword arguments for *note Connection.create_function():
          2a9. and *note Connection.create_aggregate(): 2aa. These
          parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278(17).)

        * Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword for the
          *note set_authorizer(): 2ab, *note set_progress_handler():
          2ac, and *note set_trace_callback(): 2ad. *note Connection:
          245. methods.  The callback callables will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-108278(18).)

   * *note sys: d9.:

        * Deprecate the *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ae.
          function, to be removed in Python 3.16.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. environment variable
          instead.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-73427(19).)

   * *note tarfile: de.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’
          attribute, to be removed in Python 3.16.  (Contributed in
          gh-115256(20).)

   * *note traceback: fe.:

        * Deprecate the *note TracebackException.exc_type: 25d.
          attribute.  Use *note TracebackException.exc_type_str: 25b.
          instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(21).)

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented keyword argument syntax for
          creating *note NamedTuple: 2b0. classes (e.g.  ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’), to be removed in Python
          3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax
          instead.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566(22).)

        * Deprecate omitting the 'fields' parameter when creating a
          *note NamedTuple: 2b0. or *note typing.TypedDict: 162. class,
          and deprecate passing ‘None’ to the 'fields' parameter of both
          types.  Python 3.15 will require a valid sequence for the
          'fields' parameter.  To create a NamedTuple class with zero
          fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT =
          NamedTuple("NT", ())’.  To create a TypedDict class with zero
          fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD", {})’.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in
          gh-105566(23) and gh-105570(24).)

        * Deprecate the *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b1.
          decorator function, to be removed in Python 3.15.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.  (Contributed by Alex
          Waygood in gh-106309(25).)

        * Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 2b2.  In Python 3.16, it will
          be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and a *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a5. will be emitted at runtime when it is
          imported or accessed.  It will be removed entirely in Python
          3.18.  Use the new *note type parameter syntax: 2b3. instead.
          (Contributed by Michael The in gh-107116(26).)

   * *note wave: 113.:

        * Deprecate the *note getmark(): 2b4, ‘setmark()’, and *note
          getmarkers(): 2b5. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b6. and
          *note Wave_write: 2b7. classes, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105096(27).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64020

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107948

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107116

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
......................................

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b9. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2ba,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 2bb, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bd. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2be, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bf, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c0. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2c1. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c2. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c3.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c4.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     2c4.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c5.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 78. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(8).)

   * *note itertools: 81. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 94.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 2c7. or *note set_start_method(): 2c8. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

   * *note pathlib: a4.: *note is_relative_to(): 2ca. and *note
     relative_to(): 2cb.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note find_loader(): 2cc. and *note
     get_loader(): 2cd. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).)

   * *note pty: b1.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cf.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cf.

   * *note sqlite3: cf.:

        * *note version: 2d0. and *note version_info: 2d1.

        * *note execute(): 2d2. and *note executemany(): 2d3. if *note
          named placeholders: 2d4. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 256.

   * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 2d5, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __cached__: 2d7. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.cached: 2d8. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 2d9. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 2da. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 72.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1.
          has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement
          exists.  'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web
          server with a request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 77.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 86.:

        * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2db. function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.11.  Its removal was originally
          planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed
          to Python 3.15.  Use *note getlocale(): 2dc, *note
          setlocale(): 2dd, and *note getencoding(): 2de. instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).)

   * *note pathlib: a4.:

        * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a6. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 223. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: aa.:

        * *note java_ver(): 2a7. has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: db.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2df. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ed.:

        * *note RLock(): 2e0. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 103.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e2.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2b0. classes (e.g.  ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
          x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use
          the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 162.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b1. decorator
          function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.

   * *note wave: 113.:

        * The *note getmark(): 2b4, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers():
          2b5. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b6. and *note
          Wave_write: 2b7. classes have been deprecated since Python
          3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2e4. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 2e5. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29b.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16, use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note shutil: c5.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 195.

   * *note symtable: d8.:

        * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e7. method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: d9.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ae. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note tarfile: de.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Up: New Deprecations

1.1.8.4 Pending Removal in Future Versions
..........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          2e9, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ea, *note if: 2eb, *note in:
          2ec, *note is: 2ed. and *note or: 2ee.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 257.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 2ef.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 2ef.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 2f0.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 2f0.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 2f0. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2f1. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f2.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2e2.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 2f3. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 2f4.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 63.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 77.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 2f6. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7a.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 87.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f7. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8b.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a1.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f8. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b9.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(4).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c5.: *note rmtree(): 2f9.’s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d0. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 294.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2fa.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ed. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          2fb.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2fc.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2fd.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 2fe. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 2ff.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 300. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 301.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          302.

   * *note typing.Text: 303. (gh-92332(5)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     305. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 306. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 307. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 293. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 308. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 309. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 30a. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Next: C API Changes,  Prev: New Deprecations,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.9 CPython Bytecode Changes
------------------------------

   * The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 30c. is now ‘1’ if the yield is
     part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise.  The oparg of
     *note RESUME: 30d. was changed to add a bit indicating if the
     except-depth is 1, which is needed to optimize closing of
     generators.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111354(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes,  Next: Build Changes,  Prev: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.10 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Changed C APIs::
* Limited C API Changes::
* Removed C APIs::
* Deprecated C APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<2>,  Next: Changed C APIs,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.10.1 New Features
.....................

   * Add the *note PyMonitoring C API: 15c. for generating PEP 669(1)
     monitoring events:

        * *note PyMonitoringState: 310.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent(): 311.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent(): 312.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent(): 313.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent(): 314.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent(): 315.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent(): 316.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent(): 317.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent(): 318.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent(): 319.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent(): 31a.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent(): 31b.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent(): 31c.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent(): 31d.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent(): 31e.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent(): 31f.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(): 320.

        * *note PyMonitoring_EnterScope(): 321.

        * *note PyMonitoring_ExitScope(): 322.

     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111997(2)).

   * Add *note PyMutex: 15b, a lightweight mutex that occupies a single
     byte, and the new *note PyMutex_Lock(): 323. and *note
     PyMutex_Unlock(): 324. functions.  ‘PyMutex_Lock()’ will release
     the *note GIL: 159. (if currently held) if the operation needs to
     block.  (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-108724(3).)

   * Add the *note PyTime C API: 325. to provide access to system
     clocks:

        * *note PyTime_t: 326.

        * *note PyTime_MIN: 327. and *note PyTime_MAX: 328.

        * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 329.

        * *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 32a.

        * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 32b.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32c.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32d.

        * *note PyTime_Time(): 32e.

        * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 32f.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Petr Viktorin in gh-110850(4).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 330. function with the same
     behavior as *note PyDict_Contains(): 331, but 'key' is specified as
     a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 332.*.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108314(5).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333. and *note
     PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 334. functions, which behave similarly
     to *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 335, but return a *note strong
     reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337.
     Moreover, these functions return ‘-1’ on error, removing the need
     to check ‘PyErr_Occurred()’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-106004(6).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 338. function, which behaves
     similarly to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 339, but returns a *note
     strong reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337.
     This function returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ on insertion, and ‘1’ if
     the key was already present in the dictionary.  (Contributed by Sam
     Gross in gh-112066(7).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_Pop(): 33a. and *note PyDict_PopString(): 33b.
     functions to remove a key from a dictionary and optionally return
     the removed value.  This is similar to *note dict.pop(): 33c,
     though there is no default value, and *note KeyError: 33d. is not
     raised for missing keys.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Victor
     Stinner in gh-111262(8).)

   * Add the *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33e. and *note
     PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 33f. functions as alternatives
     to *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340. and *note
     PyMapping_GetItemString(): 341. respectively.  The new functions do
     not raise *note KeyError: 33d. if the requested key is missing from
     the mapping.  These variants are more convenient and faster if a
     missing key should not be treated as a failure.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106307(9).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 342. and *note
     PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 343. functions as alternatives to
     *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344. and *note PyObject_GetAttrString():
     345. respectively.  The new functions do not raise *note
     AttributeError: 346. if the requested attribute is not found on the
     object.  These variants are more convenient and faster if the
     missing attribute should not be treated as a failure.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106521(10).)

   * Add the *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 347. function as an
     extension to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348. that allows
     customizing the warning message.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in gh-108082(11).)

   * Add new functions that return a *note strong reference: 336.
     instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337. for frame locals,
     globals, and builtins, as part of *note PEP 667: 142.:

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 349. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 34a.

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 34b. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetGlobals(): 34c.

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34d. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929(12).)

   * Add the *note Py_GetConstant(): 34f. and *note
     Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 350. functions to get *note strong: 336.
     or *note borrowed: 337. references to constants.  For example,
     ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a strong reference to
     the constant zero.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-115754(13).)

   * Add the *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 351. function as a
     replacement for *note PyImport_AddModule(): 352. that returns a
     *note strong reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference:
     337.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105922(14).)

   * Add the *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 353. function to check whether the
     main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14e.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-108014(15).)

   * Add the *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 354. function as a replacement
     for *note PyList_GetItem(): 355. that returns a *note strong
     reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337.
     (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-114329(16).)

   * Add the *note PyList_Extend(): 356. and *note PyList_Clear(): 357.
     functions, mirroring the Python ‘list.extend()’ and ‘list.clear()’
     methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111138(17).)

   * Add the *note PyLong_AsInt(): 358. function.  It behaves similarly
     to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 359, but stores the result in a C int
     instead of a C long.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108014(18).)

   * Add the *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35a, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 35b, and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 35c. functions to simplify
     converting between native integer types and Python *note int: 257.
     objects.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-111140(19).)

   * Add *note PyModule_Add(): 35d. function, which is similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e. and *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35f,
     but always steals a reference to the value.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-86493(20).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 360. function that implements
     the default hashing function of a Python object.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113024(21).)

   * Add the *note Py_HashPointer(): 361. function to hash a raw
     pointer.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111545(22).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 362. and *note
     PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 363. functions.  which must be called
     by the traverse and clear functions of a type using the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. flag.  The pythoncapi-compat
     project(23) can be used to use these functions with Python 3.11 and
     3.12.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107073(24).)

   * Add the *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 365. and *note
     PyRefTracer_GetTracer(): 366. functions, which enable tracking
     object creation and destruction in the same way that the *note
     tracemalloc: ff. module does.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-93502(25).)

   * Add the *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 367. function as an alternative
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 368. that takes event arguments as a Python
     *note tuple: 369. object.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-85283(26).)

   * Add the *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36a. function as an
     alternative to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36b. that doesn’t kill
     the process with a fatal error if it is ‘NULL’.  The caller is
     responsible for checking if the result is ‘NULL’.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-108867(27).)

   * Add the *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36c. function to get
     the type’s fully qualified name.  The module name is prepended if
     *note type.__module__: 36d. is a string and is not equal to either
     ‘'builtins'’ or ‘'__main__'’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-111696(28).)

   * Add the *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 36e. function to get the
     type’s module name.  This is equivalent to getting the *note
     type.__module__: 36d. attribute.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and
     Victor Stinner in gh-111696(29).)

   * Add the *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36f. and *note
     PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 370. functions to compare a Unicode object
     with a const char* UTF-8 encoded string and ‘1’ if they are equal
     or ‘0’ otherwise.  These functions do not raise exceptions.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110289(30).)

   * Add the *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. function as an alternative
     to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. that returns a *note strong
     reference: 336. or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(31).)

   * Add fixed variants of functions which silently ignore errors:

        * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 373. replaces *note
          PyObject_HasAttr(): 374.

        * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 375. replaces *note
          PyObject_HasAttrString(): 376.

        * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 377. replaces *note
          PyMapping_HasKey(): 378.

        * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 379. replaces *note
          PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37a.

     The new functions return ‘-1’ for errors and the standard ‘1’ for
     true and ‘0’ for false.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108511(32).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511


File: python.info,  Node: Changed C APIs,  Next: Limited C API Changes,  Prev: New Features<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.10.2 Changed C APIs
.......................

   * The 'keywords' parameter of *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords():
     37c. and *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37d. now has type
     char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**.
     In C++, this makes these functions compatible with arguments of
     type const char *const*, const char**, or char *const* without an
     explicit type cast.  In C, the functions only support arguments of
     type char *const*.  This can be overridden with the *note
     PY_CXX_CONST: 37e. macro.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-65210(1).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. now supports non-ASCII
     keyword parameter names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-110815(2).)

   * The ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ function is now unstable API and is now
     named *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 37f.  (Contributed by
     Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(3).)

   * The *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380, *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 381,
     *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 378, *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37a,
     *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 374, *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 376,
     and *note PySys_GetObject(): 382. functions, each of which clears
     all errors which occurred when calling them now reports these
     errors using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.  You may replace them
     with other functions as recommended in the documentation.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106672(4).)

   * Add support for the ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and ‘%#N’ formats to *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.:

        * ‘%T’: Get the fully qualified name of an object type

        * ‘%#T’: As above, but use a colon as the separator

        * ‘%N’: Get the fully qualified name of a type

        * ‘%#N’: As above, but use a colon as the separator

     See PEP 737(5) for more information.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-111696(6).)

   * You no longer have to define the ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro before
     including ‘Python.h’ when using ‘#’ formats in *note format codes:
     384.  APIs accepting the format codes always use ‘Py_ssize_t’ for
     ‘#’ formats.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-104922(7).)

   * If Python is built in *note debug mode: 1f9. or *note with
     assertions: 385, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 386. and *note
     PyList_SET_ITEM(): 387. now check the index argument with an
     assertion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106168(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API Changes,  Next: Removed C APIs,  Prev: Changed C APIs,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.10.3 Limited C API Changes
..............................

   * The following functions are now included in the Limited C API:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38c.

        * *note PySys_Audit(): 368.

        * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 367.

        * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(1), gh-85283(2), and
     gh-116936(3).)

   * Python built with *note -with-trace-refs: 38e. (tracing references)
     now supports the *note Limited API: 38f.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-108634(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634


File: python.info,  Node: Removed C APIs,  Next: Deprecated C APIs,  Prev: Limited C API Changes,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.10.4 Removed C APIs
.......................

   * Remove several functions, macros, variables, etc with names
     prefixed by ‘_Py’ or ‘_PY’ (which are considered private).  If your
     project is affected by one of these removals and you believe that
     the removed API should remain available, please *note open a new
     issue: 24e. to request a public C API and add ‘cc: @vstinner’ to
     the issue to notify Victor Stinner.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in gh-106320(1).)

   * Remove old buffer protocols deprecated in Python 3.0.  Use *note
     버퍼 프로토콜: 391. instead.

        * ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’: Use *note
          PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 392. to test whether the object
          supports the buffer protocol.  Note that *note
          PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 392. doesn’t guarantee that *note
          PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. will succeed.  To test if the
          object is actually readable, see the next example of *note
          PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.

        * ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’: Use
          *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. and *note PyBuffer_Release():
          394. instead:

               Py_buffer view;
               if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_SIMPLE) < 0) {
                   return NULL;
               }
               // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to read from the buffer.
               // You may need to cast buf as `(const char*)view.buf`.
               PyBuffer_Release(&view);

        * ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’: Use *note PyObject_GetBuffer():
          393. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394. instead:

               Py_buffer view;
               if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_WRITABLE) < 0) {
                   return NULL;
               }
               // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to write to the buffer.
               PyBuffer_Release(&view);

     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-85275(2).)

   * Remove various functions deprecated in Python 3.9:

        * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: Use
          *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 395. or *note PyObject_Call():
          396. instead.

               경고: In *note PyObject_Call(): 396, positional arguments
               must be a *note tuple: 369. and must not be ‘NULL’, and
               keyword arguments must be a *note dict: 256. or ‘NULL’,
               whereas the removed functions checked argument types and
               accepted ‘NULL’ positional and keyword arguments.  To
               replace ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(func, NULL,
               kwargs)’ with *note PyObject_Call(): 396, pass an empty
               tuple as positional arguments using *note PyTuple_New(0):
               397.

        * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: Use *note PyObject_CallFunction():
          398. instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: Use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399.
          instead.

        * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: Use *note PyObject_Call(): 396. instead.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105107(3).)

   * Remove the following old functions to configure the Python
     initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’: Use *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 39a. instead.

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 39a.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 39b.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 39b.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths:
          39c. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’: Set *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 39d. instead, and set also maybe
          *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e. (on Windows).

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.executable:
          39f. instead.

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 3a0. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1. instead ( PEP 587(4)), added to
     Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(5).)

   * Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.2.  They didn’t update the current thread
     state.  They can be replaced with:

        * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2. and *note
          PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3.;

        * low-level *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a4. and *note
          PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3.;

        * or *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5. and *note
          PyGILState_Release(): 3a6.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(6).)

   * Remove the ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.9.  Since Python 3.7, ‘Py_Initialize()’ always creates the
     GIL: calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ does nothing and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ always returns non-zero.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(7).)

   * Remove the ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a7. which was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.8.  The pythoncapi-compat project(8)
     can be used to get *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a7. on Python
     3.8 and older.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320(9).)

   * Remove the private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use
     ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP
     590(10)).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106023(11).)

   * Remove the ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file, which only contained
     private functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-106316(12).)

   * Remove the undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from the limited
     C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-110014(13).)

   * Remove the old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.  Replace both with the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-105111(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (8) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated C APIs,  Prev: Removed C APIs,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.10.5 Deprecated C APIs
..........................

   * Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3aa. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix:
          3ac. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.path: 3ae. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af.: Get *note sys.prefix: 3b0.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b5.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable instead.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(1).)

   * *note Soft deprecate: 209. the *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 34a,
     *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 34c, and *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e.
     functions, which return a *note borrowed reference: 337.  (Soft
     deprecated as part of PEP 667(2).)

   * Deprecate the *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7. function,
     which is just an alias to *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. since
     Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105396(3).)

   * *note Soft deprecate: 209. the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35f.
     function.  It should be replaced with *note PyModule_Add(): 35d. or
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-86493(4).)

   * Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ types and the
     ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ define.  Use the ‘wchar_t’ type directly instead.
     Since Python 3.3, ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just
     aliases to ‘wchar_t’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-105156(5).)

   * Deprecate the *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. and *note
     PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b9. functions, which return a *note
     borrowed reference: 337.  Replace them with the new *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. function, which returns a *note strong
     reference: 336.  The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to
     get *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. on Python 3.12 and older.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(7).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.6 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bb. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3bc. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b5. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c0.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3c1. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c2.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c3.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c4.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c5.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c6.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c7. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c8.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c9.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3ca.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cb. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3cc.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3cd. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cf. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d0.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d1. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d4.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d5. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d6.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d7. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d8.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d9. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3da.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3db. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3dc. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3dd.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3de.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3df.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e1.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e3. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.7 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     3b9.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3aa. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab.: Get *note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e8. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ac.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.path: 3ae. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3e9.
          and *note sys.prefix: 3b0. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b5.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.8 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs

1.1.10.9 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ec.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     3ee. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3ef.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f0.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     3f1. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f2.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f3. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f4.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f5. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f6.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     3f7. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fb.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fe.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3ff. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 400.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 401. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 402.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 403. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 404.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 405. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 406.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 407. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 408.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes,  Next: Porting to Python 3 13,  Prev: C API Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.11 Build Changes
--------------------

   * ‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ are both now PEP
     11(1) tier 3 platforms.  (*note PEP 730: 165. written and
     implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(2).)

   * ‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ are both now PEP
     11(3) tier 3 platforms.  (*note PEP 738: 165. written and
     implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622(4).)

   * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now a PEP 11(5) tier 2 platform.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-115192(6).)

   * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer a PEP 11(7) supported platform.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192(8).)

   * Building CPython now requires a compiler with support for the C11
     atomic library, GCC built-in atomic functions, or MSVC interlocked
     intrinsics.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are now required to regenerate the
     ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-89886(9) and by Victor Stinner in gh-112090(10).)

   * SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the *note sqlite3: cf.
     extension module.  (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in
     gh-105875(11).)

   * CPython now bundles the mimalloc library(12) by default.  It is
     licensed under the MIT license; see *note mimalloc license: 40b.
     The bundled mimalloc has custom changes, see gh-113141(13) for
     details.  (Contributed by Dino Viehland in gh-109914(14).)

   * The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec: 40c. now
     defaults to ‘yes’.  The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’ will be removed
     in Python 3.16.

   * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs: 38e. (tracing
     references) is now ABI compatible with the Python release build and
     *note debug build: 1f9.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108634(15).)

   * On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames now include the
     ABI flags.  For example, the free-threaded build generates
     ‘python-3.13t.pc’ and the debug build generates ‘python-3.13d.pc’.

   * The ‘errno’, ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘md5’, ‘pwd’, ‘resource’, ‘termios’,
     ‘winsound’, ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’,
     ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’, ‘_statistics’, ‘_testconsole’,
     ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with
     the *note limited C API: 38f.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-85283(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112090

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875

   (12) https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113141

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109914

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 13,  Next: Regression Test Changes,  Prev: Build Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.12 Porting to Python 3.13
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API::
* Changes in the C API::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API,  Next: Changes in the C API,  Up: Porting to Python 3 13

1.1.12.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * *note PEP 667: 142. introduces several changes to the semantics of
     *note locals(): 141. and *note f_locals: 182.:

        * Calling *note locals(): 141. in an *note optimized scope: 17e.
          now produces an independent snapshot on each call, and hence
          no longer implicitly updates previously returned references.
          Obtaining the legacy CPython behavior now requires explicit
          calls to update the initially returned dictionary with the
          results of subsequent calls to ‘locals()’.  Code execution
          functions that implicitly target ‘locals()’ (such as ‘exec’
          and ‘eval’) must be passed an explicit namespace to access
          their results in an optimized scope.  (Changed as part of PEP
          667(1).)

        * Calling *note locals(): 141. from a comprehension at module or
          class scope (including via ‘exec’ or ‘eval’) once more behaves
          as if the comprehension were running as an independent nested
          function (i.e.  the local variables from the containing scope
          are not included).  In Python 3.12, this had changed to
          include the local variables from the containing scope when
          implementing PEP 709(2).  (Changed as part of PEP 667(3).)

        * Accessing *note FrameType.f_locals: 182. in an *note optimized
          scope: 17e. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a
          snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times.  If a
          snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly with ‘dict’
          or the proxy’s ‘.copy()’ method.  (Changed as part of PEP
          667(4).)

   * *note functools.partial: 40e. now emits a *note FutureWarning: 40f.
     when used as a method.  The behavior will change in future Python
     versions.  Wrap it in *note staticmethod(): 410. if you want to
     preserve the old behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-121027(5).)

   * An *note OSError: 411. is now raised by *note getpass.getuser():
     412. for any failure to retrieve a username, instead of *note
     ImportError: 413. on non-Unix platforms or *note KeyError: 33d. on
     Unix platforms where the password database is empty.

   * The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 414. is
     now a string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’) instead of an integer (‘1’ or ‘2’).
     The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object
     returned by *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 415. is now ‘'rb'’
     instead of ‘'r'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-115961(6).)

   * *note mailbox.Maildir: 416. now ignores files with a leading dot
     (‘.’).  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-65559(7).)

   * *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e. now return
     both files and directories if a pattern that ends with “‘**’” is
     given, rather than directories only.  Add a trailing slash to keep
     the previous behavior and only match directories.

   * The *note threading: ed. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter()’ function.  This function takes no
     arguments and returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the main
     interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     must provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’, just like the module’s other
     “private” attributes.  (gh-112826(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65559

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API,  Prev: Changes in the Python API,  Up: Porting to Python 3 13

1.1.12.2 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ieeefp.h>’ standard header.  It
     was included for the ‘finite()’ function which is now provided by
     the ‘<math.h>’ header.  It should now be included explicitly if
     needed.  Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-108765(1).)

   * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header files:
     ‘<time.h>’, ‘<sys/select.h>’ and ‘<sys/time.h>’.  If needed, they
     should now be included explicitly.  For example, ‘<time.h>’
     provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘<sys/select.h>’
     provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘<sys/time.h>’ provides the
     ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765(2).)

   * On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<stddef.h>’ standard
     header file.  If needed, it should now be included explicitly.  For
     example, it provides ‘offsetof()’ function, and ‘size_t’ and
     ‘ptrdiff_t’ types.  Including ‘<stddef.h>’ explicitly was already
     needed by all other platforms, the ‘HAVE_STDDEF_H’ macro is only
     defined on Windows.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108765(3).)

   * If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 418. macro is defined,
     ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     macros are now undefined by ‘<Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-85283(4).)

   * The old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’ were removed.  They should be replaced by
     the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A ‘tp_dealloc’ function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.  The new macros were added in
     Python 3.8 and the old macros were deprecated in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111(5).)

   * *note PEP 667: 142. introduces several changes to frame-related
     functions:

        * The effects of mutating the dictionary returned from *note
          PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e. in an *note optimized scope: 17e.
          have changed.  New dict entries added this way will now 'only'
          be visible to subsequent *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e. calls
          in that frame, as *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419, *note
          locals(): 141, and *note FrameType.f_locals: 182. no longer
          access the same underlying cached dictionary.  Changes made to
          entries for actual variable names and names added via the
          write-through proxy interfaces will be overwritten on
          subsequent calls to *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e. in that
          frame.  The recommended code update depends on how the
          function was being used, so refer to the deprecation notice on
          the function for details.

        * Calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419. in an *note optimized
          scope: 17e. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a
          snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times.  If a
          snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly (e.g.  with
          *note PyDict_Copy(): 41a.), or by calling the new *note
          PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34d. API.

        * ‘PyFrame_FastToLocals()’ and ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’
          no longer have any effect.  Calling these functions has been
          redundant since Python 3.11, when *note PyFrame_GetLocals():
          419. was first introduced.

        * ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ no longer has any effect.  Calling
          this function is redundant now that *note PyFrame_GetLocals():
          419. returns a write-through proxy for *note optimized scopes:
          17e.

   * Python 3.13 removed many private functions.  Some of them can be
     replaced using these alternatives:

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: *note PyDict_Pop(): 33a. or *note
          PyDict_PopString(): 33b.;

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemWithError()’: *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333.;

        * ‘_PyErr_WriteUnraisableMsg()’: *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable():
          347.;

        * ‘_PyEval_SetTrace()’: *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b. or *note
          PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41c.;

        * ‘_PyList_Extend()’: *note PyList_Extend(): 356.;

        * ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’: *note PyLong_AsInt(): 358.;

        * ‘_PyMem_RawStrdup()’: ‘strdup()’;

        * ‘_PyMem_Strdup()’: ‘strdup()’;

        * ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’: *note
          PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 363.;

        * ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’: *note
          PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 362.;

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36a.;

        * ‘_PyTime_AsSecondsDouble()’: *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble():
          329.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetMonotonicClock()’: *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 32a.
          or *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 32b.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetPerfCounter()’: *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32c.
          or *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32d.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetSystemClock()’: *note PyTime_Time(): 32e. or *note
          PyTime_TimeRaw(): 32f.;

        * ‘_PyTime_MAX’: *note PyTime_MAX: 328.;

        * ‘_PyTime_MIN’: *note PyTime_MIN: 327.;

        * ‘_PyTime_t’: *note PyTime_t: 326.;

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: *note Py_HashPointer(): 361.;

        * ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’: *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 353.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to get most of these
     new functions on Python 3.12 and older.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Regression Test Changes,  Next: Notable changes in 3 13 1,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 13,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.13 Regression Test Changes
------------------------------

   * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-pydebug: 41e. now
     supports a *note -X presite=package.module: 176. command-line
     option.  If used, it specifies a module that should be imported
     early in the lifecycle of the interpreter, before ‘site.py’ is
     executed.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-110769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110769


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 13 1,  Next: Notable changes in 3 13 4,  Prev: Regression Test Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.14 Notable changes in 3.13.1
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* sys: sys<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: sys<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 13 1

1.1.14.1 sys
............

   * The previously undocumented special function *note
     sys.getobjects(): 421, which only exists in specialized builds of
     Python, may now return objects from other interpreters than the one
     it’s called in.


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 13 4,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 13 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.1.15 Notable changes in 3.13.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* os.path: os path<2>.
* tarfile::


File: python.info,  Node: os path<2>,  Next: tarfile,  Up: Notable changes in 3 13 4

1.1.15.1 os.path
................

   * The 'strict' parameter to *note os.path.realpath(): 225. accepts a
     new value, *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 424.  If used, errors other
     than *note FileNotFoundError: 425. will be re-raised; the resulting
     path can be missing but it will be free of symlinks.  (Contributed
     by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4517(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile,  Prev: os path<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 13 4

1.1.15.2 tarfile
................

   * *note data_filter(): 427. now normalizes symbolic link targets in
     order to avoid path traversal attacks.Add commentMore actions
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(1) and CVE
     2025-4138(2).)

   * *note extractall(): 428. now skips fixing up directory attributes
     when a directory was removed or replaced by another kind of file.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(3) and CVE
     2024-12718(4).)

   * *note extract(): 429. and *note extractall(): 428. now (re-)apply
     the extraction filter when substituting a link (hard or symbolic)
     with a copy of another archive member, and when fixing up directory
     attributes.  The former raises a new exception, *note
     LinkFallbackError: 42a.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE
     2025-4330(5) and CVE 2024-12718(6).)

   * *note extract(): 429. and *note extractall(): 428. no longer
     extract rejected members when *note errorlevel(): 42b. is zero.
     (Contributed by Matt Prodani and Petr Viktorin in gh-112887(7) and
     CVE 2025-4435(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112887

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4435


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 13,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.2 What’s New In Python 3.12
=============================


Editor: Adam Turner

This article explains the new features in Python 3.12, compared to 3.11.
Python 3.12 was released on October 2, 2023.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

더 보기
.......

PEP 693(1) – Python 3.12 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights::
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>.
* New Modules: New Modules<2>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* CPython bytecode changes::
* Demos and Tools::
* Deprecated::
* Removed::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<2>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights,  Next: New Features<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with
a mix of changes to the language and the standard library.  The library
changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and
correctness.  Of note, the ‘distutils’ package has been removed from the
standard library.  Filesystem support in *note os: a1. and *note
pathlib: a4. has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have
better performance.

The language changes focus on usability, as *note f-strings: 42f. have
had many limitations removed and ‘Did you mean …’ suggestions continue
to improve.  The new *note type parameter syntax: 430. and *note type:
431. statement improve ergonomics for using *note generic types: 432.
and *note type aliases: 433. with static type checkers.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the *note
Library Reference: 144. and *note Language Reference: 145.  If you want
to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that
PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

__________________________________________________________________

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 695: 430, type parameter syntax and the *note type: 431.
     statement

New grammar features:

   * *note PEP 701: 434, *note f-strings: 42f. in the grammar

Interpreter improvements:

   * *note PEP 684: 435, a unique per-interpreter *note GIL: 148.

   * *note PEP 669: 436, low impact monitoring

   * *note Improved 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions: 437.for *note
     NameError: 438, *note ImportError: 413, and *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     exceptions

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 688: 439, using the *note buffer protocol: 391. from
     Python

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note pathlib.Path: 229. class now supports subclassing

   * The *note os: a1. module received several improvements for Windows
     support

   * A *note command-line interface: 43a. has been added to the *note
     sqlite3: cf. module

   * *note isinstance(): 43b. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 43c. enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times

   * The *note asyncio: a. package has had a number of performance
     improvements, with some benchmarks showing a 75% speed up.

   * A *note command-line interface: 43d. has been added to the *note
     uuid: 110. module

   * Due to the changes in *note PEP 701: 434, producing tokens via the
     *note tokenize: fb. module is up to 64% faster.

Security improvements:

   * Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 68. implementations of SHA1,
     SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from
     the HACL*(1) project.  These builtin implementations remain as
     fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 697: 43e, unstable C API tier

   * *note PEP 683: 43f, immortal objects

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note PEP 709: 440, comprehension inlining

   * *note CPython support: 18f. for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler

   * Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms

New typing features:

   * *note PEP 692: 441, using *note TypedDict: 162. to annotate *note
     **kwargs: 442.

   * *note PEP 698: 443, *note typing.override(): 444. decorator

Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:

   * PEP 623(2): Remove ‘wstr’ from Unicode objects in Python’s C API,
     reducing the size of every *note str: 445. object by at least 8
     bytes.

   * PEP 632(3): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  See the migration
     guide(4) for advice replacing the APIs it provided.  The
     third-party Setuptools(5) package continues to provide ‘distutils’,
     if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond.

   * gh-95299(6): Do not pre-install ‘setuptools’ in virtual
     environments created with *note venv: 111.  This means that
     ‘distutils’, ‘setuptools’, ‘pkg_resources’, and ‘easy_install’ will
     no longer available by default; to access these run ‘pip install
     setuptools’ in the *note activated: 446. virtual environment.

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’, and ‘imp’ modules have been removed,
     along with several *note unittest.TestCase: 447. *note method
     aliases: 448..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (5) 
https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<3>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Next: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.1 PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax
......................................

Generic classes and functions under PEP 484(1) were declared using a
verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and
required explicit declarations of variance.

PEP 695(2) introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create
*note generic classes: 44b. and *note functions: 44c.:

     def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class list[T]:
         def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
             ...

         def append(self, element: T) -> None:
             ...

In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare *note type aliases:
44d. using the *note type: 431. statement, which creates an instance of
*note TypeAliasType: 44e.:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

Type aliases can also be *note generic: 44f.:

     type Point[T] = tuple[T, T]

The new syntax allows declaring *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. and *note
ParamSpec: 15e. parameters, as well as *note TypeVar: 15d. parameters
with bounds or constraints:

     type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]  # ParamSpec
     type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts]  # TypeVarTuple
     type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with bound
     type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with constraints

The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type
variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see
*note lazy evaluation: 450.).  This means type aliases are able to refer
to other types defined later in the file.

Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible
within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in
the outer scope.  For example, they can be used in the type annotations
for the methods of a generic class or in the class body.  However, they
cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined.  See
*note Type parameter lists: 2b3. for a detailed description of the
runtime semantics of type parameters.

In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is
introduced, the *note annotation scope: 188.  Annotation scopes behave
for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with
enclosing class scopes.  In Python 3.13, *note annotations: 451. will
also be evaluated in annotation scopes.

See PEP 695(3) for more details.

(PEP written by Eric Traut.  Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric
Traut, and others in gh-103764(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Next: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Prev: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.2 PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings
.....................................................

PEP 701(1) lifts some restrictions on the usage of *note f-strings: 42f.
Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python
expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing
f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode
escape sequences.  Let’s cover these in detail:

   * Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the
     enclosing f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 18d, forcing the
     user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes
     or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes).  In Python
     3.12, you can now do things like this:

          >>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism']
          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

     Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how
     f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be
     reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it
     impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily.  In fact, this is the
     most nested f-string that could be written:

          >>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}"""
          '2'

     As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside
     expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings
     arbitrarily:

          >>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}"
          '2'

   * Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string
     expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the
     expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines
     (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them
     harder to read.  In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings
     spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments:

          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([
          ...     'Take me back to Eden',  # My, my, those eyes like fire
          ...     'Alkaline',              # Not acid nor alkaline
          ...     'Ascensionism'           # Take to the broken skies at last
          ... ])}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

   * Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string
     expressions couldn’t contain any ‘\’ character.  This also affected
     unicode *note escape sequences: 453. (such as ‘\N{snowman}’) as
     these contain the ‘\N’ part that previously could not be part of
     expression components of f-strings.  Now, you can define
     expressions like this:

          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden
          Alkaline
          Ascensionism
          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism

See PEP 701(2) for more details.

As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by
parsing f-strings with the PEG parser(3)), now error messages for
f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error.
For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a *note
SyntaxError: 18d.:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         (x z y)
          ^^^
     SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

but the error message doesn’t include the exact location of the error
within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by
parentheses.  In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG
parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
                        ^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou,
Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856(4).  PEP written
by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Prev: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.3 PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL
......................................

PEP 684(1) introduces a per-interpreter *note GIL: 148, so that
sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter.
This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU
cores.  This is currently only available through the C-API, though a
Python API is anticipated for 3.13(2).

Use the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 455. function to create
an interpreter with its own GIL:

     PyInterpreterConfig config = {
         .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
         .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
     };
     PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
     PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         return -1;
     }
     /* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */

For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a
per-interpreter GIL, see ‘Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c’.

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104210(3), etc.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Next: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Prev: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.4 PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython
..................................................

PEP 669(1) defines a new *note API: da. for profilers, debuggers, and
other tools to monitor events in CPython.  It covers a wide range of
events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more.
This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for
near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools.  See *note
sys.monitoring: da. for details.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Next: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Prev: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.5 PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python
................................................................

PEP 688(1) introduces a way to use the *note buffer protocol: 391. from
Python code.  Classes that implement the *note __buffer__(): 458. method
are now usable as buffer types.

The new *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4. ABC provides a standard way
to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations.  The new
*note inspect.BufferFlags: 459. enum represents the flags that can be
used to customize buffer creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
gh-102500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Next: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.6 PEP 709: Comprehension inlining
.......................................

Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than
creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the
comprehension.  This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two
times.  See PEP 709(1) for further details.

Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don’t overwrite a
variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after
the comprehension.  Inlining does result in a few visible behavior
changes:

   * There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in
     tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension
     as a function call.

   * The *note symtable: d8. module will no longer produce child symbol
     tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension’s locals
     will be included in the parent function’s symbol table.

   * Calling *note locals(): 141. inside a comprehension now includes
     variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes
     the synthetic ‘.0’ variable for the comprehension “argument”.

   * A comprehension iterating directly over ‘locals()’ (e.g.  ‘[k for k
     in locals()]’) may see “RuntimeError: dictionary changed size
     during iteration” when run under tracing (e.g.  code coverage
     measurement).  This is the same behavior already seen in e.g.  ‘for
     k in locals():’.  To avoid the error, first create a list of keys
     to iterate over: ‘keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys]’.

(Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in PEP 709(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.7 Improved Error Messages
...............................

   * Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as
     part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a
     *note NameError: 438. is raised to the top level.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo in gh-98254(1).)

          >>> sys.version_info
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'?

   * Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError: 438. exceptions
     for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 438. is raised in a
     method and the instance has an attribute that’s exactly equal to
     the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-99139(2).)

          >>> class A:
          ...    def __init__(self):
          ...        self.blech = 1
          ...
          ...    def foo(self):
          ...        somethin = blech
          ...
          >>> A().foo()
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              somethin = blech
                         ^^^^^
          NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'?

   * Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18d. error message when the user
     types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.  (Contributed
     by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931(3).)

          >>> import a.y.z from b.y.z
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              import a.y.z from b.y.z
              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?

   * *note ImportError: 413. exceptions raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ statements now include suggestions for the
     value of ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058(4).)

          >>> from collections import chainmap
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Next: Other Language Changes<2>,  Prev: New Features<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting type hints(1) and the *note
typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Next: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.2.3.1 PEP 692: Using ‘TypedDict’ for more precise ‘**kwargs’ typing
.....................................................................

Typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484(1)
allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the ‘**kwargs’
were of the same type.

PEP 692(2) specifies a more precise way of typing ‘**kwargs’ by relying
on typed dictionaries:

     from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

     class Movie(TypedDict):
       name: str
       year: int

     def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

See PEP 692(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Franek Magiera in gh-103629(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Prev: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.2.3.2 PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
.....................................................

A new decorator *note typing.override(): 444. has been added to the
*note typing: 104. module.  It indicates to type checkers that the
method is intended to override a method in a superclass.  This allows
type checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to
override something in a base class does not in fact do so.

Example:

     from typing import override

     class Base:
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "blue"

     class GoodChild(Base):
       @override  # ok: overrides Base.get_color
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "yellow"

     class BadChild(Base):
       @override  # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color
       def get_colour(self) -> str:
         return "red"

See PEP 698(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Steven Troxler in gh-101561(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<2>,  Next: New Modules<2>,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 18d. when parsing source
     code containing null bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-96670(1).)

   * A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
     generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence, use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’).  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-98401(2).)

   * Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex: ‘"\477"’),
     deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f,
     instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(3).)

   * Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not
     stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (‘:=’).  For
     example, in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’, the assignment
     to ‘b’ is now allowed.  Note that assigning to variables stored to
     in the target part of comprehensions (like ‘a’) is still
     disallowed, as per PEP 572(4).  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-100581(5).)

   * Exceptions raised in a class or type’s ‘__set_name__’ method are no
     longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 195.  Context information
     is added to the exception as a PEP 678(6) note.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-77757(7).)

   * When a ‘try-except*’ construct handles the entire *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b6. and raises one other exception, that exception
     is no longer wrapped in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.  Also changed
     in version 3.11.4.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590(8).)

   * The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism
     of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object
     allocations.  The GC can also run when *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     460. is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time
     without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the
     GC periodically.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922(9).)

   * All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters
     now accept arguments of any type instead of just *note bool: 461.
     and *note int: 257.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-60203(10).)

   * *note memoryview: 462. now supports the half-float type (the “e”
     format code).  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in
     gh-90751(11).)

   * *note slice: 463. objects are now hashable, allowing them to be
     used as dict keys and set items.  (Contributed by Will Bradshaw,
     Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264(12).)

   * *note sum(): 464. now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy
     and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425(13).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 1a8. now raises *note SyntaxError: 18d. instead
     of *note ValueError: 202. when parsing source code containing null
     bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(14).)

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note tarfile extraction filters: 466. for details.  In Python
     3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in PEP 706(15).)

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. instances are now hashable if
     the underlying mapping is hashable.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-87995(16).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 18f. through the new
     environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 468. and command-line
     option *note -X perf: 176, as well as the new *note
     sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 469, *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46a, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 46b. functions.  (Design by Pablo
     Galindo.  Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with
     contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in
     gh-96123(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<2>,  Next: Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.5 New Modules
-----------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<2>,  Prev: New Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* array: array<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis: dis<2>.
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* math: math<2>.
* os: os<2>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform::
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* random: random<2>.
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* tokenize::
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* uuid::


File: python.info,  Node: array<2>,  Next: asyncio<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.1 array
.............

   * The *note array.array: 1a0. class now supports subscripting, making
     it a *note generic type: 432.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-98658(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<2>,  Next: calendar,  Prev: array<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.2 asyncio
...............

   * The performance of writing to sockets in *note asyncio: a. has been
     significantly improved.  ‘asyncio’ now avoids unnecessary copying
     when writing to sockets and uses *note sendmsg(): 470. if the
     platform supports it.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-91166(1).)

   * Add *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 471. and *note
     asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(): 472. functions to allow opting
     an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x
     to 5x faster.  (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in
     gh-102853(2), gh-104140(3), and gh-104138(4))

   * On Linux, *note asyncio: a. uses *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher:
     473. by default if *note os.pidfd_open(): 474. is available and
     functional instead of *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 475.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-98024(5).)

   * The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each
     platform (*note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 473. if supported and
     *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 475. otherwise), so manually
     configuring a child watcher is not recommended.  (Contributed by
     Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(6).)

   * Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run(): 476. to allow
     specifying a custom event loop factory.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-99388(7).)

   * Add C implementation of *note asyncio.current_task(): 477. for
     4x-6x speedup.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram
     Bhat in gh-100344(8).)

   * *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 478. now returns ‘False’ for
     generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-102748(9).)

   * *note asyncio.wait(): 479. and *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa.
     now accepts generators yielding tasks.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-78530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530


File: python.info,  Node: calendar,  Next: csv,  Prev: asyncio<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.3 calendar
................

   * Add enums *note calendar.Month: 47b. and *note calendar.Day: 47c.
     defining months of the year and days of the week.  (Contributed by
     Prince Roshan in gh-103636(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636


File: python.info,  Node: csv,  Next: dis<2>,  Prev: calendar,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.4 csv
...........

   * Add *note csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL: 47e. and *note csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 47f.
     flags to provide finer grained control of ‘None’ and empty strings
     by *note reader: 480. and *note writer: 481. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: dis<2>,  Next: fractions<2>,  Prev: csv,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.5 dis
...........

   * Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do
     not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the *note
     dis: 38. module.  *note HAVE_ARGUMENT: 483. is still relevant to
     real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions.  Use
     the new *note dis.hasarg: 29e. collection instead.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-94216(1).)

   * Add the *note dis.hasexc: 484. collection to signify instructions
     that set an exception handler.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-94216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<2>,  Next: importlib resources,  Prev: dis<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.6 fractions
.................

   * Objects of type *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. now support
     float-style formatting.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     gh-100161(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources,  Next: inspect,  Prev: fractions<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.7 importlib.resources
...........................

   * *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 487. now supports resource
     directories.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930(1).)

   * Rename first parameter of *note importlib.resources.files(): 488.
     to 'anchor'.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598


File: python.info,  Node: inspect,  Next: itertools<2>,  Prev: importlib resources,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.8 inspect
...............

   * Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 48a. to mark sync
     functions that return a *note coroutine: 48b. for use with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6.  (Contributed by Carlton Gibson
     in gh-99247(1).)

   * Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 48c. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 48d. for determining the current state
     of asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in
     gh-79940(2).)

   * The performance of *note inspect.getattr_static(): 48e. has been
     considerably improved.  Most calls to the function should be at
     least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by
     Alex Waygood in gh-103193(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<2>,  Next: math<2>,  Prev: inspect,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.9 itertools
.................

   * Add *note itertools.batched(): 201. for collecting into even-sized
     tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363


File: python.info,  Node: math<2>,  Next: os<2>,  Prev: itertools<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.10 math
.............

   * Add *note math.sumprod(): 491. for computing a sum of products.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100485(1).)

   * Extend *note math.nextafter(): 492. to include a 'steps' argument
     for moving up or down multiple steps at a time.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-94906(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906


File: python.info,  Node: os<2>,  Next: os path<3>,  Prev: math<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.11 os
...........

   * Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 494. to open a file descriptor for a
     process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 474. in non-blocking mode.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312(1).)

   * *note os.DirEntry: 495. now includes an *note
     os.DirEntry.is_junction(): 496. method to check if the entry is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(2).)

   * Add *note os.listdrives(): 497, *note os.listvolumes(): 498. and
     *note os.listmounts(): 499. functions on Windows for enumerating
     drives, volumes and mount points.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-102519(3).)

   * *note os.stat(): 49a. and *note os.lstat(): 49b. are now more
     accurate on Windows.  The ‘st_birthtime’ field will now be filled
     with the creation time of the file, and ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated
     but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return
     the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms).
     ‘st_dev’ may be up to 64 bits and ‘st_ino’ up to 128 bits depending
     on your file system, and ‘st_rdev’ is always set to zero rather
     than incorrect values.  Both functions may be significantly faster
     on newer releases of Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-99726(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: os path<3>,  Next: pathlib<3>,  Prev: os<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.12 os.path
................

   * Add *note os.path.isjunction(): 49d. to check if a given path is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(1).)

   * Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 49e. to split a path into a triad
     ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-101000(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<3>,  Next: platform,  Prev: os path<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.13 pathlib
................

   * Add support for subclassing *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. and *note
     pathlib.Path: 229, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants.
     Subclasses may override the *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments():
     4a1. method to pass information between path instances.

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 4a2. for walking the directory trees
     and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to
     *note os.walk(): 4a3.  (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in
     gh-90385(1).)

   * Add 'walk_up' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb. to allow the insertion of ‘..’
     entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with *note
     os.path.relpath(): 4a4.  (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in
     gh-84538(2).)

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.is_junction(): 4a5. as a proxy to *note
     os.path.isjunction(): 49d.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-99547(3).)

   * Add 'case_sensitive' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d, *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 22e. and
     *note pathlib.PurePath.match(): 4a6. for matching the path’s case
     sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching
     process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547


File: python.info,  Node: platform,  Next: pdb<2>,  Prev: pathlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.14 platform
.................

   * Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases
     past 2012.  Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer
     than Windows Server 2012 and on Windows 11 would return
     ‘Windows-10’.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-89545(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<2>,  Next: random<2>,  Prev: platform,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.15 pdb
............

   * Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug
     session and provide quick access to values like the current frame
     or the return value.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693


File: python.info,  Node: random<2>,  Next: shutil<2>,  Prev: pdb<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.16 random
...............

   * Add *note random.binomialvariate(): 4aa.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-81620(1).)

   * Add a default of ‘lambd=1.0’ to *note random.expovariate(): 4ab.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100234(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<2>,  Next: sqlite3<2>,  Prev: random<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.17 shutil
...............

   * *note shutil.make_archive(): 4ad. now passes the 'root_dir'
     argument to custom archivers which support it.  In this case it no
     longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the
     process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-74696(1).)

   * *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. now accepts a new argument 'onexc'
     which is an error handler like 'onerror' but which expects an
     exception instance rather than a '(typ, val, tb)' triplet.
     'onerror' is deprecated.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102828(2).)

   * *note shutil.which(): 4ae. now consults the 'PATHEXT' environment
     variable to find matches within 'PATH' on Windows even when the
     given 'cmd' includes a directory component.  (Contributed by
     Charles Machalow in gh-103179(3).)

     *note shutil.which(): 4ae. will call
     ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ when querying for executables on
     Windows to determine if the current working directory should be
     prepended to the search path.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(4).)

     *note shutil.which(): 4ae. will return a path matching the 'cmd'
     with a component from ‘PATHEXT’ prior to a direct match elsewhere
     in the search path on Windows.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<2>,  Next: statistics<2>,  Prev: shutil<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.18 sqlite3
................

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 43a.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
     Aasland in gh-77617(1).)

   * Add the *note sqlite3.Connection.autocommit: 4b0. attribute to
     *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. and the 'autocommit' parameter to
     *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. to control PEP 249(2)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 4b1.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-83638(3).)

   * Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4b2, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-103015(4).)

   * Add *note sqlite3.Connection.getconfig(): 4b3. and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.setconfig(): 4b4. to *note sqlite3.Connection:
     245. to make configuration changes to a database connection.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<2>,  Next: sys<3>,  Prev: sqlite3<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.19 statistics
...................

   * Extend *note statistics.correlation(): 4b6. to include as a
     ‘ranked’ method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked
     data.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861


File: python.info,  Node: sys<3>,  Next: tempfile<2>,  Prev: statistics<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.20 sys
............

   * Add the *note sys.monitoring: da. namespace to expose the new *note
     PEP 669: 436. monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(1).)

   * Add *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 469. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46a. for activating and
     deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 46b. for querying if stack
     profiler trampolines are active.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
     Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google]
     and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(2).)

   * Add *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. which holds the last unhandled
     exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases).
     Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its
     legacy form: *note sys.last_type: 4b9, *note sys.last_value: 4ba.
     and *note sys.last_traceback: 4bb.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(3).)

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4bc. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(4).)

   * *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bd. and *note
     sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4be.  The recursion limit now applies only
     to Python code.  Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit,
     but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion
     from causing a virtual machine crash.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<2>,  Next: threading,  Prev: sys<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.21 tempfile
.................

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4c0. function has a new
     optional parameter 'delete_on_close' (Contributed by Evgeny Zorin
     in gh-58451(1).)

   * *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f. now always returns an absolute path,
     even if the argument provided to the 'dir' parameter is a relative
     path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451


File: python.info,  Node: threading,  Next: tkinter<2>,  Prev: tempfile<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.22 threading
..................

   * Add *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4c2. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4c3. that allow to set tracing
     and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<2>,  Next: tokenize,  Prev: threading,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.23 tkinter
................

   * ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’ now flattens its arguments.  It now
     accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (‘x1, y1, x2,
     y2, ...’) and a sequence of coordinates (‘[x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]’),
     but also coordinates grouped in pairs (‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’
     and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]’), like ‘create_*()’ methods.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize,  Next: types<2>,  Prev: tkinter<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.24 tokenize
.................

   * The *note tokenize: fb. module includes the changes introduced in
     PEP 701(1).  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo
     in gh-102856(2).)  See *note Porting to Python 3.12: 4c6. for more
     information on the changes to the *note tokenize: fb. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: types<2>,  Next: typing<3>,  Prev: tokenize,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.25 types
..............

   * Add *note types.get_original_bases(): 4c8. to allow for further
     introspection of *note 사용자 정의 제네릭 형: 4c9. when subclassed.
     (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex Waygood in
     gh-101827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827


File: python.info,  Node: typing<3>,  Next: unicodedata<2>,  Prev: types<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.26 typing
...............

   * *note isinstance(): 43b. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 43c. now use *note inspect.getattr_static(): 48e. rather
     than *note hasattr(): 4cc. to lookup whether attributes exist.
     This means that descriptors and *note __getattr__(): 4cd. methods
     are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.  However, it may also mean
     that some objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood in gh-102433(1).)

   * The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered
     “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been created.
     Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will
     still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 43b.
     checks comparing objects to the protocol.  For example:

          >>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
          >>> @runtime_checkable
          ... class HasX(Protocol):
          ...     x = 1
          ...
          >>> class Foo: ...
          ...
          >>> f = Foo()
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          False
          >>> f.x = 1
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          True
          >>> HasX.y = 2
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)  # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute
          True

     This change was made in order to speed up ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.

   * The performance profile of *note isinstance(): 43b. checks against
     *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43c. has changed significantly.
     Most ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with only a few
     members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be
     20x faster or more.  However, ‘isinstance()’ checks against
     protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690(2) and gh-103193(3).)

   * All *note typing.TypedDict: 162. and *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0.
     classes now have the ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute.  (Contributed by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699(4).)

   * Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 4ce.  (Contributed by Erik De Bonte
     in gh-99957(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<2>,  Next: unittest<2>,  Prev: typing<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.27 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<2>,  Next: uuid,  Prev: unicodedata<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.28 unittest
.................

Add a ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the N slowest test
cases:

     python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading
     .....
     Slowest test durations
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     1.210s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     1.003s     test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     0.518s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests)

     (0.000 durations hidden.  Use -v to show these durations.)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 158 tests in 9.869s

     OK (skipped=3)

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-48330(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330


File: python.info,  Node: uuid,  Prev: unittest<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.6.29 uuid
.............

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 43d.  (Contributed by Adam
     Chhina in gh-88597(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<2>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes,  Prev: Improved Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Remove ‘wstr’ and ‘wstr_length’ members from Unicode objects.  It
     reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform.  ( PEP
     623(1)) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536(2).)

   * Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the
     build process, which improves performance by 1-5%.  (Contributed by
     Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536(3) and tuned by Donghee Na in
     gh-101525(4))

   * Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions *note
     re.sub(): 2a3. and *note re.subn(): 2a4. and corresponding
     ‘re.Pattern’ methods) for replacement strings containing group
     references by 2–3 times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-91524(5).)

   * Speed up *note asyncio.Task: 1be. creation by deferring expensive
     string formatting.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793(6).)

   * The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d3. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4d4. functions are up to 64% faster as
     a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701(7) in the
     *note tokenize: fb. module.  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and
     Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(8).)

   * Speed up *note super(): 4d5. method calls and attribute loads via
     the new *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4d6. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes,  Next: Demos and Tools,  Prev: Optimizations<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.8 CPython bytecode changes
------------------------------

   * Remove the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction.  It has been merged into
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 4d8.  *note LOAD_ATTR: 4d8. will now behave like
     the old ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction if the low bit of its oparg is
     set.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429(1).)

   * Remove the ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’
     instructions.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859(2).)

   * Remove the ‘PRECALL’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-92925(3).)

   * Add the *note BINARY_SLICE: 4d9. and *note STORE_SLICE: 4da.
     instructions.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163(4).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4db. instructions.  (Contributed by
     Mark Shannon in gh-99005(5).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 4dc. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-101799(6).)

   * Add the *note CLEANUP_THROW: 4dd. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in gh-90997(7).)

   * Add the ‘END_SEND’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(8).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR: 4de. instruction as part of the
     implementation of PEP 709(9).  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in
     gh-101441(10).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK: 4df. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143(11).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4e0, *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 4e1, and *note LOAD_LOCALS: 4e2. opcodes
     as part of the implementation of PEP 695(12).  Remove the
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’ opcode, which can be replaced with *note
     LOAD_LOCALS: 4e2. plus *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4e0.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-103764(13).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4d6. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(14).)

   * Add the *note RETURN_CONST: 4e3. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Wenyang Wang in gh-101632(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools,  Next: Deprecated,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.9 Demos and Tools
---------------------

   * Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old demo
     scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(1).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681(2).)

   * Remove outdated example scripts of the ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.
     A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-97669(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated,  Next: Removed,  Prev: Demos and Tools,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.10 Deprecated
-----------------

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following *note ast: 8. features have been
     deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b9. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher:
          2ba, *note asyncio.FastChildWatcher: 2bb, *note
          asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc. and *note
          asyncio.SafeChildWatcher: 2bd. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2be, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bf, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c0. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2c1. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c2. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2f1. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f2.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(6).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note
     collections.abc.ByteString: 2c3.  Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4.  For use in typing, prefer a union,
     like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4.
     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   * *note datetime: 30.: *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.’s *note
     utcnow(): 2f4. and *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5. are deprecated
     and will be removed in a future version.  Instead, use
     timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively,
     call *note now(): 4e6. and *note fromtimestamp(): 4e7. with the
     'tz' parameter set to *note datetime.UTC: 4e8.  (Contributed by
     Paul Ganssle in gh-103857(8).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecate the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c5.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(9).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 78.: Deprecated the following classes,
     scheduled for removal in Python 3.14:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(10).)

   * *note itertools: 81.: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and
     pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a
     significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(11).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 94.: In Python 3.14, the default *note
     multiprocessing: 94. start method will change to a safer one on
     Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is
     currently the default (gh-84559(12)).  Adding a runtime warning
     about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not
     expected to care.  Use the *note get_context(): 2c7. or *note
     set_start_method(): 2c8. APIs to explicitly specify when your code
     'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note contexts and start methods: 2c9.

   * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 2cc. and *note
     pkgutil.get_loader(): 2cd. are deprecated and will be removed in
     Python 3.14; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce. instead.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(13).)

   * *note pty: b1.: The module has two undocumented ‘master_open()’ and
     ‘slave_open()’ functions that have been deprecated since Python 2
     but only gained a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12.
     Remove them in 3.14.  (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory
     P. Smith in gh-85984(14).)

   * *note os: a1.:

        * The ‘st_ctime’ fields return by *note os.stat(): 49a. and
          *note os.lstat(): 49b. on Windows are deprecated.  In a future
          release, they will contain the last metadata change time,
          consistent with other platforms.  For now, they still contain
          the creation time, which is also available in the new
          ‘st_birthtime’ field.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
          gh-99726(15).)

        * On POSIX platforms, *note os.fork(): 197. can now raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when it can detect being called
          from a multithreaded process.  There has always been a
          fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing
          so.  Even if such code 'appeared' to work.  We added the
          warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing
          this are becoming more frequent.  See the *note os.fork():
          197. documentation for more details along with this discussion
          on fork being incompatible with threads(16) for 'why' we’re
          now surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem
          to developers.

     When this warning appears due to usage of *note multiprocessing:
     94. or *note concurrent.futures: 21. the fix is to use a different
     *note multiprocessing: 94. start method such as ‘"spawn"’ or
     ‘"forkserver"’.

   * *note shutil: c5.: The 'onerror' argument of *note shutil.rmtree():
     2f9. is deprecated; use 'onexc' instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102828(17).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf.:

        * *note default adapters and converters: 4e9. are now
          deprecated.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter
          recipes: 4ea. and tailor them to your needs.  (Contributed by
          Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016(18).)

        * In *note execute(): 2d2, *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now
          emitted when *note named placeholders: 2d4. are used together
          with parameters supplied as a *note sequence: 4eb. instead of
          as a *note dict: 256.  Starting from Python 3.14, using named
          placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise
          a *note ProgrammingError: 4ec.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-101698(19).)

   * *note sys: d9.: The *note sys.last_type: 4b9, *note sys.last_value:
     4ba. and *note sys.last_traceback: 4bb. fields are deprecated.  Use
     *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(20).)

   * *note tarfile: de.: Extracting tar archives without specifying
     'filter' is deprecated until Python 3.14, when ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default.  See *note Extraction filters: 466. for
     details.

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * *note typing.Hashable: 4ed. and *note typing.Sized: 4ee,
          aliases for *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4ef. and *note
          collections.abc.Sized: 4f0. respectively, are deprecated.
          (gh-94309(21).)

        * *note typing.ByteString: 2d5, deprecated since Python 3.9, now
          causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when it
          is used.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896(22).)

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: The module now emits *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when testing the truth value of an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 308.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 40f, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.  (Contributed by Jacob Walls in
     gh-83122(23).)

   * The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of *note coroutine
     throw(): 4f1, *note generator throw(): 4f2. and *note async
     generator throw(): 4f3. are deprecated and may be removed in a
     future version of Python.  Use the single-arg versions of these
     functions instead.  (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874(24).)

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now raised when *note
     __package__: 2d9. on a module differs from *note __spec__.parent:
     2da. (previously it was *note ImportWarning: 4f4.).  (Contributed
     by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(25).)

   * Setting *note __package__: 2d9. or *note __cached__: 2d7. on a
     module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into
     consideration by the import system in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-65961(26).)

   * The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is deprecated.  It
     will throw an error in Python 3.16.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation
     of bools instead.  In the rare case that you really need the
     bitwise inversion of the underlying ‘int’, convert to int
     explicitly: ‘~int(x)’.  (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in
     gh-103487(27).)

   * Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e2. on code objects was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 via PEP 626(28), but it only got a proper *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(29).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (16) 
https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 13,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Deprecated

1.2.10.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.13
.......................................

Modules (see PEP 594(1)):

   * ‘aifc’

   * ‘audioop’

   * ‘cgi’

   * ‘cgitb’

   * ‘chunk’

   * ‘crypt’

   * ‘imghdr’

   * ‘mailcap’

   * ‘msilib’

   * ‘nis’

   * ‘nntplib’

   * ‘ossaudiodev’

   * ‘pipes’

   * ‘sndhdr’

   * ‘spwd’

   * ‘sunau’

   * ‘telnetlib’

   * ‘uu’

   * ‘xdrlib’

Other modules:

   * ‘lib2to3’, and the ‘2to3’ program (gh-84540(2))

APIs:

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 166. descriptor chaining (gh-89519(11))

   * *note importlib.resources: 7b. deprecated methods:

        * ‘contents()’

        * ‘is_resource()’

        * ‘open_binary()’

        * ‘open_text()’

        * ‘path()’

        * ‘read_binary()’

        * ‘read_text()’

     Use *note importlib.resources.files(): 488. instead.  Refer to
     importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (12) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 13,  Up: Deprecated

1.2.10.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b9. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2ba,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 2bb, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bd. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2be, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bf, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c0. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2c1. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c2. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c3.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c4.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     2c4.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c5.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 78. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(8).)

   * *note itertools: 81. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 94.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 2c7. or *note set_start_method(): 2c8. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

   * *note pathlib: a4.: *note is_relative_to(): 2ca. and *note
     relative_to(): 2cb.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note find_loader(): 2cc. and *note
     get_loader(): 2cd. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).)

   * *note pty: b1.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cf.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cf.

   * *note sqlite3: cf.:

        * *note version: 2d0. and *note version_info: 2d1.

        * *note execute(): 2d2. and *note executemany(): 2d3. if *note
          named placeholders: 2d4. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 256.

   * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 2d5, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Deprecated

1.2.10.3 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __cached__: 2d7. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.cached: 2d8. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 2d9. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 2da. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 72.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1.
          has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement
          exists.  'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web
          server with a request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 77.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 86.:

        * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2db. function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.11.  Its removal was originally
          planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed
          to Python 3.15.  Use *note getlocale(): 2dc, *note
          setlocale(): 2dd, and *note getencoding(): 2de. instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).)

   * *note pathlib: a4.:

        * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a6. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 223. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: aa.:

        * *note java_ver(): 2a7. has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: db.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2df. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ed.:

        * *note RLock(): 2e0. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 103.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e2.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2b0. classes (e.g.  ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
          x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use
          the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 162.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b1. decorator
          function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.

   * *note wave: 113.:

        * The *note getmark(): 2b4, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers():
          2b5. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b6. and *note
          Wave_write: 2b7. classes have been deprecated since Python
          3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Up: Deprecated

1.2.10.4 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2e4. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 2e5. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29b.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16, use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note shutil: c5.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 195.

   * *note symtable: d8.:

        * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e7. method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: d9.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ae. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note tarfile: de.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Up: Deprecated

1.2.10.5 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          2e9, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ea, *note if: 2eb, *note in:
          2ec, *note is: 2ed. and *note or: 2ee.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 257.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 2ef.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 2ef.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 2f0.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 2f0.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 2f0. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2f1. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f2.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2e2.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 2f3. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 2f4.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 63.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 77.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 2f6. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7a.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 87.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f7. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8b.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a1.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f8. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b9.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(4).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c5.: *note rmtree(): 2f9.’s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d0. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 294.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2fa.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ed. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          2fb.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2fc.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2fd.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 2fe. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 2ff.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 300. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 301.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          302.

   * *note typing.Text: 303. (gh-92332(5)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     305. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 306. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 307. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 293. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 308. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 309. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 30a. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: Removed,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12,  Prev: Deprecated,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.11 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum: enum<2>.
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* imp::
* io: io<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.
* Others::


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat and asyncore,  Next: configparser<3>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.1 asynchat and asyncore
..............................

   * These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.6.  Use *note
     asyncio: a. instead.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-96580(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<3>,  Next: distutils,  Prev: asynchat and asyncore,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.2 configparser
.....................

   * Several names deprecated in the *note configparser: 22. way back in
     3.2 have been removed per gh-89336(1):

        * *note configparser.ParsingError: 4fe. no longer has a
          ‘filename’ attribute or argument.  Use the ‘source’ attribute
          and argument instead.

        * *note configparser: 22. no longer has a ‘SafeConfigParser’
          class.  Use the shorter *note ConfigParser: 1c8. name instead.

        * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. no longer has a ‘readfp’
          method.  Use *note read_file(): 4ff. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336


File: python.info,  Node: distutils,  Next: ensurepip,  Prev: configparser<3>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.3 distutils
..................

   * Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in Python 3.10
     by PEP 632(1) “Deprecate distutils module”.  For projects still
     using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something else, the
     ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip,  Next: enum<2>,  Prev: distutils,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.4 ensurepip
..................

   * Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from *note ensurepip: 55, and
     stop installing setuptools in environments created by *note venv:
     111.

     ‘pip (>= 22.1)’ does not require setuptools to be installed in the
     environment.  ‘setuptools’-based (and ‘distutils’-based) packages
     can still be used with ‘pip install’, since pip will provide
     ‘setuptools’ in the build environment it uses for building a
     package.

     ‘easy_install’, ‘pkg_resources’, ‘setuptools’ and ‘distutils’ are
     no longer provided by default in environments created with ‘venv’
     or bootstrapped with ‘ensurepip’, since they are part of the
     ‘setuptools’ package.  For projects relying on these at runtime,
     the ‘setuptools’ project should be declared as a dependency and
     installed separately (typically, using pip).

     (Contributed by Pradyun Gedam in gh-95299(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: enum<2>,  Next: ftplib,  Prev: ensurepip,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.5 enum
.............

   * Remove *note enum: 56.’s ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’, which is no longer
     needed for enum attribute access.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
     gh-95083(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib,  Next: gzip,  Prev: enum<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.6 ftplib
...............

   * Remove *note ftplib: 5e.’s ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’ class attribute:
     use the 'context' parameter instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94172(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172


File: python.info,  Node: gzip,  Next: hashlib,  Prev: ftplib,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.7 gzip
.............

   * Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of *note gzip: 67.’s *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 414, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the *note
     name: 506. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib,  Next: importlib<2>,  Prev: gzip,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.8 hashlib
................

   * Remove the pure Python implementation of *note hashlib: 68.’s *note
     hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 508, deprecated in Python 3.10.  Python 3.10
     and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP 644(1)): this OpenSSL
     version provides a C implementation of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 508.
     which is faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<2>,  Next: imp,  Prev: hashlib,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.9 importlib
..................

   * Many previously deprecated cleanups in *note importlib: 77. have
     now been completed:

        * References to, and support for ‘module_repr()’ has been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-97850(1).)

        * ‘importlib.util.set_package’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader’ and
          ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader’ have all been removed.
          (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961(2)
          and gh-97850(3).)

        * Support for ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ APIs have been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(4).)

        * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
          ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have been removed.  (Contributed by Barry
          Warsaw in gh-98040(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: imp,  Next: io<2>,  Prev: importlib<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.10 imp
.............

   * The ‘imp’ module has been removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
     gh-98040(1).)

     To migrate, consult the following correspondence table:

          imp                                   importlib
                                                
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
          ‘imp.NullImporter’                    Insert ‘None’ into ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.cache_from_source()’             *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f6.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.find_module()’                   *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_magic()’                     *note importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER: 50c.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_suffixes()’                  *note importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES: 50d, *note importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 50e, and
                                                *note importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 50f.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_tag()’                       *note sys.implementation.cache_tag: 510.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_module()’                   *note importlib.import_module(): 511.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.new_module(name)’                ‘types.ModuleType(name)’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.reload()’                        *note importlib.reload(): 512.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.source_from_cache()’             *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 513.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_source()’                   'See below'
                                                

     Replace ‘imp.load_source()’ with:

          import importlib.util
          import importlib.machinery

          def load_source(modname, filename):
              loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename)
              spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader)
              module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
              # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules.
              # Uncomment the following line to cache the module.
              # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module
              loader.exec_module(module)
              return module

   * Remove ‘imp’ functions and attributes with no replacements:

        * Undocumented functions:

             * ‘imp.init_builtin()’

             * ‘imp.load_compiled()’

             * ‘imp.load_dynamic()’

             * ‘imp.load_package()’

        * ‘imp.lock_held()’, ‘imp.acquire_lock()’, ‘imp.release_lock()’:
          the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module
          locks.

        * ‘imp.find_module()’ constants: ‘SEARCH_ERROR’, ‘PY_SOURCE’,
          ‘PY_COMPILED’, ‘C_EXTENSION’, ‘PY_RESOURCE’, ‘PKG_DIRECTORY’,
          ‘C_BUILTIN’, ‘PY_FROZEN’, ‘PY_CODERESOURCE’, ‘IMP_HOOK’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: io<2>,  Next: locale<2>,  Prev: imp,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.11 io
............

   * Remove *note io: 7f.’s ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 515. instead.
     The *note open(): 515. (*note io.open(): 516.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169


File: python.info,  Node: locale<2>,  Next: smtpd,  Prev: io<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.12 locale
................

   * Remove *note locale: 86.’s ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 518. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd,  Next: sqlite3<3>,  Prev: locale<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.13 smtpd
...............

   * The ‘smtpd’ module has been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  Use
     the aiosmtpd(2) PyPI module or any other *note asyncio: a.-based
     server instead.  (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<3>,  Next: ssl<2>,  Prev: smtpd,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.14 sqlite3
.................

   * The following undocumented *note sqlite3: cf. features, deprecated
     in Python 3.10, are now removed:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using
     the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.

     The ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ text factory has been an alias for
     *note str: 445. since Python 3.3.  Code that previously set the
     text factory to ‘OptimizedUnicode’ can either use ‘str’ explicitly,
     or rely on the default value which is also ‘str’.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-92548(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<2>,  Next: unittest<3>,  Prev: sqlite3<3>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.15 ssl
.............

   * Remove *note ssl: d0.’s ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 51c. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 51d. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94199(1).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.7.  OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7,
     Python no longer uses the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7:
     instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. object and call its
     *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 51e. method.  Any package that
     still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.  The
     function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(3) (Improper Certificate
     Validation).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (3) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<3>,  Next: webbrowser<2>,  Prev: ssl<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.16 unittest
..................

   * Remove many long-deprecated *note unittest: 106. features:

        * A number of *note TestCase: 447. method aliases:

          Deprecated alias                 Method Name                         Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 520.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 521.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 522.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 523.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 525.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 526.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 520.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 522.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 523.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 525.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 527.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 528.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 529.        3.5
                                                                               

          You can use ‘https://github.com/isidentical/teyit’ to
          automatically modernise your unit tests.

        * Undocumented and broken *note TestCase: 447. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

        * Undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 28f.
          parameter 'use_load_tests' (deprecated and ignored since
          Python 3.5).

        * An alias of the *note TextTestResult: 52a. class:
          ‘_TextTestResult’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89325(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<2>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree,  Prev: unittest<3>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.17 webbrowser
....................

   * Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note webbrowser: 115.
     The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
     Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below
     (gh-102871(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree,  Next: zipimport<2>,  Prev: webbrowser<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.18 xml.etree.ElementTree
...............................

   * Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’ method of the pure Python
     implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the *note
     copy.copy(): 52d. function instead.  The C implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94383(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<2>,  Next: Others,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.19 zipimport
...................

   * Remove *note zipimport: 132.’s ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the ‘find_spec()’ method
     instead.  See PEP 451(1) for the rationale.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94379(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379


File: python.info,  Node: Others,  Prev: zipimport<2>,  Up: Removed

1.2.11.20 Others
................

   * Remove the ‘suspicious’ rule from the documentation ‘Makefile’ and
     ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’, both in favor of sphinx-lint(1).
     (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179(2).)

   * Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from the *note
     ftplib: 5e, *note imaplib: 74, *note poplib: ac. and *note smtplib:
     ca. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and 'check_hostname'
     parameters from the *note http.client: 6f. module, all deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter ('ssl_context' in
     *note imaplib: 74.) instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94172(3).)

   * Remove ‘Jython’ compatibility hacks from several stdlib modules and
     tests.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99482(4).)

   * Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’ flag from
     *note ctypes: 2a. module.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-99285(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12,  Next: Build Changes<2>,  Prev: Removed,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.12 Porting to Python 3.12
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 12

1.2.12.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references
     and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence of ASCII
     digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The group name in
     bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII
     letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-91760(1).)

   * Remove ‘randrange()’ functionality deprecated since Python 3.10.
     Formerly, ‘randrange(10.0)’ losslessly converted to
     ‘randrange(10)’.  Now, it raises a *note TypeError: 532.  Also, the
     exception raised for non-integer values such as ‘randrange(10.5)’
     or ‘randrange('10')’ has been changed from *note ValueError: 202.
     to *note TypeError: 532.  This also prevents bugs where
     ‘randrange(1e25)’ would silently select from a larger range than
     ‘randrange(10**25)’.  (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka
     gh-86388(2).)

   * *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 533. changed encoding and error
     handler for reading arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option) from default text encoding (e.g.
     *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 534.) to *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 535.  Argument files should be encoded
     in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

   * Remove the ‘asyncore’-based ‘smtpd’ module deprecated in Python
     3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  A recommended replacement is the *note asyncio:
     a.-based aiosmtpd(3) PyPI module.

   * *note shlex.split(): 536.: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now
     raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 537.  The
     feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94352(4).)

   * The *note os: a1. module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like
     *note bytearray: 538. and *note memoryview: 462. types: only the
     exact *note bytes: 1c2. type is accepted for bytes strings.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * *note syslog.openlog(): 539. and *note syslog.closelog(): 53a. now
     fail if used in subinterpreters.  *note syslog.syslog(): 53b. may
     still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if *note
     syslog.openlog(): 539. has already been called in the main
     interpreter.  These new restrictions do not apply to the main
     interpreter, so only a very small set of users might be affected.
     This change helps with interpreter isolation.  Furthermore, *note
     syslog: dc. is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are
     best managed from the main interpreter.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in gh-99127(6).)

   * The undocumented locking behavior of *note cached_property(): 53c.
     is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class,
     leading to high lock contention.  This means that a cached property
     getter function could now run more than once for a single instance,
     if two threads race.  For most simple cached properties (e.g.
     those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on
     other attributes of the instance) this will be fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached
     property getter function or around multi-threaded access points.

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4bc. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(7).)

   * When extracting tar files using *note tarfile: de. or *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, pass the 'filter' argument to limit
     features that may be surprising or dangerous.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 466. for details.

   * The output of the *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d3. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4d4. functions is now changed due to
     the changes introduced in PEP 701(8).  This means that ‘STRING’
     tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens
     described in PEP 701(9) are now produced instead: ‘FSTRING_START’,
     ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ and ‘FSTRING_END’ are now emitted for f-string
     “string” parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the
     tokenization in the expression components.  For example for the
     f-string ‘f"start {1+1} end"’ the old version of the tokenizer
     emitted:

          1,0-1,18:           STRING         'f"start {1+1} end"'

     while the new version emits:

          1,0-1,2:            FSTRING_START  'f"'
          1,2-1,8:            FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start '
          1,8-1,9:            OP             '{'
          1,9-1,10:           NUMBER         '1'
          1,10-1,11:          OP             '+'
          1,11-1,12:          NUMBER         '1'
          1,12-1,13:          OP             '}'
          1,13-1,17:          FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end'
          1,17-1,18:          FSTRING_END    '"'

     Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a
     consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701(10).  Some
     of these changes include:

        * The ‘type’ attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing
          some invalid Python characters such as ‘!’ has changed from
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ to ‘OP’.

        * Incomplete single-line strings now also raise *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 53d. as incomplete multiline strings do.

        * Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 53d. instead of returning arbitrary
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ tokens when tokenizing it.

        * Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not
          supported anymore and will raise a *note TabError: 53e.

   * The *note threading: ed. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter’ attribute.  It is a function with no
     arguments that returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the
     main interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     should provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’.  (See gh-112826(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<2>,  Next: C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.13 Build Changes
--------------------

   * Python no longer uses ‘setup.py’ to build shared C extension
     modules.  Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected
     in ‘configure’ script.  Extensions are built by ‘Makefile’.  Most
     extensions use ‘pkg-config’ and fall back to manual detection.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939(1).)

   * ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like ‘va_start(args, format),’ is
     now required to build Python.  ‘va_start()’ is no longer called
     with a single parameter.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-93207(2).)

   * CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time
     optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536(3).)

   * Add ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in ‘Makefile’ to override *note
     compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make install’.  Also
     merged the 3 ‘compileall’ commands into a single command to build
     .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289(4).)

   * Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     (Contributed by Zhang Na in gh-90656(5).)

   * ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate
     ‘!configure’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(6).)

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Build Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.2.14 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<2>.
* Removed: Removed<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.14.1 New Features
.....................

   * PEP 697(1): Introduce the *note Unstable C API tier: 542, intended
     for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers.  This API may
     change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation
     warnings.  Its contents are marked by the ‘PyUnstable_’ prefix in
     names.

     Code object constructors:

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_New()’ (renamed from ‘PyCode_New’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ (renamed from
          ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’)

     Extra storage for code objects ( PEP 523(2)):

        - ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex()’ (renamed from
          ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’)

     The original names will continue to be available until the
     respective API changes.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-101101(3).)

   * PEP 697(4): Add an API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque:

        - *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543. can be zero or negative to
          specify inheriting or extending the base class size.

        - *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 544. and *note
          PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 545. added to allow access to
          subclass-specific instance data.

        - *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 546. and *note
          PyObject_GetItemData(): 547. added to allow safely extending
          certain variable-sized types, including *note PyType_Type:
          548.

        - *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 549. added to allow defining *note
          members: 54a. in terms of a subclass-specific struct.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-103509(5).)

   * Add the new *note limited C API: 38f. function *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012(6).)

   * API for creating objects that can be called using *note the
     vectorcall protocol: 54d. was added to the *note Limited API: 54e.:

        * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f.

        * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 550.

        * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 551.

        * *note vectorcallfunc: 552.

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. flag is now removed from
     a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 553. method is
     reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types
     (i.e.  heap types without the immutable flag, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc.).  Mutable types that do not
     override *note tp_call: 554. now inherit the
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin
     in gh-93274(7).)

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. and *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 555. flags have been added.  This
     allows extensions classes to support object *note __dict__: 556.
     and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with
     faster access.

   * API for performing calls using *note the vectorcall protocol: 54d.
     was added to the *note Limited API: 54e.:

        * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557.

        * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 558.

        * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 559.

     This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector
     call protocol are now available in the *note Limited API: 54e.
     (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586(8).)

   * Add two new public functions, *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads():
     55a. and *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41c, that allow to set
     tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition
     to the calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(9).)

   * Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall(): 55b. to the C
     API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 55c.  (Contributed by Andrew Frost in
     gh-92257(10).)

   * The C API now permits registering callbacks via *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55d, *note PyDict_Watch(): 55e. and related
     APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified.  This is
     intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or
     debuggers.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052(11).)

   * Add *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 55f. and *note PyType_Watch(): 560.
     API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a
     type.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051(12).)

   * Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 561. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 562. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.
     (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054(13).)

   * Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 563. and *note PyFrame_GetVarString():
     564. functions to get a frame variable by its name.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-91248(14).)

   * Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f1. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     3f0.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(15).)

   * Add ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’, which takes an exception instance,
     to replace the legacy-API ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’, which is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(16).)

   * Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 565. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 566. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 567. passed to the exception’s
     constructor.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(17).)

   * Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc, which takes an exception
     instance, to replace the legacy-api ‘PyErr_Display()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(18)).

   * PEP 683(19): Introduce 'Immortal Objects', which allows objects to
     bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API:

        - 
          ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’: The reference count that defines an object

               as immortal.

        - ‘_Py_IsImmortal’ Checks if an object has the immortal
          reference count.

        - 
          ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ This will now initialize reference count to

               ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’ when used with ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ An identifier for interned unicode objects

               that are immortal.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC’ An identifier for interned unicode

               objects that are immortal and static

        - 
          ‘sys.getunicodeinternedsize’ This returns the total number of unicode

               objects that have been interned.  This is now needed for
               ‘refleak.py’ to correctly track reference counts and
               allocated blocks

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-84436(20).)

   * PEP 684(21): Add the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 455.
     function and *note PyInterpreterConfig: 568, which may be used to
     create sub-interpreters with their own GILs.  (See *note PEP 684; A
     Per-Interpreter GIL: 435. for more info.)  (Contributed by Eric
     Snow in gh-104110(22).)

   * In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF(): 569. and
     *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. functions are now implemented as opaque
     function calls to hide implementation details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105387(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Deprecated<2>,  Prev: New Features<4>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.14.2 Porting to Python 3.12
...............................

   * Legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation has been
     removed.  Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or ‘wchar_t*’.

   * Argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.
     doesn’t support ‘Py_UNICODE*’ based format (e.g.  ‘u’, ‘Z’)
     anymore.  Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like ‘s’,
     ‘z’, ‘es’, and ‘U’.

   * ‘tp_weaklist’ for all static builtin types is always ‘NULL’.  This
     is an internal-only field on ‘PyTypeObject’ but we’re pointing out
     the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field
     directly anyway.  To avoid breakage, consider using the existing
     public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only)
     ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro.

   * This internal-only *note PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses: 56d. may now
     not be a valid object pointer.  Its type was changed to void* to
     reflect this.  We mention this in case someone happens to be
     accessing the internal-only field directly.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 56e. (using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399, for
     example).

   * Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals,
     uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’, ‘wchar_t’ C
     strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     56f.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836(1).)

   * An unrecognized format character in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     383. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 56f. now sets a *note
     SystemError: 570.  In previous versions it caused all the rest of
     the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any
     extra arguments discarded.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-95781(2).)

   * Fix wrong sign placement in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. and
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 56f.  (Contributed by Philip Georgi
     in gh-95504(3).)

   * Extension classes wanting to add a *note __dict__: 556. or weak
     reference slot should use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 555. instead of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’, respectively.  The use of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ is still supported, but does not fully
     support multiple inheritance (gh-95589(4)), and performance may be
     worse.  Classes declaring *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. must
     call ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’ to traverse and clear their
     instance’s dictionaries.  To clear weakrefs, call *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 571, as before.

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 572. function no longer accepts
     bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 538. and *note memoryview:
     462. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1c2. type is accepted for
     bytes strings.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * The *note Py_CLEAR: 573, *note Py_SETREF: 574. and *note
     Py_XSETREF: 575. macros now only evaluate their arguments once.  If
     an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer
     duplicated.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724(6).)

   * The interpreter’s error indicator is now always normalized.  This
     means that *note PyErr_SetObject(): 576, *note PyErr_SetString():
     577. and the other functions that set the error indicator now
     normalize the exception before storing it.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(7).)

   * ‘_Py_RefTotal’ is no longer authoritative and only kept around for
     ABI compatibility.  Note that it is an internal global and only
     available on debug builds.  If you happen to be using it then
     you’ll need to start using ‘_Py_GetGlobalRefTotal()’.

   * The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the
     newly created type:

        * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578.

        * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579.

        * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c.

     Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57a. is
     deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed.  Note that
     these functions ignore ‘tp_new’ of the metaclass, possibly allowing
     incomplete initialization.

     Note that *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b. (added in Python 3.12)
     already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     ‘tp_new’ (*note __new__(): 57b. in Python).

     Since ‘tp_new’ overrides almost everything ‘PyType_From*’ functions
     do, the two are incompatible with each other.  The existing
     behavior – ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type
     creation – is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that
     ‘tp_new’ was called.  There is no simple general workaround.  One
     of the following may work for you:

        - If you control the metaclass, avoid using ‘tp_new’ in it:

             - If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in *note
               tp_init: 57c. instead.

             - If the metaclass doesn’t need to be instantiated from
               Python, set its ‘tp_new’ to ‘NULL’ using the *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57d. flag.  This makes
               it acceptable for ‘PyType_From*’ functions.

        - Avoid ‘PyType_From*’ functions: if you don’t need C-specific
          features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by
          *note calling: 57e. the metaclass.

        - If you 'know' the ‘tp_new’ can be skipped safely, filter the
          deprecation warning out using *note warnings.catch_warnings():
          57f. from Python.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 580. and *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer:
     581. are no longer called in *note subinterpreters: 582.  This is
     because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since
     these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state).

     This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves
     running in a subinterpreter that they don’t support (or haven’t yet
     been loaded in).  See gh-104668(8) for more info.

   * *note PyLongObject: 583. has had its internals changed for better
     performance.  Although the internals of *note PyLongObject: 583.
     are private, they are used by some extension modules.  The internal
     fields should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API
     functions beginning ‘PyLong_...’ should be used instead.  Two new
     'unstable' API functions are provided for efficient access to the
     value of *note PyLongObject: 583.s which fit into a single machine
     word:

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 584.

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 585.

   * Custom allocators, set via *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 586, are now
     required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain.
     Allocators that don’t have their own state, including “hooks”, are
     not affected.  If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe
     and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC
     ‘@ericsnowcurrently’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<2>,  Next: Removed<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.14.3 Deprecated
...................

   * In accordance with PEP 699(1), the ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note
     PyDictObject: 3bb. is deprecated for extension modules.  Accessing
     this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time.  This
     field will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Ramvikrams
     and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193(2).  PEP by Ken Jin.)

   * Deprecate global configuration variable:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c0.: use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3c1.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c2.: use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c3.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c4.: use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c5.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c6.: use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c7.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c8.: use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c9.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3ca.: use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cb.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3cc.: use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3cd.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce.: use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cf.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d0.: use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d1.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d4.: use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d5.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d6.: use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d7.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d8.: use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d9.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3da.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3db. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3dc.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3dd.: use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3de.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3df.: use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e1.: use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e3.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. (see
          *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-77782(3).)

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3bc. with mutable bases is
     deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14.  (gh-95388(4))

   * The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated, though it continues to
     be available and there are no plans to remove it.

     Its contents are now available just by including ‘Python.h’, with a
     ‘Py’ prefix added if it was missing:

        - *note PyMemberDef: 54a, *note PyMember_GetOne(): 588. and
          *note PyMember_SetOne(): 589.

        - Type macros like *note Py_T_INT: 58a, *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 58b,
          etc.  (previously ‘T_INT’, ‘T_DOUBLE’, etc.)

        - The flags *note Py_READONLY: 58c. (previously ‘READONLY’) and
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 58d. (previously all uppercase)

     Several items are not exposed from ‘Python.h’:

        - *note T_OBJECT: 58e. (use *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 58f.)

        - *note T_NONE: 590. (previously undocumented, and pretty
          quirky)

        - The macro ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ which does nothing.

        - The macros ‘RESTRICTED’ and ‘READ_RESTRICTED’, equivalents of
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 58d.

        - In some configurations, ‘<stddef.h>’ is not included from
          ‘Python.h’.  It should be included manually when using
          ‘offsetof()’.

     The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents
     under the original names.  Your old code can stay unchanged, unless
     the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly.

     (Contributed in gh-47146(5) by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work
     by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.)

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f0. are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f1. instead.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(6).)

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
     PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc. instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102755(7)).

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ is deprecated.  Use
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’ instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102192(8).)

   * Using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. or *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. to create a class whose metaclass
     overrides *note tp_new: 57a. is deprecated.  Call the metaclass
     instead.

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.14.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bb. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3bc. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b5. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c0.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3c1. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c2.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c3.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c4.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c5.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c6.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c7. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c8.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c9.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3ca.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cb. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3cc.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3cd. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cf. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d0.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d1. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d4.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d5. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d6.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d7. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d8.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d9. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3da.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3db. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3dc. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3dd.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3de.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3df.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e1.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e3. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.14.5 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     3b9.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3aa. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab.: Get *note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e8. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ac.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.path: 3ae. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3e9.
          and *note sys.prefix: 3b0. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b5.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.14.6 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.14.7 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ec.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     3ee. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3ef.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f0.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     3f1. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f2.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f3. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f4.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f5. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f6.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     3f7. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fb.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fe.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3ff. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 400.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 401. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 402.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 403. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 404.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 405. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 406.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 407. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 408.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<2>,  Prev: Deprecated<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.14.8 Removed
................

   * Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never any public
     tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only designed to be
     used by Python internals.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-92651(1).)

   * Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed.  See PEP 623(2) for detail.

        * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function macro.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85858(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.3 What’s New In Python 3.11
=============================


Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.11, compared to 3.10.
Python 3.11 was released on October 24, 2022.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* New Modules: New Modules<3>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Faster CPython::
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Removed: Removed<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<3>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<3>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

   * Python 3.11 is between 10-60% faster than Python 3.10.  On average,
     we measured a 1.25x speedup on the standard benchmark suite.  See
     *note Faster CPython: 59a. for details.

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: 59b.

New built-in features:

   * *note PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: 59c.

New standard library modules:

   * PEP 680(1): *note tomllib: fc. — Support for parsing TOML(2) in the
     Standard Library

Interpreter improvements:

   * *note PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: 59d.

   * New *note -P: 59e. command line option and *note PYTHONSAFEPATH:
     59f. environment variable to *note disable automatically prepending
     potentially unsafe paths: 5a0. to *note sys.path: 3ae.

New typing features:

   * *note PEP 646; Variadic generics: 5a1.

   * *note PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or
     not-required: 5a2.

   * *note PEP 673; Self type: 5a3.

   * *note PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: 5a4.

   * *note PEP 681; Data class transforms: 5a5.

Important deprecations, removals and restrictions:

   * PEP 594(3): *note Many legacy standard library modules have been
     deprecated: 5a6. and will be removed in Python 3.13

   * PEP 624(4): *note Py_UNICODE encoder APIs have been removed: 5a7.

   * PEP 670(5): *note Macros converted to static inline functions: 5a8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (2) https://toml.io/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<5>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
* PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks,  Next: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.1 PEP 657: Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks
...........................................................

When printing tracebacks, the interpreter will now point to the exact
expression that caused the error, instead of just the line.  For
example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "distance.py", line 11, in <module>
         print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2))
               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance
         return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y)
                                ^^^^^^^^^
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

Previous versions of the interpreter would point to just the line,
making it ambiguous which object was ‘None’.  These enhanced errors can
also be helpful when dealing with deeply nested *note dict: 256. objects
and multiple function calls:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "query.py", line 37, in <module>
         magic_arithmetic('foo')
       File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic
         return add_counts(x) / 25
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts
         return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2)
                     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 32, in query_user
         return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True)
                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^
     TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

As well as complex arithmetic expressions:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "calculation.py", line 54, in <module>
         result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c)
                   ~~~~~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Additionally, the information used by the enhanced traceback feature is
made available via a general API, that can be used to correlate *note
bytecode: 187. *note instructions: 5ac. with source code location.  This
information can be retrieved using:

   - The *note codeobject.co_positions(): 5ad. method in Python.

   - The *note PyCode_Addr2Location(): 5ae. function in the C API.

See PEP 657(1) for more details.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan
Taskaya and Ammar Askar in bpo-43950(2).)

     참고: This feature requires storing column positions in *note 코드
     객체: 5af, which may result in a small increase in interpreter
     memory usage and disk usage for compiled Python files.  To avoid
     storing the extra information and deactivate printing the extra
     traceback information, use the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 176.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5b0.
     environment variable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Next: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Prev: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.2 PEP 654: Exception Groups and ‘except*’
...............................................

PEP 654(1) introduces language features that enable a program to raise
and handle multiple unrelated exceptions simultaneously.  The builtin
types *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f. make
it possible to group exceptions and raise them together, and the new
*note except*: 5b2. syntax generalizes *note except: 18b. to match
subgroups of exception groups.

See PEP 654(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45292(3).  PEP written by Irit
Katriel, Yury Selivanov and Guido van Rossum.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Next: Windows py exe launcher improvements,  Prev: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.3 PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes
......................................................

The *note add_note(): 5b4. method is added to *note BaseException: 5b5.
It can be used to enrich exceptions with context information that is not
available at the time when the exception is raised.  The added notes
appear in the default traceback.

See PEP 678(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45607(2).  PEP written by Zac
Hatfield-Dodds.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607


File: python.info,  Node: Windows py exe launcher improvements,  Prev: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.4 Windows ‘py.exe’ launcher improvements
..............................................

The copy of the *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. included with Python
3.11 has been significantly updated.  It now supports company/tag syntax
as defined in PEP 514(1) using the ‘-V:<COMPANY>/<TAG>’ argument instead
of the limited ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’.  This allows launching distributions
other than ‘PythonCore’, the one hosted on python.org(2).

When using ‘-V:’ selectors, either company or tag can be omitted, but
all installs will be searched.  For example, ‘-V:OtherPython/’ will
select the “best” tag registered for ‘OtherPython’, while ‘-V:3.11’ or
‘-V:/3.11’ will select the “best” distribution with tag ‘3.11’.

When using the legacy ‘-<MAJOR>’, ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’,
‘-<MAJOR>-<BITNESS>’ or ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>-<BITNESS>’ arguments, all
existing behaviour should be preserved from past versions, and only
releases from ‘PythonCore’ will be selected.  However, the ‘-64’ suffix
now implies “not 32-bit” (not necessarily x86-64), as there are multiple
supported 64-bit platforms.  32-bit runtimes are detected by checking
the runtime’s tag for a ‘-32’ suffix.  All releases of Python since 3.5
have included this in their 32-bit builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (2) https://www.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Next: Other Language Changes<3>,  Prev: New Features<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and
the *note typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Next: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.3.3.1 PEP 646: Variadic generics
..................................

PEP 484(1) previously introduced *note TypeVar: 15d, enabling creation
of generics parameterised with a single type.  PEP 646(2) adds *note
TypeVarTuple: 15f, enabling parameterisation with an 'arbitrary' number
of types.  In other words, a *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. is a 'variadic'
type variable, enabling 'variadic' generics.

This enables a wide variety of use cases.  In particular, it allows the
type of array-like structures in numerical computing libraries such as
NumPy and TensorFlow to be parameterised with the array 'shape'.  Static
type checkers will now be able to catch shape-related bugs in code that
uses these libraries.

See PEP 646(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Matthew Rahtz in bpo-43224(4), with contributions by
Serhiy Storchaka and Jelle Zijlstra.  PEP written by Mark Mendoza,
Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, and Vincent Siles.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Next: PEP 673 Self type,  Prev: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.3.3.2 PEP 655: Marking individual ‘TypedDict’ items as required or not-required
.................................................................................

*note Required: 5be. and *note NotRequired: 5bf. provide a
straightforward way to mark whether individual items in a *note
TypedDict: 162. must be present.  Previously, this was only possible
using inheritance.

All fields are still required by default, unless the 'total' parameter
is set to ‘False’, in which case all fields are still not-required by
default.  For example, the following specifies a ‘TypedDict’ with one
required and one not-required key:

     class Movie(TypedDict):
        title: str
        year: NotRequired[int]

     m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018}  # OK
     m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"}  # OK (year is not required)
     m3: Movie = {"year": 2022}  # ERROR (missing required field title)

The following definition is equivalent:

     class Movie(TypedDict, total=False):
        title: Required[str]
        year: int

See PEP 655(1) for more details.

(Contributed by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47087(2).  PEP
written by David Foster.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 673 Self type,  Next: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Prev: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.3.3.3 PEP 673: ‘Self’ type
............................

The new *note Self: 5c1. annotation provides a simple and intuitive way
to annotate methods that return an instance of their class.  This
behaves the same as the *note TypeVar: 15d.-based approach specified in
PEP 484(1), but is more concise and easier to follow.

Common use cases include alternative constructors provided as *note
classmethod: 166.s, and *note __enter__(): 5c2. methods that return
‘self’:

     class MyLock:
         def __enter__(self) -> Self:
             self.lock()
             return self

         ...

     class MyInt:
         @classmethod
         def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self:
             return cls(int(s, 16))

         ...

*note Self: 5c1. can also be used to annotate method parameters or
attributes of the same type as their enclosing class.

See PEP 673(2) for more details.

(Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in bpo-46534(3).  PEP written by
Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and James Hilton-Balfe.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Next: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Prev: PEP 673 Self type,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.3.3.4 PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type
..............................................

The new *note LiteralString: 5c4. annotation may be used to indicate
that a function parameter can be of any literal string type.  This
allows a function to accept arbitrary literal string types, as well as
strings created from other literal strings.  Type checkers can then
enforce that sensitive functions, such as those that execute SQL
statements or shell commands, are called only with static arguments,
providing protection against injection attacks.

For example, a SQL query function could be annotated as follows:

     def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ...
         ...

     def caller(
         arbitrary_string: str,
         query_string: LiteralString,
         table_name: LiteralString,
     ) -> None:
         run_query("SELECT * FROM students")       # ok
         run_query(query_string)                   # ok
         run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name)  # ok
         run_query(arbitrary_string)               # type checker error
         run_query(                                # type checker error
             f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
         )

See PEP 675(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47088(2).  PEP written by Pradeep
Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Next: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.3.3.5 PEP 681: Data class transforms
......................................

*note dataclass_transform: 4ce. may be used to decorate a class,
metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the decorated
object performs runtime “magic” that transforms a class, giving it *note
dataclass: 1cb.-like behaviors.

For example:

     # The create_model decorator is defined by a library.
     @typing.dataclass_transform()
     def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]:
         cls.__init__ = ...
         cls.__eq__ = ...
         cls.__ne__ = ...
         return cls

     # The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes:
     @create_model
     class CustomerModel:
         id: int
         name: str

     c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle")

See PEP 681(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-91860(2).  PEP written by Erik De
Bonte and Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.3.3.6 PEP 563 may not be the future
.....................................

PEP 563(1) Postponed Evaluation of Annotations (the ‘from __future__
import annotations’ *note future statement: 189.) that was originally
planned for release in Python 3.10 has been put on hold indefinitely.
See this message from the Steering Council(2) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<3>,  Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * Starred unpacking expressions can now be used in *note for: 2ea.
     statements.  (See bpo-46725(1) for more details.)

   * Asynchronous *note comprehensions: 5ca. are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in *note asynchronous functions: 5cb.  Outer
     comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous in this case.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33346(2).)

   * A *note TypeError: 532. is now raised instead of an *note
     AttributeError: 346. in *note with: 5cc. statements and *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 5cd. for objects that do not
     support the *note context manager: 5ce. protocol, and in *note
     async with: 5cf. statements and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 5d0. for objects
     not supporting the *note asynchronous context manager: 5d1.
     protocol.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12022(3) and
     bpo-44471(4).)

   * Added *note object.__getstate__(): 5d2, which provides the default
     implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.  *note copy: 25.ing
     and *note pickle: a6.ing instances of subclasses of builtin types
     *note bytearray: 538, *note set: 5d3, *note frozenset: 5d4, *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 5d5, *note collections.deque: 5d6, *note
     weakref.WeakSet: 5d7, and *note datetime.tzinfo: 5d8. now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as *note slots: 5d9.
     This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small
     minority of existing Python projects not expecting *note
     object.__getstate__(): 5d2. to exist.  See the later comments on
     gh-70766(5) for discussions of what workarounds such code may need.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579(6).)

   * Added a *note -P: 59e. command line option and a *note
     PYTHONSAFEPATH: 59f. environment variable, which disable the
     automatic prepending to *note sys.path: 3ae. of the script’s
     directory when running a script, or the current directory when
     using *note -c: 5da. and *note -m: 5db.  This ensures only stdlib
     and installed modules are picked up by *note import: 5dc, and
     avoids unintentionally or maliciously shadowing modules with those
     in a local (and typically user-writable) directory.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(7).)

   * A ‘"z"’ option was added to the *note 포맷 명세 미니 언어: 1e8.
     that coerces negative to positive zero after rounding to the format
     precision.  See PEP 682(8) for more details.  (Contributed by John
     Belmonte in gh-90153(9).)

   * Bytes are no longer accepted on *note sys.path: 3ae.  Support broke
     sometime between Python 3.2 and 3.6, with no one noticing until
     after Python 3.10.0 was released.  In addition, bringing back
     support would be problematic due to interactions between *note -b:
     5dd. and *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. when there is a
     mixture of *note str: 445. and *note bytes: 1c2. keys.
     (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-91181(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: New Modules<3>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.5 Other CPython Implementation Changes
------------------------------------------

   * The special methods *note __complex__(): 5e1. for *note complex:
     2f0. and *note __bytes__(): 5e2. for *note bytes: 1c2. are
     implemented to support the *note typing.SupportsComplex: 5e3. and
     *note typing.SupportsBytes: 5e4. protocols.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson and Donghee Na in bpo-24234(1).)

   * ‘siphash13’ is added as a new internal hashing algorithm.  It has
     similar security properties as ‘siphash24’, but it is slightly
     faster for long inputs.  *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2, and some
     other types now use it as the default algorithm for *note hash():
     5e5.  PEP 552(2) *note hash-based .pyc files: 5e6. now use
     ‘siphash13’ too.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-29410(3).)

   * When an active exception is re-raised by a *note raise: 5e7.
     statement with no parameters, the traceback attached to this
     exception is now always ‘sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__’.  This
     means that changes made to the traceback in the current *note
     except: 18b. clause are reflected in the re-raised exception.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * The interpreter state’s representation of handled exceptions (aka
     ‘exc_info’ or ‘_PyErr_StackItem’) now only has the ‘exc_value’
     field; ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed, as they
     can be derived from ‘exc_value’.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     bpo-45711(5).)

   * A new *note command line option: 5e8, ‘AppendPath’, has been added
     for the Windows installer.  It behaves similarly to ‘PrependPath’,
     but appends the install and scripts directories instead of
     prepending them.  (Contributed by Bastian Neuburger in
     bpo-44934(6).)

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5e9. field must now be
     set to ‘1’ for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c. to initialize *note sys.path:
     3ae.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * The output of the *note -help: 5ea. option now fits in 50 lines/80
     columns.  Information about *note Python environment variables:
     5eb. and *note -X: 176. options is now available using the
     respective *note -help-env: 5ec. and *note -help-xoptions: 5ed.
     flags, and with the new *note -help-all: 5ee.  (Contributed by Éric
     Araujo in bpo-46142(7).)

   * Converting between *note int: 257. and *note str: 445. in bases
     other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such
     as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the
     number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential
     denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This
     is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(8).  This limit can be
     configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag,
     or *note sys: d9. APIs.  See the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 5ef. documentation.  The default limit is 4300
     digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<3>,  Next: Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.6 New Modules
-----------------

   * *note tomllib: fc.: For parsing TOML(1). See PEP 680(2) for more
     details.  (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in bpo-40059(3).)

   * *note wsgiref.types: 11c.: WSGI(4)-specific types for static type
     checking.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-42012(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://toml.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Optimizations<3>,  Prev: New Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.7 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<3>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging::
* math: math<3>.
* operator::
* os: os<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* re: re<3>.
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* string::
* sys: sys<4>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time: time<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* zipfile::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<3>,  Next: contextlib,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.1 asyncio
...............

   * Added the *note TaskGroup: 1b5. class, an *note asynchronous
     context manager: 5f6. holding a group of tasks that will wait for
     all of them upon exit.  For new code this is recommended over using
     *note create_task(): 1bf. and *note gather(): 5f7. directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and others in gh-90908(1).)

   * Added *note timeout(): 5f8, an asynchronous context manager for
     setting a timeout on asynchronous operations.  For new code this is
     recommended over using *note wait_for(): 5f9. directly.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-90927(2).)

   * Added the *note Runner: 5fa. class, which exposes the machinery
     used by *note run(): 476.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     gh-91218(3).)

   * Added the *note Barrier: 5fb. class to the synchronization
     primitives in the asyncio library, and the related *note
     BrokenBarrierError: 5fc. exception.  (Contributed by Yves Duprat
     and Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518(4).)

   * Added keyword argument 'all_errors' to *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5fd. so that multiple connection
     errors can be raised as an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.

   * Added the *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 5fe. method for
     upgrading existing stream-based connections to TLS. (Contributed by
     Ian Good in bpo-34975(5).)

   * Added raw datagram socket functions to the event loop: *note
     sock_sendto(): 5ff, *note sock_recvfrom(): 600. and *note
     sock_recvfrom_into(): 601.  These have implementations in *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 602. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.
     (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-46805(6).)

   * Added *note cancelling(): 1ba. and *note uncancel(): 1bb. methods
     to *note Task: 1be.  These are primarily intended for internal use,
     notably by *note TaskGroup: 1b5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib,  Next: dataclasses,  Prev: asyncio<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.2 contextlib
..................

   * Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 606. context manager to
     change the current working directory and then restore it on exit.
     Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 607.  (Contributed by Filipe
     Laíns in bpo-25625(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses,  Next: datetime,  Prev: contextlib,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.3 dataclasses
...................

   * Change field default mutability check, allowing only defaults which
     are *note hashable: 60a. instead of any object which is not an
     instance of *note dict: 256, *note list: 60b. or *note set: 5d3.
     (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-44674(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674


File: python.info,  Node: datetime,  Next: enum<3>,  Prev: dataclasses,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.4 datetime
................

   * Add *note datetime.UTC: 4e8, a convenience alias for *note
     datetime.timezone.utc: 60e.  (Contributed by Kabir Kwatra in
     gh-91973(1).)

   * *note datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 60f, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 610. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 611. can now be used to parse
     most ISO 8601 formats (barring only those that support fractional
     hours and minutes).  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-80010(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010


File: python.info,  Node: enum<3>,  Next: fcntl,  Prev: datetime,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.5 enum
............

   * Renamed ‘EnumMeta’ to *note EnumType: 1e5. (‘EnumMeta’ kept as an
     alias).

   * Added *note StrEnum: 614, with members that can be used as (and
     must be) strings.

   * Added *note ReprEnum: 615, which only modifies the *note
     __repr__(): 616. of members while returning their literal values
     (rather than names) for *note __str__(): 617. and *note
     __format__(): 618. (used by *note str(): 445, *note format(): 619.
     and *note f-string: 42f.s).

   * Changed *note Enum.__format__(): 61a. (the default for *note
     format(): 619, *note str.format(): 61b. and *note f-string: 42f.s)
     to always produce the same result as *note Enum.__str__(): 61c.:
     for enums inheriting from *note ReprEnum: 615. it will be the
     member’s value; for all other enums it will be the enum and member
     name (e.g.  ‘Color.RED’).

   * Added a new 'boundary' class parameter to *note Flag: 61d. enums
     and the *note FlagBoundary: 61e. enum with its options, to control
     how to handle out-of-range flag values.

   * Added the *note verify(): 61f. enum decorator and the *note
     EnumCheck: 620. enum with its options, to check enum classes
     against several specific constraints.

   * Added the *note member(): 621. and *note nonmember(): 622.
     decorators, to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to
     an enum member.

   * Added the *note property(): 623. decorator, which works like *note
     property(): 194. except for enums.  Use this instead of *note
     types.DynamicClassAttribute(): 624.

   * Added the *note global_enum(): 625. enum decorator, which adjusts
     *note __repr__(): 616. and *note __str__(): 617. to show values as
     members of their module rather than the enum class.  For example,
     ‘'re.ASCII'’ for the *note ASCII: 626. member of *note
     re.RegexFlag: 627. rather than ‘'RegexFlag.ASCII'’.

   * Enhanced *note Flag: 61d. to support *note len(): 628, iteration
     and *note in: 2ec./*note not in: 629. on its members.  For example,
     the following now works: ‘len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) ==
     (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)’

   * Changed *note Enum: 62a. and *note Flag: 61d. so that members are
     now defined before *note __init_subclass__(): 62b. is called; *note
     dir(): 62c. now includes methods, etc., from mixed-in data types.

   * Changed *note Flag: 61d. to only consider primary values (power of
     two) canonical while composite values (‘3’, ‘6’, ‘10’, etc.)  are
     considered aliases; inverted flags are coerced to their positive
     equivalent.


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl,  Next: fractions<3>,  Prev: enum<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.6 fcntl
.............

   * On FreeBSD, the ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ flags
     respectively are supported, the former equals to ‘dup2’ usage while
     the latter set the ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<3>,  Next: functools,  Prev: fcntl,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.7 fractions
.................

   * Support PEP 515(1)-style initialization of *note Fraction: 1e7.
     from string.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in bpo-44258(2).)

   * *note Fraction: 1e7. now implements an ‘__int__’ method, so that an
     ‘isinstance(some_fraction, typing.SupportsInt)’ check passes.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44547(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547


File: python.info,  Node: functools,  Next: gzip<2>,  Prev: fractions<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.8 functools
.................

   * *note functools.singledispatch(): 633. now supports *note
     types.UnionType: 634. and *note typing.Union: 635. as annotations
     to the dispatch argument.:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-46014(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<2>,  Next: hashlib<2>,  Prev: functools,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.9 gzip
............

   * The *note gzip.compress(): 638. function is now faster when used
     with the 'mtime=0' argument as it delegates the compression
     entirely to a single *note zlib.compress(): 639. operation.  There
     is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an
     “OS” byte in its header.  That was traditionally always set to a
     value of 255 representing “unknown” by the *note gzip: 67. module.
     Now, when using *note compress(): 638. with 'mtime=0', it may be
     set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python
     was linked against.  (See gh-112346(1) for details on the side
     effect.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<2>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib,  Prev: gzip<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.10 hashlib
................

   * *note hashlib.blake2b(): 63c. and *note hashlib.blake2s(): 63d. now
     prefer libb2(1) over Python’s vendored copy.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-47095(2).)

   * The internal ‘_sha3’ module with SHA3 and SHAKE algorithms now uses
     'tiny_sha3' instead of the 'Keccak Code Package' to reduce code and
     binary size.  The *note hashlib: 68. module prefers optimized SHA3
     and SHAKE implementations from OpenSSL. The change affects only
     installations without OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-47098(3).)

   * Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 63e, a helper function for
     efficient hashing of files or file-like objects.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in gh-89313(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib,  Next: inspect<2>,  Prev: hashlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.11 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

   * Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(1).)

   * Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.
     (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<2>,  Next: locale<3>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.12 inspect
................

   * Add *note getmembers_static(): 643. to return all members without
     triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol.
     (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-30533(1).)

   * Add *note ismethodwrapper(): 644. for checking if the type of an
     object is a *note MethodWrapperType: 645.  (Contributed by Hakan
     Çelik in bpo-29418(2).)

   * Change the frame-related functions in the *note inspect: 7e. module
     to return new *note FrameInfo: 646. and *note Traceback: 647. class
     instances (backwards compatible with the previous *note named
     tuple: 648.-like interfaces) that includes the extended PEP 657(3)
     position information (end line number, column and end column).  The
     affected functions are:

        * *note inspect.getframeinfo(): 649.

        * *note inspect.getouterframes(): 64a.

        * *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 64b,

        * *note inspect.stack(): 64c.

        * *note inspect.trace(): 64d.

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88116(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116


File: python.info,  Node: locale<3>,  Next: logging,  Prev: inspect<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.13 locale
...............

   * Add *note locale.getencoding(): 2de. to get the current locale
     encoding.  It is similar to ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’
     but ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.


File: python.info,  Node: logging,  Next: math<3>,  Prev: locale<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.14 logging
................

   * Added *note getLevelNamesMapping(): 653. to return a mapping from
     logging level names (e.g.  ‘'CRITICAL'’) to the values of their
     corresponding *note 로깅 수준: 654. (e.g.  ‘50’, by default).
     (Contributed by Andrei Kulakovin in gh-88024(1).)

   * Added a *note createSocket(): 655. method to *note SysLogHandler:
     656, to match *note SocketHandler.createSocket(): 657.  It is
     called automatically during handler initialization and when
     emitting an event, if there is no active socket.  (Contributed by
     Kirill Pinchuk in gh-88457(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457


File: python.info,  Node: math<3>,  Next: operator,  Prev: logging,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.15 math
.............

   * Add *note math.exp2(): 65a.: return 2 raised to the power of x.
     (Contributed by Gideon Mitchell in bpo-45917(1).)

   * Add *note math.cbrt(): 65b.: return the cube root of x.
     (Contributed by Ajith Ramachandran in bpo-44357(2).)

   * The behaviour of two *note math.pow(): 65c. corner cases was
     changed, for consistency with the IEEE 754 specification.  The
     operations ‘math.pow(0.0, -math.inf)’ and ‘math.pow(-0.0,
     -math.inf)’ now return ‘inf’.  Previously they raised *note
     ValueError: 202.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44339(3).)

   * The *note math.nan: 65d. value is now always available.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917


File: python.info,  Node: operator,  Next: os<3>,  Prev: math<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.16 operator
.................

   * A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such that
     ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.
     (Contributed by Antony Lee in bpo-44019(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019


File: python.info,  Node: os<3>,  Next: pathlib<4>,  Prev: operator,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.17 os
...........

   * On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 51c. now uses ‘BCryptGenRandom()’,
     instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-44611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<4>,  Next: re<3>,  Prev: os<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.18 pathlib
................

   * *note glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e. return only directories
     if 'pattern' ends with a pathname components separator: *note sep:
     664. or *note altsep: 665.  (Contributed by Eisuke Kawasima in
     bpo-22276(1) and bpo-33392(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392


File: python.info,  Node: re<3>,  Next: shutil<3>,  Prev: pathlib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.19 re
...........

   * Atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’,
     ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) are now supported in regular expressions.
     (Contributed by Jeffrey C. Jacobs and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-433030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<3>,  Next: socket,  Prev: re<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.20 shutil
...............

   * Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-46245(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245


File: python.info,  Node: socket,  Next: sqlite3<4>,  Prev: shutil<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.21 socket
...............

   * Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD. (Contributed by Thomas Klausner
     in bpo-30512(1).)

   * *note create_connection(): 66c. has an option to raise, in case of
     failure to connect, an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. containing all
     errors instead of only raising the last error.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-29980(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<4>,  Next: string,  Prev: socket,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.22 sqlite3
................

   * You can now disable the authorizer by passing *note None: 66f. to
     *note set_authorizer(): 2ab.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-44491(1).)

   * Collation name *note create_collation(): 670. can now contain any
     Unicode character.  Collation names with invalid characters now
     raise *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. instead of *note
     sqlite3.ProgrammingError: 4ec.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland
     in bpo-44688(2).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf. exceptions now include the SQLite extended error
     code as *note sqlite_errorcode: 672. and the SQLite error name as
     *note sqlite_errorname: 673.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel
     Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-16379(3) and bpo-24139(4).)

   * Add *note setlimit(): 674. and *note getlimit(): 675. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. for setting and getting SQLite limits by
     connection basis.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-45243(5).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf. now sets *note sqlite3.threadsafety: 676. based
     on the default threading mode the underlying SQLite library has
     been compiled with.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-45613(6).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf. C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if
     callback tracebacks are enabled.  Users can now register an *note
     unraisable hook handler: 1f7. to improve their debug experience.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45828(7).)

   * Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note InterfaceError: 677.
     Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44092(8).)

   * Add *note serialize(): 678. and *note deserialize(): 679. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. for serializing and deserializing
     databases.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-41930(9).)

   * Add *note create_window_function(): 67a. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. for creating aggregate window functions.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-34916(10).)

   * Add *note blobopen(): 67b. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 245.  *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 67c. allows incremental I/O operations on blobs.
     (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-24905(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: string,  Next: sys<4>,  Prev: sqlite3<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.23 string
...............

   * Add *note get_identifiers(): 67f. and *note is_valid(): 680. to
     *note string.Template: 681, which respectively return all valid
     placeholders, and whether any invalid placeholders are present.
     (Contributed by Ben Kehoe in gh-90465(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465


File: python.info,  Node: sys<4>,  Next: sysconfig,  Prev: string,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.24 sys
............

   * *note sys.exc_info(): 684. now derives the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’
     fields from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to ‘exc_info()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(1).)

   * Add *note sys.exception(): 685. which returns the active exception
     instance (equivalent to ‘sys.exc_info()[1]’).  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in bpo-46328(2).)

   * Add the *note sys.flags.safe_path: 686. flag.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig,  Next: tempfile<3>,  Prev: sys<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.25 sysconfig
..................

   * Three new *note installation schemes: 689. ('posix_venv', 'nt_venv'
     and 'venv') were added and are used when Python creates new virtual
     environments or when it is running from a virtual environment.  The
     first two schemes ('posix_venv' and 'nt_venv') are OS-specific for
     non-Windows and Windows, the 'venv' is essentially an alias to one
     of them according to the OS Python runs on.  This is useful for
     downstream distributors who modify *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 68a.  Third party code that
     creates new virtual environments should use the new 'venv'
     installation scheme to determine the paths, as does *note venv:
     111.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<3>,  Next: threading<2>,  Prev: sysconfig,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.26 tempfile
.................

   * *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 68d. objects now fully implement the
     methods of *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. or *note io.TextIOBase:
     68f. (depending on file mode).  This lets them work correctly with
     APIs that expect file-like objects, such as compression modules.
     (Contributed by Carey Metcalfe in gh-70363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363


File: python.info,  Node: threading<2>,  Next: time<2>,  Prev: tempfile<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.27 threading
..................

   * On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is available in the C
     library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     692. method now uses the monotonic clock (*note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693.) for the timeout, rather than using the
     system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 694.), to not be affected
     by system clock changes.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-41710(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710


File: python.info,  Node: time<2>,  Next: tkinter<3>,  Prev: threading<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.28 time
.............

   * On Unix, *note time.sleep(): 697. now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’
     or ‘nanosleep()’ function, if available, which has a resolution of
     1 nanosecond (10^-9 seconds), rather than using ‘select()’ which
     has a resolution of 1 microsecond (10^-6 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner in bpo-21302(1).)

   * On Windows 8.1 and newer, *note time.sleep(): 697. now uses a
     waitable timer based on high-resolution timers(2) which has a
     resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7 seconds).  Previously, it had
     a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke, Donghee Na, Eryk Sun and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21302(3) and bpo-45429(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<3>,  Next: traceback<2>,  Prev: time<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.29 tkinter
................

   * Added method ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of
     the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info:
     69a.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<2>,  Next: typing<4>,  Prev: tkinter<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.30 traceback
..................

   * Add *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 69d. to
     allow users to override which frames appear in the traceback, and
     how they are formatted.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in
     bpo-44569(1).)

   * Add *note traceback.TracebackException.print(): 69e, which prints
     the formatted *note TracebackException: 25c. instance to a file.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-33809(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809


File: python.info,  Node: typing<4>,  Next: unicodedata<3>,  Prev: traceback<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.31 typing
...............

For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 5b9.

   * Add *note typing.assert_never(): 6a1. and *note typing.Never: 6a2.
     *note typing.assert_never(): 6a1. is useful for asking a type
     checker to confirm that a line of code is not reachable.  At
     runtime, it raises an *note AssertionError: 6a3.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90633(1).)

   * Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 6a4.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker what type it has inferred for a given expression.  At
     runtime it prints the type of the received value.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90572(2).)

   * Add *note typing.assert_type(): 6a5.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker to confirm that the type it has inferred for a given
     expression matches the given type.  At runtime it simply returns
     the received value.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-90638(3).)

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 162. types can now be generic.
     (Contributed by Samodya Abeysiriwardane in gh-89026(4).)

   * *note NamedTuple: 2b0. types can now be generic.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43923(5).)

   * Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 6a6.  This is useful for
     avoiding type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such
     as mocks.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91154(6).)

   * The *note typing.final(): 6a7. decorator now sets the ‘__final__’
     attributed on the decorated object.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra
     in gh-90500(7).)

   * The *note typing.get_overloads(): 6a8. function can be used for
     introspecting the overloads of a function.  *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 6a9. can be used to clear all registered
     overloads of a function.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-89263(8).)

   * The *note __init__(): 6aa. method of *note Protocol: 264.
     subclasses is now preserved.  (Contributed by Adrian Garcia
     Badarasco in gh-88970(9).)

   * The representation of empty tuple types (‘Tuple[()]’) is
     simplified.  This affects introspection, e.g.
     ‘get_args(Tuple[()])’ now evaluates to ‘()’ instead of ‘((),)’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91137(10).)

   * Loosen runtime requirements for type annotations by removing the
     callable check in the private ‘typing._type_check’ function.
     (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90802(11).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. now supports evaluating strings
     as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic aliases: 6ac.
     (Contributed by Niklas Rosenstein in gh-85542(12).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. no longer adds *note Optional:
     6ad. to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-90353(13).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. now supports evaluating bare
     stringified *note ClassVar: 266. annotations.  (Contributed by
     Gregory Beauregard in gh-90711(14).)

   * *note typing.no_type_check(): 6ae. no longer modifies external
     classes and functions.  It also now correctly marks classmethods as
     not to be type checked.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-90729(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<3>,  Next: unittest<4>,  Prev: typing<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.32 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 14.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-45190(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<4>,  Next: venv<2>,  Prev: unicodedata<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.33 unittest
.................

   * Added methods *note enterContext(): 6b3. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 6b4. of class *note TestCase: 447, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 6b5. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 6b6.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-45046(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046


File: python.info,  Node: venv<2>,  Next: warnings<2>,  Prev: unittest<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.34 venv
.............

   * When new Python virtual environments are created, the 'venv' *note
     sysconfig installation scheme: 689. is used to determine the paths
     inside the environment.  When Python runs in a virtual environment,
     the same installation scheme is the default.  That means that
     downstream distributors can change the default sysconfig install
     scheme without changing behavior of virtual environments.  Third
     party code that also creates new virtual environments should do the
     same.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<2>,  Next: zipfile,  Prev: venv<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.35 warnings
.................

   * *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 57f. now accepts arguments for
     *note warnings.simplefilter(): 6bb, providing a more concise way to
     locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.  (Contributed by
     Zac Hatfield-Dodds in bpo-47074(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile,  Prev: warnings<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.7.36 zipfile
................

   * Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading
     metadata in a *note ZipFile: 6be.’s directory and file headers.
     (Contributed by Stephen J. Turnbull and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28080(1).)

   * Added *note ZipFile.mkdir(): 6bf. for creating new directories
     inside ZIP archives.  (Contributed by Sam Ezeh in gh-49083(2).)

   * Added *note stem: 6c0, *note suffix: 6c1. and *note suffixes: 6c2.
     to *note zipfile.Path: 6c3.  (Contributed by Miguel Brito in
     gh-88261(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<3>,  Next: Faster CPython,  Prev: Improved Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.8 Optimizations
-------------------

This section covers specific optimizations independent of the *note
Faster CPython: 59a. project, which is covered in its own section.

   * The compiler now optimizes simple *note printf-style % formatting:
     6c6. on string literals containing only the format codes ‘%s’, ‘%r’
     and ‘%a’ and makes it as fast as a corresponding *note f-string:
     42f. expression.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28307(1).)

   * Integer division (‘//’) is better tuned for optimization by
     compilers.  It is now around 20% faster on x86-64 when dividing an
     *note int: 257. by a value smaller than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith and Tim Peters in gh-90564(2).)

   * *note sum(): 464. is now nearly 30% faster for integers smaller
     than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in gh-68264(3).)

   * Resizing lists is streamlined for the common case, speeding up
     ‘list.append()’ by ≈15% and simple *note list comprehension: 6c7.s
     by up to 20-30% (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-91165(4).)

   * Dictionaries don’t store hash values when all keys are Unicode
     objects, decreasing *note dict: 256. size.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ is reduced from 352 bytes
     to 272 bytes (23% smaller) on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-46845(5).)

   * Using *note asyncio.DatagramProtocol: 6c8. is now orders of
     magnitude faster when transferring large files over UDP, with
     speeds over 100 times higher for a ≈60 MiB file.  (Contributed by
     msoxzw in gh-91487(6).)

   * *note math: 8e. functions *note comb(): 6c9. and *note perm(): 6ca.
     are now ≈10 times faster for large arguments (with a larger speedup
     for larger 'k').  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-37295(7).)

   * The *note statistics: d2. functions *note mean(): 6cb, *note
     variance(): 6cc. and *note stdev(): 6cd. now consume iterators in
     one pass rather than converting them to a *note list: 60b. first.
     This is twice as fast and can save substantial memory.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-90415(8).)

   * *note unicodedata.normalize(): 6ce. now normalizes pure-ASCII
     strings in constant time.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-44987(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987


File: python.info,  Node: Faster CPython,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.9 Faster CPython
--------------------

CPython 3.11 is an average of 25% faster(1) than CPython 3.10 as
measured with the pyperformance(2) benchmark suite, when compiled with
GCC on Ubuntu Linux.  Depending on your workload, the overall speedup
could be 10-60%.

This project focuses on two major areas in Python: *note Faster Startup:
6d0. and *note Faster Runtime: 6d1.  Optimizations not covered by this
project are listed separately under *note Optimizations: 6c5.

* Menu:

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* About::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results

   (2) https://github.com/python/pyperformance


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Startup,  Next: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.1 Faster Startup
......................

* Menu:

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen imports / Static code objects,  Up: Faster Startup

1.3.9.2 Frozen imports / Static code objects
............................................

Python caches *note bytecode: 187. in the *note __pycache__: 6d5.
directory to speed up module loading.

Previously in 3.10, Python module execution looked like this:

     Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate

In Python 3.11, the core modules essential for Python startup are
“frozen”.  This means that their *note 코드 객체: 5af. (and bytecode)
are statically allocated by the interpreter.  This reduces the steps in
module execution process to:

     Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate

Interpreter startup is now 10-15% faster in Python 3.11.  This has a big
impact for short-running programs using Python.

(Contributed by Eric Snow, Guido van Rossum and Kumar Aditya in many
issues.)


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Runtime,  Next: Misc,  Prev: Faster Startup,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.3 Faster Runtime
......................

* Menu:

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Next: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.3.9.4 Cheaper, lazy Python frames
...................................

Python frames, holding execution information, are created whenever
Python calls a Python function.  The following are new frame
optimizations:

   - Streamlined the frame creation process.

   - Avoided memory allocation by generously re-using frame space on the
     C stack.

   - Streamlined the internal frame struct to contain only essential
     information.  Frames previously held extra debugging and memory
     management information.

Old-style *note frame objects: 6d9. are now created only when requested
by debuggers or by Python introspection functions such as *note
sys._getframe(): 6da. and *note inspect.currentframe(): 6db.  For most
user code, no frame objects are created at all.  As a result, nearly all
Python functions calls have sped up significantly.  We measured a 3-7%
speedup in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-44590(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590


File: python.info,  Node: Inlined Python function calls,  Next: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.3.9.5 Inlined Python function calls
.....................................

During a Python function call, Python will call an evaluating C function
to interpret that function’s code.  This effectively limits pure Python
recursion to what’s safe for the C stack.

In 3.11, when CPython detects Python code calling another Python
function, it sets up a new frame, and “jumps” to the new code inside the
new frame.  This avoids calling the C interpreting function altogether.

Most Python function calls now consume no C stack space, speeding them
up.  In simple recursive functions like fibonacci or factorial, we
observed a 1.7x speedup.  This also means recursive functions can
recurse significantly deeper (if the user increases the recursion limit
with *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bd.).  We measured a 1-3%
improvement in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Mark Shannon in bpo-45256(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.3.9.6 PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter
..................................................

PEP 659(1) is one of the key parts of the Faster CPython project.  The
general idea is that while Python is a dynamic language, most code has
regions where objects and types rarely change.  This concept is known as
'type stability'.

At runtime, Python will try to look for common patterns and type
stability in the executing code.  Python will then replace the current
operation with a more specialized one.  This specialized operation uses
fast paths available only to those use cases/types, which generally
outperform their generic counterparts.  This also brings in another
concept called 'inline caching', where Python caches the results of
expensive operations directly in the *note bytecode: 187.

The specializer will also combine certain common instruction pairs into
one superinstruction, reducing the overhead during execution.

Python will only specialize when it sees code that is “hot” (executed
multiple times).  This prevents Python from wasting time on run-once
code.  Python can also de-specialize when code is too dynamic or when
the use changes.  Specialization is attempted periodically, and
specialization attempts are not too expensive, allowing specialization
to adapt to new circumstances.

(PEP written by Mark Shannon, with ideas inspired by Stefan Brunthaler.
See PEP 659(2) for more information.  Implementation by Mark Shannon and
Brandt Bucher, with additional help from Irit Katriel and Dennis
Sweeney.)

Operation           Form                     Specialization                                              Operation speedup (up   Contributor(s)
                                                                                                         to)                     
                                                                                                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                 
Binary operations   ‘x + x’                  Binary add, multiply and subtract for common types such     10%                     Mark Shannon, Donghee
                                             as *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef. and *note str: 445.                            Na, Brandt Bucher,
                    ‘x - x’                  take custom fast paths for their underlying types.                                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                    ‘x * x’
                    
                                                                                                                                 
Subscript           ‘a[i]’                   Subscripting container types such as *note list: 60b,       10-25%                  Irit Katriel, Mark
                                             *note tuple: 369. and *note dict: 256. directly index the                           Shannon
                                             underlying data structures.                                                         
                                             
                                             Subscripting custom *note __getitem__(): 283. is also
                                             inlined similar to
                                             *note Inlined Python function calls: 6dc.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store subscript     ‘a[i] = z’               Similar to subscripting specialization above.               10-25%                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Calls               ‘f(arg)’                 Calls to common builtin (C) functions and types such as     20%                     Mark Shannon, Ken Jin
                                             *note len(): 628. and *note str: 445. directly call their                           
                    ‘C(arg)’                 underlying C version.  This avoids going through the
                                             internal calling convention.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load global         ‘print’                  The object’s index in the globals/builtins namespace is     (3)                     Mark Shannon
variable                                     cached.  Loading globals and builtins require zero                                  
                    ‘len’                    namespace lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load attribute      ‘o.attr’                 Similar to loading global variables.  The attribute’s       (4)                     Mark Shannon
                                             index inside the class/object’s namespace is cached.  In                            
                                             most cases, attribute loading will require zero namespace
                                             lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load methods for    ‘o.meth()’               The actual address of the method is cached.  Method         10-20%                  Ken Jin, Mark Shannon
call                                         loading now has no namespace lookups – even for classes                             
                                             with long inheritance chains.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store attribute     ‘o.attr = z’             Similar to load attribute optimization.                     2% in pyperformance     Mark Shannon
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Unpack Sequence     ‘*seq’                   Specialized for common containers such as                   8%                      Brandt Bucher
                                             *note list: 60b. and *note tuple: 369.  Avoids internal                             
                                             calling convention.
                                             

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (3) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.8.  3.11
specializes for more forms and reduces some overhead.

   (4) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.10.  3.11
specializes for more forms.  Furthermore, all attribute loads should be
sped up by bpo-45947
(https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947).


File: python.info,  Node: Misc,  Next: FAQ,  Prev: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.7 Misc
............

   * Objects now require less memory due to lazily created object
     namespaces.  Their namespace dictionaries now also share keys more
     freely.  (Contributed Mark Shannon in bpo-45340(1) and
     bpo-40116(2).)

   * “Zero-cost” exceptions are implemented, eliminating the cost of
     *note try: 6e2. statements when no exception is raised.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(3).)

   * A more concise representation of exceptions in the interpreter
     reduced the time required for catching an exception by about 10%.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note re: b9.’s regular expression matching engine has been
     partially refactored, and now uses computed gotos (or “threaded
     code”) on supported platforms.  As a result, Python 3.11 executes
     the pyperformance regular expression benchmarks(5) up to 10% faster
     than Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-91404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ,  Next: About,  Prev: Misc,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.8 FAQ
...........

* Menu:

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::


File: python.info,  Node: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Next: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.9 How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?
.............................................................

Write Pythonic code that follows common best practices; you don’t have
to change your code.  The Faster CPython project optimizes for common
code patterns we observe.


File: python.info,  Node: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Next: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Prev: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.10 Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?
...........................................

Maybe not; we don’t expect memory use to exceed 20% higher than 3.10.
This is offset by memory optimizations for frame objects and object
dictionaries as mentioned above.


File: python.info,  Node: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Next: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.11 I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?
......................................................

Certain code won’t have noticeable benefits.  If your code spends most
of its time on I/O operations, or already does most of its computation
in a C extension library like NumPy, there won’t be significant
speedups.  This project currently benefits pure-Python workloads the
most.

Furthermore, the pyperformance figures are a geometric mean.  Even
within the pyperformance benchmarks, certain benchmarks have slowed down
slightly, while others have sped up by nearly 2x!


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Up: FAQ

1.3.9.12 Is there a JIT compiler?
.................................

No.  We’re still exploring other optimizations.


File: python.info,  Node: About,  Prev: FAQ,  Up: Faster CPython

1.3.9.13 About
..............

Faster CPython explores optimizations for *note CPython: 6ef.  The main
team is funded by Microsoft to work on this full-time.  Pablo Galindo
Salgado is also funded by Bloomberg LP to work on the project part-time.
Finally, many contributors are volunteers from the community.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Next: Deprecated<3>,  Prev: Faster CPython,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.10 CPython bytecode changes
-------------------------------

The bytecode now contains inline cache entries, which take the form of
the newly-added *note CACHE: 6f2. instructions.  Many opcodes expect to
be followed by an exact number of caches, and instruct the interpreter
to skip over them at runtime.  Populated caches can look like arbitrary
instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying
raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

* Menu:

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::


File: python.info,  Node: New opcodes,  Next: Replaced opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<2>

1.3.10.1 New opcodes
....................

   * ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’, *note RETURN_GENERATOR: 6f5. and *note SEND: 6f6,
     used in generators and co-routines.

   * *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 6f7, which avoids needing special caller-side
     code for closures.

   * *note JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 6f8, for use in certain loops
     where handling interrupts is undesirable.

   * *note MAKE_CELL: 6f9, to create *note 셀 객체: 6fa.

   * *note CHECK_EG_MATCH: 6fb. and ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’, to handle the
     *note new exception groups and except*: 59b. added in PEP 654(1).

   * *note PUSH_EXC_INFO: 6fc, for use in exception handlers.

   * *note RESUME: 30d, a no-op, for internal tracing, debugging and
     optimization checks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/


File: python.info,  Node: Replaced opcodes,  Next: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: New opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<2>

1.3.10.2 Replaced opcodes
.........................

Replaced Opcode(s)                       New Opcode(s)                            Notes
                                                                                  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     ‘BINARY_*’                          *note BINARY_OP: 6ff.                    Replaced all numeric binary/in-place
     ‘INPLACE_*’                                                                  opcodes with a single opcode
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’                          *note CALL: 700.                    Decouples argument shifting for methods
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’                       ‘KW_NAMES’                          from handling of keyword arguments; allows
     ‘CALL_METHOD’                            ‘PRECALL’                           better specialization of calls
                                              *note PUSH_NULL: 701.               
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘DUP_TOP’                                *note COPY: 702.                    Stack manipulation instructions
     ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’                            *note SWAP: 703.                    
     ‘ROT_TWO’                           
     ‘ROT_THREE’
     ‘ROT_FOUR’
     ‘ROT_N’

     ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’                  *note CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 704.         Now performs check but doesn’t jump
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’                          *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 705.           See (1); ‘TRUE’, ‘FALSE’, ‘NONE’ and
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE’                      ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*’            ‘NOT_NONE’ variants for each direction
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE’                       ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*’             
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘SETUP_WITH’                        *note BEFORE_WITH: 706.                  *note with: 5cc. block setup
     ‘SETUP_ASYNC_WITH’                                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) All jump opcodes are now relative, including the existing
‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’.  The argument is now
an offset from the current instruction rather than an absolute location.


File: python.info,  Node: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: Replaced opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<2>

1.3.10.3 Changed/removed opcodes
................................

   * Changed *note MATCH_CLASS: 70b. and *note MATCH_KEYS: 70c. to no
     longer push an additional boolean value to indicate
     success/failure.  Instead, ‘None’ is pushed on failure in place of
     the tuple of extracted values.

   * Changed opcodes that work with exceptions to reflect them now being
     represented as one item on the stack instead of three (see
     gh-89874(1)).

   * Removed ‘COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS’, ‘GEN_START’, ‘POP_BLOCK’,
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’ and ‘YIELD_FROM’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.11 Deprecated
-----------------

This section lists Python APIs that have been deprecated in Python 3.11.

Deprecated C APIs are *note listed separately: 710.
* Menu:

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Standard Library::


File: python.info,  Node: Language/Builtins,  Next: Modules,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.11.1 Language/Builtins
..........................

   * Chaining *note classmethod: 166. descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(1)) is now deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 194.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To “pass-through” a *note classmethod: 166, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Octal escapes in string and bytes literals with values larger than
     ‘0o377’ (255 in decimal) now produce a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  In a future Python version, they will raise a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f. and eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-81548(3).)

   * The delegation of *note int(): 257. to *note __trunc__(): 714. is
     now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not *note __int__(): 715. or *note __index__():
     716. now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz in bpo-44977(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977


File: python.info,  Node: Modules,  Next: Standard Library,  Prev: Language/Builtins,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.11.2 Modules
................

   * PEP 594(1) led to the deprecations of the following modules slated
     for removal in Python 3.13:

     ‘aifc’                    ‘chunk’                   ‘msilib’                  ‘pipes’                   ‘telnetlib’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘audioop’                 ‘crypt’                   ‘nis’                     ‘sndhdr’                  ‘uu’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘cgi’                     ‘imghdr’                  ‘nntplib’                 ‘spwd’                    ‘xdrlib’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘cgitb’                   ‘mailcap’                 ‘ossaudiodev’             ‘sunau’
                                                                                   

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-47061(2) and Victor Stinner in
     gh-68966(3).)

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have been deprecated
     since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and deprecation
     warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-47022(4).)

   * The ‘lib2to3’ package and ‘2to3’ tool are now deprecated and may
     not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See PEP 617(5),
     introducing the new PEG parser, for details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40360(6).)

   * Undocumented modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’
     are now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Library,  Prev: Modules,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.11.3 Standard Library
.........................

   * The following have been deprecated in *note configparser: 22. since
     Python 3.2.  Their deprecation warnings have now been updated to
     note they will be removed in Python 3.12:

        * the ‘configparser.SafeConfigParser’ class

        * the ‘configparser.ParsingError.filename’ property

        * the ‘configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp()’ method

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45173(1).)

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ has been deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and is not listed in the *note
     configparser: 22. documentation.  It now emits a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     *note configparser.BasicInterpolation: 71b. or *note
     configparser.ExtendedInterpolation: 71c. instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-46607(2).)

   * The older set of *note importlib.resources: 7b. functions were
     deprecated in favor of the replacements added in Python 3.9 and
     will be removed in a future Python version, due to not supporting
     resources located within package subdirectories:

        * ‘importlib.resources.contents()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.is_resource()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.open_binary()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.open_text()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.read_text()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.path()’

   * The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2db. function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.15.  Use *note locale.setlocale():
     2dd, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 534. and *note
     locale.getlocale(): 2dc. functions instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-90817(3).)

   * The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817(4).)

   * Stricter rules will now be applied for numerical group references
     and group names in *note regular expressions: 71d.  Only sequences
     of ASCII digits will now be accepted as a numerical reference, and
     the group name in *note bytes: 1c2. patterns and replacement
     strings can only contain ASCII letters, digits and underscores.
     For now, a deprecation warning is raised for syntax violating these
     rules.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * In the *note re: b9. module, the ‘re.template()’ function and the
     corresponding ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are deprecated, as
     they were undocumented and lacked an obvious purpose.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Miro
     Hrončok in gh-92728(6).)

   * ‘turtle.settiltangle()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.1; it
     now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in Python 3.13.
     Use *note turtle.tiltangle(): 71e. instead (it was earlier
     incorrectly marked as deprecated, and its docstring is now
     corrected).  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45837(7).)

   * *note typing.Text: 303, which exists solely to provide
     compatibility support between Python 2 and Python 3 code, is now
     deprecated.  Its removal is currently unplanned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 445. instead wherever possible.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-92332(8).)

   * The keyword argument syntax for constructing *note
     typing.TypedDict: 162. types is now deprecated.  Support will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Jingchen Ye in
     gh-90224(9).)

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.13.  It is untested, undocumented, and not used by *note
     webbrowser: 115. itself.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-42255(10).)

   * The behavior of returning a value from a *note TestCase: 447. and
     *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. test methods (other than the
     default ‘None’ value) is now deprecated.

   * Deprecated the following not-formally-documented *note unittest:
     106. functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28e. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28f.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 290.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 291.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-5846(11).)

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be
     removed in 3.13.  (Contributed by Carlos Damázio in gh-67048(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Next: Removed<3>,  Prev: Deprecated<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.12 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
-------------------------------------

The following Python APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python
releases, and will be removed in Python 3.12.

C APIs pending removal are *note listed separately: 722.

   * The ‘asynchat’ module

   * The ‘asyncore’ module

   * The *note entire distutils package: 723.

   * The ‘imp’ module

   * The *note typing.io: 724. namespace

   * The *note typing.re: 725. namespace

   * ‘cgi.log()’

   * ‘importlib.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’

   * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()’

   * ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable

   * The following deprecated aliases in *note unittest: 106.:

          Deprecated alias                 Method Name                         Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 520.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 521.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 522.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 523.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 525.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 526.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 520.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 522.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 523.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 525.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 527.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 528.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 529.        3.5
                                                                               


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<3>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 11,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.13 Removed
--------------

This section lists Python APIs that have been removed in Python 3.11.

Removed C APIs are *note listed separately: 729.

   * Removed the ‘@asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 72a. enabling
     legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with *note
     async: 72b. / *note await: 1b9. code.  The function has been
     deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled
     for Python 3.10.  Use *note async def: 5cb. instead.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(1).)

   * Removed ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used for wrapping legacy
     generator-based coroutine objects in the debug mode.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(2).)

   * Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter
     of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c, disabled in
     Python 3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the
     behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. (Contributed
     by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45129(3).)

   * Removed the ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9.  Also
     removed the related, similarly-deprecated *note binascii: 10.
     functions:

        * ‘binascii.a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.b2a_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rlecode_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rldecode_hqx()’

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 72d. function remains available.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45085(4).)

   * Removed the ‘distutils’ ‘bdist_msi’ command deprecated in Python
     3.9.  Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45124(5).)

   * Removed the *note __getitem__(): 283. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 72e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 72f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     bpo-45132(6).)

   * Removed the deprecated *note gettext: 63. functions ‘lgettext()’,
     ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and ‘ldngettext()’.  Also removed the
     ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ function, the
     ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ and
     ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’ methods, and the 'codeset'
     parameter of ‘translation()’ and ‘install()’, since they are only
     used for the ‘l*gettext()’ functions.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44235(7).)

   * Removed from the *note inspect: 7e. module:

        * The ‘getargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0; use
          *note inspect.signature(): 731. or *note
          inspect.getfullargspec(): 732. instead.

        * The ‘formatargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5;
          use the *note inspect.signature(): 731. function or the *note
          inspect.Signature: 1cf. object directly.

        * The undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin()’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function()’ methods, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 733. method
          instead.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45320(8).)

   * Removed the *note __class_getitem__(): 734. method from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 4a0, because it was not used and added by mistake
     in previous versions.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     bpo-46483(9).)

   * Removed the ‘MailmanProxy’ class in the ‘smtpd’ module, as it is
     unusable without the external ‘mailman’ package.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-35800(10).)

   * Removed the deprecated ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-38371(11).)

   * Removed namespace package support from *note unittest: 106.
     discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken
     since Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-23882(12).)

   * Removed the undocumented private ‘float.__set_format__()’ method,
     previously known as ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its
     docstring said: “You probably don’t want to use this function.  It
     exists mainly to be used in Python’s test suite.” (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46852(13).)

   * The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’ configure flag (and
     corresponding ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro) have
     been removed.

   * Pynche(14) — The Pythonically Natural Color and Hue Editor — has
     been moved out of ‘Tools/scripts’ and is being developed
     independently(15) from the Python source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/

   (15) https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 11,  Next: Build Changes<3>,  Prev: Removed<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.14 Porting to Python 3.11
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes in
the Python API that may require changes to your Python code.

Porting notes for the C API are *note listed separately: 738.

   * *note open(): 515, *note io.open(): 516, *note codecs.open(): 739.
     and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730. no longer accept ‘'U'’
     (“universal newline”) in the file mode.  In Python 3, “universal
     newline” mode is used by default whenever a file is opened in text
     mode, and the ‘'U'’ flag has been deprecated since Python 3.3.  The
     *note newline parameter: 73a. to these functions controls how
     universal newlines work.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37330(1).)

   * *note ast.AST: 1a6. node positions are now validated when provided
     to *note compile(): 192. and other related functions.  If invalid
     positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 202. will be raised.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93351(2))

   * Prohibited passing non-*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     73b. executors to *note asyncio.loop.set_default_executor(): 73c.
     following a deprecation in Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Illia
     Volochii in bpo-43234(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 73d.
     and *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 73e. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 2dc, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2db, if no locale is specified.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46659(4).)

   * The *note pdb: a5. module now reads the ‘.pdbrc’ configuration file
     with the ‘'UTF-8'’ encoding.  (Contributed by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) in bpo-41137(5).)

   * The 'population' parameter of *note random.sample(): 73f. must be a
     sequence, and automatic conversion of *note set: 5d3.s to *note
     list: 60b.s is no longer supported.  Also, if the sample size is
     larger than the population size, a *note ValueError: 202. is
     raised.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(6).)

   * The 'random' optional parameter of *note random.shuffle(): 740. was
     removed.  It was previously an arbitrary random function to use for
     the shuffle; now, *note random.random(): 741. (its previous
     default) will always be used.

   * In *note re: b9. *note 정규식 문법: 71d, global inline flags (e.g.
     ‘(?i)’) can now only be used at the start of regular expressions.
     Using them elsewhere has been deprecated since Python 3.6.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-47066(7).)

   * In the *note re: b9. module, several long-standing bugs where fixed
     that, in rare cases, could cause capture groups to get the wrong
     result.  Therefore, this could change the captured output in these
     cases.  (Contributed by Ma Lin in bpo-35859(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<3>,  Next: C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 11,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.15 Build Changes
--------------------

   * CPython now has PEP 11(1) Tier 3 support(2) for cross compiling to
     the WebAssembly(3) platforms Emscripten(4)
     (‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, i.e.  Python in the browser) and
     WebAssembly System Interface (WASI)(5) (‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’).
     The effort is inspired by previous work like Pyodide(6).  These
     platforms provide a limited subset of POSIX APIs; Python standard
     libraries features and modules related to networking, processes,
     threading, signals, mmap, and users/groups are not available or
     don’t work.  (Emscripten contributed by Christian Heimes and Ethan
     Smith in gh-84461(7) and WASI contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-90473(8); platforms promoted in gh-95085(9))

   * Building CPython now requires:

        * A C11(10) compiler and standard library.  Optional C11
          features(11) are not required.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
          in bpo-46656(12), bpo-45440(13) and bpo-46640(14).)

        * Support for IEEE 754(15) floating-point numbers.  (Contributed
          by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(16).)

   * The ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro has been removed.  Since CPython now requires
     IEEE 754 floats, NaN values are always available.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46656(17).)

   * The *note tkinter: f0. package now requires Tcl/Tk(18) version
     8.5.12 or newer.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-46996(19).)

   * Build dependencies, compiler flags, and linker flags for most
     stdlib extension modules are now detected by ‘configure’.  libffi,
     libnsl, libsqlite3, zlib, bzip2, liblzma, libcrypt, Tcl/Tk, and
     uuid flags are detected by pkg-config(20) (when available).  *note
     tkinter: f0. now requires a pkg-config command to detect
     development settings for Tcl/Tk(21) headers and libraries.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Erlend Egeberg Aasland in
     bpo-45847(22), bpo-45747(23), and bpo-45763(24).)

   * libpython is no longer linked against libcrypt.  (Contributed by
     Mike Gilbert in bpo-45433(25).)

   * CPython can now be built with the ThinLTO(26) option via passing
     ‘thin’ to *note -with-lto: 744, i.e.  ‘--with-lto=thin’.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Brett Holman in bpo-44340(27).)

   * Freelists for object structs can now be disabled.  A new
     ‘configure’ option *note -without-freelists: 745. can be used to
     disable all freelists except empty tuple singleton.  (Contributed
     by Christian Heimes in bpo-45522(28).)

   * ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been improved and tied
     up.  Extension modules can now be built through ‘makesetup’.  All
     except some test modules can be linked statically into a main
     binary or library.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Christian
     Heimes in bpo-45548(29), bpo-45570(30), bpo-45571(31), and
     bpo-43974(32).)

          참고: Use the environment variables ‘TCLTK_CFLAGS’ and
          ‘TCLTK_LIBS’ to manually specify the location of Tcl/Tk
          headers and libraries.  The ‘configure’ options
          ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ have been
          removed.

          On RHEL 7 and CentOS 7 the development packages do not provide
          ‘tcl.pc’ and ‘tk.pc’; use ‘TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5
          -ltcl8.5"’.  The directory ‘Misc/rhel7’ contains ‘.pc’ files
          and instructions on how to build Python with RHEL 7’s and
          CentOS 7’s Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL.

   * CPython will now use 30-bit digits by default for the Python *note
     int: 257. implementation.  Previously, the default was to use
     30-bit digits on platforms with ‘SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8’, and 15-bit
     digits otherwise.  It’s still possible to explicitly request use of
     15-bit digits via either the *note -enable-big-digits: 746. option
     to the configure script or (for Windows) the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’
     variable in ‘PC/pyconfig.h’, but this option may be removed at some
     point in the future.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     bpo-45569(33).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (3) https://webassembly.org/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://pyodide.org/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (10) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (11) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (18) https://www.tcl.tk

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (20) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/

   (21) https://www.tcl.tk

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433

   (26) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<3>,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Prev: Build Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.16 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Removed: Removed<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<6>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.16.1 New Features
.....................

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 74b. function to get type’s short
     name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(1).)

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 74c. function to get type’s
     qualified name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(2).)

   * Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 74d. and *note
     PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 74e. functions to the limited C API
     to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43760(3).)

   * Added the *note Py_Version: 74f. constant which bears the same
     value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 750.  (Contributed by Gabriele N.
     Tornetta in bpo-43931(4).)

   * *note Py_buffer: 751. and APIs are now part of the limited API and
     the stable ABI:

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 392.

        * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.

        * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 752.

        * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 753.

        * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 754.

        * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 755.

        * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 756.

        * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 757.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 758.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 759.

        * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75a.

        * *note bf_getbuffer: 75b. and *note bf_releasebuffer: 75c. type
          slots

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45459(5).)

   * Added the *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d. function, used to get
     the module in which a method was defined, in cases where this
     information is not available directly (via *note PyCMethod: 75d.).
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-46613(6).)

   * Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and
     deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 75e, *note PyFloat_Pack4():
     75f, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 760, *note PyFloat_Unpack2(): 761,
     *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 762. and *note PyFloat_Unpack8(): 763.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46906(7).)

   * Add new functions to get frame object attributes: *note
     PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 764, *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 765,
     *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 766, *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 767.

   * Added two new functions to get and set the active exception
     instance: *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 768. and *note
     PyErr_SetHandledException(): 769.  These are alternatives to *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76a. and *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76b. which
     work with the legacy 3-tuple representation of exceptions.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46343(8).)

   * Added the *note PyConfig.safe_path: 76c. member.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Next: Deprecated<4>,  Prev: New Features<6>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.16.2 Porting to Python 3.11
...............................

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions to avoid
     macro pitfalls(1).  The change should be mostly transparent to
     users, as the replacement functions will cast their arguments to
     the expected types to avoid compiler warnings due to static type
     checks.  However, when the limited C API is set to >=3.11, these
     casts are not done, and callers will need to cast arguments to
     their expected types.  See PEP 670(2) for more details.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-89653(3).)

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76a. no longer uses the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments, the interpreter now derives those values
     from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function
     still steals references of all three arguments.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76b. now derives the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields of the result from the exception instance (the
     ‘value’ field).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(5).)

   * *note _frozen: 76e. has a new ‘is_package’ field to indicate
     whether or not the frozen module is a package.  Previously, a
     negative value in the ‘size’ field was the indicator.  Now only
     non-negative values be used for ‘size’.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in bpo-46608(6).)

   * *note _PyFrameEvalFunction(): 76f. now takes ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’
     as its second parameter, instead of ‘PyFrameObject*’.  See PEP
     523(7) for more details of how to use this function pointer type.

   * ‘PyCode_New()’ and ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ now take an
     additional ‘exception_table’ argument.  Using these functions
     should be avoided, if at all possible.  To get a custom code
     object: create a code object using the compiler, then get a
     modified version with the ‘replace’ method.

   * *note PyCodeObject: 770. no longer has the ‘co_code’,
     ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’ fields.  Instead,
     use *note PyCode_GetCode(): 771, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 772,
     *note PyCode_GetCellvars(): 773. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars():
     774. respectively to access them via the C API. (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in bpo-46841(8) and Ken Jin in gh-92154(9) and
     gh-94936(10).)

   * The old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’) are now
     deprecated.  They should be replaced by the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.

     To support older Python versions in the same codebase, you can
     define the following macros and use them throughout the code
     (credit: these were copied from the ‘mypy’ codebase):

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END
          #else
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op)
          #endif

   * The *note PyType_Ready(): 775. function now raises an error if a
     type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag set
     but has no traverse function (*note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse:
     777.).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44263(11).)

   * Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. flag can
     now inherit the PEP 590(12) vectorcall protocol.  Previously, this
     was only possible for *note static types: 778.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(13))

   * Since *note Py_TYPE(): 779. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_TYPE(obj,
     new_type)’: see the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 77a. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type)
          { ob->ob_type = type; }
          #define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(14).)

   * Since *note Py_SIZE(): 77b. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = new_size’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_SIZE(obj,
     new_size)’: see the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size)
          { ob->ob_size = size; }
          #define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(15).)

   * ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files ‘<stdlib.h>’,
     ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or higher.  C extensions
     should explicitly include the header files after ‘#include
     <Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(16).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’, ‘classobject.h’,
     ‘code.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 77d.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(17).)

   * The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been excluded from the
     limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal
     structures which are not available in the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46007(18).)

   * The following frame functions and type are now directly available
     with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it’s no longer needed to add ‘#include
     <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 77e.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 77f.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 764.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 765.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 766.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 767.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 780.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-93937(19).)

   * The *note PyFrameObject: 782. structure members have been removed
     from the public C API.

     While the documentation notes that the *note PyFrameObject: 782.
     fields are subject to change at any time, they have been stable for
     a long time and were used in several popular extensions.

     In Python 3.11, the frame struct was reorganized to allow
     performance optimizations.  Some fields were removed entirely, as
     they were details of the old implementation.

     *note PyFrameObject: 782. fields:

        * ‘f_back’: use *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 77f.

        * ‘f_blockstack’: removed.

        * ‘f_builtins’: use *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 764.

        * ‘f_code’: use *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 783.

        * ‘f_gen’: use *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 765.

        * ‘f_globals’: use *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 766.

        * ‘f_iblock’: removed.

        * ‘f_lasti’: use *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 767.  Code using
          ‘f_lasti’ with ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ should use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784. instead; it may be faster.

        * ‘f_lineno’: use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784.

        * ‘f_locals’: use *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419.

        * ‘f_stackdepth’: removed.

        * ‘f_state’: no public API (renamed to ‘f_frame.f_state’).

        * ‘f_trace’: no public API.

        * ‘f_trace_lines’: use ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame,
          "f_trace_lines")’.

        * ‘f_trace_opcodes’: use
          ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes")’.

        * ‘f_localsplus’: no public API (renamed to
          ‘f_frame.localsplus’).

        * ‘f_valuestack’: removed.

     The Python frame object is now created lazily.  A side effect is
     that the *note f_back: 785. member must not be accessed directly,
     since its value is now also computed lazily.  The *note
     PyFrame_GetBack(): 77f. function must be called instead.

     Debuggers that accessed the *note f_locals: 182. directly 'must'
     call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419. instead.  They no longer need
     to call ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ or
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’, in fact they should not call those
     functions.  The necessary updating of the frame is now managed by
     the virtual machine.

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetCode()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_INCREF(frame->f_code);
              return frame->f_code;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetBack()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back);
              return frame->f_back;
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi_compat project(20) to get these two functions
     on older Python versions.

   * Changes of the *note PyThreadState: 786. structure members:

        * ‘frame’: removed, use *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 787.
          (function added to Python 3.9 by bpo-40429(21)).  Warning: the
          function returns a *note strong reference: 336, need to call
          *note Py_XDECREF(): 788.

        * ‘tracing’: changed, use *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing():
          74d. and *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 74e. (functions
          added to Python 3.11 by bpo-43760(22)).

        * ‘recursion_depth’: removed, use ‘(tstate->recursion_limit -
          tstate->recursion_remaining)’ instead.

        * ‘stackcheck_counter’: removed.

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_GetFrame()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
              return tstate->frame;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_EnterTracing()’ and
     ‘PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()’ on Python 3.10 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2
          static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              tstate->tracing++;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = 0;
          #endif
          }

          static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL);
              tstate->tracing--;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #endif
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi-compat project(23) to get these functions on
     old Python functions.

   * Distributors are encouraged to build Python with the optimized
     Blake2 library libb2(24).

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5e9. field must now be
     set to 1 for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c. to initialize *note sys.path:
     3ae.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 789. no longer calculates the initial search
     path, and will not fill any values into *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c.  To calculate default paths and
     then modify them, finish initialization and use *note
     PySys_GetObject(): 382. to retrieve *note sys.path: 3ae. as a
     Python list object and modify it directly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (20) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (24) https://www.blake2.net/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.16.3 Deprecated
...................

   * Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python
     initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 3a0. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1. instead ( PEP 587(1)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88279(2).)

   * Deprecate the ‘ob_shash’ member of the *note PyBytesObject: 78b.
     Use *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd. instead.  (Contributed by Inada
     Naoki in bpo-46864(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Removed<4>,  Prev: Deprecated<4>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.16.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
.......................................

The following C APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases,
and will be removed in Python 3.12.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_READY()’

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fb.

   * ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()’

   * ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

   * *note PyUnicodeObject: 78d.

   * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.16.5 Removed
................

   * ‘PyFrame_BlockSetup()’ and ‘PyFrame_BlockPop()’ have been removed.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(1).)

   * Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’ variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(2).)

   * Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’ macros,
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or
     ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41123(3).)

   * Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only contains private
     functions.  C extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’
     header file.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(4).)

   * Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by the
     ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-45440(5).)

   * The following items are no longer available when *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 418. is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 78f.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 790.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 791.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 792.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 793.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45474(6).)

   * Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b9. from the limited C API.
     It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’ structure is opaque in
     the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(7).)

   * Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was exposed in the
     public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally.
     Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40170(8).)

   * Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved to the
     internal C API). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(9).)

   * Remove the *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. encoder APIs, as they have been
     deprecated since Python 3.3, are little used and are inefficient
     relative to the recommended alternatives.

     The removed functions are:

        * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

     See PEP 624(10) for details and migration guidance(11).
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-44029(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: C API Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.17 Notable changes in 3.11.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 4

1.3.17.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 466. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.3.18 Notable changes in 3.11.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 5

1.3.18.1 OpenSSL
................

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Next: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.4 What’s New In Python 3.10
=============================


Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.10, compared to 3.9.
Python 3.10 was released on October 4, 2021.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>.
* New Modules: New Modules<4>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<5>.
* Removed: Removed<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<4>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<4>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<3>,  Next: New Features<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * PEP 634(1), Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 635(2), Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale

   * PEP 636(3), Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   * bpo-12782(4), Parenthesized context managers are now officially
     allowed.

New features in the standard library:

   * PEP 618(5), Add Optional Length-Checking To zip.

Interpreter improvements:

   * PEP 626(6), Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

New typing features:

   * PEP 604(7), Allow writing union types as X | Y

   * PEP 612(8), Parameter Specification Variables

   * PEP 613(9), Explicit Type Aliases

   * PEP 647(10), User-Defined Type Guards

Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:

   * PEP 644(11), Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer

   * PEP 632(12), Deprecate distutils module.

   * PEP 623(13), Deprecate and prepare for the removal of the wstr
     member in PyUnicodeObject.

   * PEP 624(14), Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs

   * PEP 597(15), Add optional EncodingWarning

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<7>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Parenthesized context managers::
* Better error messages::
* PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.
* PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching.
* Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::


File: python.info,  Node: Parenthesized context managers,  Next: Better error messages,  Up: New Features<7>

1.4.2.1 Parenthesized context managers
......................................

Using enclosing parentheses for continuation across multiple lines in
context managers is now supported.  This allows formatting a long
collection of context managers in multiple lines in a similar way as it
was previously possible with import statements.  For instance, all these
examples are now valid:

     with (CtxManager() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1(),
         CtxManager2()
     ):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1() as example,
           CtxManager2()):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1(),
           CtxManager2() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2
     ):
         ...

it is also possible to use a trailing comma at the end of the enclosed
group:

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2,
         CtxManager3() as example3,
     ):
         ...

This new syntax uses the non LL(1) capacities of the new parser.  Check
PEP 617(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou
in bpo-12782(2) and bpo-40334(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Better error messages,  Next: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Prev: Parenthesized context managers,  Up: New Features<7>

1.4.2.2 Better error messages
.............................

* Menu:

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::


File: python.info,  Node: SyntaxErrors,  Next: IndentationErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.4.2.3 SyntaxErrors
....................

When parsing code that contains unclosed parentheses or brackets the
interpreter now includes the location of the unclosed bracket of
parentheses instead of displaying 'SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while
parsing' or pointing to some incorrect location.  For instance, consider
the following code (notice the unclosed ‘{‘):

     expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                 38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6,
     some_other_code = foo()

Previous versions of the interpreter reported confusing places as the
location of the syntax error:

     File "example.py", line 3
         some_other_code = foo()
                         ^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

but in Python 3.10 a more informative error is emitted:

     File "example.py", line 1
         expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                    ^
     SyntaxError: '{' was never closed

In a similar way, errors involving unclosed string literals (single and
triple quoted) now point to the start of the string instead of reporting
EOF/EOL.

These improvements are inspired by previous work in the PyPy
interpreter.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42864(1) and Batuhan Taskaya in
bpo-40176(2).)

*note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions raised by the interpreter will now
highlight the full error range of the expression that constitutes the
syntax error itself, instead of just where the problem is detected.  In
this way, instead of displaying (before Python 3.10):

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

now Python 3.10 will display the exception as:

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

This improvement was contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(3).

A considerable amount of new specialized messages for *note SyntaxError:
18d. exceptions have been incorporated.  Some of the most notable ones
are as follows:

   * Missing ‘:’ before blocks:

          >>> if rocket.position > event_horizon
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position > event_horizon
                                                ^
          SyntaxError: expected ':'

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42997(4).)

   * Unparenthesised tuples in comprehensions targets:

          >>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
               ^
          SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43017(5).)

   * Missing commas in collection literals and between expressions:

          >>> items = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2
          ... z: 3,
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              y: 2
                 ^
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43822(6).)

   * Multiple Exception types without parentheses:

          >>> try:
          ...     build_dyson_sphere()
          ... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
                     ^
          SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43149(7).)

   * Missing ‘:’ and values in dictionary literals:

          >>> values = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2,
          ... z:
          ... }
            File "<stdin>", line 4
              z:
               ^
          SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':'

          >>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
                                  ^
          SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43823(8).)

   * ‘try’ blocks without ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks:

          >>> try:
          ...     x = 2
          ... something = 3
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              something  = 3
              ^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-44305(9).)

   * Usage of ‘=’ instead of ‘==’ in comparisons:

          >>> if rocket.position = event_horizon:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position = event_horizon:
                                 ^
          SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43797(10).)

   * Usage of ‘*’ in f-strings:

          >>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations"
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              (*all_black_holes)
               ^
          SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41064(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064


File: python.info,  Node: IndentationErrors,  Next: AttributeErrors,  Prev: SyntaxErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.4.2.4 IndentationErrors
.........................

Many *note IndentationError: 7a1. exceptions now have more context
regarding what kind of block was expecting an indentation, including the
location of the statement:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    if lel:
     ...    x = 2
       File "<stdin>", line 3
         x = 2
         ^
     IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2


File: python.info,  Node: AttributeErrors,  Next: NameErrors,  Prev: IndentationErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.4.2.5 AttributeErrors
.......................

When printing *note AttributeError: 346, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer
suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception
was raised from:

     >>> collections.namedtoplo
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).)

     경고: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not called to
     display the error which can happen if some other custom error
     display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some REPLs
     like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: NameErrors,  Prev: AttributeErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.4.2.6 NameErrors
..................

When printing *note NameError: 438. raised by the interpreter,
‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar variable names in
the function that the exception was raised from:

     >>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None
     >>> schwarschild_black_hole
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).)

     경고: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not called to
     display the error, which can happen if some other custom error
     display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some REPLs
     like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Next: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Prev: Better error messages,  Up: New Features<7>

1.4.2.7 PEP 626: Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools
...................................................................

PEP 626 brings more precise and reliable line numbers for debugging,
profiling and coverage tools.  Tracing events, with the correct line
number, are generated for all lines of code executed and only for lines
of code that are executed.

The *note f_lineno: 7a5. attribute of frame objects will always contain
the expected line number.

The *note co_lnotab: 2e2. attribute of *note code objects: 1d2. is
deprecated and will be removed in 3.12.  Code that needs to convert from
offset to line number should use the new *note co_lines(): 2f3. method
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Next: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option,  Prev: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Up: New Features<7>

1.4.2.8 PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching
............................................

Structural pattern matching has been added in the form of a 'match
statement' and 'case statements' of patterns with associated actions.
Patterns consist of sequences, mappings, primitive data types as well as
class instances.  Pattern matching enables programs to extract
information from complex data types, branch on the structure of data,
and apply specific actions based on different forms of data.

* Menu:

* Syntax and operations::
* Declarative approach::
* Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal.
* Patterns with a literal and variable::
* Patterns and classes::
* Nested patterns::
* Complex patterns and the wildcard::
* Guard::
* Other Key Features::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntax and operations,  Next: Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.9 Syntax and operations
.............................

The generic syntax of pattern matching is:

     match subject:
         case <pattern_1>:
             <action_1>
         case <pattern_2>:
             <action_2>
         case <pattern_3>:
             <action_3>
         case _:
             <action_wildcard>

A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to
successive patterns given as one or more case blocks.  Specifically,
pattern matching operates by:

  1. using data with type and shape (the ‘subject’)

  2. evaluating the ‘subject’ in the ‘match’ statement

  3. comparing the subject with each pattern in a ‘case’ statement from
     top to bottom until a match is confirmed.

  4. executing the action associated with the pattern of the confirmed
     match

  5. If an exact match is not confirmed, the last case, a wildcard ‘_’,
     if provided, will be used as the matching case.  If an exact match
     is not confirmed and a wildcard case does not exist, the entire
     match block is a no-op.


File: python.info,  Node: Declarative approach,  Next: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Prev: Syntax and operations,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.10 Declarative approach
.............................

Readers may be aware of pattern matching through the simple example of
matching a subject (data object) to a literal (pattern) with the switch
statement found in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages).
Often the switch statement is used for comparison of an
object/expression with case statements containing literals.

More powerful examples of pattern matching can be found in languages
such as Scala and Elixir.  With structural pattern matching, the
approach is “declarative” and explicitly states the conditions (the
patterns) for data to match.

While an “imperative” series of instructions using nested “if”
statements could be used to accomplish something similar to structural
pattern matching, it is less clear than the “declarative” approach.
Instead the “declarative” approach states the conditions to meet for a
match and is more readable through its explicit patterns.  While
structural pattern matching can be used in its simplest form comparing a
variable to a literal in a case statement, its true value for Python
lies in its handling of the subject’s type and shape.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Next: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Prev: Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.11 Simple pattern: match to a literal
...........................................

Let’s look at this example as pattern matching in its simplest form: a
value, the subject, being matched to several literals, the patterns.  In
the example below, ‘status’ is the subject of the match statement.  The
patterns are each of the case statements, where literals represent
request status codes.  The associated action to the case is executed
after a match:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 418, “I’m a teapot” is
returned.  If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 500, the case
statement with ‘_’ will match as a wildcard, and “Something’s wrong with
the internet” is returned.  Note the last block: the variable name, ‘_’,
acts as a 'wildcard' and insures the subject will always match.  The use
of ‘_’ is optional.

You can combine several literals in a single pattern using ‘|’ (“or”):

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

* Menu:

* Behavior without the wildcard::


File: python.info,  Node: Behavior without the wildcard,  Up: Simple pattern match to a literal

1.4.2.12 Behavior without the wildcard
......................................

If we modify the above example by removing the last case block, the
example becomes:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"

Without the use of ‘_’ in a case statement, a match may not exist.  If
no match exists, the behavior is a no-op.  For example, if ‘status’ of
500 is passed, a no-op occurs.


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Next: Patterns and classes,  Prev: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.13 Patterns with a literal and variable
.............................................

Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and a pattern may be used
to bind variables.  In this example, a data point can be unpacked to its
x-coordinate and y-coordinate:

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

The first pattern has two literals, ‘(0, 0)’, and may be thought of as
an extension of the literal pattern shown above.  The next two patterns
combine a literal and a variable, and the variable 'binds' a value from
the subject (‘point’).  The fourth pattern captures two values, which
makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment ‘(x, y) =
point’.


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns and classes,  Next: Nested patterns,  Prev: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.14 Patterns and classes
.............................

If you are using classes to structure your data, you can use as a
pattern the class name followed by an argument list resembling a
constructor.  This pattern has the ability to capture instance
attributes into variables:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def location(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin is the point's location.")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.")
             case Point():
                 print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

* Menu:

* Patterns with positional parameters::


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns with positional parameters,  Up: Patterns and classes

1.4.2.15 Patterns with positional parameters
............................................

You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide
an ordering for their attributes (e.g.  dataclasses).  You can also
define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the
‘__match_args__’ special attribute in your classes.  If it’s set to
(“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the
‘y’ attribute to the ‘var’ variable):

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Nested patterns,  Next: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Prev: Patterns and classes,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.16 Nested patterns
........................

Patterns can be arbitrarily nested.  For example, if our data is a short
list of points, it could be matched like this:

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points in the list.")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin is the only point in the list.")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.")
         case _:
             print("Something else is found in the list.")


File: python.info,  Node: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Next: Guard,  Prev: Nested patterns,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.17 Complex patterns and the wildcard
..........................................

To this point, the examples have used ‘_’ alone in the last case
statement.  A wildcard can be used in more complex patterns, such as
‘('error', code, _)’.  For example:

     match test_variable:
         case ('warning', code, 40):
             print("A warning has been received.")
         case ('error', code, _):
             print(f"An error {code} occurred.")

In the above case, ‘test_variable’ will match for (‘error’, code, 100)
and (‘error’, code, 800).


File: python.info,  Node: Guard,  Next: Other Key Features,  Prev: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.18 Guard
..............

We can add an ‘if’ clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”.  If the
guard is false, ‘match’ goes on to try the next case block.  Note that
value capture happens before the guard is evaluated:

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")


File: python.info,  Node: Other Key Features,  Prev: Guard,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.4.2.19 Other Key Features
...........................

Several other key features:

   - Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly
     the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences.
     Technically, the subject must be a sequence.  Therefore, an
     important exception is that patterns don’t match iterators.  Also,
     to prevent a common mistake, sequence patterns don’t match strings.

   - Sequence patterns support wildcards: ‘[x, y, *rest]’ and ‘(x, y,
     *rest)’ work similar to wildcards in unpacking assignments.  The
     name after ‘*’ may also be ‘_’, so ‘(x, y, *_)’ matches a sequence
     of at least two items without binding the remaining items.

   - Mapping patterns: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ captures the
     ‘"bandwidth"’ and ‘"latency"’ values from a dict.  Unlike sequence
     patterns, extra keys are ignored.  A wildcard ‘**rest’ is also
     supported.  (But ‘**_’ would be redundant, so is not allowed.)

   - Subpatterns may be captured using the ‘as’ keyword:

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     This binds x1, y1, x2, y2 like you would expect without the ‘as’
     clause, and p2 to the entire second item of the subject.

   - Most literals are compared by equality.  However, the singletons
     ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are compared by identity.

   - Named constants may be used in patterns.  These named constants
     must be dotted names to prevent the constant from being interpreted
     as a capture variable:

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 0
              GREEN = 1
              BLUE = 2

          color = Color.GREEN
          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

For the full specification see PEP 634(1).  Motivation and rationale are
in PEP 635(2), and a longer tutorial is in PEP 636(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option,  Prev: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Up: New Features<7>

1.4.2.20 Optional ‘EncodingWarning’ and ‘encoding="locale"’ option
..................................................................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. and *note open(): 515.
is platform and locale dependent.  Since UTF-8 is used on most Unix
platforms, omitting ‘encoding’ option when opening UTF-8 files (e.g.
JSON, YAML, TOML, Markdown) is a very common bug.  For example:

     # BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used.
     with open("data.json") as f:
         data = json.load(f)

To find this type of bug, an optional ‘EncodingWarning’ is added.  It is
emitted when *note sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 686. is true and
locale-specific default encoding is used.

‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option and *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:
7b5. are added to enable the warning.

See *note 텍스트 인코딩: 7b6. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Next: Other Language Changes<4>,  Prev: New Features<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and
the *note typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
* PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
* PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator,  Next: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.4.3.1 PEP 604: New Type Union Operator
........................................

A new type union operator was introduced which enables the syntax ‘X |
Y’.  This provides a cleaner way of expressing ‘either type X or type Y’
instead of using *note typing.Union: 635, especially in type hints.

In previous versions of Python, to apply a type hint for functions
accepting arguments of multiple types, *note typing.Union: 635. was
used:

     def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]:
         return number ** 2

Type hints can now be written in a more succinct manner:

     def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
         return number ** 2

This new syntax is also accepted as the second argument to *note
isinstance(): 43b. and *note issubclass(): 7ba.:

     >>> isinstance(1, int | str)
     True

See *note Union Type: 7bb. and PEP 604(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Maggie Moss and Philippe Prados in bpo-41428(2), with
additions by Yurii Karabas and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44490(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Next: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Prev: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.4.3.2 PEP 612: Parameter Specification Variables
..................................................

Two new options to improve the information provided to static type
checkers for PEP 484(1)‘s ‘Callable’ have been added to the *note
typing: 104. module.

The first is the parameter specification variable.  They are used to
forward the parameter types of one callable to another callable – a
pattern commonly found in higher order functions and decorators.
Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e.
Previously, there was no easy way to type annotate dependency of
parameter types in such a precise manner.

The second option is the new ‘Concatenate’ operator.  It’s used in
conjunction with parameter specification variables to type annotate a
higher order callable which adds or removes parameters of another
callable.  Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.Concatenate:
7bd.

See *note typing.Callable: 7be, *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e, *note
typing.Concatenate: 7bd, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7bf, *note
typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7c0, and PEP 612(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-41559(3), with minor enhancements by
Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-43783(4).  PEP written by Mark Mendoza.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Next: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards,  Prev: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.4.3.3 PEP 613: TypeAlias
..........................

PEP 484(1) introduced the concept of type aliases, only requiring them
to be top-level unannotated assignments.  This simplicity sometimes made
it difficult for type checkers to distinguish between type aliases and
ordinary assignments, especially when forward references or invalid
types were involved.  Compare:

     StrCache = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Now the *note typing: 104. module has a special value *note TypeAlias:
7c2. which lets you declare type aliases more explicitly:

     StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

See PEP 613(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Mikhail Golubev in bpo-41923(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards,  Prev: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.4.3.4 PEP 647: User-Defined Type Guards
.........................................

*note TypeGuard: 164. has been added to the *note typing: 104. module to
annotate type guard functions and improve information provided to static
type checkers during type narrowing.  For more information, please see
*note TypeGuard: 164.‘s documentation, and PEP 647(1).

(Contributed by Ken Jin and Guido van Rossum in bpo-43766(2).  PEP
written by Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<4>,  Next: New Modules<4>,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The *note int: 257. type has a new method *note int.bit_count():
     7c5, returning the number of ones in the binary expansion of a
     given integer, also known as the population count.  (Contributed by
     Niklas Fiekas in bpo-29882(1).)

   * The views returned by *note dict.keys(): 7c6, *note dict.values():
     7c7. and *note dict.items(): 7c8. now all have a ‘mapping’
     attribute that gives a *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. object
     wrapping the original dictionary.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney
     in bpo-40890(2).)

   * PEP 618(3): The *note zip(): 7c9. function now has an optional
     ‘strict’ flag, used to require that all the iterables have an equal
     length.

   * Builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments no
     longer accept *note Decimal: 29d.s, *note Fraction: 1e7.s and other
     objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g.
     that have the *note __int__(): 715. method but do not have the
     *note __index__(): 716. method).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-37999(4).)

   * If *note object.__ipow__(): 7ca. returns *note NotImplemented: 7cb,
     the operator will correctly fall back to *note object.__pow__():
     7cc. and *note object.__rpow__(): 7cd. as expected.  (Contributed
     by Alex Shkop in bpo-38302(5).)

   * Assignment expressions can now be used unparenthesized within set
     literals and set comprehensions, as well as in sequence indexes
     (but not slices).

   * Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which is used to look
     for builtin symbols when a function is executed, instead of looking
     into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  The attribute is initialized
     from ‘__globals__["__builtins__"]’ if it exists, else from the
     current builtins.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-42990(6).)

   * Two new builtin functions – *note aiter(): 7ce. and *note anext():
     7cf. have been added to provide asynchronous counterparts to *note
     iter(): 7d0. and *note next(): 7d1, respectively.  (Contributed by
     Joshua Bronson, Daniel Pope, and Justin Wang in bpo-31861(7).)

   * Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 410.) and class methods (*note
     @classmethod: 166.) now inherit the method attributes
     (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.
     Moreover, static methods are now callable as regular functions.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43682(8).)

   * Annotations for complex targets (everything beside ‘simple name’
     targets defined by PEP 526(9)) no longer cause any runtime effects
     with ‘from __future__ import annotations’.  (Contributed by Batuhan
     Taskaya in bpo-42737(10).)

   * Class and module objects now lazy-create empty annotations dicts on
     demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in the object’s
     ‘__dict__’ for backwards compatibility.  This improves the best
     practices for working with ‘__annotations__’; for more information,
     please see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.  (Contributed by
     Larry Hastings in bpo-43901(11).)

   * Annotations consist of ‘yield’, ‘yield from’, ‘await’ or named
     expressions are now forbidden under ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ due to their side effects.  (Contributed by Batuhan
     Taskaya in bpo-42725(12).)

   * Usage of unbound variables, ‘super()’ and other expressions that
     might alter the processing of symbol table as annotations are now
     rendered effectless under ‘from __future__ import annotations’.
     (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-42725(13).)

   * Hashes of NaN values of both *note float: 2ef. type and *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29d. type now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to ‘0’ even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  This caused potentially quadratic runtime
     behavior due to excessive hash collisions when creating
     dictionaries and sets containing multiple NaNs.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-43475(14).)

   * A *note SyntaxError: 18d. (instead of a *note NameError: 438.) will
     be raised when deleting the *note __debug__: 7d3. constant.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-45000(15).)

   * *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions now have ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes.  They will be ‘None’ if not determined.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<4>,  Next: Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.5 New Modules
-----------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Optimizations<4>,  Prev: New Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* argparse: argparse<2>.
* array: array<3>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64: base64<2>.
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* encodings::
* enum: enum<4>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob: glob<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* linecache::
* os: os<4>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* site: site<2>.
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* types: types<3>.
* typing: typing<5>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml: xml<2>.
* zipimport: zipimport<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<4>,  Next: argparse<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.1 asyncio
...............

Add missing ‘connect_accepted_socket()’ method.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-41332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<2>,  Next: array<3>,  Prev: asyncio<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.2 argparse
................

Misleading phrase “optional arguments” was replaced with “options” in
argparse help.  Some tests might require adaptation if they rely on
exact output match.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9694(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694


File: python.info,  Node: array<3>,  Next: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Prev: argparse<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.3 array
.............

The *note index(): 7d9. method of *note array.array: 1a0. now has
optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.  (Contributed by Anders
Lorentsen and Zackery Spytz in bpo-31956(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Next: base64<2>,  Prev: array<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.4 asynchat, asyncore, smtpd
.................................

These modules have been marked as deprecated in their module
documentation since Python 3.6.  An import-time *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5. has now been added to all three of these
modules.


File: python.info,  Node: base64<2>,  Next: bdb,  Prev: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.5 base64
..............

Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 7dc. and *note base64.b32hexdecode():
7dd. to support the Base32 Encoding with Extended Hex Alphabet.


File: python.info,  Node: bdb,  Next: bisect,  Prev: base64<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.6 bdb
...........

Add ‘clearBreakpoints()’ to reset all set breakpoints.  (Contributed by
Irit Katriel in bpo-24160(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160


File: python.info,  Node: bisect,  Next: codecs,  Prev: bdb,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.7 bisect
..............

Added the possibility of providing a 'key' function to the APIs in the
*note bisect: 11. module.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-4356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356


File: python.info,  Node: codecs,  Next: collections abc,  Prev: bisect,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.8 codecs
..............

Add a *note codecs.unregister(): 7e1. function to unregister a codec
search function.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc,  Next: contextlib<2>,  Prev: codecs,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.9 collections.abc
.......................

The ‘__args__’ of the *note parameterized generic: 6ac. for *note
collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. are now consistent with *note
typing.Callable: 7be.  *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. generic now
flattens type parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 7be.
currently does.  This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str],
str]’ will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was
‘([int, str], str)’.  To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias:
7e4. can now be subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when
subscripting the *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. type.  Note that a
*note TypeError: 532. may be raised for invalid forms of parameterizing
*note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. which may have passed silently in
Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<2>,  Next: curses,  Prev: collections abc,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.10 contextlib
...................

Add a *note contextlib.aclosing(): 7e6. context manager to safely close
async generators and objects representing asynchronously released
resources.  (Contributed by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte in
bpo-41229(1).)

Add asynchronous context manager support to *note
contextlib.nullcontext(): 7e7.  (Contributed by Tom Gringauz in
bpo-41543(2).)

Add *note AsyncContextDecorator: 7e8, for supporting usage of async
context managers as decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543


File: python.info,  Node: curses,  Next: dataclasses<2>,  Prev: contextlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.11 curses
...............

The extended color functions added in ncurses 6.1 will be used
transparently by *note curses.color_content(): 7ea, *note
curses.init_color(): 7eb, *note curses.init_pair(): 7ec, and *note
curses.pair_content(): 7ed.  A new function, *note
curses.has_extended_color_support(): 7ee, indicates whether extended
color support is provided by the underlying ncurses library.
(Contributed by Jeffrey Kintscher and Hans Petter Jansson in
bpo-36982(1).)

The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the *note curses: 2b.
module if they are provided by the underlying curses library.
(Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-39273(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<2>,  Next: distutils<2>,  Prev: curses,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.12 dataclasses
....................

* Menu:

* __slots__::
* Keyword-only fields::


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__,  Next: Keyword-only fields,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.4.6.13 __slots__
..................

Added ‘slots’ parameter in *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 1cb.
decorator.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42269(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269


File: python.info,  Node: Keyword-only fields,  Prev: __slots__,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.4.6.14 Keyword-only fields
............................

dataclasses now supports fields that are keyword-only in the generated
__init__ method.  There are a number of ways of specifying keyword-only
fields.

You can say that every field is keyword-only:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass(kw_only=True)
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date

Both ‘name’ and ‘birthday’ are keyword-only parameters to the generated
__init__ method.

You can specify keyword-only on a per-field basis:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field

     @dataclass
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True)

Here only ‘birthday’ is keyword-only.  If you set ‘kw_only’ on
individual fields, be aware that there are rules about re-ordering
fields due to keyword-only fields needing to follow non-keyword-only
fields.  See the full dataclasses documentation for details.

You can also specify that all fields following a KW_ONLY marker are
keyword-only.  This will probably be the most common usage:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         _: KW_ONLY
         z: float = 0.0
         t: float = 0.0

Here, ‘z’ and ‘t’ are keyword-only parameters, while ‘x’ and ‘y’ are
not.  (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-43532(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<2>,  Next: doctest<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.15 distutils
..................

The entire ‘distutils’ package is deprecated, to be removed in Python
3.12.  Its functionality for specifying package builds has already been
completely replaced by third-party packages ‘setuptools’ and
‘packaging’, and most other commonly used APIs are available elsewhere
in the standard library (such as *note platform: aa, *note shutil: c5,
*note subprocess: d6. or *note sysconfig: db.).  There are no plans to
migrate any other functionality from ‘distutils’, and applications that
are using other functions should plan to make private copies of the
code.  Refer to PEP 632(1) for discussion.

The ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in Python 3.8 has been removed.
The ‘bdist_wheel’ command is now recommended to distribute binary
packages on Windows.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42802(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<2>,  Next: encodings,  Prev: distutils<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.16 doctest
................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: encodings,  Next: enum<4>,  Prev: doctest<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.17 encodings
..................

*note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 7f5. now ignores non-ASCII
characters.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-39337(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337


File: python.info,  Node: enum<4>,  Next: fileinput,  Prev: encodings,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.18 enum
.............

*note Enum: 62a. *note __repr__(): 616. now returns
‘enum_name.member_name’ and *note __str__(): 617. now returns
‘member_name’.  Stdlib enums available as module constants have a *note
repr(): 7f7. of ‘module_name.member_name’.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman
in bpo-40066(1).)

Add *note enum.StrEnum: 614. for enums where all members are strings.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-41816(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput,  Next: faulthandler,  Prev: enum<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.19 fileinput
..................

Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters in *note fileinput.input(): 7f9.
and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
bpo-43712(1).)

*note fileinput.hook_compressed(): 7fa. now returns *note TextIOWrapper:
7b4. object when 'mode' is “r” and file is compressed, like uncompressed
files.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-5758(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler,  Next: gc,  Prev: fileinput,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.20 faulthandler
.....................

The *note faulthandler: 58. module now detects if a fatal error occurs
during a garbage collector collection.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-44466(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466


File: python.info,  Node: gc,  Next: glob<2>,  Prev: faulthandler,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.21 gc
...........

Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 7fd, *note
gc.get_referrers(): 7fe. and *note gc.get_referents(): 7ff.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43439(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: glob<2>,  Next: hashlib<3>,  Prev: gc,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.22 glob
.............

Add the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in *note glob(): 29f. and
*note iglob(): 801. which allow to specify the root directory for
searching.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38144(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<3>,  Next: hmac,  Prev: glob<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.23 hashlib
................

The hashlib module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).)

The hashlib module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-38820(3) and other issues.)

The pure-Python fallback of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 508. is deprecated.  In
the future PBKDF2-HMAC will only be available when Python has been built
with OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-43880(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880


File: python.info,  Node: hmac,  Next: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Prev: hashlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.24 hmac
.............

The hmac module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC implementation internally.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40645(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Next: importlib metadata<2>,  Prev: hmac,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.25 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 805. (when started without
‘-n’).  User hooks were previously ignored.  (Contributed by Ken Hilton
in bpo-43008(1).)

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(2).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(3).)

The changes above were backported to a 3.9 maintenance release.

Add a Shell sidebar.  Move the primary prompt (‘>>>’) to the sidebar.
Add secondary prompts (’…’) to the sidebar.  Left click and optional
drag selects one or more lines of text, as with the editor line number
sidebar.  Right click after selecting text lines displays a context menu
with ‘copy with prompts’.  This zips together prompts from the sidebar
with lines from the selected text.  This option also appears on the
context menu for the text.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-37903(4).)

Use spaces instead of tabs to indent interactive code.  This makes
interactive code entries ‘look right’.  Making this feasible was a major
motivation for adding the shell sidebar.  (Contributed by Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-37892(5).)

Highlight the new *note soft keywords: 806. *note match: 807, *note
case: 807, and *note _: 808. in pattern-matching statements.  However,
this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare
cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.  (Contributed by Tal
Einat in bpo-44010(6).)

New in 3.10 maintenance releases.

Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood
and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).)

Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.  (Contributed
by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata<2>,  Next: inspect<3>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.26 importlib.metadata
...........................

Feature parity with ‘importlib_metadata’ 4.6 (history(1)).

*note importlib.metadata entry points: 284. now provide a nicer
experience for selecting entry points by group and name through a new
*note importlib.metadata.EntryPoints: 284. class.  See the Compatibility
Note in the docs for more info on the deprecation and usage.

Added *note importlib.metadata.packages_distributions(): 80a. for
resolving top-level Python modules and packages to their *note
importlib.metadata.Distribution: 80b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<3>,  Next: itertools<3>,  Prev: importlib metadata<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.27 inspect
................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d, which safely computes the
annotations defined on an object.  It works around the quirks of
accessing the annotations on various types of objects, and makes very
few assumptions about the object it examines.  *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. can also correctly un-stringize
stringized annotations.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. is now
considered best practice for accessing the annotations dict defined on
any Python object; for more information on best practices for working
with annotations, please see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.
Relatedly, *note inspect.signature(): 731, *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 733, and
‘inspect.Signature.from_function()’ now call *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. to retrieve annotations.  This means
*note inspect.signature(): 731. and *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 733. can also now un-stringize
stringized annotations.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in
bpo-43817(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<3>,  Next: linecache,  Prev: inspect<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.28 itertools
..................

Add *note itertools.pairwise(): 80f.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
in bpo-38200(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200


File: python.info,  Node: linecache,  Next: os<4>,  Prev: itertools<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.29 linecache
..................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: os<4>,  Next: os path<4>,  Prev: linecache,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.30 os
...........

Add *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. support for VxWorks RTOS. (Contributed by
Peixing Xin in bpo-41440(1).)

Add a new function *note os.eventfd(): 812. and related helpers to wrap
the ‘eventfd2’ syscall on Linux.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-41001(2).)

Add *note os.splice(): 813. that allows to move data between two file
descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user
address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41625(3).)

Add *note O_EVTONLY: 814, *note O_FSYNC: 815, *note O_SYMLINK: 816. and
*note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 817. for macOS. (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-43106(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106


File: python.info,  Node: os path<4>,  Next: pathlib<5>,  Prev: os<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.31 os.path
................

*note os.path.realpath(): 225. now accepts a 'strict' keyword-only
argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError: 411. is raised if a path
doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is encountered.  (Contributed by Barney
Gale in bpo-43757(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<5>,  Next: platform<2>,  Prev: os path<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.32 pathlib
................

Add slice support to *note PurePath.parents: 81a.  (Contributed by
Joshua Cannon in bpo-35498(1).)

Add negative indexing support to *note PurePath.parents: 81a.
(Contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych in bpo-21041(2).)

Add *note Path.hardlink_to: 81b. method that supersedes ‘link_to()’.
The new method has the same argument order as *note symlink_to(): 81c.
(Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(3).)

*note pathlib.Path.stat(): 81d. and *note chmod(): 81e. now accept a
'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for consistency with
corresponding functions in the *note os: a1. module.  (Contributed by
Barney Gale in bpo-39906(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906


File: python.info,  Node: platform<2>,  Next: pprint,  Prev: pathlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.33 platform
.................

Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 820. to retrieve operation
system identification from freedesktop.org os-release(1) standard file.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468


File: python.info,  Node: pprint,  Next: py_compile,  Prev: platform<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.34 pprint
...............

*note pprint.pprint(): 822. now accepts a new ‘underscore_numbers’
keyword argument.  (Contributed by sblondon in bpo-42914(1).)

*note pprint: ae. can now pretty-print *note dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb.
instances.  (Contributed by Lewis Gaul in bpo-43080(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile,  Next: pyclbr,  Prev: pprint,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.35 py_compile
...................

Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of *note py_compile: b3.
(Contributed by Gregory Schevchenko in bpo-38731(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr,  Next: shelve,  Prev: py_compile,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.36 pyclbr
...............

Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the ‘Function’ and ‘Class’ objects in
the tree returned by *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 825. and *note
pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 826.  It matches the existing (start) ‘lineno’.
(Contributed by Aviral Srivastava in bpo-38307(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307


File: python.info,  Node: shelve,  Next: statistics<3>,  Prev: pyclbr,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.37 shelve
...............

The *note shelve: c3. module now uses *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
828. by default instead of *note pickle: a6. protocol ‘3’ when creating
shelves.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34204(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<3>,  Next: site<2>,  Prev: shelve,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.38 statistics
...................

Add *note covariance(): 82a, Pearson’s *note correlation(): 4b6, and
simple *note linear_regression(): 82b. functions.  (Contributed by
Tymoteusz Wołodźko in bpo-38490(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490


File: python.info,  Node: site<2>,  Next: socket<2>,  Prev: statistics<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.39 site
.............

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: socket<2>,  Next: ssl<3>,  Prev: site<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.40 socket
...............

The exception *note socket.timeout: 82e. is now an alias of *note
TimeoutError: 82f.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42413(1).)

Add option to create MPTCP sockets with ‘IPPROTO_MPTCP’ (Contributed by
Rui Cunha in bpo-43571(2).)

Add ‘IP_RECVTOS’ option to receive the type of service (ToS) or DSCP/ECN
fields (Contributed by Georg Sauthoff in bpo-44077(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<3>,  Next: sqlite3<5>,  Prev: socket<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.41 ssl
............

The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).)

The ssl module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0 and new option
*note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 831.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-38820(3), bpo-43794(4), bpo-43788(5), bpo-43791(6), bpo-43799(7),
bpo-43920(8), bpo-43789(9), and bpo-43811(10).)

Deprecated function and use of deprecated constants now result in a
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  *note ssl.SSLContext.options: 832. has
*note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833. and *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 834. set by default and
therefore cannot warn about setting the flag again.  The *note
deprecation section: 835. has a list of deprecated features.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43880(11).)

The ssl module now has more secure default settings.  Ciphers without
forward secrecy or SHA-1 MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2
prohibits weak RSA, DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of
security.  *note SSLContext: 294. defaults to minimum protocol version
TLS 1.2.  Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43998(12).)

The deprecated protocols SSL 3.0, TLS 1.0, and TLS 1.1 are no longer
officially supported.  Python does not block them actively.  However
OpenSSL build options, distro configurations, vendor patches, and cipher
suites may prevent a successful handshake.

Add a 'timeout' parameter to the *note ssl.get_server_certificate():
836. function.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-31870(13).)

The ssl module uses heap-types and multi-phase initialization.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42333(14).)

A new verify flag *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. has been added.
(Contributed by l0x in bpo-40849(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<5>,  Next: sys<5>,  Prev: ssl<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.42 sqlite3
................

Add audit events for ‘connect/handle()’, *note enable_load_extension():
838, and *note load_extension(): 4b2.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland
in bpo-43762(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762


File: python.info,  Node: sys<5>,  Next: _thread,  Prev: sqlite3<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.43 sys
............

Add *note sys.orig_argv: 83a. attribute: the list of the original
command line arguments passed to the Python executable.  (Contributed by
Victor Stinner in bpo-23427(1).)

Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83b, containing the list of the
standard library module names.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-42955(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955


File: python.info,  Node: _thread,  Next: threading<3>,  Prev: sys<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.44 _thread
................

*note _thread.interrupt_main(): 83d. now takes an optional signal number
to simulate (the default is still *note signal.SIGINT: 83e.).
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356


File: python.info,  Node: threading<3>,  Next: traceback<3>,  Prev: _thread,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.45 threading
..................

Add *note threading.gettrace(): 840. and *note threading.getprofile():
841. to retrieve the functions set by *note threading.settrace(): 842.
and *note threading.setprofile(): 843. respectively.  (Contributed by
Mario Corchero in bpo-42251(1).)

Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 844. to allow retrieving the
original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 845. in case it is set
to a broken or a different value.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-42308(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<3>,  Next: types<3>,  Prev: threading<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.46 traceback
..................

The *note format_exception(): 847, *note format_exception_only(): 848,
and *note print_exception(): 849. functions can now take an exception
object as a positional-only argument.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-26389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389


File: python.info,  Node: types<3>,  Next: typing<5>,  Prev: traceback<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.47 types
..............

Reintroduce the *note types.EllipsisType: 84b, *note types.NoneType:
84c. and *note types.NotImplementedType: 84d. classes, providing a new
set of types readily interpretable by type checkers.  (Contributed by
Bas van Beek in bpo-41810(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810


File: python.info,  Node: typing<5>,  Next: unittest<5>,  Prev: types<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.48 typing
...............

For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 7b7.

The behavior of *note typing.Literal: 84f. was changed to conform with
PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified
in the PEP.

  1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.

  2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order
     independent.

  3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types.  For example, ‘Literal[0]
     == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’.  It is now
     ‘False’.  To support this change, the internally used type cache
     now supports differentiating types.

  4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 532. exception
     during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not
     *note hashable: 60a.  Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with unhashable
     parameters will not throw an error:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).)

Add new function *note typing.is_typeddict(): 850. to introspect if an
annotation is a *note typing.TypedDict: 162.  (Contributed by Patrick
Reader in bpo-41792(3).)

Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have data variables declared
will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked with ‘isinstance’ unless they
are decorated with *note runtime_checkable(): 43c.  Previously, these
checks passed silently.  Users should decorate their subclasses with the
‘runtime_checkable()’ decorator if they want runtime protocols.
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-38908(4).)

Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now emit
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  These submodules have been deprecated
since Python 3.8 and will be removed in a future version of Python.
Anything belonging to those submodules should be imported directly from
*note typing: 104. instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in
bpo-38291(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<5>,  Next: urllib parse,  Prev: typing<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.49 unittest
.................

Add new method *note assertNoLogs(): 852. to complement the existing
*note assertLogs(): 853.  (Contributed by Kit Yan Choi in bpo-39385(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse,  Next: xml<2>,  Prev: unittest<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.50 urllib.parse
.....................

Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’
as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27a. and
*note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279.  Due to security concerns, and to
conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow
only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also
affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the
affected functions internally.  For more details, please see their
respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil
Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(2), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: xml<2>,  Next: zipimport<3>,  Prev: urllib parse,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.51 xml
............

Add a *note LexicalHandler: 856. class to the *note xml.sax.handler:
12a. module.  (Contributed by Jonathan Gossage and Zackery Spytz in
bpo-35018(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<3>,  Prev: xml<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.4.6.52 zipimport
..................

Add methods related to PEP 451(1): *note find_spec(): 858, *note
zipimport.zipimporter.create_module(): 859, and *note
zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 30a.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon
in bpo-42131(2).)

Add *note invalidate_caches(): 85a. method.  (Contributed by Desmond
Cheong in bpo-14678(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<4>,  Next: Deprecated<5>,  Prev: Improved Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Constructors *note str(): 445, *note bytes(): 1c2. and *note
     bytearray(): 538. are now faster (around 30–40% for small objects).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-41334(1).)

   * The *note runpy: be. module now imports fewer modules.  The
     ‘python3 -m module-name’ command startup time is 1.4x faster in
     average.  On Linux, ‘python3 -I -m module-name’ imports 69 modules
     on Python 3.9, whereas it only imports 51 modules (-18) on Python
     3.10.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41006(2) and
     bpo-41718(3).)

   * The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new “per opcode cache”
     mechanism.  It is about 36% faster now for regular attributes and
     44% faster for slots.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-42093(4) and Guido van Rossum in bpo-42927(5),
     based on ideas implemented originally in PyPy and MicroPython.)

   * When building Python with *note -enable-optimizations: 85c. now
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ is added to both the compile and link
     line.  This speeds builds of the Python interpreter created with
     *note -enable-shared: 85d. with ‘gcc’ by up to 30%.  See this
     article(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and
     Pablo Galindo in bpo-38980(7).)

   * Use a new output buffer management code for *note bz2: 13. / *note
     lzma: 8a. / *note zlib: 133. modules, and add ‘.readall()’ function
     to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.  bz2 decompression is now
     1.09x ~ 1.17x faster, lzma decompression 1.20x ~ 1.32x faster,
     ‘GzipFile.read(-1)’ 1.11x ~ 1.18x faster.  (Contributed by Ma Lin,
     reviewed by Gregory P. Smith, in bpo-41486(8))

   * When using stringized annotations, annotations dicts for functions
     are no longer created when the function is created.  Instead, they
     are stored as a tuple of strings, and the function object lazily
     converts this into the annotations dict on demand.  This
     optimization cuts the CPU time needed to define an annotated
     function by half.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in
     bpo-42202(9).)

   * Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’ and
     ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use Crochemore & Perrin’s “Two-Way”
     string searching algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long
     strings.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-41972(10))

   * Add micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to improve type
     attribute cache lookup performance in the common case of cache
     hits.  This makes the interpreter 1.04 times faster on average.
     (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-43452(11).)

   * The following built-in functions now support the faster PEP 590(12)
     vectorcall calling convention: *note map(): 85e, *note filter():
     85f, *note reversed(): 860, *note bool(): 461. and *note float():
     2ef.  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Jeroen Demeyer in
     bpo-43575(13), bpo-43287(14), bpo-41922(15), bpo-41873(16) and
     bpo-41870(17).)

   * *note BZ2File: 861. performance is improved by removing internal
     ‘RLock’.  This makes ‘BZ2File’ thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 67. and *note lzma: 8a. have always been.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43785(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (6) 
https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<5>,  Next: Removed<5>,  Prev: Optimizations<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by
     keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It allows
     confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which
     can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’).
     Starting in this release, a deprecation warning is raised if the
     numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note
     and: 2e9, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ea, *note if: 2eb, *note in:
     2ec, *note is: 2ed. and *note or: 2ee.  In future releases it will
     be changed to syntax warning, and finally to syntax error.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   * Starting in this release, there will be a concerted effort to begin
     cleaning up old import semantics that were kept for Python 2.7
     compatibility.  Specifically, ‘find_loader()’/‘find_module()’
     (superseded by *note find_spec(): 863.), *note load_module(): 864.
     (superseded by *note exec_module(): 865.), ‘module_repr()’ (which
     the import system takes care of for you), the ‘__package__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.parent’), the ‘__loader__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.loader’), and the ‘__cached__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.cached’) will slowly be removed
     (as well as other classes and methods in *note importlib: 77.).
     *note ImportWarning: 4f4. and/or *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.
     will be raised as appropriate to help identify code which needs
     updating during this transition.

   * The entire ‘distutils’ namespace is deprecated, to be removed in
     Python 3.12.  Refer to the *note module changes: 723. section for
     more information.

   * Non-integer arguments to *note random.randrange(): 866. are
     deprecated.  The *note ValueError: 202. is deprecated in favor of a
     *note TypeError: 532.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-37319(2).)

   * The various ‘load_module()’ methods of *note importlib: 77. have
     been documented as deprecated since Python 3.6, but will now also
     trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  Use *note exec_module():
     865. instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(3).)

   * ‘zimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated in
     preference for *note exec_module(): 30a.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-26131(4).)

   * The use of *note load_module(): 864. by the import system now
     triggers an *note ImportWarning: 4f4. as *note exec_module(): 865.
     is preferred.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(5).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ by the import system
     now trigger an *note ImportWarning: 4f4. as *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 863. and *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 867. are preferred,
     respectively.  You can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader():
     868. to help in porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42134(6).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ by the
     import system now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 4f4. as *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 867. is preferred.  You
     can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 868. to help in
     porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43672(7).)

   * The various implementations of
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ ),
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ ), and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ ) now raise *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and are slated for removal in Python 3.12
     (previously they were documented as deprecated in Python 3.4).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135(8).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is deprecated (including its sole method,
     ‘find_module()’).  Both *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869.
     and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86a. no longer inherit
     from the class.  Users should inherit from one of these two classes
     as appropriate instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42135(9).)

   * The deprecations of ‘imp’, ‘importlib.find_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
     ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have all been updated to list Python 3.12 as
     the slated version of removal (they began raising *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in previous versions of Python).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43720(10).)

   * The import system now uses the ‘__spec__’ attribute on modules
     before falling back on ‘module_repr()’ for a module’s ‘__repr__()’
     method.  Removal of the use of ‘module_repr()’ is scheduled for
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42137(11).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’, and
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ are deprecated
     and slated for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-42136(12).)

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and obsolete since
     Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str: 445.  It is now
     deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42264(13).)

   * The undocumented built-in function ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is
     now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is
     strongly discouraged by the SQLite3 documentation.  See the SQLite3
     docs(14) for more details.  If a shared cache must be used, open
     the database in URI mode using the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-24464(15).)

   * The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated:

        * ‘threading.currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread():
          301.

        * ‘threading.activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count():
          302.

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 2fb.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set():
          2fc.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          300.

        * ‘threading.thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          300.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          2fe.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          2fe.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-87889(16).)

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in
     Python 3.12.  Use *note pathlib.Path.hardlink_to(): 81b. instead.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(17).)

   * ‘cgi.log()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41139(18).)

   * The following *note ssl: d0. features have been deprecated since
     Python 3.6, Python 3.7, or OpenSSL 1.1.0 and will be removed in
     3.11:

        * ‘OP_NO_SSLv2’, ‘OP_NO_SSLv3’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_1’,
          ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_2’, and ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_3’ are replaced by *note
          minimum_version: 86b. and *note maximum_version: 86c.

        * ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv2’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv3’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv23’,
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’, and
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLS’ are deprecated in favor of *note
          PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e.

        * ‘wrap_socket()’ is replaced by *note
          ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e.

        * ‘match_hostname()’

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’, ‘RAND_egd()’

        * NPN features like *note ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol():
          86f. and *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2fa. are
          replaced by ALPN.

   * The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable) is
     deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12.  This
     feature requires a *note debug build of Python: 1f9.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-44584(19).)

   * Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now
     emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  These submodules will be
     removed in a future version of Python.  Anything belonging to these
     submodules should be imported directly from *note typing: 104.
     instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (14) https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<5>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 10,  Prev: Deprecated<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.9 Removed
-------------

   * Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’, ‘__floordiv__’,
     ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’, ‘__rmod__’ and
     ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 2f0. class.  They always raised
     a *note TypeError: 532.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-41974(1).)

   * The ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private and undocumented
     ‘_markupbase’ module has been removed.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was already removed in Python 3.5.
     (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-31844(2).)

   * Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute which was an
     internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(3).)

   * Removed the ‘parser’ module, which was deprecated in 3.9 due to the
     switch to the new PEG parser, as well as all the C source and
     header files that were only being used by the old parser, including
     ‘node.h’, ‘parser.h’, ‘graminit.h’ and ‘grammar.h’.

   * Removed the Public C API functions
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ and ‘PyNode_Compile’ that were
     deprecated in 3.9 due to the switch to the new PEG parser.

   * Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested.  It was
     originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals
     were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy
     whatever classes they use into their code.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na and Terry J. Reedy in bpo-42299(4).)

   * Removed the ‘PyModule_GetWarningsModule()’ function that was
     useless now due to the ‘_warnings’ module was converted to a
     builtin module in 2.6.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42599(5).)

   * Remove deprecated aliases to *note Collections 추상 베이스 클래스:
     873. from the *note collections: 1d. module.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-37324(6).)

   * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio:
     a.‘s *note high-level API: 874. following deprecation in Python
     3.8.  The motivation behind this change is multifold:

       1. This simplifies the high-level API.

       2. The functions in the high-level API have been implicitly
          getting the current thread’s running event loop since Python
          3.7.  There isn’t a need to pass the event loop to the API in
          most normal use cases.

       3. Event loop passing is error-prone especially when dealing with
          loops running in different threads.

     Note that the low-level API will still accept ‘loop’.  See *note
     Changes in the Python API: 875. for examples of how to replace
     existing code.

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and
     Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 10,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Prev: Removed<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.10 Porting to Python 3.10
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python syntax::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python syntax,  Next: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.4.10.1 Changes in the Python syntax
.....................................

   * Deprecation warning is now emitted when compiling previously valid
     syntax if the numeric literal is immediately followed by a keyword
     (like in ‘0in x’).  In future releases it will be changed to syntax
     warning, and finally to a syntax error.  To get rid of the warning
     and make the code compatible with future releases just add a space
     between the numeric literal and the following keyword.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Next: Changes in the C API<2>,  Prev: Changes in the Python syntax,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.4.10.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The 'etype' parameters of the *note format_exception(): 847, *note
     format_exception_only(): 848, and *note print_exception(): 849.
     functions in the *note traceback: fe. module have been renamed to
     'exc'.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Matthias Bussonnier in
     bpo-26389(1).)

   * *note atexit: c.: At Python exit, if a callback registered with
     *note atexit.register(): 879. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-42639(2).)

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. generic now flattens type
     parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 7be. currently
     does.  This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’
     will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was
     ‘([int, str], str)’.  Code which accesses the arguments via *note
     typing.get_args(): 87a. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this
     change.  Furthermore, *note TypeError: 532. may be raised for
     invalid forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable:
     7e3. which may have passed silently in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by
     Ken Jin in bpo-42195(3).)

   * *note socket.htons(): 87b. and *note socket.ntohs(): 87c. now raise
     *note OverflowError: 87d. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.
     if the given parameter will not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42393(4).)

   * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio:
     a.‘s *note high-level API: 874. following deprecation in Python
     3.8.

     A coroutine that currently looks like this:

          async def foo(loop):
              await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop)

     Should be replaced with this:

          async def foo():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)

     If ‘foo()’ was specifically designed 'not' to run in the current
     thread’s running event loop (e.g.  running in another thread’s
     event loop), consider using *note
     asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 87e. instead.

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and
     Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(5).)

   * The *note types.FunctionType: 87f. constructor now inherits the
     current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 180. and *note exec():
     17f. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-42990(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<2>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.4.10.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * The C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’, ‘PyNode_Compile’ and the type used
     by these functions, ‘struct _node’, were removed due to the switch
     to the new PEG parser.

     Source should be now be compiled directly to a code object using,
     for example, *note Py_CompileString(): 881.  The resulting code
     object can then be evaluated using, for example, *note
     PyEval_EvalCode(): 882.

     Specifically:

        * A call to ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’ followed by
          ‘PyNode_Compile’ can be replaced by calling *note
          Py_CompileString(): 881.

        * There is no direct replacement for
          ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’.  To compile code from a ‘FILE
          *’ argument, you will need to read the file in C and pass the
          resulting buffer to *note Py_CompileString(): 881.

        * To compile a file given a ‘char *’ filename, explicitly open
          the file, read it and compile the result.  One way to do this
          is using the *note io: 7f. module with *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8, *note PyObject_CallMethod():
          399, *note PyBytes_AsString(): 883. and *note
          Py_CompileString(): 881, as sketched below.  (Declarations and
          error handling are omitted.)

               io_module = Import_ImportModule("io");
               fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb");
               source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", "");
               result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", "");
               source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object);
               code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input);

        * For ‘FrameObject’ objects, the *note f_lasti: 884. member now
          represents a wordcode offset instead of a simple offset into
          the bytecode string.  This means that this number needs to be
          multiplied by 2 to be used with APIs that expect a byte offset
          instead (like *note PyCode_Addr2Line(): 885. for example).
          Notice as well that the ‘f_lasti’ member of ‘FrameObject’
          objects is not considered stable: please use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Next: Build Changes<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.11 CPython bytecode changes
-------------------------------

   * The ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction now accepts either a dict or a
     tuple of strings as the function’s annotations.  (Contributed by
     Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<4>,  Next: C API Changes<4>,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.12 Build Changes
--------------------

   * PEP 644(1): Python now requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  OpenSSL
     1.0.2 is no longer supported.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-43669(2).)

   * The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are now required
     to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36020(3).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf. requires SQLite 3.7.15 or higher.  (Contributed
     by Sergey Fedoseev and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-40744(4) and
     bpo-40810(5).)

   * The *note atexit: c. module must now always be built as a built-in
     module.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42639(6).)

   * Add *note -disable-test-modules: 888. option to the ‘configure’
     script: don’t build nor install test modules.  (Contributed by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin in bpo-27640(7).)

   * Add *note -with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH option: 889. to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 55.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42856(8).)

   * Add a new *note configure -without-static-libpython option: 88a. to
     not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and not
     install the ‘python.o’ object file.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43103(9).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now uses the ‘pkg-config’ utility, if
     available, to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries.
     As before, those locations can be explicitly specified with the
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ configuration
     options.  (Contributed by Manolis Stamatogiannakis in
     bpo-42603(10).)

   * Add *note -with-openssl-rpath: 88b. option to ‘configure’ script.
     The option simplifies building Python with a custom OpenSSL
     installation, e.g.  ‘./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl
     --with-openssl-rpath=auto’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-43466(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<4>,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Prev: Build Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.13 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
* New Features: New Features<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<6>.
* Removed: Removed<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI,  Next: New Features<8>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.4.13.1 PEP 652: Maintaining the Stable ABI
............................................

The Stable ABI (Application Binary Interface) for extension modules or
embedding Python is now explicitly defined.  *note C API Stability: 54e.
describes C API and ABI stability guarantees along with best practices
for using the Stable ABI.

(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 652(1) and bpo-43795(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Prev: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.4.13.2 New Features
.....................

   * The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 88f. now always has exact
     type *note int: 257.  Previously, the result could have been an
     instance of a subclass of ‘int’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-40792(1).)

   * Add a new *note orig_argv: 890. member to the *note PyConfig: 3a0.
     structure: the list of the original command line arguments passed
     to the Python executable.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-23427(2).)

   * The *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 891. and *note
     PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 892. macros have been added for
     accessing the ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.
     and *note datetime.time: 1ce. objects.  (Contributed by Zackery
     Spytz in bpo-30155(3).)

   * Add a *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 893. function to unregister a
     codec search function.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(4).)

   * The *note PyIter_Send(): 894. function was added to allow sending
     value into iterator without raising ‘StopIteration’ exception.
     (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in bpo-41756(5).)

   * Add *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 895. to the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-41784(6).)

   * Add *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e. function: similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 35f. but don’t steal a reference to the value
     on success.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1635741(7).)

   * Add *note Py_NewRef(): 896. and *note Py_XNewRef(): 897. functions
     to increment the reference count of an object and return the
     object.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42262(8).)

   * The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-42423(9).)

   * The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. function now accepts
     NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41832(10).)

   * The *note PyType_GetSlot(): 898. function can accept *note static
     types: 778.  (Contributed by Hai Shi and Petr Viktorin in
     bpo-41073(11).)

   * Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 899. function to the C-API to
     check if an object is an instance of *note set: 5d3. but not an
     instance of a subtype.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-43277(12).)

   * Add *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 89a. which allows passing a
     signal number to simulate.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-43356(13).)

   * The limited C API is now supported if *note Python is built in
     debug mode: 1f9. (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the
     limited C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 569. and *note Py_DECREF():
     56a. functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather
     than accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 89b. member,
     if Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 332.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(14)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the *note
     -with-trace-refs: 38e. special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43688(15).)

   * Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 89c. function to test if the 'x' object
     is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.  Add also the
     *note Py_IsNone(): 89d, *note Py_IsTrue(): 89e, *note Py_IsFalse():
     89f. functions to test if an object is, respectively, the ‘None’
     singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’ singleton.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43753(16).)

   * Add new functions to control the garbage collector from C code:
     *note PyGC_Enable(): 8a0, *note PyGC_Disable(): 8a1, *note
     PyGC_IsEnabled(): 8a2.  These functions allow to activate,
     deactivate and query the state of the garbage collector from C code
     without having to import the *note gc: 60. module.

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57d. type flag
     to disallow creating type instances.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-43916(17).)

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. type flag for
     creating immutable type objects: type attributes cannot be set nor
     deleted.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-43908(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Next: Deprecated<6>,  Prev: New Features<8>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.4.13.3 Porting to Python 3.10
...............................

   * The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to use *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4. formats
     which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’ and ‘Z#’.
     See *note 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축: 8a5. and PEP 353(1).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40943(2).)

   * Since *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a6. is changed to the inline static
     function, ‘Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt’ must be replaced with
     ‘Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt)’: see *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a7.
     (available since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this
     macro can be used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4
          #  define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(3).)

   * Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380. without *note GIL: 159. held
     had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40839(4).)

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ raise
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ now.  Use *note PyUnicode_New(): 8a8. to
     allocate Unicode object without initial data.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(5).)

   * The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the PyCapsule API
     ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the internal C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(6).)

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note 파이썬
     초기화 구성: 3a1. API to get the *note Python Path Configuration:
     8aa.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42260(7).)

   * *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 387, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 386. and
     *note PyCell_SET(): 8ab. macros can no longer be used as l-value or
     r-value.  For example, ‘x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and
     ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now fail with a compiler error.  It
     prevents bugs like ‘if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.
     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner in bpo-30459(8).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘odictobject.h’, ‘parser_interface.h’,
     ‘picklebufobject.h’, ‘pyarena.h’, ‘pyctype.h’, ‘pydebug.h’,
     ‘pyfpe.h’, and ‘pytime.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’
     directory.  These files must not be included directly, as they are
     already included in ‘Python.h’; see *note 인클루드 파일: 77d.  If
     they have been included directly, consider including ‘Python.h’
     instead.  (Contributed by Nicholas Sim in bpo-35134(9).)

   * Use the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. type flag to create
     immutable type objects.  Do not rely on *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     8ac. to decide if a type object is mutable or not; check if *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. is set instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(10).)

   * The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain’ has been removed from the
     limited API. The function is mainly useful for custom builds of
     Python.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-26241(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<6>,  Next: Removed<6>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.4.13.4 Deprecated
...................

   * The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now deprecated and
     will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8ae. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-41692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<6>,  Prev: Deprecated<6>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.4.13.5 Removed
................

   * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating ‘Py_UNICODE*’
     strings.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41123(1).)

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b0. or
          *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b1.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters():
          8b2. or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy’: use *note
          PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b2. or *note
          PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b3.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8b4.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b5.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr’: use *note
          PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b6.

   * Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.  Please migrate to new ( PEP 393(2))
     APIs.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(3).)

   * Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.  Please migrate to *note
     PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(): 8b7.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-41103(4).)

   * Removed ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’.  Please use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8b8. or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString():
     8b9. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(5).)

   * Removed ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has been replaced by
     ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba.
     structure.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41834(6).)

   * Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. structure.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-41936(7).)

   * Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’ function.
     Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal handlers:
     see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8bb.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-41713(8).)

   * Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no longer possible
     to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the public C API. The
     function was already excluded from the limited C API ( PEP 384(9)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(10).)

   * Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     Use Python *note symtable: d8. module instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(11).)

   * Remove *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 581. from the limited
     C API headers and from ‘python3.dll’, the library that provides the
     stable ABI on Windows.  Since the function takes a ‘FILE*’
     argument, its ABI stability cannot be guaranteed.  (Contributed by
     Petr Viktorin in bpo-43868(12).)

   * Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header files.  These
     functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API.
     Most names defined by these header files were not prefixed by ‘Py’
     and so could create names conflicts.  For example, ‘Python-ast.h’
     defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the ‘Yield’ name
     used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the Python *note
     ast: 8. module instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-43244(13).)

   * Remove the compiler and parser functions using ‘struct _mod’ type,
     because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(14).)

   * Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(15).)

   * The ‘PyThreadState.use_tracing’ member has been removed to optimize
     Python.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-43760(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Prev: C API Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.14 Notable security feature in 3.10.7
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 257. and *note str: 445. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Next: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.15 Notable security feature in 3.10.8
-----------------------------------------

The deprecated ‘mailcap’ module now refuses to inject unsafe text
(filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands.  Instead of
using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or
for test commands, as if the test failed).  (Contributed by Petr
Viktorin in gh-98966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.4.16 Notable changes in 3.10.12
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<3>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 10 12

1.4.16.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 466. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능,  Next: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.5 파이썬 3.9의 새로운 기능
============================


편집자: Łukasz Langa

이 기사에서는 3.8과 비교하여 파이썬 3.9의 새로운 기능에 관해 설명합니다.
파이썬 3.9는 2020년 10월 5일에 출시되었습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 변경
내역: 13c.을 참조하세요.

더 보기
.......

PEP 596(1) - 파이썬 3.9 출시 일정

* Menu:

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항::
* 여러분의 코드에서 DeprecationWarning을 확인해야합니다::
* 새로운 기능::
* 기타 언어 변경::
* 새 모듈::
* 개선된 모듈::
* 최적화::
* 폐지::
* 제거::
* 파이썬 3.9로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기.
* 빌드 변경::
* C API 변경::
* 파이썬 3.9.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.9.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.9.3의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 3의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.9.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 9 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 3.9.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능: 3 9 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
* 3.9.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 3 9 17의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/


File: python.info,  Node: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항,  Next: 여러분의 코드에서 DeprecationWarning을 확인해야합니다,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.1 요약 – 배포 주요 사항
---------------------------

새로운 문법 기능:

   * PEP 584(1), 병합(union) 연산자가 ‘dict’에 추가되었습니다.

   * PEP 585(2), 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭;

   * PEP 614(3), 데코레이터에 대한 완화된 문법 제한.

새로운 내장 기능:

   * PEP 616(4), 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 문자열 메서드.

표준 라이브러리의 새로운 기능:

   * PEP 593(5), 유연한 함수와 변수 어노테이션;

   * 경쟁과 시그널 없이 프로세스 관리를 허용하는 *note os.pidfd_open():
     474.이 추가되었습니다.

인터프리터 개선:

   * PEP 573(6), C 확장형의 메서드에서 모듈 상태에 빠르게 액세스하기;

   * PEP 617(7), CPython은 이제 PEG를 기반으로 하는 새로운 구문 분석기를
     사용합니다;

   * 많은 파이썬 내장(range, tuple, set, frozenset, list, dict)이 이제
     PEP 590(8) 벡터콜을 사용하여 빨라졌습니다;

   * 가비지 수거는 부활한 객체에서 블록 되지 않습니다;

   * 많은 파이썬 모듈(‘_abc’, ‘audioop’, ‘_bz2’, ‘_codecs’,
     ‘_contextvars’, ‘_crypt’, ‘_functools’, ‘_json’, ‘_locale’, *note
     math: 8e, *note operator: 9f, *note resource: bc, *note time: ee,
     ‘_weakref’)은 이제 PEP 489에 정의된 대로 다단계 초기화를 사용합니다
     ;

   * 많은 표준 라이브러리 모듈(‘audioop’, *note ast: 8, *note grp: 66,
     ‘_hashlib’, *note pwd: b2, ‘_posixsubprocess’, *note random: b8,
     *note select: c1, *note struct: d5, *note termios: e1, *note zlib:
     133.)은 이제 PEP 384에서 정의한 안정(stable) ABI를 사용하고 있습니
     다.

새로운 라이브러리 모듈:

   * PEP 615(9), IANA 시간대 데이터베이스는 이제 *note zoneinfo: 134. 모
     듈을 통해 표준 라이브러리에 있습니다;

   * 이제 새로운 *note graphlib: 65. 모듈에서 그래프의 위상 정렬
     (topological sort) 구현이 제공됩니다.

릴리스 프로세스 변경:

   * PEP 602(10), CPython은 연간 릴리스 주기를 채택합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: 여러분의 코드에서 DeprecationWarning을 확인해야합니다,  Next: 새로운 기능,  Prev: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.2 여러분의 코드에서 DeprecationWarning을 확인해야합니다
-----------------------------------------------------------

파이썬 2.7이 여전히 지원될 때, 파이썬 2.7과의 과거 호환성을 위해 파이썬
3의 많은 기능이 유지되었습니다.  파이썬 2.7 지원이 종료되면서, 이러한 이
전 버전과의 호환성 계층이 제거되었거나, 곧 제거될 예정입니다.  그들 대부
분은 몇 년 동안 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 경고를 내보냈습니다.  예
를 들어, ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ 대신 ‘collections.Mapping’을 사용하면
2012년에 배포된 파이썬 3.3 이후 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 내보냅
니다.

*note -W: 8c4. ‘default’ 명령 줄 옵션으로 응용 프로그램을 테스트하여
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.과 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 을
보십시오.  또는 *note -W: 8c4. ‘error’로 아예 에러로 취급하십시오.
*note 경고 필터: 8c6.를 사용하면 제삼자 코드의 경고를 무시할 수 있습니다
.

파이썬 3.9는 파이썬 프로젝트 지원 담당자가 파이썬 2 지원 제거를 구성하고
파이썬 3.9에 대한 지원을 추가할 수 있도록 더 많은 시간을 제공하기 위한,
파이썬 2 과거 호환성 계층을 제공하는 마지막 버전입니다.

*note collections: 1d. 모듈의 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 873.에 대한 별칭
(*note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7.에 대한 ‘collections.Mapping’ 별칭과
같은)은 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 마지막 배포 하나에서 유지됩니다.  파
이썬 3.10에서 제거됩니다.

더 일반적으로, *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.에서 테스트를 실행하면 다음 파
이썬 버전과 호환되도록 코드를 준비하는 데 도움이 됩니다.

참고: 이 버전의 파이썬에서 기존의 많은 폐지가 제거되기도 했습니다.
*note 제거: 8c8. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 기능,  Next: 기타 언어 변경,  Prev: 여러분의 코드에서 DeprecationWarning을 확인해야합니다,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.3 새로운 기능
-----------------

* Menu:

* 딕셔너리 병합과 업데이트 연산자::
* 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드::
* 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭::
* 새로운 구문 분석기::


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 병합과 업데이트 연산자,  Next: 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드,  Up: 새로운 기능

1.5.3.1 딕셔너리 병합과 업데이트 연산자
.......................................

내장 *note dict: 256. 클래스에 병합(‘|’)과 업데이트(‘|=’) 연산자가 추가
되었습니다.  이들은 딕셔너리 병합의 기존 ‘dict.update’와 ‘{**d1, **d2}’
메서드를 보완합니다.

예:

     >>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"}
     >>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"}
     >>> x | y
     {'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'}
     >>> y | x
     {'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'}

자세한 설명은 PEP 584(1)를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher
in bpo-36144(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144


File: python.info,  Node: 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드,  Next: 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭,  Prev: 딕셔너리 병합과 업데이트 연산자,  Up: 새로운 기능

1.5.3.2 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드
.......................................................

문자열에서 불필요한 접두사나 접미사를 쉽게 제거하기 위해 *note
str.removeprefix(prefix): 8cc.와 *note str.removesuffix(suffix): 8cd.가
추가되었습니다.  해당 ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’ 및 ‘collections.UserString’ 메
서드도 추가되었습니다.  자세한 설명은 PEP 616(1)을 참조하십시오.
(Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-39939(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭,  Next: 새로운 구문 분석기,  Prev: 접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드,  Up: 새로운 기능

1.5.3.3 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭
....................................

형 어노테이션에서 이제 ‘typing’에서 해당 대문자 형(예를 들어 ‘List’나
‘Dict’)을 임포트 하는 대신 ‘list’와 ‘dict’와 같은 내장 컬렉션 형을 제네
릭 형으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  표준 라이브러리의 일부 다른 형도 이제 제
네릭입니다, 예를 들어 ‘queue.Queue’.

예:

     def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
         for name in names:
             print("Hello", name)

자세한 내용은 PEP 585(1)를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Guido van
Rossum, Ethan Smith, and Batuhan Taşkaya in bpo-39481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 구문 분석기,  Prev: 표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭,  Up: 새로운 기능

1.5.3.4 새로운 구문 분석기
..........................

파이썬 3.9는 LL(1)(1) 대신 PEG(2)를 기반으로 하는 새로운 구문 분석기를 사
용합니다.  새로운 구문 분석기의 성능은 기존 구문 분석기의 성능과 거의 비
슷하지만, PEG 형식은 새로운 언어 기능을 설계할 때 LL(1)보다 더 유연합니
다.  파이썬 3.10 이상에서 이 유연성을 사용하기 시작할 것입니다.

*note ast: 8. 모듈은 새 구문 분석기를 사용하며 이전 구문 분석기와 같은
AST를 생성합니다.

파이썬 3.10에서는, 이전 구문 분석기가 삭제되어, 여기에 의존하는 모든 기
능도 제거됩니다 (주로 오랜 기간 폐지되었던 ‘parser’ 모듈).  파이썬 3.9에
서*만*, 명령 줄 스위치(‘-X oldparser’)나 환경 변수
(‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’)를 사용하여 LL(1) 구문 분석기로 다시 전환 할 수 있
습니다.

자세한 내용은 PEP 617(3)을 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Guido van
Rossum, Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou in bpo-40334(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL_parser

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 언어 변경,  Next: 새 모듈,  Prev: 새로운 기능,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.4 기타 언어 변경
--------------------

   * *note __import__(): 8d1.는 이제 *note ValueError: 202. 대신 *note
     ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.  이는 상대적 임포트가 최상위 수준
     패키지를 넘어갈 때 발생했습니다.  (Contributed by Ngalim Siregar in
     bpo-37444(1).)

   * 파이썬은 이제 명령 줄에 지정된 스크립트 파일 이름의 절대 경로를 얻
     습니다 (예: ‘python3 script.py’): *note __main__: 1. 모듈의
     ‘__file__’ 어트리뷰트는 상대 경로 대신 절대 경로가 됩니다.  이 경로
     는 현재 디렉터리가 *note os.chdir(): 607.에 의해 변경된 후에도 계속
     유효합니다.  부작용으로, 이 경우 트레이스백은 *note __main__: 1. 모
     듈 프레임에 대해 절대 경로를 표시합니다.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-20443(2).)

   * *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.와 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.에서, 이제 문
     자열 인코딩과 디코딩 연산을 위해 'encoding'과 'errors' 인자가 검사
     됩니다.  예: *note open(): 515, *note str.encode(): 8d2. 및 *note
     bytes.decode(): 8d3.

     기본적으로, 최상의 성능을 위해, 'errors' 인자는 첫 번째 인코딩/디코
     딩 에러에서만 확인되며 빈 문자열에 대해서는 'encoding' 인자가 무시
     되는 경우가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37388(3).)

   * ‘"".replace("", s, n)’는 이제 0이 아닌 모든 ‘n’에 대해 빈 문자열 대
     신 ‘s’를 반환합니다.  이제 ‘"".replace("", s)’와 일관성 있습니다.
     *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytearray: 538. 객체에 대해 유사한 변경 사
     항이 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28029(4).)

   * 이제 모든 유효한 표현식을 *note 데코레이터: 72a.로 사용할 수 있습니
     다.  이전에는, 문법이 훨씬 제한적이었습니다.  자세한 내용은 PEP
     614(5)를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in
     bpo-39702(6).)

   * *note typing: 104. 모듈에 대한 도움말이 개선되었습니다.  모든 특수
     형식과 특수 제네릭 에일리어스(‘Union’과 ‘List’ 같은)에 대한 독스트
     링이 이제 표시됩니다.  ‘List[int]’와 같은 제네릭 에일리어스로 *note
     help(): 8d4.를 사용하면 해당 구상형(이 경우 ‘list’)에 대한 도움말이
     표시됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(7).)

   * *note aclose(): 8d5. / *note asend(): 8d6. / *note athrow(): 4f3.의
     병렬 실행은 이제 금지되며, 이제 ‘ag_running’은 비동기 제너레이터의
     실제 실행 상태를 반영합니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-30773(8).)

   * ‘__iter__’ 메서드 호출 시 예기치 않은 에러가 더는 *note in: 2ec. 연
     산자와 *note operator: 9f. 모듈의 *note contains(): 8d7, *note
     indexOf(): 8d8. 및 *note countOf(): 8d9. 함수에서 ‘TypeError’에 의
     해 마스킹 되지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-40824(9).)

   * Unparenthesized lambda expressions can no longer be the expression
     part in an ‘if’ clause in comprehensions and generator expressions.
     See bpo-41848(10) and bpo-43755(11) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755


File: python.info,  Node: 새 모듈,  Next: 개선된 모듈,  Prev: 기타 언어 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.5 새 모듈
-------------

* Menu:

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo,  Next: graphlib,  Up: 새 모듈

1.5.5.1 zoneinfo
................

*note zoneinfo: 134. 모듈은 IANA 시간대 데이터베이스 지원을 표준 라이브
러리에 도입합니다.  시스템의 시간대 데이터로 뒷받침되는 구상 *note
datetime.tzinfo: 5d8. 구현인 *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 8dc.를 추가합니다.

예:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> # 일광 절약 시간
     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

     >>> # 표준 시간
     >>> dt += timedelta(days=7)
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00
     >>> print(dt.tzname())
     PST

IANA 데이터베이스를 제공하지 않는 플랫폼의 대체 데이터 소스로, tzdata(1)
모듈이 자사(first-party) 패키지로 출시되었습니다 – PyPI를 통해 배포되고
CPython 핵심 팀에서 유지 관리합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 615(2) – 표준 라이브러리의 IANA 시간대 데이터베이스에 대한 지원

     Paul Ganssle이 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib,  Prev: zoneinfo,  Up: 새 모듈

1.5.5.2 graphlib
................

*note graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 8de. 클래스를 포함하는 *note graphlib:
65.를 추가하여 그래프의 위상 정렬을 수행하는 기능을 제공합니다.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters and Larry Hastings in
bpo-17005(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005


File: python.info,  Node: 개선된 모듈,  Next: 최적화,  Prev: 새 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.6 개선된 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE과 idlelib::
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* nntplib::
* os: os<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<3>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* xml: xml<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: ast<2>,  Next: asyncio<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.1 ast
...........

'indent' 옵션을 *note dump(): 8e1.에 추가하여 여러 줄 들여쓰기 된 출력을
생성할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-37995(1).)

*note ast.AST: 1a6. 객체를 역 구문 분석하고, 구문 분석할 때 동등한 *note
ast.AST: 1a6. 객체를 생성하는 코드가 담긴 문자열을 생성하는 데 사용할 수
있는 *note ast.unparse(): 8e2.를 *note ast: 8. 모듈의 함수로 추가했습니
다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-38870(2).)

AST 노드를 생성하는 데 사용된 ASDL 서명이 포함된 독스트링을 AST 노드에 추
가했습니다.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39638(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<5>,  Next: compileall<2>,  Prev: ast<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.2 asyncio
...............

심각한 보안 문제로 인해, *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint():
72c.의 'reuse_address' 매개 변수는 더는 지원되지 않습니다.  이것은 UDP에
서 소켓 옵션 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’의 동작 때문입니다.  자세한 내용은
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’ 설명서를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed
by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.가 닫기를 끝내기를 기다리는 기본 실행기의
종료(shutdown)를 예약하는 새 *note 코루틴: 48b. *note
shutdown_default_executor(): 8e4.가 추가되었습니다.  또한, *note
asyncio.run(): 476.은 새로운 *note 코루틴: 48b.을 사용하도록 갱신되었습
니다.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(2).)

프로세스 파일 기술자를 폴링 하는 리눅스 특정 자식 감시자 구현인, *note
asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 473.를 추가했습니다.  (bpo-38692(3))

새로운 *note 코루틴: 48b. *note asyncio.to_thread(): 8e5.를 추가했습니다
.  주로 이벤트 루프 블록을 피하고자 별도의 스레드에서 IO 병목 함수를 실
행하는 데 사용되며, 기본적으로 키워드 인자를 직접 취할 수 있는 *note
run_in_executor(): 8e6.의 고수준 버전으로 작동합니다.  (Contributed by
Kyle Stanley and Yury Selivanov in bpo-32309(4).)

시간 초과로 인해 태스크를 취소할 때, *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9.는 이
제 양의 timeout과 마찬가지로 'timeout'이 <= 0 인 경우에도 취소가 완료될
때까지 기다립니다.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
bpo-32751(5).)

*note asyncio: a.는 이제 *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7. 소켓과 호환되지 않는
메서드를 호출할 때 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  (Contributed
by Ido Michael in bpo-37404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<2>,  Next: concurrent futures<2>,  Prev: asyncio<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.3 compileall
..................

복제된 ‘.pyc’ 파일에 대해 하드 링크를 사용하는 새로운 가능성이 추가되었
습니다: 'hardlink_dupes' 매개 변수와 –hardlink-dupes 명령 줄 옵션.
(Contributed by Lumír ‘Frenzy’ Balhar in bpo-40495(1).)

결과 ‘.pyc’ 파일에서 경로 조작을 위한 새로운 옵션을 추가했습니다:
'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' 매개 변수와 -s, -p, -e 명령 줄
옵션.  최적화 수준에 대한 옵션을 여러 번 지정할 수 있는 가능성이 추가되
었습니다.  (Contributed by Lumír ‘Frenzy’ Balhar in bpo-38112(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<2>,  Next: curses<2>,  Prev: compileall<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.4 concurrent.futures
..........................

실행기를 종료하기 전에 완료되기를 기다리는 대신, 실행을 시작하지 않은 모
든 계류 중인 퓨처를 취소하는 새 'cancel_futures' 매개 변수를 *note
concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 8ea.에 추가했습니다.
(Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39349(1).)

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.와 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 에서 데
몬 스레드를 제거했습니다.  이를 통해 종료 절차에서 서브 인터프리터와의 호
환성과 예측성이 향상됩니다.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in
bpo-39812(2).)

재사용 가능한 유휴 작업자가 없을 때만, *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 의
작업자가 요청 시 스폰 됩니다.  이는 시작 오버헤드를 최적화하고 유휴 작업
자에게 손실되는 CPU 시간을 줄입니다.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in
bpo-39207(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207


File: python.info,  Node: curses<2>,  Next: datetime<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.5 curses
..............

*note curses.get_escdelay(): 8ed, *note curses.set_escdelay(): 8ee,
*note curses.get_tabsize(): 8ef. 및 *note curses.set_tabsize(): 8f0. 함
수를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-38312(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<2>,  Next: distutils<3>,  Prev: curses<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.6 datetime
................

*note datetime.date: 1cd.의 *note isocalendar(): 8f2.와 *note
datetime.datetime: 1cc.의 *note isocalendar(): 8f3. 메서드는 이제 *note
tuple: 369. 대신 *note namedtuple(): 1ca.을 반환합니다.  (Contributed by
Donghee Na in bpo-24416(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<3>,  Next: fcntl<2>,  Prev: datetime<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.7 distutils
.................

‘upload’ 명령은 이제 SHA2-256 및 Blake2b-256 해시 다이제스트를 만듭니다.
MD5 다이제스트를 차단하는 플랫폼에서는 MD5를 건너뜁니다.  (Contributed
by Christian Heimes in bpo-40698(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl<2>,  Next: ftplib<2>,  Prev: distutils<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.8 fcntl
.............

Added constants ‘fcntl.F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘fcntl.F_OFD_SETLK’ and
‘fcntl.F_OFD_SETLKW’.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<2>,  Next: gc<2>,  Prev: fcntl<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.9 ftplib
..............

비 블로킹 소켓의 생성을 막기 위해 생성자에 대해 주어진 시간제한이 0이면
*note FTP: 8f7.와 *note FTP_TLS: 8f8.는 이제 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: gc<2>,  Next: hashlib<4>,  Prev: ftplib<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.10 gc
...........

가비지 수거기가 일부 객체를 되살리는 컬렉션을 만들 때 (파이널라이저가 실
행된 후 격리된 순환 외부에서 도달할 수 있습니다), 여전히 도달할 수 없는
모든 객체의 컬렉션을 차단하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo
and Tim Peters in bpo-38379(1).)

가비지 수거기에서 객체가 파이널라이즈 되었는지 확인하는 새 함수 *note
gc.is_finalized(): 8fa.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo
in bpo-39322(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<4>,  Next: http,  Prev: gc<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.11 hashlib
................

*note hashlib: 68. 모듈은 이제 사용할 수 있으면 OpenSSL의 SHA3 해시와
SHAKE XOF를 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-37630(1).)

내장 해시 모듈은 이제 ‘./configure --without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’로 비
활성화하거나 ‘./configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2’로 선
택적으로 활성화하여 OpenSSL 기반 구현의 사용을 강제할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40479(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479


File: python.info,  Node: http,  Next: IDLE과 idlelib,  Prev: hashlib<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.12 http
.............

HTTP 상태 코드 ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ 및 ‘425 TOO_EARLY’가
*note http.HTTPStatus: 8fd.에 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Donghee
Na in bpo-39509(1) and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE과 idlelib,  Next: imaplib,  Prev: http,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.13 IDLE과 idlelib
.......................

커서 깜박임을 토글하는 옵션이 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Zackery
Spytz in bpo-4603(1).)

이스케이프 키는 이제 IDLE 완료 창을 닫습니다.  (Contributed by Johnny
Najera in bpo-38944(2).)

모듈 이름 완성 리스트에 키워드를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(3).)

New in 3.9 maintenance releases

Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 805. (when started without
‘-n’).  User hooks were previously ignored.  (Contributed by Ken Hilton
in bpo-43008(4).)

위의 변경 사항은 3.8 유지 보수 릴리스로 역 이식되었습니다.

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(5).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(6).)

Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood
and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib,  Next: importlib<3>,  Prev: IDLE과 idlelib,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.14 imaplib
................

*note IMAP4: 900.와 *note IMAP4_SSL: 901.에는 이제 생성자에 선택적
'timeout' 매개 변수가 있습니다.  또한 *note open(): 902. 메서드에는 이제
이 변경으로 인해 선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수가 있습니다.  재정의된 *note
IMAP4_SSL: 901.과 *note IMAP4_stream: 903. 메서드에 이 변경이 적용되었습
니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38615(1).)

*note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 904.가 추가되었습니다.  *note
imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 904.는 선택한 사서함과 관련된 서버 자원을 해제
하고 서버를 인증된 상태로 되돌립니다.  이 명령은 현재 선택된 사서함에서
메시지가 영구적으로 제거되지 않는다는 점을 제외하고 *note
imaplib.IMAP4.close(): 905.와 같은 작업을 수행합니다.  (Contributed by
Donghee Na in bpo-40375(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<3>,  Next: inspect<4>,  Prev: imaplib,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.15 importlib
..................

import 문과의 일관성을 개선하기 위해, *note
importlib.util.resolve_name(): 907.은 이제 잘못된 상대 임포트 시도에 대
해 *note ValueError: 202. 대신 *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.
(Contributed by Ngalim Siregar in bpo-37444(1).)

불변 모듈 객체를 게시하는 임포트 로더는 이제 개별 모듈 외에도 불변 패키
지를 게시할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Dino Viehland in
bpo-39336(2).)

‘importlib_resources’ 버전 1.5의 역 이식과 일치하는 패키지 데이터의 하위
디렉터리를 지원하는 *note importlib.resources.files(): 488. 함수가 추가
되었습니다.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-39791(3).)

‘importlib_metadata’ 버전 1.6.1로부터 ‘importlib.metadata’를 새로 고쳤습
니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<4>,  Next: ipaddress<2>,  Prev: importlib<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.16 inspect
................

*note inspect.BoundArguments.arguments: 909.가 ‘OrderedDict’에서 일반
dict로 변경되었습니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36350(1) and
bpo-39775(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<2>,  Next: math<4>,  Prev: inspect<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.17 ipaddress
..................

*note ipaddress: 80.는 이제 IPv6 스코프 된 주소(접미사 ‘%<scope_id>’ 가
있는 IPv6 주소)를 지원합니다.

스코프 된 IPv6 주소는 *note ipaddress.IPv6Address: 1fd.를 사용하여 구문
분석할 수 있습니다.  존재하면, *note scope_id: 90b. 어트리뷰트를 통해 스
코프 존 ID를 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Oleksandr Pavliuk in
bpo-34788(1).)

Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 80. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: math<4>,  Next: multiprocessing<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.18 math
.............

여러 인자를 처리하도록 *note math.gcd(): 90d. 함수를 확장했습니다.  이전
에는 두 개의 인자만 지원했습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-39648(1).)

*note math.lcm(): 90e.을 추가했습니다: 지정된 인자의 최소 공배수를 반환
합니다.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson, Ananthakrishnan and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-39479(2) and bpo-39648(3).)

*note math.nextafter(): 492.를 추가했습니다: 'y'를 향해 'x' 뒤의 다음 부
동 소수점 값을 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-39288(4).)

*note math.ulp(): 90f.를 추가했습니다: 부동 소수점의 최하위 비트 값을 반
환합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39310(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<2>,  Next: nntplib,  Prev: math<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.19 multiprocessing
........................

*note multiprocessing.SimpleQueue: 911. 클래스에는 큐를 명시적으로 닫는
새로운 *note close(): 912. 메서드가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-30966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib,  Next: os<5>,  Prev: multiprocessing<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.20 nntplib
................

생성자에 대해 주어진 시간제한이 0이면 비 블로킹 소켓을 만드는 것을 막기
위해 ‘NNTP’와 ‘NNTP_SSL’은 이제 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: os<5>,  Next: pathlib<6>,  Prev: nntplib,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.21 os
...........

‘si_code’에 *note CLD_KILLED: 915.와 *note CLD_STOPPED: 916.를 추가했습
니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493(1).)

파일 기술자를 사용한 프로세스 관리를 위해 리눅스 특정 *note
os.pidfd_open(): 474.(bpo-38692(2))과 *note os.P_PIDFD:
917.(bpo-38713(3))를 노출했습니다.

*note os.unsetenv(): 918. 함수는 이제 윈도우에서도 사용할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39413(4).)

*note os.putenv(): 919.와 *note os.unsetenv(): 918. 함수를 이제 항상 사
용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39395(5).)

*note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a. 함수를 추가했습니다: 대기 상태를
종료 코드로 변환합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-40094(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<6>,  Next: pdb<3>,  Prev: os<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.22 pathlib
................

*note os.readlink(): 91c.와 유사하게 작동하는 *note
pathlib.Path.readlink(): 91d.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Girts
Folkmanis in bpo-30618(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<3>,  Next: poplib,  Prev: pathlib<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.23 pdb
............

이제 윈도우에서 *note Pdb: 91f.는 ‘~/.pdbrc’를 지원합니다.  (Contributed
by Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter in bpo-20523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523


File: python.info,  Node: poplib,  Next: pprint<2>,  Prev: pdb<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.24 poplib
...............

생성자에 대해 주어진 시간제한이 0이면 비 블로킹 소켓을 만드는 것을 막기
위해 *note POP3: 921.과 *note POP3_SSL: 922.은 이제 *note ValueError:
202.를 발생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<2>,  Next: pydoc,  Prev: poplib,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.25 pprint
...............

*note pprint: ae.는 이제 *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1.를 예쁘게 인쇄
할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Carl Bordum Hansen in bpo-37376(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc,  Next: random<3>,  Prev: pprint<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.26 pydoc
..............

독스트링은 이제 클래스, 함수, 메서드 등뿐만 아니라 자체 *note __doc__:
925. 어트리뷰트를 가진 모든 객체에 대해 표시됩니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257


File: python.info,  Node: random<3>,  Next: signal,  Prev: pydoc,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.27 random
...............

Added a new *note random.Random.randbytes(): 927. method: generate
random bytes.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40286(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286


File: python.info,  Node: signal,  Next: smtplib,  Prev: random<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.28 signal
...............

pid 대신 파일 기술자를 사용하여 프로세스에 시그널을 보내는 리눅스 특정
*note signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 929.을 노출했습니다.  (bpo-38712(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib,  Next: socket<3>,  Prev: signal,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.29 smtplib
................

생성자에 대해 주어진 시간제한이 0이면 비 블로킹 소켓을 만드는 것을 막기
위해 *note SMTP: 92b.와 *note SMTP_SSL: 92c.은 이제 *note ValueError:
202.를 발생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).)

*note LMTP: 92d. 생성자는 이제 선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수를 갖습니다.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329


File: python.info,  Node: socket<3>,  Next: time<3>,  Prev: smtplib,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.30 socket
...............

*note socket: cc. 모듈은 이제 리눅스 4.1 이상에서 *note
CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: 92f. 상수를 내보냅니다.  (Contributed by Stefan
Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780(1).)

socket 모듈은 이제 *note CAN_J1939: 930. 프로토콜을 지원하는 플랫폼에서
이를 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291(2).)

socket 모듈에는 이제 *note socket.send_fds(): 931.와 *note
socket.recv_fds(): 932. 함수가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Joannah
Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner in bpo-28724(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724


File: python.info,  Node: time<3>,  Next: sys<6>,  Prev: socket<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.31 time
.............

AIX에서, *note thread_time(): 934.은 이제 10 밀리초 해상도의
‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’가 아니라 나노초 해상도의
‘thread_cputime()’으로 구현됩니다.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in
bpo-40192(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192


File: python.info,  Node: sys<6>,  Next: tracemalloc,  Prev: time<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.32 sys
............

새로운 *note sys.platlibdir: 936. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다: 플랫폼별 라
이브러리 디렉터리의 이름.  표준 라이브러리의 경로와 설치된 확장 모듈의 경
로들을 빌드하는 데 사용됩니다.  대부분 플랫폼에서 ‘"lib"’와 같습니다.
Fedora와 SuSE에서는, 64비트 플랫폼에서 ‘"lib64"’와 같습니다.
(Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and
Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

이전에는, 비 대화형일 때 *note sys.stderr: 937.가 블록 버퍼링 되었습니다
.  이제 ‘stderr’은 기본적으로 항상 줄 버퍼링 됩니다.  (Contributed by
Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc,  Next: typing<6>,  Prev: sys<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.33 tracemalloc
....................

특정 코드 조각의 최대 사용량을 측정하기 위해 추적한 메모리 블록의 최대 크
기를 현재 크기로 설정하는 *note tracemalloc.reset_peak(): 939.가 추가되
었습니다.  (Contributed by Huon Wilson in bpo-40630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630


File: python.info,  Node: typing<6>,  Next: unicodedata<4>,  Prev: tracemalloc,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.34 typing
...............

PEP 593(1)은 문맥 별 메타 데이터로 기존 형을 데코레이트 하는 *note
typing.Annotated: 93b. 형과 실행 시간에 메타 데이터에 액세스하기 위해
*note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab.에 새로운 ‘include_extras’ 매개 변수
를 도입했습니다.  (Contributed by Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<4>,  Next: venv<3>,  Prev: typing<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.35 unicodedata
....................

유니코드 데이터베이스가 버전 13.0.0으로 갱신되었습니다.  (bpo-39926(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926


File: python.info,  Node: venv<3>,  Next: xml<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.36 venv
.............

*note venv: 111.가 제공하는 활성화 스크립트는 이제 모두 항상
‘__VENV_PROMPT__’로 지정된 값을 사용하여 프롬프트 사용자 정의를 일관되게
지정합니다.  이전에는 일부 스크립트는 ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’를 무조건 사용했
으며, 다른 스크립트는 설정되었을 때만 (이것이 기본입니다)
‘__VENV_PROMPT__’를 사용했으며 어떤 것은 대신 ‘__VENV_NAME__’을 사용했습
니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-37663(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663


File: python.info,  Node: xml<3>,  Prev: venv<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈

1.5.6.37 xml
............

*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.를 XML 파일로 직렬화할 때 어트리뷰트 내
의 공백 문자가 이제 유지됩니다.  EOLN은 더는 “n”으로 정규화되지 않습니다
.  이것은 XML 명세의 2.11 섹션을 해석하는 방법에 대한 논의 결과입니다.
(Contributed by Mefistotelis in bpo-39011(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011


File: python.info,  Node: 최적화,  Next: 폐지,  Prev: 개선된 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.7 최적화
------------

   * 컴프리헨션에서 임시 변수를 대입하는 관용구를 최적화했습니다.  이제
     컴프리헨션에서 ‘for y in [expr]’는 단순 대입 ‘y = expr’만큼 빠릅니
     다.  예를 들면:

          sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]]

     ‘:=’ 연산자와 달리 이 관용구는 변수를 외부 스코프로 누출하지 않습니
     다.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32856(1).)

   * 다중 스레드 응용 프로그램에서 시그널 처리를 최적화했습니다.  메인 스
     레드와 다른 스레드가 신호를 받으면, 처리할 수 없는 계류 중인 시그널
     을 확인하기 위해 바이트 코드 평가 루프가 더는 각 바이트 코드 명령에
     서 중단되지 않습니다.  메인 인터프리터의 메인 스레드만 시그널을 처
     리할 수 있습니다.

     이전에는, 메인 스레드가 시그널을 처리할 때까지 각 명령에서 바이트 코
     드 평가 루프가 중단되었습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-40010(2).)

   * ‘closefrom()’을 사용하여 FreeBSD에서 *note subprocess: d6. 모듈을 최
     적화했습니다.  (Contributed by Ed Maste, Conrad Meyer, Kyle Evans,
     Kubilay Kocak and Victor Stinner in bpo-38061(3).)

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 940.은 이제 long에 맞는 값에 대해 최대
     1.87배 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev in
     bpo-37986(4).)

   * 많은 파이썬 내장(*note range: 941, *note tuple: 369, *note set:
     5d3, *note frozenset: 5d4, *note list: 60b, *note dict: 256.)은 이
     제 PEP 590(5) 벡터콜 프로토콜을 사용하여 가속됩니다.  (Contributed
     by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr Viktorin in
     bpo-37207(6).)

   * Optimized ‘set.difference_update()’ for the case when the other set
     is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny Kapun with
     code contributed by Michele Orrù in bpo-8425(7).)

   * 파이썬의 작은 객체 할당자(‘obmalloc.c’)는 이제 하나의 빈 아레나를
     OS로 반환하지 않고 즉시 재사용 할 수 있도록 허용합니다.  이렇게 하
     면 각 이터레이션마다 아레나가 새로 만들어지고 파괴될 수 있도록 하는
     간단한 루프에서의 스레싱(thrashing)이 방지됩니다.  (Contributed by
     Tim Peters in bpo-37257(8).)

   * 이제 부동 소수점 연산의 *note 정수 나눗셈: 942.의 성능이 개선되었습
     니다.  또한 이 연산에 대한 *note ZeroDivisionError: 943.의 메시지가
     갱신됩니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39434(9).)

   * UTF-8과 ascii 코덱으로 짧은 ASCII 문자열을 디코딩하는 것이 이제 약
     15% 더 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-37348(10).)

다음은 파이썬 3.4에서 파이썬 3.9까지의 성능 향상에 대한 요약입니다:

     Python version                       3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8    3.9
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---    ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9    3.9
         read_nonlocal                    7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4    4.5
         read_global                     15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6    7.8
         read_builtin                    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5    7.8
         read_classvar_from_class        25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4   17.9
         read_classvar_from_instance     22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4   16.9
         read_instancevar                32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4   25.3
         read_instancevar_slots          27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2   20.5
         read_namedtuple                 73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4   18.7
         read_boundmethod                37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7   41.1

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3    4.3
         write_nonlocal                  10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7    4.8
         write_global                    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8   16.7
         write_classvar                  92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2   39.8
         write_instancevar               44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5   37.4
         write_instancevar_slots         35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7   25.8

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0   19.5
         read_deque                      24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8   20.2
         read_dict                       24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0   22.4
         read_strdict                    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9   21.5

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0   20.0
         write_deque                     28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5   21.7
         write_dict                      31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7   25.4
         write_strdict                   28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1   24.5

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                 93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8   50.6
         deque_append_pop                43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5   44.2
         deque_append_popleft            43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8   46.4

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3    0.3

이 결과는 ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’에 있는 변수 액세스 벤
치마크 스크립트에서 생성되었습니다.  벤치마크 스크립트는 타이밍을 나노초
로 표시합니다.  벤치마크는 python.org(11)에서 찾을 수 있는 macOS 64비트
빌드를 실행하는 Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(12)에서 측정되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (11) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/

   (12) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지,  Next: 제거,  Prev: 최적화,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.8 폐지
----------

   * distutils ‘bdist_msi’ 명령은 이제 폐지되었습니다, 대신
     ‘bdist_wheel’(휠 패키지)을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in bpo-39586(1).)

   * 현재 *note math.factorial(): 945.은 음이 아닌 정숫값을 갖는 *note
     float: 2ef. 인스턴스를 허용합니다 (가령 ‘5.0’).  정숫값이 아니거나
     음수인 float에 대해서는 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  이
     제 폐지되었습니다.  향후 파이썬 버전에서는 모든 float에 대해 *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시킬 것입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-37315(2).)

   * ‘parser’와 ‘symbol’ 모듈은 폐지되었고 이후 버전의 파이썬에서 제거될
     예정입니다.  대부분의 사용 사례에서 사용자는 *note ast: 8. 모듈을 사
     용하여 추상 구문 트리(AST) 생성과 컴파일 단계를 활용할 수 있습니다.

   * 공개 C API 함수 ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()’ 및 ‘PyNode_Compile()’는 폐지되었
     고 파이썬 3.10에서 이전 구문 분석기와 함께 제거됩니다.

   * 불리언 문맥에서 *note NotImplemented: 7cb.를 사용하는 것은 거의 확
     실히 잘못된 풍부한 비교 구현의 결과이므로 폐지되었습니다.  향후 버
     전의 파이썬에서 *note TypeError: 532.가 될 것입니다.  (Contributed
     by Josh Rosenberg in bpo-35712(3).)

   * *note random: b8. 모듈은 현재 모든 해시 가능한 형을 시드 값으로 허
     용합니다.  불행히도, 이러한 형 중 일부는 결정론적 해시값을 보장하지
     않습니다.  파이썬 3.9 이후, 이 모듈은 시드를 *note None: 66f, *note
     int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 및
     *note bytearray: 538.로 제한합니다.

   * 'mode' 인자를 지정하지 않고 쓰기 위해 *note GzipFile: 414. 파일을 여
     는 것은 폐지되었습니다.  향후 파이썬 버전에서는 이때 기본적으로 항
     상 읽기 위해 열립니다.  쓰기 위해 열면서 경고가 나오지 않도록 하기
     위해서는 'mode' 인자를 지정하십시오.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-28286(4).)

   * ‘_tkinter.TkappType’의 ‘split()’ 메서드를 폐지하고, 더 일관되고 예
     측 가능한 동작을 갖는 ‘splitlist()’ 메서드로 대체합니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38371(5).)

   * 코루틴 객체를 *note asyncio.wait(): 479.에 명시적으로 전달하는 것은
     폐지되었고 버전 3.11에서 제거됩니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov and Kyle Stanley in bpo-34790(6).)

   * binhex4 와 hexbin4 표준은 이제 폐지되었습니다.  ‘binhex’ 모듈과 다
     음 *note binascii: 10. 함수는 이제 폐지되었습니다:

        * ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39353(7).)

   * *note ast: 8. 클래스 ‘slice’, ‘Index’ 및 ‘ExtSlice’는 폐지된 것으로
     간주하고 향후 파이썬 버전에서 제거될 예정입니다.  ‘Index(value)’ 대
     신 ‘value’ 자체를 사용해야 합니다.  ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ 대신
     ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’를 사용해야 합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-34822(8).)

   * *note ast: 8. 클래스 ‘Suite’, ‘Param’, ‘AugLoad’ 및 ‘AugStore’는 폐
     지된 것으로 간주하고 향후 파이썬 버전에서 제거될 예정입니다.  이것
     들은 구문 분석기에 의해 생성되지 않았으며 파이썬 3의 코드 생성기에
     의해 받아들여지지 않았습니다.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in
     bpo-39639(9) and bpo-39969(10) and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-39988(11).)

   * ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’와 ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ 함수는 이제
     폐지되었고 파이썬 3.11에서 제거됩니다.  ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’를 호
     출해도 이제 아무런 효과가 없습니다.  *note GIL: 159.은 파이썬 3.7부
     터 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.로 초기화됩니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39877(12).)

   * *note shlex.split(): 536. 함수에 첫 번째 인자로 ‘None’을 전달하는 것
     은 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
     bpo-33262(13).)

   * ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy()’는 이제 외부 모듈 ‘mailman’ 없이는 사용할 수
     없어서 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in
     bpo-35800(14).)

   * ‘lib2to3’ 모듈은 이제 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 을 방출
     합니다.  파이썬 3.9는 PEG 구문 분석기로 전환되었으며 ( PEP 617(15)을
     참조하십시오), 파이썬 3.10에는 lib2to3의 LL(1) 구문 분석기로 구문 분
     석할 수 없는 새로운 언어 문법이 포함될 수 있습니다.  ‘lib2to3’ 모듈
     은 향후 파이썬 버전의 표준 라이브러리에서 제거될 수 있습니다.
     LibCST(16)나 parso(17)와 같은 제삼자 대안을 고려하십시오.
     (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-40360(18).)

   * *note random.shuffle(): 740.의 'random' 매개 변수는 폐지되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(19))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (16) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (17) https://parso.readthedocs.io/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465


File: python.info,  Node: 제거,  Next: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기,  Prev: 폐지,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.9 제거
----------

   * ‘unittest.mock.__version__’의 잘못된 버전이 제거되었습니다.

   * ‘nntplib.NNTP’: ‘xpath()’와 ‘xgtitle()’ 메서드가 제거되었습니다.  이
     메서드는 파이썬 3.3부터 폐지되었습니다.  일반적으로, 이러한 확장은
     지원되지 않거나 NNTP 서버 관리자가 활성화하지 않습니다.
     ‘xgtitle()’의 경우, ‘nntplib.NNTP.descriptions()’나
     ‘nntplib.NNTP.description()’을 대신 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-39366(1).)

   * *note array.array: 1a0.: ‘tostring()’과 ‘fromstring()’ 메서드가 제
     거되었습니다.  이것들은 ‘tobytes()’와 ‘frombytes()’의 별칭으로, 파
     이썬 3.2부터 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-38916(2).)

   * 설명되지 않은 ‘sys.callstats()’ 함수가 제거되었습니다.  파이썬 3.7부
     터는, 폐지되었고 항상 *note None: 66f.을 반환했습니다.  파이썬 3.7에
     서 이미 제거된 특수 빌드 옵션 ‘CALL_PROFILE’이 필요했습니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37414(3).)

   * ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ 과 ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ 함수가 제거되
     었습니다.  파이썬 3.2부터 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note
     sys.getswitchinterval(): 947.과 *note sys.setswitchinterval():
     948.을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37392(4).)

   * C 함수 ‘PyImport_Cleanup()’이 제거되었습니다.  이렇게 설명되어 있었
     습니다: “모듈 테이블을 비웁니다.  내부 전용.” (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-36710(5).)

   * ‘_dummy_thread’와 ‘dummy_threading’ 모듈이 제거되었습니다.  이 모듈
     은 스레드 지원이 필수인 파이썬 3.7부터 폐지되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37312(6).)

   * ‘aifc.open()’에 대한 ‘aifc.openfp()’ 별칭, ‘sunau.open()’에 대한
     ‘sunau.openfp()’ 별칭, *note wave.open(): 949.에 대한
     ‘wave.openfp()’ 별칭이 제거되었습니다.  파이썬 3.7부터 폐지되었습니
     다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320(7).)

   * *note threading.Thread: 94a.의 ‘isAlive()’ 메서드가 제거되었습니다.
     파이썬 3.8부터 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note is_alive(): 94b.를 사용
     하십시오.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-37804(8).)

   * *note ElementTree: 125. 모듈에서 클래스 *note ElementTree: 94c.와
     *note Element: 308.의 메서드 ‘getchildren()’과 ‘getiterator()’가 제
     거되었습니다.  파이썬 3.2에서 폐지되었습니다.  ‘x.getchildren()’ 대
     신 ‘iter(x)’나 ‘list(x)’를, ‘x.getiterator()’ 대신 ‘x.iter()’나
     ‘list(x.iter())’를 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-36543(9).)

   * 낡은 *note plistlib: ab. API는 제거되었습니다, 파이썬 3.4부터 폐지
     되었습니다.  *note load(): 94d, *note loads(): 94e, *note dump():
     94f. 및 *note dumps(): 950. 함수를 사용하십시오.  또한,
     'use_builtin_types' 매개 변수가 제거되었으며, 표준 *note bytes:
     1c2. 객체가 항상 대신 사용됩니다.  (Contributed by Jon Janzen in
     bpo-36409(10).)

   * C 함수 ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’이 제거되었습니다.  PEP 442(11)를 구
     현한 후, 설명되지도, 테스트 되지도, CPython 내 어디에서건 사용되지
     도 않았습니다.  Joannah Nanjekye의 패치.  (Contributed by Joannah
     Nanjekye in bpo-15088(12))

   * 파이썬 3.1부터 폐지된 별칭 ‘base64.encodestring()’과
     ‘base64.decodestring()’은 제거되었습니다: 대신 *note
     base64.encodebytes(): 951.와 *note base64.decodebytes(): 952.를 사
     용하십시오.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39351(13).)

   * ‘fractions.gcd()’ 함수가 제거되었습니다, 파이썬 3.5부터 폐지되었습
     니다 (bpo-22486(14)): 대신 *note math.gcd(): 90d.를 사용하십시오.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39350(15).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 861.의 'buffering' 매개 변수가 제거되었습니다.  파
     이썬 3.0부터 무시되었고 사용하면 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 방
     출했습니다.  파일을 여는 방법을 제어하려면 열린 파일 객체를 전달하
     십시오.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39357(16).)

   * *note json.loads(): 953.의 'encoding' 매개 변수가 제거되었습니다.  파
     이썬 3.1부터 폐지되었고 무시되었습니다; 파이썬 3.8부터 사용하면
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 방출했습니다.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-39377(17))

   * ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’와 ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’ 문
     은 더는 지원되지 않습니다, 대신 ‘async with lock’을 사용하십시오.
     ‘asyncio.Condition’과 ‘asyncio.Semaphore’도 마찬가지입니다.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-34793(18).)

   * ‘sys.getcounts()’ 함수, ‘-X showalloccount’ 명령 줄 옵션 및 C 구조
     체 *note PyConfig: 3a0.의 ‘show_alloc_count’ 필드가 제거되었습니다.
     이들은 ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ 매크로를 정의하는 특별한 파이썬 빌드가 필요했
     습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(19).)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0. 클래스의 ‘_field_types’ 어트리뷰트가
     제거되었습니다.  파이썬 3.8부터 폐지되었습니다.  대신
     ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트를 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40182(20).)

   * ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’ 메서드가 제거되었습니다.  2006 년
     부터 폐지되었으며, 호출되면 ‘False’를 반환하기만 합니다.
     (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208(21))

   * ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’와 ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’가 제거되
     었습니다.  파이썬 3.7부터 폐지되었고 대신 *note
     asyncio.current_task(): 477.와 *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 954.를 사
     용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-40967(22))

   * *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. 클래스의 ‘unescape()’ 메서드가 제
     거되었습니다 (파이썬 3.4부터 폐지되었습니다).  문자 참조를 해당 유
     니코드 문자로 변환하는 데 *note html.unescape(): 955.를 사용해야 합
     니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기,  Next: 빌드 변경,  Prev: 제거,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.10 파이썬 3.9로 이식하기
----------------------------

이 절에서는 여러분의 코드 수정을 요구할 수도 있는 이전에 설명한 변경 사
항과 다른 버그 수정 사항을 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 API의 변경::
* C API의 변경::
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 API의 변경,  Next: C API의 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기

1.5.10.1 파이썬 API의 변경
..........................

   * *note __import__(): 8d1.와 *note importlib.util.resolve_name():
     907.은 이전에 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시키던 곳에서 이제 *note
     ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.  특정 예외 형을 포착하고 파이썬
     3.9와 이전 버전을 모두 지원하는 호출자는 ‘except (ImportError,
     ValueError):’를 사용하여 둘 다 포착해야 합니다.

   * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’가 ‘""’로 설정될 때 *note venv: 111. 활성화 스크립
     트는 더는 특별한 경우가 아닙니다.

   * *note select.epoll.unregister(): 958. 메서드는 더는 *note EBADF:
     959. 에러를 무시하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39239(1).)

   * 'buffering' 매개 변수가 제거되었기 때문에, *note bz2.BZ2File: 861.의
     'compresslevel' 매개 변수는 키워드 전용이 되었습니다.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-39357(2).)

   * 서브스크립션이 단순화된 AST. 단순 인덱스는 값으로 표시되고, 확장 슬
     라이스는 튜플로 표시됩니다.  ‘Index(value)’는 ‘value’ 자체를 반환하
     고, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’는 ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’를 반환합니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34822(3).)

   * *note -E: 95a.나 *note -I: 95b. 명령 줄 옵션을 사용할 때 *note
     importlib: 77. 모듈은 이제 *note PYTHONCASEOK: 95c. 환경 변수를 무
     시합니다.

   * 'encoding' 매개 변수가 클래스 *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7.와 *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: 8f8.에 키워드 전용 매개 변수로 추가되었으며, 기본 인
     코딩이 RFC 2640(4)을 따르도록 Latin-1에서 UTF-8로 변경되었습니다.

   * *note asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8e4.가 *note
     AbstractEventLoop: 95d. 에 추가되어서, 이것을 상속하는 대체 이벤트
     루프에 이 메서드가 정의되어 있어야 합니다.  (Contributed by Kyle
     Stanley in bpo-34037(5).)

   * 컴파일러 플래그와의 충돌을 방지하기 위해 *note __future__: 0. 모듈
     에서 퓨처 플래그의 상숫값이 갱신되었습니다.  이전에는
     ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’가 ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’과 충돌했습니다.
     (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39562(6))

   * ‘array('u')’는 이제 ‘Py_UNICODE’ 대신 ‘wchar_t’를 C형으로 사용합니
     다.  ‘Py_UNICODE’는 파이썬 3.3부터 ‘wchar_t’의 별칭이라서 이 변경은
     동작에 영향을 미치지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-34538(7).)

   * *note logging.getLogger(): 95e. API는 이제 이름 ‘'root'’를 전달할 때
     루트 로거를 반환합니다.  이전에는 ‘'root'’라는 이름의 비 루트 로거
     를 반환했습니다.  이것은 사용자 코드가 ‘'root'’라는 이름의 루트가 아
     닌 로거를 명시적으로 원하거나, ‘'root.py'’라는 최상위 모듈에서
     ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’을 사용하여 로거를 인스턴스 화하는 경
     우에 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
     bpo-37742(8).)

   * *note PurePath: 4a0.의 나눗셈 처리는 이제 ‘str’이나 *note PurePath:
     4a0.의 인스턴스가 아닌 다른 것을 전달하면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발
     생시키는 대신 *note NotImplemented: 7cb.를 반환합니다.  이는 언급한
     형을 상속하지 않는 호환 가능한 클래스를 만들 수 있도록 합니다.
     (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in bpo-34775(9)).

   * Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 80. module no
     longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading
     zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some
     libraries.  For example the legacy function *note
     socket.inet_aton(): 95f. treats leading zeros as octal notatation.
     glibc implementation of modern *note inet_pton(): 960. does not
     accept any leading zeros.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-36384(10)).

   * *note codecs.lookup(): 961. now normalizes the encoding name the
     same way as *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 7f5, except that
     *note codecs.lookup(): 961. also converts the name to lower case.
     For example, ‘"latex+latin1"’ encoding name is now normalized to
     ‘"latex_latin1"’.  (Contributed by Jordon Xu in bpo-37751(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751


File: python.info,  Node: C API의 변경,  Next: CPython 바이트 코드 변경,  Prev: 파이썬 API의 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기

1.5.10.2 C API의 변경
.....................

   * *note 힙 할당 형: 963. (가령 *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578. 및 유사
     한 API로 만들어진 것)의 인스턴스는 파이썬 3.8부터 형 객체에 대한 참
     조를 보유합니다.  파이썬 3.8의 “C API의 변경”에 표시된 대로, 대부분
     의 경우, 부작용이 없어야 하지만 사용자 정의 *note tp_traverse: 777.
     함수가 있는 형의 경우 힙 할당형의 모든 사용자 정의 ‘tp_traverse’ 함
     수가 객체의 형을 방문하도록 합니다.

          예:

               int
               foo_traverse(foo_struct *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) {
               // 순회 함수의 나머지
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // 파이썬 3.9 이전에서는 필요하지 않습니다 (파이썬 이슈 35810 및 40217)
                   Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
               #endif
               }

     순회 함수가 베이스 클래스 (또는 다른 형)의 ‘tp_traverse’에 위임하면
     , ‘Py_TYPE(self)’를 한 번만 방문해야 합니다.  ‘tp_traverse’에서
     *note 힙 형: 963. 만 형을 방문하도록 기대된다는 것에 유의하십시오.

          예를 들어, ‘tp_traverse’ 함수가 다음을 포함하면:

               base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

          다음을 추가하십시오:

               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // 파이썬 3.9 이전에서는 필요하지 않습니다 (파이썬 이슈 35810 및 40217)
                   if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
                       // 힙 형의 tp_traverse가 이미 Py_TYPE(self)를 방문했습니다
                   } else {
                       Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
                   }
               #else

     (자세한 내용은 bpo-35810(1)과 bpo-40217(2)을 참조하십시오.)

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject’, ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ 및
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ 함수는 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note
     PyObject_Call(): 396.과 그 변형을 사용하십시오.  (자세한 내용은
     bpo-29548(3)을 참조하십시오.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 바이트 코드 변경,  Prev: C API의 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기

1.5.10.3 CPython 바이트 코드 변경
.................................

   * *note assert: 965. 문을 처리하기 위해 *note LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR:
     966. 옵코드가 추가되었습니다.  이전에는, *note AssertionError: 6a3.
     예외를 가리면(shadow) assert 문이 올바르게 작동하지 않았습니다.
     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34880(1).)

   * *note COMPARE_OP: 967. 옵코드는 4개의 개별 명령어로 분할되었습니다:

        * 풍부한 비교를 위한 ‘COMPARE_OP’

        * ‘is’와 ‘is not’ 테스트를 위한 ‘IS_OP’

        * ‘in’과 ‘not in’ 테스트를 위한 ‘CONTAINS_OP’

        * ‘try-except’ 문에서 예외를 확인하기 위한
          ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-39156(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156


File: python.info,  Node: 빌드 변경,  Next: C API 변경,  Prev: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.11 빌드 변경
----------------

   * ‘configure’ 스크립트에 ‘--with-platlibdir’ 옵션을 추가했습니다: 새
     *note sys.platlibdir: 936. 어트리뷰트에 저장된, 플랫폼별 라이브러리
     디렉터리의 이름.  자세한 정보는 *note sys.platlibdir: 936. 어트리뷰
     트를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl,
     Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

   * ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ 특수 빌드 매크로가 제거되었습니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(2).)

   * 윈도우 이외의 플랫폼에서, ‘setenv()’와 ‘unsetenv()’ 함수는 이제 파
     이썬을 빌드하는 데 필요합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39395(3).)

   * 윈도우가 아닌 플랫폼에서, ‘bdist_wininst’ 설치 프로그램 생성은 이제
     공식적으로 지원되지 않습니다.  (자세한 내용은 bpo-10945(4)를 참조하
     십시오.)

   * macOS에서 소스로부터 파이썬을 빌드할 때, ‘_tkinter’는, 이전 macOS 릴
     리스의 경우와 마찬가지로, ‘/Library/Frameworks’에 설치되었으면 비 시
     스템 Tcl과 Tk 프레임 워크와 링크됩니다.  macOS SDK가 명시적으로 구
     성되면 (*note -enable-universalsdk: 969.나 ‘-isysroot’를 사용하여),
     SDK 자체만 검색됩니다.  기본 동작은 여전히 ‘--with-tcltk-includes’와
     ‘--with-tcltk-libs’로 재정의할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Ned
     Deily in bpo-34956(5).)

   * 이제 윈도우 10 ARM64 용으로 파이썬을 빌드할 수 있습니다.
     (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-33125(6).)

   * ‘--pgo’를 사용할 때 이제 일부 개별 테스트를 건너뜁니다.  문제의 테
     스트는 PGO 작업 시간을 매우 증가시켰으며 최종 실행 파일의 최적화를
     개선하는 데 도움이 되지 않았을 가능성이 높습니다.  이렇게 하면 작업
     속도가 약 15배 빨라집니다.  전체 단위 테스트 스위트를 실행하는 것은
     느립니다.  이 변경으로 인해 많은 코드 분기가 실행되지 않아서 빌드가
     약간 덜 최적화 될 수 있습니다.  훨씬 느린 빌드를 기다릴 의사가 있다
     면, ‘./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m test --pgo-extended"’를 사용
     하여 이전 동작을 복원할 수 있습니다.  우리는 어떤 PGO 작업 집합이 더
     빠른 빌드를 생성하는지에 대해 보장하지 않습니다.  결과가 환경, 워크
     로드 및 컴파일러 도구 체인에 따라 달라질 수 있어서, 이를 중요하게 생
     각하는 사용자는 자신의 관련 벤치마크를 실행해야 합니다.  (자세한 내
     용은 bpo-36044(7)와 bpo-37707(8)를 참조하십시오.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707


File: python.info,  Node: C API 변경,  Next: 파이썬 3 9 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 빌드 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.12 C API 변경
-----------------

* Menu:

* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<2>.
* 파이썬 3.9로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>.
* 제거: 제거<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 기능<2>,  Next: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>,  Up: C API 변경

1.5.12.1 새로운 기능
....................

   * PEP 573(1): 모듈을 클래스와 연결하는 *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c.를 추가했습니다; 모듈과 해당 상태를
     가져오는 *note PyType_GetModule(): 96c.과 *note
     PyType_GetModuleState(): 96d.를 추가합니다; 메서드가 자신이 정의된
     클래스에 액세스할 수 있도록 하는 *note PyCMethod: 75d.와 *note
     METH_METHOD: 96e.를 추가합니다.  (Contributed by Marcel Plch and
     Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787(2).)

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 783. 함수를 추가했습니다: 프레임 코드를 얻
     습니다.  *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 77f. 함수를 추가했습니다: 프레임
     다음 외부 프레임을 얻습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-40421(3).)

   * 제한된 C API에 *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784.를 추가했습니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(4).)

   * 인터프리터를 얻는 *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 96f.와
     *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a7. 함수를 추가했습니다.  파이썬 스
     레드 상태의 현재 프레임을 가져오는 *note PyThreadState_GetFrame():
     787. 함수를 추가했습니다.  *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 970. 함수를
     추가했습니다: 파이썬 스레드 상태의 고유 식별자를 가져옵니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39947(5).)

   * 인자 없이 콜러블 파이썬 객체를 호출하는 새로운 공용 *note
     PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 395. 함수를 C API에 추가했습니다.  인자 없이
     콜러블 파이썬 객체를 호출하는 가장 효율적인 방법입니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37194(6).)

   * 제한된 C API의 변경 사항 (‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 매크로가 정의된 경우):

        * 제한된 API에 대한 일반 함수로 *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall():
          971. 과 *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 972. 을 제공합니다.  이
          전에는, 이들이 매크로로 정의되었지만, 이러한 매크로는
          ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ 필드에 액세스할 수 없는 제한된
          C API로는 컴파일되지 않았습니다 (이 구조체는 제한된 C API에서
          불투명합니다).

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’와 ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’는 구현 세부 정보를 숨
          기도록 일반 “불투명” 함수가 됩니다.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38644(7) and bpo-39542(8).)

   * *note PyModule_AddType(): 973. 함수가 추가되어 모듈에 형을 추가하는
     것을 돕습니다.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024(9).)

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 974.와 *note
     PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 975. 함수를 공용 API에 추가하여 파이썬 객
     체가 현재 추적되고 있거나 가비지 수거기에 의해 이미 파이널라이즈 되
     었는지 조회할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado
     in bpo-40241(10).)

   * 함수 류 객체의 사용자 친화적인 문자열 표현을 얻는
     ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’을 추가했습니다.  (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer
     in bpo-37645(11).)

   * 하나의 위치 인자로 객체를 호출하는 *note PyObject_CallOneArg():
     976.를 추가했습니다 (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-37483(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>,  Next: 제거<2>,  Prev: 새로운 기능<2>,  Up: C API 변경

1.5.12.2 파이썬 3.9로 이식하기
..............................

   * ‘PyInterpreterState.eval_frame’( PEP 523(1))에는 이제 새로운 필수
     'tstate' 매개 변수(‘PyThreadState*’)가 필요합니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38500(2).)

   * 확장 모듈: 모듈 상태가 요청되었지만, 아직 할당되지 않았으면 *note
     PyModuleDef: 978.의 *note m_traverse: 979, *note m_clear: 97a. 및
     *note m_free: 97b. 함수가 더는 호출되지 않습니다.  이것은 모듈이 만
     들이진 직후, 모듈이 실행되기 직전의 경우입니다 (*note Py_mod_exec:
     97c. 함수).  더 정확하게는, ‘m_size’가 0보다 크고 모듈 상태(*note
     PyModule_GetState(): 97d.가 반환하는)가 ‘NULL’이면 이 함수가 호출되
     지 않습니다.

     모듈 상태가 없는 확장 모듈(‘m_size <= 0’)은 영향을 받지 않습니다.

   * 서브 인터프리터에서 *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 97e. 이 호출되면, 함
     수는 이제 메인 인터프리터에서 호출되지 않고 서브 인터프리터에서 호
     출되도록 예약됩니다.  각 서브 인터프리터는 이제 자체 예약된 호출 목
     록을 갖습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39984(3).)

   * ‘-E’ 옵션이 사용될 때 (*note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3.가 ‘0’으
     로 설정될 때) 윈도우 레지스트리가 더는 *note sys.path: 3ae.를 초기
     화하는 데 사용되지 않습니다.  이것은 윈도우에서 파이썬을 내장할 때
     중요합니다.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-8901(4).)

   * 전역 변수 *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 97f.는 이제 상수이며
     상수 문자열을 참조합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-38650(5).)

   * ‘PyGC_Head’ 구조체는 이제 불투명합니다.  내부 C API(‘pycore_gc.h’)에
     서만 정의됩니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40241(6).)

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’, ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’,
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode’ 및 ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’는 C에서 폐
     지된 것으로 표시됩니다.  파이썬 3.3 이후 PEP 393(7)에서 폐지되었습
     니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(8).)

   * *note Py_FatalError(): 980. 함수는, ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 매크로가 정의
     되지 않는 한, 현재 함수의 이름을 자동으로 로그 하는 매크로로 대체됩
     니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39882(9).)

   * 벡터콜 프로토콜은 이제 호출자가 키워드 이름으로 문자열만 전달하도록
     요구합니다.  (자세한 내용은 bpo-37540(10)을 참조하십시오.)

   * 이제 여러 매크로와 함수의 구현 세부 사항이 숨겨집니다:

        * *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 981. 매크로가 함수로 변환되었습니다.

        * ‘PyObject_NEW()’ 매크로는 *note PyObject_New: 982. 매크로의 별
          칭이 되고, ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’ 매크로는 *note
          PyObject_NewVar: 983. 매크로의 별칭이 됩니다.  더는 *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 984. 멤버에 직접 액세스하지 않습니
          다.

        * ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ 매크로가 함수로 변환되었습니
          다: 매크로는 *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 985. 멤버에
          직접 액세스했습니다.

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 392. 매크로가 함수로 변환되었습
          니다: 매크로는 *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 986. 멤버에 직
          접 액세스했습니다.

        * *note PyIndex_Check(): 987.는 이제 구현 세부 사항을 숨기기 위
          해 항상 불투명한 함수로 선언됩니다: ‘PyIndex_Check()’ 매크로가
          제거되었습니다.  매크로는 *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_number:
          988. 멤버에 직접 액세스했습니다.

     (자세한 내용은 bpo-40170(11)을 참조하십시오.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170


File: python.info,  Node: 제거<2>,  Prev: 파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>,  Up: C API 변경

1.5.12.3 제거
.............

   * 제한된 C API에서 ‘pyfpe.h’의 ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’와
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ 매크로를 제외했습니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38835(1).)

   * *note PyTypeObject: 98a.의 ‘tp_print’ 슬롯이 제거되었습니다.  파이
     썬 2.7과 이전 버전에서 파일로 객체를 인쇄하는 데 사용되었습니다.  파
     이썬 3.0부터는, 무시되고 사용되지 않았습니다.  (Contributed by
     Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-36974(2).)

   * 제한된 C API의 변경 사항 (‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 매크로가 정의된 경우):

        * 제한된 C API에서 다음 함수를 제외했습니다:

             * ‘PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()’ (Contributed by Joannah
               Nanjekye in bpo-37878(3).)

             * ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’

             * ‘_Py_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’

             * ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’

             * 제한된 C API에서 결코 작동하지 않은 휴지통 메커니즘.

             * ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’

        * 다음 함수와 정의를 내부 C API로 옮겼습니다:

             * ‘_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferences()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses()’

             * ‘_Py_tracemalloc_config’

             * ‘_Py_AddToAllObjects()’ (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 빌드에만 해당)

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38644(4) and bpo-39542(5).)

   * ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ 훅을 제거했고 ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’의 별칭인
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ 매크로를 제거했습니다.  이들은 내부 C
     API에 의해서만 노출되었습니다.  ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ 형도 제거했습
     니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39946(6).)

   * C API에서 다음 함수를 제거했습니다.  모든 자유 목록을 지우려면
     *note PyGC_Collect(): 98b.를 명시적으로 호출하십시오.  (Contributed
     by Inada Naoki and Victor Stinner in bpo-37340(7), bpo-38896(8) and
     bpo-40428(9).)

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’와 ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’: 연
          결된 메서드 객체의 자유 목록이 제거되었습니다.

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’: 파이썬 3.4에서 집합 자유 목록이 제거
          되었습니다.

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’: 파이썬 3.3에서 유니코드 자유 목록
          이 제거되었습니다.

   * ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ 함수를 제거했습니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39465(10).)

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’를 제거했습니다.  PEP 393(11)에서 폐지되었고, 파
     이썬 3.3부터 망가졌습니다.  대신 *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b5.
     함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-36346(12).)

   * 정의되었지만 구현이 없는 헤더 파일들을 정리했습니다.  제거되는 공용
     API 심볼은: ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’입니다.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo Salgado in bpo-39372(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 9 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 9 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: C API 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능

1.5.13 파이썬 3.9.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<7>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) 및 Apple Silicon Mac 지원: macOS 11 0 Big Sur 및 Apple Silicon Mac 지원.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<7>,  Next: macOS 11 0 Big Sur 및 Apple Silicon Mac 지원,  Up: 파이썬 3 9 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.5.13.1 typing
...............

*note typing.Literal: 84f.의 동작은 PEP 586(1)를 따르고 PEP에 지정된 정
적 형 검사기의 동작과 일치하도록 변경되었습니다.

  1. ‘Literal’은 이제 매개 변수를 중복 제거합니다.

  2. ‘Literal’ 객체 간의 동등 비교는 이제 순서에 독립적입니다.

  3. ‘Literal’ 비교는 이제 형을 존중합니다.  예를 들어, ‘Literal[0] ==
     Literal[False]’는 이전에 ‘True’로 평가되었습니다.  이제 ‘False’입니
     다.  이 변경을 지원하기 위해, 내부적으로 사용되는 형 캐시는 이제 형
     구분을 지원합니다.

  4. ‘Literal’ 객체는 매개 변수 중 하나라도 *note 해시 가능: 60a.하지 않
     으면 동등 비교 중에 *note TypeError: 532. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  가
     변 매개 변수로 ‘Literal’를 선언하는 것은 에러를 발생시키지 않음에 유
     의하십시오:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345


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1.5.13.2 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) 및 Apple Silicon Mac 지원
.......................................................

3.9.1부터, 파이썬은 이제 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur)과 Apple Silicon
Mac(‘ARM64’ 아키텍처 기반)에서 빌드와 실행을 완전히 지원합니다.  이제 새
로운 유니버설 빌드 변형인 ‘universal2’를 사용하여 하나의 실행 파일 집합
에서 ‘ARM64’와 ‘Intel 64’를 모두 네이티브 하게 지원할 수 있습니다.  바이
너리는 이제 현재 버전의 macOS에서 빌드되어 다양한 이전 macOS 버전(10.9까
지 테스트 되었습니다)에 배포되는 동시에 실행시간에 사용 중인 운영 체제 버
전에 따라 조건부로 사용 가능한 일부 새로운 OS 기능과 옵션을 만들 수 있습
니다 (“약한 링크(weaklinking)”).

(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in bpo-41100(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100


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1.5.14 파이썬 3.9.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<2>,  Next: urllib parse<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 9 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.5.14.1 collections.abc
........................

*note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. 제네릭은 이제 *note
typing.Callable: 7be.이 현재 수행하는 것과 유사하게 형 매개 변수를 평활
화합니다.  이것은 ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’의
‘__args__’가 ‘(int, str, str)’임을 의미합니다; 이전에는 ‘([int, str],
str)’였습니다.  이러한 변경을 허용하기 위해, 이제 *note
types.GenericAlias: 7e4.를 서브 클래싱할 수 있으며, *note
collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. 형을 서브스크립팅할 할 때 서브 클래스가 반
환됩니다.  *note typing.get_args(): 87a.나 ‘__args__’를 통해 인자에 액세
스하는 코드는 이 변경 사항을 고려해야 합니다.  파이썬 3.9.1에서 조용히 전
달되었을 수 있는 *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3.의 유효하지 않은 매
개 변수화 형식에 대해 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 방출할 수 있습니
다.  이 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.은 파이썬 3.10에서 *note
TypeError: 532.가 됩니다.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<2>,  Prev: collections abc<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 9 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.5.14.2 urllib.parse
.....................

이전 파이썬 버전에서는 *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27a.와 *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279.에서 쿼리 매개 변수 구분자로 ‘;’과 ‘&’를 모
두 사용할 수 있었습니다.  보안 문제와 최신 W3C 권장 사항을 준수하기 위해
, ‘&’가 기본값인 단일 구분자 키만 허용하도록 변경되었습니다.  이 변경 사
항은 영향을 받는 함수를 내부적으로 사용하므로 ‘cgi.parse()’와
‘cgi.parse_multipart()’에도 영향을 줍니다.  자세한 내용은 해당 설명서를
참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken
Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


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1.5.15 파이썬 3.9.3의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

보안 수정은 수동 데이터 채널을 설정할 때 원격 서버에서 보낸 IPv4 주소를
신뢰하지 않도록 *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. 동작을 변경합니다.  대신 ftp 서버
IP 주소를 재사용합니다.  이전 동작이 필요한 특별한 코드의 경우, FTP 인스
턴스의 ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ 어트리뷰트를 ‘True’로 설정하십시
오.  (gh-87451(1)를 참조하십시오)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


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1.5.16 파이썬 3.9.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 9 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.5.16.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


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1.5.17 3.9.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능
------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 257. and *note str: 445. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


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1.5.18 3.9.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<4>,  Up: 3 9 17의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.5.18.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 466. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능,  Next: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능,  Prev: 파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.6 파이썬 3.8의 새로운 기능
============================


편집자: Raymond Hettinger

이 기사에서는 파이썬 3.7과 비교하여 3.8의 새로운 기능에 관해 설명합니다.
파이썬 3.8은 2019년 10월 14일에 출시되었습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
changelog: 13c.를 참조하세요.

* Menu:

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<2>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<3>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<2>.
* 새 모듈: 새 모듈<2>.
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<2>.
* 최적화: 최적화<2>.
* 빌드와 C API 변경::
* 폐지: 폐지<2>.
* API 및 기능 제거::
* 파이썬 3.8로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.8.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.3의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 3의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.8의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 8의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.9의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 9의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항<2>.
* 파이썬 3.8.12의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 8 12의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 3.8.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능: 3 8 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
* 3.8.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 3 8 17의 주목할만한 변경 사항.


File: python.info,  Node: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<2>,  Next: 새로운 기능<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.1 요약 – 배포 주요 사항
---------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 기능<3>,  Next: 기타 언어 변경<2>,  Prev: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.2 새로운 기능
-----------------

* Menu:

* 대입 표현식::
* 위치 전용 매개 변수::
* 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시::
* 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.: 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.
* f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다.: f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다.
* PEP 578; 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅: PEP 578 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅.
* PEP 587; 파이썬 초기화 구성: PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성.
* PEP 590; 벡터콜; CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜: PEP 590 벡터콜 CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜.
* 아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5::


File: python.info,  Node: 대입 표현식,  Next: 위치 전용 매개 변수,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.1 대입 표현식
...................

더 큰 표현식의 일부로 변수에 값을 대입하는 새로운 문법 ‘:=’ 이 있습니다.
바다코끼리의 눈과 엄니(1)를 닮아서 “바다코끼리 연산자(the walrus
operator)”라고 친근하게 알려져 있습니다.

이 예에서, 대입 표현식은 *note len(): 628.을 두 번 호출하지 않도록 합니
다:

     if (n := len(a)) > 10:
         print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)")

정규식 일치 중에도 비슷한 이점이 있습니다.  일치 객체가 두 번 필요합니다
, 일치하는지 검사할 때 한 번, 서브 그룹을 추출할 때 한 번:

     discount = 0.0
     if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)):
         discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0

이 연산자는 루프 종료를 검사하기 위해 값을 계산한 다음 루프의 바디에서 그
값이 다시 필요한 while 루프에도 유용합니다:

     # 고정 길이 블록을 루핑합니다
     while (block := f.read(256)) != '':
         process(block)

필터링 조건에서 계산된 값이 표현식 바디에도 필요한 리스트 컴프리헨션에서
또 다른 사용 사례가 생깁니다:

     [clean_name.title() for name in names
      if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names]

복잡성을 줄이고 가독성을 개선하는 명확한 사례로 바다코끼리 연산자 사용을
제한하십시오.

자세한 설명은 PEP 572(2)를 참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Emily Morehouse in bpo-35224(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: 위치 전용 매개 변수,  Next: 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시,  Prev: 대입 표현식,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.2 위치 전용 매개 변수
...........................

일부 함수 매개 변수를 위치적으로 지정해야만 하고 키워드 인자로 사용할 수
없도록 지시하는 새로운 함수 매개 변수 문법 ‘/’ 이 있습니다.  이것은
Larry Hastings의 Argument Clinic(1) 도구로 어노테이트된 C 함수들에 대해
‘help()’가 보여주는 것과 같은 표기법입니다.

다음 예에서, 매개 변수 'a'와 'b'는 위치 전용이며, 'c'나 'd'는 위치나 키
워드일 수 있으며, 'e'나 'f'는 키워드 전용이어야 합니다:

     def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f):
         print(a, b, c, d, e, f)

다음은 유효한 호출입니다:

     f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60)

하지만, 다음은 잘못된 호출입니다:

     f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60)   # b는 키워드 인자일 수 없습니다
     f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60)           # e는 키워드 인자여야 합니다

이 표기법의 한 가지 사용 사례는 순수 파이썬 함수가 기존 C 코드 함수의 동
작을 완전히 흉내 낼 수 있다는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 내장 *note divmod():
99e. 함수는 키워드 인자를 허용하지 않습니다:

     def divmod(a, b, /):
         "내장 divmod() 함수를 흉내 냅니다"
         return (a // b, a % b)

또 다른 사용 사례는 매개 변수 이름이 도움이 되지 않을 때 키워드 인자를 배
제하는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 내장 *note len(): 628. 함수의 서명은
‘len(obj, /)’입니다.  이것은 다음과 같은 어색한 호출을 금지합니다:

     len(obj='hello')  # "obj" 키워드 인자는 가독성을 떨어뜨립니다

매개 변수를 위치 전용으로 표시하면 클라이언트 코드를 손상할 위험 없이 매
개 변수 이름을 나중에 변경할 수 있다는 추가적인 이점이 있습니다.  예를 들
어, *note statistics: d2. 모듈에서, 매개 변수 이름 'dist'는 나중에 변경
될 수 있습니다.  이것은 다음과 같은 함수 명세 때문에 가능해졌습니다:

     def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
         ...

‘/’의 왼쪽에 있는 매개 변수는 가능한 키워드로 노출되지 않기 때문에, 매개
변수 이름은 ‘**kwargs’에서 계속 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs):
     ...     print(a, b, kwargs)
     ...
     >>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3)         # a와 b는 두 가지 방식으로 사용됩니다
     10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

이는 임의의 키워드 인자를 받아들여야 하는 함수와 메서드의 구현을 크게 단
순화합니다.  예를 들어, 다음은 *note collections: 1d. 모듈의 코드에서 뽑
아온 것입니다:

     class Counter(dict):

         def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds):
             # "iterable" 이 가능한 키워드 인자임에 유의하십시오

자세한 설명은 PEP 570(2)을 참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36540(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540


File: python.info,  Node: 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시,  Next: 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다,  Prev: 위치 전용 매개 변수,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.3 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시
..............................................................

새 *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a0. 설정(*note -X: 176. ‘pycache_prefix’로
도 사용 가능합니다)은 각 소스 디렉터리 내의 기본 ‘__pycache__’ 하위 디렉
터리 대신 별도의 병렬 파일 시스템 트리를 사용하도록 묵시적 바이트 코드 캐
시를 구성합니다.

캐시의 위치는 *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a1.로 보고됩니다 (*note None:
66f.은 ‘__pycache__’ 하위 디렉터리의 기본 위치를 나타냅니다).

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-33499(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499


File: python.info,  Node: 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다,  Next: f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다,  Prev: 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.4 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.
..........................................................

파이썬은 이제 릴리스나 디버그 모드 중 어느 것으로 빌드되더라도 같은 ABI를
사용합니다.  유닉스에서, 파이썬이 디버그 모드로 빌드될 때, 이제 릴리스 모
드로 빌드된 C 확장과 안정(stable) ABI를 사용해서 빌드된 C 확장을 로드할
수 있습니다.

릴리스 빌드와 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.는 이제 ABI 호환됩니다: ‘Py_DEBUG’
매크로를 정의하는 것은 더는 ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 매크로를 암시하지 않습니다,
이것은 ABI 비 호환성만 도입할 뿐입니다.  *note sys.getobjects(): 421. 함
수와 *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a3. 환경 변수를 추가하는 ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 매
크로는 새로운 *note ./configure -with-trace-refs: 38e. 빌드 옵션을 사용
하여 설정할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-36465(1).)

유닉스에서, C 확장은 안드로이드와 Cygwin을 제외하고는 더는 libpython에 링
크되지 않습니다.  이제 정적으로 링크된 파이썬이 공유 라이브러리 파이썬을
사용하여 빌드된 C 확장을 로드할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-21536(2).)

유닉스에서, 파이썬이 디버그 모드로 빌드될 때, 임포트는 이제 릴리스 모드
로 컴파일된 C 확장과 안정(stable) ABI로 컴파일된 C 확장도 찾습니다.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36722(3).)

파이썬을 응용 프로그램에 내장하려면, 새로운 ‘--embed’ 옵션을
‘python3-config --libs --embed’에 전달하여 ‘-lpython3.8’을 얻어야 합니다
(응용 프로그램을 libpython에 링크합니다).  3.8 이하를 모두 지원하려면, 먼
저 ‘python3-config --libs --embed’를 시도하고, 실패하면 ‘python3-config
--libs’(‘--embed’ 없이)로 대체하십시오.

파이썬을 응용 프로그램에 내장하기 위해, pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ 모
듈을 추가했습니다: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ 는
‘-lpython3.8’을 포함합니다.  3.8 이하를 모두 지원하려면, 먼저
‘pkg-config python-X.Y-embed --libs’ 를 시도하고, 실패하면 ‘pkg-config
python-X.Y --libs’(‘--embed’ 없이)로 대체하십시오 (‘X.Y’를 파이썬 버전으
로 교체하십시오).

반면에, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ 는 더는 ‘-lpython3.8’을 포함하지 않
습니다.  C 확장은 libpython에 링크되어서는 안 됩니다 (안드로이드와
Cygwin은 예외인데, 이들은 스크립트로 처리됩니다); 이 변경은 의도적으로 이
전 버전과 호환되지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-36721(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721


File: python.info,  Node: f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다,  Next: PEP 578 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅,  Prev: 디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.5 f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다.
.........................................................................

*note f-문자열: 42f.에 ‘=’ 지정자를 추가했습니다.  ‘f'{expr=}'’과 같은
f-문자열은 표현식의 텍스트, 등호, 평가된 표현식의 표현(repr)으로 확장됩
니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> user = 'eric_idle'
     >>> member_since = date(1975, 7, 31)
     >>> f'{user=} {member_since=}'
     "user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)"

일반적인 *note f-문자열 포맷 지정자: 9a6.를 사용하면 표현식의 결과가 표
시되는 방식을 더 잘 제어할 수 있습니다:

     >>> delta = date.today() - member_since
     >>> f'{user=!s}  {delta.days=:,d}'
     'user=eric_idle  delta.days=16,075'

‘=’ 지정자는 계산을 표시할 수 있도록 전체 표현식을 표시합니다:

     >>> print(f'{theta=}  {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}')
     theta=30  cos(radians(theta))=0.866

(Contributed by Eric V. Smith and Larry Hastings in bpo-36817(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 578 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅,  Next: PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성,  Prev: f-문자열은 스스로 설명하는 표현식과 디버깅을 위해 =를 지원합니다,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.6 PEP 578: 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅
......................................

이 PEP는 감사 훅(Audit Hook)과 확인된 열기 훅(Verified Open Hook)을 추가
합니다.  둘 다 파이썬과 네이티브 코드에서 사용 가능해서, 순수 파이썬 코
드로 작성된 응용 프로그램과 프레임워크가 추가 알림을 활용할 수 있도록 함
과 동시에 임베더(embedder)나 시스템 관리자가 감사가 항상 활성화된 파이썬
빌드를 배치할 수 있도록 합니다.

자세한 설명은 PEP 578(1)을 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성,  Next: PEP 590 벡터콜 CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜,  Prev: PEP 578 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.7 PEP 587: 파이썬 초기화 구성
...................................

PEP 587(1)은 파이썬 초기화를 구성하는 새로운 C API를 추가하여 전체 구성
에 대한 세밀한 제어와 개선된 에러 보고를 제공합니다.

새로운 구조체:

   * *note PyConfig: 3a0.

   * *note PyPreConfig: 9a9.

   * *note PyStatus: 9aa.

   * *note PyWideStringList: 9ab.

새로운 함수:

   * *note PyConfig_Clear(): 9ac.

   * *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9ad.

   * *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9ae.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.

   * *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 9af.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 9b0.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 9b1.

   * *note PyConfig_SetString(): 9b2.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9b3.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b4.

   * *note PyStatus_Error(): 9b5.

   * *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9b6.

   * *note PyStatus_Exit(): 9b7.

   * *note PyStatus_IsError(): 9b8.

   * *note PyStatus_IsExit(): 9b9.

   * *note PyStatus_NoMemory(): 9ba.

   * *note PyStatus_Ok(): 9bb.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Append(): 9bc.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Insert(): 9bd.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9be.

   * *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9bf.

   * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf.

   * *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 9c0.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 9c1.

   * *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2.

이 PEP는 이러한 내부 구조체에 ‘_PyRuntimeState.preconfig’(*note
PyPreConfig: 9a9. 형)와 ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ (*note PyConfig:
3a0. 형) 필드를 추가합니다.  ‘PyInterpreterState.config’는 전역 구성 변
수와 기타 내부(private) 변수를 대체하는 새로운 참조 구성이 됩니다.

설명서는 *note 파이썬 초기화 구성: 3a1.을 참조하십시오.

자세한 설명은 PEP 587(2)을 참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36763(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 590 벡터콜 CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜,  Next: 아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5,  Prev: PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.8 PEP 590: 벡터콜: CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜
..........................................................

*note 벡터콜(Vectorcall) 프로토콜: 54d.이 파이썬/C API에 추가되었습니다.
이것은 이미 다양한 클래스에 대해 수행된 기존 최적화를 형식화하기 위한 것
입니다.  콜러블을 구현하는 모든 *note 정적인 형: 778.은 이 프로토콜을 사
용할 수 있습니다.

이것은 현재 잠정적(provisional)입니다.  목표는 파이썬 3.9에서 완전히 공
개하는 것입니다.

자세한 설명은 PEP 590(1)을 참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer, Mark Shannon and Petr Viktorin in
bpo-36974(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974


File: python.info,  Node: 아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5,  Prev: PEP 590 벡터콜 CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜,  Up: 새로운 기능<3>

1.6.2.9 아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5
.............................................................

멀티 코어나 멀티 머신 프로세싱을 활용하기 위해 *note pickle: a6.을 사용
해서 파이썬 프로세스 간에 큰 데이터를 전송할 때, 메모리 복사를 줄이고 데
이터 종속적 압축과 같은 사용자 정의 기술을 적용하여 전송을 최적화하는 것
이 중요합니다.

*note pickle: a6. 프로토콜 5는 통신 계층의 재량에 따라 PEP 3118(1) 호환
데이터가 주 피클 스트림과 별도로 전송될 수 있는 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼를 지
원합니다.

자세한 설명은 PEP 574(2)를 참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-36785(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 언어 변경<2>,  Next: 새 모듈<2>,  Prev: 새로운 기능<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.3 기타 언어 변경
--------------------

   * *note continue: 9c6. 문은 구현 문제로 인해 *note finally: 9c7. 절에
     서 사용할 수 없었습니다.  파이썬 3.8에서는 이 제한이 제거되었습니다
     .  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32489(1).)

   * *note bool: 461, *note int: 257. 및 *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7.
     형에는 이제 *note float: 2ef.와 *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.에서 발
     견되는 것과 유사한 *note as_integer_ratio(): 9c8. 메서드가 있습니다
     .  이 작은 API 확장을 통해 ‘numerator, denominator =
     x.as_integer_ratio()’라고 쓰고 여러 숫자 형에서 작동하도록 할 수 있
     습니다.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-33073(2) and Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-37819(3).)

   * *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef. 및 *note complex: 2f0.의 생성자는
     이제 해당 메서드 *note __int__(): 715, *note __float__(): 9c9. 또는
     *note __complex__(): 5e1.를 사용할 수 없을 때, *note __index__():
     716. 특수 메서드가 있으면 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20092(4).)

   * *note 정규식: b9.에 ‘\N{NAME}’ 이스케이프 지원이 추가되었습니다:

          >>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019'
          >>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})')
          >>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1))
          2019

     (Contributed by Jonathan Eunice and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-30688(5).)

   * 이제 딕셔너리와 딕셔너리 뷰는 *note reversed(): 860.를 사용하여 삽
     입 순서의 역순으로 이터레이트 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre in bpo-33462(6).)

   * 함수 호출에서 키워드 이름에 허용된 문법이 더 제한되었습니다.  특히,
     ‘f((keyword)=arg)’는 더는 허용되지 않습니다.  키워드 인자 대입 항의
     왼쪽에 이름 그대로 이상의 것을 허용하려는 의도는 결코 없었습니다.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-34641(7).)

   * *note yield: 9ca.와 *note return: 9cb. 문에서의 일반화된 이터러블 언
     패킹은 더는 둘러싸는 괄호를 요구하지 않습니다.  이는 'yield'와
     'return' 문법이 일반 대입 문법과 더 잘 일치하도록 만듭니다:

          >>> def parse(family):
                  lastname, *members = family.split()
                  return lastname.upper(), *members

          >>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie')
          ('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie')

     (Contributed by David Cuthbert and Jordan Chapman in bpo-32117(8).)

   * ‘[(10, 20) (30, 40)]’와 같은 코드에서처럼 쉼표가 빠질 때, 컴파일러
     는 유용한 제안과 함께 *note SyntaxWarning: 45f.을 표시합니다.  이것
     은 단지 첫 번째 튜플이 콜러블이 아니라고 알리는 *note TypeError:
     532.를 개선한 것입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-15248(9).)

   * *note datetime.date: 1cd.나 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.의 서브 클
     래스와 *note datetime.timedelta: 9cc. 객체 간의 산술 연산은 이제 베
     이스 클래스가 아닌 서브 클래스의 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  이는 *note
     astimezone(): 9cd.과 같은 *note datetime.timedelta: 9cc. 산술을 직
     접 또는 간접적으로 사용하는 연산의 반환형에도 영향을 줍니다.
     (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32417(10).)

   * 파이썬 인터프리터가 Ctrl-C(SIGINT)에 의해 인터럽트 되고 그로 인한
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 예외가 잡히지 않으면, 파이썬 프로세스
     는 이제 Ctrl-C로 인해 죽었다는 것을 호출한 프로세스가 감지할 수 있
     도록 SIGINT 시그널을 통해서나 올바른 종료 코드를 통해 종료합니다.
     POSIX와 윈도우의 셸은 대화식 세션에서 스크립트를 올바르게 종료하기
     위해 이를 사용합니다.  (Contributed by Google via Gregory P. Smith
     in bpo-1054041(11).)

   * 일부 고급 프로그래밍 스타일은 기존 함수에 대한 *note
     types.CodeType: 2e1. 객체를 갱신할 필요가 있습니다.  코드 객체는 불
     변이므로, 기존 코드 객체에 기반하는 새 코드 객체를 만들어야 합니다.
     19개의 매개 변수 때문에, 다소 지루했습니다.  이제, 새로운
     ‘replace()’ 메서드를 사용하면 몇 가지 변경된 매개 변수만으로 복제본
     을 만들 수 있습니다.

     다음은 'data' 매개 변수가 키워드 인자로 사용되지 않도록 *note
     statistics.mean(): 6cb. 함수를 변경하는 예입니다:

          >>> from statistics import mean
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          40
          >>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1)
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data'

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37032(12).)

   * 정수의 경우, *note pow(): 9cf. 함수의 세 인자 형식은 이제 밑이 모듈
     러스와 서로소일 때 음수 지수를 허용합니다.  지수가 ‘-1’일 때 밑에 대
     한 모듈러 역수를 계산하고, 다른 음수 지수에 대해서는 그 역수의 적절
     한 거듭제곱을 계산합니다.  예를 들어, 모듈로 137에 대한 38의 모듈러
     역수(13)를 계산하려면, 다음과 같이 작성하십시오:

          >>> pow(38, -1, 137)
          119
          >>> 119 * 38 % 137
          1

     모듈러 역수는 선형 디오판토스 방정식(linear Diophantine
     equations)(14)의 해에서 나타납니다.  예를 들어, ‘4258𝑥 + 147𝑦 =
     369’에 대한 정수해를 찾으려면, 먼저 ‘4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147)’로 다시
     쓴 다음 해를 구하십시오:

          >>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147
          >>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147
          >>> 4258 * x + 147 * y
          369

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36027(15).)

   * 키가 먼저 계산되고 값이 두 번째로 계산되도록, 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션은
     딕셔너리 리터럴과 동기화되었습니다:

          >>> # 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)}
          role? King Arthur
          actor? Chapman
          role? Black Knight
          actor? Cleese

          >>> # 딕셔너리 리터럴
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')}
          role? Sir Robin
          actor? Eric Idle

     키 표현식에서 대입된 변수를 값 표현식에서 사용할 수 있기 때문에, 보
     장된 실행 순서는 대입 표현식에 유용합니다:

          >>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald']
          >>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names}
          {'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis',
           'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa',
           'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'}

     (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224(16).)

   * *note object.__reduce__(): 9d0. 메서드는 이제 2개에서 6개 요소 길이
     의 튜플을 반환할 수 있습니다.  이전에는 5가 한계였습니다.  새로운 선
     택적 여섯 번째 요소는 ‘(obj, state)’ 서명을 갖는 콜러블입니다.  이
     를 통해 특정 객체의 상태 갱신 동작을 직접 제어할 수 있습니다.
     'None'이 아니면, 이 콜러블은 객체의 ‘__setstate__()’ 메서드보다 우
     선합니다.  (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in
     bpo-35900(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (13) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse

   (14) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: 새 모듈<2>,  Next: 개선된 모듈<2>,  Prev: 기타 언어 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.4 새 모듈
-------------

   * 새로운 *note importlib.metadata: 7a. 모듈은 제삼자 패키지에서 메타
     데이터를 읽을 수 있도록 (잠정적으로) 지원합니다.  예를 들어, 설치된
     패키지의 버전 번호, 진입점 목록 등을 추출 할 수 있습니다:

          >>> # 다음 예에서는 널리 사용되는 "requests" 패키지가 설치되어 있어야 함에
          >>> # 유의하십시오.
          >>>
          >>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files
          >>> version('requests')
          '2.22.0'
          >>> list(requires('requests'))
          ['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)']
          >>> list(files('requests'))[:5]
          [PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')]

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Jason R. Coombs in bpo-34632(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632


File: python.info,  Node: 개선된 모듈<2>,  Next: 최적화<2>,  Prev: 새 모듈<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.5 개선된 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* builtins: builtins<2>.
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE과 idlelib: IDLE과 idlelib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<5>.
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* os.path: os path<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* sys: sys<7>.
* tarfile: tarfile<5>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* time: time<4>.
* typing: typing<8>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* venv: venv<4>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<4>.
* xmlrpc::


File: python.info,  Node: ast<3>,  Next: asyncio<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.1 ast
...........

이제 AST 노드는 노드 끝의 정확한 위치를 제공하는 ‘end_lineno’와
‘end_col_offset’ 어트리뷰트를 가집니다.  (이것은 ‘lineno’와 ‘col_offset’
어트리뷰트가 있는 노드에만 적용됩니다.)

새 함수 *note ast.get_source_segment(): 9d4.는 특정 AST 노드의 소스 코드
를 반환합니다.

(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-33416(1).)

*note ast.parse(): 1a8. 함수에는 몇 가지 새로운 플래그가 있습니다:

   * ‘type_comments=True’는 특정 AST 노드와 연관된 PEP 484(2)와 PEP
     526(3) 형 주석의 텍스트를 반환하도록 합니다;

   * ‘mode='func_type'’은 PEP 484(4) “서명 형 주석”(함수 정의 AST 노드에
     대해 반환됩니다)을 구문 분석하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다;

   * ‘feature_version=(3, N)’은 이전 버전의 파이썬 3을 지정할 수 있게 합
     니다.  예를 들어, ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’는 *note async: 72b.와
     *note await: 1b9.를 예약어가 아닌 단어로 취급합니다.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<6>,  Next: builtins<2>,  Prev: ast<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio.run(): 476.은 임시 API를 졸업하고 안정 API가 되었습니다.  이
함수는 이벤트 루프를 자동으로 관리하면서 *note 코루틴: 48b.을 실행하고 결
과를 반환하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     asyncio.run(main())

이것은 '대략' 다음과 동등합니다:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(main())
     finally:
         asyncio.set_event_loop(None)
         loop.close()

실제 구현은 훨씬 더 복잡합니다.  따라서, *note asyncio.run(): 476.은
asyncio 프로그램을 실행하는 데 선호되는 방법이어야 합니다.

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

‘python -m asyncio’를 실행하면 네이티브 하게 비동기 REPL을 시작합니다.  이
를 통해 최상위 *note await: 1b9.가 있는 코드를 빠르게 실험할 수 있습니다
.  더는 호출할 때마다 새로운 이벤트 루프를 만드는 ‘asyncio.run()’을 직접
호출할 필요가 없습니다:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL 3.8.0
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     hello

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37028(2).)

*note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. 예외는 이제 *note Exception: 9d6.이 아
닌 *note BaseException: 5b5.을 상속하고, 더는 *note
concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 9d7.를 상속하지 않습니다.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(3).)

윈도우에서, 기본 이벤트 루프는 이제 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603. 입니다
.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-34687(4).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 603.는 이제 UDP도 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Adam Meily and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-29883(5).)

이제 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.가 *note KeyboardInterrupt:
9ce.(“CTRL+C”)에 의해 인터럽트 될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Vladimir
Matveev in bpo-23057(6).)

*note asyncio.Task: 1be. 내에 래핑 된 코루틴을 얻기 위한 *note
asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 9d8.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-36999(7).)

이제 ‘name’ 키워드 인자를 *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf.나 *note
create_task(): 1c0. 이벤트 루프 메서드에 전달하거나, 태스크 객체의 *note
set_name(): 9d9. 메서드를 호출하여 asyncio 태스크의 이름을 지정할 수 있
습니다.  태스크 이름은 *note asyncio.Task: 1be.의 ‘repr()’ 출력에 표시되
며 *note get_name(): 9da. 메서드를 사용하여 조회할 수도 있습니다.
(Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-34270(8).)

*note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5fd.에 Happy Eyeballs(9)에 대한
지원이 추가되었습니다.  동작을 지정하기 위해, 두 개의 매개변수가 추가되
었습니다: 'happy_eyeballs_delay'와 'interleave'.  Happy Eyeballs 알고리
즘은 IPv4와 IPv6을 지원하는 응용 프로그램에서 둘 모두를 사용하여 동시에
연결을 시도하여 응답성을 향상합니다.  (Contributed by twisteroid
ambassador in bpo-33530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530


File: python.info,  Node: builtins<2>,  Next: collections,  Prev: asyncio<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.3 builtins
................

내장 *note compile(): 192.이 ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ 플래그를 받
아들이도록 개선되었습니다.  이 새 플래그가 전달되면, *note compile():
192.은 일반적으로 유효하지 문법으로 간주하는 최상위 수준 ‘await’, ‘async
for’ 및 ‘async with’ 구문을 허용합니다.  그러면 ‘CO_COROUTINE’ 플래그로
표시된 비동기 코드 객체가 반환될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Matthias
Bussonnier in bpo-34616(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616


File: python.info,  Node: collections,  Next: cProfile,  Prev: builtins<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.4 collections
...................

이제 *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca.의 *note _asdict(): 9dd. 메서드
는 *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. 대신 *note dict: 256.를 반환합니
다.  파이썬 3.7부터 일반 딕셔너리가 순서를 보장하기 때문에 이것이 가능합
니다.  ‘OrderedDict’의 추가 기능이 필요하면, 제안된 해결 방법은 원하는 형
으로 결과를 캐스팅하는 것입니다: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile,  Next: csv<2>,  Prev: collections,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.5 cProfile
................

*note cProfile.Profile: 9df. 클래스는 이제 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있
습니다.  다음처럼 코드 블록을 프로파일 하십시오:

     import cProfile

     with cProfile.Profile() as profiler:
           # 프로파일 할 코드
           ...

(Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235


File: python.info,  Node: csv<2>,  Next: curses<3>,  Prev: cProfile,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.6 csv
...........

*note csv.DictReader: 9e1.는 이제 *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. 대
신 *note dict: 256.의 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  이 도구는 이제 여전히 필드
순서를 유지하면서 더 빠르고 메모리를 덜 사용합니다.  (Contributed by
Michael Selik in bpo-34003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003


File: python.info,  Node: curses<3>,  Next: ctypes<2>,  Prev: csv<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.7 curses
..............

하부 ncurses 라이브러리에 대한 구조화된 버전 정보를 담는 새로운 변수를 추
가했습니다: *note ncurses_version: 9e3.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-31680(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<2>,  Next: datetime<3>,  Prev: curses<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.8 ctypes
..............

윈도우에서, *note CDLL: 9e5. 및 서브 클래스는 이제 하부 ‘LoadLibraryEx’
호출에 대한 플래그를 지정하는 'winmode' 매개 변수를 받아들입니다.  기본
플래그는 DLL이 저장된 경로(전체나 부분 경로가 초기 DLL을 로드하는 데 사
용되었다면)와 *note add_dll_directory(): 9e6.로 추가된 경로를 포함하여 신
뢰할 수 있는 위치에서만 DLL 종속성을 로드하도록 설정됩니다.
(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<3>,  Next: functools<2>,  Prev: ctypes<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.9 datetime
................

ISO 년, 주 번호 및 요일로 *note date: 1cd.와 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체를
각각 생성하는, 새로운 대체 생성자 *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar():
9e8. 와 *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9e9.를 추가했습니다;
이것들은 각 클래스의 ‘isocalendar’ 메서드의 역입니다.  (Contributed by
Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004


File: python.info,  Node: functools<2>,  Next: gc<3>,  Prev: datetime<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.10 functools
..................

이제 *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb.는 데코레이터를 반환하는 함수가 아
닌 직접적인 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다.  그래서 이 두 가지가 모두 지
원됩니다:

     @lru_cache
     def f(x):
         ...

     @lru_cache(maxsize=256)
     def f(x):
         ...

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36772(1).)

인스턴스 수명 동안 캐시 된 계산된 속성을 위한 새로운 *note
functools.cached_property(): 53c. 데코레이터를 추가했습니다.

     import functools
     import statistics

     class Dataset:
        def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
           self.data = sequence_of_numbers

        @functools.cached_property
        def variance(self):
           return statistics.variance(self.data)

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-21145(2))

*note 싱글 디스패치: 9ec.를 사용하여 메서드를 *note 제네릭 함수: 9ed.로
변환하는 새로운 *note functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9ee. 데코레이터
를 추가했습니다:

     from functools import singledispatchmethod
     from contextlib import suppress

     class TaskManager:

         def __init__(self, tasks):
             self.tasks = list(tasks)

         @singledispatchmethod
         def discard(self, value):
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 self.tasks.remove(value)

         @discard.register(list)
         def _(self, tasks):
             targets = set(tasks)
             self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets]

(Contributed by Ethan Smith in bpo-32380(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380


File: python.info,  Node: gc<3>,  Next: gettext,  Prev: functools<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.11 gc
...........

이제 *note get_objects(): 7fd.는 객체를 가져올 세대(generation)를 나타내
는 선택적 'generation' 매개 변수를 받을 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Pablo Galindo in bpo-36016(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016


File: python.info,  Node: gettext,  Next: gzip<3>,  Prev: gc<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.12 gettext
................

*note pgettext(): 9f1.와 그 변형을 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Franz
Glasner, Éric Araujo, and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-2504(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<3>,  Next: IDLE과 idlelib<2>,  Prev: gettext,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.13 gzip
.............

재현성 있는 출력을 위해 *note gzip.compress(): 638.에 'mtime' 매개 변수
를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Guo Ci Teo in bpo-34898(1).)

특정 유형의 유효하지 않거나 손상된 gzip 파일의 경우 이제 *note OSError:
411. 대신 *note BadGzipFile: 9f3. 예외가 발생합니다.  (Contributed by
Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù, and Zackery Spytz in bpo-6584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE과 idlelib<2>,  Next: inspect<5>,  Prev: gzip<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.14 IDLE과 idlelib
.......................

N 줄(기본적으로 50)을 초과하는 출력은 버튼으로 축소됩니다.  N은 설정 대
화 상자의 General 페이지의 PyShell 섹션에서 변경할 수 있습니다.  그보다
작은, 하지만 아주 길 수도 있는, 줄은 출력을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭
하면 압착할 수 있습니다.  압착된 출력은 버튼을 더블 클릭해서 제자리에서
확장하거나, 버튼을 마우스 오른쪽 단추로 클릭하여 클립 보드나 별도의 창으
로 확장할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353(1).)

사용자 정의 설정으로 모듈을 실행하기 위해 Run 메뉴에 “Run Customized”를
추가합니다.  입력한 모든 명령 줄 인자는 sys.argv에 추가됩니다.  또한 다
음 사용자 정의 실행을 위해 상자에 다시 나타납니다.  일반적인 셸 메인 모
듈 재시작을 억제할 수도 있습니다.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella, Terry
Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(2) and bpo-37627(3).)

IDLE 편집기 창에 선택적인 줄 번호를 추가했습니다.  창은 구성 대화 상자의
General 탭에서 설정하지 않는 한 줄 번호 없이 열립니다.  기존 창의 줄 번
호는 옵션 메뉴에서 표시되거나 숨겨집니다.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and
Saimadhav Heblikar in bpo-17535(4).)

OS 네이티브 인코딩은 이제 파이썬 문자열과 Tcl 객체 간 변환에 사용됩니다.
이를 통해 IDLE은 그림 이모티콘과 기타 BMP가 아닌 문자를 사용할 수 있습니
다.  이러한 문자는 표시하거나 클립 보드에 복사하고 클립보드에서 붙여넣을
수 있습니다.  문자열을 Tcl에서 파이썬으로 변환했다가 되돌리는 것은 이제
실패하지 않습니다.  (많은 사람이 8년 동안 이 작업을 했지만, 마침내
Serhiy Storchaka가 이 문제를 bpo-13153(5)에서 해결했습니다.)

3.8.1의 새로운 기능:

커서 깜박임을 토글하는 옵션을 추가합니다.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz
in bpo-4603(6).)

이스케이프 키는 이제 IDLE 완성(completion) 창을 닫습니다.  (Contributed
by Johnny Najera in bpo-38944(7).)

위의 변경 사항은 3.7 유지 보수 릴리스로 역 이식되었습니다.

모듈 이름 완성 리스트에 키워드를 추가합니다.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<5>,  Next: io<3>,  Prev: IDLE과 idlelib<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.15 inspect
................

*note inspect.getdoc(): 9f6. 함수는 이제 ‘__slots__’ 어트리뷰트가 값이 독
스트링인 *note dict: 256.면 독스트링을 찾을 수 있습니다.  이것은 *note
property(): 194, *note classmethod(): 166. 및 *note staticmethod():
410.에 대해 이미 가지고 있는 것과 유사한 문서화 옵션을 제공합니다:

     class AudioClip:
         __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place',
                      'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'}
         def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration):
             self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1)
             self.duration = ceil(duration)

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36326(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326


File: python.info,  Node: io<3>,  Next: itertools<4>,  Prev: inspect<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.16 io
...........

개발 모드(*note -X: 176. ‘env’)와 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.에서, ‘close()’
메서드가 실패하면 *note io.IOBase: 1f5. 파이널라이저가 이제 예외를 로그
합니다.  릴리스 빌드에서는 기본적으로 예외가 조용히 무시됩니다.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18748(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<4>,  Next: json tool,  Prev: io<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.17 itertools
..................

*note itertools.accumulate(): 9f9. 함수는 초깃값을 지정하기 위한 옵션
'initial' 키워드 인자를 추가했습니다:

     >>> from itertools import accumulate
     >>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000))
     [1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060]

(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-34659(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659


File: python.info,  Node: json tool,  Next: logging<2>,  Prev: itertools<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.18 json.tool
..................

모든 입력 행을 별도의 JSON 객체로 구문 분석하는 ‘--json-lines’ 옵션을 추
가했습니다.  (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-31553(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553


File: python.info,  Node: logging<2>,  Next: math<5>,  Prev: json tool,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.19 logging
................

*note logging.basicConfig(): 9fc.에 'force' 키워드 인자를 추가했습니다.
참으로 설정하면, 루트 로거에 연결된 기존 처리기는 다른 인자로 지정된 구
성을 수행하기 전에 제거되고 닫힙니다.

이것은 오랜 문제를 해결합니다.  일단 로거나 'basicConfig()'가 호출되면,
'basicConfig()'에 대한 후속 호출은 조용히 무시되었습니다.  이로 인해 대
화식 프롬프트나 Jupyter 노트북을 사용하여 다양한 로깅 구성 옵션을 갱신,
실험 또는 가르치기가 어려웠습니다.

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed
by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897


File: python.info,  Node: math<5>,  Next: mmap<2>,  Prev: logging<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.20 math
.............

두 점 사이의 유클리드 거리를 계산하기 위한 새로운 함수 *note
math.dist(): 9fe.가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
in bpo-33089(1).)

다중 차원을 처리하도록 *note math.hypot(): 9ff. 함수를 확장했습니다.  이
전에는, 2-D 케이스 만 지원했습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
in bpo-33089(2).)

‘start’ 값(기본값: 1)과 숫자의 이터러블의 곱을 반환하는 *note sum():
464.의 대응 물인 새 함수 *note math.prod(): a00.를 추가했습니다:

     >>> prior = 0.8
     >>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30]
     >>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior)
     0.126

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-35606(3).)

새로운 조합 함수(combinatoric functions) *note math.perm(): 6ca.와 *note
math.comb(): 6c9.가 추가되었습니다:

     >>> math.perm(10, 3)    # 10개 중에서 한 번에 3개를 취한 순열
     720
     >>> math.comb(10, 3)    # 10개 중에서 한 번에 3개를 취한 조합
     120

(Contributed by Yash Aggarwal, Keller Fuchs, Serhiy Storchaka, and
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37128(4), bpo-37178(5), and bpo-35431(6).)

정수 제곱근을 부동 소수점으로 변환하지 않고 정확하게 계산하기 위한 새로
운 함수 *note math.isqrt(): a01.를 추가했습니다.  새 함수는 제한 없이 큰
정수를 지원합니다.  ‘floor(sqrt(n))’ 보다 빠르지만 *note math.sqrt():
a02. 보다 느립니다:

     >>> r = 650320427
     >>> s = r ** 2
     >>> isqrt(s - 1)         # 정확합니다
     650320426
     >>> floor(sqrt(s - 1))   # 부정확합니다
     650320427

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36887(7).)

함수 *note math.factorial(): 945.은 더는 int-류가 아닌 인자를 받아들이지
않습니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-33083(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<2>,  Next: multiprocessing<3>,  Prev: math<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.21 mmap
.............

*note mmap.mmap: 20b. 클래스에는 이제 ‘madvise()’ 시스템 호출에 액세스하
는 *note madvise(): a04. 메서드가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Zackery
Spytz in bpo-32941(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<3>,  Next: os<6>,  Prev: mmap<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.22 multiprocessing
........................

새로운 *note multiprocessing.shared_memory: 99. 모듈을 추가했습니다.
(Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-35813(1).)

macOS에서, 이제 기본적으로 'spawn' 시작 방법이 사용됩니다.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-33725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: os<6>,  Next: os path<5>,  Prev: multiprocessing<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.23 os
...........

확장 모듈을 임포트 하거나 *note ctypes: 2a.를 사용하여 DLL을 로드할 때 네
이티브 종속성에 대한 추가 검색 경로를 제공하기 위해 윈도우에서 새로운 함
수 *note add_dll_directory(): 9e6.가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by
Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

새로운 *note os.memfd_create(): a07. 함수가 추가되어 ‘memfd_create()’ 시
스템 호출을 감쌉니다.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Christian
Heimes in bpo-26836(2).)

윈도우에서 재해석 지점(reparse points - 심볼릭 링크와 디렉터리 정션
(directory junction)을 포함합니다)을 처리하기 위한 많은 수동 논리가 운영
체제로 위임되었습니다.  특히, *note os.stat(): 49a.은 이제 운영 체제에서
지원하는 모든 것을 탐색하지만, *note os.lstat(): 49b.은 “이름 서로게이트
(name surrogates)”로 식별되는 재해석 지점만 열고 다른 이름은 *note
os.stat(): 49a.처럼 엽니다.  모든 경우에, ‘stat_result.st_mode’는 심볼릭
링크에만 ‘S_IFLNK’를 설정하고 다른 유형의 재해석 지점에는 설정하지 않습
니다.  다른 유형의 재해석 지점을 식별하려면, 새
‘stat_result.st_reparse_tag’ 어트리뷰트를 확인하십시오.

윈도우에서, *note os.readlink(): 91c.는 이제 디렉터리 정션을 읽을 수 있
습니다.  *note islink(): a08.는 디렉터리 정션에 대해 ‘False’를 반환함에
유의하십시오.  따라서 ‘islink’를 먼저 확인하는 코드는 정션을 계속 디렉터
리로 처리하지만, *note os.readlink(): 91c.의 에러를 처리하는 코드는 정션
을 이제 링크로 처리할 수 있습니다.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: os path<5>,  Next: pathlib<7>,  Prev: os<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.24 os.path
................

*note exists(): a0a, *note lexists(): a0b, *note isdir(): a0c, *note
isfile(): a0d, *note islink(): a08. 및 *note ismount(): a0e.와 같은 불리
언 결과를 반환하는 *note os.path: a2. 함수는 이제 OS 수준에서 표현할 수
없는 문자나 바이트를 포함하는 경로에 대해 *note ValueError: 202.나 그것
의 서브 클래스 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. 와 *note
UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. 를 발생시키는 대신 ‘False’를 반환합니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).).

윈도우에서 *note expanduser(): a10.는 이제 ‘USERPROFILE’ 환경 변수를 선
호하며 일반적으로 일반 사용자 계정에 설정되지 않는 ‘HOME’을 사용하지 않
습니다.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-36264(2).)

윈도우에서 *note isdir(): a0c.은 존재하지 않는 디렉터리에 대한 링크에 대
해 더는 ‘True’를 반환하지 않습니다.

윈도우에서 *note realpath(): 225.는 이제 심볼릭 링크와 디렉터리 정션을 포
함하는 재해석 지점을 결정(resolve)합니다.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<7>,  Next: pickle,  Prev: os path<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.25 pathlib
................

*note exists(): a12, *note is_dir(): 230, *note is_file(): 22f, *note
is_mount(): a13, *note is_symlink(): a14, *note is_block_device(): a15,
*note is_char_device(): a16, *note is_fifo(): a17, *note is_socket():
a18.과 같은 불리언 결과를 반환하는 *note pathlib.Path: 229. 메서드는 OS
수준에서 표현할 수 없는 문자가 포함된 경로에 대해 *note ValueError:
202.나 그것의 서브 클래스 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. 를 발생시키는 대
신 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-33721(1).)

Added ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ which creates a hard link pointing to a
path.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978(2)) Note that
‘link_to’ was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a
‘hardlink_to’ method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the
existing ‘symlink_to’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978


File: python.info,  Node: pickle,  Next: plistlib,  Prev: pathlib<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.26 pickle
...............

C 최적화된 *note Pickler: a1a.를 서브 클래싱하는 *note pickle: a6. 확장
은 이제 특수 *note reducer_override(): a1b. 메서드를 정의하여 함수와 클
래스의 피클링 로직을 재정의할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Pierre
Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib,  Next: pprint<3>,  Prev: pickle,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.27 plistlib
.................

새로운 *note plistlib.UID: a1d.가 추가되었으며 NSKeyedArchiver 인코딩된
바이너리 plist를 읽고 쓰는 지원을 활성화했습니다.  (Contributed by Jon
Janzen in bpo-26707(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<3>,  Next: py_compile<2>,  Prev: plistlib,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.28 pprint
...............

*note pprint: ae. 모듈은 여러 함수에 'sort_dicts' 매개 변수를 추가했습니
다.  기본적으로, 이러한 함수는 렌더링이나 인쇄 전에 딕셔너리를 계속 정렬
합니다.  그러나, 'sort_dicts'가 거짓으로 설정되면, 딕셔너리는 키가 삽입
된 순서를 유지합니다.  디버깅하는 동안 JSON 입력과 비교하는 데 유용 할 수
있습니다.

또한, *note pprint.pprint(): 822.와 유사하지만 'sort_dicts'가 ‘False’로
기본 설정된 새로운 편의 함수 *note pprint.pp(): a1f.가 있습니다:

     >>> from pprint import pprint, pp
     >>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt')
     >>> pp(d, width=40)                  # 원래 순서
     {'source': 'input.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'destination': 'output.txt'}
     >>> pprint(d, width=40)              # 알파벳 순으로 정렬된 키
     {'destination': 'output.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'source': 'input.txt'}

(Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-30670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<2>,  Next: shlex,  Prev: pprint<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.29 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): a21.은 이제 조용한 모드를 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-22640(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640


File: python.info,  Node: shlex,  Next: shutil<4>,  Prev: py_compile<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.30 shlex
..............

새 *note shlex.join(): a23. 함수는 *note shlex.split(): 536.의 역함수로
작동합니다.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<4>,  Next: socket<4>,  Prev: shlex,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.31 shutil
...............

*note shutil.copytree(): a25.는 이제 새로운 ‘dirs_exist_ok’ 키워드 인자
를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Josh Bronson in bpo-20849(1).)

*note shutil.make_archive(): 4ad.는 이제 이식성과 표준 적합성을 향상하기
위해 새로운 아카이브에 최신 pax (POSIX.1-2001) 형식을 기본으로 합니다,
*note tarfile: de. 모듈에 대한 해당 변경 사항을 상속했습니다.
(Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in bpo-30661(2).)

윈도우에서 *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.는 이제 그 내용을 먼저 재귀적으로
삭제하지 않고 디렉터리 정션을 삭제합니다.  (Contributed by Steve Dower
in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: socket<4>,  Next: ssl<4>,  Prev: shutil<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.32 socket
...............

같은 소켓에서 IPv4와 IPv6 연결을 모두 받아들이는 것을 포함하여 일반적으
로 서버 소켓을 만들 때 필요한 작업을 자동화하는 *note create_server():
a27.와 *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): a28. 편리 함수가 추가되었습니다.
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-17561(1).)

*note socket.if_nameindex(): a29, *note socket.if_nametoindex(): a2a. 및
*note socket.if_indextoname(): a2b. 함수가 윈도우에서 구현되었습니다.
(Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<4>,  Next: statistics<4>,  Prev: socket<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.33 ssl
............

TLS 1.3 포스트 핸드 셰이크 인증을 활성화하는 *note post_handshake_auth:
a2d.와 시작하는 *note verify_client_post_handshake(): a2e.를 추가했습니
다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-34670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<4>,  Next: sys<7>,  Prev: ssl<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.34 statistics
...................

*note statistics.mean(): 6cb.의 더 빠른 부동 소수점 변형으로 *note
statistics.fmean(): a30.을 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger and Steven D’Aprano in bpo-35904(1).)

*note statistics.geometric_mean(): a31.을 추가했습니다 (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-27181(2).)

가장 빈번한 값의 리스트를 반환하는 *note statistics.multimode(): a32.가
추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892(3).)

데이터나 분포를 등분위 간격(equiprobable intervals)(예를 들어, 4분위 수
(quattiles), 십분위 수(deciles) 또는 백분위 수(percentiles))으로 나누는
*note statistics.quantiles(): a33.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36546(4).)

무작위 변수의 정규 분포를 만들고 조작하기 위한 도구인 *note
statistics.NormalDist: a34.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-36018(5).)

     >>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14])
     >>> temperature_feb.mean
     6.0
     >>> temperature_feb.stdev
     6.356099432828281

     >>> temperature_feb.cdf(3)            # 3도 이하일 확률
     0.3184678262814532
     >>> # 7도와 10도가 될 상대적 가능성
     >>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10)
     1.2039930378537762

     >>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5)
     >>> temperature_feb += el_niño        # 기후 효과(엘니뇨)를 더합니다
     >>> temperature_feb
     NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674)

     >>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32      # 화씨(Fahrenheit)로 변환합니다
     NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014)
     >>> temperature_feb.samples(3)        # 무작위 샘플을 만듭니다
     [7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018


File: python.info,  Node: sys<7>,  Next: tarfile<5>,  Prev: statistics<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.35 sys
............

“발생시킬 수 없는 예외(unraisable exceptions)” 처리 방법을 제어하기 위해
재정의할 수 있는 새로운 *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. 함수를 추가했습
니다.  예외가 발생했지만, 파이썬에서 처리할 방법이 없을 때 호출됩니다.  예
를 들어, 파괴자(destructor)가 예외를 발생시키거나 가비지 수집(*note
gc.collect(): a36.) 중에.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-36829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<5>,  Next: threading<4>,  Prev: sys<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.36 tarfile
................

*note tarfile: de. 모듈은 새로운 아카이브를 만들 때 이제 이전의 GNU 전용
이 아닌 최신 pax (POSIX.1-2001) 형식을 기본값으로 사용합니다.  이것은 표
준화되고 확장 가능한 형식으로 일관된 인코딩(UTF-8)을 사용하여 플랫폼 간
이식성을 개선하고, 몇 가지 다른 이점을 제공합니다.  (Contributed by
C.A.M. Gerlach in bpo-36268(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268


File: python.info,  Node: threading<4>,  Next: tokenize<2>,  Prev: tarfile<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.37 threading
..................

잡히지 않은 *note threading.Thread.run(): a39. 예외를 처리하는 새로운
*note threading.excepthook(): 845. 함수를 추가했습니다.  잡히지 않은
*note threading.Thread.run(): a39. 예외가 처리되는 방식을 제어하기 위해
재정의될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-1230540(1).)

새로운 *note threading.get_native_id(): a3a. 함수와 *note native_id:
a3b. 어트리뷰트를 *note threading.Thread: 94a. 클래스에 추가합니다.  이
것들은 커널이 할당한 현재 스레드의 네이티브 정수 스레드 ID를 반환합니다.
이 기능은 특정 플랫폼에서만 사용할 수 있습니다, 자세한 내용은 *note
get_native_id: a3a.를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Jake Tesler in
bpo-36084(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize<2>,  Next: tkinter<4>,  Prev: threading<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.38 tokenize
.................

*note tokenize: fb. 모듈은 이제 후행 줄 넘김이 없는 입력을 제공할 때 묵
시적으로 ‘NEWLINE’ 토큰을 출력합니다.  이 동작은 이제 C 토크나이저가 내
부적으로 수행하는 것과 일치합니다.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in
bpo-33899(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<4>,  Next: time<4>,  Prev: tokenize<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.39 tkinter
................

‘tkinter.Spinbox’ 클래스에 ‘selection_from()’, ‘selection_present()’,
‘selection_range()’ 및 ‘selection_to()’ 메서드를 추가했습니다.
(Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-34829(1).)

‘tkinter.Canvas’ 클래스에 ‘moveto()’ 메서드를 추가했습니다.
(Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-23831(2).)

‘tkinter.PhotoImage’ 클래스는 이제 ‘transparency_get()’과
‘transparency_set()’ 메서드를 갖습니다.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz
in bpo-25451(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451


File: python.info,  Node: time<4>,  Next: typing<8>,  Prev: tkinter<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.40 time
.............

macOS 10.12를 위한 새로운 시계 *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a3f.가 추가되었습
니다.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702


File: python.info,  Node: typing<8>,  Next: unicodedata<5>,  Prev: time<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.41 typing
...............

*note typing: 104. 모듈은 몇 가지 새로운 기능을 통합했습니다:

   * 키별 형이 있는 딕셔너리 형.  PEP 589(1)와 *note typing.TypedDict:
     162.를 참조하십시오.  TypedDict는 문자열 키만 사용합니다.  기본적으
     로, 모든 키가 있어야 합니다.  키를 선택적으로 만들려면
     “total=False”를 지정하십시오:

          class Location(TypedDict, total=False):
              lat_long: tuple
              grid_square: str
              xy_coordinate: tuple

   * 리터럴 형.  PEP 586(2)과 *note typing.Literal: 84f.을 참조하십시오.
     Literal 형은 매개 변수나 반환 값이 하나 이상의 특정 리터럴 값으로 제
     한됨을 나타냅니다:

          def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']:
              ...

   * “최종(final)” 변수, 함수, 메서드 및 클래스.  PEP 591(3), *note
     typing.Final: 267. 및 *note typing.final(): 6a7.을 참조하십시오.
     final 한정자는 정적 형 검사기에 서브 클래싱, 재정의 또는 재대입을 제
     한하도록 지시합니다:

          pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536

   * 프로토콜 정의.  PEP 544(4), *note typing.Protocol: 264. 및 *note
     typing.runtime_checkable(): 43c.을 참조하십시오.  *note
     typing.SupportsInt: a41.와 같은 간단한 ABC는 이제 ‘Protocol’ 서브 클
     래스입니다.

   * 새 프로토콜 클래스 *note typing.SupportsIndex: a42.

   * 새 함수 *note typing.get_origin(): a43.과 *note typing.get_args():
     87a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<5>,  Next: unittest<6>,  Prev: typing<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.42 unicodedata
....................

*note unicodedata: 105. 모듈은 유니코드 12.1.0(1) 릴리스를 사용하도록 업
그레이드되었습니다.

새 함수 *note is_normalized(): a45.를 문자열이 특정 정규화 형식인지 확인
하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  종종 실제로 문자열을 정규화하는 것보다 훨씬
빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Max Belanger, David Euresti, and Greg Price
in bpo-32285(2) and bpo-37966(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<6>,  Next: venv<4>,  Prev: unicodedata<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.43 unittest
.................

*note Mock: a47.의 비동기 버전을 지원하는 *note AsyncMock: a48.이 추가되
었습니다.  테스트를 위해 적절한 새로운 assert 함수들이 추가되었습니다.
(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-26467(1)).

‘setUpModule()’과 *note setUpClass(): a49.에 대한 정리를 지원하기 위해
unittest에 *note addModuleCleanup(): a4a. 과 *note addClassCleanup():
a4b.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412(2).)

여러 mock assert 함수는 이제 실패 시 실제 호출의 리스트도 인쇄합니다.
(Contributed by Petter Strandmark in bpo-35047(3).)

*note unittest: 106. 모듈은 *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase:
304.를 통해 코루틴을 테스트 케이스로 사용하는 지원을 얻었습니다.
(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32972(4).)

예:

     import unittest


     class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

         async def asyncSetUp(self):
             self.connection = await AsyncConnection()

         async def test_get(self):
             response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com")
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)

         async def asyncTearDown(self):
             await self.connection.close()


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         unittest.main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972


File: python.info,  Node: venv<4>,  Next: weakref,  Prev: unittest<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.44 venv
.............

*note venv: 111.는 이제 PowerShell Core 6.1에서 가상 환경을 활성화하기 위
한 모든 플랫폼에 ‘Activate.ps1’ 스크립트를 포함합니다.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-32718(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718


File: python.info,  Node: weakref,  Next: xml<4>,  Prev: venv<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.45 weakref
................

*note weakref.proxy(): a4e.에 의해 반환된 프락시 객체는 이제 다른 숫자 연
산자에 더해 행렬 곱셈 연산자 ‘@’와 ‘@=’을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Mark Dickinson in bpo-36669(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669


File: python.info,  Node: xml<4>,  Next: xmlrpc,  Prev: weakref,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.46 xml
............

DTD 및 외부 엔티티 조회에 대한 완화로서, *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.과
*note xml.sax: 129. 모듈은 기본적으로 더는 외부 엔티티를 처리하지 않습니
다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17239(1).)

*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. 모듈의 ‘.find*()’ 메서드는 이름 공간을
무시하는 ‘{*}tag’와 지정된 이름 공간의 모든 태그를 반환하는
‘{namespace}*’와 같은 와일드카드 검색을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel in bpo-28238(2).)

*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. 모듈은 C14N 2.0을 구현하는 새로운 함수
‘–xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize()’를 제공합니다.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611(3).)

*note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: a50.의 대상 객체는 새 콜백 메서드
‘start_ns()’와 ‘end_ns()’를 통해 이름 공간 선언 이벤트를 수신할 수 있습
니다.  또한, *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: a51. 대상은 주석과
처리 명령어에 대한 이벤트를 처리하여 생성된 트리에 포함하도록 구성할 수
있습니다.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-36676(4) and
bpo-36673(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc,  Prev: xml<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<2>

1.6.5.47 xmlrpc
...............

*note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a53.는 이제 각 요청과 함께 보낼 HTTP 헤
더의 시퀀스를 위한 선택적 'headers' 키워드 인자를 지원합니다.  무엇보다
도, 기본 베이식 인증(basic authentication)에서 더 빠른 세션 인증(session
authentication)으로 업그레이드 할 수 있도록 합니다.  (Contributed by
Cédric Krier in bpo-35153(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153


File: python.info,  Node: 최적화<2>,  Next: 빌드와 C API 변경,  Prev: 개선된 모듈<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.6 최적화
------------

   * *note subprocess: d6. 모듈은 이제 성능 향상을 위해 몇몇 경우 *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 220. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  현재, 다음과 같
     은 조건이 모두 충족될 때 macOS와 리눅스(glibc 2.24 이상 사용)에서만
     사용됩니다:

        * 'close_fds'가 거짓입니다.

        * 'preexec_fn', 'pass_fds', 'cwd' 및 'start_new_session' 매개 변
          수가 설정되지 않았습니다.

        * 'executable' 경로가 디렉터리를 포함합니다.

     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-35537(1).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): a55, *note shutil.copy(): a56, *note
     shutil.copy2(): a57, *note shutil.copytree(): a25. 및 *note
     shutil.move(): a58.는 파일을 보다 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 리눅스와
     macOS에서 플랫폼별 “빠른 복사(fast-copy)” 시스템 호출을 사용합니다.
     “빠른 복사”는 복사 작업이 커널 내에서 발생하여
     “‘outfd.write(infd.read())’”처럼 파이썬에서 사용자 공간(userspace)
     버퍼를 사용하지 않도록 합니다.  윈도우에서 *note shutil.copyfile():
     a55.은 더 큰 기본 버퍼 크기(16 KiB 대신 1 MiB)를 사용하고 *note
     shutil.copyfileobj(): a59.의 *note memoryview(): 462. 기반 변형이 사
     용됩니다.  같은 파티션 내에서 512 MiB 파일을 복사할 때 속도 개선은
     리눅스에서는 약 +26%, macOS에서는 +50%, 윈도우에서는 +40%입니다.  또
     한, 훨씬 적은 CPU 사이클이 소모됩니다.  *note 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인
     복사 연산: a5a. 절을 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Giampaolo
     Rodolà in bpo-33671(2).)

   * *note shutil.copytree(): a25.는 *note os.scandir(): a5b. 함수를 사
     용하고 이것에 의존하는 모든 복사 함수는 캐시 된 *note os.stat():
     49a. 값을 사용합니다.  8000개의 파일이 있는 디렉터리를 복사할 때 속
     도 개선은 리눅스에서는 +9%, 윈도우에서는 +20%, 윈도우 SMB 공유에서
     는 +30%입니다.  또한, *note os.stat(): 49a. 시스템 호출 수가 38% 감
     소하여 특히 *note shutil.copytree(): a25.가 네트워크 파일 시스템에
     서 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33695(3).)

   * *note pickle: a6. 모듈의 기본 프로토콜은 이제 파이썬 3.4에서 처음 소
     개된 프로토콜 4입니다.  파이썬 3.0부터 사용 가능한 프로토콜 3보다 성
     능이 우수하고 크기가 작습니다.

   * ‘PyGC_Head’에서 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 멤버 하나를 삭제했습니다.  모
     든 GC 추적 객체(예를 들어, 튜플, 리스트, 딕셔너리)의 크기는 4 또는
     8바이트 줄어듭니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-33597(4).)

   * *note uuid.UUID: a5d.는 이제 ‘__slots__’를 사용하여 메모리 사용량을
     줄입니다.  (Contributed by Wouter Bolsterlee and Tal Einat in
     bpo-30977(5))

   * *note operator.itemgetter(): a5e.의 33% 성능 향상.  인자 처리를 최
     적화하고 튜플에 대한 하나의 음수가 아닌 정수 인덱스의 흔한 경우에 대
     한 빠른 경로를 추가했습니다 (표준 라이브러리의 일반적인 사용 사례입
     니다).  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35664(6).)

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca.에서의 필드 조회 속도 향상.  이
     제 두 배 이상 빨라져, 파이썬에서 가장 빠른 인스턴스 변수 조회 형식
     이 되었습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, Pablo Galindo,
     and Joe Jevnik, Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32492(7).)

   * *note list: 60b. 생성자는 입력 이터러블의 길이를 알 수 있으면 (입력
     이 ‘__len__’을 구현하면) 내부 항목 버퍼를 초과 할당하지 않습니다.  이
     것은 생성된 리스트가 평균 12% 작게 만듭니다.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger and Pablo Galindo in bpo-33234(8).)

   * 클래스 변수 쓰기 속도 두 배 향상.  특수하지 않은(non-dunder) 어트리
     뷰트가 갱신되었을 때, 슬롯 갱신을 위한 불필요한 호출이 있었습니다.
     (Contributed by Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond
     Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36012(9).)

   * 많은 내장 함수와 메서드에 전달된 인자를 변환하는 오버헤드 감소.  이
     것은 몇몇 간단한 내장 함수와 메서드 호출을 20–50%까지 가속합니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23867(10), bpo-35582(11)
     and bpo-36127(12).)

   * ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ 명령어는 이제 새로운 “옵코드(opcode) 단위 캐시” 메커
     니즘을 사용합니다.  이제 약 40% 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov and Inada Naoki in bpo-26219(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219


File: python.info,  Node: 빌드와 C API 변경,  Next: 폐지<2>,  Prev: 최적화<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.7 빌드와 C API 변경
-----------------------

   * 기본 *note sys.abiflags: a60.는 빈 문자열이 되었습니다: pymalloc을
     위한 ‘m’ 플래그가 쓸모없게 되었으므로 (pymalloc을 포함하거나 포함하
     지 않는 빌드는 ABI 호환입니다) 제거되었습니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-36707(1).)

     변경의 예:

        * ‘python3.8’ 프로그램만 설치되고, ‘python3.8m’ 프로그램은 사라
          졌습니다.

        * ‘python3.8-config’ 스크립트만 설치되고, ‘python3.8m-config’ 스
          크립트는 사라졌습니다.

        * ‘m’ 플래그는 동적 라이브러리 파일명의 접미사에서 제거되었습니
          다: 표준 라이브러리는 물론 PyPI에서 다운로드 한 것과 같은 제삼
          자 패키지에서 생성되고 설치된 확장 모듈.  예를 들어, 리눅스에
          서 파이썬 3.7 접미사 ‘.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’는 파이
          썬 3.8에서 ‘.cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’가 되었습니다.

   * 여러 종류의 API를 더 잘 구분할 수 있도록 헤더 파일이 재구성되었습니
     다:

        * ‘Include/*.h’는 이식성 있는 공용 안정 C API 여야 합니다.

        * ‘Include/cpython/*.h’는 CPython에 고유한 불안정한 C API 여야 합
          니다; ‘_Py’나 ‘_PY’로 시작하는 일부 비공개 API가 포함된 공개
          API.

        * ‘Include/internal/*.h’는 아주 CPython에 특정한 비공개 내부 C
          API입니다.  이 API는 과거 호환성 보증이 없어서, CPython 외부에
          서 사용해서는 안 됩니다.  이것은 함수를 호출하지 않고 CPython
          내부에 액세스해야 하는 디버거나 프로파일과 같이 매우 구체적인
          요구 사항을 위해서만 노출됩니다.  이 API는 이제 ‘make
          install’에 의해 설치됩니다.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(2) and bpo-35081(3),
     Eric Snow가 파이썬 3.7에서 시작한 작업.)

   * 일부 매크로는 정적 인라인 함수로 변환되었습니다: 매개 변수 형과 반
     환형이 잘 정의되며, 매크로에 특정한 문제가 없으며, 변수는 지역 스코
     프를 갖습니다.  예:

        * *note Py_INCREF(): 569, *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.

        * *note Py_XINCREF(): a61, *note Py_XDECREF(): 788.

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’

        * 비공개 함수: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’, ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’,
          ‘_Py_Dealloc()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35059(4).)

   * ‘PyByteArray_Init()’와 ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’ 함수가 제거되었습니다.
     파이썬 2.7.4와 파이썬 3.2.0부터 아무것도 하지 않고, 제한된 API(안정
     ABI)에서 제외되었으며 문서로 만들어지지 않았습니다.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713(5).)

   * *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a62.의 결과는 이제 ‘char *’ 대신
     ‘const char *’ 형입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-33818(6).)

   * ‘Modules/Setup.dist’와 ‘Modules/Setup’의 이중성이 제거되었습니다.  이
     전에는, CPython 소스 트리를 갱신할 때, 업스트림 변경 사항을 반영하
     기 위해 ‘Modules/Setup.dist’(소스 트리 내부)를 ‘Modules/Setup’(빌드
     트리 내부)으로 수동으로 복사해야 했습니다.  이는 패키지 작성자에게
     는 작은 이점을 제공했지만, 파일 복사를 잊어버리면 빌드가 실패할 수
     있어서 CPython 개발자들을 자주 귀찮게 만들었습니다.

     이제 빌드 시스템은 항상 소스 트리 안의 ‘Modules/Setup’에서 읽습니다
     .  그 파일을 사용자 정의하고 싶은 사람들은 소스 트리에 대한 다른 변
     경과 마찬가지로 CPython의 git 포크나 패치 파일로 변경 사항을 유지하
     는 것이 좋습니다.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32430(7).)

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 359.과 같은 파이썬 숫자를 C 정수로 변환하는
     함수와, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.처럼 ‘'i'’와 같은 정수 변환 포
     맷 단위로 인자를 구문 분석하는 함수는, 이제 사용할 수 있다면 *note
     __int__(): 715. 대신 *note __index__(): 716. 특수 메서드를 사용합니
     다.  ‘__int__()’ 메서드가 있지만 ‘__index__()’ 메서드가 없는 객체
     (*note Decimal: 29d.과 *note Fraction: 1e7. 같은)에 대해서 폐지 경
     고가 발생합니다.  *note PyNumber_Check(): a63.는 이제
     ‘__index__()’를 구현하는 객체에 대해 ‘1’을 반환합니다.  *note
     PyNumber_Long(): a64, *note PyNumber_Float(): a65. 및 *note
     PyFloat_AsDouble(): a66.은 이제 사용할 수 있으면 ‘__index__()’ 메서
     드를 사용합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048(8)
     and bpo-20092(9).)

   * 힙에 할당된 형 객체는 이제 *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a67.이 아닌
     *note PyObject_Init(): a68.(그리고 이것과 평행한 매크로
     ‘PyObject_INIT’)에서 참조 횟수를 증가시킵니다.  인스턴스 할당이나 할
     당 해제를 수정하는 형은 조정이 필요할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
     Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(10).)

   * 새 함수 ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’는 ‘PyCode_New()’처럼 코드 객
     체를 만들 수 있지만, 위치 전용 인자의 개수를 나타내는
     'posonlyargcount' 매개 변수가 추가로 있습니다.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo in bpo-37221(11).)

   * ‘Py_SetPath()’는 이제 *note sys.executable: 3b2.을 프로그램 이름
     (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.) 대신 프로그램 전체 경로(*note
     Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.)로 설정합니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38234(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지<2>,  Next: API 및 기능 제거,  Prev: 빌드와 C API 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.8 폐지
----------

   * distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ 명령은 이제 폐지되었습니다, 대신
     ‘bdist_wheel’(wheel 패키지)을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-37481(1).)

   * *note ElementTree: 125. 모듈의 폐지된 메서드 ‘getchildren()’과
     ‘getiterator()’는 이제 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 대신
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 발생시킵니다.  이것들은 파이썬
     3.9에서 제거될 것입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29209(2).)

   * *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.의 인스턴스가 아닌
     객체를 *note loop.set_default_executor(): 73c.로 전달하는 것은 폐지
     되었고 파이썬 3.9에서 금지될 것입니다.  (Contributed by Elvis
     Pranskevichus in bpo-34075(3).)

   * *note xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 72e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 72f. 및 *note fileinput.FileInput: 730.의
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드는 폐지되었습니다.

     이 메서드의 구현은 'index' 매개 변수를 무시하고 대신 다음 항목을 반
     환했습니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-9372(4).)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0. 클래스는 ‘_field_types’ 어트리뷰트를
     폐지했고, 같은 정보를 갖는 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트로 대신합니
     다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36320(5).)

   * *note ast: 8. 클래스 ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ 및
     ‘Ellipsis’는 폐지된 것으로 간주하고 향후 파이썬 버전에서 제거될 예
     정입니다.  대신 *note Constant: 2b9.를 사용해야 합니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(6).)

   * *note ast.NodeVisitor: a6a. 메서드 ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’,
     ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ 및 ‘visit_Ellipsis()’는 이
     제 폐지되었으며 향후 파이썬 버전에서는 호출되지 않을 것입니다.  모
     든 상수 노드를 처리하기 위해서는 *note visit_Constant(): a6b. 메서
     드를 추가하십시오.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-36917(7).)

   * ‘asyncio.coroutine()’ *note 데코레이터: 72a.는 폐지되었고 버전
     3.10에서 제거됩니다.  ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ 대신, *note async def:
     5cb.를 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-36921(8).)

   * *note asyncio: a.에서, 다음에 대해 'loop' 인자의 명시적 전달은 폐지
     되었고 버전 3.10에서 제거됩니다: *note asyncio.sleep(): a6c, *note
     asyncio.gather(): 5f7, *note asyncio.shield(): a6d, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9, *note asyncio.wait(): 479, *note
     asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa, *note asyncio.Task: 1be, *note
     asyncio.Lock: a6e, *note asyncio.Event: a6f, *note
     asyncio.Condition: a70, *note asyncio.Semaphore: a71, *note
     asyncio.BoundedSemaphore: a72, *note asyncio.Queue: a73, *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a74. 및 *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a75.

   * 코루틴 객체를 *note asyncio.wait(): 479.에 명시적으로 전달하는 것은
     폐지되었고 버전 3.11에서 제거됩니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-34790(9).)

   * *note gettext: 63. 모듈에서는 다음 함수와 메서드가 폐지되었습니다:
     ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ 및 ‘ldngettext()’.  이들
     은 인코딩된 바이트열을 반환하며, 번역된 문자열에 인코딩 문제가 있을
     때 예기치 않은 유니코드 관련 예외가 발생할 수 있습니다.  파이썬 3에
     서 유니코드 문자열을 반환하는 대안을 사용하는 것이 훨씬 낫습니다.  이
     함수들은 오랫동안 망가져 있었습니다.

     함수 ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’, 메서드 ‘output_charset()’과
     ‘set_output_charset()’, 함수 *note translation(): a76.과 *note
     install(): a77.의 'codeset' 매개 변수도 폐지되었습니다,
     ‘l*gettext()’ 함수에서만 사용되기 때문입니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33710(10).)

   * *note threading.Thread: 94a.의 ‘isAlive()’ 메서드가 폐지되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283(11).)

   * 정수 인자를 받아들이는 많은 내장과 확장 함수는 이제 *note Decimal:
     29d.들, *note Fraction: 1e7.들 및 정수로 변환될 때 손실을 수반하는
     다른 객체들(예를 들어, *note __int__(): 715. 메서드는 있지만 *note
     __index__(): 716. 메서드는 없는 것들)에 대해 폐지 경고를 발생시킵니
     다.  이후 버전에서는 에러가 될 것입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-36048(12).)

   * 다음 인자들을 키워드 인자로 전달하는 것이 폐지되었습니다:

        - *note functools.partialmethod(): a78, *note
          weakref.finalize(): a79, *note profile.Profile.runcall(): a7a,
          ‘cProfile.Profile.runcall()’, *note bdb.Bdb.runcall(): a7b,
          *note trace.Trace.runfunc(): a7c. 및 *note curses.wrapper():
          a7d.의 'func'.

        - *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a7e.의 'function'.

        - *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.과 *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.의 *note submit():
          a7f. 메서드의 'fn'.

        - *note contextlib.ExitStack.callback(): a80,
          ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback()’ 및 *note
          contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback(): a81.의
          'callback'

        - ‘multiprocessing.managers.Server’와
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer’의 ‘create()’ 메
          서드의 'c'와 'typeid'.

        - *note weakref.finalize(): a79.의 'obj'.

     파이썬의 향후 배포에서, 이것들은 *note 위치 전용: a82.이 될 것입니
     다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36492(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492


File: python.info,  Node: API 및 기능 제거,  Next: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기,  Prev: 폐지<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.9 API 및 기능 제거
----------------------

다음 기능과 API는 파이썬 3.8에서 제거되었습니다.:

   * 파이썬 3.3부터, *note collections: 1d.에서 ABC를 임포트 하는 것은 폐
     지되었고, *note collections.abc: 1e.에서 임포트를 수행해야 합니다.
     collections에서 임포트할 수 있는 것은 3.8에서 제거될 것으로 표시되
     었지만 3.9로 지연되었습니다.  (gh-81134(1) 참조)

   * 파이썬 3.7에서 폐지된, ‘macpath’ 모듈이 제거되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35471(2).)

   * 파이썬 3.3부터 폐지된 이후로, ‘platform.popen()’ 함수는 제거되었습
     니다: 대신 *note os.popen(): a84.을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(3).)

   * 파이썬 3.3부터 폐지된 이후로, ‘time.clock()’ 함수는 제거되었습니다:
     잘 정의된 동작을 위해, 요구 사항에 따라 *note time.perf_counter():
     a85.나 *note time.process_time(): a86.을 대신 사용하십시오.
     (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-36895(4).)

   * ‘pyvenv’ 스크립트를 제거하고 ‘python3.8 -m venv’로 대체하여, 어떤 파
     이썬 인터프리터가 ‘pyvenv’ 스크립트와 연결되어 있는지에 대한 혼란을
     없애줍니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25427(5).)

   * ‘cgi’ 모듈에서 ‘parse_qs’, ‘parse_qsl’ 및 ‘escape’가 제거되었습니다
     .  파이썬 3.2 이하에서 폐지되었습니다.  대신 ‘urllib.parse’와
     ‘html’ 모듈에서 임포트 해야 합니다.

   * ‘filemode’ 함수가 *note tarfile: de. 모듈에서 제거되었습니다.  문서
     로 만들어지지 않았고, 파이썬 3.3부터 폐지되었습니다.

   * *note XMLParser: a50. 생성자는 더는 'html' 인자를 받아들이지 않습니
     다.  효과가 있었던 적이 없고 3.4에서 폐지되었습니다.  다른 모든 매
     개 변수는 이제 *note 키워드 전용: 2a5.입니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(6).)

   * *note XMLParser: a50.의 ‘doctype()’ 메서드를 제거했습니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(7).)

   * “unicode_internal” 코덱이 제거되었습니다.  (Contributed by Inada
     Naoki in bpo-36297(8).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf. 모듈의 ‘Cache’와 ‘Statement’ 객체는 사용자에게 노
     출되지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-30262(9).)

   * *note fileinput.input(): 7f9.과 *note fileinput.FileInput(): 730.의
     ‘bufsize’ 키워드 인자는 무시 되었고 파이썬 3.6부터 폐지되었으며, 이
     제 제거되었습니다.  bpo-36952(10) (Contributed by Matthias
     Bussonnier.)

   * 파이썬 3.7에서 폐지된 ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’와
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’ 함수는 제거되었습니다; bpo-36933(11)
     (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기,  Next: 파이썬 3 8 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: API 및 기능 제거,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.10 파이썬 3.8로 이식하기
----------------------------

이 절에서는 여러분의 코드 수정을 요구할 수도 있는 이전에 설명한 변경 사
항과 다른 버그 수정 사항을 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 동작의 변경::
* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
* C API의 변경: C API의 변경<2>.
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<2>.
* 데모와 도구::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 동작의 변경,  Next: 파이썬 API의 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기

1.6.10.1 파이썬 동작의 변경
...........................

   * 일드 표현식(‘yield’와 ‘yield from’ 절 모두)은 이제 컴프리헨션과 제
     너레이터 표현식에서 허용되지 않습니다 (가장 왼쪽 ‘for’ 절의 이터러
     블 표현식 제외).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-10544(1).)

   * 아이덴티티 검사(‘is’와 ‘is not’)가 특정 형의 리터럴(예를 들어, 문자
     열, 숫자)과 함께 사용될 때 컴파일러는 이제 *note SyntaxWarning:
     45f.을 생성합니다.  이들은 종종 CPython에서 우연히 작동할 수 있지만
     , 언어 명세에 의해 보장되지는 않습니다.  이 경고는 사용자가 동등 검
     사(‘==’와 ‘!=’)를 대신 사용하도록 권장합니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34850(2).)

   * CPython 인터프리터는 때에 따라 예외를 삼킬 수 있습니다.  파이썬
     3.8에서는 이런 경우가 덜 발생합니다.  특히, 형 딕셔너리에서 어트리
     뷰트를 가져올 때 발생하는 예외는 더는 무시되지 않습니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-35459(3).)

   * 내장형 *note bool: 461, *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note
     complex: 2f0. 및 표준 라이브러리의 일부 클래스에서 ‘__str__’ 구현을
     제거했습니다.  이제 이들은 *note object: a89.에서 ‘__str__()’을 상
     속합니다.  결과적으로, 이러한 클래스의 서브 클래스에서 ‘__repr__()’
     메서드를 정의하면 문자열 표현에 영향을 줍니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36793(4).)

   * AIX에서, *note sys.platform: a8a.은 더는 주(major) 버전을 포함하지
     않습니다.  ‘'aix3'’ ..  ‘'aix7'’ 대신 항상 ‘'aix'’입니다.  이전 버
     전의 파이썬에서는 버전 번호가 포함되어 있기 때문에, 항상
     ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.
     (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588(5).)

   * ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’과 ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’는 인터프리터가 파
     이널라이즈하는 동안 호출되면 현재 스레드를 종료하여, *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a8b. 및
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.와 일관되게 만듭니다.  이 동작을 원
     하지 않으면, ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’이나 *note sys.is_finalizing():
     a8c.을 확인하여 호출을 보호하십시오.  (Contributed by Joannah
     Nanjekye in bpo-36475(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 API의 변경<2>,  Next: C API의 변경<2>,  Prev: 파이썬 동작의 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기

1.6.10.2 파이썬 API의 변경
..........................

   * *note os.getcwdb(): a8e. 함수는 이제 윈도우에서 ANSI 코드 페이지가
     아닌 UTF-8 인코딩을 사용합니다.  이유는 PEP 529(1)를 참조하십시오.
     이 함수는 윈도우에서 더는 폐지되지 않았습니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-37412(2).)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 199.은 이제 어떤 경우에 더 나은 성능을 위해
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 220.을 사용할 수 있습니다.  리눅스용 윈도우
     하위 시스템과 QEMU 사용자 에뮬레이션에서, *note os.posix_spawn():
     220.을 사용하는 ‘Popen’ 생성자는 더는 “프로그램 누락”과 같은 에러에
     예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.  대신 자식 프로세스는 0이 아닌
     ‘returncode’로 실패합니다.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35537(3).)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 199.의 'preexec_fn' 인자는 더는 서브 인터프
     리터와 호환되지 않습니다.  서브 인터프리터에서 매개 변수를 사용하면
     *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  (Contributed by Eric Snow
     in bpo-34651(4), modified by Christian Heimes in bpo-37951(5).)

   * ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ 메서드는 더는 조용히 임의의 예외를 무시하지 않
     습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36348(6).)

   * 파이썬 3.3부터 폐지된 이후로, ‘platform.popen()’ 함수는 제거되었습
     니다: 대신 *note os.popen(): a84.을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(7).)

   * *note statistics.mode(): a8f. 함수는 다중 모드(multimodal) 데이터가
     주어질 때 더는 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.  대신, 입력 데이터에서 만
     나는 첫 번째 모드를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
     in bpo-35892(8).)

   * *note tkinter.ttk.Treeview: a90. 클래스의 *note selection(): a91. 메
     서드는 더는 인자를 받아들이지 않습니다.  선택을 변경하기 위해 인자
     와 함께 사용하는 것은 파이썬 3.6에서 폐지되었습니다.  선택을 변경하
     려면 *note selection_set(): a92.과 같은 특화된 메서드를 사용하십시
     오.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31508(9).)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. 모듈의 ‘writexml()’, ‘toxml()’ 및
     ‘toprettyxml()’ 메서드와 ‘xml.etree’의 ‘write()’ 메서드는 이제 사용
     자가 지정한 어트리뷰트 순서를 보존합니다.  (Contributed by Diego
     Rojas and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-34160(10).)

   * 플래그 ‘'r'’로 열린 *note dbm.dumb: 32. 데이터베이스는 이제 읽기 전
     용입니다.  ‘'r'’과 ‘'w'’ 플래그로 *note dbm.dumb.open(): a93.하면 더
     는 데이터베이스가 없을 때 만들지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-32749(11).)

   * *note XMLParser: a50.의 서브 클래스에 정의된 ‘doctype()’ 메서드는 더
     는 호출되지 않으며 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 대신 *note
     RuntimeWarning: 1bd.을 방출합니다.  XML doctype 선언을 처리하려면 대
     상에 *note doctype(): a94. 메서드를 정의하십시오.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(12).)

   * 사용자 지정 메타 클래스가 ‘type.__new__’에 전달된 이름 공간에
     ‘__classcell__’ 항목을 제공하지 않으면 이제 *note RuntimeError:
     195.가 발생합니다.  파이썬 3.6–3.7에서는 *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.이 방출되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23722(13).)

   * ‘cProfile.Profile’ 클래스는 이제 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니
     다.  (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(14).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): a55, *note shutil.copy(): a56, *note
     shutil.copy2(): a57, *note shutil.copytree(): a25. 및 *note
     shutil.move(): a58.는 플랫폼 특정 “고속 복사(fast-copy)” 시스템 호
     출을 사용합니다 (*note 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산: a5a. 절을
     참조하십시오).

   * 윈도우에서 *note shutil.copyfile(): a55. 기본 버퍼 크기가 16 KiB에
     서 1 MiB로 변경되었습니다.

   * ‘PyGC_Head’ 구조체가 완전히 변경되었습니다.  구조체 멤버를 건드리는
     모든 코드는 다시 작성해야 합니다.  (bpo-33597(15) 참조.)

   * *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. 구조체는 “내부” 헤더 파일(구체적으로
     Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h)로 이동했습니다.  불투명한
     ‘PyInterpreterState’는 공용 API(와 안정 ABI)의 일부로 계속 사용할 수
     있습니다.  설명서는 구조체의 필드가 공용이 아니라고 말하고 있으니,
     아무도 해당 필드를 사용하지 않기를 바랍니다.  그러나, 하나 이상의 내
     부 필드에 의지하고 대안이 없으면 BPO 이슈를 여십시오.  조정을 돕기
     위해 노력할 것입니다 (공용 API에 접근 함수를 추가하는 것도 가능합니
     다).  (bpo-35886(16)을 참조하십시오.)

   * *note mmap.flush(): a95. 메서드는 이제 모든 플랫폼에서 성공 시
     ‘None’을 반환하고 에러 시 예외를 발생시킵니다.  이전에는, 그 동작이
     플랫폼에 따라 달랐습니다: 윈도우에서 성공 시 0이 아닌 값이 반환되었
     습니다; 에러 시 0이 반환되었습니다.  유닉스에서 성공 시 0 값이 반환
     되었습니다; 에러 시 예외가 발생했습니다.  (Contributed by Berker
     Peksag in bpo-2122(17).)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.과 *note xml.sax: 129. 모듈은 기본적으로
     더는 외부 엔티티를 처리하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-17239(18).)

   * 읽기 전용 *note dbm: 31. 데이터베이스(*note dbm.dumb: 32, *note
     dbm.gnu: 33. 또는 *note dbm.ndbm: 34.)에서 키를 삭제하면 *note
     KeyError: 33d. 대신 ‘error’(*note dbm.dumb.error: a96, *note
     dbm.gnu.error: a97. 또는 *note dbm.ndbm.error: a98.)를 발생시킵니다
     .  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-33106(19).)

   * 리터럴을 위해 단순화된 AST. 모든 상수는 *note ast.Constant: 2b9. 인
     스턴스로 표시됩니다.  이전 클래스 ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’,
     ‘NameConstant’ 및 ‘Ellipsis’를 인스턴스 화하면 ‘Constant’ 인스턴스
     가 반환됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(20).)

   * 윈도우에서 *note expanduser(): a10.는 이제 ‘USERPROFILE’ 환경 변수
     를 선호하며 일반적으로 일반 사용자 계정에 설정되지 않는 ‘HOME’을 사
     용하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
     bpo-36264(21).)

   * *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. 예외는 이제 *note Exception:
     9d6.이 아닌 *note BaseException: 5b5.을 상속하고, 더는 *note
     concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 9d7.를 상속하지 않습니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(22).)

   * *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. 함수는 이제 *note asyncio.Task: 1be.
     인스턴스를 사용할 때 취소를 올바르게 기다립니다.  이전에는,
     'timeout'에 도달하면 취소되어 즉시 반환되었습니다.  (Contributed by
     Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751(23).)

   * *note asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): a99. 함수는 이제
     ‘socket’이 'name' 매개 변수로 전달될 때 안전하게 사용할 수 있는 소
     켓 객체를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-37027(24).)

   * *note asyncio.BufferedProtocol: a9a.는 졸업해서 안정 API가 되었습니
     다.

   * 윈도우에서 *note ctypes: 2a.로 로드된 확장 모듈과 DLL에 대한 DLL 종
     속성이 이제 더 안전하게 처리됩니다.  시스템 경로, DLL이나 PYD 파일
     이 들어 있는 디렉터리 및 *note add_dll_directory(): 9e6.로 추가된 디
     렉터리만 로드 시간 종속성을 위해 검색합니다.  특히, ‘PATH’와 현재 작
     업 디렉터리는 더는 사용되지 않으며, 이러한 것들에 대한 수정은 더는
     일반 DLL 결정(resolution)에 영향을 주지 않습니다.  여러분의 응용 프
     로그램이 이러한 메커니즘에 의존한다면, *note add_dll_directory():
     9e6.가 있는지 확인하고, 있다면 이를 사용하여 라이브러리를 로드하는
     동안 DLL 디렉터리를 추가하십시오.  윈도우 7 사용자는 윈도우 업데이
     트 KB2533623이 설치되었는지 확인해야 합니다 (이는 설치 프로그램에서
     도 확인합니다).  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(25).)

   * pgen과 관련된 헤더 파일과 함수는 순수 파이썬 구현으로 대체 된 후에
     제거되었습니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36623(26).)

   * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.은 PEP 570(27)에 정의된 위치 전용 인자를
     지원하기 위해 생성자의 두 번째 위치에 새 매개 변수
     ('posonlyargcount')를 갖습니다.  첫 번째 인자('argcount')는 이제 위
     치 인자의 총수(위치 전용 인자 포함)를 나타냅니다.  *note
     types.CodeType: 2e1.의 새로운 ‘replace()’ 메서드를 사용하면 코드가
     미래에도 안전하게 만들 수 있습니다.

   * The parameter ‘digestmod’ for *note hmac.new(): a9c. no longer uses
     the MD5 digest by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/


File: python.info,  Node: C API의 변경<2>,  Next: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<2>,  Prev: 파이썬 API의 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기

1.6.10.3 C API의 변경
.....................

   * *note PyCompilerFlags: a9e. 구조체에 새로운 'cf_feature_version' 필
     드가 생겼습니다.  ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’으로 초기화해야합니다.  이 필드
     는 기본적으로 무시되며, ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ 플래그가 'cf_flags'에 설정
     되었을 때, 또 그때만 사용됩니다.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum
     in bpo-35766(1).)

   * ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ 함수가 C API에서 제거되었습니다.  명시적으
     로 호출하면 안 됩니다: 대신 *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5.를 사
     용하십시오.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36728(2).)

   * 유닉스에서, C 확장은 더는 안드로이드와 Cygwin을 제외하고는
     libpython에 링크되지 않습니다.  파이썬이 내장될 때, ‘libpython’은
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’이 아니라 ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’로 로드되어야 합니다.  이전에는,
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’을 사용하여, ‘Modules/Setup’의 ‘*shared*’ 섹션에 의해 빌
     드된 표준 라이브러리의 C 확장과 같이 ‘libpython’에 링크되지 않은 C
     확장을 로드할 수 없었습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21536(3).)

   * ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’이 정의되지 않은 상태에서 값을 구문 분석하거나 빌
     드할 때(예를 들어, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c, *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 8a4, *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 398. 등) 포맷
     의 ‘#’ 변형을 사용하면 ‘DeprecationWarning’이 발생합니다.  3.10이나
     4.0에서 제거됩니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축:
     8a5.를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36381(4).)

   * 힙에 할당된 형(가령 *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578.으로 만들어진 것들
     )의 인스턴스는 해당 형 객체에 대한 참조를 보유합니다.  이러한 형 객
     체의 참조 횟수를 늘리는 것이 *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a67.에서
     더 저수준 함수 *note PyObject_Init(): a68.와 ‘PyObject_INIT()’로 옮
     겨졌습니다.  이렇게 하면 *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578.을 통해 만들
     어진 형이, 관리되는 코드의 다른 클래스처럼 작동합니다.

     *note 정적으로 할당된 형: 778.은 영향을 받지 않습니다.

     대다수의 경우, 부작용이 없어야 합니다.  그러나, 인스턴스를 할당한 후
     수동으로 참조 횟수를 늘리는 형(아마도 버그를 회피하기 위해)이 이제
     불멸이 될 수 있습니다.  이를 피하고자, 이런 클래스는 인스턴스 할당
     해제 중에 형 객체에 Py_DECREF를 호출할 필요가 있습니다.

     이러한 형들을 3.8로 올바르게 이식하려면, 다음 변경 사항을 적용하십
     시오:

        * 인스턴스를 할당한 후 형 객체에 대한 *note Py_INCREF: 569.를 제
          거하십시오 - 있다면.  이것은 *note PyObject_New: 982, *note
          PyObject_NewVar: 983, *note PyObject_GC_New(): a9f, *note
          PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa0. 또는 *note PyObject_Init(): a68.나
          ‘PyObject_INIT()’를 사용하는 다른 사용자 정의 할당자를 호출한
          후에 발생할 수 있습니다.

          예:

               static foo_struct *
               foo_new(PyObject *type) {
                   foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type);
                   if (foo == NULL)
                       return NULL;
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
                   // 파이썬 이슈 35810에 대한 해결 방법; 파이썬 3.8에서는 더는 필요 없습니다
                   PY_INCREF(type)
               #endif
                   return foo;
               }

        * 힙에 할당되는 형의 모든 사용자 정의 ‘tp_dealloc’ 함수가 형의 참
          조 횟수를 감소시키도록 하십시오.

          예:

               static void
               foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) {
                   PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance);
                   PyObject_GC_Del(instance);
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
                   // 파이썬 3.8 이전에서는 필요하지 않았습니다 (파이썬 이슈 35810)
                   Py_DECREF(type);
               #endif
               }

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(5).)

   * *note Py_DEPRECATED(): aa1. 매크로는 MSVC 용으로 구현되었습니다.  매
     크로는 이제 기호 이름 앞에 놓여야 합니다.

     예:

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-33407(6).)

   * 인터프리터는 더는 기능 배포에서 확장형의 바이너리 호환성을 지원하지
     않습니다.  제삼자 확장 모듈에서 내보낸 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.는
     *note tp_finalize: aa3. (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ec.는
     *note tp_finalize: aa3.를 읽기 전에 더는 확인되지 않습니다)를 포함
     하여 현재 파이썬 버전이 기대하는 모든 슬롯을 가지고 있다고 가정합니
     다.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32388(7).)

   * 함수 ‘PyNode_AddChild()’와 ‘PyParser_AddToken()’는 이제 두 개의 추
     가 ‘int’ 인자 'end_lineno'와 'end_col_offset'을 받아들입니다.

   * MinGW 도구가 ‘python38.dll’에 대해 직접 링크할 수 있도록 허용하는
     ‘libpython38.a’ 파일은 더는 일반 윈도우 배포에 포함되지 않습니다.  이
     파일이 필요하면, MinGW binutils 패키지의 일부인 ‘gendef’와
     ‘dlltool’ 도구로 생성할 수 있습니다:

          gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def
          dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a

     설치된 ‘pythonXY.dll’의 위치는 윈도우의 설치 옵션과 버전 및 언어에
     따라 다릅니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기:
     aa4.를 참조하십시오.  결과 라이브러리는 ‘pythonXY.lib’(일반적으로 파
     이썬 설치 환경의 ‘libs’ 디렉터리입니다)와 같은 디렉터리에 위치해야
     합니다.

     (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37351(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<2>,  Next: 데모와 도구,  Prev: C API의 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기

1.6.10.4 CPython 바이트 코드 변경
.................................

   * 인터프리터 루프는 블록 스택을 언 롤링하는 로직을 컴파일러로 이동시
     킴으로써 단순화되었습니다.  컴파일러는 이제 값 스택을 조정하고
     *note break: aa6, *note continue: 9c6. 및 *note return: 9cb.에 대한
     정리 코드를 호출하는 명시적인 명령을 출력합니다.

     옵코드 ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ 및
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’를 제거했습니다.  새로운 옵코드 ‘ROT_FOUR’,
     ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’, ‘CALL_FINALLY’ 및 ‘POP_FINALLY’가 추가되었습니다.
     ‘END_FINALLY’와 ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’의 동작이 변경되었습니다.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon, Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-17611(1).)

   * *note async for: aa7. 루프에서 다음 항목을 await 할 때 발생하는 예
     외를 처리하기 위한 새로운 옵코드 *note END_ASYNC_FOR: aa8.가 추가되
     었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33041(2).)

   * *note MAP_ADD: aa9.는 이제 값을 스택의 첫 번째 요소로, 키를 두 번째
     요소로 기대합니다.  이 변경은 PEP 572(3)의 제안에 따라, 딕셔너리 컴
     프리헨션에서 키가 값보다 항상 먼저 평가되도록 하기 위해 만들어졌습
     니다.  (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: 데모와 도구,  Prev: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기

1.6.10.5 데모와 도구
....................

변수를 액세스하는 다양한 방법의 시간을 측정하기 위한 벤치마크 스크립트를
추가했습니다: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35884(1).)

다음은 파이썬 3.3 이후의 성능 향상에 대한 요약입니다:

     Python version                       3.3     3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---     ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       4.0     7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9
         read_nonlocal                    5.3     7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4
         read_global                     13.3    15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6
         read_builtin                    20.0    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5
         read_classvar_from_class        20.5    25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4
         read_classvar_from_instance     18.5    22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4
         read_instancevar                26.8    32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4
         read_instancevar_slots          23.7    27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2
         read_namedtuple                 68.5    73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4
         read_boundmethod                29.8    37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      4.6     8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3
         write_nonlocal                   7.3    10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7
         write_global                    15.9    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8
         write_classvar                  81.9    92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2
         write_instancevar               36.4    44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5
         write_instancevar_slots         28.7    35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       19.2    24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0
         read_deque                      19.9    24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8
         read_dict                       19.7    24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0
         read_strdict                    17.9    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      21.2    27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0
         write_deque                     23.8    28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5
         write_dict                      25.9    31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7
         write_strdict                   22.9    28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                144.2    93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8
         deque_append_pop                30.4    43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5
         deque_append_popleft            30.8    43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.3     0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3

벤치마크는 python.org(2)에서 찾을 수 있는 macOS 64비트 빌드를 실행하는
Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(3)에서 측정되었습니다.  벤치마크 스크립
트는 타이밍을 나노초로 표시합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/

   (3) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 8 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 8 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 8로 이식하기,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.11 파이썬 3.8.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

심각한 보안 문제로 인해, *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint():
72c.의 'reuse_address' 매개 변수는 더는 지원되지 않습니다.  이것은 UDP에
서 소켓 옵션 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’의 동작 때문입니다.  자세한 내용은
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’ 설명서를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed
by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 8 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 8 3의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 8 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 8의 새로운 기능

1.6.12 파이썬 3.8.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of *note
shutil.copytree(): a25.  The argument types are now str and List[str]
again.  (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in
gh-83571(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571


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1.6.13 파이썬 3.8.3의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module
are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags.
Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743


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1.6.14 파이썬 3.8.8의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

이전 파이썬 버전에서는 *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27a.와 *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279.에서 쿼리 매개 변수 구분자로 ‘;’과 ‘&’를 모
두 사용할 수 있었습니다.  보안 문제와 최신 W3C 권장 사항을 준수하기 위해
, ‘&’가 기본값인 단일 구분자 키만 허용하도록 변경되었습니다.  이 변경 사
항은 영향을 받는 함수를 내부적으로 사용하므로 ‘cgi.parse()’와
‘cgi.parse_multipart()’에도 영향을 줍니다.  자세한 내용은 해당 설명서를
참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken
Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


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1.6.15 파이썬 3.8.9의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


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1.6.16 파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.


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1.6.16.1 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
...........................................................

As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big
Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture).  A
new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively
support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables.  Note
that support for “weaklinking”, building binaries targeted for newer
versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by
testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this
backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue
to target for and build on the oldest version in the range.

(Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in
gh-85272(1), with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to
3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272


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1.6.17 파이썬 3.8.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.


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1.6.17.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
bpo-43882(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882


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1.6.18 파이썬 3.8.12의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<3>.


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1.6.18.1 파이썬 API의 변경
..........................

Starting with Python 3.8.12 the *note ipaddress: 80. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are
ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For
example the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 95f. treats
leading zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
inet_pton(): 960. does not accept any leading zeros.

(Originally contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(1), and
backported to 3.8 by Achraf Merzouki.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


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1.6.19 3.8.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능
------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 257. and *note str: 445. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


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1.6.20 3.8.17의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<6>,  Up: 3 8 17의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.6.20.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 466. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


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1.7 파이썬 3.7의 새로운 기능
============================


편집자: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>

이 기사에서는 파이썬 3.6과 비교하여 3.7의 새로운 기능에 관해 설명합니다.
파이썬 3.7은 2018년 6월 27일에 배포되었습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
changelog: 13c. 를 참조하세요.

* Menu:

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<3>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<4>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<3>.
* 새 모듈: 새 모듈<3>.
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<3>.
* C API 변경: C API 변경<2>.
* 빌드 변경: 빌드 변경<2>.
* 최적화: 최적화<3>.
* 기타 CPython 구현 변경::
* 폐지된 파이썬 동작::
* 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드.
* 폐지된 C API의 함수 및 형::
* 플랫폼 지원 제거::
* API 및 기능 제거: API 및 기능 제거<2>.
* 모듈 제거::
* 윈도우 전용 변경::
* 파이썬 3.7로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.7.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.6의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 6의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.11의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 7 11의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.7.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능: 파이썬 3 7 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.


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1.7.1 요약 – 배포 주요 사항
---------------------------

새로운 문법 기능:

   * *note PEP 563: abc, 형 어노테이션의 지연된 평가.

이전 버전과 호환되지 않는 문법 변경:

   * *note async: 72b.와 *note await: 1b9. 는 이제 예약 키워드입니다.

새 라이브러리 모듈:

   * *note contextvars: 24.: *note PEP 567 – 컨텍스트 변수: abd.

   * *note dataclasses: 2f.: *note PEP 557 – 데이터 클래스: abe.

   * *note importlib.resources: abf.

새로운 내장 기능:

   * *note PEP 553: ac0, 새로운 *note breakpoint(): 234. 함수.

파이썬 데이터 모델 개선:

   * *note PEP 562: ac1, 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스의 사용자 정의.

   * *note PEP 560: ac2, typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원.

   * *note dict: ac3. 객체의 삽입 순서 보존 특성을 파이썬 언어 규격의 공
     식적인 일부로 선언했습니다(1).

표준 라이브러리의 현저한 개선:

   * *note asyncio: a. 모듈에 새 기능과 현저한 *note 사용성 및 성능
     개선: ac4. 이 추가되었습니다.

   * *note time: ee. 모듈은 *note 나노초 해상도의 함수: ac5. 지원을 얻었
     습니다.

CPython 구현 개선:

   * ASCII를 기본 텍스트 인코딩으로 사용하지 않기:

        * *note PEP 538: ac6, 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경

        * *note PEP 540: ac7, 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드

   * *note PEP 552: ac8, 결정적 .pycs

   * *note 새로운 파이썬 개발 모드: ac9.

   * *note PEP 565: aca, 개선된 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 처리

C API 개선 사항:

   * *note PEP 539: acb, 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API

설명서 개선 사항:

   * *note PEP 545: acc, 파이썬 설명서 번역

   * 새로운 설명서 번역: 일본어(2), 프랑스어(3), 한국어(4).

이 배포는 많은 영역에서 주목할만한 성능 향상을 제공합니다.  *note
최적화: acd. 섹션에 자세히 나와 있습니다.

이전 파이썬 배포와의 호환성에 영향을 줄 수 있는 변경 사항 목록은 *note
파이썬 3.7로 이식하기: ace. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ja/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/fr/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/


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1.7.2 새로운 기능
-----------------

* Menu:

* PEP 563 ; 어노테이션의 지연된 평가: PEP 563 어노테이션의 지연된 평가.
* PEP 538; 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경: PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
* PEP 540; 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드: PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
* PEP 553; 내장 breakpoint(): PEP 553 내장 breakpoint.
* PEP 539; 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API: PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API.
* PEP 562; 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의: PEP 562 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의.
* PEP 564; 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수: PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수.
* PEP 565; __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시: PEP 565 __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시.
* PEP 560; typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원: PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원.
* PEP 552; 해시 기반 .pyc 파일: PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일.
* PEP 545; 파이썬 설명서 번역: PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역.
* 파이썬 개발 모드 (-X dev): 파이썬 개발 모드 -X dev.


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1.7.2.1 PEP 563 : 어노테이션의 지연된 평가
..........................................

파이썬에서 형 힌트의 출현은 PEP 3107(1)에서 추가되고 PEP 526(2)에서 더욱
다듬어진 어노테이션의 두 가지 사용성 문제를 드러냈습니다:

   * 어노테이션은 현재 스코프에서 이미 사용 가능한 이름 만 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  즉, 어떤 종류의 전방 참조도 지원하지 않았습니다; 그리고

   * 소스 코드에 어노테이션을 붙이는 것은 파이썬 프로그램의 시작 시간에
     악영향을 미쳤습니다.

이 두 가지 문제는 어노테이션 평가를 지연시키는 것으로 해결됩니다.  정의
시간에 어노테이션의 표현식을 실행하는 코드를 컴파일하는 대신, 컴파일러는
해당 표현식의 AST와 동등한 문자열 형식으로 어노테이션을 저장합니다.  필
요하다면, 실행시간에 *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. 를 사용하여 어
노테이션을 해석 할 수 있습니다.  이것이 필수적이지 않은 일반적인 경우에
는, 어노테이션을 싸게 저장할 수 있고 (짧은 문자열은 인터프리터에 의해 한
번만 만들어지기 때문입니다), 시작 시간을 더 빠르게 할 수 있습니다.

사용성 측면에서, 이제 어노테이션이 전방 참조를 지원하므로 다음 문법이 유
효합니다:

     class C:
         @classmethod
         def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
             ...

         def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
             ...

     class B:
         ...

이 변경으로 인해 호환성이 깨지기 때문에, 파이썬 3.7에서 새 동작은 *note
__future__: 0. 임포트를 사용하여 모듈별로 새로운 동작을 활성화해야 합니
다:

     from __future__ import annotations

파이썬 3.10에서는 기본값이 됩니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 563(3) – 어노테이션의 지연된 평가

     Łukasz Langa가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경,  Next: PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드,  Prev: PEP 563 어노테이션의 지연된 평가,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.2 PEP 538: 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경
..........................................

파이썬 3시리즈에서 진행 중인 과제는, 윈도우 이외의 플랫폼에서 기본 C 또
는 POSIX 로케일 사용으로 인해 묵시적으로 가정되는 “7-비트 ASCII” 텍스트
인코딩을 처리하기 위한 적절한 기본 전략을 결정하는 것입니다.

새 *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ad2. 환경 변수의 설명서에 설명되어있듯이,
PEP 538(1) 은 기본 인터프리터 명령행 인터페이스를 갱신하여, 사용 가능한
UTF-8 기반 로케일로 자동으로 강제 변경합니다.  이런 식으로 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 을
자동 설정하는 것은, 핵심 인터프리터와 로케일을 인식하는 C 확장 (가령
*note readline: ba.) 모두 기본 텍스트 인코딩으로 ASCII 대신 UTF-8을 가정
하게 된다는 뜻입니다.

PEP 11(2) 의 플랫폼 지원 정의 역시 전체 텍스트 처리 지원을 적절히 구성된
비 ASCII 기반 로케일로 제한하도록 갱신되었습니다.

이 변경의 일부로, 이제 정의된 강제 변경 대상 로케일(현재 ‘C.UTF-8’,
‘C.utf8’, ‘UTF-8’)을 사용할 때, *note stdin: 537. 과 *note stdout: ad3.
의 기본 에러 처리기는 (‘strict’ 대신) ‘surrogateescape’ 입니다.  *note
stderr: 937. 의 기본 에러 처리기는 로케일에 관계없이 계속
‘backslashreplace’ 입니다.

로케일 강제 변경은 기본적으로 조용히 일어나지만, 로케일 관련 통합 문제를
디버깅하는 데 도움을 주기 위해 ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’ 를 설정해서
(*note stderr: 937. 로 직접 출력되는) 명시적 경고를 요청할 수 있습니다.
또한, 이 설정은 핵심 인터프리터가 초기화될 때 레거시 C 로케일이 활성 상
태로 남아 있으면 파이썬 런타임이 경고를 하도록 만듭니다.

PEP 538(3) 의 로케일 강제 변환이 (비 파이썬 응용 프로그램과 이전 버전의
파이썬을 실행하는 경우를 포함하는) 자식 프로세스뿐만 아니라 (GNU
‘readline’ 같은) 확장 모듈에도 영향을 주는 장점이 있지만, 실행 중인 시스
템에 적절한 대상 로케일이 있어야 한다는 단점이 있습니다.  적절한 대상 로
케일을 사용할 수 없는 경우(예를 들어, RHEL/CentOS 7에서 발생하듯이)를 더
잘 처리하기 위해, 파이썬 3.7은 *note PEP 540; 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드:
ac7. 또한 구현합니다.

더 보기
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PEP 538(4) – 레거시 C 로케일을 UTF-8 기반 로케일로 강제 변경

     Nick Coghlan 이 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드,  Next: PEP 553 내장 breakpoint,  Prev: PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.3 PEP 540: 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드
.........................................

새로운 *note -X: 176. ‘utf8’ 명령행 옵션과 *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5. 환경 변
수를 사용하여 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 활성화할 수 있습니다.

UTF-8 모드에서, CPython은 로케일 설정을 무시하고 기본적으로 UTF-8 인코딩
을 사용합니다.  *note sys.stdin: 537. 과 *note sys.stdout: ad3. 스트림의
에러 처리기는 ‘surrogateescape’ 로 설정됩니다.

강제 UTF-8 모드는 임베디드 응용 프로그램의 로케일 설정을 변경하지 않고 임
베디드 파이썬 인터프리터의 텍스트 처리 동작을 변경하는 데 사용할 수 있습
니다.

PEP 540(1) 의 UTF-8 모드는 실행 중인 시스템에서 사용할 수 있는 로케일에
관계없이 작동하는 이점이 있지만, (GNU ‘readline’ 과 같은) 확장 모듈, 비
파이썬 응용 프로그램을 실행하는 자식 프로세스, 이전 버전의 파이썬을 실행
하는 자식 프로세스에 영향을 주지 못하는 단점이 있습니다.  이러한 구성 요
소와 통신 할 때 텍스트 데이터가 손상될 위험을 줄이기 위해 파이썬 3.7은
*note PEP 540; 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드: ac7. 또한 구현합니다.

UTF-8 모드는 로케일이 ‘C’ 또는 ‘POSIX’ 이고, PEP 538(2) 로케일 강제 변환
이 UTF-8 기반 대안으로의 변경에 실패할 때 (그 실패가
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0’ 설정 때문이든, ‘LC_ALL’ 설정 때문이든, 적절한 대
상 로케일이 없기 때문이든 무관하게) 기본적으로 활성화됩니다.

더 보기
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PEP 540(3) – 새로운 UTF-8 모드 추가

     Victor Stinner가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 553 내장 breakpoint,  Next: PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API,  Prev: PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.4 PEP 553: 내장 ‘breakpoint()’
....................................

파이썬 3.7에는 파이썬 디버거에 진입하는 쉽고 일관된 방식을 제공하는 새로
운 내장 *note breakpoint(): 234. 함수가 포함되어 있습니다.

내장 ‘breakpoint()’ 는 *note sys.breakpointhook(): ad7. 을 호출합니다.  기
본적으로, 후자는 *note pdb: a5.를 임포트 한 다음 ‘pdb.set_trace()’ 를 호
출합니다.  하지만, ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ 을 여러분이 선택한 함수에 연결
하면, ‘breakpoint()’ 는 임의의 디버거에 진입할 수 있습니다.  또한, 환경
변수 *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ad8. 를 여러분이 선택한 디버거의 콜러블로 설
정할 수 있습니다.  내장 ‘breakpoint()’ 를 완전히 비활성화하려면
‘PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0’ 를 설정하십시오.

더 보기
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PEP 553(1) – 내장 breakpoint()

     Barry Warsaw가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API,  Next: PEP 562 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의,  Prev: PEP 553 내장 breakpoint,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.5 PEP 539: 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API
.......................................................

파이썬은 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원을 위한 C API를 제공하지만; 기존 *note
스레드 로컬 저장소 (TLS) API: ada. 는 모든 플랫폼에서 TLS 키로 int를 사
용합니다.  이것은 공식적으로 지원되는 플랫폼에서는 일반적으로 문제가 되
지 않지만, POSIX를 준수하지도 실용적인 의미에서 이식성이 있지도 않습니다
.

PEP 539(1) 는 CPython에 새로운 *note 스레드 특정 저장소 (TSS) API: adb.
를 제공해서 이를 변경하는데, CPython 인터프리터 내에서 기존 TLS API의 사
용을 대체하는 동시에 기존 API를 폐지합니다.  TSS API는 TSS 키를 나타내는
데 int 대신 *note Py_tss_t: adc.라는 새로운 형을 사용합니다.  이 형은 하
부 TLS 구현에 따라 달라질 수 있는 불투명 한 형입니다.  그래서 네이티브
TLS 키가 int로 안전하게 캐스팅될 수 없는 방식으로 정의된 플랫폼에서
CPython을 빌드 할 수 있게 합니다.

네이티브 TLS 키가 int로 안전하게 캐스팅될 수 없는 방식으로 정의된 플랫폼
에서는, 기존 TLS API의 모든 함수는 작동하지 않고 즉시 실패를 반환합니다.
이는 이전 API가 신뢰성 있게 사용될 수 없는 플랫폼에서 지원되지 않으며, 이
러한 지원을 추가하기 위한 노력이 없을 것을 분명하게 나타냅니다.

더 보기
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PEP 539(2) – CPython의 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C-API

     Erik M. Bray가 작성하고 Masayuki Yamamoto가 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 562 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의,  Next: PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수,  Prev: PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.6 PEP 562: 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의
..........................................................

파이썬 3.7은 모듈에, 발견되지 않는 어트리뷰트마다 호출되는
‘__getattr__()’ 을 정의할 수 있도록 합니다.  이제 모듈에 ‘__dir__()’ 도
정의할 수 있게 되었습니다.

이것이 유용한 전형적인 예는 모듈 어트리뷰트 폐지와 지연 로딩입니다.

더 보기
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PEP 562(1) – 모듈 ‘__getattr__’ 과 ‘__dir__’

     Ivan Levkivskyi가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수,  Next: PEP 565 __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시,  Prev: PEP 562 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.7 PEP 564: 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수
.................................................

현대 시스템의 시계 해상도는 *note time.time(): 254. 함수와 그 변형이 반
환하는 부동 소수점 숫자의 제한된 정밀도를 초과 할 수 있습니다.  PEP
564(1) 는 기존 타이머 함수의 새로운 “나노 초” 변형을 *note time: ee. 모
듈에 추가합니다:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): adf.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): ae0.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): ae1.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): ae2.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): ae3.

   * *note time.time_ns(): ae4.

새로운 함수는 나노초의 수를 정숫값으로 반환합니다.

측정(2)에 의하면 리눅스와 윈도우에서 *note time.time_ns(): ae4. 의 해상
도는 *note time.time(): 254. 보다 약 3배 정밀합니다.

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PEP 564(3) – 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수 추가

     Victor Stinner가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 565 __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시,  Next: PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원,  Prev: PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.8 PEP 565: ‘__main__’ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시
......................................................

*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 의 기본 처리 방식이 변경되어, 이러한 경고
가 다시 한번 기본적으로 표시됩니다.  하지만, 이를 발생시킨 코드가 *note
__main__: 1. 모듈에서 직접 실행될 때만 표시됩니다.  결과적으로, 단일 파
일 스크립트 개발자와 파이썬을 대화식으로 사용하는 개발자는 사용하는 API에
대한 폐지 경고를 다시 보게 되지만, 임포트되는 응용 프로그램, 라이브러리,
프레임웍 모듈에서 발생하는 폐지 경고는 계속 기본적으로 숨겨집니다.

이 변경으로 인해, 이제 표준 라이브러리는 개발자가 세 가지 다른 폐지 경고
동작 중 하나를 선택할 수 있도록 합니다:

   * *note FutureWarning: 40f.: 기본적으로 항상 표시됩니다.  응용 프로그
     램 최종 사용자를 대상으로 하는 경고로 권장됩니다 (예, 폐지된 응용 프
     로그램 구성 설정).

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.: 기본적으로 *note __main__: 1. 과 테
     스트 실행 시에 표시됩니다.  버전 업그레이드가 동작 변경이나 에러를
     일으킬 수 있어서, 다른 파이썬 개발자를 대상으로 하는 경고로 권장됩
     니다.

   * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5.: 기본적으로 테스트 실행 시에
     만 표시됩니다.  향후 버전 업그레이드가 경고 범주를 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 이나 *note FutureWarning: 40f.으로 변경하
     게 될 경우를 위한 것입니다.

이전에는 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 과 *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 둘 다 테스트를 실행할 때만 볼 수 있었습
니다.  주로 단일 파일 스크립트를 작성하거나 대화식으로 파이썬을 사용하는
개발자는 사용된 API가 호환되지 않는 방식으로 변경된 것을 보고 놀랄 수 있
었습니다.

더 보기
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PEP 565(1) – ‘__main__’ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시

     Nick Coghlan이 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원,  Next: PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일,  Prev: PEP 565 __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.9 PEP 560: ‘typing’ 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원
...........................................................

처음에는 PEP 484(1) 가 핵심 CPython 인터프리터의 '어떤' 변경도 도입하지
않도록 설계되었습니다.  이제 형 힌트와 *note typing: 104. 모듈이 커뮤니
티에서 광범위하게 사용되므로, 이 제한이 제거됩니다.  PEP는 두 개의 특수
메서드 ‘__class_getitem__()’ 과 ‘__mro_entries__’ 를 소개합니다.  이 메
서드는 이제 *note typing: 104. 에 있는 대부분 클래스와 특수 구조물에서 사
용됩니다.  그 결과로, 형과 관련된 여러 연산의 속도가 최대 7배까지 증가했
고, 제네릭 형은 메타 클래스 충돌 없이 사용할 수 있으며, *note typing:
104. 모듈의 몇 가지 오랜 버그가 해결되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 560(2) – typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원

     Ivan Levkivskyi가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일,  Next: PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역,  Prev: PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.10 PEP 552: 해시 기반 .pyc 파일
.....................................

파이썬은 전통적으로 바이트 코드 캐시 파일(즉, ‘.pyc’ 파일)의 최신성을 검
사하기 위해, 소스 메타 데이터(최종 수정 타임스탬프와 크기)를 캐시 파일이
만들어질 때 헤더에 저장된 소스 메타 데이터와 비교했습니다.  효과적이지만
, 이 무효화 방법에는 단점이 있습니다.  파일 시스템 타임스탬프가 너무 거
친 경우, 파이썬은 소스 변경을 놓칠 수 있어 사용자 혼란을 낳을 수 있습니
다.  또한, 캐시 파일에 타임스탬프를 갖는 것은 빌드 재현성(1) 과 콘텐츠 기
반 빌드 시스템에서 문제가 됩니다.

PEP 552(2) 는 소스 타임스탬프 대신 소스 파일의 해시가 소스 타임스탬프 대
신 무효화에 사용될 수 있도록 pyc 형식을 확장합니다.  이러한 ‘.pyc’ 파일
을 “해시 기반”이라고 합니다.  기본적으로, 파이썬은 여전히 타임스탬프 기
반 무효화를 사용하며 실행 시간에 해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 생성하지 않습니
다.  해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일은 *note py_compile: b3. 또는 *note
compileall: 20.로 만들 수 있습니다.

해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일에는 두 가지 변형이 있습니다: 검사형(checked)과 비
검사형(unchecked).  파이썬은 검사형 해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 실행시간에 해
당 소스 파일에 대해 유효성을 검사하지만, 비검사형 해시 기반 pyc에 대해서
는 확인하지 않습니다.  비검사형 해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일은 파이썬 외부의 시
스템(가령 빌드 시스템)이 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 최신 상태로 유지하는 책임을 지는
환경에서 유용한 성능 최적화입니다.

자세한 정보는 *note 캐시된 바이트 코드 무효화: 5e6. 를 보십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 552(3) – 결정적 pycs

     Benjamin Peterson이 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역,  Next: 파이썬 개발 모드 -X dev,  Prev: PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.11 PEP 545: 파이썬 설명서 번역
....................................

PEP 545(1) 는 파이썬 설명서 번역을 만들고 유지하는 과정을 설명합니다.

세 가지 새로운 번역이 추가되었습니다:

   - 일본어: ‘https://docs.python.org/ja/’

   - 프랑스어: ‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’

   - 한국어: ‘https://docs.python.org/ko/’

더 보기
.......

PEP 545(2) – 파이썬 설명서 번역

     Julien Palard, Inada Naoki 및 Victor Stinner가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 개발 모드 -X dev,  Prev: PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역,  Up: 새로운 기능<4>

1.7.2.12 파이썬 개발 모드 (-X dev)
..................................

새 *note -X: 176. ‘dev’ 명령행 옵션이나 새 *note PYTHONDEVMODE: aea. 환
경 변수를 사용하여 *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활성화할 수 있습니다.
개발 모드에 있을 때, 파이썬은 기본적으로 활성화되기에는 너무 비싼 추가적
인 실행 시간 검사를 수행합니다.  자세한 설명은 *note 파이썬 개발 모드:
1f8. 설명서를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 언어 변경<3>,  Next: 새 모듈<3>,  Prev: 새로운 기능<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.3 기타 언어 변경
--------------------

   * *note await: 1b9. 표현식과 *note async for: aa7. 절을 포함하는 컴프
     리헨션은 구현 문제로 인해 *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6.의 표현식에
     서 유효하지 않았습니다.  파이썬 3.7에서는 이 제한이 해제되었습니다.

   * 이제 함수에 255개 이상의 인자를 전달할 수 있고, 함수는 255개 이상의
     매개변수를 가질 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-12844(1) and bpo-18896(2).)

   * 이제 *note bytes.fromhex(): aec. 와 *note bytearray.fromhex(): aed.
     는 스페이스뿐만 아니라 모든 ASCII 공백을 무시합니다.  (Contributed
     by Robert Xiao in bpo-28927(3).)

   * *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 538. 는 새 *note
     isascii(): aee. 메서드에 대한 지원을 얻었습니다.  이 메서드를 사용
     하여 문자열이나 바이트열에 오직 ASCII 문자만 들어 있는지 검사할 수
     있습니다.  (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677(4).)

   * 이제 *note ImportError: 413. 는 ‘from ... import ...’ 가 실패할 때
     모듈 이름과 모듈 ‘__file__’ 경로를 출력합니다.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546(5).)

   * 이제 하위 모듈을 이름에 연결하는 절대 임포트가 수반되는 순환 임포트
     가 지원됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30024(6).)

   * 이제 ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ 는 ‘format(str(self), '')’ 대신에
     ‘str(x)’ 과 동등합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28974(7).)

   * 이제 스택 트레이스의 동적 생성을 더욱 잘 지원하기 위해, 파이썬 코드
     에서 *note types.TracebackType: aef. 의 인스턴스를 만들 수 있고,
     *note 트레이스백: af0. 의 *note tb_next: af1. 어트리뷰트에 쓸 수 있
     습니다.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579(8).)

   * *note -m: 5db. 스위치를 사용할 때, 이제 ‘sys.path[0]’ 를 빈 디렉터
     리로 남겨두기보다는 전체 시작 디렉터리 경로로 확장됩니다 (빈 디렉터
     리를 남겨두면, 임포트가 일어날 때의 '현재' 작업 디렉터리로부터의 임
     포트가 가능해집니다) (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053(9).)

   * 새 *note -X: 176. ‘importtime’ 옵션 또는 *note
     PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: af2. 환경 변수는 각 모듈 임포트의 타이밍을
     보여주기 위해 사용될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-31415(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415


File: python.info,  Node: 새 모듈<3>,  Next: 개선된 모듈<3>,  Prev: 기타 언어 변경<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.4 새 모듈
-------------

* Menu:

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars,  Next: dataclasses<3>,  Up: 새 모듈<3>

1.7.4.1 contextvars
...................

새 *note contextvars: 24. 모듈과 *note 새 C API: af5. 집합은 '컨텍스트 변
수' 에 대한 지원을 도입합니다.  컨텍스트 변수는 개념적으로 스레드-로컬 변
수와 유사합니다.  TLS와 달리, 컨텍스트 변수는 비동기 코드를 올바르게 지
원합니다.

*note asyncio: a.와 *note decimal: 36. 모듈은 바로 사용할 수 있도록 컨텍
스트 변수를 사용하고 지원하도록 업데이트되었습니다.  특히 활성 십진 컨텍
스트는 이제 컨텍스트 변수에 저장되므로, 십진수 연산이 비동기 코드에서 올
바른 컨텍스트에서 작동 할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 567(1) – 컨텍스트 변수

     Yury Selivanov가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<3>,  Next: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: contextvars,  Up: 새 모듈<3>

1.7.4.2 dataclasses
...................

새 *note dataclass(): 1cb. 데코레이터는 '데이터 클래스' 를 선언하는 방법
을 제공합니다.  데이터 클래스는 클래스 변수 어노테이션을 사용하여 어트리
뷰트를 기술합니다.  생성자와 *note __repr__(): 616, *note __eq__(): af7,
*note __hash__(): af8. 와 같은 다른 매직 메서드가 자동으로 생성됩니다.

예:

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         z: float = 0.0

     p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
     print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"

더 보기
.......

PEP 557(1) – 데이터 클래스

     Eric V. Smith가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<3>,  Up: 새 모듈<3>

1.7.4.3 importlib.resources
...........................

새 *note importlib.resources: 7b. 모듈은 여러 개의 새로운 API와 하나의 새
로운 ABC를 제공하여, 패키지 내부의 '리소스' 에 접근하고 읽는 것을 지원합
니다.  리소스는 대략 패키지 안의 파일과 비슷하지만, 물리적인 파일 시스템
에 있는 실제 파일 일 필요는 없습니다.  모듈 로더는 이 새로운 API를 지원
하기 위해 *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afa. 인스턴스를 반환하는
‘get_resource_reader()’ 함수를 제공 할 수 있습니다.  내장 파일 경로 로더
와 zip 파일 로더는 모두 이것을 지원합니다.

Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).

더 보기
.......

importlib_resources(2) – 이전 파이썬 버전을 위한 PyPI 역 이식.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


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1.7.5 개선된 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* decimal::
* dis: dis<3>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib 및 IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<6>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<2>.
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue: queue<2>.
* re: re<4>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* time: time<5>.
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<3>,  Next: asyncio<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.1 argparse
................

새로운 *note ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): afd. 메서드는 옵션
과 위치 인자의 혼합을 허용합니다.  (Contributed by paul.j3 in
bpo-14191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<7>,  Next: binascii,  Prev: argparse<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio: a. 모듈은 많은 새로운 기능과 사용성 및 *note 성능 개선:
aff.이 추가되었습니다.  주목할만한 변경 사항은 다음과 같습니다:

   * 새로운 *note 잠정: b00. *note asyncio.run(): 476. 함수는 자동으로 이
     벤트 루프를 생성하고 파괴함으로써 동기 코드에서 코루틴을 실행하는 데
     사용될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32314(1).)

   * asyncio는 *note contextvars: 24. 에 대한 지원을 얻었습니다.  *note
     loop.call_soon(): b01, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): b02,
     *note loop.call_later(): b03, *note loop.call_at(): b04. 및 *note
     Future.add_done_callback(): b05. 은 새로운 선택적 키워드-전용
     'context' 매개 변수를 갖습니다.  *note Tasks: 1be. 는 이제 자신의 컨
     텍스트를 자동으로 추적합니다.  자세한 정보는 PEP 567(2)을 보십시오.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436(3).)

   * 새로운 *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. 함수가
     ‘asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()’ 의 손쉬운 방법으로 추가되
     었습니다.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311(4).)

   * 새로운 *note loop.start_tls(): b06. 메서드를 사용하여 기존 연결을
     TLS로 업그레이드할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-23749(5).)

   * 새로운 *note loop.sock_recv_into(): b07. 메서드는 데이터를 직접 소
     켓에서 제공된 버퍼로 읽어 들여 데이터 복사를 줄일 수 있게 합니다.
     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31819(6).)

   * 새로운 *note asyncio.current_task(): 477. 함수는 현재 실행 중인
     *note Task: 1be. 인스턴스를 반환하고, 새 *note asyncio.all_tasks():
     954. 함수는 주어진 루프에 있는 모든 기존 ‘Task’ 인스턴스 집합을 반
     환합니다.  ‘Task.current_task()’ 와 ‘Task.all_tasks()’ 메서드는 폐
     지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(7).)

   * 새로운 '잠정적' *note BufferedProtocol: a9a. 클래스는 수신 버퍼를 수
     동으로 제어하여 스트리밍 프로토콜을 구현할 수 있게 합니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251(8).)

   * 새로운 *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): b08. 함수는 현재 실행 중인
     루프를 반환하고, 루프가 실행되고 있지 않으면 *note RuntimeError:
     195. 를 발생시킵니다.  이는 아무것도 실행되고 있지 않으면 새로 '만
     드는' *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c2. 과는 대조적입니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32269(9).)

   * 새로운 *note StreamWriter.wait_closed(): b09. 코루틴 메서드는 스트
     림 작성자가 닫힐 때까지 기다릴 수 있습니다.  새로운 *note
     StreamWriter.is_closing(): b0a. 메서드를 사용하여 작성기가 닫히고 있
     는지 판별 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32391(10).)

   * 새로운 *note loop.sock_sendfile(): b0b. 코루틴 메서드는 가능한 경우
     *note os.sendfile: b0c. 을 사용하여 파일을 전송할 수 있도록 합니다.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410(11).)

   * 새로운 *note Future.get_loop(): b0d. 와 ‘Task.get_loop()’ 메서드는
     태스크 나 퓨처가 만들어진 루프의 인스턴스를 돌려줍니다.  *note
     Server.get_loop(): b0e. 는 *note asyncio.Server: b0f. 객체에 대해서
     도 같은 일을 할 수 있도록 합니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     in bpo-32415(12) and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418(13).)

   * 이제 *note asyncio.Server: b0f. 의 인스턴스가 어떻게 시작되는지 제
     어할 수 있습니다.  이전에는 서버를 만들 때 즉시 서버가 시작되었습니
     다.  새로운 'start_serving' 키워드 인자는 *note
     loop.create_server(): b10. 와 *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae.
     뿐만 아니라 *note Server.start_serving(): b11. 와 *note
     Server.serve_forever(): b12. 에도 사용되어 서버 인스턴스를 만드는 것
     과 시작시키는 것을 분리할 수 있습니다.  새로운 *note
     Server.is_serving(): b13. 메서드는 서버가 실행 중이면 ‘True’ 를 돌
     려줍니다.  *note Server: b0f. 객체는 이제 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자입
     니다:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(14).)

   * *note loop.call_later(): b03. 가 반환하는 콜백 객체는 예약된 절대 콜
     백 타임스탬프를 돌려주는 새 *note when(): b14. 메서드를 얻었습니다.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32741(15).)

   * *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c. 메서드는 유닉스 소켓 지
     원을 얻었습니다.  (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in bpo-31245(16).)

   * *note asyncio.open_connection(): b15, *note asyncio.start_server():
     b16. 함수, *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd, *note
     loop.create_server(): b10, *note loop.create_accepted_socket():
     b17. 메서드와 해당 유닉스 소켓 변형은 이제 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
     키워드 인자를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Neil Aspinall in
     bpo-29970(17).)

   * 새로운 *note Handle.cancelled(): b18. 메서드는 콜백이 취소된 경우
     ‘True’ 를 돌려줍니다.  (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in
     bpo-31943(18).)

   * asyncio 소스는 *note async: 72b./*note await: 1b9. 구문을 사용하도
     록 변환되었습니다.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32193(19).)

   * 새로운 *note ReadTransport.is_reading(): b19. 메서드를 사용하여 전
     송계층의 읽기 상태를 판별 할 수 있습니다.  또한 *note
     ReadTransport.resume_reading(): b1a. 과 *note
     ReadTransport.pause_reading(): b1b. 은 이제 멱등적(idempotent)입니
     다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356(20).)

   * 소켓 경로를 받아들이는 루프 메서드에는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.
     를 전달할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32066(21).)

   * *note asyncio: a. 에서 리눅스의 TCP 소켓은 이제 기본적으로
     ‘TCP_NODELAY’ 플래그가 설정된 상태로 만들어집니다.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456(22).)

   * 취소된 작업에서 발생하는 예외는 더 로깅 되지 않습니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508(23).)

   * 새로운 ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’ 와
     ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’ 클래스.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-33792(24).)

몇몇 ‘asyncio’ API는 *note 폐지되었습니다: b1c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792


File: python.info,  Node: binascii,  Next: calendar<2>,  Prev: asyncio<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.3 binascii
................

*note b2a_uu(): b1e. 함수는 선택적 'backtick' 키워드 인자를 받아들입니다
.  참일 때, 0은 스페이스 대신에 ‘'`'’ 로 표현됩니다.  (Contributed by
Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<2>,  Next: collections<2>,  Prev: binascii,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.4 calendar
................

*note HTMLCalendar: b20. 클래스는 생성된 HTML 달력에서 CSS 클래스의 개별
화를 쉽게 해주는 새로운 클래스 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다.  (Contributed by
Oz Tiram in bpo-30095(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095


File: python.info,  Node: collections<2>,  Next: compileall<3>,  Prev: calendar<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.5 collections
...................

‘collections.namedtuple()’ 은 이제 기본값을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<3>,  Next: concurrent futures<3>,  Prev: collections<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.6 compileall
..................

*note compileall.compile_dir(): b23. 는 새로운 'invalidation_mode' 매개
변수를 갖습니다.  이 매개 변수는 *note 해시 기반 .pyc 무효화: ac8. 를 활
성화하는데 사용할 수 있습니다.  무효화 모드는 새로운
‘--invalidation-mode’ 인자를 사용하여 명령행에서 지정할 수도 있습니다.
(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<3>,  Next: contextlib<3>,  Prev: compileall<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 와 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 는 이
제 새로운 'initializer' 및 'initargs' 생성자 인자를 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423(1).)

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 는 새로운 'mp_context' 인자를 통해
multiprocessing 컨텍스트를 받아들일 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Thomas
Moreau in bpo-31540(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<3>,  Next: cProfile<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.8 contextlib
..................

새로운 *note nullcontext(): 7e7. 는 *note ExitStack: b26. 보다 더 간단하
고 빠른 no-op 컨텍스트 관리자입니다.  (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in
bpo-10049(1).)

새로운 *note asynccontextmanager(): b27, *note
AbstractAsyncContextManager: b28, *note AsyncExitStack: b29. 가 추가되어
동기 대응물을 보완합니다.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
bpo-29679(2) and bpo-30241(3), and by Alexander Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in
bpo-29302(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile<2>,  Next: crypt,  Prev: contextlib<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.9 cProfile
................

*note cProfile: 27. 명령행은 이제 스크립트 경로의 대안으로 ‘-m
module_name’ 을 허용합니다.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in
bpo-21862(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862


File: python.info,  Node: crypt,  Next: datetime<4>,  Prev: cProfile<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.10 crypt
..............

‘crypt’ 모듈은 이제 블로피시 해싱 방법을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664(1).)

‘mksalt()’ 함수는 이제 해싱을 위한 라운드 수를 지정할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<4>,  Next: dbm<2>,  Prev: crypt,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.11 datetime
.................

새로운 *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 611. 메서드는 *note
datetime.isoformat(): b2d. 이 출력하는 형식의 문자열로부터 *note
datetime: 1cc. 객체를 생성합니다.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in
bpo-15873(1).)

*note tzinfo: 5d8. 클래스는 이제 분보다 작은 오프셋을 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<2>,  Next: decimal,  Prev: datetime<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.12 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 32. 는 이제 읽기 전용 파일 읽기를 지원하며 변경되지 않았
을 때 더는 색인 파일을 쓰지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal,  Next: dis<3>,  Prev: dbm<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.13 decimal
................

*note decimal: 36. 모듈은 이제 십진 컨텍스트를 저장하는데 *note 컨텍스트
변수: abd. 를 사용한다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630


File: python.info,  Node: dis<3>,  Next: distutils<4>,  Prev: decimal,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.14 dis
............

*note dis(): b31. 함수는 이제 중첩된 코드 객체 (컴프리헨션, 제너레이터 표
현식 및 중첩된 함수의 코드와 중첩된 클래스를 만드는데 사용되는 코드)를 역
어셈블 할 수 있습니다.  해체 재귀의 최대 깊이는 새로운 * depth * 매개 변
수에 의해 제어됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-11822(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<4>,  Next: enum<5>,  Prev: dis<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.15 distutils
..................

‘README.rst’ 는 이제 distutils 표준 README 목록에 포함됩니다.  그래서 소
스 배포판에 포함됩니다.  (Contributed by Ryan Gonzalez in bpo-11913(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913


File: python.info,  Node: enum<5>,  Next: functools<3>,  Prev: distutils<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.16 enum
.............

*note Enum: 62a. 은 새로운 ‘_ignore_’ 클래스 프로퍼티를 얻었는데, 열거형
멤버가 되어서는 안 되는 프로퍼티의 이름들을 나열할 수 있도록 합니다.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801(1).)

파이썬 3.8에서 ‘Enum’ 클래스에서 열거 이외의 객체를 포함 검사하려고 하면
*note TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다 (예 ‘1 in Color’).  마찬가지로
‘Flag’ 멤버에서 플래그가 아닌 객체를 포함 검사하려고 하면 *note
TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다 (예 ‘1 in Perm.RW’); 현재는, 두 연산 모두
대신 *note False: b34. 가 반환되며, 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by
Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: functools<3>,  Next: gc<4>,  Prev: enum<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.17 functools
..................

*note functools.singledispatch(): 633. 는 이제 형 어노테이션을 사용해서
구현을 등록할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in
bpo-32227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<4>,  Next: hmac<2>,  Prev: functools<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.18 gc
...........

새로운 *note gc.freeze(): b37. 함수는 가비지 수집기가 추적 한 모든 객체
를 고정하고 미래의 수집에서 그것들을 제외합니다.  POSIX ‘fork()’ 호출 전
에 사용하면 GC를 쓰기 전에 복사(copy-on-write) 친화적으로 만들고 수집 속
도를 높일 수 있습니다.  새로운 *note gc.unfreeze(): b38. 함수는 이 작업
을 되돌립니다.  또한, *note gc.get_freeze_count(): b39.를 사용하여 고정
된 객체의 수를 얻을 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Li Zekun in
bpo-31558(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<2>,  Next: http client,  Prev: gc<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.19 hmac
.............

*note hmac: 6a. 모듈은 이제 최적화된 단일 호출 *note digest(): b3b. 함수
를 제공합니다.  ‘HMAC()’ 보다 최대 3배 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-32433(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433


File: python.info,  Node: http client,  Next: http server,  Prev: hmac<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.20 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection: b3d. 과 *note HTTPSConnection: b3e. 은 이제 향상된
업로드 처리량을 위해 새로운 'blocksize' 인자를 지원합니다.  (Contributed
by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945


File: python.info,  Node: http server,  Next: idlelib 및 IDLE,  Prev: http client,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.21 http.server
....................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. 는 이제 HTTP ‘If-Modified-Since’ 헤
더를 지원합니다.  헤더에 지정된 시간 이후에 대상 파일이 수정되지 않았으
면 서버는 304 응답 상태를 돌려줍니다.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in
bpo-29654(1).)

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. 는 새로운 ‘--directory’ 명령행 인자
와 더불어 새로운 'directory' 인자를 받아들입니다.  이 매개 변수를 사용하
면 서버는 지정된 디렉터리를 제공하는데, 기본적으로는 현재 작업 디렉터리
를 사용합니다.  (Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel and Julien Palard in
bpo-28707(2).)

새로운 *note ThreadingHTTPServer: b41. 클래스는 ‘ThreadingMixin’ 을 사용
하여 요청을 처리하는 데 스레드를 사용합니다.  ‘http.server’ 가 ‘-m’ 로 실
행될 때 사용됩니다.  (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib 및 IDLE,  Next: importlib<4>,  Prev: http server,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.22 idlelib 및 IDLE
........................

자동 완성을 위한 여러 수정.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in bpo-15786(1).)

Module Browser (File 메뉴에 있는데, 예전에는 Class Browser라고 불렸습니
다)는 이제 최상위 함수와 클래스 외에도 중첩된 함수와 클래스도 표시합니다
.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy
in bpo-1612262(2).)

설정 대화 상자(Options, Configure IDLE)는 모양과 기능을 향상하기 위해 부
분적으로 다시 작성되었습니다.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry
Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

이제 글꼴 표본에 라틴 문자 이외의 문자가 포함되어 사용자가 특정 글꼴을 선
택했을 때의 효과를 더 잘 볼 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-13802(3).)  표본을 편집하여 다른 문자를 포함할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31860(4).)

이전에는 확장 기능으로 구현된 IDLE 기능이 일반 기능으로 다시 구현되었습
니다.  이것들의 설정을 Extensions 탭에서 다른 대화 상자 탭으로 옮겼습니
다.  (Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-27099(5).)

편집기 코드 컨텍스트 옵션이 개정되었습니다.  상자는 최대 행 수까지 모든
컨텍스트 행을 표시합니다.  컨텍스트 행을 클릭하면 편집기가 해당 행으로 이
동합니다.  사용자 정의 테마의 컨텍스트 색상이 설정 대화 상자의 강조 표시
탭에 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy
in bpo-33642(6), bpo-33768(7), and bpo-33679(8).)

윈도우에서, 새로운 API 호출이 tk가 DPI에 맞게 조정된다는 것을 윈도우에 알
려줍니다.  Windows 8.1+ 또는 10에서, 파이썬 바이너리의 DPI 호환성 속성을
변경하지 않고도, 96DPI보다 큰 모니터 해상도를 사용하면, 텍스트와 선이 더
선명해집니다.  그렇지 않으면 아무런 효과도 일으키지 않습니다.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(9).)

3.7.1의 새로운 기능:

N 줄(기본값은 50)을 초과하는 출력은 버튼으로 축소됩니다.  N은 설정 대화
상자의 General 페이지의 PyShell 섹션에서 변경할 수 있습니다.  저 작은, 하
지만 아주 길 수도 있는, 줄은 출력을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하면 축소
할 수 있습니다.  축소된 출력은 버튼을 더블 클릭해서 재자리에서 확대하거
나, 버튼을 마우스 오른쪽 단추로 클릭하여 클립 보드나 별도의 창으로 확대
할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353(10).).

위의 변경 사항은 3.6 유지 보수 배포로 역 이식되었습니다.

3.7.4의 새로운 기능:

사용자 정의 설정으로 모듈을 실행하기 위해 Run 메뉴에 “Run Customized”를
추가합니다.  입력한 모든 명령 줄 인자는 sys.argv에 추가됩니다.  다음 사
용자 정의 실행을 위해 상자에 다시 나타납니다.  일반적인 셸 메인 모듈 재
시작을 억제할 수도 있습니다.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan
Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(11) and bpo-37627(12).)

3.7.5의 새로운 기능:

IDLE 편집기 창에 선택적인 줄 번호를 추가합니다.  창은 구성 대화 상자의
General 탭에서 설정하지 않는 한 줄 번호 없이 열립니다.  기존 창의 줄 번
호는 옵션 메뉴에서 표시되거나 숨겨집니다.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and
Saimadhav Heblikar in bpo-17535(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<4>,  Next: io<4>,  Prev: idlelib 및 IDLE,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.23 importlib
..................

*note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afa. ABC가 도입되어 패키지에서 리소
스를 로딩하는 것을 지원합니다.  *note importlib.resources: abf. 를 참조
하세요.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).)

*note importlib.reload(): 512. 는 이제 모듈에 스펙이 없는 경우 *note
ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 발생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Garvit
Khatri in bpo-29851(2).)

‘importlib.find_spec()’은 이제 지정된 부모 모듈이 패키지가 아닌 경우 (즉
‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트가 없는 경우) *note AttributeError: 346. 대신에
*note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 발생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch in bpo-30436(3).)

새로운 ‘importlib.source_hash()’ 는 전달 된 소스의 해시를 계산하는 데 사
용될 수 있습니다.  *note 해시 기반 .pyc 파일: ac8. 은 함수가 반환하는 값
을 포함합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436


File: python.info,  Node: io<4>,  Next: ipaddress<3>,  Prev: importlib<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.24 io
...........

새로운 *note TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): b46. 메서드를 사용하여 텍스트
스트림을 새로운 설정으로 재구성 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-30526(1) and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<3>,  Next: itertools<5>,  Prev: io<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.25 ipaddress
..................

*note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 1ff. 와 *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 1fe. 의
새로운 ‘subnet_of()’ 와 ‘supernet_of()’ 메서드는 네트워크 포함 테스트에
사용될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella in
bpo-20825(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<5>,  Next: locale<4>,  Prev: ipaddress<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.26 itertools
..................

*note itertools.islice(): b49. 는 start, stop, step 인자로 *note 정수류
객체: 716. 를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Will Roberts in
bpo-30537(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537


File: python.info,  Node: locale<4>,  Next: logging<3>,  Prev: itertools<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.27 locale
...............

*note locale.format_string(): 518. 의 새로운 'monetary' 인자는 변환에 화
폐 천 단위 분리자 및 그룹화 문자열을 사용하도록 만듭니다.  (Contributed
by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

*note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 534. 함수는 이제 안드로이드나 *note
강제 UTF-8 모드: ac7. 일 때 항상 ‘'UTF-8'’ 을 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: logging<3>,  Next: math<6>,  Prev: locale<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.28 logging
................

*note Logger: b4c. 인스턴스는 이제 피클(pickle) 할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-30520(1).)

새로운 *note StreamHandler.setStream(): b4d. 메서드는 처리기 생성 후 로
거 스트림을 대체하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip
in bpo-30522(2).)

이제 *note logging.config.fileConfig(): b4e. 에 전달된 구성에서 처리기 생
성자에 대한 키워드 인자를 지정할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Preston
Landers in bpo-31080(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080


File: python.info,  Node: math<6>,  Next: mimetypes<2>,  Prev: logging<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.29 math
.............

새로운 *note math.remainder(): b50. 함수는 IEEE 754 스타일의 나머지 연산
을 구현합니다.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-29962(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes<2>,  Next: msilib,  Prev: math<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.30 mimetypes
..................

.bmp의 MIME 형이 ‘'image/x-ms-bmp'’ 에서 ‘'image/bmp'’ 로 변경되었습니다
.  (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589


File: python.info,  Node: msilib,  Next: multiprocessing<4>,  Prev: mimetypes<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.31 msilib
...............

새로운 ‘Database.Close()’ 메서드를 사용하여 MSI 데이터베이스를 닫을 수 있
습니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<4>,  Next: os<7>,  Prev: msilib,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.32 multiprocessing
........................

새로운 *note Process.close(): b54. 메서드는 명시적으로 프로세스 객체를 닫
고 그와 연관된 모든 자원을 해제합니다.  하부 프로세스가 여전히 실행 중이
면 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
in bpo-30596(1).)

새로운 *note Process.kill(): b55. 메서드는 유닉스에서 ‘SIGKILL’ 시그널을
사용하여 프로세스를 종료시키는데 사용될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Vitor Pereira in bpo-30794(2).)

*note Process: b56. 에 의해 생성된 데몬이 아닌 스레드는 이제 프로세스 종
료 시에 조인(join)됩니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-18966(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966


File: python.info,  Node: os<7>,  Next: pathlib<8>,  Prev: multiprocessing<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.33 os
...........

*note os.fwalk(): b58. 는 이제 '경로' 인자로 *note bytes: 1c2. 도 받아들
입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682(1).)

*note os.scandir(): a5b. 은 *note 파일 기술자: b59. 에 대한 지원을 얻었
습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(2).)

새로운 *note register_at_fork(): 2f8. 함수는 프로세스 포크 때 실행될 파
이썬 콜백을 등록 할 수 있게 합니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-16500(3).)

*note os.preadv(): b5a. (*note os.readv(): b5b. 와 *note os.pread():
b5c. 의 기능을 결합한 것)와 *note os.pwritev(): b5d. 함수 (*note
os.writev(): b5e. 와 *note os.pwrite(): b5f. 의 기능을 결합한 것)를 추가
했습니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-31368(4).)

*note os.makedirs(): 21e. 의 mode 인자는 더는 새로 생성된 중간 수준 디렉
터리의 파일 사용 권한 비트에 영향을 미치지 않습니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(5).)

*note os.dup2(): b60. 는 이제 새로운 파일 기술자를 반환합니다.  이전에는
항상 ‘None’ 을 반환했습니다.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-32441(6).)

*note os.stat(): 49a. 에 의해 반환된 구조체는 이제 솔라리스와 그 파생물
에서 *note st_fstype: b61. 어트리뷰트를 포함합니다.  (Contributed by
Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<8>,  Next: pdb<4>,  Prev: os<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.34 pathlib
................

새로운 *note Path.is_mount(): a13. 메서드는 이제 POSIX 시스템에서 사용할
수 있으며 경로가 마운트 지점인지 아닌지를 결정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다
.  (Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<4>,  Next: py_compile<3>,  Prev: pathlib<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.35 pdb
............

*note pdb.set_trace(): 235. 는 이제 선택적 'header' 키워드 전용 인자를 취
합니다.  주어진 경우, 디버깅이 시작되기 바로 전에 콘솔에 출력됩니다.
(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389(1).)

*note pdb: a5. 명령행은 이제 스크립트 파일의 대안으로 ‘-m module_name’ 을
받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-32206(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<3>,  Next: pydoc<2>,  Prev: pdb<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.36 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): a21. 은 – 그리고 자연히 *note compileall:
20. 도 – 이제 ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ 환경 변수가 설정되면 해시 기반 유효성
검사를 위해 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 무조건 생성합니다.  이것은 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 재현
가능한 빌드(1) 를 보장할 수 있도록 한다.  (Contributed by Bernhard M.
Wiedemann in bpo-29708(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<2>,  Next: queue<2>,  Prev: py_compile<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.37 pydoc
..............

pydoc 서버는 이제 새로운 ‘-n’ 명령행 인자로 지정된 임의의 호스트 이름에
바인드 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Feanil Patel in bpo-31128(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128


File: python.info,  Node: queue<2>,  Next: re<4>,  Prev: pydoc<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.38 queue
..............

새로운 *note SimpleQueue: b67. 클래스는 무제한 FIFO 큐입니다.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: re<4>,  Next: signal<2>,  Prev: queue<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.39 re
...........

플래그 *note re.ASCII: 626, *note re.LOCALE: b69. 및 *note re.UNICODE:
b6a. 를 그룹의 스코프 내에서 설정할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-31690(1).)

*note re.split(): 2a2. 는 이제 빈 문자열과 일치하는 ‘r'\b'’, ‘'^$'’ 또는
‘(?=-)’ 와 같은 패턴으로 나누는 것을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-25054(2).)

*note re.LOCALE: b69. 플래그로 컴파일된 정규식은 더는 컴파일 시간의 로케
일에 의존하지 않습니다.  로케일 설정은 컴파일된 정규식이 사용될 때 적용
됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215(3).)

정규식이 앞으로 의미적인 변경이 있을 문자 집합 구조물(가령 중첩된 집합과
집합 연산)을 포함하면 이제 *note FutureWarning: 40f. 을 줍니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(4).)

*note copy.copy(): 52d. 와 *note copy.deepcopy(): b6b. 를 사용하여 컴파
일된 정규식과 매치 객체를 복사 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-10076(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076


File: python.info,  Node: signal<2>,  Next: socket<5>,  Prev: re<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.40 signal
...............

*note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): b6d. 함수의 새로운 'warn_on_full_buffer' 인
자는 웨이크업 버퍼 오버플로가 발생했을 때 파이썬이 표준 에러로 경고를 출
력할지를 지정할 수 있게 합니다.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-30050(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050


File: python.info,  Node: socket<5>,  Next: socketserver,  Prev: signal<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.41 socket
...............

새로운 *note socket.getblocking(): b6f. 메서드는 소켓이 블로킹 모드에 있
으면 ‘True’ 를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니다.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32373(1).)

새로운 *note socket.close(): b70. 함수는 전달된 소켓 파일 기술자를 닫습
니다.  이 함수는 플랫폼 간 호환성을 높이기 위해 *note os.close(): b71. 대
신 사용되어야 합니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-32454(2).)

*note socket: cc. 모듈은 이제 ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (리눅스 2.6.13),
‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) 그리고
‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (리눅스 3.12) 상수를 노출합니다.
(Contributed by Omar Sandoval in bpo-26273(3) and Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-29728(4).)

가상 기계와 호스트 간의 통신을 허용하기 위해 *note socket.AF_VSOCK: b72.
소켓 지원이 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Cathy Avery in
bpo-27584(5).)

소켓은 이제 기본적으로 파일 기술자에서 패밀리, 형 및 프로토콜을 자동 감
지합니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver,  Next: sqlite3<6>,  Prev: socket<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.42 socketserver
.....................

‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ 는 이제 모든 데몬이 아닌 스
레드가 완료될 때까지 대기합니다.
‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ 는 모든 자식 프로세스가 완료
될 때까지 대기합니다.

새로운 ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ 클래스 어트리뷰트를
*note socketserver.ForkingMixIn: b74. 과 *note
socketserver.ThreadingMixIn: b75. 클래스에 추가했습니다.  3.7 이전의 동
작을 얻으려면 클래스 어트리뷰트를 ‘False’ 로 설정하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<6>,  Next: ssl<5>,  Prev: socketserver,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.43 sqlite3
................

*note sqlite3.Connection: 245. 은 이제 하부 SQLite 라이브러리의 버전이
3.6.11 이상일 때 *note backup(): b77. 메서드를 노출합니다.  (Contributed
by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645(1).)

*note sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. 의 'database' 인자는 이제 문자열뿐만 아니
라 모든 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0. 를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Anders
Lorentsen in bpo-31843(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<5>,  Next: string<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.44 ssl
............

*note ssl: d0. 모듈은 이제 ‘match_hostname()’ 대신 OpenSSL의 내장 API를
사용하여 호스트 이름이나 IP 주소를 확인합니다.  값은 TLS 핸드 셰이크 중
에 유효성이 검사됩니다.  호스트 이름 검사 실패와 같은 인증서 유효성 검사
오류가 발생하면 이제 *note SSLCertVerificationError: b79. 가 발생하고 적
절한 TLS 경고 메시지와 함께 핸드 셰이크가 중단됩니다.  새 예외에는 추가
정보가 들어 있습니다.  호스트 이름 유효성 검증은 *note
SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: b7a. 을 사용하여 사용자 정의 할
수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(1).)

     참고: 향상된 호스트 이름 검사에는 OpenSSL 1.0.2 또는 1.1과 호환되는
     'libssl' 구현이 필요합니다.  따라서, OpenSSL 0.9.8 및 1.0.1은 더는
     지원되지 않습니다 (더 자세한 내용은 *note 플랫폼 지원 제거: b7b.를
     보세요).  ssl 모듈은 대부분 LibreSSL 2.7.2 이상과 호환됩니다.

‘ssl’ 모듈은 더는 SNI TLS 확장에서 IP 주소를 전송하지 않습니다.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185(2).)

‘match_hostname()’은 ‘www*.example.org’ 와 같은 부분적인 와일드카드를 더
는 지원하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033(3) and
Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(4).)

‘ssl’ 모듈의 기본 사이퍼 군 선택은 이제 하드 코딩된 화이트리스트가 아닌
블랙리스트 접근법을 사용합니다.  파이썬은 더는 OpenSSL 보안 업데이트 때
문에 차단된 사이퍼를 다시 활성화하지 않습니다.  기본 사이퍼 군 선택은 컴
파일 시점에 구성 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-31429(5).)

국제화된 도메인 이름 (IDN)을 포함하는 서버 인증서의 유효성 검사가 이제 지
원됩니다.  이 변경의 일부로, *note SSLSocket.server_hostname: b7c. 어트
리뷰트는 이제 U-label 형식(‘"pythön.org"’)보다는 A-label 형식
(‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’)으로 기대하는 호스트 이름을 저장합니다.
(Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and Christian Heimes in
bpo-28414(6).)

‘ssl’ 모듈은 TLS 1.3과 OpenSSL 1.1.1을 예비적이고 실험적으로 지원합니다.
파이썬 3.7.0 배포 당시, OpenSSL 1.1.1은 아직 개발 중이며 TLS 1.3은 아직
완성되지 않았습니다.  TLS 1.3 핸드 셰이크와 프로토콜은 TLS 1.2 및 그 이
전 버전과 약간 다르게 동작합니다.  *note TLS 1.3: b7d.을 참조하세요.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32947(7), bpo-20995(8),
bpo-29136(9), bpo-30622(10) and bpo-33618(11))

*note SSLSocket: 8e7. 과 *note SSLObject: b7e. 는 더는 공개 생성자를 가
지고 있지 않습니다.  직접 인스턴스를 만드는 것은 결코 문서로 만들어지고
지원되는 기능이 아닙니다.  인스턴스는 *note SSLContext: 294. 메서드
*note wrap_socket(): 51e.과 *note wrap_bio(): b7f.로 생성되어야 합니다.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(12))

최소 및 최대 TLS 프로토콜 버전을 설정하기 위한 OpenSSL 1.1 API는 *note
SSLContext.minimum_version: 86b. 과 *note SSLContext.maximum_version:
86c. 로 제공됩니다.  지원되는 프로토콜은 여러 가지 새 플래그로 표시됩니
다, 가령 *note HAS_TLSv1_1: b80.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-32609(13).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a2d. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a2e. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: string<2>,  Next: subprocess<2>,  Prev: ssl<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.45 string
...............

*note string.Template: 681. 은 이제 중괄호로 둘러싼 치환식과 그렇지 않은
치환식의 정규식을 따로 선택적으로 수정할 수 있도록 합니다.  (Contributed
by Barry Warsaw in bpo-1198569(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<2>,  Next: sys<8>,  Prev: string<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.46 subprocess
...................

*note subprocess.run(): b83. 함수는 새로운 'capture_output' 키워드 인자
를 받습니다.  참일 때, stdout과 stderr가 캡처됩니다.  이것은 *note
subprocess.PIPE: b84. 를 'stdout' 및 'stderr' 인자로 전달하는 것과 같습
니다.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).)

‘subprocess.run’ 함수와 *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 생성자는 이제
'text' 키워드 인자를 'universal_newlines' 의 별칭으로 받아들입니다.
(Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756(2).)

윈도우에서 'close_fds' 의 기본값은 표준 핸들을 리디렉션 할 때 ‘False’ 에
서 ‘True’ 로 변경되었습니다.  이제 표준 핸들을 리디렉션 할 때
'close_fds' 를 참으로 설정할 수 있습니다.  *note subprocess.Popen: 199.
을 참조하세요.  이것은 지원되는 모든 플랫폼에서 이제 'close_fds' 의 기본
값이 ‘True’ 임을 뜻합니다.  (Contributed by Segev Finer in
bpo-19764(3).)

subprocess 모듈은 이제 *note subprocess.call(): b85, *note
subprocess.run(): b83. 중에, 또는 *note Popen: 199. 컨텍스트 관리자에 있
는 동안 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 를 더 우아하게 처리합니다.  이제
‘KeyboardInterrupt’ 예외 처리를 계속하기 전에 자식이 종료될 때까지 약간
의 시간을 기다립니다.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
bpo-25942(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942


File: python.info,  Node: sys<8>,  Next: time<5>,  Prev: subprocess<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.47 sys
............

새로운 *note sys.breakpointhook(): ad7. 훅 함수는 내장 *note
breakpoint(): 234. 에 의해 호출됩니다.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-31353(1).)

안드로이드에서, 새로운 *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): b87. 은 빌드 시간
안드로이드 API 버전을 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-28740(2).)

새로운 *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b88. 함수는 새로
운 *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b89. 에 의해 설정된
현재 코루틴 원점 추적 깊이를 반환합니다.  *note asyncio: a. 가 폐지된
‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ 대신 이 새로운 API를 사용하도록 변환되었습
니다.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-32591(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591


File: python.info,  Node: time<5>,  Next: tkinter<5>,  Prev: sys<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.48 time
.............

PEP 564(1) 는 *note time: ee. 모듈에 나노초 해상도의 새로운 함수 6개를 추
가합니다:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): adf.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): ae0.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): ae1.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): ae2.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): ae3.

   * *note time.time_ns(): ae4.

새로운 시계 식별자가 추가되었습니다:

   * *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b8b. (리눅스): 시스템이 일시 중지된 시간
     을 포함한다는 점만 제외하고는 *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693. 과 같
     습니다.

   * *note time.CLOCK_PROF: b8c. (FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD): 고해상도의
     프로세스별 CPU 타이머.

   * *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME: b8d. (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): 절댓값이 시스템이
     실행 중이었고 중단되지 않은 시간인 시간.  정확한 업타임 측정을 제공
     합니다.

새로운 *note time.thread_time(): 934.과 *note time.thread_time_ns():
b8e. 함수는 스레드 당 CPU 시간을 측정하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025(2).)

새로운 *note time.pthread_getcpuclockid(): b8f. 함수는 스레드 별 CPU 시
간 시계의 시계 ID를 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<5>,  Next: tracemalloc<2>,  Prev: time<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.49 tkinter
................

이제 새로운 *note tkinter.ttk.Spinbox: b91. 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<2>,  Next: types<4>,  Prev: tkinter<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.50 tracemalloc
....................

*note tracemalloc.Traceback: b93. 은 더 일반 트레이스백과 같이 동작하여,
프레임을 가장 오래된 것부터 가장 최근의 것으로 정렬합니다.  *note
Traceback.format(): b94. 은 이제 음의 'limit' 을 받아들이고, 결과를
‘abs(limit)’ 개의 가장 오래된 프레임으로 잘라냅니다.  이전 동작을 얻으려
면, ‘Traceback.format()’ 에 새로운 'most_recent_first' 인자를 사용하십시
오.  (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121


File: python.info,  Node: types<4>,  Next: unicodedata<6>,  Prev: tracemalloc<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.51 types
..............

이제 새로운 *note WrapperDescriptorType: b96, *note MethodWrapperType:
645, *note MethodDescriptorType: b97, *note ClassMethodDescriptorType:
b98. 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and
Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377(1), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265(2).)

새로운 *note types.resolve_bases(): b99. 함수는 PEP 560(3) 에 지정된 대
로 MRO 항목을 동적으로 결정합니다.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in
bpo-32717(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<6>,  Next: unittest<7>,  Prev: types<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.52 unicodedata
....................

내부 *note unicodedata: 105. 데이터베이스가 유니코드 11(1) 을 사용하도록
업그레이드되었습니다.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<7>,  Next: unittest mock,  Prev: unicodedata<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.53 unittest
.................

새로운 ‘-k’ 명령행 옵션은 이름 부분 문자열이나 유닉스 셸과 같은 패턴으로
테스트를 필터링 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 ‘python -m unittest -k foo’ 는
‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’, ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’ 를 실
행하지만, ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’ 는 실행하지 않습니다.
(Contributed by Jonas Haag in bpo-32071(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock,  Next: urllib parse<5>,  Prev: unittest<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

*note sentinel: b9d. 어트리뷰트는 이제 *note 복사: 25.되거나 *note 피클:
a6.될 때 그들의 아이덴티티를 보존합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-20804(1).)

새로운 *note seal(): b9e. 함수는 *note Mock: a47. 인스턴스를 봉인하도록
허용합니다.  추가적인 어트리뷰트 모의 객체를 만들 수 없도록 합니다.  봉
인은 모의 객체인 모든 어트리뷰트에 재귀적으로 적용됩니다.  (Contributed
by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<5>,  Next: uu,  Prev: unittest mock,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.55 urllib.parse
.....................

*note urllib.parse.quote(): ba0. 가 RFC 2396(1)에서 RFC 3986(2)으로 갱신
되어, 기본적으로 이스케이프 되지 않는 문자 집합에 ‘~’ 가 추가되었습니다.
(Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in bpo-16285(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285


File: python.info,  Node: uu,  Next: uuid<2>,  Prev: urllib parse<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.56 uu
...........

‘uu.encode()’ 함수는 이제 선택적 'backtick' 키워드 인자를 받아들입니다.
참일 때, 0은 스페이스 대신에 ‘'`'’ 로 표현됩니다.  (Contributed by Xiang
Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<2>,  Next: warnings<3>,  Prev: uu,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.57 uuid
.............

새로운 *note UUID.is_safe: ba3. 어트리뷰트는 생성된 UUID가 다중 프로세스
에 안전한 방법으로 생성되었는지에 대해 플랫폼이 주는 정보를 전달합니다.
(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-22807(1).)

*note uuid.getnode(): ba4. 는 이제 지역적으로 관리되는 MAC 주소보다 보편
적으로 관리되는 MAC 주소를 선호합니다.  이것은 *note uuid.uuid1(): ba5.
에서 반환된 UUID의 글로벌 유일성을 더 잘 보장합니다.  지역적으로 관리되
는 MAC 주소 만 사용할 수 있는 경우, 처음 발견된 MAC 주소가 반환됩니다.
(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-32107(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<3>,  Next: xml<5>,  Prev: uuid<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.58 warnings
.................

기본 경고 필터의 초기화가 다음과 같이 변경되었습니다:

   * 명령행 옵션(*note -b: 5dd. 및 새로운 CPython 특정 *note -X: 176.
     ‘dev’ 옵션을 포함합니다)을 통해 활성화된 경고는 항상 *note
     sys.warnoptions: 3aa. 어트리뷰트를 통해 경고 절차로 전달됩니다.

   * 명령행 또는 환경을 통해 활성화된 경고 필터의 우선순위는 다음과 같습
     니다:

        * *note -b: 5dd. (또는 ‘-bb’)에 의한 ‘BytesWarning’ 필터

        * *note -W: 8c4. 옵션으로 지정된 모든 필터

        * *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7. 환경 변수로 지정된 모든 필터

        * 다른 모든 CPython 특정 필터 (예, 새로운 ‘-X dev’ 모드를 위해 추
          가된 ‘default’ 필터)

        * 경고 절차에 의해 직접 정의된 모든 묵시적 필터

   * *note CPython 디버그 빌드: 1f9.에서, 이제 모든 경고가 기본적으로 표
     시됩니다 (묵시적 필터 목록이 비어 있습니다)

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in bpo-20361(1),
bpo-32043(2), and bpo-32230(3).)

폐지 경고는 단일 파일 스크립트 및 대화식 프롬프트에서 다시 한번 기본적으
로 표시됩니다.  자세한 내용은 *note PEP 565; __main__ 의
DeprecationWarning 표시: aca. 를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Nick
Coghlan in bpo-31975(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975


File: python.info,  Node: xml<5>,  Next: xml etree,  Prev: warnings<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.59 xml
............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree,  Next: xmlrpc server,  Prev: xml<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.60 xml.etree
..................

‘find()’ 의 *note ElementPath: baa. 서술자는 이제 ‘[. = "text"]’ 로 자식
의 텍스트뿐만 아니라 현재 노드의 텍스트를 비교할 수 있습니다.  서술자는
가독성을 높이기 위해 스페이스를 추가할 수도 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server,  Next: zipapp,  Prev: xml etree,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.61 xmlrpc.server
......................

‘SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function’ 는 이제 데코레이터로 사용할 수
있습니다.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp,  Next: zipfile<2>,  Prev: xmlrpc server,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.62 zipapp
...............

함수 *note create_archive(): bad. 는 이제 사용자가 저장소에 포함되어야 하
는 파일을 선택할 수 있도록 선택적 'filter' 인자를 받아들입니다.
(Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072(1).)

함수 *note create_archive(): bad. 는 이제 압축된 저장소를 생성하기 위해
선택적 'compressed' 인자를 받아들입니다.  명령행 옵션 ‘--compress’ 도 압
축을 지원하기 위해 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Zhiming Wang in
bpo-31638(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<2>,  Prev: zipapp,  Up: 개선된 모듈<3>

1.7.5.63 zipfile
................

*note ZipFile: 6be. 은 이제 압축 수준을 제어하기 위해 새로운
'compresslevel' 매개변수를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-21417(1).)

‘ZipFile’ 에 의해 생성된 저장소에 있는 서브 디렉터리는 이제 알파벳순으로
저장됩니다.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in bpo-30693(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: C API 변경<2>,  Next: 빌드 변경<2>,  Prev: 개선된 모듈<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.6 C API 변경
----------------

스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 API가 구현되었습니다.  개요는 *note PEP
539; 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API: acb. 를, 완전한 레퍼런스는
*note 스레드별 저장소 (TSS - Thread Specific Storage) API: adb.를 보십시
오.  (Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658(1).)

새로운 *note 컨텍스트 변수: abd. 기능은 다수의 *note 새로운 C API: af5.를
노출합니다.

새로운 *note PyImport_GetModule(): bb0. 함수는 주어진 이름으로 이전에 임
포트 한 모듈을 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-28411(2).)

새로운 *note Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE: bb1. 매크로는 풍부한 비교 함수를 작
성하기 쉽게 합니다.  (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699(3).)

새로운 *note Py_UNREACHABLE: bb2. 매크로는 도달할 수 없는 코드 경로를 표
시하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-31338(4).)

*note tracemalloc: ff. 은 이제 새로운 *note PyTraceMalloc_Track(): bb3.과
*note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): bb4. 함수를 통해 C API를 노출합니다.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054(5).)

새로운 ‘import__find__load__start()’와 ‘import__find__load__done()’ 정적
마커를 사용하여 모듈 임포트를 추적 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-31574(6).)

구조체 *note PyMemberDef: 54a, *note PyGetSetDef: bb5, *note
PyStructSequence_Field: bb6, *note PyStructSequence_Desc: bb7. 그리고
‘wrapperbase’ 의 필드 ‘name’과 ‘doc’ 은 이제 ‘char *’ 이 아니라 ‘const
char *’ 형입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28761(7).)

*note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 895. 와 *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bb8.의
결과는 이제 ‘char *’ 이 아니라 ‘const char *’ 입니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769(8).)

*note PyMapping_Keys(): bb9, *note PyMapping_Values(): bba. 및 *note
PyMapping_Items(): bbb.의 결과는 이제 리스트 또는 튜플이 아니라 항상 리
스트입니다.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280(9).)

함수 *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f7.과 *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8.
를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867(10).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f4. 는 폐지되고, 새 함수 *note
PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbc, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bbd. 그리고 *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5.로 대체되었습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-16500(11).)

공개 API의 일부였던 ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ 싱글톤은 제거되었습니다.
청소되지 않은 멤버가 인터프리터의 파이널리제이션 과정에서 세그멘테이션 오
류를 일으킬 수 있기 때문입니다.  (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in
bpo-22898(12) and bpo-30697(13).)

시간대 지원을 위한 timezone 생성자 *note PyTimeZone_FromOffset(): bbe. 과
*note PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName(): bbf. 및 UTC 싱글톤에 액세스하는
*note PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC: bc0. C API 지원을 추가했습니다.
(Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381(14).)

‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ 및 ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’ 의 결과와
*note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): bc1. 의 'id' 매개 변수의 형이 long에
서 unsigned long로 변경되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-6532(15).)

*note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8b9.은 두 번째 인자가 ‘NULL’ 이고
wchar_t* 문자열이 널 문자를 포함하면 *note ValueError: 202. 를 발생시킵
니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708(16).)

시동 절차와 동적 메모리 할당자의 변경으로 인해 대부분의 C API 함수를 호
출하기 전에 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 를 호출해야 한다는 오래전부터 문
서화 된 요구 사항이 이제 더 중요해졌고, 이를 지키지 않으면 내장형 응용 프
로그램에서 세그멘테이션 오류로 이어질 수 있습니다.  자세한 내용은 이 문
서의 *note 파이썬 3.7로 이식하기: ace. 절과 C API 설명서의 *note 파이썬
초기화 전: bc2. 절을 참조하십시오.

새로운 *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): bc3. 는 주어진 인터프리터의 유
일한 ID를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102(17).)

*note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5. 은 이제
*note UTF-8 모드: ac7. 가 활성화될 때 UTF-8 인코딩을 사용합니다.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(18).)

*note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc6. 와 *note
PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bc7.은 이제 ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 처리기에 현
재 로케일 인코딩을 사용합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29240(19).)

*note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b6. 의 'start' 와 'end' 매개 변수가 문자열
슬라이스처럼 동작하도록 조정되었습니다.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in
bpo-28822(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822


File: python.info,  Node: 빌드 변경<2>,  Next: 최적화<3>,  Prev: C API 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.7 빌드 변경
---------------

‘--without-threads’ 빌드 지원이 제거되었습니다.  *note threading: ed. 모
듈은 이제 항상 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-31370(1).)

OSX 이외의 유닉스 플랫폼에서 *note _ctypes: 2a. 모듈을 빌드할 때 사용되
는 libffi의 전체 복사본이 더는 포함되지 않습니다.  이러한 플랫폼에서
‘_ctypes’ 를 빌드 할 때 libffi의 설치된 사본이 필요합니다.  (Contributed
by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979(2).)

윈도우 빌드 프로세스는 외부 소스를 가져오는 데 더는 서브버전에 의존하지
않습니다.  대신 파이썬 스크립트를 사용해서 GitHub에서 zip 파일을 내려받
습니다.  시스템에서 파이썬 3.6이 발견되지 않으면 (‘py -3.6’ 를 통해), 이
목적을 위해 NuGet으로 32-비트 파이썬의 사본을 내려받습니다.
(Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450(3).)

*note ssl: d0. 모듈은 OpenSSL 1.0.2 또는 1.1 호환 libssl을 요구합니다.
OpenSSL 1.0.1의 유효 기간은 2016-12-31 에 만료되었고 더는 지원되지 않습
니다.  LibreSSL도 일시적으로 지원되지 않습니다.  버전 2.6.4까지의
LibreSSL 배포에는 필수 OpenSSL 1.0.2 API가 없습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: 최적화<3>,  Next: 기타 CPython 구현 변경,  Prev: 빌드 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.8 최적화
------------

C로 구현된 다양한 표준 라이브러리 클래스의 많은 메서드를 호출하는 오버헤
드가, ‘METH_FASTCALL’ 규칙을 사용하도록 더 많은 코드를 이식함으로써 상당
히 감소하였습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29300(1),
bpo-29507(2), bpo-29452(3), and bpo-29286(4).)

다양한 최적화를 통해 파이썬의 시작 시간을 리눅스에서 10%, macOS에서 최대
30%까지 줄였습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in
bpo-29585(5), and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333(6).)

메서드 호출은 이제 연결된 메서드 인스턴스 생성을 피하는 바이트 코드 변경
으로 인해 최대 20% 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and
INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(7).)  *note asyncio: a. 모듈은 자주 사용되는 함
수들에 대해 여러 가지 주목할만한 최적화가 이루어졌습니다:

   * *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c2. 함수가 C로 다시 구현되어 최대
     15배 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32296(8).)

   * *note asyncio.Future: bca. 콜백 관리가 최적화되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348(9).)

   * *note asyncio.gather(): 5f7. 는 이제 최대 15% 빨라졌습니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355(10).)

   * *note asyncio.sleep(): a6c.은 이제 'delay' 인자가 0이거나 음수일 때
     최대 2배 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32351(11).)

   * asyncio 디버그 모드의 성능 오버헤드가 감소하였습니다.  (Contributed
     by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970(12).)

*note PEP 560 작업: ac2. 의 결과로, *note typing: 104. 의 임포트 시간이
7배 단축되었으며, 많은 typing 연산이 이제 더 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed
by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226(13).)

*note sorted(): bcb.와 *note list.sort(): bcc. 는 일반적인 사용에 대해 최
대 40-75% 더 빠르게 최적화되었습니다.  (Contributed by Elliot
Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685(14).)

*note dict.copy(): bcd. 는 이제 5.5 배 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-31179(15).)

*note hasattr(): 4cc.과 *note getattr(): bce.은 이제 'name' 이 발견되지
않고 'obj' 가 *note object.__getattr__(): 4cd. 또는 *note
object.__getattribute__(): bcf. 를 재정의하지 않을 때 약 4배 빨라졌습니
다.  (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544(16).)

문자열에서 특정 유니코드 문자 (가령 우크라이나어 “Є”)를 검색하는 것은 다
른 문자를 검색하는 것보다 최대 25배까지 느렸습니다.  이제는 최악의 상황
에도 겨우 3배 느립니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-24821(17).)

*note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. 팩토리가 재구현되어 네임드 튜플을 4
에서 6배 빠르게 생성합니다.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further
improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-28638(18).)

‘date.fromordinal()’ 과 ‘date.fromtimestamp()’ 는 이제 일반적일 때 최대
30% 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(19).)

*note os.fwalk(): b58. 함수는 *note os.scandir(): a5b. 을 사용함으로써 이
제 최대 2배 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25996(20).)

*note os.scandir(): a5b. 함수를 사용하여 *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. 함
수의 속도가 20–40% 향상되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-28564(21).)

최적화된 *note 정규식: b9. 의 대소 문자를 구별하지 않는 매칭과 검색.  일
부 패턴 검색은 이제 최대 20배까지 빨라질 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285(22).)

*note re.compile(): bd0. 은 이제 ‘flags’ 매개 변수가 ‘RegexFlag’ 인 경우
int 객체로 변환합니다.  이제 파이썬 3.5만큼 빠르고, 패턴에 따라 파이썬
3.6보다 약 10% 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-31671(23).)

클래스 *note selectors.EpollSelector: bd1, *note selectors.PollSelector:
bd2. 와 *note selectors.DevpollSelector: bd3. 의 *note modify(): bd4. 메
서드는 높은 부하가 걸릴 때 10% 정도 더 빨라질 수 있습니다.  (Contributed
by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-30014(24))

상수 폴딩은 핍홀 최적화기에서 새로운 AST 최적화기로 이동되어, 더욱 일관
된 최적화를 수행 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA
Naoki in bpo-29469(25) and bpo-11549(26).)

*note abc: 4. 에 있는 대부분 함수와 메서드는 C로 재작성되었습니다.  이로
인해 추상 베이스 클래스 생성과, 이에 대한 *note isinstance(): 43b. 와
*note issubclass(): 7ba. 호출이 1.5 배 더 빠릅니다.  또한, 파이썬 시작 시
간을 최대 10% 단축합니다.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA
Naoki in bpo-31333(27))

*note datetime.date: 1cd. 와 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. 의 대체 생성
자의 경우, 서브 클래스를 만들지 않을 때 파이썬 생성자를 우회해서 속도가
현저히 향상되었습니다.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(28))

*note array.array: 1a0. 인스턴스의 비교 속도가 어떤 경우에는 상당히 향상
되었습니다.  같은 정수 형의 값을 보유한 배열을 비교할 때, 이제는 10배에
서 70배 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700(29).)

*note math.erf(): bd5. 와 *note math.erfc(): bd6. 함수는 이제 대부분 플
랫폼에서 (더 빠른) C 라이브러리 구현을 사용합니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121(30).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 CPython 구현 변경,  Next: 폐지된 파이썬 동작,  Prev: 최적화<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.9 기타 CPython 구현 변경
----------------------------

   * 트레이스 훅은 이제 추적할 프레임의 새로운 *note f_trace_lines: bd8.
     와 *note f_trace_opcodes: bd9. 어트리뷰트를 설정하여, 인터프리터로
     부터 ‘line’ 대신 ‘opcode’ 이벤트를 수신하도록 선택할 수 있습니다.
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344(1).)

   * 이름 공간 패키지 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 일관성 문제를 수정했습니다.
     이름 공간 모듈 객체는 이제 ‘__file__’ 을 ‘None’ (이전에는 설정되지
     않았습니다)으로 설정하고, ‘__spec__.origin’ 도 ‘None’ (이전에는 문
     자열 ‘"namespace"’)으로 설정됩니다.  bpo-32305(2)를 참조하세요.  또
     한, 이름 공간 모듈 객체의 ‘__spec__.loader’ 는 ‘__loader__’ 와 같은
     값으로 설정됩니다 (이전에는 ‘None’ 으로 설정되었습니다).
     bpo-32303(3)을 참조하세요.

   * *note locals(): 141. 딕셔너리는 이제 변수가 정의된 어휘 순서로 표시
     됩니다.  이전에는 순서가 정의되지 않았습니다.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690(4).)

   * ‘distutils’ ‘upload’ 명령은 더는 CR 줄 마침 문자를 CRLF로 바꾸려고
     시도하지 않습니다.  이것은 CR에 해당하는 바이트로 끝나는 sdists의 손
     상 문제를 수정합니다.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32304(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 파이썬 동작,  Next: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드,  Prev: 기타 CPython 구현 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.10 폐지된 파이썬 동작
-------------------------

일드 표현식(‘yield’ 와 ‘yield from’ 절 모두)은 이제 컴프리헨션과 제너레
이터 표현식에서 폐지되었습니다 (가장 왼쪽의 ‘for’ 절의 이터러블 표현식은
제외합니다).  이것은 컴프리헨션이 언제나 적절한 유형의 컨테이너를 즉시 반
환하도록 하고(잠재적으로 *note 제너레이터 이터레이터: bdb. 객체를 반환하
는 것이 아니라), 제너레이터 표현식이 명시적 일드 표현식의 출력 중간에 묵
시적 출력을 끼워 넣으려고 시도하지 못하게 하기 위함입니다.  파이썬 3.7에
서 이러한 표현식은 컴파일될 때 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 을 내보내
고, 파이썬 3.8에서는 *note SyntaxError: 18d. 가 됩니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

*note complex: 2f0. 의 서브 클래스를 *note object.__complex__(): 5e1. 에
서 반환하는 것은 폐지되었고, 향후 파이썬 버전에서 에러가 발생할 것입니다
.  이것은 ‘__complex__()’ 를 *note object.__int__(): 715. 및 *note
object.__float__(): 9c9. 와 일관성 있도록 만듭니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드,  Next: 폐지된 C API의 함수 및 형,  Prev: 폐지된 파이썬 동작,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.11 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드
-----------------------------------------

* Menu:

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<9>.
* wave::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc,  Next: asyncio<8>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.1 aifc
.............

‘aifc.openfp()’ 는 폐지되었고 파이썬 3.9에서 제거될 것입니다.  대신에
‘aifc.open()’ 을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<8>,  Next: collections<3>,  Prev: aifc,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.2 asyncio
................

*note asyncio.Lock: a6e. 및 다른 asyncio 동기화 프리미티브의 인스턴스를
직접 ‘await’ 하는 지원은 폐지되었습니다.  동기화 자원을 획득하고 해제하
기 위해서는 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용해야 합니다.  (Contributed by
Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32253(1).)

‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’와 ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ 메서드는 폐지
되었습니다.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250


File: python.info,  Node: collections<3>,  Next: dbm<3>,  Prev: asyncio<8>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.3 collections
....................

파이썬 3.8에서, *note collections.abc: 1e. 의 추상 베이스 클래스는 더는
*note collections: 1d. 모듈에 노출되지 않습니다.  이것은 구상 클래스와 추
상 베이스 클래스 사이의 명확한 구분을 만드는 데 도움이 됩니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25988(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<3>,  Next: enum<6>,  Prev: collections<3>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.4 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 32. 은 이제 읽기 전용 파일 읽기를 지원하며 변경되지 않았
을 때 더는 색인 파일을 쓰지 않습니다.  ‘'r'’ 및 ‘'w'’ 모드에서 색인 파일
이 빠지고 새로 만들어지면, 이제 폐지 경고가 표시됩니다 (향후의 파이썬 배
포에서는 에러가 발생합니다).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-28847(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847


File: python.info,  Node: enum<6>,  Next: gettext<2>,  Prev: dbm<3>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.5 enum
.............

파이썬 3.8에서, ‘Enum’ 클래스에서 열거형 이외의 객체가 포함되었는지 검사
하려고 하면 *note TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다 (예 ‘1 in Color’); 마찬
가지로 플래그가 아닌 객체를 ‘Flag’ 멤버에 포함되었는지 검사하려고 하면
*note TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다 (예 ‘1 in Perm.RW’); 현재 두 연산 모
두 대신 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
bpo-33217(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: gettext<2>,  Next: importlib<5>,  Prev: enum<6>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.6 gettext
................

*note gettext: 63. 에서 복수형을 선택하기 위해 정수가 아닌 값을 사용하는
것이 폐지되었습니다.  올바르게 작동된 적이 없습니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<5>,  Next: locale<5>,  Prev: gettext<2>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.7 importlib
..................

메서드 ‘MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (*note MetaPathFinder.find_spec():
863. 로 대체되었습니다)와 ‘PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ (*note
PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 867. 로 대체되었습니다) 는 둘 다 파이썬
3.4에서 폐지되었고, 이제는 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 을 일으킵니다.
(Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576(1).)

*note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: be4. ABC는 폐지되었고, 대신 *note
importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afa. 를 사용합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576


File: python.info,  Node: locale<5>,  Next: macpath,  Prev: importlib<5>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.8 locale
...............

‘locale.format()’ 은 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note locale.format_string():
518.을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: macpath,  Next: threading<5>,  Prev: locale<5>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.9 macpath
................

‘macpath’ 는 이제 폐지되었고 파이썬 3.8에서 제거될 것입니다.
(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850


File: python.info,  Node: threading<5>,  Next: socket<6>,  Prev: macpath,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.10 threading
...................

‘dummy_threading’과 ‘_dummy_thread’ 는 폐지되었습니다.  스레딩을 비활성
화하여 파이썬을 빌드하는 것이 더는 가능하지 않습니다.  대신 *note
threading: ed.을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-31370(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370


File: python.info,  Node: socket<6>,  Next: ssl<6>,  Prev: threading<5>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.11 socket
................

*note socket.htons(): 87b. 와 *note socket.ntohs(): 87c. 에서 자동 인자
값 자름은 폐지되었습니다.  이후 버전의 파이썬에서는 전달된 인자가 16비트
보다 큰 경우 예외가 발생합니다.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in
bpo-28332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<6>,  Next: sunau,  Prev: socket<6>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.12 ssl
.............

‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ 은 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note
ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e.을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-28124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124


File: python.info,  Node: sunau,  Next: sys<9>,  Prev: ssl<6>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.13 sunau
...............

‘sunau.openfp()’ 는 폐지되었고 파이썬 3.9에서 제거될 것입니다.  대신에
‘sunau.open()’ 을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: sys<9>,  Next: wave,  Prev: sunau,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.14 sys
.............

‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’와 ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’를 폐지했습
니다.

문서로 만들어지지 않은 ‘sys.callstats()’ 함수는 폐지되었고 향후 파이썬 버
전에서 제거될 것입니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-28799(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799


File: python.info,  Node: wave,  Prev: sys<9>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드

1.7.11.15 wave
..............

‘wave.openfp()’ 는 폐지되었고 파이썬 3.9에서 제거될 것입니다.  대신
*note wave.open(): 949. 을 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin
in bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 C API의 함수 및 형,  Next: 플랫폼 지원 제거,  Prev: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.12 폐지된 C API의 함수 및 형
--------------------------------

함수 *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f6. 는 폐지되었고, ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
가 설정되어 있지 않거나, ‘0x03050400’ 과 ‘0x03060000’ (포함되지 않음) 사
이의 값이나 ‘0x03060100’ 이상의 값으로 설정되어 있으면 매크로로 대체됩니
다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867(1).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f4. 는 폐지되었습니다.  *note
PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbc, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bbd. 또는 *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5. 를 대신 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500


File: python.info,  Node: 플랫폼 지원 제거,  Next: API 및 기능 제거<2>,  Prev: 폐지된 C API의 함수 및 형,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.13 플랫폼 지원 제거
-----------------------

   * FreeBSD 9와 그 이전 버전은 더는 공식적으로 지원되지 않습니다.

   * 확장 모듈 내를 포함하여, 완전한 유니코드 지원을 위해 유닉스 플랫폼
     은 이제 레거시 ‘ASCII’ 기반 ‘C’ 로케일의 대안으로, ‘C.UTF-8’ (전체
     로케일), ‘C.utf8’ (전체 로케일) 또는 ‘UTF-8’ (‘LC_CTYPE’ 전용 로케
     일) 중 적어도 하나를 제공할 것으로 기대됩니다.

   * OpenSSL 0.9.8 및 1.0.1은 더는 지원되지 않습니다.  이는 여전히 이 버
     전을 사용하는 이전 플랫폼에서 SSL/TLS를 지원하는 CPython 3.7을 빌드
     하려면 최신 버전의 OpenSSL에 링크되는 사용자 정의 빌드 옵션이 필요
     함을 뜻합니다.

     특히, 이 문제는 Debian 8 (일명 “jessie”) 및 Ubuntu 14.04 (일명
     “Trusty”) LTS 리눅스 배포판에 영향을 미칩니다.  아직 OpenSSL 1.0.1을
     기본적으로 사용하기 때문입니다.

     Debian 9 (“stretch”) 및 Ubuntu 16.04 (“xenial”) 는, 다른 LTS 리눅스
     배포판(가령, RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES 12-SP3)의 최신 릴리스 역시,
     OpenSSL 1.0.2 이상을 사용하고, 기본 빌드 구성에서 여전히 지원됩니다
     .

     CPython의 자체 CI 구성 파일(1)은 CPython의 테스트 스위트에서 SSL 호
     환성 테스트 기반시설(2)을 사용하여 구형 시스템이 제공하는 OpenSSL대
     신 OpenSSL 1.1.0을 빌드하고 링크하는 예를 제공합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py


File: python.info,  Node: API 및 기능 제거<2>,  Next: 모듈 제거,  Prev: 플랫폼 지원 제거,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.14 API 및 기능 제거
-----------------------

다음 기능과 API는 파이썬 3.7에서 제거되었습니다:

   * ‘os.stat_float_times()’ 함수가 제거되었습니다.  이것은 파이썬 2.2와
     의 하위 호환성을 위해 파이썬 2.3에서 소개되었으며 파이썬 3.1부터 폐
     지되었습니다.

   * *note re.sub(): 2a3. 의 대체 템플릿에 있는 ‘'\'’ 와 ASCII 글자로 이
     루어진 알 수 없는 이스케이프는 파이썬 3.5에서 폐지되었고, 이제는 에
     러를 일으킵니다.

   * *note tarfile.TarFile.add(): bf0. 에서 'exclude' 인자의 지원이 제거
     되었습니다.  파이썬 2.7 및 3.2에서 폐지되었습니다.  대신 'filter' 인
     자를 사용하십시오.

   * ‘ntpath.splitunc()’ 함수는 파이썬 3.1에서 폐지되었고, 이제 제거되었
     습니다.  대신에 *note splitdrive(): bf1. 를 사용하십시오.

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca.은 네임드 튜플 클래스에 대해 생
     성된 소스 코드를 보여주는 'verbose' 매개 변수 나 ‘_source’ 어트리뷰
     트를 더는 지원하지 않습니다.  이것은 클래스 생성 속도를 높이기 위해
     고안된 최적화 일부입니다.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with
     further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-28638(1).)

   * 함수 *note bool(): 461, *note float(): 2ef, *note list(): 60b. 그리
     고 *note tuple(): 369. 은 더는 키워드 인자를 취하지 않습니다.
     *note int(): 257. 의 첫 번째 인자는 이제 위치 인자로만 전달될 수 있
     습니다.

   * *note plistlib: ab. 모듈에서, 이전에 파이썬 2.4에서 폐지된 클래스
     ‘Plist’, ‘Dict’, ‘_InternalDict’ 가 제거되었습니다.  ‘readPlist()’
     함수와 ‘readPlistFromBytes()’ 함수의 결과에서 Dict 값은 이제 정상적
     인 딕셔너리입니다.  더는 어트리뷰트 액세스를 사용하여 이러한 딕셔너
     리의 항목에 액세스할 수 없습니다.

   * ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ 함수가 삭제되었습니다.  대신에
     *note socket.socketpair(): bf2. 함수를 사용하십시오.  파이썬 3.5부
     터 모든 플랫폼에서 사용할 수 있습니다.
     ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair’ 는 파이썬 3.5 이상에서
     ‘socket.socketpair’ 의 별칭이었습니다.

   * *note asyncio: a. 는 더는 *note selectors: c2.와 ‘_overlapped’ 모듈
     을 ‘asyncio.selectors’ 와 ‘asyncio._overlapped’ 로 노출하지 않습니
     다.  ‘from asyncio import selectors’ 를 ‘import selectors’ 로 대체
     하십시오.

   * *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7. 과 *note ssl.SSLObject: b7e. 객체의 직접
     적인 인스턴스 생성이 금지되었습니다.  생성자는 공개 생성자로서 문서
     화, 테스트 또는 설계되지 않았습니다.  사용자는 ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’
     또는 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 를 사용해야 합니다.  (Contributed
     by Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(2).)

   * 사용되지 않는 ‘distutils’ ‘install_misc’ 명령이 제거되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 제거,  Next: 윈도우 전용 변경,  Prev: API 및 기능 제거<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.15 모듈 제거
----------------

‘fpectl’ 모듈이 삭제되었습니다.  기본적으로 활성화된 적이 없고, x86-64에
서 제대로 작동한 적도 없고, 예기치 않게 C 확장을 깨뜨리는 방식으로 파이
썬 ABI를 변경했습니다.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-29137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 전용 변경,  Next: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기,  Prev: 모듈 제거,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.16 윈도우 전용 변경
-----------------------

파이썬 런처(py.exe)는 32비트와 64비트 지정자를 받아들일 수 있는데, 마이
너 버전을 지정하지 '않아도' 됩니다.  그래서 ‘py -3.7-32’ 뿐만 아니라 ‘py
-3-32’ 와 ‘py -3-64’ 도 유효합니다.  또한 -'m'-64와 -'m.n'-64 형식도 이
제 받아들이는데, 지정하지 않을 때 32비트가 사용되는 경우도 64비트 파이썬
을 강제합니다.  지정된 버전을 사용할 수 없는 경우 py.exe가 에러를 일으키
며 종료됩니다.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30291(1).)

런처는 ‘py -0’ 처럼 실행시킬 수 있는데, 설치되어있는 파이썬의 목록을 만
들고, '기본값을 애스터리스크로 표시합니다'.  ‘py -0p’ 를 실행하면 경로가
포함됩니다.  py가 일치할 수 없는 버전 지정자로 실행되면 사용 가능한 지정
자의 '짧은 양식' 목록도 인쇄됩니다.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in
bpo-30362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기,  Next: 파이썬 3 7 1의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 윈도우 전용 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 7의 새로운 기능

1.7.17 파이썬 3.7로 이식하기
----------------------------

이 섹션에서는 여러분의 코드 수정을 요구하는 앞서 설명한 변경 사항과 버그
수정을 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 동작의 변경: 파이썬 동작의 변경<2>.
* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<4>.
* C API의 변경: C API의 변경<3>.
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<3>.
* 윈도우 전용 변경: 윈도우 전용 변경<2>.
* 기타 CPython 구현 변경: 기타 CPython 구현 변경<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 동작의 변경<2>,  Next: 파이썬 API의 변경<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기

1.7.17.1 파이썬 동작의 변경
...........................

   * *note async: 72b.와 *note await: 1b9. 이름은 이제 예약 키워드입니다
     .  이 이름을 식별자로 사용하는 코드는 이제 *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     를 발생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-30406(1).)

   * PEP 479(2) 는 파이썬 3.7의 모든 코드에서 활성화되었습니다.  즉 코루
     틴과 제너레이터에서 직접 또는 간접적으로 발생하는 *note
     StopIteration: bf7. 예외는 *note RuntimeError: 195. 예외로 변환됩니
     다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32670(3).)

   * *note object.__aiter__(): bf8. 메서드는 더는 비동기로 선언될 수 없
     습니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709(4).)

   * 못 보고 넘기는 바람에, 이전 파이썬 버전에서 다음 문법이 받아들여 지
     는 잘못이 있었습니다:

          f(1 for x in [1],)

          class C(1 for x in [1]):
              pass

     파이썬 3.7은 이제 올바르게 *note SyntaxError: 18d. 를 일으킵니다.  제
     너레이터 표현식은 항상 괄호 안에 바로 들어가 있어야 하며 양쪽에 쉼
     표를 넣을 수 없고 중복된 괄호는 오직 호출 시에만 생략 할 수 있습니
     다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012(5) and
     bpo-32023(6).)

   * *note -m: 5db. 스위치를 사용할 때, 이제 빈 문자열 대신에 초기 작업
     디렉터리가 *note sys.path: 3ae. 에 추가됩니다 (빈 문자열은 각 임포
     트 시점의 작업 디렉터리가 동적으로 적용되게 만듭니다).  빈 문자열을
     검사하는 프로그램이나 이전 동작에 의존하는 프로그램은 그에 따라 업
     데이트해야 합니다 (예를 들어, 왜 코드가 빈 문자열을 검사했는지에 따
     라 ‘os.getcwd()’ 또는 ‘os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)’ 도 검사
     해서).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 API의 변경<4>,  Next: C API의 변경<3>,  Prev: 파이썬 동작의 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기

1.7.17.2 파이썬 API의 변경
..........................

   * ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ 는 이제 모든 데몬이 아
     닌 스레드가 완료될 때까지 대기합니다.  3.7 이전의 동작을 얻으려면 새
     로운 *note socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close: bfa. 클래스
     어트리뷰트를 ‘False’ 로 설정하십시오.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31233(1) and bpo-33540(2).)

   * ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ 는 이제 모든 자식 프로세
     스가 완료될 때까지 대기합니다.  3.7 이전의 동작을 얻으려면 새로운
     ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ 클래스 어트리뷰트를
     ‘False’ 로 설정하십시오.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-31151(3) and bpo-33540(4).)

   * *note locale.localeconv(): bfb. 함수는 이제 일시적으로 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 로
     케일을 ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 의 값으로 설정하는 때도 있습니다.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(5).)

   * *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): bfc. 는 'path' 가 문자열이면 *note
     ValueError: 202. 를 발생시킵니다.  이전에는 빈 리스트가 반환되었습
     니다.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744(6).)

   * *note string.Formatter.format(): bfd. 의 포맷 문자열 인자는 이제
     *note 위치-전용: a82. 입니다.  키워드 인자로 전달하는 것은 파이썬
     3.5에서 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29193(7).)

   * 클래스 *note http.cookies.Morsel: bfe. 의 어트리뷰트 *note key:
     bff, *note value: c00. 및 *note coded_value: c01. 는 이제 읽기 전용
     입니다.  그들에게 대입하는 것은 파이썬 3.5에서 폐지되었습니다.  그
     것들을 설정하려면 *note set(): c02. 메서드를 사용하십시오.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29192(8).)

   * *note os.makedirs(): 21e. 의 'mode' 인자는 더는 새로 생성된 중간 수
     준 디렉터리의 파일 사용 권한 비트에 영향을 미치지 않습니다.  파일 사
     용 권한 비트를 설정하기 위해서 ‘makedirs()’ 를 호출하기 전에 umask를
     설정할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-19930(9).)

   * *note struct.Struct.format: c03. 형은 이제 *note bytes: 1c2. 가 아
     니라 *note str: 445. 입니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(10).)

   * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ 는 이제 'encoding' 및 'errors' 인자를 받아
     들이고 ‘FieldStorage’ 과 같은 결과를 반환합니다: 파일이 아닌 필드의
     경우 키와 연관된 값은 바이트열이 아니라 문자열의 리스트입니다.
     (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29979(11).)

   * *note socket: cc. 의 내부 변경으로 인해, 이번 버전의 파이썬에서
     *note socket.share: c04. 로 만들어진 소켓에 *note
     socket.fromshare(): c05. 를 호출하는 것은 지원되지 않습니다.

   * *note BaseException: 5b5. 의 ‘repr’ 은 후행 쉼표를 포함하지 않도록
     변경되었습니다.  대부분의 예외는 이 변경의 영향을 받습니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399(12).)

   * *note datetime.timedelta: 9cc. 의 ‘repr’ 은 키워드 인자를 출력에 포
     함하도록 변경되었습니다.  (Contributed by Utkarsh Upadhyay in
     bpo-30302(13).)

   * *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. 는 이제 *note os.scandir(): a5b. 함수를
     사용하여 구현되었으므로, 사용자 지정 처리기 'onerror' 는 이제 디렉
     터리의 목록을 얻는 데 실패하면 첫 번째 인자가 ‘os.listdir’ 대신
     ‘os.scandir’ 로 호출됩니다.

   * 유니코드 기술 표준 #18(14) 과같이 정규 표현식에서 중첩 집합 및 집합
     연산에 대한 지원이 향후 추가될 수 있습니다.  그러면 문법이 변경됩니
     다.  미래의 변화를 촉진하기 위해 당분간 모호한 경우에 *note
     FutureWarning: 40f. 를 일으킬 것입니다.  이 경우는 리터럴 ‘'['’ 로
     시작하거나 리터럴 문자 ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’ 및 ‘'||'’ 을 포함하는
     집합을 포함합니다.  경고를 피하려면 백 슬래시로 이스케이프 처리하십
     시오.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(15).)

   * 빈 문자열과 일치 할 수 있는 *note 정규식: b9. 으로 문자열을 나눈 결
     과가 변경되었습니다.  예를 들어, ‘r'\s*'’ 로 나누면, 이전처럼 공백
     문자뿐만 아니라, 공백 문자가 아닌 문자의 앞과 문자열 끝 바로 직전의
     빈 문자열로도 나눕니다.  패턴을 ‘r'\s+'’ 로 변경하면 이전의 동작을
     복원 할 수 있습니다.  파이썬 3.5부터 그러한 패턴에 대해 *note
     FutureWarning: 40f. 을 만들었습니다.

     빈 문자열과 비어 있지 않은 문자열 모두와 일치하는 패턴의 경우, 모든
     일치를 검색한 결과가 다른 경우에도 변경될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어,
     문자열 ‘'a\n\n'’ 에서, 패턴 ‘r'(?m)^\s*?$'’ 는 위치 2와 3의 빈 문자
     열을 일치시킬 뿐만 아니라, 위치 2–3의 문자열 ‘'\n'’ 도 일치시킵니다
     .  빈 줄만 일치시키려면, 패턴을 ‘r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'’ 으로 다시 써야
     합니다.

     *note re.sub(): 2a3.는 이제 이전의 비어 있지 않은 일치에 인접한 빈
     일치를 치환합니다.  예를 들어 ‘re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’ 는 이제
     ‘'-a-b-d-'’ 대신에 ‘'-a-b--d-'’ 를 돌려줍니다 (‘b’와 ‘d’ 사이의 첫
     번째 마이너스는 ‘x’를 치환하고 두 번째 마이너스는 ‘x’와 ‘d’ 사이의
     빈 문자열을 치환합니다).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054(16) and
     bpo-32308(17).)

   * 변경 *note re.escape(): c06. 가 ASCII 문자, 숫자 및 ‘'_'’ 이외의 모
     든 문자를 이스케이프 하는 대신 정규식 특수 문자만 이스케이프 하도록
     변경합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29995(18).)

   * *note tracemalloc.Traceback: b93. 프레임은 이제 가장 오래된 것부터
     가장 최근의 것 순으로 정렬되어, *note traceback: fe. 과 더 일관성 있
     게 만듭니다.  (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(19).)

   * *note socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK: c07. 또는 *note socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC:
     c08. 비트 플래그를 지원하는 OS에서, *note socket.type: c09. 에 이것
     들을 더는 적용하지 않습니다.  따라서 ‘if sock.type ==
     socket.SOCK_STREAM’ 과 같은 검사는 모든 플랫폼에서 예상대로 작동합
     니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331(20).)

   * 윈도우에서 표준 핸들을 리디렉션 할 때 *note subprocess.Popen: 199.
     의 'close_fds' 인자의 기본값이 *note False: b34. 에서 *note True:
     c0a. 로 변경되었습니다.  이전에 표준 입출력 리디렉션으로 *note
     subprocess.Popen: 199. 을 사용할 때 상속된 핸들에 의존했다면, 이전
     동작을 유지하기 위해서 ‘close_fds=False’ 를 넘기거나 *note
     STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: c0b. 를 사용해야 합니다.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): c0c. – 묵
     시적으로 *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d. 에 영향을 줍니다
     – 는 이제 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 에서 ‘None’ 으로 설정
     된 엔트리를 삭제합니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-33169(21).)

   * *note asyncio: a. 에서, *note loop.sock_recv(): c0e, *note
     loop.sock_sendall(): c0f, *note loop.sock_accept(): c10, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): c11, *note loop.getnameinfo(): c12. 는 문서와 일
     치하도록 적절한 코루틴 메서드로 변경되었습니다.  이전에는, 이 메서
     드는 *note asyncio.Future: bca. 인스턴스를 반환했습니다.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32327(22).)

   * *note asyncio.Server.sockets: c13. 는 이제 내부 서버 소켓 리스트를
     직접 돌려주는 대신 사본을 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-32662(23).)

   * *note Struct.format: c03. 는 *note bytes: 1c2. 인스턴스 대신에
     *note str: 445. 인스턴스가 되었습니다.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-21071(24).)

   * ‘required=True’를 *note ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): c14.로 전
     달하여 *note argparse: 6. 부속 파서를 필수로 만들 수 있습니다.
     (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510(25).)

   * *note ast.literal_eval(): c15. 이 이제 더 엄격해졌습니다.  임의 숫
     자를 더하거나 빼는 것이 더는 허용되지 않습니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778(26).)

   * *note Calendar.itermonthdates: c16. 는 이제 날짜가 ‘0001-01-01’ 에
     서 ‘9999-12-31’ 범위를 벗어나면 일관되게 예외를 일으킵니다.  이러한
     예외를 허용할 수 없는 응용 프로그램을 지원하기 위해 새로운 *note
     Calendar.itermonthdays3: c17. 와 *note Calendar.itermonthdays4:
     c18. 를 사용할 수 있습니다.  새로운 메서드는 튜플을 반환하고 *note
     datetime.date: 1cd. 에 의해 지원되는 범위에 제한받지 않습니다.
     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-28292(27).)

   * *note collections.ChainMap: c19. 은 이제 하부 매핑의 순서를 보존합
     니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32792(28).)

   * *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 와 *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 의 ‘submit()’ 메서드는
     인터프리터가 종료하는 동안 호출되면 *note RuntimeError: 195. 를 발
     생시킵니다.  (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097(29).)

   * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. 생성자는 ‘read_dict()’ 를 사
     용하여 기본값을 처리해서, 그 동작을 파서의 나머지와 일관되게 합니다
     .  이제 기본 딕셔너리의 문자열이 아닌 키와 값은 묵시적으로 문자열로
     변환됩니다.  (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835(30).)

   * 문서로 만들어지지 않은 여러 가지 내부 임포트가 제거되었습니다.  한
     가지 예는 ‘os.errno’를 더는 사용할 수 없다는 것입니다; 대신 ‘import
     errno’를 직접 사용하십시오.  이러한 문서로 만들어지지 않은 내부 임
     포트는, 마이크로 버전 배포에서도, 언제든지 예고 없이 삭제될 수 있음
     에 유의하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302

   (14) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835


File: python.info,  Node: C API의 변경<3>,  Next: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<3>,  Prev: 파이썬 API의 변경<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기

1.7.17.3 C API의 변경
.....................

함수 *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f6. 는 크기 조절이 가능한 시퀀스에 대
해 안전하지 않은 것으로 간주합니다.  슬라이스 인덱스가 *note int: 257. 의
인스턴스가 아니라 ‘__index__()’ 메서드를 구현하는 객체인 경우, 시퀀스는
길이를 ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ 에 전달한 후 크기를 조정할 수 있습니다.
이로 인해 시퀀스의 길이를 벗어나는 인덱스가 반환될 수 있습니다.  가능한
문제를 피하려면 *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f7.과 *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8. 라는 새로운 함수를 사용하십시오.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<3>,  Next: 윈도우 전용 변경<2>,  Prev: C API의 변경<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기

1.7.17.4 CPython 바이트 코드 변경
.................................

두 개의 새로운 옵코드가 있습니다: *note LOAD_METHOD: c1c.와
‘CALL_METHOD’.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
bpo-26110(1).)

‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ 옵코드가 삭제되었습니다.  (Contributed by Mark
Shannon in bpo-32550(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 전용 변경<2>,  Next: 기타 CPython 구현 변경<2>,  Prev: CPython 바이트 코드 변경<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기

1.7.17.5 윈도우 전용 변경
.........................

*note sys.path: 3ae. 를 재정의하는데 사용되는 파일은 이제 ‘'sys.path'’ 대
신에 ‘<python-executable>._pth’ 라고 불립니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 모듈
찾기: c1e. 를 보십시오.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-28137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 CPython 구현 변경<2>,  Prev: 윈도우 전용 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 7로 이식하기

1.7.17.6 기타 CPython 구현 변경
...............................

공개된 CPython 실행시간 초기화 API에 가해질 잠재적인 미래의 변경을 준비
하기 위해 (초기의, 하지만 약간 낡은 초안은 PEP 432(1)를 보십시오),
CPython의 내부 시작 및 구성 관리 로직이 상당히 리팩토링 되었습니다.  이
러한 업데이트는 내장형 응용 프로그램과 일반 CPython CLI의 사용자 모두에
게 완전히 투명하도록 의도했지만, 리팩토링 변경이 인터프리터 시작 시 다양
한 작업의 내부 순서를 변경하므로 내장형 응용 프로그램과 CPython 자체에서
잠재 결함을 드러낼 수 있으므로 여기에서 언급합니다.  (처음에는 Nick
Coghlan과 Eric Snow가 bpo-22257(2) 의 일부로 이바지했고, Nick, Eric,
Victor Stinner가 여러 이슈를 통해 추가로 업데이트했습니다).  영향을 받는
일부 알려진 세부 정보는 이렇습니다:

   * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’ 는 ‘Py_Initialize’를 호출하기 전에 유
     니코드 객체를 생성해야 하는 요구사항 때문에 현재 내장형 응용 프로그
     램에서는 사용할 수 없습니다.  대신에 ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’ 을 사
     용하십시오.

   * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’으로 내장형 응용 프로그램이 추가한 경고 필터
     는 이제 인터프리터가 설정한 기본 필터보다 더 일관되게 우선해야 합니
     다.

기본 경고 필터가 구성되는 방식의 변경으로 인해, *note
Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce. 를 1보다 큰 값으로 설정하는 것이 더는 *note
BytesWarning: c20. 메시지를 내보내면서 동시에 예외로 변환되도록 하기에 충
분하지 못합니다.  대신, 플래그를 설정해야 하고 (경고가 처음에 발생하도록
), 예외로 변환하기 위해 명시적으로 ‘error::BytesWarning’ 경고 필터를 추
가해야 합니다.

컴파일러가 독스트링을 처리하는 방식의 변화 때문에, 독스트링만으로 구성된
함수 바디의 묵시적인 ‘return None’ 은, 이제 함수의 헤더 행이 아니라 독스
트링과 같은 줄에 등장하는 것으로 표시됩니다.

현재 예외 상태가 프레임 객체에서 코루틴으로 옮겨졌습니다.  이는 인터프리
터를 간소화하고 제너레이터에 들어가거나 빠져나갈 때 예외 상태를 스와프함
으로써 발생하는 모호한 두 가지 버그를 수정했습니다.  (Contributed by
Mark Shannon in bpo-25612(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612


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1.7.18 파이썬 3.7.1의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

3.7.1부터, *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.는 이제 *note Py_Main(): c22.과 같
은 환경 설정을 일관되게 읽고 존중합니다 (이전 파이썬 버전에서는, 환경 변
수 중 잘 정의되지 않은 부분 집합을 존중했지만 파이썬 3.7.0에서는
bpo-34247(1)로 인해 아무것도 읽지 않았습니다).  이 동작을 원하지 않으면,
*note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.를 호출하기 전에 *note
Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2.를 1로 설정하십시오.

3.7.1에서, 컨텍스트 변수를 위한 C API는 *note PyObject: 332. 포인터를 사
용하도록 *note 변경되었습니다: c23.  bpo-34762(2)를 참조하세요.

3.7.1에서, *note tokenize: fb. 모듈은 끝에 줄 바꿈이 없는 입력이 제공될
때 묵시적으로 ‘NEWLINE’ 토큰을 산출합니다.  이 동작은 이제 C 토크나이저
가 내부적으로 수행하는 것과 일치합니다.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in
bpo-33899(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


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1.7.19 파이썬 3.7.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

3.7.2에서, 윈도우에서 *note venv: 111.는 더는 원본 바이너리를 복사하지 않
고, 대신 ‘python.exe’ 와 ‘pythonw.exe’라는 리디렉터 스크립트를 만듭니다.
이렇게 하면 각 파이썬 업데이트마다 모든 가상 환경을 업그레이드하거나 다
시 만들어야 하는 오랜 문제를 해결할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 이 배포에서는
새 스크립트를 얻기 위해 가상 환경을 다시 만들어야 함에 유의하세요.


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1.7.20 파이썬 3.7.6의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

심각한 보안 문제로 인해, *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint():
72c.의 'reuse_address' 매개 변수는 더는 지원되지 않습니다.  이것은 UDP에
서 소켓 옵션 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’의 동작 때문입니다.  자세한 내용은
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’ 설명서를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed
by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


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1.7.21 파이썬 3.7.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

이전 파이썬 버전에서는 *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27a.와 *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279.에서 쿼리 매개 변수 구분자로 ‘;’과 ‘&’를 모
두 사용할 수 있었습니다.  보안 문제와 최신 W3C 권장 사항을 준수하기 위해
, ‘&’가 기본값인 단일 구분자 키만 허용하도록 변경되었습니다.  이 변경 사
항은 영향을 받는 함수를 내부적으로 사용하므로 ‘cgi.parse()’와
‘cgi.parse_multipart()’에도 영향을 줍니다.  자세한 내용은 해당 설명서를
참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken
Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


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1.7.22 파이썬 3.7.11의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 10a. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


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1.7.23 파이썬 3.7.14의 주목할만한 보안 기능
-------------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 257. and *note str: 445. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


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1.8 파이썬 3.6의 새로운 기능
============================


편집자: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

이 기사에서는 3.5와 비교하여 파이썬 3.6의 새로운 기능을 설명합니다.  파
이썬 3.6은 2016년 12월 23일에 출시되었습니다.  전체 변경 목록은
changelog(1)를 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 494(2) - 파이썬 3.6 출시 일정

* Menu:

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<4>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<5>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<4>.
* 새로운 모듈::
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<4>.
* 최적화: 최적화<4>.
* 빌드와 C API 변경: 빌드와 C API 변경<2>.
* 기타 개선 사항::
* 폐지: 폐지<3>.
* 제거: 제거<3>.
* 파이썬 3.6으로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.6.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.7의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 7의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.13의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 13의 주목할만한 변경 사항.
* 파이썬 3.6.14의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 6 14의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/


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1.8.1 요약 – 배포 주요 사항
---------------------------

새로운 문법 기능:

   * *note PEP 498: c2c, 포맷 문자열 리터럴.

   * *note PEP 515: c2d, 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄.

   * *note PEP 526: c2e, 변수 어노테이션 문법.

   * *note PEP 525: c2f, 비동기 제너레이터.

   * *note PEP 530: c30.: 비동기 컴프리헨션.

새로운 라이브러리 모듈:

   * *note secrets: c0.: *note PEP 506 – 표준 라이브러리에 secret 모듈
     추가: c31.

CPython 구현 개선:

   * *note dict: ac3. 형은 Raymond Hettinger의 제안(1)에 기반한 *note
     더욱더 간결한 표현: c32.을 사용하도록 재구현되었으며 PyPy 딕셔너리
     구현(2)과 유사합니다.  이로 인해 파이썬 3.5와 비교할 때 딕셔너리가
     20%에서 25% 적은 메모리를 사용하게 되었습니다.

   * *note 새 프로토콜: c33.로 클래스 생성의 사용자 정의가 단순화되었습
     니다.

   * 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서는 *note 이제 보존됩니다: c34.

   * ‘**kwargs’의 요소 순서는 이제 키워드 인자가 함수에 전달된 *note
     순서에 해당합니다: c35.

   * DTrace와 SystemTap *note 프로브 지원: c36.이 추가되었습니다.

   * 이제 새로운 *note PYTHONMALLOC: c37. 환경 변수를 사용하여 인터프리
     터 메모리 할당과 액세스 에러를 디버깅 할 수 있습니다.

표준 라이브러리 대폭 개선:

   * *note asyncio: a. 모듈은 새로운 기능, 상당한 사용성 및 성능 향상, 상
     당한 양의 버그 수정을 받았습니다.  파이썬 3.6부터 ‘asyncio’ 모듈은
     더는 잠정적이지 않으며 해당 API는 안정적인 것으로 간주합니다.

   * *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 지원하기 위해 새로운 *note 파일 시스템
     경로 프로토콜: c38.이 구현되었습니다.  경로에서 작동하는 모든 표준
     라이브러리 함수가 새 프로토콜과 함께 작동하도록 갱신되었습니다.

   * *note datetime: 30. 모듈은 *note 현지 시간 명확성: c39.에 대한 지원
     을 얻었습니다.

   * *note typing: 104. 모듈은 여러 *note 개선: c3a.을 받았습니다.

   * *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈은 크게 다시 작업 되었으며 이제 *note
     ResourceWarning: 244.에 대해 더 나은 출력을 제공하고 메모리 할당 에
     러에 대한 더 나은 진단을 제공하는 데 사용됩니다.  자세한 내용은
     *note PYTHONMALLOC 섹션: c37.을 참조하십시오.

보안 향상:

   * 새로운 *note secrets: c0. 모듈이 추가되어 계정 인증, 토큰 등과 같은
     비밀 관리에 적합한 암호화 된 강력한 의사 난수 생성을 단순화합니다.

   * 리눅스에서, *note os.urandom(): 51c.은 이제 보안을 강화하기 위해 시
     스템 urandom 엔트로피 풀이 초기화될 때까지 블록합니다.  근거는 PEP
     524(3)를 참조하십시오.

   * *note hashlib: 68.와 *note ssl: d0. 모듈은 이제 OpenSSL 1.1.0을 지
     원합니다.

   * *note ssl: d0. 모듈의 기본 설정과 기능 집합이 개선되었습니다.

   * *note hashlib: 68. 모듈은 BLAKE2, SHA-3 및 SHAKE 해시 알고리즘과
     *note scrypt(): c3b. 키 파생 함수에 대한 지원을 받았습니다.

윈도우 개선:

   * *note PEP 528: c3c.과 *note PEP 529: c3d, 윈도우 파일 시스템과 콘솔
     인코딩이 UTF-8로 변경되었습니다.

   * ‘py.exe’ 런처는 대화식으로 사용할 때 사용자가 버전을 지정하지 않을
     때 (명령 줄 인자나 구성 파일을 통해) 더는 파이썬 3보다 파이썬 2를 선
     호하지 않습니다.  셔뱅 줄의 처리는 변경되지 않았습니다 - 이 경우
     “python”은 파이썬 2를 나타냅니다.

   * ‘python.exe’와 ‘pythonw.exe’는 긴 경로 인식으로 표시되어서, 260자 경
     로 제한이 더는 적용되지 않을 수 있음을 뜻합니다.  자세한 내용은
     *note MAX_PATH 제한 제거: c3e.를 참조하십시오.

   * ‘._pth’ 파일을 추가하여 격리 모드를 강제 적용하고 모든 검색 경로를
     완전히 지정하여 레지스트리와 환경 조회를 방지할 수 있습니다.  자세
     한 정보는 *note 설명서: c1e.를 참조하십시오.

   * 이제 ‘python36.zip’ 파일이 *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6.을 추론하는 랜드 마
     크로 작동합니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 설명서: c1e.를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 기능<5>,  Next: 기타 언어 변경<4>,  Prev: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.2 새로운 기능
-----------------

* Menu:

* PEP 498; 포맷 문자열 리터럴: PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴.
* PEP 526; 변수 어노테이션 문법: PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법.
* PEP 515; 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄: PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄.
* PEP 525; 비동기 제너레이터: PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터.
* PEP 530; 비동기 컴프리헨션: PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션.
* PEP 487; 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의: PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의.
* PEP 487; 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상: PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상.
* PEP 519; 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가: PEP 519 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가.
* PEP 495; 현지 시간 명확성: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성.
* PEP 529; 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
* PEP 528; 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경: PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
* PEP 520; 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지: PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지.
* PEP 468; 키워드 인자 순서 유지: PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지.
* 새로운 dict 구현::
* PEP 523; CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가.
* PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수::
* DTrace와 SystemTap 프로브 지원::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴,  Next: PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.1 PEP 498: 포맷 문자열 리터럴
...................................

PEP 498(1)은 새로운 종류의 문자열 리터럴 'f-문자열(f-strings)', 또는
*note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6.을 도입합니다.

포맷 문자열 리터럴은 ‘'f'’를 접두어로 사용하고 *note str.format(): 61b.에
서 허용하는 포맷 문자열과 유사합니다.  중괄호로 둘러싸인 치환 필드가 포
함됩니다.  치환 필드는 실행 시간에 평가된 다음 *note format(): 619. 프로
토콜을 사용하여 포맷되는 표현식입니다:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name}."
     'He said his name is Fred.'
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # 중첩된 필드
     'result:      12.35'

더 보기
.......

PEP 498(2) – 리터럴 문자열 보간.

     Eric V. Smith가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

*note 기능 설명서: 9a6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법,  Next: PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄,  Prev: PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.2 PEP 526: 변수 어노테이션 문법
.....................................

PEP 484(1)는 함수 매개 변수의 형 어노테이션, 일명 형 힌트에 대한 표준을
도입했습니다.  이 PEP는 클래스 변수와 인스턴스 변수를 포함한 변수 형에 어
노테이트하기 위해 파이썬에 구문을 추가합니다:

     primes: List[int] = []

     captain: str  # 노트: 초깃값이 없습니다!

     class Starship:
         stats: Dict[str, int] = {}

함수 어노테이션과 마찬가지로, 파이썬 인터프리터는 변수 어노테이션에 특별
한 의미를 부여하지 않고 클래스나 모듈의 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트에 저
장하기만 합니다.

정적으로 타이핑된 언어의 변수 선언과 달리, 어노테이션 문법의 목표는 추상
구문 트리와 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트를 통해 제삼자 도구와 라이브러리
를 위해 구조화된 형 메타 데이터를 쉽게 지정할 방법을 제공하는 것입니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 526(2) – 변수 어노테이션 문법.

     Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach 및 Guido
     van Rossum이 작성한 PEP. Ivan Levkivskyi가 구현했습니다.

새 문법을 사용하거나 사용할 도구: mypy(3), pytype(4), PyCharm 등.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://www.mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄,  Next: PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터,  Prev: PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.3 PEP 515: 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄
...................................

PEP 515(1)는 가독성을 높이기 위해 숫자 리터럴에 밑줄을 사용하는 기능을 추
가합니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
     1000000000000000
     >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
     4294967295

숫자 사이와 진수 지정자(base specifier) 뒤에 단일 밑줄이 허용됩니다.  선
행, 후행 또는 여러 밑줄이 연속해서 나오는 것은 허용되지 않습니다.

*note 문자열 포매팅: 1e8. 언어는 이제 부동 소수점 표시형과 정수 표시형
‘'d'’에 대해 천 단위 구분자에 밑줄 사용을 알리는 ‘'_'’ 옵션을 지원합니다
.  정수 표시형 ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’, ‘'x'’ 및 ‘'X'’의 경우, 밑줄이 4자리마다 삽
입됩니다:

     >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
     '1_000_000'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
     'ffff_ffff'

더 보기
.......

PEP 515(2) – 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄

     Georg Brandl과 Serhiy Storchaka가 작성한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터,  Next: PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션,  Prev: PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.4 PEP 525: 비동기 제너레이터
..................................

PEP 492(1)는 파이썬 3.5에 네이티브 코루틴과 ‘async’ / ‘await’ 구문에 대
한 지원을 도입했습니다.  파이썬 3.5 구현의 주목할만한 제한은 같은 함수 본
문에서 ‘await’와 ‘yield’를 사용할 수 없다는 것입니다.  파이썬 3.6에서는
이 제한이 해제되어 '비동기 제너레이터(asynchronous generators)'를 정의할
수 있습니다:

     async def ticker(delay, to):
         """0 에서 *to* 까지의 숫자를 *delay* 초마다 일드합니다."""
         for i in range(to):
             yield i
             await asyncio.sleep(delay)

새로운 문법은 더 빠르고 간결한 코드를 허용합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 525(2) – 비동기 제너레이터

     Yury Selivanov가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션,  Next: PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의,  Prev: PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.5 PEP 530: 비동기 컴프리헨션
..................................

PEP 530(1)은 리스트, 집합, 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션과 제너레이터 표현식에서
‘async for’ 사용에 대한 지원을 추가합니다:

     result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]

또한, ‘await’ 표현식은 모든 종류의 컴프리헨션에서 지원됩니다:

     result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]

더 보기
.......

PEP 530(2) – 비동기 컴프리헨션

     Yury Selivanov가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의,  Next: PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상,  Prev: PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.6 PEP 487: 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의
..................................................

이제 메타 클래스를 사용하지 않고도 서브 클래스 생성을 사용자 정의할 수 있
습니다.  새 서브 클래스가 만들어질 때마다 새 ‘__init_subclass__’ 클래스
메서드가 베이스 클래스에서 호출됩니다:

     class PluginBase:
         subclasses = []

         def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
             super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
             cls.subclasses.append(cls)

     class Plugin1(PluginBase):
         pass

     class Plugin2(PluginBase):
         pass

인자가 없는 *note super(): 4d5. 호출이 *note __init_subclass__(): 62b. 구
현에서 올바르게 작동하도록 하기 위해, 사용자 정의 메타 클래스에서 새
‘__classcell__’ 이름 공간 항목이 ‘type.__new__’로 전파되도록 해야 합니다
(*note 클래스 객체 만들기: c47.에 설명되었듯이).

더 보기
.......

PEP 487(1) – 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의

     Martin Teichmann이 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

*note 기능 설명서: c48.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상,  Next: PEP 519 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가,  Prev: PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.7 PEP 487: 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상
.........................................

PEP 487(1)은 새로운 선택적 *note __set_name__(): c4b. 메서드를 포함하도
록 디스크립터 프로토콜을 확장합니다.  새 클래스가 정의될 때마다, 정의에
포함된 모든 디스크립터에 대해 새 메서드가 호출되어, 정의되는 클래스에 대
한 참조와 클래스 이름 공간 내에서 디스크립터에 지정된 이름을 제공합니다.
즉, 디스크립터의 인스턴스는 이제 소유자 클래스에 있는 디스크립터의 어트
리뷰트 이름을 알 수 있습니다:

     class IntField:
         def __get__(self, instance, owner):
             return instance.__dict__[self.name]

         def __set__(self, instance, value):
             if not isinstance(value, int):
                 raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
             instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

         # this is the new initializer:
         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.name = name

     class Model:
         int_field = IntField()

더 보기
.......

PEP 487(2) – 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의

     Martin Teichmann이 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

*note 기능 설명서: c4c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 519 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가,  Next: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성,  Prev: PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.8 PEP 519: 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가
...............................................

파일 시스템 경로는 역사적으로 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체
로 표현되었습니다.  이로 인해 파일 시스템 경로에서 작동하는 코드를 작성
하는 사람들은 이러한 객체가 두 형 중 하나일 뿐이라고 가정합니다 (파일 기
술자를 나타내는 *note int: 257.는 파일 경로가 아니기 때문에 고려하지 않
습니다).  불행히도 이러한 가정은 *note pathlib: a4.와 같은 파일 시스템 경
로의 대체 객체 표현이 파이썬의 표준 라이브러리를 포함하여 기존 코드와 함
께 작동하지 못하게 합니다.

이 상황을 해결하기 위해, *note os.PathLike: c4e.으로 표현되는 새 인터페
이스가 정의되었습니다.  *note __fspath__(): c4f. 메서드를 구현하면, 객체
가 경로를 나타낸다는 신호를 보내는 것입니다.  그런 다음 객체는 파일 시스
템 경로의 저수준 표현을 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 제
공할 수 있습니다.  이것은 *note os.PathLike: c4e.을 구현하거나 파일 시스
템 경로를 나타내는 *note str: 445.나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체면 객체를
*note 경로류: 2a0.로 간주함을 뜻합니다.  코드는 *note os.fspath(): c50,
*note os.fsdecode(): c51. 또는 *note os.fsencode(): c52.를 사용하여 경로
류 객체의 *note str: 445. 및/또는 *note bytes: 1c2. 표현을 명시적으로 얻
을 수 있습니다.

내장 *note open(): 515. 함수는 *note os: a1.와 *note os.path: a2. 모듈의
모든 관련 함수와 표준 라이브러리의 대부분의 다른 함수와 클래스와 마찬가
지로, *note os.PathLike: c4e. 객체를 받아들이도록 갱신되었습니다.  *note
os.DirEntry: 495. 클래스와 *note pathlib: a4.의 관련 클래스도 *note
os.PathLike: c4e.을 구현하도록 갱신되었습니다.

기대하는 것은 파일 시스템 경로에서 작동하는 기반 함수들을 갱신하면 코드
변경 없이, 혹은 최소한의 변경만으로도 (예를 들어 경로류 객체에 대한 연산
전에 코드 시작 부분에서 *note os.fspath(): c50.를 호출하기), 제삼자 코드
가 모든 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 묵시적으로 지원하게 되는 것입니다.

다음은 새 인터페이스를 사용하여 *note pathlib.Path: 229.를 기존 코드로보
다 쉽고 투명하게 사용할 수 있는 방법에 대한 몇 가지 예입니다:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
     ...     contents = f.read()
     ...
     >>> import os.path
     >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     ('some_file', '.txt')
     >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
     '/a/b/c'
     >>> import os
     >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     'some_file.txt'

(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle
Zijlstra.)

더 보기
.......

PEP 519(1) – 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가

     Brett Cannon과 Koos Zevenhoven이 작성한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성,  Next: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경,  Prev: PEP 519 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.9 PEP 495: 현지 시간 명확성
.................................

대부분의 세계 위치에서, 현지 시계가 뒤로 이동하는 시간이 있었고 앞으로도
있을 것입니다.  이 시간에는, 현지 시계가 같은 날에 같은 시간을 두 번 표
시하는 간격이 도입되었습니다.  이러한 상황에서, 현지 시계에 표시되는 (또
는 파이썬 datetime 인스턴스에 저장된) 정보는 특정 시점을 식별하기에 충분
하지 않습니다.

PEP 495(1)는 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.과 *note datetime.time: 1ce. 클
래스의 인스턴스에 새로운 'fold' 어트리뷰트를 추가하여 현지 시간이 같은 두
순간을 구별합니다:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

*note fold: c54. 어트리뷰트의 값은 모호한 경우의 두 번째 (시간순으로) 순
간을 나타내는 인스턴스를 제외한 모든 인스턴스에 대해 ‘0’ 값을 갖습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 495(2) – 현지 시간 명확성

     Alexander Belopolsky와 Tim Peters가 작성하고 Alexander Belopolsky가
     구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경,  Next: PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경,  Prev: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.10 PEP 529: 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경
..........................................................

파일 시스템 경로를 나타내는 것은 bytes가 아닌 str(유니코드)로 수행하는 것
이 가장 좋습니다.  그러나, bytes 사용이 충분하고 올바른 경우가 있습니다.

파이썬 3.6 이전에는, 윈도우에서 bytes 경로를 사용할 때 데이터 손실이 발
생할 수 있습니다.  이 변경으로 인해, 이제 윈도우에서 bytes를 사용하여 경
로를 나타내는 것이 지원됩니다.  단, 해당 bytes는 *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56.에서 반환한 인코딩으로 인코딩되며, 현재
기본값은 ‘'utf-8'’입니다.

경로를 나타내기 위해 str을 사용하지 않는 응용 프로그램은 *note
os.fsencode(): c52.와 *note os.fsdecode(): c51.를 사용하여 해당 bytes가
올바르게 인코딩되도록 해야 합니다.  이전 동작으로 되돌리려면, *note
PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af.을 설정하거나 *note
sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ae.을 호출하십시오.

필요한 코드 수정에 대한 자세한 정보와 논의는 PEP 529(1)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경,  Next: PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지,  Prev: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.11 PEP 528: 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경
...................................................

윈도우의 기본 콘솔은 이제 모든 유니코드 문자를 허용하고 파이썬 코드에 올
바르게 읽힌 str 객체를 제공합니다.  ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ 및
‘sys.stderr’은 이제 utf-8 인코딩으로 기본 설정됩니다.

이 변경은 대화 형 콘솔을 사용할 때만 적용되며, 파일이나 파이프를 리디렉
션 할 때는 적용되지 않습니다.  대화식 콘솔 사용 시에 이전 동작으로 되돌
리려면, *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c58.를 설정하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 528(1) – 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경

     Steve Dower가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지,  Next: PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지,  Prev: PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.12 PEP 520: 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지
..................................................

클래스 정의 본문의 어트리뷰트는 자연스러운 순서를 갖습니다: 이름이 소스
에 나타나는 것과 같은 순서.  이 순서는 이제 새 클래스의 *note __dict__:
c5a. 어트리뷰트에 유지됩니다.

또한, 유효한 기본 클래스 '실행' 이름 공간(*note type.__prepare__():
c5b.에서 반환되는 것)은 이제 삽입 순서 보존 매핑입니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 520(1) – 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지

     Eric Snow가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지,  Next: 새로운 dict 구현,  Prev: PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.13 PEP 468: 키워드 인자 순서 유지
.......................................

함수 서명의 ‘**kwargs’는 이제 삽입 순서 보존 매핑임이 보장됩니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 468(1) – 키워드 인자 순서 유지

     Eric Snow가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 dict 구현,  Next: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가,  Prev: PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.14 새로운 dict 구현
.........................

*note dict: ac3. 형은 이제 PyPy에서 처음 구현된(1) Raymond Hettinger의 제
안(2)에 기반한 “간결한” 표현을 사용합니다.  새로운 *note dict(): 256.의
메모리 사용량은 파이썬 3.5에 비해 20%에서 25% 더 적습니다.

이 새로운 구현의 순서 보존 측면은 구현 세부 사항으로 간주하며 이에 의존
해서는 안 됩니다 (향후에 변경될 수 있지만, 현재와 미래의 모든 파이썬 구
현에 대해 순서 보존 의미 체계를 의무화하도록 언어 명세를 변경하기 전에 몇
번의 릴리스에서 이 새로운 dict 구현을 언어에 포함하는 것이 바람직합니다;
이것은 또한 무작위 이터레이션 순서가 여전히 유효한 언어의 이전 버전과의
과거 호환성을 유지하는 데 도움이 됩니다, 예를 들어 파이썬 3.5).

(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350(3).  원래 Raymond Hettinger가 제
안한(4) 아이디어.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (4) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가,  Next: PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수,  Prev: 새로운 dict 구현,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.15 PEP 523: CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가
................................................

파이썬은 코드 실행 방법을 사용자 정의하기 위한 광범위한 지원을 제공하지
만, 빠진 한 가지는 프레임 객체를 평가하는 것입니다.  파이썬에서 프레임 평
가를 가로채는 방법을 원한다면 정의된 함수에 대한 함수 포인터를 직접 조작
하지 않고는 방법이 없었습니다.

PEP 523(1)은 프레임 평가를 C 수준에서 끼워 넣을 수 있도록 하는 API를 제
공하여 이를 바꿉니다.  이를 통해 디버거와 JIT과 같은 도구가 파이썬 코드
실행이 시작되기 전에 프레임 평가를 가로챌 수 있습니다.  이를 통해 파이썬
코드의 대체 평가 구현, 추적 프레임 평가 등이 가능해집니다.

이 API는 제한된 C API의 일부가 아니며 이 API의 사용이 제한적일 것으로 기
대하고, 매우 선별된 저수준 사용 사례에만 적용 가능함을 알리기 위해 비공
개로 표시됩니다.  API의 의미는 필요에 따라 파이썬과 함께 변경됩니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 523(2) – CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가

     Brett Cannon과 Dino Viehland가 작성한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수,  Next: DTrace와 SystemTap 프로브 지원,  Prev: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.16 PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수
...............................

새로운 *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수를 사용하면 파이썬 메모리 할당
자를 설정하고 디버그 훅을 설치할 수 있습니다.

이제 ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’를 사용하여 릴리스 모드로 컴파일된 파이썬의 파
이썬 메모리 할당자에 디버그 훅을 설치할 수 있습니다.  디버그 훅의 효과:

   * 새로 할당된 메모리는 ‘0xCB’ 바이트로 채워집니다

   * 해제된 메모리는 ‘0xDB’ 바이트로 채워집니다

   * 파이썬 메모리 할당자 API 위반을 감지합니다.  예를 들어, *note
     PyMem_Malloc(): c62.에 의해 할당된 메모리 블록에 대해 호출된 *note
     PyObject_Free(): c63.

   * 버퍼 시작 앞에 쓰기를 감지합니다 (버퍼 언더플로)

   * 버퍼 끝 뒤에 쓰기를 감지합니다 (버퍼 오버플로)

   * *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64.(예: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.)와
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.(예: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.) 도메인
     의 할당자 함수가 호출될 때 *note GIL: 148.을 잡았는지 확인합니다.

GIL을 잡았는지 확인하는 것도 파이썬 3.6의 새로운 기능입니다.

파이썬 메모리 할당자에 대한 디버그 훅은 *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks():
c67. 함수를 참조하십시오.

이제 ‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’을 사용해서 모든 파이썬 메모리 할당에 대해 C 라
이브러리의 ‘malloc()’ 할당자를 강제로 사용하게 할 수도 있습니다.  이것은
릴리스 모드로 컴파일된 파이썬에 Valgrind와 같은 외부 메모리 디버거를 사
용할 때 유용합니다.

에러 시, 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅은 이제 *note tracemalloc: ff.
모듈을 사용하여 메모리 블록이 할당된 트레이스백을 가져옵니다.

‘python3.6 -X tracemalloc=5’(트레이스에 5개 프레임을 저장합니다)를 사용
하는 버퍼 오버플로로 인한 치명적인 에러의 예:

     Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
         4 bytes originally requested
         The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
         The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
             at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
             at tail+1: 0xfb
             at tail+2: 0xfb
             at tail+3: 0xfb
             at tail+4: 0xfb
             at tail+5: 0xfb
             at tail+6: 0xfb
             at tail+7: 0xfb
         The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
         Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00

     Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84

     Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte

     Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       ...

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26516(1) and bpo-26564(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564


File: python.info,  Node: DTrace와 SystemTap 프로브 지원,  Prev: PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수,  Up: 새로운 기능<5>

1.8.2.17 DTrace와 SystemTap 프로브 지원
.......................................

이제 파이썬은 인터프리터에서 다음 이벤트에 대한 정적 마커를 활성화하는
‘--with-dtrace’로 빌드 할 수 있습니다:

   * 함수 호출/반환

   * 가비지 수거 시작/완료

   * 실행된 코드 줄.

이것은 특정 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.를 다시 컴파일하거나 응용 프로그램별
프로파일링/디버깅 코드를 제공할 필요 없이, 프로덕션에서 실행 중인 인터프
리터를 계측하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

자세한 내용은 *note DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기: c69.에 있습
니다.

현재 구현은 리눅스와 macOS에서 테스트되었습니다.  향후 추가 마커가 추가
될 수 있습니다.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590(1), based on patches by Jesús
Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 언어 변경<4>,  Next: 새로운 모듈,  Prev: 새로운 기능<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.3 기타 언어 변경
--------------------

핵심 파이썬 언어에 대한 몇 가지 작은 변경 사항은 다음과 같습니다:

   * ‘global’이나 ‘nonlocal’ 문은 이제 같은 스코프에서 영향을 받는 이름
     을 처음 사용하기 전에 텍스트로 나타나야 합니다.  이전에는 *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f.이었습니다.

   * 이제 해당 연산을 사용할 수 없음을 나타내기 위해 *note 특수 메서드:
     c6b.를 ‘None’으로 설정할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 클래스가
     ‘__iter__()’를 ‘None’으로 설정하면, 해당 클래스는 이터러블이 아닙니
     다.  (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-25958(1).)

   * 반복되는 트레이스백 줄의 긴 시퀀스는 이제 ‘"[Previous line repeated
     {count} more times]"’로 축약됩니다 (예는 *note traceback: c6c. 을 참
     조하십시오).  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(2).)

   * 임포트는 이제 모듈을 찾을 수 없을 때 새로운 예외 *note
     ModuleNotFoundError: b44.(*note ImportError: 413.의 서브 클래스)를
     발생시킵니다.  현재 (try-except에서) ImportError를 확인하는 코드는
     계속 작동합니다.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(3).)

   * 인자가 없는 ‘super()’에 의존하는 클래스 메서드는 이제 클래스 생성 중
     에 메타 클래스 메서드에서 호출될 때 올바르게 작동합니다.
     (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 모듈,  Next: 개선된 모듈<4>,  Prev: 기타 언어 변경<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.4 새로운 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: secrets,  Up: 새로운 모듈

1.8.4.1 secrets
...............

새로운 *note secrets: c0. 모듈의 주요 목적은 계정 인증, 토큰 등과 같은 비
밀 관리에 적합한 암호학적으로 강력한 의사 난수 값을 신뢰성 있게 생성할 수
있는 확실한 방법을 제공하는 것입니다.

     경고: *note random: b8. 모듈의 의사 난수 생성기는 보안 목적으로 사
     용하지 '않아야' 합니다.  파이썬 3.6 이상에서는 *note secrets: c0.를
     사용하고 파이썬 3.5와 이전 버전에서는 *note os.urandom(): 51c.을 사
     용하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 506(1) – 표준 라이브러리에 비밀 모듈 추가

     Steven D’Aprano 가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: 개선된 모듈<4>,  Next: 최적화<4>,  Prev: 새로운 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.5 개선된 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* array: array<4>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* Binascii::
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<2>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib와 IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* os: os<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<4>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<6>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<9>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<5>.
* warnings: warnings<4>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::


File: python.info,  Node: array<4>,  Next: ast<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.1 array
.............

*note array.array: 1a0.의 소진된 이터레이터는 이제 이터레이트 되는 배열
이 확장된 경우에도 소진된 상태로 유지됩니다.  이것은 다른 가변 시퀀스의
동작과 일치합니다.

Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492


File: python.info,  Node: ast<4>,  Next: asyncio<9>,  Prev: array<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.2 ast
...........

새로운 *note ast.Constant: 2b9. AST 노드가 추가되었습니다.  상수 폴딩을
위해 외부 AST 최적화기에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<9>,  Next: Binascii,  Prev: ast<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.3 asyncio
...............

파이썬 3.6부터 ‘asyncio’ 모듈은 더는 잠정적이 아니며 해당 API는 안정적인
것으로 간주합니다.

파이썬 3.5.0 이후 *note asyncio: a. 모듈의 주목할만한 변경 사항 (잠정적
상태로 인해 모두 3.5.x로 역 이식되었습니다):

   * *note get_event_loop(): 2c2. 함수는 코루틴과 콜백에서 호출될 때 항
     상 현재 실행 중인 루프를 반환하도록 변경되었습니다.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28613(1).)

   * *note ensure_future(): c73. 함수와 이를 사용하는 모든 함수(가령
     *note loop.run_until_complete(): c74.)는 이제 모든 종류의 *note
     어웨이터블 객체: 1ad.를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * 다른 스레드의 이벤트 루프에 코루틴을 제출하는 새로운 *note
     run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 87e. 함수.  (Contributed by Vincent
     Michel.)

   * 트랜스포트가 닫히고 있거나 닫혔는지 확인하는 새로운 *note
     Transport.is_closing(): c75. 메서드.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * *note loop.create_server(): b10. 메서드는 이제 호스트 리스트를 받아
     들일 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

   * Future 객체를 만드는 새로운 *note loop.create_future(): c76. 메서드
     .  이를 통해 uvloop(2)와 같은 대체 이벤트 루프 구현이 더 빠른 *note
     asyncio.Future: bca. 구현을 제공할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041(3).)

   * 현재 예외 처리기를 가져오는 새로운 *note
     loop.get_exception_handler(): c77. 메서드.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-27040(4).)

   * 구분자 바이트 시퀀스가 나타날 때까지 스트림에서 데이터를 읽는 새로
     운 *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4. 메서드.  (Contributed by
     Mark Korenberg.)

   * *note StreamReader.readexactly(): c78.의 성능이 향상되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370(5).)

   * *note loop.getaddrinfo(): c11. 메서드는 주소가 이미 결정되었으면 시
     스템 ‘getaddrinfo’ 함수를 호출하지 않도록 최적화되었습니다.
     (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * 현재 이터레이션 직후 루프를 중지하도록 *note loop.stop(): c79. 메서
     드가 변경되었습니다.  마지막 이터레이션의 결과로 예약된 모든 새 콜
     백은 버려집니다.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in
     bpo-25593(6).)

   * ‘Future.set_exception’은 이제 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외의 인스
     턴스가 전달될 때 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.
     (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221(7).)

   * asyncio 외부의 연결을 받아들이지만 이를 처리하기 위해 asyncio를 사
     용하는 서버에서 사용할 새로운 *note loop.connect_accepted_socket():
     b17. 메서드.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton in bpo-27392(8).)

   * ‘TCP_NODELAY’ 플래그는 이제 기본적으로 모든 TCP 트랜스포트에 대해 설
     정됩니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456(9).)

   * 루프를 닫기 전에 계류 중인 비동기 제너레이터를 제대로 닫는 새로운
     *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): c7a.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-28003(10).)

   * *note Future: bca.와 *note Task: 1be. 클래스는 이제 asyncio 코드를
     최대 30% 더 빠르게 만드는 최적화된 C 구현을 갖습니다.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26081(11) and
     bpo-28544(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (2) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: Binascii,  Next: cmath,  Prev: asyncio<9>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.4 Binascii
................

*note b2a_base64(): c7c. 함수는 이제 반환 값에 줄 넘김 문자를 추가할지를
제어하기 위해 선택적 'newline' 키워드 인자를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357


File: python.info,  Node: cmath,  Next: collections<4>,  Prev: Binascii,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.5 cmath
.............

새로운 *note cmath.tau: c7e. ('τ') 상수가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed
by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.)

새로운 상수: *note math.inf: c7f.와 *note math.nan: 65d.과 일치하는
*note cmath.inf: c80.와 *note cmath.nan: c81, 그리고 복소수 repr에서 사
용하는 형식과 일치하는 *note cmath.infj: c82.와 *note cmath.nanj: c83.
(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229


File: python.info,  Node: collections<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<4>,  Prev: cmath,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.6 collections
...................

새로운 *note Collection: c85. 추상 베이스 클래스가 추가되어 길이가 있는
이터러블 컨테이너 클래스를 나타냅니다.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi,
docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598(1).)

새로운 *note Reversible: c86. 추상 베이스 클래스는 ‘__reversed__()’ 메서
드도 제공하는 이터러블 클래스를 나타냅니다.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi in bpo-25987(2).)

새로운 *note AsyncGenerator: c87. 추상 베이스 클래스는 비동기 제너레이터
를 나타냅니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28720(3).)

*note namedtuple(): 1ca. 함수는 이제 지정되면 반환된 네임드 튜플 클래스
의 *note __module__: 36d. 어트리뷰트에 사용되는 선택적 키워드 인자
'module'을 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-17941(4).)

*note namedtuple(): 1ca.에 대한 'verbose'와 'rename' 인자는 이제 키워드
전용입니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(5).)

이제 재귀 *note collections.deque: 5d6. 인스턴스를 피클 할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<4>,  Next: contextlib<4>,  Prev: collections<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 클래스 생성자는 이제 선택적
'thread_name_prefix' 인자를 받아들여 풀이 만든 스레드의 이름을 사용자 정
의할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-27664(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<4>,  Next: datetime<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.8 contextlib
..................

컨텍스트 관리자를 위한 추상 베이스 클래스를 제공하기 위해 *note
contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8a. 클래스가 추가되었습니다.  ‘self’를
반환하는 ‘__exit__()’의 합리적인 기본 구현을 제공하고 ‘__enter__()’는 추
상 메서드로 남겨 둡니다.  일치하는 클래스가 *note typing: 104. 모듈에
*note typing.ContextManager: c8b.로 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<5>,  Next: decimal<2>,  Prev: contextlib<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.9 datetime
................

*note datetime: 1cc.과 *note time: 1ce. 클래스에는 필요할 때 현지 시간을
명확히 하는 데 사용되는 새로운 ‘fold’ 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다.  *note
datetime: 30.의 많은 함수가 현지 시간 명확성을 지원하도록 갱신되었습니다
.  자세한 내용은 *note 현지 시간 명확성: c39. 섹션을 참조하십시오.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-24773(1).)

*note datetime.strftime(): c8d.과 *note date.strftime(): c8e. 메서드는 이
제 ISO 8601 날짜 지시자 ‘%G’, ‘%u’ 및 ‘%V’를 지원합니다.  (Contributed
by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006(2).)

*note datetime.isoformat(): b2d. 함수는 이제 포함할 시간 값의 추가 구성
요소 수를 지정하는 선택적 'timespec' 인자를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed
by Alessandro Cucci and Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475(3).)

*note datetime.combine(): c8f.은 이제 선택적 'tzinfo' 인자를 받아들입니
다.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<2>,  Next: distutils<5>,  Prev: datetime<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.10 decimal
................

주어진 *note Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스를 분수로 표현하는 정수 쌍 ‘(n, d)’를
가장 작은 항과 양의 분모로 반환하는 새로운 *note
Decimal.as_integer_ratio(): c91. 메서드:

     >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
     (-157, 50)

(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in bpo-25928(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<5>,  Next: email<2>,  Prev: decimal<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.11 distutils
..................

‘default_format’ 어트리뷰트는 ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’에서 제거되
었으며 ‘formats’ 어트리뷰트의 기본값은 ‘['gztar']’입니다.  예상되지는 않
지만, ‘default_format’의 존재에 의존하는 모든 코드를 조정해야 할 수 있습
니다.  자세한 내용은 bpo-27819(1)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819


File: python.info,  Node: email<2>,  Next: encodings<2>,  Prev: distutils<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.12 email
..............

다양한 생성자에 대한 'policy' 키워드를 통해 활성화되는 새 이메일 API는 더
는 잠정적이 아닙니다.  *note email: 3b. 설명서는 레거시 API에 대한 이전
설명서를 유지하면서 새 API에 초점을 맞추기 위해 재구성되고 재작성되었습
니다.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277(1).)

이제 *note email.mime: 45. 클래스는 모두 선택적 'policy' 키워드를 받아들
입니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331(2).)

*note DecodedGenerator: c94.는 이제 'policy' 키워드를 지원합니다.

구문 분석기가 새 메시지 객체를 만들 때 기본적으로 사용되는 클래스를 제어
하는, 새 *note policy: 4f. 어트리뷰트 *note message_factory: c95.가 있습
니다.  *note email.policy.compat32: c96. 정책의 경우 *note Message:
27c.이고, 새 정책의 경우 *note EmailMessage: 27b.입니다.  (Contributed
by R. David Murray in bpo-20476(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476


File: python.info,  Node: encodings<2>,  Next: enum<7>,  Prev: email<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.13 encodings
..................

윈도우에서, ‘CP_OEMCP’를 사용하는 ‘'oem'’ 인코딩을 추가하고, ‘CP_ACP’ 코
드 페이지를 사용하는 기존 ‘'mbcs'’ 인코딩을 위한 ‘'ansi'’ 별칭을 추가했
습니다.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959


File: python.info,  Node: enum<7>,  Next: faulthandler<2>,  Prev: encodings<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.14 enum
.............

*note enum: 56. 모듈에 *note Flag: 61d.와 ‘IntFlags’라는 두 개의 새로운
열거 베이스 클래스가 추가되었습니다.  둘 다 비트별 연산자를 사용하여 결
합할 수 있는 상수를 정의하는 데 사용됩니다.  (Contributed by Ethan
Furman in bpo-23591(1).)

상수에 ‘IntFlags’ 클래스를 사용하도록 많은 표준 라이브러리 모듈이 갱신되
었습니다.

새 *note enum.auto: c99. 값을 사용하여 값을 열거형 멤버에 자동으로 할당
할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     red = auto()
     ...     blue = auto()
     ...     green = auto()
     ...
     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<2>,  Next: fileinput<2>,  Prev: enum<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.15 faulthandler
.....................

윈도우에서, *note faulthandler: 58. 모듈은 이제 윈도우 예외에 대한 처리
기를 설치합니다: *note faulthandler.enable(): c9b.을 참조하십시오.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput<2>,  Next: hashlib<5>,  Prev: faulthandler<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.16 fileinput
..................

*note hook_encoded(): c9d.는 이제 'errors' 인자를 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<5>,  Next: http client<2>,  Prev: fileinput<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.17 hashlib
................

*note hashlib: 68.는 OpenSSL 1.1.0을 지원합니다.  최소 권장 버전은
1.0.2입니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

BLAKE2 해시 함수가 모듈에 추가되었습니다.  *note blake2b(): 63c.와 *note
blake2s(): 63d.는 항상 사용할 수 있으며 BLAKE2의 전체 기능 집합을 지원합
니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798(2) based on code by
Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves.  Documentation written by Dmitry
Chestnykh.)

SHA-3 해시 함수 *note sha3_224(): c9f, *note sha3_256(): ca0, *note
sha3_384(): ca1, *note sha3_512(): ca2. 및 SHAKE 해시 함수 *note
shake_128(): ca3.과 *note shake_256(): ca4.이 추가되었습니다.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113(3).  Keccak Code Package
by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
Ronny Van Keer.)

비밀번호 기반 키 파생 함수 *note scrypt(): c3b.는 이제 OpenSSL 1.1.0 이
상에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27928(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928


File: python.info,  Node: http client<2>,  Next: idlelib와 IDLE,  Prev: hashlib<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.18 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.request(): ca6.와 *note endheaders(): ca7. 모두 이
제 청크 인코딩(chunked encoding) 요청 본문을 지원합니다.  (Contributed
by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib와 IDLE,  Next: importlib<6>,  Prev: http client<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.19 idlelib와 IDLE
.......................

idlelib 패키지는 IDLE의 모양과 작동을 개선하고 코드를 더 쉽게 이해하고,
테스트하고 개선할 수 있도록 현대화와 리팩토링 되고 있습니다.  특히 리눅
스와 맥에서 IDLE을 더 보기 좋게 만드는 부분은 대부분 대화 상자에서 ttk 위
젯을 사용하는 것입니다.  결과적으로, IDLE은 더는 tcl/tk 8.4에서 실행되지
않습니다.  이제 tcl/tk 8.5나 8.6이 필요합니다.  둘 중 어느 것이든 최신 릴
리스를 실행하는 것이 좋습니다.

‘현대화’에는 idlelib 모듈의 이름 변경과 통합이 포함됩니다.  부분 대문자
이름을 가진 파일의 이름을 바꾸는 것은, 예를 들어 3.0에서 Tkinter와
TkFont를 tkinter와 tkinter.font로 이름을 바꾸는 것과 유사합니다.  결과적
으로, 3.5에서 작동했던 idlelib 파일 임포트는 일반적으로 3.6에서 작동하지
않습니다.  최소한 모듈 이름 변경이 필요합니다 (idlelib/README.txt를 참조
하십시오).  (bpo-24225(1)에서 Al Swiegart와 Terry Reedy에 의해 이름이 변
경되었습니다.  이후 대부분의 idlelib 패치는 프로세스의 일부였고 앞으로도
그럴 것입니다.)

이에 대한 보상으로, 결과적으로 일부 idlelib 클래스는 더 나은 API와 그를
설명하는 독스트링을 통해 더 쉽게 사용할 수 있습니다.  사용할 수 있으면 추
가 유용한 정보가 idlelib에 추가될 것입니다.

3.6.2의 새로운 기능:

자동 완성에 대한 여러 수정.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in bpo-15786(2).)

3.6.3의 새로운 기능:

모듈 브라우저(File 메뉴에 있는, 예전에는 클래스 브라우저라고 했습니다)는
이제 최상위 함수와 클래스 외에도 중첩된 함수와 클래스를 표시합니다.
(Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-1612262(3).)

이전에 확장으로 구현된 IDLE 기능은 일반 기능으로 다시 구현되었습니다.  설
정이 Extension 탭에서 다른 대화 상자 탭으로 이동되었습니다.
(Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(4).)

설정 대화 상자(Options, Configure IDLE)가 부분적으로 다시 작성되어 모양
과 기능이 모두 향상되었습니다.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry
Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

3.6.4의 새로운 기능:

이제 글꼴 샘플에는 사용자가 특정 글꼴 선택의 효과를 더 잘 볼 수 있도록 비
라틴 문자 선택이 포함됩니다.  (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-13802(5).)  샘플은 다른 문자를 포함하도록 편집 할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31860(6).)

3.6.6의 새로운 기능:

편집기 코드 컨텍스트 옵션이 수정되었습니다.  상자는 최대 maxlines까지 모
든 컨텍스트 줄을 표시합니다.  컨텍스트 줄을 클릭하면 편집기가 해당 줄로
이동합니다.  사용자 정의 테마의 컨텍스트 색상이 Settings 대화 상자의
Highlights 탭에 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and
Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33642(7), bpo-33768(8), and bpo-33679(9).)

윈도우에서, 새로운 API 호출은 tk가 DPI에 맞게 확장됨을 윈도우에 알립니다
.  윈도우 8.1 이상이나 10에서, 파이썬 바이너리의 DPI 호환성 속성이 변경
되지 않고, 96 DPI보다 큰 모니터 해상도를 사용하면, 텍스트와 선이 더 선명
해져야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 효과가 없습니다.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(10).)

3.6.7의 새로운 기능:

N 줄 (기본값은 50) 이상의 출력은 버튼으로 압착됩니다.  N은 Settings 대화
상자의 General 페이지에 있는 PyShell 섹션에서 변경할 수 있습니다.  더 적
은 (하지만 더 길 수는 있는) 줄은 출력을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하여
압착할 수 있습니다.  압착된 출력은 버튼을 더블 클릭하여 제자리에서 확장
하거나 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 버튼을 클릭하여 클립 보드나 별도의 창으로
확장 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<6>,  Next: inspect<6>,  Prev: idlelib와 IDLE,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.20 importlib
..................

임포트는 이제 모듈을 찾을 수 없을 때 새로운 예외 *note
ModuleNotFoundError: b44.(*note ImportError: 413.의 서브 클래스)를 발생
시킵니다.  현재 (try-except에서) ‘ImportError’를 검사하는 코드는 계속 작
동합니다.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(1).)

*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: caa.는 이제 래핑 된 로더에서 *note
create_module(): cab.을 호출하여, *note
importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: cac.와 *note
importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cad.를 *note
importlib.util.LazyLoader: caa.와 함께 사용할 수 없는 제한을 제거합니다.

*note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f6, *note
importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 513. 및 *note
importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(): cae.은 이제 *note 경로류 객체:
2a0.를 받아들입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<6>,  Next: json,  Prev: importlib<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.21 inspect
................

*note inspect.signature(): 731. 함수는 이제 컴프리헨션과 제너레이터 표현
식 스코프에 대해 컴파일러가 생성한 묵시적 ‘.0’ 매개 변수를 ‘implicit0’이
라는 위치 전용 매개 변수인 것처럼 보고합니다.  (Contributed by Jelle
Zijlstra in bpo-19611(1).)

파이썬 2.7과 레거시 ‘inspect.getargspec()’ API에서 업그레이드할 때 코드
변동을 줄이기 위해, 이전에 문서화된 *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 732.
의 폐지가 취소되었습니다.  이 함수는 단일/소스 파이썬 2/3 코드 베이스에
편리하지만, 더 풍부한 *note inspect.signature(): 731. 인터페이스는 새 코
드에 권장되는 접근 방식으로 남아 있습니다.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan
in bpo-27172(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172


File: python.info,  Node: json,  Next: logging<4>,  Prev: inspect<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.22 json
.............

*note json.load(): cb1.와 *note json.loads(): 953.는 이제 바이너리 입력
을 지원합니다.  인코딩된 JSON은 UTF-8, UTF-16 또는 UTF-32를 사용하여 표
현해야 합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909


File: python.info,  Node: logging<4>,  Next: math<7>,  Prev: json,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.23 logging
................

새로운 *note WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded(): cb3. 메서드가 추가되어
로그 파일을 다시 열어야 하는지 확인하는 기능이 추가되었습니다.
(Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884


File: python.info,  Node: math<7>,  Next: multiprocessing<5>,  Prev: logging<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.24 math
.............

tau ('τ') 상수가 *note math: 8e.와 *note cmath: 18. 모듈에 추가되었습니
다.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for
details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<5>,  Next: os<8>,  Prev: math<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.25 multiprocessing
........................

*note multiprocessing.Manager(): cb6.에서 반환된 *note 프락시 객체:
cb7.는 이제 중첩될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Davin Potts in
bpo-6766(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766


File: python.info,  Node: os<8>,  Next: pathlib<9>,  Prev: multiprocessing<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.26 os
...........

*note os: a1.와 *note os.path: a2. 모듈이 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를
지원하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note PEP 519: c38. 요약을 참조하십시
오.

*note scandir(): a5b.은 이제 윈도우에서 *note bytes: 1c2. 경로를 지원합
니다.

새로운 *note close(): cb9. 메서드를 사용하면 *note scandir(): a5b. 이터
레이터를 명시적으로 닫을 수 있습니다.  *note scandir(): a5b. 이터레이터
는 이제 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지원합니다.  ‘scandir()’
이터레이터가 소진되지도 않고 명시적으로 닫히지도 않으면 *note
ResourceWarning: 244.이 파괴자에서 방출됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-25994(1).)

리눅스에서, *note os.urandom(): 51c.은 이제 보안을 강화하기 위해 시스템
urandom 엔트로피 풀이 초기화될 때까지 블록합니다.  근거는 PEP 524(2)를 참
조하십시오.

리눅스 ‘getrandom()’ 시스템 호출(무작위 바이트 얻기)이 이제 새로운 *note
os.getrandom(): cba. 함수로 노출됩니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner,
part of the PEP 524(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<9>,  Next: pdb<5>,  Prev: os<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.27 pathlib
................

*note pathlib: a4.는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(1).)

자세한 내용은 *note PEP 519: c38. 요약을 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<5>,  Next: pickle<2>,  Prev: pathlib<9>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.28 pdb
............

*note Pdb: 91f. 클래스 생성자에는 ‘.pdbrc’ 파일을 읽어야 하는지를 제어하
는 새로운 선택적 'readrc' 인자가 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<2>,  Next: pickletools,  Prev: pdb<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.29 pickle
...............

키워드 인자로 호출된 ‘__new__’가 필요한 객체는 이제 프로토콜 버전 4보다
오래된 *note 피클 프로토콜: cbe.을 사용하여 피클 할 수 있습니다.  프로토
콜 버전 4는 이미 이 경우를 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-24164(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools,  Next: pydoc<3>,  Prev: pickle<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.30 pickletools
....................

*note pickletools.dis(): cc0.는 이제 ‘MEMOIZE’ 옵코드를 위한 묵시적 메모
인덱스를 출력합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<3>,  Next: random<4>,  Prev: pickletools,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.31 pydoc
..............

*note pydoc: b5. 모듈은 ‘MANPAGER’ 환경 변수를 존중하는 법을 배웠습니다.
(Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637(1).)

*note help(): 8d4.와 *note pydoc: b5.은 이제 사전 순이 아닌 정의된 순서
대로 네임드 튜플 필드를 나열할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-24879(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879


File: python.info,  Node: random<4>,  Next: re<5>,  Prev: pydoc<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.32 random
...............

새로운 *note choices(): cc3. 함수는 선택적 가중치(weights)를 사용하여 주
어진 모집단에서 지정된 크기의 요소 리스트를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844


File: python.info,  Node: re<5>,  Next: readline,  Prev: random<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.33 re
...........

정규식에서 수정자 범위 지원이 추가되었습니다.  예: ‘'(?i:p)ython'’은
‘'python'’과 ‘'Python'’과 일치하지만, ‘'PYTHON'’은 일치하지 않습니다;
‘'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'’는 ‘'GvR'’과 ‘'gvr'’과 일치하지만, ‘'GVR'’은 일치하지 않
습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028(1).)

Match 객체 그룹은 ‘group()’과 동등한 ‘__getitem__’으로 액세스 할 수 있습
니다.  따라서 ‘mo['name']’은 이제 ‘mo.group('name')’과 동등합니다.
(Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454(2).)

*note Match: cc5. 객체는 이제 *note 인덱스류 객체: 716.를 그룹 인덱스로
지원합니다.  (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in
bpo-27177(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177


File: python.info,  Node: readline,  Next: rlcompleter,  Prev: re<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.34 readline
.................

히스토리 리스트에 자동 입력 추가를 활성화하거나 비활성화하는 *note
set_auto_history(): cc7.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by Tyler Crompton
in bpo-26870(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter,  Next: shlex<2>,  Prev: readline,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.35 rlcompleter
....................

접두사가 밑줄로 시작하지 않는 한 비공개와 특수 어트리뷰트 이름은 이제 생
략됩니다.  일부 완성된 키워드 뒤에 스페이스나 콜론이 추가됩니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011(1) and bpo-25209(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<2>,  Next: site<3>,  Prev: rlcompleter,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.36 shlex
..............

*note shlex: cca.는 구두점으로 처리되는 문자를 제어하기 위한 새로운
'punctuation_chars' 인자를 통해 훨씬 *note 개선된 셸 호환성: ccb.을 갖습
니다.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-1521950(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950


File: python.info,  Node: site<3>,  Next: sqlite3<7>,  Prev: shlex<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.37 site
.............

‘.pth’ 파일에서 *note sys.path: 3ae.에 추가할 경로를 지정할 때, 이제 디
렉터리 위에 파일 경로를 지정할 수 있습니다 (예를 들어 zip 파일).
(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<7>,  Next: socket<7>,  Prev: site<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.38 sqlite3
................

*note sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid: cce.는 이제 ‘REPLACE’ 문을 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864


File: python.info,  Node: socket<7>,  Next: socketserver<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.39 socket
...............

*note ioctl(): cd0. 함수는 이제 *note SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH: cd1. 제어
코드를 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Daniel Stokes in bpo-26536(1).)

*note getsockopt(): cd2. 상수 ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’, ‘SO_PEERSEC’ 및
‘SO_PASSSEC’이 이제 지원됩니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-26907(2).)

*note setsockopt(): cd3.는 이제 ‘setsockopt(level, optname, None,
optlen: int)’ 형식을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(3).)

socket 모듈은 이제 리눅스 커널 암호화 API와 인터페이스 하기 위해 주소 패
밀리 *note AF_ALG: cd4.를 지원합니다.  ‘ALG_*’, ‘SOL_ALG’ 및 *note
sendmsg_afalg(): cd5.가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27744(4) with support from Victor Stinner.)

새로운 리눅스 상수 ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’과 ‘TCP_CONGESTION’이 추가되었습니
다.  (Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273(5)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<2>,  Next: ssl<7>,  Prev: socket<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.40 socketserver
.....................

*note http.server: 72, *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. 및 *note
wsgiref.simple_server: 11b.에 정의된 것들을 포함하여, *note
socketserver: cd. 모듈에 기반하는 서버는 이제 *note 컨텍스트 관리자:
5ce. 프로토콜을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in
bpo-26404(1).)

*note StreamRequestHandler: cd7. 클래스의 ‘wfile’ 어트리뷰트는 이제
*note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 쓰기 가능한 인터페이스를 구현합니다.  특히
*note write(): cd8.를 호출하면 이제 데이터 전체를 보냄이 보장됩니다.
(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<7>,  Next: statistics<5>,  Prev: socketserver<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.41 ssl
............

*note ssl: d0.은 OpenSSL 1.1.0을 지원합니다.  최소 권장 버전은 1.0.2입니
다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

3DES는 기본 암호 스위트에서 제거되었으며 ChaCha20 Poly1305 암호 스위트가
추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27850(2) and
bpo-27766(3).)

*note SSLContext: 294.는 옵션과 암호에 대해 더 나은 기본 구성을 제공합니
다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043(4).)

SSL 세션은 새로운 *note SSLSession: cda. 클래스를 사용하여, 한 클라이언
트 측 연결에서 다른 연결로 복사 할 수 있습니다.  TLS 세션 재개는 초기 핸
드 셰이크 속도를 높이고, 지연 시간을 줄이며 성능을 향상할 수 있습니다
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500(5) based on a draft by
Alex Warhawk.)

새로운 *note get_ciphers(): cdb. 메서드를 사용하여 암호 우선순위에 따라
활성화된 암호 리스트를 가져올 수 있습니다.

모든 상수와 플래그가 *note IntEnum: cdc.과 ‘IntFlags’로 변환되었습니다.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025(6).)

*note SSLContext: 294.를 위한 서버와 클라이언트 측 특정 TLS 프로토콜이 추
가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085(7).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a2d. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a2e. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<5>,  Next: struct,  Prev: ssl<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.42 statistics
...................

새로운 *note harmonic_mean(): cde. 함수가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed
by Steven D’Aprano in bpo-27181(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181


File: python.info,  Node: struct,  Next: subprocess<3>,  Prev: statistics<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.43 struct
...............

*note struct: d5.는 이제 ‘'e'’ 포맷 지정자를 통해 IEEE 754 반 정밀도 부
동 소수점을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in
bpo-11734(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<3>,  Next: sys<10>,  Prev: struct,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.44 subprocess
...................

*note subprocess.Popen: 199. 파괴자는 이제 자식 프로세스가 계속 실행 중
이면 *note ResourceWarning: 244. 경고를 내보냅니다.  자식 프로세스의 종
료 상태를 읽으려면, 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜(‘with proc: ...’)을 사용하
거나 *note wait(): ce1. 메서드를 명시적으로 호출하십시오.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741(1).)

*note subprocess.Popen: 199. 생성자와 그것을 통해 인자를 전달하는 모든 함
수는 이제 'encoding'과 'errors' 인자를 받아들입니다.  이들 중 하나를 지
정하면 'stdin', 'stdout' 및 'stderr' 스트림에 대한 텍스트 모드가 활성화
됩니다.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-6135(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135


File: python.info,  Node: sys<10>,  Next: telnetlib,  Prev: subprocess<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.45 sys
............

새로운 *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce3. 함수는 유니코드 파일명과
바이트열 파일명 사이를 변환하는 데 사용되는 에러 모드의 이름을 반환합니
다.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781(1).)

윈도우에서 *note getwindowsversion(): ce4. 함수의 반환 값에는 이제 프로
세스에 대해 에뮬레이션 되는 버전이 아니라 현재 운영 체제의 정확한 주 버
전, 부 버전 및 빌드 번호가 포함된 'platform_version' 필드가 포함됩니다
(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib,  Next: time<6>,  Prev: sys<10>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.46 telnetlib
..................

‘telnetlib.Telnet’은 이제 컨텍스트 관리자입니다 (contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel in bpo-25485(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485


File: python.info,  Node: time<6>,  Next: timeit,  Prev: telnetlib,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.47 time
.............

*note struct_time: ce7. 어트리뷰트 ‘tm_gmtoff’와 ‘tm_zone’은 이제 모든 플
랫폼에서 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit,  Next: tkinter<6>,  Prev: time<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.48 timeit
...............

총 실행 시간이 200밀리초 이상이 되도록 *note Timer.timeit(): ce9.을 반복
적으로 호출하는 새로운 *note Timer.autorange(): cea. 편의 메서드가 추가
되었습니다.  (Contributed by Steven D’Aprano in bpo-6422(1).)

*note timeit: ef.은 이제 최상과 최악 시간 사이에 상당한 (4x) 차이가 있을
때 경고합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23552(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<6>,  Next: traceback<4>,  Prev: timeit,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.49 tkinter
................

‘tkinter.Variable’ 클래스에 ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ 및
‘trace_info()’ 메서드를 추가했습니다.  오래된 Tcl 명령을 사용하는 이전 메
서드 ‘trace_variable()’, ‘trace()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ 및
‘trace_vinfo()’를 대체하며 Tcl의 향후 버전에서는 작동하지 않을 수 있습니
다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22115(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<4>,  Next: tracemalloc<3>,  Prev: tkinter<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.50 traceback
..................

traceback 모듈과 인터프리터의 내장 예외 디스플레이는 이제 다음 예제와 같
이 트레이스백에서 반복되는 긴 시퀀스의 줄을 축약합니다:

     >>> def f(): f()
     ...
     >>> f()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
     RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<3>,  Next: typing<9>,  Prev: traceback<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.51 tracemalloc
....................

*note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈은 이제 여러 다른 주소 공간에서 메모리 할당 추
적을 지원합니다.

새로운 *note DomainFilter: cee. 필터 클래스가 주소 공간(도메인)별로 블록
추적을 필터링하기 위해 추가되었습니다.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26588(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588


File: python.info,  Node: typing<9>,  Next: unicodedata<7>,  Prev: tracemalloc<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.52 typing
...............

*note typing: 104. 모듈이 *note 잠정적: b00.이므로, 파이썬 3.6에 도입된
모든 변경 사항은 파이썬 3.5.x로 역 이식되었습니다.

*note typing: 104. 모듈은 제네릭 형 에일리어스에 대한 훨씬 향상된 지원을
제공합니다.  예를 들어 ‘Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]’는 이제 유효한 형 어노테
이션입니다.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195(1).)

*note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8a.를 나타내는 *note
typing.ContextManager: c8b. 클래스가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(2).)

*note collections.abc.Collection: c85.을 나타내는 *note
typing.Collection: cf0. 클래스가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi in bpo-27598(3).)

클래스 변수를 표시하기 위해 *note typing.ClassVar: 266. 형 구조가 추가되
었습니다.  PEP 526(4)에 도입된 대로, ClassVar에 래핑 된 변수 어노테이션
은 주어진 어트리뷰트가 클래스 변수로 사용되도록 의도되었으며 해당 클래스
의 인스턴스에 설정되어서는 안 됨을 나타냅니다.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi in Github #280(5).)

정적 형 검사기가 ‘True’로 가정하지만, 실행 시간에는 ‘False’인 새 *note
TYPE_CHECKING: cf1. 상수.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github
#230(6).)

어노테이션에 대한 경량 고유 형을 만드는 새로운 *note NewType(): cf2. 도
우미 함수가 추가되었습니다:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

정적 형 검사기는 새 형을 원래 형의 서브 클래스인 것처럼 처리합니다.
(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #189(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (5) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280

   (6) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230

   (7) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<7>,  Next: unittest mock<2>,  Prev: typing<9>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.53 unicodedata
....................

*note unicodedata: 105. 모듈은 이제 유니코드 9.0.0(1)의 데이터를 사용합
니다.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<2>,  Next: urllib request,  Prev: unicodedata<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

*note Mock: a47. 클래스는 다음과 같이 개선되었습니다:

   * 모의 객체가 호출되었는지 확인하는 두 가지 새로운 메서드, *note
     Mock.assert_called(): cf5.와 *note Mock.assert_called_once(): cf6.
     (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323(1).)

   * *note Mock.reset_mock(): cf7. 메서드에는 이제 두 개의 선택적 키워드
     전용 인자가 있습니다: 'return_value'와 'side_effect'.  (Contributed
     by Kushal Das in bpo-21271(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser,  Prev: unittest mock<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.55 urllib.request
.......................

HTTP 요청에 파일이나 이터러블 본문(바이트열 객체가 아닌)이 있지만,
‘Content-Length’ 헤더가 없으면, 에러를 던지는 대신,
‘AbstractHTTPHandler’는 이제 청크 전송 인코딩(chunked transfer
encoding)을 사용하도록 폴백 됩니다.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and
Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser,  Next: venv<5>,  Prev: urllib request,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.56 urllib.robotparser
...........................

*note RobotFileParser: cfa.는 이제 ‘Crawl-delay’와 ‘Request-rate’ 확장을
지원합니다.  (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in bpo-16099(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099


File: python.info,  Node: venv<5>,  Next: warnings<4>,  Prev: urllib robotparser,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.57 venv
.............

*note venv: 111.는 새 파라미터 ‘--prompt’를 받아들입니다.  이 파라미터는
가상 환경에 대한 대체 접두사를 제공합니다.  (Proposed by Łukasz
Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in bpo-22829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<4>,  Next: winreg,  Prev: venv<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.58 warnings
.................

새로운 선택적 'source' 매개 변수가 *note warnings.warn_explicit(): cfd.
함수에 추가되었습니다: *note ResourceWarning: 244.을 방출한 파괴된 객체.
'source' 어트리뷰트는 ‘warnings.WarningMessage’에도 추가되었습니다
(contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26568(1) and bpo-26567(2)).

*note ResourceWarning: 244. 경고가 로그 될 때, *note tracemalloc: ff. 모
듈이 이제 파괴된 객체가 할당된 트레이스백을 얻는 데 사용됩니다.

‘example.py’ 스크립트의 예:

     import warnings

     def func():
         return open(__file__)

     f = func()
     f = None

‘python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py’ 명령의 출력:

     example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       f = None
     Object allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "example.py", lineno 4
         return open(__file__)
       File "example.py", lineno 6
         f = func()

“Object allocated at” 트레이스백은 새로운 것이며 *note tracemalloc: ff.이
파이썬 메모리 할당을 추적하고 *note warnings: 112. 모듈을 이미 임포트 했
을 때만 표시됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567


File: python.info,  Node: winreg,  Next: winsound,  Prev: warnings<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.59 winreg
...............

64비트 정수 형 *note REG_QWORD: cff.를 추가했습니다.  (Contributed by
Clement Rouault in bpo-23026(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026


File: python.info,  Node: winsound,  Next: xmlrpc client,  Prev: winreg,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.60 winsound
.................

키워드 인자가 *note Beep: d01, *note MessageBeep: d02. 및 *note
PlaySound: d03. 에 전달되도록 허용합니다 (bpo-27982(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client,  Next: zipfile<3>,  Prev: winsound,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.61 xmlrpc.client
......................

*note xmlrpc.client: 12e. 모듈은 이제 숫자와 ‘None’에 대해 Apache
XML-RPC 구현에서 사용하는 추가 데이터형의 역 마셜링을 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<3>,  Next: zlib,  Prev: xmlrpc client,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.62 zipfile
................

새로운 *note ZipInfo.from_file(): d06. 클래스 메서드를 사용하면 파일 시
스템 파일에서 *note ZipInfo: d07. 인스턴스를 만들 수 있습니다.  새로운
*note ZipInfo.is_dir(): d08. 메서드를 사용하여 *note ZipInfo: d07. 인스
턴스가 디렉터리를 나타내는지 확인할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Thomas
Kluyver in bpo-26039(1).)

이제 *note ZipFile.open(): 415. 메서드를 사용하여 데이터를 추출할 뿐만 아
니라, ZIP 파일에 데이터를 쓸 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Thomas
Kluyver in bpo-26039(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039


File: python.info,  Node: zlib,  Prev: zipfile<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<4>

1.8.5.63 zlib
.............

*note compress(): 639.와 *note decompress(): d0a. 함수는 이제 키워드 인
자를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243(1) and
Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764(2) respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764


File: python.info,  Node: 최적화<4>,  Next: 빌드와 C API 변경<2>,  Prev: 개선된 모듈<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.6 최적화
------------

   * 파이썬 인터프리터는 이제 바이트 코드 대신 16비트 워드 코드를 사용하
     여 여러 옵코드 최적화를 가능하게 했습니다.  (Contributed by Demur
     Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy Storchaka and Victor
     Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).)

   * *note asyncio.Future: bca. 클래스에는 이제 최적화된 C 구현이 있습니
     다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(3).)

   * *note asyncio.Task: 1be. 클래스에는 이제 최적화된 C 구현이 있습니다
     .  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544(4).)

   * *note typing: 104. 모듈의 다양한 구현 개선 사항(가령 제네릭 형의 캐
     싱)을 통해 최대 30배의 성능 향상과 메모리 요구량 감소가 가능해졌습
     니다.

   * ASCII 디코더는 이제 에러 처리기 ‘surrogateescape’, ‘ignore’ 및
     ‘replace’에 대해 최대 60배 빠릅니다 (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-24870(5)).

   * ASCII와 Latin1 인코더는 이제 에러 처리기 ‘surrogateescape’에 대해 최
     대 3배 빠릅니다 (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25227(6)).

   * UTF-8 인코더는 이제 에러 처리기 ‘ignore’, ‘replace’,
     ‘surrogateescape’, ‘surrogatepass’에 대해 최대 75배 빠릅니다
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267(7)).

   * UTF-8 디코더는 이제 에러 처리기 ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ 및
     ‘surrogateescape’에 대해 최대 15배 빠릅니다 (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25301(8)).

   * ‘bytes % args’는 이제 최대 2배 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25349(9)).

   * ‘bytearray % args’는 이제 2.5–5배 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25399(10)).

   * *note bytes.fromhex(): aec.와 *note bytearray.fromhex(): aed.를 최
     적화했습니다: 이제 2배에서 3.5배까지 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25401(11)).

   * ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’와 ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’를 최적
     화했습니다: 최대 80% 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Josh Snider in
     bpo-26574(12)).

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62. 도메인(*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.)의 할
     당자 함수는 이제 C 라이브러리의 ‘malloc()’ 함수 대신 *note pymalloc
     메모리 할당자: d0c.를 사용합니다.  pymalloc 할당자는 수명이 짧은
     512바이트 이하의 객체에 최적화되어 있으며, 더 큰 메모리 블록에는
     ‘malloc()’을 사용합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-26249(13)).

   * *note pickle.load(): d0d.와 *note pickle.loads(): d0e.는 이제 많은
     작은 객체를 역 직렬화할 때 최대 10% 더 빠릅니다 (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-27056(14)).

   * *note 키워드 인자: d0f.를 함수에 전달하면 *note 위치 인자: d10.를 전
     달하는 것과 비교하여 오버헤드가 있습니다.  이제 인자 클리닉
     (Argument Clinic)을 사용하여 구현된 확장 함수에서 이 오버헤드가 많
     이 감소합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27574(15)).

   * *note glob: 64. 모듈에서 *note glob(): 29f.과 *note iglob(): 801. 함
     수를 최적화했습니다; 이제 약 3–6배 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596(16)).

   * *note os.scandir(): a5b.을 사용하여 *note pathlib: a4.에서 글로빙
     (globbing)을 최적화했습니다; 이제 약 1.5–4배 더 빨라졌습니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032(17)).

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. 구문 분석, 이터레이션 및 깊은 복
     사 성능이 크게 향상되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-25638(18), bpo-25873(19), and bpo-25869(20).)

   * 이제 부동 소수점과 십진수(decimals)에서 *note fractions.Fraction:
     1e7. 인스턴스를 생성하는 것이 2–3배 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25971(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971


File: python.info,  Node: 빌드와 C API 변경<2>,  Next: 기타 개선 사항,  Prev: 최적화<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.7 빌드와 C API 변경
-----------------------

   * 이제 파이썬을 빌드하려면 도구 체인에서 일부 C99 지원이 필요합니다.
     특히, 파이썬은 이제 ‘PY_LONG_LONG’과 같은 사용자 정의 매크로 자리에
     표준 정수 형과 매크로를 사용합니다.  자세한 내용은, PEP 7(1)과
     bpo-17884(2)를 참조하십시오.

   * 안드로이드 NDK와 안드로이드 API 수준이 21 (안드로이드 5.0 Lollipop)
     이상으로 CPython을 교차 컴파일하면 성공적으로 실행됩니다.  안드로이
     드는 아직 지원되는 플랫폼이 아니지만, 파이썬 테스트 스위트는 약 16번
     의 테스트 실패만으로 안드로이드 에뮬레이터에서 실행됩니다.  안드로
     이드 메타 이슈 bpo-26865(3)를 참조하세요.

   * ‘--enable-optimizations’ 구성 플래그가 추가되었습니다.  이를 켜면
     PGO와 같은 값 비싼 최적화가 활성화됩니다.  (Original patch by
     Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359(4).)

   * 이제 *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64.(예를 들어: *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): c65.)와 *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.(예를 들어:
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.) 도메인의 할당자 함수가 호출될 때 *note
     GIL: 148.이 유지되어야 합니다.

   * 버퍼링 된 데이터 플러시가 실패했는지를 나타내는 새로운 *note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. API. (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-5319(5).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. 는 이제 *note 위치 전용
     매개 변수: a82.를 지원합니다.  위치 전용 매개 변수는 빈 이름으로 정
     의됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26282(6)).

   * ‘PyTraceback_Print’ 메서드는 이제 반복되는 줄의 긴 시퀀스를
     ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’로 줄여줍니다.
     (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(7).)

   * 새로운 *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): d13. 함수를 사용하면 발
     생시킬 *note ImportError: 413.의 서브 클래스를 지정할 수 있습니다.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(8).)

   * 새로운 *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): d14. 함수는 리소스 할당의 소
     스를 제공하는 *note ResourceWarning: 244.을 생성하는 데 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26567(9).)

   * 새로운 *note PyOS_FSPath(): d15. 함수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.의 파
     일 시스템 표현을 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-27186(10).)

   * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d16.와 *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder():
     572. 함수는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 개선 사항,  Next: 폐지<3>,  Prev: 빌드와 C API 변경<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.8 기타 개선 사항
--------------------

   * *note -version: d18.(약식 형식: *note -V: 177.)이 두 번 제공되면, 파
     이썬은 자세한 정보로 *note sys.version: 178.을 인쇄합니다.

          $ ./python -VV
          Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
          [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지<3>,  Next: 제거<3>,  Prev: 기타 개선 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.9 폐지
----------

* Menu:

* 새 키워드::
* 폐지된 파이썬 동작: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<2>.
* 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>.
* xml: xml<6>.
* C API의 폐지된 함수와 형::
* 폐지된 빌드 옵션::


File: python.info,  Node: 새 키워드,  Next: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<2>,  Up: 폐지<3>

1.8.9.1 새 키워드
.................

‘async’와 ‘await’는 변수, 클래스, 함수 또는 모듈 이름으로 사용하지 않는
것이 좋습니다.  파이썬 3.5에서 PEP 492(1)에 의해 도입되었으며, 파이썬
3.7에서 정식 키워드가 될 것입니다.  파이썬 3.6부터, ‘async’나 ‘await’를
이름으로 사용하면 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.이 생성됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<2>,  Next: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>,  Prev: 새 키워드,  Up: 폐지<3>

1.8.9.2 폐지된 파이썬 동작
..........................

제너레이터 내에서 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 발생시키면 이제 *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5.이 생성되고, 파이썬 3.7에서는 *note
RuntimeError: 195.가 트리거될 것입니다.  자세한 내용은 *note PEP 479;
제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경: d1c.를 참조하십시오.

이제 ‘__aiter__()’ 메서드는 이전과 같이 어웨이터블을 반환하는 대신 비동
기 이터레이터를 직접 반환해야 합니다.  전자를 수행하면 *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5.이 트리거됩니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성은 파이썬
3.7에서 제거될 것입니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-27243(1).)

유효한 이스케이프 시퀀스가 아닌 역 슬래시 문자 쌍은 이제 *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 생성합니다.  이것은 결국 *note SyntaxError:
18d.가 될 것이지만, 몇 번의 파이썬 릴리스에서는 그렇게 되지 않을 것입니
다.  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364(2).)

상대 임포트를 수행할 때, ‘__spec__’이나 ‘__package__’가 정의되지 않을 때
호출하는 모듈에서 ‘__name__’과 ‘__path__’로 폴백하면 이제 *note
ImportWarning: 4f4.이 발생합니다.  (Contributed by Rose Ames in
bpo-25791(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>,  Next: xml<6>,  Prev: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<2>,  Up: 폐지<3>

1.8.9.3 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드
..........................................

* Menu:

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* os: os<9>.
* re: re<6>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* venv: venv<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat,  Next: asyncore,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.4 asynchat
................

‘asynchat’은 폐지되었고 *note asyncio: a.로 대체합니다.  (Contributed by
Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore,  Next: dbm<4>,  Prev: asynchat,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.5 asyncore
................

‘asyncore’는 폐지되었고 *note asyncio: a.로 대체합니다.  (Contributed by
Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<4>,  Next: distutils<6>,  Prev: asyncore,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.6 dbm
...........

다른 *note dbm: 31. 구현과 달리, *note dbm.dumb: 32. 모듈은 ‘'rw'’ 모드
로 데이터베이스를 만들고 ‘'r'’ 모드로 열린 데이터베이스를 수정할 수 있습
니다.  이 동작은 이제 폐지되었고 3.8에서 제거됩니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21708(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<6>,  Next: grp,  Prev: dbm<4>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.7 distutils
.................

‘distutils.Distribution’ 생성자에 대한 문서화되지 않은 ‘extra_path’ 인자
는 이제 폐지된 것으로 간주하며 설정되면 경고가 발생합니다.  이 매개 변수
에 대한 지원은 향후 파이썬 릴리스에서 제거됩니다.  자세한 내용은
bpo-27919(1)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919


File: python.info,  Node: grp,  Next: importlib<7>,  Prev: distutils<6>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.8 grp
...........

*note getgrgid(): d23.에서 정수가 아닌 인자에 대한 지원은 폐지되었습니다
.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<7>,  Next: os<9>,  Prev: grp,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.9 importlib
.................

*note importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module(): d25.과 *note
importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module(): d26. 메서드는 이
제 폐지되었습니다.  이들은 *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
865.로 대체하도록 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 폐지되지 않은 *note importlib:
77.에 있는 유일한 *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 864. 구현입
니다.

*note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: d27. 클래스는 이제 폐지
되었습니다.  3.6.0부터, 기본적으로 (윈도우에서) *note sys.meta_path:
d28.에 계속 추가되지만, 향후 릴리스에서 변경될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: os<9>,  Next: re<6>,  Prev: importlib<7>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.10 os
...........

*note os: a1. 함수, *note compile(): 192. 및 유사한 함수에서 경로로 일반
*note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.에 대한 문서화되지 않은 지원은 이제 폐지되었
습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791(1) and
bpo-26754(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: re<6>,  Next: ssl<8>,  Prev: os<9>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.11 re
...........

정규식 중간에 있는 인라인 플래그 ‘(?letters)’에 대한 지원은 폐지되었고 향
후 파이썬 버전에서 제거됩니다.  정규식 시작 부분의 플래그는 계속 허용됩
니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<8>,  Next: tkinter<7>,  Prev: re<6>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.12 ssl
............

OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 및 1.0.1은 폐지되었고 더는 지원되지 않습니다.  향후
에 *note ssl: d0. 모듈에는 최소한 OpenSSL 1.0.2나 1.1.0이 필요합니다.

*note ftplib: 5e, *note http.client: 6f, *note imaplib: 74, *note
poplib: ac. 및 *note smtplib: ca.에서 ‘certfile’, ‘keyfile’ 및
‘check_hostname’과 같은 SSL 관련 인자는 폐지되었고 ‘context’로 대체합니
다.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(1).)

*note ssl: d0. 모듈의 몇 가지 프로토콜과 함수는 이제 폐지되었습니다.  일
부 기능은 향후 버전의 OpenSSL에서 더는 사용할 수 없을 것입니다.  다른 기
능들이 폐지되었고 다른 API로 대체합니다.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-28022(2) and bpo-26470(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<7>,  Next: venv<6>,  Prev: ssl<8>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.13 tkinter
................

‘tkinter.tix’ 모듈은 이제 폐지되었습니다.  *note tkinter: f0. 사용자는 대
신 *note tkinter.ttk: f9.를 사용해야합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: venv<6>,  Prev: tkinter<7>,  Up: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>

1.8.9.14 venv
.............

‘pyvenv’ 스크립트는 폐지되었고 ‘python3 -m venv’로 대체합니다.  이것은
‘pyvenv’가 연결되어있는 파이썬 인터프리터가 무엇이고 따라서 가상 환경에
서 어떤 파이썬 인터프리터가 사용될 것인지에 대한 혼동을 방지합니다.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: xml<6>,  Next: C API의 폐지된 함수와 형,  Prev: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<2>,  Up: 폐지<3>

1.8.9.15 xml
............

   * As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer
     process external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: C API의 폐지된 함수와 형,  Next: 폐지된 빌드 옵션,  Prev: xml<6>,  Up: 폐지<3>

1.8.9.16 C API의 폐지된 함수와 형
.................................

문서화되지 않은 함수 ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’,
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ 및
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ 는 이제 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note 범용
코덱 기반 API: d32.를 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 빌드 옵션,  Prev: C API의 폐지된 함수와 형,  Up: 폐지<3>

1.8.9.17 폐지된 빌드 옵션
.........................

‘--with-system-ffi’ 구성 플래그는 이제 비 macOS 유닉스 플랫폼에서 기본적
으로 켜집니다.  ‘--without-system-ffi’를 사용하여 비활성화 할 수 있지만,
플래그 사용은 폐지되었고 파이썬 3.7에서는 허용되지 않을 것입니다.  macOS는
이 변경의 영향을 받지 않습니다.  많은 OS 배포자는 시스템 파이썬을 빌드할
때 이미 ‘--with-system-ffi’ 플래그를 사용함에 유의하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 제거<3>,  Next: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기,  Prev: 폐지<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.10 제거
-----------

* Menu:

* API와 기능 제거::


File: python.info,  Node: API와 기능 제거,  Up: 제거<3>

1.8.10.1 API와 기능 제거
........................

   * 정규식에서 ‘'\'’와 ASCII 문자로 구성된 알 수 없는 이스케이프는 이제
     에러를 발생시킵니다.  *note re.sub(): 2a3.의 치환 템플릿에서는 여전
     히 허용되지만, 폐지되었습니다.  *note re.LOCALE: b69. 플래그는 이제
     바이너리 패턴에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

   * ‘inspect.getmoduleinfo()’가 제거되었습니다 (CPython 3.3부터 폐지되
     었습니다).  *note inspect.getmodulename(): d36.은 주어진 경로에 대
     한 모듈 이름을 얻는 데 사용해야 합니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-13248(1).)

   * ‘traceback.Ignore’ 클래스와 ‘traceback.usage’, ‘traceback.modname’,
     ‘traceback.fullmodname’, ‘traceback.find_lines_from_code’,
     ‘traceback.find_lines’, ‘traceback.find_strings’,
     ‘traceback.find_executable_lines’ 메서드가 *note traceback: fe. 모
     듈에서 제거되었습니다.  그것들은 파이썬 3.2 이후 폐지된 문서화되지
     않은 메서드였으며 동등한 기능은 비공개 메서드에서 사용할 수 있습니
     다.

   * *note tkinter: f0. 위젯 클래스의 ‘tk_menuBar()’와
     ‘tk_bindForTraversal()’ 더미 메서드가 제거되었습니다 (해당 Tk 명령
     은 Tk 4.0 이후로 사용되지 않습니다).

   * *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6be. 클래스의 *note open(): 415. 메서드는 더
     는 ‘'U'’ 모드를 지원하지 않습니다 (파이썬 3.4부터 폐지되었습니다).
     *note 유니버설 줄 넘김: d37. 모드에서 압축된 텍스트 파일을 읽으려면
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.를 사용하십시오.

   * 문서화되지 않은 ‘IN’, ‘CDROM’, ‘DLFCN’, ‘TYPES’, ‘CDIO’ 및
     ‘STROPTS’ 모듈이 제거되었습니다.  이들은 플랫폼별 ‘Lib/plat-*/’ 디
     렉터리에 있었지만, 만성적으로 구식이었고, 여러 플랫폼에서 일관성 없
     이 사용할 수 있으며, 유지 관리되지 않았습니다.  이러한 모듈을 만든
     스크립트는 소스 배포에서 Tools/scripts/h2py.py(2)로 계속 제공됩니다
     .

   * 폐지된 ‘asynchat.fifo’ 클래스가 제거되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 제거<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.11 파이썬 3.6으로 이식하기
------------------------------

이 섹션에서는 여러분의 코드 변경이 필요할 수 있는 이전에 설명한 변경 사
항과 기타 버그 수정을 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* ‘python’ 명령 동작의 변경 사항::
* 파이썬 API의 변경 사항::
* C API의 변경 사항::
* CPython 바이트 코드 변경 사항::


File: python.info,  Node: ‘python’ 명령 동작의 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 API의 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기

1.8.11.1 ‘python’ 명령 동작의 변경 사항
.......................................

   * 정의된 ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’, ‘SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT’ 또는 ‘SHOW_TRACK_COUNT’ 매
     크로가 있는 특수 파이썬 빌드의 출력은 이제 기본적으로 꺼져 있습니다
     .  ‘-X showalloccount’ 옵션을 사용하여 다시 활성화할 수 있습니다.  이
     제 ‘stdout’ 대신 ‘stderr’로 출력됩니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-23034(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 API의 변경 사항,  Next: C API의 변경 사항,  Prev: ‘python’ 명령 동작의 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기

1.8.11.2 파이썬 API의 변경 사항
...............................

   * *note open(): 515.은 더는 ‘'U'’ 모드 플래그를 ‘'+'’와 결합하는 것을
     허용하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O’Connor
     in bpo-2091(1).)

   * *note sqlite3: cf.은 더는 DDL 문 이전에 열린 트랜잭션을 묵시적으로
     커밋하지 않습니다.

   * 리눅스에서, *note os.urandom(): 51c.은 이제 보안을 강화하기 위해 시
     스템 urandom 엔트로피 풀이 초기화될 때까지 블록합니다.

   * *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 865.이 정의되면, *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): cab.도 정의되어야 합니다.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3b.는 이제 'msg' 인자가 설정되지 않
     았을 때 *note TypeError: 532.를 설정합니다.  이전에는 ‘NULL’만 반환
     되었습니다.

   * 코드 객체의 *note co_lnotab: 2e2. 어트리뷰트 형식이 음수 줄 번호 델
     타를 지원하도록 변경되었습니다.  기본적으로, 파이썬은 음의 줄 번호
     델타가 있는 바이트 코드를 내보내지 않습니다.  *note frame.f_lineno:
     7a5, ‘PyFrame_GetLineNumber()’ 또는 ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’을 사용하는
     함수는 영향을 받지 않습니다.  ‘co_lnotab’을 직접 디코딩하는 함수는
     줄 번호 델타에 부호 있는 8비트 정수 형을 사용하도록 갱신해야 하지만
     , 이는 음의 줄 번호 델타를 사용하는 응용 프로그램을 지원하는 데만 필
     요합니다.  ‘co_lnotab’ 형식과 디코딩 방법에 대해서는
     ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’를 참조하고, 그 이유는 PEP 511(2)을 참조
     하십시오.

   * *note compileall: 20. 모듈의 함수는 이제 ‘1’이나 ‘0’ 대신 불리언을
     반환하여 각각 성공이나 실패를 나타냅니다.  불리언은 정수의 서브 클
     래스이기 때문에, ‘1’이나 ‘0’에 대한 아이덴티티 검사를 수행하는 경우
     에만 문제가 됩니다.  bpo-25768(3)을 참조하십시오.

   * *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3c.과 *note urlparse(): 305. 결과의
     ‘port’ 어트리뷰트를 읽으면 범위를 벗어난 값에 대해 이제 *note None:
     66f.을 반환하는 대신 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.
     bpo-20059(4)를 참조하십시오.

   * ‘imp’ 모듈은 이제 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 대신 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 발생시킵니다.

   * 다음 모듈에는 문서화된 API와 일치하도록 ‘__all__’ 어트리뷰트에 누락
     된 API가 추가되었습니다: *note calendar: 14, ‘cgi’, *note csv: 29,
     *note ElementTree: 125, *note enum: 56, *note fileinput: 5b, *note
     ftplib: 5e, *note logging: 87, *note mailbox: 8b, *note mimetypes:
     8f, *note optparse: a0, *note plistlib: ab, ‘smtpd’, *note
     subprocess: d6, *note tarfile: de, *note threading: ed. 및 *note
     wave: 113.  이것은 ‘import *’가 사용될 때 새로운 심볼을 내보낼 것을
     의미합니다.  (Contributed by Joel Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in
     bpo-23883(5).)

   * 상대 임포트를 수행할 때, ‘__package__’가 ‘__spec__.parent’와 같다고
     비교되지 않으면 *note ImportWarning: 4f4.이 발생합니다.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791(6).)

   * 상대 임포트가 수행되고 부모 패키지가 알려지지 않았으면, *note
     ImportError: 413.가 발생합니다.  이전에는, *note SystemError: 570.를
     발생시킬 수 있었습니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18018(7).)

   * *note http.server: 72, *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. 및 *note
     wsgiref.simple_server: 11b.에 정의된 서버를 포함하여, *note
     socketserver: cd. 모듈을 기반으로 하는 서버는 이제 *note Exception:
     9d6.에서 파생된 예외만 포착합니다.  따라서 요청 처리기가 *note
     SystemExit: d3d.나 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.와 같은 예외를 발생
     시키면, *note handle_error(): d3e.가 더는 호출되지 않고, 예외로 인
     해 단일 스레드 서버가 중지됩니다.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-23430(8).)

   * ‘spwd.getspnam()’은 이제 사용자에게 권한이 없으면 *note KeyError:
     33d. 대신 *note PermissionError: d3f.를 발생시킵니다.

   * *note socket.socket.close(): d40. 메서드는 하부 시스템 호출에 의해
     에러(예를 들어 ‘EBADF’)가 보고되면 예외를 발생시킵니다.
     (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26685(9).)

   * ‘smtpd.SMTPChannel’과 ‘smtpd.SMTPServer’ 생성자에 대한
     'decode_data' 인자는 이제 기본적으로 ‘False’입니다.  이것은
     ‘process_message()’에 전달된 인자가 이제 기본적으로 바이트열 객체이
     고, ‘process_message()’에 키워드 인자가 전달됨을 의미합니다.  3.5에
     서 생성된 폐지 경고에 따라 이미 갱신된 코드는 영향을 받지 않습니다.

   * *note json: 82. 모듈의 *note dump(): d41, *note dumps(): d42, *note
     load(): cb1. 및 *note loads(): 953. 함수와 *note JSONEncoder: d43.와
     *note JSONDecoder: d44. 클래스 생성자의 모든 선택적 인자는 이제
     *note 키워드 전용: 2a5.입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-18726(10).)

   * ‘type.__new__’를 재정의하지 않는 *note type: d45.의 서브 클래스는 더
     는 단일 인자 형식을 사용하여 객체 형을 가져올 수 없습니다.

   * PEP 487(11)의 일부로, *note type: d45.에 전달된 키워드 인자 (메타 클
     래스 힌트 ‘metaclass’ 제외) 처리가 이제 일관되게 *note
     object.__init_subclass__(): 62b.에 위임됩니다.  즉,
     ‘type.__new__()’와 ‘type.__init__()’는 이제 임의의 키워드 인자를 받
     아들이지만, *note object.__init_subclass__():
     62b.(‘type.__new__()’에서 호출됨)는 기본적으로 이를 거부합니다.  추
     가 키워드 인자를 받아들이는 사용자 정의 메타 클래스는 그에 따라
     ‘type.__new__()’에 대한 호출을 조정해야 합니다 (직접 또는 *note
     super: 4d5.를 통해).

   * ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’에서, ‘default_format’ 어트리뷰트가
     제거되었으며 더는 적용되지 않습니다.  대신, gzip 된 tar 파일 형식이
     모든 플랫폼에서 기본값이며 플랫폼별 선택이 이루어지지 않습니다.  윈
     도우에서 배포가 빌드되고 zip 배포가 필요한 환경에서는, 다음을 포함
     하는 ‘setup.cfg’ 파일로 프로젝트를 구성하십시오:

          [sdist]
          formats=zip

     이 동작은 Setuptools 26.0.0에 의해 이전 파이썬 버전으로 역 이식되었
     습니다.

   * *note urllib.request: 10b. 모듈과 *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.request(): ca6. 메서드에서,
     Content-Length 헤더 필드가 지정되지 않았고 요청 본문이 파일 객체이
     면, 이제 HTTP 1.1 청크 인코딩(chunked encoding)으로 전송됩니다.  파
     일 객체를 HTTP 1.0 서버로 보내야 하면, 이제 호출자가 Content-Length
     값을 지정해야 합니다.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl
     with tweaks from Martin Panter in bpo-12319(12).)

   * *note DictReader: 9e1.는 이제 *note OrderedDict: 5d5. 형의 행을 반
     환합니다.  (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842(13).)

   * 플랫폼에서 지원하지 않으면, ‘crypt.METHOD_CRYPT’는 더는
     ‘crypt.methods’에 추가되지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25287(14).)

   * *note namedtuple(): 1ca.에 대한 'verbose'와 'rename' 인자는 이제 키
     워드 전용입니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-25628(15).)

   * 리눅스에서, *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d46.는 이제
     ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’에서 공유 라이브러리를 찾습니다.  (Contributed by
     Vinay Sajip in bpo-9998(16).)

   * *note imaplib.IMAP4: 900. 클래스는 이제 서버에서 보낸 메시지의
     ‘']'’ 문자를 포함하는 플래그를 처리하여 실세계 호환성을 향상합니다.
     (Contributed by Lita Cho in bpo-21815(17).)

   * ‘mmap.write()’ 함수는 이제 다른 쓰기 메서드와 같이 기록된 바이트 수
     를 반환합니다.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in bpo-26335(18).)

   * *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): d47.와 *note pkgutil.walk_packages():
     bfc. 함수는 네임드 튜플 *note ModuleInfo: d48.를 반환합니다.
     (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in bpo-17211(19).)

   * *note re.sub(): 2a3.는 이제 문자열에서 패턴을 찾을 수 없는 경우에도
     치환 템플릿에 있는 잘못된 숫자 그룹 참조에 대해 에러를 발생시킵니다
     .  이제 잘못된 그룹 참조에 대한 에러 메시지에 그룹 인덱스와 참조 위
     치가 포함됩니다.  (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-25953(20).)

   * *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6be.은 이제 인식할 수 없는 압축 값에 대해
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. 를 발생시킵니다.  이전에는 일반
     *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.  또한, 닫힌 ZipFile에서
     *note ZipFile: 6be. 메서드를 호출하거나 ‘'r'’ 모드로 만든 ZipFile에
     서 *note write(): d49. 메서드를 호출하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발
     생합니다.  이전에는, 이러한 시나리오에서 *note RuntimeError: 195.가
     발생했습니다.

   * 사용자 정의 메타 클래스가 인자가 없는 *note super(): 4d5.나 메서드
     에서 묵시적 ‘__class__’ 클로저 변수로의 직접 참조와 결합할 때, 묵시
     적 ‘__classcell__’ 이름 공간 항목은 이제 초기화를 위해
     ‘type.__new__’까지 전달되어야 합니다.  그렇게 하지 않으면 파이썬
     3.6에서는 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.이, 파이썬 3.8에서는 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

   * *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 의 도입으로, 임포트 시스템 소비자는
     임포트 시스템 교체로 인해 적절한 경우 덜 구체적인 *note
     ImportError: 413.가 아닌 더 구체적인 예외가 발생할 것으로 기대할 수
     있습니다.  이러한 소비자와의 향후 호환성을 제공하기 위해, *note
     __import__(): 8d1.를 완전히 대체하는 대체 임포트 시스템의 구현자는
     모듈을 전혀 찾을 수 없을 때 새 서브 클래스를 발생시키도록 구현을 갱
     신해야 합니다.  기본 임포트 시스템에 대한 호환 플러그인의 구현자는
     필요한 경우 기본 임포트 시스템이 새 서브 클래스를 발생시키므로 변경
     할 필요가 없습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953


File: python.info,  Node: C API의 변경 사항,  Next: CPython 바이트 코드 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 API의 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기

1.8.11.3 C API의 변경 사항
..........................

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62. 할당자 패밀리는 이제 시스템 ‘malloc()’이
     아닌 *note pymalloc 할당자: d0c.를 사용합니다.  이제 GIL을 보유하지
     않고 *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.을 호출하는 응용 프로그램이 충돌할 수
     있습니다.  응용 프로그램에서 메모리 할당자의 사용을 확인하려면
     *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수를 ‘debug’로 설정하십시오.
     bpo-26249(1)를 참조하십시오.

   * *note Py_Exit(): d4b.(그리고 메인 인터프리터)는 이제 버퍼링 된 데이
     터를 플러시 하지 못하면 종료 상태를 120으로 재정의합니다.
     bpo-5319(2)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319


File: python.info,  Node: CPython 바이트 코드 변경 사항,  Prev: C API의 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기

1.8.11.4 CPython 바이트 코드 변경 사항
......................................

파이썬 3.6에서 *note 바이트 코드: 187.에 몇 가지 주요 변경 사항이 있습니
다.

   * 파이썬 인터프리터는 이제 바이트 코드 대신 16비트 워드 코드를 사용합
     니다.  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
     Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and
     bpo-28050(2).)

   * *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: c2c. 구현의 일부로 새로운 ‘FORMAT_VALUE’와
     *note BUILD_STRING: d4d. 옵코드.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in
     bpo-25483(3) and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27078(4).)

   * 상수 키를 갖는 딕셔너리 생성을 최적화하는 새로운 *note
     BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP: d4e. 옵코드.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-27140(5).)

   * 더 나은 성능과 더 간단한 구현을 위해 함수 호출 옵코드들이 크게 다시
     작업 되었습니다.  *note MAKE_FUNCTION: d4f, ‘CALL_FUNCTION’,
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ 및 ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ 옵코드가 수정되
     었으며, 새로운 *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: d50. 와
     ‘BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’이 추가되었으며, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR’,
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW’ 및 ‘MAKE_CLOSURE’ 옵코드가 제거되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Demur Rumed in bpo-27095(6), and Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-27213(7), bpo-28257(8).)

   * 새로운 *note 변수 어노테이션: d51. 문법을 지원하기 위해 새로운
     *note SETUP_ANNOTATIONS: d52.와 ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ 옵코드가 추가되
     었습니다.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-27985(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6으로 이식하기,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.12 파이썬 3.6.2의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상::
* make touch 빌드 대상 제거::


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상,  Next: make touch 빌드 대상 제거,  Up: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.8.12.1 새로운 ‘make regen-all’ 빌드 대상
..........................................

교차 컴파일을 단순화하고, 기존 버전의 파이썬을 이미 사용할 수 있을 필요
없이 CPython을 안정적으로 컴파일 할 수 있도록, autotools 기반 빌드 시스
템은 더는 파일 수정 시간을 기반으로 생성된 파일을 묵시적으로 재컴파일하
려고 시도하지 않습니다.

대신, 원할 때 이러한 파일을 강제로 재생성하기 위해 새로운 ‘make
regen-all’ 명령이 추가되었습니다 (예를 들어 사전 생성된 버전을 기반으로
파이썬의 초기 버전이 이미 빌드된 후).

더 선택적인 재생성 대상도 정의됩니다 - 자세한 내용은 Makefile.pre.in(1)을
참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 3.6.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: make touch 빌드 대상 제거,  Prev: 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상,  Up: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.8.12.2 ‘make touch’ 빌드 대상 제거
....................................

수정 시간을 갱신하여 생성된 파일의 묵시적 재생성을 요청하는 데 이전에 사
용된 ‘make touch’ 빌드 대상이 제거되었습니다.

새로운 ‘make regen-all’ 대상으로 대체되었습니다.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

버전 3.6.2에서 변경.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6 2의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.13 파이썬 3.6.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

공용 API의 일부였던 ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ 싱글톤은 멤버가 삭제되지
않아서 인터프리터 종료 중에 세그멘테이션 오류가 발생할 수 있어서 제거되
었습니다.  (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in bpo-22898(1) and
bpo-30697(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 7의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.14 파이썬 3.6.5의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

이제 *note locale.localeconv(): bfb. 함수는 때에 따라 임시로 ‘LC_CTYPE’
로케일을 ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 로케일로 설정합니다.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-31900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 7의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6 5의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.15 파이썬 3.6.7의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

*note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer
process external entities by default.  See also gh-61441(1).

3.6.7에서 *note tokenize: fb. 모듈은 이제 후행 줄 넘김이 없는 입력이 제
공될 때 묵시적으로 ‘NEWLINE’ 토큰을 내보냅니다.  이 동작은 이제 C 토크나
이저가 내부적으로 수행하는 작업과 일치합니다.  (Contributed by Ammar
Askar in bpo-33899(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 13의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6 7의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.16 파이썬 3.6.10의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

심각한 보안 문제로 인해 *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint():
72c.의 'reuse_address' 매개 변수는 더는 지원되지 않습니다.  이는 UDP에서
소켓 옵션 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’의 동작 때문입니다.  자세한 내용은
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’ 설명서를 참조하십시오.  (Contributed
by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 13의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Next: 파이썬 3 6 14의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6 10의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.17 파이썬 3.6.13의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

이전 파이썬 버전에서는 *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27a.와 *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279.에서 쿼리 매개 변수 구분자로 ‘;’과 ‘&’를 모
두 사용할 수 있었습니다.  보안 문제와 최신 W3C 권장 사항을 준수하기 위해
, ‘&’가 기본값인 단일 구분자 키만 허용하도록 변경되었습니다.  이 변경 사
항은 영향을 받는 함수를 내부적으로 사용하므로 ‘cgi.parse()’와
‘cgi.parse_multipart()’에도 영향을 줍니다.  자세한 내용은 해당 설명서를
참조하십시오.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken
Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 6 14의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6 13의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Up: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능

1.8.18 파이썬 3.6.14의 주목할만한 변경 사항
-------------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 10a. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Prev: 파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.9 파이썬 3.5의 새로운 기능
============================


편집자: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

이 기사에서는 3.4과 비교하여 파이썬 3.5의 새로운 기능에 관해 설명합니다.
파이썬 3.5는 2015년 9월 13일에 출시되었습니다.  전체 변경 사항 목록은
changelog(1)를 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 478(2) - 파이썬 3.5 출시 일정

* Menu:

* 요약 – 배포 주요 사항: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<5>.
* 새로운 기능: 새로운 기능<6>.
* 기타 언어 변경: 기타 언어 변경<5>.
* 새로운 모듈: 새로운 모듈<2>.
* 개선된 모듈: 개선된 모듈<5>.
* 기타 모듈 수준 변경::
* 최적화: 최적화<5>.
* 빌드와 C API 변경: 빌드와 C API 변경<3>.
* 폐지: 폐지<4>.
* 제거: 제거<4>.
* 파이썬 3.5로 이식하기: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기.
* 파이썬 3.5.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항: 파이썬 3 5 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/


File: python.info,  Node: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<5>,  Next: 새로운 기능<6>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.1 요약 – 배포 주요 사항
---------------------------

새로운 문법 기능:

   * *note PEP 492: d5f, async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴.

   * *note PEP 465: d60, 새로운 행렬 곱셈 연산자: ‘a @ b’.

   * *note PEP 448: d61, 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화.

새로운 라이브러리 모듈:

   * *note typing: 104.: *note PEP 484 – 형 힌트: d62.

   * *note zipapp: 130.: *note PEP 441 파이썬 ZIP 응용 프로그램 지원
     개선: d63.

새로운 내장 기능:

   * ‘bytes % args’, ‘bytearray % args’ : *note PEP 461: d64. – bytes와
     bytearray에 ‘%’ 포매팅 추가.

   * 새로운 *note bytes.hex(): d65, *note bytearray.hex(): d66. 및 *note
     memoryview.hex(): d67. 메서드.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in
     bpo-9951(1).)

   * *note memoryview: 462.는 이제 튜플 인덱싱(다차원 포함)을 지원합니다
     .  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23632(2).)

   * 제너레이터에는 ‘yield from’ 표현식에 의해 이터레이션 중인 객체를 반
     환하는 새로운 ‘gi_yieldfrom’ 어트리뷰트가 있습니다.  (Contributed
     by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450(3).)

   * 이제 최대 재귀 깊이에 도달하면 새로운 *note RecursionError: d68. 예
     외가 발생합니다.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-19235(4).)

CPython 구현 개선:

   * ‘LC_TYPE’ 로케일이 POSIX 로케일(‘C’ 로케일)일 때, *note sys.stdin:
     537.과 *note sys.stdout: ad3.은 이제 ‘strict’ 에러 처리기 대신
     ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 처리기를 사용합니다.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-19977(5).)

   * ‘.pyo’ 파일은 더는 사용되지 않으며 ‘.pyc’ 이름에 명시적으로 최적화
     수준을 포함하는 더 유연한 체계로 대체되었습니다.  (*note PEP 488
     개요: d69.를 참조하십시오.)

   * 내장과 확장 모듈은 이제 파이썬 모듈이 로드되는 방식과 유사한 다단계
     절차로 초기화됩니다.  (*note PEP 489 개요: d6a.를 참조하십시오.)

표준 라이브러리의 현저한 개선:

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5.는 이제 *note C로 구현: d6b.되어
     서 4 에서 100배 더 빠릅니다.

   * *note ssl: d0. 모듈은 네트워크 IO에서 SSL 프로토콜 처리를 분리하는
     *note 메모리 BIO 지원: d6c.을 얻었습니다.

   * 새로운 *note os.scandir(): a5b. 함수는 디렉터리 순회의 *note 더 좋고
     훨씬 더 빠른 방법: d6d.을 제공합니다.

   * *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb.는 대부분 *note C로 재구현되어서:
     d6e. 훨씬 더 나은 성능을 제공합니다.

   * 새로운 *note subprocess.run(): b83. 함수는 *note 서브 프로세스를
     실행하는 간소화된 방법: d6f.을 제공합니다.

   * *note traceback: fe. 모듈은 향상된 성능과 개발자 편의를 위해 크게
     *note 개선: d70.되었습니다.

보안 향상:

   * SSLv3은 이제 표준 라이브러리 전체에서 비활성화됩니다.  *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 294.를 수동으로 인스턴스 화하여 여전히 활성화 할 수
     있습니다.  (자세한 내용은 bpo-22638(6)을 참조하십시오; 이 변경 사항
     은 CPython 3.4와 2.7로 역 이식되었습니다.)

   * HTTP 쿠키 구문 분석은 이제 잠재적인 주입 공격으로부터 보호하기 위해
     더 엄격해졌습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-22796(7).)

윈도우 개선:

   * 윈도우 용 새 설치 프로그램이 이전 MSI를 대체했습니다.  자세한 정보
     는 *note 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기: aa4.를 참조하십시오.

   * 윈도우 빌드는 이제 Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0을 사용하고, 확장 모듈
     은 같은 것을 사용해야 합니다.

다른 많은 소규모 개선 사항, CPython 최적화, 폐지 및 잠재적 이식 문제를 포
함하여, 사용자가 직면하는 변경 사항의 포괄적인 목록을 읽으십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 기능<6>,  Next: 기타 언어 변경<5>,  Prev: 요약 – 배포 주요 사항<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.2 새로운 기능
-----------------

* Menu:

* PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴::
* PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위(infix) 연산자: PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자.
* PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화::
* PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원::
* PEP 484 - 형 힌트::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터.
* PEP 475; EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도.
* PEP 479; 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경.
* PEP 485; 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수.
* PEP 486; 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기.
* PEP 488; PYO 파일 제거: PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거.
* PEP 489; 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴,  Next: PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.1 PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴
......................................................

PEP 492(1)는 *note 어웨이터블 객체: 1ad, *note 코루틴 함수: d73, *note
비동기 이터레이션: d74. 및 *note 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자: 5d1.를 추가하여
파이썬에서 비동기 프로그래밍에 대한 지원을 크게 향상합니다.

코루틴 함수는 새로운 *note async def: 5cb. 구문을 사용하여 선언됩니다:

     >>> async def coro():
     ...     return 'spam'

코루틴 함수 내에서 새로운 *note await: 1b9. 표현식을 사용하여 결과를 사
용할 수 있을 때까지 코루틴 실행을 중단 할 수 있습니다.  ‘__await__()’ 메
서드를 정의하여 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad. 프로토콜을 구현하는 한 모든 객체
는 'await' 될 수 있습니다.

PEP 492는 또한 비동기 이터러블에 대한 편리한 이터레이션을 위해 *note
async for: aa7. 문을 추가합니다.

새로운 구문을 사용하여 작성된 기본 HTTP 클라이언트의 예:

     import asyncio

     async def http_get(domain):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)

         writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
             b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
             b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
             b'Connection: close',
             b'', b''
         ]))

         async for line in reader:
             print('>>>', line)

         writer.close()

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
     finally:
         loop.close()

비동기 이터레이션과 마찬가지로, 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자를 위한 새로운 구
문이 있습니다.  다음 스크립트:

     import asyncio

     async def coro(name, lock):
         print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
         async with lock:
             print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
             await asyncio.sleep(1)
             print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     lock = asyncio.Lock()
     coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(coros)
     finally:
         loop.close()

는 다음을 출력합니다:

     coro 2: waiting for lock
     coro 2: holding the lock
     coro 1: waiting for lock
     coro 2: releasing the lock
     coro 1: holding the lock
     coro 1: releasing the lock

*note async for: aa7.와 *note async with: 5cf.는 모두 *note async def:
5cb.로 선언된 코루틴 함수 내에서만 사용할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.

코루틴 함수는 *note asyncio loop: d75.와 같은 호환 가능한 이벤트 루프 내
에서 실행되도록 설계되었습니다.

     참고: 
     버전 3.5.2에서 변경: CPython 3.5.2부터 ‘__aiter__’는 *note 비동기
     이터레이터: 1ab.를 직접 반환 할 수 있습니다.  *note 어웨이터블:
     1ad. 객체를 반환하면 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 이 발생
     합니다.

     *note 비동기 이터레이터(Asynchronous Iterators): d76. 설명서 섹션에
     서 자세한 내용을 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 492(2) – async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴

     Yury Selivanov가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자,  Next: PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화,  Prev: PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.2 PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위(infix) 연산자
..........................................................

PEP 465(1)는 행렬 곱셈을 위한 ‘@’ 중위(infix) 연산자를 추가합니다.  현재
, 내장 파이썬 형은 어느 것도 새 연산자를 구현하지 않지만, 일반, 뒤집힌 및
증분 행렬 곱셈에 대해 ‘__matmul__()’, ‘__rmatmul__()’ 및
‘__imatmul__()’를 정의하여 구현할 수 있습니다.  이러한 메서드의 의미는 다
른 중위 산술 연산자를 정의하는 메서드의 의미와 유사합니다.

행렬 곱셈은 수학, 과학, 공학의 많은 분야에서 매우 일반적인 연산이며,
‘@’를 추가하면 더 깨끗한 코드를 작성할 수 있습니다:

     S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)

이렇게 작성하는 대신에:

     S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
             dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))

NumPy 1.10은 새 연산자를 지원합니다:

     >>> import numpy

     >>> x = numpy.ones(3)
     >>> x
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

     >>> m = numpy.eye(3)
     >>> m
     array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
            [ 0., 1., 0.],
            [ 0., 0., 1.]])

     >>> x @ m
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

더 보기
.......

PEP 465(2) – 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위(infix) 연산자

     Nathaniel J. Smith가 작성한 PEP; Benjamin Peterson이 구현했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화,  Next: PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원,  Prev: PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.3 PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화
.........................................

PEP 448(1)은 ‘*’ 이터러블 언 패킹 연산자와 ‘**’ 딕셔너리 언 패킹 연산자
의 허용된 사용을 확장합니다.  이제 *note 함수 호출: d79.에서 임의의 수의
언 패킹을 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
     1 2 3 4 5

     >>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
     ...     print(a, b, c, d)
     ...

     >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
     1 2 3 4

마찬가지로, 튜플, 리스트, 집합 및 딕셔너리 디스플레이는 여러 번의 언 패
킹을 허용합니다 (*note 표현식 목록(Expression lists): d7a.과 *note
딕셔너리 디스플레이: d7b.를 참조하십시오):

     >>> *range(4), 4
     (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

     >>> [*range(4), 4]
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

     >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
     {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

     >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
     {'x': 1, 'y': 2}

더 보기
.......

PEP 448(2) – 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화

     Joshua Landau가 작성한 PEP; Neil Girdhar, Thomas Wouters 및 Joshua
     Landau가 구현했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원,  Next: PEP 484 - 형 힌트,  Prev: PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.4 PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원
.............................................................

PEP 461(1)은 *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytearray: 538.에 ‘%’ *note 보간
연산자: d7d.에 대한 지원을 추가합니다.

보간은 일반적으로 문자열 연산으로 간주하지만, ‘bytes’나 ‘bytearrays’에 대
한 보간이 적절한 경우가 있고, 이 누락 된 기능을 보완하는 데 필요한 작업
이 코드의 전반적인 가독성을 떨어뜨립니다.  이 문제는 종종 바이너리와
ASCII 호환 텍스트가 혼합된 전송 형식(wire format) 프로토콜을 다룰 때 특
히 중요합니다.

예:

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
     b'Hello World!'

     >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
     b'x=1 y=2.500000'

유니코드는 ‘%b’에 허용되지 않지만, ‘%a’에서 허용됩니다
(‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’와 동등합니다):

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'

     >>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
     b"price: '10\\u20ac'"

‘%s’와 ‘%r’ 변환 유형은, 지원되기는 하지만, 파이썬 2와의 호환성이 필요한
코드 베이스에서만 사용해야 함에 유의하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 461(2) – bytes와 bytearray에 % 포매팅 추가

     Ethan Furman이 작성한 PEP; Neil Schemenauer와 Ethan Furman이 구현했
     습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 484 - 형 힌트,  Next: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터,  Prev: PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.5 PEP 484 - 형 힌트
.........................

함수 어노테이션 구문은 버전 3.0( PEP 3107(1))부터 파이썬 기능이었지만, 어
노테이션의 의미는 정의되지 않은 상태로 남아 있었습니다.

경험에 따르면 대부분 함수 어노테이션은 함수 매개 변수와 반환 값에 형 힌
트를 제공하는 데 사용되었습니다.  표준 라이브러리에 형 어노테이션을 위한
기본 정의와 도구가 포함되어 있다면 파이썬 사용자에게 도움이 될 것이 분명
해졌습니다.

PEP 484(2)는 어노테이션을 사용할 수 없는 상황에 대한 몇 가지 규칙과 함께
이러한 표준 정의와 도구를 제공하는 *note 잠정적 모듈: b00.을 도입합니다.

예를 들어, 다음은 어노테이션에 인자와 반환형이 선언된 간단한 함수입니다:

     def greeting(name: str) -> str:
         return 'Hello ' + name

이러한 어노테이션은 일반적인 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트를 통해 실행 시
간에 사용할 수 있지만, '어떤 자동 형 검사도 실행 시간에 일어나지 않습니
다'.  대신, 별도의 오프라인 형 검사기(예를 들어 mypy(3))가 필요할 때 소
스 코드 분석에 사용되는 것으로 가정합니다.

형 시스템은 공용체(unions), 제네릭 형 및 모든 형과 일치하는 (즉, 대입 가
능한) *note Any: 6a6.라는 특수형을 지원합니다.

더 보기
.......

   * *note typing: 104. 모듈 설명서

   * 
     PEP 484(4) – 형 힌트

          Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo 및 Łukasz Langa가 작성한
          PEP; Guido van Rossum이 구현했습니다.

   * 
     PEP 483(5) – 형 힌트 이론

          Guido van Rossum이 작성한 PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터,  Next: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도,  Prev: PEP 484 - 형 힌트,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.6 PEP 471 - os.scandir() 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터
...........................................................................

PEP 471(1)은 표준 라이브러리에 새 디렉터리 이터레이션 함수 *note
os.scandir(): a5b.을 추가합니다.  또한, *note os.walk(): 4a3.는 이제
‘scandir’을 사용하여 구현되어, POSIX 시스템에서는 3 에서 5배, 윈도우 시
스템에서는 7 에서 20배 더 빠릅니다.  이것은 주로 디렉터리 트리를 탐색하
는 데 필요한 *note os.stat(): 49a. 호출 수를 크게 줄임으로써 달성됩니다.

또한, ‘scandir’은 파일 이름 리스트 대신에 이터레이터를 반환하므로, 매우
큰 디렉터리를 이터레이션 할 때 메모리 효율성이 향상됩니다.

다음 예제는 ‘'.'’로 시작하지 않는 지정된 'path'의 모든 파일(디렉터리 제
외)을 표시하기 위해 *note os.scandir(): a5b.을 사용하는 간단한 방법을 보
여줍니다.  *note entry.is_file(): d80. 호출은 일반적으로 추가 시스템 호
출을 수행하지 않습니다:

     for entry in os.scandir(path):
         if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
             print(entry.name)

더 보기
.......

PEP 471(2) – os.scandir() 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터

     Victor Stinner의 도움으로 Ben Hoyt가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도,  Next: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경,  Prev: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.7 PEP 475: EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도
..................................................

*note errno.EINTR: d83. 에러 코드는 I/O를 기다리는 시스템 호출이 시그널
에 의해 중단될 때마다 반환됩니다.  이전에는, 이러한 경우에 파이썬이
*note InterruptedError: d84.를 발생시켰습니다.  이는 파이썬 응용 프로그
램을 작성할 때 개발자가 두 가지 선택을 할 수 있음을 의미합니다:

  1. ‘InterruptedError’를 무시합니다.

  2. ‘InterruptedError’를 처리하고 모든 호출 지점에서 중단된 시스템 호출
     을 다시 시작합니다.

첫 번째 옵션은 응용 프로그램이 간헐적으로 실패하도록 합니다.  두 번째 옵
션은 코드를 거의 읽을 수 없게 만드는 많은 양의 상용구를 추가합니다.  다
음을 비교해 보십시오:

     print("Hello World")

와:

     while True:
         try:
             print("Hello World")
             break
         except InterruptedError:
             continue

PEP 475(1)는 ‘EINTR’에서 시스템 호출의 자동 재시도를 구현합니다.  이것은
대부분의 상황에서 사용자 코드에서 ‘EINTR’이나 *note InterruptedError:
d84.를 다루는 부담을 제거하고 표준 라이브러리를 포함한 파이썬 프로그램을
더욱 강인하게 만듭니다.  시스템 호출은 시그널 처리기가 예외를 발생시키지
않는 경우에만 재시도됨에 유의하십시오.

다음은 시그널에 의해 중단될 때 재시도되는 함수 목록입니다:

   * *note open(): 515.과 *note io.open(): 516.;

   * *note faulthandler: 58. 모듈의 함수들;

   * *note os: a1. 함수: *note fchdir(): d85, *note fchmod(): 21c, *note
     fchown(): d86, *note fdatasync(): d87, *note fstat(): d88, *note
     fstatvfs(): d89, *note fsync(): d8a, *note ftruncate(): d8b, *note
     mkfifo(): d8c, *note mknod(): d8d, *note open(): d8e, *note
     posix_fadvise(): d8f, *note posix_fallocate(): d90, *note pread():
     b5c, *note pwrite(): b5f, *note read(): d91, *note readv(): b5b,
     *note sendfile(): b0c, *note wait3(): d92, *note wait4(): d93,
     *note wait(): d94, *note waitid(): d95, *note waitpid(): d96, *note
     write(): d97, *note writev(): b5e.;

   * 특수한 경우: *note os.close(): b71.와 *note os.dup2(): b60.는 이제
     *note EINTR: d83. 에러를 무시합니다; 시스템 호출은 재시도되지 않습
     니다 (이유는 PEP를 참조하십시오);

   * *note select: c1. 함수: *note devpoll.poll(): d98, *note
     epoll.poll(): d99, *note kqueue.control(): d9a, *note poll.poll():
     d9b, *note select(): d9c.;

   * *note socket: d9d. 클래스의 메서드: *note accept(): d9e, *note
     connect(): d9f. (비 블로킹 소켓 제외), *note recv(): da0, *note
     recvfrom(): da1, *note recvmsg(): da2, *note send(): da3, *note
     sendall(): da4, *note sendmsg(): 470, *note sendto(): da5.;

   * *note signal.sigtimedwait(): da6.와 *note signal.sigwaitinfo():
     da7.;

   * *note time.sleep(): 697.

더 보기
.......

PEP 475(2) – EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도

     Charles-François Natali와 Victor Stinner가 Antoine Pitrou의 도움을
     받아 PEP와 구현을 작성했습니다 (프렌치 커넥션).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경,  Next: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수,  Prev: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.8 PEP 479: 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경
..............................................................

파이썬 3.4와 이전 버전에서 제너레이터와 *note StopIteration: bf7.의 상호
작용은 때때로 놀랍고, 모호한 버그를 감출 수 있습니다.  이전에는, 제너레
이터 함수 내에서 실수로 발생한 ‘StopIteration’이 제너레이터를 구동하는 루
프 구성에 의해 이터레이션의 끝으로 해석되었습니다.

PEP 479(1)는 제너레이터의 동작을 변경합니다: 제너레이터 내부에서
‘StopIteration’ 예외가 발생하면, 제너레이터 프레임을 종료하기 전에 *note
RuntimeError: 195.로 대체됩니다.  이 변경의 주요 목표는 보호되지 않는
*note next(): 7d1. 호출이 ‘StopIteration’을 발생시키고 이 때문에 제너레
이터가 제어하는 이터레이션이 조용히 종료되도록 하는 상황에서 디버깅을 용
이하게 하는 것입니다.  이것은 ‘yield from’ 구조와 결합할 때 특히 유해합
니다.

이는 이전 버전과 호환되지 않는 변경이므로, 새 동작을 사용하려면 *note
__future__: da9. 임포트가 필요합니다:

     >>> from __future__ import generator_stop

     >>> def gen():
     ...     next(iter([]))
     ...     yield
     ...
     >>> next(gen())
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
     StopIteration

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration

‘__future__’ 임포트가 없으면, 제너레이터 내에서 *note StopIteration:
bf7. 예외가 발생할 때마다 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 이 발생
합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 479(2) – 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경

     Chris Angelico와 Guido van Rossum이 작성한 PEP. Chris Angelico,
     Yury Selivanov 및 Nick Coghlan이 구현했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수,  Next: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기,  Prev: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.9 PEP 485: 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수
..................................................

PEP 485(1)는 두 값이 대략 같거나 서로 “가까운”지를 알려주는 *note
math.isclose(): dac.와 *note cmath.isclose(): dad. 함수를 추가합니다.  두
값이 가까운 것으로 간주하는지는 주어진 절대와 상대 허용 오차에 따라 결정
됩니다.  상대적 허용 오차는 더 큰 절댓값에 상대적으로 ‘isclose’ 인자간에
허용되는 최대 차이입니다:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
     False

절대 허용 오차를 사용하여 두 값을 비교할 수도 있습니다.  이 값은 음수가
아니어야 합니다:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
     False

더 보기
.......

PEP 485(2) – 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수

     Christopher Barker가 작성한 PEP; Chris Barker와 Tal Einat이 구현했
     습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기,  Next: PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거,  Prev: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.10 PEP 486: 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기
.............................................................

PEP 486(1)은 윈도우 런처( PEP 397(2)을 참조하십시오)가 활성 가상 환경을
인식하도록 합니다.  기본 인터프리터를 사용하고 ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ 환경 변수를
설정하면, 가상 환경의 인터프리터가 사용됩니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 486(3) – 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기

     Paul Moore가 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거,  Next: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화,  Prev: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.11 PEP 488: PYO 파일 제거
...............................

PEP 488(1)은 ‘.pyo’ 파일의 개념을 제거합니다.  이는 ‘.pyc’ 파일이 최적화
되지 않은 바이트 코드와 최적화된 바이트 코드를 모두 나타냄을 의미합니다.
바이트 코드 파일을 지속해서 재생성할 필요가 없도록, ‘.pyc’ 파일은 이제 바
이트 코드가 최적화될 때 이름에 선택적 ‘opt-’ 태그를 갖습니다.  이것은
*note -O: db1.나 *note -OO: db2.에서 실행할 때 더는 바이트 코드 파일 이
름 충돌이 발생하지 않는 부작용이 있습니다.  따라서, *note -O: db1.와
*note -OO: db2.에서 생성된 바이트 코드 파일이 이제 동시에 존재할 수 있습
니다.  *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f6.는 이러한 변경을 돕
기 위해 갱신된 API를 갖습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 488(2) – PYO 파일 제거

     Brett Cannon이 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화,  Prev: PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거,  Up: 새로운 기능<6>

1.9.2.12 PEP 489: 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화
.........................................

PEP 489(1)는 파이썬 3.4에서 PEP 451(2)이 도입한 2단계 모듈 로딩 메커니즘
을 활용하기 위해 확장 모듈 초기화를 갱신합니다.

이 변경으로 인해 ASCII로 제한되지 않고 유효한 식별자를 모듈 이름으로 사
용할 수 있는 기능을 포함하여, 확장 모듈의 임포트 의미 체계가 파이썬 소스
와 바이트 코드 모듈의 것과 훨씬 더 가까운 새로운 메커니즘을 사용하도록 옵
트 인합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 489(3) – 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화

     Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel 및 Nick Coghlan이 작성한 PEP; Petr
     Viktorin이 구현했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 언어 변경<5>,  Next: 새로운 모듈<2>,  Prev: 새로운 기능<6>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.3 기타 언어 변경
--------------------

핵심 파이썬 언어에 대한 몇 가지 작은 변경 사항은 다음과 같습니다:

   * ‘"namereplace"’ 에러 처리기를 추가했습니다.  이제
     ‘"backslashreplace"’ 에러 처리기가 디코딩과 변환에서 작동합니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(1) and bpo-22286(2).)

   * *note -b: 5dd. 옵션은 이제 *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note int: 257.의 비
     교에 영향을 줍니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23681(3).)

   * 새로운 카자흐어 ‘kz1048’과 타지크어 ‘koi8_t’ *note 코덱: db5.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682(4) and bpo-22681(5).)

   * 프로퍼티 독스트링은 이제 쓰기 가능합니다.  이것은 *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. 독스트링에 특히 유용합니다.
     (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(6).)

   * 이제 상대 임포트를 포함하는 순환 임포트가 지원됩니다.  (Contributed
     by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 모듈<2>,  Next: 개선된 모듈<5>,  Prev: 기타 언어 변경<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.4 새로운 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<10>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<10>,  Next: zipapp<2>,  Up: 새로운 모듈<2>

1.9.4.1 typing
..............

새로운 *note typing: 104. *note 잠정적: b00. 모듈은 함수 형 어노테이션에
대한 표준 정의와 도구를 제공합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 형 힌트: d62.를
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp<2>,  Prev: typing<10>,  Up: 새로운 모듈<2>

1.9.4.2 zipapp
..............

새로운 ( PEP 441(1)에서 지정된) *note zipapp: 130. 모듈은 실행 가능한 파
이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램을 만들기 위한 API와 명령 줄 도구를 제공합니다.  실
행 가능한 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램은 bpo-1739468(2)에서 파이썬 2.6에 도
입되었지만, 그때나 그 이후로 잘 공개되지 않았습니다.

새로운 모듈을 사용하면, ‘__main__.py’ 파일을 포함한 모든 파일을 ‘myapp’
디렉터리에 넣고 다음을 실행하는 것만큼 간단하게 응용 프로그램을 번들링 할
수 있습니다:

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz

모듈 구현은 bpo-23491(3)에서 Paul Moore에 의해 기고되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 441(4) – 파이썬 ZIP 응용 프로그램 지원 개선

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/


File: python.info,  Node: 개선된 모듈<5>,  Next: 기타 모듈 수준 변경,  Prev: 새로운 모듈<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.5 개선된 모듈
-----------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>.
* configparser: configparser<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<3>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib 및 IDLE: idlelib 및 IDLE<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<5>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<6>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<8>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<10>.
* pathlib: pathlib<10>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<7>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* Shutil::
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<7>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<8>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<8>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<4>,  Next: asyncio<10>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.1 argparse
................

*note ArgumentParser: 533. 클래스는 이제 *note allow_abbrev: dbb.를
‘False’로 설정하여 긴 옵션의 *note 약어 사용: dbc.을 비활성화 할 수 있습
니다.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul j3 and
Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<10>,  Next: bz2,  Prev: argparse<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio: a. 모듈은 *note 잠정적: b00.이므로, 파이썬 3.5에 도입된 모
든 변경 사항은 파이썬 3.4.x로 역 이식되었습니다.

파이썬 3.4.0 이후 *note asyncio: a. 모듈의 주목할만한 변경 사항:

   * 새로운 디버깅 API: *note loop.set_debug(): dbe.와 *note
     loop.get_debug(): dbf. 메서드.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * 프로액터(proactor) 이벤트 루프는 이제 SSL을 지원합니다.
     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560(1).)

   * 이벤트 루프가 닫혔는지 확인하는 새로운 *note loop.is_closed(): dc0.
     메서드.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326(2).)

   * 코루틴을 위한 새로운 *note Task: 1be.를 편리하게 만들고 예약하는 새
     로운 *note loop.create_task(): 1c0.  ‘create_task’ 메서드는 코루틴
     을 태스크로 감싸는 모든 asyncio 함수(가령 *note asyncio.wait():
     479, *note asyncio.gather(): 5f7. 등)에서도 사용됩니다.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * 흐름 제어의 'high-'와 'low-' 수위 한계를 조회하는 새로운 *note
     transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): dc1. 메서드.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner.)

   * ‘async()’ 함수는 폐지되었고 *note ensure_future(): c73.로 대체합니
     다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * *note loop.create_task(): 1c0. 메서드가 사용하는 태스크 팩토리를 사
     용자 정의하는 새로운 *note loop.set_task_factory(): dc2.와 *note
     loop.get_task_factory(): dc3. 메서드.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * 새로운 *note Queue.join(): dc4.과 *note Queue.task_done(): dc5. 큐
     메서드.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * ‘JoinableQueue’ 클래스가 제거되고, *note asyncio.Queue: a73. 클래스
     로 대체되었습니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

3.5.1의 업데이트:

   * *note ensure_future(): c73. 함수와 이를 사용하는 모든 함수(가령
     *note loop.run_until_complete(): c74.)는 이제 모든 종류의 *note
     어웨이터블 객체: 1ad.를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * 다른 스레드의 이벤트 루프에 코루틴을 제출하는 새로운 *note
     run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 87e. 함수.  (Contributed by Vincent
     Michel.)

   * 트랜스포트가 닫히고 있거나 닫혀 있는지 확인하는 새로운 *note
     Transport.is_closing(): c75. 메서드.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * *note loop.create_server(): b10. 메서드는 이제 호스트 리스트를 받아
     들일 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

3.5.2의 업데이트 :

   * Future 객체를 만드는 새로운 *note loop.create_future(): c76. 메서드
     .  이를 통해 uvloop(3)와 같은 대체 이벤트 루프 구현이 더 빠른 *note
     asyncio.Future: bca. 구현을 제공 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.)

   * 현재 예외 처리기를 가져오는 새로운 *note
     loop.get_exception_handler(): c77. 메서드.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * 구분자 바이트 시퀀스가 나타날 때까지 스트림에서 데이터를 읽는 새로
     운 *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4. 메서드.  (Contributed by
     Mark Korenberg.)

   * *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd.과 *note loop.create_server():
     b10. 메서드는 주소가 이미 결정된 경우 시스템 ‘getaddrinfo’ 함수를 호
     출하지 않도록 최적화되었습니다.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu
     Davis.)

   * *note loop.sock_connect(sock, address): dc6.는 더는 호출 전에
     'address'를 결정할 필요가 없습니다.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu
     Davis.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop


File: python.info,  Node: bz2,  Next: cgi,  Prev: asyncio<10>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.3 bz2
...........

이제 *note BZ2Decompressor.decompress: dc8. 메서드는 압축 해제된 데이터
의 최대 크기를 제한하기 위해 선택적 'max_length' 인자를 받아들입니다.
(Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: cgi,  Next: cmath<2>,  Prev: bz2,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.4 cgi
...........

‘FieldStorage’ 클래스는 이제 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지원
합니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289


File: python.info,  Node: cmath<2>,  Next: code,  Prev: cgi,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.5 cmath
.............

새로운 함수 *note isclose(): dad.는 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 방법을
제공합니다.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270


File: python.info,  Node: code,  Next: collections<5>,  Prev: cmath<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.6 code
............

*note InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback(): dcc. 메서드는 이제 대화 형
인터프리터처럼 전체 연결된(chained) 트레이스백을 인쇄합니다.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442


File: python.info,  Node: collections<5>,  Next: collections abc<3>,  Prev: code,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.7 collections
...................

*note OrderedDict: 5d5. 클래스는 이제 C로 구현되어 4 에서 100배 더 빨라
졌습니다.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991(1).)

‘OrderedDict.items()’, ‘OrderedDict.keys()’, ‘OrderedDict.values()’ 뷰는
이제 *note reversed(): 860. 이터레이션을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505(2).)

*note deque: 5d6. 클래스는 이제 *note index(): dce, *note insert(): dcf.
및 *note copy(): dd0.를 정의하고, ‘+’와 ‘*’ 연산자를 지원합니다.  이를 통
해 데크가 *note MutableSequence: 1a1.로 인식되고 리스트에 대한 대체 가능
성이 향상됩니다.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704(3).)

이제 *note namedtuple(): 1ca.이 생성한 독스트링을 갱신할 수 있습니다:

     Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate'
     Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
     Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(4).)

*note UserString: dd1. 클래스는 이제 *note str: 445.의 해당 메서드와 일
치하도록 ‘__getnewargs__()’, ‘__rmod__()’, *note casefold(): dd2, *note
format_map(): dd3, *note isprintable(): dd4. 및 *note maketrans(): dd5.
메서드를 구현합니다.  (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-22189(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<3>,  Next: compileall<4>,  Prev: collections<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.8 collections.abc
.......................

‘Sequence.index()’ 메서드는 이제 *note tuple: 369, *note list: 60b. 등의
해당 메서드와 일치하도록 'start'와 'stop' 인자를 받아들입니다
(Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086(1).)

새로운 *note Generator: dd7. 추상 베이스 클래스.  (Contributed by Stefan
Behnel in bpo-24018(2).)

새로운 *note Awaitable: dd8, *note Coroutine: dd9, *note AsyncIterator:
dda. 및 *note AsyncIterable: ddb. 추상 베이스 클래스.  (Contributed by
Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184(3).)

이전 파이썬 버전의 경우, 새 ABC의 역 이식을 외부 PyPI 패키지(4)에서 사용
할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<5>,  Prev: collections abc<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.9 compileall
..................

새로운 *note compileall: 20. 옵션인 ‘-j N’ 을 사용하면 'N' 작업자를 동시
에 실행하여 병렬 바이트 코드 컴파일을 수행할 수 있습니다.  *note
compile_dir(): b23. 함수에는 대응하는 ‘workers’ 매개 변수가 있습니다.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104(1).)

또 다른 새로운 옵션인 ‘-r’은 하위 디렉터리에 대한 최대 재귀 수준을 제어
할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628(2).)

이제 ‘-q’ 명령 줄 옵션을 두 번 이상 지정할 수 있으며, 이 경우 에러를 포
함한 모든 출력이 억제됩니다.  *note compile_dir(): b23, *note
compile_file(): ddd. 및 *note compile_path(): dde.의 해당 ‘quiet’ 매개 변
수는 이제 출력 억제 수준을 나타내는 정숫값을 받아들일 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<5>,  Next: configparser<4>,  Prev: compileall<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.10 concurrent.futures
...........................

*note Executor.map(): de0. 메서드는 이제 'chunksize' 인자를 받아, *note
ProcessPoolExecutor(): 8eb.가 사용될 때 작업을 일괄 처리하여 성능을 향상
할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Dan O’Reilly in bpo-11271(1).)

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 생성자의 작업자 수는 이제 선택 사항입니다
.  기본값은 CPU 수의 5배입니다.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
bpo-21527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<4>,  Next: contextlib<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.11 configparser
.....................

*note configparser: 22.는 이제 *note ConfigParser: 1c8. 생성자에서 변환
기 딕셔너리를 지정하거나 ‘ConfigParser’ 서브 클래스에서 메서드로 정의하
여 값 변환을 사용자 정의하는 방법을 제공합니다.  구문 분석기 인스턴스에
정의된 변환기는 섹션 프락시에 의해 상속됩니다.

예:

     >>> import configparser
     >>> conv = {}
     >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
     >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
     >>> cfg.read_string("""
     ... [s]
     ... list = a b c d e f g
     ... """)
     >>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
     'a b c d e f g'
     >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> section = cfg['s']
     >>> section.getlist('list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-18159(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<5>,  Next: csv<3>,  Prev: configparser<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.12 contextlib
...................

새로운 *note redirect_stderr(): de3. *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.(*note
redirect_stdout(): de4.과 유사)를 사용하면 유틸리티 스크립트가 출력을
*note sys.stderr: 937.에 기록하고 리디렉션 옵션을 제공하지 않는 유연하지
않은 API를 더 쉽게 처리할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import contextlib, io, logging
     >>> f = io.StringIO()
     >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
     ...     logging.warning('warning')
     ...
     >>> f.getvalue()
     'WARNING:root:warning\n'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-22389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389


File: python.info,  Node: csv<3>,  Next: curses<4>,  Prev: contextlib<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.13 csv
............

*note writerow(): de6. 메서드는 이제 시퀀스뿐만 아니라 임의의 이터러블을
지원합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171


File: python.info,  Node: curses<4>,  Next: dbm<5>,  Prev: csv<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.14 curses
...............

새로운 *note update_lines_cols(): de8. 함수는 ‘LINES’와 ‘COLS’ 모듈 변수
를 갱신합니다.  이것은 수동 화면 크기 조정을 감지하는 데 유용합니다.
(Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-4254(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<5>,  Next: difflib,  Prev: curses<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.15 dbm
............

*note dumb.open: a93.은 플래그 값이 ‘"n"’일 때 항상 새 데이터베이스를 만
듭니다.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039


File: python.info,  Node: difflib,  Next: distutils<7>,  Prev: dbm<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.16 difflib
................

*note HtmlDiff.make_file(): deb.에 의해 생성된 HTML 문서의 문자 집합은 이
제 새로운 'charset' 키워드 전용 인자를 사용하여 사용자 정의 할 수 있습니
다.  HTML 문서의 기본 문자 집합이 ‘"ISO-8859-1"’에서 ‘"utf-8"’로 변경되
었습니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2052(1).)

*note diff_bytes(): dec. 함수는 이제 바이트 문자열 리스트를 비교할 수 있
습니다.  이것은 파이썬 2의 회귀를 수리합니다.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<7>,  Next: doctest<3>,  Prev: difflib,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.17 distutils
..................

‘build’와 ‘build_ext’ 명령은 이제 ‘-j’ 옵션을 받아들여 확장 모듈의 병렬
빌드를 활성화합니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5309(1).)

‘distutils’ 모듈은 이제 ‘xz’ 압축을 지원하며, ‘xztar’를 인자로 ‘bdist
--format’에 전달하여 활성화 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-16314(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<3>,  Next: email<3>,  Prev: distutils<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.18 doctest
................

*note DocTestSuite(): def. 함수는 'module'에 독스트링이 없으면 *note
ValueError: 202.를 발생시키는 대신 빈 *note unittest.TestSuite: df0.를 반
환합니다.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in bpo-15916(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916


File: python.info,  Node: email<3>,  Next: enum<8>,  Prev: doctest<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.19 email
..............

새로운 정책 옵션 *note Policy.mangle_from_: df2.은 생성자가 이메일 본문
에서 ‘"From "’으로 시작하는 줄에 ‘">"’ 문자를 접두사로 추가할지를 제어합
니다.  기본값은 *note compat32: c96.의 경우 ‘True’이고 다른 모든 정책의
경우 ‘False’입니다.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098(1).)

새로운 *note Message.get_content_disposition(): df3. 메서드를 사용하면
‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더의 규범적 값에 쉽게 액세스 할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083(2).)

새로운 정책 옵션 *note EmailPolicy.utf8: df4.을 ‘True’로 설정하여 인코딩
된 단어를 사용하는 대신 UTF-8 문자 집합을 사용하여 이메일 헤더를 인코딩
할 수 있습니다.  이를 통해 ‘Messages’를 RFC 6532(3)에 따라 포매팅하고
RFC 6531(4) ‘SMTPUTF8’ 확장을 지원하는 SMTP 서버와 함께 사용할 수 있습니
다.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211(5).)

*note mime.text.MIMEText: df5. 생성자는 이제 *note charset.Charset: df6.
인스턴스를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker Peksag
in bpo-16324(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324


File: python.info,  Node: enum<8>,  Next: faulthandler<3>,  Prev: email<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.20 enum
.............

*note Enum: 62a. 콜러블에는 'names'만 제공되는 경우 열거형 값의 초기 수
를 지정하는 새 매개 변수 'start'가 있습니다:

     >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
     >>> Animal.cat
     <Animal.cat: 10>
     >>> Animal.dog
     <Animal.dog: 11>

(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-21706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<3>,  Next: functools<4>,  Prev: enum<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.21 faulthandler
.....................

*note enable(): c9b, *note register(): df9, *note dump_traceback(): dfa.
및 *note dump_traceback_later(): dfb. 함수는 이제 파일류 객체 외에도 파
일 기술자를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Wei Wu in bpo-23566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566


File: python.info,  Node: functools<4>,  Next: glob<3>,  Prev: faulthandler<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.22 functools
..................

대부분의 *note lru_cache(): 9eb. 장치는 이제 C로 구현되어 훨씬 빨라졌습
니다.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey Kachayev, and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-14373(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373


File: python.info,  Node: glob<3>,  Next: gzip<4>,  Prev: functools<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.23 glob
.............

*note iglob(): 801.과 *note glob(): 29f. 함수는 이제 ‘"**"’ 패턴을 사용
하여 하위 디렉터리에서 재귀 검색을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-13968(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<4>,  Next: heapq,  Prev: glob<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.24 gzip
.............

*note GzipFile: 414. 생성자의 'mode' 인자는 이제 배타적 생성을 요청하는
‘"x"’를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney in bpo-19222(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222


File: python.info,  Node: heapq,  Next: http<2>,  Prev: gzip<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.25 heapq
..............

*note merge(): e00.의 요소 비교는 이제 새로운 선택적 'key' 키워드 인자에
*note 키 함수: e01.를 전달하여 사용자 정의 할 수 있으며, 새로운 선택적
'reverse' 키워드 인자를 사용하여 요소 비교를 반전할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import heapq
     >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
     >>> b = ['88', '6666']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
     ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
     ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13742(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742


File: python.info,  Node: http<2>,  Next: http client<3>,  Prev: heapq,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.26 http
.............

HTTP 상태 코드, 이유 구문 및 영어로 작성된 자세한 설명의 집합을 정의하는
새로운 *note HTTPStatus: 8fd. 열거형.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in
bpo-21793(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793


File: python.info,  Node: http client<3>,  Next: idlelib 및 IDLE<2>,  Prev: http<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.27 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): e04.는 이제 원격 서버 연결이 예기치
않게 닫힐 때 *note RemoteDisconnected: e05. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  또한
*note ConnectionError: e06.(‘RemoteDisconnected’는 이것의 서브 클래스입
니다)가 발생하면, 클라이언트 소켓이 이제 자동으로 닫히고 다음 요청에 다
시 연결됩니다:

     import http.client
     conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
     for retries in range(3):
         try:
             conn.request('GET', '/')
             resp = conn.getresponse()
         except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
             pass

(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-3566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib 및 IDLE<2>,  Next: imaplib<2>,  Prev: http client<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.28 idlelib 및 IDLE
........................

idlelib는 IDLE 셸과 편집기를 구현하고 다른 프로그램에서 임포트 하려는 것
이 아니기 때문에, 모든 릴리스에서 개선됩니다.  3.4.0 이후의 누적 변경 사
항과 향후 3.5.x 릴리스에서 변경된 사항은 ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’를 참조하
십시오.  이 파일은 IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE 대화 상자에서도 제공됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<2>,  Next: imghdr,  Prev: idlelib 및 IDLE<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.29 imaplib
................

*note IMAP4: 900. 클래스는 이제 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지
원합니다.  *note with: 5cc. 문에서 사용하면 IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ 명령이 블록 끝
에서 자동으로 호출됩니다.  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-4972(1).)

*note imaplib: 74. 모듈은 이제 *note IMAP4.enable(): e09. 메서드를 통해
RFC 5161(2)(ENABLE 확장) 및 RFC 6855(3)(UTF-8 지원)를 지원합니다.  새로
운 *note IMAP4.utf8_enabled: e0a. 어트리뷰트는 RFC 6855(4) 지원이 활성화
되었는지를 추적합니다.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch, R. David
Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800(5).)

이제 *note imaplib: 74. 모듈은 이제 RFC에서 권장하는 대로 UTF-8을 사용하
여 ASCII가 아닌 문자열 사용자 이름과 암호를 자동으로 인코딩합니다.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr,  Next: importlib<8>,  Prev: imaplib<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.30 imghdr
...............

‘what()’ 함수는 이제 OpenEXR(1) 형식(contributed by Martin Vignali and
Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295(2)) 및 WebP(3) 형식(contributed by Fabrice
Aneche and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20197(4))을 인식합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openexr.com

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<8>,  Next: inspect<7>,  Prev: imghdr,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.31 importlib
..................

*note util.LazyLoader: caa. 클래스는 시작 소요 시간이 중요한 응용 프로그
램에서 모듈의 지연 로드를 허용합니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-17621(1).)

*note abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): e0d. 메서드는 이제 정적 메서드
입니다.  이렇게 하면 ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’를 실행하여 문자열에서
컴파일된 코드로 모듈 객체를 더 쉽게 초기화 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156(2).)

새 *note util.module_from_spec(): e0e. 함수는 이제 새 모듈을 만드는 데 선
호되는 방법입니다.  *note types.ModuleType: e0f. 인스턴스를 직접 만드는
것과는 반대로, 이 새로운 함수는 전달된 명세 객체를 기반으로 다양한 임포
트 제어 어트리뷰트를 설정합니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-20383(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<7>,  Next: io<5>,  Prev: importlib<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.32 inspect
................

*note Signature: 1cf.와 *note Parameter: 1d0. 클래스 모두 이제 피클 가능
하고 해시 가능합니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726(1)
and bpo-20334(2).)

새로운 *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): e11. 메서드는 누락 된 인자
에 대한 기본값을 설정하는 방법을 제공합니다:

     >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
     >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
     >>> ba.apply_defaults()
     >>> ba.arguments
     OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24190(3).)

새로운 클래스 메서드 *note Signature.from_callable(): 733.은 *note
Signature: 1cf.의 서브 클래싱을 더 쉽게 만듭니다.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373(4).)

*note signature(): 731. 함수는 이제 'follow_wrapped' 선택적 키워드 인자
를 받아들이며, ‘False’로 설정되면 ‘__wrapped__’ 링크의 자동 추적을 비활
성화합니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20691(5).)

*note 코루틴 함수: d73.와 *note 코루틴 객체: 48b.를 검사하는 새로운 함수
집합 : *note iscoroutine(): e12, *note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6, *note
isawaitable(): e13, *note getcoroutinelocals(): e14. 및 *note
getcoroutinestate(): e15. 가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-24017(6) and bpo-24400(7).)

*note stack(): 64c, *note trace(): 64d, *note getouterframes(): 64a. 및
*note getinnerframes(): 64b. 함수는 이제 네임드 튜플 리스트를 반환합니다
.  (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808


File: python.info,  Node: io<5>,  Next: ipaddress<4>,  Prev: inspect<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.33 io
...........

하부 원시 스트림의 *note RawIOBase.read(): e17.나 *note
RawIOBase.readinto(): e18. 메서드에 대한 호출을 최대 한 번 사용하는 새로
운 *note BufferedIOBase.readinto1(): e19. 메서드.  (Contributed by
Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20578(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<4>,  Next: json<2>,  Prev: io<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.34 ipaddress
..................

*note IPv4Network: 1fe.와 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 클래스는 이제 기존 주
소에서 네트워크 객체를 쉽게 구성할 수 있도록 ‘(address, netmask)’ 튜플 인
자를 받아들입니다:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')

(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16531(1).)

*note IPv4Network: 1fe.와 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 클래스의 새로운
‘reverse_pointer’ 어트리뷰트는 역 DNS PTR 레코드의 이름을 반환합니다:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     >>> addr.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
     >>> addr6.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'

(Contributed by Leon Weber in bpo-20480(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480


File: python.info,  Node: json<2>,  Next: linecache<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.35 json
.............

*note json.tool: 83. 명령 줄 인터페이스는 이제 입력으로 전달된 JSON 객체
의 키 순서를 유지합니다.  새로운 ‘--sort-keys’ 옵션을 사용하여 키를 알파
벳순으로 정렬 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-21650(1).)

이제 JSON 디코더는 에러에 대한 더 나은 문맥 정보를 제공하기 위해 *note
ValueError: 202. 대신 *note JSONDecodeError: e1c.를 발생시킵니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361


File: python.info,  Node: linecache<2>,  Next: locale<6>,  Prev: json<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.36 linecache
..................

새로운 *note lazycache(): e1e. 함수를 사용하여 파일 기반이 아닌 모듈에 대
한 정보를 캡처하여 나중에 *note getline(): e1f.을 통해 해당 라인을 가져
올 수 있습니다.  이렇게 하면 모듈 전역을 무기한으로 유지할 필요 없이, 실
제로 줄이 필요할 때까지 I/O를 수행하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Robert
Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911


File: python.info,  Node: locale<6>,  Next: logging<5>,  Prev: linecache<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.37 locale
...............

새로운 *note delocalize(): e21. 함수를 사용하여 ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 설정을 고려
하여 문자열을 정규화된 숫자 문자열로 변환 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
     'de_DE.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
     '1234.56'
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
     'en_US.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
     '1234.56'

(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-13918(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918


File: python.info,  Node: logging<5>,  Next: lzma,  Prev: locale<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.38 logging
................

모든 로깅 메서드(*note Logger: b4c. *note log(): e23, *note exception():
e24, *note critical(): e25, *note debug(): e26. 등)는 이제 불리언 값과 예
외 튜플 외에도 예외 인스턴스를 'exc_info' 인자로 받아들입니다:

     >>> import logging
     >>> try:
     ...     1/0
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
     ...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
     ERROR:root:exception

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20537(1).)

이제 *note handlers.HTTPHandler: e27. 클래스는 HTTP 연결에 사용되는 SSL
설정을 구성하기 위해 선택적 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스를 받아들
입니다.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788(2).)

*note handlers.QueueListener: e28. 클래스는 이제 'respect_handler_level'
키워드 인자를 취합니다.  이 인자는 ‘True’로 설정되면 처리기 수준을 고려
하여 처리기에 메시지를 전달합니다.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788


File: python.info,  Node: lzma,  Next: math<8>,  Prev: logging<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.39 lzma
.............

이제 *note LZMADecompressor.decompress(): e2a. 메서드는 압축 해제된 데이
터의 최대 크기를 제한하기 위해 선택적 'max_length' 인자를 받아들입니다.
(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: math<8>,  Next: multiprocessing<6>,  Prev: lzma,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.40 math
.............

*note math: 8e. 모듈에 *note inf: c7f.와 *note nan: 65d.의 두 가지 새로
운 상수가 추가되었습니다.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-23185(1).)

새로운 함수 *note isclose(): dac.는 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 방법을
제공합니다.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(2).)

새로운 *note gcd(): 90d. 함수가 추가되었습니다.  ‘fractions.gcd()’ 함수
는 이제 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-22486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<6>,  Next: operator<2>,  Prev: math<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.41 multiprocessing
........................

*note sharedctypes.synchronized(): e2d. 객체는 이제 *note 컨텍스트
관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Charles-François
Natali in bpo-21565(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565


File: python.info,  Node: operator<2>,  Next: os<10>,  Prev: multiprocessing<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.42 operator
.................

*note attrgetter(): e2f, *note itemgetter(): a5e. 및 *note
methodcaller(): e30. 객체는 이제 피클링을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Josh Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955(1).)

행렬 곱셈을 수행하는 새로운 *note matmul(): e31.과 *note imatmul(): e32.
함수.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176


File: python.info,  Node: os<10>,  Next: pathlib<10>,  Prev: operator<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.43 os
...........

*note DirEntry: 495. 객체의 이터레이터를 반환하는 새로운 *note
scandir(): a5b. 함수가 추가되었습니다.  가능하면, *note scandir(): a5b.은
디렉터리를 스캔하는 동안 파일 어트리뷰트를 추출하여, 파일 유형이나 어트
리뷰트를 파악하기 위해 후속 시스템 호출을 수행할 필요가 없어서, 성능이 크
게 향상될 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor
Stinner in bpo-22524(1).)

윈도우에서, 이제 새로운 *note stat_result.st_file_attributes: e34. 어트
리뷰트를 사용할 수 있습니다.  ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’ 이 반환한
‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ 구조체의 ‘dwFileAttributes’ 멤버에 해당합니
다.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in bpo-21719(2).)

*note urandom(): 51c. 함수는 이제 리눅스 3.17 이상에서 ‘getrandom()’ 시
스템 호출을 사용하고, OpenBSD 5.6 이상에서 ‘getentropy()’를 사용하여,
‘/dev/urandom’을 사용할 필요가 없고 잠재적인 파일 기술자 고갈로 인한 실
패를 방지합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22181(3).)

새로운 *note get_blocking(): e35.과 *note set_blocking(): e36. 함수를 사
용하여 파일 기술자의 블로킹 모드(*note O_NONBLOCK: e37.)를 가져오고 설정
할 수 있습니다 (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22054(4).)

이제 *note truncate(): e38.와 *note ftruncate(): d8b. 함수가 이제 윈도우
에서 지원됩니다.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668(5).)

전달된 각 경로명의 가장 긴 공통 하위 경로를 반환하는 새로운 *note
os.path.commonpath(): e39. 함수가 있습니다.  *note
os.path.commonprefix(): e3a. 함수와 달리, 항상 유효한 경로를 반환합니다:

     >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr/l'

     >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr'

(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10395(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<10>,  Next: pickle<3>,  Prev: os<10>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.44 pathlib
................

새로운 *note Path.samefile(): e3c. 메서드를 사용하여 다른 *note Path:
229. 객체나 문자열일 수 있는 다른 경로와 같은 파일을 가리키는지를 확인할
수 있습니다:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
     >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
     >>> p1.samefile(p2)
     True

(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19775(1).)

*note Path.mkdir(): e3d. 메서드는 이제 ‘mkdir -p’와 *note os.makedirs():
21e. 기능과 일치하는 새로운 선택적 'exist_ok' 인자를 받아들입니다.
(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539(2).)

‘~’와 ‘~user’ 접두사를 확장하는 새로운 *note Path.expanduser(): e3e. 메
서드가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19776(3).)

새로운 *note Path.home(): e3f. 클래스 메서드를 사용하여 사용자의 홈 디렉
터리를 나타내는 *note Path: 229. 인스턴스를 가져올 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777(4).)

파일에 대한 읽기/쓰기 연산을 단순화하는 새로운 *note Path.write_text():
e40, *note Path.read_text(): e41, *note Path.write_bytes(): e42, *note
Path.read_bytes(): e43. 메서드.

다음 코드 조각은 ‘~/spam42’를 만들거나 기존 파일을 다시 작성합니다:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
     >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
     3

(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in bpo-20218(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<3>,  Next: poplib<2>,  Prev: pathlib<10>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.45 pickle
...............

연결되지 않은 메서드나 중첩된 클래스와 같은 중첩 된 객체는 이제 프로토콜
버전 4보다 오래된 *note 피클 프로토콜: cbe.을 사용하여 피클 할 수 있습니
다.  프로토콜 버전 4는 이미 이러한 경우를 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<2>,  Next: re<7>,  Prev: pickle<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.46 poplib
...............

새로운 *note POP3.utf8(): e46. 명령은 POP 서버가 지원하면 RFC 6856(1) (국
제화된 이메일) 지원을 활성화합니다.  (Contributed by Milan OberKirch in
bpo-21804(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804


File: python.info,  Node: re<7>,  Next: readline<2>,  Prev: poplib<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.47 re
...........

고정 길이를 가진 그룹에 대한 참조와 조건부 참조는 이제 되돌아보기 어서션
(lookbehind assertions)에서 허용됩니다:

     >>> import re
     >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
     >>> pat.match('aac')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
     >>> pat.match('bbc')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-9179(1).)

정규식의 캡처 그룹 수는 더는 100개로 제한되지 않습니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437(2).)

*note sub(): 2a3.와 *note subn(): 2a4. 함수는 이제 예외를 발생시키는 대
신 일치하지 않는 그룹을 빈 문자열로 대체합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-1519638(3).)

‘re.error’ 예외에는 에러에 대한 더 나은 문맥 정보를 제공하는 새 어트리뷰
트인 ‘msg’, ‘pattern’, ‘pos’, ‘lineno’ 및 ‘colno’가 있습니다:

     >>> re.compile("""
     ...     (?x)
     ...     .++
     ... """)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22578(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578


File: python.info,  Node: readline<2>,  Next: selectors,  Prev: re<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.48 readline
.................

새로운 *note append_history_file(): e49. 함수를 사용하여 지정된 파일에 히
스토리에 지정된 수의 후행 요소를 추가 할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940


File: python.info,  Node: selectors,  Next: Shutil,  Prev: readline<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.49 selectors
..................

새로운 *note DevpollSelector: bd3.는 Solaris에서 효율적인 ‘/dev/poll’ 폴
링을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-18931(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931


File: python.info,  Node: Shutil,  Next: signal<3>,  Prev: selectors,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.50 Shutil
...............

*note move(): a58. 함수는 이제 'copy_function' 인자를 받아들여, 예를 들
어, 이동할 때 파일 메타 데이터를 무시해야 하면 기본 *note copy2(): a57.
대신 *note copy(): a56. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Claudiu Popa in bpo-19840(1).)

*note make_archive(): 4ad. 함수는 이제 'xztar' 형식을 지원합니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411


File: python.info,  Node: signal<3>,  Next: smtpd<2>,  Prev: Shutil,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.51 signal
...............

윈도우에서, *note set_wakeup_fd(): b6d. 함수는 이제 소켓 핸들도 지원합니
다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018(1).)

*note signal: c6. 모듈의 다양한 ‘SIG*’ 상수가 *note 열거형: 56.으로 변환
되었습니다.  이를 통해 디버깅 중에 정수 “매직 넘버” 대신 의미 있는 이름
을 인쇄할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in
bpo-21076(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<2>,  Next: smtplib<2>,  Prev: signal<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.52 smtpd
..............

이제 ‘SMTPServer’와 ‘SMTPChannel’ 클래스 모두 'decode_data' 키워드 인자
를 받아 SMTP 트랜잭션의 ‘DATA’ 부분이 ‘"utf-8"’ 코덱을 사용하여 디코딩되
는지 아니면 대신 바이트 문자열로 ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ 메서드에
제공되는지 확인합니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 기본값은 ‘True’이지
만, 파이썬 3.6에서는 ‘False’로 변경됩니다.  'decode_data'가 ‘False’로 설
정되면, ‘process_message’ 메서드는 키워드 인자를 받아들일 준비가 되어 있
어야 합니다.  (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662(1).)

'decode_data'가 ‘True’로 설정되면 ‘SMTPServer’ 클래스는 이제 ‘8BITMIME’
확장( RFC 6152(2))을 알립니다.  클라이언트가 ‘MAIL’ 명령에
‘BODY=8BITMIME’를 지정하면, 'mail_options' 키워드를 통해
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’로 전달됩니다.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795(3).)

‘SMTPServer’ 클래스는 이제 ‘SMTPUTF8’ 확장( RFC 6531(4): 국제화된 이메일
)도 지원합니다.  클라이언트가 ‘MAIL’ 명령에 ‘SMTPUTF8 BODY=8BITMIME’을 지
정하면, 'mail_options' 키워드를 통해 ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’로 전
달됩니다.  ‘SMTPUTF8’ 데이터를 올바르게 처리하는 것은 ‘process_message’
메서드의 책임입니다.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725(5).)

이제 ‘SMTPServer’ 생성자에 직접 또는 이름 결정(name resolution)을 통해
IPv6 주소를 제공하고 성공적으로 연결할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<2>,  Next: sndhdr,  Prev: smtpd<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.53 smtplib
................

새로운 *note SMTP.auth(): e4f. 메서드는 사용자 정의 인증 메커니즘을 구현
하는 편리한 방법을 제공합니다.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in
bpo-15014(1).)

*note SMTP.set_debuglevel(): e50. 메서드는 이제 디버그 메시지에서 타임 스
탬프를 활성화하는 추가 디버그 수준(2)을 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by
Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914(2).)

*note SMTP.sendmail(): e51.과 *note SMTP.send_message(): e52. 메서드 모
두 이제 RFC 6531(3)(SMTPUTF8)을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr,  Next: socket<8>,  Prev: smtplib<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.54 sndhdr
...............

‘what()’과 ‘whathdr()’ 함수는 이제 *note namedtuple(): 1ca.을 반환합니다
.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615


File: python.info,  Node: socket<8>,  Next: ssl<9>,  Prev: sndhdr,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.55 socket
...............

제한 시간이 있는 함수는 이제 시스템 시계 대신 단조증가(monotonic) 시계를
사용합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

새로운 *note socket.sendfile(): e55. 메서드를 사용하면 유닉스에서 고성능
*note os.sendfile(): b0c. 함수를 사용하여 소켓을 통해 파일을 전송할 수 있
어서, 일반 *note socket.send(): da3.를 사용할 때 보다 업로드 속도가 2 에
서 3배 빨라집니다.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-17552(2).)

*note socket.sendall(): da4. 메서드는 더는 바이트를 받거나 보낼 때마다 소
켓 시간제한을 재설정하지 않습니다.  소켓 시간제한은 이제 모든 데이터를 보
내는 최대 총 기간입니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-23853(3).)

*note socket.listen(): e56. 메서드의 'backlog' 인자는 이제 선택 사항입니
다.  기본적으로 *note SOMAXCONN: e57.나 ‘128’중 작은 값으로 설정됩니다.
(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-21455(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<9>,  Next: sqlite3<8>,  Prev: socket<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.56 ssl
............

* Menu:

* 메모리 BIO 지원::
* 응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원::
* 기타 변경 사항::


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 BIO 지원,  Next: 응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원,  Up: ssl<9>

1.9.5.57 메모리 BIO 지원
........................

(Contributed by Geert Jansen in bpo-21965(1).)

새로운 *note SSLObject: b7e. 클래스가 추가되어 *note SSLSocket: 8e7.의 네
트워크 I/O 기능이 필요하지 않거나 최적이 아닐 때 SSL 프로토콜 지원을 제
공합니다.  ‘SSLObject’는 SSL 프로토콜 인스턴스를 나타내지만, 네트워크
I/O 메서드를 구현하지 않고 대신 메모리 버퍼 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  새
로운 *note MemoryBIO: e5a. 클래스는 파이썬과 SSL 프로토콜 인스턴스 간에
데이터를 전달하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

메모리 BIO SSL 지원은 주로 *note SSLSocket: 8e7.의 준비(readiness) 모델
(“select/poll”)이 비효율적인 비동기 I/O를 구현하는 프레임워크에서 사용하
기 위한 것입니다.

새 *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b7f. 메서드를 사용하여 새 ‘SSLObject’ 인
스턴스를 만들 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965


File: python.info,  Node: 응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원,  Next: 기타 변경 사항,  Prev: 메모리 BIO 지원,  Up: ssl<9>

1.9.5.58 응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원
..............................................

(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-20188(1).)

OpenSSL 지원이 있는 경우, *note ssl: d0. 모듈은 이제 RFC 7301(2)에 설명
된 대로 '응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상(Application-Layer Protocol
Negotiation)' TLS 확장을 구현합니다.

새로운 *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): e5c.는 소켓이 TLS 핸드 셰
이크 중에 어떤 프로토콜을 알려야 하는지 지정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

새로운 *note SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e5d.은 TLS 핸드 셰이크
중에 선택된 프로토콜을 반환합니다.  *note HAS_ALPN: e5e. 플래그는 ALPN 지
원이 있는지를 나타냅니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 변경 사항,  Prev: 응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원,  Up: ssl<9>

1.9.5.59 기타 변경 사항
.......................

사용 중인 실제 프로토콜 버전을 조회하는 새로운 *note
SSLSocket.version(): e60. 메서드가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-20421(1).)

*note SSLSocket: 8e7. 클래스는 이제 ‘SSLSocket.sendfile()’ 메서드를 구현
합니다.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-17552(2).)

‘SSLSocket.send()’ 메서드는 이제 연산이 블록 되려고 하면 비 블로킹 소켓
에서 *note ssl.SSLWantReadError: e61. 나 *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
e62. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  이전에는 ‘0’을 반환했습니다.  (Contributed by
Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).)

*note cert_time_to_seconds(): e63. 함수는 이제 입력 시간을 RFC 5280(4)에
따라 현지 시간이 아닌 UTC로 해석합니다.  또한, 반환 값은 항상 *note int:
257.입니다.  (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(5).)

새로운 ‘SSLObject.shared_ciphers()’와 *note SSLSocket.shared_ciphers():
e64. 메서드는 핸드 셰이크 중에 클라이언트가 보낸 사이퍼 리스트를 반환합
니다.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186(6).)

*note SSLSocket: 8e7. 클래스의 *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e65,
*note SSLSocket.read(): e66, ‘SSLSocket.shutdown()’ 및 *note
SSLSocket.write(): e67. 메서드는 더는 바이트를 받거나 보낼 때마다 소켓 시
간제한을 재설정하지 않습니다.  소켓 시간제한은 이제 메서드의 최대 총 지
속 시간입니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23853(7).)

‘match_hostname()’ 함수는 이제 IP 주소 일치를 지원합니다.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<8>,  Next: subprocess<4>,  Prev: ssl<9>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.60 sqlite3
................

*note Row: e69. 클래스는 이제 시퀀스 프로토콜, 특히 *note reversed():
860. 이터레이션과 슬라이스 인덱싱을 완전히 지원합니다.  (Contributed by
Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203(1); by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica McKellar, and
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<4>,  Next: sys<11>,  Prev: sqlite3<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.61 subprocess
...................

새로운 *note run(): b83. 함수가 추가되었습니다.  지정된 명령을 실행하고
완료된 프로세스를 설명하는 *note CompletedProcess: e6b. 객체를 반환합니
다.  새 API는 더 일관적이며 이전 파이썬 버전과의 호환성을 유지할 필요가
없는 파이썬 코드에서 서브 프로세스를 호출하는 데 권장되는 접근 방식입니
다.  (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342(1).)

예:

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

     >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
     stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342


File: python.info,  Node: sys<11>,  Next: sysconfig<2>,  Prev: subprocess<4>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.62 sys
............

새로운 ‘set_coroutine_wrapper()’ 함수를 사용하면 *note async def: 5cb. 함
수에 의해 *note 코루틴 객체: 48b.가 만들어질 때마다 호출되는 전역 훅을 설
정할 수 있습니다.  해당 ‘get_coroutine_wrapper()’를 사용하여 현재 설정된
래퍼를 얻을 수 있습니다.  두 함수 모두 *note 잠정적: b00.이며 디버깅 목
적으로만 사용됩니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).)

새로운 *note is_finalizing(): a8c. 함수를 사용하여 파이썬 인터프리터가
*note 종료 중: 14e.인지 확인할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-22696(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<2>,  Next: tarfile<7>,  Prev: sys<11>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.63 sysconfig
..................

이제 윈도우의 사용자 스크립트 디렉터리 이름에 파이썬 버전의 처음 두 구성
요소가 포함됩니다.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-23437(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<7>,  Next: threading<6>,  Prev: sysconfig<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.64 tarfile
................

*note open(): e6f. 함수의 'mode' 인자는 이제 배타적 생성을 요청하는
‘"x"’를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21717(1).)

*note TarFile.extractall(): 428.과 *note TarFile.extract(): 429. 메서드
는 이제 키워드 인자 'numeric_owner'를 취합니다.  ‘True’로 설정하면, 압축
을 푼 파일과 디렉터리는 tar 파일의 숫자 ‘uid’와 ‘gid’가 소유합니다.
‘False’(기본값, 또한 3.5 이전 버전의 동작)로 설정하면, tar 파일의 명명된
사용자와 그룹이 소유합니다.  (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith
in bpo-23193(2).)

*note TarFile.list(): e70.는 이제 *note TarFile.getmembers(): e71.가 반
환하는 리스트의 부분 집합으로 설정할 수 있는 선택적 'members' 키워드 인
자를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21549(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549


File: python.info,  Node: threading<6>,  Next: time<7>,  Prev: tarfile<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.65 threading
..................

이제 *note Lock.acquire(): 692.와 *note RLock.acquire(): e73. 메서드 모
두 시간제한 관리에 단조증가(monotonic) 시계를 사용합니다.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: time<7>,  Next: timeit<2>,  Prev: threading<6>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.66 time
.............

*note monotonic(): 253. 함수는 이제 항상 사용할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: timeit<2>,  Next: tkinter<8>,  Prev: time<7>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.67 timeit
...............

새로운 명령 줄 옵션 ‘-u’나 ‘--unit=U’ 를 사용하여 타이머 출력의 시간 단
위를 지정할 수 있습니다.  지원되는 옵션은 ‘usec’, ‘msec’ 또는 ‘sec’입니
다.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983(1).)

*note timeit(): e76. 함수에는 코드가 실행될 이름 공간을 지정하기 위한 새
로운 'globals' 매개 변수가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Ben Roberts in
bpo-2527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<8>,  Next: traceback<5>,  Prev: timeit<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.68 tkinter
................

윈도우에서 Tcl/Tk 환경을 설정하는 데 사용되는 ‘tkinter._fix’ 모듈은 환경
변수를 영구적으로 변경하지 않는 ‘_tkinter’ 모듈의 내부 함수로 대체되었습
니다.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<5>,  Next: types<5>,  Prev: tkinter<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.69 traceback
..................

새로운 *note walk_stack(): e79.과 *note walk_tb(): e7a. 함수로 프레임과
*note 트레이스백 객체: af0.를 편리하게 탐색 할 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

새로운 경량 클래스: *note TracebackException: 25c, *note StackSummary:
e7b. 및 *note FrameSummary: e7c.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in
bpo-17911(2).)

*note print_tb(): e7d.와 *note print_stack(): e7e. 함수는 모두 이제
'limit' 인자에 대해 음수 값을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Dmitry
Kazakov in bpo-22619(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619


File: python.info,  Node: types<5>,  Next: unicodedata<8>,  Prev: traceback<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.70 types
..............

*note 제너레이터: bdb.와 *note 제너레이터류: dd7. 객체를 *note
어웨이터블: 1ad.로 변환하는 새로운 *note coroutine(): e80. 함수.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).)

*note async def: 5cb. 함수로 만든 *note 코루틴: 48b. 객체에 사용되는
*note CoroutineType: e81.라는 새로운 형.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
in bpo-24400(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<8>,  Next: unittest<8>,  Prev: types<5>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.71 unicodedata
....................

*note unicodedata: 105. 모듈은 이제 유니코드 8.0.0(1)의 데이터를 사용합
니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<8>,  Next: unittest mock<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.72 unittest
.................

*note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28f. 메서드는 이제 ‘load_tests’에
세 번째 인자로 전달되는 키워드 전용 인자 'pattern'을 받아들입니다.  패키
지 이름이 기본 패턴과 일치할 수 없어서, 이제 발견된 패키지의 경로가
'pattern'과 일치하는지와 관계없이 ‘load_tests’를 확인합니다.
(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(1).)

이제 unittest 디스커버리 에러가 *note TestLoader: 28e. 인스턴스의 *note
TestLoader.errors: e84. 어트리뷰트에 표시됩니다.  (Contributed by Robert
Collins in bpo-19746(2).)

트레이스백에 지역 변수를 표시하는 새로운 명령 줄 옵션 ‘--locals’.
(Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<3>,  Next: urllib<2>,  Prev: unittest<8>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.73 unittest.mock
......................

*note Mock: a47. 클래스는 다음과 같이 개선되었습니다:

   * 클래스 생성자에는 ‘"assert"’로 시작하는 어트리뷰트 이름에 대해 모의
     객체가 *note AttributeError: 346.를 발생시키는 새로운 'unsafe' 매개
     변수가 있습니다.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21238(1).)

   * 모의 객체가 호출되었는지 확인하는 새로운 *note
     Mock.assert_not_called(): e86. 메서드.  (Contributed by Kushal Das
     in bpo-21262(2).)

*note MagicMock: e87. 클래스는 이제 ‘__truediv__()’, ‘__divmod__()’ 및
‘__matmul__()’ 연산자를 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Johannes Baiter in
bpo-20968(3), and Håkan Lövdahl in bpo-23581(4) and bpo-23568(5).)

내장 이름을 패치 할 때 더는 ‘create=True’를 *note patch(): e88. 함수에 명
시적으로 전달할 필요가 없습니다.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
bpo-17660(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<2>,  Next: wsgiref,  Prev: unittest mock<3>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.74 urllib
...............

새로운 *note request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth: e8a. 클래스는 HTTP 기
본 인증 자격 증명을 관리하도록 허용하여, 불필요한 ‘401’ 응답 처리를 제거
하거나, ‘Authorization’ 헤더가 전송되지 않았으면 ‘401’ 대신 ‘404’ 응답을
반환하는 서버와 통신하기 위해 첫 번째 요청에서 자격 증명을 무조건 전송하
도록 합니다.  (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494(1) and Akshit
Khurana in bpo-7159(2).)

*note parse.urlencode(): e8b. 함수에 대한 새로운 'quote_via' 인자는 필요
하면 쿼리 부분의 인코딩을 제어하는 방법을 제공합니다.  (Contributed by
Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866(3).)

*note request.urlopen(): 293. 함수는 HTTPS 연결에 사용될 'context' 인자
로 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 객체를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Alex
Gaynor in bpo-22366(4).)

*note parse.urljoin(): e8c.은 상대 URL 확인을 위해 RFC 1808(5)과 RFC
2396(6) 대신에 RFC 3986(7) 의미 체계를 사용하도록 갱신되었습니다.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-22118(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref,  Next: xmlrpc<2>,  Prev: urllib<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.75 wsgiref
................

*note headers.Headers: e8e. 클래스 생성자의 'headers' 인자는 이제 선택 사
항입니다.  (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost in
bpo-5800(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc<2>,  Next: xml sax,  Prev: wsgiref,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.76 xmlrpc
...............

*note client.ServerProxy: a53. 클래스는 이제 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.
프로토콜을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627(1).)

*note client.ServerProxy: a53. 생성자는 이제 선택적 *note
ssl.SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Alex
Gaynor in bpo-22960(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax,  Next: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xmlrpc<2>,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.77 xml.sax
................

SAX 구문 분석기는 이제 *note xmlreader.InputSource: e91. 객체의 문자 스
트림을 지원합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-2175(1).)

*note parseString(): e92.은 이제 *note str: 445. 인스턴스를 받아들입니다
.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xml sax,  Up: 개선된 모듈<5>

1.9.5.78 zipfile
................

이제 ZIP 출력을 위치 변경할 수 없는(unseekable) 스트림에 쓸 수 있습니다.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252(1).)

*note ZipFile.open(): 415. 메서드의 'mode' 인자는 이제 배타적 생성을 요
청하는 ‘"x"’를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21717(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 모듈 수준 변경,  Next: 최적화<5>,  Prev: 개선된 모듈<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.6 기타 모듈 수준 변경
-------------------------

*note mmap: 90, ‘ossaudiodev’, *note socket: cc, *note ssl: d0. 및 *note
codecs: 1b. 모듈의 많은 함수는 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체:
d2a.를 받아들입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001


File: python.info,  Node: 최적화<5>,  Next: 빌드와 C API 변경<3>,  Prev: 기타 모듈 수준 변경,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.7 최적화
------------

*note os.walk(): 4a3. 함수는 POSIX 시스템에서 3 에서 5배, 윈도우에서 7 에
서 20배 빨라졌습니다.  이는 하부 ‘readdir’이나
‘FindFirstFile’/‘FindNextFile’ 시스템 호출에서 파일 정보를 노출하는 새로
운 *note os.scandir(): a5b. 함수를 사용하여 수행되었습니다.
(Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in bpo-23605(1).)

(0 바이트로 채워진) ‘bytes(int)’의 구성이 더 빠르고 큰 객체에 대해 더 적
은 메모리를 사용합니다.  ‘malloc()’ 대신 ‘calloc()’을 사용하여 이러한 객
체에 대한 메모리를 할당합니다.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-21233(2).)

*note ipaddress: 80. *note IPv4Network: 1fe.와 *note IPv6Network: 1ff.에
대한 일부 연산(가령 *note subnets(): e96, *note supernet(): e97, *note
summarize_address_range(): e98, *note collapse_addresses(): e99.)이 크게
빨라졌습니다.  속도 향상 범위는 3 에서 15배입니다.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in bpo-21486(3), bpo-21487(4),
bpo-20826(5), bpo-23266(6).)

*note ipaddress: 80. 객체의 피클링은 훨씬 더 작은 출력을 생성하도록 최적
화되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23133(7).)

*note io.BytesIO: e9a.에 대한 많은 연산이 이제 50%에서 100% 더 빨라졌습
니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381(8) and David Wilson
in bpo-22003(9).)

이제 *note marshal.dumps(): e9b. 함수가 더 빨라졌습니다: 일반 데이터에서
는 버전 3과 4에서 65–85%, 버전 0부터 2에서 20–25%, 최상의 경우 최대 5배
입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20416(10) and
bpo-23344(11).)

UTF-32 인코더는 이제 3 에서 7배 더 빨라졌습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-15027(12).)

이제 정규식이 최대 10% 더 빠르게 구문 분석됩니다.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380(13).)

*note json.dumps(): d42. 함수는 ‘ensure_ascii=False’로 실행될 때
‘ensure_ascii=True’와 같이 빠르게 실행되도록 최적화되었습니다.
(Contributed by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206(14).)

*note PyObject_IsInstance(): e9c.와 *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): e9d. 함
수는 두 번째 인자가 메타 클래스로 *note type: d45.을 갖는 일반적인 경우
에 가속화되었습니다.  (Contributed Georg Brandl by in bpo-22540(15).)

메서드 캐싱이 약간 개선되어, 일부 벤치마크에서 최대 5%의 성능 향상을 가
져왔습니다.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22847(16).)

*note random: b8. 모듈의 객체는 이제 64비트 빌드에서 50% 적은 메모리를 사
용합니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488(17).)

*note property(): 194. 게터 호출은 최대 25% 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed
by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910(18).)

*note fractions.Fraction: 1e7.의 인스턴스 화가 이제 최대 30% 빨라졌습니
다.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464(19).)

문자열 메서드 *note find(): e9e, *note rfind(): e9f, *note split(): ea0,
*note partition(): ea1. 및 *note in: 2ec. 문자열 연산자는 이제 1-문자 하
위 문자열을 검색할 때 훨씬 더 빠릅니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-23573(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573


File: python.info,  Node: 빌드와 C API 변경<3>,  Next: 폐지<4>,  Prev: 최적화<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.8 빌드와 C API 변경
-----------------------

새로운 ‘calloc’ 함수가 추가되었습니다:

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a,

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea3,

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea4.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21233(1).)

새로운 인코딩/디코딩 도우미 함수:

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. (‘_Py_char2wchar()’을 대체),

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5. (‘_Py_wchar2char()’을 대체).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18395(2).)

유니코드 인코딩 에러를 ‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프로 대체하는 새로운 *note
PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): ea5. 함수.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19676(3).)

*note PyErr_Format(): ea6.과 유사하지만 ‘va_list’ 인자를 받아들이는 새로
운 *note PyErr_FormatV(): ea7. 함수.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-18711(4).)

새로운 *note PyExc_RecursionError: ea8. 예외.  (Contributed by Georg
Brandl in bpo-19235(5).)

PEP 489(6) – 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화에 의해 도입된 새로운 *note
PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): ea9, *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): eaa. 및
*note PyModule_ExecDef(): eab. 함수.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
bpo-24268(7).)

행렬 곱셈을 수행하는 새로운 *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): eac.와
*note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): ead. 함수.  (Contributed by
Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(8).  자세한 내용은 PEP 465(9)를 참조하십
시오.)

*note PyTypeObject.tp_finalize: aa3. 슬롯은 이제 안정적인 ABI의 일부입니
다.

이제 윈도우 빌드에는 Visual Studio 2015(10)의 일부로 제공되는 Microsoft
Visual C++ 14.0이 필요합니다.

확장 모듈은 이제 일부 플랫폼에서 파일명에 플랫폼 정보 태그를 포함합니다
(태그는 선택 사항이며, CPython은 태그가 없더라도 확장을 임포트 하지만, 태
그가 존재하고 일치하지 않으면 확장이 로드되지 않습니다):

   * 리눅스에서, 확장 모듈 파일명은
     ‘.cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd’로 끝납니다:

        * ‘<major>’는 파이썬 버전의 주 번호입니다; 파이썬 3.5의 경우
          ‘3’입니다.

        * ‘<minor>’는 파이썬 버전의 부 번호입니다; 파이썬 3.5의 경우
          ‘5’입니다.

        * ‘<architecture>’는 확장 모듈이 실행되도록 빌드된 하드웨어 아키
          텍처입니다.  가장 흔하게 32비트 Intel 플랫폼의 경우 ‘i386’ 또
          는 64비트 Intel (및 AMD) 플랫폼의 경우 ‘x86_64’입니다.

        * ‘<os>’는 64비트 플랫폼에서 32비트 ABI와 통신하도록 빌드된 확장
          을 제외하고 항상 ‘linux-gnu’입니다.  이 경우 ‘linux-gnu32’(그
          리고 ‘<architecture>’는 ‘x86_64’가 됩니다)입니다.

   * 윈도우에서, 확장 모듈 파일명은
     ‘<debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd’로 끝납니다:

        * ‘<major>’는 파이썬 버전의 주 번호입니다; 파이썬 3.5의 경우
          ‘3’입니다.

        * ‘<minor>’는 파이썬 버전의 부 번호입니다; 파이썬 3.5의 경우
          ‘5’입니다.

        * ‘<platform>’은 확장 모듈이 빌드된 플랫폼으로, Win32 용
          ‘win32’, Win64 용 ‘win_amd64’, 윈도우 Itanium 64 용 ‘win_ia64’
          및 ARM 기반 윈도우 용 ‘win_arm’입니다.

        * 디버그 모드로 빌드되면, ‘<debug>’는 ‘_d’가 되고 그렇지 않으면
          공백이 됩니다.

   * OS X 플랫폼에서, 확장 모듈 파일명은 이제 ‘-darwin.so’로 끝납니다.

   * 다른 모든 플랫폼에서, 확장 모듈 파일명은 파이썬 3.4에서와 같습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (10) 
https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지<4>,  Next: 제거<4>,  Prev: 빌드와 C API 변경<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.9 폐지
----------

* Menu:

* 새 키워드: 새 키워드<2>.
* 폐지된 파이썬 동작: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<3>.
* 지원되지 않는 운영 체제::
* 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 새 키워드<2>,  Next: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<3>,  Up: 폐지<4>

1.9.9.1 새 키워드
.................

‘async’와 ‘await’는 변수, 클래스, 함수 또는 모듈 이름으로 사용하지 않는
것이 좋습니다.  파이썬 3.5에서 PEP 492(1)에 의해 도입되었으며, 파이썬
3.7에서 정식 키워드가 될 것입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<3>,  Next: 지원되지 않는 운영 체제,  Prev: 새 키워드<2>,  Up: 폐지<4>

1.9.9.2 폐지된 파이썬 동작
..........................

제너레이터 내에서 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 발생시키면 이제 조용
한 *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 을 생성하며, 이는 파이썬 3.6에
서 조용하지 않은 폐지 경고가 되고 파이썬 3.7에서 *note RuntimeError:
195.를 트리거할 것입니다.  자세한 내용은 *note PEP 479; 제너레이터
내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경: d1c.을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되지 않는 운영 체제,  Next: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<3>,  Prev: 폐지된 파이썬 동작<3>,  Up: 폐지<4>

1.9.9.3 지원되지 않는 운영 체제
...............................

윈도우 XP는 더는 Microsoft에서 지원하지 않아서, PEP 11(1)에 따라 CPython
3.5는 이 OS에서 더는 공식적으로 지원되지 않습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 파이썬 모듈 함수 및 메서드<3>,  Prev: 지원되지 않는 운영 체제,  Up: 폐지<4>

1.9.9.4 폐지된 파이썬 모듈, 함수 및 메서드
..........................................

‘formatter’ 모듈은 이제 완전히 폐지되었으며 파이썬 3.6에서 제거될 예정입
니다.

‘asyncio.async()’ 함수는 폐지되었고 *note ensure_future(): c73.로 대체합
니다.

‘smtpd’ 모듈은 과거에 항상 ‘utf-8’ 코덱을 사용하여 이메일 메시지의 DATA
부분을 디코딩했습니다.  이제 ‘SMTPServer’에 대한 새로운 'decode_data' 키
워드로 제어 할 수 있습니다.  기본값은 ‘True’이지만, 이 기본값은 폐지되었
습니다.  폐지 경고를 방지하려면 적절한 값으로 'decode_data' 키워드를 지
정하십시오.

*note http.cookies.Morsel: bfe. 객체의 *note key: bff, *note value: c00.
및 *note coded_value: c01.에 값을 직접 대입하는 것은 폐지되었습니다.  대
신 *note set(): c02. 메서드를 사용하십시오.  또한, *note set(): c02.의 문
서화되지 않은 'LegalChars' 매개 변수는 폐지되었으며 이제 무시됩니다.

포맷 문자열을 키워드 인자 'format_string'으로 *note string.Formatter:
eb3. 클래스의 *note format(): bfd. 메서드에 전달하는 것은 폐지되었습니다
.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671(1).)

‘platform.dist()’와 ‘platform.linux_distribution()’ 함수는 이제 폐지되었
습니다.  리눅스 배포판은 자신을 설명하는 데 너무 많은 다른 방법을 사용하
므로, 기능은 패키지에 남겨집니다.  (Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and
Berker Peksag in bpo-1322(2).)

이전에 문서화되지 않은 *note inspect.Signature: 1cf.의 ‘from_function’과
‘from_builtin’ 메서드는 폐지되었습니다.  대신 새로운 *note
Signature.from_callable(): 733. 메서드를 사용하십시오.  (Contributed by
Yury Selivanov in bpo-24248(3).)

‘inspect.getargspec()’ 함수는 폐지되었으며 파이썬 3.6에서 제거될 예정입
니다.  (자세한 내용은 bpo-20438(4)을 참조하십시오.)

*note inspect: 7e. *note getfullargspec(): 732, *note getcallargs():
eb4. 및 ‘formatargspec()’ 함수는 폐지되었고 *note inspect.signature():
731. API로 대체합니다.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20438(5).)

*note getargvalues(): eb5.와 *note formatargvalues(): eb6. 함수는 파이썬
3.5.0 릴리스에서 실수로 폐지된 것으로 표시되었습니다.

str 패턴이나 *note re.ASCII: 626.와 함께 *note re.LOCALE: b69. 플래그를
사용하는 것은 이제 폐지되었습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-22407(6).)

정규식 패턴과 치환 패턴에서 ‘'\'’와 ASCII 문자로 구성된 인식할 수 없는 특
수 시퀀스를 사용하면 이제 폐지 경고가 발생하며 파이썬 3.6에서는 금지됩니
다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622(7).)

*note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28f. 메서드의 문서화되
지 않고 비공식적인 'use_load_tests' 기본 인자는 이제 폐지되었으며 무시됩
니다.  (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in
bpo-16662(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662


File: python.info,  Node: 제거<4>,  Next: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기,  Prev: 폐지<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.10 제거
-----------

* Menu:

* API 및 기능 제거: API 및 기능 제거<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: API 및 기능 제거<3>,  Up: 제거<4>

1.9.10.1 API 및 기능 제거
.........................

다음과 같은 더는 사용되지 않고 이전에 폐지된 API와 기능이 제거되었습니다
:

   * ‘__version__’ 어트리뷰트가 이메일 패키지에서 삭제되었습니다.  이메
     일 코드는 오랫동안 표준 라이브러리와 별도로 배포되지 않았으며
     ‘__version__’ 문자열은 지난 몇 번의 릴리스에서 갱신되지 않았습니다.

   * *note ftplib: 5e. 모듈의 내부 ‘Netrc’ 클래스는 3.4에서 폐지되었으며
     , 이제 제거되었습니다.  (Contributed by Matt Chaput in
     bpo-6623(1).)

   * ‘.pyo’ 파일의 개념이 제거되었습니다.

   * 잠정적 *note asyncio: a. 모듈의 JoinableQueue 클래스는 3.4.4에서 폐
     지되었으며 이제 제거되었습니다.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu
     Davis in bpo-23464(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기,  Next: 파이썬 3 5 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 제거<4>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.11 파이썬 3.5로 이식하기
----------------------------

이 섹션은 코드 변경이 필요할 수 있는 이전에 설명한 변경 사항과 기타 버그
수정을 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 동작의 변경: 파이썬 동작의 변경<3>.
* 파이썬 API의 변경: 파이썬 API의 변경<5>.
* C API의 변경: C API의 변경<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 동작의 변경<3>,  Next: 파이썬 API의 변경<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기

1.9.11.1 파이썬 동작의 변경
...........................

   * 부주의로 인해, 이전 파이썬 버전은 다음 문법을 잘못 수락했습니다:

          f(1 for x in [1], *args)
          f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)

     함수에 대한 유일한 인자가 아닌 경우 제너레이터 표현식을 괄호로 묶어
     야 하므로, 파이썬 3.5는 이제 *note SyntaxError: 18d.를 올바르게 발
     생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 API의 변경<5>,  Next: C API의 변경<4>,  Prev: 파이썬 동작의 변경<3>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기

1.9.11.2 파이썬 API의 변경
..........................

   * PEP 475(1): 시스템 호출은 시그널에 의해 중단될 때 파이썬 시그널 처
     리기가 예외를 발생시키지 않으면 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84.를
     발생시키는 대신 재시도됩니다.

   * 파이썬 3.5 이전에는, *note datetime.time: 1ce. 객체가 UTC로 자정을
     나타내면 거짓으로 간주했습니다.  이 동작은 모호하고 에러가 발생하기
     쉬운 것으로 간주하여 파이썬 3.5에서 제거되었습니다.  자세한 내용은
     bpo-13936(2)을 참조하십시오.

   * ‘ssl.SSLSocket.send()’ 메서드는 이제 연산이 블록 되려고 하면 비 블
     로킹 소켓에서 *note ssl.SSLWantReadError: e61. 나 *note
     ssl.SSLWantWriteError: e62.를 발생시킵니다.  이전에는 ‘0’을 반환했
     습니다.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).)

   * 제너레이터의 ‘__name__’ 어트리뷰트는 이제 코드 이름에서 설정되는 대
     신 함수 이름에서 설정됩니다.  코드 이름을 꺼내려면
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’을 사용하십시오.  제너레이터에는 이제 제너레이
     터의 표현(‘repr(gen)’)에 사용되는 정규화된 이름인 새로운
     ‘__qualname__’ 어트리뷰트도 있습니다.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-21205(4).)

   * 폐지된 “strict” 모드와 *note HTMLParser: 872.의 인자,
     ‘HTMLParser.error()’ 및 ‘HTMLParserError’ 예외가 제거되었습니다.
     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(5).)  *note HTMLParser:
     872.의 'convert_charrefs' 인자는 이제 기본적으로 ‘True’입니다.
     (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047(6).)

   * 공식적으로 API의 일부는 아니지만, 이전에 “‘sometype’ does not
     support the buffer protocol” 형식이었던 에러 메시지는 이제 “a *note
     bytes-like object: d2a. is required, not ‘sometype’” 형식임을 이식
     의 목적(즉: 테스트 수선)을 위해 유의할 필요가 있습니다.
     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-16518(7).)

   * 현재 디렉터리가 더는 존재하지 않는 디렉터리로 설정되면 *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. 가 더는 발생하지 않고 대신 *note
     find_spec(): ebc.이 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에서 ‘None’을
     캐싱하지 '않고' ‘None’을 반환합니다.  이는 일반적일 때와 다릅니다
     (bpo-22834(8)).

   * *note http.client: 6f.와 *note http.server: 72.의 HTTP 상태 코드와
     메시지는 공통 *note HTTPStatus: 8fd. 열거형으로 리팩토링 되었습니다
     .  *note http.client: 6f.와 *note http.server: 72.의 값은 이전 버전
     과의 호환성을 위해 계속 사용할 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Demian
     Brecht in bpo-21793(9).)

   * 임포트 로더가 ‘importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module()’을 정의할 때
     이제 ‘create_module()’도 정의해야 합니다 (지금은 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.를 발생시키고, 파이썬 3.6에서는 에러가 될 것
     입니다).  로더가 *note importlib.abc.Loader: ebd.에서 상속하면 할 일
     이 없습니다.  그렇지 않으면 단순히 ‘None’을 반환하는
     ‘create_module()’을 정의합니다.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-23014(10).)

   * *note re.split(): 2a2. 함수는 항상 빈 패턴 일치를 무시해서, ‘"x*"’
     패턴은 ‘"x+"’와 같게 작동하고, ‘"\b"’ 패턴은 절대 작동하지 않습니다
     .  이제 *note re.split(): 2a2.은 패턴이 빈 문자열과 일치 할 수 있으
     면 경고를 발생시킵니다.  호환성을 위해, 절대 빈 문자열과 일치하지 않
     는 패턴을 사용하십시오 (예를 들어 ‘"x*"’ 대신 ‘"x+"’).  빈 문자열과
     만 일치 할 수 있는 패턴(가령 ‘"\b"’)은 이제 에러를 발생시킵니다.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22818(11).)

   * *note http.cookies.Morsel: bfe. 딕셔너리류 인터페이스가 자체 일관성
     이 있도록 만들었습니다: 이제 Morsel 비교는 *note key: bff.와 *note
     value: c00.를 고려하고, *note copy(): ebe.는 이제 *note dict: 256.가
     아닌 *note Morsel: bfe. 인스턴스를 생성하며, *note update(): ebf.는
     이제 업데이트 딕셔너리의 키 중 하나라도 잘못되면 예외를 발생시킵니
     다.  또한, *note set(): c02.의 문서화되지 않은 'LegalChars' 매개 변
     수는 폐지되었으며 이제 무시됩니다.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht
     in bpo-2211(12).)

   * PEP 488(13)은 파이썬에서 ‘.pyo’ 파일을 제거하고 ‘.pyc’ 파일 이름에
     선택적 ‘opt-’ 태그를 도입했습니다.  *note
     importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f6.는 ‘opt-’ 태그를 제어하는 데
     도움이 되는 'optimization' 매개 변수를 얻었습니다.  이로 인해, 함수
     의 'debug_override' 매개 변수는 이제 폐지되었습니다.  또한 ‘.pyo’ 파
     일은 더는 파이썬 인터프리터에 대한 파일 인자로 지원되지 않아서 자체
     적으로 배포될 때 (즉, 소스 없는 코드 배포) 용도가 없습니다.  파이썬
     3.5에서 바이트 코드의 매직 넘버가 변경되었기 때문에, 이전 버전의 파
     이썬에서 가져온 모든 이전 ‘.pyo’ 파일은 이 PEP에 관계없이 유효하지
     않습니다.

   * *note socket: cc. 모듈은 이제 리눅스 3.6 이상에서 *note
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES: ec0. 상수를 내보냅니다.

   * *note ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(): e63. 함수는 이제 입력 시간을 RFC
     5280(14)에 따라 현지 시간이 아닌 UTC로 해석합니다.  또한, 반환 값은
     항상 *note int: 257.입니다.  (Contributed by Akira Li in
     bpo-19940(15).)

   * ‘pygettext.py’ 도구는 이제 POT-Creation-Date 헤더의 시간대에 표준
     +NNNN 형식을 사용합니다.

   * *note smtplib: ca. 모듈은 이제 디버그 출력을 위해 이전 모듈 수준
     ‘stderr’ 변수 대신 *note sys.stderr: 937.을 사용합니다.  (테스트) 프
     로그램이 디버그 출력을 캡처하기 위해 모듈 수준 변수를 패치 하는 데
     의존하면, 대신 sys.stderr을 캡처하도록 갱신해야 합니다.

   * *note str.startswith(): ec1.와 *note str.endswith(): ec2. 메서드는
     빈 문자열을 찾고 인덱스가 완전히 범위를 벗어났을 때 더는 ‘True’를 반
     환하지 않습니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-24284(16).)

   * *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f6. 함수는 이제 베이스 클래스에서 상속된 설
     명서 문자열을 반환합니다.  상속된 설명서가 적절하면 설명서 문자열을
     더는 복제할 필요가 없습니다.  상속된 문자열을 억제하려면, 빈 문자열
     을 지정해야 합니다 (또는 설명서를 채울 수 있습니다).  이 변경 사항
     은 *note pydoc: b5. 모듈과 *note help(): 8d4. 함수의 출력에 영향을
     줍니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15582(17).)

   * 중첩된 *note functools.partial(): 40e. 호출은 이제 평활화됩니다.  이
     전 동작에 의존한다면, 이제 *note functools.partial(): 40e. 객체에 어
     트리뷰트를 추가하거나 *note functools.partial(): 40e.의 서브 클래스
     를 만들 수 있습니다.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
     bpo-7830(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830


File: python.info,  Node: C API의 변경<4>,  Prev: 파이썬 API의 변경<5>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기

1.9.11.3 C API의 변경
.....................

   * (비공개) ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ 구조체의 문서화되지 않은 ‘format’ 멤
     버가 제거되었습니다.  ‘memoryobject.h’의 관련 부분에 의존하는 모든
     확장은 다시 빌드해야 합니다.

   * ‘PyMemAllocator’ 구조체는 *note PyMemAllocatorEx: ec4. 로 이름이 바
     뀌었고 새로운 ‘calloc’ 필드가 추가되었습니다.

   * 참조를 누출한 문서화되지 않은 매크로 ‘PyObject_REPR()’을 제거했습니
     다.  *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.과 유사한 함수에서 객체의
     *note repr(): 7f7.을 포맷하려면 포맷 문자 ‘%R’을 사용하십시오.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22453(1).)

   * *note __module__: 36d. 어트리뷰트가 없으면 피클링과 인트로스펙션이
     망가지므로, *note __module__: 36d. 어트리뷰트가 없는 내장형에 대해
     폐지 경고가 발생합니다.  이것은 향후 *note AttributeError: 346.가 될
     것입니다.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20204(2).)

   * PEP 492(3) 구현의 일부로, *note PyTypeObject: aa2.의 ‘tp_reserved’
     슬롯이 *note tp_as_async: ec5. 슬롯으로 대체되었습니다.  새로운 형,
     구조체 및 함수는 *note 코루틴 객체: ec6.를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 5 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항,  Prev: 파이썬 3 5로 이식하기,  Up: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능

1.9.12 파이썬 3.5.4의 주목할만한 변경 사항
------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상: 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상<2>.
* make touch 빌드 대상 제거: make touch 빌드 대상 제거<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상<2>,  Next: make touch 빌드 대상 제거<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.9.12.1 새로운 ‘make regen-all’ 빌드 대상
..........................................

교차 컴파일을 단순화하고, 기존 버전의 파이썬이 이미 사용할 수 있어야 한
다는 요구 사항 없이 CPython을 안정적으로 컴파일 할 수 있도록, autotools
기반 빌드 시스템은 더는 파일 수정 시간을 기반으로 생성된 파일을 묵시적으
로 재컴파일하려고 시도하지 않습니다.

대신, 원할 때 이러한 파일을 강제로 재생성하기 위해 새로운 ‘make
regen-all’ 명령이 추가되었습니다 (예를 들어 사전 생성된 버전을 기반으로
파이썬의 초기 버전이 이미 빌드된 후).

보다 선택적 재생성 대상도 정의됩니다 - 자세한 내용은 Makefile.pre.in(1)을
참조하십시오.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 3.5.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: make touch 빌드 대상 제거<2>,  Prev: 새로운 make regen-all 빌드 대상<2>,  Up: 파이썬 3 5 4의 주목할만한 변경 사항

1.9.12.2 ‘make touch’ 빌드 대상 제거
....................................

수정 시간을 갱신하여 생성된 파일의 묵시적 재생성을 요청하는 데 이전에 사
용된 ‘make touch’ 빌드 대상이 제거되었습니다.

새로운 ‘make regen-all’ 대상으로 대체되었습니다.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

버전 3.5.4에서 변경.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Prev: 파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.10 What’s New In Python 3.4
=============================


Author: R. David Murray <<rdmurray@bitdance.com>> (Editor)

This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
changelog(1).

더 보기
.......

PEP 429(2) – Python 3.4 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<9>.
* New Modules: New Modules<5>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<7>.
* Removed: Removed<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.1 Summary – Release Highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.

Other new features:

   * *note pip should always be available: ecd. ( PEP 453(1)).

   * *note Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable: ece. (
     PEP 446(2)).

   * command line option for *note isolated mode: ecf. (bpo-16499(3)).

   * *note improvements in the handling of codecs: ed0. that are not
     text encodings (multiple issues).

   * *note A ModuleSpec Type: ed1. for the Import System ( PEP 451(4)).
     (Affects importer authors.)

   * The *note marshal: 8d. format has been made *note more compact and
     efficient: ed2. (bpo-16475(5)).

New library modules:

   * *note asyncio: a.: *note New provisional API for asynchronous IO:
     ed3. ( PEP 3156(6)).

   * *note ensurepip: 55.: *note Bootstrapping the pip installer: ed4. (
     PEP 453(7)).

   * *note enum: 56.: *note Support for enumeration types: ed5. ( PEP
     435(8)).

   * *note pathlib: a4.: *note Object-oriented filesystem paths: ed6. (
     PEP 428(9)).

   * *note selectors: c2.: *note High-level and efficient I/O
     multiplexing: ed7, built upon the *note select: c1. module
     primitives (part of PEP 3156(10)).

   * *note statistics: d2.: A basic *note numerically stable statistics
     library: ed8. ( PEP 450(11)).

   * *note tracemalloc: ff.: *note Trace Python memory allocations: ed9.
     ( PEP 454(12)).

Significantly improved library modules:

   * *note Single-dispatch generic functions: eda. in *note functools:
     5f. ( PEP 443(13)).

   * New *note pickle: a6. *note protocol 4: edb. ( PEP 3154(14)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 94. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: edc. (bpo-8713(15)).

   * *note email: 3b. has a new submodule, *note contentmanager: 3d, and
     a new *note Message: 27c. subclass (‘EmailMessage’) that *note
     simplify MIME handling: edd. (bpo-18891(16)).

   * The *note inspect: 7e. and *note pydoc: b5. modules are now capable
     of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable
     objects, which improves the output of the Python *note help(): 8d4.
     system.

   * The *note ipaddress: 80. module API has been declared stable

Security improvements:

   * *note Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm: ede. ( PEP
     456(17)).

   * *note Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable: ece. (
     PEP 446(18)) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.

   * New command line option for *note isolated mode: ecf,
     (bpo-16499(19)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 94. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: edc.  'spawn' and 'forkserver' are more secure
     because they avoid sharing data with child processes.

   * *note multiprocessing: 94. child processes on Windows no longer
     inherit all of the parent’s inheritable handles, only the necessary
     ones.

   * A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 508. function provides the
     PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(20).

   * *note TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support: edf. for *note ssl: d0.

   * *note Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store
     support: ee0. for *note ssl: d0.

   * *note Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support: ee1. for
     *note ssl: d0.

   * The *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. class has a *note lot of
     improvements: ee2.

   * All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support
     server certificate verification, including hostname matching
     (‘ssl.match_hostname()’) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists,
     see *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee3.).

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note Safe object finalization: ee4. ( PEP 442(21)).

   * Leveraging PEP 442(22), in most cases *note module globals are no
     longer set to None during finalization: ee4. (bpo-18214(23)).

   * *note Configurable memory allocators: ee5. ( PEP 445(24)).

   * *note Argument Clinic: ee6. ( PEP 436(25)).

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<9>,  Next: New Modules<5>,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.2 New Features
-------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Next: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<9>

1.10.2.1 PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
.......................................................................

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Next: Documentation Changes,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.10.2.2 Bootstrapping pip By Default
.....................................

The new *note ensurepip: 55. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations and virtual environments.  The version of ‘pip’
included with Python 3.4.0 is ‘pip’ 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance
releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’
that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all
platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.  On Windows
and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ‘pip’
command will also be installed.  On other platforms, the system wide
unversioned ‘pip’ command typically refers to the separately installed
Python 2 version.

The ‘pyvenv’ command line utility and the *note venv: 111. module make
use of the *note ensurepip: 55. module to make ‘pip’ readily available
in virtual environments.  When using the command line utility, ‘pip’ is
installed by default, while when using the *note venv: 111. module *note
API: eea. installation of ‘pip’ must be requested explicitly.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: eeb, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands bootstrap ‘pip’ by default.
This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2) platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

     참고: To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3
     installations, only the versioned ‘pip3’ and ‘pip3.4’ commands are
     bootstrapped by default when ‘ensurepip’ is invoked directly - the
     ‘--default-pip’ option is needed to also request the unversioned
     ‘pip’ command.  ‘pyvenv’ and the Windows installer ensure that the
     unqualified ‘pip’ command is made available in those environments,
     and ‘pip’ can always be invoked via the ‘-m’ switch rather than
     directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python
     installations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.10.2.3 Documentation Changes
..............................

As part of this change, the *note 파이썬 모듈 설치하기: eed. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note setuptools로 C와
C++ 확장 빌드하기: eee. and *note setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기:
eef.

더 보기
.......

PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Next: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Prev: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Up: New Features<9>

1.10.2.4 PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
....................................................................

PEP 446(1) makes newly created file descriptors *note non-inheritable:
ef1.  In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when
launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the
new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially
to security issues.

However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:

   * *note os.get_inheritable(): ef2, *note os.set_inheritable(): ef3.

   * *note os.get_handle_inheritable(): ef4, *note
     os.set_handle_inheritable(): ef5.

   * *note socket.socket.get_inheritable(): ef6, *note
     socket.socket.set_inheritable(): ef7.

더 보기
.......

PEP 446(2) – Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/


File: python.info,  Node: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Next: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Prev: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<9>

1.10.2.5 Improvements to Codec Handling
.......................................

Since it was first introduced, the *note codecs: 1b. module has always
been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
system.  However, its close coupling with the Python text model,
especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin *note
str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. types, has
historically obscured that fact.

As a key step in clarifying the situation, the *note codecs.encode():
ef9. and *note codecs.decode(): efa. convenience functions are now
properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4.  These functions have
existed in the *note codecs: 1b. module (and have been covered by the
regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only
discoverable through runtime introspection.

Unlike the convenience methods on *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. and
*note bytearray: 538, the *note codecs: 1b. convenience functions
support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than
being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or ‘basestring’
<-> ‘basestring’ conversions (in Python 2).

In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards
these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:

     >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> "hello".encode("rot13")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs

In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
name of the codec responsible for producing the error:

     >>> import codecs

     >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
         return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)

     >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
         return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
         return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
     TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)

Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs
that were themselves restored in Python 3.2.  This means that encoding
binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can
now be written as:

     >>> from codecs import encode, decode
     >>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
     b'68656c6c6f'
     >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
     b'hello'

The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are
detailed in *note 바이너리 변환: efb. and *note 텍스트 변환: efc.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-7475(1), bpo-17827(2), bpo-17828(3)
and bpo-19619(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Next: Other Language Changes<5>,  Prev: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Up: New Features<9>

1.10.2.6 PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
.........................................................

PEP 451(1) provides an encapsulation of the information about a module
that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module
specification).  This helps simplify both the import implementation and
several import-related APIs.  The change is also a stepping stone for
several future import-related improvements(2).

The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer
authors.  Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they
will continue working.  New importers should use the new methods
described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement
the new methods.  See the *note Deprecated: efe. section for a list of
methods that should be replaced and their replacements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<5>,  Prev: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Up: New Features<9>

1.10.2.7 Other Language Changes
...............................

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.

   * *note min(): f00. and *note max(): f01. now accept a 'default'
     keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they
     return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements.
     (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111(1).)

   * Module objects are now *note weakly referenceable: f02.

   * Module ‘__file__’ attributes (and related values) should now always
     contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
     ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using
     a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(2).)

   * All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during
     both encoding and decoding unless the ‘surrogatepass’ error handler
     is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts
     valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them
     while encoding non-BMP characters).  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892(3).)

   * New German EBCDIC *note codec: db5. ‘cp273’.  (Contributed by
     Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797(4).)

   * New Ukrainian *note codec: db5. ‘cp1125’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19668(5).)

   * *note bytes: 1c2.join() and *note bytearray: 538.join() now accept
     arbitrary buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-15958(6).)

   * The *note int: 257. constructor now accepts any object that has an
     ‘__index__’ method for its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in bpo-16772(7).)

   * Frame objects now have a *note clear(): 280. method that clears all
     references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934(8).)

   * *note memoryview: 462. is now registered as a *note Sequence: 1e,
     and supports the *note reversed(): 860. builtin.  (Contributed by
     Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690(9) and bpo-19078(10).)

   * Signatures reported by *note help(): 8d4. have been modified and
     improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of
     Argument Clinic and other changes to the *note inspect: 7e. and
     *note pydoc: b5. modules.

   * *note __length_hint__(): f03. is now part of the formal language
     specification (see PEP 424(11)).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
     bpo-16148(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<5>,  Next: Improved Modules<5>,  Prev: New Features<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.3 New Modules
------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<11>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<11>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<6>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<11>,  Next: ensurepip<2>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.1 asyncio
................

The new *note asyncio: a. module (defined in PEP 3156(1)) provides a
standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid
asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier
for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard
library and each other.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: b00.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3156(2) – Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module

     PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip<2>,  Next: enum<9>,  Prev: asyncio<11>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.2 ensurepip
..................

The new *note ensurepip: 55. module is the primary infrastructure for
the PEP 453(1) implementation.  In the normal course of events end users
will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to
manually bootstrap ‘pip’ if the automated bootstrapping into an
installation or virtual environment was declined.

*note ensurepip: 55. includes a bundled copy of ‘pip’, up-to-date as of
the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it
ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases).
‘ensurepip’ does not access the internet.  If the installation has
internet access, after ‘ensurepip’ is run the bundled ‘pip’ can be used
to upgrade ‘pip’ to a more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note
that such an upgraded version of ‘pip’ is considered to be a separately
installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.)

The module is named 'ensure'pip because if called when ‘pip’ is already
installed, it does nothing.  It also has an ‘--upgrade’ option that will
cause it to install the bundled copy of ‘pip’ if the existing installed
version of ‘pip’ is older than the bundled copy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: enum<9>,  Next: pathlib<11>,  Prev: ensurepip<2>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.3 enum
.............

The new *note enum: 56. module (defined in PEP 435(1)) provides a
standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules
(such as *note socket: cc.) to provide more informative error messages
and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with
backwards compatible enumeration values.

더 보기
.......

PEP 435(2) – Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
     implemented by Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<11>,  Next: selectors<2>,  Prev: enum<9>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.4 pathlib
................

The new *note pathlib: a4. module offers classes representing filesystem
paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path
classes are divided between 'pure paths', which provide purely
computational operations without I/O, and 'concrete paths', which
inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: b00.

더 보기
.......

PEP 428(1) – The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: selectors<2>,  Next: statistics<6>,  Prev: pathlib<11>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.5 selectors
..................

The new *note selectors: c2. module (created as part of implementing PEP
3156(1)) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c1. module primitives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<6>,  Next: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: selectors<2>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.6 statistics
...................

The new *note statistics: d2. module (defined in PEP 450(1)) offers some
core statistics functionality directly in the standard library.  This
module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and
standard deviation of a data series.

더 보기
.......

PEP 450(2) – Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: statistics<6>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.10.3.7 tracemalloc
....................

The new *note tracemalloc: ff. module (defined in PEP 454(1)) is a debug
tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python.  It provides the
following information:

   * Trace where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

더 보기
.......

PEP 454(2) – Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<5>,  Next: CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: New Modules<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.4 Improved Modules
-----------------------

* Menu:

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<5>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<3>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* doctest: doctest<4>.
* email: email<4>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<4>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<9>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal: marshal<2>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<8>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<6>.
* types: types<6>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* venv: venv<7>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc,  Next: aifc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.1 abc
............

New function *note abc.get_cache_token(): f0e. can be used to know when
to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.
(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832(1).)

New class *note ABC: f0f. has *note ABCMeta: f10. as its meta class.
Using ‘ABC’ as a base class has essentially the same effect as
specifying ‘metaclass=abc.ABCMeta’, but is simpler to type and easier to
read.  (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049


File: python.info,  Node: aifc<2>,  Next: argparse<5>,  Prev: abc,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.2 aifc
.............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818(1).)

‘aifc.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used in
a *note with: 5cc. block, the ‘close()’ method of the returned object
will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486(2).)

The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note
bytes-like object: d2a.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-8311(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<5>,  Next: audioop,  Prev: aifc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.3 argparse
.................

The *note FileType: f13. class now accepts 'encoding' and 'errors'
arguments, which are passed through to *note open(): 515.  (Contributed
by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175


File: python.info,  Node: audioop,  Next: base64<3>,  Prev: argparse<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.4 audioop
................

‘audioop’ now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-12866(1).)

New ‘byteswap()’ function converts big-endian samples to little-endian
and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19641(2).)

All ‘audioop’ functions now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2a.
Strings are not accepted: they didn’t work before, now they raise an
error right away.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685


File: python.info,  Node: base64<3>,  Next: collections<6>,  Prev: audioop,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.5 base64
...............

The encoding and decoding functions in *note base64: e. now accept any
*note bytes-like object: d2a. in cases where it previously required a
*note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 538. instance.  (Contributed by
Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839(1).)

New functions *note a85encode(): f16, *note a85decode(): f17, *note
b85encode(): f18, and *note b85decode(): f19. provide the ability to
encode and decode binary data from and to ‘Ascii85’ and the
git/mercurial ‘Base85’ formats, respectively.  The ‘a85’ functions have
options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of
the ‘Ascii85’ encoding, including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by
Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-17618(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618


File: python.info,  Node: collections<6>,  Next: colorsys,  Prev: base64<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.6 collections
....................

The *note ChainMap.new_child(): f1b. method now accepts an 'm' argument
specifying the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing
mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys,  Next: contextlib<6>,  Prev: collections<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.7 colorsys
.................

The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB — YIQ conversions
have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change
in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found
elsewhere.  (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-14323(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<6>,  Next: dbm<6>,  Prev: colorsys,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.8 contextlib
...................

The new *note contextlib.suppress: f1e. context manager helps to clarify
the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single
statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806(1) and Zero
Piraeus in bpo-19266(2).)

The new *note contextlib.redirect_stdout(): de4. context manager makes
it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their
output to *note sys.stdout: ad3. and don’t provide any options to
redirect it.  Using the context manager, the *note sys.stdout: ad3.
output can be redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with
*note io.StringIO: f1f, to a string.  The latter can be especially
useful, for example, to capture output from a function that was written
to implement a command line interface.  It is recommended only for
utility scripts because it affects the global state of *note sys.stdout:
ad3.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805(3).)

The *note contextlib: 23. documentation has also been updated to include
a *note discussion: f20. of the differences between single use, reusable
and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<6>,  Next: dis<4>,  Prev: contextlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.9 dbm
............

*note dbm.open(): f22. objects now support the context management
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 5cc. statement, the ‘close’ method
of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282


File: python.info,  Node: dis<4>,  Next: doctest<4>,  Prev: dbm<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.10 dis
.............

Functions *note show_code(): f24, *note dis(): b31, ‘distb()’, and *note
disassemble(): f25. now accept a keyword-only 'file' argument that
controls where they write their output.

The *note dis: 38. module is now built around an *note Instruction: 1da.
class that provides object oriented access to the details of each
individual bytecode operation.

A new method, *note get_instructions(): 1d9, provides an iterator that
emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it
is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a
bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the *note dis:
38. module itself.  For example:

     >>> import dis
     >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     LOAD_FAST
     LOAD_CONST
     BINARY_ADD
     RETURN_VALUE

The various display tools in the *note dis: 38. module have been
rewritten to use these new components.

In addition, a new application-friendly class *note Bytecode: f26.
provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in
human-readable form and for iterating over instructions.  The *note
Bytecode: f26. constructor takes the same arguments that
‘get_instruction()’ does (plus an optional 'current_offset'), and the
resulting object can be iterated to produce *note Instruction: 1da.
objects.  But it also has a *note dis: f27. method, equivalent to
calling *note dis: b31. on the constructor argument, but returned as a
multi-line string:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
     LOAD_FAST (124)
     LOAD_CONST (100)
     BINARY_ADD (23)
     RETURN_VALUE (83)
     >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()
     ['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
      '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
      '              6 BINARY_ADD',
      '              7 RETURN_VALUE']

*note Bytecode: f26. also has a class method, *note from_traceback():
f28, that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is,
‘print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())’ is equivalent to
‘distb(tb)’).

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-11816(1) and Claudiu Popa in bpo-17916(2).)

New function *note stack_effect(): f29. computes the effect on the
Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not
otherwise available.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<4>,  Next: email<4>,  Prev: dis<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.11 doctest
.................

A new *note option flag: f2b, *note FAIL_FAST: f2c, halts test running
as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522(1).)

The *note doctest: 3a. command line interface now uses *note argparse:
6, and has two new options, ‘-o’ and ‘-f’.  ‘-o’ allows *note doctest
options: f2b. to be specified on the command line, and ‘-f’ is a
shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’ (to parallel the similar option supported
by the *note unittest: 106. CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in
bpo-11390(2).)

*note doctest: 3a. will now find doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’
strings.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158


File: python.info,  Node: email<4>,  Next: filecmp,  Prev: doctest<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.12 email
...............

*note as_string(): f2e. now accepts a 'policy' argument to override the
default policy of the message when generating a string representation of
it.  This means that ‘as_string’ can now be used in more circumstances,
instead of having to create and use a *note generator: 40. in order to
pass formatting parameters to its ‘flatten’ method.  (Contributed by R.
David Murray in bpo-18600(1).)

New method *note as_bytes(): f2f. added to produce a bytes
representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ‘as_string’
produces a string representation.  It does not accept the 'maxheaderlen'
argument, but does accept the 'unixfrom' and 'policy' arguments.  The
*note Message: 27c. *note __bytes__(): f30. method calls it, meaning
that ‘bytes(mymsg)’ will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes
object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray in bpo-18600(2).)

The *note Message.set_param(): f31. message now accepts a 'replace'
keyword argument.  When specified, the associated header will be updated
without changing its location in the list of headers.  For backward
compatibility, the default is ‘False’.  (Contributed by R. David Murray
in bpo-18891(3).)  A pair of new subclasses of *note Message: 27c. have
been added (*note EmailMessage: 27b. and *note MIMEPart: f32.), along
with a new sub-module, *note contentmanager: 3d. and a new *note policy:
4f. attribute *note content_manager: f33.  All documentation is
currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email’s new
*note provisional API: b00.  These classes provide a number of new
methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into
email messages much easier.  For details, see the *note contentmanager:
3d. documentation and the *note email; 예제: f34.  These API additions
complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6
project.  The currently provisional API is scheduled to become final in
Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of error
handling).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp,  Next: functools<5>,  Prev: email<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.13 filecmp
.................

A new *note clear_cache(): f36. function provides the ability to clear
the *note filecmp: 5a. comparison cache, which uses *note os.stat():
49a. information to determine if the file has changed since the last
compare.  This can be used, for example, if the file might have been
changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular
filesystem’s file modification time field.  (Contributed by Mark Levitt
in bpo-18149(1).)

New module attribute *note DEFAULT_IGNORES: f37. provides the list of
directories that are used as the default value for the 'ignore'
parameter of the *note dircmp(): f38. function.  (Contributed by Eli
Bendersky in bpo-15442(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442


File: python.info,  Node: functools<5>,  Next: gc<5>,  Prev: filecmp,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.14 functools
...................

The new *note partialmethod(): a78. descriptor brings partial argument
application to descriptors, just as *note partial(): 40e. provides for
normal callables.  The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
arbitrary callables (including *note partial(): 40e. instances) to
behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331(1).)  The new
*note singledispatch(): 633. decorator brings support for
single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library.  Where
object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
'different' kinds of data.

더 보기
.......

PEP 443(2) – Single-dispatch generic functions

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

*note total_ordering(): f3a. now supports a return value of *note
NotImplemented: 7cb. from the underlying comparison function.
(Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042(3).)

A pure-python version of the *note partial(): 40e. function is now in
the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version,
but it is available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by
Brian Thorne in bpo-12428(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428


File: python.info,  Node: gc<5>,  Next: glob<4>,  Prev: functools<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.15 gc
............

New function *note get_stats(): f3c. returns a list of three
per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since
interpreter startup.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351


File: python.info,  Node: glob<4>,  Next: hashlib<6>,  Prev: gc<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.16 glob
..............

A new function *note escape(): f3e. provides a way to escape special
characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing
expansion but are instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8402(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<6>,  Next: hmac<3>,  Prev: glob<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.17 hashlib
.................

A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 508. function provides the PKCS#5
password-based key derivation function 2(1).  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-18582(2).)

The *note name: f40. attribute of *note hashlib: 68. hash objects is now
a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython’s
*note hashlib: 68. (although it did not return lower case names for all
supported hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other
Python implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed
by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-18532(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<3>,  Next: html,  Prev: hashlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.18 hmac
..............

*note hmac: 6a. now accepts ‘bytearray’ as well as ‘bytes’ for the 'key'
argument to the *note new(): a9c. function, and the 'msg' parameter to
both the *note new(): a9c. function and the *note update(): f42. method
now accepts any type supported by the *note hashlib: 68. module.
(Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240(1).)

The 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): a9c. function may now
be any hash digest name recognized by *note hashlib: 68.  In addition,
the current behavior in which the value of 'digestmod' defaults to ‘MD5’
is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default
value.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276(2).)

With the addition of *note block_size: f43. and *note name: f44.
attributes (and the formal documentation of the *note digest_size: f45.
attribute), the *note hmac: 6a. module now conforms fully to the PEP
247(3) API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775


File: python.info,  Node: html,  Next: http<3>,  Prev: hmac<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.19 html
..............

New function *note unescape(): 955. function converts HTML5 character
references to the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927(1).)

*note HTMLParser: 872. accepts a new keyword argument 'convert_charrefs'
that, when ‘True’, automatically converts all character references.  For
backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ‘False’, but it will
change to ‘True’ in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633(2).)

The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 872. is now deprecated.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114


File: python.info,  Node: http<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE,  Prev: html,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.20 http
..............

*note send_error(): f48. now accepts an optional additional 'explain'
parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description,
overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.  This extended error
description will be formatted using the ‘error_message_format’ attribute
and sent as the body of the error response.  (Contributed by Karl Cow in
bpo-12921(1).)

The *note http.server: 72. *note command line interface: f49. now has a
‘-b/--bind’ option that causes the server to listen on a specific
address.  (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE,  Next: importlib<9>,  Prev: http<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.21 idlelib and IDLE
..........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<9>,  Next: inspect<8>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.22 importlib
...................

The *note InspectLoader: f4c. ABC defines a new method, *note
source_to_code(): e0d. that accepts source data and a path and returns a
code object.  The default implementation is equivalent to ‘compile(data,
path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)’.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett
Cannon in bpo-15627(1).)

*note InspectLoader: f4c. also now has a default implementation for the
*note get_code(): f4d. method.  However, it will normally be desirable
to override the default implementation for performance reasons.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072(2).)

The *note reload(): 512. function has been moved from ‘imp’ to *note
importlib: 77. as part of the ‘imp’ module deprecation.  (Contributed by
Berker Peksag in bpo-18193(3).)

*note importlib.util: 7d. now has a *note MAGIC_NUMBER: 50c. attribute
providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
‘get_magic()’ function in the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-18192(4).)

New *note importlib.util: 7d. functions *note cache_from_source(): 2f6.
and *note source_from_cache(): 513. replace the same-named functions in
the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-18194(5).)

The *note importlib: 77. bootstrap *note NamespaceLoader: f4e. now
conforms to the *note InspectLoader: f4c. ABC, which means that ‘runpy’
and ‘python -m’ can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058(6).)

*note importlib.util: 7d. has a new function *note decode_source(): f4f.
that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.  This
is useful for implementing *note InspectLoader.get_source(): f50.
methods.

*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cad. now has a *note
get_filename(): f51. method.  This was inadvertently omitted in the
original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<8>,  Next: ipaddress<5>,  Prev: importlib<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.23 inspect
.................

The *note inspect: 7e. module now offers a basic *note command line
interface: f53. to quickly display source code and other information for
modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick
Coghlan in bpo-18626(1).)

*note unwrap(): f54. makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
created by *note functools.wraps(): f55. (and any other API that sets
the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266(2).)

As part of the implementation of the new *note enum: 56. module, the
*note inspect: 7e. module now has substantially better support for
custom ‘__dir__’ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929(3) and
bpo-19030(4).)

*note getfullargspec(): 732. and ‘getargspec()’ now use the *note
signature(): 731. API. This allows them to support a much broader range
of callables, including those with ‘__signature__’ attributes, those
with metadata provided by argument clinic, *note functools.partial():
40e. objects and more.  Note that, unlike *note signature(): 731, these
functions still ignore ‘__wrapped__’ attributes, and report the already
bound first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to
update your code to use *note signature(): 731. directly if those
features are desired.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481(5).)

*note signature(): 731. now supports duck types of CPython functions,
which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<5>,  Next: logging<6>,  Prev: inspect<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.24 ipaddress
...................

*note ipaddress: 80. was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as
a *note provisional API: b00.  With the release of Python 3.4, this
qualification has been removed: *note ipaddress: 80. is now considered a
stable API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to
maintain backwards compatibility.

A new *note is_global: f57. property is ‘True’ if an address is globally
routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400


File: python.info,  Node: logging<6>,  Next: marshal<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.25 logging
.................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59. has a new 'atTime' parameter
that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen.
(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556(1).)

*note SocketHandler: f5a. and *note DatagramHandler: f5b. now support
Unix domain sockets (by setting 'port' to ‘None’).  (Contributed by
Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.)

*note fileConfig(): b4e. now accepts a *note
configparser.RawConfigParser: f5c. subclass instance for the 'fname'
parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration,
or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
*note fileConfig(): b4e.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110(2).)

Logging configuration data received from a socket via the *note
logging.config.listen(): f5d. function can now be validated before being
processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the
new 'verify' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-15452(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452


File: python.info,  Node: marshal<2>,  Next: mmap<3>,  Prev: logging<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.26 marshal
.................

The default *note marshal: 8d. version has been bumped to 3.  The code
implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording
only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on
deserialization, and extends this “one copy” ability to any object type
(including handling recursive references).  This reduces both the size
of ‘.pyc’ files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory
when it is loaded from a ‘.pyc’ (or ‘.pyo’) file.  (Contributed by
Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475(1), with additional speedups by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<3>,  Next: multiprocessing<7>,  Prev: marshal<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.27 mmap
..............

mmap objects are now *note weakly referenceable: f02.  (Contributed by
Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<7>,  Next: operator<3>,  Prev: mmap<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.28 multiprocessing
.........................

On Unix two new *note start methods: 2c9, ‘spawn’ and ‘forkserver’, have
been added for starting processes using *note multiprocessing: 94.
These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the
‘spawn’ method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always
used on Windows.  New function *note get_all_start_methods(): f61.
reports all start methods available on the platform, *note
get_start_method(): f62. reports the current start method, and *note
set_start_method(): 2c8. sets the start method.  (Contributed by Richard
Oudkerk in bpo-8713(1).)

*note multiprocessing: 94. also now has the concept of a ‘context’,
which determines how child processes are created.  New function *note
get_context(): 2c7. returns a context that uses a specified start
method.  It has the same API as the *note multiprocessing: 94. module
itself, so you can use it to create *note Pool: f63.s and other objects
that will operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an
application or different parts of the same application to use
multiprocessing without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by
Richard Oudkerk in bpo-18999(2).)

Except when using the old 'fork' start method, child processes no longer
inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
bpo-8713(3)).

*note multiprocessing: 94. now relies on *note runpy: be. (which
implements the ‘-m’ switch) to initialise ‘__main__’ appropriately in
child processes when using the ‘spawn’ or ‘forkserver’ start methods.
This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ‘-m’
command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure
failures in child processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19946(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946


File: python.info,  Node: operator<3>,  Next: os<11>,  Prev: multiprocessing<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.29 operator
..................

New function *note length_hint(): f65. provides an implementation of the
specification for how the *note __length_hint__(): f03. special method
should be used, as part of the PEP 424(1) formal specification of this
language feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(2).)

There is now a pure-python version of the *note operator: 9f. module
available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of
Python.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694


File: python.info,  Node: os<11>,  Next: pdb<6>,  Prev: operator<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.30 os
............

There are new functions to get and set the *note inheritable flag: ef1.
of a file descriptor (*note os.get_inheritable(): ef2, *note
os.set_inheritable(): ef3.) or a Windows handle (*note
os.get_handle_inheritable(): ef4, *note os.set_handle_inheritable():
ef5.).

New function *note cpu_count(): 1c5. reports the number of CPUs
available on the platform on which Python is running (or ‘None’ if the
count can’t be determined).  The *note multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f67.
function is now implemented in terms of this function).  (Contributed by
Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and Charles-François
Natali in bpo-17914(1).)

*note os.path.samestat(): f68. is now available on the Windows platform
(and the *note os.path.samefile(): f69. implementation is now shared
between Unix and Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-11939(2).)

*note os.path.ismount(): a0e. now recognizes volumes mounted below a
drive root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035(3).)

*note os.open(): d8e. supports two new flags on platforms that provide
them, *note O_PATH: f6a. (un-opened file descriptor), and *note
O_TMPFILE: f6b. (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available
only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have
uapi headers).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673(4) and
Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<6>,  Next: pickle<4>,  Prev: os<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.31 pdb
.............

*note pdb: a5. has been enhanced to handle generators, *note yield: 9ca,
and ‘yield from’ in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful
when debugging *note asyncio: a. based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew
Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596(1).)

The ‘print’ command has been removed from *note pdb: a5, restoring
access to the Python *note print(): f6d. function from the pdb command
line.  Python2’s ‘pdb’ did not have a ‘print’ command; instead, entering
‘print’ executed the ‘print’ statement.  In Python3 ‘print’ was
mistakenly made an alias for the pdb *note p: f6e. command.  ‘p’,
however, prints the ‘repr’ of its argument, not the ‘str’ like the
Python2 ‘print’ command did.  Worse, the Python3 ‘pdb print’ command
shadowed the Python3 ‘print’ function, making it inaccessible at the
‘pdb’ prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<4>,  Next: plistlib<2>,  Prev: pdb<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.32 pickle
................

*note pickle: a6. now supports (but does not use by default) a new
pickle protocol, protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of
issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the
serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and
classes whose ‘__new__()’ method takes keyword-only arguments.  It also
provides some efficiency improvements.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3154(1) – Pickle protocol 4

     PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre
     Vassalotti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib<2>,  Next: poplib<3>,  Prev: pickle<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.33 plistlib
..................

*note plistlib: ab. now has an API that is similar to the standard
pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new *note load(): 94d,
*note dump(): 94f, *note loads(): 94e, and *note dumps(): 950.
functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the
already supported XML plist format (*note FMT_XML: f71.), it also now
supports the binary plist format (*note FMT_BINARY: f72.).  (Contributed
by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<3>,  Next: pprint<4>,  Prev: plistlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.34 poplib
................

Two new methods have been added to *note poplib: ac.: *note capa(): f74,
which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and
*note stls(): f75, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an
encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.  (Contributed by
Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<4>,  Next: pty,  Prev: poplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.35 pprint
................

The *note pprint: ae. module’s *note PrettyPrinter: f77. class and its
*note pformat(): f78, and *note pprint(): 822. functions have a new
option, 'compact', that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
setting 'compact' to ‘True’ means that sequences will be printed with as
many sequence elements as will fit within 'width' on each (indented)
line.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132(1).)

Long strings are now wrapped using Python’s normal line continuation
syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150


File: python.info,  Node: pty,  Next: pydoc<4>,  Prev: pprint<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.36 pty
.............

*note pty.spawn(): f7a. now returns the status value from *note
os.waitpid(): d96. on the child process, instead of ‘None’.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<4>,  Next: re<8>,  Prev: pty,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.37 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: b5. module is now based directly on the *note
inspect.signature(): 731. introspection API, allowing it to provide
signature information for a wider variety of callable objects.  This
change also means that ‘__wrapped__’ attributes are now taken into
account when displaying help information.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-19674(1).)

The *note pydoc: b5. module no longer displays the ‘self’ parameter for
already bound methods.  Instead, it aims to always display the exact
current signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-20710(2).)

In addition to the changes that have been made to *note pydoc: b5.
directly, its handling of custom ‘__dir__’ methods and various
descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the
underlying changes in the *note inspect: 7e. module.

As the *note help(): 8d4. builtin is based on *note pydoc: b5, the above
changes also affect the behaviour of *note help(): 8d4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710


File: python.info,  Node: re<8>,  Next: resource,  Prev: pydoc<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.38 re
............

New *note fullmatch(): f7d. function and ‘regex.fullmatch()’ method
anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match.  This provides a
way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of
subtle bugs where ‘$’ characters get lost during code changes or the
addition of alternatives to an existing regular expression.
(Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203(1).)

The repr of *note regex objects: f7e. now includes the pattern and the
flags; the repr of *note match objects: f7f. now includes the start,
end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed by Hugo
Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592(2) and bpo-17087(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087


File: python.info,  Node: resource,  Next: select,  Prev: re<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.39 resource
..................

New *note prlimit(): f81. function, available on Linux platforms with a
kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides
the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than
the one making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-16595(1).)

On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux
specific constants: *note RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE: f82, *note RLIMIT_NICE: f83,
*note RLIMIT_RTPRIO: f84, *note RLIMIT_RTTIME: f85, and *note
RLIMIT_SIGPENDING: f86.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-19324(2).)

On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific
constants: *note RLIMIT_SBSIZE: f87, *note RLIMIT_SWAP: f88, and *note
RLIMIT_NPTS: f89.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343


File: python.info,  Node: select,  Next: shelve<2>,  Prev: resource,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.40 select
................

*note epoll: f8b. objects now support the context management protocol.
When used in a *note with: 5cc. statement, the *note close(): f8c.
method will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488(1).)

*note devpoll: f8d. objects now have *note fileno(): f8e. and *note
close(): f8f. methods, as well as a new attribute *note closed: f90.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794


File: python.info,  Node: shelve<2>,  Next: shutil<5>,  Prev: select,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.41 shelve
................

*note Shelf: f92. instances may now be used in *note with: 5cc.
statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the ‘with’
block.  (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<5>,  Next: smtpd<3>,  Prev: shelve<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.42 shutil
................

*note copyfile(): a55. now raises a specific *note Error: f94. subclass,
*note SameFileError: f95, when the source and destination are the same
file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this
specific error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in
bpo-1492704(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<3>,  Next: smtplib<3>,  Prev: shutil<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.43 smtpd
...............

The ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'map' keyword
argument which, if specified, is passed in to ‘asynchat.async_chat’ as
its 'map' argument.  This allows an application to avoid affecting the
global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<3>,  Next: socket<9>,  Prev: smtpd<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.44 smtplib
.................

*note SMTPException: f98. is now a subclass of *note OSError: 411, which
allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be
caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or
not an error occurred.  (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in
bpo-2118(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118


File: python.info,  Node: socket<9>,  Next: sqlite3<9>,  Prev: smtplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.45 socket
................

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_BCM: f9a. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
bpo-15359(1).)

Socket objects have new methods to get or set their *note inheritable
flag: ef1, *note get_inheritable(): ef6. and *note set_inheritable():
ef7.

The ‘socket.AF_*’ and ‘socket.SOCK_*’ constants are now enumeration
values using the new *note enum: 56. module.  This allows meaningful
names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer “magic
numbers”.

The *note AF_LINK: f9b. constant is now available on BSD and OSX.

*note inet_pton(): 960. and *note inet_ntop(): f9c. are now supported on
Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<9>,  Next: ssl<10>,  Prev: socket<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.46 sqlite3
.................

A new boolean parameter to the *note connect(): 2a8. function, 'uri',
can be used to indicate that the 'database' parameter is a ‘uri’ (see
the SQLite URI documentation(1)).  (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<10>,  Next: stat,  Prev: sqlite3<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.47 ssl
.............

*note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1: f9f. and *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2: fa0. (TLSv1.1
and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is
only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.
(Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692(1).)  New
function *note create_default_context(): 155. provides a standard way to
obtain an *note SSLContext: 294. whose settings are intended to be a
reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings
are more stringent than the defaults provided by the *note SSLContext:
294. constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior
deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change.  The new
recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is
to use *note create_default_context(): 155. to obtain an *note
SSLContext: 294. object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the
'context' argument of the appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-19689(2).)

*note SSLContext: 294. method *note load_verify_locations(): ee3.
accepts a new optional argument 'cadata', which can be used to provide
PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes,
respectively.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138(3).)

New function *note get_default_verify_paths(): fa1. returns a named
tuple of the paths and environment variables that the *note
set_default_verify_paths(): fa2. method uses to set OpenSSL’s default
‘cafile’ and ‘capath’.  This can be an aid in debugging default
verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143(4).)

*note SSLContext: 294. has a new method, *note cert_store_stats(): fa3,
that reports the number of loaded ‘X.509’ certs, ‘X.509 CA’ certs, and
certificate revocation lists (‘crl’s), as well as a *note
get_ca_certs(): fa4. method that returns a list of the loaded ‘CA’
certificates.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147(5).)

If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, *note SSLContext: 294. has a new
attribute *note verify_flags: fa5. that can be used to control the
certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of
the new constants *note VERIFY_DEFAULT: fa6, *note
VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: fa7, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN: fa8, or *note
VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157.  OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by
default.  (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813(6).)

New *note SSLContext: 294. method *note load_default_certs(): fa9. loads
a set of default “certificate authority” (CA) certificates from default
locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used to load
both TLS web server authentication certificates (‘purpose=’*note
SERVER_AUTH: faa.) for a client to use to verify a server, and
certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
(‘purpose=’*note CLIENT_AUTH: fab.).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-19292(7).)  Two new windows-only functions, *note
enum_certificates(): fac. and *note enum_crls(): fad. provide the
ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from
the Windows cert store.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17134(8).)  Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication)
using the new *note ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fae.
method.  (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109(9).)

The dictionary returned by *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf. contains
additional ‘X509v3’ extension items: ‘crlDistributionPoints’,
‘calIssuers’, and ‘OCSP’ URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-18379(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379


File: python.info,  Node: stat,  Next: struct<2>,  Prev: ssl<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.48 stat
..............

The *note stat: d1. module is now backed by a C implementation in
‘_stat’.  A C implementation is required as most of the values aren’t
standardized and are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-11016(1).)

The module supports new *note ST_MODE: fb1. flags, *note S_IFDOOR: fb2,
*note S_IFPORT: fb3, and *note S_IFWHT: fb4.  (Contributed by Christian
Hiemes in bpo-11016(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016


File: python.info,  Node: struct<2>,  Next: subprocess<5>,  Prev: stat,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.49 struct
................

New function *note iter_unpack: fb6. and a new *note
struct.Struct.iter_unpack(): fb7. method on compiled formats provide
streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given
format of data.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<5>,  Next: sunau<2>,  Prev: struct<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.50 subprocess
....................

*note check_output(): fb9. now accepts an 'input' argument that can be
used to provide the contents of ‘stdin’ for the command that is run.
(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624(1).)

‘getstatus()’ and *note getstatusoutput(): fba. now work on Windows.
This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.  (Contributed by
Tim Golden in bpo-10197(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197


File: python.info,  Node: sunau<2>,  Next: sys<12>,  Prev: subprocess<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.51 sunau
...............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901(1).)

‘sunau.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used
in a *note with: 5cc. block, the ‘close’ method of the returned object
will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878(2).)

‘AU_write.setsampwidth()’ now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding
support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19261(3).)

The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note
bytes-like object: d2a.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: sys<12>,  Next: tarfile<8>,  Prev: sunau<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.52 sys
.............

New function *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): fbd. returns the current
number of blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the
default ‘--with-pymalloc’ setting, this is allocations made through the
*note PyObject_Malloc(): c65. API.) This can be useful for tracking
memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(1).)

When the Python interpreter starts in *note interactive mode: fbe, it
checks for an *note __interactivehook__: fbf. attribute on the *note
sys: d9. module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made
after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. file is read, so it can be set
there.  The *note site: c7. module *note sets it: fc1. to a function
that enables tab completion and history saving (in ‘~/.python-history’)
if the platform supports *note readline: ba.  If you do not want this
(new) behavior, you can override it in *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0, *note
sitecustomize: c8, or *note usercustomize: 10e. by deleting this
attribute from *note sys: d9. (or setting it to some other callable).
(Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<8>,  Next: textwrap,  Prev: sys<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.53 tarfile
.................

The *note tarfile: de. module now supports a simple *note 명령 줄
인터페이스: fc3. when called as a script directly or via ‘-m’.  This can
be used to create and extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-13477(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap,  Next: threading<7>,  Prev: tarfile<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.54 textwrap
..................

The *note TextWrapper: fc5. class has two new attributes/constructor
arguments: *note max_lines: fc6, which limits the number of lines in the
output, and *note placeholder: fc7, which is a string that will appear
at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of
'max_lines'.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function
*note shorten(): fc8. collapses all of the whitespace in the input to
single spaces and produces a single line of a given 'width' that ends
with the 'placeholder' (by default, ‘[...]’).  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585(1) and bpo-18725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725


File: python.info,  Node: threading<7>,  Next: traceback<6>,  Prev: textwrap,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.55 threading
...................

The *note Thread: 94a. object representing the main thread can be
obtained from the new *note main_thread(): fca. function.  In normal
conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<6>,  Next: types<6>,  Prev: threading<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.56 traceback
...................

A new *note traceback.clear_frames(): fcc. function takes a traceback
object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it
references, reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by
Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525


File: python.info,  Node: types<6>,  Next: urllib<3>,  Prev: traceback<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.57 types
...............

A new *note DynamicClassAttribute(): 624. descriptor provides a way to
define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an
instance object, but which is routed to the 'class' ‘__getattr__’ when
looked up through the class.  This allows one to have properties active
on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name
(see ‘Enum’ for an example).  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
bpo-19030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<3>,  Next: unittest<9>,  Prev: types<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.58 urllib
................

*note urllib.request: 10b. now supports ‘data:’ URLs via the *note
DataHandler: fcf. class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in
bpo-16423(1).)

The http method that will be used by a *note Request: fd0. class can now
be specified by setting a *note method: fd1. class attribute on the
subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978(2).)

*note Request: fd0. objects are now reusable: if the *note full_url:
fd2. or *note data: fd3. attributes are modified, all relevant internal
properties are updated.  This means, for example, that it is now
possible to use the same *note Request: fd0. object in more than one
*note OpenerDirector.open(): fd4. call with different 'data' arguments,
or to modify a *note Request: fd0.‘s ‘url’ rather than recomputing it
from scratch.  There is also a new *note remove_header(): fd5. method
that can be used to remove headers from a *note Request: fd0.
(Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in bpo-16464(3), Daniel Wozniak in
bpo-17485(4), and Damien Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272(5).)

*note HTTPError: fd6. objects now have a *note headers: fd7. attribute
that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the
error.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<9>,  Next: venv<7>,  Prev: urllib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.59 unittest
..................

The *note TestCase: 447. class has a new method, *note subTest(): fd9,
that produces a context manager whose *note with: 5cc. block becomes a
“sub-test”.  This context manager allows a test method to dynamically
generate subtests by, say, calling the ‘subTest’ context manager inside
a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number
of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will
run even if one or more of them fail.  For example:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_even(self):
             for i in range(6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose
output with a label consisting of the variable name ‘i’ and a particular
value for that variable (‘i=0’, ‘i=1’, etc).  See *note 부분
테스트(subtest)를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기: fda. for the full
version of this example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-16997(1).)

*note unittest.main(): fdb. now accepts an iterable of test names for
'defaultTest', where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132(2).)

If *note SkipTest: fdc. is raised during test discovery (that is, at the
module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of
an error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935(3).)

*note discover(): fdd. now sorts the discovered files to provide
consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani
in bpo-16709(4).)

*note TestSuite: df0. now drops references to tests as soon as the test
has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if
nothing else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to
override this behavior by creating a *note TestSuite: df0. subclass that
defines a custom ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method.  (Contributed by Tom
Wardill, Matt McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798(5).)

A new test assertion context-manager, *note assertLogs(): 853, will
ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the *note
logging: 87. module.  By default the message can come from any logger
and have a priority of ‘INFO’ or higher, but both the logger name and an
alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned
by the context manager can be queried for the *note LogRecord: fde.s
and/or formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-18937(6).)

Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu
Popa in bpo-17457(7).)

*note unittest.mock: 107. objects now inspect their specification
signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be
matched by either position or name, instead of only by position.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015(8).)

‘mock_open()’ objects now have ‘readline’ and ‘readlines’ methods.
(Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467


File: python.info,  Node: venv<7>,  Next: wave<2>,  Prev: unittest<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.60 venv
..............

*note venv: 111. now includes activation scripts for the ‘csh’ and
‘fish’ shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417(1).)

*note EnvBuilder: 26a. and the *note create(): 26b. convenience function
take a new keyword argument 'with_pip', which defaults to ‘False’, that
controls whether or not *note EnvBuilder: 26a. ensures that ‘pip’ is
installed in the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19552(2) as part of the PEP 453(3) implementation.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: wave<2>,  Next: weakref<2>,  Prev: venv<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.61 wave
..............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487(1).)

*note wave.open(): 949. now supports the context management protocol.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616(2).)

*note wave: 113. can now *note write output to unseekable files: fe1.
(Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-5202(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): fe2. and *note writeframes(): fe3. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2a.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: weakref<2>,  Next: xml etree<2>,  Prev: wave<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.62 weakref
.................

New *note WeakMethod: fe5. class simulates weak references to bound
methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631(1).)

New *note finalize: a79. class makes it possible to register a callback
to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528(2).)

The callback, if any, associated with a *note ref: fe6. is now exposed
via the *note __callback__: fe7. attribute.  (Contributed by Mark
Dickinson in bpo-17643(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree<2>,  Next: zipfile<5>,  Prev: weakref<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.63 xml.etree
...................

A new parser, *note XMLPullParser: fe9, allows a non-blocking
applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be seen at *note 비
블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀(pull) API: fea.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-17741(1).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. *note tostring(): feb. and *note
tostringlist(): fec. functions, and the *note ElementTree: 94c. *note
write(): fed. method, now have a 'short_empty_elements' *note
keyword-only parameter: 2a5. providing control over whether elements
with no content are written in abbreviated (‘<tag />’) or expanded
(‘<tag></tag>’) form.  (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-14377(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<5>,  Prev: xml etree<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.10.4.64 zipfile
.................

The *note writepy(): fef. method of the *note PyZipFile: ff0. class has
a new 'filterfunc' option that can be used to control which directories
and files are added to the archive.  For example, this could be used to
exclude test files from the archive.  (Contributed by Christian Tismer
in bpo-19274(1).)

The 'allowZip64' parameter to *note ZipFile: 6be. and ‘PyZipfile’ is now
‘True’ by default.  (Contributed by William Mallard in bpo-17201(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: Deprecated<7>,  Prev: Improved Modules<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.5 CPython Implementation Changes
-------------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements::
* Significant Optimizations::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Next: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.1 PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
............................................................

PEP 445(1) adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
the CPython interpreter.

더 보기
.......

PEP 445(2) – Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Next: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Prev: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.2 PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
..........................................

PEP 442(1) removes the current limitations and quirks of object
finalization in CPython.  With it, objects with ‘__del__()’ methods, as
well as generators with *note finally: 9c7. clauses, can be finalized
when they are part of a reference cycle.

As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
*note None: 66f. during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead
relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This
avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually
involving ‘__del__’ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic
GC was first introduced.

더 보기
.......

PEP 442(2) – Safe object finalization

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Next: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Prev: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.3 PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
...........................................................

PEP 456(1) follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python’s hash
algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs
backed by dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See bpo-14621(2) for the
start of the current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython’s
hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different
hash algorithm, and switches Python’s default implementation to a
SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type.  Any
performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are
trivial.

The PEP adds additional fields to the *note sys.hash_info: ff5. named
tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing
binary.  Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Next: Other Build and C API Changes,  Prev: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.4 PEP 436: Argument Clinic
.................................

“Argument Clinic” ( PEP 436(1)) is now part of the CPython build process
and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
implemented in C.

Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use
Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and *note pydoc: b5. and *note inspect:
7e. have been updated accordingly.

It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection
will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python
3.4 maintenance releases.

     참고: The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the
     state of the implementation.  This has been deemed acceptable by
     the release manager and core development team in this case, as
     Argument Clinic will not be made available as a public API for
     third party use in Python 3.4.

더 보기
.......

PEP 436(2) – The Argument Clinic DSL

     PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Build and C API Changes,  Next: Other Improvements,  Prev: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.5 Other Build and C API Changes
......................................

   * The new *note PyType_GetSlot(): 898. function has been added to the
     stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type
     slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis
     in bpo-17162(1).)

   * The new ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’ pre-initialization API
     allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably
     force a particular encoding and error handler for the standard
     streams.  (Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in
     bpo-16129(2).)

   * Most Python C APIs that don’t mutate string arguments are now
     correctly marked as accepting ‘const char *’ rather than ‘char *’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673(3).)

   * A new shell version of ‘python-config’ can be used even when a
     python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross
     compilation scenarios).

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. now supports width and precision
     specifications for ‘%s’, ‘%A’, ‘%U’, ‘%V’, ‘%S’, and ‘%R’.
     (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330(4).)

   * New function *note PyStructSequence_InitType2(): ff8. supplements
     the existing *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): ff9. function.  The
     difference is that it returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.

   * The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity
     checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false
     alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced.
     (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596(5).)

   * The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization(6)
     and Data Execution Prevention(7).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16632(8).)

   * New function *note PyObject_LengthHint(): ffa. is the C API
     equivalent of *note operator.length_hint(): f65.  (Contributed by
     Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements,  Next: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Build and C API Changes,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.6 Other Improvements
...........................

   * The *note python: ffd. command has a new *note option: ffe, ‘-I’,
     which causes it to run in “isolated mode”, which means that *note
     sys.path: 3ae. contains neither the script’s directory nor the
     user’s ‘site-packages’ directory, and all ‘PYTHON*’ environment
     variables are ignored (it implies both ‘-s’ and ‘-E’).  Other
     restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being
     to isolate the execution of a script from the user’s environment.
     This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a
     system script.  On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in
     the ‘#!’ line of system scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16499(1).)

   * Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive
     interpreter on systems that support *note readline: ba.  History is
     also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file
     ‘~/.python-history’.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric
     Araujo in bpo-5845(2).)

   * Invoking the Python interpreter with ‘--version’ now outputs the
     version to standard output instead of standard error
     (bpo-18338(3)).  Similar changes were made to *note argparse: 6.
     (bpo-18920(4)) and other modules that have script-like invocation
     capabilities (bpo-18922(5)).

   * The CPython Windows installer now adds ‘.py’ to the ‘PATHEXT’
     variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a
     python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name
     without the ‘.py’ extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
     bpo-18569(6).)

   * A new ‘make’ target coverage-report(7) will build python, run the
     test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase
     using ‘gcov’ and lcov(8).

   * The ‘-R’ option to the *note python regression test suite: fff. now
     also checks for memory allocation leaks, using *note
     sys.getallocatedblocks(): fbd.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13390(9).)

   * ‘python -m’ now works with namespace packages.

   * The *note stat: d1. module is now implemented in C, which means it
     gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead
     of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was
     previously the case.

   * Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (‘.so’,
     ‘.dll’) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the
     first python module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer
     in bpo-16421(10).)

   * A new opcode, ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’, has been added to fix a bug in the
     loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered
     by certain uses of *note __prepare__: c5b.  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853(11).)

   * A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed
     by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445(12)-based ‘pyfailmalloc’ tool
     (bpo-18408(13), bpo-18520(14)).

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command now accepts a ‘--copies’ option to use copies
     rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
     default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807(15).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command also accepts a ‘--without-pip’ option to
     suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the
     virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(16)
     as part of the PEP 453(17) implementation.)

   * The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: 1000. environment variable.  This makes it
     possible to set just the error handler, without changing the
     default encoding.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-18818(18).)

   * The *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 8a, and *note gzip: 67. module
     ‘open’ functions now support ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode.
     (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201(19),
     bpo-19222(20), and bpo-19223(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569

   (7) 
https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov

   (8) https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223


File: python.info,  Node: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Improvements,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.10.5.7 Significant Optimizations
..................................

   * The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-14625(1).)

   * The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash
     table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash
     pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash
     table.  This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution
     less expensive.  The collision resolution scheme can be described
     as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing.  The number of
     additional linear probes defaults to nine.  This can be changed at
     compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set
     LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771(2).)

   * The interpreter starts about 30% faster.  A couple of measures lead
     to the speedup.  The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup,
     e.g.  the *note re: b9, *note collections: 1d. and *note locale:
     86. modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by
     default.  The marshal module has been improved to load compiled
     Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
     Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219(3), bpo-19218(4),
     bpo-19209(5), bpo-19205(6) and bpo-9548(7).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 861. is now as fast or faster than the Python2
     version for most cases.  *note lzma.LZMAFile: 1002. has also been
     optimized.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in
     bpo-16034(8).)

   * *note random.getrandbits(): 1003. is 20%-40% faster for small
     integers (the most common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-16674(9).)

   * By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling
     of strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596(10).)

   * A performance issue in ‘io.FileIO.readall()’ has been solved.  This
     particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case
     of piping significant amounts of data through *note subprocess: d6.
     (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758(11).)

   * *note html.escape(): 1004. is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt
     Bryant in bpo-18020(12).)

   * On Windows, the native ‘VirtualAlloc’ is now used instead of the
     CRT ‘malloc’ in ‘obmalloc’.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3%
     memory savings.

   * *note os.urandom(): 51c. now uses a lazily opened persistent file
     descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in
     parallel from multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-18756(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<7>,  Next: Removed<7>,  Prev: CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.6 Deprecated
-----------------

This section covers various APIs and other features that have been
deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.
In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when the interpreter is run with
deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using ‘-Wd’).

* Menu:

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Deprecated Features::


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations in the Python API,  Next: Deprecated Features,  Up: Deprecated<7>

1.10.6.1 Deprecations in the Python API
.......................................

   * As mentioned in *note PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import
     System: ed1, a number of *note importlib: 77. methods and functions
     are deprecated: ‘importlib.find_loader()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.;
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): 1007.;
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 863.;
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     are replaced by *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec():
     867.; all of the ‘XXXLoader’ ABC ‘load_module’ methods
     (‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()’) should no longer be
     implemented, instead loaders should implement an ‘exec_module’
     method (*note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 865, *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module(): 1008. *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module(): 1009.) and let the import
     system take care of the rest; and
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’, and ‘importlib.util.set_package()’
     are no longer needed because their functions are now handled
     automatically by the import system.

   * The ‘imp’ module is pending deprecation.  To keep compatibility
     with Python 2/3 code bases, the module’s removal is currently not
     scheduled.

   * The ‘formatter’ module is pending deprecation and is slated for
     removal in Python 3.6.

   * ‘MD5’ as the default 'digestmod' for the *note hmac.new(): a9c.
     function is deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest
     name or constructor as 'digestmod' argument.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5e. module has been
     documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It
     now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and will be removed
     completely in Python 3.5.

   * The undocumented 'endtime' argument to *note
     subprocess.Popen.wait(): ce1. should not have been exposed and is
     hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be
     removed in Python 3.5.

   * The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 872. is deprecated.

   * The *note plistlib: ab. ‘readPlist()’, ‘writePlist()’,
     ‘readPlistFromBytes()’, and ‘writePlistToBytes()’ functions are
     deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions *note
     load(): 94d, *note dump(): 94f, *note loads(): 94e, and *note
     dumps(): 950.  ‘Data()’ is deprecated in favor of just using the
     *note bytes: 1c2. constructor.

   * The *note sysconfig: db. key ‘SO’ is deprecated, it has been
     replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’.

   * The ‘U’ mode accepted by various ‘open’ functions is deprecated.
     In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced
     by appropriate uses of *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. (if needed) and
     its 'newline' argument.

   * The 'parser' argument of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse():
     273. has been deprecated, as has the 'html' argument of *note
     XMLParser(): a50.  To prepare for the removal of the latter, all
     arguments to ‘XMLParser’ should be passed by keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Features,  Prev: Deprecations in the Python API,  Up: Deprecated<7>

1.10.6.2 Deprecated Features
............................

   * Running *note IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸: 100b. with the ‘-n’ flag
     (no subprocess) is deprecated.  However, the feature will not be
     removed until bpo-18823(1) is resolved.

   * The site module adding a “site-python” directory to sys.path, if it
     exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<7>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 4,  Prev: Deprecated<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.7 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals::
* Code Cleanups::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Next: API and Feature Removals,  Up: Removed<7>

1.10.7.1 Operating Systems No Longer Supported
..............................................

Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the
source and build tools:

   * OS/2 (bpo-16135(1)).

   * Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).

   * Windows systems where ‘COMSPEC’ points to ‘command.com’
     (bpo-14470(2)).

   * VMS (bpo-16136(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals,  Next: Code Cleanups,  Prev: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Up: Removed<7>

1.10.7.2 API and Feature Removals
.................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The unmaintained ‘Misc/TextMate’ and ‘Misc/vim’ directories have
     been removed (see the devguide(1) for suggestions on what to use
     instead).

   * The ‘SO’ makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
     ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’ and ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ macros) (bpo-16754(2)).

   * The ‘PyThreadState.tick_counter’ field has been removed; its value
     has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the “new GIL” was
     introduced (bpo-19199(3)).

   * ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’ have been removed from *note
     importlib: 77.  (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641(4).)

   * The 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: b3d. and *note
     HTTPSConnection: b3e. has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style “Simple
     Responses” are no longer supported.

   * The deprecated *note urllib.request.Request: fd0. getter and setter
     methods ‘add_data’, ‘has_data’, ‘get_data’, ‘get_type’, ‘get_host’,
     ‘get_selector’, ‘set_proxy’, ‘get_origin_req_host’, and
     ‘is_unverifiable’ have been removed (use direct attribute access
     instead).

   * Support for loading the deprecated ‘TYPE_INT64’ has been removed
     from *note marshal: 8d.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480(5).)

   * *note inspect.Signature: 1cf.: positional-only parameters are now
     required to have a valid name.

   * *note object.__format__(): 618. no longer accepts non-empty format
     strings, it now raises a *note TypeError: 532. instead.  Using a
     non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change
     has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but
     incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a
     __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a *note
     TypeError: 532. if you are using an ‘'s'’ format code with objects
     that do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See
     bpo-7994(6) for background.

   * ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()’ and
     ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()’ were deprecated in 3.2, and
     have now been removed: use ‘x in sm.bjunk’ and ‘x in sm.bpopular’,
     where 'sm' is a *note SequenceMatcher: 100f. object (bpo-13248(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248


File: python.info,  Node: Code Cleanups,  Prev: API and Feature Removals,  Up: Removed<7>

1.10.7.3 Code Cleanups
......................

   * The unused and undocumented internal ‘Scanner’ class has been
     removed from the *note pydoc: b5. module.

   * The private and effectively unused ‘_gestalt’ module has been
     removed, along with the private *note platform: aa. functions
     ‘_mac_ver_lookup’, ‘_mac_ver_gstalt’, and ‘_bcd2str’, which would
     only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see
     bpo-18393(1)).

   * The hardcoded copies of certain *note stat: d1. constants that were
     included in the *note tarfile: de. module namespace have been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 4,  Next: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Removed<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.8 Porting to Python 3.4
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.10.8.1 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior
.............................................

   * In a posix shell, setting the ‘PATH’ environment variable to an
     empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However,
     setting *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. to an empty value was 'not'
     equivalent to not setting it at all: setting *note PYTHONPATH:
     1013. to an empty value was equivalent to setting it to ‘.’, which
     leads to confusion when reasoning by analogy to how ‘PATH’ works.
     The behavior now conforms to the posix convention for ‘PATH’.

   * The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (‘--with-pydebug’) build
     of the CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be
     re-enabled using the ‘-X showrefcount’ option.  (Contributed by
     Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323(1).)

   * The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as *note
     argparse: 6.) now output ‘--version’ information to ‘stdout’
     instead of ‘stderr’ (for issue list see *note Other Improvements:
     ffc. above).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Next: Changes in the C API<3>,  Prev: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.10.8.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The ABCs defined in *note importlib.abc: 78. now either raise the
     appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. blindly.  This will only affect
     code calling *note super(): 4d5. and falling through all the way to
     the ABCs.  For compatibility, catch both *note NotImplementedError:
     228. or the appropriate exception as needed.

   * The module type now initializes the *note __package__: 2d9. and
     *note __loader__: 2e4. attributes to ‘None’ by default.  To
     determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible
     fashion, use e.g.  ‘getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not
     None’.  (bpo-17115(1).)

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ now sets ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ unconditionally to properly support reloading.  If
     this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes
     manually.  You can use ‘importlib.util.module_to_load()’ for module
     management.

   * Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g.  ‘__name__’,
     ‘__loader__’, ‘__package__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’)
     unconditionally when reloading.  Note that this restores a pre-3.3
     behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded
     (bpo-19413(2)).

   * Frozen packages no longer set ‘__path__’ to a list containing the
     package name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous
     behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on
     submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name
     as the frozen package.  The correct way to determine if a module is
     a package or not is to use ‘hasattr(module, '__path__')’
     (bpo-18065(3)).

   * Frozen modules no longer define a ‘__file__’ attribute.  It’s
     semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as
     they are not loaded from any explicit location.  If you must know
     that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the
     module’s ‘__spec__.location’ is set to ‘'frozen'’, check if the
     loader is a subclass of *note importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter:
     1015, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use
     ‘imp.is_frozen()’.

   * *note py_compile.compile(): a21. now raises *note FileExistsError:
     1016. if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a
     non-regular file.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type
     of file path they were originally.

   * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source(): 1017. no longer
     raises *note ImportError: 413. when the source code being loaded
     triggers a *note SyntaxError: 18d. or *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     a0f.  As *note ImportError: 413. is meant to be raised only when
     source code cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be
     over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
     found but improperly structured.  If you were catching ImportError
     before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues,
     catch all three exceptions now.

   * *note functools.update_wrapper(): 1018. and *note
     functools.wraps(): f55. now correctly set the ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute to the function being wrapped, even if that function also
     had its ‘__wrapped__’ attribute set.  This means ‘__wrapped__’
     attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated functions rather
     than every ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in the chain referring to the
     innermost function.  Introspection libraries that assumed the
     previous behaviour was intentional can use *note inspect.unwrap():
     f54. to access the first function in the chain that has no
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

   * *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 732. has been reimplemented on top
     of *note inspect.signature(): 731. and hence handles a much wider
     variety of callable objects than it did in the past.  It is
     expected that additional builtin and extension module callables
     will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4
     series.  Code that assumes that *note inspect.getfullargspec():
     732. will fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted
     accordingly.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: 1019. now passes on the
     current working directory to objects in *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.
     for the empty string.  This results in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. never containing ‘''’, thus iterating
     through *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. based on *note
     sys.path: 3ae. will not find all keys.  A module’s ‘__file__’ when
     imported in the current working directory will also now have an
     absolute path, including when using ‘-m’ with the interpreter
     (except for ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed
     directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18416(4)).  is specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416(5)).

   * The removal of the 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: b3d.
     and *note HTTPSConnection: b3e. changes the meaning of the
     remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather
     than by keyword.  If you’ve been paying attention to deprecation
     warnings your code should already be specifying any additional
     arguments via keywords.

   * Strings between ‘from __future__ import ...’ statements now
     'always' raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d.  Previously if there was
     no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be
     ignored.  This brings CPython into compliance with the language
     spec; Jython and PyPy already were.  (bpo-17434(6)).

   * *note ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf. and *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e65. now raise an *note OSError: 411.
     with ‘ENOTCONN’ when the ‘SSLSocket’ is not connected, instead of
     the previous behavior of raising an *note AttributeError: 346.  In
     addition, *note getpeercert(): faf. will raise a *note ValueError:
     202. if the handshake has not yet been done.

   * *note base64.b32decode(): 101b. now raises a *note binascii.Error:
     101c. when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters,
     instead of a *note TypeError: 532.  This particular *note
     TypeError: 532. was missed when the other *note TypeError: 532.s
     were converted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011(7).)
     Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3.

   * The ‘file’ attribute is now automatically closed when the creating
     ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected.  If you were
     pulling the file object out separately from the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’
     instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either
     store the entire ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance or read the contents
     of the file before the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage
     collected.

   * Calling ‘read’ or ‘write’ on a closed SSL socket now raises an
     informative *note ValueError: 202. rather than the previous more
     mysterious *note AttributeError: 346. (bpo-9177(8)).

   * *note slice.indices(): 101d. no longer produces an *note
     OverflowError: 87d. for huge values.  As a consequence of this fix,
     *note slice.indices(): 101d. now raises a *note ValueError: 202. if
     given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense values
     (bpo-14794(9)).

   * The *note complex: 2f0. constructor, unlike the *note cmath: 18.
     functions, was incorrectly accepting *note float: 2ef. values if an
     object’s ‘__complex__’ special method returned one.  This now
     raises a *note TypeError: 532.  (bpo-16290(10).)

   * The *note int: 257. constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts
     *note float: 2ef. values for the 'base' parameter.  It is unlikely
     anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a *note
     TypeError: 532. (bpo-16772(11)).

   * Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated 'after'
     defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before.
     Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy
     behavior (bpo-16967(12)).

   * Stale thread states are now cleared after *note fork(): 197.  This
     may cause some system resources to be released that previously were
     incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database
     connections kept in thread-local storage).  (bpo-17094(13).)

   * Parameter names in ‘__annotations__’ dicts are now mangled
     properly, similarly to *note __kwdefaults__: 101e.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625(14).)

   * *note hashlib.hash.name: f40. now always returns the identifier in
     lower case.  Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names,
     but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been
     made consistent (bpo-18532(15)).

   * Because *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. now drops references to
     tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a *note
     TestSuite: df0. to re-run a set of tests may fail.  Test suites
     should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is
     retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that *note
     unittest: 106. is designed to provide.  However, if the lack of
     isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be
     restored by creating a *note TestSuite: df0. subclass that defines
     a ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method that does nothing (see *note
     TestSuite.__iter__(): 101f.) (bpo-11798(16)).

   * *note unittest: 106. now uses *note argparse: 6. for command line
     parsing.  There are certain invalid command forms that used to work
     that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause
     backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms
     didn’t make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.

   * The *note re.split(): 2a2, *note re.findall(): 1020, and *note
     re.sub(): 2a3. functions, and the ‘group()’ and ‘groups()’ methods
     of ‘match’ objects now always return a 'bytes' object when the
     string to be matched is a *note bytes-like object: d2a.  Previously
     the return type matched the input type, so if your code was
     depending on the return value being, say, a ‘bytearray’, you will
     need to change your code.

   * ‘audioop’ functions now raise an error immediately if passed string
     input, instead of failing randomly later on (bpo-16685(17)).

   * The new 'convert_charrefs' argument to *note HTMLParser: 872.
     currently defaults to ‘False’ for backward compatibility, but will
     eventually be changed to default to ‘True’.  It is recommended that
     you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any *note
     HTMLParser: 872. calls in your code (bpo-13633(18)).

   * Since the 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): a9c.
     function will in the future have no default, all calls to *note
     hmac.new(): a9c. should be changed to explicitly specify a
     'digestmod' (bpo-17276(19)).

   * Calling *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1021. with the ‘SO’ key,
     or looking ‘SO’ up in the results of a call to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1022. is deprecated.  This key should
     be replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ or ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’, depending on the
     context (bpo-19555(20)).

   * Any calls to ‘open’ functions that specify ‘U’ should be modified.
     ‘U’ is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if
     used.  Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2
     behavior can be achieved using either a 'newline' argument, or if
     necessary by wrapping the stream in *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. to
     use its 'newline' argument (bpo-15204(21)).

   * If you use ‘pyvenv’ in a script and desire that pip 'not' be
     installed, you must add ‘--without-pip’ to your command invocation.

   * The default behavior of *note json.dump(): d41. and *note
     json.dumps(): d42. when an indent is specified has changed: it no
     longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at
     the ends of lines.  This will matter only if you have tests that
     are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output
     (bpo-16333(22)).

   * *note doctest: 3a. now looks for doctests in extension module
     ‘__doc__’ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes
     extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them
     you may see test failures you’ve never seen before when running
     your tests (bpo-3158(23)).

   * The *note collections.abc: 1e. module has been slightly refactored
     as part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of
     this, it is no longer the case that importing *note collections:
     1d. automatically imports *note collections.abc: 1e.  If your
     program depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will
     need to add an explicit ‘import collections.abc’ (bpo-20784(24)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<3>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.10.8.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1024, *note PyObject_Repr(): 1025, and
     *note PyObject_Str(): 1026, along with some other internal C APIs,
     now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in
     situations where they may silently discard a currently active
     exception.  In cases where discarding the active exception is
     expected and desired (for example, because it has already been
     saved locally with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed. or is being
     deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
     *note PyErr_Clear(): 1027. call will be needed to avoid triggering
     the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or
     indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is
     compiled with assertions enabled.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3b. now sets *note TypeError: 532.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned with no exception set.

   * The result of the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 581. callback
     must now be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389. or
     *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred,
     instead of a string allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62. or
     *note PyMem_Realloc(): 1028. (bpo-16742(1))

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 402. now always set the value.  In
     Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if
     the current value is a non-‘NULL’ pointer).

   * The ‘f_tstate’ (thread state) field of the *note PyFrameObject:
     782. structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432(2) for
     the rationale.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432


File: python.info,  Node: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.10.9 Changed in 3.4.3
-----------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients,  Up: Changed in 3 4 3

1.10.9.1 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
......................................................................................

*note http.client: 6f. and modules which use it, such as *note
urllib.request: 10b. and *note xmlrpc.client: 12e, will now verify that
the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the
platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being
requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib.request
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.11 What’s New In Python 3.3
=============================

This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details, see
the changelog(1).

더 보기
.......

PEP 398(2) - Python 3.3 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* New Modules: New Modules<6>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<4>,  Next: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.1 Summary – Release highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * New ‘yield from’ expression for *note generator delegation: 102f.

   * The ‘u'unicode'’ syntax is accepted again for *note str: 445.
     objects.

New library modules:

   * *note faulthandler: 58. (helps debugging low-level crashes)

   * *note ipaddress: 80. (high-level objects representing IP addresses
     and masks)

   * *note lzma: 8a. (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)

   * *note unittest.mock: 107. (replace parts of your system under test
     with mock objects)

   * *note venv: 111. (Python *note virtual environments: 1030, as in
     the popular ‘virtualenv’ package)

New built-in features:

   * Reworked *note I/O exception hierarchy: 1031.

Implementation improvements:

   * Rewritten *note import machinery: 1032. based on *note importlib:
     77.

   * More compact *note unicode strings: 1033.

   * More compact *note attribute dictionaries: 1034.

Significantly Improved Library Modules:

   * C Accelerator for the *note decimal: 1035. module.

   * Better unicode handling in the *note email: 1036. module (*note
     provisional: 1037.).

Security improvements:

   * Hash randomization is switched on by default.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Next: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.2 PEP 405: Virtual Environments
------------------------------------

Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
have their own set of private site packages (i.e.  locally installed
libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
‘virtualenv’ third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
with the interpreter core.

This PEP adds the *note venv: 111. module for programmatic access, and
the ‘pyvenv’ script for command-line access and administration.  The
Python interpreter checks for a ‘pyvenv.cfg’, file whose existence
signals the base of a virtual environment’s directory tree.

더 보기
.......

PEP 405(1) - Python Virtual Environments

     PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay
     Sajip

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Next: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Prev: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.3 PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
-------------------------------------------

Native support for package directories that don’t require ‘__init__.py’
marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired
by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
PEP 420(1))

더 보기
.......

PEP 420(2) - Implicit Namespace Packages

     PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith and
     Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Next: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Prev: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.4 PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The implementation of PEP 3118(1) has been significantly improved.

The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership
and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer
struct that led to multiple crash reports.  Additionally, several
functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous
or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.

The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that
checks the consumer’s request type.  Many new features have been added,
most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and
arrays with suboffsets.

The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out
responsibilities for both exporters and consumers.  Buffer request flags
are grouped into basic and compound flags.  The memory layout of
non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.

* Menu:

* Features::
* API changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Features,  Next: API changes,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.11.4.1 Features
.................

   * All native single character format specifiers in struct module
     syntax (optionally prefixed with ‘@’) are now supported.

   * With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format
     and shape of C-contiguous arrays.

   * Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array
     type.

   * Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.

   * One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with
     formats B, b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
     in bpo-13411(1).)

   * Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported.  For
     example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in 'O'(1) by
     using a negative step.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411


File: python.info,  Node: API changes,  Prev: Features,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.11.4.2 API changes
....................

   * The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.

   * The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an
     empty tuple instead of ‘None’.

   * Accessing a memoryview element with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes) now
     returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
     For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to ‘c’ first.

   * memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the
     operands and compare all array elements by value.  All format
     strings in struct module syntax are supported.  Views with
     unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always
     compare as unequal, regardless of view contents.

   * For further changes see *note Build and C API Changes: 103e. and
     *note Porting C code: 103f.

(Contributed by Stefan Krah in bpo-10181(1).)

더 보기
.......

PEP 3118(2) - Revising the Buffer Protocol

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Next: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Prev: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.5 PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
----------------------------------------------

The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode
ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a
space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full
UCS-4 on all systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several
representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility
should be phased out.

On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.

On the C API side, PEP 393(1) is fully backward compatible.  The legacy
API should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the
legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse -
may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two
versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient
storage).

* Menu:

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Functionality,  Next: Performance and resource usage,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.11.5.1 Functionality
......................

Changes introduced by PEP 393(1) are the following:

   * Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points,
     including non-BMP ones (i.e.  from ‘U+0000’ to ‘U+10FFFF’).  The
     distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and
     Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows.

   * With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow
     builds have also been fixed, for example:

        * *note len(): 628. now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
          so ‘len('\U0010FFFF') == 1’;

        * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so
          ‘'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'’;

        * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected
          value, so ‘'\U0010FFFF'[0]’ now returns ‘'\U0010FFFF'’ and not
          ‘'\uDBFF'’;

        * all other functions in the standard library now correctly
          handle non-BMP code points.

   * The value of *note sys.maxunicode: 1042. is now always ‘1114111’
     (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).  The ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ function
     still returns either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’ for backward
     compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API
     (see bpo-13054(2)).

   * The ‘./configure’ flag ‘--with-wide-unicode’ has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054


File: python.info,  Node: Performance and resource usage,  Prev: Functionality,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.11.5.2 Performance and resource usage
.......................................

The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in
the string:

   * pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (‘U+0000-U+00FF’) use 1 byte per code
     point;

   * BMP strings (‘U+0000-U+FFFF’) use 2 bytes per code point;

   * non-BMP strings (‘U+10000-U+10FFFF’) use 4 bytes per code point.

The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even
in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language
data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.).  We
also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache
efficiency on non-trivial applications.  The memory usage of Python 3.3
is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better
than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).

더 보기
.......

PEP 393(1) - Flexible String Representation

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker
     and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Next: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Prev: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.6 PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
-------------------------------------------

The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ‘py’ launcher
application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version
independent fashion.

This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ‘*.py’ files.
If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
will be used to run the file.  If multiple versions are installed, the
most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by
including a Unix-style “shebang line” in the Python script.

The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the
‘py’ application.  Running ‘py’ follows the same version selection rules
as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be
selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as ‘-3’ to request
Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or ‘-2.6’ to specifically
request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is
installed).

In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.
(Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561(1).)

더 보기
.......

PEP 397(2) - Python Launcher for Windows

     PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v.  Löwis; implementation by
     Vinay Sajip.

Launcher documentation: *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.

Installer PATH modification: *note 파이썬 실행 파일 찾기: 1046.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Next: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Prev: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.7 PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
------------------------------------------------------------

The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now
both simplified and finer-grained.

You don’t have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
type between *note OSError: 411, *note IOError: 1048, *note
EnvironmentError: 1049, *note WindowsError: 104a, ‘mmap.error’, *note
socket.error: 104b. or *note select.error: 104c.  All these exception
types are now only one: *note OSError: 411.  The other names are kept as
aliases for compatibility reasons.

Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
inspecting the ‘errno’ attribute (or ‘args[0]’) for a particular
constant from the *note errno: 57. module, you can catch the adequate
*note OSError: 411. subclass.  The available subclasses are the
following:

   * *note BlockingIOError: 104d.

   * *note ChildProcessError: 104e.

   * *note ConnectionError: e06.

   * *note FileExistsError: 1016.

   * *note FileNotFoundError: 425.

   * *note InterruptedError: d84.

   * *note IsADirectoryError: 104f.

   * *note NotADirectoryError: 1050.

   * *note PermissionError: d3f.

   * *note ProcessLookupError: 1051.

   * *note TimeoutError: 82f.

And the *note ConnectionError: e06. itself has finer-grained subclasses:

   * *note BrokenPipeError: 1052.

   * *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1053.

   * *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1054.

   * *note ConnectionResetError: 1055.

Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the *note errno: 57. can
now be avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:

     from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except IOError as err:
         if err.errno == ENOENT:
             print("document.txt file is missing")
         elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
             print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
         else:
             raise

can now be written without the *note errno: 57. import and without
manual inspection of exception attributes:

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         print("document.txt file is missing")
     except PermissionError:
         print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")

더 보기
.......

PEP 3151(1) - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Next: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Prev: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.8 PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
-------------------------------------------------------

PEP 380 adds the ‘yield from’ expression, allowing a *note generator:
1057. to delegate part of its operations to another generator.  This
allows a section of code containing *note yield: 9ca. to be factored out
and placed in another generator.  Additionally, the subgenerator is
allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the
delegating generator.

While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the
‘yield from’ expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary
subiterators.

For simple iterators, ‘yield from iterable’ is essentially just a
shortened form of ‘for item in iterable: yield item’:

     >>> def g(x):
     ...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
     ...     yield from range(x)
     ...
     >>> list(g(5))
     [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

However, unlike an ordinary loop, ‘yield from’ allows subgenerators to
receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
return a final value to the outer generator:

     >>> def accumulate():
     ...     tally = 0
     ...     while 1:
     ...         next = yield
     ...         if next is None:
     ...             return tally
     ...         tally += next
     ...
     >>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
     ...     while 1:
     ...         tally = yield from accumulate()
     ...         tallies.append(tally)
     ...
     >>> tallies = []
     >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
     >>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
     >>> tallies
     [6, 10]

The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that
are designed to be used with the ‘send’ and ‘throw’ methods to be split
into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be
split into multiple subfunctions.

더 보기
.......

PEP 380(1) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated
     into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan;
     documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Next: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Prev: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.9 PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
---------------------------------------------

PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
exception context to be disabled.  This allows cleaner error messages in
applications that convert between exception types:

     >>> class D:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
     ...
     >>> D({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

Without the ‘from None’ suffix to suppress the cause, the original
exception would be displayed by default:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr)
     ...
     >>> C({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
     KeyError: 'x'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context
remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has
incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):

     >>> try:
     ...     D({}).x
     ... except AttributeError as exc:
     ...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
     ...
     KeyError('x',)

더 보기
.......

PEP 409(1) - Suppressing exception context

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
     Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Next: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Prev: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.10 PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
------------------------------------------

To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python
applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once
again supports the “‘u’” prefix for string literals.  This prefix has no
semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the
number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it
easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes
(such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data).

더 보기
.......

PEP 414(1) - Explicit Unicode literals

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Next: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Prev: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.11 PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
----------------------------------------------------------

Functions and class objects have a new *note __qualname__: 105b.
attribute representing the “path” from the module top-level to their
definition.  For global functions and classes, this is the same as *note
__name__: 105c.  For other functions and classes, it provides better
information about where they were actually defined, and how they might
be accessible from the global scope.

Example with (non-bound) methods:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def meth(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> C.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.meth.__qualname__
     'C.meth'

Example with nested classes:

     >>> class C:
     ...     class D:
     ...         def meth(self):
     ...             pass
     ...
     >>> C.D.__name__
     'D'
     >>> C.D.__qualname__
     'C.D'
     >>> C.D.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
     'C.D.meth'

Example with nested functions:

     >>> def outer():
     ...     def inner():
     ...         pass
     ...     return inner
     ...
     >>> outer().__name__
     'inner'
     >>> outer().__qualname__
     'outer.<locals>.inner'

The string representation of those objects is also changed to include
the new, more precise information:

     >>> str(C.D)
     "<class '__main__.C.D'>"
     >>> str(C.D.meth)
     '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'

더 보기
.......

PEP 3155(1) - Qualified name for classes and functions

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Next: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Prev: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.12 PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
---------------------------------------

Dictionaries used for the storage of objects’ attributes are now able to
share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the
part which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces
the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of
non-builtin types.

더 보기
.......

PEP 412(1) - Key-Sharing Dictionary

     PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Next: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Prev: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.13 PEP 362: Function Signature Object
------------------------------------------

A new function *note inspect.signature(): 731. makes introspection of
python callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables
is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and *note
functools.partial(): 40e. objects.  New classes *note inspect.Signature:
1cf, *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0. and *note inspect.BoundArguments:
105f. hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations,
default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which
considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
or amends calling signatures or arguments.

더 보기
.......

PEP 362(1): - Function Signature Object

     PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon
     Seo; implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Next: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Prev: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.14 PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
------------------------------------------

A new attribute on the *note sys: d9. module exposes details specific to
the implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial
set of attributes on *note sys.implementation: 510. are ‘name’,
‘version’, ‘hexversion’, and ‘cache_tag’.

The intention of ‘sys.implementation’ is to consolidate into one
namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.
This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard
library code base much more easily.  In its initial state,
‘sys.implementation’ holds only a small portion of the
implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will shift in order
to make the standard library more portable.

One example of improved standard library portability is ‘cache_tag’.  As
of Python 3.3, ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is used by *note
importlib: 77. to support PEP 3147(1) compliance.  Any Python
implementation that uses ‘importlib’ for its built-in import system may
use ‘cache_tag’ to control the caching behavior for modules.

* Menu:

* SimpleNamespace::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleNamespace,  Up: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation

1.11.14.1 SimpleNamespace
.........................

The implementation of ‘sys.implementation’ also introduces a new type to
Python: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1.  In contrast to a
mapping-based namespace, like *note dict: 256, ‘SimpleNamespace’ is
attribute-based, like *note object: a89.  However, unlike ‘object’,
‘SimpleNamespace’ instances are writable.  This means that you can add,
remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access.

더 보기
.......

PEP 421(1) - Adding sys.implementation

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/


File: python.info,  Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Next: Other Language Changes<6>,  Prev: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.15 Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
-------------------------------------------------------

bpo-2377(1) - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959(2) -
Re-implement parts of ‘imp’ in pure Python bpo-14605(3) - Make import
machinery explicit bpo-14646(4) - Require loaders set __loader__ and
__package__

The *note __import__(): 8d1. function is now powered by *note
importlib.__import__(): 1063.  This work leads to the completion of
“phase 2” of PEP 302(5).  There are multiple benefits to this change.
First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be
exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code.  It also
provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python
3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import
semantics.  And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
future growth to occur.

For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.
For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are
covered in the *note Porting Python code: 1064. section of this
document.

* Menu:

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: New APIs,  Next: Visible Changes,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.11.15.1 New APIs
..................

One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
making the import statement work.  That means the various importers that
were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the *note importlib:
77. package.

The abstract base classes defined in *note importlib.abc: 78. have been
expanded to properly delineate between *note meta path finders: 1066.
and *note path entry finders: 1067. by introducing *note
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869. and *note
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86a, respectively.  The old ABC of
‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
and does not enforce any method requirements.

In terms of finders, *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 1068. exposes
the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module.
Previously this class was an implicit member of *note sys.path_hooks:
101a.

For loaders, the new abstract base class *note importlib.abc.FileLoader:
1069. helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage
mechanism for a module’s code.  The loader for source files (*note
importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader: 106a.), sourceless bytecode files
(*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader: 106b.), and extension
modules (*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cad.) are now
available for direct use.

*note ImportError: 413. now has ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes which are
set when there is relevant data to provide.  The message for failed
imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of
just the tail end of the module’s name.

The *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d. function will now call the
method with the same name on all finders cached in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. to help clean up any stored state as
necessary.


File: python.info,  Node: Visible Changes,  Prev: New APIs,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.11.15.2 Visible Changes
.........................

For potential required changes to code, see the *note Porting Python
code: 1064. section.

Beyond the expanse of what *note importlib: 77. now exposes, there are
other visible changes to import.  The biggest is that *note
sys.meta_path: d28. and *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. now store all of the
meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import.  Previously the
finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead of
being directly exposed.  This means that one can now easily remove or
change the order of the various finders to fit one’s needs.

Another change is that all modules have a ‘__loader__’ attribute,
storing the loader used to create the module.  PEP 302(1) has been
updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in
the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able
to rely on the existence of the attribute.  Until such time, though,
import is setting the module post-load.

Loaders are also now expected to set the ‘__package__’ attribute from
PEP 366(2).  Once again, import itself is already setting this on all
loaders from *note importlib: 77. and import itself is setting the
attribute post-load.

‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. when no
finder can be found on *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.  Since
‘imp.NullImporter’ is not directly exposed on *note sys.path_hooks:
101a. it could no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as
a value representing no finder found.

All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read
about in the *note Porting Python code: 1064. section of this document.

(Implementation by Brett Cannon)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<6>,  Next: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Prev: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.16 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.  Both
     *note unicodedata.lookup(): 106e. and ‘'\N{...}'’ now resolve name
     aliases, and *note unicodedata.lookup(): 106e. resolves named
     sequences too.

     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-12753(1).)

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0

   * Equality comparisons on *note range(): 941. objects now return a
     result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences
     generated by those range objects.  (bpo-13201(2))

   * The ‘count()’, ‘find()’, ‘rfind()’, ‘index()’ and ‘rindex()’
     methods of *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. objects now
     accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.

     (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12170(3).)

   * The ‘rjust()’, ‘ljust()’, and ‘center()’ methods of *note bytes:
     1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. now accept a *note bytearray: 538.
     for the ‘fill’ argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in
     bpo-12380(4).)

   * New methods have been added to *note list: 60b. and *note
     bytearray: 538.: ‘copy()’ and ‘clear()’ (bpo-10516(5)).
     Consequently, *note MutableSequence: 1a1. now also defines a
     ‘clear()’ method (bpo-11388(6)).

   * Raw bytes literals can now be written ‘rb"..."’ as well as
     ‘br"..."’.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13748(7).)

   * *note dict.setdefault(): 106f. now does only one lookup for the
     given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types.

     (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13521(8).)

   * The error messages produced when a function call does not match the
     function signature have been significantly improved.

     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521


File: python.info,  Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Next: Builtin functions and types,  Prev: Other Language Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.17 A Finer-Grained Import Lock
-----------------------------------

Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a
module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a
side-effect.  Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
*note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7. C API function.

In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This
correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads
(preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while
eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9260(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260


File: python.info,  Node: Builtin functions and types,  Next: New Modules<6>,  Prev: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.18 Builtin functions and types
-----------------------------------

   * *note open(): 515. gets a new 'opener' parameter: the underlying
     file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling
     'opener' with ('file', 'flags').  It can be used to use custom
     flags like *note os.O_CLOEXEC: 1072. for example.  The ‘'x'’ mode
     was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already
     exists.

   * *note print(): f6d.: added the 'flush' keyword argument.  If the
     'flush' keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

   * *note hash(): 5e5.: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
     *note object.__hash__(): af8. and *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073.

   * The *note str: 445. type gets a new *note casefold(): dd2. method:
     return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be
     used for caseless matching.  For example, ‘'ß'.casefold()’ returns
     ‘'ss'’.

   * The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to
     better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide
     specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence
     types (bpo-4966(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<6>,  Next: Improved Modules<6>,  Prev: Builtin functions and types,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.19 New Modules
-------------------

* Menu:

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<4>,  Next: ipaddress<6>,  Up: New Modules<6>

1.11.19.1 faulthandler
......................

This new debug module *note faulthandler: 58. contains functions to dump
Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation
fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): c9b. to install fault handlers for the ‘SIGSEGV’,
‘SIGFPE’, ‘SIGABRT’, ‘SIGBUS’, and ‘SIGILL’ signals.  You can also
enable them at startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1076.
environment variable or by using *note -X: 176. ‘faulthandler’ command
line option.

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<6>,  Next: lzma<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<4>,  Up: New Modules<6>

1.11.19.2 ipaddress
...................

The new *note ipaddress: 80. module provides tools for creating and
manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and
interfaces (i.e.  an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).

(Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in PEP 3144(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/


File: python.info,  Node: lzma<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<6>,  Up: New Modules<6>

1.11.19.3 lzma
..............

The newly added *note lzma: 8a. module provides data compression and
decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ‘.xz’
and ‘.lzma’ file formats.

(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in bpo-6715(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<6>,  Next: Optimizations<5>,  Prev: New Modules<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.20 Improved Modules
------------------------

* Menu:

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<5>.
* base64: base64<4>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<6>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<9>.
* mmap: mmap<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<12>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<9>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<6>.
* sys: sys<13>.
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<8>.
* types: types<7>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* urllib: urllib<4>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<3>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc<2>,  Next: array<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.1 abc
.............

Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors
composed with abstract methods.  The recommended approach to declaring
abstract descriptors is now to provide ‘__isabstractmethod__’ as a
dynamically updated property.  The built-in descriptors have been
updated accordingly.

   * *note abc.abstractproperty: 107b. has been deprecated, use *note
     property: 194. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107c. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 107d. has been deprecated, use *note
     classmethod: 166. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107c. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 107e. has been deprecated, use
     *note staticmethod: 410. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107c.
     instead.

(Contributed by Darren Dale in bpo-11610(1).)

*note abc.ABCMeta.register(): 107f. now returns the registered subclass,
which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868


File: python.info,  Node: array<5>,  Next: base64<4>,  Prev: abc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.2 array
...............

The *note array: 7. module supports the long long type using ‘q’ and ‘Q’
type codes.

(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in bpo-1172711(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711


File: python.info,  Node: base64<4>,  Next: binascii<2>,  Prev: array<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.3 base64
................

ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
the *note base64: e. modern interface.  For example,
‘base64.b64decode('YWJj')’ returns ‘b'abc'’.  (Contributed by Catalin
Iacob in bpo-13641(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<2>,  Next: bz2<2>,  Prev: base64<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.4 binascii
..................

In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ‘a2b_’
functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637


File: python.info,  Node: bz2<2>,  Next: codecs<2>,  Prev: binascii<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.5 bz2
.............

The *note bz2: 13. module has been rewritten from scratch.  In the
process, several new features have been added:

   * New *note bz2.open(): 1084. function: open a bzip2-compressed file
     in binary or text mode.

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 861. can now read from and write to arbitrary
     file-like objects, by means of its constructor’s 'fileobj'
     argument.

     (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-5863(1).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 861. and *note bz2.decompress(): 1085. can now
     decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the
     ‘pbzip2’ tool).  *note bz2.BZ2File: 861. can now also be used to
     create this type of file, using the ‘'a'’ (append) mode.

     (Contributed by Nir Aides in bpo-1625(2).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 861. now implements all of the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. API, except for the ‘detach()’ and
     ‘truncate()’ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625


File: python.info,  Node: codecs<2>,  Next: collections<7>,  Prev: bz2<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.6 codecs
................

The *note mbcs: 53. codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
‘replace’ and ‘ignore’ error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
*note mbcs: 53. codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
‘replace’ to encode and ‘ignore’ to decode.

A new Windows-only codec has been added: ‘cp65001’ (bpo-13216(1)).  It
is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ‘CP_UTF8’).  For example,
it is used by ‘sys.stdout’ if the console output code page is set to
cp65001 (e.g., using ‘chcp 65001’ command).

Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the
first byte of an invalid byte sequence.  For example,
‘b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace')’ now returns a ‘\n’ after the
replacement character.

(bpo-12016(2))

Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
encode() methods.  For example:

     >>> import codecs
     >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
     >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
     b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'

This example gives ‘b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'’ with older
Python versions.

(bpo-12100(3))

The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100


File: python.info,  Node: collections<7>,  Next: contextlib<7>,  Prev: codecs<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.7 collections
.....................

Addition of a new *note ChainMap: c19. class to allow treating a number
of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
bpo-11089(1), made public in bpo-11297(2).)

The abstract base classes have been moved in a new *note
collections.abc: 1e. module, to better differentiate between the
abstract and the concrete collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are
still present in the *note collections: 1d. module to preserve existing
imports.  (bpo-11085(3))

The *note Counter: 1088. class now supports the unary ‘+’ and ‘-’
operators, as well as the in-place operators ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘|=’, and ‘&=’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<7>,  Next: crypt<2>,  Prev: collections<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.8 contextlib
....................

*note ExitStack: b26. now provides a solid foundation for programmatic
manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality.
Unlike the previous ‘contextlib.nested’ API (which was deprecated and
removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of
whether context managers acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’
method (for example, file objects) or in their ‘__enter__’ method (for
example, synchronisation objects from the *note threading: ed. module).

(bpo-13585(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585


File: python.info,  Node: crypt<2>,  Next: curses<5>,  Prev: contextlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.9 crypt
...............

Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the
‘mksalt()’ function to the ‘crypt’ module.

(bpo-10924(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924


File: python.info,  Node: curses<5>,  Next: datetime<6>,  Prev: crypt<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.10 curses
.................

   * If the *note curses: 2b. module is linked to the ncursesw library,
     use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed
     (e.g.  ‘waddwstr()’), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g.
     ‘waddstr()’).

   * Use the locale encoding instead of ‘utf-8’ to encode Unicode
     strings.

   * ‘curses.window’ has a new *note curses.window.encoding: 108c.
     attribute.

   * The ‘curses.window’ class has a new *note get_wch(): 108d. method
     to get a wide character

   * The *note curses: 2b. module has a new *note unget_wch(): 108e.
     function to push a wide character so the next *note get_wch():
     108d. will return it

(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in bpo-6755(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<6>,  Next: decimal<3>,  Prev: curses<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.11 datetime
...................

   * Equality comparisons between naive and aware *note datetime: 1cc.
     instances now return *note False: b34. instead of raising *note
     TypeError: 532. (bpo-15006(1)).

   * New *note datetime.datetime.timestamp(): 1090. method: Return POSIX
     timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 1cc. instance.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): c8d. method supports
     formatting years older than 1000.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 9cd. method can now be
     called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
     timezone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<3>,  Next: email<5>,  Prev: datetime<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.12 decimal
..................

bpo-7652(1) - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.

     C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.

The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed
libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal
floating-point arithmetic.  libmpdec conforms to IBM’s General Decimal
Arithmetic Specification.

Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
numerically intensive applications.  These numbers are expected gains
for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic.
Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary.
For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be
significantly higher.

The following table is meant as an illustration.  Benchmarks are
available at ‘https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html’.

                   decimal.py        _decimal           speedup
                                                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
     pi            42.02s            0.345s             120x
                                                        
                                                        
     telco         172.19s           5.68s              30x
                                                        
                                                        
     psycopg       3.57s             0.29s              12x
                                                        

* Menu:

* Features: Features<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652


File: python.info,  Node: Features<2>,  Next: API changes<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.11.20.13 Features
...................

   * The *note FloatOperation: 1093. signal optionally enables stricter
     semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

   * If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
     disables the expensive thread local context machinery.  In this
     case, the variable *note HAVE_THREADS: 1094. is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: API changes<2>,  Prev: Features<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.11.20.14 API changes
......................

   * The C module has the following context limits, depending on the
     machine architecture:

                                  32-bit               64-bit
                                                       
          ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
          ‘MAX_PREC’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MAX_EMAX’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MIN_EMIN’              ‘-425000000’         ‘-999999999999999999’
                                                       

   * In the context templates (*note DefaultContext: 1096, *note
     BasicContext: 1097. and *note ExtendedContext: 1098.) the magnitude
     of *note Emax: 1099. and *note Emin: 109a. has changed to ‘999999’.

   * The *note Decimal: 29d. constructor in decimal.py does not observe
     the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or
     precision exactly.  Since the C version has internal limits, the
     following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted
     exactly, otherwise *note InvalidOperation: 109b. is raised and the
     result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use
     *note create_decimal(): 109c. in order to obtain a rounded or
     inexact value.

   * The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded.  In
     the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded
     *note exp(): 109d. and *note ln(): 109e. functions, but the final
     result is only “almost always correctly rounded”.

   * In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is
     a *note MutableMapping: 109f.  For speed reasons, *note flags:
     10a0. and *note traps: 10a1. always refer to the same *note
     MutableMapping: 109f. that the context was initialized with.  If a
     new signal dictionary is assigned, *note flags: 10a0. and *note
     traps: 10a1. are updated with the new values, but they do not
     reference the RHS dictionary.

   * Pickling a *note Context: 10a2. produces a different output in
     order to have a common interchange format for the Python and C
     versions.

   * The order of arguments in the *note Context: 10a2. constructor has
     been changed to match the order displayed by *note repr(): 7f7.

   * The ‘watchexp’ parameter in the *note quantize(): 10a3. method is
     deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: email<5>,  Next: ftplib<3>,  Prev: decimal<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.15 email
................

* Menu:

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Framework,  Next: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<5>

1.11.20.16 Policy Framework
...........................

The email package now has a *note policy: 4f. framework.  A *note
Policy: 10a6. is an object with several methods and properties that
control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python
3.3 is the *note Compat32: 10a7. policy, which provides backward
compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A ‘policy’ can be
specified when an email message is parsed by a *note parser: 4e, or when
a *note Message: 27c. object is created, or when an email is serialized
using a *note generator: 40.  Unless overridden, a policy passed to a
‘parser’ is inherited by all the ‘Message’ object and sub-objects
created by the ‘parser’.  By default a ‘generator’ will use the policy
of the ‘Message’ object it is serializing.  The default policy is *note
compat32: c96.

The minimum set of controls implemented by all ‘policy’ objects are:

max_line_length     The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
                    individual lines may have when a ‘Message’ is serialized.
                    Defaults to 78.
                    
                    
linesep             The character used to separate individual lines when a
                    ‘Message’ is serialized.  Defaults to ‘\n’.
                    
                    
cte_type            ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’.  ‘8bit’ applies only to a ‘Bytes’
                    ‘generator’, and means that non-ASCII may be used where
                    allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the
                    original input).
                    
                    
raise_on_defect     Causes a ‘parser’ to raise error when defects are
                    encountered instead of adding them to the ‘Message’
                    object’s ‘defects’ list.
                    

A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the *note
clone(): 10a8. method of policy objects.  ‘clone’ takes any of the above
controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in the call
retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
‘\r\n’ linesep characters like this:

     mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')

Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format
needed by your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to
specify ‘linesep='\r\n'’ in all the places you call a ‘generator’, you
can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the ‘parser’ or the
‘Message’, whichever your program uses to create ‘Message’ objects.  On
the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you
can still specify the parameters in the appropriate ‘generator’ call.
Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and
pass those in when you create the ‘generator’.


File: python.info,  Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Next: Other API Changes,  Prev: Policy Framework,  Up: email<5>

1.11.20.17 Provisional Policy with New Header API
.................................................

While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main
motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies
that implement new features for the email package in a way that
maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new
policies.  Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are
releasing them in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional policy: 1037.
Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code)
may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.

The new policies are instances of *note EmailPolicy: 10aa, and add the
following additional controls:

refold_source       Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
                    *note parser: 4e. are refolded by the
                    *note generator: 40.  It can be ‘none’, ‘long’, or ‘all’.
                    The default is ‘long’, which means that source headers
                    with a line longer than ‘max_line_length’ get refolded.
                    ‘none’ means no line get refolded, and ‘all’ means that
                    all lines get refolded.
                    
                    
header_factory      A callable that take a ‘name’ and ‘value’ and produces a
                    custom header object.
                    

The ‘header_factory’ is the key to the new features provided by the new
policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved
from a ‘Message’ object is an object produced by the ‘header_factory’,
and any time you set a header on a ‘Message’ it becomes an object
produced by ‘header_factory’.  All such header objects have a ‘name’
attribute equal to the header name.  Address and Date headers have
additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the
header.  This means you can now do things like this:

     >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
     >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
     'foo'
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
     'Éric'
     >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
     >>> m['Date'].datetime
     datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
     >>> m['Date']
     'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400

You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
‘utf-8’ when the message is serialized, but that when the header is
accessed directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any
need to deal with the *note email.header: 41. *note decode_header():
10ab. or *note make_header(): 10ac. functions.

You can also create addresses from parts:

     >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
     ...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
     ...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
     cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>

Decoding to unicode is done automatically:

     >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
     >>> m2['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'

When you parse a message, you can use the ‘addresses’ and ‘groups’
attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
addresses:

     >>> m2['cc'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
     >>> m2['cc'].groups
     (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))

In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation
works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings,
and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to
and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.


File: python.info,  Node: Other API Changes,  Prev: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<5>

1.11.20.18 Other API Changes
............................

New *note BytesHeaderParser: 10ae, added to the *note parser: 4e. module
to complement *note HeaderParser: 10af. and complete the Bytes API.

New utility functions:

   * *note format_datetime(): 10b0.: given a *note datetime: 1cc,
     produce a string formatted for use in an email header.

   * *note parsedate_to_datetime(): 10b1.: given a date string from an
     email header, convert it into an aware *note datetime: 1cc, or a
     naive *note datetime: 1cc. if the offset is ‘-0000’.

   * *note localtime(): 2c5.: With no argument, returns the current
     local time as an aware *note datetime: 1cc. using the local *note
     timezone: 10b2.  Given an aware *note datetime: 1cc, converts it
     into an aware *note datetime: 1cc. using the local *note timezone:
     10b2.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<3>,  Next: functools<6>,  Prev: email<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.19 ftplib
.................

   * *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. now accepts a ‘source_address’ keyword
     argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address
     in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594(1).)

   * The *note FTP_TLS: 8f8. class now provides a new *note ccc(): 10b4.
     function to revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be
     useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
     with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139(2).)

   * Added *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 10b5. method which provides a
     parsable directory listing format and deprecates *note
     ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 10b6. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 10b7.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072


File: python.info,  Node: functools<6>,  Next: gc<6>,  Prev: ftplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.20 functools
....................

The *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. decorator now accepts a ‘typed’
keyword argument (that defaults to ‘False’ to ensure that it caches
values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<6>,  Next: hmac<4>,  Prev: functools<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.21 gc
.............

It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage
collector before and after collection using the new *note callbacks:
10ba. list.


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<4>,  Next: http<4>,  Prev: gc<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.22 hmac
...............

A new *note compare_digest(): 10bc. function has been added to prevent
side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed
by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061


File: python.info,  Node: http<4>,  Next: html<2>,  Prev: hmac<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.23 http
...............

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be. now buffers the headers
and writes them all at once when *note end_headers(): 10bf. is called.
A new method *note flush_headers(): 10c0. can be used to directly manage
when the accumulated headers are sent.  (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in
bpo-3709(1).)

*note http.server: 72. now produces valid ‘HTML 4.01 strict’ output.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295(2).)

*note http.client.HTTPResponse: 10c1. now has a *note readinto(): 10c2.
method, which means it can be used as an *note io.RawIOBase: 10c3.
class.  (Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464


File: python.info,  Node: html<2>,  Next: imaplib<3>,  Prev: http<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.24 html
...............

*note html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. is now able to parse broken markup
without raising errors, therefore the 'strict' argument of the
constructor and the ‘HTMLParseError’ exception are now deprecated.  The
ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes
that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python
2.7/3.2.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(1), and
bpo-14538(2), bpo-13993(3), bpo-13960(4), bpo-13358(5), bpo-1745761(6),
bpo-755670(7), bpo-13357(8), bpo-12629(9), bpo-1200313(10),
bpo-670664(11), bpo-13273(12), bpo-12888(13), bpo-7311(14).)

A new *note html5: 10c5. dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g.  ‘html5['gt;']
== '>'’) has been added to the *note html.entities: 6c. module.  The
dictionary is now also used by *note HTMLParser: 872.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113(15) and bpo-15156(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<3>,  Next: inspect<9>,  Prev: html<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.25 imaplib
..................

The *note IMAP4_SSL: 901. constructor now accepts an SSLContext
parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.

(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in bpo-8808(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<9>,  Next: io<6>,  Prev: imaplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.26 inspect
..................

A new *note getclosurevars(): 10c8. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the
function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to
verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful
closures.

(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13062(1).)

A new *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10c9. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of local variables in the
generator’s stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal
state when testing generators.

(Contributed by Meador Inge in bpo-15153(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153


File: python.info,  Node: io<6>,  Next: itertools<6>,  Prev: inspect<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.27 io
.............

The *note open(): 516. function has a new ‘'x'’ mode that can be used to
exclusively create a new file, and raise a *note FileExistsError: 1016.
if the file already exists.  It is based on the C11 ‘x’ mode to fopen().

(Contributed by David Townshend in bpo-12760(1).)

The constructor of the *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. class has a new
'write_through' optional argument.  If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls
to ‘write()’ are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the
*note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. object is immediately handled to its
underlying binary buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<6>,  Next: logging<7>,  Prev: io<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.28 itertools
....................

*note accumulate(): 9f9. now takes an optional ‘func’ argument for
providing a user-supplied binary function.


File: python.info,  Node: logging<7>,  Next: math<9>,  Prev: itertools<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.29 logging
..................

The *note basicConfig(): 9fc. function now supports an optional
‘handlers’ argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the
root logger.

A class level attribute ‘append_nul’ has been added to *note
SysLogHandler: 656. to allow control of the appending of the ‘NUL’
(‘\000’) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required
while for others it is passed through to the log.


File: python.info,  Node: math<9>,  Next: mmap<4>,  Prev: logging<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.30 math
...............

The *note math: 8e. module has a new function, *note log2(): 10ce, which
returns the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.

(Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<4>,  Next: multiprocessing<8>,  Prev: math<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.31 mmap
...............

The *note read(): 10d0. method is now more compatible with other
file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ‘None’, it
returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the
mapping.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<8>,  Next: nntplib<2>,  Prev: mmap<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.32 multiprocessing
..........................

The new *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10d2. function allows
polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a
timeout.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328(1).)

‘multiprocessing.Connection’ objects can now be transferred over
multiprocessing connections.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
bpo-4892(2).)

*note multiprocessing.Process: b56. now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword
argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’
flag from the parent process (bpo-6064(3)).

New attribute *note multiprocessing.Process.sentinel: 10d3. allows a
program to wait on multiple *note Process: b56. objects at one time
using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, *note select: c1. on
posix systems).

New methods *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap(): 10d4. and *note
starmap_async(): 10d5. provide *note itertools.starmap(): 10d6.
equivalents to the existing *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map(): 10d7.
and *note map_async(): 10d8. functions.  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-12708(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib<2>,  Next: os<12>,  Prev: multiprocessing<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.33 nntplib
..................

The ‘nntplib.NNTP’ class now supports the context management protocol to
unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 104b. exceptions and to
close the NNTP connection when done:

     >>> from nntplib import NNTP
     >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
     ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     ...
     ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>>

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-9795(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795


File: python.info,  Node: os<12>,  Next: pdb<7>,  Prev: nntplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.34 os
.............

   * The *note os: a1. module has a new *note pipe2(): 10db. function
     that makes it possible to create a pipe with *note O_CLOEXEC: 1072.
     or *note O_NONBLOCK: e37. flags set atomically.  This is especially
     useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.

   * The *note os: a1. module has a new *note sendfile(): b0c. function
     which provides an efficient “zero-copy” way for copying data from
     one file (or socket) descriptor to another.  The phrase “zero-copy”
     refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two
     descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data
     into userspace buffers.  *note sendfile(): b0c. can be used to
     efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g.
     for downloading a file.

     (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-10882(1).)

   * To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with
     temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also
     faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names.
     Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions
     to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761(2), bpo-10755(3) and
     bpo-14626(4)).

        - The *note os: a1. module has a new *note fwalk(): b58.
          function similar to *note walk(): 4a3. except that it also
          yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited.
          This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.

        - The following functions get new optional 'dir_fd' (*note paths
          relative to directory descriptors: 10dc.) and/or
          'follow_symlinks' (*note not following symlinks: 10dd.): *note
          access(): 10de, *note chflags(): 10df, *note chmod(): 21b,
          *note chown(): 10e0, *note link(): 10e1, *note lstat(): 49b,
          *note mkdir(): 21d, *note mkfifo(): d8c, *note mknod(): d8d,
          *note open(): d8e, *note readlink(): 91c, *note remove():
          10e2, *note rename(): 10e3, *note replace(): 10e4, *note
          rmdir(): 10e5, *note stat(): 49a, *note symlink(): 10e6, *note
          unlink(): 10e7, *note utime(): 10e8.  Platform support for
          using these parameters can be checked via the sets *note
          os.supports_dir_fd: 10e9. and ‘os.supports_follows_symlinks’.

        - The following functions now support a file descriptor for
          their path argument: *note chdir(): 607, *note chmod(): 21b,
          *note chown(): 10e0, *note execve(): 10ea, *note listdir():
          10eb, *note pathconf(): 10ec, *note exists(): a0a, *note
          stat(): 49a, *note statvfs(): 10ed, *note utime(): 10e8.
          Platform support for this can be checked via the *note
          os.supports_fd: 10ee. set.

   * *note access(): 10de. accepts an ‘effective_ids’ keyword argument
     to turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid
     in the access check.  Platform support for this can be checked via
     the *note supports_effective_ids: 10ef. set.

   * The *note os: a1. module has two new functions: *note
     getpriority(): 10f0. and *note setpriority(): 10f1.  They can be
     used to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar
     to *note os.nice(): 10f2. but extended to all processes instead of
     just the current one.

     (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784(5).)

   * The new *note os.replace(): 10e4. function allows cross-platform
     renaming of a file with overwriting the destination.  With *note
     os.rename(): 10e3, an existing destination file is overwritten
     under POSIX, but raises an error under Windows.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8828(6).)

   * The stat family of functions (*note stat(): 49a, *note fstat():
     d88, and *note lstat(): 49b.) now support reading a file’s
     timestamps with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, *note
     utime(): 10e8. can now write file timestamps with nanosecond
     precision.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(7).)

   * The new *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10f3. function queries the
     size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor.  See also *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(8).)

   * New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720(9)):
     *note getxattr(): 10f5, *note listxattr(): 10f6, *note
     removexattr(): 10f7, *note setxattr(): 10f8.

   * New interface to the scheduler.  These functions control how a
     process is allocated CPU time by the operating system.  New
     functions: *note sched_get_priority_max(): 10f9, *note
     sched_get_priority_min(): 10fa, *note sched_getaffinity(): 10fb,
     *note sched_getparam(): 10fc, *note sched_getscheduler(): 10fd,
     *note sched_rr_get_interval(): 10fe, *note sched_setaffinity():
     10ff, *note sched_setparam(): 1100, *note sched_setscheduler():
     1101, *note sched_yield(): 1102,

   * New functions to control the file system:

        * *note posix_fadvise(): d8f.: Announces an intention to access
          data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make
          optimizations.

        * *note posix_fallocate(): d90.: Ensures that enough disk space
          is allocated for a file.

        * *note sync(): 1103.: Force write of everything to disk.

   * Additional new posix functions:

        * *note lockf(): 1104.: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an
          open file descriptor.

        * *note pread(): b5c.: Read from a file descriptor at an offset,
          the file offset remains unchanged.

        * *note pwrite(): b5f.: Write to a file descriptor from an
          offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.

        * *note readv(): b5b.: Read from a file descriptor into a number
          of writable buffers.

        * *note truncate(): e38.: Truncate the file corresponding to
          'path', so that it is at most 'length' bytes in size.

        * *note waitid(): d95.: Wait for the completion of one or more
          child processes.

        * *note writev(): b5e.: Write the contents of 'buffers' to a
          file descriptor, where 'buffers' is an arbitrary sequence of
          buffers.

        * *note getgrouplist(): 1105. (bpo-9344(10)): Return list of
          group ids that specified user belongs to.

   * *note times(): 1106. and *note uname(): 1107.: Return type changed
     from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.

   * Some platforms now support additional constants for the *note
     lseek(): 1108. function, such as ‘os.SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘os.SEEK_DATA’.

   * New constants *note RTLD_LAZY: 1109, *note RTLD_NOW: 110a, *note
     RTLD_GLOBAL: 110b, *note RTLD_LOCAL: 110c, *note RTLD_NODELETE:
     110d, *note RTLD_NOLOAD: 110e, and *note RTLD_DEEPBIND: 110f. are
     available on platforms that support them.  These are for use with
     the *note sys.setdlopenflags(): 1110. function, and supersede the
     similar constants defined in *note ctypes: 2a. and ‘DLFCN’.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226(11).)

   * *note os.symlink(): 10e6. now accepts (and ignores) the
     ‘target_is_directory’ keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to
     ease cross-platform support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<7>,  Next: pickle<5>,  Prev: os<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.35 pdb
..............

Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also
their arguments.  For example, for the ‘break’ command, function and
file names are completed.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-14210(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<5>,  Next: pydoc<5>,  Prev: pdb<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.36 pickle
.................

*note pickle.Pickler: a1a. objects now have an optional *note
dispatch_table: 1113. attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions
to be set.

(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-14166(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<5>,  Next: re<9>,  Prev: pickle<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.37 pydoc
................

The Tk GUI and the ‘serve()’ function have been removed from the *note
pydoc: b5. module: ‘pydoc -g’ and ‘serve()’ have been deprecated in
Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: re<9>,  Next: sched,  Prev: pydoc<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.38 re
.............

*note str: 445. regular expressions now support ‘\u’ and ‘\U’ escapes.

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-3665(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665


File: python.info,  Node: sched,  Next: select<2>,  Prev: re<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.39 sched
................

   * *note run(): 1117. now accepts a 'blocking' parameter which when
     set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to
     expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately.  This is
     useful in case you want to use the *note scheduler: 1118. in
     non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-13449(1).)

   * *note scheduler: 1118. class can now be safely used in
     multi-threaded environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684(2).)

   * 'timefunc' and 'delayfunct' parameters of *note scheduler: 1118.
     class constructor are now optional and defaults to *note
     time.time(): 254. and *note time.sleep(): 697. respectively.
     (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(3).)

   * *note enter(): 1119. and *note enterabs(): 111a. 'argument'
     parameter is now optional.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
     bpo-13245(4).)

   * *note enter(): 1119. and *note enterabs(): 111a. now accept a
     'kwargs' parameter.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245


File: python.info,  Node: select<2>,  Next: shlex<3>,  Prev: sched,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.40 select
.................

Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class *note select.devpoll:
f8d. for high performance asynchronous sockets via ‘/dev/poll’.
(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<3>,  Next: shutil<6>,  Prev: select<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.41 shlex
................

The previously undocumented helper function ‘quote’ from the ‘pipes’
modules has been moved to the *note shlex: c4. module and documented.
*note quote(): 27d. properly escapes all characters in a string that
might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<6>,  Next: signal<4>,  Prev: shlex<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.42 shutil
.................

   * New functions:

        * *note disk_usage(): 111e.: provides total, used and free disk
          space statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
          bpo-12442(1).)

        * *note chown(): 240.: allows one to change user and/or group of
          the given path also specifying the user/group names and not
          only their numeric ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in
          bpo-12191(2).)

        * *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4.: returns the size of
          the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached.
          (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(3).)

   * *note copy2(): a57. and *note copystat(): 111f. now preserve file
     timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
     They also preserve file “extended attributes” on Linux.
     (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(4) and bpo-15238(5).)

   * Several functions now take an optional ‘symlinks’ argument: when
     that parameter is true, symlinks aren’t dereferenced and the
     operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if
     relevant).  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715(6).)

   * When copying files to a different file system, *note move(): a58.
     now handles symlinks the way the posix ‘mv’ command does,
     recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file
     contents.  (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993(7).)  *note
     move(): a58. now also returns the ‘dst’ argument as its result.

   * *note rmtree(): 2f9. is now resistant to symlink attacks on
     platforms which support the new ‘dir_fd’ parameter in *note
     os.open(): d8e. and *note os.unlink(): 10e7.  (Contributed by
     Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489


File: python.info,  Node: signal<4>,  Next: smtpd<4>,  Prev: shutil<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.43 signal
.................

   * The *note signal: c6. module has new functions:

        * *note pthread_sigmask(): 1121.: fetch and/or change the signal
          mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone
          in bpo-8407(1));

        * *note pthread_kill(): 1122.: send a signal to a thread;

        * *note sigpending(): 1123.: examine pending functions;

        * *note sigwait(): 1124.: wait a signal;

        * *note sigwaitinfo(): da7.: wait for a signal, returning
          detailed information about it;

        * *note sigtimedwait(): da6.: like *note sigwaitinfo(): da7. but
          with a timeout.

   * The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte
     instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor.  So it is
     possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were
     raised.

   * *note signal.signal(): 1125. and *note signal.siginterrupt(): 1126.
     raise an OSError, instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno
     attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<4>,  Next: smtplib<4>,  Prev: signal<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.44 smtpd
................

The ‘smtpd’ module now supports RFC 5321(1) (extended SMTP) and RFC
1870(2) (size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are
enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an ‘EHLO’
command.

(Initial ‘ELHO’ support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by
Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell.  bpo-8739(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<4>,  Next: socket<10>,  Prev: smtpd<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.45 smtplib
..................

The *note SMTP: 92b, *note SMTP_SSL: 92c, and *note LMTP: 92d. classes
now accept a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host,
port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the
outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281(1).)

*note SMTP: 92b. now supports the context management protocol, allowing
an ‘SMTP’ instance to be used in a ‘with’ statement.  (Contributed by
Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289(2).)

The *note SMTP_SSL: 92c. constructor and the *note starttls(): 1129.
method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the
secure channel.  (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809


File: python.info,  Node: socket<10>,  Next: socketserver<3>,  Prev: smtplib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.46 socket
.................

   * The *note socket: d9d. class now exposes additional methods to
     process ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:

        * *note sendmsg(): 470.

        * *note recvmsg(): da2.

        * *note recvmsg_into(): 112b.

     (Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560(1), based on an earlier
     patch by Heiko Wundram)

   * The *note socket: d9d. class now supports the PF_CAN protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan’), on Linux
     (‘https://lwn.net/Articles/253425’).

     (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in
     bpo-10141(2).)

   * The *note socket: d9d. class now supports the PF_RDS protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets’
     and https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds(3)).

   * The *note socket: d9d. class now supports the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ protocol
     family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in
     bpo-13777(4).)

   * New function *note sethostname(): 112c. allows the hostname to be
     set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient
     privileges.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<3>,  Next: sqlite3<10>,  Prev: socket<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.47 socketserver
.......................

*note BaseServer: 112e. now has an overridable method *note
service_actions(): 112f. that is called by the *note serve_forever():
1130. method in the service loop.  *note ForkingMixIn: b74. now uses
this to clean up zombie child processes.  (Contributed by Justin
Warkentin in bpo-11109(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<10>,  Next: ssl<11>,  Prev: socketserver<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.48 sqlite3
..................

New *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. method *note set_trace_callback():
2ad. can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by
sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<11>,  Next: stat<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.49 ssl
..............

   * The *note ssl: d0. module has two new random generation functions:

        * *note RAND_bytes(): 51d.: generate cryptographically strong
          pseudo-random bytes.

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’: generate pseudo-random bytes.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-12049(1).)

   * The *note ssl: d0. module now exposes a finer-grained exception
     hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds
     of errors.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183(2).)

   * *note load_cert_chain(): 295. now accepts a 'password' argument to
     be used if the private key is encrypted.  (Contributed by Adam
     Simpkins in bpo-12803(3).)

   * Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based,
     is now supported through the *note load_dh_params(): 1133. and
     *note set_ecdh_curve(): 1134. methods.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-13626(4) and bpo-13627(5).)

   * SSL sockets have a new *note get_channel_binding(): 1135. method
     allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms
     such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in
     bpo-12551(6).)

   * You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket,
     thanks to its new *note compression(): 1136. method.  The new
     attribute *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 1137. can be used to disable
     compression.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634(7).)

   * Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension
     using the *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2fa. method.
     (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204(8).)

   * SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to *note
     library: 1138. and *note reason: 1139. attributes.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837(9).)

   * The *note get_server_certificate(): 836. function now supports
     IPv6.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811(10).)

   * New attribute *note OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 113a. allows
     setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server’s cipher ordering
     preference rather than the client’s (bpo-13635(11)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635


File: python.info,  Node: stat<2>,  Next: struct<3>,  Prev: ssl<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.50 stat
...............

The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to *note
stat.filemode(): 113c.  It can be used to convert a file’s mode to a
string of the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-14807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807


File: python.info,  Node: struct<3>,  Next: subprocess<6>,  Prev: stat<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.51 struct
.................

The *note struct: d5. module now supports ‘ssize_t’ and ‘size_t’ via the
new codes ‘n’ and ‘N’, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-3163(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<6>,  Next: sys<13>,  Prev: struct<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.52 subprocess
.....................

Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513(1).)

A new constant *note DEVNULL: 113f. allows suppressing output in a
platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
bpo-5870(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870


File: python.info,  Node: sys<13>,  Next: tarfile<9>,  Prev: subprocess<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.53 sys
..............

The *note sys: d9. module has a new *note thread_info: 1141. *note named
tuple: 648. holding information about the thread implementation
(bpo-11223(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<9>,  Next: tempfile<4>,  Prev: sys<13>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.54 tarfile
..................

*note tarfile: de. now supports ‘lzma’ encoding via the *note lzma: 8a.
module.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<4>,  Next: textwrap<2>,  Prev: tarfile<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.55 tempfile
...................

*note tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 68d.'s ‘truncate()’ method now
accepts a ‘size’ parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap<2>,  Next: threading<8>,  Prev: tempfile<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.56 textwrap
...................

The *note textwrap: ec. module has a new *note indent(): 276. that makes
it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
of text (bpo-13857(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857


File: python.info,  Node: threading<8>,  Next: time<8>,  Prev: textwrap<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.57 threading
....................

*note threading.Condition: 1146, *note threading.Semaphore: 1147, *note
threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1148, *note threading.Event: 1149, and *note
threading.Timer: 114a, all of which used to be factory functions
returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.
(Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968(1).)

The *note threading.Thread: 94a. constructor now accepts a ‘daemon’
keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the
‘daemon’ flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064(2)).

The formerly private function ‘_thread.get_ident’ is now available as
the public function *note threading.get_ident(): 114b.  This eliminates
several cases of direct access to the ‘_thread’ module in the stdlib.
Third party code that used ‘_thread.get_ident’ should likewise be
changed to use the new public interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064


File: python.info,  Node: time<8>,  Next: types<7>,  Prev: threading<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.58 time
...............

The PEP 418(1) added new functions to the *note time: ee. module:

   * *note get_clock_info(): 114d.: Get information on a clock.

   * *note monotonic(): 253.: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not
     affected by system clock updates.

   * *note perf_counter(): a85.: Performance counter with the highest
     available resolution to measure a short duration.

   * *note process_time(): a86.: Sum of the system and user CPU time of
     the current process.

Other new functions:

   * *note clock_getres(): 114e, *note clock_gettime(): 114f. and *note
     clock_settime(): 1150. functions with ‘CLOCK_XXX’ constants.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278(2).)

To improve cross platform consistency, *note sleep(): 697. now raises a
*note ValueError: 202. when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously
this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278


File: python.info,  Node: types<7>,  Next: unittest<10>,  Prev: time<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.59 types
................

Add a new *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. class: Read-only proxy of a
mapping.  (bpo-14386(1))

The new functions *note types.new_class(): 1152. and *note
types.prepare_class(): 1153. provide support for PEP 3115(2) compliant
dynamic type creation.  (bpo-14588(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<10>,  Next: urllib<4>,  Prev: types<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.60 unittest
...................

*note assertRaises(): 526, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 528, *note
assertWarns(): 1155, and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1156. now accept a
keyword argument 'msg' when used as context managers.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775(1).)

*note unittest.TestCase.run(): 1157. now returns the *note TestResult:
1158. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<4>,  Next: webbrowser<3>,  Prev: unittest<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.61 urllib
.................

The *note Request: fd0. class, now accepts a 'method' argument used by
*note get_method(): 115a. to determine what HTTP method should be used.
For example, this will send a ‘'HEAD'’ request:

     >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))

(bpo-1673007(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<3>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Prev: urllib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.62 webbrowser
.....................

The *note webbrowser: 115. module supports more “browsers”: Google
Chrome (named ‘chrome’, ‘chromium’, ‘chrome-browser’ or
‘chromium-browser’ depending on the version and operating system), and
the generic launchers ‘xdg-open’, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and
‘gvfs-open’, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3.  (The former
contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620(1), the latter by Matthias
Klose in bpo-14493(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Next: zlib<2>,  Prev: webbrowser<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.63 xml.etree.ElementTree
................................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module now imports its C
accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
but is now deprecated).  In addition, the ‘iter’ family of methods of
*note Element: 308. has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module’s
documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a
more detailed reference.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<2>,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.11.20.64 zlib
...............

New attribute *note zlib.Decompress.eof: 115e. makes it possible to
distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an
incomplete or truncated one.  (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in
bpo-12646(1).)

New attribute *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 115f. reports the version
string of the underlying ‘zlib’ library that is loaded at runtime.
(Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<5>,  Next: Build and C API Changes,  Prev: Improved Modules<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.21 Optimizations
---------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * Thanks to PEP 393(1), some operations on Unicode strings have been
     optimized:

        * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the
          text

        * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn’t need to encode
          characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with
          the ASCII representation

        * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized

        * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an
          ASCII string is 4 times faster

   * UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x
     faster.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624(2), bpo-14738(3) and
     bpo-15026(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes,  Next: Deprecated<8>,  Prev: Optimizations<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.22 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * New PEP 3118(1) related function:

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1161.

   * PEP 393(2) added new Unicode types, macros and functions:

        * High-level API:

             * *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b2.

             * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b6.

             * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b0, *note
               PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b1.

             * *note PyUnicode_New(): 8a8.

             * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b3.

             * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1162, *note
               PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1163.

        * Low-level API:

             * *note Py_UCS1: 1164, *note Py_UCS2: 1165, *note Py_UCS4:
               29b. types

             * *note PyASCIIObject: 1166. and *note
               PyCompactUnicodeObject: 1167. structures

             * *note PyUnicode_READY: 3fb.

             * *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 1168.

             * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 1169, *note
               PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8b8.

             * *note PyUnicode_DATA: 116a, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA:
               116b, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA: 116c, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA: 116d.

             * *note PyUnicode_KIND: 116e. with ‘PyUnicode_Kind’ enum:
               ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 116f,
               *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: 1170, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1171.

             * *note PyUnicode_READ: 1172, *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR:
               1173, *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1174.

             * *note PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE: 1175.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple: 56c. now accepts a *note bytearray: 538.
     for the ‘c’ format (bpo-12380(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.23 Deprecated
------------------

* Menu:

* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Deprecated features::


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.11.23.1 Unsupported Operating Systems
.......................................

OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.

Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ‘COMSPEC’ to ‘command.com’
are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.

OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.11.23.2 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
..........................................................

   * Passing a non-empty string to ‘object.__format__()’ is deprecated,
     and will produce a *note TypeError: 532. in Python 3.4
     (bpo-9856(1)).

   * The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated because of the PEP
     393(2), use UTF-8, UTF-16 (‘utf-16-le’ or ‘utf-16-be’), or UTF-32
     (‘utf-32-le’ or ‘utf-32-be’)

   * *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 10b6. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 10b7.:
     use *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 10b5.

   * ‘platform.popen()’: use the *note subprocess: d6. module.  Check
     especially the *note 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기: 1179.
     section (bpo-11377(3)).

   * bpo-13374(4): The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the
     *note os: a1. module.  Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes
     filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to
     support any filename.

   * bpo-13988(5): The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated.
     The accelerator is used automatically whenever available.

   * The behaviour of ‘time.clock()’ depends on the platform: use the
     new *note time.perf_counter(): a85. or *note time.process_time():
     a86. function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a
     well defined behaviour.

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function is deprecated.

   * *note abc: 4. module:

        * *note abc.abstractproperty: 107b. has been deprecated, use
          *note property: 194. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107c.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 107d. has been deprecated, use
          *note classmethod: 166. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107c.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 107e. has been deprecated, use
          *note staticmethod: 410. with *note abc.abstractmethod():
          107c. instead.

   * *note importlib: 77. package:

        * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 117a. is now
          deprecated in favour of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 117b. as bytecode
          files now store both the modification time and size of the
          source file the bytecode file was compiled from.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Next: Deprecated features,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.11.23.3 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
.....................................................

The *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. has been deprecated by PEP 393(1) and will be
removed in Python 4.  All functions using this type are deprecated:

Unicode functions and methods using *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. and *note
Py_UNICODE: 3e7.* types:

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’: use *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 117d.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 1168.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8b9.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA’: use *note PyUnicode_DATA: 116a. with *note
     PyUnicode_READ: 1172. and *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1174.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE’, ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b1. or *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b0.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE’: use ‘PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) *
     PyUnicode_KIND(str)’ (only work on ready strings)

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8b8.
     or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8b9.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’

Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen()’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b0. or
     *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b1.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat()’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b2.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’:
     use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b2. or *note
     PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b3.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8b4.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b5.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b6.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’: use *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 117e.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’

Encoders:

   * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’: use ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bb8. or
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 117f.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1180.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1181.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String():
     1182.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString():
     1183.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1184.
     or *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1185. (with ‘CP_ACP’
     code_page)

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’, ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated features,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.11.23.4 Deprecated features
.............................

The *note array: 7. module’s ‘'u'’ format code is now deprecated and
will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (*note
Py_UNICODE: 3e7.) API.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 3,  Prev: Deprecated<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.11.24 Porting to Python 3.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Porting Python code::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Porting Python code,  Next: Porting C code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.11.24.1 Porting Python code
.............................

   * Hash randomization is enabled by default.  Set the *note
     PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. environment variable to ‘0’ to disable hash
     randomization.  See also the *note object.__hash__(): af8. method.

   * bpo-12326(1): On Linux, sys.platform doesn’t contain the major
     version anymore.  It is now always ‘linux’, instead of ‘linux2’ or
     ‘linux3’ depending on the Linux version used to build Python.
     Replace sys.platform == ‘linux2’ with
     sys.platform.startswith(‘linux’), or directly sys.platform ==
     ‘linux’ if you don’t need to support older Python versions.

   * bpo-13847(2), bpo-14180(3): *note time: ee. and *note datetime:
     30.: *note OverflowError: 87d. is now raised instead of *note
     ValueError: 202. if a timestamp is out of range.  *note OSError:
     411. is now raised if C functions ‘gmtime()’ or ‘localtime()’
     failed.

   * The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is
     contained within a specific directory.  If you create a Python
     source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call *note
     importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d. to clear out the cache for the
     finders to notice the new file.

   * *note ImportError: 413. now uses the full name of the module that
     was attempted to be imported.  Doctests that check ImportErrors’
     message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module
     instead of just the tail of the name.

   * The 'index' argument to *note __import__(): 8d1. now defaults to 0
     instead of -1 and no longer support negative values.  It was an
     oversight when PEP 328(4) was implemented that the default value
     remained -1.  If you need to continue to perform a relative import
     followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import
     using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of
     0.  It is preferred, though, that you use *note
     importlib.import_module(): 511. rather than call *note
     __import__(): 8d1. directly.

   * *note __import__(): 8d1. no longer allows one to use an index value
     other than 0 for top-level modules.  E.g.  ‘__import__('sys',
     level=1)’ is now an error.

   * Because *note sys.meta_path: d28. and *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.
     now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to
     use ‘list.insert()’ instead of ‘list.append()’ to add to those
     lists.

   * Because ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     5de, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths
     that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with
     values of ‘None’ 'and' ‘imp.NullImporter’ to be
     backwards-compatible.  This will lead to extra overhead on older
     versions of Python that re-insert ‘None’ into *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. where it represents the use of
     implicit finders, but semantically it should not change anything.

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ no longer specifies a ‘find_module()’
     abstract method that must be implemented.  If you were relying on
     subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the
     method’s existence first.  You will probably want to check for
     ‘find_loader()’ first, though, in the case of working with *note
     path entry finders: 1067.

   * *note pkgutil: a9. has been converted to use *note importlib: 77.
     internally.  This eliminates many edge cases where the old
     behaviour of the PEP 302(5) import emulation failed to match the
     behaviour of the real import system.  The import emulation itself
     is still present, but is now deprecated.  The *note
     pkgutil.iter_importers(): 1189. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages():
     bfc. functions special case the standard import hooks so they are
     still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard
     ‘iter_modules()’ method.

   * A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079(6)) in the parsing done
     by *note email.header.decode_header(): 10ab. has been fixed.  Code
     that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into
     unicode (‘str(make_header(decode_header(h))’) will see no change,
     but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by
     decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows
     ‘ASCII’ sections is now included in the ‘ASCII’ section.  Code that
     builds headers using ‘make_header’ should also continue to work
     without change, since ‘make_header’ continues to add whitespace
     between ‘ASCII’ and non-‘ASCII’ sections if it is not already
     present in the input strings.

   * *note email.utils.formataddr(): 118a. now does the correct content
     transfer encoding when passed non-‘ASCII’ display names.  Any code
     that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the
     non-‘ASCII’ unicode in the formatted output string will need to be
     changed (bpo-1690608(7)).

   * *note poplib.POP3.quit(): 118b. may now raise protocol errors like
     all other ‘poplib’ methods.  Code that assumes ‘quit’ does not
     raise *note poplib.error_proto: 118c. errors may need to be changed
     if errors on ‘quit’ are encountered by a particular application
     (bpo-11291(8)).

   * The ‘strict’ argument to *note email.parser.Parser: 118d,
     deprecated since Python 2.4, has finally been removed.

   * The deprecated method ‘unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements’ has
     been removed.

   * The deprecated variable ‘time.accept2dyear’ has been removed.

   * The deprecated ‘Context._clamp’ attribute has been removed from the
     *note decimal: 36. module.  It was previously replaced by the
     public attribute *note clamp: 118e.  (See bpo-8540(9).)

   * The undocumented internal helper class ‘SSLFakeFile’ has been
     removed from *note smtplib: ca, since its functionality has long
     been provided directly by *note socket.socket.makefile(): 118f.

   * Passing a negative value to *note time.sleep(): 697. on Windows now
     raises an error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised
     an error on posix.

   * The ‘ast.__version__’ constant has been removed.  If you need to
     make decisions affected by the AST version, use *note
     sys.version_info: 69a. to make the decision.

   * Code that used to work around the fact that the *note threading:
     ed. module used factory functions by subclassing the private
     classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes.

   * The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has
     been removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on
     production code, but is mentioned here in case any application
     debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550(10)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550


File: python.info,  Node: Porting C code,  Next: Building C extensions,  Prev: Porting Python code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.11.24.2 Porting C code
........................

   * In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
     ‘smalltable’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 751. structure has been
     removed and the layout of the ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ has changed.

     All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ or
     ‘object.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * Due to *note PEP 393: 1033, the *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. type and all
     functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available
     for at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs
     to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of
     the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393(1), you have to
     convert your code to the new *note Unicode API: 1190.

     However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
     *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1191, *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1192. or
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383, your code will automatically
     take advantage of the new unicode representations.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1193. now returns ‘-1’ upon
     failure.

   * As a negative value for the 'level' argument to *note __import__():
     8d1. is no longer valid, the same now holds for *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1194.  This also means that the value
     of 'level' used by *note PyImport_ImportModuleEx(): 1195. is now
     ‘0’ instead of ‘-1’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C extensions,  Next: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Porting C code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.11.24.3 Building C extensions
...............................

   * The range of possible file names for C extensions has been
     narrowed.  Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under
     POSIX, files named ‘xxxmodule.so’, ‘xxxmodule.abi3.so’ and
     ‘xxxmodule.cpython-*.so’ are no longer recognized as implementing
     the ‘xxx’ module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
     to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ‘module’ string
     from the file names).

     (implemented in bpo-14040(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Building C extensions,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.11.24.4 Command Line Switch Changes
.....................................

   * The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.
     Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.

     (bpo-10998(1), contributed by Éric Araujo.)

   * When ‘python’ is started with *note -S: 1198, ‘import site’ will no
     longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
     previous versions, it did.

     (bpo-11591(2), contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric
     Araujo.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.12 What’s New In Python 3.2
=============================


Author: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.
Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011.  It focuses on a few
highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
Misc/NEWS(1) file.

더 보기
.......

PEP 392(2) - Python 3.2 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Next: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.1 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
-------------------------------------

In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
not usable with other Python versions.  Particularly on Windows, every
feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
one wanted to use.  This requirement was the result of the free access
to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.

With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to
a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
releases.  As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on.  Extension modules that
make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
need to be recompiled for every feature release.

더 보기
.......

PEP 384(1) - Defining a Stable ABI

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Prev: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.2 PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
----------------------------------------------------

A new module for command line parsing, *note argparse: 6, was introduced
to overcome the limitations of *note optparse: a0. which did not provide
support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands,
required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating
options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
*note argparse: 6. module is now the preferred module for command-line
processing.  The older module is still being kept available because of
the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here’s an annotated example parser showing features like limiting
results to a set of choices, specifying a 'metavar' in the help screen,
validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making
a required option:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                 description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
                 epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
     parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
                 choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
                 help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
     parser.add_argument('targets',
                 metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
                 nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
                 help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
                 required = True,                        # make it a required argument
                 help = 'login as user')

Example of calling the parser on a command string:

     >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
     >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
     >>> result.action
     'deploy'
     >>> result.targets
     ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
     >>> result.user
     'skycaptain'

Example of the parser’s automatically generated help:

     >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

     usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                            {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

     Manage servers

     positional arguments:
       {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
       HOSTNAME              url for target machines

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -u USER, --user USER  login as user

     Tested on Solaris and Linux

An especially nice *note argparse: 6. feature is the ability to define
subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
     subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

     parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
     parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
     parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

     parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                      aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
     parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
     parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

     $ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
     $ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
     $ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
     $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

더 보기
.......

PEP 389(1) - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written by Steven Bethard.

*note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 119d. for details on the
differences from *note optparse: a0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Next: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Prev: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.3 PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 87. module provided two kinds of configuration, one
style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an
external file saved in a *note configparser: 22. format.  Those options
did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or
YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is
needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers *note
logging.config.dictConfig(): 119f. for specifying logging configuration
with plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include
formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here’s a working example of
a configuration dictionary:

     {"version": 1,
      "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                     "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                     },
      "handlers": {"console": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "brief",
                        "level": "INFO",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
                   "console_priority": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "full",
                        "level": "ERROR",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
                   },
      "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called ‘conf.json’, it can be
loaded and called with code like this:

     >>> import json, logging.config
     >>> with open('conf.json') as f:
     ...     conf = json.load(f)
     ...
     >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
     >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
     INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
     >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
     2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

더 보기
.......

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

     PEP written by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Next: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.4 PEP 3148: The ‘concurrent.futures’ module
------------------------------------------------

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new
top-level namespace, 'concurrent'.  Its first member is a 'futures'
package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing
threads and processes.

The design for *note concurrent.futures: 21. was inspired by the
'java.util.concurrent' package.  In that model, a running call and its
result are represented by a *note Future: 11a1. object that abstracts
features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That
object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts,
cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it
easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls.  They save the
effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a
results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of
threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.
This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its
own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: *note
submit(): a7f. for scheduling a callable and returning a *note Future:
11a1. object; *note map(): de0. for scheduling many asynchronous calls
at a time, and *note shutdown(): 8ea. for freeing resources.  The class
is a *note context manager: 5ce. and can be used in a *note with: 5cc.
statement to assure that resources are automatically released when
currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. is a launch of
four parallel threads for copying files:

     import concurrent.futures, shutil
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

더 보기
.......

PEP 3148(1) - Futures – Execute Computations Asynchronously

     PEP written by Brian Quinlan.

*note Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads: 11a2, an example using
threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

*note Code for computing prime numbers in parallel: 11a3, an example
demonstrating *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Next: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Prev: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.5 PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
-------------------------------------------

Python’s scheme for caching bytecode in '.pyc' files did not work well
in environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter
encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would
recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the
benefits of caching.

The issue of “pyc fights” has become more pronounced as it has become
commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of
Python.  These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as
Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, Python’s import machinery has been extended to
use distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and
Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called
“mymodule.pyc”, they will now look for “mymodule.cpython-32.pyc”,
“mymodule.cpython-33.pyc”, and “mymodule.unladen10.pyc”.  And to prevent
all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the 'pyc'
files are now collected in a “__pycache__” directory stored under the
package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a
few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

   * Imported modules now have a *note __cached__: 2d7. attribute which
     stores the name of the actual file that was imported:

          >>> import collections
          >>> collections.__cached__
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the
     ‘imp’ module:

          >>> import imp
          >>> imp.get_tag()
          'cpython-32'

   * Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file
     now need to be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip
     the “c” from a “.pyc” filename.  Instead, use the new functions in
     the ‘imp’ module:

          >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
          'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
          >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py')
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The *note py_compile: b3. and *note compileall: 20. modules have
     been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target
     directory.  The command-line invocation of 'compileall' has new
     options: ‘-i’ for specifying a list of files and directories to
     compile and ‘-b’ which causes bytecode files to be written to their
     legacy location rather than '__pycache__'.

   * The *note importlib.abc: 78. module has been updated with new *note
     abstract base classes: 11a5. for loading bytecode files.  The
     obsolete ABCs, ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’, have been deprecated
     (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included
     with the documentation).

더 보기
.......

PEP 3147(1) - PYC Repository Directories

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Next: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Prev: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.6 PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
---------------------------------------------

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object
files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each
version.

The common directory is “pyshared” and the file names are made distinct
by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython,
etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags
(such as “d” for debug, “m” for pymalloc, “u” for wide-unicode).  For an
arbitrary package “foo”, you may see these files when the distribution
package is installed:

     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so

In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the *note
sysconfig: db. module:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
     'cpython-32mu'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
     '.cpython-32mu.so'

더 보기
.......

PEP 3149(1) - ABI Version Tagged .so Files

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Next: Other Language Changes<7>,  Prev: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.7 PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
-----------------------------------------------------------

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled
by the WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3
is most conveniently handled with the *note str: 445. type even though
the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called 'native strings' that are used for
request/response headers and metadata versus 'byte strings' which are
used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The 'native strings' are always of type *note str: 445. but are
restricted to code points between 'U+0000' through 'U+00FF' which are
translatable to bytes using 'Latin-1' encoding.  These strings are used
for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response
headers and statuses in the ‘start_response()’ function.  They must
follow RFC 2616(1) with respect to encoding.  That is, they must either
be 'ISO-8859-1' characters or use RFC 2047(2) MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the
salient points:

   * If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change
     is needed.

   * If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input
     headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.
     For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using
     ‘h.encode('utf-8')’ now needs to convert from bytes to native
     strings using ‘h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')’.

   * Values yielded by an application or sent using the ‘write()’ method
     must be byte strings.  The ‘start_response()’ function and environ
     must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native
strings even though the underlying platform may have a different
convention.  To bridge this gap, the *note wsgiref: 118. module has a
new function, *note wsgiref.handlers.read_environ(): 11a8. for
transcoding CGI variables from *note os.environ: 11a9. into native
strings and returning a new dictionary.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3333(3) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

     PEP written by Phillip Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<7>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.8 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * String formatting for *note format(): 619. and *note str.format():
     61b. gained new capabilities for the format character '#'.
     Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it
     caused the output to be prefixed with ‘0b’, ‘0o’, or ‘0x’
     respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal,
     causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no
     digits follow it.

          >>> format(20, '#o')
          '0o24'
          >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
          '  12.'

     (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-7094(1).)

   * There is also a new *note str.format_map(): dd3. method that
     extends the capabilities of the existing *note str.format(): 61b.
     method by accepting arbitrary *note mapping: 11ab. objects.  This
     new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of
     Python’s many dictionary-like objects such as *note defaultdict:
     11ac, *note Shelf: f92, *note ConfigParser: 1c8, or *note dbm: 31.
     It is also useful with custom *note dict: 256. subclasses that
     normalize keys before look-up or that supply a ‘__missing__()’
     method for unknown keys:

          >>> import shelve
          >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
          >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
          'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

          >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
          ...
          >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
          >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
          'There are 10 widgets in stock'

          >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
          ...
          >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
          'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-6081(2).)

   * The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ‘-q’, to
     prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed
     in the interactive mode.  The option can be introspected using the
     *note sys.flags: 686. attribute:

          $ python -q
          >>> sys.flags
          sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
          optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
          ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)

     (Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in bpo-1772833(3)).

   * The *note hasattr(): 4cc. function works by calling *note
     getattr(): bce. and detecting whether an exception is raised.  This
     technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by *note
     __getattr__(): 4cd. or *note __getattribute__(): bcf. which would
     otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, 'hasattr'
     would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now,
     'hasattr' has been tightened to only catch *note AttributeError:
     346. and let other exceptions pass through:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         return 1 // 0
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> hasattr(a, 'f')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

     (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-9666(4).)

   * The *note str(): 445. of a float or complex number is now the same
     as its *note repr(): 7f7.  Previously, the *note str(): 445. form
     was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed
     now that the shortest possible *note repr(): 7f7. is displayed by
     default:

          >>> import math
          >>> repr(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'
          >>> str(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'

     (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337(5).)

   * *note memoryview: 462. objects now have a *note release(): 11ad.
     method and they also now support the context management protocol.
     This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when
     requesting a buffer from the original object.

          >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
          ...     print(v.tolist())
          [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757(6).)

   * Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace
     if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:

          def outer(x):
              def inner():
                  return x
              inner()
              del x

     This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an *note except:
     18b. clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python
     2.6, raised a *note SyntaxError: 18d. with Python 3.1 and now works
     again:

          def f():
              def print_error():
                  print(e)
              try:
                  something
              except Exception as e:
                  print_error()
                  # implicit "del e" here

     (See bpo-4617(7).)

   * *note Struct sequence types: 11ae. are now subclasses of tuple.
     This means that C structures like those returned by *note
     os.stat(): 49a, *note time.gmtime(): 11af, and *note
     sys.version_info: 69a. now work like a *note named tuple: 648. and
     now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an
     argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C structures as
     flexible as their pure Python counterparts:

          >>> import sys
          >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
          True
          >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info
          'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'

     (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
     by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413(8).)

   * Warnings are now easier to control using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     ba7. environment variable as an alternative to using ‘-W’ at the
     command line:

          $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'

     (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in
     bpo-7301(9).)

   * A new warning category, *note ResourceWarning: 244, has been added.
     It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or
     cleanup are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release
     builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the *note
     warnings: 112. module, or on the command line.

     A *note ResourceWarning: 244. is issued at interpreter shutdown if
     the *note gc.garbage: 11b0. list isn’t empty, and if *note
     gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 11b1. is set, all uncollectable objects are
     printed.  This is meant to make the programmer aware that their
     code contains object finalization issues.

     A *note ResourceWarning: 244. is also issued when a *note file
     object: 11b2. is destroyed without having been explicitly closed.
     While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the
     underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor),
     the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues,
     especially under Windows.  Here is an example of enabling the
     warning from the command line:

          $ python -q -Wdefault
          >>> f = open("foo", "wb")
          >>> del f
          __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093(10) and
     bpo-477863(11).)

   * *note range: 941. objects now support 'index' and 'count' methods.
     This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
     *note collections.Sequence: 11b3. *note abstract base class: 11a5.
     As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In
     addition, *note range: 941. objects now support slicing and
     negative indices, even with values larger than *note sys.maxsize:
     11b4.  This makes 'range' more interoperable with lists:

          >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
          1
          >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
          5
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
          10
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
          range(0, 10, 2)

     (Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9213(12), by Alexander
     Belopolsky in bpo-2690(13), and by Nick Coghlan in bpo-10889(14).)

   * The *note callable(): 11b5. builtin function from Py2.x was
     resurrected.  It provides a concise, readable alternative to using
     an *note abstract base class: 11a5. in an expression like
     ‘isinstance(x, collections.Callable)’:

          >>> callable(max)
          True
          >>> callable(20)
          False

     (See bpo-10518(15).)

   * Python’s import mechanism can now load modules installed in
     directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This
     solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with
     non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

     (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Multi-threading,  Prev: Other Language Changes<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.9 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

Python’s standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts
and quality improvements.

The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the *note email: 3b. package,
*note mailbox: 8b. module, and ‘nntplib’ modules now work correctly with
the bytes/text model in Python 3.  For the first time, there is correct
handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention
to encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions
with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data
using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support
for 'SSL' connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a *note context manager: 5ce. to
support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a *note with:
5cc. statement.

* Menu:

* email: email<6>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<7>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<10>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<7>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<10>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<5>.
* os: os<13>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<11>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<12>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<11>.
* random: random<5>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<5>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<5>.
* dbm: dbm<7>.
* ctypes: ctypes<3>.
* site: site<4>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<8>.
* configparser: configparser<5>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::


File: python.info,  Node: email<6>,  Next: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.1 email
..............

The usability of the *note email: 3b. package in Python 3 has been
mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem
was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of *note
bytes: 1c2. rather than *note str: 445. text, and they may contain
multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the email package had to
be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

   * New functions *note message_from_bytes(): 11b8. and *note
     message_from_binary_file(): 11b9, and new classes *note
     BytesFeedParser: 11ba. and *note BytesParser: 11bb. allow binary
     message data to be parsed into model objects.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note get_payload(): 11bc. will by
     default decode a message body that has a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' using the charset specified
     in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note Generator: 11bd. will convert
     message bodies that have a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' to
     instead have a '7bit' ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

     Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC
     2047(1)-encoded using the 'unknown-8bit' character set.

   * A new class *note BytesGenerator: 11be. produces bytes as output,
     preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the
     input used to build the model, including message bodies with a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit'.

   * The *note smtplib: ca. *note SMTP: 92b. class now accepts a byte
     string for the 'msg' argument to the *note sendmail(): e51. method,
     and a new method, *note send_message(): e52. accepts a *note
     Message: 27c. object and can optionally obtain the 'from_addr' and
     'to_addrs' addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661(2) and
bpo-10321(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321


File: python.info,  Node: elementtree,  Next: functools<7>,  Prev: email<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.2 elementtree
....................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. package and its
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(): 11c0. which builds an
     XML document from a sequence of fragments

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(): 11c1. for
     registering a global namespace prefix

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(): fec. for string
     representation including all sublists

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 11c2. for appending a
     sequence of zero or more elements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind(): 11c3. searches an
     element and subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext(): 11c4. creates a
     text iterator over an element and its subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end(): 11c5. closes the
     current element

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype(): a94. handles a
     doctype declaration

Two methods have been deprecated:

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()’ use ‘list(elem)’ instead.

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()’ use ‘Element.iter’ instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree(1) on Fredrik
Lundh’s website.

(Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, bpo-6472(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: functools<7>,  Next: itertools<7>,  Prev: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.3 functools
..................

   * The *note functools: 5f. module includes a new decorator for
     caching function calls.  *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. can save
     repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are
     expected to be the same.

     For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query
     function can save database accesses for popular searches:

          >>> import functools
          >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
          ... def get_phone_number(name):
          ...     c = conn.cursor()
          ...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
          ...     return c.fetchone()[0]

          >>> for name in user_requests:
          ...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup

     To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function
     is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)

     If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the
     cache can be cleared with:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas
     from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe
     498245(1), recipe 577479(2), bpo-10586(3), and bpo-10593(4).)

   * The *note functools.wraps(): f55. decorator now adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute pointing to the original callable function.
     This allows wrapped functions to be introspected.  It also copies
     *note __annotations__: 11c7. if defined.  And now it also
     gracefully skips over missing attributes such as *note __doc__:
     11c8. which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

     In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the
     original function:

          >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function

     (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567(5), bpo-3445(6), and
     bpo-8814(7).)

   * To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
     *note functools.total_ordering(): f3a. will use existing equality
     and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.

     For example, supplying '__eq__' and '__lt__' will enable *note
     total_ordering(): f3a. to fill-in '__le__', '__gt__' and '__ge__':

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

              def __lt__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

     With the 'total_ordering' decorator, the remaining comparison
     methods are filled in automatically.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the *note
     functools.cmp_to_key(): 11c9. function converts an old-style
     comparison function to modern *note key function: e01.:

          >>> # locale-aware sort order
          >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting
     HowTo(8) tutorial.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814

   (8) https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<7>,  Next: collections<8>,  Prev: functools<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.4 itertools
..................

   * The *note itertools: 81. module has a new *note accumulate(): 9f9.
     function modeled on APL’s 'scan' operator and Numpy’s 'accumulate'
     function:

          >>> from itertools import accumulate
          >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
          [8, 10, 60]

          >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
          >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
          [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]

     For an example using *note accumulate(): 9f9, see the *note
     examples for the random module: 11cb.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design
     suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)


File: python.info,  Node: collections<8>,  Next: threading<9>,  Prev: itertools<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.5 collections
....................

   * The *note collections.Counter: 1088. class now has two forms of
     in-place subtraction, the existing '-=' operator for saturating
     subtraction(1) and the new *note subtract(): 11cd. method for
     regular subtraction.  The former is suitable for multisets(2) which
     only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use
     cases that allow negative counts:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3})

          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. class has a new method
     *note move_to_end(): 11ce. which takes an existing key and moves it
     to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

     The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is
     equivalent of renewing an entry with ‘od[k] = od.pop(k)’.

     A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.
     For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of
     access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently
     accessed.

          >>> from collections import OrderedDict
          >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
          >>> d.move_to_end('X')
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.deque: 5d6. class grew two new methods *note
     count(): 11cf. and *note reverse(): 11d0. that make them more
     substitutable for *note list: 60b. objects:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('simsalabim')
          >>> d.count('s')
          2
          >>> d.reverse()
          >>> d
          deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset


File: python.info,  Node: threading<9>,  Next: datetime and time,  Prev: collections<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.6 threading
..................

The *note threading: ed. module has a new *note Barrier: 11d2.
synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them
have reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making
sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of
the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a
generalization of a Rendezvous(1) which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, *note Barrier: 11d2. objects
are suitable for use in loops.  The separate 'filling' and 'draining'
phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of
them can loop back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets
after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

     from threading import Barrier, Thread

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
         totals = summarize(ballots)
         publish(site, totals)

     all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
     for site in sites:
         Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be
counted at any polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a
solution with a barrier is similar to one with *note
threading.Thread.join(): 11d3, but the threads stay alive and continue
to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be
created with an optional 'timeout' parameter.  Then if the timeout
period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point,
all waiting threads are released and a *note BrokenBarrierError: 11d4.
exception is raised:

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         try:
             all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
         except BrokenBarrierError:
             lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
             queue.put(lockbox)
         else:
             totals = summarize(ballots)
             publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some
election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and
the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns(2) for more examples of how
barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is a simple but
thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores(3),
'section 3.6'.

(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey
Yasskin in bpo-8777(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous

   (2) 
https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf

   (3) https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777


File: python.info,  Node: datetime and time,  Next: math<10>,  Prev: threading<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.7 datetime and time
..........................

   * The *note datetime: 30. module has a new type *note timezone: 10b2.
     that implements the *note tzinfo: 5d8. interface by returning a
     fixed UTC offset and timezone name.  This makes it easier to create
     timezone-aware datetime objects:

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone

          >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
          datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

          >>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
          datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

   * Also, *note timedelta: 9cc. objects can now be multiplied by *note
     float: 2ef. and divided by *note float: 2ef. and *note int: 257.
     objects.  And *note timedelta: 9cc. objects can now divide one
     another.

   * The *note datetime.date.strftime(): c8e. method is no longer
     restricted to years after 1900.  The new supported year range is
     from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.

   * Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the
     interpretation has been governed by ‘time.accept2dyear’.  The
     default is ‘True’ which means that for a two-digit year, the
     century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the ‘%y’
     strptime format.

     Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will
     emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  Instead, it is recommended
     that ‘time.accept2dyear’ be set to ‘False’ so that large date
     ranges can be used without guesswork:

          >>> import time, warnings
          >>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

          >>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          Warning (from warnings module):
            ...
          DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

          >>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'

     Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.
     When ‘time.accept2dyear’ is false, the *note time.asctime(): 11d6.
     function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the *note
     time.mktime(): 11d7. and *note time.strftime(): 11d8. functions
     will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating
     system functions.

(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in
bpo-1289118(1), bpo-5094(2), bpo-6641(3), bpo-2706(4), bpo-1777412(5),
bpo-8013(6), and bpo-10827(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827


File: python.info,  Node: math<10>,  Next: abc<3>,  Prev: datetime and time,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.8 math
.............

The *note math: 8e. module has been updated with six new functions
inspired by the C99 standard.

The *note isfinite(): 11da. function provides a reliable and fast way to
detect special values.  It returns ‘True’ for regular numbers and
‘False’ for 'Nan' or 'Infinity':

     >>> from math import isfinite
     >>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
     [True, True, False, False]

The *note expm1(): 11db. function computes ‘e**x-1’ for small values of
'x' without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the
subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

     >>> from math import expm1
     >>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
     0.013765762467652909

The *note erf(): bd5. function computes a probability integral or
Gaussian error function(1).  The complementary error function, *note
erfc(): bd6, is ‘1 - erf(x)’:

     >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
     0.682689492137086
     >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
     0.31731050786291404
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
     1.0

The *note gamma(): 11dc. function is a continuous extension of the
factorial function.  See ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function’
for details.  Because the function is related to factorials, it grows
large even for small values of 'x', so there is also a *note lgamma():
11dd. function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma
function:

     >>> from math import gamma, lgamma
     >>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
     720.0
     >>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
     4551.950730698041

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function


File: python.info,  Node: abc<3>,  Next: io<7>,  Prev: math<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.9 abc
............

The *note abc: 4. module now supports *note abstractclassmethod(): 107d.
and *note abstractstaticmethod(): 107e.

These tools make it possible to define an *note abstract base class:
11a5. that requires a particular *note classmethod(): 166. or *note
staticmethod(): 410. to be implemented:

     class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
             ...
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_celsius(cls, t):
             ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867


File: python.info,  Node: io<7>,  Next: reprlib,  Prev: abc<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.10 io
............

The *note io.BytesIO: e9a. has a new method, *note getbuffer(): 11e0,
which provides functionality similar to *note memoryview(): 462.  It
creates an editable view of the data without making a copy.  The
buffer’s random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to
in-place editing:

     >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

     >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
     ...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
     ...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

     >>> import io

     >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
     ...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
     ...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
     ...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
     ... )
     >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
     >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
     >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
     >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
     b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
     b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5506(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib,  Next: logging<8>,  Prev: io<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.11 reprlib
.................

When writing a *note __repr__(): 616. method for a custom container, it
is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the
container itself.  Python’s builtin objects such as *note list: 60b. and
*note set: 5d3. handle self-reference by displaying “…” in the recursive
part of the representation string.

To help write such *note __repr__(): 616. methods, the *note reprlib:
bb. module has a new decorator, *note recursive_repr(): 11e2, for
detecting recursive calls to ‘__repr__()’ and substituting a placeholder
string instead:

     >>> class MyList(list):
     ...     @recursive_repr()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
     ...
     >>> m = MyList('abc')
     >>> m.append(m)
     >>> m.append('x')
     >>> print(m)
     <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9826(1) and bpo-9840(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840


File: python.info,  Node: logging<8>,  Next: csv<4>,  Prev: reprlib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.12 logging
.................

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the *note
logging: 87. package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a *note basic tutorial:
11e4, an *note advanced tutorial: 11e5, and a *note cookbook: 11e6. of
logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about
logging.

The *note logging.basicConfig(): 9fc. set-up function gained a 'style'
argument to support three different types of string formatting.  It
defaults to “%” for traditional %-formatting, can be set to “{” for the
new *note str.format(): 61b. style, or can be set to “$” for the
shell-style formatting provided by *note string.Template: 681.  The
following three configurations are equivalent:

     >>> from logging import basicConfig
     >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
     >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
     >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is
now a default configuration using a *note StreamHandler: 11e7. directed
to *note sys.stderr: 937. for events of ‘WARNING’ level or higher.
Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would
either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the
value of *note logging.raiseExceptions: 11e8.  The new default handler
is stored in *note logging.lastResort: 11e9.

The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a *note
Filter: 11ea. object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
returns ‘True’ or ‘False’.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and
simplify configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing
of changes in Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: csv<4>,  Next: contextlib<8>,  Prev: logging<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.13 csv
.............

The *note csv: 29. module now supports a new dialect, *note
unix_dialect: 11ec, which applies quoting for all fields and a
traditional Unix style with ‘'\n'’ as the line terminator.  The
registered dialect name is ‘unix’.

The *note csv.DictWriter: 11ed. has a new method, *note writeheader():
11ee. for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

     >>> import csv, sys
     >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
     >>> w.writeheader()
     "name","dept"
     >>> w.writerows([
     ...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
     ...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
     "tom","accounting"
     "susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975(1), and the new method
suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<8>,  Next: decimal and fractions,  Prev: csv<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.14 contextlib
....................

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool *note ContextDecorator:
11f0. that is helpful for creating a *note context manager: 5ce. that
does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by *note
contextmanager(): 11f1. so that no extra effort is needed to support
both roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can
be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap
a group of statements using a *note with: 5cc. statement, and function
decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function.  So,
occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action
wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, the *note contextmanager(): 11f1. provides both
capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import contextmanager
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     @contextmanager
     def track_entry_and_exit(name):
         logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
         yield
         logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the
technique.  Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an
argument usable by a *note with: 5cc. statement, but there is no
parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the
'track_entry_and_exit' context manager to return a logging instance for
use in the body of enclosed statements.

(Contributed by Michael Foord in bpo-9110(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110


File: python.info,  Node: decimal and fractions,  Next: ftp,  Prev: contextlib<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.15 decimal and fractions
...............................

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their
actual values are equal (bpo-8188(1)):

     assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
            hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, *note
sys.hash_info: ff5, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the
prime modulus, the hash values for 'infinity' and 'nan', and the
multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

     >>> sys.hash_info
     sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types
has been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have
implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ‘Decimal('1.1') +
float('1.1')’ because the latter loses information in the process of
constructing the binary float.  However, since existing floating-point
value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational
representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to
support mixed-type comparisons.

   * The *note decimal.Decimal: 29d. constructor now accepts *note
     float: 2ef. objects directly so there in no longer a need to use
     the *note from_float(): 11f3. method (bpo-8257(2)).

   * Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that *note
     Decimal: 29d. objects can be directly compared with *note float:
     2ef. and *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. (bpo-2531(3) and
     bpo-8188(4)).

Similar changes were made to *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. so that the
*note from_float(): 11f4. and *note from_decimal(): 11f5. methods are no
longer needed (bpo-8294(5)):

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> Decimal(1.1)
     Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
     >>> Fraction(1.1)
     Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the *note decimal: 36. module is that the
*note Context.clamp: 118e. attribute is now public.  This is useful in
creating contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats
specified in IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540(6)).

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540


File: python.info,  Node: ftp,  Next: popen,  Prev: decimal and fractions,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.16 ftp
.............

The *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 104b. exceptions
and to close the FTP connection when done:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
             ftp.login()
             ftp.dir()

     '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
     dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
     dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

Other file-like objects such as *note mmap.mmap: 20b. and *note
fileinput.input(): 7f9. also grew auto-closing context managers:

     with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
         for line in f:
             process(line)

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-4972(1), and by
Georg Brandl in bpo-8046(2) and bpo-1286(3).)

The *note FTP_TLS: 8f8. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which
is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. object allowing bundling SSL
configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
(potentially long-lived) structure.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8806(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806


File: python.info,  Node: popen,  Next: select<3>,  Prev: ftp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.17 popen
...............

The *note os.popen(): a84. and *note subprocess.Popen(): 199. functions
now support *note with: 5cc. statements for auto-closing of the file
descriptors.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in bpo-7461(1) and
bpo-10554(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554


File: python.info,  Node: select<3>,  Next: gzip and zipfile,  Prev: popen,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.18 select
................

The *note select: c1. module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
*note PIPE_BUF: 11f9, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
guaranteed not to block when *note select.select(): d9c. says a pipe is
ready for writing.

     >>> import select
     >>> select.PIPE_BUF
     512

(Available on Unix systems.  Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862


File: python.info,  Node: gzip and zipfile,  Next: tarfile<10>,  Prev: select<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.19 gzip and zipfile
..........................

*note gzip.GzipFile: 414. now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
68e. *note abstract base class: 11a5. (except for ‘truncate()’).  It
also has a *note peek(): 11fb. method and supports unseekable as well as
zero-padded file objects.

The *note gzip: 67. module also gains the *note compress(): 638. and
*note decompress(): 11fc. functions for easier in-memory compression and
decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as *note
bytes: 1c2. before compressing and decompressing:

     >>> import gzip
     >>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
     >>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
     >>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
     >>> len(b)
     89
     >>> c = gzip.compress(b)
     >>> len(c)
     77
     >>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
     'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in bpo-3488(1); and by Antoine Pitrou,
Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in bpo-9962(2), bpo-1675951(3), bpo-7471(4)
and bpo-2846(5).)

Also, the *note zipfile.ZipExtFile: 415. class was reworked internally
to represent files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is
significantly faster and can be wrapped in an *note io.BufferedReader:
11fd. object for more speedups.  It also solves an issue where
interleaved calls to 'read' and 'readline' gave the wrong results.

(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<10>,  Next: hashlib<7>,  Prev: gzip and zipfile,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.20 tarfile
.................

The *note TarFile: 11ff. class can now be used as a context manager.  In
addition, its *note add(): bf0. method has a new option, 'filter', that
controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file
metadata to be edited.

The new 'filter' option replaces the older, less flexible 'exclude'
parameter which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional 'filter'
parameter needs to be a *note keyword argument: d0f.  The user-supplied
filter function accepts a *note TarInfo: 1200. object and returns an
updated *note TarInfo: 1200. object, or if it wants the file to be
excluded, the function can return ‘None’:

     >>> import tarfile, glob

     >>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
     ...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
     ...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
     ...         return tarinfo

     >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
     ...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
     ...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
     ...     tf.list()
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in
bpo-6856(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<7>,  Next: ast<5>,  Prev: tarfile<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.21 hashlib
.................

The *note hashlib: 68. module has two new constant attributes listing
the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations
and those available on the current implementation:

     >>> import hashlib

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
     {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_available
     {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
     'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
     'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
     'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

(Suggested by Carl Chenet in bpo-7418(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418


File: python.info,  Node: ast<5>,  Next: os<13>,  Prev: hashlib<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.22 ast
.............

The *note ast: 8. module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for
safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax.
The *note ast.literal_eval(): c15. function serves as a secure
alternative to the builtin *note eval(): 180. function which is easily
abused.  Python 3.2 adds *note bytes: 1c2. and *note set: 5d3. literals
to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
dicts, sets, booleans, and ‘None’.

     >>> from ast import literal_eval

     >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

     >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: os<13>,  Next: shutil<7>,  Prev: ast<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.23 os
............

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and
environment variables.  The *note os: a1. module provides two new
functions, *note fsencode(): c52. and *note fsdecode(): c51, for
encoding and decoding filenames:

     >>> import os
     >>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
     >>> os.fsencode(filename)
     b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
environment.  If so, the *note os.supports_bytes_environ: 1204. constant
will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use
the new *note os.getenvb(): 1205. function or use *note os.environb:
1206. which is a bytes version of *note os.environ: 11a9.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<7>,  Next: sqlite3<11>,  Prev: os<13>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.24 shutil
................

The *note shutil.copytree(): a25. function has two new options:

   * 'ignore_dangling_symlinks': when ‘symlinks=False’ so that the
     function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink
     itself.  This option will silence the error raised if the file
     doesn’t exist.

   * 'copy_function': is a callable that will be used to copy files.
     *note shutil.copy2(): a57. is used by default.

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)

In addition, the *note shutil: c5. module now supports *note archiving
operations: 1208. for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering
additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or
custom formats).

The principal functions are *note make_archive(): 4ad. and *note
unpack_archive(): 465.  By default, both operate on the current
directory (which can be set by *note os.chdir(): 607.) and on any
sub-directories.  The archive filename needs to be specified with a full
pathname.  The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are
left unchanged).

     >>> import shutil, pprint

     >>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
     >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
     ...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
     >>> f                                   # show the name of archive
     '/var/backup/mydata.zip'
     >>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
     >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

     >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
     [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
      ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
      ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
      ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

     >>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
     ...     name='xz',
     ...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
     ...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
     ...     description='xz compression'
     ... )

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<11>,  Next: html<3>,  Prev: shutil<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.25 sqlite3
.................

The *note sqlite3: cf. module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It
has two new capabilities.

   * The ‘sqlite3.Connection.in_transit’ attribute is true if there is
     an active transaction for uncommitted changes.

   * The *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 838. and
     *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4b2. methods allows you
     to load SQLite extensions from “.so” files.  One well-known
     extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; bpo-8845(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845


File: python.info,  Node: html<3>,  Next: socket<11>,  Prev: sqlite3<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.26 html
..............

A new *note html: 6b. module was introduced with only a single function,
*note escape(): 1004, which is used for escaping reserved characters
from HTML markup:

     >>> import html
     >>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
     'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'


File: python.info,  Node: socket<11>,  Next: ssl<12>,  Prev: html<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.27 socket
................

The *note socket: cc. module has two new improvements.

   * Socket objects now have a *note detach(): 120c. method which puts
     the socket into closed state without actually closing the
     underlying file descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for
     other purposes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524(1).)

   * *note socket.create_connection(): 66c. now supports the context
     management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error:
     104b. exceptions and to close the socket when done.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<12>,  Next: nntp,  Prev: socket<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.28 ssl
.............

The *note ssl: d0. module added a number of features to satisfy common
requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

   * A new class, *note SSLContext: 294, serves as a container for
     persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates,
     private keys, and various other options.  It includes a *note
     wrap_socket(): 51e. for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.

   * A new function, ‘ssl.match_hostname()’, supports server identity
     verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules
     of HTTPS (from RFC 2818(1)) which are also suitable for other
     protocols.

   * The *note ssl.wrap_socket(): 51e. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument.  The 'ciphers' string lists the allowed
     encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL
     documentation(2).

   * When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the *note ssl: d0.
     module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS
     protocol, allowing multiple “virtual hosts” using different
     certificates on a single IP port.  This extension is only supported
     in client mode, and is activated by passing the 'server_hostname'
     argument to *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e.

   * Various options have been added to the *note ssl: d0. module, such
     as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833. which disables the insecure and obsolete
     SSLv2 protocol.

   * The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest
     algorithms.  If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are
     reported as an “unknown algorithm” error.

   * The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the
     module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 120e. (a string),
     *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 120f. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 1210. (an integer).

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8850(3), bpo-1589(4), bpo-8322(5),
bpo-5639(6), bpo-4870(7), bpo-8484(8), and bpo-8321(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html

   (2) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321


File: python.info,  Node: nntp,  Next: certificates,  Prev: ssl<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.29 nntp
..............

The ‘nntplib’ module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and
text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These improvements break
compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly
dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using
‘nntplib.NNTP_SSL’) and explicit (using ‘nntplib.NNTP.starttls()’) TLS
has also been added.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9360(1) and Andrew Vant in
bpo-1926(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926


File: python.info,  Node: certificates,  Next: imaplib<4>,  Prev: nntp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.30 certificates
......................

*note http.client.HTTPSConnection: b3e, *note
urllib.request.HTTPSHandler: 1213. and *note urllib.request.urlopen():
293. now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate
checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in
public uses of HTTPS.

(Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<4>,  Next: http client<4>,  Prev: certificates,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.31 imaplib
.................

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added
through the new *note imaplib.IMAP4.starttls: 1215. method.

(Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4471(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471


File: python.info,  Node: http client<4>,  Next: unittest<11>,  Prev: imaplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.32 http.client
.....................

There were a number of small API improvements in the *note http.client:
6f. module.  The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer
supported and the 'strict' parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The *note HTTPConnection: b3d. and *note HTTPSConnection: b3e. classes
now have a 'source_address' parameter for a (host, port) tuple
indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
*note HTTPSConnection: b3e.

The *note request(): ca6. method on connection objects allowed an
optional 'body' argument so that a *note file object: 11b2. could be
used to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the 'body'
argument now also accepts an *note iterable: 1217. object so long as it
includes an explicit ‘Content-Length’ header.  This extended interface
is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
*note set_tunnel(): 1218. method that sets the host and port for HTTP
Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of *note http.server: 72, the HTTP client library
now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was
already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is
consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic.  (See work by Armin
Ronacher in bpo-10980(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<11>,  Next: random<5>,  Prev: http client<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.33 unittest
..................

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test
discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive
prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test
failures, and better method names.

   * The command-line call ‘python -m unittest’ can now accept file
     paths instead of module names for running specific tests
     (bpo-10620(1)).  The new test discovery can find tests within
     packages, locating any test importable from the top-level
     directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with the ‘-t’
     option, a pattern for matching files with ‘-p’, and a directory to
     start discovery with ‘-s’:

          $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
     *note unittest.TestCase: 447. class can now be instantiated without
     arguments:

          >>> from unittest import TestCase
          >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note unittest: 106. module has two new methods, *note
     assertWarns(): 1155. and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1156. to verify
     that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:

          with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
              legacy_function('XYZ')

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9754(2).)

     Another new method, *note assertCountEqual(): 121a. is used to
     compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are
     equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number
     of occurrences regardless of order):

          def test_anagram(self):
              self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce
     meaningful diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the
     failure is recorded along with a diff of the output.  This is
     especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs.
     However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new
     *note maxDiff: 121b. attribute that sets maximum length of diffs
     displayed.

   * In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number
     of clean-ups.

     For example, *note assertRegex(): 527. is the new name for
     ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ which was misnamed because the test uses
     *note re.search(): 121c, not *note re.match(): 121d.  Other methods
     using regular expressions are now named using short form “Regex” in
     preference to “Regexp” – this matches the names used in other
     unittest implementations, matches Python’s old name for the *note
     re: b9. module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)

   * To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
     deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

          Old Name                            Preferred Name
                                              
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
          ‘assert_()’                         *note assertTrue(): 520.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertEquals()’                    *note assertEqual(): 522.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotEquals()’                 *note assertNotEqual(): 523.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertAlmostEquals()’              *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals()’           *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 525.
                                              

     Likewise, the ‘TestCase.fail*’ methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are
     expected to be removed in Python 3.3.

     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti; bpo-9424(3).)

   * The ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ method was deprecated because it
     was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
     created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
     ‘TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})’
     would fail.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424


File: python.info,  Node: random<5>,  Next: poplib<4>,  Prev: unittest<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.34 random
................

The integer methods in the *note random: b8. module now do a better job
of producing uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed
selections with ‘int(n*random())’ which had a slight bias whenever 'n'
was not a power of two.  Now, multiple selections are made from a range
up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls
within the range ‘0 <= x < n’.  The functions and methods affected are
*note randrange(): 866, *note randint(): 121f, *note choice(): 1220,
*note shuffle(): 740. and *note sample(): 73f.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9025(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<4>,  Next: asyncore<2>,  Prev: random<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.35 poplib
................

*note POP3_SSL: 922. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a
*note ssl.SSLContext: 294. object allowing bundling SSL configuration
options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
long-lived) structure.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore<2>,  Next: tempfile<5>,  Prev: poplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.36 asyncore
..................

‘asyncore.dispatcher’ now provides a ‘handle_accepted()’ method
returning a ‘(sock, addr)’ pair which is called when a connection has
actually been established with a new remote endpoint.  This is supposed
to be used as a replacement for old ‘handle_accept()’ and avoids the
user to call ‘accept()’ directly.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-6706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<5>,  Next: inspect<10>,  Prev: asyncore<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.37 tempfile
..................

The *note tempfile: e0. module has a new context manager, *note
TemporaryDirectory: 1224. which provides easy deterministic cleanup of
temporary directories:

     with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
         print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; bpo-5178(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<10>,  Next: pydoc<6>,  Prev: tempfile<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.38 inspect
.................

   * The *note inspect: 7e. module has a new function *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 1226. to easily identify the current state of
     a generator-iterator:

          >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
          >>> def gen():
          ...     yield 'demo'
          ...
          >>> g = gen()
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CREATED'
          >>> next(g)
          'demo'
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_SUSPENDED'
          >>> next(g, None)
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CLOSED'

     (Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, bpo-10220(1).)

   * To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic
     attribute, the *note inspect: 7e. module has a new function, *note
     getattr_static(): 48e.  Unlike *note hasattr(): 4cc, this is a true
     read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is
     searching:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         print('Running')
          ...         return 10
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> getattr(a, 'f')
          Running
          10
          >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
          <property object at 0x1022bd788>

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<6>,  Next: dis<5>,  Prev: inspect<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.39 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: b5. module now provides a much-improved web server
interface, as well as a new command-line option ‘-b’ to automatically
open a browser window to display that server:

     $ pydoc3.2 -b

(Contributed by Ron Adam; bpo-2001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001


File: python.info,  Node: dis<5>,  Next: dbm<7>,  Prev: pydoc<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.40 dis
.............

The *note dis: 38. module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
*note code_info(): 1229. and *note show_code(): f24.  Both provide
detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object.  The former returns a string and the
latter prints it:

     >>> import dis, random
     >>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
     Name:              choice
     Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
     Argument count:    2
     Kw-only arguments: 0
     Number of locals:  3
     Stack size:        11
     Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
     Constants:
        0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
        1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
     Names:
        0: _randbelow
        1: len
        2: ValueError
        3: IndexError
     Variable names:
        0: self
        1: seq
        2: i

In addition, the *note dis(): b31. function now accepts string arguments
so that the common idiom ‘dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))’ can be shortened
to ‘dis(s)’:

     >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
       1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                   3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                   6 BINARY_MODULO
                   7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
                  13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
                  16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
                  19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
                  23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  26 BINARY_ADD
                  27 RETURN_VALUE
             >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                  34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
                  35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython
is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
under-the-hood.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-9147(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<7>,  Next: ctypes<3>,  Prev: dis<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.41 dbm
.............

All database modules now support the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

(Suggested by Ray Allen in bpo-9523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<3>,  Next: site<4>,  Prev: dbm<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.42 ctypes
................

A new type, *note ctypes.c_ssize_t: 122c. represents the C ‘ssize_t’
datatype.


File: python.info,  Node: site<4>,  Next: sysconfig<3>,  Prev: ctypes<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.43 site
..............

The *note site: c7. module has three new functions useful for reporting
on the details of a given Python installation.

   * *note getsitepackages(): 122e. lists all global site-packages
     directories.

   * *note getuserbase(): 122f. reports on the user’s base directory
     where data can be stored.

   * *note getusersitepackages(): 1230. reveals the user-specific
     site-packages directory path.

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getsitepackages()
     ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
      '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
      '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
     >>> site.getuserbase()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site’s functionality is accessible directly from
the command-line:

     $ python -m site --user-base
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local
     $ python -m site --user-site
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in bpo-6693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<3>,  Next: pdb<8>,  Prev: site<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.44 sysconfig
...................

The new *note sysconfig: db. module makes it straightforward to discover
installation paths and configuration variables that vary across
platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and
version information:

   * *note get_platform(): 1232. returning values like 'linux-i586' or
     'macosx-10.6-ppc'.

   * *note get_python_version(): 1233. returns a Python version string
     such as “3.2”.

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one
of seven named schemes used by ‘distutils’.  Those include
'posix_prefix', 'posix_home', 'posix_user', 'nt', 'nt_user', 'os2',
'os2_home':

   * *note get_paths(): 1234. makes a dictionary containing installation
     paths for the current installation scheme.

   * *note get_config_vars(): 1022. returns a dictionary of platform
     specific variables.

There is also a convenient command-line interface:

     C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "win32"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "nt"

     Paths:
             data = "C:\Python32"
             include = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
             stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"

     Variables:
             BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
             BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             EXE = ".exe"
             INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
             LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             SO = ".pyd"
             VERSION = "32"
             abiflags = ""
             base = "C:\Python32"
             exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
             platbase = "C:\Python32"
             prefix = "C:\Python32"
             projectbase = "C:\Python32"
             py_version = "3.2"
             py_version_nodot = "32"
             py_version_short = "3.2"
             srcdir = "C:\Python32"
             userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"

(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<8>,  Next: configparser<5>,  Prev: sysconfig<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.45 pdb
.............

The *note pdb: a5. debugger module gained a number of usability
improvements:

   * ‘pdb.py’ now has a ‘-c’ option that executes commands as given in a
     ‘.pdbrc’ script file.

   * A ‘.pdbrc’ script file can contain ‘continue’ and ‘next’ commands
     that continue debugging.

   * The *note Pdb: 91f. class constructor now accepts a 'nosigint'
     argument.

   * New commands: ‘l(list)’, ‘ll(long list)’ and ‘source’ for listing
     source code.

   * New commands: ‘display’ and ‘undisplay’ for showing or hiding the
     value of an expression if it has changed.

   * New command: ‘interact’ for starting an interactive interpreter
     containing the global and local names found in the current scope.

   * Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<5>,  Next: urllib parse<6>,  Prev: pdb<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.46 configparser
......................

The *note configparser: 22. module was modified to improve usability and
predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The
old ‘ConfigParser’ class was removed in favor of ‘SafeConfigParser’
which has in turn been renamed to *note ConfigParser: 1c8.  Support for
inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser()
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [DEFAULT]
     ... location = upper left
     ... visible = yes
     ... editable = no
     ... color = blue
     ...
     ... [main]
     ... title = Main Menu
     ... color = green
     ...
     ... [options]
     ... title = Options
     ... """)
     >>> parser['main']['color']
     'green'
     >>> parser['main']['editable']
     'no'
     >>> section = parser['options']
     >>> section['title']
     'Options'
     >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
     >>> section['title']
     'Options (editable: no)'

The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.

The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized.
Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment
prefixes, change the name of the 'DEFAULT' section or switch the
interpolation syntax.

There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional
interpolation handler *note ExtendedInterpolation: 71c.:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
     >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
     ...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [buildout]
     ... parts =
     ...   zope9
     ...   instance
     ... find-links =
     ...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
     ...
     ... [zope9]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
     ... location = /opt/zope
     ...
     ... [instance]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
     ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
     ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
     ... """)
     >>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
     '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
     >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance = parser['instance']
     >>> instance['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance['zope9-location']
     '/opt/zope'

A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for
specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for
get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.

(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<6>,  Next: mailbox,  Prev: configparser<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.47 urllib.parse
......................

A number of usability improvements were made for the *note urllib.parse:
10a. module.

The *note urlparse(): 305. function now supports IPv6(1) addresses as
described in RFC 2732(2):

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
     ParseResult(scheme='http',
                 netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
                 path='/foo/',
                 params='',
                 query='',
                 fragment='')

The *note urldefrag(): 1238. function now returns a *note named tuple:
648.:

     >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
     >>> r
     DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
     >>> r[0]
     'http://python.org/about/'
     >>> r.fragment
     'target'

And, the *note urlencode(): e8b. function is now much more flexible,
accepting either a string or bytes type for the 'query' argument.  If it
is a string, then the 'safe', 'encoding', and 'error' parameters are
sent to *note quote_plus(): 1239. for encoding:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
     ...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
     ...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
     ...      encoding='latin-1')
     'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'

As detailed in *note ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석: 123a, all the
*note urllib.parse: 10a. functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings
as input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings.  If
ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types
will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/')
     ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
                      path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')

(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987(3),
bpo-5468(4), and bpo-9873(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox,  Next: turtledemo,  Prev: urllib parse<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.48 mailbox
.................

Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the *note mailbox: 8b.
module has been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox
had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages
are best represented with *note bytes: 1c2. because various parts of a
message may have different encodings.

The solution harnessed the *note email: 3b. package’s binary support for
parsing arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a
number of API changes.

As expected, the *note add(): 123c. method for *note mailbox.Mailbox:
123d. objects now accepts binary input.

*note StringIO: f1f. and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string
input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it
would fail when the email was processed in a later step.

There is also support for binary output.  The *note get_file(): 123e.
method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to
incorrectly set the file to text-mode).  There is also a new *note
get_bytes(): 123f. method that returns a *note bytes: 1c2.
representation of a message corresponding to a given 'key'.

It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API’s *note
get_string(): 1240. method, but that approach is not very useful.
Instead, it is best to extract messages from a *note Message: 1241.
object or to load them from binary input.

(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode
Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo,  Prev: mailbox,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.12.9.49 turtledemo
....................

The demonstration code for the *note turtle: 101. module was moved from
the 'Demo' directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample
scripts with lively displays.  Being on *note sys.path: 3ae, it can now
be run directly from the command-line:

     $ python -m turtledemo

(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading,  Next: Optimizations<6>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.10 Multi-threading
-----------------------

   * The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running
     Python threads (generally known as the *note GIL: 159. or Global
     Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten.  Among the objectives were
     more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to
     lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls.  The notion
     of a “check interval” to allow thread switches has been abandoned
     and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds.  This
     parameter is tunable through *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 948.
     It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.

     Additional details about the implementation can be read from a
     python-dev mailing-list message(1) (however, “priority requests” as
     exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)

   * Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional 'timeout'
     argument to their *note acquire(): 692. method.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316(2).)

   * Similarly, *note threading.Semaphore.acquire(): 1244. also gained a
     'timeout' argument.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff;
     bpo-850728(3).)

   * Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by
     signals on platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python
     programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully
     killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing
     ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ in most shells).  (Contributed by Reid Kleckner;
     bpo-8844(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<6>,  Next: Unicode,  Prev: Multi-threading,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.11 Optimizations
---------------------

A number of small performance enhancements have been added:

   * Python’s peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ‘x in {1,
     2, 3}’ as being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The
     optimizer recasts the *note set: 5d3. as a *note frozenset: 5d4.
     and stores the pre-built constant.

     Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start
     writing membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both
     semantically clear and operationally fast:

          extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
          if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
              handle(name)

     (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm;
     bpo-6690(1)).

   * Serializing and unserializing data using the *note pickle: a6.
     module is now several times faster.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the
     Unladen Swallow team in bpo-9410(2) and bpo-3873(3).)

   * The Timsort algorithm(4) used in *note list.sort(): bcc. and *note
     sorted(): bcb. now runs faster and uses less memory when called
     with a *note key function: e01.  Previously, every element of a
     list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key
     value associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and
     values are sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by
     the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating
     comparisons.

     (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915(5).)

   * JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is
     reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.
     Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the ‘sort_keys’
     argument is true.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-7451(6) and by Raymond
     Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-10314(7).)

   * Recursive locks (created with the *note threading.RLock(): 2e0.
     API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast
     as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their
     previous pure Python implementation.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3001(8).)

   * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the *note
     split(): ea0, *note rsplit(): 1246, *note splitlines(): 1247. and
     *note replace(): 19a. methods on *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray:
     538. and *note str: 445. objects.  Likewise, the algorithm is also
     used by *note rfind(): e9f, *note rindex(): 1248, *note rsplit():
     1246. and *note rpartition(): 1249.

     (Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622(9) and bpo-7462(10).)

   * Integer to string conversions now work two “digits” at a time,
     reducing the number of division and modulo operations.

     (bpo-6713(11) by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor
     Stinner.)

There were several other minor optimizations.  Set differencing now runs
faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress
Bennetts in bpo-8685(12)).  The ‘array.repeat()’ method has a faster
implementation (bpo-1569291(13) by Alexander Belopolsky).  The *note
BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be. has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709(14)
by Andrew Schaaf).  The *note operator.attrgetter(): e2f. function has
been sped-up (bpo-10160(15) by Christos Georgiou).  And *note
ConfigParser: 1c8. loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113(16)
by Łukasz Langa).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode,  Next: Codecs,  Prev: Optimizations<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.12 Unicode
---------------

Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0(1).  The update to the standard
adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji(2) symbols which are
important for mobile phones.

In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties
for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric
character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers
while disqualifying the latter.  For more information, see Unicode
Character Database Changes(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes


File: python.info,  Node: Codecs,  Next: Documentation,  Prev: Unicode,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.13 Codecs
--------------

Support was added for 'cp720' Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979(1)).

MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument.  In the
default strict mode, it raises an *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. when it
encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an *note UnicodeEncodeError:
671. for an unencodable character.

The MBCS codec supports ‘'strict'’ and ‘'ignore'’ error handlers for
decoding, and ‘'strict'’ and ‘'replace'’ for encoding.

To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ‘'ignore'’ handler for
decoding and the ‘'replace'’ handler for encoding.

On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ‘'utf-8'’ rather
than the locale encoding.

By default, *note tarfile: de. uses ‘'utf-8'’ encoding on Windows
(instead of ‘'mbcs'’) and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler on all
operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation,  Next: IDLE,  Prev: Codecs,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.14 Documentation
---------------------

The documentation continues to be improved.

   * A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy
     sections such as *note 내장 함수: 124d.  In the case of *note
     itertools: 81, the links are accompanied by tables of
     cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog
     without having to read all of the docs.

   * In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct
     to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links
     to the latest version of the source code.  For example, the *note
     functools: 5f. module documentation has a quick link at the top
     labeled:

          'Source code' Lib/functools.py(1).

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale(2).)

   * The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular,
     *note re: b9. module has an extensive section, *note 정규식 예제:
     124e.  Likewise, the *note itertools: 81. module continues to be
     updated with new *note Itertools 조리법: 124f.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module now has an auxiliary implementation
     in pure Python.  No functionality was changed.  This just provides
     an easier-to-read alternate implementation.

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-9528(3).)

   * The unmaintained ‘Demo’ directory has been removed.  Some demos
     were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the
     ‘Tools/demo’ directory, and others were removed altogether.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-7962(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/functools.py

   (2) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE,  Next: Code Repository,  Prev: Documentation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.15 IDLE
------------

   * The format menu now has an option to clean source files by
     stripping trailing whitespace.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5150(1).)

   * IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa
     AquaTk.

     (Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren;
     bpo-6075(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075


File: python.info,  Node: Code Repository,  Next: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Prev: IDLE,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.16 Code Repository
-----------------------

In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at
‘https://svn.python.org’ there is now a Mercurial(1) repository at
‘https://hg.python.org/’.

After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the
primary repository.  This distributed version control system should make
it easier for members of the community to create and share external
changesets.  See PEP 385(2) for details.

To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start(3)
or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/

   (3) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart

   (4) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Code Repository,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.17 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The 'idle', 'pydoc' and '2to3' scripts are now installed with a
     version-specific suffix on ‘make altinstall’ (bpo-10679(1)).

   * The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and
     return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow
     unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and
     others).  A visible difference in Python is that *note
     unicodedata.numeric(): 1253. now returns the correct value for
     large code points, and *note repr(): 7f7. may consider more
     characters as printable.

     (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc;
     bpo-5127(2).)

   * Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers
     (which are detected by the configure script).  They can still be
     disabled selectively by specifying ‘--without-computed-gotos’.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9203(3).)

   * The option ‘--with-wctype-functions’ was removed.  The built-in
     unicode database is now used for all functions.

     (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; bpo-9210(4).)

   * Hash values are now values of a new type, *note Py_hash_t: 1254,
     which is defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they
     were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still
     only 32 bits long.  As a result of this fix, *note set: 5d3. and
     *note dict: 256. can now hold more than ‘2**32’ entries on builds
     with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but
     their performance degraded catastrophically).

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-9778(5).)

   * A new macro ‘Py_VA_COPY’ copies the state of the variable argument
     list.  It is equivalent to C99 'va_copy' but available on all
     Python platforms (bpo-2443(6)).

   * A new C API function ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ allows an embedded
     interpreter to set *note sys.argv: 1255. without also modifying
     *note sys.path: 3ae. (bpo-5753(7)).

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available in macro form.  The
     function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility
     reasons, is now removed – the macro was introduced in 1997
     (bpo-8276(8)).

   * There is a new function *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1256.
     which is analogous to *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1257.  They
     both serve to convert Python *note int: 257. into a native
     fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the
     conversion won’t fit (bpo-7767(9)).

   * The *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 1258. function now
     returns 'not equal' if the Python string is 'NUL' terminated.

   * There is a new function *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1259.
     that is like *note PyErr_NewException(): 125a. but allows a
     docstring to be specified.  This lets C exceptions have the same
     self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts
     (bpo-7033(10)).

   * When compiled with the ‘--with-valgrind’ option, the pymalloc
     allocator will be automatically disabled when running under
     Valgrind.  This gives improved memory leak detection when running
     under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times
     (bpo-2422(11)).

   * Removed the ‘O?’ format from the 'PyArg_Parse' functions.  The
     format is no longer used and it had never been documented
     (bpo-8837(12)).

There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the
Misc/NEWS(13) file for a complete list.

Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
Mac/BuildScript/README.txt(14) for details.  For users running a
32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac
OS X 10.6.  Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative
such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9(15).  See
‘https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/’ for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS

   (14) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt

   (15) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.12.18 Porting to Python 3.2
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note configparser: 22. module has a number of clean-ups.  The
     major change is to replace the old ‘ConfigParser’ class with
     long-standing preferred alternative ‘SafeConfigParser’.  In
     addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:

        * The interpolation syntax is now validated on *note get():
          125c. and *note set(): 125d. operations.  In the default
          interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are
          valid: ‘%(name)s’ and ‘%%’, the latter being an escaped
          percent sign.

        * The *note set(): 125d. and *note add_section(): 125e. methods
          now verify that values are actual strings.  Formerly,
          unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.

        * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise
          either *note DuplicateSectionError: 125f. or *note
          DuplicateOptionError: 1260.  Formerly, duplicates would
          silently overwrite a previous entry.

        * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ';'
          character can be safely used in values.

        * Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for ';' or '#' to
          appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to
          be interpolated.  This keeps comment prefix characters in
          values from being mistaken as comments.

        * ‘""’ is now a valid value and is no longer automatically
          converted to an empty string.  For empty strings, use ‘"option
          ="’ in a line.

   * The ‘nntplib’ module was reworked extensively, meaning that its
     APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.

   * *note bytearray: 538. objects can no longer be used as filenames;
     instead, they should be converted to *note bytes: 1c2.

   * The ‘array.tostring()’ and ‘array.fromstring()’ have been renamed
     to *note array.tobytes(): 1261. and *note array.frombytes(): 1262.
     for clarity.  The old names have been deprecated.  (See
     bpo-8990(1).)

   * ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions:

        * “t#” format has been removed: use “s#” or “s*” instead

        * “w” and “w#” formats has been removed: use “w*” instead

   * The ‘PyCObject’ type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
     opaque C pointers in Python objects, the *note PyCapsule: 1263. API
     should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface
     for passing typing safety information and a less complicated
     signature for calling a destructor.

   * The ‘sys.setfilesystemencoding()’ function was removed because it
     had a flawed design.

   * The *note random.seed(): 1264. function and method now salt string
     seeds with an sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version
     of 'seed' in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the
     'version' argument to '1', ‘random.seed(s, version=1)’.

   * The previously deprecated ‘string.maketrans()’ function has been
     removed in favor of the static methods *note bytes.maketrans():
     1265. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 1266.  This change solves
     the confusion around which types were supported by the *note
     string: d3. module.  Now, *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2, and
     *note bytearray: 538. each have their own 'maketrans' and
     'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the
     appropriate type.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(2).)

   * The previously deprecated ‘contextlib.nested()’ function has been
     removed in favor of a plain *note with: 5cc. statement which can
     accept multiple context managers.  The latter technique is faster
     (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing
     multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:

          with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
              for line in infile:
                  if '<critical>' in line:
                      outfile.write(line)

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(3).)

   * *note struct.pack(): 1267. now only allows bytes for the ‘s’ string
     pack code.  Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly
     encode them to bytes using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it
     made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a
     variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length
     segment of a structure.

     Code such as ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)’ should be
     rewritten with to use bytes instead of text,
     ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)’.

     (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner;
     bpo-10783(4).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. class now raises an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError: 1268. when a parse fails.
     Previously it raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 1269.

   * The new, longer *note str(): 445. value on floats may break
     doctests which rely on the old output format.

   * In *note subprocess.Popen: 199, the default value for 'close_fds'
     is now ‘True’ under Unix; under Windows, it is ‘True’ if the three
     standard streams are set to ‘None’, ‘False’ otherwise.  Previously,
     'close_fds' was always ‘False’ by default, which produced difficult
     to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would
     leak into the child process.

   * Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from *note
     urllib.request: 10b. and *note http.client: 6f.  Such support is
     still present on the server side (in *note http.server: 72.).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10711(5).)

   * SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise *note socket.timeout: 82e.
     when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic *note SSLError: 126a.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10272(6).)

   * The misleading functions ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ have been officially deprecated.  The
     thread-state aware APIs (such as *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2.
     and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3.) should be used instead.

   * Due to security risks, ‘asyncore.handle_accept()’ has been
     deprecated, and a new function, ‘asyncore.handle_accepted()’, was
     added to replace it.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-6706(7).)

   * Due to the new *note GIL: 159. implementation,
     ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9. anymore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (3) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.13 What’s New In Python 3.1
=============================


Author: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009.

* Menu:

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new
*note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. class has been introduced.

The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing
entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an
entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.  The *note configparser: 22. module uses them by default.  This
lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in
their original order.  The '_asdict()' method for *note
collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now returns an ordered dictionary with
the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
The *note json: 82. module is being built-out with an
'object_pairs_hook' to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

더 보기
.......

PEP 372(2) - Ordered Dictionaries

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.
     Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger.

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be
used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

     >>> # regular unsorted dictionary
     >>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

     >>> # dictionary sorted by key
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
     OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by value
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are
deleted.  But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end
and the sort is not maintained.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Next: Other Language Changes<8>,  Prev: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.2 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

The built-in *note format(): 619. function and the *note str.format():
61b. method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale
aware way to format a number with a thousands separator.  That provides
a way to humanize a program’s output, improving its professional
appearance and readability:

     >>> format(1234567, ',d')
     '1,234,567'
     >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
     '1,234,567.89'
     >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
     '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
     >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
     '1,234,567.89'

The supported types are *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note complex:
2f0. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.

Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware
applications should use the existing 'n' format specifier which already
has some support for thousands separators.

더 보기
.......

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
     Mark Dickinson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<8>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.3 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry
     in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised
     patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note int(): 257. type gained a ‘bit_length’ method that
     returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in
     binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(37)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond
     Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-3439(2).)

   * The fields in *note format(): 619. strings can now be automatically
     numbered:

          >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
          'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'

     Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
     ‘'Sir {0} of {1}'’.

     (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(3).)

   * The ‘string.maketrans()’ function is deprecated and is replaced by
     new static methods, *note bytes.maketrans(): 1265. and *note
     bytearray.maketrans(): 1266.  This change solves the confusion
     around which types were supported by the *note string: d3. module.
     Now, *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2, and *note bytearray: 538.
     each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with
     intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(4).)

   * The syntax of the *note with: 5cc. statement now allows multiple
     context managers in a single statement:

          >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
          ...     for line in infile:
          ...         if '<critical>' in line:
          ...             outfile.write(line)

     With the new syntax, the ‘contextlib.nested()’ function is no
     longer needed and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(5).)

   * ‘round(x, n)’ now returns an integer if 'x' is an integer.
     Previously it returned a float:

          >>> round(1123, -2)
          1100

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4707(6).)

   * Python now uses David Gay’s algorithm for finding the shortest
     floating-point representation that doesn’t change its value.  This
     should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary
     floating-point numbers.

     The significance is easily seen with a number like ‘1.1’ which does
     not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there
     is no exact equivalent, an expression like ‘float('1.1')’ evaluates
     to the nearest representable value which is ‘0x1.199999999999ap+0’
     in hex or ‘1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625’
     in decimal.  That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent
     floating-point calculations.

     What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python
     used a simple approach.  The value of ‘repr(1.1)’ was computed as
     ‘format(1.1, '.17g')’ which evaluated to ‘'1.1000000000000001'’.
     The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754
     guarantees to assure that ‘eval(repr(1.1))’ would round-trip
     exactly to its original value.  The disadvantage is that many
     people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic
     limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a
     problem with Python itself).

     The new algorithm for ‘repr(1.1)’ is smarter and returns ‘'1.1'’.
     Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations
     (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and
     returns the shortest representation.

     The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when
     possible, but it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is
     still the case that ‘1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3’ even though the
     representations may suggest otherwise.

     The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying
     floating-point implementation.  If the required features are not
     found, the old algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text
     pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old
     algorithm.

     (Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; bpo-1580(7))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (5) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<7>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.4 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

   * Added a *note collections.Counter: 1088. class to support
     convenient counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:

          >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
          Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(1).)

   * Added a new module, *note tkinter.ttk: f9. for access to the Tk
     themed widget set.  The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the
     extent possible, the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the
     code implementing its appearance.

     (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2983(2).)

   * The *note gzip.GzipFile: 414. and *note bz2.BZ2File: 861. classes
     now support the context management protocol:

          >>> # Automatically close file after writing
          >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
          ...     f.write(b"xxx")

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)

   * The *note decimal: 36. module now supports methods for creating a
     decimal object from a binary *note float: 2ef.  The conversion is
     exact but can sometimes be surprising:

          >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
          Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

     The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
     stored for '1.1'.  The fraction has many digits because '1.1'
     cannot be exactly represented in binary.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)

   * The *note itertools: 81. module grew two new functions.  The *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1271. function is one of
     four for generating combinatorics including permutations and
     Cartesian products.  The *note itertools.compress(): 1272. function
     mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing *note
     itertools.count(): 1273. function now has an optional 'step'
     argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including
     *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.:

          >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
          ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']

          >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
          [2, 3, 5, 7]

          >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
          >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
          [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now supports a keyword
     argument 'rename' which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically
     converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is
     useful when the field names are being created by an external source
     such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:

          >>> query = input()
          SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept

          >>> cursor.execute(query)
          >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
          >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
          >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
          [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
           UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
           UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(3).)

   * The *note re.sub(): 2a3, *note re.subn(): 2a4. and *note
     re.split(): 2a2. functions now accept a flags parameter.

     (Contributed by Gregory Smith.)

   * The *note logging: 87. module now implements a simple *note
     logging.NullHandler: 1274. class for applications that are not
     using logging but are calling library code that does.  Setting-up a
     null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as “No handlers
     could be found for logger foo”:

          >>> h = logging.NullHandler()
          >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)

     (Contributed by Vinay Sajip; bpo-4384(4)).

   * The *note runpy: be. module which supports the ‘-m’ command line
     switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and
     executing a ‘__main__’ submodule when a package name is supplied.

     (Contributed by Andi Vajda; bpo-4195(5).)

   * The *note pdb: a5. module can now access and display source code
     loaded via *note zipimport: 132. (or any other conformant PEP
     302(6) loader).

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-4201(7).)

   * *note functools.partial: 40e. objects can now be pickled.

     (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by Jack
     Diederich; bpo-5228(8).)

   * Add *note pydoc: b5. help topics for symbols so that ‘help('@')’
     works as expected in the interactive environment.

     (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(9).)

   * The *note unittest: 106. module now supports skipping individual
     tests or classes of tests.  And it supports marking a test as an
     expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn’t
     be counted as a failure on a TestResult:

          class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):

              @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
              def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
                  ...

              @unittest.expectedFailure
              def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
                  ...

     Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context
     managers using the *note with: 5cc. statement:

          def test_division_by_zero(self):
              with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                  x / 0

     In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
     *note assertSetEqual(): 1275, *note assertDictEqual(): 1276,
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’, *note assertListEqual(): 1277, *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 1278, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 1279, *note
     assertRaisesRegexp(): 528, *note assertIsNone(): 127a, and *note
     assertIsNotNone(): 127b.

     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.)

   * The *note io: 7f. module has three new constants for the *note
     seek(): 127c. method: *note SEEK_SET: 127d, *note SEEK_CUR: 127e,
     and *note SEEK_END: 127f.

   * The *note sys.version_info: 69a. tuple is now a named tuple:

          >>> sys.version_info
          sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)

     (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(10).)

   * The ‘nntplib’ and *note imaplib: 74. modules now support IPv6.

     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(11) and bpo-1664(12).)

   * The *note pickle: a6. module has been adapted for better
     interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or
     lower.  The reorganization of the standard library changed the
     formal reference for many objects.  For example, ‘__builtin__.set’
     in Python 2 is called ‘builtins.set’ in Python 3.  This change
     confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
     Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler
     will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and
     dumping.  This remapping is turned-on by default but can be
     disabled with the 'fix_imports' option:

          >>> s = {1, 2, 3}
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
          b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
          b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'

     An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that
     protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won’t be readable with
     Python 3.0.  The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used
     when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it
     doesn’t attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6137(13).)

   * A new module, *note importlib: 77. was added.  It provides a
     complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the
     *note import: 5dc. statement and its counterpart, the *note
     __import__(): 8d1. function.  It represents a substantial step
     forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place
     during imports.

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<7>,  Next: IDLE<2>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.5 Optimizations
--------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116(1)) was mostly written
     in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in
     Python 3.0.  In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely
     rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at
     hand.  The pure Python version is still available for
     experimentation purposes through the ‘_pyio’ module.

     (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Antoine Pitrou.)

   * Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only
     untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector.  This
     can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage
     collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their
     particular use of datatypes.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4688(2).)

   * Enabling a configure option named ‘--with-computed-gotos’ on
     compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
     evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which
     gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler,
     and the benchmark.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other
     participants, bpo-4753(3)).

   * The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
     faster.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc,
     bpo-4868(4).)

   * The *note json: 82. module now has a C extension to substantially
     improve its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that
     json works only with *note str: 445, not with *note bytes: 1c2.
     That change makes the module closely match the JSON
     specification(5) which is defined in terms of Unicode.

     (Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine
     Pitrou and Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4136(6).)

   * Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.
     This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller.

     (Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5084(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868

   (5) https://json.org/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<2>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Optimizations<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.6 IDLE
-----------

   * IDLE’s format menu now provides an option to strip trailing
     whitespace from a source file.

     (Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; bpo-5150(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: IDLE<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.7 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * Integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in
     base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.  Previously,
     they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base ‘2**30’ gives
     significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
     benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
     the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base
     ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option
     ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there’s a new *note sys.int_info: 1283. that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.int_info
          sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(1).)

   * The *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1284. function now handles a
     negative 'pylong' by raising *note OverflowError: 87d. instead of
     *note TypeError: 532.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; bpo-5175(2).)

   * Deprecated ‘PyNumber_Int()’.  Use *note PyNumber_Long(): a64.
     instead.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4910(3).)

   * Added a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1285. function to
     replace the deprecated functions ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and
     ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5914(4).)

   * Added *note PyCapsule: 1263. as a replacement for the ‘PyCObject’
     API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well
     defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less
     complicated signature for calling a destructor.  The old type had a
     problematic API and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Larry Hastings; bpo-5630(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.13.8 Porting to Python 3.1
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The new floating-point string representations can break existing
     doctests.  For example:

          def e():
              '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.

              >>> e()
              2.7182818284590451

              '''
              return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))

          doctest.testmod()

          **********************************************************************
          Failed example:
              e()
          Expected:
              2.7182818284590451
          Got:
              2.718281828459045
          **********************************************************************

   * The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or
     lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One
     solution is to use protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the
     'fix_imports' option to ‘False’.  See the discussion above for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.14 What’s New In Python 3.0
=============================


Author: Guido van Rossum

This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
Python 3.0, also known as “Python 3000” or “Py3K”, is the first ever
'intentionally backwards incompatible' Python release.  Python 3.0 was
released on December 3, 2008.  There are more changes than in a typical
release, and more that are important for all Python users.
Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you’ll find that Python
really hasn’t changed all that much – by and large, we’re mostly fixing
well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or
the many PEPs referenced in the text.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature,
PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note
that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
have been.  As always for a new release, the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
every small thing that was changed.

* Menu:

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Next: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.1 Common Stumbling Blocks
------------------------------

This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up
if you’re used to Python 2.5.

* Menu:

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.


File: python.info,  Node: Print Is A Function,  Next: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.1 Print Is A Function
............................

The ‘print’ statement has been replaced with a *note print(): f6d.
function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
of the old ‘print’ statement ( PEP 3105(1)).  Examples:

     Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
     New: print("The answer is", 2*2)

     Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
     New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline

     Old: print              # Prints a newline
     New: print()            # You must call the function!

     Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
     New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)

     Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
     New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!

You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:

     print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")

which produces:

     There are <4294967296> possibilities!

Note:

   * The *note print(): f6d. function doesn’t support the “softspace”
     feature of the old ‘print’ statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
     ‘print "A\n", "B"’ would write ‘"A\nB\n"’; but in Python 3.0,
     ‘print("A\n", "B")’ writes ‘"A\n B\n"’.

   * Initially, you’ll be finding yourself typing the old ‘print x’ a
     lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
     ‘print(x)’ instead!

   * When using the ‘2to3’ source-to-source conversion tool, all ‘print’
     statements are automatically converted to *note print(): f6d.
     function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Next: Ordering Comparisons,  Prev: Print Is A Function,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.2 Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
.............................................

Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:

   * *note dict: 256. methods *note dict.keys(): 7c6, *note
     dict.items(): 7c8. and *note dict.values(): 7c7. return “views”
     instead of lists.  For example, this no longer works: ‘k =
     d.keys(); k.sort()’.  Use ‘k = sorted(d)’ instead (this works in
     Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient).

   * Also, the ‘dict.iterkeys()’, ‘dict.iteritems()’ and
     ‘dict.itervalues()’ methods are no longer supported.

   * *note map(): 85e. and *note filter(): 85f. return iterators.  If
     you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal
     length, a quick fix is to wrap *note map(): 85e. in *note list():
     60b, e.g.  ‘list(map(...))’, but a better fix is often to use a
     list comprehension (especially when the original code uses *note
     lambda: 128c.), or rewriting the code so it doesn’t need a list at
     all.  Particularly tricky is *note map(): 85e. invoked for the side
     effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a
     regular *note for: 2ea. loop (since creating a list would just be
     wasteful).

     If the input sequences are not of equal length, *note map(): 85e.
     will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences.  For
     full compatibility with *note map(): 85e. from Python 2.x, also
     wrap the sequences in *note itertools.zip_longest(): 128d, e.g.
     ‘map(func, *sequences)’ becomes ‘list(map(func,
     itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))’.

   * *note range(): 941. now behaves like ‘xrange()’ used to behave,
     except it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no
     longer exists.

   * *note zip(): 7c9. now returns an iterator.


File: python.info,  Node: Ordering Comparisons,  Next: Integers,  Prev: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.3 Ordering Comparisons
.............................

Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:

   * The ordering comparison operators (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise a
     TypeError exception when the operands don’t have a meaningful
     natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like ‘1 < ''’, ‘0 > None’ or
     ‘len <= len’ are no longer valid, and e.g.  ‘None < None’ raises
     *note TypeError: 532. instead of returning ‘False’.  A corollary is
     that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense – all the
     elements must be comparable to each other.  Note that this does not
     apply to the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators: objects of different
     incomparable types always compare unequal to each other.

   * *note sorted(): bcb. and *note list.sort(): bcc. no longer accept
     the 'cmp' argument providing a comparison function.  Use the 'key'
     argument instead.  N.B. the 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are now
     “keyword-only”.

   * The ‘cmp()’ function should be treated as gone, and the ‘__cmp__()’
     special method is no longer supported.  Use *note __lt__(): 128f.
     for sorting, *note __eq__(): af7. with *note __hash__(): af8, and
     other rich comparisons as needed.  (If you really need the ‘cmp()’
     functionality, you could use the expression ‘(a > b) - (a < b)’ as
     the equivalent for ‘cmp(a, b)’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Integers,  Next: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Ordering Comparisons,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.4 Integers
.................

   * PEP 237(1): Essentially, ‘long’ renamed to *note int: 257.  That
     is, there is only one built-in integral type, named *note int:
     257.; but it behaves mostly like the old ‘long’ type.

   * PEP 238(2): An expression like ‘1/2’ returns a float.  Use ‘1//2’
     to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has existed for
     years, at least since Python 2.2.)

   * The ‘sys.maxint’ constant was removed, since there is no longer a
     limit to the value of integers.  However, *note sys.maxsize: 11b4.
     can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
     index.  It conforms to the implementation’s “natural” integer size
     and is typically the same as ‘sys.maxint’ in previous releases on
     the same platform (assuming the same build options).

   * The *note repr(): 7f7. of a long integer doesn’t include the
     trailing ‘L’ anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that
     character will chop off the last digit instead.  (Use *note str():
     445. instead.)

   * Octal literals are no longer of the form ‘0720’; use ‘0o720’
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Integers,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.14.1.5 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
...................................................

Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
changed.

   * Python 3.0 uses the concepts of 'text' and (binary) 'data' instead
     of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
     'encoded' Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
     hold text is *note str: 445, the type used to hold data is *note
     bytes: 1c2.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that
     any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises *note
     TypeError: 532, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
     strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened
     to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
     value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
     years.

   * As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
     that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
     change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
     were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
     text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using ‘unicode’ for all
     unencoded text, and *note str: 445. for binary or encoded data
     only.  Then the ‘2to3’ tool will do most of the work for you.

   * You can no longer use ‘u"..."’ literals for Unicode text.  However,
     you must use ‘b"..."’ literals for binary data.

   * As the *note str: 445. and *note bytes: 1c2. types cannot be mixed,
     you must always explicitly convert between them.  Use *note
     str.encode(): 8d2. to go from *note str: 445. to *note bytes: 1c2,
     and *note bytes.decode(): 8d3. to go from *note bytes: 1c2. to
     *note str: 445.  You can also use ‘bytes(s, encoding=...)’ and
     ‘str(b, encoding=...)’, respectively.

   * Like *note str: 445, the *note bytes: 1c2. type is immutable.
     There is a separate 'mutable' type to hold buffered binary data,
     *note bytearray: 538.  Nearly all APIs that accept *note bytes:
     1c2. also accept *note bytearray: 538.  The mutable API is based on
     *note collections.MutableSequence: 1a1.

   * All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
     This means that ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’ escapes in raw strings are not
     treated specially.  For example, ‘r'\u20ac'’ is a string of 6
     characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ‘ur'\u20ac'’ was the
     single “euro” character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
     string literals; the euro character is ‘'\u20ac'’ in Python 3.0.)

   * The built-in ‘basestring’ abstract type was removed.  Use *note
     str: 445. instead.  The *note str: 445. and *note bytes: 1c2. types
     don’t have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
     class.  The ‘2to3’ tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
     ‘basestring’ with *note str: 445.

   * Files opened as text files (still the default mode for *note
     open(): 515.) always use an encoding to map between strings (in
     memory) and bytes (on disk).  Binary files (opened with a ‘b’ in
     the mode argument) always use bytes in memory.  This means that if
     a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will
     likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data.
     It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct
     mode (text or binary) when opening a file.  There is a
     platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can
     be set with the ‘LANG’ environment variable (and sometimes also
     with some other platform-specific locale-related environment
     variables).  In many cases, but not all, the system default is
     UTF-8; you should never count on this default.  Any application
     reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a
     way to override the encoding.  There is no longer any need for
     using the encoding-aware streams in the *note codecs: 1b. module.

   * The initial values of *note sys.stdin: 537, *note sys.stdout: ad3.
     and *note sys.stderr: 937. are now unicode-only text files (i.e.,
     they are instances of *note io.TextIOBase: 68f.).  To read and
     write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their *note
     io.TextIOBase.buffer: 1292. attribute.

   * Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode)
     strings.  This can present platform-specific problems because on
     some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other
     hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
     work-around, most APIs (e.g.  *note open(): 515. and many functions
     in the *note os: a1. module) that take filenames accept *note
     bytes: 1c2. objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way
     to ask for a *note bytes: 1c2. return value.  Thus, *note
     os.listdir(): 10eb. returns a list of *note bytes: 1c2. instances
     if the argument is a *note bytes: 1c2. instance, and *note
     os.getcwdb(): a8e. returns the current working directory as a *note
     bytes: 1c2. instance.  Note that when *note os.listdir(): 10eb.
     returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded
     properly are omitted rather than raising *note UnicodeError: 1293.

   * Some system APIs like *note os.environ: 11a9. and *note sys.argv:
     1255. can also present problems when the bytes made available by
     the system is not interpretable using the default encoding.
     Setting the ‘LANG’ variable and rerunning the program is probably
     the best approach.

   * PEP 3138(1): The *note repr(): 7f7. of a string no longer escapes
     non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
     points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.

   * PEP 3120(2): The default source encoding is now UTF-8.

   * PEP 3131(3): Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
     (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the
     exception of contributor names in comments.)

   * The ‘StringIO’ and ‘cStringIO’ modules are gone.  Instead, import
     the *note io: 7f. module and use *note io.StringIO: f1f. or *note
     io.BytesIO: e9a. for text and data respectively.

   * See also the *note 유니코드 HOWTO: 1294, which was updated for
     Python 3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Next: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Prev: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.2 Overview Of Syntax Changes
---------------------------------

This section gives a brief overview of every 'syntactic' change in
Python 3.0.

* Menu:

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::


File: python.info,  Node: New Syntax,  Next: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.14.2.1 New Syntax
...................

   * PEP 3107(1): Function argument and return value annotations.  This
     provides a standardized way of annotating a function’s parameters
     and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
     annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
     the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.  The intent is to encourage
     experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.

   * PEP 3102(2): Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
     after ‘*args’ in the parameter list 'must' be specified using
     keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare ‘*’ in the
     parameter list to indicate that you don’t accept a variable-length
     argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.

   * Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
     class definition.  This is used by the new convention for
     specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for
     other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.

   * PEP 3104(3): *note nonlocal: 1297. statement.  Using ‘nonlocal x’
     you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
     non-global) scope.  ‘nonlocal’ is a new reserved word.

   * PEP 3132(4): Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
     like ‘a, b, *rest = some_sequence’.  And even ‘*rest, a = stuff’.
     The ‘rest’ object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand
     side may be any iterable.  Example:

          (a, *rest, b) = range(5)

     This sets 'a' to ‘0’, 'b' to ‘4’, and 'rest' to ‘[1, 2, 3]’.

   * Dictionary comprehensions: ‘{k: v for k, v in stuff}’ means the
     same thing as ‘dict(stuff)’ but is more flexible.  (This is PEP
     274(5) vindicated.  :-)

   * Set literals, e.g.  ‘{1, 2}’.  Note that ‘{}’ is an empty
     dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
     also supported; e.g., ‘{x for x in stuff}’ means the same thing as
     ‘set(stuff)’ but is more flexible.

   * New octal literals, e.g.  ‘0o720’ (already in 2.6).  The old octal
     literals (‘0720’) are gone.

   * New binary literals, e.g.  ‘0b1010’ (already in 2.6), and there is
     a new corresponding built-in function, *note bin(): 1298.

   * Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ‘b’ or ‘B’, and there
     is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bytes(): 1c2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/


File: python.info,  Node: Changed Syntax,  Next: Removed Syntax,  Prev: New Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.14.2.2 Changed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3109(1) and PEP 3134(2): new *note raise: 5e7. statement
     syntax: ‘raise [EXPR [from EXPR]]’.  See below.

   * ‘as’ and *note with: 5cc. are now reserved words.  (Since 2.6,
     actually.)

   * ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ are reserved words.  (2.6 partially
     enforced the restrictions on ‘None’ already.)

   * Change from *note except: 18b. 'exc', 'var' to ‘except’ 'exc' ‘as’
     'var'.  See PEP 3110(3).

   * PEP 3115(4): New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of:

          class C:
              __metaclass__ = M
              ...

     you must now use:

          class C(metaclass=M):
              ...

     The module-global ‘__metaclass__’ variable is no longer supported.
     (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes
     without deriving every class from *note object: a89.)

   * List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form ‘[... for
     VAR in ITEM1, ITEM2, ...]’.  Use ‘[... for VAR in (ITEM1, ITEM2,
     ...)]’ instead.  Also note that list comprehensions have different
     semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator
     expression inside a *note list(): 60b. constructor, and in
     particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the
     surrounding scope.

   * The 'ellipsis' (‘...’) can be used as an atomic expression
     anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
     'must' now be spelled as ‘...’.  (Previously it could also be
     spelled as ‘. . .’, by a mere accident of the grammar.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Syntax,  Prev: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.14.2.3 Removed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3113(1): Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
     write ‘def foo(a, (b, c)): ...’.  Use ‘def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c’
     instead.

   * Removed backticks (use *note repr(): 7f7. instead).

   * Removed ‘<>’ (use ‘!=’ instead).

   * Removed keyword: *note exec(): 17f. is no longer a keyword; it
     remains as a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also
     accepted in 2.x.)  Also note that *note exec(): 17f. no longer
     takes a stream argument; instead of ‘exec(f)’ you can use
     ‘exec(f.read())’.

   * Integer literals no longer support a trailing ‘l’ or ‘L’.

   * String literals no longer support a leading ‘u’ or ‘U’.

   * The *note from: 129b. 'module' *note import: 5dc. ‘*’ syntax is
     only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.

   * The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is ‘from .[MODULE]
     import NAME’.  All *note import: 5dc. forms not starting with ‘.’
     are interpreted as absolute imports.  ( PEP 328(2))

   * Classic classes are gone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Next: Library Changes,  Prev: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.3 Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
--------------------------------------------

Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
2.6.  The corresponding sections in *note What’s New in Python 2.6:
129d. should be consulted for longer descriptions.

   * *note PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: 129e.  The *note with: 5cc.
     statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be
     imported from the *note __future__: 0.  Also check out *note
     Writing Context Managers: 129f. and *note The contextlib module:
     12a0.

   * *note PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: 12a1.
     This enhances the usefulness of the *note -m: 5db. option when the
     referenced module lives in a package.

   * *note PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: 12a2.

   * *note PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: 12a3.

   * *note PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: 12a4.  Note: the 2.6
     description mentions the *note format(): 619. method for both 8-bit
     and Unicode strings.  In 3.0, only the *note str: 445. type (text
     strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the *note
     bytes: 1c2. type does not.  The plan is to eventually make this the
     only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the ‘%’
     operator in Python 3.1.

   * *note PEP 3105; print As a Function: 12a5.  This is now a standard
     feature and no longer needs to be imported from *note __future__:
     0.  More details were given above.

   * *note PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: 12a6.  The *note
     except: 18b. 'exc' ‘as’ 'var' syntax is now standard and ‘except’
     'exc', 'var' is no longer supported.  (Of course, the ‘as’ 'var'
     part is still optional.)

   * *note PEP 3112; Byte Literals: 12a7.  The ‘b"..."’ string literal
     notation (and its variants like ‘b'...'’, ‘b"""..."""’, and
     ‘br"..."’) now produces a literal of type *note bytes: 1c2.

   * *note PEP 3116; New I/O Library: 12a8.  The *note io: 7f. module is
     now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in *note open():
     515. function is now an alias for *note io.open(): 516. and has
     additional keyword arguments 'encoding', 'errors', 'newline' and
     'closefd'.  Also note that an invalid 'mode' argument now raises
     *note ValueError: 202, not *note IOError: 1048.  The binary file
     object underlying a text file object can be accessed as ‘f.buffer’
     (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in
     order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations).

   * *note PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: 12a9.  The old builtin
     ‘buffer()’ is now really gone; the new builtin *note memoryview():
     462. provides (mostly) similar functionality.

   * *note PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: 12aa.  The *note abc: 4.
     module and the ABCs defined in the *note collections: 1d. module
     plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and
     built-in collection types like *note dict: 256. and *note list:
     60b. conform to the *note collections.MutableMapping: 109f. and
     *note collections.MutableSequence: 1a1. ABCs, respectively.

   * *note PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: 12ab.  As
     mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one
     supported, and binary literals have been added.

   * *note PEP 3129; Class Decorators: 12ac.

   * *note PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: 12ad.  The *note
     numbers: 9e. module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python’s
     “numeric tower”.  Also note the new *note fractions: 5d. module
     which implements *note numbers.Rational: 12ae.


File: python.info,  Node: Library Changes,  Next: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Prev: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.4 Library Changes
----------------------

Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
very extensive changes to the standard library.  PEP 3108(1) is the
reference for the major changes to the library.  Here’s a capsule
review:

   * Many old modules were removed.  Some, like ‘gopherlib’ (no longer
     used) and ‘md5’ (replaced by *note hashlib: 68.), were already
     deprecated by PEP 4(2).  Others were removed as a result of the
     removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac
     OS 9 (see PEP 11(3)).  Some modules were also selected for removal
     in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement
     exists.  See PEP 3108(4) for an exhaustive list.

   * The ‘bsddb3’ package was removed because its presence in the core
     standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for
     the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB’s
     release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
     externally maintained at
     ‘https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm’.

   * Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed PEP
     8(5), or for various other reasons.  Here’s the list:

     Old Name                    New Name
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     _winreg                     winreg
                                 
                                 
     ConfigParser                configparser
                                 
                                 
     copy_reg                    copyreg
                                 
                                 
     Queue                       queue
                                 
                                 
     SocketServer                socketserver
                                 
                                 
     markupbase                  _markupbase
                                 
                                 
     repr                        reprlib
                                 
                                 
     test.test_support           test.support
                                 

   * A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
     implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
     implemented as a C extension; for example, *note pickle: a6. and
     ‘cPickle’.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
     version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
     these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
     considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
     Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
     import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
     version.  The *note pickle: a6. / ‘cPickle’ pair received this
     treatment.  The *note profile: af. module is on the list for 3.1.
     The ‘StringIO’ module has been turned into a class in the *note io:
     7f. module.

   * Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
     the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
     packages are:

        * *note dbm: 31. (‘anydbm’, ‘dbhash’, ‘dbm’, ‘dumbdbm’, ‘gdbm’,
          ‘whichdb’).

        * *note html: 6b. (‘HTMLParser’, ‘htmlentitydefs’).

        * *note http: 6e. (‘httplib’, ‘BaseHTTPServer’, ‘CGIHTTPServer’,
          ‘SimpleHTTPServer’, ‘Cookie’, ‘cookielib’).

        * *note tkinter: f0. (all ‘Tkinter’-related modules except *note
          turtle: 101.).  The target audience of *note turtle: 101.
          doesn’t really care about *note tkinter: f0.  Also note that
          as of Python 2.6, the functionality of *note turtle: 101. has
          been greatly enhanced.

        * *note urllib: 108. (‘urllib’, ‘urllib2’, ‘urlparse’,
          ‘robotparse’).

        * *note xmlrpc: 12d. (‘xmlrpclib’, ‘DocXMLRPCServer’,
          ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’).

Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP
3108(6):

   * Killed ‘sets’.  Use the built-in *note set(): 5d3. class.

   * Cleanup of the *note sys: d9. module: removed ‘sys.exitfunc()’,
     ‘sys.exc_clear()’, ‘sys.exc_type’, ‘sys.exc_value’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’.  (Note that *note sys.last_type: 4b9. etc.
     remain.)

   * Cleanup of the *note array.array: 1a0. type: the ‘read()’ and
     ‘write()’ methods are gone; use *note fromfile(): 12b0. and *note
     tofile(): 12b1. instead.  Also, the ‘'c'’ typecode for array is
     gone – use either ‘'b'’ for bytes or ‘'u'’ for Unicode characters.

   * Cleanup of the *note operator: 9f. module: removed
     ‘sequenceIncludes()’ and ‘isCallable()’.

   * Cleanup of the ‘thread’ module: ‘acquire_lock()’ and
     ‘release_lock()’ are gone; use *note acquire(): 692. and *note
     release(): 12b2. instead.

   * Cleanup of the *note random: b8. module: removed the ‘jumpahead()’
     API.

   * The ‘new’ module is gone.

   * The functions ‘os.tmpnam()’, ‘os.tempnam()’ and ‘os.tmpfile()’ have
     been removed in favor of the *note tempfile: e0. module.

   * The *note tokenize: fb. module has been changed to work with bytes.
     The main entry point is now *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d3, instead
     of generate_tokens.

   * ‘string.letters’ and its friends (‘string.lowercase’ and
     ‘string.uppercase’) are gone.  Use *note string.ascii_letters:
     12b3. etc.  instead.  (The reason for the removal is that
     ‘string.letters’ and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is
     a bad idea for such attractively named global “constants”.)

   * Renamed module ‘__builtin__’ to *note builtins: 12. (removing the
     underscores, adding an ‘s’).  The ‘__builtins__’ variable found in
     most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin, you
     should use *note builtins: 12, not ‘__builtins__’!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Next: Changes To Exceptions,  Prev: Library Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

'PEP 3101': A New Approach To String Formatting

   * A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the
     ‘%’ string formatting operator.  (However, the ‘%’ operator is
     still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed
     from the language at some later time.)  Read PEP 3101(1) for the
     full scoop.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes To Exceptions,  Next: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.6 Changes To Exceptions
----------------------------

The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new
powerful features added:

   * PEP 352(1): All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
     from *note BaseException: 5b5.  This is the root of the exception
     hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
     'requirement' to inherit from *note BaseException: 5b5. is new.
     (Python 2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed
     no restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
     exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.

   * Almost all exceptions should actually derive from *note Exception:
     9d6.; *note BaseException: 5b5. should only be used as a base class
     for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such
     as *note SystemExit: d3d. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.  The
     recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this
     latter category is to use *note except: 18b. *note Exception: 9d6.

   * ‘StandardError’ was removed.

   * Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the *note args: 567.
     attribute instead.

   * PEP 3109(2): Raising exceptions.  You must now use ‘raise
     EXCEPTION(ARGS)’ instead of ‘raise EXCEPTION, ARGS’.  Additionally,
     you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you
     'have' to do this, you can assign directly to the *note
     __traceback__: 12b6. attribute (see below).

   * PEP 3110(3): Catching exceptions.  You must now use ‘except
     SOMEEXCEPTION as VARIABLE’ instead of ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION,
     VARIABLE’.  Moreover, the 'variable' is explicitly deleted when the
     *note except: 18b. block is left.

   * PEP 3134(4): Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
     chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
     exception is raised in an *note except: 18b. or *note finally: 9c7.
     handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
     block; we call this a 'secondary' exception.  In this case, the
     original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the *note
     __context__: 12b7. attribute of the secondary exception.  Explicit
     chaining is invoked with this syntax:

          raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception

     (where 'primary_exception' is any expression that produces an
     exception object, probably an exception that was previously
     caught).  In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
     *note __cause__: 12b8. attribute of the secondary exception.  The
     traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the
     chain of ‘__cause__’ and *note __context__: 12b7. attributes and
     prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with
     the primary exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this
     behavior.)

   * PEP 3134(5): Exception objects now store their traceback as the
     *note __traceback__: 12b6. attribute.  This means that an exception
     object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
     and there are fewer reasons to use *note sys.exc_info(): 684.
     (though the latter is not removed).

   * A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
     extension module.  For example, ‘error code 193’ is now ‘%1 is not
     a valid Win32 application’.  Strings now deal with non-English
     locales.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Next: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Prev: Changes To Exceptions,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.7 Miscellaneous Other Changes
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Operators And Special Methods,  Next: Builtins,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.14.7.1 Operators And Special Methods
......................................

   * ‘!=’ now returns the opposite of ‘==’, unless ‘==’ returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb.

   * The concept of “unbound methods” has been removed from the
     language.  When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now
     get a plain function object.

   * ‘__getslice__()’, ‘__setslice__()’ and ‘__delslice__()’ were
     killed.  The syntax ‘a[i:j]’ now translates to
     ‘a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))’ (or *note __setitem__(): 12bb. or
     *note __delitem__(): 12bc, when used as an assignment or deletion
     target, respectively).

   * PEP 3114(1): the standard *note next(): 7d1. method has been
     renamed to *note __next__(): 12bd.

   * The ‘__oct__()’ and ‘__hex__()’ special methods are removed – *note
     oct(): 12be. and *note hex(): 12bf. use *note __index__(): 716. now
     to convert the argument to an integer.

   * Removed support for ‘__members__’ and ‘__methods__’.

   * The function attributes named ‘func_X’ have been renamed to use the
     ‘__X__’ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute
     namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit, ‘func_closure’,
     ‘func_code’, ‘func_defaults’, ‘func_dict’, ‘func_doc’,
     ‘func_globals’, ‘func_name’ were renamed to *note __closure__:
     12c0, *note __code__: 29a, *note __defaults__: 12c1, *note
     __dict__: 12c2, *note __doc__: 11c8, *note __globals__: 12c3, *note
     __name__: 12c4, respectively.

   * ‘__nonzero__()’ is now *note __bool__(): 12c5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins,  Prev: Operators And Special Methods,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.14.7.2 Builtins
.................

   * PEP 3135(1): New *note super(): 4d5.  You can now invoke *note
     super(): 4d5. without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular
     instance method defined inside a *note class: 12c7. statement) the
     right class and instance will automatically be chosen.  With
     arguments, the behavior of *note super(): 4d5. is unchanged.

   * PEP 3111(2): ‘raw_input()’ was renamed to *note input(): 12c8.
     That is, the new *note input(): 12c8. function reads a line from
     *note sys.stdin: 537. and returns it with the trailing newline
     stripped.  It raises *note EOFError: 12c9. if the input is
     terminated prematurely.  To get the old behavior of *note input():
     12c8, use ‘eval(input())’.

   * A new built-in function *note next(): 7d1. was added to call the
     *note __next__(): 12bd. method on an object.

   * The *note round(): 12ca. function rounding strategy and return type
     have changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest
     even result instead of away from zero.  (For example, ‘round(2.5)’
     now returns ‘2’ rather than ‘3’.)  ‘round(x[, n])’ now delegates to
     ‘x.__round__([n])’ instead of always returning a float.  It
     generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and
     a value of the same type as ‘x’ when called with two arguments.

   * Moved ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 12cb.

   * Removed: ‘apply()’.  Instead of ‘apply(f, args)’ use ‘f(*args)’.

   * Removed *note callable(): 11b5.  Instead of ‘callable(f)’ you can
     use ‘isinstance(f, collections.Callable)’.  The
     ‘operator.isCallable()’ function is also gone.

   * Removed ‘coerce()’.  This function no longer serves a purpose now
     that classic classes are gone.

   * Removed ‘execfile()’.  Instead of ‘execfile(fn)’ use
     ‘exec(open(fn).read())’.

   * Removed the ‘file’ type.  Use *note open(): 515.  There are now
     several different kinds of streams that open can return in the
     *note io: 7f. module.

   * Removed ‘reduce()’.  Use *note functools.reduce(): 12cc. if you
     really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit *note
     for: 2ea. loop is more readable.

   * Removed ‘reload()’.  Use ‘imp.reload()’.

   * Removed.  ‘dict.has_key()’ – use the *note in: 2ec. operator
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Next: Performance,  Prev: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.8 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Due to time constraints, here is a 'very' incomplete list of changes to
the C API.

   * Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not
     limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.

   * PEP 3118(1): New Buffer API.

   * PEP 3121(2): Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.

   * PEP 3123(3): Making *note PyObject_HEAD: 12ce. conform to standard
     C.

   * No more C API support for restricted execution.

   * ‘PyNumber_Coerce()’, ‘PyNumber_CoerceEx()’, ‘PyMember_Get()’, and
     ‘PyMember_Set()’ C APIs are removed.

   * New C API *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7, works like
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. but won’t block on the import
     lock (returning an error instead).

   * Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
     ‘nb_nonzero’ is now ‘nb_bool’.

   * Removed ‘METH_OLDARGS’ and ‘WITH_CYCLE_GC’ from the C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/


File: python.info,  Node: Performance,  Next: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.9 Performance
------------------

The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
There’s room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!


File: python.info,  Node: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Performance,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.14.10 Porting To Python 3.0
-----------------------------

For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
best strategy is the following:

  0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.

  1. Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
     port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
     pass.

  2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the ‘-3’ command line switch.  This
     enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in
     3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings
     about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still
     pass.

  3. Run the ‘2to3’ source-to-source translator over your source code
     tree.  Run the result of the translation under Python 3.0.
     Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing problems until all
     tests pass again.

It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you’d have to use a very contorted coding
style, e.g.  avoiding ‘print’ statements, metaclasses, and much more.
If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6
and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing
the 2.6 version of the source code and running the ‘2to3’ translator
again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code.

For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see *note 확장 모듈을
파이썬 3에 이식하기: 12d1.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.15 What’s New in Python 2.7
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was
released on July 3, 2010.

Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point
numbers and for the *note Decimal: 29d. class.  There are some useful
additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced *note
unittest: 106. module, the *note argparse: 6. module for parsing
command-line options, convenient *note OrderedDict: 5d5. and *note
Counter: 1088. classes in the *note collections: 1d. module, and many
other improvements.

Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting to
Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
included in 2.7.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the rationale for
the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
feature or the issue on ‘https://bugs.python.org’ in which a change was
discussed.  Whenever possible, “What’s New in Python” links to the
bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Acknowledgements::


File: python.info,  Node: The Future for Python 2 x,  Next: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.1 The Future for Python 2.x
--------------------------------

Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development
efforts to the Python 3.x series.  This means that while Python 2
continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on
new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be
no new full feature releases for the language or standard library.

However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and
Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common
subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other
changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require
careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test
suites, to migrate effectively.

This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time,
providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems
that have not yet been ported to Python 3.  The full expected lifecycle
of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373(1).

Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:

   * As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of
     maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions.  Python 2.7 is
     currently expected to remain supported by the core development team
     (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least
     2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more
     typical support period of 18–24 months).

   * As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of
     the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor)
     becomes more important for Python 2 users.  In addition to a wide
     variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available
     packages include backports of new modules and features from the
     Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as
     well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to
     migrate to Python 3.  The Python Packaging User Guide(2) provides
     guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python
     Package Index.

   * While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the
     publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this
     approach doesn’t necessarily work in all cases, especially those
     related to network security.  In exceptional cases that cannot be
     handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI,
     the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the
     case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard
     library.  Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where
     they were added, will be noted in the *note New Features Added to
     Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: 12d6. section below.

For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for
library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python
2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to
help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical
details involved.  The recommended starting point is the pyporting-howto
HOWTO guide.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Next: Python 3 1 Features,  Prev: The Future for Python 2 x,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.2 Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
------------------------------------------------------

For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
interest to developers by default.  *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and
its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change was
also made in the branch that became Python 3.2.  (Discussed on
stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319(1).)

In previous releases, *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages were
enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication
of where their code may break in a future major version of Python.

However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications
who are not directly involved in the development of those applications.
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages are irrelevant to such users,
making them worry about an application that’s actually working correctly
and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns.

You can re-enable display of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages by
running Python with the *note -Wdefault: 8c4. (short form: *note -Wd:
8c4.) switch, or by setting the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7. environment
variable to ‘"default"’ (or ‘"d"’) before running Python.  Python code
can also re-enable them by calling ‘warnings.simplefilter('default')’.

The ‘unittest’ module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
when running tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 1 Features,  Next: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Prev: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.3 Python 3.1 Features
--------------------------

Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7
incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series
continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series.

A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:

   * The syntax for set literals (‘{1,2,3}’ is a mutable set).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions (‘{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}’).

   * Multiple context managers in a single *note with: 5cc. statement.

   * A new version of the *note io: 7f. library, rewritten in C for
     performance.

   * The ordered-dictionary type described in *note PEP 372; Adding an
     Ordered Dictionary to collections: 12d9.

   * The new ‘","’ format specifier described in *note PEP 378; Format
     Specifier for Thousands Separator: 12da.

   * The *note memoryview: 462. object.

   * A small subset of the *note importlib: 77. module, *note described
     below: 12db.

   * The *note repr(): 7f7. of a float ‘x’ is shorter in many cases:
     it’s now based on the shortest decimal string that’s guaranteed to
     round back to ‘x’.  As in previous versions of Python, it’s
     guaranteed that ‘float(repr(x))’ recovers ‘x’.

   * Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly
     rounded.  The *note round(): 12ca. function is also now correctly
     rounded.

   * The *note PyCapsule: 1263. type, used to provide a C API for
     extension modules.

   * The *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1257. C API function.

Other new Python3-mode warnings include:

   * ‘operator.isCallable()’ and ‘operator.sequenceIncludes()’, which
     are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.

   * The ‘-3’ switch now automatically enables the ‘-Qwarn’ switch that
     causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long
     integers.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Prev: Python 3 1 Features,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.4 PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
-----------------------------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7
introduces a new *note OrderedDict: 5d5. class in the *note collections:
1d. module.

The *note OrderedDict: 5d5. API provides the same interface as regular
dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
depending on when a key was first inserted:

     >>> from collections import OrderedDict
     >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                  ('second', 2),
     ...                  ('third', 3)])
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]

If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
position is left unchanged:

     >>> d['second'] = 4
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]

Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:

     >>> del d['second']
     >>> d['second'] = 5
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]

The *note popitem(): 12dd. method has an optional 'last' argument that
defaults to ‘True’.  If 'last' is true, the most recently added key is
returned and removed; if it’s false, the oldest key is selected:

     >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
     >>> od.popitem()
     (19, 0)
     >>> od.popitem()
     (18, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (0, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (1, 0)

Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and
requires that the insertion order was the same:

     >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2),
     ...                    ('third', 3)])
     >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
     ...                    ('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2)])
     >>> od1 == od2
     False
     >>> # Move 'third' key to the end
     >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
     >>> od1 == od2
     True

Comparing an *note OrderedDict: 5d5. with a regular dictionary ignores
the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.

How does the *note OrderedDict: 5d5. work?  It maintains a doubly linked
list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they’re inserted.  A
secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
deletion doesn’t have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
remains 'O'(1).

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.

   * The *note ConfigParser: 22. module uses them by default, meaning
     that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then
     written back in their original order.

   * The *note _asdict(): 9dd. method for *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now returns an ordered dictionary
     with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple
     indices.

   * The *note json: 82. module’s *note JSONDecoder: d44. class
     constructor was extended with an 'object_pairs_hook' parameter to
     allow ‘OrderedDict’ instances to be built by the decoder.  Support
     was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

더 보기
.......

PEP 372(2) - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Next: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Prev: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.5 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators
to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead
of 18446744073709551616.

The fully general solution for doing this is the *note locale: 86.
module, which can use different separators (“,” in North America, “.” in
Europe) and different grouping sizes, but *note locale: 86. is
complicated to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where
different threads are producing output for different locales.

Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
mini-language used by the *note str.format(): 61b. method.  When
formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
width and the precision:

     >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'

When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:

     >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616'

This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
comma-formatting mechanism isn’t as general as the *note locale: 86.
module, but it’s easier to use.

더 보기
.......

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.6 PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
-------------------------------------------------------------

The *note argparse: 6. module for parsing command-line arguments was
added as a more powerful replacement for the *note optparse: a0. module.

This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
command-line arguments: *note getopt: 61, *note optparse: a0, and *note
argparse: 6.  The *note getopt: 61. module closely resembles the C
library’s ‘getopt()’ function, so it remains useful if you’re writing a
Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. *note optparse:
a0. becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there
are many scripts still using it, and there’s no automated way to update
these scripts.  (Making the *note argparse: 6. API consistent with *note
optparse: a0.’s interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and
difficult.)

In short, if you’re writing a new script and don’t need to worry about
compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use *note argparse: 6.
instead of *note optparse: a0.

Here’s an example:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')

     # Add optional switches
     parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
                         help='produce verbose output')
     parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
                         metavar='FILE',
                         help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
     parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
                         metavar='NUM', default=0,
                         help='display NUM lines of added context')

     # Allow any number of additional arguments.
     parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
                         help='input filenames (default is stdin)')

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print args.__dict__

Unless you override it, ‘-h’ and ‘--help’ switches are automatically
added, and produce neatly formatted output:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
     usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]

     Command-line example.

     positional arguments:
       inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       -v          produce verbose output
       -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
       -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context

As with *note optparse: a0, the command-line switches and arguments are
returned as an object with attributes named by the 'dest' parameters:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
     {'output': None,
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 0,
      'inputs': []}

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
     {'output': '/tmp/output',
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 4,
      'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}

*note argparse: 6. has much fancier validation than *note optparse: a0.;
you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
arguments by passing ‘'*'’, 1 or more by passing ‘'+'’, or an optional
argument with ‘'?'’.  A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to
define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in ‘svn
commit’, ‘svn checkout’, etc.  You can specify an argument’s type as
*note FileType: f13, which will automatically open files for you and
understands that ‘'-'’ means standard input or output.

더 보기
.......

*note argparse: 6. documentation

     The documentation page of the argparse module.

*note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 119d.

     Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code
     that uses *note optparse: a0.

PEP 389(1) - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Next: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Prev: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.7 PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 87. module is very flexible; applications can define
a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a
varying number of handlers.

All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can write
Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a
complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.  *note logging: 87.
also supports a *note fileConfig(): b4e. function that parses a file,
but the file format doesn’t support configuring filters, and it’s
messier to generate programmatically.

Python 2.7 adds a *note dictConfig(): 119f. function that uses a
dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to produce a
dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file
containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed.  For
more information see *note 구성 함수: 12e1.

The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
logger named “network”.  Messages sent to the root logger will be sent
to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the
“network” logger will be written to a ‘network.log’ file that will be
rotated once the log reaches 1MB.

     import logging
     import logging.config

     configdict = {
      'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
      'formatters': {
          'standard': {
              'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
                         '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},

      'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
                          'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
                          'filename': '/logs/network.log',
                          'formatter': 'standard',
                          'level': 'INFO',
                          'maxBytes': 1000000},
                   'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
                              'formatter': 'standard',
                              'level': 'ERROR'}},

      # Specify all the subordinate loggers
      'loggers': {
                  'network': {
                              'handlers': ['netlog']
                  }
      },
      # Specify properties of the root logger
      'root': {
               'handlers': ['syslog']
      },
     }

     # Set up configuration
     logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)

     # As an example, log two error messages
     logger = logging.getLogger('/')
     logger.error('Database not found')

     netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
     netlogger.error('Connection failed')

Three smaller enhancements to the *note logging: 87. module, all
implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:

   * The *note SysLogHandler: 656. class now supports syslogging over
     TCP. The constructor has a 'socktype' parameter giving the type of
     socket to use, either *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2. for UDP or
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. for TCP. The default protocol
     remains UDP.

   * *note Logger: b4c. instances gained a *note getChild(): 12e4.
     method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
     For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ‘log =
     getLogger('app')’, calling ‘log.getChild('network.listen')’ is
     equivalent to ‘getLogger('app.network.listen')’.

   * The *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. class gained an *note
     isEnabledFor(): 12e6. method that takes a 'level' and returns
     whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level
     of importance.

더 보기
.......

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

     PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Next: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.8 PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
---------------------------------

The dictionary methods *note keys(): 7c6, *note values(): 7c7, and *note
items(): 7c8. are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object called
a 'view' instead of a fully materialized list.

It’s not possible to change the return values of *note keys(): 7c6,
*note values(): 7c7, and *note items(): 7c8. in Python 2.7 because too
much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added under the
new names ‘viewkeys()’, ‘viewvalues()’, and ‘viewitems()’.

     >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d
     {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
     >>> d.viewkeys()
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])

Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like
sets.  The ‘&’ operator performs intersection, and ‘|’ performs a union:

     >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
     >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
     set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
     >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
     set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])

The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
dictionary is modified:

     >>> vk = d.viewkeys()
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
     >>> d[260] = '&'
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])

However, note that you can’t add or remove keys while you’re iterating
over the view:

     >>> for k in vk:
     ...     d[k*2] = k
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter
will change them to the standard *note keys(): 7c6, *note values(): 7c7,
and *note items(): 7c8. methods.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3106(1) - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre
     Vassalotti; bpo-1967(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Next: Other Language Changes<9>,  Prev: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.9 PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
--------------------------------------

The *note memoryview: 462. object provides a view of another object’s
memory content that matches the *note bytes: 1c2. type’s interface.

     >>> import string
     >>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
     >>> m
     <memory at 0x37f850>
     >>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
     52
     >>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
     ('a', 'z', 'A')
     >>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
     >>> m2
     <memory at 0x37f080>

The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list
of integers:

     >>> m2.tobytes()
     'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
     >>> m2.tolist()
     [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
     >>>

*note memoryview: 462. objects allow modifying the underlying object if
it’s a mutable object.

     >>> m2[0] = 75
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
     >>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
     >>> mb = memoryview(b)
     >>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
     >>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
     bytearray(b'*bcde')
     >>>

더 보기
.......

PEP 3137(1) - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Travis Oliphant,
     Antoine Pitrou and others.  Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-2396(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<9>,  Next: New and Improved Modules,  Prev: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.10 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
     Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
     mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by
     not containing colons and values.  ‘{}’ continues to represent an
     empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.

          >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
          set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
          >>> set() # empty set
          set([])
          >>> {}    # empty dict
          {}

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335(1).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported
     from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the
     literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.

          >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
          {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
          >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
          set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333(2).

   * The *note with: 5cc. statement can now use multiple context
     managers in one statement.  Context managers are processed from
     left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new ‘with’
     statement.  This means that:

          with A() as a, B() as b:
              ... suite of statements ...

     is equivalent to:

          with A() as a:
              with B() as b:
                  ... suite of statements ...

     The ‘contextlib.nested()’ function provides a very similar
     function, so it’s no longer necessary and has been deprecated.

     (Proposed in ‘https://codereview.appspot.com/53094’; implemented by
     Georg Brandl.)

   * Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now
     correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur in
     many different places: *note str(): 445. on floats and complex
     numbers; the *note float: 2ef. and *note complex: 2f0.
     constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing
     floats and complex numbers using the *note marshal: 8d, *note
     pickle: a6. and *note json: 82. modules; parsing of float and
     imaginary literals in Python code; and *note Decimal: 29d.-to-float
     conversion.

     Related to this, the *note repr(): 7f7. of a floating-point number
     'x' now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string
     that’s guaranteed to round back to 'x' under correct rounding (with
     round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
     based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.

     The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
     Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
     compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
     operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
     used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used by
     checking *note sys.float_repr_style: 12ea, which will be ‘short’ if
     the new code is in use and ‘legacy’ if it isn’t.

     Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay’s
     ‘dtoa.c’ library; bpo-7117(3).

   * Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
     point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
     closest to the number.  This doesn’t matter for small integers that
     can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
     unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
     closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935283e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          65535L

     Python 2.7’s floating-point result is larger, but much closer to
     the true value:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935289e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          -1L

     (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-3166(4).)

     Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.
     (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811(5).)

   * Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the
     interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a ‘__coerce__()’
     method on complex objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-5211(6).)

   * The *note str.format(): 61b. method now supports automatic
     numbering of the replacement fields.  This makes using *note
     str.format(): 61b. more closely resemble using ‘%s’ formatting:

          >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'
          >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'

     The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the
     first ‘{...}’ specifier will use the first argument to *note
     str.format(): 61b, the next specifier will use the next argument,
     and so on.  You can’t mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering –
     either number all of your specifier fields or none of them – but
     you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
     example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(7).)

     Complex numbers now correctly support usage with *note format():
     619, and default to being right-aligned.  Specifying a precision or
     comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of
     the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to
     the whole of the resulting ‘1.5+3j’ output.  (Contributed by Eric
     Smith; bpo-1588(8) and bpo-7988(9).)

     The ‘F’ format code now always formats its output using uppercase
     characters, so it will now produce ‘INF’ and ‘NAN’.  (Contributed
     by Eric Smith; bpo-3382(10).)

     A low-level change: the *note object.__format__(): 618. method now
     triggers a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. if it’s passed a
     format string, because the ‘__format__()’ method for *note object:
     a89. converts the object to a string representation and formats
     that.  Previously the method silently applied the format string to
     the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python
     code.  If you’re supplying formatting information such as an
     alignment or precision, presumably you’re expecting the formatting
     to be applied in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith;
     bpo-7994(11).)

   * The *note int(): 257. and ‘long()’ types gained a ‘bit_length’
     method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its
     argument in binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner;
     bpo-3439(12).)

   * The *note import: 5dc. statement will no longer try an absolute
     import if a relative import (e.g.  ‘from .os import sep’) fails.
     This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain ‘import’
     statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador
     Inge; bpo-7902(13).)

   * It’s now possible for a subclass of the built-in ‘unicode’ type to
     override the ‘__unicode__()’ method.  (Implemented by Victor
     Stinner; bpo-1583863(14).)

   * The *note bytearray: 538. type’s *note translate(): 12eb. method
     now accepts ‘None’ as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
     bpo-4759(15).)

   * When using *note @classmethod: 166. and *note @staticmethod: 410.
     to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
     exposes the wrapped function as their *note __func__: 12ec.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, after a
     suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982(16).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     346. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(17).)

   * Two new encodings are now supported: “cp720”, used primarily for
     Arabic text; and “cp858”, a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
     symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
     Forgeot d’Arc in bpo-1616979(18); CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
     bpo-8016(19).)

   * The ‘file’ object will now set the ‘filename’ attribute on the
     *note IOError: 1048. exception when trying to open a directory on
     POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764(20)), and now
     explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
     instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
     (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677(21)).

   * The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
     *note compile(): 192. built-in function now accepts code using any
     line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that
     the code end in a newline.

   * Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python
     3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from ‘def f((x)): pass’.
     In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd
     usage.  (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362(22).)

   * It’s now possible to create weak references to old-style class
     objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
     by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268(23).)

   * When a module object is garbage-collected, the module’s dictionary
     is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
     dictionary (bpo-7140(24)).

* Menu:

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<8>,  Up: Other Language Changes<9>

1.15.10.1 Interpreter Changes
.............................

A new environment variable, *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7, allows
controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string containing warning
settings, equivalent to those used with the *note -W: 8c4. switch,
separated by commas.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301(1).)

For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they
occur, but turn warnings from the *note Cookie: 71. module into an
error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
across operating systems and shells.)

     export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<8>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<9>

1.15.10.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several performance enhancements have been added:

   * A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for *note with:
     5cc. statements, looking up the *note __enter__(): 5c2. and *note
     __exit__(): 12f0. methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   * The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
     pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
     any of them.  This would previously take quadratic time for garbage
     collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is
     reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.  The new logic
     only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle
     generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of
     survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the
     number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
     von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074(1).)

   * The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
     which can’t be part of a cycle.  In Python 2.7, this is now true
     for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints,
     strings, etc.).  Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic
     types won’t be tracked either.  This helps reduce the cost of each
     garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
     considered and traversed by the collector.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).)

   * Long integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or
     in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.
     Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base
     ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit
     machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.
     Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines
     and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new
     configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override
     this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there’s a new structseq ‘sys.long_info’ that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.long_info
          sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(3).)

     Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2
     bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260(4).)

   * The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by
     tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
     and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.  Various benchmarks show
     speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and
     modulo operations.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512(5).)
     Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
     Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418(6)).

   * The implementation of ‘%’ checks for the left-side operand being a
     Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1–3%
     performance increase for applications that frequently use ‘%’ with
     strings, such as templating libraries.  (Implemented by Collin
     Winter; bpo-5176(7).)

   * List comprehensions with an ‘if’ condition are compiled into faster
     bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-4715(8).)

   * Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
     faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
     conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.  (Patch by
     Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713(9).)

   * The ‘split()’, ‘replace()’, ‘rindex()’, ‘rpartition()’, and
     ‘rsplit()’ methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings,
     and *note bytearray: 538. objects) now use a fast reverse-search
     algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan.  This is
     sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7462(10) and bpo-7622(11).)

   * The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules now automatically
     intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
     of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
     McGuire; bpo-5084(12).)

   * The ‘cPickle’ module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving
     the time required to pickle them.  (Contributed by Collin Winter;
     bpo-5670(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<9>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.11 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The *note bdb: f. module’s base debugging class *note Bdb: 12f2.
     gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor now takes
     an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as ‘django.*’; the
     debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches
     one of these patterns.  (Contributed by Maru Newby after a
     suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142(1).)

   * The *note binascii: 10. module now supports the buffer API, so it
     can be used with *note memoryview: 462. instances and other similar
     buffer objects.  (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7703(2).)

   * Updated module: the ‘bsddb’ module has been updated from
     4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package(3).  The new
     version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug
     fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.  (Updated
     by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156(4).  The pybsddb changelog can be read
     at ‘https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog’.)

   * The *note bz2: 13. module’s *note BZ2File: 861. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(5).)

   * New class: the *note Counter: 1088. class in the *note collections:
     1d. module is useful for tallying data.  *note Counter: 1088.
     instances behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for
     missing keys instead of raising a *note KeyError: 33d.:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> c = Counter()
          >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
          ...   c[letter] += 1
          ...
          >>> c
          Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
          'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
          'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c['z']
          0

     There are three additional *note Counter: 1088. methods.  *note
     most_common(): 12f3. returns the N most common elements and their
     counts.  *note elements(): 12f4. returns an iterator over the
     contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its
     count.  *note subtract(): 11cd. takes an iterable and subtracts one
     for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary
     or another ‘Counter’, the counts are subtracted.

          >>> c.most_common(5)
          [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
          >>> c.elements() ->
             'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
             'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
             'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
             's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
          >>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
          -1

     Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(6).

     New class: *note OrderedDict: 5d5. is described in the earlier
     section *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections:
     12d9.

     New method: The *note deque: 5d6. data type now has a *note
     count(): 11cf. method that returns the number of contained elements
     equal to the supplied argument 'x', and a *note reverse(): 11d0.
     method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place.  *note
     deque: 5d6. also exposes its maximum length as the read-only *note
     maxlen: 12f5. attribute.  (Both features added by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     The *note namedtuple: 1ca. class now has an optional 'rename'
     parameter.  If 'rename' is true, field names that are invalid
     because they’ve been repeated or aren’t legal Python identifiers
     will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field’s
     position within the list of fields:

          >>> from collections import namedtuple
          >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
          >>> T._fields
          ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')

     (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(7).)

     Finally, the *note Mapping: 8c7. abstract base class now returns
     *note NotImplemented: 7cb. if a mapping is compared to another type
     that isn’t a ‘Mapping’.  (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729(8).)

   * Constructors for the parsing classes in the *note ConfigParser: 22.
     module now take an 'allow_no_value' parameter, defaulting to false;
     if true, options without values will be allowed.  For example:

          >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ... user = mysql
          ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ... skip-bdb
          ... """
          >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
          >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
          'mysql'
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
          None
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'

     (Contributed by Mats Kindahl; bpo-7005(9).)

   * Deprecated function: ‘contextlib.nested()’, which allows handling
     more than one context manager with a single *note with: 5cc.
     statement, has been deprecated, because the ‘with’ statement now
     supports multiple context managers.

   * The *note cookielib: 70. module now ignores cookies that have an
     invalid version field, one that doesn’t contain an integer value.
     (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924(10).)

   * The *note copy: 25. module’s *note deepcopy(): b6b. function will
     now correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by Robert
     Collins; bpo-1515(11).)

   * The *note ctypes: 2a. module now always converts ‘None’ to a C
     ‘NULL’ pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by
     Thomas Heller; bpo-4606(12).)  The underlying libffi library(13)
     has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for
     different platforms.  (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142(14).)

   * New method: the *note datetime: 30. module’s *note timedelta: 9cc.
     class gained a *note total_seconds(): 12f6. method that returns the
     number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan;
     bpo-5788(15).)

   * New method: the *note Decimal: 29d. class gained a *note
     from_float(): 11f3. class method that performs an exact conversion
     of a floating-point number to a ‘Decimal’.  This exact conversion
     strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point
     representation’s value; the resulting decimal value will therefore
     still include the inaccuracy, if any.  For example,
     ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ returns
     ‘Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')’.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796(16).)

     Comparing instances of *note Decimal: 29d. with floating-point
     numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
     of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
     Python’s default rules for comparing objects, which produced
     arbitrary results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot
     combine ‘Decimal’ and floating point in other operations such as
     addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert
     between float and ‘Decimal’.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-2531(17).)

     The constructor for *note Decimal: 29d. now accepts floating-point
     numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257(18)) and non-European
     Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6595(19)).

     Most of the methods of the *note Context: 10a2. class now accept
     integers as well as *note Decimal: 29d. instances; the only
     exceptions are the *note canonical(): 12f7. and *note
     is_canonical(): 12f8. methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti;
     bpo-7633(20).)

     When using *note Decimal: 29d. instances with a string’s *note
     format(): 61b. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
     more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-6857(21).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: 109b. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(22).)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module now produces output that is more
     compatible with modern ‘diff’/‘patch’ tools through one small
     change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in
     the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik;
     bpo-7585(23).)

   * The Distutils ‘sdist’ command now always regenerates the ‘MANIFEST’
     file, since even if the ‘MANIFEST.in’ or ‘setup.py’ files haven’t
     been modified, the user might have created some new files that
     should be included.  (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688(24).)

   * The *note doctest: 3a. module’s *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL:
     12f9. flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the
     exception being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490(25).)

   * The *note email: 3b. module’s *note Message: 27c. class will now
     accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
     payload to the encoding specified by ‘output_charset’.  (Added by
     R.  David Murray; bpo-1368247(26).)

   * The *note Fraction: 1e7. class now accepts a single float or *note
     Decimal: 29d. instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to
     its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added
     in bpo-5812(27), and float/decimal in bpo-8294(28).)

     Ordering comparisons (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’) between fractions and
     complex numbers now raise a *note TypeError: 532.  This fixes an
     oversight, making the *note Fraction: 1e7. match the other numeric
     types.

   * New class: *note FTP_TLS: 8f8. in the *note ftplib: 5e. module
     provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of
     authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054(29).)

     The *note storbinary(): 12fa. method for binary uploads can now
     restart uploads thanks to an added 'rest' parameter (patch by Pablo
     Mouzo; bpo-6845(30).)

   * New class decorator: *note total_ordering(): f3a. in the *note
     functools: 5f. module takes a class that defines an *note __eq__():
     af7. method and one of *note __lt__(): 128f, *note __le__(): 12fb,
     *note __gt__(): 12fc, or *note __ge__(): 12fd, and generates the
     missing comparison methods.  Since the ‘__cmp__()’ method is being
     deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define
     ordered classes.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479(31).)

     New function: *note cmp_to_key(): 11c9. will take an old-style
     comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new
     callable that can be used as the 'key' parameter to functions such
     as *note sorted(): bcb, *note min(): f00. and *note max(): f01,
     etc.  The primary intended use is to help with making code
     compatible with Python 3.x.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * New function: the *note gc: 60. module’s *note is_tracked(): 12fe.
     returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage
     collector, false otherwise.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-4688(32).)

   * The *note gzip: 67. module’s *note GzipFile: 414. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:’ (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(33)), and it now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     68e. ABC, so you can wrap it with *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd.
     for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471(34)).
     It’s also now possible to override the modification time recorded
     in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272(35).)

     Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
     *note gzip: 67. module will now consume these trailing bytes.
     (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846(36).)

   * New attribute: the *note hashlib: 68. module now has an
     ‘algorithms’ attribute containing a tuple naming the supported
     algorithms.  In Python 2.7, ‘hashlib.algorithms’ contains ‘('md5',
     'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')’.  (Contributed by
     Carl Chenet; bpo-7418(37).)

   * The default *note HTTPResponse: 10c1. class used by the *note
     httplib: 6e. module now supports buffering, resulting in much
     faster reading of HTTP responses.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur
     Jónsson; bpo-4879(38).)

     The *note HTTPConnection: b3d. and *note HTTPSConnection: b3e.
     classes now support a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’
     2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the
     connection.  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(39).)

   * The ‘ihooks’ module now supports relative imports.  Note that
     ‘ihooks’ is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by
     the ‘imputil’ module added in Python 2.0.  (Relative import support
     added by Neil Schemenauer.)

   * The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(40).)

   * New function: the *note inspect: 7e. module’s *note getcallargs():
     eb4. takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments, and
     figures out which of the callable’s parameters will receive each
     argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their
     values.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
          {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
          {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)

     Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135(41).

   * Updated module: The *note io: 7f. library has been upgraded to the
     version shipped with Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was
     entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on
     the task being performed.  The original Python version was renamed
     to the ‘_pyio’ module.

     One minor resulting change: the *note io.TextIOBase: 68f. class now
     has an *note errors: 12ff. attribute giving the error setting used
     for encoding and decoding errors (one of ‘'strict'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'ignore'’).

     The *note io.FileIO: 1300. class now raises an *note OSError: 411.
     when passed an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-4991(42).)  The *note truncate(): 1301. method now
     preserves the file position; previously it would change the file
     position to the end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon;
     bpo-6939(43).)

   * New function: ‘itertools.compress(data, selectors)’ takes two
     iterators.  Elements of 'data' are returned if the corresponding
     value in 'selectors' is true:

          itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
            A, C, E, F

     New function: ‘itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)’
     returns all the possible 'r'-length combinations of elements from
     the iterable 'iter'.  Unlike *note combinations(): 1302, individual
     elements can be repeated in the generated combinations:

          itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
            ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
            ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')

     Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their
     position in the input, not their actual values.

     The *note itertools.count(): 1273. function now has a 'step'
     argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1.  *note
     count(): 1273. also now allows keyword arguments, and using
     non-integer values such as floats or *note Decimal: 29d. instances.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032(44).)

     *note itertools.combinations(): 1302. and *note
     itertools.product(): 1303. previously raised *note ValueError: 202.
     for values of 'r' larger than the input iterable.  This was deemed
     a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator.
     (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816(45).)

   * Updated module: The *note json: 82. module was upgraded to version
     2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that
     makes encoding and decoding faster.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito;
     bpo-4136(46).)

     To support the new *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. type, *note
     json.load(): cb1. now has an optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter
     that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list
     of pairs.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381(47).)

   * The *note mailbox: 8b. module’s *note Maildir: 416. class now
     records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only
     re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed.
     This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.
     (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951(48),
     bpo-6896(49).)

   * New functions: the *note math: 8e. module gained *note erf(): bd5.
     and *note erfc(): bd6. for the error function and the complementary
     error function, *note expm1(): 11db. which computes ‘e**x - 1’ with
     more precision than using *note exp(): 1304. and subtracting 1,
     *note gamma(): 11dc. for the Gamma function, and *note lgamma():
     11dd. for the natural log of the Gamma function.  (Contributed by
     Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366(50).)

   * The *note multiprocessing: 94. module’s ‘Manager*’ classes can now
     be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is
     started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the
     callable.  (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585(51).)

     The *note Pool: f63. class, which controls a pool of worker
     processes, now has an optional 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.
     Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and
     then exit, causing the ‘Pool’ to start a new worker.  This is
     useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some
     tasks will cause the worker to become very large.  (Contributed by
     Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963(52).)

   * The ‘nntplib’ module now supports IPv6 addresses.  (Contributed by
     Derek Morr; bpo-1664(53).)

   * New functions: the *note os: a1. module wraps the following POSIX
     system calls: *note getresgid(): 1305. and *note getresuid(): 1306,
     which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; *note
     setresgid(): 1307. and *note setresuid(): 1308, which set real,
     effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; *note
     initgroups(): 1309, which initialize the group access list for the
     current process.  (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.;
     bpo-6508(54).  Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone;
     bpo-7333(55).)

     The *note os.fork(): 197. function now re-initializes the import
     lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when
     *note fork(): 197. is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt
     Cserna; bpo-7242(56).)

   * In the *note os.path: a2. module, the *note normpath(): 130a. and
     *note abspath(): 130b. functions now preserve Unicode; if their
     input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode
     string.  (*note normpath(): 130a. fixed by Matt Giuca in
     bpo-5827(57); *note abspath(): 130b. fixed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-3426(58).)

   * The *note pydoc: b5. module now has help for the various symbols
     that Python uses.  You can now do ‘help('<<')’ or ‘help('@')’, for
     example.  (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(59).)

   * The *note re: b9. module’s *note split(): 2a2, *note sub(): 2a3,
     and *note subn(): 2a4. now accept an optional 'flags' argument, for
     consistency with the other functions in the module.  (Added by
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * New function: *note run_path(): 181. in the *note runpy: be. module
     will execute the code at a provided 'path' argument.  'path' can be
     the path of a Python source file (‘example.py’), a compiled
     bytecode file (‘example.pyc’), a directory (‘./package/’), or a zip
     archive (‘example.zip’).  If a directory or zip path is provided,
     it will be added to the front of ‘sys.path’ and the module *note
     __main__: 1. will be imported.  It’s expected that the directory or
     zip contains a ‘__main__.py’; if it doesn’t, some other
     ‘__main__.py’ might be imported from a location later in
     ‘sys.path’.  This makes more of the machinery of *note runpy: be.
     available to scripts that want to mimic the way Python’s command
     line processes an explicit path name.  (Added by Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-6816(60).)

   * New function: in the *note shutil: c5. module, *note
     make_archive(): 4ad. takes a filename, archive type (zip or
     tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive
     containing the directory’s contents.  (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)

     *note shutil: c5.’s *note copyfile(): a55. and *note copytree():
     a25. functions now raise a ‘SpecialFileError’ exception when asked
     to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat named pipes
     like a regular file by opening them for reading, and this would
     block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3002(61).)

   * The *note signal: c6. module no longer re-installs the signal
     handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that
     could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.
     (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354(62).)

   * New functions: in the *note site: c7. module, three new functions
     return various site- and user-specific paths.  *note
     getsitepackages(): 122e. returns a list containing all global
     site-packages directories, *note getusersitepackages(): 1230.
     returns the path of the user’s site-packages directory, and *note
     getuserbase(): 122f. returns the value of the *note USER_BASE:
     130c. environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can
     be used to store data.  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(63).)

     The *note site: c7. module now reports exceptions occurring when
     the *note sitecustomize: c8. module is imported, and will no longer
     catch and swallow the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. exception.
     (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137(64).)

   * The *note create_connection(): 66c. function gained a
     'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the
     source address that will be used for the connection.  (Contributed
     by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(65).)

     The *note recv_into(): 130d. and *note recvfrom_into(): 130e.
     methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API,
     most usefully the *note bytearray: 538. and *note memoryview: 462.
     objects.  (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104(66).)

   * The *note SocketServer: cd. module’s *note TCPServer: 130f. class
     now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
     The ‘disable_nagle_algorithm’ class attribute defaults to ‘False’;
     if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the
     TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a
     single TCP packet.  The *note timeout: 1310. class attribute can
     hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request
     socket; if no request is received within that time, *note
     handle_timeout(): 1311. will be called and *note handle_request():
     1312. will return.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson;
     bpo-6192(67) and bpo-6267(68).)

   * Updated module: the *note sqlite3: cf. module has been updated to
     version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package(69).  Version 2.6.0 includes
     a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite
     extensions from shared libraries.  Call the
     ‘enable_load_extension(True)’ method to enable extensions, and then
     call *note load_extension(): 4b2. to load a particular shared
     library.  (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note ssl: d0. module’s *note SSLSocket: 8e7. objects now
     support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133(70)) and automatically set OpenSSL’s
     ‘SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY’, which will prevent an error code being
     returned from ‘recv()’ operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation
     (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222(71)).

     The *note wrap_socket(): 51e. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument that’s a string listing the encryption
     algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in
     the OpenSSL documentation(72).  (Added by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8322(73).)

     Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL’s ciphers
     and digest algorithms so that they’re all available.  Some SSL
     certificates couldn’t be verified, reporting an “unknown algorithm”
     error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8484(74).)

     The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
     attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 120e. (a string), *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 120f. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 1210. (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-8321(75).)

   * The *note struct: d5. module will no longer silently ignore
     overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer
     format code (one of ‘bBhHiIlLqQ’); it now always raises a *note
     struct.error: 1313. exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1523(76).)  The *note pack(): 1267. function will also attempt
     to use *note __index__(): 716. to convert and pack non-integers
     before trying the *note __int__(): 715. method or reporting an
     error.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300(77).)

   * New function: the *note subprocess: d6. module’s *note
     check_output(): fb9. runs a command with a specified set of
     arguments and returns the command’s output as a string when the
     command runs without error, or raises a *note CalledProcessError:
     1314. exception otherwise.

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
          'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
          /dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

     The *note subprocess: d6. module will now retry its internal system
     calls on receiving an *note EINTR: d83. signal.  (Reported by
     several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in
     bpo-1068268(78).)

   * New function: *note is_declared_global(): 1315. in the *note
     symtable: d8. module returns true for variables that are explicitly
     declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The *note syslog: dc. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(79).)

   * The *note sys.version_info: 69a. value is now a named tuple, with
     attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘micro’, ‘releaselevel’, and
     ‘serial’.  (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(80).)

     *note sys.getwindowsversion(): ce4. also returns a named tuple,
     with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘build’, ‘platform’,
     ‘service_pack’, ‘service_pack_major’, ‘service_pack_minor’,
     ‘suite_mask’, and ‘product_type’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-7766(81).)

   * The *note tarfile: de. module’s default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(82).)

     *note tarfile: de. now supports filtering the *note TarInfo: 1200.
     objects being added to a tar file.  When you call *note add(): bf0,
     you may supply an optional 'filter' argument that’s a callable.
     The 'filter' callable will be passed the *note TarInfo: 1200. for
     every file being added, and can modify and return it.  If the
     callable returns ‘None’, the file will be excluded from the
     resulting archive.  This is more powerful than the existing
     'exclude' argument, which has therefore been deprecated.  (Added by
     Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856(83).)  The *note TarFile: 11ff. class also
     now supports the context management protocol.  (Added by Lars
     Gustäbel; bpo-7232(84).)

   * The *note wait(): 1316. method of the *note threading.Event: 1149.
     class now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method
     will usually return true because *note wait(): 1316. is supposed to
     block until the internal flag becomes true.  The return value will
     only be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed
     out.  (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032(85).)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module
     is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
     whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also includes
     information from the ‘Unihan.txt’ data file (patch by Anders
     Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-1571184(86)) and has been
     updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-8024(87)).

   * The *note urlparse: 10a. module’s *note urlsplit(): d3c. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(88): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

     The *note urlparse: 10a. module also supports IPv6 literal
     addresses as defined by RFC 2732(89) (contributed by Senthil
     Kumaran; bpo-2987(90)).

          >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
                      path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')

   * New class: the *note WeakSet: 5d7. class in the *note weakref: 114.
     module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements;
     elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to
     them.  (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger,
     and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. library, no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(91).)

   * The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the *note xmlrpclib:
     12e. and *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. modules, have improved
     performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally
     using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip
     compression is controlled by the ‘encode_threshold’ attribute of
     *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 1317, which contains a size in
     bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267(92).)

   * The *note zipfile: 131. module’s *note ZipFile: 6be. now supports
     the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-5511(93).)

     *note zipfile: 131. now also supports archiving empty directories
     and extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek;
     bpo-4710(94).)  Reading files out of an archive is faster, and
     interleaving *note read(): 1318. and *note readline(): 1319. now
     works correctly.  (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610(95).)

     The *note is_zipfile(): 131a. function now accepts a file object,
     in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions.
     (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756(96).)

     The *note writestr(): 131b. method now has an optional
     'compress_type' parameter that lets you override the default
     compression method specified in the *note ZipFile: 6be.
     constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003(97).)

* Menu:

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703

   (3) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606

   (13) https://sourceware.org/libffi/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6595

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7633

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7585

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8688

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7490

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1368247

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5812

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2054

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6845

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5479

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4272

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4879

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3135

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4991

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6939

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5032

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4816

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5381

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1607951

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6896

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3366

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5585

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6963

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6508

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7333

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7242

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5827

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3426

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6816

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3002

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8354

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3137

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8104

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6192

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267

   (69) https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7133

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8222

   (72) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1523

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8300

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1068268

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7766

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7232

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1674032

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1571184

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8024

   (88) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (89) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5511

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4710

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4756

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6003


File: python.info,  Node: New module importlib,  Next: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.1 New module: importlib
...............................

Python 3.1 includes the *note importlib: 77. package, a
re-implementation of the logic underlying Python’s *note import: 5dc.
statement.  *note importlib: 77. is useful for implementers of Python
interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can
participate in the import process.  Python 2.7 doesn’t contain the
complete *note importlib: 77. package, but instead has a tiny subset
that contains a single function, *note import_module(): 511.

‘import_module(name, package=None)’ imports a module.  'name' is a
string containing the module or package’s name.  It’s possible to do
relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ‘.’ character,
such as ‘..utils.errors’.  For relative imports, the 'package' argument
must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the
anchor for the relative import.  *note import_module(): 511. both
inserts the imported module into ‘sys.modules’ and returns the module
object.

Here are some examples:

     >>> from importlib import import_module
     >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
     >>> anydbm
     <module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
     >>> # Relative import
     >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
     >>> file_util
     <module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>

*note importlib: 77. was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
Python 3.1.


File: python.info,  Node: New module sysconfig,  Next: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Prev: New module importlib,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.2 New module: sysconfig
...............................

The *note sysconfig: db. module has been pulled out of the Distutils
package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.  *note
sysconfig: db. provides functions for getting information about Python’s
build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name,
and whether Python is running from its source directory.

Some of the functions in the module are:

   * *note get_config_var(): 1021. returns variables from Python’s
     Makefile and the ‘pyconfig.h’ file.

   * *note get_config_vars(): 1022. returns a dictionary containing all
     of the configuration variables.

   * *note get_path(): 131e. returns the configured path for a
     particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific
     modules, platform-specific modules, etc.

   * *note is_python_build(): 2df. returns true if you’re running a
     binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.

Consult the *note sysconfig: db. documentation for more details and for
a complete list of functions.

The Distutils package and *note sysconfig: db. are now maintained by
Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source
repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/distutils2/’) for developing a
next-generation version of Distutils.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Next: Updated module unittest,  Prev: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.3 ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
....................................

Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
closely resemble the native platform’s widgets.  This widget set was
originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for “themed Tk”) on
being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.

To learn more, read the *note ttk: f9. module documentation.  You may
also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme
engine, available at
‘https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html’.  Some screenshots
of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
‘https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki’.

The *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module was written by Guilherme Polo and
added in bpo-2983(1).  An alternate version called ‘Tile.py’, written by
Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
inclusion in bpo-2618(2), but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo’s
work was more comprehensive.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module unittest,  Next: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.4 Updated module: unittest
..................................

The *note unittest: 106. module was greatly enhanced; many new features
were added.  Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord,
unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of the module is
downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
packaged as the ‘unittest2’ package, from unittest2(1).

When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
tests.  It’s not as fancy as py.test(2) or nose(3), but provides a
simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For
example, the following command will search the ‘test/’ subdirectory for
any importable test files named ‘test*.py’:

     python -m unittest discover -s test

Consult the *note unittest: 106. module documentation for more details.
(Developed in bpo-6001(4).)

The *note main(): fdb. function supports some other new options:

   * *note -b: 1322. or ‘--buffer’ will buffer the standard output and
     standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes, any
     resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output
     will be displayed.

   * *note -c: 1323. or ‘--catch’ will cause the control-C interrupt to
     be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
     process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
     and then the partial results up to the interruption will be
     reported.  If you’re impatient, a second press of control-C will
     cause an immediate interruption.

     This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the
     code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal
     handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already
     set and calling it.  If this doesn’t work for you, there’s a *note
     removeHandler(): 1324. decorator that can be used to mark tests
     that should have the control-C handling disabled.

   * *note -f: 1325. or ‘--failfast’ makes test execution stop
     immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute
     further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael
     Foord; bpo-8074(5).)

The progress messages now show ‘x’ for expected failures and ‘u’ for
unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.  (Contributed by Benjamin
Peterson.)

Test cases can raise the *note SkipTest: fdc. exception to skip a test
(bpo-1034053(6)).

The error messages for *note assertEqual(): 522, *note assertTrue():
520, and *note assertFalse(): 521. failures now provide more
information.  If you set the *note longMessage: 1326. attribute of your
*note TestCase: 447. classes to true, both the standard error message
and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures.
(Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663(7).)

The *note assertRaises(): 526. method now returns a context handler when
called without providing a callable object to run.  For example, you can
write this:

     with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
         {}['foo']

(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4444(8).)

Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
Modules can contain ‘setUpModule()’ and ‘tearDownModule()’ functions.
Classes can have *note setUpClass(): a49. and *note tearDownClass():
1327. methods that must be defined as class methods (using
‘@classmethod’ or equivalent).  These functions and methods are invoked
when the test runner switches to a test case in a different module or
class.

The methods *note addCleanup(): a7e. and *note doCleanups(): 1328. were
added.  *note addCleanup(): a7e. lets you add cleanup functions that
will be called unconditionally (after *note setUp(): 1329. if *note
setUp(): 1329. fails, otherwise after *note tearDown(): 132a.).  This
allows for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during
tests (bpo-5679(9)).

A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests.
Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their
test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging
them into Python’s version of *note unittest: 106.

   * *note assertIsNone(): 127a. and *note assertIsNotNone(): 127b. take
     one expression and verify that the result is or is not ‘None’.

   * *note assertIs(): 132b. and *note assertIsNot(): 132c. take two
     values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object
     or not.  (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578(10).)

   * *note assertIsInstance(): 132d. and *note assertNotIsInstance():
     132e. check whether the resulting object is an instance of a
     particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-7031(11).)

   * *note assertGreater(): 132f, *note assertGreaterEqual(): 1330,
     *note assertLess(): 1331, and *note assertLessEqual(): 1332.
     compare two quantities.

   * *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 1333. compares two strings, and if
     they’re not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights
     the differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
     default when Unicode strings are compared with *note assertEqual():
     522.

   * *note assertRegexpMatches(): 527. and *note
     assertNotRegexpMatches(): 529. checks whether the first argument is
     a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided
     as the second argument (bpo-8038(12)).

   * *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 528. checks whether a particular
     exception is raised, and then also checks that the string
     representation of the exception matches the provided regular
     expression.

   * *note assertIn(): 1334. and *note assertNotIn(): 1335. tests
     whether 'first' is or is not in 'second'.

   * *note assertItemsEqual(): 121a. tests whether two provided
     sequences contain the same elements.

   * *note assertSetEqual(): 1275. compares whether two sets are equal,
     and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.

   * Similarly, *note assertListEqual(): 1277. and *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 1278. compare the specified types and explain
     any differences without necessarily printing their full values;
     these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and
     tuples using *note assertEqual(): 522.  More generally, *note
     assertSequenceEqual(): 1279. compares two sequences and can
     optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type.

   * *note assertDictEqual(): 1276. compares two dictionaries and
     reports the differences; it’s now used by default when you compare
     two dictionaries using *note assertEqual(): 522.
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ checks whether all of the key/value
     pairs in 'first' are found in 'second'.

   * *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524. and *note assertNotAlmostEqual():
     525. test whether 'first' and 'second' are approximately equal.
     This method can either round their difference to an optionally
     specified number of 'places' (the default is 7) and compare it to
     zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied
     'delta' value.

   * *note loadTestsFromName(): 1336. properly honors the *note
     suiteClass: 1337. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 28e.  (Fixed
     by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866(13).)

   * A new hook lets you extend the *note assertEqual(): 522. method to
     handle new data types.  The *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 1338.
     method takes a type object and a function.  The function will be
     used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified
     type.  This function should compare the two objects and raise an
     exception if they don’t match; it’s a good idea for the function to
     provide additional information about why the two objects aren’t
     matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do.

*note unittest.main(): fdb. now takes an optional ‘exit’ argument.  If
false, *note main(): fdb. doesn’t call *note sys.exit(): 1339, allowing
*note main(): fdb. to be used from the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; bpo-3379(14).)

*note TestResult: 1158. has new *note startTestRun(): 133a. and *note
stopTestRun(): 133b. methods that are called immediately before and
after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728(15).)

With all these changes, the ‘unittest.py’ was becoming awkwardly large,
so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several
files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn’t affect how the module is
imported or used.

더 보기
.......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml’

     Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for
     various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/

   (2) https://pytest.org

   (3) https://nose.readthedocs.io/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: Updated module unittest,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.15.11.5 Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
.........................................

The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated
to version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:

   * The various parsing functions now take a 'parser' keyword argument
     giving an *note XMLParser: a50. instance that will be used.  This
     makes it possible to override the file’s internal encoding:

          p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
          t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)

     Errors in parsing XML now raise a *note ParseError: 1268.
     exception, whose instances have a ‘position’ attribute containing a
     ('line', 'column') tuple giving the location of the problem.

   * ElementTree’s code for converting trees to a string has been
     significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
     cases.  The *note ElementTree.write(): fed. and ‘Element.write()’
     methods now have a 'method' parameter that can be “xml” (the
     default), “html”, or “text”.  HTML mode will output empty elements
     as ‘<empty></empty>’ instead of ‘<empty/>’, and text mode will skip
     over elements and only output the text chunks.  If you set the
     *note tag: 133e. attribute of an element to ‘None’ but leave its
     children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is
     written out, so you don’t need to do more extensive rearrangement
     to remove a single element.

     Namespace handling has also been improved.  All ‘xmlns:<whatever>’
     declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered
     throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for
     a tree by setting the ‘default_namespace’ attribute and can
     register new prefixes with *note register_namespace(): 11c1.  In
     XML mode, you can use the true/false 'xml_declaration' parameter to
     suppress the XML declaration.

   * New *note Element: 308. method: *note extend(): 11c2. appends the
     items from a sequence to the element’s children.  Elements
     themselves behave like sequences, so it’s easy to move children
     from one element to another:

          from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")
          new = ET.XML('<root/>')
          new.extend(t)

          # Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
          print ET.tostring(new)

   * New *note Element: 308. method: *note iter(): 133f. yields the
     children of the element as a generator.  It’s also possible to
     write ‘for child in elem:’ to loop over an element’s children.  The
     existing method ‘getiterator()’ is now deprecated, as is
     ‘getchildren()’ which constructs and returns a list of children.

   * New *note Element: 308. method: *note itertext(): 11c4. yields all
     chunks of text that are descendants of the element.  For example:

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")

          # Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
          print list(t.itertext())

   * Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ‘if elem:’) would
     return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
     no children.  This behaviour is confusing – ‘None’ is false, but so
     is a childless element?  – so it will now trigger a *note
     FutureWarning: 40f.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
     ‘len(elem) != 0’ if you’re interested in the number of children, or
     ‘elem is not None’.

Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can
read his article describing 1.3 at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm’.
Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after
discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes,  Prev: New and Improved Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.12 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted
     using Python(1).  When you begin debugging an executable program P,
     GDB will look for a file named ‘P-gdb.py’ and automatically read
     it.  Dave Malcolm contributed a ‘python-gdb.py’ that adds a number
     of commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
     ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ go up or down one Python stack frame, which
     usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  ‘py-print’ prints
     the value of a Python variable, and ‘py-bt’ prints the Python stack
     trace.  (Added as a result of bpo-8032(2).)

   * If you use the ‘.gdbinit’ file provided with Python, the “pyo”
     macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
     debugged doesn’t hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before
     printing.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632(3).)

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 97e. is now thread-safe, letting any
     worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
     is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
     (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293(4).)

   * New function: *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 1341. creates an empty code
     object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are
     required.  This is useful for extension modules that are attempting
     to construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
     extensions needed to call ‘PyCode_New()’, which had many more
     arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New function: *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1259. creates a
     new exception class, just as the existing *note
     PyErr_NewException(): 125a. does, but takes an extra ‘char *’
     argument containing the docstring for the new exception class.
     (Added by ‘lekma’ on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033(5).)

   * New function: *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784. takes a frame
     object and returns the line number that the frame is currently
     executing.  Previously code would need to get the index of the
     bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line
     number corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New functions: *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1257. and *note
     PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1256. approximates a Python long
     integer as a C long or long long.  If the number is too large to
     fit into the output type, an 'overflow' flag is set and returned to
     the caller.  (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528(6) and
     bpo-7767(7).)

   * New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float
     conversion, a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1285. function was
     added.  The old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’
     functions are now deprecated.

   * New function: ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ sets the value of ‘sys.argv’ and
     can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the directory
     containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on the value
     of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(8); discussed in
     bpo-5753(9), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * New macros: the Python header files now define the following
     macros: ‘Py_ISALNUM’, ‘Py_ISALPHA’, ‘Py_ISDIGIT’, ‘Py_ISLOWER’,
     ‘Py_ISSPACE’, ‘Py_ISUPPER’, ‘Py_ISXDIGIT’, ‘Py_TOLOWER’, and
     ‘Py_TOUPPER’.  All of these functions are analogous to the C
     standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current
     locale setting, because in several places Python needs to analyze
     characters in a locale-independent way.  (Added by Eric Smith;
     bpo-5793(10).)

   * Removed function: ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available as a
     macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI
     linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
     deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276(11).)

   * New format codes: the ‘PyString_FromFormat()’,
     ‘PyString_FromFormatV()’, and *note PyErr_Format(): ea6. functions
     now accept ‘%lld’ and ‘%llu’ format codes for displaying C’s long
     long types.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228(12).)

   * The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
     been changed.  Previously, the child process created by *note
     os.fork(): 197. might fail because the child is created with only a
     single thread running, the thread performing the *note os.fork():
     197.  If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python’s import
     lock, when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked
     as “held” in the new process.  But in the child process nothing
     would ever release the lock, since the other threads weren’t
     replicated, and the child process would no longer be able to
     perform imports.

     Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an *note
     os.fork(): 197, and will also clean up any locks created using the
     *note threading: ed. module.  C extension modules that have
     internal locks, or that call ‘fork()’ themselves, will not benefit
     from this clean-up.

     (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864(13).)

   * The *note Py_Finalize(): 1342. function now calls the internal
     ‘threading._shutdown()’ function; this prevents some exceptions
     from being raised when an interpreter shuts down.  (Patch by Adam
     Olsen; bpo-1722344(14).)

   * When using the *note PyMemberDef: 54a. structure to define
     attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete
     or set a ‘T_STRING_INPLACE’ attribute.

   * Global symbols defined by the *note ctypes: 2a. module are now
     prefixed with ‘Py’, or with ‘_ctypes’.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Heller; bpo-3102(15).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-system-expat’ switch allows
     building the *note pyexpat: 126. module to use the system Expat
     library.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-7609(16).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-valgrind’ option will now disable
     the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind
     memory-error detector to analyze correctly.  Valgrind will
     therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns.
     (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422(17).)

   * New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
     ‘--with-dbmliborder=’ in order to disable all of the various DBM
     modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-6491(18).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
     on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a ‘X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING’
     preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
     but it’s available if anyone wishes to use it.  (Added by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-2937(19).)

     ‘configure’ also now sets a ‘LDCXXSHARED’ Makefile variable for
     supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis; bpo-1222585(20).)

   * The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
     support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585(21).)

   * The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
     Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094(22).)

* Menu:

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<5>

1.15.12.1 Capsules
..................

Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, *note PyCapsule: 1263, for providing a
C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of a
C ‘void *’ pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
example, the *note socket: cc. module’s API is exposed as ‘socket.CAPI’,
and *note unicodedata: 105. exposes ‘ucnhash_CAPI’.  Other extensions
can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object,
and then get the ‘void *’ pointer, which will usually point to an array
of pointers to the module’s various API functions.

There is an existing data type already used for this, ‘PyCObject’, but
it doesn’t provide type safety.  Evil code written in pure Python could
cause a segmentation fault by taking a ‘PyCObject’ from module A and
somehow substituting it for the ‘PyCObject’ in module B. Capsules know
their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name:

     void *vtable;

     if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
             return NULL;
     }

     vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");

You are assured that ‘vtable’ points to whatever you’re expecting.  If a
different capsule was passed in, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1345. would
detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to *note 확장 모듈을
위한 C API 제공하기: 1346. for more information on using these objects.

Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
extension-module APIs, but the ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ was modified to
handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the
‘PyCObject’ interface.  Use of ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ will signal a
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5, which is silent by default.

Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
discussed in bpo-5630(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Prev: Capsules,  Up: Build and C API Changes<5>

1.15.12.2 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The *note msvcrt: 93. module now contains some constants from the
     ‘crtassem.h’ header file: *note CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION: 1348, *note
     VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN: 1349, and *note
     LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX: 134a.  (Contributed by David
     Cournapeau; bpo-4365(1).)

   * The *note _winreg: 116. module for accessing the registry now
     implements the *note CreateKeyEx(): 134b. and *note DeleteKeyEx():
     134c. functions, extended versions of previously supported
     functions that take several extra arguments.  The *note
     DisableReflectionKey(): 134d, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 134e,
     and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 134f. were also tested and
     documented.  (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347(2).)

   * The new ‘_beginthreadex()’ API is used to start threads, and the
     native thread-local storage functions are now used.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582(3).)

   * The *note os.kill(): 1350. function now works on Windows.  The
     signal value can be the constants *note CTRL_C_EVENT: 1351, *note
     CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1352, or any integer.  The first two constants
     will send ‘Control’-‘C’ and ‘Control’-‘Break’ keystroke events to
     subprocesses; any other value will use the ‘TerminateProcess()’
     API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212(4).)

   * The *note os.listdir(): 10eb. function now correctly fails for an
     empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913(5).)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8f. module will now read the MIME database
     from the Windows registry when initializing.  (Patch by Gabriel
     Genellina; bpo-4969(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Next: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<5>

1.15.12.3 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * The path ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’ is now appended to
     ‘sys.path’, in order to share added packages between the system
     installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
     (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865(1).)

     버전 2.7.13에서 변경: As of 2.7.13, this change was removed.
     ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’, the site-packages directory
     used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended
     to ‘sys.path’ for user-installed Pythons such as from the
     python.org installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the
     system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause
     installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages
     installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with
     user-installed Pythons.  (bpo-28440(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Up: Build and C API Changes<5>

1.15.12.4 Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
........................................

   * FreeBSD 7.1’s ‘SO_SETFIB’ constant, used with the *note socket():
     d9d. methods *note getsockopt(): cd2./*note setsockopt(): cd3. to
     select an alternate routing table, is now available in the *note
     socket: cc. module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes,  Next: Porting to Python 2 7,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.13 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

   * Two benchmark scripts, ‘iobench’ and ‘ccbench’, were added to the
     ‘Tools’ directory.  ‘iobench’ measures the speed of the built-in
     file I/O objects returned by *note open(): 515. while performing
     various operations, and ‘ccbench’ is a concurrency benchmark that
     tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency,
     and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a
     varying number of threads.

   * The ‘Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py’ script now understands plural forms in
     ‘.po’ files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464(1).)

   * When importing a module from a ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ file with an
     existing ‘.py’ counterpart, the *note co_filename: 1356. attributes
     of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original
     filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
     renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
     Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193(2).)

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now takes a ‘--randseed=’ switch that
     takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the ‘-r’
     option that executes tests in random order.  The ‘-r’ option also
     reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.)

   * Another ‘regrtest.py’ switch is ‘-j’, which takes an integer
     specifying how many tests run in parallel.  This allows reducing
     the total runtime on multi-core machines.  This option is
     compatible with several other options, including the ‘-R’ switch
     which is known to produce long runtimes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6152(3).)  This can also be used with a new ‘-F’ switch that
     runs selected tests in a loop until they fail.  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-7312(4).)

   * When executed as a script, the ‘py_compile.py’ module now accepts
     ‘'-'’ as an argument, which will read standard input for the list
     of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski;
     bpo-8233(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 7,  Next: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.14 Porting to Python 2.7
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note range(): 941. function processes its arguments more
     consistently; it will now call *note __int__(): 715. on non-float,
     non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
     Belopolsky; bpo-1533(1).)

   * The string *note format(): 619. method changed the default
     precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6
     decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by *note
     str(): 445.  (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920(2).)

   * Because of an optimization for the *note with: 5cc. statement, the
     special methods *note __enter__(): 5c2. and *note __exit__(): 12f0.
     must belong to the object’s type, and cannot be directly attached
     to the object’s instance.  This affects new-style classes (derived
     from *note object: a89.) and C extension types.  (bpo-6101(3).)

   * Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the 'exc_value' parameter to *note
     __exit__(): 12f0. methods was often the string representation of
     the exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so
     'exc_value' will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent
     Xicluna; bpo-7853(4).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     346. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(5).)

In the standard library:

   * Operations with *note datetime: 1cc. instances that resulted in a
     year falling outside the supported range didn’t always raise *note
     OverflowError: 87d.  Such errors are now checked more carefully and
     will now raise the exception.  (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by
     Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150(6).)

   * When using *note Decimal: 29d. instances with a string’s *note
     format(): 619. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which
     might change the output of your programs.  (Changed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6857(7).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: 109b. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(8).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. library no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(9).)

   * The ‘readline()’ method of *note StringIO: f1f. objects now does
     nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
     objects do.  (bpo-7348(10)).

   * The *note syslog: dc. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(11).)

   * The *note tarfile: de. module’s default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(12).)

   * The *note urlparse: 10a. module’s *note urlsplit(): d3c. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(13): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

For C extensions:

   * C extensions that use integer format codes with the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     family of functions will now raise a *note TypeError: 532.
     exception instead of triggering a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.
     (bpo-5080(14)).

   * Use the new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1285. function instead
     of the old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions,
     which are now deprecated.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added, letting applications
     close a security hole when the existing ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function
     was used.  Check whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and
     carefully consider whether the application should be using
     ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Next: Acknowledgements,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 7,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.15 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
-------------------------------------------------------------

New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
situation genuinely calls for it.  Any such additions must go through
the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for
why they can’t be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature
solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package
Index.

In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
exemption allowing new ‘-3’ warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
maintenance release.

* Menu:

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::


File: python.info,  Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Next: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.1 Two new environment variables for debug mode
......................................................

In debug mode, the ‘[xxx refs]’ statistic is not written by default, the
‘PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT’ environment variable now must also be set.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733(1).)

When Python is compiled with ‘COUNT_ALLOC’ defined, allocation counts
are no longer dumped by default anymore: the ‘PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT’
environment variable must now also be set.  Moreover, allocation counts
are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner; bpo-31692(2).)

Added in version 2.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Next: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Prev: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.2 PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
..............................................................

PEP 434(1) describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
development environment shipped along with Python.  This exemption makes
it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.

For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
release.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.3 PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
...............................................................

PEP 466(1) describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance
releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7
release.

PEP 466(2) related features added in Python 2.7.7:

   * *note hmac.compare_digest(): 10bc. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to
     Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306(3).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware;
     bpo-21462(4).)

PEP 466(5) related features added in Python 2.7.8:

   * *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 508. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage
     broadly available to Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor; bpo-21304(6).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in
     bpo-21671(7) for CVE 2014-0224(8).)

PEP 466(9) related features added in Python 2.7.9:

   * Most of Python 3.4’s *note ssl: d0. module was backported.  This
     means *note ssl: d0. now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x
     settings, access to the platform certificate store, the *note
     SSLContext: 294. class, and other features.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor and David Reid; bpo-21308(10).)

     Refer to the “Version added: 2.7.9” notes in the module
     documentation for specific details.

   * *note os.urandom(): 51c. was changed to cache a file descriptor to
     ‘/dev/urandom’ instead of reopening ‘/dev/urandom’ on every call.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305(11).)

   * *note hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed: 135c. and *note
     hashlib.algorithms_available: 135d. were backported from Python 3
     to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest
     available hash algorithm.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
     bpo-21307(12))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Prev: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.4 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
.............................................................

PEP 477(1) approves the inclusion of the PEP 453(2) ensurepip module and
the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7
maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Next: Documentation Changes<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.15.15.5 Bootstrapping pip By Default
......................................

The new *note ensurepip: 55. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations.  The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 2.7.9
is ‘pip’ 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the
bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the
time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pip’, ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on
all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python
installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: eeb, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands do not bootstrap ‘pip’ by
default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options,
and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2), platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes<2>,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.15.15.6 Documentation Changes
...............................

As part of this change, the *note 파이썬 모듈 설치하기: eed. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note setuptools로 C와
C++ 확장 빌드하기: eee. and *note setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기:
eef.

더 보기
.......

PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Next: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.7 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.......................................................................................

PEP 476(1) updated *note httplib: 6e. and modules which use it, such as
*note urllib2: 10b. and *note xmlrpclib: 12e, to now verify that the
server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority
in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname
being requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.  This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib2
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Next: New make regen-all build target,  Prev: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.8 PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
....................................................................

PEP 493(1) provides additional migration tools to support a more
incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing
applications and services relying on the historically permissive
processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS
connections.  These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release.

These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications
and services can’t be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL
context when establishing the connection.

For applications and services which can’t be modified at all, the new
‘PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY’ environment variable may be set to ‘0’ to revert an
entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python
2.7.8 and earlier.

For cases where the connection establishment code can’t be modified, but
the overall application can be, the new
‘ssl._https_verify_certificates()’ function can be used to adjust the
default behaviour at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target,  Next: Removal of make touch build target,  Prev: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.9 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 2.7.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target,  Prev: New make regen-all build target,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.15.15.10 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
...............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

버전 2.7.14에서 변경.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements,  Prev: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.15.16 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh
Secker-Walker.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.16 What’s New in Python 2.6
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on
October 1, 2008.  The release schedule is described in PEP 361(1).

The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python
3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible, Python 2.6
incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible
with existing code by not removing older features or syntax.  When it’s
not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding
compatibility functions in a ‘future_builtins’ module and a ‘-3’ switch
to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.

Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
such as the *note multiprocessing: 94. and *note json: 82. modules, but
there aren’t many new features that aren’t related to Python 3.0 in some
way.

Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6.  If you
want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.  Whenever possible,
“What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 0,  Next: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.1 Python 3.0
-----------------

The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized,
with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the
same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6.

Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility
with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python code will need
some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0.  However, not all the
changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility.  In cases where new
features won’t cause existing code to break, they’ve been backported to
2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place.  Some
of the 3.0-derived features are:

   * A ‘__complex__()’ method for converting objects to a complex
     number.

   * Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ‘except TypeError as
     exc’.

   * The addition of *note functools.reduce(): 12cc. as a synonym for
     the built-in ‘reduce()’ function.

Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics
of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0 such as *note
bin(): 1298. have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins
haven’t been changed; instead, the ‘future_builtins’ module has versions
with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can
do ‘from future_builtins import hex, map’ as necessary.

A new command-line switch, ‘-3’, enables warnings about features that
will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code with this switch to see
how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0.  The value of this
switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable
‘sys.py3kwarning’, and to C extension code as ‘Py_Py3kWarningFlag’.

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The 3'xxx' series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.  PEP
3000(1) describes the development process for Python 3.0.  Start with
PEP 3100(2) that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then
explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Development Process,  Next: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement,  Prev: Python 3 0,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.2 Changes to the Development Process
-----------------------------------------

While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent
two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge’s issue tracker to
a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted
from LaTeX to reStructuredText.

* Menu:

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.


File: python.info,  Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Next: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.16.2.1 New Issue Tracker: Roundup
...................................

For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
annoyed by SourceForge’s bug tracker.  SourceForge’s hosted solution
doesn’t permit much customization; for example, it wasn’t possible to
customize the life cycle of issues.

The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore
posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different
products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge.  Four
different trackers were examined: Jira(1), Launchpad(2), Roundup(3), and
Trac(4).  The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the
two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted
instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project
that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it.

After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set
up at ‘https://bugs.python.org’.  One installation of Roundup can host
multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for
Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find other uses in
the future.  Where possible, this edition of “What’s New in Python”
links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront
Systems(5) of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a lot of
effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his
scripts for this import operation are at
‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ and may be useful to
other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.

더 보기
.......

‘https://bugs.python.org’

     The Python bug tracker.

‘https://bugs.jython.org’:

     The Jython bug tracker.

‘https://roundup.sourceforge.io/’

     Roundup downloads and documentation.

‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’

     Martin von Löwis’s conversion scripts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/

   (2) https://launchpad.net/

   (3) https://roundup.sourceforge.io/

   (4) https://trac.edgewall.org/

   (5) https://upfrontsoftware.co.za


File: python.info,  Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Prev: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.16.2.2 New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
................................................................

The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
was printed out for later study, not viewed online.  LaTeX was widely
used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
learned.

Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
L.  Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of
time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
the time required to finish the job.

During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into
building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
‘https://www.sphinx-doc.org/’.

Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting
custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python
community.

Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost
two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site(1)) have adopted
Sphinx as their documentation tool.

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Documenting Python(2)

     Describes how to write for Python’s documentation.

Sphinx(3)

     Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.

Docutils(4)

     The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/documenting/

   (3) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (4) https://docutils.sourceforge.io


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement,  Next: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Prev: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.3 PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
------------------------------------

The previous version, Python 2.5, added the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement
as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import
with_statement’ directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be
specially enabled; this means that ‘with’ is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the
“What’s New in Python 2.5” document; if you’re familiar with the
‘‘with’’ statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.

The ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 5c2. and *note __exit__(): 12f0. methods).

The object’s *note __enter__(): 5c2. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note
__exit__(): 12f0. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 2ea. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     참고: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     515, because *note __enter__(): 5c2. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: ed. module’s locks and condition variables also
support the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 36. module makes it
easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates
the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers::
* The contextlib module::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers,  Next: The contextlib module,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement

1.16.3.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use ‘‘with’’ in company with existing objects and
don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     “context manager”.  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 5c2. and *note __exit__(): 12f0. methods.

   * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c2. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘as VAR’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the context manager’s *note
     __exit__(): 12f0. method is called with three arguments, the
     exception details (‘type, value, traceback’, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 684, which can also be ‘None’ if
     no exception occurred).  The method’s return value controls whether
     an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception,
     and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.  You’ll only rarely want
     to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code
     containing the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement will never realize
     anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 12f0.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception.  Here’s the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor(self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit(self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback(self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 5c2. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__(self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 12f0. method is the most complicated because it’s
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 9cb. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: The contextlib module,  Prev: Writing Context Managers,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement

1.16.3.2 The contextlib module
..............................

The *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a decorator
that are useful when writing objects for use with the ‘*note with: 5cc.’
statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 9ca.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 5c2. method, and the value
yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the
variable in the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 12f0.
method.  Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’
statement.

Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
could be written as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction(connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to
write nested ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statements.  In this example, the single
‘‘with’’ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing()’ function returns its argument so that it can be
bound to a variable, and calls the argument’s ‘.close()’ method at the
end of the block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

더 보기
.......

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Next: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Prev: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.4 PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
------------------------------------------------------------

Python’s *note -m: 5db. switch allows running a module as a script.
When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
imports didn’t work correctly.

The fix for Python 2.6 adds a *note module.__package__: 2d9. attribute.
When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the
value of this attribute instead of the *note __name__: 1371. attribute.

PEP 302-style importers can then set *note __package__: 2d9. as
necessary.  The *note runpy: be. module that implements the *note -m:
5db. switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly
in scripts running from inside a package.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Next: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Prev: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.5 PEP 370: Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory
--------------------------------------------------

When you run Python, the module search path ‘sys.path’ usually includes
a directory whose path ends in ‘"site-packages"’.  This directory is
intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using
a machine or a particular site installation.

Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
The directory varies depending on the platform:

   * Unix and Mac OS X: ‘~/.local/’

   * Windows: ‘%APPDATA%/Python’

Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
such as ‘lib/python2.6/site-packages’ on Unix/Mac OS and
‘Python26/site-packages’ on Windows.

If you don’t like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
environment variable.  *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1373. sets the root
directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
setting the ‘APPDATA’ environment variable.  You can also modify the
‘site.py’ file for your Python installation.

The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the *note
-s: 1374. option or setting the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1375.
environment variable.

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PEP 370(1) - Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory

     PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Next: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Prev: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.6 PEP 371: The ‘multiprocessing’ Package
---------------------------------------------

The new *note multiprocessing: 94. package lets Python programs create
new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and
pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can
share simple arrays of data.

The *note multiprocessing: 94. module started out as an exact emulation
of the *note threading: ed. module using processes instead of threads.
That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class is the
‘Process’, which is passed a callable object and a collection of
arguments.  The ‘start()’ method sets the callable running in a
subprocess, after which you can call the ‘is_alive()’ method to check
whether the subprocess is still running and the ‘join()’ method to wait
for the process to exit.

Here’s a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial.
The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes
significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4.

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue


     def factorial(queue, N):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
         if (N % 4) == 0:
             time.sleep(.05 * N/4)

         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Put the result on the queue
         queue.put(fact)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         queue = Queue()

         N = 5

         p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         result = queue.get()
         print 'Factorial', N, '=', result

A *note Queue: 1377. is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
The *note Queue: 1377. object is stored in a global variable.  The child
process will use the value of the variable when the child was created;
because it’s a *note Queue: 1377, parent and child can use the object to
communicate.  (If the parent were to change the value of the global
variable, the child’s value would be unaffected, and vice versa.)

Two other classes, ‘Pool’ and ‘Manager’, provide higher-level
interfaces.  ‘Pool’ will create a fixed number of worker processes, and
requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling ‘apply()’ or
‘apply_async()’ to add a single request, and *note map(): 85e. or
‘map_async()’ to add a number of requests.  The following code uses a
‘Pool’ to spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list
of results:

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         ...
     p = Pool(5)
     result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
     for v in result:
         print v

This produces the following output:

     1
     39916800
     51090942171709440000
     8222838654177922817725562880000000
     33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     ...

The other high-level interface, the ‘Manager’ class, creates a separate
server process that can hold master copies of Python data structures.
Other processes can then access and modify these data structures using
proxy objects.  The following example creates a shared dictionary by
calling the *note dict(): 256. method; the worker processes then insert
values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not done for you automatically,
which doesn’t matter in this example.  ‘Manager’’s methods also include
‘Lock()’, ‘RLock()’, and ‘Semaphore()’ to create shared locks.)

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Store result in dictionary
         dictionary[N] = fact

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Pool(5)
         mgr = Manager()
         d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary

         # Run tasks using the pool
         for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
             p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))

         # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
         p.close()

         # Wait for tasks to exit
         p.join()

         # Output results
         for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
             print k, v

This will produce the output:

     1 1
     11 39916800
     21 51090942171709440000
     31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
     41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...

더 보기
.......

The documentation for the *note multiprocessing: 94. module.

PEP 371(1) - Addition of the multiprocessing package

     PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by
     Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Next: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Prev: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.7 PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
-------------------------------------------

In Python 3.0, the ‘%’ operator is supplemented by a more powerful
string formatting method, *note format(): 619.  Support for the *note
str.format(): 61b. method has been backported to Python 2.6.

In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a ‘.format()’ method that
treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
The formatting template uses curly brackets (‘{’, ‘}’) as special
characters:

     >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
     >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
     'User ID: root'
     >>> # Use the named keyword arguments
     >>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
     ...    uid="root",
     ...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
     'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'

Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:

     >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
     "Empty dict: {}"

Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
‘{0}’, ‘{1}’, etc.  or names of keyword arguments.  You can also supply
compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:

     >>> import sys
     >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
     Platform: darwin
     Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
     [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
     'Content-type: video/mp4'

Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ‘[.mp4]’, you
don’t need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up
the value using ‘.mp4’ as the key.  Strings beginning with a number will
be converted to an integer.  You can’t write more complicated
expressions inside a format string.

So far we’ve shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example:

     >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
     >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
     >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
     >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
     'Registration    $    35'
     >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
     'Tutorial        $    50'
     >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
     'Banquet         $   125'

Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:

     >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
     >>> width = 15
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234  '
     >>> width = 35
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234                      '

The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:

Character            Effect
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
< (default)          Left-align
                     
                     
>                    Right-align
                     
                     
^                    Center
                     
                     
=                    (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.
                     

Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls
how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers can be
formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:

     >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
     '3.75'
     >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
     '3.750000e+00'

A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
documentation for a *note complete list: 1379.; here’s a sample:

‘b’       Binary.  Outputs the number in base 2.
          
          
‘c’       Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character
          before printing.
          
          
‘d’       Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
          
          
‘o’       Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
          
          
‘x’       Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for
          the digits above 9.
          
          
‘e’       Exponent notation.  Prints the number in scientific notation using the
          letter ‘e’ to indicate the exponent.
          
          
‘g’       General format.  This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
          the number is too large, in which case it switches to ‘e’ exponent
          notation.
          
          
‘n’       Number.  This is the same as ‘g’ (for floats) or ‘d’ (for integers),
          except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
          number separator characters.
          
          
‘%’       Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed (‘f’)
          format, followed by a percent sign.
          

Classes and types can define a ‘__format__()’ method to control how
they’re formatted.  It receives a single argument, the format specifier:

     def __format__(self, format_spec):
         if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
             return unicode(str(self))
         else:
             return str(self)

There’s also a *note format(): 619. builtin that will format a single
value.  It calls the type’s ‘__format__()’ method with the provided
specifier:

     >>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
     '75.66'

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*note 포맷 문자열 문법: 1379.

     The reference documentation for format fields.

PEP 3101(1) - Advanced String Formatting

     PEP written by Talin.  Implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Next: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.8 PEP 3105: ‘print’ As a Function
--------------------------------------

The ‘print’ statement becomes the *note print(): f6d. function in Python
3.0.  Making *note print(): f6d. a function makes it possible to replace
the function by doing ‘def print(...)’ or importing a new function from
somewhere else.

Python 2.6 has a ‘__future__’ import that removes ‘print’ as language
syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example:

     >>> from __future__ import print_function
     >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)

The signature of the new function is:

     def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)

The parameters are:

   * 'args': positional arguments whose values will be printed out.

   * 'sep': the separator, which will be printed between arguments.

   * 'end': the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
     arguments have been output.

   * 'file': the file object to which the output will be sent.

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PEP 3105(1) - Make print a function

     PEP written by Georg Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Next: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Prev: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.9 PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
-------------------------------------------

One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the
following code:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
         ...

The author is probably trying to catch both *note TypeError: 532. and
*note ValueError: 202. exceptions, but this code actually does something
different: it will catch *note TypeError: 532. and bind the resulting
exception object to the local name ‘"ValueError"’.  The *note
ValueError: 202. exception will not be caught at all.  The correct code
specifies a tuple of exceptions:

     try:
         ...
     except (TypeError, ValueError):
         ...

This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does
it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node
that’s a tuple?

Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
“as”.  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
variable ‘exc’, you must write:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError as exc:
         ...

Python 3.0 will only support the use of “as”, and therefore interprets
the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
supports both the comma and “as”, so existing code will continue to
work.  We therefore suggest using “as” when writing new Python code that
will only be executed with 2.6.

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PEP 3110(1) - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000

     PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Next: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Prev: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.10 PEP 3112: Byte Literals
-------------------------------

Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language’s fundamental string type and
denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ‘b'string'’ or using a
*note bytes: 1c2. constructor.  For future compatibility, Python 2.6
adds *note bytes: 1c2. as a synonym for the *note str: 445. type, and it
also supports the ‘b''’ notation.

The 2.6 *note str: 445. differs from 3.0’s *note bytes: 1c2. type in
various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In
3.0, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
representing ‘ABC’; in 2.6, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ returns the 12-byte
string representing the *note str(): 445. of the list.

The primary use of *note bytes: 1c2. in 2.6 will be to write tests of
object type such as ‘isinstance(x, bytes)’.  This will help the 2to3
converter, which can’t tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain
either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either *note bytes:
1c2. or *note str: 445. to represent your intention exactly, and the
resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.

There’s also a ‘__future__’ import that causes all string literals to
become Unicode strings.  This means that ‘\u’ escape sequences can be
used to include Unicode characters:

     from __future__ import unicode_literals

     s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
          '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')

     print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters

At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type,
called ‘PyStringObject’ in Python 2.x, to *note PyBytesObject: 78b.
Python 2.6 uses ‘#define’ to support using the names *note
PyBytesObject(): 78b, *note PyBytes_Check(): 137d, *note
PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 137e, and all the other functions and
macros used with strings.

Instances of the *note bytes: 1c2. type are immutable just as strings
are.  A new *note bytearray: 538. type stores a mutable sequence of
bytes:

     >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
     bytearray(b'ABC')
     >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> b[0] = '\xe3'
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
     u'\u31ef \u3244'

Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
‘startswith()’/‘endswith()’, ‘find()’/‘rfind()’, and some of the methods
of lists, such as ‘append()’, ‘pop()’, and ‘reverse()’.

     >>> b = bytearray('ABC')
     >>> b.append('d')
     >>> b.append(ord('e'))
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'ABCde')

There’s also a corresponding C API, with *note PyByteArray_FromObject():
137f, *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1380, and various other
functions.

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PEP 3112(1) - Bytes literals in Python 3000

     PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian
     Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Next: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Prev: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.11 PEP 3116: New I/O Library
---------------------------------

Python’s built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
file-like objects don’t necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
imitate files usually support ‘read()’ and ‘write()’, but they may not
support *note readline(): ba, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces a
layered I/O library in the *note io: 7f. module that separates buffering
and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
operations.

There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the *note
io: 7f. module:

   * ‘RawIOBase’ defines raw I/O operations: ‘read()’, ‘readinto()’,
     ‘write()’, ‘seek()’, ‘tell()’, ‘truncate()’, and ‘close()’.  Most
     of the methods of this class will often map to a single system
     call.  There are also ‘readable()’, ‘writable()’, and ‘seekable()’
     methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.

     Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
     sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn’t restructured its file and socket
     objects in this way.

   * ‘BufferedIOBase’ is an abstract base class that buffers data in
     memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making I/O
     processing more efficient.  It supports all of the methods of
     ‘RawIOBase’, and adds a ‘raw’ attribute holding the underlying raw
     object.

     There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
     ‘BufferedWriter’ and ‘BufferedReader’ are for objects that support
     write-only or read-only usage that have a ‘seek()’ method for
     random access.  ‘BufferedRandom’ objects support read and write
     access upon the same underlying stream, and ‘BufferedRWPair’ is for
     objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations
     acting upon unconnected streams of data.  The ‘BytesIO’ class
     supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory buffer.

   * ‘TextIOBase’: Provides functions for reading and writing strings
     (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and supporting
     *note universal newlines: d37.  ‘TextIOBase’ defines the *note
     readline(): ba. method and supports iteration upon objects.

     There are two concrete implementations.  ‘TextIOWrapper’ wraps a
     buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text I/O and
     adding a ‘buffer’ attribute for access to the underlying object.
     ‘StringIO’ simply buffers everything in memory without ever writing
     anything to disk.

     (In Python 2.6, *note io.StringIO: f1f. is implemented in pure
     Python, so it’s pretty slow.  You should therefore stick with the
     existing ‘StringIO’ module or ‘cStringIO’ for now.  At some point
     Python 3.0’s *note io: 7f. module will be rewritten into C for
     speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the
     2.x releases.)

In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven’t been restructured
to build on top of the *note io: 7f. module’s classes.  The module is
being provided to make it easier to write code that’s forward-compatible
with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own
implementations of buffering and text I/O.

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PEP 3116(1) - New I/O

     PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van
     Rossum.  Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
     Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Next: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.12 PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
-----------------------------------------

The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange
pointers into their internal representations.  A memory-mapped file can
be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another
module such as *note re: b9. treat memory-mapped files as a string of
characters to be searched.

The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages
such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so
that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going
through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of
experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such
as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.

The most important new C API function is ‘PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject
*obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)’, which takes an object and a set of
flags, and fills in the ‘Py_buffer’ structure with information about the
object’s memory representation.  Objects can use this operation to lock
memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the
contents, so there’s a corresponding ‘PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)’
to indicate that the external caller is done.

The 'flags' argument to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. specifies
constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:

   * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383. indicates that the memory must be
     writable.

   * ‘PyBUF_LOCK’ requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.

   * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 1384. and *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 1385.
     requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
     Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array
     layout.

Two new argument codes for *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c, ‘s*’ and ‘z*’,
return locked buffer objects for a parameter.

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PEP 3118(1) - Revising the buffer protocol

     PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
     Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Next: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Prev: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.13 PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
---------------------------------------

Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
feature for Python.  The ABC support consists of an *note abc: 4. module
containing a metaclass called ‘ABCMeta’, special handling of this
metaclass by the *note isinstance(): 43b. and *note issubclass(): 7ba.
builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
add more ABCs.

Let’s say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it
supports dictionary-style access.  The phrase “dictionary-style” is
vague, however.  It probably means that accessing items with ‘obj[1]’
works.  Does it imply that setting items with ‘obj[2] = value’ works?
Or that the object will have ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’
methods?  What about the iterative variants such as ‘iterkeys()’?  *note
copy(): 25. and ‘update()’?  Iterating over the object with *note
iter(): 7d0.?

The Python 2.6 *note collections: 1d. module includes a number of
different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  ‘Iterable’ indicates
that a class defines ‘__iter__()’, and ‘Container’ means the class
defines a ‘__contains__()’ method and therefore supports ‘x in y’
expressions.  The basic dictionary interface of getting items, setting
items, and ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’, is defined by the
‘MutableMapping’ ABC.

You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they
support that ABC’s interface:

     import collections

     class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
         ...

Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the
desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC’s
‘register()’ method:

     import collections

     class Storage:
         ...

     collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)

For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
The ‘register()’ method is useful when you’ve written a new ABC that can
describe an existing type or class, or if you want to declare that some
third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if you defined a
‘PrintableType’ ABC, it’s legal to do:

     # Register Python's types
     PrintableType.register(int)
     PrintableType.register(float)
     PrintableType.register(str)

Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can’t
check this; it’s up to the class author to understand the ABC’s
requirements and to implement the code accordingly.

To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now
write:

     def func(d):
         if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
             raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)

Don’t feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an
object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
exception if they aren’t.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do
it where it’s absolutely necessary.

You can write your own ABCs by using ‘abc.ABCMeta’ as the metaclass in a
class definition:

     from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

     class Drawable():
         __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

         @abstractmethod
         def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
             pass

         def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
             self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)


     class Square(Drawable):
         def draw(self, x, y, scale):
             ...

In the ‘Drawable’ ABC above, the ‘draw_doubled()’ method renders the
object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other
methods described in ‘Drawable’.  Classes implementing this ABC
therefore don’t need to provide their own implementation of
‘draw_doubled()’, though they can do so.  An implementation of ‘draw()’
is necessary, though; the ABC can’t provide a useful generic
implementation.

You can apply the ‘@abstractmethod’ decorator to methods such as
‘draw()’ that must be implemented; Python will then raise an exception
for classes that don’t define the method.  Note that the exception is
only raised when you actually try to create an instance of a subclass
lacking the method:

     >>> class Circle(Drawable):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = Circle()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
     >>>

Abstract data attributes can be declared using the ‘@abstractproperty’
decorator:

     from abc import abstractproperty
     ...

     @abstractproperty
     def readonly(self):
        return self._x

Subclasses must then define a ‘readonly()’ property.

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PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum.  Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex
     Martelli.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Next: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Prev: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.14 PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
----------------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
prefixing them with “0o” or “0O” instead of a leading zero, and adds
support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a “0b” or
“0B” prefix.

Python 2.6 doesn’t drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal
number, but it does add support for “0o” and “0b”:

     >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
     (17, 17)
     >>> 0b101111
     47

The *note oct(): 12be. builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a
leading zero, and a new *note bin(): 1298. builtin returns the binary
representation for a number:

     >>> oct(42)
     '052'
     >>> future_builtins.oct(42)
     '0o52'
     >>> bin(173)
     '0b10101101'

The *note int(): 257. and ‘long()’ builtins will now accept the “0o” and
“0b” prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the 'base'
argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined
from the string):

     >>> int ('0o52', 0)
     42
     >>> int('1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 0)
     13

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PEP 3127(1) - Integer Literal Support and Syntax

     PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Next: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Prev: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.15 PEP 3129: Class Decorators
----------------------------------

Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It’s now legal
to write:

     @foo
     @bar
     class A:
       pass

This is equivalent to:

     class A:
       pass

     A = foo(bar(A))

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PEP 3129(1) - Class Decorators

     PEP written by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Next: Other Language Changes<10>,  Prev: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.16 PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
----------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired
by Scheme’s numeric tower.  These classes were backported to 2.6 as the
*note numbers: 9e. module.

The most general ABC is ‘Number’.  It defines no operations at all, and
only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing
‘isinstance(obj, Number)’.

‘Complex’ is a subclass of ‘Number’.  Complex numbers can undergo the
basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and
obtain a number’s conjugate.  Python’s built-in complex type is an
implementation of ‘Complex’.

‘Real’ further derives from ‘Complex’, and adds operations that only
work on real numbers: ‘floor()’, ‘trunc()’, rounding, taking the
remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons.

‘Rational’ numbers derive from ‘Real’, have ‘numerator’ and
‘denominator’ properties, and can be converted to floats.  Python 2.6
adds a simple rational-number class, ‘Fraction’, in the *note fractions:
5d. module.  (It’s called ‘Fraction’ instead of ‘Rational’ to avoid a
name clash with *note numbers.Rational: 12ae.)

‘Integral’ numbers derive from ‘Rational’, and can be shifted left and
right with ‘<<’ and ‘>>’, combined using bitwise operations such as ‘&’
and ‘|’, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.

In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins *note
round(): 12ca, *note math.floor(): 138a, *note math.ceil(): 138b, and
adds a new one, *note math.trunc(): 138c, that’s been backported to
Python 2.6.  *note math.trunc(): 138c. rounds toward zero, returning the
closest ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero.

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PEP 3141(1) - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

     PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.

Scheme's numerical tower(2), from the Guile manual.

Scheme's number datatypes(3) from the R5RS Scheme specification.

* Menu:

* The fractions Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower

   (3) 
https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2


File: python.info,  Node: The fractions Module,  Up: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

1.16.16.1 The ‘fractions’ Module
................................

To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the *note fractions: 5d.
module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
exactly represent numbers such as ‘2/3’ that floating-point numbers can
only approximate.

The ‘Fraction’ constructor takes two ‘Integral’ values that will be the
numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
     >>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
     >>> float(a), float(b)
     (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
     >>> a+b
     Fraction(16, 15)
     >>> a/b
     Fraction(5, 3)

For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now
has an ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method that returns the numerator and
denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point
value:

     >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
     (5, 2)
     >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
     (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
     >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
     (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)

Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
'exactly'.

The *note fractions: 5d. module is based upon an implementation by
Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python’s ‘Demo/classes/’ directory for a
long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
Yasskin.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<10>,  Next: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.17 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first
     entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu,
     subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note hasattr(): 4cc. function was catching and ignoring all
     errors, under the assumption that they meant a ‘__getattr__()’
     method was failing somehow and the return value of *note hasattr():
     4cc. would therefore be ‘False’.  This logic shouldn’t be applied
     to *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. and *note SystemExit: d3d,
     however; Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when
     *note hasattr(): 4cc. encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-2196(2).)

   * When calling a function using the ‘**’ syntax to provide keyword
     arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
     any mapping will now work:

          >>> def f(**kw):
          ...    print sorted(kw)
          ...
          >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
          >>> ud['a'] = 1
          >>> ud['b'] = 'string'
          >>> f(**ud)
          ['a', 'b']

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1686487(3).)

     It’s also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ‘*args’
     argument to a function call.

          >>> def f(*args, **kw):
          ...     print args, kw
          ...
          >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
          (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}

     Previously this would have been a syntax error.  (Contributed by
     Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-3473(4).)

   * A new builtin, ‘next(iterator, [default])’ returns the next item
     from the specified iterator.  If the 'default' argument is
     supplied, it will be returned if 'iterator' has been exhausted;
     otherwise, the *note StopIteration: bf7. exception will be raised.
     (Backported in bpo-2719(5).)

   * Tuples now have ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods matching the list
     type’s ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods:

          >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
          >>> t.index(3)
          3
          >>> t.count(0)
          2

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)

   * The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing
     syntax, accepting various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’.
     Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases
     wouldn’t work.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

   * Properties now have three attributes, ‘getter’, ‘setter’ and
     ‘deleter’, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for
     adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
     property.  You would use them like this:

          class C(object):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  return self._x

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              @x.deleter
              def x(self):
                  del self._x

          class D(C):
              @C.x.getter
              def x(self):
                  return self._x * 2

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value / 2

   * Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple
     iterables: ‘intersection()’, ‘intersection_update()’, ‘union()’,
     ‘update()’, ‘difference()’ and ‘difference_update()’.

          >>> s=set('1234567890')
          >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
          set(['2'])
          >>> s.difference('246', '789')
          set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Many floating-point features were added.  The *note float(): 2ef.
     function will now turn the string ‘nan’ into an IEEE 754 Not A
     Number value, and ‘+inf’ and ‘-inf’ into positive or negative
     infinity.  This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(6).)

     Other functions in the *note math: 8e. module, ‘isinf()’ and
     ‘isnan()’, return true if their floating-point argument is infinite
     or Not A Number.  (bpo-1640(7))

     Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
     into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008(8)).  These functions convert
     floats to and from a string representation without introducing
     rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary.
     Floats have a *note hex(): 12bf. method that returns a string
     representation, and the ‘float.fromhex()’ method converts a string
     back into a number:

          >>> a = 3.75
          >>> a.hex()
          '0x1.e000000000000p+1'
          >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
          3.75
          >>> b=1./3
          >>> b.hex()
          '0x1.5555555555555p-2'

   * A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
     on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the *note
     complex(): 2f0. constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero.
     (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507(9).)

   * Classes that inherit a ‘__hash__()’ method from a parent class can
     set ‘__hash__ = None’ to indicate that the class isn’t hashable.
     This will make ‘hash(obj)’ raise a *note TypeError: 532. and the
     class will not be indicated as implementing the ‘Hashable’ ABC.

     You should do this when you’ve defined a ‘__cmp__()’ or ‘__eq__()’
     method that compares objects by their value rather than by
     identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
     ‘id(obj)’ as the hash value.  There’s no tidy way to remove the
     ‘__hash__()’ method inherited from a parent class, so assigning
     ‘None’ was implemented as an override.  At the C level, extensions
     can set ‘tp_hash’ to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 138f.
     (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-2235(10).)

   * The *note GeneratorExit: 1390. exception now subclasses *note
     BaseException: 5b5. instead of *note Exception: 9d6.  This means
     that an exception handler that does ‘except Exception:’ will not
     inadvertently catch *note GeneratorExit: 1390.  (Contributed by
     Chad Austin; bpo-1537(11).)

   * Generator objects now have a ‘gi_code’ attribute that refers to the
     original code object backing the generator.  (Contributed by Collin
     Winter; bpo-1473257(12).)

   * The *note compile(): 192. built-in function now accepts keyword
     arguments as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Wouters; bpo-1444529(13).)

   * The *note complex(): 2f0. constructor now accepts strings
     containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that
     ‘complex(repr(cplx))’ will now round-trip values.  For example,
     ‘complex('(3+4j)')’ now returns the value (3+4j).
     (bpo-1491866(14))

   * The string ‘translate()’ method now accepts ‘None’ as the
     translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
     transformation.  This makes it easier to carry out operations that
     only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
     implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128(15).)

   * The built-in *note dir(): 62c. function now checks for a
     ‘__dir__()’ method on the objects it receives.  This method must
     return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes
     for the object, and lets the object control the value that *note
     dir(): 62c. produces.  Objects that have ‘__getattr__()’ or
     ‘__getattribute__()’ methods can use this to advertise
     pseudo-attributes they will honor.  (bpo-1591665(16))

   * Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and
     function comprising the method; the new synonym for ‘im_self’ is
     *note __self__: 1391, and ‘im_func’ is also available as *note
     __func__: 12ec.  The old names are still supported in Python 2.6,
     but are gone in 3.0.

   * An obscure change: when you use the *note locals(): 141. function
     inside a *note class: 12c7. statement, the resulting dictionary no
     longer returns free variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are
     variables referenced in the ‘class’ statement that aren’t
     attributes of the class.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<9>,  Next: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Up: Other Language Changes<10>

1.16.17.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The *note warnings: 112. module has been rewritten in C. This makes
     it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make
     the interpreter’s startup faster.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and
     Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171(1).)

   * Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work
     required to find the correct method implementation for a particular
     class; once cached, the interpreter doesn’t need to traverse base
     classes to figure out the right method to call.  The cache is
     cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the
     cache should remain correct even in the face of Python’s dynamic
     nature.  (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated
     for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288(2).)

     By default, this change is only applied to types that are included
     with the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be
     compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ to the module’s ‘tp_flags’ field to
     enable the method cache.  (To be compatible with the method cache,
     the extension module’s code must not directly access and modify the
     ‘tp_dict’ member of any of the types it implements.  Most modules
     don’t do this, but it’s impossible for the Python interpreter to
     determine that.  See bpo-1878(3) for some discussion.)

   * Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
     by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
     full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after
     an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819(4).)

   * All of the functions in the *note struct: d5. module have been
     rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
     objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass
     of one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

   * Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and
     line breaks; this speeds up the ‘split()’ method by about 25% and
     ‘splitlines()’ by 35%.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory
     usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string’s data.

   * The ‘with’ statement now stores the *note __exit__(): 12f0. method
     on the stack, producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey
     Yasskin.)

   * To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear
     internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation
     of objects.  This may return memory to the operating system sooner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<9>,  Up: Other Language Changes<10>

1.16.17.2 Interpreter Changes
.............................

Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
implementations.  The *note -J: 1395. switch has been reserved for use
by Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed
to the underlying JVM. *note -X: 176. has been reserved for options
specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython,
Jython, or IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the
interpreter will report that the option isn’t currently used.

Python can now be prevented from writing ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files by
supplying the *note -B: 1396. switch to the Python interpreter, or by
setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. environment variable
before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to Python
programs as the ‘sys.dont_write_bytecode’ variable, and Python code can
change the value to modify the interpreter’s behaviour.  (Contributed by
Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be
specified by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1000. environment
variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
in the form ‘<encoding>’ or ‘<encoding>:<errorhandler>’.  The 'encoding'
part specifies the encoding’s name, e.g.  ‘utf-8’ or ‘latin-1’; the
optional 'errorhandler' part specifies what to do with characters that
can’t be handled by the encoding, and should be one of “error”,
“ignore”, or “replace”.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Deprecations and Removals,  Prev: Other Language Changes<10>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.18 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’ modules are being actively maintained
     again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied.
     (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190(1) for one patch.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and
     the package is now available as a standalone package.  The web page
     for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm(2).  The
     plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python
     3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
     Python’s.

     The ‘bsddb.dbshelve’ module now uses the highest pickling protocol
     available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
     (Contributed by W. Barnes.)

   * The ‘cgi’ module will now read variables from the query string of
     an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form actions
     with URLs that include query strings such as
     “/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1”.  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
     Nubis; bpo-1817(3).)

     The ‘parse_qs()’ and ‘parse_qsl()’ functions have been relocated
     from the ‘cgi’ module to the *note urlparse: 10a. module.  The
     versions still available in the ‘cgi’ module will trigger *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362(4)).

   * The *note cmath: 18. module underwent extensive revision,
     contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.  Five new
     functions were added:

        * ‘polar()’ converts a complex number to polar form, returning
          the modulus and argument of the complex number.

        * ‘rect()’ does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
          back into the corresponding complex number.

        * ‘phase()’ returns the argument (also called the angle) of a
          complex number.

        * ‘isnan()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is a NaN.

        * ‘isinf()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is infinite.

     The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the *note
     cmath: 18. module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary parts
     of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
     precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See bpo-1381(5) for the
     details.  The branch cuts for ‘asinh()’, ‘atanh()’: and ‘atan()’
     have also been corrected.

     The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000
     new test cases exercise the algebraic functions.

     On IEEE 754 platforms, the *note cmath: 18. module now handles IEEE
     754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner
     consistent with Annex ‘G’ of the C99 standard.

   * A new data type in the *note collections: 1d. module:
     ‘namedtuple(typename, fieldnames)’ is a factory function that
     creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are
     accessible by name as well as index.  For example:

          >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
          ...             'id name type size')
          >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
          >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
          >>> var_type._fields
          ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')

          >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
          >>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
          1 1
          >>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
          int int
          >>> var._asdict()
          {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
          >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
          >>> v2
          variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)

     Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
     been modified to return ‘namedtuple()’ instances.  For example, the
     ‘Decimal.as_tuple()’ method now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’,
     ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Another change to the *note collections: 1d. module is that the
     ‘deque’ type now supports an optional 'maxlen' parameter; if
     supplied, the deque’s size will be restricted to no more than
     'maxlen' items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes old items
     to be discarded.

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
          >>> dq
          deque([], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
          >>> dq
          deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(4)
          >>> dq
          deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note Cookie: 71. module’s *note Morsel: bfe. objects now
     support an *note httponly: 1399. attribute.  In some browsers.
     cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated
     by JavaScript code.  (Contributed by Arvin Schnell;
     bpo-1638033(6).)

   * A new window method in the *note curses: 2b. module, ‘chgat()’,
     changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters
     on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)

          # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
          # and affecting the rest of the line.
          stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)

     The ‘Textbox’ class in the *note curses.textpad: 2e. module now
     supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.  Insert
     mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the 'insert_mode'
     parameter when creating the ‘Textbox’ instance.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module’s ‘strftime()’ methods now support a
     ‘%f’ format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
     object, zero-padded on the left to six places.  (Contributed by
     Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158(7).)

   * The *note decimal: 36. module was updated to version 1.66 of the
     General Decimal Specification(8).  New features include some
     methods for some basic mathematical functions such as ‘exp()’ and
     ‘log10()’:

          >>> Decimal(1).exp()
          Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
          >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
          Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
          >>> Decimal(1000).log10()
          Decimal("3")

     The ‘as_tuple()’ method of ‘Decimal’ objects now returns a named
     tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
     support added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module’s ‘SequenceMatcher’ class now returns
     named tuples representing matches, with ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘size’
     attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. class constructor
     as well as the ‘connect()’ method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
     Also, the ‘FTP’ class’s ‘storbinary()’ and ‘storlines()’ now take
     an optional 'callback' parameter that will be called with each
     block of data after the data has been sent.  (Contributed by Phil
     Schwartz; bpo-1221598(9).)

   * The ‘reduce()’ built-in function is also available in the *note
     functools: 5f. module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped
     and ‘reduce()’ is only available from *note functools: 5f.;
     currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
     (Patched by Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906(10).)

   * When possible, the *note getpass: 62. module will now use
     ‘/dev/tty’ to print a prompt message and read the password, falling
     back to standard error and standard input.  If the password may be
     echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is
     displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

   * The *note glob.glob(): 29f. function can now return Unicode
     filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are
     matched within the directory.  (bpo-1001604(11))

   * A new function in the *note heapq: 69. module, ‘merge(iter1, iter2,
     ...)’, takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
     order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
     the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example:

          >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
          [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]

     Another new function, ‘heappushpop(heap, item)’, pushes 'item' onto
     'heap', then pops off and returns the smallest item.  This is more
     efficient than making a call to ‘heappush()’ and then ‘heappop()’.

     *note heapq: 69. is now implemented to only use less-than
     comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it
     previously used.  This makes *note heapq: 69.’s usage of a type
     match the *note list.sort(): bcc. method.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note httplib.HTTPConnection: b3d. and
     *note HTTPSConnection: b3e. class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
     Batista.)

   * Most of the *note inspect: 7e. module’s functions, such as
     ‘getmoduleinfo()’ and ‘getargs()’, now return named tuples.  In
     addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value
     can also be accessed as attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     Some new functions in the module include ‘isgenerator()’,
     ‘isgeneratorfunction()’, and ‘isabstract()’.

   * The *note itertools: 81. module gained several new functions.

     ‘izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])’ makes tuples from
     each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
     others, the missing values are set to 'fillvalue'.  For example:

          >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
          ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))

     ‘product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])’ returns the Cartesian
     product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every
     possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
          [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
           (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
           (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]

     The optional 'repeat' keyword argument is used for taking the
     product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
     repeated 'N' times.  With a single iterable argument, 'N'-tuples
     are returned:

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
          [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
           (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]

     With two iterables, '2N'-tuples are returned.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
          [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
           (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
           (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
           (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]

     ‘combinations(iterable, r)’ returns sub-sequences of length 'r'
     from the elements of 'iterable'.

          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
          [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
           ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]

     ‘permutations(iter[, r])’ returns all the permutations of length
     'r' of the iterable’s elements.  If 'r' is not specified, it will
     default to the number of elements produced by the iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
          [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
           (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
           (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
           (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]

     ‘itertools.chain(*iterables)’ is an existing function in *note
     itertools: 81. that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
     ‘itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)’ takes a single iterable
     that should return other iterables.  ‘chain()’ will then return all
     the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the
     second, and so on.

          >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

     (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note logging: 87. module’s ‘FileHandler’ class and its
     subclasses ‘WatchedFileHandler’, ‘RotatingFileHandler’, and
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ now have an optional 'delay' parameter
     to their constructors.  If 'delay' is true, opening of the log file
     is deferred until the first ‘emit()’ call is made.  (Contributed by
     Vinay Sajip.)

     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ also has a 'utc' constructor parameter.
     If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when
     midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time
     will be used.

   * Several new functions were added to the *note math: 8e. module:

        * *note isinf(): 139a. and *note isnan(): 139b. determine
          whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or
          a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.

        * *note copysign(): 139c. copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754
          number, returning the absolute value of 'x' combined with the
          sign bit of 'y'.  For example, ‘math.copysign(1, -0.0)’
          returns -1.0.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

        * *note factorial(): 945. computes the factorial of a number.
          (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138(12).)

        * *note fsum(): 139d. adds up the stream of numbers from an
          iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through
          using partial sums.  (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond
          Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819(13).)

        * *note acosh(): 139e, *note asinh(): 139f. and *note atanh():
          13a0. compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.

        * *note log1p(): 13a1. returns the natural logarithm of '1+x'
          (base 'e').

        * ‘trunc()’ rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
          ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero.
          Added as part of the backport of *note PEP 3141's type
          hierarchy for numbers: 12ad.

   * The *note math: 8e. module has been improved to give more
     consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to
     handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.

     Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the
     C99 standard about 754’s special values.  For example, ‘sqrt(-1.)’
     should now give a *note ValueError: 202. across almost all
     platforms, while ‘sqrt(float('NaN'))’ should return a NaN on all
     IEEE 754 platforms.  Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling ‘divide-by-zero’ or ‘invalid’, Python will raise *note
     ValueError: 202.  Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling ‘overflow’, Python will raise *note OverflowError: 87d.
     (See bpo-711019(14) and bpo-1640(15).)

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)

   * *note mmap: 20b. objects now have a ‘rfind()’ method that searches
     for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
     backwards.  The ‘find()’ method also gained an 'end' parameter
     giving an index at which to stop searching.  (Contributed by John
     Lenton.)

   * The *note operator: 9f. module gained a ‘methodcaller()’ function
     that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a
     callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed
     to it.  For example:

          >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
          >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
          >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
          'new wine in new bottles'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory
     Petrosyan.)

     The ‘attrgetter()’ function now accepts dotted names and performs
     the corresponding attribute lookups:

          >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
          ...        '__class__.__name__')
          >>> inst_name('')
          'str'
          >>> inst_name(help)
          '_Helper'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note os: a1. module now wraps several new system calls.
     ‘fchmod(fd, mode)’ and ‘fchown(fd, uid, gid)’ change the mode and
     ownership of an opened file, and ‘lchmod(path, mode)’ changes the
     mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
     Heimes.)

     ‘chflags()’ and ‘lchflags()’ are wrappers for the corresponding
     system calls (where they’re available), changing the flags set on a
     file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in the *note stat:
     d1. module; some possible values include ‘UF_IMMUTABLE’ to signal
     the file may not be changed and ‘UF_APPEND’ to indicate that data
     can only be appended to the file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)

     ‘os.closerange(low, high)’ efficiently closes all file descriptors
     from 'low' to 'high', ignoring any errors and not including 'high'
     itself.  This function is now used by the *note subprocess: d6.
     module to make starting processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-1663329(16).)

   * The ‘os.environ’ object’s ‘clear()’ method will now unset the
     environment variables using *note os.unsetenv(): 918. in addition
     to clearing the object’s keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka;
     bpo-1181(17).)

   * The *note os.walk(): 4a3. function now has a ‘followlinks’
     parameter.  If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to
     directories and visit the directory’s contents.  For backward
     compatibility, the parameter’s default value is false.  Note that
     the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there’s a
     symlink that points to a parent directory.  (bpo-1273829(18))

   * In the *note os.path: a2. module, the ‘splitext()’ function has
     been changed to not split on leading period characters.  This
     produces better results when operating on Unix’s dot-files.  For
     example, ‘os.path.splitext('.ipython')’ now returns ‘('.ipython',
     '')’ instead of ‘('', '.ipython')’.  (bpo-1115886(19))

     A new function, ‘os.path.relpath(path, start='.')’, returns a
     relative path from the ‘start’ path, if it’s supplied, or from the
     current working directory to the destination ‘path’.  (Contributed
     by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796(20).)

     On Windows, *note os.path.expandvars(): 13a2. will now expand
     environment variables given in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will
     be expanded into the user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by
     Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(21).)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a5. module gained a
     new command: “run” restarts the Python program being debugged and
     can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
     (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667(22).)

   * The *note pdb.post_mortem(): 13a3. function, used to begin
     debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): 684. if no traceback is supplied.  (Contributed by
     Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316(23).)

   * The *note pickletools: a7. module now has an ‘optimize()’ function
     that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
     opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data
     structure.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A ‘get_data()’ function was added to the *note pkgutil: a9. module
     that returns the contents of resource files included with an
     installed Python package.  For example:

          >>> import pkgutil
          >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
          BaseException
           +-- SystemExit
           +-- KeyboardInterrupt
           +-- GeneratorExit
           +-- Exception
                +-- StopIteration
                +-- StandardError
           ...

     (Contributed by Paul Moore; bpo-2439(24).)

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module’s ‘Parser’ objects now allow setting their
     ‘buffer_size’ attribute to change the size of the buffer used to
     hold character data.  (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137(25).)

   * The ‘Queue’ module now provides queue variants that retrieve
     entries in different orders.  The ‘PriorityQueue’ class stores
     queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and
     ‘LifoQueue’ retrieves the most recently added entries first,
     meaning that it behaves like a stack.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note random: b8. module’s ‘Random’ objects can now be pickled
     on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice
     versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6’s
     ‘Random’ objects can’t be unpickled correctly on earlier versions
     of Python.  (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780(26).)

     The new ‘triangular(low, high, mode)’ function returns random
     numbers following a triangular distribution.  The returned values
     are between 'low' and 'high', not including 'high' itself, and with
     'mode' as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution.
     (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger;
     bpo-1681432(27).)

   * Long regular expression searches carried out by the *note re: b9.
     module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming
     searches can now be interrupted.  (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and
     Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388(28).)

     The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
     for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code could
     create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so
     Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
     bpo-3487(29).)

   * The *note rlcompleter: bd. module’s ‘Completer.complete()’ method
     will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
     (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250(30).)

   * The *note sched: bf. module’s ‘scheduler’ instances now have a
     read-only *note queue: b6. attribute that returns the contents of
     the scheduler’s queue, represented as a list of named tuples with
     the fields ‘(time, priority, action, argument)’.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861(31).)

   * The *note select: c1. module now has wrapper functions for the
     Linux ‘epoll()’ and BSD ‘kqueue()’ system calls.  ‘modify()’ method
     was added to the existing ‘poll’ objects; ‘pollobj.modify(fd,
     eventmask)’ takes a file descriptor or file object and an event
     mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657(32).)

   * The *note shutil.copytree(): a25. function now has an optional
     'ignore' argument that takes a callable object.  This callable will
     receive each directory path and a list of the directory’s contents,
     and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied.

     The *note shutil: c5. module also provides an ‘ignore_patterns()’
     function for use with this new parameter.  ‘ignore_patterns()’
     takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
     callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
     of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
     but skips both ‘.svn’ directories and Emacs backup files, which
     have names ending with ‘~’:

          shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
                          ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))

     (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-2663(33).)

   * Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like
     those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
     software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to
     check if any GUI events have occurred.  The *note signal: c6.
     module can now make this more efficient.  Calling
     ‘signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)’ sets a file descriptor to be used; when
     a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor.
     There’s also a C-level function, *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd():
     13a4, for setting the descriptor.

     Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two
     descriptors, one for reading and one for writing.  The writable
     descriptor will be passed to ‘set_wakeup_fd()’, and the readable
     descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by
     the event loop via ‘select()’ or ‘poll()’.  On receiving a signal,
     a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up,
     avoiding the need to poll.

     (Contributed by Adam Olsen; bpo-1583(34).)

     The ‘siginterrupt()’ function is now available from Python code,
     and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or
     not.  (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)

     The ‘setitimer()’ and ‘getitimer()’ functions have also been added
     (where they’re available).  ‘setitimer()’ allows setting interval
     timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process
     after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed
     process time, or combined process+system time.  (Contributed by
     Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240(35).)

   * The *note smtplib: ca. module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to
     the addition of the ‘SMTP_SSL’ class.  This class supports an
     interface identical to the existing ‘SMTP’ class.  (Contributed by
     Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an optional
     ‘timeout’ parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial
     connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by Facundo
     Batista.)

     An implementation of the LMTP protocol ( RFC 2033(36)) was also
     added to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when
     transferring e-mail between agents that don’t manage a mail queue.
     (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003(37).)

     ‘SMTP.starttls()’ now complies with RFC 3207(38) and forgets any
     knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
     negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
     bpo-829951(39).)

   * The *note socket: cc. module now supports TIPC
     (‘https://tipc.sourceforge.net/’), a high-performance non-IP-based
     protocol designed for use in clustered environments.  TIPC
     addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.  (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli;
     bpo-1646(40).)

     A new function, ‘create_connection()’, takes an address and
     connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
     connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address’s
     type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.
     Changing your code to use ‘create_connection()’ instead of
     ‘socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)’ may be all that’s required to make
     your code work with IPv6.

   * The base classes in the *note SocketServer: cd. module now support
     calling a *note handle_timeout(): 1311. method after a span of
     inactivity specified by the server’s *note timeout: 1310.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.)  The *note
     serve_forever(): 1130. method now takes an optional poll interval
     measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check
     for a shutdown request.  (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-742598(41), bpo-1193577(42).)

   * The *note sqlite3: cf. module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has
     been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1.

   * The *note struct: d5. module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using
     the format character ‘'?'’.  (Contributed by David Remahl.)

   * The *note Popen: 199. objects provided by the *note subprocess: d6.
     module now have *note terminate(): 13a5, *note kill(): 13a6, and
     *note send_signal(): 13a7. methods.  On Windows, ‘send_signal()’
     only supports the *note SIGTERM: 13a8. signal, and all these
     methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * A new variable in the *note sys: d9. module, ‘float_info’, is an
     object containing information derived from the ‘float.h’ file about
     the platform’s floating-point support.  Attributes of this object
     include ‘mant_dig’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘epsilon’
     (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
     representable), and several others.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes; bpo-1534(43).)

     Another new variable, ‘dont_write_bytecode’, controls whether
     Python writes any ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files on importing a module.  If
     this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
     variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the *note -B:
     1396. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. environment variable before running
     the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently change the value of
     this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not.
     (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

     Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
     interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple
     available as ‘sys.flags’.  For example, the ‘verbose’ attribute is
     true if Python was executed in verbose mode, ‘debug’ is true in
     debugging mode, etc.  These attributes are all read-only.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

     A new function, ‘getsizeof()’, takes a Python object and returns
     the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.
     Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may
     not, but can define a ‘__sizeof__()’ method to return the object’s
     size.  (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898(44).)

     It’s now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer
     functions by calling *note sys.getprofile(): 13a9. and *note
     sys.gettrace(): 13aa.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648(45).)

   * The *note tarfile: de. module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax)
     tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar
     formats that were already supported.  The default format is GNU
     tar; specify the ‘format’ parameter to open a file using a
     different format:

          tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
                             format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)

     The new ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters specify an encoding and
     an error handling scheme for character conversions.  ‘'strict'’,
     ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ are the three standard ways Python can
     handle errors,; ‘'utf-8'’ is a special value that replaces bad
     characters with their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions
     occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting
     to UTF-8 encoding.)

     The ‘TarFile.add()’ method now accepts an ‘exclude’ argument that’s
     a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an
     archive.  The function must take a filename and return true if the
     file should be excluded or false if it should be archived.  The
     function is applied to both the name initially passed to ‘add()’
     and to the names of files in recursively added directories.

     (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the ‘telnetlib.Telnet’
     class constructor, specifying a timeout measured in seconds.
     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4c0. class usually deletes
     the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
     behaviour can now be changed by passing ‘delete=False’ to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850(46).)

     A new class, ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’, behaves like a temporary file
     but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded.  On
     reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk
     temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)

     The ‘NamedTemporaryFile’ and ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’ classes both
     work as context managers, so you can write ‘with
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...’.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021(47).)

   * The *note test.test_support: e4. module gained a number of context
     managers useful for writing tests.  *note EnvironmentVarGuard():
     13ab. is a context manager that temporarily changes environment
     variables and automatically restores them to their old values.

     Another context manager, ‘TransientResource’, can surround calls to
     resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
     ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example, a network test
     may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web
     site:

          with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
                                          errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
              f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
              ...

     Finally, ‘check_warnings()’ resets the ‘warning’ module’s warning
     filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages
     triggered (bpo-3781(48)):

          with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
              warnings.simplefilter("always")
              # ... code that triggers a warning ...
              assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
              assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * The *note textwrap: ec. module can now preserve existing whitespace
     at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying
     ‘drop_whitespace=False’ as an argument:

          >>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
          ...   extra   whitespace."""
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
          This  sentence
          has a bunch
          of    extra
          whitespace.
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
          This  sentence
            has a bunch
             of    extra
             whitespace.
          >>>

     (Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; bpo-1581073(49).)

   * The *note threading: ed. module API is being changed to use
     properties such as ‘daemon’ instead of ‘setDaemon()’ and
     ‘isDaemon()’ methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
     underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the ‘activeCount()’
     method is renamed to ‘active_count()’.  Both the 2.6 and 3.0
     versions of the module support the same properties and renamed
     methods, but don’t remove the old methods.  No date has been set
     for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs
     won’t be removed in any 2.x version.  (Carried out by several
     people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)

     The *note threading: ed. module’s ‘Thread’ objects gained an
     ‘ident’ property that returns the thread’s identifier, a nonzero
     integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871(50).)

   * The *note timeit: ef. module now accepts callables as well as
     strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code.  Two
     convenience functions were added for creating ‘Timer’ instances:
     ‘repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)’ and ‘timeit(stmt,
     setup, time, number)’ create an instance and call the corresponding
     method.  (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909(51).)

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
     separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting
     value to Tcl/Tk.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906(52).)

   * The *note turtle: 101. module for turtle graphics was greatly
     enhanced by Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:

        * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.

        * Control over turtle movement using the new ‘delay()’,
          ‘tracer()’, and ‘speed()’ methods.

        * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a
          new coordinate system.

        * Turtles now have an ‘undo()’ method that can roll back
          actions.

        * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and
          keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games.

        * A ‘turtle.cfg’ file can be used to customize the starting
          appearance of the turtle’s screen.

        * The module’s docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that
          have been translated into another language.

     (bpo-1513695(53))

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     urllib.urlopen: 293. function and the ‘urllib.ftpwrapper’ class
     constructor, as well as the *note urllib2.urlopen: 293. function.
     The parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds.  For
     example:

          >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
                                  timeout=3)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
          >>>

     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module
     has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by Martin von Löwis;
     bpo-3811(54).)

   * The *note warnings: 112. module’s ‘formatwarning()’ and
     ‘showwarning()’ gained an optional 'line' argument that can be used
     to supply the line of source code.  (Added as part of
     bpo-1631171(55), which re-implemented part of the *note warnings:
     112. module in C code.)

     A new function, ‘catch_warnings()’, is a context manager intended
     for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning
     filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781(56)).

   * The XML-RPC *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes can now be prevented from immediately
     opening and binding to their socket by passing ‘False’ as the
     'bind_and_activate' constructor parameter.  This can be used to
     modify the instance’s ‘allow_reuse_address’ attribute before
     calling the ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ methods to open
     the socket and begin listening for connections.  (Contributed by
     Peter Parente; bpo-1599845(57).)

     ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’ also has a ‘_send_traceback_header’ attribute;
     if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP
     headers “X-Exception” and “X-Traceback”.  This feature is for
     debugging purposes only and should not be used on production
     servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other
     sensitive information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of
     his project for Google’s Summer of Code 2007.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 1cd. and *note datetime.time: 1ce. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 13ac. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 1ce. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(58)) The code can also handle dates before 1900
     (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014(59)) and 64-bit integers
     represented by using ‘<i8>’ in XML-RPC responses (contributed by
     Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985(60)).

   * The *note zipfile: 131. module’s ‘ZipFile’ class now has
     ‘extract()’ and ‘extractall()’ methods that will unpack a single
     file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
     to a specified directory:

          z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')

          # Unpack a single file, writing it relative
          # to the /tmp directory.
          z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')

          # Unpack all the files in the archive.
          z.extractall()

     (Contributed by Alan McIntyre; bpo-467924(61).)

     The *note open(): 515, ‘read()’ and ‘extract()’ methods can now
     take either a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object.  This is useful when
     an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
     (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025(62).)

     Finally, *note zipfile: 131. now supports using Unicode filenames
     for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov;
     bpo-1734346(63).)

* Menu:

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158

   (8) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346


File: python.info,  Node: The ast module,  Next: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.1 The ‘ast’ module
..........................

The *note ast: 8. module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation
of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions
that perform a variety of common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML
templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
Python code.

The ‘parse()’ function takes an expression and returns an AST. The
‘dump()’ function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for
debugging:

     import ast

     t = ast.parse("""
     d = {}
     for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
         d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
     print d
     """)
     print ast.dump(t)

This outputs a deeply nested tree:

     Module(body=[
       Assign(targets=[
         Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
        ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
       For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
           iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
         Assign(targets=[
           Subscript(value=
             Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
               slice=
               Index(value=
                 BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
          ], value=
          BinOp(left=
           BinOp(left=
            Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
            op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Str(s='a')
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
            op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
         ], orelse=[])
        Print(dest=None, values=[
          Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
        ], nl=True)
      ])

The ‘literal_eval()’ method takes a string or an AST representing a
literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting
value.  A literal expression is a Python expression containing only
strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc.  but no statements or function
calls.  If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the
security risk of using an *note eval(): 180. call, ‘literal_eval()’ will
handle it safely:

     >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
     >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
     ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
     >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed string

The module also includes ‘NodeVisitor’ and ‘NodeTransformer’ classes for
traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common
transformations such as changing line numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: The future_builtins module,  Next: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Prev: The ast module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.2 The ‘future_builtins’ module
......................................

Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions,
and most of the changes can’t be introduced in the Python 2.x series
because they would break compatibility.  The ‘future_builtins’ module
provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when
writing 3.0-compatible code.

The functions in this module currently include:

   * ‘ascii(obj)’: equivalent to *note repr(): 7f7.  In Python 3.0,
     *note repr(): 7f7. will return a Unicode string, while *note
     ascii(): 13af. will return a pure ASCII bytestring.

   * ‘filter(predicate, iterable)’, ‘map(func, iterable1, ...)’: the 3.0
     versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return
     lists.

   * ‘hex(value)’, ‘oct(value)’: instead of calling the ‘__hex__()’ or
     ‘__oct__()’ methods, these versions will call the ‘__index__()’
     method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal.  *note
     oct(): 12be. will use the new ‘0o’ notation for its result.


File: python.info,  Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Next: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Prev: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.3 The ‘json’ module: JavaScript Object Notation
.......................................................

The new *note json: 82. module supports the encoding and decoding of
Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation).  JSON is a
lightweight interchange format often used in web applications.  For more
information about JSON, see ‘http://www.json.org’.

*note json: 82. comes with support for decoding and encoding most
built-in Python types.  The following example encodes and decodes a
dictionary:

     >>> import json
     >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
     >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
     >>> in_json
     '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
     >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
     {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}

It’s also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
more types.  Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.

*note json: 82. (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
Ippolito.


File: python.info,  Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Next: ctypes Enhancements,  Prev: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.4 The ‘plistlib’ module: A Property-List Parser
.......................................................

The ‘.plist’ format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data
types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them
into an XML-based format.  It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of
data types.

Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing
Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any
platform that Python supports, so the *note plistlib: ab. module has
been promoted to the standard library.

Using the module is simple:

     import sys
     import plistlib
     import datetime

     # Create data structure
     data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(),
                        version=1,
                        categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))

     # Create string containing XML.
     plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
     print data_struct
     print new_struct

     # Write data structure to a file and read it back.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')

     # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes Enhancements,  Next: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.5 ctypes Enhancements
.............................

Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the *note ctypes: 2a.
module.

*note ctypes: 2a. now supports a ‘c_bool’ datatype that represents the
C99 ‘bool’ type.  (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190(1).)

The *note ctypes: 2a. string, buffer and array types have improved
support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of
‘(start, stop, step)’ are supplied.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

All *note ctypes: 2a. data types now support ‘from_buffer()’ and
‘from_buffer_copy()’ methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
provided buffer object.  ‘from_buffer_copy()’ copies the contents of the
object, while ‘from_buffer()’ will share the same memory area.

A new calling convention tells *note ctypes: 2a. to clear the ‘errno’ or
Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
(Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798(2).)

You can now retrieve the Unix ‘errno’ variable after a function call.
When creating a wrapped function, you can supply ‘use_errno=True’ as a
keyword parameter to the ‘DLL()’ function and then call the module-level
methods ‘set_errno()’ and ‘get_errno()’ to set and retrieve the error
value.

The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the ‘DLL()’,
‘OleDLL()’, and ‘WinDLL()’ functions.  You supply ‘use_last_error=True’
as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods
‘set_last_error()’ and ‘get_last_error()’.

The ‘byref()’ function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance,
now has an optional 'offset' parameter that is a byte count that will be
added to the returned pointer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798


File: python.info,  Node: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: ctypes Enhancements,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.16.18.6 Improved SSL Support
..............................

Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6’s support for the
Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, *note ssl: d0, that’s built
atop the OpenSSL(1) library.  This new module provides more control over
the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better
support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The
existing SSL support in the *note socket: cc. module hasn’t been removed
and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0.

To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
usual way and then pass it to the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function.  It’s
possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain
certificate info by calling the ‘getpeercert()’ method.

더 보기
.......

The documentation for the *note ssl: d0. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openssl.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations and Removals,  Next: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.19 Deprecations and Removals
---------------------------------

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 532.

   * Changes to the *note Exception: 9d6. interface as dictated by PEP
     352(1) continue to be made.  For 2.6, the ‘message’ attribute is
     being deprecated in favor of the *note args: 567. attribute.

   * (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
     library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
     Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these
     modules when they are imported.

     The list of deprecated modules is: ‘audiodev’, ‘bgenlocations’,
     ‘buildtools’, ‘bundlebuilder’, ‘Canvas’, ‘compiler’, ‘dircache’,
     ‘dl’, ‘fpformat’, ‘gensuitemodule’, ‘ihooks’, ‘imageop’, ‘imgfile’,
     ‘linuxaudiodev’, ‘mhlib’, ‘mimetools’, ‘multifile’, ‘new’, ‘pure’,
     ‘statvfs’, ‘sunaudiodev’, ‘test.testall’, and ‘toaiff’.

   * The ‘gopherlib’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘MimeWriter’ module and ‘mimify’ module have been deprecated;
     use the *note email: 3b. package instead.

   * The ‘md5’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 68.
     module instead.

   * The ‘posixfile’ module has been deprecated; *note fcntl.lockf():
     13b5. provides better locking.

   * The ‘popen2’ module has been deprecated; use the *note subprocess:
     d6. module.

   * The ‘rgbimg’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘sets’ module has been deprecated; it’s better to use the
     built-in *note set: 5d3. and *note frozenset: 5d4. types.

   * The ‘sha’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 68.
     module instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 6,  Prev: Deprecations and Removals,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.20 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!).
     This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own
     implementations of ‘memmove()’ and ‘strerror()’, which are in the
     C89 standard library.

   * Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the ‘PCbuild’
     directory for the build files.  (Implemented by Christian Heimes.)

   * On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
     The ‘configure’ script can take a
     ‘--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]’ switch, controlling
     whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86,
     PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.  (Contributed by
     Ronald Oussoren.)

   * A new function added in Python 2.6.6, ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, sets the
     value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include
     the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’
     depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.  Note that using this function will
     break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you
     have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the
     call to ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ alone and call
     ‘PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n")’ afterwards to discard the
     first ‘sys.path’ component.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(1); discussed in
     gh-50003(2), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
     ‘bsddb.db.api’.  This object can be used by other C extensions that
     wish to use the ‘bsddb’ module for their own purposes.
     (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)

   * The new buffer interface, previously described in *note the PEP
     3118 section: 1382, adds *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 394, as well as a few other functions.

   * Python’s use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
     as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing
     potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while
     another thread was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6
     file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ functions.  File
     objects can’t be closed unless the reference count is zero.
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ should be called while the GIL is still
     held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the ‘FILE *’
     pointer, and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ should be called immediately
     after the GIL is re-acquired.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
     deadlocks; it will now raise an *note ImportError: 413.  A new API
     function, *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7, will look for
     a module in ‘sys.modules’ first, then try to import it after
     acquiring an import lock.  If the import lock is held by another
     thread, an *note ImportError: 413. is raised.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

   * Several functions return information about the platform’s
     floating-point support.  *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 13b7. returns the
     maximum representable floating-point value, and *note
     PyFloat_GetMin(): 13b8. returns the minimum positive value.  *note
     PyFloat_GetInfo(): 13b9. returns an object containing more
     information from the ‘float.h’ file, such as ‘"mant_dig"’ (number
     of digits in the mantissa), ‘"epsilon"’ (smallest difference
     between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several
     others.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(3).)

   * C functions and methods that use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex():
     13ba. will now accept arguments that have a ‘__complex__()’ method.
     In particular, the functions in the *note cmath: 18. module will
     now accept objects with this method.  This is a backport of a
     Python 3.0 change.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1675423(4).)

   * Python’s C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive
     string comparisons, ‘PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)’ and
     ‘PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)’.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(5).)

   * Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers
     and strings to the module’s dictionary in the ‘init*’ function.
     Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a
     module, *note PyModule_AddStringMacro: 13bb. and *note
     PyModule_AddIntMacro(): 13bc.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer
     that they are macros, not functions.  ‘Py_Size()’ became *note
     Py_SIZE(): 77b, ‘Py_Type()’ became *note Py_TYPE(): 779, and
     ‘Py_Refcnt()’ became *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a6.  The mixed-case macros
     are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
     (bpo-1629(6))

   * Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different
     directory when running on a debug version of Python.  (Contributed
     by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959(7).)

   * Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
     internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
     structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
     variable is always named ‘free_list’, the counter is always named
     ‘numfree’, and a macro ‘Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST’ is always
     defined.

   * A new Makefile target, “make patchcheck”, prepares the Python
     source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all
     modified ‘.py’ files, checks whether the documentation has been
     changed, and reports whether the ‘Misc/ACKS’ and ‘Misc/NEWS’ files
     have been updated.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

     Another new target, “make profile-opt”, compiles a Python binary
     using GCC’s profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
     profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
     results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<6>

1.16.20.1 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
     Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.

   * The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0).  The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1)
     and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory.  The new
     ‘PCbuild’ directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
     builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are
     roughly 10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note msvcrt: 93. module now supports both the normal and wide
     char variants of the console I/O API. The *note getwch(): 13be.
     function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the
     *note getwche(): 13bf. function.  The *note putwch(): 13c0.
     function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * *note os.path.expandvars(): 13a2. will now expand environment
     variables in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will be expanded into
     the user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
     bpo-957650(1).)

   * The *note socket: cc. module’s socket objects now have an *note
     ioctl(): cd0. method that provides a limited interface to the
     ‘WSAIoctl()’ system interface.

   * The *note _winreg: 116. module now has a function, *note
     ExpandEnvironmentStrings(): 13c1, that expands environment variable
     references such as ‘%NAME%’ in an input string.  The handle objects
     provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they
     can be used in *note with: 5cc. statements.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

     *note _winreg: 116. also has better support for x64 systems,
     exposing the *note DisableReflectionKey(): 134d, *note
     EnableReflectionKey(): 134e, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 134f.
     functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit
     processes running on 64-bit systems.  (bpo-1753245(2))

   * The ‘msilib’ module’s ‘Record’ object gained ‘GetInteger()’ and
     ‘GetString()’ methods that return field values as an integer or a
     string.  (Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<6>

1.16.20.2 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
     framework name to be used by providing the ‘--with-framework-name=’
     option to the ‘configure’ script.

   * The ‘macfs’ module has been removed.  This in turn required the
     ‘macostools.touched()’ function to be removed because it depended
     on the ‘macfs’ module.  (bpo-1490190(1))

   * Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.0: ‘_builtinSuites’, ‘aepack’, ‘aetools’, ‘aetypes’,
     ‘applesingle’, ‘appletrawmain’, ‘appletrunner’, ‘argvemulator’,
     ‘Audio_mac’, ‘autoGIL’, ‘Carbon’, ‘cfmfile’, ‘CodeWarrior’,
     ‘ColorPicker’, ‘EasyDialogs’, ‘Explorer’, ‘Finder’, ‘FrameWork’,
     ‘findertools’, ‘ic’, ‘icglue’, ‘icopen’, ‘macerrors’, ‘MacOS’,
     ‘macfs’, ‘macostools’, ‘macresource’, ‘MiniAEFrame’, ‘Nav’,
     ‘Netscape’, ‘OSATerminology’, ‘pimp’, ‘PixMapWrapper’, ‘StdSuites’,
     ‘SystemEvents’, ‘Terminal’, and ‘terminalcommand’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<6>

1.16.20.3 Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
.....................................

A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be
removed in Python 3.0: ‘al’ and ‘AL’, ‘cd’, ‘cddb’, ‘cdplayer’, ‘CL’ and
‘cl’, ‘DEVICE’, ‘ERRNO’, ‘FILE’, ‘FL’ and ‘fl’, ‘flp’, ‘fm’, ‘GET’,
‘GLWS’, ‘GL’ and ‘gl’, ‘IN’, ‘IOCTL’, ‘jpeg’, ‘panelparser’, ‘readcd’,
‘SV’ and ‘sv’, ‘torgb’, ‘videoreader’, and ‘WAIT’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 6,  Next: Acknowledgements<2>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.21 Porting to Python 2.6
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * Classes that aren’t supposed to be hashable should set ‘__hash__ =
     None’ in their definitions to indicate the fact.

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 532.

   * The ‘__init__()’ method of *note collections.deque: 5d6. now clears
     any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the
     iterable.  This change makes the behavior match ‘list.__init__()’.

   * *note object.__init__(): 6aa. previously accepted arbitrary
     arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6,
     this is no longer allowed and will result in a *note TypeError:
     532.  This will affect ‘__init__()’ methods that end up calling the
     corresponding method on *note object: a89. (perhaps through using
     *note super(): 4d5.).  See bpo-1683368(1) for discussion.

   * The ‘Decimal’ constructor now accepts leading and trailing
     whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
     ‘InvalidOperation’ exception.  On the other hand, the
     ‘create_decimal()’ method of ‘Context’ objects now explicitly
     disallows extra whitespace, raising a ‘ConversionSyntax’ exception.

   * Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the
     built-in *note __import__(): 8d1. function, it would actually
     import the specified file.  This was never intended to work,
     however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case
     and raises an *note ImportError: 413.

   * C API: the *note PyImport_Import(): 13c5. and *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. functions now default to absolute
     imports, not relative imports.  This will affect C extensions that
     import other modules.

   * C API: extension data types that shouldn’t be hashable should
     define their ‘tp_hash’ slot to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented():
     138f.

   * The *note socket: cc. module exception *note socket.error: 104b.
     now inherits from *note IOError: 1048.  Previously it wasn’t a
     subclass of ‘StandardError’ but now it is, through *note IOError:
     1048.  (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815(2).)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 1cd. and *note datetime.time: 1ce. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 13ac. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 1ce. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(3))

   * (3.0-warning mode) The *note Exception: 9d6. class now warns when
     accessed using slicing or index access; having *note Exception:
     9d6. behave like a tuple is being phased out.

   * (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
     or two objects that don’t implement comparison methods are reported
     as warnings.  ‘dict1 == dict2’ still works, but ‘dict1 < dict2’ is
     being phased out.

     Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of
     Python’s scoping rules, also cause warnings because such
     comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used.  Check whether you’re calling
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application
     should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.16.22 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim
Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou,
Brian Warner.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.17 What’s New in Python 2.5
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release
of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356(1) describes the
planned release schedule.  Python 2.5 was released on September 19,
2006.

The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
improvements.  The library enhancements will be more important to
Python’s user community, I think, because several widely useful packages
were added.  New modules include ElementTree for XML processing
(‘xml.etree’), the SQLite database module (‘sqlite’), and the *note
ctypes: 2a. module for calling C functions.

The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new
features were added, but most of them aren’t features that you’ll use
every day.  Conditional expressions were finally added to the language
using a novel syntax; see section *note PEP 308; Conditional
Expressions: 13ca.  The new ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement will make
writing cleanup code easier (section *note PEP 343; The ‘with’
statement: 13cb.).  Values can now be passed into generators (section
*note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 13cc.).  Imports are now visible
as either absolute or relative (section *note PEP 328; Absolute and
Relative Imports: 13cd.).  Some corner cases of exception handling are
handled better (section *note PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally:
13ce.).  All these improvements are worthwhile, but they’re improvements
to one specific language feature or another; none of them are broad
modifications to Python’s semantics.

As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and
bugfixes were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN
change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed
between Python 2.4 and 2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.)

This article doesn’t try to be a complete specification of the new
features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.
For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for
Python 2.5 at ‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature.

Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome;
please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug
tracker.

* Menu:

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The ‘__index__’ method: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Next: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.1 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
---------------------------------------

For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B
depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional
expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the
same effect as the following:

     if condition:
         x = true_value
     else:
         x = false_value

There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev
and comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of
voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no
syntax that was preferred by a clear majority.  Candidates included C’s
‘cond ? true_v : false_v’, ‘if cond then true_v else false_v’, and 16
other variations.

Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax:

     x = true_value if condition else false_value

Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the
order of evaluation jumps around a bit.  The 'condition' expression in
the middle is evaluated first, and the 'true_value' expression is
evaluated only if the condition was true.  Similarly, the 'false_value'
expression is only evaluated when the condition is false.

This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in
the 'middle' of the expression, and not in the front as in C’s ‘c ? x :
y’?  The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules
in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many
cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the
‘common case’ and one value is an ‘exceptional case’, used only on rarer
occasions when the condition isn’t met.  The conditional syntax makes
this pattern a bit more obvious:

     contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')

I read the above statement as meaning “here 'contents' is usually
assigned a value of ‘doc+'\n'’; sometimes 'doc' is empty, in which
special case an empty string is returned.” I doubt I will use
conditional expressions very often where there isn’t a clear common and
uncommon case.

There was some discussion of whether the language should require
surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was
made to 'not' require parentheses in the Python language’s grammar, but
as a matter of style I think you should always use them.  Consider these
two statements:

     # First version -- no parens
     level = 1 if logging else 0

     # Second version -- with parens
     level = (1 if logging else 0)

In the first version, I think a reader’s eye might group the statement
into ‘level = 1’, ‘if logging’, ‘else 0’, and think that the condition
decides whether the assignment to 'level' is performed.  The second
version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the
assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two
values.

Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of
list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional
expressions.  See PEP 308(1) for some examples.  If you put parentheses
around your conditional expressions, you won’t run into this case.

더 보기
.......

PEP 308(2) - Conditional Expressions

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger;
     implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Next: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Prev: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.2 PEP 309: Partial Function Application
--------------------------------------------

The *note functools: 5f. module is intended to contain tools for
functional-style programming.

One useful tool in this module is the ‘partial()’ function.  For
programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you
could create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that was equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’.  This is called “partial function application”.

‘partial()’ takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ...
kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The resulting object is callable, so
you can just call it to invoke 'function' with the filled-in arguments.

Here’s a small but realistic example:

     import functools

     def log (message, subsystem):
         "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
         print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

Here’s another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a
context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The
callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of
the ‘open_item()’ method, where the first argument has been provided.

     ...
     class Application:
         def open_item(self, path):
            ...
         def init (self):
             open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
             popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )

Another function in the *note functools: 5f. module is the
‘update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)’ function that helps you write
well-behaved decorators.  ‘update_wrapper()’ copies the name, module,
and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside
the wrapped function are easier to understand.  For example, you might
write:

     def my_decorator(f):
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
         return wrapper

‘wraps()’ is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to
copy the wrapped function’s information.  An alternate version of the
previous example would be:

     def my_decorator(f):
         @functools.wraps(f)
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         return wrapper

더 보기
.......

PEP 309(1) - Partial Function Application

     PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik
     Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Next: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Prev: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.3 PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
----------------------------------------------------------

Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The ‘setup()’
function now has ‘requires’, ‘provides’, and ‘obsoletes’ keyword
parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the ‘sdist’
command, the dependency information will be recorded in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.

Another new keyword parameter is ‘download_url’, which should be set to
a URL for the package’s source code.  This means it’s now possible to
look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a
package, and download the required packages.

     VERSION = '1.0'
     setup(name='PyPackage',
           version=VERSION,
           requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
           obsoletes=['OldPackage']
           download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
                         % VERSION),
          )

Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
‘https://pypi.org’ is storing source and binary archives for a package.
The new ‘upload’ Distutils command will upload a package to the
repository.

Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a
distribution using the ‘sdist’ Distutils command.  Once that works, you
can run ‘python setup.py upload’ to add your package to the PyPI
archive.  Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the
‘--sign’ and ‘--identity’ options.

Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.

더 보기
.......

PEP 314(1) - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

     PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred
     Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Next: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Prev: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.4 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
---------------------------------------------

The simpler part of PEP 328(1) was implemented in Python 2.4:
parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a
module using the ‘from ... import ...’ statement, making it easier to
import many different names.

The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing
a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.
The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future
versions of Python.

Let’s say you have a package directory like this:

     pkg/
     pkg/__init__.py
     pkg/main.py
     pkg/string.py

This defines a package named ‘pkg’ containing the ‘pkg.main’ and
‘pkg.string’ submodules.

Consider the code in the ‘main.py’ module.  What happens if it executes
the statement ‘import string’?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first
look in the package’s directory to perform a relative import, finds
‘pkg/string.py’, imports the contents of that file as the ‘pkg.string’
module, and that module is bound to the name ‘string’ in the ‘pkg.main’
module’s namespace.

That’s fine if ‘pkg.string’ was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
Python’s standard *note string: d3. module?  There’s no clean way to
ignore ‘pkg.string’ and look for the standard module; generally you had
to look at the contents of ‘sys.modules’, which is slightly unclean.
Holger Krekel’s ‘py.std’ package provides a tidier way to perform
imports from the standard library, ‘import py; py.std.string.join()’,
but that package isn’t available on all Python installations.

Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear,
because a reader may be confused about which module, *note string: d3.
or ‘pkg.string’, is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not
to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their
packages’ submodules, but you can’t protect against having your
submodule’s name being used for a new module added in a future version
of Python.

In Python 2.5, you can switch *note import: 5dc.’s behaviour to absolute
imports using a ‘from __future__ import absolute_import’ directive.
This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future
version (probably Python 2.7).  Once absolute imports are the default,
‘import string’ will always find the standard library’s version.  It’s
suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as
possible, so it’s preferable to begin writing ‘from pkg import string’
in your code.

Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the
module name when using the ‘from ... import’ form:

     # Import names from pkg.string
     from .string import name1, name2
     # Import pkg.string
     from . import string

This imports the *note string: d3. module relative to the current
package, so in ‘pkg.main’ this will import 'name1' and 'name2' from
‘pkg.string’.  Additional leading periods perform the relative import
starting from the parent of the current package.  For example, code in
the ‘A.B.C’ module can do:

     from . import D                 # Imports A.B.D
     from .. import E                # Imports A.E
     from ..F import G               # Imports A.F.G

Leading periods cannot be used with the ‘import modname’ form of the
import statement, only the ‘from ... import’ form.

더 보기
.......

PEP 328(2) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.

‘https://pylib.readthedocs.io/’

     The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the ‘py.std’
     package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Next: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Prev: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.5 PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
--------------------------------------------

The *note -m: 5db. switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a
script gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C
code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an
implementation in a new module, *note runpy: be.

The *note runpy: be. module implements a more sophisticated import
mechanism so that it’s now possible to run modules in a package such as
‘pychecker.checker’.  The module also supports alternative import
mechanisms such as the *note zipimport: 132. module.  This means you can
add a .zip archive’s path to ‘sys.path’ and then use the *note -m: 5db.
switch to execute code from the archive.

더 보기
.......

PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Next: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Prev: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.6 PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
------------------------------------------

Until Python 2.5, the *note try: 6e2. statement came in two flavours.
You could use a *note finally: 9c7. block to ensure that code is always
executed, or one or more *note except: 18b. blocks to catch specific
exceptions.  You couldn’t combine both ‘except’ blocks and a ‘finally’
block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version
was complicated and it wasn’t clear what the semantics of the combined
statement should be.

Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support
the equivalent of combining *note except: 18b. blocks and a *note
finally: 9c7. block, and this clarified what the statement should mean.
In Python 2.5, you can now write:

     try:
         block-1 ...
     except Exception1:
         handler-1 ...
     except Exception2:
         handler-2 ...
     else:
         else-block
     finally:
         final-block

The code in 'block-1' is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the
various *note except: 18b. blocks are tested: if the exception is of
class ‘Exception1’, 'handler-1' is executed; otherwise if it’s of class
‘Exception2’, 'handler-2' is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
raised, the 'else-block' is executed.

No matter what happened previously, the 'final-block' is executed once
the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled.  Even if
there’s an error in an exception handler or the 'else-block' and a new
exception is raised, the code in the 'final-block' is still run.

더 보기
.......

PEP 341(1) - Unifying try-except and try-finally

     PEP written by Georg Brandl; implementation by Thomas Lee.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Next: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>,  Prev: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.7 PEP 342: New Generator Features
--------------------------------------

Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values 'into' a generator.  As
introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a
generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be
useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the generator’s code
look at a global variable and then changing the global variable’s value,
or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.

To refresh your memory of basic generators, here’s a simple example:

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             yield i
             i += 1

When you call ‘counter(10)’, the result is an iterator that returns the
values from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the *note yield: 9ca. statement,
the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function’s
execution, preserving the local variables.  Execution resumes on the
following call to the iterator’s *note next(): 7d1. method, picking up
after the ‘yield’ statement.

In Python 2.3, *note yield: 9ca. was a statement; it didn’t return any
value.  In 2.5, ‘yield’ is now an expression, returning a value that can
be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you always put parentheses around a *note yield: 9ca.
expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a *note yield:
9ca.-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its ‘send(value)’ method.
The generator’s code is then resumed and the *note yield: 9ca.
expression returns the specified 'value'.  If the regular *note next():
7d1. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns *note None: 66f.

Here’s the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
internal counter.

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here’s an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> print it.next()
     0
     >>> print it.next()
     1
     >>> print it.send(8)
     8
     >>> print it.next()
     9
     >>> print it.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in ?
         print it.next()
     StopIteration

*note yield: 9ca. will usually return *note None: 66f, so you should
always check for this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions
unless you’re sure that the ‘send()’ method will be the only method used
to resume your generator function.

In addition to ‘send()’, there are two other new methods on generators:

   * ‘throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)’ is used to raise an
     exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
     *note yield: 9ca. expression where the generator’s execution is
     paused.

   * ‘close()’ raises a new *note GeneratorExit: 1390. exception inside
     the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator’s code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 1390. or *note StopIteration: bf7.  Catching the
     *note GeneratorExit: 1390. exception and returning a value is
     illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 195.; if the
     function raises some other exception, that exception is propagated
     to the caller.  ‘close()’ will also be called by Python’s garbage
     collector when the generator is garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 1390.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching *note GeneratorExit: 1390.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a *note return: 9cb. statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the *note yield: 9ca. statements).  We’ll have to figure out patterns
for using coroutines effectively in Python.

The addition of the ‘close()’ method has one side effect that isn’t
obvious.  ‘close()’ is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so
this means the generator’s code gets one last chance to run before the
generator is destroyed.  This last chance means that ‘try...finally’
statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the *note
finally: 9c7. clause will now always get a chance to run.  The syntactic
restriction that you couldn’t mix *note yield: 9ca. statements with a
‘try...finally’ suite has therefore been removed.  This seems like a
minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and ‘try...finally’
is actually necessary in order to implement the *note with: 5cc.
statement described by PEP 343(2).  I’ll look at this new statement in
the following section.

Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object.  It’s now
possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’ once the generator has been
exhausted.

더 보기
.......

PEP 342(3) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by
     Phillip J. Eby.  Includes examples of some fancier uses of
     generators as coroutines.

     Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288(4) by
     Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325(5) by Samuele Pedroni.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’

     The Wikipedia entry for coroutines.

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html’

     An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by
     Dan Sugalski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>,  Next: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Prev: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.8 PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
------------------------------------

The ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement is a new control-flow structure whose
basic structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 5c2. and *note __exit__(): 12f0. methods.

The object’s *note __enter__(): 5c2. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note
__exit__(): 12f0. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following
directive to your module:

     from __future__ import with_statement

The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 2ea. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     참고: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     515, because *note __enter__(): 5c2. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: ed. module’s locks and condition variables also
support the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The new ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 36. module makes
it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which
encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for
computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Next: The contextlib module<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>

1.17.8.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use ‘‘with’’ in company with existing objects and
don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     “context manager”.  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 5c2. and *note __exit__(): 12f0. methods.

   * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c2. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘'as VAR'’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the ‘__exit__(type, value,
     traceback)’ is called with the exception details, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 684.  The method’s return value
     controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value
     re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.
     You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you
     do the author of the code containing the ‘*note with: 5cc.’
     statement will never realize anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 12f0.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception.  Here’s the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor (self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit (self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback (self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 5c2. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__ (self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 12f0. method is the most complicated because it’s
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 9cb. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: The contextlib module<2>,  Prev: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>

1.17.8.2 The contextlib module
..............................

The new *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a
decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the ‘*note
with: 5cc.’ statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 9ca.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 5c2. method, and the value
yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the
variable in the ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the *note yield: 9ca. will be executed in the *note
__exit__(): 12f0. method.  Any exception raised in the block will be
raised by the ‘yield’ statement.

Our database example from the previous section could be written using
this decorator as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction (connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to
write nested ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statements.  In this example, the single
‘‘with’’ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing(object)’ function returns 'object' so that it can
be bound to a variable, and calls ‘object.close’ at the end of the
block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

더 보기
.......

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Next: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Prev: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.9 PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
-----------------------------------------------

Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic
classes, and the built-in *note Exception: 9d6. class and all the
standard built-in exceptions (*note NameError: 438, *note ValueError:
202, etc.)  are now new-style classes.

The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit.  In
2.5, the inheritance relationships are:

     BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
     |- KeyboardInterrupt
     |- SystemExit
     |- Exception
        |- (all other current built-in exceptions)

This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all
exceptions that indicate program errors.  *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.
and *note SystemExit: d3d. aren’t errors, though, and usually represent
an explicit action such as the user hitting ‘Control’-‘C’ or code
calling *note sys.exit(): 1339.  A bare ‘except:’ will catch all
exceptions, so you commonly need to list *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.
and *note SystemExit: d3d. in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern
is:

     try:
         ...
     except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
         raise
     except:
         # Log error...
         # Continue running program...

In Python 2.5, you can now write ‘except Exception’ to achieve the same
result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but
leaving *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. and *note SystemExit: d3d. alone.
As in previous versions, a bare ‘except:’ still catches all exceptions.

The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception
to derive from *note BaseException: 5b5. or some descendant of *note
BaseException: 5b5, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may
begin to enforce this constraint.  Therefore, I suggest you begin making
all your exception classes derive from *note Exception: 9d6. now.  It’s
been suggested that the bare ‘except:’ form should be removed in Python
3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn’t decided whether to do this or not.

Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ‘raise "Error
occurred"’, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The
aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few
releases.

더 보기
.......

PEP 352(1) - Required Superclass for Exceptions

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by
     Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Next: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method,  Prev: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.10 PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
------------------------------------------------

A wide-ranging change to Python’s C API, using a new *note Py_ssize_t:
a5c. type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to
handle more data on 64-bit platforms.  This change doesn’t affect
Python’s capacity on 32-bit platforms.

Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C’s int type to store
sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple
were stored in an int.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still
define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up
to ‘2**31 - 1’ = 2147483647 items.  (There are actually a few different
programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use – see
‘https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html’ for a discussion – but
the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.)

A limit of 2147483647 items doesn’t really matter on a 32-bit platform
because you’ll run out of memory before hitting the length limit.  Each
list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for
a *note PyObject: 332. representing the item.  2147483647*4 is already
more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain.

It’s possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.
The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so
it’s not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that
large.  Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some
type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.
The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was
deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users
is still relatively small.  (In 5 or 10 years, we may 'all' be on 64-bit
machines, and the transition would be more painful then.)

This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.
Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use
*note Py_ssize_t: a5c. to store their size.  Functions such as *note
PyList_Size(): 13e2. now return *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.  Code in
extension modules may therefore need to have some variables changed to
*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.
functions have a new conversion code, ‘n’, for *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.’s ‘s#’ and ‘t#’ still output int by
default, but you can define the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
including ‘Python.h’ to make them return *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.

PEP 353(1) has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors
should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.

더 보기
.......

PEP 353(2) - Using ssize_t as the index type

     PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method,  Next: Other Language Changes<11>,  Prev: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.11 PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
---------------------------------------

The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a
new special method, ‘__index__()’.  When using slice notation, as in
‘[start:stop:step]’, the values of the 'start', 'stop', and 'step'
indexes must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a
variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and
signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to
signal that these types could be used as slice indexes.

Slicing can’t just use the existing ‘__int__()’ method because that
method is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
‘__int__()’, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice
indexes and that’s clearly an undesirable behaviour.

Instead, a new special method called ‘__index__()’ was added.  It takes
no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For
example:

     class C:
         def __index__ (self):
             return self.value

The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer.  The
interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
*note TypeError: 532. if this requirement isn’t met.

A corresponding *note nb_index: 13e5. slot was added to the C-level
*note PyNumberMethods: 13e6. structure to let C extensions implement
this protocol.  ‘PyNumber_Index(obj)’ can be used in extension code to
call the ‘__index__()’ function and retrieve its result.

더 보기
.......

PEP 357(1) - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing

     PEP written and implemented by Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<11>,  Next: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Prev: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.12 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note dict: 256. type has a new hook for letting subclasses
     provide a default value when a key isn’t contained in the
     dictionary.  When a key isn’t found, the dictionary’s
     ‘__missing__(key)’ method will be called.  This hook is used to
     implement the new ‘defaultdict’ class in the *note collections: 1d.
     module.  The following example defines a dictionary that returns
     zero for any missing key:

          class zerodict (dict):
              def __missing__ (self, key):
                  return 0

          d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
          print d[1], d[2]   # Prints 1, 2
          print d[3], d[4]   # Prints 0, 0

   * Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ‘partition(sep)’ and
     ‘rpartition(sep)’ methods that simplify a common use case.

     The ‘find(S)’ method is often used to get an index which is then
     used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and
     after the separator.  ‘partition(sep)’ condenses this pattern into
     a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the
     substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the
     substring after the separator.  If the separator isn’t found, the
     first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two
     elements are empty.  ‘rpartition(sep)’ also returns a 3-tuple but
     starts searching from the end of the string; the ‘r’ stands for
     ‘reverse’.

     Some examples:

          >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
          ('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
          >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
          ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
          >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
          (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
          ('www.python', '.', 'org')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
          ('', '', 'www.python.org')

     (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’ methods of string types now
     accept tuples of strings to check for.

          def is_image_file (filename):
              return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))

     (Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)

   * The *note min(): f00. and *note max(): f01. built-in functions
     gained a ‘key’ keyword parameter analogous to the ‘key’ argument
     for ‘sort()’.  This parameter supplies a function that takes a
     single argument and is called for every value in the list; *note
     min(): f00./*note max(): f01. will return the element with the
     smallest/largest return value from this function.  For example, to
     find the longest string in a list, you can do:

          L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
          # Prints 'longest'
          print max(L, key=len)
          # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
          print max(L)

     (Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new built-in functions, *note any(): 13e9. and *note all():
     13ea, evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false
     values.  *note any(): 13e9. returns *note True: c0a. if any value
     returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return *note
     False: b34.  *note all(): 13ea. returns *note True: c0a. only if
     all of the values returned by the iterator evaluate as true.
     (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The result of a class’s ‘__hash__()’ method can now be either a
     long integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned,
     the hash of that value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash
     value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the *note
     id(): 13eb. built-in was changed to always return non-negative
     numbers, and users often seem to use ‘id(self)’ in ‘__hash__()’
     methods (though this is discouraged).

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn’t have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.  See PEP 263(1) for how to
     declare a module’s encoding; for example, you might add a line like
     this near the top of the source file:

          # -*- coding: latin1 -*-

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 13ec, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.  The
     result of the comparison is false:

          >>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
          __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
            to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
            as being unequal
          False
          >>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
          True

     Previously this would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f.
     exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when
     accessing a dictionary.  If you looked up ‘unichr(128)’ and
     ‘chr(128)’ was being used as a key, you’d get a *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted
     in this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in
     ‘dictobject.c’ that implements dictionaries.

     Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but
     the change might have broken code, so instead *note UnicodeWarning:
     13ec. was introduced.

     (Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to
     include an ‘__init__.py’ module in a package directory.  Debugging
     this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python
     with the *note -v: 13ed. switch to log all the paths searched.  In
     Python 2.5, a new *note ImportWarning: 4f4. warning is triggered
     when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
     ‘__init__.py’ was found.  This warning is silently ignored by
     default; provide the *note -Wd: 8c4. option when running the Python
     executable to display the warning message.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Wouters.)

   * The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.
     As an example, this is now legal:

          class C():
              pass

     (Implemented by Brett Cannon.)

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<10>,  Up: Other Language Changes<11>

1.17.12.1 Interactive Interpreter Changes
.........................................

In the interactive interpreter, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ have long been strings
so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:

     >>> quit
     'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'

In Python 2.5, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ are now objects that still produce
string representations of themselves, but are also callable.  Newbies
who try ‘quit()’ or ‘exit()’ will now exit the interpreter as they
expect.  (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

The Python executable now accepts the standard long options *note -help:
5ea. and *note -version: d18.; on Windows, it also accepts the *note /?:
13f0. option for displaying a help message.  (Implemented by Georg
Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<10>,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<11>

1.17.12.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint,
an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21–28 2006.  The sprint
focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was
funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games.  Those
optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following
list.

   * When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in *note set:
     5d3. and *note frozenset: 5d4. types were built on top of Python’s
     dictionary type.  In 2.5 the internal data structure has been
     customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a
     third less memory and are somewhat faster.  (Implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings,
     string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been
     improved.  (Substring search and splitting improvements were added
     by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint.
     Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The ‘long(str, base)’ function is now faster on long digit strings
     because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for
     strings of around 800–1000 digits where the function is 6 times
     faster.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * It’s now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ‘for line in
     file’ and calling the file object’s ‘read()’/*note readline():
     ba./‘readlines()’ methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and
     the ‘read*()’ methods don’t use that buffer.  Instead they would
     return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear
     out of order.  Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger
     a *note ValueError: 202. from the ‘read*()’ method.  (Implemented
     by Thomas Wouters.)

   * The *note struct: d5. module now compiles structure format strings
     into an internal representation and caches this representation,
     yielding a 20% speedup.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The *note re: b9. module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to
     Python’s allocator functions instead of the system’s ‘malloc()’ and
     ‘free()’.  (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed
     sprint.)

   * The code generator’s peephole optimizer now performs simple
     constant folding in expressions.  If you write something like ‘a =
     2+3’, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code
     corresponding to ‘a = 5’.  (Proposed and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the
     most recently finished frame (a “zombie frame”) in an internal
     field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object
     is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin
     Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
     Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
     locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal
     Norwitz.)

   * Python’s built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change
     that speeds up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in
     Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4.  (Contributed
     by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist
     or not so that the interpreter makes fewer ‘open()’ and ‘stat()’
     calls on startup.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg
     Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<11>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.13 New, Improved, and Removed Modules
------------------------------------------

The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python
2.5.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted
alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN
logs for all the details.

   * The ‘audioop’ module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code
     for u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by Lars
     Immisch.)

   * The *note codecs: 1b. module gained support for incremental codecs.
     The ‘codec.lookup()’ function now returns a ‘CodecInfo’ instance
     instead of a tuple.  ‘CodecInfo’ instances behave like a 4-tuple to
     preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes
     ‘encode’, ‘decode’, ‘incrementalencoder’, ‘incrementaldecoder’,
     ‘streamwriter’, and ‘streamreader’.  Incremental codecs can receive
     input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same
     as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec.  See
     the *note codecs: 1b. module documentation for details.  (Designed
     and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note collections: 1d. module gained a new type, ‘defaultdict’,
     that subclasses the standard *note dict: 256. type.  The new type
     mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value
     when a key isn’t present, automatically adding it to the dictionary
     for the requested key value.

     The first argument to ‘defaultdict’’s constructor is a factory
     function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not
     found.  This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use
     built-in type constructors such as *note list(): 60b. or *note
     int(): 257.  For example, you can make an index of words based on
     their initial letter like this:

          words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
          mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
          che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()

          index = defaultdict(list)

          for w in words:
              init_letter = w[0]
              index[init_letter].append(w)

     Printing ‘index’ results in the following output:

          defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
                  'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
                  'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
                  'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
                  'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}

     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum.)

   * The ‘deque’ double-ended queue type supplied by the *note
     collections: 1d. module now has a ‘remove(value)’ method that
     removes the first occurrence of 'value' in the queue, raising *note
     ValueError: 202. if the value isn’t found.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * New module: The *note contextlib: 23. module contains helper
     functions for use with the new ‘*note with: 5cc.’ statement.  See
     section *note The contextlib module: 13dc. for more about this
     module.

   * New module: The *note cProfile: 27. module is a C implementation of
     the existing *note profile: af. module that has much lower
     overhead.  The module’s interface is the same as *note profile:
     af.: you run ‘cProfile.run('main()')’ to profile a function, can
     save profile data to a file, etc.  It’s not yet known if the
     Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn’t match the
     *note profile: af. module’s interface, will continue to be
     maintained in future versions of Python.  (Contributed by Armin
     Rigo.)

     Also, the *note pstats: b0. module for analyzing the data measured
     by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file
     object by supplying a 'stream' argument to the ‘Stats’ constructor.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * The *note csv: 29. module, which parses files in comma-separated
     value format, received several enhancements and a number of
     bugfixes.  You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by
     calling the ‘csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)’ function; omitting
     the 'new_limit' argument will return the currently set limit.  The
     ‘reader’ class now has a ‘line_num’ attribute that counts the
     number of physical lines read from the source; records can span
     multiple physical lines, so ‘line_num’ is not the same as the
     number of records read.

     The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
     Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a
     terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the
     returned field.  This behavior caused problems when reading files
     that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the
     code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines.
     As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important,
     the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the
     newline characters.

     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)

   * The *note datetime: 1cc. class in the *note datetime: 30. module
     now has a ‘strptime(string, format)’ method for parsing date
     strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri.  It uses the same format
     characters as *note time.strptime(): 13f5. and *note
     time.strftime(): 11d8.:

          from datetime import datetime

          ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
                                 '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')

   * The ‘SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()’ method in the *note
     difflib: 37. module now guarantees to return a minimal list of
     blocks describing matching subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm
     would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list
     entries.  (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)

   * The *note doctest: 3a. module gained a ‘SKIP’ option that keeps an
     example from being executed at all.  This is intended for code
     snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren’t
     actually test cases.

     An 'encoding' parameter was added to the ‘testfile()’ function and
     the ‘DocFileSuite’ class to specify the file’s encoding.  This
     makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained
     within a docstring.  (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)

   * The *note email: 3b. package has been updated to version 4.0.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note fileinput: 5b. module was made more flexible.  Unicode
     filenames are now supported, and a 'mode' parameter that defaults
     to ‘"r"’ was added to the *note input(): 12c8. function to allow
     opening files in binary or *note universal newlines: d37. mode.
     Another new parameter, 'openhook', lets you use a function other
     than *note open(): 515. to open the input files.  Once you’re
     iterating over the set of files, the ‘FileInput’ object’s new *note
     fileno(): 13f6. returns the file descriptor for the currently
     opened file.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * In the *note gc: 60. module, the new ‘get_count()’ function returns
     a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC
     generations.  This is accounting information for the garbage
     collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage
     collection sweep will be made.  The existing *note gc.collect():
     a36. function now takes an optional 'generation' argument of 0, 1,
     or 2 to specify which generation to collect.  (Contributed by Barry
     Warsaw.)

   * The ‘nsmallest()’ and ‘nlargest()’ functions in the *note heapq:
     69. module now support a ‘key’ keyword parameter similar to the one
     provided by the *note min(): f00./*note max(): f01. functions and
     the ‘sort()’ methods.  For example:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
          ['longer still', 'longest']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
          ['short', 'medium']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note itertools.islice(): b49. function now accepts ‘None’ for
     the start and step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with
     the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the
     following:

          s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
          itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note format(): 619. function in the *note locale: 86. module
     has been modified and two new functions were added,
     ‘format_string()’ and ‘currency()’.

     The *note format(): 619. function’s 'val' parameter could
     previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier
     appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier
     with no surrounding text.  An optional 'monetary' parameter was
     also added which, if ‘True’, will use the locale’s rules for
     formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three
     digits.

     To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
     ‘format_string()’ function that works like *note format(): 619. but
     also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.

     A new ‘currency()’ function was also added that formats a number
     according to the current locale’s settings.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note mailbox: 8b. module underwent a massive rewrite to add
     the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A
     new set of classes that include ‘mbox’, ‘MH’, and ‘Maildir’ are
     used to read mailboxes, and have an ‘add(message)’ method to add
     messages, ‘remove(key)’ to remove messages, and ‘lock()’/‘unlock()’
     to lock/unlock the mailbox.  The following example converts a
     maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:

          import mailbox

          # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
          # individual messages.
          src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
          dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

          for msg in src:
              dest.add(msg)

     (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by
     Google’s 2005 Summer of Code.)

   * New module: the ‘msilib’ module allows creating Microsoft Installer
     ‘.msi’ files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the ‘.msi’
     database is also included.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The ‘nis’ module now supports accessing domains other than the
     system default domain by supplying a 'domain' argument to the
     ‘nis.match()’ and ‘nis.maps()’ functions.  (Contributed by Ben
     Bell.)

   * The *note operator: 9f. module’s ‘itemgetter()’ and ‘attrgetter()’
     functions now support multiple fields.  A call such as
     ‘operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')’ will return a function that
     retrieves the ‘a’ and ‘b’ attributes.  Combining this new feature
     with the ‘sort()’ method’s ‘key’ parameter lets you easily sort
     lists using multiple fields.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: a0. module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the
     Optik library.  The ‘OptionParser’ class gained an ‘epilog’
     attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message,
     and a ‘destroy()’ method to break reference cycles created by the
     object.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The *note os: a1. module underwent several changes.  The
     ‘stat_float_times’ variable now defaults to true, meaning that
     *note os.stat(): 49a. will now return time values as floats.  (This
     doesn’t necessarily mean that *note os.stat(): 49a. will return
     times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems
     support such precision.)

     Constants named *note os.SEEK_SET: 127d, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 127e,
     and *note os.SEEK_END: 127f. have been added; these are the
     parameters to the *note os.lseek(): 1108. function.  Two new
     constants for locking are *note os.O_SHLOCK: 13f7. and *note
     os.O_EXLOCK: 13f8.

     Two new functions, ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’, were added.  They’re
     similar the ‘waitpid()’ function which waits for a child process to
     exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but
     ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’ return additional information.  ‘wait3()’
     doesn’t take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child
     process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of 'process-id',
     'exit-status', 'resource-usage' as returned from the *note
     resource.getrusage(): 13f9. function.  ‘wait4(pid)’ does take a
     process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)

     On FreeBSD, the *note os.stat(): 49a. function now returns times
     with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has
     ‘st_gen’ and ‘st_birthtime’.  The ‘st_flags’ attribute is also
     available, if the platform supports it.  (Contributed by Antti
     Louko and Diego Pettenò.)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a5. module can now
     store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and
     execution stops.  Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter
     ‘commands 1’ and enter a series of commands to be executed,
     finishing the list with ‘end’.  The command list can include
     commands that resume execution, such as ‘continue’ or ‘next’.
     (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

   * The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a
     return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 9d0. method;
     the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The ability
     to return ‘None’ was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes
     the removal of the feature.

   * The *note pkgutil: a9. module, containing various utility functions
     for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302(1)’s import
     hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format
     archives.  (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

   * The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included
     in the ‘Tools/pybench’ directory.  The pybench suite is an
     improvement on the commonly used ‘pystone.py’ program because
     pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter’s
     speed.  It times particular operations such as function calls,
     tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of
     performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
     single number as ‘pystone.py’ does.

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
     (Contributed by Trent Mick.)

   * The *note Queue: 1377. class provided by the ‘Queue’ module gained
     two new methods.  ‘join()’ blocks until all items in the queue have
     been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been
     completed.  Worker threads call the other new method,
     ‘task_done()’, to signal that processing for an item has been
     completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The old ‘regex’ and ‘regsub’ modules, which have been deprecated
     ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.  Other deleted
     modules: ‘statcache’, ‘tzparse’, ‘whrandom’.

   * Also deleted: the ‘lib-old’ directory, which includes ancient
     modules such as ‘dircmp’ and ‘ni’, was removed.  ‘lib-old’ wasn’t
     on the default ‘sys.path’, so unless your programs explicitly added
     the directory to ‘sys.path’, this removal shouldn’t affect your
     code.

   * The *note rlcompleter: bd. module is no longer dependent on
     importing the *note readline: ba. module and therefore now works on
     non-Unix platforms.  (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

   * The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 12f.
     classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC
     operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow
     only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an
     empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * The *note socket: cc. module now supports ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets on
     Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.  Netlink sockets are
     a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space
     process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at
     ‘https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356’.  In Python code,
     netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ‘(pid,
     group_mask)’.

     Two new methods on socket objects, ‘recv_into(buffer)’ and
     ‘recvfrom_into(buffer)’, store the received data in an object that
     supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a
     string.  This means you can put the data directly into an array or
     a memory-mapped file.

     Socket objects also gained ‘getfamily()’, ‘gettype()’, and
     ‘getproto()’ accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and
     protocol values for the socket.

   * New module: the ‘spwd’ module provides functions for accessing the
     shadow password database on systems that support shadow passwords.

   * The *note struct: d5. is now faster because it compiles format
     strings into ‘Struct’ objects with ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ methods.
     This is similar to how the *note re: b9. module lets you create
     compiled regular expression objects.  You can still use the
     module-level ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ functions; they’ll create
     ‘Struct’ objects and cache them.  Or you can use ‘Struct’ instances
     directly:

          s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

          data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
          year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

     You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects
     directly using the ‘pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)’ and
     ‘unpack_from(buffer, offset)’ methods.  This lets you store data
     directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

     (‘Struct’ objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by
     Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the
     2.5 development process.  Information about the exact build version
     is available as the ‘sys.subversion’ variable, a 3-tuple of
     ‘(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range)’.  For example, at
     the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ‘('CPython',
     'trunk', '45313:45315')’.

     This information is also available to C extensions via the *note
     Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fa. function that returns a string of build
     information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006,
     07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * Another new function, *note sys._current_frames(): 13fb, returns
     the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary
     mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently
     active in that thread at the time the function is called.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘TarFile’ class in the *note tarfile: de. module now has an
     ‘extractall()’ method that extracts all members from the archive
     into the current working directory.  It’s also possible to set a
     different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a
     subset of the archive’s members.

     The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be
     autodetected using the mode ‘'r|*'’.  (Contributed by Lars
     Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: ed. module now lets you set the stack size
     used when new threads are created.  The ‘stack_size([*size*])’
     function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying
     the optional 'size' parameter sets a new value.  Not all platforms
     support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and
     OS/2 all do.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

   * The *note unicodedata: 105. module has been updated to use version
     4.1.0 of the Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required
     by some specifications, so it’s still available as *note
     unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 13fc.

   * New module: the *note uuid: 110. module generates universally
     unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122(2).  The RFC
     defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a
     starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly.  This
     module contains a ‘UUID’ class and functions named ‘uuid1()’,
     ‘uuid3()’, ‘uuid4()’, and ‘uuid5()’ to generate different versions
     of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122(3) and are
     not supported by this module.)

          >>> import uuid
          >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
          >>> uuid.uuid1()
          UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

          >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

          >>> # make a random UUID
          >>> uuid.uuid4()
          UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

          >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     (Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)

   * The *note weakref: 114. module’s ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ and
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’ types gained new methods for iterating over
     the weak references contained in the dictionary.  ‘iterkeyrefs()’
     and ‘keyrefs()’ methods were added to ‘WeakKeyDictionary’, and
     ‘itervaluerefs()’ and ‘valuerefs()’ were added to
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note webbrowser: 115. module received a number of
     enhancements.  It’s now usable as a script with ‘python -m
     webbrowser’, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of
     switches to control the behaviour (‘-n’ for a new browser window,
     ‘-t’ for a new tab).  New module-level functions, ‘open_new()’ and
     ‘open_new_tab()’, were added to support this.  The module’s *note
     open(): 515. function supports an additional feature, an
     'autoraise' parameter that signals whether to raise the open window
     when possible.  A number of additional browsers were added to the
     supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks.
     (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module now supports returning *note
     datetime: 1cc. objects for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply
     ‘use_datetime=True’ to the *note loads(): 13fd. function or the
     ‘Unmarshaller’ class to enable this feature.  (Contributed by Skip
     Montanaro.)

   * The *note zipfile: 131. module now supports the ZIP64 version of
     the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4
     GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

   * The *note zlib: 133. module’s ‘Compress’ and ‘Decompress’ objects
     now support a *note copy(): 25. method that makes a copy of the
     object’s internal state and returns a new ‘Compress’ or
     ‘Decompress’ object.  (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

* Menu:

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: The ctypes package,  Next: The ElementTree package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.17.13.1 The ctypes package
............................

The *note ctypes: 2a. package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added
to the standard library.  *note ctypes: 2a. lets you call arbitrary
functions in shared libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the
‘dl’ module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and
calling functions in them.  The *note ctypes: 2a. package is much
fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
‘CDLL’ class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
Once that’s done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
attributes of the ‘CDLL’ object.

     import ctypes

     libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
     result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided: ‘c_int()’,
‘c_float()’, ‘c_double()’, ‘c_char_p()’ (equivalent to char*), and so
forth.  Unlike Python’s types, the C versions are all mutable; you can
assign to their ‘value’ attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
integers and strings will be automatically converted to the
corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct
type constructor.  (And I mean 'must'; getting it wrong will often
result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn’t use ‘c_char_p()’ with a Python string when the C function
will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed
to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you
need a modifiable memory area, use ‘create_string_buffer()’:

     s = "this is a string"
     buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
     libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the
‘restype’ attribute of the function object to change this:

     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     -1783957616
     >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     2.71828

*note ctypes: 2a. also provides a wrapper for Python’s C API as the
‘ctypes.pythonapi’ object.  This object does 'not' release the global
interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be
held when calling into the interpreter’s code.  There’s a *note
py_object: 1400. type constructor that will create a *note PyObject:
332.* pointer.  A simple usage:

     import ctypes

     d = {}
     ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
               ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
     # d is now {'abc', 1}.

Don’t forget to use *note py_object(): 1400.; if it’s omitted you end up
with a segmentation fault.

*note ctypes: 2a. has been around for a while, but people still write
and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can’t rely on
*note ctypes: 2a. being present.  Perhaps developers will begin to write
Python wrappers atop a library accessed through *note ctypes: 2a.
instead of extension modules, now that *note ctypes: 2a. is included
with core Python.

더 보기
.......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/’

     The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and
     FAQ.

The documentation for the *note ctypes: 2a. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The ElementTree package,  Next: The hashlib package,  Prev: The ctypes package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.17.13.2 The ElementTree package
.................................

A subset of Fredrik Lundh’s ElementTree library for processing XML has
been added to the standard library as ‘xml.etree’.  The available
modules are ‘ElementTree’, ‘ElementPath’, and ‘ElementInclude’ from
ElementTree 1.2.6.  The ‘cElementTree’ accelerator module is also
included.

The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using
ElementTree.  Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’.

ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes.  The
text content of the document is stored as the ‘text’ and ‘tail’
attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree
and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types
of node, including ‘TextNode’.)

The most commonly used parsing function is ‘parse()’, that takes either
a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and
returns an ‘ElementTree’ instance:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

     tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')

     feed = urllib.urlopen(
               'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
     tree = ET.parse(feed)

Once you have an ‘ElementTree’ instance, you can call its ‘getroot()’
method to get the root ‘Element’ node.

There’s also an ‘XML()’ function that takes a string literal and returns
an ‘Element’ node (not an ‘ElementTree’).  This function provides a tidy
way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
literal:

     svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
                  </svg>""")
     svg.set('height', '320px')
     svg.append(elem1)

Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute
values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes.

Operation                           Result
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘elem[n]’                           Returns n’th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem[m:n]’                         Returns list of m’th through n’th child
                                    elements.
                                    
                                    
‘len(elem)’                         Returns number of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘list(elem)’                        Returns list of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.append(elem2)’                Adds 'elem2' as a child.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.insert(index, elem2)’         Inserts 'elem2' at the specified location.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem[n]’                       Deletes n’th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.keys()’                       Returns list of attribute names.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.get(name)’                    Returns value of attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.set(name, value)’             Sets new value for attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.attrib’                       Retrieves the dictionary containing
                                    attributes.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem.attrib[name]’             Deletes attribute 'name'.
                                    

Comments and processing instructions are also represented as ‘Element’
nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:

     if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
         ...
     elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
         ...

To generate XML output, you should call the ‘ElementTree.write()’
method.  Like ‘parse()’, it can take either a string or a file-like
object:

     # Encoding is US-ASCII
     tree.write('output.xml')

     # Encoding is UTF-8
     f = open('output.xml', 'w')
     tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')

(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML
work, where an element’s name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters,
ASCII isn’t a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if
an element’s name contains any characters with values greater than 127.
Therefore, it’s best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that
can handle any Unicode character.)

This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree
interfaces.  Please read the package’s official documentation for more
details.

더 보기
.......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’

     Official documentation for ElementTree.


File: python.info,  Node: The hashlib package,  Next: The sqlite3 package,  Prev: The ElementTree package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.17.13.3 The hashlib package
.............................

A new *note hashlib: 68. module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been
added to replace the ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules.  *note hashlib: 68. adds
support for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and
SHA-512).  When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform
optimized implementations of algorithms.

The old ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module’s interface is very
close to that of the old modules, but not identical.  The most
significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating
new hashing objects are named differently.

     # Old versions
     h = md5.md5()
     h = md5.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.md5()

     # Old versions
     h = sha.sha()
     h = sha.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.sha1()

     # Hash that weren't previously available
     h = hashlib.sha224()
     h = hashlib.sha256()
     h = hashlib.sha384()
     h = hashlib.sha512()

     # Alternative form
     h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string

Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
‘update(string)’ hashes the specified string into the current digest
state, ‘digest()’ and ‘hexdigest()’ return the digest value as a binary
string or a string of hex digits, and *note copy(): 25. returns a new
hashing object with the same digest state.

더 보기
.......

The documentation for the *note hashlib: 68. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The sqlite3 package,  Next: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The hashlib package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.17.13.4 The sqlite3 package
.............................

The pysqlite module (‘https://www.pysqlite.org’), a wrapper for the
SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under
the package name *note sqlite3: cf.

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface
compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249(1).

If you’re compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source
tree doesn’t include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module.  You’ll
need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling
Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary
headers are available.

To use the module, you must first create a ‘Connection’ object that
represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
‘/tmp/example’ file:

     conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')

You can also supply the special name ‘:memory:’ to create a database in
RAM.

Once you have a ‘Connection’, you can create a ‘Cursor’ object and call
its ‘execute()’ method to perform SQL commands:

     c = conn.cursor()

     # Create table
     c.execute('''create table stocks
     (date text, trans text, symbol text,
      qty real, price real)''')

     # Insert a row of data
     c.execute("""insert into stocks
               values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")

Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python
variables.  You shouldn’t assemble your query using Python’s string
operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program
vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  Put ‘?’ as a
placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple
of values as the second argument to the cursor’s ‘execute()’ method.
(Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as ‘%s’ or
‘:1’.)  For example:

     # Never do this -- insecure!
     symbol = 'IBM'
     c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)

     # Do this instead
     t = (symbol,)
     c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)

     # Larger example
     for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
               ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
               ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
              ):
         c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)

To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either
treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor’s ‘fetchone()’ method
to retrieve a single matching row, or call ‘fetchall()’ to get a list of
the matching rows.

This example uses the iterator form:

     >>> c = conn.cursor()
     >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
     >>> for row in c:
     ...    print row
     ...
     (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
     (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
     (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
     (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
     >>>

For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
‘https://www.sqlite.org’.

더 보기
.......

‘https://www.pysqlite.org’

     The pysqlite web page.

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

The documentation for the *note sqlite3: cf. module.

PEP 249(2) - Database API Specification 2.0

     PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The sqlite3 package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.17.13.5 The wsgiref package
.............................

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard
interface between web servers and Python web applications and is
described in PEP 333(1).  The *note wsgiref: 118. package is a reference
implementation of the WSGI specification.

The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI
application; this server is useful for debugging but isn’t intended for
production use.  Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code:

     from wsgiref import simple_server

     wsgi_app = ...

     host = ''
     port = 8000
     httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
     httpd.serve_forever()

더 보기
.......

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/’

     A central web site for WSGI-related resources.

PEP 333(2) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0

     PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 5,  Prev: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.14 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a
     complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly
     carried out by Martin von Löwis.  The procedure was developed as
     PEP 347(1).

   * Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called
     Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python
     source code.  The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly
     fixed.  Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring
     in error-handling code.  See ‘https://scan.coverity.com’ for the
     statistics.

   * The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353(2), which
     modifies the interpreter to use a *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. type
     definition instead of int.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353;
     Using ssize_t as the index type: 13e0. for a discussion of this
     change.

   * The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no
     longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead
     the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST),
     and it is the abstract syntax tree that’s traversed to produce the
     bytecode.

     It’s possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
     *note compile(): 192. built-in and specifying ‘_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     as the value of the 'flags' parameter:

          from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
          ast = compile("""a=0
          for i in range(10):
              a += i
          """, "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)

          assignment = ast.body[0]
          for_loop = ast.body[1]

     No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet,
     but PEP 339(3) discusses the design.  To start learning about the
     code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in
     ‘Parser/Python.asdl’.  A Python script reads this file and
     generates a set of C structure definitions in
     ‘Include/Python-ast.h’.  The ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ and
     ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’, defined in ‘Include/pythonrun.h’, take
     Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing
     the contents.  This AST can then be turned into a code object by
     ‘PyAST_Compile()’.  For more information, read the source code, and
     then ask questions on python-dev.

     The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton’s management, and
     implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan,
     Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim
     Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in
     a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon.

   * Evan Jones’s patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon
     DC 2005, was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in
     256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas.  With this patch, Python
     will free arenas when they’re empty.  The net effect is that on
     some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python’s memory
     usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
     returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and
     reworked by Tim Peters.)

     Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful
     when allocating memory.  Python’s API has many different functions
     for allocating memory that are grouped into families.  For example,
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 1028, and *note
     PyMem_Free(): 140b. are one family that allocates raw memory, while
     *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140c, and
     *note PyObject_Free(): c63. are another family that’s supposed to
     be used for creating Python objects.

     Previously these different families all reduced to the platform’s
     ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ functions.  This meant it didn’t matter if
     you got things wrong and allocated memory with the ‘PyMem’ function
     but freed it with the ‘PyObject’ function.  With 2.5’s changes to
     obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches
     will probably result in a segfault.  You should carefully test your
     C extension modules with Python 2.5.

   * The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call *note
     PySet_New(): 140d. and *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 140e. to create a
     new set, *note PySet_Add(): 140f. and *note PySet_Discard(): 1410.
     to add and remove elements, and *note PySet_Contains(): 1411. and
     *note PySet_Size(): 1412. to examine the set’s state.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the
     Python interpreter by calling the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fa.
     function that returns a string of build information like this:
     ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by
     Barry Warsaw.)

   * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local
     to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be
     used.  ‘Py_LOCAL(type)’ declares the function as returning a value
     of the specified 'type' and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
     ‘Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)’ does the same thing and also requests the
     function be inlined.  If macro ‘PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE’ is defined
     before ‘python.h’ is included, a set of more aggressive
     optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the
     results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code
     faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * ‘PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)’ can now accept a tuple of
     base classes as its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl.)

   * The ‘PyErr_Warn()’ function for issuing warnings is now deprecated
     in favour of ‘PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)’ which
     lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this
     function and the caller.  A 'stacklevel' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1413, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)

   * The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now
     be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.  (Implemented by
     Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)

   * The ‘PyRange_New()’ function was removed.  It was never documented,
     never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error
     checking.  In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it,
     you can replace it by something like the following:

          range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
                                        start, stop, step);

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.17.14.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
     ‘dlopen()’ function instead of MacOS-specific functions.

   * MacOS X: an ‘--enable-universalsdk’ switch was added to the
     ‘configure’ script that compiles the interpreter as a universal
     binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573(1).)

   * Windows: ‘.dll’ is no longer supported as a filename extension for
     extension modules.  ‘.pyd’ is now the only filename extension that
     will be searched for.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 5,  Next: Acknowledgements<3>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.15 Porting to Python 2.5
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn’t have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.

   * Previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a
     frame object.  Because of the PEP 342(1) changes described in
     section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 13cc, it’s now
     possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’.

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 13ec, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.
     Previously such comparisons would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     a0f. exception.

   * Library: the *note csv: 29. module is now stricter about multi-line
     quoted fields.  If your files contain newlines embedded within
     fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which
     preserves the newline characters.

   * Library: the *note locale: 86. module’s *note format(): 619.
     function’s would previously accept any string as long as no more
     than one %char specifier appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument
     must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.

   * Library: The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer
     accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 9d0.
     method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The
     modules also no longer accept the deprecated 'bin' keyword
     parameter.

   * Library: The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that
     constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the
     default is to allow only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’
     to ‘None’ or an empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * C API: Many functions now use *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. instead of int
     to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code
     may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support
     64-bit machines.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using
     ssize_t as the index type: 13e0. for a discussion of this change.

   * C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not
     mix usage of the ‘PyMem_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ families of functions.
     Memory allocated with one family’s ‘*_Malloc’ must be freed with
     the corresponding family’s ‘*_Free’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 5,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.17.16 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel,
Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe,
Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart,
Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.18 What’s New in Python 2.4
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on
March 30, 2005.

Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn’t introduce as many
changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the
conservative 2.3 release.  The most significant new language features
are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes
are to the standard library.

According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502
bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of
every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to
each feature.  For full details, you should refer to the documentation
for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python
Reference Manual.  Often you will be referred to the PEP for a
particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design
rationale.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.1 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
------------------------------------

Python 2.3 introduced the ‘sets’ module.  C implementations of set data
types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
‘set(iterable)’ and ‘frozenset(iterable)’.  They provide high speed
operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from
sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections,
differences, and symmetric differences.

     >>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
     >>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
     False
     >>> a                                   # unique letters in a
     set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
     >>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
     'arbcd'

     >>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
     >>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
     set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
     >>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
     set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
     >>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
     set(['a', 'c'])
     >>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
     set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

     >>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
     >>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
     >>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])

The *note frozenset(): 5d4. type is an immutable version of *note set():
5d3.  Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary
key or as a member of another set.

The ‘sets’ module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if
you wish to subclass the ‘Set’ or ‘ImmutableSet’ classes.  There are
currently no plans to deprecate the module.

더 보기
.......

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Next: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Prev: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.2 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes
another step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations
that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered *note
FutureWarning: 40f. warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64
bits (depending on your platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer
produce a warning and instead produce a different result that’s usually
a long integer.

The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy
hexadecimal and octal constants.  For example, ‘2 << 32’ results in a
warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4,
this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592.

더 보기
.......

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4
     were implemented by Kalle Svensson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Next: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.3 PEP 289: Generator Expressions
-------------------------------------

The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the *note itertools:
81. module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data
sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List
comprehensions don’t fit into this picture very well because they
produce a Python list object containing all of the items.  This
unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem
if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a functionally
styled program, it would be natural to write something like:

     links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
     for link in links:
         ...

instead of

     for link in get_all_links():
         if link.followed:
             continue
         ...

The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you’re
dealing with a large number of link objects you’d have to write the
second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time.

Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don’t
materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will
return elements one by one.  The above example could be written as:

     links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
     for link in links:
         ...

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as
in the above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also
count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately
passed to a function you could write:

     print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small
ways.  Most notably, the loop variable ('obj' in the above example) is
not accessible outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions
leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python
will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions
in this respect.

더 보기
.......

PEP 289(1) - Generator Expressions

     Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with
     early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Next: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Prev: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.4 PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
--------------------------------------------

Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative
mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of
substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need
to edit templates.

The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ‘%’ operator:

     >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
     '2: The Best of Times'

When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ‘i’ or
‘s’ after the closing parenthesis.  This isn’t a big problem if the
template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an
“Unsupported format character” *note ValueError: 202, and fix the
problem.  However, consider an application such as Mailman where
template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren’t
aware of the Python language.  The format string’s syntax is complicated
to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it’s difficult to
provide helpful feedback to them.

PEP 292 adds a ‘Template’ class to the *note string: d3. module that
uses ‘$’ to indicate a substitution:

     >>> import string
     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
     '2: The Best of Times'

If a key is missing from the dictionary, the ‘substitute()’ method will
raise a *note KeyError: 33d.  There’s also a ‘safe_substitute()’ method
that ignores missing keys:

     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
     '3: $title'

더 보기
.......

PEP 292(1) - Simpler String Substitutions

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Next: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Prev: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.5 PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
----------------------------------------------------

Python 2.2 extended Python’s object model by adding static methods and
class methods, but it didn’t extend Python’s syntax to provide any new
way of defining static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a
*note def: 1420. statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting
method to a *note staticmethod(): 410. or *note classmethod(): 166.
function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type.
Your code would look like this:

     class C:
        def meth (cls):
            ...

        meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method

If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
*note classmethod(): 166. invocation after the function body.

The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions
more readable, but at the time of 2.2’s release a good syntax was not
obvious.  Today a good syntax 'still' isn’t obvious but users are asking
for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added
to meet this need.

The new feature is called “function decorators”.  The name comes from
the idea that *note classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 410, and
friends are storing additional information on a function object; they’re
'decorating' functions with more details.

The notation borrows from Java and uses the ‘'@'’ character as an
indicator.  Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:

     class C:

        @classmethod
        def meth (cls):
            ...

The ‘@classmethod’ is shorthand for the ‘meth=classmethod(meth)’
assignment.  More generally, if you have the following:

     @A
     @B
     @C
     def f ():
         ...

It’s equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:

     def f(): ...
     f = A(B(C(f)))

Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one
decorator per line, and can’t be on the same line as the def statement,
meaning that ‘@A def f(): ...’ is illegal.  You can only decorate
function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you
can’t decorate class definitions.

A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated
as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object.
The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it
typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result.
It’s easy to write your own decorators.  The following simple example
just sets an attribute on the function object:

     >>> def deco(func):
     ...    func.attr = 'decorated'
     ...    return func
     ...
     >>> @deco
     ... def f(): pass
     ...
     >>> f
     <function f at 0x402ef0d4>
     >>> f.attr
     'decorated'
     >>>

As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks
that the supplied argument is an integer:

     def require_int (func):
         def wrapper (arg):
             assert isinstance(arg, int)
             return func(arg)

         return wrapper

     @require_int
     def p1 (arg):
         print arg

     @require_int
     def p2(arg):
         print arg*2

An example in PEP 318(1) contains a fancier version of this idea that
lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type.

Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a
new decorator function; this function must take a single function and
return a function, as previously described.  In other words, ‘@A @B
@C(args)’ becomes:

     def f(): ...
     _deco = C(args)
     f = A(B(_deco(f)))

Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it’s not too
difficult.

A small related change makes the *note func_name: 12c4. attribute of
functions writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in
tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function
that’s constructed and returned.

더 보기
.......

PEP 318(2) - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes

     Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several
     people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one
     that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark
     Russell.

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary’

     This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Next: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Prev: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.6 PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
---------------------------------

A new built-in function, ‘reversed(seq)’, takes a sequence and returns
an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse
order.

     >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
     ...    print i
     ...
     3
     2
     1

Compared to extended slicing, such as ‘range(1,4)[::-1]’, *note
reversed(): 860. is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially
less memory.

Note that *note reversed(): 860. only accepts sequences, not arbitrary
iterators.  If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a
list with *note list(): 60b.

     >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
     >>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
     ...   print line
     ...
     root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
       ...

더 보기
.......

PEP 322(1) - Reverse Iteration

     Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Next: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Prev: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.7 PEP 324: New subprocess Module
-------------------------------------

The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess,
offering different features and different levels of complexity.
‘os.system(command)’ is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about
escaping the shell’s metacharacters).  The ‘popen2’ module offers
classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the
subprocess, but the naming is confusing.  The *note subprocess: d6.
module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the
features you might need.

Instead of ‘popen2’’s collection of classes, *note subprocess: d6.
contains a single class called *note subprocess.Popen: 199. whose
constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments.

     class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
                 stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
                 preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
                 cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
                 startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):

'args' is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to
the program executed as the subprocess.  (If the 'shell' argument is
true, 'args' can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell
for interpretation, just as *note os.system(): 1423. does.)

'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' specify what the subprocess’s input,
output, and error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a
file descriptor, or you can use the constant ‘subprocess.PIPE’ to create
a pipe between the subprocess and the parent.

The constructor has a number of handy options:

   * 'close_fds' requests that all file descriptors be closed before
     running the subprocess.

   * 'cwd' specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will
     be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent’s working directory
     is).

   * 'env' is a dictionary specifying environment variables.

   * 'preexec_fn' is a function that gets called before the child is
     started.

   * 'universal_newlines' opens the child’s input and output using
     Python’s *note universal newlines: d37. feature.

Once you’ve created the ‘Popen’ instance, you can call its ‘wait()’
method to pause until the subprocess has exited, ‘poll()’ to check if
it’s exited without pausing, or ‘communicate(data)’ to send the string
'data' to the subprocess’s standard input.  ‘communicate(data)’ then
reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or
standard error, returning a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

‘call()’ is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the ‘Popen’
constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status
code of the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to *note
os.system(): 1423.:

     sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
     if sts == 0:
         # Success
         ...
     else:
         # dpkg returned an error
         ...

The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want
to use the shell, you can add ‘shell=True’ as a keyword argument and
provide a string instead of a sequence:

     sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)

The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how
they’d be translated into Python code that uses *note subprocess: d6.
Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended.

더 보기
.......

PEP 324(1) - subprocess - New process module

     Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from
     Fredrik Lundh and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Next: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Prev: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.8 PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
---------------------------------

Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the
underlying C double type, as a data type.  However, while most
programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even
programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don’t represent
certain decimal fractions accurately.  The new ‘Decimal’ type can
represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision
limit.

* Menu:

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::


File: python.info,  Node: Why is Decimal needed?,  Next: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.18.8.1 Why is Decimal needed?
...............................

The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point
numbers.  FP numbers are made up of three components:

   * The sign, which is positive or negative.

   * The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a
     fractional part.  For example, ‘1.01’ in base-2 notation is ‘1 +
     0/2 + 1/4’, or 1.25 in decimal notation.

   * The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the
     number represented.

For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01
(in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn’t need to be
shifted).  The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent
is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the
exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5.

Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
standard called IEEE 754.  C’s double type is usually implemented as a
64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.
This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.
If you’re trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly,
the expansion is cut off after 52 bits.  Unfortunately, most software
needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are
often repeating decimals in binary.  For example, 1.1 decimal is binary
‘1.0001100110011 ...’; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number
of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated
decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate.

Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:

     >>> 1.1
     1.1000000000000001

The inaccuracy isn’t always visible when you print the number because
the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and
most C libraries try to produce sensible output.  Even if it’s not
displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent
operations can magnify the error.

For many applications this doesn’t matter.  If I’m plotting points and
displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and
1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit
output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the
number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never
apparent.  However, for applications where it does matter, it’s a lot of
work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines.

Hence, the ‘Decimal’ type was created.


File: python.info,  Node: The Decimal type,  Next: The Context type,  Prev: Why is Decimal needed?,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.18.8.2 The ‘Decimal’ type
...........................

A new module, *note decimal: 36, was added to Python’s standard library.
It contains two classes, ‘Decimal’ and ‘Context’.  ‘Decimal’ instances
represent numbers, and ‘Context’ instances are used to wrap up various
settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.

‘Decimal’ instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
numbers; once it’s been created, you can’t change the value an instance
represents.  ‘Decimal’ instances can be created from integers or
strings:

     >>> import decimal
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
     Decimal("1972")
     >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
     Decimal("1.1")

You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa
represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:

     >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
     Decimal("-14.75")

Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1
is negative.

Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should
the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly
1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced?  The decision
was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API.
Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string
using the desired precision and pass the string to the ‘Decimal’
constructor:

     >>> f = 1.1
     >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
     Decimal("1.1")
     >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
     Decimal("1.100000000000")

Once you have ‘Decimal’ instances, you can perform the usual
mathematical operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation
requires an integer exponent:

     >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
     >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
     >>> a+b
     Decimal("37.45")
     >>> a-b
     Decimal("33.99")
     >>> a*b
     Decimal("61.7956")
     >>> a/b
     Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
     >>> a ** 2
     Decimal("1275.9184")
     >>> a**b
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)

You can combine ‘Decimal’ instances with integers, but not with
floating-point numbers:

     >>> a + 4
     Decimal("39.72")
     >>> a + 4.5
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
     >>>

‘Decimal’ numbers can be used with the *note math: 8e. and *note cmath:
18. modules, but note that they’ll be immediately converted to
floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a
possible loss of precision and accuracy.  You’ll also get back a regular
floating-point number and not a ‘Decimal’.

     >>> import math, cmath
     >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
     >>> math.sqrt(d)
     351364.18288201344
     >>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
     351364.18288201344j

‘Decimal’ instances have a ‘sqrt()’ method that returns a ‘Decimal’, but
if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you’ll have to
implement them.

     >>> d.sqrt()
     Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")


File: python.info,  Node: The Context type,  Prev: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.18.8.3 The ‘Context’ type
...........................

Instances of the ‘Context’ class encapsulate several settings for
decimal operations:

   * ‘prec’ is the precision, the number of decimal places.

   * ‘rounding’ specifies the rounding mode.  The *note decimal: 36.
     module has constants for the various possibilities: ‘ROUND_DOWN’,
     ‘ROUND_CEILING’, ‘ROUND_HALF_EVEN’, and various others.

   * ‘traps’ is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering
     certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value
     is returned.  Some examples of error conditions are division by
     zero, loss of precision, and overflow.

There’s a thread-local default context available by calling
‘getcontext()’; you can change the properties of this context to alter
the default precision, rounding, or trap handling.  The following
example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default
context:

     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec
     28
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.142857143")

The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can
either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or
exceptions can be raised:

     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
     >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Decimal("Infinity")
     >>>

The ‘Context’ instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
such as ‘to_eng_string()’ and ‘to_sci_string()’.

For more information, see the documentation for the *note decimal: 36.
module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.

더 보기
.......

PEP 327(1) - Decimal Data Type

     Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric
     Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.

http://www.lahey.com/float.htm(2)

     The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems
     that floating-point inaccuracy can cause.

‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/’

     A description of a decimal-based representation.  This
     representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the
     new Python decimal type.  Much of this material was written by Mike
     Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Next: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Prev: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.9 PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
----------------------------------

One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier
to import many names from a module.  In a ‘from module import names’
statement, 'names' is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the
sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the
same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like
this:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
                 SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 resolve_dotted_attribute

The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names
within parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized
expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
                                     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     resolve_dotted_attribute)

The PEP also proposes that all *note import: 5dc. statements be absolute
imports, with a leading ‘.’ character to indicate a relative import.
This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was
completed for Python 2.5.

더 보기
.......

PEP 328(1) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima
     Dorfman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Next: Other Language Changes<12>,  Prev: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.10 PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note locale: 86. modules lets Python software select various
conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular
country or language.  However, the module was careful to not change the
numeric locale because various functions in Python’s implementation
required that the numeric locale remain set to the ‘'C'’ locale.  Often
this was because the code was using the C library’s ‘atof()’ function.

Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used
third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn’t have the correct
locale set.  The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface
widgets weren’t displaying numbers in the current locale.

The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the
Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale
setting:

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)’ both
     convert a string to a C double.

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)’ converts a double
     to an ASCII string.

The code for these functions came from the GLib library
(https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/(1)), whose developers kindly
relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python
Software Foundation.  The *note locale: 86. module can now change the
numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct
results.

더 보기
.......

PEP 331(2) - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

     Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<12>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Prev: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.11 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python
language.

   * Decorators for functions and methods were added ( PEP 318(1)).

   * Built-in *note set(): 5d3. and *note frozenset(): 5d4. types were
     added ( PEP 218(2)).  Other new built-ins include the
     ‘reversed(seq)’ function ( PEP 322(3)).

   * Generator expressions were added ( PEP 289(4)).

   * Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to
     32 or 64 bits ( PEP 237(5)).

   * You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ‘from
     module import names’ statement ( PEP 328(6)).

   * The *note dict.update(): 142b. method now accepts the same argument
     forms as the *note dict: 256. constructor.  This includes any
     mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The string methods ‘ljust()’, ‘rjust()’, and ‘center()’ now take an
     optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a
     space.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Strings also gained an ‘rsplit()’ method that works like the
     ‘split()’ method but splits from the end of the string.
     (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

          >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
          ['www', 'python.org']
          'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
          ['www.python', 'org']

   * Three keyword parameters, 'cmp', 'key', and 'reverse', were added
     to the ‘sort()’ method of lists.  These parameters make some common
     usages of ‘sort()’ simpler.  All of these parameters are optional.

     For the 'cmp' parameter, the value should be a comparison function
     that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how
     the parameters compare.  This function will then be used to sort
     the list.  Previously this was the only parameter that could be
     provided to ‘sort()’.

     'key' should be a single-parameter function that takes a list
     element and returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is
     then sorted using the comparison keys.  The following example sorts
     a list case-insensitively:

          >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
          >>> L
          ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
          >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
          >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> # Old-fashioned way
          >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     The last example, which uses the 'cmp' parameter, is the old way to
     perform a case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using
     a 'key' parameter.  Using 'key' calls ‘lower()’ method once for
     each element in the list while using 'cmp' will call it twice for
     each comparison, so using 'key' saves on invocations of the
     ‘lower()’ method.

     For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often
     possible to avoid a *note lambda: 128c. expression by using an
     unbound method instead.  For example, the above case-insensitive
     sort is best written as:

          >>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     Finally, the 'reverse' parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the
     value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order.  Instead
     of ‘L.sort(); L.reverse()’, you can now write
     ‘L.sort(reverse=True)’.

     The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means
     that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order
     as they were input.  For example, you can sort a list of people by
     name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by
     age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order.

     (All changes to ‘sort()’ contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * There is a new built-in function ‘sorted(iterable)’ that works like
     the in-place *note list.sort(): bcc. method but can be used in
     expressions.  The differences are:

   * the input may be any iterable;

   * a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and

   * the expression returns the new sorted copy

          >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
          [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
          >>> L                               # original is left unchanged
          [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
          [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']

          >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
          >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
          >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
          ...     print k, v
          ...
          black 4
          blue 2
          green 3
          red 1
          yellow 5

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The interpreter gained a new switch, *note -m: 5db, that takes a
     name, searches for the corresponding module on ‘sys.path’, and runs
     the module as a script.  For example, you can now run the Python
     profiler with ‘python -m profile’.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * The ‘eval(expr, globals, locals)’ and ‘execfile(filename, globals,
     locals)’ functions and the ‘exec’ statement now accept any mapping
     type for the 'locals' parameter.  Previously this had to be a
     regular Python dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note zip(): 7c9. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list if called with no arguments.  Previously they
     raised a *note TypeError: 532. exception.  This makes them more
     suitable for use with variable length argument lists:

          >>> def transpose(array):
          ...    return zip(*array)
          ...
          >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
          [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
          >>> transpose([])
          []

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.  The
     incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of
     the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors.
     (Fixed by Tim Peters.)

   * *note None: 66f. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<11>,  Up: Other Language Changes<12>

1.18.11.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now
     run about one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were
     also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for ‘keys()’,
     ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, and
     ‘iteritems()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for
     speed and for space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists
     now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent
     use of the underlying system ‘realloc()’.  List comprehensions also
     benefit.  ‘list.extend()’ was also optimized and no longer converts
     its argument into a temporary list before extending the base list.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note list(): 60b, *note tuple(): 369, *note map(): 85e, *note
     filter(): 85f, and *note zip(): 7c9. now run several times faster
     with non-sequence arguments that supply a ‘__len__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The methods ‘list.__getitem__()’, ‘dict.__getitem__()’, and
     ‘dict.__contains__()’ are now implemented as ‘method_descriptor’
     objects rather than ‘wrapper_descriptor’ objects.  This form of
     access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for
     use as arguments to functionals: ‘map(mydict.__getitem__,
     keylist)’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Added a new opcode, ‘LIST_APPEND’, that simplifies the generated
     bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a
     third.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce
     shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is
     more readable.  (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * String concatenations in statements of the form ‘s = s + "abc"’ and
     ‘s += "abc"’ are now performed more efficiently in certain
     circumstances.  This optimization won’t be present in other Python
     implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn’t rely on it; using
     the ‘join()’ method of strings is still recommended when you want
     to efficiently glue a large number of strings together.
     (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the
pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than
Python 2.2.  (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it’s the
most commonly used measurement of Python’s performance.  Your own
applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<12>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.12 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ module’s ‘loop()’ function now has a 'count'
     parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through
     the polling loop.  The default is still to loop forever.

   * The *note base64: e. module now has more complete RFC 3548(1)
     support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding,
     including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note bisect: 11. module now has an underlying C implementation
     for improved performance.  (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)

   * The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by
     Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4.  The new encodings are:

   * Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz

   * Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950

   * 
     Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,

          iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext,
          iso-2022-jp-2004, shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004

   * Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr

   * Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11,
     ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, and TIS-620.

   * The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial
     input.  Previously the ‘StreamReader’ class would try to read more
     data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The
     ‘read()’ method will now return as much data as it can and future
     calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off.
     (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * There is a new *note collections: 1d. module for various
     specialized collection datatypes.  Currently it contains just one
     type, ‘deque’, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently
     adding and removing elements from either end:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
          >>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
          >>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
          >>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
          deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
          >>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
          'j'
          >>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
          'f'
          >>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
          ['g', 'h', 'i']
          >>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
          True

     Several modules, such as the ‘Queue’ and *note threading: ed.
     modules, now take advantage of *note collections.deque: 5d6. for
     improved performance.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note ConfigParser: 22. classes have been enhanced slightly.
     The *note read(): 142e. method now returns a list of the files that
     were successfully parsed, and the *note set(): 125d. method raises
     *note TypeError: 532. if passed a 'value' argument that isn’t a
     string.  (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)

   * The *note curses: 2b. module now supports the ncurses extension
     ‘use_default_colors()’.  On platforms where the terminal supports
     transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent
     background.  (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module now includes an ‘HtmlDiff’ class that
     creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two
     versions of a text.  (Contributed by Dan Gass.)

   * The *note email: 3b. package was updated to version 3.0, which
     dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python
     versions earlier than 2.3.  The 3.0 version of the package uses a
     new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the
     ‘email.FeedParser’ module.  The new parser doesn’t require reading
     the entire message into memory, and doesn’t raise exceptions if a
     message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the
     ‘defect’ attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter,
     Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.)

   * The *note heapq: 69. module has been converted to C. The resulting
     tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling
     high volumes of data.  In addition, the module has two new
     functions ‘nlargest()’ and ‘nsmallest()’ that use heaps to find the
     N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a
     full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note httplib: 6e. module now contains constants for HTTP
     status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents.
     Constants have names such as ‘OK’, ‘CREATED’, ‘CONTINUE’, and
     ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Eland.)

   * The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports IMAP’s THREAD command
     (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new ‘deleteacl()’ and ‘myrights()’
     methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).

   * The *note itertools: 81. module gained a ‘groupby(iterable[,
     *func*])’ function.  'iterable' is something that can be iterated
     over to return a stream of elements, and the optional 'func'
     parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key
     value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself.
     ‘groupby()’ then groups the elements into subsequences which have
     matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples
     containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence.

     Here’s an example to make this clearer.  The 'key' function simply
     returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of
     ‘groupby()’ is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.

          >>> import itertools
          >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
          >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
          ...    print key_val, list(it)
          ...
          0 [2, 4, 6]
          1 [7]
          0 [8]
          1 [9, 11]
          0 [12, 14]
          >>>

     ‘groupby()’ is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
     ‘groupby()’ is similar to the Unix ‘uniq’ filter which makes it
     handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:

          >>> word = 'abracadabra'
          >>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
          >>> letters
          ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
          >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
          ...    print k, list(g)
          ...
          a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
          b ['b', 'b']
          c ['c']
          d ['d']
          r ['r', 'r']
          >>> # List unique letters
          >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
          >>> # Count letter occurrences
          >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]

     (Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.)

   * *note itertools: 81. also gained a function named ‘tee(iterator,
     N)’ that returns 'N' independent iterators that replicate
     'iterator'.  If 'N' is omitted, the default is 2.

          >>> L = [1,2,3]
          >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
          >>> i1,i2
          (<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
          >>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]
          >>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]

     Note that ‘tee()’ has to keep copies of the values returned by the
     iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.  This
     should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run
     far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs.  If
     the separation is large, then you might as well use *note list():
     60b. instead.  When the iterators track closely with one another,
     ‘tee()’ is ideal.  Possible applications include bookmarking,
     windowing, or lookahead iterators.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * A number of functions were added to the *note locale: 86. module,
     such as ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ to specify a particular
     encoding and a family of ‘l*gettext()’ functions that return
     messages in the chosen encoding.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * Some keyword arguments were added to the *note logging: 87.
     package’s ‘basicConfig()’ function to simplify log configuration.
     The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but
     various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular
     file, change the logging format, or set the logging level.  For
     example:

          import logging
          logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
              level=0,  # Log all messages
              format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')

     Other additions to the *note logging: 87. package include a
     ‘log(level, msg)’ convenience method, as well as a
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class that rotates its log files at a
     timed interval.  The module already had ‘RotatingFileHandler’,
     which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size.  Both
     classes derive from a new ‘BaseRotatingHandler’ class that can be
     used to implement other rotating handlers.

     (Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)

   * The *note marshal: 8d. module now shares interned strings on
     unpacking a data structure.  This may shrink the size of certain
     pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make ‘.pyc’ files
     significantly smaller.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The ‘nntplib’ module’s ‘NNTP’ class gained ‘description()’ and
     ‘descriptions()’ methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a
     single group or for a range of groups.  (Contributed by Jürgen A.
     Erhard.)

   * Two new functions were added to the *note operator: 9f. module,
     ‘attrgetter(attr)’ and ‘itemgetter(index)’.  Both functions return
     callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding
     attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors
     when used with *note map(): 85e. or *note sorted(): bcb.  For
     example:

          >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
          ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
          [2, 1, 4, 3]
          >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
          [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: a0. module was updated in various ways.  The
     module now passes its messages through *note gettext.gettext():
     142f, making it possible to internationalize Optik’s help and error
     messages.  Help messages for options can now include the string
     ‘'%default'’, which will be replaced by the option’s default value.
     (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The long-term plan is to deprecate the ‘rfc822’ module in some
     future Python release in favor of the *note email: 3b. package.  To
     this end, the *note email.Utils.formatdate: 1430. function has been
     changed to make it usable as a replacement for
     ‘rfc822.formatdate()’.  You may want to write new e-mail processing
     code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)

   * A new ‘urandom(n)’ function was added to the *note os: a1. module,
     returning a string containing 'n' bytes of random data.  This
     function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness
     such as ‘/dev/urandom’ on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI.
     (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)

   * Another new function: ‘os.path.lexists(path)’ returns true if the
     file specified by 'path' exists, whether or not it’s a symbolic
     link.  This differs from the existing ‘os.path.exists(path)’
     function, which returns false if 'path' is a symlink that points to
     a destination that doesn’t exist.  (Contributed by Beni
     Cherniavsky.)

   * A new ‘getsid()’ function was added to the *note posix: ad. module
     that underlies the *note os: a1. module.  (Contributed by J.
     Raynor.)

   * The *note poplib: ac. module now supports POP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Hector Urtubia.)

   * The *note profile: af. module can now profile C extension
     functions.  (Contributed by Nick Bastin.)

   * The *note random: b8. module has a new method called
     ‘getrandbits(N)’ that returns a long integer 'N' bits in length.
     The existing ‘randrange()’ method now uses ‘getrandbits()’ where
     appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers
     more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The regular expression language accepted by the *note re: b9.
     module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as
     ‘(?(group)A|B)’.  'group' is either a numeric group ID or a group
     name defined with ‘(?P<group>...)’ earlier in the expression.  If
     the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern 'A'
     will be tested against the string; if the group didn’t match, the
     pattern 'B' will be used instead.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * The *note re: b9. module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a
     massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular
     expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C
     stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the
     stack.  For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of ‘a’
     characters against the expression ‘(a|b)+’, one stack frame was
     consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack
     overflow and raise a *note RuntimeError: 195. exception, but
     certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were
     unlucky Python could segfault.  Python 2.4’s regular expression
     engine can match this pattern without problems.

   * The *note signal: c6. module now performs tighter error-checking on
     the parameters to the *note signal.signal(): 1125. function.  For
     example, you can’t set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal; previous
     versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a
     *note RuntimeError: 195. exception.

   * Two new functions were added to the *note socket: cc. module.
     ‘socketpair()’ returns a pair of connected sockets and
     ‘getservbyport(port)’ looks up the service name for a given port
     number.  (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.)

   * The ‘sys.exitfunc()’ function has been deprecated.  Code should be
     using the existing *note atexit: c. module, which correctly handles
     calling multiple exit functions.  Eventually ‘sys.exitfunc()’ will
     become a purely internal interface, accessed only by *note atexit:
     c.

   * The *note tarfile: de. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: ed. module now has an elegantly simple way to
     support thread-local data.  The module contains a ‘local’ class
     whose attribute values are local to different threads.

          import threading

          data = threading.local()
          data.number = 42
          data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)

     Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the
     ‘number’ and ‘url’ attributes.  You can subclass ‘local’ to
     initialize attributes or to add methods.  (Contributed by Jim
     Fulton.)

   * The *note timeit: ef. module now automatically disables periodic
     garbage collection during the timing loop.  This change makes
     consecutive timings more comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note weakref: 114. module now supports a wider variety of
     objects including Python functions, class instances, sets,
     frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression
     pattern objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module now supports a multi-call
     extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP
     operation.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * The ‘mpz’, ‘rotor’, and ‘xreadlines’ modules have been removed.

* Menu:

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html


File: python.info,  Node: cookielib,  Next: doctest<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.18.12.1 cookielib
...................

The *note cookielib: 70. library supports client-side handling for HTTP
cookies, mirroring the *note Cookie: 71. module’s server-side cookie
support.  Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently
stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches
the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server.  As in web
browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not.

In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie
jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so
applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that
stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library.

*note urllib2: 10b. has been changed to interact with *note cookielib:
70.: ‘HTTPCookieProcessor’ manages a cookie jar that is used when
accessing URLs.

This module was contributed by John J. Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<5>,  Prev: cookielib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.18.12.2 doctest
.................

The *note doctest: 3a. module underwent considerable refactoring thanks
to Edward Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as
running *note doctest.testmod(): 1433, but the refactorings allow
customizing the module’s operation in various ways

The new ‘DocTestFinder’ class extracts the tests from a given object’s
docstrings:

     def f (x, y):
         """>>> f(2,2)
     4
     >>> f(3,2)
     6
         """
         return x*y

     finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()

     # Get list of DocTest instances
     tests = finder.find(f)

The new ‘DocTestRunner’ class then runs individual tests and can produce
a summary of the results:

     runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
     for t in tests:
         tried, failed = runner.run(t)

     runner.summarize(verbose=1)

The above example produces the following output:

     1 items passed all tests:
        2 tests in f
     2 tests in 1 items.
     2 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.

‘DocTestRunner’ uses an instance of the ‘OutputChecker’ class to compare
the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can
also write a completely new subclass of ‘OutputChecker’.

The default output checker provides a number of handy features.  For
example, with the *note doctest.ELLIPSIS: 1434. option flag, an ellipsis
(‘...’) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier
to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways:

     def o (n):
         """>>> o(1)
     <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
     >>>
     """

Another special string, ‘<BLANKLINE>’, matches a blank line:

     def p (n):
         """>>> p(1)
     <BLANKLINE>
     >>>
     """

Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output
by specifying the *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 1435. (unified diffs),
*note doctest.REPORT_CDIFF: 1436. (context diffs), or *note
doctest.REPORT_NDIFF: 1437. (delta-style) option flags.  For example:

     def g (n):
         """>>> g(4)
     here
     is
     a
     lengthy
     >>>"""
         L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
         for word in L[:n]:
             print word

Running the above function’s tests with *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF:
1435. specified, you get the following output:

     **********************************************************************
     File "t.py", line 15, in g
     Failed example:
         g(4)
     Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
         @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
          is
          a
         -lengthy
         +rather
     **********************************************************************


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 4,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.13 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Some of the changes to Python’s build process and to the C API are:

   * Three new convenience macros were added for common return values
     from extension functions: *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 1439, *note
     Py_RETURN_TRUE: 143a, and *note Py_RETURN_FALSE: 143b.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * Another new macro, *note Py_CLEAR: 573, decreases the reference
     count of 'obj' and sets 'obj' to the null pointer.  (Contributed by
     Jim Fulton.)

   * A new function, ‘PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)’,
     constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python
     objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A new function, ‘PyDict_Contains(d, k)’, implements fast dictionary
     lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up
     process.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The Py_IS_NAN(X) macro returns 1 if its float or double argument
     'X' is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function to tell if any thread
     operations have been performed.  If this function returns false, no
     lock operations are needed.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * A new function, *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37d, is the
     same as *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. but takes a
     ‘va_list’ instead of a number of arguments.  (Contributed by Greg
     Chapman.)

   * A new method flag, *note METH_COEXIST: 143c, allows a function
     defined in slots to co-exist with a *note PyCFunction: 143d. having
     the same name.  This can halve the access time for a method such as
     ‘set.__contains__()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Python can now be built with additional profiling for the
     interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the
     Python core.  Providing ‘--enable-profiling’ to the ‘configure’
     script will let you profile the interpreter with ‘gprof’, and
     providing the ‘--with-tsc’ switch enables profiling using the
     Pentium’s Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the ‘--with-tsc’
     switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also
     works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture
     doesn’t call that register “the TSC register”.  (Contributed by
     Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The ‘tracebackobject’ type has been renamed to ‘PyTracebackObject’.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.18.13.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
     (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 4,  Next: Acknowledgements<4>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.14 Porting to Python 2.4
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no
     longer trigger a *note FutureWarning: 40f. and return a value
     limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer.

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The *note zip(): 7c9. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list instead of raising a *note TypeError: 532.
     exception if called with no arguments.

   * You can no longer compare the ‘date’ and *note datetime: 1cc.
     instances provided by the *note datetime: 30. module.  Two
     instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and
     relative comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’) will raise a *note TypeError: 532.

   * ‘dircache.listdir()’ now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
     returning empty lists.

   * ‘LexicalHandler.startDTD()’ used to receive the public and system
     IDs in the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications
     relying on the wrong order need to be fixed.

   * *note fcntl.ioctl(): 1440. now warns if the 'mutate' argument is
     omitted and relevant.

   * The *note tarfile: de. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.

   * *note None: 66f. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.

   * The ‘signals.signal()’ function now raises a *note RuntimeError:
     195. exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors
     would pass silently.  For example, you can no longer set a handler
     on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 4,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.18.15 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger,
Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin
Rejeb.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.19 What’s New in Python 2.3
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was
released on July 29, 2003.

The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added
in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core
language, and expanding the standard library.  The new object model
introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of
bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the
performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions have
been added such as *note sum(): 464. and *note enumerate(): 1445.  The
*note in: 2ec. operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g.
‘"ab" in "abc"’ returns *note True: c0a.).

Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and
date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format
archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an
updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping
text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using
BerkeleyDB databases… the list of new and enhanced modules is lengthy.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as
the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you
want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.1 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
---------------------------------------

The new ‘sets’ module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
‘Set’ class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
removed.  The ‘ImmutableSet’ class is for sets that can’t be modified,
and instances of ‘ImmutableSet’ can therefore be used as dictionary
keys.  Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a
set must be hashable.

Here’s a simple example:

     >>> import sets
     >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 3])
     >>> 1 in S
     True
     >>> 0 in S
     False
     >>> S.add(5)
     >>> S.remove(3)
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 5])
     >>>

The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the *note
union(): 1447. and *note intersection(): 1448. methods; an alternative
notation uses the bitwise operators ‘&’ and ‘|’.  Mutable sets also have
in-place versions of these methods, ‘union_update()’ and *note
intersection_update(): 1449.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
     >>> S1.union(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1.intersection(S2)
     Set([])
     >>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([])
     >>> S1.union_update(S2)
     >>> S1
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>>

It’s also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This
is the set of all elements in the union that aren’t in the intersection.
Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all
elements that are in exactly one set.  Again, there’s an alternative
notation (‘^’), and an in-place version with the ungainly name *note
symmetric_difference_update(): 144a.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
     >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 ^ S2
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>>

There are also ‘issubset()’ and ‘issuperset()’ methods for checking
whether one set is a subset or superset of another:

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
     >>> S2.issubset(S1)
     True
     >>> S1.issubset(S2)
     False
     >>> S1.issuperset(S2)
     True
     >>>

더 보기
.......

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     PEP written by Greg V. Wilson.  Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex
     Martelli, and GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Next: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Prev: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.2 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be
enabled by a ‘from __future__ import generators’ directive.  In 2.3
generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always
present; this means that *note yield: 9ca. is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the
“What’s New in Python 2.2” document; if you read it back when Python 2.2
came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 9cb.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 9ca, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 9ca. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 9cb. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s
‘.next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn’t allowed inside the *note try: 6e2. block of a ‘try’…‘finally’
statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction
between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 9cb. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator’s results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: bf7. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 7d1. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from “An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language” at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
“or” is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 2eb. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python
language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t
solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One novel
feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a
generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

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PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Next: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.3 PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
-------------------------------------

Python source files can now be declared as being in different character
set encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially
formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file.  For
example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit
ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with
8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5. being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will
be a syntax error.

The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which
will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that
Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you
can’t have variable names that use characters outside of the usual
alphanumerics.

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PEP 263(1) - Defining Python Source Code Encodings

     Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by
     Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Next: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Prev: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.4 PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
---------------------------------------------------

The new *note zipimport: 132. module adds support for importing modules
from a ZIP-format archive.  You don’t need to import the module
explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive’s
filename is added to ‘sys.path’.  For example:

     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
     Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
     >>>

An entry in ‘sys.path’ can now be the filename of a ZIP archive.  The
ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named ‘*.py’,
‘*.pyc’, or ‘*.pyo’ can be imported.  If an archive only contains ‘*.py’
files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘*.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t
contain ‘*.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
subdirectory; for example, the path ‘/tmp/example.zip/lib/’ would only
import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive.

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PEP 273(1) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(2), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(3).  See section *note PEP 302; New
     Import Hooks: 1450. for a description of the new import hooks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Next: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Prev: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.5 PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
--------------------------------------------------------

On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode
strings.  Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte
strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names
inaccessible.

Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the
limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file
names, most notably the *note open(): 515. built-in function.  If a
Unicode string is passed to *note os.listdir(): 10eb, Python now returns
a list of Unicode strings.  A new function, ‘os.getcwdu()’, returns the
current directory as a Unicode string.

Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will
transparently convert them to Unicode using the ‘mbcs’ encoding.

Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them
to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a
*note UnicodeError: 1293. to be raised.  Applications can test whether
arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking *note
os.path.supports_unicode_filenames: 1452, a Boolean value.

Under MacOS, *note os.listdir(): 10eb. may now return Unicode filenames.

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PEP 277(1) - Unicode file name support for Windows NT

     Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von
     Löwis, and Mark Hammond.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Next: PEP 279 enumerate,  Prev: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.6 PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
-----------------------------------------

The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows,
Apple’s Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor
irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use
different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses
the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII
character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage
return plus a newline.

Python’s file objects can now support end of line conventions other than
the one followed by the platform on which Python is running.  Opening a
file with the mode ‘'U'’ or ‘'rU'’ will open a file for reading in *note
universal newlines: d37. mode.  All three line ending conventions will
be translated to a ‘'\n'’ in the strings returned by the various file
methods such as ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’.

Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when
executing a file with the ‘execfile()’ function.  This means that Python
modules can be shared between all three operating systems without
needing to convert the line-endings.

This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
‘--without-universal-newlines’ switch when running Python’s ‘configure’
script.

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PEP 278(1) - Universal Newline Support

     Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 279 enumerate,  Next: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Prev: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.7 PEP 279: enumerate()
---------------------------

A new built-in function, *note enumerate(): 1445, will make certain
loops a bit clearer.  ‘enumerate(thing)’, where 'thing' is either an
iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return ‘(0,
thing[0])’, ‘(1, thing[1])’, ‘(2, thing[2])’, and so forth.

A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:

     for i in range(len(L)):
         item = L[i]
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

This can be rewritten using *note enumerate(): 1445. as:

     for i, item in enumerate(L):
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

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PEP 279(1) - The enumerate() built-in function

     Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Next: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Prev: PEP 279 enumerate,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.8 PEP 282: The logging Package
-----------------------------------

A standard package for writing logs, *note logging: 87, has been added
to Python 2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for
generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in
various ways.  A configuration file written in a standard format can be
used to control the logging behavior of a program.  Python includes
handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or
socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular
address; of course, it’s also possible to write your own handler
classes.

The *note Logger: b4c. class is the primary class.  Most application
code will deal with one or more *note Logger: b4c. objects, each one
used by a particular subsystem of the application.  Each *note Logger:
b4c. is identified by a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy
using ‘.’ as the component separator.  For example, you might have *note
Logger: b4c. instances named ‘server’, ‘server.auth’ and
‘server.network’.  The latter two instances are below ‘server’ in the
hierarchy.  This means that if you turn up the verbosity for ‘server’ or
direct ‘server’ messages to a different handler, the changes will also
apply to records logged to ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’.  There’s
also a root *note Logger: b4c. that’s the parent of all other loggers.

For simple uses, the *note logging: 87. package contains some
convenience functions that always use the root log:

     import logging

     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

This produces the following output:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the
display of informational and debugging messages by calling the *note
setLevel(): 1457. method on the root logger.

Notice the *note warning(): 2f7. call’s use of string formatting
operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments
‘(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)’ and log the string resulting from ‘msg % (arg1,
arg2, ...)’.

There’s also an *note exception(): 1458. function that records the most
recent traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the
traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument
'exc_info'.

     def f():
         try:    1/0
         except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')

     f()

This produces the following output:

     ERROR:root:Problem recorded
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 6, in f
         1/0
     ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root
logger.  The ‘getLogger(name)’ function is used to get a particular log,
creating it if it doesn’t exist yet.  ‘getLogger(None)’ returns the root
logger.

     log = logging.getLogger('server')
      ...
     log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
      ...
     log.critical('Disk full')
      ...

Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged
to ‘server.auth’ is also seen by ‘server’ and ‘root’, but a *note
Logger: b4c. can prevent this by setting its *note propagate: 1459.
attribute to *note False: b34.

There are more classes provided by the *note logging: 87. package that
can be customized.  When a *note Logger: b4c. instance is told to log a
message, it creates a *note LogRecord: fde. instance that is sent to any
number of different *note Handler: 145a. instances.  Loggers and
handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can
cause the *note LogRecord: fde. to be ignored or can modify the record
before passing it along.  When they’re finally output, *note LogRecord:
fde. instances are converted to text by a *note Formatter: 145b. class.
All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially written
classes.

With all of these features the *note logging: 87. package should provide
enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is
only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package’s
reference documentation for all of the details.  Reading PEP 282(1) will
also be helpful.

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PEP 282(2) - A Logging System

     Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Next: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Prev: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.9 PEP 285: A Boolean Type
------------------------------

A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to
the ‘__builtin__’ module, *note True: c0a. and *note False: b34.  (*note
True: c0a. and *note False: b34. constants were added to the built-ins
in Python 2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values
of 1 and 0 and aren’t a different type.)

The type object for this new type is named *note bool: 461.; the
constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to *note True:
c0a. or *note False: b34.

     >>> bool(1)
     True
     >>> bool(0)
     False
     >>> bool([])
     False
     >>> bool( (1,) )
     True

Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been
changed to return Booleans.

     >>> obj = []
     >>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, list)
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
     False

Python’s Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code
clearer.  For example, if you’re reading a function and encounter the
statement ‘return 1’, you might wonder whether the ‘1’ represents a
Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some
other quantity.  If the statement is ‘return True’, however, the meaning
of the return value is quite clear.

Python’s Booleans were 'not' added for the sake of strict type-checking.
A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing
arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an
*note if: 2eb. statement always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is
not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285(1) explicitly says.  This
means you can still use any expression in an ‘if’ statement, even ones
that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object.  The Boolean
type is a subclass of the *note int: 257. class so that arithmetic using
a Boolean still works.

     >>> True + 1
     2
     >>> False + 1
     1
     >>> False * 75
     0
     >>> True * 75
     75

To sum up *note True: c0a. and *note False: b34. in a sentence: they’re
alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single
difference that *note str(): 445. and *note repr(): 7f7. return the
strings ‘'True'’ and ‘'False'’ instead of ‘'1'’ and ‘'0'’.

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PEP 285(2) - Adding a bool type

     Written and implemented by GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Next: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Prev: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.10 PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
-----------------------------------------------

When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable
characters may be encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying
the error processing as either “strict” (raising *note UnicodeError:
1293.), “ignore” (skipping the character), or “replace” (using a
question mark in the output string), with “strict” being the default
behavior.  It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such
errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity
reference into the converted string.

Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing
strategies.  New error handlers can be added with *note
codecs.register_error(): 145f, and codecs then can access the error
handler with *note codecs.lookup_error(): 1460.  An equivalent C API has
been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
state information such as the string being converted, the position in
the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The
handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement
string.

Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this
framework: “backslashreplace” uses Python backslash quoting to represent
unencodable characters and “xmlcharrefreplace” emits XML character
references.

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PEP 293(1) - Codec Error Handling Callbacks

     Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Next: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Prev: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.11 PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
---------------------------------------------------------

Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance
in 2.3.

The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils ‘register’ command.
Running ‘python setup.py register’ will collect the metadata describing
a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and
send it to a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available
from ‘https://pypi.org’.

To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional 'classifiers'
keyword argument has been added to the Distutils ‘setup()’ function.  A
list of Trove(1)-style strings can be supplied to help classify the
software.

Here’s an example ‘setup.py’ with classifiers, written to be compatible
with older versions of the Distutils:

     from distutils import core
     kw = {'name': "Quixote",
           'version': "0.5.1",
           'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
           # ...
           }

     if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
         'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
         kw['classifiers'] = \
             ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
              'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
              'Intended Audience :: Developers'],

     core.setup(**kw)

The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running ‘python setup.py
register --list-classifiers’.

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PEP 301(2) - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

     Written and implemented by Richard Jones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://catb.org/~esr/trove/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Next: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Prev: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.12 PEP 302: New Import Hooks
---------------------------------

While it’s been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
‘ihooks’ module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been
really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and
messy.  There have been various proposed alternatives such as the
‘imputil’ and ‘iu’ modules, but none of them has ever gained much
acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code.

PEP 302(1) borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
McMillan’s ‘iu’ module.  Three new items are added to the *note sys: d9.
module:

   * ‘sys.path_hooks’ is a list of callable objects; most often they’ll
     be classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and
     either returns an importer object that will handle imports from
     this path or raises an *note ImportError: 413. exception if it
     can’t handle this path.

   * ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ caches importer objects for each path, so
     ‘sys.path_hooks’ will only need to be traversed once for each path.

   * ‘sys.meta_path’ is a list of importer objects that will be
     traversed before ‘sys.path’ is checked.  This list is initially
     empty, but user code can add objects to it.  Additional built-in
     and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list.

Importer objects must have a single method, ‘find_module(fullname,
path=None)’.  'fullname' will be a module or package name, e.g.
‘string’ or ‘distutils.core’.  ‘find_module()’ must return a loader
object that has a single method, ‘load_module(fullname)’, that creates
and returns the corresponding module object.

Pseudo-code for Python’s new import logic, therefore, looks something
like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302(2) for the full details):

     for mp in sys.meta_path:
         loader = mp(fullname)
         if loader is not None:
             <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     for path in sys.path:
         for hook in sys.path_hooks:
             try:
                 importer = hook(path)
             except ImportError:
                 # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
                 pass
             else:
                 loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
                 <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     # Not found!
     raise ImportError

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PEP 302(3) - New Import Hooks

     Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore.  Implemented by Just van
     Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Next: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.13 PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
--------------------------------------

Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data
from databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for
comma-separated files.

Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:

     Costs,150,200,3.95

Read a line and call ‘line.split(',')’: what could be simpler?  But toss
in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:

     "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"

A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new *note
csv: 29. package is much simpler:

     import csv

     input = open('datafile', 'rb')
     reader = csv.reader(input)
     for line in reader:
         print line

The *note reader(): 480. function takes a number of different options.
The field separator isn’t limited to the comma and can be changed to any
character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters.

Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and
registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft
Excel.  A separate *note csv.writer: 481. class will generate
comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting
strings that contain the delimiter.

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PEP 305(1) - CSV File API

     Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara,
     Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Next: Extended Slices,  Prev: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.14 PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
------------------------------------

The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules received some attention
during the 2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be
pickled without difficulty, but they weren’t pickled very compactly; PEP
307(1) quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a
pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class.

The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The *note
pickle.dumps(): 1468. function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a
long time.  In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer:
0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and
now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A new constant, *note
pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1469, can be used to select the fanciest
protocol available.

Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2’s *note
pickle: a6. provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from
being unpickled (specifically, a ‘__safe_for_unpickling__’ attribute),
but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it’s all been
ripped out in 2.3.  You should not unpickle untrusted data in any
version of Python.

To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface
for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: *note
__getstate__(): 5d2, *note __setstate__(): 146a, and *note
__getnewargs__(): 146b.  Consult PEP 307(2) for the full semantics of
these methods.

As a way to compress pickles yet further, it’s now possible to use
integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes.  The
Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes;
there’s also a range of codes for private use.  Currently no codes have
been specified.

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PEP 307(3) - Extensions to the pickle protocol

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/


File: python.info,  Node: Extended Slices,  Next: Other Language Changes<13>,  Prev: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.15 Extended Slices
-----------------------

Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional
third “step” or “stride” argument.  For example, these are all legal
Python syntax: ‘L[1:10:2]’, ‘L[:-1:1]’, ‘L[::-1]’.  This was added to
Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses
the third argument extensively.  However, Python’s built-in list, tuple,
and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a
*note TypeError: 532. if you tried it.  Michael Hudson contributed a
patch to fix this shortcoming.

For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have
even indexes:

     >>> L = range(10)
     >>> L[::2]
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse
order:

     >>> L[::-1]
     [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:

     >>> s='abcd'
     >>> s[::2]
     'ac'
     >>> s[::-1]
     'dcba'

If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign
to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between
assignment to extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular
slice can be used to change the length of the sequence:

     >>> a = range(3)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2]
     >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
     >>> a
     [0, 4, 5, 6]

Extended slices aren’t this flexible.  When assigning to an extended
slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the
same number of items as the slice it is replacing:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
     >>> a
     [0, 1, -1, 3]
     >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2

Deletion is more straightforward:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> del a[::2]
     >>> a
     [1, 3]

One can also now pass slice objects to the *note __getitem__(): 283.
methods of the built-in sequences:

     >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
     [0, 2, 4]

Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:

     >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
     [0, 2, 4]

To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice
objects now have a method ‘indices(length)’ which, given the length of a
sequence, returns a ‘(start, stop, step)’ tuple that can be passed
directly to *note range(): 941.  ‘indices()’ handles omitted and
out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and
this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!).  The method
is intended to be used like this:

     class FakeSeq:
         ...
         def calc_item(self, i):
             ...
         def __getitem__(self, item):
             if isinstance(item, slice):
                 indices = item.indices(len(self))
                 return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
             else:
                 return self.calc_item(i)

From this example you can also see that the built-in *note slice: 463.
object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a
function.  This is consistent with Python 2.2, where *note int: 257,
*note str: 445, etc., underwent the same change.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<13>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Prev: Extended Slices,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.16 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note yield: 9ca. statement is now always a keyword, as
     described in section *note PEP 255; Simple Generators: 144c. of
     this document.

   * A new built-in function *note enumerate(): 1445. was added, as
     described in section *note PEP 279; enumerate(): 1455. of this
     document.

   * Two new constants, *note True: c0a. and *note False: b34. were
     added along with the built-in *note bool: 461. type, as described
     in section *note PEP 285; A Boolean Type: 145d. of this document.

   * The *note int(): 257. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 87d. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
     ‘isinstance(int(expression), int)’ is false, but that seems
     unlikely to cause problems in practice.

   * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as
     described in section *note Extended Slices: 146d. of this document.

   * A new built-in function, ‘sum(iterable, start=0)’, adds up the
     numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  *note
     sum(): 464. only accepts numbers, meaning that you can’t use it to
     concatenate a bunch of strings.  (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)

   * ‘list.insert(pos, value)’ used to insert 'value' at the front of
     the list when 'pos' was negative.  The behaviour has now been
     changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when 'pos' is -1
     the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth.

   * ‘list.index(value)’, which searches for 'value' within the list and
     returns its index, now takes optional 'start' and 'stop' arguments
     to limit the search to only part of the list.

   * Dictionaries have a new method, ‘pop(key[, *default*])’, that
     returns the value corresponding to 'key' and removes that key/value
     pair from the dictionary.  If the requested key isn’t present in
     the dictionary, 'default' is returned if it’s specified and *note
     KeyError: 33d. raised if it isn’t.

          >>> d = {1:2}
          >>> d
          {1: 2}
          >>> d.pop(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 4
          >>> d.pop(1)
          2
          >>> d.pop(1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
          >>> d
          {}
          >>>

     There’s also a new class method, ‘dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)’,
     that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied
     iterator 'iterable' and all values set to 'value', defaulting to
     ‘None’.

     (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

     Also, the *note dict(): 256. constructor now accepts keyword
     arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries:

          >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
          {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}

     (Contributed by Just van Rossum.)

   * The *note assert: 965. statement no longer checks the ‘__debug__’
     flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to
     ‘__debug__’.  Running Python with the *note -O: db1. switch will
     still generate code that doesn’t execute any assertions.

   * Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create
     new objects such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means
     that the ‘new’ module can be deprecated in a future Python version,
     because you can now use the type objects available in the *note
     types: 103. module.)  For example, you can create a new module
     object with the following code:

          >>> import types
          >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
          >>> m
          <module 'abc' (built-in)>
          >>> m.__doc__
          'docstring'

   * A new warning, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. was added to
     indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated.
     The warning will 'not' be printed by default.  To check for use of
     features that will be deprecated in the future, supply *note
     -Walways;;PendingDeprecationWarning;;: 8c4. on the command line or
     use *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 146f.

   * The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ‘raise
     "Error occurred"’, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
     *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5.

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f. warning.  In a future version of Python, ‘None’
     may finally become a keyword.

   * The ‘xreadlines()’ method of file objects, introduced in Python
     2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own
     iterator.  ‘xreadlines()’ was originally introduced as a faster way
     to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write
     ‘for line in file_obj’.  File objects also have a new read-only
     ‘encoding’ attribute that gives the encoding used by the file;
     Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted
     to bytes using the given encoding.

   * The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed,
     though you’ll only notice the difference if you have a really
     complicated inheritance hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected
     by this change.  Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a
     class’s ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described
     in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan"(1).
     To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele
     Simionato’s article *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order:
     1470, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’.
     Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented
     the fix by coding the C3 algorithm.

   * Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads
     after executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been
     increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded
     applications by reducing the switching overhead.  Some
     multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but
     that’s easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number
     using ‘sys.setcheckinterval(N)’.  The limit can be retrieved with
     the new ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ function.

   * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension
     types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the
     module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name.  For example, in
     Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its ‘__class__’,
     you’d get this output:

          >>> s = socket.socket()
          >>> s.__class__
          <type 'socket'>

     In 2.3, you get this:

          >>> s.__class__
          <type '_socket.socket'>

   * One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style
     classes has been removed: you can now assign to the *note __name__:
     1471. and *note __bases__: 1472. attributes of new-style classes.
     There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to ‘__bases__’
     along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance’s
     *note __class__: 1473. attribute.

* Menu:

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910


File: python.info,  Node: String Changes,  Next: Optimizations<12>,  Up: Other Language Changes<13>

1.19.16.1 String Changes
........................

   * The *note in: 2ec. operator now works differently for strings.
     Previously, when evaluating ‘X in Y’ where 'X' and 'Y' are strings,
     'X' could only be a single character.  That’s now changed; 'X' can
     be a string of any length, and ‘X in Y’ will return *note True:
     c0a. if 'X' is a substring of 'Y'. If 'X' is the empty string, the
     result is always *note True: c0a.

          >>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
          True
          >>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
          False
          >>> '' in 'abcd'
          True

     Note that this doesn’t tell you where the substring starts; if you
     need that information, use the *note find(): e9e. string method.

   * The *note strip(): 1475, *note lstrip(): 1476, and *note rstrip():
     1477. string methods now have an optional argument for specifying
     the characters to strip.  The default is still to remove all
     whitespace characters:

          >>> '   abc '.strip()
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
          'abc<><><>\n'
          >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
          u'\u4001abc'
          >>>

     (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note startswith(): ec1. and *note endswith(): ec2. string
     methods now accept negative numbers for the 'start' and 'end'
     parameters.

   * Another new string method is *note zfill(): 1478, originally a
     function in the *note string: d3. module.  *note zfill(): 1478.
     pads a numeric string with zeros on the left until it’s the
     specified width.  Note that the ‘%’ operator is still more flexible
     and powerful than *note zfill(): 1478.

          >>> '45'.zfill(4)
          '0045'
          >>> '12345'.zfill(4)
          '12345'
          >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
          '0goofy'

     (Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)

   * A new type object, ‘basestring’, has been added.  Both 8-bit
     strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so
     ‘isinstance(obj, basestring)’ will return *note True: c0a. for
     either kind of string.  It’s a completely abstract type, so you
     can’t create ‘basestring’ instances.

   * Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be
     garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them
     is from the internal dictionary of interned strings.  (Implemented
     by Oren Tirosh.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<12>,  Prev: String Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<13>

1.19.16.2 Optimizations
.......................

   * The creation of new-style class instances has been made much
     faster; they’re now faster than classic classes!

   * The *note sort(): bcc. method of list objects has been extensively
     rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly
     faster.

   * Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to
     an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that
     scales better than the 'O'('n'^2) required for the grade-school
     multiplication algorithm.  (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig,
     and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small
     speed increase, depending on your compiler’s idiosyncrasies.  See
     section *note Other Changes and Fixes: 147a. for a longer
     explanation.  (Removed by Michael Hudson.)

   * ‘xrange()’ objects now have their own iterator, making ‘for i in
     xrange(n)’ slightly faster than ‘for i in range(n)’.  (Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots
     to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing
     some code.  (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have
     contributed single changes.)

The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the
pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Next: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Prev: Other Language Changes<13>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.17 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The *note array: 7. module now supports arrays of Unicode
     characters using the ‘'u'’ format character.  Arrays also now
     support using the ‘+=’ assignment operator to add another array’s
     contents, and the ‘*=’ assignment operator to repeat an array.
     (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the
     PyBSDDB(1) package, providing a more complete interface to the
     transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.

     The old version of the module has been renamed to ‘bsddb185’ and is
     no longer built automatically; you’ll have to edit ‘Modules/Setup’
     to enable it.  Note that the new ‘bsddb’ package is intended to be
     compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you
     discover any incompatibilities.  When upgrading to Python 2.3, if
     the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the
     underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
     convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this
     fairly easily with the new scripts ‘db2pickle.py’ and
     ‘pickle2db.py’ which you will find in the distribution’s
     ‘Tools/scripts’ directory.  If you’ve already been using the
     PyBSDDB package and importing it as ‘bsddb3’, you will have to
     change your ‘import’ statements to import it as ‘bsddb’.

   * The new *note bz2: 13. module is an interface to the bz2 data
     compression library.  bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than
     corresponding *note zlib: 133.-compressed data.  (Contributed by
     Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new *note
     datetime: 30. module.  See the following section for more details.

   * The Distutils ‘Extension’ class now supports an extra constructor
     argument named 'depends' for listing additional source files that
     an extension depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module
     if any of the dependency files are modified.  For example, if
     ‘sampmodule.c’ includes the header file ‘sample.h’, you would
     create the ‘Extension’ object like this:

          ext = Extension("samp",
                          sources=["sampmodule.c"],
                          depends=["sample.h"])

     Modifying ‘sample.h’ would then cause the module to be recompiled.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the *note CC:
     147c, *note CFLAGS: 147d, ‘CPP’, *note LDFLAGS: 147e, and *note
     CPPFLAGS: 147f. environment variables, using them to override the
     settings in Python’s configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).

   * Previously the *note doctest: 3a. module would only search the
     docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it
     now also examines private ones as well.  The *note DocTestSuite():
     def. function creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. object from
     a set of *note doctest: 3a. tests.

   * The new ‘gc.get_referents(object)’ function returns a list of all
     the objects referenced by 'object'.

   * The *note getopt: 61. module gained a new function, *note
     gnu_getopt(): 1480, that supports the same arguments as the
     existing *note getopt(): 1481. function but uses GNU-style scanning
     mode.  The existing *note getopt(): 1481. stops processing options
     as soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style
     mode processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can
     be mixed.  For example:

          >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
          >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])

     (Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)

   * The *note grp: 66, *note pwd: b2, and *note resource: bc. modules
     now return enhanced tuples:

          >>> import grp
          >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
          >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
          ('amk', 500)

   * The *note gzip: 67. module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.

   * The new *note heapq: 69. module contains an implementation of a
     heap queue algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that
     keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index
     'k', ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’.  This
     makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new
     item while maintaining the heap property is 'O'(log 'n').  (See
     ‘https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html’ for more
     information about the priority queue data structure.)

     The *note heapq: 69. module provides *note heappush(): 1482. and
     *note heappop(): 1483. functions for adding and removing items
     while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable
     Python sequence type.  Here’s an example that uses a Python list:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> heap = []
          >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
          ...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
          ...
          >>> heap
          [1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          1
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          3
          >>> heap
          [5, 7, 11]

     (Contributed by Kevin O’Connor.)

   * The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using
     the code from the IDLEfork project
     (‘https://idlefork.sourceforge.net’).  The most notable feature is
     that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess,
     meaning that there’s no longer any need for manual ‘reload()’
     operations.  IDLE’s core code has been incorporated into the
     standard library as the *note idlelib: 73. package.

   * The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports IMAP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.)

   * The *note itertools: 81. contains a number of useful functions for
     use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the
     ML and Haskell languages.  For example,
     ‘itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)’ returns all elements in
     the iterator for which the function ‘predicate()’ returns *note
     True: c0a, and ‘itertools.repeat(obj, N)’ returns ‘obj’ 'N' times.
     There are a number of other functions in the module; see the
     package’s reference documentation for details.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new functions in the *note math: 8e. module, ‘degrees(rads)’
     and ‘radians(degs)’, convert between radians and degrees.  Other
     functions in the *note math: 8e. module such as *note math.sin():
     1484. and *note math.cos(): 1485. have always required input values
     measured in radians.  Also, an optional 'base' argument was added
     to *note math.log(): 1486. to make it easier to compute logarithms
     for bases other than ‘e’ and ‘10’.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Several new POSIX functions (‘getpgid()’, ‘killpg()’, ‘lchown()’,
     ‘loadavg()’, ‘major()’, ‘makedev()’, ‘minor()’, and ‘mknod()’) were
     added to the *note posix: ad. module that underlies the *note os:
     a1. module.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and
     Denis S. Otkidach.)

   * In the *note os: a1. module, the ‘*stat()’ family of functions can
     now report fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps
     are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by *note
     time.time(): 254.

     During testing, it was found that some applications will break if
     time stamps are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple
     interface of the *note stat_result: 1487. time stamps will be
     represented as integers.  When using named fields (a feature first
     introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as
     integers, unless ‘os.stat_float_times()’ is invoked to enable float
     return values:

          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200
          >>> os.stat_float_times(True)
          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200.6335014

     In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.

     Application developers should enable this feature only if all their
     libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time
     stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should
     be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it
     on a per-use basis.

   * The *note optparse: a0. module contains a new parser for
     command-line arguments that can convert option values to a
     particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage
     message.  See the following section for more details.

   * The old and never-documented ‘linuxaudiodev’ module has been
     deprecated, and a new version named ‘ossaudiodev’ has been added.
     The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on
     platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been tidied
     and brought up to date in various ways.  (Contributed by Greg Ward
     and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)

   * The new *note platform: aa. module contains a number of functions
     that try to determine various properties of the platform you’re
     running on.  There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU
     type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution
     version.  (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * The parser objects provided by the *note pyexpat: 126. module can
     now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to
     your character data handler and therefore faster performance.
     Setting the parser object’s *note buffer_text: 1488. attribute to
     *note True: c0a. will enable buffering.

   * The ‘sample(population, k)’ function was added to the *note random:
     b8. module.  'population' is a sequence or ‘xrange’ object
     containing the elements of a population, and *note sample(): 73f.
     chooses 'k' elements from the population without replacing chosen
     elements.  'k' can be any value up to ‘len(population)’.  For
     example:

          >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
          ['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
          ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
          ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
            File "random.py", line 414, in sample
                raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
          ValueError: sample larger than population
          >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
          [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]

     The *note random: b8. module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne
     Twister, implemented in C. It’s faster and more extensively studied
     than the previous algorithm.

     (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note readline: ba. module also gained a number of new
     functions: *note get_history_item(): 1489, *note
     get_current_history_length(): 148a, and *note redisplay(): 148b.

   * The ‘rexec’ and ‘Bastion’ modules have been declared dead, and
     attempts to import them will fail with a *note RuntimeError: 195.
     New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted
     execution environment provided by ‘rexec’, and no one has interest
     in fixing them or time to do so.  If you have applications using
     ‘rexec’, rewrite them to use something else.

     (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications
     any safer because there are known bugs in the ‘rexec’ module in
     those versions.  To repeat: if you’re using ‘rexec’, stop using it
     immediately.)

   * The ‘rotor’ module has been deprecated because the algorithm it
     uses for encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need
     encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are
     available separately.

   * The *note shutil: c5. module gained a ‘move(src, dest)’ function
     that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.

   * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the
     *note signal: c6. but then removed again as it proved impossible to
     make it work reliably across platforms.

   * The *note socket: cc. module now supports timeouts.  You can call
     the ‘settimeout(t)’ method on a socket object to set a timeout of
     't' seconds.  Subsequent socket operations that take longer than
     't' seconds to complete will abort and raise a *note
     socket.timeout: 82e. exception.

     The original timeout implementation was by Tim O’Malley.  Michael
     Gilfix integrated it into the Python *note socket: cc. module and
     shepherded it through a lengthy review.  After the code was checked
     in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it.  (This is a good example
     of a collaborative development process in action.)

   * On Windows, the *note socket: cc. module now ships with Secure
     Sockets Layer (SSL) support.

   * The value of the C ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’ macro is now exposed at the
     Python level as ‘sys.api_version’.  The current exception can be
     cleared by calling the new ‘sys.exc_clear()’ function.

   * The new *note tarfile: de. module allows reading from and writing
     to ‘tar’-format archive files.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The new *note textwrap: ec. module contains functions for wrapping
     strings containing paragraphs of text.  The ‘wrap(text, width)’
     function takes a string and returns a list containing the text
     split into lines of no more than the chosen width.  The ‘fill(text,
     width)’ function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into
     lines no longer than the chosen width.  (As you can guess, *note
     fill(): 148c. is built on top of *note wrap(): 148d.  For example:

          >>> import textwrap
          >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
          >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
          ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
           "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
           ...]
          >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
          Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
          a special providence in the fall of
          a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
          to come; if it be not to come, it
          will be now; if it be not now, yet
          it will come: the readiness is all.
          >>>

     The module also contains a *note TextWrapper: fc5. class that
     actually implements the text wrapping strategy.  Both the *note
     TextWrapper: fc5. class and the *note wrap(): 148d. and *note
     fill(): 148c. functions support a number of additional keyword
     arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module’s
     documentation for details.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The ‘thread’ and *note threading: ed. modules now have companion
     modules, ‘dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’, that provide a
     do-nothing implementation of the ‘thread’ module’s interface for
     platforms where threads are not supported.  The intention is to
     simplify thread-aware modules (ones that 'don’t' rely on threads to
     run) by putting the following code at the top:

          try:
              import threading as _threading
          except ImportError:
              import dummy_threading as _threading

     In this example, ‘_threading’ is used as the module name to make it
     clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual
     *note threading: ed. module.  Code can call functions and use
     classes in ‘_threading’ whether or not threads are supported,
     avoiding an *note if: 2eb. statement and making the code slightly
     clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
     run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return
     or to do something will simply hang forever.

   * The *note time: ee. module’s *note strptime(): 13f5. function has
     long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library’s
     *note strptime(): 13f5. implementation, and different platforms
     sometimes have odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a portable
     implementation that’s written in pure Python and should behave
     identically on all platforms.

   * The new *note timeit: ef. module helps measure how long snippets of
     Python code take to execute.  The ‘timeit.py’ file can be run
     directly from the command line, or the module’s *note Timer: 148e.
     class can be imported and used directly.  Here’s a short example
     that figures out whether it’s faster to convert an 8-bit string to
     Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the
     ‘unicode()’ function:

          import timeit

          timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
          timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')

          # Run three trials
          print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
          print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)

          # On my laptop this outputs:
          # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
          # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]

   * The ‘Tix’ module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
     current version of the Tix package.

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now works with a thread-enabled version of
     Tcl.  Tcl’s threading model requires that widgets only be accessed
     from the thread in which they’re created; accesses from another
     thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For certain Tcl interfaces,
     ‘Tkinter’ will now automatically avoid this when a widget is
     accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing
     it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other
     interfaces can’t be handled automatically but ‘Tkinter’ will now
     raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find
     out about the problem.  See
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html’
     for a more detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by
     Martin von Löwis.)

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.
     This behavior can be controlled through the ‘wantobjects()’ method
     of ‘tkapp’ objects.

     When using ‘_tkinter’ through the ‘Tkinter’ module (as most Tkinter
     applications will), this feature is always activated.  It should
     not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always
     convert string results to Python types where possible.

     If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be
     restored by setting the ‘wantobjects’ variable in the ‘Tkinter’
     module to false before creating the first ‘tkapp’ object.

          import Tkinter
          Tkinter.wantobjects = 0

     Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.

   * The ‘UserDict’ module has a new ‘DictMixin’ class which defines all
     dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
     interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
     substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the *note
     shelve: c3. module.

     Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary
     interface whenever the class defines *note __getitem__(): 283,
     *note __setitem__(): 12bb, *note __delitem__(): 12bc, and ‘keys()’.
     For example:

          >>> import UserDict
          >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
          ...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self.keylist = []
          ...         self.valuelist = []
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         return self.valuelist[i]
          ...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...             self.valuelist[i] = value
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             self.keylist.append(key)
          ...             self.valuelist.append(value)
          ...     def __delitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         self.keylist.pop(i)
          ...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
          ...     def keys(self):
          ...         return list(self.keylist)
          ...
          >>> s = SeqDict()
          >>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
          ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
           '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
           '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
           'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
           'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The DOM implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. can now
     generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an
     optional encoding argument to the *note toxml(): 148f. and *note
     toprettyxml(): 1490. methods of DOM nodes.

   * The ‘xmlrpclib’ module now supports an XML-RPC extension for
     handling nil data values such as Python’s ‘None’.  Nil values are
     always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate
     requests containing ‘None’, you must supply a true value for the
     'allow_none' parameter when creating a ‘Marshaller’ instance.

   * The new ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ module allows writing self-documenting
     XML-RPC servers.  Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in
     action.  Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces
     pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows
     invoking the actual methods.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491,
     and 3492) has been added.  The “idna” encoding can be used to
     convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible
     encoding (ACE) of that name.

          >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
          'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'

     The *note socket: cc. module has also been extended to
     transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before
     passing them to the C library.  Modules that deal with hostnames
     such as ‘httplib’ and *note ftplib: 5e.) also support Unicode host
     names; ‘httplib’ also sends HTTP ‘Host’ headers using the ACE
     version of the domain name.  *note urllib: 108. supports Unicode
     URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ‘path’ part of the
     URL is ASCII only.

     To implement this change, the *note stringprep: d4. module, the
     ‘mkstringprep’ tool and the ‘punycode’ encoding have been added.

* Menu:

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net


File: python.info,  Node: Date/Time Type,  Next: The optparse Module,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.19.17.1 Date/Time Type
........................

Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
*note datetime: 30. module.  The types don’t support different calendars
or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing
time.

The three primary types are: *note date: 1cd, representing a day, month,
and year; *note time: 1ce, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and
*note datetime: 1cc, which contains all the attributes of both *note
date: 1cd. and *note time: 1ce.  There’s also a *note timedelta: 9cc.
class representing differences between two points in time, and time zone
logic is implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract *note
tzinfo: 5d8. class.

You can create instances of *note date: 1cd. and *note time: 1ce. by
either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
‘datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)’, or by using one of a
number of class methods.  For example, the *note today(): 1492. class
method returns the current local date.

Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable.
There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from
objects:

     >>> import datetime
     >>> now = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> now.isoformat()
     '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
     >>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
     'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
     >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
     '2002 30 Dec'

The *note replace(): 1493. method allows modifying one or more fields of
a *note date: 1cd. or *note datetime: 1cc. instance, returning a new
instance:

     >>> d = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> d
     datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12)
     datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>>

Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result
is the same as that of *note isoformat(): b2d.).  *note date: 1cd. and
*note datetime: 1cc. instances can be subtracted from each other, and
added to *note timedelta: 9cc. instances.  The largest missing feature
is that there’s no standard library support for parsing strings and
getting back a *note date: 1cd. or *note datetime: 1cc.

For more information, refer to the module’s reference documentation.
(Contributed by Tim Peters.)


File: python.info,  Node: The optparse Module,  Prev: Date/Time Type,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.19.17.2 The optparse Module
.............................

The *note getopt: 61. module provides simple parsing of command-line
arguments.  The new *note optparse: a0. module (originally named Optik)
provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix
conventions, automatically creates the output for ‘--help’, and can
perform different actions for different options.

You start by creating an instance of *note OptionParser: 1495. and
telling it what your program’s options are.

     import sys
     from optparse import OptionParser

     op = OptionParser()
     op.add_option('-i', '--input',
                   action='store', type='string', dest='input',
                   help='set input filename')
     op.add_option('-l', '--length',
                   action='store', type='int', dest='length',
                   help='set maximum length of output')

Parsing a command line is then done by calling the *note parse_args():
1496. method.

     options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
     print options
     print args

This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list
of strings containing the remaining arguments.

Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you’d expect
it to.  Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an
integer.

     $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
     <Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
     ['arg1']
     $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
     <Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
     []
     $

The help message is automatically generated for you:

     $ ./python opt.py --help
     usage: opt.py [options]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
                             set input filename
       -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
                             set maximum length of output
     $

See the module’s documentation for more details.

Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the
Getopt SIG.


File: python.info,  Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Next: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.18 Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
------------------------------------------------

Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov,
was a feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster
than the system ‘malloc()’ and to have less memory overhead for
allocation patterns typical of Python programs.  The allocator uses C’s
‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills
smaller memory requests from these pools.

In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn’t enabled
by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by
providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script.  In
2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by
default; you’ll have to supply ‘--without-pymalloc’ to disable it.

This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc
may expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should
test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may
cause core dumps at runtime.

There’s one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a
number of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have
previously just been aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions
the error wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and
calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump.  For
example, if memory was allocated using *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65, it
has to be freed using *note PyObject_Free(): c63, not ‘free()’.  A few
modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed;
doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
problem.

As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating
memory have been consolidated down into two API families.  Memory
allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from
the other family.  There is one family for allocating chunks of memory
and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python
objects.

   * To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the
     “raw memory” family: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62, *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 1028, and *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.

   * The “object memory” family is the interface to the pymalloc
     facility described above and is biased towards a large number of
     “small” allocations: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 140c, and *note PyObject_Free(): c63.

   * To allocate and free Python objects, use the “object” family *note
     PyObject_New: 982, *note PyObject_NewVar: 983, and *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1499.

Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides
debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both
extension modules and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this
support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by
running ‘configure’ with ‘--with-pydebug’.

To aid extension writers, a header file ‘Misc/pymemcompat.h’ is
distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions
to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against
any version of Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from
Python’s source distribution and bundle it with the source of your
extension.

더 보기
.......

‘https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c’

     For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the
     comments at the top of the file ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ in the Python
     source code.  The above link points to the file within the
     python.org SVN browser.


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Prev: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.19 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection
     has proven to be stable, so it’s now been made mandatory.  You can
     no longer compile Python without it, and the ‘--with-cycle-gc’
     switch to ‘configure’ has been removed.

   * Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
     (‘libpython2.3.so’) by supplying ‘--enable-shared’ when running
     Python’s ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)

   * The ‘DL_EXPORT’ and ‘DL_IMPORT’ macros are now deprecated.
     Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be
     declared using the new macro *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149b, while the
     Python core will generally use the ‘PyAPI_FUNC’ and ‘PyAPI_DATA’
     macros.

   * The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the
     built-in functions and modules by supplying ‘--without-doc-strings’
     to the ‘configure’ script.  This makes the Python executable about
     10% smaller, but will also mean that you can’t get help for
     Python’s built-ins.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * The ‘PyArg_NoArgs()’ macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
     should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition
     table can specify the *note METH_NOARGS: 149c. flag, signalling
     that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be
     removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is
     important, the code could use ‘PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "")’ instead,
     but this will be slower than using *note METH_NOARGS: 149c.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. accepts new format characters for
     various sizes of unsigned integers: ‘B’ for unsigned char, ‘H’ for
     unsigned short int, ‘I’ for unsigned int, and ‘K’ for unsigned long
     long.

   * A new function, ‘PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)’ was
     added as shorthand for ‘PyObject_DelItem(mapping,
     PyString_New(key))’.

   * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently,
     increasing it exponentially when needed.  This results in the
     benchmark tests in ‘Lib/test/test_bufio.py’ speeding up
     considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one
     measurement).

   * It’s now possible to define class and static methods for a C
     extension type by setting either the *note METH_CLASS: 149d. or
     *note METH_STATIC: 149e. flags in a method’s *note PyMethodDef:
     149f. structure.

   * Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser’s source code,
     removing any dependence on a system version or local installation
     of Expat.

   * If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you
     should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the *note
     __module__: 36d. and *note __name__: 1471. attributes.  In summary,
     you will want to ensure the type’s dictionary contains a
     ‘'__module__'’ key; making the module name the part of the type
     name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
     effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or
     the source.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.19.19.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

Support for a port to IBM’s OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was
merged into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer
over the OS/2 system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all
the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly
succeeds; ‘fork()’ and *note fcntl(): 59. are restricted by the
limitations of the underlying emulation layer.  The standard OS/2 port,
which uses IBM’s Visual Age compiler, also gained support for
case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX
port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a
single routine is missing on the current OS version.  Instead calling
the missing routine will raise an exception.  (Contributed by Jack
Jansen.)

The RPM spec files, found in the ‘Misc/RPM/’ directory in the Python
source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean
Reifschneider.)

Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
(‘http://www.atheos.cx/’), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.20 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes
scattered throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change
logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between
Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * If the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a2. environment variable is set, the
     Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running
     a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the *note -i:
     14a3. option.  The environment variable can be set before running
     the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as
     part of its execution.

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now provides a way to allow “all resources
     except 'foo'.” A resource name passed to the ‘-u’ option can now be
     prefixed with a hyphen (‘'-'’) to mean “remove this resource.” For
     example, the option ‘‘-uall,-bsddb’’ could be used to enable the
     use of all resources except ‘bsddb’.

   * The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as
     well as Unix.

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of
     time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks
     and support trace functions (for, e.g., *note pdb: a5.).  Since
     Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using
     a different mechanism that works with “python -O”.  For Python 2.3
     Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to
     call the trace function, removing the need for ‘SET_LINENO’
     entirely.

     It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from
     Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run
     without *note -O: db1.

     C extensions that access the *note f_lineno: 7a5. field of frame
     objects should instead call ‘PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code,
     f->f_lasti)’.  This will have the added effect of making the code
     work as desired under “python -O” in earlier versions of Python.

     A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
     *note f_lineno: 7a5. attribute of frame objects, changing the line
     that will be executed next.  A ‘jump’ command has been added to the
     *note pdb: a5. debugger taking advantage of this new feature.
     (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 3,  Next: Acknowledgements<5>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.21 Porting to Python 2.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * *note yield: 9ca. is now always a keyword; if it’s used as a
     variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen.

   * For strings 'X' and 'Y', ‘X in Y’ now works if 'X' is more than one
     character long.

   * The *note int(): 257. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 87d. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.

   * If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must
     declare the file’s encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding
     a comment to the top of the file.  See section *note PEP 263;
     Source Code Encodings: 144e. for more information.

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.

   * Large octal and hex literals such as ‘0xffffffff’ now trigger a
     *note FutureWarning: 40f.  Currently they’re stored as 32-bit
     numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they’ll
     become positive long integers.

     There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a
     positive number, just add an ‘L’ to the end of the literal.  If
     you’re trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have
     previously used an expression such as ‘~(1 << 31)’, it’s probably
     clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper
     bits.  For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
     write ‘0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)’.

   * You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’.

   * The Distutils ‘setup()’ function has gained various new keyword
     arguments such as 'depends'.  Old versions of the Distutils will
     abort if passed unknown keywords.  A solution is to check for the
     presence of the new ‘get_distutil_options()’ function in your
     ‘setup.py’ and only uses the new keywords with a version of the
     Distutils that supports them:

          from distutils import core

          kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
          if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
              kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
          ext = Extension(**kw)

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f. warning.

   * Names of extension types defined by the modules included with
     Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type
     name.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<5>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 3,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.19.22 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside,
Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,
Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef
Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco
Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler,
Just van Rossum.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.20 What’s New in Python 2.2
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction,  Next: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on
October 14, 2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2,
originally released on December 21, 2001.

Python 2.2 can be thought of as the “cleanup release”.  There are some
features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but
most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be,
are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language
design.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as
the Python Library Reference(1) and the Python Reference Manual(2).  If
you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale
for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Next: PEP 234 Iterators,  Prev: Introduction,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.2 PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
-----------------------------------------------

The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python’s
model of objects and classes.  The changes should be backward
compatible, so it’s likely that your code will continue to run
unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities.
Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this
article, I’ll provide an overview of the changes and offer some
comments.

A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python’s design.
One of the most significant flaws was that it’s impossible to subclass
Python types implemented in C. In particular, it’s not possible to
subclass built-in types, so you can’t just subclass, say, lists in order
to add a single useful method to them.  The ‘UserList’ module provides a
class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be
subclassed further, but there’s lots of C code that expects a regular
Python list and won’t accept a *note UserList: 14ab. instance.

Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new
capabilities.  A brief summary:

   * You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers,
     and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the
     original type.

   * It’s now possible to define static and class methods, in addition
     to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python.

   * It’s also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or
     setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called
     'properties'.  Many uses of *note __getattr__(): 4cd. can be
     rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code
     simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
     have docstrings, too.

   * The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a
     particular set using 'slots', making it possible to safeguard
     against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in
     future versions of Python.

Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say,
the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks
that weren’t possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make
the language more complicated.  Some people have said that they’ve
always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its
simplicity is being lost.

Personally, I think there’s no need to worry.  Many of the new features
are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever
needed to be aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult
than it ever was, so you don’t need to bother learning or teaching them
unless they’re actually needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were
previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and
to my mind that’s all for the better.

I’m not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small
change that were required to make the new features work.  Instead this
section will paint only the broad strokes.  See section *note Related
Links: 14ac, “Related Links”, for further sources of information about
Python 2.2’s new object model.

* Menu:

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::


File: python.info,  Node: Old and New Classes,  Next: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.20.2.1 Old and New Classes
............................

First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes:
classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style
class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions
of Python.  All the new features described in this section apply only to
new-style classes.  This divergence isn’t intended to last forever;
eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.

So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an
existing new-style class.  Most of Python’s built-in types, such as
integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes
now.  A new-style class named *note object: a89, the base class for all
built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable,
you can just subclass *note object: a89.:

     class C(object):
         def __init__ (self):
             ...
         ...

This means that *note class: 12c7. statements that don’t have any base
classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can
also change this by setting a module-level variable named
‘__metaclass__’ — see PEP 253(1) for the details — but it’s easier to
just subclass *note object: a89.)

The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins,
named using a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions
named *note int(): 257, *note float(): 2ef, and *note str(): 445.  In
2.2, they aren’t functions any more, but type objects that behave as
factories when called.

     >>> int
     <type 'int'>
     >>> int('123')
     123

To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as *note
dict(): 256. and ‘file()’ have been added.  Here’s a more interesting
example, adding a ‘lock()’ method to file objects:

     class LockableFile(file):
         def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
             import fcntl
             return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
                                length, start, whence)

The now-obsolete ‘posixfile’ module contained a class that emulated all
of a file object’s methods and also added a ‘lock()’ method, but this
class couldn’t be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in
file, something which is possible with our new ‘LockableFile’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptors,  Next: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Prev: Old and New Classes,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.20.2.2 Descriptors
....................

In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover
what attributes and methods were supported by an object.  There were
some informal conventions, such as defining ‘__members__’ and
‘__methods__’ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author
of an extension type or a class wouldn’t bother to define them.  You
could fall back on inspecting the *note __dict__: 556. of an object, but
when class inheritance or an arbitrary ‘__getattr__()’ hook were in use
this could still be inaccurate.

The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for
describing the attributes of an object using 'descriptors' has been
formalized.  Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating
whether it’s a method or a field.  With the descriptor API, static
methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic
constructs.

Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and
have a few attributes of their own:

   * *note __name__: 105c. is the attribute’s name.

   * *note __doc__: 925. is the attribute’s docstring.

   * ‘__get__(object)’ is a method that retrieves the attribute value
     from 'object'.

   * ‘__set__(object, value)’ sets the attribute on 'object' to 'value'.

   * ‘__delete__(object, value)’ deletes the 'value' attribute of
     'object'.

For example, when you write ‘obj.x’, the steps that Python actually
performs are:

     descriptor = obj.__class__.x
     descriptor.__get__(obj)

For methods, *note descriptor.__get__: 14af. returns a temporary object
that’s callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called
on it.  This is also why static methods and class methods are now
possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the
method and the class.  As a brief explanation of these new kinds of
methods, static methods aren’t passed the instance, and therefore
resemble regular functions.  Class methods are passed the class of the
object, but not the object itself.  Static and class methods are defined
like this:

     class C(object):
         def f(arg1, arg2):
             ...
         f = staticmethod(f)

         def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
             ...
         g = classmethod(g)

The *note staticmethod(): 410. function takes the function ‘f()’, and
returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class
object.  You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such
methods (‘def static f’, ‘defstatic f()’, or something like that) but no
such syntax has been defined yet; that’s been left for future versions
of Python.

More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as
new kinds of descriptors, and it’s not difficult to write a descriptor
class that does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to
write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style
preconditions and postconditions for a method.  A class that used this
feature might be defined like this:

     from eiffel import eiffelmethod

     class C(object):
         def f(self, arg1, arg2):
             # The actual function
             ...
         def pre_f(self):
             # Check preconditions
             ...
         def post_f(self):
             # Check postconditions
             ...

         f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)

Note that a person using the new ‘eiffelmethod()’ doesn’t have to
understand anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new
features don’t increase the basic complexity of the language.  There
will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write
‘eiffelmethod()’ or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write
code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Next: Attribute Access,  Prev: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.20.2.3 Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
...............................................

Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the
rules under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes
(diagram taken from PEP 253(1) by Guido van Rossum):

           class A:
             ^ ^  def save(self): ...
            /   \
           /     \
          /       \
         /         \
     class B     class C:
         ^         ^  def save(self): ...
          \       /
           \     /
            \   /
             \ /
           class D

The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the
base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A
reference to ‘D.save()’ will search the classes ‘D’, ‘B’, and then ‘A’,
where ‘save()’ would be found and returned.  ‘C.save()’ would never be
found at all.  This is bad, because if ‘C’’s ‘save()’ method is saving
some internal state specific to ‘C’, not calling it will result in that
state never getting saved.

New-style classes follow a different algorithm that’s a bit more
complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation.
(Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the
same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really
complicated inheritance graphs.)

  1. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and
     include a class multiple times if it’s visited repeatedly.  In the
     above example, the list of visited classes is [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘A’, ‘C’,
     ‘A’].

  2. Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all
     but one occurrence, leaving the 'last' one in the list.  In the
     above example, the list becomes [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘A’] after dropping
     duplicates.

Following this rule, referring to ‘D.save()’ will return ‘C.save()’,
which is the behaviour we’re after.  This lookup rule is the same as the
one followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, *note super():
4d5, provides a way to get at a class’s superclasses without having to
reimplement Python’s algorithm.  The most commonly used form will be
‘super(class, obj)’, which returns a bound superclass object (not the
actual class object).  This form will be used in methods to call a
method in the superclass; for example, ‘D’’s ‘save()’ method would look
like this:

     class D (B,C):
         def save (self):
             # Call superclass .save()
             super(D, self).save()
             # Save D's private information here
             ...

*note super(): 4d5. can also return unbound superclass objects when
called as ‘super(class)’ or ‘super(class1, class2)’, but this probably
won’t often be useful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Access,  Next: Related Links,  Prev: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.20.2.4 Attribute Access
.........................

A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute
access using *note __getattr__(): 4cd.; most commonly this is done for
convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an
attribute access such as ‘obj.parent’ into a method call such as
‘obj.get_parent’.  Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling
attribute access.

First, ‘__getattr__(attr_name)’ is still supported by new-style classes,
and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an
attempt is made to access ‘obj.foo’ and no attribute named ‘foo’ is
found in the instance’s dictionary.

New-style classes also support a new method,
‘__getattribute__(attr_name)’.  The difference between the two methods
is that *note __getattribute__(): bcf. is 'always' called whenever any
attribute is accessed, while the old *note __getattr__(): 4cd. is only
called if ‘foo’ isn’t found in the instance’s dictionary.

However, Python 2.2’s support for 'properties' will often be a simpler
way to trap attribute references.  Writing a ‘__getattr__()’ method is
complicated because to avoid recursion you can’t use regular attribute
accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents
of *note __dict__: 556.  *note __getattr__(): 4cd. methods also end up
being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as *note
__repr__(): 616. or ‘__coerce__()’, and so have to be written with this
in mind.  Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results
in a sizable performance loss.

*note property: 194. is a new built-in type that packages up three
functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For
example, if you want to define a ‘size’ attribute that’s computed, but
also settable, you could write:

     class C(object):
         def get_size (self):
             result = ... computation ...
             return result
         def set_size (self, size):
             ... compute something based on the size
             and set internal state appropriately ...

         # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
         # method is defined as None, so the attribute
         # can't be deleted.
         size = property(get_size, set_size,
                         None,
                         "Storage size of this instance")

That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
‘__getattr__()’/‘__setattr__()’ methods that check for the ‘size’
attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes
from the instance’s *note __dict__: 556.  Accesses to ‘size’ are also
the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so
references to other attributes run at their usual speed.

Finally, it’s possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
referenced on an object using the new *note __slots__: 14b2. class
attribute.  Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it’s
possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing
‘obj.new_attr=1’.  A new-style class can define a class attribute named
*note __slots__: 14b2. to limit the legal attributes to a particular set
of names.  An example will make this clear:

     >>> class C(object):
     ...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
     ...
     >>> obj = C()
     >>> print obj.template
     None
     >>> obj.template = 'Test'
     >>> print obj.template
     Test
     >>> obj.newattr = None
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'

Note how you get an *note AttributeError: 346. on the attempt to assign
to an attribute not listed in *note __slots__: 14b2.


File: python.info,  Node: Related Links,  Prev: Attribute Access,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.20.2.5 Related Links
......................

This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving
enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have
been simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete
picture?

The *note Descriptor Guide: 14b4. is a lengthy tutorial introduction to
the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum.  If my description
has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes
into much more detail about the new features while still remaining quite
easy to read.

Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252(1) and PEP 253(2).  PEP
252(3) is titled “Making Types Look More Like Classes”, and covers the
descriptor API. PEP 253(4) is titled “Subtyping Built-in Types”, and
describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype
built-in objects.  PEP 253(5) is the more complicated PEP of the two,
and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types
may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs were written and implemented
by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the
Zope Corp.  team.

Finally, there’s the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the
machinery for the type handling is in ‘Objects/typeobject.c’, but you
should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted,
including posting a question to python-list or python-dev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 234 Iterators,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Prev: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.3 PEP 234: Iterators
-------------------------

Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both
the C and Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over
by callers.

In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ‘for item in obj’
work is to define a *note __getitem__(): 283. method that looks
something like this:

     def __getitem__(self, index):
         return <next item>

*note __getitem__(): 283. is more properly used to define an indexing
operation on an object so that you can write ‘obj[5]’ to retrieve the
sixth element.  It’s a bit misleading when you’re using this only to
support *note for: 2ea. loops.  Consider some file-like object that
wants to be looped over; the 'index' parameter is essentially
meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of *note
__getitem__(): 283. calls will be made with 'index' incrementing by one
each time.  In other words, the presence of the *note __getitem__():
283. method doesn’t mean that using ‘file[5]’ to randomly access the
sixth element will work, though it really should.

In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and *note
__getitem__(): 283. methods can be limited to classes that really do
support random access.  The basic idea of iterators is simple.  A new
built-in function, ‘iter(obj)’ or ‘iter(C, sentinel)’, is used to get an
iterator.  ‘iter(obj)’ returns an iterator for the object 'obj', while
‘iter(C, sentinel)’ returns an iterator that will invoke the callable
object 'C' until it returns 'sentinel' to signal that the iterator is
done.

Python classes can define an ‘__iter__()’ method, which should create
and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own
iterator, this method can just return ‘self’.  In particular, iterators
will usually be their own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C
can implement a *note tp_iter: 14b6. function in order to return an
iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can
define a *note tp_iternext: 14b7. function.

So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one
required method, *note next(): 7d1, which takes no arguments and returns
the next value.  When there are no more values to be returned, calling
*note next(): 7d1. should raise the *note StopIteration: bf7. exception.

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> print i
     <iterator object at 0x8116870>
     >>> i.next()
     1
     >>> i.next()
     2
     >>> i.next()
     3
     >>> i.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     StopIteration
     >>>

In 2.2, Python’s *note for: 2ea. statement no longer expects a sequence;
it expects something for which *note iter(): 7d0. will return an
iterator.  For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is
automatically constructed for sequences that don’t implement
‘__iter__()’ or a *note tp_iter: 14b6. slot, so ‘for i in [1,2,3]’ will
still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it’s
been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you can do things
like this:

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> a,b,c = i
     >>> a,b,c
     (1, 2, 3)

Iterator support has been added to some of Python’s basic types.
Calling *note iter(): 7d0. on a dictionary will return an iterator which
loops over its keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
     ...
     Mar 3
     Feb 2
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Jan 1
     Apr 4
     Nov 11
     Dec 12
     Oct 10

That’s just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys,
values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the ‘iterkeys()’,
‘itervalues()’, or ‘iteritems()’ methods to get an appropriate iterator.
In a minor related change, the *note in: 2ec. operator now works on
dictionaries, so ‘key in dict’ is now equivalent to ‘dict.has_key(key)’.

Files also provide an iterator, which calls the *note readline(): ba.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
now read each line of a file using code like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  An
iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the
iterator protocol only requires a *note next(): 7d1. method.

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PEP 234(1) - Iterators

     Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented by the Python Labs
     crew, mostly by GvR and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Prev: PEP 234 Iterators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.4 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the
introduction of iterators.

You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 9cb.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 9ca, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators
must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a ‘from __future__
import generators’ statement near the top of the module’s source code.
In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 9ca. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 9cb. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s
‘next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn’t allowed inside the ‘try’ block of a *note try: 6e2.…*note finally:
9c7. statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the
interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 9cb. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator’s results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: bf7. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 7d1. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from “An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language” at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
“or” is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 2eb. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core
Python language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they
don’t solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One
novel feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a
generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

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PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Next: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.5 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are
32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of
arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms
that support files larger than ‘2**32’ bytes, the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects has to return a long integer.  However, there were various
bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if
a long integer was provided instead.  For example, in Python 1.5, only
regular integers could be used as a slice index, and ‘'abc'[1L:]’ would
raise a *note TypeError: 532. exception with the message ‘slice index
must be int’.

Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required.
The ‘L’ suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal,
as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the ‘L’
suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering
a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many
operations that used to raise an *note OverflowError: 87d. will now
return a long integer as their result.  For example:

     >>> 1234567890123
     1234567890123L
     >>> 2 ** 64
     18446744073709551616L

In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated
identically.  You can still distinguish them with the *note type(): d45.
built-in function, but that’s rarely needed.

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.......

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by
     Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Next: Unicode Changes,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.6 PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
----------------------------------------------

The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an
effort to fix an old design flaw that’s been in Python from the
beginning.  Currently Python’s division operator, ‘/’, behaves like C’s
division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns
an integer result that’s truncated down when there would be a fractional
part.  For example, ‘3/2’ is 1, not 1.5, and ‘(-1)/2’ is -1, not -0.5.
This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending
on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed,
it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands.

(The controversy is over whether this is 'really' a design flaw, and
whether it’s worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It’s caused
endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm
of acidly sarcastic postings on ‘comp.lang.python’.  I won’t argue for
either side here and will stick to describing what’s implemented in 2.2.
Read PEP 238(1) for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)

Because this change might break code, it’s being introduced very
gradually.  Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won’t be
complete until Python 3.0.

First, I’ll borrow some terminology from PEP 238(2).  “True division” is
the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5,
1/4 is 0.25, and so forth.  “Floor division” is what Python’s ‘/’
operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the
floor of the value returned by true division.  “Classic division” is the
current mixed behaviour of ‘/’; it returns the result of floor division
when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division
when one of the operands is a floating-point number.

Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:

   * A new operator, ‘//’, is the floor division operator.  (Yes, we
     know it looks like C++’s comment symbol.)  ‘//’ 'always' performs
     floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so ‘1
     // 2’ is 0 and ‘1.0 // 2.0’ is also 0.0.

     ‘//’ is always available in Python 2.2; you don’t need to enable it
     using a ‘__future__’ statement.

   * By including a ‘from __future__ import division’ in a module, the
     ‘/’ operator will be changed to return the result of true division,
     so ‘1/2’ is 0.5.  Without the ‘__future__’ statement, ‘/’ still
     means classic division.  The default meaning of ‘/’ will not change
     until Python 3.0.

   * Classes can define methods called *note __truediv__(): 14bb. and
     *note __floordiv__(): 14bc. to overload the two division operators.
     At the C level, there are also slots in the *note PyNumberMethods:
     13e6. structure so extension types can define the two operators.

   * Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether
     code will work with the changed division semantics.  Running python
     with ‘-Q warn’ will cause a warning to be issued whenever division
     is applied to two integers.  You can use this to find code that’s
     affected by the change and fix it.  By default, Python 2.2 will
     simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will
     be turned on by default in Python 2.3.

더 보기
.......

PEP 238(3) - Changing the Division Operator

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Changes,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Prev: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.7 Unicode Changes
----------------------

Python’s Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode
strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers.
Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers,
as its internal encoding by supplying ‘--enable-unicode=ucs4’ to the
configure script.  (It’s also possible to specify ‘--disable-unicode’ to
completely disable Unicode support.)

When built to use UCS-4 (a “wide Python”), the interpreter can natively
handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of
legal values for the ‘unichr()’ function is expanded accordingly.  Using
an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a “narrow Python”), values greater
than 65535 will still cause ‘unichr()’ to raise a *note ValueError: 202.
exception.  This is all described in PEP 261(1), “Support for ‘wide’
Unicode characters”; consult it for further details.

Another change is simpler to explain.  Since their introduction, Unicode
strings have supported an ‘encode()’ method to convert the string to a
selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric
‘decode([*encoding*])’ method has been added to 8-bit strings (though
not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.  ‘decode()’ assumes that the string is
in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned
by the codec.

Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly
related to Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for
uu-encoding, MIME’s base64 encoding, and compression with the *note
zlib: 133. module:

     >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
     ... and repetitive text.
     ... """
     >>> data = s.encode('zlib')
     >>> data
     'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
     >>> data.decode('zlib')
     'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
     >>> print s.encode('uu')
     begin 666 <data>
     M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
     >=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*

     end
     >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
     'furrfu'

To convert a class instance to Unicode, a ‘__unicode__()’ method can be
defined by a class, analogous to ‘__str__()’.

‘encode()’, ‘decode()’, and ‘__unicode__()’ were implemented by
Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.

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PEP 261(2) - Support for ‘wide’ Unicode characters

     Written by Paul Prescod.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Next: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Unicode Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.8 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional
feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import nested_scopes’
directive.  In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled,
and are now always present.  The rest of this section is a copy of the
description of nested scopes from my “What’s New in Python 2.1”
document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of
this section.

The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2,
is to Python’s scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there
are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local,
module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised people
because it didn’t match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
nested recursive function definition doesn’t work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 438. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 128c. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses
‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them
as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 1420, *note class: 12c7,
or *note import: 5dc. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 128c. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 18d. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

더 보기
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PEP 227(1) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.9 New and Improved Modules
-------------------------------

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module was contributed to the standard
     library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC
     clients.  XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built
     on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet
     retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O’Reilly Network, and
     then lists the recent headlines for one channel:

          import xmlrpclib
          s = xmlrpclib.Server(
                'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
          channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
          # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
          #  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
          #  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]

          # Get the items for one channel
          items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )

          # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
          #   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
          #   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]

     The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. module makes it easy to create
     straightforward XML-RPC servers.  See
     ‘http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/’ for more information about XML-RPC.

   * The new *note hmac: 6a. module implements the HMAC algorithm
     described by RFC 2104(1).  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now
     return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have
     mnemonic attributes such as ‘memberst_mtime’ or *note tm_year:
     14c0.  The enhanced functions include *note stat(): 49a, *note
     fstat(): d88, *note statvfs(): 10ed, and *note fstatvfs(): d89. in
     the *note os: a1. module, and *note localtime(): 14c1, *note
     gmtime(): 11af, and *note strptime(): 13f5. in the *note time: ee.
     module.

     For example, to obtain a file’s size using the old tuples, you’d
     end up writing something like ‘file_size =
     os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]’, but now this can be written more
     clearly as ‘file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size’.

     The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick
     Mathewson.

   * The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various
     errors in its output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L.
     Drake, Jr.  and Tim Peters.)

   * The *note socket: cc. module can be compiled to support IPv6;
     specify the ‘--enable-ipv6’ option to Python’s configure script.
     (Contributed by Jun-ichiro “itojun” Hagino.)

   * Two new format characters were added to the *note struct: d5.
     module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long
     long type.  ‘q’ is for a signed 64-bit integer, and ‘Q’ is for an
     unsigned one.  The value is returned in Python’s long integer type.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * In the interpreter’s interactive mode, there’s a new built-in
     function *note help(): 8d4. that uses the *note pydoc: b5. module
     introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help.
     ‘help(object)’ displays any available help text about 'object'.
     *note help(): 8d4. with no argument puts you in an online help
     utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or
     modules to read their help text.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
     using Ka-Ping Yee’s *note pydoc: b5. module.)

   * Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the
     SRE engine underlying the *note re: b9. module.  For example, the
     *note re.sub(): 2a3. and *note re.split(): 2a2. functions have been
     rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode
     character ranges by a factor of two, and a new *note finditer():
     14c2. method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
     matches in a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.
     The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note smtplib: ca. module now supports RFC 2487(2), “Secure
     SMTP over TLS”, so it’s now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic
     between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed
     a message.  *note smtplib: ca. also supports SMTP authentication.
     (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note imaplib: 74. module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has
     support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined
     in RFC 2342(3), SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony
     Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)

   * The ‘rfc822’ module’s parsing of email addresses is now compliant
     with RFC 2822(4), an update to RFC 822(5).  (The module’s name is
     'not' going to be changed to ‘rfc2822’.)  A new package, *note
     email: 3b, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail
     messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his
     work on Mailman.)

   * The *note difflib: 37. module now contains a new ‘Differ’ class for
     producing human-readable lists of changes (a “delta”) between two
     sequences of lines of text.  There are also two generator
     functions, ‘ndiff()’ and ‘restore()’, which respectively return a
     delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a
     delta.  (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py
     code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)

   * New constants ‘ascii_letters’, ‘ascii_lowercase’, and
     ‘ascii_uppercase’ were added to the *note string: d3. module.
     There were several modules in the standard library that used
     ‘string.letters’ to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is
     incorrect when locales are in use, because ‘string.letters’ varies
     depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current
     locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed to use
     ‘ascii_letters’ instead.  (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
     Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8f. module now makes it easier to use
     alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a *note
     MimeTypes: 14c3. class, which takes a list of filenames to be
     parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * A *note Timer: 114a. class was added to the *note threading: ed.
     module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future
     time.  (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.10 Interpreter Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------------

Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python
interpreter at the C level because they’re writing Python extension
modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter
itself.  If you only write Python code, none of the changes described
here will affect you very much.

   * Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which
     can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and
     should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing.  This will be
     of interest to authors of development environments for Python.  Two
     new C functions were added to Python’s API, *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b.  The
     existing *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6. and *note sys.settrace():
     14c7. functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use
     the new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of
     Python debuggers and development tools, was added.  *note
     PyInterpreterState_Head(): 14c8. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Next(): 14c9. let a caller walk through all the
     existing interpreter objects; *note
     PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(): 14ca. and *note
     PyThreadState_Next(): 14cb. allow looping over all the thread
     states for a given interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)

   * The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to
     make it easier to write extension types that support garbage
     collection and to debug misuses of the functions.  Various
     functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of
     functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
     still compile but will 'not' participate in garbage collection, so
     updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.

     To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the
     following steps:

   * Rename ‘Py_TPFLAGS_GC’ to *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776.

   * 
     Use *note PyObject_GC_New(): a9f. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa0. to allocate

          objects, and *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc. to deallocate
          them.

   * Rename ‘PyObject_GC_Init()’ to *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14cd. and
     ‘PyObject_GC_Fini()’ to *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce.

   * Remove ‘PyGC_HEAD_SIZE’ from object size calculations.

   * Remove calls to ‘PyObject_AS_GC()’ and ‘PyObject_FROM_GC()’.

   * A new ‘et’ format sequence was added to *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     56c.; ‘et’ takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and
     converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns
     out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it’s an 8-bit
     string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding.  This
     differs from the ‘es’ format character, which assumes that 8-bit
     strings are in Python’s default ASCII encoding and converts them to
     the specified new encoding.  (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and
     used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following
     section.)

   * A different argument parsing function, *note PyArg_UnpackTuple():
     14cf, has been added that’s simpler and presumably faster.  Instead
     of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum
     and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to
     *note PyObject: 332.* variables that will be filled in with
     argument values.

   * Two new flags *note METH_NOARGS: 149c. and *note METH_O: 14d0. are
     available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of
     methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument.  Calling
     such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method
     that uses *note METH_VARARGS: 14d1.  Also, the old ‘METH_OLDARGS’
     style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated.

   * Two new wrapper functions, *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d2. and *note
     PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14d3. were added to provide cross-platform
     implementations for the relatively new ‘snprintf()’ and
     ‘vsnprintf()’ C lib APIs.  In contrast to the standard ‘sprintf()’
     and ‘vsprintf()’ functions, the Python versions check the bounds of
     the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns.  (Contributed
     by M.-A. Lemburg.)

   * The *note _PyTuple_Resize(): 14d4. function has lost an unused
     parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third
     argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting
     code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Next: Acknowledgements<6>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.11 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds
there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and
2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106
patches and fixed 82 bugs.  These figures are likely to be
underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen,
     is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been
     made to support MacOS X.

     The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a
     framework, enabled by supplying the ‘--enable-framework’ option to
     the configure script when compiling Python.  According to Jack
     Jansen, “This installs a self-contained Python installation plus
     the OS X framework “glue” into
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ (or another location of
     choice).  For now there is little immediate added benefit to this
     (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your
     PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a
     full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly
     using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more.”

     Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS
     APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc.  have been
     ported to OS X, but they’ve been left commented out in ‘setup.py’.
     People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them
     manually.

   * Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don’t take them
     now cause a *note TypeError: 532. exception to be raised, with the
     message “'function' takes no keyword arguments”.

   * Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are
     now part of the core because they’re used in the implementation of
     new-style classes.  The *note ReferenceError: 14d6. exception has
     therefore moved from the *note weakref: 114. module to become a
     built-in exception.

   * A new script, ‘Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py’ by Tim Peters,
     automatically removes obsolete ‘__future__’ statements from Python
     source code.

   * An additional 'flags' argument has been added to the built-in
     function *note compile(): 192, so the behaviour of ‘__future__’
     statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such
     as those presented by IDLE and other development environments.
     This is described in PEP 264(1).  (Contributed by Michael Hudson.)

   * The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn’t GPL-compatible.
     This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so
     it’s now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note
     that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license
     that’s essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always
     was.  The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and
     2.1.1 releases.

   * When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now
     convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file
     APIs.  As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python’s choice
     of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On
     Unix, the locale’s character set is used if
     ‘locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ is available.  (Windows support was
     contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André
     Lemburg.  Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.)

   * Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim
     Peters.)

   * The ‘Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py’ script now parses a ‘.netrc’ file,
     if you have one.  (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)

   * Some features of the object returned by the ‘xrange()’ function are
     now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they’re accessed; they’ll
     disappear in Python 2.3.  ‘xrange’ objects tried to pretend they
     were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence
     multiplication, and the *note in: 2ec. operator, but these features
     were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The ‘tolist()’ method and
     the ‘start’, ‘stop’, and ‘step’ attributes are also being
     deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to the
     ‘PyRange_New()’ function, ‘repeat’, has also been deprecated.

   * There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation,
     mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects
     that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary
     they were contained in.  For a while python-dev fell into a gentle
     rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim
     Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and
     round it went.

   * On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a
     number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result
     isn’t fully functional yet.  (But this 'is' progress…)

   * Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered
     PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier
     PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning
     to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)

   * Files ending in ‘.pyw’ can now be imported on Windows.  ‘.pyw’ is a
     Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run
     using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS
     console from popping up to display the output.  This patch makes it
     possible to import such scripts, in case they’re also usable as
     modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)

   * On platforms where Python uses the C ‘dlopen()’ function to load
     extension modules, it’s now possible to set the flags used by
     ‘dlopen()’ using the *note sys.getdlopenflags(): 14d7. and *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): 1110. functions.  (Contributed by Bram
     Stolk.)

   * The *note pow(): 9cf. built-in function no longer supports 3
     arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied.  ‘pow(x, y, z)’
     returns ‘(x**y) % z’, but this is never useful for floating-point
     numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the
     platform.  A call such as ‘pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)’ will now raise a
     *note TypeError: 532. exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<6>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.20.12 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr.,
Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael
Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik
Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don
O’Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil
Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.21 What’s New in Python 2.1
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<2>,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there
aren’t as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are
still some pleasant surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be
steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so
most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more
complete documentation and a design rationale for the change.  This
article doesn’t attempt to document the new features completely, but
simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers.
Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more
details about any new feature that particularly interests you.

One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate
the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months.
2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first
alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was
released.

The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Next: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Prev: Introduction<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.2 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python’s scoping rules.  In
Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to
look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.
This often surprised people because it didn’t match their intuitive
expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
doesn’t work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 438. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 128c. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses *note
lambda: 128c. you can often find local variables being copied by passing
them as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 1420, *note class: 12c7,
or *note import: 5dc. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 128c. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 18d. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced
gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren’t enabled by default, but can be
turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in
PEP 236(1).  (See the following section for further discussion of PEP
236(2).)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there
will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1’s
lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.

더 보기
.......

PEP 227(3) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Next: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.3 PEP 236: __future__ Directives
-------------------------------------

The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers
of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make
the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach
consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality
in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1.

The syntax uses a ‘from...import’ statement using the reserved module
name *note __future__: 0.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following
statement:

     from __future__ import nested_scopes

While it looks like a normal *note import: 5dc. statement, it’s not;
there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put.
They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python
code or regular ‘import’ statements.  This is because such statements
can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates
bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in
bytecodes being produced.

더 보기
.......

PEP 236(1) - Back to the *note __future__: 0.

     Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Next: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Prev: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.4 PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
--------------------------------

In earlier versions, Python’s support for implementing comparisons on
user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple.  Classes
could implement a ‘__cmp__()’ method that was given two instances of a
class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they
weren’t; the method couldn’t raise an exception or return anything other
than a Boolean value.  Users of Numeric Python often found this model
too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that
numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to
perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix
containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to
raise an exception to signal the error.

In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this
need.  Python classes can now individually overload each of the ‘<’,
‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘==’, and ‘!=’ operations.  The new magic method names
are:

Operation       Method name
                
---------------------------------------------
                
‘<’             *note __lt__(): 128f.
                
                
‘<=’            *note __le__(): 12fb.
                
                
‘>’             *note __gt__(): 12fc.
                
                
‘>=’            *note __ge__(): 12fd.
                
                
‘==’            *note __eq__(): af7.
                
                
‘!=’            *note __ne__(): 14df.
                

(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators
‘.LT.’.  ‘.LE.’, &c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite
familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.)

Each of these magic methods is of the form ‘method(self, other)’, where
‘self’ will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
‘other’ will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
expression ‘A < B’ will cause ‘A.__lt__(B)’ to be called.

Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a
matrix, a list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can
raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or
otherwise meaningless.

The built-in ‘cmp(A,B)’ function can use the rich comparison machinery,
and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison
operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ‘"<"’, ‘"<="’,
‘">"’, ‘">="’, ‘"=="’, or ‘"!="’.  If called without the optional third
argument, ‘cmp()’ will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions
of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return
any Python object.

There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers;
there’s a new slot ‘tp_richcmp’ in type objects and an API for
performing a given rich comparison.  I won’t cover the C API here, but
will refer you to PEP 207(1), or to 2.1’s C API documentation, for the
full list of related functions.

더 보기
.......

PEP 207(2) - Rich Comparisons

     Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David
     Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Next: PEP 229 New Build System,  Prev: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.5 PEP 230: Warning Framework
---------------------------------

Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number
of obsolete modules and features along the way.  It’s difficult to know
when a feature is safe to remove, since there’s no way of knowing how
much code uses it — perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or
perhaps many do.  To enable removing old features in a more structured
way, a warning framework was added.  When the Python developers want to
get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next
version of Python.  The following Python version can then drop the
feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
the old feature.

Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It
adds a *note warnings: 112. module that provide functions to issue
warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don’t want to be
displayed.  Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate
old features that they no longer wish to support.

For example, in Python 2.1 the ‘regex’ module is deprecated, so
importing it causes a warning to be printed:

     >>> import regex
     __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
              is deprecated; please use the re module
     >>>

Warnings can be issued by calling the *note warnings.warn(): 14e1.
function:

     warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")

The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional
parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category.

Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression
pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to
suppress a warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the
‘regex’ module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the
*note re: b9. module right now.  The warning can be suppressed by
calling

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
                             message='.*regex module is deprecated',
                             category=DeprecationWarning,
                             module = '__main__')

This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5. triggered in the *note __main__: 1. module, and
applies a regular expression to only match the message about the ‘regex’
module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.
Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending
code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program
to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).

Functions were also added to Python’s C API for issuing warnings; refer
to PEP 230 or to Python’s API documentation for the details.

더 보기
.......

PEP 5(1) - Guidelines for Language Evolution

     Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when
     removing old features from Python.  The policy described in this
     PEP hasn’t been officially adopted, but the eventual policy
     probably won’t be too different from Prescod’s proposal.

PEP 230(2) - Warning Framework

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 229 New Build System,  Next: PEP 205 Weak References,  Prev: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.6 PEP 229: New Build System
--------------------------------

When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the
‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable various additional modules; the
default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on
most Unix platforms.  This means that on Unix platforms with many more
features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don’t contain
all useful modules they could.

Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and
installing extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile
much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which
ones are supported on the current machine.  It’s hoped that this will
make Python installations easier and more featureful.

Instead of having to edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable
modules, a ‘setup.py’ script in the top directory of the Python source
distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which
modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the
system.  If a module is configured in ‘Modules/Setup’, the ‘setup.py’
script won’t attempt to compile that module and will defer to the
‘Modules/Setup’ file’s contents.  This provides a way to specific any
strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific
platform.

In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn’t
recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the
‘Python/’, ‘Parser/’, ‘Objects/’, and ‘Modules/’ subdirectories.  This
makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles
clearer and simpler.

더 보기
.......

PEP 229(1) - Using Distutils to Build Python

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 205 Weak References,  Next: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Prev: PEP 229 New Build System,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.7 PEP 205: Weak References
-------------------------------

Weak references, available through the *note weakref: 114. module, are a
minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer’s toolbox.

Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has
the side effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few
specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being
the most common one, and another being circular references in data
structures such as trees.

For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of
another function ‘f(x)’ by storing the function’s argument and its
result in a dictionary:

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             return _cache[x]

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache the returned object
         _cache[x] = retval

         return retval

This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side
effect; the ‘_cache’ dictionary holds a reference to the return values,
so they’ll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and
cleans up.  This isn’t very noticeable for integers, but if ‘f()’
returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory,
this can be a problem.

Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won’t keep
objects alive beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible
through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak
references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer
exists.  A weak reference to an object 'obj' is created by calling ‘wr =
weakref.ref(obj)’.  The object being referred to is returned by calling
the weak reference as if it were a function: ‘wr()’.  It will return the
referenced object, or ‘None’ if the object no longer exists.

This makes it possible to write a ‘memoize()’ function whose cache
doesn’t keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             obj = _cache[x]()
             # If weak reference object still exists,
             # return it
             if obj is not None: return obj

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache a weak reference
         _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)

         return retval

The *note weakref: 114. module also allows creating proxy objects which
behave like weak references — an object referenced only by proxy objects
is deallocated – but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve
the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to the
object as long as the object still exists.  If the object is
deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
‘weakref.ReferenceError’ exception to be raised.

     proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
     proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
     proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
     del obj
     proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError

더 보기
.......

PEP 205(1) - Weak References

     Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Next: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Prev: PEP 205 Weak References,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.8 PEP 232: Function Attributes
-----------------------------------

In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to
them.  People were often using docstrings to hold information about
functions and methods, because the *note __doc__: 11c8. attribute was
the only way of attaching any information to a function.  For example,
in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for
public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock’s SPARK parsing
framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed.  This
overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold
a function’s documentation; for example, it means you can’t properly
document functions intended for private use in Zope.

Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the
regular Python syntax:

     def f(): pass

     f.publish = 1
     f.secure = 1
     f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"

The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function’s
*note __dict__: 12c2.  Unlike the *note __dict__: c5a. attribute of
class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary
to *note __dict__: 12c2, though the new value is restricted to a regular
Python dictionary; you 'can’t' be tricky and set it to a ‘UserDict’
instance, or any other random object that behaves like a mapping.

더 보기
.......

PEP 232(1) - Function Attributes

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Next: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Prev: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.9 PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
---------------------------------------------------------------

Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS
and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it’s
impossible to distinguish the filenames ‘FILE.PY’ and ‘file.py’, even
though they do store the file’s name in its original case (they’re
case-preserving, too).

In Python 2.1, the *note import: 5dc. statement will work to simulate
case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search
for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an *note
ImportError: 413. if no such file is found, so ‘import file’ will not
import a module named ‘FILE.PY’.  Case-insensitive matching can be
requested by setting the *note PYTHONCASEOK: 95c. environment variable
before starting the Python interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Next: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Prev: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.10 PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
-----------------------------------------

When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands
is displayed using the built-in *note repr(): 7f7. function.  In Python
2.1, the variable *note sys.displayhook(): 14e7. can be set to a
callable object which will be called instead of *note repr(): 7f7.  For
example, you can set it to a special pretty-printing function:

     >>> # Create a recursive data structure
     ... L = [1,2,3]
     >>> L.append(L)
     >>> L # Show Python's default output
     [1, 2, 3, [...]]
     >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
     ... import sys, pprint
     >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
     >>> L
     [1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
     >>>

더 보기
.......

PEP 217(1) - Display Hook for Interactive Use

     Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Next: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Prev: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.11 PEP 208: New Coercion Model
-----------------------------------

How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.
This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing
them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric
operations.

Extension types can now set the type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES’ in
their ‘PyTypeObject’ structure to indicate that they support the new
coercion model.  In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can
no longer assume that they’ll be passed two arguments of the same type;
instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can
then perform their own internal coercion.  If the slot function is
passed a type it can’t handle, it can indicate the failure by returning
a reference to the ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singleton value.  The numeric
functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
handle the operation; if the other type also returns
‘Py_NotImplemented’, then a *note TypeError: 532. will be raised.
Numeric methods written in Python can also return ‘Py_NotImplemented’,
causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps
raising a *note TypeError: 532, perhaps trying another object’s numeric
methods).

더 보기
.......

PEP 208(1) - Reworking the Coercion Model

     Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon
     earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the
     fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the
     C level.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Next: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.12 PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
--------------------------------------------

A common complaint from Python users is that there’s no single catalog
of all the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton’s Vaults of
Parnassus at ‘www.vex.net/parnassus/’ (retired in February 2009,
available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine(1)) was the largest
catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is
optional, and many people did not bother.

As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software
packaged using the Distutils ‘sdist’ command will include a file named
‘PKG-INFO’ containing information about the package such as its name,
version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241(2)
contains the full list of fields that can be present in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.  As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more
and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build
automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them.  With the result
experience, perhaps it’ll be possible to design a really good catalog
and then build support for it into Python 2.2.  For example, the
Distutils ‘sdist’ and ‘bdist_*’ commands could support an ‘upload’
option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server.

You can start creating packages containing ‘PKG-INFO’ even if you’re not
using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for
users of earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils
includes the changes described in PEP 241(3), as well as various
bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be available from the Distutils SIG
at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/’.

더 보기
.......

PEP 241(4) - Metadata for Python Software Packages

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 243(5) - Module Repository Upload Mechanism

     Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed
     mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Prev: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.13 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

   * Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: ‘inspect.py’, a module for
     getting information about live Python code, and ‘pydoc.py’, a
     module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As
     a bonus, ‘Tools/scripts/pydoc’, which is now automatically
     installed, uses ‘pydoc.py’ to display documentation given a Python
     module, package, or class name.  For example, ‘pydoc xml.dom’
     displays the following:

          Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml

          NAME
              xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.

          FILE
              /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc

          DESCRIPTION
              The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
              Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.

              This package contains the following modules:
                ...

     ‘pydoc’ also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.  ‘pydoc’
     quickly becomes addictive; try it out!

   * Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard
     library.  The *note doctest: 3a. module, contributed by Tim Peters,
     provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in
     docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output.
     PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework
     inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck’s
     Smalltalk testing framework.  See ‘https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/’
     for more information about PyUnit.

   * The *note difflib: 37. module contains a class, *note
     SequenceMatcher: 100f, which compares two sequences and computes
     the changes required to transform one sequence into the other.  For
     example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the
     Unix ‘diff’ program, and in fact the sample program
     ‘Tools/scripts/ndiff.py’ demonstrates how to write such a script.

   * *note curses.panel: 2d, a wrapper for the panel library, part of
     ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.
     The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of
     depth.  Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering,
     and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which
     sections are visible.

   * The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0,
     and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the *note xml: 120.
     package.  Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat
     1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle
     files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for
     SAX, DOM, and the ‘minidom’ module.

   * Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught
     exceptions.  *note sys.excepthook(): 805. can be set to a callable
     object.  When an exception isn’t caught by any *note try:
     6e2.…*note except: 18b. blocks, the exception will be passed to
     *note sys.excepthook(): 805, which can then do whatever it likes.
     At the Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application
     for this hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists
     the stack frames, but also lists the function arguments and the
     local variables for each frame.

   * Various functions in the *note time: ee. module, such as *note
     asctime(): 11d6. and *note localtime(): 14c1, require a
     floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the
     epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with the
     current time, so the floating-point argument has been made
     optional; when a value isn’t provided, the current time will be
     used.  For example, log file entries usually need a string
     containing the current time; in Python 2.1, ‘time.asctime()’ can be
     used, instead of the lengthier
     ‘time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))’ that was previously
     required.

     This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   * The *note ftplib: 5e. module now defaults to retrieving files in
     passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from
     behind a firewall.  This request came from the Debian bug tracking
     system, since other Debian packages use *note ftplib: 5e. to
     retrieve files and then don’t work from behind a firewall.  It’s
     deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because
     Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if
     passive mode is unsuitable for your application or network setup,
     call ‘set_pasv(0)’ on FTP objects to disable passive mode.

   * Support for raw socket access has been added to the *note socket:
     cc. module, contributed by Grant Edwards.

   * The *note pstats: b0. module now contains a simple interactive
     statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python
     programs, invoked when the module is run as a script.  Contributed
     by Eric S. Raymond.

   * A new implementation-dependent function, ‘sys._getframe([depth])’,
     has been added to return a given frame object from the current call
     stack.  *note sys._getframe(): 6da. returns the frame at the top of
     the call stack; if the optional integer argument 'depth' is
     supplied, the function returns the frame that is 'depth' calls
     below the top of the stack.  For example, ‘sys._getframe(1)’
     returns the caller’s frame object.

     This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
     implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to
     put it into production code.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Next: Acknowledgements<7>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.14 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the
shorter release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up
117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be
underestimates.  Some of the more notable changes are:

   * A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that
     should be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and have less memory
     overhead.  The allocator uses C’s ‘malloc()’ function to get large
     pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from
     these pools.  It can be enabled by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’
     option to the ‘configure’ script; see ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ for the
     implementation details.

     Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the
     object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break,
     causing core dumps at runtime.  There are a bunch of memory
     allocation functions in Python’s C API that have previously been
     just aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning
     that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error
     wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
     these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more,
     and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core
     dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyMem_New:
     14ec, it has to be freed using *note PyMem_Del(): 14ed, not
     ‘free()’.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this
     and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules
     that will have the same problem.

     The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.

   * The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because
     people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it’s
     often been used as a naïve benchmark.  The *note readline(): ba.
     method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much
     faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to
     platform depending on how slow the C library’s ‘getc()’ was, but is
     around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular
     operating systems.  Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and
     coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in
     comp.lang.python.

     A new module and method for file objects was also added,
     contributed by Jeff Epler.  The new method, ‘xreadlines()’, is
     similar to the existing ‘xrange()’ built-in.  ‘xreadlines()’
     returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated
     over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire
     file into memory as the existing ‘readlines()’ method does.  You’d
     use it like this:

          for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
              # ... do something for each line ...
              ...

     For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev
     summary for January 1–15, 2001 at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/’.

   * A new method, *note popitem(): 14ee, was added to dictionaries to
     enable destructively iterating through the contents of a
     dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because
     there’s no need to construct a list containing all the keys or
     values.  ‘D.popitem()’ removes a random ‘(key, value)’ pair from
     the dictionary ‘D’ and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was
     implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a
     suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka.

   * Modules can now control which names are imported when ‘from module
     import *’ is used, by defining an ‘__all__’ attribute containing a
     list of names that will be imported.  One common complaint is that
     if the module imports other modules such as *note sys: d9. or *note
     string: d3, ‘from module import *’ will add them to the importing
     module’s namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public names in
     ‘__all__’:

          # List public names
          __all__ = ['Database', 'open']

     A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and
     implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a
     weaker final version was checked in.

   * Applying *note repr(): 7f7. to strings previously used octal
     escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was
     ‘'\012'’.  This was a vestigial trace of Python’s C ancestry, but
     today octal is of very little practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested
     using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the ‘\n’, ‘\t’,
     ‘\r’ escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this
     new formatting.

   * Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions
     containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant
     side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.

   * C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8, which means that they will use
     any import hooks that have been installed.  This is also encouraged
     for third-party extensions that need to import some other module
     from C code.

   * The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another
     340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh.

   * Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski),
     Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger);
     Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie).

And there’s the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks,
docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing;
see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<7>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.21.15 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David
Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh,
Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Next: Changelog,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.22 What’s New in Python 2.0
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling and Moshe Zadka

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* List Comprehensions::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML Modules::
* Module changes::
* New modules::
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<3>,  Next: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.1 Introduction
-------------------

A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000.
This article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some
other useful changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may
require rewriting code.

Python’s development never completely stops between releases, and a
steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted.  A
host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and
better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be
impossible, but they’re certainly significant.  Consult the publicly
available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This progress is
due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid
to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved
communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Python 1 6?,  Next: New Development Process,  Prev: Introduction<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.2 What About Python 1.6?
-----------------------------

Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python
release.  After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI
requested that a 1.6 release be created, containing all the work on
Python that had been performed at CNRI. Python 1.6 therefore represents
the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000, with the most significant new
feature being Unicode support.  Development continued after May, of
course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure that it’s
forward-compatible with Python 2.0.  1.6 is therefore part of Python’s
evolution, and not a side branch.

So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6?  Probably not.  The
1.6final and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5,
2000), the plan being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so.  If
you have applications to maintain, there seems little point in breaking
things by moving to 1.6, fixing them, and then having another round of
breakage within a month by moving to 2.0; you’re better off just going
straight to 2.0.  Most of the really interesting features described in
this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was done between
May and September.


File: python.info,  Node: New Development Process,  Next: Unicode<2>,  Prev: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.3 New Development Process
------------------------------

The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all,
but to how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began
using the tools made available by SourceForge for storing source code,
tracking bug reports, and managing the queue of patch submissions.  To
report bugs or submit patches for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and
patch manager tools available from Python’s project page, located at
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/’.

The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the
Python CVS tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source
code for Python.  Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had
write access to the CVS tree, and all patches had to be inspected and
checked in by one of the people on this short list.  Obviously, this
wasn’t very scalable.  By moving the CVS tree to SourceForge, it became
possible to grant write access to more people; as of September 2000
there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold increase.
This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn’t be attempted if
they’d have to be filtered through the small group of core developers.
For example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop
K&R C compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After
getting approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a
flurry of checkins that lasted about a week, other developers joined in
to help, and the job was done.  If there were only 5 people with write
access, probably that task would have been viewed as “nice, but not
worth the time and effort needed” and it would never have gotten done.

The shift to using SourceForge’s services has resulted in a remarkable
increase in the speed of development.  Patches now get submitted,
commented on, revised by people other than the original submitter, and
bounced back and forth between people until the patch is deemed worth
checking in.  Bugs are tracked in one central location and can be
assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can count the number of
open bugs to measure progress.  This didn’t come without a cost:
developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to
follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment.
For example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail
messages that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML
screen-scraper that sends more useful messages.

The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code
was checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement
from the developer group.  The approval process that has emerged is
somewhat similar to that used by the Apache group.  Developers can vote
+1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch; +1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection,
while +0 and -0 mean the developer is mostly indifferent to the change,
though with a slight positive or negative slant.  The most significant
change from the Apache model is that the voting is essentially advisory,
letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For Life status,
know what the general opinion is.  He can still ignore the result of a
vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees
with him.

Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and
is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good
design.  Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy
mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one
can read every posting to python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal
process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs),
modelled on the internet RFC process.  PEPs are draft documents that
describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the
community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the
proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1(1), “PEP Purpose and
Guidelines”:

     PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.  A PEP is a design
     document providing information to the Python community, or
     describing a new feature for Python.  The PEP should provide a
     concise technical specification of the feature and a rationale for
     the feature.

     We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new
     features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for
     documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python.  The
     PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the
     community and documenting dissenting opinions.

Read the rest of PEP 1(2) for the details of the PEP editorial process,
style, and format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge,
though they’re not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also
available in HTML form from ‘https://peps.python.org/’.  As of September
2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201(3), “Lockstep Iteration”,
to PEP 225, “Elementwise/Objectwise Operators”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode<2>,  Next: List Comprehensions,  Prev: New Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.4 Unicode
--------------

The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type:
Unicode strings.  Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters
instead of the 8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct
characters can be supported.

The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless
often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly
implemented by Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type
implementation by Fredrik Lundh.  A detailed explanation of the
interface was written up as PEP 100(1), “Python Unicode Integration”.
This article will simply cover the most significant points about the
Unicode interfaces.

In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ‘u"string"’.
Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence,
‘\uHHHH’, where 'HHHH' is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to
FFFF.  The existing ‘\xHH’ escape sequence can also be used, and octal
escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by
‘\777’.

Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence
type.  They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place.
Unicode strings have an ‘encode( [encoding] )’ method that returns an
8-bit string in the desired encoding.  Encodings are named by strings,
such as ‘'ascii'’, ‘'utf-8'’, ‘'iso-8859-1'’, or whatever.  A codec API
is defined for implementing and registering new encodings that are then
available throughout a Python program.  If an encoding isn’t specified,
the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII, though it can be changed
for your Python installation by calling the
‘sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)’ function in a customized version of
‘site.py’.

Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the
default ASCII encoding; the result of ‘'a' + u'bc'’ is ‘u'abc'’.

New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified
to support Unicode:

   * ‘unichr(ch)’ returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing
     the character 'ch'.

   * ‘ord(u)’, where 'u' is a 1-character regular or Unicode string,
     returns the number of the character as an integer.

   * ‘unicode(string [, encoding] [, errors] )’ creates a Unicode string
     from an 8-bit string.  ‘encoding’ is a string naming the encoding
     to use.  The ‘errors’ parameter specifies the treatment of
     characters that are invalid for the current encoding; passing
     ‘'strict'’ as the value causes an exception to be raised on any
     encoding error, while ‘'ignore'’ causes errors to be silently
     ignored and ‘'replace'’ uses U+FFFD, the official replacement
     character, in case of any problems.

   * The ‘exec’ statement, and various built-ins such as ‘eval()’,
     ‘getattr()’, and ‘setattr()’ will also accept Unicode strings as
     well as regular strings.  (It’s possible that the process of fixing
     this missed some built-ins; if you find a built-in function that
     accepts strings but doesn’t accept Unicode strings at all, please
     report it as a bug.)

A new module, *note unicodedata: 105, provides an interface to Unicode
character properties.  For example, ‘unicodedata.category(u'A')’ returns
the 2-character string ‘Lu’, the ‘L’ denoting it’s a letter, and ‘u’
meaning that it’s uppercase.  ‘unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')’
returns ‘AN’, meaning that U+0660 is an Arabic number.

The *note codecs: 1b. module contains functions to look up existing
encodings and register new ones.  Unless you want to implement a new
encoding, you’ll most often use the ‘codecs.lookup(encoding)’ function,
which returns a 4-element tuple: ‘(encode_func, decode_func,
stream_reader, stream_writer)’.

   * 'encode_func' is a function that takes a Unicode string, and
     returns a 2-tuple ‘(string, length)’.  'string' is an 8-bit string
     containing a portion (perhaps all) of the Unicode string converted
     into the given encoding, and 'length' tells you how much of the
     Unicode string was converted.

   * 'decode_func' is the opposite of 'encode_func', taking an 8-bit
     string and returning a 2-tuple ‘(ustring, length)’, consisting of
     the resulting Unicode string 'ustring' and the integer 'length'
     telling how much of the 8-bit string was consumed.

   * 'stream_reader' is a class that supports decoding input from a
     stream.  'stream_reader(file_obj)' returns an object that supports
     the ‘read()’, ‘readline()’, and ‘readlines()’ methods.  These
     methods will all translate from the given encoding and return
     Unicode strings.

   * 'stream_writer', similarly, is a class that supports encoding
     output to a stream.  'stream_writer(file_obj)' returns an object
     that supports the ‘write()’ and ‘writelines()’ methods.  These
     methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given
     encoding on output.

For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file,
encoding it as UTF-8:

     import codecs

     unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'

     (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
      UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')

     output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
     output.write( unistr )
     output.close()

The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file:

     input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
     print repr(input.read())
     input.close()

Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the *note re:
b9. module, which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written
by Fredrik Lundh of Secret Labs AB.

A ‘-U’ command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to
interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals.  This is
intended to be used in testing and future-proofing your Python code,
since some future version of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings
and provide only Unicode strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/


File: python.info,  Node: List Comprehensions,  Next: Augmented Assignment,  Prev: Unicode<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.5 List Comprehensions
--------------------------

Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate
a list at some point.  Two common operations on lists are to loop over
them, and either pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or
apply some function to each element.  For example, given a list of
strings, you might want to pull out all the strings containing a given
substring, or strip off trailing whitespace from each line.

The existing *note map(): 85e. and *note filter(): 85f. functions can be
used for this purpose, but they require a function as one of their
arguments.  This is fine if there’s an existing built-in function that
can be passed directly, but if there isn’t, you have to create a little
function to do the required work, and Python’s scoping rules make the
result ugly if the little function needs additional information.  Take
the first example in the previous paragraph, finding all the strings in
the list containing a given substring.  You could write the following to
do it:

     # Given the list L, make a list of all strings
     # containing the substring S.
     sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
                          string.find(s, substring) != -1,
                       L)

Because of Python’s scoping rules, a default argument is used so that
the anonymous function created by the *note lambda: 128c. expression
knows what substring is being searched for.  List comprehensions make
this cleaner:

     sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]

List comprehensions have the form:

     [ expression for expr in sequence1
                  for expr2 in sequence2 ...
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if condition ]

The ‘for’…‘in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are 'not'
iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained
more clearly in the following paragraphs.  The elements of the generated
list will be the successive values of 'expression'.  The final ‘if’
clause is optional; if present, 'expression' is only evaluated and added
to the result if 'condition' is true.

To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to
the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         for expr2 in sequence2:
         ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                  if (condition):
                       # Append the value of
                       # the expression to the
                       # resulting list.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for’…‘in’ clauses, the
resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all the
sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9
elements long:

     seq1 = 'abc'
     seq2 = (1,2,3)
     >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
     ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if 'expression'
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # Syntax error
     [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional
programming language Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org’).  Greg Ewing
argued most effectively for adding them to Python and wrote the initial
list comprehension patch, which was then discussed for a seemingly
endless time on the python-dev mailing list and kept up-to-date by Skip
Montanaro.


File: python.info,  Node: Augmented Assignment,  Next: String Methods,  Prev: List Comprehensions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.6 Augmented Assignment
---------------------------

Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have
been added to Python 2.0.  Augmented assignment operators include ‘+=’,
‘-=’, ‘*=’, and so forth.  For example, the statement ‘a += 2’
increments the value of the variable ‘a’ by 2, equivalent to the
slightly lengthier ‘a = a + 2’.

The full list of supported assignment operators is ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’,
‘/=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’, ‘&=’, ‘|=’, ‘^=’, ‘>>=’, and ‘<<=’.  Python classes
can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
named ‘__iadd__()’, ‘__isub__()’, etc.  For example, the following
‘Number’ class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
instance with an incremented value.

     class Number:
         def __init__(self, value):
             self.value = value
         def __iadd__(self, increment):
             return Number( self.value + increment)

     n = Number(5)
     n += 3
     print n.value

The ‘__iadd__()’ special method is called with the value of the
increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately
modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the
variable on the left-hand side.

Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C
programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as ‘awk’, C++,
Java, Perl, and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch
was implemented by Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: String Methods,  Next: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Prev: Augmented Assignment,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.7 String Methods
---------------------

Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the *note string: d3.
module, which was usually a front-end for the ‘strop’ module written in
C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the ‘strop’ module,
because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept
either 8-bit or Unicode strings.  For functions such as
‘string.replace()’, which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight
possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code.

Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making
string manipulation functionality available through methods on both
8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

     >>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
     'Andrew'
     >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
     'hlinuxtname'
     >>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
     2

One thing that hasn’t changed, a noteworthy April Fools’ joke
notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable.  Thus, the string
methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they
operate.

The old *note string: d3. module is still around for backwards
compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string
methods.

Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they
did exist in JPython for quite some time, are ‘startswith()’ and
‘endswith()’.  ‘s.startswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[:len(t)] == t’,
while ‘s.endswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[-len(t):] == t’.

One other method which deserves special mention is ‘join()’.  The
‘join()’ method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of
strings, and is equivalent to the ‘string.join()’ function from the old
*note string: d3. module, with the arguments reversed.  In other words,
‘s.join(seq)’ is equivalent to the old ‘string.join(seq, s)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Next: Other Core Changes,  Prev: String Methods,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.8 Garbage Collection of Cycles
-----------------------------------

The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement
garbage collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number
of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references
are created or destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the
object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an
object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any
longer.

Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it’s easy to understand
and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly
fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own
memory handling schemes.  The major problem with reference counting is
that it sometimes doesn’t realise that objects are no longer accessible,
resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when there are cycles of
references.

Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a
reference to itself:

     instance = SomeClass()
     instance.myself = instance

After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference
count of ‘instance’ is 2; one reference is from the variable named
‘'instance'’, and the other is from the ‘myself’ attribute of the
instance.

If the next line of code is ‘del instance’, what happens?  The reference
count of ‘instance’ is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1;
the reference in the ‘myself’ attribute still exists.  Yet the instance
is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.
Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to
each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked.

Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle
detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the
objects involved.  A new *note gc: 60. module provides functions to
perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning
the collector’s parameters.

Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore
will result in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we’ve
gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1
will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning.  It’s not yet
obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is
tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and
destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python
is compiled, if you can’t afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect
that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
‘--without-cycle-gc’ switch when running the ‘configure’ script.

Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An
early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby
Kelsey.  The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a
visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two
different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of
other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives
of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion,
especially in the threads titled “Reference cycle collection for Python”
and “Finalization again”.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Core Changes,  Next: Porting to 2 0,  Prev: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.9 Other Core Changes
-------------------------

Various minor changes have been made to Python’s syntax and built-in
functions.  None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they’re handy
conveniences.

* Menu:

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Minor Language Changes,  Next: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.22.9.1 Minor Language Changes
...............................

A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a
tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments.  In Python
1.5 and earlier, you’d use the ‘apply()’ built-in function: ‘apply(f,
args, kw)’ calls the function ‘f()’ with the argument tuple 'args' and
the keyword arguments in the dictionary 'kw'.  ‘apply()’ is the same in
2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, ‘f(*args, **kw)’ is a
shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect.  This syntax is
symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions:

     def f(*args, **kw):
         # args is a tuple of positional args,
         # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
         ...

The ‘print’ statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
object by following the ‘print’ with ‘>> file’, similar to the
redirection operator in Unix shells.  Previously you’d either have to
use the ‘write()’ method of the file-like object, which lacks the
convenience and simplicity of ‘print’, or you could assign a new value
to ‘sys.stdout’ and then restore the old value.  For sending output to
standard error, it’s much easier to write this:

     print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"

Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ‘import
module as name’ or ‘from module import name as othername’.  The patch
was submitted by Thomas Wouters.

A new format style is available when using the ‘%’ operator; ‘%r’ will
insert the *note repr(): 7f7. of its argument.  This was also added from
symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing ‘%s’
format style, which inserts the *note str(): 445. of its argument.  For
example, ‘'%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc')’ returns a string containing ‘'abc'
abc’.

Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python’s
built-in *note in: 2ec. operator and implemented a custom version.  ‘obj
in seq’ returns true if 'obj' is present in the sequence 'seq'; Python
computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either
'obj' is found or an *note IndexError: 14fc. is encountered.  Moshe
Zadka contributed a patch which adds a ‘__contains__()’ magic method for
providing a custom implementation for ‘in’.  Additionally, new built-in
objects written in C can define what ‘in’ means for them via a new slot
in the sequence protocol.

Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting
objects.  Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to
fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion
logic to fix this problem.  On a related note, comparing recursive
objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code
to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead.  For example,
after this code:

     a = []
     b = []
     a.append(a)
     b.append(b)

The comparison ‘a==b’ returns true, because the two recursive data
structures are isomorphic.  See the thread “trashcan and PR#7” in the
April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion
leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links.  Note
that comparisons can now also raise exceptions.  In earlier versions of
Python, a comparison operation such as ‘cmp(a,b)’ would always produce
an answer, even if a user-defined ‘__cmp__()’ method encountered an
error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed.

Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium
processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly,
‘sys.platform’ is still ‘'win32'’ on Win64 because it seems that for
ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.)
PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at
‘https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/’ for more information.

Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in
Python 2.0.  Dynamic loading works, if you specify “configure –with-dyld
–with-suffix=.x”.  Consult the README in the Python source distribution
for more instructions.

An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python’s warts, the
often-confusing *note NameError: 438. exception when code refers to a
local variable before the variable has been assigned a value.  For
example, the following code raises an exception on the ‘print’ statement
in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a *note NameError: 438. exception is
raised, while 2.0 raises a new *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. exception.
*note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. is a subclass of *note NameError: 438, so
any existing code that expects *note NameError: 438. to be raised should
still work.

     def f():
         print "i=",i
         i = i + 1
     f()

Two new exceptions, *note TabError: 53e. and *note IndentationError:
7a1, have been introduced.  They’re both subclasses of *note
SyntaxError: 18d, and are raised when Python code is found to be
improperly indented.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Prev: Minor Language Changes,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.22.9.2 Changes to Built-in Functions
......................................

A new built-in, ‘zip(seq1, seq2, ...)’, has been added.  *note zip():
7c9. returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element
from each of the argument sequences.  The difference between *note
zip(): 7c9. and ‘map(None, seq1, seq2)’ is that *note map(): 85e. pads
the sequences with ‘None’ if the sequences aren’t all of the same
length, while *note zip(): 7c9. truncates the returned list to the
length of the shortest argument sequence.

The *note int(): 257. and ‘long()’ functions now accept an optional
“base” parameter when the first argument is a string.  ‘int('123', 10)’
returns 123, while ‘int('123', 16)’ returns 291.  ‘int(123, 16)’ raises
a *note TypeError: 532. exception with the message “can’t convert
non-string with explicit base”.

A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added
to the *note sys: d9. module.  ‘sys.version_info’ is a tuple ‘(major,
minor, micro, level, serial)’ For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1,
‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)’.  'level' is a string
such as ‘"alpha"’, ‘"beta"’, or ‘"final"’ for a final release.

Dictionaries have an odd new method, ‘setdefault(key, default)’, which
behaves similarly to the existing ‘get()’ method.  However, if the key
is missing, ‘setdefault()’ both returns the value of 'default' as
‘get()’ would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value
for 'key'.  Thus, the following lines of code:

     if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
     else:
         dict[key] = []
         return dict[key]

can be reduced to a single ‘return dict.setdefault(key, [])’ statement.

The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the
maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4be. and *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bd.
The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given
platform can be found by running a new script,
‘Misc/find_recursionlimit.py’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to 2 0,  Next: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Prev: Other Core Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.10 Porting to 2.0
----------------------

New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases,
and the record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are
considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design
decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking
backward compatibility can’t always be avoided.  This section lists the
changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break.

The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple
arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods
such as ‘append()’ and ‘insert()’.  In earlier versions of Python, if
‘L’ is a list, ‘L.append( 1,2 )’ appends the tuple ‘(1,2)’ to the list.
In Python 2.0 this causes a *note TypeError: 532. exception to be
raised, with the message: ‘append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given’.
The fix is to simply add an extra set of parentheses to pass both values
as a tuple: ‘L.append( (1,2) )’.

The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they
used an old function in Python’s C interface to parse their arguments;
2.0 modernizes them to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c, the current
argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages
and treats multi-argument calls as errors.  If you absolutely must use
2.0 but can’t fix your code, you can edit ‘Objects/listobject.c’ and
define the preprocessor symbol ‘NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND’ to preserve the
old behaviour; this isn’t recommended.

Some of the functions in the *note socket: cc. module are still
forgiving in this way.  For example, ‘socket.connect( ('hostname', 25)
)’ is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but
‘socket.connect('hostname', 25)’ also works.  *note socket.connect_ex:
1500. and *note socket.bind: 1501. are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1
tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually
used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which
would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out the changes in
the face of public reaction, so for the *note socket: cc. module, the
documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked
as deprecated; it 'will' be tightened up again in a future Python
version.

The ‘\x’ escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.
Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the ‘x’ and
take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so ‘\x123456’ was equivalent to
‘\x56’.

The *note AttributeError: 346. and *note NameError: 438. exceptions have
a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like ‘'Spam'
instance has no attribute 'eggs'’ or ‘name 'eggs' is not defined’.
Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name ‘eggs’,
and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.

Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to
allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some
code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to
multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a *note
TypeError: 532.  In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice
a sequence, and it’ll behave as you’d intuitively expect it to; ‘3L *
'abc'’ produces ‘abcabcabc’, and ‘(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]’ produces (2,3).
Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only
integers were accepted, such as in the ‘seek()’ method of file objects,
and in the formats supported by the ‘%’ operator (‘%d’, ‘%i’, ‘%x’,
etc.).  For example, ‘"%d" % 2L**64’ will produce the string
‘18446744073709551616’.

The subtlest long integer change of all is that the *note str(): 445. of
a long integer no longer has a trailing ‘L’ character, though *note
repr(): 7f7. still includes it.  The ‘L’ annoyed many people who wanted
to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since
they had to go out of their way to chop off the character.  This is no
longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does ‘str(longval)[:-1]’ and
assumes the ‘L’ is there, will now lose the final digit.

Taking the *note repr(): 7f7. of a float now uses a different formatting
precision than *note str(): 445.  *note repr(): 7f7. uses ‘%.17g’ format
string for C’s ‘sprintf()’, while *note str(): 445. uses ‘%.12g’ as
before.  The effect is that *note repr(): 7f7. may occasionally show
more decimal places than *note str(): 445, for certain numbers.  For
example, the number 8.1 can’t be represented exactly in binary, so
‘repr(8.1)’ is ‘'8.0999999999999996'’, while str(8.1) is ‘'8.1'’.

The ‘-X’ command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions
will now always be classes.  The ‘exceptions’ module containing the
standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module,
written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Next: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Prev: Porting to 2 0,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.11 Extending/Embedding Changes
-----------------------------------

Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to
people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in
a larger application.  If you aren’t dealing with Python’s C API, you
can safely skip this section.

The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions
compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On
Windows, it’s not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party
extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python
will raise an exception and the import will fail.

Users of Jim Fulton’s ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out
that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
*note isinstance(): 43b. and *note issubclass(): 7ba.  This means you no
longer have to remember to write code such as ‘if type(obj) ==
myExtensionClass’, but can use the more natural ‘if isinstance(obj,
myExtensionClass)’.

The ‘Python/importdl.c’ file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and
reorganised by Greg Stein.  ‘importdl.c’ is now quite small, and
platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of
‘Python/dynload_*.c’ files.  Another cleanup: there were also a number
of ‘my*.h’ files in the Include/ directory that held various portability
hacks; they’ve been merged into a single file, ‘Include/pyport.h’.

Vladimir Marangozov’s long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed,
to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator
instead of C’s standard ‘malloc()’.  For documentation, read the
comments in ‘Include/pymem.h’ and ‘Include/objimpl.h’.  For the lengthy
discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web
archives of the ‘patches’ and ‘python-dev’ lists at python.org.

Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support
POSIX threads.  Therefore, Python’s POSIX threading support now works on
the Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU ‘pth’ library
was also contributed.

Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread
locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common
case when there’s no contention, they use simpler functions which are an
order of magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is
twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the
difference is only 10%.  These improvements were contributed by Yakov
Markovitch.

Python 2.0’s source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python
now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a
compiler that only supports K&R C.

Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its
bytecode, limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this
affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python
source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run
into this limit.  A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from
‘2**16’ to ‘2**32’.

Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a
module’s dictionary at module initialization time were added: *note
PyModule_AddObject(): 35f, *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 1503, and
*note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 1504.  Each of these functions takes
a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be
added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name.
This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
string.

A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers.  *note
PyOS_getsig(): 1505. gets a signal handler and *note PyOS_setsig():
1506. will set a new handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Next: XML Modules,  Prev: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.12 Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
-------------------------------------------------

Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair – there was
no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what
compiler options to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to
go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration
files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS
unsupported.  Python users faced wildly differing installation
instructions which varied between different extension packages, which
made administering a Python installation something of a chore.

The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created
the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They
form the ‘distutils’ package, a new part of Python’s standard library.
In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require
the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive,
and the run “‘python setup.py install’”.  The platform will be
automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension
modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper
directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide more control over
the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to
override defaults – separating the build from the install, building or
installing in non-default directories, and more.

In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a ‘setup.py’ script.
For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a
minimal ‘setup.py’ can be just a few lines long:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])

The ‘setup.py’ file isn’t much more complicated if the software consists
of a few packages:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])

A C extension can be the most complicated case; here’s an example taken
from the PyXML package:

     from distutils.core import setup, Extension

     expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
          define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
          include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
                           'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
          sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
            )
     setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
            ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )

The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary
distributions.  The “sdist” command, run by “‘python setup.py sdist’’,
builds a source distribution such as ‘foo-1.0.tar.gz’.  Adding new
commands isn’t difficult, “bdist_rpm” and “bdist_wininst” commands have
already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows
installer for the software, respectively.  Commands to create other
distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris ‘.pkg’ files
are in various stages of development.

All this is documented in a new manual, 'Distributing Python Modules',
that joins the basic set of Python documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: XML Modules,  Next: Module changes,  Prev: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.13 XML Modules
-------------------

Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the ‘xmllib’
module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2’s release, two
different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2
(version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface
with some similarities to ‘xmllib’, and the DOM (Document Object Model)
provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a
tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a
SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the *note
xml: 120. package.  Here we will give a brief overview of these new
interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for
complete details.  The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
documentation.

* Menu:

* SAX2 Support::
* DOM Support::
* Relationship to PyXML::


File: python.info,  Node: SAX2 Support,  Next: DOM Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.22.13.1 SAX2 Support
......................

SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you
must write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various
classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be
called by the XML parser.  For example, the *note startElement(): 150a.
and *note endElement(): 150b. methods are called for every starting and
end tag encountered by the parser, the *note characters(): 150c. method
is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth.

The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document
doesn’t have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if
you are processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX
handler class can get very complicated if you’re trying to modify the
document structure in some elaborate way.

For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a
message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file
‘hamlet.xml’ using it:

     from xml import sax

     class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
         def startElement(self, name, attrs):
             print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()

         def endElement(self, name):
             print 'End of element:', name

     # Create a parser object
     parser = sax.make_parser()

     # Tell it what handler to use
     handler = SimpleHandler()
     parser.setContentHandler( handler )

     # Parse a file!
     parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )

For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO
at ‘https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Support,  Next: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: SAX2 Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.22.13.2 DOM Support
.....................

The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML
document.  A top-level ‘Document’ instance is the root of the tree, and
has a single child which is the top-level ‘Element’ instance.  This
‘Element’ has children nodes representing character data and any
sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so
forth.  Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you
like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and
convert the tree back into XML.

The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a
DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and
then produce a new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM
tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of
producing XML output than simply writing ‘<tag1>’…‘</tag1>’ to a file.

The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 122. module.  It’s a lightweight implementation of the
Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces.  The ‘parse()’ and
‘parseString()’ convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM
tree:

     from xml.dom import minidom
     doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')

‘doc’ is a ‘Document’ instance.  ‘Document’, like all the other DOM
classes such as ‘Element’ and ‘Text’, is a subclass of the ‘Node’ base
class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common
methods, such as ‘toxml()’ which returns a string containing the XML
representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has
special methods of its own; for example, ‘Element’ and ‘Document’
instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag
name.  Continuing from the previous 2-line example:

     perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
     print perslist[0].toxml()
     print perslist[1].toxml()

For the 'Hamlet' XML file, the above few lines output:

     <PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
     <PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>

The root element of the document is available as ‘doc.documentElement’,
and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing
nodes:

     root = doc.documentElement

     # Remove the first child
     root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Move the new first child to the end
     root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Insert the new first child (originally,
     # the third child) before the 20th child.
     root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )

Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete
listing of the different ‘Node’ classes and their various methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: DOM Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.22.13.3 Relationship to PyXML
...............................

The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python
code for a while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available
from the SIG’s web pages at
‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig’.  The PyXML
distribution also used the package name ‘xml’.  If you’ve written
programs that used PyXML, you’re probably wondering about its
compatibility with the 2.0 *note xml: 120. package.

The answer is that Python 2.0’s *note xml: 120. package isn’t compatible
with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version
PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is
included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require
that the full PyXML package will be installed.  When installed, PyXML
versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the *note xml: 120. package
shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard
package, adding a bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional
features in PyXML include:

   * 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.

   * The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.

   * The ‘sgmlop’ parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Module changes,  Next: New modules,  Prev: XML Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.14 Module changes
----------------------

Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python’s extensive
standard library; some of the affected modules include *note readline:
ba, *note ConfigParser: 22, ‘cgi’, *note calendar: 14, *note posix: ad,
*note readline: ba, ‘xmllib’, ‘aifc’, ‘chunk’, *note wave: 113, *note
random: b8, *note shelve: c3, and ‘nntplib’.  Consult the CVS logs for
the exact patch-by-patch details.

Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the *note socket: cc.
module.  OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which
encrypts the data being sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you
can edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to include SSL support, which adds an
additional function to the *note socket: cc. module: ‘socket.ssl(socket,
keyfile, certfile)’, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL
socket.  The *note httplib: 6e. and *note urllib: 108. modules were also
changed to support ‘https://’ URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or
SMTP over SSL.

The *note httplib: 6e. module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to
support HTTP/1.1.

Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of ‘httplib’ is provided,
though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting
code to use a different set of interfaces.

The ‘Tkinter’ module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module
now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets.  Also, Fredrik
Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like
‘create_line’ and ‘create_polygon’ much faster, especially when using
lots of coordinates.

The *note curses: 2b. module has been greatly extended, starting from
Oliver Andrich’s enhanced version, to provide many additional functions
from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set
support, pads, and mouse support.  This means the module is no longer
compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there
don’t seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this
category.

As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0’s Unicode support, the
underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the
*note re: b9. module has been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression
engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard,
supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.


File: python.info,  Node: New modules,  Next: IDLE Improvements,  Prev: Module changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.15 New modules
-------------------

A number of new modules were added.  We’ll simply list them with brief
descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a
particular module.

   * *note atexit: c.: For registering functions to be called before the
     Python interpreter exits.  Code that currently sets ‘sys.exitfunc’
     directly should be changed to use the *note atexit: c. module
     instead, importing *note atexit: c. and calling *note
     atexit.register(): 879. with the function to be called on exit.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note codecs: 1b, ‘encodings’, *note unicodedata: 105.: Added as
     part of the new Unicode support.

   * *note filecmp: 5a.: Supersedes the old ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’ and
     ‘dircmp’ modules, which have now become deprecated.  (Contributed
     by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)

   * *note gettext: 63.: This module provides internationalization
     (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by
     providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library.
     (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin
     von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)

   * ‘linuxaudiodev’: Support for the ‘/dev/audio’ device on Linux, a
     twin to the existing ‘sunaudiodev’ module.  (Contributed by Peter
     Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * *note mmap: 90.: An interface to memory-mapped files on both
     Windows and Unix.  A file’s contents can be mapped directly into
     memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its
     contents can be read and modified.  They can even be passed to
     functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the *note re: b9.
     module.  (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M.
     Kuchling.)

   * ‘pyexpat’: An interface to the Expat XML parser.  (Contributed by
     Paul Prescod.)

   * *note robotparser: 10d.: Parse a ‘robots.txt’ file, which is used
     for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web
     site.  The parser accepts the contents of a ‘robots.txt’ file,
     builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about
     the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note tabnanny: dd.: A module/script to check Python source code
     for ambiguous indentation.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * ‘UserString’: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave
     like strings.

   * *note webbrowser: 115.: A module that provides a platform
     independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each
     platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order.  The user
     can alter which browser is launched by setting the 'BROWSER'
     environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond’s
     patch to *note urllib: 108. which added similar functionality, but
     the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred
     Drake as ‘Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py’, and adapted for the
     standard library by Fred.)

   * *note _winreg: 116.: An interface to the Windows registry.
     ‘_winreg’ is an adaptation of functions that have been part of
     PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core
     distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.  ‘_winreg’ was
     written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.

   * *note zipfile: 131.: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format
     archives.  These are archives produced by ‘PKZIP’ on DOS/Windows or
     ‘zip’ on Unix, not to be confused with ‘gzip’-format files (which
     are supported by the *note gzip: 67. module) (Contributed by James
     C. Ahlstrom.)

   * ‘imputil’: A module that provides a simpler way for writing
     customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ‘ihooks’
     module.  (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on
     python-dev along the way.)


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE Improvements,  Next: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: New modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.16 IDLE Improvements
-------------------------

IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter.
Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and
improvements.  A partial list:

   * UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
     highlighting and auto-indentation.

   * The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level
     functions in a module.

   * Tab width is now a user settable option.  When opening an existing
     Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation
     conventions, and adapts.

   * There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms,
     used to open the Python documentation in a browser.

   * IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the
     vanilla Python interpreter.

   * Call tips were added in many places.

   * IDLE can now be installed as a package.

   * In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.

   * Three new keystroke commands: Check module (‘Alt’-‘F5’), Import
     module (‘F5’) and Run script (‘Ctrl’-‘F5’).


File: python.info,  Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Acknowledgements<8>,  Prev: IDLE Improvements,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.17 Deleted and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------

A few modules have been dropped because they’re obsolete, or because
there are now better ways to do the same thing.  The ‘stdwin’ module is
gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that’s no
longer developed.

A number of modules have been moved to the ‘lib-old’ subdirectory:
‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’, ‘dircmp’, ‘dump’, ‘find’, ‘grep’, ‘packmail’, ‘poly’,
‘util’, ‘whatsound’, ‘zmod’.  If you have code which relies on a module
that’s been moved to ‘lib-old’, you can simply add that directory to
‘sys.path’ to get them back, but you’re encouraged to update any code
that uses these modules.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<8>,  Prev: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.22.18 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The authors would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark
Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert,
Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido
van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.

“Changelog” 는 Misc/NEWS.d(1) 디렉터리 트리의 내용으로부터 만들어진 파일
(2)의 HTML 버전입니다.  현재 버전의 파이썬에 적용된 '모든' 사소하지 않은
변경들을 담고 있습니다

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Misc/NEWS.d

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/blurb/


File: python.info,  Node: Changelog,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Up: 파이썬의 새로운 기능

1.23 Changelog
==============

* Menu:

* Python next::
* Python 3.13.7 final: Python 3 13 7 final.
* Python 3.13.6 final: Python 3 13 6 final.
* Python 3.13.5 final: Python 3 13 5 final.
* Python 3.13.4 final: Python 3 13 4 final.
* Python 3.13.3 final: Python 3 13 3 final.
* Python 3.13.2 final: Python 3 13 2 final.
* Python 3.13.1 final: Python 3 13 1 final.
* Python 3.13.0 final: Python 3 13 0 final.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 4: Python 3 13 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 3: Python 3 13 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 2: Python 3 13 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python next,  Next: Python 3 13 7 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.1 Python next
------------------

'Release date: XXXX-XX-XX'

* Menu:

* Tools/Demos::
* Security::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::
* C API::
* Build::


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos,  Next: Security,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.1 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-137873(1): The iOS test runner has been simplified, resolving
     some issues that have been observed using the runner in GitHub
     Actions and Azure Pipelines test environments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137873


File: python.info,  Node: Security,  Next: Library,  Prev: Tools/Demos,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.2 Security
.................

   - gh-135661(1): Fix CDATA section parsing in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. according to the HTML5 standard: ‘]
     ]>’ and ‘]] >’ no longer end the CDATA section.  Add private method
     ‘_set_support_cdata()’ which can be used to specify how to parse
     ‘<[CDATA[’ — as a CDATA section in foreign content (SVG or MathML)
     or as a bogus comment in the HTML namespace.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661


File: python.info,  Node: Library,  Next: Core and Builtins,  Prev: Security,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.3 Library
................

   - gh-134869(1): Fix an issue where pressing Ctrl+C during tab
     completion in the REPL would leave the autocompletion menu in a
     corrupted state.

   - gh-137317(2): *note inspect.signature(): 731. now correctly handles
     classes that use a descriptor on a wrapped ‘__init__()’ or
     ‘__new__()’ method.  Contributed by Yongyu Yan.

   - gh-137754(3): Fix import of the *note zoneinfo: 134. module if the
     C implementation of the *note datetime: 30. module is not
     available.

   - gh-137477(4): Fix ‘inspect.getblock()’, *note
     inspect.getsourcelines(): 151a. and *note inspect.getsource():
     151b. for generator expressions.

   - gh-136134(5): ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5()’ now raises an *note
     SMTPException: f98. instead of a *note ValueError: 202. if Python
     has been built without MD5 support.  In particular, *note SMTP:
     92b. clients will not attempt to use this method even if the remote
     server is assumed to support it.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-136134(6): *note IMAP4.login_cram_md5: 151c. now raises an *note
     IMAP4.error: 151d. if CRAM-MD5 authentication is not supported.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135386(7): Fix opening a *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. database for
     reading from read-only file or directory.

   - gh-123085(8): In a bare call to *note importlib.resources.files():
     488, ensure the caller’s frame is properly detected when
     ‘importlib.resources’ is itself available as a compiled module only
     (no source).

   - bpo-41839(9): Allow negative priority values from *note
     os.sched_get_priority_min(): 10fa. and *note
     os.sched_get_priority_max(): 10f9. functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134869

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137317

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137754

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137477

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136134

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136134

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135386

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123085

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41839


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins,  Next: C API,  Prev: Library,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.4 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-137576(1): Fix for incorrect source code being shown in
     tracebacks from the Basic REPL when *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. is
     given.  Patch by Adam Hartz.

   - gh-132744(2): Certain calls now check for runaway recursion and
     respect the system recursion limit.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137576

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132744


File: python.info,  Node: C API,  Next: Build,  Prev: Core and Builtins,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.5 C API
..............

   - gh-87135(1): Attempting to acquire the GIL after runtime
     finalization has begun in a different thread now causes the thread
     to hang rather than terminate, which avoids potential crashes or
     memory corruption caused by attempting to terminate a thread that
     is running code not specifically designed to support termination.
     In most cases this hanging is harmless since the process will soon
     exit anyway.

     While not officially marked deprecated until 3.14,
     ‘PyThread_exit_thread’ is no longer called internally and remains
     solely for interface compatibility.  Its behavior is inconsistent
     across platforms, and it can only be used safely in the unlikely
     case that every function in the entire call stack has been designed
     to support the platform-dependent termination mechanism.  It is
     recommended that users of this function change their design to not
     require thread termination.  In the unlikely case that thread
     termination is needed and can be done safely, users may migrate to
     calling platform-specific APIs such as ‘pthread_exit’ (POSIX) or
     ‘_endthreadex’ (Windows) directly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87135


File: python.info,  Node: Build,  Prev: C API,  Up: Python next

1.23.1.6 Build
..............

   - gh-135734(1): Python can correctly be configured and built with
     ‘./configure --enable-optimizations --disable-test-modules’.
     Previously, the profile data generation step failed due to PGO
     tests where immortalization couldn’t be properly suppressed.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135734


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 7 final,  Next: Python 3 13 6 final,  Prev: Python next,  Up: Changelog

1.23.2 Python 3.13.7 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-08-14'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<2>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<2>,  Next: Documentation<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 7 final

1.23.2.1 Library
................

   - gh-137583(1): Fix a deadlock introduced in 3.13.6 when a call to
     *note ssl.SSLSocket.recv: da0. was blocked in one thread, and then
     another method on the object (such as *note ssl.SSLSocket.send:
     da3.) was subsequently called in another thread.

   - gh-137044(2): Return large limit values as positive integers
     instead of negative integers in *note resource.getrlimit(): 1523.
     Accept large values and reject negative values (except *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 1524.) for limits in *note resource.setrlimit():
     1525.

   - gh-136914(3): Fix retrieval of *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 1526.
     for objects decorated with *note functools.cache(): 1527. or *note
     functools.cached_property: 53c.

   - gh-131788(4): Make ‘ResourceTracker.send’ from *note
     multiprocessing: 94. re-entrant safe

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137583

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137044

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136914

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131788


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<2>,  Next: Core and Builtins<2>,  Prev: Library<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 7 final

1.23.2.2 Documentation
......................

   - gh-136155(1): We are now checking for fatal errors in EPUB builds
     in CI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136155


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<2>,  Prev: Documentation<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 7 final

1.23.2.3 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-137400(1): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 152a. build
     when disabling profiling or tracing across all threads with *note
     PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 55a. or *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41c. or their Python equivalents *note
     threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4c2. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4c3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137400


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 6 final,  Next: Python 3 13 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 7 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.3 Python 3.13.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-08-06'

* Menu:

* macOS::
* Windows::
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests::
* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* Build: Build<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS,  Next: Windows,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-137450(1): macOS installer shell path management improvements:
     separate the installer ‘Shell profile updater’ postinstall script
     from the ‘Update Shell Profile.command’ to enable more robust error
     handling.

   - gh-137134(2): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite version
     3.50.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137450

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134


File: python.info,  Node: Windows,  Next: Tools/Demos<2>,  Prev: macOS,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.2 Windows
................

   - gh-137134(1): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.50.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<2>,  Next: Tests,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-135968(1): Stubs for ‘strip’ are now provided as part of an iOS
     install.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135968


File: python.info,  Node: Tests,  Next: Security<2>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-135966(1): The iOS testbed now handles the ‘app_packages’ folder
     as a site directory.

   - gh-135494(2): Fix regrtest to support excluding tests from ‘--pgo’
     tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-135489(3): Show verbose output for failing tests during PGO
     profiling step with –enable-optimizations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135966

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135494

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135489


File: python.info,  Node: Security<2>,  Next: Library<3>,  Prev: Tests,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.5 Security
.................

   - gh-135661(1): Fix parsing start and end tags in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. according to the HTML5 standard.

        * Whitespaces no longer accepted between ‘</’ and the tag name.
          E.g.  ‘</ script>’ does not end the script section.

        * Vertical tabulation (‘\v’) and non-ASCII whitespaces no longer
          recognized as whitespaces.  The only whitespaces are
          ‘\t\n\r\f’ and space.

        * Null character (U+0000) no longer ends the tag name.

        * Attributes and slashes after the tag name in end tags are now
          ignored, instead of terminating after the first ‘>’ in quoted
          attribute value.  E.g.  ‘</script/foo=">"/>’.

        * Multiple slashes and whitespaces between the last attribute
          and closing ‘>’ are now ignored in both start and end tags.
          E.g.  ‘<a foo=bar/ //>’.

        * Multiple ‘=’ between attribute name and value are no longer
          collapsed.  E.g.  ‘<a foo==bar>’ produces attribute “foo” with
          value “=bar”.

   - gh-102555(2): Fix comment parsing in *note html.parser.HTMLParser:
     872. according to the HTML5 standard.  ‘--!>’ now ends the comment.
     ‘-- >’ no longer ends the comment.  Support abnormally ended empty
     comments ‘<-->’ and ‘<--->’.

   - gh-135462(3): Fix quadratic complexity in processing specially
     crafted input in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 872.  End-of-file
     errors are now handled according to the HTML5 specs – comments and
     declarations are automatically closed, tags are ignored.

   - gh-118350(4): Fix support of escapable raw text mode (elements
     “textarea” and “title”) in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 872.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102555

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135462

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118350


File: python.info,  Node: Library<3>,  Next: Documentation<3>,  Prev: Security<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.6 Library
................

   - gh-132710(1): If possible, ensure that *note uuid.getnode(): ba4.
     returns the same result even across different processes.
     Previously, the result was constant only within the same process.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-137273(2): Fix debug assertion failure in *note
     locale.setlocale(): 2dd. on Windows.

   - gh-137257(3): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 25.2

   - gh-81325(4): *note tarfile.TarFile: 11ff. now accepts a *note
     path-like: 2a0. when working on a tar archive.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-81325(5).)

   - gh-130522(6): Fix unraisable *note TypeError: 532. raised during
     *note interpreter shutdown: 14e. in the *note threading: ed.
     module.

   - gh-130577(7): *note tarfile: de. now validates archives to ensure
     member offsets are non-negative.  (Contributed by Alexander Enrique
     Urieles Nieto in gh-130577(8).)

   - gh-136549(9): Fix signature of *note threading.excepthook(): 845.

   - gh-136523(10): Fix *note wave.Wave_write: 2b7. emitting an
     unraisable when open raises.

   - gh-52876(11): Add missing ‘keepends’ (default ‘True’) parameter to
     ‘codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readline()’ and
     ‘codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readlines()’.

   - gh-85702(12): If ‘zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata’ is given a package
     without a resource a *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 1532. is
     raised rather than a *note PermissionError: d3f.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-134759(13): Fix *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 11bc. when the payload to
     decode is a *note bytes: 1c2. object.  Patch by Kliment Lamonov.

   - gh-136028(14): Fix parsing month names containing “İ” (U+0130,
     LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH DOT ABOVE) in *note time.strptime():
     13f5.  This affects locales az_AZ, ber_DZ, ber_MA and crh_UA.

   - gh-135995(15): In the palmos encoding, make byte ‘0x9b’ decode to
     ‘›’ (U+203A - SINGLE RIGHT-POINTING ANGLE QUOTATION MARK).

   - gh-53203(16): Fix *note time.strptime(): 13f5. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats on locales byn_ER, wal_ET and lzh_TW, and for ‘%X’ format
     on locales ar_SA, bg_BG and lzh_TW.

   - gh-91555(17): An earlier change, which was introduced in 3.13.4,
     has been reverted.  It disabled logging for a logger during
     handling of log messages for that logger.  Since the reversion, the
     behaviour should be as it was before 3.13.4.

   - gh-135878(18): Fixes a crash of *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1.
     on *note free threading: 152a. builds, when several threads were
     calling its *note __repr__(): 616. method at the same time.

   - gh-135836(19): Fix *note IndexError: 14fc. in *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5fd. that could occur when
     non-*note OSError: 411. exception is raised during connection and
     socket’s ‘close()’ raises ‘OSError’.

   - gh-135836(20): Fix *note IndexError: 14fc. in *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5fd. that could occur when the
     Happy Eyeballs algorithm resulted in an empty exceptions list
     during connection attempts.

   - gh-135855(21): Raise *note TypeError: 532. instead of *note
     SystemError: 570. when ‘_interpreters.set___main___attrs()’ is
     passed a non-dict object.  Patch by Brian Schubert.

   - gh-135815(22): *note netrc: 9b.: skip security checks if *note
     os.getuid(): 1533. is missing.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135640(23): Address bug where it was possible to call *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write(): fed. on an ElementTree
     object with an invalid root element.  This behavior blanked the
     file passed to ‘write’ if it already existed.

   - gh-135444(24): Fix *note asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto(): 1af.
     to account for datagram header size when data cannot be sent.

   - gh-135497(25): Fix *note os.getlogin(): 1534. failing for longer
     usernames on BSD-based platforms.

   - gh-135487(26): Fix ‘reprlib.Repr.repr_int()’ when given integers
     with more than *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 1535. digits.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135335(27): *note multiprocessing: 94.: Flush ‘stdout’ and
     ‘stderr’ after preloading modules in the ‘forkserver’.

   - gh-135244(28): *note uuid: 110.: when the MAC address cannot be
     determined, the 48-bit node ID is now generated with a
     cryptographically-secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG) as
     per RFC 9562, §6.10.3(29).  This affects *note uuid1(): ba5.

   - gh-135069(30): Fix the “Invalid error handling” exception in
     ‘encodings.idna.IncrementalDecoder’ to correctly replace the
     ‘errors’ parameter.

   - gh-134698(31): Fix a crash when calling methods of *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 294. or *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7. across multiple
     threads.

   - gh-132124(32): On POSIX-compliant systems,
     ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’ now ignores ‘TMPDIR’ (and
     similar environment variables) if the path length of ‘AF_UNIX’
     socket files exceeds the platform-specific maximum length when
     using the 'forkserver' start method.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133439(33): Fix dot commands with trailing spaces are mistaken
     for multi-line SQL statements in the sqlite3 command-line
     interface.

   - gh-132969(34): Prevent the *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. executor
     thread, which remains running when *note shutdown(wait=False): 8ea,
     from attempting to adjust the pool’s worker processes after the
     object state has already been reset during shutdown.  A combination
     of conditions, including a worker process having terminated
     abormally, resulted in an exception and a potential hang when the
     still-running executor thread attempted to replace dead workers
     within the pool.

   - gh-130664(35): Support the ‘'_'’ digit separator in formatting of
     the integral part of *note Decimal: 29d.’s.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-85702(36): If ‘zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata’ is given a package
     without a resource a ‘ZoneInfoNotFoundError’ is raised rather than
     a *note IsADirectoryError: 104f.

   - gh-130664(37): Handle corner-case for *note Fraction: 1e7.’s
     formatting: treat zero-padding (preceding the width field by a zero
     (‘'0'’) character) as an equivalent to a fill character of ‘'0'’
     with an alignment type of ‘'='’, just as in case of *note float:
     2ef.’s.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132710

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137273

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137257

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130522

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136549

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136523

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52876

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134759

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136028

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135995

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91555

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135878

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135855

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135815

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135640

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135444

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135487

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135335

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135244

   (29) 
https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-6.10-3

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135069

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134698

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132124

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133439

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132969

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<3>,  Next: Core and Builtins<3>,  Prev: Library<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.7 Documentation
......................

   - gh-135171(1): Document that the *note iterator: 1ac. for the
     leftmost ‘for’ clause in the generator expression is created
     immediately.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<3>,  Next: Build<2>,  Prev: Documentation<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-58124(1): Fix name of the Python encoding in Unicode errors of
     the code page codec: use “cp65000” and “cp65001” instead of
     “CP_UTF7” and “CP_UTF8” which are not valid Python code names.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-137314(2): Fixed a regression where raw f-strings incorrectly
     interpreted escape sequences in format specifications.  Raw
     f-strings now properly preserve literal backslashes in format
     specs, matching the behavior from Python 3.11.  For example,
     ‘rf"{obj:\xFF}"’ now correctly produces ‘'\\xFF'’ instead of ‘'ÿ'’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-136541(3): Fix some issues with the perf trampolines on x86-64
     and aarch64.  The trampolines were not being generated correctly
     for some cases, which could lead to the perf integration not
     working correctly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-109700(4): Fix memory error handling in *note
     PyDict_SetDefault(): 339.

   - gh-78465(5): Fix error message for ‘cls.__new__(cls, ...)’ where
     ‘cls’ is not instantiable builtin or extension type (with ‘tp_new’
     set to ‘NULL’).

   - gh-135871(6): Non-blocking mutex lock attempts now return
     immediately when the lock is busy instead of briefly spinning in
     the *note free threading: 152a. build.

   - gh-135607(7): Fix potential *note weakref: 114. races in an
     object’s destructor on the *note free threaded: 152a. build.

   - gh-135496(8): Fix typo in the f-string conversion type error
     (“exclamanation” -> “exclamation”).

   - gh-130077(9): Properly raise custom syntax errors when incorrect
     syntax containing names that are prefixes of soft keywords is
     encountered.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-135148(10): Fixed a bug where f-string debug expressions (using
     =) would incorrectly strip out parts of strings containing escaped
     quotes and # characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-133136(11): Limit excess memory usage in the *note free
     threading: 152a. build when a large dictionary or list is resized
     and accessed by multiple threads.

   - gh-132617(12): Fix *note dict.update(): 142b. modification check
     that could incorrectly raise a “dict mutated during update” error
     when a different dictionary was modified that happens to share the
     same underlying keys object.

   - gh-91153(13): Fix a crash when a *note bytearray: 538. is
     concurrently mutated during item assignment.

   - gh-127971(14): Fix off-by-one read beyond the end of a string in
     string search.

   - gh-125723(15): Fix crash with ‘gi_frame.f_locals’ when generator
     frames outlive their generator.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58124

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137314

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136541

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109700

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78465

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135871

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135607

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135496

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130077

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135148

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133136

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132617

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127971

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125723


File: python.info,  Node: Build<2>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 6 final

1.23.3.9 Build
..............

   - gh-135497(1): Fix the detection of ‘MAXLOGNAME’ in the
     ‘configure.ac’ script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 5 final,  Next: Python 3 13 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 6 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.4 Python 3.13.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-06-11'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<2>,  Next: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 5 final

1.23.4.1 Windows
................

   - gh-135151(1): Avoid distributing modified ‘pyconfig.h’ in the
     traditional installer.  Extension module builds must always specify
     ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ when targeting the free-threaded runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135151


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<2>,  Next: Library<4>,  Prev: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 5 final

1.23.4.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-135120(1): Add ‘test.support.subTests()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135120


File: python.info,  Node: Library<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<4>,  Prev: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 5 final

1.23.4.3 Library
................

   - gh-133967(1): Do not normalize *note locale: 86. name ‘C.UTF-8’ to
     ‘en_US.UTF-8’.

   - gh-135326(2): Restore support of integer-like objects with
     ‘__index__()’ in *note random.getrandbits(): 1003.

   - gh-135321(3): Raise a correct exception for values greater than
     0x7fffffff for the ‘BINSTRING’ opcode in the C implementation of
     *note pickle: a6.

   - gh-135276(4): Backported bugfixes in zipfile.Path from zipp 3.23.
     Fixed ‘.name’, ‘.stem’ and other basename-based properties on
     Windows when working with a zipfile on disk.

   - gh-134151(5): *note email: 3b.: Fix *note TypeError: 532. in *note
     email.utils.decode_params(): 153d. when sorting RFC 2231(6)
     continuations that contain an unnumbered section.

   - gh-134152(7): *note email: 3b.: Fix parsing of email message ID
     with invalid domain.

   - gh-127081(8): Fix libc thread safety issues with *note os: a1. by
     replacing ‘getlogin’ with ‘getlogin_r’ re-entrant version.

   - gh-131884(9): Fix formatting issues in *note json.dump(): d41. when
     both 'indent' and 'skipkeys' are used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133967

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135326

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135321

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135276

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134151

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131884


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<4>,  Next: C API<2>,  Prev: Library<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 5 final

1.23.4.4 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-135171(1): Roll back changes to generator and list
     comprehensions that went into 3.13.4 to fix gh-127682(2), but which
     involved semantic and bytecode changes not appropriate for a bugfix
     release.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682


File: python.info,  Node: C API<2>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 5 final

1.23.4.5 C API
..............

   - gh-134989(1): Fix ‘Py_RETURN_NONE’, ‘Py_RETURN_TRUE’ and
     ‘Py_RETURN_FALSE’ macros in the limited C API 3.11 and older: don’t
     treat ‘Py_None’, ‘Py_True’ and ‘Py_False’ as immortal.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-134989(2): Implement *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1540. and *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1541. as macros in the limited C API 3.12
     and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 4 final,  Next: Python 3 13 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.5 Python 3.13.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-06-03'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<3>,  Next: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.1 Windows
................

   - gh-130727(1): Fix a race in internal calls into WMI that can result
     in an “invalid handle” exception under high load.  Patch by Chris
     Eibl.

   - gh-76023(2): Make *note os.path.realpath(): 225. ignore Windows
     error 1005 when in non-strict mode.

   - gh-133626(3): Ensures packages are not accidentally bundled into
     the traditional installer.

   - gh-133512(4): Add warnings to *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.
     about use of subcommands belonging to the Python install manager.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130727

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76023

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133626

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133512


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<3>,  Next: Security<3>,  Prev: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-133744(1): Fix multiprocessing interrupt test.  Add an event to
     synchronize the parent process with the child process: wait until
     the child process starts sleeping.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-133639(2): Fix ‘TestPyReplAutoindent.test_auto_indent_default()’
     doesn’t run ‘input_code’.

   - gh-133131(3): The iOS testbed will now select the most recently
     released “SE-class” device for testing if a device isn’t explicitly
     specified.

   - gh-109981(4): The test helper that counts the list of open file
     descriptors now uses the optimised ‘/dev/fd’ approach on all Apple
     platforms, not just macOS. This avoids crashes caused by guarded
     file descriptors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133744

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133639

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133131

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981


File: python.info,  Node: Security<3>,  Next: Library<5>,  Prev: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.3 Security
.................

   - gh-135034(1): Fixes multiple issues that allowed ‘tarfile’
     extraction filters (‘filter="data"’ and ‘filter="tar"’) to be
     bypassed using crafted symlinks and hard links.

     Addresses CVE 2024-12718(2), CVE 2025-4138(3), CVE 2025-4330(4),
     and CVE 2025-4517(5).

   - gh-133767(6): Fix use-after-free in the “unicode-escape” decoder
     with a non-“strict” error handler.

   - gh-128840(7): Short-circuit the processing of long IPv6 addresses
     early in *note ipaddress: 80. to prevent excessive memory
     consumption and a minor denial-of-service.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135034

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133767

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840


File: python.info,  Node: Library<5>,  Next: IDLE<3>,  Prev: Security<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.4 Library
................

   - gh-134718(1): *note ast.dump(): 8e1. now only omits ‘None’ and ‘[]’
     values if they are default values.

   - gh-128840(2): Fix parsing long IPv6 addresses with embedded IPv4
     address.

   - gh-134696(3): Built-in HACL* and OpenSSL implementations of hash
     function constructors now correctly accept the same 'documented'
     named arguments.  For instance, *note md5(): 1547. could be
     previously invoked as ‘md5(data=data)’ or ‘md5(string=string)’
     depending on the underlying implementation but these calls were not
     compatible.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134210(4): *note curses.window.getch(): 1548. now correctly
     handles signals.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-80334(5): *note multiprocessing.freeze_support(): 1549. now
     checks for work on any “spawn” start method platform rather than
     only on Windows.

   - gh-114177(6): Fix *note asyncio: a. to not close subprocess pipes
     which would otherwise error out when the event loop is already
     closed.

   - gh-134152(7): Fixed *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. that could occur
     during *note email: 3b. header parsing if an expected trailing
     delimiter is missing in some contexts.

   - gh-62184(8): Remove import of C implementation of *note io.FileIO:
     1300. from Python implementation which has its own implementation

   - gh-133982(9): Emit *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. in the Python
     implementation of *note io: 7f. when the *note file-like object:
     11b2. is not closed explicitly in the presence of multiple I/O
     layers.

   - gh-133890(10): The *note tarfile: de. module now handles *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 671. in the same way as *note OSError: 411.
     when cannot extract a member.

   - gh-134097(11): Fix interaction of the new *note REPL: 16a. and
     *note -X showrefcount: 176. command line option.

   - gh-133889(12): The generated directory listing page in *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. now only shows the
     decoded path component of the requested URL, and not the query and
     fragment.

   - gh-134098(13): Fix handling paths that end with a percent-encoded
     slash (‘%2f’ or ‘%2F’) in *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40.

   - gh-134062(14): *note ipaddress: 80.: fix collisions in *note
     __hash__(): af8. for *note IPv4Network: 1fe. and *note IPv6Network:
     1ff. objects.

   - gh-133745(15): In 3.13.3 we accidentally changed the signature of
     the asyncio ‘create_task()’ family of methods and how it calls a
     custom task factory in a backwards incompatible way.  Since some
     3rd party libraries have already made changes to work around the
     issue that might break if we simply reverted the changes, we’re
     instead changing things to be backwards compatible with 3.13.2
     while still supporting those workarounds for 3.13.3.  In
     particular, the special-casing of ‘name’ and ‘context’ is back
     (until 3.14) and consequently eager tasks may still find that their
     name hasn’t been set before they execute their first yielding
     await.

   - gh-71253(16): Raise *note ValueError: 202. in *note open(): 515. if
     'opener' returns a negative file-descriptor in the Python
     implementation of *note io: 7f. to match the C implementation.

   - gh-77057(17): Fix handling of invalid markup declarations in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 872.

   - gh-133489(18): *note random.getrandbits(): 1003. can now generate
     more that 2^31 bits.  *note random.randbytes(): 154a. can now
     generate more that 256 MiB.

   - gh-133290(19): Fix attribute caching issue when setting *note
     ctypes._Pointer._type_: 154b. in the undocumented and deprecated
     ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function and the undocumented
     ‘set_type()’ method.

   - gh-132876(20): ‘ldexp()’ on Windows doesn’t round subnormal results
     before Windows 11, but should.  Python’s *note math.ldexp(): 154c.
     wrapper now does round them, so results may change slightly, in
     rare cases of very small results, on Windows versions before 11.

   - gh-133089(21): Use original timeout value for *note
     subprocess.TimeoutExpired: 154d. when the func *note
     subprocess.run(): b83. is called with a timeout instead of
     sometimes a confusing partial remaining time out value used
     internally on the final ‘wait()’.

   - gh-133009(22): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.__deepcopy__: 154e. when the element is concurrently
     mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-132995(23): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 25.1.1

   - gh-132017(24): Fix error when ‘pyrepl’ is suspended, then resumed
     and terminated.

   - gh-132673(25): Fix a crash when using ‘_align_ = 0’ and ‘_fields_ =
     []’ in a *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4.

   - gh-132527(26): Include the valid typecode ‘w’ in the error message
     when an invalid typecode is passed to *note array.array: 1a0.

   - gh-132439(27): Fix ‘PyREPL’ on Windows: characters entered via
     AltGr are swallowed.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-132429(28): Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and
     DragonFly BSD.

   - gh-132106(29): *note QueueListener.start: 154f. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 195. if the listener is already started.

   - gh-132417(30): Fix a ‘NULL’ pointer dereference when a C function
     called using *note ctypes: 2a. with ‘restype’ *note py_object:
     1400. returns ‘NULL’.

   - gh-132385(31): Fix instance error suggestions trigger potential
     exceptions in *note object.__getattr__(): 4cd. in *note traceback:
     fe.

   - gh-132308(32): A *note traceback.TracebackException: 25c. now
     correctly renders the ‘__context__’ and ‘__cause__’ attributes from
     *note falsey: 1550. *note Exception: 9d6, and the ‘exceptions’
     attribute from falsey *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.

   - gh-132250(33): Fixed the *note SystemError: 570. in *note cProfile:
     27. when locating the actual C function of a method raises an
     exception.

   - gh-132063(34): Prevent exceptions that evaluate as falsey (namely,
     when their ‘__bool__’ method returns ‘False’ or their ‘__len__’
     method returns 0) from being ignored by *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.

   - gh-119605(35): Respect ‘follow_wrapped’ for ‘__init__()’ and
     ‘__new__()’ methods when getting the class signature for a class
     with *note inspect.signature(): 731.  Preserve class signature
     after wrapping with *note warnings.deprecated(): 160.  Patch by
     Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-91555(36): Ignore log messages generated during handling of log
     messages, to avoid deadlock or infinite recursion.  [NOTE: This
     change has since been reverted.]

   - gh-131434(37): Improve error reporting for incorrect format in
     *note time.strptime(): 13f5.

   - gh-131127(38): Systems using LibreSSL now successfully build.

   - gh-130999(39): Avoid exiting the new REPL and offer suggestions
     even if there are non-string candidates when errors occur.

   - gh-130941(40): Fix *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. parsing
     empty interpolation with ‘allow_no_value’ set to ‘True’.

   - gh-129098(41): Fix REPL traceback reporting when using *note
     compile(): 192. with an inexisting file.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130631(42): ‘http.cookiejar.join_header_words()’ is now more
     similar to the original Perl version.  It now quotes the same set
     of characters and always quote values that end with ‘"\n"’.

   - gh-129719(43): Fix missing ‘socket.CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ constant in
     the socket module on Linux systems.  It was missing since Python
     3.11.

   - gh-124096(44): Turn on virtual terminal mode and enable bracketed
     paste in REPL on Windows console.  (If the terminal does not
     support bracketed paste, enabling it does nothing.)

   - gh-122559(45): Remove ‘__reduce__()’ and ‘__reduce_ex__()’ methods
     that always raise *note TypeError: 532. in the C implementation of
     *note io.FileIO: 1300, *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd, *note
     io.BufferedWriter: 1551. and *note io.BufferedRandom: 1552. and
     replace them with default ‘__getstate__()’ methods that raise
     ‘TypeError’.  This restores fine details of behavior of Python 3.11
     and older versions.

   - gh-122179(46): *note hashlib.file_digest(): 63e. now raises *note
     BlockingIOError: 104d. when no data is available during
     non-blocking I/O. Before, it added spurious null bytes to the
     digest.

   - gh-86155(47): *note html.parser.HTMLParser.close(): 1553. no longer
     loses data when the ‘<script>’ tag is not closed.  Patch by Waylan
     Limberg.

   - gh-69426(48): Fix *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. to not
     unescape character entities in attribute values if they are
     followed by an ASCII alphanumeric or an equals sign.

   - bpo-44172(49): Keep a reference to original *note curses: 2b.
     windows in subwindows so that the original window does not get
     deleted before subwindows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134718

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134696

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134210

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80334

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114177

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62184

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133982

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133890

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134097

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133889

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134098

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134062

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133745

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71253

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77057

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133489

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133290

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132876

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133089

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133009

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132995

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132017

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132673

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132527

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132439

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132417

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132385

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132308

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132250

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132063

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119605

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91555

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131434

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131127

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130999

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130941

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129098

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130631

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129719

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124096

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122559

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122179

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86155

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69426

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44172


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<3>,  Next: Documentation<4>,  Prev: Library<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.5 IDLE
.............

   - gh-112936(1): fix IDLE: no Shell menu item in single-process mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112936


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<5>,  Prev: IDLE<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.6 Documentation
......................

   - gh-107006(1): Move documentation and example code for *note
     threading.local: 1556. from its docstring to the official docs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107006


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<5>,  Next: C API<3>,  Prev: Documentation<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.7 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-134908(1): Fix crash when iterating over lines in a text file on
     the *note free threaded: 152a. build.

   - gh-127682(2): No longer call ‘__iter__’ twice in list
     comprehensions.  This brings the behavior of list comprehensions in
     line with other forms of iteration

   - gh-134381(3): Fix *note RuntimeError: 195. when using a not-started
     *note threading.Thread: 94a. after calling *note os.fork(): 197.

   - gh-128066(4): Fixes an edge case where PyREPL improperly threw an
     error when Python is invoked on a read only filesystem while trying
     to write history file entries.

   - gh-134100(5): Fix a use-after-free bug that occurs when an imported
     module isn’t in *note sys.modules: 1558. after its initial import.
     Patch by Nico-Posada.

   - gh-133703(6): Fix hashtable in dict can be bigger than intended in
     some situations.

   - gh-132869(7): Fix crash in the *note free threading: 152a. build
     when accessing an object attribute that may be concurrently
     inserted or deleted.

   - gh-132762(8): *note fromkeys(): 1559. no longer loops forever when
     adding a small set of keys to a large base dict.  Patch by Angela
     Liss.

   - gh-133543(9): Fix a possible memory leak that could occur when
     directly accessing instance dictionaries (‘__dict__’) that later
     become part of a reference cycle.

   - gh-133516(10): Raise *note ValueError: 202. when constants ‘True’,
     ‘False’ or ‘None’ are used as an identifier after NFKC
     normalization.

   - gh-133441(11): Fix crash upon setting an attribute with a *note
     dict: 256. subclass.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-132942(12): Fix two races in the type lookup cache.  This
     affected the free-threaded build and could cause crashes
     (apparently quite difficult to trigger).

   - gh-132713(13): Fix ‘repr(list)’ race condition: hold a strong
     reference to the item while calling ‘repr(item)’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-132747(14): Fix a crash when calling *note __get__(): 14af. of a
     *note method: 155a. with a *note None: 66f. second argument.

   - gh-132542(15): Update *note Thread.native_id: a3b. after
     ‘fork(2)(16)’ to ensure accuracy.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-124476(17): Fix decoding from the locale encoding in the C.UTF-8
     locale.

   - gh-131927(18): Compiler warnings originating from the same module
     and line number are now only emitted once, matching the behaviour
     of warnings emitted from user code.  This can also be configured
     with *note warnings: 112. filters.

   - gh-127682(19): No longer call ‘__iter__’ twice when creating and
     executing a generator expression.  Creating a generator expression
     from a non-interable will raise only when the generator expression
     is executed.  This brings the behavior of generator expressions in
     line with other generators.

   - gh-131878(20): Handle uncaught exceptions in the main input loop
     for the new REPL.

   - gh-131878(21): Fix support of unicode characters with two or more
     codepoints on Windows in the new REPL.

   - gh-130804(22): Fix support of unicode characters on Windows in the
     new REPL.

   - gh-130070(23): Fixed an assertion error for *note exec(): 17f.
     passed a string ‘source’ and a non-‘None’ ‘closure’.  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-129958(24): Fix a bug that was allowing newlines inconsitently
     in format specifiers for single-quoted f-strings.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134381

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128066

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134100

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133703

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132869

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132762

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133543

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133516

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133441

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132942

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132713

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132747

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132542

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/fork(2)

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124476

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131927

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131878

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131878

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130804

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130070

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129958


File: python.info,  Node: C API<3>,  Next: Build<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.8 C API
..............

   - gh-132909(1): Fix an overflow when handling the *note K: 155c.
     format in *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132909


File: python.info,  Node: Build<3>,  Prev: C API<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 4 final

1.23.5.9 Build
..............

   - gh-134923(1): Windows builds with profile-guided optimization
     enabled now use ‘/GENPROFILE’ and ‘/USEPROFILE’ instead of
     deprecated ‘/LTCG:’ options.

   - gh-133183(2): iOS compiler shims now include
     ‘IPHONEOS_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ in target triples, ensuring that SDK
     version minimums are honored.

   - gh-133167(3): Fix compilation process with ‘--enable-optimizations’
     and ‘--without-docstrings’.

   - gh-132649(4): The ‘PClayout’ script now allows passing
     ‘--include-tcltk’ on Windows ARM64.

   - gh-117088(5): AIX linker don’t support -h option, so avoid it
     through platform check

   - gh-132026(6): Fix use of undefined identifiers in platform triplet
     detection on MIPS Linux platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134923

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133183

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132649

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117088

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 3 final,  Next: Python 3 13 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.6 Python 3.13.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-04-08'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<2>,  Next: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-124111(1): Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.16.

   - gh-131423(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.16.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131025(3): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   - gh-91132(4): Update macOS installer to use ncurses 6.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91132


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<4>,  Next: Tools/Demos<3>,  Prev: macOS<2>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.2 Windows
................

   - gh-131423(1): Update bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.16.  The new
     build also disables uplink support, which may be relevant to
     embedders but has no impact on normal use.

   - gh-131025(2): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   - gh-131020(3): pylauncher(4) correctly detects a BOM when searching
     for the shebang.  Fix by Chris Eibl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131020

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/PC/launcher2.c


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<3>,  Next: Tests<4>,  Prev: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-131852(1): ‘msgfmt’ no longer adds the ‘POT-Creation-Date’ to
     generated ‘.mo’ files for consistency with GNU ‘msgfmt’.

   - gh-85012(2): Correctly reset ‘msgctxt’ when compiling messages in
     ‘msgfmt’.

   - gh-130025(3): The iOS testbed now correctly handles symlinks used
     as Python framework references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131852

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85012

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130025


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<4>,  Next: Security<4>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-131050(1): ‘test_ssl.test_dh_params’ is skipped if the
     underlying TLS library does not support finite-field ephemeral
     Diffie-Hellman.

   - gh-129200(2): Multiple iOS testbed runners can now be started at
     the same time without introducing an ambiguity over simulator
     ownership.

   - gh-130292(3): The iOS testbed will now run successfully on a
     machine that has not previously run Xcode tests (such as CI
     configurations).

   - gh-130293(4): The tests of terminal colorization are no longer
     sensitive to the value of the ‘TERM’ variable in the testing
     environment.

   - gh-126332(5): Add unit tests for pyrepl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131050

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129200

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130292

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130293

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332


File: python.info,  Node: Security<4>,  Next: Library<6>,  Prev: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.5 Security
.................

   - gh-131809(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.1

   - gh-131261(2): Upgrade to libexpat 2.7.0

   - gh-127371(3): Avoid unbounded buffering for
     ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.writelines()’.  Previously, disk
     spillover was only checked after the lines iterator had been
     exhausted.  This is now done after each line is written.

   - gh-121284(4): Fix bug in the folding of rfc2047 encoded-words when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when an encoded-word was too long for a line, it would
     be decoded, split across lines, and re-encoded.  But commas and
     other special characters in the original text could be left
     unencoded and unquoted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof
     header lines using a carefully constructed encoded-word if the
     resulting rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131809

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131261

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127371

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121284


File: python.info,  Node: Library<6>,  Next: IDLE<4>,  Prev: Security<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.6 Library
................

   - gh-132174(1): Fix function name in error message of
     ‘_interpreters.run_string’.

   - gh-132171(2): Fix crash of ‘_interpreters.run_string’ on string
     subclasses.

   - gh-129204(3): Introduce new ‘_PYTHON_SUBPROCESS_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’
     environment variable knob in *note subprocess: d6. to control the
     use of *note os.posix_spawn(): 220.

   - gh-132159(4): Do not shadow user arguments in generated ‘__new__()’
     by decorator *note warnings.deprecated: 160.  Patch by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-132075(5): Fix possible use of *note socket: cc. address
     structures with uninitialized members.  Now all structure members
     are initialized with zeroes by default.

   - gh-132002(6): Fix crash when deallocating *note
     contextvars.ContextVar: 1565. with weird unahashable string names.

   - gh-131668(7): *note socket: cc.: Fix code parsing AF_BLUETOOTH
     socket addresses.

   - gh-131492(8): Fix a resource leak when constructing a *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 414. with a filename fails, for example when passing
     an invalid ‘compresslevel’.

   - gh-131325(9): Fix sendfile fallback implementation to drain data
     after writing to transport in *note asyncio: a.

   - gh-129843(10): Fix incorrect argument passing in *note
     warnings.warn_explicit(): cfd.

   - gh-131204(11): Use monospace font from System Font Stack for
     cross-platform support in *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 1566.

   - gh-130940(12): The ‘PyConfig.use_system_logger’ attribute,
     introduced in Python 3.13.2, has been removed.  The introduction of
     this attribute inadvertently introduced an ABI breakage on macOS
     and iOS. The use of the system logger is now enabled by default on
     iOS, and disabled by default on macOS.

   - gh-131045(13): Fix issue with ‘__contains__’, values, and
     pseudo-members for *note enum.Flag: 61d.

   - gh-130959(14): Fix pure-Python implementation of *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 610. to reject times with spaces in
     fractional part (for example, ‘12:34:56.400 +02:00’), matching the
     C implementation.  Patch by Michał Gorny.

   - gh-130637(15): Add validation for numeric response data in
     poplib.POP3.stat() method

   - gh-130461(16): Remove ‘.. index::’ directives from the *note uuid:
     110. module documentation.  These directives previously created
     entries in the general index for *note getnode(): ba4. as well as
     the *note uuid1(): ba5, *note uuid3(): 1567, *note uuid4(): 1568,
     and *note uuid5(): 1569. constructor functions.

   - gh-130379(17): The zipapp module now calculates the list of files
     to be added to the archive before creating the archive.  This
     avoids accidentally including the target when it is being created
     in the source directory.

   - gh-130285(18): Fix corner case for *note random.sample(): 73f.
     allowing the 'counts' parameter to specify an empty population.  So
     now, ‘sample([], 0, counts=[])’ and ‘sample('abc', k=0, counts=[0,
     0, 0])’ both give the same result as ‘sample([], 0)’.

   - gh-130250(19): Fix regression in ‘traceback.print_last()’.

   - gh-130230(20): Fix crash in *note pow(): 9cf. with only *note
     Decimal: 29d. third argument.

   - gh-118761(21): Reverts a change in the previous release attempting
     to make some stdlib imports used within the *note subprocess: d6.
     module lazy as this was causing errors during ‘__del__’ finalizers
     calling methods such as ‘terminate’, or ‘kill’, or ‘send_signal’.

   - gh-130164(22): Fixed failure to raise *note TypeError: 532. in
     *note inspect.Signature.bind(): 156a. for positional-only arguments
     provided by keyword when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.
     ‘**kwargs’) is present.

   - gh-130151(23): Fix reference leaks in ‘_hashlib.hmac_new()’ and
     ‘_hashlib.hmac_digest()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130145(24): Fix ‘asyncio.AbstractEventloop.run_forever()’ when
     another loop is already running.

   - gh-129726(25): Fix *note gzip.GzipFile: 414. raising an unraisable
     exception during garbage collection when referring to a temporary
     object by breaking the reference loop with *note weakref: 114.

   - gh-127750(26): Remove broken *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9ee. caching introduced in
     gh-85160(27).

   - gh-129583(28): Update bundled pip to 25.0.1

   - gh-97850(29): Update the deprecation warning of *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 864.

   - gh-129646(30): Update the locale alias mapping in the *note locale:
     86. module to match the latest X Org locale alias mapping and
     support new locales in Glibc 2.41.

   - gh-129603(31): Fix bugs where *note sqlite3.Row: e69. objects could
     segfault if their inherited *note description: 156b. was set to
     ‘None’.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-128231(32): Execution of multiple statements in the new REPL now
     stops immediately upon the first exception encountered.  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-117779(33): Fix reading duplicated entries in *note zipfile:
     131. by name.  Reading duplicated entries (except the last one) by
     ‘ZipInfo’ now emits a warning instead of raising an exception.

   - gh-128772(34): Fix *note pydoc: b5. for methods with the
     ‘__module__’ attribute equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-92897(35): Scheduled the deprecation of the ‘check_home’
     argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2df. to Python 3.15.

   - gh-128657(36): Fix possible extra reference when using objects
     returned by *note hashlib.sha256(): 156c. under *note free
     threading: 152a.

   - gh-128703(37): Fix *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 208. to use
     default mapping for empty ‘Content-Type’ in registry.

   - gh-128308(38): Support the 'name' keyword argument for eager tasks
     in *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 1c0, *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc, by passing on all 'kwargs' to
     the task factory set by *note asyncio.loop.set_task_factory(): dc2.

   - gh-128388(39): Fix ‘PyREPL’ on Windows to support more keybindings,
     like the ‘Control’-‘←’ and ‘Control’-‘→’ word-skipping keybindings
     and those with meta (i.e.  ‘Alt’), e.g.  ‘Alt’-‘d’ to ‘kill-word’
     or ‘Alt’-‘Backspace’ ‘backward-kill-word’.

   - gh-126037(40): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.find: 156d, *note Element.findtext: 156e. and *note
     Element.findall: 156f. when the tag to find implements an *note
     __eq__(): af7. method mutating the element being queried.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127712(41): Fix handling of the ‘secure’ argument of *note
     logging.handlers.SMTPHandler: 1570.

   - gh-126033(42): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.remove: 1571. when the element is concurrently
     mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-118201(43): Fixed intermittent failures of *note os.confstr:
     1572, *note os.pathconf: 10ec. and *note os.sysconf: 1573. on iOS
     and Android.

   - gh-124927(44): Non-printing characters are now properly handled in
     the new REPL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132174

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132171

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129204

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132159

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132075

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132002

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131668

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131492

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131325

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129843

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131204

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130940

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131045

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130959

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130637

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130461

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130379

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130285

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130250

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130230

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130164

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130151

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130145

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129726

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127750

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85160

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129583

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129646

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129603

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128231

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117779

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128772

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128657

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128703

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128308

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128388

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126037

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127712

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126033

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118201

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124927


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<4>,  Next: Documentation<5>,  Prev: Library<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-129873(1): Simplify displaying the IDLE doc by only copying the
     text section of idle.html to idlelib/help.html.  Patch by Stan
     Ulbrych.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129873


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<6>,  Prev: IDLE<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.8 Documentation
......................

   - gh-131417(1): Mention *note asyncio.Future: bca. and *note
     asyncio.Task: 1be. in generic classes list.

   - gh-125722(2): Require Sphinx 8.2.0 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-129712(3): The wheel tags supported by each macOS universal SDK
     option are now documented.

   - gh-46236(4): C API: Document *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 1576, *note
     PyUnicode_Partition(): 1577. and *note PyUnicode_RPartition():
     1578.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129712

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46236


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<6>,  Next: C API<4>,  Prev: Documentation<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.9 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-132011(1): Fix crash when calling ‘list.append()’ as an unbound
     method.

   - gh-131998(2): Fix a crash when using an unbound method *note
     descriptor: 157a. object in a function where a bound method
     descriptor was used.

   - gh-131988(3): Fix a performance regression that caused scaling
     bottlenecks in the free threaded build in 3.13.1 and 3.13.2.

   - gh-131719(4): Fix missing NULL check in ‘_PyMem_FreeDelayed’ in
     *note free-threaded: 152a. build.

   - gh-131670(5): Fix *note anext(): 7cf. failing on sync *note
     __anext__(): 157b. raising an exception.

   - gh-131141(6): Fix data race in *note sys.monitoring: da.
     instrumentation while registering callback.

   - gh-130932(7): Fix incorrect exception handling in
     ‘_PyModule_IsPossiblyShadowing’

   - gh-130851(8): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 152a. build
     when constructing a *note code: 1a. object with *note co_consts:
     157c. that contains instances of types that are not otherwise
     generated by the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-130794(9): Fix memory leak in the *note free threaded: 152a.
     build when resizing a shared list or dictionary from multiple
     short-lived threads.

   - gh-130775(10): Do not crash on negative ‘column’ and ‘end_column’
     in *note ast: 8. locations.

   - gh-130382(11): Fix ‘PyRefTracer_DESTROY’ not being sent from
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ ‘Py_DECREF()’.

   - gh-130618(12): Fix a bug that was causing ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or
     ‘SystemError’ to be raised when using f-strings with ‘lambda’
     expressions with non-ASCII characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-130163(13): Fix possible crashes related to concurrent change
     and use of the *note sys: d9. module attributes.

   - gh-88887(14): Fixing multiprocessing Resource Tracker process
     leaking, usually observed when running Python as PID 1.

   - gh-130115(15): Fix an issue with thread identifiers being
     sign-extended on some platforms.

   - gh-128396(16): Fix a crash that occurs when calling *note locals():
     141. inside an inline comprehension that uses the same local
     variable as the outer frame scope where the variable is a free or
     cell var.

   - gh-116042(17): Fix location for SyntaxErrors of invalid escapes in
     the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-129983(18): Fix data race in compile_template in ‘sre.c’.

   - gh-129967(19): Fix a race condition in the *note free threading:
     152a. build when ‘repr(set)’ is called concurrently with
     ‘set.clear()’.

   - gh-129900(20): Fix return codes inside *note SystemExit: d3d. not
     getting returned by the REPL.

   - gh-129732(21): Fixed a race in ‘_Py_qsbr_reserve’ in the free
     threading build.

   - gh-129643(22): Fix thread safety of *note PyList_Insert(): 157d. in
     free-threading builds.

   - gh-129668(23): Fix race condition when raising *note MemoryError:
     157e. in the free threaded build.

   - gh-129643(24): Fix thread safety of *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f.
     in free-threading builds.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-128714(25): Fix the potential races in get/set dunder methods
     ‘__annotations__’, ‘__annotate__’ and ‘__type_params__’ for
     function object, and add related tests.

   - gh-128632(26): Disallow ‘__classdict__’ as the name of a type
     parameter.  Using this name would previously crash the interpreter
     in some circumstances.

   - gh-127953(27): The time to handle a ‘LINE’ event in sys.monitoring
     (and sys.settrace) is now independent of the number of lines in the
     code object.

   - gh-125331(28): ‘from __future__ import barry_as_FLUFL’ now works in
     more contexts, including when it is used in files, with the ‘-c’
     flag, and in the REPL when there are multiple statements on the
     same line.  Previously, it worked only on subsequent lines in the
     REPL, and when the appropriate flags were passed directly to *note
     compile(): 192.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132011

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131998

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131988

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131719

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131670

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131141

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130932

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130851

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130794

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130775

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130382

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130618

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130163

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88887

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130115

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128396

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116042

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129983

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129967

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129900

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129732

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129668

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128714

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128632

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127953

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125331


File: python.info,  Node: C API<4>,  Next: Build<4>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.10 C API
...............

   - gh-131740(1): Update PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects to traverse perm
     gen.

   - gh-129533(2): Update *note PyGC_Enable(): 8a0, *note
     PyGC_Disable(): 8a1, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 8a2. to use atomic
     operation for thread-safety at free-threading build.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131740

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129533


File: python.info,  Node: Build<4>,  Prev: C API<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 3 final

1.23.6.11 Build
...............

   - gh-131865(1): The DTrace build now properly passes the ‘CC’ and
     ‘CFLAGS’ variables to the ‘dtrace’ command when utilizing SystemTap
     on Linux.

   - gh-131675(2): Fix mimalloc library builds for 32-bit ARM targets.

   - gh-130673(3): Fix potential ‘KeyError’ when handling object
     sections during JIT building process.

   - gh-130740(4): Ensure that ‘Python.h’ is included before ‘stdbool.h’
     unless ‘pyconfig.h’ is included before or in some platform-specific
     contexts.

   - gh-129838(5): Don’t redefine ‘_Py_NO_SANITIZE_UNDEFINED’ when
     compiling with a recent GCC version and undefined sanitizer
     enabled.

   - gh-129660(6): Drop ‘test_embed’ from PGO training, whose
     contribution in recent versions is considered to be ignorable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131865

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131675

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130673

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130740

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129838

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129660


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 2 final,  Next: Python 3 13 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.7 Python 3.13.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-02-04'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* C API: C API<5>.
* Build: Build<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<3>,  Next: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-127592(1): Usage of the unified Apple System Log APIs was
     disabled when the minimum macOS version is earlier than 10.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<5>,  Next: Tools/Demos<4>,  Prev: macOS<3>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.2 Windows
................

   - gh-127353(1): Allow to force color output on Windows using
     environment variables.  Patch by Andrey Efremov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127353


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<4>,  Next: Tests<5>,  Prev: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-129248(1): The iOS test runner now strips the log prefix from
     each line output by the test suite.

   - gh-128152(2): Fix a bug where Argument Clinic’s C pre-processor
     parser tried to parse pre-processor directives inside C comments.
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128152


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<5>,  Next: Security<5>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-127906(1): Test the limited C API in test_cppext.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127637(2): Add tests for the *note dis: 38. command-line
     interface.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126925(3): iOS test results are now streamed during test
     execution, and the deprecated xcresulttool is no longer used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127906

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127637

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126925


File: python.info,  Node: Security<5>,  Next: Library<7>,  Prev: Tests<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.5 Security
.................

   - gh-105704(1): When using *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3c. and
     *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 305. host parsing would not reject
     domain names containing square brackets (‘[’ and ‘]’).  Square
     brackets are only valid for IPv6 and IPvFuture hosts according to
     RFC 3986 Section 3.2.2(2).

   - gh-127655(3): Fixed the
     ‘asyncio.selector_events._SelectorSocketTransport’ transport not
     pausing writes for the protocol when the buffer reaches the high
     water mark when using *note asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines():
     1588.

   - gh-126108(4): Fix a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’.

   - gh-80222(5): Fix bug in the folding of quoted strings when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when a quoted string was folded so that it spanned more
     than one line, the surrounding quotes and internal escapes would be
     omitted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof header lines
     using a carefully constructed quoted string if the resulting
     rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   - gh-119511(6): Fix a potential denial of service in the *note
     imaplib: 74. module.  When connecting to a malicious server, it
     could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated.  On many
     systems this is harmless as unused virtual memory is only a
     mapping, but if this hit a virtual address size limit it could lead
     to a *note MemoryError: 157e. or other process crash.  On unusual
     systems or builds where all allocated memory is touched and backed
     by actual ram or storage it could’ve consumed resources doing so
     until similarly crashing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105704

   (2) https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3986#section-3.2.2

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127655

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126108

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80222

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119511


File: python.info,  Node: Library<7>,  Next: Documentation<6>,  Prev: Security<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.6 Library
................

   - gh-129502(1): Unlikely errors in preparing arguments for *note
     ctypes: 2a. callback are now handled in the same way as errors
     raised in the callback of in converting the result of the callback
     – using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. instead of *note
     sys.excepthook(): 805. and not setting *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. and
     other variables.

   - gh-129403(2): Corrected *note ValueError: 202. message for *note
     asyncio.Barrier: 5fb. and *note threading.Barrier: 11d2.

   - gh-129409(3): Fix an integer overflow in the *note csv: 29. module
     when writing a data field larger than 2GB.

   - gh-118761(4): Improve import time of *note subprocess: d6. by lazy
     importing ‘locale’ and ‘signal’.  Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

   - gh-129346(5): In *note sqlite3: cf, handle out-of-memory when
     creating user-defined SQL functions.

   - gh-129061(6): Fix FORCE_COLOR and NO_COLOR when empty strings.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-128550(7): Removed an incorrect optimization relating to eager
     tasks in *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. that resulted in
     cancellations being missed.

   - gh-128991(8): Release the enter frame reference within *note bdb:
     f. callback

   - gh-128978(9): Fix a *note NameError: 438. in
     ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128961(10): Fix a crash when setting state on an exhausted *note
     array.array: 1a0. iterator.

   - gh-128894(11): Fix
     ‘traceback.TracebackException._format_syntax_error’ not to fail on
     exceptions with custom metadata.

   - gh-128916(12): Do not attempt to set ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ on sockets of
     address families other than ‘AF_INET’ and ‘AF_INET6’, as it is
     meaningless with these address families, and the call with fail
     with Linux kernel 6.12.9 and newer.

   - gh-128679(13): Fix *note tracemalloc.stop(): 158a. race condition.
     Fix *note tracemalloc: ff. to support calling *note
     tracemalloc.stop(): 158a. in one thread, while another thread is
     tracing memory allocations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128636(14): Fix PyREPL failure when *note os.environ: 11a9. is
     overwritten with an invalid value.

   - gh-128562(15): Fix possible conflicts in generated *note tkinter:
     f0. widget names if the widget class name ends with a digit.

   - gh-128498(16): Default to stdout isatty for color detection instead
     of stderr.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-128552(17): Fix cyclic garbage introduced by *note
     asyncio.loop.create_task(): 1c0. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc. holding a reference to the
     created task if it is eager.

   - gh-128479(18): Fix ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ leaking
     tasks and issuing an unhandled exception.

   - gh-128400(19): Fix crash when using *note
     faulthandler.dump_traceback(): dfa. while other threads are active
     on the *note free threaded: 152a. build.

   - gh-88834(20): Unify the instance check for *note typing.Union: 635.
     and *note types.UnionType: 634.: ‘Union’ now uses the instance
     checks against its parameters instead of the subclass checks.

   - gh-128302(21): Fix
     ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMEntityResolver.resolveEntity()’, which was
     broken by the Python 3.0 transition.

   - gh-128302(22): Allow ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMParser.parse()’ to
     correctly handle ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMInputSource’ instances that
     only have a ‘systemId’ attribute set.

   - gh-112064(23): Fix incorrect handling of negative read sizes in
     *note HTTPResponse.read: 158b.  Patch by Yury Manushkin.

   - gh-58956(24): Fixed a frame reference leak in *note bdb: f.

   - gh-128131(25): Completely support random access of uncompressed
     unencrypted read-only zip files obtained by *note ZipFile.open:
     415.

   - gh-112328(26): *note enum.EnumDict: 1e4. can now be used without
     resorting to private API.

   - gh-127975(27): Avoid reusing quote types in *note ast.unparse():
     8e2. if not needed.

   - gh-128062(28): Revert the font of *note turtledemo: 102.’s menu bar
     to its default value and display the shortcut keys in the correct
     position.

   - gh-128014(29): Fix resetting the default window icon by passing
     ‘default=''’ to the *note tkinter: f0. method ‘wm_iconbitmap()’.

   - gh-115514(30): Fix exceptions and incomplete writes after
     ‘asyncio._SelectorTransport’ is closed before writes are completed.

   - gh-41872(31): Fix quick extraction of module docstrings from a file
     in *note pydoc: b5.  It now supports docstrings with single quotes,
     escape sequences, raw string literals, and other Python syntax.

   - gh-127060(32): Set TERM environment variable to “dumb” to disable
     traceback colors in IDLE, since IDLE doesn’t understand ANSI escape
     sequences.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126742(33): Fix support of localized error messages reported by
     ‘dlerror(3)(34)’ and ‘gdbm_strerror(35)’ in *note ctypes: 2a. and
     *note dbm.gnu: 33. functions respectively.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127873(36): When ‘-E’ is set, only ignore ‘PYTHON_COLORS’ and
     not ‘FORCE_COLOR’/‘NO_COLOR’/‘TERM’ when colourising output.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-127870(37): Detect recursive calls in ctypes ‘_as_parameter_’
     handling.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127847(38): Fix the position when doing interleaved seeks and
     reads in uncompressed, unencrypted zip files returned by *note
     zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 415.

   - gh-127732(39): The *note platform: aa. module now correctly detects
     Windows Server 2025.

   - gh-126821(40): macOS and iOS apps can now choose to redirect stdout
     and stderr to the system log during interpreter configuration.

   - gh-93312(41): Include ‘<sys/pidfd.h>’ to get ‘os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK’
     constant.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83662(42): Add missing ‘__class_getitem__’ method to the Python
     implementation of *note functools.partial(): 40e, to make it
     compatible with the C version.  This is mainly relevant for
     alternative Python implementations like PyPy and GraalPy, because
     CPython will usually use the C-implementation of that function.

   - gh-127586(43): *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool: f63. now properly
     restores blocked signal handlers of the parent thread when creating
     processes via either 'spawn' or 'forkserver'.

   - gh-98188(44): Fix an issue in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 11bc. where data cannot be
     decoded if the Content Transfer Encoding mechanism contains
     trailing whitespaces or additional junk text.  Patch by Hui Liu.

   - gh-127257(45): In *note ssl: d0, system call failures that OpenSSL
     reports using ‘ERR_LIB_SYS’ are now raised as *note OSError: 411.

   - gh-127096(46): Do not recreate unnamed section on every read in
     *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8.  Patch by Andrey Efremov.

   - gh-127196(47): Fix crash when dict with keys in invalid encoding
     were passed to several functions in ‘_interpreters’ module.

   - gh-126775(48): Make *note linecache.checkcache(): 158c. thread safe
     and GC re-entrancy safe.

   - gh-126332(49): Fix _pyrepl crash when entering a double CTRL-Z on
     an overflowing line.

   - gh-126225(50): *note getopt: 61. and *note optparse: a0. are no
     longer marked as deprecated.  There are legitimate reasons to use
     one of these modules in preference to *note argparse: 6, and none
     of these modules are at risk of being removed from the standard
     library.  Of the three, ‘argparse’ remains the recommended default
     choice, 'unless' one of the concerns noted at the top of the
     ‘optparse’ module documentation applies.

   - gh-125553(51): Fix round-trip invariance for backslash
     continuations in *note tokenize.untokenize(): 158d.

   - gh-123987(52): Fixed issue in NamespaceReader where a non-path item
     in a namespace path, such as a sentinel added by an editable
     installer, would break resource loading.

   - gh-123401(53): The *note http.cookies: 71. module now supports
     parsing obsolete RFC 850(54) date formats, in accordance with RFC
     9110(55) requirements.  Patch by Nano Zheng.

   - gh-122431(56): *note readline.append_history_file(): e49. now
     raises a *note ValueError: 202. when given a negative value.

   - gh-119257(57): Show tab completions menu below the current line,
     which results in less janky behaviour, and fixes a cursor movement
     bug.  Patch by Daniel Hollas

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129502

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129403

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129409

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129346

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129061

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128550

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128991

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128978

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128961

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128894

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128916

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128679

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128636

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128562

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128498

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128552

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128479

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88834

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112064

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128131

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112328

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127975

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128062

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128014

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115514

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41872

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127060

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126742

   (34) https://manpages.debian.org/dlerror(3)

   (35) https://manpages.debian.org/gdbm(3)

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127873

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127870

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127847

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127732

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126821

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83662

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127586

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98188

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127257

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127096

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127196

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126775

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126225

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125553

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123987

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123401

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc850.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119257


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<7>,  Prev: Library<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.7 Documentation
......................

   - gh-125722(1): Require Sphinx 8.1.3 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-67206(2): Document that *note string.printable: 158f. is not
     printable in the POSIX sense.  In particular, *note
     string.printable.isprintable(): dd4. returns *note False: b34.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67206


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<7>,  Next: C API<5>,  Prev: Documentation<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-129345(1): Fix null pointer dereference in *note
     syslog.openlog(): 539. when an audit hook raises an exception.

   - gh-129093(2): Fix f-strings such as ‘f'{expr=}'’ sometimes not
     displaying the full expression when the expression contains ‘!=’.

   - gh-124363(3): Treat debug expressions in f-string as raw strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-128799(4): Add frame of ‘except*’ to traceback when it wraps a
     naked exception.

   - gh-128078(5): Fix a *note SystemError: 570. when using *note
     anext(): 7cf. with a default tuple value.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128717(6): Fix a crash when setting the recursion limit while
     other threads are active on the *note free threaded: 152a. build.

   - gh-128330(7): Restore terminal control characters on REPL exit.

   - gh-128079(8): Fix a bug where *note except*: 5b2. does not properly
     check the return value of an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.’s *note
     split(): 1591. function, leading to a crash in some cases.  Now
     when *note split(): 1591. returns an invalid object, *note except*:
     5b2. raises a *note TypeError: 532. with the original raised *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b6. object chained to it.

   - gh-128030(9): Avoid error from calling ‘PyModule_GetFilenameObject’
     on a non-module object when importing a non-existent symbol from a
     non-module object.

   - gh-127903(10): ‘Objects/unicodeobject.c’: fix a crash on DEBUG
     builds in ‘_copy_characters’ when there is nothing to copy.

   - gh-127599(11): Fix statistics for increments of object reference
     counts (in particular, when a reference count was increased by more
     than 1 in a single operation).

   - gh-127651(12): When raising *note ImportError: 413. for missing
     symbols in ‘from’ imports, use ‘__file__’ in the error message if
     ‘__spec__.origin’ is not a location

   - gh-127582(13): Fix non-thread-safe object resurrection when calling
     finalizers and watcher callbacks in the free threading build.

   - gh-127434(14): The iOS compiler shims can now accept arguments with
     spaces.

   - gh-127536(15): Add missing locks around some list assignment
     operations in the free threading build.

   - gh-126862(16): Fix a possible overflow when a class inherits from
     an absurd number of super-classes.  Reported by Valery Fedorenko.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127349(17): Fixed the error when resizing terminal in Python
     REPL. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-126076(18): Relocated objects such as ‘tuple’, ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
     objects are properly tracked by *note tracemalloc: ff. and its
     associated hooks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129093

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124363

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128799

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128078

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128717

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128330

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128079

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128030

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127903

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127599

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127651

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127582

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127434

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127536

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126862

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127349

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126076


File: python.info,  Node: C API<5>,  Next: Build<5>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.9 C API
..............

   - gh-127791(1): Fix loss of callbacks after more than one call to
     *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 1593.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<5>,  Prev: C API<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 2 final

1.23.7.10 Build
...............

   - gh-129539(1): Don’t redefine ‘EX_OK’ when the system has the
     ‘sysexits.h’ header.

   - gh-128472(2): Skip BOLT optimization of functions using computed
     gotos, fixing errors on build with LLVM 19.

   - gh-123925(3): Fix building the *note curses: 2b. module on
     platforms with libncurses but without libncursesw.

   - gh-128321(4): Set ‘LIBS’ instead of ‘LDFLAGS’ when checking if
     *note sqlite3: cf. library functions are available.  This fixes the
     ordering of linked libraries during checks, which was incorrect
     when using a statically linked ‘libsqlite3’.

   - gh-127865(5): Fix build failure on systems without thread-locals
     support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129539

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128472

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128321

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127865


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 1 final,  Next: Python 3 13 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 13 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.8 Python 3.13.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-12-03'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<4>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Security: Security<6>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* C API: C API<6>.
* Build: Build<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<4>,  Next: Windows<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-124448(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk in macOS installer to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<6>,  Next: Tools/Demos<5>,  Prev: macOS<4>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.2 Windows
................

   - gh-126911(1): Update credits command output.

   - gh-118973(2): Ensures the experimental free-threaded install
     includes the ‘_tkinter’ module.  The optional Tcl/Tk component must
     also be installed in order for the module to work.

   - gh-126497(3): Fixes venv failure due to missing redirector
     executables in experimental free-threaded installs.

   - gh-126074(4): Removed unnecessary DLLs from Windows embeddable
     package

   - gh-125315(5): Avoid crashing in *note platform: aa. due to slow WMI
     calls on some Windows machines.

   - gh-126084(6): Fix venvwlauncher to launch pythonw instead of python
     so no extra console window is created.

   - gh-125842(7): Fix a *note SystemError: 570. when *note sys.exit():
     1339. is called with ‘0xffffffff’ on Windows.

   - gh-125550(8): Enable the *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. to
     detect Python 3.14 installs from the Windows Store.

   - gh-124448(9): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126911

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118973

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126497

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126074

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125315

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126084

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125842

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125550

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<5>,  Next: Tests<6>,  Prev: Windows<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-126807(1): Fix extraction warnings in ‘pygettext.py’ caused by
     mistaking function definitions for function calls.

   - gh-126167(2): The iOS testbed was modified so that it can be used
     by third-party projects for testing purposes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126807

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126167


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<6>,  Next: Security<6>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-126909(1): Fix test_os extended attribute tests to work on
     filesystems with 1 KiB xattr size limit.

   - gh-125041(2): Re-enable skipped tests for *note zlib: 133. on the
     s390x architecture: only skip checks of the compressed bytes, which
     can be different between zlib’s software implementation and the
     hardware-accelerated implementation.

   - gh-124295(3): Add translation tests to the *note argparse: 6.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126909

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125041

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124295


File: python.info,  Node: Security<6>,  Next: Library<8>,  Prev: Tests<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.5 Security
.................

   - gh-126623(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.4

   - gh-125140(2): Remove the current directory from ‘sys.path’ when
     using PyREPL.

   - gh-122792(3): Changed IPv4-mapped ‘ipaddress.IPv6Address’ to
     consistently use the mapped IPv4 address value for deciding
     properties.  Properties which have their behavior fixed are
     ‘is_multicast’, ‘is_reserved’, ‘is_link_local’, ‘is_global’, and
     ‘is_unspecified’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125140

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122792


File: python.info,  Node: Library<8>,  Next: IDLE<5>,  Prev: Security<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.6 Library
................

   - gh-127321(1): *note pdb.set_trace(): 235. will not stop at an
     opcode that does not have an associated line number anymore.

   - gh-127303(2): Publicly expose *note EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES: 159c. in
     ‘token.__all__’.

   - gh-123967(3): Fix faulthandler for trampoline frames.  If the
     top-most frame is a trampoline frame, skip it.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-127182(4): Fix ‘io.StringIO.__setstate__()’ crash, when *note
     None: 66f. was passed as the first value.

   - gh-127217(5): Fix *note urllib.request.pathname2url(): 159d. for
     paths starting with multiple slashes on Posix.

   - gh-127035(6): Fix *note shutil.which: 4ae. on Windows.  Now it
     looks at direct match if and only if the command ends with a
     PATHEXT extension or X_OK is not in mode.  Support extensionless
     files if “.” is in PATHEXT. Support PATHEXT extensions that end
     with a dot.

   - gh-122273(7): Support PyREPL history on Windows.  Patch by
     devdanzin and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127078(8): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     159e. failed to discard an extra slash before a UNC drive in the
     URL path on Windows.

   - gh-126766(9): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     159e. failed to discard any ‘localhost’ authority present in the
     URL.

   - gh-127065(10): Fix crash when calling a *note
     operator.methodcaller(): e30. instance from multiple threads in the
     free threading build.

   - gh-126997(11): Fix support of STRING and GLOBAL opcodes with
     non-ASCII arguments in *note pickletools: a7.  *note
     pickletools.dis(): cc0. now outputs non-ASCII bytes in STRING,
     BINSTRING and SHORT_BINSTRING arguments as escaped (‘\xXX’).

   - gh-126316(12): *note grp: 66.: Make *note grp.getgrall(): 159f.
     thread-safe by adding a mutex.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126618(13): Fix the representation of *note itertools.count:
     1273. objects when the count value is *note sys.maxsize: 11b4.

   - gh-85168(14): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     159e. and *note pathname2url(): 159d. always used UTF-8 when
     quoting and unquoting file URIs.  They now use the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 535.

   - gh-67877(15): Fix memory leaks when *note regular expression: b9.
     matching terminates abruptly, either because of a signal or because
     memory allocation fails.

   - gh-126789(16): Fixed the values of *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1022, *note sysconfig.get_paths():
     1234, and their siblings when the *note site: c7. initialization
     happens after *note sysconfig: db. has built a cache for *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1022.

   - gh-126188(17): Update bundled pip to 24.3.1

   - gh-126780(18): Fix *note os.path.normpath(): 130a. for
     drive-relative paths on Windows.

   - gh-126766(19): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     159e. failed to discard two leading slashes introducing an empty
     authority section.

   - gh-126727(20): ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ERA)’ now returns
     multiple era description segments separated by semicolons.
     Previously it only returned the first segment on platforms with
     Glibc.

   - gh-126699(21): Allow *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dda. to
     be a base for Protocols.

   - gh-126654(22): Fix crash when non-dict was passed to several
     functions in ‘_interpreters’ module.

   - gh-104745(23): Limit starting a patcher (from *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): e88. or *note unittest.mock.patch.object():
     15a0.) more than once without stopping it

   - gh-126595(24): Fix a crash when instantiating *note
     itertools.count: 1273. with an initial count of *note sys.maxsize:
     11b4. on debug builds.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120423(25): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     159d. mishandled Windows paths with embedded forward slashes.

   - gh-126565(26): Improve performances of *note zipfile.Path.open():
     15a1. for non-reading modes.

   - gh-126505(27): Fix bugs in compiling case-insensitive *note regular
     expressions: b9. with character classes containing non-BMP
     characters: upper-case non-BMP character did was ignored and the
     ASCII flag was ignored when matching a character range whose upper
     bound is beyond the BMP region.

   - gh-117378(28): Fixed the *note multiprocessing: 94. ‘"forkserver"’
     start method forkserver process to correctly inherit the parent’s
     *note sys.path: 3ae. during the importing of *note
     multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload(): 15a2. modules in the same
     manner as *note sys.path: 3ae. is configured in workers before
     executing work items.

     This bug caused some forkserver module preloading to silently fail
     to preload.  This manifested as a performance degration in child
     processes when the ‘sys.path’ was required due to additional
     repeated work in every worker.

     It could also have a side effect of ‘""’ remaining in *note
     sys.path: 3ae. during forkserver preload imports instead of the
     absolute path from *note os.getcwd(): 15a3. at multiprocessing
     import time used in the worker ‘sys.path’.

     The ‘sys.path’ differences between phases in the child process
     could potentially have caused preload to import incorrect things
     from the wrong location.  We are unaware of that actually having
     happened in practice.

   - gh-125679(29): The *note multiprocessing.Lock: 15a4. and *note
     multiprocessing.RLock: 15a5. ‘repr’ values no longer say “unknown”
     on macOS.

   - gh-126476(30): Raise *note calendar.IllegalMonthError: 15a6. (now a
     subclass of *note IndexError: 14fc.) for *note calendar.month():
     15a7. when the input month is not correct.

   - gh-126489(31): The Python implementation of *note pickle: a6. no
     longer calls *note pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 15a8. for the
     result of ‘persistent_id()’.

   - gh-126313(32): Fix an issue in *note curses.napms(): 15a9. when
     *note curses.initscr(): 15aa. has not yet been called.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126303(33): Fix pickling and copying of *note os.sched_param:
     15ab. objects.

   - gh-126138(34): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     1be. objects whose underlying coroutine yields an object that
     implements an evil *note __getattribute__(): bcf.  Patch by Nico
     Posada.

   - gh-126220(35): Fix crash in ‘cProfile.Profile’ and
     ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ when their callbacks were directly called with 0
     arguments.

   - gh-126212(36): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     159d. and *note url2pathname(): 159e. removed slashes from Windows
     DOS drive paths and URLs.

   - gh-126223(37): Raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. instead of a
     *note SystemError: 570. upon calling ‘_interpreters.create()’ with
     an invalid Unicode character.

   - gh-126205(38): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     159d. generated URLs beginning with four slashes (rather than two)
     when given a Windows UNC path.

   - gh-126105(39): Fix a crash in *note ast: 8. when the *note
     ast.AST._fields: 15ac. attribute is deleted.

   - gh-126106(40): Fixes a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in *note
     ssl: d0.

   - gh-126080(41): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     1be. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): bcf.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126083(42): Fixed a reference leak in *note asyncio.Task: 1be.
     objects when reinitializing the same object with a non-‘None’
     context.  Patch by Nico Posada.

   - gh-125984(43): Fix use-after-free crashes on *note asyncio.Future:
     bca. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): bcf.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125969(44): Fix an out-of-bounds crash when an evil *note
     asyncio.loop.call_soon(): b01. mutates the length of the internal
     callbacks list.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125966(45): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 15ad.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-125789(46): Fix possible crash when mutating list of callbacks
     returned by ‘asyncio.Future._callbacks’.  It now always returns a
     new copy in C implementation ‘_asyncio’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-124452(47): Fix an issue in *note
     email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse(): 15ae. and *note
     email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse(): 15af. that introduced
     spurious leading whitespaces into header values when the header
     includes a newline character after the header name delimiter (‘:’)
     and before the value.

   - gh-125884(48): Fixed the bug for *note pdb: a5. where it can’t set
     breakpoints on functions with certain annotations.

   - gh-125355(49): Fix several bugs in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): afd.

        * The parser no longer changes temporarily during parsing.

        * Default values are not processed twice.

        * Required mutually exclusive groups containing positional
          arguments are now supported.

        * The missing arguments report now includes the names of all
          required optional and positional arguments.

        * Unknown options can be intermixed with positional arguments in
          parse_known_intermixed_args().

   - gh-125666(50): Avoid the exiting the interpreter if a null byte is
     given as input in the new REPL.

   - gh-125710(51): [Enum] fix hashable<->nonhashable comparisons for
     member values

   - gh-125631(52): Restore ability to set *note persistent_id: 15a8.
     and *note persistent_load: 15b0. attributes of instances of the
     ‘Pickler’ and ‘Unpickler’ classes in the *note pickle: a6. module.

   - gh-125378(53): Fixed the bug in *note pdb: a5. where after a
     multi-line command, an empty line repeats the first line of the
     multi-line command, instead of the full command.

   - gh-125682(54): Reject non-ASCII digits in the Python implementation
     of *note json.loads(): 953. conforming to the JSON specification.

   - gh-125660(55): Reject invalid unicode escapes for Python
     implementation of *note json.loads(): 953.

   - gh-125259(56): Fix the notes removal logic for errors thrown in
     enum initialization.

   - gh-125590(57): Allow ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ to delete and pop if the
     key is not a fast variable.

   - gh-125519(58): Improve traceback if *note importlib.reload(): 512.
     is called with an object that is not a module.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-125451(59): Fix deadlock when *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. shuts down
     concurrently with an error when feeding a job to a worker process.

   - gh-125422(60): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a5. and *note bdb: f.
     can step into the bottom caller frame.

   - gh-100141(61): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a5. will be stuck in
     an infinite loop when debugging an empty file.

   - gh-125115(62): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: a5. where arguments
     starting with ‘-’ can’t be passed to the debugged script.

   - gh-53203(63): Fix *note time.strptime(): 13f5. for ‘%c’, ‘%x’ and
     ‘%X’ formats in many locales that use non-ASCII digits, like
     Persian, Burmese, Odia and Shan.

   - gh-125398(64): Fix the conversion of the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ path in the
     activate script in *note venv: 111. when running in Git Bash for
     Windows.

   - gh-125316(65): Fix using *note functools.partial(): 40e. as *note
     enum.Enum: 62a. member.  A FutureWarning with suggestion to use
     *note enum.member(): 621. is now emitted when the ‘partial’
     instance is used as an enum member.

   - gh-125245(66): Fix race condition when importing *note
     collections.abc: 1e, which could incorrectly return an empty
     module.

   - gh-125243(67): Fix data race when creating *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo:
     8dc. objects in the free threading build.

   - gh-125254(68): Fix a bug where ArgumentError includes the incorrect
     ambiguous option in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-125235(69): Keep *note tkinter: f0. TCL paths in venv pointing
     to base installation on Windows.

   - gh-61011(70): Fix inheritance of nested mutually exclusive groups
     from parent parser in *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 533.
     Previously, all nested mutually exclusive groups lost their
     connection to the group containing them and were displayed as
     belonging directly to the parser.

   - gh-52551(71): Fix encoding issues in *note time.strftime(): 11d8,
     the *note strftime(): c8d. method of the *note datetime: 30.
     classes *note datetime: 1cc, *note date: 1cd. and *note time: 1ce.
     and formatting of these classes.  Characters not encodable in the
     current locale are now acceptable in the format string.  Surrogate
     pairs and sequence of surrogatescape-encoded bytes are no longer
     recombinated.  Embedded null character no longer terminates the
     format string.

   - gh-125118(72): Don’t copy arbitrary values to _Bool in the *note
     struct: d5. module.

   - gh-125069(73): Fix an issue where providing a *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. object as an initializer argument to a
     second *note PurePath: 4a0. object with a different *note parser:
     22c. resulted in arguments to the former object’s initializer being
     joined by the latter object’s parser.

   - gh-125096(74): If the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16e. environment
     variable is set, the *note site: c7. module no longer imports the
     ‘_pyrepl’ module.  Moreover, the *note site: c7. module now
     respects *note -E: 95a. and *note -I: 95b. command line options:
     ignore *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16e. in this case.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-124969(75): Fix ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS)’ on
     platforms with glibc.  Now it returns a string consisting of up to
     100 semicolon-separated symbols (an empty string in most locales)
     on all Posix platforms.  Previously it only returned the first
     symbol or an empty string.

   - gh-124960(76): Fix support for the ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ future flag in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-124984(77): Fixed thread safety in *note ssl: d0. in the
     free-threaded build.  OpenSSL operations are now protected by a
     per-object lock.

   - gh-124958(78): Fix refcycles in exceptions raised from *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. and the python implementation of *note
     asyncio.Future: bca.

   - gh-53203(79): Fix *note time.strptime(): 13f5. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats in many locales: Arabic, Bislama, Breton, Bodo, Kashubian,
     Chuvash, Estonian, French, Irish, Ge’ez, Gurajati, Manx Gaelic,
     Hebrew, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, Haitian Kreyol, Japanese, Kannada,
     Korean, Marathi, Malay, Norwegian, Nynorsk, Punjabi, Rajasthani,
     Tok Pisin, Yoruba, Yue Chinese, Yau/Nungon and Chinese.

   - gh-124917(80): Allow calling *note os.path.exists(): a0a. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): a0b. with keyword arguments on Windows.  Fixes a
     regression in 3.13.0.

   - gh-124653(81): Fix detection of the minimal Queue API needed by the
     *note logging: 87. module.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124858(82): Fix reference cycles left in tracebacks in *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b15. when used with
     ‘happy_eyeballs_delay’

   - gh-124390(83): Fixed *note AssertionError: 6a3. when using
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ with *note
     asyncio.eager_task_factory: 471.

   - gh-124651(84): Properly quote template strings in *note venv: 111.
     activation scripts.

   - gh-116850(85): Fix *note argparse: 6. for namespaces with not
     directly writable dict (e.g.  classes).

   - gh-58573(86): Fix conflicts between abbreviated long options in the
     parent parser and subparsers in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-124594(87): All *note asyncio: a. REPL prompts run in the same
     *note context: 15b1.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-61181(88): Fix support of *note choices: 15b2. with string value
     in *note argparse: 6.  Substrings of the specified string no longer
     considered valid values.

   - gh-80259(89): Fix *note argparse: 6. support of positional
     arguments with ‘nargs='?'’, ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ and
     specified ‘type’.

   - gh-120378(90): Fix a crash related to an integer overflow in *note
     curses.resizeterm(): 15b3. and *note curses.resize_term(): 15b4.

   - gh-123884(91): Fixed bug in itertools.tee() handling of other tee
     inputs (a tee in a tee).  The output now has the promised 'n'
     independent new iterators.  Formerly, the first iterator was
     identical (not independent) to the input iterator.  This would
     sometimes give surprising results.

   - gh-58956(92): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: a5. where sometimes the
     breakpoint won’t trigger if it was set on a function which is
     already in the call stack.

   - gh-124345(93): *note argparse: 6. vim supports abbreviated
     single-dash long options separated by ‘=’ from its value.

   - gh-104860(94): Fix disallowing abbreviation of single-dash long
     options in *note argparse: 6. with ‘allow_abbrev=False’.

   - gh-63143(95): Fix parsing mutually exclusive arguments in *note
     argparse: 6.  Arguments with the value identical to the default
     value (e.g.  booleans, small integers, empty or 1-character
     strings) are no longer considered “not present”.

   - gh-72795(96): Positional arguments with *note nargs: 15b5. equal to
     ‘'*'’ or ‘argparse.REMAINDER’ are no longer required.  This allows
     to use positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’ and without ‘default’
     in mutually exclusive group and improves error message about
     required arguments.

   - gh-59317(97): Fix parsing positional argument with *note nargs:
     15b5. equal to ‘'?'’ or ‘'*'’ if it is preceded by an option and
     another positional argument.

   - gh-53780(98): *note argparse: 6. now ignores the first ‘"--"’
     (double dash) between an option and command.

   - gh-124217(99): Add RFC 9637 reserved IPv6 block ‘3fff::/20’ in
     *note ipaddress: 80. module.

   - gh-81691(100): Fix handling of multiple ‘"--"’ (double dashes) in
     *note argparse: 6.  Only the first one has now been removed, all
     subsequent ones are now taken literally.

   - gh-123978(101): Remove broken *note time.thread_time(): 934. and
     *note time.thread_time_ns(): b8e. on NetBSD.

   - gh-124008(102): Fix possible crash (in debug build), incorrect
     output or returning incorrect value from raw binary ‘write()’ when
     writing to console on Windows.

   - gh-123935(103): Fix parent slots detection for dataclasses that
     inherit from classes with ‘__dictoffset__’.

   - gh-122765(104): Fix unbalanced quote errors occurring when
     activate.csh in *note venv: 111. was sourced with a custom prompt
     containing unpaired quotes or newlines.

   - gh-123370(105): Fix the canvas not clearing after running
     turtledemo clock.

   - gh-116810(106): Resolve a memory leak introduced in CPython 3.10’s
     *note ssl: d0. when the *note ssl.SSLSocket.session: 15b6. property
     was accessed.  Speeds up read and write access to said property by
     no longer unnecessarily cloning session objects via serialization.

   - gh-120754(107): Update unbounded ‘read’ calls in *note zipfile:
     131. to specify an explicit ‘size’ putting a limit on how much data
     they may read.  This also updates handling around ZIP max comment
     size to match the standard instead of reading comments that are one
     byte too long.

   - gh-70764(108): Fixed an issue where *note inspect.getclosurevars():
     10c8. would incorrectly classify an attribute name as a global
     variable when the name exists both as an attribute name and a
     global variable.

   - gh-118289(109): ‘posixpath.realpath()’ now raises *note
     NotADirectoryError: 1050. when 'strict' mode is enabled and a
     non-directory path with a trailing slash is supplied.

   - gh-119826(110): Always return an absolute path for *note
     os.path.abspath(): 130b. on Windows.

   - gh-117766(111): Always use *note str(): 445. to print ‘choices’ in
     *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-101955(112): Fix SystemError when match regular expression
     pattern containing some combination of possessive quantifier,
     alternative and capture group.

   - gh-88110(113): Fixed *note multiprocessing.Process: b56. reporting
     a ‘.exitcode’ of 1 even on success when using the ‘"fork"’ start
     method while using a *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     73b.

   - gh-71936(114): Fix a race condition in *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: f63.

   - bpo-46128(115): Strip *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304.
     stack frames from reported stacktraces.

   - bpo-14074(116): Fix *note argparse: 6. metavar processing to allow
     positional arguments to have a tuple metavar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127321

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127303

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123967

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127182

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127217

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127035

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122273

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127078

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127065

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126997

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126316

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126618

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85168

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67877

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126188

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126780

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126727

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126699

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126654

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104745

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126595

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120423

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126565

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126505

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117378

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125679

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126476

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126489

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126313

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126303

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126138

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126220

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126212

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126223

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126205

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126105

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126106

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126080

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126083

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125984

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125969

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125966

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125789

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124452

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125884

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125355

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125666

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125710

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125631

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125378

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125682

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125660

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125259

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125590

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125519

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125451

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125422

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100141

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125115

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125398

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125316

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125245

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125243

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125254

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125235

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61011

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125118

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125069

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125096

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124960

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124984

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124958

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124917

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124653

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124858

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124390

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124651

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116850

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58573

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124594

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61181

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80259

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120378

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123884

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124345

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104860

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63143

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72795

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59317

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53780

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124217

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81691

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123978

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124008

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123935

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122765

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123370

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116810

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70764

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118289

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119826

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117766

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101955

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88110

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71936

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46128

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14074


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<5>,  Next: Documentation<7>,  Prev: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122392(1): Increase currently inadequate vertical spacing for
     the IDLE browsers (path, module, and stack) on high-resolution
     monitors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122392


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<8>,  Prev: IDLE<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.8 Documentation
......................

   - gh-126622(1): Added stub pages for removed modules explaining their
     removal, where to find replacements, and linking to the last Python
     version that supported them.  Contributed by Ned Batchelder.

   - gh-125277(2): Require Sphinx 7.2.6 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-124872(3): Added definitions for *note context: 15b9, *note
     current context: 15ba, and *note context management protocol: 15bb,
     updated related definitions to be consistent, and expanded the
     documentation for *note contextvars.Context: 15b1.

   - gh-125018(4): The *note importlib.metadata: 7a. documentation now
     includes semantic cross-reference targets for the significant
     documented APIs.  This means intersphinx references like *note
     importlib.metadata.version(): 15bc. will now work as expected.

   - gh-70870(5): Clarified the dual usage of the term “free variable”
     (both the formal meaning of any reference to names defined outside
     the local scope, and the narrower pragmatic meaning of nonlocal
     variables named in ‘co_freevars’).

   - gh-121277(6): Writers of CPython’s documentation can now use ‘next’
     as the version for the ‘versionchanged’, ‘versionadded’,
     ‘deprecated’ directives.

   - gh-60712(7): Include the *note object: a89. type in the lists of
     documented types.  Change by Furkan Onder and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-34008(8): The *note Py_Main(): c22. documentation moved from
     the “Very High Level API” section to the “Initialization and
     Finalization” section.

     Also make it explicit that we expect ‘Py_Main’ to typically be
     called instead of ‘Py_Initialize’ rather than after it (since
     ‘Py_Main’ makes its own call to ‘Py_Initialize’).  Document that
     calling both is supported but is version dependent on which
     settings will be applied correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126622

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125277

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124872

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125018

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70870

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60712

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<8>,  Next: C API<6>,  Prev: Documentation<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.9 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-113841(1): Fix possible undefined behavior division by zero in
     *note complex: 2f0.’s *note _Py_c_pow(): 15be.

   - gh-127020(2): Fix a crash in the free threading build when *note
     PyCode_GetCode(): 771, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 772, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 773, or *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 774. were
     called from multiple threads at the same time.

   - gh-126980(3): Fix *note __buffer__(): 458. of *note bytearray: 538.
     crashing when *note READ: 15bf. or *note WRITE: 15c0. are passed as
     flags.

   - gh-126881(4): Fix crash in finalization of dtoa state.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-126341(5): Now *note ValueError: 202. is raised instead of *note
     SystemError: 570. when trying to iterate over a released *note
     memoryview: 462. object.

   - gh-126688(6): Fix a crash when calling *note os.fork(): 197. on
     some operating systems, including SerenityOS.

   - gh-126066(7): Fix *note importlib: 77. to not write an incomplete
     .pyc files when a ulimit or some other operating system mechanism
     is preventing the write to go through fully.

   - gh-126312(8): Fix crash during garbage collection on an object
     frozen by *note gc.freeze(): b37. on the free-threaded build.

   - gh-126139(9): Provide better error location when attempting to use
     a *note future statement: da9. with an unknown future feature.

   - gh-126018(10): Fix a crash in *note sys.audit(): 15c1. when passing
     a non-string as first argument and Python was compiled in debug
     mode.

   - gh-125942(11): On Android, the ‘errors’ setting of *note
     sys.stdout: ad3. was changed from ‘surrogateescape’ to
     ‘backslashreplace’.

   - gh-125859(12): Fix a crash in the free threading build when *note
     gc.get_objects(): 7fd. or *note gc.get_referrers(): 7fe. is called
     during an in-progress garbage collection.

   - gh-125703(13): Correctly honour *note tracemalloc: ff. hooks in
     specialized ‘Py_DECREF’ paths.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-125593(14): Use color to highlight error locations in traceback
     from exception group

   - gh-125444(15): Fix illegal instruction for older Arm architectures.
     Patch by Diego Russo, testing by Ross Burton.

   - gh-124375(16): Fix a crash in the free threading build when the GC
     runs concurrently with a new thread starting.

   - gh-125221(17): Fix possible race condition when calling *note
     __reduce_ex__(): 15c2. for the first time in the free threading
     build.

   - gh-125038(18): Fix crash when iterating over a generator expression
     after direct changes on ‘gi_frame.f_locals’.  Patch by Mikhail
     Efimov.

   - gh-123378(19): Fix a crash in the *note __str__(): 617. method of
     *note UnicodeError: 1293. objects when the *note
     UnicodeError.start: 15c3. and *note UnicodeError.end: 15c4. values
     are invalid or out-of-range.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-116510(20): Fix a crash caused by immortal interned strings
     being shared between sub-interpreters that use basic single-phase
     init.  In that case, the string can be used by an interpreter that
     outlives the interpreter that created and interned it.  For
     interpreters that share obmalloc state, also share the interned
     dict with the main interpreter.

   - gh-122878(21): Use the ‘pager’ binary, if available (e.g.  on
     Debian and derivatives), to display REPL ‘help()’.

   - gh-124188(22): Fix reading and decoding a line from the source file
     witn non-UTF-8 encoding for syntax errors raised in the compiler.

   - gh-123930(23): Improve the error message when a script shadowing a
     module from the standard library causes *note ImportError: 413. to
     be raised during a “from” import.  Similarly, improve the error
     message when a script shadowing a third party module attempts to
     “from” import an attribute from that third party module while still
     initialising.

   - gh-122907(24): Building with ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ now works as
     well as it did in 3.12.  Existing deficiences will be addressed
     separately.  (See
     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122950’.)

   - gh-118950(25): Fix bug where SSLProtocol.connection_lost wasn’t
     getting called when OSError was thrown on writing to socket.

   - gh-113570(26): Fixed a bug in ‘reprlib.repr’ where it incorrectly
     called the repr method on shadowed Python built-in types.

   - gh-109746(27): If ‘_thread.start_new_thread()’ fails to start a new
     thread, it deletes its state from interpreter and thus avoids its
     repeated cleanup on finalization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113841

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127020

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126980

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126881

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126341

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126688

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126066

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126312

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126139

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126018

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125859

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125703

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125593

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125444

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124375

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125221

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125038

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122878

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124188

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123930

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122907

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118950

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113570

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109746


File: python.info,  Node: C API<6>,  Next: Build<6>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.10 C API
...............

   - gh-126554(1): Fix error handling in *note ctypes.CDLL: 9e5. objects
     which could result in a crash in rare situations.

   - gh-125608(2): Fix a bug where dictionary watchers (e.g., *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 55e.) on an object’s attribute dictionary (*note
     __dict__: 556.) were not triggered when the object’s attributes
     were modified.

   - bpo-34008(3): Added ‘Py_IsInitialized’ to the list of APIs that are
     safe to call before the interpreter is initialized, and updated the
     embedding tests to cover it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126554

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125608

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008


File: python.info,  Node: Build<6>,  Prev: C API<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 1 final

1.23.8.11 Build
...............

   - gh-123877(1): Set ‘wasm32-wasip1’ as the WASI target.  The old
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ target is deprecated so it can be used for an
     eventual WASI 1.0.

   - gh-89640(2): Hard-code float word ordering as little endian on
     WASM.

   - gh-125940(3): The Android build now supports 16 KB page sizes(4).

   - gh-89640(5): Improve detection of float word ordering on Linux when
     link-time optimizations are enabled.

   - gh-125269(6): Fix detection of whether ‘-latomic’ is needed when
     cross-compiling CPython using the configure script.

   - gh-121634(7): Allow for specifying the target compile triple for
     WASI.

   - gh-122578(8): Use WASI SDK 24 for testing.

   - gh-115382(9): Fix cross compile failures when the host and target
     SOABIs match.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123877

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125940

   (4) https://developer.android.com/guide/practices/page-sizes

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125269

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121634

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122578

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115382


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 final,  Next: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.9 Python 3.13.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 final

1.23.9.1 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-125008(1): Fix *note tokenize.untokenize(): 158d. producing
     invalid syntax for double braces preceded by certain escape
     characters.

   - gh-124871(2): Fix compiler bug (in some versions of 3.13) where an
     assertion fails during reachability analysis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125008

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124871


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.10 Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-01'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* C API: C API<7>.
* Build: Build<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<5>,  Next: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-123797(1): Check for runtime availability of ‘ptsname_r’
     function on macos.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123797


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<7>,  Next: Tests<7>,  Prev: macOS<5>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.2 Windows
.................

   - gh-124609(1): Fix ‘_Py_ThreadId’ for Windows builds using MinGW.
     Patch by Tony Roberts.

   - gh-124254(2): Ensures experimental free-threaded binaries remain
     installed when updating.

   - gh-123915(3): Ensure that ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ uses
     different directories for AMD64 and ARM64 builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124609

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124254

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123915


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<7>,  Next: Library<9>,  Prev: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-124378(1): Updated ‘test_ttk’ to pass with Tcl/Tk 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124378


File: python.info,  Node: Library<9>,  Next: IDLE<6>,  Prev: Tests<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.4 Library
.................

   - gh-124538(1): Fixed crash when using *note gc.get_referents(): 7ff.
     on a capsule object.

   - gh-124498(2): Fix *note typing.TypeAliasType: 44e. not to be
     generic, when ‘type_params’ is an empty tuple.

   - gh-123017(3): Due to unreliable results on some devices, *note
     time.strftime(): 11d8. no longer accepts negative years on Android.

   - gh-123014(4): *note os.pidfd_open(): 474. and *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 929. are now unavailable when building
     against Android API levels older than 31, since the underlying
     system calls may cause a crash.

   - gh-124248(5): Fixed potential crash when using *note struct: d5. to
     process zero-width ‘Pascal string’ fields (‘0p’).

   - gh-87041(6): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where lengthy
     subparser argument help is incorrectly indented.

   - gh-124212(7): Fix invalid variable in *note venv: 111. handling of
     failed symlink on Windows

   - gh-124171(8): Add workaround for broken ‘fmod()’ implementations on
     Windows, that loose zero sign (e.g.  ‘fmod(-10, 1)’ returns ‘0.0’).
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123934(9): Fix *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: e87. reseting
     magic methods return values after ‘.reset_mock(return_value=True)’
     was called.

   - gh-123968(10): Fix the command-line interface for the *note random:
     b8. module to select floats between 0 and N, not 1 and N.

   - gh-123892(11): Add ‘"_wmi"’ to *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83b.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-123339(12): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 151b. for classes in
     *note collections.abc: 1e. and *note decimal: 36. (for pure Python
     implementation) modules.  *note inspect.getcomments(): 15ce. now
     raises OSError instead of IndexError if the ‘__firstlineno__’ value
     for a class is out of bound.

   - gh-121735(13): When working with zip archives, importlib.resources
     now properly honors module-adjacent references (e.g.
     ‘files(pkg.mod)’ and not just ‘files(pkg)’).

   - gh-122145(14): Fix an issue when reporting tracebacks corresponding
     to Python code emitting an empty AST body.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev
     and Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-119004(15): Fix a crash in *note OrderedDict.__eq__: 15cf. when
     operands are mutated during the check.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - bpo-44864(16): Do not translate user-provided strings in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 533.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124538

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124498

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123017

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123014

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124248

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87041

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124171

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123934

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123968

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123892

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121735

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122145

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119004

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44864


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<6>,  Next: Documentation<8>,  Prev: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.5 IDLE
..............

   - gh-112938(1): Fix uninteruptable hang when Shell gets rapid
     continuous output.

   - gh-120104(2): Fix padding in config and search dialog windows in
     IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112938

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120104


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<8>,  Next: Core and Builtins<10>,  Prev: IDLE<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.6 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-124720(1): Update “Using Python on a Mac” section of the “Python
     Setup and Usage” document and include information on installing
     free-threading support.

   - gh-116622(2): Add an Android platform guide, and flag modules not
     available on Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124720

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<10>,  Next: C API<7>,  Prev: Documentation<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.7 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-124567(1): Revert the incremental GC (in 3.13), since it’s not
     clear the benefits outweigh the costs at this point.

   - gh-124642(2): Fixed scalability issue in free-threaded builds for
     lock-free reads from dictionaries in multi-threaded scenarios

   - gh-116510(3): Fix a bug that can cause a crash when
     sub-interpreters use “basic” single-phase extension modules.
     Shared objects could refer to PyGC_Head nodes that had been freed
     as part of interpreter cleanup.

   - gh-124547(4): When deallocating an object with inline values whose
     ‘__dict__’ is still live: if memory allocation for the inline
     values fails, clear the dictionary.  Prevents an interpreter crash.

   - gh-124513(5): Fix a crash in FrameLocalsProxy constructor: check
     the number of arguments.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-124442(6): Fix nondeterminism in compilation by sorting the
     value of *note __static_attributes__: 14b.  Patch by kp2pml30.

   - gh-123856(7): Fix PyREPL failure when a keyboard interrupt is
     triggered after using a history search

   - gh-65961(8): Document the deprecation of setting and using
     ‘__package__’ and ‘__cached__’.

   - gh-124027(9): Support ‘<page up>’, ‘<page down>’, and ‘<delete>’
     keys in the Python REPL when ‘$TERM’ is set to ‘vt100’.

   - gh-77894(10): Fix possible crash in the garbage collector when it
     tries to break a reference loop containing a *note memoryview: 462.
     object.  Now a ‘memoryview’ object can only be cleared if there are
     no buffers that refer it.

   - gh-123339(11): Setting the ‘__module__’ attribute for a class now
     removes the ‘__firstlineno__’ item from the type’s dict, so they
     will no longer be inconsistent.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124567

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124642

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124547

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124513

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124442

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123856

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124027

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77894

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339


File: python.info,  Node: C API<7>,  Next: Build<7>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.8 C API
...............

   - gh-124160(1): Fix crash when importing modules containing state and
     single-phase initialization in a subinterpreter.

   - gh-123880(2): Fixed a bug that prevented circular imports of
     extension modules that use single-phase initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124160

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123880


File: python.info,  Node: Build<7>,  Prev: C API<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3

1.23.10.9 Build
...............

   - gh-124487(1): Windows builds now use Windows 8.1 as their API
     baseline (installation already required Windows 8.1).

   - gh-124043(2): Building using *note -with-trace-refs: 38e. is
     (temporarily) disallowed when the GIL is disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124487

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124043


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.11 Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2024-09-06'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<6>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Security: Security<7>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* C API: C API<8>.
* Build: Build<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<6>,  Next: Windows<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-123418(1): Updated macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<8>,  Next: Tools/Demos<6>,  Prev: macOS<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.2 Windows
.................

   - gh-123418(1): Updated Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-122573(2): The Windows build of CPython now requires 3.10 or
     newer.

   - gh-100256(3): *note mimetypes: 8f. no longer fails when it
     encounters an inaccessible registry key.

   - gh-79846(4): Makes ‘ssl.create_default_context()’ ignore invalid
     certificates in the Windows certificate store

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122573

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100256

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79846


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<6>,  Next: Tests<8>,  Prev: Windows<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.3 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-123418(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.15 and
     multissltests to use 3.0.15, 3.1.7, and 3.2.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<8>,  Next: Security<7>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<6>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-119727(1): Add ‘--single-process’ command line option to Python
     test runner (regrtest).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-101525(2): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if the binary is relocated by BOLT.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119727

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525


File: python.info,  Node: Security<7>,  Next: Library<10>,  Prev: Tests<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.5 Security
..................

   - gh-123678(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.3

   - gh-121285(2): Remove backtracking from tarfile header parsing for
     ‘hdrcharset’, PAX, and GNU sparse headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123678

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<10>,  Next: IDLE<7>,  Prev: Security<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.6 Library
.................

   - gh-123657(1): Fix crash and memory leak in *note
     decimal.getcontext(): 15dc.  It crashed when using a thread-local
     context by ‘--with-decimal-contextvar=no’.

   - gh-123448(2): Fixed memory leak of *note typing.NoDefault: 262. by
     moving it to the static types array.

   - gh-123409(3): Fix *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer:
     15dd. output according to RFC 3596, §2.5(4).  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-123270(5): Applied a more surgical fix for malformed payloads in
     *note zipfile.Path: 6c3. causing infinite loops (gh-122905(6))
     without breaking contents using legitimate characters.

   - gh-123228(7): Fix return type for
     ‘_pyrepl.readline._ReadlineWrapper.get_line_buffer()’ to be *note
     str(): 445.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123240(8): Raise audit events for the *note input(): 12c8. in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-123243(9): Fix memory leak in ‘_decimal’.

   - gh-122546(10): Consistently use same file name for different
     exceptions in the new repl.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123213(11): *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 11c2.
     and *note Element: 308. assignment no longer hide the internal
     exception if an erronous generator is passed.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-85110(12): Preserve relative path in URL without netloc in *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 15de. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 15df.

   - gh-123067(13): Fix quadratic complexity in parsing ‘"’-quoted
     cookie values with backslashes by *note http.cookies: 71.

   - gh-122981(14): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 151b. for generated
     classes with Python base classes (e.g.  enums).

   - gh-122903(15): ‘zipfile.Path.glob’ now correctly matches
     directories instead of silently omitting them.

   - gh-122905(16): *note zipfile.Path: 6c3. objects now sanitize names
     from the zipfile.

   - gh-122695(17): Fixed double-free when using *note
     gc.get_referents(): 7ff. with a freed *note asyncio.Future: bca.
     iterator.

   - gh-116263(18): *note logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 15e0. no
     longer rolls over empty log files.

   - gh-105376(19): Restore the deprecated *note logging: 87. ‘warn()’
     method.  It was removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.  Keep the
     deprecated ‘warn()’ method in Python 3.13.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-122744(20): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 24.2.

   - gh-118814(21): Fix the *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. constructor when
     name is passed by keyword.

   - gh-122478(22): Remove internal frames from tracebacks shown in
     *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 15e1. with non-default *note
     sys.excepthook(): 805.  Save correct tracebacks in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 4bb. and update ‘__traceback__’ attribute of
     *note sys.last_value: 4ba. and *note sys.last_exc: 4b8.

   - gh-116622(23): On Android, the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’
     constants are no longer exposed by *note fcntl: 59, as these ioctls
     are blocked by SELinux.

   - gh-82378(24): Make sure that the new *note REPL: 16a. interprets
     *note sys.tracebacklimit: 15e2. in the same way that the classic
     REPL did.

   - gh-122334(25): Fix crash when importing *note ssl: d0. after the
     main interpreter restarts.

   - gh-87320(26): In *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 15e1, handle
     exceptions caused by calling a non-default *note sys.excepthook():
     805.  Before, the exception bubbled up to the caller, ending the
     *note REPL: 16a.

   - gh-121650(27): *note email: 3b. headers with embedded newlines are
     now quoted on output.  The *note generator: 40. will now refuse to
     serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited;
     see *note verify_generated_headers: 1e0.  (Contributed by Bas
     Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(28).)

   - gh-121723(29): Make *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 119f. accept
     any object implementing the Queue public API. See the *note queue
     configuration: 15e3. section for details.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122081(30): Fix a crash in the ‘decimal.IEEEContext()’ optional
     function available via the ‘EXTRA_FUNCTIONALITY’ configuration
     flag.

   - gh-121804(31): Correctly show error locations, when *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. raised in new repl.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-121151(32): Fix wrapping of long usage text of arguments inside
     a mutually exclusive group in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-108172(33): ‘webbrowser’ honors OS preferred browser on Linux
     when its desktop entry name contains the text of a known browser
     name.

   - gh-109109(34): You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from
     TLS connections via *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 15e4.
     and *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 15e5. methods.

     Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123657

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123448

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123409

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3596.html#section-2.5

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123270

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123228

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123240

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123243

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122546

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123213

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85110

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123067

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122981

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122903

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122695

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116263

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122744

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118814

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122478

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82378

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122334

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87320

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121723

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122081

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121151

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108172

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<11>,  Prev: Library<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.7 IDLE
..............

   - gh-120083(1): Add explicit black IDLE Hovertip foreground color
     needed for recent macOS. Fixes Sonoma showing unreadable white on
     pale yellow.  Patch by John Riggles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120083


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<11>,  Next: C API<8>,  Prev: IDLE<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-120221(1): asyncio REPL is now again properly recognizing
     KeyboardInterrupts.  Display of exceptions raised in secondary
     threads is fixed.

   - gh-119310(2): Allow the new interactive shell to read history files
     written with the editline library that use unicode-escaped entries.
     Patch by aorcajo and Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-123572(3): Fix key mappings for various F-keys in Windows for
     the new REPL. Patch by devdanzin

   - gh-119034(4): Change ‘<page up>’ and ‘<page down>’ keys of the
     Python REPL to history search forward/backward.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-123545(5): Fix a double decref in rare cases on experimental JIT
     builds.

   - gh-123484(6): Fix ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ for long objects to be
     relative to the start of the object rather than the start of a
     subobject.

   - gh-123344(7): Add AST optimizations for type parameter defaults.

   - gh-123321(8): Prevent Parser/myreadline race condition from
     segfaulting on multi-threaded use.  Patch by Bar Harel and Amit
     Wienner.

   - gh-123177(9): Fix a bug causing stray prompts to appear in the
     middle of wrapped lines in the new REPL.

   - gh-122982(10): Extend the deprecation period for bool inversion
     (‘~’) by two years.

   - gh-123275(11): Support *note -X gil=1: 176. and *note PYTHON_GIL=1:
     175. on non-free-threaded builds.

   - gh-123177(12): Deactivate line wrap in the Apple Terminal via a
     ANSI escape code.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123229(13): Fix valgrind warning by initializing the f-string
     buffers to 0 in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-122298(14): Restore printout of GC stats when
     ‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_STATS)’ is called.  This featue was
     accidentally removed when implementing incremental GC.

   - gh-121804(15): Correctly show error locations when a *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. is raised in the basic REPL. Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-123142(16): Fix too-wide source location in exception tracebacks
     coming from broken iterables in comprehensions.

   - gh-123048(17): Fix a bug where pattern matching code could emit a
     *note JUMP_FORWARD: 15e8. with no source location.

   - gh-123123(18): Fix displaying *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions
     covering multiple lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123083(19): Fix a potential use-after-free in
     ‘STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT’.

   - gh-123022(20): Fix crash in free-threaded build when calling *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9. from a non-main thread.

   - gh-122888(21): Fix crash on certain calls to ‘str()’ with
     positional arguments of the wrong type.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-116622(22): Fix Android stdout and stderr messages being
     truncated or lost.

   - gh-122527(23): Fix a crash that occurred when a ‘PyStructSequence’
     was deallocated after its type’s dictionary was cleared by the GC.
     The type’s *note tp_basicsize: 984. now accounts for non-sequence
     fields that aren’t included in the *note Py_SIZE: 77b. of the
     sequence.

   - gh-122445(24): Add only fields which are modified via self.* to
     *note __static_attributes__: 14b.

   - gh-98442(25): Fix too wide source locations of the cleanup
     instructions of a with statement.

   - gh-93691(26): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     with statements.

   - gh-120097(27): ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ now subclasses
     ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ and can be matched as a mapping in
     ‘match’ statements

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119310

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123572

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119034

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123545

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123484

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123344

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123321

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123275

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123229

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122298

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123142

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123048

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123123

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123083

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123022

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122888

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122527

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122445

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98442

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120097


File: python.info,  Node: C API<8>,  Next: Build<8>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.9 C API
...............

   - gh-122728(1): Fix *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e. to avoid *note
     SystemError: 570. (“bad argument to internal function”).  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122728


File: python.info,  Node: Build<8>,  Prev: C API<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2

1.23.11.10 Build
................

   - gh-123418(1): Updated Android build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-123297(2): Propagate the value of ‘LDFLAGS’ to ‘LDCXXSHARED’ in
     *note sysconfig: db.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-116622(3): Rename build variable ‘MODULE_LDFLAGS’ back to
     ‘LIBPYTHON’, as it’s used by package build systems (e.g.  Meson).

   - gh-118943(4): Fix an issue where the experimental JIT could be
     built several times by the ‘make regen-all’ target, leading to
     possible race conditions on heavily parallelized builds.

   - gh-118943(5): Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel
     builds configured with ‘--enable-experimental-jit’, in which *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. could be caused by another process already
     moving ‘jit_stencils.h.new’ to ‘jit_stencils.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123297

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.12 Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2024-07-31'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Security: Security<8>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* C API: C API<9>.
* Build: Build<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<9>,  Next: Security<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.1 Tests
...............

   - gh-59022(1): Add tests for *note pkgutil.extend_path(): 15ed.
     Patch by Andreas Stocker.

   - gh-99242(2): *note os.getloadavg(): 15ee. may throw *note OSError:
     411. when running regression tests under certain conditions (e.g.
     chroot).  This error is now caught and ignored, since reporting
     load average is optional.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59022

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99242


File: python.info,  Node: Security<8>,  Next: Library<11>,  Prev: Tests<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.2 Security
..................

   - gh-122133(1): Authenticate the socket connection for the
     ‘socket.socketpair()’ fallback on platforms where ‘AF_UNIX’ is not
     available like Windows.

     Patch by Gregory P. Smith <<greg@krypto.org>> and Seth Larson
     <<seth@python.org>>.  Reported by Ellie <<el@horse64.org>>

   - gh-121957(2): Fixed missing audit events around interactive use of
     Python, now also properly firing for ‘python -i’, as well as for
     ‘python -m asyncio’.  The events in question are
     ‘cpython.run_stdin’ and ‘cpython.run_startup’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122133

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121957


File: python.info,  Node: Library<11>,  Next: IDLE<8>,  Prev: Security<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.3 Library
.................

   - gh-122400(1): Handle *note ValueError: 202.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 49a. in *note filecmp.dircmp: f38. and *note
     filecmp.cmpfiles(): 15f1.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122311(2): Fix some error messages in *note pickle: a6.

   - gh-122332(3): Fixed segfault with *note asyncio.Task.get_coro():
     9d8. when using an eager task factory.

   - gh-105733(4): *note ctypes.ARRAY(): 29c. is now *note soft
     deprecated: 209.: it no longer emits deprecation warnings and is
     not scheduled for removal.

   - gh-122087(5): Restore *note inspect.ismethoddescriptor(): 15f2. and
     *note inspect.isroutine(): 15f3. returning ‘False’ for *note
     functools.partial: 40e. objects.

   - gh-122170(6): Handle *note ValueError: 202.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 49a. in *note linecache: 85.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-82951(7): Serializing objects with complex ‘__qualname__’ (such
     as unbound methods and nested classes) by name no longer involves
     serializing parent objects by value in pickle protocols < 4.

   - gh-113785(8): *note csv: 29. now correctly parses numeric fields
     (when used with *note csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15f4. or *note
     csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 47f.) which start with an escape character.

   - gh-122088(9): *note @warnings.deprecated: 160. now copies the
     coroutine status of functions and methods so that *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6. returns the correct result.

   - gh-120930(10): Fixed a bug introduced by gh-92081(11) that added an
     incorrect extra blank to encoded words occurring in wrapped
     headers.

   - gh-121474(12): Fix missing sanity check for ‘parties’ arg in *note
     threading.Barrier: 11d2. constructor.  Patch by Clinton Christian
     (pygeek).

   - gh-120289(13): Fixed the use-after-free issue in *note cProfile:
     27. by disallowing ‘disable()’ and ‘clear()’ in external timers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122400

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122311

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122087

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122170

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82951

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113785

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122088

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120930

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121474

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120289


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<8>,  Next: Core and Builtins<12>,  Prev: Library<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.4 IDLE
..............

   - gh-122482(1): Change About IDLE to direct users to
     discuss.python.org instead of the now unused idle-dev email and
     mailing list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122482


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<12>,  Next: C API<9>,  Prev: IDLE<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-116090(1): Fix an issue in JIT builds that prevented some *note
     for: 2ea. loops from correctly firing *note RAISE: 15f7. monitoring
     events.

   - gh-122208(2): Dictionary watchers now only deliver the
     PyDict_EVENT_ADDED event when the insertion is in a known good
     state to succeed.

   - gh-122300(3): Preserve AST nodes for f-string with single-element
     format specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120906(4): *note frame.f_locals: 182. now supports arbitrary
     hashable objects as keys.

   - gh-122029(5): Emit ‘c_call’ events in *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6.
     when a ‘PyMethodObject’ pointing to a ‘PyCFunction’ is called.

   - gh-122026(6): Fix a bug that caused the tokenizer to not correctly
     identify mismatched parentheses inside f-strings in some
     situations.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-118934(7): Make ‘PyEval_GetLocals’ return borrowed reference

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116090

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122208

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122300

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120906

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122026

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118934


File: python.info,  Node: C API<9>,  Next: Build<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.6 C API
...............

   - gh-116622(1): Make *note PyObject_Print: 15f9. work around a bug in
     Android and OpenBSD which prevented it from throwing an exception
     when trying to write to a read-only stream.

   - gh-121489(2): Export private ‘_PyBytes_Join()’ again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121489


File: python.info,  Node: Build<9>,  Prev: C API<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1

1.23.12.7 Build
...............

   - gh-120522(1): Added a *note -with-app-store-compliance: 15fb.
     option to patch out known issues with macOS/iOS App Store review
     processes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120522


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.13 Python 3.13.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-07-18'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* C API: C API<10>.
* Build: Build<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<10>,  Next: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.1 Tests
...............

   - gh-121084(1): Fix test_typing random leaks.  Clear typing ABC
     caches when running tests for refleaks (‘-R’ option): call
     ‘_abc_caches_clear()’ on typing abstract classes and their
     subclasses.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121160(2): Add a test for *note readline.set_history_length():
     15fe.  Note that this test may fail on readline libraries.

   - gh-121200(3): Fix ‘test_expanduser_pwd2()’ of ‘test_posixpath’.
     Call ‘getpwnam()’ to get ‘pw_dir’, since it can be different than
     ‘getpwall()’ ‘pw_dir’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121188(4): When creating the JUnit XML file, regrtest now
     escapes characters which are invalid in XML, such as the chr(27)
     control character used in ANSI escape sequences.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121084

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121160

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121200

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121188


File: python.info,  Node: Library<12>,  Next: IDLE<9>,  Prev: Tests<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.2 Library
.................

   - gh-57141(1): The 'shallow' argument to *note filecmp.dircmp: f38.
     (new in Python 3.13) is now keyword-only.

   - gh-121245(2): Simplify handling of the history file in
     ‘site.register_readline()’ helper.  The ‘CAN_USE_PYREPL’ variable
     now will be initialized, when imported.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-121332(3): Fix constructor of *note ast: 8. nodes with custom
     ‘_attributes’.  Previously, passing custom attributes would raise a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  Passing arguments to the
     constructor that are not in ‘_fields’ or ‘_attributes’ remains
     deprecated.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-121279(4): Avoid *note NameError: 438. for the *note warnings:
     112. module when accessing the depracated atributes of the *note
     importlib.abc: 78. module.

   - gh-121245(5): Fix a bug in the handling of the command history of
     the new *note REPL: 16a. that caused the history file to be wiped
     at REPL exit.

   - gh-87744(6): Fix waitpid race while calling *note send_signal():
     1600. in asyncio.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-121018(7): Fixed other issues where *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 533. did not honor ‘exit_on_error=False’.

   - gh-120678(8): Fix regression in the new REPL that meant that
     globals from files passed using the ‘-i’ argument would not be
     included in the REPL’s global namespace.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120782(9): Fix wrong references of the *note datetime: 30. types
     after reloading the module.

   - gh-120713(10): *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): c8d. now 0-pads
     years with less than four digits for the format specifiers ‘%Y’ and
     ‘%G’ on Linux.  Patch by Ben Hsing

   - gh-117983(11): Defer the ‘threading’ import in ‘importlib.util’
     until lazy loading is used.

   - gh-119189(12): When using the ‘**’ operator or *note pow(): 9cf.
     with *note Fraction: 1e7. as the base and an exponent that is not
     rational, a float, or a complex, the fraction is no longer
     converted to a float.

   - gh-118714(13): Allow ‘restart’ in post-mortem debugging of *note
     pdb: a5.  Removed restart message when the user quits pdb from
     post-mortem mode.

   - gh-105623(14): Fix performance degradation in *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 15e0.  Patch by Craig Robson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121245

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121279

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87744

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120782

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120713

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117983

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119189

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118714

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105623


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<9>,  Next: Documentation<9>,  Prev: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.3 IDLE
..............

   - gh-78889(1): Stop Shell freezes by blocking user access to
     non-method sys.stdout.shell attributes, which are all private.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78889


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<13>,  Prev: IDLE<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-121749(1): Fix documentation for *note PyModule_AddObjectRef():
     35e.

   - gh-120012(2): Clarify the behaviours of *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.empty(): 1603. and *note
     multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty(): 1604. on closed queues.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121749

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120012


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<13>,  Next: C API<10>,  Prev: Documentation<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-121860(1): Fix crash when rematerializing a managed dictionary
     after it was deleted.

   - gh-121814(2): Fixed the SegFault when *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b.
     is used with no Python frame on stack.

   - gh-121295(3): Fix PyREPL console getting into a blocked state after
     interrupting a long paste

   - gh-121794(4): Fix bug in free-threaded Python where a resurrected
     object could lead to a negative ref count assertion failure.

   - gh-121657(5): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18d. message if the
     user tries to use *note yield from: 9ca. outside a function.

   - gh-121609(6): Fix pasting of characters containing unicode
     character joiners in the new REPL. Patch by Marta Gomez Macias

   - gh-117482(7): Unexpected slot wrappers are no longer created for
     builtin static types in subinterpreters.

   - gh-121499(8): Fix a bug affecting how multi-line history was being
     rendered in the new REPL after interacting with the new screen
     cache.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121497(9): Fix a bug that was preventing the REPL to correctly
     respect the history when an input hook was set.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-121012(10): Tier 2 execution now ensures that list iterators
     remain exhausted, once they become exhausted.

   - gh-121439(11): Allow tuples of length 20 in the freelist to be
     reused.

   - gh-121368(12): Fix race condition in ‘_PyType_Lookup’ in the
     free-threaded build due to a missing memory fence.  This could lead
     to ‘_PyType_Lookup’ returning incorrect results on arm64.

   - gh-121130(13): Fix f-strings with debug expressions in format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121115(14): *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35a. no longer uses
     *note __index__(): 716. methods by default.  The
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ flag has been added to allow it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121860

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121295

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121794

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121657

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121609

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117482

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121499

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121497

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121012

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121439

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121368

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121130

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121115


File: python.info,  Node: C API<10>,  Next: Build<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.6 C API
...............

   - gh-89364(1): Export the *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd(): 13a4.
     function.  Previously, the function was documented but it couldn’t
     be used in 3rd party code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-113993(2): *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8ae. no longer
     prevents its argument from being garbage collected.

     Several functions that take ‘char *’ are now documented as possibly
     preventing string objects from being garbage collected; refer to
     their documentation for details: *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1607, *note PyDict_SetItemString():
     1608, *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1609, *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1541, *note PyUnicode_InternFromString():
     1607, and ‘PyModule_Add*’ convenience functions.

   - gh-113601(3): Removed debug build assertions related to interning
     strings, which were falsely triggered by stable ABI extensions.

   - gh-112136(4): Restore the private ‘_PyArg_Parser’ structure and the
     private ‘_PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywordsFast()’ function, previously
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89364

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112136


File: python.info,  Node: Build<10>,  Prev: C API<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 4

1.23.13.7 Build
...............

   - gh-120371(1): Support WASI SDK 22 by explicitly skipping functions
     that are just stubs in wasi-libc.

   - gh-121731(2): Fix mimalloc compile error on GNU/Hurd

   - gh-121487(3): Fix deprecation warning for ATOMIC_VAR_INIT in
     mimalloc.

   - gh-121467(4): Fix a Makefile bug that prevented mimalloc header
     files from being installed.

   - gh-121103(5): On POSIX systems, excluding macOS framework installs,
     the lib directory for the free-threaded build now includes a “t”
     suffix to avoid conflicts with a co-located default build
     installation.

   - gh-120831(6): The default minimum iOS version was increased to
     13.0.

   - gh-113565(7): Improve *note curses: 2b. and *note curses.panel: 2d.
     dependency checks in ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120371

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121731

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121487

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121467

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121103

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120831

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113565


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.14 Python 3.13.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-06-27'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* C API: C API<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<14>,  Next: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.14.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-120838(1): *note Py_Finalize(): 1342. and *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     d12. now always run with the main interpreter active.

   - gh-113433(2): Subinterpreters now get cleaned up automatically
     during runtime finalization.

   - gh-119462(3): Make sure that invariants of type versioning are
     maintained: * Superclasses always have their version number
     assigned before subclasses * The version tag is always zero if the
     tag is not valid.  * The version tag is always non-zero if the tag
     is valid.

   - gh-120437(4): Fix ‘_CHECK_STACK_SPACE’ optimization problems
     introduced in gh-118322(5).

   - gh-120722(6): Correctly set the bytecode position on return
     instructions within lambdas.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-120367(7): Fix bug where compiler creates a redundant jump
     during pseudo-op replacement.  Can only happen with a synthetic AST
     that has a try on the same line as the instruction following the
     exception handler.

   - gh-113993(8): Strings interned with *note sys.intern(): 12cb. are
     again garbage-collected when no longer used, as per the
     documentation.  Strings interned with the C function *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8ae. are still immortal.  Internals of
     the string interning mechanism have been changed.  This may affect
     performance and identities of *note str: 445. objects.

   - gh-120384(9): Fix an array out of bounds crash in
     ‘list_ass_subscript’, which could be invoked via some specificly
     tailored input: including concurrent modification of a list object,
     where one thread assigns a slice and another clears it.

   - gh-120367(10): Fix crash in compiler on code with redundant NOPs
     and JUMPs which show up after exception handlers are moved to the
     end of the code.

   - gh-120380(11): Fix Python implementation of *note pickle.Pickler:
     a1a. for *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. objects when
     using protocol version 5.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120400(12): Support Linux perf profiler to see Python calls on
     RISC-V architecture.

   - gh-120221(13): Deliver real signals on Ctrl-C and Ctrl-Z in the new
     REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120346(14): Respect *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16e. when running
     in interative inspect mode (‘python -i’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93691(15): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     the iterator of a for statement.

   - gh-120198(16): Fix a crash when multiple threads read and write to
     the same ‘__class__’ of an object concurrently.

   - gh-120298(17): Fix use-after free in ‘list_richcompare_impl’ which
     can be invoked via some specificly tailored evil input.

   - gh-119666(18): Fix a compiler crash in the case where two
     comprehensions in class scope both reference ‘__class__’.

   - gh-120225(19): Fix crash in compiler on empty block at end of
     exception handler.

   - gh-119933(20): Improve *note SyntaxError: 18d. messages for invalid
     expressions in a type parameters bound, a type parameter constraint
     tuple or a default type parameter.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - bpo-24766(21): Fix handling of ‘doc’ argument to subclasses of
     ‘property’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120838

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113433

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119462

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120437

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118322

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120722

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120384

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120380

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120400

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120346

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120198

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119666

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120225

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24766


File: python.info,  Node: Library<13>,  Next: Build<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.14.2 Library
.................

   - gh-121027(1): Add a future warning in
     ‘functools.partial.__get__()’.  In future Python versions *note
     functools.partial: 40e. will be a method descriptor.

   - gh-121025(2): Improve the *note __repr__(): 616. of *note
     functools.partialmethod: a78.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121018(3): Fixed an issue where
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parses_args()’ did not honor
     ‘exit_on_error=False’ when given unrecognized arguments.  Patch by
     Ben Hsing.

   - gh-119614(4): Fix truncation of strings with embedded null
     characters in some internal operations in *note tkinter: f0.

   - gh-120910(5): When reading installed files from an egg, use
     ‘relative_to(walk_up=True)’ to honor files installed outside of the
     installation root.

   - gh-120888(6): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 24.1.1)

   - gh-101830(7): Accessing the *note tkinter: f0. object’s string
     representation no longer converts the underlying Tcl object to a
     string on Windows.

   - gh-120811(8): Fix possible memory leak in *note
     contextvars.Context.run(): 160e.

   - gh-120769(9): Make empty line in *note pdb: a5. repeats the last
     command even when the command is from ‘cmdqueue’.

   - gh-120732(10): Fix ‘name’ passing to *note unittest.mock.Mock: a47.
     object when using *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 160f.

   - gh-120683(11): Fix an error in *note logging.LogRecord: fde, when
     the integer part of the timestamp is rounded up, while the
     millisecond calculation truncates, causing the log timestamp to be
     wrong by up to 999 ms (affected roughly 1 in 8 million timestamps).

   - gh-120633(12): Move scrollbar and remove tear-off menus in
     turtledemo.

   - gh-120541(13): Improve the prompt in the “less” pager when *note
     help(): 8d4. is called with non-string argument.

   - gh-120495(14): Fix incorrect exception handling in Tab Nanny.
     Patch by Wulian233.

   - gh-120381(15): Correct *note inspect.ismethoddescriptor(): 15f2. to
     check also for the lack of *note __delete__(): 1610.  Patch by Jan
     Kaliszewski.

   - gh-90425(16): The OS byte in gzip headers is now always set to 255
     when using *note gzip.compress(): 638.

   - gh-120343(17): Fix column offset reporting for tokens that come
     after multiline f-strings in the *note tokenize: fb. module.

   - gh-119600(18): Fix *note unittest.mock.patch(): e88. to not read
     attributes of the target when ‘new_callable’ is set.  Patch by
     Robert Collins.

   - gh-114053(19): Fix edge-case bug where *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. would produce incorrect results if
     type parameters in a class scope were overridden by assignments in
     a class scope and ‘from __future__ import annotations’ semantics
     were enabled.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-114053(20): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 438. when calling
     *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. with ‘eval_str=True`’ on a
     class that made use of PEP 695(21) type parameters in a module that
     had ‘from __future__ import annotations’ at the top of the file.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120268(22): Prohibit passing ‘None’ to pure-Python *note
     datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 1611. to achieve consistency with
     C-extension implementation.

   - gh-120244(23): Fix memory leak in *note re.sub(): 2a3. when the
     replacement string contains backreferences.

   - gh-120211(24): Fix *note tkinter.ttk: f9. with Tcl/Tk 9.0.

   - gh-71587(25): Fix crash in C version of *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612. when called again on the
     restarted interpreter.

   - gh-120161(26): *note datetime: 30. no longer crashes in certain
     complex reference cycle situations.

   - gh-119698(27): Fix *note symtable.Class.get_methods(): 2e7. and
     document its behaviour.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120121(28): Add *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError:
     1613. to module’s ‘__all__’.

   - gh-119933(29): Add the *note symtable.SymbolTableType: 1614.
     enumeration to represent the possible outputs of the *note
     symtable.SymbolTable.get_type: 1615. method.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-120108(30): Fix calling *note copy.deepcopy(): b6b. on *note
     ast: 8. trees that have been modified to have references to parent
     nodes.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-112672(31): Support building *note tkinter: f0. with Tcl 9.0.

   - gh-65454(32): *note unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock(): 1616. no
     longer triggers a call to a ‘PropertyMock’ being attached.

   - gh-81936(33): ‘help()’ and ‘showtopic()’ methods now respect a
     configured 'output' argument to ‘pydoc.Helper’ and not use the
     pager in such cases.  Patch by Enrico Tröger.

   - gh-119577(34): The *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. emitted when
     testing the truth value of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     308. now describes unconditionally returning ‘True’ in a future
     version rather than raising an exception in Python 3.14.

   - gh-118908(35): Limit exposed globals from internal imports and
     definitions on new REPL startup.  Patch by Eugene Triguba and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-119506(36): Fix ‘io.TextIOWrapper.write()’ method breaks
     internal buffer when the method is called again during flushing
     internal buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121025

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119614

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120910

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120888

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101830

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120811

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120769

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120732

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120683

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120633

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120541

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120495

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120381

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90425

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120343

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119600

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120268

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120244

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120211

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71587

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120161

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120121

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120108

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112672

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65454

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81936

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119577

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118908

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119506


File: python.info,  Node: Build<11>,  Next: C API<11>,  Prev: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.14.3 Build
...............

   - gh-120671(1): Fix failing configure tests due to a missing space
     when appending to CFLAGS.

   - gh-120602(2): Correctly handle LLVM installs with
     ‘LLVM_VERSION_SUFFIX’ when building with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit’.

   - gh-120326(3): On Windows, fix build error when ‘--disable-gil’ and
     ‘--experimental-jit’ options are combined.

   - gh-120291(4): Make the ‘python-config’ shell script compatible with
     non-bash shells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120671

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120602

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120326

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<11>,  Prev: Build<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 3

1.23.14.4 C API
...............

   - gh-120642(1): Remove the private ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ type from the
     public C API. The internal ‘pycore_code.h’ header should now be
     used to get this internal type.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120858(2): *note PyDict_Next(): 1619. no longer locks the
     dictionary in the free-threaded build.  The locking needs to be
     done by the caller around the entire iteration loop.

   - gh-120642(3): Remove the following unstable functions:

        * ‘PyUnstable_Replace_Executor()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_SetOptimizer()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_GetOptimizer()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_GetExecutor()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewCounter()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewUOpOptimizer()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119344(4): The critical section API is now public as part of the
     non-limited C API.

   - gh-118789(5): Add *note
     PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks(): 161a, which clears
     weakrefs without calling their callbacks.

   - gh-117511(6): Make the *note PyMutex: 15b. public in the
     non-limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120858

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119344

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117511


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.15 Python 3.13.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-06-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* C API: C API<12>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.1 Security
..................

   - gh-118773(1): Fixes creation of ACLs in *note os.mkdir(): 21d. on
     Windows to work correctly on non-English machines.

   - gh-118486(2): *note os.mkdir(): 21d. on Windows now accepts 'mode'
     of ‘0o700’ to restrict the new directory to the current user.  This
     fixes CVE 2024-4030(3) affecting *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f. in
     scenarios where the base temporary directory is more permissive
     than the default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118773

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<15>,  Next: Library<14>,  Prev: Security<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-119724(1): Reverted improvements to error messages for
     ‘elif’/‘else’ statements not matching any valid statements, which
     made in hard to locate the syntax errors inside those ‘elif’/‘else’
     blocks.

   - gh-119842(2): Honor *note PyOS_InputHook(): 580. in the new REPL.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-119821(3): Fix execution of *note annotation scopes: 188. within
     classes when ‘globals’ is set to a non-dict.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-119548(4): Add a ‘clear’ command to the REPL. Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-111999(5): Fix the signature of *note str.format_map(): dd3.

   - gh-119560(6): An invalid assert in beta 1 has been removed.  The
     assert would fail if ‘PyState_FindModule()’ was used in an
     extension module’s init function before the module def had been
     initialized.

   - gh-119369(7): Fix deadlock during thread deletion in free-threaded
     build, which could occur when the GIL was enabled at runtime.

   - gh-119525(8): Fix deadlock involving ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ cache in
     the free-threaded build when the GIL is dynamically enabled at
     runtime.

   - gh-119311(9): Fix bug where names are unexpectedly mangled in the
     bases of generic classes.

   - gh-119395(10): Fix bug where names appearing after a generic class
     are mangled as if they are in the generic class.

   - gh-119213(11): Non-builtin modules built with argument clinic were
     crashing if used in a subinterpreter before the main interpreter.
     The objects that were causing the problem by leaking between
     interpreters carelessly have been fixed.

   - gh-119011(12): Fixes ‘type.__type_params__’ to return an empty
     tuple instead of a descriptor.

   - gh-118692(13): Avoid creating unnecessary *note StopIteration: bf7.
     instances for monitoring.

   - gh-119049(14): Fix displaying the source line for warnings created
     by the C API if the *note warnings: 112. module had not yet been
     imported.

   - gh-118844(15): Fix build failures when configuring with both
     ‘--disable-gil’ and ‘--enable-experimental-jit’.

   - gh-118921(16): Add ‘copy()’ method for ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ which
     returns a snapshot ‘dict’ for local variables.

   - gh-117657(17): Fix data races on the field that stores a pointer to
     the interpreter’s main thread that occur in free-threaded builds.

   - gh-118561(18): Fix race condition in free-threaded build where
     ‘list.extend()’ could expose uninitialised memory to concurrent
     readers.

   - gh-117195(19): Avoid assertion failure for debug builds when
     calling ‘object.__sizeof__(1)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119842

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119821

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119548

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111999

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119560

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119369

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119525

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119311

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119395

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119213

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119011

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118692

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119049

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118844

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118921

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117657

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118561

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117195


File: python.info,  Node: Library<14>,  Next: Tests<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.3 Library
.................

   - gh-119819(1): Fix regression to allow logging configuration with
     multiprocessing queue types.

   - gh-117142(2): The *note ctypes: 2a. module may now be imported in
     all subinterpreters, including those that have their own GIL.

   - gh-118835(3): Fix _pyrepl crash when using custom prompt with ANSI
     escape codes.

   - gh-117398(4): The ‘_datetime’ module (C implementation for *note
     datetime: 30.) now supports being imported in multiple
     interpreters.

   - gh-89727(5): Fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. where a
     *note RecursionError: d68. is raised on deep directory trees.

   - gh-89727(6): Partially fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.
     where a *note RecursionError: d68. is raised on deep directory
     trees.  A recursion error is no longer raised when
     ‘rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks’ is false.

   - gh-119118(7): Fix performance regression in the *note tokenize: fb.
     module by caching the ‘line’ token attribute and calculating the
     column offset more efficiently.

   - gh-89727(8): Fix issue with *note os.fwalk(): b58. where a *note
     RecursionError: d68. was raised on deep directory trees by
     adjusting the implementation to be iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-119588(9): ‘zipfile.Path.is_symlink’ now assesses if the given
     path is a symlink.

   - gh-119555(10): Catch *note SyntaxError: 18d. from *note compile():
     192. in the runsource() method of the InteractiveColoredConsole.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-113892(11): Now, the method ‘sock_connect’ of *note
     asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 603. raises a *note ValueError: 202. if
     given socket is not in non-blocking mode, as well as in other loop
     implementations.

   - gh-119443(12): The interactive REPL no longer runs with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ enabled.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-117398(13): Objects in the datetime C-API are now all statically
     allocated, which means better memory safety, especially when the
     module is reloaded.  This should be transparent to users.

   - gh-118894(14): *note asyncio: a. REPL now has the same capabilities
     as PyREPL.

   - gh-118911(15): In PyREPL, updated ‘maybe-accept’’s logic so that if
     the user hits ‘Enter’ twice, they are able to terminate the block
     even if there’s trailing whitespace.  Also, now when the user hits
     arrow up, the cursor is on the last functional line.  This matches
     IPython’s behavior.  Patch by Aya Elsayed.

   - gh-111201(16): Remove dependency to *note readline: ba. from the
     new Python REPL.

   - gh-119174(17): Fix high DPI causes turtledemo(turtle-graphics
     examples) windows blurry Patch by Wulian233 and Terry Jan Reedy

   - gh-119121(18): Fix a NameError happening in
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race’.  This function is now tested.

   - gh-119113(19): Fix issue where *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 161f. didn’t raise *note TypeError:
     532. when given ‘None’ as a suffix.

   - gh-118643(20): Fix an AttributeError in the *note email: 3b. module
     when re-fold a long address list.  Also fix more cases of incorrect
     encoding of the address separator in the address list.

   - gh-58933(21): Make *note pdb: a5. return to caller frame correctly
     when ‘f_trace’ of the caller frame is not set

   - gh-118895(22): Setting attributes on *note typing.NoDefault: 262.
     now raises *note AttributeError: 346. instead of *note TypeError:
     532.

   - gh-118868(23): Fixed issue where kwargs were no longer passed to
     the logging handler QueueHandler

   - gh-118851(24): ‘ctx’ arguments to the constructors of *note ast: 8.
     node classes now default to *note ast.Load(): 1a4.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118760(25): Restore the default value of ‘tkiter.wantobjects’ to
     ‘1’.

   - gh-118760(26): Fix errors in calling Tkinter bindings on Windows.

   - gh-118507(27): Fix *note os.path.isfile(): a0d. on Windows for
     pipes.  Speedup *note os.path.isjunction(): 49d. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): a0b. on Windows with a native implementation.

   - gh-118772(28): Allow *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. instances without a
     default to follow instances without a default in some cases.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110863(29): *note os.path.realpath(): 225. now suppresses any
     *note OSError: 411. from *note os.readlink(): 91c. when 'strict'
     mode is disabled (the default).

   - gh-118263(30): Speed up *note os.path.splitroot(): 49e. & *note
     os.path.normpath(): 130a. with a direct C call.

   - gh-118033(31): Fix *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 1cb. not creating
     a ‘__weakref__’ slot when subclassing *note typing.Generic: 1620.

   - gh-106531(32): In *note importlib.resources: 7b, sync with
     importlib_resources 6.3.2(33), including: ‘MultiplexedPath’ now
     expects ‘Traversable’ paths, deprecating string arguments to
     ‘MultiplexedPath’; Enabled support for resources in namespace
     packages in zip files; Fixed ‘NotADirectoryError’ when calling
     files on a subdirectory of a namespace package.

   - gh-113978(34): Ignore warnings on text completion inside REPL.

   - gh-103956(35): Fix lack of newline characters in *note trace: fd.
     module output when line tracing is enabled but source code line for
     current frame is not available.

   - gh-92081(36): Fix missing spaces in email headers when the spaces
     are mixed with encoded 8-bit characters.

   - gh-103194(37): Prepare Tkinter for C API changes in Tcl 8.7/9.0 to
     avoid ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ being unexpectedly returned instead of
     *note bool: 461, *note str: 445, *note bytearray: 538, or *note
     int: 257.

   - gh-87106(38): Fixed handling in *note inspect.Signature.bind():
     156a. of keyword arguments having the same name as positional-only
     arguments when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.  ‘**kwargs’) is
     present.

   - bpo-45767(39): Fix integer conversion in *note os.major(): 1621,
     *note os.minor(): 1622, and *note os.makedev(): 1623.  Support
     device numbers larger than ‘2**63-1’.  Support non-existent device
     number (‘NODEV’).

   - gh-67693(40): Fix *note urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 15df. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 15de. for URIs with path starting with
     multiple slashes and no authority.  Based on patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119819

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118835

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119118

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119555

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113892

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119443

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117398

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118894

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118911

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119174

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119121

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119113

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118643

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58933

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118895

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118868

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118760

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118760

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118507

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118772

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118263

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118033

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (33) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v6-3-2

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113978

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103956

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103194

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87106

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45767

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67693


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<11>,  Next: Build<12>,  Prev: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-119050(1): regrtest test runner: Add XML support to the refleak
     checker (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119050


File: python.info,  Node: Build<12>,  Next: Windows<9>,  Prev: Tests<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.5 Build
...............

   - gh-119729(1): On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames
     now include the ABI flags, which may include debug (“d”) and
     free-threaded (“t”).  For example: * ‘python-3.14.pc’ (default,
     non-debug build) * ‘python-3.14d.pc’ (default, debug build) *
     ‘python-3.14t.pc’ (free-threaded build)

   - gh-115119(2): Fall back to the bundled libmpdec if a system version
     cannot be found.

   - gh-119132(3): Update *note sys.version: 178. to identify whether
     the build is default build or free-threading build.  Patch By
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-118836(4): Fix an ‘AssertionError’ when building with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ and the compiler emits a ‘SHT_NOTE’
     section.

   - gh-118943(5): Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel
     builds configured with ‘--enable-experimental-jit’, in which
     compilation errors could be caused by an incompletely-generated
     header file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119729

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119132

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118836

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<9>,  Next: C API<12>,  Prev: Build<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-119679(1): Ensures correct import libraries are included in
     Windows installs.

   - gh-119690(2): Adds Unicode support and fixes audit events for
     ‘_winapi.CreateNamedPipe’.

   - gh-111201(3): Add support for new pyrepl on Windows

   - gh-119070(4): Fixes ‘py.exe’ handling of shebangs like
     ‘/usr/bin/env python3.12’, which were previously interpreted as
     ‘python3.exe’ instead of ‘python3.12.exe’.

   - gh-117505(5): Fixes an issue with the Windows installer not running
     ensurepip in a fully isolated environment.  This could cause
     unexpected interactions with the user site-packages.

   - gh-118209(6): Avoid crashing in *note mmap: 90. on Windows when the
     mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access
     violations.

   - gh-116145(7): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119679

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119070

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117505

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: C API<12>,  Prev: Windows<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 2

1.23.15.7 C API
...............

   - gh-119585(1): Fix crash when a thread state that was created by
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5. calls a destructor that during
     *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1628. that calls back into *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a6.
     This might occur when in the free-threaded build or when using
     thread-local variables whose destructors call *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.

   - gh-119336(2): Restore the removed ‘_PyLong_NumBits()’ function.  It
     is used by the pywin32 project.  Patch by Ethan Smith

   - gh-119247(3): Added ‘Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST’ and
     ‘Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST’ macros to make it possible
     to use PySequence_Fast APIs safely when free-threaded, and update
     str.join to work without the GIL using them.

   - gh-111389(4): Add *note PyHASH_MULTIPLIER: 1629. constant: prime
     multiplier used in string and various other hashes.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116984(5): Make mimalloc includes relative to the current file
     to avoid embedders or extensions needing to include
     ‘Internal/mimalloc’ if they are already including internal CPython
     headers.

   - gh-118789(6): Restore ‘_PyWeakref_ClearRef’ that was previously
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119585

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119336

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119247

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111389

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116984

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.16 Python 3.13.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-05-08'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* C API: C API<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<10>,  Next: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.1 Security
..................

   - gh-116741(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.2

   - gh-117233(2): Detect BLAKE2, SHA3, Shake, & truncated SHA512
     support in the OpenSSL-ish libcrypto library at build time.  This
     allows *note hashlib: 68. to be used with libraries that do not to
     support every algorithm that upstream OpenSSL does.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116741

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117233


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<16>,  Next: Library<15>,  Prev: Security<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-118414(1): Add instrumented opcodes to YIELD_VALUE assertion for
     tracing cases.

   - gh-117953(2): When a builtin or extension module is imported for
     the first time, while a subinterpreter is active, the module’s init
     function is now run by the main interpreter first before import
     continues in the subinterpreter.  Consequently, single-phase init
     modules now fail in an isolated subinterpreter without the init
     function running under that interpreter, whereas before it would
     run under the subinterpreter 'before' failing, potentially leaving
     behind global state and callbacks and otherwise leaving the module
     in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-117549(3): Don’t use designated initializer syntax in inline
     functions in internal headers.  They cause problems for C++ or MSVC
     users who aren’t yet using the latest C++ standard (C++20).  While
     internal, pycore_backoff.h, is included (indirectly, via
     pycore_code.h) by some key 3rd party software that does so for
     speed.

   - gh-95382(4): Improve performance of *note json.dumps(): d42. and
     *note json.dump(): d41. when using the argument 'indent'.
     Depending on the data the encoding using *note json.dumps(): d42.
     with 'indent' can be up to 2 to 3 times faster.

   - gh-116322(5): In ‘--disable-gil’ builds, the GIL will be enabled
     while loading C extension modules.  If the module indicates that it
     supports running without the GIL, the GIL will be disabled once
     loading is complete.  Otherwise, the GIL will remain enabled for
     the remainder of the interpreter’s lifetime.  This behavior does
     not apply if the GIL has been explicitly enabled or disabled with
     ‘PYTHON_GIL’ or ‘-Xgil’.

   - gh-118513(6): Fix incorrect *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. when two
     comprehensions in the same function both reference the same name,
     and in one comprehension the name is bound while in the other it’s
     an implicit global.

   - gh-118518(7): Allow the Linux perf support to work without frame
     pointers using perf’s advanced JIT support.  The feature is
     activated when using the ‘PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT’ environment
     variable or when running Python with ‘-Xperf_jit’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-117514(8): Add ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function that returns
     whether the GIL is currently enabled.  In the default build it
     always returns ‘True’ because the GIL is always enabled.  In the
     free-threaded build, it may return ‘True’ or ‘False’.

   - gh-118164(9): Break a loop between the Python implementation of the
     *note decimal: 36. module and the Python code for integer to string
     conversion.  Also optimize integer to string conversion for values
     in the range from 9_000 to 135_000 decimal digits.

   - gh-118473(10): Fix *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 162d. not to be
     partially set when raising *note TypeError: 532.

   - gh-118465(11): Compiler populates the new ‘__firstlineno__’ field
     on a class with the line number of the first line of the class
     definition.

   - gh-118492(12): Fix an issue where the type cache can expose a
     previously accessed attribute when a finalizer is run.

   - gh-117714(13): update ‘async_generator.athrow().close()’ and
     ‘async_generator.asend().close()’ to close their section of the
     underlying async generator

   - gh-111201(14): The *note interactive: 169. interpreter is now
     implemented in Python, which allows for a number of new features
     like colors, multiline input, history viewing, and paste mode.
     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa and Lysandros Nikolaou
     based on code from the PyPy project.

   - gh-74929(15): Implement PEP 667: converted *note
     FrameType.f_locals: 182. and *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419. to
     return a write-through proxy object when the frame refers to a
     function or comprehension.

   - gh-116767(16): Fix crash in compiler on ‘async with’ that has many
     context managers.

   - gh-118335(17): Change how to use the tier 2 interpreter.  Instead
     of running Python with ‘-X uops’ or setting the environment
     variable ‘PYTHON_UOPS=1’, this choice is now made at build time by
     configuring with ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’.

     'Beware!'  This changes the environment variable to enable or
     disable micro-ops to ‘PYTHON_JIT’.  The old ‘PYTHON_UOPS’ is no
     longer used.

   - gh-118306(18): Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 18

   - gh-118160(19): *note Annotation scopes: 188. within classes can now
     contain comprehensions.  However, such comprehensions are not
     inlined into their parent scope at runtime.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118272(20): Fix bug where ‘generator.close’ does not free the
     generator frame’s locals.

   - gh-118216(21): Don’t consider *note __future__: 0. imports with
     dots before the module name.

   - gh-118074(22): Make sure that the Executor objects in the
     COLD_EXITS array aren’t assumed to be GC-able (which would access
     bytes outside the object).

   - gh-107674(23): Lazy load frame line number to improve performance
     of tracing

   - gh-118082(24): Improve *note SyntaxError: 18d. message for imports
     without names, like in ‘from x import’ and ‘import’ cases.  It now
     points out to users that *note import: 5dc. expects at least one
     name after it.

   - gh-118090(25): Improve *note SyntaxError: 18d. message for empty
     type param brackets.

   - gh-117958(26): Added a ‘get_jit_code()’ method to access JIT
     compiled machine code from the UOp Executor when the experimental
     JIT is enabled.  Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-117901(27): Add option for compiler’s codegen to save nested
     instruction sequences for introspection.

   - gh-116622(28): Redirect stdout and stderr to system log when
     embedded in an Android app.

   - gh-109118(29): *note annotation scope: 188. within class scopes can
     now contain lambdas.

   - gh-117894(30): Prevent ‘agen.aclose()’ objects being re-used after
     ‘.throw()’.

   - gh-117881(31): prevent concurrent access to an async generator via
     athrow().throw() or asend().throw()

   - gh-117536(32): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. when calling
     ‘agen.aclose().throw(Exception)’.

   - gh-117755(33): Fix mimalloc allocator for huge memory allocation
     (around 8,589,934,592 GiB) on s390x.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117750(34): Fix issue where an object’s dict would get out of
     sync with the object’s internal values when being cleared.
     ‘obj.__dict__.clear()’ now clears the internal values, but leaves
     the dict attached to the object.

   - gh-117431(35): Improve the performance of the following *note
     bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. methods by adapting them to
     the *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e. calling convention:

        * ‘count()’

        * ‘find()’

        * ‘index()’

        * ‘rfind()’

        * ‘rindex()’

   - gh-117709(36): Speed up calls to *note str(): 445. with
     positional-only argument, by using the PEP 590(37) ‘vectorcall’
     calling convention.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-117680(38): Give ‘_PyInstructionSequence’ a Python interface and
     use it in tests.

   - gh-115776(39): Statically allocated objects are, by definition,
     immortal so must be marked as such regardless of whether they are
     in extension modules or not.

   - gh-117385(40): Remove unhandled ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH’ and
     ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ events from *note
     sys.settrace(): 14c7.

   - gh-116322(41): Extension modules may indicate to the runtime that
     they can run without the GIL. Multi-phase init modules do so by
     calling providing ‘Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED’ for the ‘Py_mod_gil’ slot,
     while single-phase init modules call ‘PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(mod,
     Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED)’ from their init function.

   - gh-116129(42): Implement PEP 696(43), adding support for defaults
     on type parameters.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-93502(44): Add two new functions to the C-API, *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 365. and *note PyRefTracer_GetTracer():
     366, that allows to track object creation and destruction the same
     way the *note tracemalloc: ff. module does.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107674(45): Improved the performance of *note sys.settrace():
     14c7. significantly

   - gh-95754(46): Improve the error message when a script shadowing a
     module from the standard library causes *note AttributeError: 346.
     to be raised.  Similarly, improve the error message when a script
     shadowing a third party module attempts to access an attribute from
     that third party module while still initialising.

   - gh-99180(47): Elide uninformative traceback indicators in ‘return’
     and simple ‘assignment’ statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105879(48): Allow the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments to *note
     exec(): 17f. and *note eval(): 180. to be passed as keywords.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118414

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117549

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95382

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118513

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117514

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118473

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118492

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117714

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116767

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118335

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118306

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118272

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118074

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118082

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118090

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117958

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117901

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117894

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117881

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117536

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117755

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117750

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117709

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117680

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117385

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116129

   (43) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99180

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879


File: python.info,  Node: Library<15>,  Next: Documentation<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.3 Library
.................

   - gh-118418(1): A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now emitted if
     you fail to pass a value to the new 'type_params' parameter of
     ‘typing._eval_type()’ or ‘typing.ForwardRef._evaluate()’.  (Using
     either of these private and undocumented functions is discouraged
     to begin with, but failing to pass a value to the ‘type_params’
     parameter may lead to incorrect behaviour on Python 3.12 or newer.)

   - gh-118660(2): Add an optional second type parameter to *note
     typing.ContextManager: c8b. and *note typing.AsyncContextManager:
     1630, representing the return types of *note __exit__(): 12f0. and
     *note __aexit__(): 1631. respectively.  This parameter defaults to
     ‘bool | None’.

   - gh-118650(3): The ‘enum’ module allows method named ‘_repr_*’ to be
     defined on ‘Enum’ types.

   - gh-118648(4): Add type parameter defaults to *note
     typing.Generator: 1632. and *note typing.AsyncGenerator: 1633.

   - gh-101137(5): Mime type ‘text/x-rst’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 8f.

   - gh-118164(6): The Python implementation of the ‘decimal’ module
     could appear to hang in relatively small power cases (like
     ‘2**117’) if context precision was set to a very high value.  A
     different method to check for exactly representable results is used
     now that doesn’t rely on computing ‘10**precision’ (which could be
     effectively too large to compute).

   - gh-111744(7): ‘breakpoint()’ and ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now enter the
     debugger immediately after the call rather than before the next
     line is executed.

   - gh-118500(8): Add *note pdb: a5. support for zipapps

   - gh-118406(9): Add signature for *note sqlite3.Connection: 245.
     objects.

   - gh-101732(10): Use a Y2038 compatible openssl time function when
     available.

   - gh-118404(11): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 731. for
     non-comparable callables.

   - gh-118402(12): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 731. for the result
     of the *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 11c9. call.

   - gh-116622(13): On Android, *note sysconfig.get_platform: 1232. now
     returns the format specified by PEP 738(14).

   - gh-118285(15): Allow to specify the signature of custom callable
     instances of extension type by the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.
     Specify signatures of *note operator.attrgetter: e2f, *note
     operator.itemgetter: a5e, and *note operator.methodcaller: e30.
     instances.

   - gh-118314(16): Fix an edge case in *note binascii.a2b_base64():
     1634. strict mode, where excessive padding is not detected when no
     padding is necessary.

   - gh-118271(17): Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an
     image from a file and ‘data()’ to get the image data.  Add
     'background' and 'grayscale' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method
     ‘write()’.

   - gh-118225(18): Add the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy_replace()’ to copy
     a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming
     and/or subsampling.  Add 'from_coords' parameter to ‘PhotoImage’
     methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and
     'subsample' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.

   - gh-118221(19): Fix a bug where *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump():
     247. could fail if a custom *note row factory: 1635. was used.
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-118013(20): Fix regression introduced in gh-103193(21) that
     meant that calling *note inspect.getattr_static(): 48e. on an
     instance would cause a strong reference to that instance’s class to
     persist in an internal cache in the *note inspect: 7e. module.
     This caused unexpected memory consumption if the class was
     dynamically created, the class held strong references to other
     objects which took up a significant amount of memory, and the cache
     contained the sole strong reference to the class.  The fix for the
     regression leads to a slowdown in ‘getattr_static()’, but the
     function should still be significantly faster than it was in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-118218(22): Speed up *note itertools.pairwise(): 80f. in the
     common case by up to 1.8x.

   - gh-117486(23): Improve the behavior of user-defined subclasses of
     *note ast.AST: 1a6.  Such classes will now require no changes in
     the usual case to conform with the behavior changes of the *note
     ast: 8. module in Python 3.13.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-90848(24): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 160f. to
     configure parent mock with keyword arguments.

   - gh-118168(25): Fix incorrect argument substitution when *note
     typing.Unpack: 1636. is used with the builtin *note tuple: 369.
     ‘typing.Unpack’ now raises *note TypeError: 532. when used with
     certain invalid types.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118131(26): Add command-line interface for the *note random: b8.
     module.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-118107(27): Fix *note zipimport: 132. reading of ZIP64 files
     with file entries that are too big or offset too far.

   - gh-102511(28): Fix *note os.path.normpath(): 130a. for UNC paths on
     Windows.  Speed up *note os.path.splitroot(): 49e. with a native
     implementation.

   - gh-117535(29): Change the unknown filename of *note warnings: 112.
     from ‘sys’ to ‘<sys>’ to clarify that it’s not a real filename.

   - gh-114053(30): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 438. when calling
     *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. on a class that made use of PEP
     695(31) type parameters in a module that had ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ at the top of the file.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-116931(32): Add parameter 'fileobj' check for *note
     tarfile.TarFile.addfile(): 1637.

   - gh-117995(33): Don’t raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when a
     *note sequence: 4eb. of parameters is used to bind indexed,
     nameless placeholders.  See also gh-100668(34).

   - gh-80361(35): Fix TypeError in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 11bc. when the charset is RFC
     2231(36) encoded.

   - gh-86650(37): Fix IndexError when parse some emails with invalid
     Message-ID (including one-off addresses generated by Microsoft
     Outlook).

   - gh-117691(38): Improve the error messages emitted by *note tarfile:
     de. deprecation warnings relating to PEP 706.  If a ‘filter’
     argument is not provided to ‘extract()’ or ‘extractall’, the
     deprecation warning now points to the line in the user’s code where
     the relevant function was called.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-115874(39): Fixed a possible segfault during garbage collection
     of ‘_asyncio.FutureIter’ objects.  Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

   - gh-115060(40): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. by omitting
     an initial *note is_dir(): 230. call.  As a result of this change,
     *note glob(): 22d. can no longer raise *note OSError: 411.

   - gh-77102(41): *note site: c7. module now parses ‘.pth’ file with
     UTF-8 first, and *note locale encoding: 242. if
     ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ happened.  It supported only locale encoding
     before.

   - gh-76785(42): We’ve exposed the low-level ‘_interpreters’ module
     for the sake of the PyPI implementation of PEP 734(43).  It was
     sometimes available as the ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module and was
     formerly used only for testing.  For the most part, it should be
     considered an internal module, like ‘_thread’ and ‘_imp’.  See
     ‘https://discuss.python.org/t/pep-734-multiple-interpreters-in-the-stdlib/41147/26’.

   - gh-115060(44): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. by not
     scanning directories for non-wildcard pattern segments.

   - gh-117727(45): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 1638. by
     using *note os.scandir(): a5b. internally.

   - gh-117586(46): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 4a2. by working
     with strings internally.

   - gh-117722(47): Change the new multi-separator support in *note
     asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4. to only accept tuples of
     separators rather than arbitrary iterables.

   - gh-117692(48): Fixes a bug when *note doctest.DocTestFinder: 1639.
     was failing on wrapped ‘builtin_function_or_method’.

   - gh-117348(49): Largely restored import time performance of
     configparser by avoiding dataclasses.

   - gh-117641(50): Speedup *note os.path.commonpath(): e39. on Unix.

   - gh-117663(51): Fix ‘_simple_enum’ to detect aliases when multiple
     arguments are present but only one is the member value.

   - gh-117636(52): Speedup *note os.path.join(): 163a.

   - gh-117618(53): Support ‘package.module’ as ‘filename’ for ‘break’
     command of *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-102247(54): the status codes enum with constants in
     http.HTTPStatus are updated to include the names from RFC9110.
     This RFC includes some HTTP statuses previously only used for
     WEBDAV and assigns more generic names to them.

     The old constants are preserved for backwards compatibility.

   - gh-117607(55): Speedup *note os.path.relpath(): 4a4.

   - gh-117586(56): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. by working
     with strings internally.

   - gh-117225(57): Add colour to doctest output.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-117566(58): *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback(): 163b.
     will now return ‘True’ for IPv4-mapped loopback addresses, i.e.
     addresses in the ‘::ffff:127.0.0.0/104’ address space.

   - gh-117546(59): Fix issue where *note os.path.realpath(): 225.
     stopped resolving symlinks after encountering a symlink loop on
     POSIX.

   - gh-116720(60): Improved behavior of *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5.
     when an external cancellation collides with an internal
     cancellation.  For example, when two task groups are nested and
     both experience an exception in a child task simultaneously, it was
     possible that the outer task group would misbehave, because its
     internal cancellation was swallowed by the inner task group.

     In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also
     must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, it will now call the
     parent task’s *note cancel(): 1b7. method.  This ensures that a
     *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. will be raised at the next *note
     await: 1b9, so the cancellation is not lost.

     An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve
     the cancellation count (*note asyncio.Task.cancelling(): 1ba.).

     In order to handle some corner cases, *note
     asyncio.Task.uncancel(): 1bb. may now reset the undocumented
     ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the cancellation count reaches zero.

   - gh-117516(61): Add *note typing.TypeIs: 163, implementing PEP
     742(62).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-117503(63): Fix support of non-ASCII user names in bytes paths
     in *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. on Posix.

   - gh-117394(64): *note os.path.ismount(): a0e. is now 2-3 times
     faster if the user has permissions.

   - gh-117313(65): Only treat ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\r\n'’ as line
     separators in re-folding the *note email: 3b. messages.  Preserve
     control characters ‘'\v'’, ‘'\f'’, ‘'\x1c'’, ‘'\x1d'’ and ‘'\x1e'’
     and Unicode line separators ‘'\x85'’, ‘'\u2028'’ and ‘'\u2029'’ as
     is.

   - gh-117142(66): Convert ‘_ctypes’ to multi-phase initialisation (
     PEP 489(67)).

   - gh-66543(68): Add the *note mimetypes.guess_file_type(): 207.
     function which works with file path.  Passing file path instead of
     URL in *note guess_type(): 208. is *note soft deprecated: 209.

   - gh-68583(69): webbrowser CLI: replace getopt with argparse, add
     long options.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-116871(70): Name suggestions for *note AttributeError: 346. and
     *note ImportError: 413. now only include underscored names if the
     original name was underscored.

   - gh-116023(71): Don’t show empty fields (value ‘None’ or ‘[]’) in
     *note ast.dump(): 8e1. by default.  Add ‘show_empty=False’
     parameter to optionally show them.

   - gh-115961(72): Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed
     and archived file-like objects in modules *note bz2: 13, *note
     lzma: 8a, *note tarfile: de. and *note zipfile: 131.  The value of
     the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 414. was changed from
     integer (‘1’ or ‘2’) to string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’).  The value of
     the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object returned by
     *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 415. was changed from ‘'r'’ to
     ‘'rb'’.

   - gh-82062(73): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 731. to correctly
     handle parameter defaults on methods in extension modules that use
     names defined in the module namespace.

   - gh-83856(74): Honor *note atexit: c. for all *note multiprocessing:
     94. start methods

   - gh-113081(75): Print colorized exception just like built-in
     traceback in *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-112855(76): Speed up pickling of *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0.
     objects.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - gh-111744(77): Support opcode events in *note bdb: f.

   - gh-109617(78): ‘ncurses’: fixed a crash that could occur on macOS
     13 or earlier when Python was built with Apple Xcode 15’s SDK.

   - gh-83151(79): Enabled arbitrary statements and evaluations in *note
     pdb: a5. shell to access the local variables of the current frame,
     which made it possible for multi-scope code like generators or
     nested function to work.

   - gh-110209(80): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 734. to *note
     types.GeneratorType: 163c. and *note types.CoroutineType: e81. for
     type hinting purposes.  Patch by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-108191(81): The *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. now accepts an
     optional positional argument which specifies initial values of
     attributes as a dict or an iterable of key-value pairs.

   - gh-62090(82): Fix assertion errors caused by whitespace in metavars
     or ‘SUPPRESS’-ed groups in *note argparse: 6. by simplifying usage
     formatting.  Patch by Ali Hamdan.

   - gh-102402(83): Adjust ‘logging.LogRecord’ to use ‘time.time_ns()’
     and fix minor bug related to floating-point math.

   - gh-100242(84): Bring pure Python implementation
     ‘functools.partial.__new__’ more in line with the C-implementation
     by not just always checking for the presence of the attribute
     ‘'func'’ on the first argument of ‘partial’.  Instead, both the
     Python version and the C version perform an ‘isinstance(func,
     partial)’ check on the first argument of ‘partial’.

   - gh-99730(85): HEAD requests are no longer upgraded to GET request
     during redirects in urllib.

   - gh-66410(86): Setting the ‘tkinter’ module global ‘wantobjects’ to
     ‘2’ before creating the *note Tk: 163d. object or call the
     ‘wantobjects()’ method of the ‘Tk’ object with argument ‘2’ makes
     now arguments to callbacks registered in the *note tkinter: f0.
     module to be passed as various Python objects (‘int’, ‘float’,
     ‘bytes’, ‘tuple’), depending on their internal representation in
     Tcl, instead of always ‘str’.  ‘tkinter.wantobjects’ is now set to
     ‘2’ by default.

   - bpo-40943(87): Fix several IndexError when parse emails with
     truncated Message-ID, address, routes, etc, e.g.  ‘example@’.

   - bpo-39324(88): Add mime type mapping for .md <-> text/markdown

   - bpo-18108(89): *note shutil.chown(): 240. now supports 'dir_fd' and
     'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments.

   - bpo-30988(90): Fix parsing of emails with invalid address headers
     having a leading or trailing dot.  Patch by tsufeki.

   - bpo-32839(91): Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118660

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118650

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118648

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101137

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118500

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118406

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101732

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118404

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118402

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118285

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118314

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118221

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118013

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118218

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90848

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118168

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118107

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102511

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117535

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116931

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117995

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100668

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80361

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86650

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117691

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115874

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77102

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76785

   (43) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117727

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117722

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117692

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117641

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117663

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117636

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117618

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102247

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117607

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117566

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117546

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117516

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117503

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117394

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117313

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142

   (67) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68583

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116871

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116023

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82062

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83856

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113081

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112855

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109617

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83151

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110209

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62090

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102402

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100242

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99730

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66410

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39324

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18108

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30988

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32839


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<10>,  Next: Build<13>,  Prev: Library<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-117928(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 6.2.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117928


File: python.info,  Node: Build<13>,  Next: Windows<10>,  Prev: Documentation<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.5 Build
...............

   - gh-118734(1): Fixes Windows build when invoked directly (not
     through the ‘build.bat’ script) without specifying a value for
     ‘UseTIER2’.

   - gh-115119(2): The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec:
     40c. now defaults to ‘yes’.  The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’
     will be removed in Python 3.15.

   - gh-117845(3): Fix building against recent libedit versions by
     detecting readline hook signatures in ‘configure’.

   - gh-116622(4): A testbed project was added to run the test suite on
     Android.

   - gh-117645(5): Increase WASI stack size from 512 KiB to 8 MiB and
     the initial memory from 10 MiB to 20 MiB. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115119(6): ‘configure’ now uses ‘pkg-config’ to detect *note
     decimal: 36. dependencies if the *note -with-system-libmpdec: 40c.
     option is given.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118734

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117845

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<10>,  Next: macOS<7>,  Prev: Build<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-115119(1): Update Windows installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

   - gh-118486(2): *note os.mkdir(): 21d. now accepts 'mode' of ‘0o700’
     to restrict the new directory to the current user.

   - gh-118347(3): Fixes launcher updates not being installed.

   - gh-118293(4): The ‘multiprocessing’ module now passes the
     ‘STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK’ flag when spawning processes to tell
     Windows not to change the mouse cursor.

   - gh-115009(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-90329(6): Suppress the warning displayed on virtual environment
     creation when the requested and created paths differ only by a
     short (8.3 style) name.  Warnings will continue to be shown if a
     junction or symlink in the path caused the venv to be created in a
     different location than originally requested.

   - gh-117786(7): Fixes virtual environments not correctly launching
     when created from a Store install.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118347

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118293

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90329

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117786


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<7>,  Next: IDLE<10>,  Prev: Windows<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-115119(1): Update macOS installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

   - gh-114099(2): iOS preprocessor symbol usage was made compatible
     with older macOS SDKs.

   - gh-115009(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-91629(4): Use ‘~/.config/fish/conf.d’ configs and
     ‘fish_add_path’ to set ‘PATH’ when installing for the Fish shell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91629


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<10>,  Next: C API<13>,  Prev: macOS<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-34774(1): Use user-selected color theme for Help => IDLE Doc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34774


File: python.info,  Node: C API<13>,  Prev: IDLE<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.23.16.9 C API
...............

   - gh-118124(1): Fix ‘Py_BUILD_ASSERT’ and ‘Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR’ for
     non-constant expressions: use ‘static_assert()’ on C11 and newer.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110850(2): Add “Raw” variant of PyTime functions

        * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 32b.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32d.

        * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 32f.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117987(3): Restore functions removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1:

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 1644.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 1645.

        * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 1646.

        * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1647.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117929(4): Restore removed *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1648.
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117534(5): Improve validation logic in the C implementation of
     *note datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 611. to better handle
     invalid years.  Patch by Vlad Efanov.

   - gh-68114(6): Fixed skipitem()’s handling of the old ‘w’ and ‘w#’
     formatters.  These are no longer supported and now raise an
     exception if used.

   - gh-111997(7): Add a C-API for firing monitoring events.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118124

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117987

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117929

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117534

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68114

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.17 Python 3.13.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-04-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* C API: C API<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<17>,  Next: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-117494(1): Refactored the instruction sequence data structure
     out of compile.c into instruction_sequence.c.

   - gh-116968(2): Introduce a unified 16-bit backoff counter type
     (‘_Py_BackoffCounter’), shared between the Tier 1 adaptive
     specializer and the Tier 2 optimizer.  The API used for adaptive
     specialization counters is changed but the behavior is (supposed to
     be) identical.

     The behavior of the Tier 2 counters is changed:

        * There are no longer dynamic thresholds (we never varied
          these).

        * All counters now use the same exponential backoff.

        * The counter for ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ starts counting down from 16.

        * The ‘temperature’ in side exits starts counting down from 64.

   - gh-117431(3): Improve the performance of the following *note bytes:
     1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. methods by adapting them to the
     *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e. calling convention:

        * ‘endswith()’

        * ‘startswith()’

   - gh-117431(4): Improve the performance of the following *note str:
     445. methods by adapting them to the *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e.
     calling convention:

        * *note count(): 164b.

        * *note endswith(): ec2.

        * *note find(): e9e.

        * *note index(): 164c.

        * *note rfind(): e9f.

        * *note rindex(): 1248.

        * *note startswith(): ec1.

   - gh-117411(5): Move ‘PyFutureFeatures’ to an internal header and
     make it private.

   - gh-109120(6): Added handle of incorrect star expressions, e.g ‘f(3,
     *)’.  Patch by Grigoryev Semyon

   - gh-117266(7): Fix crashes for certain user-created subclasses of
     *note ast.AST: 1a6.  Such classes are now expected to set the
     ‘_field_types’ attribute.

   - gh-99108(8): Updated the *note hashlib: 68. built-in HACL*
     project(9) C code from upstream that we use for many
     implementations when they are not present via OpenSSL in a given
     build.  This also avoids the rare potential for a C symbol name one
     definition rule linking issue.

   - gh-117108(10): Change the old space bit of objects in the young
     generation from 0 to gcstate->visited, so that any objects created
     during GC will have the old bit set correctly if they get moved
     into the old generation.

   - gh-117108(11): The cycle GC now chooses the size of increments
     based on the total heap size, instead of the rate of object
     creation.  This ensures that it can keep up with growing heaps.

   - gh-116735(12): For ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’, set ‘arg0’ to
     ‘sys.monitoring.MISSING’ instead of ‘None’ for *note CALL: 164d.
     event.

   - gh-113964(13): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 197. are now only prevented once all non-daemon
     threads exit.

   - gh-116626(14): Ensure ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ always emits
     *note CALL: 164d.

   - gh-116554(15): ‘list.sort()’ now exploits more cases of partial
     ordering, particularly those with long descending runs with
     sub-runs of equal values.  Those are recognized as single runs now
     (previously, each block of repeated values caused a new run to be
     created).

   - gh-114099(16): Added a Loader that can discover extension modules
     in an iOS-style Frameworks folder.

   - gh-115775(17): Compiler populates the new ‘__static_attributes__’
     field on a class with the names of attributes of this class which
     are accessed through self.X from any function in its body.

   - gh-115776(18): The array of values, the ‘PyDictValues’ struct is
     now embedded in the object during allocation.  This provides better
     performance in the common case, and does not degrade as much when
     the object’s ‘__dict__’ is materialized.

   - gh-108362(19): Implement an incremental cyclic garbage collector.
     By collecting the old generation in increments, there is no need
     for a full heap scan.  This can hugely reduce maximum pause time
     for programs with large heaps.

     Reduce the number of generations from three to two.  The old
     generation is split into two spaces, “visited” and “pending”.

     Collection happens in two steps:: * An increment is formed from the
     young generation and a small part of the pending space.  * This
     increment is scanned and the survivors moved to the end of the
     visited space.

     When the collecting space becomes empty, the two spaces are
     swapped.

   - gh-109870(20): Dataclasses now calls *note exec(): 17f. once per
     dataclass, instead of once per method being added.  This can speed
     up dataclass creation by up to 20%.

   - gh-97901(21): Mime type ‘text/rtf’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 8f.

   - bpo-24612(22): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18d. that happens
     when ‘not’ appears after an operator.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116968

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117411

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109120

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117266

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (9) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116735

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113964

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116626

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116554

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109870

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97901

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24612


File: python.info,  Node: Library<16>,  Next: Documentation<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.2 Library
.................

   - gh-117648(1): Improve performance of *note os.path.join(): 163a.
     and *note os.path.expanduser(): a10.

   - gh-117584(2): Raise *note TypeError: 532. for non-paths in
     ‘posixpath.relpath()’.

   - gh-117467(3): Preserve mailbox ownership when rewriting in
     ‘mailbox.mbox.flush()’.  Patch by Tony Mountifield.

   - gh-114848(4): Raise *note FileNotFoundError: 425. when ‘getcwd()’
     returns ‘(unreachable)’, which can happen on Linux >= 2.6.36 with
     glibc < 2.27.

   - gh-117459(5): ‘asyncio.asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe()’ now
     keeps the traceback of ‘CancelledError’, *note TimeoutError: 82f.
     and ‘InvalidStateError’ which are raised in the coroutine.

   - gh-117381(6): Fix error message for ‘ntpath.commonpath()’.

   - gh-117337(7): Deprecate undocumented ‘glob.glob0()’ and
     ‘glob.glob1()’ functions.  Use *note glob.glob(): 29f. and pass a
     directory to its 'root_dir' argument instead.

   - gh-117349(8): Optimise several functions in *note os.path: a2.

   - gh-117348(9): Refactored ‘configparser.RawConfigParser._read()’ to
     reduce cyclometric complexity and improve comprehensibility.

   - gh-117335(10): Raise TypeError for non-sequences for
     ‘ntpath.commonpath()’.

   - gh-66449(11): *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. now accepts
     unnamed sections before named ones, if configured to do so.

   - gh-88014(12): In documentation of *note gzip.GzipFile: 414. in
     module gzip, explain data type of optional constructor argument
     'mtime', and recommend ‘mtime = 0’ for generating deterministic
     streams.

   - gh-117310(13): Fixed an unlikely early & extra ‘Py_DECREF’
     triggered crash in *note ssl: d0. when creating a new
     ‘_ssl._SSLContext’ if CPython was built implausibly such that the
     default cipher list is empty 'or' the SSL library it was linked
     against reports a failure from its C ‘SSL_CTX_set_cipher_list()’
     API.

   - gh-117294(14): A ‘DocTestCase’ now reports as skipped if all
     examples in the doctest are skipped.

   - gh-98966(15): In *note subprocess: d6, raise a more informative
     message when ‘stdout=STDOUT’.

   - gh-117225(16): doctest: only print “and X failed” when non-zero,
     don’t pluralise “1 items”.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-117205(17): Speed up *note compileall.compile_dir(): b23. by 20%
     when using multiprocessing by increasing ‘chunksize’.

   - gh-117178(18): Fix regression in lazy loading of self-referential
     modules, introduced in gh-114781(19).

   - gh-112383(20): Fix *note dis: 38. module’s handling of
     ‘ENTER_EXECUTOR’ instructions.

   - gh-117182(21): Lazy-loading of modules that modify their own
     ‘__class__’ no longer reverts the ‘__class__’ to *note
     types.ModuleType: e0f.

   - gh-117084(22): Fix *note zipfile: 131. extraction for directory
     entries with the name containing backslashes on Windows.

   - gh-117114(23): Make *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 164f. available on
     all platforms.  For those that do not offer Dev Drives, it will
     always return ‘False’.

   - gh-117110(24): Fix a bug that prevents subclasses of *note
     typing.Any: 6a6. to be instantiated with arguments.  Patch by Chris
     Fu.

   - gh-109653(25): Deferred select imports in importlib.metadata and
     importlib.resources for a 14% speedup.

   - gh-70647(26): Start the deprecation period for the current behavior
     of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612. and *note
     time.strptime(): 13f5. which always fails to parse a date string
     with a *note ValueError: 202. involving a day of month such as
     ‘strptime("02-29", "%m-%d")’ when a year is 'not' specified and the
     date happen to be February 29th.  This should help avoid users
     finding new bugs every four years due to a natural mistaken
     assumption about the API when parsing partial date values.

   - gh-116987(27): Fixed ‘inspect.findsource()’ for class code objects.

   - gh-114099(28): Modify standard library to allow for iOS platform
     differences.

   - gh-90872(29): On Windows, *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): ce1. no
     longer calls ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ with a negative timeout: pass
     ‘0’ ms if the timeout is negative.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116957(30): configparser: Don’t leave ConfigParser values in an
     invalid state (stored as a list instead of a str) after an earlier
     read raised DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError.

   - gh-115538(31): ‘_io.WindowsConsoleIO’ now emit a warning if a
     boolean value is passed as a filedescriptor argument.

   - gh-90095(32): Ignore empty lines and comments in ‘.pdbrc’

   - gh-106531(33): Refreshed zipfile._path from zipp 3.18(34),
     providing better compatibility for PyPy, better glob performance
     for deeply nested zipfiles, and providing internal access to
     ‘CompleteDirs.inject’ for use in other tests (like
     importlib.resources).

   - gh-63207(35): On Windows, *note time.time(): 254. now uses the
     ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock to have a resolution
     better than 1 us, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock
     which has a resolution of 15.6 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116764(36): Restore support of ‘None’ and other false values in
     *note urllib.parse: 10a. functions *note parse_qs(): 27a. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 279.  Also, they now raise a TypeError for non-zero
     integers and non-empty sequences.

   - gh-116811(37): In ‘PathFinder.invalidate_caches’, delegate to
     ‘MetadataPathFinder.invalidate_caches’.

   - gh-116647(38): Fix recursive child in dataclasses

   - gh-113171(39): Fixed various false positives and false negatives in

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private: 1650. (see these docs
          for details)

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global: f57.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 1651.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global: 1652.

     Also in the corresponding *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 1fe. and
     *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 1ff. attributes.

   - gh-63283(40): In *note encodings.idna: 52, any capitalization of
     the ACE prefix (‘xn--’) is now acceptable.  Patch by Pepijn de Vos
     and Zackery Spytz.

   - gh-71042(41): Add *note platform.android_ver(): 1653, which
     provides device and OS information on Android.

   - gh-73468(42): Added new *note math.fma(): 205. function, wrapping
     C99’s ‘fma()’ operation: fused multiply-add function.  Patch by
     Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116608(43): The *note importlib.resources: 7b. functions *note
     is_resource(): 1ec, *note open_binary(): 1ed, *note open_text():
     1ee, *note path(): 1ef, *note read_binary(): 1f0, and *note
     read_text(): 1f1. are un-deprecated, and support subdirectories via
     multiple positional arguments.  The *note contents(): 1f2. function
     also allows subdirectories, but remains deprecated.

   - gh-116484(44): Change automatically generated ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’
     widget names to avoid collisions with automatically generated
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Checkbutton’ widget names within the same parent
     widget.

   - gh-114314(45): In *note ctypes: 2a, ctype data is now stored in
     type objects directly rather than in a dict subclass.  This is an
     internal change that should not affect usage.

   - gh-116401(46): Fix blocking *note os.fwalk(): b58. and *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. on opening named pipe.

   - gh-71052(47): Implement *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d46. on
     Android.

   - gh-90535(48): Fix support of 'interval' values > 1 in
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ for ‘when='MIDNIGHT'’ and
     ‘when='Wx'’.

   - gh-113308(49): Remove some internal protected parts from *note
     uuid: 110.: ‘_has_uuid_generate_time_safe’, ‘_netbios_getnode’,
     ‘_ipconfig_getnode’, and ‘_load_system_functions’.  They were
     unused.

   - gh-115627(50): Fix the *note ssl: d0. module error handling of
     connection terminate by peer.  It now throws an OSError with the
     appropriate error code instead of an EOFError.

   - gh-114847(51): Speed up *note os.path.realpath(): 225. on
     non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-114271(52): Fix a race in ‘threading.Thread.join()’.

     ‘threading._MainThread’ now always represents the main thread of
     the main interpreter.

     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ and ‘PyThreadState.on_delete_data’ have
     been removed.

   - gh-113538(53): Add *note asyncio.Server.close_clients(): 1b2. and
     *note asyncio.Server.abort_clients(): 1b3. methods which allow to
     more forcefully close an asyncio server.

   - gh-85287(54): Changes Unicode codecs to return UnicodeEncodeError
     or UnicodeDecodeError, rather than just UnicodeError.

   - gh-113548(55): *note pdb: a5. now allows CLI arguments to ‘pdb -m’.

   - gh-112948(56): Make completion of *note pdb: a5. similar to Python
     REPL

   - gh-105866(57): Fixed ‘_get_slots’ bug which caused error when
     defining dataclasses with slots and a weakref_slot.

   - gh-96471(58): Add *note asyncio.Queue: a73. termination with *note
     shutdown(): 1b0. method.

   - gh-89739(59): The *note zipimport: 132. module can now read ZIP64
     files.

   - bpo-33533(60): *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa. now returns an
     object that is both an asynchronous iterator and plain iterator.
     The new asynchronous iteration pattern allows for easier
     correlation between prior tasks and their completed results.  This
     is a closer match to *note concurrent.futures.as_completed():
     1654.’s iteration pattern.  Patch by Justin Arthur.

   - bpo-27578(61): *note inspect.getsource(): 151b. (and related
     functions) work with empty module files, returning ‘'\n'’ (or
     reasonable equivalent) instead of raising ‘OSError’.  Patch by
     Kernc.

   - bpo-37141(62): Accept an iterable of separators in *note
     asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4, stopping when one of them is
     encountered.

   - gh-66543(63): Make *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 208. properly
     parsing of URLs with only a host name, URLs containing fragment or
     query, and filenames with only a UNC sharepoint on Windows.  Based
     on patch by Dong-hee Na.

   - bpo-15010(64): *note unittest.TestLoader.discover(): fdd. now saves
     the original value of ‘unittest.TestLoader._top_level_dir’ and
     restores it at the end of the call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117648

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117584

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117467

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114848

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117459

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117381

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117349

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117335

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88014

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117310

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117294

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117205

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117178

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114781

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112383

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117182

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117084

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117114

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117110

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116987

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90872

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116957

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115538

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (34) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-18-0

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116764

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116811

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116647

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63283

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71042

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116484

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114314

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116401

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90535

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113308

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115627

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114847

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114271

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85287

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113548

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112948

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105866

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89739

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33533

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27578

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37141

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15010


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<11>,  Next: Tests<12>,  Prev: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115977(1): Remove compatibility references to Emscripten.

   - gh-114099(2): Add an iOS platform guide, and flag modules not
     available on iOS.

   - gh-91565(3): Changes to documentation files and config outputs to
     reflect the new location for reporting bugs - i.e.  GitHub rather
     than bugs.python.org.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115977

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91565


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<12>,  Next: Build<14>,  Prev: Documentation<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-83434(1): Disable JUnit XML output (‘--junit-xml=FILE’ command
     line option) in regrtest when hunting for reference leaks (‘-R’
     option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117187(2): Fix XML tests for vanilla Expat <2.6.0.

   - gh-116333(3): Tests of TLS related things (error codes, etc) were
     updated to be more lenient about specific error message strings and
     behaviors as seen in the BoringSSL and AWS-LC forks of OpenSSL.

   - gh-117089(4): Consolidated tests for importlib.metadata in their
     own ‘metadata’ package.

   - gh-115979(5): Update test_importlib so that it passes under WASI
     SDK 21.

   - gh-112536(6): Add –tsan to test.regrtest for running TSAN tests in
     reasonable execution times.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-116307(7): Added import helper ‘isolated_modules’ as
     ‘CleanImport’ does not remove modules imported during the context.
     Use it in importlib.resources tests to avoid leaving ‘mod’ around
     to impede importlib.metadata tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83434

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116333

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117089

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115979

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116307


File: python.info,  Node: Build<14>,  Next: Windows<11>,  Prev: Tests<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.5 Build
...............

   - gh-114736(1): Have WASI builds use WASI SDK 21.

   - gh-115983(2): Skip building test modules that must be built as
     shared under WASI.

   - gh-71052(3): Add Android build script and instructions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114736

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115983

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<11>,  Next: C API<14>,  Prev: Build<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-117267(1): Ensure ‘DirEntry.stat().st_ctime’ behaves
     consistently with *note os.stat(): 49a. during the deprecation
     period of ‘st_ctime’ by containing the same value as
     ‘st_birthtime’.  After the deprecation period, ‘st_ctime’ will be
     the metadata change time (or unavailable through ‘DirEntry’), and
     only ‘st_birthtime’ will contain the creation time.

   - gh-116195(2): Improves performance of *note os.getppid(): 1659. by
     using an alternate system API when available.  Contributed by
     vxiiduu.

   - gh-88494(3): On Windows, *note time.monotonic(): 253. now uses the
     ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock to have a resolution better than
     1 us, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a
     resolution of 15.6 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116773(4): Fix instances of ‘<_overlapped.Overlapped object at
     0xXXX> still has pending operation at deallocation, the process may
     crash’.

   - gh-91227(5): Fix the asyncio ProactorEventLoop implementation so
     that sending a datagram to an address that is not listening does
     not prevent receiving any more datagrams.

   - gh-115119(6): Switched from vendored ‘libmpdecimal’ code to a
     separately-hosted external package in the ‘cpython-source-deps’
     repository when building the ‘_decimal’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117267

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116195

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116773

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91227

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119


File: python.info,  Node: C API<14>,  Prev: Windows<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.23.17.7 C API
...............

   - gh-117642(1): Fix PEP 737(2) implementation for ‘%#T’ and ‘%#N’.

   - gh-87193(3): *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 165b. can now be called for
     bytes objects with reference count > 1, including 1-byte bytes
     objects.  It creates a new bytes object and destroys the old one if
     it has reference count > 1.

   - gh-117021(4): Fix integer overflow in ‘PyLong_AsPid()’ on
     non-Windows 64-bit platforms.

   - gh-115756(5): ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ is an ustable API now and has
     been renamed to *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 37f.
     (Contributed by Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(6))

   - gh-116869(7): Add ‘test_cext’ test: build a C extension to check if
     the Python C API emits C compiler warnings.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-116869(8): Make the C API compatible with
     ‘-Werror=declaration-after-statement’ compiler flag again.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116936(9): Add *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d. to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116809(10): Restore removed private ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115754(11): In the limited C API version 3.13, getting
     ‘Py_None’, ‘Py_False’, ‘Py_True’, ‘Py_Ellipsis’ and
     ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singletons is now implemented as function calls
     at the stable ABI level to hide implementation details.  Getting
     these constants still return borrowed references.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-115754(12): Add *note Py_GetConstant(): 34f. and *note
     Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 350. functions to get constants.  For
     example, ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a *note strong
     reference: 336. to the constant zero.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111696(13): Add support for ‘%T’, ‘%T#’, ‘%N’ and ‘%N#’ formats
     to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.: format the fully qualified
     name of an object type and of a type: call *note
     PyType_GetModuleName(): 36e.  See PEP 737(14) for more information.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111696(15): Add *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 36e. function to
     get the type’s module name.  Equivalent to getting the
     ‘type.__module__’ attribute.  Patch by Eric Snow and Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111696(16): Add *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36c.
     function to get the type’s fully qualified name.  Equivalent to
     ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or ‘type.__qualname__’
     if ‘type.__module__’ is not a string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(17): The ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘pwd’, ‘termios’, ‘_statistics’
     and ‘_testconsole’ C extensions are now built with the *note
     limited C API: 38f.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111140(18): Add additional flags to *note
     PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35a. and *note PyLong_FromNativeBytes():
     35b. to allow the caller to determine how to handle edge cases
     around values that fill the entire buffer.

   - gh-113024(19): Add *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 360. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117642

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117021

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115756

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116809

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.18 Python 3.13.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-03-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* C API: C API<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<11>,  Next: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115398(1): Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (
     CVE 2023-52425(2)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 26f.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 270.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          271.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          272.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

   - gh-114572(3): *note ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats(): fa3. and
     *note ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs(): fa4. now correctly lock access
     to the certificate store, when the *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. is
     shared across multiple threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115398

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114572


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<18>,  Next: Library<17>,  Prev: Security<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-116604(1): Respect the status of the garbage collector when
     indirect calls are made via *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 460. and
     the evaluation breaker.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112087(2): *note list: 60b. is now compatible with the
     implementation of PEP 703(3).

   - gh-116381(4): Add specialization for ‘CONTAINS_OP’.

   - gh-116296(5): Fix possible refleak in ‘object.__reduce__()’
     internal error handling.

   - gh-115823(6): Properly calculate error ranges in the parser when
     raising *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions caused by invalid byte
     sequences.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-115778(7): Add ‘tierN’ annotation for instruction definition in
     interpreter DSL.

   - gh-115733(8): Fix crash when calling ‘next()’ on exhausted list
     iterators.

   - gh-115700(9): The regen-cases build stage now works on Windows.

   - gh-115347(10): Fix bug where docstring was replaced by a redundant
     NOP when Python is run with ‘-OO’.

   - gh-115323(11): Make error message more meaningful for when
     ‘bytearray.extend()’ is called with a *note str: 445. object.

   - gh-112175(12): Every ‘PyThreadState’ now has its own
     ‘eval_breaker’, allowing specific threads to be interrupted.

   - gh-115154(13): Fix a bug that was causing the *note
     tokenize.untokenize(): 158d. function to handle unicode named
     literals incorrectly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112433(14): Add ability to force alignment of *note
     ctypes.Structure: 1d4. by way of the new ‘_align_’ attribute on the
     class.

   - gh-104090(15): The multiprocessing resource tracker now exits with
     non-zero status code if a resource leak was detected.  It still
     exits with status code 0 otherwise.

   - gh-105858(16): Improve the constructors for *note ast: 8. nodes.
     Arguments of list types now default to an empty list if omitted,
     and optional fields default to ‘None’.  AST nodes now have an
     ‘__annotations__’ attribute with the expected types of their
     attributes.  Passing unrecognized extra arguments to AST nodes is
     deprecated and will become an error in Python 3.15.  Omitting a
     required argument to an AST node is deprecated and will become an
     error in Python 3.15.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101860(17): Expose ‘__name__’ attribute on property.

   - gh-96497(18): Fix incorrect resolution of mangled class variables
     used in assignment expressions in comprehensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116604

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116381

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116296

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115823

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115778

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115733

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115700

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115347

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115323

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112175

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115154

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96497


File: python.info,  Node: Library<17>,  Next: Documentation<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.3 Library
.................

   - gh-116600(1): Fix *note repr(): 7f7. for global *note Flag: 61d.
     members.

   - gh-116349(2): *note platform.java_ver(): 2a7. is deprecated and
     will be removed in 3.15.  It was largely untested, had a confusing
     API, and was only useful for Jython support.

   - gh-116143(3): Fix a race in pydoc ‘_start_server’, eliminating a
     window in which ‘_start_server’ can return a thread that is
     “serving” but without a ‘docserver’ set.

   - gh-116127(4): *note typing: 104.: implement PEP 705(5) which adds
     *note typing.ReadOnly: 161. support to *note typing.TypedDict: 162.

   - gh-116325(6): *note typing: 104.: raise *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 346. on forward references as
     empty strings.

   - gh-115957(7): When ‘asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task’ is called on an
     inactive ‘asyncio.TaskGroup’, the given coroutine will be closed
     (which prevents a ‘RuntimeWarning’).

   - gh-115978(8): Disable preadv(), readv(), pwritev(), and writev() on
     WASI.

     Under wasmtime for WASI 0.2, these functions don’t pass test_posix
     (‘https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/issues/7830’).

   - gh-88352(9): Fix the computation of the next rollover time in the
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ handler.  ‘computeRollover()’
     now always returns a timestamp larger than the specified time and
     works correctly during the DST change.  ‘doRollover()’ no longer
     overwrite the already rolled over file, saving from data loss when
     run at midnight or during repeated time at the DST change.

   - gh-87115(10): Set ‘__main__.__spec__’ to ‘None’ when running a
     script with *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-76511(11): Fix UnicodeEncodeError in ‘email.Message.as_string()’
     that results when a message that claims to be in the ascii
     character set actually has non-ascii characters.  Non-ascii
     characters are now replaced with the U+FFFD replacement character,
     like in the ‘replace’ error handler.

   - gh-89547(12): Add support for nested typing special forms like
     Final[ClassVar[int]].

   - gh-65824(13): Improve the ‘less’ prompt in *note pydoc: b5.

   - gh-116040(14): [Enum] fix by-value calls when second value is
     falsey; e.g.  Cardinal(1, 0)

   - gh-115821(15): [Enum] Improve error message when calling
     super().__new__() in custom __new__.

   - gh-85644(16): Use the ‘XDG_CURRENT_DESKTOP’ environment variable in
     *note webbrowser: 115. to check desktop.  Prefer it to the
     deprecated ‘GNOME_DESKTOP_SESSION_ID’ for GNOME detection.

   - gh-75988(17): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 160f. to
     pass the call through to the wrapped object to return the real
     result.

   - gh-115881(18): Fix issue where *note ast.parse(): 1a8. would
     incorrectly flag conditional context managers (such as ‘with (x()
     if y else z()): ...’) as invalid syntax if ‘feature_version=(3, 8)’
     was passed.  This reverts changes to the grammar made as part of
     gh-94949(19).

   - gh-115886(20): Fix silent truncation of the name with an embedded
     null character in *note multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory:
     1660.

   - gh-115532(21): Add kernel density estimation to the statistics
     module.

   - gh-115714(22): On WASI, the *note time: ee. module no longer get
     process time using ‘times()’ or ‘CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID’, system
     API is that is unreliable and is likely to be removed from WASI.
     The affected clock functions fall back to calling ‘clock()’.

   - gh-115809(23): Improve algorithm for computing which rolled-over
     log files to delete in ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’.  It is
     now reliable for handlers without ‘namer’ and with arbitrary
     deterministic ‘namer’ that leaves the datetime part in the file
     name unmodified.

   - gh-74668(24): *note urllib.parse: 10a. functions *note parse_qs():
     27a. and *note parse_qsl(): 279. now support bytes arguments
     containing raw and percent-encoded non-ASCII data.

   - gh-67044(25): *note csv.writer(): 481. now always quotes or escapes
     ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\n'’, regardless of 'lineterminator' value.

   - gh-115712(26): Restore support of space delimiter with
     ‘skipinitialspace=True’ in *note csv: 29.  *note csv.writer(): 481.
     now quotes empty fields if delimiter is a space and
     skipinitialspace is true and raises exception if quoting is not
     possible.

   - gh-112364(27): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. to handle
     format_spec with ‘"’, ‘'’ or ‘\\’.  Patched by Frank Hoffmann.

   - gh-112997(28): Stop logging potentially sensitive callback
     arguments in *note asyncio: a. unless debug mode is active.

   - gh-114914(29): Fix an issue where an abandoned ‘StreamWriter’ would
     not be garbage collected.

   - gh-111358(30): Fix a bug in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.shutdown_default_executor()’ to ensure the
     timeout passed to the coroutine behaves as expected.

   - gh-115618(31): Fix improper decreasing the reference count for
     ‘None’ argument in *note property: 194. methods *note getter():
     1661, *note setter(): 1662. and *note deleter(): 1663.

   - gh-112720(32): Refactor ‘dis.ArgResolver’ to make it possible to
     subclass and change the way jump args are interpreted.

   - gh-112006(33): Fix *note inspect.unwrap(): f54. for types with the
     ‘__wrapper__’ data descriptor.  Fix *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 733. for builtins *note
     classmethod(): 166. and *note staticmethod(): 410.

   - gh-101293(34): Support callables with the ‘__call__()’ method and
     types with ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods set to class
     methods, static methods, bound methods, partial functions, and
     other types of methods and descriptors in *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 733.

   - gh-103092(35): Isolate ‘_lsprof’ (apply PEP 687(36)).

   - gh-113942(37): *note pydoc: b5. no longer skips global functions
     implemented as builtin methods, such as ‘MethodDescriptorType’ and
     ‘WrapperDescriptorType’.

   - gh-115256(38): Added DeprecationWarning when accessing the tarfile
     attribute of TarInfo objects.  The attribute is never used
     internally and is only attached to TarInfos when the tarfile is
     opened in write-mode, not read-mode.  The attribute creates an
     unnecessary reference cycle which may cause corruption when not
     closing the handle after writing a tarfile.

   - gh-115197(39): ‘urllib.request’ no longer resolves the hostname
     before checking it against the system’s proxy bypass list on macOS
     and Windows.

   - gh-113812(40): ‘DatagramTransport.sendto()’ will now send
     zero-length datagrams if called with an empty bytes object.  The
     transport flow control also now accounts for the datagram header
     when calculating the buffer size.

   - gh-114763(41): Protect modules loaded with *note
     importlib.util.LazyLoader: caa. from race conditions when multiple
     threads try to access attributes before the loading is complete.

   - gh-114709(42): ‘posixpath.commonpath()’ now raises a *note
     ValueError: 202. exception when passed an empty iterable.
     Previously, *note IndexError: 14fc. was raised.

     ‘posixpath.commonpath()’ now raises a *note TypeError: 532.
     exception when passed ‘None’.  Previously, *note ValueError: 202.
     was raised.

   - gh-114610(43): Fix bug where *note pathlib.PurePath.with_stem():
     1664. converted a non-empty path suffix to a stem when given an
     empty 'stem' argument.  It now raises *note ValueError: 202, just
     like *note pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 161f. does when called
     on a path with an empty stem, given a non-empty 'suffix' argument.

   - gh-107361(44): Add *note ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and
     ‘VERIFY_X509_STRICT’ to the default SSL context created with *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): 155.

   - gh-112281(45): Allow creating *note union of types: 7bb. for *note
     typing.Annotated: 93b. with unhashable metadata.

   - gh-111775(46): Fix
     ‘importlib.resources.simple.ResourceHandle.open()’ for text mode,
     added missed ‘stream’ argument.

   - gh-90095(47): Make .pdbrc and -c work with any valid pdb commands.

   - gh-107625(48): Raise *note configparser.ParsingError: 4fe. from
     *note read(): 142e. and *note read_file(): 4ff. methods of *note
     configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. if a key without a corresponding
     value is continued (that is, followed by an indented line).

   - gh-107155(49): Fix incorrect output of ‘help(x)’ where ‘x’ is a
     *note lambda: 128c. function, which has an ‘__annotations__’
     dictionary attribute with a ‘"return"’ key.

   - gh-57141(50): Add option for 'non-shallow' comparisons to *note
     filecmp.dircmp: f38. like *note filecmp.cmp(): 1665.  Original
     patch by Steven Ward.  Enhanced by Tobias Rautenkranz

   - gh-69990(51): ‘Profile.print_stats()’ has been improved to accept
     multiple sort arguments.  Patched by Chiu-Hsiang Hsu and Furkan
     Onder.

   - gh-104061(52): Add ‘socket.SO_BINDTOIFINDEX’ constant.

   - gh-60346(53): Fix ArgumentParser inconsistent with
     parse_known_args.

   - gh-102389(54): Add ‘windows_31j’ to aliases for ‘cp932’ codec

   - gh-72249(55): ‘functools.partial`s of :func:`repr()’ has been
     improved to include the *note module: 1666. name.  Patched by
     Furkan Onder and Anilyka Barry.

   - gh-100985(56): Update HTTPSConnection to consistently wrap IPv6
     Addresses when using a proxy.

   - gh-100884(57): email: fix misfolding of comma in address-lists over
     multiple lines in combination with unicode encoding.

   - gh-95782(58): Fix ‘io.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedReader.seek()’, ‘_pyio.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedRandom.tell()’, ‘io.BufferedRandom.seek()’ and
     ‘_pyio.BufferedRandom.tell()’ being able to return negative
     offsets.

   - gh-96310(59): Fix a traceback in *note argparse: 6. when all
     options in a mutually exclusive group are suppressed.

   - gh-93205(60): Fixed a bug in *note
     logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59. where multiple
     rotating handler instances pointing to files with the same name but
     different extensions would conflict and not delete the correct
     files.

   - bpo-31116(61): Add Z85 encoding to ‘base64’.

   - bpo-44865(62): Add missing call to localization function in *note
     argparse: 6.

   - bpo-43952(63): Fix *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept(): 1667. to accept empty
     bytes as authkey.  Not accepting empty bytes as key causes it to
     hang indefinitely.

   - bpo-42125(64): linecache: get module name from ‘__spec__’ if
     available.  This allows getting source code for the ‘__main__’
     module when a custom loader is used.

   - bpo-41122(65): Failing to pass arguments properly to *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9ee. now throws a TypeError
     instead of hitting an index out of bounds internally.

   - bpo-40818(66): The asyncio REPL now runs *note
     sys.__interactivehook__: fbf. on startup.  The default
     implementation of *note sys.__interactivehook__: fbf. provides
     auto-completion to the asyncio REPL. Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33775(67): Add ‘default’ and ‘version’ help text for
     localization in argparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116600

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116143

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116127

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116325

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115978

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88352

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87115

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76511

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65824

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116040

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115821

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85644

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75988

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115881

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115886

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115532

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115714

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115809

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74668

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67044

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115712

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112364

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112997

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114914

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111358

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115618

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112720

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112006

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101293

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113942

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115197

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113812

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114763

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114709

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114610

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107361

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112281

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111775

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107625

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107155

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69990

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104061

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60346

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102389

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72249

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100985

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100884

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95782

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96310

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93205

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31116

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44865

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43952

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42125

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41122

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40818

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33775


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<12>,  Next: Tests<13>,  Prev: Library<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115399(1): Document CVE 2023-52425(2) of Expat <2.6.0 under “XML
     vulnerabilities”.

   - gh-109653(3): Improve import time of *note uuid: 110. on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<13>,  Next: Build<15>,  Prev: Documentation<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-71052(1): Add test exclusions to support running the test suite
     on Android.

   - gh-71052(2): Enable ‘test_concurrent_futures’ on platforms that
     support threading but not multiprocessing.

   - gh-115796(3): Make ‘_testinternalcapi.assemble_code_object’
     construct the exception table for the code object.

   - gh-115720(4): Leak tests (‘-R’, ‘--huntrleaks’) now show a summary
     of the number of leaks found in each iteration.

   - gh-115122(5): Add ‘--bisect’ option to regrtest test runner: run
     failed tests with ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to identify failing tests.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115596(6): Fix ‘ProgramPriorityTests’ in ‘test_os’ permanently
     changing the process priority.

   - gh-115556(7): On Windows, commas passed in arguments to
     ‘Tools\buildbot\test.bat’ and ‘PCbuild\\rt.bat’ are now properly
     handled.

   - gh-115420(8): Fix translation of exception handler targets by
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg’.

   - gh-115376(9): Fix segfault in ‘_testinternalcapi.compiler_codegen’
     on bad input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115796

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115720

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115122

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115596

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115556

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115420

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115376


File: python.info,  Node: Build<15>,  Next: Windows<12>,  Prev: Tests<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.6 Build
...............

   - gh-116313(1): Get WASI builds to work under wasmtime 18 w/ WASI
     0.2/preview2 primitives.

   - gh-71052(2): Change Android’s *note sys.platform: a8a. from
     ‘"linux"’ to ‘"android"’.

   - gh-116117(3): Backport ‘libb2’’s PR #42 to fix compiling CPython on
     32-bit Windows with ‘clang-cl’.

   - gh-71052(4): Fix several Android build issues

   - gh-114099(5): A testbed project was added to run the test suite on
     iOS.

   - gh-115350(6): Fix building ctypes module with -DWIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN
     defined

   - gh-111225(7): Link extension modules against libpython on Android.

   - gh-115737(8): The install name for libPython is now correctly set
     for non-framework macOS builds.

   - gh-114099(9): Makefile targets were added to support compiling an
     iOS-compatible framework build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116313

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116117

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115350

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111225

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115737

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<12>,  Next: macOS<8>,  Prev: Build<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-116012(1): Ensure the value of ‘GetLastError()’ is preserved
     across GIL operations.

   - gh-115582(2): Building extensions intended for free-threaded builds
     of CPython now require compiling with ‘/DPy_GIL_DISABLED’ manually
     when using a regular install.  This is expected to change in future
     releases.

   - gh-115554(3): The installer now has more strict rules about
     updating the *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.  In general, most
     users only have a single launcher installed and will see no
     difference.  When multiple launchers have been installed, the
     option to install the launcher is disabled until all but one have
     been removed.  Downgrading the launcher (which was never allowed)
     is now more obviously blocked.

   - gh-115543(4): *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. can now detect
     Python 3.13 when installed from the Microsoft Store, and will
     install Python 3.12 by default when ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ is
     set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116012

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115582

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115554

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115543


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<8>,  Next: IDLE<11>,  Prev: Windows<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-116145(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<11>,  Next: Tools/Demos<7>,  Prev: macOS<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-88516(1): On macOS show a proxy icon in the title bar of editor
     windows to match platform behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88516


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<7>,  Next: C API<15>,  Prev: IDLE<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-100176(1): Remove outdated Tools/{io,cc,string}bench

   - bpo-45101(2): Add consistency in usage message IO between 2
     versions of python-config.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45101


File: python.info,  Node: C API<15>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<7>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.23.18.11 C API
................

   - gh-114626(1): Add again ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ name,
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 4 by mistake.  Keep the old private
     ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ name (Python 3.7) as an alias to the
     new public name ‘PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ (Python 3.13a4).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111418(2): Add *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1670, *note PyHASH_BITS:
     1671, *note PyHASH_INF: 1672. and *note PyHASH_IMAG: 1673. C
     macros.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111418


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.19 Python 3.13.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-02-15'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<12>,  Next: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115399(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.0

   - gh-115243(2): Fix possible crashes in *note
     collections.deque.index(): dce. when the deque is concurrently
     modified.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115243


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<19>,  Next: Library<18>,  Prev: Security<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112087(1): For an empty reverse iterator for list will be
     reduced to *note reversed(): 860.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - gh-114570(2): Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d. exception.
     This exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 195. is raised when
     an operation is blocked during the *note Python finalization: 14e.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-114695(3): Add *note sys._clear_internal_caches(): 1677, which
     clears all internal performance-related caches (and deprecate the
     less-general *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 1678. function).

   - gh-114828(4): Fix compilation crashes in uncommon code examples
     using *note super(): 4d5. inside a comprehension in a class body.

   - gh-112069(5): Adapt *note set: 5d3. and *note frozenset: 5d4.
     methods to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-115011(6): Setters for members with an unsigned integer type now
     support the same range of valid values for objects that has a *note
     __index__(): 716. method as for *note int: 257.

   - gh-114887(7): Changed socket type validation in *note
     create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c. to accept all non-stream sockets.
     This fixes a regression in compatibility with raw sockets.

   - gh-114944(8): Fixes a race between ‘PyParkingLot_Park’ and
     ‘_PyParkingLot_UnparkAll’.

   - gh-113462(9): Limit the number of versions that a single class can
     use.  Prevents a few wayward classes using up all the version
     numbers.

   - gh-76763(10): The *note chr(): 1679. builtin function now always
     raises *note ValueError: 202. for values outside the valid range.
     Previously it raised *note OverflowError: 87d. for very large or
     small values.

   - gh-114806(11): No longer specialize calls to classes, if those
     classes have metaclasses.  Fixes bug where the ‘__call__’ method of
     the metaclass was not being called.

   - gh-107944(12): Improve error message for function calls with bad
     keyword arguments via getargs

   - gh-112529(13): The free-threaded build no longer allocates space
     for the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure in objects that support cyclic
     garbage collection.  A number of other fields and data structures
     are used as replacements, including ‘ob_gc_bits’, ‘ob_tid’, and
     mimalloc internal data structures.

   - gh-114456(14): Lower the recursion limit under a debug build of
     WASI.

   - gh-114083(15): Compiler applies folding of LOAD_CONST with
     following instruction in a separate pass before other
     optimisations.  This enables jump threading in certain
     circumstances.

   - gh-114388(16): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. emitted when assign
     an integer-like value that is not an instance of *note int: 257. to
     an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of *note type:
     167a. T_UINT and T_ULONG. Fix a double *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.
     emitted when assign a negative integer value to an attribute that
     corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT.

   - gh-114265(17): Compiler propagates line numbers before
     optimization, leading to more optimization opportunities and
     removing the need for the ‘guarantee_lineno_for_exits’ hack.

   - gh-112529(18): The free-threaded build now has its own thread-safe
     GC implementation that uses mimalloc to find GC tracked objects.
     It is non-generational, unlike the existing GC implementation.

   - gh-114050(19): Fix segmentation fault caused by an incorrect format
     string in ‘TypeError’ exception when more than two arguments are
     passed to ‘int’.

   - gh-112354(20): The ‘END_FOR’ instruction now pops only one value.
     This is to better support side exits in loops.

   - gh-113884(21): Make *note queue.SimpleQueue: b67. thread safe when
     the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-114058(22): Implement the foundations of the Tier 2 redundancy
     eliminator.

   - gh-113939(23): frame.clear(): Clear frame.f_locals as well, and not
     only the fast locals.  This is relevant once frame.f_locals was
     accessed, which would contain also references to all the locals.

   - gh-112050(24): Convert *note collections.deque: 5d6. to use
     Argument Clinic.

   - gh-112050(25): Make methods on *note collections.deque: 5d6.
     thread-safe when the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-113464(26): Add an option (‘--enable-experimental-jit’ for
     ‘configure’-based builds or ‘--experimental-jit’ for
     ‘PCbuild’-based ones) to build an 'experimental' just-in-time
     compiler, based on copy-and-patch(27)

   - gh-113055(28): Make interp->obmalloc a pointer.  For interpreters
     that share state with the main interpreter, this points to the same
     static memory structure.  For interpreters with their own obmalloc
     state, it is heap allocated.  Add free_obmalloc_arenas() which will
     free the obmalloc arenas and radix tree structures for interpreters
     with their own obmalloc state.

   - gh-55664(29): Add warning when creating *note type: d45. using a
     namespace dictionary with non-string keys.  Patched by Daniel Urban
     and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-104530(30): Use native Win32 condition variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114695

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114828

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112069

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115011

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114887

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114944

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113462

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76763

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114806

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114456

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114083

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114388

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114265

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114050

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112354

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113884

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114058

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113939

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113464

   (27) https://fredrikbk.com/publications/copy-and-patch.pdf

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113055

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55664

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<18>,  Next: Documentation<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.3 Library
.................

   - gh-115392(1): Fix a bug in *note doctest: 3a. where incorrect line
     numbers would be reported for decorated functions.

   - gh-114563(2): Fix several *note format(): 619. bugs when using the
     C implementation of *note Decimal: 29d.: * memory leak in some rare
     cases when using the ‘z’ format option (coerce negative 0) *
     incorrect output when applying the ‘z’ format option to type ‘F’
     (fixed-point with capital ‘NAN’ / ‘INF’) * incorrect output when
     applying the ‘#’ format option (alternate form)

   - gh-102840(3): Fix confused traceback when floordiv, mod, or divmod
     operations happens between instances of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1e7. and *note complex: 2f0.

   - gh-115165(4): Most exceptions are now ignored when attempting to
     set the ‘__orig_class__’ attribute on objects returned when calling
     *note typing: 104. generic aliases (including generic aliases
     created using *note typing.Annotated: 93b.).  Previously only *note
     AttributeError: 346. was ignored.  Patch by Dave Shawley.

   - gh-112903(5): Fix “issubclass() arg 1 must be a class” errors in
     certain cases of multiple inheritance with generic aliases
     (regression in early 3.13 alpha releases).

   - gh-115133(6): Fix tests for *note XMLPullParser: fe9. with Expat
     2.6.0.

   - gh-115059(7): ‘io.BufferedRandom.read1()’ now flushes the
     underlying write buffer.

   - gh-79382(8): Trailing ‘**’ no longer allows to match files and
     non-existing paths in recursive *note glob(): 29f.

   - gh-67837(9): Avoid race conditions in the creation of directories
     during concurrent extraction in *note tarfile: de. and *note
     zipfile: 131.

   - gh-115060(10): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. by removing
     redundant regex matching.

   - gh-97928(11): Partially revert the behavior of
     ‘tkinter.Text.count()’.  By default it preserves the behavior of
     older Python versions, except that setting ‘wantobjects’ to 0 no
     longer has effect.  Add a new parameter 'return_ints': specifying
     ‘return_ints=True’ makes ‘Text.count()’ always returning the single
     count as an integer instead of a 1-tuple or ‘None’.

   - gh-114628(12): When csv.Error is raised when handling TypeError, do
     not print the TypeError traceback.

   - gh-85984(13): Added ‘_POSIX_VDISABLE’ from C’s ‘<unistd.h>’ to
     *note termios: e1.

   - gh-114965(14): Update bundled pip to 24.0

   - gh-114959(15): *note tarfile: de. no longer ignores errors when
     trying to extract a directory on top of a file.

   - gh-114894(16): Add *note array.array.clear(): 1a2.

   - gh-114071(17): Support tuple subclasses using auto() for enum
     member value.

   - gh-109475(18): Fix support of explicit option value “–” in *note
     argparse: 6. (e.g.  ‘--option=--’).

   - gh-49766(19): Fix *note date: 1cd.-*note datetime: 1cc. comparison.
     Now the special comparison methods like ‘__eq__’ and ‘__lt__’
     return *note NotImplemented: 7cb. if one of comparands is ‘date’
     and other is ‘datetime’ instead of ignoring the time part and the
     time zone or forcefully return “not equal” or raise *note
     TypeError: 532.  It makes comparison of ‘date’ and ‘datetime’
     subclasses more symmetric and allows to change the default behavior
     by overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

   - gh-110190(20): Fix ctypes structs with array on Windows ARM64
     platform by setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by
     Diego Russo

   - gh-114678(21): Ensure that deprecation warning for ‘N’ specifier in
     *note Decimal: 29d. format is not raised for cases where ‘N’
     appears in other places in the format specifier.  Based on patch by
     Stefan Krah.

   - gh-70303(22): Return both files and directories from *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. if a pattern ends with “‘**’”.
     Previously only directories were returned.

   - gh-109653(23): Improve import time of *note importlib.metadata: 7a.
     and *note email.utils: 50.

   - gh-113280(24): Fix a leak of open socket in rare cases when error
     occurred in *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7. creation.

   - gh-77749(25): *note email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold(): 167c. now
     always encodes non-ASCII characters in headers if *note utf8: df4.
     is false.

   - gh-83383(26): Synchronization of the *note dbm.dumb: 32. database
     is now no-op if there was no modification since opening or last
     synchronization.  The directory file for a newly created empty
     *note dbm.dumb: 32. database is now created immediately after
     opening instead of deferring this until synchronizing or closing.

   - gh-91602(27): Add 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 247. for filtering database objects
     to dump.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-112451(28): Prohibit subclassing pure-Python *note
     datetime.timezone: 10b2.  This is consistent with C-extension
     implementation.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-69893(29): Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 273.

   - gh-109653(30): Reduce the import time of *note threading: ed.
     module by ~50%.  Patch by Daniel Hollas.

   - gh-114492(31): Make the result of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 167d.
     reproducible on Alpine Linux.  Previously it could leave a random
     garbage in some fields.

   - gh-114315(32): Make *note threading.Lock: 167e. a real class, not a
     factory function.  Add ‘__new__’ to ‘_thread.lock’ type.

   - gh-100414(33): Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. as a backend to *note
     dbm: 31, and make it the new default ‘dbm’ backend.  Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-113267(34): Revert changes in gh-106584(35) which made calls of
     ‘TestResult’ methods ‘startTest()’ and ‘stopTest()’ unbalanced.

   - gh-75128(36): Ignore an *note OSError: 411. in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.create_server()’ when IPv6 is available but
     the interface cannot actually support it.

   - gh-114423(37): ‘_DummyThread’ entries in ‘threading._active’ are
     now automatically removed when the related thread dies.

   - gh-114257(38): Dismiss the ‘FileNotFound’ error in *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): d46. and just return ‘None’ on Linux.

   - gh-114321(39): Expose more platform specific constants in the *note
     fcntl: 59. module on Linux, macOS, FreeBSD and NetBSD.

   - gh-114328(40): The *note tty.setcbreak(): 167f. and new *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1680. no longer clears the terminal input ICRLF
     flag.  This fixes a regression introduced in 3.12 that no longer
     matched how OSes define cbreak mode in their ‘stty(1)’ manual
     pages.

   - gh-114281(41): Remove type hints from ‘Lib/asyncio/staggered.py’.
     The annotations in the typeshed(42) project should be used instead.

   - gh-101438(43): Avoid reference cycle in ElementTree.iterparse.  The
     iterator returned by ‘ElementTree.iterparse’ may hold on to a file
     descriptor.  The reference cycle prevented prompt clean-up of the
     file descriptor if the returned iterator was not exhausted.

   - gh-114198(44): The signature for the ‘__replace__’ method on *note
     dataclasses: 2f. now has the first argument named ‘self’, rather
     than ‘obj’.

   - gh-104522(45): *note OSError: 411. raised when run a subprocess now
     only has 'filename' attribute set to 'cwd' if the error was caused
     by a failed attempt to change the current directory.

   - gh-114149(46): Enum: correctly handle tuple subclasses in custom
     ‘__new__’.

   - gh-83648(47): Support deprecation of options, positional arguments
     and subcommands in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-114087(48): Speed up ‘dataclasses.asdict’ up to 1.35x.

   - gh-109534(49): Fix a reference leak in
     ‘asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop’ when SSL handshakes
     fail.  Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

   - gh-79634(50): Accept *note path-like objects: 2a0. as patterns in
     *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e.

   - gh-112202(51): Ensure that a *note asyncio.Condition.notify():
     1681. call does not get lost if the awakened ‘Task’ is
     simultaneously cancelled or encounters any other error.

   - gh-113951(52): Fix the behavior of ‘tag_unbind()’ methods of
     ‘tkinter.Text’ and ‘tkinter.Canvas’ classes with three arguments.
     Previously, ‘widget.tag_unbind(tag, sequence, funcid)’ destroyed
     the current binding for 'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and
     deleted the 'funcid' command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from
     the binding for 'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the
     'funcid' command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid'
     was the last bound command.

   - gh-97959(53): Fix rendering class methods, bound methods, method
     and function aliases in *note pydoc: b5.  Class methods no longer
     have “method of builtins.type instance” note.  Corresponding notes
     are now added for class and unbound methods.  Method and function
     aliases now have references to the module or the class where the
     origin was defined if it differs from the current.  Bound methods
     are now listed in the static methods section.  Methods of builtin
     classes are now supported as well as methods of Python classes.

   - gh-113796(54): Add more validation checks in the *note csv.Dialect:
     1682. constructor.  *note ValueError: 202. is now raised if the
     same character is used in different roles.

   - gh-113732(55): Fix support of *note QUOTE_NOTNULL: 47e. and *note
     QUOTE_STRINGS: 47f. in *note csv.reader(): 480.

   - gh-113225(56): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 4a2. by using
     *note os.DirEntry.path: 1683. where possible.

   - gh-89039(57): When replace() method is called on a subclass of
     datetime, date or time, properly call derived constructor.
     Previously, only the base class’s constructor was called.

     Also, make sure to pass non-zero fold values when creating
     subclasses in various methods.  Previously, fold was silently
     ignored.

   - gh-112919(58): Speed-up *note datetime.datetime.replace(): 1493,
     *note datetime.date.replace(): 1684. and *note
     datetime.time.replace(): 1685.

   - gh-59013(59): Set breakpoint on the first executable line of the
     function, instead of the line of function definition when the user
     do ‘break func’ using *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-112343(60): Improve handling of pdb convenience variables to
     avoid replacing string contents.

   - gh-112240(61): Add option to calendar module CLI to specify the
     weekday to start each week.  Patch by Steven Ward.

   - gh-111741(62): Recognise ‘image/webp’ as a standard format in the
     *note mimetypes: 8f. module.

   - gh-43457(63): Fix the *note tkinter: f0. widget method
     ‘wm_attributes()’.  It now accepts the attribute name without the
     minus prefix to get window attributes and allows to specify
     attributes and values to set as keyword arguments.  Add new
     optional keyword argument 'return_python_dict': calling
     ‘w.wm_attributes(return_python_dict=True)’ returns the attributes
     as a dict instead of a tuple.  Calling ‘w.wm_attributes()’ now
     returns a tuple instead of string if 'wantobjects' was set to 0.

   - gh-82626(64): Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value
     is passed as a file descriptor argument.

   - gh-111051(65): Added check for file modification during debugging
     with *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-110345(66): Show the Tcl/Tk patchlevel (rather than version) in
     ‘tkinter._test()’.

   - gh-38807(67): Fix race condition in *note trace: fd.  Instead of
     checking if a directory exists and creating it, directly call *note
     os.makedirs(): 21e. with the kwarg ‘exist_ok=True’.

   - gh-75705(68): Set unixfrom envelope in *note mailbox.mbox: 1686.
     and *note mailbox.MMDF: 1687.

   - gh-106233(69): Fix stacklevel in ‘InvalidTZPathWarning’ during
     *note zoneinfo: 134. module import.

   - gh-105102(70): Allow *note ctypes.Union: 1688. to be nested in
     *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4. when the system endianness is the
     opposite of the classes.

   - gh-104282(71): Fix null pointer dereference in
     ‘lzma._decode_filter_properties()’ due to improper handling of BCJ
     filters with properties of zero length.  Patch by Radislav
     Chugunov.

   - gh-96471(72): Add *note queue.Queue: 1377. termination with *note
     shutdown(): 23a.

   - gh-101599(73): Changed argparse flag options formatting to remove
     redundancy.

   - gh-85984(74): Add POSIX pseudo-terminal functions *note
     os.posix_openpt(): 1689, *note os.grantpt(): 168a, *note
     os.unlockpt(): 168b, and *note os.ptsname(): 168c.

   - gh-102512(75): When *note os.fork(): 197. is called from a foreign
     thread (aka ‘_DummyThread’), the type of the thread in a child
     process is changed to ‘_MainThread’.  Also changed its name and
     daemonic status, it can be now joined.

   - gh-88569(76): Add *note os.path.isreserved(): 223, which identifies
     reserved pathnames such as “NUL”, “AUX” and “CON”.  This function
     is only available on Windows.

     Deprecate *note pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a6.

   - bpo-38364(77): The ‘inspect’ functions ‘isgeneratorfunction’,
     ‘iscoroutinefunction’, ‘isasyncgenfunction’ now support
     ‘functools.partialmethod’ wrapped functions the same way they
     support ‘functools.partial’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115392

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114563

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102840

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115165

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112903

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115133

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115059

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79382

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67837

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114628

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114965

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114959

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114071

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109475

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49766

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114678

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113280

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77749

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83383

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112451

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114492

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114315

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113267

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75128

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114423

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114257

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114321

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114328

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114281

   (42) https://github.com/python/typeshed

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101438

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114198

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104522

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114149

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114087

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109534

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79634

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112202

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113951

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97959

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113796

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113732

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89039

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112919

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112343

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112240

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111741

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111051

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110345

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/38807

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75705

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106233

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105102

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104282

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101599

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102512

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38364


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<13>,  Next: Tests<14>,  Prev: Library<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115233(1): Fix an example for *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. in the
     Logging Cookbook.

   - gh-114123(2): Move the *note csv: 29. module docstring to the ‘csv’
     module instead of reexporting it from the internal ‘_csv’ module,
     and remove ‘__doc__’ from ‘csv.__all__’.

     Move ‘csv.__version__’ to the ‘csv’ module instead of reexporting
     it from the internal ‘_csv’ module, and remove ‘__version__’ from
     ‘csv.__all__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115233

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114123


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<14>,  Next: Build<16>,  Prev: Documentation<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-114099(1): Added test exclusions required to run the test suite
     on iOS.

   - gh-105089(2): Fix
     ‘test.test_zipfile.test_core.TestWithDirectory.test_create_directory_with_write’
     test in AIX by doing a bitwise AND of 0xFFFF on mode , so that it
     will be in sync with ‘zinfo.external_attr’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105089


File: python.info,  Node: Build<16>,  Next: Windows<13>,  Prev: Tests<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.6 Build
...............

   - gh-115167(1): Avoid vendoring ‘vcruntime140_threads.dll’ when
     building with Visual Studio 2022 version 17.8.

   - gh-113632(2): Promote WASI to a tier 2 platform and drop Emscripten
     from tier 3 in configure.ac.

   - gh-114099(3): configure and Makefile were refactored to accommodate
     framework builds on Apple platforms other than macOS.

   - gh-114875(4): Add ‘getgrent()’ as a prerequisite for building the
     *note grp: 66. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115167

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113632

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114875


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<13>,  Next: macOS<9>,  Prev: Build<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-115049(1): Fixes ‘py.exe’ launcher failing when run as users
     without user profiles.

   - gh-115009(2): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(3): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-111239(4): Update Windows builds to use zlib v1.3.1.

   - gh-100107(5): The ‘py.exe’ launcher will no longer attempt to run
     the Microsoft Store redirector when launching a script containing a
     ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang

   - gh-112984(6): Adds free-threaded binaries to Windows installer as
     an optional component.

   - gh-89240(7): Allows *note multiprocessing: 94. to create pools of
     greater than 62 processes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115049

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111239

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100107

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112984

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89240


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<9>,  Next: IDLE<12>,  Prev: Windows<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-114490(3): Add Mach-O linkage support for *note
     platform.architecture(): 1692.

   - gh-87804(4): On macOS the result of ‘os.statvfs’ and ‘os.fstatvfs’
     now correctly report the size of very large disks, in previous
     versions the reported number of blocks was wrong for disks with at
     least 2**32 blocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87804


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<12>,  Next: Tools/Demos<8>,  Prev: macOS<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-96905(1): In idlelib code, stop redefining built-ins ‘dict’ and
     ‘object’.

   - gh-103820(2): Revise IDLE bindings so that events from mouse button
     4/5 on non-X11 windowing systems (i.e.  Win32 and Aqua) are not
     mistaken for scrolling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96905

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103820


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<8>,  Next: C API<16>,  Prev: IDLE<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-113516(1): Don’t set ‘LDSHARED’ when building for WASI.

   - gh-109991(2): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.13 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, and 3.2.1.

   - gh-115015(3): Fix a bug in Argument Clinic that generated incorrect
     code for methods with no parameters that use the *note METH_METHOD
     | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1695. calling convention.  Only
     the positional parameter count was checked; any keyword argument
     passed would be silently accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113516

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115015


File: python.info,  Node: C API<16>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<8>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.23.19.11 C API
................

   - gh-111140(1): Adds *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35a, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 35b. and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 35c. functions.

   - gh-114685(2): *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 759. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 570. if called with *note PyBUF_READ: 1697. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 1698. as flags.  These flags should only be used with
     the ‘PyMemoryView_*’ C API.

   - gh-114685(3): *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 570. if called with *note PyBUF_READ: 1697. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 1698. as flags.  These flags should only be used with
     the ‘PyMemoryView_*’ C API.

   - gh-114626(4): Add ‘PyCFunctionFast’ and
     ‘PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ typedefs (identical to the existing
     ‘_PyCFunctionFast’ and ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ typedefs,
     just without a leading ‘_’ prefix).

   - gh-114329(5): Add *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 354, which is similar
     to *note PyList_GetItem(): 355. but returns a *note strong
     reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337.

   - gh-110850(6): Add PyTime C API:

        * *note PyTime_t: 326. type.

        * *note PyTime_MIN: 327. and *note PyTime_MAX: 328. constants.

        * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 329, *note PyTime_Monotonic():
          32a, *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32c, and *note PyTime_Time():
          32e. functions.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112066(7): Add *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 338.: insert a key
     and value into a dictionary if the key is not already present.
     This is similar to *note dict.setdefault(): 106f, but returns an
     integer value indicating if the key was already present.  It is
     also similar to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 339, but returns a
     strong reference instead of a borrowed reference.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.20 Python 3.13.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-01-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* C API: C API<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<13>,  Next: Core and Builtins<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.1 Security
..................

   - gh-113659(1): Skip ‘.pth’ files with names starting with a dot or
     hidden file attribute.

   - gh-112302(2): Created a Software Bill-of-Materials document and
     tooling for tracking dependencies.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113659

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112302


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<20>,  Next: Library<19>,  Prev: Security<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-107901(1): Compiler duplicates basic blocks that have an eval
     breaker check, no line number, and multiple predecessors.

   - gh-107901(2): A jump leaving an exception handler back to normal
     code no longer checks the eval breaker.

   - gh-113655(3): Set the C recursion limit to 4000 on Windows, and
     10000 on Linux/OSX. This seems to be near the sweet spot to
     maintain safety, but not compromise backwards compatibility.

   - gh-113710(4): Add typed stack effects to the interpreter DSL, along
     with various instruction annotations.

   - gh-77046(5): On Windows, file descriptors wrapping Windows handles
     are now created non inheritable by default ( PEP 446(6)).  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-113853(7): Guarantee that all executors make progress.  This
     then guarantees that tier 2 execution always makes progress.

   - gh-113753(8): Fix an issue where the finalizer of ‘PyAsyncGenASend’
     objects might not be called if they were allocated from a free
     list.

   - gh-107901(9): Compiler changed so that synthetic jumps which are
     not at loop end no longer check the eval breaker.

   - gh-113703(10): Fix a regression in the *note codeop: 1c. module
     that was causing it to incorrectly identify incomplete f-strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89811(11): Check for a valid ‘tp_version_tag’ before performing
     bytecode specializations that rely on this value being usable.

   - gh-111488(12): Changed error message in case of no ‘in’ keyword
     after ‘for’ in list comprehensions

   - gh-113657(13): Fix an issue that caused important instruction
     pointer updates to be optimized out of tier two traces.

   - gh-113603(14): Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed,
     causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

   - gh-113602(15): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite existing errors and crashing in the process.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-113486(16): No longer issue spurious ‘PY_UNWIND’ events for
     optimized calls to classes.

   - gh-113297(17): Fix segfault in the compiler on with statement with
     19 context managers.

   - gh-113212(18): Improve *note super: 4d5. error messages.

   - gh-111375(19): Only use ‘NULL’ in the exception stack to indicate
     an exception was handled.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-112215(20): Increase the C recursion limit by a factor of 3 for
     non-debug builds, except for webassembly and s390 platforms which
     are unchanged.  This mitigates some regressions in 3.12 with deep
     recursion mixing builtin (C) and Python code.

   - gh-113054(21): Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed,
     causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

   - gh-106905(22): Use per AST-parser state rather than global state to
     track recursion depth within the AST parser to prevent potential
     race condition due to simultaneous parsing.

     The issue primarily showed up in 3.11 by multithreaded users of
     *note ast.parse(): 1a8.  In 3.12 a change to when garbage
     collection can be triggered prevented the race condition from
     occurring.

   - gh-108866(23): Change the API and contract of ‘_PyExecutorObject’
     to return the next_instr pointer, instead of the frame, and to
     always execute at least one instruction.

   - gh-90350(24): Optimize builtin functions *note min(): f00. and
     *note max(): f01.

   - gh-112943(25): Correctly compute end column offsets for multiline
     tokens in the *note tokenize: fb. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112125(26): Fix ‘None.__ne__(None)’ returning ‘NotImplemented’
     instead of ‘False’.

   - gh-74616(27): *note input(): 12c8. now raises a ValueError when
     output on the terminal if the prompt contains embedded null
     characters instead of silently truncating it.

   - gh-112716(28): Fix SystemError in the ‘import’ statement and in
     ‘__reduce__()’ methods of builtin types when ‘__builtins__’ is not
     a dict.

   - gh-112730(29): Use color to highlight error locations in
     tracebacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112625(30): Fixes a bug where a bytearray object could be
     cleared while iterating over an argument in the ‘bytearray.join()’
     method that could result in reading memory after it was freed.

   - gh-112660(31): Do not clear unexpected errors during formatting
     error messages for ImportError and AttributeError for modules.

   - gh-105967(32): Workaround a bug in Apple’s macOS platform zlib
     library where *note zlib.crc32(): 169c. and *note binascii.crc32():
     169d. could produce incorrect results on multi-gigabyte inputs.
     Including when using *note zipfile: 131. on zips containing large
     data.

   - gh-95754(33): Provide a better error message when accessing invalid
     attributes on partially initialized modules.  The origin of the
     module being accessed is now included in the message to help with
     the common issue of shadowing other modules.

   - gh-112217(34): Add check for the type of ‘__cause__’ returned from
     calling the type ‘T’ in ‘raise from T’.

   - gh-111058(35): Change coro.cr_frame/gen.gi_frame to return ‘None’
     after the coroutine/generator has been closed.  This fixes a bug
     where *note getcoroutinestate(): e15. and *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 1226. return the wrong state for a closed
     coroutine/generator.

   - gh-112388(36): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite tokenizer errors.  Patch by pablo Galindo

   - gh-112387(37): Fix error positions for decoded strings with
     backwards tokenize errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-99606(38): Make code generated for an empty f-string identical
     to the code of an empty normal string.

   - gh-112367(39): Avoid undefined behaviour when using the perf
     trampolines by not freeing the code arenas until shutdown.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112320(40): The Tier 2 translator now tracks the confidence
     level for staying “on trace” (i.e.  not exiting back to the Tier 1
     interpreter) for branch instructions based on the number of bits
     set in the branch “counter”.  Trace translation ends when the
     confidence drops below 1/3rd.

   - gh-109598(41): *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 169e./*note
     PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 169f. now tries to convert an object to a
     *note complex: 2f0. instance using its ‘__complex__()’ method
     before falling back to the ‘__float__()’ method.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-94606(42): Fix UnicodeEncodeError when
     ‘email.message.get_payload()’ reads a message with a Unicode
     surrogate character and the message content is not well-formed for
     surrogateescape encoding.  Patch by Sidney Markowitz.

   - bpo-21861(43): Use the object’s actual class name in
     ‘_io.FileIO.__repr__()’, ‘_io._WindowsConsoleIO()’ and
     ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.__repr__()’, to make these methods subclass
     friendly.

   - bpo-45369(44): Remove LibreSSL workarounds as per PEP 644(45).

   - bpo-34392(46): Added *note sys._is_interned(): 250.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113655

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113710

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77046

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113753

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113703

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89811

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111488

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113657

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113603

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113602

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113486

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113297

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113212

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111375

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112215

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113054

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108866

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90350

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112943

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112125

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74616

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112716

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112625

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112660

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105967

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112217

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111058

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112388

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112387

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99606

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112367

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112320

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109598

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94606

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21861

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45369

   (45) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34392


File: python.info,  Node: Library<19>,  Next: Documentation<14>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.3 Library
.................

   - gh-114077(1): Fix possible *note OverflowError: 87d. in *note
     socket.socket.sendfile(): e55. when pass 'count' larger than 2 GiB
     on 32-bit platform.

   - gh-111803(2): *note plistlib: ab. now supports loading more deeply
     nested lists in binary format.

   - gh-114014(3): Fixed a bug in *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. where
     an invalid string using ‘d’ in the decimals part creates a
     different error compared to other invalid letters/characters.
     Patch by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual.

   - gh-108364(4): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 247. now ensures
     that foreign key support is disabled before dumping the database
     schema, if there is any foreign key violation.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland and Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-113971(5): The *note zipfile.ZipInfo: d07. previously protected
     ‘._compresslevel’ attribute has been made public as
     ‘.compress_level’ with the old ‘_compresslevel’ name remaining
     available as a property to retain compatibility.

   - gh-113877(6): Fix *note tkinter: f0. method ‘winfo_pathname()’ on
     64-bit Windows.

   - gh-113868(7): Added *note mmap.MAP_NORESERVE: 16a1, *note
     mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND: 16a2, *note mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE: 16a3, *note
     mmap.MAP_NOCACHE: 16a4, *note mmap.MAP_JIT: 16a5, *note
     mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN: 16a6, *note mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA:
     16a7, *note mmap.MAP_32BIT: 16a8, *note
     mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE: 16a9, *note mmap.MAP_UNIX03:
     16aa. and *note mmap.MAP_TPRO: 16ab.  All of them are ‘mmap(2)’
     flags on macOS.

   - gh-113848(8): *note asyncio.TaskGroup(): 1b5. and *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. context managers now handle *note
     CancelledError: 1b8. subclasses as well as exact ‘CancelledError’.

   - gh-113661(9): unittest runner: Don’t exit 5 if tests were skipped.
     The intention of exiting 5 was to detect issues where the test
     suite wasn’t discovered at all.  If we skipped tests, it was
     correctly discovered.

   - gh-96037(10): Insert *note TimeoutError: 82f. in the context of the
     exception that was raised during exiting an expired *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. block.

   - gh-113781(11): Silence unraisable AttributeError when warnings are
     emitted during Python finalization.

   - gh-113238(12): Add ‘Anchor’ to ‘importlib.resources’ (in order for
     the code to comply with the documentation)

   - gh-111693(13): *note asyncio.Condition.wait(): 16ac. now re-raises
     the same ‘CancelledError’ instance that may have caused it to be
     interrupted.  Fixed race condition in *note
     asyncio.Semaphore.acquire(): 16ad. when interrupted with a
     ‘CancelledError’.

   - gh-113791(14): Add ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX’ and
     ‘CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX’ to *note time: ee. on macOS. These are
     clocks available on macOS 10.12 or later.

   - gh-112932(15): Restore the ability for *note zipfile: 131. to
     ‘extractall’ from zip files with a “/” directory entry in them as
     is commonly added to zips by some wiki or bug tracker data
     exporters.

   - gh-113568(16): Raise deprecation warnings from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. and not its private base class
     ‘PurePathBase’.

   - gh-113594(17): Fix *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. in *note email:
     3b. when re-fold lines that contain unknown-8bit encoded part
     followed by non-unknown-8bit encoded part.

   - gh-113538(18): In ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol.connection_made()’,
     there is callback that logs an error if the task wrapping the
     “connected callback” fails.  This callback would itself fail if the
     task was cancelled.  Prevent this by checking whether the task was
     cancelled first.  If so, close the transport but don’t log an
     error.

   - gh-113626(19): Add support for the 'allow_code' argument in the
     *note marshal: 8d. module.  Passing ‘allow_code=False’ prevents
     serialization and de-serialization of code objects which is
     incompatible between Python versions.

   - gh-85567(20): Fix resource warnings for unclosed files in *note
     pickle: a6. and *note pickletools: a7. command line interfaces.

   - gh-113537(21): Support loads ‘str’ in *note plistlib.loads(): 94e.

   - gh-89850(22): Add default implementations of *note
     pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 15a8. and *note
     pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load(): 15b0. methods in the C
     implementation.  Calling ‘super().persistent_id()’ and
     ‘super().persistent_load()’ in subclasses of the C implementation
     of *note pickle.Pickler: a1a. and *note pickle.Unpickler: 16ae.
     classes no longer causes infinite recursion.

   - gh-113569(23): Indicate if there were no actual calls in unittest
     *note assert_has_calls(): 16af. failure.

   - gh-101225(24): Increase the backlog for *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener: 16b0. objects created by
     ‘multiprocessing.manager’ and ‘multiprocessing.resource_sharer’ to
     significantly reduce the risk of getting a connection refused error
     when creating a *note multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 16b1.
     to them.

   - gh-113568(25): Raise audit events from *note pathlib.Path: 229. and
     not its private base class ‘PathBase’.

   - gh-113543(26): Make sure that ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ sends
     ‘webbrowser.open’ audit event.

   - gh-113028(27): When a second reference to a string appears in the
     input to *note pickle: a6, and the Python implementation is in use,
     we are guaranteed that a single copy gets pickled and a single
     object is shared when reloaded.  Previously, in protocol 0, when a
     string contained certain characters (e.g.  newline) it resulted in
     duplicate objects.

   - gh-113421(28): Fix multiprocessing logger for ‘%(filename)s’.

   - gh-111784(29): Fix segfaults in the ‘_elementtree’ module.  Fix
     first segfault during deallocation of ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’
     instances by keeping strong reference to ‘pyexpat’ module in module
     state for capsule lifetime.  Fix second segfault which happens in
     the same deallocation process by keeping strong reference to
     ‘_elementtree’ module in ‘XMLParser’ structure for ‘_elementtree’
     module lifetime.

   - gh-113407(30): Fix import of *note unittest.mock: 107. when CPython
     is built without docstrings.

   - gh-113320(31): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where *note Protocol:
     264. classes that were not marked as *note runtime-checkable: 43c.
     would be unnecessarily introspected, potentially causing exceptions
     to be raised if the protocol had problematic members.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-53502(32): Add a new option ‘aware_datetime’ in *note plistlib:
     ab. to loads or dumps aware datetime.

   - gh-113358(33): Fix rendering tracebacks with exceptions with a
     broken __getattr__

   - gh-113214(34): Fix an ‘AttributeError’ during asyncio SSL protocol
     aborts in SSL-over-SSL scenarios.

   - gh-113246(35): Update bundled pip to 23.3.2.

   - gh-87264(36): Fixed tarfile list() method to show file type.

   - gh-112182(37): ‘asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception()’ now
     transforms *note StopIteration: bf7. into *note RuntimeError: 195.
     instead of hanging or other misbehavior.  Patch contributed by
     Jamie Phan.

   - gh-113225(38): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. by using
     *note os.DirEntry.path: 1683. where possible.

   - gh-113149(39): Improve error message when a JSON array or object
     contains a trailing comma.  Patch by Carson Radtke.

   - gh-113117(40): The *note subprocess: d6. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 220. function with ‘close_fds=True’ on
     platforms where ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np’ is
     available.  Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - gh-113199(41): Make ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read1’ and
     ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.readline’ close IO after reading all data
     when content length is known.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-113191(42): Add support of *note os.fchmod(): 21c. and a file
     descriptor in *note os.chmod(): 21b. on Windows.

   - gh-113188(43): Fix *note shutil.copymode(): 16b2. and *note
     shutil.copystat(): 111f. on Windows.  Previously they worked
     differently if 'dst' is a symbolic link: they modified the
     permission bits of 'dst' itself rather than the file it points to
     if 'follow_symlinks' is true or 'src' is not a symbolic link, and
     did not modify the permission bits if 'follow_symlinks' is false
     and 'src' is a symbolic link.

   - gh-113119(44): *note os.posix_spawn(): 220. now accepts ‘env=None’,
     which makes the newly spawned process use the current process
     environment.  Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - gh-113202(45): Add a ‘strict’ option to ‘batched()’ in the
     ‘itertools’ module.

   - gh-61648(46): Detect line numbers of properties in doctests.

   - gh-113175(47): Sync with importlib_metadata 7.0, including improved
     type annotations, fixed issue with symlinked packages in
     ‘package_distributions’, added ‘EntryPoints.__repr__’, introduced
     the ‘diagnose’ script, added ‘Distribution.origin’ property, and
     removed deprecated ‘EntryPoint’ access by numeric index (tuple
     behavior).

   - gh-59616(48): Add support of *note os.lchmod(): 21a. and the
     'follow_symlinks' argument in *note os.chmod(): 21b. on Windows.
     Note that the default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘os.lchmod()’
     is ‘False’ on Windows.

   - gh-112559(49): *note signal.signal(): 1125. and *note
     signal.getsignal(): 16b3. no longer call ‘repr’ on callable
     handlers.  *note asyncio.run(): 476. and *note
     asyncio.Runner.run(): 16b4. no longer call ‘repr’ on the task
     results.  Patch by Yilei Yang.

   - gh-112962(50): *note dis: 38. module functions add cache
     information to the *note Instruction: 1da. instance rather than
     creating fake *note Instruction: 1da. instances to represent the
     cache entries.

   - gh-112989(51): Reduce overhead to connect sockets with *note
     asyncio: a. SelectorEventLoop.

   - gh-112970(52): Use ‘closefrom()’ on Linux where available (e.g.
     glibc-2.34), rather than only FreeBSD.

   - gh-110190(53): Fix ctypes structs with array on PPC64LE platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 64 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-112540(54): The statistics.geometric_mean() function now returns
     zero for datasets containing a zero.  Formerly, it would raise an
     exception.

   - gh-87286(55): Added ‘LOG_FTP’, ‘LOG_NETINFO’, ‘LOG_REMOTEAUTH’,
     ‘LOG_INSTALL’, ‘LOG_RAS’, and ‘LOG_LAUNCHD’ tot the *note syslog:
     dc. module, all of them constants on used on macOS.

   - gh-112800(56): Fix *note asyncio: a. ‘SubprocessTransport.close()’
     not to throw ‘PermissionError’ when used with setuid executables.

   - gh-51944(57): Add the following constants to the *note termios: e1.
     module.  These values are present in macOS system headers:
     ‘ALTWERASE’, ‘B14400’, ‘B28800’, ‘B7200’, ‘B76800’, ‘CCAR_OFLOW’,
     ‘CCTS_OFLOW’, ‘CDSR_OFLOW’, ‘CDTR_IFLOW’, ‘CIGNORE’, ‘CRTS_IFLOW’,
     ‘EXTPROC’, ‘IUTF8’, ‘MDMBUF’, ‘NL2’, ‘NL3’, ‘NOKERNINFO’, ‘ONOEOT’,
     ‘OXTABS’, ‘VDSUSP’, ‘VSTATUS’.

   - gh-79325(58): Fix an infinite recursion error in *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 1224. cleanup on Windows.

   - gh-94692(59): *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. now only catches OSError
     exceptions.  Previously a symlink attack resistant version of
     ‘shutil.rmtree()’ could ignore or pass to the error handler
     arbitrary exception when invalid arguments were provided.

   - gh-112736(60): The use of del-safe symbols in ‘subprocess’ was
     refactored to allow for use in cross-platform build environments.

   - gh-112727(61): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 16b5.  Patch
     by Barney Gale.

   - gh-74690(62): Speedup *note issubclass(): 7ba. checks against
     simple *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43c. by around 6%.  Patch
     by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(63): Speedup *note isinstance(): 43b. checks by roughly
     20% for *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43c. that only have one
     callable member.  Speedup *note issubclass(): 7ba. checks for these
     protocols by roughly 10%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112645(64): Remove deprecation error on passing ‘onerror’ to
     *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.

   - gh-112640(65): Add ‘kwdefaults’ parameter to *note
     types.FunctionType: 87f. to set default keyword argument values.

   - gh-112622(66): Ensure ‘name’ parameter is passed to event loop in
     *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf.

   - gh-112618(67): Fix a caching bug relating to *note
     typing.Annotated: 93b.  ‘Annotated[str, True]’ is no longer
     identical to ‘Annotated[str, 1]’.

   - gh-112334(68): Fixed a performance regression in 3.12’s *note
     subprocess: d6. on Linux where it would no longer use the fast-path
     ‘vfork()’ system call when it could have due to a logic bug,
     instead falling back to the safe but slower ‘fork()’.

     Also fixed a second 3.12.0 potential security bug.  If a value of
     ‘extra_groups=[]’ was passed to *note subprocess.Popen: 199. or
     related APIs, the underlying ‘setgroups(0, NULL)’ system call to
     clear the groups list would not be made in the child process prior
     to ‘exec()’.

     This was identified via code inspection in the process of fixing
     the first bug.

   - gh-110190(69): Fix ctypes structs with array on Arm platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-81194(70): Fix a crash in *note socket.if_indextoname(): a2b.
     with specific value (UINT_MAX). Fix an integer overflow in *note
     socket.if_indextoname(): a2b. on 64-bit non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-112578(71): Fix a spurious *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. when
     executing the *note zipfile: 131. module.

   - gh-112516(72): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.3.1.

   - gh-112510(73): Add *note readline.backend: 16b6. for the backend
     readline uses (‘editline’ or ‘readline’)

   - gh-112328(74): [Enum] Make ‘EnumDict’, ‘EnumDict.member_names’,
     ‘EnumType._add_alias_’ and ‘EnumType._add_value_alias_’ public.

   - gh-112509(75): Fix edge cases that could cause a key to be present
     in both the ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes
     of a *note typing.TypedDict: 162.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101336(76): Add ‘keep_alive’ keyword parameter for
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.create_server()’ and
     ‘BaseEventLoop.create_server()’.

   - gh-63284(77): Added support for TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) mode to
     the *note ssl: d0. module.

   - gh-112414(78): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where calling *note
     repr(): 7f7. on a module that had been imported using a custom
     *note loader: 16b7. could fail with *note AttributeError: 346.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112358(79): Revert change to *note struct.Struct: 16b8.
     initialization that broke some cases of subclassing.

   - gh-112405(80): Optimize *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-94722(81): Fix bug where comparison between instances of *note
     DocTest: 16b9. fails if one of them has ‘None’ as its lineno.

   - gh-112361(82): Speed up a small handful of *note pathlib: a4.
     methods by removing some temporary objects.

   - gh-112345(83): Improve error message when trying to call *note
     issubclass(): 7ba. against a *note typing.Protocol: 264. that has
     non-method members.  Patch by Randolf Scholz.

   - gh-112137(84): Change *note dis: 38. output to display no-lineno as
     “–” instead of “None”.

   - gh-112332(85): Deprecate the ‘exc_type’ field of *note
     traceback.TracebackException: 25c.  Add ‘exc_type_str’ to replace
     it.

   - gh-81620(86): Add extra tests for *note random.binomialvariate():
     4aa.

   - gh-112292(87): Fix a crash in *note readline: ba. when imported
     from a sub interpreter.  Patch by Anthony Shaw

   - gh-77621(88): Slightly improve the import time of the *note
     pathlib: a4. module by deferring some imports.  Patch by Barney
     Gale.

   - gh-112137(89): Change *note dis: 38. output to display logical
     labels for jump targets instead of offsets.

   - gh-112139(90): Add ‘Signature.format()’ to format signatures to
     string with extra options.  And use it in *note pydoc: b5. to
     render more readable signatures that have new lines between
     parameters.

   - gh-112105(91): Make *note readline.set_completer_delims(): 16ba.
     work with libedit

   - gh-106922(92): Display multiple lines with ‘traceback’ when errors
     span multiple lines.

   - gh-111874(93): When creating a *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0. class,
     ensure *note __set_name__(): c4b. is called on all objects that
     define ‘__set_name__’ and exist in the values of the ‘NamedTuple’
     class’s class dictionary.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-68166(94): Add support of the “vsapi” element type in *note
     tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 258.

   - gh-110275(95): Named tuple’s methods ‘_replace()’ and
     ‘__replace__()’ now raise TypeError instead of ValueError for
     invalid keyword arguments.

   - gh-99367(96): Do not mangle ‘sys.path[0]’ in *note pdb: a5. if
     safe_path is set

   - gh-111615(97): Fix a regression caused by a fix to gh-93162(98)
     whereby you couldn’t configure a ‘QueueHandler’ without specifying
     handlers.

   - gh-75666(99): Fix the behavior of *note tkinter: f0. widget’s
     ‘unbind()’ method with two arguments.  Previously,
     ‘widget.unbind(sequence, funcid)’ destroyed the current binding for
     'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and deleted the 'funcid'
     command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from the binding for
     'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the 'funcid'
     command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid' was the
     last bound command.

   - gh-67790(100): Implement basic formatting support (minimum width,
     alignment, fill) for *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7.

   - gh-111049(101): Fix crash during garbage collection of the *note
     io.BytesIO: e9a. buffer object.

   - gh-102980(102): Redirect the output of ‘interact’ command of *note
     pdb: a5. to the same channel as the debugger.  Add tests and
     improve docs.

   - gh-102988(103): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 1e1. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 1e2. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  Add optional 'strict'
     parameter to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to get the old
     behavior, accept malformed inputs.  ‘getattr(email.utils,
     'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be use to check if the
     'strict' parameter is available.  Patch by Thomas Dwyer and Victor
     Stinner to improve the CVE 2023-27043(104) fix.

   - gh-52161(105): *note cmd.Cmd.do_help(): 16bb. now cleans docstrings
     with *note inspect.cleandoc(): 16bc. before writing them.  Patch by
     Filip Łapkiewicz.

   - gh-82300(106): Add ‘track’ parameter to *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1660. that allows using
     shared memory blocks without having to register with the POSIX
     resource tracker that automatically releases them upon process
     exit.

   - gh-110109(107): Add private ‘pathlib._PurePathBase’ class: a base
     class for *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. that omits certain magic
     methods.  It may be made public (along with ‘_PathBase’) in future.

   - gh-109858(108): Protect *note zipfile: 131. from “quoted-overlap”
     zipbomb.  It now raises BadZipFile when try to read an entry that
     overlaps with other entry or central directory.

   - gh-109786(109): Fix possible reference leaks and crash when
     re-enter the ‘__next__()’ method of *note itertools.pairwise: 80f.

   - gh-91539(110): Small (10 - 20%) and trivial performance improvement
     of ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment()’, typically useful when
     there are many environment variables to go over.

   - gh-103363(111): Add 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to
     *note pathlib.Path.owner(): 231. and *note group(): 232, defaulting
     to ‘True’.

   - gh-102130(112): Support tab completion in *note cmd: 19. for
     ‘editline’.

   - gh-99437(113): *note runpy.run_path(): 181. now decodes path-like
     objects, making sure __file__ and sys.argv[0] of the module being
     run are always strings.

   - gh-104003(114): Add *note warnings.deprecated(): 160, a decorator
     to mark deprecated functions to static type checkers and to warn on
     usage of deprecated classes and functions.  See PEP 702(115).
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103708(116): Make hardcoded python name, a configurable
     parameter so that different implementations of python can override
     it instead of making huge diffs in sysconfig.py

   - gh-66515(117): *note mailbox.MH: 16bd. now supports folders that do
     not contain a ‘.mh_sequences’ file (e.g.  Claws Mail IMAP-cache
     folders).  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - gh-83162(118): Renamed ‘re.error’ to ‘PatternError’ for clarity,
     and kept ‘re.error’ for backward compatibility.  Patch by Matthias
     Bussonnier and Adam Chhina.

   - gh-91133(119): Fix a bug in *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory:
     1224. cleanup, which now no longer dereferences symlinks when
     working around file system permission errors.

   - bpo-43153(120): On Windows, ‘tempfile.TemporaryDirectory’
     previously masked a ‘PermissionError’ with ‘NotADirectoryError’
     during directory cleanup.  It now correctly raises
     ‘PermissionError’ if errors are not ignored.  Patch by Andrei
     Kulakov and Ken Jin.

   - bpo-32731(121): *note getpass.getuser(): 412. now raises *note
     OSError: 411. for all failures rather than *note ImportError: 413.
     on systems lacking the *note pwd: b2. module or *note KeyError:
     33d. if the password database is empty.

   - bpo-34321(122): *note mmap.mmap: 20b. now has a 'trackfd' parameter
     on Unix; if it is ‘False’, the file descriptor specified by
     'fileno' will not be duplicated.

   - bpo-35332(123): The *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. function now
     ignores errors when calling *note os.close(): b71. when
     'ignore_errors' is ‘True’, and *note os.close(): b71. no longer
     retried after error.

   - bpo-35928(124): *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. now correctly handles
     the decoding buffer after ‘read()’ and ‘write()’.

   - bpo-26791(125): *note shutil.move(): a58. now moves a symlink into
     a directory when that directory is the target of the symlink.  This
     provides the same behavior as the mv shell command.  The previous
     behavior raised an exception.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-41422(126): Fixed memory leaks of *note pickle.Pickler: a1a.
     and *note pickle.Unpickler: 16ae. involving cyclic references via
     the internal memo mapping.

   - bpo-19821(127): The ‘pydoc.ispackage()’ function has been
     deprecated.

   - bpo-40262(128): The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.recv_into()’ method no longer
     requires the 'buffer' argument to implement ‘__len__’ and supports
     buffers with arbitrary item size.

   - bpo-39912(129): *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 146f. and *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 6bb. now raise appropriate exceptions
     instead of ‘AssertionError’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37260(130): Fixed a race condition in *note shutil.rmtree():
     2f9. in which directory entries removed by another process or
     thread while ‘shutil.rmtree()’ is running can cause it to raise
     FileNotFoundError.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-36959(131): Fix some error messages for invalid ISO format
     string combinations in ‘strptime()’ that referred to directives not
     contained in the format string.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-18060(132): Fixed a class inheritance issue that can cause
     segfaults when deriving two or more levels of subclasses from a
     base class of Structure or Union.

   - bpo-29779(133): Add a new *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 191. environment
     variable to set the location of a ‘.python_history’ file.

   - bpo-21360(134): *note mailbox.Maildir: 416. now ignores files with
     a leading dot.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114077

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111803

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114014

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108364

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113971

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113877

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113868

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113848

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113661

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96037

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113781

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113238

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111693

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113791

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112932

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113594

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85567

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113537

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89850

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113569

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101225

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113543

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113028

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113421

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111784

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113407

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113320

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53502

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113358

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113214

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113246

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87264

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112182

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113149

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113199

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113188

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61648

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112559

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112989

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112970

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112540

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87286

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112800

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51944

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79325

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94692

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112736

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112727

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112645

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112640

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112622

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112618

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81194

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112578

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112516

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112510

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112328

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112509

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101336

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63284

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112414

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112358

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112405

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94722

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112361

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112345

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112292

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77621

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112139

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112105

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106922

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111874

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110275

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99367

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111615

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75666

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111049

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (104) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52161

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82300

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110109

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109858

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109786

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91539

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103363

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102130

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99437

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003

   (115) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103708

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66515

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83162

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91133

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43153

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32731

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34321

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35332

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35928

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26791

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41422

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19821

   (128) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40262

   (129) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39912

   (130) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37260

   (131) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36959

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18060

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29779

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21360


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<14>,  Next: Tests<15>,  Prev: Library<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-111699(1): Relocate ‘smtpd’ deprecation notice to its own
     section rather than under ‘locale’ in What’s New in Python 3.12
     document

   - gh-110746(2): Improved markup for valid options/values for methods
     ttk.treeview.column and ttk.treeview.heading, and for Layouts.

   - gh-95649(3): Document that the *note asyncio: a. module contains
     code taken from v0.16.0 of the uvloop project(4), as well as the
     required MIT licensing information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111699

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110746

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95649

   (4) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<15>,  Next: Build<17>,  Prev: Documentation<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-111798(1): Disable ‘test_super_deep()’ from ‘test_call’ under
     pydebug builds on WASI; the stack depth is too small to make the
     test useful.

   - gh-111801(2): Lower the recursion limit in ‘test_isinstance’ for
     ‘test_infinitely_many_bases()’.  This prevents a stack overflow on
     a pydebug build of WASI.

   - gh-111802(3): Specify a low recursion depth for
     ‘test_bad_getattr()’ in ‘test.pickletester’ to avoid exhausting the
     stack under a pydebug build for WASI.

   - gh-44626(4): Fix *note os.path.isabs(): 224. incorrectly returning
     ‘True’ when given a path that starts with exactly one (back)slash
     on Windows.

     Fix ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_absolute()’ incorrectly returning
     ‘False’ for some paths beginning with two (back)slashes.

   - gh-113633(5): Use module state for the _testcapi extension module.

   - gh-109980(6): Fix ‘test_tarfile_vs_tar’ in ‘test_shutil’ for macOS,
     where system tar can include more information in the archive than
     *note shutil.make_archive: 4ad.

   - gh-112769(7): The tests now correctly compare zlib version when
     *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 115f. contains non-integer
     suffixes.  For example zlib-ng defines the version as
     ‘1.3.0.zlib-ng’.

   - gh-112334(8): Adds a regression test to verify that ‘vfork()’ is
     used when expected by *note subprocess: d6. on vfork enabled POSIX
     systems (Linux).

   - gh-108927(9): Fixed order dependence in running tests in the same
     process when a test that has submodules (e.g.  test_importlib)
     follows a test that imports its submodule (e.g.
     test_importlib.util) and precedes a test (e.g.  test_unittest or
     test_compileall) that uses that submodule.

   - bpo-40648(10): Test modes that file can get with chmod() on
     Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111801

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111802

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113633

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109980

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112769

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108927

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40648


File: python.info,  Node: Build<17>,  Next: Windows<14>,  Prev: Tests<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.6 Build
...............

   - gh-114013(1): Fix ‘Tools/wasm/wasi.py’ to not include the path to
     ‘python.wasm’ as part of ‘HOSTRUNNER’.  The environment variable is
     meant to specify how to run the WASI host only, having
     ‘python.wasm’ and relevant flags appended to the ‘HOSTRUNNER’.
     This fixes ‘make test’ work.

   - gh-113258(2): Changed the Windows build to write out generated
     frozen modules into the build tree instead of the source tree.

   - gh-112305(3): Fixed the ‘check-clean-src’ step performed on out of
     tree builds to detect errant ‘$(srcdir)/Python/frozen_modules/*.h’
     files and recommend appropriate source tree cleanup steps to get a
     working build again.

   - gh-112536(4): Add support for thread sanitizer (TSAN)

   - gh-112867(5): Fix the build for the case that
     WITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0 set.

   - gh-103065(6): Introduce ‘Tools/wasm/wasi.py’ to simplify doing a
     WASI build.

   - bpo-11102(7): The *note os.major(): 1621, *note os.makedev(): 1623,
     and *note os.minor(): 1622. functions are now available on HP-UX
     v3.

   - bpo-36351(8): Do not set ipv6type when cross-compiling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114013

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113258

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112867

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103065

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36351


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<14>,  Next: macOS<10>,  Prev: Build<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-114096(1): Process privileges that are activated for creating
     directory junctions are now restored afterwards, avoiding behaviour
     changes in other parts of the program.

   - gh-111877(2): *note os.stat(): 49a. calls were returning incorrect
     time values for files that could not be accessed directly.

   - gh-111973(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

   - gh-113009(4): *note multiprocessing: 94.: On Windows, fix a race
     condition in ‘Process.terminate()’: no longer set the ‘returncode’
     attribute to always call ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ in
     ‘Process.wait()’.  Previously, sometimes the process was still
     running after ‘TerminateProcess()’ even if ‘GetExitCodeProcess()’
     is not ‘STILL_ACTIVE’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-86179(5): Fixes path calculations when launching Python on
     Windows through a symlink.

   - gh-71383(6): Update Tcl/Tk in Windows installer to 8.6.13 with a
     patch to suppress incorrect ThemeChanged warnings.

   - gh-111650(7): Ensures the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ preprocessor variable
     is defined in ‘pyconfig.h’ so that extension modules written in C
     are able to use it.

   - gh-112278(8): Reduce the time cost for some functions in *note
     platform: aa. on Windows if current user has no permission to the
     WMI.

   - gh-73427(9): Deprecate *note sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding():
     2ae.  Use *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. instead.  Patch
     by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87868(10): Correctly sort and remove duplicate environment
     variables in ‘_winapi.CreateProcess()’.

   - bpo-37308(11): Fix mojibake in *note mmap.mmap: 20b. when using a
     non-ASCII 'tagname' argument on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114096

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111877

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113009

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111650

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112278

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87868

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37308


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<10>,  Next: IDLE<13>,  Prev: Windows<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-113666(1): Add the following constants to module *note stat:
     d1.: ‘UF_SETTABLE’, ‘UF_TRACKED’, ‘UF_DATAVAULT’, ‘SF_SUPPORTED’,
     ‘SF_SETTABLE’, ‘SF_SYNTHETIC’, ‘SF_RESTRICTED’, ‘SF_FIRMLINK’ and
     ‘SF_DATALESS’.  The values ‘UF_SETTABLE’, ‘SF_SUPPORTED’,
     ‘SF_SETTABLE’ and ‘SF_SYNTHETIC’ are only available on macOS.

   - gh-113536(2): *note os.waitid(): d95. is now available on macOS

   - gh-110459(3): Running ‘configure ... --with-openssl-rpath=X/Y/Z’ no
     longer fails to detect OpenSSL on macOS.

   - gh-74573(4): Document that *note dbm.ndbm: 34. can silently corrupt
     DBM files on updates when exceeding undocumented platform limits,
     and can crash (segmentation fault) when reading such a corrupted
     file.  (FB8919203)

   - gh-65701(5): The ‘freeze’ tool doesn’t work with framework builds
     of Python.  Document this and bail out early when running the tool
     with such a build.

   - gh-87277(6): webbrowser: Don’t look for X11 browsers on macOS.
     Those are generally not used and probing for them can result in
     starting XQuartz even if it isn’t used otherwise.

   - gh-111973(7): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

   - gh-108269(8): Set ‘CFBundleAllowMixedLocalizations’ to true in the
     Info.plist for the framework, embedded Python.app and IDLE.app with
     framework installs on macOS. This allows applications to pick up
     the user’s preferred locale when that’s different from english.

   - gh-102362(9): Make sure the result of ‘sysconfig.get_plaform()’
     includes at least a major and minor versions, even if
     ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ is set to only a major version during
     build to match the format expected by pip.

   - gh-110017(10): Disable a signal handling stress test on macOS due
     to a bug in macOS (FB13453490).

   - gh-110820(11): Make sure the preprocessor definitions for
     ‘ALIGNOF_MAX_ALIGN_T’, ‘SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE’ and
     ‘HAVE_GCC_ASM_FOR_X64’ are correct for Universal 2 builds on macOS.

   - gh-109981(12): Use ‘/dev/fd’ on macOS to determine the number of
     open files in ‘test.support.os_helper.fd_count’ to avoid a crash
     with “guarded” file descriptors when probing for open files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113666

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110459

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74573

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65701

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108269

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102362

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110017

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110820

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<13>,  Next: C API<17>,  Prev: macOS<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-72284(1): Improve the lists of features, editor key bindings,
     and shell key bingings in the IDLE doc.

   - gh-113903(2): Fix rare failure of test.test_idle, in
     test_configdialog.

   - gh-113729(3): Fix the “Help -> IDLE Doc” menu bug in 3.11.7 and
     3.12.1.

   - gh-113269(4): Fix test_editor hang on macOS Catalina.

   - gh-112898(5): Fix processing unsaved files when quitting IDLE on
     macOS.

   - bpo-13586(6): Enter the selected text when opening the “Replace”
     dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72284

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113903

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113269

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112898

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13586


File: python.info,  Node: C API<17>,  Prev: IDLE<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.23.20.10 C API
................

   - gh-106560(1): Fix redundant declarations in the public C API.
     Declare PyBool_Type, PyLong_Type and PySys_Audit() only once.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112438(2): Fix support of format units “es”, “et”, “es#”, and
     “et#” in nested tuples in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.-like
     functions.

   - gh-111545(3): Add *note Py_HashPointer(): 361. function to hash a
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-65210(4): Change the declaration of the 'keywords' parameter of
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. and *note
     PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37d. for better compatibility with
     C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106560

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112438

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.21 Python 3.13.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<21>,  Next: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112243(1): Don’t include comments in f-string debug expressions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112287(2): Slightly optimize the Tier 2 (uop) interpreter by
     only loading ‘oparg’ and ‘operand’ when needed.  Also double the
     trace size limit again, to 512 this time.

   - gh-112266(3): Change docstrings of *note __dict__: 556. and
     ‘__weakref__’.

   - gh-111807(4): Lower the max parser stack depth to 1000 under WASI
     debug builds.

   - gh-111798(5): When Python is built in debug mode, set the C
     recursion limit to 500 instead of 1500.  A debug build is likely
     built with low optimization level which implies higher stack memory
     usage than a release build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106529(6): Enable translating unspecialized ‘FOR_ITER’ to Tier
     2.

   - gh-111916(7): Make hashlib related modules thread-safe without the
     GIL

   - gh-81137(8): Deprecate assignment to a function’s ‘__code__’ field
     when the new code object is of a mismatched type (e.g., from a
     generator to a plain function).

   - gh-79932(9): Raise exception if *note frame.clear(): 280. is called
     on a suspended frame.

   - gh-81925(10): Implement native thread ids for GNU KFreeBSD.

   - gh-111843(11): Use exponential backoff to reduce the number of
     failed tier 2 optimization attempts by over 99%.

   - gh-110829(12): Joining a thread now ensures the underlying OS
     thread has exited.  This is required for safer fork() in
     multi-threaded processes.

   - gh-109369(13): Make sure that tier 2 traces are de-optimized if the
     code is instrumented

   - gh-111772(14): Specialize slot loads and stores for _Py_T_OBJECT as
     well as Py_T_OBJECT_EX

   - gh-111666(15): Speed up *note BaseExceptionGroup.derive(): 16c7,
     *note BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(): 16c8, and *note
     BaseExceptionGroup.split(): 1591. by changing how they parse passed
     arguments.

   - gh-111654(16): Fix runtime crash when some error happens in opcode
     ‘LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF’.

   - gh-111623(17): Add support for sharing tuples between interpreters
     using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-111354(18): The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 30c. is now ‘1’ if
     the instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’
     otherwise.

     The SUSPENDED frame state is now split into ‘SUSPENDED’ and
     ‘SUSPENDED_YIELD_FROM’.  This simplifies the code in ‘_PyGen_yf’.

   - gh-111520(19): Merge the Tier 1 (bytecode) and Tier 2 (micro-ops)
     interpreters together, moving the Tier 2 interpreter loop and
     switch into ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ in ‘Python/ceval.c’.  The
     ‘Python/executor.c’ file is gone.  Also the ‘TIER_ONE’ and
     ‘TIER_TWO’ macros are now handled by the code generator.

     'Beware!'  This changes the environment variables to enable
     micro-ops and their debugging to ‘PYTHON_UOPS’ and
     ‘PYTHON_LLTRACE’.

   - gh-109181(20): Speed up ‘Traceback’ object creation by lazily
     compute the line number.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111420(21): Allow type comments in parenthesized ‘with’
     statements

   - gh-111438(22): Add support for sharing floats between interpreters
     using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-111435(23): Add support for sharing of ‘True’ and ‘False’
     between interpreters using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by
     Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-102388(24): Fix a bug where ‘iso2022_jp_3’ and ‘iso2022_jp_2004’
     codecs read out of bounds

   - gh-111366(25): Fix an issue in the *note codeop: 1c. that was
     causing *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions raised in the presence
     of invalid syntax to not contain precise error messages.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111380(26): Fix a bug that was causing *note SyntaxWarning: 45f.
     to appear twice when parsing if invalid syntax is encountered
     later.  Patch by Pablo galindo

   - gh-111374(27): Added a new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18e.  It determines whether or not frozen
     modules are ignored by the import machinery, equivalent of the
     *note -X frozen_modules: 176. command-line option.

   - gh-111354(28): Remove ‘oparg’ from *note YIELD_VALUE: 30c.  Change
     ‘oparg’ of *note RESUME: 30d. to include information about the
     except-depth.  These changes make it possible to simplify the code
     in generator close.

   - gh-94438(29): Fix a regression that prevented jumping across ‘is
     None’ and ‘is not None’ when debugging.  Patch by Savannah
     Ostrowski.

   - gh-67224(30): Show source lines in tracebacks when using the ‘-c’
     option when running Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111123(31): Fix a bug where a *note global: 18a. declaration in
     an *note except: 18b. block is rejected when the global is used in
     the *note else: 18c. block.

   - gh-110938(32): Fix error messages for indented blocks with
     functions and classes with generic type parameters.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-109214(33): Remove unnecessary instruction pointer updates
     before returning from frames.

   - gh-110912(34): Correctly display the traceback for *note
     MemoryError: 157e. exceptions using the *note traceback: fe.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109894(35): Fixed crash due to improperly initialized static
     *note MemoryError: 157e. in subinterpreter.

   - gh-110892(36): Return ‘NULL’ for ‘PyTrace_RETURN’ events caused by
     an exception

   - gh-110864(37): Fix argument parsing by
     ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg’ for functions defining
     pos-or-keyword, vararg, and kw-only parameters.

   - gh-109094(38): Replace ‘prev_instr’ on the interpreter frame by
     ‘instr_ptr’ which points to the beginning of the instruction that
     is currently executing (or will execute once the frame resumes).

   - gh-110805(39): Allow the repl to show source code and complete
     tracebacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110722(40): Add ‘PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module’ to import a
     module early in the interpreter lifecycle before ‘site.py’ is
     executed.  Python needs to be *note built in debug mode: 1f9. for
     this option to exist.

   - gh-110481(41): Implement biased reference counting in
     ‘--disable-gil’ builds.

   - gh-110543(42): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where
     ‘types.CodeType.replace()’ would produce a broken code object if
     called on a module or class code object that contains a
     comprehension.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89519(43): Removed chained *note classmethod: 166. descriptors
     (introduced in bpo-19072(44)).  This can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 194.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To “pass-through” a *note classmethod: 166, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.

   - gh-103615(45): Use local events for opcode tracing

   - bpo-46657(46): Add mimalloc memory allocator support.

   - gh-106718(47): When PyConfig.stdlib_dir is explicitly set, it’s now
     respected and won’t be overridden by PyConfig.home.

   - gh-106905(48): Fix incorrect SystemError about AST constructor
     recursion depth mismatch.

   - gh-100445(49): Improve error message for unterminated strings with
     escapes.

   - bpo-45759(50): Improved error messages for ‘elif’/‘else’ statements
     not matching any valid statements.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112243

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112287

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112266

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111807

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106529

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111916

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81925

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111843

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110829

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111772

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111666

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111654

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111623

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111520

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109181

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111420

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111438

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111435

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102388

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111366

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111380

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67224

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110938

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109214

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110912

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109894

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110892

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110864

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109094

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110805

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110481

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110543

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46657

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106718

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100445

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45759


File: python.info,  Node: Library<20>,  Next: Tests<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.2 Library
.................

   - gh-111942(1): Fix SystemError in the TextIOWrapper constructor with
     non-encodable “errors” argument in non-debug mode.

   - gh-111995(2): Added the ‘NI_IDN’ constant to the *note socket: cc.
     module when present in C at build time for use with *note
     socket.getnameinfo(): 16ca.

   - gh-109538(3): Issue warning message instead of having *note
     RuntimeError: 195. be displayed when event loop has already been
     closed at ‘StreamWriter.__del__()’.

   - gh-111942(4): Fix crashes in *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure():
     b46. when pass invalid arguments, e.g.  non-string encoding.

   - gh-111460(5): *note curses: 2b.: restore wide character support
     (including *note curses.unget_wch(): 108e. and *note get_wch():
     108d.) on macOS, which was unavailable due to a regression in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-103791(6): *note contextlib.suppress: f1e. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 25f, in addition to the recent support for
     *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.

   - gh-111835(7): The *note mmap.mmap: 20b. class now has an *note
     seekable(): 20c. method that can be used when a seekable file-like
     object is required.  The *note seek(): 20d. method now returns the
     new absolute position.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-111804(8): Remove posix.fallocate() under WASI as the underlying
     posix_fallocate() is not available in WASI preview2.

   - gh-111841(9): Fix truncating arguments on an embedded null
     character in *note os.putenv(): 919. and *note os.unsetenv(): 918.
     on Windows.

   - gh-111768(10): *note wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop(): 16cb. is now
     exposed correctly in ‘__all__’.

   - gh-80731(11): Avoid executing the default function in *note
     cmd.Cmd: 16cc. in an except block

   - gh-111541(12): Fix *note doctest: 3a. for *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     not-builtin subclasses.

   - gh-111719(13): Add extra argument validation for ‘alias’ command in
     *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-111482(14): *note time: ee.: Make *note time.clock_gettime():
     114f. and *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): adf. functions up to 2x
     faster by faster calling convention.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110894(15): Call loop exception handler for exceptions in
     ‘client_connected_cb’ of *note asyncio.start_server(): b16. so that
     applications can handle it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-111531(16): Fix reference leaks in ‘bind_class()’ and
     ‘bind_all()’ methods of *note tkinter: f0. widgets.

   - gh-111246(17): *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae. will
     now automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.

   - gh-111356(18): Added *note io.text_encoding(): 16cd, *note
     io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 16ce, and *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 16cf. to ‘io.__all__’.

   - gh-66425(19): Remove the code to set the REMOTE_HOST header from
     wsgiref module, as it is unreachable.  This header is used for
     performance reasons, which is not necessary in the wsgiref module.

   - gh-111429(20): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb.
     and *note is_relative_to(): 2ca.

   - gh-111342(21): Fixed typo in *note math.sumprod(): 491.

   - gh-68166(22): Remove mention of not supported “vsapi” element type
     in *note tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 258.  Add tests for
     ‘element_create()’ and other ‘ttk.Style’ methods.  Add examples for
     ‘element_create()’ in the documentation.

   - gh-111388(23): Add ‘show_group’ parameter to *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 848, which allows to format
     *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. instances.

   - gh-79033(24): Another attempt at fixing *note
     asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 16d0.  It now blocks until both
     conditions are true: the server is closed, 'and' there are no more
     active connections.  (This means that in some cases where in 3.12.0
     this function would 'incorrectly' have returned immediately, it
     will now block; in particular, when there are no active connections
     but the server hasn’t been closed yet.)

   - gh-111259(25): Optimize recursive wildcards in *note pathlib: a4.

   - gh-111295(26): Fix *note time: ee. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111253(27): Add error checking during ‘_socket’ module init.

   - gh-111251(28): Fix ‘_blake2’ not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111233(29): Fix *note select: c1. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111230(30): Fix *note ssl: d0. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111174(31): Fix crash in *note io.BytesIO.getbuffer(): 11e0.
     called repeatedly for empty BytesIO.

   - gh-111187(32): Postpone removal version for
     locale.getdefaultlocale() to Python 3.15.

   - gh-111159(33): Fix *note doctest: 3a. output comparison for
     exceptions with notes.

   - gh-110910(34): Fix invalid state handling in *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. and *note asyncio.Timeout: 16d1.  They now
     raise proper RuntimeError if they are improperly used and are left
     in consistent state after this.

   - gh-111092(35): Make turtledemo run without default root enabled.

   - gh-110944(36): Support alias and convenience vars for *note pdb:
     a5. completion

   - gh-110745(37): Added 'newline' parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.read_text(): e41.  Patch by Junya Okabe.

   - gh-84583(38): Make *note pdb: a5. enter post-mortem mode even for
     *note SyntaxError: 18d.

   - gh-80675(39): Set ‘f_trace_lines = True’ on all frames upon *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 235.

   - gh-110771(40): Expose the setup and cleanup portions of
     ‘asyncio.run_forever()’ as the standalone methods
     ‘asyncio.run_forever_setup()’ and ‘asyncio.run_forever_cleanup()’.
     This allows for tighter integration with GUI event loops.

   - gh-110774(41): Support setting the *note asyncio.Runner: 5fa.
     loop_factory kwarg in *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304.

   - gh-110392(42): Fix *note tty.setraw(): 16d2. and *note
     tty.setcbreak(): 167f.: previously they returned partially modified
     list of the original tty attributes.  *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 16d3.
     and *note tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1680. now make a copy of the list of
     special characters before modifying it.

   - gh-59013(43): Make line number of function breakpoint more precise
     in *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-88434(44): Emit deprecation warning for non-integer numbers in
     *note gettext: 63. functions and methods that consider plural forms
     even if the translation was not found.

   - gh-110395(45): Ensure that *note select.kqueue(): 16d4. objects
     correctly appear as closed in forked children, to prevent
     operations on an invalid file descriptor.

   - gh-110196(46): Add ‘__reduce__’ method to ‘IPv6Address’ in order to
     keep ‘scope_id’

   - gh-109747(47): Improve errors for unsupported look-behind patterns.
     Now re.error is raised instead of OverflowError or RuntimeError for
     too large width of look-behind pattern.

   - gh-109466(48): Add the *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped:
     1fb. property, which returns the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.

   - gh-85098(49): Implement the CLI of the *note symtable: d8. module
     and improve the repr of *note Symbol: 16d5.

   - gh-108791(50): Improved error handling in *note pdb: a5. command
     line interface, making it produce more concise error messages.

   - gh-105931(51): Change *note compileall: 20. to only strip the
     stripdir prefix from the full path recorded in the compiled ‘.pyc’
     file, when the prefix matches the start of the full path in its
     entirety.  When the prefix does not match, no stripping is
     performed and a warning to this effect is displayed.

     Previously all path components of the stripdir prefix that matched
     the full path were removed, while those that did not match were
     left alone (including ones interspersed between matching
     components).

   - gh-107431(52): Make the ‘DictProxy’ and ‘ListProxy’ types in *note
     multiprocessing.managers: 97. *note Generic Alias Types: 6ac. for
     ‘[]’ use in typing contexts.

   - gh-72904(53): Add *note glob.translate(): 1ea.  This function
     converts a pathname with shell-style wildcards to a regular
     expression.

   - gh-90026(54): Define ‘USE_XATTRS’ on Cygwin so that XATTR-related
     functions in the *note os: a1. module become available.

   - gh-90890(55): New methods *note mailbox.Maildir.get_info(): 16d6,
     *note mailbox.Maildir.set_info(): 16d7, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.get_flags(): 16d8, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.set_flags(): 16d9, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.add_flag(): 16da, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.remove_flag(): 16db.  These methods speed up
     accessing a message’s info and/or flags and are useful when it is
     not necessary to access the message’s contents, as when iterating
     over a Maildir to find messages with specific flags.

   - gh-102956(56): Fix returning of empty byte strings after seek in
     zipfile module

   - gh-102895(57): Added a parameter ‘local_exit’ for *note
     code.interact(): 16dc. to prevent ‘exit()’ and ‘quit’ from closing
     ‘sys.stdin’ and raise ‘SystemExit’.

   - gh-97928(58): Change the behavior of ‘tkinter.Text.count()’.  It
     now always returns an integer if one or less counting options are
     specified.  Previously it could return a single count as a 1-tuple,
     an integer (only if option ‘"update"’ was specified) or ‘None’ if
     no items found.  The result is now the same if ‘wantobjects’ is set
     to ‘0’.

   - gh-96954(59): Switch the storage of the unicode codepoint names to
     use a different data-structure, a directed acyclic word graph(60).
     This makes the unicodedata shared library about 440 KiB smaller.
     Contributed by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick using code from the PyPy
     project.

   - gh-73561(61): Omit the interface scope from an IPv6 address when
     used as Host header by *note http.client: 6f.

   - gh-86826(62): ‘zipinfo’ now supports the full range of values in
     the TZ string determined by RFC 8536 and detects all invalid
     formats.  Both Python and C implementations now raise exceptions of
     the same type on invalid data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111995

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109538

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111460

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111804

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111841

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111768

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80731

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111541

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111719

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111482

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110894

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111531

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111356

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66425

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111429

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111342

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111388

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111259

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111295

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111253

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111251

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111233

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111230

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111174

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111159

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110910

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111092

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110944

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110745

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84583

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80675

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110771

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110774

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110392

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110395

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110196

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109747

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85098

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108791

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105931

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107431

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90026

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90890

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102956

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102895

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954

   (60) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_acyclic_finite_state_automaton

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73561

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86826


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<16>,  Next: Build<18>,  Prev: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-111808(1): Make the default value of
     ‘test.support.infinite_recursion()’ to be conditional based on
     whether optimizations were used when compiling the interpreter.
     This helps with platforms like WASI whose stack size is greatly
     restricted in debug builds.

   - gh-110722(2): Gathering line coverage of standard libraries within
     the regression test suite is now precise, as well as much faster.
     Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-110367(3): Make regrtest ‘--verbose3’ option compatible with
     ‘--huntrleaks -jN’ options.  The ‘./python -m test -j1 -R 3:3
     --verbose3’ command now works as expected.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111165(4): Remove no longer used functions ‘run_unittest()’ and
     ‘run_doctest()’ from the *note test.support: e4. module.

   - gh-110932(5): Fix regrtest if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined: use the variable value as the random seed.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110995(6): test_gdb: Fix detection of gdb built without Python
     scripting support.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110918(7): Test case matching patterns specified by options
     ‘--match’, ‘--ignore’, ‘--matchfile’ and ‘--ignorefile’ are now
     tested in the order of specification, and the last match determines
     whether the test case be run or ignored.

   - gh-108747(8): Add unit test for ‘usercustomize’ and ‘sitecustomize’
     hooks from *note site: c7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111808

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111165

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110932

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110995

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110918

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108747


File: python.info,  Node: Build<18>,  Next: Windows<15>,  Prev: Tests<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.4 Build
...............

   - gh-96954(1): Make ‘make regen-unicodedata’ work for out-of-tree
     builds of CPython.

   - gh-112088(2): Add ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ script to
     regenerate the ‘configure’ with an Ubuntu container image.  The
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:271’ container image
     (tiran/cpython_autoconf(3)) is no longer used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111046(4): For wasi-threads, memory is now exported to fix
     compatibility issues with some wasm runtimes.

   - gh-110828(5): AIX 32bit needs ‘-latomic’ to build the ‘_testcapi’
     extension module.

   - gh-85283(6): The ‘errno’, ‘md5’, ‘resource’, ‘winsound’,
     ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’, ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’,
     ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with
     the *note limited C API: 38f.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112088

   (3) https://github.com/tiran/cpython_autoconf

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111046

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110828

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<15>,  Next: macOS<11>,  Prev: Build<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.5 Windows
.................

   - gh-111856(1): Fixes *note fstat(): d88. on file systems that do not
     support file ID requests.  This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-111293(2): Fix *note os.DirEntry.inode: 16e0. dropping higher 64
     bits of a file id on some filesystems on Windows.

   - gh-110913(3): WindowsConsoleIO now correctly chunks large buffers
     without splitting up UTF-8 sequences.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110913


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<11>,  Next: IDLE<14>,  Prev: Windows<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.6 macOS
...............

   - gh-59703(1): For macOS framework builds, in ‘getpath.c’ use the
     system ‘dladdr’ function to find the path to the shared library
     rather than depending on deprecated macOS APIs.

   - gh-110950(2): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘Secure coding is not enabled for restorable state!’
     warning encountered in Tkinter on macOS 14 Sonoma.

   - gh-111015(3): Ensure that IDLE.app and Python Launcher.app are
     installed with appropriate permissions on macOS builds.

   - gh-71383(4): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘ttk::ThemeChanged’ error encountered in Tkinter.

   - gh-92603(5): Update macOS installer to include a fix accepted by
     upstream Tcl/Tk for a crash encountered after the first *note
     tkinter.Tk(): 163d. instance is destroyed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59703

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110950

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111015

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92603


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<14>,  Next: Tools/Demos<9>,  Prev: macOS<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35668(1): Add docstrings to the IDLE debugger module.  Fix two
     bugs: initialize ‘Idb.botframe’ (should be in Bdb); in
     ‘Idb.in_rpc_code’, check whether ‘prev_frame’ is ‘None’ before
     trying to use it.  Greatly expand test_debugger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35668


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<9>,  Next: C API<18>,  Prev: IDLE<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-111903(1): Argument Clinic now supports the ‘@critical_section’
     directive that instructs Argument Clinic to generate a critical
     section around the function call, which locks the ‘self’ object in
     ‘--disable-gil’ builds.  Patch by Sam Gross.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<18>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.23.21.9 C API
...............

   - gh-112026(1): Add again the private ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’
     function as an alias to the new public *note
     PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36a. function.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-112026(2): Restore the removed
     ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’ function.  It is used by numpy.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112026(3): Restore removed private C API functions, macros and
     structures which have no simple replacement for now:

        * _PyDict_GetItem_KnownHash()

        * _PyDict_NewPresized()

        * _PyHASH_BITS

        * _PyHASH_IMAG

        * _PyHASH_INF

        * _PyHASH_MODULUS

        * _PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

        * _PyLong_Copy()

        * _PyLong_FromDigits()

        * _PyLong_New()

        * _PyLong_Sign()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodId()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()

        * _PyObject_CallOneArg()

        * _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT

        * _PyObject_FastCallDict()

        * _PyObject_GetAttrId()

        * _PyObject_Vectorcall()

        * _PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

        * _PyStack_AsDict()

        * _PyThread_CurrentFrames()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter structure

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Init()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()

        * _PyUnicode_AsString()

        * _PyUnicode_FromId()

        * _PyVectorcall_Function()

        * _Py_IDENTIFIER()

        * _Py_c_abs()

        * _Py_c_diff()

        * _Py_c_neg()

        * _Py_c_pow()

        * _Py_c_prod()

        * _Py_c_quot()

        * _Py_c_sum()

        * _Py_static_string()

        * _Py_static_string_init()

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112026(4): Add again ‘<ctype.h>’ and ‘<unistd.h>’ includes in
     ‘Python.h’, but don’t include them in the limited C API version
     3.13 and newer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111956(5): Add internal-only one-time initialization API:
     ‘_PyOnceFlag’ and ‘_PyOnceFlag_CallOnce’.

   - gh-111262(6): Add *note PyDict_Pop(): 33a. and *note
     PyDict_PopString(): 33b. functions: remove a key from a dictionary
     and optionally return the removed value.  This is similar to *note
     dict.pop(): 33c, but without the default value and not raising
     *note KeyError: 33d. if the key missing.  Patch by Stefan Behnel
     and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111863(7): Rename ‘Py_NOGIL’ to ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’.  Patch by
     Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-111138(8): Add *note PyList_Extend(): 356. and *note
     PyList_Clear(): 357. functions: similar to Python ‘list.extend()’
     and ‘list.clear()’ methods.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(9): On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the
     ‘<stddef.h>’ standard header file.  If needed, it should now be
     included explicitly.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111569(10): Implement “Python Critical Sections” from PEP
     703(11).  These are macros to help replace the GIL with per-object
     locks in the ‘--disable-gil’ build of CPython.  The macros are
     no-ops in the default build.

   - gh-111506(12): In the limited C API version 3.13, *note
     Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a7. function is now implemented as an opaque
     function call.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108082(13): Add *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 347. function.

   - gh-110964(14): Move the undocumented private _PyArg functions and
     _PyArg_Parser structure to internal C API (‘pycore_modsupport.h’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110815(15): Support non-ASCII keyword names in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c.

   - gh-109587(16): Introduced
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_CompileCode()’,
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_SetPersistAfterFork()’ and
     ‘PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile()’.  These functions allow extension
     modules to initialize trampolines eagerly, after the application is
     “warmed up”.  This makes it possible to have perf-trampolines
     running in an always-enabled fashion.

   - gh-85283(17): Add the *note PySys_Audit(): 368. function to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(18): Add *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389, *note
     PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b. and *note
     PyMem_RawFree(): 38c. to the limited C API. Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-106672(19): Functions *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380, *note
     PyDict_GetItemString(): 381, *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 378, *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37a, *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 374, *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 376, and *note PySys_GetObject(): 382,
     which clear all errors occurred during calling the function, report
     now them using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.

   - gh-67565(20): Remove redundant C-contiguity check in ‘getargs.c’,
     *note binascii: 10, *note ssl: d0. and Argument Clinic.  Patched by
     Stefan Krah and Furkan Onder

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111956

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111863

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111569

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111506

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110964

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109587

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67565


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.22 Python 3.13.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-10-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<14>,  Next: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.1 Security
..................

   - gh-108310(1): Fixed an issue where instances of *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7. were vulnerable to a bypass of the TLS
     handshake and included protections (like certificate verification)
     and treating sent unencrypted data as if it were post-handshake TLS
     encrypted data.  Security issue reported as CVE 2023-40217(2) by
     Aapo Oksman.  Patch by Gregory P. Smith.

   - gh-107774(3): PEP 669 specifies that
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ will generate an audit event.
     Pre-releases of Python 3.12 did not generate the audit event.  This
     is now fixed.

   - gh-102988(4): Reverted the *note email.utils: 50. security
     improvement change released in 3.12beta4 that unintentionally
     caused *note email.utils.getaddresses: 1e1. to fail to parse email
     addresses with a comma in the quoted name field.  See gh-106669(5).

   - gh-99108(6): Refresh our new HACL* built-in *note hashlib: 68. code
     from upstream.  Built-in SHA2 should be faster and an issue with
     SHA3 on 32-bit platforms is fixed.

   - gh-102509(7): Start initializing ‘ob_digit’ during creation of
     *note PyLongObject: 583. objects.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108310

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-40217

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107774

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106669

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102509


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<22>,  Next: Library<21>,  Prev: Security<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-110782(1): Fix crash when *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. is
     constructed with a keyword argument.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110752(2): Reset ‘ceval.eval_breaker’ in ‘interpreter_clear()’

   - gh-110721(3): Use the *note traceback: fe. implementation for the
     default ‘PyErr_Display()’ functionality.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110696(4): Fix incorrect error message for invalid argument
     unpacking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104169(5): Split the tokenizer into two separate directories: -
     One part includes the actual lexeme producing logic and lives in
     ‘Parser/lexer’.  - The second part wraps the lexer according to the
     different tokenization modes we have (string, utf-8, file,
     interactive, readline) and lives in ‘Parser/tokenizer’.

   - gh-110688(6): Remove undocumented ‘test_c_api’ method from *note
     set: 5d3, which was only defined for testing purposes under
     ‘Py_DEBUG’.  Now we have proper CAPI tests.

   - gh-104584(7): Fix a reference leak when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’
     or *note -X uops: 176. enabled.

   - gh-110514(8): Add ‘PY_THROW’ to *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6.
     events

   - gh-110489(9): Optimise *note math.ceil(): 138b. when the input is
     exactly a float, resulting in about a 10% improvement.

   - gh-110455(10): Guard ‘assert(tstate->thread_id > 0)’ with ‘#ifndef
     HAVE_PTHREAD_STUBS’.  This allows for for pydebug builds to work
     under WASI which (currently) lacks thread support.

   - gh-110309(11): Remove unnecessary empty constant nodes in the ast
     of f-string specs.

   - gh-110259(12): Correctly identify the format spec in f-strings
     (with single or triple quotes) that have multiple lines in the
     expression part and include a formatting spec.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-110237(13): Fix missing error checks for calls to
     ‘PyList_Append’ in ‘_PyEval_MatchClass’.

   - gh-110164(14): regrtest: If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined, regrtest now disables tests randomization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109889(15): Fix the compiler’s redundant NOP detection algorithm
     to skip over NOPs with no line number when looking for the next
     instruction’s lineno.

   - gh-109853(16): ‘sys.path[0]’ is now set correctly for
     subinterpreters.

   - gh-109923(17): Set line number on the ‘POP_TOP’ that follows a
     ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’.

   - gh-105716(18): Subinterpreters now correctly handle the case where
     they have threads running in the background.  Before, such threads
     would interfere with cleaning up and destroying them, as well as
     prevent running another script.

   - gh-109369(19): The internal eval_breaker and supporting flags, plus
     the monitoring version have been merged into a single atomic
     integer to speed up checks.

   - gh-109823(20): Fix bug where compiler does not adjust labels when
     removing an empty basic block which is a jump target.

   - gh-109793(21): The main thread no longer exits prematurely when a
     subinterpreter is cleaned up during runtime finalization.  The bug
     was a problem particularly because, when triggered, the Python
     process would always return with a 0 exitcode, even if it failed.

   - gh-109719(22): Fix missing jump target labels when compiler
     reorders cold/warm blocks.

   - gh-109595(23): Add *note -X cpu_count: 176. command line option to
     override return results of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. and *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4.  This option is useful for users who
     need to limit CPU resources of a container system without having to
     modify the container (application code).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-109627(24): Fix bug where the compiler does not assign a new
     jump target label to a duplicated small exit block.

   - gh-109596(25): Fix some tokens in the grammar that were incorrectly
     marked as soft keywords.  Also fix some repeated rule names and
     ensure that repeated rules are not allowed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109496(26): On a Python built in debug mode, *note Py_DECREF():
     56a. now calls ‘_Py_NegativeRefcount()’ if the object is a dangling
     pointer to deallocated memory: memory filled with ‘0xDD’ “dead
     byte” by the debug hook on memory allocators.  The fix is to check
     the reference count 'before' checking for ‘_Py_IsImmortal()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107265(27): Deopt opcodes hidden by the executor when base
     opcode is needed

   - gh-109371(28): Deopted instructions correctly for tool
     initialization and modified the incorrect assertion in
     instrumentation, when a previous tool already sets INSTRUCTION
     events

   - gh-105658(29): Fix bug where the line trace of an except block
     ending with a conditional includes an excess event with the line of
     the conditional expression.

   - gh-109219(30): Fix compiling type param scopes that use a name
     which is also free in an inner scope.

   - gh-109351(31): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     named (walrus) expression.

   - gh-109341(32): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     *note ast.TypeAlias: 16e8.

   - gh-109195(33): Fix source location for the ‘LOAD_*’ instruction
     preceding a ‘LOAD_SUPER_ATTR’ to load the ‘super’ global (or
     shadowing variable) so that it encompasses only the name ‘super’
     and not the following parentheses.

   - gh-109256(34): Opcode IDs for specialized opcodes are allocated in
     their own range to improve stability of the IDs for the ‘real’
     opcodes.

   - gh-109216(35): Fix possible memory leak in *note BUILD_MAP: 16e9.

   - gh-109207(36): Fix a SystemError in ‘__repr__’ of symtable entry
     object.

   - gh-109179(37): Fix bug where the C traceback display drops notes
     from *note SyntaxError: 18d.

   - gh-109118(38): Disallow nested scopes (lambdas, generator
     expressions, and comprehensions) within PEP 695 annotation scopes
     that are nested within classes.

   - gh-109156(39): Add tests for de-instrumenting instructions while
     keeping the instrumentation for lines

   - gh-109114(40): Relax the detection of the error message for invalid
     lambdas inside f-strings to not search for arbitrary replacement
     fields to avoid false positives.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105848(41): Add a new *note CALL_KW: 16ea. opcode, used for
     calls containing keyword arguments.  Also, fix a possible crash
     when jumping over method calls in a debugger.

   - gh-109052(42): Use the base opcode when comparing code objects to
     avoid interference from instrumentation

   - gh-109118(43): Fix interpreter crash when a NameError is raised
     inside the type parameters of a generic class.

   - gh-88943(44): Improve syntax error for non-ASCII character that
     follows a numerical literal.  It now points on the invalid
     non-ASCII character, not on the valid numerical literal.

   - gh-108976(45): Fix crash that occurs after de-instrumenting a code
     object in a monitoring callback.

   - gh-108732(46): Make iteration variables of module- and class-scoped
     comprehensions visible to pdb and other tools that use
     ‘frame.f_locals’ again.

   - gh-108959(47): Fix caret placement for error locations for
     subscript and binary operations that involve non-semantic
     parentheses and spaces.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104584(48): Fix a crash when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note
     -X uops: 176. enabled and an error occurs during optimization.

   - gh-108727(49): Define ‘tp_dealloc’ for ‘CounterOptimizer_Type’.
     This fixes a segfault on deallocation.

   - gh-108520(50): Fix
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.__setstate__()’ to properly
     initialize ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’.
     This fixes a regression when passing a SemLock across nested
     processes.

     Rename ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.is_fork_ctx’ to
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’ to avoid
     exposing it as public API.

   - gh-108654(51): Restore locals shadowed by an inlined comprehension
     if the comprehension raises an exception.

   - gh-108488(52): Change the initialization of inline cache entries so
     that the cache entry for ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ is initialized to zero,
     instead of the ‘adaptive_counter_warmup()’ value used for all other
     instructions.  This counter, unique among instructions, counts up
     from zero.

   - gh-108716(53): Turn off deep-freezing of code objects.  Modules are
     still frozen, so that a file system search is not needed for common
     modules.

   - gh-108614(54): Add RESUME_CHECK instruction, to avoid having to
     handle instrumentation, signals, and contexts switches in the tier
     2 execution engine.

   - gh-108487(55): Move an assert that would cause a spurious crash in
     a devious case that should only trigger deoptimization.

   - gh-106176(56): Use a ‘WeakValueDictionary’ to track the lists
     containing the modules each thread is currently importing.  This
     helps avoid a reference leak from keeping the list around longer
     than necessary.  Weakrefs are used as GC can’t interrupt the
     cleanup.

   - gh-105481(57): The regen-opcode build stage was removed and its
     work is now done in regen-cases.

   - gh-107901(58): Fix missing line number on *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 705.
     at the end of a for loop.

   - gh-108113(59): The *note compile(): 192. built-in can now accept a
     new flag, ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to
     ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ except that the returned ‘AST’ is optimized
     according to the value of the ‘optimize’ argument.

     *note ast.parse(): 1a8. now accepts an optional argument ‘optimize’
     which is passed on to the *note compile(): 192. built-in.  This
     makes it possible to obtain an optimized ‘AST’.

   - gh-107971(60): Opcode IDs are generated from bytecodes.c instead of
     being hard coded in opcode.py.

   - gh-107944(61): Improve error message for function calls with bad
     keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-108390(62): Raise an exception when setting a non-local event
     (‘RAISE’, ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’, etc.)  in
     ‘sys.monitoring.set_local_events’.

     Fixes crash when tracing in recursive calls to Python classes.

   - gh-108035(63): Remove the ‘_PyCFrame’ struct, moving the pointer to
     the current interpreter frame back to the threadstate, as it was
     for 3.10 and earlier.  The ‘_PyCFrame’ existed as a performance
     optimization for tracing.  Since PEP 669 has been implemented, this
     optimization no longer applies.

   - gh-91051(64): Fix abort / segfault when using all eight type
     watcher slots, on platforms where ‘char’ is signed by default.

   - gh-106581(65): Fix possible assertion failures and missing
     instrumentation events when ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note -X uops: 176. is
     enabled.

   - gh-107526(66): Revert converting ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’,
     and ‘iter’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-84805(67): Autogenerate signature for *note METH_NOARGS: 149c.
     and *note METH_O: 14d0. extension functions.

   - gh-107758(68): Make the ‘dump_stack()’ routine used by the
     ‘lltrace’ feature (low-level interpreter debugging) robust against
     recursion by ensuring that it never calls a ‘__repr__’ method
     implemented in Python.  Also make the similar output for Tier-2
     uops appear on ‘stdout’ (instead of ‘stderr’), to match the
     ‘lltrace’ code in ceval.c.

   - gh-107659(69): Add docstrings for *note ctypes.pointer(): 16eb. and
     *note ctypes.POINTER(): 16ec.

   - gh-105848(70): Modify the bytecode so that the actual callable for
     a *note CALL: 700. is at a consistent position on the stack
     (regardless of whether or not bound-method-calling optimizations
     are active).

   - gh-107674(71): Fixed performance regression in ‘sys.settrace’.

   - gh-107724(72): In pre-release versions of 3.12, up to rc1, the
     sys.monitoring callback function for the ‘PY_THROW’ event was
     missing the third, exception argument.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-84436(73): Skip reference count modifications for many known
     immortal objects.

   - gh-107596(74): Specialize subscripting *note str: 445. objects by
     *note int: 257. indexes.

   - gh-107080(75): Trace refs builds (‘--with-trace-refs’) were
     crashing when used with isolated subinterpreters.  The problematic
     global state has been isolated to each interpreter.  Other fixing
     the crashes, this change does not affect users.

   - gh-107557(76): Generate the cases needed for the barebones tier 2
     abstract interpreter for optimization passes in CPython.

   - gh-106608(77): Make ‘_PyUOpExecutorObject’ variable length.

   - gh-100964(78): Clear generators’ exception state after ‘return’ to
     break reference cycles.

   - gh-107455(79): Improve error messages when converting an
     incompatible type to *note ctypes.c_char_p: 16ed, *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 16ee. and *note ctypes.c_void_p: 16ef.

   - gh-107263(80): Increase C recursion limit for functions other than
     the main interpreter from 800 to 1500.  This should allow functions
     like ‘list.__repr__’ and ‘json.dumps’ to handle all the inputs that
     they could prior to 3.12

   - gh-104584(81): Fix an issue which caused incorrect inline caches to
     be read when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note -X uops: 176.
     enabled.

   - gh-104432(82): Fix potential unaligned memory access on C APIs
     involving returned sequences of ‘char *’ pointers within the *note
     grp: 66. and *note socket: cc. modules.  These were revealed using
     a ‘-fsaniziter=alignment’ build on ARM macOS. Patch by Christopher
     Chavez.

   - gh-106078(83): Isolate ‘_decimal’ (apply PEP 687(84)).  Patch by
     Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-106898(85): Add the exception as the third argument to
     ‘PY_UNIND’ callbacks in ‘sys.monitoring’.  This makes the
     ‘PY_UNWIND’ callback consistent with the other exception handling
     callbacks.

   - gh-106895(86): Raise a ‘ValueError’ when a monitoring callback
     function returns ‘DISABLE’ for events that cannot be disabled
     locally.

   - gh-106897(87): Add a ‘RERAISE’ event to ‘sys.monitoring’, which
     occurs when an exception is reraise, either explicitly by a plain
     ‘raise’ statement, or implicitly in an ‘except’ or ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-77377(88): Ensure that multiprocessing synchronization objects
     created in a fork context are not sent to a different process
     created in a spawn context.  This changes a segfault into an
     actionable RuntimeError in the parent process.

   - gh-106931(89): Statically allocated string objects are now interned
     globally instead of per-interpreter.  This fixes a situation where
     such a string would only be interned in a single interpreter.
     Normal string objects are unaffected.

   - gh-104621(90): Unsupported modules now always fail to be imported.

   - gh-107122(91): Add ‘dbm.ndbm.ndbm.clear()’ to *note dbm.ndbm: 34.
     Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-107122(92): Add ‘dbm.gnu.gdbm.clear()’ to *note dbm.gnu: 33.
     Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-107015(93): The ASYNC and AWAIT tokens are removed from the
     Grammar, which removes the possibility of making ‘async’ and
     ‘await’ soft keywords when using ‘feature_version<7’ in *note
     ast.parse(): 1a8.

   - gh-106917(94): Fix classmethod-style *note super(): 4d5. method
     calls (i.e., where the second argument to *note super(): 4d5, or
     the implied second argument drawn from ‘self/cls’ in the case of
     zero-arg super, is a type) when the target of the call is not a
     classmethod.

   - gh-105699(95): Python no longer crashes due an infrequent race when
     initializing per-interpreter interned strings.  The crash would
     manifest when the interpreter was finalized.

   - gh-105699(96): Python no longer crashes due to an infrequent race
     in setting ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’ and
     ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ (both deprecated), when
     simultaneously initializing two isolated subinterpreters.  Now they
     are only set during runtime initialization.

   - gh-106908(97): Fix various hangs, reference leaks, test failures,
     and tracing/introspection bugs when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or
     *note -X uops: 176. enabled.

   - gh-106092(98): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a use-after-free
     bug in ‘frame_dealloc’ when the trashcan delays the deallocation of
     a ‘PyFrameObject’.

   - gh-106485(99): Reduce the number of materialized instances
     dictionaries by dematerializing them when possible.

   - gh-106719(100): No longer suppress arbitrary errors in the
     ‘__annotations__’ getter and setter in the type and module types.

   - gh-106723(101): Propagate ‘frozen_modules’ to multiprocessing
     spawned process interpreters.

   - gh-104909(102): Split ‘LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’ into micro-ops.

   - gh-104909(103): Split *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16f0. specializations into
     micro-ops.

   - gh-106597(104): A new debug structure of offsets has been added to
     the ‘_PyRuntimeState’ that will help out-of-process debuggers and
     profilers to obtain the offsets to relevant interpreter structures
     in a way that is agnostic of how Python was compiled and that
     doesn’t require copying the headers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-106487(105): Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace():
     19a. to be a keyword.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-96844(106): Improve error message of ‘list.remove()’.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-81283(107): Compiler now strips indents from docstrings.  It
     reduces ‘pyc’ file size 5% when the module is heavily documented.
     This change affects to ‘__doc__’ so tools like doctest will be
     affected.

   - gh-106396(108): When the format specification of an f-string
     expression is empty, the parser now generates an empty *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 16f1. node for it instead of an one-element *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 16f1. with an empty string *note ast.Constant: 2b9.

   - gh-100288(109): Specialize *note LOAD_ATTR: 4d8. for
     non-descriptors on the class.  Adds
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_WITH_VALUES’ and
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_NO_DICT’.

   - gh-106008(110): Fix possible reference leaks when failing to
     optimize comparisons with *note None: 66f. in the bytecode
     compiler.

   - gh-106145(111): Make ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ required on
     ‘type_param’ ast nodes.

   - gh-106213(112): Changed the way that Emscripten call trampolines
     work for compatibility with Wasm/JS Promise integration.

   - gh-106182(113): *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors: ce3. now return interned Unicode
     object.

   - gh-106210(114): Removed Emscripten import trampoline as it was no
     longer necessary for Pyodide.

   - gh-104584(115): Added a new, experimental, tracing optimizer and
     interpreter (a.k.a.  “tier 2”).  This currently pessimizes, so
     don’t use yet – this is infrastructure so we can experiment with
     optimizing passes.  To enable it, pass ‘-Xuops’ or set
     ‘PYTHONUOPS=1’.  To get debug output, set ‘PYTHONUOPSDEBUG=N’ where
     ‘N’ is a debug level (0-4, where 0 is no debug output and 4 is
     excessively verbose).

   - gh-105775(116): *note LOAD_CLOSURE: 16f2. is now a pseudo-op.

   - gh-105730(117): Allow any callable other than type objects as the
     condition predicate in *note BaseExceptionGroup.split(): 1591. and
     *note BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(): 16c8.

   - gh-105979(118): Fix crash in ‘_imp.get_frozen_object()’ due to
     improper exception handling.

   - gh-106003(119): Add a new *note TO_BOOL: 16f3. instruction, which
     performs boolean conversions for *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 16f4,
     *note POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 16f5, and *note UNARY_NOT: 16f6. (which
     all expect exact *note bool: 461. values now).  Also, modify the
     oparg of *note COMPARE_OP: 967. to include an optional “boolean
     conversion” flag.

   - gh-98931(120): Ensure custom *note SyntaxError: 18d. error messages
     are raised for invalid imports with multiple targets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105724(121): Improve ‘assert’ error messages by providing exact
     error range.

   - gh-105908(122): Fixed bug where gh-99111(123) breaks future import
     ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ in the Python REPL.

   - gh-105840(124): Fix possible crashes when specializing function
     calls with too many ‘__defaults__’.

   - gh-105831(125): Fix an f-string bug, where using a debug expression
     (the ‘=’ sign) that appears in the last line of a file results to
     the debug buffer that holds the expression text being one character
     too small.

   - gh-105800(126): Correctly issue *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. in
     f-strings if invalid sequences are used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105340(127): Include the comprehension iteration variable in
     ‘locals()’ inside a module- or class-scope comprehension.

   - gh-105331(128): Raise *note ValueError: 202. if the ‘delay’
     argument to *note asyncio.sleep(): a6c. is a NaN (matching *note
     time.sleep(): 697.).

   - gh-105587(129): The runtime can’t guarantee that immortal objects
     will not be mutated by Extensions.  Thus, this modifies
     _PyStaticObject_CheckRefcnt to warn instead of asserting.

   - gh-105564(130): Don’t include artificil newlines in the ‘line’
     attribute of tokens in the APIs of the *note tokenize: fb. module.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105549(131): Tokenize separately ‘NUMBER’ and ‘NAME’ tokens that
     are not ambiguous.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105588(132): Fix an issue that could result in crashes when
     compiling malformed *note ast: 8. nodes.

   - gh-100987(133): Allow objects other than code objects as the
     “executable” in internal frames.  In the long term, this can help
     tools like Cython and PySpy interact more efficiently.  In the
     shorter term, it allows us to perform some optimizations more
     simply.

   - gh-105375(134): Fix bugs in the *note builtins: 12. module where
     exceptions could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(135): Fix bug in the compiler where an exception could
     end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(136): Improve error handling in *note
     PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(): 16f7. where an exception could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105486(137): Change the repr of ‘ParamSpec’ list of args in
     ‘types.GenericAlias’.

   - gh-105678(138): Break the ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction into two
     parts, ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ which makes the function and
     ‘SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE’ which sets the attributes on the function.
     This makes the stack effect of ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ regular to ease
     optimization and code generation.

   - gh-105435(139): Fix spurious newline character if file ends on a
     comment without a newline.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105390(140): Correctly raise *note tokenize.TokenError: 53d.
     exceptions instead of *note SyntaxError: 18d. for tokenize errors
     such as incomplete input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105259(141): Don’t include newline character for trailing
     ‘NEWLINE’ tokens emitted in the *note tokenize: fb. module.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104635(142): Eliminate redundant *note STORE_FAST: 16f8.
     instructions in the compiler.  Patch by Donghee Na and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-105324(143): Fix the main function of the *note tokenize: fb.
     module when reading from ‘sys.stdin’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-33092(144): Simplify and speed up interpreter for f-strings.
     Removes ‘FORMAT_VALUE’ opcode.  Add ‘CONVERT_VALUE’,
     ‘FORMAT_SIMPLE’ and ‘FORMAT_WITH_SPEC’ opcode.  Compiler emits more
     efficient sequence for each format expression.

   - gh-105229(145): Remove remaining two-codeunit superinstructions.
     All remaining superinstructions only take a single codeunit,
     simplifying instrumentation and quickening.

   - gh-105235(146): Prevent out-of-bounds memory access during
     ‘mmap.find()’ calls.

   - gh-98963(147): Restore the ability for a subclass of *note
     property: 194. to define ‘__slots__’ or otherwise be dict-less by
     ignoring failures to set a docstring on such a class.  This
     behavior had regressed in 3.12beta1.  An *note AttributeError: 346.
     where there had not previously been one was disruptive to existing
     code.

   - gh-104812(148): The “pending call” machinery now works for all
     interpreters, not just the main interpreter, and runs in all
     threads, not just the main thread.  Some calls are still only done
     in the main thread, ergo in the main interpreter.  This change does
     not affect signal handling nor the existing public C-API
     (‘Py_AddPendingCall()’), which both still only target the main
     thread.  The new functionality is meant strictly for internal use
     for now, since consequences of its use are not well understood yet
     outside some very restricted cases.  This change brings the
     capability in line with the intention when the state was made
     per-interpreter several years ago.

   - gh-105194(149): Do not escape with backslashes f-string format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105229(150): Replace some dynamic superinstructions with single
     instruction equivalents.

   - gh-105162(151): Fixed bug in generator.close()/throw() where an
     inner iterator would be ignored when the outer iterator was
     instrumented.

   - gh-105164(152): Ensure annotations are set up correctly if the only
     annotation in a block is within a *note match: 807. block.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105148(153): Make ‘_PyASTOptimizeState’ internal to ast_opt.c.
     Make ‘_PyAST_Optimize’ take two integers instead of a pointer to
     this struct.  This avoids the need to include pycore_compile.h in
     ast_opt.c.

   - gh-104799(154): Attributes of *note ast: 8. nodes that are lists
     now default to the empty list if omitted.  This means that some
     code that previously raised *note TypeError: 532. when the AST node
     was used will now proceed with the empty list instead.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105111(155): Remove the old trashcan macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.  They should
     be replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - gh-105035(156): Fix *note super(): 4d5. calls on types with custom
     *note tp_getattro: 16f9. implementation (e.g.  meta-types.)

   - gh-105017(157): Show CRLF lines in the tokenize string attribute in
     both NL and NEWLINE tokens.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-105013(158): Fix handling of multiline parenthesized lambdas in
     *note inspect.getsource(): 151b.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105017(159): Do not include an additional final ‘NL’ token when
     parsing files having CRLF lines.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-104976(160): Ensure that trailing ‘DEDENT’ ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’
     objects emitted by the *note tokenize: fb. module are reported as
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104972(161): Ensure that the ‘line’ attribute in
     ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’ objects in the *note tokenize: fb. module are
     always correct.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104955(162): Fix signature for the new *note
     __release_buffer__(): 16fa. slot.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104690(163): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 197. during interpreter shutdown (such as from
     *note atexit: c. handlers) is no longer supported.  It can lead to
     race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
     thread states while internal *note threading: ed. routines are
     trying to allocate and use the state of just created threads.  Or
     forked children trying to use the mid-shutdown runtime and thread
     state in the child process.

   - gh-104879(164): Fix crash when accessing the ‘__module__’ attribute
     of type aliases defined outside a module.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104825(165): Tokens emitted by the *note tokenize: fb. module do
     not include an implicit ‘\n’ character in the ‘line’ attribute
     anymore.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104770(166): If a generator returns a value upon being closed,
     the value is now returned by *note generator.close(): 16fb.

   - gh-89091(167): Raise *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. for unawaited async
     generator methods like *note asend(): 8d6, *note athrow(): 4f3. and
     *note aclose(): 8d5.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96663(168): Add a better, more introspect-able error message
     when setting attributes on classes without a ‘__dict__’ and no slot
     member for the attribute.

   - gh-93627(169): Update the Python pickle module implementation to
     match the C implementation of the pickle module.  For objects
     setting reduction methods like *note __reduce_ex__(): 15c2. or
     *note __reduce__(): 9d0. to ‘None’, pickling will result in a *note
     TypeError: 532.

   - gh-101006(170): Improve error handling when read *note marshal: 8d.
     data.

   - gh-91095(171): Specializes calls to most Python classes.
     Specifically, any class that inherits from ‘object’, or another
     Python class, and does not override ‘__new__’.

     The specialized instruction does the following:

       1. Creates the object (by calling ‘object.__new__’)

       2. Pushes a shim frame to the frame stack (to cleanup after
          ‘__init__’)

       3. Pushes the frame for ‘__init__’ to the frame stack

     Speeds up the instantiation of most Python classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110782

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110752

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110721

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110696

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104169

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110688

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110514

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110489

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110455

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110309

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110259

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110237

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110164

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109889

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109853

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109923

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105716

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109823

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109719

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109627

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109596

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109496

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107265

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109371

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105658

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109219

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109351

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109341

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109195

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109256

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109216

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109207

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109179

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109156

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109114

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109052

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88943

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108976

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108732

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108959

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108727

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108520

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108654

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108488

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108716

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108614

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108487

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106176

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107971

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108390

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108035

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106581

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107526

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84805

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107758

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107659

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107724

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107596

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107080

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107557

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106608

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100964

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107455

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107263

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104432

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106078

   (84) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106898

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106895

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106897

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77377

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106931

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104621

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107015

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106917

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106908

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106092

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106485

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106719

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106723

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106597

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96844

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106396

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106008

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106145

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106213

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106182

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106210

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105775

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105730

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105979

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106003

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105724

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105908

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99111

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105840

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105831

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105800

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105340

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105331

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105587

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105564

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105549

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105588

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<21>,  Next: Documentation<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.3 Library
.................

   - gh-110786(1): *note sysconfig: db.’s CLI now ignores *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1052, making it exit normally if its output is
     being piped and the pipe closes.

   - gh-103480(2): The *note sysconfig: db. module is now a package,
     instead of a single-file module.

   - gh-110733(3): Micro-optimization: Avoid calling ‘min()’, ‘max()’ in
     ‘BaseEventLoop._run_once()’.

   - gh-94597(4): Added *note asyncio.EventLoop: 16fd. for use with the
     *note asyncio.run(): 476. 'loop_factory' kwarg to avoid calling the
     asyncio policy system.

   - gh-110682(5): *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43c. used to
     consider ‘__match_args__’ a protocol member in ‘__instancecheck__’
     if it was present on the protocol.  Now, this attribute is ignored
     if it is present.

   - gh-110488(6): Fix a couple of issues in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_name(): 16fe.: a single dot was incorrectly
     considered a valid name, and in ‘PureWindowsPath’, a name with an
     NTFS alternate data stream, like ‘a:b’, was incorrectly considered
     invalid.

   - gh-110590(7): Fix a bug in ‘_sre.compile()’ where *note TypeError:
     532. would be overwritten by *note OverflowError: 87d. when the
     'code' argument was a list of non-ints.

   - gh-65052(8): Prevent *note pdb: a5. from crashing when trying to
     display undisplayable objects

   - gh-110519(9): Deprecation warning about non-integer number in *note
     gettext: 63. now always refers to the line in the user code where
     gettext function or method is used.  Previously it could refer to a
     line in ‘gettext’ code.

   - gh-89902(10): Deprecate non-standard format specifier “N” for *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29d.  It was not documented and only supported in
     the C implementation.

   - gh-110378(11): *note contextmanager(): 11f1. and *note
     asynccontextmanager(): b27. context managers now close an invalid
     underlying generator object that yields more then one value.

   - gh-106670(12): In *note pdb: a5, set convenience variable
     ‘$_exception’ for post mortem debugging.

   - gh-110365(13): Fix *note termios.tcsetattr(): 16ff. bug that was
     overwriting existing errors during parsing integers from ‘term’
     list.

   - gh-109653(14): Slightly improve the import time of several
     standard-library modules by deferring imports of *note warnings:
     112. within those modules.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110273(15): *note dataclasses.replace(): 1700. now raises
     TypeError instead of ValueError if specify keyword argument for a
     field declared with init=False or miss keyword argument for
     required InitVar field.

   - gh-110249(16): Add ‘--inline-caches’ flag to ‘dis’ command line.

   - gh-109653(17): Fix a Python 3.12 regression in the import time of
     *note random: b8.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110222(18): Add support of struct sequence objects in *note
     copy.replace(): 151.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-109649(19): *note multiprocessing: 94, *note concurrent.futures:
     21, *note compileall: 20.: Replace *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. with
     *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. to select the default number of
     worker threads and processes.  Get the CPU affinity if supported.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110150(20): Fix base case handling in statistics.quantiles.  Now
     allows a single data point.

   - gh-110036(21): On Windows, multiprocessing ‘Popen.terminate()’ now
     catches *note PermissionError: d3f. and get the process exit code.
     If the process is still running, raise again the *note
     PermissionError: d3f.  Otherwise, the process terminated as
     expected: store its exit code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110038(22): Fixed an issue that caused ‘KqueueSelector.select()’
     to not return all the ready events in some cases when a file
     descriptor is registered for both read and write.

   - gh-110045(23): Update the *note symtable: d8. module to support the
     new scopes introduced by PEP 695(24).

   - gh-88402(25): Add new variables to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1022. on Windows: ‘LIBRARY’,
     ‘LDLIBRARY’, ‘LIBDIR’, ‘SOABI’, and ‘Py_NOGIL’.

   - gh-109631(26): *note re: b9. functions such as *note re.findall():
     1020, *note re.split(): 2a2, *note re.search(): 121c. and *note
     re.sub(): 2a3. which perform short repeated matches can now be
     interrupted by user.

   - gh-109653(27): Reduce the import time of *note email.utils: 50. by
     around 43%.  This results in the import time of *note
     email.message: 44. falling by around 18%, which in turn reduces the
     import time of *note importlib.metadata: 7a. by around 6%.  Patch
     by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109818(28): Fix *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11e2. not
     copying ‘__type_params__’ from decorated function.

   - gh-109047(29): *note concurrent.futures: 21.: The 'executor manager
     thread' now catches exceptions when adding an item to the 'call
     queue'.  During Python finalization, creating a new thread can now
     raise *note RuntimeError: 195.  Catch the exception and call
     ‘terminate_broken()’ in this case.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109782(30): Ensure the signature of *note os.path.isdir(): a0c.
     is identical on all platforms.  Patch by Amin Alaee.

   - gh-109653(31): Improve import time of *note functools: 5f. by
     around 13%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109590(32): *note shutil.which(): 4ae. will prefer files with an
     extension in ‘PATHEXT’ if the given mode includes ‘os.X_OK’ on
     win32.  If no ‘PATHEXT’ match is found, a file without an extension
     in ‘PATHEXT’ can be returned.  This change will have *note
     shutil.which(): 4ae. act more similarly to previous behavior in
     Python 3.11.

   - gh-109653(33): Reduce the import time of *note enum: 56. by over
     50%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109593(34): Avoid deadlocking on a reentrant call to the
     multiprocessing resource tracker.  Such a reentrant call, though
     unlikely, can happen if a GC pass invokes the finalizer for a
     multiprocessing object such as SemLock.

   - gh-109653(35): Reduce the import time of *note typing: 104. by
     around a third.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109649(36): Add *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. function to
     get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the
     current process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-74481(37): Add ‘set_error_mode’ related constants in ‘msvcrt’
     module in Python debug build.

   - gh-109613(38): Fix *note os.stat(): 49a. and *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1701.: check for exceptions.  Previously, on
     Python built in debug mode, these functions could trigger a fatal
     Python error (and abort the process) when a function succeeded with
     an exception set.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109599(39): Expose the type of PyCapsule objects as
     ‘types.CapsuleType’.

   - gh-109109(40): You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from
     TLS connections via *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 15e4.
     and *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 15e5. methods.

     Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

   - gh-109559(41): Update *note unicodedata: 105. database to Unicode
     15.1.0.

   - gh-109543(42): Remove unnecessary *note hasattr(): 4cc. check
     during *note typing.TypedDict: 162. creation.

   - gh-109495(43): Remove unnecessary extra ‘__slots__’ in *note
     datetime: 1cc.'s pure python implementation to reduce memory size,
     as they are defined in the superclass.  Patch by James Hilton-Balfe

   - gh-109461(44): *note logging: 87.: Use a context manager for lock
     acquisition.

   - gh-109096(45): *note http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1. has
     been deprecated for removal in 3.15.  Its design is old and the web
     world has long since moved beyond CGI.

   - gh-109409(46): Fix error when it was possible to inherit a frozen
     dataclass from multiple parents some of which were possibly not
     frozen.

   - gh-109375(47): The *note pdb: a5. ‘alias’ command now prevents
     registering aliases without arguments.

   - gh-109319(48): Deprecate the ‘dis.HAVE_ARGUMENT’ field in favour of
     ‘dis.hasarg’.

   - gh-107219(49): Fix a race condition in ‘concurrent.futures’.  When
     a process in the process pool was terminated abruptly (while the
     future was running or pending), close the connection write end.  If
     the call queue is blocked on sending bytes to a worker process,
     closing the connection write end interrupts the send, so the queue
     can be closed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-66143(50): The *note codecs.CodecInfo: 1702. object has been
     made copyable and pickleable.  Patched by Robert Lehmann and Furkan
     Onder.

   - gh-109187(51): *note pathlib.Path.resolve(): 1703. now treats
     symlink loops like other errors: in strict mode, *note OSError:
     411. is raised, and in non-strict mode, no exception is raised.

   - gh-50644(52): Attempts to pickle or create a shallow or deep copy
     of *note codecs: 1b. streams now raise a TypeError.  Previously,
     copying failed with a RecursionError, while pickling produced wrong
     results that eventually caused unpickling to fail with a
     RecursionError.

   - gh-109174(53): Add support of *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. in
     *note copy.replace(): 151.

   - gh-109164(54): *note pdb: a5.: Replace *note getopt: 61. with *note
     argparse: 6. for parsing command line arguments.

   - gh-109151(55): Enable ‘readline’ editing features in the *note
     sqlite3 command-line interface: 43a. (‘python -m sqlite3’).

   - gh-108987(56): Fix *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 196. race
     condition.  If a thread is created during Python finalization, the
     newly spawned thread now exits immediately instead of trying to
     access freed memory and lead to a crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108682(57): Enum: require ‘names=()’ or ‘type=...’ to create an
     empty enum using the functional syntax.

   - gh-109033(58): Exceptions raised by os.utime builtin function now
     include the related filename

   - gh-108843(59): Fix an issue in *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. when
     unparsing f-strings containing many quote types.

   - gh-108469(60): *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. now supports new *note
     f-string: 42f. syntax introduced in Python 3.12.  Note that the
     *note f-string: 42f. quotes are reselected for simplicity under the
     new syntax.  (Patch by Steven Sun)

   - gh-108751(61): Add *note copy.replace(): 151. function which allows
     to create a modified copy of an object.  It supports named tuples,
     dataclasses, and many other objects.

   - gh-108682(62): Enum: raise *note TypeError: 532. if
     ‘super().__new__()’ is called from a custom ‘__new__’.

   - gh-108278(63): Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword
     for the following *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. APIs:

        * *note set_authorizer(): 2ab.

        * *note set_progress_handler(): 2ac.

        * *note set_trace_callback(): 2ad.

     The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-105829(64): Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor deadlock

   - gh-108295(65): Fix crashes related to use of weakrefs on *note
     typing.TypeVar: 15d.

   - gh-108463(66): Make expressions/statements work as expected in pdb

   - gh-108277(67): Add *note os.timerfd_create(): 211, *note
     os.timerfd_settime(): 212, *note os.timerfd_gettime(): 214, *note
     os.timerfd_settime_ns(): 213, and *note os.timerfd_gettime_ns():
     215. to provide a low level interface for Linux’s timer
     notification file descriptor.

   - gh-107811(68): *note tarfile: de.: extraction of members with
     overly large UID or GID (e.g.  on an OS with 32-bit ‘id_t’) now
     fails in the same way as failing to set the ID.

   - gh-64662(69): Fix support for virtual tables in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 247.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - gh-108111(70): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(71) for
     3.12, resulting in an incorrect offset calculation in
     ‘gzip.GzipFile.seek()’.

   - gh-108294(72): *note time.sleep(): 697. now raises an auditing
     event.

   - gh-108278(73): Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the
     callable as keyword arguments, for the following *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. APIs:

        * *note create_function(): 2a9.

        * *note create_aggregate(): 2aa.

     The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-108322(74): Speed-up NormalDist.samples() by using the inverse
     CDF method instead of calling random.gauss().

   - gh-83417(75): Add the ability for venv to create a ‘.gitignore’
     file which causes the created environment to be ignored by Git.  It
     is on by default when venv is called via its CLI.

   - gh-105736(76): Harmonized the pure Python version of *note
     OrderedDict: 5d5. with the C version.  Now, both versions set up
     their internal state in ‘__new__’.  Formerly, the pure Python
     version did the set up in ‘__init__’.

   - gh-108083(77): Fix bugs in the constructor of *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. and *note sqlite3.Connection.close(): 246.
     where exceptions could be leaked.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107932(78): Fix ‘dis’ module to properly report and display
     bytecode that do not have source lines.

   - gh-105539(79): *note sqlite3: cf. now emits an *note
     ResourceWarning: 244. if a *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. object is
     not ‘closed’ explicitly.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107995(80): The ‘__module__’ attribute on instances of *note
     functools.cached_property: 53c. is now set to the name of the
     module in which the cached_property is defined, rather than
     “functools”.  This means that doctests in ‘cached_property’
     docstrings are now properly collected by the *note doctest: 3a.
     module.  Patch by Tyler Smart.

   - gh-107963(81): Fix *note multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload():
     15a2. to check the given list of modules names.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-106242(82): Fixes *note os.path.normpath(): 130a. to handle
     embedded null characters without truncating the path.

   - gh-81555(83): *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. now only quotes ‘"’ in
     attributes.

   - gh-50002(84): *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. now preserves whitespaces
     in attributes.

   - gh-93057(85): Passing more than one positional argument to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. and the *note sqlite3.Connection: 245.
     constructor is deprecated.  The remaining parameters will become
     keyword-only in Python 3.15.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-76913(86): Add 'merge_extra' parameter/feature to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 12e5.

   - gh-107913(87): Fix possible losses of ‘errno’ and ‘winerror’ values
     in *note OSError: 411. exceptions if they were cleared or modified
     by the cleanup code before creating the exception object.

   - gh-107845(88): *note tarfile.data_filter(): 427. now takes the
     location of symlinks into account when determining their target, so
     it will no longer reject some valid tarballs with
     ‘LinkOutsideDestinationError’.

   - gh-107812(89): Extend socket’s netlink support to the FreeBSD
     platform.

   - gh-107805(90): Fix signatures of module-level generated functions
     in *note turtle: 101.

   - gh-107782(91): *note pydoc: b5. is now able to show signatures
     which are not representable in Python, e.g.  for ‘getattr’ and
     ‘dict.pop’.

   - gh-56166(92): Deprecate passing optional arguments 'maxsplit',
     'count' and 'flags' in module-level functions *note re.split():
     2a2, *note re.sub(): 2a3. and *note re.subn(): 2a4. as positional.
     They should only be passed by keyword.

   - gh-107710(93): Speed up *note logging.getHandlerNames(): 1704.

   - gh-107715(94): Fix *note doctest.DocTestFinder.find(): 1705. in
     presence of class names with special characters.  Patch by Gertjan
     van Zwieten.

   - gh-100814(95): Passing a callable object as an option value to a
     Tkinter image now raises the expected TclError instead of an
     AttributeError.

   - gh-72684(96): Add *note tkinter: f0. widget methods:
     ‘tk_busy_hold()’, ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’,
     ‘tk_busy_forget()’, ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’.

   - gh-106684(97): Raise *note ResourceWarning: 244. when *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter: 1706. is not closed leading to memory leaks.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-107465(98): Add *note pathlib.Path.from_uri(): 22a. classmethod.

   - gh-107077(99): Seems that in some conditions, OpenSSL will return
     ‘SSL_ERROR_SYSCALL’ instead of ‘SSL_ERROR_SSL’ when a certification
     verification has failed, but the error parameters will still
     contain ‘ERR_LIB_SSL’ and ‘SSL_R_CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  We
     are now detecting this situation and raising the appropriate
     ‘ssl.SSLCertVerificationError’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107576(100): Fix *note types.get_original_bases(): 4c8. to only
     return ‘__orig_bases__’ if it is present on ‘cls’ directly.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-105481(101): Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo’,
     ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which
     were added in 3.12, were never documented and were not intended to
     be used externally.

   - gh-105481(102): ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ (which was added in
     3.12 but never documented or intended for external usage) is moved
     to ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ where tests can access it.

   - gh-107396(103): tarfiles; Fixed use before assignment of
     self.exception for gzip decompression

   - gh-107409(104): Set ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in *note
     reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11e2.

   - gh-107406(105): Implement new ‘__repr__()’ method for *note
     struct.Struct: 16b8.  Now it returns ‘Struct(<format repr>)’.

   - gh-107369(106): Optimize *note textwrap.indent(): 276.  It is ~30%
     faster for large input.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-78722(107): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 1638.
     did not raise *note OSError: 411. until iterated.

   - gh-105578(108): Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 2b2. in favor of the
     new Type Parameter syntax.  See PEP 695.

   - gh-62519(109): Make *note gettext.pgettext(): 9f1. search plural
     definitions when translation is not found.

   - gh-107089(110): Shelves opened with *note shelve.open(): 1707. have
     a much faster ‘clear()’ method.  Patch by James Cave.

   - gh-82500(111): Fix overflow on 32-bit systems with *note asyncio:
     a. *note os.sendfile(): b0c. implementation.

   - gh-83006(112): Document behavior of *note shutil.disk_usage():
     111e. for non-mounted filesystems on Unix.

   - gh-65495(113): Use lowercase ‘mail from’ and ‘rcpt to’ in
     ‘smptlib.SMTP’.

   - gh-106186(114): Do not report ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’
     defect when the *note email.parser.Parser: 118d. class is used to
     parse emails with ‘headersonly=True’.

   - gh-105002(115): Fix invalid result from ‘PurePath.relative_to()’
     method when attempting to walk a “‘..’” segment in 'other' with
     'walk_up' enabled.  A *note ValueError: 202. exception is now
     raised in this case.

   - gh-106739(116): Add the ‘rtype_cache’ to the warning message (as an
     addition to the type of leaked objects and the number of leaked
     objects already included in the message) to make debugging leaked
     objects easier when the multiprocessing resource tracker process
     finds leaked objects at shutdown.  This helps more quickly identify
     what was leaked and/or why the leaked object was not properly
     cleaned up.

   - gh-106751(117): Optimize ‘SelectSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-106751(118): Optimize ‘_PollLikeSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.

   - gh-106751(119): Optimize ‘KqueueSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-106831(120): Fix potential missing ‘NULL’ check of
     ‘d2i_SSL_SESSION’ result in ‘_ssl.c’.

   - gh-105481(121): The various opcode lists in the *note dis: 38.
     module are now generated from bytecodes.c instead of explicitly
     constructed in opcode.py.

   - gh-106727(122): Make *note inspect.getsource(): 151b. smarter for
     class for same name definitions

   - gh-106789(123): Remove import of *note pprint: ae. from *note
     sysconfig: db.

   - gh-105726(124): Added ‘__slots__’ to *note
     contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8a. and *note
     contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b28. so that child classes
     can use ‘__slots__’.

   - gh-106774(125): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.2.1.

   - gh-106751(126): *note selectors: c2.: Optimize
     ‘EpollSelector.select()’ code by moving some code outside of the
     loop.

   - gh-106752(127): Fixed several bugs in zipfile.Path, including: in
     ‘zipfile.Path.match()’, Windows separators are no longer honored
     (and never were meant to be); Fixed
     ‘name’/‘suffix’/‘suffixes’/‘stem’ operations when no filename is
     present and the Path is not at the root of the zipfile; Reworked
     glob for performance and more correct matching behavior.

   - gh-105293(128): Remove call to ‘SSL_CTX_set_session_id_context’
     during client side context creation in the *note ssl: d0. module.

   - gh-106734(129): Disable tab completion in multiline mode of *note
     pdb: a5.

   - gh-105481(130): Expose opcode metadata through ‘_opcode’.

   - gh-106670(131): Add the new ‘exceptions’ command to the Pdb
     debugger.  It makes it possible to move between chained exceptions
     when using post mortem debugging.

   - gh-106602(132): Add __copy__ and __deepcopy__ in *note enum: 56.

   - gh-106664(133): *note selectors: c2.: Add ‘_SelectorMapping.get()’
     method and optimize ‘_SelectorMapping.__getitem__()’.

   - gh-106628(134): Speed up parsing of emails by about 20% by not
     compiling a new regular expression for every single email.

   - gh-89427(135): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 111. activation, even when ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_DISABLE_PROMPT’
     is set.

   - gh-106530(136): Revert a change to *note colorsys.rgb_to_hls():
     1708. that caused division by zero for certain almost-white inputs.
     Patch by Terry Jan Reedy.

   - gh-106584(137): Fix exit code for ‘unittest’ if all tests are
     skipped.  Patch by Egor Eliseev.

   - gh-106566(138): Optimize ‘(?!)’ (pattern which always fails) in
     regular expressions.

   - gh-106554(139): *note selectors: c2.: Reduce Selector overhead by
     using a ‘dict.get()’ to lookup file descriptors.

   - gh-106558(140): Remove ref cycle in callers of ‘convert_to_error()’
     by deleting ‘result’ from scope in a ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-100502(141): Add ‘pathlib.PurePath.pathmod’ class attribute that
     stores the implementation of *note os.path: a2. used for low-level
     path operations: either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

   - gh-106527(142): Reduce overhead to add and remove *note asyncio: a.
     readers and writers.

   - gh-106524(143): Fix crash in ‘_sre.template()’ with templates
     containing invalid group indices.

   - gh-106531(144): Removed ‘_legacy’ and the names it provided from
     ‘importlib.resources’: ‘Resource’, ‘contents’, ‘is_resource’,
     ‘open_binary’, ‘open_text’, ‘path’, ‘read_binary’, and ‘read_text’.

   - gh-106052(145): *note re: b9. module: fix the matching of
     possessive quantifiers in the case of a subpattern containing
     backtracking.

   - gh-106510(146): Improve debug output for atomic groups in regular
     expressions.

   - gh-106503(147): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_write_ready’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-105497(148): Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

   - gh-90876(149): Prevent ‘multiprocessing.spawn’ from failing to
     'import' in environments where ‘sys.executable’ is ‘None’.  This
     regressed in 3.11 with the addition of support for path-like
     objects in multiprocessing.

   - gh-106403(150): Instances of *note typing.TypeVar: 15d, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 15e, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7bf, *note
     typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7c0, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f.
     once again support weak references, fixing a regression introduced
     in Python 3.12.0 beta 1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89812(151): Add private ‘pathlib._PathBase’ class, which
     provides experimental support for virtual filesystems, and may be
     made public in a future version of Python.

   - gh-106292(152): Check for an instance-dict cached value in the
     ‘__get__()’ method of *note functools.cached_property(): 53c.  This
     better matches the pre-3.12 behavior and improves compatibility for
     users subclassing *note functools.cached_property(): 53c. and
     adding a ‘__set__()’ method.

   - gh-106350(153): Detect possible memory allocation failure in the
     libtommath function ‘mp_init()’ used by the ‘_tkinter’ module.

   - gh-106330(154): Fix incorrect matching of empty paths in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 4a6.  This bug was introduced in Python
     3.12.0 beta 1.

   - gh-106309(155): Deprecate *note typing.no_type_check_decorator():
     2b1.  No major type checker ever added support for this decorator.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-102541(156): Make ‘pydoc.doc()’ catch bad module *note
     ImportError: 413. when output stream is not ‘None’.

   - gh-106263(157): Fix crash when calling ‘repr’ with a manually
     constructed SignalDict object.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-106236(158): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     RuntimeError’ in *note threading: ed, so that ‘_DummyThread’ cannot
     be joined even with ‘-OO’.

   - gh-106238(159): Fix rare concurrency bug in lock acquisition by the
     logging package.

   - gh-106152(160): Added PY_THROW event hook for *note cProfile: 27.
     for generators

   - gh-106075(161): Added ‘asyncio.taskgroups.__all__’ to
     ‘asyncio.__all__’ for export in star imports.

   - gh-104527(162): Zipapp will now skip over appending an archive to
     itself.

   - gh-106046(163): Improve the error message from *note os.fspath():
     c50. if called on an object where ‘__fspath__’ is set to ‘None’.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105987(164): Fix crash due to improper reference counting in
     *note asyncio: a. eager task factory internal routines.

   - gh-105974(165): Fix bug where a *note typing.Protocol: 264. class
     that had one or more non-callable members would raise *note
     TypeError: 532. when *note issubclass(): 7ba. was called against
     it, even if it defined a custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method.  The
     behaviour in Python 3.11 and lower – which has now been restored –
     was not to raise *note TypeError: 532. in these situations if a
     custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method was defined.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-96145(166): Reverted addition of ‘json.AttrDict’.

   - gh-89812(167): Add *note pathlib.UnsupportedOperation: 227, which
     is raised instead of *note NotImplementedError: 228. when a path
     operation isn’t supported.

   - gh-105808(168): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(169) for
     3.12, causing ‘gzip.GzipFile.flush()’ to not flush the compressor
     (nor pass along the ‘zip_mode’ argument).

   - gh-105481(170): *note stack_effect(): f29. no longer raises an
     exception if an ‘oparg’ is provided for an ‘opcode’ that doesn’t
     use its arg, or when it is not provided for an ‘opcode’ that does
     use it.  In the latter case, the stack effect is returned for
     ‘oparg=0’.

   - gh-104799(171): Enable *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. to unparse
     function and class definitions created without the new
     ‘type_params’ field from PEP 695(172).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105793(173): Add 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to
     *note pathlib.Path.is_dir(): 230. and *note is_file(): 22f,
     defaulting to ‘True’.

   - gh-105570(174): Deprecate two methods of creating *note
     typing.TypedDict: 162. classes with 0 fields using the functional
     syntax: ‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’ and ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’.
     Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a ‘TypedDict’
     class with 0 fields, either use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD
     = TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   - gh-105745(175): Fix ‘webbrowser.Konqueror.open’ method.

   - gh-105733(176): *note ctypes: 2a.: Deprecate undocumented
     ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ and ‘ctypes.ARRAY()’ functions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105687(177): Remove deprecated ‘re.template’, ‘re.T’,
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’, ‘sre_constans.SRE_FLAG_TEMPLATE’.

   - gh-105684(178): Supporting *note asyncio.Task.set_name(): 9d9. is
     now mandatory for third party task implementations.  The
     undocumented ‘_set_task_name()’ function (deprecated since 3.8) has
     been removed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-105375(179): Fix a bug in ‘_Unpickler_SetInputStream()’ where an
     exception could end up being overwritten in case of failure.

   - gh-105626(180): Change the default return value of *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 1709. to
     be ‘None’ and not ‘{}’.

   - gh-105375(181): Fix bugs in *note sys: d9. where exceptions could
     end up being overwritten because of deferred error handling.

   - gh-105605(182): Harden ‘pyexpat’ error handling during module
     initialisation to prevent exceptions from possibly being
     overwritten, and objects from being dereferenced twice.

   - gh-105375(183): Fix bug in *note decimal: 36. where an exception
     could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(184): Fix bugs in ‘_datetime’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten in case of module initialisation failure.

   - gh-105375(185): Fix bugs in ‘_ssl’ initialisation which could lead
     to leaked references and overwritten exceptions.

   - gh-105375(186): Fix a bug in *note array.array: 1a0. where an
     exception could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(187): Fix bugs in ‘_ctypes’ where exceptions could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(188): Fix a bug in the *note posix: ad. module where an
     exception could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(189): Fix bugs in ‘_elementtree’ where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(190): Fix bugs in *note zoneinfo: 134. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(191): Fix bugs in *note errno: 57. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105566(192): Deprecate creating a *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0.
     class using keyword arguments to denote the fields (‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT", x=int, y=str)’).  This will be disallowed in
     Python 3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax
     instead.

     Two methods of creating ‘NamedTuple’ classes with 0 fields using
     the functional syntax are also deprecated, and will be disallowed
     in Python 3.15: ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT")’ and ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT",
     None)’.  To create a ‘NamedTuple’ class with 0 fields, either use
     ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

   - gh-105545(193): Remove deprecated in 3.11
     ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute.

   - gh-105497(194): Fix flag inversion when alias/mask members exist.

   - gh-105509(195): *note typing.Annotated: 93b. is now implemented as
     an instance of ‘typing._SpecialForm’ rather than a class.  This
     should have no user-facing impact for users of the *note typing:
     104. module public API.

   - gh-105375(196): Fix bugs in *note pickle: a6. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-70303(197): Emit *note FutureWarning: 40f. from *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e. if the given
     pattern ends with “‘**’”.  In a future Python release, patterns
     with this ending will match both files and directories.  Add a
     trailing slash to only match directories.

   - gh-105375(198): Fix a bug in *note sqlite3: cf. where an exception
     could be overwritten in the *note collation: 670. callback.

   - gh-105382(199): Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and 'cadefault'
     parameters of the *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 293. function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105376(200): *note logging: 87.: Remove undocumented and
     untested ‘Logger.warn()’ and ‘LoggerAdapter.warn()’ methods and
     ‘logging.warn()’ function.  Deprecated since Python 3.3, they were
     aliases to the *note logging.Logger.warning(): 170a. method,
     ‘logging.LoggerAdapter.warning()’ method and *note
     logging.warning(): 2f7. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105332(201): Revert pickling method from by-name back to
     by-value.

   - gh-104554(202): Add RTSPS scheme support in urllib.parse

   - gh-105292(203): Add option to *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 848. to recurse into the nested
     exception of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.

   - gh-105280(204): Fix bug where ‘isinstance([],
     collections.abc.Mapping)’ could evaluate to ‘True’ if garbage
     collection happened at the wrong time.  The bug was caused by
     changes to the implementation of *note typing.Protocol: 264. in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-80480(205): *note array: 7.: Add ‘'w'’ typecode that represents
     ‘Py_UCS4’.

   - gh-105239(206): Fix longstanding bug where ‘issubclass(object,
     typing.Protocol)’ would evaluate to ‘True’ in some edge cases.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104310(207): In the beta 1 release we added a utility function
     for extension module authors, to use when testing their module for
     support in multiple interpreters or under a per-interpreter GIL.
     The name of that function has changed from
     ‘allowing_all_extensions’ to
     ‘_incompatible_extension_module_restrictions’.  The default for the
     “disable_check” argument has change from ‘True’ to ‘False’, to
     better match the new function name.

   - gh-105080(208): Fixed inconsistent signature on derived classes for
     *note inspect.signature(): 731.

   - gh-105144(209): Fix a recent regression in the *note typing: 104.
     module.  The regression meant that doing ‘class Foo(X,
     typing.Protocol)’, where ‘X’ was a class that had *note
     abc.ABCMeta: f10. as its metaclass, would then cause subsequent
     ‘isinstance(1, X)’ calls to erroneously raise *note TypeError: 532.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-62948(210): The *note io.IOBase: 1f5. finalizer now logs the
     ‘close()’ method errors with *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f7.
     Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only
     logged in *note Python Development Mode: 1f8. or on *note Python
     built on debug mode: 1f9.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105096(211): *note wave: 113.: Deprecate the ‘getmark()’,
     ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the *note wave.Wave_read:
     2b6. and *note wave.Wave_write: 2b7. classes.  They will be removed
     in Python 3.15.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104992(212): Remove the untested and undocumented
     ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ method, deprecated in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104996(213): Improve performance of *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0.
     initialisation by deferring joining of paths when multiple
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101588(214): Deprecate undocumented copy/deepcopy/pickle support
     for itertools.

   - gh-103631(215): Fix
     ‘pathlib.PurePosixPath(pathlib.PureWindowsPath(...))’ not
     converting path separators to restore 3.11 compatible behavior.

   - gh-104947(216): Make comparisons between *note
     pathlib.PureWindowsPath: 170b. objects consistent across Windows
     and Posix to match 3.11 behavior.

   - gh-104773(217): PEP 594(218): Remove the ‘audioop’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(219): PEP 594(220): Remove the ‘aifc’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(221): PEP 594(222): Remove the ‘uu’ module, deprecated in
     Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104935(223): Fix bugs with the interaction between *note
     typing.runtime_checkable(): 43c. and *note typing.Generic: 1620.
     that were introduced by the PEP 695(224) implementation.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104773(225): PEP 594(226): Remove the ‘crypt’ module and its
     private ‘_crypt’ extension, deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(227): PEP 594(228): Remove the ‘nis’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104898(229): Add missing *note __slots__: 14b2. to *note
     os.PathLike: c4e.

   - gh-104773(230): PEP 594(231): Remove the ‘xdrlib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(232): PEP 594(233): Remove the ‘nntplib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104886(234): Remove the undocumented
     ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and with a deprecation warning since
     Python 3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104786(235): Remove kwargs-based *note typing.TypedDict: 162.
     creation

   - gh-104876(236): Remove the ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’
     method, deprecated in docs since Python 3.1 and with a deprecation
     warning since Python 3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104773(237): PEP 594(238): Removed the ‘msilib’ package,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.

   - gh-104773(239): PEP 594(240): Remove the ‘spwd’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11: the python-pam(241) project can be used instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-75552(242): Removed the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated since
     Python 3.6.

   - gh-104773(243): PEP 594(244): Remove the ‘chunk’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(245): PEP 594(246): Remove the ‘mailcap’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(247): PEP 594(248): Remove the ‘sunau’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104780(249): PEP 594(250): Remove the ‘ossaudiodev’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(251): PEP 594(252): Remove the ‘pipes’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104873(253): Add *note typing.get_protocol_members(): 263. to
     return the set of members defining a *note typing.Protocol: 264.
     Add *note typing.is_protocol(): 265. to check whether a class is a
     *note typing.Protocol: 264.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104874(254): Document the ‘__name__’ and ‘__supertype__’
     attributes of *note typing.NewType: cf2.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104835(255): Removed the following *note unittest: 106.
     functions, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28e. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28f.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 290.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 291.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104804(256): Remove the untested and undocumented *note
     webbrowser: 115. ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-83863(257): Support for using *note pathlib.Path: 229. objects
     as context managers has been removed.  Before Python 3.9, exiting
     the context manager marked a path as “closed”, which caused some
     (but not all!)  methods to raise when called.  Since Python 3.9,
     using a path as a context manager does nothing.

   - gh-104799(258): Adjust the location of the (see PEP 695(259))
     ‘type_params’ field on *note ast.ClassDef: 170c, *note
     ast.AsyncFunctionDef: 170d, and *note ast.FunctionDef: 170e. to
     better preserve backward compatibility.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra

   - gh-104797(260): Allow *note typing.Protocol: 264. classes to
     inherit from *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-104783(261): Remove ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104780(262): Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(263): PEP 594(264): Remove the ‘telnetlib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(265): PEP 594(266): Remove the ‘imghdr’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(267): PEP 594(268): Remove the ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ modules,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(269): PEP 594(270): Remove the ‘sndhdr’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104372(271): On Linux where *note subprocess: d6. can use the
     ‘vfork()’ syscall for faster spawning, prevent the parent process
     from blocking other threads by dropping the GIL while it waits for
     the vfork’ed child process ‘exec()’ outcome.  This prevents
     spawning a binary from a slow filesystem from blocking the rest of
     the application.

   - gh-99108(272): We now release the GIL around built-in *note
     hashlib: 68. computations of reasonable size for the SHA families
     and MD5 hash functions, matching what our OpenSSL backed hash
     computations already does.

   - gh-102613(273): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22d. when expanding a pattern with a non-terminal “‘**’” component
     by filtering walked paths through a regular expression, rather than
     calling *note os.scandir(): a5b. more than once on each directory.

   - gh-104399(274): Prepare the ‘_tkinter’ module for building with Tcl
     9.0 and future libtommath by replacing usage of deprecated
     functions ‘mp_to_unsigned_bin_n()’ and ‘mp_unsigned_bin_size()’
     when necessary.

   - gh-102676(275): Add fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’,
     ‘end_offset’, ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’ and ‘oparg’
     to *note dis.Instruction: 1da.

   - gh-103558(276): Fixed ‘parent’ argument validation mechanism of
     *note argparse: 6.  Improved test coverage.

   - gh-103464(277): Provide helpful usage messages when parsing
     incorrect *note pdb: a5. commands.

   - gh-103384(278): Generalize the regex pattern
     ‘BaseConfigurator.INDEX_PATTERN’ to allow spaces and
     non-alphanumeric characters in keys.

   - gh-103124(279): Added multiline statement support for *note pdb:
     a5.

   - gh-101162(280): Forbid using ‘builtins.issubclass()’ with *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7e4. as the first argument.

   - gh-103200(281): Fix cache repopulation semantics of
     zipimport.invalidate_caches().  The cache is now repopulated upon
     retrieving files with an invalid cache, not when the cache is
     invalidated.

   - gh-100061(282): Fix a bug that causes wrong matches for regular
     expressions with possessive qualifier.

   - gh-77609(283): Add 'follow_symlinks' argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e, defaulting to
     false.

   - gh-102541(284): Hide traceback in *note help(): 8d4. prompt, when
     import failed.

   - gh-102120(285): Added a stream mode to ‘tarfile’ that allows for
     reading archives without caching info about the inner files.

   - gh-102029(286): Deprecate passing any arguments to *note
     threading.RLock(): 2e0.

   - gh-88233(287): Refactored ‘zipfile._strip_extra’ to use higher
     level abstractions for extras instead of a heavy-state loop.

   - gh-102024(288): Reduce calls of ‘_idle_semaphore.release()’ in
     ‘concurrent.futures.thread._worker()’.

   - gh-73435(289): Add support for recursive wildcards in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 4a6.

   - gh-84867(290): *note unittest.TestLoader: 28e. no longer loads test
     cases from exact *note unittest.TestCase: 447. and *note
     unittest.FunctionTestCase: 170f. classes.

   - gh-99203(291): Restore following CPython <= 3.10.5 behavior of
     *note shutil.make_archive(): 4ad.: do not create an empty archive
     if ‘root_dir’ is not a directory, and, in that case, raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. or *note NotADirectoryError: 1050.
     regardless of ‘format’ choice.  Beyond the brought-back behavior,
     the function may now also raise these exceptions in ‘dry_run’ mode.

   - gh-80480(292): Emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. for *note array:
     7.’s ‘'u'’ type code, deprecated in docs since Python 3.3.

   - gh-94924(293): *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 160f. now
     properly returns coroutine functions compatible with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6.

   - gh-94777(294): Fix hanging *note multiprocessing: 94.
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ when a child process crashes while data is
     being written in the call queue.

   - gh-92871(295): Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces,
     deprecated since Python 3.8.  All items are still available from
     the main *note typing: 104. module.

   - bpo-43633(296): Improve the textual representation of IPv4-mapped
     IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(297) Sections 2.2, 2.5.5.2) in *note
     ipaddress: 80.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-44850(298): Improve performance of *note
     operator.methodcaller(): e30. using the PEP 590(299) ‘vectorcall’
     convention.  Patch by Anthony Lee and Pieter Eendebak.

   - bpo-44185(300): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1710. will call
     the ‘close()’ method of the file handle mock when it is exiting
     from the context manager.  Patch by Samet Yaslan.

   - bpo-40988(301): Improve performance of *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 9ee. by caching the generated
     dispatch wrapper.  Optimization suggested by frederico.  Patch by
     @mental32, Alex Waygood and Pieter Eendebak.

   - bpo-41768(302): *note unittest.mock: 107. speccing no longer calls
     class properties.  Patch by Melanie Witt.

   - bpo-18319(303): Ensure ‘gettext(msg)’ retrieve translations even if
     a plural form exists.  In other words: ‘gettext(msg) ==
     ngettext(msg, '', 1)’.

   - bpo-17013(304): Add ‘ThreadingMock’ to *note unittest.mock: 107.
     that can be used to create Mock objects that can wait until they
     are called.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan and Mario Corchero.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110786

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103480

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110733

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110682

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110488

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110590

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65052

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110519

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110378

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110365

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110273

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110249

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110150

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110036

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110038

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110045

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88402

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109631

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109818

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109047

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109782

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109590

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109593

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74481

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109613

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109599

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109543

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109495

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109461

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109409

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109375

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107219

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66143

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109187

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50644

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109174

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109164

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109151

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108987

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109033

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108843

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108469

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105829

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108295

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108463

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107811

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64662

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108111

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108294

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108322

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83417

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105736

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108083

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107932

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107995

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107963

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81555

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50002

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93057

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76913

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107913

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107845

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107812

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107805

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107782

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107710

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107715

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100814

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106684

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107077

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107576

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107396

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107409

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107406

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78722

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62519

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107089

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82500

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83006

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65495

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106186

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105002

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106739

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106831

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106727

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106789

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105726

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106774

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105293

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106734

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106602

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106664

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106628

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89427

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106530

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106566

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106554

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106558

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100502

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106527

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106524

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106052

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106510

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106503

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90876

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106403

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106292

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106350

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106330

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106263

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106236

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106238

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106152

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106075

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104527

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106046

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105987

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105974

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105808

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (172) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105745

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687

   (178) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105684

   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105626

   (181) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105605

   (183) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (185) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (186) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (187) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (188) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (189) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (190) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (191) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105545

   (194) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (195) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105509

   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (197) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (198) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (199) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382

   (200) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376

   (201) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105332

   (202) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104554

   (203) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292

   (204) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105280

   (205) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (206) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105239

   (207) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (208) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105080

   (209) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105144

   (210) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948

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   (213) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104996

   (214) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (215) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103631

   (216) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104947

   (217) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

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   (219) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (220) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (221) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (222) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (223) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104935

   (224) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

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   (226) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (227) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (228) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (229) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104898

   (230) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

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   (233) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (234) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886

   (235) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786

   (236) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876

   (237) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (238) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (239) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (240) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (241) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (242) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552

   (243) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (244) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

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   (246) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (247) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (248) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (249) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780

   (250) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (251) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (252) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (253) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (254) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104874

   (255) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835

   (256) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804

   (257) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863

   (258) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (259) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (260) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104797

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   (262) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780

   (263) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (264) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (265) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (266) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (267) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (268) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (269) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (270) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (271) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (272) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (273) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (274) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104399

   (275) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102676

   (276) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103558

   (277) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103464

   (278) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103384

   (279) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103124

   (280) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101162

   (281) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103200

   (282) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100061

   (283) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609

   (284) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (285) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102120

   (286) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029

   (287) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (288) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102024

   (289) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435

   (290) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84867

   (291) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99203

   (292) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (293) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94924

   (294) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94777

   (295) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871

   (296) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43633

   (297) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (298) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44850

   (299) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (300) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44185

   (301) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40988

   (302) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41768

   (303) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18319

   (304) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17013


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<15>,  Next: Tests<17>,  Prev: Library<21>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-109209(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 4.2.

   - gh-108826(2): *note dis: 38. module command-line interface is now
     mentioned in documentation.

   - gh-107305(3): Add documentation for *note PyInterpreterConfig: 568.
     and *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 455.  Also clarify some of
     the nearby docs relative to per-interpreter GIL.

   - gh-107008(4): Document the *note curses: 2b. module variables *note
     LINES: 1712. and *note COLS: 1713.

   - gh-106948(5): Add a number of standard external names to
     ‘nitpick_ignore’.

   - gh-106232(6): Make timeit doc command lines compatible with Windows
     by using double quotes for arguments.  This works on linux and
     macOS also.

   - gh-105172(7): Fixed *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. docstring
     accounting for ‘typed’ argument’s different handling of str and
     int.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-105052(8): Update ‘timeit’ doc to specify that time in seconds
     is just the default.

   - gh-89455(9): Add missing documentation for the ‘max_group_depth’
     and ‘max_group_width’ parameters and the ‘exceptions’ attribute of
     the *note traceback.TracebackException: 25c. class.

   - gh-89412(10): Add missing documentation for the ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes of the *note traceback.TracebackException:
     25c. class.

   - gh-104943(11): Remove mentions of old Python versions in *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2b0.

   - gh-54738(12): Add documentation on how to localize the *note
     argparse: 6. module.

   - gh-102823(13): Document the return type of ‘x // y’ when ‘x’ and
     ‘y’ have type *note float: 2ef.

   - gh-102759(14): Align function signature for ‘functools.reduce’ in
     documentation and docstring with the C implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109209

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108826

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107008

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106948

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106232

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105172

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105052

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89412

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104943

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54738

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102823

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102759


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<17>,  Next: Build<19>,  Prev: Documentation<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-110647(1): Fix test_stress_modifying_handlers() of test_signal.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(2): Fix test_tools.test_freeze on FreeBSD: run “make
     distclean” instead of “make clean” in the copied source directory
     to remove also the “python” program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110167(3): Fix a deadlock in test_socket when server fails with
     a timeout but the client is still running in its thread.  Don’t
     hold a lock to call cleanup functions in doCleanups().  One of the
     cleanup function waits until the client completes, whereas the
     client could deadlock if it called addCleanup() in such situation.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110388(4): Add tests for *note tty: 100.

   - gh-81002(5): Add tests for *note termios: e1.

   - gh-110367(6): regrtest: When using worker processes (-jN) with
     –verbose3 option, regrtest can now display the worker output even
     if a worker process does crash.  Previously, sys.stdout and
     sys.stderr were replaced and so the worker output was lost on a
     crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110267(7): Add tests for pickling and copying PyStructSequence
     objects.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110171(8): ‘libregrtest’ now always sets and shows
     ‘random.seed’, so tests are more reproducible.  Use ‘--randseed’
     flag to pass the explicit random seed for tests.

   - gh-110152(9): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/run_tests.py’ and ‘make
     hostrunnertest’.  Just run ‘./python -m test --slow-ci’, ‘make
     buildbottest’ or ‘make test’ instead.  Python test runner
     (regrtest) now handles cross-compilation and HOSTRUNNER. It also
     adds options to Python such fast ‘-u -E -W default -bb’ when
     ‘--fast-ci’ or ‘--slow-ci’ option is used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110031(10): Skip test_threading tests using thread+fork if
     Python is built with Address Sanitizer (ASAN). Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110088(11): Fix test_asyncio timeouts: don’t measure the maximum
     duration, a test should not measure a CI performance.  Only measure
     the minimum duration when a task has a timeout or delay.  Add
     ‘CLOCK_RES’ to ‘test_asyncio.utils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109974(12): Fix race conditions in test_threading lock tests.
     Wait until a condition is met rather than using *note time.sleep():
     697. with a hardcoded number of seconds.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110033(13): Fix ‘test_interprocess_signal()’ of ‘test_signal’.
     Make sure that the ‘subprocess.Popen’ object is deleted before the
     test raising an exception in a signal handler.  Otherwise,
     ‘Popen.__del__()’ can get the exception which is logged as
     ‘Exception ignored in: ...’ and the test fails.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109594(14): Fix test_timeout() of
     test_concurrent_futures.test_wait.  Remove the future which may or
     may not complete depending if it takes longer than the timeout or
     not.  Keep the second future which does not complete before wait()
     timeout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109972(15): Split test_gdb.py file into a test_gdb package made
     of multiple tests, so tests can now be run in parallel.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(16): regrtest: When ‘--fast-ci’ or ‘--slow-ci’ option is
     used, regrtest now replaces the current process with a new process
     to add ‘-u -W default -bb -E’ options to Python.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109748(17): Fix ‘test_zippath_from_non_installed_posix()’ of
     test_venv: don’t copy ‘__pycache__/’ sub-directories, because they
     can be modified by other Python tests running in parallel.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109739(18): regrtest: Fix reference leak check on Windows.
     Disable the load tracker on Windows in the reference leak check
     mode (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109276(19): regrtest: When a test fails with “env changed” and
     the –rerun option is used, the test is now re-run in verbose mode
     in a fresh process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(20): Skip test_freeze_simple_script() of
     test_tools.test_freeze if Python is built with ‘./configure
     --enable-optimizations’, which means with Profile Guided
     Optimization (PGO): it just makes the test too slow.  The freeze
     tool is tested by many other CIs with other (faster) compiler
     flags.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109580(21): Skip ‘test_perf_profiler’ if Python is built with
     ASAN, MSAN or UBSAN sanitizer.  Python does crash randomly in this
     test on such build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(22): regrtest: Add ‘--fast-ci’ and ‘--slow-ci’ options.
     ‘--fast-ci’ uses a default timeout of 10 minutes and ‘-u all,-cpu’
     (skip slowest tests).  ‘--slow-ci’ uses a default timeout of 20
     minutes and ‘-u all’ (run all tests).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109425(23): libregrtest now decodes stdout of test worker
     processes with the “backslashreplace” error handler to log
     corrupted stdout, instead of failing with an error and not logging
     the stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109396(24): Fix ‘test_socket.test_hmac_sha1()’ in FIPS mode.
     Use a longer key: FIPS mode requires at least of at least 112 bits.
     The previous key was only 32 bits.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(25): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb “bt” command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109276(26): libregrtest now calls *note random.seed(): 1264.
     before running each test file when ‘-r/--randomize’ command line
     option is used.  Moreover, it’s also called in worker processes.
     It should help to make tests more deterministic.  Previously, it
     was only called once in the main process before running all test
     files and it was not called in worker processes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109276(27): libregrtest now uses a separated file descriptor to
     write test result as JSON. Previously, if a test wrote debug
     messages late around the JSON, the main test process failed to
     parse JSON. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108996(28): Fix and enable ‘test_msvcrt’.

   - gh-109237(29): Fix ‘test_site.test_underpth_basic()’ when the
     working directory contains at least one non-ASCII character: encode
     the ‘._pth’ file to UTF-8 and enable the UTF-8 Mode to use UTF-8
     for the child process stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109230(30): Fix ‘test_pyexpat.test_exception()’: it can now be
     run from a directory different than Python source code directory.
     Before, the test failed in this case.  Skip the test if
     Modules/pyexpat.c source is not available.  Skip also the test on
     Python implementations other than CPython.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108996(31): Add tests for ‘msvcrt’.

   - gh-109015(32): Fix test_asyncio, test_imaplib and test_socket tests
     on FreeBSD if the TCP blackhole is enabled (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole’).  Skip the few tests which failed with
     ‘ETIMEDOUT’ which such non standard configuration.  Currently, the
     FreeBSD GCP image enables TCP and UDP blackhole(33) (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole=2’ and ‘sysctl net.inet.udp.blackhole=1’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(34): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if gdb is unable to retrieve Python
     frame objects: if a frame is ‘<optimized out>’.  When Python is
     built with “clang -Og”, gdb can fail to retrieve the 'frame'
     parameter of ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’.  In this case, tests
     like ‘py_bt()’ are likely to fail.  Without getting access to
     Python frames, ‘python-gdb.py’ is mostly clueless on retrieving the
     Python traceback.  Moreover, ‘test_gdb’ is no longer skipped on
     macOS if Python is built with Clang.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108962(35): Skip ‘test_tempfile.test_flags()’ if ‘chflags()’
     fails with “OSError: [Errno 45] Operation not supported” (ex: on
     FreeBSD 13).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(36): FreeBSD 13.2 CI coverage for pull requests is now
     provided by Cirrus-CI (a hosted CI service that supports Linux,
     macOS, Windows, and FreeBSD).

   - gh-89392(37): Removed support of ‘test_main()’ function in tests.
     They now always use normal unittest test runner.

   - gh-108851(38): Fix ‘test_tomllib’ recursion tests for WASI
     buildbots: reduce the recursion limit and compute the maximum
     nested array/dict depending on the current available recursion
     limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(39): Add ‘get_recursion_available()’ and
     ‘get_recursion_depth()’ functions to the *note test.support: e4.
     module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(40): Add ‘--fail-rerun option’ option to regrtest: if a
     test failed when then passed when rerun in verbose mode, exit the
     process with exit code 2 (error), instead of exit code 0 (success).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(41): Rename regrtest ‘--verbose2’ option (‘-w’) to
     ‘--rerun’.  Keep ‘--verbose2’ as a deprecated alias.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(42): When regrtest reruns failed tests in verbose mode
     (‘./python -m test --rerun’), tests are now rerun in fresh worker
     processes rather than being executed in the main process.  If a
     test does crash or is killed by a timeout, the main process can
     detect and handle the killed worker process.  Tests are rerun in
     parallel if the ‘-jN’ option is used to run tests in parallel.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108822(43): ‘regrtest’ now computes statistics on all tests:
     successes, failures and skipped.  ‘test_netrc’,
     ‘test_pep646_syntax’ and ‘test_xml_etree’ now return results in
     their ‘test_main()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner and Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-108794(44): The *note doctest.DocTestRunner.run(): 1dc. method
     now counts the number of skipped tests.  Add *note
     doctest.DocTestRunner.skips: 1dd. and *note
     doctest.TestResults.skipped: 1de. attributes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108388(45): Convert test_concurrent_futures to a package of 7
     sub-tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108388(46): Split test_multiprocessing_fork,
     test_multiprocessing_forkserver and test_multiprocessing_spawn into
     test packages.  Each package is made of 4 sub-tests: processes,
     threads, manager and misc.  It allows running more tests in
     parallel and so reduce the total test duration.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105776(47): Fix test_cppext when the C compiler command
     ‘-std=c11’ option: remove ‘-std=’ options from the compiler
     command.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107652(48): Set up CIFuzz to run fuzz targets in GitHub Actions.
     Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-107237(49): ‘test_logging’: Fix ‘test_udp_reconnection()’ by
     increasing the timeout from 100 ms to 5 minutes (LONG_TIMEOUT).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107178(50): Add the C API test for functions in the Mapping
     Protocol, the Sequence Protocol and some functions in the Object
     Protocol.

   - gh-106714(51): test_capi: Fix test_no_FatalError_infinite_loop() to
     no longer write a coredump, by using
     test.support.SuppressCrashReport.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104090(52): Avoid creating a reference to the test object in
     *note collectedDurations(): 1715.

   - gh-106752(53): Moved tests for ‘zipfile.Path’ into
     ‘Lib/test/test_zipfile/_path’.  Made ‘zipfile._path’ a package.

   - gh-106690(54): Add .coveragerc to cpython repository for use with
     coverage package.

   - gh-101634(55): When running the Python test suite with ‘-jN’
     option, if a worker stdout cannot be decoded from the locale
     encoding report a failed testn so the exitcode is non-zero.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105084(56): When the Python build is configured
     ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir’, tests requiring the ‘setuptools’ and
     ‘wheel’ wheels will search for the wheels in ‘WHEEL_PKG_DIR’.

   - gh-81005(57): String tests are modified to reflect that ‘str’ and
     ‘unicode’ are merged in Python 3.  Patch by Daniel Fortunov.

   - gh-103186(58): Suppress and assert expected RuntimeWarnings in
     test_sys_settrace.py

   - gh-69714(59): Add additional tests to *note calendar: 14. to
     achieve full test coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110647

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81002

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110267

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110171

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110152

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110031

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110088

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109974

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110033

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109594

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109972

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109748

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109739

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109580

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109425

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109396

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109237

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109230

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109015

   (33) https://reviews.freebsd.org/D41751

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108962

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108822

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105776

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107652

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107237

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107178

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106714

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106690

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101634

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105084

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81005

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69714


File: python.info,  Node: Build<19>,  Next: Windows<16>,  Prev: Tests<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.6 Build
...............

   - gh-103053(1): “make check-clean-src” now also checks if the
     “python” program is found in the source directory: fail with an
     error if it does exist.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109191(2): Fix compile error when building with recent versions
     of libedit.

   - gh-110276(3): No longer ignore *note PROFILE_TASK: 1717. failure
     silently: command used by Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(4): Remove ‘make testall’ target: use ‘make buildbottest’
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109740(5): The experimental ‘--disable-gil’ configure flag now
     includes “t” (for “threaded”) in extension ABI tags.

   - gh-109054(6): Fix building the ‘_testcapi’ extension on Linux
     AArch64 which requires linking to libatomic when
     ‘<cpython/pyatomic.h>’ is used: the ‘_Py_atomic_or_uint64()’
     function requires libatomic ‘__atomic_fetch_or_8()’ on this
     platform.  The configure script now checks if linking to libatomic
     is needed and generates a new LIBATOMIC variable used to build the
     _testcapi extension.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-63760(7): Fix Solaris build: no longer redefine the
     ‘gethostname()’ function.  Solaris defines the function since 2005.
     Patch by Victor Stinner, original patch by Jakub Kulík.

   - gh-108740(8): Fix a race condition in ‘make regen-all’.  The
     ‘deepfreeze.c’ source and files generated by Argument Clinic are
     now generated or updated before generating “global objects”.
     Previously, some identifiers may miss depending on the order in
     which these files were generated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108634(9): Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs:
     38e. (tracing references) is now ABI compatible with Python release
     build and *note debug build: 1f9.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(10): The ‘_stat’ C extension is now built with the *note
     limited C API: 38f.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108447(11): Fix x86_64 GNU/Hurd build

   - gh-107814(12): When calling ‘find_python.bat’ with ‘-q’ it did not
     properly silence the output of nuget.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-105481(13): Remove the make target ‘regen-opcode-targets’, merge
     its work into ‘regen-opcode’ which repeats most of the calculation.
     This simplifies the code for the build and reduces code
     duplication.

   - gh-106881(14): Check for ‘linux/limits.h’ before including it in
     ‘Modules/posixmodule.c’.

   - gh-95855(15): Refactor platform triplet detection code and add
     detection for MIPS soft float and musl libc.

   - gh-106962(16): Detect MPI compilers in ‘configure’.

   - gh-106118(17): Fix compilation for platforms without ‘O_CLOEXEC’.
     The issue was introduced with Python 3.12b1 in gh-103295(18).
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-105875(19): SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the
     *note sqlite3: cf. extension module.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-90005(20): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ where we could end up
     unintentionally linking with ‘libbsd’.

   - gh-102404(21): Document how to perform a WASI build on Linux.  Also
     add Tools/wasm/build_wasi.sh as a reference implementation of the
     docs.

   - gh-89886(22): Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to
     regenerate ‘!configure’.

   - gh-104692(23): Include ‘commoninstall’ as a prerequisite for
     ‘bininstall’

     This ensures that ‘commoninstall’ is completed before ‘bininstall’
     is started when parallel builds are used (‘make -j install’), and
     so the ‘python3’ symlink is only installed after all standard
     library modules are installed.

   - gh-101538(24): Add experimental wasi-threads support.  Patch by
     Takashi Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110276

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109740

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109054

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63760

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108447

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107814

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106881

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95855

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106962

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106118

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102404

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104692

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101538


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<16>,  Next: macOS<12>,  Prev: Build<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-110437(1): Allows overriding the source of VC redistributables
     so that releases can be guaranteed to never downgrade between
     updates.

   - gh-109286(2): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-82367(3): *note os.path.realpath(): 225. now resolves MS-DOS
     style file names even if the file is not accessible.  Patch by
     Moonsik Park.

   - gh-109991(4): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   - gh-106242(5): Fixes *note realpath(): 225. to behave consistently
     when passed a path containing an embedded null character on
     Windows.  In strict mode, it now raises *note OSError: 411. instead
     of the unexpected *note ValueError: 202, and in non-strict mode
     will make the path absolute.

   - gh-83180(6): Changes the *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. to
     prefer an active virtual environment when the launched script has a
     shebang line using a Unix-like virtual command, even if the command
     requests a specific version of Python.

   - gh-106844(7): Fix integer overflow and truncating by the null
     character in ‘_winapi.LCMapStringEx()’ which affects
     ‘ntpath.normcase()’.

   - gh-105436(8): Ensure that an empty environment block is terminated
     by two null characters, as is required by Windows.

   - gh-105146(9): Updated the links at the end of the installer to
     point to Discourse rather than the mailing lists.

   - gh-103646(10): When installed from the Microsoft Store, ‘pip’ no
     longer defaults to per-user installs.  However, as the install
     directory is unwritable, it should automatically decide to do a
     per-user install anyway.  This should resolve issues when ‘pip’ is
     passed an option that conflicts with ‘--user’.

   - gh-88745(11): Improve performance of *note shutil.copy2(): a57. by
     using the operating system’s ‘CopyFile2’ function.  This may result
     in subtle changes to metadata copied along with some files,
     bringing them in line with normal OS behavior.

   - gh-104820(12): Fixes *note stat(): 49a. and related functions on
     file systems that do not support file ID requests.  This includes
     FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-104803(13): Add *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 164f. to detect
     whether a path is on a Windows Dev Drive.  Returns ‘False’ on
     platforms that do not support Dev Drive, and is absent on
     non-Windows platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110437

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83180

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106844

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105436

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105146

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103646

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88745

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104820

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<12>,  Next: IDLE<15>,  Prev: Windows<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-109286(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   - gh-99079(3): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<10>,  Prev: macOS<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104719(1): Remove IDLE’s modification of tokenize.tabsize and
     test other uses of tokenize data and methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104719


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<10>,  Next: C API<19>,  Prev: IDLE<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.11 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.11, and 3.1.3.

   - gh-108494(2): Argument Clinic(3) now has a partial support of the
     *note Limited API: 38f.: see documentation in the Python
     Developer's Guide(4) Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107704(5): It is now possible to deprecate passing keyword
     arguments for keyword-or-positional parameters with Argument
     Clinic, using the new ‘/ [from X.Y]’ syntax.  (To be read as
     '“positional-only from Python version X.Y”'.)  See documentation in
     the Python Developer's Guide(6) for more information.

   - gh-107880(7): Argument Clinic can now clone ‘__init__()’ and
     ‘__new__()’ methods.

   - gh-104683(8): Add ‘--exclude’ option to Argument Clinic CLI.

   - gh-95065(9): Argument Clinic now supports overriding automatically
     generated signature by using directive ‘@text_signature’.  See
     documentation in the Python Developer's Guide(10)

   - gh-107609(11): Fix duplicate module check in Argument Clinic.
     Previously, a duplicate definition would incorrectly be silently
     accepted.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107467(12): The Argument Clinic command-line tool now prints to
     stderr instead of stdout on failure.

   - gh-106970(13): Fix bugs in the Argument Clinic ‘destination <name>
     clear’ command; the destination buffers would never be cleared, and
     the ‘destination’ directive parser would simply continue to the
     fault handler after processing the command.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-106706(14): Change bytecode syntax for families to remove
     redundant name matching pseudo syntax.

   - gh-106359(15): Argument Clinic now explicitly forbids “kwarg
     splats” in function calls used as annotations.

   - gh-103186(16): ‘freeze’ now fetches ‘CONFIG_ARGS’ from the original
     CPython instance the Makefile uses to call utility scripts.  Patch
     by Ijtaba Hussain.

   - gh-95065(17): It is now possible to deprecate passing parameters
     positionally with Argument Clinic, using the new ‘* [from X.Y]’
     syntax.  (To be read as '“keyword-only from Python version X.Y”'.)
     See documentation in the Python Developer's Guide(18) for more
     information.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland with help from Alex
     Waygood, Nikita Sobolev, and Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108494

   (3) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (4) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-limited-capi

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107704

   (6) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-keyword

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107880

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104683

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065

   (10) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-override-signature

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107609

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107467

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106970

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106706

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106359

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065

   (18) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-positional


File: python.info,  Node: C API<19>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.23.22.11 C API
................

   - gh-85283(1): If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 418. macro is defined,
     ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     macros are now undefined by ‘<Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110289(2): Add *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36f. and
     *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 370. functions.

   - gh-110235(3): Raise *note TypeError: 532. for duplicate/unknown
     fields in ‘PyStructSequence’ constructor.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110014(4): Remove undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from
     the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109521(5): *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 171d. now sets
     RuntimeError if it fails to get *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. or
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. or they are not list and dict
     correspondingly.  Previously it could return NULL without setting
     error in obscure cases, crash or raise SystemError if these
     attributes have wrong type.

   - gh-108724(6): Add *note PyMutex: 15b. internal-only lightweight
     locking API.

   - gh-85283(7): Add *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 367. function: similar
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 368, but pass event arguments as a Python
     *note tuple: 369. object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108867(8): Add *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36a.
     function: similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36b, but don’t kill
     the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is
     responsible to check if the result is NULL. Previously, the
     function was private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(9): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ctype.h>’
     standard header file.  If needed, it should now be included
     explicitly.  For example, it provides ‘isalpha()’ and ‘tolower()’
     functions which are locale dependent.  Python provides locale
     independent functions, like ‘Py_ISALPHA()’ and ‘Py_TOLOWER()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(10): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<unistd.h>’
     standard header file.  If needed, it should now be included
     explicitly.  For example, it provides the functions: ‘close()’,
     ‘getpagesize()’, ‘getpid()’ and ‘sysconf()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108765(11): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ieeefp.h>’
     standard header.  It was included for the ‘finite()’ function which
     is now provided by the ‘<math.h>’ header.  It should now be
     included explicitly if needed.  Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’
     macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(12): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header
     files: ‘<time.h>’, ‘<sys/select.h>’ and ‘<sys/time.h>’.  If needed,
     they should now be included explicitly.  For example, ‘<time.h>’
     provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘<sys/select.h>’
     provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘<sys/time.h>’ provides the
     ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108511(13): Add functions *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError():
     373, *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 375, *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 377. and *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 379.

   - gh-107073(14): Add *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 362. and
     *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 363. functions which must be
     called by the traverse and clear functions of a type using *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108634(15): Python built with ‘configure’ *note
     -with-trace-refs: 38e. (tracing references) now supports the *note
     Limited API: 38f.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108014(16): Add *note PyLong_AsInt(): 358. function: similar to
     *note PyLong_AsLong(): 359, but store the result in a C int instead
     of a C long.  Previously, it was known as the private function
     ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’ (with an underscore prefix).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108314(17): Add *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 330. function:
     same as *note PyDict_Contains(): 331, but 'key' is specified as a
     const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 332.*.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108337(18): Add atomic operations on additional data types in
     pyatomic.h.

   - gh-108014(19): Add *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 353. function: check if
     the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14e.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107916(20): C API functions *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 171e, *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 171f. and *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1720. save now the error
     code before calling *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 1721.

   - gh-107915(21): Such C API functions as ‘PyErr_SetString()’,
     ‘PyErr_Format()’, ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename()’ and many
     others no longer crash or ignore errors if it failed to format the
     error message or decode the filename.  Instead, they keep a
     corresponding error.

   - gh-107810(22): Improve *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. for uses of
     *note PyType_Spec: 1722. with metaclasses that have custom
     ‘tp_new’.

   - gh-107249(23): Implement the *note Py_UNUSED: 1723. macro for
     Windows MSVC compiler.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107226(24): *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e. is now only
     available in the limited API version 3.10 or later.

   - gh-106320(25): Remove private ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’ alias to
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bb8.  It was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.0 - 3.2.  The *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8():
     bb8. is available since Python 3.3.  The *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 117f. function can be used to keep
     compatibility with Python 3.2 and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106572(26): Convert *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1540. and *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1541. macros to functions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106307(27): Add *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33e.
     function.

   - gh-106521(28): Add *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 342. and *note
     PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 343. functions.

   - gh-106320(29): Remove ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a7. which was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106316(30): Remove ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file: it only
     contained private functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106023(31): Remove private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use
     ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP
     590(32)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106168(33): If Python is built in *note debug mode: 1f9. or
     *note with assertions: 385, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 386. and
     *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 387. now check the index argument with an
     assertion.  If the assertion fails, make sure that the size is set
     before.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106084(34): Remove the old aliases to functions calling
     functions which were kept for backward compatibility with Python
     3.8 provisional API:

        * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’: use
          ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’

        * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’: use
          ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’

        * ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg()’: use ‘PyObject_CallOneArg()’

        * ‘_PyObject_FastCallDict()’: use ‘PyObject_VectorcallDict()’

        * ‘_PyObject_Vectorcall()’: use ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’

        * ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’: use
          ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’

        * ‘_PyVectorcall_Function()’: use ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’

     Just remove the underscore prefix to update your code.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106004(35): Adds *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333. and *note
     PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 334. functions: similar to *note
     PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 335. but returning a *note strong
     reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105927(36): Deprecate the *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. and
     *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b9. functions: use the new *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105927(37): Add *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. function: similar
     to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. but returns a *note strong
     reference: 336, or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105922(38): Add *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 351.: similar to
     *note PyImport_AddModule(): 352, but return a *note strong
     reference: 336. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 337.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105227(39): The new *note PyType_GetDict(): 1724. provides the
     dictionary for the given type object that is normally exposed by
     ‘cls.__dict__’.  Normally it’s sufficient to use *note tp_dict:
     1725, but for the static builtin types ‘tp_dict’ is now always
     ‘NULL’.  ‘PyType_GetDict()’ provides the correct dict object
     instead.

   - gh-105375(40): Fix a bug in *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1726. where
     an exception could end up being overwritten if the API failed
     internally.

   - gh-105603(41): We’ve renamed the new (in 3.12)
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig.own_gil’ to ‘PyInterpreterConfig.gil’ and
     changed the meaning of the value from “bool” to an integer with
     supported values of ‘PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL’,
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL’, and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL’.  The default is “shared”.

   - gh-105387(42): In the limited C API version 3.12, *note
     Py_INCREF(): 569. and *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. functions are now
     implemented as opaque function calls to hide implementation
     details.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105396(43): Deprecate the *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock():
     3b7. function which is just an alias to *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-103968(44): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b. now allows
     metaclasses with ‘tp_new’ set to ‘NULL’.

   - gh-105268(45): Remove the old private, undocumented and untested
     ‘_PyGC_FINALIZED()’ macro which was kept for backward compatibility
     with Python 3.8 and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105182(46): Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.2.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105182(47): Remove ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.9.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105145(48): Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85275(49): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are
     removed.  Please migrate to new buffer protocol; *note
     PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.

   - gh-105156(50): Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’
     types: use directly the ‘wchar_t’ type instead.  Since Python 3.3,
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just aliases to ‘wchar_t’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105145(51): Remove the following old functions to configure the
     Python initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105107(52): Remove functions deprecated in Python 3.9.

        * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: use
          *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 395. and *note PyObject_Call():
          396. (positional arguments must not be 'NULL') instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: use *note PyObject_CallFunction():
          398. instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399.
          instead.

        * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: use *note PyObject_Call(): 396. instead.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105115(53): ‘PyTypeObject.tp_bases’ (and ‘tp_mro’) for builtin
     static types are now shared by all interpreters, whereas in
     3.12-beta1 they were stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Also note
     that now the tuples are immortal objects.

   - gh-105071(54): Add ‘PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar’ to the unstable
     C api to expose the implementation of *note except*: 5b2.

   - gh-104922(55): ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is no longer required to use
     ‘'#'’ formats in APIs like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. and *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.  They uses ‘Py_ssize_t’ for ‘'#'’ regardless
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - gh-104584(56): Add an unstable C API for hooking in an optimizer.
     This is mainly internal, but marked “unstable” to allow third-party
     experimentation.

   - gh-104668(57): Don’t call *note PyOS_InputHook: 580. or *note
     PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 581. in subinterpreters, since it’s
     generally difficult to avoid using global state in their registered
     callbacks.  This also avoids situations where extensions may find
     themselves running in a subinterpreter they don’t support (or
     haven’t yet been loaded in).

   - bpo-42327(58): Add *note PyModule_Add(): 35d. function: similar to
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e. and *note PyModule_AddObject():
     35f, but always steals a reference to the value.

   - bpo-40309(59): Properly handle trailing spaces before closing
     parenthesis in *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4. format strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110235

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109521

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108337

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107916

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107915

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107810

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107249

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107226

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106572

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106084

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105227

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105603

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105268

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105115

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105071

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42327

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40309


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.23 Python 3.12.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-05-22'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<15>,  Next: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99889(1): Fixed a security in flaw in ‘uu.decode()’ that could
     allow for directory traversal based on the input if no ‘out_file’
     was specified.

   - gh-104049(2): Do not expose the local on-disk location in directory
     indexes produced by ‘http.client.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’.

   - gh-99108(3): Upgrade built-in *note hashlib: 68. SHA3
     implementation to a verified implementation from the ‘HACL*’
     project.  Used when OpenSSL is not present or lacks SHA3.

   - gh-102153(4): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3c. now strips
     leading C0 control and space characters following the specification
     for URLs defined by WHATWG in response to CVE 2023-24329(5).  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99889

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104049

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102153

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-24329


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<23>,  Next: Library<22>,  Prev: Security<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102856(1): Implement PEP 701 changes in the *note tokenize: fb.
     module.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo Salgado

   - gh-104615(2): Fix wrong ordering of assignments in code like ‘a, a
     = x, y’.  Contributed by Carl Meyer.

   - gh-104572(3): Improve syntax error message for invalid constructs
     in PEP 695(4) contexts and in annotations when ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is active.

   - gh-104482(5): Fix three error handling bugs in ast.c’s validation
     of pattern matching statements.

   - gh-102818(6): Do not add a frame to the traceback in the
     ‘sys.setprofile’ and ‘sys.settrace’ trampoline functions.  This
     ensures that frames are not duplicated if an exception is raised in
     the callback function, and ensures that frames are not omitted if a
     C callback is used and that does not add the frame.

   - gh-104405(7): Fix an issue where some *note bytecode: 187.
     instructions could ignore PEP 523(8) when “inlining” calls.

   - gh-103082(9): Change behavior of ‘sys.monitoring.events.LINE’
     events in ‘sys.monitoring’: Line events now occur when a new line
     is reached dynamically, instead of using a static approximation, as
     before.  This makes the behavior very similar to that of “line”
     events in ‘sys.settrace’.  This should ease porting of tools from
     3.11 to 3.12.

   - gh-104263(10): Fix ‘float("nan")’ to produce a quiet NaN on
     platforms (like MIPS) where the meaning of the signalling / quiet
     bit is inverted from its usual meaning.  Also introduce a new macro
     ‘Py_INFINITY’ matching C99’s ‘INFINITY’, and refactor internals to
     rely on C99’s ‘NAN’ and ‘INFINITY’ macros instead of hard-coding
     bit patterns for infinities and NaNs.  Thanks Sebastian Berg.

   - gh-99113(11): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     that they support running in subinterpreters that have their own
     GIL. This is done by using ‘Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED’
     as the value for the ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def
     slot.  Otherwise the module, by default, cannot be imported in such
     subinterpreters.  (This does not affect the main interpreter or
     subinterpreters that do not have their own GIL.) In addition to the
     isolation that multi-phase init already normally requires, support
     for per-interpreter GIL involves one additional constraint:
     thread-safety.  If the module has external (linked) dependencies
     and those libraries have any state that isn’t thread-safe then the
     module must do the additional work to add thread-safety.  This
     should be an uncommon case.

   - gh-99113(12): The GIL is now (optionally) per-interpreter.  This is
     the fundamental change for PEP 684.  This is all made possible by
     virtue of the isolated state of each interpreter in the process.
     The behavior of the main interpreter remains unchanged.  Likewise,
     interpreters created using ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’ are not affected.
     To get an interpreter with its own GIL, call
     ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.

   - gh-104108(13): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     whether or not they actually support multiple interpreters.  By
     default such modules are expected to support use in multiple
     interpreters.  In the uncommon case that one does not, it may use
     the new ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def slot.  A value of
     ‘0’ means the module does not support them.  ‘1’ means it does.
     The default is ‘1’.

   - gh-104142(14): Fix an issue where *note list: 60b. or *note tuple:
     369. repetition could fail to respect PEP 683(15).

   - gh-104078(16): Improve the performance of *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 376.

   - gh-104066(17): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 4cc. for
     module objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-104028(18): Reduce object creation while calling callback
     function from gc.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-104018(19): Disallow the “z” format specifier in %-format of
     bytes objects.

   - gh-102213(20): Fix performance loss when accessing an object’s
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-103895(21): Improve handling of edge cases in showing
     ‘Exception.__notes__’.  Ensures that the messages always end with a
     newline and that string/bytes are not exploded over multiple lines.
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-103907(22): Don’t modify the refcounts of known immortal objects
     (*note True: c0a, *note False: b34, and *note None: 66f.) in the
     main interpreter loop.

   - gh-103899(23): Provide a helpful hint in the *note TypeError: 532.
     message when accidentally calling a *note module: 1666. object that
     has a callable attribute of the same name (such as *note dis.dis():
     b31. or *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.).

   - gh-103845(24): Remove both line and instruction instrumentation
     before adding new ones for monitoring, to avoid newly added
     instrumentation being removed immediately.

   - gh-103763(25): Implement PEP 695(26), adding syntactic support for
     generic classes, generic functions, and type aliases.

     A new ‘type X = ...’ syntax is added for type aliases, which
     resolves at runtime to an instance of the new class
     ‘typing.TypeAliasType’.  The value is lazily evaluated and is
     accessible through the ‘.__value__’ attribute.  This is implemented
     as a new AST node ‘ast.TypeAlias’.

     New syntax (‘class X[T]: ...’, ‘def func[T](): ...’) is added for
     defining generic functions and classes.  This is implemented as a
     new ‘type_params’ attribute on the AST nodes for classes and
     functions.  This node holds instances of the new AST classes
     ‘ast.TypeVar’, ‘ast.ParamSpec’, and ‘ast.TypeVarTuple’.

     ‘typing.TypeVar’, ‘typing.ParamSpec’, ‘typing.ParamSpecArgs’,
     ‘typing.ParamSpecKwargs’, ‘typing.TypeVarTuple’, and
     ‘typing.Generic’ are now implemented in C rather than Python.

     There are new bytecode instructions ‘LOAD_LOCALS’,
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_GLOBAL’, and ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_DEREF’ to
     support correct resolution of names in class namespaces.

     Patch by Eric Traut, Larry Hastings, and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103801(27): Adds three minor linting fixes to the wasm module
     caught that were caught by ruff.

   - gh-103793(28): Optimized asyncio Task creation by deferring
     expensive string formatting (task name generation) from Task
     creation to the first time ‘get_name’ is called.  This makes
     asyncio benchmarks up to 5% faster.

   - gh-102310(29): Change the error range for invalid bytes literals.

   - gh-103590(30): Do not wrap a single exception raised from a
     ‘try-except*’ construct in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.

   - gh-103650(31): Change the perf map format to remove the ‘0x’ prefix
     from the addresses

   - gh-102856(32): Implement the required C tokenizer changes for PEP
     701.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou, Batuhan
     Taskaya, Marta Gómez Macías and sunmy2019.

   - gh-100530(33): Clarify the error message raised when the called
     part of a class pattern isn’t actually a class.

   - gh-101517(34): Fix bug in line numbers of instructions emitted for
     *note except*: 5b2.

   - gh-103492(35): Clarify *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. with literal ‘is’
     comparison by specifying which literal is problematic, since
     comparisons using ‘is’ with e.g.  ‘None’ and bool literals are
     idiomatic.

   - gh-87729(36): Add *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4d6. (and a specialization
     for ‘super().method()’) to speed up ‘super().method()’ and
     ‘super().attr’.  This makes ‘super().method()’ roughly 2.3x faster
     and brings it within 20% of the performance of a simple method
     call.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-103488(37): Change the internal offset distinguishing yield and
     return target addresses, so that the instruction pointer is correct
     for exception handling and other stack unwinding.

   - gh-82012(38): The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is
     deprecated.  It returns the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’ representation such that ‘bool(~True) == True’, which can be
     confusing.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation of bools.  In the rare
     case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’, convert to int explicitly ‘~int(x)’.

   - gh-77757(39): Exceptions raised in a typeobject’s ‘__set_name__’
     method are no longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 195.  Context
     information is added to the exception as a PEP 678(40) note.

   - gh-103333(41): *note AttributeError: 346. now retains the ‘name’
     attribute when pickled and unpickled.

   - gh-103242(42): Migrate *note set_ecdh_curve(): 1134. method not to
     use deprecated OpenSSL APIs.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103323(43): We’ve replaced our use of
     ‘_PyRuntime.tstate_current’ with a thread-local variable.  This is
     a fairly low-level implementation detail, and there should be no
     change in behavior.

   - gh-84436(44): The implementation of PEP-683 which adds Immortal
     Objects by using a fixed reference count that skips reference
     counting to make objects truly immutable.

   - gh-102700(45): Allow built-in modules to be submodules.  This
     allows submodules to be statically linked into a CPython binary.

   - gh-103082(46): Implement PEP 669(47) Low Impact Monitoring for
     CPython.

   - gh-88691(48): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 6f2. entries
     for *note CALL: 700.

   - gh-102500(49): Make the buffer protocol accessible in Python code
     using the new ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’ magic methods.
     See PEP 688(50) for details.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-97933(51): PEP 709(52): inline list, dict and set comprehensions
     to improve performance and reduce bytecode size.

   - gh-99184(53): Bypass instance attribute access of ‘__name__’ in
     ‘repr’ of *note weakref.ref: fe6.

   - gh-98003(54): Complex function calls are now faster and consume no
     C stack space.

   - bpo-39610(55): ‘len()’ for 0-dimensional *note memoryview: 462.
     objects (such as ‘memoryview(ctypes.c_uint8(42))’) now raises a
     *note TypeError: 532.  Previously this returned ‘1’, which was not
     consistent with ‘mem_0d[0]’ raising an *note IndexError: 14fc.

   - bpo-31821(56): Fix ‘pause_reading()’ to work when called from
     ‘connection_made()’ in *note asyncio: a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104615

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104572

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104482

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102818

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104405

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104263

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104142

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104078

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104066

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104028

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104018

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103895

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103907

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103899

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103845

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103763

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103801

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102310

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103650

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100530

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103492

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87729

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103488

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82012

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103333

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103242

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103323

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102700

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (47) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88691

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97933

   (52) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99184

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98003

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39610

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31821


File: python.info,  Node: Library<22>,  Next: Documentation<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.3 Library
.................

   - gh-104600(1): *note functools.update_wrapper(): 1018. now sets the
     ‘__type_params__’ attribute (added by PEP 695(2)).

   - gh-104340(3): When an ‘asyncio’ pipe protocol loses its connection
     due to an error, and the caller doesn’t await ‘wait_closed()’ on
     the corresponding ‘StreamWriter’, don’t log a warning about an
     exception that was never retrieved.  After all, according to the
     ‘StreamWriter.close()’ docs, the ‘wait_closed()’ call is optional
     (“not mandatory”).

   - gh-104555(4): Fix issue where an *note issubclass(): 7ba. check
     comparing a class ‘X’ against a *note runtime-checkable protocol:
     43c. ‘Y’ with non-callable members would not cause *note TypeError:
     532. to be raised if an *note isinstance(): 43b. call had
     previously been made comparing an instance of ‘X’ to ‘Y’.  This
     issue was present in edge cases on Python 3.11, but became more
     prominent in 3.12 due to some unrelated changes that were made to
     runtime-checkable protocols.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104372(5): Refactored the ‘_posixsubprocess’ internals to avoid
     Python C API usage between fork and exec when marking ‘pass_fds=’
     file descriptors inheritable.

   - gh-104484(6): Added 'case_sensitive' argument to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 4a6.

   - gh-75367(7): Fix data descriptor detection in *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 48e.

   - gh-104536(8): Fix a race condition in the internal
     ‘multiprocessing.process’ cleanup logic that could manifest as an
     unintended ‘AttributeError’ when calling ‘process.close()’.

   - gh-103857(9): Update datetime deprecations’ stracktrace to point to
     the calling line

   - gh-101520(10): Move the core functionality of the ‘tracemalloc’
     module in the ‘Python/’ folder, leaving just the module wrapper in
     ‘Modules/’.

   - gh-104392(11): Remove undocumented and unused ‘_paramspec_tvars’
     attribute from some classes in *note typing: 104.

   - gh-102613(12): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d.
     raised *note RecursionError: d68. when walking deep directory
     trees.

   - gh-103000(13): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.asdict():
     172b. for the common case where 'dict_factory' is ‘dict’.  Patch by
     David C Ellis.

   - gh-104301(14): Allow leading whitespace in disambiguated statements
     in *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-104139(15): Teach ‘urllib.parse.unsplit()’ to retain the ‘"//"’
     when assembling ‘itms-services://?action=generate-bugs’ style Apple
     Platform Deployment(16) URLs.

   - gh-104307(17): *note socket.getnameinfo(): 16ca. now releases the
     GIL while contacting the DNS server

   - gh-104310(18): Users may now use
     ‘importlib.util.allowing_all_extensions()’ (a context manager) to
     temporarily disable the strict compatibility checks for importing
     extension modules in subinterpreters.

   - gh-87695(19): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d.
     raised *note OSError: 411. when it encountered a symlink to an
     overly long path.

   - gh-104265(20): Prevent possible crash by disallowing instantiation
     of the ‘_csv.Reader’ and ‘_csv.Writer’ types.  The regression was
     introduced in 3.10.0a4 with PR 23224 (bpo-14935(21)).  Patch by
     Radislav Chugunov.

   - gh-102613(22): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22d. when expanding recursive wildcards (”‘**’”) by merging
     adjacent wildcards and de-duplicating results only when necessary.

   - gh-65772(23): Remove unneeded comments and code in turtle.py.

   - gh-90208(24): Fixed issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d.
     returned incomplete results when it encountered a *note
     PermissionError: d3f.  This method now suppresses all *note
     OSError: 411. exceptions, except those raised from calling *note
     is_dir(): 230. on the top-level path.

   - gh-104144(25): Optimize *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 471.  Skip scheduling a done
     callback if a TaskGroup task completes eagerly.

   - gh-104144(26): Optimize *note asyncio.gather(): 5f7. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 471. to complete eagerly if all
     fututres completed eagerly.  Avoid scheduling done callbacks for
     futures that complete eagerly.

   - gh-104114(27): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d.
     returns paths using the case of non-wildcard segments for
     corresponding path segments, rather than the real filesystem case.

   - gh-104104(28): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22d. by using *note re.IGNORECASE: 172c. to implement
     case-insensitive matching.

   - gh-104102(29): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     22d. when evaluating patterns that contain ‘'../'’ segments.

   - gh-103822(30): Update the return type of ‘weekday’ to the newly
     added Day attribute

   - gh-103629(31): Update the ‘repr’ of *note typing.Unpack: 1636.
     according to PEP 692(32).

   - gh-103963(33): Make *note dis: 38. display the names of the args
     for ‘CALL_INTRINSIC_*’.

   - gh-104035(34): Do not ignore user-defined ‘__getstate__’ and
     ‘__setstate__’ methods for slotted frozen dataclasses.

   - gh-103987(35): In *note mmap: 90, fix several bugs that could lead
     to access to memory-mapped files after they have been invalidated.

   - gh-103977(36): Improve import time of *note platform: aa. module.

   - gh-88773(37): Added *note turtle.teleport(): 172d. to the *note
     turtle: 101. module to move a turtle to a new point without tracing
     a line, visible or invisible.  Patch by Liam Gersten.

   - gh-103935(38): Use *note io.open_code(): 172e. for files to be
     executed instead of raw *note open(): 515.

   - gh-68968(39): Fixed garbled output of *note assertEqual(): 522.
     when an input lacks final newline.

   - gh-100370(40): Fix potential *note OverflowError: 87d. in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.blobopen(): 67b. for 32-bit builds.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-102628(41): Substitute CTRL-D with CTRL-Z in *note sqlite3: cf.
     CLI banner when running on Windows.

   - gh-103636(42): Module-level attributes ‘January’ and ‘February’ are
     deprecated from *note calendar: 14.

   - gh-103583(43): Isolate ‘_multibytecodec’ and codecs extension
     modules.  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103848(44): Add checks to ensure that ‘[’ bracketed ‘]’ hosts
     found by *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3c. are of IPv6 or
     IPvFuture format.

   - gh-103872(45): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.2.

   - gh-99944(46): Make *note dis: 38. display the value of oparg of
     ‘KW_NAMES’.

   - gh-74940(47): The C.UTF-8 locale is no longer converted to
     en_US.UTF-8, enabling the use of UTF-8 encoding on systems which
     have no locales installed.

   - gh-103861(48): Fix ‘zipfile.Zipfile’ creating invalid zip files
     when ‘force_zip64’ was used to add files to them.  Patch by Carey
     Metcalfe.

   - gh-103857(49): Deprecated *note datetime.datetime.utcnow(): 2f4.
     and *note datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103839(50): Avoid compilation error due to tommath.h not being
     found when building Tkinter against Tcl 8.7 built with bundled
     libtommath.

   - gh-103791(51): *note contextlib.suppress: f1e. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of an *note ExceptionGroup:
     1b6.  If other exceptions exist on the group, they are re-raised in
     a group that does not contain the suppressed exceptions.

   - gh-90750(52): Use *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9e9.
     in the implementation of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612,
     which should now accept only valid ISO dates.  (Patch by Paul
     Ganssle)

   - gh-103685(53): Prepare ‘tkinter.Menu.index()’ for Tk 8.7 so that it
     does not raise ‘TclError: expected integer but got ""’ when it
     should return ‘None’.

   - gh-81403(54): *note urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler: 172f. no longer
     raises ‘URLError’ if a cached FTP instance is reused.  ftplib’s
     endtransfer method calls voidresp to drain the connection to handle
     FTP instance reuse properly.

   - gh-103699(55): Add ‘__orig_bases__’ to non-generic TypedDicts,
     call-based TypedDicts, and call-based NamedTuples.  Other
     TypedDicts and NamedTuples already had the attribute.

   - gh-103693(56): Add convenience variable feature to *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-92248(57): Deprecate ‘type’, ‘choices’, and ‘metavar’ parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’.

   - gh-89415(58): Add *note socket: cc. constants for source-specific
     multicast.  Patch by Reese Hyde.

   - gh-103673(59): *note socketserver: cd. gains
     ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and ‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes.
     Patch by Jay Berry.

   - gh-103636(60): Added Enum for months and days in the calendar
     module.

   - gh-84976(61): Create a new ‘Lib/_pydatetime.py’ file that defines
     the Python version of the ‘datetime’ module, and make ‘datetime’
     import the contents of the new library only if the C implementation
     is missing.  Currently, the full Python implementation is defined
     and then deleted if the C implementation is not available, slowing
     down ‘import datetime’ unnecessarily.

   - gh-103596(62): Attributes/methods are no longer shadowed by
     same-named enum members, although they may be shadowed by
     enum.property’s.

   - gh-103584(63): Updated ‘importlib.metadata’ with changes from
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.2 through 6.5.0, including: Support
     ‘installed-files.txt’ for ‘Distribution.files’ when present.
     ‘PackageMetadata’ now stipulates an additional ‘get’ method
     allowing for easy querying of metadata keys that may not be
     present.  ‘packages_distributions’ now honors packages and modules
     with Python modules that not ‘.py’ sources (e.g.  ‘.pyc’, ‘.so’).
     Expand protocol for ‘PackageMetadata.get_all’ to match the upstream
     implementation of ‘email.message.Message.get_all’ in
     python/typeshed#9620.  Deprecated use of ‘Distribution’ without
     defining abstract methods.  Deprecated expectation that
     ‘PackageMetadata.__getitem__’ will return ‘None’ for missing keys.
     In the future, it will raise a ‘KeyError’.

   - gh-103578(64): Fixed a bug where *note pdb: a5. crashes when
     reading source file with different encoding by replacing *note
     io.open(): 516. with *note io.open_code(): 172e.  The new method
     would also call into the hook set by *note
     PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1730.

   - gh-103556(65): Now creating *note inspect.Signature: 1cf. objects
     with positional-only parameter with a default followed by a
     positional-or-keyword parameter without one is impossible.

   - gh-103559(66): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.1.

   - gh-103548(67): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 16b5. and *note cwd(): 1731. by joining
     paths only when necessary.  Also improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute(): 1732. on Posix by skipping path
     parsing and normalization.

   - gh-103538(68): Remove ‘_tkinter’ module code guarded by definition
     of the ‘TK_AQUA’ macro which was only needed for Tk 8.4.7 or
     earlier and was never actually defined by any build system or
     documented for manual use.

   - gh-103533(69): Update *note cProfile: 27. to use PEP 669 API

   - gh-103525(70): Fix misleading exception message when mixed ‘str’
     and ‘bytes’ arguments are supplied to *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0.
     and *note Path: 229.

   - gh-103489(71): Add *note getconfig(): 4b3. and *note setconfig():
     4b4. to *note Connection: 245. to make configuration changes to a
     database connection.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103365(72): Set default Flag boundary to ‘STRICT’ and fix
     bitwise operations.

   - gh-103472(73): Avoid a potential *note ResourceWarning: 244. in
     *note http.client.HTTPConnection: b3d. by closing the proxy /
     tunnel’s CONNECT response explicitly.

   - gh-103462(74): Fixed an issue with using *note writelines(): 1588.
     in *note asyncio: a. to send very large payloads that exceed the
     amount of data that can be written in one call to *note
     socket.socket.send(): da3. or *note socket.socket.sendmsg(): 470,
     resulting in the remaining buffer being left unwritten.

   - gh-103449(75): Fix a bug in doc string generation in *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 1cb.

   - gh-103092(76): Isolate ‘_collections’ (apply PEP 687(77)).  Patch
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103357(78): Added support for *note logging.Formatter: 145b.
     ‘defaults’ parameter to *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 119f.
     and *note logging.config.fileConfig(): b4e.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-103092(79): Adapt the *note winreg: 116. extension module to PEP
     687(80).

   - gh-74690(81): The performance of *note isinstance(): 43b. checks
     against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43c. has been
     considerably improved for protocols that only have a few members.
     To achieve this improvement, several internal implementation
     details of the *note typing: 104. module have been refactored,
     including ‘typing._ProtocolMeta.__instancecheck__’,
     ‘typing._is_callable_members_only’, and
     ‘typing._get_protocol_attrs’.  Patches by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(82): The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now
     considered “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  See *note “What’s new in Python 3.12”: 4cb. for more
     details.

   - gh-103256(83): Fixed a bug that caused *note hmac: 6a. to raise an
     exception when the requested hash algorithm was not available in
     OpenSSL despite being available separately as part of ‘hashlib’
     itself.  It now falls back properly to the built-in.  This could
     happen when, for example, your OpenSSL does not include SHA3
     support and you want to compute ‘hmac.digest(b'K', b'M',
     'sha3_256')’.

   - gh-102778(84): Support ‘sys.last_exc’ in *note idlelib: 73.

   - gh-103285(85): Improve performance of *note
     ast.get_source_segment(): 9d4.

   - gh-103225(86): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a5. when displaying line
     numbers of module-level source code.

   - gh-103092(87): Adapt the *note msvcrt: 93. extension module to PEP
     687(88).

   - gh-103092(89): Adapt the *note winsound: 117. extension module to
     PEP 687(90).

   - gh-93910(91): Remove deprecation of enum ‘member.member’ access.

   - gh-102978(92): Fixes *note unittest.mock.patch(): e88. not
     enforcing function signatures for methods decorated with
     ‘@classmethod’ or ‘@staticmethod’ when patch is called with
     ‘autospec=True’.

   - gh-103092(93): Isolate ‘_socket’ (apply PEP 687(94)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100479(95): Add *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(): 4a1,
     which creates a path object from arguments.  This method is called
     whenever a derivative path is created, such as from *note
     pathlib.PurePath.parent: 1733.  Subclasses may override this method
     to share information between path objects.

   - gh-103220(96): Fix issue where *note os.path.join(): 163a. added a
     slash when joining onto an incomplete UNC drive with a trailing
     slash on Windows.

   - gh-103204(97): Fixes *note http.server: 72. accepting HTTP requests
     with HTTP version numbers preceded by ‘+’, or ‘-’, or with
     digit-separating ‘_’ characters.  The length of the version numbers
     is also constrained.

   - gh-75586(98): Fix various Windows-specific issues with
     ‘shutil.which’.

   - gh-103193(99): Improve performance of *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 48e.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103176(100): *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4bc. now returns a
     mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a
     ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple.

   - gh-103143(101): Polish the help messages and docstrings of *note
     pdb: a5.

   - gh-103015(102): Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4b2, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103000(103): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.astuple():
     1734. and *note dataclasses.asdict(): 172b. in cases where the
     contents are common Python types.

   - gh-102953(104): The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and
     *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 465, have a new a 'filter' argument
     that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or
     dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination
     directory.  See *note Extraction filters: 466. for details.

   - gh-97696(105): Implemented an eager task factory in asyncio.  When
     used as a task factory on an event loop, it performs eager
     execution of coroutines.  Coroutines that are able to complete
     synchronously (e.g.  return or raise without blocking) are returned
     immediately as a finished task, and the task is never scheduled to
     the event loop.  If the coroutine blocks, the (pending) task is
     scheduled and returned.

   - gh-81079(106): Add 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e.

   - gh-101819(107): Isolate the *note io: 7f. extension module by
     applying PEP 687(108).  Patch by Kumar Aditya, Victor Stinner, and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91896(109): Deprecate *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2c3.

   - gh-101362(110): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 229. construction by
     omitting the path anchor from the internal list of path parts.

   - gh-102114(111): Functions in the *note dis: 38. module that accept
     a source code string as argument now print a more concise traceback
     when the string contains a syntax or indentation error.

   - gh-62432(112): The *note unittest: 106. runner will now exit with
     status code 5 if no tests were run.  It is common for test runner
     misconfiguration to fail to find any tests, this should be an
     error.

   - gh-78079(113): Fix incorrect normalization of UNC device path
     roots, and partial UNC share path roots, in *note pathlib.PurePath:
     4a0.  Pathlib no longer appends a trailing slash to such paths.

   - gh-85984(114): Add *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 16d3. and *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1680. to *note tty: 100. and modernize, the
     behavior of *note tty.setraw(): 16d2. and *note tty.setcbreak():
     167f. to use POSIX.1-2017 Chapter 11 “General Terminal Interface”
     flag masks by default.

   - gh-101688(115): Implement *note types.get_original_bases(): 4c8. to
     provide further introspection for types.

   - gh-101640(116): *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 533. now catches
     errors when writing messages, such as when *note sys.stderr: 937.
     is ‘None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-83861(117): Fix datetime.astimezone method return value when
     invoked on a naive datetime instance that represents local time
     falling in a timezone transition gap.  PEP 495 requires that
     instances with fold=1 produce earlier times than those with fold=0
     in this case.

   - gh-89550(118): Decrease execution time of some *note gzip: 67. file
     writes by 15% by adding more appropriate buffering.

   - gh-95299(119): Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from
     ‘ensurepip’, and stop installing setuptools in environments created
     by ‘venv’.

   - gh-99353(120): Respect the *note http.client.HTTPConnection: b3d.
     ‘.debuglevel’ flag in ‘urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler’ when its
     constructor parameter ‘debuglevel’ is not set.  And do the same for
     ‘*HTTPS*’.

   - gh-98040(121): Remove the long-deprecated ‘imp’ module.

   - gh-97850(122): Deprecate *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 2cc. and
     *note pkgutil.get_loader(): 2cd. in favor of *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.

   - gh-94473(123): Flatten arguments in ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’.  It
     now accepts not only ‘x1, y1, x2, y2, ...’ and ‘[x1, y1, x2, y2,
     ...]’, but also ‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’ and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2),
     ...]’.

   - gh-98040(124): Remove more deprecated importlib APIs:
     ‘find_loader()’, ‘find_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.Finder’,
     ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’.

   - gh-96522(125): Fix potential deadlock in pty.spawn()

   - gh-96534(126): Support divert(4) added in FreeBSD 14.

   - gh-87474(127): Fix potential file descriptor leaks in *note
     subprocess.Popen: 199.

   - gh-94906(128): Support multiple steps in *note math.nextafter():
     492.  Patch by Shantanu Jain and Matthias Gorgens.

   - gh-51574(129): Make *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f. return absolute
     paths when its 'dir' parameter is relative.

   - gh-94518(130): Convert private ‘_posixsubprocess.fork_exec()’ to
     use Argument Clinic.

   - gh-92184(131): When creating zip files using *note zipfile: 131,
     ‘os.altsep’, if not ‘None’, will always be treated as a path
     separator even when it is not ‘/’.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-46797(132): Deprecation warnings are now emitted for ‘ast.Num’,
     ‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’.
     These have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.8, and will
     be removed in Python 3.14.

   - bpo-44844(133): Enables *note webbrowser: 115. to detect and launch
     Microsoft Edge browser.

   - bpo-45606(134): Fixed the bug in *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. –
     previously a dangling symlink would not be found by this method
     when the pattern is an exact match, but would be found when the
     pattern contains a wildcard or the recursive wildcard (‘**’).  With
     this change, a dangling symlink will be found in both cases.

   - bpo-23041(135): Add *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 47f. and *note
     QUOTE_NOTNULL: 47e. to the suite of *note csv: 29. module quoting
     styles.

   - bpo-24964(136): Added *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 1709. that
     provides access to the HTTP headers on a proxy server response to
     the ‘CONNECT’ request.

   - bpo-17258(137): *note multiprocessing: 94. now supports stronger
     HMAC algorithms for inter-process connection authentication rather
     than only HMAC-MD5.

   - bpo-39744(138): Make *note
     asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate(): 1735. close the
     subprocess’s stdin even when called with ‘input=None’.

   - bpo-22708(139): http.client CONNECT method tunnel improvements: Use
     HTTP 1.1 protocol; send a matching Host: header with CONNECT, if
     one is not provided; convert IDN domain names to Punycode.  Patch
     by Michael Handler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104600

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104340

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104555

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104484

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75367

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101520

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104392

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104301

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104139

   (16) 
https://support.apple.com/en-gb/guide/deployment/depce7cefc4d/web

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104307

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87695

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104265

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14935

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65772

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90208

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104114

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104104

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104102

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103822

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103963

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104035

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103987

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103977

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88773

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103935

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68968

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100370

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102628

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103583

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103848

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103872

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99944

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74940

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103861

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103839

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90750

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103685

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81403

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89415

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103673

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84976

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103596

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103584

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103578

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103556

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103559

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103548

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103538

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103533

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103525

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103365

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103472

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103462

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103449

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (77) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103357

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103256

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103285

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103225

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (88) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102978

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (94) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100479

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103220

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103204

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75586

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103143

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102953

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97696

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81079

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101819

   (108) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102114

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62432

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78079

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101688

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101640

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83861

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89550

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99353

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96522

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96534

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87474

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51574

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92184

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46797

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44844

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45606

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23041

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24964

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39744

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22708


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<16>,  Next: Tests<18>,  Prev: Library<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-67056(1): Document that the effect of registering or
     unregistering an *note atexit: c. cleanup function from within a
     registered cleanup function is undefined.

   - gh-103629(2): Mention the new way of typing ‘**kwargs’ with
     ‘Unpack’ and ‘TypedDict’ introduced in PEP 692(3).

   - gh-48241(4): Clarifying documentation about the url parameter to
     urllib.request.urlopen and urllib.request.Request needing to be
     encoded properly.

   - gh-86094(5): Add support for Unicode Path Extra Field in ZipFile.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim and Andrea Giudiceandrea

   - gh-99202(6): Fix extension type from documentation for compiling in
     C++20 mode

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67056

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48241

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86094

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99202


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<18>,  Next: Build<20>,  Prev: Documentation<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-104494(1): Update ‘test_pack_configure_in’ and
     ‘test_place_configure_in’ for changes to error message formatting
     in Tk 8.7.

   - gh-104461(2): Run test_configure_screen on X11 only, since the
     ‘DISPLAY’ environment variable and ‘-screen’ option for toplevels
     are not useful on Tk for Win32 or Aqua.

   - gh-86275(3): Added property-based tests to the *note zoneinfo: 134.
     tests, along with stubs for the ‘hypothesis’ interface.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103329(4): Regression tests for the behaviour of
     ‘unittest.mock.PropertyMock’ were added.

   - gh-102795(5): fix use of poll in test_epoll’s test_control_and_wait

   - gh-75729(6): Fix the *note os.spawn*: 1738. tests failing on
     Windows when the working directory or interpreter path contains
     spaces.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86275

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103329

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102795

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75729


File: python.info,  Node: Build<20>,  Next: Windows<17>,  Prev: Tests<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): BOLT optimization is now applied to the libpython
     shared library if building a shared library.  BOLT instrumentation
     and application settings can now be influenced via the
     ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ configure variables.

   - gh-99017(2): ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   - gh-104490(3): Define ‘.PHONY’ / virtual make targets consistently
     and properly.

   - gh-104106(4): Add gcc fallback of mkfifoat/mknodat for macOS. Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103532(5): The ‘TKINTER_PROTECT_LOADTK’ macro is no longer
     defined or used in the ‘_tkinter’ module.  It was previously only
     defined when building against Tk 8.4.13 and older, but Tk older
     than 8.5.12 has been unsupported since gh-91152(6).

   - gh-99069(7): Extended workaround defining ‘static_assert’ when
     missing from the libc headers to all clang and gcc builds.  In
     particular, this fixes building on macOS <= 10.10.

   - gh-100220(8): Changed the default value of the ‘SHELL’ Makefile
     variable from ‘/bin/sh’ to ‘/bin/sh -e’ to ensure that complex
     recipes correctly fail after an error.  Previously, ‘make install’
     could fail to install some files and yet return a successful
     result.

   - gh-90656(9): Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     Patch by Zhang Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99017

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104106

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103532

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91152

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99069

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100220

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<17>,  Next: macOS<13>,  Prev: Build<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-104623(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-82814(2): Fix a potential ‘[Errno 13] Permission denied’ when
     using *note shutil.copystat(): 111f. within Windows Subsystem for
     Linux (WSL) on a mounted filesystem by adding ‘errno.EACCES’ to the
     list of ignored errors within the internal implementation.

   - gh-103088(3): Fix virtual environment ‘activate’ script having
     incorrect line endings for Cygwin.

   - gh-103088(4): Fixes venvs not working in bash on Windows across
     different disks

   - gh-102997(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.41.2.

   - gh-88013(6): Fixed a bug where *note TypeError: 532. was raised
     when calling ‘ntpath.realpath()’ with a bytes parameter in some
     cases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88013


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<13>,  Next: IDLE<16>,  Prev: Windows<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-99834(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.13.

   - gh-104623(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-103545(3): Add ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD’,
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS’, ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG’ and
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI’.  These can be used with ‘os.setpriority’ to
     run the process at a lower priority and make use of the efficiency
     cores on Apple Silicon systems.

   - gh-104180(4): Support reading SOCKS proxy configuration from macOS
     System Configuration.  Patch by Sam Schott.

   - gh-60436(5): update curses textbox to additionally handle backspace
     using the ‘curses.ascii.DEL’ key press.

   - gh-102997(6): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.41.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104180

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60436

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<16>,  Next: Tools/Demos<11>,  Prev: macOS<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104499(1): Fix completions for Tk Aqua 8.7 (currently blank).

   - gh-104496(2): About prints both tcl and tk versions if different
     (expected someday).

   - gh-88496(3): Fix IDLE test hang on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104499

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104496

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88496


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<11>,  Next: C API<20>,  Prev: IDLE<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-104389(1): Argument Clinic C converters now accept the ‘unused’
     keyword, for wrapping a parameter with *note Py_UNUSED: 1723.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104389


File: python.info,  Node: C API<20>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.23.23.11 C API
................

   - gh-101291(1): Added unstable C API for extracting the value of
     “compact” integers: *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 584. and
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 585.

   - gh-104109(2): We’ve added ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’ and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig’ to the public C-API (but not the stable ABI;
     not yet at least).  The new function may be used to create a new
     interpreter with various features configured.  The function was
     added to support PEP 684 (per-interpreter GIL).

   - gh-103968(3): *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578. and its variants now
     allow creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57a.
     The ‘tp_new’ is ignored.  This behavior is deprecated and will be
     disallowed in 3.14+.  The new *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b.
     already disallows it.

   - gh-103743(4): Add *note PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData():
     173f. function that can be used to allocate additional memory after
     an object for data not managed by Python.

   - gh-103295(5): Introduced *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     1740, *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1741. and *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(): 1742.  These allow extension
     modules (JIT compilers in particular) to write to perf-map files in
     a thread safe manner.  The *note Python support for the Linux perf
     profiler: 1743. also uses these APIs to write entries in the
     perf-map file.

   - gh-103509(6): Added C API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque: *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543. can now be zero
     or negative, *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 544. can be used to get
     subclass-specific data, and *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 546. can
     be used to safely extend variable-size objects.  See PEP 697(7) for
     details.

   - gh-103091(8): Add a new C-API function to eagerly assign a version
     tag to a PyTypeObject: ‘PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag()’.

   - gh-101408(9): *note PyObject_GC_Resize: 1744. should calculate
     preheader size if needed.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98836(10): Add support of more formatting options (left
     aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’,
     ‘wchar_t’ C strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     56f.

   - gh-96803(11): Add unstable C-API functions to get the code object,
     lasti and line number from the internal ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ in
     the limited API. The functions are:

        * ‘PyCodeObject * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104109

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103743

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103091

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101408

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96803


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.24 Python 3.12.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-04-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<21>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<24>,  Next: Library<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102192(1): Deprecated ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ in favour of
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’.

   - gh-89987(2): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 6f2. entries
     for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 1747.

   - gh-102859(3): Removed ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ instructions.

   - gh-101975(4): Fixed ‘stacktop’ value on tracing entries to avoid
     corruption on garbage collection.

   - gh-102778(5): Add *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. and deprecate *note
     sys.last_type: 4b9, *note sys.last_value: 4ba. and *note
     sys.last_traceback: 4bb, which hold the same information in its
     legacy form.

   - gh-100982(6): Replace all occurrences of ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ with
     *note COMPARE_OP: 967.

   - gh-102701(7): Fix overflow when creating very large dict.

   - gh-102755(8): Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc. which takes
     just an exception instance, to replace the legacy ‘PyErr_Display()’
     which takes the ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ triplet.

   - gh-102594(9): Add note to exception raised in ‘PyErr_SetObject’
     when normalization fails.

   - gh-90997(10): Shrink the number of inline *note CACHE: 6f2. entries
     used by *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16f0.

   - gh-102491(11): Improve import time of ‘platform’ by removing
     IronPython version parsing.  The IronPython version parsing was not
     functional (see
     ‘https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3/issues/1667’).

   - gh-101291(12): Rearrage bits in first field (after header) of
     PyLongObject.  * Bits 0 and 1: 1 - sign.  I.e.  0 for positive
     numbers, 1 for zero and 2 for negative numbers.  * Bit 2 reserved
     (probably for the immortal bit) * Bits 3+ the unsigned size.

     This makes a few operations slightly more efficient, and will
     enable a more compact and faster 2s-complement representation of
     most ints in future.

   - gh-102397(13): Fix segfault from race condition in signal handling
     during garbage collection.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102406(14): *note codecs: 1b. encoding/decoding errors now get
     the context information (which operation and which codecs) attached
     as PEP 678(15) notes instead of through chaining a new instance of
     the exception.

   - gh-102281(16): Fix potential nullptr dereference and use of
     uninitialized memory in fileutils.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102300(17): Reuse operands with refcount of 1 in float
     specializations of BINARY_OP.

   - gh-102213(18): Fix performance loss when accessing an object’s
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-102255(19): Improve build support for the Xbox.  Patch by Max
     Bachmann.

   - gh-102027(20): Fix SSE2 and SSE3 detection in ‘_blake2’ internal
     module.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101865(21): Deprecate ‘co_lnotab’ in code objects, schedule it
     for removal in Python 3.14

   - bpo-1635741(22): Adapt ‘_pickle’ to PEP 687(23).  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89987

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101975

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102701

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102594

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102491

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102397

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102406

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102281

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102300

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102255

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101865

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<23>,  Next: Documentation<17>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.2 Library
.................

   - gh-103085(1): Pure python *note locale.getencoding(): 2de. will not
     warn deprecation.

   - gh-103068(2): It’s no longer possible to register conditional
     breakpoints in *note Pdb: 91f. that raise *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102549(3): Don’t ignore exceptions in member type creation.

   - gh-103056(4): Ensure final ‘_generate_next_value_’ is a
     ‘staticmethod’.

   - gh-103046(5): Display current line label correctly in *note dis:
     38. when ‘show_caches’ is False and ‘lasti’ points to a CACHE
     entry.

   - gh-102433(6): *note isinstance(): 43b. checks against *note
     runtime-checkable protocols: 43c. now use *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 48e. rather than *note hasattr(): 4cc. to
     lookup whether attributes exist.  This means that descriptors and
     *note __getattr__(): 4cd. methods are no longer unexpectedly
     evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable
     protocols.  However, it may also mean that some objects which used
     to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no
     longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+,
     and vice versa.  Most users are unlikely to be affected by this
     change.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103023(7): It’s no longer possible to register expressions to
     display in *note Pdb: 91f. that raise *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102947(8): Improve traceback when *note dataclasses.fields():
     1749. is called on a non-dataclass.  Patch by Alex Waygood

   - gh-102780(9): The *note asyncio.Timeout: 16d1. context manager now
     works reliably even when performing cleanup due to task
     cancellation.  Previously it could raise a *note CancelledError:
     1b8. instead of an *note TimeoutError: 174a. in such cases.

   - gh-102871(10): Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note
     webbrowser: 115.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape,
     Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and
     below.

   - gh-102839(11): Improve performance of *note math.log(): 1486.
     arguments handling by removing the argument clinic.

   - gh-102828(12): Add the ‘onexc’ arg to *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9,
     which is like ‘onerror’ but expects an exception instance rather
     than an exc_info tuple.  Deprecate ‘onerror’.

   - gh-88965(13): typing: Fix a bug relating to substitution in custom
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15e.  Previously, if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ was substituted with a parameters list that itself
     contained a *note TypeVar: 15d, the ‘TypeVar’ in the parameters
     list could not be subsequently substituted.  This is now fixed.

     Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - gh-76846(14): Fix issue where ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods
     of *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. and *note Path: 229. subclasses
     were not called in some circumstances.

   - gh-78530(15): *note asyncio.wait(): 479. now accepts generators
     yielding tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102748(16): *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 478. now returns
     ‘False’ for generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102670(17): Optimized fmean(), correlation(), covariance(), and
     linear_regression() using the new math.sumprod() function.

   - gh-102615(18): Typing: Improve the ‘repr’ of generic aliases for
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15e.  (Use square brackets
     to represent a parameter list.)

   - gh-100112(19): *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 9d8. now always
     returns a coroutine when wrapping an awaitable object.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102578(20): Speed up setting or deleting mutable attributes on
     non-dataclass subclasses of frozen dataclasses.  Due to the
     implementation of ‘__setattr__’ and ‘__delattr__’ for frozen
     dataclasses, this previously had a time complexity of 'O'('n').  It
     now has a time complexity of 'O'(1).

   - gh-102519(21): Add *note os.listdrives(): 497, *note
     os.listvolumes(): 498. and *note os.listmounts(): 499. functions on
     Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points

   - gh-74468(22): Attribute name of the extracted *note tarfile: de.
     file object now holds filename of itself rather than of the archive
     it is contained in.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-102378(23): Private helper method
     ‘inspect._signature_strip_non_python_syntax’ will no longer strip
     ‘/’ from the input string.

   - gh-79940(24): Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 48c. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 48d.  Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

   - gh-102103(25): Add ‘module’ argument to *note
     dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 174b. and make classes produced by it
     pickleable.

   - gh-102069(26): Fix ‘__weakref__’ descriptor generation for custom
     dataclasses.

   - gh-102038(27): Skip a ‘stat’ in *note site: c7. if we have already
     found a ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   - gh-98886(28): Fix issues when defining dataclasses that have fields
     with specific underscore names that aren’t clearly reserved by
     *note dataclasses: 2f.

   - gh-101673(29): Fix a *note pdb: a5. bug where ‘ll’ clears the
     changes to local variables.

   - gh-101313(30): Added -h and –help arguments to the webbrowser CLI

   - gh-100372(31): *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee3.
     no longer incorrectly accepts some cases of trailing data when
     parsing DER.

   - gh-89727(32): Fix pathlib.Path.walk RecursionError on deep
     directory trees by rewriting it using iteration instead of
     recursion.

   - gh-100131(33): Added an optional ‘delete’ keyword argument to *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 1224.

   - gh-48330(34): Added ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the
     N slowest test cases.  *note unittest.TextTestRunner: 174c. and
     *note unittest.TextTestResult: 52a. constructors accept a new
     'durations' keyword argument.  Subclasses should take this into
     account or accept ‘**kwargs’.  Added *note
     unittest.TestResult.addDuration(): 174d. method and *note
     unittest.TestResult.collectedDurations: 1715. attribute.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - gh-98169(35): Fix *note dataclasses.astuple(): 1734. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac. is present in the attributes.

   - gh-96931(36): Fix incorrect results from *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers(): e64.

   - gh-95495(37): When built against OpenSSL 3.0, the *note ssl: d0.
     module had a bug where it reported unauthenticated EOFs (i.e.
     without close_notify) as a clean TLS-level EOF. It now raises *note
     SSLEOFError: 174e, matching the behavior in previous versions of
     OpenSSL. The *note options: 832. attribute on *note SSLContext:
     294. also no longer includes *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 831.
     by default.  This option may be set to specify the previous OpenSSL
     3.0 behavior.

   - gh-94684(38): Now *note uuid.uuid3(): 1567. and *note uuid.uuid5():
     1569. functions support *note bytes: 1c2. objects as their 'name'
     argument.

   - gh-94440(39): Fix a ‘concurrent.futures.process’ bug where
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ shutdown could hang after a future has been
     quickly submitted and canceled.

   - gh-72346(40): Added deprecation warning to 'isdst' parameter of
     *note email.utils.localtime(): 2c5.

   - bpo-36305(41): Fix handling of Windows filenames that resemble
     drives, such as ‘./a:b’, in *note pathlib: a4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103085

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103068

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102549

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103056

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103046

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103023

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102947

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102780

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102839

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88965

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76846

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102670

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102615

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100112

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102578

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74468

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102378

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102069

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102038

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98886

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101673

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101313

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100372

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100131

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98169

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96931

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95495

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94684

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94440

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36305


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<17>,  Next: Tests<19>,  Prev: Library<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-103112(1): Add docstring to *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse.read(): 158b. to fix ‘pydoc’ output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103112


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<19>,  Next: Build<21>,  Prev: Documentation<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-102980(1): Improve test coverage on *note pdb: a5.

   - gh-102537(2): Adjust the error handling strategy in
     ‘test_zoneinfo.TzPathTest.python_tzpath_context’.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - gh-101377(3): Improved test_locale_calendar_formatweekday of
     calendar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102537

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101377


File: python.info,  Node: Build<21>,  Next: Windows<18>,  Prev: Tests<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.5 Build
...............

   - gh-102973(1): Add a dev container (along with accompanying
     Dockerfile) for development purposes.

   - gh-102711(2): Fix ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ compiler warnings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102711


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<18>,  Next: Tools/Demos<12>,  Prev: Build<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-102690(1): Update *note webbrowser: 115. to fall back to
     Microsoft Edge instead of Internet Explorer.

   - gh-99726(2): Improves correctness of stat results for Windows, and
     uses faster API when available

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<12>,  Next: C API<21>,  Prev: Windows<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-102809(1): ‘Misc/gdbinit’ was removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102809


File: python.info,  Node: C API<21>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.23.24.8 C API
...............

   - gh-102013(1): Add a new (unstable) C-API function for iterating
     over GC’able objects using a callback: ‘PyUnstable_VisitObjects’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102013


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.23.25 Python 3.12.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-03-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* C API: C API<22>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<16>,  Next: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace builtin hashlib implementations of MD5 and
     SHA1 with verified ones from the HACL* project.

   - gh-101727(2): Updated the OpenSSL version used in Windows and macOS
     binary release builds to 1.1.1t to address CVE 2023-0286(3), CVE
     2022-4303(4), and CVE 2022-4303(5) per the OpenSSL 2023-02-07
     security advisory(6).

   - gh-99108(7): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 68. implementations
     of SHA2-384 and SHA2-512 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(8) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   - gh-101283(9): *note subprocess.Popen: 199. now uses a safer
     approach to find ‘cmd.exe’ when launching with ‘shell=True’.  Patch
     by Eryk Sun, based on a patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101727

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-0286

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (6) https://openssl-library.org/news/secadv/20230207.txt

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (8) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101283


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<25>,  Next: Library<24>,  Prev: Security<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102493(1): Fix regression in semantics of normalisation in
     ‘PyErr_SetObject’.

   - gh-102416(2): Do not memoize incorrectly automatically generated
     loop rules in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-102356(3): Fix a bug that caused a crash when deallocating
     deeply nested filter objects.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías.

   - gh-102336(4): Cleanup Windows 7 specific special handling.  Patch
     by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102250(5): Fixed a segfault occurring when the interpreter calls
     a ‘__bool__’ method that raises.

   - gh-102126(6): Fix deadlock at shutdown when clearing thread states
     if any finalizer tries to acquire the runtime head lock.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102027(7): Use ‘GetCurrentProcessId’ on Windows when ‘getpid’ is
     unavailable.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102056(8): Fix error handling bugs in interpreter’s exception
     printing code, which could cause a crash on infinite recursion.

   - gh-100982(9): Restrict the scope of the ‘FOR_ITER_RANGE’
     instruction to the scope of the original *note FOR_ITER: 1758.
     instruction, to allow instrumentation.

   - gh-101967(10): Fix possible segfault in
     ‘positional_only_passed_as_keyword’ function, when new list
     created.

   - gh-101952(11): Fix possible segfault in ‘BUILD_SET’ opcode, when
     new set created.

   - gh-74895(12): *note socket.getaddrinfo: 1759. no longer raises
     *note OverflowError: 87d. for *note int: 257. 'port' values outside
     of the C long range.  Out of range values are left up to the
     underlying string based C library API to report.  A *note
     socket.gaierror: 175a. ‘SAI_SERVICE’ may occur instead, or no error
     at all as not all platform C libraries generate an error.

   - gh-101799(13): Add *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 4dc. and use it instead
     of ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’.

   - gh-101857(14): Fix xattr support detection on Linux systems by
     widening the check to linux, not just glibc.  This fixes support
     for musl.

   - gh-84783(15): Make the slice object hashable.  Patch by Will
     Bradshaw and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-87849(16): Change the ‘SEND’ instruction to leave the receiver
     on the stack.  This allows the specialized form of ‘SEND’ to skip
     the chain of C calls and jump directly to the ‘RESUME’ in the
     generator or coroutine.

   - gh-101765(17): Fix SystemError / segmentation fault in iter
     ‘__reduce__’ when internal access of ‘builtins.__dict__’ keys
     mutates the iter object.

   - gh-101430(18): Update *note tracemalloc: ff. to handle presize of
     object properly.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101696(19): Invalidate type version tag in
     ‘_PyStaticType_Dealloc’ for static types, avoiding bug where a
     false cache hit could crash the interpreter.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-101632(20): Adds a new *note RETURN_CONST: 4e3. instruction.

   - gh-100719(21): Remove gi_code field from generator (and coroutine
     and async generator) objects as it is redundant.  The frame already
     includes a reference to the code object.

   - gh-98627(22): When an interpreter is configured to check (and only
     then), importing an extension module will now fail when the
     extension does not support multiple interpreters (i.e.  doesn’t
     implement PEP 489 multi-phase init).  This does not apply to the
     main interpreter, nor to subinterpreters created with
     ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102493

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102416

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102356

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102336

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102250

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102126

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102056

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101967

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101952

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74895

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101857

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84783

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87849

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101765

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101430

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101696

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<24>,  Next: Documentation<18>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.3 Library
.................

   - gh-102302(1): Micro-optimise hashing of *note inspect.Parameter:
     1d0, reducing the time it takes to hash an instance by around 40%.

   - gh-101979(2): Fix a bug where parentheses in the ‘metavar’ argument
     to *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19e. were dropped.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-91038(3): *note platform.platform(): 175c. now has boolean
     default arguments.

   - gh-81652(4): Add *note mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 175d. FreeBSD and
     *note mmap.MAP_CONCEAL: 175e. OpenBSD constants to *note mmap: 90.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-102179(5): Fix *note os.dup2(): b60. error message for negative
     fds.

   - gh-101961(6): For the binary mode, ‘fileinput.hookcompressed()’
     doesn’t set the ‘encoding’ value even if the value is ‘None’.
     Patch by Gihwan Kim.

   - gh-101936(7): The default value of ‘fp’ becomes *note io.BytesIO:
     e9a. if *note HTTPError: fd6. is initialized without a designated
     ‘fp’ parameter.  Patch by Long Vo.

   - gh-101566(8): In zipfile, sync Path with zipp 3.14(9), including
     fix for extractall on the underlying zipfile after being wrapped in
     ‘Path’.

   - gh-97930(10): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.12(11),
     including fix for ‘MultiplexedPath’ to support directories in
     multiple namespaces (python/importlib_resources#265).

   - gh-101997(12): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     23.0.1)

   - gh-99108(13): The built-in extension modules for *note hashlib: 68.
     SHA2 algorithms, used when OpenSSL does not provide them, now live
     in a single internal ‘_sha2’ module instead of separate ‘_sha256’
     and ‘_sha512’ modules.

   - gh-101892(14): Callable iterators no longer raise *note
     SystemError: 570. when the callable object exhausts the iterator
     but forgets to either return a sentinel value or raise *note
     StopIteration: bf7.

   - gh-87634(15): Remove locking behavior from *note
     functools.cached_property(): 53c.

   - gh-97786(16): Fix potential undefined behaviour in corner cases of
     floating-point-to-time conversions.

   - gh-101517(17): Fixed bug where *note bdb: f. looks up the source
     line with *note linecache: 85. with a ‘lineno=None’, which causes
     it to fail with an unhandled exception.

   - gh-101773(18): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. for small
     components.  The private argument ‘_normalize’ of the *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e7. constructor has been removed.

   - gh-101693(19): In *note sqlite3.Cursor.execute(): 2d2, *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now emitted when *note named
     placeholders: 2d4. are used together with parameters supplied as a
     *note sequence: 4eb. instead of as a *note dict: 256.  Starting
     from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied
     as a sequence will raise a *note ProgrammingError: 4ec.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-101446(20): Change repr of *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5.
     to use regular dictionary formatting instead of pairs of keys and
     values.

   - gh-101362(21): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. construction
     by handling arguments more uniformly.  When a *note pathlib.Path:
     229. argument is supplied, we use its string representation rather
     than joining its parts with *note os.path.join(): 163a.

   - gh-101362(22): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. construction
     by calling *note os.path.join(): 163a. only when two or more
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101362(23): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 229. construction by
     running the path flavour compatibility check only when pathlib is
     imported.

   - gh-85984(24): Refactored the implementation of *note pty.fork():
     175f. to use *note os.login_tty(): 1760.

     A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now raised by
     ‘pty.master_open()’ and ‘pty.slave_open()’.  They were undocumented
     and deprecated long long ago in the docstring in favor of *note
     pty.openpty(): 2cf.

   - gh-101561(25): Add a new decorator *note typing.override(): 444.
     See PEP 698(26) for details.  Patch by Steven Troxler.

   - gh-63301(27): Set exit code when *note tabnanny: dd. CLI exits on
     error.

   - gh-101360(28): Fix anchor matching in
     ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.match()’.  Path and pattern anchors are
     now matched with *note fnmatch: 5c, just like other path parts.
     This allows patterns such as ‘"*:/Users/*"’ to be matched.

   - gh-101277(29): Remove global state from *note itertools: 81. module
     ( PEP 687(30)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100809(31): Fix handling of drive-relative paths (like ‘C:’ and
     ‘C:foo’) in *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 16b5.  This method now
     uses the OS API to retrieve the correct current working directory
     for the drive.

   - gh-99138(32): Apply PEP 687(33) to *note zoneinfo: 134.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-96764(34): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. now uses *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. as its underlying implementation.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88233(35): Correctly preserve “extra” fields in ‘zipfile’
     regardless of their ordering relative to a zip64 “extra.”

   - bpo-23224(36): Fix segfaults when creating *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1761. and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1762.
     objects without calling ‘__init__()’, and fix leakage of locks and
     internal buffers when calling the ‘__init__()’ methods of *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1761, *note lzma.LZMACompressor: 1763, *note
     bz2.BZ2Compressor: 1764, and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1762.
     objects multiple times.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102302

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101979

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91038

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81652

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101936

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101566

   (9) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-14-0

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (11) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v5-12-0

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101997

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101892

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97786

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101773

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101446

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63301

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101360

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101277

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100809

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99138

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96764

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23224


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<18>,  Next: Tests<20>,  Prev: Library<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85417(1): Update *note cmath: 18. documentation to clarify
     behaviour on branch cuts.

   - gh-97725(2): Fix *note asyncio.Task.print_stack(): 1766.
     description for ‘file=None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97725


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<20>,  Next: Build<22>,  Prev: Documentation<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-102019(1): Fix deadlock on shutdown if
     ‘test_current_{exception,frames}’ fails.  Patch by Jacob Bower.

   - gh-85984(2): Utilize new “winsize” functions from termios in pty
     tests.

   - gh-89792(3): ‘test_tools’ now copies up to 10x less source data to
     a temporary directory during the ‘freeze’ test by ignoring git
     metadata and other artifacts.  It also limits its python build
     parallelism based on os.cpu_count instead of hard coding it as 8
     cores.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102019

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89792


File: python.info,  Node: Build<22>,  Next: Windows<19>,  Prev: Tests<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99942(1): On Android, in a static build, python-config in embed
     mode no longer incorrectly reports a library to link to.

   - gh-99942(2): On Android, python.pc now correctly reports the
     library to link to, the same as python-config.sh.

   - gh-100221(3): Fix creating install directories in ‘make
     sharedinstall’ if they exist outside ‘DESTDIR’ already.

   - gh-96821(4): Explicitly mark C extension modules that need defined
     signed integer overflow, and add a configure option *note
     -with-strict-overflow: 1769.  Patch by Matthias Görgens and
     Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100221

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<19>,  Next: macOS<14>,  Prev: Build<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-102344(1): Implement ‘winreg.QueryValue’ using ‘QueryValueEx’
     and ‘winreg.SetValue’ using ‘SetValueEx’.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101881(2): Handle read and write operations on non-blocking
     pipes properly on Windows.

   - gh-101881(3): Add support for the os.get_blocking() and
     os.set_blocking() functions on Windows.

   - gh-101849(4): Ensures installer will correctly upgrade existing
     ‘py.exe’ launcher installs.

   - gh-101763(5): Updates copy of libffi bundled with Windows installs
     to 3.4.4.

   - gh-101759(6): Update Windows installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   - gh-101614(7): Correctly handle extensions built against debug
     binaries that reference ‘python3_d.dll’.

   - gh-101196(8): The functions ‘os.path.isdir’, ‘os.path.isfile’,
     ‘os.path.islink’ and ‘os.path.exists’ are now 13% to 28% faster on
     Windows, by making fewer Win32 API calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102344

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101849

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101763

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101614

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101196


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<14>,  Next: C API<22>,  Prev: Windows<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-101759(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759


File: python.info,  Node: C API<22>,  Prev: macOS<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.23.25.9 C API
...............

   - gh-101907(1): Removes use of non-standard C++ extension in public
     header files.

   - gh-99293(2): Document that the Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG is an
     internal feature, should not be used, and will be removed.

   - gh-101578(3): Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f1. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     3f0.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.

     Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 565. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 566. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 567. passed to the exception’s
     constructor.

   - gh-91744(4): Introduced the 'Unstable C API tier', marking APi that
     is allowed to change in minor releases without a deprecation
     period.  See PEP 689(5) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91744

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0689/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.26 Python 3.12.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-02-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<17>,  Next: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 68. implementations
     of SHA2-224 and SHA2-256 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(2) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<26>,  Next: Library<25>,  Prev: Security<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-92173(1): Fix the ‘defs’ and ‘kwdefs’ arguments to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1770. and a reference leak in that function.

   - gh-59956(2): The GILState API is now partially compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Previously, ‘PyThreadState_GET()’ and
     ‘PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()’ would get out of sync, causing
     inconsistent behavior and crashes.

   - gh-101400(3): Fix wrong lineno in exception message on *note
     continue: 9c6. or *note break: aa6. which are not in a loop.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101372(4): Fix *note is_normalized(): a45. to properly handle
     the UCD 3.2.0 cases.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101266(5): Fix *note sys.getsizeof(): 1771. reporting for *note
     int: 257. subclasses.

   - gh-101291(6): Refactor the ‘PyLongObject’ struct into a normal
     Python object header and a ‘PyLongValue’ struct.

   - gh-101046(7): Fix a possible memory leak in the parser when raising
     *note MemoryError: 157e.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-101037(8): Fix potential memory underallocation issue for
     instances of *note int: 257. subclasses with value zero.

   - gh-100762(9): Record the (virtual) exception block depth in the
     oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 30c.  Use this to avoid the expensive
     ‘throw()’ when closing generators (and coroutines) that can be
     closed trivially.

   - gh-100982(10): Adds a new ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ instruction.  This
     is a bit more efficient when performing a comparison immediately
     followed by a branch, and restores the design intent of PEP 659
     that specializations are local to a single instruction.

   - gh-100942(11): Fixed segfault in property.getter/setter/deleter
     that occurred when a property subclass overrode the ‘__new__’
     method to return a non-property instance.

   - gh-100923(12): Remove the ‘mask’ cache entry for the *note
     COMPARE_OP: 967. instruction and embed the mask into the oparg.

   - gh-100892(13): Fix race while iterating over thread states in
     clearing *note threading.local: 1556.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91351(14): Fix a case where re-entrant imports could corrupt the
     import deadlock detection code and cause a *note KeyError: 33d. to
     be raised out of ‘importlib/_bootstrap’.  In addition to the
     straightforward cases, this could also happen when garbage
     collection leads to a warning being emitted – as happens when it
     collects an open socket or file)

   - gh-100726(15): Optimize construction of ‘range’ object for medium
     size integers.

   - gh-100712(16): Added option to build cpython with specialization
     disabled, by setting ‘ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION=False’ in ‘opcode’,
     followed by ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-32780(17): Inter-field padding is now inserted into the PEP3118
     format strings obtained from *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4. objects,
     reflecting their true representation in memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59956

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101400

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101372

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101266

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101046

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101037

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100762

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100923

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100892

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91351

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100726

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100712

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32780


File: python.info,  Node: Library<25>,  Next: Documentation<19>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.3 Library
.................

   - gh-101541(1): [Enum] - fix psuedo-flag creation

   - gh-101570(2): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0)

   - gh-101323(3): Fix a bug where errors where not thrown by
     zlib._ZlibDecompressor if encountered during decompressing.

   - gh-101317(4): Add 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter for *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 5fe.

   - gh-101326(5): Fix regression when passing ‘None’ as second or third
     argument to ‘FutureIter.throw’.

   - gh-92123(6): Adapt the ‘_elementtree’ extension module to
     multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100795(8): Avoid potential unexpected ‘freeaddrinfo’ call
     (double free) in *note socket: cc. when when a libc ‘getaddrinfo()’
     implementation leaves garbage in an output pointer when returning
     an error.  Original patch by Sergey G. Brester.

   - gh-101143(9): Remove unused references to *note TimerHandle: 1773.
     in ‘asyncio.base_events.BaseEventLoop._add_callback’.

   - gh-101144(10): Make *note zipfile.Path.open(): 15a1. and *note
     zipfile.Path.read_text(): 1774. also accept ‘encoding’ as a
     positional argument.  This was the behavior in Python 3.9 and
     earlier.  3.10 introduced a regression where supplying it as a
     positional argument would lead to a *note TypeError: 532.

   - gh-94518(11): Group-related variables of ‘_posixsubprocess’ module
     are renamed to stress that supplementary group affinity is added to
     a fork, not replace the inherited ones.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-101015(12): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. on
     ‘'*tuple[...]'’ and ‘*tuple[...]’.  It must not drop the ‘Unpack’
     part.

   - gh-101000(13): Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 49e, which splits a
     path into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  This new function
     is used by *note pathlib: a4. to improve the performance of path
     construction by up to a third.

   - gh-100573(14): Fix a Windows *note asyncio: a. bug with named pipes
     where a client doing ‘os.stat()’ on the pipe would cause an error
     in the server that disabled serving future requests.

   - gh-39615(15): *note warnings.warn(): 14e1. now has the ability to
     skip stack frames based on code filename prefix rather than only a
     numeric ‘stacklevel’ via the new ‘skip_file_prefixes’ keyword
     argument.

   - gh-100750(16): pass encoding kwarg to subprocess in platform

   - gh-100160(17): Emit a deprecation warning in
     ‘asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop()’ if there is no
     current event loop set and it decides to create one.

   - gh-96290(18): Fix handling of partial and invalid UNC drives in
     ‘ntpath.splitdrive()’, and in ‘ntpath.normpath()’ on non-Windows
     systems.  Paths such as ‘\server’ and ‘\’ are now considered by
     ‘splitdrive()’ to contain only a drive, and consequently are not
     modified by ‘normpath()’ on non-Windows systems.  The behaviour of
     ‘normpath()’ on Windows systems is unaffected, as native OS APIs
     are used.  Patch by Eryk Sun, with contributions by Barney Gale.

   - gh-99952(19): Fix a reference undercounting issue in *note
     ctypes.Structure: 1d4. with ‘from_param()’ results larger than a C
     pointer.

   - gh-67790(20): Add float-style formatting support for *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e7. instances.

   - gh-99266(21): Preserve more detailed error messages in *note
     ctypes: 2a.

   - gh-86682(22): Ensure runtime-created collections have the correct
     module name using the newly added (internal) *note
     sys._getframemodulename(): 1775.

   - gh-88597(23): *note uuid: 110. now has a command line interface.
     Try ‘python -m uuid -h’.

   - gh-60580(24): ‘ctypes.wintypes.BYTE’ definition changed from *note
     c_byte: 1776. to *note c_ubyte: 1777. to match Windows SDK. Patch
     by Anatoly Techtonik and Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94518(25): ‘_posixsubprocess’ now initializes all UID and GID
     variables using a reserved ‘-1’ value instead of a separate flag.
     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-38941(26): The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module now
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when testing the truth value
     of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 308.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 40f, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.

   - bpo-40077(27): Convert ‘elementtree’ types to heap types.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-29847(28): Fix a bug where *note pathlib.Path: 229. accepted
     and ignored keyword arguments.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-77772(29): *note ctypes.CDLL: 9e5, *note ctypes.OleDLL: 1778,
     *note ctypes.WinDLL: 1779, and *note ctypes.PyDLL: 177a. now accept
     *note path-like objects: 2a0. as their ‘name’ argument.  Patch by
     Robert Hoelzl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101541

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101323

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101317

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101326

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92123

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100795

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101143

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101144

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101015

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100573

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/39615

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100750

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96290

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99952

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99266

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86682

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60580

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38941

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29847

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77772


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<19>,  Next: Tests<21>,  Prev: Library<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-88324(1): Reword *note subprocess: d6. to emphasize default
     behavior of 'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' arguments.  Remove
     inaccurate statement about child file handle inheritance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88324


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<21>,  Next: Build<23>,  Prev: Documentation<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101334(1): ‘test_tarfile’ has been updated to pass when run as a
     high UID.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101334


File: python.info,  Node: Build<23>,  Next: Windows<20>,  Prev: Tests<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): Update BOLT configuration not to use deprecated usage
     of ‘--split functions’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101522(2): Allow overriding Windows dependencies versions and
     paths using MSBuild properties.

   - gh-77532(3): Minor fixes to allow building with
     ‘PlatformToolset=ClangCL’ on Windows.

   - gh-101152(4): In accordance with PEP 699(5), the ‘ma_version_tag’
     field in *note PyDictObject: 3bb. is deprecated for extension
     modules.  Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at
     compile time.  This field will be removed in Python 3.14.

   - gh-100340(6): Allows -Wno-int-conversion for wasm-sdk 17 and
     onwards, thus enables building WASI builds once against the latest
     sdk.

   - gh-101060(7): Conditionally add ‘-fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition’
     in configure.  Effectively fixes ‘--enable-bolt’ when using Clang,
     as this appears to be a GCC-only flag.

   - gh-98705(8): ‘__bool__’ is defined in AIX system header files which
     breaks the build in AIX, so undefine it.

   - gh-98636(9): Fix a regression in detecting ‘gdbm_compat’ library
     for the ‘_gdbm’ module build.

   - gh-96305(10): ‘_aix_support’ now uses a simple code to get platform
     details rather than the now non-existent ‘_bootsubprocess’ during
     bootstrap.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101522

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77532

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101152

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100340

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101060

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98705

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98636

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96305


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<20>,  Prev: Build<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.23.26.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-101543(1): Ensure the install path in the registry is only used
     when the standard library hasn’t been located in any other way.

   - gh-101467(2): The ‘py.exe’ launcher now correctly filters when only
     a single runtime is installed.  It also correctly handles prefix
     matches on tags so that ‘-3.1’ does not match ‘3.11’, but would
     still match ‘3.1-32’.

   - gh-99834(3): Updates bundled copy of Tcl/Tk to 8.6.13.0

   - gh-101135(4): Restore ability to launch older 32-bit versions from
     the ‘py.exe’ launcher when both 32-bit and 64-bit installs of the
     same version are available.

   - gh-82052(5): Fixed an issue where writing more than 32K of Unicode
     output to the console screen in one go can result in mojibake.

   - gh-100320(6): Ensures the ‘PythonPath’ registry key from an install
     is used when launching from a different copy of Python that relies
     on an existing install to provide a copy of its modules and
     standard library.

   - gh-100247(7): Restores support for the ‘py.exe’ launcher finding
     shebang commands in its configuration file using the full command
     name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101543

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101467

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101135

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82052

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100320

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100247


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.27 Python 3.12.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-01-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<23>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<27>,  Next: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100776(1): Fix misleading default value in *note input():
     12c8.’s ‘__text_signature__’.

   - gh-99005(2): Remove ‘UNARY_POSITIVE’, ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’ and
     ‘LIST_TO_TUPLE’, replacing them with intrinsics.

   - gh-99005(3): Add new *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4db. instruction.
     Remove ‘IMPORT_STAR’, ‘PRINT_EXPR’ and ‘STOPITERATION_ERROR’,
     replacing them with the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4db. instruction.

   - gh-100288(4): Remove the LOAD_ATTR_METHOD_WITH_DICT specialized
     instruction.  Stats show it is not useful.

   - gh-100720(5): Added ‘_PyFrame_NumSlotsForCodeObject’, which returns
     the number of slots needed in a frame for a given code object.

   - gh-100719(6): Removed the co_nplaincellvars field from the code
     object, as it is redundant.

   - gh-100637(7): Fix ‘int.__sizeof__()’ calculation to include the
     1-element ‘ob_digit’ array for ‘0’ and ‘False’.

   - gh-100649(8): Update the native_thread_id field of PyThreadState
     after fork.

   - gh-100126(9): Fix an issue where “incomplete” frames could be
     briefly visible to C code while other frames are being torn down,
     possibly resulting in corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter
     while running finalizers.

   - gh-87447(10): Fix *note SyntaxError: 18d. on comprehension rebind
     checking with names that are not actually redefined.

     Now reassigning ‘b’ in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’ is
     allowed.  Reassigning ‘a’ is still disallowed as per PEP 572(11).

   - gh-100268(12): Add *note int.is_integer(): 1781. to improve duck
     type compatibility between *note int: 257. and *note float: 2ef.

   - gh-100425(13): Improve the accuracy of ‘sum()’ with compensated
     summation.

   - gh-100374(14): Fix incorrect result and delay in *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 1782.  Patch by Dominic Socular.

   - gh-100357(15): Convert ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’, and ‘iter’
     to argument clinic.

   - gh-100117(16): Improve the output of *note codeobject.co_lines():
     2f3. by emitting only one entry for each line range.

   - gh-90043(17): Handle NaNs when specializing *note COMPARE_OP: 967.
     for *note float: 2ef. values.

   - gh-100222(18): Redefine the ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ typedef as a union to
     describe its layout to the C compiler, avoiding type punning and
     improving clarity.

   - gh-99955(19): Internal compiler functions (in compile.c) now
     consistently return -1 on error and 0 on success.

   - gh-100188(20): The ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT’ and
     ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT’ instructions are no longer used for
     negative integers because those instructions always miss when
     encountering negative integers.

   - gh-99110(21): Initialize frame->previous in frameobject.c to fix a
     segmentation fault when accessing frames created by
     ‘PyFrame_New()’.

   - gh-94155(22): Improved the hashing algorithm for code objects,
     mitigating some hash collisions.

   - gh-99540(23): ‘None’ now hashes to a constant value.  This is not a
     requirements change.

   - gh-100143(24): When built with ‘--enable-pystats’, stats collection
     is now off by default.  To enable it early at startup, pass the
     ‘-Xpystats’ flag.  Stats are now always dumped, even if switched
     off.

   - gh-100146(25): Improve ‘BUILD_LIST’ opcode so that it works
     similarly to the ‘BUILD_TUPLE’ opcode, by stealing references from
     the stack rather than repeatedly using stack operations to set list
     elements.  Implementation details are in a new private API
     ‘_PyList_FromArraySteal()’.

   - gh-100110(26): Specialize ‘FOR_ITER’ for tuples.

   - gh-100050(27): Honor existing errors obtained when searching for
     mismatching parentheses in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-92216(28): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 4cc. for
     type objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-99582(29): Freeze *note zipimport: 132. module into
     ‘_bootstrap_python’.

   - gh-99554(30): Pack debugging location tables more efficiently
     during bytecode compilation.

   - gh-98522(31): Add an internal version number to code objects, to
     give better versioning of inner functions and comprehensions, and
     thus better specialization of those functions.  This change is
     invisible to both Python and C extensions.

   - gh-94603(32): Improve performance of ‘list.pop’ for small lists.

   - gh-89051(33): Add *note ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT: 1783.

   - bpo-32782(34): ‘ctypes’ arrays of length 0 now report a correct
     itemsize when a ‘memoryview’ is constructed from them, rather than
     always giving a value of 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100776

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100720

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100637

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100649

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100126

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87447

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100268

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100374

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100357

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100117

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90043

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99955

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100188

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99110

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94155

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99540

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100143

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100146

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100110

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100050

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92216

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99582

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99554

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98522

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94603

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32782


File: python.info,  Node: Library<26>,  Next: Documentation<20>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.2 Library
.................

   - gh-100833(1): Speed up *note math.fsum(): 139d. by removing
     defensive ‘volatile’ qualifiers.

   - gh-100805(2): Modify *note random.choice(): 1220. implementation to
     once again work with NumPy arrays.

   - gh-100813(3): Add ‘socket.IP_PKTINFO’ constant.

   - gh-100792(4): Make *note email.message.Message.__contains__():
     1785. twice as fast.

   - gh-91851(5): Microoptimizations for *note
     fractions.Fraction.__round__(): 1786, *note
     fractions.Fraction.__ceil__(): 1787. and *note
     fractions.Fraction.__floor__(): 1788.

   - gh-90104(6): Avoid RecursionError on ‘repr’ if a dataclass field
     definition has a cyclic reference.

   - gh-100689(7): Fix crash in ‘pyexpat’ by statically allocating
     ‘PyExpat_CAPI’ capsule.

   - gh-100740(8): Fix ‘unittest.mock.Mock’ not respecting the spec for
     attribute names prefixed with ‘assert’.

   - gh-91219(9): Change ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’ to support
     subclassing to provide a different set of index file names instead
     of using ‘__init__’ parameters.

   - gh-100690(10): ‘Mock’ objects which are not unsafe will now raise
     an ‘AttributeError’ when accessing an attribute that matches the
     name of an assertion but without the prefix ‘assert_’, e.g.
     accessing ‘called_once’ instead of ‘assert_called_once’.  This is
     in addition to this already happening for accessing attributes with
     prefixes ‘assert’, ‘assret’, ‘asert’, ‘aseert’, and ‘assrt’.

   - gh-89727(11): Simplify and optimize *note os.walk(): 4a3. by using
     *note isinstance(): 43b. checks to check the top of the stack.

   - gh-100485(12): Add math.sumprod() to compute the sum of products.

   - gh-86508(13): Fix *note asyncio.open_connection(): b15. to skip
     binding to local addresses of different family.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-97930(14): ‘importlib.resources.files’ now accepts a module as
     an anchor instead of only accepting packages.  If a module is
     passed, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same
     package or at the package root).  The parameter was renamed from
     ‘package’ to ‘anchor’ with a compatibility shim for those passing
     by keyword.  Additionally, the new ‘anchor’ parameter is now
     optional and will default to the caller’s module.

   - gh-100585(15): Fixed a bug where importlib.resources.as_file was
     leaving file pointers open

   - gh-100562(16): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 16b5. by nearly 2x.  This comes at the
     cost of a performance regression in *note pathlib.Path.cwd(): 1731,
     which is generally used less frequently in user code.

   - gh-100519(17): Small simplification of
     ‘http.cookiejar.eff_request_host()’ that improves readability and
     better matches the RFC wording.

   - gh-100287(18): Fix the interaction of *note unittest.mock.seal():
     b9e. with *note unittest.mock.AsyncMock: a48.

   - gh-100488(19): Add ‘Fraction.is_integer()’ to check whether a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e7. is an integer.  This improves duck type
     compatibility with *note float: 2ef. and *note int: 257.

   - gh-100474(20): *note http.server: 72. now checks that an index page
     is actually a regular file before trying to serve it.  This avoids
     issues with directories named ‘index.html’.

   - gh-100363(21): Speed up *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): b08. by
     removing redundant ‘getpid’ checks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78878(22): Fix crash when creating an instance of
     ‘_ctypes.CField’.

   - gh-100348(23): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_read_ready_cb’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-100344(24): Provide C implementation for *note
     asyncio.current_task(): 477. for a 4x-6x speedup.

   - gh-100272(25): Fix JSON serialization of OrderedDict.  It now
     preserves the order of keys.

   - gh-83076(26): Instantiation of ‘Mock()’ and ‘AsyncMock()’ is now
     3.8x faster.

   - gh-100234(27): Set a default value of 1.0 for the ‘lambd’ parameter
     in random.expovariate().

   - gh-100228(28): A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. may be raised when
     *note os.fork(): 197. or *note os.forkpty(): 198. is called from
     multi-threaded processes.  Forking with threads is unsafe and can
     cause deadlocks, crashes and subtle problems.  Lack of a warning
     does not indicate that the fork call was actually safe, as Python
     may not be aware of all threads.

   - gh-100039(29): Improve signatures for enums and flags.

   - gh-100133(30): Fix regression in *note asyncio: a. where a
     subprocess would sometimes lose data received from pipe.

   - bpo-44592(31): Fixes inconsistent handling of case sensitivity of
     'extrasaction' arg in *note csv.DictWriter: 11ed.

   - gh-100098(32): Fix ‘tuple’ subclasses being cast to ‘tuple’ when
     used as enum values.

   - gh-85432(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure-Python
     implementation of *note datetime.time.strftime(): 1789. to
     'format'.  Rename the 't' parameter of *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4e7. to 'timestamp'.  These
     changes mean the parameter names in the pure-Python implementation
     now match the parameter names in the C implementation.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-98778(34): Update *note HTTPError: fd6. to be initialized
     properly, even if the ‘fp’ is ‘None’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-99925(35): Unify error messages in JSON serialization between
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False)’ and
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False, indent=<SOMETHING>)’.
     Now both include the representation of the value that could not be
     serialized.

   - gh-89727(36): Fix issue with *note os.walk(): 4a3. where a *note
     RecursionError: d68. would occur on deep directory structures by
     adjusting the implementation of *note os.walk(): 4a3. to be
     iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-94943(37): Add *note Dataclass support: 178a. to the *note Enum:
     62a. *note __repr__(): 178b.  When inheriting from a *note
     dataclass: 1cb, only show the field names in the value section of
     the member *note repr(): 7f7, and not the dataclass’ class name.

   - gh-83035(38): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 151b. handling of
     decorator calls with nested parentheses.

   - gh-99576(39): Fix ‘.save()’ method for ‘LWPCookieJar’ and
     ‘MozillaCookieJar’: saved file was not truncated on repeated save.

   - gh-94912(40): Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 48a.
     decorator which manually marks a function as a coroutine for the
     benefit of ‘iscoroutinefunction()’.

   - gh-99509(41): Add PEP 585(42) support for
     ‘multiprocessing.queues.Queue’.

   - gh-99482(43): Remove ‘Jython’ partial compatibility code from
     several stdlib modules.

   - gh-99433(44): Fix *note doctest: 3a. failure on *note
     types.MethodWrapperType: 645. in modules.

   - gh-85267(45): Several improvements to *note inspect.signature():
     731.’s handling of ‘__text_signature’.  - Fixes a case where *note
     inspect.signature(): 731. dropped parameters - Fixes a case where
     *note inspect.signature(): 731. raised *note tokenize.TokenError:
     53d. - Allows *note inspect.signature(): 731. to understand
     defaults involving binary operations of constants - *note
     inspect.signature(): 731. is documented as only raising *note
     TypeError: 532. or *note ValueError: 202, but sometimes raised
     *note RuntimeError: 195.  These cases now raise *note ValueError:
     202. - Removed a dead code path

   - gh-91166(46): *note asyncio: a. is optimized to avoid excessive
     copying when writing to socket and use *note sendmsg(): 470. if the
     platform supports it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98030(47): Add missing TCP socket options from Linux:
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG’, ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’, ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’,
     ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’, ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.

   - gh-88500(48): Reduced the memory usage of *note
     urllib.parse.unquote(): 178c. and *note
     urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(): 178d. on large values.

   - gh-96127(49): ‘inspect.signature’ was raising ‘TypeError’ on call
     with mock objects.  Now it correctly returns ‘(*args, **kwargs)’ as
     inferred signature.

   - gh-95882(50): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note asynccontextmanager():
     b27, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks and fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     11f1, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks for *note StopIteration: bf7.

   - gh-78707(51): Deprecate passing more than one positional argument
     to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb. and *note
     is_relative_to(): 2ca.

   - gh-92122(52): Fix reStructuredText syntax errors in docstrings in
     the *note enum: 56. module.

   - gh-91851(53): Optimize the *note Fraction: 1e7. arithmetics for
     small components.

   - bpo-24132(54): Make *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. and *note Path:
     229. subclassable (private to start).  Previously, attempting to
     instantiate a subclass resulted in an *note AttributeError: 346.
     being raised.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - bpo-40447(55): Accept *note os.PathLike: c4e. (such as *note
     pathlib.Path: 229.) in the ‘stripdir’ arguments of *note
     compileall.compile_file(): ddd. and *note compileall.compile_dir():
     b23.

   - bpo-36880(56): Fix a reference counting issue when a *note ctypes:
     2a. callback with return type *note py_object: 1400. returns
     ‘None’, which could cause crashes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100833

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100805

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100813

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100792

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90104

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100689

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91219

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100690

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86508

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100585

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100562

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100519

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100287

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100488

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100474

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100363

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78878

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100348

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100272

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83076

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100228

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100039

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100133

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44592

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100098

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85432

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98778

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99925

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94943

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83035

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99576

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94912

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99509

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99433

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85267

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98030

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88500

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96127

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95882

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92122

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24132

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40447

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36880


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<20>,  Next: Tests<22>,  Prev: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-100616(1): Document existing ‘attr’ parameter to *note
     curses.window.vline(): 178f. function in *note curses: 2b.

   - gh-100472(2): Remove claim in documentation that the ‘stripdir’,
     ‘prependdir’ and ‘limit_sl_dest’ parameters of *note
     compileall.compile_dir(): b23. and *note compileall.compile_file():
     ddd. could be *note bytes: 1c2.

   - bpo-25377(3): Clarify use of octal format of mode argument in
     help(os.chmod) as well as help(os.fchmod)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<22>,  Next: Build<24>,  Prev: Documentation<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-100454(1): Start running SSL tests with OpenSSL 3.1.0-beta1.

   - gh-100086(2): The Python test runner (libregrtest) now logs Python
     build information like “debug” vs “release” build, or LTO and PGO
     optimizations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93018(3): Make two tests forgiving towards host system libexpat
     with backported security fixes applied.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100454

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100086

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93018


File: python.info,  Node: Build<24>,  Next: Windows<21>,  Prev: Tests<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.5 Build
...............

   - gh-100540(1): Removed the ‘--with-system-ffi’ ‘configure’ option;
     ‘libffi’ must now always be supplied by the system on all
     non-Windows platforms.  The option has had no effect on non-Darwin
     platforms for several releases, and in 3.11 only had the
     non-obvious effect of invoking ‘pkg-config’ to find ‘libffi’ and
     never setting ‘-DUSING_APPLE_OS_LIBFFI’.  Now on Darwin platforms
     ‘configure’ will first check for the OS ‘libffi’ and then fall back
     to the same processing as other platforms if it is not found.

   - gh-88267(2): Avoid exporting Python symbols in linked Windows
     applications when the core is built as static.

   - bpo-41916(3): Allow override of ac_cv_cxx_thread so that cross
     compiled python can set -pthread for CXX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88267

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41916


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<21>,  Next: macOS<15>,  Prev: Build<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-100180(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-99191(2): Use ‘_MSVC_LANG >= 202002L’ instead of less-precise
     ‘_MSC_VER >=1929’ to more accurately test for C++20 support in
     ‘PC/_wmimodule.cpp’.

   - gh-79218(3): Define ‘MS_WIN64’ for Mingw-w64 64bit, fix cython
     compilation failure.

   - gh-99941(4): Ensure that *note asyncio.Protocol.data_received():
     1793. receives an immutable *note bytes: 1c2. object (as
     documented), instead of *note bytearray: 538.

   - bpo-43984(5): *note winreg.SetValueEx(): 1794. now leaves the
     target value untouched in the case of conversion errors.
     Previously, ‘-1’ would be written in case of such errors.

   - bpo-34816(6): ‘hasattr(ctypes.windll, 'nonexistant')’ now returns
     ‘False’ instead of raising *note OSError: 411.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43984

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34816


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<13>,  Prev: Windows<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-100180(1): Update macOS installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-100540(2): Removed obsolete ‘dlfcn.h’ shim from the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module, which has not been necessary since Mac OS X 10.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<13>,  Next: C API<23>,  Prev: macOS<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-45256(1): Fix a bug that caused an *note AttributeError: 346.
     to be raised in ‘python-gdb.py’ when ‘py-locals’ is used without a
     frame.

   - gh-100342(2): Add missing ‘NULL’ check for possible allocation
     failure in ‘*args’ parsing in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100342


File: python.info,  Node: C API<23>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.23.27.9 C API
...............

   - gh-99947(1): Raising SystemError on import will now have its cause
     be set to the original unexpected exception.

   - gh-99240(2): In argument parsing, after deallocating newly
     allocated memory, reset its pointer to NULL.

   - gh-98724(3): The *note Py_CLEAR: 573, *note Py_SETREF: 574. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 575. macros now only evaluate their arguments
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99947

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.28 Python 3.12.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-12-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<24>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<18>,  Next: Core and Builtins<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.1 Security
..................

   - gh-100001(1): ‘python -m http.server’ no longer allows terminal
     control characters sent within a garbage request to be printed to
     the stderr server log.

     This is done by changing the *note http.server: 72.
     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ ‘.log_message’ method to replace control
     characters with a ‘\xHH’ hex escape before printing.

   - gh-87604(2): Avoid publishing list of active per-interpreter audit
     hooks via the *note gc: 60. module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87604


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<28>,  Next: Library<27>,  Prev: Security<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-99891(1): Fix a bug in the tokenizer that could cause infinite
     recursion when showing syntax warnings that happen in the first
     line of the source.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-91054(2): Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 561. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 562. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.

   - gh-99729(3): Fix an issue that could cause frames to be visible to
     Python code as they are being torn down, possibly leading to memory
     corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-99708(4): Fix bug where compiler crashes on an if expression
     with an empty body block.

   - gh-99578(5): Fix a reference bug in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ after
     the creation of the first sub-interpreter for modules ‘builtins’
     and ‘sys’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99581(6): Fixed a bug that was causing a buffer overflow if the
     tokenizer copies a line missing the newline character from a file
     that is as long as the available tokenizer buffer.  Patch by Pablo
     galindo

   - gh-99553(7): Fix bug where an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. subclass
     can wrap a *note BaseException: 5b5.

   - gh-99547(8): Add a function to os.path to check if a path is a
     junction: isjunction.  Add similar functionality to pathlib.Path as
     is_junction.

   - gh-99370(9): Fix zip path for venv created from a non-installed
     python on POSIX platforms.

   - gh-99377(10): Add audit events for thread creation and clear
     operations.

   - gh-98686(11): Remove the ‘BINARY_OP_GENERIC’ and
     ‘COMPARE_OP_GENERIC’ “specializations”.

   - gh-99298(12): Remove the remaining error paths for attribute
     specializations, and refuse to specialize attribute accesses on
     types that haven’t had *note PyType_Ready(): 775. called on them
     yet.

   - gh-99127(13): Allow some features of *note syslog: dc. to the main
     interpreter only.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-91053(14): Optimizing interpreters and JIT compilers may need to
     invalidate internal metadata when functions are modified.  This
     change adds the ability to provide a callback that will be invoked
     each time a function is created, modified, or destroyed.

   - gh-90994(15): Improve error messages when there’s a syntax error
     with call arguments.  The following three cases are covered: - No
     value is assigned to a named argument, eg ‘foo(a=)’.  - A value is
     assigned to a star argument, eg ‘foo(*args=[0])’.  - A value is
     assigned to a double-star keyword argument, eg ‘foo(**kwarg={'a':
     0})’.

   - bpo-45026(16): Optimize the *note range: 941. object iterator.  It
     is now smaller, faster iteration of ranges containing large
     numbers.  Smaller pickles, faster unpickling.

   - bpo-31718(17): Raise *note ValueError: 202. instead of *note
     SystemError: 570. when methods of uninitialized *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 16cf. objects are called.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-38031(18): Fix a possible assertion failure in *note io.FileIO:
     1300. when the opener returns an invalid file descriptor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99891

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99708

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99578

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99581

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99553

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99370

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99377

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91053

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90994

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45026

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31718

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38031


File: python.info,  Node: Library<27>,  Next: Documentation<21>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.3 Library
.................

   - gh-100001(1): Also escape s in the http.server
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message so that it is technically
     possible to parse the line and reconstruct what the original data
     was.  Without this a xHH is ambiguous as to if it is a hex
     replacement we put in or the characters r”x” came through in the
     original request line.

   - gh-99957(2): Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 4ce.

   - gh-79033(3): Fix *note asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 16d0. to
     actually do what the docs promise – wait for all existing
     connections to complete, after closing the server.

   - gh-51524(4): Fix bug when calling trace.CoverageResults with valid
     infile.

   - gh-99645(5): Fix a bug in handling class cleanups in *note
     unittest.TestCase: 447.  Now ‘addClassCleanup()’ uses separate
     lists for different ‘TestCase’ subclasses, and ‘doClassCleanups()’
     only cleans up the particular class.

   - gh-99508(6): Fix ‘TypeError’ in
     ‘Lib/importlib/_bootstrap_external.py’ while calling
     ‘_imp.source_hash()’.

   - gh-66285(7): Fix *note asyncio: a. to not share event loop and
     signal wakeupfd in forked processes.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97001(8): Release the GIL when calling termios APIs to avoid
     blocking threads.

   - gh-92647(9): Use final status of an enum to determine lookup or
     creation branch of functional API.

   - gh-99388(10): Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run():
     476. to allow specifying a custom event loop factory.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99341(11): Fix *note ast.increment_lineno(): 179c. to also cover
     *note ast.TypeIgnore: 179d. when changing line numbers.

   - gh-99382(12): Check the number of arguments in substitution in user
     generics containing a *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. and one or more
     *note TypeVar: 15d.

   - gh-99379(13): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 15e. followed by
     *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. in generic aliases.

   - gh-99344(14): Fix substitution of *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. and
     *note ParamSpec: 15e. together in user generics.

   - gh-99284(15): Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’
     old untested and undocumented hack from *note ctypes: 2a.

   - gh-99201(16): Fix *note IndexError: 14fc. when initializing the
     config variables on Windows if ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ is not set.

   - gh-99240(17): Fix double-free bug in Argument Clinic
     ‘str_converter’ by extracting memory clean up to a new
     ‘post_parsing’ section.

   - gh-64490(18): Fix refcount error when arguments are packed to tuple
     in Argument Clinic.

   - gh-99029(19): *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb. now treats
     naked Windows drive paths as relative.  This brings its behaviour
     in line with other parts of pathlib.

   - gh-98253(20): The implementation of the typing module is now more
     resilient to reference leaks in binary extension modules.

     Previously, a reference leak in a typed C API-based extension
     module could leak internals of the typing module, which could in
     turn introduce leaks in essentially any other package with typed
     function signatures.  Although the typing package is not the
     original source of the problem, such non-local dependences
     exacerbate debugging of large-scale projects, and the
     implementation was therefore changed to reduce harm by providing
     better isolation.

   - gh-98458(21): Fix infinite loop in unittest when a self-referencing
     chained exception is raised

   - gh-93453(22): *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c2. and many other
     *note asyncio: a. functions like *note asyncio.ensure_future():
     c73, *note asyncio.shield(): a6d. or *note asyncio.gather(): 5f7,
     and also the ‘get_event_loop()’ method of
     ‘asyncio.BaseDefaultEventLoopPolicy’ now raise a *note
     RuntimeError: 195. if called when there is no running event loop
     and the current event loop was not set.  Previously they implicitly
     created and set a new current event loop.  *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is no longer emitted if there is no
     running event loop but the current event loop was set.

   - gh-97966(23): On ‘uname_result’, restored expectation that
     ‘_fields’ and ‘_asdict’ would include all six properties including
     ‘processor’.

   - gh-98248(24): Provide informative error messages in *note
     struct.pack(): 1267. when its integral arguments are not in range.

   - gh-98108(25): ‘zipfile.Path’ is now pickleable if its
     initialization parameters were pickleable (e.g.  for file system
     paths).

   - gh-98098(26): Created packages from zipfile and test_zipfile
     modules, separating ‘zipfile.Path’ functionality.

   - gh-82836(27): Fix *note is_private: 1650. properties in the *note
     ipaddress: 80. module.  Previously non-private networks (0.0.0.0/0)
     would return ‘True’ from this method; now they correctly return
     ‘False’.

   - gh-96828(28): Add an *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS: 179e. option for
     enabling the use of the kernel TLS (kTLS). Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-88863(29): To avoid apparent memory leaks when *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b15. raises, break reference cycles
     generated by local exception and future instances (which has
     exception instance as its member var).  Patch by Dong Uk, Kang.

   - gh-91078(30): ‘TarFile.next()’ now returns ‘None’ when called on an
     empty tarfile.

   - bpo-47220(31): Document the optional 'callback' parameter of
     ‘WeakMethod’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44817(32): Ignore WinError 53 (ERROR_BAD_NETPATH), 65
     (ERROR_NETWORK_ACCESS_DENIED) and 161 (ERROR_BAD_PATHNAME) when
     using ntpath.realpath().

   - bpo-41260(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure Python
     implementation of *note datetime.date.strftime(): c8e. to 'format'.

   - bpo-15999(34): All built-in functions now accept arguments of any
     type instead of just ‘bool’ and ‘int’ for boolean parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51524

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99508

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66285

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97001

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92647

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99341

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99382

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99379

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99344

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99284

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99029

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98253

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98458

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93453

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98248

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98108

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98098

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82836

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96828

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91078

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47220

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41260

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15999


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<21>,  Next: Tests<23>,  Prev: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-99931(1): Use sphinxext-opengraph(2) to generate OpenGraph
     metadata(3).

   - gh-89682(4): Reworded docstring of the default ‘__contains__’ to
     clarify that it returns a *note bool: 461.

   - gh-88330(5): Improved the description of what a resource is in
     importlib.resources docs.

   - gh-92892(6): Document that calling variadic functions with ctypes
     requires special care on macOS/arm64 (and possibly other
     platforms).

   - bpo-41825(7): Restructured the documentation for the *note
     os.wait*: d94. family of functions, and improved the docs for *note
     os.waitid(): d95. with more explanation of the possible argument
     constants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99931

   (2) https://sphinxext-opengraph.readthedocs.io/

   (3) https://ogp.me/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89682

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88330

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41825


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<23>,  Next: Build<25>,  Prev: Documentation<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-99892(1): Skip test_normalization() of test_unicodedata if it
     fails to download NormalizationTest.txt file from pythontest.net.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99934(2): Correct test_marsh on (32 bit) x86: test_deterministic
     sets was failing.

   - gh-99741(3): We’ve implemented multi-phase init (PEP 489/630/687)
     for the internal (for testing) _xxsubinterpreters module.

   - gh-99659(4): Optional big memory tests in ‘test_sqlite3’ now catch
     the correct ‘sqlite.DataError’ exception type in case of too large
     strings and/or blobs passed.

   - gh-99593(5): Cover the Unicode C API with tests.

   - gh-96002(6): Add functional test for Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99892

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99934

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99659

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99593

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96002


File: python.info,  Node: Build<25>,  Next: Windows<22>,  Prev: Tests<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’, ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’, and
     ‘-Wimplicit-function-declaration’ compiler warnings in ‘configure’
     checks.

   - gh-99337(2): Fix a compilation issue with GCC 12 on macOS.

   - gh-99289(3): Add a ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in Makefile to
     override *note compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make
     install’.  Also merged the ‘compileall’ commands into a single
     command building .pyc files for the all optimization levels (0, 1,
     2) at once.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98872(4): Fix a possible fd leak in ‘Programs/_freeze_module.c’
     introduced in Python 3.11.

   - gh-88226(5): Always define ‘TARGET_*’ labels in ‘Python/ceval.c’,
     even if ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’ is disabled.  This allows breakpoints
     to be set at those labels in (for instance) ‘gdb’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99337

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98872

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88226


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<22>,  Next: macOS<16>,  Prev: Build<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-99345(1): Use faster initialization functions to detect install
     location for Windows Store package

   - gh-98629(2): Fix initialization of *note sys.version: 178. and
     ‘sys._git’ on Windows

   - gh-99442(3): Fix handling in *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. when
     ‘argv[0]’ does not include a file extension.

   - bpo-40882(4): Fix a memory leak in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1660. on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99442

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40882


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<16>,  Next: Tools/Demos<14>,  Prev: Windows<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-87235(1): On macOS ‘python3 /dev/fd/9 9</path/to/script.py’
     failed for any script longer than a couple of bytes.

   - gh-98940(2): Fix ‘Mac/Extras.install.py’ file filter bug.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87235

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<14>,  Next: C API<24>,  Prev: macOS<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-64490(1): Argument Clinic varargs bugfixes

        * Fix out-of-bounds error in
          ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg()’.

        * Fix incorrect check which allowed more than one varargs in
          clinic.py.

        * Fix miscalculation of ‘noptargs’ in generated code.

        * Do not generate ‘noptargs’ when there is a vararg argument and
          no optional argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490


File: python.info,  Node: C API<24>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.23.28.10 C API
................

   - gh-98680(1): ‘PyBUF_*’ constants were marked as part of Limited API
     of Python 3.11+.  These were available in 3.11.0 with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 418. defined for 3.11, and are necessary to use the
     buffer API.

   - gh-99612(2): Fix *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 17a6. for
     ASCII-only data: ‘*consumed’ was not set.

   - gh-47146(3): The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated.  Its
     non-deprecated contents are now available just by including
     ‘Python.h’, with a ‘Py_’ prefix added if it was missing.
     (Deprecated contents are *note T_OBJECT: 58e, *note T_NONE: 590,
     and no-op flags.)  Patch by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by
     Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98680

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99612

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.29 Python 3.12.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-11-14'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* C API: C API<25>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<19>,  Next: Core and Builtins<29>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.1 Security
..................

   - gh-98433(1): The IDNA codec decoder used on DNS hostnames by *note
     socket: cc. or *note asyncio: a. related name resolution functions
     no longer involves a quadratic algorithm.  This prevents a
     potential CPU denial of service if an out-of-spec excessive length
     hostname involving bidirectional characters were decoded.  Some
     protocols such as *note urllib: 108. http ‘3XX’ redirects
     potentially allow for an attacker to supply such a name.

     Individual labels within an IDNA encoded DNS name will now raise an
     error early during IDNA decoding if they are longer than 1024
     unicode characters given that each decoded DNS label must be 63 or
     fewer characters and the entire decoded DNS name is limited to 255.
     Only an application presenting a hostname or label consisting
     primarily of RFC 3454(2) section 3.1 “Nothing” characters to be
     removed would run into of this new limit.  See also RFC 5894(3)
     section 6 and RFC 3491(4).

   - gh-98739(5): Update bundled libexpat to 2.5.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98433

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5894.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3491.html

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98739


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<29>,  Next: Library<28>,  Prev: Security<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-81057(1): The docs clearly say that ‘PyImport_Inittab’, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa, and *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     17ab. should not be used after *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. has been
     called.  We now enforce this for the two functions.  Additionally,
     the runtime now uses an internal copy of ‘PyImport_Inittab’, to
     guard against modification.

   - gh-99298(2): Fix an issue that could potentially cause incorrect
     error handling for some bytecode instructions.

   - gh-99254(3): The compiler now removes all unused constants from
     code objects (except the first one, which may be a docstring).

   - gh-99205(4): Fix an issue that prevented *note PyThreadState: 786.
     and *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. memory from being freed
     properly.

   - gh-81057(5): The 18 global C variables holding the state of the
     allocators have been moved to ‘_PyRuntimeState’.  This is a
     strictly internal change with no change in behavior.

   - gh-99181(6): Fix failure in *note except*: 5b2. with unhashable
     exceptions.

   - gh-99204(7): Fix calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when inside
     a POSIX virtual environment using copies of the python binary when
     the base installation does not provide the executable name used by
     the venv.  Calculation will fall back to alternative names
     (“python<MAJOR>”, “python<MAJOR>.<MINOR>”).

   - gh-96055(8): Update *note faulthandler: 58. to emit an error
     message with the proper unexpected signal number.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-99153(9): Fix location of *note SyntaxError: 18d. for a *note
     try: 6e2. block with both *note except: 18b. and *note except*:
     5b2.

   - gh-98686(10): Merge the adaptive opcode logic into each
     instruction’s unquickened variant, and merge the logic in
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ into *note EXTENDED_ARG: 17ac.  With these
     changes, the quickening that happens at code object creation is now
     only responsible for initializing warmup counters and inserting
     superinstructions.

   - gh-99103(11): Fix the error reporting positions of specialized
     traceback anchors when the source line contains Unicode characters.

   - gh-99139(12): Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError:
     438. exceptions for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 438. is
     raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that’s exactly
     equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98401(13): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex:
     ‘"\477"’), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  In a
     future Python version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError:
     18d.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98401(14): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape
     sequence now generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence), use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’.  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96793(15): Handle StopIteration and StopAsyncIteration raised in
     generator or coroutines in the bytecode, rather than in wrapping C
     code.

   - gh-98931(16): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18d. error message
     when the user types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98852(17): Fix subscription of type aliases containing bare
     generic types or types like *note TypeVar: 15d.: for example
     ‘tuple[A, T][int]’ and ‘tuple[TypeVar, T][int]’, where ‘A’ is a
     generic type, and ‘T’ is a type variable.

   - gh-98925(18): Lower the recursion depth for marshal on WASI to
     support (in-development) wasmtime 2.0.

   - gh-98783(19): Fix multiple crashes in debug mode when ‘str’
     subclasses are used instead of ‘str’ itself.

   - gh-98811(20): Use complete source locations to simplify detection
     of ‘__future__’ imports which are not at the beginning of the file.
     Also corrects the offset in the exception raised in one case, which
     was off by one and impeded highlighting.

   - gh-96793(21): Add specialization of *note FOR_ITER: 1758. for
     generators.  Saves multiple layers of dispatch and checking to get
     from the *note FOR_ITER: 1758. instruction in the caller to the
     *note RESUME: 30d. in the generator.

   - gh-98762(22): Fix source locations of *note match: 807.
     sub-patterns.

   - gh-98586(23): Added the methods *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557.
     and *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 558. to the *note Limited
     API: 54e. along with the auxiliary macro constant *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 559.

     The availability of these functions enables more efficient PEP
     590(24) vector calls from binary extension modules that avoid
     argument boxing/unboxing overheads.

   - gh-99257(25): Fix an issue where member descriptors (such as those
     for *note __slots__: 14b2.) could behave incorrectly or crash
     instead of raising a *note TypeError: 532. when accessed via an
     instance of an invalid type.

   - gh-93143(26): Rather than changing ‘co_code’, the interpreter will
     now display a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. and assign *note None:
     66f. to any fast locals that are left unbound after jumps or *note
     del: 17ad. statements executed while tracing.

   - gh-96421(27): When calling into Python code from C code, through
     *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1024. or a related C-API function, a
     shim frame in inserted into the call stack.  This occurs in the
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function.  The extra frame should be
     invisible to all Python and most C extensions, but out-of-process
     profilers and debuggers need to be aware of it.  These shim frames
     can be detected by checking ‘frame->owner ==
     FRAME_OWNED_BY_CSTACK’.

     Extensions implementing their own interpreters using PEP 523 need
     to be aware of this shim frame and the changes to the semantics of
     *note RETURN_VALUE: 17ae, *note YIELD_VALUE: 30c, and *note
     RETURN_GENERATOR: 6f5, which now clear the frame.

   - gh-98415(28): Fix detection of MAC addresses for *note uuid: 110.
     on certain OSs.  Patch by Chaim Sanders

   - gh-98686(29): Quicken all code objects, and specialize adaptive
     bytecode instructions more aggressively.

   - gh-92119(30): Print exception class name instead of its string
     representation when raising errors from *note ctypes: 2a. calls.

   - gh-91058(31): *note ImportError: 413. raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ now include suggestions for the value of
     ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96793(32): The *note FOR_ITER: 1758. now leaves the iterator on
     the stack on termination of the loop.  This is to assist
     specialization of loops for generators.

   - gh-90716(33): Add _pylong.py module.  It includes asymptotically
     faster algorithms that can be used for operations on integers with
     many digits.  It is used by longobject.c to speed up some
     operations.

   - gh-95389(34): Expose *note ETH_P_ALL: 17af. and some of the *note
     ETHERTYPE_* constants: 17b0. in *note socket: cc.  Patch by Noam
     Cohen.

   - gh-93696(35): Allow *note pdb: a5. to locate source for frozen
     modules in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99254

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99205

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99181

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99204

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96055

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99103

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98852

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98925

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98783

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98762

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99257

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96421

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98415

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92119

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90716

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95389

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696


File: python.info,  Node: Library<28>,  Next: Documentation<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<29>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.3 Library
.................

   - gh-99418(1): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 305. that
     causes URL schemes that begin with a digit, a plus sign, or a minus
     sign to be parsed incorrectly.

   - gh-94597(2): Deprecate *note asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc. to
     be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99305(3): Improve performance of *note secrets.token_hex():
     17b2.

   - gh-74044(4): Fixed bug where *note inspect.signature(): 731.
     reported incorrect arguments for decorated methods.

   - gh-99275(5): Fix ‘SystemError’ in *note ctypes: 2a. when exception
     was not set during ‘__initsubclass__’.

   - gh-99277(6): Remove older version of
     ‘_SSLProtocolTransport.get_write_buffer_limits’ in
     ‘asyncio.sslproto’

   - gh-99248(7): fix negative numbers failing in verify()

   - gh-99155(8): Fix *note statistics.NormalDist: a34. pickle with ‘0’
     and ‘1’ protocols.

   - gh-93464(9): ‘enum.auto()’ is now correctly activated when combined
     with other assignment values.  E.g.  ‘ONE = auto(), 'some text'’
     will now evaluate as ‘(1, 'some text')’.

   - gh-99134(10): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 22.3.1.

   - gh-92584(11): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 by PEP 632(12) “Deprecate distutils module”.  For
     projects still using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something
     else, the ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98999(13): Now ‘_pyio’ is consistent with ‘_io’ in raising
     ‘ValueError’ when executing methods over closed buffers.

   - gh-83004(14): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_zoneinfo’

   - gh-83004(15): Clean up refleaks on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_pickle’

   - gh-83004(16): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_io’.

   - gh-98897(17): Fix memory leak in *note math.dist(): 9fe. when both
     points don’t have the same dimension.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98878(18): Use the frame bound builtins when offering a name
     suggestion in *note traceback: fe. to prevent crashing when
     ‘__builtins__’ is not a dict.

   - gh-98139(19): In ‘importlib._bootstrap’, enhance namespace package
     repr to ‘<module 'x' (namespace) from ['path']>’.

   - gh-90352(20): Fix ‘_SelectorDatagramTransport’ to inherit from
     *note DatagramTransport: 17b3. in *note asyncio: a.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-98793(21): Fix argument typechecks in ‘_overlapped.WSAConnect()’
     and ‘_overlapped.Overlapped.WSASendTo()’ functions.

   - gh-98744(22): Prevent crashing in *note traceback: fe. when
     retrieving the byte-offset for some source files that contain
     certain unicode characters.

   - gh-98740(23): Fix internal error in the *note re: b9. module which
     in very rare circumstances prevented compilation of a regular
     expression containing a *note conditional expression: 17b4. without
     the “else” branch.

   - gh-98703(24): Fix *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 17b5. to call
     ‘protocol.connection_lost’ callback only once on Windows.

   - gh-98624(25): Add a mutex to unittest.mock.NonCallableMock to
     protect concurrent access to mock attributes.

   - gh-98658(26): The *note array.array: 1a0. class now supports
     subscripting, making it a *note generic type: 432.

   - gh-98284(27): Improved *note TypeError: 532. message for undefined
     abstract methods of a *note abc.ABC: f0f. instance.  The names of
     the missing methods are surrounded by single-quotes to highlight
     them.

   - gh-96151(28): Allow ‘BUILTINS’ to be a valid field name for frozen
     dataclasses.

   - gh-98086(29): Make sure ‘patch.dict()’ can be applied on async
     functions.

   - gh-72719(30): Remove modules ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’, which were
     deprecated by PEP 594(31).

   - gh-96192(32): Fix handling of ‘bytes’ *note path-like objects: 2a0.
     in ‘os.ismount()’.

   - gh-94172(33): *note ftplib: 5e.: Remove the ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’
     class attribute: use the 'context' parameter instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner

   - gh-94172(34): Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from
     the *note ftplib: 5e, *note imaplib: 74, *note poplib: ac. and
     *note smtplib: ca. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters from the *note http.client: 6f. module,
     all deprecated since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter
     ('ssl_context' in *note imaplib: 74.) instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-83638(35): Add the *note autocommit: 4b0. attribute to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. and the 'autocommit' parameter to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. to control PEP 249(36)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 4b1.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92452(37): Fixed a race condition that could cause *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1021. to incorrectly return *note None:
     66f. in multi-threaded programs.

   - gh-91803(38): Fix an error when using a method of objects mocked
     with *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 160f. after it was
     sealed with *note unittest.mock.seal(): b9e. function.

   - bpo-38523(39): *note shutil.copytree(): a25. now applies the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument recursively.

   - bpo-40358(40): Add walk_up argument in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb.

   - bpo-36267(41): Fix IndexError in *note argparse.ArgumentParser:
     533. when a ‘store_true’ action is given an explicit argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74044

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99275

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99248

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99155

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93464

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99134

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98999

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98897

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98878

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98139

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90352

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98744

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98740

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98703

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98624

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98284

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96151

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98086

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72719

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96192

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92452

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91803

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38523

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40358

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36267


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<22>,  Next: Tests<24>,  Prev: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-98832(1): Changes wording of docstring for *note
     pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 1638.

   - gh-97966(2): Update uname docs to clarify the special nature of the
     platform attribute and to indicate when it became late-bound.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98832

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<24>,  Next: Build<26>,  Prev: Documentation<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-98903(1): The Python test suite now fails with exit code 4 if no
     tests ran.  It should help detecting typos in test names and test
     methods.

   - gh-98713(2): Fix a bug in the *note typing: 104. tests where a test
     relying on CPython-specific implementation details was not
     decorated with ‘@cpython_only’ and was not skipped on other
     implementations.

   - gh-87390(3): Add tests for star-unpacking with PEP 646, and some
     other miscellaneous PEP 646 tests.

   - gh-96853(4): Added explicit coverage of ‘Py_Initialize’ (and hence
     ‘Py_InitializeEx’) back to the embedding tests (all other embedding
     tests migrated to ‘Py_InitializeFromConfig’ in Python 3.11)

   - bpo-34272(5): Some C API tests were moved into the new
     Lib/test/test_capi/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98903

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98713

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34272


File: python.info,  Node: Build<26>,  Next: Windows<23>,  Prev: Tests<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’ compiler warning in ‘configure’
     check for ‘PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM’.

   - gh-99016(2): Fix build with ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN=python3.8’.

   - gh-97731(3): Specify the full path to the source location for ‘make
     docclean’ (needed for cross-builds).

   - gh-98949(4): Drop unused build dependency on ‘readelf’.

   - gh-98989(5): Use ‘python3.11’, if available, for regeneration and
     freezing.

   - gh-98831(6): Add new tooling, in ‘Tools/cases_generator’, to
     generate the interpreter switch statement from a list of opcode
     definitions.  This only affects adding, modifying or removing
     instruction definitions.  The instruction definitions now live in
     ‘Python/bytecodes.c’, in the form of a custom DSL (under
     development)(7).  The tooling reads this file and writes
     ‘Python/generated_cases.c.h’, which is then included by
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ to provide most of the cases of the main
     interpreter switch.

   - gh-98817(8): Remove PCbuild/lib.pyproj: it’s not used for anything,
     is only a minor convenience for Visual Studio users (who probably
     mostly don’t even know about it), and it takes a lot of maintenance
     effort to keep updated.

   - gh-98776(9): Fix ‘make regen-test-levenshtein’ for out-of-tree
     builds.

   - gh-98707(10): Don’t use vendored ‘libmpdec’ headers if *note
     -with-system-libmpdec: 40c. is passed to ‘configure’.  Don’t use
     vendored ‘libexpat’ headers if *note -with-system-expat: 17b9. is
     passed to ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99016

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97731

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98949

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98989

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98831

   (7) 
https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/3.12/interpreter_definition.md

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98817

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98776

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98707


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<23>,  Next: macOS<17>,  Prev: Build<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98689(1): Update Windows builds to zlib v1.2.13.  v1.2.12 has
     CVE 2022-37434(2), but the vulnerable ‘inflateGetHeader’ API is not
     used by Python.

   - gh-98790(3): Assumes that a missing ‘DLLs’ directory means that
     standard extension modules are in the executable’s directory.

   - gh-98745(4): Update ‘py.exe’ launcher to install 3.11 by default
     and 3.12 on request.

   - gh-98692(5): Fix the *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. ignoring
     unrecognized shebang lines instead of treating them as local paths

   - gh-94328(6): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98689

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-37434

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98790

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98745

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98692

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<17>,  Next: C API<25>,  Prev: Windows<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-94328(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: C API<25>,  Prev: macOS<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.23.29.9 C API
...............

   - gh-98724(1): The *note Py_CLEAR: 573, *note Py_SETREF: 574. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 575. macros now only evaluate their argument
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98978(2): Fix use-after-free in ‘Py_SetPythonHome(NULL)’,
     ‘Py_SetProgramName(NULL)’ and ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath(NULL)’
     function calls.  Issue reported by Benedikt Reinartz.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98410(3): Add ‘getbufferproc’ and ‘releasebufferproc’ to the
     stable API.

   - gh-98610(4): Some configurable capabilities of sub-interpreters
     have changed.  They always allow subprocesses (*note subprocess:
     d6.) now, whereas before subprocesses could be optionally
     disallowed for a sub-interpreter.  Instead ‘os.exec()’ can now be
     disallowed.  Disallowing daemon threads is now supported.
     Disallowing all threads is still allowed, but is never done by
     default.  Note that the optional restrictions are only available
     through ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’, which isn’t a public API.
     They do not affect the main interpreter, nor *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 17bd.

   - gh-98608(5): A ‘_PyInterpreterConfig’ has been added and
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreter()’ has been renamed to
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.  The “isolated_subinterpreters”
     argument is now a granular config that captures the previous
     behavior.  Note that this is all “private” API.

   - gh-96853(6): ‘Py_InitializeEx’ now correctly calls ‘PyConfig_Clear’
     after initializing the interpreter (the omission didn’t cause a
     memory leak only because none of the dynamically allocated config
     fields are populated by the wrapper function)

   - gh-91248(7): Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 563. and *note
     PyFrame_GetVarString(): 564. functions to get a frame variable by
     its name.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98978

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98410

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98610

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98608

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.30 Python 3.12.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-10-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<20>,  Next: Core and Builtins<30>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.1 Security
..................

   - gh-97616(1): Fix multiplying a list by an integer (‘list *= int’):
     detect the integer overflow when the new allocated length is close
     to the maximum size.  Issue reported by Jordan Limor.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97514(2): On Linux the *note multiprocessing: 94. module returns
     to using filesystem backed unix domain sockets for communication
     with the 'forkserver' process instead of the Linux abstract socket
     namespace.  Only code that chooses to use the *note “forkserver”
     start method: 2c9. is affected.

     Abstract sockets have no permissions and could allow any user on
     the system in the same network namespace(3) (often the whole
     system) to inject code into the multiprocessing 'forkserver'
     process.  This was a potential privilege escalation.  Filesystem
     based socket permissions restrict this to the 'forkserver' process
     user as was the default in Python 3.8 and earlier.

     This prevents Linux CVE 2022-42919(4).

   - gh-87389(5): *note http.server: 72.: Fix an open redirection
     vulnerability in the HTTP server when an URI path starts with ‘//’.
     Vulnerability discovered, and initial fix proposed, by Hamza Avvan.

   - gh-79096(6): LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar create files with
     file mode 600 instead of 644 (Microsoft Windows is not affected)

   - gh-92888(7): Fix ‘memoryview’ use after free when accessing the
     backing buffer in certain cases.

   - gh-68966(8): The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject
     unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell
     commands.  Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a
     match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (3) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-42919

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87389

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92888

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<30>,  Next: Library<29>,  Prev: Security<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-98374(1): Suppress ImportError for invalid query for help()
     command.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98461(2): Fix source location in bytecode for list, set and dict
     comprehensions as well as generator expressions.

   - gh-98354(3): Added unicode check for ‘name’ attribute of ‘spec’
     argument passed in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ function.

   - gh-98398(4): Fix source location of ‘assert’ bytecodes.

   - gh-98390(5): Fix location of sub-expressions of boolean
     expressions, by reducing their scope to that of the sub-expression.

   - gh-98254(6): Modules from the standard library are now potentially
     suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the
     interpreter when an *note NameError: 438. is raised to the top
     level.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-97997(7): Add running column offset to the tokenizer state to
     avoid calculating AST column information with pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-97973(8): Modify the tokenizer to return all necessary
     information the parser needs to set location information in the AST
     nodes, so that the parser does not have to calculate those doing
     pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-96078(9): *note os.sched_yield(): 1102. now release the GIL
     while calling sched_yield(2).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-97955(10): Migrate *note zoneinfo: 134. to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-97912(11): The compiler now avoids quadratic behavior when
     finding which instructions should use the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK:
     4df. opcode.

   - gh-97002(12): Fix an issue where several frame objects could be
     backed by the same interpreter frame, possibly leading to corrupted
     memory and hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-97943(13): Bugfix: *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 17c1.
     should return a borrowed reference.  It was returning a new
     reference.

   - gh-97922(14): The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval
     breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead on
     object allocations.  The GC can also run when *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 460. is called so C extensions that need to
     run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a
     chance to execute the GC periodically.

   - gh-65961(15): When ‘__package__’ is different than
     ‘__spec__.parent’, raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’ instead of
     ‘ImportWarning’.

     Also remove ‘importlib.util.set_package()’ which was scheduled for
     removal.

   - gh-97850(16): Long deprecated, ‘module_repr()’ should now be
     completely eradicated.

   - gh-86298(17): In cases where ‘warnings.warn_explicit()’ consults
     the module’s loader, an ‘DeprecationWarning’ is issued when
     ‘m.__loader__’ differs from ‘m.__spec__.loader’.

   - gh-97779(18): Ensure that all Python frame objects are backed by
     “complete” frames.

   - gh-91052(19): Add API for subscribing to modification events on
     selected dictionaries.

   - gh-97752(20): Fix possible data corruption or crashes when
     accessing the ‘f_back’ member of newly-created generator or
     coroutine frames.

   - gh-97591(21): Fixed a missing incref/decref pair in
     ‘Exception.__setstate__()’.  Patch by Ofey Chan.

   - gh-97670(22): Remove the ‘sys.getdxp()’ function and the
     ‘Tools/scripts/analyze_dxp.py’ script.  DXP stands for “dynamic
     execution pairs”.  They were related to ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’
     and ‘DXPAIRS’ macros which have been removed in Python 3.11.
     Python can now be built with *note ./configure -enable-pystats:
     17c2. to gather statistics on Python opcodes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94526(23): Fix the Python path configuration used to initialized
     *note sys.path: 3ae. at Python startup.  Paths are no longer
     encoded to UTF-8/strict to avoid encoding errors if it contains
     surrogate characters (bytes paths are decoded with the
     surrogateescape error handler).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96670(24): The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 18d. when
     parsing source code containing null bytes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96975(25): Fix a crash occurring when *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     17c3. is called while the topmost Python frame is in a
     partially-initialized state.

   - gh-96848(26): Fix command line parsing: reject *note -X
     int_max_str_digits: 176. option with no value (invalid) when the
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17c4. environment variable is set to a
     valid limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95921(27): Fix overly-broad source position information for
     chained comparisons used as branching conditions.

   - gh-96821(28): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘audioop.c’.

   - gh-96821(29): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘_testcapimodule.c’.

   - gh-95778(30): When *note ValueError: 202. is raised if an integer
     is larger than the limit, mention the *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 17c5. function in the error message.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96387(31): At Python exit, sometimes a thread holding the GIL
     can wait forever for a thread (usually a daemon thread) which
     requested to drop the GIL, whereas the thread already exited.  To
     fix the race condition, the thread which requested the GIL drop now
     resets its request before exiting.  Issue discovered and analyzed
     by Mingliang ZHAO. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96864(32): Fix a possible assertion failure, fatal error, or
     *note SystemError: 570. if a line tracing event raises an exception
     while opcode tracing is enabled.

   - gh-95778(33): The ‘PyLong_FromString’ function was refactored to
     make it more maintainable and extensible.

   - gh-96678(34): Fix undefined behaviour in C code of null pointer
     arithmetic.

   - gh-96754(35): Make sure that all frame objects created are created
     from valid interpreter frames.  Prevents the possibility of invalid
     frames in backtraces and signal handlers.

   - gh-90997(36): Improve the performance of reading and writing inline
     bytecode caches on some platforms.

   - gh-96751(37): Remove dead code from ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode.

   - gh-90751(38): *note memoryview: 462. now supports half-floats.
     Patch by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou.

   - gh-96678(39): Fix case of undefined behavior in ceval.c

   - gh-64373(40): Convert ‘_functools’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-96641(41): Do not expose ‘KeyWrapper’ in ‘_functools’.

   - gh-96636(42): Ensure that tracing, ‘sys.setrace()’, is turned on
     immediately.  In pre-release versions of 3.11, some tracing events
     might have been lost when turning on tracing in a ‘__del__’ method
     or interrupt.

   - gh-96572(43): Fix use after free in trace refs build mode.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96611(44): When loading a file with invalid UTF-8 inside a
     multi-line string, a correct SyntaxError is emitted.

   - gh-96612(45): Make sure that incomplete frames do not show up in
     tracemalloc traces.

   - gh-90230(46): Fix compiler warnings and test failures when building
     with ‘--enable-pystats’.

   - gh-96587(47): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ on exception groups (
     PEP 654(48)) on python versions prior to 3.11

   - gh-96569(49): Remove two cases of undefined behavior, by adding
     NULL checks.

   - gh-96582(50): Fix possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘_PyThread_CurrentFrames’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91079(51): Separate Python recursion checking from C recursion
     checking which reduces the chance of C stack overflow and allows
     the recursion limit to be increased safely.

   - gh-93911(52): Fix an issue that could prevent *note LOAD_ATTR: 4d8.
     from specializing properly when accessing properties.

   - gh-96348(53): Emit a DeprecationWarning when *note throw(): 4f2,
     *note throw(): 4f1. or *note athrow(): 4f3. are called with more
     than one argument.

   - gh-95196(54): Disable incorrect pickling of the C implemented
     classmethod descriptors.

   - gh-96364(55): Fix text signatures of ‘list.__getitem__’ and
     ‘dict.__getitem__’.

   - gh-96352(56): Fix *note AttributeError: 346. missing ‘name’ and
     ‘obj’ attributes in *note object.__getattribute__(): bcf.  Patch by
     Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93554(57): Change the jump opcodes so that all conditional jumps
     are forward jumps.  Backward jumps are converted by the assembler
     into a conditional forward jump whose target is the fallthrough
     block (and with a reversed condition), followed by an unconditional
     backward jump.  For example:

     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE BACKWARD_TARGET’ becomes ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE
     NEXT_BLOCK; JUMP BACKWARD_TARGET’.

     All the directed conditional jump opcodes were removed:
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_TRUE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_TRUE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_FALSE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_FALSE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NONE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’.

     The corresponding opcodes without direction are no longer
     pseudo-instructions, and they implement the forward conditional
     jumps.

   - gh-96268(58): Loading a file with invalid UTF-8 will now report the
     broken character at the correct location.

   - gh-96237(59): The internal field ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_func’ is
     renamed to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_funcobj’ and may be any object.
     The ‘f_globals’ and ‘f_builtin’ fields may hold junk values.

     It is safest to treat the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ struct as opaque.

   - gh-96187(60): Fixed a bug that caused ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ to return
     garbage for negative indexes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96143(61): Add a new ‘-X perf’ Python command line option as
     well as *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 469. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46a. function in the *note sys:
     d9. module that allows to set/unset the interpreter in a way that
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler can detect Python calls.  The new *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 46b. function allows to query the
     state of the perf trampoline.  Design by Pablo Galindo.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory
     P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon.

   - gh-96071(62): Fix a deadlock in *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.
     when allocating new thread state.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96046(63): *note PyType_Ready(): 775. now initializes
     ‘ht_cached_keys’ and performs additional checks to ensure that type
     objects are properly configured.  This avoids crashes in 3rd party
     packages that don’t use regular API to create new types.

   - gh-96005(64): On WASI *note ENOTCAPABLE: 17c6. is now mapped to
     *note PermissionError: d3f.  The *note errno: 57. modules exposes
     the new error number.  ‘getpath.py’ now ignores *note
     PermissionError: d3f. when it cannot open landmark files
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ and ‘pyenv.cfg’.

   - gh-93678(65): Added test a harness for direct unit tests of the
     compiler’s optimization stage.  The
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg()’ function runs the optimiser on a
     sequence of instructions.  The ‘CfgOptimizationTestCase’ class in
     ‘test.support’ has utilities for invoking the optimizer and
     checking the output.

   - gh-95245(66): Reduces the size of a “simple” Python object from 8
     to 6 words by moving the weakreflist pointer into the pre-header
     directly before the object’s dict/values pointer.

   - gh-90997(67): Compile virtual *note try: 6e2./*note except: 18b.
     blocks to handle exceptions raised during *note close(): 16fb. or
     *note throw(): 4f2. calls through a suspended frame.

   - gh-95977(68): Optimized calling *note __get__(): 14af. with
     vectorcall.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91210(69): Improve error message when a parameter without a
     default value follows one with a default value, and show the same
     message, even when the non-default/default sequence is preceded by
     positional-only parameters.

   - gh-95922(70): Fixed bug where the compiler’s
     ‘eliminate_empty_basic_blocks’ function ignores the last block of
     the code unit.

   - gh-95818(71): Skip over incomplete frames in *note
     PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 787.

   - gh-95876(72): Fix format string in
     ‘_PyPegen_raise_error_known_location’ that can lead to memory
     corruption on some 64bit systems.  The function was building a
     tuple with ‘i’ (int) instead of ‘n’ (Py_ssize_t) for Py_ssize_t
     arguments.

   - gh-95605(73): Fix misleading contents of error message when
     converting an all-whitespace string to *note float: 2ef.

   - gh-95150(74): Update code object hashing and equality to consider
     all debugging and exception handling tables.  This fixes an issue
     where certain non-identical code objects could be “deduplicated”
     during compilation.

   - gh-91146(75): Reduce allocation size of *note list: 60b. from *note
     str.split(): ea0. and *note str.rsplit(): 1246.  Patch by Donghee
     Na and Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87092(76): Create a ‘jump target label’ abstraction in the
     compiler so that the compiler’s codegen stage does not work
     directly with basic blocks.  This prepares the code for changes to
     the underlying CFG generation mechanism.

   - gh-95355(77): ‘_PyPegen_Parser_New’ now properly detects token
     memory allocation errors.  Patch by Honglin Zhu.

   - gh-90081(78): Run Python code in tracer/profiler function at full
     speed.  Fixes slowdown in earlier versions of 3.11.

   - gh-95324(79): Emit a warning in debug mode if an object does not
     call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce. before deallocation.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-95245(80): Merge managed dict and values pointer into a single
     tagged pointer to save one word in the pre-header.

   - gh-93678(81): Add cfg_builder struct and refactor the relevant code
     so that a cfg can be constructed without an instance of the
     compiler struct.

   - gh-95185(82): Prevented crashes in the AST constructor when
     compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: d68. is now raised instead.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-93351(83): *note ast.AST: 1a6. node positions are now validated
     when provided to *note compile(): 192. and other related functions.
     If invalid positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 202. will be
     raised.

   - gh-94438(84): Fix an issue that caused extended opcode arguments
     and some conditional pops to be ignored when calculating valid jump
     targets for assignments to the ‘f_lineno’ attribute of frame
     objects.  In some cases, this could cause inconsistent internal
     state, resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-95060(85): Undocumented ‘PyCode_Addr2Location’ function now
     properly returns when ‘addrq’ argument is less than zero.

   - gh-95113(86): Replace all ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ instructions with
     basic *note EXTENDED_ARG: 17ac. instructions in unquickened code.
     Consumers of non-adaptive bytecode should be able to handle
     extended arguments the same way they were handled in CPython 3.10
     and older.

   - gh-91409(87): Fix incorrect source location info caused by certain
     optimizations in the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-95023(88): Implement *note os.setns(): 17c7. and *note
     os.unshare(): 17c8. for Linux.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-94036(89): Fix incorrect source location info for some
     multi-line attribute accesses and method calls.

   - gh-94938(90): Fix error detection in some builtin functions when
     keyword argument name is an instance of a str subclass with
     overloaded ‘__eq__’ and ‘__hash__’.  Previously it could cause
     SystemError or other undesired behavior.

   - gh-94996(91): *note ast.parse(): 1a8. will no longer parse function
     definitions with positional-only params when passed
     ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3, 8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94739(92): Allow jumping within, out of, and across exception
     handlers in the debugger.

   - gh-94949(93): *note ast.parse(): 1a8. will no longer parse
     parenthesized context managers when passed ‘feature_version’ less
     than ‘(3, 9)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94947(94): *note ast.parse(): 1a8. will no longer parse
     assignment expressions when passed ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3,
     8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-91256(95): Ensures the program name is known for help text
     during interpreter startup.

   - gh-94869(96): Fix the column offsets for some expressions in
     multi-line f-strings *note ast: 8. nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-94893(97): Fix an issue where frame object manipulations could
     corrupt inline bytecode caches.

   - gh-94822(98): Fix an issue where lookups of metaclass descriptors
     may be ignored when an identically-named attribute also exists on
     the class itself.

   - gh-91153(99): Fix an issue where a *note bytearray: 538. item
     assignment could crash if it’s resized by the new value’s
     ‘__index__()’ method.

   - gh-90699(100): Fix reference counting bug in ‘bool.__repr__()’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94694(101): Fix an issue that could cause code with multi-line
     method lookups to have misleading or incorrect column offset
     information.  In some cases (when compiling a hand-built AST) this
     could have resulted in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-93252(102): Fix an issue that caused internal frames to outlive
     failed Python function calls, possibly resulting in memory leaks or
     hard interpreter crashes.

   - gh-94215(103): Fix an issue where exceptions raised by line-tracing
     events would cause frames to be left in an invalid state, possibly
     resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-92228(104): Disable the compiler’s inline-small-exit-blocks
     optimization for exit blocks that are associated with source code
     lines.  This fixes a bug where the debugger cannot tell where an
     exception handler ends and the following code block begins.

   - gh-94485(105): Line number of a module’s ‘RESUME’ instruction is
     set to 0 as specified in PEP 626(106).

   - gh-94438(107): Account for instructions that can push NULL to the
     stack when setting line number in a frame.  Prevents some
     (unlikely) crashes.

   - gh-91719(108): Reload ‘opcode’ when raising ‘unknown opcode error’
     in the interpreter main loop, for C compilers to generate
     dispatching code independently.

   - gh-94329(109): Compile and run code with unpacking of extremely
     large sequences (1000s of elements).  Such code failed to compile.
     It now compiles and runs correctly.

   - gh-94360(110): Fixed a tokenizer crash when reading encoded files
     with syntax errors from ‘stdin’ with non utf-8 encoded text.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-88116(111): Fix an issue when reading line numbers from code
     objects if the encoded line numbers are close to ‘INT_MIN’.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-94262(112): Don’t create frame objects for incomplete frames.
     Prevents the creation of generators and closures from being
     observable to Python and C extensions, restoring the behavior of
     3.10 and earlier.

   - gh-94192(113): Fix error for dictionary literals with invalid
     expression as value.

   - gh-87995(114): *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. instances are now
     hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable.

   - gh-93883(115): Revise the display strategy of traceback enhanced
     error locations.  The indicators are only shown when the location
     doesn’t span the whole line.

   - gh-94163(116): Add *note BINARY_SLICE: 4d9. and *note STORE_SLICE:
     4da. instructions for more efficient handling and better
     specialization of slicing operations, where the slice is explicit
     in the source code.

   - gh-94021(117): Fix unreachable code warning in
     ‘Python/specialize.c’.

   - gh-93911(118): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for objects with custom
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - gh-93955(119): Improve performance of attribute lookups on objects
     with custom ‘__getattribute__’ and ‘__getattr__’.  Patch by Ken
     Jin.

   - gh-93911(120): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for ‘property()’ attributes.

   - gh-93678(121): Refactor compiler optimisation code so that it no
     longer needs the ‘struct assembler’ and ‘struct compiler’ passed
     around.  Instead, each function takes the CFG and other data that
     it actually needs.  This will make it possible to test this code
     directly.

   - gh-93841(122): When built with ‘-enable-pystats’,
     ‘sys._stats_on()’, ‘sys._stats_off()’, ‘sys._stats_clear()’ and
     ‘sys._stats_dump()’ functions have been added to enable gathering
     stats for parts of programs.

   - gh-93516(123): Store offset of first traceable instruction in code
     object to avoid having to recompute it for each instruction when
     tracing.

   - gh-93516(124): Lazily create a table mapping bytecode offsets to
     line numbers to speed up calculation of line numbers when tracing.

   - gh-89828(125): *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4. no longer relays the
     ‘__class__’ attribute.  For example, ‘isinstance(list[int], type)’
     no longer returns ‘True’.

   - gh-93678(126): Refactor the compiler to reduce boilerplate and
     repetition.

   - gh-93671(127): Fix some exponential backtrace case happening with
     deeply nested sequence patterns in match statements.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93662(128): Make sure that the end column offsets are correct in
     multi-line method calls.  Previously, the end column could precede
     the column offset.

   - gh-93461(129): *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d. now drops
     entries from *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. with a relative
     path as name.  This solves a caching issue when a process changes
     its current working directory.

     ‘FileFinder’ no longer inserts a dot in the path, e.g.
     ‘/egg/./spam’ is now ‘/egg/spam’.

   - gh-93621(130): Change order of bytecode instructions emitted for
     *note with: 5cc. and *note async with: 5cf. to reduce the number of
     entries in the exception table.

   - gh-93533(131): Reduce the size of the inline cache for
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’ by 2 bytes.

   - gh-93444(132): Removed redundant fields from the compiler’s
     basicblock struct: ‘b_nofallthrough’, ‘b_exit’, ‘b_return’.  They
     can be easily calculated from the opcode of the last instruction of
     the block.

   - gh-93429(133): ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction has been removed.  It was
     merged back into ‘LOAD_ATTR’.

   - gh-93418(134): Fixed an assert where an f-string has an equal sign
     ‘=’ following an expression, but there’s no trailing brace.  For
     example, f”{i=”.

   - gh-93382(135): Cache the result of *note PyCode_GetCode(): 771.
     function to restore the 'O'(1) lookup of the ‘co_code’ attribute.

   - gh-93359(136): Ensure that custom *note ast: 8. nodes without
     explicit end positions can be compiled.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-93356(137): Code for exception handlers is emitted at the end of
     the code unit’s bytecode.  This avoids one jump when no exception
     is raised.

   - gh-93354(138): Use exponential backoff for specialization counters
     in the interpreter.  Can reduce the number of failed
     specializations significantly and avoid slowdown for those parts of
     a program that are not suitable for specialization.

   - gh-93283(139): Improve error message for invalid syntax of
     conversion character in f-string expressions.

   - gh-93345(140): Fix a crash in substitution of a ‘TypeVar’ in nested
     generic alias after ‘TypeVarTuple’.

   - gh-93223(141): When a bytecode instruction jumps to an
     unconditional jump instruction, the first instruction can often be
     optimized to target the unconditional jump’s target directly.  For
     tracing reasons, this would previously only occur if both
     instructions have the same line number.  This also now occurs if
     the unconditional jump is artificial, i.e., if it has no associated
     line number.

   - gh-84694(142): The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     configure option and ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro
     have been removed.

   - gh-91924(143): Fix ‘__lltrace__’ debug feature if the stdout
     encoding is not UTF-8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93040(144): Wraps unused parameters in ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ with
     ‘Py_UNUSED’.

   - gh-93143(145): Avoid ‘NULL’ checks for uninitialized local
     variables by determining at compile time which variables must be
     initialized.

   - gh-93061(146): Backward jumps after ‘async for’ loops are no longer
     given dubious line numbers.

   - gh-93065(147): Fix contextvars HAMT implementation to handle
     iteration over deep trees.

     The bug was discovered and fixed by Eli Libman.  See
     MagicStack/immutables#84(148) for more details.

   - gh-93012(149): Added the new function *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
     54b, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  This is useful for language binding tools, where it can
     be used to intercept type-related operations like subclassing or
     static attribute access by specifying a metaclass with custom
     slots.

     Importantly, *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b. is available in the
     Limited API, which provides a path towards migrating more binding
     tools onto the Stable ABI.

   - gh-93021(150): Fix the ‘__text_signature__’ for ‘__get__()’ methods
     implemented in C. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89914(151): The operand of the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction is set
     to the stack depth.  This is done to help frame handling on ‘yield’
     and may assist debuggers.

   - gh-92955(152): Fix memory leak in code object’s lines and positions
     iterators as they were not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-92930(153): Fixed a crash in ‘_pickle.c’ from mutating
     collections during ‘__reduce__’ or ‘persistent_id’.

   - gh-90690(154): The PRECALL instruction has been removed.  It
     offered only a small advantage for specialization and is not needed
     in the vast majority of cases.

   - gh-92914(155): Always round the allocated size for lists up to the
     nearest even number.

   - gh-92858(156): Improve error message for some suites with syntax
     error before ‘:’

   - gh-90473(157): Decrease default recursion limit on WASI to address
     limited call stack size.

   - gh-92804(158): Fix memory leak in ‘memoryview’ iterator as it was
     not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92777(159): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for objects with lazy
     dictionaries.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-92658(160): Add support for connecting and binding to Hyper-V
     sockets on Windows Hyper-V hosts and guests.

   - gh-92236(161): Remove spurious “LINE” event when starting a
     generator or coroutine, visible tracing functions implemented in C.

   - gh-91102(162): ‘_warnings.warn_explicit()’ is ported to Argument
     Clinic.

   - gh-92619(163): Make the compiler duplicate an exit block only if
     none of its instructions have a lineno (previously only the first
     instruction in the block was checked, leading to unnecessarily
     duplicated blocks).

   - gh-88750(164): The deprecated debug build only ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’
     environment variable no longer does anything.

   - gh-92261(165): Fix hang when trying to iterate over a
     ‘typing.Union’.

   - gh-91432(166): Specialized the *note FOR_ITER: 1758. opcode using
     the PEP 659 machinery

   - gh-91399(167): Removed duplicate ‘{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}’ entry in
     ‘Objects/unicodetype_db.h’.

   - gh-91578(168): Updates the error message for abstract class.

   - bpo-47091(169): Improve performance of repetition of *note list:
     60b. and *note tuple: 369. by using ‘memcpy’ to copy data and
     performing the reference increments in one step.

   - bpo-46142(170): Make ‘--help’ output shorter by moving some info to
     the new ‘--help-env’ and ‘--help-xoptions’ command-line options.
     Also add ‘--help-all’ option to print complete usage.

   - bpo-42316(171): Document some places where an assignment expression
     needs parentheses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98374

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98354

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98390

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97973

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96078

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97955

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97912

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97002

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97943

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97779

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97752

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97591

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97670

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94526

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96975

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96848

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95921

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96387

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96864

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96754

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96751

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64373

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96641

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96572

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96611

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96612

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90230

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96587

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96569

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96582

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96348

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95196

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96364

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96352

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93554

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96268

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96237

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96187

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96143

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96071

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96046

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96005

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95977

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91210

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95922

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95818

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95876

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95605

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95150

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91146

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87092

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95355

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90081

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95324

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95185

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95060

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95113

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91409

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95023

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94036

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94938

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94996

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94739

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94947

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91256

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94869

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94893

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94822

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90699

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94694

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93252

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94215

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92228

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94485

   (106) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91719

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94329

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94360

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94262

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94192

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93883

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94021

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93955

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93841

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89828

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93671

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93662

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93461

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93621

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93533

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93444

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93418

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93382

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93359

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93356

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93354

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93283

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93345

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93223

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84694

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91924

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93040

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93061

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93065

   (148) https://github.com/MagicStack/immutables/issues/84

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93021

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89914

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92955

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92930

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90690

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92914

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92858

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92804

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92777

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92658

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92236

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92619

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88750

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92261

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91432

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91399

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91578

   (169) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47091

   (170) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (171) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316


File: python.info,  Node: Library<29>,  Next: Documentation<23>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<30>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.3 Library
.................

   - gh-89237(1): Fix hang on Windows in ‘subprocess.wait_closed()’ in
     *note asyncio: a. with *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97928(2): ‘tkinter.Text.count()’ raises now an exception for
     options starting with “-” instead of silently ignoring them.

   - gh-98393(3): The *note os: a1. module no longer accepts bytes-like
     paths, like *note bytearray: 538. and *note memoryview: 462. types:
     only the exact *note bytes: 1c2. type is accepted for bytes
     strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98363(4): Added itertools.batched() to batch data into lists of
     a given length with the last list possibly being shorter than the
     others.

   - gh-98331(5): Update the bundled copies of pip and setuptools to
     versions 22.3 and 65.5.0 respectively.

   - gh-98307(6): A *note createSocket(): 655. method was added to *note
     SysLogHandler: 656.

   - gh-96035(7): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 305. that
     causes certain port numbers containing whitespace, underscores,
     plus and minus signs, or non-ASCII digits to be incorrectly
     accepted.

   - gh-98257(8): Make *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6. and *note
     sys.settrace(): 14c7. functions reentrant.  They can no long fail
     with: ‘RuntimeError("Cannot install a trace function while another
     trace function is being installed")’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98251(9): Allow *note venv: 111. to pass along ‘PYTHON*’
     variables to ‘ensurepip’ and ‘pip’ when they do not impact path
     resolution

   - gh-94597(10): Deprecated *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 2c1. and *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c0. methods
     to be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98178(11): On macOS, fix a crash in *note syslog.syslog(): 53b.
     in multi-threaded applications.  On macOS, the libc ‘syslog()’
     function is not thread-safe, so *note syslog.syslog(): 53b. no
     longer releases the GIL to call it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-44098(12): Release the GIL when creating *note mmap.mmap: 20b.
     objects on Unix.

   - gh-87730(13): Wrap network errors consistently in urllib FTP
     support, so the test suite doesn’t fail when a network is available
     but the public internet is not reachable.

   - gh-94597(14): The child watcher classes *note
     MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2ba, *note FastChildWatcher: 2bb. and *note
     SafeChildWatcher: 2bd. are deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98023(15): Change default child watcher to *note
     PidfdChildWatcher: 473. on Linux systems which supports it.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90985(16): Earlier in 3.11 we deprecated
     ‘asyncio.Task.cancel("message")’.  We realized we were too harsh,
     and have undeprecated it.

   - gh-65961(17): Do not rely solely on ‘__cached__’ on modules; code
     will also support ‘__spec__.cached’.

   - gh-97646(18): Replace deprecated ‘application/javascript’ with
     ‘text/javascript’ in *note mimetypes: 8f.  See RFC 9239(19).  Patch
     by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-97930(20): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.8 and 5.9:
     ‘Traversable.joinpath’ provides a concrete implementation.
     ‘as_file’ now supports directories of resources.

   - gh-97850(21): Remove deprecated ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’ and
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ from *note importlib.util: 7d.

   - gh-97837(22): Change deprecate warning message in *note unittest:
     106. from

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value!=None’

     to

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test
     case’

   - gh-97825(23): Fixes *note AttributeError: 346. when *note
     subprocess.check_output(): fb9. is used with argument ‘input=None’
     and either of the arguments 'encoding' or 'errors' are used.

   - gh-97008(24): *note NameError: 438. and *note AttributeError: 346.
     spelling suggestions provided since gh-82711(25) are now also
     emitted by the pure Python *note traceback: fe. module.  Tests for
     those suggestions now exercise both implementations to ensure they
     are equivalent.  Patch by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick and Łukasz
     Langa.

   - gh-97799(26): ‘dataclass’ now uses *note inspect.get_annotations():
     80d. to examine the annotations on class objects.

   - gh-97781(27): Removed deprecated interfaces in ‘importlib.metadata’
     (entry points accessed as dictionary, implicit dictionary
     construction of sequence of ‘EntryPoint’ objects, mutablility of
     ‘EntryPoints’ result, access of entry point by index).
     ‘entry_points’ now has a simpler, more straightforward API
     (returning ‘EntryPoints’).

   - gh-96827(28): Avoid spurious tracebacks from *note asyncio: a. when
     default executor cleanup is delayed until after the event loop is
     closed (e.g.  as the result of a keyboard interrupt).

   - gh-95534(29): ‘gzip.GzipFile.read()’ reads 10% faster.

   - gh-97592(30): Avoid a crash in the C version of *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 15ad. when an evil argument
     is passed.

   - gh-97639(31): Remove ‘tokenize.NL’ check from *note tabnanny: dd.

   - gh-97545(32): Make Semaphore run faster.

   - gh-73588(33): Fix generation of the default name of
     ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’.  Previously, checkbuttons in different
     parent widgets could have the same short name and share the same
     state if arguments “name” and “variable” are not specified.  Now
     they are globally unique.

   - gh-96865(34): fix Flag to use boundary CONFORM

     This restores previous Flag behavior of allowing flags with
     non-sequential values to be combined; e.g.

     class Skip(Flag): TWO = 2 EIGHT = 8

     Skip.TWO | Skip.EIGHT -> <Skip.TWO|EIGHT: 10>

   - gh-97005(35): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.9

   - gh-85760(36): Fix race condition in *note asyncio: a. where *note
     process_exited(): 17ca. called before the *note
     pipe_data_received(): 17cb. leading to inconsistent output.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96704(37): Pass the correct ‘contextvars.Context’ when a
     ‘asyncio’ exception handler is called on behalf of a task or
     callback handle.  This adds a new ‘Task’ method, ‘get_context’, and
     also a new ‘Handle’ method with the same name.  If this method is
     not found on a task object (perhaps because it is a third-party
     library that does not yet provide this method), the context
     prevailing at the time the exception handler is called is used.

   - gh-96819(38): Fixed check in ‘multiprocessing.resource_tracker’
     that guarantees that the length of a write to a pipe is not greater
     than ‘PIPE_BUF’.

   - gh-95865(39): Reduce *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 17cc.
     memory use on large values.

     Contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - gh-96741(40): Corrected type annotation for dataclass attribute
     ‘pstats.FunctionProfile.ncalls’ to be ‘str’.

   - gh-96734(41): Update *note unicodedata: 105. database to Unicode
     15.0.0.

   - gh-96735(42): Fix undefined behaviour in *note struct.unpack():
     17cd.

   - gh-46412(43): Improve performance of ‘bool(db)’ for large ndb/gdb
     databases.  Previously this would call ‘len(db)’ which would
     iterate over all keys – the answer (empty or not) is known after
     the first key.

   - gh-96652(44): Fix the faulthandler implementation of
     ‘faulthandler.register(signal, chain=True)’ if the ‘sigaction()’
     function is not available: don’t call the previous signal handler
     if it’s NULL. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-68163(45): Correct conversion of *note numbers.Rational: 12ae.’s
     to *note float: 2ef.

   - gh-96538(46): Speed up ‘bisect.bisect()’ functions by taking
     advantage of type-stability.

   - gh-96465(47): Fraction hashes are now cached.

   - gh-96079(48): In *note typing: 104, fix missing field ‘name’ and
     incorrect ‘__module__’ in _AnnotatedAlias.

   - gh-96415(49): Remove ‘types._cell_factory’ from module namespace.

   - gh-95987(50): Fix ‘repr’ of ‘Any’ subclasses.

   - gh-96388(51): Work around missing socket functions in *note socket:
     d9d.’s ‘__repr__’.

   - gh-96385(52): Fix ‘TypeVarTuple.__typing_prepare_subst__’.
     ‘TypeError’ was not raised when using more than one ‘TypeVarTuple’,
     like ‘[*T, *V]’ in type alias substitutions.

   - gh-96142(53): Add ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, ‘slots’, and
     ‘weakref_slot’ to ‘_DataclassParams’.

   - gh-96073(54): In *note inspect: 7e, fix overeager replacement of
     “‘typing.’” in formatting annotations.

   - gh-89258(55): Added a *note getChildren(): 17ce. method to *note
     logging.Logger: b4c, to get the immediate child loggers of a
     logger.

   - gh-96346(56): Use double caching for compiled RE patterns.

   - gh-96349(57): Fixed a minor performance regression in
     ‘threading.Event.__init__()’

   - gh-90467(58): Fix ‘asyncio.streams.StreamReaderProtocol’ to keep a
     strong reference to the created task, so that it’s not garbage
     collected

   - gh-96172(59): Fix a bug in ‘unicodedata’: ‘east_asian_width’ used
     to return the wrong value for unassigned characters; and for yet
     unassigned, but reserved characters.

   - gh-96159(60): Fix a performance regression in logging
     TimedRotatingFileHandler.  Only check for special files when the
     rollover time has passed.

   - gh-96175(61): Fix unused ‘localName’ parameter in the ‘Attr’ class
     in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.

   - gh-96145(62): Add AttrDict to JSON module for use with object_hook.

   - gh-96052(63): Fix handling compiler warnings (SyntaxWarning and
     DeprecationWarning) in *note codeop.compile_command(): 17cf. when
     checking for incomplete input.  Previously it emitted warnings and
     raised a SyntaxError.  Now it always returns ‘None’ for incomplete
     input without emitting any warnings.

   - gh-96125(64): Fix incorrect condition that causes
     ‘sys.thread_info.name’ to be wrong on pthread platforms.

   - gh-96019(65): Fix a bug in the ‘makeunicodedata.py’ script leading
     to about 13 KiB of space saving in the ‘unicodedata’ module,
     specifically the character decomposition data.

   - gh-95463(66): Remove an incompatible change from bpo-28080(67) that
     caused a regression that ignored the utf8 in ‘ZipInfo.flag_bits’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69142(68): Add ‘%:z’ strftime format code (generates tzoffset
     with colons as separator), see *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 17d0.

   - gh-95899(69): Fix *note asyncio.Runner: 5fa. to call *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 17d1. only once to avoid calling *note
     attach_loop(): 17d2. multiple times on child watchers.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95736(70): Fix *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. to
     set event loop before calling setup functions.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-95865(71): Speed up *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 17cc.
     by replacing a list comprehension with ‘map()’.

   - gh-95861(72): Add support for computing Spearman’s correlation
     coefficient to the existing statistics.correlation() function.

   - gh-95804(73): Fix ‘logging’ shutdown handler so it respects
     ‘MemoryHandler.flushOnClose’.

   - gh-95704(74): When a task catches *note asyncio.CancelledError:
     1b8. and raises some other error, the other error should generally
     not silently be suppressed.

   - gh-95149(75): The *note HTTPStatus: 8fd. enum offers a couple of
     properties to indicate the HTTP status category e.g.
     ‘HTTPStatus.OK.is_success’.

   - gh-95609(76): Update bundled pip to 22.2.2.

   - gh-95289(77): Fix *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. to propagate
     exception when *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. was replaced with
     another exception by a context manager.  Patch by Kumar Aditya and
     Guido van Rossum.

   - gh-94909(78): Fix incorrect joining of relative Windows paths with
     drives in *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. initializer.

   - gh-95385(79): Faster ‘json.dumps()’ when sorting of keys is not
     requested (default).

   - gh-83901(80): Improve *note Signature.bind: 156a. error message for
     missing keyword-only arguments.

   - gh-95339(81): Update bundled pip to 22.2.1.

   - gh-95045(82): Fix GC crash when deallocating ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ by
     untracking it before calling any callbacks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95231(83): Fail gracefully if *note EPERM: 17d3. or *note
     ENOSYS: 17d4. is raised when loading ‘crypt’ methods.  This may
     happen when trying to load ‘MD5’ on a Linux kernel with FIPS
     (Federal Information Processing Standard) enabled.

   - gh-95097(84): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 476. for *note asyncio.Task:
     1be. implementations without *note uncancel(): 1bb. method.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95087(85): Fix IndexError in parsing invalid date in the *note
     email: 3b. module.

   - gh-95199(86): Upgrade bundled setuptools to 63.2.0.

   - gh-95194(87): Upgrade bundled pip to 22.2.

   - gh-93899(88): Fix check for existence of *note os.EFD_CLOEXEC:
     17d5, *note os.EFD_NONBLOCK: 17d6. and *note os.EFD_SEMAPHORE:
     17d7. flags on older kernel versions where these flags are not
     present.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95166(89): Fix *note concurrent.futures.Executor.map(): de0. to
     cancel the currently waiting on future on an error - e.g.
     TimeoutError or KeyboardInterrupt.

   - gh-95132(90): Fix a *note sqlite3: cf. regression where ‘*args’ and
     ‘**kwds’ were incorrectly relayed from *note connect(): 2a8. to the
     *note Connection: 245. factory.  The regression was introduced in
     3.11a1 with PR 24421 (gh-85128(91)).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93157(92): Fix *note fileinput: 5b. module didn’t support
     ‘errors’ option when ‘inplace’ is true.

   - gh-91212(93): Fixed flickering of the turtle window when the tracer
     is turned off.  Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

   - gh-95077(94): Add deprecation warning for enum ‘member.member’
     access (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’).  Remove ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’.

   - gh-95109(95): Ensure that timeouts scheduled with *note
     asyncio.Timeout: 16d1. that have already expired are delivered
     promptly.

   - gh-95105(96): ‘wsgiref.types.InputStream.__iter__()’ should return
     ‘Iterator[bytes]’, not ‘Iterable[bytes]’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-95066(97): Replaced assert with exception in *note ast.parse():
     1a8, when ‘feature_version’ has an invalid major version.  Patch by
     Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-77617(98): Add *note sqlite3: cf. *note command-line interface:
     43a.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-95005(99): Replace _PyAccu with _PyUnicodeWriter in JSON encoder
     and StringIO and remove the _PyAccu implementation.

   - gh-90085(100): Remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ CLI options of
     *note timeit: ef.  The options had been deprecated since Python 3.3
     and the functionality was removed in Python 3.7.  Patch by Shantanu
     Jain.

   - gh-94857(101): Fix refleak in ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94821(102): Fix binding of unix socket to empty address on Linux
     to use an available address from the abstract namespace, instead of
     “0”.

   - gh-94736(103): Fix crash when deallocating an instance of a
     subclass of ‘_multiprocessing.SemLock’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-81620(104): Add random.binomialvariate().

   - gh-74116(105): Allow *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 17b5. to
     be awaited concurrently by multiple tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-87822(106): When called with ‘capture_locals=True’, the *note
     traceback: fe. module functions swallow exceptions raised from
     calls to ‘repr()’ on local variables of frames.  This is in order
     to prioritize the original exception over rendering errors.  An
     indication of the failure is printed in place of the missing value.
     (Patch by Simon-Martin Schroeder).

   - gh-88050(107): Fix *note asyncio: a. subprocess transport to kill
     process cleanly when process is blocked and avoid ‘RuntimeError’
     when loop is closed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94637(108): ‘SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()’ now releases
     the GIL around ‘SSL_CTX_set_default_verify_paths’ call.  The
     function call performs I/O and CPU intensive work.

   - gh-94309(109): Deprecate aliases *note typing.Hashable: 4ed. and
     *note typing.Sized: 4ee.

   - gh-92546(110): An undocumented ‘python -m pprint’ benchmark is
     moved into ‘pprint’ suite of pyperformance.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94607(111): Fix subclassing complex generics with type variables
     in *note typing: 104.  Previously an error message saying ‘Some
     type variables ... are not listed in Generic[...]’ was shown.
     *note typing: 104. no longer populates ‘__parameters__’ with the
     ‘__parameters__’ of a Python class.

   - gh-94619(112): Remove the long-deprecated ‘module_repr()’ from
     *note importlib: 77.

   - gh-93910(113): The ability to access the other values of an enum on
     an enum (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’) has been restored in order to fix
     a performance regression.

   - gh-93896(114): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 476. and *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. to always the set event loop
     as it was done in Python 3.10 and earlier.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94343(115): Allow setting the attributes of ‘reprlib.Repr’
     during object initialization

   - gh-94382(116): Port static types of ‘_multiprocessing’ module to
     heap types.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78724(117): Fix crash in *note struct.Struct: 16b8. when it was
     not completely initialized by initializing it in *note __new__():
     57b.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94510(118): Re-entrant calls to *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6.
     and *note sys.settrace(): 14c7. now raise *note RuntimeError: 195.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-92336(119): Fix bug where *note linecache.getline(): e1f. fails
     on bad files with *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. or *note
     SyntaxError: 18d.  It now returns an empty string as per the
     documentation.

   - gh-94398(120): Once a *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. has started
     shutting down (i.e., at least one task has failed and the task
     group has started cancelling the remaining tasks), it should not be
     possible to add new tasks to the task group.

   - gh-94383(121): ‘xml.etree’: Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’
     method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python
     3.10, use the *note copy.copy(): 52d. function instead.  The C
     implementation of ‘xml.etree’ has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94379(122): *note zipimport: 132.: Remove ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’ methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the
     ‘find_spec()’ method instead.  See PEP 451(123) for the rationale.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94352(124): *note shlex.split(): 536.: Passing ‘None’ for 's'
     argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note
     sys.stdin: 537.  The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94318(125): Strip trailing spaces in *note pydoc: b5. text
     output.

   - gh-89988(126): Fix memory leak in *note pickle.Pickler: a1a. when
     looking up ‘dispatch_table’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90016(127): Deprecate *note sqlite3: cf. *note default adapters
     and converters: 4e9.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94254(128): Fixed types of *note struct: d5. module to be
     immutable.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93259(129): Now raise ‘ValueError’ when ‘None’ or an empty
     string are passed to ‘Distribution.from_name’ (and other callers).

   - gh-74696(130): *note shutil.make_archive(): 4ad. now passes the
     'root_dir' argument to custom archivers which support it.

   - gh-94216(131): The *note dis: 38. module now has the opcodes for
     pseudo instructions (those which are used by the compiler during
     code generation but then removed or replaced by real opcodes before
     the final bytecode is emitted).

   - gh-93096(132): Removed undocumented ‘python -m codecs’.  Use
     ‘python -m unittest test.test_codecs.EncodedFileTest’ instead.

   - gh-94207(133): Made ‘_struct.Struct’ GC-tracked in order to fix a
     reference leak in the ‘_struct’ module.

   - gh-93096(134): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ argument of ‘python -m
     base64’.  Use ‘python -m unittest
     test.test_base64.LegacyBase64TestCase.test_encodebytes’ instead.

   - gh-94226(135): Remove the ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 518. instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(136): Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  The
     ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ was deprecated in Python 3.7.  OpenSSL
     performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses
     the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94214(137): Document the ‘context’ object used in the
     ‘venv.EnvBuilder’ class, and add the new environment’s library path
     to it.

   - gh-94199(138): Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. object
     and call its *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 51e. method.  Any
     package that still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.
     The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(139) Improper Certificate
     Validation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(140): Remove the ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 51c. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 51d. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(141): *note hashlib: 68.: Remove the pure Python
     implementation of *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 508, deprecated in
     Python 3.10.  Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP
     644(142)): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of
     *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 508. which is faster.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94196(143): *note gzip: 67.: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 414, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the
     *note name: 506. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94182(144): run the *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 473. on the
     running loop, this allows event loops to run subprocesses when
     there is no default event loop running on the main thread

   - gh-94169(145): Remove ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 515. instead.
     The *note open(): 515. (*note io.open(): 516.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91742(146): Fix *note pdb: a5. crash after jump caused by a null
     pointer dereference.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94101(147): Manual instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSession: cda.
     objects is no longer allowed as it lead to misconfigured instances
     that crashed the interpreter when attributes where accessed on
     them.

   - gh-84753(148): *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 17d8, and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 17d9. now properly return ‘True’ for
     duck-typed function-like objects like instances of *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: a48.

     This makes *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6. consistent
     with the behavior of ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’.  Patch by
     Mehdi ABAAKOUK.

   - gh-94028(149): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: cf. where
     statement objects were not properly cleared and reset after use in
     cursor iters.  The regression was introduced by PR 27884 in Python
     3.11a1.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93973(150): Add keyword argument ‘all_errors’ to
     ‘asyncio.create_connection’ so that multiple connection errors can
     be raised as an ‘ExceptionGroup’.

   - gh-93963(151): Officially deprecate from ‘importlib.abc’ classes
     moved to ‘importlib.resources.abc’.

   - gh-93858(152): Prevent error when activating venv in nested fish
     instances.

   - gh-93820(153): Pickle *note enum.Flag: 61d. by name.

   - gh-93847(154): Fix repr of enum of generic aliases.

   - gh-91404(155): Revert the *note re: b9. memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure as the
     implemented fix caused a major performance regression.

   - gh-83499(156): Fix double closing of file description in *note
     tempfile: e0.

   - gh-93820(157): Fixed a regression when *note copy.copy(): 52d.-ing
     *note enum.Flag: 61d. with multiple flag members.

   - gh-79512(158): Fixed names and ‘__module__’ value of *note weakref:
     114. classes *note ReferenceType: 17da, *note ProxyType: 17db,
     *note CallableProxyType: 17dc.  It makes them pickleable.

   - gh-91389(159): Fix an issue where *note dis: 38. utilities could
     report missing or incorrect position information in the presence of
     ‘CACHE’ entries.

   - gh-93626(160): Set ‘__future__.annotations’ to have a ‘None’
     mandatoryRelease to indicate that it is currently ‘TBD’.

   - gh-90473(161): Emscripten and WASI have no home directory and
     cannot provide PEP 370(162) user site directory.

   - gh-90494(163): *note copy.copy(): 52d. and *note copy.deepcopy():
     b6b. now always raise a TypeError if ‘__reduce__()’ returns a tuple
     with length 6 instead of silently ignore the 6th item or produce
     incorrect result.

   - gh-90549(164): Fix a multiprocessing bug where a global named
     resource (such as a semaphore) could leak when a child process is
     spawned (as opposed to forked).

   - gh-93521(165): Fixed a case where dataclasses would try to add
     ‘__weakref__’ into the ‘__slots__’ for a dataclass that specified
     ‘weakref_slot=True’ when it was already defined in one of its
     bases.  This resulted in a ‘TypeError’ upon the new class being
     created.

   - gh-79579(166): *note sqlite3: cf. now correctly detects DML queries
     with leading comments.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93421(167): Update *note sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount: 17dd. when a
     DML statement has run to completion.  This fixes the row count for
     SQL queries like ‘UPDATE ... RETURNING’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-93475(168): Expose ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants in
     *note fcntl: 59.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-93370(169): Deprecate *note sqlite3.version: 2d0. and *note
     sqlite3.version_info: 2d1.

   - gh-91810(170): Suppress writing an XML declaration in open files in
     ‘ElementTree.write()’ with ‘encoding='unicode'’ and
     ‘xml_declaration=None’.

   - gh-91162(171): Support splitting of unpacked arbitrary-length tuple
     over ‘TypeVar’ and ‘TypeVarTuple’ parameters.  For example:

        * ‘A[T, *Ts][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[int, *tuple[int, ...]]’

        * ‘A[*Ts, T][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[*tuple[int, ...], int]’

   - gh-93353(172): Fix the *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 487.
     context manager to remove the temporary file if destroyed late
     during Python finalization: keep a local reference to the *note
     os.remove(): 10e2. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83658(173): Make ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ raise an exception if
     ‘maxtasksperchild’ is not ‘None’ or a positive int.

   - gh-93312(174): Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 494. flag to open a
     file descriptor for a process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 474. in
     non-blocking mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88123(175): Implement ‘Enum.__contains__’ that returns ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to replace the deprecated behaviour that would sometimes
     raise a *note TypeError: 532.

   - gh-93297(176): Make asyncio task groups prevent child tasks from
     being GCed

   - gh-85308(177): Changed *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 533. to use
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. instead of
     default text encoding to read arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option).  This change affects Windows;
     argument file should be encoded with UTF-8 instead of ANSI
     Codepage.

   - gh-93156(178): Accessing the *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 81a.
     sequence of an absolute path using negative index values produced
     incorrect results.

   - gh-93162(179): Add the ability for *note
     logging.config.dictConfig(): 119f. to usefully configure *note
     QueueHandler: 17de. and *note QueueListener: e28. as a pair, and
     add *note logging.getHandlerByName(): 17df. and *note
     logging.getHandlerNames(): 1704. APIs to allow access to handlers
     by name.

   - gh-93243(180): The ‘smtpd’ module was removed per the schedule in
     PEP 594(181).

   - gh-92886(182): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     AssertionError()’ in ‘BaseHandler’ so that the tested behaviour is
     maintained running with optimizations ‘(-O)’.

   - gh-90155(183): Fix broken *note asyncio.Semaphore: a71. when
     acquire is cancelled.

   - gh-90817(184): The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91513(185): Added ‘taskName’ attribute to *note logging: 87.
     module for use with *note asyncio: a. tasks.

   - gh-74696(186): *note shutil.make_archive(): 4ad. no longer
     temporarily changes the current working directory during creation
     of standard ‘.zip’ or tar archives.

   - gh-92728(187): The ‘re.template()’ function and the corresponding
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are restored after they were removed
     in 3.11.0b1, but they are now deprecated, so they might be removed
     from Python 3.13.

   - gh-93033(188): Search in some strings (platform dependent i.e
     [U+0xFFFF, U+0x0100] on Windows or [U+0xFFFFFFFF, U+0x00010000] on
     Linux 64-bit) are now up to 10 times faster.

   - gh-89973(189): Fix ‘re.error’ raised in *note fnmatch: 5c. if the
     pattern contains a character range with upper bound lower than
     lower bound (e.g.  ‘[c-a]’).  Now such ranges are interpreted as
     empty ranges.

   - gh-93044(190): No longer convert the database argument of *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. to bytes before passing it to the factory.

   - gh-93010(191): In a very special case, the email package tried to
     append the nonexistent ‘InvalidHeaderError’ to the defect list.  It
     should have been ‘InvalidHeaderDefect’.

   - gh-92986(192): Fix *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. when
     ‘ImportFrom.level’ is ‘None’

   - gh-92932(193): Now *note dis(): b31. and *note get_instructions():
     1d9. handle operand values for instructions prefixed by
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’.  Patch by Sam Gross and Donghee Na.

   - gh-92675(194): Fix ‘venv.ensure_directories()’ to accept *note
     pathlib.Path: 229. arguments in addition to *note str: 445. paths.
     Patch by David Foster.

   - gh-87901(195): Removed the ‘encoding’ argument from *note
     os.popen(): a84. that was added in 3.11b1.

   - gh-91922(196): Fix function ‘sqlite.connect()’ and the
     ‘sqlite.Connection’ constructor on non-UTF-8 locales.  Also, they
     now support bytes paths non-decodable with the current FS encoding.

   - gh-92869(197): Added *note c_time_t: 17e0. to *note ctypes: 2a,
     which has the same size as the ‘time_t’ type in C.

   - gh-92839(198): Fixed crash resulting from calling bisect.insort()
     or bisect.insort_left() with the key argument not equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-90473(199): *note subprocess: d6. now fails early on Emscripten
     and WASI platforms to work around missing *note os.pipe(): 17e1. on
     WASI.

   - gh-89325(200): Removed many old deprecated *note unittest: 106.
     features: *note TestCase: 447. method aliases, undocumented and
     broken *note TestCase: 447. method ‘assertDictContainsSubset’,
     undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 28f. parameter
     'use_load_tests', and an underscored alias of the *note
     TextTestResult: 52a. class.

   - gh-92734(201): Allow multi-element reprs emitted by *note reprlib:
     bb. to be pretty-printed using configurable indentation.

   - gh-92671(202): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. for empty tuples in
     the assignment target context.

   - gh-91581(203): *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5. no longer attempts to
     resolve ‘fold’ in the pure Python implementation, since the fold is
     never 1 in UTC. In addition to being slightly faster in the common
     case, this also prevents some errors when the timestamp is close to
     *note datetime.min: 17e2.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-86388(204): Removed randrange() functionality deprecated since
     Python 3.10.  Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to
     randrange(10).  Now, it raises a TypeError.  Also, the exception
     raised for non-integral values such as randrange(10.5) or
     randrange(‘10’) has been changed from ValueError to TypeError.

   - gh-90385(205): Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 4a2. as an
     alternative to *note os.walk(): 4a3.

   - gh-92550(206): Fix *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 22e. for empty
     pattern.

   - gh-92591(207): Allow *note logging: 87. filters to return a *note
     logging.LogRecord: fde. instance so that filters attached to *note
     logging.Handler: 145a.s can enrich records without side effects on
     other handlers.

   - gh-92445(208): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where ‘nargs="*"’
     would raise an error instead of returning an empty list when 0
     arguments were supplied if choice was also defined in
     ‘parser.add_argument’.

   - gh-92547(209): Remove undocumented *note sqlite3: cf. features
     deprecated in Python 3.10:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92530(210): Fix an issue that occurred after interrupting *note
     threading.Condition.notify(): 17e3.

   - gh-92531(211): The statistics.median_grouped() function now always
     return a float.  Formerly, it did not convert the input type when
     for sequences of length one.

   - gh-84131(212): The *note pathlib.Path: 229. deprecated method
     ‘link_to’ has been removed.  Use 3.10’s *note hardlink_to(): 81b.
     method instead as its semantics are consistent with that of *note
     symlink_to(): 81c.

   - gh-89336(213): Removed *note configparser: 22. module APIs: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class alias, the ‘ParsingError.filename’
     property and parameter, and the ‘ConfigParser.readfp’ method, all
     of which were deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - gh-92391(214): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 734. to *note
     csv.DictReader: 9e1. and *note csv.DictWriter: 11ed, allowing them
     to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Marc Mueller.

   - gh-91968(215): Add ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’ constants to
     *note socket: cc.

   - gh-91810(216): *note ElementTree: 94c. method *note write(): fed.
     and function *note tostring(): feb. now use the text file’s
     encoding (“UTF-8” if not available) instead of locale encoding in
     XML declaration when ‘encoding="unicode"’ is specified.

   - gh-81790(217): *note os.path.splitdrive(): bf1. now understands DOS
     device paths with UNC links (beginning ‘\\?\UNC\’).  Contributed by
     Barney Gale.

   - gh-91760(218): Apply more strict rules for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence
     of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The
     group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only
     contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.

   - gh-90622(219): Worker processes for *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. are no longer spawned
     on demand (a feature added in 3.9) when the multiprocessing context
     start method is ‘"fork"’ as that can lead to deadlocks in the child
     processes due to a fork happening while threads are running.

   - gh-91577(220): Move imports in ‘SharedMemory’ methods to module
     level so that they can be executed late in python finalization.

   - gh-91581(221): Remove an unhandled error case in the C
     implementation of calls to *note datetime.fromtimestamp: 4e7. with
     no time zone (i.e.  getting a local time from an epoch timestamp).
     This should have no user-facing effect other than giving a possibly
     more accurate error message when called with timestamps that fall
     on 10000-01-01 in the local time.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-91539(222): Improve performance of
     ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment’ when there are many
     environment variables

   - gh-91524(223): Speed up the regular expression substitution
     (functions *note re.sub(): 2a3. and *note re.subn(): 2a4. and
     corresponding *note re.Pattern: 17e4. methods) for replacement
     strings containing group references by 2–3 times.

   - gh-91447(224): Fix findtext in the xml module to only give an empty
     string when the text attribute is set to ‘None’.

   - gh-91456(225): Deprecate current default auto() behavior: In 3.13
     the default will be for for auto() to always return the largest
     member value incremented by 1, and to raise if incompatible value
     types are used.

   - bpo-47231(226): Fixed an issue with inconsistent trailing slashes
     in tarfile longname directories.

   - bpo-39064(227): *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6be. now raises *note
     zipfile.BadZipFile: 17e5. instead of ‘ValueError’ when reading a
     corrupt zip file in which the central directory offset is negative.

   - bpo-41287(228): Fix handling of the ‘doc’ argument in subclasses of
     *note property(): 194.

   - gh-90005(229): *note ctypes: 2a. dependency ‘libffi’ is now
     detected with ‘pkg-config’.

   - bpo-32547(230): The constructors for *note DictWriter: 11ed. and
     *note DictReader: 9e1. now coerce the ‘fieldnames’ argument to a
     *note list: 60b. if it is an iterator.

   - bpo-35540(231): Fix *note dataclasses.asdict(): 172b. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac. is present in the attributes.

   - bpo-47063(232): Add an index_pages parameter to support using
     non-default index page names.

   - bpo-47025(233): Drop support for *note bytes: 1c2. on *note
     sys.path: 3ae.

   - bpo-46951(234): Order the contents of zipapp archives, to make
     builds more reproducible.

   - bpo-42777(235): Implement *note pathlib.Path.is_mount(): a13. for
     Windows paths.

   - bpo-46755(236): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘stack_info’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent stack trace from being written twice.

   - bpo-45393(237): Fix the formatting for ‘await x’ and ‘not x’ in the
     operator precedence table when using the *note help(): 8d4. system.

   - bpo-46642(238): Improve error message when trying to subclass an
     instance of *note typing.TypeVar: 15d, *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e,
     *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f, etc.  Based on patch by Gregory
     Beauregard.

   - bpo-46364(239): Restrict use of sockets instead of pipes for stdin
     of subprocesses created by *note asyncio: a. to AIX platform only.

   - bpo-28249(240): Set *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 1526. to ‘None’
     when an object does not have *note __doc__: 925.

   - bpo-46197(241): Fix *note ensurepip: 55. environment isolation for
     subprocess running ‘pip’.

   - bpo-45924(242): Fix *note asyncio: a. incorrect traceback when
     future’s exception is raised multiple times.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-45046(243): Add support of context managers in *note unittest:
     106.: methods *note enterContext(): 6b3. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 6b4. of class *note TestCase: 447, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 6b5. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 6b6.

   - bpo-44173(244): Enable fast seeking of uncompressed unencrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’

   - bpo-42627(245): Fix incorrect parsing of Windows registry proxy
     settings

   - bpo-42047(246): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): a3a. support
     for DragonFly BSD. Patch by David Carlier.

   - bpo-14243(247): The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4c0.
     function has a new optional parameter 'delete_on_close'

   - bpo-41246(248): Give the same callback function for when the
     overlapped operation is done to the functions ‘recv’, ‘recv_into’,
     ‘recvfrom’, ‘sendto’, ‘send’ and ‘sendfile’ inside ‘IocpProactor’.

   - bpo-39264(249): Fixed ‘collections.UserDict.get()’ to not call
     ‘__missing__()’ when a value is not found.  This matches the
     behavior of *note dict: 256.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38693(250): *note importlib: 77. now uses f-strings internally
     instead of ‘str.format’.

   - bpo-38267(251): Add 'timeout' parameter to *note
     asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8e4.  The default value
     is ‘None’, which means the executor will be given an unlimited
     amount of time.  When called from *note asyncio.Runner: 5fa. or
     *note asyncio.run(): 476, the default timeout is 5 minutes.

   - bpo-34828(252): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 247. now
     handles databases that use ‘AUTOINCREMENT’ in one or more tables.

   - bpo-32990(253): Support reading wave files with the
     ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ format in the *note wave: 113. module.

   - bpo-26253(254): Allow adjustable compression level for tarfile
     streams in *note tarfile.open(): e6f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98331

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96035

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98257

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98251

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98178

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44098

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87730

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98023

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90985

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97646

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9239.html

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97837

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97825

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97008

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82711

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97799

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97781

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96827

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95534

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97592

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97639

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97545

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73588

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96865

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97005

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85760

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   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96819

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96741

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   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96735

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46412

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   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96538

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96465

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   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96415

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95987

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96388

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96385

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   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89258

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   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90467

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   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96175

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   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96052

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   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69142

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   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95149

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   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95289

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   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83901

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   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95045

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95231

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   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95087

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95199

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95194

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93899

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95166

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95132

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85128

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93157

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91212

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95077

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95109

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95105

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95066

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95005

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90085

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94857

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94821

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94736

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74116

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87822

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88050

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94637

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92546

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94607

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   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93896

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94343

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94382

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94510

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92336

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94398

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379

   (123) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94318

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89988

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94254

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93259

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

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   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94207

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94214

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (139) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (142) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94182

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91742

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94101

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84753

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94028

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93973

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   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93858

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93847

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   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79512

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91389

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93626

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (162) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90494

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90549

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93521

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79579

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93421

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93475

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93370

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810

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   (172) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

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   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

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   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93297

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   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243

   (181) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

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   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<23>,  Next: Tests<25>,  Prev: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85525(1): Remove extra row

   - gh-86404(2): Deprecated tools ‘make suspicious’ and ‘rstlint.py’
     are now removed.  They have been replaced by sphinx-lint(3).

   - gh-97741(4): Fix ‘!’ in c domain ref target syntax via a ‘conf.py’
     patch, so it works as intended to disable ref target resolution.

   - gh-96432(5): Fraction literals now support whitespace around the
     forward slash, ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

   - gh-96098(6): Improve discoverability of the higher level
     concurrent.futures module by providing clearer links from the lower
     level threading and multiprocessing modules.

   - gh-95957(7): What’s New 3.11 now has instructions for how to
     provide compiler and linker flags for Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL on RHEL 7
     and CentOS 7.

   - gh-95588(8): Clarified the conflicting advice given in the *note
     ast: 8. documentation about *note ast.literal_eval(): c15. being
     “safe” for use on untrusted input while at the same time warning
     that it can crash the process.  The latter statement is true and is
     deemed unfixable without a large amount of work unsuitable for a
     bugfix.  So we keep the warning and no longer claim that
     ‘literal_eval’ is safe.

   - gh-91207(9): Fix stylesheet not working in Windows CHM htmlhelp
     docs and add warning that they are deprecated.  Contributed by
     C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - gh-95454(10): Replaced incorrectly written true/false values in
     documentation.  Patch by Robert O’Shea

   - gh-95451(11): Update library documentation with *note availability
     information: 17e7. on WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - gh-95415(12): Use consistent syntax for platform availability.  The
     directive now supports a content body and emits a warning when it
     encounters an unknown platform.

   - gh-94321(13): Document the PEP 246(14) style protocol type *note
     sqlite3.PrepareProtocol: 17e8.

   - gh-86128(15): Document a limitation in ThreadPoolExecutor where its
     exit handler is executed before any handlers in atexit.

   - gh-61162(16): Clarify *note sqlite3: cf. behavior when *note How to
     use the connection context manager: 17e9.

   - gh-87260(17): Align *note sqlite3: cf. argument specs with the
     actual implementation.

   - gh-86986(18): The minimum Sphinx version required to build the
     documentation is now 3.2.

   - gh-88831(19): Augmented documentation of asyncio.create_task().
     Clarified the need to keep strong references to tasks and added a
     code snippet detailing how to do this.

   - gh-86438(20): Clarify that *note -W: 8c4. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     ba7. are matched literally and case-insensitively, rather than as
     regular expressions, in *note warnings: 112.

   - gh-93031(21): Update tutorial introduction output to use 3.10+
     SyntaxError invalid range.

   - gh-92240(22): Added release dates for “What’s New in Python 3.X”
     for 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.8 and 3.10

   - bpo-47161(23): Document that *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. does not
     collapse initial double slashes because they denote UNC paths.

   - bpo-40838(24): Document that *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f6, *note
     inspect.getmodule(): 17ea, and *note inspect.getsourcefile(): 17eb.
     might return ‘None’.

   - bpo-43689(25): The ‘Differ’ documentation now also mentions other
     whitespace characters, which make it harder to understand the diff
     output.

   - bpo-38056(26): Overhaul the *note 에러 처리기: 17ec. documentation
     in *note codecs: 1b.

   - bpo-13553(27): Document tkinter.Tk args.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85525

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86404

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/sphinx-lint/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97741

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96432

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96098

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95454

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95451

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95415

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94321

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61162

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87260

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86986

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88831

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86438

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93031

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92240

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47161

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40838

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43689

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38056

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13553


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<25>,  Next: Build<27>,  Prev: Documentation<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-95027(1): On Windows, when the Python test suite is run with the
     ‘-jN’ option, the ANSI code page is now used as the encoding for
     the stdout temporary file, rather than using UTF-8 which can lead
     to decoding errors.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96624(2): Fixed the failure of repeated runs of
     ‘test.test_unittest’ caused by side effects in
     ‘test_dotted_but_module_not_loaded’.

   - gh-95243(3): Mitigate the inherent race condition from using
     find_unused_port() in testSockName() by trying to find an unused
     port a few times before failing.  Patch by Ross Burton.

   - gh-95573(4): Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py(5) exposed a bug in
     the macOS kernel where intense concurrent load on non-blocking
     sockets occasionally causes *note errno.ENOBUFS: 17ee. (“No buffer
     space available”) to be emitted.  FB11063974 filed with Apple, in
     the mean time as a workaround buffer size used in tests on macOS is
     decreased to avoid intermittent failures.  Patch by Fantix King.

   - gh-95280(6): Fix problem with ‘test_ssl’ ‘test_get_ciphers’ on
     systems that require perfect forward secrecy (PFS) ciphers.

   - gh-95212(7): Make multiprocessing test case
     ‘test_shared_memory_recreate’ parallel-safe.

   - gh-95218(8): Move tests for importlib.resources into
     test_importlib.resources.

   - gh-93963(9): Updated tests to use preferred location for
     ‘importlib.resources’ ABCs.

   - gh-94675(10): Add a regression test for *note re: b9. exponentional
     slowdown when using rjsmin.

   - gh-91330(11): Added more tests for *note dataclasses: 2f. to cover
     behavior with data descriptor-based fields.

   - gh-94208(12): ‘test_ssl’ is now checking for supported TLS version
     and protocols in more tests.

   - gh-94315(13): Tests now check for DAC override capability instead
     of relying on *note os.geteuid(): 17ef.

   - gh-54781(14): Rename test_tk to test_tkinter, and rename
     test_ttk_guionly to test_ttk.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93839(15): Move ‘Lib/ctypes/test/’ to ‘Lib/test/test_ctypes/’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93951(16): In test_bdb.StateTestCase.test_skip, avoid including
     auxiliary importers.

   - gh-93957(17): Provide nicer error reporting from subprocesses in
     test_venv.EnsurePipTest.test_with_pip.

   - gh-93884(18): Add test cases for *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17f0.
     that take a large number or a non-int object as parameter.

   - gh-93852(19): test_asyncio, test_logging, test_socket and
     test_socketserver now create AF_UNIX domains in the current
     directory to no longer fail with ‘OSError("AF_UNIX path too long")’
     if the temporary directory (the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable) is
     too long.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93353(20): regrtest now checks if a test leaks temporary files
     or directories if run with -jN option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-84461(21): ‘run_tests.py’ now handles cross compiling env vars
     correctly and pass ‘HOSTRUNNER’ to regression tests.

   - gh-93616(22): ‘test_modulefinder’ now creates a temporary directory
     in ‘ModuleFinderTest.setUp()’ instead of module scope.

   - gh-93575(23): Fix issue with test_unicode test_raiseMemError.  The
     test case now use ‘test.support.calcobjsize’ to calculate size of
     PyUnicode structs.  *note sys.getsizeof(): 1771. may return
     different size when string has UTF-8 memory.

   - gh-90473(24): WASI does not have a ‘chmod(2)’ syscall.  *note
     os.chmod(): 21b. is now a dummy function on WASI. Skip all tests
     that depend on working *note os.chmod(): 21b.

   - gh-90473(25): Skip tests on WASI that require symlinks with
     absolute paths.

   - gh-57539(26): Increase calendar test coverage for
     ‘calendar.LocaleTextCalendar.formatweekday()’.

   - gh-90473(27): Skip symlink tests on WASI. wasmtime uses
     ‘openat2(2)’ with ‘RESOLVE_BENEATH’ flag, which prevents symlinks
     with absolute paths.

   - gh-89858(28): Fix ‘test_embed’ for out-of-tree builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92886(29): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_imaplib.py’.

   - gh-92886(30): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_zipimport.py’

   - gh-92886(31): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_py_compile.py’

   - gh-92886(32): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_sys_settrace.py’.

   - gh-92886(33): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘_test_multiprocessing.py’

   - gh-92670(34): Skip
     ‘test_shutil.TestCopy.test_copyfile_nonexistent_dir’ test on AIX as
     the test uses a trailing slash to force the OS consider the path as
     a directory, but on AIX the trailing slash has no effect and is
     considered as a file.

   - gh-92514(35): Remove unused ‘test.support.BasicTestRunner’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47016(36): Create a GitHub Actions workflow for verifying
     bundled pip and setuptools.  Patch by Illia Volochii and Adam
     Turner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96624

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95243

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95573

   (5) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95280

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95218

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94675

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91330

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94208

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94315

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54781

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93839

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93951

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93957

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93884

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93852

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93616

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93575

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57539

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89858

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92670

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92514

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47016


File: python.info,  Node: Build<27>,  Next: Windows<24>,  Prev: Tests<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.6 Build
...............

   - gh-96761(1): Fix the build process of clang compiler for
     ‘_bootstrap_python’ if LTO optimization is applied.  Patch by
     Matthias Görgens and Donghee Na.

   - gh-96883(2): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ builds for browsers now include
     *note concurrent.futures: 21. for *note asyncio: a. and *note
     unittest.mock: 107.

   - gh-85936(3): CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default
     policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-96729(4): Ensure that Windows releases built with
     ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ are upgradable to and from official
     Python releases.

   - gh-96269(5): Shared module targets now depend on new ‘MODULE_DEPS’
     variable, which includes ‘EXPORTSYMS’.  This fixes a build order
     issue on unsupported AIX platform.

   - gh-84461(6): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ platform no longer builds *note
     resource: bc. module, *note getresuid(): 1306, *note getresgid():
     1305, and their setters.  The APIs are stubs and not functional.

   - gh-95973(7): Add a new ‘--with-dsymutil’ configure option to link
     debug information in macOS. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-90536(8): Use the BOLT post-link optimizer to improve
     performance, particularly on medium-to-large applications.

   - gh-93744(9): Remove the ‘configure --with-cxx-main’ build option:
     it didn’t work for many years.  Remove the ‘MAINCC’ variable from
     ‘configure’ and ‘Makefile’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94801(10): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ script that caused
     some header checks to ignore custom ‘CPPFLAGS’.  The regression was
     introduced in gh-94802(11).

   - gh-95145(12): wasm32-wasi builds no longer depend on WASIX’s
     pthread stubs.  Python now has its own stubbed pthread API.

   - gh-95174(13): Python now detects missing ‘dup’ function in WASI and
     works around some missing *note errno: 57, *note select: c1, and
     *note socket: cc. constants.

   - gh-95174(14): Python now skips missing *note socket: cc. functions
     and methods on WASI. WASI can only create sockets from existing fd
     / accept and has no netdb.

   - gh-95085(15): Platforms ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’ have been promoted to PEP 11(16) tier 3
     platform support.

   - gh-94847(17): Fixed ‘_decimal’ module build issue on GCC when
     compiling with LTO and pydebug.  Debug builds no longer force
     inlining of functions.

   - gh-94841(18): Fix the possible performance regression of *note
     PyObject_Free(): c63. compiled with MSVC version 1932.

   - gh-94801(19): ‘configure’ now uses custom flags like ‘ZLIB_CFLAGS’
     and ‘ZLIB_LIBS’ when searching for headers and libraries.

   - gh-94773(20): ‘deepfreeze.py’ now supports code object with
     frozensets that contain incompatible, unsortable types.

   - gh-94682(21): Build and test with OpenSSL 1.1.1q

   - gh-90005(22): Dependencies of *note readline: ba. and *note curses:
     2b. module are now detected in ‘configure’ script with
     ‘pkg-config’.  Only ‘ncurses’ / ‘ncursesw’ are detected
     automatically.  The old ‘curses’ library is not configured
     automatically.  Workaround for missing ‘termcap’ or ‘tinfo’ library
     has been removed.

   - gh-90005(23): Fix building ‘_ctypes’ extension without
     ‘pkg-config’.

   - gh-90005(24): ‘_dbm’ module dependencies are now detected by
     configure.

   - gh-94404(25): ‘makesetup’ now works around an issue with sed on
     macOS and uses correct CFLAGS for object files that end up in a
     shared extension.  Module CFLAGS are used before
     PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS to avoid clashes with system headers.

   - gh-93939(26): C extension modules are now built by ‘configure’ and
     ‘make’ instead of ‘distutils’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-93939(27): The ‘2to3’, ‘idle’, and ‘pydoc’ scripts are now
     generated and installed by ‘Makefile’ instead of ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94280(28): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.9 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.9 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - gh-93584(29): Address race condition in ‘Makefile’ when installing
     a PGO build.  All ‘test’ and ‘install’ targets now depend on ‘all’
     target.

   - gh-93491(30): ‘configure’ now detects and reports PEP 11(31)
     support tiers.

   - gh-69093(32): Fix ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib.in’ rule for ‘_sqlite3’
     extension.

   - gh-93207(33): ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like
     ‘va_start(args, format),’ is now required to build Python.
     ‘va_start()’ is no longer called with a single parameter.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93202(34): Python now always use the ‘%zu’ and ‘%zd’ printf
     formats to format a ‘size_t’ or ‘Py_ssize_t’ number.  Building
     Python 3.12 requires a C11 compiler, so these printf formats are
     now always supported.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-90473(35): Disable pymalloc and increase stack size on
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - bpo-34449(36): Drop invalid compiler switch ‘-fPIC’ for HP aCC on
     HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96761

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96883

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93744

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95145

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94847

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94841

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94773

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94682

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94404

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94280

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93584

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93491

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93202

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34449


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<24>,  Next: macOS<18>,  Prev: Build<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98360(1): Fixes *note multiprocessing: 94. spawning child
     processes on Windows from a virtual environment to ensure that
     child processes that also use *note multiprocessing: 94. to spawn
     more children will recognize that they are in a virtual
     environment.

   - gh-98414(2): Fix ‘py.exe’ launcher handling of ‘-V:<COMPANY>/’
     option when default preferences have been set in environment
     variables or configuration files.

   - gh-97728(3): Fix possible crashes caused by the use of
     uninitialized variables when pass invalid arguments in *note
     os.system(): 1423. on Windows and in Windows-specific modules (like
     ‘winreg’).

   - gh-90989(4): Made *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. install
     per-user by default (unless an all users install already exists),
     and clarify some text in the installer.

   - gh-97649(5): The ‘Tools’ directory is no longer installed on
     Windows

   - gh-96965(6): Update libffi to 3.4.3

   - gh-96577(7): Fixes a potential buffer overrun in ‘msilib’.

   - gh-96559(8): Fixes the Windows launcher not using the compatible
     interpretation of default tags found in configuration files when no
     tag was passed to the command.

   - gh-94781(9): Fix ‘pcbuild.proj’ to clean previous instances of
     output files in ‘Python\deepfreeze’ and ‘Python\frozen_modules’
     directories on Windows.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-89545(10): Updates *note platform: aa. code getting the Windows
     version to use native Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI)
     queries to determine OS version, type, and architecture.

   - gh-95733(11): Make certain requirements of the Windows Store
     package optional to allow installing on earlier updates of Windows.

   - gh-95656(12): Enable the *note enable_load_extension(): 838. *note
     sqlite3: cf. API.

   - gh-95587(13): Fixes some issues where the Windows installer would
     incorrectly detect certain features of an existing install when
     upgrading.

   - gh-94399(14): Restores the behaviour of *note 윈도우 용 파이썬
     런처: 5b8. for ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang lines, which will now search
     ‘PATH’ for an executable matching the given command.  If none is
     found, the usual search process is used.

   - gh-95445(15): Fixes the unsuccessful removal of the HTML document
     directory when uninstalling with Windows msi.

   - gh-95359(16): Fix *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. handling of
     ‘py.ini’ commands (it was incorrectly expecting a ‘py_’ prefix on
     keys) and crashes when reading per-user configuration file.

   - gh-95285(17): Fix *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. handling of
     command lines where it is only passed a short executable name.

   - gh-90844(18): Allow virtual environments to correctly launch when
     they have spaces in the path.

   - gh-94772(19): Fix incorrect handling of shebang lines in py.exe
     launcher

   - gh-94018(20): *note zipfile: 131. will now remove trailing spaces
     from path components when extracting files on Windows.

   - gh-93824(21): Drag and drop of files onto Python files in Windows
     Explorer has been enabled for Windows ARM64.

   - gh-43414(22): *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10f3. now attempts to
     read the size from any provided handle, rather than only supporting
     file descriptors 0, 1 and 2.

   - gh-92817(23): Ensures that ‘py.exe’ will prefer an active virtual
     environment over default tags specified with environment variables
     or through a ‘py.ini’ file.

   - gh-92984(24): Explicitly disable incremental linking for non-Debug
     builds

   - gh-92841(25): *note asyncio: a. no longer throws ‘RuntimeError:
     Event loop is closed’ on interpreter exit after asynchronous socket
     activity.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46907(26): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.4.

   - gh-91061(27): Accept os.PathLike for the argument to
     winsound.PlaySound

   - bpo-42658(28): Support native Windows case-insensitive path
     comparisons by using ‘LCMapStringEx’ instead of *note str.lower():
     17f3. in ‘ntpath.normcase()’.  Add ‘LCMapStringEx’ to the ‘_winapi’
     module.

   - bpo-38704(29): Prevent installation on unsupported Windows
     versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98360

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98414

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97728

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90989

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97649

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96965

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96577

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96559

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94781

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95733

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95656

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95587

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94399

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95445

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95359

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95285

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90844

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94772

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94018

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93824

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43414

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92817

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92841

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91061

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42658

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38704


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<18>,  Next: IDLE<17>,  Prev: Windows<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-97897(1): The macOS 13 SDK includes support for the ‘mkfifoat’
     and ‘mknodat’ system calls.  Using the ‘dir_fd’ option with either
     *note os.mkfifo(): d8c. or *note os.mknod(): d8d. could result in a
     segfault if cpython is built with the macOS 13 SDK but run on an
     earlier version of macOS. Prevent this by adding runtime support
     for detection of these system calls (“weaklinking”) as is done for
     other newer syscalls on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97897


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<17>,  Next: Tools/Demos<15>,  Prev: macOS<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-97527(1): Fix a bug in the previous bugfix that caused IDLE to
     not start when run with 3.10.8, 3.12.0a1, and at least Microsoft
     Python 3.10.2288.0 installed without the Lib/test package.  3.11.0
     was never affected.

   - gh-65802(2): Document handling of extensions in Save As dialogs.

   - gh-95191(3): Include prompts when saving Shell (interactive input
     and output).

   - gh-95511(4): Fix the Shell context menu copy-with-prompts bug of
     copying an extra line when one selects whole lines.

   - gh-95471(5): In the Edit menu, move ‘Select All’ and add a new
     separator.

   - gh-95411(6): Enable using IDLE’s module browser with .pyw files.

   - gh-89610(7): Add .pyi as a recognized extension for IDLE on macOS.
     This allows opening stub files by double clicking on them in the
     Finder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97527

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65802

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95511

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95471

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95411

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89610


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<15>,  Next: C API<26>,  Prev: IDLE<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-68686(1): Remove ptags and eptags scripts.

   - gh-97681(2): Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old
     demo scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97669(4): Remove outdated example scripts of the
     ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.  A copy can be found in the old-demos
     project(5).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95853(6): The ‘wasm_build.py’ script now pre-builds Emscripten
     ports, checks for broken EMSDK versions, and warns about pkg-config
     env vars.

   - gh-95853(7): The new tool ‘Tools/wasm/wasm_builder.py’ automates
     configure, compile, and test steps for building CPython on
     WebAssembly platforms.

   - gh-95731(8): Fix handling of module docstrings in
     ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’.

   - gh-93939(9): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/check_modules.py’ to check
     and validate builtin and shared extension modules.  The script also
     handles ‘Modules/Setup’ and will eventually replace ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94538(10): Fix Argument Clinic output to custom file
     destinations.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94430(11): Allow parameters named ‘module’ and ‘self’ with
     custom C names in Argument Clinic.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

   - gh-86087(12): The ‘Tools/scripts/parseentities.py’ script used to
     parse HTML4 entities has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68686

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669

   (5) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95731

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94538

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94430

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86087


File: python.info,  Node: C API<26>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.23.30.11 C API
................

   - gh-98393(1): The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 572. function no
     longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 538. and
     *note memoryview: 462. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1c2. type
     is accepted for bytes strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91051(2): Add *note PyType_Watch(): 560. and related APIs to
     allow callbacks on *note PyType_Modified(): 17f8.

   - gh-95756(3): Lazily create and cache ‘co_’ attributes for better
     performance for code getters.

   - gh-96512(4): Configuration for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 5ef. now lives in the PyConfig C API struct.

   - gh-95589(5): Extensions classes that set ‘tp_dictoffset’ and
     ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ lose the support for multiple inheritance, but
     are now safe.  Extension classes should use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     555. instead.

   - gh-95781(6): An unrecognized format character in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     56f. now sets a *note SystemError: 570.  In previous versions it
     caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the
     result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

   - gh-92678(7): Restore the 3.10 behavior for multiple inheritance of
     C extension classes that store their dictionary at the end of the
     struct.

   - gh-92678(8): Support C extensions using managed dictionaries by
     setting the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT’ flag.

   - gh-93274(9): API for implementing vectorcall (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f, *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 550.
     and *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 551.) was added to the limited API
     and stable ABI.

   - gh-95504(10): Fix sign placement when specifying width or precision
     in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. and *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 56f.  Patch by Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93012(11): The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. flag is
     now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 553.
     method is reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with
     mutable types (i.e.  heap types without the ‘immutable’ flag).
     Mutable types that do not override *note tp_call: 554. now inherit
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. flag.

   - gh-95388(12): Creating *note immutable types: 3bc. with mutable
     bases is deprecated and is planned to be disabled in Python 3.14.

   - gh-92678(13): Adds unstable C-API functions
     ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict’ to
     allow C extensions to allow the VM to manage their object’s
     dictionaries.

   - gh-94936(14): Added *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 772, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 773. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 774. for
     accessing ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’
     respectively via the C API.

   - gh-94930(15): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. is used with ‘#’ in ‘(...)’ but
     without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - gh-94731(16): Python again uses C-style casts for most casting
     operations when compiled with C++.  This may trigger compiler
     warnings, if they are enabled with e.g.  ‘-Wold-style-cast’ or
     ‘-Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant’ options for ‘g++’.

   - gh-93937(17): The following frame functions and type are now
     directly available with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it’s no longer
     needed to add ‘#include <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 77e.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 77f.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 764.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 765.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 766.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 767.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 780.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91321(18): Fix the compatibility of the Python C API with C++
     older than C++11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91731(19): Avoid defining the ‘static_assert’ when compiling
     with C++ 11, where this is a keyword and redefining it can lead to
     undefined behavior.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89546(20): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b. (and other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions) now check that offsets and the base
     class’s *note tp_basicsize: 984. fit in the new class’s
     ‘tp_basicsize’.

   - gh-93503(21): Add two new public functions to the public C-API,
     *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 55a. and *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41c, that allow to set tracing and
     profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  Also, two analogous functions to the *note threading:
     ed. module (*note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4c3. and
     *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4c2.) that allow to do the
     same from Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93442(22): Add C++ overloads for _Py_CAST_impl() to handle
     0/NULL. This will allow C++ extensions that pass 0 or NULL to
     macros using _Py_CAST() to continue to compile.

   - gh-93466(23): Slot IDs in PyType_Spec may not be repeated.  The
     documentation was updated to mention this.  For some cases of
     repeated slots, PyType_FromSpec and related functions will now
     raise an exception.

   - gh-92898(24): Fix C++ compiler warnings when casting function
     arguments to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Serge Guelton.

   - gh-93103(25): Deprecate global configuration variables, like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2, in the documentation: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-77782(26): Deprecate global configuration variable like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2.: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92913(27): Ensures changes to *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c. are ignored unless *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5e9. is set

   - gh-92781(28): Avoid mixing declarations and code in the C API to
     fix the compiler warning: “ISO C90 forbids mixed declarations and
     code” [-Werror=declaration-after-statement].  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-92651(29): Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never
     any public tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only
     designed to be used by Python internals.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92536(30): Remove legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’.

   - gh-85858(31): Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function and
     the ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92193(32): Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall():
     55b. to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 55c.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered function!

   - gh-59121(33): Fixed an assert that prevented ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’
     from providing tracebacks when parsing from the provided FD.

   - bpo-45383(34): The *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578. API will now find
     and use a metaclass based on the provided bases.  An error will be
     raised if there is a metaclass conflict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95756

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96512

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94930

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94731

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91321

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89546

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93442

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93466

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92898

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92913

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92781

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92193

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59121

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45383


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.31 Python 3.11.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<27>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<21>,  Next: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.1 Security
..................

   - gh-57684(1): Add the *note -P: 59e. command line option and the
     *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 59f. environment variable to not prepend a
     potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ae.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<31>,  Next: Library<30>,  Prev: Security<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-89519(1): Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(2)) is deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as property().  The core design of this
     feature was flawed, and it caused a number of downstream problems.

   - gh-92345(3): ‘pymain_run_python()’ now imports ‘readline’ and
     ‘rlcompleter’ before sys.path is extended to include the current
     working directory of an interactive interpreter.  Non-interactive
     interpreters are not affected.

   - bpo-43857(4): Improve the *note AttributeError: 346. message when
     deleting a missing attribute.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-92245(5): Make sure that PEP 523 is respected in all cases.  In
     3.11a7, specialization may have prevented Python-to-Python calls
     respecting PEP 523.

   - gh-92203(6): Add a closure keyword-only parameter to *note exec():
     17f.  It can only be specified when exec-ing a code object that
     uses free variables.  When specified, it must be a tuple, with
     exactly the number of cell variables referenced by the code object.
     closure has a default value of ‘None’, and it must be ‘None’ if the
     code object doesn’t refer to any free variables.

   - gh-91173(7): Disable frozen modules in debug builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92114(8): Improve error message when subscript a type with
     ‘__class_getitem__’ set to ‘None’.

   - gh-92112(9): Fix crash triggered by an evil custom ‘mro()’ on a
     metaclass.

   - gh-92063(10): The ‘PRECALL_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR_FAST_WITH_KEYWORDS’
     instruction now ensures methods are called only on objects of the
     correct type.

   - gh-92031(11): Deoptimize statically allocated code objects during
     ‘Py_FINALIZE()’ so that future ‘_PyCode_Quicken’ calls always start
     with unquickened code.

   - gh-92036(12): Fix a crash in subinterpreters related to the garbage
     collector.  When a subinterpreter is deleted, untrack all objects
     tracked by its GC. To prevent a crash in deallocator functions
     expecting objects to be tracked by the GC, leak a strong reference
     to these objects on purpose, so they are never deleted and their
     deallocator functions are not called.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92032(13): The interpreter can now autocomplete soft keywords,
     as of now ‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ (wildcard pattern) from PEP
     634(14).

   - gh-87999(15): The warning emitted by the Python parser for a
     numeric literal immediately followed by keyword has been changed
     from deprecation warning to syntax warning.

   - gh-91869(16): Fix an issue where specialized opcodes with extended
     arguments could produce incorrect tracing output or lead to
     assertion failures.

   - gh-91603(17): Speed up *note types.UnionType: 634. instantiation.
     Based on patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-89373(18): If Python is built in debug mode, Python now ensures
     that deallocator functions leave the current exception unchanged.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91632(19): Fix a minor memory leak at exit: release the memory
     of the ‘generic_alias_iterator’ type.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-81548(20): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ now
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  In a future Python
     version they will be a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. and eventually a
     *note SyntaxError: 18d.

   - bpo-43950(21): Use a single compact table for line starts, ends and
     column offsets.  Reduces memory consumption for location info by
     half

   - gh-91102(22): Use Argument Clinic for ‘EncodingMap’.  Patch by Oleg
     Iarygin.

   - gh-91636(23): Fixed a crash in a garbage-collection edge-case, in
     which a ‘PyFunction_Type.tp_clear’ function could leave a python
     function object in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-91603(24): Speed up *note isinstance(): 43b. and *note
     issubclass(): 7ba. checks for *note types.UnionType: 634.  Patch by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-91625(25): Fixed a bug in which adaptive opcodes ignored any
     preceding ‘EXTENDED_ARG’s on specialization failure.

   - gh-78607(26): The LLTRACE special build now looks for the name
     ‘__lltrace__’ defined in module globals, rather than the name
     ‘__ltrace__’, which had been introduced as a typo.

   - gh-91576(27): Speed up iteration of ascii strings by 50%.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-89279(28): Improve interpreter performance on Windows by
     inlining a few specific macros.

   - gh-91502(29): Add a new ‘_PyFrame_IsEntryFrame()’ API function, to
     check if a *note PyFrameObject: 782. is an entry frame.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-91266(30): Refactor the ‘bytearray’ strip methods ‘strip’,
     ‘lstrip’ and ‘rstrip’ to use a common implementation.

   - gh-91479(31): Replaced the ‘__note__’ field of *note BaseException:
     5b5. (added in an earlier version of 3.11) with the final design of
     PEP 678(32).  Namely, *note BaseException: 5b5. gets an
     ‘add_note()’ method, and its ‘__notes__’ field is created when
     necessary.

   - gh-46055(33): Speed up right shift of negative integers, by
     removing unnecessary creation of temporaries.  Original patch by
     Xinhang Xu, reworked by Mark Dickinson.

   - gh-91462(34): Make the interpreter’s low-level tracing (lltrace)
     feature output more readable by displaying opcode names (rather
     than just numbers), and by displaying stack contents before each
     opcode.

   - gh-89455(35): Fixed an uninitialized bool value in the traceback
     printing code path that was introduced by the initial bpo-45292(36)
     exception groups work.

   - gh-91421(37): Fix a potential integer overflow in _Py_DecodeUTF8Ex.

   - gh-91428(38): Add ‘static const char *const _PyOpcode_OpName[256] =
     {...};’ to ‘opcode.h’ for debug builds to assist in debugging the
     Python interpreter.  It is now more convenient to make various
     forms of debugging output more human-readable by including opcode
     names rather than just the corresponding decimal digits.

   - bpo-47120(39): Make *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 16f4, *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 16f5, *note POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 17fc. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 17fd. virtual, mapping to new relative jump
     opcodes.

   - bpo-45317(40): Add internal documentation explaining design of new
     (for 3.11) frame stack.

   - bpo-47197(41): ctypes used to mishandle ‘void’ return types, so
     that for instance a function declared like ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(None,
     ctypes.c_int)’ would be called with signature ‘int f(int)’ instead
     of ‘void f(int)’.  Wasm targets require function pointers to be
     called with the correct signatures so this led to crashes.  The
     problem is now fixed.

   - bpo-47120(42): Make opcodes ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ relative rather than absolute.

   - bpo-47177(43): Replace the ‘f_lasti’ member of the internal
     ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ structure with a ‘prev_instr’ pointer, which
     reduces overhead in the main interpreter loop.  The ‘f_lasti’
     attribute of Python-layer frame objects is preserved for
     backward-compatibility.

   - bpo-46961(44): Integer mod/remainder operations, including the
     three-argument form of *note pow(): 9cf, now consistently return
     ints from the global small integer cache when applicable.

   - bpo-46962(45): Classes and functions that unconditionally declared
     their docstrings ignoring the ‘--without-doc-strings’ compilation
     flag no longer do so.

     The classes affected are ‘ctypes.UnionType’, *note
     pickle.PickleBuffer: 17fe, ‘testcapi.RecursingInfinitelyError’, and
     *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.

     The functions affected are 24 methods in *note ctypes: 2a.

     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46942(46): Use Argument Clinic for the *note types.MethodType:
     17ff. constructor.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46764(47): Fix wrapping bound methods with @classmethod

   - bpo-43464(48): Optimize ‘set.intersection()’ for non-set arguments.

   - bpo-46721(49): Optimize ‘set.issuperset()’ for non-set argument.

   - bpo-46509(50): Add type-specialized versions of the ‘Py_DECREF()’,
     and use them for ‘float’, ‘int’, ‘str’, ‘bool’, and ‘None’ to avoid
     pointer-chasing at runtime where types are known at C compile time.

   - bpo-46045(51): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-36819(52): Fix crashes in built-in encoders with error handlers
     that return position less or equal than the starting position of
     non-encodable characters.

   - bpo-34093(53): ‘marshal.dumps()’ uses ‘FLAG_REF’ for all interned
     strings.  This makes output more deterministic and helps
     reproducible build.

   - bpo-26579(54): Added ‘object.__getstate__’ which provides the
     default implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.

     Copying and pickling instances of subclasses of builtin types
     bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict,
     collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43857

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92203

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91173

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92112

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92063

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92031

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92036

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92032

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91869

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89373

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91632

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91625

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78607

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91576

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89279

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91502

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91266

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91479

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46055

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91462

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91421

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91428

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45317

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47197

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47177

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46961

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46764

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43464

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46721

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46509

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36819

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34093

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579


File: python.info,  Node: Library<30>,  Next: Documentation<24>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.3 Library
.................

   - gh-87901(1): Add the 'encoding' parameter to *note os.popen(): a84.

   - gh-90997(2): Fix an issue where *note dis: 38. utilities may
     interpret populated inline cache entries as valid instructions.

   - gh-92332(3): Deprecate *note typing.Text: 303. (removal of the
     class is currently not planned).  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-78157(4): Deprecate nested classes in enum definitions becoming
     members – in 3.13 they will be normal classes; add ‘member’ and
     ‘nonmember’ functions to allow control over results now.

   - gh-92356(5): Fixed a performance regression in ctypes function
     calls.

   - gh-90997(6): Show the actual named values stored in inline caches
     when ‘show_caches=True’ is passed to *note dis: 38. utilities.

   - gh-92301(7): Prefer ‘close_range()’ to iterating over procfs for
     file descriptor closing in *note subprocess: d6. for better
     performance.

   - gh-67248(8): Sort the miscellaneous topics in Cmd.do_help()

   - gh-92210(9): Port ‘socket.__init__’ to Argument Clinic.  Patch by
     Cinder.

   - gh-80010(10): Add support for generalized ISO 8601 parsing to *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 611, *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 60f. and *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 610.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-92118(11): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     11f1, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks.

   - gh-90887(12): Adding ‘COPYFILE_STAT’, ‘COPYFILE_ACL’ and
     ‘COPYFILE_XATTR’ constants for ‘os.fcopyfile()’ available in macOs.

   - gh-91215(13): For *note @dataclass: 1cb, add 'weakref_slot'.  The
     new parameter defaults to ‘False’.  If true, and if ‘slots=True’,
     add a slot named ‘"__weakref__"’, which will allow instances to be
     weakref’d.  Contributed by Eric V. Smith

   - gh-85984(14): New function os.login_tty() for Unix.

   - gh-92128(15): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 734. to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 12e5. and *note logging.StreamHandler: 11e7,
     allowing them to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-92049(16): Forbid pickling constants ‘re._constants.SUCCESS’
     etc.  Previously, pickling did not fail, but the result could not
     be unpickled.

   - gh-92062(17): *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0. now raises *note
     ValueError: 202. if ‘name’ is a keyword, in addition to the
     existing check that it is an identifier.

   - gh-87390(18): Add an ‘__unpacked__’ attribute to *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7e4.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-88089(19): Add support for generic *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0.

   - gh-91996(20): New http.HTTPMethod enum to represent all the
     available HTTP request methods in a convenient way

   - gh-91984(21): Modified test strings in test_argparse.py to not
     contain trailing spaces before end of line.

   - gh-91952(22): Add ‘encoding="locale"’ support to
     ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’.

   - gh-91954(23): Add 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments to *note
     subprocess.getoutput(): 1801. and *note
     subprocess.getstatusoutput(): fba.

   - bpo-47029(24): Always close the read end of the pipe used by *note
     multiprocessing.Queue: 1802. 'after' the last write of buffered
     data to the write end of the pipe to avoid *note BrokenPipeError:
     1052. at garbage collection and at *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.close(): 1803. calls.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-91928(25): Add ‘datetime.UTC’ alias for ‘datetime.timezone.utc’.

     Patch by Kabir Kwatra.

   - gh-68966(26): The ‘mailcap’ module is now deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  See PEP 594(27) for the rationale and the
     *note mimetypes: 8f. module for an alternative.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91401(28): Provide a way to disable *note subprocess: d6. use of
     ‘vfork()’ just in case it is ever needed and document the existing
     mechanism for ‘posix_spawn()’.

   - gh-64783(29): Fix *note signal.NSIG: 1804. value on FreeBSD to
     accept signal numbers greater than 32, like ‘signal.SIGRTMIN’ and
     ‘signal.SIGRTMAX’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91910(30): Add missing f prefix to f-strings in error messages
     from the *note multiprocessing: 94. and *note asyncio: a. modules.

   - gh-91860(31): Add *note typing.dataclass_transform(): 4ce,
     implementing PEP 681(32).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91832(33): Add ‘required’ attribute to *note argparse.Action:
     1805. repr output.

   - gh-91827(34): In the *note tkinter: f0. module add method
     ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of the Tcl
     library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info: 69a.

   - gh-84461(35): Add *note -enable-wasm-pthreads: 1806. to enable
     pthreads support for WASM builds.  ‘Emscripten/node’ no longer has
     threading enabled by default.  Include additional file systems.

   - gh-91821(36): Fix unstable ‘test_from_tuple’ test in
     ‘test_decimal.py’.

   - gh-91217(37): Deprecate the xdrlib module.

   - gh-91217(38): Deprecate the uu module.

   - gh-91760(39): More strict rules will be applied for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  For now, a
     deprecation warning is emitted for group references and group names
     which will be errors in future Python versions.

   - gh-84461(40): Add provisional *note sys._emscripten_info: 1807.
     named tuple with build-time and run-time information about
     Emscripten platform.

   - gh-90623(41): *note signal.raise_signal(): 1808. and *note
     os.kill(): 1350. now check immediately for pending signals.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91734(42): Fix OSS audio support on Solaris.

   - gh-90633(43): Include the passed value in the exception thrown by
     *note typing.assert_never(): 6a1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91700(44): Compilation of regular expression containing a
     conditional expression ‘(?(group)...)’ now raises an appropriate
     ‘re.error’ if the group number refers to not defined group.
     Previously an internal RuntimeError was raised.

   - gh-91231(45): Add an optional keyword 'shutdown_timeout' parameter
     to the ‘multiprocessing.BaseManager’ constructor.  Kill the process
     if terminate() takes longer than the timeout.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91621(46): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 7e3.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-90568(47): Parsing ‘\N’ escapes of Unicode Named Character
     Sequences in a *note regular expression: b9. raises now ‘re.error’
     instead of ‘TypeError’.

   - gh-91670(48): Remove deprecated ‘SO’ config variable in *note
     sysconfig: db.

   - gh-91217(49): Deprecate the telnetlib module.

   - gh-91217(50): Deprecate the sunau module.

   - gh-91217(51): Deprecate the spwd module.

   - gh-91217(52): Deprecate the sndhdr module, as well as inline needed
     functionality for ‘email.mime.MIMEAudio’.

   - gh-91616(53): *note re: b9. module, fix *note fullmatch(): 1809.
     mismatch when using Atomic Grouping or Possessive Quantifiers.

   - gh-91217(54): Deprecate the ‘pipes’ module.

   - gh-91217(55): Deprecate the ossaudiodev module.

   - bpo-47256(56): *note re: b9. module, limit the maximum capturing
     group to 1,073,741,823 in 64-bit build, this increases the depth of
     backtracking.

   - gh-91217(57): Deprecate the nis module.

   - gh-91595(58): Fix the comparison of character and integer inside
     ‘Tools.gdb.libpython.write_repr()’.  Patch by Yu Liu.

   - gh-74166(59): Add option to raise all errors from *note
     create_connection(): 66c. in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. when it
     fails to create a connection.  The default remains to raise only
     the last error that had occurred when multiple addresses were
     tried.

   - gh-91487(60): Optimize asyncio UDP speed, over 100 times faster
     when transferring a large file.

   - gh-91575(61): Update case-insensitive matching in the *note re: b9.
     module to the latest Unicode version.

   - gh-90622(62): In ‘concurrent.futures.process.ProcessPoolExecutor’
     disallow the “fork” multiprocessing start method when the new
     ‘max_tasks_per_child’ feature is used as the mix of threads+fork
     can hang the child processes.  Default to using the safe “spawn”
     start method in that circumstance if no ‘mp_context’ was supplied.

   - gh-89022(63): In *note sqlite3: cf, ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ result codes
     are now mapped to *note InterfaceError: 677. instead of *note
     ProgrammingError: 4ec.  Also, more accurate exceptions are raised
     when binding parameters fail.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91526(64): Stop calling ‘os.device_encoding(file.fileno())’ in
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  It was complex, never documented, and didn’t work
     for most cases.  (Patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - gh-88116(65): Change the frame-related functions in the *note
     inspect: 7e. module to return a regular object (that is backwards
     compatible with the old tuple-like interface) that include the
     extended PEP 657(66) position information (end line number, column
     and end column).  The affected functions are: *note
     inspect.getframeinfo(): 649, *note inspect.getouterframes(): 64a,
     *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 64b, *note inspect.stack(): 64c.
     and *note inspect.trace(): 64d.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69093(67): Add indexing and slicing support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 67c.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-69093(68): Add *note context manager: 5ce. support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 67c.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91217(69): Deprecate nntplib.

   - gh-91217(70): Deprecate msilib.

   - gh-91404(71): Improve the performance of *note re: b9. matching by
     using computed gotos (or “threaded code”) on supported platforms
     and removing expensive pointer indirections.

   - gh-91217(72): Deprecate the imghdr module.

   - gh-91217(73): Deprecate the crypt module.

   - gh-91276(74): Make space for longer opcodes in *note dis: 38.
     output.

   - bpo-47000(75): Make ‘TextIOWrapper’ uses locale encoding when
     ‘encoding="locale"’ is specified even in UTF-8 mode.

   - gh-91230(76): *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 57f. now accepts
     arguments for *note warnings.simplefilter(): 6bb, providing a more
     concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.

   - gh-91217(77): Deprecate the chunk module.

   - gh-91498(78): Add the ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’ option (available on
     macOS) to *note socket: cc.

   - bpo-47260(79): Fix ‘os.closerange()’ potentially being a no-op in a
     Linux seccomp sandbox.

   - bpo-47087(80): Implement ‘typing.Required’ and ‘typing.NotRequired’
     ( PEP 655(81)).  Patch by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47061(82): Deprecate cgi and cgitb.

   - bpo-47061(83): Deprecate audioop.

   - bpo-47000(84): Add *note locale.getencoding(): 2de. to get the
     current locale encoding.  It is similar to
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ but ignores the *note Python
     UTF-8 Mode: 650.

   - bpo-42012(85): Add *note wsgiref.types: 11c, containing
     WSGI-specific types for static type checking.

   - bpo-47227(86): Suppress expression chaining for more *note re: b9.
     parsing errors.

   - bpo-47211(87): Remove undocumented and never working function
     ‘re.template()’ and flag ‘re.TEMPLATE’.  This was later reverted in
     3.11.0b2 and deprecated instead.

   - bpo-47135(88): *note decimal.localcontext(): 180a. now accepts
     context attributes via keyword arguments

   - bpo-43323(89): Fix errors in the *note email: 3b. module if the
     charset itself contains undecodable/unencodable characters.

   - bpo-46841(90): Disassembly of quickened code.

   - bpo-46681(91): Forward gzip.compress() compresslevel to zlib.

   - bpo-45100(92): Add *note typing.get_overloads(): 6a8. and *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 6a9.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44807(93): *note typing.Protocol: 264. no longer silently
     replaces ‘__init__()’ methods defined on subclasses.  Patch by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco.

   - bpo-46787(94): Fix *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8eb. exception memory leak

   - bpo-46720(95): Add support for path-like objects to *note
     multiprocessing.set_executable(): 180b. for Windows to be on a par
     with Unix-like systems.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-46696(96): Add ‘SO_INCOMING_CPU’ constant to *note socket: cc.

   - bpo-46053(97): Fix OSS audio support on NetBSD.

   - bpo-45639(98): ‘image/avif’ and ‘image/webp’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8f.

   - bpo-46285(99): Add command-line option ‘-p’/‘--protocol’ to module
     *note http.server: 72. which specifies the HTTP version to which
     the server is conformant (HTTP/1.1 conformant servers can now be
     run from the command-line interface of module *note http.server:
     72.).  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44791(100): Accept ellipsis as the last argument of *note
     typing.Concatenate: 7bd.

   - bpo-46547(101): Remove variables leaking into ‘pydoc.Helper’ class
     namespace.

   - bpo-46415(102): Fix ipaddress.ip_{address,interface,network}
     raising TypeError instead of ValueError if given invalid tuple as
     address parameter.

   - bpo-46075(103): ‘CookieJar’ with ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ now can
     process cookies from localhost with domain=localhost explicitly
     specified in Set-Cookie header.

   - bpo-45995(104): Add a “z” option to the string formatting
     specification that coerces negative zero floating-point values to
     positive zero after rounding to the format precision.  Contributed
     by John Belmonte.

   - bpo-26175(105): Fully implement the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e.
     or *note io.TextIOBase: 68f. interface for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 68d. objects.  This lets them work
     correctly with higher-level layers (like compression modules).
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-45138(106): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: cf. trace
     callback where bound parameters were not expanded in the passed
     statement string.  The regression was introduced in Python 3.10 by
     bpo-40318(107).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44863(108): Allow *note TypedDict: 162. subclasses to also
     include *note Generic: 1620. as a base class in class based syntax.
     Thereby allowing the user to define a generic ‘TypedDict’, just
     like a user-defined generic but with ‘TypedDict’ semantics.

   - bpo-44587(109): Fix BooleanOptionalAction to not automatically add
     a default string.  If a default string is desired, use a formatter
     to add it.

   - bpo-43827(110): All positional-or-keyword parameters to
     ‘ABCMeta.__new__’ are now positional-only to avoid conflicts with
     keyword arguments to be passed to ‘__init_subclass__()’.

   - bpo-43218(111): Prevent creation of a venv whose path contains the
     PATH separator.  This could affect the usage of the activate
     script.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-38435(112): Add a ‘process_group’ parameter to *note
     subprocess.Popen: 199. to help move more things off of the unsafe
     ‘preexec_fn’ parameter.

   - bpo-42066(113): Fix cookies getting sorted in
     ‘CookieJar.__iter__()’ which is an extra behavior and not mentioned
     in RFC 2965 or Netscape cookie protocol.  Now the cookies in
     ‘CookieJar’ follows the order of the ‘Set-Cookie’ header.  Patch by
     Iman Kermani.

   - bpo-40617(114): Add *note create_window_function(): 67a. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245. for creating aggregate window functions.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40676(115): Convert *note csv: 29. to use Argument Clinic for
     *note csv.field_size_limit(): 180c, *note csv.get_dialect(): 180d,
     *note csv.unregister_dialect(): 180e. and *note
     csv.list_dialects(): 180f.

   - bpo-39716(116): Raise an ‘ArgumentError’ when the same subparser
     name is added twice to an ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’.  This is
     consistent with the (default) behavior when the same option string
     is added twice to an ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-36073(117): Raise *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. instead of
     segfaulting on recursive usage of cursors in *note sqlite3: cf.
     converters.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34975(118): Adds a ‘start_tls()’ method to ‘StreamWriter’,
     which upgrades the connection with TLS using the given *note
     SSLContext: 294.

   - bpo-22276(119): *note Path: 229. methods *note glob(): 22d. and
     *note rglob(): 22e. return only directories if 'pattern' ends with
     a pathname components separator (‘/’ or *note sep: 664.).  Patch by
     Eisuke Kawashima.

   - bpo-24905(120): Add *note blobopen(): 67b. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 245.  *note sqlite3.Blob: 67c. allows
     incremental I/O operations on blobs.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78157

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92356

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92301

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67248

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92210

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92118

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90887

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91215

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92049

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92062

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88089

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91996

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91984

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91952

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91954

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47029

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91928

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91401

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64783

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91910

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91832

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91821

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90623

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91734

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91700

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91231

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91621

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90568

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91670

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91616

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47256

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91595

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74166

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89022

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91526

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (66) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91276

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91230

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91498

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47260

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087

   (81) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47227

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47211

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47135

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43323

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46681

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45100

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44807

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46787

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46720

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46696

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46053

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45639

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46285

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46547

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46415

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46075

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45995

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26175

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45138

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44863

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44587

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43827

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43218

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   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40676

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39716

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36073

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<24>,  Next: Tests<26>,  Prev: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-91888(1): Add a new ‘gh’ role to the documentation to link to
     GitHub issues.

   - gh-91783(2): Document security issues concerning the use of the
     function *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 465.

   - gh-91547(3): Remove “Undocumented modules” page.

   - gh-91298(4): In ‘importlib.resources.abc’, refined the
     documentation of the Traversable Protocol, applying changes from
     importlib_resources 5.7.1.

   - bpo-44347(5): Clarify the meaning of 'dirs_exist_ok', a kwarg of
     *note shutil.copytree(): a25.

   - bpo-36329(6): Remove ‘make -C Doc serve’ in favour of ‘make -C Doc
     htmlview’

   - bpo-47189(7): Add a What’s New in Python 3.11 entry for the Faster
     CPython project.  Documentation by Ken Jin and Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-38668(8): Update the introduction to documentation for *note
     os.path: a2. to remove warnings that became irrelevant after the
     implementations of PEP 383(9) and PEP 529(10).

   - bpo-47115(11): The documentation now lists which members of C
     structs are part of the *note Limited API/Stable ABI: 54e.

   - bpo-46962(12): All docstrings in code snippets are now wrapped into
     *note PyDoc_STR: 1811. to follow the guideline of PEP 7’s
     Documentation Strings paragraph(13).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-26792(14): Improve the docstrings of *note runpy.run_module():
     1812. and *note runpy.run_path(): 181.  Original patch by Andrew
     Brezovsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91888

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91783

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91547

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91298

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44347

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47189

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38668

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47115

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/#documentation-strings

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26792


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<26>,  Next: Build<28>,  Prev: Documentation<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-92169(1): Use ‘warnings_helper.import_deprecated()’ to import
     deprecated modules uniformly in tests.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-84461(2): When multiprocessing is enabled, libregrtest can now
     use a Python executable other than ‘sys.executable’ via the
     ‘--python’ flag.

   - gh-91904(3): Fix initialization of ‘PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD’
     which prevented running regression tests on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - gh-91752(4): Added @requires_zlib to
     test.test_tools.test_freeze.TestFreeze.

   - gh-91607(5): Fix ‘test_concurrent_futures’ to test the correct
     multiprocessing start method context in several cases where the
     test logic mixed this up.

   - bpo-40280(6): Threading tests are now skipped on WASM targets
     without pthread support.

   - bpo-47109(7): Test for ‘ctypes.macholib.dyld’,
     ‘ctypes.macholib.dylib’, and ‘ctypes.macholib.framework’ are
     brought from manual pre-*note unittest: 106. times to ‘ctypes.test’
     location and structure.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-29890(8): Add tests for *note ipaddress.IPv4Interface: 1814.
     and *note ipaddress.IPv6Interface: 1815. construction with tuple
     arguments.  Original patch and tests by louisom.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92169

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91904

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91752

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47109

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29890


File: python.info,  Node: Build<28>,  Next: Windows<25>,  Prev: Tests<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.6 Build
...............

   - gh-89452(1): gdbm-compat is now preferred over ndbm if both are
     available on the system.  This allows avoiding the problematic
     ndbm.h on macOS.

   - gh-91731(2): Python is now built with ‘-std=c11’ compiler option,
     rather than ‘-std=c99’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47152(3): Add script and make target for generating
     ‘sre_constants.h’.

   - bpo-47103(4): Windows ‘PGInstrument’ builds now copy a required DLL
     into the output directory, making it easier to run the profile
     stage of a PGO build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89452

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47103


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<25>,  Next: macOS<19>,  Prev: Build<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46907(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.3.

   - bpo-47239(2): Fixed –list and –list-paths output for *note 윈도우 용
     파이썬 런처: 5b8. when used in an active virtual environment.

   - bpo-46907(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.2.

   - bpo-46785(4): Fix race condition between *note os.stat(): 49a. and
     unlinking a file on Windows, by using errors codes returned by
     ‘FindFirstFileW()’ when appropriate in ‘win32_xstat_impl’.

   - bpo-40859(5): Update Windows build to use xz-5.2.5

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47239

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46785

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40859


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<19>,  Next: Tools/Demos<16>,  Prev: Windows<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46907(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<16>,  Next: C API<27>,  Prev: macOS<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-91583(1): Fix regression in the code generated by Argument
     Clinic for functions with the ‘defining_class’ parameter.

   - gh-91575(2): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/generate_re_casefix.py’ and
     the make target ‘regen-re’ for generating additional data for
     case-insensitive matching according to the current Unicode version.

   - gh-91551(3): Remove the ancient Pynche color editor.  It has moved
     to ‘https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91583

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91551


File: python.info,  Node: C API<27>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<16>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.23.31.10 C API
................

   - gh-88279(1): Deprecate the C functions: ‘PySys_SetArgv()’,
     ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, ‘PySys_SetPath()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92154(2): Added the *note PyCode_GetCode(): 771. function.  This
     function does the equivalent of the Python code
     ‘getattr(code_object, 'co_code')’.

   - gh-92173(3): Fix the ‘closure’ argument to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1770.

   - gh-91320(4): Fix C++ compiler warnings about “old-style cast” (‘g++
     -Wold-style-cast’) in the Python C API. Use C++
     ‘reinterpret_cast<>’ and ‘static_cast<>’ casts when the Python C
     API is used in C++.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-80527(5): Mark functions as deprecated by PEP 623(6):
     ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’, ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’, ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91768(7): *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a6, *note Py_TYPE(): 779, *note
     Py_SIZE(): 77b. and *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 181b. functions argument
     type is now ‘PyObject*’, rather than ‘const PyObject*’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91020(8): Add ‘PyBytes_Type.tp_alloc’ to initialize
     ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ for bytes subclasses.

   - bpo-40421(9): Add ‘PyFrame_GetLasti’ C-API function to access frame
     object’s ‘f_lasti’ attribute safely from C code.

   - bpo-35134(10): Remove the ‘Include/code.h’ header file.  C
     extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47169(11): *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 181c. is now exported in
     the Stable ABI on Windows.

   - bpo-47169(12): ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’ is excluded from
     the stable ABI on platforms where it doesn’t exist (like Solaris).

   - bpo-46343(13): Added *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 768. and
     *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 769. as simpler alternatives to
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76b. and *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76a.

     They are included in the stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91320

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80527

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91768

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91020

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.32 Python 3.11.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-04-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<28>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<32>,  Next: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-47212(1): Raise *note IndentationError: 7a1. instead of *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. for a bare ‘except’ with no following indent.
     Improve *note SyntaxError: 18d. locations for an un-parenthesized
     generator used as arguments.  Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-47186(2): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EG_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EG_MATCH: 6fb. + jump.

   - bpo-47176(3): Emscripten builds cannot handle signals in the usual
     way due to platform limitations.  Python can now handle signals.
     To use, set Module.Py_EmscriptenSignalBuffer to be a single byte
     SharedArrayBuffer and set Py_EMSCRIPTEN_SIGNAL_HANDLING to 1.
     Writing a number into the SharedArrayBuffer will cause the
     corresponding signal to be raised into the Python thread.

   - bpo-47186(4): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 704. + jump.

   - bpo-47120(5): Replace the absolute jump opcode *note
     JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT: 181f. by the relative *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 6f8.

   - bpo-46841(6): Avoid unnecessary allocations when comparing code
     objects.

   - bpo-47182(7): Fix a crash when using a named unicode character like
     ‘"\N{digit nine}"’ after the main interpreter has been initialized
     a second time.

   - bpo-47162(8): WebAssembly cannot deal with bad function pointer
     casts (different count or types of arguments).  Python can now use
     call trampolines to mitigate the problem.  Define
     ‘PY_CALL_TRAMPOLINE’ to enable call trampolines.

   - bpo-46775(9): Some Windows system error codes(>= 10000) are now
     mapped into the correct errno and may now raise a subclass of *note
     OSError: 411.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-47129(10): Improve error messages in f-string syntax errors
     concerning empty expressions.

   - bpo-47117(11): Fix a crash if we fail to decode characters in
     interactive mode if the tokenizer buffers are uninitialized.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-47127(12): Speed up calls to c functions with keyword arguments
     by 25% with specialization.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47120(13): Replaced ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ by the relative jump *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD: 705.

   - bpo-42197(14): ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ and
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ are no longer called during profiling nor
     tracing.  C code can access the ‘f_locals’ attribute of *note
     PyFrameObject: 782. by calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419.

   - bpo-47070(15): Improve performance of ‘array_inplace_repeat’ by
     reducing the number of invocations of ‘memcpy’.  Refactor the
     ‘repeat’ and inplace ‘repeat’ methods of ‘array’, ‘bytes’,
     ‘bytearray’ and ‘unicodeobject’ to use the common
     ‘_PyBytes_Repeat’.

   - bpo-47053(16): Reduce de-optimization in the specialized
     ‘BINARY_OP_INPLACE_ADD_UNICODE’ opcode.

   - bpo-47045(17): Remove the ‘f_state’ field from the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct.  Add the ‘owner’ field to the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct to make ownership explicit to simplify
     clearing and deallocing frames and generators.

   - bpo-46968(18): Check for the existence of the “sys/auxv.h” header
     in *note faulthandler: 58. to avoid compilation problems in systems
     where this header doesn’t exist.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46329(19): Use low bit of ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ to indicate whether to
     push a ‘NULL’ before the global.  Helps streamline the call
     sequence a bit.

   - bpo-46841(20): Quicken bytecode in-place by storing it as part of
     the corresponding ‘PyCodeObject’.

   - bpo-47012(21): Speed up iteration of *note bytes: 1c2. and *note
     bytearray: 538. by 30%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47009(22): Improved the performance of ‘list.append()’ and list
     comprehensions by optimizing for the common case, where no resize
     is needed.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-47005(23): Improve performance of ‘bytearray_repeat’ and
     ‘bytearray_irepeat’ by reducing the number of invocations of
     ‘memcpy’.

   - bpo-46829(24): Deprecate passing a message into *note
     asyncio.Future.cancel(): 1820. and *note asyncio.Task.cancel():
     1b7.

   - bpo-46993(25): Speed up *note bytearray: 538. creation from *note
     list: 60b. and *note tuple: 369. by 40%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-39829(26): Removed the ‘__len__()’ call when initializing a
     list and moved initializing to ‘list_extend’.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Pascual.

   - bpo-46944(27): Speed up throwing exception in generator with *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 162e. calling convention.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46841(28): Modify *note STORE_SUBSCR: 1821. to use an inline
     cache entry (rather than its oparg) as an adaptive counter.

   - bpo-46841(29): Use inline caching for ‘PRECALL’ and *note CALL:
     700, and remove the internal machinery for managing the (now
     unused) non-inline caches.

   - bpo-46881(30): Statically allocate and initialize the latin1
     characters.

   - bpo-46838(31): Improve syntax errors for incorrect function
     definitions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43721(32): Fix docstrings of *note getter: 1661, *note setter:
     1662, and *note deleter: 1663. to clarify that they create a new
     copy of the property.

   - bpo-43224(33): Make grammar changes required for PEP 646.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47182

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47129

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42197

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47070

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47053

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47045

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47012

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47009

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47005

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46829

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46993

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39829

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46944

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46881

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46838

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43721

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: Library<31>,  Next: Documentation<25>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-47208(1): Allow vendors to override ‘CTYPES_MAX_ARGCOUNT’.

   - bpo-23689(2): *note re: b9. module: fix memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure.  Patch by Ma
     Lin.

   - bpo-47167(3): Allow overriding a future compliance check in *note
     asyncio.Task: 1be.

   - bpo-47151(4): When subprocess tries to use vfork, it now falls back
     to fork if vfork returns an error.  This allows use in situations
     where vfork isn’t allowed by the OS kernel.

   - bpo-47152(5): Convert the *note re: b9. module into a package.
     Deprecate modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’.

   - bpo-4833(6): Add ‘ZipFile.mkdir()’

   - bpo-27929(7): Fix *note asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): dc6. to only
     resolve names for *note socket.AF_INET: 1823. or *note
     socket.AF_INET6: 1824. families.  Resolution may not make sense for
     other families, like ‘socket.AF_BLUETOOTH’ and *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 1825.

   - bpo-14265(8): Adds the fully qualified test name to unittest output

   - bpo-47061(9): Deprecate the aifc module.

   - bpo-39622(10): Handle Ctrl+C in asyncio programs to interrupt the
     main task.

   - bpo-47101(11): *note hashlib.algorithms_available: 135d. now lists
     only algorithms that are provided by activated crypto providers on
     OpenSSL 3.0.  Legacy algorithms are not listed unless the legacy
     provider has been loaded into the default OSSL context.

   - bpo-47099(12): All ‘URLError’ exception messages raised in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener: 306. now contain a colon between ‘ftp
     error’ and the rest of the message.  Previously, ‘open_ftp()’
     missed the colon.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47099(13): Exception chaining is changed from
     ‘Exception.with_traceback()’/*note sys.exc_info(): 684. to PEP
     3134(14).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47095(15): *note hashlib: 68.’s internal ‘_blake2’ module now
     prefers ‘libb2’ from ‘https://www.blake2.net/’ over Python’s
     vendored copy of blake2.

   - bpo-47098(16): The Keccak Code Package for *note hashlib: 68.’s
     internal ‘_sha3’ module has been replaced with tiny_sha3.  The
     module is used as fallback when Python is built without OpenSSL.

   - bpo-47088(17): Implement *note typing.LiteralString: 5c4, part of
     PEP 675(18).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-42885(19): Optimize *note re.search(): 121c, *note re.split():
     2a2, *note re.findall(): 1020, *note re.finditer(): 14c2. and *note
     re.sub(): 2a3. for regular expressions starting with ‘\A’ or ‘^’.

   - bpo-23691(20): Protect the *note re.finditer(): 14c2. iterator from
     re-entering.

   - bpo-47067(21): Optimize calling ‘GenericAlias’ objects by using PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ and by replacing ‘PyObject_SetAttrString’ with
     ‘PyObject_SetAttr’.

   - bpo-28080(23): Add the 'metadata_encoding' parameter in the *note
     zipfile.ZipFile: 6be. constructor and the ‘--metadata-encoding’
     option in the *note zipfile: 131. CLI to allow reading zipfiles
     using non-standard codecs to encode the filenames within the
     archive.

   - bpo-47000(24): Make *note io.text_encoding(): 16cd. returns “utf-8”
     when UTF-8 mode is enabled.

   - bpo-42369(25): Fix thread safety of ‘zipfile._SharedFile.tell()’ to
     avoid a “zipfile.BadZipFile: Bad CRC-32 for file” exception when
     reading a ‘ZipFile’ from multiple threads.

   - bpo-38256(26): Fix *note binascii.crc32(): 169d. when it is
     compiled to use zlib’c crc32 to work properly on inputs 4+GiB in
     length instead of returning the wrong result.  The workaround prior
     to this was to always feed the function data in increments smaller
     than 4GiB or to just call the zlib module function.

     We also have *note binascii.crc32(): 169d. release the GIL when
     computing on larger inputs as *note zlib.crc32(): 169c. and *note
     hashlib: 68. do.

     This also boosts performance on Windows as it now uses the zlib
     crc32 implementation for *note binascii.crc32(): 169d. for a 2-3x
     speedup.

     That the stdlib has a crc32 API in two modules is a known
     historical oddity.  This moves us closer to a single implementation
     behind them.

   - bpo-47066(27): Global inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be
     used at the start of the regular expressions.  Using them not at
     the start of expression was deprecated since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-39394(28): A warning about inline flags not at the start of the
     regular expression now contains the position of the flag.

   - bpo-433030(29): Add support of atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and
     possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) in *note
     regular expressions: b9.

   - bpo-47062(30): Implement *note asyncio.Runner: 5fa. context
     manager.

   - bpo-46382(31): *note dataclass(): 1cb. ‘slots=True’ now correctly
     omits slots already defined in base classes.  Patch by Arie
     Bovenberg.

   - bpo-47057(32): Use FASTCALL convention for ‘FutureIter.throw()’

   - bpo-47061(33): Deprecate the various modules listed by PEP 594(34):

     aifc, asynchat, asyncore, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt,
     imghdr, msilib, nntplib, nis, ossaudiodev, pipes, smtpd, sndhdr,
     spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu, xdrlib

   - bpo-34790(35): Remove passing coroutine objects to *note
     asyncio.wait(): 479.

   - bpo-47039(36): Normalize ‘repr()’ of asyncio future and task
     objects.

   - bpo-2604(37): Fix bug where doctests using globals would fail when
     run multiple times.

   - bpo-45150(38): Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 63e. helper for
     efficient hashing of file object.

   - bpo-34861(39): Made cumtime the default sorting key for cProfile

   - bpo-45997(40): Fix *note asyncio.Semaphore: a71. re-aquiring FIFO
     order.

   - bpo-47022(41): The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have
     been deprecated since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and
     deprecation warnings and have now been updated to note they will
     removed in Python 3.12 ( PEP 594(42)).

   - bpo-43253(43): Fix a crash when closing transports where the
     underlying socket handle is already invalid on the Proactor event
     loop.

   - bpo-40280(44): *note select.select(): d9c. now passes ‘NULL’ to
     ‘select’ for each empty fdset.

   - bpo-47004(45): Apply bugfixes from importlib_metadata 4.11.3,
     including bugfix for EntryPoint.extras, which was returning match
     objects and not the extras strings.

   - bpo-46998(46): Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 6a6.  Patch
     by Shantanu Jain.

   - bpo-46995(47): Deprecate missing *note asyncio.Task.set_name():
     9d9. for third-party task implementations, schedule making it
     mandatory in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46994(48): Accept explicit contextvars.Context in *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. and *note asyncio.loop.create_task():
     1c0.

   - bpo-46981(49): ‘typing.get_args(typing.Tuple[()])’ now returns ‘()’
     instead of ‘((),)’.

   - bpo-46968(50): Add ‘os.sysconf_names['SC_MINSIGSTKSZ']’.

   - bpo-46985(51): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     22.0.4)

   - bpo-46968(52): *note faulthandler: 58.: On Linux 5.14 and newer,
     dynamically determine size of signal handler stack size CPython
     allocates using ‘getauxval(AT_MINSIGSTKSZ)’.  This changes allows
     for Python extension’s request to Linux kernel to use AMX_TILE
     instruction set on Sapphire Rapids Xeon processor to succeed,
     unblocking use of the ISA in frameworks.

   - bpo-46917(53): The *note math.nan: 65d. value is now always
     available.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46955(54): Expose ‘asyncio.base_events.Server’ as *note
     asyncio.Server: b0f.  Patch by Stefan Zabka.

   - bpo-23325(55): The *note signal: c6. module no longer assumes that
     *note SIG_IGN: 1826. and *note SIG_DFL: 1827. are small int
     singletons.

   - bpo-46932(56): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.7

   - bpo-46933(57): The *note pwd: b2. module is now optional.  *note
     os.path.expanduser(): a10. returns the path when the *note pwd: b2.
     module is not available.

   - bpo-40059(58): PEP 680(59), the *note tomllib: fc. module.  Adds
     support for parsing TOML.

   - bpo-464471(60): *note asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. and *note
     asyncio.timeout_at(): 1828. context managers added.  Patch by Tin
     Tvrtković and Andrew Svetlov.

   - bpo-46805(61): Added raw datagram socket functions for asyncio:
     ‘sock_sendto()’, ‘sock_recvfrom()’ and ‘sock_recvfrom_into()’.

   - bpo-46644(62): No longer require valid typeforms to be callable.
     This allows *note typing.Annotated: 93b. to wrap *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7bf. and *note dataclasses.InitVar: 1829.
     Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46581(63): Brings ‘ParamSpec’ propagation for ‘GenericAlias’ in
     line with ‘Concatenate’ (and others).

   - bpo-45413(64): Define 'posix_venv' and 'nt_venv' *note sysconfig
     installation schemes: 689. to be used for bootstrapping new virtual
     environments.  Add 'venv' sysconfig installation scheme to get the
     appropriate one of the above.  The schemes are identical to the
     pre-existing 'posix_prefix' and 'nt' install schemes.  The *note
     venv: 111. module now uses the 'venv' scheme to create new virtual
     environments instead of hardcoding the paths depending only on the
     platform.  Downstream Python distributors customizing the
     'posix_prefix' or 'nt' install scheme in a way that is not
     compatible with the install scheme used in virtual environments are
     encouraged not to customize the 'venv' schemes.  When Python itself
     runs in a virtual environment, *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 182a. and *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 68a. with ‘key="prefix"’ returns
     'venv'.

   - bpo-43224(65): Implement support for PEP 646 in typing.py.

   - bpo-43224(66): Allow unpacking types.GenericAlias objects, e.g.
     ‘*tuple[int, str]’.

   - bpo-46557(67): Warnings captured by the logging module are now
     logged without a format string to prevent systems that group logs
     by the msg argument from grouping captured warnings together.

   - bpo-41370(68): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. now supports
     evaluating strings as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic
     aliases: 6ac.

   - bpo-46607(69): Add *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to
     ‘LegacyInterpolation’, deprecated in the docstring since Python
     3.2.  Will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘BasicInterpolation’ or
     ‘ExtendedInterpolation’ instead.

   - bpo-26120(70): *note pydoc: b5. now excludes __future__ imports
     from the module’s data items.

   - bpo-46480(71): Add *note typing.assert_type(): 6a5.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46421(72): Fix a unittest issue where if the command was
     invoked as ‘python -m unittest’ and the filename(s) began with a
     dot (.), a ‘ValueError’ is returned.

   - bpo-46245(73): Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.

   - bpo-22859(74): ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked as
     deprecated, to be removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46170(75): Improve the error message when you try to subclass
     an instance of *note typing.NewType: cf2.

   - bpo-40296(76): Fix supporting generic aliases in *note pydoc: b5.

   - bpo-20392(77): Fix inconsistency with uppercase file extensions in
     ‘MimeTypes.guess_type()’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46030(78): Add ‘LOCAL_CREDS’, ‘LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT’ and
     ‘SCM_CREDS2’ FreeBSD constants to the socket module.

   - bpo-44439(79): Fix ‘.write()’ method of a member file in ‘ZipFile’,
     when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol,
     the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-45171(80): Fix handling of the ‘stacklevel’ argument to logging
     functions in the *note logging: 87. module so that it is consistent
     across all logging functions and, as advertised, similar to the
     ‘stacklevel’ argument used in *note warn(): 14e1.

   - bpo-24959(81): Fix bug where *note unittest: 106. sometimes drops
     frames from tracebacks of exceptions raised in tests.

   - bpo-44859(82): Raise more accurate and PEP 249(83) compatible
     exceptions in *note sqlite3: cf.

        * Raise *note InterfaceError: 677. instead of *note
          ProgrammingError: 4ec. for ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ errors.

        * Don’t overwrite *note BufferError: 182b. with *note
          ValueError: 202. when conversion to BLOB fails.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. instead of *note Warning:
          182c. if user tries to *note execute(): 2d2. more than one SQL
          statement.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. instead of *note
          ValueError: 202. if an SQL query contains null characters.

   - bpo-44493(84): Add missing terminated NUL in sockaddr_un’s length

     This was potentially observable when using non-abstract AF_UNIX
     datagram sockets to processes written in another programming
     language.

   - bpo-41930(85): Add *note serialize(): 678. and *note deserialize():
     679. support to *note sqlite3: cf.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-33178(86): Added *note ctypes.BigEndianUnion: 182d. and *note
     ctypes.LittleEndianUnion: 182e. classes, as originally documented
     in the library docs but not yet implemented.

   - bpo-43352(87): Add an Barrier object in synchronization primitives
     of 'asyncio' Lib in order to be consistent with Barrier from
     'threading' and 'multiprocessing' libs*

   - bpo-35859(88): *note re: b9. module, fix a few bugs about capturing
     group.  In rare cases, capturing group gets an incorrect string.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47208

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47167

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47151

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4833

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27929

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14265

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47101

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42885

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23691

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47067

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42369

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38256

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39394

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47062

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46382

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47057

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47039

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45150

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34861

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45997

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43253

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47004

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46998

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46994

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46981

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46985

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46955

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23325

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46932

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46933

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (59) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=464471

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46644

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46581

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46557

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41370

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26120

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46480

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46421

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22859

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46170

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40296

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20392

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46030

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45171

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24959

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859

   (83) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44493

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33178

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43352

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<25>,  Next: Tests<27>,  Prev: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45099(1): Document internal *note asyncio: a. API.

   - bpo-47126(2): Update PEP URLs to PEP 676(3)’s new canonical form.

   - bpo-47040(4): Clarified the old Python versions compatibility note
     of *note binascii.crc32(): 169d. / *note zlib.adler32(): 1830. /
     *note zlib.crc32(): 169c. functions.

   - bpo-46033(5): Clarify ‘for’ statement execution in its doc.

   - bpo-45790(6): Adjust inaccurate phrasing in *note 확장형 정의하기;
     자습서: 1831. about the ‘ob_base’ field and the macros used to
     access its contents.

   - bpo-42340(7): Document that in some circumstances *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. may cause the code to enter an inconsistent
     state.  Provided a sample workaround to avoid it if needed.

   - bpo-41233(8): Link the errnos referenced in
     ‘Doc/library/exceptions.rst’ to their respective section in
     ‘Doc/library/errno.rst’, and vice versa.  Previously this was only
     done for EINTR and InterruptedError.  Patch by Yan “yyyyyyyan”
     Orestes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45099

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47126

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0676/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<27>,  Next: Build<29>,  Prev: Documentation<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-47205(1): Skip test for *note sched_getaffinity(): 10fb. and
     *note sched_setaffinity(): 10ff. error case on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-46126(2): Restore ‘descriptions’ when running tests internally.

   - bpo-47104(3): Rewrite *note asyncio.to_thread(): 8e5. tests to use
     *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304.

   - bpo-40280(4): The test suite is now passing on the Emscripten
     platform.  All fork, socket, and subprocess-based tests are
     skipped.

   - bpo-47037(5): Skip ‘strftime("%4Y")’ feature test on Windows.  It
     can cause an assertion error in debug builds.

   - bpo-46587(6): Skip tests if platform’s ‘strftime’ does not support
     non-portable glibc extensions.

   - bpo-47015(7): A test case for *note os.sendfile(): b0c. is
     converted from deprecated ‘asyncore’ (see PEP 594(8)) to *note
     asyncio: a.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47205

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46587

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47015

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: Build<29>,  Next: Windows<26>,  Prev: Tests<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-40280(1): Add configure option *note
     -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: 1834. to enable ‘dlopen’ and
     MAIN_MODULE / SIDE_MODULE on ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

   - bpo-46023(2): ‘makesetup’ now detects and skips all duplicated
     module definitions.  The first entry wins.

   - bpo-40280(3): Add SOABI ‘wasm32-emscripten’ for Emscripten and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ for WASI on 32bit WASM as well as ‘wasm64’ counter
     parts.

   - bpo-47032(4): Ensure Windows install builds fail correctly with a
     non-zero exit code when part of the build fails.

   - bpo-47024(5): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1n for macOS installers and all
     Windows builds.

   - bpo-46996(6): The *note tkinter: f0. package now requires Tcl/Tk
     version 8.5.12 or newer.

   - bpo-46973(7): Add ‘regen-configure’ make target to regenerate
     configure script with Christian’s container image
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:269’.

   - bpo-46917(8): Building Python now requires support of IEEE 754
     floating-point numbers.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45774(9): ‘configure’ now verifies that all SQLite C APIs
     needed for the *note sqlite3: cf. extension module are found.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47032

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47024

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46973

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<26>,  Next: macOS<20>,  Prev: Build<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-47194(1): Update ‘zlib’ to v1.2.12 to resolve CVE
     2018-25032(2).

   - bpo-47171(3): Enables installing the ‘py.exe’ launcher on Windows
     ARM64.

   - bpo-46566(4): Upgraded *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. to support
     a new ‘-V:company/tag’ argument for full PEP 514(5) support and to
     detect ARM64 installs.  The ‘-64’ suffix on arguments is
     deprecated, but still selects any non-32-bit install.  Setting
     ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ and specifying a version that is not
     installed will attempt to install the requested version from the
     Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-47086(6): The installer for Windows now includes documentation
     as loose HTML files rather than a single compiled ‘.chm’ file.

   - bpo-46907(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.1.

   - bpo-44549(8): Update bzip2 to 1.0.8 in Windows builds to mitigate
     CVE 2016-3189(9) and CVE 2019-12900(10).

   - bpo-46948(11): Prevent CVE 2022-26488(12) by ensuring the Add to
     PATH option in the Windows installer uses the correct path when
     being repaired.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47194

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-25032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47171

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46566

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44549

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-3189

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-12900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46948

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-26488


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<20>,  Next: Tools/Demos<17>,  Prev: Windows<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46890(1): Fix a regression in the setting of
     ‘sys._base_executable’ in framework builds, and thereby fix a
     regression in *note venv: 111. virtual environments with such
     builds.

   - bpo-46907(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<17>,  Next: C API<28>,  Prev: macOS<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40280(1): Replace Emscripten’s limited shell with Katie Bell’s
     browser-ui REPL from python-wasm project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280


File: python.info,  Node: C API<28>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.23.32.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40421(1): Add ‘PyFrame_GetBuiltins’, ‘PyFrame_GetGenerator’ and
     ‘PyFrame_GetGlobals’ C-API functions to access frame object
     attributes safely from C code.

   - bpo-46850(2): Move the private ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ type, and
     private ‘_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc()’ and
     ‘_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc()’ functions to the internal
     C API. The ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ callback function type now uses
     the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(3): Move the private undocumented
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function to the internal C API. The
     function now uses the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of
     the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(4): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_CallTracing()’ from the C API. Call the public *note
     sys.call_tracing(): 1839. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(5): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_GetCoroutineOriginTrackingDepth()’ from the C API. Call
     the public *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b88.
     function instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(6): Remove the following private undocumented functions
     from the C API:

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

     Call the public *note sys.get_asyncgen_hooks(): 183a. and *note
     sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 162d. functions instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46987(7): Remove private functions ‘_PySys_GetObjectId()’ and
     ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46906(8): Add new functions to pack and unpack C double
     (serialize and deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 75e, *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): 75f, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 760, *note
     PyFloat_Unpack2(): 761, *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 762. and *note
     PyFloat_Unpack8(): 763.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46987

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.23.33 Python 3.11.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-03-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<33>,  Next: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46940(1): Avoid overriding *note AttributeError: 346. metadata
     information for nested attribute access calls.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-46927(2): Include the type’s name in the error message for
     subscripting non-generic types.

   - bpo-46921(3): Support vectorcall for ‘super()’.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-46841(4): Fix incorrect handling of inline cache entries when
     specializing *note BINARY_OP: 6ff.

   - bpo-46841(5): Use an oparg to simplify the construction of helpful
     error messages in *note GET_AWAITABLE: 183d.

   - bpo-46903(6): Make sure that str subclasses can be used as
     attribute names for instances with virtual dictionaries.  Fixes
     regression in 3.11alpha

   - bpo-46841(7): Add more detailed specialization failure stats for
     *note COMPARE_OP: 967. followed by *note EXTENDED_ARG: 17ac.

   - bpo-46891(8): Fix bug introduced during 3.11alpha where subclasses
     of ‘types.ModuleType’ with ‘__slots__’ were not initialized
     correctly, resulting in an interpreter crash.

   - bpo-46841(9): Use inline caching for *note LOAD_ATTR: 4d8, *note
     LOAD_METHOD: c1c, and *note STORE_ATTR: 183e.

   - bpo-46841(10): Use inline cache for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 1747.

   - bpo-46841(11): Use inline caching for *note COMPARE_OP: 967.

   - bpo-46864(12): Deprecate ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’.  It will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46841(13): Use inline caching for *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 183f.

   - bpo-46845(14): Reduces dict size by removing hash value from hash
     table when all inserted keys are Unicode.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ becomes 272 bytes from
     352 bytes on 64bit platform.

   - bpo-46841(15): Use inline cache for *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16f0.

   - bpo-46852(16): Rename the private undocumented
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method to ‘float.__setformat__()’ to fix a
     typo introduced in Python 3.7.  The method is only used by
     test_float.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46852(17): Remove the undocumented private
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method, previously known as
     ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its docstring said: “You
     probably don’t want to use this function.  It exists mainly to be
     used in Python’s test suite.” Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40116(18): Fix regression that dict.update(other) may don’t
     respect iterate order of other when other is key sharing dict.

   - bpo-46712(19): Share global string identifiers in deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46430(20): Fix memory leak in interned strings of deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46841(21): Store *note BINARY_OP: 6ff. caches inline using a
     new *note CACHE: 6f2. instruction.

   - bpo-45107(22): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for instances with a dict.

   - bpo-44337(23): Reduce the memory usage of specialized *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 4d8. and *note STORE_ATTR: 183e. instructions.

   - bpo-46729(24): Add number of sub-exceptions to
     ‘BaseException.__str__()’.

   - bpo-45885(25): Don’t un-adapt *note COMPARE_OP: 967. when
     collecting specialization stats.

   - bpo-46329(26): Fix specialization stats gathering for ‘PRECALL’
     instructions.

   - bpo-46794(27): Bump up the libexpat version into 2.4.6

   - bpo-46823(28): Implement a specialized combined opcode
     ‘LOAD_FAST__LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46820(29): Fix parsing a numeric literal immediately (without
     spaces) followed by “not in” keywords, like in ‘1not in x’.  Now
     the parser only emits a warning, not a syntax error.

   - bpo-46329(30): Move ‘KW_NAMES’ before ‘PRECALL’ instruction in call
     sequence.  Change ‘operand’ of ‘CALL’ to match ‘PRECALL’ for easier
     specialization.

   - bpo-46808(31): Remove the ‘NEXT_BLOCK’ macro from compile.c, and
     make the compiler automatically generate implicit blocks when they
     are needed.

   - bpo-46329(32): Add ‘PUSH_NULL’ instruction.  This is used as a
     prefix when evaluating a callable, so that the stack has the same
     shape for methods and other calls.  ‘PRECALL_FUNCTION’ and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ are merged into a single ‘PRECALL’ instruction.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46762(33): Fix an assert failure in debug builds when a ‘<’,
     ‘>’, or ‘=’ is the last character in an f-string that’s missing a
     closing right brace.

   - bpo-46730(34): Message of AttributeError caused by getting, setting
     or deleting a property without the corresponding function now
     mentions that the attribute is in fact a property and also
     specifies type of the class that it belongs to.

   - bpo-46724(35): Make sure that all backwards jumps use the
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ instruction, rather than ‘JUMP_FORWARD’ with an
     argument of ‘(2**32)+offset’.

   - bpo-46732(36): Correct the docstring for the *note __bool__():
     12c5. method.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46072(37): Add more detailed specialization failure statistics
     for *note BINARY_OP: 6ff.

   - bpo-46707(38): Avoid potential exponential backtracking when
     producing some syntax errors involving lots of brackets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46323(39): *note ctypes: 2a. now allocates memory on the stack
     instead of on the heap to pass arguments while calling a Python
     callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45923(40): Add a quickened form of *note RESUME: 30d. that
     skips quickening checks.

   - bpo-46702(41): Specialize *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 183f. for *note
     tuple: 369. and *note list: 60b. unpackings.

   - bpo-46072(42): Opcode pair stats are now gathered with
     ‘--enable-pystats’.  Defining ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’ or
     ‘DXPAIRS’ no longer has any effect.

   - bpo-46675(43): Allow more than 16 items in a split dict before it
     is combined.  The limit is now 254.

   - bpo-40479(44): Add a missing call to ‘va_end()’ in
     ‘Modules/_hashopenssl.c’.

   - bpo-46323(45): Use *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557. while calling
     ctypes callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46615(46): When iterating over sets internally in
     ‘setobject.c’, acquire strong references to the resulting items
     from the set.  This prevents crashes in corner-cases of various set
     operations where the set gets mutated.

   - bpo-45828(47): The bytecode compiler now attempts to apply runtime
     stack manipulations at compile-time (whenever it is feasible to do
     so).

   - bpo-30496(48): Fixed a minor portability issue in the
     implementation of *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840, and added a fast
     path for single-digit integers to *note PyLong_FromLongLong():
     1841.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46940

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46927

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46921

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46891

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46712

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45107

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46729

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46794

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46823

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46808

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46762

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46730

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46732

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46707

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46702

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46675

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46615

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30496


File: python.info,  Node: Library<32>,  Next: Documentation<26>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25707(1): Fixed a file leak in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 273. when the iterator is not
     exhausted.  Patch by Jacob Walls.

   - bpo-46877(2): Export *note unittest.doModuleCleanups(): 1843. in
     *note unittest: 106.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46848(3): For performance, use the optimized string-searching
     implementations from *note find(): 1844. and *note rfind(): 1845.
     for ‘find()’ and ‘rfind()’.

   - bpo-46736(4): *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. now uses HTML5
     grammar.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44886(5): Inherit asyncio proactor datagram transport from
     *note asyncio.DatagramTransport: 17b3.

   - bpo-46827(6): Support UDP sockets in *note
     asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): dc6. for selector-based event loops.
     Patch by Thomas Grainger.

   - bpo-46811(7): Make test suite support Expat >=2.4.5

   - bpo-46252(8): Raise *note TypeError: 532. if *note ssl.SSLSocket:
     8e7. is passed to transport-based APIs.

   - bpo-46784(9): Fix libexpat symbols collisions with user dynamically
     loaded or statically linked libexpat in embedded Python.

   - bpo-46786(10): The HTML serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree now
     writes ‘embed’, ‘source’, ‘track’ and ‘wbr’ as empty tags, as
     defined in HTML 5.

   - bpo-39327(11): *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. can now work with
     VirtualBox shared folders when running from the guest
     operating-system.

   - bpo-45390(12): Propagate *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. message
     from inner task to outer awaiter.

   - bpo-46756(13): Fix a bug in *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(): 1846. and
     *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated():
     1847. which allowed to bypass authorization.  For example, access
     to URI ‘example.org/foobar’ was allowed if the user was authorized
     for URI ‘example.org/foo’.

   - bpo-46737(14): *note random.gauss(): 1848. and *note
     random.normalvariate(): 1849. now have default arguments.

   - bpo-46752(15): Add task groups to asyncio (structured concurrency,
     inspired by Trio’s nurseries).  This also introduces a change to
     task cancellation, where a cancelled task can’t be cancelled again
     until it calls .uncancel().

   - bpo-46724(16): Fix *note dis: 38. behavior on negative jump
     offsets.

   - bpo-46333(17): The ‘__repr__()’ method of *note typing.ForwardRef:
     184a. now includes the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 184a. when it is set.

   - bpo-46643(18): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ParamSpecArgs’ and ‘ParamSpecKwargs’
     annotations.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45863(19): When the *note tarfile: de. module creates a pax
     format archive, it will put an integer representation of timestamps
     in the ustar header (if possible) for the benefit of older
     unarchivers, in addition to the existing full-precision timestamps
     in the pax extended header.

   - bpo-46066(20): Deprecate kwargs-based syntax for *note
     typing.TypedDict: 162. definitions.  It had confusing semantics
     when specifying totality, and was largely unused.  Patch by
     Jingchen Ye.

   - bpo-46676(21): Make *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e. args and kwargs
     equal to themselves.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46323(22): ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE()’ and ‘ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE()’ now
     fail to create the type if its ‘_argtypes_’ member contains too
     many arguments.  Previously, the error was only raised when calling
     a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46672(23): Fix ‘NameError’ in *note asyncio.gather(): 5f7. when
     initial type check fails.

   - bpo-46659(24): The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 73d. and
     *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 73e. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 2dc, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2db, if no locale is specified.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46659(25): The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2db. function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use *note
     locale.setlocale(): 2dd, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     534. and *note locale.getlocale(): 2dc. functions instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46655(26): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘TypeAlias’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45948(27): Fixed a discrepancy in the C implementation of the
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module.  Now, instantiating an
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: a50. with a ‘target=None’
     keyword provides a default *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder:
     a51. target as the Python implementation does.

   - bpo-46626(28): Expose Linux’s ‘IP_BIND_ADDRESS_NO_PORT’ option in
     *note socket: cc.

   - bpo-46521(29): Fix a bug in the *note codeop: 1c. module that was
     incorrectly identifying invalid code involving string quotes as
     valid code.

   - bpo-46571(30): Improve *note typing.no_type_check(): 6ae.

     Now it does not modify external classes and functions.  We also now
     correctly mark classmethods as not to be type checked.

   - bpo-46400(31): expat: Update libexpat from 2.4.1 to 2.4.4

   - bpo-46556(32): Deprecate undocumented support for using a *note
     pathlib.Path: 229. object as a context manager.

   - bpo-46534(33): Implement PEP 673(34) *note typing.Self: 5c1.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - bpo-46522(35): Make various module ‘__getattr__’ AttributeErrors
     more closely match a typical AttributeError

   - bpo-46475(36): Add *note typing.Never: 6a2. and *note
     typing.assert_never(): 6a1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46333(37): The ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__hash__()’ methods of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 184a. now honor the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 184a.  Forward references from different modules
     are now differentiated.

   - bpo-46246(38): Add missing ‘__slots__’ to
     ‘importlib.metadata.DeprecatedList’.  Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46232(39): The *note ssl: d0. module now handles certificates
     with bit strings in DN correctly.

   - bpo-46195(40): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. no longer adds
     ‘Optional’ to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  This aligns to
     changes to PEP 484 in ‘https://github.com/python/peps/pull/689’

   - bpo-31369(41): Add *note RegexFlag: 627. to ‘re.__all__’ and
     documented it.  Add ‘NOFLAG’ to indicate no flags being set.

   - bpo-45898(42): *note ctypes: 2a. no longer defines ‘ffi_type_*’
     symbols in ‘cfield.c’.  The symbols have been provided by libffi
     for over a decade.

   - bpo-44953(43): Calling ‘operator.itemgetter’ objects and
     ‘operator.attrgetter’ objects is now faster due to use of the
     vectorcall calling convention.

   - bpo-44289(44): Fix an issue with *note is_tarfile(): 184b. method
     when using 'fileobj' argument: position in the 'fileobj' was
     advanced forward which made it unreadable with *note
     tarfile.TarFile.open(): 184c.

   - bpo-44011(45): Reimplement SSL/TLS support in asyncio, borrow the
     implementation from uvloop library.

   - bpo-41086(46): Make the *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8.
     constructor raise *note TypeError: 532. if the ‘interpolation’
     parameter is not of type ‘configparser.Interpolation’

   - bpo-29418(47): Implement *note inspect.ismethodwrapper(): 644. and
     fix *note inspect.isroutine(): 15f3. for cases where methodwrapper
     is given.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-14156(48): argparse.FileType now supports an argument of ‘-’ in
     binary mode, returning the .buffer attribute of
     sys.stdin/sys.stdout as appropriate.  Modes including ‘x’ and ‘a’
     are treated equivalently to ‘w’ when argument is ‘-’.  Patch
     contributed by Josh Rosenberg

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46877

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44886

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46827

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46252

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46784

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46786

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45390

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46756

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46737

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46752

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46643

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45863

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46066

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46676

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46672

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46655

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45948

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46626

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46571

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46400

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46556

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46522

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46475

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46246

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46232

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46195

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31369

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45898

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44953

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44289

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44011

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41086

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14156


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<26>,  Next: Tests<28>,  Prev: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’ has moved to its own
     repository and is now packaged on PyPI as ‘sphinx-lint’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<28>,  Next: Build<30>,  Prev: Documentation<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46913(1): Fix test_faulthandler.test_sigfpe() if Python is
     built with undefined behavior sanitizer (UBSAN): disable UBSAN on
     the faulthandler_sigfpe() function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46760(2): Remove bytecode offsets from expected values in
     test.test_dis module.  Reduces the obstacles to modifying the VM or
     compiler.

   - bpo-46708(3): Prevent default asyncio event loop policy
     modification warning after ‘test_asyncio’ execution.

   - bpo-46678(4): The function ‘make_legacy_pyc’ in
     ‘Lib/test/support/import_helper.py’ no longer fails when
     ‘PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX’ is set to a directory on a different device
     from where tempfiles are stored.

   - bpo-46623(5): Skip test_pair() and test_speech128() of test_zlib on
     s390x since they fail if zlib uses the s390x hardware accelerator.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46913

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46760

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46678

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46623


File: python.info,  Node: Build<30>,  Next: Windows<27>,  Prev: Tests<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46860(1): Respect ‘--with-suffix’ when building on
     case-insensitive file systems.

   - bpo-46656(2): Building Python now requires a C11 compiler.
     Optional C11 features are not required.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46656(3): Building Python now requires support for
     floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN): remove the ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46640(4): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing a ‘NAN’ constant, or the ‘__builtin_nan()’ built-in
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46608(5): Exclude marshalled-frozen data if deep-freezing to
     save 300 KB disk space.  This includes adding a new ‘is_package’
     field to *note _frozen: 76e.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-40280(6): Fix wasm32-emscripten test failures and platform
     issues.  - Disable syscalls that are not supported or don’t work,
     e.g.  wait, getrusage, prlimit, mkfifo, mknod, setres[gu]id,
     setgroups.  - Use fd_count to count open fds.  - Add more checks
     for subprocess and fork.  - Add workarounds for missing
     _multiprocessing and failing socket.accept().  - Enable bzip2.  -
     Disable large file support.  - Disable signal.alarm.

   - bpo-46430(7): Intern strings in deep-frozen modules.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46860

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<27>,  Next: IDLE<18>,  Prev: Build<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46744(1): The default all users install directory for ARM64 is
     now under the native ‘Program Files’ folder, rather than ‘Program
     Files (Arm)’ which is intended for ARM (32-bit) files.

   - bpo-46567(2): Adds Tcl and Tk support for Windows ARM64.  This also
     adds IDLE to the installation.

   - bpo-46638(3): Ensures registry virtualization is consistently
     disabled.  For 3.10 and earlier, it remains enabled (some registry
     writes are protected), while for 3.11 and later it is disabled
     (registry modifications affect all applications).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46567

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46638


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<18>,  Next: C API<29>,  Prev: Windows<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-46630(1): Make query dialogs on Windows start with a cursor in
     the entry box.

   - bpo-45447(2): Apply IDLE syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.
     Patch by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: C API<29>,  Prev: IDLE<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.23.33.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46748(1): Python’s public headers no longer import
     ‘<stdbool.h>’, leaving code that embeds/extends Python free to
     define ‘bool’, ‘true’ and ‘false’.

   - bpo-46836(2): Move the *note PyFrameObject: 782. type definition
     (‘struct _frame’) to the internal C API ‘pycore_frame.h’ header
     file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45459(3): Rename ‘Include/buffer.h’ header file to
     ‘Include/pybuffer.h’ to avoid conflicts with projects having an
     existing ‘buffer.h’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(4): Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved
     to the internal C API). Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46613(5): Added function *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d,
     which allows access to module state when a method’s defining class
     is not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46748

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.34 Python 3.11.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-02-03'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<30>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<34>,  Next: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45773(1): Remove two invalid “peephole” optimizations from the
     bytecode compiler.

   - bpo-46564(2): Do not create frame objects when creating *note
     super: 4d5. object.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45885(3): Added more fined-grained specialization failure stats
     regarding the ‘COMPARE_OP’ bytecode.

   - bpo-44977(4): The delegation of *note int(): 257. to ‘__trunc__()’
     is now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not ‘__int__()’ or ‘__index__()’ now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.

   - bpo-46458(5): Reorder code emitted by the compiler for a *note try:
     6e2.-*note except: 18b. block so that the *note else: 18c. block’s
     code immediately follows the *note try: 6e2. body (without a jump).
     This is more optimal for the happy path.

   - bpo-46527(6): Allow passing ‘iterable’ as a keyword argument to
     *note enumerate(): 1445. again.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46528(7): Replace several stack manipulation instructions
     (‘DUP_TOP’, ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’, ‘ROT_TWO’, ‘ROT_THREE’, ‘ROT_FOUR’, and
     ‘ROT_N’) with new *note COPY: 702. and *note SWAP: 703.
     instructions.

   - bpo-46329(8): Use two or three bytecodes to implement most calls.

     Calls without named arguments are implemented as a sequence of two
     instructions: ‘PRECALL; CALL’.  Calls with named arguments are
     implemented as a sequence of three instructions: ‘PRECALL;
     KW_NAMES; CALL’.  There are two different ‘PRECALL’ instructions:
     ‘PRECALL_FUNTION’ and ‘PRECALL_METHOD’.  The latter pairs with
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

     This partition into pre-call and call allows better specialization,
     and thus better performance ultimately.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46503(9): Fix an assert when parsing some invalid N escape
     sequences in f-strings.

   - bpo-46431(10): Improve error message on invalid calls to
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup.__new__()’.

   - bpo-46476(11): Fix memory leak in code objects generated by
     deepfreeze.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46481(12): Speed up calls to ‘weakref.ref.__call__()’ by using
     the PEP 590(13) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-46417(14): Fix a race condition on setting a type ‘__bases__’
     attribute: the internal function ‘add_subclass()’ now gets the
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’ member after calling *note
     PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1855. which can trigger a garbage collection
     which can indirectly modify ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46417(15): ‘python -X showrefcount’ now shows the total
     reference count after clearing and destroyed the main Python
     interpreter.  Previously, it was shown before.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43683(16): Add ASYNC_GEN_WRAP opcode to wrap the value to be
     yielded in async generators.  Removes the need to special case
     async generators in the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction.

   - bpo-46407(17): Optimize some modulo operations in
     ‘Objects/longobject.c’.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-46409(18): Add new ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’ bytecode to make
     generators.  Simplifies calling Python functions in the VM, as they
     no longer any need to special case generator functions.

     Also add ‘JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT’ bytecode that acts like
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’, but does not check for interrupts.

   - bpo-46406(19): The integer division ‘//’ implementation has been
     optimized to better let the compiler understand its constraints.
     It can be 20% faster on the amd64 platform when dividing an int by
     a value smaller than ‘2**30’.

   - bpo-46383(20): Fix invalid signature of ‘_zoneinfo’’s ‘module_free’
     function to resolve a crash on wasm32-emscripten platform.

   - bpo-46361(21): Ensure that “small” integers created by *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1856. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29d. are
     properly cached.

   - bpo-46161(22): Fix the class building error when the arguments are
     constants and CALL_FUNCTION_EX is used.

   - bpo-46028(23): Fixes calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when
     inside a virtual environment that uses symlinks with different
     binary names than the base environment provides.

   - bpo-46091(24): Correctly calculate indentation levels for lines
     with whitespace character that are ended by line continuation
     characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-30512(25): Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD.

   - bpo-46045(26): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-44024(27): Improve the *note TypeError: 532. message for
     non-string second arguments passed to the built-in functions *note
     getattr(): bce. and *note hasattr(): 4cc.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46458

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46527

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46528

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46503

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46431

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46476

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46481

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46407

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46409

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46406

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46383

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46361

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46161

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46091

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44024


File: python.info,  Node: Library<33>,  Next: Documentation<27>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46624(1): Restore support for non-integer arguments of *note
     random.randrange(): 866. and *note random.randint(): 121f.

   - bpo-46591(2): Make the IDLE doc URL on the About IDLE dialog
     clickable.

   - bpo-46565(3): Remove loop variables that are leaking into modules’
     namespaces.

   - bpo-46553(4): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘ClassVar’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46544(5): Don’t leak ‘x’ & ‘uspace’ intermediate vars in *note
     textwrap.TextWrapper: fc5.

   - bpo-46487(6): Add the ‘get_write_buffer_limits’ method to
     ‘asyncio.transports.WriteTransport’ and to the SSL transport.

   - bpo-45173(7): Note the configparser deprecations will be removed in
     Python 3.12.

   - bpo-45162(8): The deprecated *note unittest: 106. APIs removed in
     3.11a1 have been temporarily restored to be removed in 3.12 while
     cleanups in external projects go in.

   - bpo-46539(9): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ClassVar’ and ‘Final’ annotations inside
     ‘Annotated’.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46510(10): Add missing test for *note types.TracebackType: aef.
     and *note types.FrameType: 1858.  Calculate them directly from the
     caught exception without calling *note sys.exc_info(): 684.

   - bpo-46491(11): Allow *note typing.Annotated: 93b. to wrap *note
     typing.Final: 267. and *note typing.ClassVar: 266.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46483(12): Remove *note __class_getitem__(): 734. from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. as this class was not supposed to be
     generic.

   - bpo-46436(13): Fix command-line option ‘-d’/‘--directory’ in module
     *note http.server: 72. which is ignored when combined with
     command-line option ‘--cgi’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-41403(14): Make ‘mock.patch()’ raise a *note TypeError: 532.
     with a relevant error message on invalid arg.  Previously it
     allowed a cryptic *note AttributeError: 346. to escape.

   - bpo-46474(15): In ‘importlib.metadata.EntryPoint.pattern’, avoid
     potential REDoS by limiting ambiguity in consecutive whitespace.

   - bpo-46474(16): Removed private method from
     ‘importlib.metadata.Path’.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.10.0.

   - bpo-46470(17): Remove unused branch from
     ‘typing._remove_dups_flatten’

   - bpo-46469(18): *note asyncio: a. generic classes now return *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7e4. in ‘__class_getitem__’ instead of the same
     class.

   - bpo-41906(19): Support passing filter instances in the ‘filters’
     values of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ in the dictionary passed to
     *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 119f.

   - bpo-46422(20): Use ‘dis.Positions’ in ‘dis.Instruction’ instead of
     a regular ‘tuple’.

   - bpo-46434(21): *note pdb: a5. now gracefully handles ‘help’ when
     *note __doc__: 1859. is missing, for example when run with
     pregenerated optimized ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-43869(22): Python uses the same time Epoch on all platforms.
     Add an explicit unit test to ensure that it’s the case.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46414(23): Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 6a4.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-40280(24): *note subprocess: d6. now imports Windows-specific
     imports when ‘msvcrt’ module is available, and POSIX-specific
     imports on all other platforms.  This gives a clean exception when
     ‘_posixsubprocess’ is not available (e.g.  Emscripten browser
     target).

   - bpo-40066(25): ‘IntEnum’, ‘IntFlag’, and ‘StrEnum’ use the mixed-in
     type for their ‘str()’ and ‘format()’ output.

   - bpo-46316(26): Optimize *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 1638. by
     removing an unnecessary check for special entries.

   - bpo-29688(27): Document *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 16b5. (which
     has always existed).

   - bpo-43012(28): The pathlib module’s obsolete and internal
     ‘_Accessor’ class has been removed to prepare the terrain for
     upcoming enhancements to the module.

   - bpo-46258(29): Speed up *note math.isqrt(): a01. for small positive
     integers by replacing two division steps with a lookup table.

   - bpo-46242(30): Improve error message when creating a new *note
     enum.Enum: 62a. type subclassing an existing ‘Enum’ with
     ‘_member_names_’ using ‘enum.Enum.__call__()’.

   - bpo-43118(31): Fix a bug in *note inspect.signature(): 731. that
     was causing it to fail on some subclasses of classes with a
     ‘__text_signature__’ referencing module globals.  Patch by Weipeng
     Hong.

   - bpo-26552(32): Fixed case where failing *note
     asyncio.ensure_future(): c73. did not close the coroutine.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-21987(33): Fix an issue with *note tarfile.TarFile.getmember():
     185a. getting a directory name with a trailing slash.

   - bpo-46124(34): Update *note zoneinfo: 134. to rely on
     importlib.resources traversable API.

   - bpo-46103(35): Now *note inspect.getmembers(): 185b. only gets
     ‘__bases__’ attribute from class type.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-46080(36): Fix exception in argparse help text generation if a
     *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 185c. argument’s default is
     ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’ and it has ‘help’ specified.  Patch by Felix
     Fontein.

   - bpo-44791(37): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 15e. in *note
     Concatenate: 7bd. with different parameter expressions.
     Substitution with a list of types returns now a tuple of types.
     Substitution with ‘Concatenate’ returns now a ‘Concatenate’ with
     concatenated lists of arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46591

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46565

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46553

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46539

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46510

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46491

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41403

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46470

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46469

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41906

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46422

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46434

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43869

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46414

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46316

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29688

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43012

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46258

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46242

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43118

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26552

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21987

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46124

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46103

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46080

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<27>,  Next: Tests<29>,  Prev: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46463(1): Fixes ‘escape4chm.py’ script used when building the
     CHM documentation file

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46463


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<29>,  Next: Build<31>,  Prev: Documentation<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43478(1): Mocks can no longer be provided as the specs for
     other Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot be
     passed to ‘mock.Mock()’.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     isinstance) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-46616(2): Ensures ‘test_importlib.test_windows’ cleans up
     registry keys after completion.

   - bpo-44359(3): test_ftplib now silently ignores socket errors to
     prevent logging unhandled threading exceptions.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46600(4): Fix test_gdb.test_pycfunction() for Python built with
     ‘clang -Og’.  Tolerate inlined functions in the gdb traceback.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46542(5): Fix a Python crash in test_lib2to3 when using Python
     built in debug mode: limit the recursion limit.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46576(6): test_peg_generator now disables compiler optimization
     when testing compilation of its own C extensions to significantly
     speed up the testing on non-debug builds of CPython.

   - bpo-46542(7): Fix ‘test_json’ tests checking for *note
     RecursionError: d68.: modify these tests to use
     ‘support.infinite_recursion()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13886(8): Skip test_builtin PTY tests on non-ASCII characters
     if the readline module is loaded.  The readline module changes
     input() behavior, but test_builtin is not intended to test the
     readline module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(9): Add ‘test.support.requires_fork()’ decorators to mark
     tests that require a working *note os.fork(): 197.

   - bpo-40280(10): Add ‘test.support.requires_subprocess()’ decorator
     to mark tests which require working *note subprocess: d6. module or
     ‘os.spawn*’.  The wasm32-emscripten platform has no support for
     processes.

   - bpo-46126(11): Disable ‘descriptions’ when running tests
     internally.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44359

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13886

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126


File: python.info,  Node: Build<31>,  Next: Windows<28>,  Prev: Tests<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46602(1): Tidied up configure.ac so that conftest.c is
     truncated rather than appended.  This assists in the case where the
     ‘rm’ of conftest.c fails to happen between tests.  Downstream
     issues such as a clobbered SOABI can result.

   - bpo-46600(2): Fix the test checking if the C compiler supports
     ‘-Og’ option in the ‘./configure’ script to also use ‘-Og’ on clang
     which supports it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38472(3): Fix GCC detection in setup.py when cross-compiling.
     The C compiler is now run with LC_ALL=C. Previously, the detection
     failed with a German locale.

   - bpo-46513(4): ‘configure’ no longer uses ‘AC_C_CHAR_UNSIGNED’ macro
     and ‘pyconfig.h’ no longer defines reserved symbol
     ‘__CHAR_UNSIGNED__’.

   - bpo-46471(5): Use global singletons for single byte bytes objects
     in deepfreeze.

   - bpo-46443(6): Deepfreeze now uses cached small integers as it saves
     some space for common small integers.

   - bpo-46429(7): Merge all deep-frozen files into one for space
     savings.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45569(8): The build now defaults to using 30-bit digits for
     Python integers.  Previously either 15-bit or 30-bit digits would
     be selected, depending on the platform.  15-bit digits may still be
     selected using the ‘--enable-big-digits=15’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script, or by defining ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ in
     ‘pyconfig.h’.

   - bpo-45925(9): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.37.2.

   - bpo-43112(10): Detect musl libc as a separate SOABI (tagged as
     ‘linux-musl’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38472

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46513

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46471

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46429

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43112


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<28>,  Next: macOS<21>,  Prev: Build<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33125(1): The traditional EXE/MSI based installer for Windows
     is now available for ARM64

   - bpo-46362(2): os.path.abspath(“C:CON”) is now fixed to return
     “\.CON”, not the same path.  The regression was true of all legacy
     DOS devices such as COM1, LPT1, or NUL.

   - bpo-44934(3): The installer now offers a command-line only option
     to add the installation directory to the end of ‘PATH’ instead of
     at the start.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46362

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<21>,  Next: IDLE<19>,  Prev: Windows<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45925(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.37.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<19>,  Next: C API<30>,  Prev: macOS<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): Clarify close, quit, and exit in IDLE. In the File
     menu, ‘Close’ and ‘Exit’ are now ‘Close Window’ (the current one)
     and ‘Exit’ is now ‘Exit IDLE’ (by closing all windows).  In Shell,
     ‘quit()’ and ‘exit()’ mean ‘close Shell’.  If there are no other
     windows, this also exits IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296


File: python.info,  Node: C API<30>,  Prev: IDLE<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.23.34.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40170(1): Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was
     exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by
     Python internally.  Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(2): Move _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() and
     _PyObject_DebugMallocStats() private functions to the internal C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46433(3): The internal function _PyType_GetModuleByDef now
     correctly handles inheritance patterns involving static types.

   - bpo-45459(4): *note Py_buffer: 751. and various ‘Py_buffer’ related
     functions are now part of the limited API and stable ABI.

   - bpo-14916(5): Fixed bug in the tokenizer that prevented
     ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’ from parsing from the provided FD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46433

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14916


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.35 Python 3.11.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-01-13'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* C API: C API<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<35>,  Next: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46070(1): *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1866. now explicitly
     untracks all objects currently tracked by the GC. Previously, if an
     object was used later by another interpreter, calling *note
     PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce. on the object crashed if the previous
     or the next object of the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure became a dangling
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46347(2): Fix memory leak in PyEval_EvalCodeEx.

   - bpo-46339(3): Fix a crash in the parser when retrieving the error
     text for multi-line f-strings expressions that do not start in the
     first line of the string.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46331(4): Do not set line number of instruction storing
     doc-string.  Fixes regression introduced in 3.11 alpha.

   - bpo-46314(5): Remove spurious “call” event when creating a lambda
     function that was accidentally introduced in 3.11a4.

   - bpo-46289(6): ASDL declaration of ‘FormattedValue’ has changed to
     reflect ‘conversion’ field is not optional.

   - bpo-46297(7): Fixed an interpreter crash on bootup with multiple
     PythonPaths set in the Windows registry.  Patch by Derzsi Dániel.

   - bpo-46237(8): Fix the line number of tokenizer errors inside
     f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46263(9): We always expect the “use_frozen_modules” config to
     be set, now that getpath.c was rewritten in pure Python and the
     logic improved.

   - bpo-46006(10): Fix a regression when a type method like
     ‘__init__()’ is modified in a subinterpreter.  Fix a regression in
     ‘_PyUnicode_EqualToASCIIId()’ and type ‘update_slot()’.  Revert the
     change which made the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters: the internal interned dictionary
     is shared again by all interpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45923(11): Add RESUME opcode.  This is a logical no-op.  It is
     emitted by the compiler anywhere a Python function can be entered.
     It is used by the interpreter to perform tracing and optimizer
     checks.

   - bpo-46208(12): Fix the regression of os.path.normpath(“A/../../B”)
     not returning expected “../B” but “B”.

   - bpo-46240(13): Correct the error message for unclosed parentheses
     when the tokenizer doesn’t reach the end of the source when the
     error is reported.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46009(14): Remove the ‘GEN_START’ opcode.

   - bpo-46235(15): Certain sequence multiplication operations like ‘[0]
     * 1_000’ are now faster due to reference-counting optimizations.
     Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46221(16): ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’ no longer pushes ‘lasti’ to the
     stack.

   - bpo-46202(17): Remove ‘POP_EXCEPT_AND_RERAISE’ and replace it by an
     equivalent sequence of other opcodes.

   - bpo-46085(18): Fix iterator cache mechanism of ‘OrderedDict’.

   - bpo-46055(19): Speed up shifting operation involving integers less
     than ‘PyLong_BASE’.  Patch by Xinhang Xu.

   - bpo-46110(20): Add a maximum recursion check to the PEG parser to
     avoid stack overflow.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46107(21): Fix bug where ‘ExceptionGroup.split()’ and
     ‘ExceptionGroup.subgroup()’ did not copy the exception group’s
     ‘__note__’ field to the parts.

   - bpo-45711(22): The interpreter state’s representation of handled
     exceptions (a.k.a exc_info, or _PyErr_StackItem) now has only the
     ‘exc_value’ field, ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed
     as their values can be derived from ‘exc_value’.

   - bpo-44525(23): Replace the four call bytecode instructions which
     one pre-call instruction and two call instructions.

     Removes ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’, ‘CALL_METHOD’ and
     ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’.

     Adds ‘CALL_NO_KW’ and ‘CALL_KW’ call instructions, and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ prefix for pairing with ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

   - bpo-46039(24): Remove the ‘YIELD_FROM’ instruction and replace it
     with the ‘SEND’ instruction which performs the same operation, but
     without the loop.

   - bpo-45635(25): The code called from ‘_PyErr_Display()’ was
     refactored to improve error handling.  It now exits immediately
     upon an unrecoverable error.

   - bpo-46054(26): Fix parser error when parsing non-utf8 characters in
     source files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46042(27): Improve the location of the caret in *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions emitted by the symbol table.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46049(28): Ensure ‘._pth’ files work as intended on platforms
     other than Windows.

   - bpo-46048(29): Fixes parsing of ‘._pth’ files on startup so that
     single-character paths are correctly read.

   - bpo-37971(30): Fix a bug where the line numbers given in a
     traceback when a decorator application raised an exception were
     wrong.

   - bpo-46031(31): Add *note POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 17fd. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 17fc. opcodes to speed up conditional jumps.

   - bpo-45654(32): Deepfreeze *note runpy: be, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46025(33): Fix a crash in the *note atexit: c. module involving
     functions that unregister themselves before raising exceptions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46000(34): Improve compatibility of the *note curses: 2b.
     module with NetBSD curses.

   - bpo-44525(35): Specialize the CALL_FUNCTION instruction for calls
     to builtin types with a single argument.  Speeds up ‘range(x)’,
     ‘list(x)’, and specifically ‘type(obj)’.

   - bpo-42918(36): Fix bug where the built-in *note compile(): 192.
     function did not always raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d. when passed
     multiple statements in ‘single’ mode.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-45953(37): The main interpreter in _PyRuntimeState.interpreters
     is now statically allocated (as part of _PyRuntime).  Likewise for
     the initial thread state of each interpreter.  This means less
     allocation during runtime init, as well as better memory locality
     for these key state objects.

   - bpo-45292(38): Complete the PEP 654(39) implementation: add
     ‘except*’.

   - bpo-43413(40): Revert changes in ‘set.__init__’.  Subclass of *note
     set: 5d3. needs to define a ‘__init__()’ method if it defines a
     ‘__new__()’ method with additional keyword parameters.

   - bpo-43931(41): Added the *note Py_Version: 74f. constant which
     bears the same value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 750.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46331

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46314

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46289

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46297

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46237

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46006

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46208

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46240

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46221

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46202

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46085

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46055

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46110

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46107

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46039

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45635

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46042

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46049

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46048

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37971

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46031

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45654

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46000

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42918

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45953

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<34>,  Next: Documentation<28>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46342(1): The ‘@typing.final’ decorator now sets the
     ‘__final__’ attribute on the decorated object to allow runtime
     introspection.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46328(2): Added the *note sys.exception(): 685. method which
     returns the active exception instance.

   - bpo-46307(3): Add *note string.Template.is_valid(): 680. and *note
     string.Template.get_identifiers(): 67f. methods.

   - bpo-46306(4): Assume that *note types.CodeType: 2e1. always has
     ‘types.CodeType.co_firstlineno’ in *note doctest: 3a.

   - bpo-40479(5): Fix *note hashlib: 68. 'usedforsecurity' option to
     work correctly with OpenSSL 3.0.0 in FIPS mode.

   - bpo-46070(6): Fix possible segfault when importing the *note
     asyncio: a. module from different sub-interpreters in parallel.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-46244(7): Removed ‘__slots__’ from *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e.
     and *note typing.TypeVar: 15d.  They served no purpose.  Patch by
     Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46278(8): Reflect ‘context’ argument in
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.call_*()’ methods.  Loop implementations already
     support it.

   - bpo-46269(9): Remove special-casing of ‘__new__’ in *note
     enum.Enum.__dir__(): 1868.

   - bpo-46266(10): Improve day constants in *note calendar: 14.

     Now all constants (‘MONDAY’ … ‘SUNDAY’) are documented, tested, and
     added to ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-46257(11): Optimized the mean, variance, and stdev functions in
     the statistics module.  If the input is an iterator, it is consumed
     in a single pass rather than eating memory by conversion to a list.
     The single pass algorithm is about twice as fast as the previous
     two pass code.

   - bpo-41011(12): Added two new variables to 'pyvenv.cfg' which is
     generated by *note venv: 111. module: 'executable' for the
     executable and 'command' for the command line used to create the
     environment.

   - bpo-46239(13): Improve error message when importing
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’ on non-Windows.

   - bpo-46238(14): Reuse ‘_winapi’ constants in
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’.

   - bpo-46222(15): Adding ‘SF_NOCACHE’ sendfile constant for FreeBSD
     for the posixmodule.

   - bpo-37295(16): Add fast path for ‘0 <= k <= n <= 67’ for *note
     math.comb(): 6c9.

   - bpo-46176(17): Adding the ‘MAP_STACK’ constant for the mmap module.

   - bpo-43424(18): Deprecate ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ and use
     ‘name’ instead.

   - bpo-45321(19): Added missing error codes to module
     ‘xml.parsers.expat.errors’.

   - bpo-46125(20): Refactor tests to test traversable API directly.
     Includes changes from importlib 5.4.0.

   - bpo-46118(21): Moved importlib.resources and its related
     functionality to a package.

   - bpo-37578(22): Add 'include_hidden' parameter to *note glob(): 29f.
     and *note iglob(): 801. to match hidden files and directories when
     using special characters like ‘*’, ‘**’, ‘?’ and ‘[]’.

   - bpo-20369(23): *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 1869. no longer
     blocks forever when given duplicate Futures.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46105(24): Honor spec when generating requirement specs with
     urls and extras (importlib_metadata 4.8.3).

   - bpo-44893(25): EntryPoint objects are no longer tuples.
     Recommended means to access is by attribute (‘.name’, ‘.group’) or
     accessor (‘.load()’).  Access by index is deprecated and will raise
     deprecation warning.

   - bpo-22815(26): Print unexpected successes together with failures
     and errors in summary in *note unittest.TextTestResult: 52a.

   - bpo-22047(27): Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ on an argument group
     is deprecated.  Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ or
     ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ on a mutually exclusive group is
     deprecated.

     These features were never supported and do not always work
     correctly.  The functions exist on the API by accident through
     inheritance and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-26952(28): *note argparse: 6. raises *note ValueError: 202.
     with clear message when trying to render usage for an empty
     mutually exclusive group.  Previously it raised a cryptic *note
     IndexError: 14fc.

   - bpo-45615(29): Functions in the *note traceback: fe. module raise
     *note TypeError: 532. rather than *note AttributeError: 346. when
     an exception argument is not of type *note BaseException: 5b5.

   - bpo-16594(30): Add allow allow_reuse_port flag in socketserver.

   - bpo-27718(31): Fix help for the *note signal: c6. module.  Some
     functions (e.g.  ‘signal()’ and ‘getsignal()’) were omitted.

   - bpo-46032(32): The ‘registry()’ method of *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 633. functions checks now the first
     argument or the first parameter annotation and raises a TypeError
     if it is not supported.  Previously unsupported “types” were
     ignored (e.g.  ‘typing.List[int]’) or caused an error at calling
     time (e.g.  ‘list[int]’).

   - bpo-46014(33): Add ability to use ‘typing.Union’ and
     ‘types.UnionType’ as dispatch argument to
     ‘functools.singledispatch’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-27062(34): Add ‘__all__’ to *note inspect: 7e, patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46018(35): Ensure that *note math.expm1(): 11db. does not raise
     on underflow.

   - bpo-46016(36): Adding ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants
     from FreeBSD into the *note fcntl: 59. module.

   - bpo-45755(37): *note typing: 104. generic aliases now reveal the
     class attributes of the original generic class when passed to
     ‘dir()’.  This was the behavior up to Python 3.6, but was changed
     in 3.7-3.9.

   - bpo-45874(38): The empty query string, consisting of no query
     arguments, is now handled correctly in ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’.
     This caused problems before when strict parsing was enabled.

   - bpo-44674(39): Change how dataclasses disallows mutable default
     values.  It used to use a list of known types (list, dict, set).
     Now it disallows unhashable objects to be defaults.  It’s using
     unhashability as a proxy for mutability.  Patch by Eric V. Smith,
     idea by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-23882(40): Remove namespace package (PEP 420) support from
     unittest discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been
     broken since Python 3.7.

   - bpo-25066(41): Added a ‘__repr__()’ method to *note
     multiprocessing.Event: 186a. objects, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45643(42): Added *note signal.SIGSTKFLT: 186b. on platforms
     where this signal is defined.

   - bpo-44092(43): Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note
     InterfaceError: 677.  Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to
     handle these cases.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42413(44): Replace ‘concurrent.futures.TimeoutError’ and
     ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ with builtin *note TimeoutError: 82f, keep
     these names as deprecated aliases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46342

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46307

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46306

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46278

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46266

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41011

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46238

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46176

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43424

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45321

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46125

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46118

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37578

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20369

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44893

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22815

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22047

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26952

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45615

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16594

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27718

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46032

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27062

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46018

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46016

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45755

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45874

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25066

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45643

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<28>,  Next: Tests<30>,  Prev: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46196(1): Document method *note cmd.Cmd.columnize(): 186d.

   - bpo-46120(2): State that ‘|’ is preferred for readability over
     ‘Union’ in the *note typing: 104. docs.

   - bpo-46109(3): Extracted ‘importlib.resources’ and
     ‘importlib.resources.abc’ documentation into separate files.

   - bpo-19737(4): Update the documentation for the *note globals():
     186e. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46196

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46109

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19737


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<30>,  Next: Build<32>,  Prev: Documentation<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46296(1): Add a test case for *note enum: 56. with ‘_use_args_
     == True’ and ‘_member_type_ == object’.

   - bpo-46205(2): Fix hang in runtest_mp due to race condition

   - bpo-46263(3): Fix test_capi on FreeBSD 14-dev: instruct jemalloc to
     not fill freed memory with junk byte.

   - bpo-46262(4): Cover ‘ValueError’ path in tests for
     ‘enum.Flag._missing_()’.

   - bpo-46150(5): Now ‘fakename’ in
     ‘test_pathlib.PosixPathTest.test_expanduser’ is checked to be
     non-existent.

   - bpo-46129(6): Rewrite ‘asyncio.locks’ tests with *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. usage.

   - bpo-23819(7): Fixed *note asyncio: a. tests in python optimized
     mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46114(8): Fix test case for OpenSSL 3.0.1 version.  OpenSSL 3.0
     uses ‘0xMNN00PP0L’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46205

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46150

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46129

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46114


File: python.info,  Node: Build<32>,  Next: Windows<29>,  Prev: Tests<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44133(1): When Python is configured with *note
     -without-static-libpython: 88a, the Python static library
     (libpython.a) is no longer built.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44133(2): When Python is built without *note -enable-shared:
     85d, the ‘python’ program is now linked to object files, rather
     than being linked to the Python static library (libpython.a), to
     make sure that all symbols are exported.  Previously, the linker
     omitted some symbols like the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(3): The ‘configure’ script has a new option
     ‘--with-emscripten-target’ to select browser or node as Emscripten
     build target.

   - bpo-46315(4): Added and fixed ‘#ifdef HAVE_FEATURE’ checks for
     functionality that is not available on WASI platform.

   - bpo-45723(5): Fixed a regression in ‘configure’ check for *note
     select.epoll(): f8b.

   - bpo-46263(6): ‘configure’ no longer sets ‘MULTIARCH’ on FreeBSD
     platforms.

   - bpo-46106(7): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1m in Windows builds, macOS
     installer builds, and CI. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46088(8): Automatically detect or install bootstrap Python
     runtime when building from Visual Studio.

   - bpo-46072(9): Add a –with-pystats configure option to turn on
     internal statistics gathering.

   - bpo-40280(10): A new directory ‘Tools/wasm’ contains
     WebAssembly-related helpers like ‘config.site’ override for
     wasm32-emscripten, wasm assets generator to bundle the stdlib, and
     a README.

   - bpo-46023(11): ‘makesetup’ no longer builds extensions that have
     been marked as 'disabled'.  This allows users to disable modules in
     ‘Modules/Setup.local’.

   - bpo-45949(12): Use pure Python ‘freeze_module’ for all but
     importlib bootstrap files.  ‘--with-freeze-module’ ‘configure’
     option is no longer needed for cross builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46315

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46106

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46088

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45949


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<29>,  Next: macOS<22>,  Prev: Build<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46217(1): Removed parameter that is unsupported on Windows 8.1
     and early Windows 10 and may have caused build or runtime failures.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46217


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<22>,  Next: C API<31>,  Prev: Windows<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-40477(1): The Python Launcher app for macOS now properly
     launches scripts and, if necessary, the Terminal app when running
     on recent macOS releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40477


File: python.info,  Node: C API<31>,  Prev: macOS<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.23.35.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46236(1): Fix a bug in *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 17c1.
     that caused it to return a ‘tuple’ instead of a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-46140(2): *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 752, *note
     PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 755, *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 754.
     and *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75a. now take buffer info by
     ‘const Py_buffer *’ instead of ‘Py_buffer *’, as they do not need
     mutability.  *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 755. also now takes
     the source buffer as ‘const void *’, and similarly *note
     PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 752. takes the strides as ‘const Py_ssize_t
     *’.

   - bpo-45855(3): Document that the 'no_block' argument to *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1874. is a no-op now.

   - bpo-45855(4): Replaced deprecated usage of *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7. with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. in stdlib modules.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46007(5): The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been
     excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because
     it used internal structures which are not available in the limited
     C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46140

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.36 Python 3.11.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-12-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* C API: C API<32>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<36>,  Next: Library<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46009(1): Restore behavior from 3.9 and earlier when sending
     non-None to newly started generator.  In 3.9 this did not affect
     the state of the generator.  In 3.10.0 and 3.10.1
     ‘gen_func().send(0)’ is equivalent to
     ‘gen_func().throw(TypeError(...)’ which exhausts the generator.  In
     3.10.2 onward, the behavior has been reverted to that of 3.9.

   - bpo-46004(2): Fix the *note SyntaxError: 18d. location for errors
     involving for loops with invalid targets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(3): ‘_PyErr_ChainStackItem()’ no longer normalizes
     ‘exc_info’ (including setting the traceback on the exception
     instance) because ‘exc_info’ is always normalized.

   - bpo-45607(4): The ‘__note__’ field was added to *note
     BaseException: 5b5.  It is ‘None’ by default but can be set to a
     string which is added to the exception’s traceback.

   - bpo-45947(5): Place pointers to dict and values immediately before
     GC header.  This reduces number of dependent memory loads to access
     either dict or values from 3 to 1.

   - bpo-45915(6): ‘is_valid_fd’ now uses faster ‘fcntl(fd, F_GETFD)’ on
     Linux, macOS, and Windows.

   - bpo-44530(7): Reverts a change to the ‘code.__new__’ *note audit
     event: 1877. from an earlier prerelease.

   - bpo-42268(8): Fail the configure step if the selected compiler
     doesn’t support memory sanitizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(9): The three values of ‘exc_info’ are now always
     consistent with each other.  In particular, the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields are now derived from the exception instance.
     This impacts the return values of *note sys.exc_info(): 684. and
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76b. if the exception instance is
     modified while the exception is handled, as well as *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76a, which now ignores the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments provided to it.

   - bpo-45727(10): Refine the custom syntax error that suggests that a
     comma may be missing to trigger only when the expressions are
     detected between parentheses or brackets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45885(11): Specialized the ‘COMPARE_OP’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45786(12): Allocate space for the interpreter frame in the
     frame object, to avoid an additional allocation when the frame
     object outlives the frame activation.

   - bpo-45614(13): Fix *note traceback: fe. display for exceptions with
     invalid module name.

   - bpo-45813(14): Fix crash when calling coro.cr_frame.clear() after
     coroutine has been freed.

   - bpo-45811(15): Improve the tokenizer errors when encountering
     invisible control characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45848(16): Allow the parser to obtain error lines directly from
     encoded files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45709(17): Restore behavior from 3.10 when tracing an exception
     raised within a with statement.

   - bpo-44525(18): Adds new *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 6f7. opcode, to make
     copying of free variables from function to frame explicit.  Helps
     optimization of calls to Python function.

   - bpo-45829(19): Specialize *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 1747. for classes
     with a ‘__getitem__’ method implemented in Python

   - bpo-45826(20): Fixed a crash when calling ‘.with_traceback(None)’
     on ‘NameError’.  This occurs internally in
     ‘unittest.TestCase.assertRaises()’.

   - bpo-45822(21): Fixed a bug in the parser that was causing it to not
     respect PEP 263(22) coding cookies when no flags are provided.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45820(23): Fix a segfault when the parser fails without reading
     any input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45636(24): Simplify the implementation of *note BINARY_OP: 6ff.
     by indexing into an array of function pointers (rather than
     switching on the oparg).

   - bpo-42540(25): Fix crash when *note os.fork(): 197. is called with
     an active non-default memory allocator.

   - bpo-45738(26): Fix computation of error location for invalid
     continuation characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45636(27): Remove an existing “fast path” for old-style string
     formatting, since it no longer appears to have any measurable
     impact.

   - bpo-45753(28): Make recursion checks a bit more efficient by
     tracking amount of calls left before overflow.

   - bpo-45773(29): Fix a compiler hang when attempting to optimize
     certain jump patterns.

   - bpo-45764(30): The parser now gives a better error message when
     leaving out the opening parenthesis ‘(’ after a ‘def’-statement:

          >>> def f:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              def f:
                   ^
          SyntaxError: expected '('

   - bpo-45609(31): Specialized the ‘STORE_SUBSCR’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45636(32): Replace all numeric ‘BINARY_*’ and ‘INPLACE_*’
     instructions with a single *note BINARY_OP: 6ff. implementation.

   - bpo-45582(33): Path calculation (known as ‘getpath’) has been
     reimplemented as a frozen Python module.  This should have no
     visible impact, but may affect calculation of all paths referenced
     in *note sys: d9. and *note sysconfig: db.

   - bpo-45450(34): Improve the syntax error message for parenthesized
     arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46004

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45915

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45786

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45614

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45813

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45811

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45848

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45709

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45829

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45826

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45822

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45820

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42540

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45738

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45753

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45764

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45609

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45582

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45450


File: python.info,  Node: Library<35>,  Next: Documentation<29>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27946(1): Fix possible crash when getting an attribute of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 308. simultaneously with replacing
     the ‘attrib’ dict.

   - bpo-45711(2): Make *note asyncio: a. normalize exceptions as soon
     as they are captured with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed, and before they
     are stored as an exc_info triplet.  This brings *note asyncio: a.
     in line with the rest of the codebase, where an exc_info triplet is
     always normalized.

   - bpo-23819(3): Replaced asserts with exceptions in asyncio, patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-13236(4): *note unittest.TextTestResult: 52a. and *note
     unittest.TextTestRunner: 174c. flush now the output stream more
     often.

   - bpo-45917(5): Added *note math.exp2(): 65a.:, which returns 2
     raised to the power of x.

   - bpo-37658(6): Fix issue when on certain conditions
     ‘asyncio.wait_for()’ may allow a coroutine to complete
     successfully, but fail to return the result, potentially causing
     memory leaks or other issues.

   - bpo-45876(7): Improve the accuracy of stdev() and pstdev() in the
     statistics module.  When the inputs are floats or fractions, the
     output is a correctly rounded float

   - bpo-44649(8): Handle dataclass(slots=True) with a field that has
     default a default value, but for which init=False.

   - bpo-45803(9): Added missing kw_only parameter to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-45837(10): The ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ is deprecated
     since Python 3.1, it now emits a deprecation warning and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

     Use ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ instead.

     ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ was earlier incorrectly marked as
     deprecated, its docstring has been corrected.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45831(11): *note faulthandler: 58. can now write ASCII-only
     strings (like filenames and function names) with a single write()
     syscall when dumping a traceback.  It reduces the risk of getting
     an unreadable dump when two threads or two processes dump a
     traceback to the same file (like stderr) at the same time.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45828(12): ‘sqlite’ C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions
     if callback tracebacks are enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41735(13): Fix thread lock in ‘zlib.Decompress.flush()’ method
     before ‘PyObject_GetBuffer’.

   - bpo-45235(14): Reverted an argparse bugfix that caused regression
     in the handling of default arguments for subparsers.  This
     prevented leaf level arguments from taking precedence over root
     level arguments.

   - bpo-45754(15): Fix a regression in Python 3.11a1 and 3.11a2 where
     *note sqlite3: cf. incorrectly would use ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_LENGTH’ when
     checking SQL statement lengths.  Now, ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH’ is
     used.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45766(16): Added 'proportional' option to *note
     statistics.linear_regression(): 82b.

   - bpo-45765(17): In importlib.metadata, fix distribution discovery
     for an empty path.

   - bpo-45757(18): Fix bug where *note dis: 38. produced an incorrect
     oparg when *note EXTENDED_ARG: 17ac. is followed by an opcode that
     does not use its argument.

   - bpo-45644(19): In-place JSON file formatting using ‘python3 -m
     json.tool infile infile’ now works correctly, previously it left
     the file empty.  Patch by Chris Wesseling.

   - bpo-45703(20): When a namespace package is imported before another
     module from the same namespace is created/installed in a different
     *note sys.path: 3ae. location while the program is running, calling
     the *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d. function will now
     also guarantee the new module is noticed.

   - bpo-45535(21): Improve output of ‘dir()’ with Enums.

   - bpo-45664(22): Fix *note types.resolve_bases(): b99. and *note
     types.new_class(): 1152. for *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.
     instance as a base.

   - bpo-45663(23): Fix *note dataclasses.is_dataclass(): 1879. for
     dataclasses which are subclasses of *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.

   - bpo-45662(24): Fix the repr of *note dataclasses.InitVar: 1829.
     with a type alias to the built-in class, e.g.
     ‘InitVar[list[int]]’.

   - bpo-43137(25): Launch GNOME web browsers via gio tool instead of
     obsolete gvfs-open

   - bpo-45429(26): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 697. now uses a
     waitable timer which supports high-resolution timers.  Patch by
     Donghee Na and Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-37295(27): Optimize *note math.comb(): 6c9. and *note
     math.perm(): 6ca.

   - bpo-45514(28): Deprecated legacy functions in *note
     importlib.resources: 7b.

   - bpo-45507(29): Add tests for truncated/missing trailers in
     gzip.decompress implementation.

   - bpo-45359(30): Implement PEP 585(31) for *note
     graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 8de.

   - bpo-44733(32): Add ‘max_tasks_per_child’ to *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.  This allows users to
     specify the maximum number of tasks a single process should execute
     before the process needs to be restarted.

   - bpo-28806(33): Improve netrc library.  netrc file no longer needs
     to contain all tokens.  And if the login name is anonymous,
     security check is no longer need.

   - bpo-43498(34): Avoid a possible '“RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration”' when adjusting the process count of
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’.

   - bpo-42158(35): Add MIME types for N-quads, N-triples, Notation3 and
     TriG to ‘mimetypes’.

   - bpo-30533(36): Add *note inspect.getmembers_static(): 643. , it
     return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27946

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13236

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45876

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44649

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45803

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45831

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45766

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45765

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45757

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45644

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45703

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45535

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45664

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45663

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45662

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45514

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45507

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45359

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44733

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28806

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43498

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<29>,  Next: Tests<31>,  Prev: Library<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘make -C Doc suspicious’ will be removed soon in
     favor of ‘make -C Doc check’, mark it as deprecated.

   - bpo-45840(2): Improve cross-references in the documentation for the
     data model.

   - bpo-45640(3): Properly marked-up grammar tokens in the
     documentation are now clickable and take you to the definition of a
     given piece of grammar.  Patch by Arthur Milchior.

   - bpo-45788(4): Link doc for sys.prefix to sysconfig doc on
     installation paths.

   - bpo-45772(5): ‘socket.socket’ documentation is corrected to a class
     from a function.

   - bpo-45392(6): Update the docstring of the *note type: d45. built-in
     to remove a redundant line and to mention keyword arguments for the
     constructor.

   - bpo-45250(7): Update the documentation to note that CPython does
     not consistently require iterators to define ‘__iter__’.

   - bpo-25381(8): In the extending chapter of the extending doc, update
     a paragraph about the global variables containing exception
     information.

   - bpo-43905(9): Expanded *note astuple(): 1734. and *note asdict():
     172b. docs, warning about deepcopy being applied and providing a
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45772

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43905


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<31>,  Next: Build<33>,  Prev: Documentation<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45695(1): Out-of-tree builds with a read-only source directory
     are now tested by CI.

   - bpo-19460(2): Add new Test for
     ‘Lib/email/mime/nonmultipart.py::MIMENonMultipart’.

   - bpo-45835(3): Fix race condition in test_queue tests with multiple
     “feeder” threads.

   - bpo-45783(4): The test for the freeze tool now handles file moves
     and deletions.

   - bpo-45745(5): Remove the ‘--findleaks’ command line option of
     regrtest: use the ‘--fail-env-changed’ option instead.  Since
     Python 3.7, it was a deprecated alias to the ‘--fail-env-changed’
     option.

   - bpo-45701(6): Add tests with ‘tuple’ type with *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. to ‘test_functools’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45695

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19460

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45835

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45701


File: python.info,  Node: Build<33>,  Next: Windows<30>,  Prev: Tests<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44035(1): CI now verifies that autoconf files have been
     regenerated with a current and unpatched autoconf package.

   - bpo-45950(2): The build system now uses a ‘_bootstrap_python’
     interpreter for freezing and deepfreezing again.  To speed up build
     process the build tools ‘_bootstrap_python’ and ‘_freeze_module’
     are no longer build with LTO.

   - bpo-45881(3): The ‘configure’ script now accepts
     ‘--with-build-python’ and ‘--with-freeze-module’ options to make
     cross compiling easier.

   - bpo-40280(4): Emscripten platform now uses ‘.wasm’ suffix by
     default.

   - bpo-40280(5): Disable unusable core extension modules on
     WASM/Emscripten targets.

   - bpo-40280(6): ‘configure’ now checks for socket ‘shutdown’
     function.  The check makes it possible to disable ‘SYS_shutdown’
     with ‘ac_cv_func_shutdown=no’ in CONFIG_SITE.

   - bpo-40280(7): ‘configure’ now checks for functions ‘fork1, getegid,
     geteuid, getgid, getppid, getuid, opendir, pipe, system, wait,
     ttyname’.

   - bpo-33393(8): Update ‘config.guess’ to 2021-06-03 and ‘config.sub’
     to 2021-08-14.  ‘Makefile’ now has an ‘update-config’ target to
     make updating more convenient.

   - bpo-45866(9): ‘make regen-all’ now produces the same output when
     run from a directory other than the source tree: when building
     Python out of the source tree.  pegen now strips directory of the
     “generated by pygen from <FILENAME>” header Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(10): ‘configure’ now accepts machine ‘wasm32’ or ‘wasm64’
     and OS ‘wasi’ or ‘emscripten’ for cross building, e.g.
     ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, ‘wasm32-wasi’, or
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’.

   - bpo-41498(11): Python now compiles on platforms without ‘sigset_t’.
     Several functions in *note signal: c6. are not available when
     ‘sigset_t’ is missing.

     Based on patch by Roman Yurchak for pyodide.

   - bpo-45881(12): ‘setup.py’ now uses ‘CC’ from environment first to
     discover multiarch and cross compile paths.

   - bpo-45886(13): The ‘_freeze_module’ program path can now be
     overridden on the command line, e.g.  ‘make
     FREEZE_MODULE=../x86_64/Program/_freeze_module’.

   - bpo-45873(14): Get rid of the ‘_bootstrap_python’ build step.  The
     deepfreeze.py script is now run using ‘$(PYTHON_FOR_REGEN)’ which
     can be Python 3.7 or newer (on Windows, 3.8 or newer).

   - bpo-45847(15): Port builtin hashlib extensions to ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’
     macro and ‘addext()’.

   - bpo-45723(16): Add ‘autoconf’ helpers for saving and restoring
     environment variables:

        * ‘SAVE_ENV’: Save ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘RESTORE_ENV’: Restore ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘WITH_SAVE_ENV([SCRIPT])’: Run ‘SCRIPT’ wrapped with
          ‘SAVE_ENV’ and ‘RESTORE_ENV’.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45573(17): Mandatory core modules, that are required to
     bootstrap Python, are now in ‘Modules/Setup.bootstrap’.

   - bpo-45573(18): ‘configure’ now creates ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib’ with
     conditionally enabled/disabled extension module lines.  The file is
     not used, yet.

   - bpo-45573(19): ‘configure’ now uses a unified format to set state,
     compiler flags, and linker flags in Makefile.  The new macro
     ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’ sets three variables that are consumed by
     ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - bpo-45816(20): Python now supports building with Visual Studio 2022
     (MSVC v143, VS Version 17.0).  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-45800(21): Settings for ‘pyexpat’ C extension are now detected
     by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘expat’ library is built in
     ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45798(22): Settings for *note decimal: 36. internal C extension
     are now detected by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘libmpdec’ library is
     built in ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45723(23): ‘configure’ has a new option ‘--with-pkg-config’ to
     disable or require pkg-config.

   - bpo-45774(24): The build dependencies for *note sqlite3: cf. are
     now detected by ‘configure’ and ‘pkg-config’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-45763(25): The build dependencies for *note zlib: 133, *note
     bz2: 13, and *note lzma: 8a. are now detected by ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45747(26): gdbm and dbm build dependencies are now detected by
     ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45743(27): On macOS, the build system no longer passes
     ‘search_paths_first’ to the linker.  The flag has been the default
     since Xcode 4 / macOS 10.6.

   - bpo-45723(28): ‘configure.ac’ is now compatible with autoconf 2.71.
     Deprecated checks ‘STDC_HEADERS’ and ‘AC_HEADER_TIME’ have been
     removed.

   - bpo-45723(29): ‘configure’ now prints a warning when pkg-config is
     missing.

   - bpo-45731(30): ‘configure --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions’ is
     now handled by new ‘PY_SQLITE_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION’ macro instead
     of logic in setup.py.

   - bpo-45723(31): configure.ac now uses custom helper macros and
     ‘AC_CACHE_CHECK’ to simplify and speed up configure runs.

   - bpo-45696(32): Skip the marshal step for frozen modules by
     generating C code that produces a set of ready-to-use code objects.
     This speeds up startup time by another 10% or more.

   - bpo-45561(33): Run smelly.py tool from $(srcdir).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45950

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45866

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41498

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45873

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45816

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45800

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45798

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45743

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45731

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45696

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45561


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<30>,  Next: macOS<23>,  Prev: Build<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46105(1): Fixed calculation of *note sys.path: 3ae. in a venv
     on Windows.

   - bpo-45901(2): When installed through the Microsoft Store and set as
     the default app for ‘*.py’ files, command line arguments will now
     be passed to Python when invoking a script without explicitly
     launching Python (that is, ‘script.py args’ rather than ‘python
     script.py args’).

   - bpo-45616(3): Fix Python Launcher’s ability to distinguish between
     versions 3.1 and 3.10 when either one is explicitly requested.
     Previously, 3.1 would be used if 3.10 was requested but not
     installed, and 3.10 would be used if 3.1 was requested but 3.10 was
     installed.

   - bpo-45850(4): Implement changes to build with deep-frozen modules
     on Windows.  Note that we now require Python 3.10 as the
     “bootstrap” or “host” Python.

   - bpo-45732(5): Updates bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.12.

   - bpo-45720(6): Internal reference to ‘shlwapi.dll’ was dropped to
     help improve startup time.  This DLL will no longer be loaded at
     the start of every Python process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45901

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45616

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45720


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<23>,  Next: C API<32>,  Prev: Windows<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45732(1): Update python.org macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk
     8.6.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732


File: python.info,  Node: C API<32>,  Prev: macOS<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.23.36.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-39026(1): Fix Python.h to build C extensions with Xcode: remove
     a relative include from ‘Include/cpython/pystate.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.37 Python 3.11.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-11-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* C API: C API<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<37>,  Next: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45716(1): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18d. message when
     using ‘True’, ‘None’ or ‘False’ as keywords in a function call.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45688(2): *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83b. now contains the
     macOS-specific module ‘_scproxy’.

   - bpo-45379(3): Clarify *note ImportError: 413. message when we try
     to explicitly import a frozen module but frozen modules are
     disabled.

   - bpo-44525(4): Specialize simple calls to Python functions (no
     starargs, keyword dict, or closure)

   - bpo-45530(5): Cases of sorting using tuples as keys may now be
     significantly faster in some cases.  Patch by Tim Peters.

     The order of the result may differ from earlier releases if the
     tuple elements don’t define a total ordering (see *note 값 비교:
     1882. for information on total ordering).  It’s generally true that
     the result of sorting simply isn’t well-defined in the absence of a
     total ordering on list elements.

   - bpo-45526(6): In obmalloc, set ADDRESS_BITS to not ignore any bits
     (ignored 16 before).  That is safer in the case that the kernel
     gives user-space virtual addresses that span a range greater than
     48 bits.

   - bpo-30570(7): Fixed a crash in ‘issubclass()’ from infinite
     recursion when searching pathological ‘__bases__’ tuples.

   - bpo-45521(8): Fix a bug in the obmalloc radix tree code.  On 64-bit
     machines, the bug causes the tree to hold 46-bits of virtual
     addresses, rather than the intended 48-bits.

   - bpo-45494(9): Fix parser crash when reporting errors involving
     invalid continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45445(10): Python now fails to initialize if it finds an
     invalid *note -X: 176. option in the command line.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-45340(11): Object attributes are held in an array instead of a
     dictionary.  An object’s dictionary are created lazily, only when
     needed.  Reduces the memory consumption of a typical Python object
     by about 30%.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45408(12): Fix a crash in the parser when reporting tokenizer
     errors that occur at the same time unclosed parentheses are
     detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-29410(13): Add SipHash13 for string hash algorithm and use it
     by default.

   - bpo-45385(14): Fix reference leak from descr_check.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45367(15): Specialized the ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY’ opcode to
     ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_INT’ and ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_FLOAT’ using the PEP 659
     machinery.

   - bpo-21736(16): Frozen stdlib modules now have ‘__file__’ to the .py
     file they would otherwise be loaded from, if possible.  For
     packages, ‘__path__’ now has the correct entry instead of being an
     empty list, which allows unfrozen submodules to be imported.  These
     are set only if the stdlib directory is known when the runtime is
     initialized.  Note that the file at ‘__file__’ is not guaranteed to
     exist.  None of this affects non-stdlib frozen modules nor, for
     now, frozen modules imported using ‘PyImport_ImportFrozenModule()’.
     Also, at the moment ‘co_filename’ is not updated for the module.

   - bpo-45020(17): For frozen stdlib modules, record the original
     module name as ‘module.__spec__.loader_state.origname’.  If the
     value is different than ‘module.__spec__.name’ then the module was
     defined as an alias in Tools/scripts/freeze_modules.py.  If it is
     ‘None’ then the module comes from a source file outside the stdlib.

   - bpo-45324(18): In FrozenImporter.find_spec(), we now preserve the
     information needed in exec_module() to load the module.  This
     change mostly impacts internal details, rather than changing the
     importer’s behavior.

   - bpo-45292(19): Implement PEP 654(20).  Add *note ExceptionGroup:
     1b6. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.  Update traceback display
     code.

   - bpo-40116(21): Change to the implementation of split dictionaries.
     Classes where the instances differ either in the exact set of
     attributes, or in the order in which those attributes are set, can
     still share keys.  This should have no observable effect on users
     of Python or the C-API. Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44050(22): Extensions that indicate they use global state (by
     setting ‘m_size’ to -1) can again be used in multiple interpreters.
     This reverts to behavior of Python 3.8.

   - bpo-44525(23): Setup initial specialization infrastructure for the
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’ opcode.  Implemented initial specializations for C
     function calls:

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_O’ for ‘METH_O’ flag.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_FAST’ for ‘METH_FASTCALL’ flag without
          keywords.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_LEN’ for ‘len(o)’.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_ISINSTANCE’ for ‘isinstance(o, t)’.

   - bpo-44511(24): Improve the generated bytecode for class and mapping
     patterns.

   - bpo-43706(25): Speed up calls to ‘enumerate()’ by using the PEP
     590(26) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45716

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45526

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45521

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45494

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45445

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45408

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45385

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45367

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21736

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45324

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44050

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44511

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43706

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<36>,  Next: Documentation<30>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-45679(1): Fix caching of multi-value *note typing.Literal: 84f.
     ‘Literal[True, 2]’ is no longer equal to ‘Literal[1, 2]’.

   - bpo-42064(2): Convert *note sqlite3: cf. to multi-phase
     initialisation (PEP 489).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45438(3): Fix typing.Signature string representation for
     generic builtin types.

   - bpo-45613(4): *note sqlite3: cf. now sets *note
     sqlite3.threadsafety: 676. based on the default threading mode the
     underlying SQLite library has been compiled with.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45574(5): Fix warning about ‘print_escape’ being unused.

   - bpo-45581(6): *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. now correctly raises
     *note MemoryError: 157e. if the underlying SQLite API signals
     memory error.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45557(7): *note pprint.pprint(): 822. now handles
     'underscore_numbers' correctly.  Previously it was always setting
     it to ‘False’.

   - bpo-44019(8): Add *note operator.call(): 1884. to
     ‘operator.__all__’.  Patch by Kreusada.

   - bpo-42174(9): *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4. now falls
     back to sane values if the column or line count are 0.

   - bpo-35673(10): Improve the introspectability of the ‘__loader__’
     attribute for namespace packages.  *note
     importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader: f4e. is now public, and
     implements the *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f4c. interface.
     ‘_NamespaceLoader’ is kept for backward compatibility.

   - bpo-45515(11): Add references to *note zoneinfo: 134. in the *note
     datetime: 30. documentation, mostly replacing outdated references
     to ‘dateutil.tz’.  Change by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-45475(12): Reverted optimization of iterating *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 414, *note bz2.BZ2File: 861, and *note
     lzma.LZMAFile: 1002. (see bpo-43787(13)) because it caused
     regression when user iterate them without having reference of them.
     Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-45489(14): Update *note ForwardRef: 184a. to support ‘|’
     operator.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42222(15): Removed deprecated support for float arguments in
     'randrange()'.

   - bpo-45428(16): Fix a regression in py_compile when reading
     filenames from standard input.

   - bpo-45467(17): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     “raw-unicode-escape” codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45461(18): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     “unicode-escape” codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45239(19): Fixed *note email.utils.parsedate_tz(): 1885.
     crashing with *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. on certain invalid
     input instead of returning ‘None’.  Patch by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-45417(20): Fix quadratic behaviour in the enum module: Creation
     of enum classes with a lot of entries was quadratic.

   - bpo-45249(21): Fix the behaviour of *note traceback.print_exc():
     1886. when displaying the caret when the ‘end_offset’ in the
     exception is set to 0.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45416(22): Fix use of *note asyncio.Condition: a70. with
     explicit *note asyncio.Lock: a6e. objects, which was a regression
     due to removal of explicit loop arguments.  Patch by Joongi Kim.

   - bpo-20028(23): Empty escapechar/quotechar is not allowed when
     initializing *note csv.Dialect: 1682.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44904(24): Fix bug in the *note doctest: 3a. module that caused
     it to fail if a docstring included an example with a ‘classmethod’
     ‘property’.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45406(25): Make *note inspect.getmodule(): 17ea. catch
     ‘FileNotFoundError’ raised by ‘inspect.getabsfile()’, and return
     ‘None’ to indicate that the module could not be determined.

   - bpo-45411(26): Add extensions for files containing subtitles - .srt
     & .vtt - to the mimetypes.py module.

   - bpo-10716(27): Migrated pydoc to HTML5 (without changing the look
     of it).  Side effect is to update xmlrpc’s ‘ServerHTMLDoc’ which
     now uses the CSS too.  cgitb now relies less on pydoc (as it can’t
     use the CSS file).

   - bpo-27580(28): Add support of null characters in *note csv: 29.

   - bpo-45262(29): Prevent use-after-free in asyncio.  Make sure the
     cached running loop holder gets cleared on dealloc to prevent
     use-after-free in get_running_loop

   - bpo-45386(30): Make *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. more robust to C
     runtimes where the underlying C ‘strftime’ function results in a
     ‘ValueError’ when testing for year formatting options.

   - bpo-20028(31): Improve error message of *note csv.Dialect: 1682.
     when initializing.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45343(32): Update bundled pip to 21.2.4 and setuptools to
     58.1.0

   - bpo-45328(33): Fixed *note http.client.HTTPConnection: b3d. to work
     properly in OSs that don’t support the ‘TCP_NODELAY’ socket option.

   - bpo-45243(34): Add *note setlimit(): 674. and *note getlimit():
     675. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. for setting and getting
     SQLite limits by connection basis.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45320(35): Removed from the *note inspect: 7e. module:

        * 
          the ‘getargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0;

               use *note inspect.signature(): 731. or *note
               inspect.getfullargspec(): 732. instead.

        * the ‘formatargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use
          the *note inspect.signature(): 731. function and ‘Signature’
          object directly.

        * the undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function’ functions, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 733. method
          instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45192(36): Fix the ‘tempfile._infer_return_type’ function so
     that the ‘dir’ argument of the *note tempfile: e0. functions
     accepts an object implementing the ‘os.PathLike’ protocol.

     Patch by Kyungmin Lee.

   - bpo-45160(37): When tracing a tkinter variable used by a ttk
     OptionMenu, callbacks are no longer made twice.

   - bpo-25625(38): Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 606. context
     manager to change the current working directory and then restore it
     on exit.  Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 607.

   - bpo-24139(39): Add support for SQLite extended result codes in
     *note sqlite3.Error: 1887.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-24444(40): Fixed an error raised in *note argparse: 6. help
     display when help for an option is set to 1+ blank spaces or when
     'choices' arg is an empty container.

   - bpo-44547(41): Implement ‘Fraction.__int__’, so that a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e7. instance ‘f’ passes an ‘isinstance(f,
     typing.SupportsInt)’ check.

   - bpo-40321(42): Adds support for HTTP 308 redirects to *note urllib:
     108.  See RFC 7538(43) for details.  Patch by Jochem
     Schulenklopper.

   - bpo-41374(44): Ensure that ‘socket.TCP_*’ constants are exposed on
     Cygwin 3.1.6 and greater.

   - bpo-35970(45): Add help flag to the base64 module’s command line
     interface.  Patch contributed by Robert Kuska.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42064

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45438

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45574

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45581

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45557

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42174

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35673

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45475

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45489

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45428

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45467

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45461

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45239

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45417

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45249

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45416

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44904

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45406

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45411

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10716

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27580

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45386

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45343

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45328

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45192

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45160

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24444

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40321

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7538.html

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41374

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35970


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<30>,  Next: Tests<32>,  Prev: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45726(1): Improve documentation for *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 633. and *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 9ee.

   - bpo-45680(2): Amend the docs on ‘GenericAlias’ objects to clarify
     that non-container classes can also implement ‘__class_getitem__’.
     Patch contributed by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45618(3): Update Sphinx version used to build the documentation
     to 4.2.0.  Patch by Maciej Olko.

   - bpo-45655(4): Add a new “relevant PEPs” section to the top of the
     documentation for the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45604(5): Add ‘level’ argument to
     ‘multiprocessing.log_to_stderr’ function docs.

   - bpo-45516(6): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 1889. documentation.

   - bpo-45464(7): Mention in the documentation of *note Built-in
     Exceptions: 188a. that inheriting from multiple exception types in
     a single subclass is not recommended due to possible memory layout
     incompatibility.

   - bpo-45449(8): Add note about PEP 585(9) in *note collections.abc:
     1e.

   - bpo-45516(10): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.Traversable: 188b. documentation.

   - bpo-20692(11): Add Programming FAQ entry explaining that int
     literal attribute access requires either a space after or
     parentheses around the literal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45618

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45464

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45449

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20692


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<32>,  Next: Build<34>,  Prev: Documentation<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45678(1): Add tests for scenarios in which *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 9ee. is stacked on top of a method
     that has already been wrapped by two other decorators.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45578(2): Add tests for ‘dis.distb()’

   - bpo-45678(3): Add tests to ensure that
     ‘functools.singledispatchmethod’ correctly wraps the attributes of
     the target function.

   - bpo-45668(4): PGO tests now pass when Python is built without test
     extension modules.

   - bpo-45577(5): Add subtests for all ‘pickle’ protocols in
     ‘test_zoneinfo’.

   - bpo-45566(6): Fix ‘test_frozen_pickle’ in ‘test_dataclasses’ to
     check all ‘pickle’ versions.

   - bpo-43592(7): ‘test.libregrtest’ now raises the soft resource limit
     for the maximum number of file descriptors when the default is too
     low for our test suite as was often the case on macOS.

   - bpo-39679(8): Add more test cases for
     ‘@functools.singledispatchmethod’ when combined with ‘@classmethod’
     or ‘@staticmethod’.

   - bpo-45410(9): When libregrtest spawns a worker process, stderr is
     now written into stdout to keep messages order.  Use a single pipe
     for stdout and stderr, rather than two pipes.  Previously, messages
     were out of order which made analysis of buildbot logs harder Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45402(10): Fix test_tools.test_sundry() when Python is built
     out of tree: fix how the freeze_modules.py tool locates the
     _freeze_module program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45403(11): Fix test_sys.test_stdlib_dir() when Python is built
     outside the source tree: compare normalized paths.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45400(12): Fix
     test_name_error_suggestions_do_not_trigger_for_too_many_locals() of
     test_exceptions if a directory name contains “a1” (like
     “Python-3.11.0a1”): use a stricter regular expression.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-10572(13): Rename *note sqlite3: cf. tests from ‘test_sqlite’
     to ‘test_sqlite3’, and relocate them to ‘Lib/test/test_sqlite3’.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45578

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45577

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45566

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43592

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45403

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45400

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10572


File: python.info,  Node: Build<34>,  Next: Windows<31>,  Prev: Tests<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-43158(1): ‘setup.py’ now uses values from configure script to
     build the ‘_uuid’ extension module.  Configure now detects
     util-linux’s ‘libuuid’, too.

   - bpo-45666(2): Fix warning of ‘swprintf’ and ‘%s’ usage in
     ‘_testembed.c’

   - bpo-45548(3): ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been
     improved.  The ‘Setup’ file now contains working rules for all
     extensions.  Outdated comments have been removed.  Rules defined by
     ‘makesetup’ track dependencies correctly.

   - bpo-45548(4): The *note math: 8e. and *note cmath: 18.
     implementation now require a C99 compatible ‘libm’ and no longer
     ship with workarounds for missing acosh, asinh, atanh, expm1, and
     log1p functions.

   - bpo-45595(5): ‘setup.py’ and ‘makesetup’ now track build
     dependencies on all Python header files and module specific header
     files.

   - bpo-45571(6): ‘Modules/Setup’ now use ‘PY_CFLAGS_NODIST’ instead of
     ‘PY_CFLAGS’ to compile shared modules.

   - bpo-45570(7): ‘pyexpat’ and ‘_elementtree’ no longer define
     obsolete macros ‘HAVE_EXPAT_CONFIG_H’ and ‘USE_PYEXPAT_CAPI’.
     ‘XML_POOR_ENTROPY’ is now defined in ‘expat_config.h’.

   - bpo-43974(8): ‘setup.py’ no longer defines ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’.
     Instead every module, that uses the internal API, defines the
     macro.

   - bpo-45548(9): Fill in missing entries in Modules/Setup.

   - bpo-45532(10): Update *note sys.version: 178. to use ‘main’ as
     fallback information.  Patch by Jeong YunWon.

   - bpo-45536(11): The ‘configure’ script now checks whether OpenSSL
     headers and libraries provide required APIs.  Most common APIs are
     verified.  The check detects outdated or missing OpenSSL. Failures
     do not stop configure.

   - bpo-45221(12): Fixed regression in handling of ‘LDFLAGS’ and
     ‘CPPFLAGS’ options where ‘argparse.parse_known_args()’ could
     interpret an option as one of the built-in command line argument,
     for example ‘-h’ for help.

   - bpo-45440(13): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing the following functions: ‘copysign()’, ‘hypot()’,
     ‘isfinite()’, ‘isinf()’, ‘isnan()’, ‘round()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45405(14): Prevent ‘internal configure error’ when running
     ‘configure’ with recent versions of non-Apple clang.  Patch by
     David Bohman.

   - bpo-45433(15): Avoid linking libpython with libcrypt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43158

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45595

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45536

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45221

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45405

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<31>,  Next: macOS<24>,  Prev: Build<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43652(1): Update Tcl/Tk to 8.6.11, actually this time.  The
     previous update incorrectly included 8.6.10.

   - bpo-45337(2): venv now warns when the created environment may need
     to be accessed at a different path, due to redirections, links or
     junctions.  It also now correctly installs or upgrades components
     when the alternate path is required.

   - bpo-43851(3): Build SQLite ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on Windows.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45337

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<24>,  Next: IDLE<20>,  Prev: Windows<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-44828(1): Avoid tkinter file dialog failure on macOS 12
     Monterey when using the Tk 8.6.11 provided by python.org macOS
     installers.  Patch by Marc Culler of the Tk project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44828


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<20>,  Next: C API<33>,  Prev: macOS<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45495(1): Add context keywords ‘case’ and ‘match’ to
     completions list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45495


File: python.info,  Node: C API<33>,  Prev: IDLE<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.23.37.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-29103(1): *note PyType_FromSpec*: 54c. now copies the class
     name from the spec to a buffer owned by the class, so the original
     can be safely deallocated.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-45522(2): The internal freelists for frame, float, list, dict,
     async generators, and context objects can now be disabled.

   - bpo-35134(3): Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b9. from the
     limited C API. It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’
     structure is opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-35081(4): Move the ‘interpreteridobject.h’ header file from
     ‘Include/’ to ‘Include/internal/’.  It only provides private
     functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35134(5): The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’,
     ‘classobject.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 77d.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45474(6): The following items are no longer available when
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 78f.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 790.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 791.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 792.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 793.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(7): Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only
     contains private functions.  C extensions should only include the
     main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45440(8): Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by
     the ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(9): ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files
     ‘<stdlib.h>’, ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or
     higher.  C extensions should explicitly include the header files
     after ‘#include <Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’
     macros, deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use
     ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and
     ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(11): Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’
     variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45395(12): Custom frozen modules (the array set to
     ‘PyImport_FrozenModules’) are now treated as additions, rather than
     replacing all the default frozen modules.  Frozen stdlib modules
     can still be disabled by setting the “code” field of the custom
     array entry to NULL.

   - bpo-43760(13): Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 74d, and
     *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 74e. functions to the limited C
     API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44220(14): *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 97f. is added
     to the Stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45395

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44220


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.38 Python 3.11.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<22>,  Next: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42278(1): Replaced usage of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 1894. with
     *note TemporaryDirectory: 1224. to avoid a potential race
     condition.

   - bpo-44600(2): Fix incorrect line numbers while tracing some failed
     patterns in *note match: 807. statements.  Patch by Charles
     Burkland.

   - bpo-41180(3): Add auditing events to the *note marshal: 8d. module,
     and stop raising ‘code.__init__’ events for every unmarshalled code
     object.  Directly instantiated code objects will continue to raise
     an event, and audit event handlers should inspect or collect the
     raw marshal data.  This reduces a significant performance overhead
     when loading from ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-44394(4): Update the vendored copy of libexpat to 2.4.1 (from
     2.2.8) to get the fix for the CVE 2013-0340(5) “Billion Laughs”
     vulnerability.  This copy is most used on Windows and macOS.

   - bpo-43124(6): Made the internal ‘putcmd’ function in *note smtplib:
     ca. sanitize input for presence of ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters to
     avoid (unlikely) command injection.

   - bpo-44022(7): *note http.client: 6f. now avoids infinitely reading
     potential HTTP headers after a ‘100 Continue’ status response from
     the server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41180

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44394

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-0340

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43124

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44022


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<38>,  Next: Library<37>,  Prev: Security<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43760(1): The number of hardware branches per instruction
     dispatch is reduced from two to one by adding a special instruction
     for tracing.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45061(2): Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount
     bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True) or
     Py_DECREF(Py_False) by mistake.  Detect also refcount bugs when the
     empty tuple singleton or the Unicode empty string singleton is
     destroyed by mistake.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-24076(3): sum() was further optimised for summing up single
     digit integers.

   - bpo-45190(4): Update Unicode databases to Unicode 14.0.0.

   - bpo-45167(5): Fix deepcopying of *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.
     objects.

   - bpo-45155(6): *note int.to_bytes(): 1896. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1856. now take a default value of ‘"big"’ for the
     ‘byteorder’ argument.  *note int.to_bytes(): 1896. also takes a
     default value of ‘1’ for the ‘length’ argument.

   - bpo-44219(7): Release the GIL while performing ‘isatty’ system
     calls on arbitrary file descriptors.  In particular, this affects
     *note os.isatty(): 1897, *note os.device_encoding(): 1898. and
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.  By extension, *note io.open(): 516.
     in text mode is also affected.  This change solves a deadlock in
     *note os.isatty(): 1897.  Patch by Vincent Michel in bpo-44219(8).

   - bpo-44959(9): Added fallback to extension modules with ‘.sl’ suffix
     on HP-UX

   - bpo-45121(10): Fix issue where ‘Protocol.__init__’ raises
     ‘RecursionError’ when it’s called directly or via ‘super()’.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44348(11): The deallocator function of the *note BaseException:
     5b5. type now uses the trashcan mechanism to prevent stack
     overflow.  For example, when a *note RecursionError: d68. instance
     is raised, it can be linked to another RecursionError through the
     ‘__context__’ attribute or the ‘__traceback__’ attribute, and then
     a chain of exceptions is created.  When the chain is destroyed,
     nested deallocator function calls can crash with a stack overflow
     if the chain is too long compared to the available stack memory.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45123(12): Fix PyAiter_Check to only check for the __anext__
     presence (not for __aiter__).  Rename PyAiter_Check to
     PyAIter_Check, PyObject_GetAiter -> PyObject_GetAIter.

   - bpo-1514420(13): Interpreter no longer attempts to open files with
     names in angle brackets (like “<string>” or “<stdin>”) when
     formatting an exception.

   - bpo-41031(14): Match C and Python code formatting of unprintable
     exceptions and exceptions in the *note __main__: 1. module.

   - bpo-37330(15): *note open(): 515, *note io.open(): 516, *note
     codecs.open(): 739. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ (“universal newline”) in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45083(16): When the interpreter renders an exception, its name
     now has a complete qualname.  Previously only the class name was
     concatenated to the module name, which sometimes resulted in an
     incorrect full name being displayed.

     (This issue impacted only the C code exception rendering, the *note
     traceback: fe. module was using qualname already).

   - bpo-34561(17): List sorting now uses the merge-ordering strategy
     from Munro and Wild’s ‘powersort()’.  Unlike the former strategy,
     this is provably near-optimal in the entropy of the distribution of
     run lengths.  Most uses of ‘list.sort()’ probably won’t see a
     significant time difference, but may see significant improvements
     in cases where the former strategy was exceptionally poor.
     However, as these are all fast linear-time approximations to a
     problem that’s inherently at best quadratic-time to solve truly
     optimally, it’s also possible to contrive cases where the former
     strategy did better.

   - bpo-45056(18): Compiler now removes trailing unused constants from
     co_consts.

   - bpo-45020(19): Add a new command line option, “-X
     frozen_modules=[on|off]” to opt out of (or into) using optional
     frozen modules.  This defaults to “on” (or “off” if it’s running
     out of the source tree).

   - bpo-45012(20): In *note posix: ad, release GIL during ‘stat()’,
     ‘lstat()’, and ‘fstatat()’ syscalls made by *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1701.  Patch by Stanisław Skonieczny.

   - bpo-45018(21): Fixed pickling of range iterators that iterated for
     over ‘2**32’ times.

   - bpo-45000(22): A *note SyntaxError: 18d. is now raised when trying
     to delete *note __debug__: 7d3.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44963(23): Implement ‘send()’ and ‘throw()’ methods for
     ‘anext_awaitable’ objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44962(24): Fix a race in WeakKeyDictionary, WeakValueDictionary
     and WeakSet when two threads attempt to commit the last pending
     removal.  This fixes asyncio.create_task and fixes a data loss in
     asyncio.run where shutdown_asyncgens is not run

   - bpo-24234(25): Implement the ‘__bytes__()’ special method on the
     *note bytes: 1c2. type, so a bytes object ‘b’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(b, typing.SupportsBytes)’ check.

   - bpo-24234(26): Implement the ‘__complex__()’ special method on the
     *note complex: 2f0. type, so a complex number ‘z’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(z, typing.SupportsComplex)’ check.

   - bpo-44954(27): Fixed a corner case bug where the result of
     ‘float.fromhex('0x.8p-1074')’ was rounded the wrong way.

   - bpo-44947(28): Refine the syntax error for trailing commas in
     import statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44945(29): Specialize the BINARY_ADD instruction using the PEP
     659 machinery.  Adds five new instructions:

        * BINARY_ADD_ADAPTIVE

        * BINARY_ADD_FLOAT

        * BINARY_ADD_INT

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE_INPLACE_FAST

   - bpo-44929(30): Fix some edge cases of ‘enum.Flag’ string
     representation in the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44914(31): Class version tags are no longer recycled.

     This means that a version tag serves as a unique identifier for the
     state of a class.  We rely on this for effective specialization of
     the LOAD_ATTR and other instructions.

   - bpo-44698(32): Restore behaviour of complex exponentiation with
     integer-valued exponent of type *note float: 2ef. or *note complex:
     2f0.

   - bpo-44895(33): A debug variable *note PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: 1899. is
     added for creating a dump file which is generated by *note
     -with-trace-refs: 38e.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44900(34): Add five superinstructions for PEP 659 quickening:

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST

        * LOAD_CONST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST STORE_FAST

   - bpo-44889(35): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.  The following specialized forms were added:

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CACHED’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_MODULE’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CLASS’

   - bpo-44890(36): Specialization stats are always collected in debug
     builds.

   - bpo-44885(37): Correct the ast locations of f-strings with format
     specs and repeated expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44878(38): Remove the loop from the bytecode interpreter.  All
     instructions end with a DISPATCH macro, so the loop is now
     redundant.

   - bpo-44878(39): Remove switch statement for interpreter loop when
     using computed gotos.  This makes sure that we only have one
     dispatch table in the interpreter.

   - bpo-44874(40): Deprecate the old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’).  They should be
     replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - bpo-44872(41): Use new trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN/END) in
     frameobject.c instead of the old ones (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/END).

   - bpo-33930(42): Fix segmentation fault with deep recursion when
     cleaning method objects.  Patch by Augusto Goulart and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-25782(43): Fix bug where ‘PyErr_SetObject’ hangs when the
     current exception has a cycle in its context chain.

   - bpo-44856(44): Fix reference leaks in the error paths of
     ‘update_bases()’ and ‘__build_class__’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44826(45): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     STORE_ATTR

     Three specialized forms of STORE_ATTR are added:

        * STORE_ATTR_SLOT

        * STORE_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT

   - bpo-44838(46): Fixed a bug that was causing the parser to raise an
     incorrect custom *note SyntaxError: 18d. for invalid ‘if’
     expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44821(47): Create instance dictionaries (__dict__) eagerly, to
     improve regularity of object layout and assist specialization.

   - bpo-44792(48): Improve syntax errors for if expressions.  Patch by
     Miguel Brito

   - bpo-34013(49): Generalize the invalid legacy statement custom error
     message (like the one generated when “print” is called without
     parentheses) to include more generic expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44732(50): Rename ‘types.Union’ to ‘types.UnionType’.

   - bpo-44725(51): Expose specialization stats in python via
     ‘_opcode.get_specialization_stats()’.

   - bpo-44717(52): Improve AttributeError on circular imports of
     submodules.

   - bpo-44698(53): Fix undefined behaviour in complex object
     exponentiation.

   - bpo-44653(54): Support *note typing: 104. types in parameter
     substitution in the union type.

   - bpo-44676(55): Add ability to serialise ‘types.Union’ objects.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44633(56): Parameter substitution of the union type with wrong
     types now raises ‘TypeError’ instead of returning *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb.

   - bpo-44661(57): Update ‘property_descr_set’ to use vectorcall if
     possible.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44662(58): Add ‘__module__’ to ‘types.Union’.  This also fixes
     ‘types.Union’ issues with ‘typing.Annotated’.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44655(59): Include the name of the type in unset __slots__
     attribute errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44655(60): Don’t include a missing attribute with the same name
     as the failing one when offering suggestions for missing
     attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44646(61): Fix the hash of the union type: it no longer depends
     on the order of arguments.

   - bpo-44636(62): Collapse union of equal types.  E.g.  the result of
     ‘int | int’ is now ‘int’.  Fix comparison of the union type with
     non-hashable objects.  E.g.  ‘int | str == {}’ no longer raises a
     TypeError.

   - bpo-44611(63): On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 51c.: uses
     BCryptGenRandom API instead of CryptGenRandom API which is
     deprecated from Microsoft Windows API. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44635(64): Convert ‘None’ to ‘type(None)’ in the union type
     constructor.

   - bpo-26280(65): Implement adaptive specialization for BINARY_SUBSCR

     Three specialized forms of BINARY_SUBSCR are added:

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_DICT

   - bpo-44589(66): Mapping patterns in ‘match’ statements with two or
     more equal literal keys will now raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d. at
     compile-time.

   - bpo-44606(67): Fix ‘__instancecheck__’ and ‘__subclasscheck__’ for
     the union type.

   - bpo-42073(68): The ‘@classmethod’ decorator can now wrap other
     classmethod-like descriptors.

   - bpo-41972(69): Tuned the string-searching algorithm of fastsearch.h
     to have a shorter inner loop for most cases.

   - bpo-44590(70): All necessary data for executing a Python function
     (local variables, stack, etc) is now kept in a per-thread stack.
     Frame objects are lazily allocated on demand.  This increases
     performance by about 7% on the standard benchmark suite.
     Introspection and debugging are unaffected as frame objects are
     always available when needed.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44584(71): The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment
     variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  This feature requires a debug build of Python.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43895(72): An obsolete internal cache of shared object file
     handles added in 1995 that attempted, but did not guarantee, that a
     .so would not be dlopen’ed twice to work around flaws in mid-1990s
     posix-ish operating systems has been removed from dynload_shlib.c.

   - bpo-44490(73): *note typing: 104. now searches for type parameters
     in ‘types.Union’ objects.  ‘get_type_hints’ will also properly
     resolve annotations with nested ‘types.Union’ objects.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-43950(74): Code objects can now provide the column information
     for instructions when available.  This is levaraged during
     traceback printing to show the expressions responsible for errors.

     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar as
     part of PEP 657(75).

   - bpo-44562(76): Remove uses of *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc. in
     error path when initializing *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.

   - bpo-41486(77): Fix a memory consumption and copying performance
     regression in earlier 3.10 beta releases if someone used an output
     buffer larger than 4GiB with zlib.decompress on input data that
     expands that large.

   - bpo-43908(78): Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE:
     3bc. flag can now inherit the PEP 590(79) vectorcall protocol.
     Previously, this was only possible for *note static types: 778.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44553(80): Implement GC methods for ‘types.Union’ to break
     reference cycles and prevent memory leaks.

   - bpo-44490(81): Add ‘__parameters__’ attribute and ‘__getitem__’
     operator to ‘types.Union’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44523(82): Remove the pass-through for *note hash(): 5e5. of
     *note weakref.proxy: a4e. objects to prevent unintended
     consequences when the original referred object dies while the proxy
     is part of a hashable object.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44483(83): Fix a crash in ‘types.Union’ objects when creating a
     union of an object with bad ‘__module__’ field.

   - bpo-44486(84): Modules will always have a dictionary, even when
     created by ‘types.ModuleType.__new__()’

   - bpo-44472(85): Fix ltrace functionality when exceptions are raised.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-12022(86): A *note TypeError: 532. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 346. in *note with: 5cc. and *note async
     with: 5cf. statements for objects which do not support the *note
     context manager: 5ce. or *note asynchronous context manager: 5d1.
     protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44297(87): Make sure that the line number is set when entering
     a comprehension scope.  This ensures that backtraces including
     generator expressions show the correct line number.

   - bpo-44456(88): Improve the syntax error when mixing positional and
     keyword patterns.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44409(89): Fix error location information for tokenizer errors
     raised on initialization of the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44396(90): Fix a possible crash in the tokenizer when raising
     syntax errors for unclosed strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44376(91): Exact integer exponentiation (like ‘i**2’ or ‘pow(i,
     2)’) with a small exponent is much faster, due to reducing overhead
     in such cases.

   - bpo-44313(92): Directly imported objects and modules (through
     import and from import statements) don’t generate
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ for directly accessed objects on their
     namespace.  They now use the regular ‘LOAD_ATTR’/‘CALL_FUNCTION’.

   - bpo-44338(93): Implement adaptive specialization for LOAD_GLOBAL

     Two specialized forms of LOAD_GLOBAL are added:

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_BUILTIN

   - bpo-44368(94): Improve syntax errors for invalid “as” targets.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44349(95): Fix an edge case when displaying text from files
     with encoding in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44337(96): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     LOAD_ATTR

     Four specialized forms of LOAD_ATTR are added:

        * LOAD_ATTR_SLOT

        * LOAD_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * LOAD_ATTR_WITH_HINT

        * LOAD_ATTR_MODULE

   - bpo-44335(97): Fix a regression when identifying incorrect
     characters in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43693(98): Computation of the offsets of cell variables is done
     in the compiler instead of at runtime.  This reduces the overhead
     of handling cell and free variables, especially in the case where a
     variable is both an argument and cell variable.

   - bpo-44317(99): Improve tokenizer error with improved locations.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44304(100): Fix a crash in the *note sqlite3: cf. module that
     happened when the garbage collector clears ‘sqlite.Statement’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44305(101): Improve error message for ‘try’ blocks without
     ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43413(102): Constructors of subclasses of some builtin classes
     (e.g.  *note tuple: 369, *note list: 60b, *note frozenset: 5d4.) no
     longer accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  [reverted in 3.11a4]
     Subclass of *note set: 5d3. can now define a ‘__new__()’ method
     with additional keyword parameters without overriding also
     ‘__init__()’.

   - bpo-43667(103): Improve Unicode support in non-UTF locales on
     Oracle Solaris.  This issue does not affect other Solaris systems.

   - bpo-43693(104): A new opcode MAKE_CELL has been added that
     effectively moves some of the work done on function entry into the
     compiler and into the eval loop.  In addition to creating the
     required cell objects, the new opcode converts relevant arguments
     (and other locals) to cell variables on function entry.

   - bpo-44232(105): Fix a regression in *note type(): d45. when a
     metaclass raises an exception.  The C function ‘type_new()’ must
     properly report the exception when a metaclass constructor raises
     an exception and the winner class is not the metaclass.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44201(106): Avoid side effects of checking for specialized
     syntax errors in the REPL that was causing it to ask for extra
     tokens after a syntax error had been detected.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43693(107): ‘PyCodeObject’ gained ‘co_fastlocalnames’ and
     ‘co_fastlocalkinds’ as the authoritative source of fast locals
     info.  Marshaled code objects have changed accordingly.

   - bpo-44184(108): Fix a crash at Python exit when a deallocator
     function removes the last strong reference to a heap type.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44187(109): Implement quickening in the interpreter.  This
     offers no advantages as yet, but is an enabler of future
     optimizations.  See PEP 659 for full explanation.

   - bpo-44180(110): The parser doesn’t report generic syntax errors
     that happen in a position further away that the one it reached in
     the first pass.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44168(111): Fix error message in the parser involving keyword
     arguments with invalid expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44156(112): String caches in ‘compile.c’ are now subinterpreter
     compatible.

   - bpo-44143(113): Fixed a crash in the parser that manifest when
     raising tokenizer errors when an existing exception was present.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44032(114): Move ‘fast’ locals and other variables from the
     frame object to a per-thread datastack.

   - bpo-44114(115): Fix incorrect dictkeys_reversed and
     dictitems_reversed function signatures in C code, which broke
     webassembly builds.

   - bpo-44110(116): Improve ‘str.__getitem__()’ error message

   - bpo-26110(117): Add ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’ opcode to speed up method
     calls with keyword arguments.  Idea originated from PyPy.  A side
     effect is executing ‘CALL_METHOD’ is now branchless in the
     evaluation loop.

   - bpo-28307(118): Compiler now optimizes simple C-style formatting
     with literal format containing only format codes %s, %r and %a by
     converting them to f-string expressions.

   - bpo-43149(119): Correct the syntax error message regarding multiple
     exception types to not refer to “exception groups”.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43822(120): The parser will prioritize tokenizer errors over
     custom syntax errors when raising exceptions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-40222(121): “Zero cost” exception handling.

        * Uses a lookup table to determine how to handle exceptions.

        * Removes SETUP_FINALLY and POP_TOP block instructions,
          eliminating the runtime overhead of try statements.

        * Reduces the size of the frame object by about 60%.

     Patch by Mark Shannon

   - bpo-43918(122): Document the signature and ‘default’ argument in
     the docstring of the new ‘anext’ builtin.

   - bpo-43833(123): Emit a deprecation warning if the numeric literal
     is immediately followed by one of keywords: and, else, for, if, in,
     is, or.  Raise a syntax error with more informative message if it
     is immediately followed by other keyword or identifier.

   - bpo-43879(124): Add native_thread_id to PyThreadState.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   - bpo-43693(125): Compute cell offsets relative to locals in
     compiler.  Allows the interpreter to treats locals and cells a
     single array, which is slightly more efficient.  Also make the
     LOAD_CLOSURE opcode an alias for LOAD_FAST. Preserving LOAD_CLOSURE
     helps keep bytecode a bit more readable.

   - bpo-17792(126): More accurate error messages for access of unbound
     locals or free vars.

   - bpo-28146(127): Fix a confusing error message in *note
     str.format(): 61b.

   - bpo-11105(128): When compiling *note ast.AST: 1a6. objects with
     recursive references through *note compile(): 192, the interpreter
     doesn’t crash anymore instead it raises a *note RecursionError:
     d68.

   - bpo-39091(129): Fix crash when using passing a non-exception to a
     generator’s ‘throw()’ method.  Patch by Noah Oxer

   - bpo-33346(130): Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
     implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45167

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45155

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44959

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45121

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1514420

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41031

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45083

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34561

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45056

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   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45012

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   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44890

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44885

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44874

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44872

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33930

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25782

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   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44821

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44792

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34013

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44732

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44725

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44717

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44653

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44676

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44633

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44661

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44662

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44646

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44636

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44635

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26280

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44589

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44606

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42073

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43895

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (75) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44562

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (79) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<37>,  Next: Documentation<31>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-45371(1): Fix clang rpath issue in ‘distutils’.  The
     UnixCCompiler now uses correct clang option to add a runtime
     library directory (rpath) to a shared library.

   - bpo-45329(2): Fix freed memory access in ‘pyexpat.xmlparser’ when
     building it with an installed expat library <= 2.2.0.

   - bpo-41710(3): On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is
     available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note
     threading.Lock.acquire(): 692. method now uses the monotonic clock
     (*note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693.) for the timeout, rather than
     using the system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 694.), to not be
     affected by system clock changes.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1596321(4): Fix the ‘threading._shutdown()’ function when the
     *note threading: ed. module was imported first from a thread
     different than the main thread: no longer log an error at Python
     exit.

   - bpo-45274(5): Fix a race condition in the *note Thread.join():
     11d3. method of the *note threading: ed. module.  If the function
     is interrupted by a signal and the signal handler raises an
     exception, make sure that the thread remains in a consistent state
     to prevent a deadlock.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-21302(6): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 697.
     now uses the ‘nanosleep()’ function, if ‘clock_nanosleep()’ is not
     available but ‘nanosleep()’ is available.  ‘nanosleep()’ allows to
     sleep with nanosecond precision.

   - bpo-21302(7): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 697. now uses a
     waitable timer which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7
     seconds).  Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3
     seconds).  Patch by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45238(8): Fix ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.debug()’: it
     runs now asynchronous methods and callbacks.

   - bpo-36674(9): *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 189b. raises now a
     *note unittest.SkipTest: fdc. if the class or the test method are
     decorated with the skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45235(10): Fix an issue where argparse would not preserve
     values in a provided namespace when using a subparser with
     defaults.

   - bpo-45183(11): Have zipimport.zipimporter.find_spec() not raise an
     exception when the underlying zip file has been deleted and the
     internal cache has been reset via invalidate_cache().

   - bpo-45234(12): Fixed a regression in *note copyfile(): a55, *note
     copy(): a56, *note copy2(): a57. raising *note FileNotFoundError:
     425. when source is a directory, which should raise *note
     IsADirectoryError: 104f.

   - bpo-45228(13): Fix stack buffer overflow in parsing J1939 network
     address.

   - bpo-45225(14): use map function instead of genexpr in capwords.

   - bpo-42135(15): Fix typo: ‘importlib.find_loader’ is really slated
     for removal in Python 3.12 not 3.10, like the others in PR 25169.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-20524(16): Improves error messages on ‘.format()’ operation for
     ‘str’, ‘float’, ‘int’, and ‘complex’.  New format now shows the
     problematic pattern and the object type.

   - bpo-45168(17): Change *note dis.dis(): b31. output to omit op arg
     values that cannot be resolved due to ‘co_consts’, ‘co_names’ etc
     not being provided.  Previously the oparg itself was repeated in
     the value field, which is not useful and can be confusing.

   - bpo-21302(18): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 697.
     now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ function, if available, which
     allows to sleep for an interval specified with nanosecond
     precision.

   - bpo-45173(19): Remove from the *note configparser: 22. module: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class, the ‘filename’ property of the *note
     ParsingError: 4fe. class, the ‘readfp()’ method of the *note
     ConfigParser: 1c8. class, deprecated since Python 3.2.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-44987(20): Pure ASCII strings are now normalized in constant
     time by *note unicodedata.normalize(): 6ce.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35474(21): Calling *note mimetypes.guess_all_extensions():
     189c. with ‘strict=False’ no longer affects the result of the
     following call with ‘strict=True’.  Also, mutating the returned
     list no longer affects the global state.

   - bpo-45166(22): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. now works with
     *note Final: 267. wrapped in *note ForwardRef: 184a.

   - bpo-45162(23): Remove many old deprecated *note unittest: 106.
     features:

        * “‘fail*’” and “‘assert*’” aliases of *note TestCase: 447.
          methods.

        * Broken from start *note TestCase: 447. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’.

        * Ignored ‘<unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule>
          TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ parameter 'use_load_tests'.

        * Old alias ‘_TextTestResult’ of *note TextTestResult: 52a.

   - bpo-38371(24): Remove the deprecated ‘split()’ method of
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-20499(25): Improve the speed and accuracy of
     statistics.pvariance().

   - bpo-45132(26): Remove *note __getitem__(): 283. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 72e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 72f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45129(27): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c, disabled in Python
     3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the behavior of
     the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45124(28): The ‘bdist_msi’ command, deprecated in Python 3.9,
     is now removed.

     Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-30856(29): *note unittest.TestResult: 1158. methods *note
     addFailure(): 189d, *note addError(): 189e, *note addSkip(): 189f.
     and *note addSubTest(): 18a0. are now called immediately after
     raising an exception in test or finishing a subtest.  Previously
     they were called only after finishing the test clean up.

   - bpo-45034(30): Changes how error is formatted for ‘struct.pack’
     with ‘'H'’ and ‘'h'’ modes and too large / small numbers.  Now it
     shows the actual numeric limits, while previously it was showing
     arithmetic expressions.

   - bpo-25894(31): *note unittest: 106. now always reports skipped and
     failed subtests separately: separate characters in default mode and
     separate lines in verbose mode.  Also the test description is now
     output for errors in test method, class and module cleanups.

   - bpo-45081(32): Fix issue when dataclasses that inherit from
     ‘typing.Protocol’ subclasses have wrong ‘__init__’.  Patch provided
     by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-45085(33): The ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9, is
     now removed.  The following *note binascii: 10. functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.9, are now also removed:

        * ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘b2a_hqx()’;

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’.

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 72d. function remains available.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40360(34): The ‘lib2to3’ package is now deprecated and may not
     be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See the PEP 617(35) (New
     PEG parser for CPython).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45075(36): Rename ‘traceback.StackSummary.format_frame()’ to
     *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 69d.  This
     method was added for 3.11 so it was not released yet.

     Updated code and docs to better distinguish frame and FrameSummary.

   - bpo-31299(37): Add option to completely drop frames from a
     traceback by returning ‘None’ from a ‘format_frame()’ override.

   - bpo-41620(38): *note run(): 1157. now always return a *note
     TestResult: 1158. instance.  Previously it returned ‘None’ if the
     test class or method was decorated with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45021(39): Fix a potential deadlock at shutdown of forked
     children when using *note concurrent.futures: 21. module

   - bpo-43913(40): Fix bugs in cleaning up classes and modules in *note
     unittest: 106.:

        * Functions registered with *note addModuleCleanup(): a4a. were
          not called unless the user defines ‘tearDownModule()’ in their
          test module.

        * Functions registered with *note addClassCleanup(): a4b. were
          not called if ‘tearDownClass’ is set to ‘None’.

        * Buffering in *note TestResult: 1158. did not work with
          functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’.

        * Errors in functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were not handled correctly in buffered
          and debug modes.

        * Errors in ‘setUpModule()’ and functions registered with
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were reported in wrong order.

        * And several lesser bugs.

   - bpo-45030(41): Fix integer overflow in pickling and copying the
     range iterator.

   - bpo-45001(42): Made email date parsing more robust against
     malformed input, namely a whitespace-only ‘Date:’ header.  Patch by
     Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-45010(43): Remove support of special method ‘__div__’ in *note
     unittest.mock: 107.  It is not used in Python 3.

   - bpo-39218(44): Improve accuracy of variance calculations by using
     ‘x*x’ instead of ‘x**2’.

   - bpo-43613(45): Improve the speed of *note gzip.compress(): 638. and
     *note gzip.decompress(): 11fc. by compressing and decompressing at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

   - bpo-37596(46): Ensure that *note set: 5d3. and *note frozenset:
     5d4. objects are always *note marshalled: 8d. reproducibly.

   - bpo-44019(47): A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such
     that ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

   - bpo-42255(48): ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  It is untested and undocumented and also
     not used by *note webbrowser: 115. itself.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44955(49): Method *note stopTestRun(): 133b. is now always
     called in pair with method *note startTestRun(): 133a. for *note
     TestResult: 1158. objects implicitly created in *note run(): 1157.
     Previously it was not called for test methods and classes decorated
     with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-39039(50): tarfile.open raises *note ReadError: 18a1. when a
     zlib error occurs during file extraction.

   - bpo-44935(51): *note subprocess: d6. on Solaris now also uses *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 220. for better performance.

   - bpo-44911(52): *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. will no longer
     throw an exception while cancelling leaked tasks.  Patch by Bar
     Harel.

   - bpo-41322(53): Added ‘DeprecationWarning’ for tests and async tests
     that return a value!=None (as this may indicate an improperly
     written test, for example a test written as a generator function).

   - bpo-44524(54): Make exception message more useful when subclass
     from typing special form alias.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-38956(55): *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 185c.’s
     default value is no longer printed twice when used with *note
     argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 18a2.

   - bpo-44860(56): Fix the ‘posix_user’ scheme in *note sysconfig: db.
     to not depend on *note sys.platlibdir: 936.

   - bpo-44859(57): Improve error handling in *note sqlite3: cf. and
     raise more accurate exceptions.

        * *note MemoryError: 157e. is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 182c. when memory is not enough for encoding
          a statement to UTF-8 in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and
          ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * ‘UnicodEncodeError’ is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 182c. when the statement contains surrogate
          characters in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * *note TypeError: 532. is now raised instead of *note
          ValueError: 202. for non-string script argument in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * *note ValueError: 202. is now raised for script containing the
          null character instead of truncating it in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * Correctly handle exceptions raised when getting boolean value
          of the result of the progress handler.

        * Add many tests covering different corner cases.

   - bpo-44581(58): Upgrade bundled pip to 21.2.3 and setuptools to
     57.4.0

   - bpo-44849(59): Fix the *note os.set_inheritable(): ef3. function on
     FreeBSD 14 for file descriptor opened with the *note O_PATH: f6a.
     flag: ignore the *note EBADF: 959. error on ‘ioctl()’, fallback on
     the ‘fcntl()’ implementation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44605(60): The @functools.total_ordering() decorator now works
     with metaclasses.

   - bpo-44524(61): Fixed an issue wherein the ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ attributes of subscribed specialforms could be
     ‘None’.

   - bpo-44839(62): *note MemoryError: 157e. raised in user-defined
     functions will now produce a ‘MemoryError’ in *note sqlite3: cf.
     *note OverflowError: 87d. will now be converted to *note DataError:
     18a3.  Previously *note OperationalError: 18a4. was produced in
     these cases.

   - bpo-44822(63): *note sqlite3: cf. user-defined functions and
     aggregators returning *note strings: 445. with embedded NUL
     characters are no longer truncated.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44801(64): Ensure that the *note ParamSpec: 15e. variable in
     Callable can only be substituted with a parameters expression (a
     list of types, an ellipsis, ParamSpec or Concatenate).

   - bpo-44806(65): Non-protocol subclasses of *note typing.Protocol:
     264. ignore now the ‘__init__’ method inherited from protocol base
     classes.

   - bpo-27275(66): *note collections.OrderedDict.popitem(): 12dd. and
     ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ no longer call ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__delitem__’ methods of the OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-44793(67): Fix checking the number of arguments when subscribe
     a generic type with ‘ParamSpec’ parameter.

   - bpo-44784(68): In importlib.metadata tests, override warnings
     behavior under expected DeprecationWarnings (importlib_metadata
     4.6.3).

   - bpo-44667(69): The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d3. doesn’t
     incorrectly generate a ‘NEWLINE’ token if the source doesn’t end
     with a new line character but the last line is a comment, as the
     function is already generating a ‘NL’ token.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44771(70): Added ‘importlib.simple’ module implementing
     adapters from a low-level resources reader interface to a
     ‘TraversableResources’ interface.  Legacy API (‘path’, ‘contents’,
     …) is now supported entirely by the ‘.files()’ API with a
     compatibility shim supplied for resource loaders without that
     functionality.  Feature parity with ‘importlib_resources’ 5.2.

   - bpo-44752(71): ‘rcompleter’ does not call *note getattr(): bce. on
     *note property: 194. objects to avoid the side-effect of evaluating
     the corresponding method.

   - bpo-44747(72): Refactor usage of ‘sys._getframe’ in ‘typing’
     module.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42378(73): Fixes the issue with log file being overwritten when
     *note logging.FileHandler: 18a5. is used in *note atexit: c. with
     'filemode' set to ‘'w'’.  Note this will cause the message in
     'atexit' not being logged if the log stream is already closed due
     to shutdown of logging.

   - bpo-44720(74): ‘weakref.proxy’ objects referencing non-iterators
     now raise ‘TypeError’ rather than dereferencing the null
     ‘tp_iternext’ slot and crashing.

   - bpo-44704(75): The implementation of ‘collections.abc.Set._hash()’
     now matches that of ‘frozenset.__hash__()’.

   - bpo-44666(76): Fixed issue in *note compileall.compile_file(): ddd.
     when ‘sys.stdout’ is redirected.  Patch by Stefan Hölzl.

   - bpo-44688(77): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_collation(): 670.
     now accepts non-ASCII collation names.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44690(78): Adopt 'binacii.a2b_base64'’s strict mode in
     'base64.b64decode'.

   - bpo-42854(79): Fixed a bug in the ‘_ssl’ module that was throwing
     *note OverflowError: 87d. when using ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.write()’ and
     ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.read()’ for a big value of the ‘len’ parameter.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44686(80): Replace ‘unittest.mock._importer’ with
     ‘pkgutil.resolve_name’.

   - bpo-44353(81): Make ‘NewType.__call__’ faster by implementing it in
     C. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44682(82): Change the *note pdb: a5. 'commands' directive to
     disallow setting commands for an invalid breakpoint and to display
     an appropriate error.

   - bpo-44353(83): Refactor ‘typing.NewType’ from function into
     callable class.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44678(84): Added a separate error message for discontinuous
     padding in 'binascii.a2b_base64' strict mode.

   - bpo-44524(85): Add missing ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ attributes
     to ‘typing’ module classes.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-40897(86): Give priority to using the current class constructor
     in *note inspect.signature(): 731.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-44638(87): Add a reference to the zipp project and hint as to
     how to use it.

   - bpo-44648(88): Fixed wrong error being thrown by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 151b. when examining a class in the
     interactive session.  Instead of *note TypeError: 532, it should be
     *note OSError: 411. with appropriate error message.

   - bpo-44608(89): Fix memory leak in ‘_tkinter._flatten()’ if it is
     called with a sequence or set, but not list or tuple.

   - bpo-44594(90): Fix an edge case of ‘ExitStack’ and ‘AsyncExitStack’
     exception chaining.  They will now match ‘with’ block behavior when
     ‘__context__’ is explicitly set to ‘None’ when the exception is in
     flight.

   - bpo-42799(91): In *note fnmatch: 5c, the cache size for compiled
     regex patterns (*note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb.) was bumped up
     from 256 to 32768, affecting functions: *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
     18a6, *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 18a7, *note fnmatch.filter():
     18a8.

   - bpo-41928(92): Update *note shutil.copyfile(): a55. to raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. instead of confusing *note
     IsADirectoryError: 104f. when a path ending with a ‘os.path.sep’
     does not exist; *note shutil.copy(): a56. and *note shutil.copy2():
     a57. are also affected.

   - bpo-44569(93): Added the ‘StackSummary.format_frame()’ function in
     *note traceback: fe.  This allows users to customize the way
     individual lines are formatted in tracebacks without
     re-implementing logic to handle recursive tracebacks.

   - bpo-44566(94): handle StopIteration subclass raised from
     @contextlib.contextmanager generator

   - bpo-44558(95): Make the implementation consistency of *note
     indexOf(): 8d8. between C and Python versions.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-41249(96): Fixes ‘TypedDict’ to work with
     ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ and postponed evaluation of annotations
     across modules.

   - bpo-44554(97): Refactor argument processing in ‘pdb.main()’ to
     simplify detection of errors in input loading and clarify behavior
     around module or script invocation.

   - bpo-34798(98): Break up paragraph about *note pprint.PrettyPrinter:
     f77. construction parameters to make it easier to read.

   - bpo-44539(99): Added support for recognizing JPEG files without
     JFIF or Exif markers.

   - bpo-44461(100): Fix bug with *note pdb: a5.’s handling of import
     error due to a package which does not have a ‘__main__’ module

   - bpo-43625(101): Fix a bug in the detection of CSV file headers by
     *note csv.Sniffer.has_header(): 18a9. and improve documentation of
     same.

   - bpo-44516(102): Update vendored pip to 21.1.3

   - bpo-42892(103): Fixed an exception thrown while parsing a malformed
     multipart email by *note email.message.EmailMessage: 27b.

   - bpo-44468(104): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. now finds
     annotations in classes and base classes with unexpected
     ‘__module__’.  Previously, it skipped those MRO elements.

   - bpo-44491(105): Allow clearing the *note sqlite3: cf. authorizer
     callback by passing *note None: 66f. to *note set_authorizer():
     2ab.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43977(106): Set the proper *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18aa. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18ab. flags for subclasses created
     before a parent has been registered as a *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7. or *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     11b3.

   - bpo-44482(107): Fix very unlikely resource leak in *note glob: 64.
     in alternate Python implementations.

   - bpo-44466(108): The *note faulthandler: 58. module now detects if a
     fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44471(109): A *note TypeError: 532. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 346. in *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 5cd. and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 5d0. for objects
     which do not support the *note context manager: 5ce. or *note
     asynchronous context manager: 5d1. protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44404(110): *note tkinter: f0.’s ‘after()’ method now supports
     callables without the ‘__name__’ attribute.

   - bpo-41546(111): Make *note pprint: ae. (like the builtin ‘print’)
     not attempt to write to ‘stdout’ when it is ‘None’.

   - bpo-44458(112): ‘BUFFER_BLOCK_SIZE’ is now declared static, to
     avoid linking collisions when bz2, lmza or zlib are statically
     linked.

   - bpo-44464(113): Remove exception for flake8 in deprecated
     importlib.metadata interfaces.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.6.

   - bpo-44446(114): Take into account that ‘lineno’ might be ‘None’ in
     *note traceback.FrameSummary: e7c.

   - bpo-44439(115): Fix in ‘bz2.BZ2File.write()’ /
     ‘lzma.LZMAFile.write()’ methods, when the input data is an object
     that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-44434(116): _thread.start_new_thread() no longer calls
     PyThread_exit_thread() explicitly at the thread exit, the call was
     redundant.  On Linux with the glibc, pthread_exit() aborts the
     whole process if dlopen() fails to open libgcc_s.so file (ex:
     EMFILE error).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42972(117): The _thread.RLock type now fully implement the GC
     protocol: add a traverse function and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     776. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44422(118): The *note threading.enumerate(): 18ac. function now
     uses a reentrant lock to prevent a hang on reentrant call.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38291(119): Importing typing.io or typing.re now prints a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-37880(120): argparse actions store_const and append_const each
     receive a default value of ‘None’ when the ‘const’ kwarg is not
     provided.  Previously, this raised a *note TypeError: 532.

   - bpo-44389(121): Fix deprecation of *note ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3: 18ad.

   - bpo-27827(122): ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_reserved()’ now
     identifies a greater range of reserved filenames, including those
     with trailing spaces or colons.

   - bpo-44395(123): Fix ‘as_string()’ to pass unixfrom properly.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-34266(124): Handle exceptions from parsing the arg of *note
     pdb: a5.’s run/restart command.

   - bpo-44362(125): Improve *note ssl: d0. module’s deprecation
     messages, error reporting, and documentation for deprecations.

   - bpo-44342(126): [Enum] Change pickling from by-value to by-name.

   - bpo-44356(127): [Enum] Allow multiple data-type mixins if they are
     all the same.

   - bpo-44351(128): Restore back ‘parse_makefile()’ in
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’ because it behaves differently than the
     similar implementation in *note sysconfig: db.

   - bpo-35800(129): ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ is now removed as it is
     unusable without an external module, ‘mailman’.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-44357(130): Added a function that returns cube root of the
     given number *note math.cbrt(): 65b.

   - bpo-44339(131): Change ‘math.pow(±0.0, -math.inf)’ to return ‘inf’
     instead of raising ‘ValueError’.  This brings the special-case
     handling of ‘math.pow’ into compliance with the IEEE 754 standard.

   - bpo-44242(132): Remove missing flag check from Enum creation and
     move into a ‘verify’ decorator.

   - bpo-44246(133): In ‘importlib.metadata’, restore compatibility in
     the result from ‘Distribution.entry_points’ (‘EntryPoints’) to
     honor expectations in older implementations and issuing deprecation
     warnings for these cases: A. ‘EntryPoints’ objects are once again
     mutable, allowing for ‘sort()’ and other list-based mutation
     operations.  Avoid deprecation warnings by casting to a mutable
     sequence (e.g.  ‘list(dist.entry_points).sort()’).  B.
     ‘EntryPoints’ results once again allow for access by index.  To
     avoid deprecation warnings, cast the result to a Sequence first
     (e.g.  ‘tuple(dist.entry_points)[0]’).

   - bpo-44246(134): In importlib.metadata.entry_points, de-duplication
     of distributions no longer requires loading the full metadata for
     PathDistribution objects, improving entry point loading performance
     by ~10x.

   - bpo-43858(135): Added a function that returns a copy of a dict of
     logging levels: *note logging.getLevelNamesMapping(): 653.

   - bpo-44260(136): The *note random.Random: 18ae. constructor no
     longer reads system entropy without need.

   - bpo-44254(137): On Mac, give turtledemo button text a color that
     works on both light or dark background.  Programmers cannot control
     the latter.

   - bpo-44258(138): Support PEP 515 for Fraction’s initialization from
     string.

   - bpo-44235(139): Remove deprecated functions in the *note gettext:
     63.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38693(140): Prefer f-strings to ‘.format’ in
     importlib.resources.

   - bpo-33693(141): Importlib.metadata now prefers f-strings to
     .format.

   - bpo-44241(142): Incorporate minor tweaks from importlib_metadata
     4.1: SimplePath protocol, support for Metadata 2.2.

   - bpo-43216(143): Remove the ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ *note decorator:
     72a. enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible
     with async/await code; remove ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used
     for wrapping legacy coroutine objects in the debug mode.  The
     decorator has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was
     initially scheduled for Python 3.10.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-44210(144): Make importlib.metadata._meta.PackageMetadata
     public.

   - bpo-43643(145): Declare readers.MultiplexedPath.name as a property
     per the spec.

   - bpo-27334(146): The *note sqlite3: cf. context manager now performs
     a rollback (thus releasing the database lock) if commit failed.
     Patch by Luca Citi and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-4928(147): Documented existing behavior on POSIX:
     NamedTemporaryFiles are not deleted when creating process is killed
     with SIGKILL

   - bpo-44154(148): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. pickling
     for large components.

   - bpo-33433(149): For IPv4 mapped IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(150)
     Section 2.5.5.2), the *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 1651.
     check is deferred to the mapped IPv4 address.  This solves a bug
     where public mapped IPv4 addresses were considered private by the
     IPv6 check.

   - bpo-44150(151): Add optional 'weights' argument to
     statistics.fmean().

   - bpo-44142(152): *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. will now drop the
     redundant parentheses when tuples used as assignment targets (e.g
     in for loops).

   - bpo-44145(153): *note hmac: 6a. computations were not releasing the
     GIL while calling the OpenSSL ‘HMAC_Update’ C API (a new feature in
     3.9).  This unintentionally prevented parallel computation as other
     *note hashlib: 68. algorithms support.

   - bpo-44095(154): *note zipfile.Path: 6c3. now supports *note
     zipfile.Path.stem: 6c0, *note zipfile.Path.suffixes: 6c2, and *note
     zipfile.Path.suffix: 6c1. attributes.

   - bpo-44077(155): It’s now possible to receive the type of service
     (ToS), a.k.a.  differentiated services (DS), a.k.a.  differentiated
     services code point (DSCP) and explicit congestion notification
     (ECN) IP header fields with ‘socket.IP_RECVTOS’.

   - bpo-37788(156): Fix a reference leak when a Thread object is never
     joined.

   - bpo-38908(157): Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have
     data variables declared will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked
     with ‘isinstance’ unless they are decorated with
     ‘runtime_checkable()’.  Previously, these checks passed silently.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44098(158): ‘typing.ParamSpec’ will no longer be found in the
     ‘__parameters__’ of most *note typing: 104. generics except in
     valid use locations specified by PEP 612(159).  This prevents
     incorrect usage like ‘typing.List[P][int]’.  This change means
     incorrect usage which may have passed silently in 3.10 beta 1 and
     earlier will now error.

   - bpo-44089(160): Allow subclassing ‘csv.Error’ in 3.10 (it was
     allowed in 3.9 and earlier but was disallowed in early versions of
     3.10).

   - bpo-44081(161): *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. now doesn’t use redundant
     spaces to separate ‘lambda’ and the ‘:’ if there are no parameters.

   - bpo-44061(162): Fix regression in previous release when calling
     *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): d47. with a list of *note
     pathlib.Path: 229. objects

   - bpo-44059(163): Register the SerenityOS Browser in the *note
     webbrowser: 115. module.

   - bpo-36515(164): The *note hashlib: 68. module no longer does
     unaligned memory accesses when compiled for ARM platforms.

   - bpo-40465(165): Remove random module features deprecated in Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-44018(166): random.seed() no longer mutates bytearray inputs.

   - bpo-38352(167): Add ‘IO’, ‘BinaryIO’, ‘TextIO’, ‘Match’, and
     ‘Pattern’ to ‘typing.__all__’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44002(168): *note urllib.parse: 10a. now uses
     ‘functool.lru_cache()’ for its internal URL splitting and quoting
     caches instead of rolling its own like its the ‘90s.

     The undocumented internal *note urllib.parse: 10a. ‘Quoted’ class
     API is now deprecated, for removal in 3.14.

   - bpo-43972(169): When *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler:
     b40. sends a ‘301 (Moved Permanently)’ for a directory path not
     ending with ‘/’, add a ‘Content-Length: 0’ header.  This improves
     the behavior for certain clients.

   - bpo-28528(170): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a5. where ‘checkline()’
     raises *note AttributeError: 346. if it is called after ‘reset()’.

   - bpo-43853(171): Improved string handling for *note sqlite3: cf.
     user-defined functions and aggregates:

        * It is now possible to pass strings with embedded null
          characters to UDFs

        * Conversion failures now correctly raise *note MemoryError:
          157e.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43666(172): AIX: ‘Lib/_aix_support.get_platform()’ may fail in
     an AIX WPAR. The fileset bos.rte appears to have a builddate in
     both LPAR and WPAR so this fileset is queried rather than bos.mp64.
     To prevent a similar situation (no builddate in ODM) a value (9988)
     sufficient for completing a build is provided.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-43650(173): Fix *note MemoryError: 157e. in *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 465. which fails inside
     ‘shutil._unpack_zipfile()’ on large files.  Patch by Igor
     Bolshakov.

   - bpo-43612(174): *note zlib.compress(): 639. now accepts a wbits
     parameter which allows users to compress data as a raw deflate
     block without zlib headers and trailers in one go.  Previously this
     required instantiating a ‘zlib.compressobj’.  It also provides a
     faster alternative to ‘gzip.compress’ when wbits=31 is used.

   - bpo-43392(175): ‘importlib._bootstrap._find_and_load()’ now
     implements a two-step check to avoid locking when modules have been
     already imported and are ready.  This improves performance of
     repeated calls to *note importlib.import_module(): 511. and *note
     importlib.__import__(): 1063.

   - bpo-43318(176): Fix a bug where *note pdb: a5. does not always echo
     cleared breakpoints.

   - bpo-43234(177): Prohibit passing non-*note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. executors to
     ‘loop.set_default_executor()’ following a deprecation in Python
     3.8.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-43232(178): Prohibit previously deprecated potentially
     disruptive operations on ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’.  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-30077(179): Added support for Apple’s aifc/sowt
     pseudo-compression

   - bpo-42971(180): Add definition of ‘errno.EQFULL’ for platforms that
     define this constant (such as macOS).

   - bpo-43086(181): Added a new optional ‘strict_mode’ parameter to
     'binascii.a2b_base64'.  When ‘scrict_mode’ is set to ‘True’, the
     'a2b_base64' function will accept only valid base64 content.  More
     details about what “valid base64 content” is, can be found in the
     function’s documentation.

   - bpo-43024(182): Improve the help signature of *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 849, *note
     traceback.format_exception(): 847. and *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 848.

   - bpo-33809(183): Add the *note traceback.TracebackException.print():
     69e. method which prints the formatted exception information.

   - bpo-42862(184): *note sqlite3: cf. now utilizes *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. to implement the connection statement
     cache.  As a small optimisation, the default statement cache size
     has been increased from 100 to 128.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41818(185): Soumendra Ganguly: add termios.tcgetwinsize(),
     termios.tcsetwinsize().

   - bpo-40497(186): *note subprocess.check_output(): fb9. now raises
     *note ValueError: 202. when the invalid keyword argument 'check' is
     passed by user code.  Previously such use would fail later with a
     *note TypeError: 532.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37449(187): ‘ensurepip’ now uses ‘importlib.resources.files()’
     traversable APIs

   - bpo-40956(188): Use Argument Clinic in *note sqlite3: cf.  Patches
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41730(189): ‘DeprecationWarning’ is now raised when importing
     ‘tkinter.tix’, which has been deprecated in documentation since
     Python 3.6.

   - bpo-20684(190): Remove unused ‘_signature_get_bound_param’ function
     from *note inspect: 7e. - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41402(191): Fix *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content():
     18af. when called with binary data and ‘7bit’ content transfer
     encoding.

   - bpo-32695(192): The 'compresslevel' and 'preset' keyword arguments
     of *note tarfile.open(): e6f. are now both documented and tested.

   - bpo-41137(193): Use utf-8 encoding while reading .pdbrc files.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

   - bpo-24391(194): Improved reprs of *note threading: ed.
     synchronization objects: *note Semaphore: 1147, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: 1148, *note Event: 1149. and *note Barrier: 11d2.

   - bpo-5846(195): Deprecated the following *note unittest: 106.
     functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘findTestCases()’

        * ‘makeSuite()’

        * ‘getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 28e. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28f.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 290.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 291.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40563(196): Support pathlike objects on dbm/shelve.  Patch by
     Hakan Çelik and Henry-Joseph Audéoud.

   - bpo-34990(197): Fixed a Y2k38 bug in the compileall module where it
     would fail to compile files with a modification time after the year
     2038.

   - bpo-39549(198): Whereas the code for reprlib.Repr had previously
     used a hardcoded string value of ‘…’, this PR updates it to use of
     a “fillvalue” attribute, whose value defaults to ‘…’ and can be
     reset in either individual reprlib.Repr instances or in subclasses
     thereof.

   - bpo-37022(199): *note pdb: a5. now displays exceptions from
     ‘repr()’ with its ‘p’ and ‘pp’ commands.

   - bpo-38840(200): Fix ‘test___all__’ on platforms lacking a shared
     memory implementation.

   - bpo-39359(201): Add one missing check that the password is a bytes
     object for an encrypted zipfile.

   - bpo-38741(202): *note configparser: 22.: using ‘]’ inside a section
     header will no longer cut the section name short at the ‘]’

   - bpo-38415(203): Added missing behavior to *note
     contextlib.asynccontextmanager(): b27. to match *note
     contextlib.contextmanager(): 11f1. so decorated functions can
     themselves be decorators.

   - bpo-30256(204): Pass multiprocessing BaseProxy argument
     ‘manager_owned’ through AutoProxy.

   - bpo-27513(205): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 1e1. now accepts
     *note email.header.Header: 18b0. objects along with string values.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-16379(206): Add SQLite error code and name to *note sqlite3:
     cf. exceptions.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-26228(207): pty.spawn no longer hangs on FreeBSD, macOS, and
     Solaris.

   - bpo-33349(208): lib2to3 now recognizes async generators everywhere.

   - bpo-29298(209): Fix ‘TypeError’ when required subparsers without
     ‘dest’ do not receive arguments.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45371

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45329

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1596321

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45274

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45238

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45183

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45234

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45228

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45225

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<31>,  Next: Tests<33>,  Prev: Library<37>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45216(1): Remove extra documentation listing methods in
     ‘difflib’.  It was rendering twice in pydoc and was outdated in
     some places.

   - bpo-45024(2): *note collections.abc: 1e. documentation has been
     expanded to explicitly cover how instance and subclass checks work,
     with additional doctest examples and an exhaustive list of ABCs
     which test membership purely by presence of the right *note special
     method: 18b2.s.  Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-44957(3): Promote PEP 604 union syntax by using it where
     possible.  Also, mention ‘X | Y’ more prominently in section about
     ‘Union’ and mention ‘X | None’ at all in section about ‘Optional’.

   - bpo-16580(4): Added code equivalents for the *note int.to_bytes():
     1896. and *note int.from_bytes(): 1856. methods, as well as tests
     ensuring that these code equivalents are valid.

   - bpo-44903(5): Removed the ‘othergui.rst’ file, any references to
     it, and the list of GUI frameworks in the FAQ. In their place I’ve
     added links to the Python Wiki page on GUI frameworks(6).

   - bpo-33479(7): Tkinter documentation has been greatly expanded with
     new “Architecture” and “Threading model” sections.

   - bpo-36700(8): *note base64: e. RFC references were updated to point
     to RFC 4648(9); a section was added to point users to the new
     “security considerations” section of the RFC.

   - bpo-44740(10): Replaced occurrences of uppercase “Web” and
     “Internet” with lowercase versions per the 2016 revised Associated
     Press Style Book.

   - bpo-44693(11): Update the definition of __future__ in the glossary
     by replacing the confusing word “pseudo-module” with a more
     accurate description.

   - bpo-35183(12): Add typical examples to os.path.splitext docs

   - bpo-30511(13): Clarify that *note shutil.make_archive(): 4ad. is
     not thread-safe due to reliance on changing the current working
     directory.

   - bpo-44561(14): Update of three expired hyperlinks in
     Doc/distributing/index.rst: “Project structure”, “Building and
     packaging the project”, and “Uploading the project to the Python
     Packaging Index”.

   - bpo-44651(15): Delete entry “coercion” in Doc/glossary.rst for its
     outdated definition.

   - bpo-42958(16): Updated the docstring and docs of *note
     filecmp.cmp(): 1665. to be more accurate and less confusing
     especially in respect to 'shallow' arg.

   - bpo-44631(17): Refactored the ‘repr()’ code of the ‘_Environ’ (os
     module).

   - bpo-44613(18): importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

   - bpo-44558(19): Match the docstring and python implementation of
     *note countOf(): 8d9. to the behavior of its c implementation.

   - bpo-44544(20): List all kwargs for *note textwrap.wrap(): 148d,
     *note textwrap.fill(): 148c, and *note textwrap.shorten(): fc8.
     Now, there are nav links to attributes of ‘TextWrap’, which makes
     navigation much easier while minimizing duplication in the
     documentation.

   - bpo-38062(21): Clarify that atexit uses equality comparisons
     internally.

   - bpo-40620(22): Convert examples in tutorial controlflow.rst section
     4.3 to be interpreter-demo style.

   - bpo-43066(23): Added a warning to *note zipfile: 131. docs:
     filename arg with a leading slash may cause archive to be
     un-openable on Windows systems.

   - bpo-39452(24): Rewrote ‘Doc/library/__main__.rst’.  Broadened scope
     of the document to explicitly discuss and differentiate between
     ‘__main__.py’ in packages versus the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
     expression (and the idioms that surround it).

   - bpo-13814(25): In the Design FAQ, answer “Why don’t generators
     support the with statement?”

   - bpo-27752(26): Documentation of csv.Dialect is more descriptive.

   - bpo-44453(27): Fix documentation for the return type of *note
     sysconfig.get_path(): 131e.

   - bpo-44392(28): Added a new section in the C API documentation for
     types used in type hinting.  Documented ‘Py_GenericAlias’ and
     ‘Py_GenericAliasType’.

   - bpo-38291(29): Mark ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ as deprecated since
     Python 3.8 in the documentation.  They were never properly
     supported by type checkers.

   - bpo-44322(30): Document that SyntaxError args have a details tuple
     and that details are adjusted for errors in f-string field
     replacement expressions.

   - bpo-42392(31): Document the deprecation and removal of the ‘loop’
     parameter for many functions and classes in *note asyncio: a.

   - bpo-44195(32): Corrected references to ‘TraversableResources’ in
     docs.  There is no ‘TraversableReader’.

   - bpo-41963(33): Document that ‘ConfigParser’ strips off comments
     when reading configuration files.

   - bpo-44072(34): Correct where in the numeric ABC hierarchy ‘**’
     support is added, i.e., in numbers.Complex, not numbers.Integral.

   - bpo-43558(35): Add the remark to *note dataclasses: 2f.
     documentation that the ‘__init__()’ of any base class has to be
     called in ‘__post_init__()’, along with a code example.

   - bpo-44025(36): Clarify when ‘_’ in match statements is a keyword,
     and when not.

   - bpo-41706(37): Fix docs about how methods like ‘__add__’ are
     invoked when evaluating operator expressions.

   - bpo-41621(38): Document that *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac.
     parameter ‘default_factory’ defaults to ‘None’ and is
     positional-only.

   - bpo-41576(39): document BaseException in favor of bare except

   - bpo-21760(40): The description for __file__ fixed.  Patch by Furkan
     Onder

   - bpo-39498(41): Add a “Security Considerations” index which links to
     standard library modules that have explicitly documented security
     considerations.

   - bpo-33479(42): Remove the unqualified claim that tkinter is
     threadsafe.  It has not been true for several years and likely
     never was.  An explanation of what is true may be added later,
     after more discussion, and possibly after patching _tkinter.c,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45024

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44957

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16580

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44903

   (6) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36700

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44740

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44693

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35183

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30511

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44561

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44651

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42958

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44631

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44613

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44544

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38062

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40620

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43066

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39452

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13814

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27752

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44453

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44392

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44322

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44195

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41963

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44025

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41706

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41621

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41576

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21760

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39498

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<33>,  Next: Build<35>,  Prev: Documentation<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40173(1): Fix *note
     test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module(): 18b4.

   - bpo-45280(2): Add a test case for empty *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2b0.

   - bpo-45269(3): Cover case when invalid ‘markers’ type is supplied to
     ‘c_make_encoder’.

   - bpo-45128(4): Fix ‘test_multiprocessing_fork’ failure due to
     ‘test_logging’ and ‘sys.modules’ manipulation.

   - bpo-45209(5): Fix ‘UserWarning: resource_tracker’ warning in
     ‘_test_multiprocessing._TestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination’

   - bpo-45185(6): Enables ‘TestEnumerations’ test cases in ‘test_ssl’
     suite.

   - bpo-45195(7): Fix test_readline.test_nonascii(): sometimes, the
     newline character is not written at the end, so don’t expect it in
     the output.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45156(8): Fixes infinite loop on *note unittest.mock.seal():
     b9e. of mocks created by ‘create_autospec()’.

   - bpo-45125(9): Improves pickling tests and docs of ‘SharedMemory’
     and ‘SharableList’ objects.

   - bpo-44860(10): Update ‘test_sysconfig.test_user_similar()’ for the
     posix_user scheme: ‘platlib’ doesn’t use *note sys.platlibdir: 936.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45052(11):
     ‘WithProcessesTestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_basics’ test was
     ignored, because ‘self.assertEqual(sms.size, sms2.size)’ line was
     failing.  It is now removed and test is unskipped.

     The main motivation for this line to be removed from the test is
     that the ‘size’ of ‘SharedMemory’ is not ever guaranteed to be the
     same.  It is decided by the platform.

   - bpo-44895(12): libregrtest now clears the type cache later to
     reduce the risk of false alarm when checking for reference leaks.
     Previously, the type cache was cleared too early and libregrtest
     raised a false alarm about reference leaks under very specific
     conditions.  Patch by Irit Katriel and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45042(13): Fixes that test classes decorated with
     ‘@hashlib_helper.requires_hashdigest’ were skipped all the time.

   - bpo-25130(14): Add calls of *note gc.collect(): a36. in tests to
     support PyPy.

   - bpo-45011(15): Made tests relying on the ‘_asyncio’ C extension
     module optional to allow running on alternative Python
     implementations.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-44949(16): Fix auto history tests of test_readline: sometimes,
     the newline character is not written at the end, so don’t expect it
     in the output.

   - bpo-44891(17): Tests were added to clarify *note id(): 13eb. is
     preserved when ‘obj * 1’ is used on *note str: 445. and *note
     bytes: 1c2. objects.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - bpo-44852(18): Add ability to wholesale silence DeprecationWarnings
     while running the regression test suite.

   - bpo-40928(19): Notify users running test_decimal regression tests
     on macOS of potential harmless “malloc can’t allocate region”
     messages spewed by test_decimal.

   - bpo-44734(20): Fixed floating-point precision issue in turtle
     tests.

   - bpo-44708(21): Regression tests, when run with -w, are now
     re-running only the affected test methods instead of re-running the
     entire test file.

   - bpo-42095(22): Added interop tests for Apple plists: generate plist
     files with Python plistlib and parse with Apple plutil; and the
     other way round.

   - bpo-44647(23): Added a permanent Unicode-valued environment
     variable to regression tests to ensure they handle this use case in
     the future.  If your test environment breaks because of that,
     report a bug to us, and temporarily set
     PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD=0 in your test environment.

   - bpo-44515(24): Adjust recently added contextlib tests to avoid
     assuming the use of a refcounted GC

   - bpo-44287(25): Fix asyncio test_popen() of test_windows_utils by
     using a longer timeout.  Use military grade battle-tested *note
     test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18b5. timeout rather than a hardcoded
     timeout of 10 seconds: it’s 30 seconds by default, but it is made
     longer on slow buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44451(26): Reset ‘DeprecationWarning’ filters in
     ‘test.test_importlib.test_metadata_api.APITests.test_entry_points_by_index’
     to avoid ‘StopIteration’ error if ‘DeprecationWarnings’ are
     ignored.

   - bpo-44363(27): Account for address sanitizer in test_capi.
     test_capi now passes when run GCC address sanitizer.

   - bpo-44364(28): Add non integral tests for *note math.sqrt(): a02.
     function.

   - bpo-43921(29): Fix test_ssl.test_wrong_cert_tls13(): use
     ‘suppress_ragged_eofs=False’, since ‘read()’ can raise *note
     ssl.SSLEOFError: 174e. on Windows.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43921(30): Fix test_pha_required_nocert() of test_ssl: catch
     two more EOF cases (when the ‘recv()’ method returns an empty
     string).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44131(31): Add test_frozenmain to test_embed to test the
     ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ C function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31904(32): Ignore error string case in test_file_not_exists().

   - bpo-42083(33): Add test to check that ‘PyStructSequence_NewType’
     accepts a ‘PyStructSequence_Desc’ with ‘doc’ field set to ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-35753(34): Fix crash in doctest when doctest parses modules
     that include unwrappable functions by skipping those functions.

   - bpo-30256(35): Add test for nested queues when using
     ‘multiprocessing’ shared objects ‘AutoProxy[Queue]’ inside
     ‘ListProxy’ and ‘DictProxy’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45280

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45269

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45185

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45195

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45156

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45125

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45042

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45011

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44949

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44891

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44852

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40928

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44708

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42095

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44515

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44287

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44451

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44363

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44364

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44131

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42083

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35753

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256


File: python.info,  Node: Build<35>,  Next: Windows<32>,  Prev: Tests<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-45220(1): Avoid building with the Windows 11 SDK previews
     automatically.  This may be overridden by setting the
     ‘DefaultWindowsSDKVersion’ environment variable before building.

   - bpo-45020(2): Freeze stdlib modules that are imported during
     startup.  This provides significant performance improvements to
     startup.  If necessary, use the previously added “-X
     frozen_modules=off” commandline option to force importing the
     source modules.

   - bpo-45188(3): Windows builds now regenerate frozen modules as the
     first part of the build.  Previously the regeneration was later in
     the build, which would require it to be restarted if any modules
     had changed.

   - bpo-45163(4): Fixes Haiku platform build.

   - bpo-45067(5): The ncurses function extended_color_content was
     introduced in 2017

     (‘https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/NEWS.html#index-t20170401’).
     The

     ncurses-devel package in CentOS 7 had a older version ncurses
     resulted in compilation error.  For compiling ncurses with extended
     color support, we verify the version of the ncurses library >=
     20170401.

   - bpo-45019(6): Generate lines in relevant files for frozen modules.
     Up until now each of the files had to be edited manually.  This
     change makes it easier to add to and modify the frozen modules.

   - bpo-44340(7): Add support for building with clang thin lto via
     –with-lto=thin/full.  Patch by Donghee Na and Brett Holman.

   - bpo-44535(8): Enable building using a Visual Studio 2022 install on
     Windows.

   - bpo-43298(9): Improved error message when building without a
     Windows SDK installed.

   - bpo-44381(10): The Windows build now accepts
     ‘EnableControlFlowGuard’ set to ‘guard’ to enable CFG.

   - bpo-41282(11): Fix broken ‘make install’ that caused standard
     library extension modules to be unnecessarily and incorrectly
     rebuilt during the install phase of cpython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45220

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45188

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45067

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45019

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44535

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43298

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44381

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<32>,  Next: macOS<25>,  Prev: Build<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-45375(1): Fixes an assertion failure due to searching for the
     standard library in unnormalised paths.

   - bpo-45022(2): Update Windows release to include libffi 3.4.2

   - bpo-45007(3): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1l in Windows build

   - bpo-44848(4): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44572(5): Avoid consuming standard input in the *note platform:
     aa. module

   - bpo-44582(6): Accelerate speed of *note mimetypes: 8f.
     initialization using a native implementation of the registry scan.

   - bpo-41299(7): Fix 16 milliseconds jitter when using timeouts in
     *note threading: ed, such as with *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     692. or *note threading.Condition.wait(): 18b8.

   - bpo-42686(8): Build *note sqlite3: cf. with math functions enabled.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40263(9): This is a follow-on bug from
     ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue26903’.  Once that is applied we run
     into an off-by-one assertion problem.  The assert was not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45375

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44572

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44582

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41299

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40263


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<25>,  Next: IDLE<21>,  Prev: Windows<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45007(1): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1l.

   - bpo-34602(2): When building CPython on macOS with ‘./configure
     --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer --with-pydebug’, the stack size
     is now quadrupled to allow for the entire test suite to pass.

   - bpo-44848(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44689(4): *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d46. now works
     correctly on macOS 11 Big Sur even if Python is built on an older
     version of macOS. Previously, when built on older macOS systems,
     ‘find_library’ was not able to find macOS system libraries when
     running on Big Sur due to changes in how system libraries are
     stored.

   - bpo-41972(5): The framework build’s user header path in sysconfig
     is changed to add a ‘pythonX.Y’ component to match distutils’s
     behavior.

   - bpo-43109(6): Allow –with-lto configure option to work with
     Apple-supplied Xcode or Command Line Tools.

   - bpo-34932(7): Add socket.TCP_KEEPALIVE support for macOS. Patch by
     Shane Harvey.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44689

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43109

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34932


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<21>,  Next: Tools/Demos<18>,  Prev: macOS<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): On Windows, change exit/quit message to suggest
     Ctrl-D, which works, instead of <Ctrl-Z Return>, which does not
     work in IDLE.

   - bpo-45193(2): Make completion boxes appear on Ubuntu again.

   - bpo-40128(3): Mostly fix completions on macOS when not using tcl/tk
     8.6.11 (as with 3.9).  The added update_idletask call should be
     harmless and possibly helpful otherwise.

   - bpo-33962(4): Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to
     the new Windows tab.  Patch by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-40468(5): Split the settings dialog General tab into Windows
     and Shell/ED tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu,
     to the Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the
     dialog.  The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.

   - bpo-41611(6): Avoid uncaught exceptions in
     ‘AutoCompleteWindow.winconfig_event()’.

   - bpo-41611(7): Fix IDLE sometimes freezing upon tab-completion on
     macOS.

   - bpo-44010(8): Highlight the new *note match: 807. statement’s *note
     soft keywords: 806.: *note match: 807, *note case: 807, and *note
     _: 808.  However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be
     incorrect in some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’
     patterns.

   - bpo-44026(9): Include interpreter’s typo fix suggestions in message
     line for NameErrors and AttributeErrors.  Patch by E. Paine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44026


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<18>,  Next: C API<34>,  Prev: IDLE<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-44786(1): Fix a warning in regular expression in the c-analyzer
     script.

   - bpo-44967(2): pydoc now returns a non-zero status code when a
     module cannot be found.

   - bpo-44978(3): Allow the Argument Clinic tool to handle
     ‘__complex__’ special methods.

   - bpo-43425(4): Removed the ‘test2to3’ demo project that demonstrated
     using lib2to3 to support Python 2.x and Python 3.x from a single
     source in a distutils package.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-44074(5): Make patchcheck automatically detect the correct base
     branch name (previously it was hardcoded to ‘master’)

   - bpo-20291(6): Added support for variadic positional parameters in
     Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44967

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43425

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<34>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.23.38.11 C API
................

   - bpo-41710(1): The PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() function now clamps
     the timeout if it is too large, rather than aborting the process.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44687(2): ‘BufferedReader.peek()’ no longer raises *note
     ValueError: 202. when the entire file has already been buffered.

   - bpo-45116(3): Add the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 18bd. macro to ask
     the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45094(4): Add the *note Py_NO_INLINE: 18be. macro to disable
     inlining on a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45061(5): Add a deallocator to the *note bool: 461. type to
     detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call
     ‘Py_DECREF(Py_True);’ or ‘Py_DECREF(Py_False);’ by mistake.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42035(6): Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 74c. function
     to get type’s qualified name.

   - bpo-41103(7): Reverts removal of the old buffer protocol because
     they are part of stable ABI.

   - bpo-44751(8): Remove ‘crypt.h’ include from the public ‘Python.h’
     header.

   - bpo-42747(9): The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ type flag now does
     nothing.  The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_AM_SEND’ flag (which was added in
     3.10) is removed.  Both were unnecessary because it is not possible
     to have type objects with the relevant fields missing.

   - bpo-44530(10): Added the ‘co_qualname’ to the ‘PyCodeObject’
     structure to propagate the qualified name from the compiler to code
     objects.

     Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta

   - bpo-44441(11): *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2. now resets
     ‘PyImport_Inittab’ to its initial value at exit.  It must be
     possible to call *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa. or *note
     PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17ab. at each Python initialization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39947(12): Remove 4 private trashcan C API functions which were
     only kept for the backward compatibility of the stable ABI with
     Python 3.8 and older, since the trashcan API was not usable with
     the limited C API on Python 3.8 and older.  The trashcan API was
     excluded from the limited C API in Python 3.9.

     Removed functions:

        * _PyTrash_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_destroy_chain()

        * _PyTrash_thread_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_thread_destroy_chain()

     The trashcan C API was never usable with the limited C API, since
     old trashcan macros accessed directly *note PyThreadState: 786.
     members like ‘_tstate->trash_delete_nesting’, whereas the *note
     PyThreadState: 786. structure is opaque in the limited C API.

     Exclude also the ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ constant from the C API.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40939(13): Removed documentation for the removed ‘PyParser_*’ C
     API.

   - bpo-43795(14): The list in *note Contents of Limited API: 793. now
     shows the public name *note PyFrameObject: 782. rather than
     ‘_frame’.  The non-existing entry ‘_node’ no longer appears in the
     list.

   - bpo-44378(15): *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 181b. no longer uses *note
     Py_TYPE(): 779. to avoid a compiler warning: no longer cast ‘const
     PyObject*’ to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert the *note Py_TYPE(): 779. and *note
     Py_SIZE(): 77b. macros to static inline functions.  The *note
     Py_SET_TYPE(): 77a. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c. functions must
     now be used to set an object type and size.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44263(17): The *note PyType_Ready(): 775. function now raises
     an error if a type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     776. flag set but has no traverse function (*note
     PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 777.).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43795(18): The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ is
     removed from the Limited API.

   - bpo-44113(19): Deprecate the following functions to configure the
     Python initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 3a0. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1. instead ( PEP 587(20)).

   - bpo-44094(21): Remove ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithUnicodeFilename()’,
     ‘PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’, and
     ‘PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’.  They are not
     documented and have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-43795(22): *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 893. is now properly
     exported as a function in the Windows Stable ABI DLL.

   - bpo-44029(23): Remove deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’ APIs:
     ‘PyUnicode_Encode’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII’, ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap’,
     ‘PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create’, ‘PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create’.
     See PEP 393(24) and PEP 624(25) for reference.

   - bpo-42035(26): Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 74b. function to
     get type’s short name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44687

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45116

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44751

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42747

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44441

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44378

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44113

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44094

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.39 Python 3.10.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-05-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<23>,  Next: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-43434(1): Creating *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. objects now
     also produces ‘sqlite3.connect’ and ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ *note
     auditing events: 18c1.  Previously these events were only produced
     by *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a8. calls.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43998(2): The *note ssl: d0. module sets more secure cipher
     suites defaults.  Ciphers without forward secrecy and with SHA-1
     MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA,
     DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security.  *note
     SSLContext: 294. defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2.
     Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research.

   - bpo-43882(3): The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of
     a URL could allow some forms of attacks.

     Following the controlling specification for URLs defined by WHATWG
     *note urllib.parse(): 10a. now removes ASCII newlines and tabs from
     URLs, preventing such attacks.

   - bpo-43472(4): Ensures interpreter-level audit hooks receive the
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ event when called through the
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module.

   - bpo-43362(5): Fix invalid free in _sha3 module.  The issue was
     introduced in 3.10.0a1.  Python 3.9 and earlier are not affected.

   - bpo-43762(6): Add audit events for ‘sqlite3.connect/handle()’,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 838, and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4b2.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43756(7): Add new audit event ‘glob.glob/2’ to incorporate the
     new 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' arguments added to *note glob.glob():
     29f. and *note glob.iglob(): 801.

   - bpo-36384(8): *note ipaddress: 80. module no longer accepts any
     leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are ambiguous
     and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For example
     the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 95f. treats leading
     zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
     inet_pton(): 960. does not accept any leading zeros.  For a while
     the *note ipaddress: 80. module used to accept ambiguous leading
     zeros.

   - bpo-43075(9): Fix Regular Expression Denial of Service (ReDoS)
     vulnerability in *note urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     18c2.  The ReDoS-vulnerable regex has quadratic worst-case
     complexity and it allows cause a denial of service when identifying
     crafted invalid RFCs.  This ReDoS issue is on the client side and
     needs remote attackers to control the HTTP server.

   - bpo-42800(10): Audit hooks are now fired for frame.f_code,
     traceback.tb_frame, and generator code/frame attribute access.

   - bpo-37363(11): Add audit events to the *note http.client: 6f.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43434

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43472

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43362

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43075

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<39>,  Next: Library<38>,  Prev: Security<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43977(1): Prevent classes being both a sequence and a mapping
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43977(2): Use *note tp_flags: 18c4. on the class object to
     determine if the subject is a sequence or mapping when pattern
     matching.  Avoids the need to import *note collections.abc: 1e.
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43892(3): Restore proper validation of complex literal value
     patterns when parsing ‘match’ blocks.

   - bpo-43933(4): Set frame.f_lineno to the line number of the ‘with’
     kweyword when executing the call to ‘__exit__’.

   - bpo-43933(5): If the current position in a frame has no line number
     then set the f_lineno attribute to None, instead of -1, to conform
     to PEP 626.  This should not normally be possible, but might occur
     in some unusual circumstances.

   - bpo-43963(6): Importing the ‘_signal’ module in a subinterpreter
     has no longer side effects.

   - bpo-42739(7): The internal representation of line number tables is
     changed to not use sentinels, and an explicit length parameter is
     added to the out of process API function
     ‘PyLineTable_InitAddressRange’.  This makes the handling of line
     number tables more robust in some circumstances.

   - bpo-43908(8): Make *note re: b9. types immutable.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43908(9): Make the *note array.array: 1a0. type immutable.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43901(10): Change class and module objects to lazy-create empty
     annotations dicts on demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in
     the object’s __dict__ for backwards compatibility.

   - bpo-43892(11): Match patterns now use new dedicated AST nodes
     (‘MatchValue’, ‘MatchSingleton’, ‘MatchSequence’, ‘MatchStar’,
     ‘MatchMapping’, ‘MatchClass’) rather than reusing expression AST
     nodes.  ‘MatchAs’ and ‘MatchOr’ are now defined as pattern nodes
     rather than as expression nodes.  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42725(12): Usage of ‘await’/‘yield’/‘yield from’ and named
     expressions within an annotation is now forbidden when PEP 563 is
     activated.

   - bpo-43754(13): When performing structural pattern matching ( PEP
     634(14)), captured names are now left unbound until the 'entire'
     pattern has matched successfully.

   - bpo-42737(15): Annotations for complex targets (everything beside
     simple names) no longer cause any runtime effects with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’.

   - bpo-43914(16): *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions raised by the
     interpreter will highlight the full error range of the expression
     that constitutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the
     problem is detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38605(17): Revert making ‘from __future__ import annotations’
     the default.  This follows the Steering Council decision to
     postpone PEP 563 changes to at least Python 3.11.  See the original
     email for more information regarding the decision:
     ‘https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43475(18): Hashes of NaN values now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to 0 even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  Having the same hash for unequal values
     caused pile-ups in hash tables.

   - bpo-43859(19): Improve the error message for *note
     IndentationError: 7a1. exceptions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41323(20): Constant tuple folding in bytecode optimizer now
     reuses tuple in constant table.

   - bpo-43846(21): Data stack usage is much reduced for large literal
     and call expressions.

   - bpo-38530(22): When printing *note NameError: 438. raised by the
     interpreter, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar
     variable names in the function that the exception was raised from.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43823(23): Improve syntax errors for invalid dictionary
     literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43822(24): Improve syntax errors in the parser for missing
     commas between expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43798(25): *note ast.alias: 18c5. nodes now include source
     location metadata attributes e.g.  lineno, col_offset.

   - bpo-43797(26): Improve ‘SyntaxError’ error messages for invalid
     comparisons.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43760(27): Move the flag for checking whether tracing is
     enabled to the C stack, from the heap.  Should speed up dispatch in
     the interpreter.

   - bpo-43682(28): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 410.) and class
     methods (*note @classmethod: 166.) now inherit the method
     attributes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43751(29): Fixed a bug where ‘anext(ait, default)’ would
     erroneously return None.

   - bpo-42128(30): *note __match_args__: 18c6. is no longer allowed to
     be a list.

   - bpo-43683(31): Add GEN_START opcode.  Marks start of generator,
     including async, or coroutine and handles sending values to a newly
     created generator or coroutine.

   - bpo-43105(32): Importlib now resolves relative paths when creating
     module spec objects from file locations.

   - bpo-43682(33): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 410.) are now
     callable as regular functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42609(34): Prevented crashes in the AST validator and optimizer
     when compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: d68. is now raised instead.

   - bpo-38530(35): When printing *note AttributeError: 346,
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar attribute names
     in the object that the exception was raised from.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43963

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42739

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43754

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43859

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43846

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43798

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43751

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43105

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42609

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<38>,  Next: Documentation<32>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-44015(1): In @dataclass(), raise a TypeError if KW_ONLY is
     specified more than once.

   - bpo-25478(2): Added a 'total()' method to collections.Counter() to
     compute the sum of the counts.

   - bpo-43733(3): Change *note netrc.netrc: 18c8. to use UTF-8 encoding
     before using locale encoding.

   - bpo-43979(4): Removed an unnecessary list comprehension before
     looping from *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 279.  Patch by
     Christoph Zwerschke and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-43993(5): Update bundled pip to 21.1.1.

   - bpo-43957(6): [Enum] Deprecate ‘TypeError’ when non-member is used
     in a containment check; In 3.12 ‘True’ or ‘False’ will be returned
     instead, and containment will return ‘True’ if the value is either
     a member of that enum or one of its members’ value.

   - bpo-42904(7): For backwards compatibility with previous minor
     versions of Python, if *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. receives
     no namespace dictionary arguments, *note typing.get_type_hints():
     6ab. will search through the global then local namespaces during
     evaluation of stringized type annotations (string forward
     references) inside a class.

   - bpo-43945(8): [Enum] Deprecate non-standard mixin format()
     behavior: in 3.12 the enum member, not the member’s value, will be
     used for format() calls.

   - bpo-41139(9): Deprecate undocumented ‘cgi.log()’ API.

   - bpo-43937(10): Fixed the *note turtle: 101. module working with
     non-default root window.

   - bpo-43930(11): Update bundled pip to 21.1 and setuptools to 56.0.0

   - bpo-43907(12): Fix a bug in the pure-Python pickle implementation
     when using protocol 5, where bytearray instances that occur several
     time in the pickled object graph would incorrectly unpickle into
     repeated copies of the bytearray object.

   - bpo-43926(13): In ‘importlib.metadata’, provide a uniform interface
     to ‘Description’, allow for any field to be encoded with multiline
     values, remove continuation lines from multiline values, and add a
     ‘.json’ property for easy access to the PEP 566 JSON-compatible
     form.  Sync with ‘importlib_metadata 4.0’.

   - bpo-43920(14): OpenSSL 3.0.0: *note load_verify_locations(): ee3.
     now returns a consistent error message when cadata contains no
     valid certificate.

   - bpo-43607(15): *note urllib: 108. can now convert Windows paths
     with ‘\\?\’ prefixes into URL paths.

   - bpo-43817(16): Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d, which
     safely computes the annotations defined on an object.  It works
     around the quirks of accessing the annotations from various types
     of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object passed
     in.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. can also correctly
     un-stringize stringized annotations.

     *note inspect.signature(): 731, ‘inspect.from_callable()’, and
     ‘inspect.from_function()’ now call *note inspect.get_annotations():
     80d. to retrieve annotations.  This means *note
     inspect.signature(): 731. and ‘inspect.from_callable()’ can now
     un-stringize stringized annotations, too.

   - bpo-43284(17): platform.win32_ver derives the windows version from
     sys.getwindowsversion().platform_version which in turn derives the
     version from kernel32.dll (which can be of a different version than
     Windows itself).  Therefore change the platform.win32_ver to
     determine the version using the platform module’s _syscmd_ver
     private function to return an accurate version.

   - bpo-42854(18): The *note ssl: d0. module now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

   - bpo-42333(19): Port ‘_ssl’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-43880(20): *note ssl: d0. now raises DeprecationWarning for
     OP_NO_SSL/TLS* options, old TLS versions, old protocols, and other
     features that have been deprecated since Python 3.6, 3.7, or
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-41559(21): PEP 612(22) is now implemented purely in Python;
     builtin ‘types.GenericAlias’ objects no longer include
     ‘typing.ParamSpec’ in ‘__parameters__’ (with the exception of
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’‘s ‘GenericAlias’).  This means
     previously invalid uses of ‘ParamSpec’ (such as ‘list[P]’) which
     worked in earlier versions of Python 3.10 alpha, will now raise
     ‘TypeError’ during substitution.

   - bpo-43867(23): The *note multiprocessing: 94. ‘Server’ class now
     explicitly catches *note SystemExit: d3d. and closes the client
     connection in this case.  It happens when the
     ‘Server.serve_client()’ method reaches the end of file (EOF).

   - bpo-40443(24): Remove unused imports: pyclbr no longer uses copy,
     and typing no longer uses ast.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43820(25): Remove an unneeded copy of the namespace passed to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-43787(26): Add ‘__iter__()’ method to *note bz2.BZ2File: 861,
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 414, and *note lzma.LZMAFile: 1002.  It makes
     iterating them about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43680(27): Deprecate io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper: use
     io.open and _pyio.open instead.  Until Python 3.9, _pyio.open was
     not a static method and builtins.open was set to OpenWrapper to not
     become a bound method when set to a class variable.  _io.open is a
     built-in function whereas _pyio.open is a Python function.  In
     Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is now a static method, and
     builtins.open() is now io.open().

   - bpo-43680(28): The Python ‘_pyio.open()’ function becomes a static
     method to behave as *note io.open(): 516. built-in function: don’t
     become a bound method when stored as a class variable.  It becomes
     possible since static methods are now callable in Python 3.10.
     Moreover, ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper()’ becomes a simple alias to
     ‘_pyio.open()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41515(29): Fix *note KeyError: 33d. raised in *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. due to synthetic modules that don’t
     appear in ‘sys.modules’.

   - bpo-43776(30): When *note subprocess.Popen: 199. args are provided
     as a string or as *note pathlib.Path: 229, the Popen instance repr
     now shows the right thing.

   - bpo-42248(31): [Enum] ensure exceptions raised in ‘_missing__’ are
     released

   - bpo-43744(32): fix issue with enum member name matching the start
     of a private variable name

   - bpo-43772(33): Fixed the return value of ‘TypeVar.__ror__’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43764(34): Add match_args parameter to @dataclass decorator to
     allow suppression of __match_args__ generation.

   - bpo-43799(35): OpenSSL 3.0.0: define ‘OPENSSL_API_COMPAT’ 1.1.1 to
     suppress deprecation warnings.  Python requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 APIs.

   - bpo-43478(36): Mocks can no longer be used as the specs for other
     Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot have an
     attribute mocked using ‘autospec=True’ or be the subject of a
     ‘create_autospec(...)’ call.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     *note isinstance(): 43b.) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-43794(37): Add *note ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 831.
     constants (OpenSSL 3.0.0)

   - bpo-43785(38): Improve ‘bz2.BZ2File’ performance by removing the
     RLock from BZ2File.  This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face
     of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its
     equivalent classes in *note gzip: 67. and *note lzma: 8a. have
     always been.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43789(39): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Don’t call the password callback
     function a second time when first call has signaled an error
     condition.

   - bpo-43788(40): The header files for *note ssl: d0. error codes are
     now OpenSSL version-specific.  Exceptions will now show correct
     reason and library codes.  The ‘make_ssl_data.py’ script has been
     rewritten to use OpenSSL’s text file with error codes.

   - bpo-43766(41): Implement PEP 647(42) in the *note typing: 104.
     module by adding ‘TypeGuard’.

   - bpo-25264(43): *note os.path.realpath(): 225. now accepts a
     'strict' keyword-only argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError:
     411. is raised if a path doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is
     encountered.

   - bpo-43780(44): In ‘importlib.metadata’, incorporate changes from
     importlib_metadata 3.10: Add mtime-based caching during
     distribution discovery.  Flagged use of dict result from
     ‘entry_points()’ as deprecated.

   - gh-47383(45): The ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ attributes of *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 15e. are now instances of the new classes *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7bf. and *note typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7c0,
     which enables a more useful ‘repr()’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43731(46): Add an ‘encoding’ parameter ‘logging.fileConfig()’.

   - bpo-43712(47): Add ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters to *note
     fileinput.input(): 7f9. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730.

   - bpo-38659(48): A ‘simple_enum’ decorator is added to the ‘enum’
     module to convert a normal class into an Enum.  ‘test_simple_enum’
     added to test simple enums against a corresponding normal Enum.
     Standard library modules updated to use ‘simple_enum’.

   - bpo-43764(49): Fix an issue where *note __match_args__: 18c6.
     generation could fail for some *note dataclasses: 2f.

   - bpo-43752(50): Fix *note sqlite3: cf. regression for zero-sized
     blobs with converters, where ‘b""’ was returned instead of ‘None’.
     The regression was introduced by PR 24723.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43655(51): *note tkinter: f0. dialog windows are now recognized
     as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-43723(52): The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated
     and should be replaced:

        - ‘currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread(): 301.

        - ‘activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count(): 302.

        - ‘Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 2fb.

        - ‘Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set(): 2fc.

        - ‘Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 300.

        - ‘thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 300.

        - ‘Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 2fe.

        - ‘Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 2fe.

     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-2135(53): Deprecate find_module() and find_loader()
     implementations in importlib and zipimport.

   - bpo-43534(54): *note turtle.textinput(): 18c9. and *note
     turtle.numinput(): 18ca. create now a transient window working on
     behalf of the canvas window.

   - bpo-43532(55): Add the ability to specify keyword-only fields to
     dataclasses.  These fields will become keyword-only arguments to
     the generated __init__.

   - bpo-43522(56): Fix problem with *note hostname_checks_common_name:
     b7a.  OpenSSL does not copy hostflags from 'struct SSL_CTX' to
     'struct SSL'.

   - bpo-8978(57): Improve error message for *note tarfile.open(): e6f.
     when *note lzma: 8a. / *note bz2: 13. are unavailable.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42967(58): Allow *note bytes: 1c2. ‘separator’ argument in
     ‘urllib.parse.parse_qs’ and ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’ when parsing
     *note str: 445. query strings.  Previously, this raised a
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-43296(59): Improve *note sqlite3: cf. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_value_blob()’ errors that set ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’ now raise
     *note MemoryError: 157e.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43312(60): New functions *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 68a. and *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 182a. are added to query a platform
     for its preferred “user”, “home”, and “prefix” (default) scheme
     names.

   - bpo-43265(61): Improve *note sqlite3.Connection.backup(): b77.
     error handling.  The error message for non-existent target database
     names is now ‘unknown database <database name>’ instead of ‘SQL
     logic error’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41282(62): Install schemes in ‘distutils.command.install’ are
     now loaded from *note sysconfig: db.

   - bpo-41282(63): ‘distutils.sysconfig’ has been merged to *note
     sysconfig: db.

   - bpo-43176(64): Fixed processing of a dataclass that inherits from a
     frozen dataclass with no fields.  It is now correctly detected as
     an error.

   - bpo-43080(65): *note pprint: ae. now has support for *note
     dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb.  Patch by Lewis Gaul.

   - bpo-39950(66): Add ‘pathlib.Path.hardlink_to()’ method that
     supersedes ‘link_to()’.  The new method has the same argument order
     as ‘symlink_to()’.

   - bpo-42904(67): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. now checks the
     local namespace of a class when evaluating PEP 563(68) annotations
     inside said class.

   - bpo-42269(69): Add ‘slots’ parameter to ‘dataclasses.dataclass’
     decorator to automatically generate ‘__slots__’ for class.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-39529(70): Deprecated use of *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     2c2. without running event loop.  Emit deprecation warning for
     *note asyncio: a. functions which implicitly create a *note Future:
     bca. or *note Task: 1be. objects if there is no running event loop
     and no explicit 'loop' argument is passed: *note ensure_future():
     c73, *note wrap_future(): 18cb, *note gather(): 5f7, *note
     shield(): a6d, *note as_completed(): 1aa. and constructors of *note
     Future: bca, *note Task: 1be, *note StreamReader: 18cc,
     ‘StreamReaderProtocol’.

   - bpo-18369(71): Certificate and PrivateKey classes were added to the
     ssl module.  Certificates and keys can now be loaded from memory
     buffer, too.

   - bpo-41486(72): Use a new output buffer management code for *note
     bz2: 13. / *note lzma: 8a. / *note zlib: 133. modules, and add
     ‘.readall()’ function to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.
     These bring some performance improvements.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-31870(73): The *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): 836.
     function now has a 'timeout' parameter.

   - bpo-41735(74): Fix thread locks in zlib module may go wrong in rare
     case.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-36470(75): Fix dataclasses with ‘InitVar’s and *note replace():
     1700.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-40849(76): Expose X509_V_FLAG_PARTIAL_CHAIN ssl flag

   - bpo-35114(77): *note ssl.RAND_status(): 18cd. now returns a boolean
     value (as documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-39906(78): *note pathlib.Path.stat(): 81d. and *note chmod():
     81e. now accept a 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for
     consistency with corresponding functions in the *note os: a1.
     module.

   - bpo-39899(79): *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. now refuses to
     guess Windows home directories if the basename of current user’s
     home directory does not match their username.

     *note pathlib.Path.expanduser(): e3e. and *note home(): e3f. now
     consistently raise *note RuntimeError: 195. exception when a home
     directory cannot be resolved.  Previously a *note KeyError: 33d.
     exception could be raised on Windows when the ‘"USERNAME"’
     environment variable was unset.

   - bpo-36076(80): Added SNI support to *note
     ssl.get_server_certificate(): 836.

   - bpo-38490(81): Covariance, Pearson’s correlation, and simple linear
     regression functionality was added to statistics module.  Patch by
     Tymoteusz Wołodźko.

   - bpo-33731(82): Provide a locale.localize() function, which converts
     a normalized number string into a locale format.

   - bpo-32745(83): Fix a regression in the handling of ctypes’ *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 16ee. type: embedded null characters would cause
     a *note ValueError: 202. to be raised.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44015

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25478

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43733

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43979

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43993

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43957

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43945

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43937

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43930

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43907

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43926

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43607

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43284

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43867

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40443

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43820

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41515

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43776

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42248

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43744

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43772

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25264

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43780

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47383

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43731

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38659

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43752

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43723

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2135

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43534

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43522

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8978

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43296

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43312

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43265

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43176

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (68) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39529

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18369

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36470

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35114

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39899

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36076

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33731

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32745


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<32>,  Next: Tests<34>,  Prev: Library<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43987(1): Add “Annotations Best Practices” document as a new
     HOWTO.

   - bpo-43977(2): Document the new *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18aa. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18ab. type flags.

   - bpo-43959(3): The documentation on the PyContextVar C-API was
     clarified.

   - bpo-43938(4): Update dataclasses documentation to express that
     FrozenInstanceError is derived from AttributeError.

   - bpo-43778(5): Fix the Sphinx glossary_search extension: create the
     _static/ sub-directory if it doesn’t exist.

   - bpo-43755(6): Update documentation to reflect that unparenthesized
     lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an ‘if’
     clause in comprehensions and generator expressions since Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-43739(7): Fixing the example code in
     Doc/extending/extending.rst to declare and initialize the pmodule
     variable to be of the right type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43959

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43938

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43739


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<34>,  Next: Build<36>,  Prev: Documentation<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43961(1): Fix test_logging.test_namer_rotator_inheritance() on
     Windows: use *note os.replace(): 10e4. rather than *note
     os.rename(): 10e3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43842(2): Fix a race condition in the SMTP test of
     test_logging.  Don’t close a file descriptor (socket) from a
     different thread while asyncore.loop() is polling the file
     descriptor.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43843(3): ‘test.libregrtest’ now marks a test as ENV_CHANGED
     (altered the execution environment) if a thread raises an exception
     but does not catch it.  It sets a hook on *note
     threading.excepthook(): 845.  Use ‘--fail-env-changed’ option to
     mark the test as failed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43811(4): Tests multiple OpenSSL versions on GitHub Actions.
     Use ccache to speed up testing.

   - bpo-43791(5): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Disable testing of legacy protocols
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1.  Tests are failing with
     TLSV1_ALERT_INTERNAL_ERROR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43961

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43842

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43843

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<36>,  Next: Windows<33>,  Prev: Tests<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43567(1): Improved generated code refresh
     (AST/tokens/opcodes/keywords) on Windows.

   - bpo-43669(2): Implement PEP 644(3).  Python now requires OpenSSL
     1.1.1 or newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43567

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<33>,  Next: macOS<26>,  Prev: Build<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35306(1): Adds additional arguments to *note os.startfile():
     18d2. function.

   - bpo-43538(2): Avoid raising errors from *note
     pathlib.Path.exists(): a12. when passed an invalid filename.

   - bpo-38822(3): Fixed *note os.stat(): 49a. failing on inaccessible
     directories with a trailing slash, rather than falling back to the
     parent directory’s metadata.  This implicitly affected *note
     os.path.exists(): a0a. and *note os.path.isdir(): a0c.

   - bpo-26227(4): Fixed decoding of host names in *note
     socket.gethostbyaddr(): 18d3. and *note socket.gethostbyname_ex():
     18d4.

   - bpo-40432(5): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.8 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.8 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - bpo-43745(6): Actually updates Windows release to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.
     Earlier releases were mislabelled and actually included 1.1.1i
     again.

   - bpo-43652(7): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.11 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-43492(8): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.35.5.

   - bpo-30555(9): Fix ‘WindowsConsoleIO’ errors in the presence of fd
     redirection.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35306

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38822

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40432

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43745

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30555


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<26>,  Next: IDLE<22>,  Prev: Windows<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42119(1): Fix check for macOS SDK paths when building Python.
     Narrow search to match contents of SDKs, namely only files in
     ‘/System/Library’, ‘/System/IOSSupport’, and ‘/usr’ other than
     ‘/usr/local’.  Previously, anything under ‘/System’ was assumed to
     be in an SDK which causes problems with the new file system layout
     in 10.15+ where user file systems may appear to be mounted under
     ‘/System’.  Paths in ‘/Library’ were also incorrectly treated as
     SDK locations.

   - bpo-43568(2): Drop support for MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET < 10.3

   - bpo-44009(3): Provide “python3.x-intel64” executable to allow
     reliably forcing macOS universal2 framework builds to run under
     Rosetta 2 Intel-64 emulation on Apple Silicon Macs.  This can be
     useful for testing or when universal2 wheels are not yet available.

   - bpo-43851(4): Build SQLite with ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on macOS.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43492(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.35.4.

   - bpo-42235(6): ‘Mac/BuildScript/build-installer.py’ will now use
     “–enable-optimizations” and ‘--with-lto’ when building on macOS
     10.15 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42119

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43568

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44009

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42235


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<22>,  Next: C API<35>,  Prev: macOS<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-37903(1): Add mouse actions to the shell sidebar.  Left click
     and optional drag selects one or more lines, as with the editor
     line number sidebar.  Right click after selecting raises a context
     menu with ‘copy with prompts’.  This zips together prompts from the
     sidebar with lines from the selected text.

   - bpo-43981(2): Fix reference leak in test_sidebar and test_squeezer.
     Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-37892(3): Indent IDLE Shell input with spaces instead of tabs

   - bpo-43655(4): IDLE dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by
     window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-37903(5): IDLE’s shell now shows prompts in a separate
     side-bar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43981

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<35>,  Prev: IDLE<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.23.39.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43916(1): Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION:
     57d. type flag to disallow creating type instances.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43774(2): Remove the now unused ‘PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ macro.  Debug
     hooks on memory allocators are now installed by default if Python
     is built in debug mode (if ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  Moreover,
     they can now be used on Python build in release mode (ex: using
     ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable).

   - bpo-43962(3): _PyInterpreterState_IDIncref() now calls
     _PyInterpreterState_IDInitref() and always increments id_refcount.
     Previously, calling _xxsubinterpreters.get_current() could create
     an id_refcount inconsistency when a
     _xxsubinterpreters.InterpreterID object was deallocated.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-28254(4): Add new C-API functions to control the state of the
     garbage collector: *note PyGC_Enable(): 8a0, *note PyGC_Disable():
     8a1, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 8a2, corresponding to the functions in
     the *note gc: 60. module.

   - bpo-43908(5): Introduce *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. flag
     for immutable type objects, and modify *note PyType_Ready(): 775.
     to set it for static types.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43795(6): *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea3. is now available in the
     limited C API (‘Py_LIMITED_API’).

   - bpo-43868(7): *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 581. is no
     longer exported by limited C API headers and by ‘python3.dll’ on
     Windows.  Like any function that takes ‘FILE*’, it is not part of
     the stable ABI.

   - bpo-43795(8): Stable ABI and limited API definitions are generated
     from a central manifest ( PEP 652(9)).

   - bpo-43753(10): Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 89c. function to test if
     the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.
     Add also the *note Py_IsNone(): 89d, *note Py_IsTrue(): 89e, *note
     Py_IsFalse(): 89f. functions to test if an object is, respectively,
     the ‘None’ singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’
     singleton.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43774

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28254

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.40 Python 3.10.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-04-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42988(1): CVE 2021-3426(2): Remove the ‘getfile’ feature of the
     *note pydoc: b5. module which could be abused to read arbitrary
     files on the disk (directory traversal vulnerability).  Moreover,
     even source code of Python modules can contain sensitive data like
     passwords.  Vulnerability reported by David Schwörer.

   - bpo-43285(3): *note ftplib: 5e. no longer trusts the IP address
     value returned from the server in response to the PASV command by
     default.  This prevents a malicious FTP server from using the
     response to probe IPv4 address and port combinations on the client
     network.

     Code that requires the former vulnerable behavior may set a
     ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on their *note
     ftplib.FTP: 8f7. instances to ‘True’ to re-enable it.

   - bpo-43439(4): Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 7fd,
     *note gc.get_referrers(): 7fe. and *note gc.get_referents(): 7ff.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2021-3426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43285

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<40>,  Next: Library<39>,  Prev: Security<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27129(1): Update CPython bytecode magic number.

   - bpo-43672(2): Raise ImportWarning when calling find_loader().

   - bpo-43660(3): Fix crash that happens when replacing ‘sys.stderr’
     with a callable that can remove the object while an exception is
     being printed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-27129(4): The bytecode interpreter uses instruction, rather
     byte, offsets internally.  This reduces the number of EXTENDED_ARG
     instructions needed and streamlines instruction dispatch a bit.

   - bpo-40645(5): Fix reference leak in the ‘_hashopenssl’ extension.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42134(6): Calls to find_module() by the import system now raise
     ImportWarning.

   - bpo-41064(7): Improve the syntax error for invalid usage of double
     starred elements (‘**’) in f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43575(8): Speed up calls to ‘map()’ by using the PEP 590(9)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42137(10): The import system now prefers using ‘__spec__’ for
     ‘ModuleType.__repr__’ over ‘module_repr()’.

   - bpo-43452(11): Added micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to
     improve cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits.

   - bpo-43555(12): Report the column offset for *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     for invalid line continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43517(13): Fix misdetection of circular imports when using
     ‘from pkg.mod import attr’, which caused false positives in
     non-trivial multi-threaded code.

   - bpo-43497(14): Emit SyntaxWarnings for assertions with tuple
     constants, this is a regression introduced in python3.7

   - bpo-39316(15): Tracing now has correct line numbers for attribute
     accesses when the attribute is on a different line from the object.
     Improves debugging and profiling for multi-line method chains.

   - bpo-35883(16): Python no longer fails at startup with a fatal error
     if a command line argument contains an invalid Unicode character.
     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. function now escapes byte
     sequences which would be decoded as Unicode characters outside the
     [U+0000; U+10ffff] range.

   - bpo-43410(17): Fix a bug that was causing the parser to crash when
     emitting syntax errors when reading input from stdin.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43406(18): Fix a possible race condition where
     ‘PyErr_CheckSignals’ tries to execute a non-Python signal handler.

   - bpo-42128(19): Add ‘__match_args__’ to *note struct sequence
     objects: 11ae.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43390(20): CPython now sets the ‘SA_ONSTACK’ flag in
     ‘PyOS_setsig’ for the VM’s default signal handlers.  This is
     friendlier to other in-process code that an extension module or
     embedding use could pull in (such as Golang’s cgo) where tiny
     thread stacks are the norm and ‘sigaltstack()’ has been used to
     provide for signal handlers.  This is a no-op change for the vast
     majority of processes that don’t use sigaltstack.

   - bpo-43287(21): Speed up calls to ‘filter()’ by using the PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37448(23): Add a radix tree based memory map to track in-use
     obmalloc arenas.  Use to replace the old implementation of
     address_in_range().  The radix tree approach makes it easy to
     increase pool sizes beyond the OS page size.  Boosting the pool and
     arena size allows obmalloc to handle a significantly higher
     percentage of requests from its ultra-fast paths.

     It also has the advantage of eliminating the memory unsanitary
     behavior of the previous address_in_range().  The old
     address_in_range() was marked with the annotations
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS, _Py_NO_SANITIZE_THREAD, and
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY. Those annotations are no longer needed.

     To disable the radix tree map, set a preprocessor flag as follows:
     ‘-DWITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0’.

     Co-authored-by: Tim Peters <<tim.peters@gmail.com>>

   - bpo-29988(24): Only handle asynchronous exceptions and requests to
     drop the GIL when returning from a call or on the back edges of
     loops.  Makes sure that *note __exit__(): 12f0. is always called in
     with statements, even for interrupts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43497

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39316

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35883

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43410

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43406

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43390

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37448

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29988


File: python.info,  Node: Library<39>,  Next: Documentation<33>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43720(1): Document various stdlib deprecations in imp, pkgutil,
     and importlib.util for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-43433(2): *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a53. no longer
     ignores query and fragment in the URL of the server.

   - bpo-31956(3): The *note index(): 7d9. method of *note array.array:
     1a0. now has optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.

   - bpo-40066(4): Enum: adjust ‘repr()’ to show only enum and member
     name (not value, nor angle brackets) and ‘str()’ to show only
     member name.  Update and improve documentation to match.

   - bpo-42136(5): Deprecate all module_repr() methods found in
     importlib as their use is being phased out by Python 3.12.

   - bpo-35930(6): Raising an exception raised in a “future” instance
     will create reference cycles.

   - bpo-41369(7): Finish updating the vendored libmpdec to version
     2.5.1.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-43422(8): Revert the _decimal C API which was added in
     bpo-41324(9).

   - bpo-43577(10): Fix deadlock when using *note ssl.SSLContext: 294.
     debug callback with *note ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback(): 18dc.

   - bpo-43571(11): It’s now possible to create MPTCP sockets with
     IPPROTO_MPTCP

   - bpo-43542(12): ‘image/heic’ and ‘image/heif’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8f.

   - bpo-40645(13): The *note hmac: 6a. module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC
     implementation when digestmod argument is a hash name or builtin
     hash function.

   - bpo-43510(14): Implement PEP 597(15): Add ‘EncodingWarning’
     warning, ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option, *note
     PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7b5. environment variable and
     ‘encoding="locale"’ argument value.

   - bpo-43521(16): ‘ast.unparse’ can now render NaNs and empty sets.

   - bpo-42914(17): *note pprint.pprint(): 822. gains a new boolean
     ‘underscore_numbers’ optional argument to emit integers with
     thousands separated by an underscore character for improved
     readability (for example ‘1_000_000’ instead of ‘1000000’).

   - bpo-41361(18): *note rotate(): 18dd. calls are now slightly faster
     due to faster argument parsing.

   - bpo-43423(19): ‘subprocess.communicate()’ no longer raises an
     IndexError when there is an empty stdout or stderr IO buffer during
     a timeout on Windows.

   - bpo-27820(20): Fixed long-standing bug of smtplib.SMTP where doing
     AUTH LOGIN with initial_response_ok=False will fail.

     The cause is that SMTP.auth_login _always_ returns a password if
     provided with a challenge string, thus non-compliant with the
     standard for AUTH LOGIN.

     Also fixes bug with the test for smtpd.

   - bpo-43445(21): Add frozen modules to *note sys.stdlib_module_names:
     83b.  For example, add ‘"_frozen_importlib"’ and
     ‘"_frozen_importlib_external"’ names.

   - bpo-43245(22): Add keyword arguments support to
     ‘ChainMap.new_child()’.

   - bpo-29982(23): Add optional parameter 'ignore_cleanup_errors' to
     *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 1224. and allow multiple
     ‘cleanup()’ attempts.  Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-43428(24): Include changes from importlib_metadata 3.7(25):

     Performance enhancements to distribution discovery.

     ‘entry_points’ only returns unique distributions.

     Introduces new ‘EntryPoints’ object for containing a set of entry
     points with convenience methods for selecting entry points by group
     or name.  ‘entry_points’ now returns this object if selection
     parameters are supplied but continues to return a dict object for
     compatibility.  Users are encouraged to rely on the selection
     interface.  The dict object result is likely to be deprecated in
     the future.

     Added packages_distributions function to return a mapping of
     packages to the distributions that provide them.

   - bpo-43332(26): Improves the networking efficiency of *note
     http.client: 6f. when using a proxy via ‘set_tunnel()’.  Fewer
     small send calls are made during connection setup.

   - bpo-43420(27): Improve performance of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1e7. arithmetics for large components.  Contributed by Sergey B.
     Kirpichev.

   - bpo-43356(28): Allow passing a signal number to
     ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’.

   - bpo-43399(29): Fix ‘ElementTree.extend’ not working on iterators
     when using the Python implementation

   - bpo-43369(30): Improve *note sqlite3: cf. error handling: If
     ‘sqlite3_column_text()’ and ‘sqlite3_column_blob()’ set
     ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’, *note MemoryError: 157e. is now raised.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43368(31): Fix a regression introduced in PR 24562, where an
     empty bytestring was fetched as ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’ in *note
     sqlite3: cf.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - bpo-41282(32): Fixed stacklevel of ‘DeprecationWarning’ emitted
     from ‘import distutils’.

   - bpo-42129(33): ‘importlib.resources’ now honors namespace packages,
     merging resources from each location in the namespace as introduced
     in ‘importlib_resources’ 3.2 and including incidental changes
     through 5.0.3.

   - bpo-43295(34): *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612. now raises
     ‘ValueError’ instead of ‘IndexError’ when matching ‘'z'’ with the
     ‘%z’ format specifier.

   - bpo-43125(35): Return empty string if base64mime.body_encode
     receive empty bytes

   - bpo-43084(36): *note curses.window.enclose(): 18de. returns now
     ‘True’ or ‘False’ (as was documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-42994(37): Add MIME types for opus, AAC, 3gpp and 3gpp2

   - bpo-14678(38): Add an invalidate_caches() method to the
     zipimport.zipimporter class to support
     importlib.invalidate_caches().  Patch by Desmond Cheong.

   - bpo-42782(39): Fail fast in *note shutil.move(): a58. to avoid
     creating destination directories on failure.

   - bpo-40066(40): Enum’s ‘repr()’ and ‘str()’ have changed: ‘repr()’
     is now 'EnumClass.MemberName' and ‘str()’ is 'MemberName'.
     Additionally, stdlib Enum’s whose contents are available as module
     attributes, such as ‘RegexFlag.IGNORECASE’, have their ‘repr()’ as
     'module.name', e.g.  ‘re.IGNORECASE’.

   - bpo-26053(41): Fixed bug where the *note pdb: a5. interactive run
     command echoed the args from the shell command line, even if those
     have been overridden at the pdb prompt.

   - bpo-24160(42): Fixed bug where breakpoints did not persist across
     multiple debugger sessions in *note pdb: a5.’s interactive mode.

   - bpo-40701(43): When the *note tempfile.tempdir: 18df. global
     variable is set to a value of type bytes, it is now handled
     consistently.  Previously exceptions could be raised from some
     tempfile APIs when the directory did not already exist in this
     situation.  Also ensures that the *note tempfile.gettempdir():
     18e0. and *note tempfile.gettempdirb(): 18e1. functions 'always'
     return ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ respectively.

   - bpo-39342(44): Expose ‘X509_V_FLAG_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS’ as *note
     VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS: 18e2. to allow proxy certificate
     validation as explained in
     ‘https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man7/proxy-certificates/’.

   - bpo-31861(45): Add builtins.aiter and builtins.anext.  Patch by
     Joshua Bronson (@jab), Daniel Pope (@lordmauve), and Justin Wang
     (@justin39).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43433

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35930

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43577

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43542

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43510

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43521

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41361

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43423

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27820

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43445

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43245

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29982

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43428

   (25) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-7-0

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43332

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43420

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43399

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43369

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43368

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42129

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43295

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43125

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43084

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42994

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42782

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26053

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40701

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39342

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<33>,  Next: Tests<35>,  Prev: Library<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43199(1): Answer “Why is there no goto?” in the Design and
     History FAQ.

   - bpo-43407(2): Clarified that a result from *note time.monotonic():
     253, *note time.perf_counter(): a85, *note time.process_time():
     a86, or *note time.thread_time(): 934. can be compared with the
     result from any following call to the same function - not just the
     next immediate call.

   - bpo-43354(3): Fix type documentation for ‘Fault.faultCode’; the
     type has to be ‘int’ instead of ‘str’.

   - bpo-41933(4): Clarified wording of s * n in the Common Sequence
     Operations

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43407

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43354

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41933


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<35>,  Next: Build<37>,  Prev: Documentation<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37945(1): Fix test_getsetlocale_issue1813() of test_locale:
     skip the test if ‘setlocale()’ fails.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41561(2): Add workaround for Ubuntu’s custom OpenSSL security
     level policy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561


File: python.info,  Node: Build<37>,  Next: Windows<34>,  Prev: Tests<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43179(1): Introduce and correctly use ALIGNOF_X in place of
     SIZEOF_X for alignment-related code in optimized string routines.
     Patch by Jessica Clarke.

   - bpo-43631(2): Update macOS, Windows, and CI to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.

   - bpo-43617(3): Improve configure.ac: Check for presence of
     autoconf-archive package and remove our copies of M4 macros.

   - bpo-43466(4): The ‘configure’ script now supports
     ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ option.

   - bpo-43372(5): Use ‘_freeze_importlib’ to generate code for the
     ‘__hello__’ module.  This approach ensures the code matches the
     interpreter version.  Previously, PYTHON_FOR_REGEN was used to
     generate the code, which might be wrong.  The marshal format for
     code objects has changed with bpo-42246(6), commit 877df851.
     Update the code and the expected code sizes in ctypes
     test_frozentable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43372

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<34>,  Next: IDLE<23>,  Prev: Build<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43440(1): Build *note sqlite3: cf. with the ‘R*Tree’ module
     enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43440


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<23>,  Next: C API<36>,  Prev: Windows<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42225(1): Document that IDLE can fail on Unix either from
     misconfigured IP masquerade rules or failure displaying complex
     colored (non-ascii) characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42225


File: python.info,  Node: C API<36>,  Prev: IDLE<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.23.40.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-43688(1): The limited C API is now supported if Python is built
     in debug mode (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the limited
     C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 569. and *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.
     functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than
     accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 89b. member, if
     Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 332.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(2)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the ‘--with-trace-refs’
     special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(3): Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(4): Remove the compiler and parser functions using
     ‘struct _mod’ type, because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(5): Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header
     files.  These functions were undocumented and excluded from the
     limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not
     prefixed by ‘Py’ and so could create names conflicts.  For example,
     ‘Python-ast.h’ defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the
     ‘Yield’ name used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the
     Python *note ast: 8. module instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43541(6): Fix a ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx()’ regression: fix reference
     counting on builtins.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(7): Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the
     undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     The Python *note symtable: d8. module remains available and is
     unchanged.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(8): Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no
     longer possible to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the
     public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C
     API ( PEP 384(9)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43541

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.23.41 Python 3.10.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-03-01'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<25>,  Next: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42967(1): Fix web cache poisoning vulnerability by defaulting
     the query args separator to ‘&’, and allowing the user to choose a
     custom separator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<41>,  Next: Library<40>,  Prev: Security<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43321(1): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ is
     used with ‘#’ but without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - bpo-36346(2): ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions now emits
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘u’ or ‘Z’ format is used.  See PEP
     623(3) for detail.

   - bpo-43277(4): Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 899. function to
     the C-API to check if an object is an instance of *note set: 5d3.
     but not an instance of a subtype.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42990(5): The *note types.FunctionType: 87f. constructor now
     inherits the current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 180. and *note exec():
     17f. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42990(6): Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which
     is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed,
     instead of looking into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  Patch by
     Mark Shannon and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43149(7): Improve the error message in the parser for exception
     groups without parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43121(8): Fixed an incorrect *note SyntaxError: 18d. message
     for missing comma in literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42819(9): *note readline: ba.: Explicitly disable bracketed
     paste in the interactive interpreter, even if it’s set in the
     inputrc, is enabled by default (eg GNU Readline 8.1), or a user
     calls ‘readline.read_init_file()’.  The Python REPL has not
     implemented bracketed paste support.  Also, bracketed mode writes
     the ‘"\x1b[?2004h"’ escape sequence into stdout which causes test
     failures in applications that don’t support it.  It can still be
     explicitly enabled by calling ‘readline.parse_and_bind("set
     enable-bracketed-paste on")’.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-42808(10): Simple calls to ‘type(object)’ are now faster due to
     the ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-42217(11): Make the compiler merges same co_code and
     co_linetable objects in a module like already did for co_consts.

   - bpo-41972(12): Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’
     and ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use the “Two-Way” string
     comparison algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings.

   - bpo-42128(13): Implement PEP 634(14) (structural pattern matching).
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-40692(15): In the *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8eb, validate that ‘multiprocess.synchronize()’ is available on a
     given platform and rely on that check in the *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. test suite so we can run tests that are
     unrelated to ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ on those platforms.

   - bpo-38302(16): If *note object.__ipow__(): 7ca. returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb, the operator will correctly fall back to *note
     object.__pow__(): 7cc. and *note object.__rpow__(): 7cd. as
     expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43321

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43121

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42819

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42808

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42217

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40692

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302


File: python.info,  Node: Library<40>,  Next: Documentation<34>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43316(1): The ‘python -m gzip’ command line application now
     properly fails when detecting an unsupported extension.  It exits
     with a non-zero exit code and prints an error message to stderr.

   - bpo-43317(2): Set the chunk size for the ‘gzip’ module main
     function to io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE. This is slightly faster than
     the 1024 bytes constant that was used previously.

   - bpo-43146(3): Handle None in single-arg versions of *note
     print_exception(): 849. and *note format_exception(): 847.

   - bpo-43260(4): Fix TextIOWrapper can not flush internal buffer
     forever after very large text is written.

   - bpo-43258(5): Prevent needless allocation of *note sqlite3: cf.
     aggregate function context when no rows match an aggregate query.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43251(6): Improve *note sqlite3: cf. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_column_name()’ failures now result in *note MemoryError:
     157e.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40956(7): Fix segfault in *note sqlite3.Connection.backup():
     b77. if no argument was provided.  The regression was introduced by
     PR 23838.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43172(8): The readline module now passes its tests when built
     directly against libedit.  Existing irreconcilable API differences
     remain in *note readline.get_begidx(): 18ed. and *note
     readline.get_endidx(): 18ee. behavior based on libreadline vs
     libedit use.

   - bpo-43163(9): Fix a bug in *note codeop: 1c. that was causing it to
     not ask for more input when multi-line snippets have unclosed
     parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43162(10): deprecate unsupported ability to access enum members
     as attributes of other enum members

   - bpo-43146(11): Fix recent regression in None argument handling in
     *note traceback: fe. module functions.

   - bpo-43102(12): The namedtuple __new__ method had its __builtins__
     set to None instead of an actual dictionary.  This created problems
     for introspection tools.

   - bpo-43106(13): Added *note O_EVTONLY: 814, *note O_FSYNC: 815,
     *note O_SYMLINK: 816. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 817. for macOS.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42960(14): Adds *note resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES: 18ef. constant
     from FreeBSD to the *note resource: bc. module.

   - bpo-42151(15): Make the pure Python implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. behave the same as the C implementation
     (‘_elementree’) regarding default attribute values (by not setting
     ‘specified_attributes=1’).

   - bpo-29753(16): In ctypes, now packed bitfields are calculated
     properly and the first item of packed bitfields is now shrank
     correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43316

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43258

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43251

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43172

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43163

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43162

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43102

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42960

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42151

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29753


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<34>,  Next: Tests<36>,  Prev: Library<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27646(1): Clarify that ‘yield from <expr>’ works with any
     iterable, not just iterators.

   - bpo-36346(2): Update some deprecated unicode APIs which are
     documented as “will be removed in 4.0” to “3.12”.  See PEP 623(3)
     for detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<36>,  Next: Build<38>,  Prev: Documentation<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43288(1): Fix test_importlib to correctly skip Unicode file
     tests if the filesystem does not support them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43288


File: python.info,  Node: Build<38>,  Next: Windows<35>,  Prev: Tests<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43174(1): Windows build now uses ‘/utf-8’ compiler option.

   - bpo-43103(2): Add a new configure ‘--without-static-libpython’
     option to not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and
     not install the ‘python.o’ object file.

   - bpo-13501(3): The configure script can now use 'libedit' instead of
     'readline' with the command line option ‘--with-readline=editline’.

   - bpo-42603(4): Make configure script use pkg-config to detect the
     location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries, used to build tkinter.

     On macOS, a Tcl/Tk configuration provided by pkg-config will be
     preferred over Tcl/Tk frameworks installed in
     ‘/{System/,}Library/Frameworks’.  If both exist and the latter is
     preferred, the appropriate ‘--with-tcltk-*’ configuration options
     need to be explicitly set.

   - bpo-39448(5): Add the “regen-frozen” makefile target that
     regenerates the code for the frozen ‘__hello__’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43174

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13501

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<35>,  Next: macOS<27>,  Prev: Build<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43155(1): *note PyCMethod_New(): 18f4. is now present in
     ‘python3.lib’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43155


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<27>,  Next: IDLE<24>,  Prev: Windows<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41837(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<24>,  Next: C API<37>,  Prev: macOS<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43283(1): Document why printing to IDLE’s Shell is often slower
     than printing to a system terminal and that it can be made faster
     by pre-formatting a single string before printing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43283


File: python.info,  Node: C API<37>,  Prev: IDLE<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.23.41.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43278(1): Always put compiler and system information on the
     first line of the REPL welcome message.

   - bpo-43270(2): Remove the private ‘_PyErr_OCCURRED()’ macro: use the
     public *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8. function instead.

   - bpo-35134(3): Move odictobject.h, parser_interface.h,
     picklebufobject.h, pydebug.h, and pyfpe.h into the cpython/
     directory.  They must not be included directly, as they are already
     included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 77d.

   - bpo-35134(4): Move pyarena.h, pyctype.h, and pytime.h into the
     cpython/ directory.  They must not be included directly, as they
     are already included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 77d.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a62. is now always
     declared as a function, in order to hide implementation details.
     The macro accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 18f9. directly.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43239(6): The *note PyCFunction_New(): 18fa. function is now
     exported in the ABI when compiled with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40170(7): *note PyIter_Check(): 18fb. is now always declared as
     a function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_iternext: 14b7. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40170(8): Convert *note PyDescr_IsData(): 18fc. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: The macro accessed *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set: 18fd. directly.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43181(9): Convert *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 18fe. macro to a
     static inline function.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43239

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43181


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.42 Python 3.10.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-02-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* C API: C API<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<26>,  Next: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42938(1): Avoid static buffers when computing the repr of *note
     ctypes.c_double: 1901. and *note ctypes.c_longdouble: 1902. values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<42>,  Next: Library<41>,  Prev: Security<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42990(1): Refactor the ‘PyEval_’ family of functions.

        * An new function ‘_PyEval_Vector’ is added to simplify calls to
          Python from C.

        * ‘_PyEval_EvalCodeWithName’ is removed

        * ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx’ is retained as part of the API, but is not
          used internally

   - bpo-38631(2): Replace *note Py_FatalError(): 980. calls in the
     compiler with regular *note SystemError: 570. exceptions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42997(3): Improve error message for missing “:” before blocks.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43017(4): Improve error message in the parser when using
     un-parenthesised tuples in comprehensions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42986(5): Fix parser crash when reporting syntax errors in
     f-string with newlines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40176(6): Syntax errors for unterminated string literals now
     point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL.

   - bpo-42927(7): The inline cache for ‘LOAD_ATTR’ now also optimizes
     access to attributes defined by ‘__slots__’.  This makes reading
     such attribute up to 30% faster.

   - bpo-42864(8): Improve error messages in the parser when parentheses
     are not closed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42924(9): Fix ‘bytearray’ repetition incorrectly copying data
     from the start of the buffer, even if the data is offset within the
     buffer (e.g.  after reassigning a slice at the start of the
     ‘bytearray’ to a shorter byte string).

   - bpo-42882(10): Fix the ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function
     (_Py_IDENTIFIER(var) API) when *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. / *note
     Py_Finalize(): 1342. is called multiple times: preserve
     ‘_PyRuntime.unicode_ids.next_index’ value.

   - bpo-42827(11): Fix a crash when working out the error line of a
     *note SyntaxError: 18d. in some multi-line expressions.

   - bpo-42823(12): frame.f_lineno is correct even if frame.f_trace is
     set to True

   - bpo-37324(13): Remove deprecated aliases to *note Collections 추상
     베이스 클래스: 873. from the *note collections: 1d. module.

   - bpo-41994(14): Fixed possible leak in ‘import’ when ‘sys.modules’
     is not a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-27772(15): In string formatting, preceding the 'width' field by
     ‘'0'’ no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42986

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42924

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42882

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42827

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41994

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27772


File: python.info,  Node: Library<41>,  Next: Documentation<35>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43108(1): Fixed a reference leak in the *note curses: 2b.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43077(2): Update the bundled pip to 21.0.1 and setuptools to
     52.0.0.

   - bpo-41282(3): Deprecate ‘distutils’ in documentation and add
     warning on import.

   - bpo-43014(4): Improve performance of *note tokenize: fb. by 20-30%.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42323(5): Fix *note math.nextafter(): 492. for NaN on AIX.

   - bpo-42955(6): Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83b, containing
     the list of the standard library module names.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42944(7): Fix ‘random.Random.sample’ when ‘counts’ argument is
     not ‘None’.

   - bpo-42934(8): Use *note TracebackException: 25c.’s new ‘compact’
     param in *note TestResult: 1158. to reduce time and memory consumed
     by traceback formatting.

   - bpo-42931(9): Add ‘randbytes()’ to ‘random.__all__’.

   - bpo-38250(10): [Enum] Flags consisting of a single bit are now
     considered canonical, and will be the only flags returned from
     listing and iterating over a Flag class or a Flag member.
     Multi-bit flags are considered aliases; they will be returned from
     lookups and operations that result in their value.  Iteration for
     both Flag and Flag members is in definition order.

   - bpo-42877(11): Added the ‘compact’ parameter to the constructor of
     *note traceback.TracebackException: 25c. to reduce time and memory
     for use cases that only need to call ‘TracebackException.format()’
     and ‘TracebackException.format_exception_only()’.

   - bpo-42923(12): The *note Py_FatalError(): 980. function and the
     *note faulthandler: 58. module now dump the list of extension
     modules on a fatal error.

   - bpo-42848(13): Removed recursion from *note TracebackException:
     25c. to allow it to handle long exception chains.

   - bpo-42901(14): [Enum] move member creation from ‘EnumMeta.__new__’
     to ‘_proto_member.__set_name__’, allowing members to be created and
     visible in ‘__init_subclass__’.

   - bpo-42780(15): Fix os.set_inheritable() for O_PATH file descriptors
     on Linux.

   - bpo-42866(16): Fix a reference leak in the ‘getcodec()’ function of
     CJK codecs.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42846(17): Convert the 6 CJK codec extension modules
     (_codecs_cn, _codecs_hk, _codecs_iso2022, _codecs_jp, _codecs_kr
     and _codecs_tw) to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP
     489(18)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42851(19): remove __init_subclass__ support for Enum members

   - bpo-42834(20): Make internal caches of the ‘_json’ module
     compatible with subinterpreters.

   - bpo-41748(21): Fix HTMLParser parsing rules for element attributes
     containing commas with spaces.  Patch by Karl Dubost.

   - bpo-40810(22): Require SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert the _multibytecodec extension module (CJK
     codecs) to multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42802(25): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in
     Python 3.8 has been removed.  The distutils ‘bdist_wheel’ command
     is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows.

   - bpo-24464(26): The undocumented built-in function
     ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is now deprecated, scheduled for
     removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is strongly discouraged by the
     SQLite3 documentation.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42384(27): Make pdb populate sys.path[0] exactly the same as
     regular python execution.

   - bpo-42383(28): Fix pdb: previously pdb would fail to restart the
     debugging target if it was specified using a relative path and the
     current directory changed.

   - bpo-42005(29): Fix CLI of *note cProfile: 27. and *note profile:
     af. to catch *note BrokenPipeError: 1052.

   - bpo-41604(30): Don’t decrement the reference count of the previous
     user_ptr when set_panel_userptr fails.

   - bpo-41149(31): Allow executing callables that have a boolean value
     of ‘False’ when passed to ‘Threading.thread’ as the target.  Patch
     contributed by Barney Stratford.

   - bpo-38307(32): Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the Class and
     Function objects that appear in the tree returned by pyclbr
     functions.  This and the existing ‘lineno’ attribute define the
     extent of class and def statements.  Patch by Aviral Srivastava.

   - bpo-39273(33): The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the
     *note curses: 2b. module if available.

   - bpo-33289(34): Correct call to *note tkinter.colorchooser: f1. to
     return RGB triplet of ints instead of floats.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43108

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43077

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43014

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42323

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42931

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38250

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42923

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42848

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42901

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42780

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42866

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42846

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42851

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42834

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41748

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42384

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42383

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42005

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41149

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33289


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<35>,  Next: Tests<37>,  Prev: Library<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-40304(1): Fix doc for type(name, bases, dict).  Patch by Boris
     Verkhovskiy and Éric Araujo.

   - bpo-42811(2): Updated importlib.util.resolve_name() doc to use
     __spec__.parent instead of __package__.  (Thanks Yair Frid.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42811


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<37>,  Next: Build<39>,  Prev: Documentation<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40823(1): Use ‘unittest.TestLoader().loadTestsFromTestCase()’
     instead of ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ in *note sqlite3: cf. tests.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40810(2): In *note sqlite3: cf, fix ‘CheckTraceCallbackContent’
     for SQLite pre 3.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810


File: python.info,  Node: Build<39>,  Next: Windows<36>,  Prev: Tests<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43031(1): Pass ‘--timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’ option to the default
     profile task ‘./python -m test --pgo’ command.

   - bpo-36143(2): ‘make regen-all’ now also runs ‘regen-keyword’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42874(3): Removed the grep -q and -E flags in the tzpath
     validation section of the configure script to better accommodate
     users of some platforms (specifically Solaris 10).

   - bpo-31904(4): Add library search path by wr-cc in
     add_cross_compiling_paths() for VxWorks.

   - bpo-42856(5): Add ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH’ option to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 55.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43031

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<36>,  Next: macOS<28>,  Prev: Build<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41837(1): Updated Windows installer to include OpenSSL 1.1.1i

   - bpo-42584(2): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<28>,  Next: IDLE<25>,  Prev: Windows<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Ensure that the value of
     sysconfig.get_config_var(‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’) is always a
     string, even in when the value is parsable as an integer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<25>,  Next: C API<38>,  Prev: macOS<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43008(1): Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 805. in
     normal, 2-process mode.  Patch by Ken Hilton.

   - bpo-33065(2): Fix problem debugging user classes with __repr__
     method.

   - bpo-23544(3): Disable Debug=>Stack Viewer when user code is running
     or Debugger is active, to prevent hang or crash.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-32631(4): Finish zzdummy example extension module: make menu
     entries work; add docstrings and tests with 100% coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33065

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23544

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32631


File: python.info,  Node: C API<38>,  Prev: IDLE<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.23.42.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42979(1): When Python is built in debug mode (with C
     assertions), calling a type slot like ‘sq_length’ (‘__len__()’ in
     Python) now fails with a fatal error if the slot succeeded with an
     exception set, or failed with no exception set.  The error message
     contains the slot, the type name, and the current exception (if an
     exception is set).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43030(2): Fixed a compiler warning in *note
     Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(): 190c. on platforms with signed ‘wchar_t’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42979

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43030


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.43 Python 3.10.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-01-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<43>,  Next: Library<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42814(1): Fix undefined behavior in
     ‘Objects/genericaliasobject.c’.

   - bpo-42806(2): Fix the column offsets for f-strings *note ast: 8.
     nodes surrounded by parentheses and for nodes that spawn multiple
     lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40631(3): Fix regression where a single parenthesized starred
     expression was a valid assignment target.

   - bpo-27794(4): Improve the error message for failed writes/deletes
     to property objects.  When possible, the attribute name is now
     shown.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42745(5): Make the type attribute lookup cache per-interpreter.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42246(6): Jumps to jumps are not eliminated when it would break
     PEP 626.

   - bpo-42246(7): Make sure that the ‘f_lasti’ and ‘f_lineno’
     attributes of a frame are set correctly when an exception is raised
     or re-raised.  Required for PEP 626.

   - bpo-32381(8): The coding cookie (ex: ‘# coding: latin1’) is now
     ignored in the command passed to the *note -c: 5da. command line
     option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-30858(9): Improve error location in expressions that contain
     assignments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou.

   - bpo-42615(10): Remove jump commands made redundant by the deletion
     of unreachable bytecode blocks

   - bpo-42639(11): Make the *note atexit: c. module state
     per-interpreter.  It is now safe have more than one *note atexit:
     c. module instance.  Patch by Donghee Na and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32381(12): Fix encoding name when running a ‘.pyc’ file on
     Windows: *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 190f. now uses the
     correct encoding to decode the filename.

   - bpo-42195(13): The ‘__args__’ of the parameterized generics for
     *note typing.Callable: 7be. and *note collections.abc.Callable:
     7e3. are now consistent.  The ‘__args__’ for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. are now flattened while *note
     typing.Callable: 7be.’s have not changed.  To allow this change,
     *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4. can now be subclassed and
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’’s ‘__class_getitem__’ will now return a
     subclass of ‘types.GenericAlias’.  Tests for typing were also
     updated to not subclass things like ‘Callable[..., T]’ as that is
     not a valid base class.  Finally, both ‘Callable’s no longer
     validate their ‘argtypes’, in ‘Callable[[argtypes], resulttype]’ to
     prepare for PEP 612(14).  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-40137(15): Convert functools module to use *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c.

   - bpo-40077(16): Convert *note array: 7. to use heap types, and
     establish module state for these.

   - bpo-42008(17): Fix _random.Random() seeding.

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port the ‘pyexpat’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-40521(20): Make the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39465(21): Make ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Each interpreter now has an array of identifier
     objects (interned strings decoded from UTF-8).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42806

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30858

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42615

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40137

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465


File: python.info,  Node: Library<42>,  Next: Documentation<36>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-42257(1): Handle empty string in variable executable in
     platform.libc_ver()

   - bpo-42772(2): randrange() now raises a TypeError when step is
     specified without a stop argument.  Formerly, it silently ignored
     the step argument.

   - bpo-42759(3): Fixed equality comparison of ‘tkinter.Variable’ and
     *note tkinter.font.Font: 1911.  Objects which belong to different
     Tcl interpreters are now always different, even if they have the
     same name.

   - bpo-42756(4): Configure LMTP Unix-domain socket to use socket
     global default timeout when a timeout is not explicitly provided.

   - bpo-23328(5): Allow / character in username, password fields on
     _PROXY envars.

   - bpo-42740(6): *note typing.get_args(): 87a. and *note
     typing.get_origin(): a43. now support PEP 604(7) union types and
     PEP 612(8) additions to ‘Callable’.

   - bpo-42655(9): *note subprocess: d6. 'extra_groups' is now correctly
     passed into setgroups() system call.

   - bpo-42727(10): ‘EnumMeta.__prepare__’ now accepts ‘**kwds’ to
     properly support ‘__init_subclass__’

   - bpo-38308(11): Add optional 'weights' to
     'statistics.harmonic_mean()'.

   - bpo-42721(12): When simple query dialogs (*note
     tkinter.simpledialog: f8.), message boxes (*note
     tkinter.messagebox: f6.) or color choose dialog (*note
     tkinter.colorchooser: f1.) are created without arguments 'master'
     and 'parent', and the default root window is not yet created, and
     ‘NoDefaultRoot()’ was not called, a new temporal hidden root window
     will be created automatically.  It will not be set as the default
     root window and will be destroyed right after closing the dialog
     window.  It will help to use these simple dialog windows in
     programs which do not need other GUI.

   - bpo-25246(13): Optimized *note collections.deque.remove(): 1912.

   - bpo-35728(14): Added a root parameter to *note
     tkinter.font.nametofont(): 1913.

   - bpo-15303(15): *note tkinter: f0. supports now widgets with boolean
     value False.

   - bpo-42681(16): Fixed range checks for color and pair numbers in
     *note curses: 2b.

   - bpo-42685(17): Improved placing of simple query windows in Tkinter
     (such as *note tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger(): 1914.).  They are
     now centered at the center of the parent window if it is specified
     and shown, otherwise at the center of the screen.

   - bpo-9694(18): Argparse help no longer uses the confusing phrase,
     “optional arguments”.  It uses “options” instead.

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port the ‘_thread’ extension module to the
     multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(20)) and convert its static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-37961(21): Fix crash in ‘tracemalloc.Traceback.__repr__()’
     (regressed in Python 3.9).

   - bpo-42630(22): *note tkinter: f0. functions and constructors which
     need a default root window raise now *note RuntimeError: 195. with
     descriptive message instead of obscure *note AttributeError: 346.
     or *note NameError: 438. if it is not created yet or cannot be
     created automatically.

   - bpo-42639(23): ‘atexit._run_exitfuncs()’ now logs callback
     exceptions using *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f7, rather than logging
     them directly into *note sys.stderr: 937. and raise the last
     exception.

   - bpo-42644(24): ‘logging.disable’ will now validate the types and
     value of its parameter.  It also now accepts strings representing
     the levels (as does ‘logging.setLevel’) instead of only the
     numerical values.

   - bpo-42639(25): At Python exit, if a callback registered with *note
     atexit.register(): 879. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.

   - bpo-36541(26): Fixed lib2to3.pgen2 to be able to parse PEP-570
     positional only argument syntax.

   - bpo-42382(27): In ‘importlib.metadata’: - ‘EntryPoint’ objects now
     expose a ‘.dist’ object referencing the ‘Distribution’ when
     constructed from a ‘Distribution’.  - Add support for package
     discovery under package normalization rules.  - The object returned
     by ‘metadata()’ now has a formally defined protocol called
     ‘PackageMetadata’ with declared support for the ‘.get_all()’
     method.  - Synced with importlib_metadata 3.3.

   - bpo-41877(28): A check is added against misspellings of autospect,
     auto_spec and set_spec being passed as arguments to patch,
     patch.object and create_autospec.

   - bpo-39717(29): [tarfile] update nested exception raising to use
     ‘from None’ or ‘from e’

   - bpo-41877(30): AttributeError for suspected misspellings of
     assertions on mocks are now pointing out that the cause are
     misspelled assertions and also what to do if the misspelling is
     actually an intended attribute name.  The unittest.mock document is
     also updated to reflect the current set of recognised misspellings.

   - bpo-41559(31): Implemented PEP 612(32): added ‘ParamSpec’ and
     ‘Concatenate’ to *note typing: 104.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42385(33): StrEnum: fix _generate_next_value_ to return a str

   - bpo-31904(34): Define THREAD_STACK_SIZE for VxWorks.

   - bpo-34750(35): [Enum] ‘_EnumDict.update()’ is now supported.

   - bpo-42517(36): Enum: private names do not become members / do not
     generate errors – they remain normal attributes

   - bpo-42678(37): ‘Enum’: call ‘__init_subclass__’ after members have
     been added

   - bpo-28964(38): *note ast.literal_eval(): c15. adds line number
     information (if available) in error message for malformed nodes.

   - bpo-42470(39): *note random.sample(): 73f. no longer warns on a
     sequence which is also a set.

   - bpo-31904(40): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ returns the input 'path'
     unchanged if user home directory is None on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42388(41): Fix subprocess.check_output(…, input=None) behavior
     when text=True to be consistent with that of the documentation and
     universal_newlines=True.

   - bpo-34463(42): Fixed discrepancy between *note traceback: fe. and
     the interpreter in formatting of SyntaxError with lineno not set
     (*note traceback: fe. was changed to match interpreter).

   - bpo-42393(43): Raise *note OverflowError: 87d. instead of silent
     truncation in *note socket.ntohs(): 87c. and *note socket.htons():
     87b.  Silent truncation was deprecated in Python 3.7.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland

   - bpo-42222(44): Harmonized *note random.randrange(): 866. argument
     handling to match *note range(): 941.

        * The integer test and conversion in ‘randrange()’ now uses
          *note operator.index(): 1915.

        * Non-integer arguments to ‘randrange()’ are deprecated.

        * The ‘ValueError’ is deprecated in favor of a ‘TypeError’.

        * It now runs a little faster than before.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-42163(45): Restore compatibility for ‘uname_result’ around
     deepcopy and _replace.

   - bpo-42090(46): ‘zipfile.Path.joinpath’ now accepts arbitrary
     arguments, same as ‘pathlib.Path.joinpath’.

   - bpo-1635741(47): Port the _csv module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(48)).

   - bpo-42059(49): *note typing.TypedDict: 162. types created using the
     alternative call-style syntax now correctly respect the ‘total’
     keyword argument when setting their ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ class attributes.

   - bpo-41960(50): Add ‘globalns’ and ‘localns’ parameters to the *note
     inspect.signature(): 731. and *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 733.

   - bpo-41907(51): fix ‘format()’ behavior for ‘IntFlag’

   - bpo-41891(52): Ensure asyncio.wait_for waits for task completion

   - bpo-24792(53): Fixed bug where ‘zipimporter’ sometimes reports an
     incorrect cause of import errors.

   - bpo-31904(54): Fix site and sysconfig modules for VxWorks RTOS
     which has no home directories.

   - bpo-41462(55): Add *note os.set_blocking(): e36. support for
     VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40219(56): Lowered ‘tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale’ dummy widget to
     prevent hiding part of the content label.

   - bpo-37193(57): Fixed memory leak in ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn’
     introduced in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-39068(58): Fix initialization race condition in ‘a85encode()’
     and ‘b85encode()’ in *note base64: e.  Patch by Brandon Stansbury.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42772

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42756

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23328

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42740

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42655

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38308

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42721

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25246

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35728

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15303

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42681

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42630

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42644

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42382

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39717

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42385

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34750

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42517

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42678

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28964

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42470

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42388

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34463

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42163

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42090

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42059

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41960

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41907

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41891

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24792

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41462

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40219

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37193

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39068


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<36>,  Next: Tests<38>,  Prev: Library<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17140(1): Add documentation for the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool: 1917. class.

   - bpo-34398(2): Prominently feature listings from the glossary in
     documentation search results.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17140

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34398


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<38>,  Next: Build<40>,  Prev: Documentation<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-42794(1): Update test_nntplib to use official group name of
     news.aioe.org for testing.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-31904(2): Skip some asyncio tests on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42641(3): Enhance ‘test_select.test_select()’: it now takes 500
     milliseconds rather than 10 seconds.  Use Python rather than a
     shell to make the test more portable.

   - bpo-31904(4): Skip some tests in _test_all_chown_common() on
     VxWorks.

   - bpo-42199(5): Fix bytecode helper assertNotInBytecode.

   - bpo-41443(6): Add more attribute checking in test_posix.py

   - bpo-31904(7): Disable os.popen and impacted tests on VxWorks

   - bpo-41439(8): Port test_ssl and test_uuid to VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42794

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41439


File: python.info,  Node: Build<40>,  Next: macOS<29>,  Prev: Tests<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-42692(1): Fix __builtin_available check on older compilers.
     Patch by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-27640(2): Added ‘--disable-test-modules’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script: don’t build nor install test modules.  Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin.

   - bpo-42604(3): Now all platforms use a value for the “EXT_SUFFIX”
     build variable derived from SOABI (for instance in freeBSD,
     “EXT_SUFFIX” is now “.cpython-310d.so” instead of “.so”).
     Previously only Linux, Mac and VxWorks were using a value for
     “EXT_SUFFIX” that included “SOABI”.

   - bpo-42598(4): Fix implicit function declarations in configure which
     could have resulted in incorrect configuration checks.  Patch
     contributed by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-31904(5): Enable libpython3.so for VxWorks.

   - bpo-29076(6): Add fish shell support to macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42604

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29076


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<29>,  Next: Tools/Demos<19>,  Prev: Build<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42361(1): Update macOS installer build to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.11
     (rc2, expected to be final release).

   - bpo-41837(2): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1i.

   - bpo-42584(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<19>,  Next: C API<39>,  Prev: macOS<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-42726(1): Fixed Python 3 compatibility issue with
     gdb/libpython.py handling of attribute dictionaries.

   - bpo-42613(2): Fix ‘freeze.py’ tool to use the prope config and
     library directories.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42613


File: python.info,  Node: C API<39>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<19>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.23.43.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-42591(1): Export the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function: fix a Python
     3.9.0 regression.  Python 3.9 uses ‘-fvisibility=hidden’ and the
     function was not exported explicitly and so not exported.

   - bpo-32381(2): Remove the private ‘_Py_fopen()’ function which is no
     longer needed.  Use ‘_Py_wfopen()’ or ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’ instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port *note resource: bc. extension module to module
     state

   - bpo-42111(4): Update the ‘xxlimited’ module to be a better example
     of how to use the limited C API.

   - bpo-40052(5): Fix an alignment build warning/error in function
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’.  Patch by Andreas Schneider, Antoine
     Pitrou and Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42591

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42111

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40052


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.44 Python 3.10.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-12-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<27>,  Next: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40791(1): Add ‘volatile’ to the accumulator variable in
     ‘hmac.compare_digest’, making constant-time-defeating optimizations
     less likely.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<44>,  Next: Library<43>,  Prev: Security<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42576(1): ‘types.GenericAlias’ will now raise a ‘TypeError’
     when attempting to initialize with a keyword argument.  Previously,
     this would cause the interpreter to crash if the interpreter was
     compiled with debug symbols.  This does not affect interpreters
     compiled for release.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42536(2): Several built-in and standard library types now
     ensure that their internal result tuples are always tracked by the
     *note garbage collector: 1920.:

        - *note collections.OrderedDict.items(): 5d5.

        - *note dict.items(): 7c8.

        - *note enumerate(): 1445.

        - *note functools.reduce(): 12cc.

        - *note itertools.combinations(): 1302.

        - *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1271.

        - *note itertools.permutations(): 1921.

        - *note itertools.product(): 1303.

        - *note itertools.zip_longest(): 128d.

        - *note zip(): 7c9.

     Previously, they could have become untracked by a prior garbage
     collection.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-42500(3): Improve handling of exceptions near recursion limit.
     Converts a number of Fatal Errors in RecursionErrors.

   - bpo-42246(4): PEP 626: After a return, the f_lineno attribute of a
     frame is always the last line executed.

   - bpo-42435(5): Speed up comparison of bytes objects with non-bytes
     objects when option *note -b: 5dd. is specified.  Speed up
     comparison of bytarray objects with non-buffer object.

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port the ‘_warnings’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-41686(8): On Windows, the ‘SIGINT’ event,
     ‘_PyOS_SigintEvent()’, is now created even if Python is configured
     to not install signal handlers (if *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8bb. equals to 0, or
     ‘Py_InitializeEx(0)’).

   - bpo-42381(9): Allow assignment expressions in set literals and set
     comprehensions as per PEP 572.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42202(10): Change function parameters annotations internal
     representation to tuple of strings.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-42374(11): Fix a regression introduced by the new parser, where
     an unparenthesized walrus operator was not allowed within generator
     expressions.

   - bpo-42316(12): Allow an unparenthesized walrus in subscript
     indexes.

   - bpo-42349(13): Make sure that the compiler front-end produces a
     well-formed control flow graph.  Be more aggressive in the compiler
     back-end, as it is now safe to do so.

   - bpo-42296(14): On Windows, fix a regression in signal handling
     which prevented to interrupt a program using CTRL+C. The signal
     handler can be run in a thread different than the Python thread, in
     which case the test deciding if the thread can handle signals is
     wrong.

   - bpo-42332(15): *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-42282(16): Optimise constant subexpressions that appear as part
     of named expressions (previously the AST optimiser did not descend
     into named expressions).  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42266(17): Fixed a bug with the LOAD_ATTR opcode cache that was
     not respecting monkey-patching a class-level attribute to make it a
     descriptor.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert *note queue: b6. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42246(19): Improved accuracy of line tracing events and
     f_lineno attribute of Frame objects.  See PEP 626 for details.

   - bpo-40077(20): Convert *note mmap: 90. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42233(21): Allow ‘GenericAlias’ objects to use *note union type
     expressions: 7bb.  This allows expressions like ‘list[int] |
     dict[float, str]’ where previously a ‘TypeError’ would have been
     thrown.  This also fixes union type expressions not de-duplicating
     ‘GenericAlias’ objects.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42233(22).)

   - bpo-26131(23): The import system triggers a ‘ImportWarning’ when it
     falls back to using ‘load_module()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42576

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42435

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42381

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42374

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42349

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42296

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42332

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42282

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42266

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131


File: python.info,  Node: Library<43>,  Next: Documentation<37>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-5054(1): CGIHTTPRequestHandler.run_cgi() HTTP_ACCEPT improperly
     parsed.  Replace the special purpose getallmatchingheaders with
     generic get_all method and add relevant tests.

     Original Patch by Martin Panter.  Modified by Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-42562(2): Fix issue when dis failed to parse function that has
     no line numbers.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-17735(3): ‘inspect.findsource()’ now raises *note OSError: 411.
     instead of *note IndexError: 14fc. when ‘co_lineno’ of a code
     object is greater than the file length.  This can happen, for
     example, when a file is edited after it was imported.  PR by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-42116(4): Fix handling of trailing comments by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 151b.

   - bpo-42532(5): Remove unexpected call of ‘__bool__’ when passing a
     ‘spec_arg’ argument to a Mock.

   - bpo-38200(6): Added itertools.pairwise()

   - bpo-41818(7): Fix test_master_read() so that it succeeds on all
     platforms that either raise OSError or return b”” upon reading from
     master.

   - bpo-42487(8): ChainMap.__iter__ no longer calls __getitem__ on
     underlying maps

   - bpo-42482(9): *note TracebackException: 25c. no longer holds a
     reference to the exception’s traceback object.  Consequently,
     instances of TracebackException for equivalent but non-equal
     exceptions now compare as equal.

   - bpo-41818(10): Make test_openpty() avoid unexpected success due to
     number of rows and/or number of columns being == 0.

   - bpo-42392(11): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.subprocess’ and
     ‘asyncio.tasks’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42392(12): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.open_connection’
     and ‘asyncio.start_server’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-28468(13): Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 820.
     function to parse freedesktop.org ‘os-release’ files.

   - bpo-42299(14): Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated
     in Python 3.4.  It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not
     tested.  It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6,
     but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing
     users should copy whatever classes they use into their code.  Patch
     by Donghee Na and and Terry J. Reedy.

   - bpo-26131(15): Deprecate zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() in
     favour of exec_module().

   - bpo-41818(16): Updated tests for the pty library.  test_basic() has
     been changed to test_openpty(); this additionally checks if slave
     termios and slave winsize are being set properly by pty.openpty().
     In order to add support for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Darwin,
     this also adds test_master_read(), which demonstrates that
     pty.spawn() should not depend on an OSError to exit from its copy
     loop.

   - bpo-42392(17): Remove loop parameter from ‘__init__’ in all
     ‘asyncio.locks’ and ‘asyncio.Queue’ classes.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-15450(18): Make *note filecmp.dircmp: f38. respect subclassing.
     Now the *note filecmp.dircmp.subdirs: 1923. behaves as expected
     when subclassing dircmp.

   - bpo-42413(19): The exception *note socket.timeout: 82e. is now an
     alias of *note TimeoutError: 82f.

   - bpo-31904(20): Support signal module on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42406(21): We fixed an issue in ‘pickle.whichmodule’ in which
     importing ‘multiprocessing’ could change the how pickle identifies
     which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking the
     unpickling of those objects.

   - bpo-42403(22): Simplify the *note importlib: 77. external bootstrap
     code: ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’ now uses regular imports to
     import builtin modules.  When it is imported, the builtin *note
     __import__(): 8d1. function is already fully working and so can be
     used to import builtin modules like *note sys: d9.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert _sre module types to heap types (PEP 384).
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42375(24): subprocess module update for DragonFlyBSD support.

   - bpo-41713(25): Port the ‘_signal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(26)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner and Mohamed Koubaa.

   - bpo-37205(27): *note time.time(): 254, *note time.perf_counter():
     a85. and *note time.monotonic(): 253. functions can no longer fail
     with a Python fatal error, instead raise a regular Python exception
     on failure.

   - bpo-42328(28): Fixed *note tkinter.ttk.Style.map(): 1924.  The
     function accepts now the representation of the default state as
     empty sequence (as returned by ‘Style.map()’).  The structure of
     the result is now the same on all platform and does not depend on
     the value of ‘wantobjects’.

   - bpo-42345(29): Fix various issues with ‘typing.Literal’ parameter
     handling (flatten, deduplicate, use type to cache key).  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-37205(30): *note time.perf_counter(): a85. on Windows and *note
     time.monotonic(): 253. on macOS are now system-wide.  Previously,
     they used an offset computed at startup to reduce the precision
     loss caused by the float type.  Use *note time.perf_counter_ns():
     ae2. and *note time.monotonic_ns(): ae1. added in Python 3.7 to
     avoid this precision loss.

   - bpo-42318(31): Fixed support of non-BMP characters in *note
     tkinter: f0. on macOS.

   - bpo-42350(32): Fix the *note threading.Thread: 94a. class at fork:
     do nothing if the thread is already stopped (ex: fork called at
     Python exit).  Previously, an error was logged in the child
     process.

   - bpo-42333(33): Port _ssl extension module to heap types.

   - bpo-42014(34): The ‘onerror’ callback from ‘shutil.rmtree’ now
     receives correct function when ‘os.open’ fails.

   - bpo-42237(35): Fix ‘os.sendfile()’ on illumos.

   - bpo-42308(36): Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 844. to allow
     retrieving the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 845.
     in case it is set to a broken or a different value.  Patch by Mario
     Corchero.

   - bpo-42131(37): Implement PEP 451/spec methods on
     zipimport.zipimporter: find_spec(), create_module(), and
     exec_module().

     This also allows for the documented deprecation of find_loader(),
     find_module(), and load_module().

   - bpo-41877(38): Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an
     AttributeError if an attribute with the prefix asert, aseert, or
     assrt is accessed, in addition to this already happening for the
     prefixes assert or assret.

   - bpo-42264(39): ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and
     obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str:
     445.  It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-42251(40): Added *note threading.gettrace(): 840. and *note
     threading.getprofile(): 841. to retrieve the functions set by *note
     threading.settrace(): 842. and *note threading.setprofile(): 843.
     respectively.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-42249(41): Fixed writing binary Plist files larger than 4 GiB.

   - bpo-42236(42): On Unix, the *note os.device_encoding(): 1898.
     function now returns ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding if
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. is enabled.

   - bpo-41754(43): webbrowser: Ignore 'NotADirectoryError' when calling
     ‘xdg-settings’.

   - bpo-42183(44): Fix a stack overflow error for asyncio Task or
     Future repr().

     The overflow occurs under some circumstances when a Task or Future
     recursively returns itself.

   - bpo-42140(45): Improve asyncio.wait function to create the futures
     set just one time.

   - bpo-42133(46): Update various modules in the stdlib to fall back on
     ‘__spec__.loader’ when ‘__loader__’ isn’t defined on a module.

   - bpo-26131(47): The ‘load_module()’ methods found in ‘importlib’ now
     trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-39825(48): Windows: Change
     ‘sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')’ to the expected full
     ‘platform_tag.extension’ format.  Previously it was hard-coded to
     ‘.pyd’, now it is compatible with ‘distutils.sysconfig’ and will
     result in something like ‘.cp38-win_amd64.pyd’.  This brings
     windows into conformance with the other platforms.

   - bpo-26389(49): The *note traceback.format_exception(): 847, *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 848, and *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 849. functions can now take an
     exception object as a positional-only argument.

   - bpo-41889(50): Enum: fix regression involving inheriting a multiply
     inherited enum

   - bpo-41861(51): Convert *note sqlite3: cf. to use heap types (PEP
     384).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40624(52): Added support for the XPath ‘!=’ operator in
     xml.etree

   - bpo-28850(53): Fix *note pprint.PrettyPrinter.format(): 1925.
     overrides being ignored for contents of small containers.  The
     ‘pprint._safe_repr()’ function was removed.

   - bpo-41625(54): Expose the ‘splice()’ as *note os.splice(): 813. in
     the *note os: a1. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-34215(55): Clarify the error message for *note
     asyncio.IncompleteReadError: 1926. when ‘expected’ is ‘None’.

   - bpo-41543(56): Add async context manager support for
     contextlib.nullcontext.

   - bpo-21041(57): *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 81a. now supports
     negative indexing.  Patch contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych.

   - bpo-41332(58): Added missing connect_accepted_socket() method to
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop’.

   - bpo-12800(59): Extracting a symlink from a tarball should succeed
     and overwrite the symlink if it already exists.  The fix is to
     remove the existing file or symlink before extraction.  Based on
     patch by Chris AtLee, Jeffrey Kintscher, and Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-40968(60): *note urllib.request: 10b. and *note http.client:
     6f. now send ‘http/1.1’ ALPN extension during TLS handshake when no
     custom context is supplied.

   - bpo-41001(61): Add *note os.eventfd(): 812. to provide a low level
     interface for Linux’s event notification file descriptor.

   - bpo-40816(62): Add AsyncContextDecorator to contextlib to support
     async context manager as a decorator.

   - bpo-40550(63): Fix time-of-check/time-of-action issue in
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal.

   - bpo-39411(64): Add an ‘is_async’ identifier to *note pyclbr: b4.’s
     ‘Function’ objects.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-35498(65): Add slice support to *note pathlib.PurePath.parents:
     81a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5054

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42562

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17735

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42116

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42487

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42482

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15450

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42406

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42403

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42375

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42328

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42318

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42350

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42014

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42237

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42249

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41754

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42183

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42140

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39825

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41889

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41861

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40624

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28850

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12800

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40968

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40816

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40550

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39411

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<37>,  Next: Tests<39>,  Prev: Library<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): Tentative to deprecate ‘make suspicious’ by first
     removing it from the CI and documentation builds, but keeping it
     around for manual uses.

   - bpo-42153(2): Fix the URL for the IMAP protocol documents.

   - bpo-41028(3): Language and version switchers, previously maintained
     in every cpython branches, are now handled by docsbuild-script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42153

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41028


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<39>,  Next: Build<41>,  Prev: Documentation<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41473(1): Re-enable test_gdb on gdb 9.2 and newer:
     ‘https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1866884’ bug is fixed
     in gdb 10.1.

   - bpo-42553(2): Fix ‘test_asyncio.test_call_later()’ race condition:
     don’t measure asyncio performance in the ‘call_later()’ unit test.
     The test failed randomly on the CI.

   - bpo-31904(3): Fix test_netrc on VxWorks: create temporary
     directories using temp_cwd().

   - bpo-31904(4): skip test_getaddrinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic and
     test_getnameinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(5): skip test_test of test_mailcap on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(6): add shell requirement for test_pipes

   - bpo-31904(7): skip some tests related to fifo on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(8): Fix test_doctest.py failures for VxWorks.

   - bpo-40754(9): Include ‘_testinternalcapi’ module in Windows
     installer for test suite

   - bpo-41561(10): test_ssl: skip test_min_max_version_mismatch when
     TLS 1.0 is not available

   - bpo-31904(11): Fix os module failures for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix fifo test cases for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42553

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40754

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Build<41>,  Next: Windows<37>,  Prev: Tests<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): remove libnet dependency from detect_socket() for
     VxWorks

   - bpo-42398(2): Fix a race condition in “make regen-all” when make
     -jN option is used to run jobs in parallel.  The clinic.py script
     now only use atomic write to write files.  Moveover, generated
     files are now left unchanged if the content does not change, to not
     change the file modification time.

   - bpo-41617(3): Fix building ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ internal header on
     old clang version without ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ (ex: Xcode 4.6.3 on
     Mac OS X 10.7).  Patch by Joshua Root and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38823(4): It is no longer possible to build the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module without ‘wchar_t’ type: remove ‘CTYPES_UNICODE’
     macro.  Anyway, the ‘wchar_t’ type is required to build Python.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42087(5): Support was removed for AIX 5.3 and below.  See
     bpo-40680(6).

   - bpo-40998(7): Addressed three compiler warnings found by undefined
     behavior sanitizer (ubsan).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42398

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38823

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40680

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40998


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<37>,  Next: macOS<30>,  Prev: Build<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-42120(1): Remove macro definition of ‘copysign’ (to
     ‘_copysign’) in headers.

   - bpo-38506(2): The Windows launcher now properly handles Python 3.10
     when listing installed Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42120

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38506


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<30>,  Next: IDLE<26>,  Prev: Windows<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Fix build on macOS Big Sur when
     MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET=11

   - bpo-41116(2): Ensure distutils.unixxcompiler.find_library_file can
     find system provided libraries on macOS 11.

   - bpo-41100(3): Add support for macOS 11 and Apple Silicon systems.

     It is now possible to build “Universal 2” binaries using
     “–enable-universalsdk –with-universal-archs=universal2”.

     Binaries build on later macOS versions can be deployed back to
     older versions (tested up to macOS 10.9), when using the correct
     deployment target.  This is tested using Xcode 11 and later.

   - bpo-42232(4): Added Darwin specific madvise options to mmap module.

   - bpo-38443(5): The ‘--enable-universalsdk’ and
     ‘--with-universal-archs’ options for the configure script now check
     that the specified architectures can be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38443


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<26>,  Next: Tools/Demos<20>,  Prev: macOS<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42508(1): Keep IDLE running on macOS. Remove obsolete
     workaround that prevented running files with shortcuts when using
     new universal2 installers built on macOS 11.

   - bpo-42426(2): Fix reporting offset of the RE error in searchengine.

   - bpo-42415(3): Get docstrings for IDLE calltips more often by using
     inspect.getdoc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42508

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42415


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<20>,  Next: C API<40>,  Prev: IDLE<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-42212(1): The smelly.py script now also checks the Python
     dynamic library and extension modules, not only the Python static
     library.  Make also the script more verbose: explain what it does.

   - bpo-36310(2): Allow ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’ to detect calls to
     ‘gettext’ in f-strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<40>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<20>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.23.44.11 C API
................

   - bpo-42423(1): The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port *note select: c1. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _posixsubprocess extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port _posixshmem extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(7))

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _struct extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9))

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port ‘spwd’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11))

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note gc: 60. extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13))

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port _queue extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(15))

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert *note Py_TYPE(): 779. and *note Py_SIZE():
     77b. back to macros to allow using them as an l-value.  Many third
     party C extension modules rely on the ability of using Py_TYPE()
     and Py_SIZE() to set an object type and size: ‘Py_TYPE(obj) =
     type;’ and ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = size;’.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port *note symtable: d8. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(18))

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port *note grp: 66. and *note pwd: b2. extension
     modules to multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(20))

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _random extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22))

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port _hashlib extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(24))

   - bpo-41713(25): Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’
     function.  Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal
     handlers: see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8bb.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(26): The ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ macro no longer accesses
     PyTypeObject attributes, but now can get the condition by calling
     the new private ‘_PyTrash_cond()’ function which hides
     implementation details.

   - bpo-42260(27): *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af,
     *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1,
     *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note Python
     Initialization Configuration API: 3a1. to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration.: 8aa.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(28): The *note PyConfig_Read(): 789. function now only
     parses *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. arguments once: *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are
     parsed.  Since Python arguments are strippped from *note
     PyConfig.argv: 3bd, parsing arguments twice would parse the
     application options as Python options.

   - bpo-42262(29): Added *note Py_NewRef(): 896. and *note
     Py_XNewRef(): 897. functions to increment the reference count of an
     object and return the object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(30): When *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. is called twice,
     the second call now updates more *note sys: d9. attributes for the
     configuration, rather than only *note sys.argv: 1255.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41832(31): The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. function
     now accepts NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.

   - bpo-1635741(32): Added *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e.
     function: similar to *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35f. but don’t
     steal a reference to the value on success.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42171(33): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e. calling convention is
     added to the limited API. The functions *note PyModule_AddType():
     973, *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c, *note
     PyType_GetModule(): 96c. and *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96d.
     are added to the limited API on Windows.

   - bpo-42085(34): Add dedicated entry to PyAsyncMethods for sending
     values

   - bpo-41073(35): *note PyType_GetSlot(): 898. can now accept static
     types.

   - bpo-30459(36): *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 387, *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 386. and *note PyCell_SET(): 8ab. macros can no
     longer be used as l-value or r-value.  For example, ‘x =
     PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now
     fail with a compiler error.  It prevents bugs like ‘if
     (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.  Patch by Zackery Spytz
     and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42171

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42085

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.45 Python 3.10.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-11-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<28>,  Next: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42103(1): Prevented potential DoS attack via CPU and RAM
     exhaustion when processing malformed Apple Property List files in
     binary format.

   - bpo-42051(2): The *note plistlib: ab. module no longer accepts
     entity declarations in XML plist files to avoid XML
     vulnerabilities.  This should not affect users as entity
     declarations are not used in regular plist files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42051


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<45>,  Next: Library<44>,  Prev: Security<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42236(1): If the ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ function returns an
     empty string, Python now uses UTF-8 as the filesystem encoding.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42218(2): Fixed a bug in the PEG parser that was causing
     crashes in debug mode.  Now errors are checked in left-recursive
     rules to avoid cases where such errors do not get handled in time
     and appear as long-distance crashes in other places.

   - bpo-42214(3): Fixed a possible crash in the PEG parser when
     checking for the ‘!=’ token in the ‘barry_as_flufl’ rule.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42206(4): Propagate and raise the errors caused by
     ‘PyAST_Validate()’ in the parser.

   - bpo-41796(5): The *note ast: 8. module internal state is now per
     interpreter.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42143(6): Fix handling of errors during creation of
     ‘PyFunctionObject’, which resulted in operations on uninitialized
     memory.  Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-41659(7): Fix a bug in the parser, where a curly brace
     following a ‘primary’ didn’t fail immediately.  This led to invalid
     expressions like ‘a {b}’ to throw a *note SyntaxError: 18d. with a
     wrong offset, or invalid expressions ending with a curly brace like
     ‘a {’ to not fail immediately in the REPL.

   - bpo-42150(8): Fix possible buffer overflow in the new parser when
     checking for continuation lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42123(9): Run the parser two times.  On the first run, disable
     all the rules that only generate better error messages to gain
     performance.  If there’s a parse failure, run the parser a second
     time with those enabled.

   - bpo-42093(10): The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new “per opcode
     cache” mechanism and it is about 36% faster now.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-42030(11): Support for the legacy AIX-specific shared library
     loading support has been removed.  All versions of AIX since 4.3
     have supported and defaulted to using the common Unix mechanism
     instead.

   - bpo-41984(12): The garbage collector now tracks all user-defined
     classes.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-41993(13): Fixed potential issues with removing not completely
     initialized module from ‘sys.modules’ when import fails.

   - bpo-41979(14): Star-unpacking is now allowed for with item’s
     targets in the PEG parser.

   - bpo-41974(15): Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’,
     ‘__rmod__’ and ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 2f0. class.
     They always raised a *note TypeError: 532.

   - bpo-41902(16): Micro optimization when compute *note sq_item: 1933.
     and *note mp_subscript: 1934. of *note range: 941.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41894(17): When loading a native module and a load failure
     occurs, prevent a possible UnicodeDecodeError when not running in a
     UTF-8 locale by decoding the load error message using the current
     locale’s encoding.

   - bpo-41902(18): Micro optimization for range.index if step is 1.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41435(19): Add ‘sys._current_exceptions()’ function to retrieve
     a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.

   - bpo-38605(20): Enable ‘from __future__ import annotations’ ( PEP
     563(21)) by default.  The values found in ‘__annotations__’ dicts
     are now strings, for example ‘{"x": "int"}’ instead of ‘{"x":
     int}’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42218

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42214

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42206

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41796

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42143

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41659

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42150

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42123

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42030

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41984

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41993

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41979

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41894

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41435

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<44>,  Next: Documentation<38>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35455(1): On Solaris, *note thread_time(): 934. is now
     implemented with ‘gethrvtime()’ because
     ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ is not always available.
     Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - bpo-42233(2): The *note repr(): 7f7. of *note typing: 104. types
     containing *note Generic Alias Types: 6ac. previously did not show
     the parameterized types in the ‘GenericAlias’.  They have now been
     changed to do so.

   - bpo-29566(3): ‘binhex.binhex()’ consistently writes macOS 9 line
     endings.

   - bpo-26789(4): The *note logging.FileHandler: 18a5. class now keeps
     a reference to the builtin *note open(): 515. function to be able
     to open or reopen the file during Python finalization.  Fix errors
     like: ‘NameError: name 'open' is not defined’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(5): Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute
     which was an internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(6): Convert the *note unicodedata: 105. extension module
     to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)) and convert the
     ‘unicodedata.UCD’ static type to a heap type.  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42146(8): Fix memory leak in *note subprocess.Popen(): 199. in
     case an uid (gid) specified in ‘user’ (‘group’, ‘extra_groups’)
     overflows ‘uid_t’ (‘gid_t’).

   - bpo-42103(9): *note InvalidFileException: 1936. and *note
     RecursionError: d68. are now the only errors caused by loading
     malformed binary Plist file (previously ValueError and TypeError
     could be raised in some specific cases).

   - bpo-41490(10): In ‘importlib.resources’, ‘.path’ method is more
     aggressive about releasing handles to zipfile objects early,
     enabling use-cases like certifi to leave the context open but
     delete the underlying zip file.

   - bpo-41052(11): Pickling heap types implemented in C with protocols
     0 and 1 raises now an error instead of producing incorrect data.

   - bpo-42089(12): In ‘importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError’, make
     reference to the package metadata being missing to improve the user
     experience.

   - bpo-41491(13): plistlib: fix parsing XML plists with hexadecimal
     integer values

   - bpo-42065(14): Fix an incorrectly formatted error from
     ‘_codecs.charmap_decode()’ when called with a mapped value outside
     the range of valid Unicode code points.  PR by Max Bernstein.

   - bpo-41966(15): Fix pickling pure Python *note datetime.time: 1ce.
     subclasses.  Patch by Dean Inwood.

   - bpo-19270(16): *note sched.scheduler.cancel(): 1937. will now
     cancel the correct event, if two events with same priority are
     scheduled for the same time.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-28660(17): *note textwrap.wrap(): 148d. now attempts to break
     long words after hyphens when ‘break_long_words=True’ and
     ‘break_on_hyphens=True’.

   - bpo-35823(18): Use ‘vfork()’ instead of ‘fork()’ for *note
     subprocess.Popen(): 199. on Linux to improve performance in cases
     where it is deemed safe.

   - bpo-42043(19): Add support for ‘zipfile.Path’ inheritance.
     ‘zipfile.Path.is_file()’ now returns False for non-existent names.
     ‘zipfile.Path’ objects now expose a ‘.filename’ attribute and rely
     on that to resolve ‘.name’ and ‘.parent’ when the ‘Path’ object is
     at the root of the zipfile.

   - bpo-42021(20): Fix possible ref leaks in *note sqlite3: cf. module
     init.

   - bpo-39101(21): Fixed tests using IsolatedAsyncioTestCase from
     hanging on BaseExceptions.

   - bpo-41976(22): Fixed a bug that was causing *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): d46. to return ‘None’ when triying to
     locate a library in an environment when gcc>=9 is available and
     ‘ldconfig’ is not.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41943(23): Fix bug where TestCase.assertLogs doesn’t correctly
     filter messages by level.

   - bpo-41923(24): Implement PEP 613(25), introducing *note
     typing.TypeAlias: 7c2. annotation.

   - bpo-41905(26): A new function in abc: 'update_abstractmethods' to
     re-calculate an abstract class’s abstract status.  In addition,
     'dataclass' has been changed to call this function.

   - bpo-23706(27): Added 'newline' parameter to
     ‘pathlib.Path.write_text()’.

   - bpo-41876(28): Tkinter font class repr uses font name

   - bpo-41831(29): ‘str()’ for the ‘type’ attribute of the
     ‘tkinter.Event’ object always returns now the numeric code returned
     by Tk instead of the name of the event type.

   - bpo-39337(30): *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 7f5. now
     ignores non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-41747(31): Ensure all methods that generated from *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 1cb. objects now have the proper
     ‘__qualname__’ attribute referring to the class they belong to.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-30681(32): Handle exceptions caused by unparsable date headers
     when using email “default” policy.  Patch by Tim Bell, Georges Toth

   - bpo-41586(33): Add F_SETPIPE_SZ and F_GETPIPE_SZ to fcntl module.
     Allow setting pipesize on subprocess.Popen.

   - bpo-41229(34): Add ‘contextlib.aclosing’ for deterministic cleanup
     of async generators which is analogous to ‘contextlib.closing’ for
     non-async generators.  Patch by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte.

   - bpo-16396(35): Allow ‘ctypes.wintypes’ to be imported on
     non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-4356(36): Add a key function to the bisect module.

   - bpo-40592(37): *note shutil.which(): 4ae. now ignores empty entries
     in ‘PATHEXT’ instead of treating them as a match.

   - bpo-40492(38): Fix ‘--outfile’ for *note cProfile: 27. / *note
     profile: af. not writing the output file in the original directory
     when the program being profiled changes the working directory.  PR
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-34204(39): The *note shelve: c3. module now uses *note
     pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 828. by default instead of *note pickle:
     a6. protocol ‘3’.

   - bpo-27321(40): Fixed KeyError exception when flattening an email to
     a string attempts to replace a non-existent
     Content-Transfer-Encoding header.

   - bpo-38976(41): The *note http.cookiejar: 70. module now supports
     the parsing of cookies in CURL-style cookiejar files through
     MozillaCookieJar on all platforms.  Previously, such cookie entries
     would be silently ignored when loading a cookiejar with such
     entries.

     Additionally, the HTTP Only attribute is persisted in the object,
     and will be correctly written to file if the MozillaCookieJar
     object is subsequently dumped.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35455

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29566

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26789

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42146

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41490

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42089

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41491

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42065

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41966

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19270

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28660

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35823

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42043

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42021

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39101

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41976

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41943

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41905

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23706

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41876

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41831

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41747

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30681

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41586

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16396

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40592

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40492

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27321

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<38>,  Next: Tests<40>,  Prev: Library<44>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42061(1): Document __format__ functionality for IP addresses.

   - bpo-41910(2): Document the default implementation of
     ‘object.__eq__’.

   - bpo-42010(3): Clarify that subscription expressions are also valid
     for certain *note classes: 1939. and *note types: 193a. in the
     standard library, and for user-defined classes and types if the
     classmethod ‘__class_getitem__()’ is provided.

   - bpo-41805(4): Documented *note generic alias type: 6ac. and *note
     types.GenericAlias: 7e4.  Also added an entry in glossary for *note
     generic types: 432.

   - bpo-39693(5): Fix tarfile’s extractfile documentation

   - bpo-39416(6): Document some restrictions on the default string
     representations of numeric classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42061

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42010

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41805

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39693

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39416


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<40>,  Next: Build<42>,  Prev: Documentation<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41739(1): Fix
     test_logging.test_race_between_set_target_and_flush(): the test now
     waits until all threads complete to avoid leaking running threads.

   - bpo-41970(2): Avoid a test failure in ‘test_lib2to3’ if the module
     has already imported at the time the test executes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41944(3): Tests for CJK codecs no longer call ‘eval()’ on
     content received via HTTP.

   - bpo-41306(4): Fixed a failure in ‘test_tk.test_widgets.ScaleTest’
     happening when executing the test with Tk 8.6.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41739

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41306


File: python.info,  Node: Build<42>,  Next: Windows<38>,  Prev: Tests<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38980(1): Add ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to both the compile
     and link line when building with ‘--enable-optimizations’.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<38>,  Next: macOS<31>,  Prev: Build<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38439(1): Updates the icons for IDLE in the Windows Store
     package.

   - bpo-38252(2): Use 8-byte step to detect ASCII sequence in 64-bit
     Windows build.

   - bpo-39107(3): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.10 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-41557(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-38324(5): Avoid Unicode errors when accessing certain locale
     data on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38252

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39107

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38324


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<31>,  Next: IDLE<27>,  Prev: Windows<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41471(1): Ignore invalid prefix lengths in system proxy
     excludes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41471


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<27>,  Next: C API<41>,  Prev: macOS<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33987(1): Mostly finish using ttk widgets, mainly for editor,
     settings, and searches.  Some patches by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-40511(2): Typing opening and closing parentheses inside the
     parentheses of a function call will no longer cause unnecessary
     “flashing” off and on of an existing open call-tip, e.g.  when
     typed in a string literal.

   - bpo-38439(3): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to the Windows .ico
     file.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Remove the low-color gif
     variations from the .ico file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40511

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439


File: python.info,  Node: C API<41>,  Prev: IDLE<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.23.45.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42157(1): The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the
     PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the
     internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42015(2): Fix potential crash in deallocating method objects
     when dynamically allocated *note PyMethodDef: 149f.’s lifetime is
     managed through the ‘self’ argument of a *note PyCFunction: 143d.

   - bpo-40423(3): The *note subprocess: d6. module and ‘os.closerange’
     will now use the ‘close_range(low, high, flags)’ syscall when it is
     available for more efficient closing of ranges of descriptors.

   - bpo-41845(4): *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1941. is available
     again in the limited API when targeting 3.10 or later.

   - bpo-40422(5): Add ‘_Py_closerange’ function to provide performant
     closing of a range of file descriptors.

   - bpo-41986(6): ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ and ‘Py_UTF8Mode’
     are available again in limited API.

   - bpo-41756(7): Add ‘PyIter_Send’ function to allow sending value
     into generator/coroutine/iterator without raising StopIteration
     exception to signal return.

   - bpo-41784(8): Added ‘PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize’ to the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42015

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40423

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41845

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40422

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.46 Python 3.10.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* C API: C API<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<29>,  Next: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-41304(1): Fixes ‘python3x._pth’ being ignored on Windows,
     caused by the fix for bpo-29778(2) ( CVE 2020-15801(3)).

   - bpo-41162(4): Audit hooks are now cleared later during finalization
     to avoid missing events.

   - bpo-29778(5): Ensure ‘python3.dll’ is loaded from correct locations
     when Python is embedded ( CVE 2020-15523(6)).

   - bpo-41004(7): The __hash__() methods of ipaddress.IPv4Interface and
     ipaddress.IPv6Interface incorrectly generated constant hash values
     of 32 and 128 respectively.  This resulted in always causing hash
     collisions.  The fix uses hash() to generate hash values for the
     tuple of (address, mask length, network address).

   - bpo-39603(8): Prevent http header injection by rejecting control
     characters in http.client.putrequest(…).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15801

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41162

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15523

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41004

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39603


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<46>,  Next: Library<45>,  Prev: Security<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41909(1): Fixed stack overflow in *note issubclass(): 7ba. and
     *note isinstance(): 43b. when getting the ‘__bases__’ attribute
     leads to infinite recursion.

   - bpo-41922(2): Speed up calls to ‘reversed()’ by using the PEP
     590(3) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41873(4): Calls to ‘float()’ are now faster due to the
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-41870(5): Speed up calls to ‘bool()’ by using the PEP 590(6)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(7): Port the ‘_bisect’ module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(8)).

   - bpo-39934(9): Correctly count control blocks in ‘except’ in
     compiler.  Ensures that a syntax error, rather a fatal error,
     occurs for deeply nested, named exception handlers.

   - bpo-41780(10): Fix ‘__dir__()’ of *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port the ‘_lsprof’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-1635741(13): Port the *note cmath: 18. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(14)).

   - bpo-1635741(15): Port the ‘_scproxy’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(16)).

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port the *note termios: e1. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Convert the ‘_sha256’ extension module types to
     heap types.

   - bpo-41690(20): Fix a possible stack overflow in the parser when
     parsing functions and classes with a huge amount of arguments.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port the ‘_overlapped’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port the ‘_curses_panel’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port the ‘_opcode’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-41681(27): Fixes the wrong error description in the error
     raised by using 2 ‘,’ in format string in f-string and *note
     str.format(): 61b.

   - bpo-41675(28): The implementation of *note signal.siginterrupt():
     1126. now uses ‘sigaction()’ (if it is available in the system)
     instead of the deprecated ‘siginterrupt()’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41670(29): Prevent line trace being skipped on platforms not
     compiled with ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’.  Fixes issue where some lines
     nested within a try-except block were not being traced on Windows.

   - bpo-41654(30): Fix a crash that occurred when destroying subclasses
     of *note MemoryError: 157e.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port the *note zlib: 133. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-41631(33): The ‘_ast’ module uses again a global state.  Using
     a module state per module instance is causing subtle practical
     problems.  For example, the Mercurial project replaces the
     ‘__import__()’ function to implement lazy import, whereas Python
     expected that ‘import _ast’ always return a fully initialized
     ‘_ast’ module.

   - bpo-40077(34): Convert ‘_operator’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     578.

   - bpo-1653741(35): Port ‘_sha3’ to multi-phase init.  Convert static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port the ‘_blake2’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-41533(38): Free the stack allocated in ‘va_build_stack’ if
     ‘do_mkstack’ fails and the stack is not a ‘small_stack’.

   - bpo-41531(39): Fix a bug that was dropping keys when compiling dict
     literals with more than 0xFFFF elements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41525(40): The output of ‘python --help’ contains now only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-1635741(41): Port the ‘_sha1’, ‘_sha512’, and ‘_md5’ extension
     modules to multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(42)).

   - bpo-41431(43): Optimize ‘dict_merge()’ for copying dict (e.g.
     ‘dict(d)’ and ‘{}.update(d)’).

   - bpo-41428(44): Implement PEP 604.  This supports (int | str) etc.
     in place of Union[str, int].

   - bpo-41340(45): Removed fallback implementation for ‘strdup’.

   - bpo-38156(46): Handle interrupts that come after EOF correctly in
     ‘PyOS_StdioReadline’.

   - bpo-41342(47): *note round(): 12ca. with integer argument is now
     faster (9–60%).

   - bpo-41334(48): Constructors *note str(): 445, *note bytes(): 1c2.
     and *note bytearray(): 538. are now faster (around 30–40% for small
     objects).

   - bpo-41295(49): Resolve a regression in CPython 3.8.4 where defining
     “__setattr__” in a multi-inheritance setup and calling up the
     hierarchy chain could fail if builtins/extension types were
     involved in the base types.

   - bpo-41323(50): Bytecode optimizations are performed directly on the
     control flow graph.  This will result in slightly more compact code
     objects in some circumstances.

   - bpo-41247(51): Always cache the running loop holder when running
     ‘asyncio.set_running_loop’.

   - bpo-41252(52): Fix incorrect refcounting in _ssl.c’s
     ‘_servername_callback()’.

   - bpo-1635741(53): Port *note multiprocessing: 94. to multi-phase
     initialization

   - bpo-1635741(54): Port ‘winapi’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41215(55): Use non-NULL default values in the PEG parser
     keyword list to overcome a bug that was preventing Python from
     being properly compiled when using the XLC compiler.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41218(56): Python 3.8.3 had a regression where compiling with
     ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT would aggressively mark list
     comprehension with CO_COROUTINE. Now only list comprehension making
     use of async/await will tagged as so.

   - bpo-1635741(57): Port *note faulthandler: 58. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(58): Port ‘sha256’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41175(59): Guard against a NULL pointer dereference within
     bytearrayobject triggered by the ‘bytearray() + bytearray()’
     operation.

   - bpo-41100(60): add arm64 to the allowable Mac OS arches in
     mpdecimal.h

   - bpo-41094(61): Fix decoding errors with audit when open files with
     non-ASCII names on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - bpo-39960(62): The “hackcheck” that prevents sneaking around a
     type’s __setattr__() by calling the superclass method was rewritten
     to allow C implemented heap types.

   - bpo-41084(63): Prefix the error message with ‘f-string: ‘, when
     parsing an f-string expression which throws a *note SyntaxError:
     18d.

   - bpo-40521(64): Empty frozensets are no longer singletons.

   - bpo-41076(65): Pre-feed the parser with the location of the
     f-string expression, not the f-string itself, which allows us to
     skip the shifting of the AST node locations after the parsing is
     completed.

   - bpo-41056(66): Fixes a reference to deallocated stack space during
     startup when constructing sys.path involving a relative symlink
     when code was supplied via -c.  (discovered via Coverity)

   - bpo-41061(67): Fix incorrect expressions and asserts in hashtable
     code and tests.

   - bpo-41052(68): Opt out serialization/deserialization for
     _random.Random

   - bpo-40939(69): Rename ‘PyPegen*’ functions to ‘PyParser*’, so that
     we can remove the old set of ‘PyParser*’ functions that were using
     the old parser, but keep everything backwards-compatible.

   - bpo-35975(70): Stefan Behnel reported that cf_feature_version is
     used even when PyCF_ONLY_AST is not set.  This is against the
     intention and against the documented behavior, so it’s been fixed.

   - bpo-40939(71): Remove the remaining files from the old parser and
     the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40077(72): Convert ‘_bz2’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578.

   - bpo-41006(73): The ‘encodings.latin_1’ module is no longer imported
     at startup.  Now it is only imported when it is the filesystem
     encoding or the stdio encoding.

   - bpo-40636(74): *note zip(): 7c9. now supports PEP 618(75)’s
     ‘strict’ parameter, which raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the
     arguments are exhausted at different lengths.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-1635741(76): Port ‘_gdbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40985(77): Fix a bug that caused the *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     text to be empty when a file ends with a line ending in a line
     continuation character (i.e.  backslash).  The error text should
     contain the text of the last line.

   - bpo-40958(78): Fix a possible buffer overflow in the PEG parser
     when gathering information for emitting syntax errors.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(79): Port ‘_dbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40957(80): Fix refleak in _Py_fopen_obj() when PySys_Audit()
     fails

   - bpo-40950(81): Add a state to the ‘nis’ module ( PEP 3121(82)) and
     apply the multiphase initialization.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40947(83): The Python *note Path Configuration: 8aa. now takes
     *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1945. in account.

   - bpo-40939(84): Remove the old parser, the ‘parser’ module and all
     associated support code, command-line options and environment
     variables.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40847(85): Fix a bug where a line with only a line continuation
     character is not considered a blank line at tokenizer level.  In
     such cases, more than a single ‘NEWLINE’ token was emitted.  The
     old parser was working around the issue, but the new parser threw a
     *note SyntaxError: 18d. for valid input due to this.  For example,
     an empty line following a line continuation character was
     interpreted as a *note SyntaxError: 18d.

   - bpo-40890(86): Each dictionary view now has a ‘mapping’ attribute
     that provides a *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. wrapping the
     original dictionary.  Patch contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40889(87): Improved the performance of symmetric difference
     operations on dictionary item views.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40904(88): Fix possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     parsing f-string containing yield statements with no value
     (‘f"{yield}"’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40903(89): Fixed a possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     producing error messages for invalid assignments of the form
     ‘p=p=’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40880(90): Fix invalid memory read in the new parser when
     checking newlines in string literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40883(91): Fix memory leak in when parsing f-strings in the new
     parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40870(92): Raise *note ValueError: 202. when validating custom
     AST’s where the constants ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are used
     within a *note ast.Name: 1946. node.

   - bpo-40854(93): Allow overriding *note sys.platlibdir: 936. via a
     new *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1947. environment variable.

   - bpo-40826(94): Fix GIL usage in ‘PyOS_Readline()’: lock the GIL to
     set an exception and pass the Python thread state when checking if
     there is a pending signal.

   - bpo-1635741(95): Port *note fcntl: 59. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-19468(96): Delete unnecessary instance check in
     importlib.reload().  Patch by Furkan Önder.

   - bpo-40824(97): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 2ec. operator
     and functions *note contains(): 8d7, *note indexOf(): 8d8. and
     *note countOf(): 8d9. of the *note operator: 9f. module.

   - bpo-40792(98): Attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘step’ of the *note
     range: 941. object now always has exact type *note int: 257.
     Previously, they could have been an instance of a subclass of
     ‘int’.

   - bpo-40780(99): Fix a corner case where g-style string formatting of
     a float failed to remove trailing zeros.

   - bpo-38964(100): When there’s a *note SyntaxError: 18d. in the
     expression part of an fstring, the filename attribute of the *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. gets correctly set to the name of the file the
     fstring resides in.

   - bpo-40750(101): Support the “-d” debug flag in the new PEG parser.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40217(102): Instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. will no longer automatically visit
     their class object when traversing references in the garbage
     collector.  The user is expected to manually visit the object’s
     class.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39573(103): *note Py_TYPE(): 779. is changed to the inline
     static function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40696(104): Fix a hang that can arise after *note
     generator.throw(): 4f2. due to a cycle in the exception context
     chain.

   - bpo-40521(105): Each interpreter now its has own free lists,
     singletons and caches:

        * Free lists: float, tuple, list, dict, frame, context,
          asynchronous generator, MemoryError.

        * Singletons: empty tuple, empty bytes string, empty Unicode
          string, single byte character, single Unicode (latin1)
          character.

        * Slice cache.

     They are no longer shared by all interpreters.

   - bpo-40679(106): Certain *note TypeError: 532. messages about
     missing or extra arguments now include the function’s *note
     qualified name: 1948.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-29590(107): Make the stack trace correct after calling *note
     generator.throw(): 4f2. on a generator that has yielded from a
     ‘yield from’.

   - bpo-4022(108): Improve performance of generators by not raising
     internal StopIteration.

   - bpo-1635741(109): Port *note mmap: 90. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(110): Port ‘_lzma’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-37999(111): Builtin and extension functions that take integer
     arguments no longer accept *note Decimal: 29d.s, *note Fraction:
     1e7.s and other objects that can be converted to integers only with
     a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__(): 715. method but do not
     have the *note __index__(): 716. method).

   - bpo-29882(112): Add *note int.bit_count(): 7c5, counting the number
     of ones in the binary representation of an integer.  Patch by
     Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-36982(113): Use ncurses extended color functions when available
     to support terminals with 256 colors, and add the new function
     *note curses.has_extended_color_support(): 7ee. to indicate whether
     extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses
     library.

   - bpo-19569(114): Add the private macros ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_PUSH’,
     ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_IGNORE_DEPR_DECLS’, and ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_POP’.

   - bpo-26680(115): The int type now supports the x.is_integer() method
     for compatibility with float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41909

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39934

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41780

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41690

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41681

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41675

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41654

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41631

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1653741

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41533

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41531

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41525

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41431

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<45>,  Next: Documentation<39>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-41900(1): C14N 2.0 serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree
     failed for unprefixed attributes when a default namespace was
     defined.

   - bpo-41887(2): Strip leading spaces and tabs on *note
     ast.literal_eval(): c15.  Also document stripping of spaces and
     tabs for *note eval(): 180.

   - bpo-41773(3): Note in documentation that *note random.choices():
     cc3. doesn’t support non-finite weights, raise *note ValueError:
     202. when given non-finite weights.

   - bpo-41840(4): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d8. module that was
     causing module-scope global variables to not be reported as both
     local and global.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41842(5): Add *note codecs.unregister(): 7e1. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-40564(6): In ‘zipfile.Path’, mutate the passed ZipFile object
     type instead of making a copy.  Prevents issues when both the local
     copy and the caller’s copy attempt to close the same file handle.

   - bpo-40670(7): More reliable validation of statements in *note
     timeit.Timer: 148e.  It now accepts “empty” statements (only
     whitespaces and comments) and rejects misindentent statements.

   - bpo-41833(8): The *note threading.Thread: 94a. constructor now uses
     the target name if the 'target' argument is specified but the
     'name' argument is omitted.

   - bpo-41817(9): fix ‘tkinter.EventType’ Enum so all members are
     strings, and none are tuples

   - bpo-41810(10): *note types.EllipsisType: 84b, *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 84d. and *note types.NoneType: 84c. have
     been reintroduced, providing a new set of types readily
     interpretable by static type checkers.

   - bpo-41815(11): Fix SQLite3 segfault when backing up closed
     database.  Patch contributed by Peter David McCormick.

   - bpo-41816(12): StrEnum added: it ensures that all members are
     already strings or string candidates

   - bpo-41517(13): fix bug allowing Enums to be extended via multiple
     inheritance

   - bpo-39587(14): use the correct mix-in data type when constructing
     Enums

   - bpo-41792(15): Add is_typeddict function to typing.py to check if a
     type is a TypedDict class

     Previously there was no way to check that without using private
     API.  See the relevant issue in python/typing(16).

   - bpo-41789(17): Honor ‘object’ overrides in ‘Enum’ class creation
     (specifically, ‘__str__’, ‘__repr__’, ‘__format__’, and
     ‘__reduce_ex__’).

   - bpo-32218(18): ‘enum.Flag’ and ‘enum.IntFlag’ members are now
     iterable.

   - bpo-39651(19): Fix a race condition in the ‘call_soon_threadsafe()’
     method of ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop’: do nothing if the self-pipe
     socket has been closed.

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port the ‘mashal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(21)).

   - bpo-1635741(22): Port the ‘_string’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(23)).

   - bpo-41732(24): Added an *note iterator: 1ac. to *note memoryview:
     462.

   - bpo-41720(25): Fixed ‘turtle.Vec2D.__rmul__()’ for arguments which
     are not int or float.

   - bpo-41696(26): Fix handling of debug mode in *note asyncio.run():
     476.  This allows setting ‘PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG’ or ‘-X dev’ to
     enable asyncio debug mode when using *note asyncio.run(): 476.

   - bpo-41687(27): Fix implementation of sendfile to be compatible with
     Solaris.

   - bpo-41662(28): No longer override exceptions raised in ‘__len__()’
     of a sequence of parameters in *note sqlite3: cf. with *note
     ProgrammingError: 4ec.

   - bpo-39010(29): Restarting a ‘ProactorEventLoop’ on Windows no
     longer logs spurious ‘ConnectionResetErrors’.

   - bpo-41638(30): *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. message for absent
     parameter in *note sqlite3: cf. contains now the name of the
     parameter instead of its index when parameters are supplied as a
     dict.

   - bpo-41662(31): Fixed crash when mutate list of parameters during
     iteration in *note sqlite3: cf.

   - bpo-41513(32): Improved the accuracy of math.hypot().  Internally,
     each step is computed with extra precision so that the result is
     now almost always correctly rounded.

   - bpo-41609(33): The pdb whatis command correctly reports instance
     methods as ‘Method’ rather than ‘Function’.

   - bpo-39994(34): Fixed pprint’s handling of dict subclasses that
     override __repr__.

   - bpo-32751(35): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete also in the case when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with
     positive timeouts.

   - bpo-37658(36): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. now properly handles
     races between cancellation of itself and the completion of the
     wrapped awaitable.

   - bpo-40782(37): Change the method
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.run_in_executor to not be a coroutine.

   - bpo-41520(38): Fix *note codeop: 1c. regression that prevented
     turning compile warnings into errors.

   - bpo-41528(39): turtle uses math module functions to convert degrees
     to radians and vice versa and to calculate vector norm

   - bpo-41513(40): Minor algorithmic improvement to math.hypot() and
     math.dist() giving small gains in speed and accuracy.

   - bpo-41503(41): Fixed a race between setTarget and flush in
     logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.

   - bpo-41497(42): Fix potential UnicodeDecodeError in dis module.

   - bpo-41467(43): On Windows, fix asyncio ‘recv_into()’ return value
     when the socket/pipe is closed (*note BrokenPipeError: 1052.):
     return ‘0’ rather than an empty byte string (‘b''’).

   - bpo-41425(44): Make tkinter doc example runnable.

   - bpo-41421(45): Make an algebraic simplification to
     random.paretovariate().  It now is slightly less subject to
     round-off error and is slightly faster.  Inputs that used to cause
     ZeroDivisionError now cause an OverflowError instead.

   - bpo-41440(46): Add *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. support for VxWorks
     RTOS.

   - bpo-41316(47): Fix the *note tarfile: de. module to write only
     basename of TAR file to GZIP compression header.

   - bpo-41384(48): Raise TclError instead of TypeError when an unknown
     option is passed to tkinter.OptionMenu.

   - bpo-41317(49): Use add_done_callback() in
     asyncio.loop.sock_accept() to unsubscribe reader early on
     cancellation.

   - bpo-41364(50): Reduce import overhead of *note uuid: 110.

   - bpo-35328(51): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 111. activation.

   - bpo-41341(52): Recursive evaluation of ‘typing.ForwardRef’ in
     ‘get_type_hints’.

   - bpo-41344(53): Prevent creating ‘shared_memory.SharedMemory’
     objects with ‘size=0’.

   - bpo-41333(54): ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ is now 2 times
     faster.

   - bpo-41288(55): Unpickling invalid NEWOBJ_EX opcode with the C
     implementation raises now UnpicklingError instead of crashing.

   - bpo-39017(56): Avoid infinite loop when reading specially crafted
     TAR files using the tarfile module ( CVE 2019-20907(57)).

   - bpo-41273(58): Speed up any transport using
     ‘_ProactorReadPipeTransport’ by calling ‘recv_into’ instead of
     ‘recv’, thus not creating a new buffer for each ‘recv’ call in the
     transport’s read loop.

   - bpo-41235(59): Fix the error handling in *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params(): 1133.

   - bpo-41207(60): In distutils.spawn, restore expectation that
     DistutilsExecError is raised when the command is not found.

   - bpo-29727(61): Register *note array.array: 1a0. as a *note
     MutableSequence: 1a1.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39168(62): Remove the ‘__new__’ method of *note typing.Generic:
     1620.

   - bpo-41194(63): Fix a crash in the ‘_ast’ module: it can no longer
     be loaded more than once.  It now uses a global state rather than a
     module state.

   - bpo-41195(64): Add read-only ssl.SSLContext.security_level
     attribute to retrieve the context’s security level.

   - bpo-41193(65): The ‘write_history()’ atexit function of the
     readline completer now ignores any *note OSError: 411. to ignore
     error if the filesystem is read-only, instead of only ignoring
     *note FileNotFoundError: 425. and *note PermissionError: d3f.

   - bpo-41182(66): selector: use DefaultSelector based upon
     implementation

   - bpo-41161(67): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.
     Users of –with-system-libmpdec should update their system library.

   - bpo-40874(68): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.

   - bpo-41138(69): Fixed the *note trace: fd. module CLI for Python
     source files with non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-31082(70): Use the term “iterable” in the docstring for *note
     functools.reduce(): 12cc.

   - bpo-40521(71): Remove freelist from collections.deque().

   - bpo-31938(72): Fix default-value signatures of several functions in
     the *note select: c1. module - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41068(73): Fixed reading files with non-ASCII names from ZIP
     archive directly after writing them.

   - bpo-41058(74): ‘pdb.find_function()’ now correctly determines the
     source file encoding.

   - bpo-41056(75): Invalid file descriptor values are now prevented
     from being passed to os.fpathconf.  (discovered by Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(76): Fix a NULL pointer dereference within the ssl module
     during a MemoryError in the keylog callback.  (discovered by
     Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(77): Fixed an instance where a MemoryError within the
     zoneinfo module might not be reported or not reported at its
     source.  (found by Coverity)

   - bpo-41048(78): *note mimetypes.read_mime_types(): 194a. function
     reads the rule file using UTF-8 encoding, not the locale encoding.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy.

   - bpo-41043(79): Fixed the use of *note glob(): 29f. in the stdlib:
     literal part of the path is now always correctly escaped.

   - bpo-41025(80): Fixed an issue preventing the C implementation of
     *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 8dc. from being subclassed.

   - bpo-35018(81): Add the *note xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler: 856.
     class that is present in other SAX XML implementations.

   - bpo-41002(82): Improve performance of HTTPResponse.read with a
     given amount.  Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-40448(83): *note ensurepip: 55. now disables the use of ‘pip’
     cache when installing the bundled versions of ‘pip’ and
     ‘setuptools’.  Patch by Krzysztof Konopko.

   - bpo-40967(84): Removed ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-40924(85): Ensure ‘importlib.resources.path’ returns an extant
     path for the SourceFileLoader’s resource reader.  Avoids the
     regression identified in master while a long-term solution is
     devised.

   - bpo-40955(86): Fix a minor memory leak in *note subprocess: d6.
     module when extra_groups was specified.

   - bpo-40855(87): The standard deviation and variance functions in the
     statistics module were ignoring their mu and xbar arguments.

   - bpo-40939(88): Use the new PEG parser when generating the stdlib
     *note keyword: 84. module.

   - bpo-23427(89): Add *note sys.orig_argv: 83a. attribute: the list of
     the original command line arguments passed to the Python
     executable.

   - bpo-33689(90): Ignore empty or whitespace-only lines in .pth files.
     This matches the documentated behavior.  Before, empty lines caused
     the site-packages dir to appear multiple times in sys.path.  By Ido
     Michael, contributors Malcolm Smith and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-40884(91): Added a ‘defaults’ parameter to *note
     logging.Formatter: 145b, to allow specifying default values for
     custom fields.  Patch by Asaf Alon and Bar Harel.

   - bpo-40876(92): Clarify error message in the *note csv: 29. module.

   - bpo-39791(93): Refresh importlib.metadata from importlib_metadata
     1.6.1.

   - bpo-40807(94): Stop codeop._maybe_compile, used by
     code.InteractiveInterpreter (and IDLE). from emitting each warning
     three times.

   - bpo-32604(95): Fix reference leak in the *note select: c1. module
     when the module is imported in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-39791(96): Built-in loaders (SourceFileLoader and ZipImporter)
     now supply ‘TraversableResources’ implementations for
     ‘ResourceReader’, and the fallback function has been removed.

   - bpo-39314(97): *note rlcompleter.Completer: 194b. and the standard
     Python shell now close the parenthesis for functions that take no
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-17005(98): The topological sort functionality that was
     introduced initially in the *note functools: 5f. module has been
     moved to a new *note graphlib: 65. module to better accommodate the
     new tools and keep the original scope of the *note functools: 5f.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40834(99): Fix truncate when sending str object
     with_xxsubinterpreters.channel_send.

   - bpo-40755(100): Add rich comparisons to collections.Counter().

   - bpo-26407(101): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in *note csv.reader(): 480,
     ‘csv.writer.writerow()’ and ‘csv.writer.writerows()’.

   - bpo-39384(102): Fixed email.contentmanager to allow set_content()
     to set a null string.

   - bpo-40744(103): The *note sqlite3: cf. module uses SQLite API
     functions that require SQLite v3.7.3 or higher.  This patch removes
     support for older SQLite versions, and explicitly requires SQLite
     3.7.3 both at build, compile and runtime.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev
     and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40777(104): Initialize PyDateTime_IsoCalendarDateType.tp_base
     at run-time to avoid errors on some compilers.

   - bpo-38488(105): Update ensurepip to install pip 20.1.1 and
     setuptools 47.1.0.

   - bpo-40792(106): The result of *note operator.index(): 1915. now
     always has exact type *note int: 257.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-40767(107): *note webbrowser: 115. now properly finds the
     default browser in pure Wayland systems by checking the
     WAYLAND_DISPLAY environment variable.  Patch contributed by Jérémy
     Attali.

   - bpo-40791(108): ‘hashlib.compare_digest()’ uses OpenSSL’s
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ function when OpenSSL is available.

   - bpo-40795(109): *note ctypes: 2a. module: If ctypes fails to
     convert the result of a callback or if a ctypes callback function
     raises an exception, sys.unraisablehook is now called with an
     exception set.  Previously, the error was logged into stderr by
     *note PyErr_Print(): 194c.

   - bpo-16995(110): Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 7dc. and *note
     base64.b32hexdecode(): 7dd. to support the Base32 Encoding with
     Extended Hex Alphabet.

   - bpo-30008(111): Fix *note ssl: d0. code to be compatible with
     OpenSSL 1.1.x builds that use ‘no-deprecated’ and ‘--api=1.1.0’.

   - bpo-30064(112): Fix asyncio ‘loop.sock_*’ race condition issue

   - bpo-40759(113): Deprecate the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40756(114): The second argument (extra) of
     ‘LoggerAdapter.__init__’ now defaults to None.

   - bpo-37129(115): Add a new *note os.RWF_APPEND: 194d. flag for *note
     os.pwritev(): b5d.

   - bpo-40737(116): Fix possible reference leak for *note sqlite3: cf.
     initialization.

   - bpo-40726(117): Handle cases where the ‘end_lineno’ is ‘None’ on
     *note ast.increment_lineno(): 179c.

   - bpo-40698(118): ‘distutils’ upload creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256
     digests.  MD5 digests is skipped if platform blocks MD5.

   - bpo-40695(119): *note hashlib: 68. no longer falls back to builtin
     hash implementations when OpenSSL provides a hash digest and the
     algorithm is blocked by security policy.

   - bpo-9216(120): *note hashlib.new(): 194e. passed ‘usedforsecurity’
     to OpenSSL EVP constructor ‘_hashlib.new()’.  test_hashlib and
     test_smtplib handle strict security policy better.

   - bpo-40614(121): *note ast.parse(): 1a8. will not parse self
     documenting expressions in f-strings when passed ‘feature_version’
     is less than ‘(3, 8)’.

   - bpo-40626(122): Add h5 file extension as MIME Type
     application/x-hdf5, as per HDF Group recommendation for HDF5
     formatted data files.  Patch contributed by Mark Schwab.

   - bpo-25920(123): On macOS, when building Python for macOS 10.4 and
     older, which wasn’t the case for python.org macOS installer, *note
     socket.getaddrinfo(): 1759. no longer uses an internal lock to
     prevent race conditions when calling ‘getaddrinfo()’ which is
     thread-safe since macOS 10.5.  Python 3.9 requires macOS 10.6 or
     newer.  The internal lock caused random hang on fork when another
     thread was calling *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1759.  The lock was
     also used on FreeBSD older than 5.3, OpenBSD older than 201311 and
     NetBSD older than 4.

   - bpo-40671(124): Prepare ‘_hashlib’ for PEP 489(125) and use *note
     PyModule_AddType(): 973.

   - bpo-32309(126): Added a new *note coroutine: 48b. *note
     asyncio.to_thread(): 8e5.  It is mainly used for running IO-bound
     functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop,
     and essentially works as a high-level version of *note
     run_in_executor(): 8e6. that can directly take keyword arguments.

   - bpo-36543(127): Restored the deprecated ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’
     module.

   - bpo-40611(128): *note MAP_POPULATE: 194f. constant has now been
     added to the list of exported *note mmap: 90. module flags.

   - bpo-39881(129): PEP 554 for use in the test suite.  (Patch By
     Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-13097(130): ‘ctypes’ now raises an ‘ArgumentError’ when a
     callback is invoked with more than 1024 arguments.

   - bpo-39385(131): A new test assertion context-manager,
     ‘unittest.assertNoLogs()’ will ensure a given block of code emits
     no log messages using the logging module.  Contributed by Kit Yan
     Choi.

   - bpo-23082(132): Updated the error message and docs of
     PurePath.relative_to() to better reflect the function behaviour.

   - bpo-40318(133): Use SQLite3 trace v2 API, if it is available.

   - bpo-40105(134): ZipFile truncates files to avoid corruption when a
     shorter comment is provided in append (“a”) mode.  Patch by Jan
     Mazur.

   - bpo-40084(135): Fix ‘Enum.__dir__’: dir(Enum.member) now includes
     attributes as well as methods.

   - bpo-31122(136): ssl.wrap_socket() now raises ssl.SSLEOFError rather
     than OSError when peer closes connection during TLS negotiation

   - bpo-39728(137): fix default ‘_missing_’ so a duplicate ‘ValueError’
     is not set as the ‘__context__’ of the original ‘ValueError’.

   - bpo-39244(138): Fixed
     ‘multiprocessing.context.get_all_start_methods’ to properly return
     the default method first on macOS.

   - bpo-39040(139): Fix parsing of invalid mime headers parameters by
     collapsing whitespace between encoded words in a bare-quote-string.

   - bpo-38731(140): Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of
     *note py_compile: b3.  Patch by Gregory Schevchenko.

   - bpo-35714(141): *note struct.error: 1313. is now raised if there is
     a null character in a *note struct: d5. format string.

   - bpo-38144(142): Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in
     *note glob.glob(): 29f.

   - bpo-26543(143): Fix ‘IMAP4.noop()’ when debug mode is enabled (ex:
     ‘imaplib.Debug = 3’).

   - bpo-12178(144): *note csv.writer(): 481. now correctly escapes
     'escapechar' when input contains 'escapechar'.  Patch by Catalin
     Iacob, Berker Peksag, and Itay Elbirt.

   - bpo-36290(145): AST nodes are now raising *note TypeError: 532. on
     conflicting keyword arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33944(146): Added site.py site-packages tracing in verbose
     mode.

   - bpo-35078(147): Refactor formatweekday, formatmonthname methods in
     LocaleHTMLCalendar and LocaleTextCalendar classes in calendar
     module to call the base class methods.This enables customizable CSS
     classes for LocaleHTMLCalendar.  Patch by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy

   - bpo-29620(148): *note assertWarns(): 1155. no longer raises a
     ‘RuntimeException’ when accessing a module’s ‘__warningregistry__’
     causes importation of a new module, or when a new module is
     imported in another thread.  Patch by Kernc.

   - bpo-31844(149): Remove ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private
     and undocumented ‘_markupbase’ module.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 872. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was deprecated in Python 3.4 and
     removed in Python 3.5.

   - bpo-34226(150): Fix ‘cgi.parse_multipart’ without content_length.
     Patch by Roger Duran

   - bpo-33660(151): Fix pathlib.PosixPath to resolve a relative path
     located on the root directory properly.

   - bpo-28557(152): Improve the error message for a misbehaving
     ‘rawio.readinto’

   - bpo-26680(153): The d.is_integer() method is added to the Decimal
     type, for compatibility with other number types.

   - bpo-26680(154): The x.is_integer() method is incorporated into the
     abstract types of the numeric tower, Real, Rational and Integral,
     with appropriate default implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41887

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41773

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41840

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40564

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41833

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41817

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41815

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39587

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (16) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/751

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41789

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32218

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39651

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41732

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41720

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41696

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41687

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39010

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41638

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39994

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40782

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41520

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41528

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41503

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41497

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41467

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41425

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41421

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41316

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41384

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41317

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41364

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35328

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41341

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41344

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41333

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41288

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39017

   (57) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-20907

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41273

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41235

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41207

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29727

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39168

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   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41193

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41182

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41161

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40874

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41138

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31082

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   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31938

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   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16995

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   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25920

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40671

   (125) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

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   (140) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<39>,  Next: Tests<41>,  Prev: Library<45>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-41428(1): Add documentation for PEP 604(2) (Allow writing union
     types as ‘X | Y’).

   - bpo-41774(3): In Programming FAQ “Sequences (Tuples/Lists)”
     section, add “How do you remove multiple items from a list”.

   - bpo-35293(4): Fix RemovedInSphinx40Warning when building the
     documentation.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37149(5): Change Shipman tkinter doc link from archive.org to
     TkDocs.  (The doc has been removed from the NMT server.)  The new
     link responds much faster and includes a short explanatory note.

   - bpo-41726(6): Update the refcounts info of
     ‘PyType_FromModuleAndSpec’.

   - bpo-41624(7): Fix the signature of *note typing.Coroutine: 1951.

   - bpo-40204(8): Enable Sphinx 3.2 ‘c_allow_pre_v3’ option and disable
     ‘c_warn_on_allowed_pre_v3’ option to make the documentation
     compatible with Sphinx 2 and Sphinx 3.

   - bpo-41045(9): Add documentation for debug feature of f-strings.

   - bpo-41314(10): Changed the release when ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ becomes the default from ‘4.0’ to ‘3.10’ (following a
     change in PEP 563).

   - bpo-40979(11): Refactored typing.rst, arranging more than 70
     classes, functions, and decorators into new sub-sections.

   - bpo-40552(12): Fix in tutorial section 4.2.  Code snippet is now
     correct.

   - bpo-39883(13): Make code, examples, and recipes in the Python
     documentation be licensed under the more permissive BSD0 license in
     addition to the existing Python 2.0 license.

   - bpo-37703(14): Updated Documentation to comprehensively elaborate
     on the behaviour of gather.cancel()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41774

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41045

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41314

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40552

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39883

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37703


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<41>,  Next: Build<43>,  Prev: Documentation<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41939(1): Fix test_site.test_license_exists_at_url(): call
     ‘urllib.request.urlcleanup()’ to reset the global
     ‘urllib.request._opener’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41731(2): Make test_cmd_line_script pass with option ‘-vv’.

   - bpo-41602(3): Add tests for SIGINT handling in the runpy module.

   - bpo-41521(4): *note test.support: e4.: Rename ‘blacklist’ parameter
     of *note check__all__(): 1953. to ‘not_exported’.

   - bpo-41477(5): Make ctypes optional in test_genericalias.

   - bpo-41085(6): Fix integer overflow in the *note
     array.array.index(): 7d9. method on 64-bit Windows for index larger
     than ‘2**31’.

   - bpo-41069(7): ‘test.support.TESTFN’ and the current directory for
     tests when run via ‘test.regrtest’ contain now non-ascii characters
     if possible.

   - bpo-38377(8): On Linux, skip tests using multiprocessing if the
     current user cannot create a file in ‘/dev/shm/’ directory.  Add
     the *note skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize(): 1954.
     function to the *note test.support: e4. module.

   - bpo-41009(9): Fix use of
     ‘support.require_{linux|mac|freebsd}_version()’ decorators as class
     decorator.

   - bpo-41003(10): Fix ‘test_copyreg’ when ‘numpy’ is installed:
     ‘test.pickletester’ now saves/restores warnings filters when
     importing ‘numpy’, to ignore filters installed by ‘numpy’.

   - bpo-40964(11): Disable remote *note imaplib: 74. tests, host
     cyrus.andrew.cmu.edu is blocking incoming connections.

   - bpo-40927(12): Fix test_binhex when run twice: it now uses
     import_fresh_module() to ensure that it raises DeprecationWarning
     each time.

   - bpo-17258(13): Skip some *note multiprocessing: 94. tests when MD5
     hash digest is blocked.

   - bpo-31904(14): Increase LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT to 10 for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-38169(15): Increase code coverage for SharedMemory and
     ShareableList

   - bpo-34401(16): Make test_gdb properly run on HP-UX. Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41939

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41521

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41477

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41085

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41069

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41009

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40964

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40927

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38169

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34401


File: python.info,  Node: Build<43>,  Next: Windows<39>,  Prev: Tests<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38249(1): Update *note Py_UNREACHABLE: bb2. to use
     __builtin_unreachable() if only the compiler is able to use it.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41617(2): Fix ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ header file to support old
     clang versions: ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ is not available in LLVM
     clang 3.0.

   - bpo-40204(3): Pin Sphinx version to 2.3.1 in ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-36020(4): The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are
     now required to build Python.

   - bpo-40684(5): ‘make install’ now uses the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ variable for
     the destination ‘lib-dynload/’ directory when ‘./configure
     --with-platlibdir’ is used.

   - bpo-40683(6): Fixed an issue where the *note zoneinfo: 134. module
     and its tests were not included when Python is installed with
     ‘make’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40683


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<39>,  Next: macOS<32>,  Prev: Build<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41744(1): Fixes automatic import of props file when using the
     Nuget package.

   - bpo-41627(2): The user site directory for 32-bit now includes a
     ‘-32’ suffix to distinguish it from the 64-bit interpreter’s
     directory.

   - bpo-41526(3): Fixed layout of final page of the installer by
     removing the special thanks to Mark Hammond (with his permission).

   - bpo-41492(4): Fixes the description that appears in UAC prompts.

   - bpo-40948(5): Improve post-install message to direct people to the
     “py” command.

   - bpo-41412(6): The installer will now fail to install on Windows 7
     and Windows 8.  Further, the UCRT dependency is now always
     downloaded on demand.

   - bpo-40741(7): Update Windows release to include SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41142(8): ‘msilib’ now supports creating CAB files with
     non-ASCII file path and adding files with non-ASCII file path to
     them.

   - bpo-41074(9): Fixed support of non-ASCII names in functions
     ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ and ‘msilib.init_database()’ and non-ASCII
     SQL in method ‘msilib.Database.OpenView()’.

   - bpo-41039(10): Stable ABI redirection DLL (python3.dll) now uses
     ‘#pragma comment(linker)’ for re-exporting.

   - bpo-40164(11): Updates Windows OpenSSL to 1.1.1g

   - bpo-39631(12): Changes the registered MIME type for ‘.py’ files on
     Windows to ‘text/x-python’ instead of ‘text/plain’.

   - bpo-40677(13): Manually define IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK in case
     some old Windows SDK doesn’t have it.

   - bpo-37556(14): Extend py.exe help to mention overrides via venv,
     shebang, environmental variables & ini files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41627

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41526

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40948

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41412

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41142

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41074

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41039

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39631

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40677

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37556


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<32>,  Next: IDLE<28>,  Prev: Windows<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41557(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-39580(2): Avoid opening Finder window if running installer from
     the command line.  Patch contributed by Rick Heil.

   - bpo-41100(3): Fix configure error when building on macOS 11.  Note
     that the current Python release was released shortly after the
     first developer preview of macOS 11 (Big Sur); there are other
     known issues with building and running on the developer preview.
     Big Sur is expected to be fully supported in a future bugfix
     release of Python 3.8.x and with 3.9.0.

   - bpo-40741(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41005(5): fixed an XDG settings issue not allowing macos to
     open browser in webbrowser.py

   - bpo-40741(6): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39580

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<28>,  Next: C API<42>,  Prev: macOS<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-41775(1): Use ‘IDLE Shell’ as shell title

   - bpo-35764(2): Rewrite the Calltips doc section.

   - bpo-40181(3): In calltips, stop reminding that ‘/’ marks the end of
     positional-only arguments.

   - bpo-41468(4): Improve IDLE run crash error message (which users
     should never see).

   - bpo-41373(5): Save files loaded with no line ending, as when blank,
     or different line endings, by setting its line ending to the system
     default.  Fix regression in 3.8.4 and 3.9.0b4.

   - bpo-41300(6): Save files with non-ascii chars.  Fix regression
     released in 3.9.0b4 and 3.8.4.

   - bpo-37765(7): Add keywords to module name completion list.  Rewrite
     Completions section of IDLE doc.

   - bpo-41152(8): The encoding of ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ in
     IDLE is now always UTF-8.

   - bpo-41144(9): Make Open Module open a special module such as
     os.path.

   - bpo-39885(10): Make context menu Cut and Copy work again when
     right-clicking within a selection.

   - bpo-40723(11): Make test_idle pass when run after import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41300

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41152

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41144

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40723


File: python.info,  Node: C API<42>,  Prev: IDLE<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.23.46.10 C API
................

   - bpo-41936(1): Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. structure.

   - bpo-41692(2): The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8ae. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41842(3): Add *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 893. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-41834(4): Remove the ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has
     been replaced by ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 8ba. structure.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41689(5): Types created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578. now
     make any signature in their ‘tp_doc’ slot accessible from
     ‘__text_signature__’.

   - bpo-41524(6): Fix bug in PyOS_mystrnicmp and PyOS_mystricmp that
     incremented pointers beyond the end of a string.

   - bpo-41324(7): Add a minimal decimal capsule API. The API supports
     fast conversions between Decimals up to 38 digits and their triple
     representation as a C struct.

   - bpo-30155(8): Add *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 891. and
     *note PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 892. macros for accessing the
     ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. and *note
     datetime.time: 1ce. objects.

   - bpo-40170(9): Revert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 195a. change: it
     reads again directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 18c4. member
     when the limited C API is not used, rather than always calling
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 195b. which hides implementation details.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy’.

   - bpo-41123(11): Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.

   - bpo-41123(12): Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.

   - bpo-41123(13): Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating
     ‘Py_UNICODE*’ strings.

   - bpo-41103(14): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and
     ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are removed.  Please migrate to new
     buffer protocol; *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 394.

   - bpo-36346(15): Raises DeprecationWarning for
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ with ‘size > 0’.

   - bpo-36346(16): Mark ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’,
     ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’, ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize’ as
     deprecated in C. Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ which was deprecated and
     broken since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-40989(17): The ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’
     macros become aliases to, respectively, *note PyObject_Init(): a68.
     and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 195c. functions.

   - bpo-36020(18): On Windows, ‘#include "pyerrors.h"’ no longer
     defines ‘snprintf’ and ‘vsnprintf’ macros.

   - bpo-40943(19): The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.
     formats which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’
     and ‘Z#’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 8a5.
     and the PEP 353(20).

   - bpo-40910(21): Export explicitly the *note Py_GetArgcArgv(): 195d.
     function to the C API and document the function.  Previously, it
     was exported implicitly which no longer works since Python is built
     with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40724(22): Allow defining buffer slots in type specs.

   - bpo-40679(23): Fix a ‘_PyEval_EvalCode()’ crash if 'qualname'
     argument is NULL.

   - bpo-40839(24): Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380. without *note
     GIL: 159. held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no
     longer allowed.

   - bpo-40826(25): ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’ now fails with a fatal
     error if it is called with the GIL released.

   - bpo-40792(26): The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 88f. now
     always has exact type *note int: 257.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-39573(27): Convert *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a6. and *note Py_SIZE():
     77b. macros to static inline functions.  They cannot be used as
     l-value anymore: use *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a7. and *note
     Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c. to set an object reference count and size.
     This change is backward incompatible on purpose, to prepare the C
     API for an opaque *note PyObject: 332. structure.

   - bpo-40703(28): The PyType_FromSpec*() functions no longer overwrite
     the type’s “__module__” attribute if it is set via “Py_tp_members”
     or “Py_tp_getset”.

   - bpo-39583(29): Remove superfluous “extern C” declarations from
     ‘Include/cpython/*.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41689

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41524

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40989

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40724

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40703

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.47 Python 3.9.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2020-05-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<43>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40501(1): *note uuid: 110. no longer uses *note ctypes: 2a. to
     load ‘libuuid’ or ‘rpcrt4.dll’ at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40501


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<47>,  Next: Library<46>,  Prev: Security<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40663(1): Correctly generate annotations where parentheses are
     omitted but required (e.g: ‘Type[(str, int, *other))]’.

   - bpo-40596(2): Fixed *note str.isidentifier(): 1961. for
     non-canonicalized strings containing non-BMP characters on Windows.

   - bpo-40593(3): Improved syntax errors for invalid characters in
     source code.

   - bpo-40585(4): Fixed a bug when using *note
     codeop.compile_command(): 17cf. that was causing exceptions to be
     swallowed with the new parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40566(5): Apply PEP 573(6) to *note abc: 4.

   - bpo-40502(7): Initialize ‘n->n_col_offset’.  (Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye)

   - bpo-40527(8): Fix command line argument parsing: no longer write
     errors multiple times into stderr.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port *note errno: 57. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-40523(11): Add pass-throughs for *note hash(): 5e5. and *note
     reversed(): 860. to *note weakref.proxy: a4e. objects.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note syslog: dc. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-40246(14): Reporting a specialised error message for invalid
     string prefixes, which was introduced in bpo-40246(15), is being
     reverted due to backwards compatibility concerns for strings that
     immediately follow a reserved keyword without whitespace between
     them.  Constructs like ‘bg="#d00" if clear else"#fca"’ were failing
     to parse, which is not an acceptable breakage on such short notice.

   - bpo-40417(16): Fix imp module deprecation warning when
     PyImport_ReloadModule is called.  Patch by Robert Rouhani.

   - bpo-40408(17): Fixed support of nested type variables in
     GenericAlias (e.g.  ‘list[list[T]]’).

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port _stat module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-29587(20): Enable implicit exception chaining when calling
     *note generator.throw(): 4f2.

   - bpo-40328(21): Add tools for generating mappings headers for
     CJKCodecs.

   - bpo-40228(22): Setting frame.f_lineno is now robust w.r.t.  changes
     in the source-to-bytecode compiler

   - bpo-38880(23): Added the ability to list interpreters associated
     with channel ends in the internal subinterpreters module.

   - bpo-37986(24): Improve performance of *note PyLong_FromDouble():
     940. for values that fit into long.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40596

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40585

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40566

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40502

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40527

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40523

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40417

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40408

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29587

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40328

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40228

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38880

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986


File: python.info,  Node: Library<46>,  Next: Documentation<40>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40662(1): Fixed *note ast.get_source_segment(): 9d4. for ast
     nodes that have incomplete location information.  Patch by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-40665(2): Convert *note bisect: 11. to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40536(3): Added the *note available_timezones(): 1963. function
     to the *note zoneinfo: 134. module.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-40645(4): The ‘hmac.HMAC’ exposes internal implementation
     details.  The attributes ‘digest_cons’, ‘inner’, and ‘outer’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-40645(5): The internal module ‘_hashlib’ wraps and exposes
     OpenSSL’s HMAC API. The new code will be used in Python 3.10 after
     the internal implementation details of the pure Python HMAC module
     are no longer part of the public API.

   - bpo-40637(6): Builtin hash modules can now be disabled or
     selectively enabled with ‘configure
     --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake1’ or
     ‘--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’.

   - bpo-37630(7): The *note hashlib: 68. module can now use SHA3 hashes
     and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available.

   - bpo-40479(8): The *note hashlib: 68. now compiles with OpenSSL
     3.0.0-alpha2.

   - bpo-40257(9): Revert changes to *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f6.

   - bpo-40607(10): When cancelling a task due to timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. will now propagate the exception if an
     error happens during cancellation.  Patch by Roman Skurikhin.

   - bpo-40612(11): Fix edge cases in SyntaxError formatting.  If the
     offset is <= 0, no caret is printed.  If the offset is > line
     length, the caret is printed pointing just after the last
     character.

   - bpo-40597(12): If text content lines are longer than
     policy.max_line_length, always use a content-encoding to make sure
     they are wrapped.

   - bpo-40571(13): Added functools.cache() as a simpler, more
     discoverable way to access the unbounded cache variant of
     lru_cache(maxsize=None).

   - bpo-40503(14): PEP 615(15), the *note zoneinfo: 134. module.  Adds
     support for the IANA time zone database.

   - bpo-40397(16): Removed attributes ‘__args__’ and ‘__parameters__’
     from special generic aliases like ‘typing.List’ (not subscripted).

   - bpo-40549(17): Convert posixmodule.c (“posix” or “nt” module) to
     the multiphase initialization (PEP 489).

   - bpo-31033(18): Add a ‘msg’ argument to ‘Future.cancel()’ and
     ‘Task.cancel()’.

   - bpo-40541(19): Added an optional 'counts' parameter to
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40515(20): The *note ssl: d0. and *note hashlib: 68. modules
     now actively check that OpenSSL is build with thread support.
     Python 3.7.0 made thread support mandatory and no longer works
     safely with a no-thread builds.

   - bpo-31033(21): When a *note asyncio.Task: 1be. is cancelled, the
     exception traceback now chains all the way back to where the task
     was first interrupted.

   - bpo-40504(22): *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-40559(23): Fix possible memory leak in the C implementation of
     *note asyncio.Task: 1be.

   - bpo-40480(24): ‘fnmatch.fnmatch()’ could take exponential time in
     the presence of multiple ‘*’ pattern characters.  This was repaired
     by generating more elaborate regular expressions to avoid futile
     backtracking.

   - bpo-40495(25): *note compileall: 20. is now able to use hardlinks
     to prevent duplicates in a case when ‘.pyc’ files for different
     optimization levels have the same content.

   - bpo-40457(26): The ssl module now support OpenSSL builds without
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1 methods.

   - bpo-40355(27): Improve error reporting in *note ast.literal_eval():
     c15. in the presence of malformed *note ast.Dict: 1964. nodes
     instead of silently ignoring any non-conforming elements.  Patch by
     Curtis Bucher.

   - bpo-40465(28): Deprecated the optional 'random' argument to
     'random.shuffle()'.

   - bpo-40459(29): *note platform.win32_ver(): 1965. now produces
     correct 'ptype' strings instead of empty strings.

   - bpo-39435(30): The first argument of *note pickle.loads(): d0e. is
     now positional-only.

   - bpo-39305(31): Update ‘nntplib’ to merge ‘nntplib.NNTP’ and
     ‘nntplib._NNTPBase’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32494(32): Update *note dbm.gnu: 33. to use gdbm_count if
     possible when calling *note len(): 628.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40453(33): Add ‘isolated=True’ keyword-only parameter to
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters.create()’.  An isolated subinterpreter cannot
     spawn threads, spawn a child process or call ‘os.fork()’.

   - bpo-40286(34): Remove ‘_random.Random.randbytes()’: the C
     implementation of ‘randbytes()’.  Implement the method in Python to
     ease subclassing: ‘randbytes()’ now directly reuses
     ‘getrandbits()’.

   - bpo-40394(35): Added default arguments to *note
     difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match(): 1966.

   - bpo-39995(36): Fix a race condition in
     concurrent.futures._ThreadWakeup: access to _ThreadWakeup is now
     protected with the shutdown lock.

   - bpo-30966(37): ‘Process.shutdown(wait=True)’ of *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. now closes explicitly the result queue.

   - bpo-30966(38): Add a new *note close(): 912. method to the *note
     SimpleQueue: 911. class to explicitly close the queue.

   - bpo-39966(39): Revert bpo-25597(40).  *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: e87. with wraps’ set uses default return
     values for magic methods.

   - bpo-39791(41): Added ‘files()’ function to importlib.resources with
     support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
     importlib_resources 1.5.

   - bpo-40375(42): *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 904. is added.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40389(43): ‘repr()’ now returns ‘typing.Optional[T]’ when
     called for ‘typing.Union’ of two types, one of which is ‘NoneType’.

   - bpo-40291(44): Add support for CAN_J1939 sockets (available on
     Linux 5.4+)

   - bpo-40273(45): *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. is now
     reversible.

   - bpo-39075(46): The repr for *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. is
     now insertion ordered rather than alphabetical.

   - bpo-40192(47): On AIX, *note thread_time(): 934. is now implemented
     with ‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather
     than ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a
     resolution of 10 milliseconds.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40025(48): Raise TypeError when _generate_next_value_ is
     defined after members.  Patch by Ethan Onstott.

   - bpo-39058(49): In the argparse module, the repr for Namespace() and
     other argument holders now displayed in the order attributes were
     added.  Formerly, it displayed in alphabetical order even though
     argument order is preserved the user visible parts of the module.

   - bpo-24416(50): The ‘isocalendar()’ methods of *note datetime.date:
     1cd. and *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. now return a *note named
     tuple: 648. instead of a *note tuple: 369.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40665

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40637

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40607

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40612

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40597

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40571

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40503

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40397

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40549

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40541

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40515

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40504

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40559

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40480

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40457

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40355

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40459

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39305

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32494

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40453

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40394

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39995

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39966

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40389

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40273

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39075

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40025

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39058

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<40>,  Next: Tests<42>,  Prev: Library<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-34790(1): Add version of removal for explicit passing of coros
     to ‘asyncio.wait()’’s documentation

   - bpo-40561(2): Provide docstrings for webbrowser open functions.

   - bpo-40499(3): Mention that *note asyncio.wait(): 479. requires a
     non-empty set of awaitables.

   - bpo-39705(4): Tutorial example for sorted() in the Loop Techniques
     section is given a better explanation.  Also a new example is
     included to explain sorted()’s basic behavior.

   - bpo-39435(5): Fix an incorrect signature for *note pickle.loads():
     d0e. in the docs

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40561

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40499

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39705

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<42>,  Next: Build<44>,  Prev: Documentation<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40055(1): distutils.tests now saves/restores warnings filters
     to leave them unchanged.  Importing tests imports docutils which
     imports pkg_resources which adds a warnings filter.

   - bpo-40436(2): test_gdb and test.pythoninfo now check gdb command
     exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40055

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40436


File: python.info,  Node: Build<44>,  Next: Windows<40>,  Prev: Tests<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-40653(1): Move _dirnameW out of HAVE_SYMLINK to fix a potential
     compiling issue.

   - bpo-40514(2): Add ‘--with-experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     build option to ‘configure’: better isolate subinterpreters,
     experimental build mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40653

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40514


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<40>,  Next: macOS<33>,  Prev: Build<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40650(1): Include winsock2.h in pytime.c for timeval.

   - bpo-40458(2): Increase reserved stack space to prevent overflow
     crash on Windows.

   - bpo-39148(3): Add IPv6 support to *note asyncio: a. datagram
     endpoints in ProactorEventLoop.  Change the raised exception for
     unknown address families to ValueError as it’s not coming from
     Windows API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40458

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39148


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<33>,  Next: Tools/Demos<21>,  Prev: Windows<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34956(1): When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’
     now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are
     installed in ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older
     releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by
     using ‘--enable-universalsdk=’ or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself
     is searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.

   - bpo-35569(2): Expose RFC 3542 IPv6 socket options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35569


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<21>,  Next: C API<43>,  Prev: macOS<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40479(1): Update multissltest helper to test with latest
     OpenSSL 1.0.2, 1.1.0, 1.1.1, and 3.0.0-alpha.

   - bpo-40431(2): Fix a syntax typo in ‘turtledemo’ that now raises a
     ‘SyntaxError’.

   - bpo-40163(3): Fix multissltest tool.  OpenSSL has changed download
     URL for old releases.  The multissltest tool now tries to download
     from current and old download URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40431

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40163


File: python.info,  Node: C API<43>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<21>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.23.47.10 C API
................

   - bpo-39465(1): Remove the ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function
     from the C API.

   - bpo-38787(2): Add PyCFunction_CheckExact() macro for exact type
     checks now that we allow subtypes of PyCFunction, as well as
     PyCMethod_CheckExact() and PyCMethod_Check() for the new PyCMethod
     subtype.

   - bpo-40545(3): Declare ‘_PyErr_GetTopmostException()’ with
     ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’ to properly export the function in the C API. The
     function remains private (‘_Py’) prefix.

   - bpo-40412(4): Nullify inittab_copy during finalization, preventing
     future interpreter initializations in an embedded situation from
     crashing.  Patch by Gregory Szorc.

   - bpo-40429(5): The *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 787. function now
     returns a strong reference to the frame.

   - bpo-40428(6): Remove the following functions from the C API. Call
     *note PyGC_Collect(): 98b. explicitly to free all free lists.

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

   - bpo-40421(7): New *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 77f. function: get the
     frame next outer frame.

   - bpo-40421(8): New *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 783. function: return a
     borrowed reference to the frame code.

   - bpo-40217(9): Ensure that instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. will visit its class object when
     traversing references in the garbage collector (implemented as an
     extension of the provided *note tp_traverse: 777.).  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-38787(10): Module C state is now accessible from C-defined heap
     type methods ( PEP 573(11)).  Patch by Marcel Plch and Petr
     Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40545

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.48 Python 3.9.0 alpha 6
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-04-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<31>,  Next: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40121(1): Fixes audit events raised on creating a new socket.

   - bpo-39073(2): Disallow CR or LF in email.headerregistry.Address
     arguments to guard against header injection attacks.

   - bpo-39503(3): CVE 2020-8492(4): The *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     18c2. class of the *note urllib.request: 10b. module uses an
     inefficient regular expression which can be exploited by an
     attacker to cause a denial of service.  Fix the regex to prevent
     the catastrophic backtracking.  Vulnerability reported by Ben
     Caller and Matt Schwager.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40121

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-8492


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<48>,  Next: Library<47>,  Prev: Security<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40313(1): Improve the performance of bytes.hex().

   - bpo-40334(2): Switch to a new parser, based on PEG. For more
     details see PEP 617.  To temporarily switch back to the old parser,
     use ‘-X oldparser’ or ‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’.  In Python 3.10 we will
     remove the old parser completely, including the ‘parser’ module
     (already deprecated) and anything that depends on it.

   - bpo-40267(3): Fix the tokenizer to display the correct error
     message, when there is a ‘SyntaxError’ on the last input character
     and no newline follows.  It used to be ‘unexpected EOF while
     parsing’, while it should be ‘invalid syntax’.

   - bpo-39522(4): Correctly unparse explicit ‘u’ prefix for strings
     when postponed evaluation for annotations activated.  Patch by
     Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40246(5): Report a specialized error message, ‘invalid string
     prefix’, when the tokenizer encounters a string with an invalid
     prefix.

   - bpo-40082(6): Fix the signal handler: it now always uses the main
     interpreter, rather than trying to get the current Python thread
     state.

   - bpo-37388(7): str.encode() and str.decode() no longer check the
     encoding and errors in development mode or in debug mode during
     Python finalization.  The codecs machinery can no longer work on
     very late calls to str.encode() and str.decode().

   - bpo-40077(8): Fix possible refleaks in ‘_json’, memo of
     PyScannerObject should be traversed.

   - bpo-37207(9): Speed up calls to ‘dict()’ by using the PEP 590(10)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.

   - bpo-40141(11): Add column and line information to ‘ast.keyword’
     nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note resource: bc. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port *note math: 8e. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(15)).

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _uuid module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert json module to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     578.

   - bpo-40067(19): Improve the error message for multiple star
     expressions in an assignment.  Patch by Furkan Onder

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port _functools module to multiphase
     initialization (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port operator module to multiphase initialization
     (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-20526(22): Fix *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1628.
     ‘PyThreadState.frame’ is a borrowed reference, not a strong
     reference: ‘PyThreadState_Clear()’ must not call
     ‘Py_CLEAR(tstate->frame)’.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port time module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(24)).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-40020(27): Fix a leak and subsequent crash in parsetok.c caused
     by realloc misuse on a rare codepath.

   - bpo-39939(28): Added str.removeprefix and str.removesuffix methods
     and corresponding bytes, bytearray, and collections.UserString
     methods to remove affixes from a string if present.  See PEP
     616(29) for a full description.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-39481(30): Implement PEP 585.  This supports list[int],
     tuple[str, …] etc.

   - bpo-32894(31): Support unparsing of infinity numbers in postponed
     annotations.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-37207(32): Speed up calls to ‘list()’ by using the PEP 590(33)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40267

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39522

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40082

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40141

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40067

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20526

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40020

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32894

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<47>,  Next: Documentation<41>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40398(1): *note typing.get_args(): 87a. now always returns an
     empty tuple for special generic aliases.

   - bpo-40396(2): Functions *note typing.get_origin(): a43, *note
     typing.get_args(): 87a. and *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab.
     support now generic aliases like ‘list[int]’.

   - bpo-38061(3): Optimize the *note subprocess: d6. module on FreeBSD
     using ‘closefrom()’.  A single ‘close(fd)’ syscall is cheap, but
     when ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’ is high, the loop calling ‘close(fd)’
     on each file descriptor can take several milliseconds.

     The workaround on FreeBSD to improve performance was to load and
     mount the fdescfs kernel module, but this is not enabled by
     default.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-38061(4): On FreeBSD, ‘os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)’ now
     calls ‘closefrom(fd_low)’ if 'fd_high' is greater than or equal to
     ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-40360(5): The ‘lib2to3’ module is pending deprecation due to
     PEP 617(6).

   - bpo-40138(7): Fix the Windows implementation of *note os.waitpid():
     d96. for exit code larger than ‘INT_MAX >> 8’.  The exit status is
     now interpreted as an unsigned number.

   - bpo-39942(8): Set “__main__” as the default module name when
     “__name__” is missing in *note typing.TypeVar: 15d.  Patch by
     Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-40275(9): The *note logging: 87. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 106. only when the *note assertLogs(): 853.
     assertion is used.

   - bpo-40275(10): The *note asyncio: a. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 106. only when the *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304. class is used.

   - bpo-40330(11): In ‘ShareableList.__setitem__()’, check the size of
     a new string item after encoding it to utf-8, not before.

   - bpo-40148(12): Added ‘pathlib.Path.with_stem()’ to create a new
     Path with the stem replaced.

   - bpo-40325(13): Deprecated support for set objects in
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40257(14): Improved help for the *note typing: 104. module.
     Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic
     aliases (like ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using ‘help()’ with generic
     alias like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent
     concrete type (‘list’ in this case).

   - bpo-40257(15): *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f6. no longer returns
     docstring inherited from the type of the object or from parent
     class if it is a class if it is not defined in the object itself.
     In *note pydoc: b5. the documentation string is now shown not only
     for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its
     own ‘__doc__’ attribute.

   - bpo-40287(16): Fixed ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.seek()’ to return the
     position.

   - bpo-40290(17): Added zscore() to statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-40282(18): Allow ‘random.getrandbits(0)’ to succeed and to
     return 0.

   - bpo-40286(19): Add *note random.randbytes(): 154a. function and
     *note random.Random.randbytes(): 927. method to generate random
     bytes.

   - bpo-40277(20): *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now provides a
     human-readable repr for its field accessors.

   - bpo-40270(21): The included copy of sqlite3 on Windows is now
     compiled with the json extension.  This allows the use of functions
     such as ‘json_object’.

   - bpo-29255(22): Wait in ‘KqueueSelector.select’ when no fds are
     registered

   - bpo-40260(23): Ensure *note modulefinder: 91. uses *note
     io.open_code(): 172e. and respects coding comments.

   - bpo-40234(24): Allow again to spawn daemon threads in
     subinterpreters (revert change which denied them).

   - bpo-39207(25): Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. are now
     spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to
     reuse.  This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of
     lost CPU time to idle workers.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-40091(26): Fix a hang at fork in the logging module: the new
     private _at_fork_reinit() method is now used to reinitialize locks
     at fork in the child process.

   - bpo-40149(27): Implement traverse and clear slots in _abc._abc_data
     type.

   - bpo-40208(28): Remove deprecated ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’.

   - bpo-40196(29): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d8. module that was
     causing incorrectly report global variables as local.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40190(30): Add support for ‘_SC_AIX_REALMEM’ to
     ‘posix.sysconf()’.

   - bpo-40182(31): Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2b0. class.

   - bpo-36517(32): Multiple inheritance with *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2b0. now raises an error instead of silently ignoring other types.

   - bpo-40126(33): Fixed reverting multiple patches in unittest.mock.
     Patcher’s ‘__exit__()’ is now never called if its ‘__enter__()’ is
     failed.  Returning true from ‘__exit__()’ silences now the
     exception.

   - bpo-40094(34): CGIHTTPRequestHandler of http.server now logs the
     CGI script exit code, rather than the CGI script exit status of
     os.waitpid().  For example, if the script is killed by signal 11,
     it now logs: “CGI script exit code -11.”

   - bpo-40108(35): Improve the error message when triying to import a
     module using *note runpy: be. and incorrectly using the “.py”
     extension at the end of the module name.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40094(36): Add *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.
     function: convert a wait status to an exit code.

   - bpo-40089(37): Fix threading._after_fork(): if fork was not called
     by a thread spawned by threading.Thread, threading._after_fork()
     now creates a _MainThread instance for _main_thread, instead of a
     _DummyThread instance.

   - bpo-40089(38): Add a private ‘_at_fork_reinit()’ method to
     ‘_thread.Lock’, ‘_thread.RLock’, *note threading.RLock: 2e0. and
     *note threading.Condition: 1146. classes: reinitialize the lock at
     fork in the child process, reset the lock to the unlocked state.
     Rename also the private ‘_reset_internal_locks()’ method of *note
     threading.Event: 1149. to ‘_at_fork_reinit()’.

   - bpo-25780(39): Expose *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: 92f. in the *note
     socket: cc. module.

   - bpo-39503(40): *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler: 18c2. of *note
     urllib.request: 10b. now parses all WWW-Authenticate HTTP headers
     and accepts multiple challenges per header: use the realm of the
     first Basic challenge.

   - bpo-39812(41): Removed daemon threads from *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. by adding an internal
     ‘threading._register_atexit()’, which calls registered functions
     prior to joining all non-daemon threads.  This allows for
     compatibility with subinterpreters, which don’t support daemon
     threads.

   - bpo-40050(42): Fix ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’: avoid creating
     a new ‘winreg’ builtin module if it’s already available in *note
     sys.modules: 1558, and remove redundant imports.

   - bpo-40014(43): Fix ‘os.getgrouplist()’: if ‘getgrouplist()’
     function fails because the group list is too small, retry with a
     larger group list.  On failure, the glibc implementation of
     ‘getgrouplist()’ sets ‘ngroups’ to the total number of groups.  For
     other implementations, double the group list size.

   - bpo-40017(44): Add *note time.CLOCK_TAI: 1972. constant if the
     operating system support it.

   - bpo-40016(45): In re docstring, clarify the relationship between
     inline and argument compile flags.

   - bpo-39953(46): Update internal table of OpenSSL error codes in the
     ‘ssl’ module.

   - bpo-36144(47): Added PEP 584(48) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 1973.

   - bpo-36144(49): Added PEP 584(50) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 1974.

   - bpo-38891(51): Fix linear runtime behaviour of the ‘__getitem__’
     and ‘__setitem__’ methods in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList: 1975.  This avoids
     quadratic performance when iterating a ‘ShareableList’.  Patch by
     Thomas Krennwallner.

   - bpo-39682(52): Remove undocumented support for 'closing' a
     ‘pathlib.Path’ object via its context manager.  The context manager
     magic methods remain, but they are now a no-op, making ‘Path’
     objects immutable.

   - bpo-36144(53): Added PEP 584(54) operators (‘|’ and ‘|=’) to *note
     collections.ChainMap: c19.

   - bpo-39011(55): Normalization of line endings in ElementTree
     attributes was removed, as line endings which were replaced by
     entity numbers should be preserved in original form.

   - bpo-38410(56): Properly handle *note sys.audit(): 15c1. failures in
     *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 162d.

   - bpo-36541(57): lib2to3 now recognizes named assignment expressions
     (the walrus operator, ‘:=’)

   - bpo-35967(58): In platform, delay the invocation of ‘uname -p’
     until the processor attribute is requested.

   - bpo-35113(59): *note inspect.getsource(): 151b. now returns correct
     source code for inner class with same name as module level class.
     Decorators are also returned as part of source of the class.  Patch
     by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33262(60): Deprecate passing None as an argument for *note
     shlex.split(): 536.’s ‘s’ parameter.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-31758(61): Prevent crashes when using an uninitialized
     ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’ object.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40398

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40138

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39942

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40330

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40148

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40325

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40290

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40282

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40277

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40270

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40260

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40234

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40091

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40149

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40196

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40190

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36517

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40126

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40108

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40050

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40014

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40017

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40016

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39953

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38891

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39682

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (54) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38410

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35113

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31758


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<41>,  Next: Tests<43>,  Prev: Library<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27635(1): The pickle documentation incorrectly claimed that
     ‘__new__’ isn’t called by default when unpickling.

   - bpo-39879(2): Updated *note 데이터 모델: 1977. docs to include
     *note dict(): 256. insertion order preservation.  Patch by Furkan
     Onder and Samy Lahfa.

   - bpo-38387(3): Document *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1978. macro in the C-API
     reference.

   - bpo-13743(4): Some methods within xml.dom.minidom.Element class are
     now better documented.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39879

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38387

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13743


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<43>,  Next: Build<45>,  Prev: Documentation<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): Set expected default encoding in
     test_c_locale_coercion.py for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40162(2): Update Travis CI configuration to OpenSSL 1.1.1f.

   - bpo-40146(3): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1f in Azure Pipelines.

   - bpo-40094(4): Add *note test.support.wait_process(): 197a.
     function.

   - bpo-40003(5): ‘test.bisect_cmd’ now copies Python command line
     options like ‘-O’ or ‘-W’.  Moreover, emit a warning if
     ‘test.bisect_cmd’ is used with ‘-w’/‘--verbose2’ option.

   - bpo-39380(6): Add the encoding in *note ftplib.FTP: 8f7. and *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: 8f8. to the constructor as keyword-only and change
     the default from ‘latin-1’ to ‘utf-8’ to follow RFC 2640(7).

   - bpo-39793(8): Use the same domain when testing ‘make_msgid’.  Patch
     by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1812(9): Fix newline handling in doctest.testfile when loading
     from a package whose loader has a get_data method.  Patch by Peter
     Donis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40162

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40003

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39380

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39793

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1812


File: python.info,  Node: Build<45>,  Next: Windows<41>,  Prev: Tests<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38360(1): Support single-argument form of macOS -isysroot flag.

   - bpo-40158(2): Fix CPython MSBuild Properties in NuGet Package
     (build/native/python.props)

   - bpo-38527(3): Fix configure check on Solaris for “float word
     ordering”: sometimes, the correct “grep” command was not being
     used.  Patch by Arnon Yaari.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40158

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38527


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<41>,  Next: macOS<34>,  Prev: Build<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40164(1): Updates Windows to OpenSSL 1.1.1f

   - bpo-8901(2): Ignore the Windows registry when the ‘-E’ option is
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<34>,  Next: IDLE<29>,  Prev: Windows<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38329(1): python.org macOS installers now update the Current
     version symlink of /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions
     for 3.9 installs.  Previously, Current was only updated for Python
     2.x installs.  This should make it easier to embed Python 3 into
     other macOS applications.

   - bpo-40164(2): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1g.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<29>,  Next: Tools/Demos<22>,  Prev: macOS<34>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38439(1): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to support more modern
     environments.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Delete the unused macOS
     idle.icns icon file.

   - bpo-38689(2): IDLE will no longer freeze when inspect.signature
     fails when fetching a calltip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38689


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<22>,  Next: C API<44>,  Prev: IDLE<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-40385(1): Removed the checkpyc.py tool.  Please see compileall
     without force mode as a potential alternative.

   - bpo-40179(2): Fixed translation of ‘#elif’ in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40094(3): Fix ‘which.py’ script exit code: it now uses *note
     os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a. to convert *note os.system():
     1423. exit status into an exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40385

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40179

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: C API<44>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<22>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.23.48.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40241(1): Move the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure to the internal C API.

   - bpo-40170(2): Convert *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 981. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details.

   - bpo-40241(3): Add the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 974.
     and *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 975. to the public API to
     allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or
     have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40170(4): The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the
     *note PyObject_New(): 982. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’
     macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar(): 983. macro,
     to hide implementation details.  They no longer access directly the
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 984. member.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyType_HasFeature(): 195a. now always calls
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 195b. to hide implementation details.
     Previously, it accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags:
     18c4. member when the limited C API was not used.

   - bpo-40170(6): Convert the ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro
     to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly to the *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 985. member.

   - bpo-40170(7): Convert *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 392. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 986. member.

   - bpo-40170(8): Always declare *note PyIndex_Check(): 987. as an
     opaque function to hide implementation details: remove
     ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 988. member.

   - bpo-39947(9): Add *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 970. function: get
     the unique identifier of a Python thread state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.23.49 Python 3.9.0 alpha 5
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-03-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<32>,  Next: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38576(1): Disallow control characters in hostnames in
     http.client, addressing CVE 2019-18348(2).  Such potentially
     malicious header injection URLs now cause a InvalidURL to be
     raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38576

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-18348


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<49>,  Next: Library<48>,  Prev: Security<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40010(1): Optimize pending calls in multithreaded applications.
     If a thread different than the main thread schedules a pending call
     (*note Py_AddPendingCall(): 97e.), the bytecode evaluation loop is
     no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for
     pending calls which cannot be executed.  Only the main thread can
     execute pending calls.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread executes pending calls.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _collections module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-40010(6): Optimize signal handling in multithreaded
     applications.  If a thread different than the main thread gets a
     signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at
     each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot
     be handled.  Only the main thread of the main interpreter can
     handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.

   - bpo-39984(7): If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 97e. is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the
     subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter.
     Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _heapq module to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port itertools module to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-37207(11): Speed up calls to ‘frozenset()’ by using the PEP
     590(12) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39984(13): subinterpreters: Move
     ‘_PyRuntimeState.ceval.tracing_possible’ to
     ‘PyInterpreterState.ceval.tracing_possible’: each interpreter now
     has its own variable.

   - bpo-37207(14): Speed up calls to ‘set()’ by using the PEP 590(15)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _statistics module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-39968(18): Use inline function to replace extension modules’
     get_module_state macros.

   - bpo-39965(19): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ if 'await' is used
     inside non-async functions and ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ is set
     (like in the asyncio REPL). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39562(20): Allow executing asynchronous comprehensions on the
     top level when the ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag is given.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-37207(21): Speed up calls to ‘tuple()’ by using the PEP 590(22)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38373(23): Changed list overallocation strategy.  It no longer
     overallocates if the new size is closer to overallocated size than
     to the old size and adds padding.

   - bpo-39926(24): Update Unicode database to Unicode version 13.0.0.

   - bpo-19466(25): Clear the frames of daemon threads earlier during
     the Python shutdown to call objects destructors.  So “unclosed
     file” resource warnings are now emitted for daemon threads in a
     more reliable way.

   - bpo-38894(26): Fix a bug that was causing incomplete results when
     calling ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ in the presence of symlinks that point
     to files where the user does not have read access.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Matt Wozniski.

   - bpo-39877(27): Fix *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3. random crash
     at exit with daemon threads.  It now accesses the ‘_PyRuntime’
     variable directly instead of using ‘tstate->interp->runtime’, since
     ‘tstate’ can be a dangling pointer after *note Py_Finalize(): 1342.
     has been called.  Moreover, the daemon thread now exits before
     trying to take the GIL.

   - bpo-39871(28): Fix a possible *note SystemError: 570. in
     ‘math.{atan2,copysign,remainder}()’ when the first argument cannot
     be converted to a *note float: 2ef.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-39776(29): Fix race condition where threads created by
     PyGILState_Ensure() could get a duplicate id.

     This affects consumers of tstate->id like the contextvar caching
     machinery, which could return invalid cached objects under heavy
     thread load (observed in embedded scenarios).

   - bpo-39778(30): Fixed a crash due to incorrect handling of weak
     references in ‘collections.OrderedDict’ classes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port audioop extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-39702(33): Relax *note decorator: 72a. grammar restrictions to
     allow any valid expression ( PEP 614(34)).

   - bpo-38091(35): Tweak import deadlock detection code to not deadlock
     itself.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port _locale extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-39087(38): Optimize *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bb8. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 895. slightly when they need to create
     internal UTF-8 cache.

   - bpo-39520(39): Fix unparsing of ext slices with no items
     (‘foo[:,]’).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39220(40): Do not optimize annotations if ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35712(41): Using *note NotImplemented: 7cb. in a boolean
     context has been deprecated.  Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22490(42): Don’t leak environment variable
     ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ into the interpreter session on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39965

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38373

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19466

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38894

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39871

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39776

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39778

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38091

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39087

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39520

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39220

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22490


File: python.info,  Node: Library<48>,  Next: Documentation<42>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39830(1): Add *note zipfile.Path: 6c3. to ‘__all__’ in the
     *note zipfile: 131. module.

   - bpo-40000(2): Improved error messages for validation of
     ‘ast.Constant’ nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39999(3): ‘__module__’ of the AST node classes is now set to
     “ast” instead of “_ast”.  Added docstrings for dummy AST node
     classes and deprecated attributes.

   - bpo-39991(4): *note uuid.getnode(): ba4. now skips IPv6 addresses
     with the same string length than a MAC address (17 characters):
     only use MAC addresses.

   - bpo-39988(5): Deprecated ‘ast.AugLoad’ and ‘ast.AugStore’ node
     classes because they are no longer used.

   - bpo-39656(6): Ensure ‘bin/python3.#’ is always present in virtual
     environments on POSIX platforms - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39969(7): Deprecated ‘ast.Param’ node class because it’s no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39360(8): Ensure all workers exit when finalizing a
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ implicitly via the module finalization
     handlers of multiprocessing.  This fixes a deadlock situation that
     can be experienced when the Pool is not properly finalized via the
     context manager or a call to ‘multiprocessing.Pool.terminate’.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35370(9): sys.settrace(), sys.setprofile() and
     _lsprof.Profiler.enable() now properly report *note PySys_Audit():
     368. error if “sys.setprofile” or “sys.settrace” audit event is
     denied.

   - bpo-39936(10): AIX: Fix _aix_support module when the subprocess is
     not available, when building Python from scratch.  It now uses new
     private _bootsubprocess module, rather than having two
     implementations depending if subprocess is available or not.  So
     _aix_support.aix_platform() result is now the same if subprocess is
     available or not.

   - bpo-36144(11): *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. now implements
     ‘|’ and ‘|=’ ( PEP 584(12)).

   - bpo-39652(13): The column name found in
     ‘sqlite3.Cursor.description’ is now truncated on the first ‘[’ only
     if the PARSE_COLNAMES option is set.

   - bpo-39915(14): Ensure *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock.await_args_list: 1985. has call objects in
     the order of awaited arguments instead of using *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.call_args: 1986. which has the last value of the
     call.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36144(15): Updated *note os.environ: 11a9. and *note
     os.environb: 1206. to support PEP 584(16)’s merge (‘|’) and update
     (‘|=’) operators.

   - bpo-38662(17): The ‘ensurepip’ module now invokes ‘pip’ via the
     ‘runpy’ module.  Hence it is no longer tightly coupled with the
     internal API of the bundled ‘pip’ version, allowing easier updates
     to a newer ‘pip’ version both internally and for distributors.

   - bpo-38075(18): Fix the *note random.Random.seed(): 1987. method
     when a *note bool: 461. is passed as the seed.

   - bpo-39916(19): More reliable use of ‘os.scandir()’ in
     ‘Path.glob()’.  It no longer emits a ResourceWarning when
     interrupted.

   - bpo-39850(20): *note multiprocessing: 94. now supports abstract
     socket addresses (if abstract sockets are supported in the running
     platform).  When creating arbitrary addresses (like when
     default-constructing *note multiprocessing.connection.Listener:
     16b0. objects) abstract sockets are preferred to avoid the case
     when the temporary-file-generated address is too large for an
     AF_UNIX socket address.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36287(21): *note ast.dump(): 8e1. no longer outputs optional
     fields and attributes with default values.  The default values for
     optional fields and attributes of AST nodes are now set as class
     attributes (e.g.  ‘Constant.kind’ is set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-39889(22): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. for extended slices
     containing a single element (e.g.  ‘a[i:j,]’).  Remove redundant
     tuples when index with a tuple (e.g.  ‘a[i, j]’).

   - bpo-39828(23): Fix *note json.tool: 83. to catch *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1052.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-13487(24): Avoid a possible '“RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration”' from *note inspect.getmodule(): 17ea. when
     it tried to loop through *note sys.modules: 1558.

   - bpo-39674(25): Revert “bpo-37330(26): open() no longer accept ‘U’
     in file mode”.  The “U” mode of open() is kept in Python 3.9 to
     ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python
     3.10.

   - bpo-28577(27): The hosts method on 32-bit prefix length
     IPv4Networks and 128-bit prefix IPv6Networks now returns a list
     containing the single Address instead of an empty list.

   - bpo-39826(28): Add getConnection method to logging HTTPHandler to
     enable custom connections.

   - bpo-39763(29): Reimplement ‘distutils.spawn.spawn’ function with
     the *note subprocess: d6. module.

   - bpo-39794(30): Add –without-decimal-contextvar build option.  This
     enables a thread-local rather than a coroutine local context.

   - bpo-36144(31): *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac. now implements
     ‘|’ ( PEP 584(32)).

   - bpo-39517(33): Fix runpy.run_path() when using pathlike objects

   - bpo-39775(34): Change ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ back to
     ‘collections.OrderedDict’.  This was changed to ‘dict’ in Python
     3.9.0a4.

   - bpo-39678(35): Refactor queue_manager in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. to make it easier to
     maintain.

   - bpo-39764(36): Fix AttributeError when calling get_stack on a
     PyAsyncGenObject Task

   - bpo-39769(37): The *note compileall.compile_dir(): b23. function’s
     'ddir' parameter and the compileall command line flag ‘-d’ no
     longer write the wrong pathname to the generated pyc file for
     submodules beneath the root of the directory tree being compiled.
     This fixes a regression introduced with Python 3.5.

   - bpo-36144(38): *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. objects now
     support the merge (‘|’) operator from PEP 584(39).

   - bpo-38691(40): The *note importlib: 77. module now ignores the
     *note PYTHONCASEOK: 95c. environment variable when the *note -E:
     95a. or *note -I: 95b. command line options are being used.

   - bpo-39719(41): Remove ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.softspace()’
     as files no longer have the ‘softspace’ attribute in Python 3.
     Patch by Shantanu.

   - bpo-39667(42): Improve pathlib.Path compatibility on zipfile.Path
     and correct performance degradation as found in zipp 3.0.

   - bpo-39638(43): Keep ASDL signatures in the docstrings for ‘AST’
     nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-39639(44): Deprecated ‘ast.Suite’ node class because it’s no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39609(45): Add thread_name_prefix to default asyncio executor

   - bpo-39548(46): Fix handling of header in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 1988. when the optional
     ‘qop’ parameter is not present.

   - bpo-39509(47): HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’ and ‘425
     TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 8fd.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39507(48): Adding HTTP status 418 “I’m a Teapot” to HTTPStatus
     in http library.  Patch by Ross Rhodes.

   - bpo-39495(49): Remove default value from 'attrs' parameter of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start(): 1989. for consistency
     between Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-38971(50): Open issue in the BPO indicated a desire to make the
     implementation of codecs.open() at parity with io.open(), which
     implements a try/except to assure file stream gets closed before an
     exception is raised.

   - bpo-38641(51): Added starred expressions support to ‘return’ and
     ‘yield’ statements for ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Vlad Emelianov.

   - bpo-37534(52): When using minidom module to generate XML documents
     the ability to add Standalone Document Declaration is added.  All
     the changes are made to generate a document in compliance with
     Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition) W3C
     Recommendation (available here:
     ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/#sec-prolog-dtd’).

   - bpo-34788(53): Add support for scoped IPv6 addresses to *note
     ipaddress: 80.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-34822(54): Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices are
     now represented by their value, extended slices are represented as
     tuples.  *note ast: 8. classes ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  In the meantime, ‘Index(value)’ now returns a ‘value’
     itself, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ returns ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39830

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40000

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39999

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39656

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39360

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39652

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39915

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38662

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39916

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39850

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36287

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39889

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39828

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13487

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28577

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39826

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39794

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39517

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39678

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39764

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39769

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38691

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39719

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39667

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39609

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39548

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39495

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38971

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38641

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37534

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<42>,  Next: Tests<44>,  Prev: Library<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39868(1): Updated the Language Reference for PEP 572(2).

   - bpo-13790(3): Change ‘string’ to ‘specification’ in format doc.

   - bpo-17422(4): The language reference no longer restricts default
     class namespaces to dicts only.

   - bpo-39530(5): Fix misleading documentation about mixed-type numeric
     comparisons.

   - bpo-39718(6): Update *note token: fa. documentation to reflect
     additions in Python 3.8

   - bpo-39677(7): Changed operand name of 'MAKE_FUNCTION' from 'argc'
     to 'flags' for module *note dis: 38.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39868

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13790

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39718

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39677


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<44>,  Next: Build<46>,  Prev: Documentation<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40019(1): test_gdb now skips tests if it detects that gdb
     failed to read debug information because the Python binary is
     optimized.

   - bpo-27807(2): ‘test_site.test_startup_imports()’ is now skipped if
     a path of *note sys.path: 3ae. contains a ‘.pth’ file.

   - bpo-26067(3): Do not fail test_shutil test_chown test when uid or
     gid of user cannot be resolved to a name.

   - bpo-39855(4): test_subprocess.test_user() now skips the test on an
     user name if the user name doesn’t exist.  For example, skip the
     test if the user “nobody” doesn’t exist on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40019

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26067

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39855


File: python.info,  Node: Build<46>,  Next: Windows<42>,  Prev: Tests<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39761(1): Fix build with DTrace but without additional DFLAGS.

   - bpo-39763(2): setup.py now uses a basic implementation of the *note
     subprocess: d6. module if the *note subprocess: d6. module is not
     available: before required C extension modules are built.

   - bpo-1294959(3): Add ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the configure
     script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in
     the new *note sys.platlibdir: 936. attribute.  It is used to build
     the path of platform-specific extension modules and the path of the
     standard library.  It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On
     Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.
     Patch by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39761

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<42>,  Next: macOS<35>,  Prev: Build<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39930(1): Ensures the required ‘vcruntime140.dll’ is included
     in install packages.

   - bpo-39847(2): Avoid hang when computer is hibernated whilst waiting
     for a mutex (for lock-related objects from *note threading: ed.)
     around 49-day uptime.

   - bpo-38597(3): ‘distutils’ will no longer statically link
     ‘vcruntime140.dll’ when a redistributable version is unavailable.
     All future releases of CPython will include a copy of this DLL to
     ensure distributed extensions can continue to load.

   - bpo-38380(4): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   - bpo-39789(5): Update Windows release build machines to Visual
     Studio 2019 (MSVC 14.2).

   - bpo-34803(6): Package for nuget.org now includes repository
     reference and bundled icon image.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39930

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38597

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39789

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<35>,  Next: IDLE<30>,  Prev: Windows<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38380(1): Update macOS builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<30>,  Next: Tools/Demos<23>,  Prev: macOS<35>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27115(1): For ‘Go to Line’, use a Query box subclass with IDLE
     standard behavior and improved error checking.

   - bpo-39885(2): Since clicking to get an IDLE context menu moves the
     cursor, any text selection should be and now is cleared.

   - bpo-39852(3): Edit “Go to line” now clears any selection,
     preventing accidental deletion.  It also updates Ln and Col on the
     status bar.

   - bpo-39781(4): Selecting code context lines no longer causes a jump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39852

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39781


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<23>,  Next: C API<45>,  Prev: IDLE<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-36184(1): Port python-gdb.py to FreeBSD. python-gdb.py now
     checks for “take_gil” function name to check if a frame tries to
     acquire the GIL, instead of checking for “pthread_cond_timedwait”
     which is specific to Linux and can be a different condition than
     the GIL.

   - bpo-38080(2): Added support to fix ‘getproxies’ in the
     ‘lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib’ module.  Patch by José Roberto Meza
     Cabrera.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38080


File: python.info,  Node: C API<45>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<23>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.23.49.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40024(1): Add *note PyModule_AddType(): 973. helper function:
     add a type to a module.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39946(2): Remove ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and remove
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Remove also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.

   - bpo-39947(3): Add *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 787. function:
     get the current frame of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-37207(4): Add _PyArg_NoKwnames helper function.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39947(5): Add *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 96f.: get
     the interpreter of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-39947(6): Add *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a7. function to
     the limited C API.

   - bpo-35370(7): If *note PySys_Audit(): 368. fails in *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5. or *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b, log the
     error as an unraisable exception.

   - bpo-39947(8): Move the static inline function flavor of
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() to the internal
     C API: they access PyThreadState attributes.  The limited C API
     provides regular functions which hide implementation details.

   - bpo-39947(9): Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION and Py_TRASHCAN_END macro
     no longer access PyThreadState attributes, but call new private
     _PyTrash_begin() and _PyTrash_end() functions which hide
     implementation details.

   - bpo-39884(10): *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 1992. and *note
     PyCFunction_NewEx(): 1993. now include the method name in the
     SystemError “bad call flags” error message to ease debug.

   - bpo-39877(11): Deprecated ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’.  Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now
     does nothing.

   - bpo-38249(12): *note Py_UNREACHABLE: bb2. is now implemented with
     ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ and analogs in release mode.

   - bpo-38643(13): *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17f0. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 570. instead of crashing when called with invalid
     base.

   - bpo-39882(14): The *note Py_FatalError(): 980. function is replaced
     with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current
     function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

   - bpo-39824(15): Extension modules: *note m_traverse: 979, *note
     m_clear: 97a. and *note m_free: 97b. functions of *note
     PyModuleDef: 978. are no longer called if the module state was
     requested but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately
     after the module is created and before the module is executed
     (*note Py_mod_exec: 97c. function).  More precisely, these
     functions are not called if *note m_size: 1994. is greater than 0
     and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState():
     97d.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   - bpo-38913(16): Fixed segfault in ‘Py_BuildValue()’ called with a
     format containing “#” and undefined PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN whwn an
     exception is set.

   - bpo-38500(17): Add a private API to get and set the frame
     evaluation function: add *note
     _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc(): 1995. and *note
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc(): 1996. C functions.  The
     *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 76f. function type now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39884

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38643

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39824

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38913

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.50 Python 3.9.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-02-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* C API: C API<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<33>,  Next: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-39184(1): Add audit events to functions in ‘fcntl’, ‘msvcrt’,
     ‘os’, ‘resource’, ‘shutil’, ‘signal’ and ‘syslog’.

   - bpo-39401(2): Avoid unsafe DLL load at startup on Windows 7 and
     earlier.

   - bpo-39184(3): Add audit events to command execution functions in os
     and pty modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39401

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<50>,  Next: Library<49>,  Prev: Security<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39382(1): Fix a use-after-free in the single inheritance path
     of ‘issubclass()’, when the ‘__bases__’ of an object has a single
     reference, and so does its first item.  Patch by Yonatan
     Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-39573(2): Update clinic tool to use *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 181b.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39619(3): Enable use of *note os.chroot(): 199a. on HP-UX
     systems.

   - bpo-39573(4): Add *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 181b. static inline function
     to check whether the object 'o' type is 'type'.

   - bpo-39606(5): Fix regression caused by fix for bpo-39386(6), that
     prevented calling ‘aclose’ on an async generator that had already
     been closed or exhausted.

   - bpo-39579(7): Change the ending column offset of ‘Attribute’ nodes
     constructed in ‘ast_for_dotted_name’ to point at the end of the
     current node and not at the end of the last ‘NAME’ node.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _crypt extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9)).

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port _contextvars extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11)).

   - bpo-39510(12): Fix segfault in ‘readinto()’ method on closed
     BufferedReader.

   - bpo-39502(13): Fix *note time.localtime(): 14c1. on 64-bit AIX to
     support years before 1902 and after 2038.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-39492(14): Fix a reference cycle in the C Pickler that was
     preventing the garbage collection of deleted, pickled objects.

   - bpo-39453(15): Fixed a possible crash in ‘list.__contains__()’ when
     a list is changed during comparing items.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39434(16): *note floor division: 942. of float operation now
     has a better performance.  Also the message of *note
     ZeroDivisionError: 943. for this operation is updated.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port _codecs extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port _bz2 extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(20)).

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _abc extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-39320(23): Replace two complex bytecodes for building dicts
     with two simpler ones.  The new bytecodes ‘DICT_MERGE’ and
     ‘DICT_UPDATE’ have been added The old bytecodes ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK’
     and ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39219(24): Syntax errors raised in the tokenizer now always set
     correct “text” and “offset” attributes.

   - bpo-36051(25): Drop the GIL during large ‘bytes.join’ operations.
     Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-38960(26): Fix DTrace build issues on FreeBSD. Patch by David
     Carlier.

   - bpo-37207(27): Speed up calls to ‘range()’ by about 30%, by using
     the PEP 590 ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark
     Shannon.

   - bpo-36144(28): *note dict: 256. (and *note collections.UserDict:
     199b.) objects now support PEP 584’s merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-32856(29): Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary
     variable in comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in
     comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39382

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39619

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39606

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39579

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39453

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36051

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38960

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856


File: python.info,  Node: Library<49>,  Next: Documentation<43>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30566(1): Fix *note IndexError: 14fc. when trying to decode an
     invalid string with punycode codec.

   - bpo-39649(2): Remove obsolete check for ‘__args__’ in
     ‘bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry’.

   - bpo-39648(3): Expanded *note math.gcd(): 90d. and *note math.lcm():
     90e. to handle multiple arguments.

   - bpo-39681(4): Fix a regression where the C pickle module wouldn’t
     allow unpickling from a file-like object that doesn’t expose a
     readinto() method.

   - bpo-35950(5): Raise *note io.UnsupportedOperation: 199d. in
     ‘io.BufferedReader.truncate()’ when it is called on a read-only
     *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd. instance.

   - bpo-39479(6): Add *note math.lcm(): 90e. function: least common
     multiple.

   - bpo-39674(7): Revert “Do not expose abstract collection classes in
     the collections module” change (bpo-25988(8)).  Aliases to ABC like
     collections.Mapping are kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from
     Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

   - bpo-39104(9): Fix hanging ProcessPoolExcutor on
     ‘shutdown(wait=False)’ when a task has failed pickling.

   - bpo-39627(10): Fixed TypedDict totality check for inherited keys.

   - bpo-39474(11): Fixed starting position of AST for expressions like
     ‘(a)(b)’, ‘(a)[b]’ and ‘(a).b’.

   - bpo-21016(12): The *note pydoc: b5. and *note trace: fd. modules
     now use the *note sysconfig: db. module to get the path to the
     Python standard library, to support uncommon installation path like
     ‘/usr/lib64/python3.9/’ on Fedora.  Patch by Jan Matějek.

   - bpo-39590(13): Collections.deque now holds strong references during
     deque.__contains__ and deque.count, fixing crashes.

   - bpo-39586(14): The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is deprecated in
     Python 3.9, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-39595(15): Improved performance of zipfile.Path for files with
     a large number of entries.  Also improved performance and fixed
     minor issue as published with importlib_metadata 1.5(16).

   - bpo-39350(17): Fix regression in *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. if
     the numerator and/or the denominator is an *note int: 257.
     subclass.  The *note math.gcd(): 90d. function is now used to
     normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note math.gcd():
     90d. always return a *note int: 257. type.  Previously, the GCD
     type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

   - bpo-39567(18): Added audit for *note os.walk(): 4a3, *note
     os.fwalk(): b58, *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. and *note
     pathlib.Path.rglob(): 22e.

   - bpo-39559(19): Remove unused, undocumented argument ‘getters’ from
     *note uuid.getnode(): ba4.

   - bpo-38149(20): *note sys.audit(): 15c1. is now called only once per
     call of *note glob.glob(): 29f. and *note glob.iglob(): 801.

   - bpo-39546(21): Fix a regression in *note ArgumentParser: 533. where
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ was ignored for long options that used a
     prefix character other than “-“.

   - bpo-39450(22): Striped whitespace from docstring before returning
     it from ‘unittest.case.shortDescription()’.

   - bpo-12915(23): A new function ‘resolve_name’ has been added to the
     ‘pkgutil’ module.  This resolves a string of the form ‘'a.b.c.d'’
     or ‘'a.b:c.d'’ to an object.  In the example, ‘a.b’ is a
     package/module and ‘c.d’ is an object within that package/module
     reached via recursive attribute access.

   - bpo-39353(24): The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 72d. function is no
     longer deprecated.

   - bpo-39493(25): Mark ‘typing.IO.closed’ as a property

   - bpo-39491(26): Add *note typing.Annotated: 93b. and
     ‘include_extras’ parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab.
     as part of PEP 593(27).  Patch by Till Varoquaux, documentation by
     Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.

   - bpo-39485(28): Fix a bug in *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     160f. that would complain about the wrong number of arguments for
     custom descriptors defined in an extension module returning
     functions.

   - bpo-38932(29): Mock fully resets child objects on reset_mock().
     Patch by Vegard Stikbakke

   - bpo-39082(30): Allow AsyncMock to correctly patch static/class
     methods

   - bpo-39432(31): Implement PEP-489 algorithm for non-ascii “PyInit_…”
     symbol names in distutils to make it export the correct init symbol
     also on Windows.

   - bpo-18819(32): Omit ‘devmajor’ and ‘devminor’ fields for non-device
     files in *note tarfile: de. archives, enabling bit-for-bit
     compatibility with GNU ‘tar(1)’.

   - bpo-39349(33): Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 8ea. that cancels all
     pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting
     for them to complete before shutting down the executor.

   - bpo-39274(34): ‘bool(fraction.Fraction)’ now returns a boolean even
     if (numerator != 0) does not return a boolean (ex: numpy number).

   - bpo-34793(35): Remove support for ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and
     ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’.  The same is correct for
     ‘asyncio.Condition’ and ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.

   - bpo-25597(36): Ensure, if ‘wraps’ is supplied to *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: e87, it is used to calculate return values
     for the magic methods instead of using the default return values.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36350(37): ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ and
     ‘inspect.BoundArguments.arguments’ are now dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35727(38): Fix sys.exit() and sys.exit(None) exit code
     propagation when used in multiprocessing.Process.

   - bpo-32173(39): * Add ‘lazycache’ function to ‘__all__’.  * Use
     ‘dict.clear’ to clear the cache.  * Refactoring ‘getline’ function
     and ‘checkcache’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39681

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35950

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39627

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39474

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21016

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39590

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39595

   (16) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v1-5-0

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39567

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39559

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38149

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39546

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39450

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39493

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39491

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39485

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38932

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39082

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39432

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18819

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35727

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32173


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<43>,  Next: Tests<45>,  Prev: Library<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17422(1): The language reference now specifies restrictions on
     class namespaces.  Adapted from a patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-39572(2): Updated documentation of ‘total’ flag of ‘TypedDict’.

   - bpo-39654(3): In pyclbr doc, update ‘class’ to ‘module’ where
     appropriate and add readmodule comment.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-39153(4): Clarify refcounting semantics for the following
     functions: - PyObject_SetItem - PyMapping_SetItemString -
     PyDict_SetItem - PyDict_SetItemString

   - bpo-39392(5): Explain that when filling with turtle, overlap
     regions may be left unfilled.

   - bpo-39369(6): Update mmap readline method description.  The fact
     that the readline method does update the file position should not
     be ignored since this might give the impression for the programmer
     that it doesn’t update it.

   - bpo-9056(7): Include subsection in TOC for PDF version of docs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39153

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39369

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9056


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<45>,  Next: Build<47>,  Prev: Documentation<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38325(1): Skip tests on non-BMP characters of
     test_winconsoleio.

   - bpo-39502(2): Skip test_zipfile.test_add_file_after_2107() if *note
     time.localtime(): 14c1. fails with *note OverflowError: 87d.  It is
     the case on AIX 6.1 for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38325

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502


File: python.info,  Node: Build<47>,  Next: Windows<43>,  Prev: Tests<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39489(1): Remove ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<43>,  Next: IDLE<31>,  Prev: Build<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39553(1): Delete unused code related to SxS manifests.

   - bpo-39439(2): Honor the Python path when a virtualenv is active on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39393(3): Improve the error message when attempting to load a
     DLL with unresolved dependencies.

   - bpo-38883(4): *note home(): e3f. and *note expanduser(): e3e. on
     Windows now prefer ‘USERPROFILE’ and no longer use ‘HOME’, which is
     not normally set for regular user accounts.  This makes them again
     behave like *note os.path.expanduser(): a10, which was changed to
     ignore ‘HOME’ in 3.8, see bpo-36264(5).

   - bpo-39185(6): The build.bat script has additional options for
     very-quiet output (-q) and very-verbose output (-vv)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39553

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39393

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38883

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39185


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<31>,  Next: C API<46>,  Prev: Windows<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39663(1): Add tests for pyparse find_good_parse_start().

   - bpo-39600(2): In the font configuration window, remove duplicated
     font names.

   - bpo-30780(3): Add remaining configdialog tests for buttons and
     highlights and keys tabs.

   - bpo-39388(4): IDLE Settings Cancel button now cancels pending
     changes

   - bpo-38792(5): Close an IDLE shell calltip if a *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. or shell restart occurs.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30780

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39388

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38792


File: python.info,  Node: C API<46>,  Prev: IDLE<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.23.50.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-35081(1): Move the ‘bytes_methods.h’ header file to the
     internal C API as ‘pycore_bytes_methods.h’: it only contains
     private symbols (prefixed by ‘_Py’), except of the
     ‘PyDoc_STRVAR_shared()’ macro.

   - bpo-35081(2): Move the ‘dtoa.h’ header file to the internal C API
     as ‘pycore_dtoa.h’: it only contains private functions (prefixed by
     ‘_Py’).  The *note math: 8e. and *note cmath: 18. modules must now
     be compiled with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ macro defined.

   - bpo-39573(3): Add *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c. function to set the
     size of an object.

   - bpo-39500(4): *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 19a4. does not call
     *note Py_FatalError(): 980. anymore if the string is not ready.

   - bpo-39573(5): Add *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 77a. function to set the
     type of an object.

   - bpo-39573(6): Add a *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a7. function to set the
     reference counter of an object.

   - bpo-39542(7): Convert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 195a, *note
     PyType_Check(): 19a5. and *note PyType_CheckExact(): 19a6. macros
     to static inline functions.

   - bpo-39542(8): In the limited C API, ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and
     ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ are now defined as aliases to *note
     PyObject_Init(): a68. and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 195c. to make
     their implementation opaque.  It avoids to leak implementation
     details in the limited C API. Exclude the following functions from
     the limited C API: ‘_Py_NewReference()’, ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’,
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ and ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’.

   - bpo-39542(9): Exclude trashcan mechanism from the limited C API: it
     requires access to PyTypeObject and PyThreadState structure fields,
     whereas these structures are opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-39511(10): The *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1628. function now
     calls the ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that
     happened in *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 19a7.

   - bpo-38076(11): Fix to clear the interpreter state only after
     clearing module globals to guarantee module state access from C
     Extensions during runtime destruction

   - bpo-39245(12): The Vectorcall API (PEP 590) was made public, adding
     the functions ‘PyObject_Vectorcall’, ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod’,
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function’, ‘PyObject_CallOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’, ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_FastCallDict’, and the flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39511

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39245


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.51 Python 3.9.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-01-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* C API: C API<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<51>,  Next: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.51.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39427(1): Document all possibilities for the ‘-X’ options in
     the command line help section.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39421(2): Fix possible crashes when operating with the
     functions in the *note heapq: 69. module and custom comparison
     operators.

   - bpo-39386(3): Prevent double awaiting of async iterator.

   - bpo-17005(4): Add ‘functools.TopologicalSorter’ to the *note
     functools: 5f. module to offers functionality to perform
     topological sorting of graphs.  Patch by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters
     and Larry Hastings.

   - bpo-39320(5): Replace four complex bytecodes for building sequences
     with three simpler ones.

     The following four bytecodes have been removed:

        * BUILD_LIST_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK

        * BUILD_SET_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL

     The following three bytecodes have been added:

        * LIST_TO_TUPLE

        * LIST_EXTEND

        * SET_UPDATE

   - bpo-39336(6): Import loaders which publish immutable module objects
     can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual
     modules.

   - bpo-39322(7): Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): 8fa. to
     check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39048(8): Improve the displayed error message when incorrect
     types are passed to ‘async with’ statements by looking up the
     ‘__aenter__()’ special method before the ‘__aexit__()’ special
     method when entering an asynchronous context manager.  Patch by
     Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-39235(9): Fix AST end location for lone generator expression in
     function call, e.g.  f(i for i in a).

   - bpo-39209(10): Correctly handle multi-line tokens in interactive
     mode.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port _json extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-39216(13): Fix constant folding optimization for positional
     only arguments - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39215(14): Fix ‘SystemError’ when nested function has
     annotation on positional-only argument - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39200(15): Correct the error message when calling the *note
     min(): f00. or *note max(): f01. with no arguments.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39200(16): Correct the error message when trying to construct
     *note range: 941. objects with no arguments.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-39166(17): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing the last iteration of asynchronous for
     loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39114(18): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing exception handlers with name binding.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39156(19): Split the COMPARE_OP bytecode instruction into four
     distinct instructions.

        * COMPARE_OP for rich comparisons

        * IS_OP for ‘is’ and ‘is not’ tests

        * CONTAINS_OP for ‘in’ and ‘is not’ tests

        * JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH for checking exceptions in ‘try-except’
          statements.

     This improves the clarity of the interpreter and should provide a
     modest speedup.

   - bpo-38588(20): Fix possible crashes in dict and list when calling
     *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19aa.

   - bpo-13601(21): By default, ‘sys.stderr’ is line-buffered now, even
     if ‘stderr’ is redirected to a file.  You can still make
     ‘sys.stderr’ unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 19ab. command-line
     option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19ac. environment
     variable.

     (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(22).)

   - bpo-38610(23): Fix possible crashes in several list methods by
     holding strong references to list elements when calling *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19aa.

   - bpo-32021(24): Include brotli .br encoding in mimetypes
     encodings_map

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39235

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39209

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39216

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39215

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39166

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39114

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38588

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38610

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32021


File: python.info,  Node: Library<50>,  Next: Documentation<44>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.51.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-39430(1): Fixed race condition in lazy imports in *note
     tarfile: de.

   - bpo-39413(2): The *note os.unsetenv(): 918. function is now also
     available on Windows.

   - bpo-39390(3): Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of
     *note shutil.copytree(): a25.  The argument types are now ‘str’ and
     ‘List[str]’ again.

   - bpo-39395(4): The *note os.putenv(): 919. and *note os.unsetenv():
     918. functions are now always available.

   - bpo-39406(5): If ‘setenv()’ C function is available, *note
     os.putenv(): 919. is now implemented with ‘setenv()’ instead of
     ‘putenv()’, so Python doesn’t have to handle the environment
     variable memory.

   - bpo-39396(6): Fix ‘math.nextafter(-0.0, +0.0)’ on AIX 7.1.

   - bpo-29435(7): Allow *note tarfile.is_tarfile(): 184b. to be used
     with file and file-like objects, like *note zipfile.is_zipfile():
     131a.  Patch by William Woodruff.

   - bpo-39377(8): Removed ‘encoding’ option from *note json.loads():
     953.  It has been deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-39389(9): Write accurate compression level metadata in *note
     gzip: 67. archives, rather than always signaling maximum
     compression.

   - bpo-39366(10): The previously deprecated ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’
     methods of ‘nntplib.NNTP’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39357(11): Remove the 'buffering' parameter of *note
     bz2.BZ2File: 861.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it
     was emitting *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  Pass an open file
     object, to control how the file is opened.  The 'compresslevel'
     parameter becomes keyword-only.

   - bpo-39353(12): Deprecate binhex4 and hexbin4 standards.  Deprecate
     the ‘binhex’ module and the following *note binascii: 10.
     functions: ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘rlecode_hqx()’,
     ‘rledecode_hqx()’, *note crc_hqx(): 72d.

   - bpo-39351(13): Remove ‘base64.encodestring()’ and
     ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases deprecated since Python 3.1: use
     *note base64.encodebytes(): 951. and *note base64.decodebytes():
     952. instead.

   - bpo-39350(14): Remove ‘fractions.gcd()’ function, deprecated since
     Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(15)): use *note math.gcd(): 90d. instead.

   - bpo-39329(16): *note LMTP: 92d. constructor now has an optional
     'timeout' parameter.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39313(17): Add a new ‘exec_function’ option ('–exec-function'
     in the CLI) to ‘RefactoringTool’ for making ‘exec’ a function.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39259(18): *note FTP_TLS: 8f8. and *note FTP_TLS: 8f8. now
     raise a *note ValueError: 202. if the given timeout for their
     constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking
     socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39259(19): *note SMTP: 92b. and *note SMTP_SSL: 92c. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 202. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39310(20): Add *note math.ulp(): 90f.: return the value of the
     least significant bit of a float.

   - bpo-39297(21): Improved performance of importlib.metadata
     distribution discovery and resilients to inaccessible sys.path
     entries (importlib_metadata v1.4.0).

   - bpo-39259(22): ‘NNTP’ and ‘NNTP_SSL’ now raise a *note ValueError:
     202. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent
     the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38901(23): When you specify prompt=’.’ or equivalently python
     -m venv –prompt .  … the basename of the current directory is used
     to set the created venv’s prompt when it’s activated.

   - bpo-39288(24): Add *note math.nextafter(): 492.: return the next
     floating-point value after 'x' towards 'y'.

   - bpo-39259(25): *note POP3: 921. and *note POP3_SSL: 922. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 202. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39242(26): Updated the Gmane domain from news.gmane.org to
     news.gmane.io which is used for examples of ‘NNTP’ news reader
     server and nntplib tests.

   - bpo-35292(27): Proxy the ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.guess_type’ to
     ‘mimetypes.guess_type’ so the ‘mimetypes.init’ is called lazily to
     avoid unnecessary costs when *note http.server: 72. module is
     imported.

   - bpo-39239(28): The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 958. method no
     longer ignores the *note EBADF: 959. error.

   - bpo-38907(29): In http.server script, restore binding to IPv4 on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39152(30): Fix ttk.Scale.configure([name]) to return
     configuration tuple for name or all options.  Giovanni Lombardo
     contributed part of the patch.

   - bpo-39198(31): If an exception were to be thrown in
     ‘Logger.isEnabledFor’ (say, by asyncio timeouts or stopit) , the
     ‘logging’ global lock may not be released appropriately, resulting
     in deadlock.  This change wraps that block of code with
     ‘try...finally’ to ensure the lock is released.

   - bpo-39191(32): Perform a check for running loop before starting a
     new task in ‘loop.run_until_complete()’ to fail fast; it prevents
     the side effect of new task spawning before exception raising.

   - bpo-38871(33): Correctly parenthesize filter-based statements that
     contain lambda expressions in ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39142(34): A change was made to logging.config.dictConfig to
     avoid converting instances of named tuples to ConvertingTuple.
     It’s assumed that named tuples are too specialised to be treated
     like ordinary tuples; if a user of named tuples requires
     ConvertingTuple functionality, they will have to implement that
     themselves in their named tuple class.

   - bpo-39158(35): ast.literal_eval() now supports empty sets.

   - bpo-39129(36): Fix import path for ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’

   - bpo-39057(37): ‘urllib.request.proxy_bypass_environment()’ now
     ignores leading dots and no longer ignores a trailing newline.

   - bpo-39056(38): Fixed handling invalid warning category in the -W
     option.  No longer import the re module if it is not needed.

   - bpo-39055(39): *note base64.b64decode(): 19ae. with ‘validate=True’
     raises now a binascii.Error if the input ends with a single ‘\n’.

   - bpo-21600(40): Fix ‘mock.patch.stopall()’ to stop active patches
     that were created with ‘mock.patch.dict()’.

   - bpo-39019(41): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 68d.

   - bpo-39019(42): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for
     ‘subprocess.Popen’, ‘subprocess.CompletedProcess’

   - bpo-38914(43): Adjusted the wording of the warning issued by
     distutils’ ‘check’ command when the ‘author’ and ‘maintainer’
     fields are supplied but no corresponding e-mail field
     (‘author_email’ or ‘maintainer_email’) is found.  The wording now
     reflects the fact that these fields are suggested, but not
     required.  Patch by Juergen Gmach.

   - bpo-38878(44): Fixed __subclasshook__ of *note os.PathLike: c4e. to
     return a correct result upon inheritance.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38615(45): *note IMAP4: 900. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 901. now have
     an optional 'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the
     *note open(): 902. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter
     with this change.  The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 901.
     and *note IMAP4_stream: 903. were applied to this change.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35182(46): Fixed ‘Popen.communicate()’ subsequent call crash
     when the child process has already closed any piped standard
     stream, but still continues to be running.  Patch by Andriy
     Maletsky.

   - bpo-38630(47): On Unix, *note subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 13a7.
     now polls the process status.  Polling reduces the risk of sending
     a signal to the wrong process if the process completed, the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: 19af. attribute is still ‘None’, and
     the pid has been reassigned (recycled) to a new different process.

   - bpo-38536(48): Removes trailing space in formatted currency with
     ‘international=True’ and a locale with symbol following value.
     E.g.  ‘locale.currency(12.34, international=True)’ returned ‘'12,34
     EUR '’ instead of ‘'12,34 EUR'’.

   - bpo-38473(49): Use signature from inner mock for autospecced
     methods attached with ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-38361(50): Fixed an issue where ‘ident’ could include a leading
     path separator when *note syslog.openlog(): 539. was called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-38293(51): Add *note copy.copy(): 52d. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b6b. support to *note property(): 194. objects.

   - bpo-37958(52): Added the pstats.Stats.get_profile_dict() method to
     return the profile data as a StatsProfile instance.

   - bpo-28367(53): Termios magic constants for the following baud
     rates: - B500000 - B576000 - B921600 - B1000000 - B1152000 -
     B1500000 - B2000000 - B2500000 - B3000000 - B3500000 - B4000000
     Patch by Andrey Smirnov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39430

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39390

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39406

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39396

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29435

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39389

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39313

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39297

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38901

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39242

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38907

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39152

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39198

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39191

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38871

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39142

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39129

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39057

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39056

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39055

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21600

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38914

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38878

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35182

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38630

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38536

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38473

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38361

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38293

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37958

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28367


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<44>,  Next: Build<48>,  Prev: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.51.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39381(1): Mention in docs that *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     2c2. implicitly creates new event loop only if called from the main
     thread.

   - bpo-38918(2): Add an entry for ‘__module__’ in the “function” &
     “method” sections of the *note inspect: 7e. docs’ *note 형과 멤버:
     19b1. table.

   - bpo-3530(3): In the *note ast: 8. module documentation, fix a
     misleading ‘NodeTransformer’ example and add advice on when to use
     the ‘fix_missing_locations’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38918

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3530


File: python.info,  Node: Build<48>,  Next: IDLE<32>,  Prev: Documentation<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.51.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-39395(1): On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and
     ‘unsetenv()’ functions are now required to build Python.

   - bpo-39160(2): Updated the documentation in ‘./configure --help’ to
     show default values, reference documentation where required and add
     additional explanation where needed.

   - bpo-39144(3): The ctags and etags build targets both include
     Modules/_ctypes and Python standard library source files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39160

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39144


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<32>,  Next: C API<47>,  Prev: Build<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.51.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39050(1): Make IDLE Settings dialog Help button work again.

   - bpo-34118(2): Tag memoryview, range, and tuple as classes, the same
     as list, etcetera, in the library manual built-in functions list.

   - bpo-32989(3): Add tests for editor newline_and_indent_event method.
     Remove dead code from pyparse find_good_parse_start method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39050

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34118

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32989


File: python.info,  Node: C API<47>,  Prev: IDLE<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.23.51.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-39372(1): Clean header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.

   - bpo-39164(2): Add a private ‘_PyErr_GetExcInfo()’ function to
     retrieve exception information of the specified Python thread
     state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39164


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.52 Python 3.9.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-12-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* C API: C API<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<34>,  Next: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38945(1): Newline characters have been escaped when performing
     uu encoding to prevent them from overflowing into to content
     section of the encoded file.  This prevents malicious or accidental
     modification of data during the decoding process.

   - bpo-37228(2): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c. is no longer
     supported.  This is because of the behavior of ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in
     UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
     ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
     Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(3).)

   - bpo-38804(4): Fixes a ReDoS vulnerability in *note http.cookiejar:
     70.  Patch by Ben Caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38804


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<52>,  Next: Library<51>,  Prev: Security<34>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39028(1): Slightly improve the speed of keyword argument
     parsing with many kwargs by strengthening the assumption that
     kwargs are interned strings.

   - bpo-39080(2): Fix the value of 'end_col_offset' for Starred
     Expression AST nodes when they are among the elements in the 'args'
     attribute of Call AST nodes.

   - bpo-39031(3): When parsing an “elif” node, lineno and col_offset of
     the node now point to the “elif” keyword and not to its condition,
     making it consistent with the “if” node.  Patch by Lysandros
     Nikolaou.

   - bpo-20443(4): In Python 3.9.0a1, sys.argv[0] was made an absolute
     path if a filename was specified on the command line.  Revert this
     change, since most users expect sys.argv to be unmodified.

   - bpo-39008(5): *note PySys_Audit(): 368. now requires ‘Py_ssize_t’
     to be used for size arguments in the format string, regardless of
     whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was defined at include time.

   - bpo-38673(6): In REPL mode, don’t switch to PS2 if the line starts
     with comment or whitespace.  Based on work by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-38922(7): Calling ‘replace’ on a code object now raises the
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event.

   - bpo-38920(8): Add audit hooks for when *note sys.excepthook(): 805.
     and *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. are invoked.

   - bpo-38892(9): Improve documentation for audit events table and
     functions.

   - bpo-38852(10): Set the thread stack size to 8 Mb for debug builds
     on android platforms.

   - bpo-38858(11): Each Python subinterpreter now has its own “small
     integer singletons”: numbers in [-5; 257] range.  It is no longer
     possible to change the number of small integers at build time by
     overriding ‘NSMALLNEGINTS’ and ‘NSMALLPOSINTS’ macros: macros
     should now be modified manually in ‘pycore_pystate.h’ header file.

   - bpo-36854(12): The garbage collector state becomes per interpreter
     (‘PyInterpreterState.gc’), rather than being global
     (‘_PyRuntimeState.gc’).

   - bpo-38835(13): The ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros are empty: they have been doing
     nothing for the last year, so stop using them.

   - bpo-38328(14): Sped up the creation time of constant *note list:
     60b. and *note set: 5d3. displays.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-38707(15): ‘MainThread.native_id’ is now correctly reset in
     child processes spawned using *note multiprocessing.Process: b56,
     instead of retaining the parent’s value.

   - bpo-38629(16): Added ‘__floor__’ and ‘__ceil__’ methods to float
     object.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-27145(17): int + int and int - int operators can now return
     small integer singletons.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-38021(18): Provide a platform tag for AIX that is sufficient
     for PEP425 binary distribution identification.  Patch by Michael
     Felt.

   - bpo-35409(19): Ignore GeneratorExit exceptions when throwing an
     exception into the aclose coroutine of an asynchronous generator.

   - bpo-33387(20): Removed WITH_CLEANUP_START, WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH,
     BEGIN_FINALLY, END_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY bytecodes.
     Replaced with RERAISE and WITH_EXCEPT_START bytecodes.  The
     compiler now generates different code for exceptional and
     non-exceptional branches for ‘with’ and ‘try-except’ statements.
     For ‘try-finally’ statements the ‘finally’ block is replicated for
     each exit from the ‘try’ body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39080

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39008

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38892

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38852

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38858

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36854

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38328

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38707

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38629

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27145

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38021

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33387


File: python.info,  Node: Library<51>,  Next: Documentation<45>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39033(1): Fix *note NameError: 438. in *note zipimport: 132.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-39022(2): Update importlib.metadata to include improvements
     from importlib_metadata 1.3 including better serialization of
     EntryPoints and improved documentation for custom finders.

   - bpo-39006(3): Fix asyncio when the ssl module is missing: only
     check for ssl.SSLSocket instance if the ssl module is available.

   - bpo-38708(4): Fix a potential IndexError in email parser when
     parsing an empty msg-id.

   - bpo-38698(5): Add a new ‘InvalidMessageID’ token to email parser to
     represent invalid Message-ID headers.  Also, add defects when there
     is remaining value after parsing the header.

   - bpo-38994(6): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ for ‘os.PathLike’,
     ‘pathlib.Path’.

   - bpo-38979(7): Return class from ‘ContextVar.__class_getitem__’ to
     simplify subclassing.

   - bpo-38978(8): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ on asyncio objects
     (Future, Task, Queue).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38916(9): *note array.array: 1a0.: Remove ‘tostring()’ and
     ‘fromstring()’ methods.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - bpo-38986(10): Make repr of C accelerated TaskWakeupMethWrapper the
     same as of pure Python version.

   - bpo-38982(11): Fix asyncio ‘PidfdChildWatcher’: handle ‘waitpid()’
     error.  If ‘waitpid()’ is called elsewhere, ‘waitpid()’ call fails
     with *note ChildProcessError: 104e.: use return code 255 in this
     case, and log a warning.  It ensures that the pidfd file descriptor
     is closed if this error occurs.

   - bpo-38529(12): Drop too noisy asyncio warning about deletion of a
     stream without explicit ‘.close()’ call.

   - bpo-27413(13): Added ability to pass through ‘ensure_ascii’ options
     to json.dumps in the ‘json.tool’ command-line interface.

   - bpo-38634(14): The *note readline: ba. module now detects if Python
     is linked to libedit at runtime on all platforms.  Previously, the
     check was only done on macOS.

   - bpo-33684(15): Fix ‘json.tool’ failed to read a JSON file with
     non-ASCII characters when locale encoding is not UTF-8.

   - bpo-38698(16): Prevent UnboundLocalError to pop up in
     parse_message_id.

     parse_message_id() was improperly using a token defined inside an
     exception handler, which was raising ‘UnboundLocalError’ on parsing
     an invalid value.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38927(17): Use ‘python -m pip’ instead of ‘pip’ to upgrade
     dependencies in venv.

   - bpo-26730(18): Fix ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.rollover()’ might corrupt
     the file when it is in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-38881(19): random.choices() now raises a ValueError when all
     the weights are zero.

   - bpo-38876(20): Raise pickle.UnpicklingError when loading an item
     from memo for invalid input.

     The previous code was raising a ‘KeyError’ for both the Python and
     C implementation.  This was caused by the specified index of an
     invalid input which did not exist in the memo structure, where the
     pickle stores what objects it has seen.  The malformed input would
     have caused either a ‘BINGET’ or ‘LONG_BINGET’ load from the memo,
     leading to a ‘KeyError’ as the determined index was bogus.  Patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38688(21): Calling func:‘shutil.copytree’ to copy a directory
     tree from one directory to another subdirectory resulted in an
     endless loop and a RecursionError.  A fix was added to consume an
     iterator and create the list of the entries to be copied, avoiding
     the recursion for newly created directories.  Patch by Bruno P.
     Kinoshita.

   - bpo-38863(22): Improve ‘is_cgi()’ function in *note http.server:
     72, which enables processing the case that cgi directory is a child
     of another directory other than root.

   - bpo-37838(23): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab. properly handles
     functions decorated with *note functools.wraps(): f55.

   - bpo-38870(24): Expose *note ast.unparse(): 8e2. as a function of
     the *note ast: 8. module that can be used to unparse an *note
     ast.AST: 1a6. object and produce a string with code that would
     produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 1a6. object when parsed.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38859(25): AsyncMock now returns StopAsyncIteration on the
     exhaustion of a side_effects iterable.  Since PEP-479 its
     Impossible to raise a StopIteration exception from a coroutine.

   - bpo-38857(26): AsyncMock fix for return values that are awaitable
     types.  This also covers side_effect iterable values that happened
     to be awaitable, and wraps callables that return an awaitable type.
     Before these awaitables were being awaited instead of being
     returned as is.

   - bpo-38834(27): *note typing.TypedDict: 162. subclasses now track
     which keys are optional using the ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes, to enable runtime validation by
     downstream projects.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-38821(28): Fix unhandled exceptions in *note argparse: 6. when
     internationalizing error messages for arguments with ‘nargs’ set to
     special (non-integer) values.  Patch by Federico Bond.

   - bpo-38820(29): Make Python compatible with OpenSSL 3.0.0.  *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf. no longer returns IPv6 addresses
     with a trailing new line.

   - bpo-38811(30): Fix an unhandled exception in *note pathlib: a4.
     when *note os.link(): 10e1. is missing.  Patch by Toke
     Høiland-Jørgensen.

   - bpo-38686(31): Added support for multiple ‘qop’ values in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 1988.

   - bpo-38712(32): Add the Linux-specific *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 929. function, which allows sending a
     signal to a process identified by a file descriptor rather than a
     pid.

   - bpo-38348(33): Add ‘-i’ and ‘--indent’ (indentation level), and
     ‘--no-type-comments’ (type comments) command line options to ast
     parsing tool.

   - bpo-37523(34): Change ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’ to raise ‘ValueError’
     when trying to access the underlying file object after it has been
     closed.  This new behavior is consistent with how accessing closed
     files is handled in other parts of Python.

   - bpo-38045(35): Improve the performance of ‘enum._decompose()’ in
     *note enum: 56.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-36820(36): Break cycle generated when saving an exception in
     socket.py, codeop.py and dyld.py as they keep alive not only the
     exception but user objects through the ‘__traceback__’ attribute.
     Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-36406(37): Handle namespace packages in *note doctest: 3a.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-34776(38): Fix dataclasses to support forward references in
     type annotations

   - bpo-20928(39): ElementTree supports recursive XInclude processing.
     Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-29636(40): Add whitespace options for formatting JSON with the
     ‘json.tool’ CLI. The following mutually exclusive options are now
     supported: ‘--indent’ for setting the indent level in spaces;
     ‘--tab’ for indenting with tabs; ‘--no-indent’ for suppressing
     newlines; and ‘--compact’ for suppressing all whitespace.  The
     default behavior remains the same as ‘--indent=4’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39033

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39006

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38979

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38978

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38986

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38982

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38529

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27413

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38927

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26730

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38876

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38688

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38863

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37838

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38859

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38857

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38834

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38821

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38811

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38686

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38348

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37523

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38045

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36820

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36406

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34776

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20928

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29636


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<45>,  Next: Tests<46>,  Prev: Library<51>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-38928(1): Correct when venv’s ‘upgrade_dependencies()’ and
     ‘--upgrade-deps’ are added.

   - bpo-38899(2): Update documentation to state that to activate
     virtual environments under fish one should use ‘source’, not ‘.’ as
     documented at
     ‘https://fishshell.com/docs/current/cmds/source.html’.

   - bpo-22377(3): Improves documentation of the values that *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612. accepts for ‘%Z’.  Patch by
     Karl Dubost.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38928

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38899

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<46>,  Next: Build<49>,  Prev: Documentation<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38546(1): Fix test_ressources_gced_in_workers() of
     test_concurrent_futures: explicitly stop the manager to prevent
     leaking a child process running in the background after the test
     completes.

   - bpo-38546(2): Multiprocessing and concurrent.futures tests now stop
     the resource tracker process when tests complete.

   - bpo-38614(3): Replace hardcoded timeout constants in tests with new
     *note test.support: e4. constants: *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 19bb,
     *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19bc, *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18b5. and *note
     LONG_TIMEOUT: 19bd.  It becomes easier to adjust these four timeout
     constants for all tests at once, rather than having to adjust every
     single test file.

   - bpo-38547(4): Fix test_pty: if the process is the session leader,
     closing the master file descriptor raises a SIGHUP signal: simply
     ignore SIGHUP when running the tests.

   - bpo-38992(5): Fix a test for *note math.fsum(): 139d. that was
     failing due to constant folding.

   - bpo-38991(6): *note test.support: e4.: ‘run_python_until_end()’,
     ‘assert_python_ok()’ and ‘assert_python_failure()’ functions no
     longer strip whitespaces from stderr.  Remove
     ‘test.support.strip_python_stderr()’ function.

   - bpo-38965(7): Fix test_faulthandler on GCC 10.  Use the “volatile”
     keyword in ‘faulthandler._stack_overflow()’ to prevent tail call
     optimization on any compiler, rather than relying on compiler
     specific pragma.

   - bpo-38875(8): test_capi: trashcan tests now require the test “cpu”
     resource.

   - bpo-38841(9): Skip asyncio
     test_create_datagram_endpoint_existing_sock_unix on platforms
     lacking a functional bind() for named unix domain sockets.

   - bpo-38692(10): Skip the test_posix.test_pidfd_open() test if
     ‘os.pidfd_open()’ fails with a *note PermissionError: d3f.  This
     situation can happen in a Linux sandbox using a syscall whitelist
     which doesn’t allow the ‘pidfd_open()’ syscall yet.

   - bpo-38839(11): Fix some unused functions in tests.  Patch by Adam
     Johnson.

   - bpo-38669(12): Raise *note TypeError: 532. when passing target as a
     string with *note unittest.mock.patch.object(): 15a0.

   - bpo-37957(13): test.regrtest now can receive a list of test
     patterns to ignore (using the -i/–ignore argument) or a file with a
     list of patterns to ignore (using the –ignore-file argument).
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38547

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38992

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38965

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38875

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38839

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38669

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37957


File: python.info,  Node: Build<49>,  Next: Windows<44>,  Prev: Tests<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-37404(1): *note asyncio: a. now raises *note TypeError: 532.
     when calling incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7.
     socket.  Patch by Ido Michael.

   - bpo-36500(2): Added an optional “regen” project to the Visual
     Studio solution that will regenerate all grammar, tokens, and
     opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36500


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<44>,  Next: macOS<36>,  Prev: Build<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39007(1): Add auditing events to functions in *note winreg:
     116.

   - bpo-33125(2): Add support for building and releasing Windows ARM64
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<36>,  Next: IDLE<33>,  Prev: Windows<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-37931(1): Fixed a crash on OSX dynamic builds that occurred
     when re-initializing the posix module after a Py_Finalize if the
     environment had changed since the previous ‘import posix’.  Patch
     by Benoît Hudson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37931


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<33>,  Next: C API<48>,  Prev: macOS<36>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38944(1): Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  Patch
     by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38943(2): Fix IDLE autocomplete windows not always appearing on
     some systems.  Patch by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38862(3): ‘Strip Trailing Whitespace’ on the Format menu
     removes extra newlines at the end of non-shell files.

   - bpo-38636(4): Fix IDLE Format menu tab toggle and file indent
     width.  These functions (default shortcuts Alt-T and Alt-U) were
     mistakenly disabled in 3.7.5 and 3.8.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38862

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38636


File: python.info,  Node: C API<48>,  Prev: IDLE<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.23.52.10 C API
................

   - bpo-38896(1): Remove ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’ function: the
     Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-37340(2): Remove ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and
     ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’ functions: the free lists of bound
     method objects have been removed.

   - bpo-38835(3): Exclude ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros of ‘pyfpe.h’ from ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     (stable API).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.53 Python 3.9.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-11-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<35>,  Next: Core and Builtins<53>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38722(1): *note runpy: be. now uses *note io.open_code(): 172e.
     to open code files.  Patch by Jason Killen.

   - bpo-38622(2): Add additional audit events for the *note ctypes: 2a.
     module.

   - bpo-38418(3): Fixes audit event for *note os.system(): 1423. to be
     named ‘os.system’.

   - bpo-38243(4): Escape the server title of *note
     xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer: 19c5. when rendering the document
     page as HTML. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38243(5).)

   - bpo-38174(6): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.8,
     which resolves CVE 2019-15903(7).

   - bpo-37764(8): Fixes email._header_value_parser.get_unstructured
     going into an infinite loop for a specific case in which the email
     header does not have trailing whitespace, and the case in which it
     contains an invalid encoded word.  Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

   - bpo-37461(9): Fix an infinite loop when parsing specially crafted
     email headers.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-37363(10): Adds audit events for the range of supported run
     commands (see *note 명령 줄과 환경: 19c6.).

   - bpo-37463(11): ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4
     addresses with additional text after the address and only
     quad-dotted notation without trailing whitespaces.  Some
     inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace and all data after
     whitespace, e.g.  ‘127.0.0.1 whatever’.

   - bpo-37363(12): Adds audit events for *note ensurepip: 55, *note
     ftplib: 5e, *note glob: 64, *note imaplib: 74, ‘nntplib’, *note
     pdb: a5, *note poplib: ac, *note shutil: c5, *note smtplib: ca,
     *note sqlite3: cf, *note subprocess: d6, ‘telnetlib’, *note
     tempfile: e0. and *note webbrowser: 115, as well as *note
     os.listdir(): 10eb, *note os.scandir(): a5b. and *note
     breakpoint(): 234.

   - bpo-37364(13): *note io.open_code(): 172e. is now used when reading
     ‘.pth’ files.

   - bpo-34631(14): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer

   - bpo-34155(15): Fix parsing of invalid email addresses with more
     than one ‘@’ (e.g.  a@b@c.com.)  to not return the part before 2nd
     ‘@’ as valid email address.  Patch by maxking & jpic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38622

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38174

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-15903

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37764

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37461

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37463

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37364

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34155


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<53>,  Next: Library<52>,  Prev: Security<35>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38631(1): Replace ‘Py_FatalError()’ call with a regular *note
     RuntimeError: 195. exception in ‘float.__getformat__()’.

   - bpo-38639(2): Optimized *note math.floor(): 138a, *note
     math.ceil(): 138b. and *note math.trunc(): 138c. for floats.

   - bpo-38640(3): Fixed a bug in the compiler that was causing to raise
     in the presence of break statements and continue statements inside
     always false while loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38613(4): Optimized some set operations (e.g.  ‘|’, ‘^’, and
     ‘-’) of ‘dict_keys’.  ‘d.keys() | other’ was slower than ‘set(d) |
     other’ but they are almost same performance for now.

   - bpo-28029(5): ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an
     empty string for all non-zero ‘n’.  There are similar changes for
     *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 538. objects.

   - bpo-38535(6): Fixed line numbers and column offsets for AST nodes
     for calls without arguments in decorators.

   - bpo-38525(7): Fix a segmentation fault when using reverse iterators
     of empty ‘dict’ objects.  Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-38465(8): *note bytearray: 538, *note array: 1a0. and *note
     mmap: 20b. objects allow now to export more than ‘2**31’ buffers at
     a time.

   - bpo-38469(9): Fixed a bug where the scope of named expressions was
     not being resolved correctly in the presence of the 'global'
     keyword.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38437(10): Activate the ‘GC_DEBUG’ macro for debug builds of
     the interpreter (when ‘Py_DEBUG’ is set).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38379(11): When the garbage collector makes a collection in
     which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the
     isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not
     block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters.

   - bpo-38379(12): When cyclic garbage collection (gc) runs finalizers
     that resurrect unreachable objects, the current gc run ends,
     without collecting any cyclic trash.  However, the statistics
     reported by ‘collect()’ and ‘get_stats()’ claimed that all cyclic
     trash found was collected, and that the resurrected objects were
     collected.  Changed the stats to report that none were collected.

   - bpo-38392(13): In debug mode, *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14cd. now
     calls ‘tp_traverse()’ of the object type to ensure that the object
     is valid: test that objects visited by ‘tp_traverse()’ are valid.

   - bpo-38210(14): Remove unnecessary intersection and update set
     operation in dictview with empty set.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in bpo-38210(15).)

   - bpo-38402(16): Check the error from the system’s underlying ‘crypt’
     or ‘crypt_r’.

   - bpo-37474(17): On FreeBSD, Python no longer calls
     ‘fedisableexcept()’ at startup to control the floating-point
     control mode.  The call became useless since FreeBSD 6: it became
     the default mode.

   - bpo-38006(18): Fix a bug due to the interaction of weakrefs and the
     cyclic garbage collector.  We must clear any weakrefs in garbage in
     order to prevent their callbacks from executing and causing a
     crash.

   - bpo-38317(19): Fix warnings options priority:
     ‘PyConfig.warnoptions’ has the highest priority, as stated in the
     PEP 587(20).

   - bpo-38310(21): Predict ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ ->
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode pairs in the main interpreter loop.
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-36871(22): Improve error handling for the assert_has_calls and
     assert_has_awaits methods of mocks.  Fixed a bug where any errors
     encountered while binding the expected calls to the mock’s spec
     were silently swallowed, leading to misleading error output.

   - bpo-11410(23): Better control over symbol visibility is provided
     through use of the visibility attributes available in gcc >= 4.0,
     provided in a uniform way across POSIX and Windows.  The POSIX
     build files have been updated to compile with -fvisibility=hidden,
     minimising exported symbols.

   - bpo-38219(24): Optimized the *note dict: 256. constructor and the
     *note update(): 142b. method for the case when the argument is a
     dict.

   - bpo-38236(25): Python now dumps path configuration if it fails to
     import the Python codecs of the filesystem and stdio encodings.

   - bpo-38013(26): Allow to call ‘async_generator_athrow().throw(...)’
     even for non-started async generator helper.  It fixes annoying
     warning at the end of *note asyncio.run(): 476. call.

   - bpo-38124(27): Fix an off-by-one error in PyState_AddModule that
     could cause out-of-bounds memory access.

   - bpo-38116(28): The select module is now PEP-384 compliant and no
     longer has static state

   - bpo-38113(29): ast module updated to PEP-384 and all statics
     removed

   - bpo-38076(30): The struct module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38075(31): The random module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38074(32): zlib module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38073(33): Make pwd extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38072(34): grp module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38069(35): Make _posixsubprocess PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38071(36): Make termios extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38005(37): Fixed comparing and creating of InterpreterID and
     ChannelID.

   - bpo-36946(38): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-37994(39): Fixed silencing arbitrary errors if an attribute
     lookup fails in several sites.  Only AttributeError should be
     silenced.

   - bpo-8425(40): Optimize set difference_update for the case when the
     other set is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny
     Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù).

   - bpo-37966(41): The implementation of *note is_normalized(): a45.
     has been greatly sped up on strings that aren’t normalized, by
     implementing the full normalization-quick-check algorithm from the
     Unicode standard.

   - bpo-37947(42): Adjust correctly the recursion level in the symtable
     generation for named expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37812(43): The ‘CHECK_SMALL_INT’ macro used inside
     ‘Object/longobject.c’ has been replaced with an explicit ‘return’
     at each call site.

   - bpo-37751(44): Fix *note codecs.lookup(): 961. to normalize the
     encoding name the same way than *note
     encodings.normalize_encoding(): 7f5, except that *note
     codecs.lookup(): 961. also converts the name to lower case.

   - bpo-37830(45): Fixed compilation of *note break: aa6. and *note
     continue: 9c6. in the *note finally: 9c7. block when the
     corresponding *note try: 6e2. block contains *note return: 9cb.
     with a non-constant value.

   - bpo-20490(46): Improve import error message for partially
     initialized module on circular ‘from’ imports - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37840(47): Fix handling of negative indices in *note sq_item:
     1933. of *note bytearray: 538.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37802(48): Slightly improve performance of *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 19c8, *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 19c9. and *note PyLong_FromSize_t():
     19ca.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37409(49): Ensure explicit relative imports from interactive
     sessions and scripts (having no parent package) always raise
     ImportError, rather than treating the current module as the
     package.  Patch by Ben Lewis.

   - bpo-32912(50): Reverted bpo-32912(51): emitting *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. for
     invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-37757(52): PEP 572(53): As described in the PEP, assignment
     expressions now raise *note SyntaxError: 18d. when their
     interaction with comprehension scoping results in an ambiguous
     target scope.

     The ‘TargetScopeError’ subclass originally proposed by the PEP has
     been removed in favour of just raising regular syntax errors for
     the disallowed cases.

   - bpo-36279(54): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in *note
     os.wait3(): d92.

   - bpo-36311(55): Decoding bytes objects larger than 2GiB is faster
     and no longer fails when a multibyte characters spans a chunk
     boundary.

   - bpo-34880(56): The *note assert: 965. statement now works properly
     if the *note AssertionError: 6a3. exception is being shadowed.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-37340(57): Removed object cache (‘free_list’) for bound method
     objects.  Temporary bound method objects are less used than before
     thanks to the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ opcode and the
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’ C API.

   - bpo-37648(58): Fixed minor inconsistency in ‘list.__contains__()’,
     ‘tuple.__contains__()’ and a few other places.  The collection’s
     item is now always at the left and the needle is on the right of
     ‘==’.

   - bpo-37444(59): Update differing exception between
     ‘builtins.__import__()’ and *note importlib.__import__(): 1063.

   - bpo-37619(60): When adding a wrapper descriptor from one class to a
     different class (for example, setting ‘__add__ = str.__add__’ on an
     ‘int’ subclass), an exception is correctly raised when the operator
     is called.

   - bpo-37593(61): Swap the positions of the 'posonlyargs' and 'args'
     parameters in the constructor of ‘ast.parameters’ nodes.

   - bpo-37543(62): Optimized pymalloc for non PGO build.

   - bpo-37537(63): Compute allocated pymalloc blocks inside
     _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks().  This slows down _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks()
     but gives a small speedup to _PyObject_Malloc() and
     _PyObject_Free().

   - bpo-37467(64): Fix *note sys.excepthook(): 805. and
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ if a filename is a bytes string.  For example,
     for a SyntaxError exception where the filename attribute is a bytes
     string.

   - bpo-37433(65): Fix ‘SyntaxError’ indicator printing too many spaces
     for multi-line strings - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37417(66): ‘bytearray.extend()’ now correctly handles errors
     that arise during iteration.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37414(67): The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned
     ‘None’.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which
     was already removed in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37392(68): Remove ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and
     ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.2.  Use *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 947. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 948. instead.  Remove also
     ‘check_interval’ field of the ‘PyInterpreterState’ structure.

   - bpo-37388(69): In development mode and in debug build, 'encoding'
     and 'errors' arguments are now checked on string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 515, *note
     str.encode(): 8d2. and *note bytes.decode(): 8d3.

     By default, for best performances, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error, and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   - bpo-37348(70): Optimized decoding short ASCII string with UTF-8 and
     ascii codecs.  ‘b"foo".decode()’ is about 15% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-24214(71): Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler
     in the UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.

   - bpo-37330(72): *note open(): 515, *note io.open(): 516, *note
     codecs.open(): 739. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ (“universal newline”) in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-35224(73): Reverse evaluation order of key: value in dict
     comprehensions as proposed in PEP 572.  I.e.  in ‘{k: v for ...}’,
     ‘k’ will be evaluated before ‘v’.

   - bpo-37316(74): Fix the *note PySys_Audit(): 368. call in *note
     mmap.mmap: 20b.

   - bpo-37300(75): Remove an unnecessary Py_XINCREF in classobject.c.

   - bpo-37269(76): Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not
     treating correctly constant conditions with binary operators.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20443(77): Python now gets the absolute path of the script
     filename specified on the command line (ex: “python3 script.py”):
     the __file__ attribute of the __main__ module and sys.path[0]
     become an absolute path, rather than a relative path.

   - bpo-37257(78): Python’s small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now
     allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for
     immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents
     thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and
     destroyed anew on each iteration.

   - bpo-37231(79): The dispatching of type slots to special methods
     (for example calling ‘__mul__’ when doing ‘x * y’) has been made
     faster.

   - bpo-36974(80): Implemented separate vectorcall functions for every
     calling convention of builtin functions and methods.  This improves
     performance for calls.

   - bpo-37213(81): Handle correctly negative line offsets in the
     peephole optimizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37219(82): Remove erroneous optimization for empty set
     differences.

   - bpo-15913(83): Implement *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 753.
     function (previously documented but not implemented): call *note
     struct.calcsize(): 19cb.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-36922(84): Slot functions optimize any callable with
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ instead of only instances of
     ‘function’.

   - bpo-36974(85): The slot ‘tp_vectorcall_offset’ is inherited
     unconditionally to support ‘super().__call__()’ when the base class
     uses vectorcall.

   - bpo-37160(86): *note threading.get_native_id(): a3a. now also
     supports NetBSD.

   - bpo-37077(87): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): a3a. support
     for AIX. Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-36781(88): *note sum(): 464. has been optimized for boolean
     values.

   - bpo-34556(89): Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ to venv module.  Patch by
     Cooper Ry Lees

   - bpo-20523(90): ‘pdb.Pdb’ supports ~/.pdbrc in Windows 7.  Patch by
     Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter.

   - bpo-35551(91): Updated encodings: - Removed the “tis260” encoding,
     which was an alias for the nonexistent “tactis” codec.  - Added
     “mac_centeuro” as an alias for the mac_latin2 encoding.

   - bpo-19072(92): The *note classmethod: 166. decorator can now wrap
     other descriptors such as property objects.  Adapted from a patch
     written by Graham Dumpleton.

   - bpo-27575(93): Improve speed of dictview intersection by directly
     using set intersection logic.  Patch by David Su.

   - bpo-30773(94): Prohibit parallel running of aclose() / asend() /
     athrow().  Fix ag_running to reflect the actual running status of
     the AG.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38535

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38525

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38437

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38392

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37474

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38317

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38310

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11410

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38013

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38124

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38116

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38113

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38074

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38073

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38069

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38071

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38005

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<52>,  Next: Documentation<46>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<53>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36589(1): The *note curses.update_lines_cols(): de8. function
     now returns ‘None’ instead of ‘1’ on success.

   - bpo-38807(2): Update *note TypeError: 532. messages for *note
     os.path.join(): 163a. to include *note os.PathLike: c4e. objects as
     acceptable input types.

   - bpo-38724(3): Add a repr for ‘subprocess.Popen’ objects.  Patch by
     Andrey Doroschenko.

   - bpo-38786(4): pydoc now recognizes and parses HTTPS URLs.  Patch by
     python273.

   - bpo-38785(5): Prevent asyncio from crashing if parent ‘__init__’ is
     not called from a constructor of object derived from
     ‘asyncio.Future’.

   - bpo-38723(6): *note pdb: a5. now uses *note io.open_code(): 172e.
     to trigger auditing events.

   - bpo-27805(7): Allow opening pipes and other non-seekable files in
     append mode with *note open(): 515.

   - bpo-38438(8): Simplify the *note argparse: 6. usage message for
     ‘nargs="*"’.

   - bpo-38761(9): WeakSet is now registered as a
     collections.abc.MutableSet.

   - bpo-38716(10): logging: change RotatingHandler namer and rotator to
     class-level attributes.  This stops __init__ from setting them to
     None in the case where a subclass defines them with eponymous
     methods.

   - bpo-38713(11): Add *note os.P_PIDFD: 917. constant, which may be
     passed to *note os.waitid(): d95. to wait on a Linux process file
     descriptor.

   - bpo-38692(12): Add *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 473, a
     Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file
     descriptors.

   - bpo-38692(13): Expose the Linux ‘pidfd_open’ syscall as *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 474.

   - bpo-38602(14): Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and
     ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ to the *note fcntl: 59. module.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-38334(15): Fixed seeking backward on an encrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’.

   - bpo-38312(16): Add *note curses.get_escdelay(): 8ed, *note
     curses.set_escdelay(): 8ee, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 8ef, and
     *note curses.set_tabsize(): 8f0. functions - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-38586(17): Now *note fileConfig(): b4e. correctly sets the
     .name of handlers loaded.

   - bpo-38565(18): Add new cache_parameters() method for
     functools.lru_cache() to better support pickling.

   - bpo-34679(19): asynci.ProactorEventLoop.close() now only calls
     signal.set_wakeup_fd() in the main thread.

   - bpo-31202(20): The case the result of ‘pathlib.WindowsPath.glob()’
     matches now the case of the pattern for literal parts.

   - bpo-36321(21): Remove misspelled attribute.  The 3.8 changelog
     noted that this would be removed in 3.9.

   - bpo-38521(22): Fixed erroneous equality comparison in
     statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-38493(23): Added *note CLD_KILLED: 915. and *note CLD_STOPPED:
     916. for ‘si_code’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38478(24): Fixed a bug in ‘inspect.signature.bind()’ that was
     causing it to fail when handling a keyword argument with same name
     as positional-only parameter.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33604(25): Fixed ‘hmac.new’ and ‘hmac.HMAC’ to raise TypeError
     instead of ValueError when the digestmod parameter, now required in
     3.8, is omitted.  Also clarified the hmac module documentation and
     docstrings.

   - bpo-38378(26): Parameters 'out' and 'in' of *note os.sendfile():
     b0c. was renamed to 'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

   - bpo-38417(27): Added support for setting the umask in the child
     process to the subprocess module on POSIX systems.

   - bpo-38449(28): Revert PR 15522, which introduces a regression in
     *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 208. due to improper handling of
     filenames as urls.

   - bpo-38431(29): Fix ‘__repr__’ method for *note dataclasses.InitVar:
     1829. to support typing objects, patch by Samuel Colvin.

   - bpo-38109(30): Add missing *note stat.S_IFDOOR: fb2, *note
     stat.S_IFPORT: fb3, *note stat.S_IFWHT: fb4, *note stat.S_ISDOOR():
     19cd, *note stat.S_ISPORT(): 19ce, and *note stat.S_ISWHT(): 19cf.
     values to the Python implementation of *note stat: d1.

   - bpo-38422(31): Clarify docstrings of pathlib suffix(es)

   - bpo-38405(32): Nested subclasses of *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b0.
     are now pickleable.

   - bpo-38332(33): Prevent *note KeyError: 33d. thrown by
     ‘_encoded_words.decode()’ when given an encoded-word with invalid
     content-type encoding from propagating all the way to
     ‘email.message.get()’.

   - bpo-38371(34): Deprecated the ‘split()’ method in
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour of the ‘splitlist()’ method which
     has more consistent and predictable behavior.

   - bpo-38341(35): Add *note smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError: 19d0. to
     the *note smtplib: ca. exported names.

   - bpo-38319(36): sendfile() used in socket and shutil modules was
     raising OverflowError for files >= 2GiB on 32-bit architectures.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-38242(37): Revert the new asyncio Streams API

   - bpo-13153(38): OS native encoding is now used for converting
     between Python strings and Tcl objects.  This allows to display,
     copy and paste to clipboard emoji and other non-BMP characters.
     Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails
     (except MemoryError).

   - bpo-38019(39): Correctly handle pause/resume reading of closed
     asyncio unix pipe.

   - bpo-38163(40): Child mocks will now detect their type as either
     synchronous or asynchronous, asynchronous child mocks will be
     AsyncMocks and synchronous child mocks will be either MagicMock or
     Mock (depending on their parent type).

   - bpo-38161(41): Removes _AwaitEvent from AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38216(42): Allow the rare code that wants to send invalid http
     requests from the ‘http.client’ library a way to do so.  The fixes
     for bpo-30458(43) led to breakage for some projects that were
     relying on this ability to test their own behavior in the face of
     bad requests.

   - bpo-28286(44): Deprecate opening *note GzipFile: 414. for writing
     implicitly.  Always specify the 'mode' argument for writing.

   - bpo-38108(45): Any synchronous magic methods on an AsyncMock now
     return a MagicMock.  Any asynchronous magic methods on a MagicMock
     now return an AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38265(46): Update the 'length' parameter of *note os.pread():
     b5c. to accept *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. instead of int.

   - bpo-38112(47): *note compileall: 20. has a higher default recursion
     limit and new command-line arguments for path manipulation,
     symlinks handling, and multiple optimization levels.

   - bpo-38248(48): asyncio: Fix inconsistent immediate Task
     cancellation

   - bpo-38237(49): The arguments for the builtin pow function are more
     descriptive.  They can now also be passed in as keywords.

   - bpo-34002(50): Improve efficiency in parts of email package by
     changing while-pop to a for loop, using isdisjoint instead of set
     intersections.

   - bpo-38191(51): Constructors of *note NamedTuple: 2b0. and *note
     TypedDict: 162. types now accept arbitrary keyword argument names,
     including “cls”, “self”, “typename”, “_typename”, “fields” and
     “_fields”.

   - bpo-38155(52): Add ‘__all__’ to *note datetime: 30.  Patch by Tahia
     Khan.

   - bpo-38185(53): Fixed case-insensitive string comparison in *note
     sqlite3.Row: e69. indexing.

   - bpo-38136(54): Changes AsyncMock call count and await count to be
     two different counters.  Now await count only counts when a
     coroutine has been awaited, not when it has been called, and
     vice-versa.  Update the documentation around this.

   - bpo-37828(55): Fix default mock name in *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called(): cf5. exceptions.  Patch by
     Abraham Toriz Cruz.

   - bpo-38175(56): Fix a memory leak in comparison of *note
     sqlite3.Row: e69. objects.

   - bpo-33936(57): _hashlib no longer calls obsolete OpenSSL
     initialization function with OpenSSL 1.1.0+.

   - bpo-34706(58): Preserve subclassing in
     inspect.Signature.from_callable.

   - bpo-38153(59): Names of hashing algorithms from OpenSSL are now
     normalized to follow Python’s naming conventions.  For example
     OpenSSL uses sha3-512 instead of sha3_512 or blake2b512 instead of
     blake2b.

   - bpo-38115(60): Fix a bug in dis.findlinestarts() where it would
     return invalid bytecode offsets.  Document that a code object’s
     co_lnotab can contain invalid bytecode offsets.

   - bpo-38148(61): Add slots to *note asyncio: a. transport classes,
     which can reduce memory usage.

   - bpo-38142(62): The _hashlib OpenSSL wrapper extension module is now
     PEP-384 compliant.

   - bpo-9216(63): hashlib constructors now support usedforsecurity flag
     to signal that a hashing algorithm is not used in a security
     context.

   - bpo-36991(64): Fixes a potential incorrect AttributeError exception
     escaping ZipFile.extract() in some unsupported input error
     situations.

   - bpo-38134(65): Remove obsolete copy of PBKDF2_HMAC_fast.  All
     supported OpenSSL versions contain a fast implementation.

   - bpo-38132(66): The OpenSSL hashlib wrapper uses a simpler
     implementation.  Several Macros and pointless caches are gone.  The
     hash name now comes from OpenSSL’s EVP. The algorithm name stays
     the same, except it is now always lower case.

   - bpo-38008(67): Fix parent class check in protocols to correctly
     identify the module that provides a builtin protocol, instead of
     assuming they all come from the *note collections.abc: 1e. module

   - bpo-34037(68): For *note asyncio: a, add a new coroutine
     ‘loop.shutdown_default_executor()’.  The new coroutine provides an
     API to schedule an executor shutdown that waits on the threadpool
     to finish closing.  Also, *note asyncio.run(): 476. has been
     updated to utilize the new coroutine.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-37405(69): Fixed regression bug for socket.getsockname() for
     non-CAN_ISOTP AF_CAN address family sockets by returning a 1-tuple
     instead of string.

   - bpo-38121(70): Update parameter names on functions in
     importlib.metadata matching the changes in the 0.22 release of
     importlib_metadata.

   - bpo-38110(71): The os.closewalk() implementation now uses the libc
     fdwalk() API on platforms where it is available.

   - bpo-38093(72): Fixes AsyncMock so it doesn’t crash when used with
     AsyncContextManagers or AsyncIterators.

   - bpo-37488(73): Add warning to ‘datetime.utctimetuple()’,
     ‘datetime.utcnow()’ and ‘datetime.utcfromtimestamp()’ .

   - bpo-35640(74): Allow passing a *note path-like object: 2a0. as
     ‘directory’ argument to the *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. class.  Patch by Géry
     Ogam.

   - bpo-38086(75): Update importlib.metadata with changes from
     importlib_metadata 0.21(76).

   - bpo-37251(77): Remove ‘__code__’ check in AsyncMock that
     incorrectly evaluated function specs as async objects but failed to
     evaluate classes with ‘__await__’ but no ‘__code__’ attribute
     defined as async objects.

   - bpo-38037(78): Fix reference counters in the *note signal: c6.
     module.

   - bpo-38066(79): Hide internal asyncio.Stream methods: feed_eof(),
     feed_data(), set_exception() and set_transport().

   - bpo-38059(80): inspect.py now uses sys.exit() instead of exit()

   - bpo-38049(81): Added command-line interface for the *note ast: 8.
     module.

   - bpo-37953(82): In *note typing: 104, improved the ‘__hash__’ and
     ‘__eq__’ methods for ‘ForwardReferences’.

   - bpo-38026(83): Fixed *note inspect.getattr_static(): 48e. used
     ‘isinstance’ while it should avoid dynamic lookup.

   - bpo-35923(84): Update *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter:
     cac. to use ‘loader._ORIGIN’ instead of a hardcoded value.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38010(85): In ‘importlib.metadata’ sync with
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 0.20, clarifying behavior of ‘files()’ and
     fixing issue where only one requirement was returned for
     ‘requires()’ on ‘dist-info’ packages.

   - bpo-38006(86): weakref.WeakValueDictionary defines a local remove()
     function used as callback for weak references.  This function was
     created with a closure.  Modify the implementation to avoid the
     closure.

   - bpo-37995(87): Added the 'indent' option to *note ast.dump(): 8e1.
     which allows it to produce a multiline indented output.

   - bpo-34410(88): Fixed a crash in the ‘tee()’ iterator when re-enter
     it.  RuntimeError is now raised in this case.

   - bpo-37140(89): Fix a ctypes regression of Python 3.8.  When a
     ctypes.Structure is passed by copy to a function, ctypes internals
     created a temporary object which had the side effect of calling the
     structure finalizer (__del__) twice.  The Python semantics requires
     a finalizer to be called exactly once.  Fix ctypes internals to no
     longer call the finalizer twice.

   - bpo-37587(90): ‘_json.scanstring’ is now up to 3x faster when there
     are many backslash escaped characters in the JSON string.

   - bpo-37834(91): Prevent shutil.rmtree exception when built on
     non-Windows system without fd system call support, like older
     versions of macOS.

   - bpo-10978(92): Semaphores and BoundedSemaphores can now release
     more than one waiting thread at a time.

   - bpo-37972(93): Subscripts to the ‘unittest.mock.call’ objects now
     receive the same chaining mechanism as any other custom attributes,
     so that the following usage no longer raises a ‘TypeError’:

     ‘call().foo().__getitem__('bar')’

     Patch by blhsing

   - bpo-37965(94): Fix C compiler warning caused by
     distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function.

   - bpo-37964(95): Add ‘F_GETPATH’ command to *note fcntl: 59.

   - bpo-37960(96): ‘repr()’ of buffered and text streams now silences
     only expected exceptions when get the value of “name” and “mode”
     attributes.

   - bpo-37961(97): Add a ‘total_nframe’ field to the traces collected
     by the tracemalloc module.  This field indicates the original
     number of frames before it was truncated.

   - bpo-37951(98): Most features of the subprocess module now work
     again in subinterpreters.  Only 'preexec_fn' is restricted in
     subinterpreters.

   - bpo-36205(99): Fix the rusage implementation of time.process_time()
     to correctly report the sum of the system and user CPU time.

   - bpo-37950(100): Fix *note ast.dump(): 8e1. when call with
     incompletely initialized node.

   - bpo-34679(101): Restores instantiation of Windows IOCP event loops
     from the non-main thread.

   - bpo-36917(102): Add default implementation of the *note
     ast.NodeVisitor.visit_Constant(): a6b. method which emits a
     deprecation warning and calls corresponding methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, etc.

   - bpo-37798(103): Update test_statistics.py to verify that the
     statistics module works well for both C and Python implementations.
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-26589(104): Added a new status code to the http module: 451
     UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

   - bpo-37915(105): Fix a segmentation fault that appeared when
     comparing instances of ‘datetime.timezone’ and ‘datetime.tzinfo’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32554(106): Deprecate having random.seed() call hash on
     arbitrary types.

   - bpo-9938(107): Add optional keyword argument ‘exit_on_error’ for
     ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-37851(108): The *note faulthandler: 58. module no longer
     allocates its alternative stack at Python startup.  Now the stack
     is only allocated at the first faulthandler usage.

   - bpo-32793(109): Fix a duplicated debug message when *note
     smtplib.SMTP.connect(): 19d1. is called.

   - bpo-37885(110): venv: Don’t generate unset variable warning on
     deactivate.

   - bpo-37868(111): Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass when given an instance
     that never raises AttributeError in __getattr__.  That is, an
     object that returns something for __dataclass_fields__ even if it’s
     not a dataclass.

   - bpo-37811(112): Fix ‘socket’ module’s ‘socket.connect(address)’
     function being unable to establish connection in case of
     interrupted system call.  The problem was observed on all OSes
     which ‘poll(2)’ system call can take only non-negative integers and
     -1 as a timeout value.

   - bpo-37863(113): Optimizations for Fraction.__hash__ suggested by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-21131(114): Fix ‘faulthandler.register(chain=True)’ stack.
     faulthandler now allocates a dedicated stack of ‘SIGSTKSZ*2’ bytes,
     instead of just ‘SIGSTKSZ’ bytes.  Calling the previous signal
     handler in faulthandler signal handler uses more than ‘SIGSTKSZ’
     bytes of stack memory on some platforms.

   - bpo-37798(115): Add C fastpath for statistics.NormalDist.inv_cdf()
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-37804(116): Remove the deprecated method
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37819(117): Add Fraction.as_integer_ratio() to match the
     corresponding methods in bool, int, float, and decimal.

   - bpo-14465(118): Add an xml.etree.ElementTree.indent() function for
     pretty-printing XML trees.  Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-37810(119): Fix *note difflib: 37. ‘?’ hint in diff output when
     dealing with tabs.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37772(120): In ‘zipfile.Path’, when adding implicit dirs,
     ensure that ancestral directories are added and that duplicates are
     excluded.

   - bpo-18578(121): Renamed and documented ‘test.bytecode_helper’ as
     ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37785(122): Fix xgettext warnings in *note argparse: 6.

   - bpo-34488(123): ‘writelines()’ method of *note io.BytesIO: e9a. is
     now slightly faster when many small lines are passed.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37449(124): ‘ensurepip’ now uses
     ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’ to read data instead of
     ‘pkgutil.get_data()’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-28292(125): Mark calendar.py helper functions as being private.
     The follows PEP 8 guidance to maintain the style conventions in the
     module and it addresses a known case of user confusion.

   - bpo-18049(126): Add definition of THREAD_STACK_SIZE for AIX in
     Python/thread_pthread.h The default thread stacksize caused crashes
     with the default recursion limit Patch by M Felt

   - bpo-37742(127): The logging.getLogger() API now returns the root
     logger when passed the name ‘root’, whereas previously it returned
     a non-root logger named ‘root’.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named ‘root’, or
     instantiates a logger using logging.getLogger(__name__) in some
     top-level module called ‘root.py’.

   - bpo-37738(128): Fix the implementation of curses ‘addch(str,
     color_pair)’: pass the color pair to ‘setcchar()’, instead of
     always passing 0 as the color pair.

   - bpo-37723(129): Fix performance regression on regular expression
     parsing with huge character sets.  Patch by Yann Vaginay.

   - bpo-35943(130): The function *note PyImport_GetModule(): bb0. now
     ensures any module it returns is fully initialized.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-32178(131): Fix IndexError in *note email: 3b. package when
     trying to parse invalid address fields starting with ‘:’.

   - bpo-37268(132): The ‘parser’ module is deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.

   - bpo-11953(133): Completing WSA* error codes in *note socket: cc.

   - bpo-37685(134): Fixed comparisons of *note datetime.timedelta: 9cc.
     and *note datetime.timezone: 10b2.

   - bpo-37697(135): Synchronize ‘importlib.metadata’ with
     importlib_metadata 0.19(136), improving handling of EGG-INFO files
     and fixing a crash when entry point names contained colons.

   - bpo-37695(137): Correct *note curses.unget_wch(): 108e. error
     message.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37689(138): Add ‘is_relative_to()’ in ‘PurePath’ to determine
     whether or not one path is relative to another.

   - bpo-29553(139): Fixed *note argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage():
     19d2. for mutually exclusive groups.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-37691(140): Let math.dist() accept coordinates as sequences (or
     iterables) rather than just tuples.

   - bpo-37685(141): Fixed ‘__eq__’, ‘__lt__’ etc implementations in
     some classes.  They now return *note NotImplemented: 7cb. for
     unsupported type of the other operand.  This allows the other
     operand to play role (for example the equality comparison with
     *note ANY: 19d3. will return ‘True’).

   - bpo-37354(142): Make Activate.ps1 Powershell script static to allow
     for signing it.

   - bpo-37664(143): Update wheels bundled with ensurepip (pip 19.2.3
     and setuptools 41.2.0)

   - bpo-37663(144): Bring consistency to venv shell activation scripts
     by always using __VENV_PROMPT__.

   - bpo-37642(145): Allowed the pure Python implementation of *note
     datetime.timezone: 10b2. to represent sub-minute offsets close to
     minimum and maximum boundaries, specifically in the ranges (23:59,
     24:00) and (-23:59, 24:00).  Patch by Ngalim Siregar

   - bpo-36161(146): In *note posix: ad, use ‘ttyname_r’ instead of
     ‘ttyname’ for thread safety.

   - bpo-36324(147): Make internal attributes for
     statistics.NormalDist() private.

   - bpo-37555(148): Fix ‘NonCallableMock._call_matcher’ returning tuple
     instead of ‘_Call’ object when ‘self._spec_signature’ exists.
     Patch by Elizabeth Uselton

   - bpo-29446(149): Make ‘from tkinter import *’ import only the
     expected objects.

   - bpo-16970(150): Adding a value error when an invalid value in
     passed to nargs Patch by Robert Leenders

   - bpo-34443(151): Exceptions from *note enum: 56. now use the
     ‘__qualname’ of the enum class in the exception message instead of
     the ‘__name__’.

   - bpo-37491(152): Fix ‘IndexError’ when parsing email headers with
     unexpectedly ending bare-quoted string value.  Patch by Abhilash
     Raj.

   - bpo-37587(153): Make json.loads faster for long strings.  (Patch by
     Marco Paolini)

   - bpo-18378(154): Recognize “UTF-8” as a valid value for LC_CTYPE in
     locale._parse_localename.

   - bpo-37579(155): Return *note NotImplemented: 7cb. in Python
     implementation of ‘__eq__’ for *note timedelta: 9cc. and *note
     time: 1ce. when the other object being compared is not of the same
     type to match C implementation.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(156): Record calls to parent when autospecced object is
     attached to a mock using ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37531(157): “python3 -m test -jN –timeout=TIMEOUT” now kills a
     worker process if it runs longer than 'TIMEOUT' seconds.

   - bpo-37482(158): Fix serialization of display name in originator or
     destination address fields with both encoded words and special
     chars.

   - bpo-36993(159): Improve error reporting for corrupt zip files with
     bad zip64 extra data.  Patch by Daniel Hillier.

   - bpo-37502(160): pickle.loads() no longer raises TypeError when the
     buffers argument is set to None

   - bpo-37520(161): Correct behavior for zipfile.Path.parent when the
     path object identifies a subdirectory.

   - bpo-18374(162): Fix the ‘.col_offset’ attribute of nested *note
     ast.BinOp: 19d4. instances which had a too large value in some
     situations.

   - bpo-37424(163): Fixes a possible hang when using a timeout on
     ‘subprocess.run()’ while capturing output.  If the child process
     spawned its own children or otherwise connected its stdout or
     stderr handles with another process, we could hang after the
     timeout was reached and our child was killed when attempting to
     read final output from the pipes.

   - bpo-37421(164): Fix ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’
     finalizer: clear also the ‘tempdir’ configuration of the current
     process, so next call to ‘get_temp_dir()’ will create a new
     temporary directory, rather than reusing the removed temporary
     directory.

   - bpo-37481(165): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is deprecated
     in Python 3.8, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-37479(166): When ‘Enum.__str__’ is overridden in a derived
     class, the override will be used by ‘Enum.__format__’ regardless of
     whether mixin classes are present.

   - bpo-37440(167): http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake
     authentication for default context or if a cert_file is passed to
     HTTPSConnection.

   - bpo-37437(168): Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.

   - bpo-37428(169): SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer
     sets SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections.
     Although the option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL
     implicitly enables cert chain validation when the flag is set.

   - bpo-37420(170): *note os.sched_setaffinity(): 10ff. now correctly
     handles errors that arise during iteration over its ‘mask’
     argument.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37412(171): The *note os.getcwdb(): a8e. function now uses the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP
     529(172) for the rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated
     on Windows.

   - bpo-37406(173): The sqlite3 module now raises TypeError, rather
     than ValueError, if operation argument type is not str: execute(),
     executemany() and calling a connection.

   - bpo-29412(174): Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending
     unexpectedly.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-36546(175): The 'dist' argument for statistics.quantiles() is
     now positional only.  The current name doesn’t reflect that the
     argument can be either a dataset or a distribution.  Marking the
     parameter as positional avoids confusion and makes it possible to
     change the name later.

   - bpo-37394(176): Fix a bug that was causing the *note queue: b6.
     module to fail if the accelerator module was not available.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37376(177): *note pprint: ae. now has support for *note
     types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1.  Patch by Carl Bordum Hansen.

   - bpo-26967(178): An *note ArgumentParser: 533. with
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ no longer disables grouping of short flags,
     such as ‘-vv’, but only disables abbreviation of long flags as
     documented.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-37212(179): *note unittest.mock.call(): 19d5. now preserves the
     order of keyword arguments in repr output.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37372(180): Fix error unpickling datetime.time objects from
     Python 2 with seconds>=24.  Patch by Justin Blanchard.

   - bpo-37345(181): Add formal support for UDPLITE sockets.  Support
     was present before, but it is now easier to detect support with
     ‘hasattr(socket, 'IPPROTO_UDPLITE')’ and there are constants
     defined for each of the values needed: ‘socket.IPPROTO_UDPLITE’,
     ‘UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV’, and ‘UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV’.  Patch by Gabe
     Appleton.

   - bpo-37358(182): Optimized ‘functools.partial’ by using vectorcall.

   - bpo-37347(183): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 2aa,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 2a9, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 2ab, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 2ac. *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback(): 2ad. methods lead to
     segfaults if some of these methods are called twice with an equal
     object but not the same.  Now callbacks are stored more carefully.
     Patch by Aleksandr Balezin.

   - bpo-37163(184): The 'obj' argument of *note dataclasses.replace():
     1700. is positional-only now.

   - bpo-37085(185): Add the optional Linux SocketCAN Broadcast Manager
     constants, used as flags to configure the BCM behaviour, in the
     socket module.  Patch by Karl Ding.

   - bpo-37328(186): ‘HTMLParser.unescape’ is removed.  It was
     undocumented and deprecated since Python 3.4.

   - bpo-37305(187): Add .webmanifest -> application/manifest+json to
     list of recognized file types and content type headers

   - bpo-37320(188): ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’,
     ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias
     to ‘wave.open()’ have been removed.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37315(189): Deprecated accepting floats with integral value
     (like ‘5.0’) in *note math.factorial(): 945.

   - bpo-37312(190): ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have
     been removed.  These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which
     requires threading support.

   - bpo-33972(191): Email with single part but content-type set to
     ‘multipart/*’ doesn’t raise AttributeError anymore.

   - bpo-37280(192): Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile
     fallback mode.

   - bpo-37279(193): Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends
     extra data in fallback mode.

   - bpo-19865(194): *note ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(): 19d6. now
     also supports non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit ‘wchar_t’
     (for example, Windows and AIX).

   - bpo-37266(195): In a subinterpreter, spawning a daemon thread now
     raises an exception.  Daemon threads were never supported in
     subinterpreters.  Previously, the subinterpreter finalization
     crashed with a Python fatal error if a daemon thread was still
     running.

   - bpo-37210(196): Allow pure Python implementation of *note pickle:
     a6. to work even when the C ‘_pickle’ module is unavailable.

   - bpo-21872(197): Fix *note lzma: 8a.: module decompresses data
     incompletely.  When decompressing a FORMAT_ALONE format file, and
     it doesn’t have the end marker, sometimes the last one to dozens
     bytes can’t be output.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35922(198): Fix ‘RobotFileParser.crawl_delay()’ and
     ‘RobotFileParser.request_rate()’ to return ‘None’ rather than raise
     *note AttributeError: 346. when no relevant rule is defined in the
     robots.txt file.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35766(199): Change the format of feature_version to be a
     (major, minor) tuple.

   - bpo-36607(200): Eliminate *note RuntimeError: 195. raised by *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 954. if internal tasks weak set is changed by
     another thread during iteration.

   - bpo-18748(201): ‘_pyio.IOBase’ destructor now does nothing if
     getting the ‘closed’ attribute fails to better mimic ‘_io.IOBase’
     finalizer.

   - bpo-36402(202): Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when
     waiting for threads.  Wait until the Python thread state of all
     non-daemon threads get deleted (join all non-daemon threads),
     rather than just wait until non-daemon Python threads complete.

   - bpo-37206(203): Default values which cannot be represented as
     Python objects no longer improperly represented as ‘None’ in
     function signatures.

   - bpo-37111(204): Added ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ keyword parameters to
     ‘logging.basicConfig’.

   - bpo-12144(205): Ensure cookies with ‘expires’ attribute are handled
     in ‘CookieJar.make_cookies()’.

   - bpo-34886(206): Fix an unintended ValueError from *note
     subprocess.run(): b83. when checking for conflicting 'input' and
     'stdin' or 'capture_output' and 'stdout' or 'stderr' args when they
     were explicitly provided but with ‘None’ values within a passed in
     ‘**kwargs’ dict rather than as passed directly by name.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37173(207): The exception message for ‘inspect.getfile()’ now
     correctly reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.

   - bpo-37178(208): Give math.perm() a one argument form that means the
     same as math.factorial().

   - bpo-37178(209): For math.perm(n, k), let k default to n, giving the
     same result as factorial.

   - bpo-37165(210): Converted _collections._count_elements to use the
     Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-34767(211): Do not always create a *note collections.deque:
     5d6. in *note asyncio.Lock: a6e.

   - bpo-37158(212): Speed-up statistics.fmean() by switching from a
     function to a generator.

   - bpo-34282(213): Remove ‘Enum._convert’ method, deprecated in 3.8.

   - bpo-37150(214): ‘argparse._ActionsContainer.add_argument’ now
     throws error, if someone accidentally pass FileType class object
     instead of instance of FileType as ‘type’ argument.

   - bpo-28724(215): The socket module now has the *note
     socket.send_fds(): 931. and ‘socket.recv.fds()’ methods.
     Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35621(216): Support running asyncio subprocesses when execution
     event loop in a thread on UNIX.

   - bpo-36520(217): Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now
     properly encoded when they are folded.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-30835(218): Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with
     invalid bytes in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message
     can cause an AttributeError.  Patch by Andrew Donnellan.

   - bpo-31163(219): pathlib.Path instance’s rename and replace methods
     now return the new Path instance.

   - bpo-25068(220): *note urllib.request.ProxyHandler: 19d7. now
     lowercases the keys of the passed dictionary.

   - bpo-26185(221): Fix *note repr(): 7f7. on empty ‘ZipInfo’ object.
     Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-21315(222): Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are
     parsed despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered.
     Also missing trailing whitespace after encoded words is now
     registered as a defect.

   - bpo-31904(223): Port test_datetime to VxWorks: skip zoneinfo tests
     on VxWorks

   - bpo-35805(224): Add parser for Message-ID header and add it to
     default HeaderRegistry.  This should prevent folding of Message-ID
     using RFC 2048 encoded words.

   - bpo-36871(225): Ensure method signature is used instead of
     constructor signature of a class while asserting mock object
     against method calls.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35070(226): posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the
     user belongs to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups.  Patch by Jeffrey
     Kintscher.

   - bpo-31783(227): Fix race condition in ThreadPoolExecutor when
     worker threads are created during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-36582(228): Fix ‘UserString.encode()’ to correctly return
     ‘bytes’ rather than a ‘UserString’ instance.

   - bpo-32424(229): Deprecate xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.copy() in
     favor of copy.copy().

     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley

   - bpo-36564(230): Fix infinite loop in email header folding logic
     that would be triggered when an email policy’s max_line_length is
     not long enough to include the required markup and any values in
     the message.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-36543(231): Removed methods Element.getchildren(),
     Element.getiterator() and ElementTree.getiterator() and the
     xml.etree.cElementTree module.

   - bpo-36409(232): Remove the old plistlib API deprecated in Python
     3.4

   - bpo-36302(233): distutils sorts source file lists so that Extension
     .so files build more reproducibly by default

   - bpo-36250(234): Ignore ‘ValueError’ from ‘signal’ with
     ‘interaction’ in non-main thread.

   - bpo-36046(235): Added ‘user’, ‘group’ and ‘extra_groups’ parameters
     to the subprocess.Popen constructor.  Patch by Patrick McLean.

   - bpo-32627(236): Fix compile error when ‘_uuid’ headers conflicting
     included.

   - bpo-35800(237): Deprecate ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ ready for future
     removal.

   - bpo-35168(238): *note shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars: 19d8. is now a
     read-only property.

   - bpo-8538(239): Add support for boolean actions like ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’ to argparse.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-20504(240): Fixes a bug in ‘cgi’ module when a
     multipart/form-data request has no ‘Content-Length’ header.

   - bpo-25988(241): The abstract base classes in *note collections.abc:
     1e. no longer are exposed in the regular *note collections: 1d.
     module.

   - bpo-11122(242): Distutils won’t check for rpmbuild in specified
     paths only.

   - bpo-34775(243): Division handling of PurePath now returns
     NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something
     other than an instance of str or PurePath.  Patch by Roger Aiudi.

   - bpo-34749(244): *note binascii.a2b_base64(): 1634. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34519(245): Add additional aliases for HP Roman 8.  Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-28009(246): Fix uuid.getnode() on platforms with ‘.’ as MAC
     Addr delimiter as well fix for MAC Addr format that omits a leading
     0 in MAC Addr values.  Currently, AIX is the only know platform
     with these settings.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-30618(247): Add *note readlink(): 91d.  Patch by Girts
     Folkmanis.

   - bpo-32498(248): Made *note urllib.parse.unquote(): 178c. accept
     bytes in addition to strings.  Patch by Stein Karlsen.

   - bpo-33348(249): lib2to3 now recognizes expressions after ‘*’ and
     ‘**’ like in ‘f(*[] or [])’.

   - bpo-32689(250): Update *note shutil.move(): a58. function to allow
     for Path objects to be used as source argument.  Patch by Emily
     Morehouse and Maxwell “5.13b” McKinnon.

   - bpo-32820(251): Added ‘__format__’ to IPv4 and IPv6 classes.
     Always outputs a fully zero-padded string.  Supports b/x/n
     modifiers (bin/hex/native format).  Native format for IPv4 is bin,
     native format for IPv6 is hex.  Also supports ‘#’ and ‘_’
     modifiers.

   - bpo-27657(252): Fix urllib.parse.urlparse() with numeric paths.  A
     string like “path:80” is no longer parsed as a path but as a scheme
     (“path”) and a path (“80”).

   - bpo-4963(253): Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to
     mimetypes extension mapping and module reinitialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38724

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38786

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38785

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38723

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27805

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38761

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38716

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38334

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38586

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38565

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31202

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38478

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38378

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38417

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38449

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38431

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38109

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38422

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38405

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38332

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38341

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38319

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38242

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38019

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38163

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38161

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38216

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38108

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38265

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38248

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38237

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34002

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38191

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38155

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38185

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38136

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37828

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38175

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33936

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34706

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38153

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38115

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38148

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38142

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9216

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36991

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38134

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38132

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38008

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37405

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38121

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38110

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38093

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37488

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35640

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38086

   (76) 
https://gitlab.com/python-devs/importlib_metadata/blob/0.21/importlib_metadata/docs/changelog.rst

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37251

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38037

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38066

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38059

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38049

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37953

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38026

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35923

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38010

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34410

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37140

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37587

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10978

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37972

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37965

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<46>,  Next: Tests<47>,  Prev: Library<52>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21767(1): Explicitly mention abc support in
     functools.singledispatch

   - bpo-38816(2): Provides more details about the interaction between
     ‘fork()’ and CPython’s runtime, focusing just on the C-API. This
     includes cautions about where ‘fork()’ should and shouldn’t be
     called.

   - bpo-38351(3): Modernize *note email: 3b. examples from %-formatting
     to f-strings.

   - bpo-38778(4): Document the fact that *note RuntimeError: 195. is
     raised if *note os.fork(): 197. is called in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-38592(5): Add Brazilian Portuguese to the language switcher at
     Python Documentation website.

   - bpo-38294(6): Add list of no-longer-escaped chars to re.escape
     documentation

   - bpo-38053(7): Modernized the plistlib documentation

   - bpo-26868(8): Fix example usage of *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35f.
     to properly handle errors.

   - bpo-36797(9): Fix a dead link in the distutils API Reference.

   - bpo-37977(10): Warn more strongly and clearly about pickle
     insecurity

   - bpo-37979(11): Added a link to dateutil.parser.isoparse in the
     datetime.fromisoformat documentation.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-12707(12): Deprecate info(), geturl(), getcode() methods in
     favor of the headers, url, and status properties, respectively, for
     HTTPResponse and addinfourl.  Also deprecate the code attribute of
     addinfourl in favor of the status attribute.  Patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami

   - bpo-37937(13): Mention ‘frame.f_trace’ in *note sys.settrace():
     14c7. docs.

   - bpo-37878(14): Make *note PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(): 19da.
     Internal.

   - bpo-37759(15): Beginning edits to Whatsnew 3.8

   - bpo-37726(16): Stop recommending getopt in the tutorial for command
     line argument parsing and promote argparse.

   - bpo-32910(17): Remove implementation-specific behaviour of how
     venv’s Deactivate works.

   - bpo-37256(18): Fix wording of arguments for ‘Request’ in *note
     urllib.request: 10b.

   - bpo-37284(19): Add a brief note to indicate that any new
     ‘sys.implementation’ required attributes must go through the PEP
     process.

   - bpo-30088(20): Documented that *note mailbox.Maildir: 416.
     constructor doesn’t attempt to verify the maildir folder layout
     correctness.  Patch by Sviatoslav Sydorenko.

   - bpo-37521(21): Fix ‘importlib’ examples to insert any newly created
     modules via importlib.util.module_from_spec() immediately into
     sys.modules instead of after calling loader.exec_module().

     Thanks to Benjamin Mintz for finding the bug.

   - bpo-37456(22): Slash (‘/’) is now part of syntax.

   - bpo-37487(23): Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.

   - bpo-37149(24): Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference
     by John Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org
     copy.

   - bpo-37478(25): Added possible exceptions to the description of
     os.chdir().

   - bpo-34903(26): Documented that in *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612, the leading zero in some
     two-digit formats is optional.  Patch by Mike Gleen.

   - bpo-36260(27): Add decompression pitfalls to zipfile module
     documentation.

   - bpo-37004(28): In the documentation for difflib, a note was added
     explicitly warning that the results of SequenceMatcher’s ratio
     method may depend on the order of the input strings.

   - bpo-36960(29): Restructured the *note datetime: 30. docs in the
     interest of making them more user-friendly and improving
     readability.  Patch by Brad Solomon.

   - bpo-36487(30): Make C-API docs clear about what the “main”
     interpreter is.

   - bpo-23460(31): The documentation for decimal string formatting
     using the ‘:g’ specifier has been updated to reflect the correct
     exponential notation cutoff point.  Original patch contributed by
     Tuomas Suutari.

   - bpo-35803(32): Document and test that ‘tempfile’ functions may
     accept a *note path-like object: 2a0. for the ‘dir’ argument.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33944(33): Added a note about the intended use of code in .pth
     files.

   - bpo-34293(34): Fix the Doc/Makefile regarding PAPER environment
     variable and PDF builds

   - bpo-25237(35): Add documentation for tkinter modules

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21767

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38816

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38351

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38778

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38592

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38294

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38053

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26868

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37977

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12707

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37937

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37726

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37256

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37284

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30088

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37521

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37456

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   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

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   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23460

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35803

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34293

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25237


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<47>,  Next: Build<50>,  Prev: Documentation<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38614(1): Fix test_communicate() of
     test_asyncio.test_subprocess: use ‘support.LONG_TIMEOUT’ (5
     minutes), instead of just 1 minute.

   - bpo-38614(2): Add timeout constants to *note test.support: e4.:
     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 19bb, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19bc, *note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18b5. and *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 19bd.

   - bpo-38502(3): test.regrtest now uses process groups in the
     multiprocessing mode (-jN command line option) if process groups
     are available: if *note os.setsid(): 19dc. and *note os.killpg():
     19dd. functions are available.

   - bpo-35998(4): Fix a race condition in
     test_asyncio.test_start_tls_server_1().  Previously, there was a
     race condition between the test main() function which replaces the
     protocol and the test ServerProto protocol which sends ANSWER once
     it gets HELLO. Now, only the test main() function is responsible to
     send data, ServerProto no longer sends data.

   - bpo-38470(5): Fix ‘test_compileall.test_compile_dir_maxlevels()’ on
     Windows without long path support: only create 3 subdirectories
     instead of between 20 and 100 subdirectories.

   - bpo-37531(6): On timeout, regrtest no longer attempts to call
     ‘popen.communicate()’ again: it can hang until all child processes
     using stdout and stderr pipes completes.  Kill the worker process
     and ignores its output.  Change also the faulthandler timeout of
     the main process from 1 minute to 5 minutes, for Python slowest
     buildbots.

   - bpo-38239(7): Fix test_gdb for Link Time Optimization (LTO) builds.

   - bpo-38275(8): test_ssl now handles disabled TLS/SSL versions
     better.  OpenSSL’s crypto policy and run-time settings are
     recognized and tests for disabled versions are skipped.  Tests also
     accept more TLS minimum_versions for platforms that override
     OpenSSL’s default with strict settings.

   - bpo-38271(9): The private keys for test_ssl were encrypted with
     3DES in traditional PKCS#5 format.  3DES and the digest algorithm
     of PKCS#5 are blocked by some strict crypto policies.  Use PKCS#8
     format with AES256 encryption instead.

   - bpo-38270(10): test.support now has a helper function to check for
     availability of a hash digest function.  Several tests are
     refactored avoid MD5 and use SHA256 instead.  Other tests are
     marked to use MD5 and skipped when MD5 is disabled.

   - bpo-37123(11): Multiprocessing test test_mymanager() now also
     expects -SIGTERM, not only exitcode 0.
     BaseManager._finalize_manager() sends SIGTERM to the manager
     process if it takes longer than 1 second to stop, which happens on
     slow buildbots.

   - bpo-38212(12): Multiprocessing tests: increase
     test_queue_feeder_donot_stop_onexc() timeout from 1 to 60 seconds.

   - bpo-38117(13): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38018(14): Increase code coverage for
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.

   - bpo-37805(15): Add tests for json.dump(…, skipkeys=True).  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37531(16): Enhance regrtest multiprocess timeout: write a
     message when killing a worker process, catch popen.kill() and
     popen.wait() exceptions, put a timeout on the second call to
     popen.communicate().

   - bpo-37876(17): Add tests for ROT-13 codec.

   - bpo-36833(18): Added tests for ‘PyDateTime_XXX_GET_XXX()’ macros of
     the C API of the *note datetime: 30. module.  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37558(19): Fix
     test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination name handling

   - bpo-37526(20): Add ‘test.support.catch_threading_exception()’:
     context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 94a. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 845.

   - bpo-37421(21): test_concurrent_futures now explicitly stops the
     ForkServer instance if it’s running.

   - bpo-37421(22): multiprocessing tests now stop the ForkServer
     instance if it’s running: close the “alive” file descriptor to ask
     the server to stop and then remove its UNIX address.

   - bpo-37421(23): test_distutils.test_build_ext() is now able to
     remove the temporary directory on Windows: don’t import the newly
     built C extension (“xx”) in the current process, but test it in a
     separated process.

   - bpo-37421(24): test_concurrent_futures now cleans up
     multiprocessing to remove immediately temporary directories created
     by multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir().

   - bpo-37421(25): test_winconsoleio doesn’t leak a temporary file
     anymore: use tempfile.TemporaryFile() to remove it when the test
     completes.

   - bpo-37421(26): multiprocessing tests now explicitly call
     ‘_run_finalizers()’ to immediately remove temporary directories
     created by tests.

   - bpo-37421(27): urllib.request tests now call *note urlcleanup():
     19de. to remove temporary files created by ‘urlretrieve()’ tests
     and to clear the ‘_opener’ global variable set by ‘urlopen()’ and
     functions calling indirectly ‘urlopen()’.

   - bpo-37472(28): Remove ‘Lib/test/outstanding_bugs.py’.

   - bpo-37199(29): Fix test failures when IPv6 is unavailable or
     disabled.

   - bpo-19696(30): Replace deprecated method “random.choose” with
     “random.choice” in “test_pkg_import.py”.

   - bpo-37335(31): Remove no longer necessary code from c locale
     coercion tests

   - bpo-37421(32): Fix test_shutil to no longer leak temporary files.

   - bpo-37411(33): Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend
     on the environment variables (don’t fail if “X” variable is set).

   - bpo-37400(34): Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather
     than grp.getgrall() to get groups.  Rename also the test to
     test_chown_gid().

   - bpo-37359(35): Add –cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove
     ‘test_python_*’ directories of previous failed jobs.  Add “make
     cleantest” to run ‘python3 -m test --cleanup’.

   - bpo-37362(36): test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an “unexpected”
     message on stderr: it now ignores stderr.  The purpose of test_gdb
     is to test that python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to
     test gdb.

   - bpo-35998(37): Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio:
     test_start_tls_server_1()

   - bpo-37278(38): Fix test_asyncio ProactorLoopCtrlC: join the thread
     to prevent leaking a running thread and leaking a reference.

   - bpo-37261(39): Fix *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     19df.: its __exit__() method now ignores unraisable exception
     raised when clearing its ‘unraisable’ attribute.

   - bpo-37069(40): regrtest now uses *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.
     to mark a test as “environment altered” (ENV_CHANGED) if it emits
     an “unraisable exception”.  Moreover, regrtest logs a warning in
     this case.

     Use ‘python3 -m test --fail-env-changed’ to catch unraisable
     exceptions in tests.

   - bpo-37252(41): Fix assertions in ‘test_close’ and
     ‘test_events_mask_overflow’ devpoll tests.

   - bpo-37169(42): Rewrite ‘_PyObject_IsFreed()’ unit tests.

   - bpo-37153(43): ‘test_venv.test_multiprocessing()’ now explicitly
     calls ‘pool.terminate()’ to wait until the pool completes.

   - bpo-34001(44): Make test_ssl pass with LibreSSL. LibreSSL handles
     minimum and maximum TLS version differently than OpenSSL.

   - bpo-36919(45): Make ‘test_source_encoding.test_issue2301’
     implementation independent.  The test will work now for both
     CPython and IronPython.

   - bpo-30202(46): Update ‘test.test_importlib.test_abc’ to test
     ‘find_spec()’.

   - bpo-28009(47): Modify the test_uuid logic to test when a program is
     available AND can be used to obtain a MACADDR as basis for an UUID.
     Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-34596(48): Fallback to a default reason when *note
     unittest.skip(): 19e0. is uncalled.  Patch by Naitree Zhu.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38502

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38470

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38275

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38270

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38212

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38018

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37805

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36833

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37526

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37472

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37199

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19696

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37335

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37411

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37400

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37359

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37362

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37278

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37261

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37252

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37169

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37153

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34001

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36919

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30202

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<50>,  Next: Windows<45>,  Prev: Tests<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38809(1): On Windows, build scripts will now recognize and use
     python.exe from an active virtual env.

   - bpo-38684(2): Fix _hashlib build when Blake2 is disabled, but
     OpenSSL supports it.

   - bpo-38468(3): Misc/python-config.in now uses ‘getvar()’ for all
     still existing ‘sysconfig.get_config_var()’ calls.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37415(4): Fix stdatomic.h header check for ICC compiler: the
     ICC implementation lacks atomic_uintptr_t type which is needed by
     Python.

   - bpo-38301(5): In Solaris family, we must be sure to use
     ‘-D_REENTRANT’.  Patch by Jesús Cea Avión.

   - bpo-36002(6): Locate ‘llvm-profdata’ and ‘llvm-ar’ binaries using
     ‘AC_PATH_TOOL’ rather than ‘AC_PATH_TARGET_TOOL’.

   - bpo-37936(7): The ‘.gitignore’ file systematically keeps “rooted”,
     with a non-trailing slash, all the rules that are meant to apply to
     files in a specific place in the repo.  Previously, when the
     intended file to ignore happened to be at the root of the repo,
     we’d most often accidentally also ignore files and directories with
     the same name anywhere in the tree.

   - bpo-37760(8): The ‘Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py’ script, which
     is used for converting information from the Unicode Character
     Database into generated code and data used by the methods of *note
     str: 445. and by the *note unicodedata: 105. module, now handles
     each character’s data as a ‘dataclass’ with named attributes,
     rather than a length-18 list of different fields.

   - bpo-37936(9): The ‘.gitignore’ file no longer applies to any files
     that are in fact tracked in the Git repository.  Patch by Greg
     Price.

   - bpo-37725(10): Change “clean” makefile target to also clean the
     program guided optimization (PGO) data.  Previously you would have
     to use “make clean” and “make profile-removal”, or “make clobber”.

   - bpo-37707(11): Mark some individual tests to skip when –pgo is
     used.  The tests marked increase the PGO task time significantly
     and likely don’t help improve optimization of the final executable.

   - bpo-36044(12): Reduce the number of unit tests run for the PGO
     generation task.  This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.
     Running the full unit test suite is slow.  This change may result
     in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches
     will be executed.  If you are willing to wait for the much slower
     build, the old behavior can be restored using ‘./configure [..]
     PROFILE_TASK=”-m test –pgo-extended”’.  We make no guarantees as to
     which PGO task set produces a faster build.  Users who care should
     run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the
     environment, workload, and compiler tool chain.

   - bpo-37468(13): ‘make install’ no longer installs ‘wininst-*.exe’
     files used by distutils bdist_wininst: bdist_wininst only works on
     Windows.

   - bpo-37189(14): Many ‘PyRun_XXX()’ functions like *note
     PyRun_String(): 19e2. were no longer exported in ‘libpython38.dll’
     by mistake.  Export them again to fix the ABI compatibility.

   - bpo-25361(15): Enables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build.

   - bpo-36210(16): Update optional extension module detection for AIX.
     ossaudiodev and spwd are not applicable for AIX, and are no longer
     reported as missing.  3rd-party packaging of ncurses (with ASIS
     support) conflicts with officially supported AIX curses library, so
     configure AIX to use libcurses.a.  However, skip trying to build
     _curses_panel.

     patch by M Felt

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38809

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38468

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37415

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38301

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36002

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37760

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37189

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36210


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<45>,  Next: macOS<37>,  Prev: Build<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38589(1): Fixes HTML Help shortcut when Windows is not
     installed to C drive

   - bpo-38453(2): Ensure ntpath.realpath() correctly resolves relative
     paths.

   - bpo-38519(3): Restores the internal C headers that were missing
     from the nuget.org and Microsoft Store packages.

   - bpo-38492(4): Remove ‘pythonw.exe’ dependency on the Microsoft C++
     runtime.

   - bpo-38344(5): Fix error message in activate.bat

   - bpo-38359(6): Ensures ‘pyw.exe’ launcher reads correct registry
     key.

   - bpo-38355(7): Fixes ‘ntpath.realpath’ failing on ‘sys.executable’.

   - bpo-38117(8): Update bundled OpenSSL to 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38092(9): Reduce overhead when using multiprocessing in a
     Windows virtual environment.

   - bpo-38133(10): Allow py.exe launcher to locate installations from
     the Microsoft Store and improve display of active virtual
     environments.

   - bpo-38114(11): The ‘pip.ini’ is no longer included in the Nuget
     package.

   - bpo-32592(12): Set Windows 8 as the minimum required version for
     API support

   - bpo-36634(13): *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. now returns active
     processors rather than maximum processors.

   - bpo-36634(14): venv activate.bat now works when the existing
     variables contain double quote characters.

   - bpo-38081(15): Prevent error calling *note os.path.realpath(): 225.
     on ‘'NUL'’.

   - bpo-38087(16): Fix case sensitivity in test_pathlib and
     test_ntpath.

   - bpo-38088(17): Fixes distutils not finding vcruntime140.dll with
     only the v142 toolset installed.

   - bpo-37283(18): Ensure command-line and unattend.xml setting
     override previously detected states in Windows installer.

   - bpo-38030(19): Fixes *note os.stat(): 49a. failing for block
     devices on Windows

   - bpo-38020(20): Fixes potential crash when calling *note
     os.readlink(): 91c. (or indirectly through *note realpath(): 225.)
     on a file that is not a supported link.

   - bpo-37705(21): Improve the implementation of ‘winerror_to_errno()’.

   - bpo-37549(22): *note os.dup(): 19e4. no longer fails for standard
     streams on Windows 7.

   - bpo-1311(23): The ‘nul’ file on Windows now returns True from *note
     exists(): a0a. and a valid result from *note os.stat(): 49a. with
     ‘S_IFCHR’ set.

   - bpo-9949(24): Enable support for following symlinks in
     ‘os.realpath()’.

   - bpo-37834(25): Treat all name surrogate reparse points on Windows
     in *note os.lstat(): 49b. and other reparse points as regular files
     in *note os.stat(): 49a.

   - bpo-36266(26): Add the module name in the formatted error message
     when DLL load fail happens during module import in
     ‘_PyImport_FindSharedFuncptrWindows()’.  Patch by Srinivas
     Nyayapati.

   - bpo-25172(27): Trying to import the ‘crypt’ module on Windows will
     result in an *note ImportError: 413. with a message explaining that
     the module isn’t supported on Windows.  On other platforms, if the
     underlying ‘_crypt’ module is not available, the ImportError will
     include a message explaining the problem.

   - bpo-37778(28): Fixes the icons used for file associations to the
     Microsoft Store package.

   - bpo-37734(29): Fix use of registry values to launch Python from
     Microsoft Store app.

   - bpo-37702(30): Fix memory leak on Windows in creating an SSLContext
     object or running ‘urllib.request.urlopen('https://...')’.

   - bpo-37672(31): Switch Windows Store package’s pip to use bundled
     ‘pip.ini’ instead of ‘PIP_USER’ variable.

   - bpo-10945(32): Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst
     installers on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-37445(33): Include the ‘FORMAT_MESSAGE_IGNORE_INSERTS’ flag in
     ‘FormatMessageW()’ calls.

   - bpo-37369(34): Fixes path for *note sys.executable: 3b2. when
     running from the Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-37380(35): Don’t collect unfinished processes with
     ‘subprocess._active’ on Windows to cleanup later.  Patch by Ruslan
     Kuprieiev.

   - bpo-37351(36): Removes libpython38.a from standard Windows
     distribution.

   - bpo-35360(37): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-37267(38): On Windows, *note os.dup(): 19e4. no longer creates
     an inheritable fd when handling a character file.

   - bpo-36779(39): Ensure ‘time.tzname’ is correct on Windows when the
     active code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.

   - bpo-32587(40): Make *note winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ: 19e5. support
     zero-length strings.

   - bpo-28269(41): Replace use of ‘strcasecmp()’ for the system
     function ‘_stricmp()’.  Patch by Minmin Gong.

   - bpo-36590(42): Add native Bluetooth RFCOMM support to socket
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38453

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38519

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38344

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38355

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38133

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38081

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38088

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37283

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38030

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38020

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37705

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37549

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9949

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36266

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25172

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37778

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37734

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37702

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37672

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37445

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37369

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37380

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37267

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36779

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32587

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28269

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36590


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<37>,  Next: IDLE<34>,  Prev: Windows<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38117(1): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1d in macOS installer.

   - bpo-38089(2): Move Azure Pipelines to latest VM versions and make
     macOS tests optional

   - bpo-18049(3): Increase the default stack size of threads from 5MB
     to 16MB on macOS, to match the stack size of the main thread.  This
     avoids crashes on deep recursion in threads.

   - bpo-34602(4): Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer
     calling resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit
     at runtime.  The runtime change is no longer needed since the
     interpreter is being built with a larger default stack size.

   - bpo-35360(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-34631(6): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<34>,  Next: Tools/Demos<24>,  Prev: macOS<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-26353(1): Stop adding newline when saving an IDLE shell window.

   - bpo-4630(2): Add an option to toggle IDLE’s cursor blink for shell,
     editor, and output windows.  See Settings, General, Window
     Preferences, Cursor Blink.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-38598(3): Do not try to compile IDLE shell or output windows

   - bpo-36698(4): IDLE no longer fails when write non-encodable
     characters to stderr.  It now escapes them with a backslash, as the
     regular Python interpreter.  Added the ‘errors’ field to the
     standard streams.

   - bpo-35379(5): When exiting IDLE, catch any AttributeError.  One
     happens when EditorWindow.close is called twice.  Printing a
     traceback, when IDLE is run from a terminal, is useless and
     annoying.

   - bpo-38183(6): To avoid problems, test_idle ignores the user config
     directory.  It no longer tries to create or access .idlerc or any
     files within.  Users must run IDLE to discover problems with saving
     settings.

   - bpo-38077(7): IDLE no longer adds ‘argv’ to the user namespace when
     initializing it.  This bug only affected 3.7.4 and 3.8.0b2 to
     3.8.0b4.

   - bpo-38041(8): Shell restart lines now fill the window width, always
     start with ‘=’, and avoid wrapping unnecessarily.  The line will
     still wrap if the included file name is long relative to the width.

   - bpo-35771(9): To avoid occasional spurious test_idle failures on
     slower machines, increase the ‘hover_delay’ in test_tooltip.

   - bpo-37824(10): Properly handle user input warnings in IDLE shell.
     Cease turning SyntaxWarnings into SyntaxErrors.

   - bpo-37929(11): IDLE Settings dialog now closes properly when there
     is no shell window.

   - bpo-37902(12): Add mousewheel scrolling for IDLE module, path, and
     stack browsers.  Patch by George Zhang.

   - bpo-37849(13): Fixed completions list appearing too high or low
     when shown above the current line.

   - bpo-36419(14): Refactor IDLE autocomplete and improve testing.

   - bpo-37748(15): Reorder the Run menu.  Put the most common choice,
     Run Module, at the top.

   - bpo-37692(16): Improve highlight config sample with example shell
     interaction and better labels for shell elements.

   - bpo-37628(17): Settings dialog no longer expands with font size.

   - bpo-37627(18): Initialize the Customize Run dialog with the command
     line arguments most recently entered before.  The user can
     optionally edit before submitting them.

   - bpo-33610(19): Fix code context not showing the correct context
     when first toggled on.

   - bpo-37530(20): Optimize code context to reduce unneeded background
     activity.  Font and highlight changes now occur along with text
     changes instead of after a random delay.

   - bpo-27452(21): Cleanup ‘config.py’ by inlining ‘RemoveFile’ and
     simplifying the handling of ‘file’ in ‘CreateConfigHandlers’.

   - bpo-37325(22): Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and
     custom run dialogs.

   - bpo-37321(23): Both subprocess connection error messages now refer
     to the ‘Startup failure’ section of the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-17535(24): Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.
     Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the
     General tab of the configuration dialog.

   - bpo-26806(25): To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and
     avoid possible problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits
     in the user code execution process.  Subtract 30 when reporting
     recursion limits to make this addition mostly transparent.

   - bpo-37177(26): Properly ‘attach’ search dialogs to their main
     window so that they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden
     behind their main window.

   - bpo-37039(27): Adjust “Zoom Height” to individual screens by
     momentarily maximizing the window on first use with a particular
     screen.  Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.
     While a window is maximized, “Zoom Height” has no effect.

   - bpo-35763(28): Make calltip reminder about ‘/’ meaning
     positional-only less obtrusive by only adding it when there is room
     on the first line.

   - bpo-5680(29): Add ‘Run… Customized’ to the Run menu to run a module
     with customized settings.  Any ‘command line arguments’ entered are
     added to sys.argv.  One can suppress the normal Shell main module
     restart.

   - bpo-36390(30): Gather Format menu functions into format.py.
     Combine paragraph.py, rstrip.py, and format methods from editor.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4630

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38598

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36698

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35379

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38183

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38077

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38041

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35771

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37824

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37902

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37849

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36419

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37748

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37692

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37628

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33610

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37530

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37325

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37321

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26806

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37177

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37039

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35763

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<24>,  Next: C API<49>,  Prev: IDLE<34>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-38118(1): Update Valgrind suppression file to ignore a false
     alarm in *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 19e9. when using GCC builtin
     strcmp().

   - bpo-38347(2): pathfix.py: Assume all files that end on ‘.py’ are
     Python scripts when working recursively.

   - bpo-37803(3): pdb’s ‘--help’ and ‘--version’ long options now work.

   - bpo-37942(4): Improve ArgumentClinic converter for floats.

   - bpo-37704(5): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/h2py.py’: use cffi to access a
     C API in Python.

   - bpo-37675(6): 2to3 now works when run from a zipped standard
     library.

   - bpo-37034(7): Argument Clinic now uses the argument name on errors
     with keyword-only argument instead of their position.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37064(8): Add option -k to pathscript.py script: preserve
     shebang flags.  Add option -a to pathscript.py script: add flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37942

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37704

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37675

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37064


File: python.info,  Node: C API<49>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<24>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.23.53.11 C API
................

   - bpo-37633(1): Re-export some function compatibility wrappers for
     macros in ‘pythonrun.h’.

   - bpo-38644(2): Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 971. and *note
     Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 972. as regular functions for the limited
     API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros
     didn’t work with the limited API which cannot access
     ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field.  Remove
     ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ from the stable ABI.

   - bpo-38650(3): The global variable *note
     PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 97f. is now a constant and refers to
     a constant string.

   - bpo-38540(4): Fixed possible leak in *note PyArg_Parse(): 19eb. and
     similar functions for format units ‘"es#"’ and ‘"et#"’ when the
     macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is not defined.

   - bpo-38395(5): Fix a crash in *note weakref.proxy: a4e. objects due
     to incorrect lifetime management when calling some associated
     methods that may delete the last reference to object being
     referenced by the proxy.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36389(6): The ‘_PyObject_CheckConsistency()’ function is now
     also available in release mode.  For example, it can be used to
     debug a crash in the ‘visit_decref()’ function of the GC.

   - bpo-38266(7): Revert the removal of PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()
     with documentation.

   - bpo-38303(8): Update audioop extension module to use the stable ABI
     (PEP-384).  Patch by Tyler Kieft.

   - bpo-38234(9): ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 3b2. to
     the program full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.) rather
     than to the program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.).

   - bpo-38234(10): Python ignored arguments passed to ‘Py_SetPath()’,
     ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ and ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: fix Python
     initialization to use specified arguments.

   - bpo-38205(11): The *note Py_UNREACHABLE(): bb2. macro now calls
     *note Py_FatalError(): 980.

   - bpo-38140(12): Make dict and weakref offsets opaque for C heap
     types by passing the offsets through PyMemberDef

   - bpo-15088(13): The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been
     removed.  It was not documented, tested or used anywhere within
     CPython after the implementation of PEP 442(14).  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.  (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-36763(15): Options added by ‘PySys_AddXOption()’ are now
     handled the same way than ‘PyConfig.xoptions’ and command line ‘-X’
     options.

   - bpo-37926(16): Fix a crash in ‘PySys_SetArgvEx(0, NULL, 0)’.

   - bpo-37879(17): Fix subtype_dealloc to suppress the type decref when
     the base type is a C heap type

   - bpo-37645(18): Add ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly
     string representation of a function-like object.  Patch by Jeroen
     Demeyer.

   - bpo-29548(19): The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’,
     ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are deprecated.  Use *note
     PyObject_Call(): 396. and its variants instead.

   - bpo-37151(20): ‘PyCFunction_Call’ is now a deprecated alias of
     *note PyObject_Call(): 396.

   - bpo-37540(21): The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller
     passes only strings as keyword names.

   - bpo-37207(22): The vectorcall protocol is now enabled for ‘type’
     objects: set ‘tp_vectorcall’ to a vectorcall function to be used
     instead of ‘tp_new’ and ‘tp_init’ when calling the class itself.

   - bpo-21120(23): Exclude Python-ast.h, ast.h and asdl.h from the
     limited API.

   - bpo-37483(24): Add new function ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’ for calling
     an object with one positional argument.

   - bpo-36763(25): Add *note PyConfig_SetWideStringList(): 19ec.
     function.

   - bpo-37337(26): Add fast functions for calling methods:
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’, ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’.

   - bpo-28805(27): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e. calling convention
     has been documented.

   - bpo-37221(28): The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’
     allows to create code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an
     extra 'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positonal-only arguments.

   - bpo-37215(29): Fix dtrace issue introduce by bpo-36842(30)

   - bpo-37194(31): Add a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 395.
     function to the C API: call a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callback without
     any argument.  On x86-64, for example,
     ‘PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(func, NULL)’ allocates 960 bytes on
     the stack per call, whereas ‘PyObject_CallNoArgs(func)’ only
     allocates 624 bytes per call.

   - bpo-37170(32): Fix the cast on error in *note
     PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 19ed.

   - bpo-35381(33): Convert posixmodule.c statically allocated types
     ‘DirEntryType’ and ‘ScandirIteratorType’ to heap-allocated types.

   - bpo-34331(34): Use singular/plural noun in error message when
     instantiating an abstract class with non-overridden abstract
     method(s).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37633

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38303

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38205

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38140

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37926

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37879

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37151

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21120

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37337

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28805

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37215

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37170

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35381

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34331


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.54 Python 3.8.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2019-06-04'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<50>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<36>,  Next: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35907(1): CVE 2019-9948(2): Avoid file reading by disallowing
     ‘local-file://’ and ‘local_file://’ URL schemes in
     ‘URLopener().open()’ and ‘URLopener().retrieve()’ of *note
     urllib.request: 10b.

   - bpo-33529(3): Prevent fold function used in email header encoding
     from entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII
     characters in a header.

   - bpo-33164(4): Updated blake2 implementation which uses secure
     memset implementation provided by platform.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35907

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9948

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33529

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33164


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<54>,  Next: Library<53>,  Prev: Security<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35814(1): Allow unpacking in the right hand side of annotated
     assignments.  In particular, ‘t: Tuple[int, ...] = x, y, *z’ is now
     allowed.

   - bpo-37126(2): All structseq objects are now tracked by the garbage
     collector.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37122(3): Make the 'co_argcount' attribute of code objects
     represent the total number of positional arguments (including
     positional-only arguments).  The value of 'co_posonlyargcount' can
     be used to distinguish which arguments are positional only, and the
     difference ('co_argcount' - 'co_posonlyargcount') is the number of
     positional-or-keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20092(4): Constructors of *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef. and
     *note complex: 2f0. will now use the *note __index__(): 716.
     special method, if available and the corresponding method *note
     __int__(): 715, *note __float__(): 9c9. or *note __complex__():
     5e1. is not available.

   - bpo-37087(5): Add native thread ID (TID) support to OpenBSD.

   - bpo-26219(6): Implemented per opcode cache mechanism and
     ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction use it.  ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ is now about 40%
     faster.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov, and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-37072(7): Fix crash in PyAST_FromNodeObject() when flags is
     NULL.

   - bpo-37029(8): Freeing a great many small objects could take time
     quadratic in the number of arenas, due to using linear search to
     keep ‘obmalloc.c’’s list of usable arenas sorted by order of number
     of free memory pools.  This is accomplished without search now,
     leaving the worst-case time linear in the number of arenas.  For
     programs where this quite visibly matters (typically with more than
     100 thousand small objects alive simultaneously), this can greatly
     reduce the time needed to release their memory.

   - bpo-26423(9): Fix possible overflow in ‘wrap_lenfunc()’ when
     ‘sizeof(long) < sizeof(Py_ssize_t)’ (e.g., 64-bit Windows).

   - bpo-37050(10): Improve the AST for “debug” f-strings, which use ‘=’
     to print out the source of the expression being evaluated.  Delete
     expr_text from the FormattedValue node, and instead use a Constant
     string node (possibly merged with adjacent constant expressions
     inside the f-string).

   - bpo-22385(11): The ‘bytes.hex’, ‘bytearray.hex’, and
     ‘memoryview.hex’ methods as well as the ‘binascii.hexlify’ and
     ‘b2a_hex’ functions now have the ability to include an optional
     separator between hex bytes.  This functionality was inspired by
     MicroPython’s hexlify implementation.

   - bpo-26836(12): Add *note os.memfd_create(): a07.

   - bpo-37032(13): Added new ‘replace()’ method to the code type (*note
     types.CodeType: 2e1.).

   - bpo-37007(14): Implement *note socket.if_nameindex(): a29, *note
     socket.if_nametoindex(): a2a, and *note socket.if_indextoname():
     a2b. on Windows.

   - bpo-36829(15): *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348. now creates a
     traceback object if there is no current traceback.  Moreover, call
     *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3ef. and *note
     PyException_SetTraceback(): 19f1. to normalize the exception value.
     Ignore any error.

   - bpo-36878(16): Only accept text after ‘# type: ignore’ if the first
     character is ASCII. This is to disallow things like ‘# type:
     ignoreé’.

   - bpo-36878(17): Store text appearing after a ‘# type: ignore’
     comment in the AST. For example a type ignore like ‘# type:
     ignore[E1000]’ will have the string ‘"[E1000]"’ stored in its AST
     node.

   - bpo-2180(18): Treat line continuation at EOF as a ‘SyntaxError’ by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36907(19): Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword
     dict (‘f(**kwargs)’) and changing the dict ‘kwargs’ while that
     function is running.

   - bpo-36946(20): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.

   - bpo-36826(21): Add NamedExpression kind support to ast_unparse.c

   - bpo-1875(22): A *note SyntaxError: 18d. is now raised if a code
     blocks that will be optimized away (e.g.  if conditions that are
     always false) contains syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36027(23): Allow computation of modular inverses via
     three-argument ‘pow’: the second argument is now permitted to be
     negative in the case where the first and third arguments are
     relatively prime.

   - bpo-36861(24): Update the Unicode database to version 12.1.0.

   - bpo-28866(25): Avoid caching attributes of classes which type
     defines mro() to avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.

   - bpo-36851(26): The ‘FrameType’ stack is now correctly cleaned up if
     the execution ends with a return and the stack is not empty.

   - bpo-34616(27): The ‘compile()’ builtin functions now support the
     ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag, which allow to compile
     sources that contains top-level ‘await’, ‘async with’ or ‘async
     for’.  This is useful to evaluate async-code from with an already
     async functions; for example in a custom REPL.

   - bpo-36842(28): Implement PEP 578, adding sys.audit, io.open_code
     and related APIs.

   - bpo-27639(29): Correct return type for UserList slicing operations.
     Patch by Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah

   - bpo-36737(30): Move PyRuntimeState.warnings into per-interpreter
     state (via “module state”).

   - bpo-36793(31): Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types
     *note bool: 461, *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note complex:
     2f0. and few classes from the standard library.  They now inherit
     ‘__str__()’ from *note object: a89.

   - bpo-36817(32): Add a ‘=’ feature f-strings for debugging.  This can
     precede ‘!s’, ‘!r’, or ‘!a’.  It produces the text of the
     expression, followed by an equal sign, followed by the repr of the
     value of the expression.  So ‘f'{3*9+15=}'’ would be equal to the
     string ‘'3*9+15=42'’.  If ‘=’ is specified, the default conversion
     is set to ‘!r’, unless a format spec is given, in which case the
     formatting behavior is unchanged, and __format__ will be used.

   - bpo-24048(33): Save the live exception during import.c’s
     ‘remove_module()’.

   - bpo-27987(34): pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes,
     instead of 8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI.
     Recent compilers assume this alignment more often.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36601(35): A long-since-meaningless check for ‘getpid() ==
     main_pid’ was removed from Python’s internal C signal handler.

   - bpo-36594(36): Fix incorrect use of ‘%p’ in format strings.  Patch
     by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36045(37): ‘builtins.help()’ now prefixes ‘async’ for async
     functions.

   - bpo-36084(38): Add native thread ID (TID) to threading.Thread
     objects (supported platforms: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS)

   - bpo-36035(39): Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with
     pathlib

   - bpo-35983(40): Added new trashcan macros to deal with a double
     deallocation that could occur when the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a subclass
     calls the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a base class and that base class uses the
     trashcan mechanism.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-20602(41): Do not clear *note sys.flags: 686. and *note
     sys.float_info: 19f2. during shutdown.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26826(42): Expose ‘copy_file_range()’ as a low level API in the
     *note os: a1. module.

   - bpo-32388(43): Remove cross-version binary compatibility
     requirement in tp_flags.

   - bpo-31862(44): Port binascii to PEP 489 multiphase initialization.
     Patch by Marcel Plch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37122

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37072

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37029

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37050

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22385

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2180

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36907

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36826

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1875

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28866

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36851

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27639

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36737

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24048

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27987

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36601

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36594

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36045

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36035

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35983

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20602

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26826

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31862


File: python.info,  Node: Library<53>,  Next: Documentation<47>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-37128(1): Added *note math.perm(): 6ca.

   - bpo-37120(2): Add SSLContext.num_tickets to control the number of
     TLSv1.3 session tickets.

   - bpo-12202(3): Fix the error handling in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26835(4): The fcntl module now contains file sealing constants
     for sealing of memfds.

   - bpo-29262(5): Add ‘get_origin()’ and ‘get_args()’ introspection
     helpers to ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-12639(6): ‘msilib.Directory.start_component()’ no longer fails
     if 'keyfile' is not ‘None’.

   - bpo-36999(7): Add the ‘asyncio.Task.get_coro()’ method to publicly
     expose the tasks’s coroutine object.

   - bpo-35246(8): Make *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a74.
     accept path-like arguments.

   - bpo-35279(9): Change default 'max_workers' of ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     from ‘cpu_count() * 5’ to ‘min(32, cpu_count() + 4)’.  Previous
     value was unreasonably large on many cores machines.

   - bpo-37076(10): *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 196. now logs
     uncaught exception raised by the function using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7, rather than *note sys.excepthook(): 805,
     so the hook gets access to the function which raised the exception.

   - bpo-33725(11): On macOS, the *note multiprocessing: 94. module now
     uses 'spawn' start method by default.

   - bpo-37054(12): Fix destructor ‘_pyio.BytesIO’ and
     ‘_pyio.TextIOWrapper’: initialize their ‘_buffer’ attribute as soon
     as possible (in the class body), because it’s used by ‘__del__()’
     which calls ‘close()’.

   - bpo-37058(13): PEP 544: Add ‘Protocol’ and ‘@runtime_checkable’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-36933(14): The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper’ that were deprecated and marked for
     removal in 3.8 have been removed.

   - bpo-37047(15): Handle late binding and attribute access in *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: a48. setup for autospeccing.  Document
     newly implemented async methods in *note unittest.mock.MagicMock:
     e87.

   - bpo-37049(16): PEP 589: Add ‘TypedDict’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37046(17): PEP 586: Add ‘Literal’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37045(18): PEP 591: Add ‘Final’ qualifier and ‘@final’
     decorator to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37035(19): Don’t log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error
     has occurred in asyncio transport.  Peer can generate almost any
     OSError, user cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code.
     Errors are still propagated to user code, it’s just logging them is
     pointless and pollute asyncio logs.

   - bpo-37001(20): *note symtable.symtable(): 19f4. now accepts the
     same input types for source code as the built-in *note compile():
     192. function.  Patch by Dino Viehland.

   - bpo-37028(21): Implement asyncio REPL

   - bpo-37027(22): Return safe to use proxy socket object from
     transport.get_extra_info(‘socket’)

   - bpo-32528(23): Make asyncio.CancelledError a BaseException.

     This will address the common mistake many asyncio users make: an
     “except Exception” clause breaking Tasks cancellation.

     In addition to this change, we stop inheriting asyncio.TimeoutError
     and asyncio.InvalidStateError from their concurrent.futures.*
     counterparts.  There’s no point for these exceptions to share the
     inheritance chain.

   - bpo-1230540(24): Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 845.
     function which handles uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): a39.
     exception.  It can be overridden to control how uncaught *note
     threading.Thread.run(): a39. exceptions are handled.

   - bpo-36996(25): Handle *note unittest.mock.patch(): e88. used as a
     decorator on async functions.

   - bpo-37008(26): Add support for calling *note next(): 7d1. with the
     mock resulting from *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1710.

   - bpo-27737(27): Allow whitespace only header encoding in
     ‘email.header’ - by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-36969(28): PDB command ‘args’ now display positional only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36969(29): PDB command ‘args’ now display keyword only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36983(30): Add missing names to ‘typing.__all__’: ‘ChainMap’,
     ‘ForwardRef’, ‘OrderedDict’ - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36972(31): Add SupportsIndex protocol to the typing module to
     allow type checking to detect classes that can be passed to
     ‘hex()’, ‘oct()’ and ‘bin()’.

   - bpo-32972(32): Implement ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase’ to help
     testing asyncio-based code.

   - bpo-36952(33): *note fileinput.input(): 7f9. and *note
     fileinput.FileInput: 730. 'bufsize' argument has been removed (was
     deprecated and ignored since Python 3.6), and as a result the
     'mode' and 'openhook' arguments have been made keyword-only.

   - bpo-36952(34): Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note
     collections: 1d. is deprecated, and import should be done from
     *note collections.abc: 1e.  Still being able to import from *note
     collections: 1d. was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been
     delayed to 3.9; documentation and ‘DeprecationWarning’ clarified.

   - bpo-36949(35): Implement __repr__ for WeakSet objects.

   - bpo-36948(36): Fix *note NameError: 438. in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve(): 19f5.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33524(37): Fix the folding of email header when the
     max_line_length is 0 or None and the header contains non-ascii
     characters.  Contributed by Licht Takeuchi (@Licht-T).

   - bpo-24564(38): *note shutil.copystat(): 111f. now ignores *note
     errno.EINVAL: 19f6. on *note os.setxattr(): 10f8. which may occur
     when copying files on filesystems without extended attributes
     support.

     Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.

   - bpo-36888(39): Python child processes can now access the status of
     their parent process using multiprocessing.process.parent_process

   - bpo-36921(40): Deprecate ‘@coroutine’ for sake of ‘async def’.

   - bpo-25652(41): Fix bug in ‘__rmod__’ of ‘UserString’ - by Batuhan
     Taskaya.

   - bpo-36916(42): Remove a message about an unhandled exception in a
     task when writer.write() is used without await and writer.drain()
     fails with an exception.

   - bpo-36889(43): Introduce ‘asyncio.Stream’ class that merges *note
     asyncio.StreamReader: 18cc. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 1706.
     functionality.  ‘asyncio.Stream’ can work in readonly, writeonly
     and readwrite modes.  Provide ‘asyncio.connect()’,
     ‘asyncio.connect_unix()’, ‘asyncio.connect_read_pipe()’ and
     ‘asyncio.connect_write_pipe()’ factories to open ‘asyncio.Stream’
     connections.  Provide ‘asyncio.StreamServer’ and ‘UnixStreamServer’
     to serve servers with asyncio.Stream API. Modify *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a75. and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a74. to use ‘asyncio.Stream’
     instead of deprecated ‘StreamReader’ and ‘StreamWriter’.  Deprecate
     *note asyncio.StreamReader: 18cc. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter:
     1706.  Deprecate usage of private classes, e.g.
     ‘asyncio.FlowControlMixing’ and ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol’
     outside of asyncio package.

   - bpo-36845(44): Added validation of integer prefixes to the
     construction of IP networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.

   - bpo-23378(45): Add an extend action to argparser.

   - bpo-36867(46): Fix a bug making a SharedMemoryManager instance and
     its parent process use two separate resource_tracker processes.

   - bpo-23896(47): Adds a grammar to lib2to3.pygram that contains exec
     as a function not as statement.

   - bpo-36895(48): The function ‘time.clock()’ was deprecated in 3.3 in
     favor of ‘time.perf_counter()’ and marked for removal in 3.8, it
     has removed.

   - bpo-35545(49): Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring
     hostname resolutions internally

   - bpo-36887(50): Add new function *note math.isqrt(): a01. to compute
     integer square roots.

   - bpo-34632(51): Introduce the ‘importlib.metadata’ module with
     (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party
     packages.

   - bpo-36878(52): When using ‘type_comments=True’ in ‘ast.parse’,
     treat ‘# type: ignore’ followed by a non-alphanumeric character and
     then arbitrary text as a type ignore, instead of requiring nothing
     but whitespace or another comment.  This is to permit formations
     such as ‘# type: ignore[E1000]’.

   - bpo-36778(53): ‘cp65001’ encoding (Windows code page 65001) becomes
     an alias to ‘utf_8’ encoding.

   - bpo-36867(54): The multiprocessing.resource_tracker replaces the
     multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker module.  Other than semaphores,
     resource_tracker also tracks shared_memory segments.

   - bpo-30262(55): The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note
     sqlite3: cf. module are not exposed to the user.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-24538(56): In ‘shutil.copystat()’, first copy extended file
     attributes and then file permissions, since extended attributes can
     only be set on the destination while it is still writeable.

   - bpo-36829(57): Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. function
     which can be overridden to control how “unraisable exceptions” are
     handled.  It is called when an exception has occurred but there is
     no way for Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor
     raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note
     gc.collect(): a36.).

   - bpo-36832(58): Introducing ‘zipfile.Path’, a pathlib-compatible
     wrapper for traversing zip files.

   - bpo-36814(59): Fix an issue where os.posix_spawnp() would
     incorrectly raise a TypeError when file_actions is None.

   - bpo-33110(60): Handle exceptions raised by functions added by
     concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has
     already completed.

   - bpo-26903(61): Limit ‘max_workers’ in ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ to 61
     to work around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.

   - bpo-36813(62): Fix *note QueueListener: e28. to call
     ‘queue.task_done()’ upon stopping.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-36806(63): Forbid creation of asyncio stream objects like
     StreamReader, StreamWriter, Process, and their protocols outside of
     asyncio package.

   - bpo-36802(64): Provide both sync and async calls for
     StreamWriter.write() and StreamWriter.close()

   - bpo-36801(65): Properly handle SSL connection closing in asyncio
     StreamWriter.drain() call.

   - bpo-36785(66): Implement PEP 574 (pickle protocol 5 with
     out-of-band buffers).

   - bpo-36772(67): functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight
     decorator in addition to its existing usage as a function that
     returns a decorator.

   - bpo-6584(68): Add a *note BadGzipFile: 9f3. exception to the *note
     gzip: 67. module.

   - bpo-36748(69): Optimized write buffering in C implementation of
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  Writing ASCII string to ‘TextIOWrapper’ with
     ascii, latin1, or utf-8 encoding is about 20% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-8138(70): Don’t mark ‘wsgiref.simple_server.SimpleServer’ as
     multi-threaded since ‘wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer’ is
     single-threaded.

   - bpo-22640(71): *note py_compile.compile(): a21. now supports silent
     mode.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye

   - bpo-29183(72): Fix double exceptions in *note
     wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 19f7. by calling its ‘close()’ method
     only when no exception is raised.

   - bpo-36548(73): Improved the repr of regular expression flags.

   - bpo-36542(74): The signature of Python functions can now be
     overridden by specifying the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.

   - bpo-36533(75): Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child
     processes instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent
     before forking only to be released in the child process.  The
     acquire/release pattern was leading to deadlocks in code that has
     implemented any form of chained logging handlers that depend upon
     one another as the lock acquisition order cannot be guaranteed.

   - bpo-35252(76): Throw a TypeError instead of an AssertionError when
     using an invalid type annotation with singledispatch.

   - bpo-35900(77): Allow reduction methods to return a 6-item tuple
     where the 6th item specifies a custom state-setting method that’s
     called instead of the regular ‘__setstate__’ method.

   - bpo-35900(78): enable custom reduction callback registration for
     functions and classes in _pickle.c, using the new Pickler’s
     attribute ‘reducer_override’

   - bpo-36368(79): Fix a bug crashing SharedMemoryManager instances in
     interactive sessions after a ctrl-c (KeyboardInterrupt) was sent

   - bpo-31904(80): Fix mmap fail for VxWorks

   - bpo-27497(81): *note csv.DictWriter.writeheader(): 11ee. now
     returns the return value of the underlying ‘csv.Writer.writerow()’
     method.  Patch contributed by Ashish Nitin Patil.

   - bpo-36239(82): Parsing .mo files now ignores comments starting and
     ending with #-#-#-#-#.

   - bpo-26707(83): Enable plistlib to read and write binary plist files
     that were created as a KeyedArchive file.  Specifically, this
     allows the plistlib to process 0x80 tokens as UID objects.

   - bpo-31904(84): Add posix module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-35125(85): Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation
     in shield

   - bpo-35721(86): Fix ‘asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec()’
     leaks file descriptors if ‘Popen’ fails and called with
     ‘stdin=subprocess.PIPE’.  Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-31855(87): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1710. results now
     respects the argument of read([size]).  Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35431(88): Implement *note math.comb(): 6c9. that returns
     binomial coefficient, that computes the number of ways to choose k
     items from n items without repetition and without order.  Patch by
     Yash Aggarwal and Keller Fuchs.

   - bpo-26660(89): Fixed permission errors in *note TemporaryDirectory:
     1224. clean up.  Previously ‘TemporaryDirectory.cleanup()’ failed
     when non-writeable or non-searchable files or directories were
     created inside a temporary directory.

   - bpo-34271(90): Add debugging helpers to ssl module.  It’s now
     possible to dump key material and to trace TLS protocol.  The
     default and stdlib contexts also support SSLKEYLOGFILE env var.

   - bpo-26467(91): Added AsyncMock to support using unittest to mock
     asyncio coroutines.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-33569(92): dataclasses.InitVar: Exposes the type used to create
     the init var.

   - bpo-34424(93): Fix serialization of messages containing encoded
     strings when the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string.
     Patch by Jens Troeger.

   - bpo-34303(94): Performance of *note functools.reduce(): 12cc. is
     slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-33361(95): Fix a bug in *note codecs.StreamRecoder: 19f8. where
     seeking might leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read
     calls.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-22454(96): The *note shlex: c4. module now exposes *note
     shlex.join(): a23, the inverse of *note shlex.split(): 536.  Patch
     by Bo Bayles.

   - bpo-31922(97):
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint()’: Do not
     connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed.  This allows to
     receive replies after a UDP broadcast.

   - bpo-24882(98): Change ThreadPoolExecutor to use existing idle
     threads before spinning up new ones.

   - bpo-31961(99): Added support for bytes and path-like objects in
     *note subprocess.Popen(): 199. on Windows.  The 'args' parameter
     now accepts a *note path-like object: 2a0. if 'shell' is ‘False’
     and a sequence containing bytes and path-like objects.  The
     'executable' parameter now accepts a bytes and *note path-like
     object: 2a0.  The 'cwd' parameter now accepts a bytes object.
     Based on patch by Anders Lorentsen.

   - bpo-33123(100): *note pathlib.Path.unlink: 19f9. now accepts a
     'missing_ok' parameter to avoid a *note FileNotFoundError: 425.
     from being raised.  Patch by Robert Buchholz.

   - bpo-32941(101): Allow *note mmap.mmap: 20b. objects to access the
     madvise() system call (through *note mmap.mmap.madvise(): a04.).

   - bpo-22102(102): Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0.
     Such files are commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when
     use ZIP64 extension.  Patch by Francisco Facioni.

   - bpo-32515(103): trace.py can now run modules via python3 -m trace
     -t –module module_name

   - bpo-32299(104): Changed *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 19fa. to
     return the patched dictionary when used as context manager.  Patch
     by Vadim Tsander.

   - bpo-27141(105): Added a ‘__copy__()’ to ‘collections.UserList’ and
     ‘collections.UserDict’ in order to correctly implement shallow
     copying of the objects.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31829(106): ‘\r’, ‘\0’ and ‘\x1a’ (end-of-file on Windows) are
     now escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings.  This allows
     to load them without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.

   - bpo-23395(107): ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’ now avoids setting the
     Python error status if the ‘SIGINT’ signal is ignored or not
     handled by Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26835

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35246

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35279

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37076

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37054

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37058

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37047

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37049

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37046

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37045

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37035

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37001

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36996

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37008

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27737

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36983

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36972

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36949

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36948

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33524

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24564

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36888

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25652

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36916

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36889

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36845

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23378

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23896

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35545

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36778

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24538

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36832

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36814

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26903

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36813

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36806

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36802

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36801

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36748

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8138

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29183

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36548

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36542

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36533

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35252

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36368

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27497

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36239

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35125

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35721

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31855

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26660

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34271

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33569

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34424

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34303

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33361

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22454

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31922

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24882

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33123

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22102

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32515

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32299

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27141

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31829

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23395


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<47>,  Next: Tests<48>,  Prev: Library<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36896(1): Clarify that some types have unstable constructor
     signature between Python versions.

   - bpo-36686(2): Improve documentation of the stdin, stdout, and
     stderr arguments of the ‘asyncio.subprocess_exec’ function to
     specify which values are supported.  Also mention that decoding as
     text is not supported.

     Add a few tests to verify that the various values passed to the
     std* arguments actually work.

   - bpo-36984(3): Improve version added references in ‘typing’ module -
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36868(4): What’s new now mentions
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name instead of
     SSLContext.host_flags.

   - bpo-35924(5): Add a note to the ‘curses.addstr()’ documentation to
     warn that multiline strings can cause segfaults because of an
     ncurses bug.

   - bpo-36783(6): Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold
     and PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495.  Patch by
     Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36797(7): More of the legacy distutils documentation has been
     either pruned, or else more clearly marked as being retained solely
     until the setuptools documentation covers it independently.

   - bpo-22865(8): Add detail to the documentation on the ‘pty.spawn’
     function.

   - bpo-35397(9): Remove deprecation and document
     urllib.parse.unwrap().  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-32995(10): Added the context variable in glossary.

   - bpo-33519(11): Clarify that ‘copy()’ is not part of the
     ‘MutableSequence’ ABC.

   - bpo-33482(12): Make ‘codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines’ take a list
     of bytes.

   - bpo-25735(13): Added documentation for func factorial to indicate
     that returns integer values

   - bpo-20285(14): Expand object.__doc__ (docstring) to make it
     clearer.  Modify pydoc.py so that help(object) lists object methods
     (for other classes, help omits methods of the object base class.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36686

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36868

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35924

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36783

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22865

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35397

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32995

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33519

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33482

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<48>,  Next: Build<51>,  Prev: Documentation<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37069(1): Modify test_coroutines, test_cprofile,
     test_generators, test_raise, test_ssl and test_yield_from to use
     *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): 19df. rather than
     *note test.support.captured_stderr(): 19fd.

   - bpo-37098(2): Fix test_memfd_create on older Linux Kernels.

   - bpo-37081(3): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c

   - bpo-36829(4): Add *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     19df.: context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.

   - bpo-36915(5): The main regrtest process now always removes all
     temporary directories of worker processes even if they crash or if
     they are killed on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).

   - bpo-36719(6): “python3 -m test -jN …” now continues the execution
     of next tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR state).
     Previously, the test suite stopped immediately.  Use –failfast to
     stop at the first error.

   - bpo-36816(7): Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to
     match self-signed.pythontest.net’s new TLS certificate.

   - bpo-35925(8): Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they
     would otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default
     OpenSSL policy of rejecting connections to servers with weak
     certificates.

   - bpo-36782(9): Add tests for several C API functions in the *note
     datetime: 30. module.  Patch by Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36342(10): Fix test_multiprocessing in test_venv if platform
     lacks functioning sem_open.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37098

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36816

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35925

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36782

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36342


File: python.info,  Node: Build<51>,  Next: Windows<46>,  Prev: Tests<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36721(1): To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’
     option must be passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get
     ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the application to libpython).  To support both
     3.8 and older, try ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and
     fallback to ‘python3-config --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the
     previous command fails.

     Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
     application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command
     fails (replace ‘X.Y’ with the Python version).

     On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython
     (except on Android, case handled by the script); this change is
     backward incompatible on purpose.

   - bpo-36786(2): “make install” now runs compileall in parallel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36786


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<46>,  Next: macOS<38>,  Prev: Build<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36965(1): include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on
     MSC compiler

   - bpo-35926(2): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1b for Windows.

   - bpo-29883(3): Add Windows support for UDP transports for the
     Proactor Event Loop.  Patch by Adam Meily.

   - bpo-33407(4): The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): aa1. macro has been
     implemented for MSVC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36965

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35926

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<38>,  Next: IDLE<35>,  Prev: Windows<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-36231(1): Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include
     installed.  As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only
     available within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools
     or the Xcode app.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36231


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<35>,  Next: Tools/Demos<25>,  Prev: macOS<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35610(1): Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with
     .prompt_last_line.  This finishes change started in bpo-31858(2).

   - bpo-37038(3): Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.

   - bpo-36958(4): Print any argument other than None or int passed to
     SystemExit or sys.exit().

   - bpo-36807(5): When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are
     flushed to e.g.  USB drive.

   - bpo-32411(6): In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line
     number since dictionary was created in line number order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37038

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36958

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32411


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<25>,  Next: C API<50>,  Prev: IDLE<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-37053(1): Handle strings like u”bar” correctly in
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Chih-Hsuan Yen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37053


File: python.info,  Node: C API<50>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<25>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.23.54.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Implement the PEP 587(2) “Python Initialization
     Configuration”.

   - bpo-36379(3): Fix crashes when attempting to use the 'modulo'
     parameter when ‘__ipow__’ is implemented in C.

   - bpo-37107(4): Update *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1a04. and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodIdObjArgs’ to use ‘_PyObject_GetMethod’ to
     avoid creating a bound method object in many cases.  Patch by
     Michael J. Sullivan.

   - bpo-36974(5): Implement PEP 590(6): Vectorcall: a fast calling
     protocol for CPython.  This is a new protocol to optimize calls of
     custom callable objects.

   - bpo-36763(7): ‘Py_Main()’ now returns the exitcode rather than
     calling ‘Py_Exit(exitcode)’ when calling ‘PyErr_Print()’ if the
     current exception type is ‘SystemExit’.

   - bpo-36922(8): Add new type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ for
     objects behaving like unbound methods.  These are objects
     supporting the optimization given by the
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ opcodes.  See PEP 590.

   - bpo-36728(9): The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been
     removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37107

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.55 Python 3.8.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36742(1): Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in
     urlsplit().

   - bpo-30458(2): Address CVE 2019-9740(3) by disallowing URL paths
     with embedded whitespace or control characters through into the
     underlying http client request.  Such potentially malicious header
     injection URLs now cause an http.client.InvalidURL exception to be
     raised.

   - bpo-35755(4): *note shutil.which(): 4ae. now uses
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ if available and if the ‘PATH’ environment
     variable is not set.  Remove also the current directory from
     ‘posixpath.defpath’.  On Unix, *note shutil.which(): 4ae. and the
     *note subprocess: d6. module no longer search the executable in the
     current directory if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9740

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<55>,  Next: Library<54>,  Prev: Security<37>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36722(1): In debug build, import now also looks for C
     extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled
     in the stable ABI.

   - bpo-32849(2): Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect
     properly when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.

   - bpo-36623(3): Remove parser headers and related function
     declarations that lack implementations after the removal of pgen.

   - bpo-20180(4): ‘dict.pop()’ is now up to 33% faster thanks to
     Argument Clinic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36611(5): Debug memory allocators: disable serialno field by
     default from debug hooks on Python memory allocators to reduce the
     memory footprint by 5%.  Enable *note tracemalloc: ff. to get the
     traceback where a memory block has been allocated when a fatal
     memory error is logged to decide where to put a breakpoint.
     Compile Python with ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ defined to get back the
     field.

   - bpo-36588(6): On AIX, *note sys.platform: a8a. doesn’t contain the
     major version anymore.  Always return ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’
     ..  ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the version
     number, it is recommended to always use
     ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.  Contributed by M. Felt.

   - bpo-36549(7): Change str.capitalize to use titlecase for the first
     character instead of uppercase.

   - bpo-36540(8): Implement PEP 570(9) (Python positional-only
     parameters).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36475(10): ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’
     now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is
     finalizing, making them consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a8b, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.

   - bpo-36504(11): Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c’s
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-20844(12): Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line
     ending may fail on Windows.

   - bpo-24214(13): Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in
     the UTF-8 incremental decoder.

   - bpo-36452(14): Changing ‘dict’ keys during iteration of the dict
     itself, ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, or ‘items()’ will now be detected in
     certain corner cases where keys are deleted/added so that the
     number of keys isn’t changed.  A ‘RuntimeError’ will be raised
     after ‘len(dict)’ iterations.  Contributed by Thomas Perl.

   - bpo-36459(15): Fix a possible double ‘PyMem_FREE()’ due to
     tokenizer.c’s ‘tok_nextc()’.

   - bpo-36433(16): Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.

   - bpo-36430(17): Fix a possible reference leak in *note
     itertools.count(): 1273.

   - bpo-36440(18): Include node names in ‘ParserError’ messages,
     instead of numeric IDs.  Patch by A. Skrobov.

   - bpo-36143(19): Regenerate *note keyword: 84. from the Grammar and
     Tokens file using pgen.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-18372(20): Add missing *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14cd. calls
     in the *note pickle: a6. module.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32849

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20180

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36549

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36504

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20844

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36452

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36459

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36433

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36430

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36440

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18372


File: python.info,  Node: Library<54>,  Next: Documentation<48>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35952(1): Fix pythoninfo when the compiler is missing.

   - bpo-28238(2): The ‘.find*()’ methods of xml.etree.ElementTree can
     now search for wildcards like ‘{*}tag’ and ‘{ns}*’ that match a tag
     in any namespace or all tags in a namespace.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-26978(3): ‘pathlib.path.link_to()’ is now implemented.  It
     creates a hard link pointing to a path.

   - bpo-1613500(4): *note fileinput.FileInput: 730. now uses the input
     file mode to correctly set the output file mode (previously it was
     hardcoded to ‘'w'’) when ‘inplace=True’ is passed to its
     constructor.

   - bpo-36734(5): Fix compilation of ‘faulthandler.c’ on HP-UX.
     Initialize ‘stack_t current_stack’ to zero using ‘memset()’.

   - bpo-13611(6): The xml.etree.ElementTree packages gained support for
     C14N 2.0 serialisation.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36669(7): Add missing matrix multiplication operator support to
     weakref.proxy.

   - bpo-36676(8): The XMLParser() in xml.etree.ElementTree provides
     namespace prefix context to the parser target if it defines the
     callback methods “start_ns()” and/or “end_ns()”.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-36673(9): The TreeBuilder and XMLPullParser in
     xml.etree.ElementTree gained support for parsing comments and
     processing instructions.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36650(10): The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating
     calls with an empty ‘**kwargs’ dictionary as being distinct from
     calls with no keywords at all.  This did not result in an incorrect
     answer, but it did trigger an unexpected cache miss.

   - bpo-28552(11): Fix ‘distutils.sysconfig’ if *note sys.executable:
     3b2. is ‘None’ or an empty string: use *note os.getcwd(): 15a3. to
     initialize ‘project_base’.  Fix also the distutils build command:
     don’t use *note sys.executable: 3b2. if it is ‘None’ or an empty
     string.

   - bpo-35755(12): *note shutil.which(): 4ae. and
     ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable’ now use ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’
     if available instead of *note os.defpath: 1a09, if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is not set.  Moreover, don’t use
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ nor *note os.defpath: 1a09. if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is set to an empty string.

   - bpo-25430(13): improve performance of ‘IPNetwork.__contains__()’

   - bpo-30485(14): Path expressions in xml.etree.ElementTree can now
     avoid explicit namespace prefixes for tags (or the “{namespace}tag”
     notation) by passing a default namespace with an empty string
     prefix.

   - bpo-36613(15): Fix *note asyncio: a. wait() not removing callback
     if exception

   - bpo-36598(16): Fix ‘isinstance’ check for Mock objects with spec
     when the code is executed under tracing.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-18748(17): In development mode (*note -X: 176. ‘dev’) and in
     debug build, the *note io.IOBase: 1f5. destructor now logs
     ‘close()’ exceptions.  These exceptions are silent by default in
     release mode.

   - bpo-36575(18): The ‘_lsprof’ module now uses internal timer same to
     ‘time.perf_counter()’ by default.  ‘gettimeofday(2)’ was used on
     Unix.  New timer has better resolution on most Unix platforms and
     timings are no longer impacted by system clock updates since
     ‘perf_counter()’ is monotonic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-33461(19): ‘json.loads’ now emits ‘DeprecationWarning’ when
     ‘encoding’ option is specified.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-36559(20): The random module now prefers the lean internal
     _sha512 module over hashlib for seed(version=2) to optimize import
     time.

   - bpo-17561(21): Set backlog=None as the default for
     socket.create_server.

   - bpo-34373(22): Fix *note time.mktime(): 11d7. error handling on AIX
     for year before 1970.

   - bpo-36232(23): Improve error message when trying to open existing
     DBM database that actually doesn’t exist.  Patch by Marco Rougeth.

   - bpo-36546(24): Add statistics.quantiles()

   - bpo-36050(25): Optimized ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read()’ for
     large response.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36522(26): If 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note http.client:
     6f, print all values for headers with multiple values for the same
     header name.  Patch by Matt Houglum.

   - bpo-36492(27): Deprecated passing required arguments like 'func' as
     keyword arguments in functions which should accept arbitrary
     keyword arguments and pass them to other function.  Arbitrary
     keyword arguments (even with names “self” and “func”) can now be
     passed to these functions if the required arguments are passed as
     positional arguments.

   - bpo-27181(28): Add statistics.geometric_mean().

   - bpo-30427(29): ‘os.path.normcase()’ relies on ‘os.fspath()’ to
     check the type of its argument.  Redundant checks have been removed
     from its ‘posixpath.normcase()’ and ‘ntpath.normcase()’
     implementations.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-36385(30): Stop rejecting IPv4 octets for being ambiguously
     octal.  Leading zeros are ignored, and no longer are assumed to
     specify octal octets.  Octets are always decimal numbers.  Octets
     must still be no more than three digits, including leading zeroes.

   - bpo-36434(31): Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer
     prevent to properly close it.

   - bpo-36407(32): Fixed wrong indentation writing for CDATA section in
     xml.dom.minidom.  Patch by Vladimir Surjaninov.

   - bpo-36326(33): inspect.getdoc() can now find docstrings for member
     objects when __slots__ is a dictionary.

   - bpo-36366(34): Calling ‘stop()’ on an unstarted or stopped *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): e88. object will now return ‘None’ instead
     of raising *note RuntimeError: 195, making the method idempotent.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36348(35): The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer ignores
     silently arbitrary exceptions.

   - bpo-31904(36): Add time module support and fix test_time failures
     for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36227(37): Added support for keyword arguments
     ‘default_namespace’ and ‘xml_declaration’ in functions
     ‘ElementTree.tostring()’ and ‘ElementTree.tostringlist()’.

   - bpo-36004(38): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): 9e8. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9e9, which construct date
     objects from ISO year, week number and weekday; these are the
     inverse of each class’s ‘isocalendar’ method.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35936(39): *note modulefinder: 91. no longer depends on the
     deprecated *note imp: 76. module, and the initializer for *note
     modulefinder.ModuleFinder: 1a0a. now has immutable default
     arguments.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-35376(40): *note modulefinder: 91. correctly handles modules
     that have the same name as a bad package.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-17396(41): *note modulefinder: 91. no longer crashes when
     encountering syntax errors in followed imports.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-35934(42): Added *note create_server(): a27. and *note
     has_dualstack_ipv6(): a28. convenience functions to automate the
     necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket,
     including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same
     socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-17561(43).)

   - bpo-23078(44): Add support for *note classmethod(): 166. and *note
     staticmethod(): 410. to *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     160f.  Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.

   - bpo-35416(45): Fix potential resource warnings in distutils.  Patch
     by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-25451(46): Add transparency methods to ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35082(47): Don’t return deleted attributes when calling dir on
     a *note unittest.mock.Mock: a47.

   - bpo-34547(48): *note wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 19f7. now
     handles abrupt client connection terminations gracefully.  Patch by
     Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31658(49): *note xml.sax.parse(): 1a0b. now supports *note
     path-like: 2a0.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-34139(50): Remove stale unix datagram socket before binding

   - bpo-33530(51): Implemented Happy Eyeballs in
     ‘asyncio.create_connection()’.  Added two new arguments,
     'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave', to specify Happy Eyeballs
     behavior.

   - bpo-33291(52): Do not raise AttributeError when calling the inspect
     functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction,
     isasyncgenfunction on a method created from an arbitrary callable.
     Instead, return False.

   - bpo-31310(53): Fix the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker so it is
     reused by child processes

   - bpo-31292(54): Fix ‘setup.py check --restructuredtext’ for files
     containing ‘include’ directives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1613500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36734

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36650

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25430

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30485

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36613

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36598

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36575

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33461

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36559

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36232

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36050

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30427

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36385

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36434

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36407

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36366

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36227

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35936

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35376

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17396

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35934

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23078

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35416

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35082

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34547

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31658

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34139

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33291

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31292


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<48>,  Next: Tests<49>,  Prev: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36625(1): Remove obsolete comments from docstrings in
     fractions.Fraction

   - bpo-30840(2): Document relative imports

   - bpo-36523(3): Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().

   - bpo-36425(4): New documentation translation: Simplified Chinese(5).

   - bpo-36345(6): Avoid the duplication of code from
     ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ in using the ‘literalinclude’ directive
     for the basic wsgiref-based web server in the documentation of
     *note wsgiref: 118.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36345(7): Using the code of the ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ script
     as an example in the *note wsgiref: 118. documentation.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36157(8): Added documentation for PyInterpreterState_Main().

   - bpo-33043(9): Updates the docs.python.org page with the addition of
     a ‘Contributing to Docs’ link at the end of the page (between
     ‘Reporting Bugs’ and ‘About Documentation’).  Updates the ‘Found a
     Bug’ page with additional links and information in the
     Documentation Bugs section.

   - bpo-35581(10): @typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to
     mark functions and classes not available during runtime.

   - bpo-33832(11): Add glossary entry for ‘magic method’.

   - bpo-32913(12): Added re.Match.groupdict example to regex HOWTO.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36425

   (5) https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36157

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33043

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35581

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33832

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32913


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<49>,  Next: Build<52>,  Prev: Documentation<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36719(1): regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects.
     Previously, the check was only enabled by ‘--findleaks’.  The check
     now also works with ‘-jN/--multiprocess N’.  ‘--findleaks’ becomes
     a deprecated alias to ‘--fail-env-changed’.

   - bpo-36725(2): When using multiprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now
     better reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits
     immediately on a worker thread failure or when interrupted.

   - bpo-36454(3): Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the
     lower bound of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the
     upper bound.  This prevents unnecessary test failures on slow
     buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32424(4): Improve test coverage for xml.etree.ElementTree.
     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-32424(5): Fix typo in test_cyclic_gc() test for
     xml.etree.ElementTree.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-36635(6): Add a new ‘_testinternalcapi’ module to test the
     internal C API.

   - bpo-36629(7): Fix ‘test_imap4_host_default_value()’ of
     ‘test_imaplib’: catch also *note errno.ENETUNREACH: 1a0e. error.

   - bpo-36611(8): Fix ‘test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks()’ when *note
     tracemalloc: ff. is enabled.

   - bpo-36560(9): Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also
     deltas (of reference count, allocated memory blocks, file
     descriptor count) during warmup, to ensure that everything is
     initialized before starting to hunt reference leaks.

   - bpo-36565(10): Fix reference hunting (‘python3 -m test -R 3:3’)
     when Python has no built-in abc module.

   - bpo-31904(11): Port test_resource to VxWorks: skip tests cases
     setting RLIMIT_FSIZE and RLIMIT_CPU.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix test_tabnanny on VxWorks: adjust ENOENT error
     message.

   - bpo-36436(13): Fix ‘_testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow()’: handle
     memory allocation failure.

   - bpo-31904(14): Fix test_utf8_mode on VxWorks: Python always use
     UTF-8 on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36341(15): Fix tests that may fail with PermissionError upon
     calling bind() on AF_UNIX sockets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36725

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36454

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36629

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36560

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36565

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36341


File: python.info,  Node: Build<52>,  Next: Windows<47>,  Prev: Tests<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36747(1): Remove the stale scriptsinstall Makefile target.

   - bpo-21536(2): On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to
     libpython except on Android and Cygwin.

     It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C
     extension built using a shared library Python.

     When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not be loaded with
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.  Previously, using
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load C extensions
     which were not linked to ‘libpython’, such as C extensions of the
     standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section of
     ‘Modules/Setup’.

     distutils, python-config and python-config.py have been modified.

   - bpo-36707(3): ‘./configure --with-pymalloc’ no longer adds the ‘m’
     flag to SOABI (sys.implementation.cache_tag).  Enabling or
     disabling pymalloc has no impact on the ABI.

   - bpo-36635(4): Change ‘PyAPI_FUNC(type)’, ‘PyAPI_DATA(type)’ and
     ‘PyMODINIT_FUNC’ macros of ‘pyport.h’ when ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     is defined.  The ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ define must be now be used
     to build a C extension as a dynamic library accessing Python
     internals: export the ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function in DLL exports on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31904(5): Don’t build the ‘_crypt’ extension on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36618(6): Add ‘-fmax-type-align=8’ to CFLAGS when clang
     compiler is detected.  The pymalloc memory allocator aligns memory
     on 8 bytes.  On x86-64, clang expects alignment on 16 bytes by
     default and so uses MOVAPS instruction which can lead to
     segmentation fault.  Instruct clang that Python is limited to
     alignment on 8 bytes to use MOVUPS instruction instead: slower but
     don’t trigger a SIGSEGV if the memory is not aligned on 16 bytes.
     Sadly, the flag must be added to ‘CFLAGS’ and not just
     ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’, since third party C extensions can have the same
     issue.

   - bpo-36605(7): ‘make tags’ and ‘make TAGS’ now also parse
     ‘Modules/_io/*.c’ and ‘Modules/_io/*.h’.

   - bpo-36465(8): Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
     compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
     ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which introduces the only ABI
     incompatibility.  The ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note
     sys.getobjects(): 421. function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a3.
     environment variable, can be set using the new ‘./configure
     --with-trace-refs’ build option.

   - bpo-36577(9): setup.py now correctly reports missing OpenSSL
     headers and libraries again.

   - bpo-36544(10): Fix regression introduced in bpo-36146(11)
     refactoring setup.py

   - bpo-36508(12): ‘python-config --ldflags’ no longer includes flags
     of the ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable.  The ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable must
     only be used to build executables.

   - bpo-36503(13): Remove references to “aix3” and “aix4”.  Patch by M.
     Felt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36747

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36618

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36605

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36577

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36544

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36508

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36503


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<47>,  Next: macOS<39>,  Prev: Build<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35920(1): Added platform.win32_edition() and
     platform.win32_is_iot().  Added support for cross-compiling
     packages for Windows ARM32.  Skip tests that are not expected to
     work on Windows IoT Core ARM32.

   - bpo-36649(2): Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when
     installed via the Store.

   - bpo-34144(3): Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when
     chcp.com returns dots in output.  Patch by Lorenz Mende.

   - bpo-36509(4): Added preset-iot layout for Windows IoT ARM
     containers.  This layout doesn’t contain UI components like tkinter
     or IDLE. It also doesn’t contain files to support on-target builds
     since Windows ARM32 builds must be cross-compiled when using MSVC.

   - bpo-35941(5): enum_certificates function of the ssl module now
     returns certificates from all available certificate stores inside
     windows in a query instead of returning only certificates from the
     system wide certificate store.  This includes certificates from
     these certificate stores: local machine, local machine enterprise,
     local machine group policy, current user, current user group
     policy, services, users.  ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in
     the same way to return all certificate revocation lists inside the
     windows certificate revocation list stores.

   - bpo-36441(6): Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are
     installed.

   - bpo-36085(7): Enable better DLL resolution on Windows by using safe
     DLL search paths and adding *note os.add_dll_directory(): 9e6.

   - bpo-36010(8): Add the venv standard library module to the nuget
     distribution for Windows.

   - bpo-29515(9): Add the following socket module constants on Windows:
     IPPROTO_AH IPPROTO_CBT IPPROTO_DSTOPTS IPPROTO_EGP IPPROTO_ESP
     IPPROTO_FRAGMENT IPPROTO_GGP IPPROTO_HOPOPTS IPPROTO_ICLFXBM
     IPPROTO_ICMPV6 IPPROTO_IDP IPPROTO_IGMP IPPROTO_IGP IPPROTO_IPV4
     IPPROTO_IPV6 IPPROTO_L2TP IPPROTO_MAX IPPROTO_ND IPPROTO_NONE
     IPPROTO_PGM IPPROTO_PIM IPPROTO_PUP IPPROTO_RDP IPPROTO_ROUTING
     IPPROTO_SCTP IPPROTO_ST

   - bpo-35947(10): Added current version of libffi to
     cpython-source-deps.  Change _ctypes to use current version of
     libffi on Windows.

   - bpo-34060(11): Report system load when running test suite on
     Windows.  Patch by Ammar Askar.  Based on prior work by Jeremy
     Kloth.

   - bpo-31512(12): With the Windows 10 Creators Update, non-elevated
     users can now create symlinks as long as the computer has Developer
     Mode enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35920

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36509

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35941

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29515

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35947

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31512


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<39>,  Next: IDLE<36>,  Prev: Windows<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34602(1): Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit
     with resource.setrlimit.  This reverts an earlier fix for
     bpo-18075(2) which forced a non-default stack size when building
     the interpreter executable on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18075


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<36>,  Next: Tools/Demos<26>,  Prev: macOS<39>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36429(1): Fix starting IDLE with pyshell.  Add idlelib.pyshell
     alias at top; remove pyshell alias at bottom.  Remove obsolete
     __name__==’__main__’ command.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36429


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<26>,  Next: C API<51>,  Prev: IDLE<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-14546(1): Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14546


File: python.info,  Node: C API<51>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<26>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.23.55.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Fix memory leak in ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’:
     release memory if the function is called twice.

   - bpo-36641(2): PyDoc_VAR(name) and *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1978.(name,
     str) now create ‘static const char name[]’ instead of ‘static char
     name[]’.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36389(3): Change the value of ‘CLEANBYTE’, ‘DEADDYTE’ and
     ‘FORBIDDENBYTE’ internal constants used by debug hooks on Python
     memory allocators (*note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. function).
     Byte patterns ‘0xCB’, ‘0xDB’ and ‘0xFB’ have been replaced with
     ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
     debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   - bpo-36443(4): Since Python 3.7.0, calling *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     bc4. before *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. produces mojibake if the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is coerced and/or if the UTF-8 Mode is enabled by
     the user configuration.  The LC_CTYPE coercion and UTF-8 Mode are
     now disabled by default to fix the mojibake issue.  They must now
     be enabled explicitly (opt-in) using the new ‘_Py_PreInitialize()’
     API with ‘_PyPreConfig’.

   - bpo-36025(5): Fixed an accidental change to the datetime C API
     where the arguments to the *note PyDate_FromTimestamp(): 1a15.
     function were incorrectly interpreted as a single timestamp rather
     than an arguments tuple, which causes existing code to start
     raising *note TypeError: 532.  The backwards-incompatible change
     was only present in alpha releases of Python 3.8.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35810(6): Modify ‘PyObject_Init’ to correctly increase the
     refcount of heap-allocated Type objects.  Also fix the refcounts of
     the heap-allocated types that were either doing this manually or
     not decreasing the type’s refcount in tp_dealloc

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36025

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.56 Python 3.8.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-03-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<52>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<38>,  Next: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36216(1): Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL
     contains characters that decompose under IDNA encoding
     (NFKC-normalization) into characters that affect how the URL is
     parsed.

   - bpo-35121(2): Don’t send cookies of domain A without Domain
     attribute to domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B
     while using a cookiejar with *note
     http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18. policy.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<56>,  Next: Library<55>,  Prev: Security<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36421(1): Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c’s
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-36412(2): Fix a possible crash when creating a new dictionary.

   - bpo-36398(3): Fix a possible crash in ‘structseq_repr()’.

   - bpo-36256(4): Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA
     that has two or more arcs with labels of the same type.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36365(5): repr(structseq) is no longer limited to 512 bytes.

   - bpo-36374(6): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     ‘merge_consts_recursive()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36236(7): At Python initialization, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to *note sys.path: 3ae. if it has been removed.

   - bpo-36352(8): Python initialization now fails with an error, rather
     than silently truncating paths, if a path is too long.

   - bpo-36301(9): Python initialization now fails if decoding
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ configuration file fails at startup.

   - bpo-36333(10): Fix leak in _PyRuntimeState_Fini.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36332(11): The builtin *note compile(): 192. can now handle AST
     objects that contain assignment expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-36282(12): Improved error message for too much positional
     arguments in some builtin functions.

   - bpo-30040(13): New empty dict uses fewer memory for now.  It used
     more memory than empty dict created by ‘dict.clear()’.  And empty
     dict creation and deletion is about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36262(14): Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from
     string to float in the function ‘_Py_dg_strtod()’ used by
     ‘float(str)’, ‘complex(str)’, *note pickle.load(): d0d, *note
     marshal.load(): 1a1a, etc.

   - bpo-36252(15): Update Unicode databases to version 12.0.0.

   - bpo-36218(16): Fix a segfault occurring when sorting a list of
     heterogeneous values.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot
     Gorokhovsky.

   - bpo-36188(17): Cleaned up left-over vestiges of Python 2 unbound
     method handling in method objects and documentation.  Patch by
     Martijn Pieters

   - bpo-36124(18): Add a new interpreter-specific dict and expose it in
     the C-API via PyInterpreterState_GetDict().  This parallels
     PyThreadState_GetDict().  However, extension modules should
     continue using PyModule_GetState() for their own internal
     per-interpreter state.

   - bpo-35975(19): Add a ‘feature_version’ flag to ‘ast.parse()’
     (documented) and ‘compile()’ (hidden) that allows tweaking the
     parser to support older versions of the grammar.  In particular, if
     ‘feature_version’ is 5 or 6, the hacks for the ‘async’ and ‘await’
     keyword from PEP 492 are reinstated.  (For 7 or higher, these are
     unconditionally treated as keywords, but they are still special
     tokens rather than ‘NAME’ tokens that the parser driver
     recognizes.)

   - bpo-31904(20): Use UTF-8 as the system encoding on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36048(21): The *note __index__(): 716. special method will be
     used instead of *note __int__(): 715. for implicit conversion of
     Python numbers to C integers.  Using the ‘__int__()’ method in
     implicit conversions has been deprecated.

   - bpo-35808(22): Retire pgen and use a modified version of pgen2 to
     generate the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36398

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36256

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36365

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36374

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36236

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36352

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36333

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36332

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30040

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36262

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36252

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36218

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36188

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36124

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35808


File: python.info,  Node: Library<55>,  Next: Documentation<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36401(1): The class documentation created by pydoc now has a
     separate section for readonly properties.

   - bpo-36320(2): The typing.NamedTuple() class has deprecated the
     _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute
     which carried the same information.  Also, both attributes were
     converted from OrderedDict to a regular dict.

   - bpo-34745(3): Fix *note asyncio: a. ssl memory issues caused by
     circular references

   - bpo-36324(4): Add method to statistics.NormalDist for computing the
     inverse cumulative normal distribution.

   - bpo-36321(5): collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an
     attribute.  To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute
     name should have been “_field_defaults” instead of
     “_fields_defaults”.  For backwards compatibility, both spellings
     are now created.  The misspelled version may be removed in the
     future.

   - bpo-36297(6): “unicode_internal” codec is removed.  It was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36298(7): Raise ModuleNotFoundError in pyclbr when a module
     can’t be found.  Thanks to ‘mental’ for the bug report.

   - bpo-36268(8): Switch the default format used for writing tars with
     *note tarfile: de. to the modern POSIX.1-2001 pax standard, from
     the vendor-specific GNU. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-36285(9): Fix integer overflows in the array module.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-31904(10): Add _signal module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36272(11): *note logging: 87. does not silently ignore
     RecursionError anymore.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36280(12): Add a kind field to ast.Constant.  It is ‘u’ if the
     literal has a ‘u’ prefix (i.e.  a Python 2 style unicode literal),
     else None.

   - bpo-35931(13): The *note pdb: a5. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles all exceptions.

   - bpo-36251(14): Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and
     re.Match reprs.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-36235(15): Fix ‘CFLAGS’ in ‘customize_compiler()’ of
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’: when the ‘CFLAGS’ environment variable is
     defined, don’t override ‘CFLAGS’ variable with the ‘OPT’ variable
     anymore.  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-35807(16): Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and
     setuptools 40.8.0.

   - bpo-36139(17): Release GIL when closing *note mmap: 20b. objects.

   - bpo-36179(18): Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl.
     The leaks only occur in out-of-memory cases.

   - bpo-36169(19): Add overlap() method to statistics.NormalDist.
     Computes the overlapping coefficient for two normal distributions.

   - bpo-36103(20): Default buffer size used by ‘shutil.copyfileobj()’
     is changed from 16 KiB to 64 KiB on non-Windows platform to reduce
     system call overhead.  Contributed by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36130(21): Fix ‘pdb’ with ‘skip=...’ when stepping into a frame
     without a ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35652(22): shutil.copytree(copy_function=…) erroneously pass
     DirEntry instead of a path string.

   - bpo-35178(23): Ensure custom *note warnings.formatwarning(): 1a1c.
     function can receive ‘line’ as positional argument.  Based on patch
     by Tashrif Billah.

   - bpo-36106(24): Resolve potential name clash with libm’s sinpi().
     Patch by Dmitrii Pasechnik.

   - bpo-36091(25): Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types.
     Patch by Henry Chen.

   - bpo-36043(26): ‘FileCookieJar’ supports *note path-like object:
     2a0.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35899(27): Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty
     strings and strings with non-Latin characters (ie.  ‘α’, ‘א’)
     without crashing.  Original patch contributed by Maxwell.  Assisted
     by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-21269(28): Add ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties to mock call
     objects.  Contributed by Kumar Akshay.

   - bpo-30670(29): ‘pprint.pp’ has been added to pretty-print objects
     with dictionary keys being sorted with their insertion order by
     default.  Parameter 'sort_dicts' has been added to ‘pprint.pprint’,
     ‘pprint.pformat’ and ‘pprint.PrettyPrinter’.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35843(30): Implement ‘__getitem__’ for ‘_NamespacePath’.  Patch
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35802(31): Clean up code which checked presence of ‘os.stat’ /
     ‘os.lstat’ / ‘os.chmod’ which are always present.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-35715(32): Librates the return value of a ProcessPoolExecutor
     _process_worker after it’s no longer needed to free memory

   - bpo-35493(33): Use *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10d2.
     instead of polling each 0.2 seconds for worker updates in
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35661(34): Store the venv prompt in pyvenv.cfg.

   - bpo-35121(35): Don’t set cookie for a request when the request path
     is a prefix match of the cookie’s path attribute but doesn’t end
     with “/”.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(36): Calls to a child function created with *note
     unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 160f. should propagate to the
     parent.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35198(37): Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34745

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36298

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36285

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36272

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36280

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36251

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35807

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36139

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36169

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36103

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36130

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35652

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35178

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36106

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36091

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36043

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35899

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21269

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35843

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35802

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35715

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35493

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35198


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<49>,  Next: Tests<50>,  Prev: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36329(1): Declare the path of the Python binary for the usage
     of ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ when executing ‘make -C Doc/ serve’.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-36138(2): Improve documentation about converting
     datetime.timedelta to scalars.

   - bpo-21314(3): A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of
     the Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the
     signature of a function.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36138

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21314


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<50>,  Next: Build<53>,  Prev: Documentation<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36234(1): test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid
     uid/gid type (str).  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-29571(2): Fix ‘test_re.test_locale_flag()’: use
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ rather than ‘locale.getlocale()’ to
     get the locale encoding.  With some locales, ‘locale.getlocale()’
     returns the wrong encoding.

   - bpo-36123(3): Fix race condition in test_socket.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36234

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36123


File: python.info,  Node: Build<53>,  Next: Windows<48>,  Prev: Tests<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36356(1): Fix leaks that led to build failure when configured
     with address sanitizer.

   - bpo-36146(2): Add ‘TEST_EXTENSIONS’ constant to ‘setup.py’ to allow
     to not build test extensions like ‘_testcapi’.

   - bpo-36146(3): Fix setup.py on macOS: only add ‘/usr/include/ffi’ to
     include directories of _ctypes, not for all extensions.

   - bpo-31904(4): Enable build system to cross-build for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36356

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<48>,  Next: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Build<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36312(1): Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220,
     50221, 50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and
     42.

   - bpo-36264(2): Don’t honor POSIX ‘HOME’ in ‘os.path.expanduser’ on
     windows.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-24643(3): Fix name collisions due to ‘#define timezone
     _timezone’ in PC/pyconfig.h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24643


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<37>,  Next: Tools/Demos<27>,  Prev: Windows<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36405(1): Use dict unpacking in idlelib.

   - bpo-36396(2): Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight().
     This param was only used twice and changed the return type.

   - bpo-36176(3): Fix IDLE autocomplete & calltip popup colors.
     Prevent conflicts with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken
     calltip background).

   - bpo-23205(4): For the grep module, add tests for findfiles,
     refactor findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor
     findfiles to use os.walk.

   - bpo-23216(5): Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.

   - bpo-36152(6): Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and
     the corresponding argument of .close().  In IDLE, both have always
     been None or False since 2007.

   - bpo-32129(7): Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk
     8.6.  Patch by Kevin Walzer.

   - bpo-36096(8): Refactor class variables to instance variables in
     colorizer.

   - bpo-30348(9): Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by
     30%.  Patch by Louie Lu

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36405

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23216

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36152

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32129

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36096

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30348


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<27>,  Next: C API<52>,  Prev: IDLE<37>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-35132(1): Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on
     gdb7.

   - bpo-32217(2): Fix freeze script on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32217


File: python.info,  Node: C API<52>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<27>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.23.56.10 C API
................

   - bpo-36381(1): Raise ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘#’ formats are used
     for building or parsing values without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - bpo-36142(2): The whole coreconfig.h header is now excluded from
     Py_LIMITED_API. Move functions definitions into a new internal
     pycore_coreconfig.h header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36142


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.57 Python 3.8.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<57>,  Next: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.57.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36052(1): Raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d. when assigning a
     value to ‘__debug__’ with the Assignment Operator.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36012(2): Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a
     non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to
     update slots.

   - bpo-35942(3): The error message emitted when returning invalid
     types from ‘__fspath__’ in interfaces that allow passing *note
     PathLike: c4e. objects has been improved and now it does explain
     the origin of the error.

   - bpo-36016(4): ‘gc.get_objects’ can now receive an optional
     parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1054041(5): When the main interpreter exits due to an uncaught
     KeyboardInterrupt, the process now exits in the appropriate manner
     for its parent process to detect that a SIGINT or ^C terminated the
     process.  This allows shells and batch scripts to understand that
     the user has asked them to stop.

   - bpo-35992(6): Fix ‘__class_getitem__()’ not being called on a class
     with a custom non-subscriptable metaclass.

   - bpo-35993(7): Fix a crash on fork when using subinterpreters.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35991(8): Fix a potential double free in
     Modules/_randommodule.c.

   - bpo-35961(9): Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong
     references rather than stolen references for the two temporary
     internal tuples.

   - bpo-35911(10): Enable the creation of cell objects by adding a
     ‘cell.__new__’ method, and expose the type ‘cell’ in ‘Lib/types.py’
     under the name CellType.  Patch by Pierre Glaser.

   - bpo-12822(11): Use monotonic clock for ‘pthread_cond_timedwait’
     when ‘pthread_condattr_setclock’ and ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC’ are
     available.

   - bpo-15248(12): The compiler emits now syntax warnings in the case
     when a comma is likely missed before tuple or list.

   - bpo-35886(13): The implementation of PyInterpreterState has been
     moved into the internal header files (guarded by Py_BUILD_CORE).

   - bpo-31506(14): Clarify the errors reported when ‘object.__new__’
     and ‘object.__init__’ receive more than one argument.  Contributed
     by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-35724(15): Signal-handling is now guaranteed to happen relative
     to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33608(16): We added a new internal _Py_AddPendingCall() that
     operates relative to the provided interpreter.  This allows us to
     use the existing implementation to ask another interpreter to do
     work that cannot be done in the current interpreter, like decref an
     object the other interpreter owns.  The existing
     Py_AddPendingCall() only operates relative to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33989(17): Fix a possible crash in *note list.sort(): bcc. when
     sorting objects with ‘ob_type->tp_richcompare == NULL’.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35942

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35992

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35991

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35961

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35911

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12822

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35724

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33608

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33989


File: python.info,  Node: Library<56>,  Next: Documentation<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<57>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.57.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-35512(1): *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 19fa. used as a
     decorator with string target resolves the target during function
     call instead of during decorator construction.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36018(2): Add statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and
     manipulating normal distributions of random variable.  Features a
     composite class that treats the mean and standard deviation of
     measurement data as single entity.

   - bpo-35904(3): Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point
     variant of the existing mean() function.

   - bpo-35918(4): Removed broken ‘has_key’ method from
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-18283(5): Add support for bytes to *note shutil.which(): 4ae.

   - bpo-35960(6): Fix *note dataclasses.field(): 1a27. throwing away
     empty mapping objects passed as metadata.

   - bpo-35500(7): Write expected and actual call parameters on separate
     lines in *note unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with(): 1a28.
     assertion errors.  Contributed by Susan Su.

   - bpo-35931(8): The *note pdb: a5. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles syntax errors.

   - bpo-24209(9): In http.server script, rely on getaddrinfo to bind to
     preferred address based on the bind parameter.  Now default bind or
     binding to a name may bind to IPv6 or dual-stack, depending on the
     environment.

   - bpo-35321(10): Set ‘__spec__.origin’ of ‘_frozen_importlib’ to
     frozen so that it matches the behavior of
     ‘_frozen_importlib_external’.  Patch by Nina Zakharenko.

   - bpo-35378(11): Fix a reference issue inside ‘multiprocessing.Pool’
     that caused the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without
     being closed or terminated explicitly.  A new strong reference is
     added to the pool iterators to link the lifetime of the pool to the
     lifetime of its iterators so the pool does not get destroyed if a
     pool iterator is still alive.

   - bpo-34294(12): re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases.
     *note re.search(): 121c, *note re.findall(): 1020, *note re.sub():
     2a3. and other functions that scan through string looking for a
     match, should reset capturing groups between two match attempts.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35615(13): *note weakref: 114.: Fix a RuntimeError when copying
     a WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or
     values disappearing while iterating.

   - bpo-35606(14): Implement *note math.prod(): a00. as analogous
     function to *note sum(): 464. that returns the product of a ‘start’
     value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-32417(15): Performing arithmetic between *note
     datetime.datetime: 1cc. subclasses and *note datetime.timedelta:
     9cc. now returns an object of the same type as the *note
     datetime.datetime: 1cc. subclass.  As a result, *note
     datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 9cd. and alternate constructors
     like *note datetime.datetime.now(): 4e6. and
     ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ called with a ‘tz’ argument now 'also'
     retain their subclass.

   - bpo-35153(16): Add 'headers' optional keyword-only parameter to
     *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a53, ‘xmlrpc.client.Transport’ and
     ‘xmlrpc.client.SafeTransport’.  Patch by Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-34572(17): Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use
     importlib’s locking mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially
     loaded modules.  Patch by Tim Burgess.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35918

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18283

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35960

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35321

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35378

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34294

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35615

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34572


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<50>,  Next: Tests<51>,  Prev: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.57.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36083(1): Fix formatting of –check-hash-based-pycs options in
     the manpage Synopsis.

   - bpo-36007(2): Bump minimum sphinx version to 1.8.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-22062(3): Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib.
     Original patch by Mike Short.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36083

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36007

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22062


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<51>,  Next: Windows<49>,  Prev: Documentation<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.57.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27313(1): Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with
     macOS Cocoa Tk.

   - bpo-36019(2): Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references
     of ‘http://www.example.com’ by this new constant.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36037(3): Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like
     RHEL8 strict crypto policy.  Use older TLS version for minimum TLS
     version of the server SSL context if needed, to test TLS version
     older than default minimum TLS version.

   - bpo-35798(4): Added ‘test.support.check_syntax_warning()’.

   - bpo-35505(5): Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on
     whether the local IMAP server is running.

   - bpo-35917(6): multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager
     and SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are
     supposed to be supported by them.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35704(7): Skip ‘test_shutil.test_unpack_archive_xztar’ to
     prevent a MemoryError on 32-bit AIX when MAXDATA setting is less
     than 0x20000000.

     Patch by Michael Felt (aixtools)

   - bpo-34720(8): Assert m_state != NULL to mimic GC traversal
     functions that do not correctly handle module creation when the
     module state has not been created.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36019

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35798

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35505

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35917

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35704

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34720


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<49>,  Next: IDLE<38>,  Prev: Tests<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.57.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35976(1): Added ARM build support to Windows build files in
     PCBuild.

   - bpo-35692(2): ‘pathlib’ no longer raises when checking file and
     directory existence on drives that are not ready

   - bpo-35872(3): Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in
     a virtual environment

   - bpo-35873(4): Prevents venv paths being inherited by child
     processes

   - bpo-35299(5): Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and
     distutils handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35976

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35872

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35299


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<38>,  Prev: Windows<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.23.57.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-24310(1): IDLE – Document settings dialog font tab sample.

   - bpo-35833(2): Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell.  Add
     a code example block.

   - bpo-35689(3): Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24310

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35833

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35689


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.58 Python 3.8.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<53>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<39>,  Next: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35746(1): CVE 2019-5010(2): Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl
     module.  The cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points
     with empty DP or URI correctly.  A malicious or buggy certificate
     can result into segfault.  Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported
     by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of Cisco.

   - bpo-34812(3): The *note -I: 95b. command line option (run Python in
     isolated mode) is now also copied by the *note multiprocessing: 94.
     and ‘distutils’ modules when spawning child processes.  Previously,
     only *note -E: 95a. and *note -s: 1374. options (enabled by *note
     -I: 95b.) were copied.

   - bpo-34791(4): The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use
     environment variables to override parser implementations when
     sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.

   - bpo-17239(5): The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer
     processes external entities by default.  External DTD and ENTITY
     declarations no longer load files or create network connections.

   - bpo-34623(6): CVE 2018-14647(7): The C accelerated _elementtree
     module now initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret
     instead of libexpat’s default CSPRNG.

   - bpo-34405(8): Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.

   - bpo-33871(9): Fixed sending the part of the file in *note
     os.sendfile(): b0c. on macOS. Using the 'trailers' argument could
     cause sending more bytes from the input file than was specified.

   - bpo-32533(10): Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.

   - bpo-33136(11): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE
     2018-8970(12).  X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an
     explicit namelen.  A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not
     allowed.

   - bpo-33001(13): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(14): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(15) and CVE 2018-1061(16).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   - bpo-28414(17): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35746

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-5010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34812

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34791

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34623

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-14647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32533

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (16) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<58>,  Next: Library<57>,  Prev: Security<39>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35877(1): Make parenthesis optional for named expressions in
     while statement.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35814(2): Allow same right hand side expressions in annotated
     assignments as in normal ones.  In particular, ‘x: Tuple[int, int]
     = 1, 2’ (without parentheses on the right) is now allowed.

   - bpo-35766(3): Add the option to parse PEP 484 type comments in the
     ast module.  (Off by default.)  This is merging the key
     functionality of the third party fork thereof,
     [typed_ast](‘https://github.com/python/typed_ast’).

   - bpo-35713(4): Reorganize Python initialization to get working
     exceptions and sys.stderr earlier.

   - bpo-33416(5): Add end line and end column position information to
     the Python AST nodes.  This is a C-level backwards incompatible
     change.

   - bpo-35720(6): Fixed a minor memory leak in
     pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function in Modules/main.c

   - bpo-35634(7): ‘func(**kwargs)’ will now raise an error when
     ‘kwargs’ is a mapping containing multiple entries with the same
     key.  An error was already raised when other keyword arguments are
     passed before ‘**kwargs’ since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-35623(8): Fix a crash when sorting very long lists.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-35214(9): clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was
     added to work around false positives from posix, socket, time,
     test_io, and test_faulthandler.

   - bpo-35560(10): Fix an assertion error in *note format(): 619. in
     debug build for floating-point formatting with “n” format, zero
     padding and small width.  Release build is not impacted.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35552(11): Format characters ‘%s’ and ‘%V’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383. and ‘%s’ in *note
     PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1a30. no longer read memory past the limit if
     'precision' is specified.

   - bpo-35504(12): Fix segfaults and *note SystemError: 570.s when
     deleting certain attributes.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35504(13): Fixed a SystemError when delete the
     characters_written attribute of an OSError.

   - bpo-35494(14): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses in f-string.

   - bpo-35444(15): Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail
     to look up builtin “getattr”.  Sped up pickling iterators.

   - bpo-35436(16): Fix various issues with memory allocation error
     handling.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35423(17): Separate the signal handling trigger in the eval
     loop from the “pending calls” machinery.  There is no semantic
     change and the difference in performance is insignificant.

   - bpo-35357(18): Internal attributes’ names of unittest.mock._Call
     and unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent & from_kall) are now
     prefixed with _mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used
     object attributes.  Fixed minor typo in test function name.

   - bpo-35372(19): Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2
     GiB containing undecodable bytes.

   - bpo-35336(20): Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only
     coerce the C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C”.

   - bpo-31241(21): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of AST
     nodes for list comprehensions, generator expressions and tuples are
     now point to the opening parenthesis or square brace.  For tuples
     without parenthesis they point to the position of the first item.

   - bpo-33954(22): For *note str.format(): 61b, ‘float.__format__()’
     and ‘complex.__format__()’ methods for non-ASCII decimal point when
     using the “n” formatter.

   - bpo-35269(23): Fix a possible segfault involving a newly created
     coroutine.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35224(24): Implement PEP 572(25) (assignment expressions).
     Patch by Emily Morehouse.

   - bpo-32492(26): Speed up ‘namedtuple()’ attribute access by 1.6x
     using a C fast-path for the name descriptors.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-35214(27): Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a
     truncated unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as
     ‘'\N'’.  It would read one byte beyond the end of the memory
     allocation.

   - bpo-35214(28): The interpreter and extension modules have had
     annotations added so that they work properly under clang’s Memory
     Sanitizer.  A new configure flag –with-memory-sanitizer has been
     added to make test builds of this nature easier to perform.

   - bpo-35193(29): Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole
     optimizer where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an
     array when removing unreachable code.  This bug was present in
     every release of Python 3.6 and 3.7 until now.

   - bpo-35169(30): Improved error messages for forbidden assignments.

   - bpo-34022(31): Fix handling of hash-based bytecode files in *note
     zipimport: 132.  Patch by Elvis Pranskevichus.

   - bpo-28401(32): Debug builds will no longer to attempt to import
     extension modules built for the ABI as they were never compatible
     to begin with.  Patch by Stefano Rivera.

   - bpo-29341(33): Clarify in the docstrings of *note os: a1. methods
     that path-like objects are also accepted as input parameters.

   - bpo-35050(34): *note socket: cc.: Fix off-by-one bug in length
     check for ‘AF_ALG’ name and type.

   - bpo-29743(35): Raise *note ValueError: 202. instead of *note
     OverflowError: 87d. in case of a negative ‘_length_’ in a *note
     ctypes.Array: 1a31. subclass.  Also raise *note TypeError: 532.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 346. for non-integer ‘_length_’.
     Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-16806(36): Fix ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ for multi-line string
     tokens.

   - bpo-35029(37): *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. raised as an exception at
     code generation time will be now replaced with a *note SyntaxError:
     18d. for better error reporting.

   - bpo-34983(38): Expose *note symtable.Symbol.is_nonlocal(): 1a32. in
     the symtable module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34974(39): *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 538.
     constructors no longer convert unexpected exceptions (e.g.  *note
     MemoryError: 157e. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.) to *note
     TypeError: 532.

   - bpo-34939(40): Allow annotated names in module namespace that are
     declared global before the annotation happens.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-34973(41): Fixed crash in *note bytes(): 1c2. when the *note
     list: 60b. argument is mutated while it is iterated.

   - bpo-34876(42): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of the AST
     for decorated function and class refer now to the position of the
     corresponding ‘def’, ‘async def’ and ‘class’ instead of the
     position of the first decorator.  This leads to more correct line
     reporting in tracing.  This is the only case when the position of
     child AST nodes can precede the position of the parent AST node.

   - bpo-34879(43): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     bytesobject.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34784(44): Fix the implementation of PyStructSequence_NewType
     in order to create heap allocated StructSequences.

   - bpo-32912(45): A *note SyntaxWarning: 45f. is now emitted instead
     of a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. for invalid escape sequences in
     string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-34854(46): Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations
     containing a lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn’t have
     a default value.

   - bpo-34850(47): The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning:
     45f. when identity checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain
     types of literals (e.g.  strings, ints).  These can often work by
     accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.
     The warning advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’)
     instead.

   - bpo-34824(48): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     Modules/_ssl.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30156(49): The C function ‘property_descr_get()’ uses a
     “cached” tuple to optimize function calls.  But this tuple can be
     discovered in debug mode with *note sys.getobjects(): 421.  Remove
     the optimization, it’s not really worth it and it causes 3
     different crashes last years.

   - bpo-34762(50): Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer
     types.

   - bpo-34751(51): The hash function for tuples is now based on xxHash
     which gives better collision results on (formerly) pathological
     cases.  Additionally, on 64-bit systems it improves tuple hashes in
     general.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer with substantial contributions by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-34735(52): Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34683(53): Fixed a bug where some SyntaxError error pointed to
     locations that were off-by-one.

   - bpo-34651(54): Only allow the main interpreter to fork.  The avoids
     the possibility of affecting the main interpreter, which is
     critical to operation of the runtime.

   - bpo-34653(55): Remove unused function
     PyParser_SimpleParseStringFilename.

   - bpo-32236(56): Warn that line buffering is not supported if *note
     open(): 515. is called with binary mode and ‘buffering=1’.

   - bpo-34641(57): Further restrict the syntax of the left-hand side of
     keyword arguments in function calls.  In particular,
     ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is now disallowed.

   - bpo-34637(58): Make the 'start' argument to 'sum()' visible as a
     keyword argument.

   - bpo-1621(59): Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C
     undefined behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.

   - bpo-34588(60): Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning
     feature of traceback formatting.

   - bpo-34485(61): On Windows, the LC_CTYPE is now set to the user
     preferred locale at startup.  Previously, the LC_CTYPE locale was
     “C” at startup, but changed when calling setlocale(LC_CTYPE, “”) or
     setlocale(LC_ALL, “”).

   - bpo-34485(62): Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the
     “surrogateescape” error handler, instead of “strict”, on the POSIX
     locale (when the C locale is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is
     disabled).

   - bpo-34485(63): Fix the error handler of standard streams like
     sys.stdout: PYTHONIOENCODING=”:” is now ignored instead of setting
     the error handler to “strict”.

   - bpo-34485(64): Python now gets the locale encoding with C code to
     initialize the encoding of standard streams like sys.stdout.
     Moreover, the encoding is now initialized to the Python codec name
     to get a normalized encoding name and to ensure that the codec is
     loaded.  The change avoids importing _bootlocale and _locale
     modules at startup by default.

   - bpo-34527(65): On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale()
     now also forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is
     “POSIX”, not only if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C”.

   - bpo-34527(66): The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the “POSIX”
     locale, not only by the “C” locale.

   - bpo-34403(67): On HP-UX with C or POSIX locale,
     sys.getfilesystemencoding() now returns “ascii” instead of “roman8”
     (when the UTF-8 Mode is disabled and the C locale is not coerced).

   - bpo-34523(68): The Python filesystem encoding is now read earlier
     during the Python initialization.

   - bpo-12458(69): Tracebacks show now correct line number for
     subexpressions in multiline expressions.  Tracebacks show now the
     line number of the first line for multiline expressions instead of
     the line number of the last subexpression.

   - bpo-34408(70): Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource
     leakage in ‘PyInterpreterState_New()’.

   - bpo-34400(71): Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33073(72): Added as_integer_ratio to ints to make them more
     interoperable with floats.

   - bpo-34377(73): Update valgrind suppression list to use
     ‘_PyObject_Free’/‘_PyObject_Realloc’ instead of
     ‘PyObject_Free’/‘PyObject_Realloc’.

   - bpo-34353(74): Added the “socket” option in the ‘stat.filemode()’
     Python implementation to match the C implementation.

   - bpo-34320(75): Fix ‘dict(od)’ didn’t copy iteration order of
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-34113(76): Fixed crash on debug builds when opcode stack was
     adjusted with negative numbers.  Patch by Constantin Petrisor.

   - bpo-34100(77): Compiler now merges constants in tuples and
     frozensets recursively.  Code attributes like ‘co_names’ are merged
     too.

   - bpo-34151(78): Performance of list concatenation, repetition and
     slicing operations is slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34170(79): -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory
     allocator using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.

   - bpo-33237(80): Improved *note AttributeError: 346. message for
     partially initialized module.

   - bpo-34149(81): Fix min and max functions to get default behavior
     when key is None.

   - bpo-34125(82): Profiling of unbound built-in methods now works when
     ‘**kwargs’ is given.

   - bpo-34141(83): Optimized pickling atomic types (None, bool, int,
     float, bytes, str).

   - bpo-34126(84): Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of
     unbound methods.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-24618(85): Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code
     object with too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.

   - bpo-34068(86): In *note io.IOBase.close(): 1f6, ensure that the
     *note closed: 1a33. attribute is not set with a live exception.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-34087(87): Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to
     numeric values.

   - bpo-34080(88): Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised
     some uncommon errors during tokenizing.

   - bpo-34066(89): Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling
     ‘open()’ and entering a 'with' block in ‘with open()’.

   - bpo-34042(90): Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount
     (as reported by sys.gettotalrefcount()).

   - bpo-33418(91): Fix potential memory leak in function object when it
     creates reference cycle.

   - bpo-33985(92): Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.

   - bpo-33956(93): Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.

   - bpo-24596(94): Decref the module object in *note
     PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 190f. before calling *note
     PyErr_Print(): 194c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33451(95): Close directly executed pyc files before calling
     ‘PyEval_EvalCode()’.

   - bpo-1617161(96): The hash of ‘BuiltinMethodType’ instances (methods
     of built-in classes) now depends on the hash of the identity of
     '__self__' instead of its value.  The hash and equality of
     ‘ModuleType’ and ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances (methods of
     user-defined classes and some methods of built-in classes like
     ‘str.__add__’) now depend on the hash and equality of the identity
     of '__self__' instead of its value.  ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances
     no longer support ordering.

   - bpo-33824(97): Fix “LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V”: reset properly the
     command line parser when the encoding changes after reading the
     Python configuration.

   - bpo-33803(98): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33738(99): Seven macro incompatibilities with the Limited API
     were fixed, and the macros *note PyIter_Check(): 18fb, *note
     PyIndex_Check(): 987. and *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a62. were
     added as functions.  A script for automatic macro checks was added.

   - bpo-33786(100): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30167(101): ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags’ removes ‘__cached__’ from
     module in addition to ‘__file__’.

   - bpo-33706(102): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing
     the command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug
     report and the fix!

   - bpo-33597(103): Reduce ‘PyGC_Head’ size from 3 words to 2 words.

   - bpo-30654(104): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(105): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to
     add an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into
     the *note gc.garbage: 11b0. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 98b. can
     now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33462(106): Make dict and dict views reversible.  Patch by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-23722(107): A *note RuntimeError: 195. is now raised when the
     custom metaclass doesn’t provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the
     namespace passed to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5. was emitted in Python 3.6–3.7.

   - bpo-33499(108): Add *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a0. environment
     variable and *note -X: 176. ‘pycache_prefix’ command-line option to
     set an alternate root directory for writing module bytecode cache
     files.

   - bpo-25711(109): The *note zipimport: 132. module has been rewritten
     in pure Python.

   - bpo-33509(110): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-31849(111): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33475(112): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations
     to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-20104(113): Added support for the ‘setpgroup’, ‘resetids’,
     ‘setsigmask’, ‘setsigdef’ and ‘scheduler’ parameters of
     ‘posix_spawn’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33391(114): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-33363(115): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async
     for’ statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-28055(116): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by
     Rolf Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33128(117): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33331(118): Modules imported last are now cleared first at
     interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-33312(119): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33305(120): Improved syntax error messages for invalid
     numerical literals.

   - bpo-33306(121): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses.

   - bpo-33234(122): The list constructor will pre-size and not
     over-allocate when the input length is known.

   - bpo-33270(123): Intern the names for all anonymous code objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30455(124): The C and Python code and the documentation related
     to tokens are now generated from a single source file
     ‘Grammar/Tokens’.

   - bpo-33176(125): Add a ‘toreadonly()’ method to memoryviews.

   - bpo-33231(126): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(127): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(128): Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(129): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33053(130): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33138(131): Changed standard error message for non-pickleable
     and non-copyable types.  It now says “cannot pickle” instead of
     “can’t pickle” or “cannot serialize”.

   - bpo-33018(132): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33083(133): ‘math.factorial’ no longer accepts arguments that
     are not int-like.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33041(134): Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: aa8. and
     fixes the following issues:

        * Setting global *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. no longer
          breaks ‘async for’ loops.

        * Jumping into an ‘async for’ loop is now disabled.

        * Jumping out of an ‘async for’ loop no longer corrupts the
          stack.

   - bpo-25750(135): Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in
     ‘type_getattro()’ if a descriptor deletes itself from the class.
     Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-33041(136): Fixed bytecode generation for “async for” with a
     complex target.  A StopAsyncIteration raised on assigning or
     unpacking will be now propagated instead of stopping the iteration.

   - bpo-33026(137): Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(138): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-32911(139): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(140).
     ‘docstring’ field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef,
     and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-17288(141): Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace
     events.

   - bpo-32946(142): Importing names from already imported module with
     “from … import …” is now 30% faster if the module is not a package.

   - bpo-32932(143): Make error message more revealing when there are
     non-str objects in ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-32925(144): Optimized iterating and containing test for literal
     lists consisting of non-constants: ‘x in [a, b]’ and ‘for x in [a,
     b]’.  The case of all constant elements already was optimized.

   - bpo-32889(145): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32836(146): Don’t use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   - bpo-31356(147): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(148)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(149): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(150): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’
     for namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(151): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(152): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-32489(153): A *note continue: 9c6. statement is now allowed in
     the *note finally: 9c7. clause.

   - bpo-17611(154): Simplified the interpreter loop by moving the logic
     of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning up code for *note break: aa6, *note
     continue: 9c6. and *note return: 9cb.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’ and
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

   - bpo-32285(155): New function unicodedata.is_normalized, which can
     check whether a string is in a specific normal form.

   - bpo-10544(156): Yield expressions are now disallowed in
     comprehensions and generator expressions except the expression for
     the outermost iterable.

   - bpo-32117(157): Iterable unpacking is now allowed without
     parentheses in yield and return statements, e.g.  ‘yield 1, 2, 3,
     *rest’.  Thanks to David Cuthbert for the change and Jordan Chapman
     for added tests.

   - bpo-31902(158): Fix the ‘col_offset’ attribute for ast nodes
     ‘ast.AsyncFor’, ‘ast.AsyncFunctionDef’, and ‘ast.AsyncWith’.
     Previously, ‘col_offset’ pointed to the keyword after ‘async’.

   - bpo-25862(159): Fix assertion failures in the ‘tell()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-21983(160): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31577(161): Fix a crash in ‘os.utime()’ in case of a bad ns
     argument.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29832(162): Remove references to ‘getsockaddrarg’ from various
     socket error messages.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35877

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35623

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35560

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35494

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35444

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35436

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35423

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35357

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35372

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35336

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31241

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33954

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35269

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35193

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35169

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34022

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28401

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29341

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35050

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35029

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34983

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34974

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34939

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34973

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34876

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34879

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34784

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34854

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34824

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30156

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34751

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34735

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34683

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34653

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32236

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34637

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34588

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34527

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34527

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34403

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12458

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34408

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34400

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34377

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34353

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34320

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34113

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34100

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34151

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34170

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33237

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34149

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34125

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34141

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34126

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24618

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34068

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34087

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34080

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34066

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34042

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33418

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33985

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33956

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24596

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33451

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1617161

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33824

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33738

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25711

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<57>,  Next: Documentation<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35845(1): Add ‘order’ parameter to memoryview.tobytes().

   - bpo-35864(2): The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple now
     returns a regular dict instead of an OrderedDict.

   - bpo-35537(3): An ExitStack is now used internally within
     subprocess.Popen to clean up pipe file handles.  No behavior change
     in normal operation.  But if closing one handle were ever to cause
     an exception, the others will now be closed instead of leaked.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35847(4): RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK. Fixes
     ctypes Structure test_pass_by_value.

   - bpo-35813(5): Shared memory submodule added to multiprocessing to
     avoid need for serialization between processes

   - bpo-35780(6): Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive,
     reentrant, or multi-threaded code.  These errors could result in
     orphan links and in the cache being trapped in a state with fewer
     than the specified maximum number of links.  Fix handling of
     negative maxsize which should have been treated as zero.  Fix
     errors in toggling the “full” status flag.  Fix misordering of
     links when errors are encountered.  Sync-up the C code and pure
     Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single
     positional argument.  In this common case, the space overhead of an
     lru cache entry is reduced by almost half.  Fix counting of cache
     misses.  In error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the
     actual number of times the underlying user function was called.

   - bpo-35537(7): *note os.posix_spawn(): 220. and *note
     os.posix_spawnp(): 1a36. now have a 'setsid' parameter.

   - bpo-23846(8): *note asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 603. now catches and
     logs send errors when the self-pipe is full.

   - bpo-34323(9): *note asyncio: a.: Enhance ‘IocpProactor.close()’
     log: wait 1 second before the first log, then log every second.
     Log also the number of seconds since ‘close()’ was called.

   - bpo-35674(10): Add a new *note os.posix_spawnp(): 1a36. function.
     Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-35733(11): ‘ast.Constant(boolean)’ no longer an instance of
     ‘ast.Num’.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35726(12): QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the
     record before modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other
     handlers in the chain.

   - bpo-35719(13): Sped up multi-argument *note math: 8e. functions
     atan2(), copysign(), remainder() and hypot() by 1.3–2.5 times.

   - bpo-35717(14): Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and
     compile.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35699(15): Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in
     distutils

   - bpo-32710(16): Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on
     overlapped operation failure.

   - bpo-35702(17): The *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a3f. constant is
     now available for macOS 10.12.

   - bpo-32710(18): Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the
     ProactorEventLoop when ‘ReadFile()’ or ‘WSASend()’ overlapped
     operation fail immediately: release the internal buffer.

   - bpo-35682(19): Fix ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile()’: don’t
     attempt to set the result of an internal future if it’s already
     done.

   - bpo-35283(20): Add a deprecated warning for the
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’ method.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35664(21): Improve operator.itemgetter() performance by 33%
     with optimized argument handling and with adding a fast path for
     the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple
     (which is the typical use case in the standard library).

   - bpo-35643(22): Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in
     Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-35619(23): Improved support of custom data descriptors in *note
     help(): 8d4. and *note pydoc: b5.

   - bpo-28503(24): The ‘crypt’ module now internally uses the
     ‘crypt_r()’ library function instead of ‘crypt()’ when available.

   - bpo-35614(25): Fixed help() on metaclasses.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-35568(26): Expose ‘raise(signum)’ as ‘raise_signal’

   - bpo-35588(27): The floor division and modulo operations and the
     *note divmod(): 99e. function on *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7.
     types are 2–4x faster.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-35585(28): Speed-up building enums by value, e.g.
     http.HTTPStatus(200).

   - bpo-30561(29): random.gammavariate(1.0, beta) now computes the same
     result as random.expovariate(1.0 / beta).  This synchronizes the
     two algorithms and eliminates some idiosyncrasies in the old
     implementation.  It does however produce a difference stream of
     random variables than it used to.

   - bpo-35537(30): The *note subprocess: d6. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 220. function in some cases for better
     performance.

   - bpo-35526(31): Delaying the ‘joke’ of barry_as_FLUFL.mandatory to
     Python version 4.0

   - bpo-35523(32): Remove *note ctypes: 2a. callback workaround: no
     longer create a callback at startup.  Avoid SELinux alert on
     ‘import ctypes’ and ‘import uuid’.

   - bpo-31784(33): *note uuid.uuid1(): ba5. now calls *note
     time.time_ns(): ae4. rather than ‘int(time.time() * 1e9)’.

   - bpo-35513(34): ‘TextTestRunner’ of ‘unittest.runner’ now uses *note
     time.perf_counter(): a85. rather than *note time.time(): 254. to
     measure the execution time of a test: *note time.time(): 254. can
     go backwards, whereas *note time.perf_counter(): a85. is monotonic.

   - bpo-35502(35): Fixed reference leaks in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: a51. in case of unfinished
     building of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during
     parsing XML).

   - bpo-35348(36): Make *note platform.architecture(): 1692. parsing of
     ‘file’ command output more reliable: add the ‘-b’ option to the
     ‘file’ command to omit the filename, force the usage of the C
     locale, and search also the “shared object” pattern.

   - bpo-35491(37): *note multiprocessing: 94.: Add ‘Pool.__repr__()’
     and enhance ‘BaseProcess.__repr__()’ (add pid and parent pid) to
     ease debugging.  Pool state constant values are now strings instead
     of integers, for example ‘RUN’ value becomes ‘'RUN'’ instead of
     ‘0’.

   - bpo-35477(38): ‘multiprocessing.Pool.__enter__()’ now fails if the
     pool is not running: ‘with pool:’ fails if used more than once.

   - bpo-31446(39): Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW
     since this function can change the content of the input buffer.

   - bpo-35471(40): Python 2.4 dropped MacOS 9 support.  The macpath
     module was deprecated in Python 3.7.  The module is now removed.

   - bpo-23057(41): Unblock Proactor event loop when keyboard interrupt
     is received on Windows

   - bpo-35052(42): Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with
     an entity: pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of
     an entity.

   - bpo-20239(43): Allow repeated assignment deletion of *note
     unittest.mock.Mock: a47. attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-17185(44): Set ‘__signature__’ on mock for *note inspect: 7e.
     to get signature.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35445(45): Memory errors during creating posix.environ no
     longer ignored.

   - bpo-35415(46): Validate fileno= argument to socket.socket().

   - bpo-35424(47): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ destructor now emits *note
     ResourceWarning: 244. if the pool is still running.

   - bpo-35330(48): When a ‘Mock’ instance was used to wrap an object,
     if ‘side_effect’ is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don’t
     call the original implementation and return the result of using the
     side effect the same way that it is done with return_value.

   - bpo-35346(49): Drop Mac OS 9 and Rhapsody support from the *note
     platform: aa. module.  Rhapsody last release was in 2000.  Mac OS 9
     last release was in 2001.

   - bpo-10496(50): ‘check_environ()’ of ‘distutils.utils’ now catches
     *note KeyError: 33d. on calling *note pwd.getpwuid(): 1a37.: don’t
     create the ‘HOME’ environment variable in this case.

   - bpo-10496(51): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ now returns the input
     'path' unchanged if the ‘HOME’ environment variable is not set and
     the current user has no home directory (if the current user
     identifier doesn’t exist in the password database).  This change
     fix the *note site: c7. module if the current user doesn’t exist in
     the password database (if the user has no home directory).

   - bpo-35389(52): *note platform.libc_ver(): 1a38. now uses
     ‘os.confstr('CS_GNU_LIBC_VERSION')’ if available and the
     'executable' parameter is not set.

   - bpo-35394(53): Add empty slots to asyncio abstract protocols.

   - bpo-35310(54): Fix a bug in *note select.select(): d9c. where, in
     some cases, the file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified
     after a signal interruption, even though the file descriptors might
     not be ready yet.  *note select.select(): d9c. will now always
     return empty lists if a timeout has occurred.  Patch by Oran
     Avraham.

   - bpo-35380(55): Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio
     event loop.

   - bpo-35341(56): Add generic version of ‘collections.OrderedDict’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Ismo Toijala.

   - bpo-35371(57): Fixed possible crash in ‘os.utime()’ on Windows when
     pass incorrect arguments.

   - bpo-35346(58): *note platform.uname(): 1a39. now redirects ‘stderr’
     to *note os.devnull: 1a3a. when running external programs like ‘cmd
     /c ver’.

   - bpo-35066(59): Previously, calling the strftime() method on a
     datetime object with a trailing ‘%’ in the format string would
     result in an exception.  However, this only occurred when the
     datetime C module was being used; the python implementation did not
     match this behavior.  Datetime is now PEP-399 compliant, and will
     not throw an exception on a trailing ‘%’.

   - bpo-35345(60): The function ‘platform.popen’ has been removed, it
     was deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): a84.
     instead.

   - bpo-35344(61): On macOS, *note platform.platform(): 175c. now uses
     *note platform.mac_ver(): 1a3b, if it returns a non-empty release
     string, to get the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

   - bpo-35312(62): Make ‘lib2to3.pgen2.parse.ParseError’ round-trip
     pickle-able.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35308(63): Fix regression in ‘webbrowser’ where default
     browsers may be preferred over browsers in the ‘BROWSER’
     environment variable.

   - bpo-24746(64): Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy
     diff.  Original patch by R. David Murray & Jairo Trad.  Enhanced by
     Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-28604(65): *note locale.localeconv(): bfb. now sets temporarily
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if the two
     locales are different and monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

   - bpo-35277(66): Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools
     40.6.2.

   - bpo-24209(67): Adds IPv6 support when invoking http.server
     directly.

   - bpo-35226(68): Recursively check arguments when testing for
     equality of *note unittest.mock.call: 19d5. objects and add note
     that tracking of parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in
     ‘mock_calls’ is not possible.

   - bpo-29564(69): The warnings module now suggests to enable
     tracemalloc if the source is specified, the tracemalloc module is
     available, but tracemalloc is not tracing memory allocations.

   - bpo-35189(70): Modify the following fnctl function to retry if
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl

   - bpo-30064(71): Use add_done_callback() in sock_* asyncio API to
     unsubscribe reader/writer early on calcellation.

   - bpo-35186(72): Removed the “built with” comment added when
     ‘setup.py upload’ is used with either ‘bdist_rpm’ or ‘bdist_dumb’.

   - bpo-35152(73): Allow sending more than 2 GB at once on a
     multiprocessing connection on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-35062(74): Fix incorrect parsing of *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 16cf.’s 'translate' argument.

   - bpo-35065(75): Remove ‘StreamReaderProtocol._untrack_reader’.  The
     call to ‘_untrack_reader’ is currently performed too soon, causing
     the protocol to forget about the reader before ‘connection_lost’
     can run and feed the EOF to the reader.

   - bpo-34160(76): ElementTree and minidom now preserve the attribute
     order specified by the user.

   - bpo-35079(77): Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks
     doc by adding ‘non-overlapping’ and changing ‘!=’ to ‘<’.

   - bpo-33710(78): Deprecated ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods in
     the *note gettext: 63. module.  They return encoded bytes instead
     of Unicode strings and are artifacts from Python 2 times.  Also
     deprecated functions and methods related to setting the charset for
     ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods.

   - bpo-35017(79): *note socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever(): 1130.
     now exits immediately if it’s *note shutdown(): 1a3c. method is
     called while it is polling for new events.

   - bpo-35024(80): ‘importlib’ no longer logs ‘wrote <bytecode path>’
     redundantly after ‘(created|could not create) <bytecode path>’ is
     already logged.  Patch by Quentin Agren.

   - bpo-35047(81): ‘unittest.mock’ now includes mock calls in exception
     messages if ‘assert_not_called’, ‘assert_called_once’, or
     ‘assert_called_once_with’ fails.  Patch by Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31047(82): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ regression where it didn’t
     remove a trailing separator on Windows.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-35053(83): tracemalloc now tries to update the traceback when
     an object is reused from a “free list” (optimization for faster
     object creation, used by the builtin list type for example).

   - bpo-31553(84): Add the –json-lines option to json.tool.  Patch by
     hongweipeng.

   - bpo-34794(85): Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper
     around Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-34909(86): Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent
     mixed with concrete data types.

   - bpo-35022(87): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: e87. now supports the
     ‘__fspath__’ method (from *note os.PathLike: c4e.).

   - bpo-35008(88): Fixed references leaks when call the
     ‘__setstate__()’ method of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     308. in the C implementation for already initialized element.

   - bpo-23420(89): Verify the value for the parameter ‘-s’ of the
     cProfile CLI. Patch by Robert Kuska

   - bpo-33947(90): dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without
     raising RecursionError.

   - bpo-34890(91): Make *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 17d8. and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 17d9. work with *note
     functools.partial(): 40e.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34521(92): Use *note socket.CMSG_SPACE(): 1a3d. to calculate
     ancillary data size instead of *note socket.CMSG_LEN(): 1a3e. in
     ‘multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds()’ as RFC 3542(93) requires the
     use of the former for portable applications.

   - bpo-31522(94): The ‘mailbox.mbox.get_string’ function 'from_'
     parameter can now successfully be set to a non-default value.

   - bpo-34970(95): Protect tasks weak set manipulation in
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’

   - bpo-34969(96): gzip: Add –fast, –best on the gzip CLI, these
     parameters will be used for the fast compression method (quick) or
     the best method compress (slower, but smaller file).  Also, change
     the default compression level to 6 (tradeoff).

   - bpo-16965(97): The 2to3 ‘execfile’ fixer now opens the file with
     mode ‘'rb'’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34966(98): *note pydoc: b5. now supports aliases not only to
     methods defined in the end class, but also to inherited methods.
     The docstring is not duplicated for aliases.

   - bpo-34926(99): *note mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type(): 1a3f. now
     accepts *note path-like object: 2a0. in addition to url strings.
     Patch by Mayank Asthana.

   - bpo-23831(100): Add ‘moveto()’ method to the ‘tkinter.Canvas’
     widget.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34941(101): Methods ‘find()’, ‘findtext()’ and ‘findall()’ of
     the ‘Element’ class in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module
     are now able to find children which are instances of ‘Element’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-32680(102): *note smtplib.SMTP: 92b. objects now always have a
     ‘sock’ attribute present

   - bpo-34769(103): Fix for async generators not finalizing when event
     loop is in debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.

   - bpo-34936(104): Fix ‘TclError’ in
     ‘tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element()’.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34829(105): Add methods ‘selection_from’, ‘selection_range’,
     ‘selection_present’ and ‘selection_to’ to the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ for
     consistency with the ‘tkinter.Entry’ widget.  Patch by Juliette
     Monsel.

   - bpo-34911(106): Added 'secure_protocols' argument to
     'http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy' to allow for tweaking of
     protocols and also to add support by default for 'wss', the secure
     websocket protocol.

   - bpo-34922(107): Fixed integer overflow in the *note digest(): 1a40.
     and *note hexdigest(): 1a41. methods for the SHAKE algorithm in the
     *note hashlib: 68. module.

   - bpo-34925(108): 25% speedup in argument parsing for the functions
     in the bisect module.

   - bpo-34900(109): Fixed *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 189b. when
     used to call test methods with subtests.  Patch by Bruno Oliveira.

   - bpo-34844(110): logging.Formatter enhancement - Ensure styles and
     fmt matches in logging.Formatter - Added validate method in each
     format style class: StrFormatStyle, PercentStyle,
     StringTemplateStyle.  - This method is called in the constructor of
     logging.Formatter class - Also re-raise the KeyError in the format
     method of each style class, so it would a bit clear that it’s an
     error with the invalid format fields.

   - bpo-34897(111): Adjust test.support.missing_compiler_executable
     check so that a nominal command name of “” is ignored.  Patch by
     Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34871(112): Fix inspect module polluted ‘sys.modules’ when
     parsing ‘__text_signature__’ of callable.

   - bpo-34898(113): Add ‘mtime’ argument to ‘gzip.compress’ for
     reproducible output.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-28441(114): On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that ‘sys.executable’
     always includes the full filename in the path, including the ‘.exe’
     suffix (unless it is a symbolic link).

   - bpo-34866(115): Adding ‘max_num_fields’ to ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ to
     make DOS attacks harder by limiting the number of
     ‘MiniFieldStorage’ objects created by ‘FieldStorage’.

   - bpo-34711(116): http.server ensures it reports HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND
     when the local path ends with “/” and is not a directory, even if
     the underlying OS (e.g.  AIX) accepts such paths as a valid file
     reference.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34872(117): Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of
     asyncio.Task

   - bpo-34849(118): Don’t log waiting for ‘selector.select’ in asyncio
     loop iteration.  The waiting is pretty normal for any asyncio
     program, logging its time just adds a noise to logs without any
     useful information provided.

   - bpo-34022(119): The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no
     longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument to
     *note py_compile.compile(): a21, and determines its default value
     instead.

   - bpo-34819(120): Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in
     ‘Executor.map()’ and ‘as_completed()’, in order to prevent timeouts
     from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.

   - bpo-34758(121): Add .wasm -> application/wasm to list of recognized
     file types and content type headers

   - bpo-34789(122): *note xml.sax.make_parser(): 1a42. now accepts any
     iterable as its 'parser_list' argument.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-34334(123): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘exc_text’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent traceback from being written twice.

   - bpo-34687(124): On Windows, asyncio now uses ProactorEventLoop,
     instead of SelectorEventLoop, by default.

   - bpo-5950(125): Support reading zip files with archive comments in
     *note zipimport: 132.

   - bpo-32892(126): The parser now represents all constants as *note
     ast.Constant: 2b9. instead of using specific constant AST types
     (‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’).  These
     classes are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.

   - bpo-34728(127): Add deprecation warning when ‘loop’ is used in
     methods: ‘asyncio.sleep’, ‘asyncio.wait’ and ‘asyncio.wait_for’.

   - bpo-34738(128): ZIP files created by ‘distutils’ will now include
     entries for directories.

   - bpo-34659(129): Add an optional 'initial' argument to
     itertools.accumulate().

   - bpo-29577(130): Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.

   - bpo-34670(131): Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and
     SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3’s post handshake
     authentication feature.

   - bpo-32718(132): The Activate.ps1 script from venv works with
     PowerShell Core 6.1 and is now available under all operating
     systems.

   - bpo-31177(133): Fix bug that prevented using *note reset_mock: cf7.
     on mock instances with deleted attributes

   - bpo-34672(134): Add a workaround, so the ‘'Z'’ *note
     time.strftime(): 11d8. specifier on the musl C library can work in
     some cases.

   - bpo-34666(135): Implement ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.awrite’ and
     ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.aclose()’ coroutines.  Methods are needed for
     providing a consistent stream API with control flow switched on by
     default.

   - bpo-6721(136): Acquire the logging module’s commonly used internal
     locks while fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.

   - bpo-34658(137): Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state
     SystemError only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while
     an after_parent handler has been registered with
     os.register_at_fork and the fork system call fails.

   - bpo-34652(138): Ensure *note os.lchmod(): 21a. is never defined on
     Linux.

   - bpo-34638(139): Store a weak reference to stream reader to break
     strong references loop between reader and protocol.  It allows to
     detect and close the socket if the stream is deleted (garbage
     collected) without ‘close()’ call.

   - bpo-34536(140): ‘Enum._missing_’: raise ‘ValueError’ if None
     returned and ‘TypeError’ if non-member is returned.

   - bpo-34636(141): Speed up re scanning of many non-matching
     characters for s w and d within bytes objects.  (microoptimization)

   - bpo-24412(142): Add *note addModuleCleanup(): a4a. and *note
     addClassCleanup(): a4b. to unittest to support cleanups for
     ‘setUpModule()’ and *note setUpClass(): a49.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-34630(143): Don’t log SSL certificate errors in asyncio code
     (connection error logging is skipped already).

   - bpo-32490(144): Prevent filename duplication in *note subprocess:
     d6. exception messages.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34363(145): dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle
     namedtuples correctly.

   - bpo-34625(146): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.

   - bpo-32270(147): The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes
     redirected fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the
     default {0, 1, 2} set.

   - bpo-34622(148): Create a dedicated ‘asyncio.CancelledError’,
     ‘asyncio.InvalidStateError’ and ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ exception
     classes.  Inherit them from corresponding exceptions from
     ‘concurrent.futures’ package.  Extract ‘asyncio’ exceptions into a
     separate file.

   - bpo-34610(149): Fixed iterator of
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’.

   - bpo-34421(150): Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings.  This
     caused installation issues on Windows.

   - bpo-34604(151): Fix possible mojibake in the error message of
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘grp.getgrnam’ using string representation
     because of invisible characters or trailing whitespaces.  Patch by
     William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-30977(152): Make uuid.UUID use ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  Based on original patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-34574(153): OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during
     pickling anymore.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-8110(154): Refactored *note subprocess: d6. to check for
     Windows-specific modules rather than ‘sys.platform == 'win32'’.

   - bpo-34530(155): ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable()’ now falls back
     on *note os.defpath: 1a09. if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is
     not set.

   - bpo-34563(156): On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very
     large read: fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for
     read larger than INT_MAX (usually ‘2**31-1’).

   - bpo-34558(157): Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py

   - bpo-34282(158): Move ‘Enum._convert’ to ‘EnumMeta._convert_’ and
     fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.

   - bpo-22872(159): When the queue is closed, *note ValueError: 202. is
     now raised by *note multiprocessing.Queue.put(): 1a43. and *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.get(): 1a44. instead of *note AssertionError:
     6a3. and *note OSError: 411, respectively.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34515(160): Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in
     ‘lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize’ ( PEP 3131(161)).

   - bpo-13312(162): Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined
     behavior) in the time module’s year handling code when passed a
     very low negative year value.

   - bpo-34472(163): Improved compatibility for streamed files in *note
     zipfile: 131.  Previously an optional signature was not being
     written and certain ZIP applications were not supported.  Patch by
     Silas Sewell.

   - bpo-34454(164): Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types
     crashing when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points.
     Specifically, datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate
     unicode code points used as the separator.  Report and tests by
     Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-6700(165): Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level
     frames/tracebacks.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev.

   - bpo-34171(166): Running the *note trace: fd. module no longer
     creates the ‘trace.cover’ file.

   - bpo-34441(167): Fix crash when an ‘ABC’-derived class with invalid
     ‘__subclasses__’ is passed as the second argument to *note
     issubclass(): 7ba.  Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.

   - bpo-34427(168): Fix infinite loop in ‘a.extend(a)’ for
     ‘MutableSequence’ subclasses.

   - bpo-34412(169): Make *note signal.strsignal(): 1a45. work on HP-UX.
     Patch by Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-20849(170): shutil.copytree now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’
     keyword argument.  Patch by Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-31715(171): Associate ‘.mjs’ file extension with
     ‘application/javascript’ MIME Type.

   - bpo-34384(172): *note os.readlink(): 91c. now accepts *note
     path-like: 2a0. and *note bytes: 1c2. objects on Windows.

   - bpo-22602(173): The UTF-7 decoder now raises *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. for ill-formed sequences starting with “+”
     (as specified in RFC 2152).  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-2122(174): The *note mmap.flush(): a95. method now returns
     ‘None’ on success, raises an exception on error under all
     platforms.

   - bpo-34341(175): Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64
     extension no longer grows the size of extra fields of existing
     entries.

   - bpo-34333(176): Fix %-formatting in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 161f. when formatting an error
     message.

   - bpo-18540(177): The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 900. and *note
     imaplib.IMAP4_SSL: 901. classes now resolve to the local host IP
     correctly when the default value of 'host' parameter (‘''’) is
     used.

   - bpo-26502(178): Implement ‘traceback.FrameSummary.__len__()’ method
     to preserve compatibility with the old tuple API.

   - bpo-34318(179): *note assertRaises(): 526, *note
     assertRaisesRegex(): 528, *note assertWarns(): 1155. and *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): 1156. no longer success if the passed callable
     is None.  They no longer ignore unknown keyword arguments in the
     context manager mode.  A DeprecationWarning was raised in these
     cases since Python 3.5.

   - bpo-9372(180): Deprecate *note __getitem__(): 283. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 72e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 72f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 730.

   - bpo-33613(181): Fix a race condition in
     ‘multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker’ when the tracker receives
     SIGINT before it can register signal handlers for ignoring it.

   - bpo-34248(182): Report filename in the exception raised when the
     database file cannot be opened by *note dbm.gnu.open(): 1a46. and
     *note dbm.ndbm.open(): 1a47. due to OS-related error.  Patch by
     Zsolt Cserna.

   - bpo-33089(183): Add math.dist() to compute the Euclidean distance
     between two points.

   - bpo-34246(184): *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): e52. no longer
     modifies the content of the 'mail_options' argument.  Patch by
     Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.

   - bpo-31047(185): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ for invalid paths on windows.
     Patch by Franz Woellert.

   - bpo-32321(186): Add pure Python fallback for functools.reduce.
     Patch by Robert Wright.

   - bpo-34270(187): The default asyncio task class now always has a
     name which can be get or set using two new methods (*note
     get_name(): 9da. and *note set_name(): 9d9.) and is visible in the
     *note repr(): 7f7. output.  An initial name can also be set using
     the new ‘name’ keyword argument to *note asyncio.create_task():
     1bf. or the ‘create_task()’ method of the event loop.  If no
     initial name is set, the default Task implementation generates a
     name like ‘Task-1’ using a monotonic counter.

   - bpo-34263(188): asyncio’s event loop will not pass timeouts longer
     than one day to epoll/select etc.

   - bpo-34035(189): Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek()
     methods.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-32215(190): Fix performance regression in *note sqlite3: cf.
     when a DML statement appeared in a different line than the rest of
     the SQL query.

   - bpo-34075(191): Deprecate passing non-ThreadPoolExecutor instances
     to ‘AbstractEventLoop.set_default_executor()’.

   - bpo-34251(192): Restore ‘msilib.Win64’ to preserve backwards
     compatibility since it’s already used by ‘distutils’’ ‘bdist_msi’
     command.

   - bpo-19891(193): Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable
     homedir while writing history during exit of an interactive
     session.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33089(194): Enhanced math.hypot() to support more than two
     dimensions.

   - bpo-34228(195): tracemalloc: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=0 environment
     variable and -X tracemalloc=0 command line option are now allowed
     to disable explicitly tracemalloc at startup.

   - bpo-13041(196): Use *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4. to
     calculate the terminal width correctly in the
     ‘argparse.HelpFormatter’ class.  Initial patch by Zbyszek
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-34213(197): Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named
     “object”.  Previously this conflicted with an internal use of
     “object”.

   - bpo-34052(198): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 2aa,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 2a9, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 2ab, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 2ac. methods raises
     TypeError when unhashable objects are passed as callable.  These
     methods now don’t pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous
     behavior could lead to segfaults.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34197(199): Attributes 'skipinitialspace', 'doublequote' and
     'strict' of the 'dialect' attribute of the *note csv: 29. reader
     are now *note bool: 461. instances instead of integers 0 or 1.

   - bpo-32788(200): Errors other than *note TypeError: 532. raised in
     methods ‘__adapt__()’ and ‘__conform__()’ in the *note sqlite3: cf.
     module are now propagated to the user.

   - bpo-21446(201): The ‘reload’ fixer now uses *note
     importlib.reload(): 512. instead of deprecated ‘imp.reload()’.

   - bpo-940286(202): pydoc’s ‘Helper.showtopic()’ method now prints the
     cross references of a topic correctly.

   - bpo-34164(203): *note base64.b32decode(): 101b. could raise
     UnboundLocalError or OverflowError for incorrect padding.  Now it
     always raises ‘base64.Error’ in these cases.

   - bpo-33729(204): Fixed issues with arguments parsing in *note
     hashlib: 68.

   - bpo-34097(205): ZipFile can zip files older than 1980-01-01 and
     newer than 2107-12-31 using a new ‘strict_timestamps’ parameter at
     the cost of setting the timestamp to the limit.

   - bpo-34108(206): Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.

   - bpo-34070(207): Make sure to only check if the handle is a tty,
     when opening a file with ‘buffering=-1’.

   - bpo-27494(208): Reverted bpo-27494(209).  2to3 rejects now a
     trailing comma in generator expressions.

   - bpo-33967(210): functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError
     instead of IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.

   - bpo-34041(211): Add the parameter 'deterministic' to the *note
     sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 2a9. method.  Patch by Sergey
     Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34056(212): Ensure the loader shim created by ‘imp.load_module’
     always returns bytes from its ‘get_data()’ function.  This fixes
     using ‘imp.load_module’ with PEP 552(213) hash-based pycs.

   - bpo-34054(214): The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic
     clock *note time.monotonic(): 253. instead of the system clock
     *note time.time(): 254. to implement timeout.

   - bpo-34043(215): Optimize tarfile uncompress performance about 15%
     when gzip is used.

   - bpo-34044(216): ‘subprocess.Popen’ now copies the 'startupinfo'
     argument to leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that
     the same ‘STARTUPINFO’ object can be used multiple times.

   - bpo-34010(217): Fixed a performance regression for reading streams
     with tarfile.  The buffered read should use a list, instead of
     appending to a bytes object.

   - bpo-34019(218): webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera
     Browser when opening a new URL using the ‘webbrowser’ module.
     Patch by Bumsik Kim.

   - bpo-34003(219): csv.DictReader now creates dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-33978(220): Closed existing logging handlers before
     reconfiguration via fileConfig and dictConfig.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-14117(221): Make minor tweaks to turtledemo.  The ‘wikipedia’
     example is now ‘rosette’, describing what it draws.  The ‘penrose’
     print output is reduced.  The’1024’ output of ‘tree’ is eliminated.

   - bpo-33974(222): Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings
     containing special characters ‘"’, ‘\’, ‘{’, ‘}’ and ‘\n’ as
     options to *note ttk: f9. widgets.

   - bpo-27500(223): Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses
     correctly.

   - bpo-24567(224): Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input
     weights that could occasionally trigger an IndexError.

   - bpo-33871(225): Fixed integer overflow in *note os.readv(): b5b,
     *note os.writev(): b5e, *note os.preadv(): b5a. and *note
     os.pwritev(): b5d. and in *note os.sendfile(): b0c. with 'headers'
     or 'trailers' arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).

   - bpo-25007(226): Add *note copy.copy(): 52d. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b6b. support to zlib compressors and
     decompressors.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33929(227): multiprocessing: Fix a race condition in Popen of
     multiprocessing.popen_spawn_win32.  The child process now
     duplicates the read end of pipe instead of “stealing” it.
     Previously, the read end of pipe was “stolen” by the child process,
     but it leaked a handle if the child process had been terminated
     before it could steal the handle from the parent process.

   - bpo-33899(228): Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when
     provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
     behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
     Contributed by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33897(229): Added a ‘force’ keyword argument to
     logging.basicConfig().

   - bpo-33695(230): *note shutil.copytree(): a25. uses *note
     os.scandir(): a5b. function and all copy functions depending from
     it use cached *note os.stat(): 49a. values.  The speedup for
     copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on
     Windows and + 30% on a Windows SMB share.  Also the number of *note
     os.stat(): 49a. syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note
     shutil.copytree(): a25. especially faster on network filesystems.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-33695(231).)

   - bpo-33916(232): bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is
     called twice, free the old lock to not leak memory.

   - bpo-32568(233): Make select.epoll() and its documentation
     consistent regarding 'sizehint' and 'flags'.

   - bpo-33833(234): Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport
     logs AssertionError if force closed during write.

   - bpo-33663(235): Convert content length to string before putting to
     header.

   - bpo-33721(236): *note os.path: a2. functions that return a boolean
     result like *note exists(): a0a, *note lexists(): a0b, *note
     isdir(): a0c, *note isfile(): a0d, *note islink(): a08, and *note
     ismount(): a0e, and *note pathlib.Path: 229. methods that return a
     boolean result like *note exists(): a12, *note is_dir(): 230, *note
     is_file(): 22f, *note is_mount(): a13, *note is_symlink(): a14,
     *note is_block_device(): a15, *note is_char_device(): a16, *note
     is_fifo(): a17, *note is_socket(): a18. now return ‘False’ instead
     of raising *note ValueError: 202. or its subclasses *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 671. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. for
     paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS
     level.

   - bpo-26544(237): Fixed implementation of *note platform.libc_ver():
     1a38.  It almost always returned version ‘2.9’ for glibc.

   - bpo-33843(238): Remove deprecated ‘cgi.escape’, ‘cgi.parse_qs’ and
     ‘cgi.parse_qsl’.

   - bpo-33842(239): Remove ‘tarfile.filemode’ which is deprecated since
     Python 3.3.

   - bpo-30167(240): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33805(241): Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when
     an InitVar is not specified

   - bpo-33687(242): Fix the call to ‘os.chmod()’ for ‘uu.decode()’ if a
     mode is given or decoded.  Patch by Timo Furrer.

   - bpo-33812(243): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-32108(244): In configparser, don’t clear section when it is
     assigned to itself.

   - bpo-27397(245): Make email module properly handle invalid-length
     base64 strings.

   - bpo-33578(246): Implement multibyte encoder/decoder state methods

   - bpo-30805(247): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33476(248): Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is
     missing final ‘;’.  Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron

   - bpo-33694(249): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(250): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(251): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33274(252): W3C DOM Level 1 specifies return value of
     Element.removeAttributeNode() as “The Attr node that was removed.”
     xml.dom.minidom now complies with this requirement.

   - bpo-33778(253): Update ‘unicodedata’’s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33165(254): Added a stacklevel parameter to logging calls to
     allow use of wrapper/helper functions for logging APIs.

   - bpo-33770(255): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(256): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(257): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 532. instead of
     *note SystemError: 570. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 20b.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(258): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-31014(259): Fixed creating a controller for *note webbrowser:
     115. when a user specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER
     environment variable.  Based on patch by John Still.

   - bpo-2504(260): Add gettext.pgettext() and variants.

   - bpo-33197(261): Add description property for _ParameterKind

   - bpo-32751(262): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(263): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(264): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(265): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33671(266): *note shutil.copyfile(): a55, *note shutil.copy():
     a56, *note shutil.copy2(): a57, *note shutil.copytree(): a25. and
     *note shutil.move(): a58. use platform-specific fast-copy syscalls
     on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.  On
     Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): a55. uses a bigger default buffer
     size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 462.-based
     variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a59. is used.  The speedup
     for copying a 512MiB file is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and
     +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-25427(267).)

   - bpo-33674(268): Fix a race condition in
     SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start
     immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon().
     Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake
     started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

   - bpo-31647(269): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(270): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(271): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(272): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(273): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(274): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(275): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(276): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): ba5. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33238(277): Add ‘InvalidStateError’ to *note
     concurrent.futures: 21.  ‘Future.set_result’ and
     ‘Future.set_exception’ now raise ‘InvalidStateError’ if the futures
     are not pending or running.  Patch by Jason Haydaman.

   - bpo-33618(278): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33625(279): Release GIL on ‘grp.getgrnam’, ‘grp.getgrgid’,
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘pwd.getpwuid’ if reentrant variants of these
     functions are available.  Patch by William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-33623(280): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-11874(281): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(282): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the
     JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from
     clearing after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33604(283): Remove HMAC default to md5 marked for removal in
     3.8 (removal originally planned in 3.6, bump to 3.8 in PR 7062).

   - bpo-33582(284): Emit a deprecation warning for
     inspect.formatargspec

   - bpo-21145(285): Add ‘functools.cached_property’ decorator, for
     computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

   - bpo-33570(286): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(287): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-12486(288): *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4d4. is now
     documented as a public API to tokenize unicode strings.  It was
     previously present but undocumented.

   - bpo-33540(289): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     cd.

   - bpo-33548(290): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(291): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(292) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33541(293): Remove unused private method
     ‘_strptime.LocaleTime.__pad’ (a.k.a.  ‘_LocaleTime__pad’).

   - bpo-33536(294): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(295): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead
     of a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(296): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33516(297): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: e87. now supports
     the ‘__round__’ magic method.

   - bpo-28612(298): Added support for Site Maps to urllib’s
     ‘RobotFileParser’ as *note RobotFileParser.site_maps(): 1a48.
     Patch by Lady Red, based on patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-28167(299): Remove platform.linux_distribution, which was
     deprecated since 3.5.

   - bpo-33504(300): Switch the default dictionary implementation for
     *note configparser: 22. from *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. to
     the standard *note dict: 256. type.

   - bpo-33505(301): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(302): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-29235(303): The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a
     context manager.  Patch by Scott Sanderson.

   - bpo-33495(304): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     ‘type’ member.

   - bpo-26103(305): Correct ‘inspect.isdatadescriptor’ to look for
     ‘__set__’ or ‘__delete__’.  Patch by Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-29209(306): Removed the ‘doctype()’ method and the 'html'
     parameter of the constructor of *note XMLParser: a50.  The
     ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass will no longer be called.
     Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 125. module emit now a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5.

   - bpo-33453(307): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string
     type annotations or if using PEP 563 “Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations”.  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar (“ClassVar” and “typing.ClassVar”) and InitVar (“InitVar”
     and “dataclasses.InitVar”).

   - bpo-28556(308): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-33365(309): Print the header values besides the header keys
     instead just the header keys if 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note
     http.client: 6f.  Patch by Marco Strigl.

   - bpo-20087(310): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(311): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(312): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33281(313): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33311(314): Text and html output generated by cgitb does not
     display parentheses if the current call is done directly in the
     module.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-27300(315): The file classes in 'tempfile' now accept an
     'errors' parameter that complements the already existing
     'encoding'.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-32933(316): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1710. now supports
     iteration over the file contents.  Patch by Tony Flury.

   - bpo-33217(317): Raise *note TypeError: 532. when looking up
     non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members.

   - bpo-33197(318): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(319): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33375(320): The warnings module now finds the Python file
     associated with a warning from the code object, rather than the
     frame’s global namespace.  This is consistent with how tracebacks
     and pdb find filenames, and should work better for dynamically
     executed code.

   - bpo-33336(321): ‘imaplib’ now allows ‘MOVE’ command in
     ‘IMAP4.uid()’ (RFC 6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a
     name of supported method of ‘IMAP4’ object.

   - bpo-32455(322): Added 'jump' parameter to *note dis.stack_effect():
     f29.

   - bpo-27485(323): Rename and deprecate undocumented functions in
     *note urllib.parse(): 10a.

   - bpo-33332(324): Add ‘signal.valid_signals()’ to expose the POSIX
     sigfillset() functionality.

   - bpo-33251(325): ‘ConfigParser.items()’ was fixed so that key-value
     pairs passed in via *note vars(): 1a49. are not included in the
     resulting output.

   - bpo-33329(326): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-33334(327): *note dis.stack_effect(): f29. now supports all
     defined opcodes including NOP and EXTENDED_ARG.

   - bpo-991266(328): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1a4a.

   - bpo-33131(329): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(330): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when
     converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with
     ‘line_info=False’ and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-23403(331): lib2to3 now uses pickle protocol 4 for pre-computed
     grammars.

   - bpo-33266(332): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(333): Ensure line-endings are respected when using
     lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(334): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 1f2. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1a4b. return an
     *note iterable: 1217. instead of an *note iterator: 1ac.

   - bpo-33265(335): ‘contextlib.ExitStack’ and
     ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack’ now use a method instead of a wrapper
     function for exit callbacks.

   - bpo-33263(336): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(337): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33144(338): ‘random.Random()’ and its subclassing mechanism got
     optimized to check only once at class/subclass instantiation time
     whether its ‘getrandbits()’ method can be relied on by other
     methods, including ‘randrange()’, for the generation of arbitrarily
     large random integers.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-33185(339): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 5db. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(340))

     This fix also changed pydoc to add ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path:
     3ae. when necessary, rather than adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-29613(341): Added support for the ‘SameSite’ cookie flag to the
     ‘http.cookies’ module.

   - bpo-33169(342): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33203(343): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’
     for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(344): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(345).  Convert
     an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(346): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1a4c.

   - bpo-32861(347): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and
     “Request-rate” fields.  Also removes extra newlines that were being
     appended to the end of the string.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-23403(348): ‘DEFAULT_PROTOCOL’ in *note pickle: a6. was bumped
     to 4.  Protocol 4 is described in PEP 3154(349) and available since
     Python 3.4.  It offers better performance and smaller size compared
     to protocol 3 introduced in Python 3.0.

   - bpo-20104(350): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 220.

   - bpo-33106(351): Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database raises
     module specific error instead of KeyError.

   - bpo-33175(352): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-32380(353): Create functools.singledispatchmethod to support
     generic single dispatch on descriptors and methods.

   - bpo-33141(354): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to
     their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(355): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(356): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(357): When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(358): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(359): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(360): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying
     on sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(361): Add ‘Field’ to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(362): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(363): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s
     a MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in
     __slots__, not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(364): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen
     dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only
     attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.
     Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or
     all non-frozen.

   - bpo-33097(365): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32968(366): Modulo and floor division involving Fraction and
     float should return float.

   - bpo-33061(367): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(368): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(369): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(370): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(371): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(372): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33034(373): Providing an explicit error message when casting
     the port property to anything that is not an integer value using
     ‘urlparse()’ and ‘urlsplit()’.  Patch by Matt Eaton.

   - bpo-30249(374): Improve struct.unpack_from() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.

   - bpo-33037(375): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(376): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 80. that
     result of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a
     tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-22674(377): Add the strsignal() function in the signal module
     that returns the system description of the given signal, as
     returned by strsignal(3).

   - bpo-32999(378): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(379): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(380): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(381): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules
     ‘aifc’, *note wave: 113. and ‘sunau’.

   - bpo-32970(382): Improved disassembly of the MAKE_FUNCTION
     instruction.

   - bpo-32844(383): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32960(384): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(385): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32257(386): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32951(387): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(388): Remove the tri-state parameter “hash”, and add the
     boolean “unsafe_hash”.  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(389): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32146(390): Document the interaction between frozen executables
     and the spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.

   - bpo-30622(391): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(392): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32759(393): Free unused arenas in multiprocessing.heap.

   - bpo-32859(394): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(395): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-21060(396): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     “No dist file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must
     create and upload files in one command”.

   - bpo-32857(397): In *note tkinter: f0, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 202. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(398): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(399): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module
     with C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.

     Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and
     caches, previously accessible via private attributes
     ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’, and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There
     are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead
     ‘_dump_registry’, ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(400): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(401): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-19675(402): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ no longer leaks processes if
     its initialization fails.

   - bpo-32394(403): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(404): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(405): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-30688(406): Added support of ‘\N{name}’ escapes in regular
     expressions.  Based on patch by Jonathan Eunice.

   - bpo-32792(407): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(408): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a4d. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with ‘[’ or
     containing ‘–’, ‘&&’, ‘~~’ or ‘||’ will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(409): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(410): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(411): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect
     linking for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked
     against libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32749(412): A *note dbm.dumb: 32. database opened with flags
     ‘r’ is now read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): a93. with flags ‘r’
     and ‘w’ no longer creates a database if it does not exist.

   - bpo-32741(413): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(414): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(415): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(416): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(417): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(418): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(419): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(420): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f9.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32512(421): *note profile: af. CLI accepts ‘-m module_name’ as
     an alternative to script path.

   - bpo-8525(422): help() on a type now displays builtin subclasses.
     This is intended primarily to help with notification of more
     specific exception subclasses.

     Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31639(423): http.server now exposes a ThreadingHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-29877(424): compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when
     needed, preventing hangs on low resource platforms

   - bpo-32221(425): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-32147(426): *note binascii.unhexlify(): 1a4e. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-30693(427): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(428): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-31680(429): Added *note curses.ncurses_version: 9e3.

   - bpo-31908(430): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31608(431): Raise a ‘TypeError’ instead of crashing if a
     ‘collections.deque’ subclass returns a non-deque from ‘__new__’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31425(432): Add support for sockets of the AF_QIPCRTR address
     family, supported by the Linux kernel.  This is used to communicate
     with services, such as GPS or radio, running on Qualcomm devices.
     Patch by Bjorn Andersson.

   - bpo-22005(433): Implemented unpickling instances of *note datetime:
     1cc, *note date: 1cd. and *note time: 1ce. pickled by Python 2.
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ should be used for successful decoding.

   - bpo-27645(434): *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. now exposes a *note
     backup: b77. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   - bpo-16865(435): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch
     by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31508(436): Removed support of arguments in
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection’.  It was deprecated in 3.6.  Use
     specialized methods like ‘selection_set’ for changing the
     selection.

   - bpo-29456(437): Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and
     u11c3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35845

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35847

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35780

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23846

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34323

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35674

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35733

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35726

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35719

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35717

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35699

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35682

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35643

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35619

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28503

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35614

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35568

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35588

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35585

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30561

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35526

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35523

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35502

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35348

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35491

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35477

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31446

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<51>,  Next: Tests<52>,  Prev: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21257(1): Document *note http.client.parse_headers(): 1a50.

   - bpo-34764(2): Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.

   - bpo-35564(3): Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for
     compliance with Sphinx 2.0

   - bpo-35511(4): Specified that profile.Profile class doesn’t not
     support enable or disable methods.  Also, elaborated that Profile
     object as a context manager is only supported in cProfile module.

   - bpo-10536(5): Enhance the gettext docs.  Patch by Éric Araujo

   - bpo-35089(6): Remove mention of ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’.  Their
     types should be imported from ‘typing’ directly.

   - bpo-35038(7): Fix the documentation about an unexisting
     ‘f_restricted’ attribute in the frame object.  Patch by Stéphane
     Wirtel

   - bpo-35042(8): Replace PEP XYZ by the pep role and allow to use the
     direct links to the PEPs.

   - bpo-35044(9): Fix the documentation with the role ‘exc’ for the
     appropriated exception.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35035(10): Rename documentation for *note email.utils: 50. to
     ‘email.utils.rst’.

   - bpo-34967(11): Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated
     Sphinx function app.description_unit()

   - bpo-34913(12): Add documentation about the new command line
     interface of the gzip module.

   - bpo-32174(13): chm document displays non-ASCII characters properly
     on some MBCS Windows systems.

   - bpo-11233(14): Create availability directive for documentation.
     Original patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-34790(15): Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait()
     can be confusing.

   - bpo-34552(16): Make clear that ‘==’ operator sometimes is
     equivalent to ‘is’.  The ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ and ‘>=’ operators are only
     defined where they make sense.

   - bpo-28617(17): Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types
     that support membership tests.

   - bpo-20177(18): Migrate datetime.date.fromtimestamp to Argument
     Clinic.  Patch by Tim Hoffmann.

   - bpo-34065(19): Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup
     syntax

   - bpo-33460(20): replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in
     tutorial chapter 3.

   - bpo-33847(21): Add ‘@’ operator entry to index.

   - bpo-33409(22): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(23)’s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33197(24): Add versionadded tag to the documentation of
     ParameterKind.description

   - bpo-17045(25): Improve the C-API doc for PyTypeObject.  This
     includes adding several quick-reference tables and a lot of missing
     slot/typedef entries.  The existing entries were also cleaned up
     with a slightly more consistent format.

   - bpo-33736(26): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b15, *note asyncio.start_server(): b16.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-23859(27): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(28): Document PEP 567(29) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(30): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning,
     bump removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33594(31): Document ‘getargspec’, ‘from_function’ and
     ‘from_builtin’ as deprecated in their respective docstring, and
     include version since deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.

   - bpo-33503(32): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(33): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33487(34): BZ2file now emit a DeprecationWarning when
     buffering=None is passed, the deprecation message and documentation
     also now explicitly state it is deprecated since 3.0.

   - bpo-33378(35): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(36): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(37): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(38): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’
     document.  ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python
     3.3, but it is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(39): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(40): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(41): Update *note zipapp: 130. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(42): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(43): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-28124(44): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(45): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(46): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(47): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(48): Update *note test.support: e4. documentation.

   - bpo-32613(49): Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command
     from PEP 397 instead of python.

   - bpo-8722(50): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 346.

   - bpo-32614(51): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-20709(52): Remove the paragraph where we explain that
     os.utime() does not support a directory as path under Windows.
     Patch by Jan-Philip Gehrcke

   - bpo-32722(53): Remove the bad example in the tutorial of the
     Generator Expression.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31972(54): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-30607(55): Use the externalized ‘python-docs-theme’ package
     when building the documentation.

   - bpo-8243(56): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(57): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   - bpo-25041(58): Document ‘AF_PACKET’ in the *note socket: cc.
     module.

   - bpo-31432(59): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35511

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10536

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35038

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35042

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35044

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35035

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34967

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34913

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32174

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11233

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34552

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28617

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20177

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34065

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33460

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33847

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17045

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33594

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32613

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20709

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32722

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30607

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25041

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<52>,  Next: Build<54>,  Prev: Documentation<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-35772(1): Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with
     the tmpfs filesystem.  Fix the function testing if the filesystem
     supports sparse files: create a file which contains data and
     “holes”, instead of creating a file which contains no data.  tmpfs
     effective block size is a page size (tmpfs lives in the page
     cache).  RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64, ppc64le, only
     s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch holes of 4
     KiB.

   - bpo-35045(2): Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as
     system default.  The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on
     Fedora 29.

   - bpo-32710(3): ‘test_asyncio/test_sendfile.py’ now resets the event
     loop policy using ‘tearDownModule()’ as done in other tests, to
     prevent a warning when running tests on Windows.

   - bpo-33717(4): test.pythoninfo now logs information of all clocks,
     not only time.time() and time.perf_counter().

   - bpo-35488(5): Add a test to pathlib’s Path.match() to verify it
     does not support glob-style ** recursive pattern matching.

   - bpo-31731(6): Fix a race condition in ‘check_interrupted_write()’
     of test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked,
     rather than blocking the signal later from the thread.  Previously,
     it was possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal
     is blocked.

   - bpo-35424(7): Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ with a context manager and then explicitly
     join the pool.

   - bpo-35519(8): Rename ‘test.bisect’ module to ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to
     avoid conflict with *note bisect: 11. module when running directly
     a test like ‘./python Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py’.

   - bpo-35513(9): Replace *note time.time(): 254. with *note
     time.monotonic(): 253. in tests to measure time delta.

   - bpo-34279(10): ‘test.support.run_unittest()’ no longer raise
     ‘TestDidNotRun’ if the test result contains skipped tests.  The
     exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test
     have been skipped.

   - bpo-35412(11): Add testcase to ‘test_future4’: check unicode
     literal.

   - bpo-26704(12): Added test demonstrating double-patching of an
     instance method.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33725(13): test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent
     versions of macOS. Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on
     macOS.

   - bpo-35352(14): Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from
     the test directory.

   - bpo-35317(15): Fix ‘mktime()’ overflow error in ‘test_email’: run
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true()’ and
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true()’ with a specific
     timezone.

   - bpo-21263(16): After several reports that test_gdb does not work
     properly on macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore,
     test_gdb is now skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to
     compile Python.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   - bpo-34279(17): regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been
     executed in a particular test file.  Also, a new final result state
     is issued if no test have been executed across all test files.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34962(18): make docstest in Doc now passes., and is enforced in
     CI

   - bpo-23596(19): Use argparse for the command line of the gzip
     module.  Patch by Antony Lee

   - bpo-34537(20): Fix ‘test_gdb.test_strings()’ when ‘LC_ALL=C’ and
     GDB was compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.

   - bpo-34587(21): test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion().  The
     test tries to fill the receiver’s socket buffer and expects an
     error.  But the RDS protocol doesn’t require that.  Moreover, the
     Linux implementation of RDS expects that the producer of the
     messages reduces its rate, it’s not the role of the receiver to
     trigger an error.  The test fails on Fedora 28 by design, so just
     remove it.

   - bpo-34661(22): Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn’t support -t.

   - bpo-34200(23): Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not
     using the scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and
     restore sys.modules contents between test cases.

   - bpo-34569(24): The experimental PEP 554 data channels now correctly
     pass negative PyLong objects between subinterpreters on 32-bit
     systems.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34594(25): Fix usage of hardcoded ‘errno’ values in the tests.

   - bpo-34579(26): Fix test_embed for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-34542(27): Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test
     certs and keys.

   - bpo-11193(28): Remove special condition for AIX in
     ‘test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env’

   - bpo-34347(29): Fix ‘test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line’ for AIX

   - bpo-34490(30): On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname()
     does not provide ‘sockname’, so skip calls to
     transport.get_extra_info(‘sockname’)

   - bpo-34391(31): Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data
     socket.

   - bpo-11192(32): Fix ‘test_socket’ on AIX 6.1 and later IPv6 zone id
     supports only supported by ‘inet_pton6_zone()’.  Switch to
     runtime-based ‘platform.system()’ to establish current platform
     rather than build-time based ‘sys.platform()’

   - bpo-34399(33): Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least
     2048 bits.

   - bpo-34373(34): Fix ‘test_mktime’ and ‘test_pthread_getcpuclickid’
     tests for AIX Add range checking for ‘_PyTime_localtime’ for AIX
     Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-11191(35): Skip the distutils test ‘test_search_cpp’ when using
     XLC as compiler patch by aixtools (Michael Felt)

   - Improved an error message when mock assert_has_calls fails.

   - bpo-33746(36): Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.

   - bpo-33901(37): Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a
     larger value to make sure that the file size changes.

   - bpo-33873(38): Fix a bug in ‘regrtest’ that caused an extra test to
     run if –huntrleaks/-R was used.  Exit with error in case that
     invalid parameters are specified to –huntrleaks/-R (at least one
     warmup run and one repetition must be used).

   - bpo-33562(39): Check that a global asyncio event loop policy is not
     left behind by any tests.

   - bpo-33655(40): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD
     platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32962(41): Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags
     -mcet -fcf-protection -O0.

   - bpo-33358(42): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   - bpo-32872(43): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(44): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32663(45): Making sure the ‘SMTPUTF8SimTests’ class of tests
     gets run in ‘test_smtplib.py’.

   - bpo-27643(46): Test_C test case needs “signed short” bitfields, but
     the IBM XLC compiler (on AIX) does not support this Skip the code
     and test when AIX and XLC are used

     Applicable to Python2-2.7 and later

   - bpo-19417(47): Add test_bdb.py.

   - bpo-31809(48): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH
     curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35045

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33717

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35488

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31731

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35519

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26704

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35352

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35317

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21263

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34962

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23596

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34537

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34587

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34200

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34569

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34594

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34579

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34542

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11193

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34347

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34490

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34391

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11192

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34399

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11191

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33746

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33901

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33873

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33562

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32663

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27643

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<54>,  Next: Windows<50>,  Prev: Tests<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-34691(1): The _contextvars module is now built into the core
     Python library on Windows.

   - bpo-35683(2): Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now
     verifying layouts correctly

   - bpo-35642(3): Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj

   - bpo-35550(4): Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun
     && __SVR4 instead of sun when compiling.

   - bpo-35499(5): ‘make profile-opt’ no longer replaces ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     with ‘CFLAGS’.  It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags
     to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’: existing ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’ flags are kept.

   - bpo-35257(6): Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time
     Optimizations (LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.

   - bpo-35351(7): When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags
     are no longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions
     through distutils.

   - bpo-35139(8): Fix a compiler error when statically linking
     ‘pyexpat’ in ‘Modules/Setup’.

   - bpo-35059(9): PCbuild: Set InlineFunctionExpansion to
     OnlyExplicitInline (“/Ob1” option) in pyproject.props in Debug mode
     to expand functions marked as inline.  This change should make
     Python compiled in Debug mode a little bit faster on Windows.

   - bpo-35011(10): Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our
     embedded copy of the expat C library so that its symbols do not
     conflict at link or dynamic loading time with an embedding
     application or other extension modules with their own version of
     libexpat.

   - bpo-28015(11): Have –with-lto works correctly with clang.

   - bpo-34765(12): Update the outdated install-sh file to the latest
     revision from automake v1.16.1

   - bpo-34585(13): Check for floating-point byte order in configure.ac
     using compilation tests instead of executing code, so that these
     checks work in cross-compiled builds.

   - bpo-34710(14): Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL & pedantic
     CFLAGS.

   - bpo-34582(15): Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update
     Azure DevOps builds.

   - bpo-34081(16): Make Sphinx warnings as errors in the Docs Makefile.

   - bpo-34555(17): Fix for case where it was not possible to have both
     ‘HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H’ and ‘HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG’ be undefined.

   - bpo-33015(18): Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread
     implementation of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’: add a function
     wrapper to always return ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-34245(19): The Python shared library is now installed with
     write permission (mode 0755), which is the standard way of
     installing such libraries.

   - bpo-34121(20): Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.

   - bpo-32430(21): Rename Modules/Setup.dist to Modules/Setup, and
     remove the necessity to copy the former manually to the latter when
     updating the local source tree.

   - bpo-30345(22): Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get
     debug symbols.

   - bpo-5755(23): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(24): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI
     on Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33648(25): The –with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has
     been removed.  It has had no effect for about a year.

   - bpo-33522(26): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33512(27): configure’s check for “long double” has been
     simplified

   - bpo-33483(28): C compiler is now correctly detected from the
     standard environment variables.  –without-gcc and –with-icc options
     have been removed.

   - bpo-33394(29): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(30): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(31): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants
     (used in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(32): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’
     are no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(33): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   - bpo-33163(34): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   - bpo-33012(35): gcc 8 has added a new warning heuristic to detect
     invalid function casts and a stock python build seems to hit that
     warning quite often.  The most common is the cast of a METH_NOARGS
     function (that uses just one argument) to a PyCFunction.  Fix this
     by adding a dummy argument to all functions that implement
     METH_NOARGS.

   - bpo-32898(36): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   - bpo-29442(37): Replace optparse with argparse in setup.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34691

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35550

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35499

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35257

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35351

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35139

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35011

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28015

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34765

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34585

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34710

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34582

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34081

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34555

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33015

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34245

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34121

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30345

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33648

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33512

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33483

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29442


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<50>,  Next: macOS<40>,  Prev: Build<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35890(1): Fix API calling consistency of GetVersionEx and
     wcstok.

   - bpo-32560(2): The ‘py’ launcher now forwards its ‘STARTUPINFO’
     structure to child processes.

   - bpo-35854(3): Fix EnvBuilder and –symlinks in venv on Windows

   - bpo-35811(4): Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via
     py.exe

   - bpo-35797(5): Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing
     module

   - bpo-35758(6): Allow building on ARM with MSVC.

   - bpo-29734(7): Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.

   - bpo-35596(8): Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid
     zipimport restrictions.

   - bpo-35596(9): Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro
     multiple times.

   - bpo-35402(10): Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9

   - bpo-35401(11): Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j

   - bpo-34977(12): venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector
     rather than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.

   - bpo-34977(13): Adds support for building a Windows App Store
     package

   - bpo-35067(14): Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe
     instead.

   - bpo-32557(15): Allow shutil.disk_usage to take a file path on
     Windows

   - bpo-34770(16): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     pyshellext.cpp.

   - bpo-34603(17): Fix returning structs from functions produced by
     MSVC

   - bpo-34581(18): Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with
     ‘#ifdef _MSC_VER’.

   - bpo-34532(19): Fixes exit code of list version arguments for
     py.exe.

   - bpo-34062(20): Fixed the ‘–list’ and ‘–list-paths’ arguments for
     the py.exe launcher

   - bpo-34225(21): Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a
     backslash.

   - bpo-34011(22): A suite of code has been changed which copied across
     DLLs and init.tcl from the running Python location into a venv
     being created.  These copies are needed only when running from a
     Python source build, and the copying code is now only run when that
     is the case, rather than whenever a venv is created.

   - bpo-34006(23): Revert line length limit for Windows help docs.  The
     line-length limit is not needed because the pages appear in a
     separate app rather than on a browser tab.  It can also interact
     badly with the DPI setting.

   - bpo-31546(24): Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for
     user input at the prompt.  The restores integration of interactive
     GUI windows (such as Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on
     Windows.

   - bpo-30237(25): Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by
     CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.

   - bpo-33895(26): GIL is released while calling functions that acquire
     Windows loader lock.

   - bpo-33720(27): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   - bpo-29097(28): Fix bug where ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ erroneously
     throws an *note OSError: 411. on Windows for values between 0 and
     86400.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33316(29): PyThread_release_lock always fails

   - bpo-33184(30): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32890(31): Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in
     os.execve() and os.truncate().

   - bpo-33016(32): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(33): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-32901(34): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(35): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(36): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(37): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(38): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(39): Fix *note os.readlink(): 91c. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-1104(40): Correctly handle string length in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty()’ to prevent it from truncating
     the last character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32560

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35854

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35797

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35758

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29734

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35067

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32557

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34770

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34532

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34062

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34225

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34006

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30237

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33895

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29097

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33316

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32890

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1104


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<40>,  Next: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Windows<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-35401(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.

   - bpo-35025(2): Properly guard the use of the ‘CLOCK_GETTIME’ et al.
     macros in ‘timemodule’ on macOS.

   - bpo-24658(3): On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file
     with a size larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-34405(4): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.

   - bpo-33635(5): In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3
     f.e) will result in bad file descriptor OSError.  Guard against
     this exception was added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods.
     DirEntry.is_dir can also throw this exception so
     _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories was also extended
     with the same error ignoring pattern.

   - bpo-13631(6): The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   - bpo-33184(7): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32726(8): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   - bpo-32901(9): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   - bpo-31903(10): In ‘_scproxy’, drop the GIL when calling into
     ‘SystemConfiguration’ to avoid deadlocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35025

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24658

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31903


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<39>,  Next: Tools/Demos<28>,  Prev: macOS<40>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35770(1): IDLE macosx deletes Options => Configure IDLE. It
     previously deleted Window => Zoom Height by mistake.  (Zoom Height
     is now on the Options menu).  On Mac, the settings dialog is
     accessed via Preferences on the IDLE menu.

   - bpo-35769(2): Change IDLE’s new file name from ‘Untitled’ to
     ‘untitled’

   - bpo-35660(3): Fix imports in idlelib.window.

   - bpo-35641(4): Proper format ‘calltip’ when the function has no
     docstring.

   - bpo-33987(5): Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.

   - bpo-34055(6): Fix erroneous ‘smart’ indents and newlines in IDLE
     Shell.

   - bpo-35591(7): Find Selection now works when selection not found.

   - bpo-35196(8): Speed up squeezer line counting.

   - bpo-35598(9): Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets,
     make some objects global, and add tests.

   - bpo-28097(10): Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.

   - bpo-35208(11): Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before
     newlines.

   - bpo-35555(12): Gray out Code Context menu entry when it’s not
     applicable.

   - bpo-35521(13): Document the IDLE editor code context feature.  Add
     some internal references within the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-22703(14): The Code Context menu label now toggles between
     Show/Hide Code Context.  The Zoom Height menu now toggles between
     Zoom/Restore Height.  Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to
     the Options menu.

   - bpo-35213(15): Where appropriate, use ‘macOS’ in idlelib.

   - bpo-34864(16): On macOS, warn if the system preference “Prefer tabs
     when opening documents” is set to “Always”.

   - bpo-34864(17): Document two IDLE on MacOS issues.  The System
     Preferences Dock “prefer tabs always” setting disables some IDLE
     features.  Menus are a bit different than as described for Windows
     and Linux.

   - bpo-35202(18): Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib

   - bpo-33000(19): Document that IDLE’s shell has no line limit.  A
     program that runs indefinitely can overfill memory.

   - bpo-23220(20): Explain how IDLE’s Shell displays output.

   - bpo-35099(21): Improve the doc about IDLE running user code.  The
     section is renamed from “IDLE – console differences” is renamed
     “Running user code”.  It mostly covers the implications of using
     custom ‘sys.stdXXX’ objects.

   - bpo-35097(22): Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows.
     Topics include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and
     running.

   - bpo-35093(23): Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc.
     Add a paragraph in “Help and preferences”, “Help sources”
     subsection.

   - bpo-35088(24): Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring.  We now
     use git and backporting instead of hg and forward merging.

   - bpo-35087(25): Update idlelib help files for the current doc build.
     The main change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.

   - bpo-34548(26): Use configured color theme for read-only text views.

   - bpo-1529353(27): Enable “squeezing” of long outputs in the shell,
     to avoid performance degradation and to clean up the history
     without losing it.  Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a
     separate window, and “unsqueezed”.

   - bpo-34047(28): Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.

   - bpo-34275(29): Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac.  Some
     MacOS-tk combinations need .update_idletasks().  Patch by Kevin
     Walzer.

   - bpo-34120(30): Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows
     and dialogs.

   - bpo-33975(31): Avoid small type when running htests.  Since part of
     the purpose of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look
     right, it is important that they look the same for testing as when
     running IDLE.

   - bpo-33905(32): Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.

   - bpo-33924(33): Change mainmenu.menudefs key ‘windows’ to ‘window’.
     Every other menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.

   - bpo-33906(34): Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the
     main menu and remove last plural module name.

   - bpo-33917(35): Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py.  The
     revised file compiles, runs, and tests OK. idle_test/README.txt
     explains how to use it to create new IDLE test files.

   - bpo-33904(36): IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as
     Rstrip

   - bpo-33907(37): For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module
     and classes.  Module calltips and its class CallTips are now
     calltip and Calltip.  In module calltip_w, class CallTip is now
     CalltipWindow.

   - bpo-33856(38): Add “help” in the welcome message of IDLE

   - bpo-33839(39): IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add
     documentation and tests

   - bpo-33855(40): Minimally test all IDLE modules.  Add missing files,
     import module, instantiate classes, and check coverage.  Check
     existing files.

   - bpo-33656(41): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(42): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the
     top of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(43): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(44): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(45): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(46): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(47): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(48): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-21474(49): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(50): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     ‘u’ string prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32984(51): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(52): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(53): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(54): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(55): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(56): Using the system and place-dependent default
     encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and
     location-independent files.

   - bpo-32826(57): Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32831(58): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   - bpo-32765(59): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35770

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35591

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35196

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28097

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35208

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35521

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22703

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35213

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35202

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33000

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23220

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35099

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35097

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35093

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35087

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34548

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34275

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34120

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33975

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33905

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33924

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33906

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33917

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33907

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33856

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33839

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33855

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<28>,  Next: C API<53>,  Prev: IDLE<39>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-35884(1): Add a benchmark script for timing various ways to
     access variables: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.

   - bpo-34989(2): python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the
     line number of a Python frame.

   - bpo-20260(3): Argument Clinic now has non-bitwise unsigned int
     converters.

   - bpo-32962(4): python-gdb now catches ‘UnicodeDecodeError’
     exceptions when calling ‘string()’.

   - bpo-32962(5): python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when
     Python has no debug symbols for example.

   - bpo-33189(6): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(7): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(8): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-25427(9): Remove the pyvenv script in favor of ‘python3 -m
     venv’ in order to lower confusion as to what Python interpreter a
     virtual environment will be created for.

   - bpo-32885(10): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-32222(11): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for
     functions with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   - bpo-31583(12): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34989

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20260

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<53>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<28>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.23.58.11 C API
................

   - bpo-35713(1): The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’
     functions have been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4
     and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI),
     and were not documented.

   - bpo-33817(2): Fixed *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 165b. for empty bytes
     objects.

   - bpo-35322(3): Fix memory leak in *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale():
     bc7. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a58. on error
     handling.

   - bpo-35059(4): The following C macros have been converted to static
     inline functions: *note Py_INCREF(): 569, *note Py_DECREF(): 56a,
     *note Py_XINCREF(): a61, *note Py_XDECREF(): 788,
     ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’.

   - bpo-35296(5): ‘make install’ now also installs the internal API:
     ‘Include/internal/*.h’ header files.

   - bpo-35081(6): Internal APIs surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_BUILD_CORE’
     have been moved from ‘Include/*.h’ headers to new header files
     ‘Include/internal/pycore_*.h’.

   - bpo-35259(7): Conditionally declare *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.
     (new in 3.6) based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.

   - bpo-35081(8): The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C
     API.

   - bpo-35134(9): Creation of a new ‘Include/cpython/’ subdirectory.

   - bpo-34725(10): Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may
     override sys.executable

   - bpo-34910(11): Ensure that *note PyObject_Print(): 15f9. always
     returns ‘-1’ on error.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34523(12): Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now use the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows if Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag is
     zero.

   - bpo-34193(13): Fix pluralization in TypeError messages in getargs.c
     and typeobject.c: ‘1 argument’ instead of ‘1 arguments’ and ‘1
     element’ instead of ‘1 elements’.

   - bpo-34127(14): Return grammatically correct error message based on
     argument count.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-23927(15): Fixed *note SystemError: 570. in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. when the ‘w*’ format unit is
     used for optional parameter.

   - bpo-32455(16): Added ‘PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump()’.

   - bpo-34008(17): Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(),
     as in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-32500(18): Fixed error messages for *note PySequence_Size():
     1a59, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a, *note PySequence_SetItem():
     1a5b. and *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a5c. called with a mapping
     and *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a5d. called with a sequence.

   - bpo-33818(19): *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a62. will now return
     ‘const char *’ instead of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-33042(20): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(21): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   - bpo-30863(22): *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1a5e. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8b9. no longer cache the ‘wchar_t*’
     representation of string objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33817

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35322

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35296

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34910

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34193

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34127

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23927

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32500

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30863


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 final,  Next: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.59 Python 3.7.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<58>.
* C API: C API<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<58>,  Next: C API<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.23.59.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-33851(1): Fix *note ast.get_docstring(): 1a61. for a node that
     lacks a docstring.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33851


File: python.info,  Node: C API<54>,  Prev: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.23.59.2 C API
...............

   - bpo-33932(1): Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead
     of failing with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33932


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.60 Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<59>,  Next: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.60.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33803(1): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33706(2): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the
     command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report
     and the fix!

   - bpo-30654(3): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849


File: python.info,  Node: Library<59>,  Next: Documentation<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.60.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33694(4): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(5): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(6): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33778(7): Update ‘unicodedata’’s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33770(8): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(9): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(10): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 532. instead of
     *note SystemError: 570. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 20b.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(11): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-11874(12): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-33582(13): Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<52>,  Next: Build<55>,  Prev: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.60.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33409(1): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(2)’s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33736(3): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b15, *note asyncio.start_server(): b16.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-31432(4): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Build<55>,  Next: Windows<51>,  Prev: Documentation<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.60.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<51>,  Next: IDLE<40>,  Prev: Build<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.60.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33720(1): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<40>,  Prev: Windows<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.23.60.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.61 Python 3.7.0 beta 5
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<60>,  Next: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33622(1): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 11b0. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 98b. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33509(2): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-20104(3): The new ‘os.posix_spawn’ added in 3.7.0b1 was removed
     as we are still working on what the API should look like.  Expect
     this in 3.8 instead.

   - bpo-33475(4): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to
     strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-32911(7): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(8).  ‘docstring’
     field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and
     AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-21983(9): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<60>,  Next: Documentation<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32751(1): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(2): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(3): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(4): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33674(5): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(6): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(7): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(8): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(10): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(11): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(12): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(13): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): ba5. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33618(14): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33623(15): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-30877(16): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33570(17): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(18): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-33540(19): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     cd.

   - bpo-33548(20): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(21): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(22) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33536(23): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(24): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(25): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33505(26): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(27): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-33495(28): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     ‘type’ member.

   - bpo-33453(29): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type
     annotations or if using PEP 563 “Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations”.  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar (“ClassVar” and “typing.ClassVar”) and InitVar (“InitVar”
     and “dataclasses.InitVar”).

   - bpo-28556(30): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(31): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(32): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(33): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33197(34): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33263(35): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-32861(36): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and
     “Request-rate” fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-32257(37): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<53>,  Next: Tests<53>,  Prev: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23859(1): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(2): Document PEP 567(3) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(4): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump
     removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33503(5): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(6): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<53>,  Next: Build<56>,  Prev: Documentation<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32604(2): Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for
     testing) and associated helpers.  This module was originally added
     recently in 3.7b1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604


File: python.info,  Node: Build<56>,  Next: macOS<41>,  Prev: Tests<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33614(1): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(2): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(3): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<41>,  Next: IDLE<41>,  Prev: Build<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-13631(1): The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<41>,  Prev: macOS<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.23.61.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33628(1): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(2): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-32831(3): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Up: Changelog

1.23.62 Python 3.7.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<61>,  Next: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33363(1): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async for’
     statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-33128(2): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33312(3): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33231(4): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(5): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(6): Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(7): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199


File: python.info,  Node: Library<61>,  Next: Documentation<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-33281(1): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33383(2): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(3): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(4): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1a4a.

   - bpo-33131(5): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(6): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33266(7): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(8): Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(9): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 1f2. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1a4b. return an
     *note iterable: 1217. instead of an *note iterator: 1ac.

   - bpo-33256(10): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33185(11): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 5db. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(12)) This fix also changed pydoc to add
     ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path: 3ae. when necessary, rather than
     adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-33169(13): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33217(14): Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum
     classes and Enum members (will raise *note TypeError: 532. in
     3.8+).

   - bpo-33203(15): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(16): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(17).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(18): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1a4c.

   - bpo-20104(19): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 220.

   - bpo-33175(20): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-33097(21): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-31908(22): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<54>,  Next: Tests<54>,  Prev: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33378(1): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(2): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(3): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(4): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-8243(5): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(6): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<54>,  Next: Build<57>,  Prev: Documentation<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33358(1): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358


File: python.info,  Node: Build<57>,  Next: Windows<52>,  Prev: Tests<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33394(1): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(2): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(3): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used
     in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(4): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’ are
     no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(5): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<52>,  Next: macOS<42>,  Prev: Build<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<42>,  Next: IDLE<42>,  Prev: Windows<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<42>,  Next: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: macOS<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-21474(1): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(2): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     ‘u’ string prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: IDLE<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.23.62.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-31583(4): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.63 Python 3.7.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-29'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<55>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<40>,  Next: Core and Builtins<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33136(1): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970(2).
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen.
     A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

   - bpo-33001(3): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(4): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(5) and CVE 2018-1061(6).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<62>,  Next: Library<62>,  Prev: Security<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33053(1): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33018(2): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33041(3): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-33026(4): Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(5): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-17288(6): Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace
     events.

   - bpo-32836(7): Don’t use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836


File: python.info,  Node: Library<62>,  Next: Documentation<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33141(1): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their
     default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(2): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(3): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(4): When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(5): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(6): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(7): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on
     sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(8): Add ‘Field’ to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(9): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(10): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s a
     MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in __slots__,
     not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(11): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass,
     allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only attributes
     from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.  Require all
     dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all
     non-frozen.

   - bpo-33061(12): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(13): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(14): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(15): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(16): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(17): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(18): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(19): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 80. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32999(20): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(21): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(22): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(23): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules
     ‘aifc’, *note wave: 113. and ‘sunau’.

   - bpo-32844(24): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32857(25): In *note tkinter: f0, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 202. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31639(26): http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-27645(27): *note sqlite3.Connection: 245. now exposes a *note
     backup: b77. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<55>,  Next: Tests<55>,  Prev: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33126(1): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(2): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(3): Update *note zipapp: 130. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(4): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(5): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<55>,  Next: Build<58>,  Prev: Documentation<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(2): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-19417(3): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<58>,  Next: Windows<53>,  Prev: Tests<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<53>,  Next: macOS<43>,  Prev: Build<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<43>,  Next: IDLE<43>,  Prev: Windows<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<43>,  Next: Tools/Demos<30>,  Prev: macOS<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<30>,  Next: C API<55>,  Prev: IDLE<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32885(1): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885


File: python.info,  Node: C API<55>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<30>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.23.63.11 C API
................

   - bpo-33042(1): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(2): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.64 Python 3.7.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<41>,  Next: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-28414(1): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<63>,  Next: Library<63>,  Prev: Security<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32889(1): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-31356(2): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(3)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(4): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(5): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’ for
     namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(6): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(7): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583


File: python.info,  Node: Library<63>,  Next: Documentation<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32960(1): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(2): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32951(3): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(4): Remove the tri-state parameter “hash”, and add the
     boolean “unsafe_hash”.  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(5): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-30622(6): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(7): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(8): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(9): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-25988(10): Emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when using or
     importing an ABC directly from *note collections: 1d. rather than
     from *note collections.abc: 1e.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     “No dist file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must
     create and upload files in one command”.

   - bpo-32852(12): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(13): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module with
     C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.  Note that the new
     implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously
     accessible via private attributes ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’,
     and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There are three debugging helper
     methods that can be used instead ‘_dump_registry’,
     ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(15): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-32394(16): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(17): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(18): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32792(19): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(20): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a4d. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with ‘[’ or
     containing ‘–’, ‘&&’, ‘~~’ or ‘||’ will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(21): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(22): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(23): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32741(24): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(25): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(26): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(27): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(28): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(29): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(30): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(31): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f9.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32221(32): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-30693(33): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(34): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<56>,  Next: Tests<56>,  Prev: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28124(1): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(2): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(3): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(4): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(5): Update *note test.support: e4. documentation.

   - bpo-8722(6): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 346.

   - bpo-32614(7): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(8): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<56>,  Next: Build<59>,  Prev: Documentation<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31809(1): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<59>,  Next: Windows<54>,  Prev: Tests<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32898(1): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<54>,  Next: macOS<44>,  Prev: Build<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32901(1): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(2): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(3): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(4): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(5): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(6): Fix *note os.readlink(): 91c. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<44>,  Next: IDLE<44>,  Prev: Windows<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32901(1): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<44>,  Next: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: macOS<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32916(1): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(2): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(3): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(4): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(5): Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(6): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: IDLE<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.23.64.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32222(1): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.65 Python 3.7.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* C API: C API<56>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<64>,  Next: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32703(1): Fix coroutine’s ResourceWarning when there’s an
     active error set when it’s being finalized.

   - bpo-32650(2): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28685(3): Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type
     specialized comparisons when possible.

   - bpo-32685(4): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32697(5): Python now explicitly preserves the definition order
     of keyword-only parameters.  It’s always preserved their order, but
     this behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now
     guaranteed and tested.

   - bpo-32690(6): The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     reversed.

   - bpo-32677(7): Add ‘.isascii()’ method to ‘str’, ‘bytes’ and
     ‘bytearray’.  It can be used to test that string contains only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-32670(8): Enforce PEP 479(9) for all code.  This means that
     manually raising a StopIteration exception from a generator is
     prohibited for all code, regardless of whether ‘from __future__
     import generator_stop’ was used or not.

   - bpo-32591(10): Added built-in support for tracking the origin of
     coroutine objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and
     CoroutineType.cr_origin.  This replaces the asyncio debug mode’s
     use of coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.

   - bpo-31368(11): Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-32544(12): ‘hasattr(obj, name)’ and ‘getattr(obj, name,
     default)’ are about 4 times faster than before when ‘name’ is not
     found and ‘obj’ doesn’t override ‘__getattr__’ or
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - bpo-26163(13): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-32550(14): Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.

   - bpo-20104(15): Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os
     module.  (removed before 3.7.0rc1)

   - bpo-24340(16): Fixed estimation of the code stack size.

   - bpo-32436(17): Implement PEP 567(18) Context Variables.

   - bpo-18533(19): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-20891(20): Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no
     longer created “on demand” to fix a race condition when
     PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread.

   - bpo-32028(21): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31179(22): Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.

   - bpo-31113(23): Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal
     control flow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32703

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24340

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31113


File: python.info,  Node: Library<64>,  Next: Documentation<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25988(1): Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in
     the regular collections module.

   - bpo-31429(2): The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module
     now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.
     Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by
     OpenSSL security update.  Default cipher suite selection can be
     configured on compile time.

   - bpo-30306(3): contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments
     passed to the underlying generator as soon as the context manager
     is entered.  Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the
     context manager was alive, even when not being used as a function
     decorator.  Patch by Martin Teichmann.

   - bpo-21417(4): Added support for setting the compression level for
     zipfile.ZipFile.

   - bpo-32251(5): Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).

   - bpo-32513(6): In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder
     methods without specifying decorator parameters.

   - bpo-32660(7): *note termios: e1. makes available ‘FIONREAD’,
     ‘FIONCLEX’, ‘FIOCLEX’, ‘FIOASYNC’ and ‘FIONBIO’ also under
     Solaris/derivatives.

   - bpo-27931(8): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32659(9): Under Solaris and derivatives, *note os.stat_result:
     1487. provides a st_fstype attribute.

   - bpo-32662(10): Implement Server.start_serving(),
     Server.serve_forever(), and Server.is_serving() methods.  Add
     ‘start_serving’ keyword parameter to loop.create_server() and
     loop.create_unix_server().

   - bpo-32391(11): Implement *note asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed():
     b09. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing(): b0a. methods

   - bpo-32643(12): Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and
     Future._schedule_callbacks methods private.

   - bpo-32630(13): Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store
     decimal context.

   - bpo-32622(14): Add ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile()’ method.

   - bpo-32304(15): distutils’ upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(16): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-32596(17): ‘concurrent.futures’ imports ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     and ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ lazily (using PEP 562(18)).  It makes
     ‘import asyncio’ about 15% faster because asyncio uses only
     ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ by default.

   - bpo-31801(19): Add ‘_ignore_’ to ‘Enum’ so temporary variables can
     be used during class construction without being turned into
     members.

   - bpo-32576(20): Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be
     invoked from a weakref callback.

   - bpo-32574(21): Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has
     limited size and it is full, the cancelation of queue.put() can
     cause a memory leak.  Patch by: José Melero.

   - bpo-32521(22): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32467(23): collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from
     collections.abc.Collection.

   - bpo-32473(24): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32102(25): New argument ‘capture_output’ for subprocess.run

   - bpo-32521(26): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32493(27): UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD

   - bpo-32503(28): Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small
     frames.

   - bpo-29237(29): Create enum for pstats sorting options

   - bpo-32454(30): Add close(fd) function to the socket module.

   - bpo-25942(31): The subprocess module is now more graceful when
     handling a Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call,
     subprocess.run, or a Popen context manager.  It now waits a short
     amount of time for the child (presumed to have also gotten the
     SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the KeyboardInterrupt exception
     handling.  This still includes a SIGKILL in the call() and run()
     APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.

   - bpo-32433(32): The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which
     provides an optimized HMAC digest.

   - bpo-28134(33): Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol
     from file descriptor by default.

   - bpo-32404(34): Fix bug where *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4e7. did not call __new__ in
     *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. subclasses.

   - bpo-32403(35): Improved speed of *note datetime.date: 1cd. and
     *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. alternate constructors.

   - bpo-32228(36): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-32410(37): Implement ‘loop.sock_sendfile’ for asyncio event
     loop.

   - bpo-22908(38): Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class.  This
     only works if the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.

   - bpo-32373(39): Add socket.getblocking() method.

   - bpo-32248(40): Add *note importlib.resources: 7b. and *note
     importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afa. as the unified API for reading
     resources contained within packages.  Loaders wishing to support
     resource reading must implement the ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.
     File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs.
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: be4. is deprecated in favor of
     these new APIs.

   - bpo-32320(41): collections.namedtuple() now supports default
     values.

   - bpo-29302(42): Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack.  Patch by Alexander
     Mohr and Ilya Kulakov.

   - bpo-31961(43): 'Removed in Python 3.7.0b2.'  The 'args' argument of
     subprocess.Popen can now be a *note path-like object: 2a0.  If
     'args' is given as a sequence, it’s first element can now be a
     *note path-like object: 2a0. as well.

   - bpo-31900(44): The *note locale.localeconv(): bfb. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     61b. method when formatting a number (*note int: 257, *note float:
     2ef, *note float: 2ef. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31853(45): Use super().method instead of socket.method in
     SSLSocket.  They were there most likely for legacy reasons.

   - bpo-31399(46): The ssl module now uses OpenSSL’s
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API
     to verify hostname and IP addresses.  Subject common name fallback
     can be disabled with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.

   - bpo-14976(47): Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO
     queue with a reentrant C implementation of put().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32513

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32660

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32596

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32576

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32574

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32467

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32503

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29237

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32404

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22908

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31853

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<57>,  Next: Tests<57>,  Prev: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32724(1): Add references to some commands in the documentation
     of Pdb.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32649(2): Complete the C API documentation, profiling and
     tracing part with the newly added per-opcode events.

   - bpo-17799(3): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32724

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<57>,  Next: Build<60>,  Prev: Documentation<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32721(1): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-28414(2): Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names.
     IDNA 2003 internationalized host names are working since
     bpo-31399(3) has landed.  IDNA 2008 are still broken.

   - bpo-32604(4): Add a new “_xxsubinterpreters” extension module that
     exposes the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new
     cross-interpreter data sharing mechanism.  The module is primarily
     intended for more thorough testing of the existing subinterpreter
     support.  Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed
     in 3.7.0rc1.

   - bpo-32602(5): Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA
     dual mode.

   - bpo-32549(6): On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local
     copy of OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32602

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32549


File: python.info,  Node: Build<60>,  Next: Windows<55>,  Prev: Tests<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   - bpo-32598(2): Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and
     supported features.  The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config
     to locate OpenSSL and falls back to manual search.

   - bpo-32593(3): Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.

   - bpo-29708(4): If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set, *note py_compile: b3. will always create hash-based ‘.pyc’
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32598

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<55>,  Next: macOS<45>,  Prev: Build<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32588(1): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add
     missing _queue module to installer.

   - bpo-29911(2): Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are
     displayed.

   - bpo-32507(3): Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper
     update for old versions of Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32507


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<45>,  Next: C API<56>,  Prev: Windows<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to
     SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its
     own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.

   - bpo-28440(2): No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to
     sys.path for macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: C API<56>,  Prev: macOS<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.23.65.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-32681(1): Fix uninitialized variable ‘res’ in the C
     implementation of os.dup2.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-10381(2): Add C API access to the ‘datetime.timezone’
     constructor and ‘datetime.timzone.UTC’ singleton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32681

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.66 Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<57>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<65>,  Next: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31975(1): The default warning filter list now starts with a
     “default::DeprecationWarning:__main__” entry, so deprecation
     warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
     at the interactive prompt.

   - bpo-32226(2): ‘__class_getitem__’ is now an automatic class method.

   - bpo-32399(3): Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using
     uuid_create() in libc.a

   - bpo-32390(4): Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid
     field has been added to the object returned by os.statvfs()
     (bpo-32143(5)).  Original patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-32379(6): Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits
     from a single base.

   - bpo-32259(7): The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack
     non-iterable is now more specific.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): The *note -R: 1a9e. option now turns on hash
     randomization when the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. environment
     variable is set to ‘0’.  Previously, the option was ignored.
     Moreover, ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set to 0
     when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.  Increased limits for
     constants that can be produced in constant folding.

   - bpo-32282(12): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-30579(13): Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow
     Python-level creation of traceback objects, and make
     TracebackType.tb_next mutable.

   - bpo-32260(14): Don’t byte swap the input keys to the SipHash
     algorithm on big-endian platforms.  This should ensure siphash
     gives consistent results across platforms.

   - bpo-31506(15): Improve the error message logic for object.__new__
     and object.__init__.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-20361(16): ‘-b’ and ‘-bb’ now inject ‘'default::BytesWarning'’
     and ‘error::BytesWarning’ entries into ‘sys.warnoptions’, ensuring
     that they take precedence over any other warning filters configured
     via the ‘-W’ option or the ‘PYTHONWARNINGS’ environment variable.

   - bpo-32230(17): ‘-X dev’ now injects a ‘'default'’ entry into
     sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually
     passing ‘-Wdefault’ at the command line.

   - bpo-29240(18): Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the PEP
     540(19).

   - bpo-32226(20): PEP 560(21): Add support for ‘__mro_entries__’ and
     ‘__class_getitem__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32225(22): PEP 562(23): Add support for module ‘__getattr__’
     and ‘__dir__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31901(24): The ‘atexit’ module now has its callback stored per
     interpreter.

   - bpo-31650(25): Implement PEP 552(26) (Deterministic pycs).  Python
     now supports invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source
     content hash rather than source last-modified time.

   - bpo-29469(27): Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST
     layer.  Original patch by Eugene Toder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32390

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32379

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32260

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32225

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31901

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469


File: python.info,  Node: Library<65>,  Next: Documentation<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32506(1): Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order,
     drop OrderedDict and just use plain dict.

   - bpo-32279(2): Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init,
     repr, eq, order, hash, and frozen.  Pass them through to
     dataclass().

   - bpo-32278(3): Make type information optional on
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().  If omitted, the string ‘typing.Any’
     is used.

   - bpo-32499(4): Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True
     if obj is a dataclass or an instance of one.

   - bpo-32468(5): Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name
     and current line number.

   - bpo-23749(6): asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()

   - bpo-32441(7): Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second
     argument) from ‘os.dup2’.  Previously, ‘None’ was always returned.

   - bpo-32422(8): ‘functools.lru_cache’ uses less memory (3 words for
     each cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.

   - bpo-31721(9): Prevent Python crash from happening when
     Future._log_traceback is set to True manually.  Now it can only be
     set to False, or a ValueError is raised.

   - bpo-32415(10): asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()

   - bpo-26133(11): Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32363(12): Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result()
     raise NotImplementedError.  Task._step() and Future.__await__()
     raise proper exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead
     of raising an AssertionError.

   - bpo-32357(13): Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and
     loop.create_task() for non-native coroutines (e.g.  async/await
     compiled with Cython).  ‘loop.create_task(python_coroutine)’ used
     to be 20% faster than ‘loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)’.  Now,
     the latter is as fast.

   - bpo-32356(14): asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and
     pause_reading() are now idempotent.  New transport.is_reading()
     method is added.

   - bpo-32355(15): Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.

   - bpo-32351(16): Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay<0 (2x boost)

   - bpo-32348(17): Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove
     callback.  The optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of
     async/await code.

   - bpo-32331(18): Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to
     keep socket.type as is.  Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset
     any bit flags applied to socket’s type.  This change only affects
     OSes that have SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.

   - bpo-32248(19): Add *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afa. as an
     ABC for loaders to provide a unified API for reading resources
     contained within packages.  Also add *note importlib.resources: 7b.
     as the port of ‘importlib_resources’.

   - bpo-32311(20): Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut

   - bpo-32327(21): Convert asyncio functions that were documented as
     coroutines to coroutines.  Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall,
     loop.sock_recv, loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo,
     loop.getnameinfo.

   - bpo-32323(22): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3c. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(23): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-29711(24): Fix ‘stop_serving’ in asyncio proactor loop kill all
     listening servers

   - bpo-32308(25): *note re.sub(): 2a3. now replaces empty matches
     adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

   - bpo-29970(26): Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake
     not complete within 10 seconds.

   - bpo-32314(27): Implement asyncio.run().

   - bpo-17852(28): Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of
     _Py_PyAtExit() semantics.

   - bpo-32296(29): Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and
     get_event_loop() in C. This makes them 4x faster.

   - bpo-32250(30): Implement ‘asyncio.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’.  Add helpers intended to be used by
     alternative task implementations: ‘asyncio._register_task’,
     ‘asyncio._enter_task’, ‘asyncio._leave_task’ and
     ‘asyncio._unregister_task’.  Deprecate
     ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.

   - bpo-32255(31): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(32): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-30050(33): New argument warn_on_full_buffer to
     signal.set_wakeup_fd lets you control whether Python prints a
     warning on stderr when the wakeup fd buffer overflows.

   - bpo-29137(34): The ‘fpectl’ library has been removed.  It was never
     enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it
     changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C
     extensions.

   - bpo-32273(35): Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.

   - bpo-32272(36): Remove asyncio.async() function.

   - bpo-32269(37): Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.

   - bpo-32265(38): All class and static methods of builtin types now
     are correctly classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and
     grouped in pydoc ouput.  Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for
     unbound class methods of builtin types.

   - bpo-32253(39): Deprecate ‘yield from lock’, ‘await lock’, ‘with
     (yield from lock)’ and ‘with await lock’ for asyncio
     synchronization primitives.

   - bpo-22589(40): Changed MIME type of .bmp from ‘image/x-ms-bmp’ to
     ‘image/bmp’

   - bpo-32193(41): Convert asyncio to use 'async/await' syntax.  Old
     styled ‘yield from’ is still supported too.

   - bpo-32206(42): Add support to run modules with pdb

   - bpo-32227(43): ‘functools.singledispatch’ now supports registering
     implementations using type annotations.

   - bpo-15873(44): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 611, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 610. and *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 60f. as the inverse operation of
     each classes’s respective ‘isoformat’ methods.

   - bpo-32199(45): The getnode() ip getter now uses ‘ip link’ instead
     of ‘ip link list’.

   - bpo-32143(46): os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from
     statvfs(2)

   - bpo-26439(47): Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by
     implementing ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt

   - bpo-31993(48): The pickler now uses less memory when serializing
     large bytes and str objects into a file.  Pickles created with
     protocol 4 will require less memory for unpickling large bytes and
     str objects.

   - bpo-27456(49): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31778(50): ast.literal_eval() is now more strict.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.

   - bpo-31802(51): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   - bpo-30241(52): Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-31699(53): Fix deadlocks in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. when task arguments or
     results cause pickling or unpickling errors.  This should make sure
     that calls to the ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ API always eventually
     return.

   - bpo-15216(54): ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’ supports changing
     'encoding', 'errors', and 'newline'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32278

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32499

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31721

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32357

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32273

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32272

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26439

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31993

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31699

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<58>,  Next: Tests<58>,  Prev: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32418(1): Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer
     classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<58>,  Next: Windows<56>,  Prev: Documentation<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32252(1): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-32002(2): Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale
     and POSIX locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent
     behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32002


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<56>,  Next: Tools/Demos<32>,  Prev: Tests<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-19764(1): Implement support for
     ‘subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True)’ on Windows.  Patch by Segev
     Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<32>,  Next: C API<57>,  Prev: Windows<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.6 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960


File: python.info,  Node: C API<57>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<32>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.23.66.7 C API
...............

   - bpo-32030(1): Py_Initialize() doesn’t reset the memory allocators
     to default if the ‘PYTHONMALLOC’ environment variable is not set.

   - bpo-29084(2): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   - bpo-32264(3): Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it
     has no public APIs.

   - bpo-32241(4): ‘Py_SetProgramName()’ and ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ now
     take the ‘const wchar *’ arguments instead of ‘wchar *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32264

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32241


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.67 Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<58>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<66>,  Next: Library<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-10544(2): Yield expressions are now deprecated in
     comprehensions and generator expressions.  They are still permitted
     in the definition of the outermost iterable, as that is evaluated
     directly in the enclosing scope.

   - bpo-32137(3): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   - bpo-32096(4): Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move
     structures back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c.  The memory
     allocators are once again initialized statically, and so
     PyMem_RawMalloc() and Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before
     _PyRuntime_Initialize().

   - bpo-32043(5): Add a new “developer mode”: new “-X dev” command line
     option to enable debug checks at runtime.

   - bpo-32023(6): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance
     list in a class definition.  The duplication of the parentheses can
     be omitted only on calls.

   - bpo-32012(7): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but
     followed by a trailing comma.  A generator expression always needs
     to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma
     on either side.

   - bpo-28180(8): A new internal ‘_Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category)’
     helper function has been added in order to improve the consistency
     of behaviour across different ‘libc’ implementations (e.g.  Android
     doesn’t support setting the locale from the environment by
     default).

   - bpo-31949(9): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(10): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(11): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-21720(12): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31845(13): Environment variables are once more read correctly
     at interpreter startup.

   - bpo-28936(14): Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a
     parameter and ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ is detected first at a given
     scope.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31825(15): Fixed OverflowError in the ‘unicode-escape’ codec
     and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii
     byte.

   - bpo-31618(16): The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been
     altered so that ‘frame->f_lineno’ is updated before either ‘"line"’
     or ‘"opcode"’ events are emitted.  Previously, opcode events were
     emitted first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line
     numbers on the frame.  The behavior of this feature has changed
     slightly as a result: when both ‘f_trace_lines’ and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ are enabled, line events now occur first.

   - bpo-28603(17): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(18): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31781(19): Prevent crashes when calling methods of an
     uninitialized ‘zipimport.zipimporter’ object.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-30399(20): Standard repr() of BaseException with a single
     argument no longer contains redundant trailing comma.

   - bpo-31626(21): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-30817(22): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32096

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31845

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31618

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31781

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<66>,  Next: Documentation<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32214(2): PEP 557, Data Classes.  Provides a decorator which
     adds boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so
     specify fields.

   - bpo-27240(3): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(4),
     bpo-31831(5), and bpo-32182(6).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(7): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-32101(8): Add *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 1aa8. flag

   - bpo-32154(9): The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has
     been removed: use directly *note socket.socketpair(): bf2. which is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn’t
     available on Windows).  ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ was
     just an alias to ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   - bpo-32089(10): warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode
     (pydebug build), use the “default” action for ResourceWarning,
     rather than the “always” action, in the default warnings filters.

   - bpo-32107(11): ‘uuid.getnode()’ now preferentially returns
     universally administered MAC addresses if available, over locally
     administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better guarantee for
     global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from ‘uuid.uuid1()’.  If only
     locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such
     one found is returned.

   - bpo-23033(12): Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one
     and only character in the left most segment of hostname in second
     argument of ‘ssl.match_hostname()’.  Patch by Mandeep Singh.

   - bpo-12239(13): Make ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’
     return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.  Initial
     patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-28334(14): Use *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. to find the
     ‘~/.netrc’ file in *note netrc.netrc: 18c8.  If it does not exist,
     *note FileNotFoundError: 425. is raised.  Patch by Dimitri
     Merejkowsky.

   - bpo-32121(15): Made ‘tracemalloc.Traceback’ behave more like the
     traceback module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
     ‘Traceback.format()’ now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
     result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old
     behaviour, one can use the new 'most_recent_first' argument to
     ‘Traceback.format()’.  (Patch by Jesse Bakker.)

   - bpo-31325(16): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     1ca. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 1aa9. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(17): ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ now raises a better
     exception message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI file.
     Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-19610(18): ‘setup()’ now warns about invalid types for some
     fields.  The ‘distutils.dist.Distribution’ class now warns when
     ‘classifiers’, ‘keywords’ and ‘platforms’ fields are not specified
     as a list or a string.

   - bpo-32071(19): Added the ‘-k’ command-line option to ‘python -m
     unittest’ to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).

   - bpo-10049(20): Added 'nullcontext' no-op context manager to
     contextlib.  This provides a simpler and faster alternative to
     ExitStack() when handling optional context managers.

   - bpo-28684(21): The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket()
     decorator is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the
     platform lacks a functional bind() function for unix domain sockets
     (as it is the case for non root users on the recent Android
     versions that run now SELinux in enforcing mode).

   - bpo-32110(22): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-27535(23): The warnings module doesn’t leak memory anymore in
     the hidden warnings registry for the “ignore” action of warnings
     filters.  warn_explicit() function doesn’t add the warning key to
     the registry anymore for the “ignore” action.

   - bpo-32088(24): warnings: When Python is build is debug mode
     (‘Py_DEBUG’), *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. and *note ImportWarning: 4f4.
     warnings are now displayed by default.

   - bpo-1647489(25): Fixed searching regular expression patterns that
     could match an empty string.  Non-empty string can now be correctly
     found after matching an empty string.

   - bpo-25054(26): Added support of splitting on a pattern that could
     match an empty string.

   - bpo-32072(27): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32069(28): Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio,
     ssl.MemoryBIO is always used anyway.

   - bpo-32066(29): asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in
     create_unix_connection; sock arg should be optional

   - bpo-32046(30): Updates 2to3 to convert from
     operator.isCallable(obj) to callable(obj).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32018(31): inspect.signature should follow PEP 8(32), if the
     parameter has an annotation and a default value.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-32025(33): Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()

   - bpo-32037(34): Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be
     now pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode.  This will
     decrease the size of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling,
     and make these integers be unpickled as int instances in Python 2.

   - bpo-32034(35): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(36): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(37): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-28369(38): Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not
     used by some transport.  Before, only cases when add_reader/writer
     were called with an int FD were supported.  Now the check is
     implemented correctly for all file-like objects.

   - bpo-31976(39): Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow,
     which can cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.

   - bpo-31985(40): Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and
     wave.openfp.  Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a
     in 1993, openfp in each of the three modules had been pointing to
     that module’s open function as a matter of backwards compatibility,
     though it had been both untested and undocumented.

   - bpo-21862(41): cProfile command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’
     as an alternative to script path.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31970(42): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-31843(43): 'database' argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts
     a *note path-like object: 2a0, instead of just a string.

   - bpo-31945(44): Add Configurable 'blocksize' to ‘HTTPConnection’ and
     ‘HTTPSConnection’ for improved upload throughput.  Patch by Nir
     Soffer.

   - bpo-31943(45): Add a ‘cancelled()’ method to *note asyncio.Handle:
     1aaa.  Patch by Marat Sharafutdinov.

   - bpo-9678(46): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(47): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(48): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-21423(49): Add an initializer argument to
     {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor

   - bpo-31927(50): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(51): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31917(52): Add 3 new clock identifiers: *note
     time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b8b, *note time.CLOCK_PROF: b8c. and *note
     time.CLOCK_UPTIME: b8d.

   - bpo-31897(53): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(54): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(55): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(56): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-31884(57): added required constants to subprocess module for
     setting priority on windows

   - bpo-28281(58): Remove year (1-9999) limits on the
     Calendar.weekday() function.  Patch by Mark Gollahon.

   - bpo-31702(59): crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of
     rounds for SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.

   - bpo-30639(60): *note inspect.getfile(): 1aab. no longer computes
     the repr of unknown objects to display in an error message, to
     protect against badly behaved custom reprs.

   - bpo-30768(61): Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of
     PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout > 0 and
     intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR). See also the PEP 475(62).

   - bpo-31854(63): Add ‘mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

   - bpo-31834(64): Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+.  The
     pure SSE2 implementation is slower than the pure C reference
     implementation.

   - bpo-28292(65): Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently
     raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01
     through 9999-12-31 range.  To support applications that cannot
     tolerate such exceptions, the new methods itermonthdays3() and
     itermonthdays4() are added.  The new methods return tuples and are
     not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date.

   - bpo-28564(66): The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to
     20–40%.  This was done using the os.scandir() function.

   - bpo-28416(67): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-31653(68): Don’t release the GIL if we can acquire a
     multiprocessing semaphore immediately.

   - bpo-28326(69): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-20825(70): Add ‘subnet_of’ and ‘superset_of’ containment tests
     to *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 1ff. and *note
     ipaddress.IPv4Network: 1fe.  Patch by Michel Albert and Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-31827(71): Remove the os.stat_float_times() function.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-31756(72): Add a ‘subprocess.Popen(text=False)’ keyword
     argument to ‘subprocess’ functions to be more explicit about when
     the library should attempt to decode outputs into text.  Patch by
     Andrew Clegg.

   - bpo-31819(73): Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().

   - bpo-31457(74): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(75): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(76): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31803(77): time.clock() and time.get_clock_info(‘clock’) now
     emit a DeprecationWarning warning.

   - bpo-31800(78): Extended support for parsing UTC offsets.  strptime
     ‘%z’ can now parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat,
     including seconds and microseconds.

   - bpo-28603(79): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30541(80): Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the
     automatically creation of child mocks.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-31784(81): Implement the PEP 564(82), add new 6 new functions
     with nanosecond resolution to the *note time: ee. module: *note
     clock_gettime_ns(): adf, *note clock_settime_ns(): ae0, *note
     monotonic_ns(): ae1, *note perf_counter_ns(): ae2, *note
     process_time_ns(): ae3, *note time_ns(): ae4.

   - bpo-30143(83): 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract
     collection classes from collections.abc rather than collections.

   - bpo-31770(84): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31764(85): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(86): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31620(87): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31690(88): Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE
     to be used as group flags for regular expressions.

   - bpo-30349(89): FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression
     contains character set constructs that will change semantically in
     the future (nested sets and set operations).

   - bpo-31664(90): Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt
     module.

   - bpo-31632(91): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-15037(92): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-31307(93): Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to *note
     configparser.ConfigParser.read(): 142e.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-31334(94): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(95): multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(96): Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   - bpo-31245(97): Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio
     ‘create_datagram_endpoint’.

   - bpo-30553(98): Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to
     *note http.HTTPStatus: 8fd.  Patch by Vitor Pereira.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32214

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32101

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32154

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32089

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28334

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19610

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28684

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27535

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1647489

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32069

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32046

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32018

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32037

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31976

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31917

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31884

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28281

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30639

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30768

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31854

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31834

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31653

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31827

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31803

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31800

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30143

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31307

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30553


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<59>,  Next: Tests<59>,  Prev: Library<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<59>,  Next: Build<61>,  Prev: Documentation<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-32138(3): Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise
     SIGSEGV and remove the test.support.requires_android_level
     decorator.

   - bpo-32136(4): The runtime embedding tests have been split out from
     ‘Lib/test/test_capi.py’ into a new ‘Lib/test/test_embed.py’ file.

   - bpo-28668(5): test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is
     removed.  Skip tests with
     test.support.import_module(‘multiprocessing.synchronize’) instead
     when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.

   - bpo-32126(6): Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in
     test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.

   - bpo-31174(7): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32136

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32126

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174


File: python.info,  Node: Build<61>,  Next: Windows<57>,  Prev: Tests<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28538(1): Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex
     structure is defined by Unified Headers.

   - bpo-28762(2): Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined
     by Android Unified Headers.

   - bpo-29040(3): Support building Android with Unified Headers.  The
     first NDK release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.

   - bpo-32059(4): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(5): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(6): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(7): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(8): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(9): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(10): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28643(11): Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.

   - bpo-31866(12): Finish removing support for AtheOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28643

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31866


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<57>,  Next: macOS<46>,  Prev: Build<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   - bpo-20486(3): Implement the ‘Database.Close()’ method to help
     closing MSI database objects.

   - bpo-31857(4): Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in
     a multi-threaded environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31857


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<46>,  Next: IDLE<45>,  Prev: Windows<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<45>,  Next: Tools/Demos<33>,  Prev: macOS<46>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to ‘>>> ‘ if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<33>,  Next: C API<58>,  Prev: IDLE<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-32159(1): Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and
     treesync.py scripts.  CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to
     Mercurial, and then to Git.  CVS and Subversion are no longer used
     to develop CPython.

   - bpo-30722(2): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn’t work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32159

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<58>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<33>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.23.67.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-32125(2): The ‘Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag’ flag has been
     removed.  It was deprecated and wasn’t used anymore since Python
     2.0.

   - bpo-25612(3): Move the current exception state from the frame
     object to the co-routine.  This simplifies the interpreter and
     fixes a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception
     state when entering or exiting a generator.

   - bpo-23699(4): Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate
     code in rich comparison functions.

   - bpo-30697(5): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32125

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.68 Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* C API: C API<59>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<67>,  Next: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.68.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31558(1): ‘gc.freeze()’ is a new API that allows for moving all
     objects currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent
     generation, effectively removing them from future collection
     events.  This can be used to protect those objects from having
     their PyGC_Head mutated.  In effect, this enables great
     copy-on-write stability at fork().

   - bpo-31642(2): Restored blocking “from package import module” by
     setting sys.modules[“package.module”] to None.

   - bpo-31708(3): Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in
     synchronous functions.

   - bpo-31709(4): Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.

   - bpo-30404(5): The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams
     unbuffered rather than line-buffered.

   - bpo-31619(6): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31602(7): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimporter.get_source()’ in case of a bad ‘zlib.decompress()’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31592(8): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(9): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message when
     class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad ‘__prepare__()’
     method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31574(10): Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to
     profile import timing.

   - bpo-31566(11): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31506(12): Improved the error message logic for
     ‘object.__new__’ and ‘object.__init__’.

   - bpo-31505(13): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(14): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31336(16): Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the
     overhead in the necessary special method lookups.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-31415(17): Add ‘-X importtime’ option to show how long each
     import takes.  It can be used to optimize application’s startup
     time.  Support the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: af2. as an
     equivalent way to enable this.

   - bpo-31410(18): Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod
     descriptors.

   - bpo-31353(19): PEP 553(20) - Add a new built-in called
     ‘breakpoint()’ which calls ‘sys.breakpointhook()’.  By default this
     imports ‘pdb’ and calls ‘pdb.set_trace()’, but users may override
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to call whatever debugger they want.  The
     original value of the hook is saved in ‘sys.__breakpointhook__’.

   - bpo-17852(21): Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them
     before exiting the interpreter.  Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-31315(22): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(23): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(24): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(25): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader’s ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30406(26): Make ‘async’ and ‘await’ proper keywords, as
     specified in PEP 492(27).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30404

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31602

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31336

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31410

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<67>,  Next: Documentation<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<67>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.68.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30058(1): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31672(2): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31701(3): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and
     COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(4): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31671(5): Now ‘re.compile()’ converts passed RegexFlag to
     normal int object before compiling.  bm_regex_compile benchmark
     shows 14% performance improvements.

   - bpo-30397(6): The types of compiled regular objects and match
     objects are now exposed as ‘re.Pattern’ and ‘re.Match’.  This adds
     information in pydoc output for the ‘re’ module.

   - bpo-31675(7): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(8): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-31648(9): Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree: Allow
     whitespace around predicate parts, i.e.  “[a = ‘text’]” instead of
     requiring the less readable “[a=’text’]”.  Add support for text
     comparison of the current node, like “[.=’text’]”.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-30806(10): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-31638(11): Add optional argument ‘compressed’ to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive’, and add option ‘--compress’ to the command
     line interface of ‘zipapp’.

   - bpo-25351(12): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-20519(13): Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import
     time for uuid.

   - bpo-28293(14): The regular expression cache is no longer completely
     dumped when it is full.

   - bpo-31596(15): Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module

   - bpo-27494(16): Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator
     expressions.  For example, ‘set(x for x in [],)’ is now allowed.

   - bpo-30347(17): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-30346(18): An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator
     now becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.

   - bpo-31556(19): Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout <=
     0

   - bpo-31540(20): Allow passing a context object in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. constructor.  Also,
     free job resources in *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8eb. earlier to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new
     jobs.

   - bpo-31516(21): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31525(22): In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2
     API. Thus, the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least
     3.3.9.

   - bpo-26510(23): argparse subparsers are now required by default.
     This matches behaviour in Python 2.  For optional subparsers, use
     the new parameter ‘add_subparsers(required=False)’.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.  (As of 3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not
     required as had been the case since Python 3.3.)

   - bpo-27541(24): Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator
     classes (‘bytearray’, ‘array.array’, ‘collections.deque’,
     ‘collections.defaultdict’, ‘itertools.count’, ‘itertools.repeat’)
     now contain actual type name instead of hardcoded names of the base
     class.

   - bpo-31351(25): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31389(26): ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now takes an optional keyword-only
     argument ‘header’.  If given, this is printed to the console just
     before debugging begins.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30397

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20519

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28293

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31596

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30346

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31525

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27541

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<60>,  Next: Build<62>,  Prev: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.68.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31537(1): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(2): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Build<62>,  Next: IDLE<46>,  Prev: Documentation<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.68.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-31696(1): Improve compiler version information in *note
     sys.version: 178. when Python is built with Clang.

   - bpo-31625(2): Stop using ranlib on static libraries.  Instead, we
     assume ar supports the ‘s’ flag.

   - bpo-31624(3): Remove support for BSD/OS.

   - bpo-22140(4): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31569(5): Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts
     and documentation.

   - bpo-31536(6): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31696

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31625

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31624

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31569

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<46>,  Next: C API<59>,  Prev: Build<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.68.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31460(1): Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(2): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(3): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(4): Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(5): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(6): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: C API<59>,  Prev: IDLE<46>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.23.68.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-28280(1): Make ‘PyMapping_Keys()’, ‘PyMapping_Values()’ and
     ‘PyMapping_Items()’ always return a ‘list’ (rather than a ‘list’ or
     a ‘tuple’).  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-25658(3): Implement PEP 539(4) for Thread Specific Storage
     (TSS) API: it is a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython
     which would supersede use of the existing TLS API within the
     CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. PEP
     written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 6 6 final,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.69 Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<63>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<42>,  Next: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-29505(2): Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str),
     unicode(str); for oss-fuzz.

   - bpo-30947(3): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   - bpo-30730(4): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(5): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(6)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(7) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(8) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(9)) and CVE 2012-0876(10) (Counter
     hash flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(11) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(12): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(13): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(14) and CVE 2016-4472(15).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<68>,  Next: Library<68>,  Prev: Security<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31490(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31471(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(3): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(4): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28411(5): Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to
     PyImport_GetModuleDict().  Also introduce more uniformity in other
     code that deals with sys.modules.  This helps reduce complications
     when working on sys.modules.

   - bpo-28411(6): Switch to the abstract API when dealing with
     ‘PyInterpreterState.modules’.  This allows later support for all
     dict subclasses and other Mapping implementations.  Also add a
     ‘PyImport_GetModule()’ function to reduce a bunch of duplicated
     code.

   - bpo-31411(7): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31344(8): For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing
     the interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to
     control the emission of particular trace events: ‘f_trace_lines’
     (‘True’ by default) to turn off per-line trace events; and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ (‘False’ by default) to turn on per-opcode trace
     events.

   - bpo-31373(9): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(10): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-30860(11): Consolidate CPython’s global runtime state under a
     single struct.  This improves discoverability of the runtime state.

   - bpo-31347(12): Fix possible undefined behavior in
     _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.

   - bpo-31343(13): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(14): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn’t a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(15): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(16): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder’s state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(17): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(18): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-30747(19): Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store
     and _Py_atomic_load on MSVC.

   - bpo-31095(20): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(21): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(22): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(23): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(24): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(25): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I’m adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(26): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(27): Make sure the ‘Missing parentheses’ syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(28): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30736(29): The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded
     to Unicode 10.0.

   - bpo-30604(30): Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to
     per-interpreter to avoid crashes.

   - bpo-30597(31): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-30682(32): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval(“f’\n’”) and eval(“f’\r’”).

   - bpo-30501(33): The compiler now produces more optimal code for
     complex condition expressions in the “if”, “while” and “assert”
     statement, the “if” expression, and generator expressions and
     comprehensions.

   - bpo-28180(34): Implement PEP 538(35) (legacy C locale coercion).
     This means that when a suitable coercion target locale is
     available, both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions
     will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather
     than ASCII.

   - bpo-30486(36): Allows setting cell values for __closure__.  Patch
     by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-30537(37): itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects
     (having an __index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments

   - bpo-25324(38): Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C.
     ‘COMMENT’, ‘NL’ and ‘ENCODING’.  This way the tokens and tok_names
     in the token module don’t get changed when you import the tokenize
     module.

   - bpo-29104(39): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(40): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(41): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(42): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested ‘yield from’ or
     ‘await’ calls, it’s now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-28974(43): ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to
     ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(self), '')’.

   - bpo-30024(44): Circular imports involving absolute imports with
     binding a submodule to a name are now supported.

   - bpo-12414(45): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29839(46): len() now raises ValueError rather than
     OverflowError if __len__() returned a large negative integer.

   - bpo-11913(47): README.rst is now included in the list of distutils
     standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.

   - bpo-29914(48): Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__().  object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments,
     object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.

   - bpo-29949(49): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(50): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29816(51): Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise
     OverflowError.  ValueError always is raised rather than
     OverflowError for negative counts.  Shifting zero with non-negative
     count always returns zero.

   - bpo-24821(52): Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching
     of some unlucky Unicode characters.

   - bpo-29102(53): Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState.  This makes
     it easier to identify each subinterpreter.

   - bpo-29894(54): The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__
     returns an instance of a strict subclass of complex.  In a future
     versions of Python this can be an error.

   - bpo-29859(55): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-29849(56): Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised
     during from import.

   - bpo-28856(57): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29723(58): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(59) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   - bpo-29568(60): Escaped percent “%%” in the format string for
     classic string formatting no longer allows any characters between
     two percents.

   - bpo-29714(61): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29695(62): bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take
     keyword arguments.  The first argument of int() can now be passes
     only as positional argument.

   - bpo-28893(63): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-28876(64): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 87d.

   - bpo-29683(65): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(66): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(67): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(68): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(69): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(70): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29463(71): Add ‘docstring’ field to Module, ClassDef,
     FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes.  docstring is not
     first stmt in their body anymore.  It affects ‘co_firstlineno’ and
     ‘co_lnotab’ of code object for module and class.  (Reverted in
     bpo-32911(72).)

   - bpo-29438(73): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29546(74): Set the ‘path’ and ‘name’ attribute on ImportError
     for ‘from ... import ...’.

   - bpo-29546(75): Improve from-import error message with location

   - bpo-29478(76): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   - bpo-29319(77): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(78): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(79): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(80): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(81): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-29049(82): Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python
     function.  Calling function is up to 5% faster.

   - bpo-28927(83): bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore
     all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  Patch by Robert Xiao.

   - bpo-28932(84): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(85): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(86): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-18896(87): Python function can now have more than 255
     parameters.  collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more
     than 255 elements.

   - bpo-28596(88): The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android.  Patch
     written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22257(89): Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432(90)).

   - bpo-26919(91): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(92): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28147(93): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28739(94): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(95): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(96): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-23722(97): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(98): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28799(99): Remove the ‘PyEval_GetCallStats()’ function and
     deprecate the untested and undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function.
     Remove the ‘CALL_PROFILE’ special build: use the *note
     sys.setprofile(): 14c6. function, *note cProfile: 27. or *note
     profile: af. to profile function calls.

   - bpo-12844(100): More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a
     function.

   - bpo-28782(101): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(102)).

   - bpo-28774(103): Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII
     and Latin1 encoders when a string returned by the error handler
     contains multiple non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII
     codec, characters out of the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).

   - bpo-28731(104): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   - bpo-28532(105): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(106): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before
     it checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages
     when both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(107): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(108): Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(109): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28665(110): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-19398(111): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components
     in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28621(112): Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster
     bits counting implementation.  Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.

   - bpo-28580(113): Optimize iterating split table values.  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28583(114): PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28128(115): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(116): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(117): Fixed potential crash in
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(118): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer
     that caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(119): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(120): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add()
     and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28183(121): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(122): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(123): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(124): The type of long range iterator is now registered
     as Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(125): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is disallowed.  Calling iter() on range
     instance is the only way.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(126): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(127): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(128): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(129): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(130): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(131): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(132): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-28289(133): ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified
     attributes.

   - bpo-21578(134): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(135): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(136): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(137): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(138): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(139): Don’t import readline in isolated mode.

   - bpo-27441(140): Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in
     longobject.c.  Thanks Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27222(141): Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function.
     Thanks Oren Milman.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(142): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(143): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(144): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a “pending key” (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(145): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   - bpo-26182(146): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(147): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow()
     to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   - bpo-26110(148): Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and
     CALL_METHOD opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30860

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30747

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30736

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30501

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30486

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25324

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29839

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29914

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29816

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29894

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29849

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29568

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29695

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

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   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29049

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   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

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   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28774

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

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   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28621

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   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<68>,  Next: Documentation<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-31482(2): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-28556(3): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(4): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(5): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(6): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(7): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31431(8): SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets
     SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with
     a ValueError.

   - bpo-31233(9): socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of
     non-daemonic threads to wait until all these threads complete in
     server_close().

   - bpo-28638(10): Changed the implementation strategy for
     collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec()
     in favor of precomputed methods.  As a result, the 'verbose'
     parameter and '_source' attribute are no longer supported.  The
     benefits include 1) having a smaller memory footprint for
     applications using multiple named tuples, 2) faster creation of the
     named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x depending on how it is
     measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance creation using
     __new__, _make, and _replace.  (The primary patch contributor is
     Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)

   - bpo-31400(11): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-27629(12): Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and
     SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.

   - bpo-28958(13): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-28182(14): The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError
     when OpenSSL fails to verify the peer’s certificate.  The exception
     contains more information about the error.

   - bpo-27340(15): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-14191(16): A new function
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args’ provides the
     ability to parse command lines where there user intermixes options
     and positional arguments.

   - bpo-31178(17): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(18): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(19): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(20): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-1198569(21): ‘string.Template’ subclasses can optionally define
     ‘braceidpattern’ if they want to specify different placeholder
     patterns inside and outside the braces.  If None (the default) it
     falls back to ‘idpattern’.

   - bpo-31326(22): concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown()
     now explicitly closes the call queue.  Moreover,
     shutdown(wait=True) now also join the call queue thread, to prevent
     leaking a dangling thread.

   - bpo-27144(23): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-31281(24): Fix ‘fileinput.FileInput(files, inplace=True)’ when
     ‘files’ contain ‘pathlib.Path’ objects.

   - bpo-10746(25): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(26) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-27584(27): ‘AF_VSOCK’ has been added to the socket interface
     which allows communication between virtual machines and their host.

   - bpo-22536(28): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-29741(29): Update some methods in the _pyio module to also
     accept integer types.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31249(30): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(31): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-23835(32): configparser: reading defaults in the
     ‘ConfigParser()’ constructor is now using ‘read_dict()’, making its
     behavior consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys
     and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly
     converted to strings.  Patch by James Tocknell.

   - bpo-31238(33): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-5001(34): Many asserts in ‘multiprocessing’ are now more
     informative, and some error types have been changed to more
     specific ones.

   - bpo-31109(35): Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-30102(36): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-18966(37): Non-daemonic threads created by a
     multiprocessing.Process are now joined on child exit.

   - bpo-31183(38): ‘dis’ now works with asynchronous generator and
     coroutine objects.  Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by
     Luciano Ramalho.

   - bpo-5001(39): There are a number of uninformative asserts in the
     ‘multiprocessing’ module, as noted in issue 5001.  This change
     fixes two of the most potentially problematic ones, since they are
     in error-reporting code, in the
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error’ function.  (It also
     makes more informative a ValueError message.)  The only potentially
     problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError;
     however, this should also help distinguish it from an
     AssertionError being 'reported' by the function/its caller (such as
     in issue 31169).  - Patch by Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on
     github).

   - bpo-31185(40): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31151(41): socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits
     until all child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie
     processes.

   - bpo-31072(42): Add an ‘include_file’ parameter to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive()’

   - bpo-24700(43): Optimize array.array comparison.  It is now from 10x
     up to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same
     integer type.

   - bpo-31135(44): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn’t exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(45): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31080(46): Allow ‘logging.config.fileConfig’ to accept kwargs
     and/or args.

   - bpo-30897(47): ‘pathlib.Path’ objects now include an ‘is_mount()’
     method (only implemented on POSIX). This is similar to
     ‘os.path.ismount(p)’.  Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.

   - bpo-31061(48): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30987(49): Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket
     module.

   - bpo-30522(50): Added a ‘setStream’ method to
     ‘logging.StreamHandler’ to allow the stream to be set after
     creation.

   - bpo-30502(51): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-5288(52): Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.

   - bpo-30919(53): Fix shared memory performance regression in
     multiprocessing in 3.x.  Shared memory used anonymous memory
     mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps actual files.  Try to be careful
     to do as little disk I/O as possible.

   - bpo-26732(54): Fix too many fds in processes started with the
     “forkserver” method.  A child process would inherit as many fds as
     the number of still-running children.

   - bpo-29403(55): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(56): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-19896(57): Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize
     typecodes ‘'q'’ and ‘'Q'’.

   - bpo-30946(58): Remove obsolete code in readline module for
     platforms where GNU readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is
     not available.

   - bpo-25684(59): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(60): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(61): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30794(62): Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to
     terminate using the SIGKILL signal on Unix.

   - bpo-30319(63): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(64): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30302(65): Use keywords in the ‘repr’ of ‘datetime.timedelta’.

   - bpo-30807(66): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(67): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-29585(68): Avoid importing ‘sysconfig’ from ‘site’ to improve
     startup speed.  Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30%
     faster on macOS.

   - bpo-29293(69): Add missing parameter “n” on
     multiprocessing.Condition.notify().  The doc claims
     multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition, but its
     notify() method lacked the optional “n” argument (to specify the
     number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify()
     accepts.

   - bpo-30532(70): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30596(71): Add a ‘close()’ method to ‘multiprocessing.Process’.

   - bpo-9146(72): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-29169(73): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30119(74): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30879(75): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(76): Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-30664(77): The description of a unittest subtest now preserves
     the order of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().

   - bpo-21071(78): struct.Struct.format type is now *note str: 445.
     instead of *note bytes: 1c2.

   - bpo-29212(79): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as “ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n”.

   - bpo-29755(80): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30616(81): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(82): Fix race condition between signal delivery and
     wakeup file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(83): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-24744(84): pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError
     if 'path' is a string.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-24484(85): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-30589(86): Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the
     opposite of the signal number when the process is killed by a
     signal (instead of 255) when using the “forkserver” method.

   - bpo-28994(87): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(88): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()”
     method was called.

   - bpo-30645(89): Fix path calculation in ‘imp.load_package()’, fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-11822(90): The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble
     nested code objects.

   - bpo-30624(91): selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and
     SystemExit into account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of
     error.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-30595(92): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-28556(93): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-30605(94): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-29870(95): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(96): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(97): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30014(98): modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll()
     based classes of selectors module is around 10% faster.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-30418(99): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30463(100): Addded empty __slots__ to abc.ABC. This allows
     subclassers to deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation.  Patch by
     Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-30520(101): Loggers are now pickleable.

   - bpo-30557(102): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30526(103): Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a
     TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.

   - bpo-30245(104): Fix possible overflow when organize
     struct.pack_into error message.  Patch by Yuan Liu.

   - bpo-30378(105): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-16500(106): Allow registering at-fork handlers.

   - bpo-30470(107): Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on
     Windows.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-30414(108): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(109): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30149(110): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30436(111): importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError
     instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a __path__ attribute).

   - bpo-30301(112): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30375(113): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30329(114): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-29196(115): Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes
     Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are
     now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to access
     items of these dictionaries.

   - bpo-9850(116): The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.8.

   - bpo-30299(117): Compiling regular expression in debug mode on
     CPython now displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.

   - bpo-30048(118): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(119): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(120).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30340(121): Enhanced regular expressions optimization.  This
     increased the performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.

   - bpo-30298(122): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-30285(123): Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching
     of regular expressions.

   - bpo-29990(124): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-29979(125): rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the
     FieldStorage class and making its results consistent with those of
     FieldStorage for multipart/form-data requests.  Patch by Pierre
     Quentel.

   - bpo-30243(126): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30215(127): Compiled regular expression objects with the
     re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time.
     Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

   - bpo-30185(128): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-30103(129): binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using
     ‘'`'’ as zero instead of space.

   - bpo-28556(130): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(131): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30228(132): The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set
     the internal seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in
     buffered or text mode).

   - bpo-30190(133): unittest’s assertAlmostEqual and
     assertNotAlmostEqual provide a better message in case of failure
     which includes the difference between left and right arguments.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola’)

   - bpo-30101(134): Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.

   - bpo-29822(135): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29960(136): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30070(137): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-22352(138): Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now
     adjusted for large line numbers and instruction offsets.

   - bpo-30061(139): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30218(140): Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive.
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-10076(141): Compiled regular expression and match objects in
     the re module now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are
     considered atomic).

   - bpo-30068(142): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(143): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(144): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-26187(145): Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called
     multiple times when schema is changing.  Indirectly fixed by
     switching to use sqlite3_prepare_v2() in bpo-9303(146).  Patch by
     Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-30017(147): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-29998(148): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29995(149): re.escape() now escapes only regex special
     characters.

   - bpo-29962(150): Add math.remainder operation, implementing
     remainder as specified in IEEE 754.

   - bpo-29649(151): Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-29654(152): Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser
     cache).  Patch by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-29931(153): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-29953(154): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(155): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-10030(156): Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.

   - bpo-29204(157): Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of
     XMLParser() were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python
     3.2 and 3.4 correspondingly).  Now using them emits a deprecation
     warning.

   - bpo-27863(158): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by
     race conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-25996(159): Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir()
     on Unix.  os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().

   - bpo-28699(160): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23890(161): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually
     breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than
     expected.

   - bpo-29901(162): The zipapp module now supports general path-like
     objects, not just pathlib.Path.

   - bpo-25803(163): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(164): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-19930(165): The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer
     affects the file permission bits of newly created
     intermediate-level directories.

   - bpo-29884(166): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(167): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(168): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-8256(169): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes “encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28692(170): Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form
     in gettext is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26121(171): Use C library implementation for math functions
     erf() and erfc().

   - bpo-29619(172): os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode
     (st_ino) using unsigned integers.

   - bpo-28298(173): Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’
     from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as
     elements.

   - bpo-29645(174): Speed up importing the webbrowser module.
     webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.

   - bpo-28231(175): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects
     for external paths.

   - bpo-26915(176): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-28682(177): Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().

   - bpo-29728(178): Add new ‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12)
     constant.  Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.

   - bpo-29623(179): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument
     in ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-9303(180): Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API. Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-28963(181): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(182): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(183): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks
     implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-29703(184): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29615(185): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError
     (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-7769(186): Method register_function() of
     xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be
     used as a decorator.

   - bpo-29376(187): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(188): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of
     Popen() accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(189): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29742(190): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-16285(191): urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and
     hence includes ‘~’ in the set of characters that is not quoted by
     default.  Patch by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.

   - bpo-29532(192): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(193): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-22807(194): Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay
     information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are
     generated with a multiprocessing safe method.

   - bpo-29576(195): Improve some deprecations in importlib.  Some
     deprecated methods now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better
     descriptive messages.

   - bpo-29534(196): Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float()
     for _decimal and _pydecimal.  Thanks Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-10379(197): locale.format_string now supports the ‘monetary’
     keyword argument, and locale.format is deprecated.

   - bpo-29851(198): importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError
     if the module lacks a spec.

   - bpo-28556(199): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(200): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29416(201): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(202): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29377(203): Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and
     MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module.  Original
     patch by Manuel Krebber.

   - bpo-29218(204): Unused install_misc command is now removed.  It has
     been documented as unused since 2000.  Patch by Eric N. Vander
     Weele.

   - bpo-29368(205): The extend() method is now called instead of the
     append() method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like
     objects.  This can speed up unpickling to 2 times.

   - bpo-29338(206): The help of a builtin or extension class now
     includes the constructor signature if __text_signature__ is
     provided for the class.

   - bpo-29335(207): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(208): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(209): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29197(210): Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().

   - bpo-29210(211): Removed support of deprecated argument “exclude” in
     tarfile.TarFile.add().

   - bpo-29219(212): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29192(213): Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies
     module.

   - bpo-29193(214): A format string argument for
     string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only.

   - bpo-29195(215): Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword
     arguments in methods of regular expression objects.

   - bpo-28969(216): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-20804(217): The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are copied or pickled.

   - bpo-29142(218): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(219): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-15812(220): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the
     first line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-28985(221): Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module.
     Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-29079(222): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(223): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-9770(224): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(225): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(226): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(227): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(228): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(229): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-16255(230): subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as
     the shell, instead of /bin/sh.

   - bpo-28779(231): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would
     crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated
     some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-26937(232): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class
     does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for
     example on Android platforms.

   - bpo-28847(233): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and
     no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.  A
     deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missed and
     recreated in the ‘r’ and ‘w’ modes (will be an error in future
     Python releases).

   - bpo-27030(234): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now
     are errors.

   - bpo-28835(235): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(236): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-28740(237): Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time
     API version of Android as an integer.  Function only available on
     Android.

   - bpo-26273(238): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-28752(239): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(240): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern
     objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and
     x!=y operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(241): don’t
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(242): Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter.
     It was deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.

   - bpo-25659(243): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the
     from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes
     like Array.

   - bpo-28548(244): In the “http.server” module, parse the protocol
     version if possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error
     responses.

   - bpo-19717(245): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(246): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution
     when handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(247): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(248): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(249): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(250): tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(251): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-24241(252): The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers
     using the default browser directly.  Also, the webbrowser
     register() function now has a documented ‘preferred’ argument, to
     specify browsers to be returned by get() with no arguments.  Patch
     by David Steele

   - bpo-27939(253): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(254): calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a
     space after a weeks’s calendar.  calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no
     longer prints redundant newline after a year’s calendar.  Based on
     patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28255(255): calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(256): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(257): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(258): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future
     doesn’t accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(259): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by
     the “!” prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(260): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module
     by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(261): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry “./” to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(262): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-28469(263): timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,…
     instead of 1, 10, 100,… for autoranging.

   - bpo-28115(264): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     uses argparse.  Added support of long options.

   - bpo-18219(265): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of
     columns.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(266): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-23214(267): In the “io” module, the argument to BufferedReader
     and BytesIO’s read1() methods is now optional and can be -1,
     matching the BufferedIOBase specification.

   - bpo-28480(268): Fix error building socket module when
     multithreading is disabled.

   - bpo-28240(269): timeit: remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ command
     line options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-28240(270): timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead
     of only 3 to make benchmarks more reliable.

   - bpo-28240(271): timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration
     if the benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10
     iterations.  “python3 -m timeit -s ‘import time’ ‘time.sleep(1)’”
     now takes 4 seconds instead of 40 seconds.

   - Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case
     sensitivity.  This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0
     and later.  See setuptools 100(272) for rationale.

   - bpo-24452(273): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch
     by Ned Batchelder.

   - bpo-20766(274): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-27998(275): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on
     Windows.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(276): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-28380(277): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-28229(278): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(279): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(280): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(281): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28332(282): Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and
     socket.ntohs.  Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27358(283): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and
     improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword
     argument.

   - bpo-28257(284): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(285): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(286): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(287): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(288): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(289): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(290): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months:
     0001-01 and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2()
     are reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which
     can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(291): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(292): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(293): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(294): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(295): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(296): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(297): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(298): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(299): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(300): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default
     values for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter
     Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(301): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(302): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(303): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in
     the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(304): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(305): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(306): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(307): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(308): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(309): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(310): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(311): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(312): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(313): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(314): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28325(315): Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its
     tests.

   - bpo-28368(316): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(317): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(318): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(319): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(320): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(321): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(322): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-24142(323): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in
     an invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-29581(324): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-25532(325): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30177(326): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31431

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27629

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28182

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31326

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31281

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29741

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31109

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31183

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30987

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30919

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26732

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19896

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30946

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29293

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30664

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30589

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30624

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30463

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30245

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<61>,  Next: Tests<60>,  Prev: Library<68>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-31128(3): Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary
     hostnames.

   - bpo-30803(4): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   - bpo-30176(5): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(6): the link targets for *note bytes(): 1c2. and *note
     bytearray(): 538. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     1ac0. and *note bytearray: 1ac1. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(7): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-19824(8): Improve the documentation for, and links to, template
     strings by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and
     by clarifying some usage constraints.  (See also: bpo-20314(9),
     bpo-12518(10))

   - bpo-28929(11): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(12): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add
     a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(13): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(14): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   - bpo-23722(15): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the 3.6 What’s New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(16)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28513(17): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19824

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20314

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12518

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<60>,  Next: Build<63>,  Prev: Documentation<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-29639(1): test.support.HOST is now “localhost”, a new HOSTv4
     constant has been added for your ‘127.0.0.1’ needs, similar to the
     existing HOSTv6 constant.

   - bpo-31320(2): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-31346(3): Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER
     protocols for SSLContext.

   - bpo-25674(4): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(5): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(6): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all.  When
     running the test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30695(7): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   - bpo-30357(8): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(9): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-24932(10): Use proper command line parsing in _testembed

   - bpo-28950(11): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(12): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26936(13): Fix the test_socket failures on Android -
     getservbyname(), getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on
     some Android API levels.

   - bpo-28666(14): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(15): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-26944(16): Fix test_posix for Android where ‘id -G’ is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(17): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-28217(18): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   - bpo-26939(19): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29639

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31346

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24932

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26936

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<63>,  Next: Windows<58>,  Prev: Tests<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31354(1): Allow ‘--with-lto’ to be used on all builds, not just
     ‘make profile-opt’.

   - bpo-31370(2): Remove support for building –without-threads.  This
     option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century.  Removing
     lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base,
     including in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.

   - bpo-31341(3): Per PEP 11(4), support for the IRIX operating system
     was removed.

   - bpo-30854(5): Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-30687(6): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-20210(7): Support the 'disabled' marker in Setup files.
     Extension modules listed after this marker are not built at all,
     neither by the Makefile nor by setup.py.

   - bpo-29941(8): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(9): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(10): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during
     ‘make test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when
     configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(11): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(12): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   - bpo-27593(13): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(14): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-27659(15): Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use
     ‘-Werror=implicit-function-declaration’ when possible (GCC and
     Clang, but it depends on the compiler version).  Patch written by
     Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-29384(16): Remove old Be OS helper scripts.

   - bpo-26851(17): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(18): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(19): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(20): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(21): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but
     the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(22): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(23): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(24): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   - bpo-10656(25): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(26): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(27): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(28): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(29): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-21124(30): Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing
     ‘NULL’ instead of ‘&PyType_Type’ to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT. Patch by
     Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-13756(31): Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin.  Patch by
     Roumen Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.

   - bpo-21085(32): Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which
     Cygwin does not provide.  Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review
     and rebase by Erik Bray.

   - bpo-28258(33): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(34): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-27979(35): A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use
     when building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
     of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.

   - bpo-15819(36): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-28676(37): Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31354

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31341

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20210

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27659

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29384

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21124

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13756

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21085

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<58>,  Next: IDLE<47>,  Prev: Build<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-31392(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f

   - bpo-30389(2): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31358(3): zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source,
     instead it is downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL,
     Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.

   - bpo-31340(4): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(5): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30916(6): Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the
     binaries in the build.

   - bpo-30731(7): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   - bpo-30291(8): Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using
     -64 suffix.  Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.

   - bpo-30362(9): Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher.
     Contributed by Steve Barnes.

   - bpo-23451(10): Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c.
     Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-30450(11): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   - bpo-29579(12): Removes readme.txt from the installer.

   - bpo-25778(13): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(14): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default

   - bpo-28522(15): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   - bpo-28402(16): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(17): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(18): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(19): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(20): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(21): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line
     starts with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(22): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(23): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(24): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(25): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31358

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30916

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23451

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<47>,  Next: Tools/Demos<34>,  Prev: Windows<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context – fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int(‘’) will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE’s built-in ‘extensions’ to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are ‘<<force-open-completions>>’, ‘<<expand-word>>’,
     ‘<<force-open-calltip>>’, ‘<<flash-paren>>’,
     ‘<<format-paragraph>>’, ‘<<run-module>>’, ‘<<check-module>>’, and
     ‘<<zoom-height>>’.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’ in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in ‘if __name__ == ‘__main__’.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     ‘parens’ style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make ‘default’
     style, which is not default, a synonym for ‘opener’.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace ‘colour’ with
     ‘color’, expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-15786(44): Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(45): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(46): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(47): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(48): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(49): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   - bpo-29071(50): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(51): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<34>,  Next: C API<60>,  Prev: IDLE<47>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno “Polaco”
     Penteado.

   - bpo-29748(3): Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-24037(4): Argument Clinic now uses the converter
     ‘bool(accept={int})’ rather than ‘int’ for semantical booleans.
     This avoids repeating the default value for Python and C and will
     help in converting to ‘bool’ in future.

   - bpo-29367(5): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   - bpo-28023(6): Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict
     implementation.

   - bpo-15369(7): The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been
     removed from Tools.  Please use the new Python benchmark suite
     ‘https://github.com/python/pyperformance’ which is more reliable
     and includes a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and
     Python 3.

   - bpo-28102(8): The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr.
     Patch by Stephen J. Turnbull.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29748

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24037

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28102


File: python.info,  Node: C API<60>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<34>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.23.69.10 C API
................

   - bpo-31338(1): Added the ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ macro for code paths
     which are never expected to be reached.  This and a few other
     useful macros are now documented in the C API manual.

   - bpo-30832(2): Remove own implementation for thread-local storage.
     CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local
     storage (TLS) on Python/thread.c, it’s used in the case which a
     platform has not supplied native TLS. However, currently all
     supported platforms (Windows and pthreads) have provided native TLS
     and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS macro with unconditional in any
     case.

   - bpo-30708(3): PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError
     if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains
     null characters.

   - bpo-16500(4): Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(),
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

   - bpo-6532(5): The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and
     PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of
     PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from “long” to “unsigned long”.

   - bpo-27867(6): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and
     replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the
     value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or
     0x03060100 or higher.  Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and
     PySlice_AdjustIndices().

   - bpo-29083(7): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-28769(8): The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
     *’.

   - bpo-29058(9): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   - bpo-28822(10): The index parameters 'start' and 'end' of
     PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like
     ‘str[start:end]’.

   - bpo-28808(11): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-28761(12): The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef,
     PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and
     wrapperbase are now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-28748(13): Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type
     ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-19569(14): Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of
     deprecated functions.

   - bpo-28426(15): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30832

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28748

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 final,  Next: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.70 Python 3.6.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.71 Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-11'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<61>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<69>,  Next: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33786(1): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30654(2): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(3): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 11b0. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 98b. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33231(7): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-29922(8): Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(9): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33041(10): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-32282(11): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-21983(12): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<69>,  Next: Documentation<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33767(4): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’) sequence
     operations now raise *note TypeError: 532. instead of *note
     SystemError: 570. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 20b. objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32684(5): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33674(6): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(7): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-33672(8): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-11874(10): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(11): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33548(12): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33542(13): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(14): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - bpo-28556(15): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(16): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(17): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-33197(18): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(19): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(20): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(21): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1a4a.

   - bpo-33131(22): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(23): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33263(24): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(25): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33203(26): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(27): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(28).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(29): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1a4c.

   - bpo-32861(30): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and
     “Request-rate” fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-33096(31): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-33127(32): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-33021(33): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-27683(34): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 80. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32844(35): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-31908(36): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31457(37): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31238(39): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<62>,  Next: Tests<61>,  Prev: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33503(1): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(2): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33378(3): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(4): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(5): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(6): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(7): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(8): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(9): Update *note zipapp: 130. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(10): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(11): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-8243(12): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-31432(13): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<61>,  Next: Build<64>,  Prev: Documentation<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-19417(2): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<64>,  Next: Windows<59>,  Prev: Tests<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(2): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(3): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(4): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   - bpo-33394(5): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<59>,  Next: macOS<47>,  Prev: Build<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<47>,  Next: IDLE<48>,  Prev: Windows<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<48>,  Next: Tools/Demos<35>,  Prev: macOS<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(7): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(8): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-29706(9): IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6.
     They become full keywords in 3.7.

   - bpo-21474(10): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(11): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     ‘u’ string prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32831(12): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29706

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<35>,  Next: C API<61>,  Prev: IDLE<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-32885(4): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-31583(5): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<61>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<35>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.23.71.10 C API
................

   - bpo-32374(1): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 final,  Next: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.72 Python 3.6.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-28'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<62>,  Next: Build<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.23.72.1 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872


File: python.info,  Node: Build<65>,  Prev: Tests<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.23.72.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.73 Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<66>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.
* C API: C API<62>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<43>,  Next: Core and Builtins<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33001(1): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(2): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(3) and CVE 2018-1061(4).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<70>,  Next: Library<70>,  Prev: Security<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33026(1): Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-17288(2): Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace
     events.

   - bpo-32889(3): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32650(4): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32685(5): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32583(6): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-26163(7): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set
     to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.

   - bpo-18533(12): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-32028(13): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-32137(14): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137


File: python.info,  Node: Library<70>,  Next: Documentation<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33064(1): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-31804(2): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(3): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-30353(4): Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit
     Cygwin/MinGW.

   - bpo-33009(5): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(6): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32713(7): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-30622(8): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(9): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(10): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     “No dist file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must
     create and upload files in one command”.

   - bpo-32857(12): In *note tkinter: f0, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 202. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(13): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31787(15): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(16): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32394(17): socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on
     older version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-32777(18): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(19): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32734(20): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(21): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-27931(22): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32304(23): distutils’ upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(24): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-31848(25): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32555(26): On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always
     decode the byte string from the current locale encoding, rather
     than using ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.

   - bpo-32521(27): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32473(28): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32521(29): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32228(30): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-26133(31): Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32185(32): The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI
     TLS extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.

   - bpo-32323(33): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3c. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(34): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-32255(35): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(36): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-32199(37): The getnode() ip getter now uses ‘ip link’ instead
     of ‘ip link list’.

   - bpo-27456(38): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31900(39): The *note locale.localeconv(): bfb. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     61b. method when formatting a number (*note int: 257, *note float:
     2ef, *note float: 2ef. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31802(40): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30353

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32555

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<63>,  Next: Tests<63>,  Prev: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17232(1): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32800(2): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-8722(3): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 346.

   - bpo-32614(4): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(5): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   - bpo-17799(6): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<63>,  Next: Build<66>,  Prev: Documentation<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32517(1): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32721(2): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-32252(3): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-31518(4): Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for
     SSLv23_METHOD().  Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to
     PROTOCOL_TLS or PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31518


File: python.info,  Node: Build<66>,  Next: Windows<60>,  Prev: Tests<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<60>,  Next: macOS<48>,  Prev: Build<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-31966(3): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(4): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(5): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(6): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(7): Fix *note os.readlink(): 91c. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-32588(8): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<48>,  Next: IDLE<49>,  Prev: Windows<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ
     5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and
     supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<49>,  Next: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: macOS<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(3): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(4): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(5): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(6): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(7): Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(8): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<36>,  Next: C API<62>,  Prev: IDLE<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   - bpo-32222(2): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: C API<62>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<36>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.23.73.11 C API
................

   - bpo-29084(1): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 final,  Next: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.74 Python 3.6.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-18'

There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.75 Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Build: Build<67>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* macOS: macOS<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* C API: C API<63>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<71>,  Next: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-31949(2): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(3): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(4): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-31852(5): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of
     the async soft keyword and continuation lines.

   - bpo-21720(6): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31825(7): Fixed OverflowError in the ‘unicode-escape’ codec and
     in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

   - bpo-28603(8): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(9): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31642(10): Restored blocking “from package import module” by
     setting sys.modules[“package.module”] to None.

   - bpo-31626(11): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-31619(12): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31592(13): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(14): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message
     when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad
     ‘__prepare__()’ method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31566(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31505(16): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(17): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31490(18): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(19): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31315(20): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(21): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(22): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(23): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader’s ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30817(24): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31852

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<71>,  Next: Documentation<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-27240(2): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(3),
     bpo-31831(4), and bpo-32182(5).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(6): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-12239(7): Make ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’ return
     ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.  Initial patch by
     Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-31325(8): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     1ca. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 1aa9. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(9): ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ now raises a better exception
     message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI file.  Initial patch
     by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-32110(10): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-32072(11): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32034(12): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(13): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(14): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-31970(15): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-9678(16): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(17): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(18): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-31927(19): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(20): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31897(21): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(22): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(23): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(24): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-28416(25): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-28326(26): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-31457(27): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(28): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(29): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28603(30): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30058(31): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31770(32): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31672(33): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31764(34): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(35): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31701(36): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC
     and COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(37): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31620(38): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31632(39): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-31675(40): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(41): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-30806(42): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-15037(43): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-25351(44): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-25532(45): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30347(46): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-31516(47): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31351(48): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31482(49): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-31334(50): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(51): multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(52): Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<64>,  Next: Tests<64>,  Prev: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   - bpo-31537(2): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(3): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<64>,  Next: Build<67>,  Prev: Documentation<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-31174(3): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   - bpo-30695(4): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695


File: python.info,  Node: Build<67>,  Next: Windows<61>,  Prev: Tests<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32059(1): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(2): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(3): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(4): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(5): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(6): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(7): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-22140(8): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31536(9): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<61>,  Next: macOS<49>,  Prev: Build<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<49>,  Next: IDLE<50>,  Prev: Windows<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<50>,  Next: Tools/Demos<37>,  Prev: macOS<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to ‘>>> ‘ if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   - bpo-31460(9): Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(10): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(11): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(12): Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(13): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(14): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<37>,  Next: C API<63>,  Prev: IDLE<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30722(1): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn’t work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<63>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<37>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.23.75.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-30697(3): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 final,  Next: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.76 Python 3.6.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-03'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<72>.
* Build: Build<68>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<72>,  Next: Build<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.23.76.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-31641(1): Re-allow arbitrary iterables in
     ‘concurrent.futures.as_completed()’.  Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31641


File: python.info,  Node: Build<68>,  Prev: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.23.76.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-31662(1): Fix typos in Windows ‘uploadrelease.bat’ script.  Fix
     Windows Doc build issues in ‘Doc/make.bat’.

   - bpo-31423(2): Fix building the PDF documentation with newer
     versions of Sphinx.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31423


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.77 Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<69>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<44>,  Next: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-30947(2): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<72>,  Next: Library<73>,  Prev: Security<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31471(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(3): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31411(4): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31373(5): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(6): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-31343(7): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(8): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn’t a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(9): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(10): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder’s state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(11): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(12): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-31095(13): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(14): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(15): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(16): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(17): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(18): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I’m adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(19): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(20): Make sure the ‘Missing parentheses’ syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(21): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30597(22): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597


File: python.info,  Node: Library<73>,  Next: Documentation<65>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-28556(2): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(3): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(4): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(5): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(6): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31400(7): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-28958(8): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-27340(9): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-31178(10): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(11): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(12): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(13): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-29212(14): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as “ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n”.

   - bpo-9146(15): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-27144(16): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-10746(17): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(18) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-22536(19): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-31249(20): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(21): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-30102(22): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-31185(23): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31135(24): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn’t exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(25): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31061(26): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30502(27): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-30119(28): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30595(29): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-29403(30): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(31): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-25684(32): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(33): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(34): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30319(35): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(36): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30807(37): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(38): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(39): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30879(40): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(41): Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(42): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<65>,  Next: Tests<65>,  Prev: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-30803(3): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<65>,  Next: Build<69>,  Prev: Documentation<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31320(1): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-25674(2): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(3): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(4): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all.  When
     running the test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822


File: python.info,  Node: Build<69>,  Next: Windows<62>,  Prev: Tests<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-30854(1): Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<62>,  Next: IDLE<51>,  Prev: Build<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30389(1): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31340(2): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(3): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30731(4): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<51>,  Next: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: Windows<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context – fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int(‘’) will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE’s built-in ‘extensions’ to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are ‘<<force-open-completions>>’, ‘<<expand-word>>’,
     ‘<<force-open-calltip>>’, ‘<<flash-paren>>’,
     ‘<<format-paragraph>>’, ‘<<run-module>>’, ‘<<check-module>>’, and
     ‘<<zoom-height>>’.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’ in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in ‘if __name__ == ‘__main__’.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     ‘parens’ style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make ‘default’
     style, which is not default, a synonym for ‘opener’.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace ‘colour’ with
     ‘color’, expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: IDLE<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.23.77.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno “Polaco”
     Penteado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 final,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.78 Python 3.6.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-17'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.79 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2

1.23.79.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.80 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-06-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* C API: C API<64>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<46>,  Next: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29591(1): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
     CVE 2016-0718(2) and CVE 2016-4472(3).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<73>,  Next: Library<74>,  Prev: Security<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30682(1): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval(“f’\n’”) and eval(“f’\r’”).

   - bpo-30604(2): Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid
     crashes

   - bpo-29104(3): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(4): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(5): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(6): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested ‘yield from’ or
     ‘await’ calls, it’s now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-12414(7): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29949(8): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(9): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29859(10): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-28876(11): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 87d.

   - bpo-29600(12): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-28856(13): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29714(14): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<74>,  Next: IDLE<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30616(1): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(2): Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup
     file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(3): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-23890(4): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(5): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30645(6): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it
     for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch by
     Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-29931(7): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-30605(8): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-24484(9): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup
     (#2159)

   - bpo-28994(10): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(11): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()”
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(12): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(13): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(14): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(15): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(16): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-29822(17): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29581(18): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-30557(19): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30378(20): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(21): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(22): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(23): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(24): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(25): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(26): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(27): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(28): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(29).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30298(30): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-29990(31): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(32): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(33))

   - bpo-30243(34): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(35): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(36): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(37): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(38): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(39): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30017(40): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29953(45): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(46): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(47): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(48): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(49): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(50): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(51): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(52): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(53): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(54): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(55): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes “encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(56): Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28231(57): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for
     external paths.

   - bpo-26915(58): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-29615(59): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-30177(60): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<52>,  Next: C API<64>,  Prev: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15786(1): Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(2): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(3): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(4): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(5): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(6): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303


File: python.info,  Node: C API<64>,  Next: Build<70>,  Prev: IDLE<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced
     with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: Build<70>,  Next: Documentation<66>,  Prev: C API<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29941(1): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(2): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(3): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(4): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(5): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<66>,  Next: Tools/Demos<39>,  Prev: Build<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(2): the link targets for *note bytes(): 1c2. and *note
     bytearray(): 538. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     1ac0. and *note bytearray: 1ac1. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(3): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<39>,  Next: Tests<66>,  Prev: Documentation<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-29367(1): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<66>,  Next: Windows<63>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<39>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30357(1): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(2): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<63>,  Prev: Tests<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.23.80.10 Windows
..................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-30450(2): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 final,  Next: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.81 Python 3.6.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Build: Build<71>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<74>,  Next: Build<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.23.81.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29723(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139


File: python.info,  Node: Build<71>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.23.81.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): fix format of git information used in sys.version

   - Fix incompatible comment in python.h

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.82 Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* C API: C API<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.
* Build: Build<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<75>,  Next: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28893(1): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-29683(2): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(3): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(4): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(5): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(6): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(7): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(8): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(9): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(10): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(11): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(12): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(13): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-28932(14): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(15): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(16): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-26919(17): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(18): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28739(19): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(20): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(21): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-28731(22): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731


File: python.info,  Node: Library<75>,  Next: IDLE<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-29169(1): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-29623(2): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
     ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-28963(3): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(4): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer
     closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(5): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented
     in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

   - bpo-29703(6): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(7): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(8): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen()
     accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(9): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29532(10): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(11): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28556(12): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(13): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(14): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(15): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(16): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(17): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(18): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(19): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29316(20): Restore the provisional status of typing module, add
     corresponding note to documentation.  Patch by Ivan L.

   - bpo-29219(21): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29011(22): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-28969(23): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(24): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(25): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29203(26): functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468(27) and
     preserves the order of keyword arguments.  f(a=1, b=2) is now
     cached separately from f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could
     potentially give different results.

   - bpo-15812(28): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(29): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file
     object and modes “w” and “x” now are relative to the start of the
     file.

   - bpo-29085(30): Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS
     randomness rather than the pid and time.

   - bpo-29061(31): Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang
     when given a negative input.  Patch by Brendan Donegan.

   - bpo-29079(32): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(33): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(34): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(35): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(36): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(37): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-29055(38): Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice()
     by suppressing the upstream exception.

   - bpo-28871(39): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(40): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(41): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(42): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(43): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-26937(44): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does
     not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example
     on Android platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29316

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29203

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29085

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29061

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29055

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<53>,  Next: Windows<64>,  Prev: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-29071(1): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(2): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<64>,  Next: C API<65>,  Prev: IDLE<53>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.4 Windows
.................

   - bpo-29579(1): Removes readme.txt from the installer

   - bpo-29326(2): Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey
     Izbyshev)

   - bpo-28164(3): Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-29409(4): Implement PEP 529(5) for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk
     Sun)

   - bpo-29392(6): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   - bpo-25778(7): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(8): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29326

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29409

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: C API<65>,  Next: Documentation<67>,  Prev: Windows<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between
     0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-29058(3): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<67>,  Next: Tests<67>,  Prev: C API<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28929(1): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(2): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(3): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(4): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<67>,  Next: Build<72>,  Prev: Documentation<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28087(1): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-29571(2): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   - bpo-28950(3): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(4): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26939(5): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<72>,  Prev: Tests<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.23.82.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-26851(3): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(4): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.  Patch
     by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(5): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(6): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(7): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(8): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(9): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(10): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 final,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.83 Python 3.6.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-23'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.84 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.
* Build: Build<73>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<76>,  Next: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.84.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28147(1): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28990(2): Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed
     before handshake is completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<40>,  Next: Windows<65>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.84.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28770(1): Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28770


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<65>,  Next: Build<73>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.84.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28896(1): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: Build<73>,  Prev: Windows<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.23.84.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28898(1): Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG
     redefinition.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.85 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<77>,  Next: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.85.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(2): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28782(3): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647


File: python.info,  Node: Library<76>,  Next: C API<66>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.85.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27030(1): Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are
     allowed again.  But they still are deprecated and will be disabled
     in 3.7.

   - bpo-28835(2): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(3): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-26273(4): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-24142(5): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28843(6): Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions
     __traceback__.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28843


File: python.info,  Node: C API<66>,  Next: Documentation<68>,  Prev: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.85.3 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<68>,  Next: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: C API<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.85.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23722(1): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the What’s New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(2)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: Documentation<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.23.85.5 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28023(1): Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict
     implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.86 Python 3.6.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-11-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.
* Build: Build<74>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<78>,  Next: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.86.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28532(1): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(2): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it
     checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages when
     both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(3): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(4): Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(5): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(6): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28665(7): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-28583(8): PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27243(9): Change PendingDeprecationWarning ->
     DeprecationWarning.  As it was agreed in the issue, __aiter__
     returning an awaitable should result in PendingDeprecationWarning
     in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.

   - bpo-26182(10): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(11): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to
     handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721


File: python.info,  Node: Library<77>,  Next: Documentation<69>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.86.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28752(1): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(2): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects
     created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y
     operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(3): don’t
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(4): The subprocess.Popen.wait method’s undocumented
     endtime parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25659(5): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-19717(6): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(7): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when
     handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(8): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator
     when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on
     patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-28600(9): Optimize loop.call_soon.

   - bpo-28613(10): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28634(11): Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.

   - bpo-26081(12): Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.

   - bpo-28639(13): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(14): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(15): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(16): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-28704(17): Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects
     (PEP 519).

   - bpo-28720(18): Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28634

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28704

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<69>,  Next: Tests<68>,  Prev: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.86.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<68>,  Next: Build<74>,  Prev: Documentation<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.86.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28666(1): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(2): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839


File: python.info,  Node: Build<74>,  Prev: Tests<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.23.86.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-10656(1): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(2): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28676(3): Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.87 Python 3.6.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<79>,  Next: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.87.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28128(1): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(2): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(3): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(4): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that
     caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(5): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(6): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28471(7): Fix “Python memory allocator called without holding
     the GIL” crash in socket.setblocking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28471


File: python.info,  Node: Library<78>,  Next: Windows<66>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.87.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27517(1): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(2): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(3): tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(4): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(5): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-18844(6): The various ways of specifying weights for
     random.choices() now produce the same result sequences.

   - bpo-28255(7): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(8): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(9): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(10): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn’t
     accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(11): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the
     “!” prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(12): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(13): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry “./” to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(14): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-18219(15): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns.
     Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(16): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-28480(17): Fix error building socket module when multithreading
     is disabled.

   - bpo-24452(18): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(19): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-28492(20): Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in
     _asyncio.Future.

   - bpo-28500(21): Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another
     thread.

   - bpo-26923(22): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(23): Don’t configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28544(24): Implement asyncio.Task in C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28492

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28500

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<66>,  Next: Build<75>,  Prev: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.87.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28522(1): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522


File: python.info,  Node: Build<75>,  Next: Tests<69>,  Prev: Windows<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.87.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28444(1): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(3): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<69>,  Prev: Build<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.23.87.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26944(1): Fix test_posix for Android where ‘id -G’ is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(2): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.88 Python 3.6.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* C API: C API<67>.
* Build: Build<76>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<80>,  Next: Library<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.88.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28183(1): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(2): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(3): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(4): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(5): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is deprecated.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(6): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(7): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(8): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(9): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(10): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(11): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(12): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(13): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(14): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(15): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(16): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(17): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(18): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(19): Don’t import readline in isolated mode.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(20): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(21): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(22): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a “pending key” (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(23): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182


File: python.info,  Node: Library<79>,  Next: Windows<67>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.88.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27998(1): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows.
     Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(2): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-26293(3): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28380(4): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-27181(5): remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.

   - bpo-28229(6): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(7): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(8): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(9): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-27358(10): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved
     error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

   - bpo-28257(11): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(12): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(13): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(14): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(15): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(16): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(17): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(18): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(19): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(20): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(21): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(22): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(23): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(24): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(25): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(26): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(27): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values
     for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(28): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(29): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(30): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the
     middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(31): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(32): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(33): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(34): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(35): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(36): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(37): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(38): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(39): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(40): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(41): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(42): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has
     no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(43): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(44): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(45): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(46): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(47): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(48): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<67>,  Next: C API<67>,  Prev: Library<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.88.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28402(1): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(2): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(3): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(4): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(5): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(6): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts
     with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(7): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(8): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(9): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(10): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: C API<67>,  Next: Build<76>,  Prev: Windows<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.88.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-28426(1): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Build<76>,  Next: Tests<70>,  Prev: C API<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.88.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28258(1): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(2): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-15819(3): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<70>,  Prev: Build<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.23.88.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28217(1): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.89 Python 3.6.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-09-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<81>,  Next: Library<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is
     now initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so
     class methods relying on that will now work correctly when called
     from metaclass methods during class creation.  Patch by Martin
     Teichmann.

   - bpo-25221(2): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-27080(3): Implement formatting support for PEP 515(4).  Initial
     patch by Chris Angelico.

   - bpo-27199(5): In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve
     throughput.  Patch by Jason Fried.

   - bpo-27948(6): In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the
     braces (where the expressions are).  This is a breaking change from
     the 3.6 alpha releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in
     an f-string.  Also, require that expressions inside f-strings be
     enclosed within literal braces, and not escapes like
     ‘f'\x7b"hi"\x7d'’.

   - bpo-28046(7): Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.

   - bpo-28071(8): Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.

   - bpo-25758(9): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-25856(10): The __module__ attribute of extension classes and
     functions now is interned.  This leads to more compact pickle data
     with protocol 4.

   - bpo-27213(11): Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and
     more efficient bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy
     Storchaka, reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-26331(12): Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515(13).  Patch
     by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-27999(14): Make “global after use” a SyntaxError, and ditto for
     nonlocal.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-28003(15): Implement PEP 525(16) – Asynchronous Generators.

   - bpo-27985(17): Implement PEP 526(18) – Syntax for Variable
     Annotations.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-26058(19): Add a new private version to the builtin dict type,
     incremented at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary
     change.  Implementation of the PEP 509.

   - bpo-27364(20): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid
     escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning.  Patch by
     Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27350(21): ‘dict’ implementation is changed like PyPy.  It is
     more compact and preserves insertion order.  (Concept developed by
     Raymond Hettinger and patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - bpo-27911(22): Remove unnecessary error checks in
     ‘exec_builtin_or_dynamic()’.

   - bpo-27078(23): Added BUILD_STRING opcode.  Optimized f-strings
     evaluation.

   - bpo-17884(24): Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and
     stdint.h

   - bpo-27961(25): Require platforms to support ‘long long’.  Python
     hasn’t compiled without ‘long long’ for years, so this is basically
     a formality.

   - bpo-27355(26): Removed support for Windows CE. It was never
     finished, and Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for
     Python.

   - Implement PEP 523(27).

   - bpo-27870(28): A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer
     attempts to allocate large amounts of memory.

   - bpo-25402(29): In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the
     estimate of the intermediate memory required, and remove an
     unnecessarily strict overflow check.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-27214(30): In long_invert, be more careful about modifying
     object returned by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for
     small longs.  Thanks Oren Milman for analysis and patch.

   - bpo-27506(31): Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate()
     “delete” argument by keyword.

   - bpo-27812(32): Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(33): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(34): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of ‘def’ in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27792(35): The modulo operation applied to ‘bool’ and other
     ‘int’ subclasses now always returns an ‘int’.  Previously the
     return type depended on the input values.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26984(36): int() now always returns an instance of exact int.

   - bpo-25604(37): Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug
     could potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms
     with unreliable ldexp implementations.

   - bpo-24254(38): Make class definition namespace ordered by default.

   - bpo-27662(39): Fix an overflow check in ‘List_New’: the original
     code was checking against ‘Py_SIZE_MAX’ instead of the correct
     upper bound of ‘Py_SSIZE_T_MAX’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27782(40): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(41): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(42): Warn if a submodule argument to “python -m” or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27157(43): Make only type() itself accept the one-argument
     form.  Patch by Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27558(44): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of “raise”
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28008(45): Implement PEP 530(46) – asynchronous comprehensions.

   - bpo-27942(47): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27080

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27948

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28046

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28071

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25856

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26331

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27999

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26058

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27911

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27355

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27870

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25402

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27214

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27506

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27792

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26984

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24254

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27662

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27157

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28008

   (46) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<80>,  Next: IDLE<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28732(1): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(2): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28037(3): Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting
     Connection->inTransaction manually.

   - bpo-25283(4): Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on
     all platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and
     time.gmtime().

   - bpo-24454(5): Regular expression match object groups are now
     accessible using __getitem__.  “mo[x]” is equivalent to
     “mo.group(x)”.

   - bpo-10740(6): sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open
     transaction before DDL statements.

   - bpo-17941(7): Add a 'module' parameter to collections.namedtuple().

   - bpo-22493(8): Inline flags now should be used only at the start of
     the regular expression.  Deprecation warning is emitted if uses
     them in the middle of the regular expression.

   - bpo-26885(9): xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data
     types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.

   - bpo-28070(10): Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-19500(11): Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl
     module.

   - bpo-28022(12): Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of
     SSLContext.  The deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket
     and certfile/keyfile (or similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib,
     smtplib, poplib and urllib.

   - bpo-28043(13): SSLContext has improved default settings:
     OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION,
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
     and HIGH ciphers without MD5.

   - bpo-24693(14): Changed some RuntimeError’s in the zipfile module to
     more appropriate types.  Improved some error messages and debugging
     output.

   - bpo-17909(15): ‘json.load’ and ‘json.loads’ now support binary
     input encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.  Patch by Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-27137(16): the pure Python fallback implementation of
     ‘functools.partial’ now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C
     counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation
     purposes.  Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(17): Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28019(18): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-18401(19): Pdb now supports the ‘readrc’ keyword argument to
     control whether .pdbrc files should be read.  Patch by Martin
     Matusiak and Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-25969(20): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(21): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files (“first match”), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-28082(22): Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.

   - bpo-28025(23): Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and
     IntFlags.  SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.

   - bpo-23591(24): Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.

   - bpo-433028(25): Added support of modifier spans in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-24594(26): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(27): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(28): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27576(29): Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().

   - email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

   - bpo-28027(30): Remove undocumented modules from ‘Lib/plat-*’: IN,
     CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.

   - bpo-27445(31): Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-24277(32): The new email API is no longer provisional, and the
     docs have been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.

   - bpo-22450(33): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-28005(34): Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to
     propagate.

   - bpo-26667(35): Support path-like objects in importlib.util.

   - bpo-27570(36): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the “ctypes” and “array” modules.

   - bpo-22233(37): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27331(38): The email.mime classes now all accept an optional
     policy keyword.

   - bpo-27988(39): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-16113(40): Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.

   - Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.

   - bpo-27776(41): The *note os.urandom(): 51c. function does now block
     on Linux 3.17 and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized to increase the security.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(42).

   - bpo-27778(43): Expose the Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall as a new
     *note os.getrandom(): cba. function.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(44).

   - bpo-27691(45): Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-18844(46): Add random.choices().

   - bpo-25761(47): Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data
     in C implementation of unpickler.  UnpicklingError is now raised
     instead of AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.

   - bpo-26798(48): Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.

   - bpo-26032(49): Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir();
     it is now about 1.5–4 times faster.

   - bpo-25596(50): Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob
     module; they are now about 3–6 times faster.

   - bpo-27928(51): Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function)
     to hashlib module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).

   - bpo-27850(52): Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(53)).

   - bpo-27766(54): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-25387(55): Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.

   - bpo-27866(56): Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of
     all enabled ciphers.

   - bpo-27744(57): Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.

   - bpo-26470(58): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-11620(59): Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound.
     Based on a patch by Tim Lesher.

   - bpo-11734(60): Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to
     the struct module.  Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.

   - bpo-27919(61): Deprecated ‘extra_path’ distribution option in
     distutils packaging.

   - bpo-23229(62): Add new ‘cmath’ constants: ‘cmath.inf’ and
     ‘cmath.nan’ to match ‘math.inf’ and ‘math.nan’, and also
     ‘cmath.infj’ and ‘cmath.nanj’ to match the format used by complex
     repr.

   - bpo-27842(63): The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type
     OrderedDict.  (Contributed by Steve Holden.)

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn’t raise.

   - bpo-12885(64): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(65): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(66): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(67): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(68): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(69): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - bpo-12319(70): Chunked transfer encoding support added to
     http.client.HTTPConnection requests.  The
     urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a
     Content-Length header any more.  If a HTTP request has a file or
     iterable body, but no Content-Length header, the library now falls
     back to use chunked transfer-encoding.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     - Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(71)) - Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259) - Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252)

   - bpo-27832(72): Make ‘_normalize’ parameter to ‘Fraction’
     constructor keyword-only, so that ‘Fraction(2, 3, 4)’ now raises
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-27539(73): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(74): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-27819(75): In distutils sdists, simply produce the “gztar”
     (gzipped tar format) distributions on all platforms unless
     “formats” is supplied.

   - bpo-2466(76): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-9998(77): On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in
     LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries.

   - bpo-27573(78): exit message for code.interact is now configurable.

   - bpo-27930(79): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-6766(80): Distributed reference counting added to
     multiprocessing to support nesting of shared values / proxy
     objects.

   - bpo-21201(81): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.

   - bpo-27456(82): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25283

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10740

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28070

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24693

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27137

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18401

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28082

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27576

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28027

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28005

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26667

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27776

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (44) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (53) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25387

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27866

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11620

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

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   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766

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   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<54>,  Next: C API<68>,  Prev: Library<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add ‘interrupt execution’ (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from ‘flashing’ gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - bpo-27891(3): Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib
     modules.

   - bpo-17642(4): add larger font sizes for classroom projection.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(5): In section on IDLE – console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27821(6): Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets
     from being selected when no custom theme was defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17642

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27821


File: python.info,  Node: C API<68>,  Next: Tests<71>,  Prev: IDLE<54>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-26900(1): Excluded underscored names and other private API from
     limited API.

   - bpo-26027(2): Add support for path-like objects in
     PyUnicode_FSConverter() & PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<71>,  Next: Build<77>,  Prev: C API<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27427(1): Additional tests for the math module.  Patch by
     Francisco Couzo.

   - bpo-27953(2): Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due
     to a poor libm implementation of tan.

   - bpo-26040(3): Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour.
     Patch by Jeff Allen.

   - bpo-27787(4): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     “dangling threads”, since the dangling threads are weak references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787


File: python.info,  Node: Build<77>,  Next: Tools/Demos<42>,  Prev: Tests<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27566(1): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(2): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27976(3): Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of
     libffi on non-OSX UNIX platforms.

   - bpo-27983(4): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when ‘--with-optimizations’ is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-21590(5): Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.

   - bpo-26307(6): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in
     modules.

   - bpo-26359(7): Add the –with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and
     PGO build support when available.

   - bpo-27917(8): Set platform triplets for Android builds.

   - bpo-25825(9): Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path
     on AIX. This path was changed in 3.2a4.

   - Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.

   - bpo-21122(10): Fix LTO builds on OS X.

   - bpo-17128(11): Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL.
     Also provide a sample Install Certificates command script to
     install a set of root certificates from the third-party certifi
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27976

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21122

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<42>,  Next: Windows<68>,  Prev: Build<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current “re” module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<68>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<42>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.23.89.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28065(1): Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from
     source.

   - bpo-25144(2): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-1602(3): Windows console doesn’t input or print Unicode (PEP
     528)

   - bpo-27781(4): Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP
     529)

   - bpo-27731(5): Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10

   - bpo-6135(6): Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.

   - bpo-27959(7): Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs
     to codec lookup.

   - bpo-27982(8): The functions of the winsound module now accept
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-20366(9): Build full text search support into SQLite on
     Windows.

   - bpo-27756(10): Adds new icons for Python files and processes on
     Windows.  Designs by Cherry Wang.

   - bpo-27883(11): Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28065

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27731

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20366

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27756

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27883


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.90 Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-08-15'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* Build: Build<78>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<82>,  Next: Library<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.90.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27704(1): Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like
     objects and iterables.  Speed up to 3 times for short objects.
     Original patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-26823(2): Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are
     now abbreviated as “[Previous line repeated {count} more times]” by
     the builtin traceback rendering.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27574(3): Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in
     functions implemented with using Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-22557(4): Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5
     times faster.

   - bpo-17596(5): Include <wincrypt.h> to help with Min GW building.

   - bpo-17599(6): On Windows, rename the privately defined
     REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER structure to avoid conflicting with the
     definition from Min GW.

   - bpo-27507(7): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(8): Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-1621(9): Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple
     operations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(10): Standard __import__() no longer look up “__import__”
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or “from import”.
     Fixed a crash if raise a warning about unabling to resolve package
     from __spec__ or __package__.

   - bpo-27083(11): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(12): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27366(13): Implemented PEP 487(14) (Simpler customization of
     class creation).  Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__
     classmethod is called on the base class.  Descriptors are
     initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27704

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17596

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17599

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27366

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<81>,  Next: IDLE<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.90.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-26027(1): Add PEP 519(2)/__fspath__() support to the os and
     os.path modules.  Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra.  (See also:
     bpo-27524(3))

   - bpo-27598(4): Add Collections to collections.abc.  Patch by Ivan
     Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar.

   - bpo-25958(5): Support “anti-registration” of special methods from
     various ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__.  All these (and
     several more) can be set to None in an implementation class and the
     behavior will be as if the method is not defined at all.
     (Previously, this mechanism existed only for __hash__, to make
     mutable classes unhashable.)  Code contributed by Andrew Barnert
     and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-16764(6): Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27736(7): Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization
     due to ref count problem introduced in code for bpo-27038(8) in
     3.6.0a3.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25628(9): The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters for
     collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-12345(10): Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath.
     See also PEP 628(11).

   - bpo-26823(12): traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large
     sections of repeated lines as “[Previous line repeated {count} more
     times]” (this change then further affects other traceback display
     operations in the module).  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27664(13): Add to
     concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the ability to
     specify a thread name prefix.

   - bpo-27181(14): Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics
     module.

   - bpo-27573(15): code.interact now prints an message when exiting.

   - bpo-6422(16): Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.

   - bpo-27773(17): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(18): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.  Removes
     the never publicly used, never documented
     unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.

   - bpo-26754(19): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as path in compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26800(20): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as paths in os functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26981(21): Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for
     Python 2/3 code bases.

   - bpo-27661(22): Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(23): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(24): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(25): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(26): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(27): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(28)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-7063(29): Remove dead code from the “array” module’s slice
     handling.  Patch by Chuck.

   - bpo-27656(30): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(31): In the “zlib” module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-24773(32): Implemented PEP 495(33) (Local Time Disambiguation).

   - Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the
     select module.

   - bpo-27567(34): Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the
     select module.

   - bpo-1621(35): Avoid signed int negation overflow in the “audioop”
     module.

   - bpo-27533(36): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(37): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(38): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-27512(39): Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an
     __fspath__() method that raised an exception.  Patch by Xiang
     Zhang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27524

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27736

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26800

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26981

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (28) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7063

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27567

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27512


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<55>,  Next: Tests<72>,  Prev: Library<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.90.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27714(1): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-27621(2): Put query response validation error messages in the
     query box itself instead of in a separate messagebox.  Redo tests
     to match.  Add Mac OSX refinements.  Original patch by Mark
     Roseman.

   - bpo-27620(3): Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.

   - bpo-27609(4): IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not
     autocomplete.  This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least
     twice indented.

   - bpo-27609(5): Explicitly return None when there are also non-None
     returns.  In a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a
     return.

   - bpo-25507(6): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27173(7): Add ‘IDLE Modern Unix’ to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(8): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27621

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27620

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<72>,  Next: Windows<69>,  Prev: IDLE<55>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.90.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25805(1): Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn’t
     work when ‘__name__ == __main__’.  Patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-27472(2): Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the
     default shell.

   - bpo-27369(3): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   - bpo-27594(4): Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with
     coverage enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number.
     Patch suggested by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25805

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27594


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<69>,  Next: Build<78>,  Prev: Tests<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.90.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27647(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.

   - bpo-27610(2): Adds PEP 514(3) metadata to Windows installer

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27610

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<78>,  Prev: Windows<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.23.90.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27713(1): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib’s bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(2): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which
     is required on AIX. The references were accidentally changed in
     3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(3): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(4): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(5): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program
     to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(6): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.91 Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* C API: C API<69>.
* Build: Build<79>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<47>,  Next: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<83>,  Next: Library<82>,  Prev: Security<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27473(1): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23034(2): The output of a special Python build with defined
     COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now
     off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the “-X showalloccount”
     option.  It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout.

   - bpo-27443(3): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27007(4): The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray
     subclasses now return an instance of corresponding subclass.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27007


File: python.info,  Node: Library<82>,  Next: IDLE<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-26844(1): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     ‘path’ instead of ‘name’.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(2): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not
     raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(3): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-21708(4): Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common
     dbm behavior: creating a database in ‘r’ and ‘w’ modes and
     modifying a database in ‘r’ mode.

   - bpo-26721(5): Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile
     attribute to implement BufferedIOBase.  In particular, the write()
     method no longer does partial writes.

   - bpo-22115(6): Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info
     in the tkinter.Variable class.  They replace old methods
     trace_variable, trace, trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use
     obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.
     Fixed old tracing methods: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no
     longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of
     pairs of strings, tracing in the “u” mode now works.

   - bpo-26243(7): Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword
     argument now.  The first argument is positional-only.

   - bpo-27038(8): Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry.  Code patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27186(9): Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return
     value of __fspath__() to be either str or bytes.

   - bpo-18726(10): All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(),
     load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class
     constructors in the json module are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-27319(11): Methods selection_set(), selection_add(),
     selection_remove() and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow
     passing multiple items as multiple arguments instead of passing
     them as a tuple.  Deprecated undocumented ability of calling the
     selection() method with arguments.

   - bpo-27079(12): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-27294(13): Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event
     objects is now represented as a combination of known flags.

   - bpo-27177(14): Match objects in the re module now support
     index-like objects as group indices.  Based on patches by Jeroen
     Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26754(15): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-26536(16): socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH.
     Patch by Daniel Stokes.

   - bpo-27048(17): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(18): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(19): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(20): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(21) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-16864(22): sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE
     statement.  Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.

   - bpo-26386(23): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id’s containing spaces.

   - bpo-8637(24): Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in
     preference to one set by the env var PAGER).

   - bpo-16182(25): Fix various functions in the “readline” module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(26): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<56>,  Next: C API<69>,  Prev: Library<82>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27477(1): IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.

   - bpo-27173(2): Add ‘IDLE Modern Unix’ to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(3): make command line “idle-test> python test_help.py”
     work.  __file__ is relative when python is started in the file’s
     directory.

   - bpo-27452(4): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27380(5): IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk
     widgets.  Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and
     HelpSource, which are used to get information from users by
     configdialog and file =>Load Module.  Each subclass has itw own
     validity checks.  Using ModuleName allows users to edit bad module
     names instead of starting over.  Add tests and delete the two files
     combined into the new one.

   - bpo-27372(6): Test_idle no longer changes the locale.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24137(9): Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default
     root disabled.  Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction.
     Fix htests to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.

   - bpo-27310(10): Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to
     vestigial import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27477

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27380

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27372

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<69>,  Next: Build<79>,  Prev: IDLE<56>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-26754(1): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and byte-like
     objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Build<79>,  Next: Tools/Demos<43>,  Prev: C API<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-28066(1): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27442(2): Expose the Android API level that python was built
     against, in sysconfig.get_config_vars() as ‘ANDROID_API_LEVEL’.

   - bpo-27434(3): The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in
     PATH, must now be of the same feature version (e.g.  3.6) as the
     source being built.

   - bpo-26930(4): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-23968(5): Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to
     plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from
     config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET).
     Install the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the
     platform directory and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.

   - Don’t use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27442

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27434

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23968


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<43>,  Next: Documentation<70>,  Prev: Build<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27332(1): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(2): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<70>,  Next: Tests<73>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-27285(2): Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of
     ‘pyvenv’ and normalize on the term “virtual environment”.  Patch by
     Steve Piercy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<73>,  Prev: Documentation<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.23.91.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27027(1): Added test.support.is_android that is True when this
     is an Android build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.92 Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<80>.
* C API: C API<70>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<48>,  Next: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 51c. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<84>,  Next: Library<83>,  Prev: Security<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27095(1): Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE
     opcodes.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-27190(2): Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than
     3.3.1.  Patch by Dave Sawyer.

   - bpo-27286(3): Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode.
     Calling function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and
     conflicting keyword names could cause undefined behavior.

   - bpo-27140(4): Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.

   - bpo-27186(5): Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part
     of PEP 519(6)).

   - bpo-27066(7): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-26983(8): float() now always return an instance of exact float.
     The deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance
     of a strict subclass of float.  In a future versions of Python this
     can be an error.

   - bpo-27097(9): Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to
     optimized instruction decoding.  Based on patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-26647(10): Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead
     of bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-23275(11): Allow assigning to an empty target list in round
     brackets: () = iterable.

   - bpo-27243(12): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27190

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27097

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23275

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<83>,  Next: IDLE<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.3 Library
.................

   - Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK)
     constants exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd.
     They would not work at runtime anyway.

   - bpo-27025(1): Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more
     meaningful and recognizable.

   - bpo-25455(2): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive
     ElementTree.Element and functools.partial objects.

   - bpo-27294(3): Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.

   - bpo-20508(4): Improve exception message of
     IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__.  Patch by Gareth Rees.

   - bpo-21386(5): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-27029(6): Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode
     from ZipFile.open().

   - bpo-27030(7): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in regular expressions now are errors.  The re.LOCALE flag
     now can be used only with bytes patterns.

   - bpo-27186(8): Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP
     519(9)).  Initial patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-20900(10): distutils register command now decodes HTTP
     responses correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - bpo-27186(11): Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its
     provisional status (part of PEP 519).  Initial patch by Dusty
     Phillips.

   - bpo-27186(12): Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode()
     and os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519(13)).

   - bpo-27186(14): Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP
     519(15)).

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(16)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(17): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t
     send Content header fields in responses that don’t have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(18): Fix the “platform” module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-23883(19): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes,
     plistlib and smtpd.  Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.

   - bpo-27164(20): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(21): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-21272(22): Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize
     distutils.sysconfig.

   - bpo-19611(23): *note inspect: 7e. now reports the implicit ‘.0’
     parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
     generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only
     parameters called ‘implicit0’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26809(24): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: d3.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(25): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now
     return a consistent name for values having multiple names.  Ex:
     signal.Signals(6) now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather
     than flipping between that and signal.SIGIOT based on the
     interpreter’s hash randomization seed.

   - bpo-27167(26): Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error
     message text when the child process died due to a signal.

   - bpo-25931(27): Don’t define socketserver.Forking* names on
     platforms such as Windows that do not support os.fork().

   - bpo-21776(28): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-26526(29): Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser
     module with a simple DFA validator.

   - bpo-27114(30): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(31): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-23026(32): winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for
     REG_QWORD type.

   - bpo-26741(33): subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a
     ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running.

   - bpo-27056(34): Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10%
     faster to deserialize a lot of small objects.

   - bpo-21271(35): New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20508

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27029

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21272

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27167

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25931

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26526

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<57>,  Next: Documentation<71>,  Prev: Library<83>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24750(2): Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions.  Where
     needed, minimal tests are added to cover changes.

   - bpo-24759(3): IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets.
     Delete now unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions.
     Add test for IDLE syntax colorizer.

   - bpo-27239(4): idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as
     needed.

   - bpo-27262(5): move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus,
     to macosx.

   - bpo-24759(6): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(7): Stop ‘ThemeChanged’ warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(8): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-24225(9): Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and
     event handlers.

   - bpo-27156(10): Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.

   - bpo-27117(11): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-24225(12): Rename many ‘idlelib/*.py’ and ‘idle_test/test_*.py’
     files.  Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old
     name referred to the module rather than the class it contained.
     See the issue and IDLE section in What’s New in 3.6 for more.

   - bpo-26673(13): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(14): Add test for IDLE’s percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(15): Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(16): Add test for IDLE’s search dialog.  Original patch
     by Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(17): Add test for undo delegator.  Patch mostly by
     Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(18): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(19): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27239

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27156

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<71>,  Next: Tests<74>,  Prev: IDLE<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-16484(1): Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to “https:”, and
     fix the resulting links to use lowercase.  Patch by Sean Rodman,
     test by Kaushik Nadikuditi.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-22558(4): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16484

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<74>,  Next: Windows<70>,  Prev: Documentation<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25285(1): regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command
     line option is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process.
     Before, the -j1 option was ignored.

   - bpo-25285(2): Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by
     default to run each test file in fresh child process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<70>,  Next: Build<80>,  Prev: Tests<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27064(1): The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3.  The
     Windows launcher ‘py.exe’ no longer prefers an installed Python 2
     version over Python 3 by default when used interactively.

   - bpo-17500(2): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Build<80>,  Next: C API<70>,  Prev: Windows<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27229(1): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26930(2): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: C API<70>,  Next: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: Build<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-27186(1): Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519(2)).

   - bpo-26282(3): PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports
     positional-only parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: C API<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.23.92.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26282(1): Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and
     keyword parameters in the same function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 5 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.93 Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-05-16'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Build: Build<81>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.
* C API: C API<71>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<49>,  Next: Core and Builtins<85>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26657(1): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(2): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(3): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<85>,  Next: Library<84>,  Prev: Security<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-20041(1): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(2): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the “N” format unit.

   - bpo-26991(3): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(4): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Based on patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(5): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-27005(6): Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact
     float.  It is now 2 times faster.

   - bpo-18531(7): Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact dict.

   - bpo-26811(8): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(9): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26249(10): Memory functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.
     domain (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.) now use the *note pymalloc
     allocator: d0c. rather than system ‘malloc()’.  Applications
     calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62. without holding the GIL can now
     crash: use ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable to validate
     the usage of memory allocators in your application.

   - bpo-26802(11): Optimize function calls only using unpacking like
     ‘func(*tuple)’ (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid
     copying the tuple.  Patch written by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-26659(12): Make the builtin slice type support cycle
     collection.

   - bpo-26718(13): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-27138(14): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-27147(15): Mention PEP 420(16) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-25339(17): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(18): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26574(19): Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and
     ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’.  Patch written by Josh Snider.

   - bpo-26581(20): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-19711(21): Add tests for reloading namespace packages.

   - bpo-21099(22): Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451(23)
     API.

   - bpo-26563(24): Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a
     fatal error if functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62. family
     are called without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26564(25): On error, the debug hooks on Python memory
     allocators now use the *note tracemalloc: ff. module to get the
     traceback where a memory block was allocated.

   - bpo-26558(26): The debug hooks on Python memory allocator *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): c65. now detect when functions are called
     without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26516(27): Add *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. environment variable to
     set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

   - bpo-26516(28): The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. function can
     now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.

   - bpo-26516(29): The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b5d. environment
     variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
     It now has no effect if set to an empty string.

   - bpo-26516(30): In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on
     Python memory allocators when Python is configured without
     pymalloc.

   - bpo-26464(31): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(32): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(33): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-26136(34): Upgrade the warning when a generator raises
     StopIteration from PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.
     Patch by Anish Shah.

   - bpo-26204(35): The compiler now ignores all constant statements:
     bytes, str, int, float, complex, name constants (None, False,
     True), Ellipsis and ast.Constant; not only str and int.  For
     example, ‘1.0’ is now ignored in ‘def f(): 1.0’.

   - bpo-4806(36): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-26146(37): Add a new kind of AST node: ‘ast.Constant’.  It can
     be used by external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit
     directly such node.

   - bpo-23601(38): Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using
     Python’s small object allocator.  (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)

   - bpo-18018(39): Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if
     a relative import is attempted without a known parent package.

   - bpo-25843(40): When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘float’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-26107(41): The format of the ‘co_lnotab’ attribute of code
     objects changes to support negative line number delta.

   - bpo-26154(42): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-25791(43): If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither
     __package__ or __spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.

   - bpo-22995(44): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(45): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(46): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(47): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren’t subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(48): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(49): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(50): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(51): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-5319(52): New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an
     exit status of 120 on failure to flush buffered streams.

   - bpo-25485(53): telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.

   - bpo-24097(54): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(55): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-25630(56): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(57): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(58): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(59): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(60): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-24802(61): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-25555(62): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     “arg” node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24726(63): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(64): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(65): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25401(66): Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex():
     they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.

   - bpo-25399(67): Optimize bytearray % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times
     faster.

   - bpo-25274(68): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the “lower-water mark” formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(69): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-25349(70): Optimize bytes % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.

   - bpo-24806(71): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-25301(72): The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’.

   - bpo-24848(73): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25267(74): The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’,
     ‘surrogatepass’.  Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25280(75): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25227(76): Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times
     as fast.  Initial patch written by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25003(77): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-9232(78): Modify Python’s grammar to allow trailing commas in
     the argument list of a function declaration.  For example, “def
     f(*, a = 3,): pass” is now legal.  Patch from Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24965(79): Implement PEP 498(80) “Literal String
     Interpolation”.  This allows you to embed expressions inside
     f-strings, which are converted to normal strings at run time.
     Given x=3, then f’value={x}’ == ‘value=3’.  Patch by Eric V. Smith.

   - bpo-26478(81): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(82): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(83): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-26288(84): Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.

   - bpo-26289(85): Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit
     longs.  Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement.  Built-in ‘divmod’
     function is now also ~10% faster.  (See also: bpo-26315(86))

   - bpo-25887(87): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27005

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18531

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26802

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19711

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21099

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26563

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26558

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26136

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26204

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23601

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26107

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9232

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24965

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26288

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26289

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26315

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887


File: python.info,  Node: Library<84>,  Next: IDLE<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<85>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-27057(1): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(2): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-27031(3): Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes:
     tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal().

   - bpo-14132(4): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(5): The “urllib.request” module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but “http.client”
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27033(6): The default value of the decode_data parameter for
     smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to
     False.

   - bpo-27034(7): Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.

   - bpo-26870(8): Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop
     entries being automatically added to the history list.  Based on
     patch by Tyler Crompton.

   - bpo-26039(9): zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data
     into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  Patch by Thomas
     Kluyver.

   - bpo-26892(10): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(11): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(12): mock_open ‘files’ no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(13): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(14): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26002(15): Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear
     search.  Patch by Upendra Kuma.

   - bpo-25974(16): Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in
     statistics module.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-26996(17): Add secrets module as described in PEP 506(18).

   - bpo-26881(19): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(20): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(21): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(22): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26915(23): The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now
     check for identity before checking equality.  This better matches
     the behavior of the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of
     NaNs, and makes it easier to reason about container invariants.

   - bpo-26711(24): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(25): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(26): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24902(27): Print server URL on http.server startup.  Initial
     patch by Felix Kaiser.

   - bpo-25788(28): fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an “errors”
     argument for passing to open.  Original patch by Joseph Hackman.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove “will be removed in Python 3.7” from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4, catch *note AttributeError: 346.
     instead of *note NameError: 438.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26782(38): Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.

   - bpo-26404(39): Add context manager to socketserver.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26735(40): Fix *note os.urandom(): 51c. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-26585(41): Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use
     html.escape(quote=False).  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26685(42): Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.

   - bpo-16329(43): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-13952(44): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26587(45): the site module now allows .pth files to specify
     files to be added to sys.path (e.g.  zip files).

   - bpo-25609(46): Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and
     typing.ContextManager.

   - bpo-26709(47): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(48): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-25951(49): Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as
     explicitly documented for plain socket objects.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26586(50): In http.server, respond with “413 Request header
     fields too large” if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26676(51): Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.

   - bpo-22854(52): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-26492(53): Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with
     the behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts
     exhausted even if iterated array is extended.

   - bpo-26641(54): doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now
     support packages (module splitted into multiple directories) for
     the package parameter.

   - bpo-25195(55): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(56): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(57): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(58): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-26637(59): The *note importlib: 77. module now emits an *note
     ImportError: 413. rather than a *note TypeError: 532. if *note
     __import__(): 8d1. is tried during the Python shutdown process but
     *note sys.path: 3ae. is already cleared (set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-21925(60): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 1a1c. now catches
     exceptions when calling *note linecache.getline(): e1f. and *note
     tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(): 1b5f. to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: 244. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-23848(61): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs
     an exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on
     any Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE,
     SIGABRT).

   - bpo-26530(62): Add C functions ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Track()’ and
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()’ to track memory blocks using the *note
     tracemalloc: ff. module.  Add ‘_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback()’ to
     get the traceback of an object.

   - bpo-26588(63): The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory
     allocations of multiple address spaces (domains).

   - bpo-24266(64): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26590(65): Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket
     type.  It now releases the GIL to close the socket.

   - bpo-18787(66): spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the
     user doesn’t have privileges.

   - bpo-26560(67): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26567(68): Add a new function *note PyErr_ResourceWarning():
     d14. function to pass the destroyed object.  Add a 'source'
     attribute to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.  Add
     warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses tracemalloc to get the traceback
     where source object was allocated.

   - bpo-26569(69): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 825. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 826. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(70): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(71): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(72): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(73): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(74): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-26323(75): Add Mock.assert_called() and
     Mock.assert_called_once() methods to unittest.mock.  Patch written
     by Amit Saha.

   - bpo-20589(76): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(77): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(78): Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput.  The
     bufsize parameter is now deprecated and ignored.

   - bpo-19475(79): Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime
     isoformat() method to choose the precision of the time component.

   - bpo-2202(80): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-26167(81): Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and
     copy.deepcopy().  Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays,
     NotImplemented, slices, short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.

   - bpo-25718(82): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(83): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26482(84): Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.

   - bpo-26335(85): Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  Patch by Jakub Stasiak.

   - bpo-26457(86): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(87): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(88): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(89): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(90): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(91): importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(92): In the “socketserver” module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-23430(93): Change the socketserver module to only catch
     exceptions raised from a request handler that are derived from
     Exception (instead of BaseException).  Therefore SystemExit and
     KeyboardInterrupt no longer trigger the handle_error() method, and
     will now to stop a single-threaded server.

   - bpo-25995(94): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-25994(95): Added the close() method and the support of the
     context manager protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-23992(96): multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon
     exception.

   - bpo-26243(97): Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress().  Patch
     by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-26117(98): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25949(99): __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created
     only when needed.

   - bpo-25911(100): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(101): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting
     a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-26039(102): Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and
     zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-12923(103): Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(104): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  “args” and “keywords” attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(105): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range()
     objects with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(106): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(107): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(108): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26099(109): The site module now writes an error into stderr if
     sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise
     an ImportError.  Same change for usercustomize.

   - bpo-26147(110): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(111): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(112): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(113): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-26129(114): Deprecated accepting non-integers in
     grp.getgrgid().

   - bpo-25850(115): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit
     Windows.

   - bpo-25822(116): Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse
     results.  Patch contributed by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-22642(117): Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to
     argparse.  Patch contributed by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-24705(118): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${}
     vars appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-26069(119): Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.

   - bpo-22138(120): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(121): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(122): Don’t traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(123): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-21815(124): Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap
     responses, in order to handle the flags with square brackets
     accepted and produced by servers such as gmail.

   - bpo-25447(125): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25971(126): Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times
     and from Decimals by 3 times.

   - bpo-25802(127): Document as deprecated the remaining
     implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

   - bpo-25928(128): Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().

   - bpo-25447(129): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25768(130): Have the functions in compileall return booleans
     instead of ints and add proper documentation and tests for the
     return values.

   - bpo-24103(131): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(132): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(133): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25869(134): Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20
     times faster.

   - bpo-25873(135): Optimized iterating ElementTree.  Iterating
     elements Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text
     Element.itertext() is now up to 2.5 times faster.

   - bpo-25902(136): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-22227(137): The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using
     generator.  This implementation is simpler that using class.

   - bpo-25638(138): Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x
     faster.  Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.

   - bpo-25761(139): Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.

   - bpo-25717(140): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(141): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when ‘-d’ is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(142): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-25771(143): Tweak the exception message for
     importlib.util.resolve_name() when ‘package’ isn’t specified but
     necessary.

   - bpo-6478(144): _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(145): When executing a package with the “python -m
     package” option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The “runpy” module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(146): Also in runpy and the “-m” option, omit the
     irrelevant message “… is a package and cannot be directly executed”
     if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due to a bad
     ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(147): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(148): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(149): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-7990(150): dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties:
     “tag”, “text”, “tail” and “attrib”.  Original patch by Santoso
     Wijaya.

   - bpo-25725(151): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(152): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(153): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(154): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(155): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(156): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-25626(157): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that
     fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(158): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(159): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(160): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-23883(161): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: calendar, csv, enum,
     fileinput, ftplib, logging, optparse, tarfile, threading and wave.
     Also added a test.support.check__all__() helper.  Patches by Jacek
     Kołodziej, Mauro S. M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.

   - bpo-25590(162): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.  Also complete names of attributes such as
     properties and slots which are listed by dir() but not yet created
     on an instance.

   - bpo-25498(163): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(164): Added “escape” to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(165): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(166): Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(167): Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function
     to handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(168): Got rid of circular references in regular
     expression parsing.

   - bpo-18973(169): Command-line interface of the calendar module now
     uses argparse instead of optparse.

   - bpo-25510(170): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b’’
     instead of ‘’ at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(171): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(172): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(173): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(174): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(175): typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(176): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(177): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(178): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25407(179): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(180): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25382(181): pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index
     for the MEMOIZE opcode.

   - bpo-25357(182): Add an optional newline parameter to
     binascii.b2a_base64().  base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a
     memory copy.

   - bpo-24164(183): Objects that need calling ‘__new__’ with keyword
     arguments, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than
     protocol version 4.

   - bpo-25364(184): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(185): smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-16099(186): RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and
     Request-rate extensions.  Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.

   - bpo-25316(187): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(188): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(189): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is ‘posix’ (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(190): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(191): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(192): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes
     in the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25287(193): Don’t add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if
     it’s not supported.  Check if it is supported, it may not be
     supported on OpenBSD for example.

   - bpo-23600(194): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-25203(195): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-25011(196): rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute
     names unless the prefix starts with underscores.

   - bpo-25209(197): rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after
     completed keyword.

   - bpo-22241(198): timezone.utc name is now plain ‘UTC’, not
     ‘UTC-00:00’.

   - bpo-23517(199): fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of
     datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going
     to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead
     of rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).

   - bpo-23552(200): Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x)
     variance between best and worst times.  Patch from Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-24633(201): site-packages/README -> README.txt.

   - bpo-24879(202): help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in
     the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  The
     ordering is determined by the _fields attribute if present.

   - bpo-24874(203): Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its
     pickle more compact.

   - Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument
     wasn’t a list.

   - bpo-20059(204): urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid
     ports.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-24360(205): Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for
     invalid identifiers.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-23426(206): run_setup was broken in distutils.  Patch from
     Alexander Belopolsky.

   - bpo-13938(207): 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple.  Patch from
     Mark Hammond.

   - bpo-2091(208): open() accepted a ‘U’ mode string containing ‘+’,
     but ‘U’ can only be used with ‘r’.  Patch from Jeff Balogh and John
     O’Connor.

   - bpo-8585(209): improved tests for zipimporter2.  Patch from Mark
     Lawrence.

   - bpo-18622(210): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-24426(211): Fast searching optimization in regular expressions
     now works for patterns that starts with capturing groups.  Fast
     searching optimization now can’t be disabled at compile time.

   - bpo-23661(212): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-13248(213): Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.

   - bpo-25578(214): Fix (another) memory leak in
     SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(215): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(216): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(217): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(218): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(219): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(220): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(221): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(222): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-27040(223): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(224): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25974

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26996

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<58>,  Next: Documentation<72>,  Prev: Library<84>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-20640(1): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the ‘IDLE-console differences’ section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(2): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(3): Revert unwanted conversion of ‘ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     ‘ascii’.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with ‘utf-8’.

   - bpo-15348(4): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(5): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change ‘The program’ to ‘Your program’ in an IDLE ‘kill program?’
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(6): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(7): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(8): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(9): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(10): IDLE now has an ‘IDLE Dark’ built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green,
     red, orange, … .  To use it with IDLEs released before November
     2015, hit the ‘Save as New Custom Theme’ button and enter a new
     name, such as ‘Custom Dark’.  The custom theme will work with any
     IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(11): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  ‘IDLE’ now means ‘Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment’.

   - bpo-24820(12): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(13): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(14): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(15): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(16): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(17): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a ‘sheet’.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(18): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(19): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(20): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(21): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(22): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(23): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(24): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(25): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(26): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(27): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(28): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<72>,  Next: Tests<75>,  Prev: IDLE<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-26736(1): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(2): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(3): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-24952(4): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the “threading” and “_thread” modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-26014(5): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * “See also”
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<75>,  Next: Build<81>,  Prev: Documentation<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26295(2): When using “python3 -m test –testdir=TESTDIR”,
     regrtest doesn’t add “test.” prefix to test module names.

   - bpo-26523(3): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(4): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(5): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(6): Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server
     more.  This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently
     changed root certificate.

   - bpo-25616(7): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-25449(8): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25188(9): Add -P/–pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output
     when running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build.
     Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu.

   - bpo-22806(10): Add ‘python -m test --list-tests’ command to list
     tests.

   - bpo-18174(11): ‘python -m test --huntrleaks ...’ now also checks
     for leak of file descriptors.  Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.

   - bpo-25260(12): Fix ‘python -m test --coverage’ on Windows.  Remove
     the list of ignored directories.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   - bpo-26583(13): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25188

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18174

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25260

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<81>,  Next: Windows<71>,  Prev: Tests<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-21277(1): Don’t try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience
     library.

   - bpo-26884(2): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26932(3): Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum
     values, not via macros (in particular on Android).  Patch by Chi
     Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22359(4): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(5): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-25702(6): A –with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(7): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(8): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(9): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(10): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is removed.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-24986(14): It is now possible to build Python on Windows
     without errors when external libraries are not available.

   - bpo-24421(15): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-26465(16): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-26268(17): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(18): Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(19): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26932

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<71>,  Next: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Build<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don’t include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-25022(6): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<45>,  Next: C API<71>,  Prev: Windows<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-25440(5): Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.

   - bpo-25154(6): The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of
     ‘python3 -m venv’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: C API<71>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.23.93.10 C API
................

   - bpo-26312(1): SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs
     with using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().  RuntimeError did raised
     before in some programming bugs.

   - bpo-26198(2): ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on
     buffer overflow in parsing “es#” and “et#” format units.
     SystemError is now raised instead of TypeError on programmatical
     error in parsing format string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26198


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 final,  Next: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.94 Python 3.5.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-04'

There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.95 Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<85>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<50>,  Next: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.23.95.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-32551(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  This is considered a
     potential security issue, as it may lead to privileged processes
     unexpectedly loading code from user controlled directories in
     situations where that was not previously the case.  The interpreter
     now consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.  (Originally reported as bpo-29723(3) against
     Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming
     Python 3.5.4 release would also be affected)

   - bpo-30657(4): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     PyBytes_DecodeEscape, CVE 2017-1000158(5).  Original patch by Jay
     Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by Miro Hrončok.

   - bpo-30947(6): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32551

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30657

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-1000158

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<86>,  Next: Library<85>,  Prev: Security<50>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.23.95.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31095(1): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<85>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.23.95.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32072(1): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-31170(2): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 final,  Next: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.96 Python 3.5.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-08-07'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<86>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 final

1.23.96.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-30119(1): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.97 Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<51>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Library: Library<87>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* Build: Build<82>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.
* C API: C API<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<51>,  Next: Core and Builtins<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(10): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(11) and CVE 2016-4472(12).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<87>,  Next: Library<87>,  Prev: Security<51>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30876(1): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30765(2): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-27945(3): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(4): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-29935(5): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-28876(6): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises *note
     OverflowError: 87d.

   - bpo-29600(7): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-29537(8): Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files
     generated by CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to
     avoid the problems that could be caused by the malformed variant of
     the BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain.  Patch
     by Petr Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-28598(9): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29602(10): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(11): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(12): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(13): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(14): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29537

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<87>,  Next: Documentation<73>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-29403(1): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(2): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

   - bpo-30886(3): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits
     until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the
     same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(4): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30807(5): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(6): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(7): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-29169(8): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30879(9): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(10): Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(11): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30645(12): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-23890(13): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(14): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29931(15): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-24484(16): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-28994(17): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(18): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()”
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(19): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(20): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(21): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(22): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(23): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30378(24): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(25): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(26): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(27): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(28): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(29): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(30): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(31): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-29990(32): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(33): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(34))

   - bpo-30243(35): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(36): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(37): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(38): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(39): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(40): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29942(45): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(46): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(47): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(48): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(49): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(50): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(51): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(52): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(53): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(54): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes “encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(55): Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29615(56): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-29704(57): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29703(58): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(59): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-29110(60): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28961(61): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29532(62): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-28556(63): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(64): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(65): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(66): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(67): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(68): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(69): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(70): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29011(71): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-29219(72): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-28969(73): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(74): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<73>,  Next: Tests<76>,  Prev: Library<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-26985(2): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-28929(3): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(4): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(5): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(6): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<76>,  Next: Build<82>,  Prev: Documentation<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30822(1): Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u
     extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30383(2): regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from
     the master branch.  Add options: –coverage, –testdir, –list-tests
     (list test files, don’t run them), –list-cases (list test
     identifiers, don’t run them, bpo-30523(3)), –matchfile (load a list
     of test filters from a text file, bpo-30540(4)), –slowest (alias to
     –slow).  Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently
     running tests, “Tests result: xxx” summary with total duration,
     etc.  Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, –huntrleaks: regrtest
     now warms up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons
     which are created on demand to prevent false positives when
     checking for reference leaks.  (bpo-30675(5)).

   - bpo-30357(6): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-28087(7): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-30197(8): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-29571(9): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30675

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571


File: python.info,  Node: Build<82>,  Next: Windows<72>,  Prev: Tests<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29243(1): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(2): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(3): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<72>,  Next: C API<72>,  Prev: Build<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-29392(2): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392


File: python.info,  Node: C API<72>,  Prev: Windows<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.23.97.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and
     0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 final,  Next: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.98 Python 3.5.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-17'

There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.99 Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.
* C API: C API<73>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Build: Build<83>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<52>,  Next: Core and Builtins<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<88>,  Next: Library<88>,  Prev: Security<52>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29073(1): bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first
     null byte.

   - bpo-28932(2): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-28147(3): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.

   - bpo-25677(4): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for
     indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(5): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in
     alternate form.

   - bpo-28512(6): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28991(7): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28648(8): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(9): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28426(10): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-23782(11): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28379(12): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(13): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(14): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(15): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(16): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(17): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28350(18): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(19): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(20): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(21): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(22): Fix incorrect type in error message from
     ‘complex(1.0, {2:3})’.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-27955(23): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28131(24): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-25221(25): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-25758(26): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28189(27): dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare
     errors.  (Patch by Xiang Zhang)

   - bpo-27812(28): Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(29): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(30): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of ‘def’ in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26020(31): set literal evaluation order did not match
     documented behaviour.

   - bpo-27782(32): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(33): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(34): Warn if a submodule argument to “python -m” or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27558(35): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of “raise”
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(36): Standard __import__() no longer look up “__import__”
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or “from import”.
     Fixed handling an error of non-string package name.

   - bpo-27083(37): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(38): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27473(39): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27507(40): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(41): Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27443(42): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27942(43): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29073

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28189

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26020

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<88>,  Next: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-15812(1): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(2): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object
     and modes “w” and “x” now are relative to the start of the file.

   - bpo-13051(3): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(4): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(5): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(6): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(7): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(8): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(9): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(10): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(11): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(12): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-25659(13): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-28732(14): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(15): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28387(16): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(17): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(18): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(19): tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(20): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(21): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(22): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(23): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(24): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-25464(25): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(26): shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry “./” to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-24452(27): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(28): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-26293(29): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28321(30): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28322(31): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(32): Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28253(33): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(34): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(35): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18893(36): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(37): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.

   - bpo-27348(38): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(39): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27932(40): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(41): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-25270(42): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(43): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(44): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-27599(45): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-19003(46): m email.generator now replaces only ‘\r’ and/or ‘\n’
     line endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.

   - bpo-28019(47): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-25969(48): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(49): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files (“first match”), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-24594(50): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(51): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(52): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27445(53): Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-22450(54): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-27570(55): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the “ctypes” and “array” modules.

   - bpo-22233(56): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27988(57): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-27691(58): Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-27850(59): Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(60)).

   - bpo-27766(61): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-26470(62): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn’t raise.

   - bpo-12885(63): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(64): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(65): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(66): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(67): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(68): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(69)).  Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261).  Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259).  Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252).

   - bpo-27539(70): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(71): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-2466(72): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-27773(73): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(74): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(75): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(76): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(77): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(78): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(79): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(80)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-27656(81): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(82): In the “zlib” module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-27533(83): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(84): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(85): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-26844(86): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     ‘path’ instead of ‘name’.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(87): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and
     not raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(88): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-26664(89): Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of ‘$’.

   - bpo-22115(90): Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete()
     with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always
     returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the “u” mode now
     works.

   - Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an
     UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put
     into sys.modules.

   - bpo-27079(91): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-26754(92): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-27048(93): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(94): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(95): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(96): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(97) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-26386(98): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id’s containing spaces.

   - bpo-16182(99): Fix various functions in the “readline” module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(100): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   - bpo-27930(101): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-21201(102): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - bpo-27456(103): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   - bpo-27906(104): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(105): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(106): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(107): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(108): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(109): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(110): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(111): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(112): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(113): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(114): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(115): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(116): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-26923(117): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(118): Don’t configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28600(119): Optimize loop.call_soon().

   - bpo-28613(120): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28639(121): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(122): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(123): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(124): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-24142(125): Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28990(126): Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before
     handshake completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19003

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (60) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (80) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26664

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (97) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<59>,  Next: C API<73>,  Prev: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add ‘interrupt execution’ (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from ‘flashing’ gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(3): In section on IDLE – console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27714(4): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-25507(5): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27452(6): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245


File: python.info,  Node: C API<73>,  Next: Documentation<74>,  Prev: IDLE<59>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-26754(2): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     bytes-like objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<74>,  Next: Tests<77>,  Prev: C API<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<77>,  Next: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Documentation<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28950(1): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28666(2): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(3): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-28409(4): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-27787(5): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     “dangling threads”, since the dangling threads are weak references.

   - bpo-27369(6): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<46>,  Next: Windows<73>,  Prev: Tests<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current “re” module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   - bpo-27332(2): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(3): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<73>,  Next: Build<83>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<46>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28251(1): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(2): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-25144(3): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<83>,  Prev: Windows<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.23.99.10 Build
................

   - bpo-29080(1): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(2): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-10656(3): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(4): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(5): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28248(6): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-28258(7): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(8): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-28066(9): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-15819(10): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27566(11): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(12): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27983(13): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when –with-optimizations is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-26307(14): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the
     built-in modules.

   - bpo-26359(15): Add the –with-optimizations configure flag.

   - bpo-27713(16): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib’s bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(17): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and
     ld_so_aix, which are required on AIX. This updates references to an
     installation path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed
     references to the build tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(18): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(19): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(20): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python
     program to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(21): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   - bpo-28676(22): Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 final,  Next: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.100 Python 3.5.2 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<89>,  Next: Tests<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.23.100.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-26930(1): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<78>,  Next: IDLE<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.23.100.2 Tests
................

   - bpo-26867(1): Ubuntu’s openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default;
     fix test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26867


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<60>,  Prev: Tests<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.23.100.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-27365(1): Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part
     for 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.101 Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<89>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.
* Build: Build<84>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<53>,  Next: Core and Builtins<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.1 Security
...................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 51c. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   - bpo-26657(5): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(6): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(7): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<90>,  Next: Library<89>,  Prev: Security<53>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.2 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-27066(1): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-20041(2): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(3): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the “N” format unit.

   - bpo-26991(4): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(5): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(6): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-26811(7): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(8): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26659(9): Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

   - bpo-26718(10): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-25339(11): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(12): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26581(13): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-26464(14): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(15): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(16): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-4806(17): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-27138(18): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-26154(19): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-26194(20): Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques
     that had reached their maximum size.  Now an IndexError will be
     raised when attempting to insert into a full deque.

   - bpo-25843(21): When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘int’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-22995(22): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(23): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(24): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(25): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren’t subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(26): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(27): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(28): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(29): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-27147(30): Mention PEP 420(31) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-24097(32): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(33): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-26478(34): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(35): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(36): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-25887(37): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   - bpo-27243(38): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26194

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<89>,  Next: IDLE<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.3 Library
..................

   - bpo-21386(1): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-20900(2): distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
     correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(3)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(4): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t
     send Content header fields in responses that don’t have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(5): Fix the “platform” module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-27164(6): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(7): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-26809(8): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: d3.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(9): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - bpo-21776(10): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-27114(11): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(12): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-27057(13): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(14): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-14132(15): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(16): The “urllib.request” module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but “http.client”
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26892(17): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(18): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(19): mock_open ‘files’ no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(20): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(21): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26881(22): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(23): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(24): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(25): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26711(26): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(27): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(28): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove “will be removed in Python 3.7” from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4, catch *note AttributeError: 346.
     instead of *note NameError: 438.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26735(38): Fix *note os.urandom(): 51c. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-16329(39): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-13952(40): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26709(41): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(42): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-26586(43): In http.server, respond with “413 Request header
     fields too large” if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-22854(44): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-25195(45): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(46): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(47): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(48): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-21925(49): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 1a1c. now catches
     exceptions on ‘linecache.getline(...)’ to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: 244. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-24266(50): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26560(51): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26569(52): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 825. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 826. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(53): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(54): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(55): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(56): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(57): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-20589(58): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(59): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(60): Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput
     module.  The bufsize parameter is no longer used.

   - bpo-2202(61): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-25718(62): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(63): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26457(64): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(65): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(66): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(67): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(68): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(69): importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(70): In the “socketserver” module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-25995(71): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-26117(72): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25911(73): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(74): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
     non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-12923(75): Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(76): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  “args” and “keywords” attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(77): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects
     with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(78): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(79): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(80): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26147(81): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(82): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(83): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(84): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-25850(85): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-17633(86): Improve zipimport’s support for namespace packages.

   - bpo-24705(87): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars
     appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-22138(88): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(89): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(90): Don’t traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(91): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-25447(92): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25447(93): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-24103(94): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(95): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(96): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25902(97): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-25717(98): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(99): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when ‘-d’ is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(100): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-6478(101): _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(102): When executing a package with the “python -m
     package” option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The “runpy” module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(103): Also in runpy and the “-m” option, omit the
     irrelevant message “… is a package and cannot be directly executed”
     if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due to a bad
     ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(104): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(105): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(106): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-25725(107): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(108): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(109): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(110): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(111): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(112): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(113): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(114): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(115): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(116): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-27040(117): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(118): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   - bpo-27223(119): asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to
     respect _conn_lost.  Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-22970(120): asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling
     Condition.wait.  Patch by David Coles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202

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   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26457

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26385

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26402

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25913

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26186

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26367

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26309

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25995

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26117

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25911

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26045

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12923

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25945

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26202

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23076

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19883

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26147

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25935

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   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26012

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   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25914

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25902

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25717

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24903

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25764

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6478

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14285

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19771

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25177

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718

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   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25688

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23914

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25691

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<61>,  Next: Documentation<75>,  Prev: Library<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.4 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24759(2): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(3): Stop ‘ThemeChanged’ warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(4): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-27117(5): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-26673(6): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(7): Add test for IDLE’s percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(8): Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(9): Add test for IDLE’s search dialog.  Original patch by
     Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(10): Add test for IDLE’s undo delegator.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(11): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(12): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   - bpo-20640(13): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the ‘IDLE-console differences’ section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(14): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(15): Revert unwanted conversion of ‘ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     ‘ascii’.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with ‘utf-8’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<75>,  Next: Tests<79>,  Prev: IDLE<61>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-26736(4): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(5): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(6): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-25500(7): Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is
     searched for in the global scope.

   - bpo-26014(8): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * “See also”
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<79>,  Next: Build<84>,  Prev: Documentation<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.6 Tests
................

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26523(2): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(3): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(4): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(5): Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net.
     This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root
     certificate.

   - bpo-25616(6): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-26583(7): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<84>,  Next: Windows<74>,  Prev: Tests<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.7 Build
................

   - bpo-26884(1): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22359(2): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-27229(3): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(4): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-25702(5): A –with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(6): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(7): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(8): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(9): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-24421(10): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is now deprecated, and
     simply calls ‘PCbuild\build.bat --pgo %*’.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-26930(14): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-26268(15): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(16): Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(17): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<74>,  Next: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Build<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.8 Windows
..................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don’t include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-17500(6): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Windows<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.23.101.9 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 final,  Next: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.102 Python 3.5.1 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2015-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<91>,  Next: Windows<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.23.102.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-25709(1): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<75>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.23.102.2 Windows
..................

   - bpo-25715(1): Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and
     incorrect logic for launcher detection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25715


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.103 Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Build: Build<85>.
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<92>,  Next: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-25630(1): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(2): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(3): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(4): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(5): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-25555(6): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     “arg” node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24802(7): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-24726(8): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(9): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(10): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25274(11): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the “lower-water mark” formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(12): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-24806(13): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-24848(14): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25280(15): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25003(16): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-25182(17): The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io
     module is imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error
     handler.

   - bpo-25131(18): Make the line number and column offset of set/dict
     literals and comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.

   - bpo-25150(19): Hide the private ‘_Py_atomic_XXX’ symbols from the
     public Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP.
     PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to
     avoid ABI incompatibilities.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25182

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25131

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25150


File: python.info,  Node: Library<90>,  Next: IDLE<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-25626(1): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit
     in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(2): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(3): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(4): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-25590(5): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.

   - bpo-25498(6): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(7): Added “escape” to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(8): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(9): Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(10): Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function to
     handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(11): Got rid of circular references in regular expression
     parsing.

   - bpo-25510(12): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b’’
     instead of ‘’ at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(13): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(14): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(15): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(16): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(17): typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(18): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(19): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(20): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - bpo-25407(21): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(22): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25364(23): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(24): smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-25316(25): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(26): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(27): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is ‘posix’ (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(28): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(29): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(30): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in
     the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from Xiang
     Zhang.

   - bpo-24483(31): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now
     calculates key’s hash only once.

   - bpo-22958(32): Constructor and update method of
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary now accept the self and the dict
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-22609(33): Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the
     self keyword argument.

   - bpo-25111(34): Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.

   - bpo-25262(35): Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python
     implementation of unpickler.  Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for
     BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8 opcodes no longer silently ignored on
     32-bit platforms in C implementation.

   - bpo-25034(36): Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and
     nested format_specs.  Patch by Anthon van der Neut.

   - bpo-25233(37): Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and
     asyncio.Semaphore to be more understandable and correct.

   - bpo-25203(38): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-23600(39): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-23329(40): Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions
     of LibreSSL.

   - Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.

   - bpo-25047(41): The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree
     now respects the letter case given by the user.  This restores the
     ability to write encoding names in uppercase like “UTF-8”, which
     worked in Python 2.

   - bpo-25135(42): Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque
     before clearing.  This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.

   - bpo-19143(43): platform module now reads Windows version from
     kernel32.dll to avoid compatibility shims.

   - bpo-25092(44): Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was
     already set to EINVAL.

   - bpo-23517(45): Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and
     utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime: microseconds are
     now rounded to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer
     (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding towards minus infinity
     (ROUND_FLOOR). It’s important that these methods use the same
     rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property:
     (datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) ==
     datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t).  It also the rounding mode used by
     round(float) for example.

   - bpo-25155(46): Fix datetime.datetime.now() and
     datetime.datetime.utcnow() on Windows to support date after year
     2038.  It was a regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-25108(47): Omitted internal frames in traceback functions
     print_stack(), format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-25118(48): Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-24684(49): socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method
     of the host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode()
     method which doesn’t return a byte string.  The encoder of the IDNA
     codec is now called directly instead of calling the encode() method
     of the string.

   - bpo-25060(50): Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP
     opcode.

   - bpo-24857(51): Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly
     returns a boolean result instead of raising an exception.  Patch by
     A Kaptur.

   - bpo-23144(52): Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the
     data, even when convert_charrefs is True.

   - bpo-24982(53): shutil.make_archive() with the “zip” format now adds
     entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-25019(54): Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of
     expat parser.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-16180(55): Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of
     trapping user in an infinite loop.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-24891(56): Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file
     descriptor of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while
     Python is creating sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects.
     These attributes are now set to None if the creation of the object
     failed, instead of raising an OSError exception.  Initial patch
     written by Marco Paolini.

   - bpo-24992(57): Fix error handling and a race condition (related to
     garbage collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.

   - bpo-24881(58): Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation
     of FileIO on Windows and Cygwin.  Patch from Akira Li.

   - bpo-25578(59): Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(60): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(61): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(62): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(63): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - bpo-21112(64): Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on
     subclasses.  Patch from Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-24764(65): cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the
     Content-Length header in part headers.  Patch written by Peter
     Landry and reviewed by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-24913(66): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   - bpo-24774(67): Fix docstring in http.server.test.  Patch from
     Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.

   - bpo-21159(68): Improve message in
     configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError.  Patch from Łukasz
     Langa.

   - bpo-20362(69): Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in
     assertRegex.  Patch from Ilia Kurenkov.

   - bpo-23572(70): Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with false
     metaclasses.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24483

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22958

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25111

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25262

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25034

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23329

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25047

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25135

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19143

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25092

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25155

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25108

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25118

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24684

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25060

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24857

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23144

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24982

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25019

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16180

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24992

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24881

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21112

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24764

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24774

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21159

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20362

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23572


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<62>,  Next: Documentation<76>,  Prev: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-15348(1): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(2): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change ‘The program’ to ‘Your program’ in an IDLE ‘kill program?’
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(3): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(4): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(5): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(6): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(7): IDLE now has an ‘IDLE Dark’ built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green,
     red, orange, … .  To use it with IDLEs released before November
     2015, hit the ‘Save as New Custom Theme’ button and enter a new
     name, such as ‘Custom Dark’.  The custom theme will work with any
     IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(8): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  ‘IDLE’ now means ‘Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment’.

   - bpo-24820(9): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(10): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(11): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(12): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(13): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(14): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a ‘sheet’.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(15): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(16): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(17): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(18): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(19): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(20): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(21): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(22): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(23): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(24): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(25): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<76>,  Next: Tests<80>,  Prev: IDLE<62>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22558(1): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   - bpo-12067(2): Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions
     chapter of the language reference.  Some of the details of
     comparing mixed types were incorrect or ambiguous.  NotImplemented
     is only relevant at a lower level than the Expressions chapter.
     Added details of comparing range() objects, and default behaviour
     and consistency suggestions for user-defined classes.  Patch from
     Andy Maier.

   - bpo-24952(3): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the “threading” and “_thread” modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-23725(4): Overhaul tempfile docs.  Note deprecated status of
     mktemp.  Patch from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-24808(5): Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields.  Patch
     by Joseph Weston.

   - bpo-22812(6): Fix unittest discovery examples.  Patch from Pam
     McA’Nulty.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12067

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23725

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24808

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22812


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<80>,  Next: Build<85>,  Prev: Documentation<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-25449(1): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25099(2): Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on
     sys.path cannot be written to (commonly seen in administrative
     installs on Windows).

   - bpo-23919(3): Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25099

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23919


File: python.info,  Node: Build<85>,  Next: Windows<76>,  Prev: Tests<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.6 Build
................

   - bpo-24915(1): Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test
     suite to generate the profile data.  Initial patch by Alecsandru
     Patrascu of Intel.

   - bpo-24910(2): Windows MSIs now have unique display names.

   - bpo-24986(3): It is now possible to build Python on Windows without
     errors when external libraries are not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24915

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<76>,  Next: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Build<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.7 Windows
..................

   - bpo-25450(1): Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation
     directory.

   - bpo-25164(2): Changes default all-users install directory to match
     per-user directory.

   - bpo-25143(3): Improves installer error messages for unsupported
     platforms.

   - bpo-25163(4): Display correct directory in installer when using
     non-default settings.

   - bpo-25361(5): Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build

   - bpo-25089(6): Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is
     not selected on upgrade.

   - bpo-25165(7): Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if
     other versions remain

   - bpo-25112(8): py.exe launcher is missing icons

   - bpo-25102(9): Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.

   - bpo-25081(10): Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade
     page when upgrading.

   - bpo-25091(11): Increases font size of the installer.

   - bpo-25126(12): Clarifies that the non-web installer will download
     some components.

   - bpo-25213(13): Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to
     disable UAC virtualization.

   - bpo-25022(14): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25450

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25143

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25165

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25112

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25102

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25081

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25091

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25126

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25213

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Windows<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.23.103.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-25440(1): Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 final,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.104 Python 3.5.0 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-13'

* Menu:

* Build: Build<86>.


File: python.info,  Node: Build<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 final

1.23.104.1 Build
................

   - bpo-25071(1): Windows installer should not require TargetDir
     parameter when installing quietly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25071


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.23.105 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-09'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<91>.
* Build: Build<87>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<91>,  Next: Build<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.23.105.1 Library
..................

   - bpo-25029(1): Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25029


File: python.info,  Node: Build<87>,  Prev: Library<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.23.105.2 Build
................

   - bpo-25027(1): Reverts partial-static build options and adds
     vcruntime140.dll to Windows installation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.106 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<92>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<93>,  Next: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.23.106.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24305(1): Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being
     counted by the warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.

   - bpo-24912(2): Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in
     objects.

   - bpo-24975(3): Fix AST compilation for PEP 448(4) syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24305

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24912

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24975

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<92>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.23.106.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24917(1): time_strftime() buffer over-read.

   - bpo-24748(2): To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe
     and pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously
     loaded modules to support Python modules replacing themselves with
     extension modules.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-24635(3): Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([],
     typing.Iterable) would return True once, then False on subsequent
     calls.

   - bpo-24989(4): Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a
     position is set beyond size.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-24913(5): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24748

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24635

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24989

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.107 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<93>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<94>,  Next: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.23.107.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24769(1): Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading
     is disabled.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-21167(2): NAN operations are now handled correctly when python
     is compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.

   - bpo-24492(3): A “package” lacking a __name__ attribute when trying
     to perform a ‘from .. import ...’ statement will trigger an
     ImportError instead of an AttributeError.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24769

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21167

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24492


File: python.info,  Node: Library<93>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.23.107.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24847(1): Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-24839(2): platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning

   - bpo-24867(3): Fix Task.get_stack() for ‘async def’ coroutines

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24847

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24839

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24867


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.108 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* IDLE: IDLE<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<95>,  Next: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.108.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24667(1): Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict
     resizes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24667


File: python.info,  Node: Library<94>,  Next: IDLE<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.108.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24824(1): Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now
     are compatible with pydoc.

   - bpo-24634(2): Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows

   - bpo-24798(3): _msvccompiler.py doesn’t properly support manifests

   - bpo-4395(4): Better testing and documentation of binary operators.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23973(5): Update typing.py from GitHub repo.

   - bpo-23004(6): mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the
     type of read_data is bytes.  Initial patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-23888(7): Handle fractional time in cookie expiry.  Patch by
     ssh.

   - bpo-23652(8): Make it possible to compile the select module against
     the libc headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include
     some EPOLL macros.  Patch by Matt Frank.

   - bpo-22932(9): Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate.  Patch from
     Dmitry Shachnev.

   - bpo-23779(10): imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to
     abort.  Patch from Craig Holmquist.

   - bpo-23319(11): Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes.
     Patch written by Matthieu Gautier.

   - bpo-23254(12): Document how to close the TCPServer listening
     socket.  Patch from Martin Panter.

   - bpo-19450(13): Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use
     SQLite 3.8.11.

   - bpo-17527(14): Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator.  Patch from Luca
     Sbardella.

   - bpo-24791(15): Fix grammar regression for call syntax: ‘g(*a or
     b)’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24824

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24634

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24798

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23004

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23888

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23652

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22932

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23779

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23254

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19450

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17527

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24791


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<63>,  Next: Documentation<77>,  Prev: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.108.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23672(1): Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in
     name.  Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.

   - bpo-24745(2): Idle editor default font.  Switch from Courier to
     platform-sensitive TkFixedFont.  This should not affect current
     customized font selections.  If there is a problem, edit
     $HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove ‘‘fontXXX’’ entries from
     [Editor Window].  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-21192(3): Idle editor.  When a file is run, put its name in the
     restart bar.  Do not print false prompts.  Original patch by Adnan
     Umer.

   - bpo-13884(4): Idle menus.  Remove tearoff lines.  Patch by Roger
     Serwy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23672

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24745

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21192

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13884


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<77>,  Next: Tests<81>,  Prev: IDLE<63>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.108.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24129(1): Clarify the reference documentation for name
     resolution.  This includes removing the assumption that readers
     will be familiar with the name resolution scheme Python used prior
     to the introduction of lexical scoping for function namespaces.
     Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-20769(2): Improve reload() docs.  Patch by Dorian Pula.

   - bpo-23589(3): Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ. Patch by
     Yongzhi Pan.

   - bpo-24729(4): Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding
     encoding parameter to open function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23589

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24729


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<81>,  Prev: Documentation<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.23.108.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-24751(1): When running regrtest with the ‘-w’ command line
     option, a test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests
     succeed when re-run.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24751


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.109 Python 3.5.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Build: Build<88>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<96>,  Next: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.23.109.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and
     bytearray.rfind() for single-byte argument on Linux.

   - bpo-24569(2): Make PEP 448(3) dictionary evaluation more
     consistent.

   - bpo-24583(4): Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24407(5): Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24619(6): New approach for tokenizing async/await.  As a
     consequence, it is now possible to have one-line ‘async def foo():
     await ..’ functions.

   - bpo-24687(7): Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters
     annotations.

   - bpo-15944(8): memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to
     bytes.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24569

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24583

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24407

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24687

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15944


File: python.info,  Node: Library<95>,  Next: Build<88>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.23.109.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23441(1): rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of
     displaying possible completions for an empty word.  Initial patch
     by Martin Sekera.

   - bpo-24683(2): Fixed crashes in _json functions called with
     arguments of inappropriate type.

   - bpo-21697(3): shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic
     links that point to directories.  Patch by Eduardo Seabra and
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-14373(4): Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called
     during constructing lru_cache (C implementation).

   - bpo-24695(5): Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception().  If
     exc_traceback is None we shouldn’t print a traceback header like
     described in the documentation.

   - bpo-24620(6): Random.setstate() now validates the value of state
     last element.

   - bpo-22485(7): Fixed an issue that caused ‘inspect.getsource’ to
     return incorrect results on nested functions.

   - bpo-22153(8): Improve unittest docs.  Patch from Martin Panter and
     evilzero.

   - bpo-24580(9): Symbolic group references to open group in re
     patterns now are explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group
     references.

   - bpo-24206(10): Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.

   - bpo-24631(11): Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline
     setup.

   - bpo-18622(12): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-23661(13): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-24608(14): chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not
     str.

   - bpo-18684(15): Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.

   - bpo-24259(16): tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is
     truncated inside a data segment.

   - bpo-15014(17): SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954’s
     optional initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.

   - bpo-24669(18): Fix inspect.getsource() for ‘async def’ functions.
     Patch by Kai Groner.

   - bpo-24688(19): ast.get_docstring() for ‘async def’ functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24695

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24620

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22485

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22153

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24580

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24206

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24631

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24608

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24259

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24669

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24688


File: python.info,  Node: Build<88>,  Prev: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.23.109.3 Build
................

   - bpo-24603(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24603


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.110 Python 3.5.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Documentation: Documentation<78>.
* Build: Build<89>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<97>,  Next: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.110.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24467(1): Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray.  The
     bytearray object now always allocates place for trailing null byte
     and it’s buffer now is always null-terminated.

   - Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.

   - bpo-24345(2): Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.

   - bpo-24400(3): Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492(4) coroutines;
     add types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate,
     inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR
     flag; sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for ‘async def’
     coroutines; inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses
     collections.abc.Coroutine, it’s intended to test for pure ‘async
     def’ coroutines only; add new opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix
     generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be instance of
     collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and
     collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect
     generator-based coroutines–use inspect.isawaitable instead.

   - bpo-24450(5): Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to
     coroutines.  Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-19235(6): Add new RecursionError exception.  Patch by Georg
     Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<96>,  Next: Tests<82>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.110.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-21750(1): mock_open.read_data can now be read from each
     instance, as it could in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-24552(2): Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle
     module.

   - bpo-24514(3): tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of
     only whitespace.

   - bpo-19176(4): Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of
     ElementTree.  A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser
     subclass with default doctype() method.  Direct call of doctype()
     now issues a warning.  Parser’s doctype() now is not called if
     target’s doctype() is called.  Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20387(5): Restore semantic round-trip correctness in
     tokenize/untokenize for tab-indented blocks.

   - bpo-24456(6): Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and
     lin2adpcm() functions of the audioop module.

   - bpo-24336(7): The contextmanager decorator now works with functions
     with keyword arguments called “func” and “self”.  Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24522(8): Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator
     module.

   - bpo-24489(9): ensure a previously set C errno doesn’t disturb
     cmath.polar().

   - bpo-24408(10): Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics()
     methods of tkinter.Font.

   - bpo-14373(11): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be
     used with methods.

   - bpo-24347(12): Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns
     NULL.

   - bpo-24348(13): Drop superfluous incref/decref.

   - bpo-24359(14): Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.

   - bpo-24368(15): Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.

   - bpo-24362(16): Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.

   - bpo-24377(17): Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.

   - bpo-24369(18): Defend against key-changes during iteration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21750

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19176

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20387

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24336

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24522

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24489

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24408

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24348

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24359

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24368

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24362

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24369


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<82>,  Next: Documentation<78>,  Prev: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.110.3 Tests
................

   - bpo-24373(1): _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and
     tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining
     tp_dealloc with PyType_FromSpec (see bpo-16690(2) for details)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16690


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<78>,  Next: Build<89>,  Prev: Tests<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.110.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24458(1): Update documentation to cover multi-phase
     initialization for extension modules (PEP 489).  Patch by Petr
     Viktorin.

   - bpo-24351(2): Clarify what is meant by “identifier” in the context
     of string.Template instances.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24458

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24351


File: python.info,  Node: Build<89>,  Prev: Documentation<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.23.110.5 Build
................

   - bpo-24432(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24432


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.111 Python 3.5.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<97>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<98>,  Next: Library<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.23.111.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24284(1): The startswith and endswith methods of the str class
     no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes
     are completely out of range.

   - bpo-24115(2): Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(),
     PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and
     _PyDict_Contains() to check for and handle errors correctly.

   - bpo-24328(3): Fix importing one character extension modules.

   - bpo-11205(4): In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the
     value.

   - bpo-24285(5): Fixed regression that prevented importing extension
     modules from inside packages.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24115

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24328

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<97>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.23.111.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23247(1): Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK
     codecs.

   - bpo-24270(2): Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as
     per PEP 485(3).  Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-5633(4): Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the
     setup is not.

   - bpo-24326(5): Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB
     argument.  Original patch by David Moore.

   - bpo-16991(6): Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-23934(7): Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin
     types lacking signature information.  Initial patch by James
     Powell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5633

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24326

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23934


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.112 Python 3.5.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* IDLE: IDLE<64>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Documentation: Documentation<79>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<99>,  Next: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.112.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24276(1): Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.

   - bpo-24268(2): PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization.
     Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-23955(3): Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress
     registry/environment lookup for generating sys.path on Windows.

   - bpo-24257(4): Fixed system error in the comparison of faked
     types.SimpleNamespace.

   - bpo-22939(5): Fixed integer overflow in iterator object.  Patch by
     Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-23985(6): Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice
     from the front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes
     data.

   - bpo-24102(7): Fixed exception type checking in standard error
     handlers.

   - bpo-15027(8): The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.

   - bpo-23290(9): Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is
     empty.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-2292(10): PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.

   - bpo-24096(11): Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against
     mutation of the warnings.filters list.

   - bpo-23996(12): Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an
     unnormalized StopIteration exception.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23910(13): Optimize property() getter calls.  Patch by Joe
     Jevnik.

   - bpo-23911(14): Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a
     separate frozen module.

   - bpo-24192(15): Fix namespace package imports.

   - bpo-24022(16): Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code.

   - bpo-9951(17): Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and
     memoryview.

   - bpo-22906(18): PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside
     generators.

   - bpo-24017(19): PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23955

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23985

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23290

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2292

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24096

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23996

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23911

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24192

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24022

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22906

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017


File: python.info,  Node: Library<98>,  Next: IDLE<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.112.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14373(1): Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache().
     Based on patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.

   - bpo-24230(2): The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix,
     suffix and dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations
     (matching the os module APIs).

   - bpo-22189(3): collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(),
     __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and
     maketrans().  Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-24244(4): Prevents termination when an invalid format string is
     encountered on Windows in strftime.

   - bpo-23973(5): PEP 484: Add the typing module.

   - bpo-23086(6): The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class
     added 'start' and 'stop' parameters to the index() mixin.  Patch by
     Devin Jeanpierre.

   - bpo-20035(7): Replaced the ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting
     up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the
     ‘_tkinter’ module that makes no permanent changes to the
     environment.

   - bpo-24257(8): Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor
     with faked cursor type.

   - bpo-15836(9): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first
     argument to prevent possible user error.  Based on patch by Daniel
     Wagner-Hall.

   - bpo-9858(10): Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase.  Patch by
     Laura Rupprecht.

   - bpo-22955(11): attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in
     the operator module now support pickling.  Added readable and
     evaluable repr for these objects.  Based on patch by Josh
     Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22107(12): tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try
     again when a directory with the chosen name already exists on
     Windows as well as on Unix.  tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if
     parent directory is not valid (not exists or is a file) on Windows.

   - bpo-23780(13): Improved error message in os.path.join() with single
     argument.

   - bpo-6598(14): Increased time precision and random number range in
     email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the
     message ID.

   - bpo-24091(15): Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C
     implementation of ElementTree.

   - bpo-21931(16): msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case
     of a bad argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error
     number.  Patch by Jeffrey Armstrong.

   - bpo-13866(17): 'quote_via' argument added to
     urllib.parse.urlencode.

   - bpo-20098(18): New mangle_from policy option for email, default
     True for compat32, but False for all other policies.

   - bpo-24211(19): The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can
     generate headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.

   - bpo-16314(20): Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.

   - bpo-21804(21): poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).

   - bpo-18682(22): Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.

   - bpo-22027(23): smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).

   - bpo-23488(24): Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory
     on 64-bit.

   - bpo-1322(25): platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution()
     functions are now deprecated.  Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-22486(26): Added the math.gcd() function.  The fractions.gcd()
     function now is deprecated.  Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24064(27): Property() docstrings are now writeable.  (Patch by
     Berker Peksag.)

   - bpo-22681(28): Added support for the koi8_t encoding.

   - bpo-22682(29): Added support for the kz1048 encoding.

   - bpo-23796(30): peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise
     ValueError if they called on a closed object.  Patch by John
     Hergenroeder.

   - bpo-21795(31): smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever
     the new 'decode_data' constructor argument is set to False.

   - bpo-24155(32): optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache
     performance when heapifying large lists.

   - bpo-21800(33): imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855
     (utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII
     usernames and passwords to UTF8.

   - bpo-20274(34): When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains
     if passed any keyword arguments.  Previously it silently ignored
     them.

   - bpo-20274(35): Remove ignored and erroneous “kwargs” parameters
     from three METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.

   - bpo-24134(36): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when
     callable is None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the
     context manager mode.

   - bpo-24018(37): Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class.
     Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23880(38): Tkinter’s getint() and getdouble() now support
     Tcl_Obj.  Tkinter’s getdouble() now supports any numbers (in
     particular int).

   - bpo-22619(39): Added negative limit support in the traceback
     module.  Based on patch by Dmitry Kazakov.

   - bpo-24094(40): Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly
     behaved dict subclasses.

   - bpo-9246(41): On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than
     1025 bytes.  Patch written by William Orr.

   - bpo-17445(42): add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of
     byte strings (fixes a regression from Python 2).

   - bpo-23917(43): Fall back to sequential compilation when
     ProcessPoolExecutor doesn’t exist.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23008(44): Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is
     False in pydoc.

   - Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue’s put didn’t
     increment unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when
     JoinableQueue was merged with Queue).

   - bpo-23908(45): os functions now reject paths with embedded null
     character on Windows instead of silently truncating them.

   - bpo-23728(46): binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside
     of the range 0-0xffff for empty data.

   - bpo-23887(47): urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr()
     representation.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and
     get_task_factory().

   - asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of
     ensure_future().

   - bpo-24178(48): asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and
     BoundedSemaphore support new ‘async with’ syntax.  Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24179(49): Support ‘async for’ for asyncio.StreamReader.
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24184(50): Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to
     collections.abc.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-22547(51): Implement informative __repr__ for
     inspect.BoundArguments.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24190(52): Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults()
     method.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-20691(53): Add ‘follow_wrapped’ argument to
     inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature().
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24248(54): Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and
     inspect.Signature.from_builtin().

   - bpo-23898(55): Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support
     attributes with overloaded __eq__ and __bool__.  Patch by Mike
     Bayer.

   - bpo-24298(56): Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers
     around bound methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24230

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15836

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9858

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22107

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23780

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6598

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24091

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21931

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18682

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23796

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24155

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24134

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23880

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24094

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9246

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23917

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23008

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23908

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23728

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23887

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24178

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24179

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22547

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23898

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24298


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<64>,  Next: Tests<83>,  Prev: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.112.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23184(1): remove unused names and imports in idlelib.  Initial
     patch by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23184


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<83>,  Next: Documentation<79>,  Prev: IDLE<64>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.112.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-21520(1): test_zipfile no longer fails if the word ‘bad’
     appears anywhere in the name of the current directory.

   - bpo-9517(2): Move script_helper into the support package.  Patch by
     Christie Wilson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9517


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<79>,  Next: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Tests<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.112.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22155(1): Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler
     to tkinter doc.  Remove obsolete example from FAQ. Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24029(2): Document the name binding behavior for submodule
     imports.

   - bpo-24077(3): Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not
     -S

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24029

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24077


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Documentation<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.23.112.6 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24000(1): Improved Argument Clinic’s mapping of converters to
     legacy “format units”.  Updated the documentation to match.

   - bpo-24001(2): Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type}
     instead of types={‘type’} to specify the types the converter
     accepts.

   - bpo-23330(3): h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.

   - bpo-24031(4): make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24000

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23330

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24031


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.23.113 Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-04-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<100>.
* Library: Library<99>.
* Build: Build<90>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* C API: C API<74>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<100>,  Next: Library<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.113.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-22980(1): Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions
     now include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make
     it easy to test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree.
     Under OS X, the extension name now includes PEP 3149(2)-style
     information.

   - bpo-22631(3): Added Linux-specific socket constant
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch courtesy of Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23731(4): Implement PEP 488(5): removal of .pyo files.

   - bpo-23726(6): Don’t enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types
     that don’t add any new fields.  Patch by Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-23309(7): Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is
     aborted while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and
     the main thread tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout
     or stderr).  A fatal error is emitted instead.

   - bpo-22977(8): Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23466(9): %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise
     TypeError on non-integer input.

   - bpo-24044(10): Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort
     in out of memory conditions.

   - bpo-21354(11): PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL
     again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23731

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23309

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22977

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23466

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24044

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21354


File: python.info,  Node: Library<99>,  Next: Build<90>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<100>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.113.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23840(1): tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file
     on error to fix a resource warning.

   - bpo-16914(2): new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug
     output.

   - bpo-7159(3): urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials
     automatically after the first 401.  This enhancement is a superset
     of the enhancement from bpo-19494(4) and supersedes that change.

   - bpo-23703(5): Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in
     901e4e52b20a.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-4254(6): Adds _curses.update_lines_cols().  Patch by Arnon
     Yaari

   - bpo-19933(7): Provide default argument for ndigits in round.  Patch
     by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-23193(8): Add a numeric_owner parameter to
     tarfile.TarFile.extract and tarfile.TarFile.extractall.  Patch by
     Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-23342(9): Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a
     CalledProcess instance for a more consistent API than the existing
     call* functions.

   - bpo-21217(10): inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the
     start and end lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a
     lambda function is used as decorator argument.  Patch by Thomas
     Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.

   - bpo-24521(11): Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.

   - bpo-22931(12): Allow ‘[’ and ‘]’ in cookie values.

   - The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a
     dictionary.

   - bpo-23811(13): Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error
     message.  Patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-21116(14): Avoid blowing memory when allocating a
     multiprocessing shared array that’s larger than 50% of the
     available RAM. Patch by Médéric Boquien.

   - bpo-22982(15): Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple
     positions of a writable text file.

   - bpo-23464(16): Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.

   - bpo-23529(17): Limit the size of decompressed data when reading
     from GzipFile, BZ2File or LZMAFile.  This defeats denial of service
     attacks using compressed bombs (i.e.  compressed payloads which
     decompress to a huge size).  Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-21859(18): Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.

   - bpo-23865(19): close() methods in multiple modules now are
     idempotent and more robust at shutdown.  If they need to release
     multiple resources, all are released even if errors occur.

   - bpo-23400(20): Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if
     sem_open is not available.  Patch by Davin Potts.

   - bpo-10838(21): The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError
     and TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild
     enough to use ‘from subprocess import *’.

   - bpo-23411(22): Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult,
     DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to
     urllib.parse.__all__.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23881(23): urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the
     socket if the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.

   - bpo-23853(24): *note socket.socket.sendall(): da4. does no more
     reset the socket timeout each time data is sent successfully.  The
     socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

   - bpo-22721(25): An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict
     containing orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends
     on iteration order of set or dict.

   - bpo-15133(26): _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and
     always returns bool.  tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values
     (accepted bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj).  tkinter.BooleanVar.get()
     now always returns bool.

   - bpo-10590(27): xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.

   - bpo-23338(28): Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin.
     Patch by Makoto Kato.

   - bpo-15582(29): inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.

   - bpo-2175(30): SAX parsers now support a character stream of
     InputSource object.

   - bpo-16840(31): Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl
     8.4 and arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23834(32): Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to
     store the result of sendto() instead of the C int type.

   - bpo-23618(33): *note socket.socket.connect(): d9f. now waits until
     the connection completes instead of raising *note InterruptedError:
     d84. if the connection is interrupted by signals, signal handlers
     don’t raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a
     timeout.  *note socket.socket.connect(): d9f. still raise *note
     InterruptedError: d84. for non-blocking sockets.

   - bpo-21526(34): Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23836(35): Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant
     calls to its signal handlers.

   - bpo-23838(36): linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty
     result on MemoryError.

   - bpo-10395(37): Added os.path.commonpath().  Implemented in
     posixpath and ntpath.  Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.

   - bpo-23611(38): Serializing more “lookupable” objects (such as
     unbound methods or nested classes) now are supported with pickle
     protocols < 4.

   - bpo-13583(39): sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.

   - bpo-18473(40): Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings.
     Fixed ambiguous reverse mappings.  Added many new mappings.  Import
     mapping is no longer applied to modules already mapped with full
     name mapping.

   - bpo-23485(41): select.select() is now retried automatically with
     the recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception.  This change is part of the PEP
     475(42).

   - bpo-23752(43): When built from an existing file descriptor,
     io.FileIO() now only calls fstat() once.  Before fstat() was called
     twice, which was not necessary.

   - bpo-23704(44): collections.deque() objects now support __add__,
     __mul__, and __imul__().

   - bpo-23171(45): csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary
     iterables.

   - bpo-23745(46): The new email header parser now handles duplicate
     MIME parameter names without error, similar to how get_param
     behaves.

   - bpo-22117(47): Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards
     minus infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.

   - bpo-23310(48): Fix MagicMock’s initializer to work with
     __methods__, just like configure_mock().  Patch by Kasia Jachim.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23703

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19933

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21217

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24521

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22931

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23811

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21116

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22982

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23529

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21859

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23865

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23400

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10838

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23411

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23881

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22721

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15133

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23338

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16840

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23834

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23618

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21526

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23836

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18473

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23485

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23752

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23745

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22117

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23310


File: python.info,  Node: Build<90>,  Next: Tests<84>,  Prev: Library<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.113.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23817(1): FreeBSD now uses “1.0” in the SOVERSION as other
     operating systems, instead of just “1”.

   - bpo-23501(2): Argument Clinic now generates code into separate
     files by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23817

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23501


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<84>,  Next: Tools/Demos<50>,  Prev: Build<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.113.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23799(1): Added test.support.start_threads() for running and
     cleaning up multiple threads.

   - bpo-22390(2): test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files
     or directories are left after running a test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<50>,  Next: C API<74>,  Prev: Tests<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.113.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-18128(1): pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the
     POT-Creation-Date header.

   - bpo-23935(2): Argument Clinic’s understanding of format units
     accepting bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with
     both the documentation and the implementation.

   - bpo-23944(3): Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at
     column 78.

   - bpo-20586(4): Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without
     docstrings have signatures.

   - bpo-23492(5): Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code
     with PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.

   - bpo-23500(6): Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the
     “#ifndef” (empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it’s only
     generated once, even if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol
     multiple times, and it’s emitted at the end of all processing
     rather than immediately after the first use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20586

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23500


File: python.info,  Node: C API<74>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<50>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.23.113.6 C API
................

   - bpo-23998(1): PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation
     error

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23998


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.23.114 Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-28'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<101>.
* Library: Library<100>.
* Build: Build<91>.
* Tests: Tests<85>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<101>,  Next: Library<100>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.114.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Increased performance of string search operations
     (str.find, str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split,
     str.partition) with arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2,
     UCS4).

   - bpo-23753(2): Python doesn’t support anymore platforms without
     stat() or fstat(), these functions are always required.

   - bpo-23681(3): The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with
     int.

   - bpo-23632(4): Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for
     multi-dimensional memoryviews).

   - bpo-23192(5): Fixed generator lambdas.  Patch by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-23629(6): Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for
     variable-sized objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23753

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23192

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23629


File: python.info,  Node: Library<100>,  Next: Build<91>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<101>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.114.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14260(1): The groupindex attribute of regular expression
     pattern object now is non-modifiable mapping.

   - bpo-23792(2): Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is
     active.  This mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and
     prevents pipepager from shutting down while the pager itself is
     still running.

   - bpo-23775(3): pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same
     representation as repr().

   - bpo-23765(4): Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes

   - bpo-22364(5): Improved some re error messages using regex for
     hints.

   - bpo-23742(6): ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single
     quotes.

   - bpo-21717(7): The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports ‘x’
     (exclusive creation) mode.

   - bpo-21802(8): The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when
     closing writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().

   - bpo-23622(9): Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist
     of ‘'\'’ and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will
     be forbidden in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-23671(10): string.Template now allows specifying the “self”
     parameter as a keyword argument.  string.Formatter now allows
     specifying the “self” and the “format_string” parameters as keyword
     arguments.

   - bpo-23502(11): The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.

   - bpo-17530(12): pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.

   - bpo-22687(13): Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in
     tetxtwrap.  Got rid of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.

   - bpo-4727(14): The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154)
     and supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method
     takes keyword-only arguments.

   - bpo-23491(15): Added a zipapp module to support creating executable
     zip file archives of Python code.  Registered “.pyz” and “.pyzw”
     extensions on Windows for these archives (PEP 441).

   - bpo-23657(16): Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding
     support for pathlib.Path objects as arguments.

   - bpo-23688(17): Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and
     avoided unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write().
     Original patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-23252(18): Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable
     streams.

   - bpo-23647(19): Increase imaplib’s MAXLINE to accommodate modern
     mailbox sizes.

   - bpo-23539(20): If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request
     now sets Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to
     avoid 411 errors from some web servers.

   - bpo-22351(21): The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the
     connection and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them
     up.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23704(22): collections.deque() objects now support methods for
     index(), insert(), and copy().  This allows deques to be registered
     as a MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for
     lists.

   - bpo-23715(23): *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): da7. and *note
     signal.sigtimedwait(): da6. are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal not in the 'sigset' parameter, if the signal handler does
     not raise an exception.  signal.sigtimedwait() recomputes the
     timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.

   - bpo-23001(24): Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket,
     ssl, and codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now
     accept writable bytes-like object too.

   - bpo-23646(25): If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the
     sleep is now retried with the recomputed delay, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (PEP 475).

   - bpo-23136(26): _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0,
     including Dec 30 of previous year.  Based on patch by Jim Carroll.

   - bpo-23700(27): Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference
     to NamedTemporaryFile instance.  Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-22903(28): The fake test case created by unittest.loader when
     it fails importing a test module is now picklable.

   - bpo-22181(29): On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom()
     syscall if available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17.
     It is more reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of
     a file descriptor and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.

   - bpo-2211(30): Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel
     class.  Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now
     is deprecated.  update() and setdefault() now transform and check
     keys.  Comparing for equality now takes into account attributes
     key, value and coded_value.  copy() now returns a Morsel, not a
     dict.  repr() now contains all attributes.  Optimized checking keys
     and quoting values.  Added new tests.  Original patch by Demian
     Brecht.

   - bpo-18983(31): Allow selection of output units in timeit.  Patch by
     Julian Gindi.

   - bpo-23631(32): Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been
     mutated.

   - bpo-23568(33): Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects.  Patch
     by Håkan Lövdahl.

   - bpo-2052(34): Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().

   - bpo-23668(35): Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.

   - bpo-23138(36): Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in
     cookiejar.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23051(37): multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and
     imap_unordered() now handle exceptions raised by an iterator.
     Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin Potts.

   - bpo-23581(38): Add matmul support to MagicMock.  Patch by Håkan
     Lövdahl.

   - bpo-23566(39): enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and
     dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file
     descriptors.  Patch by Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22928(40): Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client.
     Original patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23615(41): Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be
     reloaded with imp.reload().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-23605(42): os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of
     os.listdir().  The usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of
     calls to os.stat().  Initial patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23792

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23775

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23765

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22364

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23742

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23502

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17530

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22687

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4727

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23657

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23688

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23539

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22351

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23715

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23646

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23136

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23700

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22903

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23631

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23138

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23051

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22928

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23615

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605


File: python.info,  Node: Build<91>,  Next: Tests<85>,  Prev: Library<100>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.114.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23585(1): make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23585


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<85>,  Next: Tools/Demos<51>,  Prev: Build<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.114.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23583(1): Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.

   - bpo-22289(2): Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp
     connection timeout.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23583

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22289


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<51>,  Prev: Tests<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.23.114.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22826(1): The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now
     better compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports
     the context management protocol).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22826


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.23.115 Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<102>.
* Library: Library<101>.
* Build: Build<92>.
* C API: C API<75>.
* Windows: Windows<77>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<102>,  Next: Library<101>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.115.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23571(1): PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a
     SystemError if a function returns a result and raises an exception.
     The SystemError is chained to the previous exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23571


File: python.info,  Node: Library<101>,  Next: Build<92>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<102>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.115.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-22524(1): New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471(2):
     “os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator”.
     Patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-23103(3): Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and
     IPv6Address.

   - bpo-21793(4): BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as
     numeric, not as stringified enum.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23476(5): In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL’s
     X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST flag on certificate stores when it is
     available.

   - bpo-23576(6): Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached
     in the SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn’t been closed.

   - bpo-23504(7): Added an __all__ to the types module.

   - bpo-23563(8): Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.

   - bpo-7830(9): Flatten nested functools.partial.

   - bpo-20204(10): Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.

   - bpo-19980(11): Improved help() for non-recognized strings.
     help(‘’) now shows the help on str.  help(‘help’) now shows the
     help on help().  Original patch by Mark Lawrence.

   - bpo-23521(12): Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta
     division.  Eliminated OverflowError from ‘timedelta * float’ for
     some floats; Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.

   - bpo-21619(13): Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in
     the with statement if the pipe was broken.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22936(14): Make it possible to show local variables in
     tracebacks for both the traceback module and unittest.

   - bpo-15955(15): Add an option to limit the output size in
     bz2.decompress().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-6639(16): Module-level turtle functions no longer raise
     TclError after closing the window.

   - bpo-814253(17): Group references and conditional group references
     now work in lookbehind assertions in regular expressions.  (See
     also: bpo-9179(18))

   - bpo-23215(19): Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that
     ignores errors consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or
     MemoryError.  Original patch by Aleksi Torhamo.

   - bpo-5700(20): io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file.
     flush() was not called in close() if closefd=False.

   - bpo-23374(21): Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout
     encoding differs from file system encoding (e.g.  on Mac OS).

   - bpo-23481(22): Remove RC4 from the SSL module’s default cipher
     list.

   - bpo-21548(23): Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules
     with empty docstrings.

   - bpo-22885(24): Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the
     dbm.dumb module.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23239(25): ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP
     addresses.

   - bpo-23146(26): Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with
     forward slashes in pathlib.

   - bpo-23096(27): Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now
     is the same for both Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-19105(28): pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the
     right.

   - bpo-14910(29): Add allow_abbrev parameter to
     argparse.ArgumentParser.  Patch by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard,
     paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.

   - bpo-21717(30): tarfile.open() now supports ‘x’ (exclusive creation)
     mode.

   - bpo-23344(31): marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.

   - bpo-20416(32): marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50%
     faster on average.

   - bpo-23421(33): Fixed compression in tarfile CLI. Patch by wdv4758h.

   - bpo-23367(34): Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.

   - bpo-23361(35): Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation
     code.

   - logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level
     keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to
     handlers taking handler levels into account.

   - bpo-19705(36): turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo.
     Original patch from Jason Yeo.

   - bpo-23801(37): Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always
     ignore the entire preamble to a multipart body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23476

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23504

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23563

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19980

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23521

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21619

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6639

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=814253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23215

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5700

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23481

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21548

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22885

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23146

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23096

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19105

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23367

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23361

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19705

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23801


File: python.info,  Node: Build<92>,  Next: C API<75>,  Prev: Library<101>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.115.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23445(1): pydebug builds now use “gcc -Og” where possible, to
     make the resulting executable faster.

   - bpo-23686(2): Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL
     1.0.2a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23445

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23686


File: python.info,  Node: C API<75>,  Next: Windows<77>,  Prev: Build<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.115.4 C API
................

   - bpo-20204(1): Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types
     without the __module__ attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<77>,  Prev: C API<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.23.115.5 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23465(1): Implement PEP 486(2) - Make the Python Launcher aware
     of virtual environments.  Patch by Paul Moore.

   - bpo-23437(3): Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows.
     Patch by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23465

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.23.116 Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-02-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<103>.
* Library: Library<102>.
* IDLE: IDLE<65>.
* Build: Build<93>.
* C API: C API<76>.
* Documentation: Documentation<80>.
* Tests: Tests<86>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<52>.
* Windows: Windows<78>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<103>,  Next: Library<102>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23285(1): PEP 475 - EINTR handling.

   - bpo-22735(2): Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving
     custom mro() implementations.

   - bpo-22896(3): Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(),
     PyObject_AsReadBuffer() and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().

   - bpo-21295(4): Revert some changes (bpo-16795(5)) to AST line
     numbers and column offsets that constituted a regression.

   - bpo-22986(6): Allow changing an object’s __class__ between a
     dynamic type and static type in some cases.

   - bpo-15859(7): PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()
     and PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object
     is not a Unicode object.  For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was
     already the case on platforms other than Windows.  Patch written by
     Campbell Barton.

   - bpo-21408(8): The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if
     __eq__() returned NotImplemented.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23321(9): Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler
     returned replacement string longer than malformed input data.

   - bpo-22286(10): The “backslashreplace” error handlers now works with
     decoding and translating.

   - bpo-23253(11): Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for
     reduced startup overhead on Windows.

   - bpo-22038(12): pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in
     functions for atomic memory access if available.  Patch written by
     Vitor de Lima and Gustavo Temple.

   - bpo-20284(13): %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for
     bytes and bytearray.

   - bpo-23048(14): Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the
     pdb.

   - bpo-20335(15): bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding
     or errors is specified with non-string argument.  Based on patch by
     Renaud Blanch.

   - bpo-22834(16): If the current working directory ends up being set
     to a non-existent directory then import will no longer raise
     FileNotFoundError.

   - bpo-22869(17): Move the interpreter startup & shutdown code to a
     new dedicated pylifecycle.c module

   - bpo-22847(18): Improve method cache efficiency.

   - bpo-22335(19): Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to
     0x7fffffff bytes on a 32-bit platform.

   - bpo-22653(20): Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a
     reentrant dict insertion in debug mode.

   - bpo-22643(21): Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations
     (upper, lower, title, swapcase, casefold).

   - bpo-17636(22): Circular imports involving relative imports are now
     supported.

   - bpo-22604(23): Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a
     complex number by (nan+0j).

   - bpo-21052(24): Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or
     sys.meta_path are set to None.

   - bpo-16518(25): Use ‘bytes-like object required’ in error messages
     that previously used the far more cryptic “‘x’ does not support the
     buffer protocol.

   - bpo-22470(26): Fixed integer overflow issues in “backslashreplace”,
     “xmlcharrefreplace”, and “surrogatepass” error handlers.

   - bpo-22540(27): speed up ‘PyObject_IsInstance’ and
     ‘PyObject_IsSubclass’ in the common case that the second argument
     has metaclass ‘type’.

   - bpo-18711(28): Add a new ‘PyErr_FormatV’ function, similar to
     ‘PyErr_Format’ but accepting a ‘va_list’ argument.

   - bpo-22520(29): Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a
     unicode object.

   - bpo-22519(30): Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.

   - bpo-22518(31): Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.

   - bpo-16324(32): _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts
     email.charset.Charset instances.  Initial patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-1764286(33): Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated
     functions.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18554(34): os.__all__ includes posix functions.

   - bpo-21391(35): Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.

   - bpo-11471(36): avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the
     end of an if-block if there is no else-clause.  Original patch by
     Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-22215(37): Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when
     str or bytes argument contains not permitted null character or
     byte.

   - bpo-22258(38): Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on
     Illumos.  This platform exposes the function ‘ioctl(FIOCLEX)’, but
     calling it fails with errno is ENOTTY: “Inappropriate ioctl for
     device”.  set_inheritable() now falls back to the slower ‘fcntl()’
     (‘F_GETFD’ and then ‘F_SETFD’).

   - bpo-21389(39): Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying
     function in the repr of a bound method.

   - bpo-22206(40): Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno
     to ENOMEM and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.

   - bpo-20184(41): Argument Clinic based signature introspection added
     for 30 of the builtin functions.

   - bpo-22116(42): C functions and methods (of the
     ‘builtin_function_or_method’ type) can now be weakref’ed.  Patch by
     Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22077(43): Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes,
     lists, and tuples by adding ‘or slices’.  Added ‘, not <typename>’
     for bytearrays.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-20179(44): Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray.  Patch
     by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-22082(45): Clear interned strings in slotdefs.

   - Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.

   - bpo-21897(46): Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure
     variables when frame.clear() has been called.

   - bpo-21205(47): Add a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute to generator, the
     qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator
     (‘repr(gen)’).  The default name of the generator (‘__name__’
     attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to get the name of the code.

   - bpo-21669(48): With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__,
     the parser now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least
     more search engine friendly) error messages when “exec” and “print”
     are used as statements.

   - bpo-21642(49): In the conditional if-else expression, allow an
     integer written with no space between itself and the ‘else’ keyword
     (e.g.  ‘True if 42else False’) to be valid syntax.

   - bpo-21523(50): Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect
     of some opcodes in the compiler.  This also fixes a quadratic
     compilation time issue noticeable when compiling code with a large
     number of “and” and “or” operators.

   - bpo-21418(51): Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when
     called without argument and without current frame (ex: embedded
     Python).

   - bpo-21425(52): Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive
     interpreter.

   - bpo-21435(53): In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in
     cyclic trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle
     flaw in internal iteration logic.

   - bpo-21377(54): PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place
     when the first argument has a reference count of 1.  Patch by
     Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20355(55): -W command line options now have higher priority
     than the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.  Patch by Arfrever.

   - bpo-21274(56): Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.

   - bpo-20904(57): Support setting FPU precision on m68k.

   - bpo-21209(58): Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with
     the yield from syntax.

   - bpo-21193(59): pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than
     TypeError when b is negative.  Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21176(60): PEP 465: Add the ‘@’ operator for matrix
     multiplication.

   - bpo-21134(61): Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized
     UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError
     object.

   - bpo-19537(62): Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k.  Patch by
     Andreas Schwab.

   - bpo-20929(63): Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.

   - bpo-20731(64): Properly position in source code files even if they
     are opened in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-20637(65): Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries
     of subclasses.  Patch by Peter Ingebretson.

   - bpo-8297(66): Attributes missing from modules now include the
     module name in the error text.  Original patch by ysj.ray.

   - bpo-19995(67): %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on
     non-integer input.

   - bpo-19655(68): The ASDL parser - used by the build process to
     generate code for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten.
     The new parser is self contained and does not require to carry long
     the spark.py parser-generator library; spark.py was removed from
     the source base.

   - bpo-12546(69): Allow ‘\x00’ to be used as a fill character when
     using str, int, float, and complex __format__ methods.

   - bpo-20480(70): Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer.  Patch by Leon Weber.

   - bpo-13598(71): Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of
     replacement fields.  It now matches the behavior of str.format() in
     this regard.  Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.

   - bpo-8931(72): Make alternate formatting (‘#’) for type ‘c’ raise an
     exception.  In versions prior to 3.5, ‘#’ with ‘c’ had no effect.
     Now specifying it is an error.  Patch by Torsten Landschoff.

   - bpo-23165(73): Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in
     the _Py_char2wchar function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22735

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22896

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21295

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16795

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15859

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23321

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23253

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20284

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23048

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20335

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22869

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22335

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22653

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22643

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22604

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21052

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22470

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22520

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22519

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22518

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1764286

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18554

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21391

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11471

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22215

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22258

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21389

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22206

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20184

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22116

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22077

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20179

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22082

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21897

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21669

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21642

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21523

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21418

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21425

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21435

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21377

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20355

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21274

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20904

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21193

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21134

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19537

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20929

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20731

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20637

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8297

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19995

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19655

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12546

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8931

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23165


File: python.info,  Node: Library<102>,  Next: IDLE<65>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<103>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23399(1): pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.

   - bpo-20289(2): cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context
     management protocol.

   - bpo-13128(3): Print response headers for CONNECT requests when
     debuglevel > 0.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-15381(4): Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and
     copyings.

   - bpo-22818(5): Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty
     string now raises a warning.  Patterns that can only match empty
     strings are now rejected.

   - bpo-23099(6): Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected
     now to prevent corrupting exported buffer.

   - bpo-23326(7): Removed __ne__ implementations.  Since fixing default
     __ne__ implementation in bpo-21408(8) they are redundant.

   - bpo-23363(9): Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.

   - bpo-23364(10): Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.

   - bpo-23366(11): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     itertools.combinations.

   - bpo-23369(12): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     _json.encode_basestring_ascii.

   - bpo-23353(13): Fix the exception handling of generators in
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx().  At entry, save or swap the exception state
     even if PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0.  At exit,
     the exception state is now always restored or swapped, not only if
     why is WHY_YIELD or WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine
     Pitrou.

   - bpo-14099(14): Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable
     but non-seekable streams.

   - bpo-14099(15): Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles
     is threadsafe now.

   - bpo-19361(16): JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of
     ValueError.

   - bpo-18518(17): timeit now rejects statements which can’t be
     compiled outside a function or a loop (e.g.  “return” or “break”).

   - bpo-23094(18): Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation
     of pickle.

   - bpo-23268(19): Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.

   - bpo-21408(20): Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which
     didn’t returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented.
     The default __ne__() now works correctly.

   - bpo-19996(21): ‘email.feedparser.FeedParser’ now handles
     (malformed) headers with no key rather than assuming the body has
     started.

   - bpo-20188(22): Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
     (ALPN) in the ssl module.

   - bpo-23133(23): Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more
     compact and portable representation.

   - bpo-23248(24): Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git
     master.

   - bpo-23266(25): Much faster implementation of
     ipaddress.collapse_addresses() when there are many non-consecutive
     addresses.

   - bpo-23098(26): 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.

   - bpo-21817(27): When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a
     ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the
     parent process.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-15955(28): Add an option to limit output size when
     decompressing LZMA data.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23250(29): In the http.cookies module, capitalize “HttpOnly”
     and “Secure” as they are written in the standard.

   - bpo-23063(30): In the distutils’ check command, fix parsing of reST
     with code or code-block directives.

   - bpo-23209(31): selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a
     RuntimeError if the selector is closed.  And
     selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its internal reference to
     the selector mapping to break a reference cycle.  Initial patch
     written by Martin Richard.  (See also: bpo-23225(32))

   - bpo-17911(33): Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302
     module without actually loading the code.

   - bpo-17911(34): Provide a new object API for traceback, including
     the ability to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is
     actually rendered, without any trace of the original objects being
     kept alive.

   - bpo-19777(35): Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects.
     Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.

   - bpo-23206(36): Make ‘json.dumps(..., ensure_ascii=False)’ as fast
     as the default case of ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  Patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-23185(37): Add math.inf and math.nan constants.

   - bpo-23186(38): Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client’s list ciphers
     sent at handshake.

   - bpo-23143(39): Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.

   - bpo-23132(40): Improve performance and introspection support of
     comparison methods created by functool.total_ordering.

   - bpo-19776(41): Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.

   - bpo-23112(42): Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query
     string and fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.

   - bpo-21793(43): Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e.  HTTPStatus.OK,
     HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23093(44): In the io, module allow more operations to work on
     detached streams.

   - bpo-23111(45): In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default
     protocol version.

   - bpo-22585(46): On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls
     getentropy(), instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random
     bytes.

   - bpo-19104(47): pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped
     strings.

   - bpo-23071(48): Added missing names to codecs.__all__.  Patch by
     Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22783(49): Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the
     NEWOBJ_EX opcode if possible.

   - bpo-15513(50): Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle
     classes.

   - bpo-19858(51): pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE
     opcode, can produce more compact result and no longer produces
     invalid output if input data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with
     PUT or BINPUT opcodes.

   - bpo-22095(52): Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port.
     The port value in the host header was set to “None”.  Patch by
     Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23016(53): A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when
     the program is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-21775(54): shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT.
     An exception handler assumed that OSError objects always have a
     ‘winerror’ attribute.  That is not the case, so the exception
     handler itself raised AttributeError when run on Linux (and,
     presumably, any other non-Windows OS). Patch by Greg Ward.

   - bpo-1218234(55): Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of
     reloaded module.  Initial patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21740(56): Support wrapped callables in doctest.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23009(57): Make sure selectors.EpollSelector.select() works
     when no FD is registered.

   - bpo-22959(58): In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection,
     prefer the context’s check_hostname attribute over the
     'check_hostname' parameter.

   - bpo-22696(59): Add function *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8c. to know
     about interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-16043(60): Add a default limit for the amount of data
     xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return.  This resolves CVE
     2013-1753(61).

   - bpo-14099(62): ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file.
     Objects returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of
     the ZipFile even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a
     file-like object as the first argument to the constructor.

   - bpo-22966(63): Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when
     pyc_compile is asked to compile a source file containing multiple
     dots in the source file name.

   - bpo-21971(64): Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.

   - bpo-21032(65): Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse()
     fails.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22407(66): Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str
     patterns or re.ASCII. It was newer worked.

   - bpo-22902(67): The “ip” command is now used on Linux to determine
     MAC address in uuid.getnode().  Pach by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-22960(68): Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy
     constructor.

   - bpo-22389(69): Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().

   - bpo-21356(70): Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL.
     The availability of the function is checked during the compilation.
     Patch written by Bernard Spil.

   - bpo-22915(71): SAX parser now supports files opened with file
     descriptor or bytes path.

   - bpo-22609(72): Constructors and update methods of mapping classes
     in the collections module now accept the self keyword argument.

   - bpo-22940(73): Add readline.append_history_file.

   - bpo-19676(74): Added the “namereplace” error handler.

   - bpo-22788(75): Add 'context' parameter to
     logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.

   - bpo-22921(76): Allow SSLContext to take the 'hostname' parameter
     even if OpenSSL doesn’t support SNI.

   - bpo-22894(77): TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be
     stopped when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.

   - bpo-22796(78): HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to
     protect against potential injection attacks.

   - bpo-22370(79): Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.

   - bpo-22841(80): Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler().
     Patch by Ludovic.Gasc.

   - bpo-19494(81): Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler.
     Patch by Matej Cepl.

   - bpo-22578(82): Added attributes to the re.error class.

   - bpo-22849(83): Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper
     constructor.

   - bpo-12728(84): Different Unicode characters having the same
     uppercase but different lowercase are now matched in
     case-insensitive regular expressions.

   - bpo-22821(85): Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit
     big-endian platforms.

   - bpo-21650(86): Add an ‘--sort-keys’ option to ‘json.tool’ CLI.

   - bpo-22824(87): Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set
     literals.  Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22824(88): Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display
     empty arrays without an unnecessary empty list.  Suggested by
     Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-22406(89): Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x.
     Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-17293(90): uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX
     using netstat.  Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.

   - bpo-22769(91): Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-22417(92): Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).

   - bpo-22775(93): Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with
     protocol 2 and above.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-22776(94): Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block
     in SysLogHandler.emit().

   - bpo-22665(95): Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to
     shutil.__all__.

   - bpo-6623(96): Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module.
     Patch by Matt Chaput.

   - bpo-17381(97): Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-22410(98): Module level functions in the re module now cache
     compiled locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account
     the locale.

   - bpo-22759(99): Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(),
     etc.)  now return False when the underlying stat call raises
     NotADirectoryError.

   - bpo-8876(100): distutils now falls back to copying files when hard
     linking doesn’t work.  This allows use with special filesystems
     such as VirtualBox shared folders.

   - bpo-22217(101): Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.

   - bpo-22457(102): Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.

   - bpo-18216(103): gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an
     unsupported major version number.  Patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-13918(104): Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can
     remove locale-specific number formatting from a string representing
     a number, without then converting it to a specific type.  Patch by
     Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-22676(105): Make the pickling of global objects which don’t
     have a __module__ attribute less slow.

   - bpo-18853(106): Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.

   - bpo-9351(107): Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse
     subparser are no longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.

   - bpo-7559(108): unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as
     import errors with their import exception rather than as attribute
     errors after the import has already failed.

   - bpo-19746(109): Make it possible to examine the errors from
     unittest discovery without executing the test suite.  The new
     ‘errors’ attribute on ‘TestLoader’ exposes these non-fatal errors
     encountered during discovery.

   - bpo-21991(110): Make email.headerregistry’s header ‘params’
     attributes be read-only (MappingProxyType).  Previously the
     dictionary was modifiable but a new one was created on each access
     of the attribute.

   - bpo-22638(111): SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard
     library.  It can still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext
     manually.

   - bpo-22641(112): In asyncio, the default SSL context for client
     connections is now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for
     stronger security.

   - bpo-17401(113): Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.

   - bpo-21338(114): Add silent mode for compileall.  quiet parameters
     of compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value.
     Also, -q option of the CLI now have a multilevel value.  Patch by
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-20152(115): Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument
     Clinic.

   - bpo-18643(116): Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.

   - bpo-22435(117): Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind
     fails.

   - bpo-13096(118): Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large
     values.

   - bpo-11694(119): Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented.
     Patch by Filip Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19380(120): Optimized parsing of regular expressions.

   - bpo-1519638(121): Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty
     strings in re.sub() and re.subn().

   - bpo-18615(122): sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.

   - bpo-22462(123): Fix pyexpat’s creation of a dummy frame to make it
     appear in exception tracebacks.

   - bpo-21965(124): Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module.
     Patch by Geert Jansen.

   - bpo-21173(125): Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was
     called with an iterator alive.

   - bpo-11866(126): Eliminated race condition in the computation of
     names for new threads.

   - bpo-21905(127): Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when
     sys.modules is mutated while iterating.  Patch by Olivier Grisel.

   - bpo-11271(128): concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a
     'chunksize' argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes
     and improve performance of ProcessPoolExecutor.  Patch by Dan
     O’Reilly.

   - bpo-21883(129): os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a
     TypeError with more helpful error message for unsupported or
     mismatched types of arguments.

   - bpo-22219(130): The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for
     directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-22449(131): In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult
     the environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22508(132): The email.__version__ variable has been removed;
     the email code is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and
     __version__ hasn’t been updated in several releases.

   - bpo-20076(133): Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases
     table.

   - bpo-20079(134): Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale
     alias table.

   - bpo-20218(135): Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and
     read_bytes/ write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.

   - bpo-22396(136): On 32-bit AIX platform, don’t expose
     os.posix_fadvise() nor os.posix_fallocate() because their
     prototypes in system headers are wrong.

   - bpo-22517(137): When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated,
     clear its weakrefs.

   - bpo-22437(138): Number of capturing groups in regular expression is
     no longer limited by 100.

   - bpo-17442(139): InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full
     chained traceback in its showtraceback method, to match the built
     in interactive interpreter.

   - bpo-23392(140): Added tests for marshal C API that works with
     FILE*.

   - bpo-10510(141): distutils register and upload methods now use HTML
     standards compliant CRLF line endings.

   - bpo-9850(142): Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component.
     Patch by Oleg Oshmyan.

   - bpo-5309(143): distutils’ build and build_ext commands now accept a
     ‘-j’ option to enable parallel building of extension modules.

   - bpo-22448(144): Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent
     unbound memory usage.  Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.

   - bpo-22427(145): TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up
     twice when used in the with statement in generator.

   - bpo-22362(146): Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range
     0-0o377 in regular expressions.

   - bpo-20912(147): Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix
     and MS-DOS directory attributes.

   - bpo-21866(148): ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central
     directory records if allowZip64 is false.

   - bpo-22278(149): Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a
     regression observed after changes to issue22118 were submitted.

   - bpo-22415(150): Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS
     opcode in the re module.  Removed trailing spaces in debugging
     output.

   - bpo-22423(151): Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes
     unhandled AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.

   - bpo-21332(152): Ensure that ‘bufsize=1’ in subprocess.Popen()
     selects line buffering, rather than block buffering.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-21091(153): Fix API bug:
     email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a method.

   - bpo-21079(154): Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to
     return the correct result when the header has parameters as well as
     a value.

   - bpo-22247(155): Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.

   - bpo-22366(156): urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object
     (SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS
     connection.  Patch by Alex Gaynor.

   - bpo-4180(157): The warnings registries are now reset when the
     filters are modified.

   - bpo-22419(158): Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in
     wsgiref server to 65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher
     lengths.  Patch contributed by Devin Cook.

   - Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when
     combined with non-standard cookie handling in some web browsers.
     Reported by Sergey Bobrov.

   - bpo-20537(159): logging methods now accept an exception instance as
     well as a Boolean value or exception tuple.  Thanks to Yury
     Selivanov for the patch.

   - bpo-22384(160): An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes
     the program when it is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-22168(161): Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default
     Canvas on OS X.

   - bpo-21147(162): sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request
     contains a null character instead of truncating it.  Based on patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13968(163): The glob module now supports recursive search in
     subdirectories using the ‘**’ pattern.

   - bpo-21951(164): Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl
     command with empty string or tuple argument.

   - bpo-21951(165): Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead
     of crash if the memory allocation fails.

   - bpo-22338(166): Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation
     failure.

   - bpo-12410(167): imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management
     protocol.  Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.

   - bpo-21270(168): We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects
     so that they can be used as normal call attributes.

   - bpo-16662(169): ‘load_tests()’ is now unconditionally run when it
     is present in a package’s ‘__init__.py’.
     ‘TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ still accepts use_load_tests,
     but it is deprecated and ignored.  A new keyword-only attribute
     ‘pattern’ is added and documented.  Patch given by Robert Collins,
     tweaked by Barry Warsaw.

   - bpo-22226(170): First letter no longer is stripped from the
     “status” key in the result of Treeview.heading().

   - bpo-19524(171): Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an
     invalid response is received.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20421(172): Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the
     actual protocol version in use.

   - bpo-19546(173): configparser exceptions no longer expose
     implementation details.  Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads
     to cleaner tracebacks.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22051(174): turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run
     them.  Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in
     main(), which is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.

   - bpo-21933(175): Turtledemo users can change the code font size with
     a menu selection or control(command) ‘-’ or ‘+’ or
     control-mousewheel.  Original patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21597(176): The separator between the turtledemo text pane and
     the drawing canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse.
     The code text pane can be widened to easily view or copy the full
     width of the text.  The canvas can be widened on small screens.
     Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-18132(177): Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the
     window is shrunk.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-22043(178): time.monotonic() is now always available.
     ‘threading.Lock.acquire()’, ‘threading.RLock.acquire()’ and socket
     operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock,
     when a timeout is used.

   - bpo-21527(179): Add a default number of workers to
     ThreadPoolExecutor equal to 5 times the number of CPUs.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22216(180): smtplib now resets its state more completely after
     a quit.  The most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was
     a STARTTLS failure during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls
     sequence.

   - bpo-22098(181): ctypes’ BigEndianStructure and
     LittleEndianStructure now define an empty __slots__ so that
     subclasses don’t always get an instance dict.  Patch by Claudiu
     Popa.

   - bpo-22185(182): Fix an occasional RuntimeError in
     threading.Condition.wait() caused by mutation of the waiters queue
     without holding the lock.  Patch by Doug Zongker.

   - bpo-22287(183): On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses
     clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available.  As a side effect,
     Python now depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux
     (only with glibc older than 2.17).

   - bpo-22182(184): Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in
     distutils.file_util.move_file.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - The webbrowser module now uses subprocess’s start_new_session=True
     rather than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.

   - bpo-22042(185): signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if
     the file descriptor is in blocking mode.

   - bpo-16808(186): inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead
     of a tuple.  Patch by Daniel Shahaf.

   - bpo-22236(187): Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in
     NoDefaultRoot mode.

   - bpo-2527(188): Add a 'globals' argument to timeit functions, in
     order to override the globals namespace in which the timed code is
     executed.  Patch by Ben Roberts.

   - bpo-22118(189): Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for
     the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396.
     Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-21549(190): Added the “members” parameter to TarFile.list().

   - bpo-19628(191): Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified
     with a -r option.

   - bpo-15696(192): Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22068(193): Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in
     Tkinter.

   - bpo-22165(194): SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable
     file names.

   - bpo-15381(195): Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.

   - bpo-8797(196): Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication
     immediately.  Initial patch by Sam Bull.

   - bpo-20729(197): Restored the use of lazy
     iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in the mailbox module.

   - bpo-21448(198): Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid 'O'('n'^2)
     behavior when parsing long line.  Original patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-22184(199): The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives
     an earlier and clearer error message when the user forgets the
     required parameters.

   - bpo-17923(200): glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match
     non-dirs on AIX. Based on patch by Delhallt.

   - bpo-21725(201): Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.

   - bpo-22176(202): Update the ctypes module’s libffi to v3.1.  This
     release adds support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2
     little endian architectures.

   - bpo-5411(203): Added support for the “xztar” format in the shutil
     module.

   - bpo-21121(204): Don’t force 3rd party C extensions to be built with
     -Werror=declaration-after-statement.

   - bpo-21975(205): Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row
     (in particular when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row).  sqlite3.Row
     is now initialized in the __new__() method.

   - bpo-20170(206): Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-21539(207): Add an 'exists_ok' argument to ‘Pathlib.mkdir()’ to
     mimic ‘mkdir -p’ and ‘os.makedirs()’ functionality.  When true,
     ignore ‘FileExistsErrors’.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22127(208): Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket
     module (in particular for numeric IPs).

   - bpo-21047(209): set the default value for the 'convert_charrefs'
     argument of HTMLParser to True.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - Add an __all__ to html.entities.

   - bpo-15114(210): the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser,
     HTMLParser.error, and the HTMLParserError exception have been
     removed.

   - bpo-22085(211): Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.

   - bpo-21580(212): Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments
     passed to Tk.  In particular this allows initializing images from
     binary data.

   - bpo-22003(213): When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO()
     now defers making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance
     and memory use on some use cases.  Patch by David Wilson.

   - bpo-22018(214): On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also
     supports sockets.  A side effect is that Python depends to the
     WinSock library.

   - bpo-22054(215): Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking()
     functions to get and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor
     (False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True otherwise).  These
     functions are not available on Windows.

   - bpo-17172(216): Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when
     run with subprocess.  Patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21704(217): Fix build error for _multiprocessing when
     semaphores are not available.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis.

   - bpo-20173(218): Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to
     ArgumentClinic.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don’t fail with
     OverflowError on closed socket.  repr(socket.socket) already works
     fine.

   - bpo-22033(219): Reprs of most Python implemented classes now
     contain actual class name instead of hardcoded one.

   - bpo-21947(220): The dis module can now disassemble
     generator-iterator objects based on their gi_code attribute.  Patch
     by Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-16133(221): The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now
     ignores BlockingIOError exceptions.

   - bpo-22044(222): Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method.
     Patch by Tom Flanagan.

   - bpo-19884(223): readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout
     is not a terminal to not write the ANSI sequence ‘"\033[1034h"’
     into stdout.  This sequence is used on some terminal (ex:
     TERM=xterm-256color”) to enable support of 8 bit characters.

   - bpo-4350(224): Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for
     a long time Tkinter methods.

   - bpo-6167(225): Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active
     element if the argument is not specified.  Scrollbar.set() now
     always accepts only 2 arguments.

   - bpo-15275(226): Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.

   - bpo-21888(227): plistlib’s load() and loads() now work if the fmt
     parameter is specified.

   - bpo-22032(228): __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used
     to format fully qualified class names of Python implemented
     classes.

   - bpo-22031(229): Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the
     “0x” prefix when contain an id in form “ at 0x…”.

   - bpo-22018(230): signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError
     instead of a ValueError on ‘fstat()’ failure.

   - bpo-21044(231): tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer
     ‘name’ attribute.  Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.

   - bpo-21966(232): Respect -q command-line option when code module is
     ran.

   - bpo-19076(233): Don’t pass the redundant ‘file’ argument to
     self.error().

   - bpo-16382(234): Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for
     bad category.  Initial patch by Phil Elson.

   - bpo-21932(235): os.read() now uses a *note Py_ssize_t(): a5c. type
     instead of int for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at
     once.  On Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to
     os.read(), the OS may read less bytes than the number of requested
     bytes.

   - bpo-21942(236): Fixed source file viewing in pydoc’s server mode on
     Windows.

   - bpo-11259(237): asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a
     ValueError if the number of received bytes is negative.

   - bpo-12523(238): asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError
     if it doesn’t get a bytes string

   - bpo-21707(239): Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to
     ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().

   - bpo-20639(240): calling Path.with_suffix(‘’) allows removing the
     suffix again.  Patch by July Tikhonov.

   - bpo-21714(241): Disallow the construction of invalid paths using
     Path.with_name().  Original patch by Antony Lee.

   - bpo-15014(242): Added ‘auth’ method to smtplib to make implementing
     auth mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login
     method.

   - bpo-21151(243): Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when ‘None’
     is passed as a ‘REG_BINARY’ value to SetValueEx.  Patch by John
     Ehresman.

   - bpo-21090(244): io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors
     anymore.  Before, it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C
     call read() succeed.

   - bpo-5800(245): headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now
     optional.  Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.

   - bpo-21781(246): ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2
     GB.

   - bpo-21679(247): Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open().
     Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-21863(248): cProfile now displays the module name of C
     extension functions, in addition to their own name.

   - bpo-11453(249): asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed
     file_wrapper object is destroyed.  The destructor now closes the
     file if needed.  The close() method can now be called twice: the
     second call does nothing.

   - bpo-21858(250): Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3
     module.

   - bpo-21476(251): Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser
     TextIOWrapper is discarded after parsing, so the input file isn’t
     unexpectedly closed.

   - bpo-20295(252): imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.

   - bpo-21729(253): Used the “with” statement in the dbm.dumb module to
     ensure files closing.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21491(254): socketserver: Fix a race condition in child
     processes reaping.

   - bpo-21719(255): Added the ‘st_file_attributes’ field to
     os.stat_result on Windows.

   - bpo-21832(256): Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.

   - bpo-21722(257): The distutils “upload” command now exits with a
     non-zero return code when uploading fails.  Patch by Martin
     Dengler.

   - bpo-21723(258): asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex:
     float) for the maximum size.  Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21711(259): support for “site-python” directories has now been
     removed from the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).

   - bpo-17552(260): new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be
     sent over a socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-18039(261): dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database
     when the flag has the value ‘n’.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21326(262): Add a new is_closed() method to
     asyncio.BaseEventLoop.  run_forever() and run_until_complete()
     methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop now raise an exception if the
     event loop was closed.

   - bpo-21766(263): Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL
     unquoting paths before checking for a CGI script at that path.

   - bpo-21310(264): Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().

   - bpo-21256(265): Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic
     order in a mock function call.  This will help to write better
     doctests.

   - bpo-21677(266): Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io
     close() methods.

   - bpo-11709(267): Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when
     sys.stdin is not a valid file.

   - bpo-21515(268): tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag
     is available.

   - bpo-13223(269): Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation
     for methods that use ‘self’ in the example code is generated
     correctly.

   - bpo-21463(270): In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.

   - bpo-21618(271): The subprocess module could fail to close open fds
     that were inherited by the calling process and already higher than
     POSIX resource limits would otherwise allow.  On systems with a
     functioning /proc/self/fd or /dev/fd interface the max is now
     ignored and all fds are closed.

   - bpo-20383(272): Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the
     preferred way to create a new module.

   - bpo-21552(273): Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string
     lengths in the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.

   - bpo-14315(274): The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the
     central directory that are too short to be parsed instead of
     letting a struct.unpack error bubble up as this “bad data” appears
     in many real world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other
     zip tools.

   - bpo-13742(275): Added “key” and “reverse” parameters to
     heapq.merge().  (First draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)

   - bpo-21402(276): tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is
     not set.

   - bpo-3015(277): ‘_tkinter.create()’ now creates ‘tkapp’ object with
     ‘wantobjects=1’ by default.

   - bpo-10203(278): sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol.
     In particular it supports reverse() and negative indices.  Original
     patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18807(279): If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then
     the python interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by
     copying rather than symlinking.

   - bpo-20197(280): Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr
     module.  Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21513(281): Speedup some properties of IP addresses
     (IPv4Address, IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.

   - bpo-21137(282): Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its
     variants by showing the “locked” or “unlocked” status.  Patch by
     Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21538(283): The plistlib module now supports loading of binary
     plist files when reference or offset size is not a power of two.

   - bpo-21455(284): Add a default backlog to socket.listen().

   - bpo-21525(285): Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now
     accept lists too.

   - bpo-22166(286): With the assistance of a new internal
     _codecs._forget_codec helping function, test_codecs now clears the
     encoding caches to avoid the appearance of a reference leak

   - bpo-22236(287): Tkinter tests now don’t reuse default root window.
     New root window is created for every test class.

   - bpo-10744(288): Fix PEP 3118(289) format strings on ctypes objects
     with a nontrivial shape.

   - bpo-20826(290): Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().

   - bpo-21487(291): Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and
     ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().

   - bpo-21486(292): Optimize parsing of netmasks in
     ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network.

   - bpo-13916(293): Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non
     UTF-* encodings.

   - bpo-20998(294): Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character
     pattern with ignore case.  Original patch by Matthew Barnett.

   - bpo-21075(295): fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard
     stream if binary mode is specified.  Patch by Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-19775(296): Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects.
     Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21226(297): Set up modules properly in
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and friends).

   - bpo-21398(298): Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the
     documentation contains characters not encodable to the stdout
     encoding.

   - bpo-16531(299): ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now
     accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily
     construct network objects from existing addresses.

   - bpo-21156(300): importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now
     a staticmethod.

   - bpo-21424(301): Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and
     nmsmallest() to make fewer tuple comparisons.

   - bpo-21396(302): Fix TextIOWrapper(…, write_through=True) to not
     force a flush() on the underlying binary stream.  Patch by akira.

   - bpo-18314(303): Unlink now removes junctions on Windows.  Patch by
     Kim Gräsman

   - bpo-21088(304): Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in
     3.4.0.  In porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were
     reversed.

   - bpo-21407(305): _decimal: The module now supports function
     signatures.

   - bpo-10650(306): Remove the non-standard ‘watchexp’ parameter from
     the Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version.  It had never
     been present in the C version.

   - bpo-21469(307): Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser
     by checking to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not
     exist prior to returning True in can_fetch().

   - bpo-19414(308): Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as
     unusable.  This gives an early failure if the link is deleted
     during iteration.

   - bpo-21421(309): Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by
     Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21101(310): Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for
     collections.Counter().

   - bpo-21321(311): itertools.islice() now releases the reference to
     the source iterator when the slice is exhausted.  Patch by Anton
     Afanasyev.

   - bpo-21057(312): TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary
     stream’s read() or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like
     object (such as a memoryview).  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20951(313): SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError
     or SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation
     would block.  Previously, it would return 0.  Patch by Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-13248(314): removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher
     __getattr__ cheap inheritance hack.

   - bpo-9815(315): assertRaises now tries to clear references to local
     variables in the exception’s traceback.

   - bpo-19940(316): ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given
     time string in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the
     local timezone.

   - bpo-13204(317): Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the
     interpreter, now it raises a TypeError.

   - bpo-19385(318): Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database
     always raise the same exception.

   - bpo-21207(319): Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been
     closed or replaced, and open it anew.

   - bpo-21291(320): subprocess’s Popen.wait() is now thread safe so
     that multiple threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen
     instance at the same time without losing the Popen.returncode
     value.

   - bpo-21127(321): Path objects can now be instantiated from str
     subclass instances (such as ‘numpy.str_’).

   - bpo-15002(322): urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper
     (and _TemporaryFileCloser) facility.  Provides a better way to
     handle file descriptor close.  Patch contributed by Christian
     Theune.

   - bpo-12220(323): mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it
     doesn’t support spaces in URIs instead of letting a ‘split’
     ValueError bubble up.

   - bpo-21068(324): The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.

   - bpo-21276(325): posixmodule: Don’t define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD
     and the Hurd.

   - bpo-21262(326): New method assert_not_called for Mock.  It raises
     AssertionError if the mock has been called.

   - bpo-21238(327): New keyword argument ‘unsafe’ to Mock.  It raises
     ‘AttributeError’ incase of an attribute startswith assert or
     assret.

   - bpo-20896(328): ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses
     PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.

   - bpo-21239(329): patch.stopall() didn’t work deterministically when
     the same name was patched more than once.

   - bpo-21203(330): Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove
     inconsistencies.  Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.

   - bpo-21222(331): Passing name keyword argument to
     mock.create_autospec now works.

   - bpo-21197(332): Add lib64 -> lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS
     X POSIX.

   - bpo-17498(333): Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors,
     violating strict RFC conformance.  Instead of losing the error code
     when we issue the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error
     code and defers raising the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the
     next command is issued.

   - bpo-17826(334): setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function
     created by create_autospec now works.  Patch by Kushal Das.

   - bpo-7776(335): Fix ‘Host:’ header and reconnection when using
     http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20968(336): unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division.
     Patch by Johannes Baiter.

   - bpo-21529(337): Fix arbitrary memory access in
     JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a negative second parameter.  Bug
     reported by Guido Vranken.  (See also: CVE 2014-4616(338))

   - bpo-21169(339): getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the
     input stream encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the
     replace error handler.

   - bpo-21171(340): Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec.
     Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-20539(341): Improved math.factorial error message for large
     positive inputs and changed exception type (OverflowError ->
     ValueError) for large negative inputs.

   - bpo-21172(342): isinstance check relaxed from dict to
     collections.Mapping.

   - bpo-21155(343): asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a
     ValueError if path and sock are specified at the same time.

   - bpo-21136(344): Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions
     resulting from power and other operations.  Patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-17621(345): Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-21076(346): signal module constants were turned into enums.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-20636(347): Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.

   - bpo-19505(348): The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict
     now support reverse iteration using reversed().

   - bpo-21149(349): Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during
     interpreter shutdown.  Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.

   - bpo-21058(350): Fix a leak of file descriptor in *note
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 4c0, close the file descriptor if
     *note io.open(): 516. fails

   - bpo-21200(351): Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__
     is missing.

   - bpo-21013(352): Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for
     server side sockets to provide better security by default.

   - bpo-20145(353): ‘assertRaisesRegex’ and ‘assertWarnsRegex’ now
     raise a ‘TypeError’ if the second argument is not a string or
     compiled regex.

   - bpo-20633(354): Replace relative import by absolute import.

   - bpo-20980(355): Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.

   - bpo-21082(356): In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask.
     Note this changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.

   - bpo-20990(357): Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.

   - bpo-21015(358): SSL contexts will now automatically select an
     elliptic curve for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later,
     and otherwise default to “prime256v1”.

   - bpo-21000(359): Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.

   - bpo-20995(360): Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to
     enable better security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.

   - bpo-20884(361): Don’t assume that __file__ is defined on
     importlib.__init__.

   - bpo-21499(362): Ignore __builtins__ in several
     test_importlib.test_api tests.

   - bpo-20627(363): xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.

   - bpo-19165(364): The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning
     instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-13936(365): Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be
     considered false in boolean contexts.

   - bpo-18931(366): selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-19977(367): When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’
     locale), *note sys.stdin: 537. and *note sys.stdout: ad3. are now
     using the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’
     error handler.

   - bpo-20574(368): Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code
     (Windows code page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).

   - bpo-20879(369): Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding
     tables for base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module,
     and delay the initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the
     urllib.parse module, to not waste memory if these modules are not
     used.

   - bpo-19157(370): Include the broadcast address in the usuable hosts
     for IPv6 in ipaddress.

   - bpo-11599(371): When an external command (e.g.  compiler) fails,
     distutils now prints out the whole command line (instead of just
     the command name) if the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is
     set.

   - bpo-4931(372): distutils should not produce unhelpful “error: None”
     messages anymore.  distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept
     but doc-deprecated.

   - bpo-20875(373): Prevent possible gzip “‘read’ is not defined”
     NameError.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-11558(374): ‘email.message.Message.attach’ now returns a more
     useful error message if ‘attach’ is called on a message for which
     ‘is_multipart’ is False.

   - bpo-20283(375): RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword
     parameters as documented.  The pattern and source keyword
     parameters are left as deprecated aliases.

   - bpo-20778(376): Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only
     modules.

   - bpo-20791(377): copy.copy() now doesn’t make a copy when the input
     is a bytes object.  Initial patch by Peter Otten.

   - bpo-19748(378): On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError
     for year outsize range [1902; 2037].

   - bpo-19573(379): inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind
     constants.

   - bpo-20726(380): inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter
     picklable.

   - bpo-17373(381): Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.

   - bpo-20378(382): Improve repr of inspect.Signature and
     inspect.Parameter.

   - bpo-20816(383): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct
     TypeError for missing keyword-only arguments.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Lowin.

   - bpo-20817(384): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more
     than 3 arguments are missing.  Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

   - bpo-6676(385): Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when
     attempting to parse more than one XML document per pyexpat
     xmlparser instance.  (Original patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and
     Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, with suggested wording by David Gutteridge)

   - bpo-21117(386): Fix inspect.signature to better support
     functools.partial.  Due to the specifics of functools.partial
     implementation, positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword
     arguments become keyword-only.

   - bpo-20334(387): inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now
     hashable.  Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.

   - bpo-15916(388): doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty
     unittest.TestSuite instead of raising ValueError if it finds no
     tests

   - bpo-21209(389): Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug
     in yield-from implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.

   - asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper
     (upstream bpo-163(390)).

   - bpo-21311(391): Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard
     compiler configurations.  Patch by John Szakmeister.

   - bpo-11571(392): Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost
     window when launched on OS X.

   - bpo-21801(393): Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance
     of Signature.

   - bpo-21923(394): Prevent AttributeError in
     distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible
     uninitialized _config_vars.

   - bpo-21323(395): Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI
     subdirectories, broken by the fix for security bpo-19435(396).
     Patch by Zach Byrne.

   - bpo-22733(397): Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument
     values correctly on 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-23302(398): Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an
     HTTPConnection.  Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it’s an
     optimization that’s no longer needed with Nagle disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23099

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23326

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23363

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23364

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23366

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23369

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23353

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18518

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23094

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23268

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19996

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23248

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23098

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21817

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23250

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23063

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23209

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23225

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23143

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23132

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23112

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23093

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23111

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22585

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19104

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23071

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22783

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15513

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19858

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22095

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23016

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21775

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1218234

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21740

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23009

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22959

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16043

   (61) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-1753

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22966

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21971

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21032

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22902

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21356

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22915

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22921

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22894

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796

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   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22775

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   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22665

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17381

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22410

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22759

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8876

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22217

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   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18216

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22676

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18853

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   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21991

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<65>,  Next: Build<93>,  Prev: Library<102>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-20577(1): Configuration of the max line length for the
     FormatParagraph extension has been moved from the General tab of
     the Idle preferences dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the
     Config Extensions dialog.  Patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16893(2): Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add
     new information.

   - bpo-3068(3): Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options
     menu.  Changes are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg.
     Original patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16233(4): A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C)
     requires an editor window with a filename.  When Class Browser is
     requested otherwise, from a shell, output window, or ‘Untitled’
     editor, Idle no longer displays an error box.  It now pops up an
     Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name is entered and a module is
     opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.

   - bpo-4832(5): Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to
     the name you enter (even if your system does not display it).  Some
     systems automatically add .txt when type is Text files.

   - bpo-21986(6): Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle
     module.  To match this, they are no longer pickled when running
     under Idle.

   - bpo-17390(7): Adjust Editor window title; remove ‘Python’, move
     version to end.

   - bpo-14105(8): Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when
     inserting or deleting lines.

   - bpo-17172(9): Turtledemo can now be run from Idle.  Currently, the
     entry is on the Help menu, but it may move to Run.  Patch by
     Ramchandra Apt and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21765(10): Add support for non-ascii identifiers to
     HyperParser.

   - bpo-21940(11): Add unittest for WidgetRedirector.  Initial patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18592(12): Add unittest for SearchDialogBase.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21694(13): Add unittest for ParenMatch.  Patch by Saimadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-21686(14): add unittest for HyperParser.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-12387(15): Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default
     Windows key bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them.
     Patch by Roger Serwy.

   - bpo-21695(16): Closing a Find-in-files output window while the
     search is still in progress no longer closes Idle.

   - bpo-18910(17): Add unittest for textView.  Patch by Phil Webster.

   - bpo-18292(18): Add unittest for AutoExpand.  Patch by Saihadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-18409(19): Add unittest for AutoComplete.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21477(20): htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests.
     Patches by Saimadhav Heblikar

   - bpo-18104(21): Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample
     tests to begin consolidating and improving human-validated tests of
     Idle.  Change other files as needed to work with htest.  Running
     the module as __main__ runs all tests.

   - bpo-21139(22): Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8(23)
     recommendation.

   - bpo-21284(24): Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes
     reformat width.

   - bpo-17654(25): Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X
     for non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.

   - bpo-23180(26): Rename IDLE “Windows” menu item to “Window”.  Patch
     by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20577

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3068

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16233

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4832

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17390

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14105

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21765

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21940

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21694

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21686

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12387

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21695

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18292

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21477

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18104

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21139

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21284

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17654

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23180


File: python.info,  Node: Build<93>,  Next: C API<76>,  Prev: IDLE<65>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.4 Build
................

   - bpo-15506(1): Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in
     the configure script.

   - bpo-22935(2): Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl
     doesn’t support SSL 3.

   - bpo-22592(3): Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build
     Python.  The distutils module still supports it to build
     extensions.

   - bpo-22591(4): Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP
     compiler (MS-DOS port of GCC).

   - bpo-16537(5): Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py.
     Patch by Jonathan Hosmer.

   - bpo-22359(6): Remove incorrect uses of recursive make.  Patch by
     Jonas Wagner.

   - bpo-21958(7): Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio
     2013 and above.  Patch by Zachary Turner.

   - bpo-18093(8): the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now
     in a separate “Programs” directory, rather than being kept in the
     Modules directory.

   - bpo-15759(9): “make suspicious”, “make linkcheck” and “make
     doctest” in Doc/ now display special message when and only when
     there are failures.

   - bpo-21141(10): The Windows build process no longer attempts to find
     Perl, instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready
     to build.  The ‘PCbuild\build_ssl.py’ script has been re-written
     and re-named to ‘PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py’, and takes care of
     configuring OpenSSL source for both 32 and 64 bit platforms.
     OpenSSL sources obtained from svn.python.org will always be
     pre-configured and ready to build.

   - bpo-21037(11): Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer
     support.

   - bpo-19962(12): The Windows build process now creates “python.bat”
     in the root of the source tree, which passes all arguments through
     to the most recently built interpreter.

   - bpo-21285(13): Refactor and fix curses configure check to always
     search in a ncursesw directory.

   - bpo-15234(14): For BerkeleyDB and Sqlite, only add the found
     library and include directories if they aren’t already being
     searched.  This avoids an explicit runtime library dependency.

   - bpo-17861(15): Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically
     regenerates Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets
     any change.

   - bpo-20644(16): OS X installer build support for documentation build
     changes in 3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is
     available in /usr/bin.

   - bpo-20022(17): Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X
     builds.

   - bpo-15968(18): Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the
     Windows build solution.

   - bpo-17095(19): Fix Modules/Setup 'shared' support.

   - bpo-21811(20): Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions > 10.9.

   - bpo-21166(21): Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures
     of python –generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.

   - bpo-18096(22): Fix library order returned by python-config.

   - bpo-17219(23): Add library build dir for Python extension
     cross-builds.

   - bpo-22919(24): Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual
     Studio 2015), which will be used for the official release.

   - bpo-21236(25): Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib

   - bpo-17128(26): Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+
     installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22592

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22591

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16537

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21958

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18093

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15759

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21141

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21037

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19962

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21285

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15234

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17861

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20644

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20022

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17095

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21811

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21166

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18096

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22919

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: C API<76>,  Next: Documentation<80>,  Prev: Build<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.5 C API
................

   - bpo-14203(1): Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in
     PyBuffer_FillInfo(), bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer()
     and array_buffer_getbuf().  All functions now raise BufferError in
     that case.

   - bpo-22445(2): PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise
     contiguity tests, compatible with NumPy’s
     NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation flag.  Previously the
     function reported false negatives for corner cases.

   - bpo-22079(3): PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated
     type has no dynamically allocated bases.

   - bpo-22453(4): Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().

   - bpo-18395(5): Rename ‘_Py_char2wchar()’ to *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     bc4, rename ‘_Py_wchar2char()’ to *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5, and
     document these functions.

   - bpo-21233(6): Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(),
     PyMem_Calloc(), PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc().
     bytes(int) is now using ‘calloc()’ instead of ‘malloc()’ for large
     objects which is faster and use less memory.

   - bpo-20942(7): PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets
     __file__ to match what importlib does; this affects
     _frozen_importlib as well as any module loaded using
     imp.init_frozen().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22445

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22079

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20942


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<80>,  Next: Tests<86>,  Prev: C API<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.6 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19548(1): Update the codecs module documentation to better
     cover the distinction between text encodings and other codecs,
     together with other clarifications.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22394(2): Doc/Makefile now supports ‘make venv
     PYTHON=../python’ to create a venv for generating the
     documentation, e.g., ‘make html PYTHON=venv/bin/python3’.

   - bpo-21514(3): The documentation of the json module now refers to
     new JSON RFC 7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.

   - bpo-21777(4): The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray
     are now documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be
     able to derive the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the
     corresponding str methods.

   - bpo-6916(5): undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.

   - bpo-17386(6): Expanded functionality of the ‘Doc/make.bat’ script
     to make it much more comparable to ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-21312(7): Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include
     newer threading APIs.  Patch by Jack McCracken.

   - bpo-21043(8): Remove the recommendation for specific CA
     organizations and to mention the ability to load the OS
     certificates.

   - bpo-20765(9): Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name()
     and PurePath.with_suffix().

   - bpo-19407(10): New package installation and distribution guides
     based on the Python Packaging Authority tools.  Existing guides
     have been retained as legacy links from the distutils docs, as they
     still contain some required reference material for tool developers
     that isn’t recorded anywhere else.

   - bpo-19697(11): Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22394

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6916

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21312

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21043

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20765

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19407

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19697


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<86>,  Next: Tools/Demos<52>,  Prev: Documentation<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.7 Tests
................

   - bpo-18982(1): Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.

   - bpo-19548(2): Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure
     that statements in the updated documentation remain accurate.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22838(3): All test_re tests now work with unittest test
     discovery.

   - bpo-22173(4): Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.

   - bpo-16000(5): Convert test_curses to use unittest.

   - bpo-21456(6): Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module
     not present.  Patch by Remi Pointel.

   - bpo-20746(7): Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R). Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22060(8): test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and
     simplified; it now uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.

   - bpo-22104(9): regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite
     of tests loaded from test modules that don’t define test_main().

   - bpo-22111(10): Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib.  Patch by Milan
     Oberkirch.

   - bpo-22002(11): Added ‘load_package_tests’ function to test.support
     and used it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio,
     test_email, test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.

   - bpo-21976(12): Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings.
     Thanks to William Orr.

   - bpo-21918(13): Converted test_tools from a module to a package
     containing separate test files for each tested script.

   - bpo-9554(14): Use modern unittest features in test_argparse.
     Initial patch by Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.

   - bpo-20155(15): Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in
     test_httpservers so that packet filtering software (specifically
     Windows Base Filtering Engine) does not interfere with the
     transaction semantics expected by the tests.

   - bpo-19493(16): Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests
     explicitly rather than silently.

   - bpo-18492(17): All resources are now allowed when tests are not run
     by regrtest.py.

   - bpo-21634(18): Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division
     instead of true division to benchmark integers instead of
     floating-point numbers.  Set pystone version to 1.2.  Patch written
     by Lennart Regebro.

   - bpo-21605(19): Added tests for Tkinter images.

   - bpo-21493(20): Added test for ntpath.expanduser().  Original patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19925(21): Added tests for the spwd module.  Original patch by
     Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21522(22): Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(),
     PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().

   - bpo-17756(23): Fix test_code test when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-17752(24): Fix distutils tests when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-18604(25): Consolidated checks for GUI availability.  All
     platforms now at least check whether Tk can be instantiated when
     the GUI resource is requested.

   - bpo-21275(26): Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.

   - bpo-21223(27): Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the
     extensions are built as builtins.

   - bpo-20635(28): Added tests for Tk geometry managers.

   - Add test case for freeze.

   - bpo-20743(29): Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.

   - bpo-21097(30): Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.

   - bpo-21503(31): Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.

   - bpo-20939(32): Avoid various network test failures due to new
     redirect of ‘http://www.python.org/’ to ‘https://www.python.org’:
     use ‘http://www.example.com’ instead.

   - bpo-20668(33): asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file.
     (Patch by Vajrasky Kok)

   - bpo-21093(34): Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if
     a copy of libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.

   - bpo-22770(35): Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui
     tests.

   - bpo-23211(36): Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6
     systems.

   - bpo-23345(37): Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch
     level values (like 0.9.8zc).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22838

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22173

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20746

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22060

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22111

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22002

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21976

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21918

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9554

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20155

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19493

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21634

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21605

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21493

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19925

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21522

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17756

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17752

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21275

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21223

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20635

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20743

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21097

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21503

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20939

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20668

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21093

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23211

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23345


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<52>,  Next: Windows<78>,  Prev: Tests<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22314(1): pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable
     is set.

   - bpo-22615(2): Argument Clinic now supports the “type” argument for
     the int converter.  This permits using the int converter with enums
     and typedefs.

   - bpo-20076(3): The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8
     mapping.

   - bpo-20079(4): The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the
     SUPPORTED file from glibc sources and supports command line options
     for source paths.

   - bpo-22201(5): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     correctly extracts ZIP files with directory entries.  Patch by Ryan
     Wilson.

   - bpo-22120(6): For functions using an unsigned integer return
     converter, Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for
     the comparison to -1 in the generated code.  (This suppresses a
     compilation warning.)

   - bpo-18974(7): Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of
     optparse.

   - bpo-21906(8): Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3.  Patch
     by Zachary Ware.

   - bpo-21629(9): Fix Argument Clinic’s “–converters” feature.

   - Add support for ‘yield from’ to 2to3.

   - Add support for the PEP 465(10) matrix multiplication operator to
     2to3.

   - bpo-16047(11): Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in
     freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-11824(12): Consider ABI tags in freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-20535(13): PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py
     script.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22615

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22120

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21906

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21629

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11824

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20535


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<78>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<52>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.23.116.9 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23260(1): Update Windows installer

   - The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3.  The most
     visible result of this change is the addition of new native file
     dialogs when running on Windows Vista or newer.  See Tcl/Tk’s TIP
     432 for more information.  Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes
     support for Windows 10.

   - bpo-17896(2): The Windows build scripts now expect external library
     sources to be in ‘PCbuild\..\externals’ rather than
     ‘PCbuild\..\..’.

   - bpo-17717(3): The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM
     pulled from svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.

   - bpo-21907(4): Improved the batch scripts provided for building
     Python.

   - bpo-22644(5): The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to
     1.0.1j.

   - bpo-10747(6): Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu.
     Patch by Olive Kilburn.

   - bpo-22980(7): .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for
     example, “.cp35-win32.pyd”) will now be loaded in preference to
     those without tags.

'(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17717

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21907

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22644

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10747

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 자습서,  Next: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법,  Prev: 파이썬의 새로운 기능,  Up: Top

2 파이썬 자습서
***************

     팁: This tutorial is designed for 'programmers' that are new to the
     Python language, 'not' 'beginners' who are new to programming.

파이썬은 배우기 쉬우면서도 강력한 프로그래밍 언어입니다.  효율적인 자료
구조와 객체 지향 프로그래밍에 대한 간단하고도 효과적인 접근법을 제공합니
다.  파이썬은 우아한 문법과 동적 타이핑(typing)을 지원하는 인터프리터 언
어로서, 대부분 플랫폼과 다양한 문제 영역에서 스크립트 작성과 빠른 응용 프
로그램 개발에 이상적인 환경을 제공합니다.

파이썬 인터프리터와 풍부한 표준 라이브러리는 소스나 바이너리 형태로 파이
썬 웹 사이트, ‘https://www.python.org/’, 에서 무료로 제공되고, 자유롭게
배포할 수 있습니다.  또한 이 사이트에는 제삼자들이 무료로 제공하는 파이
썬 모듈, 프로그램과 도구, 추가 문서들의 배포판이나 링크를 포함합니다.

파이썬 인터프리터에는 C 나 C++ (또는 C에서 호출 가능한 다른 언어들)로 구
현된 새 함수나 자료 구조를 쉽게 추가할 수 있습니다.  파이썬은 사용자 맞
춤화가 가능한 응용 프로그램을 위한 확장 언어로도 적합합니다.

This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and
features of the Python language and system.  Be aware that it expects
you to have a basic understanding of programming in general.  It helps
to have a Python interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all
examples are self-contained, so the tutorial can be read off-line as
well.

표준 객체와 모듈에 대한 설명은 *note 파이썬 표준 라이브러리: 144. 에서 확
인하세요.  *note 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스: 145. 는 언어에 대한 좀 더 형식적
인 정의를 제공합니다.  C 나 C++ 로 확장을 작성하려면 *note 파이썬
인터프리터 확장 및 내장: 1be2. 와 *note 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서:
1be3. 를 참조하세요.  또한 파이썬을 깊이 있게 다룬 책들도 많습니다.

이 자습서는 포괄적이려고 시도하지 않습니다.  모든 기능을 다루지는 않으며
, 이는 자주 사용되는 기능에 있어서도 마찬가지 입니다.  대신 파이썬의 가
장 주목할 만한 기능들을 소개하여 언어의 맛과 스타일을 잘 느낄 수 있도록
하고 있습니다.  이 학습서를 읽은 후에는 파이썬 모듈과 프로그램을 읽고 쓸
수 있으며, *note 파이썬 표준 라이브러리: 144. 에 기술된 다양한 파이썬 라
이브러리 모듈에 대해 배울 준비가 될 것입니다.

*note 용어집: 1be4. 또한 살펴볼 가치가 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 입맛 돋우기::
* 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기::
* 파이썬의 간략한 소개::
* 기타 제어 흐름 도구::
* 자료 구조::
* 모듈::
* 입력과 출력::
* 에러와 예외::
* 클래스::
* 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기::
* 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부::
* 가상 환경 및 패키지::
* 이제 뭘 하지?::
* 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환::
* 부동 소수점 산술; 문제점 및 한계: 부동 소수점 산술 문제점 및 한계.
* 부록::


File: python.info,  Node: 입맛 돋우기,  Next: 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.1 입맛 돋우기
===============

여러분이 컴퓨터를 많이 사용한다면, 결국 자동화하고 싶은 작업을 발견하게
됩니다.  예를 들어, 많은 텍스트 파일들을 검색-수정하고 싶거나, 사진 파일
들을 복잡한 방법으로 이름을 바꾸거나 재배치하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  어쩌
면 자그마한 자신만의 데이터베이스나 GUI 응용 프로그램, 또는 간단한 게임
을 만들고 싶을 것입니다.

만약 여러분이 전문 소프트웨어 개발자라면, 여러 C/C++/Java 라이브러리들을
갖고 작업해야만 할 수 있는데, 일반적인 코드작성/컴파일/테스트/재컴파일 순
환이 너무 느리다는 것을 깨닫게 됩니다.  어쩌면 그 라이브러리들을 위한 테
스트 스위트를 작성하다가, 테스트 코드 작성에 따분해하는 자신을 발견하게
됩니다.  또는 확장 언어를 사용하는 프로그램을 작성했는데, 완전히 새로운
언어 전체를 설계하고 구현하고 싶지 않을 수 있습니다.

파이썬은 바로 여러분을 위한 언어입니다.

여러분은 이런 작업들을 유닉스 셸 스크립트나 윈도우 배치 파일을 작성해서
해결할 수도 있습니다.  하지만 셸 스크립트는 파일을 이리저리 옮기거나 텍
스트 데이터를 변경하는 데는 쓸모 있지만, GUI 응용 프로그램이나 게임을 만
드는 데는 적합하지 않습니다.  C/C++/Java 프로그램을 작성할 수도 있지만,
첫 초벌 프로그램을 만드는데도 막대한 개발 시간이 들어갑니다.  파이썬은 사
용하기에 더 간단하고, 윈도우, 맥 OS, 유닉스 운영체제에서 사용할 수 있으
며, 더 빨리 작업을 완료할 수 있도록 합니다.

파이썬은 사용이 간단하지만, 제대로 갖춰진 프로그래밍 언어인데, 셸 스크립
트나 배치 파일보다 더 많은 구조를 제공하고 커다란 프로그램을 위한 지원을
제공합니다.  반면에, 파이썬은 C보다 훨씬 많은 에러 검사를 제공하고, 유연
한 배열과 딕셔너리같은 고수준의 자료형들을 내장하고 있습니다.  더 일반적
인 자료형들 때문에 Awk 나 Perl보다도 더 많은 문제영역에 쓸모가 있는데, 그
러면서도 여전히 많은 것들이 적어도 이들 언어를 사용하는 것만큼 파이썬에
서도 쉽게 해결할 수 있습니다.

파이썬은 여러분의 프로그램을 여러 모듈로 나눌 수 있도록 하는데, 각 모듈
은 다른 파이썬 프로그램에서 재사용할 수 있습니다.  대규모의 표준 모듈들
이 따라오는데 여러분의 프로그램 기초로 사용하거나 파이썬 프로그래밍을 배
우기 위한 예제로 활용할 수 있습니다.  이 모듈에는 파일 입출력, 시스템 호
출, 소켓들이 포함되는데, 심지어 Tk 와 같은 GUI 도구상자에 대한 인터페이
스도 들어있습니다.

파이썬은 인터프리터 언어입니다.  컴파일과 링크 단계가 필요 없으므로 개발
시간을 상당히 단축해줍니다.  인터프리터는 대화형으로 사용할 수 있어서, 언
어의 기능을 실험하거나, 쓰고 버릴 프로그램을 만들거나, 바닥부터 프로그램
을 만들어가는 동안 함수들을 테스트하기 쉽습니다.  간편한 탁상용 계산기이
기도 합니다.

파이썬은 간결하고 읽기 쉽게 프로그램을 작성할 수 있도록 합니다.  파이썬
프로그램은 여러 가지 이유로 같은 기능의 C, C++, Java 프로그램들에 비교해
간결합니다:

   * 고수준의 자료형 때문에 복잡한 연산을 한 문장으로 표현할 수 있습니다
     ;

   * 문장의 묶음은 괄호 대신에 들여쓰기를 통해 이루어집니다;

   * 변수나 인자의 선언이 필요 없다.

파이썬은 '확장 가능' 하다: C로 프로그램하는 법을 안다면, 인터프리터에 새
로운 내장 함수나 자료형을 추가해서, 핵심 연산을 최대 속도로 수행하거나 바
이너리 형태로만 제공되는 라이브러리(가령 업체가 제공하는 그래픽스 라이브
러리)에 파이썬 프로그램을 연결할 수 있습니다.  진짜 파이썬에 매료되었다
면, C로 만든 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 인터프리터를 연결하여 그 응용 프로그
램의 확장이나 명령 언어로 사용할 수 있습니다.

파이썬 이라는 이름은 “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”라는 BBC 쇼에서 따온
것이고, 파충류와는 아무런 관련이 없습니다.  문서에서 Monty Python의 농담
을 인용하는 것은 허락된 것일 뿐만 아니라, 권장되고 있습니다.

이제 여러분은 파이썬에 한껏 흥분한 상태고 좀 더 자세히 들여다보길 원할 것
입니다.  언어를 배우는 가장 좋은 방법은 사용하는 것이기 때문에, 이 학습
서를 읽으면서 직접 파이썬 인터프리터를 만져볼 것을 권합니다.

다음 장에서, 인터프리터를 사용하는 방법을 설명합니다.  이것은 약간 지루
할 수도 있는 정보지만, 이후에 나오는 예제들을 실행하기 위해서는 꼭 필요
합니다.

자습서의 나머지는 파이썬 언어와 시스템의 여러 기능을 예제를 통해 소개합
니다.  간단한 표현식, 문장, 자료형에서 출발해서 함수와 모듈을 거쳐, 마지
막으로 예외와 사용자 정의 클래스와 같은 고급 개념들을 다룹니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기,  Next: 파이썬의 간략한 소개,  Prev: 입맛 돋우기,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.2 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기
==============================

* Menu:

* 인터프리터 실행하기::
* 인터프리터와 환경::


File: python.info,  Node: 인터프리터 실행하기,  Next: 인터프리터와 환경,  Up: 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기

2.2.1 인터프리터 실행하기
-------------------------

파이썬 인터프리터는 보통 ‘/usr/local/bin/python3.13’ 에 설치됩니다; 유닉
스 셸의 검색 경로에 ‘/usr/local/bin’ 를 넣으면 명령:

     python3.13

을 셸에 입력해서 실행할 수 있습니다.  (1)  인터프리터가 위치하는 디렉터
리의 선택은 설치 옵션이기 때문에, 다른 장소도 가능합니다; 주변의 파이썬
전문가나 시스템 관리자에게 확인할 필요가 있습니다.  (예를 들어,
‘/usr/local/python’ 도 널리 사용되는 위치입니다.)

*note 마이크로소프트 스토어: 1bed.에서 설치한 파이썬이 있는 윈도우 시스
템에서는, ‘python3.13’ 명령을 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note py.exe 구동기:
5b8.를 설치했으면, ‘py’ 명령을 사용할 수 있습니다.  파이썬을 구동하는 다
른 방법은 *note 보충 설명; 환경 변수 설정하기: 1bee.를 참조하십시오.

기본 프롬프트에서 EOF(end-of-file) 문자(유닉스에서는 ‘Control’-‘D’, 윈도
우에서는 ‘Control’-‘Z’)를 입력하면 인터프리터가 종료하고, 종료 상태 코드
는 0 이 됩니다.  이 방법이 통하지 않는다면 ‘quit()’ 명령을 입력해서 인터
프리터를 종료시킬 수 있습니다.

인터프리터는 GNU Readline(2) 라이브러리를 지원하는 시스템에서 줄 편집 기
능으로 대화형 편집, 히스토리 치환, 코드 완성 등을 제공합니다.  아마도 명
령행 편집이 제공되는지 확인하는 가장 빠른 방법은 첫 프롬프트에서
‘Control’-‘P’ 를 입력하는 것입니다.  삑 하는 소리가 난다면 명령행 편집이
지원되고 있습니다; 입력 키에 대한 소개는 부록 *note 대화형 입력 편집 및
히스토리 치환: 1bef. 을 보세요.  아무런 반응도 없거나 ‘^P’ 가 출력된다면
명령행 편집이 제공되지 않는 것입니다; 현재 줄에서 문자를 지우기 위해 백
스페이스를 사용할 수 있는 것이 전부입니다.

인터프리터는 어느 정도 유닉스 셸처럼 동작합니다: tty 장치에 표준 입력이
연결된 상태로 실행되면, 대화형으로 명령을 읽고 실행합니다; 파일명을 인자
로 주거나 파일을 표준입력으로 연결한 상태로 실행되면 스크립트를 읽고 실
행합니다.

인터프리터를 실행하는 두 번째 방법은 ‘python -c command [arg] ...’ 인데,
'command' 에 있는 문장들을 실행합니다.  셸의 *note -c: 5da. 옵션에 해당
합니다.  파이썬 문장은 종종 셸에서 특별한 의미가 있는 공백이나 다른 문자
들을 포함하기 때문에, 'command' 전체를 따옴표로 감싸주는 것이 좋습니다.

몇몇 파이썬 모듈들은 스크립트로도 쓸모가 있습니다.  ‘python -m module
[arg] ...’ 로 실행할 수 있는데, 마치 'module' 모듈 소스 파일의 경로명을
명령행에 입력한 것처럼 실행되게 됩니다.

스크립트 파일이 사용될 때, 때로 스크립트를 실행한 후에 대화형 모드로 들
어가는 것이 편리할 때가 있습니다.  스크립트 앞에 *note -i: 14a3. 를 전달
하면 됩니다.

모든 명령행 옵션은 *note 명령 줄과 환경: 19c6. 에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 인자 전달::
* 대화형 모드::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 유닉스에서, 파이썬 3.x 인터프리터는 보통 ‘python’ 이라는 이름의 실
행 파일로 설치되지 않는데, 동시에 설치되는 파이썬 2.x 실행 파일과 충돌하
지 않도록 하기 위해섭니다.

   (2) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: 인자 전달,  Next: 대화형 모드,  Up: 인터프리터 실행하기

2.2.1.1 인자 전달
.................

스크립트 이름과 추가의 인자들이 인터프리터로 전달될 때, 문자열의 목록으
로 변환된 후 ‘sys’ 모듈의 ‘argv’ 변수에 저장됩니다.  ‘import sys’ 를 사
용해서 이 목록에 접근할 수 있습니다.  목록의 길이는 최소한 1이고, 스크립
트도 추가의 인자도 없는 경우로, ‘sys.argv[0]’ 은 빈 문자열입니다.  스크
립트 이름을 ‘'-'’ (표준 입력을 뜻한다) 로 주면 ‘sys.argv[0]’ 는 ‘'-'’ 가
됩니다.  *note -c: 5da. 'command' 가 사용되면 ‘sys.argv[0]’ 는 ‘'-c'’ 로
설정됩니다.  *note -m: 5db. 'module' 이 사용되면 ‘sys.argv[0]’ 는 모듈의
절대 경로명이 됩니다.  *note -c: 5da. 'command' 나 *note -m: 5db.
'module' 뒤에 오는 옵션들은 파이썬 인터프리터가 소모하지 않고 명령이나 모
듈이 처리하도록 ‘sys.argv’ 로 전달됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 모드,  Prev: 인자 전달,  Up: 인터프리터 실행하기

2.2.1.2 대화형 모드
...................

명령을 tty 에서 읽을 때, 인터프리터가 '대화형 모드' 로 동작한다고 말합니
다.  이 모드에서는 '기본 프롬프트' 를 표시해서 다음 명령을 요청하는데, 보
통 세 개의 …보다 크다 기호입니다 (‘>>>’); 한 줄로 끝나지 않고 이어지는 줄
의 입력을 요청할 때는 보조 프롬프트가 사용되는데, 기본적으로 세 개의 점
입니다 (‘...’).  인터프리터는 첫 번째 프롬프트를 인쇄하기 전에 버전 번호
와 저작권 공지를 포함하는 환영 메시지를 출력합니다.

     $ python3.13
     Python 3.13 (default, April 4 2023, 09:25:04)
     [GCC 10.2.0] on linux
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

이어지는 줄은 여러 줄로 구성된 구조물을 입력할 때 필요합니다.  예를 들자
면, 이런 식의 *note if: 2eb. 문이 가능합니다:

     >>> the_world_is_flat = True
     >>> if the_world_is_flat:
     ...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
     ...
     Be careful not to fall off!

대화형 모드에 대해 더 알고 싶다면, *note 대화형 모드: 16f. 를 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 인터프리터와 환경,  Prev: 인터프리터 실행하기,  Up: 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기

2.2.2 인터프리터와 환경
-----------------------

* Menu:

* 소스 코드 인코딩::


File: python.info,  Node: 소스 코드 인코딩,  Up: 인터프리터와 환경

2.2.2.1 소스 코드 인코딩
........................

기본적으로, 파이썬 소스 파일들은 UTF-8으로 인코드 된 것으로 취급됩니다.
이 인코딩에서는 대부분 언어에서 사용되는 문자들을 문자열 상수, 식별자, 주
석 등에서 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.  (하지만 표준 라이브러리는 오직 ASCII
문자만 식별자로 사용하고 있는데, 범용 코드에서는 이 관례를 따르는 것이 좋
습니다.)  이 문자들을 모두 올바로 표시하기 위해서는 편집기가 파일이
UTF-8임을 인식해야 하고, 이 파일에 포함된 모든 문자를 지원할 수 있는 글
꼴을 사용해야 합니다.

인코딩을 기본값 외의 것으로 선언하려면, 파일의 첫 줄에 특별한 형태의 주
석 문을 추가해야 합니다.  문법은 이렇습니다:

     # -*- coding: encoding -*-

'encoding' 은 파이썬이 지원하는 코덱 (*note codecs: 1b.) 중 하나여야 합
니다.

예를 들어, Windows-1252 인코딩을 사용하도록 선언하려면, 소스 코드 파일의
첫 줄은 이렇게 되어야 합니다:

     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

첫 줄 규칙의 한가지 예외는 소스 코드가 *note 유닉스 “셔뱅 (shebang)” 줄:
1bf7. 로 시작하는 경우입니다.  이 경우에, 인코딩 선언은 두 번째 줄에 들
어갑니다.  예를 들어:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3
     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬의 간략한 소개,  Next: 기타 제어 흐름 도구,  Prev: 파이썬 인터프리터 사용하기,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.3 파이썬의 간략한 소개
========================

다음에 나올 예에서, 입력과 출력은 프롬프트(*note >>>: 16c. 와 *note …:
16d.)의 존재 여부로 구분됩니다: 예제를 실행하기 위해서는 프롬프트가 나올
때 프롬프트 뒤에 오는 모든 것들을 입력해야 합니다; 프롬프트로 시작하지 않
는 줄들은 인터프리터가 출력하는 것들입니다.  예에서 보조 프롬프트 외에 아
무것도 없는 줄은 빈 줄을 입력해야 한다는 뜻임에 주의하세요; 여러 줄로 구
성된 명령을 끝내는 방법입니다.

이 설명서에 나오는 많은 예는 (대화형 프롬프트에서 입력되는 것들조차도) 주
석을 포함하고 있습니다.  파이썬에서 주석은 해시 문자, ‘#’, 로 시작하고 줄
의 끝까지 이어집니다.  주석은 줄의 처음에서 시작할 수도 있고, 공백이나 코
드 뒤에 나올 수도 있습니다.  하지만 문자열 리터럴 안에는 들어갈 수 없습
니다.  문자열 리터럴 안에 등장하는 해시 문자는 주석이 아니라 해시 문자일
뿐입니다.  주석은 코드의 의미를 정확히 전달하기 위한 것이고, 파이썬이 해
석하지 않는 만큼, 예를 입력할 때는 생략해도 됩니다.

몇 가지 예를 듭니다:

     # 이 것이 첫 번째 주석입니다
     spam = 1  # 그리고 이 것이 두 번째 주석입니다
               # ... 그리고 이제 세 번째!
     text = "# 이것은 따옴표 안에 있기 때문에 주석이 아닙니다."

* Menu:

* 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기::
* 프로그래밍으로의 첫걸음::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기,  Next: 프로그래밍으로의 첫걸음,  Up: 파이썬의 간략한 소개

2.3.1 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기
--------------------------------

몇 가지 간단한 파이썬 명령을 사용해봅시다.  인터프리터를 실행하고 기본 프
롬프트, ‘>>>’, 를 기다리세요.  (얼마 걸리지 않아야 합니다.)

* Menu:

* 숫자::
* 텍스트::
* 리스트::


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자,  Next: 텍스트,  Up: 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기

2.3.1.1 숫자
............

인터프리터는 간단한 계산기로 기능합니다: 표현식을 입력하면 값을 출력합니
다.  표현식 문법은 간단합니다.  ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘/’ 연산자는 산술에 사용
할 수 있습니다; 괄호 (‘()’) 는 묶는 데 사용합니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> 2 + 2
     4
     >>> 50 - 5*6
     20
     >>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
     5.0
     >>> 8 / 5  # 나눗셈은 항상 실수를 돌려줍니다
     1.6

정수 (예를 들어 ‘2’, ‘4’, ‘20’)는 *note int: 257. 형입니다.  소수부가 있
는 것들 (예를 들어 ‘5.0’, ‘1.6’)은 *note float: 2ef. 형입니다.  이 자습
서 뒤에서 숫자 형들에 관해 더 자세히 살펴볼 예정입니다.

나눗셈 (‘/’) 은 항상 float를 돌려줍니다.  *note 정수 나눗셈: 942. 으로 정
수 결과를 얻으려면 ‘//’ 연산자를 사용하면 됩니다; 나머지를 얻으려면 ‘%’
를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> 17 / 3  # 고전적인 나눗셈은 float를 돌려줍니다
     5.666666666666667
     >>>
     >>> 17 // 3  # 정수 나눗셈은 소수부를 버립니다
     5
     >>> 17 % 3  # % 연산자는 나눗셈의 나머지를 돌려줍니다
     2
     >>> 5 * 3 + 2  # 몫 * 제수 + 나머지
     17

파이썬에서는 거듭제곱을 계산할 때 ‘**’ 연산자를 사용합니다 (1):

     >>> 5 ** 2  # 5 의 제곱
     25
     >>> 2 ** 7  # 2 의 7 제곱
     128

변수에 값을 대입할 때는 등호(‘=’)를 사용합니다.  이 경우 다음 대화형 프
롬프트 전에 표시되는 출력은 없습니다:

     >>> width = 20
     >>> height = 5 * 9
     >>> width * height
     900

변수가 “정의되어” 있지 않을 때 (값을 대입하지 않았을 때) 사용하려고 시도
하는 것은 에러를 일으킵니다:

     >>> n  # 정의되지 않은 변수에 접근하려고 시도합니다
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'n' is not defined

실수를 본격적으로 지원합니다; 서로 다른 형의 피연산자를 갖는 연산자는 정
수 피연산자를 실수로 변환합니다:

     >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
     14.0

대화형 모드에서는, 마지막에 인쇄된 표현식은 변수 ‘_’ 에 대입됩니다.  이
것은 파이썬을 탁상용 계산기로 사용할 때, 계산을 이어 가기가 좀 더 쉬워짐
을 의미합니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> tax = 12.5 / 100
     >>> price = 100.50
     >>> price * tax
     12.5625
     >>> price + _
     113.0625
     >>> round(_, 2)
     113.06

이 변수는 사용자로서는 읽기만 가능한 것처럼 취급되어야 합니다.  값을 직
접 대입하지 마세요 — 만약 그렇게 한다면 같은 이름의 지역 변수를 새로 만
드는 것이 되는데, 내장 변수의 마술 같은 동작을 차단하는 결과를 낳습니다.

*note int: 257. 와 *note float: 2ef. 에 더해, 파이썬은 *note Decimal:
29d. 이나 *note Fraction: 1e7. 등의 다른 형의 숫자들도 지원합니다.  파이
썬은 *note 복소수: 1bff. 에 대한 지원도 내장하고 있는데, 허수부를 가리키
는데 ‘j’ 나 ‘J’ 접미사를 사용합니다 (예를 들어 ‘3+5j’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘**’ 가 ‘-’ 보다 우선순위가 높으므로, ‘-3**2’ 는 ‘-(3**2)’ 로 해
석되어서 결과는 ‘-9’ 가 됩니다.  ‘9’ 를 얻고 싶으면 ‘(-3)**2’ 를 사용할
수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트,  Next: 리스트,  Prev: 숫자,  Up: 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기

2.3.1.2 텍스트
..............

Python can manipulate text (represented by type *note str: 445,
so-called “strings”) as well as numbers.  This includes characters
“‘!’”, words “‘rabbit’”, names “‘Paris’”, sentences “‘Got your back.’”,
etc.  “‘Yay! :)’”.  They can be enclosed in single quotes (‘'...'’) or
double quotes (‘"..."’) with the same result (1).

     >>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
     'spam eggs'
     >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!"  # double quotes
     'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!'
     >>> '1975'  # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings
     '1975'

To quote a quote, we need to “escape” it, by preceding it with ‘\’.
Alternatively, we can use the other type of quotation marks:

     >>> 'doesn\'t'  # 작은 따옴표를 이스케이프하는데 \' 를 사용합니다...
     "doesn't"
     >>> "doesn't"  # ...또는 큰따옴표를 사용합니다
     "doesn't"
     >>> '"Yes," they said.'
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
     '"Isn\'t," they said.'

In the Python shell, the string definition and output string can look
different.  The *note print(): f6d. function produces a more readable
output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped and
special characters:

     >>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n 은 줄넘김을 뜻합니다
     >>> s  # print() 하지 않으면, 특수 문자가 문자열에 포함됩니다
     'First line.\nSecond line.'
     >>> print(s)  # print() 하면, 특수 문자가 해석되어, \n 이 새 줄을 만듭니다
     First line.
     Second line.

‘\’ 뒤에 나오는 문자가 특수 문자로 취급되게 하고 싶지 않다면, 첫 따옴표
앞에 ‘r’ 을 붙여서 '날 문자열 (raw string)' 을 만들 수 있습니다:

     >>> print('C:\some\name')  # 여기에서 \n 은 줄넘김을 뜻합니다!
     C:\some
     ame
     >>> print(r'C:\some\name')  # 따옴표 앞의 r 에 주의하세요
     C:\some\name

There is one subtle aspect to raw strings: a raw string may not end in
an odd number of ‘\’ characters; see *note the FAQ entry: 1c02. for more
information and workarounds.

문자열 리터럴은 여러 줄로 확장될 수 있습니다.  한 가지 방법은 삼중 따옴
표를 사용하는 것입니다: ‘"""..."""’ 또는 ‘'''...'''’.  줄 넘김 문자는 자
동으로 문자열에 포함됩니다.  하지만 줄 끝에 ‘\’ 를 붙여 이를 방지할 수도
있습니다.  다음 예에서, 첫 번째 줄 넘김 문자는 포함되지 않습니다:

     >>> print("""\
     ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     ...      -h                        Display this usage message
     ...      -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
     ... """)
     Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
          -h                        Display this usage message
          -H hostname               Hostname to connect to

     >>>

문자열은 ‘+’ 연산자로 이어붙이고, ‘*’ 연산자로 반복시킬 수 있습니다:

     >>> # 'un' 을 3번 반복하고 'ium' 을 붙입니다
     >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
     'unununium'

두 개 이상의 '문자열 리터럴' (즉, 따옴표로 둘러싸인 것들) 가 연속해서 나
타나면 자동으로 이어 붙여집니다.

     >>> 'Py' 'thon'
     'Python'

이 기능은 긴 문자열을 쪼개고자 할 때 특별히 쓸모 있습니다:

     >>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
     ...         'to have them joined together.')
     >>> text
     'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

이것은 오직 두 개의 리터럴에만 적용될 뿐 변수나 표현식에는 해당하지 않습
니다:

     >>> prefix = 'Py'
     >>> prefix 'thon'  # 변수와 문자열 리터럴을 이어붙이기할 수 없습니다
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         prefix 'thon'
                ^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
     >>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         ('un' * 3) 'ium'
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

변수들끼리 혹은 변수와 문자열 리터럴을 이어붙이려면 ‘+’ 를 사용해야 합니
다

     >>> prefix + 'thon'
     'Python'

문자열은 '인덱스' (서브 스크립트) 될 수 있습니다.  첫 번째 문자가 인덱스
0에 대응됩니다.  문자를 위한 별도의 형은 없습니다; 단순히 길이가 1인 문
자열입니다:

     >>> word = 'Python'
     >>> word[0]  # 위치 0의 문자
     'P'
     >>> word[5]  # 위치 5의 문자
     'n'

인덱스는 음수가 될 수도 있는데, 끝에서부터 셉니다:

     >>> word[-1]  # 마지막 문자
     'n'
     >>> word[-2]  # 끝에서 두 번째 문자
     'o'
     >>> word[-6]
     'P'

-0은 0과 같으므로, 음의 인덱스는 -1에서 시작한다는 것에 주목하세요.

인덱싱에 더해 '슬라이싱(slicing)' 도 지원됩니다.  인덱싱이 개별 문자를 얻
는데 사용되는 반면, '슬라이싱' 은 부분 문자열(substring)을 얻는 데 사용
됩니다:

     >>> word[0:2]  # 위치 0 (포함) 에서 2 (제외) 까지의 문자들
     'Py'
     >>> word[2:5]  # 위치 2 (포함) 에서 5 (제외) 까지의 문자들
     'tho'

슬라이스 인덱스는 편리한 기본값을 갖고 있습니다; 첫 번째 인덱스를 생략하
면 기본값 0 이 사용되고, 두 번째 인덱스가 생략되면 기본값으로 슬라이싱 되
는 문자열의 길이가 사용됩니다.

     >>> word[:2]   # 처음부터 위치 2 (제외) 까지의 문자들
     'Py'
     >>> word[4:]   # 위치 4 (포함) 에서 끝까지의 문자들
     'on'
     >>> word[-2:]  # 끝에서 두번째 (포함) 부터 끝까지의 문자들
     'on'

시작 위치의 문자는 항상 포함되는 반면, 종료 위치의 문자는 항상 포함되지
않는 것에 주의하세요.  이 때문에 ‘s[:i] + s[i:]’ 는 항상 ‘s’ 와 같아집니
다

     >>> word[:2] + word[2:]
     'Python'
     >>> word[:4] + word[4:]
     'Python'

슬라이스가 동작하는 방법을 기억하는 한 가지 방법은 인덱스가 문자들 '사이
의' 위치를 가리킨다고 생각하는 것입니다.  첫 번째 문자의 왼쪽 경계가 0입
니다.  'n' 개의 문자들로 구성된 문자열의 오른쪽 끝 경계는 인덱스 'n' 이
됩니다, 예를 들어:

     +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      | P | y | t | h | o | n |
      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      0   1   2   3   4   5   6
     -6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1

첫 번째 숫자 행은 인덱스 0…6 의 위치를 보여주고; 두 번째 행은 대응하는 음
의 인덱스들을 보여줍니다.  'i' 에서 'j' 범위의 슬라이스는 'i' 와 'j' 로
번호 붙여진 경계 사이의 문자들로 구성됩니다.

음이 아닌 인덱스들의 경우, 두 인덱스 모두 범위 내에 있다면 슬라이스의 길
이는 인덱스 간의 차입니다.  예를 들어 ‘word[1:3]’ 의 길이는 2입니다.

너무 큰 값을 인덱스로 사용하는 것은 에러입니다:

     >>> word[42]  # word 는 6개의 문자 뿐입니다
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     IndexError: string index out of range

하지만, 범위를 벗어나는 슬라이스 인덱스는 슬라이싱할 때 부드럽게 처리됩
니다:

     >>> word[4:42]
     'on'
     >>> word[42:]
     ''

파이썬 문자열은 변경할 수 없다 — *note 불변: 1c03. 이라고 합니다.  그래
서 문자열의 인덱스로 참조한 위치에 대입하려고 하면 에러를 일으킵니다:

     >>> word[0] = 'J'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
     >>> word[2:] = 'py'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

다른 문자열이 필요하면, 새로 만들어야 합니다:

     >>> 'J' + word[1:]
     'Jython'
     >>> word[:2] + 'py'
     'Pypy'

내장 함수 *note len(): 628. 은 문자열의 길이를 돌려줍니다:

     >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
     >>> len(s)
     34

더 보기
.......

*note 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str: 1c04.

     문자열은 '시퀀스 형' 의 일종이고, 시퀀스가 지원하는 공통 연산들이 지
     원됩니다.

*note 문자열 메서드: 1c05.

     문자열은 기본적인 변환과 검색을 위한 여러 가지 메서드들을 지원합니
     다.

*note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6.

     내장된 표현식을 갖는 문자열 리터럴

*note 포맷 문자열 문법: 1379.

     *note str.format(): 61b. 으로 문자열을 포맷하는 방법에 대한 정보.

*note printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅: 6c6.

     이곳에서 문자열을 ‘%’ 연산자 왼쪽에 사용하는 예전 방식의 포매팅에 관
     해 좀 더 상세하게 설명하고 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 다른 언어들과는 달리, ‘\n’ 과 같은 특수 문자들은 작은따옴표
(‘'...'’)와 큰따옴표(‘"..."’)에서 같은 의미가 있습니다.  둘 간의 유일한
차이는 작은따옴표 안에서 ‘"’ 를 이스케이핑할 필요가 없고 (하지만 ‘\'’ 는
이스케이핑 시켜야 합니다), 그 역도 성립한다는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트,  Prev: 텍스트,  Up: 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기

2.3.1.3 리스트
..............

파이썬은 다른 값들을 덩어리로 묶는데 사용되는 여러 가지 '컴파운드
(compound)' 자료 형을 알고 있습니다.  가장 융통성이 있는 것은 '리스트' 인
데, 대괄호 사이에 쉼표로 구분된 값(항목)들의 목록으로 표현될 수 있습니다
.  리스트는 서로 다른 형의 항목들을 포함할 수 있지만, 항목들이 모두 같은
형인 경우가 많습니다.

     >>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
     >>> squares
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

문자열(그리고, 다른 모든 내장 *note 시퀀스: 4eb. 형들)처럼 리스트는 인덱
싱하고 슬라이싱할 수 있습니다:

     >>> squares[0]  # 인덱싱은 항목을 돌려줍니다
     1
     >>> squares[-1]
     25
     >>> squares[-3:]  # 슬라이싱은 새 리스트를 돌려줍니다
     [9, 16, 25]

리스트는 이어붙이기 같은 연산도 지원합니다:

     >>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

*note 불변: 1c03. 인 문자열과는 달리, 리스트는 *note 가변: 1c08. 입니다.
즉 내용을 변경할 수 있습니다:

     >>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # 여기 뭔가 잘못 됐습니다
     >>> 4 ** 3  # 4의 세제곱은 65가 아니라 64입니다!
     64
     >>> cubes[3] = 64  # 잘못된 값을 고칩니다
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

‘list.append()’ '메서드 (method)' (나중에 메서드에 대해 더 자세히 알아볼
것입니다) 를 사용하면 리스트의 끝에 새 항목을 추가할 수 있습니다:

     >>> cubes.append(216)  # 6의 세제곱을 추가합니다
     >>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # 그리고 7의 세제곱도
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

Simple assignment in Python never copies data.  When you assign a list
to a variable, the variable refers to the 'existing list'.  Any changes
you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other
variables that refer to it.:

     >>> rgb = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
     >>> rgba = rgb
     >>> id(rgb) == id(rgba)  # 같은 객체를 참조합니다
     True
     >>> rgba.append("Alph")
     >>> rgb
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

모든 슬라이스 연산은 요청한 항목들을 포함하는 새 리스트를 돌려줍니다.  이
는 다음과 같은 슬라이스가 리스트의 새로운 *note 얕은 복사본: 1c09.을 돌
려준다는 뜻입니다:

     >>> correct_rgba = rgba[:]
     >>> correct_rgba[-1] = "Alpha"
     >>> correct_rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"]
     >>> rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

슬라이스에 대입하는 것도 가능한데, 리스트의 길이를 변경할 수 있고, 모든
항목을 삭제할 수조차 있습니다:

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # 몇몇 값을 바꿉니다
     >>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # 이제 그 것들을 지웁니다
     >>> letters[2:5] = []
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # 모든 요소들을 빈 리스트로 치환해서 리스트를 비웁니다
     >>> letters[:] = []
     >>> letters
     []

내장 함수 *note len(): 628. 은 리스트에도 적용됩니다:

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
     >>> len(letters)
     4

리스트를 중첩할 수도 있습니다.  (다른 리스트를 포함하는 리스트를 만듭니
다).  예를 들어:

     >>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> n = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> x = [a, n]
     >>> x
     [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
     >>> x[0]
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> x[0][1]
     'b'


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그래밍으로의 첫걸음,  Prev: 파이썬을 계산기로 사용하기,  Up: 파이썬의 간략한 소개

2.3.2 프로그래밍으로의 첫걸음
-----------------------------

물론, 2 에 2를 더하는 것보다는 더 복잡한 방법으로 파이썬을 사용할 수 있
습니다.  예를 들어, 다음처럼 피보나치 수열(1)의 앞부분을 계산할 수 있습
니다:

     >>> # 피보나치 수열:
     >>> # 두 요소의 합이 다음을 정의합니다
     >>> a, b = 0, 1
     >>> while a < 10:
     ...     print(a)
     ...     a, b = b, a+b
     ...
     0
     1
     1
     2
     3
     5
     8

이 예는 몇 가지 새로운 기능을 소개하고 있습니다.

   * 첫 줄은 '다중 대입' 을 포함하고 있습니다: 변수 ‘a’ 와 ‘b’ 에 동시에
     값 0과1이 대입됩니다.  마지막 줄에서 다시 사용되는데, 대입이 어느 하
     나라도 이루어지기 전에 우변의 표현식들이 모두 계산됩니다.  우변의 표
     현식은 왼쪽부터 오른쪽으로 가면서 순서대로 계산됩니다.

   * *note while: 1c0c. 루프는 조건(여기서는: ‘a < 10’)이 참인 동안 실행
     됩니다.  C와 마찬가지로 파이썬에서 0 이 아닌 모든 정수는 참이고, 0은
     거짓입니다.  조건은 문자열이나 리스트 (사실 모든 종류의 시퀀스)가 될
     수도 있는데 길이가 0 이 아닌 것은 모두 참이고, 빈 시퀀스는 거짓입니
     다.  이 예에서 사용한 검사는 간단한 비교입니다.  표준 비교 연산자는
     C와 같은 방식으로 표현됩니다: ‘<’ (작다), ‘>’ (크다), ‘==’ (같다),
     ‘<=’ (작거나 같다), ‘>=’ (크거나 같다), ‘!=’ (다르다).

   * 루프의 '바디 (body)' 는 '들여쓰기' 됩니다.  들여쓰기는 파이썬에서 문
     장을 덩어리로 묶는 방법입니다.  대화형 프롬프트에서 각각 들여 쓰는
     줄에서 탭(tab)이나 공백(space)을 입력해야 합니다.  실제적으로는 텍
     스트 편집기를 사용해서 좀 더 복잡한 파이썬 코드를 준비하게 됩니다;
     웬만한 텍스트 편집기들은 자동 들여쓰기 기능을 제공합니다.  복합문을
     대화형으로 입력할 때는 끝을 알리기 위해 빈 줄을 입력해야 합니다.  (해
     석기가 언제 마지막 줄을 입력할지 짐작할 수 없기 때문입니다.)  같은
     블록에 포함되는 모든 줄은 같은 양만큼 들여쓰기 되어야 함에 주의하세
     요.

   * *note print(): f6d. 함수는 주어진 인자들의 값을 인쇄합니다.  다중 인
     자, 실수의 값, 문자열을 다루는 방식에서 (계산기 예제에서 본 것과 같
     이) 출력하고자 하는 표현식을 그냥 입력하는 것과는 다릅니다.  문자열
     은 따옴표 없이 출력되고, 인자들 간에는 빈칸이 삽입됩니다.  그래서 이
     런 식으로 보기 좋게 포매팅할 수 있습니다:

          >>> i = 256*256
          >>> print('The value of i is', i)
          The value of i is 65536

     키워드 인자 'end' 는 출력 끝에 포함되는 개행문자를 제거하거나 출력
     을 다른 문자열로 끝나게 하고 싶을 때 사용됩니다:

          >>> a, b = 0, 1
          >>> while a < 1000:
          ...     print(a, end=',')
          ...     a, b = b, a+b
          ...
          0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_sequence


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 제어 흐름 도구,  Next: 자료 구조,  Prev: 파이썬의 간략한 소개,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.4 기타 제어 흐름 도구
=======================

방금 소개한 *note while: 1c0c. 문 외에도, 파이썬은 이 장에서 만나게 될 몇
가지 추가적인 문법들을 시용합니다.

* Menu:

* if 문::
* for 문::
* range() 함수: range 함수.
* break 와 continue 문::
* 루프의 else 절::
* pass 문::
* match 문::
* 함수 정의하기::
* 함수 정의 더 보기::
* 막간극; 코딩 스타일: 막간극 코딩 스타일.


File: python.info,  Node: if 문,  Next: for 문,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.1 ‘if’ 문
-------------

아마도 가장 잘 알려진 문장 형은 *note if: 2eb. 문일 것입니다.  예를 들어
:

     >>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
     Please enter an integer: 42
     >>> if x < 0:
     ...     x = 0
     ...     print('Negative changed to zero')
     ... elif x == 0:
     ...     print('Zero')
     ... elif x == 1:
     ...     print('Single')
     ... else:
     ...     print('More')
     ...
     More

없거나 여러 개의 *note elif: 1c12. 부가 있을 수 있고, *note else: 18c. 부
는 선택적입니다.  키워드 ‘‘elif’’ 는 ‘else if’ 의 줄임 표현인데, 과도한
들여쓰기를 피하는 데 유용합니다.  ‘if’ … ‘elif’ … ‘elif’ … 시퀀스는 다른
언어들에서 발견되는 ‘switch’ 나 ‘case’ 문을 대신합니다.

If you’re comparing the same value to several constants, or checking for
specific types or attributes, you may also find the ‘match’ statement
useful.  For more details see *note match 문: 1c13.


File: python.info,  Node: for 문,  Next: range 함수,  Prev: if 문,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.2 ‘for’ 문
--------------

파이썬에서 *note for: 2ea. 문은 C 나 파스칼에서 사용하던 것과 약간 다릅
니다.  (파스칼처럼) 항상 숫자의 산술적인 진행을 통해 이터레이션 하거나,
(C처럼) 사용자가 이터레이션 단계와 중지 조건을 정의할 수 있도록 하는 대
신, 파이썬의 ‘for’ 문은 임의의 시퀀스 (리스트나 문자열)의 항목들을 그 시
퀀스에 들어있는 순서대로 이터레이션 합니다.  예를 들어 (말장난이 아니라
):

     >>> # 몇 개의 문자열을 측정합니다:
     >>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
     >>> for w in words:
     ...     print(w, len(w))
     ...
     cat 3
     window 6
     defenestrate 12

컬렉션을 이터레이트 하는 동안 같은 컬렉션을 수정하는 코드는 올바르게 동
작하도록 만들기 힘듭니다.  대신, 보통 컬렉션의 복사본으로 루프를 만들거
나 새 컬렉션을 만드는 것이 더 간단합니다:

     # 샘플 컬렉션을 만듭니다
     users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '홍길동': 'active'}

     # 전략:  사본을 이터레이트
     for user, status in users.copy().items():
         if status == 'inactive':
             del users[user]

     # 전략:  새 컬렉션 만들기
     active_users = {}
     for user, status in users.items():
         if status == 'active':
             active_users[user] = status


File: python.info,  Node: range 함수,  Next: break 와 continue 문,  Prev: for 문,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.3 ‘range()’ 함수
--------------------

숫자들의 시퀀스로 이터레이트할 필요가 있으면, 내장 함수 *note range():
941.가 편리합니다.  수열을 만듭니다:

     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     0
     1
     2
     3
     4

끝값은 만들어지는 수열에 포함되지 않습니다; ‘range(10)’ 은 10개의 값을 만
드는데, 길이 10인 시퀀스의 항목들을 가리키는 올바른 인덱스들입니다.  범
위가 다른 숫자로 시작하거나, 다른 증가분을 (음수조차 가능합니다; 때로 이
것을 ‘스텝(step)’이라고 부릅니다) 지정하는 것도 가능합니다:

     >>> list(range(5, 10))
     [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
     [0, 3, 6, 9]

     >>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))
     [-10, -40, -70]

시퀀스의 인덱스들로 이터레이트 하려면, 다음처럼 *note range(): 941.와
*note len(): 628. 을 결합할 수 있습니다:

     >>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
     >>> for i in range(len(a)):
     ...     print(i, a[i])
     ...
     0 Mary
     1 had
     2 a
     3 little
     4 lamb

하지만, 그럴 때 대부분은, *note enumerate(): 1445. 함수를 쓰는 것이 편리
합니다, *note 루프 테크닉: 1c18. 를 보세요.

범위를 그냥 인쇄하면 이상한 일이 일어납니다:

     >>> range(10)
     range(0, 10)

많은 경우에 *note range(): 941.가 돌려준 객체는 리스트인 것처럼 동작하지
만, 사실 리스트가 아닙니다.  이터레이트할 때 원하는 시퀀스 항목들을 순서
대로 돌려주는 객체이지만, 실제로 리스트를 만들지 않아서 공간을 절약합니
다.

이런 객체를 *note 이터러블: 1217. 이라고 부릅니다.  공급이 소진될 때까지
일련의 항목들을 얻을 수 있는 무엇인가를 기대하는 함수와 구조물들의 타깃
으로 적합합니다.  우리는 *note for: 2ea. 문이 그런 구조물임을 보았습니다
.  이터러블을 취하는 함수의 예는 *note sum(): 464.입니다:

     >>> sum(range(4))  # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
     6

나중에 이터러블을 반환하고 이터러블을 인자로 받는 함수를 더 볼 것입니다.
*note 자료 구조: 1c19. 장에서 *note list(): 60b.에 대해 더 자세히 논의할
것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: break 와 continue 문,  Next: 루프의 else 절,  Prev: range 함수,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.4 ‘break’ 와 ‘continue’ 문
------------------------------

*note break: aa6. 문은 가장 가까이서 둘러싸는 *note for: 2ea. 나 *note
while: 1c0c. 루프로부터 빠져나가게 만듭니다.

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
     ...             break
     ...
     4 equals 2 * 2
     6 equals 2 * 3
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

*note continue: 9c6. 문은 루프의 다음 이터레이션에서 계속하도록 만듭니다
:

     >>> for num in range(2, 10):
     ...     if num % 2 == 0:
     ...         print(f"Found an even number {num}")
     ...         continue
     ...     print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
     ...
     Found an even number 2
     Found an odd number 3
     Found an even number 4
     Found an odd number 5
     Found an even number 6
     Found an odd number 7
     Found an even number 8
     Found an odd number 9


File: python.info,  Node: 루프의 else 절,  Next: pass 문,  Prev: break 와 continue 문,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.5 루프의 ‘else’ 절
----------------------

In a ‘for’ or ‘while’ loop the ‘break’ statement may be paired with an
‘else’ clause.  If the loop finishes without executing the ‘break’, the
‘else’ clause executes.

In a *note for: 2ea. loop, the ‘else’ clause is executed after the loop
finishes its final iteration, that is, if no break occurred.

In a *note while: 1c0c. loop, it’s executed after the loop’s condition
becomes false.

In either kind of loop, the ‘else’ clause is 'not' executed if the loop
was terminated by a *note break: aa6.  Of course, other ways of ending
the loop early, such as a *note return: 9cb. or a raised exception, will
also skip execution of the *note else: 18c. clause.

This is exemplified in the following ‘for’ loop, which searches for
prime numbers:

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
     ...             break
     ...     else:
     ...         # 루프에서 인수를 발견하지 못하고 떨어집니다
     ...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
     ...
     2 is a prime number
     3 is a prime number
     4 equals 2 * 2
     5 is a prime number
     6 equals 2 * 3
     7 is a prime number
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

(이것은 올바른 코드입니다.  자세히 들여다보면: ‘else’ 절은 ‘if’ 문이 '아
니라' ‘for’ 루프에 속합니다.)

One way to think of the else clause is to imagine it paired with the
‘if’ inside the loop.  As the loop executes, it will run a sequence like
if/if/if/else.  The ‘if’ is inside the loop, encountered a number of
times.  If the condition is ever true, a ‘break’ will happen.  If the
condition is never true, the ‘else’ clause outside the loop will
execute.

루프와 함께 사용될 때, ‘else’ 절은 ‘if’ 문보다는 *note try: 6e2. 문의
‘else’ 절과 비슷한 면이 많습니다: ‘try’ 문의 ‘else’ 절은 예외가 발생하지
않을 때 실행되고, 루프의 ‘else’ 절은 ‘break’가 발생하지 않을 때 실행됩니
다.  ‘try’ 문과 예외에 관한 자세한 내용은 *note 예외 처리하기: 1c1f. 를
보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: pass 문,  Next: match 문,  Prev: 루프의 else 절,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.6 ‘pass’ 문
---------------

*note pass: 1c22. 문은 아무것도 하지 않습니다.  문법적으로 문장이 필요하
지만, 프로그램이 특별히 할 일이 없을 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> while True:
     ...     pass  # 키보드 인터럽트(Ctrl+C)를 기다립니다
     ...

최소한의 클래스를 만들 때 흔히 사용됩니다:

     >>> class MyEmptyClass:
     ...     pass
     ...

*note pass: 1c22.가 사용될 수 있는 다른 장소는 새 코드를 작업할 때 함수
나 조건부 바디의 자리를 채우는 것인데, 여러분이 더 추상적인 수준에서 생
각할 수 있게 합니다.  ‘pass’ 는 조용히 무시됩니다:

     >>> def initlog(*args):
     ...     pass   # 구현을 잊지마세요!
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: match 문,  Next: 함수 정의하기,  Prev: pass 문,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.7 ‘match’ 문
----------------

A *note match: 807. statement takes an expression and compares its value
to successive patterns given as one or more case blocks.  This is
superficially similar to a switch statement in C, Java or JavaScript
(and many other languages), but it’s more similar to pattern matching in
languages like Rust or Haskell.  Only the first pattern that matches
gets executed and it can also extract components (sequence elements or
object attributes) from the value into variables.

The simplest form compares a subject value against one or more literals:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Note the last block: the “variable name” ‘_’ acts as a 'wildcard' and
never fails to match.  If no case matches, none of the branches is
executed.

You can combine several literals in a single pattern using ‘|’ (“or”):

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and can be used to bind
variables:

     # point 는 (x, y) 튜플입니다
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

Study that one carefully!  The first pattern has two literals, and can
be thought of as an extension of the literal pattern shown above.  But
the next two patterns combine a literal and a variable, and the variable
'binds' a value from the subject (‘point’).  The fourth pattern captures
two values, which makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking
assignment ‘(x, y) = point’.

If you are using classes to structure your data you can use the class
name followed by an argument list resembling a constructor, but with the
ability to capture attributes into variables:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def where_is(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y}")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x}")
             case Point():
                 print("Somewhere else")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide
an ordering for their attributes (e.g.  dataclasses).  You can also
define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the
‘__match_args__’ special attribute in your classes.  If it’s set to
(“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the
‘y’ attribute to the ‘var’ variable):

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)

A recommended way to read patterns is to look at them as an extended
form of what you would put on the left of an assignment, to understand
which variables would be set to what.  Only the standalone names (like
‘var’ above) are assigned to by a match statement.  Dotted names (like
‘foo.bar’), attribute names (the ‘x=’ and ‘y=’ above) or class names
(recognized by the “(…)” next to them like ‘Point’ above) are never
assigned to.

Patterns can be arbitrarily nested.  For example, if we have a short
list of Points, with ‘__match_args__’ added, we could match it like
this:

     class Point:
         __match_args__ = ('x', 'y')
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
         case _:
             print("Something else")

We can add an ‘if’ clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”.  If the
guard is false, ‘match’ goes on to try the next case block.  Note that
value capture happens before the guard is evaluated:

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"Y=X at {x}")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Not on the diagonal")

Several other key features of this statement:

   - Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly
     the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences.  An
     important exception is that they don’t match iterators or strings.

   - Sequence patterns support extended unpacking: ‘[x, y, *rest]’ and
     ‘(x, y, *rest)’ work similar to unpacking assignments.  The name
     after ‘*’ may also be ‘_’, so ‘(x, y, *_)’ matches a sequence of at
     least two items without binding the remaining items.

   - Mapping patterns: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ captures the
     ‘"bandwidth"’ and ‘"latency"’ values from a dictionary.  Unlike
     sequence patterns, extra keys are ignored.  An unpacking like
     ‘**rest’ is also supported.  (But ‘**_’ would be redundant, so it
     is not allowed.)

   - Subpatterns may be captured using the ‘as’ keyword:

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     will capture the second element of the input as ‘p2’ (as long as
     the input is a sequence of two points)

   - Most literals are compared by equality, however the singletons
     ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are compared by identity.

   - Patterns may use named constants.  These must be dotted names to
     prevent them from being interpreted as capture variable:

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 'red'
              GREEN = 'green'
              BLUE = 'blue'

          color = Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': "))

          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

For a more detailed explanation and additional examples, you can look
into PEP 636(1) which is written in a tutorial format.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 정의하기,  Next: 함수 정의 더 보기,  Prev: match 문,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.8 함수 정의하기
-------------------

피보나치 수열을 임의의 한도까지 출력하는 함수를 만들 수 있습니다:

     >>> def fib(n):    # n 보다 작은 피보나치 수열을 씁니다
     ...     """n 보다 작은 피보나치 수열을 인쇄합니다."""
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         print(a, end=' ')
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     print()
     ...
     >>> # 이제 방금 정의한 함수를 호출합니다:
     >>> fib(2000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

키워드 *note def: 1420.는 함수 '정의'를 시작합니다.  함수 이름과 괄호로
싸인 형식 매개변수들의 목록이 뒤따릅니다.  함수의 바디를 형성하는 문장들
이 다음 줄에서 시작되고, 반드시 들여쓰기 되어야 합니다.

함수 바디의 첫 번째 문장은 선택적으로 문자열 리터럴이 될 수 있습니다; 이
문자열 리터럴은 함수의 도큐멘테이션 문자열, 즉 '독스트링 (docstring)' 입
니다.  (독스트링에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 도큐멘테이션 문자열: 1c26. 에
나옵니다.)  독스트링을 사용해서 온라인이나 인쇄된 설명서를 자동 생성하거
나, 사용자들이 대화형으로 코드를 열람할 수 있도록 하는 도구들이 있습니다
; 여러분이 작성하는 코드에 독스트링을 첨부하는 것은 좋은 관습입니다, 그
러니 버릇을 들이는 것이 좋습니다.

함수의 '실행'은 함수의 지역 변수들을 위한 새 심볼 테이블을 만듭니다.  좀
더 구체적으로, 함수에서의 모든 변수 대입들은 값을 지역 심볼 테이블에 저
장합니다; 반면에 변수 참조는 먼저 지역 심볼 테이블을 본 다음, 전역 심볼
테이블을 본 후, 마지막으로 내장 이름들의 테이블을 살핍니다.  그래서, 참
조될 수는 있다 하더라도, 전역 변수들과 둘러싸는 함수의 변수들은 함수 내
에서 직접 값이 대입될 수 없습니다 (전역 변수를 *note global: 18a. 문으로
명시하거나 둘러싸는 함수의 변수를 *note nonlocal: 1297. 문으로 명시하지
않는 이상).

함수 호출로 전달되는 실제 매개변수들 (인자들)은 호출될 때 호출되는 함수
의 지역 심볼 테이블에 만들어집니다; 그래서 인자들은 '값에 의한 호출(call
by value)'로 전달됩니다 ('값'은 항상 객체의 값이 아니라 객체 '참조'입니
다).  (1)  함수가 다른 함수를 호출할 때, 또는 자신을 재귀적으로 호출할 때
, 그 호출을 위한 새 지역 심볼 테이블이 만들어집니다.

함수 정의는 함수 이름을 현재 심볼 테이블의 함수 객체와 연결합니다.  인터
프리터는 해당 이름이 가리키는 객체를 사용자 정의 함수로 인식합니다.  다
른 이름은 같은 함수 객체를 가리킬 수 있으며 함수에 액세스하는 데 사용될
수도 있습니다:

     >>> fib
     <function fib at 10042ed0>
     >>> f = fib
     >>> f(100)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

다른 언어들을 사용했다면, ‘fib’ 가 값을 돌려주지 않기 때문에 함수가 아니
라 프로시저라고 생각할 수 있습니다.  사실, *note return: 9cb. 문이 없는
함수도 값을 돌려줍니다, 비록 따분한 값이기는 하지만.  이 값은 ‘None’이라
고 불립니다 (내장 이름입니다).  ‘None’ 이 출력할 유일한 값이라면, 인터프
리터는 보통 ‘None’ 값 출력을 억제합니다.  꼭 보길 원한다면 *note
print(): f6d.를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> fib(0)
     >>> print(fib(0))
     None

인쇄하는 대신, 피보나치 수열의 숫자들 리스트를 돌려주는 함수를 작성하는
것도 간단합니다:

     >>> def fib2(n):  # n 보다 작은 피보나치 수열을 돌려줍니다
     ...     """n 보다 작은 피보나치 수열을 담은 리스트를 돌려줍니다."""
     ...     result = []
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         result.append(a)    # 아래를 보세요
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     return result
     ...
     >>> f100 = fib2(100)    # 호출합니다
     >>> f100                # 결과를 씁니다
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

여느 때처럼, 이 예는 몇 가지 새 파이썬 기능을 보여줍니다:

   * *note return: 9cb. 문은 함수로부터 값을 갖고 복귀하게 만듭니다.  표
     현식 인자 없는 ‘return’ 은 ‘None’을 돌려줍니다.  함수의 끝으로 떨어
     지면 역시 ‘None’을 돌려줍니다.

   * 문장 ‘result.append(a)’ 은 리스트 객체 ‘result’의 '메서드'를 호출합
     니다.  메서드는 객체에 ‘속하는’ 함수이고 ‘obj.methodname’ 라고 이름
     붙여지는데, ‘obj’는 어떤 객체이고 (표현식이 될 수 있습니다),
     ‘methodname’ 는 객체의 형에 의해 정의된 메서드의 이름입니다.  다른
     형은 다른 메서드들을 정의합니다.  서로 다른 형들의 메서드는 모호함
     없이 같은 이름을 가질 수 있습니다.  ('클래스'를 사용해서 여러분 자
     신의 형과 메서드를 정의하는 것이 가능합니다, *note 클래스: 1c27.를
     보세요) 예에 나오는 메서드 ‘append()’는 리스트 객체들에 정의되어 있
     습니다; 요소를 리스트의 끝에 덧붙입니다.  이 예에서는 ‘result =
     result + [a]’ 와 동등하지만, 더 효율적입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 실제로, '객체 참조에 의한 호출 (call by object reference)' 이 더
좋은 표현인데, 가변 객체가 전달되면, 호출자는 피호출자가 만든 변경을 볼
수 있기 때문입니다 (가령 리스트에 항목을 추가합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 정의 더 보기,  Next: 막간극 코딩 스타일,  Prev: 함수 정의하기,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.9 함수 정의 더 보기
-----------------------

정해지지 않은 개수의 인자들로 함수를 정의하는 것도 가능합니다.  세 가지
형식이 있는데, 조합할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 인자 값::
* 키워드 인자::
* 특수 매개 변수::
* 임의의 인자 목록::
* 인자 목록 언 패킹::
* 람다 표현식::
* 도큐멘테이션 문자열::
* 함수 어노테이션::


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 인자 값,  Next: 키워드 인자,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.1 기본 인자 값
....................

가장 쓸모 있는 형식은 하나나 그 이상 인자들의 기본값을 지정하는 것입니다
.  정의된 것보다 더 적은 개수의 인자들로 호출될 수 있는 함수를 만듭니다.
예를 들어:

     def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
         while True:
             reply = input(prompt)
             if reply in {'y', 'ye', 'yes'}:
                 return True
             if reply in {'n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'}:
                 return False
             retries = retries - 1
             if retries < 0:
                 raise ValueError('invalid user response')
             print(reminder)

이 함수는 여러 가지 방법으로 호출될 수 있습니다:

   * 오직 꼭 필요한 인자만 전달해서: ‘ask_ok('정말 끝내길 원하세요?')’

   * 선택적 인자 하나를 제공해서: ‘ask_ok('파일을 덮어써도 좋습니까?',
     2)’

   * 또는 모든 인자를 제공해서: ‘ask_ok('파일을 덮어써도 좋습니까?', 2,
     '자, 예나 아니요로만 답하세요!')’

이 예는 *note in: 2ec. 키워드도 소개하고 있습니다.  시퀀스가 어떤 값을 가
졌는지 아닌지를 검사합니다.

기본값은 함수 정의 시점에 '정의되고 있는' 스코프에서 구해집니다, 그래서

     i = 5

     def f(arg=i):
         print(arg)

     i = 6
     f()

는 ‘5’를 인쇄합니다.

'중요한 주의사항:' 기본값은 오직 한 번만 값이 구해집니다.  이것은 기본값
이 리스트나 딕셔너리나 대부분 클래스의 인스턴스와 같은 가변 객체일 때 차
이를 만듭니다.  예를 들어, 다음 함수는 계속되는 호출로 전달된 인자들을 누
적합니다:

     def f(a, L=[]):
         L.append(a)
         return L

     print(f(1))
     print(f(2))
     print(f(3))

다음과 같은 것을 인쇄합니다

     [1]
     [1, 2]
     [1, 2, 3]

연속된 호출 간에 기본값이 공유되지 않기를 원한다면, 대신 함수를 이런 식
으로 쓸 수 있습니다:

     def f(a, L=None):
         if L is None:
             L = []
         L.append(a)
         return L


File: python.info,  Node: 키워드 인자,  Next: 특수 매개 변수,  Prev: 기본 인자 값,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.2 키워드 인자
...................

함수는 ‘kwarg=value’ 형식의 *note 키워드 인자: d0f. 를 사용해서 호출될 수
있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음 함수는:

     def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
         print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
         print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
         print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
         print("-- It's", state, "!")

하나의 필수 인자(‘voltage’)와 세 개의 선택적 인자 (‘state’, ‘action’,
‘type’) 를 받아들입니다.  이 함수는 다음과 같은 방법 중 아무것으로나 호
출될 수 있습니다.

     parrot(1000)                                          # 1개의 위치 인자
     parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1개의 키워드 인자
     parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2개의 키워드 인자
     parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2개의 키워드 인자
     parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3개의 위치 인자
     parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1개의 위치, 1개의 키워드

하지만 다음과 같은 호출들은 모두 올바르지 않습니다:

     parrot()                     # 필수 인자 누락
     parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # 키워드 인자 뒤에 키워드가 아닌 인자가 옴
     parrot(110, voltage=220)     # 같은 인자가 중복됨
     parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # 알려지지 않은 키워드 인자

함수 호출에서, 키워드 인자는 위치 인자 뒤에 나와야 합니다.  전달된 모든
키워드 인자는 함수가 받아들이는 인자 중 하나와 맞아야 하며 (예를 들어,
‘actor’는 ‘parrot’ 함수의 올바른 인자가 아니다), 그 순서는 중요하지 않습
니다.  이것들에는 필수 인자들도 포함됩니다 (예를 들어,
‘parrot(voltage=1000)’ 도 올바릅니다).  어떤 인자도 두 개 이상의 값을 받
을 수 없습니다.  여기, 이 제약 때문에 실패하는 예가 있습니다:

     >>> def function(a):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> function(0, a=0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

‘**name’ 형식의 마지막 형식 매개변수가 존재하면, 형식 매개변수들에 대응
하지 않는 모든 키워드 인자들을 담은 딕셔너리 (*note 매핑 형 — dict: ac3.
를 보세요) 를 받습니다.  이것은 ‘*name’ (다음 서브섹션에서 설명합니다) 형
식의 형식 매개변수와 조합될 수 있는데, 형식 매개변수 목록 밖의 위치 인자
들을 담은 *note 튜플: 1c2e.을 받습니다.  (‘*name’은 ‘**name’ 앞에 나와야
합니다.)  예를 들어, 이런 함수를 정의하면:

     def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
         print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
         print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
         for arg in arguments:
             print(arg)
         print("-" * 40)
         for kw in keywords:
             print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

이런 식으로 호출될 수 있습니다:

     cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
                "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
                shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
                client="John Cleese",
                sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

그리고 당연히 이렇게 인쇄합니다:

     -- Do you have any Limburger ?
     -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
     It's very runny, sir.
     It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
     ----------------------------------------
     shopkeeper : Michael Palin
     client : John Cleese
     sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

인쇄되는 키워드 인자들의 순서 함수 호출로 전달된 순서와 일치함이 보장됨
에 주목하세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 매개 변수,  Next: 임의의 인자 목록,  Prev: 키워드 인자,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.3 특수 매개 변수
......................

기본적으로, 인자는 위치나 명시적인 키워드로 파이썬 함수에 전달될 수 있습
니다.  가독성과 성능을 위해, 개발자가 항목이 위치, 위치나 키워드 또는 키
워드로 전달되는지를 판단할 때 함수 정의만을 보면 되도록, 인자가 전달될 방
법을 제한하면 좋습니다.

함수 정의는 다음과 같습니다:

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):
           -----------    ----------     ----------
             |             |                  |
             |        위치-키워드                  |
             |                                - 카워드 전용
              -- 위치 전용

여기서 ‘/’와 ‘*’는 선택적입니다.  사용하면, 이 기호는 인자가 함수에 전달
되는 방식에 따른 매개 변수의 종류를 나타냅니다: 위치 전용, 위치-키워드 및
키워드 전용.  키워드 매개 변수는 명명된(named) 매개 변수라고도 합니다.

* Menu:

* 위치-키워드(Positional-or-Keyword) 인자: 위치-키워드 Positional-or-Keyword 인자.
* 위치 전용 매개 변수: 위치 전용 매개 변수<2>.
* 키워드 전용 인자::
* 함수 예제::
* 복습::


File: python.info,  Node: 위치-키워드 Positional-or-Keyword 인자,  Next: 위치 전용 매개 변수<2>,  Up: 특수 매개 변수

2.4.9.4 위치-키워드(Positional-or-Keyword) 인자
...............................................

함수 정의에 ‘/’와 ‘*’가 없으면, 인자를 위치나 키워드로 함수에 전달할 수
있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 위치 전용 매개 변수<2>,  Next: 키워드 전용 인자,  Prev: 위치-키워드 Positional-or-Keyword 인자,  Up: 특수 매개 변수

2.4.9.5 위치 전용 매개 변수
...........................

좀 더 자세하게 살펴보면, 특정 매개 변수를 '위치 전용'으로 표시할 수 있습
니다.  '위치 전용'이면, 매개 변수의 순서가 중요하며, 키워드로 매개 변수
를 전달할 수 없습니다.  위치 전용 매개 변수는 ‘/’ (슬래시) 앞에 놓입니다
.  ‘/’는 위치 전용 매개 변수를 나머지 매개 변수들로부터 논리적으로 분리
하는 데 사용됩니다.  함수 정의에 ‘/’가 없으면, 위치 전용 매개 변수는 없
습니다.

‘/’ 다음의 매개 변수는 '위치-키워드'나 '키워드 전용'일 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 키워드 전용 인자,  Next: 함수 예제,  Prev: 위치 전용 매개 변수<2>,  Up: 특수 매개 변수

2.4.9.6 키워드 전용 인자
........................

매개 변수를 키워드 인자로 전달해야 함을 나타내도록, 매개 변수를 '키워드
전용'으로 표시하려면, 첫 번째 '키워드 전용' 매개 변수 바로 전에 인자 목
록에 ‘*’를 넣으십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 예제,  Next: 복습,  Prev: 키워드 전용 인자,  Up: 특수 매개 변수

2.4.9.7 함수 예제
.................

‘/’와 ‘*’ 마커에 주의를 기울이는 다음 예제 함수 정의를 고려하십시오:

     >>> def standard_arg(arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
     ...     print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

첫 번째 함수 정의 ‘standard_arg’는 가장 익숙한 형식으로, 호출 규칙에 아
무런 제한을 두지 않으며 인자는 위치나 키워드로 전달될 수 있습니다:

     >>> standard_arg(2)
     2

     >>> standard_arg(arg=2)
     2

두 번째 함수 ‘pos_only_arg’는 함수 정의에 ‘/’가 있으므로 위치 매개 변수
만 사용하도록 제한됩니다:

     >>> pos_only_arg(1)
     1

     >>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'

세 번째 함수 ‘kwd_only_arg’는 함수 정의에서 ‘*’로 표시된 키워드 인자만 허
용합니다:

     >>> kwd_only_arg(3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

     >>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
     3

마지막은 같은 함수 정의에서 세 가지 호출 규칙을 모두 사용합니다:

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only'

마지막으로, 위치 인자 ‘name’과 ‘name’을 키로 가지는 ‘**kwds’ 사이에 잠재
적인 충돌이 있는 이 함수 정의를 고려하십시오:

     def foo(name, **kwds):
         return 'name' in kwds

‘'name'’ 키워드는 항상 첫 번째 매개 변수에 결합하므로 ‘True’를 반환할 수
있는 호출은 불가능합니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
     >>>

그러나 ‘/’(위치 전용 인자)를 사용하면, ‘name’을 위치 인자로, 동시에
‘'name'’을 키워드 인자의 키로 사용할 수 있으므로 가능합니다:

     >>> def foo(name, /, **kwds):
     ...     return 'name' in kwds
     ...
     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     True

즉, 위치 전용 매개 변수의 이름을 ‘**kwds’에서 모호함 없이 사용할 수 있습
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 복습,  Prev: 함수 예제,  Up: 특수 매개 변수

2.4.9.8 복습
............

사용 사례가 함수 정의에서 어떤 매개 변수를 사용할지 결정합니다:

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

지침으로서:

   * 매개 변수의 이름을 사용자가 사용할 수 없도록 하려면 위치 전용을 사
     용하십시오.  매개 변수 이름이 실제 의미가 없을 때, 함수가 호출될 때
     인자의 순서를 강제하려고 할 때, 또는 일부 위치 매개 변수와 임의의 키
     워드를 받아들이고 싶을 때 유용합니다.

   * 이름이 의미가 있고 함수 정의가 이름을 명시적으로 지정함으로써 더 이
     해하기 쉬워지거나, 사용자가 전달되는 인자의 위치에 의존하지 못하도
     록 하려면 키워드 전용을 사용하십시오.

   * API의 경우, 향후 매개 변수의 이름이 수정될 때 비호환 API 변경이 발
     생하는 것을 방지하려면 위치 전용을 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 임의의 인자 목록,  Next: 인자 목록 언 패킹,  Prev: 특수 매개 변수,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.9 임의의 인자 목록
........................

마지막으로, 가장 덜 사용되는 옵션은 함수가 임의의 개수 인자로 호출될 수
있도록 지정하는 것입니다.  이 인자들은 튜플로 묶입니다 (*note 튜플과
시퀀스: 1c2e. 을 보세요).  가변 길이 인자 앞에, 없거나 여러 개의 일반 인
자들이 올 수 있습니다.

     def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
         file.write(separator.join(args))

보통, 이 '가변 길이' 인자들은 형식 매개변수 목록의 마지막에 옵니다, 함수
로 전달된 남은 입력 인자들 전부를 그러모으기 때문입니다.  ‘*args’ 매개변
수 뒤에 등장하는 형식 매개변수들은 모두 ‘키워드-전용’ 인자들인데, 위치 인
자 대신 키워드 인자로만 사용될 수 있다는 뜻입니다.

     >>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
     ...     return sep.join(args)
     ...
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
     'earth/mars/venus'
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
     'earth.mars.venus'


File: python.info,  Node: 인자 목록 언 패킹,  Next: 람다 표현식,  Prev: 임의의 인자 목록,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.10 인자 목록 언 패킹
..........................

인자들이 이미 리스트나 튜플에 있지만, 분리된 위치 인자들을 요구하는 함수
호출을 위해 언 패킹 해야 하는 경우 반대 상황이 벌어집니다.  예를 들어, 내
장 *note range(): 941. 함수는 별도의 'start'와 'stop' 인자를 기대합니다.
그것들이 따로 있지 않으면, 리스트와 튜플로부터 인자를 언 패킹하기 위해
‘*’-연산자를 사용해서 함수를 호출하면 됩니다:

     >>> list(range(3, 6))            # 별도의 인자를 사용하는 일반 호출
     [3, 4, 5]
     >>> args = [3, 6]
     >>> list(range(*args))            # 리스트에서 언패킹된 인자로 호출
     [3, 4, 5]

같은 방식으로 딕셔너리도 ‘**’-연산자를 써서 키워드 인자를 전달할 수 있습
니다:

     >>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
     ...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
     ...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
     ...     print("E's", state, "!")
     ...
     >>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
     >>> parrot(**d)
     -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !


File: python.info,  Node: 람다 표현식,  Next: 도큐멘테이션 문자열,  Prev: 인자 목록 언 패킹,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.11 람다 표현식
....................

*note lambda: 128c. 키워드들 사용해서 작고 이름 없는 함수를 만들 수 있습
니다.  이 함수는 두 인자의 합을 돌려줍니다: ‘lambda a, b: a+b’.  함수 객
체가 있어야 하는 곳이면 어디나 람다 함수가 사용될 수 있습니다.  문법적으
로는 하나의 표현식으로 제한됩니다.  의미적으로는, 일반적인 함수 정의의 편
의 문법일 뿐입니다.  중첩된 함수 정의처럼, 람다 함수는 둘러싸는 스코프에
있는 변수들을 참조할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def make_incrementor(n):
     ...     return lambda x: x + n
     ...
     >>> f = make_incrementor(42)
     >>> f(0)
     42
     >>> f(1)
     43

The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function.
Another use is to pass a small function as an argument.  For instance,
*note list.sort(): bcc. takes a sorting key function 'key' which can be
a lambda function:

     >>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
     >>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
     >>> pairs
     [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]


File: python.info,  Node: 도큐멘테이션 문자열,  Next: 함수 어노테이션,  Prev: 람다 표현식,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.12 도큐멘테이션 문자열
............................

여기에 도큐멘테이션 문자열의 내용과 포매팅에 관한 몇 가지 관례가 있습니
다.

첫 줄은 항상 객체의 목적을 짧고, 간결하게 요약해야 합니다.  간결함을 위
해, 객체의 이름이나 형을 명시적으로 언급하지 않아야 하는데, 이것들은 다
른 방법으로 제공되기 때문입니다 (이름이 함수의 작업을 설명하는 동사라면
예외입니다).  이 줄은 대문자로 시작하고 마침표로 끝나야 합니다.

도큐멘테이션 문자열에 여러 줄이 있다면, 두 번째 줄은 비어있어서, 시각적
으로 요약과 나머지 설명을 분리해야 합니다.  뒤따르는 줄들은 하나나 그 이
상의 문단으로, 객체의 호출 규약, 부작용 등을 설명해야 합니다.

파이썬 파서는 여러 줄 문자열 리터럴에서 들여쓰기를 제거하지 않기 때문에,
설명서를 처리하는 도구들은 필요하면 들여쓰기를 제거합니다.  이것은 다음
과 같은 관례를 사용합니다.  문자열의 첫줄 '뒤에 오는' 첫 번째 비어있지 않
은 줄이 전체 도튜멘테이션 문자열의 들여쓰기 수준을 결정합니다.  (우리는
첫 줄을 사용할 수 없는데, 일반적으로 문자열을 시작하는 따옴표에 붙어있어
서 들여쓰기가 문자열 리터럴의 것을 반영하지 않기 때문입니다.)  이 들여쓰
기와 “동등한” 공백이 문자열의 모든 줄의 시작 부분에서 제거됩니다.  덜 들
여쓰기 된 줄이 나타나지는 말아야 하지만, 나타난다면 모든 앞부분의 공백이
제거됩니다.  공백의 동등성은 탭 확장 (보통 8개의 스페이스) 후에 검사됩니
다.

여기 여러 줄 독스트링의 예가 있습니다:

     >>> def my_function():
     ...     """Do nothing, but document it.
     ...
     ...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
     ...     """
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> print(my_function.__doc__)
     Do nothing, but document it.

     No, really, it doesn't do anything.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 어노테이션,  Prev: 도큐멘테이션 문자열,  Up: 함수 정의 더 보기

2.4.9.13 함수 어노테이션
........................

*note 함수 어노테이션: 1c3e. 은 사용자 정의 함수가 사용하는 형들에 대한
완전히 선택적인 메타데이터 정보입니다 (자세한 내용은 PEP 3107(1) 과 PEP
484(2) 를 보세요).

*note 어노테이션: 1c3f.은 함수의 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트에 딕셔너리
로 저장되고 함수의 다른 부분에는 아무런 영향을 미치지 않습니다.  매개변
수 어노테이션은 매개변수 이름 뒤에 오는 콜론으로 정의되는데, 값을 구할 때
어노테이션의 값을 주는 표현식이 뒤따릅니다.  반환 값 어노테이션은 리터럴
‘->’ 와 그 뒤를 따르는 표현식으로 정의되는데, 매개변수 목록과 *note def:
1420. 문의 끝을 나타내는 콜론 사이에 놓입니다.  다음 예에서 필수 인자, 선
택적 인자, 반환 값이 어노테이트 됩니다:

     >>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
     ...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
     ...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
     ...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
     ...
     >>> f('spam')
     Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
     Arguments: spam eggs
     'spam and eggs'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 막간극 코딩 스타일,  Prev: 함수 정의 더 보기,  Up: 기타 제어 흐름 도구

2.4.10 막간극: 코딩 스타일
--------------------------

이제 여러분은 파이썬의 더 길고, 더 복잡한 조각들을 작성하려고 합니다, '코
딩 스타일'에 대해 말할 적절한 시간입니다.  대부분 언어는 서로 다른 스타
일로 작성될 (또는 더 간략하게, '포맷될') 수 있습니다; 어떤 것들은 다른 것
들보다 더 읽기 쉽습니다.  다른 사람들이 여러분의 코드를 읽기 쉽게 만드는
것은 항상 좋은 생각이고, 훌륭한 코딩 스타일을 도입하는 것은 그렇게 하는
데 큰 도움을 줍니다.

파이썬을 위해, 대부분 프로젝트가 고수하는 스타일 가이드로 PEP 8(1)이 나
왔습니다; 이것은 매우 읽기 쉽고 눈이 편안한 코딩 스타일을 장려합니다.  모
든 파이썬 개발자는 언젠가는 이 문서를 읽어야 합니다; 여러분을 위해 가장
중요한 부분들을 추려봤습니다:

   * 들려 쓰기에 4-스페이스를 사용하고, 탭을 사용하지 마세요.

     4개의 스페이스는 작은 들여쓰기 (더 많은 중첩 도를 허락합니다) 와 큰
     들여쓰기 (읽기 쉽습니다) 사이의 좋은 절충입니다.  탭은 혼란을 일으
     키고, 없애는 것이 최선입니다.

   * 79자를 넘지 않도록 줄 넘김 하세요.

     이것은 작은 화면을 가진 사용자를 돕고 큰 화면에서는 여러 코드 파일
     들을 나란히 볼 수 있게 합니다.

   * 함수, 클래스, 함수 내의 큰 코드 블록 사이에 빈 줄을 넣어 분리하세요
     .

   * 가능하다면, 주석은 별도의 줄로 넣으세요.

   * 독스트링을 사용하세요.

   * 연산자들 주변과 콤마 뒤에 스페이스를 넣고, 괄호 바로 안쪽에는 스페
     이스를 넣지 마세요: ‘a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4)’.

   * 클래스와 함수들에 일관성 있는 이름을 붙이세요; 관례는 클래스의 경우
     ‘UpperCamelCase’, 함수와 메서드의 경우
     ‘lowercase_with_underscores’입니다.  첫 번째 메서드 인자의 이름으로
     는 항상 ‘self’를 사용하세요 (클래스와 메서드에 대한 자세한 내용은
     *note 클래스와의 첫 만남: 1c42. 을 보세요).

   * 여러분의 코드를 국제적인 환경에서 사용하려고 한다면 특별한 인코딩을
     사용하지 마세요.  어떤 경우에도 파이썬의 기본, UTF-8, 또는 단순
     ASCII조차, 이 최선입니다.

   * 마찬가지로, 다른 언어를 사용하는 사람이 코드를 읽거나 유지할 약간의
     가능성만 있더라도, 식별자에 ASCII 이외의 문자를 사용하지 마세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 자료 구조,  Next: 모듈,  Prev: 기타 제어 흐름 도구,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.5 자료 구조
=============

이 장에서는 여러분이 이미 배운 것들을 좀 더 자세히 설명하고, 몇 가지 새
로운 것들을 덧붙입니다.

* Menu:

* 리스트 더 보기::
* del 문::
* 튜플과 시퀀스::
* 집합::
* 딕셔너리::
* 루프 테크닉::
* 조건 더 보기::
* 시퀀스와 다른 형들을 비교하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 더 보기,  Next: del 문,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.1 리스트 더 보기
--------------------

리스트 자료 형은 몇 가지 메서드들을 더 갖고 있습니다.  이것들이 리스트 객
체의 모든 메서드 들입니다:

 -- 메서드: list.append (x)

     리스트의 끝에 항목을 더합니다.  ‘a[len(a):] = [x]’ 와 비슷합니다.

 -- 메서드: list.extend (iterable)

     리스트의 끝에 이터러블의 모든 항목을 덧붙여서 확장합니다.
     ‘a[len(a):] = iterable’ 와 비슷합니다.

 -- 메서드: list.insert (i, x)

     주어진 위치에 항목을 삽입합니다.  첫 번째 인자는 삽입되는 요소가 갖
     게 될 인덱스입니다.  그래서 ‘a.insert(0, x)’ 는 리스트의 처음에 삽
     입하고, ‘a.insert(len(a), x)’ 는 ‘a.append(x)’ 와 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: list.remove (x)

     리스트에서 값이 'x' 와 같은 첫 번째 항목을 삭제합니다.  그런 항목이
     없으면 *note ValueError: 202.를 일으킵니다.

 -- 메서드: list.pop ([i])

     리스트에서 주어진 위치에 있는 항목을 삭제하고, 그 항목을 돌려줍니다
     .  인덱스를 지정하지 않으면, ‘a.pop()’ 은 리스트의 마지막 항목을 삭
     제하고 돌려줍니다.  리스트가 비어 있거나 인덱스가 리스트 범위를 벗
     어나면 *note IndexError: 14fc.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: list.clear ()

     리스트의 모든 항목을 삭제합니다.  ‘del a[:]’ 와 비슷합니다.

 -- 메서드: list.index (x[, start[, end]])

     리스트에 있는 항목 중 값이 'x' 와 같은 첫 번째 것의 0부터 시작하는
     인덱스를 돌려줍니다.  그런 항목이 없으면 *note ValueError: 202. 를
     일으킵니다.

     선택적인 인자 'start' 와 'end' 는 슬라이스 표기법처럼 해석되고, 검
     색을 리스트의 특별한 서브 시퀀스로 제한하는 데 사용됩니다.  돌려주
     는 인덱스는 'start' 인자가 아니라 전체 시퀀스의 시작을 기준으로 합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: list.count (x)

     리스트에서 'x' 가 등장하는 횟수를 돌려줍니다.

 -- 메서드: list.sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

     리스트의 항목들을 제자리에서 정렬합니다 (인자들은 정렬 커스터마이제
     이션에 사용될 수 있습니다.  설명은 *note sorted(): bcb. 를 보세요).

 -- 메서드: list.reverse ()

     리스트의 요소들을 제자리에서 뒤집습니다.

 -- 메서드: list.copy ()

     리스트의 얕은 사본을 돌려줍니다.  ‘a[:]’ 와 비슷합니다.

리스트 메서드 대부분을 사용하는 예:

     >>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
     >>> fruits.count('apple')
     2
     >>> fruits.count('tangerine')
     0
     >>> fruits.index('banana')
     3
     >>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # 위치 4에서부터 다음 banana 를 찾습니다
     6
     >>> fruits.reverse()
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
     >>> fruits.append('grape')
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
     >>> fruits.sort()
     >>> fruits
     ['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
     >>> fruits.pop()
     'pear'

아마도 여러분은 ‘insert’, ‘remove’, ‘sort’ 같은 메서드들이 리스트를 수정
할 뿐 반환 값이 출력되지 않는 것을 알아챘을 것입니다 – 기본 ‘None’ 을 돌
려주고 있습니다.  (1)  이것은 파이썬에서 모든 가변 자료 구조들에 적용되
는 설계 원리입니다.

아마도 여러분이 알아챘을 또 다른 사실은 모든 데이터를 정렬하거나 비교할
수는 없다는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 정수를 문자열과 비교할 수 없고 ‘None’을
다른 형과 비교할 수 없기 때문에 ‘[None, 'hello', 10]’는 정렬되지 않습니
다.  또한 정의된 대소 관계가 없는 형이 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘3+4j <
5+7j’는 올바른 비교가 아닙니다.

* Menu:

* 리스트를 스택으로 사용하기::
* 리스트를 큐로 사용하기::
* 리스트 컴프리헨션::
* 중첩된 리스트 컴프리헨션::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 다른 언어들에서는 가변 객체를 돌려주기도 하는데,
‘d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();’ 와 같은 메서드 연쇄를 허락합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트를 스택으로 사용하기,  Next: 리스트를 큐로 사용하기,  Up: 리스트 더 보기

2.5.1.1 리스트를 스택으로 사용하기
..................................

리스트 메서드들은 리스트를 스택으로 사용하기 쉽게 만드는데, 마지막에 넣
은 요소가 처음으로 꺼내지는 요소입니다 (“last-in, first-out”).  스택의 꼭
대기에 항목을 넣으려면 ‘append()’ 를 사용하세요.  스택의 꼭대기에서 값을
꺼내려면 명시적인 인덱스 없이 ‘pop()’ 을 사용하세요.  예를 들어:

     >>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
     >>> stack.append(6)
     >>> stack.append(7)
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
     >>> stack.pop()
     7
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6]
     >>> stack.pop()
     6
     >>> stack.pop()
     5
     >>> stack
     [3, 4]


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트를 큐로 사용하기,  Next: 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Prev: 리스트를 스택으로 사용하기,  Up: 리스트 더 보기

2.5.1.2 리스트를 큐로 사용하기
..............................

리스트를 큐로 사용하는 것도 가능한데, 처음으로 넣은 요소가 처음으로 꺼내
지는 요소입니다 (“first-in, first-out”); 하지만, 리스트는 이 목적에는 효
율적이지 않습니다.  리스트의 끝에 덧붙이거나, 끝에서 꺼내는 것은 빠르지
만, 리스트의 머리에 덧붙이거나 머리에서 꺼내는 것은 느립니다 (다른 요소
들을 모두 한 칸씩 이동시켜야 하기 때문입니다).

큐를 구현하려면, 양 끝에서의 덧붙이기와 꺼내기가 모두 빠르도록 설계된
*note collections.deque: 5d6. 를 사용하세요.  예를 들어:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
     >>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry 도착
     >>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham 도착
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # 처음 도착한 사람이 이제 떠납니다
     'Eric'
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # 두번째 도착한 사람이 이제 떠납니다
     'John'
     >>> queue                           # 도착한 순서대로 남아있는 큐
     deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Next: 중첩된 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Prev: 리스트를 큐로 사용하기,  Up: 리스트 더 보기

2.5.1.3 리스트 컴프리헨션
.........................

리스트 컴프리헨션은 리스트를 만드는 간결한 방법을 제공합니다.  흔한 용도
는, 각 요소가 다른 시퀀스나 이터러블의 멤버들에 어떤 연산을 적용한 결과
인 리스트를 만들거나, 어떤 조건을 만족하는 요소들로 구성된 서브 시퀀스를
만드는 것입니다.

예를 들어, 제곱수의 리스트를 만들고 싶다고 가정하자, 이런 식입니다:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(10):
     ...     squares.append(x**2)
     ...
     >>> squares
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

이것은 ‘x’ 라는 이름의 변수를 만들고 (또는 덮어쓰고) 루프가 종료된 후에
도 남아있게 만든다는 것에 유의하세요.  어떤 부작용도 없이, 제곱수의 리스
트를 이런 식으로 계산할 수 있습니다:

     squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

또는, 이렇게 할 수도 있습니다:

     squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

이것이 더 간결하고 읽기 쉽습니다.

리스트 컴프리헨션은 표현식과 그 뒤를 따르는 ‘for’ 절과 없거나 여러 개의
‘for’ 나 ‘if’ 절들을 감싸는 대괄호로 구성됩니다.  그 결과는 새 리스트인
데, ‘for’ 와 ‘if’ 절의 문맥에서 표현식의 값을 구해서 만들어집니다.  예를
들어, 이 리스트 컴프리헨션은 두 리스트의 요소들을 서로 같지 않은 것끼리
결합합니다:

     >>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

그리고, 이것은 다음과 동등합니다:

     >>> combs = []
     >>> for x in [1,2,3]:
     ...     for y in [3,1,4]:
     ...         if x != y:
     ...             combs.append((x, y))
     ...
     >>> combs
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

두 코드 조각에서 *note for: 2ea. 와 *note if: 2eb. 문의 순서가 같음에 유
의하세요.

표현식이 튜플이면 (즉 앞의 예에서 ‘(x, y)’), 반드시 괄호로 둘러싸야 합니
다.

     >>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # 값을 두배로 하여 새 리스트를 만듭니다
     >>> [x*2 for x in vec]
     [-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
     >>> # 음수를 제외하도록 리스트를 필터링합니다
     >>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
     [0, 2, 4]
     >>> # 모든 요소에 함수를 적용합니다
     >>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
     [4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # 각 요소에 메서드를 호출합니다
     >>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
     >>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
     ['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
     >>> # (숫자, 제곱) 과 같은 2-튜플의 리스트를 만듭니다
     >>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
     [(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
     >>> # 튜플은 괄호로 묶어야합니다, 그렇지 않으면 에러가 발생합니다
     >>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
          ^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
     >>> # 두 개의 'for' 를 갖는 리스트 컴프리헨션으로 리스트를 평평하게 만듭니다
     >>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
     >>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

리스트 컴프리헨션은 복잡한 표현식과 중첩된 함수들을 포함할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from math import pi
     >>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
     ['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']


File: python.info,  Node: 중첩된 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Prev: 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Up: 리스트 더 보기

2.5.1.4 중첩된 리스트 컴프리헨션
................................

리스트 컴프리헨션의 첫 표현식으로 임의의 표현식이 올 수 있는데, 다른 리
스트 컴프리헨션도 가능합니다.

다음과 같은 길이가 4인 리스트 3개의 리스트로 구현된 3x4 행렬의 예를 봅시
다:

     >>> matrix = [
     ...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
     ...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
     ...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
     ... ]

다음 리스트 컴프리헨션은 행과 열을 전치 시킵니다:

     >>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

앞절에서 보았듯이, 내부 리스트 컴프리헨션은 뒤따르는 *note for: 2ea. 의
문맥에서 값이 구해집니다.  그래서 이 예는 다음과 동등합니다:

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

이것은 다시 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     # 다음 3줄은 중첩된 리스트 컴프리헨션을 구현합니다
     ...     transposed_row = []
     ...     for row in matrix:
     ...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
     ...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

실제 세상에서는, 복잡한 흐름문보다 내장 함수들을 선호해야 합니다.  이 경
우에는 *note zip(): 7c9. 함수가 제 역할을 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> list(zip(*matrix))
     [(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

이 줄에 나오는 애스터리스크에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 인자 목록 언
패킹: 1c37. 을 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: del 문,  Next: 튜플과 시퀀스,  Prev: 리스트 더 보기,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.2 ‘del’ 문
--------------

리스트에서 값 대신에 인덱스를 사용해서 항목을 삭제하는 방법이 있습니다:
*note del: 17ad. 문입니다.  이것은 값을 돌려주는 ‘pop()’ 메서드와 다릅니
다.  ‘del’ 문은 리스트에서 슬라이스를 삭제하거나 전체 리스트를 비우는 데
도 사용될 수 있습니다 (앞에서 빈 리스트를 슬라이스에 대입해서 했던 일입
니다).  예를 들어:

     >>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[0]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[2:4]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[:]
     >>> a
     []

*note del: 17ad. 는 변 자체를 삭제하는데에도 사용될 수 있습니다:

     >>> del a

이후에 이름 ‘a’ 를 참조하는 것은 에러입니다 (적어도 다른 값이 새로 대입
되기 전까지).  뒤에서 *note del: 17ad. 의 다른 용도를 보게 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 튜플과 시퀀스,  Next: 집합,  Prev: del 문,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.3 튜플과 시퀀스
-------------------

리스트와 문자열이 인덱싱과 슬라이싱 연산과 같은 많은 성질을 공유함을 보
았습니다.  이것들은 '시퀀스' 자료 형의 두 가지 예입니다 (*note 시퀀스 형
— list, tuple, range: 1c51. 를 보세요).  파이썬은 진화하는 언어이기 때문
에, 다른 시퀀스 자료형이 추가될 수도 있습니다.  다른 표준 시퀀스 자료 형
이 있습니다: '튜플' 입니다.

튜플은 쉼표로 구분되는 여러 값으로 구성됩니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
     >>> t[0]
     12345
     >>> t
     (12345, 54321, 'hello!')
     >>> # 튜플은 중첩될 수 있습니다:
     >>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
     >>> u
     ((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
     >>> # 튜플은 불변입니다:
     >>> t[0] = 88888
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
     >>> # 하지만 가변 객체를 포함할 수 있습니다:
     >>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
     >>> v
     ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])

여러분이 보듯이, 출력되는 튜플은 항상 괄호로 둘러싸입니다, 그래서 중첩된
튜플이 올바르게 해석됩니다; 종종 괄호가 필요하기는 하지만 (튜플이 더 큰
표현식의 일부일 때), 둘러싼 괄호와 함께 또는 없이 입력될 수 있습니다.  튜
플의 개별 항목에 대입하는 것은 가능하지 않지만, 리스트 같은 가변 객체를
포함하는 튜플을 만들 수는 있습니다.

튜플이 리스트처럼 보인다 하더라도, 이것들은 다른 상황에서 다른 목적으로
사용됩니다.  튜플은 *note 불변: 1c03. 이고, 보통 이질적인 요소들의 시퀀
스를 포함합니다.  요소들은 언 패킹 (이 섹션의 뒤에 나온다) 이나 인덱싱
(또는 *note 네임드 튜플: 1ca. 의 경우는 어트리뷰트로도) 으로 액세스합니
다.  리스트는 *note 가변: 1c08. 이고, 요소들은 보통 등질 적이고 리스트에
대한 이터레이션으로 액세스 됩니다.

특별한 문제는 비었거나 하나의 항목을 갖는 튜플을 만드는 것입니다: 이 경
우를 수용하기 위해 문법은 추가적인 예외 사항을 갖고 있습니다.  빈 튜플은
빈 괄호 쌍으로 만들어집니다; 하나의 항목으로 구성된 튜플은 값 뒤에 쉼표
를 붙여서 만듭니다 (값 하나를 괄호로 둘러싸기만 하는 것으로는 충분하지 않
습니다).  추합니다, 하지만 효과적입니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> empty = ()
     >>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- 마지막 쉼표에 주의하세요
     >>> len(empty)
     0
     >>> len(singleton)
     1
     >>> singleton
     ('hello',)

문장 ‘t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'’ 는 '튜플 패킹' 의 예입니다: 값
‘12345’, ‘54321’, ‘'hello!'’ 는 함께 튜플로 패킹 됩니다.  반대 연산 또한
가능합니다:

     >>> x, y, z = t

이것은, 충분히 적절하게도, '시퀀스 언 패킹' 이라고 불리고 오른쪽에 어떤
시퀀스가 와도 됩니다.  시퀀스 언 패킹은 등호의 좌변에 시퀀스에 있는 요소
들과 같은 개수의 변수들이 올 것을 요구합니다.  다중 대입은 사실 튜플 패
킹과 시퀀스 언 패킹의 조합일뿐이라는 것에 유의하세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 집합,  Next: 딕셔너리,  Prev: 튜플과 시퀀스,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.4 집합
----------

파이썬은 '집합' 을 위한 자료 형도 포함합니다.  집합은 중복되는 요소가 없
는 순서 없는 컬렉션입니다.  기본적인 용도는 멤버십 검사와 중복 엔트리 제
거입니다.  집합 객체는 합집합, 교집합, 차집합, 대칭 차집합과 같은 수학적
인 연산들도 지원합니다.

집합을 만들 때는 중괄호나 *note set(): 5d3. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  주
의사항: 빈 집합을 만들려면 ‘set()’ 을 사용해야 합니다.  ‘{}’ 가 아닙니다
; 후자는 빈 딕셔너리를 만드는데, 다음 섹션에서 다룹니다.

여기 간략한 실연이 있습니다:

     >>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
     >>> print(basket)                      # 중복이 제거되었음을 보여줍니다
     {'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
     >>> 'orange' in basket                 # 빠른 멤버십 검사
     True
     >>> 'crabgrass' in basket
     False

     >>> # 두 단어의 고유한 글자들로 집합 연산 시연
     >>>
     >>> a = set('abracadabra')
     >>> b = set('alacazam')
     >>> a                                  # a 의 고유한 글자들
     {'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
     >>> a - b                              # a 에 있으나 b 에 없는 글자들
     {'r', 'd', 'b'}
     >>> a | b                              # a 나 b, 혹은 양쪽 모두에 있는 글자들
     {'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
     >>> a & b                              # a 와 b 모두에 있는 글자들
     {'a', 'c'}
     >>> a ^ b                              # a 나 b 에 있지만 양쪽 모두에 있지는 않은 글자들
     {'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}

*note 리스트 컴프리헨션: 1c4c. 과 유사하게, 집합 컴프리헨션도 지원됩니다
:

     >>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
     >>> a
     {'r', 'd'}


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리,  Next: 루프 테크닉,  Prev: 집합,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.5 딕셔너리
--------------

파이썬에 내장된 또 하나의 쓸모있는 자료 형은 '딕셔너리' 입니다 (*note
매핑 형 — dict: ac3. 를 보세요).  딕셔너리는 종종 다른 언어들에서 “연관
메모리(associative memories)” 나 “연관 배열(associative arrays)” 의 형태
로 발견됩니다.  숫자들로 인덱싱되는 시퀀스와 달리, 딕셔너리는 '키' 로 인
덱싱되는데, 모든 불변형을 사용할 수 있습니다; 문자열과 숫자들은 항상 키
가 될 수 있습니다.  튜플이 문자열, 숫자, 튜플들만 포함하면, 키로 사용될
수 있습니다; 튜플이 직접적이나 간접적으로 가변 객체를 포함하면, 키로 사
용될 수 없습니다.  리스트는 키로 사용할 수 없는데, 리스트는 인덱스 대입,
슬라이스 대입, ‘append()’ 나 ‘extend()’ 같은 메서드들로 값이 수정될 수 있
기 때문입니다.

딕셔너리를 (한 딕셔너리 안에서) 키가 중복되지 않는다는 제약 조건을 가진
'키: 값' 쌍의 집합으로 생각하는 것이 최선입니다.  중괄호 쌍은 빈 딕셔너
리를 만듭니다: ‘{}’.  중괄호 안에 쉼표로 분리된 키:값 쌍들의 목록을 넣으
면, 딕셔너리에 초기 키:값 쌍들을 제공합니다; 이것이 딕셔너리가 출력되는
방식이기도 합니다.

딕셔너리의 주 연산은 값을 키와 함께 저장하고 주어진 키로 값을 추출하는 것
입니다.  ‘del’ 로 키:값 쌍을 삭제하는 것도 가능합니다.  이미 사용하고 있
는 키로 저장하면, 그 키로 저장된 예전 값은 잊힙니다.  존재하지 않는 키로
값을 추출하는 것은 에러입니다.

딕셔러리에 ‘list(d)’ 를 수행하면 딕셔너리에서 사용되고 있는 모든 키의 리
스트를 삽입 순서대로 돌려줍니다 (정렬을 원하면 대신 ‘sorted(d)’ 를 사용
하면 됩니다).  하나의 키가 딕셔너리에 있는지 검사하려면, *note in: 2ec.
키워드들 사용하세요.

여기에 딕셔너리를 사용하는 조그마한 예가 있습니다:

     >>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
     >>> tel['guido'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
     >>> tel['jack']
     4098
     >>> del tel['sape']
     >>> tel['irv'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
     >>> list(tel)
     ['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
     >>> sorted(tel)
     ['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
     >>> 'guido' in tel
     True
     >>> 'jack' not in tel
     False

*note dict(): 256. 생성자는 키-값 쌍들의 시퀀스로 부터 직접 딕셔너리를 구
성합니다.

     >>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

이에 더해, 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션은 임의의 키와 값 표현식들로 부터 딕셔너리
를 만드는데 사용될 수 있습니다:

     >>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
     {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

키가 간단한 문자열일 때, 때로 키워드 인자들을 사용해서 쌍을 지정하기가 쉽
습니다:

     >>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}


File: python.info,  Node: 루프 테크닉,  Next: 조건 더 보기,  Prev: 딕셔너리,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.6 루프 테크닉
-----------------

딕셔너리로 루핑할 때, *note items(): 7c8. 메서드를 사용하면 키와 거기에
대응하는 값을 동시에 얻을 수 있습니다.

     >>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
     >>> for k, v in knights.items():
     ...     print(k, v)
     ...
     gallahad the pure
     robin the brave

시퀀스를 루핑할 때, *note enumerate(): 1445. 함수를 사용하면 위치 인덱스
와 대응하는 값을 동시에 얻을 수 있습니다.

     >>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
     ...     print(i, v)
     ...
     0 tic
     1 tac
     2 toe

둘이나 그 이상의 시퀀스를 동시에 루핑하려면, *note zip(): 7c9. 함수로 엔
트리들의 쌍을 만들 수 있습니다.

     >>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
     >>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
     >>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
     ...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
     ...
     What is your name?  It is lancelot.
     What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
     What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

시퀀스를 거꾸로 루핑하려면, 먼저 정방향으로 시퀀스를 지정한 다음에 *note
reversed(): 860. 함수를 호출하세요.

     >>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     9
     7
     5
     3
     1

정렬된 순서로 시퀀스를 루핑하려면, *note sorted(): bcb. 함수를 사용해서
소스를 변경하지 않고도 정렬된 새 리스트를 받을 수 있습니다.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for i in sorted(basket):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     apple
     apple
     banana
     orange
     orange
     pear

시퀀스에 대해 *note set(): 5d3.을 사용하면 중복 요소를 제거합니다.  시퀀
스에 대해 *note set(): 5d3.과 *note sorted(): bcb.를 함께 사용하는 것은
시퀀스의 고유 한 요소를 정렬된 순서로 루핑하는 관용적 방법입니다.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
     ...     print(f)
     ...
     apple
     banana
     orange
     pear

때로 루프를 돌고 있는 리스트를 변경하고픈 유혹을 느낍니다; 하지만, 종종,
대신 새 리스트를 만드는 것이 더 간단하고 더 안전합니다.

     >>> import math
     >>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
     >>> filtered_data = []
     >>> for value in raw_data:
     ...     if not math.isnan(value):
     ...         filtered_data.append(value)
     ...
     >>> filtered_data
     [56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]


File: python.info,  Node: 조건 더 보기,  Next: 시퀀스와 다른 형들을 비교하기,  Prev: 루프 테크닉,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.7 조건 더 보기
------------------

‘while’ 과 ‘if’ 문에서 사용되는 조건에는 비교뿐만 아니라 모든 연산자를 사
용할 수 있습니다.

비교 연산자 ‘in’ 과 ‘not in’ 은 값이 컨테이너에 있는지 (없는지) 확인하는
멤버십 검사입니다.  연산자 ‘is’ 와 ‘is not’ 은 두 객체가 진짜로 같은 객
체인지 비교합니다.  모든 비교 연산자들은 같은 우선순위를 갖는데, 모든 산
술 연산자들보다 낮습니다.

비교는 연쇄할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘a < b == c’ 는, ‘a’ 가 ‘b’ 보다
작고, 동시에 ‘b’ 가 ‘c’ 와 같은지 검사합니다.

비교는 논리 연산자 ‘and’ 와 ‘or’ 를 사용해서 결합할 수 있고, 비교의 결과
는 (또는 그 밖의 모든 논리 표현식은) ‘not’ 으로 부정될 수 있습니다.  이
것들은 비교 연산자보다 낮은 우선순위를 갖습니다.  이것 간에는 ‘not’ 이 가
장 높은 우선순위를 갖고, ‘or’ 가 가장 낮습니다.  그래서 ‘A and not B or
C’ 는 ‘(A and (not B)) or C’ 와 동등합니다.  여느 때처럼, 원하는 조합을
표현하기 위해 괄호를 사용할 수 있습니다.

논리 연산자 ‘and’ 와 ‘or’ 는 소위 '단락-회로(short-circuit)' 연산자입니
다: 인자들은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 값이 구해지고, 결과가 결정되자마자 값 구
하기는 중단됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘A’ 와 ‘C’ 가 참이고 ‘B’ 가 거짓이면, ‘A
and B and C’ 는 표현식 ‘C’ 의 값을 구하지 않습니다.  논리값이 아닌 일반
값으로 사용될 때, 단락-회로 연산자의 반환 값은 마지막으로 값이 구해진 인
자입니다.

비교의 결과나 다른 논리 표현식의 결과를 변수에 대입할 수 있습니다.  예를
들어,

     >>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
     >>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
     >>> non_null
     'Trondheim'

파이썬에서, C와는 달리, 표현식 안에서의 대입은 *note 바다코끼리 연산자:
1c59. ‘:=’를 사용하여 명시적으로 수행해야 합니다.  C 프로그램에서 흔히 마
주치는 부류의 문제들을 회피하도록 합니다: ‘==’ 를 사용할 표현식에 ‘=’ 를
입력하는 실수.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스와 다른 형들을 비교하기,  Prev: 조건 더 보기,  Up: 자료 구조

2.5.8 시퀀스와 다른 형들을 비교하기
-----------------------------------

시퀀스 객체들은 보통 같은 시퀀스 형의 다른 객체들과 비교될 수 있습니다.
비교는 '사전식' 순서를 사용합니다: 먼저 첫 두 항목을 비교해서 다르면 이
것이 비교의 결과를 결정합니다; 같으면, 다음 두 항목을 비교하고, 이런 식
으로 어느 한 시퀀스가 소진될 때까지 계속합니다.  만약 비교되는 두 항목 자
체가 같은 형의 시퀀스면, 사전식 비교가 재귀적으로 수행됩니다.  두 시퀀스
의 모든 항목이 같다고 비교되면, 시퀀스들은 같은 것으로 취급됩니다.  한 시
퀀스가 다른 하나의 머리 부분 서브 시퀀스면, 짧은 시퀀스가 작은 것입니다.
문자열의 사전식 배열은 개별 문자들의 순서를 정하는데 유니코드 코드 포인
트 숫자를 사용합니다.  같은 형의 시퀀스들 간의 비교의 몇 가지 예는 이렇
습니다:

     (1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
     [1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
     'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
     (1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
     (1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
     (1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
     (1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

서로 다른 형의 객체들을 ‘<’ 나 ‘>’ 로 비교하는 것은, 그 객체들이 적절한
비교 메서드들을 갖고 있을 때만 허락된다는 것에 유의하세요.  예를 들어, 서
로 다른 숫자 형들은 그들의 숫자 값에 따라 비교됩니다.  그래서 0은 0.0과
같고, 등등.  그렇지 않으면, 임의의 순서를 제공하는 대신, 인터프리터는
*note TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈,  Next: 입력과 출력,  Prev: 자료 구조,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.6 모듈
========

파이썬 인터프리터를 종료한 후에 다시 들어가면, 여러분이 만들었던 정의들
이 사라집니다 (함수나 변수들).  그래서, 좀 긴 프로그램을 쓰고자 한다면,
대신 인터프리터 입력을 편집기를 사용해서 준비한 후에 그 파일을 입력으로
사용해서 실행하는 것이 좋습니다.  이렇게 하는 것을 '스크립트' 를 만든다
고 합니다.  프로그램이 길어짐에 따라, 유지를 쉽게 하려고 여러 개의 파일
로 나누고 싶을 수 있습니다.  여러 프로그램에서 썼던 편리한 함수를 각 프
로그램에 정의를 복사하지 않고도 사용하고 싶을 수도 있습니다.

이런 것을 지원하기 위해, 파이썬은 정의들을 파일에 넣고 스크립트나 인터프
리터의 대화형 모드에서 사용할 수 있는 방법을 제공합니다.  그런 파일을 '모
듈' 이라고 부릅니다; 모듈로부터 정의들이 다른 모듈이나 '메인' 모듈로 '임
포트' 될 수 있습니다 (메인 모듈은 최상위 수준에서 실행되는 스크립트나 계
산기 모드에서 액세스하는 변수들의 컬렉션입니다).

모듈은 파이썬 정의와 문장들을 담고 있는 파일입니다.  파일의 이름은 모듈
이름에 확장자 ‘.py’ 를 붙입니다.  모듈 내에서, 모듈의 이름은 전역 변수
‘__name__’ 으로 제공됩니다.  예를 들어, 여러분이 좋아하는 편집기로
‘fibo.py’ 라는 이름의 파일을 현재 디렉터리에 만들고 다음과 같은 내용으로
채웁니다:

     # Fibonacci numbers module

     def fib(n):
         """Write Fibonacci series up to n."""
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             print(a, end=' ')
             a, b = b, a+b
         print()

     def fib2(n):
         """Return Fibonacci series up to n."""
         result = []
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             result.append(a)
             a, b = b, a+b
         return result

이제 파이썬 인터프리터에 들어가서 이 모듈을 다음과 같은 명령으로 임포트
합니다:

     >>> import fibo

이렇게 한다고 ‘fibo’ 에 정의된 함수들의 이름을 현재 *note 이름 공간:
1c5f.에 직접 추가하지는 않습니다 (자세한 내용은 *note 파이썬 스코프와
이름 공간: 1c60.를 참조하세요); 오직 모듈 이름 ‘fibo’ 만 추가할 뿐입니다
.  이 모듈 이름을 사용해서 함수들을 액세스할 수 있습니다:

     >>> fibo.fib(1000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
     >>> fibo.fib2(100)
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
     >>> fibo.__name__
     'fibo'

함수를 자주 사용할 거라면 지역 이름으로 대입할 수 있습니다:

     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

* Menu:

* 모듈 더 보기::
* 표준 모듈들::
* dir() 함수: dir 함수.
* 패키지::


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 더 보기,  Next: 표준 모듈들,  Up: 모듈

2.6.1 모듈 더 보기
------------------

모듈은 함수 정의뿐만 아니라 실행 가능한 문장들도 포함할 수 있습니다.  이
문장들은 모듈을 초기화하는 데 사용됩니다.  이것들은 임포트 문에서 모듈 이
름이 '처음' 등장할 때만 실행됩니다.  (1)  (이것들은 파일이 스크립트로 실
행될 때도 실행됩니다.)

각 모듈은 자신만의 이름 공간을 갖고 있는데, 그 모듈에서 정의된 함수들의
전역 이름 공간으로 사용됩니다.  그래서, 모듈의 저자는 사용자의 전역 변수
와 우연히 충돌할 것을 걱정하지 않고 전역 변수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  반
면에, 여러분이 무얼 하는지 안다면, 모듈의 함수를 참조하는데 사용된 것과
같은 표기법으로 모듈의 전역 변수들을 건드릴 수 있습니다,
‘modname.itemname’.

모듈은 다른 모듈들을 임포트할 수 있습니다.  모든 *note import: 5dc. 문들
을 모듈의 처음에 놓는 것이 관례지만 반드시 그래야 하는 것은 아닙니다 (그
점에 관한 한 스크립트도 마찬가집니다).  임포트되는 모듈 이름은, 모듈의 최
상위 수준(함수나 클래스의 바깥)에 배치되면, 임포트하는 모듈의 전역 이름
공간에 추가됩니다.

모듈에 들어있는 이름들을 직접 임포트하는 모듈의 이름 공간으로 임포트하는
*note import: 5dc. 문의 변종이 있습니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> from fibo import fib, fib2
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

이것은 지역 이름 공간에 임포트되는 모듈의 이름을 만들지 않습니다 (그래서
이 예에서는, ‘fibo’ 가 정의되지 않습니다).

모듈이 정의하는 모든 이름을 임포트하는 변종도 있습니다:

     >>> from fibo import *
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

이것은 밑줄 (‘_’) 로 시작하는 것들을 제외한 모든 이름을 임포트 합니다.  대
부분 파이썬 프로그래머들은 이 기능을 사용하지 않는데, 인터프리터로 알려
지지 않은 이름들의 집합을 도입하게 되어, 여러분이 이미 정의한 것들을 가
리게 될 수 있기 때문입니다.

일반적으로 모듈이나 패키지에서 ‘*’ 를 임포트하는 것은 눈살을 찌푸리게 한
다는 것에 유의하세요, 종종 읽기에 편하지 않은 코드를 만들기 때문입니다.
하지만, 대화형 세션에서 입력을 줄이고자 사용하는 것은 상관없습니다.

모듈 이름 다음에 ‘as’ 가 올 경우, ‘as’ 다음의 이름을 임포트한 모듈에 직
접 연결합니다.

     >>> import fibo as fib
     >>> fib.fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

이것은 ‘import fibo’ 가하는 것과 같은 방식으로 모듈을 임포트 하는데, 유
일한 차이점은 그 모듈을 ‘fib’ 라는 이름으로 사용할 수 있다는 것입니다.

*note from: 129b.을 써서 비슷한 효과를 낼 때도 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
     >>> fibonacci(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

     참고: 효율성의 이유로, 각 모듈은 인터프리터 세션마다 한 번만 임포트
     됩니다.  그래서, 여러분이 모듈을 수정하면, 인터프리터를 다시 시작시
     켜야 합니다 — 또는, 대화형으로 시험하는 모듈이 하나뿐이라면, *note
     importlib.reload(): 512. 를 사용하세요.  예를 들어, ‘import
     importlib; importlib.reload(modulename)’.

* Menu:

* 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기::
* 모듈 검색 경로::
* “컴파일된” 파이썬 파일::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 사실 함수 정의도 ‘실행’ 되는 ‘문장’ 입니다; 모듈 수준의 함수 정의
를 실행하면 함수의 이름을 전역 이름 공간에 추가합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기,  Next: 모듈 검색 경로,  Up: 모듈 더 보기

2.6.1.1 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기
..................................

여러분이 파이썬 모듈을 이렇게 실행하면

     python fibo.py <arguments>

모듈에 있는 코드는, 그것을 임포트할 때처럼 실행됩니다.  하지만
‘__name__’ 은 ‘"__main__"’ 로 설정됩니다.  이것은, 이 코드를 모듈의 끝에
붙여서:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import sys
         fib(int(sys.argv[1]))

파일을 임포트할 수 있는 모듈뿐만 아니라 스크립트로도 사용할 수 있도록 만
들 수 있음을 의미하는데, 오직 모듈이 “메인” 파일로 실행될 때만 명령행을
파싱하는 코드가 실행되기 때문입니다:

     $ python fibo.py 50
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

모듈이 임포트될 때, 코드는 실행되지 않습니다:

     >>> import fibo
     >>>

이것은 종종 모듈에 대한 편리한 사용자 인터페이스를 제공하거나 테스트 목
적으로 사용됩니다 (모듈을 스크립트로 실행하면 테스트 스위트를 실행하기).


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 검색 경로,  Next: “컴파일된” 파이썬 파일,  Prev: 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기,  Up: 모듈 더 보기

2.6.1.2 모듈 검색 경로
......................

‘spam’ 이라는 이름의 모듈이 임포트될 때, 인터프리터는 먼저 그 이름의 내
장 모듈을 찾습니다.  이 모듈 이름들은 *note sys.builtin_module_names:
1c67.에 나열됩니다.  발견되지 않으면, 변수 *note sys.path: 3ae. 로 주어
지는 디렉터리들에서 ‘spam.py’ 라는 이름의 파일을 찾습니다.  *note
sys.path: 3ae. 는 이 위치들로 초기화됩니다:

   * 입력 스크립트를 포함하는 디렉터리 (또는 파일이 지정되지 않았을 때는
     현재 디렉터리).

   * *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. (디렉터리 이름들의 목록, 셸 변수 ‘PATH’ 와
     같은 문법).

   * 설치 의존적인 기본값 (관례에 따라 ‘site-packages’ 디렉터리를 포함합
     니다, *note site: c7. 모듈이 처리합니다).

자세한 내용은 *note The initialization of the sys.path module search
path: 1c68.에서 확인할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 심볼릭 링크를 지원하는 파일 시스템에서, 입력 스크립트를 포함
     하는 디렉터리는 심볼릭 링크를 변환한 후에 계산됩니다.  다른 말로, 심
     볼릭 링크를 포함하는 디렉터리는 모듈 검색 경로에 포함되지 '않습니다
     '.

초기화 후에, 파이썬 프로그램은 *note sys.path: 3ae. 를 수정할 수 있습니
다.  스크립트를 포함하는 디렉터리는 검색 경로의 처음에, 표준 라이브러리
경로의 앞에 놓입니다.  이것은 같은 이름일 경우 라이브러리 디렉터리에 있
는 것 대신 스크립트를 포함하는 디렉터리의 것이 로드된다는 뜻입니다.  이
치환이 의도된 것이 아니라면 에러입니다.  더 자세한 정보는 *note 표준
모듈들: 1c69. 을 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: “컴파일된” 파이썬 파일,  Prev: 모듈 검색 경로,  Up: 모듈 더 보기

2.6.1.3 “컴파일된” 파이썬 파일
..............................

모듈 로딩을 빠르게 하려고, 파이썬은 ‘__pycache__’ 디렉터리에 각 모듈의 컴
파일된 버전을 ‘module.`version'.pyc’ 라는 이름으로 캐싱합니다.  version
은 컴파일된 파일의 형식을 지정합니다; 일반적으로 파이썬의 버전 번호를 포
함합니다.  예를 들어, CPython 배포 3.3 에서 spam.py 의 컴파일된 버전은
‘__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc’ 로 캐싱 됩니다.  이 명명법은 서로 다른
파이썬 배포와 버전의 컴파일된 모듈들이 공존할 수 있도록 합니다.

파이썬은 소스의 수정 시간을 컴파일된 버전과 비교해서 시효가 지나 다시 컴
파일해야 하는지 검사합니다.  이것은 완전히 자동화된 과정입니다.  또한, 컴
파일된 모듈은 플랫폼 독립적이기 때문에, 같은 라이브러리를 서로 다른 아키
텍처를 갖는 시스템들에서 공유할 수 있습니다.

파이썬은 두 가지 상황에서 캐시를 검사하지 않습니다.  첫째로, 명령행에서
직접 로드되는 모듈들은 항상 재컴파일하고 그 결과를 저장하지 않습니다.  둘
째로, 소스 모듈이 없으면 캐시를 검사하지 않습니다.  소스 없는 (컴파일된
파일만 있는) 배포를 지원하려면, 컴파일된 모듈이 소스 디렉터리에 있어야 하
고, 소스 모듈이 없어야 합니다.

전문가를 위한 몇 가지 팁

   * 컴파일된 모듈의 크기를 줄이려면 파이썬 명령에 *note -O: db1. 나
     *note -OO: db2. 스위치를 사용할 수 있습니다.  ‘-O’ 스위치는 assert
     문을 제거하고, ‘-OO’ 스위치는 assert 문과 __doc__ 문자열을 모두 제
     거합니다.  어떤 프로그램들은 이것들에 의존하기 때문에, 무엇을 하고
     있는지 아는 경우만 이 옵션을 사용해야 합니다.  “최적화된” 모듈은
     ‘opt-’ 태그를 갖고, 보통 더 작습니다.  미래의 배포에서는 최적화의 효
     과가 변경될 수 있습니다.

   * ‘.py’ 파일에서 읽을 때보다 ‘.pyc’ 파일에서 읽을 때 프로그램이 더 빨
     리 실행되지는 않습니다; ‘.pyc’ 파일에서 더 빨라지는 것은 로드되는 속
     도뿐입니다.

   * 모듈 *note compileall: 20. 은 디렉터리에 있는 모든 모듈의 .pyc 파일
     들을 만들 수 있습니다.

   * 이 절차에 대한 더 자세한 정보, 결정들의 순서도를 포함합니다, 는 PEP
     3147(1) 에 나옵니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 모듈들,  Next: dir 함수,  Prev: 모듈 더 보기,  Up: 모듈

2.6.2 표준 모듈들
-----------------

파이썬은 표준 모듈들의 라이브러리가 함께 오는데, 별도의 문서 파이썬 라이
브러리 레퍼런스 (이후로는 “라이브러리 레퍼런스”) 에서 설명합니다.  어떤
모듈들은 인터프리터에 내장됩니다; 이것들은 언어의 핵심적인 부분은 아니지
만 그런데도 내장된 연산들에 대한 액세스를 제공하는데, 효율이나 시스템 호
출과 같은 운영 체제 기본 요소들에 대한 액세스를 제공하기 위함입니다.  그
런 모듈들의 집합은 설정 옵션인데 기반 플랫폼 의존적입니다.  예를 들어,
*note winreg: 116. 모듈은 윈도우 시스템에서만 제공됩니다.  특별한 모듈 하
나는 주목을 받을 필요가 있습니다: *note sys: d9.  모든 파이썬 인터프리터
에 내장됩니다.  변수 ‘sys.ps1’ 와 ‘sys.ps2’ 는 기본과 보조 프롬프트로 사
용되는 문자열을 정의합니다:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.ps1
     '>>> '
     >>> sys.ps2
     '... '
     >>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
     C> print('Yuck!')
     Yuck!
     C>

이 두 개의 변수들은 인터프리터가 대화형 모드일 때만 정의됩니다.

변수 ‘sys.path’ 는 인터프리터의 모듈 검색 경로를 결정하는 문자열들의 리
스트입니다.  환경 변수 *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 에서 취한 기본 경로나,
*note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 가 설정되지 않는 경우 내장 기본값으로 초기화됩니
다.  표준 리스트 연산을 사용해서 수정할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')


File: python.info,  Node: dir 함수,  Next: 패키지,  Prev: 표준 모듈들,  Up: 모듈

2.6.3 ‘dir()’ 함수
------------------

내장 함수 *note dir(): 62c. 은 모듈이 정의하는 이름들을 찾는 데 사용됩니
다.  문자열들의 정렬된 리스트를 돌려줍니다:

     >>> import fibo, sys
     >>> dir(fibo)
     ['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
     >>> dir(sys)
     ['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',
      '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
      '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',
      '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',
      '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',
      'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',
      'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',
      'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',
      'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',
      'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',
      'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
      'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',
      'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',
      'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
      'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',
      'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',
      'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',
      'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',
      'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',
      'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',
      'warnoptions']

인자가 없으면, *note dir(): 62c. 는 현재 정의한 이름들을 나열합니다:

     >>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
     >>> import fibo
     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> dir()
     ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

모든 형의 이름을 나열한다는 것에 유의해야 합니다: 변수, 모듈, 함수, 등등
.

*note dir(): 62c. 은 내장 함수와 변수들의 이름을 나열하지 않습니다.  그
것들의 목록을 원한다면, 표준 모듈 *note builtins: 12. 에 정의되어 있습니
다:

     >>> import builtins
     >>> dir(builtins)
     ['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
      'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
      'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
      'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
      'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
      'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
      'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
      'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
      'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
      'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
      'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
      'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
      'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
      'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
      'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
      'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
      'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
      'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
      '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
      'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
      'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
      'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
      'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
      'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
      'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
      'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
      'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
      'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
      'zip']


File: python.info,  Node: 패키지,  Prev: dir 함수,  Up: 모듈

2.6.4 패키지
------------

패키지는 “점으로 구분된 모듈 이름” 를 써서 파이썬의 모듈 이름 공간을 구
조화하는 방법입니다.  예를 들어, 모듈 이름 ‘A.B’ 는 ‘A’ 라는 이름의 패키
지에 있는 ‘B’ 라는 이름의 서브 모듈을 가리킵니다.  모듈의 사용이 다른 모
듈의 저자들이 서로의 전역 변수 이름들을 걱정할 필요 없게 만드는 것과 마
찬가지로, 점으로 구분된 모듈의 이름들은 NumPy 나 Pillow 과 같은 다중 모
듈 패키지들의 저자들이 서로의 모듈 이름들을 걱정할 필요 없게 만듭니다.

음향 파일과 과 음향 데이터의 일관된 처리를 위한 모듈들의 컬렉션 (“패키지
”) 을 설계하길 원한다고 합시다.  여러 종류의 음향 파일 형식이 있으므로
(보통 확장자로 구분됩니다, 예를 들어: ‘.wav’, ‘.aiff’, ‘.au’), 다양한 파
일 형식 간의 변환을 위해 계속 늘어나는 모듈들의 컬렉션을 만들고 유지할 필
요가 있습니다.  또한, 음향 데이터에 적용하고자 하는 많은 종류의 연산들도
있으므로 (믹싱, 에코 넣기, 이퀄라이저 기능 적용, 인공적인 스테레오 효과
만들기와 같은), 이 연산들을 수행하기 위한 모듈들을 끊임없이 작성하게 될
것입니다.  패키지를 이렇게 구성해 볼 수 있습니다 (계층적 파일 시스템으로
표현했습니다):

     sound/                          최상위 패키지
           __init__.py               sound 패키지 초기화
           formats/                  파일 형식 변환을 위한 서브 패키지
                   __init__.py
                   wavread.py
                   wavwrite.py
                   aiffread.py
                   aiffwrite.py
                   auread.py
                   auwrite.py
                   ...
           effects/                  음향 효과를 위한 서브 패키지
                   __init__.py
                   echo.py
                   surround.py
                   reverse.py
                   ...
           filters/                  필터를 위한 서브 패키지
                   __init__.py
                   equalizer.py
                   vocoder.py
                   karaoke.py
                   ...

패키지를 임포트할 때, 파이썬은 ‘sys.path’ 에 있는 디렉터리들을 검색하면
서 패키지 서브 디렉터리를 찾습니다.

파이썬이 디렉터리를 패키지로 취급하게 만들기 위해서 ‘__init__.py’ 파일이
필요합니다 (비교적 고급 기능인 *note 이름 공간 패키지: 1c70.를 사용하지
않는다면).  이렇게 하면 ‘string’ 처럼 흔히 쓰는 이름의 디렉터리가, 의도
하지 않게 모듈 검색 경로의 뒤에 등장하는 올바른 모듈들을 가리는 일을 방
지합니다.  가장 간단한 경우, ‘__init__.py’ 는 그냥 빈 파일일 수 있지만,
패키지의 초기화 코드를 실행하거나 뒤에서 설명하는 ‘__all__’ 변수를 설정
할 수 있습니다.

패키지 사용자는 패키지로부터 개별 모듈을 임포트할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어
:

     import sound.effects.echo

이것은 서브 모듈 ‘sound.effects.echo’ 를 로드합니다.  전체 이름으로 참조
되어야 합니다.

     sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

서브 모듈을 임포트하는 다른 방법은 이렇습니다:

     from sound.effects import echo

이것도 서브 모듈 ‘echo’ 를 로드하고, 패키지 접두어 없이 사용할 수 있게 합
니다.  그래서 이런 식으로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

또 다른 방법은 원하는 함수나 변수를 직접 임포트하는 것입니다:

     from sound.effects.echo import echofilter

또다시, 이것은 서브 모듈 ‘echo’ 를 로드하지만, 함수 ‘echofilter()’ 를 직
접 사용할 수 있게 만듭니다:

     echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

‘from package import item’ 를 사용할 때, item은 패키지의 서브 모듈 (또는
서브 패키지)일 수도 있고 함수, 클래스, 변수 등 패키지에 정의된 다른 이름
들일 수도 있음에 유의하세요.  ‘import’ 문은 먼저 item이 패키지에 정의되
어 있는지 검사하고, 그렇지 않으면 모듈이라고 가정하고 로드를 시도합니다.
찾지 못한다면, *note ImportError: 413. 예외를 일으킵니다.

이에 반하여, ‘import item.subitem.subsubitem’ 와 같은 문법을 사용할 때,
마지막 것을 제외한 각 항목은 반드시 패키지여야 합니다; 마지막 항목은 모
듈이나 패키지가 될 수 있지만, 앞의 항목에서 정의된 클래스, 함수, 변수 등
이 될 수는 없습니다.

* Menu:

* 패키지에서 * 임포트 하기::
* 패키지 내부 간의 참조::
* 여러 디렉터리에 있는 패키지::


File: python.info,  Node: 패키지에서 * 임포트 하기,  Next: 패키지 내부 간의 참조,  Up: 패키지

2.6.4.1 패키지에서 * 임포트 하기
................................

이제 ‘from sound.effects import *’ 라고 쓰면 어떻게 될까?  이상적으로는,
어떻게든 파일 시스템에서 패키지에 어떤 모듈들이 들어있는지 찾은 다음, 그
것들 모두를 임포트 하기를 원할 것입니다.  이렇게 하는 데는 시간이 오래 걸
리고 서브 모듈을 임포트 함에 따라 어떤 서브 모듈을 명시적으로 임포트할 경
우만 일어나야만 하는 원하지 않는 부수적 효과가 발생할 수 있습니다.

유일한 해결책은 패키지 저자가 패키지의 색인을 명시적으로 제공하는 것입니
다.  *note import: 5dc. 문은 다음과 같은 관례가 있습니다: 패키지의
‘__init__.py’ 코드가 ‘__all__’ 이라는 이름의 목록을 제공하면, 이것을
‘from package import *’ 를 만날 때 임포트 해야만 하는 모듈 이름들의 목록
으로 받아들입니다.  새 버전의 패키지를 출시할 때 이 목록을 최신 상태로 유
지하는 것은 패키지 저자의 책임입니다.  패키지 저자가 패키지에서 * 를 임
포트하는 용도가 없다고 판단한다면, 이것을 지원하지 않기로 할 수도 있습니
다.  예를 들어, 파일 ‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ 는 다음과 같은 코드를 포
함할 수 있습니다:

     __all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

이것은 ‘from sound.effects import *’ 가 ‘sound.effects’ 패키지의 이름을
지정한 세 서브 모듈들을 임포트하게 됨을 의미합니다.

서브 모듈이 지역적으로 정의된 이름에 의해 가려질 수 있음에 유의하세요.  예
를 들어, ‘reverse’ 함수를 ‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ 파일에 추가하면,
‘from sound.effects import *’는 ‘echo’와 ‘surround’ 두 서브 모듈만 임포
트할 뿐, ‘reverse’ 서브 모듈은 임포트하지 '않습니다'.  지역적으로 정의된
‘reverse’ 함수에 의해 가려지기 때문입니다:

     __all__ = [
         "echo",      # 'echo.py' 파일을 가리킵니다
         "surround",  # 'surround.py' 파일을 가리킵니다
         "reverse",   # !!! 이제 'reverse' 함수를 가리킵니다 !!!
     ]

     def reverse(msg: str):  # <-- 'from sound.effects import *' 의 경우에,
         return msg[::-1]    #     이 이름이 'reverse.py' 서비 모듈을 가립니다

‘__all__’ 이 정의되지 않으면, 문장 ‘from sound.effects import *’ 은 패키
지 ‘sound.effects’ 의 모든 서브 모듈들을 현재 이름 공간으로 임포트 하지
'않습니다'; 이것은 오직 패키지 ‘sound.effects’ 가 임포트 되도록 만들고
(‘__init__.py’ 에 있는 초기화 코드들이 수행될 수 있습니다), 그 패키지가
정의하는 이름들을 임포트 합니다.  이 이름들은 ‘__init__.py’ 가 정의하는
모든 이름 (그리고 명시적으로 로드된 서브 모듈들)을 포함합니다.  이 이름
들에는 사전에 *note import: 5dc. 문으로 명시적으로 로드된 패키지의 서브
모듈들 역시 포함됩니다.  이 코드를 생각해봅시다:

     import sound.effects.echo
     import sound.effects.surround
     from sound.effects import *

이 예에서, ‘echo’ 와 ‘surround’ 모듈이 현재 이름 공간으로 임포트 되는데,
‘from...import’ 문이 실행될 때 ‘sound.effects’ 패키지에 정의되기 때문입
니다.  (‘__all__’ 이 정의될 때도 마찬가집니다.)

설사 어떤 모듈이 ‘import *’ 를 사용할 때 특정 패턴을 따르는 이름들만 익
스포트 하도록 설계되었다 하더라도, 프로덕션 코드에서는 여전히 좋지 않은
사례로 여겨집니다.

‘from package import specific_submodule’ 을 사용하는데 잘못된 것은 없다
는 것을 기억하세요!  사실, 임포트하는 모듈이 다른 패키지에서 같은 이름의
서브 모듈을 사용할 필요가 없는 한 권장되는 표기법입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 패키지 내부 간의 참조,  Next: 여러 디렉터리에 있는 패키지,  Prev: 패키지에서 * 임포트 하기,  Up: 패키지

2.6.4.2 패키지 내부 간의 참조
.............................

패키지가 서브 패키지들로 구조화될 때 (예에서 나온 ‘sound’ 패키지처럼), 이
웃 패키지의 서브 모듈을 가리키는데 절대 임포트를 사용할 수 있습니다.  예
를 들어, 모듈 ‘sound.filters.vocoder’ 이 ‘sound.effects’ 패키지의 ‘echo’
모듈이 필요하면, ‘from sound.effects import echo’ 를 사용할 수 있습니다.

상대 임포트를 쓸 수도 있는데, ‘from module import name’ 형태의 임포트 문
을 사용합니다.  이 임포트는 상대 임포트에 수반되는 현재와 부모 패키지를
가리키기 위해 앞에 붙는 점을 사용합니다.  예를 들어, ‘surround’ 모듈에서
, 이렇게 사용할 수 있습니다:

     from . import echo
     from .. import formats
     from ..filters import equalizer

Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module’s
package.  Since the main module does not have a package, modules
intended for use as the main module of a Python application must always
use absolute imports.


File: python.info,  Node: 여러 디렉터리에 있는 패키지,  Prev: 패키지 내부 간의 참조,  Up: 패키지

2.6.4.3 여러 디렉터리에 있는 패키지
...................................

패키지는 특별한 어트리뷰트 하나를 더 지원합니다, *note __path__: 1c76.  이
것은 패키지의 ‘__init__.py’ 파일을 실행하기 전에, 이 파일이 들어있는 디
렉터리의 이름을 포함하는 문자열의 *note 시퀀스: 4eb.로 초기화됩니다.  이
변수는 수정할 수 있습니다; 그렇게 하면 그 이후로 패키지에 포함된 모듈과
서브 패키지를 검색하는 데 영향을 주게 됩니다.

이 기능이 자주 필요하지는 않지만, 패키지에서 발견되는 모듈의 집합을 확장
하는 데 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 입력과 출력,  Next: 에러와 예외,  Prev: 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.7 입력과 출력
===============

프로그램의 출력을 표현하는 여러 가지 방법이 있습니다; 사람이 일기에 적합
한 형태로 데이터를 인쇄할 수도 있고, 나중에 사용하기 위해 파일에 쓸 수도
있습니다.  이 장에서는 몇 가지 가능성을 논합니다.

* Menu:

* 장식적인 출력 포매팅::
* 파일을 읽고 쓰기::


File: python.info,  Node: 장식적인 출력 포매팅,  Next: 파일을 읽고 쓰기,  Up: 입력과 출력

2.7.1 장식적인 출력 포매팅
--------------------------

지금까지 우리는 값을 쓰는 두 가지 방법을 만났습니다: '표현식 문장' 과
*note print(): f6d. 함수입니다.  (세 번째 방법은 파일 객체의 *note
write(): 1c7c. 메서드를 사용하는 것입니다; 표준 출력 파일은 ‘sys.stdout’
로 참조할 수 있습니다.  이것에 대한 자세한 정보는 라이브러리 레퍼런스를
보세요.)

종종 단순히 스페이스로 구분된 값을 인쇄하는 것보다 출력 형식을 더 많이 제
어해야 하는 경우가 있습니다.  출력을 포맷하는 데는 여러 가지 방법이 있습
니다.

   * *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 1c7d.을 사용하려면, 시작 인용 부호 또는 삼
     중 인용 부호 앞에 ‘f’ 또는 ‘F’ 를 붙여 문자열을 시작하십시오.  이 문
     자열 안에서, ‘{’ 및 ‘}’ 문자 사이에, 변수 또는 리터럴 값을 참조할 수
     있는 파이썬 표현식을 작성할 수 있습니다.

          >>> year = 2016
          >>> event = 'Referendum'
          >>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
          'Results of the 2016 Referendum'

   * 문자열의 *note str.format(): 61b. 메서드는 더 많은 수작업을 요구합
     니다.  변수가 대체 될 위치를 표시하기 위해 ‘{’ 및 ‘}’를 여전히 사용
     하고, 자세한 포매팅 디렉티브를 제공할 수 있지만, 포맷할 정보도 제공
     해야 합니다.  다음 코드 블록에는 변수를 포맷하는 방법에 대한 두 가
     지 예가 있습니다:

          >>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
          >>> total_votes = 85_705_149
          >>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
          >>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
          ' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'

     Notice how the ‘yes_votes’ are padded with spaces and a negative
     sign only for negative numbers.  The example also prints
     ‘percentage’ multiplied by 100, with 2 decimal places and followed
     by a percent sign (see *note 포맷 명세 미니 언어: 1e8. for
     details).

   * 마지막으로, 문자열 슬라이싱 및 이어붙이기 연산을 사용하여 상상할 수
     있는 모든 배치를 만듦으로써, 모든 문자열 처리를 스스로 수행할 수 있
     습니다.  문자열형에는 주어진 열 너비로 문자열을 채우는 데 유용한 연
     산을 수행하는 몇 가지 메서드가 있습니다.

장식적인 출력이 필요하지 않고 단지 디버깅을 위해 일부 변수를 빠르게 표시
하려면, *note repr(): 7f7. 또는 *note str(): 445. 함수를 사용하여 모든 값
을 문자열로 변환할 수 있습니다.

*note str(): 445. 함수는 어느 정도 사람이 읽기에 적합한 형태로 값의 표현
을 돌려주게 되어있습니다.  반면에 *note repr(): 7f7. 은 인터프리터에 의
해 읽힐 수 있는 형태를 만들게 되어있습니다 (또는 그렇게 표현할 수 있는 문
법이 없으면 *note SyntaxError: 18d. 를 일으키도록 구성됩니다).  사람이 소
비하기 위한 특별한 표현이 없는 객체의 경우, *note str(): 445. 는 *note
repr(): 7f7. 과 같은 값을 돌려줍니다.  많은 값, 숫자들이나 리스트와 딕셔
너리와 같은 구조들, 은 두 함수를 쓸 때 같은 표현을 합니다.  특별히, 문자
열은 두 가지 표현을 합니다.

몇 가지 예를 듭니다:

     >>> s = 'Hello, world.'
     >>> str(s)
     'Hello, world.'
     >>> repr(s)
     "'Hello, world.'"
     >>> str(1/7)
     '0.14285714285714285'
     >>> x = 10 * 3.25
     >>> y = 200 * 200
     >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
     >>> print(s)
     The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
     >>> # 문자열의 repr() 은 문자열 따옴표와 역슬래시를 추가합니다:
     >>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
     >>> hellos = repr(hello)
     >>> print(hellos)
     'hello, world\n'
     >>> # repr() 의 인자로는 모든 파이썬 객체가 올 수 있습니다:
     >>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
     "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"

*note string: d3. 모듈에는 문자열에 값을 치환하는 또 다른 방법을 제공하
는 *note Template: 681. 클래스가 포함되어 있습니다.  ‘$x’와 같은 자리 표
시자를 사용하고 이것들을 딕셔너리에서 오는 값으로 치환하지만, 포매팅에 대
한 제어를 훨씬 덜 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 포맷 문자열 리터럴::
* 문자열 format() 메서드: 문자열 format 메서드.
* 수동 문자열 포매팅::
* 예전의 문자열 포매팅::


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 문자열 리터럴,  Next: 문자열 format 메서드,  Up: 장식적인 출력 포매팅

2.7.1.1 포맷 문자열 리터럴
..........................

*note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6.(간단히 f-문자열이라고도 합니다)은 문자열
에 ‘f’ 또는 ‘F’ 접두어를 붙이고 표현식을 ‘{expression}’로 작성하여 문자
열에 파이썬 표현식의 값을 삽입할 수 있게 합니다.

선택적인 포맷 지정자가 표현식 뒤에 올 수 있습니다.  이것으로 값이 포맷되
는 방식을 더 정교하게 제어할 수 있습니다.  다음 예는 원주율을 소수점 이
하 세 자리로 반올림합니다.

     >>> import math
     >>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

‘':'’ 뒤에 정수를 전달하면 해당 필드의 최소 문자 폭이 됩니다.  열을 줄 맞
춤할 때 편리합니다.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
     >>> for name, phone in table.items():
     ...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
     ...
     Sjoerd     ==>       4127
     Jack       ==>       4098
     Dcab       ==>       7678

다른 수정자를 사용하면 포맷되기 전에 값을 변환할 수 있습니다.  ‘'!a'’는
*note ascii(): 13af.를, ‘'!s'’는 *note str(): 445.을, ‘'!r'’는 *note
repr(): 7f7.을 적용합니다.:

     >>> animals = 'eels'
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
     My hovercraft is full of eels.
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
     My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.

The ‘=’ specifier can be used to expand an expression to the text of the
expression, an equal sign, then the representation of the evaluated
expression:

     >>> bugs = 'roaches'
     >>> count = 13
     >>> area = 'living room'
     >>> print(f'Debugging {bugs=} {count=} {area=}')
     Debugging bugs='roaches' count=13 area='living room'

‘=’ 지정자에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 스스로 설명하는 표현식: 9a4.을 참
조하세요.  이러한 포맷 사양에 대한 레퍼런스는 *note 포맷 명세 미니 언어:
1e8.에 대한 레퍼런스 지침서를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 format 메서드,  Next: 수동 문자열 포매팅,  Prev: 포맷 문자열 리터럴,  Up: 장식적인 출력 포매팅

2.7.1.2 문자열 format() 메서드
..............................

*note str.format(): 61b. 메서드의 기본적인 사용법은 이런 식입니다:

     >>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
     We are the knights who say "Ni!"

중괄호와 그 안에 있는 문자들 (포맷 필드라고 부른다) 은 *note
str.format(): 61b. 메서드로 전달된 객체들로 치환됩니다.  중괄호 안의 숫
자는 *note str.format(): 61b. 메서드로 전달된 객체들의 위치를 가리키는데
사용될 수 있습니다.

     >>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     spam and eggs
     >>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     eggs and spam

*note str.format(): 61b. 메서드에 키워드 인자가 사용되면, 그 값들은 인자
의 이름을 사용해서 지정할 수 있습니다.

     >>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
     ...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
     This spam is absolutely horrible.

위치와 키워드 인자를 자유롭게 조합할 수 있습니다:

     >>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
     ...                                                    other='Georg'))
     The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.

나누고 싶지 않은 정말 긴 포맷 문자열이 있을 때, 포맷할 변수들을 위치 대
신에 이름으로 지정할 수 있다면 좋을 것입니다.  간단히 딕셔너리를 넘기고
키를 액세스하는데 대괄호 ‘'[]'’ 를 사용하면 됩니다.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
     ...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

‘**’ 표기법을 사용해서 ‘table’ 딕셔너리를 키워드 인자로 전달해도 같은 결
과를 얻을 수 있습니다.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

이 방법은 모든 지역 변수들을 담은 딕셔너리를 돌려주는 내장 함수 *note
vars(): 1a49. 와 함께 사용할 때 특히 쓸모가 있습니다:

     >>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
     >>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
     >>> print(message.format(**table))
     __name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...

예를 들어, 다음 줄은 정수와 그 제곱과 세제곱을 제공하는 빽빽하게 정렬된
열 집합을 생성합니다:

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

*note str.format(): 61b. 를 사용한 문자열 포매팅의 완전한 개요는 *note
포맷 문자열 문법: 1379. 을 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 수동 문자열 포매팅,  Next: 예전의 문자열 포매팅,  Prev: 문자열 format 메서드,  Up: 장식적인 출력 포매팅

2.7.1.3 수동 문자열 포매팅
..........................

여기 같은 제곱수와 세제곱수 표를 수동으로 포매팅했습니다:

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
     ...     # 앞 줄의 'end' 사용에 주목하세요
     ...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

(*note print(): f6d. 의 동작 방식으로 인해 각 칼럼 사이에 스페이스 하나
가 추가되었음에 유의하세요: 항상 인자들 사이에 스페이스를 추가합니다.)

문자열 객체의 *note str.rjust(): 1c82. 메서드는 왼쪽에 스페이스를 채워서
주어진 폭으로 문자열을 우측 줄 맞춤합니다.  비슷한 메서드 *note
str.ljust(): 1c83. 와 *note str.center(): 1c84. 도 있습니다.  이 메서드
들은 어떤 것도 출력하지 않습니다, 단지 새 문자열을 돌려줍니다.  입력 문
자열이 너무 길면, 자르지 않고, 변경 없이 그냥 돌려줍니다; 이것이 열 배치
를 엉망으로 만들겠지만, 보통 값에 대해 거짓말을 하게 될 대안보다는 낫습
니다.  (정말로 잘라내기를 원한다면, 항상 슬라이스 연산을 추가할 수 있습
니다, ‘x.ljust(n)[:n]’ 처럼.)

다른 메서드도 있습니다, *note str.zfill(): 1478.  숫자 문자열의 왼쪽에
0을 채웁니다.  플러스와 마이너스 부호도 이해합니다:

     >>> '12'.zfill(5)
     '00012'
     >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
     '-003.14'
     >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
     '3.14159265359'


File: python.info,  Node: 예전의 문자열 포매팅,  Prev: 수동 문자열 포매팅,  Up: 장식적인 출력 포매팅

2.7.1.4 예전의 문자열 포매팅
............................

% 연산자(모듈로)는 문자열 포매팅에도 사용할 수 있습니다.  ‘format %
values’가 주어지면 ('format'은 문자열입니다), 'format'에 있는 ‘%’ 변환 명
세는 0개 이상의 'values' 요소로 대체됩니다.  이 연산을 흔히 문자열 보간
(interpolation)이라고 합니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> import math
     >>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

더 자세한 내용은 *note printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅: 6c6. 섹션에 나옵니다
.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일을 읽고 쓰기,  Prev: 장식적인 출력 포매팅,  Up: 입력과 출력

2.7.2 파일을 읽고 쓰기
----------------------

*note open(): 515. 은 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 를 돌려주고, 두 개의 위치 인
자와 하나의 키워드 인자를 주는 방식이 가장 많이 사용됩니다:
‘open(filename, mode, encoding=None)’

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'w', encoding="utf-8")

첫 번째 인자는 파일 이름을 담은 문자열입니다.  두 번째 인자는 파일이 사
용될 방식을 설명하는 몇 개의 문자들을 담은 또 하나의 문자열입니다.
'mode' 는 파일을 읽기만 하면 ‘'r'’, 쓰기만 하면 ‘'w'’ (같은 이름의 이미
존재하는 파일은 삭제됩니다) 가 되고, ‘'a'’ 는 파일을 덧붙이기 위해 엽니
다; 파일에 기록되는 모든 데이터는 자동으로 끝에 붙습니다.  ‘'r+'’ 는 파
일을 읽고 쓰기 위해 엽니다.  'mode' 인자는 선택적인데, 생략하면 ‘'r'’ 이
가정됩니다.

보통, 파일은 '텍스트 모드 (text mode)' 로 열리는데, 이 뜻은, 파일에 문자
열을 읽고 쓰고, 파일에는 특정한 'encoding'으로 인코딩된다는 것입니다.
'encoding'이 지정되지 않으면 기본값은 플랫폼 의존적입니다 (*note open():
515. 을 보세요).  UTF-8 이 사실상의 최신 표준이므로, 다른 인코딩을 사용
해야 하는 경우가 아니라면 ‘encoding="utf-8"’를 권합니다.  mode 에 ‘'b'’를
덧붙이면 파일을 '바이너리 모드 (binary mode)' 로 엽니다.  이제 데이터는
바이트열 객체의 형태로 읽고 쓰입니다.  텍스트를 포함하지 않는 모든 파일
에는 이 모드를 사용해야 합니다.  바이너리 모드 데이터는 *note bytes:
1c2. 객체로 읽고 씁니다.  바이너리 모드로 파일을 열 때는 'encoding'을 지
정할 수 없습니다.

텍스트 모드에서, 읽을 때의 기본 동작은 플랫폼 의존적인 줄 종료 (유닉스에
서 ‘\n’, 윈도우에서 ‘\r\n’) 를 단지 ‘\n’ 로 변경하는 것입니다.  텍스트 모
드로 쓸 때, 기본 동작은 ‘\n’ 를 다시 플랫폼 의존적인 줄 종료로 변환하는
것입니다.  이 파일 데이터에 대한 무대 뒤의 수정은 텍스트 파일의 경우는 문
제가 안 되지만, ‘JPEG’ 이나 ‘EXE’ 파일과 같은 바이너리 데이터를 망치게 됩
니다.  그런 파일을 읽고 쓸 때 바이너리 모드를 사용하도록 주의하세요.

파일 객체를 다룰 때 *note with: 5cc. 키워드를 사용하는 것은 좋은 습관입
니다.  혜택은 도중 예외가 발생하더라도 스위트가 종료될 때 파일이 올바르
게 닫힌다는 것입니다.  ‘with’ 를 사용하는 것은 동등한 *note try:
6e2.-*note finally: 9c7. 블록을 쓰는 것에 비교해 훨씬 짧기도 합니다:

     >>> with open('workfile', encoding="utf-8") as f:
     ...     read_data = f.read()

     >>> # 파일이 자동으로 닫혔는지 확인할 수 있습니다.
     >>> f.closed
     True

*note with: 5cc. 키워드를 사용하지 않으면, ‘f.close()’ 를 호출해서 파일
을 닫고 사용된 시스템 자원을 즉시 반납해야 합니다.

     경고: ‘with’ 키워드를 사용하거나 ‘f.close()’를 호출하지 않고
     ‘f.write()’를 호출하면 프로그램이 성공적으로 종료되더라도
     ‘f.write()’의 인자가 디스크에 완전히 기록되지 않을 '수' 있습니다.

파일 객체가 닫힌 후에는, *note with: 5cc. 문이나 ‘f.close()’ 를 호출하는
경우 모두, 파일 객체를 사용하려는 시도는 자동으로 실패합니다.

     >>> f.close()
     >>> f.read()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.

* Menu:

* 파일 객체의 매소드::
* json 으로 구조적인 데이터를 저장하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 객체의 매소드,  Next: json 으로 구조적인 데이터를 저장하기,  Up: 파일을 읽고 쓰기

2.7.2.1 파일 객체의 매소드
..........................

이 섹션의 나머지 예들은 ‘f’ 라는 파일 객체가 이미 만들어졌다고 가정합니
다.

파일의 내용을 읽으려면, ‘f.read(size)’ 를 호출하는데, 일정량의 데이터를
읽고 문자열 (텍스트 모드 에서) 이나 바이트열 (바이너리 모드에서) 로 돌려
줍니다.  'size' 는 선택적인 숫자 인자입니다.  'size' 가 생략되거나 음수
면 파일의 내용 전체를 읽어서 돌려줍니다; 파일의 크기가 기계의 메모리보다
두 배 크다면 여러분이 감당할 문제입니다.  그렇지 않으면 최대 'size' 문자
(텍스트 모드에서)나 'size' 바이트(바이너리 모드에서)를 읽고 돌려줍니다.
파일의 끝에 도달하면, ‘f.read()’ 는 빈 문자열 (‘''’) 을 돌려줍니다.

     >>> f.read()
     'This is the entire file.\n'
     >>> f.read()
     ''

‘f.readline()’ 은 파일에서 한 줄을 읽습니다; 개행 문자 (‘\n’) 는 문자열
의 끝에 보존되고, 파일이 개행문자로 끝나지 않는 때에만 파일의 마지막 줄
에서만 생략됩니다.  이렇게 반환 값을 모호하지 않게 만듭니다;
‘f.readline()’ 가 빈 문자열을 돌려주면, 파일의 끝에 도달한 것이지만, 빈
줄은 ‘'\n'’, 즉 하나의 개행문자만을 포함하는 문자열로 표현됩니다.

     >>> f.readline()
     'This is the first line of the file.\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     'Second line of the file\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     ''

파일에서 줄들을 읽으려면, 파일 객체에 대해 루핑할 수 있습니다.  이것은 메
모리 효율적이고, 빠르며 간단한 코드로 이어집니다:

     >>> for line in f:
     ...     print(line, end='')
     ...
     This is the first line of the file.
     Second line of the file

파일의 모든 줄을 리스트로 읽어 들이려면 ‘list(f)’ 나 ‘f.readlines()’ 를
쓸 수 있습니다.

‘f.write(string)’ 은 'string' 의 내용을 파일에 쓰고, 출력된 문자들의 개
수를 돌려줍니다.

     >>> f.write('This is a test\n')
     15

다른 형의 객체들은 쓰기 전에 변환될 필요가 있습니다 – 문자열 (텍스트 모
드에서) 이나 바이트열 객체 (바이너리 모드에서) 로 –:

     >>> value = ('the answer', 42)
     >>> s = str(value)  # 튜플을 문자열로 변환합니다
     >>> f.write(s)
     18

‘f.tell()’ 은 파일의 현재 위치를 가리키는 정수를 돌려주는데, 바이너리 모
드의 경우 파일의 처음부터의 바이트 수로 표현되고 텍스트 모드의 경우는 불
투명한 숫자입니다.

파일 객체의 위치를 바꾸려면, ‘f.seek(offset, whence)’ 를 사용합니다.  위
치는 기준점에 'offset' 을 더해서 계산됩니다; 기준점은 'whence' 인자로 선
택합니다.  'whence' 값이 0이면 파일의 처음부터 측정하고, 1이면 현재 파일
위치를 사용하고, 2 는 파일의 끝을 기준점으로 사용합니다.  'whence' 는 생
략될 수 있고, 기본값은 0이라서 파일의 처음을 기준점으로 사용합니다.

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
     >>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
     16
     >>> f.seek(5)      # 파일의 6번째 바이트로 이동합니다
     5
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'5'
     >>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # 끝에서 3번째 바이트로 이동합니다
     13
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'd'

텍스트 파일에서는 (모드 문자열에 ‘b’ 가 없이 열린 것들), 파일의 시작에 상
대적인 위치 변경만 허락되고 (예외는 ‘seek(0, 2)’ 를 사용해서 파일의 끝으
로 위치를 변경하는 경우입니다), 올바른 'offset' 값은 ‘f.tell()’ 이 돌려
준 값과 0뿐입니다.  그 밖의 다른 'offset' 값은 정의되지 않은 결과를 낳습
니다.

파일 객체는 *note isatty(): 1c8a. 나 *note truncate(): 1301. 같은 몇 가
지 메서드를 더 갖고 있는데, 덜 자주 사용됩니다; 파일 객체에 대한 완전한
안내는 라이브러리 레퍼런스를 참조하세요.


File: python.info,  Node: json 으로 구조적인 데이터를 저장하기,  Prev: 파일 객체의 매소드,  Up: 파일을 읽고 쓰기

2.7.2.2 ‘json’ 으로 구조적인 데이터를 저장하기
..............................................

문자열은 파일에 쉽게 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다.  숫자는 약간의 수고를 해야 하
는데, *note read(): 1c8d. 메서드가 문자열만을 돌려주기 때문입니다.  이 문
자열을 *note int(): 257. 같은 함수로 전달해야만 하는데, ‘'123'’ 같은 문
자열을 받고 숫자 값 123을 돌려줍니다.  중첩된 리스트나 딕셔너리 같은 더
복잡한 데이터를 저장하려고 할 때, 수작업으로 파싱하고 직렬화하는 것이 까
다로울 수 있습니다.

사용자가 반복적으로 복잡한 데이터형을 파일에 저장하는 코드를 작성하고 디
버깅하도록 하는 대신, 파이썬은 JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(1) 이라
는 널리 쓰이는 데이터 교환 형식을 사용할 수 있게 합니다.  *note json:
82. 이라는 표준 모듈은 파이썬 데이터 계층을 받아서 문자열 표현으로 바꿔
줍니다; 이 절차를 '직렬화 (serializing)' 라고 부릅니다.  문자열 표현으로
부터 데이터를 재구성하는 것은 '역 직렬화 (deserializing)' 라고 부릅니다.
직렬화와 역 직렬화 사이에서, 객체를 표현하는 문자열은 파일이나 데이터에
저장되거나 네트워크 연결을 통해 원격 기계로 전송될 수 있습니다.

     참고: JSON 형식은 데이터 교환을 위해 현대 응용 프로그램들이 자주 사
     용합니다.  많은 프로그래머가 이미 이것에 익숙하므로, 연동성을 위한
     좋은 선택이 됩니다.

객체 ‘x’ 가 있을 때, 간단한 한 줄의 코드로 그것의 JSON 문자열 표현을 볼
수 있습니다:

     >>> import json
     >>> x = [1, 'simple', 'list']
     >>> json.dumps(x)
     '[1, "simple", "list"]'

*note dump(): d41.라는 *note dumps(): d42. 함수의 변종은 객체를 *note
텍스트 파일: 1c8e. 로 직렬화합니다.  그래서 ‘f’ 가 쓰기를 위해 열린
*note 텍스트 파일: 1c8e. 이면, 이렇게 할 수 있습니다:

     json.dump(x, f)

객체를 다시 디코드하려면, ‘f’ 가 읽기를 위해 열린 *note 바이너리 파일:
1c8f.이나 *note 텍스트 파일: 1c8e. 객체일 때:

     x = json.load(f)

     참고: JSON files must be encoded in UTF-8.  Use ‘encoding="utf-8"’
     when opening JSON file as a *note text file: 1c8e. for both of
     reading and writing.

이 간단한 직렬화 테크닉이 리스트와 딕셔너리를 다룰 수 있지만, 임의의 클
래스 인스턴스를 JSON 으로 직렬화하기 위해서는 약간의 수고가 더 필요합니
다.  *note json: 82. 모듈의 레퍼런스는 이 방법에 대한 설명을 담고 있습니
다.

더 보기
.......

*note pickle: a6. - 피클 모듈

*note JSON: 1c8c. 에 반해, 'pickle' 은 임의의 복잡한 파이썬 객체들을 직
렬화할 수 있는 프로토콜입니다.  파이썬에 국한되고 다른 언어로 작성된 응
용 프로그램들과 통신하는데 사용될 수 없습니다.  기본적으로 안전하지 않기
도 합니다: 믿을 수 없는 소스에서 온 데이터를 역 직렬화할 때, 숙련된 공격
자에 의해 데이터가 조작되었다면 임의의 코드가 실행될 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: 에러와 예외,  Next: 클래스,  Prev: 입력과 출력,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.8 에러와 예외
===============

지금까지 에러 메시지가 언급되지는 않았지만, 예제들을 직접 해보았다면 아
마도 몇몇 개를 보았을 것입니다.  (적어도) 두 가지 구별되는 에러들이 있습
니다; '문법 에러' 와 '예외'.

* Menu:

* 문법 에러::
* 예외::
* 예외 처리하기::
* 예외 일으키기::
* 예외 연쇄::
* 사용자 정의 예외::
* 뒷정리 동작 정의하기::
* 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들::
* Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions::
* Enriching Exceptions with Notes::


File: python.info,  Node: 문법 에러,  Next: 예외,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.1 문법 에러
---------------

문법 에러는, 파싱 에러라고도 알려져 있습니다, 아마도 여러분이 파이썬을 배
우고 있는 동안에는 가장 자주 만나는 종류의 불평일 것입니다:

     >>> while True print('Hello world')
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         while True print('Hello world')
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

파서는 문제가 되는 줄을 다시 보여주고 줄에서 에러가 감지된 위치를 가리키
는 작은 화살표를 표시합니다.  이 위치가 항상 수정해야 할 위치는 아님에 유
의하십시오.  이 예에서, 에러는 함수 *note print(): f6d. 에서 감지되었는
데, 바로 앞에 콜론 (‘':'’) 이 빠져있기 때문입니다.

파일 이름(우리 예에서는 ‘<stdin>’)과 줄 번호가 인쇄되어서, 입력이 파일로
부터 올 때 찾을 수 있도록 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외,  Next: 예외 처리하기,  Prev: 문법 에러,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.2 예외
----------

문장이나 표현식이 문법적으로 올바르다 할지라도, 실행하려고 하면 에러를 일
으킬 수 있습니다.  실행 중에 감지되는 에러들을 '예외' 라고 부르고 무조건
치명적이지는 않습니다: 파이썬 프로그램에서 이것들을 어떻게 다루는지 곧 배
우게 됩니다.  하지만 대부분의 예외는 프로그램이 처리하지 않아서, 여기에
서 볼 수 있듯이 에러 메시지를 만듭니다:

     >>> 10 * (1/0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         10 * (1/0)
               ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> 4 + spam*3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         4 + spam*3
             ^^^^
     NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
     >>> '2' + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         '2' + 2
         ~~~~^~~
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

에러 메시지의 마지막 줄은 어떤 일이 일어났는지 알려줍니다.  예외는 여러
형으로 나타나고, 형이 메시지 일부로 인쇄됩니다: 이 예에서의 형은 *note
ZeroDivisionError: 943, *note NameError: 438, *note TypeError: 532. 입니
다.  예외 형으로 인쇄된 문자열은 발생한 내장 예외의 이름입니다.  이것은
모든 내장 예외들의 경우는 항상 참이지만, 사용자 정의 예외의 경우는 (편리
한 관례임에도 불구하고) 꼭 그럴 필요는 없습니다.  표준 예외 이름은 내장
식별자입니다 (예약 키워드가 아닙니다).

줄의 나머지 부분은 예외의 형과 원인에 기반을 둔 상세 명세를 제공합니다.

에러 메시지의 앞부분은 스택 트레이스의 형태로 예외가 일어난 위치의 문맥
을 보여줍니다.  일반적으로 소스의 줄들을 나열하는 스택 트레이스를 포함하
고 있습니다; 하지만, 표준 입력에서 읽어 들인 줄들은 표시하지 않습니다.

*note 내장 예외: 188a. 는 내장 예외들과 그 들의 의미를 나열하고 있습니다
.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 처리하기,  Next: 예외 일으키기,  Prev: 예외,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.3 예외 처리하기
-------------------

선택한 예외를 처리하는 프로그램을 만드는 것이 가능합니다.  다음 예를 보
면, 올바를 정수가 입력될 때까지 사용자에게 입력을 요청하지만, 사용자가 프
로그램을 인터럽트 하는 것을 허용합니다 (‘Control’-‘C’ 나 그 외에 운영 체
제가 지원하는 것을 사용해서); 사용자가 만든 인터럽트는 *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 예외를 일으키는 형태로 나타남에 유의하세요.

     >>> while True:
     ...     try:
     ...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
     ...         break
     ...     except ValueError:
     ...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
     ...

*note try: 6e2. 문은 다음과 같이 동작합니다.

   * 먼저, 'try 절' (*note try: 6e2. 와 *note except: 18b. 사이의 문장들
     ) 이 실행됩니다.

   * 예외가 발생하지 않으면, 'except 절' 을 건너뛰고 *note try: 6e2. 문
     의 실행은 종료됩니다.

   * *note try: 6e2. 절을 실행하는 동안 예외가 발생하면, 절의 남은 부분
     들을 건너뜁니다.  그런 다음, 형이 *note except: 18b. 키워드 뒤에 오
     는 예외 이름과 매치되면, 그 'except 절'이 실행되고, 그런 다음 실행
     은 try/except 블록 뒤로 이어집니다.

   * 'except 절'에 있는 예외 이름들과 매치되지 않는 예외가 발생하면, 외
     부에 있는 *note try: 6e2. 문으로 전달됩니다; 처리기가 발견되지 않으
     면, '처리되지 않은 예외' 이고 에러 메시지를 출력하면서 실행이 멈춥
     니다.

각기 다른 예외에 대한 처리기를 지정하기 위해, *note try: 6e2. 문은 하나
이상의 'except 절'을 가질 수 있습니다.  최대 하나의 처리기가 실행됩니다.
처리기는 해당하는 'try 절'에서 발생한 예외만 처리할 뿐 같은 ‘try’ 문의 다
른 처리기가 일으킨 예외를 처리하지는 않습니다.  'except 절'은 괄호가 있
는 튜플로 여러 개의 예외를 지정할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어:

     ... except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
     ...     pass

*note except: 18b. 절에 있는 클래스는 해당 클래스 자체나 자식 클래스의 인
스턴스인 예외와 매치됩니다 (하지만 다른 방식으로는 매치되지 않습니다 — 자
식 클래스를 나열한 'except 절'은 베이스 클래스의 인스턴스와 매치되지 않
습니다).  예를 들어, 다음과 같은 코드는 B, C, D를 그 순서대로 인쇄합니다
:

     class B(Exception):
         pass

     class C(B):
         pass

     class D(C):
         pass

     for cls in [B, C, D]:
         try:
             raise cls()
         except D:
             print("D")
         except C:
             print("C")
         except B:
             print("B")

'except 절'이 뒤집히면 (‘except B’ 가 처음에 오도록), B, B, B를 인쇄하게
됨에 주의하세요 — 처음으로 매치되는 'except 절'이 실행됩니다.

예외가 발생할 때, 연관된 값을 가질 수 있는데, 예외의 '인자' 라고도 알려
져 있습니다.  인자의 존재와 형은 예외 형에 의존적입니다.

The 'except clause' may specify a variable after the exception name.
The variable is bound to the exception instance which typically has an
‘args’ attribute that stores the arguments.  For convenience, builtin
exception types define *note __str__(): 617. to print all the arguments
without explicitly accessing ‘.args’.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
     ... except Exception as inst:
     ...     print(type(inst))    # 예외 형
     ...     print(inst.args)     # .args 에 저장된 인자들
     ...     print(inst)          # __str__ 는 args 가 직접 인쇄될 수 있게합니다,
     ...                          # 하지만 예외 서브 클래스가 재정의할 수 있습니다
     ...     x, y = inst.args     # args 를 언팩합니다
     ...     print('x =', x)
     ...     print('y =', y)
     ...
     <class 'Exception'>
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     x = spam
     y = eggs

예외의 *note __str__(): 617. 출력이 처리되지 않은 예외 메시지의 마지막 부
분(‘상세 명세’)에 인쇄됩니다.

*note BaseException: 5b5. is the common base class of all exceptions.
One of its subclasses, *note Exception: 9d6, is the base class of all
the non-fatal exceptions.  Exceptions which are not subclasses of *note
Exception: 9d6. are not typically handled, because they are used to
indicate that the program should terminate.  They include *note
SystemExit: d3d. which is raised by *note sys.exit(): 1339. and *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. which is raised when a user wishes to interrupt
the program.

*note Exception: 9d6. can be used as a wildcard that catches (almost)
everything.  However, it is good practice to be as specific as possible
with the types of exceptions that we intend to handle, and to allow any
unexpected exceptions to propagate on.

The most common pattern for handling *note Exception: 9d6. is to print
or log the exception and then re-raise it (allowing a caller to handle
the exception as well):

     import sys

     try:
         f = open('myfile.txt')
         s = f.readline()
         i = int(s.strip())
     except OSError as err:
         print("OS error:", err)
     except ValueError:
         print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
     except Exception as err:
         print(f"Unexpected {err=}, {type(err)=}")
         raise

*note try: 6e2. … *note except: 18b. 문은 선택적인 'else 절' 을 갖는데,
있다면 모든 'except 절' 뒤에와야 합니다.  'try 절'이 예외를 일으키지 않
을 때 실행되어야만 하는 코드에 유용합니다.  예를 들어:

     for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
         try:
             f = open(arg, 'r')
         except OSError:
             print('cannot open', arg)
         else:
             print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
             f.close()

‘else’ 절의 사용이 *note try: 6e2. 절에 코드를 추가하는 것보다 좋은데,
‘try’ … ‘except’ 문에 의해 보호되고 있는 코드가 일으키지 않은 예외를 우
연히 잡게 되는 것을 방지하기 때문입니다.

예외 처리기는 'try 절'에 직접 등장하는 예외뿐만 아니라, 'try 절'에서 (간
접적으로라도) 호출되는 내부 함수들에서 발생하는 예외들도 처리합니다.  예
를 들어:

     >>> def this_fails():
     ...     x = 1/0
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     this_fails()
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
     ...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
     ...
     Handling run-time error: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 일으키기,  Next: 예외 연쇄,  Prev: 예외 처리하기,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.4 예외 일으키기
-------------------

*note raise: 5e7. 문은 프로그래머가 지정한 예외가 발생하도록 강제할 수 있
게 합니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> raise NameError('HiThere')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         raise NameError('HiThere')
     NameError: HiThere

*note raise: 5e7. 에 제공하는 단일 인자는 발생시킬 예외를 가리킵니다.  예
외 인스턴스이거나 예외 클래스 (*note BaseException: 5b5. 을 계승하는 클
래스, 가령 *note Exception: 9d6.이나 그 서브 클래스) 이어야 합니다.  예
외 클래스가 전달되면, 묵시적으로 인자 없이 생성자를 호출해서 인스턴스를
만듭니다:

     raise ValueError  # 'raise ValueError()' 의 줄임 표현

만약 예외가 발생했는지는 알아야 하지만 처리하고 싶지는 않다면, 더 간단한
형태의 *note raise: 5e7. 문이 그 예외를 다시 일으킬 수 있게 합니다:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise NameError('HiThere')
     ... except NameError:
     ...     print('An exception flew by!')
     ...     raise
     ...
     An exception flew by!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise NameError('HiThere')
     NameError: HiThere


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 연쇄,  Next: 사용자 정의 예외,  Prev: 예외 일으키기,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.5 예외 연쇄
---------------

If an unhandled exception occurs inside an *note except: 18b. section,
it will have the exception being handled attached to it and included in
the error message:

     >>> try:
     ...     open("database.sqlite")
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         open("database.sqlite")
         ~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     RuntimeError: unable to handle error

To indicate that an exception is a direct consequence of another, the
*note raise: 5e7. statement allows an optional *note from: 5e7. clause:

     # exc must be exception instance or None.
     raise RuntimeError from exc

이것은 예외를 변환할 때 유용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> def func():
     ...     raise ConnectionError
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     func()
     ... except ConnectionError as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         func()
         ~~~~^^
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in func
     ConnectionError

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     RuntimeError: Failed to open database

It also allows disabling automatic exception chaining using the ‘from
None’ idiom:

     >>> try:
     ...     open('database.sqlite')
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError from None
     RuntimeError

연쇄 메커니즘에 대한 자세한 내용은, *note 내장 예외: 188a.를 참조하십시
오.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 예외,  Next: 뒷정리 동작 정의하기,  Prev: 예외 연쇄,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.6 사용자 정의 예외
----------------------

새 예외 클래스를 만듦으로써 프로그램은 자신의 예외에 이름을 붙일 수 있습
니다 (파이썬 클래스에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 클래스: 1c27. 를 보세요).
예외는 보통 직접적으로나 간접적으로 *note Exception: 9d6. 클래스를 계승
합니다.

예외 클래스는 다른 클래스들이 할 수 있는 어떤 것도 가능하도록 정의될 수
있지만, 보통은 간단하게 유지합니다.  종종 예외 처리기가 에러에 관한 정보
를 추출할 수 있도록 하기 위한 몇 가지 어트리뷰트들을 제공하기만 합니다.

대부분의 예외는 표준 예외들의 이름들과 유사하게, “Error” 로 끝나는 이름
으로 정의됩니다.

많은 표준 모듈들은 그들이 정의하는 함수들에서 발생할 수 있는 그 자신만의
예외들을 정의합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 뒷정리 동작 정의하기,  Next: 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들,  Prev: 사용자 정의 예외,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.7 뒷정리 동작 정의하기
--------------------------

*note try: 6e2. 문은 또 다른 선택적 절을 가질 수 있는데 모든 상황에 실행
되어야만 하는 뒷정리 동작을 정의하는 데 사용됩니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
     ... finally:
     ...     print('Goodbye, world!')
     ...
     Goodbye, world!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise KeyboardInterrupt
     KeyboardInterrupt

*note finally: 9c7. 절이 있으면, *note try: 6e2. 문이 완료되기 전에
‘finally’ 절이 마지막 작업으로 실행됩니다.  ‘finally’ 절은 ‘try’ 문이 예
외를 생성하는지와 관계없이 실행됩니다.  다음은 예외가 발생할 때 더 복잡
한 경우를 설명합니다:

   * ‘try’ 절을 실행하는 동안 예외가 발생하면, *note except: 18b. 절에서
     예외를 처리할 수 있습니다.  예외가 ‘except’ 절에서 처리되지 않으면,
     ‘finally’ 절이 실행된 후 예외가 다시 발생합니다.

   * ‘except’나 ‘else’ 절 실행 중에 예외가 발생할 수 있습니다.  다시,
     ‘finally’ 절이 실행된 후 예외가 다시 발생합니다.

   * If the ‘finally’ clause executes a *note break: aa6, *note
     continue: 9c6. or *note return: 9cb. statement, exceptions are not
     re-raised.

   * ‘try’ 문이 *note break: aa6, *note continue: 9c6. 또는 *note
     return: 9cb. 문에 도달하면, ‘finally’ 절은 ‘break’, ‘continue’ 또는
     ‘return’ 문 실행 직전에 실행됩니다.

   * ‘finally’ 절에 ‘return’ 문이 포함되면, 반환 값은 ‘try’ 절의
     ‘return’ 문이 주는 값이 아니라, ‘finally’ 절의 ‘return’ 문이 주는 값
     이 됩니다.

예를 들면:

     >>> def bool_return():
     ...     try:
     ...         return True
     ...     finally:
     ...         return False
     ...
     >>> bool_return()
     False

더 복잡한 예:

     >>> def divide(x, y):
     ...     try:
     ...         result = x / y
     ...     except ZeroDivisionError:
     ...         print("division by zero!")
     ...     else:
     ...         print("result is", result)
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("executing finally clause")
     ...
     >>> divide(2, 1)
     result is 2.0
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide(2, 0)
     division by zero!
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide("2", "1")
     executing finally clause
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         divide("2", "1")
         ~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
         result = x / y
                  ~~^~~
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

보인 바와 같이, *note finally: 9c7. 절은 모든 경우에 실행됩니다.  두 문
자열을 나눠서 발생한 *note TypeError: 532. 는 *note except: 18b. 절에 의
해 처리되지 않고 ‘finally’ 절이 실행된 후에 다시 일어납니다.

실제 세상의 응용 프로그램에서, *note finally: 9c7. 절은 외부 자원을 사용
할 때, 성공적인지 아닌지와 관계없이, 그 자원을 반납하는 데 유용합니다 (파
일이나 네트워크 연결 같은 것들).


File: python.info,  Node: 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들,  Next: Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions,  Prev: 뒷정리 동작 정의하기,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.8 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들
-------------------------------

어떤 객체들은 객체가 더 필요 없을 때 개입하는 표준 뒷정리 동작을 정의합
니다.  그 객체를 사용하는 연산의 성공 여부와 관계없습니다.  파일을 열고
그 내용을 화면에 인쇄하려고 하는 다음 예를 보세요.

     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end="")

이 코드의 문제점은 이 부분이 실행을 끝낸 뒤에도 예측할 수 없는 기간 동안
파일을 열린 채로 둔다는 것입니다.  간단한 스크립트에서는 문제가 되지 않
지만, 큰 응용 프로그램에서는 문제가 될 수 있습니다.  *note with: 5cc. 문
은 파일과 같은 객체들이 즉시 올바르게 뒷정리 되도록 보장하는 방법을 제공
합니다.

     with open("myfile.txt") as f:
         for line in f:
             print(line, end="")

문장이 실행된 후에, 줄을 처리하는 데 문제가 발생하더라도, 파일 'f' 는 항
상 닫힙니다.  파일과 같이, 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들을 제공하는 객체들은
그들의 설명서에서 이 사실을 설명합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions,  Next: Enriching Exceptions with Notes,  Prev: 미리 정의된 뒷정리 동작들,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.9 Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions
--------------------------------------------------------

There are situations where it is necessary to report several exceptions
that have occurred.  This is often the case in concurrency frameworks,
when several tasks may have failed in parallel, but there are also other
use cases where it is desirable to continue execution and collect
multiple errors rather than raise the first exception.

The builtin *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. wraps a list of exception
instances so that they can be raised together.  It is an exception
itself, so it can be caught like any other exception.

     >>> def f():
     ...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
     ...
     >>> f()
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |     f()
       |     ~^^
       |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
       |     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
       | ExceptionGroup: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | OSError: error 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | SystemError: error 2
         +------------------------------------
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)}: e')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'>: e
     >>>

By using ‘except*’ instead of ‘except’, we can selectively handle only
the exceptions in the group that match a certain type.  In the following
example, which shows a nested exception group, each ‘except*’ clause
extracts from the group exceptions of a certain type while letting all
other exceptions propagate to other clauses and eventually to be
reraised.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup(
     ...         "group1",
     ...         [
     ...             OSError(1),
     ...             SystemError(2),
     ...             ExceptionGroup(
     ...                 "group2",
     ...                 [
     ...                     OSError(3),
     ...                     RecursionError(4)
     ...                 ]
     ...             )
     ...         ]
     ...     )
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print("There were OSErrors")
     ... except* SystemError as e:
     ...     print("There were SystemErrors")
     ...
     There were OSErrors
     There were SystemErrors
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       |     f()
       |     ~^^
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
       |     raise ExceptionGroup(
       |     ...<12 lines>...
       |     )
       | ExceptionGroup: group1 (1 sub-exception)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ExceptionGroup: group2 (1 sub-exception)
         +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
           | RecursionError: 4
           +------------------------------------
     >>>

Note that the exceptions nested in an exception group must be instances,
not types.  This is because in practice the exceptions would typically
be ones that have already been raised and caught by the program, along
the following pattern:

     >>> excs = []
     ... for test in tests:
     ...     try:
     ...         test.run()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> if excs:
     ...    raise ExceptionGroup("Test Failures", excs)
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Enriching Exceptions with Notes,  Prev: Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions,  Up: 에러와 예외

2.8.10 Enriching Exceptions with Notes
--------------------------------------

When an exception is created in order to be raised, it is usually
initialized with information that describes the error that has occurred.
There are cases where it is useful to add information after the
exception was caught.  For this purpose, exceptions have a method
‘add_note(note)’ that accepts a string and adds it to the exception’s
notes list.  The standard traceback rendering includes all notes, in the
order they were added, after the exception.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError('bad type')
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     e.add_note('Add some information')
     ...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
     ...     raise
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise TypeError('bad type')
     TypeError: bad type
     Add some information
     Add some more information
     >>>

For example, when collecting exceptions into an exception group, we may
want to add context information for the individual errors.  In the
following each exception in the group has a note indicating when this
error has occurred.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise OSError('operation failed')
     ...
     >>> excs = []
     >>> for i in range(3):
     ...     try:
     ...         f()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |     raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       | ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 2
         +---------------- 3 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 3
         +------------------------------------
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스,  Next: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기,  Prev: 에러와 예외,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.9 클래스
==========

클래스는 데이터와 기능을 함께 묶는 방법을 제공합니다.  새 클래스를 만드
는 것은 객체의 새 '형' 을 만들어서, 그 형의 새 '인스턴스' 를 만들 수 있
도록 합니다.  각 클래스 인스턴스는 상태를 유지하기 위해 그 자신에게 첨부
된 어트리뷰트를 가질 수 있습니다.  클래스 인스턴스는 상태를 바꾸기 위한
(클래스에 의해 정의된) 메서드도 가질 수 있습니다.

다른 프로그래밍 언어들과 비교할 때, 파이썬의 클래스 메커니즘은 최소한의
새로운 문법과 개념을 써서 클래스를 추가합니다.  C++ 과 모듈라-3 에서 발
견되는 클래스 메커니즘을 혼합합니다.  파이썬 클래스는 객체 지향형 프로그
래밍의 모든 표준 기능들을 제공합니다: 클래스 상속 메커니즘은 다중 베이스
클래스를 허락하고, 자식 클래스는 베이스 클래스나 클래스들의 어떤 메서드
도 재정의할 수 있으며, 메서드는 같은 이름의 베이스 클래스의 메서드를 호
출할 수 있습니다.  객체들은 임의의 종류의 데이터를 양적 제한 없이 가질 수
있습니다.  모듈과 마찬가지로, 클래스는 파이썬의 동적인 본성을 함께 나눕
니다: 실행 시간에 만들어지고, 만들어진 후에도 더 수정될 수 있습니다.

C++ 용어로, 보통 클래스 멤버들은 (데이터 멤버를 포함해서) 'public' (예외
는 아래 *note 비공개 변수: 1ca8. 를 보세요) 하고, 모든 맴버 함수들은
'virtual' 입니다.  모듈라-3처럼, 객체의 매소드에서 그 객체의 멤버를 참조
하는 줄임 표현은 없습니다: 메서드 함수는 그 객체를 표현하는 명시적인 첫
번째 인자를 선언하는데, 함수 호출 때 묵시적으로 제공됩니다.  스몰토크처
럼, 클래스 자신도 객체입니다.  이것이 임포팅과 이름 변경을 위한 개념을 제
공합니다.  C++ 나 모듈라-3 와는 달리, 내장형도 사용자가 확장하기 위해 베
이스 클래스로 사용할 수 있습니다.  또한, C++ 처럼, 특별한 문법을 갖는 대
부분의 내장 연산자들은 (산술 연산자, 서브스크립팅, 등등) 클래스 인스턴스
에 대해 새로 정의될 수 있습니다.

(클래스에 대해 보편적으로 받아들여지는 용어들이 없는 상태에서, 이따금 스
몰토크나 C++ 용어들을 사용할 것입니다.  C++ 보다 객체 지향적 개념들이 파
이썬의 것과 더 가까우므로 모듈라-3 용어를 사용할 수도 있지만, 들어본 독
자들이 별로 없을 것으로 예상합니다.)

* Menu:

* 이름과 객체에 관한 한마디::
* 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간::
* 클래스와의 첫 만남::
* 기타 주의사항들::
* 상속::
* 비공개 변수::
* 잡동사니::
* 이터레이터::
* 제너레이터::
* 제너레이터 표현식::


File: python.info,  Node: 이름과 객체에 관한 한마디,  Next: 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간,  Up: 클래스

2.9.1 이름과 객체에 관한 한마디
-------------------------------

객체는 개체성(individuality)을 갖고, 여러 개의 이름이 (여러 개의 스코프
에서) 같은 객체에 연결될 수 있습니다.  이것은 다른 언어들에서는 에일리어
싱(aliasing) 이라고 알려져 있습니다.  보통 파이썬을 처음 볼 때 이 점을 높
이 평가하지는 않고, 불변 기본형들 (숫자, 문자열, 튜플)을 다루는 동안은 안
전하게 무시할 수 있습니다.  하지만, 에일리어싱는 리스트, 딕셔너리나 그 밖
의 다른 가변 객체들을 수반하는 파이썬 코드의 의미에 극적인 효과를 줄 수
있습니다.  이것은 보통 프로그램에 혜택이 되는데, 에일리어스는 어떤 면에
서 포인터처럼 동작하기 때문입니다.  예를 들어, 구현이 포인터만 전달하기
때문에, 객체를 전달하는 비용이 적게 듭니다; 그리고 함수가 인자로 전달된
객체를 수정하면, 호출자는 그 변경을 보게 됩니다 — 이것은 파스칼에서 사용
되는 두 가지 서로 다른 인자 전달 메커니즘의 필요를 제거합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간,  Next: 클래스와의 첫 만남,  Prev: 이름과 객체에 관한 한마디,  Up: 클래스

2.9.2 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간
-------------------------------

클래스를 소개하기 전에, 파이썬의 스코프 규칙에 대해 몇 가지 말할 것이 있
습니다.  클래스 정의는 이름 공간으로 깔끔한 요령을 부리고, 여러분은 무엇
이 일어나는지 완전히 이해하기 위해 스코프와 이름 공간이 어떻게 동작하는
지 알 필요가 있습니다.  덧붙여 말하자면, 이 주제에 대한 지식은 모든 고급
파이썬 프로그래머에게 쓸모가 있습니다.

몇 가지 정의로 시작합시다.

'이름 공간' 은 이름에서 객체로 가는 매핑입니다.  대부분의 이름 공간은 현
재 파이썬 딕셔너리로 구현되어 있지만, 보통 다른 식으로는 알아차릴 수 없
고 (성능은 예외입니다), 앞으로는 바뀔 수 있습니다.  이름 공간의 예는: 내
장 이름들의 집합 (*note abs(): 1cac. 와 같은 함수들과 내장 예외 이름들을
포함합니다); 모듈의 전역 이름들; 함수 호출에서의 지역 이름들.  어떤 의미
에서 객체의 어트리뷰트 집합도 이름 공간을 형성합니다.  이름 공간에 대해
알아야 할 중요한 것은 서로 다른 이름 공간들의 이름 간에는 아무런 관계가
없다는 것입니다; 예를 들어, 두 개의 서로 다른 모듈들은 모두 혼동 없이 함
수 ‘maximize’ 를 정의할 수 있습니다 — 모듈의 사용자들은 모듈 이름을 앞에
붙여야 합니다.

그런데, 저는 '어트리뷰트' 라는 단어를 점 뒤에 오는 모든 이름에 사용합니
다 — 예를 들어, 표현식 ‘z.real’ 에서, ‘real’ 는 객체 ‘z’ 의 어트리뷰트입
니다.  엄밀하게 말해서, 모듈에 있는 이름들에 대한 참조는 어트리뷰트 참조
입니다: 표현식 ‘modname.funcname’ 에서, ‘modname’ 은 모듈 객체고
‘funcname’ 는 그것의 어트리뷰트입니다.  이 경우에는 우연히도 모듈의 어트
리뷰트와 모듈에서 정의된 전역 이름 간에 직접적인 매핑이 생깁니다: 같은 이
름 공간을 공유합니다!  (1)

어트리뷰트는 읽기 전용 이거나 쓰기 가능할 수 있습니다.  후자의 경우, 어
트리뷰트에 대한 대입이 가능합니다.  모듈 어트리뷰트는 쓰기 가능합니다:
‘modname.the_answer = 42’ 라고 쓸 수 있습니다.  쓰기 가능한 어트리뷰트는
*note del: 17ad. 문으로 삭제할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘del
modname.the_answer’ 는 ‘modname’ 라는 이름의 객체에서 어트리뷰트
‘the_answer’ 를 제거합니다.

이름 공간들은 서로 다른 순간에 만들어지고 서로 다른 수명을 갖습니다.  내
장 이름들을 담는 이름 공간은 파이썬 인터프리터가 시작할 때 만들어지고 영
원히 지워지지 않습니다.  모듈의 전역 이름 공간은 모듈 정의를 읽는 동안 만
들어집니다; 보통, 모듈 이름 공간은 인터프리터가 끝날 때까지 남습니다.  인
터프리터의 최상위 호출 때문에 실행되는, 스크립트 파일이나 대화형으로 읽
히는, 문장들은 *note __main__: 1. 이라고 불리는 모듈 일부로 여겨져서 그
들 자신의 이름 공간을 갖습니다.  (내장 이름들 또한 모듈에 속하는데; 이것
을 *note builtins: 12. 라 부릅니다.)

함수의 지역 이름 공간은 함수가 호출될 때 만들어지고, 함수가 복귀하거나 함
수 내에서 처리되지 않는 예외를 일으킬 때 삭제됩니다.  (사실, 잊어버린다
는 것이 실제로 일어나는 일에 대한 더 좋은 설명입니다.)  물론, 재귀적 호
출은 각각 자기 자신만의 지역 이름 공간을 갖습니다.

'스코프' 는 이름 공간을 직접 액세스할 수 있는 파이썬 프로그램의 텍스트 적
인 영역입니다.  여기에서 “직접 액세스 가능한” 이란 이름에 대한 정규화되
지 않은 참조가 그 이름 공간에서 이름을 찾으려고 시도한다는 의미입니다.

스코프가 정적으로 결정됨에도 불구하고, 동적으로 사용됩니다.  실행 중 어
느 시점에서건, 이름 공간을 직접 액세스 가능한, 세 개나 네 개의 중첩된 스
코프가 있습니다:

   * 가장 먼저 검색되는, 가장 내부의 스코프는 지역 이름들을 포함합니다

   * 둘러싸고 있는 함수들의 스코프는, 가장 가까이서 둘러싸는 스코프로부
     터 검색이 시작됩니다, 비 지역(non-local) 이지만 비 전역(non-global)
     이름들을 포함합니다

   * 마지막 직전의 스코프는 현재 모듈의 전역 이름들을 포함합니다

   * (가장 나중에 검색되는) 가장 외부의 스코프는 내장 이름들을 포함하고
     있는 이름 공간입니다.

이름을 global로 선언하면, 모든 참조와 대입은 모듈의 전역 이름들을 포함하
는 마지막 바로 전 스코프로 바로 갑니다.  가장 내부의 스코프 바깥에서 발
견되는 변수들을 재연결하려면, *note nonlocal: 1297. 키워드를 사용할 수 있
습니다; nonlocal 로 선언되지 않으면, 그 변수들은 읽기 전용입니다 (그런 변
수에 쓰려고 하면 단순히 가장 내부의 스코프에 '새' 지역 변수를 만들게 되
어, 같은 이름의 바깥 변수를 바꾸지 않고 남겨둡니다).

보통, 지역 스코프는 현재 함수의 지역 이름들을 (텍스트 적으로) 참조합니다
.  함수 바깥에서, 지역 스코프는 전역 스코프와 같은 이름 공간을 참조합니
다: 모듈의 이름 공간.  클래스 정의들은 지역 스코프에 또 하나의 이름 공간
을 배치합니다.

스코프가 텍스트 적으로 결정된다는 것을 깨닫는 것은 중요합니다: 모듈에서
정의된 함수의 전역 스코프는, 어디에서 어떤 에일리어스를 통해 그 함수가 호
출되는지에 관계없이, 그 모듈의 이름 공간입니다.  반면에, 이름을 실제로 검
색하는 것은 실행시간에 동적으로 수행됩니다 — 하지만, 언어 정의는 컴파일
시점의 정적인 이름 결정을 향해 진화하고 있어서, 동적인 이름 결정에 의존
하지 말아야 합니다!  (사실, 지역 변수들은 이미 정적으로 결정됩니다.)

파이썬의 특별한 특징은 – *note global: 18a.이나 *note nonlocal: 1297. 문
이 없을 때 – 이름에 대입하면 항상 가장 내부의 스코프로 간다는 것입니다.
대입은 데이터를 복사하지 않습니다 – 이름을 단지 객체에 연결할 뿐입니다.
삭제도 마찬가지입니다: 문장 ‘del x’ 는 지역 스코프가 참조하는 이름 공간
에서 ‘x’ 의 연결을 제거합니다.  사실, 새 이름을 소개하는 모든 연산은 지
역 스코프를 사용합니다: 특히, *note import: 5dc. 문과 함수 정의는 모듈이
나 함수 이름을 지역 스코프에 연결합니다.

*note global: 18a. 문은 특정 변수가 전역 스코프에 있으며 그곳에 재연결되
어야 함을 가리킬 때 사용될 수 있습니다; *note nonlocal: 1297. 문은 특정
변수가 둘러싸는 스코프에 있으며 그곳에 재연결되어야 함을 가리킵니다.

* Menu:

* 스코프와 이름 공간 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 한 가지만 제외하고.  모듈 객체는 *note __dict__: 556. 라고 불리는
비밀스러운 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트를 갖는데, 모듈의 이름 공간을 구현하는데
사용하는 딕셔너리를 돌려줍니다; 이름 ‘__dict__’ 는 어트리뷰트 이지만 전
역 이름은 아닙니다.  명백하게, 이것을 사용하는 것은 이름 공간 구현의 추
상화를 파괴하는 것이고, 사후 디버거와 같은 것들로만 제한되어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스코프와 이름 공간 예,  Up: 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간

2.9.2.1 스코프와 이름 공간 예
.............................

이것은 어떻게 서로 다른 스코프와 이름 공간을 참조하고, *note global:
18a. 과 *note nonlocal: 1297. 이 변수 연결에 어떤 영향을 주는지를 보여주
는 예입니다:

     def scope_test():
         def do_local():
             spam = "local spam"

         def do_nonlocal():
             nonlocal spam
             spam = "nonlocal spam"

         def do_global():
             global spam
             spam = "global spam"

         spam = "test spam"
         do_local()
         print("After local assignment:", spam)
         do_nonlocal()
         print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
         do_global()
         print("After global assignment:", spam)

     scope_test()
     print("In global scope:", spam)

예제 코드의 출력은 이렇게 됩니다:

     After local assignment: test spam
     After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
     After global assignment: nonlocal spam
     In global scope: global spam

어떻게 '지역' 대입이 (이것이 기본입니다) 'scope_test' 의 'spam' 연결을 바
꾸지 않는지에 유의하세요.  *note nonlocal: 1297. 대입은 'scope_test' 의
'spam' 연결을 바꾸고 *note global: 18a. 대입은 모듈 수준의 연결을 바꿉니
다.

*note global: 18a. 대입 전에는 'spam' 의 연결이 없다는 것도 볼 수 있습니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스와의 첫 만남,  Next: 기타 주의사항들,  Prev: 파이썬 스코프와 이름 공간,  Up: 클래스

2.9.3 클래스와의 첫 만남
------------------------

클래스는 약간의 새 문법과 세 개의 객체형과 몇 가지 새 개념들을 도입합니
다.

* Menu:

* 클래스 정의 문법::
* 클래스 객체::
* 인스턴스 객체::
* 메서드 객체::
* 클래스와 인스턴스 변수::


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 정의 문법,  Next: 클래스 객체,  Up: 클래스와의 첫 만남

2.9.3.1 클래스 정의 문법
........................

클래스 정의의 가장 간단한 형태는 이렇게 생겼습니다:

     class ClassName:
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

함수 정의(*note def: 1420. 문)처럼, 클래스 정의는 어떤 효과가 생기기 위
해서는 먼저 실행되어야 합니다.  (상상컨대 클래스 정의를 *note if: 2eb. 문
의 분기나 함수 내부에 놓을 수 있습니다)

실재적으로, 클래스 정의 내부의 문장들은 보통 함수 정의들이지만, 다른 문
장들도 허락되고 때로 쓸모가 있습니다 — 나중에 이 주제로 돌아올 것입니다.
클래스 내부의 함수 정의는 보통, 메서드 호출 규약의 영향을 받은, 특별한 형
태의 인자 목록을 갖습니다.  — 다시, 이것은 뒤에서 설명됩니다.

클래스 정의에 진입할 때, 새 이름 공간이 만들어지고 지역 스코프로 사용됩
니다 — 그래서, 모든 지역 변수들로의 대입은 이 새 이름 공간으로 갑니다.  특
히, 함수 정의는 새 함수의 이름을 이곳에 연결합니다.

클래스 정의가 (끝을 통해) 정상적으로 끝날 때, '클래스 객체' 가 만들어집
니다.  이것은 기본적으로 클래스 정의 때문에 만들어진 이름 공간의 내용물
들을 감싸는 싸개입니다; 다음 섹션에서 클래스 객체에 대해 더 배우게 됩니
다.  원래의 지역 스코프가 (클래스 정의에 들어가기 직전에 유효하던 것) 다
시 사용되고, 클래스 객체는 클래스 정의 헤더에서 주어진 클래스 이름 (예에
서 ‘ClassName’) 으로 여기에 연결됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 객체,  Next: 인스턴스 객체,  Prev: 클래스 정의 문법,  Up: 클래스와의 첫 만남

2.9.3.2 클래스 객체
...................

클래스 객체는 두 종류의 연산을 지원합니다: 어트리뷰트 참조와 인스턴스 만
들기.

'어트리뷰트 참조' 는 파이썬의 모든 어트리뷰트 참조에 사용되는 표준 문법
을 사용합니다: ‘obj.name’.  올바른 어트리뷰트 이름은 클래스 객체가 만들
어질 때 클래스의 이름 공간에 있던 모든 이름입니다.  그래서, 클래스 정의
가 이렇게 될 때:

     class MyClass:
         """A simple example class"""
         i = 12345

         def f(self):
             return 'hello world'

‘MyClass.i’ 와 ‘MyClass.f’ 는 올바른 어트리뷰트 참조고, 각기 정수와 함수
객체를 돌려줍니다.  클래스 어트리뷰트는 대입할 수도 있어서, 대입을 통해
‘MyClass.i’ 의 값을 변경할 수 있습니다.  *note __doc__: 1cb4. 도 역시 올
바른 어트리뷰트고, 클래스에 속하는 독스트링을 돌려줍니다: ‘"A simple
example class"’.

클래스 '인스턴스 만들기' 는 함수 표기법을 사용합니다.  클래스 객체가 클
래스의 새 인스턴스를 돌려주는 매개변수 없는 함수인 체합니다.  예를 들어
(위의 클래스를 가정하면):

     x = MyClass()

는 클래스의 새 '인스턴스' 를 만들고 이 객체를 지역 변수 ‘x’ 에 대입합니
다.

인스턴스 만들기 연산 (클래스 객체 “호출하기”) 은 빈 객체를 만듭니다.  많
은 클래스는 특정한 초기 상태로 커스터마이즈된 인스턴스로 객체를 만드는 것
을 좋아합니다.  그래서 클래스는 이런 식으로 *note __init__(): 6aa. 라는
이름의 특수 메서드 정의할 수 있습니다:

     def __init__(self):
         self.data = []

클래스가 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드를 정의할 때, 클래스 인스턴스 만들
기는 새로 만들어진 클래스 인스턴스에 대해 자동으로 ‘__init__()’ 를 호출
합니다.  그래서 이 예에서, 새 초기화된 인스턴스를 이렇게 얻을 수 있습니
다:

     x = MyClass()

물론, *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드는 더 높은 유연성을 위해 인자들을 가
질 수 있습니다.  그 경우, 클래스 인스턴스 만들기 연산자로 주어진 인자들
은 ‘__init__()’ 로 전달됩니다.  예를 들어,

     >>> class Complex:
     ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
     ...         self.r = realpart
     ...         self.i = imagpart
     ...
     >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
     >>> x.r, x.i
     (3.0, -4.5)


File: python.info,  Node: 인스턴스 객체,  Next: 메서드 객체,  Prev: 클래스 객체,  Up: 클래스와의 첫 만남

2.9.3.3 인스턴스 객체
.....................

이제 인스턴스 객체로 무엇을 할 수 있을까?  인스턴스 객체가 이해하는 오직
한가지 연산은 어트리뷰트 참조입니다.  두 가지 종류의 올바른 어트리뷰트 이
름이 있습니다: 데이터 어트리뷰트와 메서드.

'데이터 어트리뷰트' 는 스몰토크의 “인스턴스 변수” 에, C++ 의 “데이터 멤
버” 에 해당합니다.  데이터 어트리뷰트는 선언될 필요 없습니다; 지역 변수
처럼, 처음 대입될 때 태어납니다.  예를 들어, ‘x’ 가 위에서 만들어진
‘MyClass’ 의 인스턴스면, 다음과 같은 코드 조각은 트레이스 없이 값 ‘16’ 을
인쇄합니다:

     x.counter = 1
     while x.counter < 10:
         x.counter = x.counter * 2
     print(x.counter)
     del x.counter

다른 인스턴스 어트리뷰트 참조는 '메서드' 입니다.  메서드는 객체에 “속하
는” 함수입니다.

인스턴스 객체의 올바른 메서드 이름은 그것의 클래스에 달려있습니다.  정의
상, 함수 객체인 클래스의 모든 어트리뷰트들은 상응하는 인스턴스의 메서드
들을 정의합니다.  그래서 우리의 예제에서, ‘x.f’ 는 올바른 메서드 참조인
데, ‘MyClass.f’ 가 함수이기 때문입니다.  하지만 ‘x.i’ 는 그렇지 않은데,
‘MyClass.i’ 가 함수가 아니기 때문입니다.  그러나, ‘x.f’ 는 ‘MyClass.f’ 와
같은 것이 아닙니다 — 이것은 함수 객체가 아니라 '메서드 객체' 입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드 객체,  Next: 클래스와 인스턴스 변수,  Prev: 인스턴스 객체,  Up: 클래스와의 첫 만남

2.9.3.4 메서드 객체
...................

보통, 메서드는 연결되자마자 호출됩니다:

     x.f()

If ‘x = MyClass()’, as above, this will return the string ‘'hello
world'’.  However, it is not necessary to call a method right away:
‘x.f’ is a method object, and can be stored away and called at a later
time.  For example:

     xf = x.f
     while True:
         print(xf())

는 영원히 계속 ‘hello world’ 를 인쇄합니다.

메서드가 호출될 때 정확히 어떤 일이 일어날까?  ‘f()’ 의 함수 정의가 인자
를 지정했음에도 불구하고, 위에서 ‘x.f()’ 는 인자 없이 호출된 것을 알아챘
을 것입니다.  인자는 어떻게 된 걸까?  확실히 파이썬은 인자를 필요로 하는
함수를 인자 없이 호출하면 예외를 일으킵니다 – 인자가 실제로는 사용되지 않
는다 해도…

실제로, 여러분은 답을 짐작할 수 있습니다: 메서드의 특별함은 인스턴스 객
체가 함수의 첫 번째 인자로 전달된다는 것입니다.  우리 예에서, 호출
‘x.f()’는 정확히 ‘MyClass.f(x)’ 와 동등합니다.  일반적으로, 'n' 개의 인
자들의 목록으로 메서드를 호출하는 것은, 첫 번째 인자 앞에 메서드의 인스
턴스 객체를 삽입해서 만든 인자 목록으로 상응하는 함수를 호출하는 것과 동
등합니다.

일반적으로, 메서드는 다음과 같이 작동합니다.  데이터 어트리뷰트가 아닌 인
스턴스 어트리뷰트를 참조하면, 그것의 클래스가 검색됩니다.  만약 그 이름
이 함수 객체인 올바른 클래스 어트리뷰트면, 인스턴스 객체와 함수 객체에 대
한 참조가 함께 메서드 객체로 포장됩니다.  메서드 객체가 인자 목록으로 호
출되면, 인스턴스 객체와 인자 목록으로부터 새 인자 목록이 구성된 후, 함수
객체를 이 새 인자 목록으로 호출합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스와 인스턴스 변수,  Prev: 메서드 객체,  Up: 클래스와의 첫 만남

2.9.3.5 클래스와 인스턴스 변수
..............................

일반적으로 말해서, 인스턴스 변수는 인스턴스별 데이터를 위한 것이고 클래
스 변수는 그 클래스의 모든 인스턴스에서 공유되는 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 위
한 것입니다:

     class Dog:

         kind = 'canine'         # 모든 인스턴스가 공유하는 클래스 변수

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name    # 각 인스턴스에 고유한 인스턴스 변수

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.kind                  # 모든 인스턴스가 공유하는 변수
     'canine'
     >>> e.kind                  # 모든 인스턴스가 공유하는 변수
     'canine'
     >>> d.name                  # d 만의 변수
     'Fido'
     >>> e.name                  # e 만의 변수
     'Buddy'

*note 이름과 객체에 관한 한마디: 1caa. 에서 논의했듯이, 리스트나 딕셔너
리와 같은 *note 가변: 1c08. 객체가 참여할 때 공유 데이터는 예상치 못한 효
과를 줄 가능성이 있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음 코드에서 'tricks' 리스트는 클
래스 변수로 사용되지 않아야 하는데, 하나의 리스트가 모든 'Dog' 인스턴스
들에 공유되기 때문입니다.

     class Dog:

         tricks = []             # 클래스 변수의 잘못된 사용

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks                # 예기치 않게 모든 인스턴스가 공유합니다
     ['roll over', 'play dead']

대신, 클래스의 올바른 설계는 인스턴스 변수를 사용해야 합니다:

     class Dog:

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             self.tricks = []    # 각 인스턴스마다 새 빈 리스트를 만듭니다

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks
     ['roll over']
     >>> e.tricks
     ['play dead']


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 주의사항들,  Next: 상속,  Prev: 클래스와의 첫 만남,  Up: 클래스

2.9.4 기타 주의사항들
---------------------

인스턴스와 클래스 모두에서 같은 어트리뷰트 이름이 등장하면, 어트리뷰트 조
회는 인스턴스를 우선합니다:

     >>> class Warehouse:
     ...    purpose = 'storage'
     ...    region = 'west'
     ...
     >>> w1 = Warehouse()
     >>> print(w1.purpose, w1.region)
     storage west
     >>> w2 = Warehouse()
     >>> w2.region = 'east'
     >>> print(w2.purpose, w2.region)
     storage east

데이터 어트리뷰트는 메서드 뿐만 아니라 객체의 일반적인 사용자 (“클라이언
트”)에 의해서 참조될 수도 있습니다.  달리 표현하면, 클래스는 순수하게 추
상적인 데이터형을 구현하는데 사용될 수 없습니다.  사실, 파이썬에서는 데
이터 은닉을 강제할 방법이 없습니다 — 모두 관례에 의존합니다.  (반면에,
C로 작성된 파이썬 구현은 필요하다면 구현 상세를 완전히 숨기고 객체에 대
한 액세스를 제어할 수 있습니다; 이것은 C로 작성된 파이썬 확장에서 사용될
수 있습니다.)

클라이언트는 데이터 어트리뷰트를 조심스럽게 사용해야 합니다 — 클라이언트
는 데이터 어트리뷰트를 건드려서 메서드들에 의해 유지되는 불변성 들을 망
가뜨릴 수 있습니다.  클라이언트는 이름 충돌을 피하는 한 메서드들의 유효
성을 손상하지 않고도 그들 자신의 데이터 어트리뷰트를 인스턴스 객체에 추
가할 수도 있음에 유의하세요 — 다시 한번, 명명 규칙은 여러 골칫거리를 피
할 수 있게 합니다.

메서드 안에서 데이터 어트리뷰트들(또는 다른 메서드들!)을 참조하는 줄임 표
현은 없습니다.  저는 이것이 실제로 메서드의 가독성을 높인다는 것을 알게
되었습니다: 메서드를 훑어볼 때 지역 변수와 인스턴스 변수를 혼동할 우려가
없습니다.

종종, 메서드의 첫 번째 인자는 ‘self’ 라고 불립니다.  이것은 관례일 뿐입
니다: 이름 ‘self’ 는 파이썬에서 아무런 특별한 의미를 갖지 않습니다.  하
지만, 이 규칙을 따르지 않을 때 여러분의 코드가 다른 파이썬 프로그래머들
이 읽기에 불편하고, '클래스 브라우저' 프로그램도 이런 규칙에 의존하도록
작성되었다고 상상할 수 있음에 유의하세요.

클래스 어트리뷰트인 모든 함수는 그 클래스의 인스턴스들을 위한 메서드를 정
의합니다.  함수 정의가 클래스 정의에 텍스트 적으로 둘러싸일 필요는 없습
니다: 함수 객체를 클래스의 지역 변수로 대입하는 것 역시 가능합니다.  예
를 들어:

     # 클래스 외부에서 정의된 함수
     def f1(self, x, y):
         return min(x, x+y)

     class C:
         f = f1

         def g(self):
             return 'hello world'

         h = g

이제 ‘f’, ‘g’, ‘h’ 는 모두 함수 객체를 가리키는 클래스 ‘C’ 의 어트리뷰트
고, 결과적으로 이것들은 모두 ‘C’ 의 인스턴스들의 메서드입니다 — ‘h’ 는 정
확히 ‘g’ 와 동등합니다.  이런 방식은 프로그램의 독자들에게 혼란을 주기만
한다는 점에 주의하세요.

메서드는 ‘self’ 인자의 메서드 어트리뷰트를 사용해서 다른 메서드를 호출할
수 있습니다:

     class Bag:
         def __init__(self):
             self.data = []

         def add(self, x):
             self.data.append(x)

         def addtwice(self, x):
             self.add(x)
             self.add(x)

메서드는 일반 함수들과 마찬가지로 전역 이름을 참조할 수 있습니다.  메서
드에 결합한 전역 스코프는 그것의 정의를 포함하는 모듈입니다.  (클래스는
결코 전역 스코프로 사용되지 않습니다.)  메서드에서 전역 데이터를 사용할
좋은 이유를 거의 만나지 못하지만, 전역 스코프를 정당하게 사용하는 여러 가
지 경우가 있습니다: 한가지는, 전역 스코프에 정의된 함수와 메서드 뿐만 아
니라, 그곳에 임포트된 함수와 모듈도 메서드가 사용할 수 있다는 것입니다.
보통, 메서드를 포함하는 클래스 자신은 이 전역 스코프에 정의되고, 다음 섹
션에서 메서드가 자신의 클래스를 참조하길 원하는 몇 가지 좋은 이유를 보게
될 것입니다.

각 값은 객체고, 그러므로 '클래스' ('형' 이라고도 불린다) 를 갖습니다.  이
것은 ‘object.__class__’ 에 저장되어 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 상속,  Next: 비공개 변수,  Prev: 기타 주의사항들,  Up: 클래스

2.9.5 상속
----------

물론, 상속을 지원하지 않는다면 언어 기능은 “클래스”라는 이름을 붙일만한
가치가 없을 것입니다.  파생 클래스 정의의 문법은 이렇게 생겼습니다:

     class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

이름 ‘BaseClassName’ 은 파생 클래스 정의를 포함하는 스코프에서 접근할 수
있는 이름 공간에 정의되어 있어야 합니다.  베이스 클래스 이름의 자리에 다
른 임의의 표현식도 허락됩니다.  예를 들어, 베이스 클래스가 다른 모듈에 정
의되어 있을 때 유용합니다:

     class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

파생 클래스 정의의 실행은 베이스 클래스와 같은 방식으로 진행됩니다.  클
래스 객체가 만들어질 때, 베이스 클래스가 기억됩니다.  이것은 어트리뷰트
참조를 결정할 때 사용됩니다: 요청된 어트리뷰트가 클래스에서 발견되지 않
으면 베이스 클래스로 검색을 확장합니다.  베이스 클래스 또한 다른 클래스
로부터 파생되었다면 이 규칙은 재귀적으로 적용됩니다.

파생 클래스의 인스턴스 만들기에 특별한 것은 없습니다:
‘DerivedClassName()’ 는 그 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  메서드 참조
는 다음과 같이 결정됩니다: 대응하는 클래스 어트리뷰트가 검색되는데, 필요
하면 베이스 클래스의 연쇄를 타고 내려갑니다.  이것이 함수 객체를 준다면
메서드 참조는 올바릅니다.

파생 클래스는 베이스 클래스의 메서드들을 재정의할 수 있습니다.  메서드가
같은 객체의 다른 메서드를 호출할 때 특별한 권한 같은 것은 없으므로, 베이
스 클래스에 정의된 다른 메서드를 호출하는 베이스 클래스의 메서드는 재정
의된 파생 클래스의 메서드를 호출하게 됩니다.  (C++ 프로그래머를 위한 표
현으로: 파이썬의 모든 메서드는 실질적으로 ‘virtual’ 입니다.)

파생 클래스에서 재정의된 메서드가, 같은 이름의 베이스 클래스 메서드를 단
순히 갈아치우기보다 사실은 확장하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  베이스 클래스의 메
서드를 직접 호출하는 간단한 방법이 있습니다: 단지
‘BaseClassName.methodname(self, arguments)’ 를 호출하면 됩니다.  이것은
때로 클라이언트에게도 쓸모가 있습니다.  (이것은 베이스 클래스가 전역 스
코프에서 ‘BaseClassName’ 으로 액세스 될 수 있을 때만 동작함에 주의하세요
.)

파이썬에는 상속과 함께 사용할 수 있는 두 개의 내장 함수가 있습니다:

   * 인스턴스의 형을 검사하려면 *note isinstance(): 43b. 를 사용합니다:
     ‘isinstance(obj, int)’ 는 ‘obj.__class__’ 가 *note int: 257. 거나
     *note int: 257. 에서 파생된 클래스인 경우만 ‘True’ 가 됩니다.

   * 클래스 상속을 검사하려면 *note issubclass(): 7ba. 를 사용합니다:
     ‘issubclass(bool, int)’ 는 ‘True’ 인데, *note bool: 461. 이 *note
     int: 257. 의 서브 클래스이기 때문입니다.  하지만,
     ‘issubclass(float, int)’ 는 ‘False’ 인데, *note float: 2ef. 는
     *note int: 257. 의 서브 클래스가 아니기 때문입니다.

* Menu:

* 다중 상속::


File: python.info,  Node: 다중 상속,  Up: 상속

2.9.5.1 다중 상속
.................

파이썬은 다중 상속의 형태도 지원합니다.  여러 개의 베이스 클래스를 갖는
클래스 정의는 이런 식입니다:

     class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

대부분의 목적상, 가장 간단한 경우에, 부모 클래스로부터 상속된 어트리뷰트
들의 검색을 깊이 우선으로, 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로, 계층 구조에서 겹치는 같
은 클래스를 두 번 검색하지 않는 것으로 생각할 수 있습니다.  그래서, 어트
리뷰트가 ‘DerivedClassName’ 에서 발견되지 않으면, ‘Base1’ 에서 찾고, 그
다음 (재귀적으로) ‘Base1’ 의 베이스 클래스들을 검색합니다.  거기에서도 발
견되지 않으면, ‘Base2’ 에서 찾고, 이런 식으로 계속합니다.

사실, 이것보다는 약간 더 복잡합니다; 메서드 결정 순서는 *note super():
4d5. 로의 협력적인 호출을 지원하기 위해 동적으로 변경됩니다.  이 접근법
은 몇몇 다른 다중 상속 언어들에서 call-next-method 라고 알려져 있고, 단
일 상속 언어들에서 발견되는 super 호출보다 더 강력합니다.

동적인 순서가 필요한 이유는, 모든 다중 상속의 경우는 하나나 그 이상의 다
이아몬드 관계 (적어도 부모 클래스 중 하나가 가장 바닥 클래스들로부터 여
러 경로를 통해 액세스 되는 경우) 를 만들기 때문입니다.  예를 들어, 모든
클래스는 *note object: a89. 를 계승하기 때문에, 모든 다중 상속은 *note
object: a89. 에 이르는 여러 경로를 제공합니다.  베이스 클래스들이 여러 번
액세스 되지 않게 하려고, 동적인 알고리즘이 검색 순서를 선형화하는데, 각
클래스에서 지정된 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 가는 순서를 보존하고, 각 부모를 오
직 한 번만 호출하고, 단조적 (부모들의 우선순위에 영향을 주지 않으면서 서
브 클래스를 만들 수 있다는 의미입니다) 이도록 만듭니다.  모두 함께 사용
될 때, 이 성질들은 다중 상속으로 신뢰성 있고 확장성 있는 클래스들을 설계
할 수 있도록 만듭니다.  더 자세한 내용은, *note The Python 2.3 Method
Resolution Order: 1470.를 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 비공개 변수,  Next: 잡동사니,  Prev: 상속,  Up: 클래스

2.9.6 비공개 변수
-----------------

객체 내부에서만 액세스할 수 있는 “비공개” 인스턴스 변수는 파이썬에 존재
하지 않습니다.  하지만, 대부분의 파이썬 코드에서 따르고 있는 규약이 있습
니다: 밑줄로 시작하는 이름은 (예를 들어, ‘_spam’) API의 공개적이지 않은
부분으로 취급되어야 합니다 (그것이 함수, 메서드, 데이터 멤버중 무엇이건
간에).  구현 상세이고 통보 없이 변경되는 대상으로 취급되어야 합니다.

클래스-비공개 멤버들의 올바른 사례가 있으므로 (즉 서브 클래스에서 정의된
이름들과의 충돌을 피하고자), '이름 뒤섞기 (name mangling)' 라고 불리는 메
커니즘에 대한 제한된 지원이 있습니다.  ‘__spam’ 형태의 (최소 두 개의 밑
줄로 시작하고, 최대 한 개의 밑줄로 끝납니다) 모든 식별자는
‘_classname__spam’ 로 텍스트 적으로 치환되는데, ‘classname’ 은 현재 클래
스 이름에서 앞에 오는 밑줄을 제거한 것입니다.  이 뒤섞기는 클래스 정의에
등장하는 이상, 식별자의 문법적 위치와 무관하게 수행됩니다.

더 보기
.......

자세한 내용과 특수한 사례는 *note 비공개 이름 뒤섞기 명세: 1cc2.를 참조
하세요.

이름 뒤섞기는 클래스 내부의 메서드 호출을 방해하지 않고 서브 클래스들이
메서드를 재정의할 수 있도록 하는 데 도움을 줍니다.  예를 들어:

     class Mapping:
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.items_list = []
             self.__update(iterable)

         def update(self, iterable):
             for item in iterable:
                 self.items_list.append(item)

         __update = update   # 기존 update() 메서드의 비공개 사본

     class MappingSubclass(Mapping):

         def update(self, keys, values):
             # update() 에 새로운 서명을 제공하지만
             # __init__() 를 망가뜨리진 않습니다
             for item in zip(keys, values):
                 self.items_list.append(item)

위의 예는 ‘MappingSubclass’가 ‘__update’ 식별자를 도입하더라도 작동합니
다.  ‘Mapping’ 클래스에서는 ‘_Mapping__update’로 ‘MappingSubclass’ 클래
스에서는 ‘_MappingSubclass__update’로 각각 대체 되기 때문입니다.

뒤섞기 규칙은 대체로 사고를 피하고자 설계되었다는 것에 주의하세요; 여전
히 비공개로 취급되는 변수들을 액세스하거나 수정할 수 있습니다.  이것은 디
버거와 같은 특별한 상황에서 쓸모 있기조차 합니다.

‘exec()’ 나 ‘eval()’ 로 전달된 코드는 호출하는 클래스의 클래스 이름을 현
재 클래스로 여기지 않는다는 것에 주의하세요; 이것은 ‘global’ 문의 효과와
유사한데, 효과가 함께 바이트-컴파일된 코드로 제한됩니다.  같은 제약이
‘__dict__’ 를 직접 참조할 때뿐만 아니라, ‘getattr()’, ‘setattr()’,
‘delattr()’ 에도 적용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 잡동사니,  Next: 이터레이터,  Prev: 비공개 변수,  Up: 클래스

2.9.7 잡동사니
--------------

때로 몇몇 이름 붙은 데이터 항목들을 함께 묶어주는 파스칼의 “record” 나
C의 “struct” 와 유사한 데이터형을 갖는 것이 쓸모 있습니다.  이 경우
*note dataclasses: 2f.를 사용하는 것이 일반적인 방법입니다:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class Employee:
         name: str
         dept: str
         salary: int

     >>> john = Employee('john', 'computer lab', 1000)
     >>> john.dept
     'computer lab'
     >>> john.salary
     1000

특정한 추상적인 데이터형을 기대하는 파이썬 코드 조각은, 종종 그 데이터형
의 메서드를 흉내 내는 클래스를 대신 전달받을 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 파
일 객체로부터 데이터를 포맷하는 함수가 있을 때, 대신 문자열 버퍼에서 데
이터를 읽는 메서드 *note read(): 1c8d. 와 *note readline(): 1cc5. 을 제
공하는 클래스를 정의한 후 인자로 전달할 수 있습니다.

*note 인스턴스 메서드 객체: 1cc6.도 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다: *note
m.__self__: 1391. 는 메서드 ‘m()’ 과 결합한 인스턴스 객체이고, *note
m.__func__: 12ec. 는 메서드에 상응하는 *note 함수 객체: 299.입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이터,  Next: 제너레이터,  Prev: 잡동사니,  Up: 클래스

2.9.8 이터레이터
----------------

지금쯤 아마도 여러분은 대부분의 컨테이너 객체들을 *note for: 2ea. 문으로
루핑할 수 있음을 눈치챘을 것입니다:

     for element in [1, 2, 3]:
         print(element)
     for element in (1, 2, 3):
         print(element)
     for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
         print(key)
     for char in "123":
         print(char)
     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end='')

이런 스타일의 액세스는 명료하고, 간결하고, 편리합니다.  이터레이터를 사
용하면 파이썬이 보편화하고 통합됩니다.  무대 뒤에서, *note for: 2ea. 문
은 컨테이너 객체에 대해 *note iter(): 7d0. 를 호출합니다.  이 함수는 메
서드 *note __next__(): 12bd. 를 정의하는 이터레이터 객체를 돌려주는데, 이
메서드는 컨테이너의 요소들을 한 번에 하나씩 액세스합니다.  남은 요소가 없
으면, *note __next__(): 12bd. 는 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 일으켜
서 ‘for’ 루프에 종료를 알립니다.  *note next(): 7d1. 내장 함수를 사용해
서 *note __next__(): 12bd. 메서드를 호출할 수 있습니다; 이 예는 이 모든
것들이 어떻게 동작하는지 보여줍니다:

     >>> s = 'abc'
     >>> it = iter(s)
     >>> it
     <str_iterator object at 0x10c90e650>
     >>> next(it)
     'a'
     >>> next(it)
     'b'
     >>> next(it)
     'c'
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         next(it)
     StopIteration

이터레이터 프로토콜의 뒤에 있는 메커니즘을 살펴보면, 여러분의 클래스에 이
터레이터 동작을 쉽게 추가할 수 있습니다.  *note __next__(): 12bd. 메서드
를 가진 객체를 돌려주는 *note __iter__(): 1cc9. 메서드를 정의합니다.  클
래스가 ‘__next__()’ 를 정의하면, ‘__iter__()’ 는 그냥 ‘self’ 를 돌려줄 수
있습니다.

     class Reverse:
         """시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트하는 이터레이터."""
         def __init__(self, data):
             self.data = data
             self.index = len(data)

         def __iter__(self):
             return self

         def __next__(self):
             if self.index == 0:
                 raise StopIteration
             self.index = self.index - 1
             return self.data[self.index]

     >>> rev = Reverse('spam')
     >>> iter(rev)
     <__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
     >>> for char in rev:
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     m
     a
     p
     s


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2.9.9 제너레이터
----------------

*note 제너레이터: 1057. 는 이터레이터를 만드는 간단하고 강력한 도구입니
다.  일반적인 함수처럼 작성되지만 값을 돌려주고 싶을 때마다 *note yield:
9ca. 문을 사용합니다.  제너레이터에 *note next(): 7d1. 가 호출될 때마다,
제너레이터는 떠난 곳에서 실행을 재개합니다 (모든 데이터 값들과 어떤 문장
이 마지막으로 실행되었는지 기억합니다).  예는 제너레이터를 사소할 정도로
쉽게 만들 수 있음을 보여줍니다:

     def reverse(data):
         for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
             yield data[index]

     >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     f
     l
     o
     g

제너레이터로 할 수 있는 모든 것은 앞 절에서 설명했듯이 클래스 기반 이터
레이터로도 할 수 있습니다.  제너레이터가 간단한 이유는 *note __iter__():
1ccc. 와 *note __next__(): 1ccd. 메서드가 저절로 만들어지기 때문입니다.

또 하나의 주요 기능은 지역 변수들과 실행 상태가 호출 간에 자동으로 보관
된다는 것입니다.  이것은 ‘self.index’ 나 ‘self.data’ 와 같은 인스턴스 변
수를 사용하는 접근법에 비교해 함수를 쓰기 쉽고 명료하게 만듭니다.

자동 메서드 생성과 프로그램 상태의 저장에 더해, 제너레이터가 종료할 때 자
동으로 *note StopIteration: bf7. 을 일으킵니다.  조합하면, 이 기능들이 일
반 함수를 작성하는 것만큼 이터레이터를 만들기 쉽게 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 표현식,  Prev: 제너레이터,  Up: 클래스

2.9.10 제너레이터 표현식
------------------------

간단한 제너레이터는 리스트 컴프리헨션과 비슷하지만, 대괄호 대신 괄호를 사
용하는 문법을 사용한 표현식으로 간결하게 코딩할 수 있습니다.  이 표현식
들은 둘러싸는 함수가 제너레이터를 즉시 사용하는 상황을 위해 설계되었습니
다.  제너레이터 표현식은 완전한 제너레이터 정의보다 간결하지만, 융통성은
떨어지고, 비슷한 리스트 컴프리헨션보다 메모리를 덜 쓰는 경향이 있습니다.

예:

     >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # 제곱의 합
     285

     >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
     >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
     >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # 내적
     260

     >>> unique_words = set(word for line in page  for word in line.split())

     >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)

     >>> data = 'golf'
     >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
     ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기,  Next: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부,  Prev: 클래스,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.10 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기
=============================

* Menu:

* 운영 체제 인터페이스::
* 파일 와일드카드::
* 명령행 인자::
* 에러 출력 리디렉션과 프로그램 종료::
* 문자열 패턴 매칭::
* 수학::
* 인터넷 액세스::
* 날짜와 시간::
* 데이터 압축::
* 성능 측정::
* 품질 관리::
* 배터리가 포함됩니다::


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2.10.1 운영 체제 인터페이스
---------------------------

*note os: a1. 모듈은 운영 체제와 상호 작용하기 위한 수십 가지 함수들을 제
공합니다:

     >>> import os
     >>> os.getcwd()      # 현재 작업 디렉터리를 돌려줍니다
     'C:\\Python313'
     >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
     >>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
     0

‘from os import *’ 대신에 ‘import os’ 스타일을 사용해야 합니다.  그래야
*note os.open(): d8e. 이 내장 *note open(): 515. 을 가리는 것을 피할 수
있는데, 두 함수는 아주 다르게 동작합니다.

*note os: a1. 와 같은 큰 모듈과 작업할 때, 내장 *note dir(): 62c. 과
*note help(): 8d4. 함수는 대화형 도우미로 쓸모가 있습니다.

     >>> import os
     >>> dir(os)
     <returns a list of all module functions>
     >>> help(os)
     <returns an extensive manual page created from the module's docstrings>

일상적인 파일과 디렉터리 관리 작업을 위해, *note shutil: c5. 모듈은 사용
하기 쉬운 더 고수준의 인터페이스를 제공합니다:

     >>> import shutil
     >>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
     'archive.db'
     >>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
     'installdir'


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2.10.2 파일 와일드카드
----------------------

*note glob: 64. 모듈은 디렉터리 와일드카드 검색으로 파일 목록을 만드는 함
수를 제공합니다:

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.py')
     ['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']


File: python.info,  Node: 명령행 인자,  Next: 에러 출력 리디렉션과 프로그램 종료,  Prev: 파일 와일드카드,  Up: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기

2.10.3 명령행 인자
------------------

일반적인 유틸리티 스크립트는 종종 명령행 인자를 처리해야 할 필요가 있습
니다.  이 인자들은 *note sys: d9. 모듈의 'argv' 어트리뷰트에 리스트로 저
장됩니다.  예를 들어, 다음과 같은 ‘demo.py’ 파일을 보겠습니다:

     # 파일 demo.py
     import sys
     print(sys.argv)

다음은 명령행에서 ‘python demo.py one two three’ 를 실행한 출력입니다:

     ['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']

*note argparse: 6. 모듈은 명령 줄 인자를 처리하는 더 정교한 메커니즘을 제
공합니다.  다음 스크립트는 하나 이상의 파일명과 선택적으로 표시할 줄 수
를 추출합니다:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
         prog='top',
         description='Show top lines from each file')
     parser.add_argument('filenames', nargs='+')
     parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=10)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

‘python top.py --lines=5 alpha.txt beta.txt’를 사용하여 명령 줄에서 실행
할 때, 스크립트는 ‘args.lines’를 ‘5’로, ‘args.filenames’를
‘['alpha.txt', 'beta.txt']’로 설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 에러 출력 리디렉션과 프로그램 종료,  Next: 문자열 패턴 매칭,  Prev: 명령행 인자,  Up: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기

2.10.4 에러 출력 리디렉션과 프로그램 종료
-----------------------------------------

*note sys: d9. 모듈은 'stdin', 'stdout', 'stderr' 어트리뷰트도 갖고 있습
니다.  가장 마지막 것은 'stdout' 이 리디렉트 되었을 때도 볼 수 있는 경고
와 에러 메시지들을 출력하는데 쓸모가 있습니다:

     >>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
     Warning, log file not found starting a new one

스크립트를 종료하는 가장 직접적인 방법은 ‘sys.exit()’ 를 쓰는 것입니다.


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2.10.5 문자열 패턴 매칭
-----------------------

*note re: b9. 모듈은 고급 문자열 처리를 위한 정규식 도구들을 제공합니다.
복잡한 매칭과 조작을 위해, 정규식은 간결하고 최적화된 솔루션을 제공합니
다:

     >>> import re
     >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
     ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
     >>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
     'cat in the hat'

단지 간단한 기능만 필요한 경우에는, 문자열 메서드들이 선호되는데 읽기 쉽
고 디버깅이 쉽기 때문입니다:

     >>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
     'tea for two'


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2.10.6 수학
-----------

*note math: 8e. 모듈은 부동 소수점 연산을 위한 하부 C 라이브러리 함수들
에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.

     >>> import math
     >>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
     0.70710678118654757
     >>> math.log(1024, 2)
     10.0

*note random: b8. 모듈은 무작위 선택을 할 수 있는 도구들을 제공합니다:

     >>> import random
     >>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
     'apple'
     >>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # 대체 없는 표본 추출
     [30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
     >>> random.random()    # 범위 [0.0, 1.0) 내에서의 임의의 float
     0.17970987693706186
     >>> random.randrange(6)    # range(6) 에서 선택된 임의의 정수
     4

*note statistics: d2. 모듈은 수치 데이터의 기본적인 통계적 특성들을 (평
균, 중간값, 분산, 등등) 계산합니다.

     >>> import statistics
     >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
     >>> statistics.mean(data)
     1.6071428571428572
     >>> statistics.median(data)
     1.25
     >>> statistics.variance(data)
     1.3720238095238095

SciPy 프로젝트 <‘https://scipy.org’> 는 다른 수치 계산용 모듈들을 많이 갖
고 있습니다.


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2.10.7 인터넷 액세스
--------------------

인터넷을 액세스하고 인터넷 프로토콜들을 처리하는 많은 모듈이 있습니다.  가
장 간단한 두 개는 URL에서 데이터를 읽어오는 *note urllib.request: 10b. 와
메일을 보내는 *note smtplib: ca. 입니다:

     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('http://worldtimeapi.org/api/timezone/etc/UTC.txt') as response:
     ...     for line in response:
     ...         line = line.decode()             # bytes 를 str 로 변환합니다
     ...         if line.startswith('datetime'):
     ...             print(line.rstrip())         # 후행 줄 넘김을 제거합니다
     ...
     datetime: 2022-01-01T01:36:47.689215+00:00

     >>> import smtplib
     >>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     >>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
     ... """To: jcaesar@example.org
     ... From: soothsayer@example.org
     ...
     ... Beware the Ides of March.
     ... """)
     >>> server.quit()

(두 번째 예는 localhost 에서 메일 서버가 실행되고 있어야 한다는 것에 주
의하세요.)


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2.10.8 날짜와 시간
------------------

*note datetime: 30. 모듈은 날짜와 시간을 조작하는 클래스들을 제공하는데,
간단한 방법과 복잡한 방법 모두 제공합니다.  날짜와 시간 산술이 지원되지
만, 구현의 초점은 출력 포매팅과 조작을 위해 효율적으로 멤버를 추출하는 데
에 맞춰져 있습니다.  모듈은 시간대를 고려하는 객체들도 지원합니다.

     >>> # 날짜는 쉽게 구성되고 포맷됩니다
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> now = date.today()
     >>> now
     datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
     >>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
     '12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'

     >>> # 날짜는 캘린더 산술을 지원합니다
     >>> birthday = date(1964, 7, 31)
     >>> age = now - birthday
     >>> age.days
     14368


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2.10.9 데이터 압축
------------------

일반적인 데이터 보관 및 압축 형식들을 다음과 같은 모듈들이 직접 지원합니
다: *note zlib: 133, *note gzip: 67, *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 8a,
*note zipfile: 131, *note tarfile: de.

     >>> import zlib
     >>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> len(s)
     41
     >>> t = zlib.compress(s)
     >>> len(t)
     37
     >>> zlib.decompress(t)
     b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> zlib.crc32(s)
     226805979


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2.10.10 성능 측정
-----------------

일부 파이썬 사용자들은 같은 문제에 대한 다른 접근법들의 상대적인 성능을
파악하는데 깊은 관심을 두고 있습니다.  파이썬은 이런 질문들에 즉시 답을
주는 측정 도구를 제공합니다.

예를 들어, 인자들을 맞교환하는 전통적인 방식 대신에, 튜플 패킹과 언 패킹
을 사용하고자 하는 유혹을 느낄 수 있습니다.  *note timeit: ef. 모듈은 적
당한 성능 이점을 신속하게 보여줍니다:

     >>> from timeit import Timer
     >>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.57535828626024577
     >>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.54962537085770791

*note timeit: ef. 의 정밀도와는 대조적으로, *note profile: af. 과 *note
pstats: b0. 모듈은 큰 블록의 코드에서 시간 임계 섹션을 식별하기 위한 도
구들을 제공합니다.


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2.10.11 품질 관리
-----------------

고품질의 소프트웨어를 개발하는 한 가지 접근법은 개발되는 각 함수에 대한
테스트를 작성하고, 그것들을 개발 프로세스 중에 자주 실행하는 것입니다.

*note doctest: 3a. 모듈은 모듈을 훑어보고 프로그램의 독스트링들에 내장된
테스트들을 검사하는 도구를 제공합니다.  테스트 만들기는 평범한 호출을 그
결과와 함께 독스트링으로 복사해서 붙여넣기를 하는 수준으로 간단해집니다.
사용자에게 예제를 함께 제공해서 설명서를 개선하고, doctest 모듈이 설명서
에서 코드가 여전히 사실인지 확인하도록 합니다.

     def average(values):
         """숫자 목록의 산술 평균을 계산합니다.

         >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
         40.0
         """
         return sum(values) / len(values)

     import doctest
     doctest.testmod()   # 내장된 테스트를 자동 검증합니다

*note unittest: 106. 모듈은 *note doctest: 3a. 모듈만큼 쉬운 것은 아니지
만, 더욱 포괄적인 테스트 집합을 별도의 파일로 관리할 수 있게 합니다:

     import unittest

     class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_average(self):
             self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
             self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
             with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                 average([])
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 average(20, 30, 70)

     unittest.main()  # 명령행에서 호출하면 모든 테스트를 수행합니다


File: python.info,  Node: 배터리가 포함됩니다,  Prev: 품질 관리,  Up: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기

2.10.12 배터리가 포함됩니다
---------------------------

파이썬은 “배터리가 포함됩니다” 철학을 갖고 있습니다.  이는 더 큰 패키지
의 정교하고 강력한 기능을 통해 가장 잘 나타납니다.  예를 들어:

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. 와 *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. 모듈은 원격
     프로시저 호출을 구현하는 일을 거의 사소한 일로 만듭니다.  모듈의 이
     름에도 불구하고, XML에 대한 직접적인 지식이나 처리가 필요하지 않습
     니다.

   * *note email: 3b. 패키지는 MIME 및 기타 RFC 2822(1) 기반 메시지 문서
     를 포함하는 전자 메일 메시지를 관리하기 위한 라이브러리입니다.  실
     제로 메시지를 보내고 받는 *note smtplib: ca. 와 *note poplib: ac. 와
     는 달리, email 패키지는 복잡한 메시지 구조 (첨부 파일 포함) 를 작성
     하거나 해독하고 인터넷 인코딩과 헤더 프로토콜을 구현하기 위한 완벽
     한 도구 상자를 가지고 있습니다.

   * *note json: 82. 패키지는 널리 사용되는 데이터 교환 형식을 파싱하기
     위한 강력한 지원을 제공합니다.  *note csv: 29. 모듈은 데이터베이스
     와 스프레드시트에서 일반적으로 지원되는 쉼표로 구분된 값 형식으로 파
     일을 직접 읽고 쓸 수 있도록 지원합니다.  XML 처리는 *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 125, *note xml.dom: 121. 및 *note xml.sax:
     129. 패키지에 의해 지원됩니다.  이러한 모듈과 패키지를 함께 사용하
     면 파이썬 응용 프로그램과 다른 도구 간의 데이터 교환이 크게 단순해
     집니다.

   * *note sqlite3: cf. 모듈은 SQLite 데이터베이스 라이브러리의 래퍼인데
     , 약간 비표준 SQL 구문을 사용하여 업데이트되고 액세스 될 수 있는 퍼
     시스턴트 데이터베이스를 제공합니다.

   * 국제화는 *note gettext: 63, *note locale: 86, 그리고 *note codecs:
     1b. 패키지를 포함한 많은 모듈에 의해 지원됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부,  Next: 가상 환경 및 패키지,  Prev: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.11 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부
===================================

이 두 번째 둘러보기는 전문 프로그래밍 요구 사항을 지원하는 고급 모듈을 다
루고 있습니다.  이러한 모듈은 작은 스크립트에서는 거의 사용되지 않습니다
.

* Menu:

* 출력 포매팅::
* 템플릿::
* 바이너리 데이터 레코드 배치 작업::
* 다중 스레딩::
* 로깅::
* 약한 참조::
* 리스트 작업 도구::
* 10진 부동 소수점 산술::


File: python.info,  Node: 출력 포매팅,  Next: 템플릿,  Up: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부

2.11.1 출력 포매팅
------------------

*note reprlib: bb. 모듈은 크거나 깊게 중첩된 컨테이너의 축약 된 디스플레
이를 위해 커스터마이즈된 *note repr(): 7f7. 의 버전을 제공합니다:

     >>> import reprlib
     >>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
     "{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"

*note pprint: ae. 모듈은 인터프리터가 읽을 수 있는 방식으로 내장 객체나
사용자 정의 객체를 인쇄하는 것을 보다 정교하게 제어할 수 있게 합니다.  결
과가 한 줄보다 길면 “예쁜 프린터”가 줄 바꿈과 들여쓰기를 추가하여 데이터
구조를 보다 명확하게 나타냅니다:

     >>> import pprint
     >>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
     ...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
     ...
     >>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
     [[[['black', 'cyan'],
        'white',
        ['green', 'red']],
       [['magenta', 'yellow'],
        'blue']]]

*note textwrap: ec. 모듈은 텍스트의 문단을 주어진 화면 너비에 맞게 포맷
합니다:

     >>> import textwrap
     >>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
     ... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
     ... the wrapped lines."""
     ...
     >>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
     The wrap() method is just like fill()
     except that it returns a list of strings
     instead of one big string with newlines
     to separate the wrapped lines.

*note locale: 86. 모듈은 문화권 특정 데이터 포맷의 데이터베이스에 액세스
합니다.  locale의 format 함수의 grouping 어트리뷰트는 그룹 구분 기호로 숫
자를 포매팅하는 직접적인 방법을 제공합니다:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
     'English_United States.1252'
     >>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # 관례의 매핑을 얻습니다
     >>> x = 1234567.8
     >>> locale.format_string("%d", x, grouping=True)
     '1,234,567'
     >>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
     ...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
     '$1,234,567.80'


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2.11.2 템플릿
-------------

*note string: d3. 모듈은 다재다능한 *note Template: 681. 클래스를 포함하
고 있는데, 최종 사용자가 편집하기에 적절한 단순한 문법을 갖고 있습니다.
따라서 사용자는 응용 프로그램을 변경하지 않고도 응용 프로그램을 커스터마
이즈할 수 있습니다.

형식은 ‘$’ 와 유효한 파이썬 식별자 (영숫자와 밑줄)로 만들어진 자리표시자
이름을 사용합니다.  중괄호를 사용하여 자리표시자를 둘러싸면 공백없이 영
숫자가 뒤따르도록 할 수 있습니다.  ‘$$’ 을 쓰면 하나의 이스케이프 된 ‘$’
를 만듭니다:

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
     >>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
     'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'

*note substitute(): 1cf2. 메서드는 자리표시자가 딕셔너리나 키워드 인자로
제공되지 않을 때 *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.  메일 병합 스타일 응
용 프로그램의 경우 사용자가 제공한 데이터가 불완전할 수 있으며 *note
safe_substitute(): 1cf3. 메서드가 더 적절할 수 있습니다.  데이터가 누락
된 경우 자리표시자를 변경하지 않습니다:

     >>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
     >>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
     >>> t.substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'owner'
     >>> t.safe_substitute(d)
     'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'

Template 서브 클래스는 사용자 정의 구분자를 지정할 수 있습니다.  예를 들
어 사진 브라우저를 위한 일괄 이름 바꾸기 유틸리티는 현재 날짜, 이미지 시
퀀스 번호 또는 파일 형식과 같은 자리표시자에 백분율 기호를 사용하도록 선
택할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import time, os.path
     >>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
     >>> class BatchRename(Template):
     ...     delimiter = '%'
     ...
     >>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
     Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f

     >>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
     >>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
     >>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
     ...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
     ...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
     ...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))

     img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
     img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
     img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg

템플릿의 또 다른 응용은 다중 출력 형식의 세부 사항에서 프로그램 논리를 분
리하는 것입니다.  이렇게 하면 XML 파일, 일반 텍스트 보고서 및 HTML 웹 보
고서에 대한 커스텀 템플릿을 치환할 수 있습니다.


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2.11.3 바이너리 데이터 레코드 배치 작업
---------------------------------------

*note struct: d5. 모듈은 가변 길이 바이너리 레코드 형식으로 작업하기 위
한 *note pack(): 1267. 과 *note unpack(): 17cd. 함수를 제공합니다.  다음
예제는 *note zipfile: 131. 모듈을 사용하지 않고 ZIP 파일의 헤더 정보를 루
핑하는 법을 보여줍니다.  팩 코드 ‘"H"’ 와 ‘"I"’ 는 각각 2바이트와 4바이
트의 부호 없는 숫자를 나타냅니다.  ‘"<"’ 는 표준 크기이면서 리틀 엔디안
바이트 순서를 가짐을 나타냅니다:

     import struct

     with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
         data = f.read()

     start = 0
     for i in range(3):                      # 처음 3개의 파일 헤더를 보여줍니다
         start += 14
         fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
         crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields

         start += 16
         filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
         start += filenamesize
         extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
         print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)

         start += extra_size + comp_size     # 다음 헤더로 건너뜁니다


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2.11.4 다중 스레딩
------------------

스레딩은 차례로 종속되지 않는 작업을 분리하는 기술입니다.  스레드는 다른
작업이 백그라운드에서 실행되는 동안 사용자 입력을 받는 응용 프로그램의 응
답을 향상하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  관련된 사용 사례는 다른 스레드의 계
산과 병렬로 I/O를 실행하는 경우입니다.

다음 코드는 메인 프로그램이 계속 실행되는 동안 고수준 *note threading:
ed. 모듈이 백그라운드에서 작업을 어떻게 수행할 수 있는지 보여줍니다:

     import threading, zipfile

     class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
         def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
             threading.Thread.__init__(self)
             self.infile = infile
             self.outfile = outfile

         def run(self):
             f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
             f.write(self.infile)
             f.close()
             print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)

     background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
     background.start()
     print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')

     background.join()    # 백그라운드 작업이 끝날 때까지 기다립니다
     print('Main program waited until background was done.')

다중 스레드 응용 프로그램의 가장 큰 문제점은 데이터 또는 다른 자원을 공
유하는 스레드를 조정하는 것입니다.  이를 위해 threading 모듈은 록, 이벤
트, 조건 변수 및 세마포어를 비롯한 많은 수의 동기화 기본 요소를 제공합니
다.

이러한 도구는 강력하지만, 사소한 설계 오류로 인해 재현하기 어려운 문제가
발생할 수 있습니다.  따라서, 작업 조정에 대한 선호되는 접근 방식은 자원
에 대한 모든 액세스를 단일 스레드에 집중시킨 다음 *note queue: b6. 모듈
을 사용하여 해당 스레드에 다른 스레드의 요청을 제공하는 것입니다.  스레
드 간 통신 및 조정을 위한 *note Queue: 1377. 객체를 사용하는 응용 프로그
램은 설계하기 쉽고, 읽기 쉽고, 신뢰성이 높습니다.


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2.11.5 로깅
-----------

*note logging: 87. 모듈은 완전한 기능을 갖춘 유연한 로깅 시스템을 제공합
니다.  가장 단순한 경우, 로그 메시지는 파일이나 ‘sys.stderr’ 로 보내집니
다:

     import logging
     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

그러면 다음과 같은 결과가 출력됩니다:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

기본적으로 정보 및 디버깅 메시지는 표시되지 않고 출력은 표준 에러로 보내
집니다.  다른 출력 옵션에는 전자 메일, 데이터 그램, 소켓 또는 HTTP 서버
를 통한 메시지 라우팅이 포함됩니다.  새로운 필터는 메시지 우선순위에 따
라 다른 라우팅을 선택할 수 있습니다: *note DEBUG: 1cfa, *note INFO:
1cfb, *note WARNING: 1cfc, *note ERROR: 1cfd. , 그리고 *note CRITICAL:
1cfe.

로깅 시스템은 파이썬에서 직접 구성하거나, 응용 프로그램을 변경하지 않고
사용자 정의 로깅을 위해 사용자가 편집할 수 있는 설정 파일에서 로드 할 수
있습니다.


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2.11.6 약한 참조
----------------

파이썬은 자동 메모리 관리 (대부분 객체에 대한 참조 횟수 추적 및 순환을 제
거하기 위한 *note 가비지 수거: 1920.)를 수행합니다.  메모리는 마지막 참
조가 제거된 직후에 해제됩니다.

이 접근법은 대부분의 응용 프로그램에서 잘 작동하지만, 때로는 다른 것들에
의해 사용되는 동안에만 객체를 추적해야 할 필요가 있습니다.  불행하게도,
단지 그것들을 추적하는 것만으로도 그들을 영구적으로 만드는 참조를 만듭니
다.  *note weakref: 114. 모듈은 참조를 만들지 않고 객체를 추적할 수 있는
도구를 제공합니다.  객체가 더 필요하지 않으면 weakref 테이블에서 객체가
자동으로 제거되고 weakref 객체에 대한 콜백이 트리거됩니다.  일반적인 응
용에는 만드는 데 비용이 많이 드는 개체 캐싱이 포함됩니다:

     >>> import weakref, gc
     >>> class A:
     ...     def __init__(self, value):
     ...         self.value = value
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return str(self.value)
     ...
     >>> a = A(10)                   # 참조를 만듭니다
     >>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
     >>> d['primary'] = a            # 참조를 만들지 않습니다
     >>> d['primary']                # 객체가 아직 살아있다면 가져옵니다
     10
     >>> del a                       # 참조 하나를 지웁니다
     >>> gc.collect()                # 당장 가비지 수집을 실행합니다
     0
     >>> d['primary']                # 항목이 저절로 삭제되었습니다
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         d['primary']                # 항목이 저절로 삭제되었습니다
       File "C:/python313/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
         o = self.data[key]()
     KeyError: 'primary'


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 작업 도구,  Next: 10진 부동 소수점 산술,  Prev: 약한 참조,  Up: 표준 라이브러리 둘러보기 — 2부

2.11.7 리스트 작업 도구
-----------------------

내장 리스트 형으로 많은 데이터 구조 요구를 충족시킬 수 있습니다.  그러나
때로는 다른 성능 상충 관계가 있는 대안적 구현이 필요할 수도 있습니다.

*note array: 7. 모듈은 *note array: 1a0. 객체를 제공합니다.  이 객체는 등
질적인 데이터만을 저장하고 보다 조밀하게 저장하는 리스트와 같습니다.  다
음 예제는 파이썬 int 객체의 일반 리스트의 경우처럼 항목당 16바이트를 사
용하는 대신에, 2바이트의 부호 없는 이진 숫자 (형 코드 ‘"H"’)로 저장된 숫
자 배열을 보여줍니다:

     >>> from array import array
     >>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
     >>> sum(a)
     26932
     >>> a[1:3]
     array('H', [10, 700])

*note collections: 1d. 모듈은 *note deque: 5d6. 객체를 제공합니다.  이 객
체는 왼쪽에서 더 빠르게 추가/팝하지만 중간에서의 조회는 더 느려진 리스트
와 같습니다.  이 객체는 대기열 및 넓이 우선 트리 검색을 구현하는 데 적합
합니다:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
     >>> d.append("task4")
     >>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
     Handling task1

     unsearched = deque([starting_node])
     def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
         node = unsearched.popleft()
         for m in gen_moves(node):
             if is_goal(m):
                 return m
             unsearched.append(m)

대안적 리스트 구현 외에도 라이브러리는 정렬된 리스트를 조작하는 함수들이
있는 *note bisect: 11. 모듈과 같은 다른 도구를 제공합니다:

     >>> import bisect
     >>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
     >>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
     >>> scores
     [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]

*note heapq: 69. 모듈은 일반 리스트를 기반으로 힙을 구현하는 함수를 제공
합니다.  가장 값이 작은 항목은 항상 위치 0에 유지됩니다.  이것은 가장 작
은 요소에 반복적으로 액세스하지만, 전체 목록 정렬을 실행하지 않으려는 응
용에 유용합니다:

     >>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
     >>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
     >>> heapify(data)                      # 리스트를 힙 순서로 재배치합니다
     >>> heappush(data, -5)                 # 새 항목을 추가합니다
     >>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # 가장 작은 세 개의 항목을 가져옵니다
     [-5, 0, 1]


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2.11.8 10진 부동 소수점 산술
----------------------------

*note decimal: 36. 모듈은 10진 부동 소수점 산술을 위한 *note Decimal:
29d. 데이터형을 제공합니다.  내장 *note float: 2ef. 이진 부동 소수점 구
현과 비교할 때, 클래스는 특히 다음과 같은 것들에 유용합니다

   * 정확한 10진수 표현이 필요한 금융 응용 및 기타 용도,

   * 정밀도 제어,

   * 법적 또는 규제 요구 사항을 충족하는 반올림 제어,

   * 유효숫자 추적, 또는

   * 사용자가 결과가 손으로 계산한 것과 일치 할 것으로 기대하는 응용.

예를 들어, 70센트 전화 요금에 대해 5% 세금을 계산하면, 십진 부동 소수점
및 이진 부동 소수점에 다른 결과가 나타납니다.  결과를 가장 가까운 센트로
반올림하면 차이가 드러납니다:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
     Decimal('0.74')
     >>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
     0.73

*note Decimal: 29d. 결과는 끝에 붙는 0을 유지하며, 두 개의 유효숫자를 가
진 피승수로부터 네 자리의 유효숫자를 자동으로 추론합니다.  Decimal은 손
으로 한 수학을 재현하고 이진 부동 소수점이 십진수를 정확하게 표현할 수 없
을 때 발생할 수 있는 문제를 피합니다.

정확한 표현은 *note Decimal: 29d. 클래스가 이진 부동 소수점에 적합하지 않
은 모듈로 계산과 동등성 검사를 수행할 수 있도록 합니다:

     >>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
     Decimal('0.00')
     >>> 1.00 % 0.10
     0.09999999999999995

     >>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
     True
     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False

*note decimal: 36. 모듈은 필요한 만큼의 정밀도로 산술을 제공합니다:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 36
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')


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2.12 가상 환경 및 패키지
========================

* Menu:

* 소개::
* 가상 환경 만들기::
* pip로 패키지 관리하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 소개,  Next: 가상 환경 만들기,  Up: 가상 환경 및 패키지

2.12.1 소개
-----------

파이썬 응용 프로그램은 종종 표준 라이브러리의 일부로 제공되지 않는 패키
지와 모듈을 사용합니다.  응용 프로그램에 특정 버전의 라이브러리가 필요할
수 있는데, 응용 프로그램에 특정 버그가 수정된 버전이 필요하거나, 라이브
러리 인터페이스의 구식 버전을 사용하여 응용 프로그램을 작성할 수도 있기
때문입니다.

즉, 하나의 파이썬 설치가 모든 응용 프로그램의 요구 사항을 충족시키는 것
이 불가능할 수도 있습니다.  응용 프로그램 A에 특정 모듈의 버전 1.0이 필
요하지만, 응용 프로그램 B에 버전 2.0이 필요한 경우, 요구 사항이 충돌하고
, 버전 1.0 또는 2.0을 설치하면 어느 한 응용 프로그램은 실행할 수 없게 됩
니다.

이 문제에 대한 해결책은 *note 가상 환경: 1d09. 을 만드는 것입니다.  이 가
상 환경은 특정 버전 파이썬 설치와 여러 추가 패키지를 포함하는 완비된 디
렉터리 트리입니다.

서로 다른 응용 프로그램은 서로 다른 가상 환경을 사용할 수 있습니다.  앞
서 본 상충하는 요구 사항의 예를 해결하기 위해, 응용 프로그램 A에는 버전
1.0이 설치된 자체 가상 환경이 있고, 응용 프로그램 B에는 버전 2.0이 있는
다른 가상 환경이 있을 수 있습니다.  응용 프로그램 B에서 라이브러리를 버
전 3.0으로 업그레이드해야 하는 경우, 응용 프로그램 A의 환경에 영향을 미
치지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 가상 환경 만들기,  Next: pip로 패키지 관리하기,  Prev: 소개,  Up: 가상 환경 및 패키지

2.12.2 가상 환경 만들기
-----------------------

가상 환경을 만들고 관리하는 데 사용되는 모듈은 *note venv: 111. 라고 합
니다.  *note venv: 111. 는 명령이 실행된 (*note -version: d18. 옵션으로
확인할 수 있는) 파이썬 버전을 설치합니다.  예를 들어, ‘python3.12’로 명
령을 실행하면 버전 3.12가 설치됩니다.

가상 환경을 만들려면, 원하는 디렉터리를 결정하고, *note venv: 111. 모듈
을 스크립트로 실행하는데 디렉터리 경로를 명령행 인자로 전달합니다:

     python -m venv tutorial-env

존재하지 않는다면 ‘tutorial-env’ 디렉터리를 만들고, 그 안에 파이썬 인터
프리터의 사본과 다양한 지원 파일이 들어있는 디렉터리들을 만듭니다.

가상 환경의 일반적인 디렉터리 위치는 ‘.venv’입니다.  이 이름은 디렉터리
가 보통 셸에서 숨겨져 있도록 하므로, 디렉터리가 존재하는 이유를 설명하는
이름을 제공하면서도 방해받지 않습니다.  또한 일부 툴링(tooling)이 지원하
는 ‘.env’ 환경 변수 정의 파일과의 충돌을 방지합니다.

가상 환경을 만들었으면, 가상 환경을 활성화할 수 있습니다.

윈도우에서 이렇게 실행합니다:

     tutorial-env\Scripts\activate

Unix 또는 MacOS에서 이렇게 실행합니다:

     source tutorial-env/bin/activate

(이 스크립트는 bash 셸을 위해 작성된 것으로, ‘csh’ 또는 ‘fish’ 셸을 사용
하는 경우에는, 대신 ‘activate.csh’ 와 ‘activate.fish’ 스크립트를 사용해
야 합니다.)

가상 환경을 활성화하면, 셸의 프롬프트가 변경되어 사용 중인 가상 환경을 보
여주고, 환경을 수정하여 ‘python’ 을 실행하면 특정 버전의 파이썬이 실행되
도록 합니다.  예를 들어:

     $ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
     (tutorial-env) $ python
     Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
       ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path
     ['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
     '~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
     >>>

가상 환경을 비활성화하려면, 다음과 같이 터미널에 입력합니다:

     deactivate

.


File: python.info,  Node: pip로 패키지 관리하기,  Prev: 가상 환경 만들기,  Up: 가상 환경 및 패키지

2.12.3 pip로 패키지 관리하기
----------------------------

‘pip’ 라는 프로그램을 사용하여 패키지를 설치, 업그레이드 및 제거할 수 있
습니다.  기본적으로 ‘pip’ 는 파이썬 패키지 색인(1)에서 패키지를 설치합니
다.  웹 브라우저에서 파이썬 패키지 색인을 살펴볼 수 있습니다.

‘pip’ 는 “install”, “uninstall”, “freeze” 등 많은 부속 명령을 갖고 있습
니다.  (‘pip’ 에 대한 완전한 문서는 *note 파이썬 모듈 설치하기: eed. 지
침을 보면 됩니다.)

패키지 이름을 지정하여 최신 버전의 패키지를 설치할 수 있습니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install novas
     Collecting novas
       Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
     Installing collected packages: novas
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3

패키지 이름 뒤에 ‘==’ 과 버전 번호를 붙여 특정 버전의 패키지를 설치할 수
도 있습니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install requests==2.6.0
     Collecting requests==2.6.0
       Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
     Installing collected packages: requests
     Successfully installed requests-2.6.0

이 명령을 다시 실행하면, ‘pip’ 는 요청한 버전이 이미 설치되어 있음을 알
리고, 아무것도 하지 않습니다.  다른 버전 번호를 지정해서 그 버전을 얻거
나 ‘python -m pip install --upgrade’ 를 실행하여 패키지를 최신 버전으로
업그레이드할 수 있습니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install --upgrade requests
     Collecting requests
     Installing collected packages: requests
       Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
         Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
           Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
     Successfully installed requests-2.7.0

‘python -m pip uninstall’ 다음에 하나 이상의 패키지 이름이 오면 가상 환
경에서 패키지가 제거됩니다.

‘python -m pip show’ 는 특정 패키지에 대한 정보를 표시합니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip show requests
     ---
     Metadata-Version: 2.0
     Name: requests
     Version: 2.7.0
     Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
     Home-page: http://python-requests.org
     Author: Kenneth Reitz
     Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
     License: Apache 2.0
     Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
     Requires:

‘python -m pip list’ 는 가상 환경에 설치된 모든 패키지를 표시합니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip list
     novas (3.1.1.3)
     numpy (1.9.2)
     pip (7.0.3)
     requests (2.7.0)
     setuptools (16.0)

‘python -m pip freeze’ 는 설치된 패키지의 비슷한 목록을 만들지만,
‘python -m pip install’ 이 기대하는 형식을 사용합니다.  일반적인 규칙은
이 목록을 ‘requirements.txt’ 파일에 넣는 것입니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
     (tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
     novas==3.1.1.3
     numpy==1.9.2
     requests==2.7.0

‘requirements.txt’ 는 버전 제어에 커밋되어 응용 프로그램 일부로 제공될 수
있습니다.  사용자는 ‘install -r’ 로 모든 필요한 패키지를 설치할 수 있습
니다:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
     Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
       ...
     Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
       ...
     Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
       ...
     Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0

‘pip’ 에는 더 많은 옵션이 있습니다.  ‘pip’ 에 대한 완전한 문서는 *note
파이썬 모듈 설치하기: eed. 지침을 참고하세요.  패키지를 작성했을 때 파이
썬 패키지 색인에서 사용할 수 있게 하려면, Python packaging user
guide(2)를 참고하세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


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2.13 이제 뭘 하지?
==================

이 자습서를 읽어서 아마도 파이썬 사용에 관한 관심이 높아졌을 것입니다 —
실제 문제를 해결하기 위해 파이썬을 적용하려고 열망해야 합니다.  더 배우
려면 어디로 가야 할까?

이 자습서는 파이썬의 문서 세트의 일부입니다.  세트의 다른 문서는 다음과
같습니다:

   * *note 파이썬 표준 라이브러리: 144.:

     표준 라이브러리의 형, 함수 및 모듈에 대한 완전한 (비록 딱딱하지만)
     레퍼런스 자료를 제공하는 이 설명서를 탐색해야 합니다.  표준 파이썬
     배포판에는 추가 코드가 '많이' 포함되어 있습니다.  유닉스 우편함을 읽
     고, HTTP를 통해 문서를 검색하고, 난수를 만들고, 명령행 옵션을 파싱
     하고, 데이터를 압축하고, 기타 많은 작업을 수행하는 모듈이 있습니다.
     라이브러리 레퍼런스를 훑어보면 어떤 것이 있는지 알 수 있습니다.

   * *note 파이썬 모듈 설치하기: eed. 는 다른 파이썬 사용자가 작성한 추
     가 모듈을 설치하는 방법을 설명합니다.

   * *note 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스: 145.: 파이썬의 문법과 의미에 대한 자세
     한 설명.  읽기에 부담스럽지만, 언어 자체에 대한 완전한 안내서로서 유
     용합니다.

기타 파이썬 자료:

   * ‘https://www.python.org’: 주요 파이썬 웹 사이트.  여기에는 코드, 문
     서 및 웹에 있는 파이썬 관련 페이지들에 대한 포인터가 들어 있습니다.

   * ‘https://docs.python.org’: 파이썬의 설명서에 빠르게 액세스할 수 있
     습니다.

   * ‘https://pypi.org’: 이전에 치즈 가게(Cheese Shop)로도 불렸던 (1) 파
     이썬 패키지 인덱스는 내려받을 수 있는 사용자 제작 파이썬 모듈의 색
     인입니다.  코드를 배포하기 시작하면 다른 사람들이 찾을 수 있도록 여
     기에 코드를 등록할 수 있습니다.

   * ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/’: 파이썬 요리책
     (Python Cookbook)은 많은 코드 예제, 더 큰 모듈 및 유용한 스크립트 모
     음입니다.  특히 주목할만한 공헌들을 Python Cookbook (O’Reilly &
     Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3)이라는 제목의 책에 모았습니다.

   * ‘https://pyvideo.org’ 는 콘퍼런스 및 사용자 그룹 회의에서 파이썬 관
     련 비디오에 대한 링크들을 수집합니다.

   * ‘https://scipy.org’: Scientific Python 프로젝트에는 빠른 배열 계산
     및 조작을 위한 모듈들과 선형 대수, 푸리에 변환, 비선형 솔버, 난수 분
     포, 통계 분석 등과 같은 여러 가지 패키지들이 포함되어 있습니다.

파이썬 관련 질문 및 문제 보고의 경우, 뉴스 그룹 ‘comp.lang.python’ 에 게
시하거나 <python-list@python.org> 의 메일링 리스트로 보낼 수 있습니다.  뉴
스 그룹과 메일링 리스트는 게이트웨이로 연결되어 있으므로 하나에 게시된 메
시지는 자동으로 다른 그룹으로 전달됩니다.  하루에 수백 건의 게시물이 올
라옵니다.  질문하고, 질문에 답변하고, 새로운 기능을 제안하고, 새로운 모
듈을 발표합니다.  메일링 리스트 저장소는
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/’ 에 있습니다.

게시하기 전에 *note 자주 나오는 질문들: 1d0f. (FAQ라고도 한다) 목록을 확
인해야 합니다.  FAQ는 반복적으로 나타나는 많은 질문에 대한 답을 제공하며
, 이미 여러분의 문제에 대한 해결 방법을 담고 있을 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) “Cheese Shop” 은 Monty Python의 스케치입니다: 고객이 치즈 가게에
들어가지만, 찾는 치즈가 무엇이건, 점원은 없다고 말합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환,  Next: 부동 소수점 산술 문제점 및 한계,  Prev: 이제 뭘 하지?,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.14 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환
======================================

일부 파이썬 인터프리터 버전은 Korn 셸 및 GNU Bash 셸에 있는 기능과 유사
하게 현재 입력 줄 편집 및 히스토리 치환을 지원합니다.  이는 다양한 스타
일의 편집을 지원하는 GNU Readline(1) 라이브러리를 사용하여 구현됩니다.  이
라이브러리에는 자체 설명서가 있고, 여기에서 반복하지는 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 탭 완성 및 히스토리 편집::
* 대화형 인터프리터 대안::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: 탭 완성 및 히스토리 편집,  Next: 대화형 인터프리터 대안,  Up: 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환

2.14.1 탭 완성 및 히스토리 편집
-------------------------------

변수와 모듈 이름의 완성은 인터프리터 시작 시 *note 자동으로 활성화: fc1.
되어서 ‘Tab’ 키가 완료 기능을 호출합니다; 파이썬 명령문 이름, 현재 지역
변수 및 사용 가능한 모듈 이름을 찾습니다.  ‘string.a’ 와 같은 점으로 구
분된 표현식의 경우, 표현식을 마지막 ‘'.'’ 까지 값을 구한 다음, 결과 객체
의 어트리뷰트로 완성을 제안합니다.  *note __getattr__(): 4cd. 메서드를 가
진 객체가 표현식의 일부면 응용 프로그램이 정의한 코드를 실행할 수 있음에
주의해야 합니다.  기본 설정은 사용자 디렉터리에 ‘.python_history’ 라는 파
일로 히스토리를 저장합니다.  다음 대화형 인터프리터 세션에서 히스토리를
다시 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 인터프리터 대안,  Prev: 탭 완성 및 히스토리 편집,  Up: 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환

2.14.2 대화형 인터프리터 대안
-----------------------------

이 기능은 이전 버전의 인터프리터에 비교했을 때 엄청난 발전입니다; 그러나
, 몇 가지 아쉬움이 남습니다: 이어지는 줄에 적절한 들여쓰기가 제안된다면
좋을 것입니다 (구문 분석기는 다음에 들여쓰기(*note INDENT: 1d16.) 토큰이
필요한지 알 수 있습니다).  완성 메커니즘은 인터프리터의 심볼 테이블을 사
용할 수 있습니다.  일치하는 괄호, 따옴표 등을 검사하는 (또는 제안하는) 명
령도 유용할 것입니다.

꽤 오랫동안 사용됐던 개선된 대화형 인터프리터는 IPython(1) 인데, 탭 완성
, 객체 탐색 및 고급 히스토리 관리 기능을 갖추고 있습니다.  또한, 철저하
게 커스터마이즈해서 다른 응용 프로그램에 내장할 수 있습니다.  비슷한 또
다른 개선된 대화형 환경은 bpython(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ipython.org/

   (2) https://bpython-interpreter.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 부동 소수점 산술 문제점 및 한계,  Next: 부록,  Prev: 대화형 입력 편집 및 히스토리 치환,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.15 부동 소수점 산술: 문제점 및 한계
=====================================

부동 소수점 숫자는 컴퓨터 하드웨어에서 밑(base)이 2인(이진) 소수로 표현
됩니다.  예를 들어, '십진' 소수 ‘0.625’는 값 6/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000 를 가
지며, 같은 방식으로 '이진' 소수 ‘0.101’ 는 값 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8 을 가집니
다.  이 두 소수는 같은 값을 가지며, 유일한 차이점은 첫 번째가 밑이 10인
분수 표기법으로 작성되었고 두 번째는 밑이 2라는 것입니다.

불행히도, 대부분의 십진 소수는 정확하게 이진 소수로 표현될 수 없습니다.
결과적으로, 일반적으로 입력하는 십진 부동 소수점 숫자가 실제로 기계에 저
장될 때는 이진 부동 소수점 수로 근사 될 뿐입니다.

이 문제는 먼저 밑 10에서 따져보는 것이 이해하기 쉽습니다.  분수 1/3을 생
각해봅시다.  이 값을 십진 소수로 근사할 수 있습니다:

     0.3

또는, 더 정확하게,

     0.33

또는, 더 정확하게,

     0.333

등등.  아무리 많은 자릿수를 적어도 결과가 정확하게 1/3이 될 수 없지만, 점
점 더 1/3에 가까운 근사치가 됩니다.

같은 방식으로, 아무리 많은 자릿수의 숫자를 사용해도, 십진수 0.1은 이진 소
수로 정확하게 표현될 수 없습니다.  이진법에서, 1/10은 무한히 반복되는 소
수입니다

     0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...

유한 한 비트 수에서 멈추면, 근삿값을 얻게 됩니다.  오늘날 대부분 기계에
서, float는 이진 분수로 근사 되는 데, 최상위 비트로부터 시작하는 53비트
를 분자로 사용하고, 2의 거듭제곱 수를 분모로 사용합니다.  1/10의 경우, 이
진 분수는 ‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’ 인데, 실제 값 1/10과 거의 같지만
정확히 같지는 않습니다.

많은 사용자는 값이 표시되는 방식 때문에 근사를 인식하지 못합니다.  파이
썬은 기계에 저장된 이진 근삿값의 진짜 십진 값에 대한 십진 근삿값을 인쇄
할 뿐입니다.  대부분 기계에서, 만약 파이썬이 0.1로 저장된 이진 근삿값의
진짜 십진 값을 출력한다면 다음과 같이 표시해야 합니다:

     >>> 0.1
     0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

이것은 대부분 사람이 유용하다고 생각하는 것보다 많은 숫자이므로, 파이썬
은 반올림된 값을 대신 표시하여 숫자를 다룰만하게 만듭니다:

     >>> 1 / 10
     0.1

인쇄된 결과가 정확히 1/10인 것처럼 보여도, 실제 저장된 값은 가장 가까운
표현 가능한 이진 소수임을 기억하세요.

흥미롭게도, 가장 가까운 근사 이진 소수를 공유하는 여러 다른 십진수가 있
습니다.  예를 들어, ‘0.1’ 과 ‘0.10000000000000001’ 및
‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’ 는 모두
‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’ 로 근사 됩니다.  이 십진 값들이 모두 같은 근
삿값을 공유하기 때문에 ‘eval(repr(x)) == x’ 불변을 그대로 유지하면서 그
중 하나를 표시할 수 있습니다.

역사적으로, 파이썬 프롬프트와 내장 *note repr(): 7f7. 함수는 유효 숫자
17개의 숫자인 ‘0.10000000000000001’ 을 선택합니다.  파이썬 3.1부터, 이제
파이썬(대부분 시스템에서)이 가장 짧은 것을 선택할 수 있으며, 단순히
‘0.1’ 만 표시합니다.

이것이 이진 부동 소수점의 본질임에 주목하세요: 파이썬의 버그는 아니며, 여
러분의 코드에 있는 버그도 아닙니다.  하드웨어의 부동 소수점 산술을 지원
하는 모든 언어에서 같은 종류의 것을 볼 수 있습니다 (일부 언어는 기본적으
로 혹은 모든 출력 모드에서 차이를 '표시하지' 않을 수 있지만).

좀 더 만족스러운 결과를 얻으려면, 문자열 포매팅을 사용하여 제한된 수의 유
효 숫자를 생성할 수 있습니다:

     >>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # 12자리 유효숫자
     '3.14159265359'

     >>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # 소수점 뒤로 2자리
     '3.14'

     >>> repr(math.pi)
     '3.141592653589793'

이것이, 진정한 의미에서, 환영임을 깨닫는 것이 중요합니다: 여러분은 단순
히 진짜 기곗값의 '표시' 를 반올림하고 있습니다.

하나의 환상은 다른 환상을 낳을 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 0.1은 정확히
1/10이 아니므로, 0.1의 세 개를 합한 것 역시 정확히 0.3이 아닙니다:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
     False

또한, 0.1은 1/10의 정확한 값에 더 가까워질 수 없고, 0.3도 3/10의 정확한
값에 더 가까워질 수 없으므로, *note round(): 12ca. 함수로 미리 반올림하
는 것은 도움이 되지 않습니다:

     >>> round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) == round(0.3, 1)
     False

숫자를 의도한 정확한 값에 더 가깝게 만들 수는 없지만, *note
math.isclose(): dac. 함수는 부정확한 값을 비교할 때 유용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> math.isclose(0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1, 0.3)
     True

또는, *note round(): 12ca. 함수를 사용하여 대략적인 근사치를 비교할 수 있
습니다:

     >>> round(math.pi, ndigits=2) == round(22 / 7, ndigits=2)
     True

이진 부동 소수점 산술은 이처럼 많은 놀라움을 안겨줍니다.  “0.1”의 문제는
아래의 “표현 오류” 섹션에서 자세하게 설명합니다.  이진 부동 소수점의 작
동 방식과 실무에서 흔히 발생하는 문제 유형에 대한 재미있는 요약은 부동 소
수점 문제의 예(1)를 참조하세요.  또한 다른 일반적인 놀라움에 대한 더 완
전한 설명은 부동 소수점의 위험(2)을 참조하세요.

끝이 가까이 오면 말하듯이, “쉬운 답은 없습니다.” 아직, 부동 소수점수를 지
나치게 경계할 필요는 없습니다!  파이썬 float 연산의 에러는 부동 소수점 하
드웨어에서 상속된 것이고, 대부분 기계에서는 연산당 2**53분의 1을 넘지 않
는 규모입니다.  이것은 대부분 작업에서 필요한 수준 이상입니다.  하지만,
십진 산술이 아니며 모든 float 연산에 새로운 반올림 에러가 발생할 수 있다
는 점을 명심해야 합니다.

병리학적 경우가 존재하지만, 무심히 부동 소수점 산술을 사용하는 대부분은,
단순히 최종 결과를 기대하는 자릿수로 반올림해서 표시하면 기대하는 결과를
보게 될 것입니다.  보통 *note str(): 445. 만으로도 충분하며, 더 세밀하게
제어하려면 *note 포맷 문자열 문법: 1379. 에서 *note str.format(): 61b. 메
서드의 포맷 지정자를 보세요.

정확한 십진 표현이 필요한 사용 사례의 경우, 회계 응용 프로그램 및 고정밀
응용 프로그램에 적합한 십진 산술을 구현하는 *note decimal: 36. 모듈을 사
용해보세요.

정확한 산술의 또 다른 형태는 유리수를 기반으로 산술을 구현하는 *note
fractions: 5d. 모듈에 의해 지원됩니다 (따라서 1/3과 같은 숫자는 정확하게
나타낼 수 있습니다).

부동 소수점 연산을 많이 하는 사용자면 NumPy 패키지와 SciPy 프로젝트에서
제공하는 수학 및 통계 연산을 위한 다른 많은 패키지를 살펴봐야 합니다.
<‘https://scipy.org’> 를 보세요.

파이썬은 여러분이 float의 정확한 값을 진짜로 '알아야 하는' 드문 경우를 지
원할 수 있는 도구들을 제공합니다.  *note float.as_integer_ratio(): 1d1a.
메서드는 float의 값을 분수로 표현합니다:

     >>> x = 3.14159
     >>> x.as_integer_ratio()
     (3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)

비율은 정확한 값이기 때문에, 원래 값을 손실 없이 다시 만드는 데 사용할 수
있습니다:

     >>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
     True

*note float.hex(): 1d1b. 메서드는 float를 16진수(밑이 16이다)로 표현하는
데, 컴퓨터에 저장된 정확한 값을 줍니다:

     >>> x.hex()
     '0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'

이 정확한 16진수 표현은 float 값을 정확하게 재구성하는 데 사용할 수 있습
니다:

     >>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
     True

표현이 정확하므로, 파이썬의 다른 버전 에 걸쳐 값을 신뢰성 있게 이식하고
(플랫폼 독립성), 같은 형식을 지원하는 다른 언어(자바나 C99 같은)와 데이
터를 교환하는 데 유용합니다.

또 다른 유용한 도구는 *note sum(): 464. 함수입니다.  이 함수는 합산하는
동안 정밀도 상실을 완화합니다.  값이 누계에 더해질 때 중간 반올림 단계에
서 확장 정밀도를 사용합니다.  최종 합계에 영향을 주는 지점까지 에러가 누
적되지 않아서 전체적인 정확도에 차이를 만들 수 있습니다:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False
     >>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
     True

*note math.fsum(): 139d.은 더 나아가, 누계에 값이 더해질 때 모든 “잃어버
린 숫자들”을 추적하여, 결과가 한 번만 반올림되도록 합니다.  이는 *note
sum(): 464.보다 느리지만, 큰 값의 입력이 대부분 서로 상쇄되어, 최종 합이
0에 가까와지는 드문 경우에 더 정확합니다:

     >>> arr = [-0.10430216751806065, -266310978.67179024, 143401161448607.16,
     ...        -143401161400469.7, 266262841.31058735, -0.003244936839808227]
     >>> float(sum(map(Fraction, arr)))   # 정확한 함계에 단일 반올림
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> math.fsum(arr)                   # 단일 반올림
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> sum(arr)                         # 확장 정밀도로 다중 반올림
     8.042178034628478e-13
     >>> total = 0.0
     >>> for x in arr:
     ...     total += x                   # 표준 정밀도로 다중 반올림
     ...
     >>> total                            # 단순 합산은 올바른 결과를 주지 않습니다!
     -0.0051575902860057365

* Menu:

* 표현 오류::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://jvns.ca/blog/2023/01/13/examples-of-floating-point-problems/

   (2) http://www.indowsway.com/floatingpoint.htm


File: python.info,  Node: 표현 오류,  Up: 부동 소수점 산술 문제점 및 한계

2.15.1 표현 오류
----------------

이 섹션에서는 “0.1” 예제를 자세히 설명하고, 이러한 사례에 대한 정확한 분
석을 여러분이 직접 수행하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  이진 부동 소수점 표현에
대한 기본 지식이 있다고 가정합니다.

'표현 오류 (Representation error)' 는 일부 (실제로는, 대부분의) 십진 소
수가 이진(밑 2) 소수로 정확하게 표현될 수 없다는 사실을 나타냅니다.  이
것이 파이썬(또는 펄, C, C++, 자바, 포트란 및 기타 여러 언어)이 종종 여러
분이 기대하는 정확한 십진수를 표시하지 않는 주된 이유입니다.

왜 그럴까?  1/10은 이진 소수로 정확히 표현할 수 없습니다.  적어도 2000년
이후, 거의 모든 기계는 IEEE 754 이진 부동 소수점 산술을 사용하고, 거의 모
든 플랫폼은 파이썬 float를 IEEE 754 binary64 “배정밀도”에 매핑합니다.
IEEE 754 binary64 값은 53비트의 정밀도가 포함되어 있어서, 입력 시 컴퓨터
는 0.1을 'J'/2**'N' 형태의 가장 가까운 분수로 변환하려고 노력합니다.  여
기서 'J' 는 정확히 53비트를 포함하는 정수입니다.:

     1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)

를

     J ~= 2**N / 10

로 다시 쓰고, 'J' 가 정확히 53 비트(‘>= 2**52’ 이지만 ‘< 2**53’ 입니다
)임을 고려하면, 'N' 의 최적값은 56입니다:

     >>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
     True

즉, 56은 'J' 가 정확히 53비트가 되도록 만드는 'N' 의 유일한 값입니다.
'J' 의 가능한 값 중 가장 좋은 것은 반올림한 몫입니다:

     >>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
     >>> r
     6

나머지가 10의 절반보다 크므로, 가장 가까운 근삿값은 올림 해서 얻어집니다
:

     >>> q+1
     7205759403792794

따라서 IEEE 754 배정밀도로 1/10 에 가장 가까운 근삿값은 다음과 같습니다:

     7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56

분자와 분모를 둘로 나누면 다음과 같이 약분됩니다:

     3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55

올림을 했기 때문에, 이것은 실제로 1/10 보다 약간 크다는 것에 유의하세요;
내림을 했다면, 몫이 1/10 보다 약간 작아졌을 것입니다.  그러나 어떤 경우
에도 '정확하게' 1/10일 수는 없습니다!

따라서 컴퓨터는 결코 1/10을 “보지” 못합니다: 볼 수 있는 것은 위에서 주어
진 정확한 분수, 얻을 수 있는 최선의 IEEE 754 배정밀도 근삿값입니다:

     >>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
     3602879701896397.0

그 분수에 10**55를 곱하면, 55개의 십진 숫자를 볼 수 있습니다:

     >>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
     1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

이는 컴퓨터에 저장된 정확한 숫자가 십진수
0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625와 같음을 의미
합니다.  전체 십진법 값을 표시하는 대신, 많은 언어(이전 버전의 파이썬 포
함)는 결과를 17개의 유효숫자로 반올림합니다:

     >>> format(0.1, '.17f')
     '0.10000000000000001'

*note fractions: 5d. 와 *note decimal: 36. 모듈은 이 계산을 쉽게 만듭니
다:

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction

     >>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
     Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
     (3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
     Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

     >>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
     '0.10000000000000001'


File: python.info,  Node: 부록,  Prev: 부동 소수점 산술 문제점 및 한계,  Up: 파이썬 자습서

2.16 부록
=========

* Menu:

* 대화형 모드: 대화형 모드<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 모드<2>,  Up: 부록

2.16.1 대화형 모드
------------------

There are two variants of the interactive *note REPL: 16a.  The classic
basic interpreter is supported on all platforms with minimal line
control capabilities.

On Windows, or Unix-like systems with *note curses: 2b. support, a new
interactive shell is used by default since Python 3.13.  This one
supports color, multiline editing, history browsing, and paste mode.  To
disable color, see *note Controlling color: 16b. for details.  Function
keys provide some additional functionality.  ‘F1’ enters the interactive
help browser *note pydoc: b5.  ‘F2’ allows for browsing command-line
history with neither output nor the *note >>>: 16c. and *note …: 16d.
prompts.  ‘F3’ enters “paste mode”, which makes pasting larger blocks of
code easier.  Press ‘F3’ to return to the regular prompt.

When using the new interactive shell, exit the shell by typing ‘exit’ or
‘quit’.  Adding call parentheses after those commands is not required.

If the new interactive shell is not desired, it can be disabled via the
*note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16e. environment variable.

* Menu:

* 에러 처리::
* 실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트::
* 대화형 시작 파일::
* 커스터마이제이션 모듈::


File: python.info,  Node: 에러 처리,  Next: 실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트,  Up: 대화형 모드<2>

2.16.1.1 에러 처리
..................

에러가 발생하면 인터프리터는 에러 메시지와 스택 트레이스를 인쇄합니다.  대
화형 모드에서는 기본 프롬프트로 돌아갑니다; 파일로부터 입력이 왔을 때는,
스택 트레이스를 인쇄한 후 0이 아닌 종료 상태로 종료합니다.  (*note try:
6e2. 문에서 *note except: 18b. 절에 의해 처리되는 예외는 이 문맥에서 에
러가 아닙니다.)  일부 에러는 무조건 치명적이며 0이 아닌 종료 상태의 종료
를 유발합니다; 이것은 내부 불일치와 메모리 부족으로 인한 경우에 적용됩니
다.  모든 에러 메시지는 표준 에러 스트림에 기록됩니다.  실행된 명령의 정
상 출력은 표준 출력에 기록됩니다.

기본 또는 보조 프롬프트에 인터럽트 문자 (일반적으로 ‘Control’-‘C’ 또는
‘Delete’)를 입력하면 입력을 취소하고 기본 프롬프트로 돌아갑니다.  (1)  명
령어가 실행되는 동안 인터럽트를 입력하면 *note try: 6e2. 문에 의해 처리
될 수 있는 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 예외가 발생합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) GNU Readline 패키지에 있는 문제가 이것을 방해할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트,  Next: 대화형 시작 파일,  Prev: 에러 처리,  Up: 대화형 모드<2>

2.16.1.2 실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트
....................................

BSD 스타일의 유닉스 시스템에서 파이썬 스크립트는 셸 스크립트처럼 직접 실
행할 수 있게 만들 수 있습니다.  다음과 같은 줄

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

(인터프리터가 사용자의 ‘PATH’ 에 있다고 가정할 때)을 스크립트의 시작 부
분에 넣고 파일에 실행 가능 모드를 줍니다.  ‘#!’ 는 반드시 파일의 처음 두
문자여야 합니다.  일부 플랫폼에서는 이 첫 번째 줄이 유닉스 스타일의 줄 종
료 (‘'\n'’)로 끝나야 하며, 윈도우 줄 종료(‘'\r\n'’)는 허락되지 않습니다.
파이썬에서 해시, 또는 파운드, 문자 ‘'#'’ 는 주석을 시작하는 데 사용됩니
다.

스크립트는 ‘chmod’ 명령을 사용하여 실행 가능한 모드, 또는 권한, 을 부여
받을 수 있습니다.

     $ chmod +x myscript.py

윈도우 시스템에서는 “실행 가능 모드”라는 개념이 없습니다.  파이썬 설치 프
로그램은 ‘.py’ 파일을 ‘python.exe’와 자동으로 연결하여, 파이썬 파일을 이
중 클릭하면 스크립트로 실행합니다.  확장자는 ‘.pyw’ 일 수도 있습니다.  이
경우, 일반적으로 나타나는 콘솔 창은 표시되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 시작 파일,  Next: 커스터마이제이션 모듈,  Prev: 실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트,  Up: 대화형 모드<2>

2.16.1.3 대화형 시작 파일
.........................

파이썬을 대화형으로 사용할 때, 종종 인터프리터가 시작될 때마다 실행되는
표준 명령들이 있으면 편리합니다.  *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. 환경 변수를
시작 명령이 들어있는 파일 이름으로 설정하면 됩니다.  이것은 유닉스 셸의
‘.profile’ 기능과 유사합니다.

이 파일은 대화형 세션에서만 읽히며, 파이썬이 스크립트에서 명령을 읽을 때
나, ‘/dev/tty’ 가 명령의 명시적 소스인 경우(대화형 세션처럼 동작한다)에
는 읽지 않습니다.  대화형 명령이 실행되는 같은 이름 공간에서 실행되므로,
이 파일에서 정의하거나 임포트하는 객체들을 대화형 세션에서 정규화하지 않
은 이름으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 파일에서 ‘sys.ps1’ 및 ‘sys.ps2’ 프롬
프트를 변경할 수도 있습니다.

현재 디렉터리에서 추가 시작 파일을 읽으려면, 전역 시작 파일에서 ‘if
os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'): exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read())’ 와 같
은 코드를 사용해서 프로그램할 수 있습니다.  스크립트에서 시작 파일을 사
용하려면 스크립트에서 명시적으로 수행해야 합니다:

     import os
     filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
     if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
         with open(filename) as fobj:
             startup_file = fobj.read()
         exec(startup_file)


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2.16.1.4 커스터마이제이션 모듈
..............................

파이썬은 커스터마이즈할 수 있는 두 가지 훅을 제공합니다: sitecustomize 와
usercustomize.  어떻게 작동하는지 보려면, 먼저 여러분의 사용자
site-packages 디렉터리의 위치를 찾아야 합니다.  파이썬을 시작하고 다음 코
드를 실행합니다:

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/home/user/.local/lib/python3.x/site-packages'

이제 그 디렉터리에 ‘usercustomize.py’ 라는 이름의 파일을 만들고 원하는 것
들을 넣을 수 있습니다.  자동 임포트를 비활성화하는 *note -s: 1374. 옵션
으로 시작하지 않는 한, 이 파일은 모든 파이썬 실행에 영향을 줍니다.

sitecustomize 는 같은 방식으로 작동하지만, 일반적으로 전역 site-packages
디렉터리에 컴퓨터 관리자가 만들고, usercustomize 전에 임포트됩니다.  자
세한 내용은 *note site: c7. 모듈의 설명서를 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법,  Next: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스,  Prev: 파이썬 자습서,  Up: Top

3 파이썬 설정 및 사용법
***********************

설명서의 이 부분은 여러 플랫폼에서 파이썬 환경을 설정하고, 인터프리터를
호출하며, 파이썬으로 작업하기 더 쉽게 만드는 것들에 관한 일반적인 정보를
다루는데 할당되었습니다.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄과 환경::
* 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기::
* Configure Python::
* 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기::
* macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기::
* Using Python on Android::
* Using Python on iOS::
* 편집기와 IDE::


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄과 환경,  Next: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.1 명령 줄과 환경
==================

CPython 인터프리터는 명령 줄과 환경에서 다양한 설정을 찾습니다.

다른 구현의 명령 줄 체계는 다를 수 있습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 대안
구현들: 1d2e. 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄::
* 환경 변수::


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄,  Next: 환경 변수,  Up: 명령 줄과 환경

3.1.1 명령 줄
-------------

파이썬을 호출할 때 다음 옵션들을 지정할 수 있습니다:

     python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]

물론, 가장 일반적인 사용 사례는 간단한 스크립트 호출입니다:

     python myscript.py

* Menu:

* 인터페이스 옵션::
* 일반 옵션::
* 기타 옵션::
* Controlling color::
* 사용해서는 안 되는 옵션::


File: python.info,  Node: 인터페이스 옵션,  Next: 일반 옵션,  Up: 명령 줄

3.1.1.1 인터페이스 옵션
.......................

인터프리터 인터페이스는 유닉스 셸의 인터페이스와 비슷하지만, 몇 가지 추
가 호출 방법을 제공합니다:

   * tty 장치에 연결된 표준 입력으로 호출하면, 명령을 입력하라는 프롬프
     트를 준 후 EOF(파일 끝 문자, 유닉스에서는 ‘Ctrl’-‘D’, 윈도우에서는
     ‘Ctrl’-‘Z,’ ‘Enter’로 만들 수 있습니다)가 읽힐 때까지 실행합니다.  대
     화형 모드에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 대화형 모드: 16f.를 참조하세요
     .

   * 파일 이름 인자나 파일을 표준 입력으로 사용해서 호출하면, 해당 파일
     에서 스크립트를 읽고 실행합니다.

   * 디렉터리 이름 인자로 호출되면, 해당 디렉터리에서 적절히 이름 붙은 스
     크립트를 읽고 실행합니다.

   * ‘-c command’ 로 호출되면, 'command'로 주어지는 파이썬 문장을 실행합
     니다.  여기서 'command'는 개행 문자로 구분된 여러 개의 문장을 포함
     할 수 있습니다.  선행 공백은 파이썬 문장에서 중요합니다!

   * ‘-m module-name’ 으로 호출되면, 주어진 모듈을 파이썬 모듈 경로에서
     찾은 후에 스크립트로 실행합니다.

비대화형 모드에서는, 실행하기 전에 전체 입력을 구문 분석합니다.

인터페이스 옵션은 인터프리터에 의해 소비되는 옵션의 목록을 종료합니다, 뒤
따르는 모든 인자는 *note sys.argv: 1255. 로 들어갑니다 – 첫 번째 요소, 서
브 스크립트 0(‘sys.argv[0]’)은 프로그램 소스를 반영하는 문자열임에 유의
하세요.

 -- Option: -c <command>

     'command' 의 파이썬 코드를 실행합니다.  'command' 는 개행 문자로 구
     분된 하나 이상의 문장일 수 있는데, 일반 모듈 코드에서와같이 선행 공
     백은 의미가 있습니다.

     이 옵션을 주면, *note sys.argv: 1255. 의 첫 번째 요소는 ‘"-c"’ 가 되
     고, 현재 디렉터리를 *note sys.path: 3ae. 의 시작 부분에 추가합니다
     (그 디렉터리에 있는 모듈을 최상위 모듈로 임포트 할 수 있게 합니다).

     ‘command’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘cpython.run_command’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- Option: -m <module-name>

     제공된 이름의 모듈을 *note sys.path: 3ae. 에서 검색하고 그 내용을
     *note __main__: 1. 모듈로서 실행합니다.

     인자가 '모듈' 이름이기 때문에, 파일 확장자(‘.py’)를 주지 않아야 합
     니다.  모듈 이름은 유효한 절대 파이썬 모듈 이름이어야 하지만, 구현
     이 항상 이를 강제하는 것은 아닙니다 (예를 들어, 하이픈을 포함하는 이
     름을 허락할 수도 있습니다).

     패키지 이름(이름 공간 패키지 포함)도 허용됩니다.  일반 모듈 대신 패
     키지 이름이 제공되면, 인터프리터는 ‘<pkg>.__main__’ 을 메인 모듈로
     실행합니다.  이 동작은 인터프리터에 스크립트 인자로 전달되는 디렉터
     리 및 zip 파일의 처리와 의도적으로 유사합니다.

          참고: 이 옵션은 내장 모듈이나 확장 모듈에는 사용될 수 없는데,
          이것들은 파이썬 모듈 파일을 갖고 있지 않기 때문입니다.  그러나
          , 원래 소스 파일이 없는 사전 컴파일된 모듈에는 여전히 사용할 수
          있습니다.

     이 옵션을 주면, *note sys.argv: 1255. 의 첫 번째 요소는 모듈 파일의
     전체 경로가 됩니다 (모듈 파일을 찾는 동안에는 첫 번째 요소를 ‘"-m"’
     으로 설정합니다).  *note -c: 5da. 옵션과 마찬가지로, 현재 디렉터리
     가 *note sys.path: 3ae. 의 시작 부분에 추가됩니다.

     *note -I: 95b. 옵션을 사용하면 *note sys.path: 3ae.가 현재 디렉터리
     나 사용자의 site-packages 디렉터리를 포함하지 않는 격리 모드에서 스
     크립트를 실행할 수 있습니다.  모든 ‘PYTHON*’ 환경 변수도 무시됩니다
     .

     많은 표준 라이브러리 모듈에는 스크립트로 실행할 때 호출되는 코드가
     들어 있습니다.  한 예는 *note timeit: ef. 모듈입니다:

          python -m timeit -s "setup here" "benchmarked code here"
          python -m timeit -h # for details

     ‘module-name’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘cpython.run_module’을 발생시킵니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note runpy.run_module(): 1812.

          파이썬 코드에서 직접 사용할 수 있는 동등한 기능

     PEP 338(1) – 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기

     버전 3.1에서 변경: ‘__main__’ 서브 모듈을 실행할 패키지 이름을 제공
     할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이름 공간 패키지도 지원됩니다.

 -- Describe: -

     표준 입력(*note sys.stdin: 537.)에서 명령을 읽습니다.  표준 입력이
     터미널이면, *note -i: 14a3. 가 묵시적으로 적용됩니다.

     이 옵션을 주면, *note sys.argv: 1255. 의 첫 번째 요소는 ‘"-"’ 이 되
     고, 현재 디렉터리가 *note sys.path: 3ae. 의 처음에 추가됩니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘cpython.run_stdin’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- Describe: <script>

     'script' 에 담긴 파이썬 코드를 실행합니다.  'script' 는 파이썬 파일
     이나 ‘__main__.py’ 파일이 들어있는 디렉터리나 ‘__main__.py’ 파일을
     포함하는 zip 파일을 가리키는 파일 시스템 경로(절대나 상대)여야 합니
     다.

     이 옵션을 주면, *note sys.argv: 1255. 의 첫 번째 요소는 명령 줄에서
     주어진 스크립트 이름이 됩니다.

     스크립트 이름이 파이썬 파일을 직접 가리키면, 해당 파일을 포함하는 디
     렉터리가 *note sys.path: 3ae. 의 시작 부분에 추가되고, 파일은 *note
     __main__: 1. 모듈로 실행됩니다.

     스크립트 이름이 디렉터리 나 zip 파일을 가리키면, 스크립트 이름이
     *note sys.path: 3ae. 의 시작 부분에 추가되고, 해당 위치의
     ‘__main__.py’ 파일을 *note __main__: 1. 모듈로 실행합니다.

     *note -I: 95b. 옵션을 사용하면 *note sys.path: 3ae.가 스크립트 디렉
     터리나 사용자의 site-packages 디렉터리를 포함하지 않는 격리 모드에
     서 스크립트를 실행할 수 있습니다.  모든 ‘PYTHON*’ 환경 변수도 무시
     됩니다.

     ‘filename’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘cpython.run_file’을 발생시킵니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note runpy.run_path(): 181.

          파이썬 코드에서 직접 사용할 수 있는 동등한 기능

인터페이스 옵션을 주지 않으면, *note -i: 14a3. 가 묵시적으로 적용되고,
‘sys.argv[0]’ 는 빈 문자열(‘""’)이 되고, 현재 디렉터리가 *note sys.path:
3ae. 의 처음에 추가됩니다.  또한, 플랫폼에서 사용 가능한 경우 (*note
Readline 구성: fc1. 를 참조하세요), 탭 완성 및 히스토리 편집이 자동으로
활성화됩니다.

더 보기
.......

*note 인터프리터 실행하기: 1bec.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 탭 완성과 히스토리 편집의 자동 활성화.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: 일반 옵션,  Next: 기타 옵션,  Prev: 인터페이스 옵션,  Up: 명령 줄

3.1.1.2 일반 옵션
.................

 -- Option: -?
 -- Option: -h
 -- Option: --help

     모든 명령 줄 옵션과 해당 환경 변수에 대한 간단한 설명을 인쇄한 후 종
     료합니다.

 -- Option: --help-env

     파이썬 특정 환경 변수에 대한 간단한 설명을 인쇄한 후 종료합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-xoptions

     Print a description of implementation-specific *note -X: 176.
     options and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-all

     Print complete usage information and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: -V
 -- Option: --version

     파이썬 버전 번호를 출력하고 종료합니다.  출력 예는 다음과 같습니다:

          Python 3.8.0b2+

     두 번 지정하면, 다음과 같이 빌드에 관한 추가 정보를 인쇄합니다:

          Python 3.8.0b2+ (3.8:0c076caaa8, Apr 20 2019, 21:55:00)
          [GCC 6.2.0 20161005]

     Added in version 3.6: ‘-VV’ 옵션.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 옵션,  Next: Controlling color,  Prev: 일반 옵션,  Up: 명령 줄

3.1.1.3 기타 옵션
.................

 -- Option: -b

     *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note bytearray: 538.를 인코딩을 지정하지 않고
     *note str: 445.로 변환하거나, ‘bytes’ 나 ‘bytearray’ 를 ‘str’과,
     ‘bytes’를 *note int: 257.와 비교할 때 경고를 합니다.  옵션이 두 번
     주어지면 (‘-bb’) 에러를 줍니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note bytes: 1c2. 와 *note int: 257. 비교에도 적
     용됩니다.

 -- Option: -B

     주어지면, 파이썬은 소스 모듈을 임포트 할 때 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 쓰려고 하
     지 않습니다.  *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. 도 참조하십시오.

 -- Option: --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never

     해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 검증 동작을 제어합니다.  *note 캐시된 바이트
     코드 무효화: 5e6.를 참조하세요.  ‘default’ 로 설정하면, 검사형과 비
     검사형 해시 기반 바이트 코드 캐시 파일은 기본 의미에 따라 유효성이
     검사됩니다.  ‘always’ 로 설정하면, 모든 해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일들은,
     검사형과 비검사형을 가리지 않고, 해당 소스 파일에 대해 유효성이 검
     사됩니다.  ‘never’ 로 설정되면, 해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일은 해당 소스 파
     일에 대해 유효성이 검사되지 않습니다.

     타임스탬프 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 의미는 이 옵션의 영향을 받지 않습니다
     .

 -- Option: -d

     파서 디버깅 출력을 켭니다 (전문가만을 위한 기능입니다).  *note
     PYTHONDEBUG: 1d3a. 환경 변수도 참조하십시오.

     This option requires a *note debug build of Python: 1f9, otherwise
     it’s ignored.

 -- Option: -E

     설정되었을 수 있는 모든 ‘PYTHON*’ 환경 변수를 무시합니다, 예를 들어
     *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 와 *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6.

     *note -P: 59e. 와 *note -I: 95b. (격리) 옵션도 참조하십시오.

 -- Option: -i

     Enter interactive mode after execution.

     Using the *note -i: 14a3. option will enter interactive mode in any
     of the following circumstances:

        * 스크립트가 첫 번째 인자로 전달될 때

        * *note -c: 5da. 옵션이 사용될 때

        * *note -m: 5db. 옵션이 사용될 때

     대화형 모드는 *note sys.stdin: 537. 가 터미널로 보이지 않을 때도 시
     작합니다.  *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. 파일은 읽지 않습니다.

     이것은 스크립트가 예외를 발생시킬 때 전역 변수나 스택 트레이스를 검
     사하는 데 유용할 수 있습니다.  *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a2. 도 참조하
     십시오.

 -- Option: -I

     격리된 모드로 파이썬을 실행합니다.  이것은 또한 *note -E: 95a,
     *note -P: 59e. 및 *note -s: 1374. 옵션을 묵시적으로 적용합니다.

     격리 모드에서 *note sys.path: 3ae. 는 스크립트 디렉터리나 사용자의
     site-packages 디렉터리를 포함하지 않습니다.  모든 ‘PYTHON*’ 환경 변
     수도 무시됩니다.  사용자가 악성 코드를 주입하는 것을 방지하기 위해
     추가 제한이 부과될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Option: -O

     assert 문과 *note __debug__: 7d3. 의 값에 대한 조건부 코드를 제거합
     니다.  ‘.pyc’ 확장자 앞에 ‘.opt-1’ 을 추가하여 컴파일된 (*note
     바이트 코드: 187.) 파일의 이름을 구분합니다 ( PEP 488(1)을 참조하세
     요).  *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1d3b. 도 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: PEP 488(2) 에 따라 ‘.pyc’ 파일명을 수정합니다.

 -- Option: -OO

     *note -O: db1.를 적용하고 독스트링도 버립니다.  ‘.pyc’ 확장자 앞에
     ‘.opt-2’ 를 추가하여 컴파일 된(*note 바이트 코드: 187.) 파일의 이름
     을 구분합니다 (참조 PEP 488(3)을 참조하세요).

     버전 3.5에서 변경: PEP 488(4) 에 따라 ‘.pyc’ 파일명을 수정합니다.

 -- Option: -P

     Don’t prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ae.:

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: Don’t prepend the current
          working directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: Don’t prepend the script’s
          directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: Don’t
          prepend an empty string, which means the current working
          directory.

     See also the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 59f. environment variable, and
     *note -E: 95a. and *note -I: 95b. (isolated) options.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: -q

     대화형 모드에서도 저작권과 버전 메시지를 표시하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Option: -R

     Turn on hash randomization.  This option only has an effect if the
     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. environment variable is set to anything
     other than ‘random’, since hash randomization is enabled by
     default.

     이전 버전의 파이썬에서는, 이 옵션이 해시 무작위화를 켜서, str과
     bytes 객체의 *note __hash__(): af8. 값이 예측할 수 없는 난수로 “솔
     트(salt)” 됩니다.  개별 파이썬 프로세스 내에서 상수로 유지되지만, 반
     복되는 파이썬 실행 간에는 예측할 수 없습니다.

     해시 무작위화는 신중하게 선택된 입력으로 딕셔너리 구성의 최악의 경
     우 성능 'O'('n'^2) 복잡도를 공략하는 서비스 거부에 대한 보호를 제공
     하기 위한 것입니다.  자세한 내용은
     ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’ 을 참조하십시오.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. 는 해시 시드 시크릿에 고정값을 설정할 수
     있게 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 옵션은 더는 무시되지 않습니다.

 -- Option: -s

     *note 사용자 site-packages 디렉터리: 1d3d. 를 *note sys.path: 3ae.
     에 추가하지 않습니다.

     *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1375. 도 참조하세요.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 370(5) – 사용자별 site-packages 디렉터리

 -- Option: -S

     *note site: c7. 모듈의 임포트와 이 모듈이 수반하는 *note sys.path:
     3ae. 의 사이트 의존적 조작을 비활성화합니다.  또한 *note site: c7.
     가 나중에 명시적으로 임포트될 때도 이 조작을 비활성화합니다 (조작하
     기를 원하면 *note site.main(): 1d3e. 을 호출하십시오).

 -- Option: -u

     stdout 과 stderr 스트림을 버퍼링하지 않도록 만듭니다.  이 옵션은
     stdin 스트림에는 영향을 미치지 않습니다.

     *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19ac. 도 참조하세요.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: stdout 과 stderr 스트림의 텍스트 계층은 이제 버
     퍼링 되지 않습니다.

 -- Option: -v

     모듈이 초기화될 때마다 메시지를 인쇄하여, 로드된 위치(파일명이나 내
     장 모듈)를 표시합니다.  두 번 주어지면 (‘-vv’), 모듈을 검색할 때 검
     사되는 각 파일에 대한 메시지를 인쇄합니다.  종료 시 모듈 정리에 대
     한 정보도 제공합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The *note site: c7. module reports the
     site-specific paths and ‘.pth’ files being processed.

     *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1d3f. 도 참조하세요.

 -- Option: -W arg

     경고 제어.  파이썬의 경고 장치는 기본적으로 *note sys.stderr: 937.
     로 경고 메시지를 인쇄합니다.

     가장 단순한 설정은 프로세스가 만드는 모든 경고에 무조건 특정 액션을
     적용합니다 (그렇지 않으면 기본적으로 무시되는 경고조차도):

          -Wdefault  # 호출 위치마다 한 번 경고합니다
          -Werror    # 예외로 변환합니다
          -Walways   # 매번 경고합니다
          -Wall      # -Walways 와 같습니다
          -Wmodule   # 호출하는 모듈마다 한 번 경고합니다
          -Wonce     # 파이썬 프로세스마다 한 번 경고합니다
          -Wignore   # 경고하지 않습니다

     액션 이름은 원하면 줄일 수 있고, 인터프리터는 이를 적절한 액션 이름
     으로 해석합니다.  예를 들어, ‘-Wi’는 ‘-Wignore’와 같습니다.

     The full form of argument is:

          action:message:category:module:lineno

     Empty fields match all values; trailing empty fields may be
     omitted.  For example ‘-W ignore::DeprecationWarning’ ignores all
     DeprecationWarning warnings.

     The 'action' field is as explained above but only applies to
     warnings that match the remaining fields.

     The 'message' field must match the whole warning message; this
     match is case-insensitive.

     The 'category' field matches the warning category (ex:
     ‘DeprecationWarning’).  This must be a class name; the match test
     whether the actual warning category of the message is a subclass of
     the specified warning category.

     The 'module' field matches the (fully qualified) module name; this
     match is case-sensitive.

     The 'lineno' field matches the line number, where zero matches all
     line numbers and is thus equivalent to an omitted line number.

     다중 *note -W: 8c4. 옵션이 주어질 수 있습니다; 경고가 두 개 이상의
     옵션과 일치하면 마지막으로 일치하는 옵션의 액션이 수행됩니다.  유효
     하지 않은 *note -W: 8c4. 옵션은 무시됩니다 (하지만, 최초의 경고가 발
     생할 때 유효하지 않은 옵션에 관한 경고 메시지가 출력됩니다).

     경고는 *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7. 환경 변수와 파이썬 프로그램 내에
     서 *note warnings: 112. 모듈을 사용해서 제어할 수도 있습니다.  예를
     들어, *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 146f. 함수는 경고 메시지에 정
     규식을 적용하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     자세한 내용은 *note 경고 필터: 8c6.와 *note 경고 필터 설명: 1d41.를
     참조하십시오.

 -- Option: -x

     소스의 첫 번째 줄을 건너 뛰어서, 유닉스 이외의 형식의 ‘#!cmd’ 을 사
     용할 수 있게 합니다.  이것은 DOS 전용 핵(hack)을 위한 것입니다.

 -- Option: -X

     다양한 구현 특정 옵션을 위해 예약되어 있습니다.  CPython은 현재 다
     음과 같은 가능한 값을 정의합니다:

        * ‘-X faulthandler’ 는 *note faulthandler: 58. 를 활성화합니다.
          *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1076.도 참조하세요.

          Added in version 3.3.

        * ‘-X showrefcount’ 는 프로그램이 끝나거나 대화형 인터프리터에서
          각각의 문장 뒤에서, 총 참조 횟수와 사용된 메모리 블록의 수를 출
          력합니다.  이것은 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.에서만 작동합니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

        * ‘-X tracemalloc’ 은 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈을 사용하여 파
          이썬 메모리 할당 추적을 시작합니다.  기본적으로, 가장 최근 프
          레임만 추적의 트레이스백에 저장됩니다.  'NFRAME' 프레임의 트레
          이스백 한도로 추적을 시작하려면 ‘-X tracemalloc=NFRAME’ 을 사
          용하십시오.  자세한 정보는 *note tracemalloc.start(): 1d43.와
          *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d44.을 참조하십시오.

          Added in version 3.4.

        * ‘-X int_max_str_digits’ configures the *note integer string
          conversion length limitation: 5ef.  See also *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17c4.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X importtime’ 은 각 임포트가 얼마나 오래 걸렸는지 보여줍니다
          .  모듈 이름, 누적 시간(중첩된 임포트 포함), 자체 시간(중첩 임
          포트 제외)을 표시합니다.  다중 스레드 응용 프로그램에서 출력이
          깨질 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  일반적인 사용법은 ‘python3 -X
          importtime -c 'import asyncio'’ 입니다.  *note
          PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: af2. 도 참조하십시오.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X dev’: *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활성화해서, 기본적으
          로 활성화하기에는 너무 비싼 추가적인 실행시간 검사를 도입합니
          다.  *note PYTHONDEVMODE: aea.도 참조하세요.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X utf8’ 은 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 활성화합니다.
          ‘-X utf8=0’ 은 명시적으로 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 비활
          성화합니다 (그렇지 않으면 자동으로 활성화될 때조차).  *note
          PYTHONUTF8: ad5.도 참조하십시오.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X pycache_prefix=PATH’는 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 코드 트리 대신에 지정
          된 디렉터리를 루트로 하는 병렬 트리에 쓰도록 합니다.  *note
          PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a0.도 참조하십시오.

          Added in version 3.8.

        * ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ issues a *note EncodingWarning:
          1d45. when the locale-specific default encoding is used for
          opening files.  See also *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7b5.

          Added in version 3.10.

        * ‘-X no_debug_ranges’ disables the inclusion of the tables
          mapping extra location information (end line, start column
          offset and end column offset) to every instruction in code
          objects.  This is useful when smaller code objects and pyc
          files are desired as well as suppressing the extra visual
          location indicators when the interpreter displays tracebacks.
          See also *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5b0.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X frozen_modules’ determines whether or not frozen modules
          are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of ‘on’ means
          they get imported and ‘off’ means they are ignored.  The
          default is ‘on’ if this is an installed Python (the normal
          case).  If it’s under development (running from the source
          tree) then the default is ‘off’.  Note that the
          ‘importlib_bootstrap’ and ‘importlib_bootstrap_external’
          frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to
          ‘off’.  See also *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18e.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X perf’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler.  When
          this option is provided, the ‘perf’ profiler will be able to
          report Python calls.  This option is only available on some
          platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the
          current system.  The default value is “off”.  See also *note
          PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 468. and *note Python support for the Linux
          perf profiler: 18f.

          Added in version 3.12.

        * ‘-X perf_jit’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
          with DWARF support.  When this option is provided, the ‘perf’
          profiler will be able to report Python calls using DWARF
          information.  This option is only available on some platforms
          and will do nothing if is not supported on the current system.
          The default value is “off”.  See also *note
          PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. and *note Python support for the
          Linux perf profiler: 18f.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X cpu_count=N’ overrides *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5, *note
          os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4, and *note
          multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f67.  'n' must be greater than or
          equal to 1.  This option may be useful for users who need to
          limit CPU resources of a container system.  See also *note
          PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 210.  If 'n' is ‘default’, nothing is
          overridden.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X presite=PACKAGE.MODULE’ specifies a module that should be
          imported before the *note site: c7. module is executed and
          before the *note __main__: 1. module exists.  Therefore, the
          imported module isn’t *note __main__: 1.  This can be used to
          execute code early during Python initialization.  Python needs
          to be *note built in debug mode: 1f9. for this option to
          exist.  See also *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 1d46.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X gil=0,1’ forces the GIL to be disabled or enabled,
          respectively.  Setting to ‘0’ is only available in builds
          configured with *note -disable-gil: 174.  See also *note
          PYTHON_GIL: 175. and *note Free-threaded CPython: 13f.

          Added in version 3.13.

     또한 *note sys._xoptions: 1d47. 딕셔너리를 통해 임의의 값을 전달하
     고 조회할 수 있도록 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘-X showalloccount’ 옵션을 제거했습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘-X oldparser’ 옵션을 제거했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling color,  Next: 사용해서는 안 되는 옵션,  Prev: 기타 옵션,  Up: 명령 줄

3.1.1.4 Controlling color
.........................

The Python interpreter is configured by default to use colors to
highlight output in certain situations such as when displaying
tracebacks.  This behavior can be controlled by setting different
environment variables.

Setting the environment variable ‘TERM’ to ‘dumb’ will disable color.

If the FORCE_COLOR(1) environment variable is set, then color will be
enabled regardless of the value of TERM. This is useful on CI systems
which aren’t terminals but can still display ANSI escape sequences.

If the NO_COLOR(2) environment variable is set, Python will disable all
color in the output.  This takes precedence over ‘FORCE_COLOR’.

All these environment variables are used also by other tools to control
color output.  To control the color output only in the Python
interpreter, the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. environment variable can be
used.  This variable takes precedence over ‘NO_COLOR’, which in turn
takes precedence over ‘FORCE_COLOR’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://force-color.org/

   (2) https://no-color.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 사용해서는 안 되는 옵션,  Prev: Controlling color,  Up: 명령 줄

3.1.1.5 사용해서는 안 되는 옵션
...............................

 -- Option: -J

     Jython(1) 이 사용하기 위해 예약되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 환경 변수,  Prev: 명령 줄,  Up: 명령 줄과 환경

3.1.2 환경 변수
---------------

이 환경 변수들은 파이썬의 동작에 영향을 주며, -E와 -I 이외의 명령 줄 스
위치보다 먼저 처리됩니다.  충돌하면 명령 줄 스위치가 환경 변수에 우선하
는 것이 관례입니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONHOME

     표준 파이썬 라이브러리의 위치를 변경합니다.  기본적으로, 라이브러리
     는 ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’과
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’에서 검색되는데, ‘`prefix'’ 와
     ‘`exec_prefix'’ 는 설치 의존적인 디렉터리이고, 둘 다 기본값은
     ‘/usr/local’ 입니다.

     *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 이 하나의 디렉터리로 설정되면, 그 값은
     ‘`prefix'’ 와 ‘`exec_prefix'’ 를 모두 대체합니다.  이들에 대해 다른
     값을 지정하려면, *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 을 ‘`prefix':`exec_prefix'’
     로 설정하십시오.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONPATH

     모듈 파일의 기본 검색 경로를 보강합니다.  형식은 셸의 ‘PATH’ 와 같
     습니다: 하나 이상의 디렉터리 경로명이 *note os.pathsep: 1d4c. (예를
     들어, 유닉스에서는 콜론, 윈도우에서는 세미콜론) 로 구분됩니다.  존
     재하지 않는 디렉터리는 조용히 무시됩니다.

     일반 디렉터리 외에도, 개별 *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 엔트리는 순수 파
     이썬 모듈(소스 또는 컴파일된 형식)을 포함하는 zip 파일을 가리킬 수
     있습니다.  확장 모듈은 zip 파일에서 임포트될 수 없습니다.

     기본 검색 경로는 설치 의존적이지만, 일반적으로
     ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’으로 시작합니다 (위의 *note
     PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 을 참조하세요).  '항상' *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 에
     추가됩니다.

     위에서 설명한 대로 *note 인터페이스 옵션: 1d31. 하에서는 *note
     PYTHONPATH: 1013. 앞에 검색 경로에 추가 디렉터리가 삽입됩니다.  검
     색 경로는 파이썬 프로그램 내에서 *note sys.path: 3ae. 변수로 조작할
     수 있습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONSAFEPATH

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, 잠재적으로 안전하지 않은 경로를
     *note sys.path: 3ae. 앞에 추가하지 않습니다: 자세한 내용은 *note
     -P: 59e. 옵션을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONPLATLIBDIR

     이것을 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, *note sys.platlibdir: 936.
     값을 재정의합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONSTARTUP

     이것이 읽을 수 있는 파일의 이름이면, 첫 번째 프롬프트가 대화형 모드
     에 표시되기 전에, 해당 파일의 파이썬 명령이 실행됩니다.  이 파일은
     대화형 명령이 실행되는 것과 같은 이름 공간에서 실행되므로, 여기에서
     정의되거나 임포트 한 객체를 대화형 세션에서 그대로 사용할 수 있습니
     다.  이 파일에서 프롬프트 *note sys.ps1: 1d4d. 과 *note sys.ps2:
     1d4e. 와 훅 *note sys.__interactivehook__: fbf. 도 바꿀 수 있습니다
     .

     시작 시 호출될 때 filename을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘cpython.run_startup’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONOPTIMIZE

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면 *note -O: db1. 옵션을 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.  정수로 설정하면, *note -O: db1.를 여러 번 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONBREAKPOINT

     설정되면, 점으로 구분된 경로 표기법을 사용하여 콜러블의 이름을 지정
     합니다.  콜러블을 포함하는 모듈이 임포트 된 후에 콜러블은, 내장
     *note breakpoint(): 234. 에 의해 호출되는 *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): ad7. 의 기본 구현이 실행합니다.  설정되지 않
     았거나 빈 문자열로 설정하면, 값 “pdb.set_trace”와 동등합니다.  문자
     열 “0”으로 설정하면, *note sys.breakpointhook(): ad7. 의 기본 구현
     은 아무것도 하지 않고 즉시 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONDEBUG

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, *note -d: 1d39. 옵션을 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.  정수로 설정하면, *note -d: 1d39.를 여러 번 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.

     This environment variable requires a *note debug build of Python:
     1f9, otherwise it’s ignored.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONINSPECT

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, *note -i: 14a3. 옵션을 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.

     이 변수는 프로그램 종료 시 검사 모드를 강제하기 위해, *note
     os.environ: 11a9. 을 사용해서 파이썬 코드에 의해 수정될 수도 있습니
     다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘cpython.run_stdin’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.12.5에서 변경: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20)
     Emits audit events.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case *note
     PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. is also executed.  Emits audit events.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONUNBUFFERED

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, *note -u: 19ab. 옵션을 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONVERBOSE

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, *note -v: 13ed. 옵션을 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.  정수로 설정하면 *note -v: 13ed.를 여러 번 지정하는 것
     과 같습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONCASEOK

     설정되면, 파이썬은 *note import: 5dc. 문에서 대소 문자를 무시합니다
     .  이것은 윈도우와 macOS에서만 작동합니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, 파이썬은 소스 모듈을 임포트 할 때
     ‘.pyc’ 파일을 쓰지 않습니다.  이는 *note -B: 1396. 옵션을 지정하는
     것과 같습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX

     설정되면, 파이썬은 소스 트리 내의 ‘__pycache__’ 디렉터리 대신에 이
     경로에 있는 미러 디렉터리 트리에 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 씁니다.  이것은
     *note -X: 176. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ 옵션을 지정하는 것과 동등합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONHASHSEED

     이 변수가 설정되어 있지 않거나 ‘random’ 으로 설정되면, str과 bytes
     객체의 해시 시드에 난수가 사용됩니다.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. 가 정숫값으로 설정되면, 해시 무작위화가
     적용되는 형의 hash()를 생성하기 위한 고정 시드로 사용됩니다.

     목적은 인터프리터 자체에 대한 셀프 테스트와 같은 이유로 반복 가능한
     해싱을 허용하거나, 파이썬 프로세스 클러스터가 해시값을 공유하도록 허
     용하는 것입니다.

     정수는 [0,4294967295] 범위의 십진수여야 합니다.  값 0을 지정하면 해
     시 무작위화가 비활성화됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.3.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS

     If this variable is set to an integer, it is used to configure the
     interpreter’s global *note integer string conversion length
     limitation: 5ef.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONIOENCODING

     인터프리터를 실행하기 전에 이것이 설정되면, stdin/stdout/stderr에 사
     용되는 인코딩을 대체합니다.  문법은 ‘encodingname:errorhandler’ 형
     식입니다.  ‘encodingname’ 과 ‘:errorhandler’ 부분은 모두 선택 사항
     이며 *note str.encode(): 8d2. 에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     stderr의 경우, ‘:errorhandler’ 부분은 무시됩니다; 처리기는 항상
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ 입니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘encodingname’ 부분은 이제 선택적입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Windows에서, *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:
     c58. 도 지정하지 않는 한, 대화형 콘솔 버퍼에서 이 변수로 지정된 인
     코딩이 무시됩니다.  표준 스트림을 통해 리디렉션 된 파일과 파이프는
     영향을 받지 않습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONNOUSERSITE

     설정되면, 파이썬은 *note 사용자 site-packages 디렉터리: 1d3d. 를
     *note sys.path: 3ae. 에 추가하지 않습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 370(1) – 사용자별 site-packages 디렉터리

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONUSERBASE

     *note 사용자 베이스 디렉터리: 130c. 를 정의합니다.  이 디렉터리는
     ‘python -m pip install --user’ 에서 *note 사용자 site-packages
     디렉터리: 1d3d. 의 경로와 *note 설치 경로: 1d4f. 를 계산하는 데 사
     용됩니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 370(2) – 사용자별 site-packages 디렉터리

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONEXECUTABLE

     이 환경 변수가 설정되면, ‘sys.argv[0]’ 는 C 런타임을 통해 얻은 값 대
     신에 이 값으로 설정됩니다.  macOS에서만 작동합니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONWARNINGS

     *note -W: 8c4. 옵션과 동등합니다.  쉼표로 구분된 문자열로 설정하면,
     *note -W: 8c4.를 여러 번 지정하는 것과 같습니다.  목록의 뒷부분에 있
     는 필터는 목록의 이전 필터보다 우선합니다.

     가장 단순한 설정은 프로세스가 만드는 모든 경고에 무조건 특정 액션을
     적용합니다 (그렇지 않으면 기본적으로 무시되는 경고조차도):

          PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # 호출 위치마다 한 번 경고합니다
          PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # 예외로 변환합니다
          PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # 매번 경고합니다
          PYTHONWARNINGS=all      # PYTHONWARNINGS=always 와 같습니다
          PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # 호출하는 모듈마다 한 번 경고합니다
          PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # 파이썬 프로세스마다 한 번 경고합니다
          PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # 경고하지 않습니다

     자세한 내용은 *note 경고 필터: 8c6.와 *note 경고 필터 설명: 1d41.를
     참조하십시오.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER

     이 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, *note
     faulthandler.enable(): c9b. 이 시작 시에 호출됩니다: 파이썬 트레이
     스백을 덤프하는 *note SIGSEGV: 1d51, *note SIGFPE: 1d52, *note
     SIGABRT: 1d53, *note SIGBUS: 1d54. 그리고 *note SIGILL: 1d55. 시그
     널 처리기를 설치합니다.  이는 *note -X: 176. ‘faulthandler’ 옵션과
     동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC

     이 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, *note tracemalloc:
     ff. 모듈을 사용하여 파이썬 메모리 할당 추적을 시작합니다.  변수의 값
     은 추적의 트레이스백에 저장되는 최대 프레임 수입니다.  예를 들어,
     ‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1’ 은 가장 최근의 프레임만을 저장합니다.  자세한
     정보는 *note tracemalloc.start(): 1d43. 함수를 참조하십시오.  이는
     *note -X: 176. ‘tracemalloc’ 옵션을 설정하는 것과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

     이 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, 파이썬은 각 임포트
     에 걸리는 시간을 보여줍니다.  이는 *note -X: 176. ‘importtime’ 옵션
     을 설정하는 것과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG

     이 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, *note asyncio: a.
     모듈의 *note 디버그 모드: 1d57. 를 활성화합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONMALLOC

     파이썬 메모리 할당자를 설정하거나 디버그 훅을 설치합니다.

     파이썬이 사용하는 메모리 할당자를 설정합니다:

        * ‘default’: *note 기본 메모리 할당자: 1d58. 를 사용합니다.

        * ‘malloc’: 모든 영역(*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d59, *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64.)에서 C 라
          이브러리의 ‘malloc()’ 함수를 사용합니다.

        * ‘pymalloc’: *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.과 *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64. 영역에서 *note pymalloc 할당자: d0c. 를
          사용하고, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d59. 영역에서 ‘malloc()’ 함
          수를 사용합니다.

        * ‘mimalloc’: *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.과 *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64. 영역에서 *note mimalloc 할당자: 1d5a. 를
          사용하고, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d59. 영역에서 ‘malloc()’ 함
          수를 사용합니다.

     Install *note debug hooks: 1d5b.:

        * ‘debug’: *note 기본 메모리 할당자: 1d58. 위에 디버그 훅을 설치
          합니다.

        * ‘malloc_debug’: ‘malloc’ 과 같지만, 디버그 훅도 설치합니다.

        * ‘pymalloc_debug’: ‘pymalloc’ 과 같지만, 디버그 훅도 설치합니다
          .

        * ‘mimalloc_debug’: ‘mimalloc’ 과 같지만, 디버그 훅도 설치합니다
          .

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘"default"’ 할당자를 추가했습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONMALLOCSTATS

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, 파이썬은 새로운 pymalloc 객체 영
     역이 생성될 때마다, 그리고 종료할 때 *note pymalloc 메모리 할당자:
     d0c. 의 통계를 인쇄합니다.

     *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수를 사용하여 C 라이브러리의
     ‘malloc()’ 할당자를 강제로 사용하거나, ‘pymalloc’ 지원 없이 파이썬
     을 구성하면, 이 변수는 무시됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이 변수는 이제 배포 모드로 컴파일된 파이썬에서도
     사용할 수 있습니다.  이제 빈 문자열로 설정하면 효과가 없습니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, 기본 *note 파일 시스템 인코딩과
     에러 처리기: 535. 모드를 3.6 이전의 값인 ‘mbcs’와 ‘replace’로 각각
     되돌립니다.  그렇지 않으면, 새 기본값 ‘utf-8’과 ‘surrogatepass’가 사
     용됩니다.

     이것은 또한 실행 시간에 *note sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding():
     2ae. 으로 활성화 될 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6: 자세한 내용은 PEP 529(3)를 참조하십시오.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO

     비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, 새 콘솔 입력기와 출력기를 사용하
     지 않습니다.  이것은 유니코드 문자가 utf-8을 사용하는 대신 활성 콘
     솔 코드 페이지에 따라 인코딩됨을 의미합니다.

     이 변수는 표준 스트림이 콘솔 버퍼를 참조하는 대신 리디렉트 된 (파일
     또는 파이프로) 경우 무시됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE

     값 ‘0’ 으로 설정하면, 주 파이썬 명령 줄 응용 프로그램이 레거시
     ASCII 기반 C와 POSIX 로케일을 보다 유능한 UTF-8 기반 대안으로 강제
     변환하지 않습니다.

     이 변수가 설정되지 '않고' (또는 ‘0’ 이외의 값으로 설정되고), 환경 변
     수에 우선하는 ‘LC_ALL’ 로케일도 설정되지 않고, ‘LC_CTYPE’ 범주에 대
     해 보고되는 현재 로케일이 기본 ‘C’ 로케일이거나 명시적인 ASCII 기반
     의 ‘POSIX’ 로케일이면, 파이썬 CLI는 인터프리터 런타임을 로드하기 전
     에 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 범주에 대해 다음 로케일을 나열된 순서대로 구성하려고
     시도합니다:

        * ‘C.UTF-8’

        * ‘C.utf8’

        * ‘UTF-8’

     이러한 로케일 범주 중 하나를 설정하는 데 성공하면, 파이썬 런타임이
     초기화되기 전에 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 환경 변수도 현재 프로세스 환경에서 적절
     히 설정됩니다.  이렇게 하면 인터프리터 자신과 같은 프로세스에서 실
     행되는 다른 로케일 인식 구성 요소(가령 GNU ‘readline’ 라이브러리)가
     볼 수 있는 것에 더해, 갱신된 설정을 현재 C 로케일이 아닌 환경을 조
     회하는 연산(가령 파이썬 자체의 *note locale.getdefaultlocale():
     2db.)뿐만 아니라, 자식 프로세스에서도 (이 프로세스가 파이썬 인터프
     리터를 실행하는지에 관계없이) 볼 수 있습니다.

     이러한 로케일 중 하나를 구성하면 (명시적으로나 위의 묵시적 로케일 강
     제 변경을 통해) *note sys.stdin: 537. 과 *note sys.stdout: ad3. 에
     대해 ‘surrogateescape’ *note 에러 처리기: 17ec. 를 자동으로 활성화
     합니다 (*note sys.stderr: 937. 는 다른 로케일에서처럼
     ‘backslashreplace’ 를 계속 사용합니다).  이 스트림 처리 동작은 평소
     처럼 *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1000.을 사용하여 대체할 수 있습니다.

     디버깅을 위해, ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’ 을 설정하면, 로케일 강제
     변경이 일어나거나, 그렇지 않고 강제 변경을 '유발할' 로케일이 파이썬
     런타임이 초기화될 때 여전히 활성 상태면 파이썬은 ‘stderr’ 로 경고 메
     시지를 보냅니다.

     또한, 로케일 강제 변환이 비활성화되거나 적절한 대상 로케일을 찾지 못
     할 때도, 레거시 ASCII 기반 로케일에서 *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5. 은 기
     본적으로 활성화됨에 유의하십시오.  인터프리터가 시스템 인터페이스에
     대해 ‘UTF-8’ 대신에 ‘ASCII’ 를 사용하게 하려면, 두 가지 기능을 모두
     비활성화시켜야 합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7: 자세한 내용은 PEP 538(4)을 참조하십시오.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONDEVMODE

     이 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정되면, *note 파이썬 개발
     모드: 1f8.를 활성화하여, 기본적으로 활성화하기에는 너무 비싼 추가 실
     행 시간 검사를 도입합니다.  이는 *note -X: 176. ‘dev’ 옵션을 설정하
     는 것과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONUTF8

     If set to ‘1’, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.

     If set to ‘0’, disable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.

     다른 모든 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, 인터프리터를 초기화하는
     동안 에러가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, issue a
     *note EncodingWarning: 1d45. when the locale-specific default
     encoding is used.

     See *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d5d. for details.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES

     If this variable is set, it disables the inclusion of the tables
     mapping extra location information (end line, start column offset
     and end column offset) to every instruction in code objects.  This
     is useful when smaller code objects and pyc files are desired as
     well as suppressing the extra visual location indicators when the
     interpreter displays tracebacks.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONPERFSUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     *note -X perf: 176. 명령줄 옵션과 *note Python support for the
     Linux perf profiler: 18f.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it
     using DWARF information.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     *note -X perf_jit: 176. 명령줄 옵션과 *note Python support for the
     Linux perf profiler: 18f.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_CPU_COUNT

     If this variable is set to a positive integer, it overrides the
     return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. and *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4.

     *note -X cpu_count: 176. 명령줄 옵션도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES

     If this variable is set to ‘on’ or ‘off’, it determines whether or
     not frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of
     ‘on’ means they get imported and ‘off’ means they are ignored.  The
     default is ‘on’ for non-debug builds (the normal case) and ‘off’
     for debug builds.  Note that the ‘importlib_bootstrap’ and
     ‘importlib_bootstrap_external’ frozen modules are always used, even
     if this flag is set to ‘off’.

     *note -X frozen_modules: 176. 명령줄 옵션도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_COLORS

     If this variable is set to ‘1’, the interpreter will colorize
     various kinds of output.  Setting it to ‘0’ deactivates this
     behavior.  See also *note Controlling color: 16b.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_BASIC_REPL

     If this variable is set to any value, the interpreter will not
     attempt to load the Python-based *note REPL: 16a. that requires
     *note curses: 2b. and *note readline: ba, and will instead use the
     traditional parser-based *note REPL: 16a.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_HISTORY

     This environment variable can be used to set the location of a
     ‘.python_history’ file (by default, it is ‘.python_history’ in the
     user’s home directory).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_GIL

     If this variable is set to ‘1’, the global interpreter lock (GIL)
     will be forced on.  Setting it to ‘0’ forces the GIL off (needs
     Python configured with the *note -disable-gil: 174. build option).

     See also the *note -X gil: 176. command-line option, which takes
     precedence over this variable, and *note Free-threaded CPython:
     13f.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_JIT

     On builds where experimental just-in-time compilation is available,
     this variable can force the JIT to be disabled (‘0’) or enabled
     (‘1’) at interpreter startup.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* 디버그 모드 변수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: 디버그 모드 변수,  Up: 환경 변수

3.1.2.1 디버그 모드 변수
........................

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONDUMPREFS

     설정되면, 파이썬은 인터프리터를 종료한 후에도 살아있는 객체와 참조
     횟수를 덤프합니다.

     파이썬이 *note -with-trace-refs: 38e. 빌드 옵션으로 구성되었어야 합
     니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE

     설정되면, 파이썬은 인터프리터를 종료한 후에도 살아있는 객체와 참조
     횟수를 이 환경 변수의 값으로 주어진 경로에 파일로 덤프합니다.

     파이썬이 *note -with-trace-refs: 38e. 빌드 옵션으로 구성되었어야 합
     니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHON_PRESITE

     If this variable is set to a module, that module will be imported
     early in the interpreter lifecycle, before the *note site: c7.
     module is executed, and before the *note __main__: 1. module is
     created.  Therefore, the imported module is not treated as *note
     __main__: 1.

     This can be used to execute code early during Python
     initialization.

     To import a submodule, use ‘package.module’ as the value, like in
     an import statement.

     See also the *note -X presite: 176. command-line option, which
     takes precedence over this variable.

     파이썬이 *note -with-pydebug: 41e. 빌드 옵션으로 구성되었어야 합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Next: Configure Python,  Prev: 명령 줄과 환경,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.2 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기
=====================================

* Menu:

* 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치::
* 파이썬 빌드하기::
* 파이썬 관련 경로와 파일::
* 잡동사니: 잡동사니<2>.
* Custom OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치,  Next: 파이썬 빌드하기,  Up: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.2.1 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치
----------------------------------------

* Menu:

* 리눅스::
* FreeBSD와 OpenBSD::


File: python.info,  Node: 리눅스,  Next: FreeBSD와 OpenBSD,  Up: 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치

3.2.1.1 리눅스
..............

파이썬은 대부분 리눅스 배포판에 사전 설치되어 있으며, 다른 모든 곳에서 패
키지로 사용할 수 있습니다.  그러나 배포판 패키지에 없는 어떤 기능을 사용
하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  소스에서 최신 버전의 파이썬을 컴파일할 수 있습니
다.

최신 버전의 파이썬이 미리 설치되어 있지 않고 저장소에도 없으면, 여러분 자
신의 배포를 위한 패키지를 만들 수 있습니다.  다음 링크를 살펴보십시오:

더 보기
.......

‘https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html’

     데비안 사용자용

‘https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging’

     OpenSuse 사용자용

‘https://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/package-maintainers/Packaging_Tutorial_GNU_Hello/’

     Fedora 사용자용

‘https://slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html’

     Slackware 사용자용

* Menu:

* Installing IDLE::


File: python.info,  Node: Installing IDLE,  Up: 리눅스

3.2.1.2 Installing IDLE
.......................

In some cases, IDLE might not be included in your Python installation.

   * 데비안과 우분투 사용자용:

          sudo apt update
          sudo apt install idle

   * Fedora, RHEL 및 CentOS 사용자용:

          sudo dnf install python3-idle

   * SUSE 와 OpenSuse 사용자용:

          sudo zypper install python3-idle

   * 알파인 리눅스 사용자용:

          sudo apk add python3-idle


File: python.info,  Node: FreeBSD와 OpenBSD,  Prev: 리눅스,  Up: 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치

3.2.1.3 FreeBSD와 OpenBSD
.........................

   * FreeBSD 사용자, 패키지를 추가하려면 이렇게 하십시오:

          pkg install python3

   * OpenBSD 사용자, 패키지를 추가하려면 이렇게 하십시오:

          pkg_add -r python

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz

     예를 들어 i386 사용자는 이렇게 파이썬 2.5.1 버전을 얻습니다:

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 빌드하기,  Next: 파이썬 관련 경로와 파일,  Prev: 최신 버전의 파이썬 내려받기와 설치,  Up: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.2.2 파이썬 빌드하기
---------------------

CPython을 직접 컴파일하려면, 먼저 소스(1)를 얻습니다.  최신 버전의 소스
를 내려받거나 새로 clone(2) 할 수 있습니다.  (패치에 이바지하려면 clone이
필요합니다.)

빌드 프로세스는 일반적으로 다음과 같은 명령으로 구성됩니다

     ./configure
     make
     make install

특정 유닉스 플랫폼에 대한 *note 구성 옵션: 1d68.과 주의 사항은 파이썬 소
스 트리의 루트에 있는 README.rst(3) 파일에 광범위하게 설명되어있습니다.

     경고: ‘make install’은 ‘python3’ 바이너리를 덮어쓰거나 가장 할 수 있
     습니다.  따라서 ‘make altinstall’을 ‘make install’ 대신 권장하는데,
     ‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python`version'’ 만 설치하기 때문입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 관련 경로와 파일,  Next: 잡동사니<2>,  Prev: 파이썬 빌드하기,  Up: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.2.3 파이썬 관련 경로와 파일
-----------------------------

이는 지역 설치 규칙에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다; *note prefix: 1d6a. 와
*note exec_prefix: 1d6b.는 설치에 따라 다르며 GNU 소프트웨어처럼 해석되
어야 합니다; 이것들은 같을 수도 있습니다.

예를 들어, 대부분 리눅스 시스템에서, 기본값은 모두 ‘/usr’입니다.

파일/디렉터리                                       의미
                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python3’                         인터프리터의 권장 위치.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’,                     표준 모듈을 포함하는 디렉터리의 권장 위치.
‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’                 

‘`prefix'/include/python`version'’,                 파이썬 확장을 개발하고 인터프리터를 내장하는
‘`exec_prefix'/include/python`version'’             데 필요한 인클루드 파일을 포함하는 디렉터리
                                                    의 권장 위치.
                                                    


File: python.info,  Node: 잡동사니<2>,  Next: Custom OpenSSL,  Prev: 파이썬 관련 경로와 파일,  Up: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.2.4 잡동사니
--------------

유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 쉽게 사용하려면, 실행 파일로 만들어야 합니
다.  예를 들어, 이렇게

     $ chmod +x script

그리고, 스크립트의 상단에 적절한 셔뱅(Shebang) 줄을 넣습니다.  좋은 선택
은 대개 이렇습니다

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

이것은 ‘PATH’ 전체에서 파이썬 인터프리터를 검색합니다.  그러나, 일부 유
닉스에는 ‘env’ 명령이 없을 수 있으므로, 인터프리터 경로로
‘/usr/bin/python3’를 하드 코딩해야 할 수 있습니다.

파이썬 스크립트에서 셸 명령을 사용하려면, *note subprocess: d6. 모듈을 보
십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom OpenSSL,  Prev: 잡동사니<2>,  Up: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.2.5 Custom OpenSSL
--------------------

  1. To use your vendor’s OpenSSL configuration and system trust store,
     locate the directory with ‘openssl.cnf’ file or symlink in ‘/etc’.
     On most distribution the file is either in ‘/etc/ssl’ or
     ‘/etc/pki/tls’.  The directory should also contain a ‘cert.pem’
     file and/or a ‘certs’ directory.

          $ find /etc/ -name openssl.cnf -printf "%h\n"
          /etc/ssl

  2. Download, build, and install OpenSSL. Make sure you use
     ‘install_sw’ and not ‘install’.  The ‘install_sw’ target does not
     override ‘openssl.cnf’.

          $ curl -O https://www.openssl.org/source/openssl-VERSION.tar.gz
          $ tar xzf openssl-VERSION
          $ pushd openssl-VERSION
          $ ./config \
              --prefix=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --libdir=lib \
              --openssldir=/etc/ssl
          $ make -j1 depend
          $ make -j8
          $ make install_sw
          $ popd

  3. Build Python with custom OpenSSL (see the configure
     ‘--with-openssl’ and ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ options)

          $ pushd python-3.x.x
          $ ./configure -C \
              --with-openssl=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --with-openssl-rpath=auto \
              --prefix=/usr/local/python-3.x.x
          $ make -j8
          $ make altinstall

     참고: Patch releases of OpenSSL have a backwards compatible ABI.
     You don’t need to recompile Python to update OpenSSL. It’s
     sufficient to replace the custom OpenSSL installation with a newer
     version.


File: python.info,  Node: Configure Python,  Next: 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Prev: 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.3 Configure Python
====================

* Menu:

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Configure Options::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Build Requirements,  Next: Generated files,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.1 Build Requirements
------------------------

Features and minimum versions required to build CPython:

   * A C11(1) compiler.  Optional C11 features(2) are not required.

   * On Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

   * Support for IEEE 754(3) floating-point numbers and floating-point
     Not-a-Number (NaN)(4).

   * Support for threads.

   * OpenSSL 1.1.1 is the minimum version and OpenSSL 3.0.9 is the
     recommended minimum version for the *note ssl: d0. and *note
     hashlib: 68. extension modules.

   * SQLite 3.15.2 for the *note sqlite3: cf. extension module.

   * Tcl/Tk 8.5.12 for the *note tkinter: f0. module.

   * libmpdec(5) 2.5.0 for the *note decimal: 36. module.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are required to regenerate the
     ‘configure’ script.

버전 3.1에서 변경: Tcl/Tk version 8.3.1 is now required.

버전 3.5에서 변경: On Windows, Visual Studio 2015 or later is now
required.  Tcl/Tk version 8.4 is now required.

버전 3.6에서 변경: Selected C99 features are now required, like
‘<stdint.h>’ and ‘static inline’ functions.

버전 3.7에서 변경: Thread support and OpenSSL 1.0.2 are now required.

버전 3.10에서 변경: OpenSSL 1.1.1 is now required.  Require SQLite
3.7.15.

버전 3.11에서 변경: C11 compiler, IEEE 754 and NaN support are now
required.  On Windows, Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.  Tcl/Tk
version 8.5.12 is now required for the *note tkinter: f0. module.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Autoconf 2.71, aclocal 1.16.5 and SQLite 3.15.2 are
now required.

See also PEP 7(6) “Style Guide for C Code” and PEP 11(7) “CPython
platform support”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN#Floating_point

   (5) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Generated files,  Next: Configure Options,  Prev: Build Requirements,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.2 Generated files
---------------------

To reduce build dependencies, Python source code contains multiple
generated files.  Commands to regenerate all generated files:

     make regen-all
     make regen-stdlib-module-names
     make regen-limited-abi
     make regen-configure

The ‘Makefile.pre.in’ file documents generated files, their inputs, and
tools used to regenerate them.  Search for ‘regen-*’ make targets.

* Menu:

* configure script::


File: python.info,  Node: configure script,  Up: Generated files

3.3.2.1 configure script
........................

The ‘make regen-configure’ command regenerates the ‘aclocal.m4’ file and
the ‘configure’ script using the ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ shell
script which uses an Ubuntu container to get the same tools versions and
have a reproducible output.

The container is optional, the following command can be run locally:

     autoreconf -ivf -Werror

The generated files can change depending on the exact
‘autoconf-archive’, ‘aclocal’ and ‘pkg-config’ versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Configure Options,  Next: Python Build System,  Prev: Generated files,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.3 Configure Options
-----------------------

List all ‘configure’ script options using:

     ./configure --help

See also the ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution.

* Menu:

* General Options::
* C compiler options::
* Linker options::
* Options for third-party dependencies::
* WebAssembly Options::
* Install Options::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options: Linker options<2>.
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* iOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::


File: python.info,  Node: General Options,  Next: C compiler options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.1 General Options
.......................

 -- Option: --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions

     Support loadable extensions in the ‘_sqlite’ extension module
     (default is no) of the *note sqlite3: cf. module.

     See the *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 838.
     method of the *note sqlite3: cf. module.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --disable-ipv6

     Disable IPv6 support (enabled by default if supported), see the
     *note socket: cc. module.

 -- Option: --enable-big-digits=[15|30]

     Define the size in bits of Python *note int: 257. digits: 15 or 30
     bits.

     By default, the digit size is 30.

     Define the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ to ‘15’ or ‘30’.

     See *note sys.int_info.bits_per_digit: 1283.

 -- Option: --with-suffix=SUFFIX

     Set the Python executable suffix to 'SUFFIX'.

     The default suffix is ‘.exe’ on Windows and macOS (‘python.exe’
     executable), ‘.js’ on Emscripten node, ‘.html’ on Emscripten
     browser, ‘.wasm’ on WASI, and an empty string on other platforms
     (‘python’ executable).

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The default suffix on WASM platform is one of
     ‘.js’, ‘.html’ or ‘.wasm’.

 -- Option: --with-tzpath=<list of absolute paths separated by pathsep>

     Select the default time zone search path for *note zoneinfo.TZPATH:
     1d7a.  See the *note Compile-time configuration: 1d7b. of the *note
     zoneinfo: 134. module.

     Default:
     ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo:/usr/lib/zoneinfo:/usr/share/lib/zoneinfo:/etc/zoneinfo’.

     See *note os.pathsep: 1d4c. path separator.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --without-decimal-contextvar

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using a thread-local context
     rather than a coroutine-local context (default), see the *note
     decimal: 36. module.

     See *note decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR: 1d7d. and the *note contextvars:
     24. module.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-dbmliborder=<list of backend names>

     Override order to check db backends for the *note dbm: 31. module

     A valid value is a colon (‘:’) separated string with the backend
     names:

        * ‘ndbm’;

        * ‘gdbm’;

        * ‘bdb’.

 -- Option: --without-c-locale-coercion

     Disable C locale coercion to a UTF-8 based locale (enabled by
     default).

     Don’t define the ‘PY_COERCE_C_LOCALE’ macro.

     See *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ad2. and the PEP 538(1).

 -- Option: --without-freelists

     Disable all freelists except the empty tuple singleton.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --with-platlibdir=DIRNAME

     Python library directory name (default is ‘lib’).

     Fedora and SuSE use ‘lib64’ on 64-bit platforms.

     See *note sys.platlibdir: 936.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH

     Directory of wheel packages used by the *note ensurepip: 55. module
     (none by default).

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-pkg-config=[check|yes|no]

     Whether configure should use ‘pkg-config’ to detect build
     dependencies.

        * ‘check’ (default): ‘pkg-config’ is optional

        * ‘yes’: ‘pkg-config’ is mandatory

        * ‘no’: configure does not use ‘pkg-config’ even when present

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-pystats

     Turn on internal Python performance statistics gathering.

     By default, statistics gathering is off.  Use ‘python3 -X pystats’
     command or set ‘PYTHONSTATS=1’ environment variable to turn on
     statistics gathering at Python startup.

     At Python exit, dump statistics if statistics gathering was on and
     not cleared.

     Effects:

        * Add *note -X pystats: 176. command line option.

        * Add ‘PYTHONSTATS’ environment variable.

        * Define the ‘Py_STATS’ macro.

        * Add functions to the *note sys: d9. module:

             * ‘sys._stats_on()’: Turns on statistics gathering.

             * ‘sys._stats_off()’: Turns off statistics gathering.

             * ‘sys._stats_clear()’: Clears the statistics.

             * ‘sys._stats_dump()’: Dump statistics to file, and clears
               the statistics.

     The statistics will be dumped to a arbitrary (probably unique) file
     in ‘/tmp/py_stats/’ (Unix) or ‘C:\temp\py_stats\’ (Windows).  If
     that directory does not exist, results will be printed on stderr.

     Use ‘Tools/scripts/summarize_stats.py’ to read the stats.

     Statistics:

        * Opcode:

             * Specialization: success, failure, hit, deferred, miss,
               deopt, failures;

             * Execution count;

             * Pair count.

        * Call:

             * Inlined Python calls;

             * PyEval calls;

             * Frames pushed;

             * Frame object created;

             * Eval calls: vector, generator, legacy, function
               VECTORCALL, build class, slot, function “ex”, API,
               method.

        * Object:

             * incref and decref;

             * interpreter incref and decref;

             * allocations: all, 512 bytes, 4 kiB, big;

             * free;

             * to/from free lists;

             * dictionary materialized/dematerialized;

             * type cache;

             * optimization attempts;

             * optimization traces created/executed;

             * uops executed.

        * Garbage collector:

             * Garbage collections;

             * Objects visited;

             * Objects collected.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --disable-gil

     Enables 'experimental' support for running Python without the *note
     global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL): free threading build.

     Defines the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro and adds ‘"t"’ to *note
     sys.abiflags: a60.

     See *note Free-threaded CPython: 13f. for more detail.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: --enable-experimental-jit=[no|yes|yes-off|interpreter]

     Indicate how to integrate the *note JIT compiler: 140.

        * ‘no’ - build the interpreter without the JIT.

        * ‘yes’ - build the interpreter with the JIT.

        * ‘yes-off’ - build the interpreter with the JIT but disable it
          by default.

        * ‘interpreter’ - build the interpreter without the JIT, but
          with the tier 2 enabled interpreter.

     By convention, ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is a shorthand for
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit=yes’.

          참고: When building CPython with JIT enabled, ensure that your
          system has Python 3.11 or later installed.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG

     Path to ‘pkg-config’ utility.

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG_PATH

     ‘pkg-config’ options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: C compiler options,  Next: Linker options,  Prev: General Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.2 C compiler options
..........................

 -- Option: CC

     C compiler command.

 -- Option: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- Option: CPP

     C preprocessor command.

 -- Option: CPPFLAGS

     C preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options,  Next: Options for third-party dependencies,  Prev: C compiler options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.3 Linker options
......................

 -- Option: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIBRARY_DIRECTORY’.

 -- Option: LIBS

     Libraries to pass to the linker, e.g.  ‘-lLIBRARY’.

 -- Option: MACHDEP

     Name for machine-dependent library files.


File: python.info,  Node: Options for third-party dependencies,  Next: WebAssembly Options,  Prev: Linker options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.4 Options for third-party dependencies
............................................

Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: BZIP2_CFLAGS

 -- Option: BZIP2_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags to link Python to ‘libbz2’, used by
     *note bz2: 13. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: CURSES_CFLAGS

 -- Option: CURSES_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libncurses’ or ‘libncursesw’, used
     by *note curses: 2b. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: GDBM_CFLAGS

 -- Option: GDBM_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘gdbm’.

 -- Option: LIBB2_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBB2_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libb2’ (*note BLAKE2: 1d99.), used
     by *note hashlib: 68. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBEDIT_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBEDIT_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libedit’, used by *note readline:
     ba. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBFFI_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBFFI_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libffi’, used by *note ctypes: 2a.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBMPDEC_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libmpdec’, used by *note decimal:
     36. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

          참고: These environment variables have no effect unless *note
          -with-system-libmpdec: 40c. is specified.

 -- Option: LIBLZMA_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBLZMA_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘liblzma’, used by *note lzma: 8a.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBREADLINE_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libreadline’, used by *note
     readline: ba. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBSQLITE3_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libsqlite3’, used by *note
     sqlite3: cf. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBUUID_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBUUID_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libuuid’, used by *note uuid: 110.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: PANEL_CFLAGS

 -- Option: PANEL_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for PANEL, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libpanel’ or ‘libpanelw’, used by
     *note curses.panel: 2d. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: TCLTK_CFLAGS

 -- Option: TCLTK_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for TCLTK, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: ZLIB_CFLAGS

 -- Option: ZLIB_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libzlib’, used by *note gzip: 67.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly Options,  Next: Install Options,  Prev: Options for third-party dependencies,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.5 WebAssembly Options
...........................

 -- Option: --with-emscripten-target=[browser|node]

     Set build flavor for ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

        * ‘browser’ (default): preload minimal stdlib, default MEMFS.

        * ‘node’: NODERAWFS and pthread support.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-dynamic-linking

     Turn on dynamic linking support for WASM.

     Dynamic linking enables ‘dlopen’.  File size of the executable
     increases due to limited dead code elimination and additional
     features.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-pthreads

     Turn on pthreads support for WASM.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Install Options,  Next: Performance options,  Prev: WebAssembly Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.6 Install Options
.......................

 -- Option: --prefix=PREFIX

     Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX. On Unix, it
     defaults to ‘/usr/local’.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.prefix: 3b0.

     As an example, one can use ‘--prefix="$HOME/.local/"’ to install a
     Python in its home directory.

 -- Option: --exec-prefix=EPREFIX

     Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX, defaults to *note
     -prefix: 1d6a.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.exec_prefix:
     3ac.

 -- Option: --disable-test-modules

     Don’t build nor install test modules, like the *note test: e2.
     package or the ‘_testcapi’ extension module (built and installed by
     default).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-ensurepip=[upgrade|install|no]

     Select the *note ensurepip: 55. command run on Python installation:

        * ‘upgrade’ (default): run ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall
          --upgrade’ command.

        * ‘install’: run ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall’ command;

        * ‘no’: don’t run ensurepip;

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance options,  Next: Python Debug Build,  Prev: Install Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.7 Performance options
...........................

Configuring Python using ‘--enable-optimizations --with-lto’ (PGO + LTO)
is recommended for best performance.  The experimental ‘--enable-bolt’
flag can also be used to improve performance.

 -- Option: --enable-optimizations

     Enable Profile Guided Optimization (PGO) using *note PROFILE_TASK:
     1717. (disabled by default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-profdata’ program for PGO. On
     macOS, GCC also requires it: GCC is just an alias to Clang on
     macOS.

     Disable also semantic interposition in libpython if
     ‘--enable-shared’ and GCC is used: add
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to the compiler and linker flags.

          참고: During the build, you may encounter compiler warnings
          about profile data not being available for some source files.
          These warnings are harmless, as only a subset of the code is
          exercised during profile data acquisition.  To disable these
          warnings on Clang, manually suppress them by adding
          ‘-Wno-profile-instr-unprofiled’ to *note CFLAGS: 147d.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Use ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ on GCC.

 -- 환경 변수: PROFILE_TASK

     Environment variable used in the Makefile: Python command line
     arguments for the PGO generation task.

     Default: ‘-m test --pgo --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Task failure is no longer ignored silently.

 -- Option: --with-lto=[full|thin|no|yes]

     Enable Link Time Optimization (LTO) in any build (disabled by
     default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-ar’ for LTO (‘ar’ on macOS), as
     well as an LTO-aware linker (‘ld.gold’ or ‘lld’).

     Added in version 3.6.

     Added in version 3.11: To use ThinLTO feature, use
     ‘--with-lto=thin’ on Clang.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Use ThinLTO as the default optimization policy
     on Clang if the compiler accepts the flag.

 -- Option: --enable-bolt

     Enable usage of the BOLT post-link binary optimizer(1) (disabled by
     default).

     BOLT is part of the LLVM project but is not always included in
     their binary distributions.  This flag requires that ‘llvm-bolt’
     and ‘merge-fdata’ are available.

     BOLT is still a fairly new project so this flag should be
     considered experimental for now.  Because this tool operates on
     machine code its success is dependent on a combination of the build
     environment + the other optimization configure args + the CPU
     architecture, and not all combinations are supported.  BOLT
     versions before LLVM 16 are known to crash BOLT under some
     scenarios.  Use of LLVM 16 or newer for BOLT optimization is
     strongly encouraged.

     The ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ ‘configure’
     variables can be defined to override the default set of arguments
     for ‘llvm-bolt’ to instrument and apply BOLT data to binaries,
     respectively.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS

     Arguments to ‘llvm-bolt’ when creating a BOLT optimized binary(2).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS

     Arguments to ‘llvm-bolt’ when instrumenting binaries.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: --with-computed-gotos

     Enable computed gotos in evaluation loop (enabled by default on
     supported compilers).

 -- Option: --without-mimalloc

     Disable the fast *note mimalloc: 1d5a. allocator (enabled by
     default).

     See also *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. environment variable.

 -- Option: --without-pymalloc

     Disable the specialized Python memory allocator *note pymalloc:
     d0c. (enabled by default).

     See also *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. environment variable.

 -- Option: --without-doc-strings

     Disable static documentation strings to reduce the memory footprint
     (enabled by default).  Documentation strings defined in Python are
     not affected.

     Don’t define the ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro.

     See the ‘PyDoc_STRVAR()’ macro.

 -- Option: --enable-profiling

     Enable C-level code profiling with ‘gprof’ (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-strict-overflow

     Add ‘-fstrict-overflow’ to the C compiler flags (by default we add
     ‘-fno-strict-overflow’ instead).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/tree/main/bolt

   (2) https://github.com/facebookarchive/BOLT


File: python.info,  Node: Python Debug Build,  Next: Debug options,  Prev: Performance options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.8 Python Debug Build
..........................

A debug build is Python built with the *note -with-pydebug: 41e.
configure option.

Effects of a debug build:

   * Display all warnings by default: the list of default warning
     filters is empty in the *note warnings: 112. module.

   * Add ‘d’ to *note sys.abiflags: a60.

   * Add ‘sys.gettotalrefcount()’ function.

   * Add *note -X showrefcount: 176. command line option.

   * Add *note -d: 1d39. command line option and *note PYTHONDEBUG:
     1d3a. environment variable to debug the parser.

   * Add support for the ‘__lltrace__’ variable: enable low-level
     tracing in the bytecode evaluation loop if the variable is defined.

   * Install *note debug hooks on memory allocators: 1d58. to detect
     buffer overflow and other memory errors.

   * Define ‘Py_DEBUG’ and ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ macros.

   * Add runtime checks: code surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_DEBUG’ and
     ‘#endif’.  Enable ‘assert(...)’ and ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...)’
     assertions: don’t set the ‘NDEBUG’ macro (see also the *note
     -with-assertions: 385. configure option).  Main runtime checks:

        * Add sanity checks on the function arguments.

        * Unicode and int objects are created with their memory filled
          with a pattern to detect usage of uninitialized objects.

        * Ensure that functions which can clear or replace the current
          exception are not called with an exception raised.

        * Check that deallocator functions don’t change the current
          exception.

        * The garbage collector (*note gc.collect(): a36. function) runs
          some basic checks on objects consistency.

        * The ‘Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST()’ macro checks for integer underflow
          and overflow when downcasting from wide types to narrow types.

See also the *note Python Development Mode: 1f8. and the *note
-with-trace-refs: 38e. configure option.

버전 3.8에서 변경: Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro (see the *note -with-trace-refs: 38e. option).


File: python.info,  Node: Debug options,  Next: Linker options<2>,  Prev: Python Debug Build,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.9 Debug options
.....................

 -- Option: --with-pydebug

     *note Build Python in debug mode: 1f9.: define the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
     (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-trace-refs

     Enable tracing references for debugging purpose (disabled by
     default).

     Effects:

        * Define the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro.

        * Add *note sys.getobjects(): 421. function.

        * Add *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a3. environment variable.

     The *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a3. environment variable can be used to
     dump objects and reference counts still alive at Python exit.

     *note Statically allocated objects: 778. are not traced.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This build is now ABI compatible with release
     build and *note debug build: 1f9.

 -- Option: --with-assertions

     Build with C assertions enabled (default is no): ‘assert(...);’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...);’.

     If set, the ‘NDEBUG’ macro is not defined in the *note OPT: 1dbd.
     compiler variable.

     See also the *note -with-pydebug: 41e. option (*note debug build:
     1f9.) which also enables assertions.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-valgrind

     Enable Valgrind support (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-dtrace

     Enable DTrace support (default is no).

     See *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: c69.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-address-sanitizer

     Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, ‘asan’ (default is
     no).  To improve ASan detection capabilities you may also want to
     combine this with *note -without-pymalloc: 1db8. to disable the
     specialized small-object allocator whose allocations are not
     tracked by ASan.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-memory-sanitizer

     Enable MemorySanitizer allocation error detector, ‘msan’ (default
     is no).

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer

     Enable UndefinedBehaviorSanitizer undefined behaviour detector,
     ‘ubsan’ (default is no).

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-thread-sanitizer

     Enable ThreadSanitizer data race detector, ‘tsan’ (default is no).

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options<2>,  Next: Libraries options,  Prev: Debug options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.10 Linker options
.......................

 -- Option: --enable-shared

     Enable building a shared Python library: ‘libpython’ (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --without-static-libpython

     Do not build ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ and do not install ‘python.o’
     (built and enabled by default).

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Libraries options,  Next: Security Options,  Prev: Linker options<2>,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.11 Libraries options
..........................

 -- Option: --with-libs='lib1 ...'

     Link against additional libraries (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-expat

     Build the ‘pyexpat’ module using an installed ‘expat’ library
     (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-libmpdec

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using an installed
     ‘mpdecimal’ library, see the *note decimal: 36. module (default is
     yes).

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Default to using the installed ‘mpdecimal’
     library.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: A
     copy of the ‘mpdecimal’ library sources will no longer be
     distributed with Python 3.15.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS: 1d9e. and *note LIBMPDEC_LIBS: 1d9f.

 -- Option: --with-readline=readline|editline

     Designate a backend library for the *note readline: ba. module.

        * readline: Use readline as the backend.

        * editline: Use editline as the backend.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --without-readline

     Don’t build the *note readline: ba. module (built by default).

     Don’t define the ‘HAVE_LIBREADLINE’ macro.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-libm=STRING

     Override ‘libm’ math library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-libc=STRING

     Override ‘libc’ C library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-openssl=DIR

     Root of the OpenSSL directory.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: --with-openssl-rpath=[no|auto|DIR]

     Set runtime library directory (rpath) for OpenSSL libraries:

        * ‘no’ (default): don’t set rpath;

        * ‘auto’: auto-detect rpath from *note -with-openssl: 1dcb. and
          ‘pkg-config’;

        * 'DIR': set an explicit rpath.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Options,  Next: macOS Options,  Prev: Libraries options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.12 Security Options
.........................

 -- Option: --with-hash-algorithm=[fnv|siphash13|siphash24]

     Select hash algorithm for use in ‘Python/pyhash.c’:

        * ‘siphash13’ (default);

        * ‘siphash24’;

        * ‘fnv’.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Added in version 3.11: ‘siphash13’ is added and it is the new
     default.

 -- Option:
          --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=md5,sha1,sha256,sha512,sha3,blake2

     Built-in hash modules:

        * ‘md5’;

        * ‘sha1’;

        * ‘sha256’;

        * ‘sha512’;

        * ‘sha3’ (with shake);

        * ‘blake2’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-ssl-default-suites=[python|openssl|STRING]

     Override the OpenSSL default cipher suites string:

        * ‘python’ (default): use Python’s preferred selection;

        * ‘openssl’: leave OpenSSL’s defaults untouched;

        * 'STRING': use a custom string

     See the *note ssl: d0. module.

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The settings ‘python’ and 'STRING' also set TLS
     1.2 as minimum protocol version.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS Options,  Next: iOS Options,  Prev: Security Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.13 macOS Options
......................

See Mac/README.rst(1).

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk=SDKDIR

     Create a universal binary build.  'SDKDIR' specifies which macOS
     SDK should be used to perform the build (default is no).

 -- Option: --enable-framework

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework rather than a traditional Unix install.
     Optional 'INSTALLDIR' specifies the installation path (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --with-universal-archs=ARCH

     Specify the kind of universal binary that should be created.  This
     option is only valid when *note -enable-universalsdk: 969. is set.

     Options:

        * ‘universal2’ (x86-64 and arm64);

        * ‘32-bit’ (PPC and i386);

        * ‘64-bit’ (PPC64 and x86-64);

        * ‘3-way’ (i386, PPC and x86-64);

        * ‘intel’ (i386 and x86-64);

        * ‘intel-32’ (i386);

        * ‘intel-64’ (x86-64);

        * ‘all’ (PPC, i386, PPC64 and x86-64).

     Note that values for this configuration item are 'not' the same as
     the identifiers used for universal binary wheels on macOS. See the
     Python Packaging User Guide for details on the packaging platform
     compatibility tags used on macOS(2)

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when
     *note -enable-framework: 1dd2. is set (default: ‘Python’).

 -- Option: --with-app-store-compliance

 -- Option: --with-app-store-compliance=PATCH-FILE

     The Python standard library contains strings that are known to
     trigger automated inspection tool errors when submitted for
     distribution by the macOS and iOS App Stores.  If enabled, this
     option will apply the list of patches that are known to correct app
     store compliance.  A custom patch file can also be specified.  This
     option is disabled by default.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Mac/README.rst

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/platform-compatibility-tags/#macos


File: python.info,  Node: iOS Options,  Next: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: macOS Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.14 iOS Options
....................

See iOS/README.rst(1).

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework.  Unlike macOS, the 'INSTALLDIR' argument
     specifying the installation path is mandatory.

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the framework (default: ‘Python’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: iOS Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.15 Cross Compiling Options
................................

Cross compiling, also known as cross building, can be used to build
Python for another CPU architecture or platform.  Cross compiling
requires a Python interpreter for the build platform.  The version of
the build Python must match the version of the cross compiled host
Python.

 -- Option: --build=BUILD

     configure for building on BUILD, usually guessed by ‘config.guess’.

 -- Option: --host=HOST

     cross-compile to build programs to run on HOST (target platform)

 -- Option: --with-build-python=path/to/python

     path to build ‘python’ binary for cross compiling

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: CONFIG_SITE=file

     An environment variable that points to a file with configure
     overrides.

     Example 'config.site' file:

          # config.site-aarch64
          ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no

 -- Option: HOSTRUNNER

     Program to run CPython for the host platform for cross-compilation.

     Added in version 3.11.

Cross compiling example:

     CONFIG_SITE=config.site-aarch64 ../configure \
         --build=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu \
         --host=aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu \
         --with-build-python=../x86_64/python


File: python.info,  Node: Python Build System,  Next: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Configure Options,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.4 Python Build System
-------------------------

* Menu:

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Main files of the build system,  Next: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.1 Main files of the build system
......................................

   * ‘configure.ac’ => ‘configure’;

   * ‘Makefile.pre.in’ => ‘Makefile’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘pyconfig.h’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘Modules/Setup’: C extensions built by the Makefile using
     ‘Module/makesetup’ shell script;


File: python.info,  Node: Main build steps,  Next: Main Makefile targets,  Prev: Main files of the build system,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.2 Main build steps
........................

   * C files (‘.c’) are built as object files (‘.o’).

   * A static ‘libpython’ library (‘.a’) is created from objects files.

   * ‘python.o’ and the static ‘libpython’ library are linked into the
     final ‘python’ program.

   * C extensions are built by the Makefile (see ‘Modules/Setup’).


File: python.info,  Node: Main Makefile targets,  Next: C extensions,  Prev: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.3 Main Makefile targets
.............................

* Menu:

* make::
* make platform::
* make profile-opt::
* make clean::
* make distclean::
* make install::
* make test::
* make buildbottest::
* make regen-all::


File: python.info,  Node: make,  Next: make platform,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.4 make
............

For the most part, when rebuilding after editing some code or refreshing
your checkout from upstream, all you need to do is execute ‘make’, which
(per Make’s semantics) builds the default target, the first one defined
in the Makefile.  By tradition (including in the CPython project) this
is usually the ‘all’ target.  The ‘configure’ script expands an
‘autoconf’ variable, ‘@DEF_MAKE_ALL_RULE@’ to describe precisely which
targets ‘make all’ will build.  The three choices are:

   * ‘profile-opt’ (configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’)

   * ‘build_wasm’ (configured with ‘--with-emscripten-target’)

   * ‘build_all’ (configured without explicitly using either of the
     others)

Depending on the most recent source file changes, Make will rebuild any
targets (object files and executables) deemed out-of-date, including
running ‘configure’ again if necessary.  Source/target dependencies are
many and maintained manually however, so Make sometimes doesn’t have all
the information necessary to correctly detect all targets which need to
be rebuilt.  Depending on which targets aren’t rebuilt, you might
experience a number of problems.  If you have build or test problems
which you can’t otherwise explain, ‘make clean && make’ should work
around most dependency problems, at the expense of longer build times.


File: python.info,  Node: make platform,  Next: make profile-opt,  Prev: make,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.5 make platform
.....................

Build the ‘python’ program, but don’t build the standard library
extension modules.  This generates a file named ‘platform’ which
contains a single line describing the details of the build platform,
e.g., ‘macosx-14.3-arm64-3.12’ or ‘linux-x86_64-3.13’.


File: python.info,  Node: make profile-opt,  Next: make clean,  Prev: make platform,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.6 make profile-opt
........................

Build Python using profile-guided optimization (PGO). You can use the
configure *note -enable-optimizations: 85c. option to make this the
default target of the ‘make’ command (‘make all’ or just ‘make’).


File: python.info,  Node: make clean,  Next: make distclean,  Prev: make profile-opt,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.7 make clean
..................

Remove built files.


File: python.info,  Node: make distclean,  Next: make install,  Prev: make clean,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.8 make distclean
......................

In addition to the work done by ‘make clean’, remove files created by
the configure script.  ‘configure’ will have to be run before building
again.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘git clean -fdx’ is an even more extreme way to “clean” your
checkout.  It removes all files not known to Git.  When bug hunting
using ‘git bisect’, this is recommended between probes
(https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114505#issuecomment-1907021718)
to guarantee a completely clean build.  'Use with care', as it will
delete all files not checked into Git, including your new, uncommitted
work.


File: python.info,  Node: make install,  Next: make test,  Prev: make distclean,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.9 make install
....................

Build the ‘all’ target and install Python.


File: python.info,  Node: make test,  Next: make buildbottest,  Prev: make install,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.10 make test
..................

Build the ‘all’ target and run the Python test suite with the
‘--fast-ci’ option.  Variables:

   * ‘TESTOPTS’: additional regrtest command-line options.

   * ‘TESTPYTHONOPTS’: additional Python command-line options.

   * ‘TESTTIMEOUT’: timeout in seconds (default: 10 minutes).


File: python.info,  Node: make buildbottest,  Next: make regen-all,  Prev: make test,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.11 make buildbottest
..........................

This is similar to ‘make test’, but uses the ‘--slow-ci’ option and
default timeout of 20 minutes, instead of ‘--fast-ci’ option.


File: python.info,  Node: make regen-all,  Prev: make buildbottest,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.12 make regen-all
.......................

Regenerate (almost) all generated files.  These include (but are not
limited to) bytecode cases, and parser generator file.  ‘make
regen-stdlib-module-names’ and ‘autoconf’ must be run separately for the
remaining *note generated files: 1d72.


File: python.info,  Node: C extensions,  Prev: Main Makefile targets,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.13 C extensions
.....................

Some C extensions are built as built-in modules, like the ‘sys’ module.
They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro defined.  Built-in
modules have no ‘__file__’ attribute:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys
     <module 'sys' (built-in)>
     >>> sys.__file__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute '__file__'

Other C extensions are built as dynamic libraries, like the ‘_asyncio’
module.  They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro defined.
Example on Linux x86-64:

     >>> import _asyncio
     >>> _asyncio
     <module '_asyncio' from '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'>
     >>> _asyncio.__file__
     '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'

‘Modules/Setup’ is used to generate Makefile targets to build C
extensions.  At the beginning of the files, C extensions are built as
built-in modules.  Extensions defined after the ‘*shared*’ marker are
built as dynamic libraries.

The ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’, ‘PyAPI_DATA()’ and *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149b.
macros of ‘Include/exports.h’ are defined differently depending if the
‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro is defined:

   * Use ‘Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL’ if the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ is defined

   * Use ‘Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL’ otherwise.

If the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro is used by mistake on a C extension
built as a shared library, its ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function is not exported,
causing an *note ImportError: 413. on import.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Python Build System,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.5 Compiler and linker flags
-------------------------------

Options set by the ‘./configure’ script and environment variables and
used by ‘Makefile’.

* Menu:

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Preprocessor flags,  Next: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.1 Preprocessor flags
..........................

 -- 환경 변수: CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS

     Value of *note CPPFLAGS: 147f. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 환경 변수: CPPFLAGS

     (Objective) C/C++ preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’ if you
     have headers in a nonstandard directory 'include_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 147f. and *note LDFLAGS: 147e. need to contain
     the shell’s value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- 환경 변수: BASECPPFLAGS

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_CPPFLAGS

     Extra preprocessor flags added for building the interpreter object
     files.

     Default: ‘$(BASECPPFLAGS) -I. -I$(srcdir)/Include
     $(CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler flags,  Next: Linker flags,  Prev: Preprocessor flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.2 Compiler flags
......................

 -- 환경 변수: CC

     C compiler command.

     Example: ‘gcc -pthread’.

 -- 환경 변수: CXX

     C++ compiler command.

     Example: ‘g++ -pthread’.

 -- 환경 변수: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- 환경 변수: CFLAGS_NODIST

     *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1df5. is used for building the interpreter and
     stdlib C extensions.  Use it when a compiler flag should 'not' be
     part of *note CFLAGS: 147d. once Python is installed (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note CFLAGS: 147d. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-I’ (for setting the search path for
          include files).  The ‘-I’ flags are processed from left to
          right, and any flags in *note CFLAGS: 147d. would take
          precedence over user- and package-supplied ‘-I’ flags.

        * hardening flags such as ‘-Werror’ because distributions cannot
          control whether packages installed by users conform to such
          heightened standards.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 환경 변수: COMPILEALL_OPTS

     Options passed to the *note compileall: 20. command line when
     building PYC files in ‘make install’.  Default: ‘-j0’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 환경 변수: EXTRA_CFLAGS

     Extra C compiler flags.

 -- 환경 변수: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS

     Value of *note CFLAGS: 147d. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 환경 변수: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1df5. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 환경 변수: BASECFLAGS

     Base compiler flags.

 -- 환경 변수: OPT

     Optimization flags.

 -- 환경 변수: CFLAGS_ALIASING

     Strict or non-strict aliasing flags used to compile
     ‘Python/dtoa.c’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 환경 변수: CCSHARED

     Compiler flags used to build a shared library.

     For example, ‘-fPIC’ is used on Linux and on BSD.

 -- 환경 변수: CFLAGSFORSHARED

     Extra C flags added for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(CCSHARED)’ when *note -enable-shared: 85d. is used, or
     an empty string otherwise.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(BASECFLAGS) $(OPT) $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)
     $(EXTRA_CFLAGS)’.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(CFLAGS_NODIST)
     -I$(srcdir)/Include/internal’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS

     C flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(PY_CFLAGS) $(PY_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(PY_CPPFLAGS)
     $(CFLAGSFORSHARED)’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_CORE_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS

     Compiler flags to build a standard library extension module as a
     built-in module, like the *note posix: ad. module.

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 환경 변수: PURIFY

     Purify command.  Purify is a memory debugger program.

     Default: empty string (not used).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Linker flags,  Prev: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.3 Linker flags
....................

 -- 환경 변수: LINKCC

     Linker command used to build programs like ‘python’ and
     ‘_testembed’.

     Default: ‘$(PURIFY) $(CC)’.

 -- 환경 변수: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS

     Value of *note LDFLAGS: 147e. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Avoid assigning *note CFLAGS: 147d, *note LDFLAGS: 147e, etc.  so
     users can use them on the command line to append to these values
     without stomping the pre-set values.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 환경 변수: LDFLAGS_NODIST

     *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1e07. is used in the same manner as *note
     CFLAGS_NODIST: 1df5.  Use it when a linker flag should 'not' be
     part of *note LDFLAGS: 147e. once Python is installed
     (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note LDFLAGS: 147e. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-L’ (for setting the search path for
          libraries).  The ‘-L’ flags are processed from left to right,
          and any flags in *note LDFLAGS: 147e. would take precedence
          over user- and package-supplied ‘-L’ flags.

 -- 환경 변수: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1e07. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 환경 변수: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIB_DIR’ if you have libraries in a
     nonstandard directory 'lib_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 147f. and *note LDFLAGS: 147e. need to contain
     the shell’s value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- 환경 변수: LIBS

     Linker flags to pass libraries to the linker when linking the
     Python executable.

     Example: ‘-lrt’.

 -- 환경 변수: LDSHARED

     Command to build a shared library.

     Default: ‘@LDSHARED@ $(PY_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- 환경 변수: BLDSHARED

     Command to build ‘libpython’ shared library.

     Default: ‘@BLDSHARED@ $(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_LDFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS)’.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST) $(LDFLAGS_NODIST)’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 환경 변수: PY_CORE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Next: macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Prev: Configure Python,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.4 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기
==============================

이 문서는 Microsoft 윈도우에서 파이썬을 사용할 때 알아야 할 윈도우 특정
동작에 대한 개요를 제공하는 것을 목표로 합니다.

대부분의 유닉스 시스템과 서비스와 달리, 윈도우에는 시스템 지원 파이썬 설
치가 포함되어 있지 않습니다.  파이썬을 사용할 수 있도록, CPython 팀은 수
년 동안 모든 배포판(1)에 대해 윈도우 설치 프로그램을 컴파일했습니다.  이
러한 설치 프로그램은 주로 단일 사용자가 사용하는 핵심 인터프리터와 라이
브러리와 함께 사용자별 파이썬 설치를 추가하기 위한 것입니다.  설치 프로
그램은 또한 단일 시스템의 모든 사용자를 위해 설치할 수 있으며, 응용 프로
그램 로컬 배포를 위해 별도의 ZIP 파일이 제공됩니다.

PEP 11(2)에 지정된 대로, 파이썬 릴리스는 Microsoft가 플랫폼이 확장된 지
원을 받는 것으로 간주하는 윈도우 플랫폼만 지원합니다.  이것은 파이썬
3.13가(이) 윈도우 8.1 이상을 지원함을 뜻합니다.  윈도우 7 지원이 필요하
면 파이썬 3.8을 설치하십시오.

윈도우에서 사용할 수 있는 여러 가지 설치 프로그램이 있으며, 각각 나름의
장단점이 있습니다.

*note 전체 설치 프로그램: 1e11.은 모든 구성 요소를 포함하며 모든 종류의
프로젝트에 파이썬을 사용하는 개발자에게 가장 적합한 옵션입니다.

*note Microsoft Store 패키지: 1bed.는 스크립트와 패키지를 실행하고 IDLE이
나 다른 개발 환경을 사용하는 데 적합한 파이썬의 간단한 설치입니다.  윈도
우 10 이상이 필요하지만, 다른 프로그램을 손상하지 않고 안전하게 설치할 수
있습니다.  또한 파이썬과 그 도구를 시작하기 위한 많은 편리한 명령을 제공
합니다.

*note nuget.org 패키지: 1e12.는 지속적 통합 시스템(continuous
integration systems)을 위한 경량 설치입니다.  파이썬 패키지를 빌드하거나
스크립트를 실행하는 데 사용할 수 있지만, 업데이트할 수 없으며 사용자 인
터페이스 도구가 없습니다.

*note 내장 가능한 패키지: 1e13.는 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 내장하기에 적합
한 파이썬의 최소 패키지입니다.

* Menu:

* 전체 설치 프로그램::
* Microsoft Store 패키지::
* nuget.org 패키지: nuget org 패키지.
* 내장 가능한 패키지::
* 대체 번들::
* 파이썬 구성하기::
* UTF-8 모드::
* 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처::
* 모듈 찾기::
* 추가 모듈::
* 윈도우에서 파이썬 컴파일하기::
* 기타 플랫폼::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: 전체 설치 프로그램,  Next: Microsoft Store 패키지,  Up: 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.4.1 전체 설치 프로그램
------------------------

* Menu:

* 설치 단계::
* MAX_PATH 제한 제거하기::
* UI 없이 설치하기::
* 다운로드 없이 설치하기::
* 설치 수정하기::
* 자유 스레드 바이너리를 설치합니다::


File: python.info,  Node: 설치 단계,  Next: MAX_PATH 제한 제거하기,  Up: 전체 설치 프로그램

3.4.1.1 설치 단계
.................

네 개의 파이썬 3.13 설치 프로그램을 다운로드할 수 있습니다 - 각각 32비트
와 64비트 버전의 인터프리터를 지원하는 두 가지.  '웹 설치 프로그램(web
installer)'은 작은 초기 다운로드이며, 필요한 구성 요소를 자동으로 다운로
드합니다.  '오프라인 설치 프로그램(offline installer)'에는 기본 설치에 필
요한 구성 요소가 포함되어 있으며 선택적 기능을 위해서만 인터넷 연결이 필
요합니다.  설치 중 다운로드를 피하는 다른 방법은 *note 다운로드 없이
설치하기: 1e16.를 참조하십시오.

설치 프로그램을 시작한 후, 두 가지 옵션 중 하나를 선택할 수 있습니다:

[image src="python-figures/win_installer.png"]


“Install Now”를 선택하면:

   * 관리자(administrator)일 필요는 '없습니다' (C 런타임 라이브러리에 대
     한 시스템 업데이트가 필요하거나 모든 사용자를 위해 *note 윈도우 용
     파이썬 런처: 5b8.를 설치하지 않는 한)

   * 파이썬이 사용자 디렉터리에 설치됩니다

   * *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.는 첫 페이지 하단의 옵션에 따라 설
     치됩니다

   * 표준 라이브러리, 테스트 스위트, 런처 및 pip가 설치됩니다

   * 선택하면, 설치 디렉터리가 ‘PATH’에 추가됩니다

   * 바로 가기는 현재 사용자에게만 표시됩니다

“Customize installation”을 선택하면 설치할 기능, 설치 위치 및 다른 옵션
이나 설치 후 작업을 선택할 수 있습니다.  디버깅 심볼이나 바이너리를 설치
하려면, 이 옵션을 사용해야 합니다.

모든 사용자 설치를 수행하려면, “Customize installation”을 선택해야 합니
다.  이 경우:

   * 관리자 자격 증명이나 승인을 제공해야 할 수 있습니다.

   * 파이썬은 Program Files 디렉터리에 설치됩니다

   * *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.는 Windows 디렉터리에 설치됩니다

   * 설치 중에 선택적 기능을 선택할 수 있습니다

   * 표준 라이브러리는 바이트 코드로 사전 컴파일될 수 있습니다

   * 선택하면, 설치 디렉터리가 시스템 ‘PATH’에 추가됩니다

   * 모든 사용자가 바로 가기를 사용할 수 있습니다


File: python.info,  Node: MAX_PATH 제한 제거하기,  Next: UI 없이 설치하기,  Prev: 설치 단계,  Up: 전체 설치 프로그램

3.4.1.2 MAX_PATH 제한 제거하기
..............................

윈도우는 역사적으로 경로 길이를 260자로 제한했습니다.  이는 이보다 긴 경
로는 결정(resolve)되지 않고 에러가 발생함을 의미합니다.

최신 버전의 윈도우에서는, 이 제한을 약 32,000자로 확장할 수 있습니다.  관
리자는 “Enable Win32 long paths” 그룹 정책을 활성화하거나, 레지스트리 키
‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem’에서
‘LongPathsEnabled’를 ‘1’로 설정해야 합니다.

이는 *note open(): 515. 함수, *note os: a1. 모듈 및 대부분의 다른 경로 기
능이 260자보다 긴 경로를 받아들이고 반환할 수 있도록 합니다.

위 옵션을 변경한 후에는, 추가 구성이 필요하지 않습니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: 긴 경로에 대한 지원이 파이썬에서 활성화되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: UI 없이 설치하기,  Next: 다운로드 없이 설치하기,  Prev: MAX_PATH 제한 제거하기,  Up: 전체 설치 프로그램

3.4.1.3 UI 없이 설치하기
........................

설치 프로그램 UI에서 사용할 수 있는 모든 옵션은 명령 줄에서도 지정할 수
있어서, 스크립팅 된 설치 프로그램이 사용자 상호 작용 없이 여러 컴퓨터에
서 설치를 복제할 수 있도록 합니다.  이러한 옵션은 일부 기본값을 변경하기
위해 UI를 억제하지 않고 설정할 수도 있습니다.

The following options (found by executing the installer with ‘/?’) can
be passed into the installer:

이름                      설명
                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                          
/passive                  to display progress without requiring user interaction
                          
                          
/quiet                    UI를 표시하지 않고 설치/제거하기
                          
                          
/simple                   사용자 정의를 방지하기
                          
                          
/uninstall                to remove Python (without confirmation)
                          
                          
/layout [디렉터리]        to pre-download all components
                          
                          
/log [파일명]             to specify log files location
                          

다른 모든 옵션은 ‘name=value’로 전달됩니다.  여기서 value는 일반적으로 기
능을 비활성화하려면 ‘0’, 기능을 활성화하려면 ‘1’ 또는 경로입니다.  사용
가능한 옵션의 전체 목록은 다음과 같습니다.

이름                            설명                                       기본값
                                                                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
InstallAllUsers                 시스템 전체 설치를 수행합니다.             0
                                                                           
                                                                           
TargetDir                       설치 디렉터리                              InstallAllUsers 에 따라 선택
                                                                           됩니다
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultAllUsersTargetDir        모든 사용자 설치를 위한 기본 설치 디렉터   ‘%ProgramFiles%\Python X.Y’
                                리                                         또는
                                                                           ‘%ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python
                                                                           X.Y’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultJustForMeTargetDir       현재 사용자 전용 설치를 위한 기본 설치 디  ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY’
                                렉터리                                     또는
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-32’
                                                                           또는
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-64’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultCustomTargetDir          UI에 표시되는 기본 사용자 지정 설치 디렉   (비어있음)
                                터리                                       
                                
                                                                           
AssociateFiles                  런처도 설치되었으면 파일 연결을 만듭니다   1
                                .                                          
                                
                                                                           
CompileAll                      모든 ‘.py’ 파일을 ‘.pyc’로 컴파일합니다.   0
                                                                           
                                                                           
PrependPath                     설치 및 Scripts 디렉터리를 ‘PATH’의 앞에   0
                                추가하고 ‘.PY’를 ‘PATHEXT’에 추가합니다.   
                                
                                                                           
AppendPath                      설치 및 Scripts 디렉터리를 ‘PATH’의 뒤에   0
                                추가하고 ‘.PY’를 ‘PATHEXT’에 추가합니다.   
                                
                                                                           
Shortcuts                       설치되면, 인터프리터, 설명서 및 IDLE에 대  1
                                한 바로 가기를 만듭니다.                   
                                
                                                                           
Include_doc                     파이썬 매뉴얼을 설치합니다                 1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_debug                   디버그 바이너리를 설치합니다               0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_dev                     Install developer headers and libraries.   1
                                Omitting this may lead to an unusable      
                                installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_exe                     ‘python.exe’와 관련 파일들을 설치합니다.   1
                                이를 생략하면 쓸 수 없는 설치가 될 수 있   
                                습니다.
                                
                                                                           
Include_launcher                *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.를 설치   1
                                합니다.                                    
                                
                                                                           
InstallLauncherAllUsers         Installs the launcher for all users.       1
                                Also requires ‘Include_launcher’ to be     
                                set to 1
                                
                                                                           
Include_lib                     표준 라이브러리와 확장 모듈을 설치합니다   1
                                .  이를 생략하면 쓸 수 없는 설치가 될 수   
                                있습니다.
                                
                                                                           
Include_pip                     번들로 제공되는 pip와 setuptools를 설치    1
                                합니다                                     
                                
                                                                           
Include_symbols                 디버깅 심볼(‘*.pdb’)을 설치합니다          0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_tcltk                   Tcl/Tk 지원과 IDLE을 설치합니다            1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_test                    표준 라이브러리 테스트 스위트를 설치합니   1
                                다                                         
                                
                                                                           
Include_tools                   유틸리티 스크립트를 설치합니다             1
                                                                           
                                                                           
LauncherOnly                    런처만 설치합니다.  이것은 대부분의 다른   0
                                옵션보다 우선합니다.                       
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstall                   대부분의 설치 UI를 비활성화합니다          0
                                                                           
                                                                           
SimpleInstallDescription        단순화된 설치 UI를 사용할 때 표시할 사용   (비어있음)
                                자 정의 메시지.                            
                                

예를 들어 기본, 시스템 전체 파이썬 설치를 조용히 설치하려면, (관리자 권
한 명령 프롬프트에서) 다음 명령을 사용할 수 있습니다:

     python-3.9.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0

사용자가 테스트 스위트 없이 파이썬의 개인용 사본을 쉽게 설치할 수 있도록
, 다음 명령으로 바로 가기를 제공할 수 있습니다.  이렇게 하면 단순화된 초
기 페이지가 표시되고 사용자 정의가 허용되지 않습니다:

     python-3.9.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
         SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."

(런처를 생략하면 파일 연결도 생략되며, 런처가 포함된 시스템 전체 설치가
있을 때, 사용자별 설치에만 권장됨에 유의하십시오.)

위에 나열된 옵션은 실행 파일과 함께 ‘unattend.xml’이라는 파일로 제공될 수
도 있습니다.  이 파일은 옵션과 값 목록을 지정합니다.  값이 어트리뷰트로
제공되면, 가능한 경우 숫자로 변환됩니다.  엘리먼트 텍스트로 제공된 값은
항상 문자열로 남아 있습니다.  이 예제 파일은 이전 예제와 같은 옵션을 설
정합니다:

     <Options>
         <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
         <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
     </Options>


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3.4.1.4 다운로드 없이 설치하기
..............................

파이썬의 일부 기능은 초기 설치 프로그램 다운로드에 포함되어 있지 않아서,
이러한 기능을 선택하면 인터넷 연결이 필요할 수 있습니다.  이러한 요구를
피하고자, 필요에 따라 모든 가능한 구성 요소를 내려받아 선택한 기능과 관
계없이 더는 인터넷 연결이 필요하지 않은 완전한 '레이아웃'을 만들 수 있습
니다.  이 다운로드는 필요한 것보다 클 수 있지만, 많은 수의 설치를 수행할
경우 로컬로 캐시 된 사본을 보유하는 것이 매우 유용합니다.

가능한 모든 파일을 다운로드하려면 명령 프롬프트에서 다음 명령을 실행하십
시오.  ‘python-3.9.0.exe’를 설치 프로그램의 실제 이름으로 대체하고, 같은
이름을 가진 파일 간의 충돌을 방지하기 위해 자체 디렉터리에 레이아웃을 만
들어야 합니다.

     python-3.9.0.exe /layout [선택적 대상 디렉터리]

‘/quiet’ 옵션을 지정하여 진행률 표시를 숨길 수도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 설치 수정하기,  Next: 자유 스레드 바이너리를 설치합니다,  Prev: 다운로드 없이 설치하기,  Up: 전체 설치 프로그램

3.4.1.5 설치 수정하기
.....................

일단 파이썬이 설치되면, 윈도우의 일부인 Programs and Features 도구를 통
해 기능을 추가하거나 제거할 수 있습니다.  Python 항목을 선택하고
“Uninstall/Change”를 선택하여 유지 관리 모드로 설치 프로그램을 엽니다.

“Modify”는 체크 박스를 수정하여 기능을 추가하거나 제거하도록 합니다 - 변
경되지 않은 체크 박스는 아무것도 설치하거나 제거하지 않습니다.  이 모드
에서는 설치 디렉터리와 같은 일부 옵션을 변경할 수 없습니다; 이를 수정하
려면 파이썬을 완전히 제거한 다음 다시 설치해야 합니다.

“Repair”는 현재 설정을 사용하여 설치되어야 하는 모든 파일을 확인하고 제
거되거나 수정된 파일을 대체합니다.

“Uninstall”은 파이썬을 완전히 제거하는데, Programs and Features에 자체 항
목이 있는 *note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8.는 제외합니다.


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3.4.1.6 자유 스레드 바이너리를 설치합니다
.........................................

Added in version 3.13: (Experimental)

     참고: Everything described in this section is considered
     experimental, and should be expected to change in future releases.

To install pre-built binaries with free-threading enabled (see PEP
703(1)), you should select “Customize installation”.  The second page of
options includes the “Download free-threaded binaries” checkbox.

[image src="python-figures/win_install_freethreaded.png"]


Selecting this option will download and install additional binaries to
the same location as the main Python install.  The main executable is
called ‘python3.13t.exe’, and other binaries either receive a ‘t’ suffix
or a full ABI suffix.  Python source files and bundled third-party
dependencies are shared with the main install.

The free-threaded version is registered as a regular Python install with
the tag ‘3.13t’ (with a ‘-32’ or ‘-arm64’ suffix as normal for those
platforms).  This allows tools to discover it, and for the *note 윈도우
용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. to support ‘py.exe -3.13t’.  Note that the launcher
will interpret ‘py.exe -3’ (or a ‘python3’ shebang) as “the latest 3.x
install”, which will prefer the free-threaded binaries over the regular
ones, while ‘py.exe -3.13’ will not.  If you use the short style of
option, you may prefer to not install the free-threaded binaries at this
time.

To specify the install option at the command line, use
‘Include_freethreaded=1’.  See *note 다운로드 없이 설치하기: 1e16. for
instructions on pre-emptively downloading the additional binaries for
offline install.  The options to include debug symbols and binaries also
apply to the free-threaded builds.

Free-threaded binaries are also available *note on nuget.org: 1e12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


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3.4.2 Microsoft Store 패키지
----------------------------

Added in version 3.7.2.

Microsoft Store 패키지는 쉽게 설치할 수 있는 파이썬 인터프리터로, 주로 예
를 들어 학생의 대화형 사용을 목적으로 합니다.

패키지를 설치하려면, 최신 윈도우 10 업데이트가 있는지 확인하고 “Python
3.13”를(을) 위한 Microsoft Store 앱을 검색하십시오.  선택한 앱이 Python
Software Foundation에서 게시되었는지 확인하고, 설치합니다.

     경고: 파이썬은 Microsoft Store에서 항상 무료로 제공됩니다.  비용을
     지불하라는 요청을 받으면, 올바른 패키지를 선택하지 않은 것입니다.

설치 후, 파이썬은 Start에서 찾아서 시작할 수 있습니다.  또는, 모든 명령
프롬프트 또는 PowerShell 세션에서 ‘python’을 입력하여 사용할 수 있습니다
.  또한, ‘pip’나 ‘idle’을 입력하여 pip와 IDLE을 사용할 수 있습니다.
IDLE은 Start에서도 찾을 수 있습니다.

세 가지 명령 모두 버전 번호 접미사와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어,
‘python.exe’뿐만 아니라 ‘python3.exe’와 ‘python3.x.exe’ (여기서 ‘3.x’는
여러분이 시작하려는 특정 버전입니다, 가령 3.13).  Start를 통해 “Manage
App Execution Aliases”를 열어 각 명령과 연결된 파이썬 버전을 선택합니다.
‘pip’와 ‘idle’이 선택된 ‘python’ 버전과 일치하도록 하는 것이 좋습니다.

‘python -m venv’로 가상 환경을 만들고 활성화하여 정상적으로 사용할 수 있
습니다.

다른 버전의 파이썬을 설치하고 ‘PATH’ 변수에 추가했으면, Microsoft Store에
서 제공하는 것이 아니라 그것이 ‘python.exe’로 사용될 수 있습니다.  새 설
치에 액세스하려면, ‘python3.exe’나 ‘python3.x.exe’를 사용하십시오.

‘py.exe’ 런처는 이 파이썬 설치를 감지하지만, 기존 설치 프로그램으로부터
의 설치를 선호합니다.

파이썬을 제거하려면, Settings를 열고 Apps and Features를 사용하거나,
Start에서 Python을 찾은 다음 마우스 오른쪽 단추를 클릭하여 Uninstall 을
선택합니다.  제거하면 이 파이썬 설치에 직접 설치한 모든 패키지가 제거되
지만, 가상 환경은 제거되지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 알려진 문제::


File: python.info,  Node: 알려진 문제,  Up: Microsoft Store 패키지

3.4.2.1 알려진 문제
...................

* Menu:

* Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.


File: python.info,  Node: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths,  Up: 알려진 문제

3.4.2.2 Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths
................................................................

Microsoft Store 앱에 대한 제한으로 인해, 파이썬 스크립트에는 ‘TEMP’와 레
지스트리와 같은 공유 위치에 대한 전체 쓰기 액세스 권한이 없을 수 있습니
다.  대신, 개인 사본에 기록됩니다.  스크립트가 공유 위치를 수정해야 하면
, 전체 설치 프로그램을 설치해야 합니다.

At runtime, Python will use a private copy of well-known Windows folders
and the registry.  For example, if the environment variable ‘%APPDATA%’
is ‘c:\Users\<user>\AppData\’, then when writing to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local’ will write to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local\Packages\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\LocalCache\Local\’.

When reading files, Windows will return the file from the private
folder, or if that does not exist, the real Windows directory.  For
example reading ‘C:\Windows\System32’ returns the contents of
‘C:\Windows\System32’ plus the contents of ‘C:\Program
Files\WindowsApps\package_name\VFS\SystemX86’.

You can find the real path of any existing file using *note
os.path.realpath(): 225.:

     >>> import os
     >>> test_file = 'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\test.txt'
     >>> os.path.realpath(test_file)
     'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\Packages\\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\\LocalCache\\Local\\test.txt'

When writing to the Windows Registry, the following behaviors exist:

   * Reading from ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed and results are merged
     with the ‘registry.dat’ file in the package.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is not allowed if the corresponding
     key/value exists, i.e.  modifying existing keys.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed as long as a corresponding
     key/value does not exist in the package and the user has the
     correct access permissions.

이러한 제한에 대한 기술적 기반에 대한 자세한 내용은, 현재
docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes(1)에
있는 패키지화 된 완전 신뢰 앱에 대한 Microsoft의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes


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3.4.3 nuget.org 패키지
----------------------

Added in version 3.5.2.

nuget.org 패키지는 시스템 전체에 파이썬이 설치되지 않은 지속적인 통합과
빌드 시스템에 사용하기 위한 축소된 크기의 파이썬 환경입니다.  너겟은
“.NET 용 패키지 관리자”이지만, 빌드 타임 도구가 포함된 패키지에서도 완벽
하게 작동합니다.

너겟 사용에 대한 최신 정보를 보려면 nuget.org(1)를 방문하십시오.  다음은
파이썬 개발자에게 충분한 요약입니다.

‘nuget.exe’ 명령 줄 도구는, 예를 들어 curl이나 PowerShell을 사용하여
‘https://aka.ms/nugetclidl’에서 직접 다운로드할 수 있습니다.  이 도구를
사용하면 다음과 같이 64비트나 32비트 컴퓨터용 파이썬의 최신 버전이 설치
됩니다:

     nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
     nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .

특정 버전을 선택하려면, ‘-Version 3.x.y’를 추가하십시오.  출력 디렉터리
는 ‘.’에서 변경될 수 있으며, 패키지는 하위 디렉터리에 설치됩니다.  기본
적으로, 하위 디렉터리의 이름은 패키지와 같으며, ‘-ExcludeVersion’ 옵션이
없으면 이 이름에 설치된 특정 버전이 포함됩니다.  하위 디렉터리에는 파이
썬 설치가 포함된 ‘tools’ 디렉터리가 있습니다:

     # -ExcludeVersion 없이
     > .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

     # -ExcludeVersion 포함
     > .\python\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

일반적으로, 너겟 패키지는 업그레이드할 수 없으며, 최신 버전을 나란히 설
치하고 전체 경로를 사용하여 참조해야 합니다.  또는, 패키지 디렉터리를 수
동으로 삭제하고 다시 설치하십시오.  많은 CI 시스템은 빌드 간에 파일을 보
존하지 않으면 이 작업을 자동으로 수행합니다.

‘tools’ 디렉터리와 함께 ‘build\native’ 디렉터리가 있습니다.  여기에는 파
이썬 설치를 참조하기 위해 C++ 프로젝트에서 사용할 수 있는 MSBuild 속성 파
일 ‘python.props’가 포함되어 있습니다.  설정을 포함하면 빌드에서 자동으
로 헤더와 임포트 라이브러리를 사용합니다.

nuget.org의 패키지 정보 페이지는 64비트 버전의 경우
www.nuget.org/packages/python(2), 32비트 버전의 경우
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86(3) 그리고 ARM64 버전의 경우
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64(4)입니다.

* Menu:

* 자유 스레드 패키지::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86

   (4) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64


File: python.info,  Node: 자유 스레드 패키지,  Up: nuget org 패키지

3.4.3.1 자유 스레드 패키지
..........................

Added in version 3.13: (Experimental)

     참고: Everything described in this section is considered
     experimental, and should be expected to change in future releases.

Packages containing free-threaded binaries are named
python-freethreaded(1) for the 64-bit version, pythonx86-freethreaded(2)
for the 32-bit version, and pythonarm64-freethreaded(3) for the ARM64
version.  These packages contain both the ‘python3.13t.exe’ and
‘python.exe’ entry points, both of which run free threaded.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python-freethreaded

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86-freethreaded

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64-freethreaded


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3.4.4 내장 가능한 패키지
------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

내장된 배포는 최소 파이썬 환경을 포함하는 ZIP 파일입니다.  최종 사용자가
직접 액세스하기보다는, 다른 응용 프로그램의 일부로 작동하기 위한 것입니
다.

추출되면, 내장된 배포는 환경 변수, 시스템 레지스트리 설정 및 설치된 패키
지를 포함하여 사용자 시스템에서 (거의) 완전히 격리됩니다.  표준 라이브러
리는 ZIP에 미리 컴파일되고 최적화된 ‘.pyc’ 파일로 포함되며,
‘python3.dll’, ‘python37.dll’, ‘python.exe’ 및 ‘pythonw.exe’가 모두 제공
됩니다.  Tcl/tk (Idle과 같은 모든 종속 항목을 포함하여), pip 및 파이썬 설
명서는 포함되지 않습니다.

     참고: 내장된 배포에는 Microsoft C Runtime(1)이 포함되어 있지 않으며
     이를 제공하는 것은 응용 프로그램 설치 프로그램의 책임입니다.  런타
     임은 이전에 사용자 시스템에 이미 설치되었거나 윈도우 업데이트를 통
     해 자동으로 설치되었을 수 있으며, 시스템 디렉터리에서
     ‘ucrtbase.dll’을 찾아서 감지할 수 있습니다.

제삼자 패키지는 내장된 배포와 함께 응용 프로그램 설치 프로그램이 설치해
야 합니다.  일반 파이썬 설치처럼 종속성을 관리하기 위해 pip를 사용하는 것
은 이 배포에서 지원되지 않지만, 주의를 기울이면 자동 업데이트를 위해
pip를 포함하고 사용할 수 있습니다.  일반적으로, 제삼자 패키지는 개발자가
사용자에게 업데이트를 제공하기 전에 최신 버전과의 호환성을 보장할 수 있
도록 응용 프로그램의 일부로 처리되어야 합니다 (“벤더링(vendoring)”).

이 배포에 권장되는 두 가지 사용 사례가 아래에 설명되어 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 응용 프로그램::
* 파이썬 내장하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/windows/latest-supported-vc-redist#visual-studio-2015-2017-2019-and-2022


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3.4.4.1 파이썬 응용 프로그램
............................

파이썬으로 작성된 응용 프로그램이 반드시 사용자가 그 사실을 인식하도록 할
필요는 없습니다.  이 경우 내장된 배포를 사용하여 설치 패키지에 파이썬의
내부 버전을 포함할 수 있습니다.  얼마나 투명해야 하는지(또는 반대로, 얼
마나 전문적으로 보여야 하는지)에 따라, 두 가지 옵션이 있습니다.

특수 실행 파일을 런처로 사용하려면 약간의 코딩이 필요하지만, 사용자에게
가장 투명한 경험을 제공합니다.  사용자 정의된 런처를 사용하면, 프로그램
이 파이썬에서 실행되고 있다는 명백한 표시가 없습니다: 아이콘을 사용자 정
의하고, 회사와 버전 정보를 지정할 수 있으며 파일 연결이 제대로 작동합니
다.  대부분의 경우, 사용자 정의 런처는 하드 코딩된 명령 줄을 사용하여
‘Py_Main’을 호출할 수 있어야 합니다.

더 간단한 방법은 필요한 명령 줄 인자를 사용하여 ‘python.exe’나
‘pythonw.exe’를 직접 호출하는 배치 파일이나 생성된 바로 가기를 제공하는
것입니다.  이 경우, 응용 프로그램은 실제 이름이 아닌 파이썬으로 표시되며
, 사용자는 실행 중인 다른 파이썬 프로세스나 파일 연결과 구별하는 데 어려
움을 겪을 수 있습니다.

후자의 접근 방식에서는, 패키지를 파이썬 실행 파일과 함께 디렉터리로 설치
하여 경로에서 사용할 수 있도록 해야 합니다.  특수 런처를 사용하면, 응용
프로그램을 시작하기 전에 검색 경로를 지정할 수 있어서 패키지를 다른 위치
에 배치할 수 있습니다.


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3.4.4.2 파이썬 내장하기
.......................

네이티브 코드로 작성된 응용 프로그램에는 종종 어떤 형태의 스크립팅 언어
가 필요하며, 내장된 파이썬 배포를 이러한 목적으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  일
반적으로, 대부분의 응용 프로그램은 네이티브 코드로 되어 있으며, 일부가
‘python.exe’를 호출하거나 ‘python3.dll’을 직접 사용합니다.  두 경우 모두
, 내장된 배포를 응용 프로그램 설치의 하위 디렉터리로 추출하면 로드할 수
있는 파이썬 인터프리터를 제공하기에 충분합니다.

응용 프로그램 사용과 마찬가지로, 인터프리터를 초기화하기 전에 검색 경로
를 지정할 기회가 있어서 패키지를 임의의 위치에 설치할 수 있습니다.  그 외
에는, 내장된 배포와 일반 설치를 사용하는 것 간에 근본적인 차이점은 없습
니다.


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3.4.5 대체 번들
---------------

표준 CPython 배포 외에도, 추가 기능을 포함하는 수정된 패키지가 있습니다.
다음은 많이 사용되는 버전과 주요 기능 목록입니다:

ActivePython(1)

     다중 플랫폼 호환성, 설명서, PyWin32가 있는 설치 프로그램

Anaconda(2)

     인기 있는 과학 모듈(가령 numpy, scipy 및 pandas)과 ‘conda’ 패키지 관
     리자.

Enthought Deployment Manager(3)

     “The Next Generation Python Environment and Package Manager”.

     Previously Enthought provided Canopy, but it reached end of life in
     2016(4).

WinPython(5)

     사전 빌드된 과학 패키지와 패키지 빌드를 위한 도구가 포함된 윈도우 전
     용 배포.

이러한 패키지들은 최신 버전의 파이썬이나 기타 라이브러리를 포함하지 않을
수 있으며, 핵심 파이썬 팀에서 유지 관리하거나 지원하지 않음에 유의하십시
오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://assets.enthought.com/downloads/edm/

   (4) 
https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/360038600051-Canopy-GUI-end-of-life-transition-to-the-Enthought-Deployment-Manager-EDM-and-Visual-Studio-Code

   (5) https://winpython.github.io/


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3.4.6 파이썬 구성하기
---------------------

명령 프롬프트에서 파이썬을 편리하게 실행하려면, 윈도우에서 일부 기본 환
경 변수를 변경하는 것을 고려할 수 있습니다.  설치 프로그램이 PATH와
PATHEXT 변수를 구성하는 옵션을 제공하지만, 이는 시스템 전체의 단일 설치
에서만 신뢰할 수 있습니다.  여러 버전의 파이썬을 정기적으로 사용하면,
*note 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. 사용을 고려하십시오.

* Menu:

* 보충 설명; 환경 변수 설정하기: 보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
* 파이썬 실행 파일 찾기::


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3.4.6.1 보충 설명: 환경 변수 설정하기
.....................................

윈도우에서는 환경 변수를 사용자 수준과 시스템 수준 모두에서 영구적으로 구
성하거나, 명령 프롬프트에서 일시적으로 구성할 수 있습니다.

환경 변수를 임시로 설정하려면, 명령 프롬프트를 열고 ‘set’ 명령을 사용하
십시오:

     C:\>set PATH=C:\Program Files\Python 3.9;%PATH%
     C:\>set PYTHONPATH=%PYTHONPATH%;C:\My_python_lib
     C:\>python

이러한 변경은 해당 콘솔에서 실행되는 모든 추가 명령에 적용되며, 콘솔에서
시작된 모든 응용 프로그램에 상속됩니다.

백분율 기호 안에 변수 이름을 포함하면 기존 값으로 확장되어, 시작이나 끝
부분에 새 값을 추가할 수 있습니다.  ‘python.exe’를 포함하는 디렉터리를 시
작 부분에 추가하여 ‘PATH’를 수정하는 것은 올바른 버전의 파이썬이 실행되
도록 하는 일반적인 방법입니다.

기본 환경 변수를 영구적으로 수정하려면, Start를 클릭하고 ‘edit
environment variables’를 검색하거나, 시스템 속성, Advanced system
settings를 열고 Environment Variables 버튼을 클릭합니다.  이 대화 상자에
서, 사용자와 시스템 변수를 추가하거나 수정할 수 있습니다.  시스템 변수를
변경하려면 컴퓨터에 제한 없이 액세스해야 합니다 (즉 관리자 권한).

     참고: 윈도우는 사용자 변수를 시스템 변수 '뒤에' 이어붙이므로,
     ‘PATH’를 수정할 때 예기치 않은 결과가 발생할 수 있습니다.

     *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 변수는 모든 버전의 파이썬에서 사용되므로, 나
     열된 경로가 설치된 모든 파이썬 버전과 호환되는 코드만 포함하지 않는
     한 이 것을 영구적으로 구성해서는 안 됩니다.

더 보기
.......

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/procthread/environment-variables’

     윈도우에서의 환경 변수 개요

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/set_1’

     환경 변수를 임시로 수정하기 위한, ‘set’ 명령

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/setx’

     환경 변수를 영구적으로 수정하기 위한, ‘setx’ 명령


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3.4.6.2 파이썬 실행 파일 찾기
.............................

버전 3.5에서 변경.

자동으로 만들어진 파이썬 인터프리터를 위한 시작 메뉴 항목을 사용하는 것
외에도, 명령 프롬프트에서 파이썬을 시작하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  설치 프로
그램에는 이를 설정할 수 있는 옵션이 있습니다.

설치 프로그램의 첫 페이지에서, “Add Python to PATH”라는 옵션을 선택하여
설치 프로그램이 ‘PATH’에 설치 위치를 추가하도록 할 수 있습니다.
‘Scripts\’ 폴더의 위치도 추가됩니다.  이는 인터프리터를 실행하기 위해
‘python’을 입력하고, 패키지 설치 프로그램을 실행하려면 ‘pip’를 입력할 수
있도록 합니다.  따라서, 명령 줄 옵션으로 스크립트를 실행할 수도 있습니다
, *note 명령 줄: ffd. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

설치 시 이 옵션을 활성화하지 않았으면, 언제든지 설치 프로그램을 다시 실
행하고, Modify를 선택한 다음, 활성화할 수 있습니다.  또는, *note 보충
설명; 환경 변수 설정하기: 1bee.의 지침을 사용하여 ‘PATH’를 수동으로 수정
할 수 있습니다.  파이썬 설치 디렉터리를 포함하도록 ‘PATH’ 환경 변수를 설
정해야 하며, 다른 항목과 세미콜론으로 구분됩니다.  예제 변수는 다음과 같
습니다 (처음 두 항목이 이미 존재한다고 가정합니다):

     C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Program Files\Python 3.9


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3.4.7 UTF-8 모드
----------------

Added in version 3.7.

윈도우는 여전히 시스템 인코딩에 레거시 인코딩을 사용합니다 (ANSI 코드 페
이지).  파이썬은 이를 텍스트 파일의 기본 인코딩에 이를 사용합니다 (예를
들어 *note locale.getencoding(): 2de.).

UTF-8은 인터넷과 WSL(Windows Subsystem for Linux)을 포함한 대부분의 유닉
스 시스템에서 널리 사용되기 때문에 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다.

*note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 사용하여 기본 텍스트 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변
경할 수 있습니다.  ‘-X utf8’ 명령 줄 옵션이나 ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’ 환경 변수를
통해 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 활성화할 수 있습니다.  UTF-8 모드를
활성화하려면 *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5.을, 환경 변수를 수정하는 방법은 *note
보충 설명; 환경 변수 설정하기: 1bee.를 참조하십시오.

When the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. is enabled, you can still use the
system encoding (the ANSI Code Page) via the “mbcs” codec.

기본 환경 변수에 ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’을 추가하면 시스템의 모든 파이썬 3.7+ 응
용 프로그램에 영향을 줍니다.  레거시 시스템 인코딩에 의존하는 파이썬
3.7+ 응용 프로그램이 있으면 환경 변수를 임시로 설정하거나 ‘-X utf8’ 명령
줄 옵션을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     참고: UTF-8 모드가 비활성화된 경우에도, 파이썬은 윈도우에서 기본적
     으로 다음을 위해 UTF-8을 사용합니다:

        * 표준 I/O를 포함한 콘솔 I/O (자세한 내용은 PEP 528(1)을 참조하
          십시오).

        * *note 파일 시스템 인코딩: 535. (자세한 내용은 PEP 529(2)를 참
          조하십시오).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


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3.4.8 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처
---------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

윈도우 용 파이썬 런처는 다양한 파이썬 버전을 찾고 실행하는 데 도움이 되
는 유틸리티입니다.  스크립트(또는 명령 줄)가 특정 파이썬 버전에 대한 선
호를 나타내도록 허용하고, 해당 버전을 찾아 실행합니다.

‘PATH’ 변수와 달리, 런처는 가장 적합한 파이썬 버전을 올바르게 선택합니다
.  시스템 전체 설치보다 사용자별 설치를 선호하며, 가장 최근에 설치된 버
전을 사용하기보다 언어 버전별로 순서를 매깁니다.

런처는 원래 PEP 397(1)에서 지정되었습니다.

* Menu:

* 시작하기::
* 셔뱅 줄::
* 셔뱅 줄의 인자::
* 사용자 정의::
* 진단::
* Dry Run::
* 필요 시 설치::
* Return codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


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3.4.8.1 시작하기
................

* Menu:

* 명령 줄에서::
* 가상 환경::
* 스크립트에서::
* 파일 연결에서::


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3.4.8.2 명령 줄에서
...................

버전 3.6에서 변경.

시스템 전체에 파이썬 3.3 이상을 설치하면 ‘PATH’에 런처를 넣습니다.  런처
는 사용 가능한 모든 파이썬 버전과 호환되므로, 어떤 버전이 설치되어 있는
지는 중요하지 않습니다.  런처를 사용할 수 있는지 확인하려면, 명령 프롬프
트에서 다음 명령을 실행하십시오:

     py

설치한 최신 버전의 파이썬이 시작되어야 합니다 - 정상적으로 종료할 수 있
으며, 지정된 추가 명령 줄 인자가 파이썬으로 직접 전송됩니다.

여러 버전의 파이썬이 설치되어있으면 (예를 들어, 3.7과 3.13) 파이썬 3.13
시작되는 것을 알 수 있을 겁니다 - 파이썬 3.7을 시작하려면, 다음 명령을 시
도하십시오:

     py -3.7

설치한 파이썬 2의 최신 버전을 원하면, 다음 명령을 시도하십시오:

     py -2

다음 에러가 표시되면, 런처가 설치되지 않은 것입니다:

     'py' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
     operable program or batch file.

명령:

     py --list

displays the currently installed version(s) of Python.

The ‘-x.y’ argument is the short form of the ‘-V:Company/Tag’ argument,
which allows selecting a specific Python runtime, including those that
may have come from somewhere other than python.org.  Any runtime
registered by following PEP 514(1) will be discoverable.  The ‘--list’
command lists all available runtimes using the ‘-V:’ format.

When using the ‘-V:’ argument, specifying the Company will limit
selection to runtimes from that provider, while specifying only the Tag
will select from all providers.  Note that omitting the slash implies a
tag:

     # '3.*' 태그가 지정된 런타임을 선택합니다
     py -V:3

     # 'PythonCore' 에서 출시된 런타임을 선택합니다
     py -V:PythonCore/

     # PythonCore 의 최신 파이썬 3 런타임을 선택합니다
     py -V:PythonCore/3

The short form of the argument (‘-3’) only ever selects from core Python
releases, and not other distributions.  However, the longer form
(‘-V:3’) will select from any.

The Company is matched on the full string, case-insensitive.  The Tag is
matched on either the full string, or a prefix, provided the next
character is a dot or a hyphen.  This allows ‘-V:3.1’ to match ‘3.1-32’,
but not ‘3.10’.  Tags are sorted using numerical ordering (‘3.10’ is
newer than ‘3.1’), but are compared using text (‘-V:3.01’ does not match
‘3.1’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/


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3.4.8.3 가상 환경
.................

Added in version 3.5.

런처가 명시적인 파이썬 버전 지정 없이 실행되고, 가상 환경(표준 라이브러
리 *note venv: 111. 모듈이나 외부 ‘virtualenv’ 도구로 생성된)이 활성화되
었으면, 런처는 전역 인터프리터가 아닌 가상 환경의 인터프리터를 실행합니
다.  전역 인터프리터를 실행하려면 가상 환경을 비활성화하거나, 전역 파이
썬 버전을 명시적으로 지정하십시오.


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3.4.8.4 스크립트에서
....................

테스트 파이썬 스크립트를 만들어 봅시다 - 다음 내용으로 ‘hello.py’라는 파
일을 만듭니다.

     #! python
     import sys
     sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))

hello.py가 있는 디렉터리에서, 다음 명령을 실행합니다:

     py hello.py

최신 파이썬 2.x 설치의 버전 번호가 인쇄됨을 알 수 있습니다.  이제 첫 번
째 줄을 다음과 같이 변경합니다:

     #! python3

명령을 다시 실행하면 이제 최신 파이썬 3.x 정보가 인쇄됩니다.  위의 명령
줄 예제와 마찬가지로, 더 명시적인 버전 한정자를 지정할 수 있습니다.  파
이썬 3.7이 설치되어 있다고 가정하고, 첫 번째 줄을 ‘#! python3.7’으로 변
경하면 3.7 버전 정보가 인쇄됩니다.

대화 형 사용과 달리, 장식 없는 “python”은 설치된 파이썬 2.x의 최신 버전
을 사용합니다.  이는 이전 버전과의 호환성과 유닉스와의 호환성을 위한 것
입니다, 여기서 ‘python’ 명령은 일반적으로 파이썬 2를 참조합니다.


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3.4.8.5 파일 연결에서
.....................

런처는 설치 시 파이썬 파일(즉 ‘.py’, ‘.pyw’, ‘.pyc’ 파일)과 연결되어 있
어야 합니다.  즉, 윈도우 탐색기에서 이러한 파일 중 하나를 더블 클릭하면
런처가 사용되므로, 위에서 설명한 것과 같은 기능을 사용하여 스크립트에서
사용해야 하는 버전을 지정할 수 있습니다.

이것의 주요 이점은 첫 번째 줄의 내용에 따라 단일 런처가 동시에 여러 파이
썬 버전을 지원할 수 있다는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 셔뱅 줄,  Next: 셔뱅 줄의 인자,  Prev: 시작하기,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.6 셔뱅 줄
...............

스크립트 파일의 첫 번째 줄이 ‘#!’로 시작하면 “셔뱅(shebang)”줄이라고 합
니다.  리눅스와 기타 유닉스 류 운영 체제는 이러한 줄을 기본적으로 지원하
며 스크립트 실행 방법을 나타내기 위해 이러한 시스템에서 일반적으로 사용
됩니다.  이 런처를 사용하면 윈도우에서 파이썬 스크립트로 같은 기능을 사
용할 수 있으며 위의 예제는 그 사용법을 보여줍니다.

파이썬 스크립트의 셔뱅 줄을 유닉스와 윈도우 간에 이식성 있도록 하기 위해
, 이 런처는 사용할 인터프리터를 지정하는 여러 ‘가상’ 명령을 지원합니다.
지원되는 가상 명령은 다음과 같습니다:

   * ‘/usr/bin/env’

   * ‘/usr/bin/python’

   * ‘/usr/local/bin/python’

   * ‘python’

예를 들어, 스크립트의 첫 번째 줄이 다음과 같이 시작하면

     #! /usr/bin/python

기본 파이썬이나 활성 가상 환경을 찾아서 사용합니다.  유닉스에서 작동하도
록 작성된 많은 파이썬 스크립트에는 이미 이 줄이 있어서, 수정하지 않고도
이러한 스크립트를 런처에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  윈도우에서 유닉스에서 유
용할 새 스크립트를 작성하면, ‘/usr’로 시작하는 셔뱅 줄 중 하나를 사용해
야 합니다.

위의 모든 가상 명령은 명시적 버전(주 버전 만 또는 주 버전과 부 버전)으로
접미사를 붙일 수 있습니다.  또한 부 버전 뒤에 “-32”를 추가하여 32비트 버
전을 요청할 수 있습니다.  즉 ‘/usr/bin/python3.7-32’는 32비트 파이썬
3.7의 사용을 요청합니다.  가상 환경이 활성화되어 있다면, 버전은 무시되고
환경이 사용됩니다.

Added in version 3.7: 파이썬 런처 3.7부터는 “-64” 접미사로 64비트 버전을
요청할 수 있습니다.  또한 부 버전 없이 주 버전과 아키텍처를 지정할 수 있
습니다 (즉 ‘/usr/bin/python3-64’).

버전 3.11에서 변경: The “-64” suffix is deprecated, and now implies “any
architecture that is not provably i386/32-bit”.  To request a specific
environment, use the new ‘-V:TAG’ argument with the complete tag.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Virtual commands referencing ‘python’ now prefer an
active virtual environment rather than searching ‘PATH’.  This handles
cases where the shebang specifies ‘/usr/bin/env python3’ but
‘python3.exe’ is not present in the active environment.

‘/usr/bin/env’ 형식의 셔뱅 줄에는 또 다른 특별한 성질이 있습니다.  설치
된 파이썬 인터프리터를 찾기 전에, 이 형식은 첫 번째 인자로 제공된 이름과
일치하는 파이썬 실행 파일을 ‘PATH’에서 검색합니다.  이것은 ‘PATH’ 검색을
수행하는 유닉스 ‘env’ 프로그램의 동작에 해당합니다.  ‘env’ 명령 이후 첫
번째 인자와 일치하는 실행 파일을 찾을 수 없지만 해당 인자가 ‘python’으로
시작한다면, 다른 가상 명령에 대해 기술된 것과 같은 방식으로 처리됩니다.
환경 변수 ‘PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH’를 (아무 값으로나) 설정하면 ‘PATH’
검색을 건너뛸 수 있습니다.

Shebang lines that do not match any of these patterns are looked up in
the ‘[commands]’ section of the launcher’s *note .INI file: 1e31.  This
may be used to handle certain commands in a way that makes sense for
your system.  The name of the command must be a single argument (no
spaces in the shebang executable), and the value substituted is the full
path to the executable (additional arguments specified in the .INI will
be quoted as part of the filename).

     [commands]
     /bin/xpython=C:\Program Files\XPython\python.exe

Any commands not found in the .INI file are treated as 'Windows'
executable paths that are absolute or relative to the directory
containing the script file.  This is a convenience for Windows-only
scripts, such as those generated by an installer, since the behavior is
not compatible with Unix-style shells.  These paths may be quoted, and
may include multiple arguments, after which the path to the script and
any additional arguments will be appended.


File: python.info,  Node: 셔뱅 줄의 인자,  Next: 사용자 정의,  Prev: 셔뱅 줄,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.7 셔뱅 줄의 인자
......................

셔뱅 줄은 또한 파이썬 인터프리터에 전달할 추가 옵션을 지정할 수 있습니다
.  예를 들어, 다음과 같은 셔뱅 줄이 있으면:

     #! /usr/bin/python -v

파이썬은 ‘-v’ 옵션으로 시작됩니다


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의,  Next: 진단,  Prev: 셔뱅 줄의 인자,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.8 사용자 정의
...................

* Menu:

* INI 파일을 통한 사용자 정의::
* 기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의::


File: python.info,  Node: INI 파일을 통한 사용자 정의,  Next: 기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의,  Up: 사용자 정의

3.4.8.9 INI 파일을 통한 사용자 정의
...................................

런처는 두 개의 .ini 파일을 검색합니다 - 현재 사용자의 응용프로그램 데이
터 디렉터리(‘%LOCALAPPDATA%’나 ‘$env:LocalAppData’)에 있는 ‘py.ini’와 런
처와 같은 디렉터리에 있는 ‘py.ini’.  런처의 ‘콘솔’ 버전(즉 py.exe)과 ‘윈
도우’ 버전(즉 pyw.exe) 모두에 같은 .ini 파일이 사용됩니다.

“응용 프로그램 디렉터리”에 지정된 사용자 정의가 실행 파일 옆에 있는 사용
자 지정보다 우선하므로, 런처 옆에 있는 .ini 파일에 대한 쓰기 권한이 없는
사용자는 전역 .ini 파일에서 명령을 재정의할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의,  Prev: INI 파일을 통한 사용자 정의,  Up: 사용자 정의

3.4.8.10 기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의
.....................................

때에 따라, 버전 한정자를 명령에 포함하여 명령에서 사용할 파이썬 버전을 지
정할 수 있습니다.  버전 한정자는 주 버전 번호로 시작하며 선택적으로 마침
표(‘.’)와 부 버전 지정자가 올 수 있습니다.  또한 “-32”나 “-64”를 추가하
여 32비트나 64비트 구현을 요청할지를 지정할 수 있습니다.

예를 들어, ‘#!python’의 셔뱅 줄에는 버전 한정자가 없는 반면,
‘#!python3’에는 주 버전 만 지정하는 버전 한정자가 있습니다.

명령에 버전 한정자가 없으면, 환경 변수 ‘PY_PYTHON’을 설정하여 기본 버전
한정자를 지정할 수 있습니다.  설정되지 않으면, 기본값은 “3”입니다.  변수
는 “3”, “3.7”, “3.7-32” 또는 “3.7-64”와 같이 명령 줄에서 전달할 수 있는
모든 값을 지정할 수 있습니다.  (“-64” 옵션은 파이썬 3.7 이상에 포함된 런
처에서만 사용할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.)

부 버전 한정자가 없으면, 환경 변수 ‘PY_PYTHON{major}’(여기서 ‘{major}’는
위에서 결정된 현재 주 버전 한정자입니다)를 설정하여 전체 버전을 지정할 수
있습니다.  그러한 옵션이 없으면, 런처는 설치된 파이썬 버전을 열거하고 주
버전에 대해 발견된 최신 부 릴리스를 사용합니다.  이것은 보장되지는 않지
만, 해당 제품군에서 가장 최근에 설치된 버전일 가능성이 높습니다.

같은 (major.minor) 파이썬 버전의 32비트와 64비트 구현이 모두 설치된 64비
트 윈도우에서는 항상 64비트 버전이 선호됩니다.  이는 32비트와 64비트 런
처 구현 모두에 해당합니다 - 32비트 런처는 가능하면 지정된 버전의 64비트
파이썬 설치를 실행하는 것을 선호합니다.  따라서 런처의 동작은 PC에 설치
된 버전만 알고 설치 순서와 관계없이 (즉, 32비트나 64비트 버전의 파이썬과
해당 런처가 마지막에 설치되었는지 알지 못하고) 예측할 수 있습니다).  위
에서 언급했듯이, 선택적 “-32”나 “-64” 접미사를 버전 지정자에 사용하여 이
동작을 변경할 수 있습니다.

예:

   * 관련 옵션이 설정되지 않으면, ‘python’과 ‘python2’ 명령은 설치된 최
     신 파이썬 2.x 버전을 사용하고 ‘python3’ 명령은 설치된 최신 파이썬
     3.x를 사용합니다.

   * ‘python3.7’ 명령은 버전이 완전히 지정되어 있어서 옵션을 전혀 참조하
     지 않습니다.

   * ‘PY_PYTHON=3’이면, ‘python’과 ‘python3’ 명령은 모두 최신 설치된 파
     이썬 3 버전을 사용합니다.

   * ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7-32’이면, ‘python’ 명령은 3.7의 32비트 구현을 사용하
     는 반면 ‘python3’ 명령은 가장 최근에 설치된 파이썬을 사용합니다 (주
     버전이 지정되었기 때문에 PY_PYTHON은 전혀 고려되지 않았습니다).

   * ‘PY_PYTHON=3’이고 ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’이면, ‘python’과 ‘python3’ 명령은
     모두 구체적으로 3.7을 사용합니다.

환경 변수 외에도, 런처에서 사용하는 .INI 파일에서 같은 설정을 구성할 수
있습니다.  INI 파일의 섹션은 ‘[defaults]’라고 하며 키 이름은 선행 ‘PY_’
접두어가 없는 환경 변수와 같습니다 (그리고 INI 파일의 키 이름은 대소 문
자를 구분하지 않음에 유의하십시오.)  환경 변수의 내용은 INI 파일에 지정
된 것을 재정의합니다.

예를 들면:

   * ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7’을 설정하는 것은 다음을 포함하는 INI 파일과 동등합니
     다:

     [defaults]
     python=3.7

   * ‘PY_PYTHON=3’과 ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’을 설정하는 것은 다음을 포함하는
     INI 파일과 동등합니다:

     [defaults]
     python=3
     python3=3.7


File: python.info,  Node: 진단,  Next: Dry Run,  Prev: 사용자 정의,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.11 진단
.............

환경 변수 ‘PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG’가 설정되면 (어떤 값이건), 런처는 진단 정보
를 stderr(즉, 콘솔)에 인쇄합니다.  이 정보는 동시에 상세하면서도 간결하
게 관리되지만, 어떤 버전의 파이썬을 찾았는지, 특정 버전이 선택된 이유 및
대상 파이썬을 실행하는 데 사용된 정확한 명령 줄을 볼 수 있습니다.  주요
목적은 테스트와 디버깅입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Dry Run,  Next: 필요 시 설치,  Prev: 진단,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.12 Dry Run
................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’ is set (to any value),
the launcher will output the command it would have run, but will not
actually launch Python.  This may be useful for tools that want to use
the launcher to detect and then launch Python directly.  Note that the
command written to standard output is always encoded using UTF-8, and
may not render correctly in the console.


File: python.info,  Node: 필요 시 설치,  Next: Return codes,  Prev: Dry Run,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.13 필요 시 설치
.....................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ is set (to any
value), and the requested Python version is not installed but is
available on the Microsoft Store, the launcher will attempt to install
it.  This may require user interaction to complete, and you may need to
run the command again.

An additional ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL’ variable causes the launcher
to always try to install Python, even if it is detected.  This is mainly
intended for testing (and should be used with ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’).


File: python.info,  Node: Return codes,  Prev: 필요 시 설치,  Up: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처

3.4.8.14 Return codes
.....................

The following exit codes may be returned by the Python launcher.
Unfortunately, there is no way to distinguish these from the exit code
of Python itself.

The names of codes are as used in the sources, and are only for
reference.  There is no way to access or resolve them apart from reading
this page.  Entries are listed in alphabetical order of names.

이름                    Value       설명
                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
RC_BAD_VENV_CFG         107         A ‘pyvenv.cfg’ was found but is corrupt.
                                    
                                    
RC_CREATE_PROCESS       101         Failed to launch Python.
                                    
                                    
RC_INSTALLING           111         An install was started, but the command will need
                                    to be re-run after it completes.
                                    
                                    
RC_INTERNAL_ERROR       109         Unexpected error.  Please report a bug.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_COMMANDLINE       108         Unable to obtain command line from the operating
                                    system.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_PYTHON            103         Unable to locate the requested version.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_VENV_CFG          106         A ‘pyvenv.cfg’ was required but not found.
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 찾기,  Next: 추가 모듈,  Prev: 윈도우 용 파이썬 런처,  Up: 윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.4.9 모듈 찾기
---------------

These notes supplement the description at *note The initialization of
the sys.path module search path: 1c68. with detailed Windows notes.

‘._pth’ 파일이 없을 때, 윈도우에서 *note sys.path: 3ae.를 채우는 방법은
다음과 같습니다:

   * 시작에 현재 디렉터리에 해당하는 빈 항목이 추가됩니다.

   * *note 환경 변수: 5eb.에 설명된 대로, 환경 변수 *note PYTHONPATH:
     1013.가 존재하면, 해당 항목이 다음에 추가됩니다.  윈도우에서, 이 변
     수의 경로는 드라이브 식별자(‘C:\’ 등)에 사용되는 콜론과 구별하기 위
     해 세미콜론으로 구분되어야 합니다.

   * 추가 “응용 프로그램 경로”는 ‘HKEY_CURRENT_USER’와
     ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE’ 하이브 모두의 아래에
     ‘\SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath’의 하위 키로 레지
     스트리에 추가될 수 있습니다.  세미콜론으로 구분된 경로 문자열을 기
     본값으로 사용하는 하위 키는 각 경로가 *note sys.path: 3ae.에 추가되
     도록 합니다.  (알려진 모든 설치 프로그램은 HKLM 만 사용하므로,
     HKCU는 일반적으로 비어 있음에 유의하십시오.)

   * 환경 변수 *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6.이 설정되면, “파이썬 홈”으로 간주합
     니다.  그렇지 않으면, 메인 파이썬 실행 파일의 경로를 사용하여 “랜드
     마크 파일”(‘Lib\os.py’나 ‘pythonXY.zip’)을 찾아 “파이썬 홈”을 추론
     합니다.  파이썬 홈이 발견되면, *note sys.path: 3ae.에 추가되는 관련
     하위 디렉터리(‘Lib’, ‘plat-win’ 등)는 해당 폴더를 기반으로 합니다.
     그렇지 않으면, 핵심 파이썬 경로가 레지스트리에 저장된 PythonPath에
     서 구성됩니다.

   * 파이썬 홈을 찾을 수 없고, 환경에 *note PYTHONPATH: 1013.가 지정되어
     있지 않고, 레지스트리 항목을 찾을 수 없으면, 상대 항목의 기본 경로
     (예를 들어 ‘.\Lib;.\plat-win’ 등)가 사용됩니다.

‘pyvenv.cfg’ 파일이 메인 실행 파일과 함께 또는 실행 파일보다 한 수준 위
의 디렉터리에서 발견되면, 다음 변형이 적용됩니다:

   * ‘home’이 절대 경로이고 *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6.이 설정되지 않으면, 홈
     위치를 추론할 때 메인 실행 파일에 대한 경로 대신 이 경로가 사용됩니
     다.

이 모든 것의 최종 결과는 다음과 같습니다:

   * ‘python.exe’ 또는 기본 파이썬 디렉터리 (설치된 버전 또는 PCbuild 디
     렉터리에서 직접)에서 다른 .exe를 실행할 때 핵심 경로가 추론되고 레
     지스트리의 핵심 경로가 무시됩니다.  레지스트리의 다른 “응용 프로그
     램 경로”는 항상 읽습니다.

   * 파이썬이 다른 .exe(다른 디렉터리, COM을 통한 내장, 등)에서 호스팅 될
     때, “파이썬 홈”이 추론되지 않아서, 레지스트리의 핵심 경로가 사용됩
     니다.  레지스트리의 다른 “응용 프로그램 경로”는 항상 읽힙니다.

   * 파이썬이 홈을 찾을 수 없고 레지스트리 값이 없으면 (고정된(frozen)
     .exe, 아주 이상한 설치 설정), 일부 기본 (하지만 상대) 경로를 얻게 됩
     니다.

파이썬을 응용 프로그램이나 배포에 번들로 포함하려는 사용자를 위해, 다음
조언은 다른 설치와의 충돌을 방지합니다:

   * 포함할 디렉터리가 포함된 실행 파일과 함께 ‘._pth’ 파일을 포함합니다
     .  이것은 레지스트리와 환경 변수에 나열된 경로를 무시하고, ‘import
     site’가 나열되지 않는 한 *note site: c7.도 무시합니다.

   * 여러분 자신의 실행 파일에서 ‘python3.dll’이나 ‘python37.dll’을 로드
     하면, *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. 전에 *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c. 를 명시적으로 설정하십시오.

   * 응용 프로그램에서 ‘python.exe’를 시작하기 전에 *note PYTHONPATH:
     1013.를 지우거나 덮어쓰고 *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6.를 설정하십시오.

   * 이전 제안을 사용할 수 없으면 (예를 들어, 사용자가 ‘python.exe’를 직
     접 실행할 수 있는 배포판이면), 랜드마크 파일(‘Lib\os.py’)이 설치 디
     렉터리에 있도록 하십시오.  (ZIP 파일 내에서는 감지되지 않지만, 대신
     올바른 이름의 ZIP 파일은 감지됨에 유의하십시오.)

이렇게 하면 시스템 전체 설치의 파일이 응용 프로그램과 함께 번들로 제공되
는 표준 라이브러리의 복사본보다 우선하지 않습니다.  그렇지 않으면, 사용
자가 여러분의 응용 프로그램을 사용하는 데 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다.  다
른 제안은 레지스트리의 비표준 경로와 사용자 site-packages에 여전히 취약
할 수 있어서, 첫 번째 제안이 가장 좋음에 유의하십시오.

버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘._pth’ 파일 지원을 추가하고 ‘pyvenv.cfg’에서
‘applocal’ 옵션을 제거합니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: 실행 파일에 직접 인접할 때 잠재적인 랜드마크로
‘python`XX'.zip’을 추가합니다.

버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: ‘Modules’(‘PythonPath’가 아닙니다) 아래의 레지스트
리에 지정된 모듈은 *note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: d27.
로 임포트 할 수 있습니다.  이 파인더는 윈도우 3.6.0과 이전 버전에서 활성
화되지만, 향후에는 *note sys.meta_path: d28.에 명시적으로 추가해야 할 수
도 있습니다.


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3.4.10 추가 모듈
----------------

파이썬이 모든 플랫폼 간에 이식성 있는 것을 목표로 하지만, 윈도우에만 고
유한 기능이 있습니다.  이러한 기능을 사용하기 위한 표준 라이브러리와 외
부에 있는 두 개의 모듈과 스니펫(snippets)이 존재합니다.

윈도우 특정 표준 모듈은 *note MS 윈도우 특정 서비스: 1e3c.에 설명되어 있
습니다.

* Menu:

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::


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3.4.10.1 PyWin32
................

Mark Hammond의 PyWin32(1) 모듈은 고급 윈도우 특정 지원을 위한 모듈 모음
입니다.  여기에는 다음을 위한 유틸리티가 포함됩니다:

   * Component Object Model(2) (COM)

   * Win32 API 호출

   * 레지스트리

   * 이벤트 로그

   * Microsoft Foundation Classes(3) (MFC) 사용자 인터페이스

PythonWin(4)은 PyWin32와 함께 제공되는 샘플 MFC 응용 프로그램입니다.  디
버거가 내장된 내장할 수 있는 IDE입니다.

더 보기
.......

Win32 How Do I...?(5)

     저자: Tim Golden

Python and COM(6)

     저자: David와 Paul Boddie

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/PyWin32/

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/com/component-object-model-com-portal

   (3) https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/mfc/mfc-desktop-applications

   (4) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/

   (5) https://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html

   (6) https://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html


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3.4.10.2 cx_Freeze
..................

cx_Freeze(1)는 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 가능한 윈도우 프로그램(‘`*'.exe’ 파
일)으로 래핑합니다.  이렇게 하면, 사용자가 파이썬을 설치할 필요 없는 응
용 프로그램을 배포할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cx-freeze.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


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3.4.11 윈도우에서 파이썬 컴파일하기
-----------------------------------

CPython을 직접 컴파일하려면, 먼저 소스(1)를 가져와야 합니다.  최신 릴리
스의 소스를 다운로드하거나 최신 버전을 체크아웃(2)할 수 있습니다.

소스 트리에는 공식 파이썬 릴리스를 빌드하는 데 사용되는 컴파일러인
Microsoft Visual Studio 용 빌드 솔루션과 프로젝트 파일이 포함되어 있습니
다.  이 파일들은 ‘PCbuild’ 디렉터리에 있습니다.

빌드 프로세스에 대한 일반 정보는 ‘PCbuild/readme.txt’를 확인하십시오.

확장 모듈에 대해서는, *note 윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기: 1e40.를 참
조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code


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3.4.12 기타 플랫폼
------------------

파이썬의 지속적인 개발로 인해, 이전에 지원되던 일부 플랫폼은 더는 지원되
지 않습니다 (사용자나 개발자 부족으로 인해).  지원되지 않는 모든 플랫폼
에 대한 자세한 내용은 PEP 11(1)을 확인하십시오.

   * Windows CE(2) is no longer supported(3) since Python 3 (if it ever
     was).

   * The Cygwin(4) installer offers to install the Python interpreter(5)
     as well

사전 컴파일된 설치 프로그램이 있는 플랫폼에 대한 자세한 정보는 Python
for Windows(6)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71542

   (4) https://cygwin.com/

   (5) https://cygwin.com/packages/summary/python3.html

   (6) https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/


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3.5 macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기
==============================

This document aims to give an overview of macOS-specific behavior you
should know about to get started with Python on Mac computers.  Python
on a Mac running macOS is very similar to Python on other Unix-derived
platforms, but there are some differences in installation and some
features.

There are various ways to obtain and install Python for macOS. Pre-built
versions of the most recent versions of Python are available from a
number of distributors.  Much of this document describes use of the
Pythons provided by the CPython release team for download from the
python.org website(1).  See *note Alternative Distributions: 1e45. for
some other options.
* Menu:

* python.org에서 제공하는 macOS용 파이썬 사용하기: python org에서 제공하는 macOS용 파이썬 사용하기.
* Alternative Distributions::
* 추가 파이썬 패키지 설치하기::
* GUI 프로그래밍::
* Advanced Topics::
* 기타 자원::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/


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3.5.1 ‘python.org’에서 제공하는 macOS용 파이썬 사용하기
-------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Installation steps::
* 파이썬 스크립트를 실행하는 방법::


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3.5.1.1 Installation steps
..........................

For current Python versions(1) (other than those in ‘security’ status),
the release team produces a 'Python for macOS' installer package for
each new release.  A list of available installers is available here(2).
We recommend using the most recent supported Python version where
possible.  Current installers provide a universal2 binary(3) build of
Python which runs natively on all Macs (Apple Silicon and Intel) that
are supported by a wide range of macOS versions, currently typically
from at least 'macOS 10.13 High Sierra' on.

The downloaded file is a standard macOS installer package file (‘.pkg’).
File integrity information (checksum, size, sigstore signature, etc) for
each file is included on the release download page.  Installer packages
and their contents are signed and notarized with ‘Python Software
Foundation’ Apple Developer ID certificates to meet macOS Gatekeeper
requirements(4).

For a default installation, double-click on the downloaded installer
package file.  This should launch the standard macOS Installer app and
display the first of several installer windows steps.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_01_introduction.png"]


Clicking on the 'Continue' button brings up the 'Read Me' for this
installer.  Besides other important information, the 'Read Me' documents
which Python version is going to be installed and on what versions of
macOS it is supported.  You may need to scroll through to read the whole
file.  By default, this 'Read Me' will also be installed in
‘/Applications/Python 3.13/’ and available to read anytime.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_02_readme.png"]


Clicking on 'Continue' proceeds to display the license for Python and
for other included software.  You will then need to 'Agree' to the
license terms before proceeding to the next step.  This license file
will also be installed and available to be read later.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_03_license.png"]


After the license terms are accepted, the next step is the 'Installation
Type' display.  For most uses, the standard set of installation
operations is appropriate.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_04_installation_type.png"]


By pressing the 'Customize' button, you can choose to omit or select
certain package components of the installer.  Click on each package name
to see a description of what it installs.  To also install support for
the optional experimental free-threaded feature, see *note Installing
Free-threaded Binaries: 173.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_05_custom_install.png"]


In either case, clicking 'Install' will begin the install process by
asking permission to install new software.  A macOS user name with
‘Administrator’ privilege is needed as the installed Python will be
available to all users of the Mac.

When the installation is complete, the 'Summary' window will appear.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_06_summary.png"]


Double-click on the ‘Install Certificates.command’ icon or file in the
‘/Applications/Python 3.13/’ window to complete the installation.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_07_applications.png"]


This will open a temporary ‘Terminal’ shell window that will use the new
Python to download and install SSL root certificates for its use.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_08_install_certificates.png"]


If ‘Successfully installed certifi’ and ‘update complete’ appears in the
terminal window, the installation is complete.  Close this terminal
window and the installer window.

A default install will include:

   * A ‘Python 3.13’ folder in your ‘Applications’ folder.  In here you
     find ‘IDLE’, the development environment that is a standard part of
     official Python distributions; and ‘Python Launcher’, which handles
     double-clicking Python scripts from the macOS Finder(5).

   * 파이썬 실행 파일과 라이브러리를 포함하는 프레임워크
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’.  설치기는 이 위치를 셸 경로
     에 추가합니다.  파이썬을 제거하려면, 이 세 가지를 지우면 됩니다.  파
     이썬 실행 파일에 대한 심볼릭 링크는 ‘/usr/local/bin/’에 있습니다.

     참고: Recent versions of macOS include a ‘python3’ command in
     ‘/usr/bin/python3’ that links to a usually older and incomplete
     version of Python provided by and for use by the Apple development
     tools, ‘Xcode’ or the ‘Command Line Tools for Xcode’.  You should
     never modify or attempt to delete this installation, as it is
     Apple-controlled and is used by Apple-provided or third-party
     software.  If you choose to install a newer Python version from
     ‘python.org’, you will have two different but functional Python
     installations on your computer that can co-exist.  The default
     installer options should ensure that its ‘python3’ will be used
     instead of the system ‘python3’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_binary

   (4) https://support.apple.com/en-us/102445

   (5) https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201732


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3.5.1.2 파이썬 스크립트를 실행하는 방법
.......................................

There are two ways to invoke the Python interpreter.  If you are
familiar with using a Unix shell in a terminal window, you can invoke
‘python3.13’ or ‘python3’ optionally followed by one or more command
line options (described in *note 명령 줄과 환경: 19c6.).  The Python
tutorial also has a useful section on *note using Python interactively
from a shell: 16f.

You can also invoke the interpreter through an integrated development
environment.  *note IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸: 100b. is a basic editor
and interpreter environment which is included with the standard
distribution of Python.  ‘IDLE’ includes a Help menu that allows you to
access Python documentation.  If you are completely new to Python, you
can read the tutorial introduction in that document.

There are many other editors and IDEs available, see *note 편집기와 IDE:
1e4b. for more information.

To run a Python script file from the terminal window, you can invoke the
interpreter with the name of the script file:

     ‘python3.13’ ‘myscript.py’

Finder에서 스크립트를 실행하려면, 두 가지 방법이 있습니다:

   * 스크립트를 ‘Python Launcher’로 드래그하십시오.

   * Finder 정보 창을 통해 여러분의 스크립트(또는 모든 ‘.py’ 스크립트)를
     여는 기본 응용 프로그램으로 ‘Python Launcher’를 선택하고 스크립트를
     더블 클릭하십시오.  ‘Python Launcher’에는 스크립트를 시작하는 방법
     을 제어하는 다양한 설정이 있습니다.  Option-드래그하면 하나의 호출
     에 대해 이를 변경할 수 있으며, ‘Preferences’ 메뉴를 사용하여 전역적
     으로 변경할 수 있습니다.

Be aware that running the script directly from the macOS Finder might
produce different results than when running from a terminal window as
the script will not be run in the usual shell environment including any
setting of environment variables in shell profiles.  And, as with any
other script or program, be certain of what you are about to run.


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3.5.2 Alternative Distributions
-------------------------------

Besides the standard ‘python.org’ for macOS installer, there are
third-party distributions for macOS that may include additional
functionality.  Some popular distributions and their key features:

ActivePython(1)

     Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation

Anaconda(2)

     Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy, and pandas) and
     the ‘conda’ package manager.

Homebrew(3)

     Package manager for macOS including multiple versions of Python and
     many third-party Python-based packages (including numpy, scipy, and
     pandas).

MacPorts(4)

     Another package manager for macOS including multiple versions of
     Python and many third-party Python-based packages.  May include
     pre-built versions of Python and many packages for older versions
     of macOS.

Note that distributions might not include the latest versions of Python
or other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core
Python team.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://brew.sh

   (4) https://www.macports.org


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3.5.3 추가 파이썬 패키지 설치하기
---------------------------------

Refer to the Python Packaging User Guide(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/


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3.5.4 GUI 프로그래밍
--------------------

Mac에서 파이썬으로 GUI 응용 프로그램을 작성하기 위한 몇 가지 옵션이 있습
니다.

표준 파이썬 GUI 툴킷은 크로스 플랫폼 Tk 툴킷(‘https://www.tcl.tk’)을 기
반으로 하는 *note tkinter: f0.입니다.  설치 프로그램에는 macOS용 네이티
브 버전의 Tk가 포함되어 있습니다.

'PyObjC'는 애플의 Objective-C/Cocoa 프레임워크에 대한 파이썬 바인딩입니
다.  PyObjC에 대한 정보는 pyobjc(1) 에서 얻을 수 있습니다.

A number of alternative macOS GUI toolkits are available including:

   * PySide(2): Official Python bindings to the Qt GUI toolkit(3).

   * PyQt(4): Alternative Python bindings to Qt.

   * Kivy(5): A cross-platform GUI toolkit that supports desktop and
     mobile platforms.

   * Toga(6): Part of the BeeWare Project(7); supports desktop, mobile,
     web and console apps.

   * wxPython(8): A cross-platform toolkit that supports desktop
     operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/

   (2) https://www.qt.io/qt-for-python

   (3) https://wiki.qt.io/Qt_for_Python

   (4) https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/

   (5) https://kivy.org

   (6) https://toga.readthedocs.io

   (7) https://beeware.org

   (8) https://wxpython.org


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3.5.5 Advanced Topics
---------------------

* Menu:

* Installing Free-threaded Binaries::
* Installing using the command line::
* 파이썬 응용 프로그램 배포하기::
* App Store Compliance::


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Free-threaded Binaries,  Next: Installing using the command line,  Up: Advanced Topics

3.5.5.1 Installing Free-threaded Binaries
.........................................

Added in version 3.13: (Experimental)

     참고: Everything described in this section is considered
     experimental, and should be expected to change in future releases.

The ‘python.org’ *note Python for macOS: 1e47. installer package can
optionally install an additional build of Python 3.13 that supports PEP
703(1), the experimental free-threading feature (running with the *note
global interpreter lock: 148. disabled).  Check the release page on
‘python.org’ for possible updated information.

Because this feature is still considered experimental, the support for
it is not installed by default.  It is packaged as a separate install
option, available by clicking the 'Customize' button on the
'Installation Type' step of the installer as described above.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_09_custom_install_free_threaded.png"]


If the box next to the 'Free-threaded Python' package name is checked, a
separate ‘PythonT.framework’ will also be installed alongside the normal
‘Python.framework’ in ‘/Library/Frameworks’.  This configuration allows
a free-threaded Python 3.13 build to co-exist on your system with a
traditional (GIL only) Python 3.13 build with minimal risk while
installing or testing.  This installation layout is itself experimental
and is subject to change in future releases.

Known cautions and limitations:

   - The 'UNIX command-line tools' package, which is selected by
     default, will install links in ‘/usr/local/bin’ for ‘python3.13t’,
     the free-threaded interpreter, and ‘python3.13t-config’, a
     configuration utility which may be useful for package builders.
     Since ‘/usr/local/bin’ is typically included in your shell ‘PATH’,
     in most cases no changes to your ‘PATH’ environment variables
     should be needed to use ‘python3.13t’.

   - For this release, the 'Shell profile updater' package and the
     ‘Update Shell Profile.command’ in ‘/Applications/Python 3.13/’ do
     not support the free-threaded package.

   - The free-threaded build and the traditional build have separate
     search paths and separate ‘site-packages’ directories so, by
     default, if you need a package available in both builds, it may
     need to be installed in both.  The free-threaded package will
     install a separate instance of ‘pip’ for use with ‘python3.13t’.

        - To install a package using ‘pip’ without a ‘venv’:

               python3.13t -m pip install <package_name>

   - When working with multiple Python environments, it is usually
     safest and easiest to *note create and use virtual environments:
     1d06.  This can avoid possible command name conflicts and confusion
     about which Python is in use:

          python3.13t -m venv <venv_name>

     then ‘activate’.

   - To run a free-threaded version of IDLE:

          python3.13t -m idlelib

   - The interpreters in both builds respond to the same *note PYTHON
     environment variables: 5eb. which may have unexpected results, for
     example, if you have ‘PYTHONPATH’ set in a shell profile.  If
     necessary, there are *note command line options: 1d31. like ‘-E’ to
     ignore these environment variables.

   - The free-threaded build links to the third-party shared libraries,
     such as ‘OpenSSL’ and ‘Tk’, installed in the traditional framework.
     This means that both builds also share one set of trust
     certificates as installed by the ‘Install Certificates.command’
     script, thus it only needs to be run once.

   - If you cannot depend on the link in ‘/usr/local/bin’ pointing to
     the ‘python.org’ free-threaded ‘python3.13t’ (for example, if you
     want to install your own version there or some other distribution
     does), you can explicitly set your shell ‘PATH’ environment
     variable to include the ‘PythonT’ framework ‘bin’ directory:

          export PATH="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.13/bin":"$PATH"

     The traditional framework installation by default does something
     similar, except for ‘Python.framework’.  Be aware that having both
     framework ‘bin’ directories in ‘PATH’ can lead to confusion if
     there are duplicate names like ‘python3.13’ in both; which one is
     actually used depends on the order they appear in ‘PATH’.  The
     ‘which python3.x’ or ‘which python3.xt’ commands can show which
     path is being used.  Using virtual environments can help avoid such
     ambiguities.  Another option might be to create a shell ‘alias’ to
     the desired interpreter, like:

          alias py3.13="/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.13/bin/python3.13"
          alias py3.13t="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.13/bin/python3.13t"

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Installing using the command line,  Next: 파이썬 응용 프로그램 배포하기,  Prev: Installing Free-threaded Binaries,  Up: Advanced Topics

3.5.5.2 Installing using the command line
.........................................

If you want to use automation to install the ‘python.org’ installer
package (rather than by using the familiar macOS ‘Installer’ GUI app),
the macOS command line ‘installer’ utility lets you select non-default
options, too.  If you are not familiar with ‘installer’, it can be
somewhat cryptic (see ‘man installer’ for more information).  As an
example, the following shell snippet shows one way to do it, using the
‘3.13.0b2’ release and selecting the free-threaded interpreter option:

     RELEASE="python-3.130b2-macos11.pkg"

     # download installer pkg
     curl -O https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.13.0/${RELEASE}

     # create installer choicechanges to customize the install:
     #    enable the PythonTFramework-3.13 package
     #    while accepting the other defaults (install all other packages)
     cat > ./choicechanges.plist <<EOF
     <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
     <!DOCTYPE plist PUBLIC "-//Apple//DTD PLIST 1.0//EN" "http://www.apple.com/DTDs/PropertyList-1.0.dtd">
     <plist version="1.0">
     <array>
             <dict>
                     <key>attributeSetting</key>
                     <integer>1</integer>
                     <key>choiceAttribute</key>
                     <string>selected</string>
                     <key>choiceIdentifier</key>
                     <string>org.python.Python.PythonTFramework-3.13</string>
             </dict>
     </array>
     </plist>
     EOF

     sudo installer -pkg ./${RELEASE} -applyChoiceChangesXML ./choicechanges.plist -target /

You can then test that both installer builds are now available with
something like:

     $ # test that the free-threaded interpreter was installed if the Unix Command Tools package was enabled
     $ /usr/local/bin/python3.13t -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 experimental free-threading build (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ #    and the traditional interpreter
     $ /usr/local/bin/python3.13 -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ # test that they are also available without the prefix if /usr/local/bin is on $PATH
     $ python3.13t -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 experimental free-threading build (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ python3.13 -VV
     Python 3.13.0b2 (v3.13.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]

     참고: Current ‘python.org’ installers only install to fixed
     locations like ‘/Library/Frameworks/’, ‘/Applications’, and
     ‘/usr/local/bin’.  You cannot use the ‘installer’ ‘-domain’ option
     to install to other locations.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 응용 프로그램 배포하기,  Next: App Store Compliance,  Prev: Installing using the command line,  Up: Advanced Topics

3.5.5.3 파이썬 응용 프로그램 배포하기
.....................................

A range of tools exist for converting your Python code into a standalone
distributable application:

   * py2app(1): Supports creating macOS ‘.app’ bundles from a Python
     project.

   * Briefcase(2): Part of the BeeWare Project(3); a cross-platform
     packaging tool that supports creation of ‘.app’ bundles on macOS,
     as well as managing signing and notarization.

   * PyInstaller(4): A cross-platform packaging tool that creates a
     single file or folder as a distributable artifact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/py2app/

   (2) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://beeware.org

   (4) https://pyinstaller.org/


File: python.info,  Node: App Store Compliance,  Prev: 파이썬 응용 프로그램 배포하기,  Up: Advanced Topics

3.5.5.4 App Store Compliance
............................

Apps submitted for distribution through the macOS App Store must pass
Apple’s app review process.  This process includes a set of automated
validation rules that inspect the submitted application bundle for
problematic code.

The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate
these automated rules.  While these violations appear to be false
positives, Apple’s review rules cannot be challenged.  Therefore, it is
necessary to modify the Python standard library for an app to pass App
Store review.

The Python source tree contains a patch file(1) that will remove all
code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process.
This patch is applied automatically when CPython is configured with the
*note -with-app-store-compliance: 15fb. option.

This patch is not normally required to use CPython on a Mac; nor is it
required if you are distributing an app 'outside' the macOS App Store.
It is 'only' required if you are using the macOS App Store as a
distribution channel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 자원,  Prev: Advanced Topics,  Up: macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기

3.5.6 기타 자원
---------------

The python.org Help page(1) has links to many useful resources.  The
Pythonmac-SIG mailing list(2) is another support resource specifically
for Python users and developers on the Mac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/about/help/

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on Android,  Next: Using Python on iOS,  Prev: macOS 에서 파이썬 사용하기,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.6 Using Python on Android
===========================

Python on Android is unlike Python on desktop platforms.  On a desktop
platform, Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be
used by any user of that computer.  Users then interact with Python by
running a ‘python’ executable and entering commands at an interactive
prompt, or by running a Python script.

On Android, there is no concept of installing as a system resource.  The
only unit of software distribution is an “app”.  There is also no
console where you could run a ‘python’ executable, or interact with a
Python REPL.

As a result, the only way you can use Python on Android is in embedded
mode – that is, by writing a native Android application, embedding a
Python interpreter using ‘libpython’, and invoking Python code using the
*note Python embedding API: 1e5c.  The full Python interpreter, the
standard library, and all your Python code is then packaged into your
app for its own private use.

The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions
on Android.  See the *note API availability guide: 1e5d. for details.

* Menu:

* Adding Python to an Android app::
* Building a Python package for Android::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding Python to an Android app,  Next: Building a Python package for Android,  Up: Using Python on Android

3.6.1 Adding Python to an Android app
-------------------------------------

Most app developers should use one of the following tools, which will
provide a much easier experience:

   * Briefcase(1), from the BeeWare project

   * Buildozer(2), from the Kivy project

   * Chaquopy(3)

   * pyqtdeploy(4)

   * Termux(5)

If you’re sure you want to do all of this manually, read on.  You can
use the testbed app(6) as a guide; each step below contains a link to
the relevant file.

   * Build Python by following the instructions in Android/README.md(7).
     This will create the directory ‘cross-build/HOST/prefix’.

   * Add code to your build.gradle(8) file to copy the following items
     into your project.  All except your own Python code can be copied
     from ‘prefix/lib’:

        * In your JNI libraries:

             * ‘libpython*.*.so’

             * ‘lib*_python.so’ (external libraries such as OpenSSL)

        * In your assets:

             * ‘python*.*’ (the Python standard library)

             * ‘python*.*/site-packages’ (your own Python code)

   * Add code to your app to extract the assets to the filesystem(9).

   * Add code to your app to start Python in embedded mode(10).  This
     will need to be C code called via JNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (2) https://buildozer.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://chaquo.com/chaquopy

   (4) https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/static/Docs/pyqtdeploy/

   (5) https://termux.dev/en/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/README.md

   (8) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts

   (9) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt

   (10) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c


File: python.info,  Node: Building a Python package for Android,  Prev: Adding Python to an Android app,  Up: Using Python on Android

3.6.2 Building a Python package for Android
-------------------------------------------

Python packages can be built for Android as wheels and released on PyPI.
The recommended tool for doing this is cibuildwheel(1), which automates
all the details of setting up a cross-compilation environment, building
the wheel, and testing it on an emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/platforms/#android


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on iOS,  Next: 편집기와 IDE,  Prev: Using Python on Android,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.7 Using Python on iOS
=======================


Authors: Russell Keith-Magee (2024-03)

Python on iOS is unlike Python on desktop platforms.  On a desktop
platform, Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be
used by any user of that computer.  Users then interact with Python by
running a ‘python’ executable and entering commands at an interactive
prompt, or by running a Python script.

On iOS, there is no concept of installing as a system resource.  The
only unit of software distribution is an “app”.  There is also no
console where you could run a ‘python’ executable, or interact with a
Python REPL.

As a result, the only way you can use Python on iOS is in embedded mode
- that is, by writing a native iOS application, and embedding a Python
interpreter using ‘libPython’, and invoking Python code using the *note
Python embedding API: 1e5c.  The full Python interpreter, the standard
library, and all your Python code is then packaged as a standalone
bundle that can be distributed via the iOS App Store.

If you’re looking to experiment for the first time with writing an iOS
app in Python, projects such as BeeWare(1) and Kivy(2) will provide a
much more approachable user experience.  These projects manage the
complexities associated with getting an iOS project running, so you only
need to deal with the Python code itself.

* Menu:

* Python at runtime on iOS::
* Installing Python on iOS::
* App Store Compliance: App Store Compliance<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://beeware.org

   (2) https://kivy.org


File: python.info,  Node: Python at runtime on iOS,  Next: Installing Python on iOS,  Up: Using Python on iOS

3.7.1 Python at runtime on iOS
------------------------------

* Menu:

* iOS version compatibility::
* Platform identification::
* Standard library availability::
* Binary extension modules::
* Compiler stub binaries::


File: python.info,  Node: iOS version compatibility,  Next: Platform identification,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.1 iOS version compatibility
.................................

The minimum supported iOS version is specified at compile time, using
the *note -host: 1ddc. option to ‘configure’.  By default, when compiled
for iOS, Python will be compiled with a minimum supported iOS version of
13.0.  To use a different minimum iOS version, provide the version
number as part of the ‘--host’ argument - for example,
‘--host=arm64-apple-ios15.4-simulator’ would compile an ARM64 simulator
build with a deployment target of 15.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Platform identification,  Next: Standard library availability,  Prev: iOS version compatibility,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.2 Platform identification
...............................

When executing on iOS, ‘sys.platform’ will report as ‘ios’.  This value
will be returned on an iPhone or iPad, regardless of whether the app is
running on the simulator or a physical device.

Information about the specific runtime environment, including the iOS
version, device model, and whether the device is a simulator, can be
obtained using *note platform.ios_ver(): 1e66.  *note platform.system():
1e67. will report ‘iOS’ or ‘iPadOS’, depending on the device.

*note os.uname(): 1107. reports kernel-level details; it will report a
name of ‘Darwin’.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard library availability,  Next: Binary extension modules,  Prev: Platform identification,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.3 Standard library availability
.....................................

The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions
on iOS. See the *note API availability guide for iOS: 1e5d. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary extension modules,  Next: Compiler stub binaries,  Prev: Standard library availability,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.4 Binary extension modules
................................

One notable difference about iOS as a platform is that App Store
distribution imposes hard requirements on the packaging of an
application.  One of these requirements governs how binary extension
modules are distributed.

The iOS App Store requires that 'all' binary modules in an iOS app must
be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with appropriate
metadata, stored in the ‘Frameworks’ folder of the packaged app.  There
can be only a single binary per framework, and there can be no
executable binary material outside the ‘Frameworks’ folder.

This conflicts with the usual Python approach for distributing binaries,
which allows a binary extension module to be loaded from any location on
‘sys.path’.  To ensure compliance with App Store policies, an iOS
project must post-process any Python packages, converting ‘.so’ binary
modules into individual standalone frameworks with appropriate metadata
and signing.  For details on how to perform this post-processing, see
the guide for *note adding Python to your project: 1e6a.

To help Python discover binaries in their new location, the original
‘.so’ file on ‘sys.path’ is replaced with a ‘.fwork’ file.  This file is
a text file containing the location of the framework binary, relative to
the app bundle.  To allow the framework to resolve back to the original
location, the framework must contain a ‘.origin’ file that contains the
location of the ‘.fwork’ file, relative to the app bundle.

For example, consider the case of an import ‘from foo.bar import _whiz’,
where ‘_whiz’ is implemented with the binary module
‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, with ‘sources’ being the location
registered on ‘sys.path’, relative to the application bundle.  This
module 'must' be distributed as
‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (creating the
framework name from the full import path of the module), with an
‘Info.plist’ file in the ‘.framework’ directory identifying the binary
as a framework.  The ‘foo.bar._whiz’ module would be represented in the
original location with a ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’ marker file,
containing the path ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’.  The
framework would also contain
‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’, containing
the path to the ‘.fwork’ file.

When running on iOS, the Python interpreter will install an *note
AppleFrameworkLoader: 1e6b. that is able to read and import ‘.fwork’
files.  Once imported, the ‘__file__’ attribute of the binary module
will report as the location of the ‘.fwork’ file.  However, the *note
ModuleSpec: 1e6c. for the loaded module will report the ‘origin’ as the
location of the binary in the framework folder.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler stub binaries,  Prev: Binary extension modules,  Up: Python at runtime on iOS

3.7.1.5 Compiler stub binaries
..............................

Xcode doesn’t expose explicit compilers for iOS; instead, it uses an
‘xcrun’ script that resolves to a full compiler path (e.g., ‘xcrun --sdk
iphoneos clang’ to get the ‘clang’ for an iPhone device).  However,
using this script poses two problems:

   * The output of ‘xcrun’ includes paths that are machine specific,
     resulting in a sysconfig module that cannot be shared between
     users; and

   * It results in ‘CC’/‘CPP’/‘LD’/‘AR’ definitions that include spaces.
     There is a lot of C ecosystem tooling that assumes that you can
     split a command line at the first space to get the path to the
     compiler executable; this isn’t the case when using ‘xcrun’.

To avoid these problems, Python provided stubs for these tools.  These
stubs are shell script wrappers around the underingly ‘xcrun’ tools,
distributed in a ‘bin’ folder distributed alongside the compiled iOS
framework.  These scripts are relocatable, and will always resolve to
the appropriate local system paths.  By including these scripts in the
bin folder that accompanies a framework, the contents of the ‘sysconfig’
module becomes useful for end-users to compile their own modules.  When
compiling third-party Python modules for iOS, you should ensure these
stub binaries are on your path.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Python on iOS,  Next: App Store Compliance<2>,  Prev: Python at runtime on iOS,  Up: Using Python on iOS

3.7.2 Installing Python on iOS
------------------------------

* Menu:

* Tools for building iOS apps::
* Adding Python to an iOS project::
* Testing a Python package::


File: python.info,  Node: Tools for building iOS apps,  Next: Adding Python to an iOS project,  Up: Installing Python on iOS

3.7.2.1 Tools for building iOS apps
...................................

Building for iOS requires the use of Apple’s Xcode tooling.  It is
strongly recommended that you use the most recent stable release of
Xcode.  This will require the use of the most (or second-most) recently
released macOS version, as Apple does not maintain Xcode for older macOS
versions.  The Xcode Command Line Tools are not sufficient for iOS
development; you need a 'full' Xcode install.

If you want to run your code on the iOS simulator, you’ll also need to
install an iOS Simulator Platform.  You should be prompted to select an
iOS Simulator Platform when you first run Xcode.  Alternatively, you can
add an iOS Simulator Platform by selecting from the Platforms tab of the
Xcode Settings panel.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding Python to an iOS project,  Next: Testing a Python package,  Prev: Tools for building iOS apps,  Up: Installing Python on iOS

3.7.2.2 Adding Python to an iOS project
.......................................

Python can be added to any iOS project, using either Swift or Objective
C. The following examples will use Objective C; if you are using Swift,
you may find a library like PythonKit(1) to be helpful.

To add Python to an iOS Xcode project:

  1. Build or obtain a Python ‘XCFramework’.  See the instructions in
     iOS/README.rst(2) (in the CPython source distribution) for details
     on how to build a Python ‘XCFramework’.  At a minimum, you will
     need a build that supports ‘arm64-apple-ios’, plus one of either
     ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ or ‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’.

  2. Drag the ‘XCframework’ into your iOS project.  In the following
     instructions, we’ll assume you’ve dropped the ‘XCframework’ into
     the root of your project; however, you can use any other location
     that you want by adjusting paths as needed.

  3. Drag the ‘iOS/Resources/dylib-Info-template.plist’ file into your
     project, and ensure it is associated with the app target.

  4. Add your application code as a folder in your Xcode project.  In
     the following instructions, we’ll assume that your user code is in
     a folder named ‘app’ in the root of your project; you can use any
     other location by adjusting paths as needed.  Ensure that this
     folder is associated with your app target.

  5. Select the app target by selecting the root node of your Xcode
     project, then the target name in the sidebar that appears.

  6. In the “General” settings, under “Frameworks, Libraries and
     Embedded Content”, add ‘Python.xcframework’, with “Embed & Sign”
     selected.

  7. In the “Build Settings” tab, modify the following:

        - Build Options

             * User Script Sandboxing: No

             * Enable Testability: Yes

        - Search Paths

             * Framework Search Paths: ‘$(PROJECT_DIR)’

             * Header Search Paths:
               ‘"$(BUILT_PRODUCTS_DIR)/Python.framework/Headers"’

        - Apple Clang - Warnings - All languages

             * Quoted Include In Framework Header: No

  8. Add a build step that copies the Python standard library into your
     app.  In the “Build Phases” tab, add a new “Run Script” build step
     'before' the “Embed Frameworks” step, but 'after' the “Copy Bundle
     Resources” step.  Name the step “Install Target Specific Python
     Standard Library”, disable the “Based on dependency analysis”
     checkbox, and set the script content to:

          set -e

          mkdir -p "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib"
          if [ "$EFFECTIVE_PLATFORM_NAME" = "-iphonesimulator" ]; then
              echo "Installing Python modules for iOS Simulator"
              rsync -au --delete "$PROJECT_DIR/Python.xcframework/ios-arm64_x86_64-simulator/lib/" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib/"
          else
              echo "Installing Python modules for iOS Device"
              rsync -au --delete "$PROJECT_DIR/Python.xcframework/ios-arm64/lib/" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib/"
          fi

     Note that the name of the simulator “slice” in the XCframework may
     be different, depending the CPU architectures your ‘XCFramework’
     supports.

  9. Add a second build step that processes the binary extension modules
     in the standard library into “Framework” format.  Add a “Run
     Script” build step 'directly after' the one you added in step 8,
     named “Prepare Python Binary Modules”.  It should also have “Based
     on dependency analysis” unchecked, with the following script
     content:

          set -e

          install_dylib () {
              INSTALL_BASE=$1
              FULL_EXT=$2

              # The name of the extension file
              EXT=$(basename "$FULL_EXT")
              # The location of the extension file, relative to the bundle
              RELATIVE_EXT=${FULL_EXT#$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/}
              # The path to the extension file, relative to the install base
              PYTHON_EXT=${RELATIVE_EXT/$INSTALL_BASE/}
              # The full dotted name of the extension module, constructed from the file path.
              FULL_MODULE_NAME=$(echo $PYTHON_EXT | cut -d "." -f 1 | tr "/" ".");
              # A bundle identifier; not actually used, but required by Xcode framework packaging
              FRAMEWORK_BUNDLE_ID=$(echo $PRODUCT_BUNDLE_IDENTIFIER.$FULL_MODULE_NAME | tr "_" "-")
              # The name of the framework folder.
              FRAMEWORK_FOLDER="Frameworks/$FULL_MODULE_NAME.framework"

              # If the framework folder doesn't exist, create it.
              if [ ! -d "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER" ]; then
                  echo "Creating framework for $RELATIVE_EXT"
                  mkdir -p "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER"
                  cp "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/dylib-Info-template.plist" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/Info.plist"
                  plutil -replace CFBundleExecutable -string "$FULL_MODULE_NAME" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/Info.plist"
                  plutil -replace CFBundleIdentifier -string "$FRAMEWORK_BUNDLE_ID" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/Info.plist"
              fi

              echo "Installing binary for $FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME"
              mv "$FULL_EXT" "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME"
              # Create a placeholder .fwork file where the .so was
              echo "$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME" > ${FULL_EXT%.so}.fwork
              # Create a back reference to the .so file location in the framework
              echo "${RELATIVE_EXT%.so}.fwork" > "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/$FRAMEWORK_FOLDER/$FULL_MODULE_NAME.origin"
           }

           PYTHON_VER=$(ls -1 "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib")
           echo "Install Python $PYTHON_VER standard library extension modules..."
           find "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/python/lib/$PYTHON_VER/lib-dynload" -name "*.so" | while read FULL_EXT; do
              install_dylib python/lib/$PYTHON_VER/lib-dynload/ "$FULL_EXT"
           done

           # Clean up dylib template
           rm -f "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/dylib-Info-template.plist"

           echo "Signing frameworks as $EXPANDED_CODE_SIGN_IDENTITY_NAME ($EXPANDED_CODE_SIGN_IDENTITY)..."
           find "$CODESIGNING_FOLDER_PATH/Frameworks" -name "*.framework" -exec /usr/bin/codesign --force --sign "$EXPANDED_CODE_SIGN_IDENTITY" ${OTHER_CODE_SIGN_FLAGS:-} -o runtime --timestamp=none --preserve-metadata=identifier,entitlements,flags --generate-entitlement-der "{}" \;

  10. Add Objective C code to initialize and use a Python interpreter in
     embedded mode.  You should ensure that:

        * UTF-8 mode (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4.) is 'enabled';

        * Buffered stdio (*note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d9.) is
          'disabled';

        * Writing bytecode (*note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d5.) is
          'disabled';

        * Signal handlers (*note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8bb.)
          are 'enabled';

        * *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. for the interpreter is configured to
          point at the ‘python’ subfolder of your app’s bundle; and

        * The *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. for the interpreter includes:

             - the ‘python/lib/python3.X’ subfolder of your app’s
               bundle,

             - the ‘python/lib/python3.X/lib-dynload’ subfolder of your
               app’s bundle, and

             - the ‘app’ subfolder of your app’s bundle

     Your app’s bundle location can be determined using ‘[[NSBundle
     mainBundle] resourcePath]’.

Steps 8, 9 and 10 of these instructions assume that you have a single
folder of pure Python application code, named ‘app’.  If you have
third-party binary modules in your app, some additional steps will be
required:

   * You need to ensure that any folders containing third-party binaries
     are either associated with the app target, or copied in as part of
     step 8.  Step 8 should also purge any binaries that are not
     appropriate for the platform a specific build is targeting (i.e.,
     delete any device binaries if you’re building an app targeting the
     simulator).

   * Any folders that contain third-party binaries must be processed
     into framework form by step 9.  The invocation of ‘install_dylib’
     that processes the ‘lib-dynload’ folder can be copied and adapted
     for this purpose.

   * If you’re using a separate folder for third-party packages, ensure
     that folder is included as part of the *note PYTHONPATH: 1013.
     configuration in step 10.

   * If any of the folders that contain third-party packages will
     contain ‘.pth’ files, you should add that folder as a 'site
     directory' (using *note site.addsitedir(): 1e71.), rather than
     adding to *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. or *note sys.path: 3ae. directly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pvieito/PythonKit

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Testing a Python package,  Prev: Adding Python to an iOS project,  Up: Installing Python on iOS

3.7.2.3 Testing a Python package
................................

The CPython source tree contains a testbed project(1) that is used to
run the CPython test suite on the iOS simulator.  This testbed can also
be used as a testbed project for running your Python library’s test
suite on iOS.

After building or obtaining an iOS XCFramework (See iOS/README.rst(2)
for details), create a clone of the Python iOS testbed project by
running:

     $ python iOS/testbed clone --framework <path/to/Python.xcframework> --app <path/to/module1> --app <path/to/module2> app-testbed

You will need to modify the ‘iOS/testbed’ reference to point to that
directory in the CPython source tree; any folders specified with the
‘--app’ flag will be copied into the cloned testbed project.  The
resulting testbed will be created in the ‘app-testbed’ folder.  In this
example, the ‘module1’ and ‘module2’ would be importable modules at
runtime.  If your project has additional dependencies, they can be
installed into the ‘app-testbed/iOSTestbed/app_packages’ folder (using
‘pip install --target app-testbed/iOSTestbed/app_packages’ or similar).

You can then use the ‘app-testbed’ folder to run the test suite for your
app, For example, if ‘module1.tests’ was the entry point to your test
suite, you could run:

     $ python app-testbed run -- module1.tests

This is the equivalent of running ‘python -m module1.tests’ on a desktop
Python build.  Any arguments after the ‘--’ will be passed to the
testbed as if they were arguments to ‘python -m’ on a desktop machine.

You can also open the testbed project in Xcode by running:

     $ open app-testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj

This will allow you to use the full Xcode suite of tools for debugging.

The arguments used to run the test suite are defined as part of the test
plan.  To modify the test plan, select the test plan node of the project
tree (it should be the first child of the root node), and select the
“Configurations” tab.  Modify the “Arguments Passed On Launch” value to
change the testing arguments.

The test plan also disables parallel testing, and specifies the use of
the ‘iOSTestbed.lldbinit’ file for providing configuration of the
debugger.  The default debugger configuration disables automatic
breakpoints on the ‘SIGINT’, ‘SIGUSR1’, ‘SIGUSR2’, and ‘SIGXFSZ’
signals.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/testbed

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: App Store Compliance<2>,  Prev: Installing Python on iOS,  Up: Using Python on iOS

3.7.3 App Store Compliance
--------------------------

The only mechanism for distributing apps to third-party iOS devices is
to submit the app to the iOS App Store; apps submitted for distribution
must pass Apple’s app review process.  This process includes a set of
automated validation rules that inspect the submitted application bundle
for problematic code.

The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate
these automated rules.  While these violations appear to be false
positives, Apple’s review rules cannot be challenged; so, it is
necessary to modify the Python standard library for an app to pass App
Store review.

The Python source tree contains a patch file(1) that will remove all
code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process.
This patch is applied automatically when building for iOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch


File: python.info,  Node: 편집기와 IDE,  Prev: Using Python on iOS,  Up: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법

3.8 편집기와 IDE
================

파이썬 프로그래밍 언어를 지원하는 여러 IDE가 있습니다.  많은 편집기와
IDE는 구문 강조, 디버깅 도구 및 PEP 8(1) 검사를 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* IDLE — Python editor and shell::
* 다른 편집기와 IDE::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Next: 다른 편집기와 IDE,  Up: 편집기와 IDE

3.8.1 IDLE — Python editor and shell
------------------------------------

IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment and is
generally bundled with Python installs.  If you are on Linux and do not
have IDLE installed see *note Installing IDLE on Linux: 1d65.  For more
information see the *note IDLE docs: 100b.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 편집기와 IDE,  Prev: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Up: 편집기와 IDE

3.8.2 다른 편집기와 IDE
-----------------------

파이썬의 커뮤니티 위키에는 편집기와 IDE에 대해 커뮤니티가 제공한 정보가
있습니다.  포괄적인 목록을 보려면 Python Editors(1)와 Integrated
Development Environments(2)로 이동하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스,  Next: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리,  Prev: 파이썬 설정 및 사용법,  Up: Top

4 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스
**********************

이 참조 설명서는 언어의 문법과 “중심 개념들(core semantics)”을 설명합니
다.  딱딱하더라도 정확하고 완전해지려고 합니다.  중심에서 벗어난 내장형,
내장 함수, 모듈들의 개념들은 *note 파이썬 표준 라이브러리: 144. 에 기술
되어 있습니다.  언어에 대한 비형식적인 소개는 *note 파이썬 자습서: 1be1.
에서 제공됩니다.  C와 C++ 프로그래머를 위해서는 두 개의 설명서가 따로 제
공됩니다: *note 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장: 1be2. 는 파이썬 확장 모
듈을 작성하는 방법에 대한 큰 그림을 설명하고, *note 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스
설명서: 1be3. 은 C/C++ 프로그래머에게 제공되는 인터페이스들을 상세하게 기
술합니다.

* Menu:

* 개요::
* 어휘 분석::
* 데이터 모델::
* 실행 모델::
* 임포트 시스템::
* 표현식::
* 단순문(Simple statements): 단순문 Simple statements.
* 복합문(Compound statements): 복합문 Compound statements.
* 최상위 요소들::
* 전체 문법 규격::


File: python.info,  Node: 개요,  Next: 어휘 분석,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.1 개요
========

이 레퍼런스 설명서는 파이썬 프로그래밍 언어를 설명합니다.  자습서를 목표
로 하고 있지 않습니다.

가능한 한 정확하려고 노력하고 있지만, 문법과 어휘 분석 이외의 모든 것에
는 형식 규격보다는 자연어를 사용합니다.  이 선택이 평균적인 독자들이 문
서를 좀 더 잘 이해하도록 만들지만, 동시에 모호해질 가능성 역시 만듭니다.
결과적으로, 만약 여러분이 화성에서 왔고 이 문서만으로 파이썬을 다시 구현
하려고 하면, 아마도 여러 가지를 짐작해야 할 것이고 결국 많이 다른 언어를
만드는 것으로 끝날 것입니다.  반면에, 여러분이 파이썬을 사용하고 있고 언
어의 특정 영역에 대한 정확한 규칙에 대해 궁금해하고 있다면 거의 확실히 이
곳에서 답을 찾을 수 있습니다.  좀 더 형식화된 정의를 보고 싶다면, 아마도
여러분의 시간을 기부하는 편이 좋습니다 — 그렇지 않으면 클로닝 기계를 발
명하거나 :-).

참조 문서에 너무 많은 구현 세부 사항을 넣는 것은 위험합니다.  구현은 변
경될 것이고 같은 언어의 다른 구현도 좀 다른 방식으로 동작할 수 있습니다.
반면에 (대안 구현이 점차 지지도를 높여가고 있기는 하지만) CPython 은 가
장 널리 사용되는 파이썬 구현이고, 그것의 특별한 경우 들은 때로 언급할 가
치가 있습니다.  구현이 추가의 제약을 내포하고 있는 경우는 특히 그렇습니
다.  그래서, 텍스트 중간중간 짧은 “구현 노트” 가 튀어나오는 것을 보게 될
것입니다.

모든 파이썬 구현에는 많은 내장 표준 모듈들이 따라옵니다.  이것들은 *note
파이썬 표준 라이브러리: 144. 에 기술되어 있습니다.  언어 정의에 주목할 만
한 방식으로 관계될 경우 몇몇 내장 모듈들은 따로 언급됩니다.

* Menu:

* 대안 구현들::
* 표기법::


File: python.info,  Node: 대안 구현들,  Next: 표기법,  Up: 개요

4.1.1 대안 구현들
-----------------

눈에 띄게 널리 사용되는 파이썬 구현이 존재하기는 하지만, 특정한 관심사를
가진 대상들에게 호소력을 가진 여러 대안 구현들이 존재합니다.

알려진 구현들은:

CPython

     원조이기도 하고 가장 잘 관리되고 있는 C로 작성된 파이썬 구현입니다.
     언어의 새로운 기능은 보통 여기에서 처음 등장합니다.

Jython

     파이썬 자바구현.  이 구현은 자바 응용 프로그램을 위한 스크립트 언어
     로 사용되거나, 자바 클래스 라이브러리를 활용하는 응용 프로그램을 만
     드는데 사용될 수 있습니다.  종종 자바 라이브러리의 테스트를 만드는
     데 사용되기도 합니다.  더 자세한 정보는 Jython 웹사이트(1) 에서 찾
     을 수 있습니다.

Python for .NET

     이 구현은 실제로는 CPython 구현을 사용하지만, 매니지드(managed)
     .NET 응용 프로그램이고 .NET 라이브러리를 제공합니다.  Bryan Lloyd가
     만들었습니다다.  더 자세한 정보는 Python for .NET 홈페이지(2) 에서
     제공됩니다.

IronPython

     .NET을 위한 대안 파이썬.  Python.NET 과는 달리 이것은 IL을 생성하고
     , 파이썬 코드를 .NET 어셈블리로 직접 컴파일하는 완전한 파이썬 구현
     입니다.  Jim Hugunin 이 만들었는데, Jython 의 원저자이기도 합니다.
     자세한 정보는 IronPython 웹사이트(3) 에서 얻을 수 있습니다.

PyPy

     완전히 파이썬으로 작성된 파이썬 구현.  스택 리스(stackless) 지원이
     나 JIT 컴파일러와 같이 다른 구현에서는 찾을 수 없는 고급 기능을 제
     공합니다.  이 프로젝트의 목표 중 하나는 (파이썬으로 쓰였기 때문에)
     인터프리터 수정을 쉽게 만들어서 언어 자체에 대한 실험을 북돋는 것입
     니다.  자세한 정보는 PyPy 프로젝트의 홈페이지(4) 에서 찾을 수 있습
     니다.

각 구현은 이 설명서에서 설명되는 언어와 조금씩 각기 다른 방법으로 벗어나
거나, 표준 파이썬 문서에서 다루는 범위 밖의 특별한 정보들을 소개합니다.
여러분이 사용 중인 구현에 대해 어떤 것을 더 알아야 하는지 판단하기 위해
서는 구현 별로 제공되는 문서를 참조할 필요가 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/

   (2) https://pythonnet.github.io/

   (3) https://ironpython.net/

   (4) https://pypy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 표기법,  Prev: 대안 구현들,  Up: 개요

4.1.2 표기법
------------

어휘 분석과 문법의 기술은 수정된 배커스-나우르 형식 (BNF)(1) 문법 표기법
을 사용합니다.  이것은 다음과 같은 정의 스타일을 사용합니다.

     name      ::= *note lc_letter: 1e81. (*note lc_letter: 1e81. | "_")*
     lc_letter ::= "a"..."z"

첫 줄은 ‘name’ 이 ‘lc_letter’ 로 시작하고, 없거나 하나 이상의
‘lc_letter’ 나 밑줄이 뒤따르는 형태로 구성된다고 말합니다.  한편
‘lc_letter’ 는 ‘'a'’ 와 ‘'z'’ 사이의 문자 하나입니다.  (사실 이 규칙은 이
문서에서 어휘와 문법 규칙에서 정의되는 이름들에 대한 규칙입니다.)

개별 규칙은 이름 (위 규칙에 등장하는 ‘name’)과 ‘::=’ 로 시작합니다.  세
로막대(‘|’)는 대안들을 분리하는 데 사용됩니다; 이 표기법에서 우선순위가
가장 낮은 연산자입니다.  별표(‘*’)는 앞에 나오는 항목이 생략되거나 한 번
이상 반복될 수 있다는 의미입니다; 비슷하게, 더하기(‘+’)는 한 번 이상 반
복될 수 있지만 생략할 수는 없다는 뜻이고, 대괄호(‘[]’)로 둘러싸인 것은 최
대 한 번 나올 수 있고, 생략 가능하다는 뜻입니다.  ‘*’ 와 ‘+’ 연산자는 최
대한 엄격하게 연결됩니다; 우선순위가 가장 높습니다; 괄호는 덩어리로 묶는
데 사용됩니다.  문자열 리터럴은 따옴표로 둘러싸입니다.  공백은 토큰을 분
리하는 용도로만 사용됩니다.  규칙은 보통 한 줄로 표현됩니다; 대안이 많은
규칙은 여러 줄로 표현될 수도 있는데, 뒤따르는 줄들이 세로막대로 시작되게
만듭니다.

어휘 정의 (위에서 든 예와 같이) 에서는, 두 가지 추가 관례가 사용됩니다:
두 개의 리터럴 문자가 세 개의 점으로 분리되어 있으면 주어진 (끝의 두 문
자 모두 포함하는) 범위의 ASCII 문자 중 어느 하나라는 뜻입니다.  홑화살괄
호(‘<...>’) 안에 들어있는 구문은, 정의되는 기호에 대한 비형식적 설명을 제
공합니다.  즉 필요한 경우 ‘제어 문자’를 설명하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

사용되는 표기법이 거의 같다고 하더라도, 어휘와 문법 정의 간에는 커다란 차
이가 있습니다: 어휘 정의는 입력의 개별 문자에 적용되는 반면, 문법 정의는
어휘 분석기가 만들어내는 토큰들에 적용됩니다.  다음 장 (“어휘 분석
(Lexical Analysis)”)에서 사용되는 모든 BNF는 어휘 정의입니다; 그 이후의
장에서는 문법 정의입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form


File: python.info,  Node: 어휘 분석,  Next: 데이터 모델,  Prev: 개요,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.2 어휘 분석
=============

파이썬 프로그램은 '파서(parser)' 에 의해 읽힙니다.  파서의 입력은 '어휘
분석기(lexical analyzer)' ('토큰화기(tokenizer)' 라고도 합니다) 가 만들
어내는 *note 토큰: 1e85. 의 스트림입니다.  이 장에서는 어휘 분석기가 어
떻게 파일을 토큰들로 분해하는지 설명합니다.

파이썬은 프로그램 텍스트를 유니코드 코드값으로 읽습니다; 소스 파일의 인
코딩은 인코딩 선언을 통해 지정될 수 있고, 기본값은 UTF-8입니다.  자세한
내용은 PEP 3120(1) 에 나옵니다.  소스 파일을 디코딩할 수 없을 때는 *note
SyntaxError: 18d. 가 발생합니다.

* Menu:

* 줄 구조(Line structure): 줄 구조 Line structure.
* 다른 토큰들::
* 식별자와 키워드::
* 리터럴::
* 연산자::
* 구분자::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/


File: python.info,  Node: 줄 구조 Line structure,  Next: 다른 토큰들,  Up: 어휘 분석

4.2.1 줄 구조(Line structure)
-----------------------------

파이썬 프로그램은 여러 개의 '논리적인 줄(logical lines)' 들로 나뉩니다.

* Menu:

* 논리적인 줄::
* 물리적인 줄::
* 주석::
* 인코딩 선언::
* 명시적인 줄 결합::
* 묵시적인 줄 결합::
* 빈 줄::
* 들여쓰기::
* 토큰 사이의 공백::


File: python.info,  Node: 논리적인 줄,  Next: 물리적인 줄,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.1 논리적인 줄
...................

논리적인 줄의 끝은 NEWLINE 토큰으로 표현됩니다.  문법이 허락하지 않는 이
상 (예를 들어 복합문에서 문장들 사이) 문장은 논리적인 줄 간의 경계를 가
로지를 수 없습니다.  논리적인 줄은 명시적이거나 묵시적인 '줄 결합(line
joining)' 규칙에 따라 하나 이상의 '물리적인 줄(physical lines)' 들로 구
성됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 물리적인 줄,  Next: 주석,  Prev: 논리적인 줄,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.2 물리적인 줄
...................

물리적인 줄은 줄의 끝을 나타내는 시퀀스로 끝나는 문자들의 시퀀스입니다.
소스 파일과 문자열에는 플랫폼들의 표준 줄 종료 시퀀스들이 모두 사용될 수
있습니다 - ASCII LF (개행문자)를 사용하는 유닉스 형, ASCII 시퀀스 CR
LF(캐리지 리턴 다음에 오는 개행 문자)를 사용하는 윈도우 형, ASCII CR(캐
리지 리턴)을 사용하는 예전의 매킨토시 형.  이 형태들은 플랫폼의 종류와 관
계없이 동등하게 사용할 수 있습니다.  입력의 끝은 마지막 물리적인 줄의 묵
시적 종결자 역할을 합니다.

파이썬을 내장할 때는, 소스 코드 문자열은 반드시 줄 종료 문자에 표준 C 관
행(ASCII LF를 표현하는 ‘\n’ 문자로 줄이 종료됩니다)을 적용해서 파이썬
API로 전달되어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 주석,  Next: 인코딩 선언,  Prev: 물리적인 줄,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.3 주석
............

주석은 문자열 리터럴에 포함되지 않는 해시 문자(‘#’)로 시작하고 물리적인
줄의 끝에서 끝납니다.  묵시적인 줄 결합 규칙이 유효하지 않은 이상, 주석
은 논리적인 줄을 종료시킵니다.  주석은 문법이 무시합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 인코딩 선언,  Next: 명시적인 줄 결합,  Prev: 주석,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.4 인코딩 선언
...................

파이썬 스크립트의 첫 번 째나 두 번째 줄에 있는 주석이 정규식
‘coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)’ 과 매치되면, 이 주석은 인코딩 선언으로 처리됩니
다.  이 정규식의 첫 번째 그룹은 소스 코드 파일의 인코딩 이름을 지정합니
다.  인코딩 선언은 줄 전체에 홀로 나와야 합니다.  만약 두 번째 줄이라면,
첫 번째 줄 역시 주석만 있어야 합니다.  인코딩 선언의 권장 형태는 두 개입
니다.  하나는

     # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-

인데 GNU Emacs에서도 인식됩니다.  다른 하나는

     # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>

인데 Bram Moolenaar 의 VIM에서 인식됩니다.

If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8.  If
the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8
byte-order mark (‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’) is ignored rather than being a
syntax error.

인코딩이 선언되면, 인코딩 이름은 파이썬이 인식할 수 있어야 합니다 (*note
표준 인코딩: db5.를 참조하세요).  인코딩은 문자열 리터럴, 주석, 식별자를
포함한 모든 어휘 분석에서 모두 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 명시적인 줄 결합,  Next: 묵시적인 줄 결합,  Prev: 인코딩 선언,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.5 명시적인 줄 결합
........................

둘 이상의 물리적인 줄은 역 슬래시 문자(‘\’)를 사용해서 논리적인 줄로 결
합할 수 있습니다: 물리적인 줄이 문자열 리터럴이나 주석의 일부가 아닌 역
슬래시 문자로 끝나면, 역 슬래시와 뒤따르는 개행 문자가 제거된 채로, 현재
만들어지고 있는 논리적인 줄에 합쳐집니다.  예를 들어:

     if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
        and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
        and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # 유효한 날짜처럼 보입니다
             return 1

역 슬래시로 끝나는 줄은 주석이 포함될 수 없습니다.  역 슬래시는 주석을 결
합하지 못합니다.  역 슬래시는 문자열 리터럴을 제외한 어떤 토큰도 결합하
지 못합니다 (즉, 문자열 리터럴 이외의 어떤 토큰도 역 슬래시를 사용해서 두
줄에 나누어 기록할 수 없습니다.).  문자열 리터럴 밖에 있는 역 슬래시가 앞
에서 언급한 장소 이외의 곳에 등장하는 것은 문법에 어긋납니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 묵시적인 줄 결합,  Next: 빈 줄,  Prev: 명시적인 줄 결합,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.6 묵시적인 줄 결합
........................

괄호(‘()’), 대괄호(‘[]’), 중괄호(‘{}’)가 사용되는 표현은 역 슬래시 없이
도 여러 개의 물리적인 줄로 나눌 수 있습니다.  예를 들어:

     month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # 이것들은
                    'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # 일년을 이루는
                    'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # 달들의
                    'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # 네덜란드 이름입니다

묵시적으로 이어지는 줄들은 주석을 포함할 수 있습니다.  이어지는 줄들의 들
여쓰기는 중요하지 않습니다.  중간에 빈 줄이 들어가도 됩니다.  묵시적으로
줄 결합하는 줄 들 간에는 NEWLINE 토큰이 만들어지지 않습니다.  묵시적으로
이어지는 줄들은 삼중 따옴표 된 문자열들에서도 등장할 수 있는데 (아래를 보
라), 이 경우는 주석이 포함될 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 빈 줄,  Next: 들여쓰기,  Prev: 묵시적인 줄 결합,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.7 빈 줄
.............

스페이스, 탭, 폼 피드(formfeed) 와 주석만으로 구성된 논리적인 줄은 무시
됩니다.  (즉 NEWLINE 토큰이 만들어지지 않습니다.)  대화형으로 문장이 입
력되는 도중에는 빈 줄의 처리가 REPL 구현에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다.  표
준 대화형 인터프리터에서는, 완전히 빈 줄(즉 공백이나 주석조차 없는 것)은
다중 행 문장을 종료시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 들여쓰기,  Next: 토큰 사이의 공백,  Prev: 빈 줄,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.8 들여쓰기
................

논리적인 줄의 제일 앞에 오는 공백(스페이스와 탭)은 줄의 들여쓰기 수준을
계산하는 데 사용되고, 이는 다시 문장들의 묶음을 결정하는 데 사용되게 됩
니다.

탭은 (왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로) 1~8개의 스페이스로 변환되는데, 치환된 후의 총
스페이스 문자 수가 8의 배수가 되도록 맞춥니다.  (유닉스에서 사용되는 규
칙에 맞추려는 것입니다.)  첫 번째 비 공백 문자 앞에 나오는 공백의 총수가
줄의 들여쓰기를 결정합니다.  들여쓰기는 역 슬래시를 사용해서 여러 개의 물
리적인 줄로 나눠질 수 없습니다; 첫 번째 역 슬래시 이전의 공백이 들여쓰기
를 결정합니다.

소스 파일이 탭과 스페이스를 섞어 쓰는 경우, 탭이 몇 개의 스페이스에 해당
하는지에 따라 다르게 해석될 수 있으면 *note TabError: 53e. 를 일으킵니다
.

'크로스-플랫폼 호환성 유의 사항:' UNIX 이외의 플랫폼에서 편집기들이 동작
하는 방식 때문에, 하나의 파일 내에서 들여쓰기를 위해 탭과 스페이스를 섞
어 쓰는 것은 현명한 선택이 아닙니다.  다른 플랫폼들에서는 최대 들여쓰기
수준에 제한이 있을 수도 있다는 점도 주의해야 합니다.

폼 피드 문자는 줄의 처음에 나올 수 있습니다; 앞서 설명한 들여쓰기 수준 계
산에서는 무시됩니다.  선행 공백의 다른 곳에 등장하는 폼 피드 문자는 정의
되지 않은 효과를 줍니다 (가령, 스페이스 수가 0으로 초기화될 수 있습니다
).

연속된 줄의 들여쓰기 수준은, 스택을 사용해서, 다음과 같은 방법으로
INDENT와 DEDENT 토큰을 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

파일의 첫 줄을 읽기 전에 0하나를 스택에 넣습니다(push); 이 값은 다시 꺼
내는(pop) 일이 없습니다.  스택에 넣는 값은 항상 스택의 아래에서 위로 올
라갈 때 단조 증가합니다.  각 논리적인 줄의 처음에서 줄의 들여쓰기 수준이
스택의 가장 위에 있는 값과 비교됩니다.  같다면 아무런 일도 일어나지 않습
니다.  더 크다면 그 값을 스택에 넣고 하나의 INDENT 토큰을 만듭니다.  더
작다면 이 값은 스택에 있는 값 중 하나여야만 합니다.  이 값보다 큰 모든 스
택의 값들을 꺼내고(pop), 꺼낸 횟수만큼의 DEDENT 토큰을 만듭니다.  파일의
끝에서, 스택에 남아있는 0보다 큰 값의 개수만큼 DEDENT 토큰을 만듭니다.

여기에 (혼란스럽다 할지라도) 올바르게 들여쓰기 된 파이썬 코드 조각이 있
습니다:

     def perm(l):
             # l 의 모든 순열의 리스트를 계산합니다
         if len(l) <= 1:
                       return [l]
         r = []
         for i in range(len(l)):
                  s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
                  p = perm(s)
                  for x in p:
                   r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
         return r

다음 예는 여러 가지 들여쓰기 에러를 보여줍니다:

     def perm(l):                       # 에러: 첫 줄을 들여쓰기 했습니다
     for i in range(len(l)):             # 에러: 들여쓰지 않았습니다
         s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
             p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # 에러: 예기치 않은 들여쓰기
             for x in p:
                     r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
                 return r                # 에러: 일관성 없는 내어쓰기

(사실, 처음 세 개의 에러는 파서가 감지합니다.  단지 마지막 에러만 어휘 분
석기가 감지합니다.  — ‘return r’ 의 들여쓰기가 스택에 있는 값과 일치하지
않습니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 토큰 사이의 공백,  Prev: 들여쓰기,  Up: 줄 구조 Line structure

4.2.1.9 토큰 사이의 공백
........................

논리적인 줄의 처음과 문자열 리터럴을 제외하고, 공백 문자인 스페이스, 탭,
폼 피드는 토큰을 분리하기 위해 섞어 쓸 수 있습니다.  두 토큰을 붙여 쓸 때
다른 토큰으로 해석될 수 있는 경우만 토큰 사이에 공백이 필요합니다.  (예
를 들어, ab 는 하나의 토큰이지만, a b 는 두 개의 토큰입니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 토큰들,  Next: 식별자와 키워드,  Prev: 줄 구조 Line structure,  Up: 어휘 분석

4.2.2 다른 토큰들
-----------------

NEWLINE, INDENT, DEDENT 와는 별도로, 다음과 같은 유형의 토큰들이 존재합
니다: '식별자(identifier)', '키워드(keyword)', '리터럴(literal)', '연산
자(operator)', '구분자(delimiter)'.  (앞에서 살펴본 줄 종료 이외의) 공백
문자들은 토큰이 아니지만, 토큰을 분리하는 역할을 담당합니다.  모호할 경
우, 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 읽을 때, 하나의 토큰은 올바르고 가능한 한 최대 길
이의 문자열로 구성되는 것을 선호합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 식별자와 키워드,  Next: 리터럴,  Prev: 다른 토큰들,  Up: 어휘 분석

4.2.3 식별자와 키워드
---------------------

식별자 ('이름(name)' 이라고도 합니다) 은 다음과 같은 어휘 정의로 기술됩
니다.

파이썬에서 식별자의 문법은 유니코드 표준 부속서 UAX-31 에 기반을 두는데,
여기에 덧붙이거나 바꾼 내용은 아래에서 정의합니다.  좀 더 상세한 내용은
PEP 3131(1) 에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

ASCII 범위 (U+0001..U+007F) 내에서, 올바른 식별자 문자에는 ‘A’ 에서 ‘Z’
범위의 대문자와 소문자, 밑줄 ‘_’, 첫 문자를 제외하고, 숫자 ‘0’ 에서 ‘9’까
지가 포함됩니다.  파이썬 3.0은 ASCII 범위 밖의 문자들을 도입합니다 ( PEP
3131(2) 참조).  이 문자들의 경우, *note unicodedata: 105. 모듈에 포함된
버전의 유니코드 문자 데이터베이스에 따라 분류됩니다.

식별자는 길이에 제한이 없고, 케이스(case)는 구분됩니다.

     identifier   ::= *note xid_start: 1e9f. *note xid_continue: 1ea0.*
     id_start     ::= <all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property>
     id_continue  ::= <all characters in *note id_start: 1ea1, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property>
     xid_start    ::= <all characters in *note id_start: 1ea1. whose NFKC normalization is in "id_start xid_continue*">
     xid_continue ::= <all characters in *note id_continue: 1ea2. whose NFKC normalization is in "id_continue*">

위에서 언급한 유니코드 카테고리 코드들의 의미는 이렇습니다:

   * 'Lu' - uppercase letters

   * 'Ll' - lowercase letters

   * 'Lt' - titlecase letters

   * 'Lm' - modifier letters

   * 'Lo' - other letters

   * 'Nl' - letter numbers

   * 'Mn' - nonspacing marks

   * 'Mc' - spacing combining marks

   * 'Nd' - decimal numbers

   * 'Pc' - connector punctuations

   * 'Other_ID_Start' - 하위 호환성 지원을 위해 PropList.txt(3) 에서 명
     시적으로 나열된 문자들

   * 'Other_ID_Continue' - 마찬가지

모든 식별자는 파서에 의해 NFKC 정규화 형식으로 변환되고, 식별자의 비교는
NFKC 에 기반을 둡니다.

유니코드 15.1.0의 올바른 식별자 문자들의 비규범적인 목록을 HTML 파일로 정
리한 문서를
‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt’ 에
서 열람할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 키워드::
* 소프트 키워드::
* 식별자의 예약 영역::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/PropList.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 키워드,  Next: 소프트 키워드,  Up: 식별자와 키워드

4.2.3.1 키워드
..............

다음 식별자들은 예약어, 또는 언어의 키워드, 로 사용되고, 일반적인 식별자
로 사용될 수 없습니다.  여기 쓰여 있는 것과 정확히 같게 사용되어야 합니
다:

     False      await      else       import     pass
     None       break      except     in         raise
     True       class      finally    is         return
     and        continue   for        lambda     try
     as         def        from       nonlocal   while
     assert     del        global     not        with
     async      elif       if         or         yield


File: python.info,  Node: 소프트 키워드,  Next: 식별자의 예약 영역,  Prev: 키워드,  Up: 식별자와 키워드

4.2.3.2 소프트 키워드
.....................

Added in version 3.10.

Some identifiers are only reserved under specific contexts.  These are
known as 'soft keywords'.  The identifiers ‘match’, ‘case’, ‘type’ and
‘_’ can syntactically act as keywords in certain contexts, but this
distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing.

As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still
preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as
identifier names.

‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ are used in the *note match: 807. statement.
‘type’ is used in the *note type: 431. statement.

버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘type’ is now a soft keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: 식별자의 예약 영역,  Prev: 소프트 키워드,  Up: 식별자와 키워드

4.2.3.3 식별자의 예약 영역
..........................

(키워드와는 별개로) 어떤 부류의 식별자들은 특별한 의미가 있습니다.  이 부
류의 식별자들은 시작과 끝의 밑줄 문자 패턴으로 구분됩니다:

‘_*’

     ‘from module import *’ 에 의해 임포트되지 않습니다.

‘_’

     In a ‘case’ pattern within a *note match: 807. statement, ‘_’ is a
     *note soft keyword: 806. that denotes a *note wildcard: 808.

     한편, 대화형 인터프리터는 마지막 평가 결과물을 변수 ‘_’에 저장합니
     다.  (‘print’ 와 같은 내장 함수와 함께, *note builtins: 12. 모듈에
     저장됩니다.)

     Elsewhere, ‘_’ is a regular identifier.  It is often used to name
     “special” items, but it is not special to Python itself.

          참고: 이름 ‘_’ 은 종종 국제화(internationalization)와 관련되어
          사용됩니다.  이 관례에 관해서는 *note gettext: 63. 모듈의 문서
          를 참조하십시오.

          It is also commonly used for unused variables.

‘__*__’

     시스템 정의 이름, 비공식적으로 “던더(dunder)” 이름이라고 알려졌습니
     다.  이 이름들은 인터프리터와 그 구현(표준 라이브러리를 포함합니다
     )이 정의합니다.  현재 정의된 시스템 이름은 *note 특수 메서드
     이름들: c6b. 섹션과 그 외의 곳에서 논의됩니다.  파이썬의 미래 버전
     에서는 더 많은 것들이 정의될 가능성이 큽니다.  어떤 문맥에서건, 명
     시적으로 문서로 만들어진 사용법을 벗어나는 ‘__*__’ 이름의 '모든' 사
     용은, 경고 없이 손상될 수 있습니다.

‘__*’

     클래스-비공개 이름.  이 부류의 이름들을 클래스 정의 문맥에서 사용하
     면 뒤섞인 형태로 변형됩니다.  부모 클래스와 자식 클래스의 “비공개
     (private)” 어트리뷰트 간의 이름 충돌을 피하기 위함입니다.  *note
     식별자 (이름): 1ea8. 섹션을 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 리터럴,  Next: 연산자,  Prev: 식별자와 키워드,  Up: 어휘 분석

4.2.4 리터럴
------------

리터럴(literal)은 몇몇 내장형들의 상숫값을 위한 표기법입니다.

* Menu:

* 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴::
* 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기::
* 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 포맷 문자열 리터럴<2>.
* 숫자 리터럴::
* 정수 리터럴::
* 실수 리터럴::
* 허수 리터럴::


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴,  Next: 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.1 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴
................................

문자열 리터럴은 다음과 같은 어휘 정의로 기술됩니다:

     stringliteral   ::= [*note stringprefix: 1eae.](*note shortstring: 1eaf. | *note longstring: 1eb0.)
     stringprefix    ::= "r" | "u" | "R" | "U" | "f" | "F"
                         | "fr" | "Fr" | "fR" | "FR" | "rf" | "rF" | "Rf" | "RF"
     shortstring     ::= "'" *note shortstringitem: 1eb1.* "'" | '"' *note shortstringitem: 1eb1.* '"'
     longstring      ::= "'''" *note longstringitem: 1eb2.* "'''" | '"""' *note longstringitem: 1eb2.* '"""'
     shortstringitem ::= *note shortstringchar: 1eb3. | *note stringescapeseq: 1eb4.
     longstringitem  ::= *note longstringchar: 1eb5. | *note stringescapeseq: 1eb4.
     shortstringchar ::= <any source character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longstringchar  ::= <any source character except "\">
     stringescapeseq ::= "\" <any source character>

     bytesliteral   ::= *note bytesprefix: 1eb7.(*note shortbytes: 1eb8. | *note longbytes: 1eb9.)
     bytesprefix    ::= "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" | "rb" | "rB" | "Rb" | "RB"
     shortbytes     ::= "'" *note shortbytesitem: 1eba.* "'" | '"' *note shortbytesitem: 1eba.* '"'
     longbytes      ::= "'''" *note longbytesitem: 1ebb.* "'''" | '"""' *note longbytesitem: 1ebb.* '"""'
     shortbytesitem ::= *note shortbyteschar: 1ebc. | *note bytesescapeseq: 1ebd.
     longbytesitem  ::= *note longbyteschar: 1ebe. | *note bytesescapeseq: 1ebd.
     shortbyteschar ::= <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longbyteschar  ::= <any ASCII character except "\">
     bytesescapeseq ::= "\" <any ASCII character>

이 생성 규칙이 보여주지 못하는 한 가지 문법적 제약은 *note stringprefix:
1eae. 나 *note bytesprefix: 1eb7. 와 리터럴의 나머지 부분 사이에 공백이
허락되지 않는다는 것입니다.  소스 문자 집합은 인코딩 선언으로 정의됩니다
; 소스 파일에 인코딩 선언이 없으면 UTF-8입니다.  *note 인코딩 선언:
1e8f. 섹션을 보세요.

쉬운 말로 하자면, 두 가지 리터럴은 한 쌍의 작은따옴표(‘'’) 나 큰따옴표
(‘"’)로 둘러싸일 수 있습니다.  또한, 둘 다 한 쌍의 삼중 작은따옴표나 큰
따옴표로 둘러싸일 수도 있습니다 (이것들은 보통 '삼중 따옴표 된 문자열' 이
라고 불립니다).  역 슬래시(‘\’) 문자는 ‘n’과 같은 일반적인 문자에 특별한
의미를 부여하는데 사용됩니다.  이 문자는 이스케이프 처리될 때 (‘\n’) ‘개
행문자’를 뜻합니다.  또한 홀로 쓰이면 특별한 의미가 있는 문자들을 이스케
이핑할 때 사용되는데, 개행문자, 역 슬래시 자신, 따옴표 문자가 그것입니다
.  예제는 아래의 *note 이스케이프 시퀀스: 453.를 참조하세요.

바이트열(bytes) 리터럴은 항상 ‘'b'’ 나 ‘'B'’ 를 앞에 붙입니다; *note
str: 445. 형의 인스턴스 대신 *note bytes: 1c2. 형의 인스턴스를 만듭니다.
오직 ASCII 문자들만 포함할 수 있습니다.  코드값이 128보다 크거나 같은 값
들은 반드시 이스케이핑으로 표현되어야 합니다.

문자열과 바이트열 리터럴 모두 선택적으로 ‘'r'’ 이나 ‘'R'’ 문자를 앞에 붙
일 수 있습니다.  이러한 구조를 각각 날 문자열 리터럴('raw string
literals')과 날 바이트열 리터럴('raw bytes literals')이라고 하는데, 역 슬
래시를 평범한 문자로 취급합니다.  결과적으로, 날 문자열 리터럴에서,
‘'\U'’ 와 ‘'\u'’ 이스케이프는 특별하게 처리되지 않습니다.

Added in version 3.3: 날 바이트열 리터럴의 ‘'br'’ 와 같은 의미가 있는
‘'rb'’ 접두어가 추가되었습니다.

파이썬 2.x 와 3.x 에서 동시에 지원하는 코드들의 유지보수를 단순화하기 위
해 예전에 사용되던 유니코드 리터럴 (‘u'value'’)이 다시 도입되었습니다.  자
세한 정보는 PEP 414(1) 에 나옵니다.

‘'f'’ 나 ‘'F'’ 를 접두어로 갖는 문자열 리터럴은 포맷 문자열 리터럴
('formatted string literal')입니다; *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6. 을 보
세요.  ‘'f'’ 는 ‘'r'’ 과 결합할 수 있습니다, 하지만, ‘'b'’ 나 ‘'u'’ 와는
결합할 수 없습니다.  따라서 날 포맷 문자열은 가능하지만, 포맷 바이트열 리
터럴은 불가능합니다.

삼중 따옴표 된 리터럴에서, 세 개의 이스케이핑 되지 않은 개행 문자와 따옴
표가 허락됩니다 (그리고 유지됩니다).  예외는 한 줄에 세 개의 이스케이핑
되지 않은 따옴표가 나오는 것인데, 리터럴을 종료시킵니다.  (“따옴표”는 리
터럴을 시작하는데 사용한 문자입니다.  즉, ‘'’ 나 ‘"’)

* Menu:

* 이스케이프 시퀀스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: 이스케이프 시퀀스,  Up: 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴

4.2.4.2 이스케이프 시퀀스
.........................

‘'r'’ 나 ‘'R'’ 접두어가 붙지 않은 이상, 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴에 포함
된 이스케이프 시퀀스는 표준 C에서 사용된 것과 비슷한 규칙으로 해석됩니다
.  인식되는 이스케이프 시퀀스는 이렇습니다:

이스케이프 시퀀스             의미                                  유의 사항
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\’<newline>                  역 슬래시와 개행 문자가 무시됩니다    (1)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\\’                          역 슬래시 (‘\’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\'’                          작은따옴표 (‘'’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\"’                          큰따옴표 (‘"’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\a’                          ASCII 벨 (BEL)
                              
                                                                    
‘\b’                          ASCII 백스페이스 (BS)
                              
                                                                    
‘\f’                          ASCII 폼 피드 (FF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\n’                          ASCII 라인 피드 (LF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\r’                          ASCII 캐리지 리턴 (CR)
                              
                                                                    
‘\t’                          ASCII 가로 탭 (TAB)
                              
                                                                    
‘\v’                          ASCII 세로 탭 (VT)
                              
                                                                    
‘\OOO’                        8진수 'ooo' 로 지정된 문자            (2,4)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\xHH’                        16진수 'hh' 로 지정된 문자            (3,4)
                                                                    

문자열 리터럴에서만 인식되는 이스케이프 시퀀스는:

이스케이프 시퀀스             의미                                  유의 사항
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\N{NAME}’                    유니코드 데이터베이스에서 'name' 이   (5)
                              라고 이름 붙여진 문자                 
                              
                                                                    
‘\uXXXX’                      16-bit 16진수 'xxxx' 로 지정된 문자   (6)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\UXXXXXXXX’                  32-bit 16진수 'xxxxxxxx' 로 지정된    (7)
                              문자                                  
                              

유의 사항:

  1. A backslash can be added at the end of a line to ignore the
     newline:

          >>> 'This string will not include \
          ... backslashes or newline characters.'
          'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.'

     The same result can be achieved using *note triple-quoted strings:
     1eac, or parentheses and *note string literal concatenation: 1ec0.

  2. 표준 C와 마찬가지로, 최대 세 개의 8진수가 허용됩니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘0o377’ 보다 큰 8진수 이스케이프 시퀀스는 *note
     SyntaxWarning: 45f.을 만듭니다.  언젠가 파이썬의 미래 버전에서는 결
     국 *note SyntaxError: 18d.가 될 것입니다.

  3. 표준 C와는 달리, 정확히 두 개의 16진수가 제공되어야 합니다.

  4. 바이트열 리터럴에서, 16진수와 8진수 이스케이프는 지정된 값의 바이트
     를 표현합니다.  문자열 리터럴에서는, 이 이스케이프는 지정된 값의 유
     니코드 문자를 표현합니다.

  5. 
     버전 3.3에서 변경: 별칭 (1) 지원이 추가되었습니다

  6. 정확히 4개의 16진수를 필요로 합니다.

  7. 이 방법으로 모든 유니코드를 인코딩할 수 있습니다.  정확히 8개의 16진
     수가 필요합니다.

표준 C와는 달리, 인식되지 않는 모든 이스케이프 시퀀스는 문자열에 변경되
지 않은 상태로 남게 됩니다.  즉, '역 슬래시가 결과에 남게 됩니다'.  (이
동작은 디버깅할 때 쓸모가 있습니다.  이스케이프 시퀀스가 잘못 입력되었을
때, 최종 결과에서 잘못된 부분을 쉽게 인지할 수 있습니다.)  문자열 리터럴
에서만 인식되는 이스케이프 시퀀스가, 바이트열 리터럴에서는 인식되지 않는
부류임에 주목하십시오.

버전 3.6에서 변경: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5.

버전 3.12에서 변경: 인식되지 않는 이스케이프 시퀀스는 *note
SyntaxWarning: 45f.을 만듭니다.  언젠가 파이썬의 미래 버전에서는 결국
*note SyntaxError: 18d.가 될 것입니다.

날 리터럴에서 조차, 따옴표는 역 슬래시로 이스케이프 됩니다.  하지만 역 슬
래시가 결과에 남게 됩니다; 예를 들어, ‘r"\""’ 는 올바른 문자열 리터럴인
데, 두 개의 문자가 들어있습니다: 역 슬래시와 큰따옴표; ‘r"\"’ 는 올바른
문자열 리터럴이 아닙니다 (날 문자열조차 홀수개의 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없
습니다.).  좀 더 명확하게 말하자면, 날 리터럴은 하나의 역 슬래시로 끝날
수 없습니다(역 슬래시가 뒤에 오는 따옴표를 이스케이프 시키기 때문입니다
).  역 슬래시와 바로 뒤에 오는 개행문자는 줄 결합이 '아니라' 리터럴에 포
함되는 두 개의 문자로 인식됨에 주의해야 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기,  Next: 포맷 문자열 리터럴<2>,  Prev: 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.3 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기
................................

여러 개의 문자열이나 바이트열 리터럴을 (공백으로 분리해서) 여러 개 인접
해서 나열하는 것이 허락되고, 그 의미는 이어붙인 것과 같습니다.  각 리터
럴이 서로 다른 따옴표를 사용해도 됩니다.  그래서, ‘"hello" 'world'’ 는
‘"helloworld"’ 와 동등합니다.  이 기능은 긴 문자열을 편의상 여러 줄로 나
눌 때 필요한 역 슬래시를 줄여줍니다.  각 문자열 단위마다 주석을 붙이는 것
도 가능합니다.  예를 들어:

     re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # 영문자 또는 밑줄
                "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # 영문자, 숫자 또는 밑줄
               )

이 기능이 문법 수준에서 정의되고는 있지만, 컴파일 시점에 구현됨에 주의해
야 합니다.  실행 시간에 문자열 표현을 이어붙이기 위해서는 ‘+’ 연산자를 사
용해야 합니다.  리터럴 이어붙이기가 요소별로 다른 따옴표를 사용할 수 있
고 (날 문자열과 삼중 따옴표 문자열을 이어붙이는 것조차 가능합니다), 포맷
문자열 리터럴을 보통 문자열 리터럴과 이어붙일 수 있음에 유의해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 문자열 리터럴<2>,  Next: 숫자 리터럴,  Prev: 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.4 포맷 문자열 리터럴
..........................

Added in version 3.6.

포맷 문자열 리터럴('formatted string literal') 또는 'f-문자열
(f-string)' 은 ‘'f'’ 나 ‘'F'’ 를 앞에 붙인 문자열 리터럴입니다.  이 문자
열은 치환 필드를 포함할 수 있는데, 중괄호 ‘{}’ 로 구분되는 표현식입니다.
다른 문자열 리터럴이 항상 상숫값을 갖지만, 포맷 문자열 리터럴은 실행시간
에 계산되는 표현식입니다.

이스케이프 시퀀스는 일반 문자열 리터럴처럼 디코딩됩니다 (동시에 날 문자
열인 경우는 예외입니다).  디코딩 후에 문자열의 내용은 다음과 같은 문법을
따릅니다:

     f_string          ::= (*note literal_char: 1ec5. | "{{" | "}}" | *note replacement_field: 1ec6.)*
     replacement_field ::= "{" *note f_expression: 1ec7. ["="] ["!" *note conversion: 1ec8.] [":" *note format_spec: 1ec9.] "}"
     f_expression      ::= (*note conditional_expression: 1eca. | "*" *note or_expr: 1ecb.)
                           ("," *note conditional_expression: 1eca. | "," "*" *note or_expr: 1ecb.)* [","]
                           | *note yield_expression: 1ecc.
     conversion        ::= "s" | "r" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= (*note literal_char: 1ec5. | *note replacement_field: 1ec6.)*
     literal_char      ::= <any code point except "{", "}" or NULL>

중괄호 바깥 부분은 일반 리터럴처럼 취급되는데, 이중 중괄호 ‘'{{'’ 나
‘'}}'’ 가 대응하는 단일 중괄호로 치환된다는 점만 예외입니다.  하나의 여
는 중괄호 ‘'{'’ 는 치환 필드를 시작시키는데, 파이썬 표현식이 뒤따릅니다.
평가 후 표현식 텍스트와 해당 값을 모두 표시하려면 (디버깅에 유용합니다),
표현식 뒤에 등호 ‘'='’를 추가할 수 있습니다.  느낌표 ‘'!'’ 로 시작하는,
변환(conversion) 필드가 뒤따를 수 있습니다.  포맷 지정자(format
specifier)도 덧붙일 수 있는데, 콜론 ‘':'’ 으로 시작합니다.  치환 필드는
닫는 중괄호 ‘'}'’ 로 끝납니다.

포맷 문자열 리터럴의 표현식은 괄호로 둘러싸인 일반적인 파이썬 표현식으로
취급되는데, 몇 가지 예외가 있습니다.  빈 표현식은 허락되지 않고, *note
lambda: 128c.와 대입 표현식 ‘:=’ 은 모두 명시적인 괄호로 둘러싸야 합니다
.  각 표현식은 포맷 문자열 리터럴이 등장한 지점의 문맥에서 왼쪽에서 오른
쪽으로 계산됩니다.  치환 표현식은 단일 따옴표와 삼중 따옴표로 둘러싸인 포
맷 문자열 리터럴 모두에 개행문자를 포함할 수 있으며 주석도 포함할 수 있
습니다.  치환 필드 내에서 ‘#’ 뒤에 오는 모든 내용은 주석으로 처리됩니다
(닫는 중괄호와 따옴표 조차 그렇습니다).  이 경우 치환 필드는 다른 줄에서
닫혀야 합니다.

     >>> f"abc{a # This is a comment }"
     ... + 3}"
     'abc5'

버전 3.7에서 변경: 파이썬 3.7 이전에는, 구현 문제로 인해 포맷 문자열 리
터럴의 표현식에서 *note await: 1b9. 표현식과 *note async for: aa7. 절을
포함하는 컴프리헨션은 유효하지 않았습니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Prior to Python 3.12, comments were not allowed
inside f-string replacement fields.

등호 기호 ‘'='’이 제공되면, 출력에는 표현식 텍스트, ‘'='’ 및 평가된 값이
포함됩니다.  여는 중괄호 ‘'{'’ 뒤, 표현식 내, ‘'='’ 뒤의 스페이스는 모두
출력에 유지됩니다.  기본적으로, ‘'='’은 포맷 지정자가 없는 한 표현식의
*note repr(): 7f7.을 제공합니다.  포맷이 지정되면 변환 ‘'!r'’이 선언되지
않는 한 기본적으로 표현식의 *note str(): 445.이 사용됩니다.

Added in version 3.8: 등호 기호 ‘'='’.

변환(conversion)이 지정되면, 표현식의 결과가 포매팅 전에 변환됩니다.  변
환 ‘'!s'’ 는 결과에 *note str(): 445. 을 호출하고, ‘'!r'’ 은 *note
repr(): 7f7. 을 호출하고, ‘'!a'’ 은 *note ascii(): 13af. 를 호출합니다.

결과는 *note format(): 619. 프로토콜로 포매팅합니다.  포맷 지정자는 표현
식이나 변환 결과의 *note __format__(): 618. 메서드 로 전달됩니다.  포맷
지정자가 생략되면 빈 문자열이 전달됩니다.  이제 포맷된 결과가 최종 문자
열에 삽입됩니다.

최상위 포맷 지정자는 중첩된 치환 필드들을 포함할 수 있습니다.  이 중첩된
필드들은 그들 자신의 변환 필드와 *note 포맷 지정자: 1e8.를 포함할 수 있
지만, 깊이 중첩된 치환 필드들을 포함할 수는 없습니다.  *note 포맷 지정자
간이 언어: 1e8.는 *note str.format(): 61b. 메서드에서 사용되는 것과 같습
니다.

포맷 문자열 리터럴을 이어붙일 수는 있지만, 치환 필드가 여러 리터럴로 쪼
개질 수는 없습니다.

포맷 문자열 리터럴의 예를 들면:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name!r}."
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> f"He said his name is {repr(name)}."  # repr() 은 !r 과 같습니다
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # 중첩된 필드
     'result:      12.35'
     >>> today = datetime(year=2017, month=1, day=27)
     >>> f"{today:%B %d, %Y}"  # 날짜 포맷 지정자 사용
     'January 27, 2017'
     >>> f"{today=:%B %d, %Y}" # 날짜 포맷 지정자와 디버깅 사용
     'today=January 27, 2017'
     >>> number = 1024
     >>> f"{number:#0x}"  # 정수 포맷 지정자 사용
     '0x400'
     >>> foo = "bar"
     >>> f"{ foo = }" # 공백을 보존합니다
     " foo = 'bar'"
     >>> line = "The mill's closed"
     >>> f"{line = }"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed"'
     >>> f"{line = :20}"
     "line = The mill's closed   "
     >>> f"{line = !r:20}"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed" '

Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is
permitted:

     >>> a = dict(x=2)
     >>> f"abc {a["x"]} def"
     'abc 2 def'

버전 3.12에서 변경: Prior to Python 3.12, reuse of the same quoting type
of the outer f-string inside a replacement field was not possible.

Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the
same way as in any other context:

     >>> a = ["a", "b", "c"]
     >>> print(f"List a contains:\n{"\n".join(a)}")
     List a contains:
     a
     b
     c

버전 3.12에서 변경: Prior to Python 3.12, backslashes were not permitted
inside an f-string replacement field.

포맷 문자열 리터럴은 독스트링(docstring)으로 사용될 수 없습니다.  표현식
이 전혀 없더라도 마찬가집니다.

     >>> def foo():
     ...     f"Not a docstring"
     ...
     >>> foo.__doc__ is None
     True

포맷 문자열 리터럴 추가에 대한 제안은 PEP 498(1) 을 참조하고, 관련된 포
맷 문자열 메커니즘을 사용하는 *note str.format(): 61b. 도 살펴보는 것이
좋습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 리터럴,  Next: 정수 리터럴,  Prev: 포맷 문자열 리터럴<2>,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.5 숫자 리터럴
...................

숫자 리터럴에는 세 가지 종류가 있습니다: 정수, 실수, 허수.  복소수 리터
럴 같은 것은 없습니다 (복소수는 실수와 허수를 더해서 만들어집니다.)

숫자 리터럴이 부호를 포함하지 않는 것에 주의해야 합니다; ‘-1’ 과 같은 구
문은 일 항 연산자 ‘‘-’’ 과 리터럴 ‘1’ 로 구성된 표현식입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정수 리터럴,  Next: 실수 리터럴,  Prev: 숫자 리터럴,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.6 정수 리터럴
...................

정수 리터럴은 다음과 같은 어휘 정의로 표현됩니다:

     integer      ::= *note decinteger: 1ed2. | *note bininteger: 1ed3. | *note octinteger: 1ed4. | *note hexinteger: 1ed5.
     decinteger   ::= *note nonzerodigit: 1ed6. (["_"] *note digit: 1ed7.)* | "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
     bininteger   ::= "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] *note bindigit: 1ed8.)+
     octinteger   ::= "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] *note octdigit: 1ed9.)+
     hexinteger   ::= "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] *note hexdigit: 1eda.)+
     nonzerodigit ::= "1"..."9"
     digit        ::= "0"..."9"
     bindigit     ::= "0" | "1"
     octdigit     ::= "0"..."7"
     hexdigit     ::= *note digit: 1ed7. | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"

가용한 메모리에 저장될 수 있는지와는 별개로 정수 리터럴의 길이에 제한은
없습니다.

밑줄은 리터럴의 숫자 값을 결정할 때 고려되지 않습니다.  가독성을 높이기
위해 숫자들을 무리 지을 때 쓸모가 있습니다.  밑줄은 숫자 사이나 ‘0x’ 와
같은 진수 지정자(base specifier) 다음에 나올 수 있는데, 한 번에 하나만 사
용될 수 있습니다.

0 이 아닌 10진수가 0으로 시작할 수 없음에 주의해야 합니다.  3.0 버전 이
전의 파이썬에서 사용한 C 스타일의 8진수 리터럴과 혼동되는 것을 막기 위함
입니다.

정수 리터럴의 예를 들면:

     7     2147483647                        0o177    0b100110111
     3     79228162514264337593543950336     0o377    0xdeadbeef
           100_000_000_000                   0b_1110_0101

버전 3.6에서 변경: 리터럴에서 숫자들의 그룹을 표현할 목적으로 밑줄을 허
락합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 실수 리터럴,  Next: 허수 리터럴,  Prev: 정수 리터럴,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.7 실수 리터럴
...................

실수 리터럴은 다음과 같은 어휘 정의로 표현됩니다:

     floatnumber   ::= *note pointfloat: 1ede. | *note exponentfloat: 1edf.
     pointfloat    ::= [*note digitpart: 1ee0.] *note fraction: 1ee1. | *note digitpart: 1ee0. "."
     exponentfloat ::= (*note digitpart: 1ee0. | *note pointfloat: 1ede.) *note exponent: 1ee2.
     digitpart     ::= *note digit: 1ed7. (["_"] *note digit: 1ed7.)*
     fraction      ::= "." *note digitpart: 1ee0.
     exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] *note digitpart: 1ee0.

정수부와 지수부는 항상 10진법으로 해석된다는 것에 주의해야 합니다.  예를
들어, ‘077e010’ 는 올바른 표현이고, ‘77e10’ 과 같은 숫자를 표현합니다.  실
수 리터럴의 허락된 범위는 구현 세부 사항입니다.  정수 리터럴에서와 마찬
가지로 밑줄로 숫자들의 묶음을 만드는 것도 지원됩니다.

실수 리터럴의 몇 가지 예를 듭니다:

     3.14    10.    .001    1e100    3.14e-10    0e0    3.14_15_93

버전 3.6에서 변경: 리터럴에서 숫자들의 그룹을 표현할 목적으로 밑줄을 허
락합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 허수 리터럴,  Prev: 실수 리터럴,  Up: 리터럴

4.2.4.8 허수 리터럴
...................

허수 리터럴은 다음과 같은 어휘 정의로 표현됩니다:

     imagnumber ::= (*note floatnumber: 1edd. | *note digitpart: 1ee0.) ("j" | "J")

허수 리터럴은 실수부가 0.0인 복소수를 만듭니다.  복소수는 실수와 같은 범
위 제약이 적용되는 한 쌍의 실수로 표현됩니다.  0이 아닌 실수부를 갖는 복
소수를 만들려면, 실수를 더하면 됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘(3+4j)’.  허수 리터
럴의 몇 가지 예를 듭니다:

     3.14j   10.j    10j     .001j   1e100j   3.14e-10j   3.14_15_93j


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자,  Next: 구분자,  Prev: 리터럴,  Up: 어휘 분석

4.2.5 연산자
------------

다음과 같은 토큰들은 연산자입니다:

     +       -       *       **      /       //      %      @
     <<      >>      &       |       ^       ~       :=
     <       >       <=      >=      ==      !=


File: python.info,  Node: 구분자,  Prev: 연산자,  Up: 어휘 분석

4.2.6 구분자
------------

다음 토큰들은 문법에서 구분자(delimiter)로 기능합니다:

     (       )       [       ]       {       }
     ,       :       !       .       ;       @       =
     ->      +=      -=      *=      /=      //=     %=
     @=      &=      |=      ^=      >>=     <<=     **=

마침표는 실수와 허수 리터럴에서도 등장할 수 있습니다.  연속된 마침표 세
개는 생략부호 리터럴(ellipsis literal)이라는 특별한 의미가 있습니다.  목
록 후반의 증분 대입 연산자(augmented assignment operator)들은 어휘적으로
는 구분자로 기능하지만, 동시에 연산을 수행합니다.

다음의 인쇄되는 ASCII 문자들은 다른 토큰들 일부로서 특별한 의미가 있거나
, 그렇지 않으면 어휘 분석기에 유의미합니다:

     '       "       #       \

다음의 인쇄되는 ASCII 문자들은 파이썬에서 사용되지 않습니다.  문자열 리
터럴과 주석 이외의 곳에서 사용되는 것은 조건 없는 에러입니다:

     $       ?       `


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 모델,  Next: 실행 모델,  Prev: 어휘 분석,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.3 데이터 모델
===============

* Menu:

* 객체, 값, 형: 객체 값 형.
* 표준형 계층::
* 특수 메서드 이름들::
* 코루틴(Coroutines): 코루틴 Coroutines.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 값 형,  Next: 표준형 계층,  Up: 데이터 모델

4.3.1 객체, 값, 형
------------------

'객체 (Objects)'는 파이썬이 데이터(data)를 추상화한 것(abstraction)입니
다.  파이썬 프로그램의 모든 데이터는 객체나 객체 간의 관계로 표현됩니다.
(폰 노이만(Von Neumann)의 “프로그램 내장식 컴퓨터(stored program
computer)” 모델을 따르고, 또 그 관점에서 코드 역시 객체로 표현됩니다.)

Every object has an identity, a type and a value.  An object’s
'identity' never changes once it has been created; you may think of it
as the object’s address in memory.  The *note is: 2ed. operator compares
the identity of two objects; the *note id(): 13eb. function returns an
integer representing its identity.

CPython 의 경우, ‘id(x)’ 는 ‘x’ 가 저장된 메모리의 주소입니다.

객체의 형은 객체가 지원하는 연산들을 정의하고 (예를 들어, “길이를 갖고 있
나?”) 그 형의 객체들이 가질 수 있는 가능한 값들을 정의합니다.  *note
type(): d45. 함수는 객체의 형(이것 역시 객체다)을 돌려줍니다.  아이덴티
티와 마찬가지로, 객체의 '형 (type)' 역시 변경되지 않습니다.  (1)

어떤 객체들의 '값' 은 변경할 수 있습니다.  값을 변경할 수 있는 객체들을
'가변(mutable)' 이라고 합니다.  일단 만들어진 후에 값을 변경할 수 없는 객
체들을 '불변(immutable)' 이라고 합니다.  (가변 객체에 대한 참조를 저장하
고 있는 불변 컨테이너의 값은 가변 객체의 값이 변할 때 변경된다고 볼 수도
있습니다; 하지만 저장하고 있는 객체들의 집합이 바뀔 수 없으므로 컨테이너
는 여전히 불변이라고 여겨집니다.  따라서 불변성은 엄밀하게는 변경 불가능
한 값을 갖는 것과는 다릅니다.  좀 더 미묘합니다.)  객체의 가변성
(mutability)은 그것의 형에 의해 결정됩니다; 예를 들어 숫자, 문자열, 튜플
(tuple)은 불변이지만, 딕셔너리(dictionary) 와 리스트(list)는 가변입니다.

객체는 결코 명시적으로 파괴되지 않습니다; 더 참조되지 않을 때
(unreachable) 가비지 수거(garbage collect)됩니다.  구현이 가비지 수거를
지연시키거나 아예 생략하는 것이 허락됩니다 — 아직 참조되는 객체들을 수거
하지 않는 이상 가비지 수거가 어떤 식으로 구현되는지는 구현의 품질 문제입
니다.

CPython 은 현재 참조 횟수 계산(reference-counting) 방식을 사용하는데, (선
택 사항으로) 순환적으로 연결된 가비지의 지연된 감지가 추가됩니다.  이 방
법으로 대부분 객체를 참조가 제거되자마자 수거할 수 있습니다.  하지만 순
환 참조가 있는 가비지들을 수거한다는 보장은 없습니다.  순환적 가비지 수
거의 제어에 관한 정보는 *note gc: 60. 모듈 문서를 참조하면 됩니다.  다른
구현들은 다른 식으로 동작하고, CPython 도 변경될 수 있습니다.  참조가 제
거될 때 즉각적으로 파이널리제이션(finalization)되는 것에 의존하지 말아야
합니다 (그래서 항상 파일을 명시적으로 닫아주어야 합니다).

Note that the use of the implementation’s tracing or debugging
facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable.
Also note that catching an exception with a *note try: 6e2.…*note
except: 18b. statement may keep objects alive.

Some objects contain references to “external” resources such as open
files or windows.  It is understood that these resources are freed when
the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not
guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to
release the external resource, usually a ‘close()’ method.  Programs are
strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects.  The *note try:
6e2.…*note finally: 9c7. statement and the *note with: 5cc. statement
provide convenient ways to do this.

어떤 객체들은 다른 객체에 대한 참조를 포함하고 있습니다.  이런 것들을 '컨
테이너(container)' 라고 부릅니다.  튜플, 리스트, 딕셔너리등이 컨테이너의
예입니다.  이 참조들은 컨테이너의 값의 일부입니다.  대부분은, 우리가 컨
테이너의 값을 논할 때는, 들어있는 객체들의 아이덴티티 보다는 값을 따집니
다.  하지만, 컨테이너의 가변성에 대해 논할 때는 직접 가진 객체들의 아이
덴티티만을 따집니다.  그래서, (튜플 같은) 불변 컨테이너가 가변 객체로의
참조를 하고 있다면, 그 가변 객체가 변경되면 컨테이너의 값도 변경됩니다.

Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior.  Even the importance
of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types,
operations that compute new values may actually return a reference to
any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable
objects this is not allowed.  For example, after ‘a = 1; b = 1’, 'a' and
'b' may or may not refer to the same object with the value one,
depending on the implementation.  This is because *note int: 257. is an
immutable type, so the reference to ‘1’ can be reused.  This behaviour
depends on the implementation used, so should not be relied upon, but is
something to be aware of when making use of object identity tests.
However, after ‘c = []; d = []’, 'c' and 'd' are guaranteed to refer to
two different, unique, newly created empty lists.  (Note that ‘e = f =
[]’ assigns the 'same' object to both 'e' and 'f'.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 어떤 제한된 조건으로, 어떤 경우에 객체의 형을 변경하는 것이 '가능
합니다'.  하지만 잘못 다뤄지면 아주 괴상한 결과로 이어질 수 있으므로 일
반적으로 좋은 생각이 아닙니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 표준형 계층,  Next: 특수 메서드 이름들,  Prev: 객체 값 형,  Up: 데이터 모델

4.3.2 표준형 계층
-----------------

아래에 파이썬에 내장된 형들의 목록이 있습니다.  (구현에 따라 C 나 자바나
다른 언어로 작성된) 확장 모듈들은 추가의 형을 정의할 수 있습니다.  파이
썬의 미래 버전 역시 형 계층에 형을 더할 수 있는데 (예를 들어, 유리수, 효
율적으로 저장된 정수 배열 등등), 표준 라이브러리를 통해 추가될 가능성이
더 크기는 합니다.

아래에 나오는 몇몇 형에 대한 설명은 ‘특수 어트리뷰트(special attribute)’
를 나열하는 문단을 포함합니다.  이것들은 구현에 접근할 방법을 제공하는데
, 일반적인 사용을 위한 것이 아닙니다.  정의는 앞으로 변경될 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* 시퀀스들::
* 집합 형들(Set types): 집합 형들 Set types.
* 매핑(Mappings): 매핑 Mappings.
* 콜러블(Callable types): 콜러블 Callable types.
* 모듈(Modules): 모듈 Modules.
* 사용자 정의 클래스(Custom classes): 사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
* 클래스 인스턴스(Class instances): 클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
* I/O 객체 (파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다): I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
* 내부 형(Internal types): 내부 형 Internal types.


File: python.info,  Node: None,  Next: NotImplemented,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.1 None
............

이 형은 하나의 값만을 갖습니다.  이 값을 갖는 하나의 객체가 존재합니다.
이 객체에는 내장된 이름 ‘None’ 을 통해 접근합니다.  여러 가지 상황에서 값
의 부재를 알리는 데 사용됩니다.  예를 들어, 명시적으로 뭔가를 돌려주지 않
는 함수의 반환 값입니다.  논리값은 거짓입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented,  Next: Ellipsis,  Prev: None,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.2 NotImplemented
......................

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name *note NotImplemented:
7cb.  Numeric methods and rich comparison methods should return this
value if they do not implement the operation for the operands provided.
(The interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other
fallback, depending on the operator.)  It should not be evaluated in a
boolean context.

더 자세한 내용은 *note 산술 연산 구현: 1ef2. 을 참고하십시오.

버전 3.9에서 변경: Evaluating *note NotImplemented: 7cb. in a boolean
context is deprecated.  While it currently evaluates as true, it will
emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  It will raise a *note TypeError:
532. in a future version of Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis,  Next: numbers Number,  Prev: NotImplemented,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.3 Ellipsis
................

이 형은 하나의 값만을 갖습니다.  이 값을 갖는 하나의 객체가 존재합니다.
이 객체에는 리터럴 ‘...’ 이나 내장된 이름 ‘Ellipsis’ 을 통해 접근합니다.
논리값은 참입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Number,  Next: 시퀀스들,  Prev: Ellipsis,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.4 ‘numbers.Number’
........................

이것들은 숫자 리터럴에 의해 만들어지고, 산술 연산과 내장 산술 함수들이 결
과로 돌려줍니다.  숫자 객체는 불변입니다; 한 번 값이 만들어지면 절대 변
하지 않습니다.  파이썬의 숫자는 당연히 수학적인 숫자들과 밀접하게 관련되
어 있습니다, 하지만 컴퓨터의 숫자 표현상의 제약을 받고 있습니다.

The string representations of the numeric classes, computed by *note
__repr__(): 616. and *note __str__(): 617, have the following
properties:

   * 클래스 생성자에 전달될 때 원래 숫자 값을 가진 객체를 생성하는 유효
     한 숫자 리터럴 입니다.

   * 가능하면, 표현은 10진법입니다.

   * 소수점 앞의 단일 0을 제외하고, 선행 0은 표시되지 않습니다.

   * 소수점 뒤의 단일 0을 제외하고, 후행 0은 표시되지 않습니다.

   * 부호는 숫자가 음수일 때만 표시됩니다.

Python distinguishes between integers, floating-point numbers, and
complex numbers:

* Menu:

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Integral,  Next: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.5 ‘numbers.Integral’
..........................

이것들은 수학적인 정수 집합(양과 음)에 속하는 요소들을 나타냅니다.

     참고: 
     정수 표현 규칙은 음수가 포함된 시프트와 마스크 연산에 가장 의미 있
     는 해석을 제공하기 위한 것입니다.

두 가지 종류의 정수가 있습니다:

정수 (*note int: 257.)

     이것은 (가상) 메모리가 허락하는 한, 제약 없는 범위의 숫자를 표현합
     니다.  시프트(shift)와 마스크(mask) 연산이 목적일 때는 이진 표현이
     가정되고, 음수는 일종의 2의 보수(2’s complement)로 표현되는데, 부호
     비트가 왼쪽으로 무한히 확장된 것과 같은 효과를 줍니다.

불린 (*note bool: 461.)

     이것은 논리값 거짓과 참을 나타냅니다.  ‘False’ 와 ‘True’ 두 객체만
     불린 형 객체입니다.  불린 형은 int 형의 자식형(subtype)이고, 대부분
     상황에서 각기 0과1처럼 동작합니다.  예외는 문자열로 변환되는 경우인
     데, 각기 문자열 ‘"False"’ 와 ‘"True"’ 가 반환됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Real float,  Next: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Integral,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.6 ‘numbers.Real’ (‘float’)
................................

These represent machine-level double precision floating-point numbers.
You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or
Java implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow.
Python does not support single-precision floating-point numbers; the
savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for
using these are dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so
there is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of
floating-point numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.7 ‘numbers.Complex’ (‘complex’)
.....................................

These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double
precision floating-point numbers.  The same caveats apply as for
floating-point numbers.  The real and imaginary parts of a complex
number ‘z’ can be retrieved through the read-only attributes ‘z.real’
and ‘z.imag’.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스들,  Next: 집합 형들 Set types,  Prev: numbers Number,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.8 시퀀스들
................

These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers.
The built-in function *note len(): 628. returns the number of items of a
sequence.  When the length of a sequence is 'n', the index set contains
the numbers 0, 1, …, 'n'-1.  Item 'i' of sequence 'a' is selected by
‘a[i]’.  Some sequences, including built-in sequences, interpret
negative subscripts by adding the sequence length.  For example, ‘a[-2]’
equals ‘a[n-2]’, the second to last item of sequence a with length ‘n’.

Sequences also support slicing: ‘a[i:j]’ selects all items with index
'k' such that 'i' ‘<=’ 'k' ‘<’ 'j'.  When used as an expression, a slice
is a sequence of the same type.  The comment above about negative
indexes also applies to negative slice positions.

어떤 시퀀스는 세 번째 “스텝(step)” 매개변수를 사용하는 “확장 슬라이싱
(extended slicing)”도 지원합니다: ‘a[i:j:k]’ 는 ‘x = i + n*k’, 'n' ‘>=’
‘0’, 'i' ‘<=’ 'x' ‘<’ 'j' 를 만족하는 모든 항목 'x' 를 선택합니다.

시퀀스는 불변성에 따라 구분됩니다

* Menu:

* 불변 시퀀스::
* 가변 시퀀스::


File: python.info,  Node: 불변 시퀀스,  Next: 가변 시퀀스,  Up: 시퀀스들

4.3.2.9 불변 시퀀스
...................

불변 시퀀스 형의 객체는 일단 만들어진 후에는 변경될 수 없습니다.  (만약
다른 객체로의 참조를 포함하면, 그 객체는 가변일 수 있고, 변경될 수 있습
니다; 하지만, 불변 객체로부터 참조되는 객체의 집합 자체는 변경될 수 없습
니다.)

다음과 같은 형들은 불변 시퀀스입니다:

문자열(Strings)

     A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code
     points.  All the code points in the range ‘U+0000 - U+10FFFF’ can
     be represented in a string.  Python doesn’t have a char type;
     instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string
     object with length ‘1’.  The built-in function *note ord(): 1efa.
     converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’; *note chr(): 1679. converts an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’ to the corresponding length ‘1’ string object.
     *note str.encode(): 8d2. can be used to convert a *note str: 445.
     to *note bytes: 1c2. using the given text encoding, and *note
     bytes.decode(): 8d3. can be used to achieve the opposite.

튜플(Tuples)

     튜플의 항목은 임의의 파이썬 객체입니다.  두 개 이상의 항목으로 구성
     되는 튜플은 콤마로 분리된 표현식의 목록으로 만들 수 있습니다.  하나
     의 항목으로 구성된 튜플(싱글턴,singleton)은 표현식에 콤마를 붙여서
     만들 수 있습니다(괄호로 표현식을 묶을 수 있으므로, 표현식 만으로는
     튜플을 만들지 않습니다).  빈 튜플은 한 쌍의 빈 괄호로 만들 수 있습
     니다.

바이트열(Bytes)

     A bytes object is an immutable array.  The items are 8-bit bytes,
     represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  Bytes literals
     (like ‘b'abc'’) and the built-in *note bytes(): 1c2. constructor
     can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes objects can be
     decoded to strings via the *note decode(): 8d3. method.


File: python.info,  Node: 가변 시퀀스,  Prev: 불변 시퀀스,  Up: 시퀀스들

4.3.2.10 가변 시퀀스
....................

가변 시퀀스는 만들어진 후에 변경될 수 있습니다.  서브스크립션
(subscription)과 슬라이싱은 대입문과 *note del: 17ad. (삭제) 문의 대상으
로 사용될 수 있습니다.

     참고: 
     The *note collections: 1d. and *note array: 7. module provide
     additional examples of mutable sequence types.

현재 두 개의 내장 가변 시퀀스형이 있습니다:

리스트(Lists)

     리스트의 항목은 임의의 파이썬 객체입니다.  리스트는 콤마로 분리된 표
     현식을 대괄호 안에 넣어서 만들 수 있습니다.  (길이 0이나 1의 리스트
     를 만드는데 별도의 규칙이 필요 없습니다.)

바이트 배열(Byte Arrays)

     바이트 배열(bytearray) 객체는 가변 배열입니다.  내장 *note
     bytearray(): 538. 생성자로 만들어집니다.  가변이라는 것(그래서 해싱
     불가능하다는 것)을 제외하고, 바이트 배열은 불변 바이트열( *note
     bytes: 1c2.) 객체와 같은 인터페이스와 기능을 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 집합 형들 Set types,  Next: 매핑 Mappings,  Prev: 시퀀스들,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.11 집합 형들(Set types)
.............................

이것들은 중복 없는 불변 객체들의 순서 없고 유한한 집합을 나타냅니다.  인
덱싱할 수 없습니다.  하지만 이터레이트할 수 있고, 내장 함수 *note len():
628. 은 집합 안에 있는 항목들의 개수를 돌려줍니다.  집합의 일반적인 용도
는 빠른 멤버십 검사(fast membership testing), 시퀀스에서 중복된 항목 제
거, 교집합(intersection), 합집합(union), 차집합(difference), 대칭차집합
(symmetric difference)과 같은 집합 연산을 계산하는 것입니다.

집합의 원소들에는 딕셔너리 키와 같은 불변성 규칙이 적용됩니다.  숫자 형
의 경우는 숫자 비교에 관한 일반 원칙이 적용된다는 점에 주의해야 합니다:
만약 두 숫자가 같다고 비교되면(예를 들어, ‘1’ 과 ‘1.0’), 그중 하나만 집
합에 들어갈 수 있습니다.

현재 두 개의 내장 집합 형이 있습니다:

집합(Sets)

     이것들은 가변 집합을 나타냅니다.  내장 *note set(): 5d3. 생성자로 만
     들 수 있고, ‘add()’ 같은 메서드들을 사용해서 나중에 수정할 수 있습
     니다.

불변 집합(Frozen sets)

     이것들은 불변 집합을 나타냅니다.  내장 *note frozenset(): 5d4. 생성
     자로 만들 수 있습니다.  불변 집합(frozenset)은 불변이고 *note 해시
     가능: 60a. 하므로, 다른 집합의 원소나, 딕셔너리의 키로 사용될 수 있
     습니다.


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4.3.2.12 매핑(Mappings)
.......................

이것들은 임의의 인덱스 집합으로 인덱싱되는 객체들의 유한한 집합을 나타냅
니다.  인덱스 표기법(subscript notation) ‘a[k]’ 는 매핑 ‘a’ 에서 ‘k’ 로
인덱스 되는 항목을 선택합니다; 이것은 표현식에 사용될 수도 있고, 대입이
나 *note del: 17ad. 문장의 대상이 될 수도 있습니다.  내장 함수 *note
len(): 628. 은 매핑에 포함된 항목들의 개수를 돌려줍니다.

현재 한 개의 내장 매핑 형이 있습니다:

* Menu:

* 딕셔너리(Dictionaries): 딕셔너리 Dictionaries.


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 Dictionaries,  Up: 매핑 Mappings

4.3.2.13 딕셔너리(Dictionaries)
...............................

이것들은 거의 임의의 인덱스 집합으로 인덱싱되는 객체들의 유한한 집합을 나
타냅니다.  키로 사용할 수 없는 것들은 리스트, 딕셔너리나 그 외의 가변형
중에서 아이덴티티가 아니라 값으로 비교되는 것들뿐입니다.  딕셔너리의 효
율적인 구현이, 키의 해시값이 도중에 변경되지 않고 계속 같은 값으로 유지
되도록 요구하고 있기 때문입니다.  키로 사용되는 숫자 형의 경우는 숫자 비
교에 관한 일반 원칙이 적용됩니다: 만약 두 숫자가 같다고 비교되면(예를 들
어, ‘1’ 과 ‘1.0’), 둘 다 같은 딕셔너리 항목을 인덱싱하는데 사용될 수 있
습니다.

딕셔너리는 삽입 순서를 유지합니다, 키가 딕셔너리에 순차적으로 추가된 순
서와 같은 순서로 생성됨을 뜻합니다.  기존 키를 교체해도 순서는 변경되지
않지만, 키를 제거했다가 다시 삽입하면 이전 위치를 유지하는 대신 끝에 추
가됩니다.

Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ‘{}’ notation (see
section *note 딕셔너리 디스플레이: d7b.).

확장 모듈 *note dbm.ndbm: 34. 과 *note dbm.gnu: 33. 는 추가의 매핑 형을
제공하는데, *note collections: 1d. 모듈 역시 마찬가지입니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 딕셔너리는 3.6 이전의 파이썬 버전에서 삽입 순서를 유
지하지 않았습니다.  CPython 3.6에서, 삽입 순서가 유지되었지만, 그 시점에
는 언어 보증이 아니라 구현 세부 사항으로 간주하였습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜러블 Callable types,  Next: 모듈 Modules,  Prev: 매핑 Mappings,  Up: 표준형 계층

4.3.2.14 콜러블(Callable types)
...............................

이것들은 함수 호출 연산(*note 호출: d79. 섹션 참고)이 적용될 수 있는 형
들입니다:

* Menu:

* 사용자 정의 함수::
* 인스턴스 메서드(Instance methods): 인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
* 제너레이터 함수(Generator functions): 제너레이터 함수 Generator functions.
* 코루틴 함수(Coroutine functions): 코루틴 함수 Coroutine functions.
* 비동기 제너레이터 함수(Asynchronous generator functions): 비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions.
* 내장 함수(Built-in functions): 내장 함수 Built-in functions.
* 내장 메서드(Built-in methods): 내장 메서드 Built-in methods.
* 클래스(Classes): 클래스 Classes.
* 클래스 인스턴스(Class Instances): 클래스 인스턴스 Class Instances.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 함수,  Next: 인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.15 사용자 정의 함수
.........................

사용자 정의 함수 객체는 함수 정의를 통해 만들어집니다 (*note 함수 정의:
1c3e. 섹션 참고).  함수의 형식 매개변수(formal parameter) 목록과 같은 개
수의 항목을 포함하는 인자(argument) 목록으로 호출되어야 합니다.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes::
* Special writable attributes::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes,  Next: Special writable attributes,  Up: 사용자 정의 함수

4.3.2.16 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

어트리뷰트                                             의미
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__globals__                         A reference to the *note dictionary: 256. that holds
                                                       the function’s *note global variables: 1f02. – the
                                                       global namespace of the module in which the function
                                                       was defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__closure__                         ‘None’ or a *note tuple: 369. of cells that contain
                                                       bindings for the names specified in the
                                                       *note co_freevars: 1f03. attribute of the function’s
                                                       *note code object: 29a.
                                                       
                                                       셀 객체는 ‘cell_contents’ 어트리뷰트를 가지고 있습니
                                                       다.  셀의 값을 읽을 뿐만 아니라 값을 설정하는 데도 사
                                                       용할 수 있습니다.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special writable attributes,  Prev: Special read-only attributes,  Up: 사용자 정의 함수

4.3.2.17 Special writable attributes
....................................

Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:

어트리뷰트                                             의미
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__doc__                             The function’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       unavailable.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__name__                            The function’s name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: 105c.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__qualname__                        The function’s *note qualified name: 1948.  See
                                                       also: *note __qualname__ attributes: 105b.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.3.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__module__                          함수가 정의된 모듈의 이름 또는 (없는 경우) ‘None’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__defaults__                        A *note tuple: 369. containing default
                                                       *note parameter: 1f07. values for those parameters
                                                       that have defaults, or ‘None’ if no parameters have
                                                       a default value.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__code__                            The *note code object: 1d2. representing the
                                                       compiled function body.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__dict__                            The namespace supporting arbitrary function
                                                       attributes.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 556.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__annotations__                     A *note dictionary: 256. containing annotations of
                                                       *note parameters: 1f07.  The keys of the dictionary
                                                       are the parameter names, and ‘'return'’ for the
                                                       return annotation, if provided.  See also:
                                                       *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__kwdefaults__                      A *note dictionary: 256. containing defaults for
                                                       keyword-only *note parameters: 1f07.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: function.__type_params__                     A *note tuple: 369. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 2b3. of a
                                                       *note generic function: 44c.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.12.
                                                       

Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes,
which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions.
Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes.

'CPython 구현 상세:' CPython’s current implementation only supports
function attributes on user-defined functions.  Function attributes on
*note built-in functions: 1f09. may be supported in the future.

Additional information about a function’s definition can be retrieved
from its *note code object: 1d2. (accessible via the *note __code__:
29a. attribute).


File: python.info,  Node: 인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods,  Next: 제너레이터 함수 Generator functions,  Prev: 사용자 정의 함수,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.18 인스턴스 메서드(Instance methods)
..........................................

인스턴스 메서드는 클래스, 클래스 인스턴스와 모든 콜러블 객체 (보통 사용
자 정의 함수)을 결합합니다.

Special read-only attributes:

 -- 속성: method.__self__                              Refers to the class instance object to which the
                                                       method is *note bound: 1f0b.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: method.__func__                              Refers to the original *note function object: 299.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: method.__doc__                               The method’s documentation (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__doc__: 11c8.).  A
                                                       *note string: 445. if the original function had a
                                                       docstring, else ‘None’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: method.__name__                              The name of the method (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__name__: 12c4.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: method.__module__                            The name of the module the method was defined in, or
                                                       ‘None’ if unavailable.
                                                       

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function
attributes on the underlying *note function object: 299.

User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of
a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a
user-defined *note function object: 299. or a *note classmethod: 166.
object.  When an instance method object is created by retrieving a
user-defined *note function object: 299. from a class via one of its
instances, its *note __self__: 1391. attribute is the instance, and the
method object is said to be 'bound'.  The new method’s *note __func__:
12ec. attribute is the original function object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a *note
classmethod: 166. object from a class or instance, its *note __self__:
1391. attribute is the class itself, and its *note __func__: 12ec.
attribute is the function object underlying the class method.

When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (*note
__func__: 12ec.) is called, inserting the class instance (*note
__self__: 1391.) in front of the argument list.  For instance, when ‘C’
is a class which contains a definition for a function ‘f()’, and ‘x’ is
an instance of ‘C’, calling ‘x.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘C.f(x,
1)’.

When an instance method object is derived from a *note classmethod: 166.
object, the “class instance” stored in *note __self__: 1391. will
actually be the class itself, so that calling either ‘x.f(1)’ or
‘C.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘f(C,1)’ where ‘f’ is the underlying
function.

It is important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes
of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this 'only'
happens when the function is an attribute of the class.


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 함수 Generator functions,  Next: 코루틴 함수 Coroutine functions,  Prev: 인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.19 제너레이터 함수(Generator functions)
.............................................

A function or method which uses the *note yield: 9ca. statement (see
section *note yield 문: 9ca.) is called a 'generator function'.  Such a
function, when called, always returns an *note iterator: 1ac. object
which can be used to execute the body of the function: calling the
iterator’s *note iterator.__next__(): 12bd. method will cause the
function to execute until it provides a value using the ‘yield’
statement.  When the function executes a *note return: 9cb. statement or
falls off the end, a *note StopIteration: bf7. exception is raised and
the iterator will have reached the end of the set of values to be
returned.


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴 함수 Coroutine functions,  Next: 비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions,  Prev: 제너레이터 함수 Generator functions,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.20 코루틴 함수(Coroutine functions)
.........................................

*note async def: 5cb. 를 사용해서 정의되는 함수나 메서드를 '코루틴 함수
(coroutine function)' 라고 부릅니다.  이런 함수를 호출하면 *note 코루틴:
48b. 객체를 돌려줍니다.  *note await: 1b9. 표현식을 비롯해, *note async
with: 5cf. 와 *note async for: aa7. 문을 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
코루틴 객체(Coroutine Objects): 1f11. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions,  Next: 내장 함수 Built-in functions,  Prev: 코루틴 함수 Coroutine functions,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.21 비동기 제너레이터 함수(Asynchronous generator functions)
.................................................................

A function or method which is defined using *note async def: 5cb. and
which uses the *note yield: 9ca. statement is called a 'asynchronous
generator function'.  Such a function, when called, returns an *note
asynchronous iterator: 1ab. object which can be used in an *note async
for: aa7. statement to execute the body of the function.

Calling the asynchronous iterator’s *note aiterator.__anext__: 157b.
method will return an *note awaitable: 1ad. which when awaited will
execute until it provides a value using the *note yield: 9ca.
expression.  When the function executes an empty *note return: 9cb.
statement or falls off the end, a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34.
exception is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the
end of the set of values to be yielded.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 함수 Built-in functions,  Next: 내장 메서드 Built-in methods,  Prev: 비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.22 내장 함수(Built-in functions)
......................................

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.  Examples
of built-in functions are *note len(): 628. and *note math.sin(): 1484.
(*note math: 8e. is a standard built-in module).  The number and type of
the arguments are determined by the C function.  Special read-only
attributes:

   * ‘__doc__’ is the function’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if
     unavailable.  See *note function.__doc__: 11c8.

   * ‘__name__’ is the function’s name.  See *note function.__name__:
     12c4.

   * ‘__self__’ is set to ‘None’ (but see the next item).

   * ‘__module__’ is the name of the module the function was defined in
     or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See *note function.__module__: 1f06.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 메서드 Built-in methods,  Next: 클래스 Classes,  Prev: 내장 함수 Built-in functions,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.23 내장 메서드(Built-in methods)
......................................

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time
containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra
argument.  An example of a built-in method is ‘alist.append()’, assuming
'alist' is a list object.  In this case, the special read-only attribute
‘__self__’ is set to the object denoted by 'alist'.  (The attribute has
the same semantics as it does with *note other instance methods: 1391.)


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4.3.2.24 클래스(Classes)
........................

Classes are callable.  These objects normally act as factories for new
instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types
that override *note __new__(): 57b.  The arguments of the call are
passed to ‘__new__()’ and, in the typical case, to *note __init__():
6aa. to initialize the new instance.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 인스턴스 Class Instances,  Prev: 클래스 Classes,  Up: 콜러블 Callable types

4.3.2.25 클래스 인스턴스(Class Instances)
.........................................

Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a *note
__call__(): 553. method in their class.


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4.3.2.26 모듈(Modules)
......................

Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created
by the *note import system: 1f1b. as invoked either by the *note import:
5dc. statement, or by calling functions such as *note
importlib.import_module(): 511. and built-in *note __import__(): 8d1.  A
module object has a namespace implemented by a *note dictionary: 256.
object (this is the dictionary referenced by the *note __globals__:
12c3. attribute of functions defined in the module).  Attribute
references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘m.x’ is
equivalent to ‘m.__dict__["x"]’.  A module object does not contain the
code object used to initialize the module (since it isn’t needed once
the initialization is done).

어트리뷰트 대입은 모듈의 이름 공간 딕셔너리를 갱신합니다.  예를 들어,
‘m.x = 1’ 은 ‘m.__dict__["x"] = 1’ 과 같습니다.

* Menu:

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::


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4.3.2.27 Import-related attributes on module objects
....................................................

Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the *note
import system: 1f1b.  When a module is created using the machinery
associated with the import system, these attributes are filled in based
on the module’s *note spec: 1f1e, before the *note loader: 16b7.
executes and loads the module.

To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system, it’s
recommended to use *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e0e, which
will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values.
It’s also possible to use the *note types.ModuleType: e0f. constructor
to create modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as
most attributes must be manually set on the module object after it has
been created when using this approach.

     조심: With the exception of *note __name__: 1371, it is 'strongly'
     recommended that you rely on *note __spec__: 1f1f. and its
     attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes listed
     in this subsection.  Note that updating an attribute on ‘__spec__’
     will not update the corresponding attribute on the module itself:

          >>> import typing
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'typing')
          >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'spelling')
          >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

 -- 속성: module.__name__

     The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system.
     For a directly executed module, this will be set to ‘"__main__"’.

     This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the
     module.  It is expected to match the value of *note
     module.__spec__.name: 1f20.

 -- 속성: module.__spec__

     A record of the module’s import-system-related state.

     Set to the *note module spec: 1e6c. that was used when importing
     the module.  See *note 모듈 스펙: 1f21. for more details.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 속성: module.__package__

     The *note package: 1f22. a module belongs to.

     If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific
     package) then the attribute should be set to ‘''’ (the empty
     string).  Otherwise, it should be set to the name of the module’s
     package (which can be equal to *note module.__name__: 1371. if the
     module itself is a package).  See PEP 366(1) for further details.

     This attribute is used instead of *note __name__: 1371. to
     calculate explicit relative imports for main modules.  It defaults
     to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically using the *note
     types.ModuleType: e0f. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e0e. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note str: 445.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.parent: 2da. instead of ‘module.__package__’.
     *note __package__: 2d9. is now only used as a fallback if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not set, and this fallback path is deprecated.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’ for
     modules created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType: e0f.
     constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: The value of ‘__package__’ is expected to be the
     same as *note __spec__.parent: 2da.  *note __package__: 2d9. is now
     only used as a fallback during import resolution if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not defined.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note ImportWarning: 4f4. is raised if an
     import resolution falls back to ‘__package__’ instead of *note
     __spec__.parent: 2da.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. instead of
     *note ImportWarning: 4f4. when falling back to ‘__package__’ during
     import resolution.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by
     the import system or standard library.

 -- 속성: module.__loader__

     The *note loader: 16b7. object that the import machinery used to
     load the module.

     This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used
     for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting
     data associated with a loader.

     ‘__loader__’ defaults to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically
     using the *note types.ModuleType: e0f. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e0e. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note loader: 16b7. object.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.loader: 2e5. instead of ‘module.__loader__’.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’ for
     modules created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType: e0f.
     constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.16:
     Setting ‘__loader__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.16, ‘__loader__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     the standard library.

 -- 속성: module.__path__

     A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 4eb. of strings enumerating the
     locations where the package’s submodules will be found.
     Non-package modules should not have a ‘__path__’ attribute.  See
     *note 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트: 1f23. for more details.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations: 1f24. instead of
     ‘module.__path__’.

 -- 속성: module.__file__

 -- 속성: module.__cached__

     ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are both optional attributes that may
     or may not be set.  Both attributes should be a *note str: 445.
     when they are available.

     ‘__file__’ indicates the pathname of the file from which the module
     was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared
     library file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared
     library.  It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as
     C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the
     *note import system: 1f1b. may opt to leave it unset if it has no
     semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).

     If ‘__file__’ is set then the ‘__cached__’ attribute might also be
     set, which is the path to any compiled version of the code (for
     example, a byte-compiled file).  The file does not need to exist to
     set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the compiled
     file 'would' exist (see PEP 3147(2)).

     Note that ‘__cached__’ may be set even if ‘__file__’ is not set.
     However, that scenario is quite atypical.  Ultimately, the *note
     loader: 16b7. is what makes use of the module spec provided by the
     *note finder: 1f26. (from which ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are
     derived).  So if a loader can load from a cached module but
     otherwise does not load from a file, that atypical scenario may be
     appropriate.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.cached: 2d8. instead of ‘module.__cached__’.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.cached’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.15, ‘__cached__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


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4.3.2.28 Other writable attributes on module objects
....................................................

As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects
also have the following writable attributes:

 -- 속성: module.__doc__

     The module’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See
     also: *note __doc__ attributes: 925.

 -- 속성: module.__annotations__

     A dictionary containing *note variable annotations: d51. collected
     during module body execution.  For best practices on working with
     *note __annotations__: 1f28, please see *note Annotations Best
     Practices: 7d2.


File: python.info,  Node: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: 모듈 Modules

4.3.2.29 Module dictionaries
............................

Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:

 -- 속성: module.__dict__

     The module’s namespace as a dictionary object.  Uniquely among the
     attributes listed here, ‘__dict__’ cannot be accessed as a global
     variable from within a module; it can only be accessed as an
     attribute on module objects.

     CPython 이 모듈 딕셔너리를 비우는 방법 때문에, 딕셔너리에 대한 참조
     가 남아있더라도, 모듈이 스코프를 벗어나면 모듈 딕셔너리는 비워집니
     다.  이것을 피하려면, 딕셔너리를 복사하거나 딕셔너리를 직접 이용하
     는 동안은 모듈을 잡아두어야 합니다.


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4.3.2.30 사용자 정의 클래스(Custom classes)
...........................................

Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see
section *note 클래스 정의: 12c7.).  A class has a namespace implemented
by a dictionary object.  Class attribute references are translated to
lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘C.x’ is translated to
‘C.__dict__["x"]’ (although there are a number of hooks which allow for
other means of locating attributes).  When the attribute name is not
found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes.  This
search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which
behaves correctly even in the presence of ‘diamond’ inheritance
structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a
common ancestor.  Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be
found at *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1470.

When a class attribute reference (for class ‘C’, say) would yield a
class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object
whose *note __self__: 1391. attribute is ‘C’.  When it would yield a
*note staticmethod: 410. object, it is transformed into the object
wrapped by the static method object.  See section *note 디스크립터
구현하기: c4c. for another way in which attributes retrieved from a
class may differ from those actually contained in its *note __dict__:
556.

클래스 어트리뷰트 대입은 클래스의 딕셔너리를 갱신할 뿐, 어떤 경우도 부모
클래스의 딕셔너리를 건드리지는 않습니다.

클래스 객체는 클래스 인스턴스를 돌려주도록(아래를 보십시오) 호출될 수 있
습니다(위를 보십시오).

* Menu:

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes,  Next: Special methods,  Up: 사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes

4.3.2.31 Special attributes
...........................

어트리뷰트                                             의미
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__name__                                The class’s name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: 105c.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__qualname__                            The class’s *note qualified name: 1948.  See also:
                                                       *note __qualname__ attributes: 105b.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__module__                              The name of the module in which the class was
                                                       defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__dict__                                A *note mapping proxy: 467. providing a read-only
                                                       view of the class’s namespace.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 556.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__bases__                               A *note tuple: 369. containing the class’s bases.
                                                       In most cases, for a class defined as ‘class X(A, B,
                                                       C)’, ‘X.__bases__’ will be exactly equal to ‘(A, B,
                                                       C)’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__doc__                                 The class’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       undefined.  Not inherited by subclasses.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__annotations__                         A dictionary containing
                                                       *note variable annotations: d51. collected during
                                                       class body execution.  For best practices on working
                                                       with ‘__annotations__’, please see
                                                       *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.
                                                       
                                                            조심: Accessing the ‘__annotations__’ attribute
                                                            of a class object directly may yield incorrect
                                                            results in the presence of metaclasses.  In
                                                            addition, the attribute may not exist for some
                                                            classes.  Use
                                                            *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. to
                                                            retrieve class annotations safely.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__type_params__                         A *note tuple: 369. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 2b3. of a
                                                       *note generic class: 44b.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.12.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__static_attributes__                   A *note tuple: 369. containing names of attributes
                                                       of this class which are assigned through ‘self.X’
                                                       from any function in its body.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.13.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__firstlineno__                         The line number of the first line of the class
                                                       definition, including decorators.  Setting the
                                                       ‘__module__’ attribute removes the ‘__firstlineno__’
                                                       item from the type’s dictionary.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.13.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: type.__mro__                                 The *note tuple: 369. of classes that are considered
                                                       when looking for base classes during method
                                                       resolution.
                                                       


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4.3.2.32 Special methods
........................

In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python
classes also have the following two methods available:

 -- 메서드: type.mro ()

     This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the
     method resolution order for its instances.  It is called at class
     instantiation, and its result is stored in *note __mro__: 1f31.

 -- 메서드: type.__subclasses__ ()

     Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate
     subclasses.  This method returns a list of all those references
     still alive.  The list is in definition order.  Example:

          >>> class A: pass
          >>> class B(A): pass
          >>> A.__subclasses__()
          [<class 'B'>]


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4.3.2.33 클래스 인스턴스(Class instances)
.........................................

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).  A
class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the
first place in which attribute references are searched.  When an
attribute is not found there, and the instance’s class has an attribute
by that name, the search continues with the class attributes.  If a
class attribute is found that is a user-defined function object, it is
transformed into an instance method object whose *note __self__: 1391.
attribute is the instance.  Static method and class method objects are
also transformed; see above under “Classes”.  See section *note
디스크립터 구현하기: c4c. for another way in which attributes of a class
retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually stored
in the class’s *note __dict__: 556.  If no class attribute is found, and
the object’s class has a *note __getattr__(): 4cd. method, that is
called to satisfy the lookup.

Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance’s dictionary,
never a class’s dictionary.  If the class has a *note __setattr__():
1f35. or *note __delattr__(): 1f36. method, this is called instead of
updating the instance dictionary directly.

어떤 특별한 이름들의 메서드들을 가지면, 클래스 인스턴스는 숫자, 시퀀스,
매핑인 척할 수 있습니다.  *note 특수 메서드 이름들: c6b. 섹션을 보십시오
.

* Menu:

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.


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4.3.2.34 Special attributes
...........................

 -- 속성: object.__class__

     The class to which a class instance belongs.

 -- 속성: object.__dict__

     A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object’s
     (writable) attributes.  Not all instances have a ‘__dict__’
     attribute; see the section on *note __slots__: 1f38. for more
     details.


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4.3.2.35 I/O 객체 (파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다)
...................................................

*note 파일 객체: 11b2. 는 열린 파일을 나타냅니다.  파일 객체를 만드는 여
러 가지 단축법이 있습니다: *note open(): 515. 내장 함수, *note
os.popen(): a84, *note os.fdopen(): 1f3a. 과 소켓 객체의 *note
makefile(): 118f. 메서드 (그리고, 아마도 확장 모듈들이 제공하는 다른 함
수들이나 메서드들).

‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, ‘sys.stderr’ 는 인터프리터의 표준 입력, 출력,
에러 스트림으로 초기화된 파일 객체들입니다; 모두 텍스트 모드로 열려서
*note io.TextIOBase: 68f. 추상 클래스에 의해 정의된 인터페이스를 따릅니
다.


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4.3.2.36 내부 형(Internal types)
................................

인터프리터가 내부적으로 사용하는 몇몇 형들은 사용자에게 노출됩니다.  인
터프리터의 미래 버전에서 이들의 정의는 변경될 수 있지만, 완전함을 위해 여
기서 언급합니다.

* Menu:

* 코드 객체(Code objects): 코드 객체 Code objects.
* 프레임 객체(Frame objects): 프레임 객체 Frame objects.
* 트레이스백 객체(Traceback objects): 트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
* 슬라이스 객체(Slice objects): 슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
* 스태틱 메서드 객체(Static method objects): 스태틱 메서드 객체 Static method objects.
* 클래스 메서드 객체(Class method objects): 클래스 메서드 객체 Class method objects.


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4.3.2.37 코드 객체(Code objects)
................................

코드 객체는 '바이트로 컴파일된(byte-compiled)' 실행 가능한 파이썬 코드를
나타내는데, 그냥 *note 바이트 코드: 187. 라고도 부릅니다.  코드 객체와 함
수 객체 간에는 차이가 있습니다; 함수 객체는 함수의 전역 공간(globals) (함
수가 정의된 모듈)을 명시적으로 참조하고 있지만, 코드 객체는 어떤 문맥
(context)도 갖고 있지 않습니다; 또한 기본 인자값들이 함수 객체에 저장되
어 있지만 코드 객체에는 들어있지 않습니다 (실행 시간에 계산되는 값들을 나
타내기 때문입니다).  함수 객체와는 달리, 코드 객체는 불변이고 가변 객체
들에 대한 어떤 참조도 (직접 혹은 간접적으로도) 갖고 있지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>.
* Methods on code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes<2>,  Next: Methods on code objects,  Up: 코드 객체 Code objects

4.3.2.38 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

 -- 속성: codeobject.co_name                           The function name
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_qualname                       The fully qualified function name
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.11.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_argcount                       The total number of positional
                                                       *note parameters: 1f07. (including positional-only
                                                       parameters and parameters with default values) that
                                                       the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_posonlyargcount                The number of positional-only
                                                       *note parameters: 1f07. (including arguments with
                                                       default values) that the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount                 The number of keyword-only *note parameters: 1f07.
                                                       (including arguments with default values) that the
                                                       function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_nlocals                        The number of *note local variables: 1f02. used by
                                                       the function (including parameters)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_varnames                       A *note tuple: 369. containing the names of the
                                                       local variables in the function (starting with the
                                                       parameter names)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_cellvars                       A *note tuple: 369. containing the names of
                                                       *note local variables: 1f02. that are referenced
                                                       from at least one *note nested scope: 1f46. inside
                                                       the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_freevars                       A *note tuple: 369. containing the names of
                                                       *note free (closure) variables: 1f47. that a
                                                       *note nested scope: 1f46. references in an outer
                                                       scope.  See also *note function.__closure__: 12c0.
                                                       
                                                       Note: references to global and builtin names are
                                                       'not' included.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_code                           A string representing the sequence of
                                                       *note bytecode: 187. instructions in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_consts                         A *note tuple: 369. containing the literals used by
                                                       the *note bytecode: 187. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_names                          A *note tuple: 369. containing the names used by the
                                                       *note bytecode: 187. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_filename                       The name of the file from which the code was
                                                       compiled
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_firstlineno                    The line number of the first line of the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_lnotab                         A string encoding the mapping from
                                                       *note bytecode: 187. offsets to line numbers.  For
                                                       details, see the source code of the interpreter.
                                                       
                                                       버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: This attribute of code objects
                                                       is deprecated, and may be removed in Python 3.15.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_stacksize                      The required stack size of the code object
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: codeobject.co_flags                          An *note integer: 257. encoding a number of flags
                                                       for the interpreter.
                                                       

The following flag bits are defined for *note co_flags: 1f4c.: bit
‘0x04’ is set if the function uses the ‘*arguments’ syntax to accept an
arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit ‘0x08’ is set if the
function uses the ‘**keywords’ syntax to accept arbitrary keyword
arguments; bit ‘0x20’ is set if the function is a generator.  See *note
코드 객체 비트 플래그: 1f4d. for details on the semantics of each flags
that might be present.

Future feature declarations (for example, ‘from __future__ import
division’) also use bits in *note co_flags: 1f4c. to indicate whether a
code object was compiled with a particular feature enabled.  See *note
compiler_flag: 1f4e.

Other bits in *note co_flags: 1f4c. are reserved for internal use.

If a code object represents a function, the first item in *note
co_consts: 157c. is the documentation string of the function, or ‘None’
if undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods on code objects,  Prev: Special read-only attributes<2>,  Up: 코드 객체 Code objects

4.3.2.39 Methods on code objects
................................

 -- 메서드: codeobject.co_positions ()

     Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each *note
     bytecode: 187. instruction in the code object.

     The iterator returns *note tuple: 369.s containing the
     ‘(start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column)’.  The 'i-th'
     tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled
     to the 'i-th' code unit.  Column information is 0-indexed utf-8
     byte offsets on the given source line.

     This positional information can be missing.  A non-exhaustive lists
     of cases where this may happen:

        - Running the interpreter with *note -X: 176. ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Loading a pyc file compiled while using *note -X: 176.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Position tuples corresponding to artificial instructions.

        - Line and column numbers that can’t be represented due to
          implementation specific limitations.

     When this occurs, some or all of the tuple elements can be *note
     None: 66f.

     Added in version 3.11.

          참고: This feature requires storing column positions in code
          objects which may result in a small increase of disk usage of
          compiled Python files or interpreter memory usage.  To avoid
          storing the extra information and/or deactivate printing the
          extra traceback information, the *note -X: 176.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’ command line flag or the *note
          PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5b0. environment variable can be used.

 -- 메서드: codeobject.co_lines ()

     Returns an iterator that yields information about successive ranges
     of *note bytecode: 187.s.  Each item yielded is a ‘(start, end,
     lineno)’ *note tuple: 369.:

        * ‘start’ (an *note int: 257.) represents the offset (inclusive)
          of the start of the *note bytecode: 187. range

        * ‘end’ (an *note int: 257.) represents the offset (exclusive)
          of the end of the *note bytecode: 187. range

        * ‘lineno’ is an *note int: 257. representing the line number of
          the *note bytecode: 187. range, or ‘None’ if the bytecodes in
          the given range have no line number

     The items yielded will have the following properties:

        * The first range yielded will have a ‘start’ of 0.

        * The ‘(start, end)’ ranges will be non-decreasing and
          consecutive.  That is, for any pair of *note tuple: 369.s, the
          ‘start’ of the second will be equal to the ‘end’ of the first.

        * No range will be backwards: ‘end >= start’ for all triples.

        * The last *note tuple: 369. yielded will have ‘end’ equal to
          the size of the *note bytecode: 187.

     Zero-width ranges, where ‘start == end’, are allowed.  Zero-width
     ranges are used for lines that are present in the source code, but
     have been eliminated by the *note bytecode: 187. compiler.

     Added in version 3.10.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 626(1) - Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

          The PEP that introduced the ‘co_lines()’ method.

 -- 메서드: codeobject.replace (**kwargs)

     Return a copy of the code object with new values for the specified
     fields.

     Code objects are also supported by the generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 151.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: 프레임 객체 Frame objects,  Next: 트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects,  Prev: 코드 객체 Code objects,  Up: 내부 형 Internal types

4.3.2.40 프레임 객체(Frame objects)
...................................

Frame objects represent execution frames.  They may occur in *note
traceback objects: af0, and are also passed to registered trace
functions.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>.
* Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>.
* Frame object methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes<3>,  Next: Special writable attributes<2>,  Up: 프레임 객체 Frame objects

4.3.2.41 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

 -- 속성: frame.f_back                                 Points to the previous stack frame (towards the
                                                       caller), or ‘None’ if this is the bottom stack frame
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_code                                 The *note code object: 1d2. being executed in this
                                                       frame.  Accessing this attribute raises an
                                                       *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘object.__getattr__’
                                                       with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"f_code"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_locals                               The mapping used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note local variables: 1f02.  If the frame refers to
                                                       an *note optimized scope: 17e, this may return a
                                                       write-through proxy object.
                                                       
                                                       버전 3.13에서 변경: Return a proxy for optimized
                                                       scopes.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_globals                              The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note global variables: 1f02.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_builtins                             The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note built-in (intrinsic) names: 1f02.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_lasti                                The “precise instruction” of the frame object (this
                                                       is an index into the *note bytecode: 187. string of
                                                       the *note code object: 1d2.)
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special writable attributes<2>,  Next: Frame object methods,  Prev: Special read-only attributes<3>,  Up: 프레임 객체 Frame objects

4.3.2.42 Special writable attributes
....................................

 -- 속성: frame.f_trace                                If not ‘None’, this is a function called for various
                                                       events during code execution (this is used by
                                                       debuggers).  Normally an event is triggered for each
                                                       new source line (see *note f_trace_lines: bd8.).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_trace_lines                          Set this attribute to *note False: b34. to disable
                                                       triggering a tracing event for each source line.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_trace_opcodes                        Set this attribute to *note True: c0a. to allow
                                                       per-opcode events to be requested.  Note that this
                                                       may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if
                                                       exceptions raised by the trace function escape to
                                                       the function being traced.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: frame.f_lineno                               The current line number of the frame – writing to
                                                       this from within a trace function jumps to the given
                                                       line (only for the bottom-most frame).  A debugger
                                                       can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next
                                                       Statement) by writing to this attribute.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Frame object methods,  Prev: Special writable attributes<2>,  Up: 프레임 객체 Frame objects

4.3.2.43 Frame object methods
.............................

프레임 객체는 한가지 메서드를 지원합니다:

 -- 메서드: frame.clear ()

     This method clears all references to *note local variables: 1f02.
     held by the frame.  Also, if the frame belonged to a *note
     generator: 1057, the generator is finalized.  This helps break
     reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching
     an *note exception: 188a. and storing its *note traceback: af0. for
     later use).

     *note RuntimeError: 195. is raised if the frame is currently
     executing or suspended.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Attempting to clear a suspended frame raises
     *note RuntimeError: 195. (as has always been the case for executing
     frames).


File: python.info,  Node: 트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects,  Next: 슬라이스 객체 Slice objects,  Prev: 프레임 객체 Frame objects,  Up: 내부 형 Internal types

4.3.2.44 트레이스백 객체(Traceback objects)
...........................................

Traceback objects represent the stack trace of an *note exception: 1c92.
A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and
may also be explicitly created by calling *note types.TracebackType:
aef.

버전 3.7에서 변경: Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated
from Python code.

For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception
handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback
object is inserted in front of the current traceback.  When an exception
handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program.
(See section *note try 문: 6e2.)  It is accessible as the third item of
the tuple returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 684, and as the *note
__traceback__: 12b6. attribute of the caught exception.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is
written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the
interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user as
*note sys.last_traceback: 4bb.

For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the
traceback to determine how the *note tb_next: af1. attributes should be
linked to form a full stack trace.

Special read-only attributes:

 -- 속성: traceback.tb_frame                           Points to the execution *note frame: 6d9. of the
                                                       current level.
                                                       
                                                       Accessing this attribute raises an
                                                       *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘object.__getattr__’
                                                       with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"tb_frame"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: traceback.tb_lineno                          Gives the line number where the exception occurred
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: traceback.tb_lasti                           Indicates the “precise instruction”.
                                                       

The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from
the line number of its *note frame object: 6d9. if the exception
occurred in a *note try: 6e2. statement with no matching except clause
or with a *note finally: 9c7. clause.

 -- 속성: traceback.tb_next

     The special writable attribute ‘tb_next’ is the next level in the
     stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or
     ‘None’ if there is no next level.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: This attribute is now writable


File: python.info,  Node: 슬라이스 객체 Slice objects,  Next: 스태틱 메서드 객체 Static method objects,  Prev: 트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects,  Up: 내부 형 Internal types

4.3.2.45 슬라이스 객체(Slice objects)
.....................................

Slice objects are used to represent slices for *note __getitem__(): 283.
methods.  They are also created by the built-in *note slice(): 463.
function.

특수 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트들: *note start: 1f5e. 는 하한(lower bound) 입
니다; *note stop: 1f5f. 은 상한(upper bound) 입니다; *note step: 1f60. 은
스텝 값입니다; 각 값은 생략될 경우 ‘None’ 입니다.  이 어트리뷰트들은 임
의의 형이 될 수 있습니다.

슬라이스 객체는 하나의 메서드를 지원합니다.

 -- 메서드: slice.indices (self, length)

     이 메서드는 하나의 정수 인자 'length' 를 받아서 슬라이스 객체가 길
     이 'length' 인 시퀀스에 적용되었을 때 그 슬라이스에 대한 정보를 계
     산합니다.  세 개의 정수로 구성된 튜플을 돌려줍니다: 이것들은 각각
     'start' 와 'stop' 인덱스와, 'step' 또는 슬라이스의 스트라이드
     (stride) 길이입니다.  생략되었거나 범위를 벗어난 인덱스들은 일반적
     인 슬라이스와 같은 방법으로 다뤄집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스태틱 메서드 객체 Static method objects,  Next: 클래스 메서드 객체 Class method objects,  Prev: 슬라이스 객체 Slice objects,  Up: 내부 형 Internal types

4.3.2.46 스태틱 메서드 객체(Static method objects)
..................................................

Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of
function objects to method objects described above.  A static method
object is a wrapper around any other object, usually a user-defined
method object.  When a static method object is retrieved from a class or
a class instance, the object actually returned is the wrapped object,
which is not subject to any further transformation.  Static method
objects are also callable.  Static method objects are created by the
built-in *note staticmethod(): 410. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 메서드 객체 Class method objects,  Prev: 스태틱 메서드 객체 Static method objects,  Up: 내부 형 Internal types

4.3.2.47 클래스 메서드 객체(Class method objects)
.................................................

A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around
another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved
from classes and class instances.  The behaviour of class method objects
upon such retrieval is described above, under *note “instance methods”:
1cc6.  Class method objects are created by the built-in *note
classmethod(): 166. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 메서드 이름들,  Next: 코루틴 Coroutines,  Prev: 표준형 계층,  Up: 데이터 모델

4.3.3 특수 메서드 이름들
------------------------

A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special
syntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by
defining methods with special names.  This is Python’s approach to
'operator overloading', allowing classes to define their own behavior
with respect to language operators.  For instance, if a class defines a
method named *note __getitem__(): 283, and ‘x’ is an instance of this
class, then ‘x[i]’ is roughly equivalent to ‘type(x).__getitem__(x, i)’.
Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an operation raise an
exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically *note
AttributeError: 346. or *note TypeError: 532.).

Setting a special method to ‘None’ indicates that the corresponding
operation is not available.  For example, if a class sets *note
__iter__(): 1f64. to ‘None’, the class is not iterable, so calling *note
iter(): 7d0. on its instances will raise a *note TypeError: 532.
(without falling back to *note __getitem__(): 283.).  (1)

내장형을 흉내 내는 클래스를 구현할 때, 모방은 모형화하는 객체에 말이 되
는 수준까지만 구현하는 것이 중요합니다.  예를 들어, 어떤 시퀀스는 개별 항
목들을 꺼내는 것만으로도 잘 동작할 수 있습니다.  하지만 슬라이스를 꺼내
는 것은 말이 안 될 수 있습니다.  (이런 한가지 예는 W3C의 Document Object
Model의 ‘NodeList’ 인터페이스입니다.)

* Menu:

* 기본적인 커스터마이제이션::
* 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션::
* 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션::
* 인스턴스 및 서브 클래스 검사 커스터마이제이션::
* 제네릭 형 흉내 내기::
* 콜러블 객체 흉내 내기::
* 컨테이너형 흉내 내기::
* 숫자 형 흉내 내기::
* with 문 컨텍스트 관리자::
* Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching::
* Emulating buffer types::
* 특수 메서드 조회::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note __hash__(): af8, *note __iter__(): 1f64, *note
__reversed__(): 1f65, *note __contains__(): 1f66, *note
__class_getitem__(): 734. and *note __fspath__(): c4f. methods have
special handling for this.  Others will still raise a *note TypeError:
532, but may do so by relying on the behavior that ‘None’ is not
callable.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본적인 커스터마이제이션,  Next: 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.1 기본적인 커스터마이제이션
.................................

 -- 메서드: object.__new__ (cls[, ...])

     클래스 'cls' 의 새 인스턴스를 만들기 위해 호출됩니다.  *note
     __new__(): 57b. 는 스태틱 메서드입니다 (그렇게 선언하지 않아도 되는
     특별한 경우입니다)인데, 첫 번째 인자로 만들려고 하는 인스턴스의 클
     래스가 전달됩니다.  나머지 인자들은 객체 생성자 표현(클래스 호출)에
     전달된 것들입니다.  *note __new__(): 57b. 의 반환 값은 새 객체 인스
     턴스이어야 합니다 (보통 'cls' 의 인스턴스).

     Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by
     invoking the superclass’s *note __new__(): 57b. method using
     ‘super().__new__(cls[, ...])’ with appropriate arguments and then
     modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning
     it.

     If *note __new__(): 57b. is invoked during object construction and
     it returns an instance of 'cls', then the new instance’s *note
     __init__(): 6aa. method will be invoked like ‘__init__(self[,
     ...])’, where 'self' is the new instance and the remaining
     arguments are the same as were passed to the object constructor.

     만약 *note __new__(): 57b. 가 'cls' 의 인스턴스를 돌려주지 않으면,
     새 인스턴스의 *note __init__(): 6aa. 는 호출되지 않습니다.

     *note __new__(): 57b. 는 주로 불변형(int, str, tuple과 같은)의 서브
     클래스가 인스턴스 생성을 커스터마이즈할 수 있도록 하는 데 사용됩니
     다.  또한, 사용자 정의 메타 클래스에서 클래스 생성을 커스터마이즈하
     기 위해 자주 사용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__init__ (self[, ...])

     (*note __new__(): 57b. 에 의해) 인스턴스가 만들어진 후에, 하지만 호
     출자에게 돌려주기 전에 호출됩니다.  인자들은 클래스 생성자 표현으로
     전달된 것들입니다.  만약 베이스 클래스가 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메
     서드를 갖고 있다면, 서브 클래스의 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드는,
     있다면, 인스턴스에서 베이스 클래스가 차지하는 부분이 올바르게 초기
     화됨을 확실히 하기 위해 명시적으로 호출해주어야 합니다; 예를 들어:
     ‘super().__init__([args...])’.

     객체를 만드는데 *note __new__(): 57b. 와 *note __init__(): 6aa. 가
     협력하고 있으므로 (*note __new__(): 57b. 는 만들고, *note
     __init__(): 6aa. 는 그것을 커스터마이즈합니다), *note __init__():
     6aa. 가 ‘None’ 이외의 값을 돌려주면 실행시간에 *note TypeError:
     532. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__del__ (self)

     인스턴스가 파괴되기 직전에 호출됩니다.  파이널라이저 또는 (부적절하
     게) 파괴자라고 불립니다.  만약 베이스 클래스가 *note __del__():
     1f69. 메서드를 갖고 있다면, 자식 클래스의 *note __del__(): 1f69. 메
     서드는, 정의되어 있다면, 인스턴스에서 베이스 클래스가 차지하는 부분
     을 적절하게 삭제하기 위해, 명시적으로 베이스 클래스의 메서드를 호출
     해야 합니다.

     (권장하지는 않지만!)  *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드는 인스턴스에 대
     한 새로운 참조를 만듦으로써 인스턴스의 파괴를 지연시킬 수 있습니다.
     이것을 객체 '부활' 이라고 부릅니다.  부활한 객체가 파괴될 때 *note
     __del__(): 1f69. 이 두 번째로 호출될지는 구현에 따라 다릅니다; 현재
     *note CPython: 6ef. 구현은 오직 한 번만 호출합니다.

     It is not guaranteed that *note __del__(): 1f69. methods are called
     for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits.  *note
     weakref.finalize: a79. provides a straightforward way to register a
     cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.

          참고: ‘del x’ 는 직접 ‘x.__del__()’ 를 호출하지 않습니다 — 앞
          에 있는 것은 ‘x’ 의 참조 횟수(reference count)를 하나 감소시키
          고, 뒤에 있는 것은 ‘x’ 의 참조 횟수가 0 이 될 때 호출됩니다.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' It is possible for a reference cycle to
     prevent the reference count of an object from going to zero.  In
     this case, the cycle will be later detected and deleted by the
     *note cyclic garbage collector: 1920.  A common cause of reference
     cycles is when an exception has been caught in a local variable.
     The frame’s locals then reference the exception, which references
     its own traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught
     in the traceback.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note gc: 60. 모듈에 대한 문서.

          경고: *note __del__(): 1f69. 이 호출되는 불안정한 상황 때문에,
          이것이 실행 중에 발생시키는 예외는 무시되고, 대신에
          ‘sys.stderr’ 로 경고가 출력됩니다.  특히:

             * *note __del__(): 1f69. 은 (임의의 스레드에서) 임의의 코드
               가 실행되는 동안 호출될 수 있습니다.  *note __del__():
               1f69. 이 록을 얻어야 하거나 다른 블로킹 자원을 호출하면,
               *note __del__(): 1f69. 을 실행하기 위해 중단된 코드가 자
               원을 이미 차지했을 수 있으므로 교착 상태에 빠질 수 있습니
               다.

             * *note __del__(): 1f69. 은 인터프리터를 종료할 때 실행될 수
               있습니다.  결과적으로, 액세스해야 하는 전역 변수(다른 모
               듈 포함)가 이미 삭제되었거나 ‘None’ 으로 설정되었을 수 있
               습니다.  파이썬은 이름이 하나의 밑줄로 시작하는 전역 객체
               가 다른 전역 객체들보다 먼저 삭제됨을 보장합니다; 이것은,
               만약 그 전역 객체들에 대한 다른 참조가 존재하지 않는다면,
               *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드가 호출되는 시점에, 임포트된
               모듈들이 남아있도록 확실히 하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__repr__ (self)

     *note repr(): 7f7. 내장 함수에 의해 호출되어 객체의 “형식적인
     (official)” 문자열 표현을 계산합니다.  만약 가능하다면, 이것은 같은
     (적절한 환경이 주어질 때) 값을 갖는 객체를 새로 만들 수 있는 올바른
     파이썬 표현식처럼 보여야 합니다.  가능하지 않다면, ‘<...쓸모있는 설
     명...>’ 형태의 문자열을 돌려줘야 합니다.  반환 값은 반드시 문자열이
     어야 합니다.  만약 클래스가 *note __str__(): 617. 없이 *note
     __repr__(): 616. 만 정의한다면, *note __repr__(): 616. 은 그 클래스
     인스턴스의 “비형식적인(informal)” 문자열 표현이 요구될 때 사용될 수
     있습니다.

     This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the
     representation is information-rich and unambiguous.  A default
     implementation is provided by the *note object: a89. class itself.

 -- 메서드: object.__str__ (self)

     Called by *note str(object): 445, the default *note __format__():
     618. implementation, and the built-in function *note print(): f6d,
     to compute the “informal” or nicely printable string representation
     of an object.  The return value must be a *note str: 1c04. object.

     이 메서드는 *note __str__(): 617. 이 올바른 파이썬 표현식을 돌려줄
     것이라고 기대되지 않는다는 점에서 *note object.__repr__(): 616. 과
     다릅니다: 더 편리하고 간결한 표현이 사용될 수 있습니다.

     내장형 *note object: a89. 에 정의된 기본 구현은 *note
     object.__repr__(): 616. 을 호출합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__bytes__ (self)

     Called by *note bytes: 1ac0. to compute a byte-string
     representation of an object.  This should return a *note bytes:
     1c2. object.  The *note object: a89. class itself does not provide
     this method.

 -- 메서드: object.__format__ (self, format_spec)

     *note format(): 619. 내장 함수, 확대하면, *note 포맷 문자열
     리터럴(formatted string literals): 9a6. 의 계산과 *note
     str.format(): 61b. 메서드에 의해 호출되어, 객체의 “포맷된” 문자열 표
     현을 만들어냅니다.  'format_spec' 인자는 요구되는 포맷 옵션들을 포
     함하는 문자열입니다.  'format_spec' 인자의 해석은 *note
     __format__(): 618. 을 구현하는 형에 달려있으나, 대부분 클래스는 포
     매팅을 내향형들의 하나로 위임하거나, 비슷한 포맷 옵션 문법을 사용합
     니다.

     표준 포매팅 문법에 대해서는 *note 포맷 명세 미니 언어: 1e8. 를 참고
     하면 됩니다.

     반환 값은 반드시 문자열이어야 합니다.

     The default implementation by the *note object: a89. class should
     be given an empty 'format_spec' string.  It delegates to *note
     __str__(): 617.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘object’ 의 __format__ 메서드 자신은, 빈 문자열
     이 아닌 인자가 전달되면 *note TypeError: 532. 를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ 는
     ‘format(str(x), '')’ 가 아니라 ‘str(x)’ 와 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__lt__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__le__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__eq__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ne__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__gt__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ge__ (self, other)

     이것들은 소위 “풍부한 비교(rich comparison)” 메서드입니다.  연산자
     기호와 메서드 이름 간의 관계는 다음과 같습니다: ‘x<y’ 는
     ‘x.__lt__(y)’ 를 호출합니다, ‘x<=y’ 는 ‘x.__le__(y)’ 를 호출합니다,
     ‘x==y’ 는 ‘x.__eq__(y)’ 를 호출합니다, ‘x!=y’ 는 ‘x.__ne__(y)’ 를 호
     출합니다, ‘x>y’ 는 ‘x.__gt__(y)’ 를 호출합니다, ‘x>=y’ 는
     ‘x.__ge__(y)’ 를 호출합니다.

     A rich comparison method may return the singleton *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb. if it does not implement the operation for a
     given pair of arguments.  By convention, ‘False’ and ‘True’ are
     returned for a successful comparison.  However, these methods can
     return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a
     Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an ‘if’ statement),
     Python will call *note bool(): 461. on the value to determine if
     the result is true or false.

     By default, ‘object’ implements *note __eq__(): af7. by using ‘is’,
     returning *note NotImplemented: 7cb. in the case of a false
     comparison: ‘True if x is y else NotImplemented’.  For *note
     __ne__(): 14df, by default it delegates to *note __eq__(): af7. and
     inverts the result unless it is ‘NotImplemented’.  There are no
     other implied relationships among the comparison operators or
     default implementations; for example, the truth of ‘(x<y or x==y)’
     does not imply ‘x<=y’.  To automatically generate ordering
     operations from a single root operation, see *note
     functools.total_ordering(): f3a.

     By default, the *note object: a89. class provides implementations
     consistent with *note 값 비교: 1882.: equality compares according
     to object identity, and order comparisons raise *note TypeError:
     532.  Each default method may generate these results directly, but
     may also return *note NotImplemented: 7cb.

     사용자 정의 비교 연산자를 지원하고 딕셔너리 키로 사용될 수 있는
     *note 해시 가능: 60a. 객체를 만드는 것에 관한 몇 가지 중요한 내용이
     *note __hash__(): af8. 에 관한 문단에 나옵니다.

     There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used
     when the left argument does not support the operation but the right
     argument does); rather, *note __lt__(): 128f. and *note __gt__():
     12fc. are each other’s reflection, *note __le__(): 12fb. and *note
     __ge__(): 12fd. are each other’s reflection, and *note __eq__():
     af7. and *note __ne__(): 14df. are their own reflection.  If the
     operands are of different types, and the right operand’s type is a
     direct or indirect subclass of the left operand’s type, the
     reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise the
     left operand’s method has priority.  Virtual subclassing is not
     considered.

     When no appropriate method returns any value other than *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb, the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators will fall back to
     ‘is’ and ‘is not’, respectively.

 -- 메서드: object.__hash__ (self)

     Called by built-in function *note hash(): 5e5. and for operations
     on members of hashed collections including *note set: 5d3, *note
     frozenset: 5d4, and *note dict: 256.  The ‘__hash__()’ method
     should return an integer.  The only required property is that
     objects which compare equal have the same hash value; it is advised
     to mix together the hash values of the components of the object
     that also play a part in comparison of objects by packing them into
     a tuple and hashing the tuple.  Example:

          def __hash__(self):
              return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

          참고: *note hash(): 5e5. 는 객체가 정의한 *note __hash__():
          af8. 메서드가 돌려주는 값을 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 의 크기로 자
          릅니다(truncate).  이것은 보통 64-bit 빌드에서는 8바이트고,
          32-bit 빌드에서는 4바이트입니다.  만약 객체의 *note
          __hash__(): af8. 가 서로 다른 비트 크기를 갖는 빌드들 사이에서
          함께 사용되어야 한다면, 모든 지원할 빌드들에서의 폭을 검사해야
          합니다.  이렇게 하는 쉬운 방법은 ‘python -c "import sys;
          print(sys.hash_info.width)"’ 입니다.

     If a class does not define an *note __eq__(): af7. method it should
     not define a *note __hash__(): af8. operation either; if it defines
     *note __eq__(): af7. but not *note __hash__(): af8, its instances
     will not be usable as items in hashable collections.  If a class
     defines mutable objects and implements an *note __eq__(): af7.
     method, it should not implement *note __hash__(): af8, since the
     implementation of *note hashable: 60a. collections requires that a
     key’s hash value is immutable (if the object’s hash value changes,
     it will be in the wrong hash bucket).

     User-defined classes have *note __eq__(): af7. and *note
     __hash__(): af8. methods by default (inherited from the *note
     object: a89. class); with them, all objects compare unequal (except
     with themselves) and ‘x.__hash__()’ returns an appropriate value
     such that ‘x == y’ implies both that ‘x is y’ and ‘hash(x) ==
     hash(y)’.

     *note __eq__(): af7. 를 재정의하고 *note __hash__(): af8. 를 정의하
     지 않는 클래스는 *note __hash__(): af8. 가 ‘None’ 으로 설정됩니다.
     클래스의 *note __hash__(): af8. 메서드가 ‘None’ 이면, 클래스의 인스
     턴스는 프로그램이 해시값을 얻으려 시도할 때 *note TypeError: 532. 를
     일으키고, ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)’ 로 검사할 때
     해시 가능하지 않다고 올바로 감지됩니다.

     만약 *note __eq__(): af7. 를 재정의하는 클래스가 부모 클래스로부터
     *note __hash__(): af8. 의 구현을 물려받고 싶으면 인터프리터에게 명
     시적으로 이렇게 지정해주어야 합니다: ‘__hash__ =
     <ParentClass>.__hash__’.

     만약 *note __eq__(): af7. 를 재정의하지 않는 클래스가 해시 지원을 멈
     추고 싶으면, 클래스 정의에 ‘__hash__ = None’ 을 포함해야 합니다.  자
     신의 *note __hash__(): af8. 을 정의한 후에 직접 *note TypeError:
     532. 를 일으키는 경우는 ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)’
     호출이 해시 가능하다고 잘못 인식합니다.

          참고: 기본적으로, str과 bytes 객체들의 *note __hash__(): af8.
          값은 예측할 수 없는 난수값으로 “솔트되어(salted)” 있습니다.  개
          별 파이썬 프로세스 내에서는 변하지 않는 값으로 유지되지만, 파
          이썬을 반복적으로 실행할 때는 예측할 수 없게 됩니다.

          This is intended to provide protection against a
          denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that
          exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion,
          'O'('n'^2) complexity.  See
          ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’ for details.

          해시값의 변경은 집합의 이터레이션 순서에 영향을 줍니다, 파이썬
          은 이 순서에 대해 어떤 보장도 하지 않습니다 (그리고 보통
          32-bit 와 64-bit 빌드 사이에서도 다릅니다).

          *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. 를 참고하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 해시 난수 화는 기본적으로 활성화됩니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__bool__ (self)

     Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation
     ‘bool()’; should return ‘False’ or ‘True’.  When this method is not
     defined, *note __len__(): 1f6b. is called, if it is defined, and
     the object is considered true if its result is nonzero.  If a class
     defines neither ‘__len__()’ nor ‘__bool__()’ (which is true of the
     *note object: a89. class itself), all its instances are considered
     true.


File: python.info,  Node: 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션,  Next: 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션,  Prev: 기본적인 커스터마이제이션,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.2 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션
..........................................

클래스 인스턴스의 어트리뷰트 참조(읽기, 대입하기, ‘x.name’ 을 삭제하기
)의 의미를 변경하기 위해 다음과 같은 메서드들이 정의될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__getattr__ (self, name)

     Called when the default attribute access fails with an *note
     AttributeError: 346. (either *note __getattribute__(): bcf. raises
     an *note AttributeError: 346. because 'name' is not an instance
     attribute or an attribute in the class tree for ‘self’; or *note
     __get__(): 14af. of a 'name' property raises *note AttributeError:
     346.).  This method should either return the (computed) attribute
     value or raise an *note AttributeError: 346. exception.  The *note
     object: a89. class itself does not provide this method.

     Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
     *note __getattr__(): 4cd. is not called.  (This is an intentional
     asymmetry between *note __getattr__(): 4cd. and *note
     __setattr__(): 1f35.)  This is done both for efficiency reasons and
     because otherwise *note __getattr__(): 4cd. would have no way to
     access other attributes of the instance.  Note that at least for
     instance variables, you can take total control by not inserting any
     values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting
     them in another object).  See the *note __getattribute__(): bcf.
     method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute
     access.

 -- 메서드: object.__getattribute__ (self, name)

     클래스 인스턴스의 어트리뷰트 액세스를 구현하기 위해 조건 없이 호출
     됩니다.  만약 클래스가 *note __getattr__(): 4cd. 도 함께 구현하면,
     *note __getattribute__(): bcf. 가 명시적으로 호출하거나 *note
     AttributeError: 346. 를 일으키지 않는 이상 ‘__getattr__’ 는 호출되
     지 않습니다.  이 메서드는 어트리뷰트의 (계산된) 값을 돌려주거나
     *note AttributeError: 346. 예외를 일으켜야 합니다.  이 메서드에서 무
     한 재귀(infinite recursion)가 발생하는 것을 막기 위해, 구현은 언제
     나 필요한 어트리뷰트에 접근하기 위해 같은 이름의 베이스 클래스의 메
     서드를 호출해야 합니다.  예를 들어, ‘object.__getattribute__(self,
     name)’.

          참고: This method may still be bypassed when looking up
          special methods as the result of implicit invocation via
          language syntax or *note built-in functions: 1f09.  See *note
          특수 메서드 조회: 1f6e.

     특정 민감한 어트리뷰트 액세스의 경우, 인자 ‘obj’와 ‘name’으로 *note
     감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘object.__getattr__’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__setattr__ (self, name, value)

     어트리뷰트 대입이 시도될 때 호출됩니다.  일반적인 메커니즘(즉 인스
     턴스 딕셔너리에 값을 저장하는 것) 대신에 이것이 호출됩니다.  'name'
     은 어트리뷰트 이름이고, 'value' 는 그것에 대입하려는 값입니다.

     *note __setattr__(): 1f35. 에서 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에 대입하려고 할
     때는, 같은 이름의 베이스 클래스의 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.  예를 들
     어 ‘object.__setattr__(self, name, value)’

     특정 민감한 어트리뷰트 대입의 경우, 인자 ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’로
     *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘object.__setattr__’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__delattr__ (self, name)

     *note __setattr__(): 1f35. 과 비슷하지만 어트리뷰트를 대입하는 대신
     에 삭제합니다.  이것은 ‘del obj.name’ 이 객체에 의미가 있는 경우에
     만 구현되어야 합니다.

     특정 민감한 어트리뷰트 삭제의 경우, 인자 ‘obj’와 ‘name’으로 *note
     감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘object.__delattr__’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__dir__ (self)

     Called when *note dir(): 62c. is called on the object.  An iterable
     must be returned.  *note dir(): 62c. converts the returned iterable
     to a list and sorts it.

* Menu:

* 모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션::
* 디스크립터 구현하기::
* 디스크립터 호출하기::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.


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4.3.3.3 모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션
...............................................

특수한 이름 ‘__getattr__’ 과 ‘__dir__’ 는 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 접근을
사용자 정의하는 데 사용될 수도 있습니다.  모듈 수준의 ‘__getattr__’ 함수
는 하나의 인자로 어트리뷰트의 이름을 받아서 계산된 값을 돌려주거나 *note
AttributeError: 346. 를 발생시켜야 합니다.  일반적인 조회(즉 *note
object.__getattribute__(): bcf.)를 통해 어트리뷰트가 모듈 객체에서 발견
되지 않으면, *note AttributeError: 346. 를 일으키기 전에 모듈 ‘__dict__’
에서 ‘__getattr__’ 을 검색합니다.  발견되면, 어트리뷰트 이름으로 그 함수
를 호출하고 결과를 돌려줍니다.

The ‘__dir__’ function should accept no arguments, and return an
iterable of strings that represents the names accessible on module.  If
present, this function overrides the standard *note dir(): 62c. search
on a module.

모듈 동작(어트리뷰트 설정, 프로퍼티 등)을 보다 세밀하게 사용자 정의하려
면, 모듈 객체의 ‘__class__’ 어트리뷰트를 *note types.ModuleType: e0f. 의
서브 클래스로 설정할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     import sys
     from types import ModuleType

     class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
         def __repr__(self):
             return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

         def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
             print(f'Setting {attr}...')
             super().__setattr__(attr, value)

     sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

     참고: 모듈 ‘__getattr__’ 정의와 모듈 ‘__class__’ 설정은 어트리뷰트
     액세스 구문을 사용하는 조회에만 영향을 미칩니다 – 모듈 전역에 대한
     직접적인 액세스(모듈 내의 코드에 의한 액세스이거나 모듈의 전역 딕셔
     너리에 대한 참조를 거치거나)는 영향받지 않습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 ‘__class__’ 모듈 어트리뷰트가 쓰기 가능합니다.

Added in version 3.7: ‘__getattr__’ 과 ‘__dir__’ 모듈 어트리뷰트.

더 보기
.......

PEP 562(1) - 모듈 __getattr__ 과 __dir__

     모듈에 대한 ‘__getattr__’ 과 ‘__dir__’ 함수를 설명합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


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4.3.3.4 디스크립터 구현하기
...........................

The following methods only apply when an instance of the class
containing the method (a so-called 'descriptor' class) appears in an
'owner' class (the descriptor must be in either the owner’s class
dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents).  In the
examples below, “the attribute” refers to the attribute whose name is
the key of the property in the owner class’ *note __dict__: 556.  The
*note object: a89. class itself does not implement any of these
protocols.

 -- 메서드: object.__get__ (self, instance, owner=None)

     소유자 클래스(클래스 어트리뷰트 액세스) 나 그 클래스의 인스턴스(인
     스턴스 어트리뷰트 액세스)의 어트리뷰트를 취하려고 할 때 호출됩니다.
     선택적 'owner' 인자는 소유자 클래스입니다.  반면에 'instance' 는 어
     트리뷰트 참조가 일어나고 있는 인스턴스이거나, 어트리뷰트가 'owner'
     를 통해 액세스 되는 경우 ‘None’ 입니다.

     이 메서드는 계산된 어트리뷰트 값을 돌려주거나 *note AttributeError:
     346. 예외를 일으켜야 합니다.

     PEP 252(1)는 *note __get__(): 14af.이 하나나 두 개의 인자를 갖는 콜
     러블이라고 지정합니다.  파이썬 자신의 내장 디스크립터는 이 명세를 지
     원합니다; 그러나, 일부 제삼자 도구에는 두 인수를 모두 요구하는 디스
     크립터가 있을 수 있습니다.  파이썬 자신의 *note __getattribute__():
     bcf. 구현은 필요한지와 관계없이 항상 두 인자를 모두 전달합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__set__ (self, instance, value)

     소유자 클래스의 인스턴스 'instance' 의 어트리뷰트를 새 값 'value' 로
     설정할 때 호출됩니다.

     *note __set__(): 1f72.이나 *note __delete__(): 1610.를 추가하면 디
     스크립터 유형이 “데이터 디스크립터(data descriptor)”로 변경됨에 유
     의하십시오.  자세한 내용은 *note 디스크립터 호출하기: 1f73.를 참조
     하십시오.

 -- 메서드: object.__delete__ (self, instance)

     소유자 클래스의 인스턴스 'instance' 의 어트리뷰트를 삭제할 때 호출
     됩니다.

Instances of descriptors may also have the ‘__objclass__’ attribute
present:

 -- 속성: object.__objclass__

     The attribute ‘__objclass__’ is interpreted by the *note inspect:
     7e. module as specifying the class where this object was defined
     (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of
     dynamic class attributes).  For callables, it may indicate that an
     instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required
     as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this
     attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/


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4.3.3.5 디스크립터 호출하기
...........................

In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with “binding behavior”,
one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the
descriptor protocol: *note __get__(): 14af, *note __set__(): 1f72, and
*note __delete__(): 1610.  If any of those methods are defined for an
object, it is said to be a descriptor.

어트리뷰트 액세스의 기본 동작은 객체의 딕셔너리에서 어트리뷰트를 읽고, 쓰
고, 삭제하는 것입니다.  예를 들어 ‘a.x’ 는 ‘a.__dict__['x']’ 에서 시작해
서 ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’ 를 거쳐 ‘type(a)’ 의 메타 클래스를 제외한 베
이스 클래스들을 거쳐 가는 일련의 조회로 구성됩니다.

그러나, 만약 조회한 값이 디스크립터 메서드를 구현한 객체면, 파이썬은 기
본 동작 대신에 디스크립터 메서드를 호출할 수 있습니다.  우선순위 목록의
어느 위치에서 이런 일이 일어나는지는 어떤 디스크립터 메서드가 정의되어 있
고 어떤 식으로 호출되는지에 따라 다릅니다.

디스크립터 호출의 시작점은 결합(binding)입니다, ‘a.x’.  어떻게 인자들이
조합되는지는 ‘a’ 에 따라 다릅니다:

직접 호출

     가장 간단하면서도 가장 덜 사용되는 호출은 사용자의 코드가 디스크립
     터 메서드를 직접 호출할 때입니다: ‘x.__get__(a)’

인스턴스 결합

     객체 인스턴스에 결합하면, ‘a.x’ 는 이런 호출로 변환됩니다:
     ‘type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a))’.

클래스 결합

     클래스에 결합하면, ‘A.x’ 는 이런 호출로 변환됩니다:
     ‘A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)’.

Super 결합

     A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, a).x’ searches
     ‘a.__class__.__mro__’ for a base class ‘B’ following ‘A’ and then
     returns ‘B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A)’.  If not a descriptor, ‘x’
     is returned unchanged.

For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends
on which descriptor methods are defined.  A descriptor can define any
combination of *note __get__(): 14af, *note __set__(): 1f72. and *note
__delete__(): 1610.  If it does not define ‘__get__()’, then accessing
the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a
value in the object’s instance dictionary.  If the descriptor defines
‘__set__()’ and/or ‘__delete__()’, it is a data descriptor; if it
defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.  Normally, data
descriptors define both ‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’, while non-data
descriptors have just the ‘__get__()’ method.  Data descriptors with
‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’ (and/or ‘__delete__()’) defined always
override a redefinition in an instance dictionary.  In contrast,
non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances.

Python methods (including those decorated with *note @staticmethod: 410.
and *note @classmethod: 166.) are implemented as non-data descriptors.
Accordingly, instances can redefine and override methods.  This allows
individual instances to acquire behaviors that differ from other
instances of the same class.

*note property(): 194. 함수는 데이터 디스크립터로 구현됩니다.  이 때문에
, 인스턴스는 프로퍼티(property)의 동작을 변경할 수 없습니다.


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4.3.3.6 __slots__
.................

'__slots__' allow us to explicitly declare data members (like
properties) and deny the creation of *note __dict__: 556. and
'__weakref__' (unless explicitly declared in '__slots__' or available in
a parent.)

The space saved over using *note __dict__: 556. can be significant.
Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well.

 -- 데이터: object.__slots__

     This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence
     of strings with variable names used by instances.  '__slots__'
     reserves space for the declared variables and prevents the
     automatic creation of *note __dict__: 556. and '__weakref__' for
     each instance.
Notes on using '__slots__':

   * When inheriting from a class without '__slots__', the *note
     __dict__: 556. and '__weakref__' attribute of the instances will
     always be accessible.

   * Without a *note __dict__: 556. variable, instances cannot be
     assigned new variables not listed in the '__slots__' definition.
     Attempts to assign to an unlisted variable name raises *note
     AttributeError: 346.  If dynamic assignment of new variables is
     desired, then add ‘'__dict__'’ to the sequence of strings in the
     '__slots__' declaration.

   * Without a '__weakref__' variable for each instance, classes
     defining '__slots__' do not support *note weak references: 114. to
     its instances.  If weak reference support is needed, then add
     ‘'__weakref__'’ to the sequence of strings in the '__slots__'
     declaration.

   * '__slots__' are implemented at the class level by creating *note
     descriptors: c4c. for each variable name.  As a result, class
     attributes cannot be used to set default values for instance
     variables defined by '__slots__'; otherwise, the class attribute
     would overwrite the descriptor assignment.

   * The action of a '__slots__' declaration is not limited to the class
     where it is defined.  '__slots__' declared in parents are available
     in child classes.  However, instances of a child subclass will get
     a *note __dict__: 556. and '__weakref__' unless the subclass also
     defines '__slots__' (which should only contain names of any
     'additional' slots).

   * 클래스가 베이스 클래스의 '__slots__' 에 정의된 이름과 같은 이름의 변
     수를 '__slots__' 에 선언한다면, 베이스 클래스가 정의한 변수는 액세
     스할 수 없는 상태가 됩니다(베이스 클래스로부터 디스크립터를 직접 조
     회하는 경우는 예외다).  이것은 프로그램을 정의되지 않은 상태로 보내
     게 됩니다.  미래에는, 이를 방지하기 위한 검사가 추가될 것입니다.

   * *note TypeError: 532. will be raised if nonempty '__slots__' are
     defined for a class derived from a *note "variable-length" built-in
     type: 1f78. such as *note int: 257, *note bytes: 1c2, and *note
     tuple: 369.

   * Any non-string *note iterable: 1217. may be assigned to
     '__slots__'.

   * If a *note dictionary: 256. is used to assign '__slots__', the
     dictionary keys will be used as the slot names.  The values of the
     dictionary can be used to provide per-attribute docstrings that
     will be recognised by *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f6. and displayed in
     the output of *note help(): 8d4.

   * *note __class__: 1473. assignment works only if both classes have
     the same '__slots__'.

   * *note Multiple inheritance: 1cc0. with multiple slotted parent
     classes can be used, but only one parent is allowed to have
     attributes created by slots (the other bases must have empty slot
     layouts) - violations raise *note TypeError: 532.

   * If an *note iterator: 1ac. is used for '__slots__' then a *note
     descriptor: 157a. is created for each of the iterator’s values.
     However, the '__slots__' attribute will be an empty iterator.


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4.3.3.7 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션
....................................

Whenever a class inherits from another class, *note __init_subclass__():
62b. is called on the parent class.  This way, it is possible to write
classes which change the behavior of subclasses.  This is closely
related to class decorators, but where class decorators only affect the
specific class they’re applied to, ‘__init_subclass__’ solely applies to
future subclasses of the class defining the method.

 -- 메서드: classmethod object.__init_subclass__ (cls)

     이 메서드는 포함하는 클래스의 서브 클래스가 만들어질 때마다 호출됩
     니다.  'cls' 는 새 서브 클래스입니다.  만약 일반적인 인스턴스 메서
     드로 정의되면, 이 메서드는 묵시적으로 클래스 메서드로 변경됩니다.

     Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the
     parent class’s ‘__init_subclass__’.  For compatibility with other
     classes using ‘__init_subclass__’, one should take out the needed
     keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as
     in:

          class Philosopher:
              def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
                  super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
                  cls.default_name = default_name

          class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
              pass

     기본 구현 ‘object.__init_subclass__’ 는 아무 일도 하지 않지만, 인자
     가 포함되어 호출되면 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          참고: 메타 클래스 힌트 ‘metaclass’ 는 나머지 형 절차에 의해 소
          비되고, ‘__init_subclass__’ 로 전달되지 않습니다.  실제 메타 클
          래스 (명시적인 힌트 대신에) 는 ‘type(cls)’ 로 액세스할 수 있습
          니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

When a class is created, ‘type.__new__()’ scans the class variables and
makes callbacks to those with a *note __set_name__(): c4b. hook.

 -- 메서드: object.__set_name__ (self, owner, name)

     Automatically called at the time the owning class 'owner' is
     created.  The object has been assigned to 'name' in that class:

          class A:
              x = C()  # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

     If the class variable is assigned after the class is created, *note
     __set_name__(): c4b. will not be called automatically.  If needed,
     *note __set_name__(): c4b. can be called directly:

          class A:
             pass

          c = C()
          A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
          c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

     더 자세한 내용은 *note 클래스 객체 만들기: c47. 을 참고하십시오.

     Added in version 3.6.

* Menu:

* 메타 클래스::
* MRO 항목 결정하기::
* 적절한 메타 클래스 선택하기::
* 클래스 이름 공간 준비하기::
* 클래스 바디 실행하기::
* 클래스 객체 만들기::
* 메타 클래스의 용도::


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4.3.3.8 메타 클래스
...................

기본적으로, 클래스는 *note type(): d45. 을 사용해서 만들어집니다.  클래
스의 바디는 새 이름 공간에서 실행되고, 클래스 이름은 ‘type(name, bases,
namespace)’ 의 결과에 지역적으로 연결됩니다.

클래스를 만드는 과정은 클래스 정의 줄에 ‘metaclass’ 키워드 인자를 전달하
거나, 그런 인자를 포함한 이미 존재하는 클래스를 계승함으로써 커스터마이
즈될 수 있습니다.  다음 예에서, ‘MyClass’ 와 ‘MySubclass’ 는 모두 ‘Meta’
의 인스턴스입니다.

     class Meta(type):
         pass

     class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
         pass

     class MySubclass(MyClass):
         pass

클래스 정의에서 지정된 다른 키워드 인자들은 아래에서 설명되는 모든 메타
클래스 연산들로 전달됩니다.

클래스 정의가 실행될 때, 다음과 같은 단계가 수행됩니다.:

   * MRO 항목이 결정됩니다;

   * 적절한 메타 클래스가 결정됩니다;

   * 클래스 이름 공간이 준비됩니다;

   * 클래스 바디가 실행됩니다;

   * 클래스 객체가 만들어집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: MRO 항목 결정하기,  Next: 적절한 메타 클래스 선택하기,  Prev: 메타 클래스,  Up: 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션

4.3.3.9 MRO 항목 결정하기
.........................

 -- 메서드: object.__mro_entries__ (self, bases)

     If a base that appears in a class definition is not an instance of
     *note type: d45, then an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is searched on
     the base.  If an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is found, the base is
     substituted with the result of a call to ‘__mro_entries__()’ when
     creating the class.  The method is called with the original bases
     tuple passed to the 'bases' parameter, and must return a tuple of
     classes that will be used instead of the base.  The returned tuple
     may be empty: in these cases, the original base is ignored.

더 보기
.......

*note types.resolve_bases(): b99.

     Dynamically resolve bases that are not instances of *note type:
     d45.

*note types.get_original_bases(): 4c8.

     Retrieve a class’s “original bases” prior to modifications by *note
     __mro_entries__(): 1f7d.

PEP 560(1)

     Core support for typing module and generic types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: 적절한 메타 클래스 선택하기,  Next: 클래스 이름 공간 준비하기,  Prev: MRO 항목 결정하기,  Up: 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션

4.3.3.10 적절한 메타 클래스 선택하기
....................................

클래스 정의의 적절한 메타 클래스는 다음과 같이 결정됩니다:

   * 베이스와 명시적인 메타 클래스를 주지 않는 경우 *note type(): d45. 이
     사용됩니다;

   * 명시적인 메타 클래스가 지정되고, 그것이 *note type(): d45. 의 인스
     턴스가 '아니면', 그것을 메타 클래스로 사용합니다;

   * *note type(): d45. 의 인스턴스가 명시적인 메타 클래스로 주어지거나,
     베이스가 정의되었으면, 가장 많이 파생된 메타 클래스가 사용됩니다.

가장 많이 파생된 메타 클래스는 명시적으로 지정된 메타 클래스(있다면)와 지
정된 모든 베이스 클래스들의 메타 클래스들(즉, ‘type(cls)’) 중에서 선택됩
니다.  가장 많이 파생된 메타 클래스는 이들 '모두' 의 서브 타입
(subtype)입니다.  만약 어느 것도 이 조건을 만족하지 못한다면, 클래스 정
의는 ‘TypeError’ 를 발생시키며 실패합니다.


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4.3.3.11 클래스 이름 공간 준비하기
..................................

Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class
namespace is prepared.  If the metaclass has a ‘__prepare__’ attribute,
it is called as ‘namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)’
(where the additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class
definition).  The ‘__prepare__’ method should be implemented as a *note
classmethod: 166.  The namespace returned by ‘__prepare__’ is passed in
to ‘__new__’, but when the final class object is created the namespace
is copied into a new ‘dict’.

만약 메타 클래스에 ‘__prepare__’ 어트리뷰트가 없다면, 클래스 이름 공간은
빈 순서 있는 매핑으로 초기화됩니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3115(1) - 파이썬 3000 에서의 메타 클래스

     ‘__prepare__’ 이름 공간 훅을 도입했습니다

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


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4.3.3.12 클래스 바디 실행하기
.............................

클래스 바디는 (대략) ‘exec(body, globals(), namespace)’ 과같이 실행됩니
다.  일반적인 *note exec(): 17f. 호출과 주된 차이점은 클래스 정의가 함수
내부에서 이루어질 때 어휘 스코핑(lexical scoping) 이 클래스 바디(모든 메
서드들을 포함해서)로 하여금 현재와 외부 스코프에 있는 이름들을 참조하도
록 허락한다는 것입니다.

하지만, 클래스 정의가 함수 내부에서 이루어질 때조차도, 클래스 내부에서 정
의된 메서드들은 클래스 스코프에서 정의된 이름들을 볼 수 없습니다.  클래
스 변수는 인스턴스나 클래스 메서드의 첫 번째 매개변수를 통해 액세스하거
나 다음 섹션에서 설명하는 묵시적으로 어휘 스코핑된 ‘__class__’ 참조를 통
해야 합니다.


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4.3.3.13 클래스 객체 만들기
...........................

일단 클래스 이름 공간이 클래스 바디를 실행함으로써 채워지면, 클래스 객체
가 ‘metaclass(name, bases, namespace, **kwds)’ 을 통해 만들어집니다(여기
에서 전달되는 추가적인 키워드 인자들은 ‘__prepare__’ 에 전달된 것들과 같
습니다).

이 클래스 객체는 *note super(): 4d5. 에 인자를 주지 않는 경우 참조되는 것
입니다.  ‘__class__’ 는 클래스 바디의 메서드들 중 어느 하나라도
‘__class__’ 나 ‘super’ 를 참조할 경우 컴파일러에 의해 만들어지는 묵시적
인 클로저(closure) 참조입니다.  이것은 인자 없는 형태의 *note super():
4d5. 가 어휘 스코핑 기반으로 현재 정의되고 있는 클래스를 올바르게 찾을 수
있도록 합니다.  반면에 현재의 호출에 사용된 클래스나 인스턴스는 메서드로
전달된 첫 번째 인자에 기초해서 식별됩니다.

CPython 3.6 이상에서, ‘__class__’ 셀(cell)은 클래스 이름 공간의
‘__classcell__’ 엔트리로 메타 클래스에 전달됩니다.  만약 존재한다면, 이
것은 클래스가 올바르게 초기화되기 위해 ‘type.__new__’ 호출까지 거슬러서
전파되어야 합니다.  이렇게 하지 못하면 파이썬 3.8 에서는 *note
RuntimeError: 195.로 이어질 것입니다.

When using the default metaclass *note type: d45, or any metaclass that
ultimately calls ‘type.__new__’, the following additional customization
steps are invoked after creating the class object:

  1. The ‘type.__new__’ method collects all of the attributes in the
     class namespace that define a *note __set_name__(): c4b. method;

  2. Those ‘__set_name__’ methods are called with the class being
     defined and the assigned name of that particular attribute;

  3. The *note __init_subclass__(): 62b. hook is called on the immediate
     parent of the new class in its method resolution order.

클래스 객체가 만들어진 후에, 클래스 정의에 포함된 클래스 데코레이터들에
게 (있다면) 클래스를 전달하고, 그 결과를 클래스가 정의되는 지역 이름 공
간에 연결합니다.

When a new class is created by ‘type.__new__’, the object provided as
the namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the
original object is discarded.  The new copy is wrapped in a read-only
proxy, which becomes the *note __dict__: c5a. attribute of the class
object.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3135(1) - 새 super

     묵시적인 __class__ 클로저 참조를 설명합니다

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/


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4.3.3.14 메타 클래스의 용도
...........................

메타 클래스의 잠재적인 용도에는 한계가 없습니다.  탐색 된 몇 가지 아이디
어들에는 enum, 로깅, 인터페이스 검사, 자동화된 위임(automatic
delegation), 자동화된 프로퍼티(properety) 생성, 프락시(proxy), 프레임웍
(framework), 자동화된 자원 로킹/동기화(automatic resource
locking/synchronization) 등이 있습니다.


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4.3.3.15 인스턴스 및 서브 클래스 검사 커스터마이제이션
......................................................

다음 메서드들은 *note isinstance(): 43b. 와 *note issubclass(): 7ba. 내
장 함수들의 기본 동작을 재정의하는 데 사용됩니다.

특히, 메타 클래스 *note abc.ABCMeta: f10. 는 추상 베이스 클래스(Abstract
Base Class, ABC)를 다른 ABC를 포함한 임의의 클래스나 형(내장형을 포함합
니다)에 “가상 베이스 클래스(virtual base class)”로 추가할 수 있게 하려고
이 메서드들을 구현합니다.

 -- 메서드: type.__instancecheck__ (self, instance)

     'instance' 가 (직접적이거나 간접적으로) 'class' 의 인스턴스로 취급
     될 수 있으면 참을 돌려줍니다.  만약 정의되면, ‘isinstance(instance,
     class)’ 를 구현하기 위해 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: type.__subclasscheck__ (self, subclass)

     'subclass' 가 (직접적이거나 간접적으로) 'class' 의 서브 클래스로 취
     급될 수 있으면 참을 돌려줍니다.  만약 정의되면,
     ‘issubclass(subclass, class)’ 를 구현하기 위해 호출됩니다.

이 메서드들은 클래스의 형(메타 클래스)에서 조회된다는 것에 주의해야 합니
다.  실제 클래스에서 클래스 메서드로 정의될 수 없습니다.  이것은 인스턴
스에 대해 호출되는 특수 메서드들의 조회와 일관성 있습니다.  이 경우 인스
턴스는 클래스 자체다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3119(1) - 추상 베이스 클래스의 도입

     Includes the specification for customizing *note isinstance(): 43b.
     and *note issubclass(): 7ba. behavior through *note
     __instancecheck__(): 1f84. and *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f85,
     with motivation for this functionality in the context of adding
     Abstract Base Classes (see the *note abc: 4. module) to the
     language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


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4.3.3.16 제네릭 형 흉내 내기
............................

When using *note type annotations: 451, it is often useful to
'parameterize' a *note generic type: 432. using Python’s square-brackets
notation.  For example, the annotation ‘list[int]’ might be used to
signify a *note list: 60b. in which all the elements are of type *note
int: 257.

더 보기
.......

PEP 484(1) - Type Hints

     Introducing Python’s framework for type annotations

*note Generic Alias Types: 6ac.

     Documentation for objects representing parameterized generic
     classes

*note 제네릭: 1f87, *note user-defined generics: 4c9. and *note typing.Generic: 1620.

     Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be
     parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.

A class can 'generally' only be parameterized if it defines the special
class method ‘__class_getitem__()’.

 -- 메서드: classmethod object.__class_getitem__ (cls, key)

     'key' 에 있는 형 인자에 의한 제네릭 클래스의 특수화를 나타내는 객체
     를 돌려줍니다.

     When defined on a class, ‘__class_getitem__()’ is automatically a
     class method.  As such, there is no need for it to be decorated
     with *note @classmethod: 166. when it is defined.

* Menu:

* The purpose of __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: The purpose of __class_getitem__,  Next: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__,  Up: 제네릭 형 흉내 내기

4.3.3.17 The purpose of '__class_getitem__'
...........................................

The purpose of *note __class_getitem__(): 734. is to allow runtime
parameterization of standard-library generic classes in order to more
easily apply *note type hints: 1f89. to these classes.

To implement custom generic classes that can be parameterized at runtime
and understood by static type-checkers, users should either inherit from
a standard library class that already implements *note
__class_getitem__(): 734, or inherit from *note typing.Generic: 1620,
which has its own implementation of ‘__class_getitem__()’.

Custom implementations of *note __class_getitem__(): 734. on classes
defined outside of the standard library may not be understood by
third-party type-checkers such as mypy.  Using ‘__class_getitem__()’ on
any class for purposes other than type hinting is discouraged.


File: python.info,  Node: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__,  Prev: The purpose of __class_getitem__,  Up: 제네릭 형 흉내 내기

4.3.3.18 '__class_getitem__' versus '__getitem__'
.................................................

Usually, the *note subscription: 1f8c. of an object using square
brackets will call the *note __getitem__(): 283. instance method defined
on the object’s class.  However, if the object being subscribed is
itself a class, the class method *note __class_getitem__(): 734. may be
called instead.  ‘__class_getitem__()’ should return a *note
GenericAlias: 6ac. object if it is properly defined.

Presented with the *note expression: 1f8d. ‘obj[x]’, the Python
interpreter follows something like the following process to decide
whether *note __getitem__(): 283. or *note __class_getitem__(): 734.
should be called:

     from inspect import isclass

     def subscribe(obj, x):
         """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

         class_of_obj = type(obj)

         # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
         # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
         if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
             return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

         # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
         # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
         elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
             return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

         # Else, raise an exception
         else:
             raise TypeError(
                 f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
             )

In Python, all classes are themselves instances of other classes.  The
class of a class is known as that class’s *note metaclass: 1f8e, and
most classes have the *note type: d45. class as their metaclass.  *note
type: d45. does not define *note __getitem__(): 283, meaning that
expressions such as ‘list[int]’, ‘dict[str, float]’ and ‘tuple[str,
bytes]’ all result in *note __class_getitem__(): 734. being called:

     >>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
     >>> type(list)
     <class 'type'>
     >>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
     True
     >>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
     >>> list[int]
     list[int]
     >>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
     >>> type(list[int])
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

However, if a class has a custom metaclass that defines *note
__getitem__(): 283, subscribing the class may result in different
behaviour.  An example of this can be found in the *note enum: 56.
module:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Menu(Enum):
     ...     """A breakfast menu"""
     ...     SPAM = 'spam'
     ...     BACON = 'bacon'
     ...
     >>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
     >>> type(Menu)
     <class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
     >>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
     >>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
     >>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
     >>> Menu['SPAM']
     <Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
     >>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
     <enum 'Menu'>

더 보기
.......

PEP 560(1) - Core Support for typing module and generic types

     Introducing *note __class_getitem__(): 734, and outlining when a
     *note subscription: 1f8c. results in ‘__class_getitem__()’ being
     called instead of *note __getitem__(): 283.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


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4.3.3.19 콜러블 객체 흉내 내기
..............................

 -- 메서드: object.__call__ (self[, args...])

     Called when the instance is “called” as a function; if this method
     is defined, ‘x(arg1, arg2, ...)’ roughly translates to
     ‘type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)’.  The *note object: a89. class
     itself does not provide this method.


File: python.info,  Node: 컨테이너형 흉내 내기,  Next: 숫자 형 흉내 내기,  Prev: 콜러블 객체 흉내 내기,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.20 컨테이너형 흉내 내기
.............................

The following methods can be defined to implement container objects.
None of them are provided by the *note object: a89. class itself.
Containers usually are *note sequences: 4eb. (such as *note lists: 60b.
or *note tuples: 369.) or *note mappings: 11ab. (like *note
dictionaries: 1f93.), but can represent other containers as well.  The
first set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to emulate
a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the allowable keys
should be the integers 'k' for which ‘0 <= k < N’ where 'N' is the
length of the sequence, or *note slice: 463. objects, which define a
range of items.  It is also recommended that mappings provide the
methods ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘get()’, ‘clear()’,
‘setdefault()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, ‘copy()’, and ‘update()’ behaving
similar to those for Python’s standard *note dictionary: 256. objects.
The *note collections.abc: 1e. module provides a *note MutableMapping:
109f. *note abstract base class: 11a5. to help create those methods from
a base set of *note __getitem__(): 283, *note __setitem__(): 12bb, *note
__delitem__(): 12bc, and ‘keys()’.  Mutable sequences should provide
methods ‘append()’, ‘count()’, ‘index()’, ‘extend()’, ‘insert()’,
‘pop()’, ‘remove()’, ‘reverse()’ and ‘sort()’, like Python standard
*note list: 60b. objects.  Finally, sequence types should implement
addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning repetition)
by defining the methods *note __add__(): 1f94, *note __radd__(): 1f95,
*note __iadd__(): 1f96, *note __mul__(): 1f97, *note __rmul__(): 1f98.
and *note __imul__(): 1f99. described below; they should not define
other numerical operators.  It is recommended that both mappings and
sequences implement the *note __contains__(): 1f66. method to allow
efficient use of the ‘in’ operator; for mappings, ‘in’ should search the
mapping’s keys; for sequences, it should search through the values.  It
is further recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
*note __iter__(): 1f64. method to allow efficient iteration through the
container; for mappings, ‘__iter__()’ should iterate through the
object’s keys; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.

 -- 메서드: object.__len__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in function *note len(): 628.  Should
     return the length of the object, an integer ‘>=’ 0.  Also, an
     object that doesn’t define a *note __bool__(): 12c5. method and
     whose ‘__len__()’ method returns zero is considered to be false in
     a Boolean context.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' In CPython, the length is required to be at
     most *note sys.maxsize: 11b4.  If the length is larger than
     ‘sys.maxsize’ some features (such as *note len(): 628.) may raise
     *note OverflowError: 87d.  To prevent raising ‘OverflowError’ by
     truth value testing, an object must define a *note __bool__():
     12c5. method.

 -- 메서드: object.__length_hint__ (self)

     Called to implement *note operator.length_hint(): f65.  Should
     return an estimated length for the object (which may be greater or
     less than the actual length).  The length must be an integer ‘>=’
     0.  The return value may also be *note NotImplemented: 7cb, which
     is treated the same as if the ‘__length_hint__’ method didn’t exist
     at all.  This method is purely an optimization and is never
     required for correctness.

     Added in version 3.4.

     참고: 슬라이싱은 전적으로 다음에 나오는 세 메서드들에의해 수행됩니
     다

          a[1:2] = b

     과 같은 호출은

          a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

     로 번역되고, 다른 형태도 마찬가지입니다.  빠진 슬라이스 항목은 항상
     ‘None’ 으로 채워집니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__getitem__ (self, key)

     Called to implement evaluation of ‘self[key]’.  For *note sequence:
     4eb. types, the accepted keys should be integers.  Optionally, they
     may support *note slice: 463. objects as well.  Negative index
     support is also optional.  If 'key' is of an inappropriate type,
     *note TypeError: 532. may be raised; if 'key' is a value outside
     the set of indexes for the sequence (after any special
     interpretation of negative values), *note IndexError: 14fc. should
     be raised.  For *note mapping: 11ab. types, if 'key' is missing
     (not in the container), *note KeyError: 33d. should be raised.

          참고: *note for: 2ea. 루프는 시퀀스의 끝을 올바로 감지하기 위
          해, 잘못된 인덱스에 대해 *note IndexError: 14fc. 가 일어날 것
          으로 기대하고 있습니다.

          참고: When *note subscripting: 1f8c. a 'class', the special
          class method *note __class_getitem__(): 734. may be called
          instead of ‘__getitem__()’.  See *note __class_getitem__
          versus __getitem__: 1f8b. for more details.

 -- 메서드: object.__setitem__ (self, key, value)

     ‘self[key]’ 로의 대입을 구현하기 위해 호출됩니다.  *note
     __getitem__(): 283. 과 같은 주의가 필요합니다.  매핑의 경우에는, 객
     체가 키에 대해 값의 변경이나 새 키의 추가를 허락할 경우, 시퀀스의 경
     우는 항목이 교체될 수 있을 때만 구현되어야 합니다.  잘못된 'key' 값
     의 경우는 *note __getitem__(): 283. 에서와 같은 예외를 일으켜야 합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__delitem__ (self, key)

     ‘self[key]’ 의 삭제를 구현하기 위해 호출됩니다.  *note
     __getitem__(): 283. 과 같은 주의가 필요합니다.  매핑의 경우에는, 객
     체가 키의 삭제를 허락할 경우, 시퀀스의 경우는 항목이 시퀀스로부터 제
     거될 수 있을 때만 구현되어야 합니다.  잘못된 'key' 값의 경우는
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 에서와 같은 예외를 일으켜야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__missing__ (self, key)

     *note dict: 256.*note __getitem__(): 283. 이 dict 서브 클래스에서 키
     가 딕셔너리에 없으면 ‘self[key]’ 를 구현하기 위해 호출합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__iter__ (self)

     This method is called when an *note iterator: 1ac. is required for
     a container.  This method should return a new iterator object that
     can iterate over all the objects in the container.  For mappings,
     it should iterate over the keys of the container.

 -- 메서드: object.__reversed__ (self)

     *note reversed(): 860. 내장 함수가 역 이터레이션(reverse
     iteration)을 구현하기 위해 (있다면) 호출합니다.  컨테이너에 있는 객
     체들을 역 순으로 탐색하는 새 이터레이터 객체를 돌려줘야 합니다.

     *note __reversed__(): 1f65. 메서드가 제공되지 않으면, *note
     reversed(): 860. 내장함수는 시퀀스 프로토콜(*note __len__(): 1f6b.
     과 *note __getitem__(): 283.)을 대안으로 사용합니다.  시퀀스 프로토
     콜을 지원하는 객체들은 *note reversed(): 860. 가 제공하는 것보다 더
     효율적인 구현을 제공할 수 있을 때만 *note __reversed__(): 1f65. 를
     제공해야 합니다.

멤버십 검사 연산자들(*note in: 2ec. 과 *note not in: 629.) 은 보통 컨테
이너에 대한 이터레이션으로 구현됩니다.  하지만, 컨테이너 객체는 더 효율
적인 구현을 다음과 같은 특수 메서드를 통해 제공할 수 있습니다.  이 경우
객체는 이터러블일 필요도 없습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__contains__ (self, item)

     멤버십 검사 연산자를 구현하기 위해 호출됩니다.  'item' 이 'self' 에
     있으면 참을, 그렇지 않으면 거짓을 돌려줘야 합니다.  매핑 객체의 경
     우, 키-값 쌍이 아니라 매핑의 키가 고려되어야 합니다.

     *note __contains__(): 1f66. 를 정의하지 않는 객체의 경우, 멤버십 검
     사는 먼저 *note __iter__(): 1f64. 를 통한 이터레이션을 시도한 후,
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 을 통한 낡은 시퀀스 이터레이션 프로토콜을
     시도합니다.  *note 언어 레퍼런스의 이 절: 1f9b.을 참고하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 형 흉내 내기,  Next: with 문 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 컨테이너형 흉내 내기,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.21 숫자 형 흉내 내기
..........................

숫자 형을 흉내 내기 위해 다음과 같은 메서드들을 정의할 수 있습니다.  구
현되는 특별한 종류의 숫자에 의해 지원되지 않는 연산들(예를 들어, 정수가
아닌 숫자들에 대한 비트 연산들)에 대응하는 메서드들을 정의되지 않은 채로
남겨두어야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__add__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__sub__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__mul__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__matmul__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__truediv__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__floordiv__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__mod__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__divmod__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__pow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- 메서드: object.__lshift__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rshift__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__and__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__xor__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__or__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     99e, *note pow(): 9cf, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’).  For
     instance, to evaluate the expression ‘x + y’, where 'x' is an
     instance of a class that has an *note __add__(): 1f94. method,
     ‘type(x).__add__(x, y)’ is called.  The *note __divmod__(): 1fa1.
     method should be the equivalent to using *note __floordiv__():
     14bc. and *note __mod__(): 1fa0.; it should not be related to *note
     __truediv__(): 14bb.  Note that *note __pow__(): 7cc. should be
     defined to accept an optional third argument if the ternary version
     of the built-in *note pow(): 9cf. function is to be supported.

     If one of those methods does not support the operation with the
     supplied arguments, it should return *note NotImplemented: 7cb.

 -- 메서드: object.__radd__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rsub__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rmul__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rmatmul__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rtruediv__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rfloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rmod__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rdivmod__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rpow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- 메서드: object.__rlshift__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rrshift__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rand__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__rxor__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ror__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     99e, *note pow(): 9cf, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’) with
     reflected (swapped) operands.  These functions are only called if
     the left operand does not support the corresponding operation (1)
     and the operands are of different types.  (2)  For instance, to
     evaluate the expression ‘x - y’, where 'y' is an instance of a
     class that has an *note __rsub__(): 1fa7. method,
     ‘type(y).__rsub__(y, x)’ is called if ‘type(x).__sub__(x, y)’
     returns *note NotImplemented: 7cb.

     삼 항 *note pow(): 9cf. 는 *note __rpow__(): 7cd. 를 호출하려고 시
     도하지 않음에 주의해야 합니다 (그렇게 하려면 코어션 규칙이 너무 복
     잡해집니다).

          참고: 만약 오른쪽 피연산자의 형이 왼쪽 피연산자의 형의 서브 클
          래스이고, 그 서브 클래스가 연산의 뒤집힌 메서드의 다른 구현을
          제공하면, 이 메서드가 왼쪽 연산자의 뒤집히지 않은 메서드보다 먼
          저 호출됩니다.  이 동작은 서브 클래스가 조상들의 연산을 재정의
          할 수 있도록 합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__iadd__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__isub__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__imul__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__imatmul__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__itruediv__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ifloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__imod__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ipow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- 메서드: object.__ilshift__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__irshift__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__iand__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ixor__ (self, other)
 -- 메서드: object.__ior__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic
     assignments (‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, ‘@=’, ‘/=’, ‘//=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’,
     ‘<<=’, ‘>>=’, ‘&=’, ‘^=’, ‘|=’).  These methods should attempt to
     do the operation in-place (modifying 'self') and return the result
     (which could be, but does not have to be, 'self').  If a specific
     method is not defined, or if that method returns *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb, the augmented assignment falls back to the
     normal methods.  For instance, if 'x' is an instance of a class
     with an *note __iadd__(): 1f96. method, ‘x += y’ is equivalent to
     ‘x = x.__iadd__(y)’ .  If *note __iadd__(): 1f96. does not exist,
     or if ‘x.__iadd__(y)’ returns ‘NotImplemented’, ‘x.__add__(y)’ and
     ‘y.__radd__(x)’ are considered, as with the evaluation of ‘x + y’.
     In certain situations, augmented assignment can result in
     unexpected errors (see *note 덧셈은 작동하는데, 왜 a_tuple[i] +=
     [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?: 1fbc.), but this behavior is in fact
     part of the data model.

 -- 메서드: object.__neg__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__pos__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__abs__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__invert__ (self)

     일 항 산술 연산(‘-’, ‘+’, *note abs(): 1cac, ‘~’)을 구현하기 위해 호
     출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__complex__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__int__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__float__ (self)

     내장 함수 *note complex(): 2f0, *note int(): 257, *note float():
     2ef.를 구현하기 위해 호출됩니다.  적절한 형의 값을 돌려줘야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__index__ (self)

     *note operator.index(): 1915. 를 구현하기 위해 호출되고, 파이썬이 숫
     자 객체를 정수 객체로 손실 없이 변환해야 할 때(슬라이싱이나 내장
     *note bin(): 1298, *note hex(): 12bf, *note oct(): 12be. 함수들에서
     와같이)마다 호출됩니다.  이 메서드의 존재는 숫자 객체가 정수 형임을
     가리킵니다.  반드시 정수를 돌려줘야 합니다.

     *note __int__(): 715, *note __float__(): 9c9. 및 *note
     __complex__(): 5e1.가 정의되어 있지 않으면, 해당 내장 함수 *note
     int(): 257, *note float(): 2ef. 및 *note complex(): 2f0.는 *note
     __index__(): 716.를 사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__round__ (self[, ndigits])
 -- 메서드: object.__trunc__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__floor__ (self)
 -- 메서드: object.__ceil__ (self)

     내장 함수 *note round(): 12ca.와 *note math: 8e. 함수 *note
     trunc(): 138c, *note floor(): 138a, *note ceil(): 138b. 을 구현하기
     위해 호출됩니다.  'ndigits' 가 ‘__round__()’ 로 전달되지 않는 한, 이
     메서드들은 모두 *note Integral: 1fc4. (보통 *note int: 257.) 로 잘
     린 객체의 값을 돌려줘야 합니다.

     The built-in function *note int(): 257. falls back to *note
     __trunc__(): 714. if neither *note __int__(): 715. nor *note
     __index__(): 716. is defined.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The delegation of *note int(): 257. to *note
     __trunc__(): 714. is deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) “Does not support” here means that the class has no such method,
or the method returns *note NotImplemented: 7cb.  Do not set the method
to ‘None’ if you want to force fallback to the right operand’s reflected
method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly
'blocking' such fallback.

   (2) For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the
non-reflected method – such as *note __add__(): 1f94. – fails then the
overall operation is not supported, which is why the reflected method is
not called.


File: python.info,  Node: with 문 컨텍스트 관리자,  Next: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Prev: 숫자 형 흉내 내기,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.22 with 문 컨텍스트 관리자
................................

'컨텍스트 관리자 (context manager)' 는 *note with: 5cc. 문을 실행할 때 자
리 잡는 실행 컨텍스트(context)를 정의하는 객체입니다.  코드 블록의 실행
을 위해, 컨텍스트 관리자는 원하는 실행시간 컨텍스트로의 진입과 탈출을 처
리합니다.  컨텍스트 관리자는 보통 ‘with’ 문(*note with 문: 5cc. 섹션에서
설명합니다)으로 시작되지만, 그들의 메서드를 호출해서 직접 사용할 수도 있
습니다.

컨텍스트 관리자의 전형적인 용도에는 다양한 종류의 전역 상태(global
state)를 보관하고 복구하는 것, 자원을 로킹(locking)하고 언로킹
(unlocking)하는 것, 열린 파일을 닫는 것 등이 있습니다.

For more information on context managers, see *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형:
1fc7.  The *note object: a89. class itself does not provide the context
manager methods.

 -- 메서드: object.__enter__ (self)

     이 객체와 연관된 실행시간 컨텍스트에 진입합니다.  *note with: 5cc.
     문은 ‘as’ 절로 지정된 대상이 있다면, 이 메서드의 반환 값을 연결합니
     다.

 -- 메서드: object.__exit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     이 객체와 연관된 실행시간 컨텍스트를 종료합니다.  매개변수들은 컨텍
     스트에서 벗어나게 만든 예외를 기술합니다.  만약 컨텍스트가 예외 없
     이 종료한다면, 세 인자 모두 *note None: 66f. 이 됩니다.

     만약 예외가 제공되고, 메서드가 예외를 중지시키고 싶으면 (즉 확산하
     는 것을 막으려면) 참(true)을 돌려줘야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 예외는
     이 메서드가 종료한 후에 계속 진행됩니다.

     Note that *note __exit__(): 12f0. methods should not reraise the
     passed-in exception; this is the caller’s responsibility.

더 보기
.......

PEP 343(1) - “with” 문

     파이썬 *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 규격, 배경, 예.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Next: Emulating buffer types,  Prev: with 문 컨텍스트 관리자,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.23 Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching
...................................................................

When using a class name in a pattern, positional arguments in the
pattern are not allowed by default, i.e.  ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is
typically invalid without special support in ‘MyClass’.  To be able to
use that kind of pattern, the class needs to define a '__match_args__'
attribute.

 -- 데이터: object.__match_args__

     This class variable can be assigned a tuple of strings.  When this
     class is used in a class pattern with positional arguments, each
     positional argument will be converted into a keyword argument,
     using the corresponding value in '__match_args__' as the keyword.
     The absence of this attribute is equivalent to setting it to ‘()’.

For example, if ‘MyClass.__match_args__’ is ‘("left", "center",
"right")’ that means that ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is equivalent to ‘case
MyClass(left=x, center=y)’.  Note that the number of arguments in the
pattern must be smaller than or equal to the number of elements in
'__match_args__'; if it is larger, the pattern match attempt will raise
a *note TypeError: 532.

Added in version 3.10.

더 보기
.......

PEP 634(1) - Structural Pattern Matching

     The specification for the Python ‘match’ statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating buffer types,  Next: 특수 메서드 조회,  Prev: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.24 Emulating buffer types
...............................

The *note buffer protocol: 391. provides a way for Python objects to
expose efficient access to a low-level memory array.  This protocol is
implemented by builtin types such as *note bytes: 1c2. and *note
memoryview: 462, and third-party libraries may define additional buffer
types.

While buffer types are usually implemented in C, it is also possible to
implement the protocol in Python.

 -- 메서드: object.__buffer__ (self, flags)

     Called when a buffer is requested from 'self' (for example, by the
     *note memoryview: 462. constructor).  The 'flags' argument is an
     integer representing the kind of buffer requested, affecting for
     example whether the returned buffer is read-only or writable.
     *note inspect.BufferFlags: 459. provides a convenient way to
     interpret the flags.  The method must return a *note memoryview:
     462. object.

 -- 메서드: object.__release_buffer__ (self, buffer)

     Called when a buffer is no longer needed.  The 'buffer' argument is
     a *note memoryview: 462. object that was previously returned by
     *note __buffer__(): 458.  The method must release any resources
     associated with the buffer.  This method should return ‘None’.
     Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not
     required to implement this method.

Added in version 3.12.

더 보기
.......

PEP 688(1) - Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

     Introduces the Python ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’
     methods.

*note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4.

     ABC for buffer types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 메서드 조회,  Prev: Emulating buffer types,  Up: 특수 메서드 이름들

4.3.3.25 특수 메서드 조회
.........................

사용자 정의 클래스의 경우, 묵시적인 특수 메서드의 호출은 객체의 인스턴스
딕셔너리가 아닌 객체의 형에 정의되어 있을 때만 올바르게 동작함이 보장됩
니다.  이런 동작은 다음과 같은 코드가 예외를 일으키는 원인입니다:

     >>> class C:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
     >>> len(c)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

The rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special
methods such as *note __hash__(): af8. and *note __repr__(): 616. that
are implemented by all objects, including type objects.  If the implicit
lookup of these methods used the conventional lookup process, they would
fail when invoked on the type object itself:

     >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
     True
     >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

클래스의 연결되지 않은 메서드를 호출하려는 이런 식의 잘못된 시도는 종종
‘메타 클래스 혼란(metaclass confusion)’ 이라고 불리고, 특수 메서드를 조
회할 때 인스턴스를 우회하는 방법으로 피할 수 있습니다.

     >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
     True
     >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
     True

In addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of
correctness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses the
*note __getattribute__(): bcf. method even of the object’s metaclass:

     >>> class Meta(type):
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
     ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
     ...     def __len__(self):
     ...         return 10
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
     ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
     Class getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
     Metaclass getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
     10

Bypassing the *note __getattribute__(): bcf. machinery in this fashion
provides significant scope for speed optimisations within the
interpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of special
methods (the special method 'must' be set on the class object itself in
order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴 Coroutines,  Prev: 특수 메서드 이름들,  Up: 데이터 모델

4.3.4 코루틴(Coroutines)
------------------------

* Menu:

* 어웨이터블 객체(Awaitable Objects): 어웨이터블 객체 Awaitable Objects.
* 코루틴 객체(Coroutine Objects): 코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects.
* 비동기 이터레이터(Asynchronous Iterators): 비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators.
* 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자::


File: python.info,  Node: 어웨이터블 객체 Awaitable Objects,  Next: 코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects,  Up: 코루틴 Coroutines

4.3.4.1 어웨이터블 객체(Awaitable Objects)
..........................................

An *note awaitable: 1ad. object generally implements an *note
__await__(): 1fcf. method.  *note Coroutine objects: 48b. returned from
*note async def: 5cb. functions are awaitable.

     참고: The *note generator iterator: bdb. objects returned from
     generators decorated with *note types.coroutine(): e80. are also
     awaitable, but they do not implement *note __await__(): 1fcf.

 -- 메서드: object.__await__ (self)

     Must return an *note iterator: 1ac.  Should be used to implement
     *note awaitable: 1ad. objects.  For instance, *note asyncio.Future:
     bca. implements this method to be compatible with the *note await:
     1b9. expression.  The *note object: a89. class itself is not
     awaitable and does not provide this method.

          참고: The language doesn’t place any restriction on the type
          or value of the objects yielded by the iterator returned by
          ‘__await__’, as this is specific to the implementation of the
          asynchronous execution framework (e.g.  *note asyncio: a.)
          that will be managing the *note awaitable: 1ad. object.

Added in version 3.5.

더 보기
.......

PEP 492(1) 가 어웨이터블 객체에 대한 더 자세한 정보를 포함하고 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects,  Next: 비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators,  Prev: 어웨이터블 객체 Awaitable Objects,  Up: 코루틴 Coroutines

4.3.4.2 코루틴 객체(Coroutine Objects)
......................................

*note Coroutine objects: 48b. are *note awaitable: 1ad. objects.  A
coroutine’s execution can be controlled by calling *note __await__():
1fcf. and iterating over the result.  When the coroutine has finished
executing and returns, the iterator raises *note StopIteration: bf7, and
the exception’s *note value: 1fd1. attribute holds the return value.  If
the coroutine raises an exception, it is propagated by the iterator.
Coroutines should not directly raise unhandled *note StopIteration: bf7.
exceptions.

코루틴은 다음에 나열하는 메서드들 또한 갖고 있는데, 제너레이터(*note
제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드: 1fd2. 를 보십시오)의 것들과 닮았습니다.  하
지만, 제너레이터와는 달리, 코루틴은 이터레이션을 직접 지원하지는 않습니
다.

버전 3.5.2에서 변경: 코루틴을 두 번 await 하면 *note RuntimeError: 195.
를 일으킵니다.

 -- 메서드: coroutine.send (value)

     Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine.  If 'value' is
     ‘None’, this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by
     *note __await__(): 1fcf.  If 'value' is not ‘None’, this method
     delegates to the *note send(): 1fd4. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend.  The result (return value, *note
     StopIteration: bf7, or other exception) is the same as when
     iterating over the ‘__await__()’ return value, described above.

 -- 메서드: coroutine.throw (value)

 -- 메서드: coroutine.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises the specified exception in the coroutine.  This method
     delegates to the *note throw(): 4f2. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method.
     Otherwise, the exception is raised at the suspension point.  The
     result (return value, *note StopIteration: bf7, or other exception)
     is the same as when iterating over the *note __await__(): 1fcf.
     return value, described above.  If the exception is not caught in
     the coroutine, it propagates back to the caller.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- 메서드: coroutine.close ()

     코루틴이 자신을 정리하고 종료하도록 만듭니다.  만약 코루틴이 일시 중
     지 중이면, 이 메서드는 먼저 코루틴이 일시 중지되도록 한 이터레이터
     의 *note close(): 16fb. 메서드로 위임합니다(그런 메서드를 가지는 경
     우).  그런 다음 일시 중지지점에서 *note GeneratorExit: 1390. 를 발
     생시키는데, 코루틴이 즉시 자신을 정리하도록 만듭니다.  마지막으로 코
     루틴에 실행을 종료했다고 표시하는데, 아직 시작하지조차 않았을 때도
     그렇다.

     코루틴 객체가 파괴될 때는 위의 프로세스에 따라 자동으로 닫힙니다
     (closed).


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators,  Next: 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects,  Up: 코루틴 Coroutines

4.3.4.3 비동기 이터레이터(Asynchronous Iterators)
.................................................

'비동기 이터레이터' 는 자신의 ‘__anext__’ 메서드에서 비동기 코드를 호출
할 수 있습니다.

비동기 이터레이터는 *note async for: aa7. 문에서 사용될 수 있습니다.

The *note object: a89. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- 메서드: object.__aiter__ (self)

     '비동기 이터레이터' 객체를 돌려줘야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__anext__ (self)

     이터레이터의 다음 값을 주는 '어웨이터블' 을 돌려줘야 합니다.  이터
     레이션이 끝나면 *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. 에러를 일으켜야 합
     니다.

비동기 이터러블 객체의 예:

     class Reader:
         async def readline(self):
             ...

         def __aiter__(self):
             return self

         async def __anext__(self):
             val = await self.readline()
             if val == b'':
                 raise StopAsyncIteration
             return val

Added in version 3.5.

버전 3.7에서 변경: Prior to Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): bf8. could
return an 'awaitable' that would resolve to an *note asynchronous
iterator: 1ab.

Starting with Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): bf8. must return an
asynchronous iterator object.  Returning anything else will result in a
*note TypeError: 532. error.


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators,  Up: 코루틴 Coroutines

4.3.4.4 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자
..............................

'비동기 컨텍스트 관리자(asynchronous context manager)' 는 ‘__aenter__’ 와
‘__aexit__’ 메서드에서 실행을 일시 중지할 수 있는 '컨텍스트 관리자' 입니
다.

비동기 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note async with: 5cf. 문에서 사용될 수 있습니
다.

The *note object: a89. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- 메서드: object.__aenter__ (self)

     Semantically similar to *note __enter__(): 5c2, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

 -- 메서드: object.__aexit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Semantically similar to *note __exit__(): 12f0, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 클래스의 예:

     class AsyncContextManager:
         async def __aenter__(self):
             await log('entering context')

         async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
             await log('exiting context')

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: 실행 모델,  Next: 임포트 시스템,  Prev: 데이터 모델,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.4 실행 모델
=============

* Menu:

* 프로그램의 구조::
* 이름과 연결(binding): 이름과 연결 binding.
* 예외: 예외<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그램의 구조,  Next: 이름과 연결 binding,  Up: 실행 모델

4.4.1 프로그램의 구조
---------------------

파이썬 프로그램은 코드 블록으로 만들어집니다.  '블록 (block)' 은 한 단위
로 실행되는 한 조각의 파이썬 프로그램 텍스트입니다.  다음과 같은 것들이
블록입니다: 모듈, 함수 바디, 클래스 정의.  대화형으로 입력되는 각 명령은
블록입니다.  스크립트 파일(표준 입력을 통해 인터프리터로 제공되는 파일이
나 인터프리터에 명령행 인자로 지정된 파일)은 코드 블록입니다.  스크립트
명령(*note -c: 5da. 옵션으로 인터프리터 명령행에 지정된 명령)은 코드 블
록입니다.  *note -m: 5db. 인자를 사용하여 명령 줄에서 최상위 수준 스크립
트로 (모듈 ‘__main__’으로) 실행되는 모듈도 코드 블록입니다.  내장함수
*note eval(): 180. 과 *note exec(): 17f. 로 전달되는 문자열 인자도 코드
블록입니다.

코드 블록은 '실행 프레임 (execution frame)' 에서 실행됩니다.  프레임은 몇
몇 관리를 위한 정보(디버깅에 사용됩니다)를 포함하고, 코드 블록의 실행이
끝난 후에 어디서 어떻게 실행을 계속할 것인지를 결정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이름과 연결 binding,  Next: 예외<2>,  Prev: 프로그램의 구조,  Up: 실행 모델

4.4.2 이름과 연결(binding)
--------------------------

* Menu:

* 이름의 연결::
* 이름의 검색(resolution): 이름의 검색 resolution.
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* builtins 와 제한된 실행::
* 동적 기능과의 상호작용::


File: python.info,  Node: 이름의 연결,  Next: 이름의 검색 resolution,  Up: 이름과 연결 binding

4.4.2.1 이름의 연결
...................

'이름 (Names)' 은 객체를 가리킵니다.  이름은 이름 연결 연산 때문에 만들
어집니다.

The following constructs bind names:

   * formal parameters to functions,

   * class definitions,

   * function definitions,

   * assignment expressions,

   * *note targets: 1fe1. that are identifiers if occurring in an
     assignment:

        + *note for: 2ea. loop header,

        + after ‘as’ in a *note with: 5cc. statement, *note except: 18b.
          clause, *note except*: 5b2. clause, or in the as-pattern in
          structural pattern matching,

        + in a capture pattern in structural pattern matching

   * *note import: 5dc. statements.

   * *note type: 431. statements.

   * *note type parameter lists: 2b3.

The ‘import’ statement of the form ‘from ... import *’ binds all names
defined in the imported module, except those beginning with an
underscore.  This form may only be used at the module level.

*note del: 17ad. 문에 나오는 대상 역시 이 목적에서 연결된 것으로 간주합
니다(실제 의미가 이름을 연결 해제하는 것이기는 해도).

각 대입이나 임포트 문은 클래스나 함수 정의 때문에 정의되는 블록 내에 등
장할 수 있고, 모듈 수준(최상위 코드 블록)에서 등장할 수도 있습니다.

만약 이름이 블록 내에서 연결되면, *note nonlocal: 1297. 이나 *note
global: 18a. 로 선언되지 않는 이상, 그 블록의 지역 변수입니다.  만약 이
름이 모듈 수준에서 연결되면, 전역 변수입니다.  (모듈 코드 블록의 변수들
지역이면서 전역입니다.)  만약 변수가 코드 블록에서 사용되지만, 거기에서
정의되지 않았으면 *note 자유 변수: 1fe2. 입니다.

프로그램 텍스트에 등장하는 각각의 이름들은 다음에 나오는 이름 검색(name
resolution) 규칙에 따라 확정되는 이름의 '연결 (binding)' 을 가리킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이름의 검색 resolution,  Next: Annotation scopes,  Prev: 이름의 연결,  Up: 이름과 연결 binding

4.4.2.2 이름의 검색(resolution)
...............................

'스코프 (scope)' 는 블록 내에서 이름의 가시성(visibility)을 정의합니다.
지역 변수가 블록에서 정의되면, 그것의 스코프는 그 블록을 포함합니다.  만
약 정의가 함수 블록에서 이루어지면, 포함된 블록이 그 이름에 대해 다른 결
합을 만들지 않는 이상, 스코프는 정의하고 있는 것 안에 포함된 모든 블록으
로 확대됩니다.

이름이 코드 블록 내에서 사용될 때, 가장 가깝게 둘러싸고 있는 스코프에 있
는 것으로 검색됩니다.  코드 블록이 볼 수 있는 모든 스코프의 집합을 블록
의 '환경 (environment)' 이라고 부릅니다.

이름이 어디에서도 발견되지 않으면 *note NameError: 438. 예외가 발생합니
다.  만약 현재 스코프가 함수 스코프이고, 그 이름이 사용되는 시점에 아직
연결되지 않은 지역 변수면 *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. 예외가 발생합니
다.  *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. 는 *note NameError: 438. 의 서브 클
래스입니다.

만약 이름 연결 연산이 코드 블록 내의 어디에서 건 일어난다면, 그 블록 내
에서 그 이름의 모든 사용은 현재 블록을 가리키는 것으로 취급됩니다.  이것
은 연결되기 전에 블록에서 사용될 때 에러로 이어질 수 있습니다.  이 규칙
은 미묘합니다.  파이썬에는 선언(declaration)이 없고, 이름 연결 연산이 코
드 블록 내의 어디에서나 일어날 수 있도록 허락합니다.  코드 블록의 지역 변
수는 블록의 텍스트 전체에서 이름 연결 연산을 찾아야 결정될 수 있습니다.
예제는 *note UnboundLocalError 에 관한 FAQ 항목: 1fe5.을 참조하세요.

만약 *note global: 18a. 문이 블록 내에서 나오면, 문장에서 지정한 이름의
모든 사용은 최상위 이름 공간(top-level namespace)에 연결된 것을 가리키게
됩니다.  최상위 이름 공간에서 이름을 검색한다는 것은, 전역 이름 공간, 즉
코드 블록을 포함하는 모듈의 이름 공간, 과 내장 이름 공간, 모듈 *note
builtins: 12. 의 이름 공간, 을 검색한다는 뜻입니다.  전역 이름 공간이 먼
저 검색됩니다.  거기에서 이름이 발견되지 않으면, 내장 이름 공간을 다음에
검색합니다.  내장 이름 공간에서도 이름이 발견되지 않으면, 전역 이름 공간
에 새 변수가 만들어집니다.  global 문은 나열된 이름을 사용하기 전에 나와
야 합니다.

*note global: 18a. 문은 같은 블록의 이름 연결 연산과 같은 스코프를 갖습
니다.  자유 변수의 경우 가장 가까이서 둘러싸는 스코프가 global 문을 포함
한다면, 그 자유 변수는 전역으로 취급됩니다.

*note nonlocal: 1297. 문은 대응하는 이름이 가장 가까이서 둘러싸는 함수 스
코프에서 이미 연결된 이름을 가리키도록 만듭니다.  만약 주어진 이름이 둘
러싸는 함수 스코프 어디에도 없다면 컴파일 시점에 *note SyntaxError: 18d.
를 일으킵니다.  *note 형 매개 변수: 2b3.는 ‘nonlocal’ 문으로 재연결할 수
없습니다.

모듈의 이름 공간은 모듈이 처음 임포트될 때 자동으로 만들어집니다.  스크
립트의 메인 모듈은 항상 *note __main__: 1. 이라고 불립니다.

클래스 정의 블록과 *note exec(): 17f. 와 *note eval(): 180. 로 전달되는
인자는 특별한 이름 검색 문맥을 갖습니다.  클래스 정의는 이름을 사용하고
정의할 수 있는 실행 가능한 문장입니다.  이 참조들은 연결되지 않은 지역 변
수를 전역 이름 공간에서 찾는다는 점을 제외하고는 이름 검색의 일반적인 규
칙을 따릅니다.  클래스 정의의 이름 공간은 클래스의 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리가
됩니다.  클래스 블록에서 정의된 이름들의 스코프는 클래스 블록으로 제한됩
니다; 메서드들의 코드 블록으로 확대되지 않습니다.  이것은 컴프리헨션과 제
너레이터 표현을 포함하지만, 둘러싸는 클래스 스코프에 액세스하는 *note
어노테이션 스코프: 188.는 포함하지 않습니다.  이것은 다음과 같은 것이 실
패한다는 뜻입니다:

     class A:
         a = 42
         b = list(a + i for i in range(10))

However, the following will succeed:

     class A:
         type Alias = Nested
         class Nested: pass

     print(A.Alias.__value__)  # <type 'A.Nested'>


File: python.info,  Node: Annotation scopes,  Next: Lazy evaluation,  Prev: 이름의 검색 resolution,  Up: 이름과 연결 binding

4.4.2.3 Annotation scopes
.........................

*note Type parameter lists: 2b3. and *note type: 431. statements
introduce 'annotation scopes', which behave mostly like function scopes,
but with some exceptions discussed below.  *note Annotations: 451.
currently do not use annotation scopes, but they are expected to use
annotation scopes in Python 3.13 when PEP 649(1) is implemented.

Annotation scopes are used in the following contexts:

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic type aliases: 44f.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic functions: 44c.  A generic
     function’s annotations are executed within the annotation scope,
     but its defaults and decorators are not.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic classes: 44b.  A generic
     class’s base classes and keyword arguments are executed within the
     annotation scope, but its decorators are not.

   * The bounds, constraints, and default values for type parameters
     (*note lazily evaluated: 450.).

   * The value of type aliases (*note lazily evaluated: 450.).

Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:

   * Annotation scopes have access to their enclosing class namespace.
     If an annotation scope is immediately within a class scope, or
     within another annotation scope that is immediately within a class
     scope, the code in the annotation scope can use names defined in
     the class scope as if it were executed directly within the class
     body.  This contrasts with regular functions defined within
     classes, which cannot access names defined in the class scope.

   * Expressions in annotation scopes cannot contain *note yield: 9ca,
     ‘yield from’, *note await: 1b9, or *note ;=: 1fe7. expressions.
     (These expressions are allowed in other scopes contained within the
     annotation scope.)

   * Names defined in annotation scopes cannot be rebound with *note
     nonlocal: 1297. statements in inner scopes.  This includes only
     type parameters, as no other syntactic elements that can appear
     within annotation scopes can introduce new names.

   * While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not
     reflected in the *note qualified name: 1948. of objects defined
     within the scope.  Instead, the *note __qualname__: 105b. of such
     objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.

Added in version 3.12: Annotation scopes were introduced in Python 3.12
as part of PEP 695(2).

버전 3.13에서 변경: Annotation scopes are also used for type parameter
defaults, as introduced by PEP 696(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/


File: python.info,  Node: Lazy evaluation,  Next: builtins 와 제한된 실행,  Prev: Annotation scopes,  Up: 이름과 연결 binding

4.4.2.4 Lazy evaluation
.......................

The values of type aliases created through the *note type: 431.
statement are 'lazily evaluated'.  The same applies to the bounds,
constraints, and default values of type variables created through the
*note type parameter syntax: 2b3.  This means that they are not
evaluated when the type alias or type variable is created.  Instead,
they are only evaluated when doing so is necessary to resolve an
attribute access.

Example:

     >>> type Alias = 1/0
     >>> Alias.__value__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> def func[T: 1/0](): pass
     >>> T = func.__type_params__[0]
     >>> T.__bound__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Here the exception is raised only when the ‘__value__’ attribute of the
type alias or the ‘__bound__’ attribute of the type variable is
accessed.

This behavior is primarily useful for references to types that have not
yet been defined when the type alias or type variable is created.  For
example, lazy evaluation enables creation of mutually recursive type
aliases:

     from typing import Literal

     type SimpleExpr = int | Parenthesized
     type Parenthesized = tuple[Literal["("], Expr, Literal[")"]]
     type Expr = SimpleExpr | tuple[SimpleExpr, Literal["+", "-"], Expr]

Lazily evaluated values are evaluated in *note annotation scope: 188,
which means that names that appear inside the lazily evaluated value are
looked up as if they were used in the immediately enclosing scope.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: builtins 와 제한된 실행,  Next: 동적 기능과의 상호작용,  Prev: Lazy evaluation,  Up: 이름과 연결 binding

4.4.2.5 builtins 와 제한된 실행
...............................

사용자는 ‘__builtins__’ 를 건드리지 말아야 합니다; 이것은 구현 세부사항
입니다.  내장 이름 공간의 값을 변경하고 싶은 사용자는 *note builtins:
12. 모듈을 *note import: 5dc. 하고 그것의 어트리뷰트를 적절하게 수정해야
합니다.

코드 블록의 실행과 연관된 내장 이름 공간은, 사실 전역 이름 공간의 이름
‘__builtins__’ 를 조회함으로써 발견됩니다.  이것은 딕셔너리나 모듈이어야
합니다(후자의 경우 모듈의 딕셔너리가 사용됩니다).  기본적으로, *note
__main__: 1. 모듈에 있을 때는 ‘__builtins__’ 가 내장 모듈 *note
builtins: 12. 이고, 다른 모듈에 있을 때는 ‘__builtins__’ 는 *note
builtins: 12. 모듈의 딕셔너리에 대한 별칭입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 동적 기능과의 상호작용,  Prev: builtins 와 제한된 실행,  Up: 이름과 연결 binding

4.4.2.6 동적 기능과의 상호작용
..............................

자유 변수에 대해 이름 검색은 컴파일 시점이 아니라 실행 시점에 이루어집니
다.  이것은 다음과 같은 코드가 42를 출력한다는 것을 뜻합니다:

     i = 10
     def f():
         print(i)
     i = 42
     f()

*note eval(): 180. 과 *note exec(): 17f. 함수는 이름 검색을 위한 완전한
환경에 대한 접근권이 없습니다.  이름은 호출자의 지역과 전역 이름 공간에
서 검색될 수 있습니다.  자유 변수는 가장 가까이 둘러싼 이름 공간이 아니
라 전역 이름 공간에서 검색됩니다.  (1)  *note exec(): 17f. 과 *note
eval(): 180. 함수에는 전역과 지역 이름 공간을 재정의할 수 있는 생략 가능
한 인자가 있습니다.  만약 단지 한 이름 공간만 주어지면, 그것이 두 가지 모
두로 사용됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이 한계는 이 연산들 때문에 실행되는 코드가 모듈이 컴파일되는 시점
에는 존재하지 않았기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<2>,  Prev: 이름과 연결 binding,  Up: 실행 모델

4.4.3 예외
----------

예외는 에러나 예외적인 조건을 처리하기 위해 코드 블록의 일반적인 제어 흐
름을 깨는 수단입니다.  에러가 감지된 지점에서 예외를 '일으킵니다
(raised)'; 둘러싼 코드 블록이나 직접적 혹은 간접적으로 에러가 발생한 코
드 블록을 호출한 어떤 코드 블록에서건 예외는 처리될 수 있습니다.

파이썬 인터프리터는 실행 시간 에러(0으로 나누는 것 같은)를 감지할 때 예
외를 일으킵니다.  파이썬 프로그램은 *note raise: 5e7. 문을 사용해서 명시
적으로 예외를 일으킬 수 있습니다.  예외 처리기는 *note try: 6e2. … *note
except: 18b. 문으로 지정됩니다.  그런 문장에서 *note finally: 9c7. 구는
정리(cleanup) 코드를 지정하는 데 사용되는데, 예외를 처리하는 것이 아니라
앞선 코드에서 예외가 발생하건 그렇지 않건 실행됩니다.

파이썬은 에러 처리에 “종결 (termination)” 모델을 사용합니다; 예외 처리기
가 뭐가 발생했는지 발견할 수 있고, 바깥 단계에서 실행을 계속할 수는 있지
만, 에러의 원인을 제거한 후에 실패한 연산을 재시도할 수는 없습니다(문제
의 코드 조각을 처음부터 다시 시작시키는 것은 예외입니다).

예외가 어디서도 처리되지 않을 때, 인터프리터는 프로그램의 실행을 종료하
거나, 대화형 메인 루프로 돌아갑니다.  두 경우 모두, 예외가 *note
SystemExit: d3d. 인 경우를 제외하고, 스택 트레이스백을 인쇄합니다.

예외는 클래스 인스턴스로 구분됩니다.  *note except: 18b. 절은 인스턴스의
클래스에 따라 선택됩니다: 인스턴스의 클래스나 그것의 *note
비가상(non-virtual) 베이스 클래스: 11a5.를 가리켜야 합니다.  인스턴스는
핸들러가 수신할 수 있고 예외적인 조건에 대한 추가적인 정보를 포함할 수 있
습니다.

     참고: 예외 메시지는 파이썬 API 일부가 아닙니다.  그 내용은 파이썬의
     버전이 바뀔 때 경고 없이 변경될 수 있고, 코드는 여러 버전의 인터프
     리터에서 실행될 수 있는 코드는 이것에 의존하지 말아야 합니다.

섹션 *note try 문: 6e2. 에서 *note try: 6e2. 문, *note raise 문: 5e7. 에
서 *note raise: 5e7. 문에 대한 설명이 제공됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 임포트 시스템,  Next: 표현식,  Prev: 실행 모델,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.5 임포트 시스템
=================

한 *note 모듈: 1666. 에 있는 파이썬 코드는 *note 임포팅: 1ff1. 이라는 프
로세스를 통해 다른 모듈에 있는 코드들에 대한 접근권을 얻습니다.  *note
import: 5dc. 문은 임포트 절차를 일으키는 가장 흔한 방법이지만, 유일한 방
법은 아닙니다.  *note importlib.import_module(): 511. 같은 함수나 내장
*note __import__(): 8d1. 도 임포트 절차를 일으키는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

*note import: 5dc. 문은 두 가지 연산을 합친 것입니다; 먼저 이름이 가리키
는 모듈을 찾은 후에, 그 검색의 결과를 지역 스코프의 이름에 연결합니다.
‘import’ 문의 검색 연산은 적절한 인자들로 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함수
를 호출하는 것으로 정의됩니다.  *note __import__(): 8d1. 의 반환 값은
‘import’ 문의 이름 연결 연산을 수행하는 데 사용됩니다.  이 이름 연결 연
산의 정확한 세부사항에 대해서는 ‘import’ 문을 보세요.

*note __import__(): 8d1. 의 직접 호출은 모듈을 찾고, 발견된다면, 모듈을
만드는 연산만을 수행합니다.  부모 패키지를 임포트하거나 여러 캐시(*note
sys.modules: 1558. 를 포함합니다)를 갱신하는 것과 같은 부수적인 효과들이
일어날 수 있기는 하지만, 오직 *note import: 5dc. 문만이 이름 연결 연산을
수행합니다.

*note import: 5dc. 문이 실행될 때, 표준 내장 *note __import__(): 8d1. 가
호출됩니다.  임포트 시스템을 호출하는 다른 메커니즘 (*note
importlib.import_module(): 511. 같은)은 *note __import__(): 8d1. 를 사용
하지 않고 임포트 개념을 구현하기 위한 자신의 방법을 사용할 수 있습니다.

모듈이 처음 임포트 될 때, 파이썬은 모듈을 검색하고, 발견된다면, 모듈 객
체를 만들고 (1), 초기화합니다.  만약 그 이름의 모듈을 발견할 수 없다면,
*note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 일으킵니다.  파이썬은 임포트 절차가 호
출될 때 이름 붙여진 모듈을 찾는 다양한 전략을 구현합니다.  이 전략들은 다
음 섹션에서 설명하는 여러 가지 훅을 통해 수정되고 확장될 수 있습니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 임포트 시스템은 PEP 302(2) 의 두 번째 단계를 완전히 구
현하도록 개정되었습니다.  이제 묵시적인 임포트 절차는 없습니다 - 전체 임
포트 시스템이 *note sys.meta_path: d28. 을 통해 노출됩니다.  여기에 더해
, 네이티브(native) 이름 공간 패키지의 지원이 구현되었습니다 ( PEP 420(3)
을 보세요).

* Menu:

* importlib: importlib<10>.
* 패키지(package): 패키지 package.
* 검색::
* 로딩(loading): 로딩 loading.
* 경로 기반 파인더::
* 표준 임포트 시스템 교체하기::
* 패키지 상대 임포트::
* __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려::
* 참고문헌::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note types.ModuleType: e0f. 을 보세요.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<10>,  Next: 패키지 package,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.1 ‘importlib’
-----------------

*note importlib: 77. 모듈은 임포트 시스템과 상호 작용하기 위한 풍부한
API를 제공합니다.  예를 들어, *note importlib.import_module(): 511. 는 임
포트 절차를 구동하는 데 있어 내장 *note __import__(): 8d1. 에 비해 권장
되고, 더 간단한 API를 제공합니다.  더 상세한 내용은 *note importlib: 77.
라이브러리 설명서를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 패키지 package,  Next: 검색,  Prev: importlib<10>,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.2 패키지(package)
---------------------

파이썬은 한 가지 종류의 모듈 객체만 갖고 있고, 모든 모듈은 모듈이 파이썬
이나 C나 그 밖의 다른 어떤 방법으로 구현되었는지와 상관없이 이 형입니다.
모듈을 조직화하고 이름 계층구조를 제공하기 위해, 파이썬은 *note 패키지:
1f22. 라는 개념을 갖고 있습니다.

패키지를 파일 시스템에 있는 디렉터리라고 생각할 수 있지만, 패키지와 모듈
이 파일시스템으로부터 올 필요는 없으므로 이 비유를 너무 문자 그대로 해석
하지 말아야 합니다.  이 문서의 목적상, 디렉터리와 파일이라는 비유를 사용
할 것입니다.  파일 시스템 디렉터리처럼, 패키지는 계층적으로 조직화하고,
패키지는 보통 모듈뿐만 아니라 서브 패키지도 포함할 수 있습니다.

모든 패키지가 모듈이라는 것을 기억하는 것이 중요합니다.  하지만 모든 모
듈이 패키지인 것은 아닙니다.  다른 식으로 표현하면, 패키지는 특별한 종류
의 모듈입니다.  구체적으로, ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 모든 모듈은
패키지로 취급됩니다.

모든 모듈은 이름이 있습니다.  서브 패키지 이름은 파이썬의 표준 어트리뷰
트 액세스 문법을 따라, 부모 패키지 이름과 점(dot)으로 구분됩니다.  그래
서 *note email: 3b. 이라고 불리는 패키지가 있을 수 있습니다.  email 은 다
시 서브 패키지 *note email.mime: 45. 을 갖고, 이 서브 패키지 내에 모듈
*note email.mime.text: 4d. 가 있을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 정규 패키지::
* 이름 공간 패키지::


File: python.info,  Node: 정규 패키지,  Next: 이름 공간 패키지,  Up: 패키지 package

4.5.2.1 정규 패키지
...................

파이썬은 두 가지 종류의 패키지를 정의합니다, *note 정규 패키지: 1ff5. 와
*note 이름 공간 패키지: 1c70.  정규 패키지는 파이썬 3.2와 그 이전에 존재
하던 전통적인 패키지입니다.  정규 패키지는 보통 ‘__init__.py’ 파일을 가
진 디렉터리로 구현됩니다.  정규 패키지가 임포트될 때, 이 ‘__init__.py’ 파
일이 묵시적으로 실행되고, 그것이 정의하는 객체들이 패키지의 이름 공간의
이름들도 연결됩니다.  ‘__init__.py’ 파일은 다른 모듈들이 가질 수 있는 것
과 같은 파이썬 코드를 포함할 수 있고, 파이썬은 임포트될 때 모듈에 몇 가
지 어트리뷰트를 추가합니다.

예를 들어, 다음과 같은 파일시스템 배치는 최상위 ‘parent’ 패키지와 세 개
의 서브 패키지를 정의합니다:

     parent/
         __init__.py
         one/
             __init__.py
         two/
             __init__.py
         three/
             __init__.py

‘parent.one’ 을 임포트하면 ‘parent/__init__.py’ 과
‘parent/one/__init__.py’ 을 묵시적으로 실행합니다.  뒤이은 ‘parent.two’
와 ‘parent.three’ 의 임포트는 각각 ‘parent/two/__init__.py’ 와
‘parent/three/__init__.py’ 를 실행합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이름 공간 패키지,  Prev: 정규 패키지,  Up: 패키지 package

4.5.2.2 이름 공간 패키지
........................

이름 공간 패키지는 여러 가지 *note 포션: 1ff8. 들의 복합체인데, 각 포션
들은 부모 패키지의 서브 패키지로 이바지합니다.  포션들은 파일시스템의 다
른 위치에 놓일 수 있습니다.  포션들은 zip 파일이나 네트워크나 파이썬이 임
포트 할 때 검색하는 어떤 다른 장소에서 발견될 수 있습니다.  이름 공간 패
키지는 파일시스템의 객체와 직접적인 상관관계가 있을 수도 있고 그렇지 않
을 수도 있습니다; 구체적인 형태가 없는 가상 모듈일 수도 있습니다.

이름 공간 패키지는 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트로 일반적인 리스트를 사용하지 않
습니다.  대신에 특별한 이터러블 형을 사용하는데, 그 패키지 내의 다음 임
포트 시도에서 그것의 부모 패키지(또는 최상위 패키지의 경우 *note
sys.path: 3ae.) 의 경로가 변했으면 패키지 포션에 대한 새 검색을 자동으로
수행하게 됩니다.

이름 공간 패키지의 경우, ‘parent/__init__.py’ 파일이 없습니다.  사실, 임
포트 검색 동안 여러 개의 ‘parent’ 디렉터리가 발견될 수 있고, 각각의 것은
다른 포션들에 의해 제공됩니다.  그래서 ‘parent/one’ 은 물리적으로
‘parent/two’ 옆에 위치하지 않을 수 있습니다.  이 경우, 파이썬은 자신 또
는 서브 패키지 중 어느 하나가 임포트 될 때마다 최상위 ‘parent’ 패키지를
위한 이름 공간 패키지를 만듭니다.

이름 공간 패키지의 규격은 PEP 420(1) 을 참조하세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: 검색,  Next: 로딩 loading,  Prev: 패키지 package,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.3 검색
----------

검색을 시작하기 위해, 파이썬은 임포트될 모듈(또는 패키지, 하지만 이 논의
에서 차이점은 중요하지 않다)의 완전히 *note 정규화된 이름: 1948. 을 필요
로 합니다.  이 이름은 *note import: 5dc. 문으로 제공된 여러 인자나,
*note importlib.import_module(): 511. 나 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함수로
전달된 매개변수들로부터 옵니다.

이 이름은 임포트 검색의 여러 단계에서 사용되는데, 서브 모듈로 가는 점으
로 구분된 경로일 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 ‘foo.bar.baz’.  이 경우에, 파이
썬은 먼저 ‘foo’ 를, 그다음에 ‘foo.bar’ 를, 마지막으로 ‘foo.bar.baz’ 를 임
포트하려고 시도합니다.  만약 중간 임포트가 어느 하나라도 실패한다면
*note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 가 발생합니다.

* Menu:

* 모듈 캐시::
* 파인더(finder)와 로더(loader): 파인더 finder 와 로더 loader.
* 임포트 훅(import hooks): 임포트 훅 import hooks.
* 메타 경로(meta path): 메타 경로 meta path.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 캐시,  Next: 파인더 finder 와 로더 loader,  Up: 검색

4.5.3.1 모듈 캐시
.................

임포트 검색 도중 처음으로 검사되는 장소는 *note sys.modules: 1558. 입니
다.  이 매핑은 중간 경로들을 포함해서 전에 임포트 된 모든 모듈의 캐시로
기능합니다.  그래서 만약 ‘foo.bar.baz’ 가 앞서 임포트 되었다면, *note
sys.modules: 1558. 는 ‘foo’, ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’ 항목들을 포함합니
다.  각 키에 대응하는 값들은 모듈 객체입니다.

임포트하는 동안, 모듈 이름을 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에서 찾고, 만약 있
다면 해당 값이 임포트를 만족하는 모듈이고, 프로세스는 완료됩니다.  하지
만 값이 ‘None’ 이면, *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 일으킵니다.  만
약 모듈 이름이 없다면, 파이썬은 모듈 검색을 계속 진행합니다.

*note sys.modules: 1558. 은 쓰기가 허락됩니다.  키를 삭제해도 해당 모듈
을 파괴하지는 않지만(다른 모듈들이 아직 그 모듈에 대한 참조를 유지하고 있
을 수 있으므로), 해당 이름의 모듈에 대한 캐시를 무효화해서, 다음 임포트
때 파이썬으로 하여금 그 모듈을 다시 찾도록 만듭니다.  키에는 ‘None’ 을 대
입할 수도 있는데, 다음 임포트 때 *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 가 일어
나도록 만듭니다.

모듈 객체에 대한 참조를 유지한다면, *note sys.modules: 1558. 의 캐시 항
목을 무효로 한 후 다시 임포트하면 두 모듈 객체는 같은 것이 아니게 됨에 주
의해야 합니다.  반면에 *note importlib.reload(): 512. 는 같은 모듈 객체
를 재사용하고, 간단하게 모듈의 코드를 다시 실행해서 모듈의 내용을 다시 초
기화합니다.


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4.5.3.2 파인더(finder)와 로더(loader)
.....................................

모듈이 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에서 발견되지 않으면, 모듈을 찾아서 로드
하기 위해 파이썬의 임포트 프로토콜이 구동됩니다.  이 프로토콜은 두 개의
개념적 객체들로 구성되어 있습니다, *note 파인더: 1f26. 와 *note 로더:
16b7.  파인더의 일은 자신이 알고 있는 전략을 사용해, 주어진 이름의 모듈
을 찾을 수 있는지 결정하는 것입니다.  두 인터페이스 모두를 구현한 객체들
을 *note 임포터: 1ffd.라고 부릅니다 - 요청한 모듈을 로딩할 수 있다고 판
단할 때 자신을 돌려줍니다.

파이썬은 여러 가지 기본 파인더들과 임포터들을 포함하고 있습니다.  첫 번
째 것은 내장 모듈들의 위치를 찾을 수 있고, 두 번째 것은 프로즌 모듈
(frozen module)의 위치를 찾을 수 있고, 세 번째 것은 모듈을 *note 임포트
경로: 1ffe. 에서 검색합니다.  *note 임포트 경로: 1ffe. 는 파일 시스템의
경로나 zip 파일을 가리키는 위치들의 목록입니다.  그것은 URL로 식별될 수
있는 것들처럼, 위치가 지정될 수 있는 자원들을 검색하도록 확장될 수 있습
니다.

임포트 절차는 확장 가능해서, 모듈 검색의 범위를 확대하기 위해 새 파인더
를 추가할 수 있습니다.

파인더는 실제로 모듈을 로드하지는 않습니다.  주어진 이름의 모듈을 찾으면
임포트와 관련된 정보들을 요약한 '모듈 스펙 (module spec)' 을 돌려주는데,
임포트 절차는 모듈을 로딩할 때 이것을 사용하게 됩니다.

다음 섹션은 파인더와 로더의 프로토콜에 대해 좀 더 자세히 설명하는데, 임
포트 절차를 확장하기 위해 어떻게 새로운 것들을 만들고 등록하는지를 포함
합니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 이전 버전의 파이썬에서, 파인더가 *note 로더: 16b7. 를
직접 돌려주었지만, 이제는 로더를 '포함하고' 있는 모듈 스펙을 돌려줍니다.
임포트 도중 로더가 아직 사용되기는 하지만 그 역할은 축소되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 임포트 훅 import hooks,  Next: 메타 경로 meta path,  Prev: 파인더 finder 와 로더 loader,  Up: 검색

4.5.3.3 임포트 훅(import hooks)
...............................

임포트 절차는 확장할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다; 일차적인 메커니즘은 '임포
트 훅(import hook)' 입니다.  두 가지 종류의 임포트 훅이 있습니다: '메타
훅(meta hook)' 과 '임포트 경로 훅(import path hook)'.

메타 훅은 임포트 처리의 처음에, *note sys.modules: 1558. 캐시 조회를 제
외한 다른 임포트 처리들이 시작되기 전에 호출됩니다.  이것은 메타 훅이
*note sys.path: 3ae. 처리, 프로즌 모듈, 내장 모듈들을 재정의할 수 있게 합
니다.  다음에 설명하듯이, 메타 훅은 *note sys.meta_path: d28. 에 새 파인
더 객체를 추가하는 방법으로 등록할 수 있습니다.

임포트 경로 훅은 *note sys.path: 3ae. (혹은 ‘package.__path__’) 처리 일
부로, 관련된 경로 항목을 만나는 시점에 호출됩니다.  다음에 설명하듯이, 임
포트 경로 훅은 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. 에 새 콜러블을 추가하는 방법
으로 등록할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메타 경로 meta path,  Prev: 임포트 훅 import hooks,  Up: 검색

4.5.3.4 메타 경로(meta path)
............................

주어진 이름의 모듈을 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에서 찾을 수 없을 때, 파이
썬은 *note sys.meta_path: d28. 를 검색하는데, 메타 경로 파인더 객체들의
목록을 포함하고 있습니다.  이 파인더들이 주어진 이름의 모듈을 처리하는 방
법을 알고 있는지 확인하도록 요청합니다.  메타 경로 파인더들은 *note
find_spec(): 863. 라는 이름의 메서드를 구현해야만 하는데, 세 개의 인자를
받아들입니다: 이름, 임포트 경로, (생략 가능한) 타깃(target) 모듈.  메타
경로 파인더는 주어진 이름의 모듈을 처리할 수 있는지를 결정하기 위해 어떤
전략이건 사용할 수 있습니다.

만약 메타 경로 파인더가 주어진 이름의 모듈을 처리하는 법을 안다면, 스펙
객체를 돌려줍니다.  그럴 수 없다면 ‘None’ 을 돌려줍니다.  만약 *note
sys.meta_path: d28. 처리가 스펙을 돌려주지 못하고 목록의 끝에 도달하면,
*note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 일으킵니다.  발생하는 다른 예외들은 그
냥 확산시키고, 임포트 프로세스를 중단합니다.

메타 경로 파인더의 *note find_spec(): 863. 메서드는 두 개나 세 개의 인자
로 호출됩니다.  첫 번째 인자는 모듈의 완전히 정규화된 이름(fully
qualified name)입니다, 예를 들어 ‘foo.bar.baz’.  두 번째 인자는 모듈 검
색에 사용할 경로 엔트리입니다.  최상위 모듈이 경우 두 번째 인자는 ‘None’
이지만, 서브 모듈이나 서브 패키지의 경우 두 번째 인자는 부모 패키지의
‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트 값입니다.  만약 적절한 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트를 참
조할 수 없으면 *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 일으킵니다.  세 번째 인
자는 이미 존재하는 모듈 객체인데, 뒤에서 로딩할 대상이 됩니다.  임포트 시
스템은 다시 로드(reload)할 때만 타깃을 전달합니다.

메타 경로는 한 번의 임포트 요청에 대해 여러 번 탐색 될 수 있습니다.  예
를 들어, 대상 모듈들이 아무것도 캐싱 되지 않았다고 할 때, ‘foo.bar.baz’
를 임포트 하려면, 먼저 각 메타 경로 파인더 (‘mpf’)들에 대해
‘mpf.find_spec("foo", None, None)’ 를 호출해서 최상위 임포트를 수행합니
다.  ‘foo’ 가 임포트 된 후에, 메타 경로를 두 번째 탐색해서 ‘foo.bar’ 를
임포트 하는데, ‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar", foo.__path__, None)’ 를 호출합
니다.  일단 ‘foo.bar’ 가 임포트 되면, 마지막 탐색은
‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar.baz", foo.bar.__path__, None)’ 를 호출합니다.

어떤 메타 경로 파인더들은 오직 최상위 임포트만 지원합니다.  이런 임포터
들은 두 번째 인자로 ‘None’ 이 아닌 것이 오면 항상 ‘None’ 을 돌려줍니다.

파이썬의 기본 *note sys.meta_path: d28. 는 세 개의 메타 경로 파인더를 갖
고 있습니다.  하나는 내장 모듈을 임포트하는 법을 알고, 하나는 프로즌 모
듈을 임포트하는 법을 알고, 하나는 *note 임포트 경로: 1ffe. 에서 모듈을 임
포트하는 법을 압니다(즉 *note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001.).

버전 3.4에서 변경: 메타 경로 파인더의 *note find_spec(): 863. 메서드가 이
제 폐지된 ‘find_module()’ 을 대체합니다.  변경 없이도 동작하기는 하지만,
임포트 절차는 파인더가 *note find_spec(): 863. 을 구현하지 않았을 때만 사
용합니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: 임포트 시스템에서 ‘find_module()’을 사용하면 이제
*note ImportWarning: 4f4.을 발생시킵니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘find_module()’은 제거했습니다.  대신 *note
find_spec(): 863.을 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 로딩 loading,  Next: 경로 기반 파인더,  Prev: 검색,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.4 로딩(loading)
-------------------

모듈 스펙이 발견되면, 임포트 절차는 모듈을 로딩할 때 그것(그것이 가진 로
더도)을 사용합니다.  여기에 임포트의 로딩 과정 동안 일어나는 일에 대한 대
략적인 그림이 있습니다:

     module = None
     if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
         # 'exec_module'도 loader에 정의되어 있다고 가정합니다.
         module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
     if module is None:
         module = ModuleType(spec.name)
     # 임포트 관련 모듈 어트리뷰트들은 여기에서 설정됩니다:
     _init_module_attrs(spec, module)

     if spec.loader is None:
         # 지원되지 않습니다
         raise ImportError
     if spec.origin is None and spec.submodule_search_locations is not None:
         # 이름 공간 패키지
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
     elif not hasattr(spec.loader, 'exec_module'):
         module = spec.loader.load_module(spec.name)
     else:
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
         try:
             spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         except BaseException:
             try:
                 del sys.modules[spec.name]
             except KeyError:
                 pass
             raise
     return sys.modules[spec.name]

다음과 같은 세부 사항에 주의해야 합니다:

   * 만약 주어진 이름의 모듈이 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 있다면, 임포
     트는 이미 그걸 돌려줄 겁니다.

   * 로더가 모듈을 실행하기 전에 모듈은 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 자리
     를 잡습니다.  이것은 필수적인데 모듈이 (직접적 혹은 간접적으로) 자
     신을 임포트 할 수 있기 때문입니다; 먼저 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에
     추가함으로써 최악의 상황에 제한 없는 재귀(recursion)를 방지하고, 최
     선의 상황에 여러 번 로딩되는 것을 막습니다.

   * 로딩이 실패하면, 실패한 모듈(오직 실패한 모듈만)은 *note
     sys.modules: 1558. 에서 삭제됩니다.  *note sys.modules: 1558. 캐시
     에 이미 있는 모듈과 부수적 효과로 성공적으로 로딩된 모듈들은 캐시에
     남아있어야만 합니다.  이는 실패한 모듈조차 *note sys.modules: 1558.
     에 남아있게 되는 리로딩과 대비됩니다.

   * 모듈이 만들어졌지만, 아직 실행되기 전에, *note 뒤의 섹션: 1f1c. 에
     서 요약되듯이, 임포트 절차는 임포트 관련 모듈 어트리뷰트들을 설정합
     니다(위의 의사 코드 예에서 “_init_module_attrs”).

   * 모듈 실행은 로딩에서 모듈의 이름 공간이 채워지는 결정적 순간입니다.
     실행은 전적으로 로더에 위임되는데, 로더가 어떤 것이 어떻게 채워져야
     하는지 결정합니다.

   * 로딩 동안 만들어지고 exec_module() 로 전달되는 모듈은 임포트의 끝에
     반환되는 것이 아닐 수 있습니다 (1).

버전 3.4에서 변경: 임포트 시스템이 기초 공사에 대한 로더의 책임을 들고 갔
습니다.  이것들은 전에는 *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 864.
메서드에서 수행되었습니다.

* Menu:

* 로더::
* 서브 모듈::
* 모듈 스펙::
* 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트::
* 모듈 repr::
* 캐시된 바이트 코드 무효화::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) importlib 구현은 반환 값을 직접 사용하지 않습니다.  대신에, *note
sys.modules: 1558. 에서 모듈 이름을 조회해서 모듈을 얻습니다.  이것의 간
접적인 효과는 임포트되는 모듈이 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 있는 자신을
바꿀 수 있다는 것입니다.  이것은 구현 상세 동작이고 다른 파이썬 구현에서
동작한다고 보장되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로더,  Next: 서브 모듈,  Up: 로딩 loading

4.5.4.1 로더
............

모듈 로더는 로딩의 결정적인 기능을 제공합니다: 모듈 실행.  임포트 절차는
하나의 인자로 *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 865. 메서드를 호
출하는데, 실행할 모듈 객체가 전달됩니다.  *note exec_module(): 865. 이 돌
려주는 값은 무시됩니다.

로더는 다음과 같은 요구 조건들을 만족해야 합니다:

   * 만약 모듈이 파이썬 모듈(내장 모듈이나 동적으로 로딩되는 확장이 아니
     라)이면, 로더는 모듈의 코드를 모듈의 전역 이름 공간
     (‘module.__dict__’)에서 실행해야 합니다.

   * 만약 로더가 모듈을 실행하지 못하면, *note ImportError: 413. 를 일으
     켜야 합니다.  하지만 *note exec_module(): 865. 동안 발생하는 다른 예
     외도 전파됩니다.

많은 경우에, 파인더와 로더는 같은 객체입니다; 그런 경우 *note
find_spec(): 863. 메서드는 로더가 ‘self’ 로 설정된 스펙을 돌려줍니다.

모듈 로더는 *note create_module(): cab. 메서드를 구현함으로써 로딩하는 동
안 모듈 객체를 만드는 일에 개입할 수 있습니다.  하나의 인자, 모듈 스펙,
을 받아들이고 로딩 중 사용할 모듈 객체를 돌려줍니다.  ‘create_module()’
은 모듈 객체의 어트리뷰트를 설정할 필요는 없습니다.  만약 메서드가
‘None’ 을 돌려주면, 임포트 절차는 새 모듈을 스스로 만듭니다.

Added in version 3.4: 로더의 *note create_module(): cab. 메서드.

버전 3.4에서 변경: *note load_module(): 864. 메서드는 *note
exec_module(): 865. 로 대체되었고, 임포트 절차가 로딩의 공통 코드
(boilerplate)에 대한 책임을 집니다.

이미 존재하는 로더들과의 호환을 위해, 임포트 절차는 ‘load_module()’ 메서
드가 존재하고, ‘exec_module()’ 을 구현하지 않았으면 ‘load_module()’ 을 사
용합니다.  하지만 ‘load_module()’ 은 폐지되었습니다.  로더는 대신
‘exec_module()’ 를 구현해야 합니다.

‘load_module()’ 메서드는 모듈을 실행하는 것 외에 위에서 언급한 모든 공통
(boilerplate) 로딩 기능을 구현해야만 합니다.  같은 제약들이 모두 적용되
는데, 추가적인 설명을 붙여보면:

   * 만약 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 주어진 이름의 모듈 객체가 이미 존
     재하면, 로더는 반드시 그 객체를 사용해야 합니다.  (그렇지 않으면,
     *note importlib.reload(): 512. 이 올바로 동작하지 않게 됩니다.)  만
     약 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 주어진 이름의 모듈이 없으면, 로더는
     새 모듈객체를 만들고 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 추가해야 합니다.

   * 제한 없는 재귀와 여러 번 로딩되는 것을 방지하기 위해, 로더가 모듈 코
     드를 실행하기 전에 모듈이 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 존재해야 합니
     다.

   * 만약 로딩이 실패하면, 로더는 *note sys.modules: 1558. 에 삽입한 모
     듈들을 제거해야 하는데, 실패한 모듈만을 제거해야 하고, 로더가 그 모
     듈을 직접 명시적으로 로드한 경우에만 그래야 합니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘exec_module()’ 이 정의되었지만 ‘create_module()’ 이
정의되지 않으면 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. 이 발생합니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘exec_module()’ 이 정의되었지만 ‘create_module()’ 이
정의되지 않으면 *note ImportError: 413. 를 일으킵니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘load_module()’의 사용은 *note ImportWarning: 4f4.을
발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 모듈,  Next: 모듈 스펙,  Prev: 로더,  Up: 로딩 loading

4.5.4.2 서브 모듈
.................

어떤 메커니즘으로든 (예를 들어, ‘importlib’ API들, ‘import’ 나
‘import-from’ 문, 내장 ‘__import__()’) 서브 모듈이 로드될 때, 서브 모듈
객체로의 연결은 부모 모듈의 이름 공간에 이루어집니다.  예를 들어, 패키지
‘spam’ 이 서브 모듈 ‘foo’ 를 가지면, ‘spam.foo’ 를 임포트 한 후에는
‘spam’ 이 서브 모듈에 연결된 어트리뷰트 ‘foo’ 를 갖게 됩니다.  다음과 같
은 디렉터리 구조로 되어 있다고 합시다:

     spam/
         __init__.py
         foo.py

그리고 ‘spam/__init__.py’ 가 다음과 같은 줄을 포함한다고 합시다:

     from .foo import Foo

그러면 다음과 같이 실행하면 ‘spam’ 모듈에 ‘foo’ 와 ‘Foo’ 에 대한 이름 연
결이 일어납니다.

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.foo
     <module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
     >>> spam.Foo
     <class 'spam.foo.Foo'>

파이썬의 익숙한 이름 연결 규칙에서 볼 때 의외의 결과로 보일 수 있습니다.
하지만 실제로는 임포트 시스템의 근본적인 기능입니다.  불변의 규칙은 이렇
습니다: 만약 ‘sys.modules['spam']’ 과 ‘sys.modules['spam.foo']’ 가 있다
면 (위의 임포트 이후의 상태가 그러합니다), 뒤에 있는 것은 반드시 앞에 있
는 것의 ‘foo’ 어트리뷰트가 되어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 스펙,  Next: 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 서브 모듈,  Up: 로딩 loading

4.5.4.3 모듈 스펙
.................

임포트 절차는 임포트 동안 각 모듈에 대한 다양한 정보들을 사용합니다, 특
히 로딩 전에.  대부분 정보는 모든 모듈의 공통이다.  모듈 스펙의 목적은 이
임포트 관련 정보를 모듈별로 요약하는 것입니다.

임포트 동안 스펙을 사용하면 상태가 임포트 시스템의 구성 요소들로 전달될
수 있습니다, 예를 들어 모듈 스펙을 만드는 파인더와 그것을 실행하는 로더
간에.  가장 중요한 것은, 임포트 절차가 로딩의 공통 연산(boilerplate
operation)을 수행할 수 있도록 하는 것입니다.  모듈 스펙이 없다면 로더가
모든 책임을 지게 됩니다.

모듈의 스펙은 *note module.__spec__: 1f1f.으로 노출됩니다.  ‘__spec__’ 을
적절히 설정하는 것은 *note 인터프리터가 구동되는 동안 초기화되는 모듈들:
2006. 에도 마찬가지로 적용됩니다.  한가지 예외는 ‘__main__’ 인데,
‘__spec__’ 이 *note 어떤 경우에 None 으로 설정됩니다: 2007.

모듈 스펙의 내용에 대한 세부 사항은 *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c. 을 보세요.

Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트,  Next: 모듈 repr,  Prev: 모듈 스펙,  Up: 로딩 loading

4.5.4.4 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트
..................................

*note __path__: 1c76. 어트리뷰트는 패키지의 서브 모듈을 찾을 위치를 열거
하는 문자열의 (비어 있을 수 있는) *note 시퀀스: 4eb.여야 합니다.  정의에
따르면, 모듈에 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트가 있으면, 그 모듈은 *note 패키지:
1f22.입니다.

패키지의 *note __path__: 1c76. 어트리뷰트는 서브 패키지를 로딩할 때 사용
합니다.  임포트 절차 내에서, 임포트하는 동안 모듈을 검색할 위치들의 목록
을 제공한다는 점에서 *note sys.path: 3ae. 와 같은 기능을 갖습니다.  하지
만 ‘__path__’ 는 보통 ‘sys.path’ 보다 제약 조건이 많습니다.

*note sys.path: 3ae. 과 같은 규칙이 패키지의 ‘__path__’ 에도 적용됩니다.
패키지의 ‘__path__’ 를 탐색하는 동안 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. (아래에
서 설명한다)에게 의견을 묻습니다.

패키지의 ‘__init__.py’ 파일은 패키지의 *note __path__: 1c76. 어트리뷰트
를 설정하거나 변경할 수 있고, 이것이 PEP 420(1) 이전에 이름 공간 패키지
를 구현하는 방법으로 사용됐습니다.  PEP 420(2) 의 도입으로 인해, 이름 공
간 패키지가 ‘__path__’ 조작 코드만을 포함하는 ‘__init__.py’ 파일을 제공
할 필요가 없어졌습니다; 임포트 절차가 자동으로 이름 공간 패키지를 위한
‘__path__’ 를 설정합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 repr,  Next: 캐시된 바이트 코드 무효화,  Prev: 모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트,  Up: 로딩 loading

4.5.4.5 모듈 repr
.................

기본적으로, 모든 모듈은 사용할만한 repr 을 갖고 있습니다.  하지만 위의 어
트리뷰트들과 모듈 스펙에 있는 것들에 따라, 모듈 객체의 repr 을 좀 더 명
시적으로 제어할 수 있습니다.

모듈이 스펙(‘__spec__’)을 가지면, 임포트 절차는 그것으로부터 repr 을 만
들려고 시도합니다.  그것이 실패하거나 스펙이 없으면, 임포트 시스템은 모
듈에서 제공되는 것들로 기본 repr 을 구성합니다.  ‘module.__name__’,
‘module.__file__’, ‘module.__loader__’ 을 repr 의 입력으로 사용하려고 시
도하는데, 빠진 정보는 기본값으로 채웁니다.

사용되고 있는 정확한 규칙은 이렇습니다:

   * 모듈이 ‘__spec__’ 어트리뷰트를 가지면, 스펙에 있는 정보로 repr 을 생
     성합니다.  “name”, “loader”, “origin”, “has_location” 어트리뷰트들
     이 사용됩니다.

   * 모듈이 ‘__file__’ 어트리뷰트를 가지면, 모듈의 repr 의 일부로 사용됩
     니다.

   * 모듈이 ‘__file__’ 어트리뷰트를 갖지 않지만 ‘None’ 이 아닌
     ‘__loader__’ 를 가지면, 로더의 repr 이 모듈의 repr 의 일부로 사용됩
     니다.

   * 그렇지 않으면, repr 에 모듈의 ‘__name__’ 을 사용합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: 파이썬 3.4부터 폐지된 ‘module_repr()’의 사용은 파이
썬 3.12에서 제거되었으며, 모듈의 repr을 확인하는 동안 더는 호출되지 않습
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 캐시된 바이트 코드 무효화,  Prev: 모듈 repr,  Up: 로딩 loading

4.5.4.6 캐시된 바이트 코드 무효화
.................................

파이썬이 ‘.pyc’ 파일로부터 캐시 된 바이트 코드를 로드하기 전에, 캐시가 최
신 버전인지 소스 ‘.py’ 파일과 비교합니다.  기본적으로, 파이썬은 소스의 최
종 수정 타임스탬프와 크기를 캐시 파일을 만들 때 함께 저장해서 이 작업을
수행합니다.  실행시간에, 임포트 시스템은 캐시 파일에 저장된 메타 데이터
를 소스의 메타 데이터와 대조하여 캐시 파일의 유효성을 검사합니다.

파이썬은 또한 “해시 기반” 캐시 파일을 지원하는데, 캐시 파일은 메타 데이
터 대신에 소스 파일의 내용 해시를 저장합니다.  해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일에는
두 가지 변종이 있습니다: 검사형(checked)과 비검사형(unchecked).  검사형
해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 경우, 파이썬은 소스 파일을 해시하고 결과 해시를
캐시 파일의 해시와 비교하여 캐시 파일의 유효성을 검사합니다.  검사형 해
시 기반 캐시 파일이 유효하지 않은 것으로 판명되면, 파이썬은 캐시 파일을
다시 생성하고 새로운 검사형 해시 기반 캐시 파일을 만듭니다.  비검사형 해
시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 경우, 파이썬은 단순히 캐시 파일이 존재할 경우 유효
하다고 가정합니다.  해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일 유효성 검사 동작은 *note
-check-hash-based-pycs: 1d38. 플래그로 재정의될 수 있습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 추가했습니다.  이전에는, 파이
썬은 바이트 코드 캐시의 타임스탬프 기반 무효화만 지원했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 경로 기반 파인더,  Next: 표준 임포트 시스템 교체하기,  Prev: 로딩 loading,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.5 경로 기반 파인더
----------------------

앞에서 언급했듯이, 파이썬은 여러 기본 메타 경로 파인더들을 갖고 있습니다
.  이 중 하나는, *note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. (*note PathFinder: 1019.)
로 불리는데, *note 경로 엔트리: 200c. 들의 목록을 담고 있는 *note 임포트
경로: 1ffe. 를 검색합니다.  각 경로 엔트리는 모듈을 찾을 곳을 가리킵니다
.

경로 기반 파인더 자신은 뭔가를 임포트하는 법에 대해서는 아는 것이 없습니
다.  대신에, 각 경로 엔트리를 탐색하면서, 각각을 구체적인 경로 엔트리를
다루는 법을 아는 경로 엔트리 파인더와 관련시킵니다.

경로 엔트리 파인더의 기본 집합은 파일 시스템에서 모듈을 찾는데 필요한 모
든 개념을 구현하는데, 파이썬 소스 코드(‘.py’ 파일들), 파이썬 바이트 코드
(‘.pyc’ 파일들), 공유 라이브러리(예를 들어 ‘.so’ 파일들)와 같은 특수 파
일형들을 처리합니다.  표준라이브러리의 *note zipimport: 132. 모듈의 지원
을 받으면, 기본 경로 엔트리 파인더는 이 모든 파일(공유 라이브러리를 제외
한 것들)을 zip 파일들로부터 로딩합니다.

경로 엔트리가 파일 시스템의 위치로 제한될 필요는 없습니다.  URL이나 데이
터베이스 조회나 문자열로 지정될 수 있는 어떤 위치도 가능합니다.

경로 기반 파인더는 검색 가능한 경로 엔트리의 유형을 확장하고 커스터마이
즈할 수 있도록 하는 추가의 훅과 프로토콜을 제공합니다.  예를 들어, 네트
워크 URL을 경로 엔트리로 지원하고 싶다면, 웹에서 모듈을 찾는 HTTP 개념을
구현하는 훅을 작성할 수 있습니다.  이 훅 (콜러블)은 아래에서 설명하는 프
로토콜을 지원하는 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 를 돌려주는데, 웹에 있
는 모듈을 위한 로더를 얻는 데 사용됩니다.

경고의 글: 이 섹션과 앞에 나온 것들은 모두 파인더라는 용어를 사용하는데,
*note 메타 경로 파인더: 1066. 와 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 라는 용
어를 사용해서 구분합니다.  이 두 종류의 파인더는 매우 유사해서 비슷한 프
로토콜을 지원하고 임포트 절차에서 비슷한 방식으로 기능합니다.  하지만 이
것들이 미묘하게 다르다는 것을 기억하는 것이 중요합니다.  특히, 메타 경로
파인더는 임포트 절차의 처음에 개입하는데, *note sys.meta_path: d28. 탐색
을 통해 들어옵니다.

반면에, 경로 엔트리 파인더는 경로 기반 파인더의 구현 상세인데, 사실 경로
기반 파인더가 *note sys.meta_path: d28. 로 부터 제거되면, 경로 엔트리 파
인더의 개념은 일절 호출되지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 경로 엔트리 파인더::
* 경로 엔트리 파인더 프로토콜::


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4.5.5.1 경로 엔트리 파인더
..........................

*note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. 는 위치가 문자열 *note 경로 엔트리: 200c.
로 지정된 파이썬 모듈과 패키지를 찾고 로드하는 책임을 집니다.  대부분의
경로 엔트리는 파일 시스템의 위치를 가리키지만, 이것으로 한정될 필요는 없
습니다.

메타 경로 파인더로서, *note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. 는 앞에서 설명한
*note find_spec(): 863. 프로토콜을 구현합니다.  하지만 모듈이 *note
임포트 경로: 1ffe. 에서 어떻게 발견되고 로드되는지는 커스터마이즈하는데
사용될 수 있는 추가의 훅을 제공합니다.

*note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. 는 세 개의 변수를 사용합니다, *note
sys.path: 3ae, *note sys.path_hooks: 101a, *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.  패키지 객체의 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트 또한
사용된다.  이것들은 임포트 절차를 커스터마이즈할 수 있는 추가의 방법을 제
공합니다.

*note sys.path: 3ae. 는 모듈과 패키지의 검색 위치를 제공하는 문자열의 목
록을 포함합니다.  *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 환경 변수와 여러 가지 설치와 구
현 특정 기본값들로부터 초기화됩니다.  *note sys.path: 3ae. 에 있는 엔트
리들은 파일 시스템의 디렉터리와 zip 파일을 가리키고, 그밖에 잠재적으로 모
듈 검색에 사용될 수 있는 “장소들”(*note site: c7. 모듈을 보라)을 가리킬
수 있는데, URL이나 데이터베이스 조회 같은 것들입니다.  *note sys.path:
3ae. 에는 문자열만 있어야 합니다; 다른 모든 형은 무시됩니다.

*note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. 는 *note 메타 경로 파인더: 1066. 이기 때문
에, 앞에서 설명했듯이 임포트 절차는 경로 기반 파인더의 *note
find_spec(): 1007. 메서드를 호출하는 것으로 *note 임포트 경로: 1ffe. 검
색을 시작합니다.  *note find_spec(): 1007. 에 제공되는 ‘path’ 인자는 탐
색할 문자열 경로들의 리스트입니다 - 보통 패키지 내에서 임포트 하면 패키
지의 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트.  ‘path’ 인자가 ‘None’ 이면, 최상위 임포트를
뜻하고 *note sys.path: 3ae. 가 사용됩니다.

경로 기반 파인더는 검색 경로의 모든 엔트리를 탐색하고, 개별 엔트리마다 적
절한 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. (*note PathEntryFinder: 86a.)를 찾
습니다.  이것은 비용이 많이 드는 연산일 수 있으므로(예를 들어, 이 검색을
위해 ‘stat()’ 호출로 인한 부하가 있을 수 있습니다), 경로 기반 파인더는 경
로 엔트리를 경로 엔트리 파인더로 매핑하는 캐시를 관리합니다.  이 캐시는
*note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 에 유지됩니다 (이름에도 불구하고, 이
캐시는 *note 임포터: 1ffd. 객체로 제한되지 않고 실제로는 파인더 객체를 저
장합니다).  이런 방법으로, 특정 *note 경로 엔트리: 200c. 위치의 *note
경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 의 비싼 검색은 오직 한 번만 수행됩니다.  사용
자 코드가 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 의 캐시 엔트리를 삭제해서
경로 기반 파인더가 그 경로 엔트리를 다시 검색하도록 하는 것이 허락됩니다
.

경로 엔트리가 캐시에 없으면, 경로 기반 파인더는 *note sys.path_hooks:
101a. 에 있는 모든 콜러블들을 탐색합니다.  이 목록의 각 *note 경로 엔트리
훅: 200e. 은 검색할 경로 엔트리 인자 한 개를 사용해서 호출됩니다.  이 콜
러블은 경로 엔트리를 다룰 수 있는 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 를 돌
려주거나, *note ImportError: 413. 를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.  *note
ImportError: 413. 는 경로 기반 파인더가 어떤 훅이 주어진 *note 경로
엔트리: 200c. 를 위한 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 를 발견할 수 없음
을 알리는 데 사용합니다.  이 예외는 무시되고 *note 임포트 경로: 1ffe. 탐
색은 계속됩니다.  훅은 문자열이나 바이트열을 기대해야 합니다; 바이트열의
인코딩은 훅이 결정하고(예를 들어, 파일 시스템 인코딩이나 UTF-8 이나 그 밖
의 다른 것일 수 있습니다), 만약 훅이 인자를 디코딩할 수 없으면 *note
ImportError: 413. 를 일으켜야 합니다.

만약 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. 탐색이 아무런 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더:
1067. 를 돌려주지 못하면, 경로 기반 파인더의 *note find_spec(): 1007. 메
서드는 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 에 ‘None’ 을 저장하고(이 경로
엔트리를 위한 파인더가 없음을 가리키기 위해), ‘None’ 을 돌려줘서 이
*note 메타 경로 파인더: 1066. 가 모듈을 찾을 수 없음을 알립니다.

만약 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. 에 있는 어느 하나의 *note 경로 엔트리
훅: 200e. 콜러블이 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 를 '돌려주면', 파인더
에 모듈 스펙을 요청하기 위해 다음에 나오는 프로토콜이 사용됩니다.  모듈
스펙은 모듈을 로딩할 때 사용됩니다.

현재 작업 디렉터리(current working directory) – 빈 문자열로 표현된다 – 는
*note sys.path: 3ae. 에 있는 다른 엔트리들과 약간 다르게 취급됩니다.  첫
째로, 현재 작업 디렉터리가 존재하지 않음이 발견되면 *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 에는 아무런 값도 저장되지 않습니다.  둘째
로, 현재 작업 디렉터리는 각 모듈 조회 때마다 다시 확인됩니다.  셋째로,
*note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 에 사용되는 경로와 *note
importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): 1007. 가 돌려주는 경로는 빈
문자열이 아니라 실제 현재 작업 디렉터리가 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 경로 엔트리 파인더 프로토콜,  Prev: 경로 엔트리 파인더,  Up: 경로 기반 파인더

4.5.5.2 경로 엔트리 파인더 프로토콜
...................................

모듈과 초기화된 패키지의 임포트를 지원하고 이름 공간 패키지에 포션으로 이
바지하기 위해, 경로 엔트리 파인더는 *note find_spec(): 867. 메서드를 구
현해야 합니다.

*note find_spec(): 867. 은 두 개의 인자를 받아들입니다: 임포트 할 모듈의
완전히 정규화된 이름과 (생략 가능한) 타깃 모듈.  ‘find_spec()’ 은 값이 완
전히 채워진 모듈의 스펙을 돌려줍니다.  이 스펙은 항상 “loader” 가 설정됩
니다(한가지 예외가 있습니다).

스펙이 이름 공간의 *note 포션: 1ff8. 을 표현한다는 것을 임포트 절차에 알
리기 위해, 경로 엔트리 파인더는 ‘submodule_search_locations’ 를 포션을 포
함하는 목록으로 설정합니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: *note find_spec(): 867. 이 ‘find_loader()’ 와
‘find_module()’ 를 대체하는데, 둘 다 이제 폐지되었습니다, ‘find_spec()’
이 정의되지 않으면 이것들을 사용합니다.

예전의 경로 엔트리 파인더는 ‘find_spec()’ 대신에 이 두 개의 폐지된 메서
드들을 구현할 수 있습니다.  이 메서드들은 과거 호환성 때문에 아직도 사용
됩니다.  하지만, ‘find_spec()’ 이 경로 엔트리 파인더에 구현되면, 예전 메
서드들은 무시됩니다.

‘find_loader()’ 는 하나의 인자를 받아들입니다, 임포트되는 모듈의 완전히
정규화된 이름.  ‘find_loader()’ 는 2-튜플을 돌려주는데, 첫 번째 항목은 로
더이고 두 번째 항목은 이름 공간 *note 포션: 1ff8. 입니다.

임포트 프로토콜의 다른 구현들과의 과거 호환성을 위해, 많은 경로 엔트리 파
인더들은 메타 경로 파인더가 지원하는 것과 같고 전통적인 ‘find_module()’
메서드 또한 지원합니다.  하지만 경로 엔트리 파인더 ‘find_module()’ 메서
드는 결코 ‘path’ 인자로 호출되지 않습니다 (그것들은 경로 훅의 최초 호출
때 적절한 경로 정보를 기록해둘 것으로 기대됩니다).

경로 엔트리 파인더의 ‘find_module()’ 메서드는 경로 엔트리 파인더가 이름
공간 패키지에 포션으로 이바지하는 것을 허락하지 않기 때문에 폐지되었습니
다.  만약 경로 엔트리 파인더에 ‘find_loader()’ 와 ‘find_module()’ 이 모
두 존재하면, 임포트 시스템은 항상 ‘find_module()’ 대신 ‘find_loader()’ 를
호출합니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: 임포트 시스템에서 ‘find_module()’과 ‘find_loader()’를
호출하면 *note ImportWarning: 4f4.을 발생시킵니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘find_module()’과 ‘find_loader()’를 제거했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 임포트 시스템 교체하기,  Next: 패키지 상대 임포트,  Prev: 경로 기반 파인더,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.6 표준 임포트 시스템 교체하기
---------------------------------

임포트 시스템 전체를 교체하기 위한 가장 신뢰성 있는 메커니즘은 *note
sys.meta_path: d28. 의 기본값들을 모두 삭제하고, 새로 만든 메타 경로 훅
들로 채우는 것입니다.

만약 임포트 시스템을 액세스하는 다른 API들에 영향을 주지 않고, 단지 임포
트 문의 동작만을 변경해도 좋다면, 내장 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함수를 교
체하는 것으로 충분할 수도 있습니다.  이 기법은 특정 모듈 내에서의 임포트
문의 동작만을 변경하도록 모듈 수준에서 적용될 수도 있습니다.

메타 경로의 앞쪽에 있는 훅에서 어떤 모듈의 임포트를 선택적으로 막으려면
(표준 임포트 시스템을 완전히 비활성화하는 대신), *note find_spec(): 863.
에서 ‘None’ 을 돌려주는 대신, *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 를 일으키
는 것으로 충분합니다.  전자는 메타 경로 검색을 계속해야 한다는 것을 지시
하는 반면, 예외를 일으키면 즉시 종료시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 패키지 상대 임포트,  Next: __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려,  Prev: 표준 임포트 시스템 교체하기,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.7 패키지 상대 임포트
------------------------

상대 임포트는 선행 점을 사용합니다.  단일 선행 점은 현재 패키지에서 시작
하는 상대 임포트를 나타냅니다.  두 개 이상의 선행 점은 현재 패키지의 부
모(들)에 대한 상대 임포트를 나타내며, 첫 번째 점 다음의 점 하나당 하나의
수준을 나타냅니다.  예를 들어, 다음과 같은 패키지 배치가 제공될 때:

     package/
         __init__.py
         subpackage1/
             __init__.py
             moduleX.py
             moduleY.py
         subpackage2/
             __init__.py
             moduleZ.py
         moduleA.py

‘subpackage1/moduleX.py’나 ‘subpackage1/__init__.py’ 모두에서, 다음은 유
효한 상대 임포트입니다:

     from .moduleY import spam
     from .moduleY import spam as ham
     from . import moduleY
     from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
     from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
     from ..moduleA import foo

절대 임포트는 ‘import <>’ 또는 ‘from <> import <>’ 문법을 사용할 수 있지
만, 상대 임포트는 두 번째 형식만 사용할 수 있습니다; 그 이유는:

     import XXX.YYY.ZZZ

가 ‘XXX.YYY.ZZZ’를 사용할 수 있는 표현식으로 노출하지만, .moduleY는 유효
한 표현식이 아니기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려,  Next: 참고문헌,  Prev: 패키지 상대 임포트,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.8 __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려
----------------------------------

*note __main__: 1. 모듈은 파이썬의 임포트 시스템에서 특별한 경우입니다.
*note 다른 곳에서: 2006. 언급했듯이, ‘__main__’ 모듈은 *note sys: d9. 와
*note builtins: 12. 처럼 인터프리터 시작 때 직접 초기화됩니다.  하지만,
이 두 개와는 다르게, 이것은 엄밀하게 내장 모듈로 취급되지 않습니다.  이
것은 ‘__main__’ 이 초기화되는 방식이 인터프리터를 실행할 때 주는 플래그
와 다른 옵션들에 영향을 받기 때문입니다.

* Menu:

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ __spec__,  Up: __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려

4.5.8.1 __main__.__spec__
.........................

*note __main__: 1. 이 어떻게 초기화되는지에 따라, ‘__main__.__spec__’ 은
적절히 설정되기도 하고 ‘None’ 으로 설정되기도 합니다.

파이썬이 *note -m: 5db. 옵션으로 시작하면, ‘__spec__’ 은 해당하는 모듈이
나 패키지의 모듈 스팩으로 설정됩니다.  또한 ‘__spec__’ 은 ‘__main__’ 모
듈이 디렉터리나 zip 파일이나 다른 *note sys.path: 3ae. 엔트리를 실행하는
일부로 로드될 때 그 내용이 채워집니다.

*note 나머지 경우: 1d31. 에는 ‘__main__.__spec__’ 은 ‘None’ 으로 설정되
는데, *note __main__: 1. 을 채우는데 사용된 코드가 임포트 가능한 모듈에
직접 대응하지 않기 때문입니다:

   - 대화형 프롬프트

   - *note -c: 5da. 옵션

   - 표준 입력으로 실행

   - 소스 파일이나 바이트 코드 파일로부터 직접 실행

마지막 경우에 ‘__main__.__spec__’ 이 항상 ‘None’ 임에 주의해야 합니다.  설
사 그 파일이 기술적으로 모듈로 임포트 될 수 있어도 그렇습니다.  *note
__main__: 1. 에 올바른 모듈 메타데이터가 필요하다면 *note -m: 5db. 스위
치를 사용해야 합니다.

또한 ‘__main__’ 이 임포트 가능한 모듈에 대응되고, ‘__main__.__spec__’ 이
적절히 설정되었다 하더라도, 이 둘은 여전히 '다른' 모듈로 취급됨에 주의해
야 합니다.  이것은 ‘if __name__ == "__main__":’ 검사로 둘러싸인 블록이 모
듈이 ‘__main__’ 이름 공간을 채울 때만 실행되고, 일반적인 임포트 때는 실
행되지 않는다는 사실 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 참고문헌,  Prev: __main__ 에 대한 특별한 고려,  Up: 임포트 시스템

4.5.9 참고문헌
--------------

임포트 절차는 파이썬의 초창기부터 상당히 변해왔습니다.  문서를 작성한 이
후에 약간의 세부사항이 변경되었기는 하지만, 최초의 패키지 규격(1) 은 아
직 읽을 수 있도록 남아있습니다.

*note sys.meta_path: d28. 의 최초 규격은 PEP 302(2) 이고, 뒤이은 확장은
PEP 420(3) 입니다.

PEP 420(4) 은 파이썬 3.3 에 *note 이름 공간 패키지: 1c70. 를 도입했습니
다.  PEP 420은 ‘find_module()’ 의 대안으로 ‘find_loader()’ 프로토콜 역시
도입했습니다.

PEP 366(5) 은 메인 모듈에서의 명시적인 상태 임포트를 위한 ‘__package__’
어트리뷰트의 추가에 관해 설명하고 있습니다.

PEP 328(6) 은 절대와 명시적인 상대 임포트들 도입하고 PEP 366(7) 이 결국
‘__package__’ 를 지정하게 되는 개념을 초기에 ‘__name__’ 으로 제안했습니
다.

PEP 338(8) 은 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하는 것을 정의합니다.

PEP 451(9) 은 스팩 객체에 모듈별 임포트 상태를 요약하는 것을 추가합니다.
로더들에 주어졌던 대부분의 공통 코드 책임들을 임포트 절차로 옮기기도 했
습니다.  이 변경은 임포트 시스템의 여러 API 들을 폐지하도록 만들었고, 파
인더와 로더에 새 메서드들을 추가하기도 했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


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4.6 표현식
==========

이 장은 파이썬에서 사용되는 표현식 요소들의 의미를 설명합니다.

'문법 유의 사항:' 여기와 이어지는 장에서는, 어휘 분석이 아니라 문법을 설
명하기 위해 확장 BNF 표기법을 사용합니다.  문법 규칙이 다음과 같은 형태
를 가지고,

     name ::= othername

뜻(semantics)을 주지 않으면, 이 형태의 ‘name’ 의 뜻은 ‘othername’ 과 같
습니다.

* Menu:

* 산술 변환::
* 아톰 (Atoms): 아톰 Atoms.
* 프라이머리::
* 어웨이트 표현식::
* 거듭제곱 연산자::
* 일 항 산술과 비트 연산::
* 이항 산술 연산::
* 시프트 연산::
* 이항 비트 연산::
* 비교::
* 논리 연산(Boolean operations): 논리 연산 Boolean operations.
* 대입 표현식: 대입 표현식<2>.
* 조건 표현식(Conditional expressions): 조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
* 람다(Lambdas): 람다 Lambdas.
* 표현식 목록(Expression lists): 표현식 목록 Expression lists.
* 값을 구하는 순서::
* 연산자 우선순위::


File: python.info,  Node: 산술 변환,  Next: 아톰 Atoms,  Up: 표현식

4.6.1 산술 변환
---------------

다음에 나오는 산술 연산자의 설명이 “숫자 인자들은 공통 형으로 변환된다
”라는 구절을 사용할 때, 내장형의 연산자 구현이 다음과 같이 동작한다는 뜻
입니다:

   * 어느 한 인자가 복소수면 다른 하나는 복소수로 변환됩니다;

   * otherwise, if either argument is a floating-point number, the other
     is converted to floating point;

   * 그렇지 않으면, 두 인자는 모두 정수여야 하고, 변환은 필요 없습니다.

어떤 연산자들(예를 들어, ‘%’ 연산자의 왼쪽 인자로 주어지는 문자열)에 대
해서는 몇 가지 추가의 규칙이 적용됩니다.  확장(extension)은 그들 자신의
변환 규칙을 정의해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 아톰 Atoms,  Next: 프라이머리,  Prev: 산술 변환,  Up: 표현식

4.6.2 아톰 (Atoms)
------------------

아톰은 표현식의 가장 기본적인 요소입니다.  가장 간단한 아톰은 식별자와 리
터럴입니다.  괄호, 대괄호, 중괄호로 둘러싸인 형태도 문법적으로 아톰으로
분류됩니다.  아톰의 문법은 이렇습니다:

     atom      ::= *note identifier: 1e9e. | *note literal: 2020. | *note enclosure: 2021.
     enclosure ::= *note parenth_form: 2022. | *note list_display: 2023. | *note dict_display: 2024. | *note set_display: 2025.
                   | *note generator_expression: 2026. | *note yield_atom: 2027.

* Menu:

* 식별자 (이름): 식별자 이름.
* 리터럴 (Literals): 리터럴 Literals.
* 괄호 안에 넣은 형::
* 리스트, 집합, 딕셔너리의 디스플레이(display): 리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
* 리스트 디스플레이::
* 집합 디스플레이::
* 딕셔너리 디스플레이::
* 제너레이터 표현식 (Generator expressions): 제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions.
* 일드 표현식(Yield expressions): 일드 표현식 Yield expressions.


File: python.info,  Node: 식별자 이름,  Next: 리터럴 Literals,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.1 식별자 (이름)
.....................

아톰으로 등장하는 식별자는 이름입니다.  어휘 정의에 대해서는 *note
식별자와 키워드: 1e9c. 섹션을, 이름과 연결에 대한 문서는 *note 이름과
연결(binding): 1f02. 섹션을 보세요.

이름이 객체에 연결될 때, 아톰의 값을 구하면 객체가 나옵니다.  이름이 연
결되지 않았을 때, 값을 구하려고 하면 *note NameError: 438. 예외가 일어납
니다.

* Menu:

* Private name mangling::


File: python.info,  Node: Private name mangling,  Up: 식별자 이름

4.6.2.2 Private name mangling
.............................

When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins
with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more
underscores, it is considered a 'private name' of that class.

더 보기
.......

The *note class specifications: 12c7.

More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before
code is generated for them.  If the transformed name is longer than 255
characters, implementation-defined truncation may happen.

The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which
the identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are
mangled:

   - Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or
     any name of an attribute being accessed.

     The *note __name__: 105c. attribute of nested functions, classes,
     and type aliases is however not mangled.

   - The name of imported modules, e.g., ‘__spam’ in ‘import __spam’.
     If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot),
     the name is 'not' mangled, e.g., the ‘__foo’ in ‘import __foo.bar’
     is not mangled.

   - The name of an imported member, e.g., ‘__f’ in ‘from spam import
     __f’.

The transformation rule is defined as follows:

   - The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single
     leading underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the
     identifier, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘Foo’, ‘_Foo’ or ‘__Foo’ is transformed to ‘_Foo__spam’.

   - If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation
     is the identity, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘_’ or ‘__’ is left as is.


File: python.info,  Node: 리터럴 Literals,  Next: 괄호 안에 넣은 형,  Prev: 식별자 이름,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.3 리터럴 (Literals)
.........................

파이썬은 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴과 여러 가지 숫자 리터럴들을 지원합니다
:

     literal ::= *note stringliteral: 1ead. | *note bytesliteral: 1eb6.
                 | *note integer: 1ed1. | *note floatnumber: 1edd. | *note imagnumber: 1ee5.

Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string,
bytes, integer, floating-point number, complex number) with the given
value.  The value may be approximated in the case of floating-point and
imaginary (complex) literals.  See section *note 리터럴: 1eaa. for
details.

모든 리터럴은 불변 데이터형에 대응하기 때문에, 객체의 아이덴티티는 값 보
다 덜 중요합니다.  같은 값의 리터럴에 대해 반복적으로 값을 구하면 (프로
그램 텍스트의 같은 장소에 있거나 다른 장소에 있을 때) 같은 객체를 얻을 수
도 있고, 같은 값의 다른 객체를 얻을 수도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 괄호 안에 넣은 형,  Next: 리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display,  Prev: 리터럴 Literals,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.4 괄호 안에 넣은 형
.........................

괄호 안에 넣은 형은, 괄호로 둘러싸인 생략 가능한 표현식 목록입니다:

     parenth_form ::= "(" [*note starred_expression: 202e.] ")"

괄호 안에 넣은 표현식 목록은, 무엇이건 그 표현식 목록이 산출하는 것이 됩
니다: 목록이 적어도 하나의 쉼표를 포함하면, 튜플이 됩니다; 그렇지 않으면
표현식 목록을 구성한 단일 표현식이 됩니다.

빈 괄호 쌍은 빈 튜플 객체를 만듭니다.  튜플은 불변이기 때문에 리터럴에서
와 같은 규칙이 적용됩니다 (즉, 두 개의 빈 튜플은 같은 객체일 수도 있고 그
렇지 않을 수도 있습니다).

Note that tuples are not formed by the parentheses, but rather by use of
the comma.  The exception is the empty tuple, for which parentheses
'are' required — allowing unparenthesized “nothing” in expressions would
cause ambiguities and allow common typos to pass uncaught.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display,  Next: 리스트 디스플레이,  Prev: 괄호 안에 넣은 형,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.5 리스트, 집합, 딕셔너리의 디스플레이(display)
....................................................

리스트, 집합, 딕셔너리를 구성하기 위해, 파이썬은 “디스플레이
(displays)”라고 부르는 특별한 문법을 각기 두 가지 스타일로 제공합니다:

   * 컨테이너의 내용을 명시적으로 나열하거나,

   * 일련의 루프와 필터링 지시들을 통해 계산되는데, '컴프리헨션
     (comprehension)' 이라고 불립니다.

컴프리헨션의 공통 문법 요소들은 이렇습니다:

     comprehension ::= *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. *note comp_for: 2031.
     comp_for      ::= ["async"] "for" *note target_list: 2032. "in" *note or_test: 2033. [*note comp_iter: 2034.]
     comp_iter     ::= *note comp_for: 2031. | *note comp_if: 2035.
     comp_if       ::= "if" *note or_test: 2033. [*note comp_iter: 2034.]

컴프리헨션은 하나의 표현식과 그 뒤를 따르는 최소한 하나의 ‘for’ 절과 없
거나 여러 개의 ‘for’ 또는 ‘if’ 절로 구성됩니다.  이 경우, 새 컨테이너의
요소들은 각 ‘for’ 또는 ‘if’ 절이 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 중첩된 블록을 이루
고, 가장 안쪽에 있는 블록에서 표현식의 값을 구해서 만들어낸 것들입니다.

하지만, 가장 왼쪽의 ‘for’ 절에 있는 이터러블 표현식을 제외하고는, 컴프리
헨션은 묵시적으로 중첩된 스코프에서 실행됩니다.  이렇게 해서
‘target_list’ 에서 대입되는 이름이 둘러싸는 스코프로 “누수” 되지 않도록
합니다.

가장 왼쪽의 ‘for’ 절의 이터러블 표현식은, 둘러싸는 스코프에서 직접 평가
된 다음, 묵시적으로 중첩된 스코프로 인자로 전달됩니다.  뒤따르는 ‘for’ 절
과 가장 왼쪽 ‘for’ 절의 모든 필터 조건은, 가장 왼쪽 이터러블에서 얻은 값
에 따라 달라질 수 있으므로 둘러싸는 스코프에서 평가할 수 없습니다.  예를
들면, ‘[x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x, x+10)]’.

컴프리헨션이 항상 적절한 형의 컨테이너가 되게 하려고, 묵시적으로 중첩된
스코프에서 ‘yield’ 와 ‘yield from’ 표현식은 금지됩니다.

Since Python 3.6, in an *note async def: 5cb. function, an ‘async for’
clause may be used to iterate over a *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab.
A comprehension in an ‘async def’ function may consist of either a ‘for’
or ‘async for’ clause following the leading expression, may contain
additional ‘for’ or ‘async for’ clauses, and may also use *note await:
1b9. expressions.

If a comprehension contains ‘async for’ clauses, or if it contains
‘await’ expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except
the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause, it is called an
'asynchronous comprehension'.  An asynchronous comprehension may suspend
the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.  See also
PEP 530(1).

Added in version 3.6: 비동기 컴프리헨션이 도입되었습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘yield’ 와 ‘yield from’ 은 묵시적으로 중첩된 스코프에
서 금지됩니다.

버전 3.11에서 변경: Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 디스플레이,  Next: 집합 디스플레이,  Prev: 리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.6 리스트 디스플레이
.........................

리스트 디스플레이는 대괄호(square brackets)로 둘러싸인 표현식의 나열인데
비어있을 수 있습니다:

     list_display ::= "[" [*note flexible_expression_list: 2038. | *note comprehension: 2030.] "]"

리스트 디스플레이는 리스트 객체를 만드는데, 그 내용은 표현식의 목록이나
컴프리헨션으로 지정할 수 있습니다.  쉼표로 분리된 표현식의 목록이 제공될
때, 그 요소들은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 값이 구해지고, 그 순서대로 리스트 객
체에 삽입됩니다.  컴프리헨션이 제공될 때, 리스트는 컴프리헨션으로 만들어
지는 요소들로 구성됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 집합 디스플레이,  Next: 딕셔너리 디스플레이,  Prev: 리스트 디스플레이,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.7 집합 디스플레이
.......................

집합 디스플레이는 중괄호(curly braces)로 표시되고, 키와 값을 분리하는 콜
론(colon)이 없는 것으로 딕셔너리 디스플레이와 구분될 수 있습니다.

     set_display ::= "{" (*note flexible_expression_list: 2038. | *note comprehension: 2030.) "}"

집합 디스플레이는 새 가변 집합 객체를 만드는데, 그 내용은 표현식의 시퀀
스나 컴프리헨션으로 지정됩니다.  쉼표로 분리된 표현식의 목록이 제공될 때
, 그 요소들은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 값이 구해지고, 집합 객체에 더해집니다.
컴프리헨션이 제공될 때, 집합은 컴프리헨션으로 만들어지는 요소들로 구성됩
니다.

빈 집합은 ‘{}’ 으로 만들어질 수 없습니다; 이 리터럴은 빈 딕셔너리를 만듭
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 디스플레이,  Next: 제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions,  Prev: 집합 디스플레이,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.8 딕셔너리 디스플레이
...........................

A dictionary display is a possibly empty series of dict items (key/value
pairs) enclosed in curly braces:

     dict_display       ::= "{" [*note dict_item_list: 203c. | *note dict_comprehension: 203d.] "}"
     dict_item_list     ::= *note dict_item: 203e. ("," *note dict_item: 203e.)* [","]
     dict_item          ::= *note expression: 203f. ":" *note expression: 203f. | "**" *note or_expr: 1ecb.
     dict_comprehension ::= *note expression: 203f. ":" *note expression: 203f. *note comp_for: 2031.

딕셔너리 디스플레이는 새 딕셔너리 객체를 만듭니다.

If a comma-separated sequence of dict items is given, they are evaluated
from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary: each key
object is used as a key into the dictionary to store the corresponding
value.  This means that you can specify the same key multiple times in
the dict item list, and the final dictionary’s value for that key will
be the last one given.

A double asterisk ‘**’ denotes 'dictionary unpacking'.  Its operand must
be a *note mapping: 11ab.  Each mapping item is added to the new
dictionary.  Later values replace values already set by earlier dict
items and earlier dictionary unpackings.

Added in version 3.5: PEP 448(1) 에서 처음 제안된 딕셔너리 디스플레이로
의 언 패킹.

딕셔너리 컴프리헨션은, 리스트와 집합 컴프리헨션에 대비해서, 일반적인
“for” 와 “if” 절 앞에 콜론으로 분리된 두 개의 표현식을 필요로 합니다.  컴
프리헨션이 실행될 때, 만들어지는 키와 값 요소들이 만들어지는 순서대로 딕
셔너리에 삽입됩니다.

Restrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in
section *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.  (To summarize, the key type should be
*note hashable: 60a, which excludes all mutable objects.)  Clashes
between duplicate keys are not detected; the last value (textually
rightmost in the display) stored for a given key value prevails.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 파이썬 3.8 이전에는, 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션에서, 키와 값
의 평가 순서가 잘 정의되어 있지 않았습니다.  CPython에서, 값이 키보다 먼
저 평가되었습니다.  3.8부터는, PEP 572(2)의 제안에 따라 키가 값보다 먼저
평가됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions,  Next: 일드 표현식 Yield expressions,  Prev: 딕셔너리 디스플레이,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.9 제너레이터 표현식 (Generator expressions)
.................................................

제너레이터 표현식은 괄호로 둘러싸인 간결한 제너레이터 표기법입니다.

     generator_expression ::= "(" *note expression: 203f. *note comp_for: 2031. ")"

제너레이터 표현식은 새 제너레이터 객체를 만듭니다.  문법은 대괄호나 중괄
호 대신 괄호로 둘러싸인다는 점만 제외하면 컴프리헨션과 같습니다.

Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
*note __next__(): 1ccd. method is called for the generator object (in
the same fashion as normal generators).  However, the iterable
expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is immediately evaluated, and
the *note iterator: 1ac. is immediately created for that iterable, so
that an error produced while creating the iterator will be emitted at
the point where the generator expression is defined, rather than at the
point where the first value is retrieved.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and
any filter condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in
the enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘(x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10))’.

단지 하나의 인자만 갖는 호출에서는 괄호를 생략할 수 있습니다.  자세한 내
용은 *note 호출: d79. 섹션을 보세요.

제너레이터 표현식 자체의 기대되는 연산을 방해하지 않기 위해, 묵시적으로
정의된 제너레이터에서 ‘yield’ 와 ‘yield from’ 표현식은 금지됩니다.

제너레이터 표현식이 ‘async for’ 절이나 *note await: 1b9. 표현식을 포함하
면 '비동기 제너레이터 표현식 (asynchronous generator expression)' 이라고
불립니다.  비동기 제너레이터 표현식은 새 비동기 제너레이터 객체를 돌려주
는데 이것은 비동기 이터레이터입니다 (*note 비동기
이터레이터(Asynchronous Iterators): d76. 를 참조하세요).

Added in version 3.6: 비동기식 제너레이터 표현식이 도입되었습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 파이썬 3.7 이전에는, 비동기 제너레이터 표현식이 *note
async def: 5cb. 코루틴에만 나타날 수 있었습니다.  3.7부터는, 모든 함수가
비동기식 제너레이터 표현식을 사용할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘yield’ 와 ‘yield from’ 은 묵시적으로 중첩된 스코프에
서 금지됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 일드 표현식 Yield expressions,  Prev: 제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions,  Up: 아톰 Atoms

4.6.2.10 일드 표현식(Yield expressions)
.......................................

     yield_atom       ::= "(" *note yield_expression: 1ecc. ")"
     yield_from       ::= "yield" "from" *note expression: 203f.
     yield_expression ::= "yield" *note yield_list: 2045. | *note yield_from: 2044.

The yield expression is used when defining a *note generator: 1057.
function or an *note asynchronous generator: 2046. function and thus can
only be used in the body of a function definition.  Using a yield
expression in a function’s body causes that function to be a generator
function, and using it in an *note async def: 5cb. function’s body
causes that coroutine function to be an asynchronous generator function.
For example:

     def gen():  # defines a generator function
         yield 123

     async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
         yield 123

둘러싸는 스코프에 대한 부작용으로 인해, ‘yield’ 표현식은 컴프리헨션과 제
너레이터 표현식을 구현하는 데 사용되는 묵시적으로 정의된 스코프에 사용될
수 없습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 일드 표현식은 컴프리헨션과 제너레이터 표현식을 구현하
는 데 사용되는 묵시적으로 정의된 스코프에서 금지됩니다.

제너레이터 함수는 다음에서 설명합니다.  반면에 비동기 제너레이터 함수는
*note 비동기 제너레이터 함수: 2047. 섹션에서 별도로 설명합니다.

When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator
function.  The execution starts when one of the generator’s methods is
called.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 2045. to the generator’s caller, or ‘None’ if *note
yield_list: 2045. is omitted.  By suspended, we mean that all local
state is retained, including the current bindings of local variables,
the instruction pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of
any exception handling.  When the execution is resumed by calling one of
the generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the
yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __next__(): 1ccd. is used (typically via either a
*note for: 2ea. or the *note next(): 7d1. builtin) then the result is
*note None: 66f.  Otherwise, if *note send(): 1fd4. is used, then the
result will be the value passed in to that method.

이 모든 것들은 제너레이터 함수를 코루틴과 아주 비슷하게 만듭니다; 여러 번
결과를 만들고, 하나 이상의 진입 지점을 갖고 있으며, 실행이 일시 중지될 수
있습니다.  유일한 차이점은 제너레이터 함수는 yield 한 후에 실행이 어디에
서 계속되어야 하는지를 제어할 수 없다는 점입니다; 제어는 항상 제너레이터
의 호출자로 전달됩니다.

일드 표현식은 *note try: 6e2. 구조물의 어디에서건 허락됩니다.  제너레이
터가 (참조 횟수가 0이 되거나 가비지 수거됨으로써) 파이널라이즈
(finalize)되기 전에 재개되지 않으면, 제너레이터-이터레이터의 *note
close(): 16fb. 메서드가 호출되어, 대기 중인 *note finally: 9c7. 절이 실
행되도록 허락합니다.

‘yield from <expr>’ 이 사용될 때, 제공된 표현식은 어터러블이어야 합니다.
그 이터러블을 이터레이트 해서 생성되는 값들은 현재 제너레이터 메서드의 호
출자에게 바로 전달됩니다.  *note send(): 1fd4. 로 전달된 모든 값과 *note
throw(): 4f2. 로 전달된 모든 예외는 밑에 있는(underlying) 이터레이터가 해
당 메서드를 갖고 있다면 그곳으로 전달됩니다.  그렇지 않다면, *note
send(): 1fd4. 는 *note AttributeError: 346. 나 *note TypeError: 532. 를
일으키지만, *note throw(): 4f2. 는 전달된 예외를 즉시 일으킨다.

밑에 있는 이러레이터가 완료될 때, 발생하는 *note StopIteration: bf7. 인
스턴스의 *note value: 1fd1. 어트리뷰트는 일드 표현식의 값이 됩니다.
*note StopIteration: bf7. 를 일으킬 때 명시적으로 설정되거나, 서브 이터
레이터가 제너레이터일 경우는 자동으로 이루어집니다 (서브 제너레이터가 값
을 돌려(return)줌으로써).

버전 3.3에서 변경: 서브 이터레이터로 제어 흐름을 위임하는 ‘yield from
<expr>’ 를 추가했습니다.

일드 표현식이 대입문의 우변에 홀로 나온다면 괄호를 생략할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 255(1) - 간단한 제너레이터

     파이썬에 제너레이터와 *note yield: 9ca. 문을 추가하는 제안.

PEP 342(2) - 개선된 제너레이터를 통한 코루틴

     제너레이터의 API와 문법을 개선해서, 간단한 코루틴으로 사용할 수 있
     도록 만드는 제안.

PEP 380(3) - 서브 제너레이터로 위임하는 문법

     The proposal to introduce the *note yield_from: 2044. syntax,
     making delegation to subgenerators easy.

PEP 525(4) - 비동기 제너레이터

     코루틴 함수에 제너레이터 기능을 추가하여 PEP 492(5)을 확장한 제안.

* Menu:

* 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드::
* 사용 예::
* 비동기 제너레이터 함수::
* 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드,  Next: 사용 예,  Up: 일드 표현식 Yield expressions

4.6.2.11 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드
.....................................

이 서브섹션은 제너레이터 이터레이터의 메서드들을 설명합니다.  제너레이터
함수의 실행을 제어하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

제너레이터가 이미 실행 중일 때 아래에 나오는 메서드들을 호출하면 *note
ValueError: 202. 예외를 일으키는 것에 주의해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: generator.__next__ ()

     Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the
     last executed yield expression.  When a generator function is
     resumed with a *note __next__(): 1ccd. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 66f.  The execution then
     continues to the next yield expression, where the generator is
     suspended again, and the value of the *note yield_list: 2045. is
     returned to *note __next__(): 1ccd.’s caller.  If the generator
     exits without yielding another value, a *note StopIteration: bf7.
     exception is raised.

     이 메서드는 보통 묵시적으로 호출됩니다, 예를 들어, *note for: 2ea.
     루프나 내장 *note next(): 7d1. 함수에 의해.

 -- 메서드: generator.send (value)

     실행을 재개하고 제너레이터 함수로 값을 “보냅니다(send)”.  'value' 인
     자는 현재 일드 표현식의 값이 됩니다.  *note send(): 1fd4. 메서드는
     제너레이터가 yield 하는 다음 값을 돌려주거나, 제너레이터가 다른 값
     을 yield 하지 않고 종료하면 *note StopIteration: bf7. 을 일으킵니다
     .  *note send(): 1fd4. 가 제너레이터를 시작시키도록 호출될 때, 값을
     받을 일드 표현식이 없으므로, 인자로는 반드시 *note None: 66f. 을 전
     달해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: generator.throw (value)

 -- 메서드: generator.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises an exception at the point where the generator was paused,
     and returns the next value yielded by the generator function.  If
     the generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopIteration: bf7. exception is raised.  If the generator function
     does not catch the passed-in exception, or raises a different
     exception, then that exception propagates to the caller.

     In typical use, this is called with a single exception instance
     similar to the way the *note raise: 5e7. keyword is used.

     For backwards compatibility, however, the second signature is
     supported, following a convention from older versions of Python.
     The 'type' argument should be an exception class, and 'value'
     should be an exception instance.  If the 'value' is not provided,
     the 'type' constructor is called to get an instance.  If
     'traceback' is provided, it is set on the exception, otherwise any
     existing *note __traceback__: 12b6. attribute stored in 'value' may
     be cleared.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- 메서드: generator.close ()

     Raises a *note GeneratorExit: 1390. exception at the point where
     the generator function was paused (equivalent to calling
     ‘throw(GeneratorExit)’).  The exception is raised by the yield
     expression where the generator was paused.  If the generator
     function catches the exception and returns a value, this value is
     returned from *note close(): 16fb.  If the generator function is
     already closed, or raises *note GeneratorExit: 1390. (by not
     catching the exception), *note close(): 16fb. returns *note None:
     66f.  If the generator yields a value, a *note RuntimeError: 195.
     is raised.  If the generator raises any other exception, it is
     propagated to the caller.  If the generator has already exited due
     to an exception or normal exit, *note close(): 16fb. returns *note
     None: 66f. and has no other effect.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: If a generator returns a value upon being
     closed, the value is returned by *note close(): 16fb.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예,  Next: 비동기 제너레이터 함수,  Prev: 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드,  Up: 일드 표현식 Yield expressions

4.6.2.12 사용 예
................

여기에 제너레이터와 제너레이터 함수의 동작을 시연하는 간단한 예가 있습니
다:

     >>> def echo(value=None):
     ...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
     ...     try:
     ...         while True:
     ...             try:
     ...                 value = (yield value)
     ...             except Exception as e:
     ...                 value = e
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
     ...
     >>> generator = echo(1)
     >>> print(next(generator))
     Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
     1
     >>> print(next(generator))
     None
     >>> print(generator.send(2))
     2
     >>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
     TypeError('spam',)
     >>> generator.close()
     Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.

‘yield from’ 을 사용하는 예는, “What’s New in Python.” 에 있는 *note PEP
380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: 102f. 을 보세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 제너레이터 함수,  Next: 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드,  Prev: 사용 예,  Up: 일드 표현식 Yield expressions

4.6.2.13 비동기 제너레이터 함수
...............................

*note async def: 5cb. 를 사용한 함수나 메서드에서 일드 표현식의 존재는 그
함수를 *note 비동기 제너레이터: 2046. 함수로 정의합니다.

비동기 제너레이터 함수가 호출되면, 비동기 제너레이터 객체로 알려진 비동
기 이터레이터를 돌려줍니다.  그런 다음 그 객체는 제너레이터 함수의 실행
을 제어합니다.  비동기 제너레이터 객체는 보통 코루틴 함수의 *note async
for: aa7. 문에서 사용되는데, 제너레이터 객체가 *note for: 2ea. 문에서 사
용되는 방식과 유사합니다.

Calling one of the asynchronous generator’s methods returns an *note
awaitable: 1ad. object, and the execution starts when this object is
awaited on.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 2045. to the awaiting coroutine.  As with a generator,
suspension means that all local state is retained, including the current
bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the
execution is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the
asynchronous generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if
the yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __anext__(): 204b. is used then the result is *note
None: 66f.  Otherwise, if *note asend(): 8d6. is used, then the result
will be the value passed in to that method.

If an asynchronous generator happens to exit early by *note break: aa6,
the caller task being cancelled, or other exceptions, the generator’s
async cleanup code will run and possibly raise exceptions or access
context variables in an unexpected context–perhaps after the lifetime of
tasks it depends, or during the event loop shutdown when the
async-generator garbage collection hook is called.  To prevent this, the
caller must explicitly close the async generator by calling *note
aclose(): 8d5. method to finalize the generator and ultimately detach it
from the event loop.

비동기 제너레이터 함수에서, 일드 표현식은 *note try: 6e2. 구조물의 어디
에서건 허락됩니다.  하지만, 비동기 제너레이터가 (참조 횟수가 0이 되거나
가비지 수거됨으로써) 파이널라이즈(finalize)되기 전에 재개되지 않으면,
‘try’ 구조물 내의 일드 표현식은 대기 중인 *note finally: 9c7. 절을 실행
하는 데 실패할 수 있습니다.  이 경우에, 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터의
*note aclose(): 8d5. 를 호출하고, 그 결과로 오는 코루틴 객체를 실행해서,
대기 중인 ‘finally’ 절이 실행되도록 하는 책임은, 비동기 제너레이터를 실
행하는 이벤트 루프(event loop)나 스케줄러(scheduler)에게 있습니다.

To take care of finalization upon event loop termination, an event loop
should define a 'finalizer' function which takes an asynchronous
generator-iterator and presumably calls *note aclose(): 8d5. and
executes the coroutine.  This 'finalizer' may be registered by calling
*note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 162d.  When first iterated over, an
asynchronous generator-iterator will store the registered 'finalizer' to
be called upon finalization.  For a reference example of a 'finalizer'
method see the implementation of ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in
Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(1).

표현식 ‘yield from <expr>’ 를 비동기 제너레이터 함수에서 사용하는 것은 문
법 에러다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드,  Prev: 비동기 제너레이터 함수,  Up: 일드 표현식 Yield expressions

4.6.2.14 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드
............................................

이 서브섹션은 비동기 제너레이터 이터레이터의 메서드를 설명하는데, 제너레
이터 함수의 실행을 제어하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: async agen.__anext__ ()

     Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the
     asynchronous generator or resumes it at the last executed yield
     expression.  When an asynchronous generator function is resumed
     with an *note __anext__(): 204b. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 66f. in the returned
     awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
     expression.  The value of the *note yield_list: 2045. of the yield
     expression is the value of the *note StopIteration: bf7. exception
     raised by the completing coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator
     exits without yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises
     a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. exception, signalling that the
     asynchronous iteration has completed.

     이 메서드는 보통 *note async for: aa7. 루프에 의해 묵시적으로 호출
     됩니다.

 -- 메서드: async agen.asend (value)

     Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
     asynchronous generator.  As with the *note send(): 1fd4. method for
     a generator, this “sends” a value into the asynchronous generator
     function, and the 'value' argument becomes the result of the
     current yield expression.  The awaitable returned by the *note
     asend(): 8d6. method will return the next value yielded by the
     generator as the value of the raised *note StopIteration: bf7, or
     raises *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. if the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value.  When *note
     asend(): 8d6. is called to start the asynchronous generator, it
     must be called with *note None: 66f. as the argument, because there
     is no yield expression that could receive the value.

 -- 메서드: async agen.athrow (value)

 -- 메서드: async agen.athrow (type[, value[, traceback]])

     어웨이터블을 돌려주는데, 비동기 제너레이터가 일시 중지한 지점에
     ‘type’ 형의 예외를 일으키고, 제너레이터 함수가 yield 한 다음 값을 발
     생하는 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외의 값으로 돌려줍니다.  비동기
     제너레이터가 다른 값을 yield 하지 않고 종료하면, 어웨이터블에 의해
     *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. 예외가 일어납니다.  제너레이터 함수
     가 전달된 예외를 잡지 않거나, 다른 예외를 일으키면, 어웨이터블을 실
     행할 때 그 예외가 어웨이터블의 호출자에게 퍼집니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- 메서드: async agen.aclose ()

     어웨이터블을 돌려주는데, 실행하면, 비동기 제너레이터 함수가 일시 정
     지한 지점으로 *note GeneratorExit: 1390. 를 던집니다.  만약 그 이후
     에 비동기 제너레이터 함수가 우아하게 (gracefully) 종료하거나, 이미
     닫혔거나, (그 예외를 잡지 않음으로써) *note GeneratorExit: 1390. 를
     일으키면, 돌려준 어웨이터블은 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 일으
     킵니다.  이어지는 비동기 제너레이터 호출이 돌려주는 추가의 어웨이터
     블들은 *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. 예외를 일으킵니다.  만약 비
     동기 제너레이터가 값을 yield 하면 어웨이터블에 의해 *note
     RuntimeError: 195. 가 발생합니다.  만약 비동기 제너레이터가 그 밖의
     다른 예외를 일으키면, 어웨이터블의 호출자로 퍼집니다.  만약 비동기
     제너레이터가 예외나 정상 종료로 이미 종료했으면, 더 이어지는 *note
     aclose(): 8d5. 호출은 아무것도 하지 않는 어웨이터블을 돌려줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프라이머리,  Next: 어웨이트 표현식,  Prev: 아톰 Atoms,  Up: 표현식

4.6.3 프라이머리
----------------

프라이머리는 언어에서 가장 강하게 결합하는 연산들을 나타냅니다.  문법은
이렇습니다:

     primary ::= *note atom: 201f. | *note attributeref: 2051. | *note subscription: 2052. | *note slicing: 2053. | *note call: 2054.

* Menu:

* 어트리뷰트 참조::
* 서브스크립션(Subscriptions): 서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
* 슬라이싱(Slicings): 슬라이싱 Slicings.
* 호출::


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4.6.3.1 어트리뷰트 참조
.......................

어트리뷰트 참조는 마침표(period)와 이름이 뒤에 붙은 프라이머리다:

     attributeref ::= *note primary: 2050. "." *note identifier: 1e9e.

The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce
the attribute whose name is the identifier.  The type and value produced
is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.

This production can be customized by overriding the *note
__getattribute__(): bcf. method or the *note __getattr__(): 4cd. method.
The ‘__getattribute__()’ method is called first and either returns a
value or raises *note AttributeError: 346. if the attribute is not
available.

If an *note AttributeError: 346. is raised and the object has a
‘__getattr__()’ method, that method is called as a fallback.


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4.6.3.2 서브스크립션(Subscriptions)
...................................

The subscription of an instance of a *note container class: 1f92. will
generally select an element from the container.  The subscription of a
*note generic class: 432. will generally return a *note GenericAlias:
6ac. object.

     subscription ::= *note primary: 2050. "[" *note flexible_expression_list: 2038. "]"

When an object is subscripted, the interpreter will evaluate the primary
and the expression list.

The primary must evaluate to an object that supports subscription.  An
object may support subscription through defining one or both of *note
__getitem__(): 283. and *note __class_getitem__(): 734.  When the
primary is subscripted, the evaluated result of the expression list will
be passed to one of these methods.  For more details on when
‘__class_getitem__’ is called instead of ‘__getitem__’, see *note
__class_getitem__ versus __getitem__: 1f8b.

If the expression list contains at least one comma, or if any of the
expressions are starred, the expression list will evaluate to a *note
tuple: 369. containing the items of the expression list.  Otherwise, the
expression list will evaluate to the value of the list’s sole member.

버전 3.11에서 변경: Expressions in an expression list may be starred.
See PEP 646(1).

For built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support
subscription via *note __getitem__(): 283.:

  1. Mappings.  If the primary is a *note mapping: 11ab, the expression
     list must evaluate to an object whose value is one of the keys of
     the mapping, and the subscription selects the value in the mapping
     that corresponds to that key.  An example of a builtin mapping
     class is the *note dict: 256. class.

  2. Sequences.  If the primary is a *note sequence: 4eb, the expression
     list must evaluate to an *note int: 257. or a *note slice: 463. (as
     discussed in the following section).  Examples of builtin sequence
     classes include the *note str: 445, *note list: 60b. and *note
     tuple: 369. classes.

The formal syntax makes no special provision for negative indices in
*note sequences: 4eb.  However, built-in sequences all provide a *note
__getitem__(): 283. method that interprets negative indices by adding
the length of the sequence to the index so that, for example, ‘x[-1]’
selects the last item of ‘x’.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative
integer less than the number of items in the sequence, and the
subscription selects the item whose index is that value (counting from
zero).  Since the support for negative indices and slicing occurs in the
object’s *note __getitem__(): 283. method, subclasses overriding this
method will need to explicitly add that support.

A *note string: 445. is a special kind of sequence whose items are
'characters'.  A character is not a separate data type but a string of
exactly one character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


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4.6.3.3 슬라이싱(Slicings)
..........................

슬라이싱은 시퀀스 객체 (예를 들어, 문자열 튜플 리스트)에서 어떤 범위의 항
목들을 선택합니다.  슬라이싱은 표현식이나 대입의 타깃이나 *note del:
17ad. 문에 사용될 수 있습니다.  슬라이싱의 문법은 이렇습니다:

     slicing      ::= *note primary: 2050. "[" *note slice_list: 205a. "]"
     slice_list   ::= *note slice_item: 205b. ("," *note slice_item: 205b.)* [","]
     slice_item   ::= *note expression: 203f. | *note proper_slice: 205c.
     proper_slice ::= [*note lower_bound: 205d.] ":" [*note upper_bound: 205e.] [ ":" [*note stride: 205f.] ]
     lower_bound  ::= *note expression: 203f.
     upper_bound  ::= *note expression: 203f.
     stride       ::= *note expression: 203f.

이 형식 문법에는 모호함이 있습니다: 표현식 목록처럼 보이는 것들은 모두 슬
라이스 목록으로 보이기도 해서, 모든 서브스크립션이 슬라이싱으로 해석될 수
도 있습니다.  문법을 더 복잡하게 만드는 대신, 이 경우에 서브스크립션으로
해석하는 것이 슬라이싱으로 해석하는 것에 우선한다고 정의하는 것으로 애매
함을 제거합니다 (이 경우는 슬라이스 목록이 고유한 슬라이스(proper slice)
를 하나도 포함하지 않을 때입니다).

The semantics for a slicing are as follows.  The primary is indexed
(using the same *note __getitem__(): 283. method as normal subscription)
with a key that is constructed from the slice list, as follows.  If the
slice list contains at least one comma, the key is a tuple containing
the conversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the lone
slice item is the key.  The conversion of a slice item that is an
expression is that expression.  The conversion of a proper slice is a
slice object (see section *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.) whose *note start:
1f5e, *note stop: 1f5f. and *note step: 1f60. attributes are the values
of the expressions given as lower bound, upper bound and stride,
respectively, substituting ‘None’ for missing expressions.


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4.6.3.4 호출
............

호출은 콜러블 객체 (예를 들어, *note 함수: 2061.) 를 빌 수도 있는 *note
인자: 442. 들의 목록으로 호출합니다.

     call                 ::= *note primary: 2050. "(" [*note argument_list: 2062. [","] | *note comprehension: 2030.] ")"
     argument_list        ::= *note positional_arguments: 2063. ["," *note starred_and_keywords: 2064.]
                              ["," *note keywords_arguments: 2065.]
                              | *note starred_and_keywords: 2064. ["," *note keywords_arguments: 2065.]
                              | *note keywords_arguments: 2065.
     positional_arguments ::= *note positional_item: 2066. ("," *note positional_item: 2066.)*
     positional_item      ::= *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. | "*" *note expression: 203f.
     starred_and_keywords ::= ("*" *note expression: 203f. | *note keyword_item: 2067.)
                              ("," "*" *note expression: 203f. | "," *note keyword_item: 2067.)*
     keywords_arguments   ::= (*note keyword_item: 2067. | "**" *note expression: 203f.)
                              ("," *note keyword_item: 2067. | "," "**" *note expression: 203f.)*
     keyword_item         ::= *note identifier: 1e9e. "=" *note expression: 203f.

생략할 수 있는 마지막 쉼표가 위치나 키워드 인자 뒤에 나타날 수 있지만, 의
미를 바꾸지 않습니다.

The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions,
built-in functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods
of class instances, and all objects having a *note __call__(): 553.
method are callable).  All argument expressions are evaluated before the
call is attempted.  Please refer to section *note 함수 정의: 1c3e. for
the syntax of formal *note parameter: 1f07. lists.

If keyword arguments are present, they are first converted to positional
arguments, as follows.  First, a list of unfilled slots is created for
the formal parameters.  If there are N positional arguments, they are
placed in the first N slots.  Next, for each keyword argument, the
identifier is used to determine the corresponding slot (if the
identifier is the same as the first formal parameter name, the first
slot is used, and so on).  If the slot is already filled, a *note
TypeError: 532. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the argument is placed
in the slot, filling it (even if the expression is ‘None’, it fills the
slot).  When all arguments have been processed, the slots that are still
unfilled are filled with the corresponding default value from the
function definition.  (Default values are calculated, once, when the
function is defined; thus, a mutable object such as a list or dictionary
used as default value will be shared by all calls that don’t specify an
argument value for the corresponding slot; this should usually be
avoided.)  If there are any unfilled slots for which no default value is
specified, a *note TypeError: 532. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the
list of filled slots is used as the argument list for the call.

구현은 위치 매개변수가 이름을 갖지 않아서, 설사 문서화의 목적으로 이름이
붙여졌다 하더라도, 키워드로 공급될 수 없는 내장 함수들을 제공할 수 있습
니다.  CPython 에서, 인자들을 파싱하기 위해 *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
56c. 를 사용하는 C로 구현된 함수들이 이 경우입니다.

형식 매개변수 슬롯들보다 많은 위치 인자들이 있으면, ‘*identifier’ 문법을
사용하는 형식 매개변수가 있지 않은 한, *note TypeError: 532. 예외를 일으
킵니다; 이 경우, 그 형식 매개변수는 남는 위치 인자들을 포함하는 튜플을 전
달받습니다 (또는 남는 위치 인자들이 없으면 빈 튜플).

키워드 인자가 형식 매개변수 이름에 대응하지 않으면, ‘**identifier’ 문법
을 사용하는 형식 매개변수가 있지 않은 한, *note TypeError: 532. 예외를 일
으킵니다; 이 경우, 그 형식 매개변수는 남는 키워드 인자들을 포함하는 딕셔
너리나, 남는 위치기반 인자들이 없으면 빈 (새) 딕셔너리를 전달받습니다.

문법 ‘*expression’ 이 함수 호출에 등장하면, ‘expression’ 의 값은 *note
이터러블: 1217. 이 되어야 합니다.  이 이터러블의 요소들은, 그것들이 추가
의 위치 인자들인 것처럼 취급됩니다.  호출 ‘f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4)’ 의 경
우, 'y' 의 값을 구할 때 시퀀스 'y1', …, 'yM' 이 나온다면, 이것은 M+4개의
위치 인자들 'x1', 'x2', 'y1', …, 'yM', 'x3', 'x4' 로 호출하는 것과 동등
합니다.

이로 인한 결과는 설사 ‘*expression’ 문법이 명시적인 키워드 인자 '뒤에' 나
올 수는 있어도, 키워드 인자 (그리고 모든 ‘**expression’ 인자들 – 아래를
보라) '전에' 처리된다는 것입니다.  그래서:

     >>> def f(a, b):
     ...     print(a, b)
     ...
     >>> f(b=1, *(2,))
     2 1
     >>> f(a=1, *(2,))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
     >>> f(1, *(2,))
     1 2

It is unusual for both keyword arguments and the ‘*expression’ syntax to
be used in the same call, so in practice this confusion does not often
arise.

If the syntax ‘**expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to a *note mapping: 11ab, the contents of which are
treated as additional keyword arguments.  If a parameter matching a key
has already been given a value (by an explicit keyword argument, or from
another unpacking), a *note TypeError: 532. exception is raised.

When ‘**expression’ is used, each key in this mapping must be a string.
Each value from the mapping is assigned to the first formal parameter
eligible for keyword assignment whose name is equal to the key.  A key
need not be a Python identifier (e.g.  ‘"max-temp °F"’ is acceptable,
although it will not match any formal parameter that could be declared).
If there is no match to a formal parameter the key-value pair is
collected by the ‘**’ parameter, if there is one, or if there is not, a
*note TypeError: 532. exception is raised.

문법 ‘*identifier’ 이나 ‘**identifier’ 를 사용하는 형식 매개변수들은 위
치 인자 슬롯이나 키워드 인자 아름들로 사용될 수 없습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 함수 호출은 임의의 개수의 ‘*’ and ‘**’ 언 패킹을 받아
들이고, 위치 인자들이 이터러블 언 패킹 (‘*’) 뒤에 올 수 있고, 키워드 인
자가 딕셔너리 언 패킹 (‘**’) 뒤에 올 수 있습니다.  최초로 PEP 448(1) 에
서 제안되었습니다.

호출은 예외를 일으키지 않는 한, 항상 어떤 값을 돌려줍니다, ‘None’ 일 수
있습니다.  이 값이 어떻게 계산되는지는 콜러블 객체의 형에 달려있습니다.

만약 그것이—

사용자 정의 함수면:

     The code block for the function is executed, passing it the
     argument list.  The first thing the code block will do is bind the
     formal parameters to the arguments; this is described in section
     *note 함수 정의: 1c3e.  When the code block executes a *note
     return: 9cb. statement, this specifies the return value of the
     function call.  If execution reaches the end of the code block
     without executing a *note return: 9cb. statement, the return value
     is ‘None’.

내장 함수나 메서드면:

     결과는 인터프리터에 달려있습니다; 내장 함수와 메서드들에 대한 설명
     은 *note 내장 함수: 124d. 를 보세요.

클래스 객체면:

     그 클래스의 새 인스턴스가 반환됩니다.

클래스 인스턴스 메서드면:

     대응하는 사용자 정의 함수가 호출되는데, 그 인스턴스가 첫 번째 인자
     가 되는 하나만큼 더 긴 인자 목록이 전달됩니다.

클래스 인스턴스면:

     The class must define a *note __call__(): 553. method; the effect
     is then the same as if that method was called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


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4.6.4 어웨이트 표현식
---------------------

*note 어웨이터블: 1ad. 에서 *note 코루틴: 48b. 의 실행을 일시 중지합니다
.  오직 *note 코루틴 함수: d73. 에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     await_expr ::= "await" *note primary: 2050.

Added in version 3.5.


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4.6.5 거듭제곱 연산자
---------------------

거듭제곱 연산자는 그것의 왼쪽에 붙는 일 항 연산자보다 더 강하게 결합합니
다; 그것의 오른쪽에 붙는 일 항 연산자보다는 약하게 결합합니다.  문법은 이
렇습니다:

     power ::= (*note await_expr: 2069. | *note primary: 2050.) ["**" *note u_expr: 206d.]

그래서, 괄호가 없는 거듭제곱과 일 항 연산자의 시퀀스에서, 연산자는 오른
쪽에서 왼쪽으로 값이 구해집니다 (이것이 피연산자의 값을 구하는 순서를 제
약하는 것은 아닙니다): ‘-1**2’ 은 ‘-1’ 이 됩니다.

거듭제곱 연산자는 내장 *note pow(): 9cf. 함수가 두 개의 인자로 호출될 때
와 같은 의미가 있습니다: 왼쪽 인자를 오른쪽 인자만큼 거듭제곱한 값을 줍
니다.  숫자 인자는 먼저 공통 형으로 변환되고, 결과는 그 형입니다.

int 피연산자의 경우, 두 번째 인자가 음수가 아닌 이상 결과는 피연산자들과
같은 형을 갖습니다; 두 번째 인자가 음수면, 모든 인자는 float로 변환되고,
float 결과가 전달됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘10**2’ 는 ‘100’ 를 돌려주지만,
‘10**-2’ 는 ‘0.01’ 를 돌려줍니다.

‘0.0’ 를 음수로 거듭제곱하면 *note ZeroDivisionError: 943. 를 일으킵니다
.  음수를 분수로 거듭제곱하면 복소수(*note complex: 2f0.)가 나옵니다.  (예
전 버전에서는 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으켰습니다.)

This operation can be customized using the special *note __pow__(): 7cc.
and *note __rpow__(): 7cd. methods.


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4.6.6 일 항 산술과 비트 연산
----------------------------

모든 일 항 산술과 비트 연산자는 같은 우선순위를 갖습니다.

     u_expr ::= *note power: 206c. | "-" *note u_expr: 206d. | "+" *note u_expr: 206d. | "~" *note u_expr: 206d.

The unary ‘-’ (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric
argument; the operation can be overridden with the *note __neg__():
1fbd. special method.

The unary ‘+’ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged; the
operation can be overridden with the *note __pos__(): 1fbe. special
method.

The unary ‘~’ (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its
integer argument.  The bitwise inversion of ‘x’ is defined as ‘-(x+1)’.
It only applies to integral numbers or to custom objects that override
the *note __invert__(): 1fc0. special method.

세 가지 경우 모두, 인자가 올바른 형을 갖지 않는다면, *note TypeError:
532. 예외가 발생합니다.


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4.6.7 이항 산술 연산
--------------------

이항 산술 연산자는 관습적인 우선순위를 갖습니다.  이 연산자 중 일부는 일
부 비 숫자 형에도 적용됨에 주의해야 합니다.  거듭제곱 연산자와는 별개로,
오직 두 가지 수준만 있는데, 하나는 곱셈형 연산자들이고, 하나는 덧셈형 연
산자들입니다.

     m_expr ::= *note u_expr: 206d. | *note m_expr: 2072. "*" *note u_expr: 206d. | *note m_expr: 2072. "@" *note m_expr: 2072. |
                *note m_expr: 2072. "//" *note u_expr: 206d. | *note m_expr: 2072. "/" *note u_expr: 206d. |
                *note m_expr: 2072. "%" *note u_expr: 206d.
     a_expr ::= *note m_expr: 2072. | *note a_expr: 2073. "+" *note m_expr: 2072. | *note a_expr: 2073. "-" *note m_expr: 2072.

‘*’ (곱셈) 연산자는 인자들의 곱을 줍니다.  인자들은 모두 숫자거나, 한 인
자는 정수고 다른 인자는 시퀀스여야 합니다.  앞의 경우에, 숫자들은 공통 형
으로 변환된 후 곱해집니다.  후자의 경우, 시퀀스의 반복이 수행됩니다; 음
의 반복 값은 빈 시퀀스를 만듭니다.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __mul__():
1f97. and *note __rmul__(): 1f98. methods.

‘@’ (at) 연산자는 행렬 곱셈에 사용하려는 것입니다.  파이썬의 내장형들 어
느 것도 이 연산자를 구현하지 않습니다.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __matmul__():
1f9f. and *note __rmatmul__(): 1fa8. methods.

Added in version 3.5.

‘/’ (나눗셈)과 ‘//’ (정수 나눗셈, floor division) 연산자들은 그 인자들의
몫(quotient)을 줍니다.  숫자 인자들은 먼저 공통형으로 변환됩니다.  정수
들의 나눗셈은 실수를 만드는 반면, 정수들의 정수 나눗셈은 정숫값을 줍니다
; 그 결과는 수학적인 나눗셈의 결과에 ‘floor’ 함수를 적용한 것입니다.  0으
로 나누는 것은 *note ZeroDivisionError: 943. 예외를 일으킵니다.

The division operation can be customized using the special *note
__truediv__(): 14bb. and *note __rtruediv__(): 1fa9. methods.  The floor
division operation can be customized using the special *note
__floordiv__(): 14bc. and *note __rfloordiv__(): 1faa. methods.

The ‘%’ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the
first argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first converted
to a common type.  A zero right argument raises the *note
ZeroDivisionError: 943. exception.  The arguments may be floating-point
numbers, e.g., ‘3.14%0.7’ equals ‘0.34’ (since ‘3.14’ equals ‘4*0.7 +
0.34’.)  The modulo operator always yields a result with the same sign
as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is
strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand (1).

정수 나눗셈과 모듈로 연산자는 다음과 같은 항등식으로 연결되어 있습니다:
‘x == (x//y)*y + (x%y)’.  정수 나눗셈과 모듈로는 내장 함수 *note
divmod(): 99e. 와도 연결되어 있습니다: ‘divmod(x, y) == (x//y, x%y)’.
(2).

숫자들에 대해 모듈로 연산을 수행하는 것에 더해, ‘%’ 연산자는 예전 스타일
의 문자열 포매팅 (인터폴레이션이라고도 알려져 있습니다)을 수행하기 위해
문자열 객체에 의해 다시 정의됩니다.  문자열 포매팅의 문법은 파이썬 라이
브러리 레퍼런스의 섹션 *note printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅: 6c6. 에서 설명
합니다.

The 'modulo' operation can be customized using the special *note
__mod__(): 1fa0. and *note __rmod__(): 1fab. methods.

The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the *note
divmod(): 99e. function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead,
convert to a floating-point number using the *note abs(): 1cac. function
if appropriate.

‘+’ (덧셈) 연산자는 그 인자들의 합을 줍니다.  인자들은 둘 다 숫자거나, 둘
다 같은 형의 시퀀스여야 합니다.  앞의 경우, 숫자들은 먼저 공통형으로 변
환된 후, 함께 합쳐집니다.  후자의 경우 시퀀스는 이어붙이게 됩니다.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __add__():
1f94. and *note __radd__(): 1f95. methods.

‘-’ (빼기) 연산자는 그 인자들의 차를 줍니다.  숫자 인자들은 먼저 공통형
으로 변환됩니다.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __sub__():
1f9e. and *note __rsub__(): 1fa7. methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘abs(x%y) < abs(y)’ 이 수학적으로는 참이지만, float의 경우에는 소
수점 자름(roundoff) 때문에 수치적으로 참이 아닐 수 있습니다.  예를 들어,
파이썬 float가 IEEE 754 배정도 숫자인 플랫폼을 가정할 때, ‘-1e-100 %
1e100’ 가 ‘1e100’ 와 같은 부호를 가지기 위해, 계산된 결과는 ‘-1e-100 +
1e100’ 인데, 수치적으로는 ‘1e100’ 과 정확히 같은 값입니다.  함수 *note
math.fmod(): 2074. 는 부호가 첫 번째 인자의 부호에 맞춰진 결과를 주기 때
문에, 이 경우 ‘-1e-100’ 을 돌려줍니다.  어떤 접근법이 더 적절한지는 응용
프로그램에 달려있습니다.

   (2) x가 y의 정확한 정수배와 아주 가까우면, 라운딩(rounding) 때문에
‘x//y’ 는 ‘(x-x%y)//y’ 보다 1 클 수 있습니다.  그런 경우,
‘divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y’ 가 ‘x’ 와 아주 가깝도록 유지하기 위해, 파이
썬은 뒤의 결과를 돌려줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시프트 연산,  Next: 이항 비트 연산,  Prev: 이항 산술 연산,  Up: 표현식

4.6.8 시프트 연산
-----------------

시프트 연산은 산술 연산보다 낮은 우선순위를 갖습니다.

     shift_expr ::= *note a_expr: 2073. | *note shift_expr: 2077. ("<<" | ">>") *note a_expr: 2073.

이 연산들은 정수들을 인자로 받아들입니다.  첫 번째 인자를 두 번째 인자로
주어진 비트 수만큼 왼쪽이나 오른쪽으로 밉니다(shift).

The left shift operation can be customized using the special *note
__lshift__(): 1fa2. and *note __rlshift__(): 1fad. methods.  The right
shift operation can be customized using the special *note __rshift__():
1fa3. and *note __rrshift__(): 1fae. methods.

오른쪽으로 'n' 비트 시프트 하는 것은 ‘pow(2,n)’ 로 정수 나눗셈하는 것으
로 정의됩니다.  왼쪽으로 'n' 비트 시프트 하는 것은 ‘pow(2,n)’ 를 곱하는
것으로 정의됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이항 비트 연산,  Next: 비교,  Prev: 시프트 연산,  Up: 표현식

4.6.9 이항 비트 연산
--------------------

세 개의 비트 연산은 각기 다른 우선순위를 갖습니다:

     and_expr ::= *note shift_expr: 2077. | *note and_expr: 207a. "&" *note shift_expr: 2077.
     xor_expr ::= *note and_expr: 207a. | *note xor_expr: 207b. "^" *note and_expr: 207a.
     or_expr  ::= *note xor_expr: 207b. | *note or_expr: 1ecb. "|" *note xor_expr: 207b.

The ‘&’ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding *note
__and__(): 1fa4. or *note __rand__(): 1faf. special methods.

The ‘^’ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __xor__(): 1fa5. or *note __rxor__(): 1fb0. special methods.

The ‘|’ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __or__(): 1fa6. or *note __ror__(): 1fb1. special methods.


File: python.info,  Node: 비교,  Next: 논리 연산 Boolean operations,  Prev: 이항 비트 연산,  Up: 표현식

4.6.10 비교
-----------

C와는 달리, 파이썬에서 모든 비교 연산은 같은 우선순위를 갖는데, 산술, 시
프팅, 비트 연산들보다 낮습니다.  또한, C와는 달리, ‘a < b < c’ 와 같은 표
현식이 수학에서와 같은 방식으로 해석됩니다.

     comparison    ::= *note or_expr: 1ecb. (*note comp_operator: 207f. *note or_expr: 1ecb.)*
     comp_operator ::= "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
                       | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"

Comparisons yield boolean values: ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Custom 'rich
comparison methods' may return non-boolean values.  In this case Python
will call *note bool(): 461. on such value in boolean contexts.

비교는 자유롭게 연결될 수 있습니다, 예를 들어, ‘x < y <= z’ 는 ‘x < y
and y <= z’ 와 동등한데, 차이점은 ‘y’ 의 값을 오직 한 번만 구한다는 것입
니다 (하지만 두 경우 모두 ‘x < y’ 가 거짓이면 ‘z’ 의 값은 구하지 않습니
다).

형식적으로, 'a', 'b', 'c', …, 'y', 'z' 가 표현식이고, 'op1', 'op2', …,
'opN' 가 비교 연산자면, ‘a op1 b op2 c ... y opN z’ 는 각 표현식의 값을
최대 한 번만 구한다는 점을 제외하고는 ‘a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN
z’ 와 동등합니다.

‘a op1 b op2 c’ 가 'a' 와 'c' 간의 어떤 종류의 비교도 암시하지 않기 때문
에, 예를 들어, ‘x < y > z’ 이 완벽하게 (아마 이쁘지는 않더라도) 올바르다
는 것에 주의해야 합니다.

* Menu:

* 값 비교::
* 멤버십 검사 연산::
* 아이덴티티 비교::


File: python.info,  Node: 값 비교,  Next: 멤버십 검사 연산,  Up: 비교

4.6.10.1 값 비교
................

연산자 ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘==’, ‘>=’, ‘<=’, ‘!=’ 는 두 객체의 값을 비교합니다.  객
체들이 같은 형일 필요는 없습니다.

*note 객체, 값, 형: 1eec. 장은 객체들이 (형과 아이덴티티에 더해) 값을 갖
는다고 말하고 있습니다.  파이썬에서 객체의 값은 좀 추상적인 개념입니다:
예를 들어, 객체의 값에 대한 규범적인(canonical) 액세스 방법은 없습니다.
또한, 객체의 값이 특별한 방식(예를 들어, 모든 데이터 어트리뷰트로 구성되
는 것)으로 구성되어야 한다는 요구 사항도 없습니다.  비교 연산자는 객체의
값이 무엇인지에 대한 특정한 종류의 개념을 구현합니다.  객체의 값을 비교
를 통해 간접적으로 정의한다고 생각해도 좋습니다.

Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of *note object:
a89, they inherit the default comparison behavior from *note object:
a89.  Types can customize their comparison behavior by implementing
'rich comparison methods' like *note __lt__(): 128f, described in *note
기본적인 커스터마이제이션: 1f68.

동등 비교 (‘==’ 와 ‘!=’) 의 기본 동작은 객체의 아이덴티티에 기반을 둡니
다.  그래서, 같은 아이덴티티를 갖는 인스턴스 간의 동등 비교는 같음을 주
고, 다른 아이덴티티를 갖는 인스턴스 간의 동등 비교는 다름을 줍니다.  이
기본 동작의 동기는 모든 객체가 반사적(reflexive) (즉, ‘x is y’ 는 ‘x ==
y’ 를 암시합니다) 이도록 만들고자 하는 욕구입니다.

기본 대소 비교(order comparison) (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’) 는 제공되지 않습
니다; 시도하면 *note TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.  이 기본 동작의 동기
는 동등함과 유사한 항등 관계가 없다는 것입니다.

다른 아이덴티티를 갖는 인스턴스들이 항상 서로 다르다는, 기본 동등 비교의
동작은, 객체의 값과 값 기반의 동등함에 대한 나름의 정의를 가진 형들이 필
요로 하는 것과는 크게 다를 수 있습니다.  그런 형들은 자신의 비교 동작을
커스터마이즈 할 필요가 있고, 사실 많은 내장형이 그렇게 하고 있습니다.

다음 목록은 가장 중요한 내장형들의 비교 동작을 기술합니다.

   * 내장 숫자 형 ((*note 숫자 형 — int, float, complex: 1bff.)) 과 표준
     라이브러리 형 *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. 과 *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29d. 에 속하는 숫자들은, 복소수가 대소 비교를 지원
     하지 않는다는 제약 사항만 빼고는, 같거나 다른 형들 간의 비교가 가능
     합니다.  관련된 형들의 한계 안에서, 정밀도의 손실 없이 수학적으로
     (알고리즘 적으로) 올바르게 비교합니다.

     NaN(not-a-number) 값들 ‘float('NaN')’ 과 ‘decimal.Decimal('NaN')’은
     특별합니다.  모든 숫자와 NaN 간의 비교는 거짓입니다.  반 직관적으로
     내포하고 있는 것은, NaN 이 자신과 같지 않다는 것입니다.  예를 들어,
     ‘x = float('NaN')’, ‘3 < x’, ‘x < 3’ 및 ‘x == x’는 모두 거짓이지만,
     ‘x != x’는 참입니다.  이 동작은 IEEE 754를 준수합니다.

   * ‘None’ and *note NotImplemented: 7cb. are singletons.  PEP 8(1)
     advises that comparisons for singletons should always be done with
     ‘is’ or ‘is not’, never the equality operators.

   * 바이너리 시퀀스들 (*note bytes: 1c2. 나 *note bytearray: 538. 의 인
     스턴스들)은 형을 건너 상호 비교될 수 있습니다.  이것들은 요소들의 숫
     자 값을 사용해서 사전식으로(lexicographically) 비교합니다.

   * 문자열들 (*note str: 445. 의 인스턴스들) 은 문자들의 유니코드 코드
     포인트(Unicode code points) (내장 함수 *note ord(): 1efa. 의 결과
     )를 사용해서 사전식으로 비교합니다.  (2)

     문자열과 바이너리 시퀀스는 직접 비교할 수 없습니다.

   * 시퀀스들 (*note tuple: 369, *note list: 60b, *note range: 941. 의 인
     스턴스들)은 같은 형끼리 비교될 수 있는데, range는 대소 비교를 지원
     하지 않습니다.  서로 다른 형들 간의 동등 비교는 다름을 주고, 서로 다
     른 형들 간의 대소 비교는 *note TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.

     시퀀스는 대응하는 요소 간의 비교를 사용해서 사전적으로 비교합니다.
     내장 컨테이너는 일반적으로 동일한(identical) 객체가 자신과 같다고
     (equal) 가정합니다.  이를 통해 동일한 객체에 대한 동등성(equality)
     검사를 우회하여 성능을 개선하고 내부 불변성을 유지합니다.

     내장 컬렉션들의 사전적인 비교는 다음과 같이 이루어집니다:

        - 두 컬렉션이 같다고 비교되기 위해서는, 같은 형이고, 길이가 같고
          , 대응하는 요소들의 각 쌍이 같다고 비교되어야 합니다 (예를 들
          어, ‘[1,2] == (1,2)’ 는 거짓인데, 형이 다르기 때문입니다).

        - 대소 비교를 지원하는 컬렉션들은 첫 번째로 다른 요소들과 같은 순
          서를 줍니다 (예를 들어, ‘[1,2,x] <= [1,2,y]’ 는 ‘x <= y’ 와 같
          은 값입니다).  대응하는 요소가 없는 경우 더 짧은 컬렉션이 작다
          고 비교됩니다 (예를 들어, ‘[1,2] < [1,2,3]’ 은 참입니다).

   * Mappings (instances of *note dict: 256.) compare equal if and only
     if they have equal ‘(key, value)’ pairs.  Equality comparison of
     the keys and values enforces reflexivity.

     대소 비교 (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’) 는 *note TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵
     니다.

   * 집합들 (*note set: 5d3. 이나 *note frozenset: 5d4. 의 인스턴스들)은
     같은 형들과 서로 다른 형들 간에 비교될 수 있습니다.

     이것들은 부분집합(subset)과 상위집합(superset)을 뜻하는 대소비교 연
     산자들을 정의합니다.  이 관계는 전 순서(total ordering)를 정의하지
     않습니다 (예를 들어, 두 집합 ‘{1,2}’ 와 ‘{2,3}’ 는 다르면서도, 하나
     가 다른 하나의 부분집합이지도, 하나가 다른 하나의 상위집합이지도 않
     습니다).  따라서, 전 순서에 의존하는 함수의 인자로는 적합하지 않습
     니다 (예를 들어, *note min(): f00, *note max(): f01, *note
     sorted(): bcb. 에 입력으로 집합의 리스트를 제공하면 정의되지 않은 결
     과를 줍니다).

     집합의 비교는 그 요소들의 반사성을 강제합니다.

   * 대부분의 다른 내장형들은 비교 메서드들을 구현하지 않기 때문에, 기본
     비교 동작을 계승합니다.

비교 동작을 커스터마이즈하는 사용자 정의 클래스들은 가능하다면 몇 가지 일
관성 규칙을 준수해야 합니다:

   * 동등 비교는 반사적(reflexive)이어야 합니다.  다른 말로 표현하면, 아
     이덴티티가 같은 객체는 같다고 비교되어야 합니다:

          ‘x is y’ 면 ‘x == y’ 다.

   * 비교는 대칭적(symmetric)이어야 합니다.  다른 말로 표현하면, 다음과
     같은 표현식은 같은 결과를 주어야 합니다:

          ‘x == y’ 와 ‘y == x’

          ‘x != y’ 와 ‘y != x’

          ‘x < y’ 와 ‘y > x’

          ‘x <= y’ 와 ‘y >= x’

   * 비교는 추이적(transitive)이어야 합니다.  다음 (철저하지 않은) 예들
     이 이것을 예증합니다:

          ‘x > y and y > z’ 면 ‘x > z’ 다

          ‘x < y and y <= z’ 면 ‘x < z’ 다

   * 역 비교는 논리적 부정이 되어야 합니다.  다른 말로 표현하면, 다음 표
     현식들이 같은 값을 주어야 합니다:

          ‘x == y’ 와 ‘not x != y’

          ‘x < y’ 와 ‘not x >= y’ (전 순서의 경우)

          ‘x > y’ 와 ‘not x <= y’ (전 순서의 경우)

     마지막 두 표현식은 전 순서 컬렉션에 적용됩니다 (예를 들어, 시퀀스에
     는 적용되지만, 집합과 매핑은 그렇지 않습니다).  *note
     total_ordering(): f3a. 데코레이터도 보십시오.

   * *note hash(): 5e5. 결과는 동등성과 일관성을 유지해야 합니다.  같은
     객체들은 같은 해시값을 같거나 해시 불가능으로 지정되어야 합니다.

파이썬은 이 일관성 규칙들을 강제하지 않습니다.  사실 NaN 값들은 이 규칙
을 따르지 않는 예입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (2) 유니코드 표준은 코드 포인트('code points') (예를 들어, U+0041) 와
추상 문자('abstract characters') (예를 들어, “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A”) 를
구분합니다.  유니코드에 있는 대부분의 추상 문자들이 오직 하나의 코드 포
인트만으로 표현되지만, 추가로 하나 이상의 코드 포인트의 시퀀스로 표현될
수 있는 추상 문자들이 많이 있습니다.  예를 들어, 추상 문자 “LATIN
CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA” 는 코드 위치 U+00C7 에 있는 한 개의 복합
문자('precomposed character') 나 코드 위치 U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER
C) 에 있는 기본 문자('base character') 와 뒤따르는 코드 위치 U+0327
(COMBINING CEDILLA) 에 있는 결합 문자('combining character') 의 시퀀스로
표현될 수 있습니다.

문자열의 비교 연산자는 유니코드 코드 포인트 수준에서 비교합니다.  이것은
사람에게 반 직관적일 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘"\u00C7" ==
"\u0043\u0327"’ 는 거짓입니다, 설사 두 문자열이 같은 추상 문자 “LATIN
CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA”를 표현할지라도 그렇습니다.

문자열을 추상 문자 수준에서 비교하려면 (즉, 사람에게 직관적인 방법으로),
*note unicodedata.normalize(): 6ce. 를 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 멤버십 검사 연산,  Next: 아이덴티티 비교,  Prev: 값 비교,  Up: 비교

4.6.10.2 멤버십 검사 연산
.........................

연산자 *note in: 2ec. 과 *note not in: 629. 은 멤버십을 검사합니다.  ‘x
in s’ 는 'x' 가 's' 의 멤버일 때 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않을 때 ‘False’ 를 줍
니다.  ‘x not in s’ 은 ‘x in s’ 의 부정을 줍니다.  딕셔너리 뿐만 아니라
모든 내장 시퀀스들과 집합 형들이 이것을 지원하는데, 딕셔너리의 경우는
‘in’ 이 딕셔너리에 주어진 키가 있는지 검사합니다.  list, tuple, set,
frozenset, dict, collections.deque 와 같은 컨테이너형들의 경우, 표현식
‘x in y’ 는 ‘any(x is e or x == e for e in y)’ 와 동등합니다.

문자열과 바이트열 형의 경우, ‘x in y’ 는 'x' 가 'y' 의 부분 문자열
(substring)인 경우, 그리고 오직 그 경우만 ‘True’ 입니다.  동등한 검사는
‘y.find(x) != -1’ 입니다.  빈 문자열은 항상 다른 문자열들의 부분 문자열
로 취급되기 때문에, ‘"" in "abc"’ 은 ‘True’ 를 돌려줍니다.

For user-defined classes which define the *note __contains__(): 1f66.
method, ‘x in y’ returns ‘True’ if ‘y.__contains__(x)’ returns a true
value, and ‘False’ otherwise.

For user-defined classes which do not define *note __contains__(): 1f66.
but do define *note __iter__(): 1f64, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if some value
‘z’, for which the expression ‘x is z or x == z’ is true, is produced
while iterating over ‘y’.  If an exception is raised during the
iteration, it is as if *note in: 2ec. raised that exception.

Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
*note __getitem__(): 283, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if there is a
non-negative integer index 'i' such that ‘x is y[i] or x == y[i]’, and
no lower integer index raises the *note IndexError: 14fc. exception.
(If any other exception is raised, it is as if *note in: 2ec. raised
that exception).

연산자 *note not in: 629. 은 *note in: 2ec. 의 논리적 부정으로 정의됩니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 아이덴티티 비교,  Prev: 멤버십 검사 연산,  Up: 비교

4.6.10.3 아이덴티티 비교
........................

연산자 *note is: 2ed. 와 *note is not: 2083. 은 객체의 아이덴티티를 검사
합니다: ‘x is y’ 는 'x' 와 'y' 가 아이덴티티가 같은 객체일 때, 그리고 오
직 그 경우만 참입니다.  객체의 아이덴티티는 *note id(): 13eb. 함수를 사
용해서 결정됩니다.  ‘x is not y’ 은 논리적 부정 값을 줍니다.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 자동 가비지-수거(automatic garbage-collection)와 자유 목록(free
lists)과 디스크립터(descriptor)의 동적인 성격 때문에, *note is: 2ed. 연
산자를 인스턴스 메서드들이나 상수들을 비교하는 것과 같은 특정한 방식으로
사용할 때, 겉으로 보기에 이상한 동작을 감지할 수 있습니다.  더 자세한 정
보는 그들의 문서를 확인하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 논리 연산 Boolean operations,  Next: 대입 표현식<2>,  Prev: 비교,  Up: 표현식

4.6.11 논리 연산(Boolean operations)
------------------------------------

     or_test  ::= *note and_test: 2087. | *note or_test: 2033. "or" *note and_test: 2087.
     and_test ::= *note not_test: 2088. | *note and_test: 2087. "and" *note not_test: 2088.
     not_test ::= *note comparison: 207e. | "not" *note not_test: 2088.

In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used
by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as
false: ‘False’, ‘None’, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and
containers (including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and
frozensets).  All other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined
objects can customize their truth value by providing a *note __bool__():
12c5. method.

연산자 *note not: 2086. 은 그 인자가 거짓이면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으면
‘False’ 를 줍니다.

표현식 ‘x and y’ 는 먼저 'x' 의 값을 구합니다; 'x' 가 거짓이면 그 값을 돌
려줍니다; 그렇지 않으면 'y' 의 값을 구한 후에 그 결과를 돌려줍니다.

표현식 ‘x or y’ 는 먼저 'x' 의 값을 구합니다; 'x' 가 참이면 그 값을 돌려
줍니다.  그렇지 않으면 'y' 의 값을 구한 후에 그 결과를 돌려줍니다.

*note and: 2e9. 와 *note or: 2ee. 어느 것도 반환 값이나 그 형을 ‘False’
와 ‘True’ 로 제한하지 않고, 대신 마지막에 값이 구해진 인자를 돌려줌에 주
의해야 합니다.  이것은 때로 쓸모가 있습니다, 예를 들어 ‘s’ 가 문자열이고
비어 있으면 기본값으로 대체되어야 한다면, 표현식 ‘s or 'foo'’ 는 원하는
값을 제공합니다.  *note not: 2086. 은 새 값을 만들어야 하므로, 그 인자의
형과 관계없이 논리값(boolean value)을 돌려줍니다 (예를 들어, ‘not 'foo'’
는 ‘''’ 가 아니라 ‘False’ 를 만듭니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 대입 표현식<2>,  Next: 조건 표현식 Conditional expressions,  Prev: 논리 연산 Boolean operations,  Up: 표현식

4.6.12 대입 표현식
------------------

     assignment_expression ::= [*note identifier: 1e9e. ":="] *note expression: 203f.

An assignment expression (sometimes also called a “named expression” or
“walrus”) assigns an *note expression: 203f. to an *note identifier:
1e9e, while also returning the value of the *note expression: 203f.

일반적인 사용 사례 중 하나는 일치하는 정규식을 처리할 때입니다:

     if matching := pattern.search(data):
         do_something(matching)

또는, 청크로 파일 스트림을 처리할 때:

     while chunk := file.read(9000):
         process(chunk)

Assignment expressions must be surrounded by parentheses when used as
expression statements and when used as sub-expressions in slicing,
conditional, lambda, keyword-argument, and comprehension-if expressions
and in ‘assert’, ‘with’, and ‘assignment’ statements.  In all other
places where they can be used, parentheses are not required, including
in ‘if’ and ‘while’ statements.

Added in version 3.8: 대입 표현식에 대한 더 자세한 내용은 PEP 572(1)를 참
조하세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: 조건 표현식 Conditional expressions,  Next: 람다 Lambdas,  Prev: 대입 표현식<2>,  Up: 표현식

4.6.13 조건 표현식(Conditional expressions)
-------------------------------------------

     conditional_expression ::= *note or_test: 2033. ["if" *note or_test: 2033. "else" *note expression: 203f.]
     expression             ::= *note conditional_expression: 1eca. | *note lambda_expr: 208d.

조건 표현식은 (때로 “삼 항 연산자(ternary operator)”라고 불립니다) 모든
파이썬 연산에서 가장 낮은 우선순위를 갖습니다.

표현식 ‘x if C else y’ 은 먼저 'x' 대신에 조건 'C' 의 값을 구합니다.
'C' 가 참이면, 'x' 의 값이 구해지고 그 값을 돌려줍니다; 그렇지 않으면,
'y' 의 값을 구한 후에 그 결과를 돌려줍니다.

조건 표현식에 대한 더 자세한 내용은 PEP 308(1) 를 참조하세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: 람다 Lambdas,  Next: 표현식 목록 Expression lists,  Prev: 조건 표현식 Conditional expressions,  Up: 표현식

4.6.14 람다(Lambdas)
--------------------

     lambda_expr ::= "lambda" [*note parameter_list: 2090.] ":" *note expression: 203f.

람다 표현식은 (때로 람다 형식(lambda forms)이라고 불립니다) 이름 없는 함
수를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.  표현식 ‘lambda parameters: expression’ 는 함
수 객체를 줍니다.  이 이름 없는 객체는 이렇게 정의된 함수 객체처럼 동작
합니다:

     def <lambda>(parameters):
         return expression

매개변수 목록의 문법은 *note 함수 정의: 1c3e. 섹션을 보세요.  람다 표현
식으로 만들어진 함수는 문장(statements)이나 어노테이션(annotations)을 포
함할 수 없음에 주의해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 표현식 목록 Expression lists,  Next: 값을 구하는 순서,  Prev: 람다 Lambdas,  Up: 표현식

4.6.15 표현식 목록(Expression lists)
------------------------------------

     starred_expression       ::= ["*"] *note or_expr: 1ecb.
     flexible_expression      ::= *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. | *note starred_expression: 202e.
     flexible_expression_list ::= *note flexible_expression: 2092. ("," *note flexible_expression: 2092.)* [","]
     starred_expression_list  ::= *note starred_expression: 202e. ("," *note starred_expression: 202e.)* [","]
     expression_list          ::= *note expression: 203f. ("," *note expression: 203f.)* [","]
     yield_list               ::= *note expression_list: 2094. | *note starred_expression: 202e. "," [*note starred_expression_list: 2093.]

리스트나 집합 디스플레이의 일부일 때를 제외하고, 최소한 하나의 쉼표를 포
함하는 표현식 목록은 튜플을 줍니다.  튜플의 길이는 목록에 있는 표현식의
개수입니다.  표현식들은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 값이 구해집니다.

애스터리스크(asterisk) ‘*’ 는 이터러블 언 패킹('iterable unpacking')을 나
타냅니다.  피연산자는 반드시 *note 이터러블: 1217. 이어야 합니다.  그 이
터러블이 항목들의 시퀀스로 확장되어서, 언 패킹 지점에서 새 튜플, 리스트,
집합에 포함됩니다.

Added in version 3.5: 표현식 목록에서의 이터러블 언 패킹, PEP 448(1) 에
서 최초로 제안되었습니다.

Added in version 3.11: Any item in an expression list may be starred.
See PEP 646(2).

A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple, such as
‘1,’; it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
trailing comma doesn’t create a tuple, but rather yields the value of
that expression.  (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of
parentheses: ‘()’.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: 값을 구하는 순서,  Next: 연산자 우선순위,  Prev: 표현식 목록 Expression lists,  Up: 표현식

4.6.16 값을 구하는 순서
-----------------------

파이썬은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 표현식의 값을 구합니다.  대입의 값을 구하는
동안, 우변의 값이 좌변보다 먼저 구해짐에 주목하십시오.

다음 줄들에서, 표현식은 그들의 끝에 붙은 숫자들의 순서대로 값이 구해집니
다:

     expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
     (expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
     {expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
     expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
     expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
     expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자 우선순위,  Prev: 값을 구하는 순서,  Up: 표현식

4.6.17 연산자 우선순위
----------------------

The following table summarizes the operator precedence in Python, from
highest precedence (most binding) to lowest precedence (least binding).
Operators in the same box have the same precedence.  Unless the syntax
is explicitly given, operators are binary.  Operators in the same box
group left to right (except for exponentiation and conditional
expressions, which group from right to left).

비교, 멤버십 검사, 아이덴티티 검사들은 모두 같은 우선순위를 갖고 *note
비교: 207c. 섹션에서 설명한 것처럼 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 이어붙이기
(chaining) 하는 기능을 갖습니다.

연산자                                              설명
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘(expressions...)’,                                 결합(binding) 또는 괄호 친 표현식, 리스
                                                    트 디스플레이, 딕셔너리 디스플레이, 집
‘[expressions...]’, ‘{key: value...}’,              합 디스플레이
‘{expressions...}’                                  

‘x[index]’, ‘x[index:index]’, ‘x(arguments...)’,    서브스크립션, 슬라이싱, 호출, 어트리뷰
‘x.attribute’                                       트 참조
                                                    
                                                    
*note await x: 1b9.                                 어웨이트 표현식
                                                    
                                                    
‘**’                                                거듭제곱 (1)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+x’, ‘-x’, ‘~x’                                    양, 음, 비트 NOT
                                                    
                                                    
‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’                            곱셈, 행렬 곱셈, 나눗셈, 정수 나눗셈, 나
                                                    머지 (2)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+’, ‘-’                                            덧셈과 뺄셈
                                                    
                                                    
‘<<’, ‘>>’                                          시프트
                                                    
                                                    
‘&’                                                 비트 AND
                                                    
                                                    
‘^’                                                 비트 XOR
                                                    
                                                    
‘|’                                                 비트 OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note in: 2ec, *note not in: 629, *note is: 2ed,    비교, 멤버십 검사와 아이덴티티 검사를 포
*note is not: 2083, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘!=’,     함합니다
‘==’                                                

*note not x: 2086.                                  논리 NOT
                                                    
                                                    
*note and: 2e9.                                     논리 AND
                                                    
                                                    
*note or: 2ee.                                      논리 OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note if: 208c. – ‘else’                            조건 표현식
                                                    
                                                    
*note lambda: 128c.                                 람다 표현식
                                                    
                                                    
‘:=’                                                대입 표현식
                                                    

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 거듭제곱 연산자 ‘**’ 는 오른쪽에 오는 산술이나 비트 일 항 연산자
보다 약하게 결합합니다, 즉, ‘2**-1’ 는 ‘0.5’ 입니다.

   (2) ‘%’ 연산자는 문자열 포매팅에도 사용됩니다; 같은 우선순위가 적용됩
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 단순문 Simple statements,  Next: 복합문 Compound statements,  Prev: 표현식,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.7 단순문(Simple statements)
=============================

단순문은 하나의 논리적인 줄 안에 구성됩니다.  여러 개의 단순문이 세미콜
론으로 분리되어 하나의 줄에 나올 수 있습니다.  단순문의 문법은 이렇습니
다:

     simple_stmt ::= *note expression_stmt: 209d.
                     | *note assert_stmt: 209e.
                     | *note assignment_stmt: 209f.
                     | *note augmented_assignment_stmt: 20a0.
                     | *note annotated_assignment_stmt: 20a1.
                     | *note pass_stmt: 20a2.
                     | *note del_stmt: 20a3.
                     | *note return_stmt: 20a4.
                     | *note yield_stmt: 20a5.
                     | *note raise_stmt: 20a6.
                     | *note break_stmt: 20a7.
                     | *note continue_stmt: 20a8.
                     | *note import_stmt: 20a9.
                     | *note future_stmt: 20aa.
                     | *note global_stmt: 20ab.
                     | *note nonlocal_stmt: 20ac.
                     | *note type_stmt: 20ad.

* Menu:

* 표현식 문::
* 대입문::
* assert 문::
* pass 문: pass 문<2>.
* del 문: del 문<2>.
* return 문::
* yield 문::
* raise 문::
* break 문::
* continue 문::
* 임포트(import) 문: 임포트 import 문.
* global 문::
* nonlocal 문::
* type 문::


File: python.info,  Node: 표현식 문,  Next: 대입문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.1 표현식 문
---------------

표현식 문은 값을 계산하고 출력하거나, (보통) 프로시저(procedure) (의미 없
는 결과를 돌려주는 함수; 파이썬에서 프로시저는 ‘None’ 값을 돌려줍니다)를
호출하기 위해 (대부분 대화형으로) 사용됩니다.  표현식 문의 다른 사용도 허
락되고 때때로 쓸모가 있습니다.

     expression_stmt ::= *note starred_expression: 202e.

표현식 문은 (하나의 표현식일 수 있는) 표현식 목록의 값을 구합니다.

대화형 모드에서, 값이 ‘None’ 이 아니면, 내장 *note repr(): 7f7. 함수를 사
용해 문자열로 변환되고, 그렇게 나온 문자열을 별도의 줄에 표준 출력으로 보
냅니다 (결과가 ‘None’ 일 때는 그렇지 않아서, 프로시저 호출은 어떤 출력도
만들지 않습니다.),


File: python.info,  Node: 대입문,  Next: assert 문,  Prev: 표현식 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.2 대입문
------------

대입문은 이름을 값에 (재)연결하고 가변 객체의 어트리뷰트나 항목들을 수정
합니다.

     assignment_stmt ::= (*note target_list: 2032. "=")+ (*note starred_expression: 202e. | *note yield_expression: 1ecc.)
     target_list     ::= *note target: 20b1. ("," *note target: 20b1.)* [","]
     target          ::= *note identifier: 1e9e.
                         | "(" [*note target_list: 2032.] ")"
                         | "[" [*note target_list: 2032.] "]"
                         | *note attributeref: 2051.
                         | *note subscription: 2052.
                         | *note slicing: 2053.
                         | "*" *note target: 20b1.

('attributeref', 'subscription', 'slicing' 의 문법 정의는 *note
프라이머리: 204f. 섹션을 보십시오.)

대입문은 표현식 목록 (이것이 하나의 표현식일 수도, 쉼표로 분리된 목록일
수도 있는데, 후자의 경우는 튜플이 만들어진다는 것을 기억하십시오) 의 값
을 구하고, 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로, 하나의 결과 객체를 타깃 목록의 각각에 대
입합니다.

대입은 타깃 (목록)의 형태에 따라 재귀적으로 정의됩니다.  타깃이 가변 객
체의 일부 (어트리뷰트 참조나 서브스크립션이나 슬라이싱) 면, 가변 객체가
최종적으로 대입을 수행해야만 하고, 그것이 올바른지 아닌지를 결정하고, 대
입이 받아들여 질 수 없으면 예외를 일으킬 수 있습니다.  다양한 형들이 주
시하는 규칙들과 발생하는 예외들은 그 객체 형의 정의에서 주어진다 (*note
표준형 계층: 1eef. 섹션을 보십시오).

객체를 타깃 목록, 괄호나 대괄호로 둘러싸일 수 있는데 생략할 수 있습니다,
에 대입하는 것은 다음과 같이 재귀적으로 정의됩니다.

   * 타깃 목록이 (선택적으로 괄호에 들어있는) 뒤따르는 쉼표가 없는 하나
     의 타깃이면 객체는 타깃에 대입됩니다.

   * 그렇지 않으면:

        * 타깃 목록이 애스터리스크(asterisk)를 앞에 붙인 타깃, “스타드
          (starred)” 타깃이라고 불립니다, 하나를 포함하면: 객체는 적어도
          타깃 목록에 나오는 타깃의 수보다 하나 작은 개수의 항목을 제공
          하는 이터러블이어야 합니다.  이터러블의 처음 항목들은, 왼쪽에
          서 오른쪽으로, 스타드 타깃 앞에 나오는 타깃들에 대입됩니다.  이
          터러블의 마지막 항목들은 스타드 타깃 뒤에 나오는 타깃들에 대입
          됩니다.  이터러블의 나머지 항목들로 구성된 리스트가 스타드 타
          깃에 대입됩니다 (이 리스트는 비어있을 수 있습니다).

        * 그렇지 않으면: 객체는 타깃 목록에 나오는 타깃의 수와 같은 수의
          항목들을 제공하는 이터러블이어야 하고, 항목들은, 왼쪽에서 오른
          쪽으로, 대응하는 타깃들에 대입됩니다.

하나의 타깃에 대한 객체의 대입은 다음과 같이 재귀적으로 정의됩니다.

   * 타깃이 식별자 (이름) 면:

        * 그 이름이 현재 코드 블록에 있는 *note global: 18a. 나 *note
          nonlocal: 1297. 문에 등장하지 않으면: 그 이름은 현재 지역 이름
          공간에서 객체에 연결됩니다.

        * 그렇지 않으면: 그 이름은 각각 전역 이름 공간이나 *note
          nonlocal: 1297. 에 의해 결정되는 외부 이름 공간에서 객체에 연
          결됩니다.

     그 이름이 이미 연결되어 있으면 재연결됩니다.  이것은 기존에 연결되
     어 있던 객체의 참조 횟수가 0이 되도록 만들어서, 객체가 점유하던 메
     모리가 반납되고 파괴자(destructor) (갖고 있다면) 가 호출되도록 만들
     수 있습니다.

   * 타깃이 어트리뷰트 참조면: 참조의 프라이머리 표현식의 값을 구합니다.
     이것은 대입 가능한 어트리뷰트를 가진 객체를 주어야 하는데, 그렇지 않
     으면 *note TypeError: 532. 가 일어납니다.  그에 그 객체에 주어진 어
     트리뷰트로 객체를 대입하도록 요청합니다; 대입을 수행할 수 없다면 예
     외 (보통 *note AttributeError: 346. 이지만, 꼭 그럴 필요는 없다) 를
     일으킵니다.  주의 사항: 객체가 클래스 인스턴스이고 어트리뷰트 참조
     가 대입 연산자의 양쪽에서 모두 등장하면, 우변(right-hand side) 표현
     식, ‘a.x’ 는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트나 (인스턴스 어트리뷰트가 없다면) 클
     래스 어트리뷰트를 액세스할 수 있습니다.  좌변(left-hand side) 타깃
     ‘a.x’ 는 항상 필요하면 만들어서라도 항상 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 설정
     합니다.  그래서, 두 ‘a.x’ 가 같은 어트리뷰트를 가리키는 것은 필요조
     건이 아닙니다: 우변 표현식이 클래스 어트리뷰트를 가리킨다면, 좌변은
     대입의 타깃으로 새 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 만듭니다:

          class Cls:
              x = 3             # 클래스 변수
          inst = Cls()
          inst.x = inst.x + 1   # inst.x 에 4 를 쓰고 Cls.x 는 3 으로 남겨둡니다

     이 설명이 *note property(): 194. 로 만들어진 프로퍼티(property)와 같
     은 디스크립터 어트리뷰트에 적용될 필요는 없습니다.

   * 타깃이 서브스크립션이면: 참조에 있는 프라이머리 표현식의 값을 구합
     니다.  (리스트 같은) 가변 시퀀스 객체나 (딕셔너리 같은) 매핑 객체가
     나와야 합니다.  그런 다음, 서브 스크립트 표현식의 값을 구합니다.

     프라이머리가 (리스트 같은) 가변 시퀀스 객체면, 서브 스크립트는 정수
     가 나와야 합니다.  음수면, 시퀀스의 길이가 더해집니다.  결괏값은 시
     퀀스의 길이보다 작은 음이 아닌 정수여야 하고, 시퀀스에 그 인덱스를
     가진 항목에 객체를 대입하라고 요청합니다.  인덱스가 범위를 벗어나면
     , *note IndexError: 14fc. 를 일으킵니다 (서브 스크립트 된 시퀀스에
     대한 대입은 리스트에 새 항목을 추가할 수 없습니다).

     프라이머리가 (딕셔너리 같은) 매핑 객체면, 서브 스크립트는 매핑의 키
     형과 호환되는 형이어야 하고, 매핑에 그 서브 스크립트를 객체에 매핑
     하는 키/값 쌍을 만들도록 요청합니다.  이때 같은 킷값을 갖는 기존의
     키/값 쌍을 대체할 수도 있고, (같은 값의 키가 존재하지 않는 경우) 새
     키/값 쌍을 삽입할 수도 있습니다.

     사용자 정의 객체의 경우는, 적절한 인자로 *note __setitem__(): 12bb.
     메서드가 호출됩니다.

   * 타깃이 슬라이싱이면: 참조의 프라이머리 표현식의 값을 구합니다.  (리
     스트 같은) 가변 시퀀스 객체가 나와야 합니다.  대입되는 객체는 같은
     형의 시퀀스 객체야 합니다.  그런 다음, 존재한다면 하한과 상한 표현
     식의 값을 구합니다; 기본값은 0과 시퀀스의 길이다.  경곗값은 정수가
     되어야 합니다.  둘 중 어느 것이건 음수가 나오면, 시퀀스의 길이를 더
     합니다.  그렇게 얻어진 경곗값들을 0과 시퀀스의 길이나 그 사이에 들
     어가는 값이 되도록 자릅니다.  마지막으로 시퀀스 객체에 슬라이스를 대
     입되는 시퀀스로 변경하도록 요청합니다.  타깃 시퀀스가 허락한다면, 슬
     라이스의 길이는 대입되는 시퀀스의 길이와 다를 수 있습니다.

현재 구현에서, 타깃의 문법은 표현식과 같게 유지되고, 잘못된 문법은 코드
생성 단계에서 거부되기 때문에 에러 메시지가 덜 상세해지는 결과를 낳고 있
습니다.

설사 대입의 정의가 좌변과 우변 간의 중첩이 ‘동시적(simultaneous)’임을 (예
를 들어, ‘a, b = b, a’ 는 두 변수를 교환합니다) 암시해도, 대입되는 변수
들의 컬렉션 '안' 에서의 중첩은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 일어나서, 때로 혼동할
수 있는 결과를 낳습니다.  예를 들어, 다음과 같은 프로그램은 ‘[0, 2]’ 를
인쇄합니다:

     x = [0, 1]
     i = 0
     i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i 가 갱신된 다음에, x[i] 가 갱신됩니다
     print(x)

더 보기
.......

PEP 3132(1) - 확장 이터러블 언 패킹

     ‘*target’ 기능에 대한 규격

* Menu:

* 증분 대입문(Augmented assignment statements): 증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
* 어노테이트된 대입문(Annotated assignment statements): 어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/


File: python.info,  Node: 증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements,  Next: 어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements,  Up: 대입문

4.7.2.1 증분 대입문(Augmented assignment statements)
....................................................

증분 대입문은 한 문장에서 이항 연산과 대입문을 합치는 것입니다:

     augmented_assignment_stmt ::= *note augtarget: 20b5. *note augop: 20b6. (*note expression_list: 2094. | *note yield_expression: 1ecc.)
     augtarget                 ::= *note identifier: 1e9e. | *note attributeref: 2051. | *note subscription: 2052. | *note slicing: 2053.
     augop                     ::= "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                                   | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

(마지막 세 기호의 문법 정의는 *note 프라이머리: 204f. 섹션을 보십시오.)

증분 대입은 타깃 (일반 대입문과는 달리 언 패킹이 될 수 없습니다) 과 표현
식 목록의 값을 구하고, 둘을 피연산자로 삼아 대입의 형에 맞는 이항 연산을
수행한 후, 원래의 타깃에 그 결과를 대입합니다.  타깃은 오직 한 번만 값이
구해집니다.

‘x += 1’ 과 같은 증분 대입문은 ‘x = x + 1’ 처럼 다시 쓸 수 있는데, 정확
히 같은 효과는 아니지만 비슷한 결과를 줍니다.  증분 버전에서는, ‘x’ 의 값
을 오직 한 번만 구합니다.  또한, 가능할 때, 실제 연산은 '제자리
(in-place)' 에서 수행되는데, 새 객체를 만들고 그것을 타깃에 대입하기보다
는, 예전 객체를 수정한다는 의미입니다.

일반 대입과는 달리, 증분 대입은 우변의 값을 구하기 '이전에' 좌변의 값을
구합니다.  예를 들어, ‘a[i] += f(x)’ 는 처음에 ‘a[i]’ 를 조회한 다음,
‘f(x)’ 의 값을 구하고, 덧셈을 수행하고, 마지막으로 그 결과를 ‘a[i]’ 에 다
시 씁니다.

하나의 문장에서 튜플과 다중 타깃으로 대입하는 것을 예외로 하면, 증분 대
입문에 의한 대입은 일반 대입과 같은 방법으로 처리됩니다.  마찬가지로, '제
자리' 동작의 가능성을 예외로 하면, 증분 대입 때문에 수행되는 이진 연산은
일반 이진 연산과 같습니다.

어트리뷰트 참조인 타깃의 경우, 일반 대입처럼 *note 클래스와 인스턴스
어트리뷰트에 관한 경고: 20b2. 가 적용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements,  Prev: 증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements,  Up: 대입문

4.7.2.2 어노테이트된 대입문(Annotated assignment statements)
............................................................

*note 어노테이션: d51. 대입은, 한 문장에서, 변수나 어트리뷰트 어노테이션
과 생략할 수 있는 대입문을 합치는 것입니다.

     annotated_assignment_stmt ::= *note augtarget: 20b5. ":" *note expression: 203f.
                                   ["=" (*note starred_expression: 202e. | *note yield_expression: 1ecc.)]

일반 *note 대입문: 1fe1. 과의 차이점은 오직 하나의 타깃만 허락된다는 것
입니다.

대입 타깃은 괄호로 묶이지 않은 단일한 이름으로 구성되면, “단순”하다고 간
주됩니다.  단순 대입 타깃의 경우, 클래스나 모듈 스코프에 있으면, 어노테
이션은 값이 구해진 후 특별한 클래스나 모듈의 어트리뷰트
‘__annotations__’ 에 저장되는데, 이 어트리뷰트는 (만약 비공개면 뒤섞인)
변수 이름을 어노테이션의 값으로 대응시키는 딕셔너리 매핑입니다.  이 어트
리뷰트는 쓰기가 허락되고, 클래스나 모듈의 실행을 시작할 때 어노테이션이
정적으로 발견되면 만들어집니다.

대입 타깃이 단순하지 않을 때 (어트리뷰트, 서브 스크립트 노드 또는 괄호안
의 이름), 어노테이션은 클래스나 모듈 스코프에 있는 것처럼 값이 구해지지
만 저장되지는 않습니다.

이름이 함수 스코프에서 어노테이트되면, 이 이름은 그 스코프에 지역적
(local)입니다.  함수 스코프에서 어노테이션은 값이 구해지거나 저장되지 않
습니다.

우변이 존재하면, 어노테이트된 대입은 (적절한 곳에서) 어노테이션의 값을 구
하기 전에 실제 대입을 수행합니다.  표현식 타깃의 경우 우변이 존재하지 않
으면, 인터프리터는 티깃의 값을 구하는데, 마지막 *note __setitem__():
12bb. 이나 *note __setattr__(): 1f35. 호출은 생략합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 526(1) - 변수 어노테이션 문법

     주석을 통해 표현하는 대신, 변수(클래스 변수와 인스턴스 변수 포함)의
     형을 어노테이트 하는 문법을 추가하는 제안.

PEP 484(2) - 형 힌트

     정적 분석 도구와 IDE에서 사용할 수 있는 형 어노테이션에 대한 표준 문
     법을 제공하기 위해 *note typing: 104. 모듈을 추가하는 제안.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 어노테이트된 대입문은 일반 대입과 마찬가지로 우
변에 같은 표현식을 허용합니다.  이전에는, (괄호 없는 튜플 표현식과 같은)
일부 표현식에서 문법 에러가 발생했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: assert 문,  Next: pass 문<2>,  Prev: 대입문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.3 ‘assert’ 문
-----------------

assert 문은 프로그램에 디버깅 어서션(debugging assertion)을 삽입하는 편
리한 방법입니다:

     assert_stmt ::= "assert" *note expression: 203f. ["," *note expression: 203f.]

간단한 형태, ‘assert expression’ 은 다음과 동등합니다

     if __debug__:
         if not expression: raise AssertionError

확장된 형태, ‘assert expression1, expression2’ 는 다음과 동등합니다

     if __debug__:
         if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

이 동등성 들은 *note __debug__: 7d3. 과 *note AssertionError: 6a3. 가 같
은 이름의 내장 변수들을 가리킨다고 가정합니다.  현재 구현에서, 내장 변수
‘__debug__’ 은 일반적인 상황에서 ‘True’ 이고, 최적화가 요청되었을 때 (명
령행 옵션 *note -O: db1.) ‘False’ 입니다.  현재의 코드 생성기는 컴파일 시
점에 최적화가 요청되면 *note assert: 965. 문을 위한 코드를 만들지 않습니
다.  에러 메시지에 실패한 표현식의 소스 코드를 포함할 필요가 없음에 주의
하십시오; 그것은 스택 트레이스의 일부로 출력됩니다.

*note __debug__: 7d3. 에 대한 대입은 허락되지 않습니다.  이 내장 변수의
값은 인터프리터가 시작할 때 결정됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: pass 문<2>,  Next: del 문<2>,  Prev: assert 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.4 ‘pass’ 문
---------------

     pass_stmt ::= "pass"

*note pass: 1c22. 는 널(null) 연산입니다 — 실행될 때, 아무런 일도 일어나
지 않습니다.  문법적으로 문장이 필요하기는 하지만 할 일은 없을 때, 자리
를 채우는 용도로 쓸모가 있습니다, 예를 들어:

     def f(arg): pass    # (아직은) 아무것도 하지 않는 함수

     class C: pass       # (아직은) 메서드가 없는 클래스


File: python.info,  Node: del 문<2>,  Next: return 문,  Prev: pass 문<2>,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.5 ‘del’ 문
--------------

     del_stmt ::= "del" *note target_list: 2032.

삭제는 대입이 정의된 방식과 아주 비슷하게 재귀적으로 정의됩니다.  전체 세
부 사항들을 나열하는 대신, 여기 몇 가지 힌트가 있습니다.

타깃 목록의 삭제는 각 타깃을 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 재귀적으로 삭제합니다.

이름의 삭제는 같은 코드 블록에 있는 *note global: 18a. 문에 그 이름이 등
장하는지에 따라 지역이나 전역 이름 공간에서 이름의 연결을 제거합니다.  이
름이 연결되어 있지 않으면, *note NameError: 438. 예외가 일어납니다.

어트리뷰트 참조, 서브스크립션, 슬라이싱의 삭제는 관련된 프라이머리 객체
로 전달됩니다; 슬라이싱의 삭제는 일반적으로 우변 형의 빈 슬라이스를 대입
하는 것과 동등합니다 (하지만 이것조차 슬라이싱 되는 객체가 판단합니다).

버전 3.2에서 변경: 예전에는 이름이 중첩된 블록에서 자유 변수로 등장하는
경우 지역 이름 공간에서 삭제하는 것이 허락되지 않았습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: return 문,  Next: yield 문,  Prev: del 문<2>,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.6 ‘return’ 문
-----------------

     return_stmt ::= "return" [*note expression_list: 2094.]

*note return: 9cb. 은 문법적으로 클래스 정의에 중첩된 경우가 아니라, 함
수 정의에만 중첩되어 나타날 수 있습니다.

표현식 목록이 있으면 값을 구하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’ 으로 치환됩니다.

*note return: 9cb. 은 표현식 목록 (또는 ‘None’)을 반환 값으로 해서, 현재
의 함수 호출을 떠납니다.

*note return: 9cb. 이 *note finally: 9c7. 절을 가진 *note try: 6e2. 문에
서 제어가 벗어나도록 만드는 경우, 함수로부터 진짜로 벗어나기 전에 그
‘finally’ 절이 실행됩니다.

제너레이터 함수에서, *note return: 9cb. 문은 제너레이터가 끝났음을 가리
키고, *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 일으킵니다.  return 문에 제공되는
값은 (있다면) *note StopIteration: bf7. 의 생성자에 인자로 전달되어
*note StopIteration.value: 1fd1. 어트리뷰트가 됩니다.

비동기 제너레이터 함수에서, 빈 *note return: 9cb. 문은 비동기 제너레이터
가 끝났음을 알리고, *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34. 예외를 일으킵니다.  비
동기 제너레이터 함수에서, 비어있지 않은 ‘return’ 은 문법 에러입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: yield 문,  Next: raise 문,  Prev: return 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.7 ‘yield’ 문
----------------

     yield_stmt ::= *note yield_expression: 1ecc.

*note yield: 9ca. 문은 *note yield 표현식: 2043. 과 같은 의미가 있습니다
.  동등한 yield 표현식에서 필요로 하는 괄호를 생략하기 위해 ‘yield’ 문을
사용합니다.  예를 들어, yield 문

     yield <expr>
     yield from <expr>

은 다음과 같은 yield 표현식 문장들과 동등합니다

     (yield <expr>)
     (yield from <expr>)

yield 표현식과 문장은 *note 제너레이터: 1057. 함수를 정의할 때만 사용되
고, 제너레이터 함수의 바디에서만 사용됩니다.  함수 정의가 일반 함수 대신
제너레이터 함수를 만들도록 하는 데는 *note yield: 9ca.를 사용하는 것만으
로 충분합니다.

*note yield: 9ca. 의 뜻에 대한 전체 세부 사항들은 *note 일드
표현식(Yield expressions): 2043. 섹션을 참고하면 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: raise 문,  Next: break 문,  Prev: yield 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.8 ‘raise’ 문
----------------

     raise_stmt ::= "raise" [*note expression: 203f. ["from" *note expression: 203f.]]

표현식이 주어지지 않으면, *note raise: 5e7. 는, '활성 예외'라고도 부르는
, 현재 처리 중인 예외를 다시 일으킵니다.  현재 활성 예외가 없다면, 이것
이 에러라는 것을 알리기 위해 *note RuntimeError: 195. 예외를 일으킵니다.

그렇지 않으면, *note raise: 5e7. 는 예외 객체로, 첫 번째 표현식의 값을 구
합니다.  *note BaseException: 5b5. 의 서브 클래스나 인스턴스여야 합니다.
클래스면, 예외 인스턴스는 필요할 때 인자 없이 클래스의 인스턴스를 만들어
서 사용됩니다.

예외의 형('type')은 예외 인스턴스의 클래스고, 값('value')은 인스턴스 자
신입니다.

트레이스백 객체는 보통 예외가 일어날 때 자동으로 만들어지고 *note
__traceback__: 12b6. 어트리뷰트로 첨부됩니다.  다음과 같이, *note
with_traceback(): 20bf. 예외 메서드를 사용하면, 예외를 만들고 트레이스백
을 직접 설정하는 것을 한 번에 할 수 있습니다 (같은 예외 인스턴스를 돌려
주는데, 그 인자값으로 트레이스백을 설정해줍니다):

     raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

‘from’ 절은 예외 연쇄(exception chaining)에 사용됩니다.  주어진다면, 두
번째 '표현식(expression)' 은 또 하나의 예외 클래스나 인스턴스여야 합니다
.  두 번째 표현식이 예외 인스턴스면, 발생한 예외에 (쓰기 가능한) *note
__cause__: 12b8. 어트리뷰트로 첨부됩니다.  표현식이 예외 클래스면, 클래
스가 인스턴스화되어 만들어진 예외 인스턴스가 발생한 예외에 ‘__cause__’ 어
트리뷰트로 첨부됩니다.  발생한 예외가 처리되지 않으면, 두 예외가 모두 인
쇄됩니다:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except Exception as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

예외가 이미 처리되고 있을 때 새 예외가 발생하면 비슷한 메커니즘이 묵시적
으로 적용됩니다.  *note except: 18b. 나 *note finally: 9c7. 절 또는
*note with: 5cc. 문이 사용될 때 예외가 처리될 수 있습니다.  앞선 예외가
새 예외의 *note __context__: 12b7. 어트리뷰트로 첨부됩니다:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

예외 연쇄는 ‘from’ 절에 *note None: 66f. 을 지정해서 명시적으로 중지시킬
수 있습니다:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

예외에 대한 더 많은 정보를 *note 예외: 1fed. 섹션에서 발견할 수 있고, 예
외를 처리하는 것에 대한 정보는 *note try 문: 6e2. 섹션에 있습니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 이제 ‘raise X from Y’ 에서 ‘Y’ 로 *note None: 66f. 이
허락됩니다.

예외 문맥(exception context)의 자동 출력을 제한할 수 있는 *note
__suppress_context__: 20c0. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다.

버전 3.11에서 변경: If the traceback of the active exception is modified
in an *note except: 18b. clause, a subsequent ‘raise’ statement
re-raises the exception with the modified traceback.  Previously, the
exception was re-raised with the traceback it had when it was caught.


File: python.info,  Node: break 문,  Next: continue 문,  Prev: raise 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.9 ‘break’ 문
----------------

     break_stmt ::= "break"

*note break: aa6. 는 문법적으로 *note for: 2ea. 나 *note while: 1c0c. 루
프에 중첩되어서만 나타날 수 있습니다.  하지만 그 루프 안의 함수나 클래스
정의에 중첩되지는 않습니다.

가장 가까이서 둘러싸고 있는 루프를 종료하고, 그 루프가 ‘else’ 절을 갖고
있다면 건너뜁니다(skip).

*note for: 2ea. 루프가 *note break: aa6. 로 종료되면, 루프 제어 타깃은 현
재값을 유지합니다.

*note break: aa6. 가 *note finally: 9c7. 절을 가 *note try: 6e2. 문에서
제어가 벗어나도록 만드는 경우, 루프로부터 진짜로 벗어나기 전에 그
‘finally’ 절이 실행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: continue 문,  Next: 임포트 import 문,  Prev: break 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.10 ‘continue’ 문
--------------------

     continue_stmt ::= "continue"

*note continue: 9c6. 는 문법적으로 *note for: 2ea. 나 *note while: 1c0c.
루프에 중첩되어서만 나타날 수 있습니다.  하지만 그 루프 안의 함수나 클래
스 정의에 중첩되지는 않습니다.  가장 가까이서 둘러싸고 있는 루프가 다음
사이클로 넘어가도록 만듭니다.

*note continue: 9c6. 가 *note finally: 9c7. 절을 가진 *note try: 6e2. 문
에서 제어가 벗어나도록 만드는 경우, 다음 루트 사이클을 시작하기 전에 그
‘finally’ 절이 실행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 임포트 import 문,  Next: global 문,  Prev: continue 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.11 임포트(‘import’) 문
--------------------------

     import_stmt     ::= "import" *note module: 20c4. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.] ("," *note module: 20c4. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.])*
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 20c5. "import" *note identifier: 1e9e. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.]
                         ("," *note identifier: 1e9e. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.])*
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 20c5. "import" "(" *note identifier: 1e9e. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.]
                         ("," *note identifier: 1e9e. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.])* [","] ")"
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 20c5. "import" "*"
     module          ::= (*note identifier: 1e9e. ".")* *note identifier: 1e9e.
     relative_module ::= "."* *note module: 20c4. | "."+

(*note from: 129b. 절이 없는) 기본 임포트 문은 두 단계로 실행됩니다:

  1. 모듈을 찾고, 로드하고, 필요하면 초기화합니다

  2. 임포트(*note import: 5dc.) 문이 등장한 스코프의 지역 이름 공간에 이
     름이나 이름들을 정의합니다.

문장이 (쉼표로 분리된) 여러 개의 절을 포함하면, 마치 각 절이 별도의 임포
트 문에 의해 분리된 것처럼, 두 단계는 절마다 별도로 수행됩니다.

첫 번째 단계, 모듈을 찾고 로드하는 것의 세부 사항은 *note 임포트 시스템:
1f1b. 에 있는 섹션에서 아주 상세하게 설명하는데, 임포트될 수 있는 여러 종
류의 패키지와 모듈들과 임포트 시스템을 커스터마이즈하는데 사용될 수 있는
모든 훅에 관해서도 설명하고 있습니다.

요청된 모듈이 성공적으로 읽어 들여지면, 세 가지 중 한 방법으로 지역 이름
공간에 소개됩니다:

   * 모듈 이름 뒤에 ‘as’ 가 오면, ‘as’ 뒤에 오는 이름이 임포트된 모듈에
     직접 연결됩니다.

   * 다른 이름이 지정되지 않고, 임포트되는 모듈이 최상위 모듈이면, 모듈
     의 이름이 임포트되는 모듈에 대한 참조로 지역 이름 공간에 연결됩니다
     .

   * 임포트되는 모듈이 최상이 모듈이 '아니' 라면, 그 모듈을 포함하는 최
     상위 패키지의 이름이 최상위 패키지에 대한 참조로 지역 이름 공간에 연
     결됩니다.  임포트된 모듈은 직접적이기보다는 완전히 정규화된 이름
     (full qualified name)을 통해 액세스 되어야 합니다.

*note from: 129b. 형은 약간 더 복잡한 절차를 사용합니다:

  1. *note from: 129b. 절에 지정된 모듈을 찾고, 로드하고, 필요하면 초기
     화합니다

  2. *note import: 5dc. 절에 지정된 식별자들 각각에 대해:

       1. 임포트된 모듈이 그 이름의 어트리뷰트를 가졌는지 검사합니다

       2. 없으면, 그 이름의 서브 모듈을 임포트하는 것을 시도한 다음 임포
          트된 모듈에서 그 어트리뷰트를 다시 검사합니다

       3. 어트리뷰트가 발견되지 않으면 *note ImportError: 413. 를 일으킵
          니다.

       4. 그렇지 않으면, 그 값에 대한 참조가 지역 이름 공간에 저장되는데
          , ‘as’ 절이 존재하면 거기에서 지정된 이름을 사용하고, 그렇지 않
          으면 어트리뷰트 이름을 사용합니다

사용 예:

     import foo                 # foo 가 임포트되고 지역적으로 연결됩니다
     import foo.bar.baz         # foo, foo.bar, foo.bar.baz 가 임포트되고, foo 가 지역적으로 연결됩니다
     import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo, foo.bar, foo.bar.baz 가 임포트되고, foo.bar.baz 가 fbb 로 연결됩니다
     from foo.bar import baz    # foo, foo.bar, foo.bar.baz 가 임포트되고, foo.bar.baz 가 baz 로 연결됩니다
     from foo import attr       # foo 가 임포트되고 foo.attr 이 attr 로 연결됩니다

식별자들의 목록을 스타 (‘'*'’) 로 바꾸면, 모듈에 정의된 모든 공개 이름들
이 *note import: 5dc. 문이 등장한 스코프의 지역 이름 공간에 연결됩니다.

모듈에 정의된 '공개 이름(public names)' 은 모듈의 이름 공간에서
‘__all__’ 이라는 이름의 변수를 검사해서 결정됩니다; 정의되어 있다면, 문
자열의 시퀀스여야 하는데, 그 모듈이 정의하거나 임포트하는 이름들입니다.
‘__all__’ 에서 지정한 이름들은 모두 공개로 취급되고 반드시 존재해야 합니
다.  ‘__all__’ 이 정의되지 않으면, 모듈의 이름 공간에서 발견되는 이름 중
, 밑줄 문자 (‘'_'’)로 시작하지 않는 모든 이름이 공개로 취급됩니다.
‘__all__’ 는 공개 API 전체를 포함해야 합니다.  이것의 목적은 의도치 않게
API 일부가 아닌 항목들을 노출하는 것을 방지하는 것입니다 (가령 그 모듈이
임포트하고 사용하는 라이브러리 모듈).

임포트의 와일드카드 형태 — ‘from module import *’ — 는 모듈 수준에서만 허
락됩니다.  클래스나 함수 정의에서 사용하려는 시도는 *note SyntaxError:
18d. 를 일으킵니다.

임포트할 모듈을 지정할 때 모듈의 절대 이름(absolute name)을 지정할 필요
는 없습니다.  모듈이나 패키지가 다른 패키지 안에 포함될 때, 같은 상위 패
키지 내에서는 그 패키지 이름을 언급할 필요 없이 상대 임포트(relative
import)를 할 수 있습니다.  *note from: 129b. 뒤에 지정되는 패키지나 모듈
앞에 붙이는 점으로, 정확한 이름을 지정하지 않고도 현재 패키지 계층을 얼
마나 거슬러 올라가야 하는지 지정할 수 있습니다.  하나의 점은 이 임포트를
하는 모듈이 존재하는 현재 패키지를 뜻합니다.  두 개의 점은 한 패키지 수
준을 거슬러 올라가는 것을 뜻합니다.  세 개의 점은 두 개의 수준을, 등등입
니다.  그래서 ‘pkg’ 패키지에 있는 모듈에서 ‘from . import mod’ 를 실행하
면, ‘pkg.mod’ 를 임포트하게 됩니다.  ‘pkg.subpkg1’ 안에서 ‘from
..subpkg2 import mod’ 를 실행하면 ‘pkg.subpkg2.mod’ 를 임포트하게 됩니다
.  상대 임포트에 대한 규격은 *note 패키지 상대 임포트: 2012. 절에 들어있
습니다.

로드할 모듈들을 동적으로 결정하는 응용 프로그램들을 지원하기 위해 *note
importlib.import_module(): 511. 이 제공됩니다.

인자 ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’,
‘sys.path_hooks’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘import’를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 퓨처 문::


File: python.info,  Node: 퓨처 문,  Up: 임포트 import 문

4.7.11.1 퓨처 문
................

퓨처 문('future statement')은 컴파일러가 특정한 모듈을 특별한 문법이나 개
념을 사용해서 컴파일하도록 만드는 지시어(directive)인데, 그 기능은 미래
에 출시되는 파이썬에서 표준이 되는 것입니다.

퓨처 문의 목적은 언어에 호환되지 않는 변경이 도입된 미래 버전의 파이썬으
로 옮겨가는 것을 쉽게 만드는 것입니다.  그 기능이 표준이 되는 배포 이전
에 모듈 단위로 새 기능을 사용할 수 있도록 만듭니다.

     future_stmt ::= "from" "__future__" "import" *note feature: 20c7. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.]
                     ("," *note feature: 20c7. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.])*
                     | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" *note feature: 20c7. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.]
                     ("," *note feature: 20c7. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.])* [","] ")"
     feature     ::= *note identifier: 1e9e.

퓨처 문은 모듈의 거의 처음에 나와야 합니다.  퓨처 문 앞에 나올 수 있는 줄
들은:

   * 모듈 독스트링(docstring) (있다면),

   * 주석

   * 빈 줄, 그리고

   * 다른 퓨처 문들

퓨처 문을 사용해야 하는 유일한 기능은 ‘annotations’ 입니다 ( PEP 563(1)을
참조하십시오).

과거에 퓨처 문을 통해 활성화되던 기능들은 여전히 파이썬 3에 의해 인식됩
니다.  이 목록에는 ‘absolute_import’, ‘division’, ‘generators’,
‘generator_stop’, ‘unicode_literals’, ‘print_function’, ‘nested_scopes’
및 ‘with_statement’ 가 포함됩니다.  이것들은 잉여물인데 항상 활성화되고,
오직 과거 호환성을 위해 유지되고 있기 때문입니다.

퓨처 문은 구체적으로는 컴파일 시점에 인식되고 다뤄집니다: 핵심 구성물들
의 의미에 대한 변경은 종종 다른 코드 생성을 통해 구현됩니다.  새 기능이
호환되지 않는 (새로운 예약어처럼) 새로운 문법을 도입하는 경우조차 가능한
데, 이 경우는 컴파일러가 모듈을 다르게 파싱할 수 있습니다.  그런 결정들
은 실행 시점으로 미뤄질 수 없습니다..

배포마다, 컴파일러는 어떤 기능 이름들이 정의되어 있는지 알고, 만약 퓨처
문이 알지 못하는 기능을 포함하고 있으면 컴파일 시점 에러를 일으킵니다.

직접적인 실행 시점의 개념은 다른 임포트 문들과 같습니다: 표준 모듈 *note
__future__: 0, 후에 설명합니다, 다 있고, 퓨처 문이 실행되는 시점에 일반
적인 방법으로 임포트됩니다.

흥미로운 실행 시점의 개념들은 퓨처 문에 의해 활성화되는 구체적인 기능들
에 달려있습니다.

이런 문장에는 아무것도 특별한 것이 없음에 주의해야 합니다:

     import __future__ [as name]

이것은 퓨처 문이 아닙니다; 아무런 특별한 개념이나 문법적인 제약이 없는 평
범한 임포트 문일 뿐입니다.

퓨처 문을 포함하는 모듈 ‘M’ 에 등장하는 내장 함수 *note exec(): 17f. 와
*note compile(): 192. 를 호출해서 컴파일되는 코드는, 기본적으로는, 퓨처
문이 지정하는 새 문법과 개념을 사용합니다.  이것은 *note compile(): 192.
에 주는 생략 가능한 인자로 제어될 수 있습니다 — 자세한 내용은 그 함수의
문서를 보십시오.

대화형 인터프리터 프롬프트에서 입력된 퓨처 문은 인터프리터 세션의 남은 기
간 효과를 발생시킵니다.  인터프리터가 *note -i: 14a3, 실행할 스크립트 이
름이 전달됩니다, 옵션으로 시작하고, 그 스크립트가 퓨처 문을 포함하면, 스
크립트가 실행된 이후에 시작되는 대화형 세션에서도 효과를 유지합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 236(2) - 백 투 더 __future__

     __future__ 메커니즘에 대한 최초의 제안.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: global 문,  Next: nonlocal 문,  Prev: 임포트 import 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.12 ‘global’ 문
------------------

     global_stmt ::= "global" *note identifier: 1e9e. ("," *note identifier: 1e9e.)*

*note global: 18a. 문은 나열된 식별자들이 전역으로 해석되도록 만듭니다.
global 선언 없이 자유 변수들이 전역을 가리킬 수 있기는 하지만, ‘global’
없이 전역 변수에 값을 대입하는 것은 불가능합니다.

The *note global: 18a. statement applies to the entire scope of a
function or class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 18d. is raised if a
variable is used or assigned to prior to its global declaration in the
scope.

'프로그래머의 주의 사향:' *note global: 18a. 은 파서에 주는 지시자
(directive)입니다.  ‘global’ 문과 같은 시점에 파싱되는 코드에만 적용됩니
다.  특히, 내장 *note exec(): 17f. 함수로 공급되는 문자열이나 코드 객체
에 포함된 ‘global’ 문은 그 함수 호출을 '포함하는' 코드 블록에는 영향을 주
지 않고, 그런 문자열에 포함된 코드 역시 함수 호출을 포함하는 코드에 있는
‘global’ 문에 영향을 받지 않습니다.  *note eval(): 180. 과 *note
compile(): 192. 함수들도 마찬가지입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: nonlocal 문,  Next: type 문,  Prev: global 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.13 ‘nonlocal’ 문
--------------------

     nonlocal_stmt ::= "nonlocal" *note identifier: 1e9e. ("," *note identifier: 1e9e.)*

When the definition of a function or class is nested (enclosed) within
the definitions of other functions, its nonlocal scopes are the local
scopes of the enclosing functions.  The *note nonlocal: 1297. statement
causes the listed identifiers to refer to names previously bound in
nonlocal scopes.  It allows encapsulated code to rebind such nonlocal
identifiers.  If a name is bound in more than one nonlocal scope, the
nearest binding is used.  If a name is not bound in any nonlocal scope,
or if there is no nonlocal scope, a *note SyntaxError: 18d. is raised.

The *note nonlocal: 1297. statement applies to the entire scope of a
function or class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 18d. is raised if a
variable is used or assigned to prior to its nonlocal declaration in the
scope.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3104(1) - 바깥 스코프에 있는 이름들에 대한 액세스

     *note nonlocal: 1297. 문의 규격.

'Programmer’s note:' *note nonlocal: 1297. is a directive to the parser
and applies only to code parsed along with it.  See the note for the
*note global: 18a. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/


File: python.info,  Node: type 문,  Prev: nonlocal 문,  Up: 단순문 Simple statements

4.7.14 ‘type’ 문
----------------

     type_stmt ::= 'type' *note identifier: 1e9e. [*note type_params: 20cb.] "=" *note expression: 203f.

The ‘type’ statement declares a type alias, which is an instance of
*note typing.TypeAliasType: 44e.

For example, the following statement creates a type alias:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

This code is roughly equivalent to:

     annotation-def VALUE_OF_Point():
         return tuple[float, float]
     Point = typing.TypeAliasType("Point", VALUE_OF_Point())

‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 188, which behaves
mostly like a function, but with several small differences.

The value of the type alias is evaluated in the annotation scope.  It is
not evaluated when the type alias is created, but only when the value is
accessed through the type alias’s ‘__value__’ attribute (see *note Lazy
evaluation: 450.).  This allows the type alias to refer to names that
are not yet defined.

Type aliases may be made generic by adding a *note type parameter list:
2b3. after the name.  See *note Generic type aliases: 44f. for more.

‘type’ is a *note soft keyword: 806.

Added in version 3.12.

더 보기
.......

PEP 695(1) - Type Parameter Syntax

     Introduced the ‘type’ statement and syntax for generic classes and
     functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: 복합문 Compound statements,  Next: 최상위 요소들,  Prev: 단순문 Simple statements,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.8 복합문(Compound statements)
===============================

복합문은 다른 문장들(의 그룹들)을 포함합니다; 어떤 방법으로 그 다른 문장
들의 실행에 영향을 주거나 제어합니다.  간단하게 표현할 때, 전체 복합문을
한 줄로 쓸 수 있기는 하지만, 일반적으로 복합문은 여러 줄에 걸칩니다.

*note if: 2eb, *note while: 1c0c, *note for: 2ea. 문장은 전통적인 제어 흐
름 구조를 구현합니다.  문장들의 그룹에 대해 *note try: 6e2. 는 예외 처리
기나 정리(cleanup) 코드 또는 그 둘 모두를 지정하는 반면, *note with:
5cc. 문은 코드 블록 주변으로 초기화와 파이널리제이션 코드를 실행할 수 있
도록 합니다.  함수와 클래스 정의 또한 문법적으로 복합문입니다.

복합문은 하나나 그 이상의 ‘절’로 구성됩니다.  절은 헤더와 ‘스위트
(suite)’로 구성됩니다.  특정 복합문의 절 헤더들은 모두 같은 들여쓰기 수
준을 갖습니다.  각 절 헤더는 특별하게 식별되는 키워드로 시작하고 콜론으
로 끝납니다.  스위트는 절에 의해 제어되는 문장들의 그룹입니다.  스위트는
헤더의 콜론 뒤에서 같은 줄에 세미콜론으로 분리된 하나나 그 이상의 단순문
일 수 있습니다.  또는 그다음 줄에 들여쓰기 된 하나나 그 이상의 문장들일
수도 있습니다.  오직 후자의 형태만 중첩된 복합문을 포함할 수 있습니다; 다
음과 같은 것은 올바르지 않은데, 대체로 뒤따르는 *note else: 18c. 절이 있
다면 어떤 *note if: 2eb. 절에 속하는지 명확하지 않기 때문입니다.

     if test1: if test2: print(x)

또한, 이 문맥에서 세미콜론이 콜론보다 더 강하게 결합해서, 다음과 같은 예
에서, *note print(): f6d. 호출들은 모두 실행되거나 어느 하나도 실행되지
않습니다는 것에 주의해야 합니다:

     if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)

요약하면:

     compound_stmt ::= *note if_stmt: 20d0.
                       | *note while_stmt: 20d1.
                       | *note for_stmt: 20d2.
                       | *note try_stmt: 20d3.
                       | *note with_stmt: 20d4.
                       | *note match_stmt: 20d5.
                       | *note funcdef: 20d6.
                       | *note classdef: 20d7.
                       | *note async_with_stmt: 20d8.
                       | *note async_for_stmt: 20d9.
                       | *note async_funcdef: 20da.
     suite         ::= *note stmt_list: 20dc. NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT *note statement: 20dd.+ DEDENT
     statement     ::= *note stmt_list: 20dc. NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 20cf.
     stmt_list     ::= *note simple_stmt: 209c. (";" *note simple_stmt: 209c.)* [";"]

문장들이 항상 ‘NEWLINE’ 으로 끝나고 ‘DEDENT’ 가 그 뒤를 따를 수 있음에 주
목해야 합니다.  또한, 생략 가능한 연결 절들이 항상 문장을 시작시킬 수 없
는 키워드로 시작하기 때문에, 모호함이 없다는 것도 주목하세요 (파이썬에서
는 중첩된 *note if: 2eb. 문이 들여쓰기 되는 것을 요구함으로써 ‘매달린
(dangling) *note else: 18c.’ 문제를 해결합니다).

명확함을 위해 다음에 오는 절들에서 나오는 문법 규칙들은 각 절을 별도의 줄
에 놓도록 포매팅합니다.
* Menu:

* if 문: if 문<2>.
* while 문::
* for 문: for 문<2>.
* try 문::
* with 문::
* The match statement::
* 함수 정의::
* 클래스 정의::
* 코루틴::
* Type parameter lists::


File: python.info,  Node: if 문<2>,  Next: while 문,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.1 ‘if’ 문
-------------

*note if: 2eb. 문은 조건부 실행에 사용됩니다:

     if_stmt ::= "if" *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. ":" *note suite: 20db.
                 ("elif" *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. ":" *note suite: 20db.)*
                 ["else" ":" *note suite: 20db.]

참이 되는 것을 발견할 때까지 표현식들의 값을 하나씩 차례대로 구해서 정확
히 하나의 스위트를 선택합니다 (참과 거짓의 정의는 *note 논리
연산(Boolean operations): 2084. 섹션을 보세요); 그런 다음 그 스위트를 실
행합니다 (그리고는 *note if: 2eb. 문의 다른 어떤 부분도 실행되거나 값이
구해지지 않습니다).  모든 표현식들이 거짓이면 *note else: 18c. 절의 스위
트가 (있다면) 실행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: while 문,  Next: for 문<2>,  Prev: if 문<2>,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.2 ‘while’ 문
----------------

*note while: 1c0c. 문은 표현식이 참인 동안 실행을 반복하는 데 사용됩니다
:

     while_stmt ::= "while" *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. ":" *note suite: 20db.
                    ["else" ":" *note suite: 20db.]

이것은 표현식을 반복적으로 검사하고, 참이면, 첫 번째 스위트를 실행합니다
; 표현식이 거짓이면 (처음부터 거짓일 수도 있습니다) ‘else’ 절의 스위트가
(있다면) 실행되고 루프를 종료합니다.

첫 번째 스위트에서 실행되는 *note break: aa6. 문은 ‘else’ 절을 실행하지
않고 루프를 종료합니다.  첫 번째 스위트에서 실행되는 *note continue:
9c6. 문은 스위트의 나머지 부분을 건너뛰고 표현식의 검사로 돌아갑니다.


File: python.info,  Node: for 문<2>,  Next: try 문,  Prev: while 문,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.3 ‘for’ 문
--------------

*note for: 2ea. 문은 (문자열, 튜플, 리스트 같은) 시퀀스 나 다른 이터러블
객체의 요소들을 이터레이트하는데 사용됩니다:

     for_stmt ::= "for" *note target_list: 2032. "in" starred_list ":" *note suite: 20db.
                  ["else" ":" *note suite: 20db.]

The ‘starred_list’ expression is evaluated once; it should yield an
*note iterable: 1217. object.  An *note iterator: 1ac. is created for
that iterable.  The first item provided by the iterator is then assigned
to the target list using the standard rules for assignments (see *note
대입문: 1fe1.), and the suite is executed.  This repeats for each item
provided by the iterator.  When the iterator is exhausted, the suite in
the ‘else’ clause, if present, is executed, and the loop terminates.

첫 번째 스위트에서 실행되는 *note break: aa6. 문은 ‘else’ 절을 실행하지
않고 루프를 종료합니다.  첫 번째 스위트에서 실행되는 *note continue:
9c6. 문은 스위트의 나머지 부분을 건너뛰고 다음 항목으로 넘어가거나, 다음
항목이 없으면 ‘else’ 절로 갑니다.

for-루프는 타깃 목록의 변수들에 대입합니다.  for-루프의 스위트에서 이루
어진 것들도 포함해서, 그 변수에 앞서 대입된 값들을 모두 덮어씁니다:

     for i in range(10):
         print(i)
         i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
                           # because i will be overwritten with the next
                           # index in the range

Names in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished, but
if the sequence is empty, they will not have been assigned to at all by
the loop.  Hint: the built-in type *note range(): 941. represents
immutable arithmetic sequences of integers.  For instance, iterating
‘range(3)’ successively yields 0, 1, and then 2.

버전 3.11에서 변경: Starred elements are now allowed in the expression
list.


File: python.info,  Node: try 문,  Next: with 문,  Prev: for 문<2>,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.4 ‘try’ 문
--------------

The ‘try’ statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for
a group of statements:

     try_stmt  ::= *note try1_stmt: 20e2. | *note try2_stmt: 20e3. | *note try3_stmt: 20e4.
     try1_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 20db.
                   ("except" [*note expression: 203f. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.]] ":" *note suite: 20db.)+
                   ["else" ":" *note suite: 20db.]
                   ["finally" ":" *note suite: 20db.]
     try2_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 20db.
                   ("except" "*" *note expression: 203f. ["as" *note identifier: 1e9e.] ":" *note suite: 20db.)+
                   ["else" ":" *note suite: 20db.]
                   ["finally" ":" *note suite: 20db.]
     try3_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 20db.
                   "finally" ":" *note suite: 20db.

예외에 관한 추가의 정보는 *note 예외: 1fed. 섹션에서 찾을 수 있고, 예외
를 일으키기 위해 *note raise: 5e7. 문을 사용하는 것에 관한 정보는 *note
raise 문: 5e7. 섹션에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* except clause::
* except* clause::
* else clause::
* finally clause::


File: python.info,  Node: except clause,  Next: except* clause,  Up: try 문

4.8.4.1 ‘except’ clause
.......................

The ‘except’ clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers.  When no
exception occurs in the *note try: 6e2. clause, no exception handler is
executed.  When an exception occurs in the ‘try’ suite, a search for an
exception handler is started.  This search inspects the ‘except’ clauses
in turn until one is found that matches the exception.  An
expression-less ‘except’ clause, if present, must be last; it matches
any exception.

For an ‘except’ clause with an expression, the expression must evaluate
to an exception type or a tuple of exception types.  The raised
exception matches an ‘except’ clause whose expression evaluates to the
class or a *note non-virtual base class: 11a5. of the exception object,
or to a tuple that contains such a class.

If no ‘except’ clause matches the exception, the search for an exception
handler continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.
(1)

If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an ‘except’ clause
raises an exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a
search starts for the new exception in the surrounding code and on the
call stack (it is treated as if the entire *note try: 6e2. statement
raised the exception).

When a matching ‘except’ clause is found, the exception is assigned to
the target specified after the ‘as’ keyword in that ‘except’ clause, if
present, and the ‘except’ clause’s suite is executed.  All ‘except’
clauses must have an executable block.  When the end of this block is
reached, execution continues normally after the entire *note try: 6e2.
statement.  (This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same
exception, and the exception occurs in the ‘try’ clause of the inner
handler, the outer handler will not handle the exception.)

When an exception has been assigned using ‘as target’, it is cleared at
the end of the ‘except’ clause.  This is as if

     except E as N:
         foo

가 이렇게 변환되는 것과 같습니다

     except E as N:
         try:
             foo
         finally:
             del N

This means the exception must be assigned to a different name to be able
to refer to it after the ‘except’ clause.  Exceptions are cleared
because with the traceback attached to them, they form a reference cycle
with the stack frame, keeping all locals in that frame alive until the
next garbage collection occurs.

Before an ‘except’ clause’s suite is executed, the exception is stored
in the *note sys: d9. module, where it can be accessed from within the
body of the ‘except’ clause by calling *note sys.exception(): 685.  When
leaving an exception handler, the exception stored in the *note sys: d9.
module is reset to its previous value:

     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None
     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError
     ... except:
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     try:
     ...          raise ValueError
     ...     except:
     ...         print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...
     TypeError()
     ValueError()
     TypeError()
     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 다른 예외를 일으키는 *note finally: 9c7. 절이 있지 않은 한 예외는
호출 스택으로 퍼집니다.  그 새 예외는 예전의 것을 잃어버리게 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: except* clause,  Next: else clause,  Prev: except clause,  Up: try 문

4.8.4.2 ‘except*’ clause
........................

The ‘except*’ clause(s) are used for handling *note ExceptionGroup:
1b6.s.  The exception type for matching is interpreted as in the case of
*note except: 18b, but in the case of exception groups we can have
partial matches when the type matches some of the exceptions in the
group.  This means that multiple ‘except*’ clauses can execute, each
handling part of the exception group.  Each clause executes at most once
and handles an exception group of all matching exceptions.  Each
exception in the group is handled by at most one ‘except*’ clause, the
first that matches it.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
     ...         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
     ... except* TypeError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       | ExceptionGroup: eg
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ValueError: 1
         +------------------------------------

Any remaining exceptions that were not handled by any ‘except*’ clause
are re-raised at the end, along with all exceptions that were raised
from within the ‘except*’ clauses.  If this list contains more than one
exception to reraise, they are combined into an exception group.

If the raised exception is not an exception group and its type matches
one of the ‘except*’ clauses, it is caught and wrapped by an exception
group with an empty message string.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise BlockingIOError
     ... except* BlockingIOError as e:
     ...     print(repr(e))
     ...
     ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError()))

An ‘except*’ clause must have a matching expression; it cannot be
‘except*:’.  Furthermore, this expression cannot contain exception group
types, because that would have ambiguous semantics.

It is not possible to mix *note except: 18b. and ‘except*’ in the same
*note try: 6e2.  The *note break: aa6, *note continue: 9c6, and *note
return: 9cb. statements cannot appear in an ‘except*’ clause.


File: python.info,  Node: else clause,  Next: finally clause,  Prev: except* clause,  Up: try 문

4.8.4.3 ‘else’ clause
.....................

생략 가능한 ‘else’ 절은 제어 흐름이 *note try: 6e2. 스위트를 빠져나가고,
예외가 발생하지 않았고, *note return: 9cb, *note continue: 9c6. 또는
*note break: aa6. 문이 실행되지 않으면 실행됩니다.  ‘else’ 절에서 발생하
는 예외는 앞에 나오는 *note except: 18b. 절에서 처리되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: finally clause,  Prev: else clause,  Up: try 문

4.8.4.4 ‘finally’ clause
........................

If ‘finally’ is present, it specifies a ‘cleanup’ handler.  The *note
try: 6e2. clause is executed, including any *note except: 18b. and *note
else: 18c. clauses.  If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
not handled, the exception is temporarily saved.  The ‘finally’ clause
is executed.  If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end
of the ‘finally’ clause.  If the ‘finally’ clause raises another
exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new
exception.  If the ‘finally’ clause executes a *note return: 9cb, *note
break: aa6. or *note continue: 9c6. statement, the saved exception is
discarded:

     >>> def f():
     ...     try:
     ...         1/0
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 42
     ...
     >>> f()
     42

The exception information is not available to the program during
execution of the ‘finally’ clause.

When a *note return: 9cb, *note break: aa6. or *note continue: 9c6.
statement is executed in the *note try: 6e2. suite of a ‘try’…‘finally’
statement, the ‘finally’ clause is also executed ‘on the way out.’

The return value of a function is determined by the last *note return:
9cb. statement executed.  Since the ‘finally’ clause always executes, a
‘return’ statement executed in the ‘finally’ clause will always be the
last one executed:

     >>> def foo():
     ...     try:
     ...         return 'try'
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 'finally'
     ...
     >>> foo()
     'finally'

버전 3.8에서 변경: Prior to Python 3.8, a *note continue: 9c6. statement
was illegal in the ‘finally’ clause due to a problem with the
implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: with 문,  Next: The match statement,  Prev: try 문,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.5 ‘with’ 문
---------------

*note with: 5cc. 문은 블록의 실행을 컨텍스트 관리자 (*note with 문
컨텍스트 관리자: 1fc5. 섹션을 보세요) 가 정의한 메서드들로 감싸는 데 사
용됩니다.  이것은 흔한 *note try: 6e2.…*note except: 18b.…*note finally:
9c7. 사용 패턴을 편리하게 재사용할 수 있도록 캡슐화할 수 있도록 합니다.

     with_stmt          ::= "with" ( "(" *note with_stmt_contents: 20ec. ","? ")" | *note with_stmt_contents: 20ec. ) ":" *note suite: 20db.
     with_stmt_contents ::= *note with_item: 20ed. ("," *note with_item: 20ed.)*
     with_item          ::= *note expression: 203f. ["as" *note target: 20b1.]

하나의 “item” 을 사용하는 *note with: 5cc. 문의 실행은 다음과 같이 진행
됩니다:

  1. The context expression (the expression given in the *note
     with_item: 20ed.) is evaluated to obtain a context manager.

  2. The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c2. is loaded for later
     use.

  3. The context manager’s *note __exit__(): 12f0. is loaded for later
     use.

  4. The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c2. method is invoked.

  5. If a target was included in the *note with: 5cc. statement, the
     return value from *note __enter__(): 5c2. is assigned to it.

          참고: The *note with: 5cc. statement guarantees that if the
          *note __enter__(): 5c2. method returns without an error, then
          *note __exit__(): 12f0. will always be called.  Thus, if an
          error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it will
          be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite
          would be.  See step 7 below.

  6. 스위트가 실행됩니다.

  7. The context manager’s *note __exit__(): 12f0. method is invoked.
     If an exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and
     traceback are passed as arguments to *note __exit__(): 12f0.
     Otherwise, three *note None: 66f. arguments are supplied.

     If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value
     from the *note __exit__(): 12f0. method was false, the exception is
     reraised.  If the return value was true, the exception is
     suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following
     the *note with: 5cc. statement.

     If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the
     return value from *note __exit__(): 12f0. is ignored, and execution
     proceeds at the normal location for the kind of exit that was
     taken.

다음과 같은 코드는:

     with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

의미상으로 다음과 동등합니다:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     enter = type(manager).__enter__
     exit = type(manager).__exit__
     value = enter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not exit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             exit(manager, None, None, None)

하나 보다 많은 항목을 주면, 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note with: 5cc. 문이 중첩
된 것처럼 진행합니다:

     with A() as a, B() as b:
         SUITE

의미상으로 다음과 동등합니다:

     with A() as a:
         with B() as b:
             SUITE

You can also write multi-item context managers in multiple lines if the
items are surrounded by parentheses.  For example:

     with (
         A() as a,
         B() as b,
     ):
         SUITE

버전 3.1에서 변경: 다중 컨텍스트 표현식의 지원

버전 3.10에서 변경: Support for using grouping parentheses to break the
statement in multiple lines.

더 보기
.......

PEP 343(1) - “with” 문

     파이썬 *note with: 5cc. 문의 규격, 배경, 예.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: The match statement,  Next: 함수 정의,  Prev: with 문,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.6 The ‘match’ statement
---------------------------

Added in version 3.10.

The match statement is used for pattern matching.  Syntax:

     match_stmt   ::= 'match' *note subject_expr: 20ef. ":" NEWLINE INDENT *note case_block: 20f0.+ DEDENT
     subject_expr ::= star_named_expression "," star_named_expressions?
                      | named_expression
     case_block   ::= 'case' *note patterns: 20f1. [*note guard: 20f2.] ":" block

     참고: This section uses single quotes to denote *note soft
     keywords: 806.

Pattern matching takes a pattern as input (following ‘case’) and a
subject value (following ‘match’).  The pattern (which may contain
subpatterns) is matched against the subject value.  The outcomes are:

   * A match success or failure (also termed a pattern success or
     failure).

   * Possible binding of matched values to a name.  The prerequisites
     for this are further discussed below.

The ‘match’ and ‘case’ keywords are *note soft keywords: 806.

더 보기
.......

   * PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

* Menu:

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview,  Next: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.1 Overview
................

Here’s an overview of the logical flow of a match statement:

  1. The subject expression ‘subject_expr’ is evaluated and a resulting
     subject value obtained.  If the subject expression contains a
     comma, a tuple is constructed using *note the standard rules: 20f4.

  2. Each pattern in a ‘case_block’ is attempted to match with the
     subject value.  The specific rules for success or failure are
     described below.  The match attempt can also bind some or all of
     the standalone names within the pattern.  The precise pattern
     binding rules vary per pattern type and are specified below.  'Name
     bindings made during a successful pattern match outlive the
     executed block and can be used after the match statement'.

          참고: During failed pattern matches, some subpatterns may
          succeed.  Do not rely on bindings being made for a failed
          match.  Conversely, do not rely on variables remaining
          unchanged after a failed match.  The exact behavior is
          dependent on implementation and may vary.  This is an
          intentional decision made to allow different implementations
          to add optimizations.

  3. If the pattern succeeds, the corresponding guard (if present) is
     evaluated.  In this case all name bindings are guaranteed to have
     happened.

        * If the guard evaluates as true or is missing, the ‘block’
          inside ‘case_block’ is executed.

        * Otherwise, the next ‘case_block’ is attempted as described
          above.

        * If there are no further case blocks, the match statement is
          completed.

     참고: Users should generally never rely on a pattern being
     evaluated.  Depending on implementation, the interpreter may cache
     values or use other optimizations which skip repeated evaluations.

A sample match statement:

     >>> flag = False
     >>> match (100, 200):
     ...    case (100, 300):  # Mismatch: 200 != 300
     ...        print('Case 1')
     ...    case (100, 200) if flag:  # Successful match, but guard fails
     ...        print('Case 2')
     ...    case (100, y):  # Matches and binds y to 200
     ...        print(f'Case 3, y: {y}')
     ...    case _:  # Pattern not attempted
     ...        print('Case 4, I match anything!')
     ...
     Case 3, y: 200

In this case, ‘if flag’ is a guard.  Read more about that in the next
section.


File: python.info,  Node: Guards,  Next: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Prev: Overview,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.2 Guards
..............

     guard ::= "if" named_expression

A ‘guard’ (which is part of the ‘case’) must succeed for code inside the
‘case’ block to execute.  It takes the form: *note if: 2eb. followed by
an expression.

The logical flow of a ‘case’ block with a ‘guard’ follows:

  1. Check that the pattern in the ‘case’ block succeeded.  If the
     pattern failed, the ‘guard’ is not evaluated and the next ‘case’
     block is checked.

  2. If the pattern succeeded, evaluate the ‘guard’.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as true, the case block is
          selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as false, the case block is
          not selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ raises an exception during evaluation, the
          exception bubbles up.

Guards are allowed to have side effects as they are expressions.  Guard
evaluation must proceed from the first to the last case block, one at a
time, skipping case blocks whose pattern(s) don’t all succeed.  (I.e.,
guard evaluation must happen in order.)  Guard evaluation must stop once
a case block is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Next: Patterns,  Prev: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.3 Irrefutable Case Blocks
...............................

An irrefutable case block is a match-all case block.  A match statement
may have at most one irrefutable case block, and it must be last.

A case block is considered irrefutable if it has no guard and its
pattern is irrefutable.  A pattern is considered irrefutable if we can
prove from its syntax alone that it will always succeed.  Only the
following patterns are irrefutable:

   * *note AS Patterns: 20f8. whose left-hand side is irrefutable

   * *note OR Patterns: 20f9. containing at least one irrefutable
     pattern

   * *note Capture Patterns: 20fa.

   * *note Wildcard Patterns: 808.

   * parenthesized irrefutable patterns


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns,  Prev: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.4 Patterns
................

     참고: This section uses grammar notations beyond standard EBNF:

        * the notation ‘SEP.RULE+’ is shorthand for ‘RULE (SEP RULE)*’

        * the notation ‘!RULE’ is shorthand for a negative lookahead
          assertion

The top-level syntax for ‘patterns’ is:

     patterns       ::= *note open_sequence_pattern: 20fc. | *note pattern: 20fd.
     pattern        ::= *note as_pattern: 20fe. | *note or_pattern: 20ff.
     closed_pattern ::= | *note literal_pattern: 2101.
                        | *note capture_pattern: 2102.
                        | *note wildcard_pattern: 2103.
                        | *note value_pattern: 2104.
                        | *note group_pattern: 2105.
                        | *note sequence_pattern: 2106.
                        | *note mapping_pattern: 2107.
                        | *note class_pattern: 2108.

The descriptions below will include a description “in simple terms” of
what a pattern does for illustration purposes (credits to Raymond
Hettinger for a document that inspired most of the descriptions).  Note
that these descriptions are purely for illustration purposes and 'may
not' reflect the underlying implementation.  Furthermore, they do not
cover all valid forms.

* Menu:

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: OR Patterns,  Next: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.5 OR Patterns
...................

An OR pattern is two or more patterns separated by vertical bars ‘|’.
Syntax:

     or_pattern ::= "|".*note closed_pattern: 2100.+

Only the final subpattern may be *note irrefutable: 20f6, and each
subpattern must bind the same set of names to avoid ambiguity.

An OR pattern matches each of its subpatterns in turn to the subject
value, until one succeeds.  The OR pattern is then considered
successful.  Otherwise, if none of the subpatterns succeed, the OR
pattern fails.

In simple terms, ‘P1 | P2 | ...’ will try to match ‘P1’, if it fails it
will try to match ‘P2’, succeeding immediately if any succeeds, failing
otherwise.


File: python.info,  Node: AS Patterns,  Next: Literal Patterns,  Prev: OR Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.6 AS Patterns
...................

An AS pattern matches an OR pattern on the left of the *note as: 20ea.
keyword against a subject.  Syntax:

     as_pattern ::= *note or_pattern: 20ff. "as" *note capture_pattern: 2102.

If the OR pattern fails, the AS pattern fails.  Otherwise, the AS
pattern binds the subject to the name on the right of the as keyword and
succeeds.  ‘capture_pattern’ cannot be a ‘_’.

In simple terms ‘P as NAME’ will match with ‘P’, and on success it will
set ‘NAME = <subject>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Literal Patterns,  Next: Capture Patterns,  Prev: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.7 Literal Patterns
........................

A literal pattern corresponds to most *note literals: 1eaa. in Python.
Syntax:

     literal_pattern ::= *note signed_number: 210d.
                         | *note signed_number: 210d. "+" NUMBER
                         | *note signed_number: 210d. "-" NUMBER
                         | strings
                         | "None"
                         | "True"
                         | "False"
     signed_number   ::= ["-"] NUMBER

The rule ‘strings’ and the token ‘NUMBER’ are defined in the *note
standard Python grammar: 210e.  Triple-quoted strings are supported.
Raw strings and byte strings are supported.  *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴:
9a6. are not supported.

The forms ‘signed_number '+' NUMBER’ and ‘signed_number '-' NUMBER’ are
for expressing *note complex numbers: 1ee3.; they require a real number
on the left and an imaginary number on the right.  E.g.  ‘3 + 4j’.

In simple terms, ‘LITERAL’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> == LITERAL’.
For the singletons ‘None’, ‘True’ and ‘False’, the *note is: 2ed.
operator is used.


File: python.info,  Node: Capture Patterns,  Next: Wildcard Patterns,  Prev: Literal Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.8 Capture Patterns
........................

A capture pattern binds the subject value to a name.  Syntax:

     capture_pattern ::= !'_' NAME

A single underscore ‘_’ is not a capture pattern (this is what ‘!'_'’
expresses).  It is instead treated as a *note wildcard_pattern: 2103.

In a given pattern, a given name can only be bound once.  E.g.  ‘case x,
x: ...’ is invalid while ‘case [x] | x: ...’ is allowed.

Capture patterns always succeed.  The binding follows scoping rules
established by the assignment expression operator in PEP 572(1); the
name becomes a local variable in the closest containing function scope
unless there’s an applicable *note global: 18a. or *note nonlocal: 1297.
statement.

In simple terms ‘NAME’ will always succeed and it will set ‘NAME =
<subject>’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Wildcard Patterns,  Next: Value Patterns,  Prev: Capture Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.9 Wildcard Patterns
.........................

A wildcard pattern always succeeds (matches anything) and binds no name.
Syntax:

     wildcard_pattern ::= '_'

‘_’ is a *note soft keyword: 806. within any pattern, but only within
patterns.  It is an identifier, as usual, even within ‘match’ subject
expressions, ‘guard’s, and ‘case’ blocks.

In simple terms, ‘_’ will always succeed.


File: python.info,  Node: Value Patterns,  Next: Group Patterns,  Prev: Wildcard Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.10 Value Patterns
.......................

A value pattern represents a named value in Python.  Syntax:

     value_pattern ::= *note attr: 2113.
     attr          ::= *note name_or_attr: 2114. "." NAME
     name_or_attr  ::= *note attr: 2113. | NAME

The dotted name in the pattern is looked up using standard Python *note
name resolution rules: 1fe4.  The pattern succeeds if the value found
compares equal to the subject value (using the ‘==’ equality operator).

In simple terms ‘NAME1.NAME2’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> ==
NAME1.NAME2’

     참고: If the same value occurs multiple times in the same match
     statement, the interpreter may cache the first value found and
     reuse it rather than repeat the same lookup.  This cache is
     strictly tied to a given execution of a given match statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Group Patterns,  Next: Sequence Patterns,  Prev: Value Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.11 Group Patterns
.......................

A group pattern allows users to add parentheses around patterns to
emphasize the intended grouping.  Otherwise, it has no additional
syntax.  Syntax:

     group_pattern ::= "(" *note pattern: 20fd. ")"

In simple terms ‘(P)’ has the same effect as ‘P’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Patterns,  Next: Mapping Patterns,  Prev: Group Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.12 Sequence Patterns
..........................

A sequence pattern contains several subpatterns to be matched against
sequence elements.  The syntax is similar to the unpacking of a list or
tuple.

     sequence_pattern       ::= "[" [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 2119.] "]"
                                | "(" [*note open_sequence_pattern: 20fc.] ")"
     open_sequence_pattern  ::= *note maybe_star_pattern: 211a. "," [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 2119.]
     maybe_sequence_pattern ::= ",".*note maybe_star_pattern: 211a.+ ","?
     maybe_star_pattern     ::= *note star_pattern: 211b. | *note pattern: 20fd.
     star_pattern           ::= "*" (*note capture_pattern: 2102. | *note wildcard_pattern: 2103.)

There is no difference if parentheses or square brackets are used for
sequence patterns (i.e.  ‘(...)’ vs ‘[...]’ ).

     참고: A single pattern enclosed in parentheses without a trailing
     comma (e.g.  ‘(3 | 4)’) is a *note group pattern: 2115.  While a
     single pattern enclosed in square brackets (e.g.  ‘[3 | 4]’) is
     still a sequence pattern.

At most one star subpattern may be in a sequence pattern.  The star
subpattern may occur in any position.  If no star subpattern is present,
the sequence pattern is a fixed-length sequence pattern; otherwise it is
a variable-length sequence pattern.

The following is the logical flow for matching a sequence pattern
against a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a sequence (1), the sequence pattern
     fails.

  2. If the subject value is an instance of ‘str’, ‘bytes’ or
     ‘bytearray’ the sequence pattern fails.

  3. The subsequent steps depend on whether the sequence pattern is
     fixed or variable-length.

     If the sequence pattern is fixed-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is not equal to the
          number of subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails

       2. Subpatterns in the sequence pattern are matched to their
          corresponding items in the subject sequence from left to
          right.  Matching stops as soon as a subpattern fails.  If all
          subpatterns succeed in matching their corresponding item, the
          sequence pattern succeeds.

     Otherwise, if the sequence pattern is variable-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is less than the number
          of non-star subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails.

       2. The leading non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding items as for fixed-length sequences.

       3. If the previous step succeeds, the star subpattern matches a
          list formed of the remaining subject items, excluding the
          remaining items corresponding to non-star subpatterns
          following the star subpattern.

       4. Remaining non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding subject items, as for a fixed-length sequence.

          참고: The length of the subject sequence is obtained via *note
          len(): 628. (i.e.  via the ‘__len__()’ protocol).  This length
          may be cached by the interpreter in a similar manner as *note
          value patterns: 2112.

In simple terms ‘[P1, P2, P3,’ … ‘, P<N>]’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a sequence

   * ‘len(subject) == <N>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[0]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>[1]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * … and so on for the corresponding pattern/element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a sequence is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE:
     18ab. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The following standard library classes are sequences:

   * *note array.array: 1a0.

   * *note collections.deque: 5d6.

   * *note list: 60b.

   * *note memoryview: 462.

   * *note range: 941.

   * *note tuple: 369.

     참고: Subject values of type ‘str’, ‘bytes’, and ‘bytearray’ do not
     match sequence patterns.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Patterns,  Next: Class Patterns,  Prev: Sequence Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.13 Mapping Patterns
.........................

A mapping pattern contains one or more key-value patterns.  The syntax
is similar to the construction of a dictionary.  Syntax:

     mapping_pattern     ::= "{" [*note items_pattern: 211e.] "}"
     items_pattern       ::= ",".*note key_value_pattern: 211f.+ ","?
     key_value_pattern   ::= (*note literal_pattern: 2101. | *note value_pattern: 2104.) ":" *note pattern: 20fd.
                             | *note double_star_pattern: 2120.
     double_star_pattern ::= "**" *note capture_pattern: 2102.

At most one double star pattern may be in a mapping pattern.  The double
star pattern must be the last subpattern in the mapping pattern.

Duplicate keys in mapping patterns are disallowed.  Duplicate literal
keys will raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d.  Two keys that otherwise have
the same value will raise a *note ValueError: 202. at runtime.

The following is the logical flow for matching a mapping pattern against
a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a mapping (1),the mapping pattern
     fails.

  2. If every key given in the mapping pattern is present in the subject
     mapping, and the pattern for each key matches the corresponding
     item of the subject mapping, the mapping pattern succeeds.

  3. If duplicate keys are detected in the mapping pattern, the pattern
     is considered invalid.  A *note SyntaxError: 18d. is raised for
     duplicate literal values; or a *note ValueError: 202. for named
     keys of the same value.

     참고: Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form of
     the mapping subject’s ‘get()’ method.  Matched key-value pairs must
     already be present in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via
     ‘__missing__()’ or *note __getitem__(): 283.

In simple terms ‘{KEY1: P1, KEY2: P2, ... }’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a mapping

   * ‘KEY1 in <subject>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[KEY1]’

   * … and so on for the corresponding KEY/pattern pair.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a mapping is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     18aa. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The standard library classes *note dict: 256. and *note
types.MappingProxyType: 467. are mappings.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Patterns,  Prev: Mapping Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.14 Class Patterns
.......................

A class pattern represents a class and its positional and keyword
arguments (if any).  Syntax:

     class_pattern       ::= *note name_or_attr: 2114. "(" [*note pattern_arguments: 2123. ","?] ")"
     pattern_arguments   ::= *note positional_patterns: 2124. ["," *note keyword_patterns: 2125.]
                             | *note keyword_patterns: 2125.
     positional_patterns ::= ",".*note pattern: 20fd.+
     keyword_patterns    ::= ",".*note keyword_pattern: 2126.+
     keyword_pattern     ::= NAME "=" *note pattern: 20fd.

The same keyword should not be repeated in class patterns.

The following is the logical flow for matching a class pattern against a
subject value:

  1. If ‘name_or_attr’ is not an instance of the builtin *note type:
     d45. , raise *note TypeError: 532.

  2. If the subject value is not an instance of ‘name_or_attr’ (tested
     via *note isinstance(): 43b.), the class pattern fails.

  3. If no pattern arguments are present, the pattern succeeds.
     Otherwise, the subsequent steps depend on whether keyword or
     positional argument patterns are present.

     For a number of built-in types (specified below), a single
     positional subpattern is accepted which will match the entire
     subject; for these types keyword patterns also work as for other
     types.

     If only keyword patterns are present, they are processed as
     follows, one by one:

     I. The keyword is looked up as an attribute on the subject.

             * If this raises an exception other than *note
               AttributeError: 346, the exception bubbles up.

             * If this raises *note AttributeError: 346, the class
               pattern has failed.

             * Else, the subpattern associated with the keyword pattern
               is matched against the subject’s attribute value.  If
               this fails, the class pattern fails; if this succeeds,
               the match proceeds to the next keyword.

     II. If all keyword patterns succeed, the class pattern succeeds.

     If any positional patterns are present, they are converted to
     keyword patterns using the *note __match_args__: 18c6. attribute on
     the class ‘name_or_attr’ before matching:

     I. The equivalent of ‘getattr(cls, "__match_args__", ())’ is
     called.

             * If this raises an exception, the exception bubbles up.

             * If the returned value is not a tuple, the conversion
               fails and *note TypeError: 532. is raised.

             * If there are more positional patterns than
               ‘len(cls.__match_args__)’, *note TypeError: 532. is
               raised.

             * Otherwise, positional pattern ‘i’ is converted to a
               keyword pattern using ‘__match_args__[i]’ as the keyword.
               ‘__match_args__[i]’ must be a string; if not *note
               TypeError: 532. is raised.

             * If there are duplicate keywords, *note TypeError: 532. is
               raised.

          더 보기
          .......

          *note Customizing positional arguments in class pattern
          matching: 1fc8.

     II. Once all positional patterns have been converted to keyword patterns,

          the match proceeds as if there were only keyword patterns.

     For the following built-in types the handling of positional
     subpatterns is different:

        * *note bool: 461.

        * *note bytearray: 538.

        * *note bytes: 1c2.

        * *note dict: 256.

        * *note float: 2ef.

        * *note frozenset: 5d4.

        * *note int: 257.

        * *note list: 60b.

        * *note set: 5d3.

        * *note str: 445.

        * *note tuple: 369.

     These classes accept a single positional argument, and the pattern
     there is matched against the whole object rather than an attribute.
     For example ‘int(0|1)’ matches the value ‘0’, but not the value
     ‘0.0’.

In simple terms ‘CLS(P1, attr=P2)’ matches only if the following
happens:

   * ‘isinstance(<subject>, CLS)’

   * convert ‘P1’ to a keyword pattern using ‘CLS.__match_args__’

   * For each keyword argument ‘attr=P2’:

        * ‘hasattr(<subject>, "attr")’

        * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>.attr’

   * … and so on for the corresponding keyword argument/pattern pair.

더 보기
.......

   * PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 정의,  Next: 클래스 정의,  Prev: The match statement,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.7 함수 정의
---------------

함수 정의는 사용자 정의 함수 객체 (*note 표준형 계층: 1eef. 섹션을 보세
요) 를 정의합니다:

     funcdef                   ::= [*note decorators: 2128.] "def" *note funcname: 2129. [*note type_params: 20cb.] "(" [*note parameter_list: 2090.] ")"
                                   ["->" *note expression: 203f.] ":" *note suite: 20db.
     decorators                ::= *note decorator: 212a.+
     decorator                 ::= "@" *note assignment_expression: 1fe7. NEWLINE
     parameter_list            ::= *note defparameter: 212b. ("," *note defparameter: 212b.)* "," "/" ["," [*note parameter_list_no_posonly: 212c.]]
                                   | *note parameter_list_no_posonly: 212c.
     parameter_list_no_posonly ::= *note defparameter: 212b. ("," *note defparameter: 212b.)* ["," [*note parameter_list_starargs: 212d.]]
                                   | *note parameter_list_starargs: 212d.
     parameter_list_starargs   ::= "*" [*note star_parameter: 212e.] ("," *note defparameter: 212b.)* ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 212f.]]
                                   | "*" ("," *note defparameter: 212b.)+ ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 212f.]]
                                   | *note parameter_star_kwargs: 212f.
     parameter_star_kwargs     ::= "**" *note parameter: 2130. [","]
     parameter                 ::= *note identifier: 1e9e. [":" *note expression: 203f.]
     star_parameter            ::= *note identifier: 1e9e. [":" ["*"] *note expression: 203f.]
     defparameter              ::= *note parameter: 2130. ["=" *note expression: 203f.]
     funcname                  ::= *note identifier: 1e9e.

함수 정의는 실행할 수 있는 문장입니다.  실행하면 현재 지역 이름 공간의 함
수 이름을 함수 객체 (함수의 실행 가능한 코드를 둘러싼 래퍼(wrapper)).  이
함수 객체는 현재의 이름 공간에 대한 참조를 포함하는데, 함수가 호출될 때
전역 이름 공간으로 사용됩니다.

함수 정의는 함수의 바디를 실행하지 않습니다.  함수가 호출될 때 실행됩니
다.  (1)

함수 정의는 하나나 그 이상의 *note 데코레이터: 72a. 표현식으로 감싸질 수
있습니다.  데코레이터 표현식은 함수가 정의될 때, 함수 정의를 포함하는 스
코프에서 값을 구합니다.  그 결과는 콜러블이어야 하는데, 함수 객체만을 인
자로 사용해서 호출됩니다.  반환 값이 함수 객체 대신 함수의 이름에 연결됩
니다.  여러 개의 데코레이터는 중첩되는 방식으로 적용됩니다.  예를 들어,
다음과 같은 코드

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     def func(): pass

는 대략 다음과 동등합니다

     def func(): pass
     func = f1(arg)(f2(func))

원래의 함수가 임시로 이름 ‘func’ 에 연결되지 않는다는 점만 다릅니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: Functions may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 1fe7.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 2b3. may be given in square brackets
between the function’s name and the opening parenthesis for its
parameter list.  This indicates to static type checkers that the
function is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved
from the function’s *note __type_params__: 1f08. attribute.  See *note
Generic functions: 44c. for more.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

하나나 그 이상의 *note 매개변수: 1f07. 들이 'parameter' ‘=’ 'expression'
형태를 가질 때, 함수가 “기본 매개변수 값”을 갖는다고 말합니다.  기본값이
있는 매개변수의 경우, 호출할 때 대응하는 *note 인자: 442. 를 생략할 수 있
고, 그럴 때 매개변수의 기본값이 적용됩니다.  만약 매개변수가 기본값을 가
지면, “‘*’” 까지 그 뒤를 따르는 모든 매개변수도 기본값을 가져야 합니다 —
이것은 문법 규칙에서 표현되지 않는 문법적 제약입니다.

'Default parameter values are evaluated from left to right when the
function definition is executed.'  This means that the expression is
evaluated once, when the function is defined, and that the same
“pre-computed” value is used for each call.  This is especially
important to understand when a default parameter value is a mutable
object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
object (e.g.  by appending an item to a list), the default parameter
value is in effect modified.  This is generally not what was intended.
A way around this is to use ‘None’ as the default, and explicitly test
for it in the body of the function, e.g.:

     def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
         if penguin is None:
             penguin = []
         penguin.append("property of the zoo")
         return penguin

Function call semantics are described in more detail in section *note
호출: d79.  A function call always assigns values to all parameters
mentioned in the parameter list, either from positional arguments, from
keyword arguments, or from default values.  If the form “‘*identifier’”
is present, it is initialized to a tuple receiving any excess positional
parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple.  If the form “‘**identifier’”
is present, it is initialized to a new ordered mapping receiving any
excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new empty mapping of the same
type.  Parameters after “‘*’” or “‘*identifier’” are keyword-only
parameters and may only be passed by keyword arguments.  Parameters
before “‘/’” are positional-only parameters and may only be passed by
positional arguments.

버전 3.8에서 변경: The ‘/’ function parameter syntax may be used to
indicate positional-only parameters.  See PEP 570(3) for details.

Parameters may have an *note annotation: 1c3f. of the form “‘:
expression’” following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an
annotation, even those of the form ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’.  (As
a special case, parameters of the form ‘*identifier’ may have an
annotation “‘: *expression’”.)  Functions may have “return” annotation
of the form “‘-> expression’” after the parameter list.  These
annotations can be any valid Python expression.  The presence of
annotations does not change the semantics of a function.  The annotation
values are available as values of a dictionary keyed by the parameters’
names in the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of the function object.  If the
‘annotations’ import from *note __future__: 0. is used, annotations are
preserved as strings at runtime which enables postponed evaluation.
Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function definition is executed.
In this case annotations may be evaluated in a different order than they
appear in the source code.

버전 3.11에서 변경: Parameters of the form “‘*identifier’” may have an
annotation “‘: *expression’”.  See PEP 646(4).

표현식에서 즉시 사용하기 위해, 이름 없는 함수(이름에 연결되지 않은 함수
)를 만드는 것도 가능합니다.  이것은 람다 표현식을 사용하는데, *note
람다(Lambdas): 128c. 섹션에서 설명합니다.  람다 표현식은 단순화된 함수 정
의를 위한 줄임 표현에 지나지 않는다는 것에 주의하세요; “*note def:
1420.” 문장에서 정의된 함수는 람다 표현식으로 정의된 함수처럼 전달되거나
다른 이름에 대입될 수 있습니다.  여러 개의 문장을 실행하는 것과 어노테이
션을 허락하기 때문에, “‘def’” 형태가 사실 더 강력합니다.

'프로그래머 유의 사항:' 함수는 퍼스트 클래스(first-class) 객체다.  함수
정의 안에서 실행되는 “‘def’” 문은 돌려주거나 전달할 수 있는 지역 함수를
정의합니다.  중첩된 함수에서 사용되는 자유 변수들은 그 def 를 포함하는 함
수의 지역 변수들을 액세스할 수 있습니다.  더 자세한 내용은 *note 이름과
연결(binding): 1f02. 섹션을 보세요.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3107(5) - 함수 어노테이션

     함수 어노테이션의 최초 규격.

PEP 484(6) - 형 힌트

     어노테이션에 대한 표준 의미 정의: 형 힌트.

PEP 526(7) - 변수 어노테이션 문법

     Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
     variables and instance variables.

PEP 563(8) - 어노테이션의 지연된 평가

     즉시 평가하는 대신 실행시간에 어노테이션을 문자열 형식으로 보존하여
     어노테이션 내에서의 전방 참조를 지원합니다.

PEP 318(9) - Decorators for Functions and Methods

     Function and method decorators were introduced.  Class decorators
     were introduced in PEP 3129(10).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function
body is transformed into the function’s *note __doc__: 11c8. attribute
and therefore the function’s *note docstring: 2131.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 정의,  Next: 코루틴,  Prev: 함수 정의,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.8 클래스 정의
-----------------

클래스 정의는 클래스 객체(*note 표준형 계층: 1eef. 섹션을 보세요)를 정의
합니다:

     classdef    ::= [*note decorators: 2128.] "class" *note classname: 2133. [*note type_params: 20cb.] [*note inheritance: 2134.] ":" *note suite: 20db.
     inheritance ::= "(" [*note argument_list: 2062.] ")"
     classname   ::= *note identifier: 1e9e.

클래스 정의는 실행 가능한 문장입니다.  계승(inheritance) 목록은 보통 베
이스 클래스들의 목록을 제공하는데 (더 고급 사용에 대해서는 *note 메타
클래스: 1f7b. 를 보세요), 목록의 각 항목은 값을 구할 때 서브 클래싱을 허
락하는 클래스 객체가 되어야 합니다.  계승 목록이 없는 클래스는, 기본적으
로, 베이스 클래스 *note object: a89. 를 계승합니다; 그래서

     class Foo:
         pass

는 다음과 동등합니다

     class Foo(object):
         pass

클래스의 스위트는 새로 만들어진 지역 이름 공간과 원래의 전역 이름 공간을
사용하는 새 실행 프레임 (*note 이름과 연결(binding): 1f02. 을 보세요)에
서 실행됩니다.  (보통, 스위트는 대부분 함수 정의들을 포함합니다.)  클래
스의 스위트가 실행을 마치면, 실행 프레임은 파기하지만, 그것의 지역 이름
공간은 보존합니다.  (1)  그런 다음, 계승 목록을 베이스 클래스들로, 보존
된 지역 이름 공간을 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리로 사용해서 새 클래스 객체를 만듭
니다.  클래스의 이름은 원래의 지역 이름 공간에서 이 클래스 객체와 연결됩
니다.

The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
in the new class’s *note __dict__: c5a.  Note that this is reliable only
right after the class is created and only for classes that were defined
using the definition syntax.

클래스 생성은 *note 메타 클래스: 1f7b. 를 사용해서 심하게 커스터마이즈할
수 있습니다.

클래스 역시 함수를 데코레이팅할 때처럼 테코레이트할 수 있습니다,

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     class Foo: pass

는 대략 다음과 동등합니다

     class Foo: pass
     Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))

데코레이터 표현식의 값을 구하는 규칙은 함수 데코레이터와 같습니다.  그런
다음 그 결과가 클래스 이름에 연결됩니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: Classes may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 1fe7.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 2b3. may be given in square brackets
immediately after the class’s name.  This indicates to static type
checkers that the class is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can
be retrieved from the class’s *note __type_params__: 1f30. attribute.
See *note Generic classes: 44b. for more.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

'프로그래머 유의 사항:' 클래스 정의에서 정의되는 변수들은 클래스 어트리
뷰트입니다; 이것들은 인스턴스 간에 공유됩니다.  인스턴스 어트리뷰트는 메
서드에서 ‘self.name = value’ 로 설정될 수 있습니다.  클래스와 인스턴스 어
트리뷰트 모두 “‘self.name’” 표기법으로 액세스할 수 있고, 이런 식으로 액
세스할 때 인스턴스 어트리뷰트는 같은 이름의 클래스 어트리뷰트를 가립니다
.  클래스 어트리뷰트는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트의 기본값으로 사용될 수 있지만
, 가변 값을 사용하는 것은 예상하지 않은 결과를 줄 수 있습니다.  *note
디스크립터: c4c. 를 다른 구현 상세를 갖는 인스턴스 변수를 만드는데 사용
할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3115(3) - 파이썬 3000의 메타 클래스

     메타 클래스 선언을 현재 문법으로 변경하고, 메타 클래스가 있는 클래
     스를 구성하는 방법의 의미를 변경하는 제안.

PEP 3129(4) - 클래스 데코레이터

     클래스 데코레이터를 추가하는 제안.  함수와 메서드 데코레이터는 PEP
     318(5)에서 도입되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class
body is transformed into the namespace’s *note __doc__: 1cb4. item and
therefore the class’s *note docstring: 2131.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴,  Next: Type parameter lists,  Prev: 클래스 정의,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.9 코루틴
------------

Added in version 3.5.

* Menu:

* 코루틴 함수 정의::
* async for 문::
* async with 문::


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴 함수 정의,  Next: async for 문,  Up: 코루틴

4.8.9.1 코루틴 함수 정의
........................

     async_funcdef ::= [*note decorators: 2128.] "async" "def" *note funcname: 2129. "(" [*note parameter_list: 2090.] ")"
                       ["->" *note expression: 203f.] ":" *note suite: 20db.

Execution of Python coroutines can be suspended and resumed at many
points (see *note coroutine: 48b.).  *note await: 1b9. expressions,
*note async for: aa7. and *note async with: 5cf. can only be used in the
body of a coroutine function.

‘async def’ 문법으로 정의된 함수는 항상 코루틴 함수인데, ‘await’ 나
‘async’ 키워드를 포함하지 않는 경우도 그렇습니다.

코루틴 함수의 바디 안에서 ‘yield from’ 표현식을 사용하는 것은 *note
SyntaxError: 18d. 입니다.

코루틴 함수의 예:

     async def func(param1, param2):
         do_stuff()
         await some_coroutine()

버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘await’ and ‘async’ are now keywords; previously they
were only treated as such inside the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: async for 문,  Next: async with 문,  Prev: 코루틴 함수 정의,  Up: 코루틴

4.8.9.2 ‘async for’ 문
......................

     async_for_stmt ::= "async" *note for_stmt: 20d2.

*note 비동기 이터러블: d74. 은 *note 비동기 이터레이터: 1ab. 를 직접 반
환하는 ‘__aiter__’ 메서드를 제공하고, 비동기 이터레이터는 자신의
‘__anext__’ 메서드에서 비동기 코드를 호출할 수 있습니다.

‘async for’ 문은 비동기 이터러블에 대한 편리한 이터레이션을 허락합니다.

다음과 같은 코드는:

     async for TARGET in ITER:
         SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

의미상으로 다음과 동등합니다:

     iter = (ITER)
     iter = type(iter).__aiter__(iter)
     running = True

     while running:
         try:
             TARGET = await type(iter).__anext__(iter)
         except StopAsyncIteration:
             running = False
         else:
             SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

See also *note __aiter__(): bf8. and *note __anext__(): 157b. for
details.

코루틴 함수의 바디 밖에서 ‘async for’ 문을 사용하는 것은 *note
SyntaxError: 18d. 입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: async with 문,  Prev: async for 문,  Up: 코루틴

4.8.9.3 ‘async with’ 문
.......................

     async_with_stmt ::= "async" *note with_stmt: 20d4.

*note 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자: 5d1. 는 'enter' 와 'exit' 메서드에서 실행
을 일시 중지할 수 있는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 입니다.

다음과 같은 코드는:

     async with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

의미상으로 다음과 동등합니다:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     aenter = type(manager).__aenter__
     aexit = type(manager).__aexit__
     value = await aenter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not await aexit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             await aexit(manager, None, None, None)

See also *note __aenter__(): 1fd8. and *note __aexit__(): 1631. for
details.

코루틴 함수의 바디 밖에서 ‘async with’ 문을 사용하는 것은 *note
SyntaxError: 18d. 입니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 492(1) - async 와 await 문법을 사용하는 코루틴

     코루틴을 파이썬에서 적절한 독립적인 개념으로 만들고, 문법 지원을 추
     가한 제안.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameter lists,  Prev: 코루틴,  Up: 복합문 Compound statements

4.8.10 Type parameter lists
---------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Support for default values was added (see PEP
696(1)).

     type_params  ::= "[" *note type_param: 213a. ("," *note type_param: 213a.)* "]"
     type_param   ::= *note typevar: 213b. | *note typevartuple: 213c. | *note paramspec: 213d.
     typevar      ::= *note identifier: 1e9e. (":" *note expression: 203f.)? ("=" *note expression: 203f.)?
     typevartuple ::= "*" *note identifier: 1e9e. ("=" *note expression: 203f.)?
     paramspec    ::= "**" *note identifier: 1e9e. ("=" *note expression: 203f.)?

*note Functions: 1420. (including *note coroutines: 5cb.), *note
classes: 12c7. and *note type aliases: 431. may contain a type parameter
list:

     def max[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     async def amax[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class Bag[T]:
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]:
             ...

         def add(self, arg: T) -> None:
             ...

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Semantically, this indicates that the function, class, or type alias is
generic over a type variable.  This information is primarily used by
static type checkers, and at runtime, generic objects behave much like
their non-generic counterparts.

Type parameters are declared in square brackets (‘[]’) immediately after
the name of the function, class, or type alias.  The type parameters are
accessible within the scope of the generic object, but not elsewhere.
Thus, after a declaration ‘def func[T](): pass’, the name ‘T’ is not
available in the module scope.  Below, the semantics of generic objects
are described with more precision.  The scope of type parameters is
modeled with a special function (technically, an *note annotation scope:
188.) that wraps the creation of the generic object.

Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a *note
__type_params__: 213e. attribute listing their type parameters.

Type parameters come in three kinds:

   * *note typing.TypeVar: 15d, introduced by a plain name (e.g., ‘T’).
     Semantically, this represents a single type to a type checker.

   * *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f, introduced by a name prefixed with
     a single asterisk (e.g., ‘*Ts’).  Semantically, this stands for a
     tuple of any number of types.

   * *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e, introduced by a name prefixed with two
     asterisks (e.g., ‘**P’).  Semantically, this stands for the
     parameters of a callable.

*note typing.TypeVar: 15d. declarations can define 'bounds' and
'constraints' with a colon (‘:’) followed by an expression.  A single
expression after the colon indicates a bound (e.g.  ‘T: int’).
Semantically, this means that the ‘typing.TypeVar’ can only represent
types that are a subtype of this bound.  A parenthesized tuple of
expressions after the colon indicates a set of constraints (e.g.  ‘T:
(str, bytes)’).  Each member of the tuple should be a type (again, this
is not enforced at runtime).  Constrained type variables can only take
on one of the types in the list of constraints.

For ‘typing.TypeVar’s declared using the type parameter list syntax, the
bound and constraints are not evaluated when the generic object is
created, but only when the value is explicitly accessed through the
attributes ‘__bound__’ and ‘__constraints__’.  To accomplish this, the
bounds or constraints are evaluated in a separate *note annotation
scope: 188.

*note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f.s and *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e.s
cannot have bounds or constraints.

All three flavors of type parameters can also have a 'default value',
which is used when the type parameter is not explicitly provided.  This
is added by appending a single equals sign (‘=’) followed by an
expression.  Like the bounds and constraints of type variables, the
default value is not evaluated when the object is created, but only when
the type parameter’s ‘__default__’ attribute is accessed.  To this end,
the default value is evaluated in a separate *note annotation scope:
188.  If no default value is specified for a type parameter, the
‘__default__’ attribute is set to the special sentinel object *note
typing.NoDefault: 262.

The following example indicates the full set of allowed type parameter
declarations:

     def overly_generic[
        SimpleTypeVar,
        TypeVarWithDefault = int,
        TypeVarWithBound: int,
        TypeVarWithConstraints: (str, bytes),
        *SimpleTypeVarTuple = (int, float),
        **SimpleParamSpec = (str, bytearray),
     ](
        a: SimpleTypeVar,
        b: TypeVarWithDefault,
        c: TypeVarWithBound,
        d: Callable[SimpleParamSpec, TypeVarWithConstraints],
        *e: SimpleTypeVarTuple,
     ): ...

* Menu:

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic functions,  Next: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.1 Generic functions
..........................

Generic functions are declared as follows:

     def func[T](arg: T): ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         def func(arg: T): ...
         func.__type_params__ = (T,)
         return func
     func = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func()

Here ‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 188, which is
not actually bound to any name at runtime.  (One other liberty is taken
in the translation: the syntax does not go through attribute access on
the *note typing: 104. module, but creates an instance of *note
typing.TypeVar: 15d. directly.)

The annotations of generic functions are evaluated within the annotation
scope used for declaring the type parameters, but the function’s
defaults and decorators are not.

The following example illustrates the scoping rules for these cases, as
well as for additional flavors of type parameters:

     @decorator
     def func[T: int, *Ts, **P](*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = some_default):
         ...

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 450. of the *note TypeVar: 15d.
bound, this is equivalent to:

     DEFAULT_OF_arg = some_default

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():

         annotation-def BOUND_OF_T():
             return int
         # In reality, BOUND_OF_T() is evaluated only on demand.
         T = typing.TypeVar("T", bound=BOUND_OF_T())

         Ts = typing.TypeVarTuple("Ts")
         P = typing.ParamSpec("P")

         def func(*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = DEFAULT_OF_arg):
             ...

         func.__type_params__ = (T, Ts, P)
         return func
     func = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func())

The capitalized names like ‘DEFAULT_OF_arg’ are not actually bound at
runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Generic classes,  Next: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic functions,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.2 Generic classes
........................

Generic classes are declared as follows:

     class Bag[T]: ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(typing.Generic[T]):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag()

Here again ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 188, and the name ‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag’ is not actually
bound at runtime.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note typing.Generic: 1620.  The
base classes and keyword arguments of generic classes are evaluated
within the type scope for the type parameters, and decorators are
evaluated outside that scope.  This is illustrated by this example:

     @decorator
     class Bag(Base[T], arg=T): ...

This is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(Base[T], typing.Generic[T], arg=T):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag())


File: python.info,  Node: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.3 Generic type aliases
.............................

The *note type: 431. statement can also be used to create a generic type
alias:

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 450. of the value, this is
equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")

         annotation-def VALUE_OF_ListOrSet():
             return list[T] | set[T]
         # In reality, the value is lazily evaluated
         return typing.TypeAliasType("ListOrSet", VALUE_OF_ListOrSet(), type_params=(T,))
     ListOrSet = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet()

Here, ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 188.  The capitalized names like
‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet’ are not actually bound at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: 최상위 요소들,  Next: 전체 문법 규격,  Prev: 복합문 Compound statements,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.9 최상위 요소들
=================

파이썬 인터프리터는 여러 가지 출처로부터 입력을 얻을 수 있습니다: 표준 입
력이나 프로그램 인자로 전달된 스크립트, 대화형으로 입력된 것, 모듈 소스
파일 등등.  이 장은 이 경우들에 사용되는 문법을 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 완전한 파이썬 프로그램::
* 파일 입력::
* 대화형 입력::
* 표현식 입력::


File: python.info,  Node: 완전한 파이썬 프로그램,  Next: 파일 입력,  Up: 최상위 요소들

4.9.1 완전한 파이썬 프로그램
----------------------------

언어 규격이 어떤 식으로 언어 인터프리터가 실행되는지를 미리 규정할 필요
는 없지만, 완전한 파이썬 프로그램이라는 개념을 갖는 것은 쓸모가 있습니다
.  완전한 파이썬 프로그램은 최소한으로 초기화된 환경에서 실행됩니다: 모
든 내장과 표준 모듈이 제공되지만, *note sys: d9. (각종 시스템 서비스들
)와 *note builtins: 12. (내장 함수들, 예외들, ‘None’)과 *note __main__:
1. 이외의 어느 것도 초기화되지 않았습니다.  마지막 것은 완전한 프로그램
의 실행을 위한 지역과 전역 이름 공간을 제공하는 데 사용됩니다.

완전한 파이썬 프로그램의 문법은 다음 섹션에서 설명되는 파일 입력의 경우
입니다.

인터프리터는 대화형으로 실행될 수도 있습니다; 이 경우, 완전한 프로그램을
읽어서 실행하지 않고, 한 번에 한 문장 (복합문도 가능하다) 씩 읽어서 실행
합니다.  초기 환경은 완전한 프로그램과 같습니다; 각 문장은 *note
__main__: 1. 의 이름 공간에서 실행됩니다.

완전한 프로그램은 세 가지 형태로 인터프리터에게 전달될 수 있습니다:
*note -c: 5da. 'string' 명령행 옵션으로, 첫 번째 명령행 인자로 전달된 파
일로, 표준 입력으로.  파일이나 표준입력이 tty 장치면, 인터프리터는 대화
형 모드로 돌입합니다; 그렇지 않으면 그 파일을 완전한 프로그램으로 실행합
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 입력,  Next: 대화형 입력,  Prev: 완전한 파이썬 프로그램,  Up: 최상위 요소들

4.9.2 파일 입력
---------------

비대화형 파일로부터 읽힌 모든 입력은 같은 형태를 취합니다:

     file_input ::= (NEWLINE | *note statement: 20dd.)*

이 문법은 다음과 같은 상황에서 사용됩니다:

   * (파일이나 문자열로부터 온) 완전한 파이썬 프로그램을 파싱할 때;

   * 모듈을 파싱할 때;

   * *note exec(): 17f. 함수로 전달된 문자열을 파싱할 때;


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 입력,  Next: 표현식 입력,  Prev: 파일 입력,  Up: 최상위 요소들

4.9.3 대화형 입력
-----------------

대화형 모드에서의 입력은 다음과 같은 문법 규칙을 사용합니다:

     interactive_input ::= [*note stmt_list: 20dc.] NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 20cf. NEWLINE

(최상위) 복합문은 대화형 모드에서 빈 줄을 붙여줘야 함에 유념해야 합니다;
파서가 입력의 끝을 감지하는 데 필요합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 표현식 입력,  Prev: 대화형 입력,  Up: 최상위 요소들

4.9.4 표현식 입력
-----------------

표현식 입력을 위해 *note eval(): 180. 이 사용됩니다.  앞에 오는 공백을 무
시합니다.  *note eval(): 180. 의 문자열 인자는 다음과 같은 형식을 취해야
합니다:

     eval_input ::= *note expression_list: 2094. NEWLINE*


File: python.info,  Node: 전체 문법 규격,  Prev: 최상위 요소들,  Up: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스

4.10 전체 문법 규격
===================

이것은 CPython 구문 분석기를 생성하는 데 사용되는 문법에서 직접 파생된,
전체 파이썬 문법 규칙입니다 (Grammar/python.gram(1)을 참조하십시오).  이
버전은 코드 생성과 에러 복구와 관련된 세부 정보를 생략합니다.

The notation is a mixture of EBNF(2) and PEG(3). In particular, ‘&’
followed by a symbol, token or parenthesized group indicates a positive
lookahead (i.e., is required to match but not consumed), while ‘!’
indicates a negative lookahead (i.e., is required 'not' to match).  We
use the ‘|’ separator to mean PEG’s “ordered choice” (written as ‘/’ in
traditional PEG grammars).  See PEP 617(4) for more details on the
grammar’s syntax.

     # PEG grammar for Python

     @trailer '''
     void *
     _PyPegen_parse(Parser *p)
     {
         // Initialize keywords
         p->keywords = reserved_keywords;
         p->n_keyword_lists = n_keyword_lists;
         p->soft_keywords = soft_keywords;

         // Run parser
         void *result = NULL;
         if (p->start_rule == Py_file_input) {
             result = file_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_single_input) {
             result = interactive_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_eval_input) {
             result = eval_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_func_type_input) {
             result = func_type_rule(p);
         }

         return result;
     }
     '''

     # ========================= START OF THE GRAMMAR =========================

     # General grammatical elements and rules:
     #
     # * Strings with double quotes (") denote SOFT KEYWORDS
     # * Strings with single quotes (') denote KEYWORDS
     # * Upper case names (NAME) denote tokens in the Grammar/Tokens file
     # * Rule names starting with "invalid_" are used for specialized syntax errors
     #     - These rules are NOT used in the first pass of the parser.
     #     - Only if the first pass fails to parse, a second pass including the invalid
     #       rules will be executed.
     #     - If the parser fails in the second phase with a generic syntax error, the
     #       location of the generic failure of the first pass will be used (this avoids
     #       reporting incorrect locations due to the invalid rules).
     #     - The order of the alternatives involving invalid rules matter
     #       (like any rule in PEG).
     #
     # Grammar Syntax (see PEP 617 for more information):
     #
     # rule_name: expression
     #   Optionally, a type can be included right after the rule name, which
     #   specifies the return type of the C or Python function corresponding to the
     #   rule:
     # rule_name[return_type]: expression
     #   If the return type is omitted, then a void * is returned in C and an Any in
     #   Python.
     # e1 e2
     #   Match e1, then match e2.
     # e1 | e2
     #   Match e1 or e2.
     #   The first alternative can also appear on the line after the rule name for
     #   formatting purposes. In that case, a | must be used before the first
     #   alternative, like so:
     #       rule_name[return_type]:
     #            | first_alt
     #            | second_alt
     # ( e )
     #   Match e (allows also to use other operators in the group like '(e)*')
     # [ e ] or e?
     #   Optionally match e.
     # e*
     #   Match zero or more occurrences of e.
     # e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e.
     # s.e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e, separated by s. The generated parse tree
     #   does not include the separator. This is otherwise identical to (e (s e)*).
     # &e
     #   Succeed if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # !e
     #   Fail if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # ~
     #   Commit to the current alternative, even if it fails to parse.
     # &&e
     #   Eager parse e. The parser will not backtrack and will immediately
     #   fail with SyntaxError if e cannot be parsed.
     #

     # STARTING RULES
     # ==============

     file[mod_ty]: a=[statements] ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_make_module(p, a) }
     interactive[mod_ty]: a=statement_newline { _PyAST_Interactive(a, p->arena) }
     eval[mod_ty]: a=expressions NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_Expression(a, p->arena) }
     func_type[mod_ty]: '(' a=[type_expressions] ')' '->' b=expression NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_FunctionType(a, b, p->arena) }

     # GENERAL STATEMENTS
     # ==================

     statements[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=statement+ { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_flatten(p, a) }

     statement[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=compound_stmt { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=simple_stmts { a }

     statement_newline[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=compound_stmt NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | simple_stmts
         | NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(stmt_ty, _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA))) }
         | ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_interactive_exit(p) }

     simple_stmts[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=simple_stmt !';' NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } # Not needed, there for speedup
         | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=';'.simple_stmt+ [';'] NEWLINE { a }

     # NOTE: assignment MUST precede expression, else parsing a simple assignment
     # will throw a SyntaxError.
     simple_stmt[stmt_ty] (memo):
         | assignment
         | &"type" type_alias
         | e=star_expressions { _PyAST_Expr(e, EXTRA) }
         | &'return' return_stmt
         | &('import' | 'from') import_stmt
         | &'raise' raise_stmt
         | 'pass' { _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA) }
         | &'del' del_stmt
         | &'yield' yield_stmt
         | &'assert' assert_stmt
         | 'break' { _PyAST_Break(EXTRA) }
         | 'continue' { _PyAST_Continue(EXTRA) }
         | &'global' global_stmt
         | &'nonlocal' nonlocal_stmt

     compound_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | &('def' | '@' | 'async') function_def
         | &'if' if_stmt
         | &('class' | '@') class_def
         | &('with' | 'async') with_stmt
         | &('for' | 'async') for_stmt
         | &'try' try_stmt
         | &'while' while_stmt
         | match_stmt

     # SIMPLE STATEMENTS
     # =================

     # NOTE: annotated_rhs may start with 'yield'; yield_expr must start with 'yield'
     assignment[stmt_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 6,
                 "Variable annotation syntax is",
                 _PyAST_AnnAssign(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, c, 1, EXTRA)
             ) }
         | a=('(' b=single_target ')' { b }
              | single_subscript_attribute_target) ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 6, "Variable annotations syntax is", _PyAST_AnnAssign(a, b, c, 0, EXTRA)) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(z=star_targets '=' { z })+ b=(yield_expr | star_expressions) !'=' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] {
              _PyAST_Assign(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | a=single_target b=augassign ~ c=(yield_expr | star_expressions) {
              _PyAST_AugAssign(a, b->kind, c, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_assignment

     annotated_rhs[expr_ty]: yield_expr | star_expressions

     augassign[AugOperator*]:
         | '+=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Add) }
         | '-=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Sub) }
         | '*=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mult) }
         | '@=' { CHECK_VERSION(AugOperator*, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyPegen_augoperator(p, MatMult)) }
         | '/=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Div) }
         | '%=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mod) }
         | '&=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitAnd) }
         | '|=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitOr) }
         | '^=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitXor) }
         | '<<=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, LShift) }
         | '>>=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, RShift) }
         | '**=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Pow) }
         | '//=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, FloorDiv) }

     return_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'return' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Return(a, EXTRA) }

     raise_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'raise' a=expression b=['from' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Raise(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'raise' { _PyAST_Raise(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     global_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'global' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Global(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     nonlocal_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'nonlocal' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Nonlocal(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     del_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'del' a=del_targets &(';' | NEWLINE) { _PyAST_Delete(a, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_del_stmt

     yield_stmt[stmt_ty]: y=yield_expr { _PyAST_Expr(y, EXTRA) }

     assert_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'assert' a=expression b=[',' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Assert(a, b, EXTRA) }

     import_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_import
         | import_name
         | import_from

     # Import statements
     # -----------------

     import_name[stmt_ty]: 'import' a=dotted_as_names { _PyAST_Import(a, EXTRA) }
     # note below: the ('.' | '...') is necessary because '...' is tokenized as ELLIPSIS
     import_from[stmt_ty]:
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')* b=dotted_name 'import' c=import_from_targets {
             _PyPegen_checked_future_import(p, b->v.Name.id, c, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')+ 'import' b=import_from_targets {
             _PyAST_ImportFrom(NULL, b, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
     import_from_targets[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | '(' a=import_from_as_names [','] ')' { a }
         | import_from_as_names !','
         | '*' { (asdl_alias_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(alias_ty, _PyPegen_alias_for_star(p, EXTRA))) }
         | invalid_import_from_targets
     import_from_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.import_from_as_name+ { a }
     import_from_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=NAME b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                    (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                    EXTRA) }
     dotted_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.dotted_as_name+ { a }
     dotted_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                           (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                           EXTRA) }
     dotted_name[expr_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name '.' b=NAME { _PyPegen_join_names_with_dot(p, a, b) }
         | NAME

     # COMPOUND STATEMENTS
     # ===================

     # Common elements
     # ---------------

     block[asdl_stmt_seq*] (memo):
         | NEWLINE INDENT a=statements DEDENT { a }
         | simple_stmts
         | invalid_block

     decorators[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=('@' f=named_expression NEWLINE { f })+ { a }

     # Class definitions
     # -----------------

     class_def[stmt_ty]:
         | a=decorators b=class_def_raw { _PyPegen_class_def_decorators(p, a, b) }
         | class_def_raw

     class_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_class_def_raw
         | 'class' a=NAME t=[type_params] b=['(' z=[arguments] ')' { z }] ':' c=block {
             _PyAST_ClassDef(a->v.Name.id,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                          c, NULL, t, EXTRA) }

     # Function definitions
     # --------------------

     function_def[stmt_ty]:
         | d=decorators f=function_def_raw { _PyPegen_function_def_decorators(p, d, f) }
         | function_def_raw

     function_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_def_raw
         | 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] '(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] ':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             _PyAST_FunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                             (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                             b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] '(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] ':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 5,
                 "Async functions are",
                 _PyAST_AsyncFunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                                 (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                                 b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA)
             ) }

     # Function parameters
     # -------------------

     params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_parameters
         | parameters

     parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default* c=param_with_default* d=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=slash_with_default b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=param_with_default+ b=[star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     # Some duplication here because we can't write (',' | &')'),
     # which is because we don't support empty alternatives (yet).

     slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' &')' { a }
     slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' &')' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_star_etc
         | '*' a=param_no_default b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' a=param_no_default_star_annotation b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=param_maybe_default+ c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_kwds
         | '**' a=param_no_default { a }

     # One parameter.  This *includes* a following comma and type comment.
     #
     # There are three styles:
     # - No default
     # - With default
     # - Maybe with default
     #
     # There are two alternative forms of each, to deal with type comments:
     # - Ends in a comma followed by an optional type comment
     # - No comma, optional type comment, must be followed by close paren
     # The latter form is for a final parameter without trailing comma.
     #

     param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=param ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_no_default_star_annotation[arg_ty]:
         | a=param_star_annotation ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param_star_annotation tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default? ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default? tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=annotation? { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     param_star_annotation[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=star_annotation { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=expression { a }
     star_annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=star_expression { a }
     default[expr_ty]: '=' a=expression { a } | invalid_default

     # If statement
     # ------------

     if_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_if_stmt
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     elif_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_elif_stmt
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     else_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_else_stmt
         | 'else' &&':' b=block { b }

     # While statement
     # ---------------

     while_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_while_stmt
         | 'while' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_While(a, b, c, EXTRA) }

     # For statement
     # -------------

     for_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_for_stmt
         | 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             _PyAST_For(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async for loops are", _PyAST_AsyncFor(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_for_target

     # With statement
     # --------------

     with_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_with_stmt_indent
         | 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NULL, EXTRA)) }
         | 'async' 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_with_stmt

     with_item[withitem_ty]:
         | e=expression 'as' t=star_target &(',' | ')' | ':') { _PyAST_withitem(e, t, p->arena) }
         | invalid_with_item
         | e=expression { _PyAST_withitem(e, NULL, p->arena) }

     # Try statement
     # -------------

     try_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_try_stmt
         | 'try' &&':' b=block f=finally_block { _PyAST_Try(b, NULL, NULL, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] { _PyAST_Try(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_star_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 11, "Exception groups are",
                           _PyAST_TryStar(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA)) }


     # Except statement
     # ----------------

     except_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_stmt_indent
         | 'except' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' ':' b=block { _PyAST_ExceptHandler(NULL, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     except_star_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_star_stmt_indent
         | 'except' '*' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     finally_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_finally_stmt
         | 'finally' &&':' a=block { a }

     # Match statement
     # ---------------

     match_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | "match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE INDENT cases[asdl_match_case_seq*]=case_block+ DEDENT {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 10, "Pattern matching is", _PyAST_Match(subject, cases, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_match_stmt

     subject_expr[expr_ty]:
         | value=star_named_expression ',' values=star_named_expressions? {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, value, values)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     case_block[match_case_ty]:
         | invalid_case_block
         | "case" pattern=patterns guard=guard? ':' body=block {
             _PyAST_match_case(pattern, guard, body, p->arena) }

     guard[expr_ty]: 'if' guard=named_expression { guard }

     patterns[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]=open_sequence_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | pattern

     pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | as_pattern
         | or_pattern

     as_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | pattern=or_pattern 'as' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchAs(pattern, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_as_pattern

     or_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]='|'.closed_pattern+ {
             asdl_seq_LEN(patterns) == 1 ? asdl_seq_GET(patterns, 0) : _PyAST_MatchOr(patterns, EXTRA) }

     closed_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | literal_pattern
         | capture_pattern
         | wildcard_pattern
         | value_pattern
         | group_pattern
         | sequence_pattern
         | mapping_pattern
         | class_pattern

     # Literal patterns are used for equality and identity constraints
     literal_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | value=signed_number !('+' | '-') { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=complex_number { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=strings { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_None, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_True, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_False, EXTRA) }

     # Literal expressions are used to restrict permitted mapping pattern keys
     literal_expr[expr_ty]:
         | signed_number !('+' | '-')
         | complex_number
         | strings
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }

     complex_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=signed_real_number '+' imag=imaginary_number {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Add, imag, EXTRA) }
         | real=signed_real_number '-' imag=imaginary_number  {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Sub, imag, EXTRA) }

     signed_number[expr_ty]:
         | NUMBER
         | '-' number=NUMBER { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, number, EXTRA) }

     signed_real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real_number
         | '-' real=real_number { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, real, EXTRA) }

     real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_real(p, real) }

     imaginary_number[expr_ty]:
         | imag=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_imaginary(p, imag) }

     capture_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | target=pattern_capture_target { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     pattern_capture_target[expr_ty]:
         | !"_" name=NAME !('.' | '(' | '=') {
             _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, name, Store) }

     wildcard_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | "_" { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     value_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | attr=attr !('.' | '(' | '=') { _PyAST_MatchValue(attr, EXTRA) }

     attr[expr_ty]:
         | value=name_or_attr '.' attr=NAME {
             _PyAST_Attribute(value, attr->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }

     name_or_attr[expr_ty]:
         | attr
         | NAME

     group_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '(' pattern=pattern ')' { pattern }

     sequence_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '[' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? ']' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | '(' patterns=open_sequence_pattern? ')' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }

     open_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | pattern=maybe_star_pattern ',' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? {
             _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, pattern, patterns) }

     maybe_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | patterns=','.maybe_star_pattern+ ','? { patterns }

     maybe_star_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | star_pattern
         | pattern

     star_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | '*' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '*' wildcard_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(NULL, EXTRA) }

     mapping_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '{' '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | '{' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, rest->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ',' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 rest->v.Name.id,
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 NULL,
                 EXTRA) }

     items_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.key_value_pattern+

     key_value_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | key=(literal_expr | attr) ':' pattern=pattern {
             _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, key, pattern) }

     double_star_pattern[expr_ty]:
         | '**' target=pattern_capture_target { target }

     class_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, patterns, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls, NULL,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ',' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls,
                 patterns,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | invalid_class_pattern

     positional_patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | args[asdl_pattern_seq*]=','.pattern+ { args }

     keyword_patterns[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.keyword_pattern+

     keyword_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | arg=NAME '=' value=pattern { _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, arg, value) }

     # Type statement
     # ---------------

     type_alias[stmt_ty]:
         | "type" n=NAME t=[type_params] '=' b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 12, "Type statement is",
             _PyAST_TypeAlias(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, n, Store)), t, b, EXTRA)) }

     # Type parameter declaration
     # --------------------------

     type_params[asdl_type_param_seq*]:
         | invalid_type_params
         | '[' t=type_param_seq ']' {
             CHECK_VERSION(asdl_type_param_seq *, 12, "Type parameter lists are", t) }

     type_param_seq[asdl_type_param_seq*]: a[asdl_type_param_seq*]=','.type_param+ [','] { a }

     type_param[type_param_ty] (memo):
         | a=NAME b=[type_param_bound] c=[type_param_default] { _PyAST_TypeVar(a->v.Name.id, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | '*' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with TypeVarTuple"
                     : "cannot use bound with TypeVarTuple")
             }
         | '*' a=NAME b=[type_param_starred_default] { _PyAST_TypeVarTuple(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | '**' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with ParamSpec"
                     : "cannot use bound with ParamSpec")
             }
         | '**' a=NAME b=[type_param_default] { _PyAST_ParamSpec(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }

     type_param_bound[expr_ty]: ':' e=expression { e }
     type_param_default[expr_ty]: '=' e=expression {
         CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 13, "Type parameter defaults are", e) }
     type_param_starred_default[expr_ty]: '=' e=star_expression {
         CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 13, "Type parameter defaults are", e) }

     # EXPRESSIONS
     # -----------

     expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=expression b=(',' c=expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | invalid_expression
         | invalid_legacy_expression
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef

     yield_expr[expr_ty]:
         | 'yield' 'from' a=expression { _PyAST_YieldFrom(a, EXTRA) }
         | 'yield' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Yield(a, EXTRA) }

     star_expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_expression b=(',' c=star_expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=star_expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | star_expression

     star_expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     star_named_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_named_expression+ [','] { a }

     star_named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     assignment_expression[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':=' ~ b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 8, "Assignment expressions are",
             _PyAST_NamedExpr(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, EXTRA)) }

     named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | assignment_expression
         | invalid_named_expression
         | expression !':='

     disjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=conjunction b=('or' c=conjunction { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             Or,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | conjunction

     conjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=inversion b=('and' c=inversion { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             And,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | inversion

     inversion[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'not' a=inversion { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Not, a, EXTRA) }
         | comparison

     # Comparison operators
     # --------------------

     comparison[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or b=compare_op_bitwise_or_pair+ {
             _PyAST_Compare(
                 a,
                 CHECK(asdl_int_seq*, _PyPegen_get_cmpops(p, b)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_exprs(p, b)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_or

     compare_op_bitwise_or_pair[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | eq_bitwise_or
         | noteq_bitwise_or
         | lte_bitwise_or
         | lt_bitwise_or
         | gte_bitwise_or
         | gt_bitwise_or
         | notin_bitwise_or
         | in_bitwise_or
         | isnot_bitwise_or
         | is_bitwise_or

     eq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '==' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Eq, a) }
     noteq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | (tok='!=' { _PyPegen_check_barry_as_flufl(p, tok) ? NULL : tok}) a=bitwise_or {_PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotEq, a) }
     lte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, LtE, a) }
     lt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Lt, a) }
     gte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, GtE, a) }
     gt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Gt, a) }
     notin_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'not' 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotIn, a) }
     in_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, In, a) }
     isnot_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' 'not' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, IsNot, a) }
     is_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Is, a) }

     # Bitwise operators
     # -----------------

     bitwise_or[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or '|' b=bitwise_xor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitOr, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_xor

     bitwise_xor[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_xor '^' b=bitwise_and { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitXor, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_and

     bitwise_and[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_and '&' b=shift_expr { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitAnd, b, EXTRA) }
         | shift_expr

     shift_expr[expr_ty]:
         | a=shift_expr '<<' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, LShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=shift_expr '>>' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, RShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_arithmetic
         | sum

     # Arithmetic operators
     # --------------------

     sum[expr_ty]:
         | a=sum '+' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Add, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=sum '-' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Sub, b, EXTRA) }
         | term

     term[expr_ty]:
         | a=term '*' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mult, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '/' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Div, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '//' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, FloorDiv, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '%' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mod, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '@' b=factor { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyAST_BinOp(a, MatMult, b, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_factor
         | factor

     factor[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '+' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(UAdd, a, EXTRA) }
         | '-' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, a, EXTRA) }
         | '~' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Invert, a, EXTRA) }
         | power

     power[expr_ty]:
         | a=await_primary '**' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Pow, b, EXTRA) }
         | await_primary

     # Primary elements
     # ----------------

     # Primary elements are things like "obj.something.something", "obj[something]", "obj(something)", "obj" ...

     await_primary[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'await' a=primary { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "Await expressions are", _PyAST_Await(a, EXTRA)) }
         | primary

     primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=primary '.' b=NAME { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary b=genexp { _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '[' b=slices ']' { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | atom

     slices[expr_ty]:
         | a=slice !',' { a }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(slice | starred_expression)+ [','] { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     slice[expr_ty]:
         | a=[expression] ':' b=[expression] c=[':' d=[expression] { d }] { _PyAST_Slice(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | a=named_expression { a }

     atom[expr_ty]:
         | NAME
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | &(STRING|FSTRING_START) strings
         | NUMBER
         | &'(' (tuple | group | genexp)
         | &'[' (list | listcomp)
         | &'{' (dict | set | dictcomp | setcomp)
         | '...' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_Ellipsis, NULL, EXTRA) }

     group[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=(yield_expr | named_expression) ')' { a }
         | invalid_group

     # Lambda functions
     # ----------------

     lambdef[expr_ty]:
         | 'lambda' a=[lambda_params] ':' b=expression {
             _PyAST_Lambda((a) ? a : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)), b, EXTRA) }

     lambda_params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_parameters
         | lambda_parameters

     # lambda_parameters etc. duplicates parameters but without annotations
     # or type comments, and if there's no comma after a parameter, we expect
     # a colon, not a close parenthesis.  (For more, see parameters above.)
     #
     lambda_parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=lambda_slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default* c=lambda_param_with_default* d=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_param_with_default+ b=[lambda_star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=lambda_star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' &':' { a }

     lambda_slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' &':' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     lambda_star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_lambda_star_etc
         | '*' a=lambda_param_no_default b=lambda_param_maybe_default* c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=lambda_param_maybe_default+ c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_kwds
         | '**' a=lambda_param_no_default { a }

     lambda_param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=lambda_param ',' { a }
         | a=lambda_param &':' { a }
     lambda_param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default? ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default? &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param[arg_ty]: a=NAME { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     # LITERALS
     # ========

     fstring_middle[expr_ty]:
         | fstring_replacement_field
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_constant_from_token(p, t) }
     fstring_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=annotated_rhs debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[fstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_formatted_value(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_replacement_field
     fstring_conversion[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | conv_token="!" conv=NAME { _PyPegen_check_fstring_conversion(p, conv_token, conv) }
     fstring_full_format_spec[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | colon=':' spec=fstring_format_spec* { _PyPegen_setup_full_format_spec(p, colon, (asdl_expr_seq *) spec, EXTRA) }
     fstring_format_spec[expr_ty]:
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token(p, t) }
         | fstring_replacement_field
     fstring[expr_ty]:
         | a=FSTRING_START b=fstring_middle* c=FSTRING_END { _PyPegen_joined_str(p, a, (asdl_expr_seq*)b, c) }

     string[expr_ty]: s[Token*]=STRING { _PyPegen_constant_from_string(p, s) }
     strings[expr_ty] (memo): a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(fstring|string)+ { _PyPegen_concatenate_strings(p, a, EXTRA) }

     list[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=[star_named_expressions] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     tuple[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=[y=star_named_expression ',' z=[star_named_expressions] { _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, y, z) } ] ')' {
             _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     set[expr_ty]: '{' a=star_named_expressions '}' { _PyAST_Set(a, EXTRA) }

     # Dicts
     # -----

     dict[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=[double_starred_kvpairs] '}' {
             _PyAST_Dict(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_keys(p, a)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_values(p, a)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' invalid_double_starred_kvpairs '}'

     double_starred_kvpairs[asdl_seq*]: a=','.double_starred_kvpair+ [','] { a }

     double_starred_kvpair[KeyValuePair*]:
         | '**' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, NULL, a) }
         | kvpair

     kvpair[KeyValuePair*]: a=expression ':' b=expression { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, a, b) }

     # Comprehensions & Generators
     # ---------------------------

     for_if_clauses[asdl_comprehension_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_comprehension_seq*]=for_if_clause+ { a }

     for_if_clause[comprehension_ty]:
         | 'async' 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             CHECK_VERSION(comprehension_ty, 6, "Async comprehensions are", _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 1, p->arena)) }
         | 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 0, p->arena) }
         | 'async'? 'for' (bitwise_or (',' bitwise_or)* [',']) !'in' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("'in' expected after for-loop variables") }
         | invalid_for_target

     listcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses ']' { _PyAST_ListComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     setcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_SetComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     genexp[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=( assignment_expression | expression !':=') b=for_if_clauses ')' { _PyAST_GeneratorExp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     dictcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=kvpair b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_DictComp(a->key, a->value, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_dict_comprehension

     # FUNCTION CALL ARGUMENTS
     # =======================

     arguments[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=args [','] &')' { a }
         | invalid_arguments

     args[expr_ty]:
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ b=[',' k=kwargs {k}] {
             _PyPegen_collect_call_seqs(p, a, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=kwargs { _PyAST_Call(_PyPegen_dummy_name(p),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_extract_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_keyword_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_delete_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               EXTRA) }

     kwargs[asdl_seq*]:
         | a=','.kwarg_or_starred+ ',' b=','.kwarg_or_double_starred+ { _PyPegen_join_sequences(p, a, b) }
         | ','.kwarg_or_starred+
         | ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+

     starred_expression[expr_ty]:
         | invalid_starred_expression
         | '*' a=expression { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | '*' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Invalid star expression") }

     kwarg_or_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | a=starred_expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, a, 0) }

     kwarg_or_double_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | '**' a=expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(NULL, a, EXTRA)), 1) }

     # ASSIGNMENT TARGETS
     # ==================

     # Generic targets
     # ---------------

     # NOTE: star_targets may contain *bitwise_or, targets may not.
     star_targets[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_target !',' { a }
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })* [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Store, EXTRA) }

     star_targets_list_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_target+ [','] { a }

     star_targets_tuple_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })+ [','] { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b) }
         | a=star_target ',' { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }

     star_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=(!'*' star_target) {
             _PyAST_Starred(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), Store, EXTRA) }
         | target_with_star_atom

     target_with_star_atom[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }
         | star_atom

     star_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=target_with_star_atom ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=[star_targets_tuple_seq] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Store, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[star_targets_list_seq] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Store, EXTRA) }

     single_target[expr_ty]:
         | single_subscript_attribute_target
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=single_target ')' { a }

     single_subscript_attribute_target[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }

     t_primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary b=genexp &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=atom &t_lookahead { a }

     t_lookahead: '(' | '[' | '.'

     # Targets for del statements
     # --------------------------

     del_targets[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.del_target+ [','] { a }

     del_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Del, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Del, EXTRA) }
         | del_t_atom

     del_t_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=del_target ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=[del_targets] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Del, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[del_targets] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Del, EXTRA) }

     # TYPING ELEMENTS
     # ---------------

     # type_expressions allow */** but ignore them
     type_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression ',' '**' c=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b)),
                 c) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '**' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | '*' a=expression ',' '**' b=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)),
                 b) }
         | '*' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | '**' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.expression+ {a}

     func_type_comment[Token*]:
         | NEWLINE t=TYPE_COMMENT &(NEWLINE INDENT) { t }  # Must be followed by indented block
         | invalid_double_type_comments
         | TYPE_COMMENT

     # ========================= END OF THE GRAMMAR ===========================



     # ========================= START OF INVALID RULES =======================

     # From here on, there are rules for invalid syntax with specialised error messages
     invalid_arguments:
         | ((','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ ',' kwargs) | kwargs) a=',' ','.(starred_expression !'=')+ {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "iterable argument unpacking follows keyword argument unpacking") }
         | a=expression b=for_if_clauses ',' [args | expression for_if_clauses] {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | (args ',')? a=NAME b='=' &(',' | ')') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected argument value expression")}
         | a=args b=for_if_clauses { _PyPegen_nonparen_genexp_in_call(p, a, b) }
         | args ',' a=expression b=for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=args ',' args { _PyPegen_arguments_parsing_error(p, a) }
     invalid_kwarg:
         | a[Token*]=('True'|'False'|'None') b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to %s", PyBytes_AS_STRING(a->bytes)) }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | !(NAME '=') a=expression b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b, "expression cannot contain assignment, perhaps you meant \"==\"?") }
         | a='**' expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to keyword argument unpacking") }

     # IMPORTANT: Note that the "_without_invalid" suffix causes the rule to not call invalid rules under it
     expression_without_invalid[expr_ty]:
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef
     invalid_legacy_expression:
         | a=NAME !'(' b=star_expressions {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b,
                 "Missing parentheses in call to '%U'. Did you mean %U(...)?", a->v.Name.id, a->v.Name.id) : NULL}

     invalid_expression:
         # !(NAME STRING) is not matched so we don't show this error with some invalid string prefixes like: kf"dsfsdf"
         # Soft keywords need to also be ignored because they can be parsed as NAME NAME
        | !(NAME STRING | SOFT_KEYWORD) a=disjunction b=expression_without_invalid {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? NULL : p->tokens[p->mark-1]->level == 0 ? NULL :
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?") }
        | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction !('else'|':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected 'else' after 'if' expression") }
        | a='lambda' [lambda_params] b=':' &FSTRING_MIDDLE  {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "f-string: lambda expressions are not allowed without parentheses") }

     invalid_named_expression(memo):
         | a=expression ':=' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use assignment expressions with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | a=NAME '=' b=bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?") }
         | !(list|tuple|genexp|'True'|'None'|'False') a=bitwise_or b='=' bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                                               _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }

     invalid_assignment:
         | a=invalid_ann_assign_target ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "only single target (not %s) can be annotated",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
         | a=star_named_expression ',' star_named_expressions* ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "only single target (not tuple) can be annotated") }
         | a=expression ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "illegal target for annotation") }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=star_expressions '=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=yield_expr '=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "assignment to yield expression not possible") }
         | a=star_expressions augassign annotated_rhs {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "'%s' is an illegal expression for augmented assignment",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
     invalid_ann_assign_target[expr_ty]:
         | list
         | tuple
         | '(' a=invalid_ann_assign_target ')' { a }
     invalid_del_stmt:
         | 'del' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(DEL_TARGETS, a) }
     invalid_block:
         | NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block") }
     invalid_comprehension:
         | ('[' | '(' | '{') a=starred_expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "iterable unpacking cannot be used in comprehension") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression ',' b=star_named_expressions for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, PyPegen_last_item(b, expr_ty),
             "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression b=',' for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
     invalid_dict_comprehension:
         | '{' a='**' bitwise_or for_if_clauses '}' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "dict unpacking cannot be used in dict comprehension") }
     invalid_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | slash_no_default? param_no_default* invalid_parameters_helper a=param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | param_no_default* a='(' param_no_default+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Function parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default)? param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | param_no_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_default:
         | a='=' &(')'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected default value expression") }
     invalid_star_etc:
         | a='*' (')' | ',' (')' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' ',' TYPE_COMMENT { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("bare * has associated type comment") }
         | '*' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (param_no_default | ',') param_maybe_default* a='*' (param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_kwds:
         | '**' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' param ',' a=param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_parameters_helper: # This is only there to avoid type errors
         | a=slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | lambda_slash_no_default? lambda_param_no_default* invalid_lambda_parameters_helper a=lambda_param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | lambda_param_no_default* a='(' ','.lambda_param+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Lambda expression parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default)? lambda_param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | lambda_param_no_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | lambda_param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_lambda_parameters_helper:
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | lambda_param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_star_etc:
         | '*' (':' | ',' (':' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') lambda_param_maybe_default* a='*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_lambda_kwds:
         | '**' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a=lambda_param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_double_type_comments:
         | TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE INDENT {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Cannot have two type comments on def") }
     invalid_with_item:
         | expression 'as' a=expression &(',' | ')' | ':') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_for_target:
         | 'async'? 'for' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(FOR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_group:
         | '(' a=starred_expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use starred expression here") }
         | '(' a='**' expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use double starred expression here") }
     invalid_import:
         | a='import' ','.dotted_name+ 'from' dotted_name {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?") }
         | 'import' token=NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(token, "Expected one or more names after 'import'") }

     invalid_import_from_targets:
         | import_from_as_names ',' NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("trailing comma not allowed without surrounding parentheses") }
         | token=NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(token, "Expected one or more names after 'import'") }

     invalid_with_stmt:
         | ['async'] 'with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | ['async'] 'with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
     invalid_with_stmt_indent:
         | ['async'] a='with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | ['async'] a='with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_try_stmt:
         | a='try' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'try' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | 'try' ':' block !('except' | 'finally') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected 'except' or 'finally' block") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_block+ a='except' b='*' expression ['as' NAME] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_star_block+ a='except' [expression ['as' NAME]] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
     invalid_except_stmt:
         | 'except' '*'? a=expression ',' expressions ['as' NAME ] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "multiple exception types must be parenthesized") }
         | a='except' '*'? expression ['as' NAME ] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' '*' (NEWLINE | ':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected one or more exception types") }
     invalid_finally_stmt:
         | a='finally' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'finally' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | a='except' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_star_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' '*' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except*' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_match_stmt:
         | "match" subject_expr NEWLINE { CHECK_VERSION(void*, 10, "Pattern matching is", RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") ) }
         | a="match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'match' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_case_block:
         | "case" patterns guard? NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a="case" patterns guard? ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'case' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_as_pattern:
         | or_pattern 'as' a="_" { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use '_' as a target") }
         | or_pattern 'as' !NAME a=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "invalid pattern target") }
     invalid_class_pattern:
         | name_or_attr '(' a=invalid_class_argument_pattern  { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
             PyPegen_first_item(a, pattern_ty),
             PyPegen_last_item(a, pattern_ty),
             "positional patterns follow keyword patterns") }
     invalid_class_argument_pattern[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | [positional_patterns ','] keyword_patterns ',' a=positional_patterns { a }
     invalid_if_stmt:
         | 'if' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='if' a=named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'if' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_elif_stmt:
         | 'elif' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='elif' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'elif' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_else_stmt:
         | a='else' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'else' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_while_stmt:
         | 'while' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='while' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'while' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_for_stmt:
         | ['async'] 'for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | ['async'] a='for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_def_raw:
         | ['async'] a='def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after function definition on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | ['async'] 'def' NAME [type_params] &&'(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] &&':' [func_type_comment] block
     invalid_class_def_raw:
         | 'class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after class definition on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_double_starred_kvpairs:
         | ','.double_starred_kvpair+ ',' invalid_kvpair
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_kvpair:
         | a=expression !(':') {
             RAISE_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(p, PyExc_SyntaxError, a->lineno, a->end_col_offset - 1, a->end_lineno, -1, "':' expected after dictionary key") }
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') {RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_starred_expression:
         | a='*' expression '=' b=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to iterable argument unpacking") }

     invalid_replacement_field:
         | '{' a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '='") }
         | '{' a='!' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '!'") }
         | '{' a=':' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before ':'") }
         | '{' a='}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '}'") }
         | '{' !annotated_rhs { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting a valid expression after '{'")}
         | '{' annotated_rhs !('=' | '!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '=', or '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '=' !('!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? invalid_conversion_character
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !(':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting ':' or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] ':' fstring_format_spec* !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}', or format specs") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}'") }

     invalid_conversion_character:
         | '!' &(':' | '}') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: missing conversion character") }
         | '!' !NAME { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: invalid conversion character") }

     invalid_arithmetic:
         | sum ('+'|'-'|'*'|'/'|'%'|'//'|'@') a='not' b=inversion { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "'not' after an operator must be parenthesized") }
     invalid_factor:
         | ('+' | '-' | '~') a='not' b=factor { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "'not' after an operator must be parenthesized") }

     invalid_type_params:
         | '[' token=']' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(
                 token,
                 "Type parameter list cannot be empty")}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Grammar/python.gram

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리,  Next: 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장,  Prev: 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스,  Up: Top

5 파이썬 표준 라이브러리
************************

*note 파이썬 언어 레퍼런스: 145. 는 파이썬 언어의 정확한 문법과 의미를 설
명하고 있지만, 이 라이브러리 레퍼런스 설명서는 파이썬과 함께 배포되는 표
준 라이브러리를 설명합니다.  또한, 파이썬 배포판에 일반적으로 포함되어있
는 선택적 구성 요소 중 일부를 설명합니다.

파이썬의 표준 라이브러리는 매우 광범위하며, 아래 나열된 긴 목차에 표시된
대로 다양한 기능을 제공합니다.  라이브러리에는 일상적인 프로그래밍에서 발
생하는 많은 문제에 대한 표준적인 해결책을 제공하는 파이썬으로 작성된 모
듈뿐만 아니라, 파일 I/O와 같은 시스템 기능에 액세스하는 (C로 작성된) 내
장 모듈들이 포함됩니다 (이 모듈들이 없다면 파이썬 프로그래머가 액세스할
방법은 없습니다).  이 모듈 중 일부는 플랫폼 관련 사항을 플랫폼 중립적인
API들로 추상화시킴으로써, 파이썬 프로그램의 이식성을 권장하고 개선하도록
명시적으로 설계되었습니다.

윈도우 플랫폼용 파이썬 설치 프로그램은 일반적으로 전체 표준 라이브러리를
포함하며 종종 많은 추가 구성 요소도 포함합니다.  유닉스와 같은 운영체제
의 경우, 파이썬은 일반적으로 패키지 모음으로 제공되기 때문에, 운영 체제
와 함께 제공되는 패키지 도구를 사용하여 선택적 구성 요소의 일부 또는 전
부를 구해야 할 수 있습니다.

표준 라이브러리 외에도, 수십만 가지 컴포넌트(개별 프로그램과 모듈부터 패
키지 및 전체 응용 프로그램 개발 프레임워크까지)로 구성된 활발한 모음이 있
는데, 파이썬 패키지 색인(1) 에서 얻을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<2>.
* 내장 함수::
* 내장 상수::
* 내장형::
* 내장 예외::
* 텍스트 처리 서비스::
* 바이너리 데이터 서비스::
* 데이터형::
* 숫자와 수학 모듈::
* 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈::
* 파일과 디렉터리 액세스::
* 데이터 지속성::
* 데이터 압축 및 보관::
* 파일 형식::
* 암호화 서비스::
* 일반 운영 체제 서비스::
* Command-line interface libraries::
* 동시 실행::
* 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신::
* 인터넷 데이터 처리::
* 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구::
* 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원::
* 멀티미디어 서비스::
* 국제화::
* Graphical user interfaces with Tk::
* 개발 도구::
* 디버깅과 프로파일링::
* 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포::
* 파이썬 실행시간 서비스::
* 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터::
* 모듈 임포트 하기::
* 파이썬 언어 서비스::
* MS 윈도우 특정 서비스::
* Unix-specific services::
* Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI.
* 대체된 모듈::
* Removed Modules::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<2>,  Next: 내장 함수,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.1 소개
========

“파이썬 라이브러리”에는 여러 가지 구성 요소가 포함되어 있습니다.

여기에는 일반적으로 숫자 및 리스트와 같이 언어의 “핵심” 부분으로 간주하
는 데이터형이 포함됩니다.  이러한 형의 경우, 파이썬 언어 핵심은 리터럴의
형식을 정의하고 그 의미에 몇 가지 제약을 가하지만, 의미를 완전히 정의하
지는 않습니다.  (반면에, 언어 핵심은 연산자의 철자법과 우선순위와 같은 문
법적 속성을 정의합니다.)

라이브러리는 또한 내장 함수와 예외를 포함합니다 — *note import: 5dc. 문
을 쓰지 않고도 모든 파이썬 코드에서 사용할 수 있는 객체들입니다.  이들 중
일부는 언어 핵심에 의해 정의되지만, 핵심 의미에 필수적인 것은 아니며 여
기에서 설명합니다.

그러나 라이브러리 대부분은 모듈 컬렉션으로 구성됩니다.  이 컬렉션을 나누
는 데는 여러 가지 방법이 있습니다.  일부 모듈은 C로 작성되고 파이썬 인터
프리터에 내장되어 있습니다; 다른 것은 파이썬으로 작성되고 소스 형식으로
임포트 됩니다.  일부 모듈은 스택 추적 인쇄와 같이 파이썬에 매우 특정한 인
터페이스를 제공합니다; 일부는 특정 하드웨어에 대한 액세스와 같이 운영 체
제에 특정한 인터페이스를 제공합니다; 다른 것은 월드 와이드 웹과 같은 응
용 프로그램 영역에 특정한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  일부 모듈은 파이썬의
모든 버전과 이식에서 사용할 수 있습니다; 다른 것은 하위 시스템이 지원하
거나 요구할 때만 사용할 수 있습니다; 그러나 다른 것들은 파이썬이 컴파일
되고 설치될 때 특정 설정 옵션이 선택되었을 때만 사용할 수 있습니다.

이 설명서는 “안쪽에서부터 밖으로” 구성되어 있습니다.  먼저 내장 함수, 데
이터형 및 예외, 마지막으로 관련 모듈의 장으로 그룹화된 모듈들을 설명합니
다.

즉, 처음부터 이 설명서를 읽고, 지루할 때 다음 장으로 건너뛰면, 파이썬 라
이브러리가 지원하는 사용 가능한 모듈과 응용 프로그램 영역에 대한 적당한
개요를 얻게 됩니다.  물론 소설처럼 읽을 필요는 없습니다.  (설명서 앞에 있
는) 목차를 검색하거나, (뒤에 있는) 색인에서 특정 함수, 모듈 또는 용어를
찾을 수도 있습니다.  그리고 마지막으로, 무작위 주제에 대해 배우는 것을 즐
긴다면, 임의의 페이지 번호 (모듈 *note random: b8. 참조)를 선택하고 한두
섹션을 읽으면 됩니다.  이 설명서의 섹션을 읽는 순서와 관계없이, *note
내장 함수: 124d. 장에서 시작하는 것이 도움이 되는데, 설명서의 나머지 부
분은 이 내용에 익숙하다고 가정하기 때문입니다.

쇼를 시작합시다!

* Menu:

* 가용성에 대한 참고 사항::


File: python.info,  Node: 가용성에 대한 참고 사항,  Up: 소개<2>

5.1.1 가용성에 대한 참고 사항
-----------------------------

   * “가용성: 유닉스” 참고 사항은 이 기능이 유닉스 시스템에서 일반적으로
     발견된다는 것을 뜻합니다.  특정 운영 체제에 이 기능이 존재하는지에
     관한 어떠한 주장도 하지 않습니다.

   * 별도로 언급되지 않은 경우, “가용성: 유닉스”를 주장하는 모든 기능은
     유닉스 코어를 기반으로 하는 맥 OS, iOS 및 안드로이드에서 지원됩니다
     .

   * If an availability note contains both a minimum Kernel version and
     a minimum libc version, then both conditions must hold.  For
     example a feature with note 'Availability: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc
     >= 2.27' requires both Linux 3.17 or newer and glibc 2.27 or newer.

* Menu:

* 웹어셈블리 플랫폼::
* 모바일 플랫폼::


File: python.info,  Node: 웹어셈블리 플랫폼,  Next: 모바일 플랫폼,  Up: 가용성에 대한 참고 사항

5.1.1.1 웹어셈블리 플랫폼
.........................

The WebAssembly(1) platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ (Emscripten(2)) and
‘wasm32-wasi’ (WASI(3)) provide a subset of POSIX APIs.  WebAssembly
runtimes and browsers are sandboxed and have limited access to the host
and external resources.  Any Python standard library module that uses
processes, threading, networking, signals, or other forms of
inter-process communication (IPC), is either not available or may not
work as on other Unix-like systems.  File I/O, file system, and Unix
permission-related functions are restricted, too.  Emscripten does not
permit blocking I/O. Other blocking operations like *note sleep(): 697.
block the browser event loop.

The properties and behavior of Python on WebAssembly platforms depend on
the Emscripten(4)-SDK or WASI(5)-SDK version, WASM runtimes (browser,
NodeJS, wasmtime(6)), and Python build time flags.  WebAssembly,
Emscripten, and WASI are evolving standards; some features like
networking may be supported in the future.

For Python in the browser, users should consider Pyodide(7) or
PyScript(8).  PyScript is built on top of Pyodide, which itself is built
on top of CPython and Emscripten.  Pyodide provides access to browsers’
JavaScript and DOM APIs as well as limited networking capabilities with
JavaScript’s ‘XMLHttpRequest’ and ‘Fetch’ APIs.

   * Process-related APIs are not available or always fail with an
     error.  That includes APIs that spawn new processes (*note fork():
     197, *note execve(): 10ea.), wait for processes (*note waitpid():
     d96.), send signals (*note kill(): 1350.), or otherwise interact
     with processes.  The *note subprocess: d6. is importable but does
     not work.

   * The *note socket: cc. module is available, but is limited and
     behaves differently from other platforms.  On Emscripten, sockets
     are always non-blocking and require additional JavaScript code and
     helpers on the server to proxy TCP through WebSockets; see
     Emscripten Networking(9) for more information.  WASI snapshot
     preview 1 only permits sockets from an existing file descriptor.

   * Some functions are stubs that either don’t do anything and always
     return hardcoded values.

   * Functions related to file descriptors, file permissions, file
     ownership, and links are limited and don’t support some operations.
     For example, WASI does not permit symlinks with absolute file
     names.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://webassembly.org/

   (2) https://emscripten.org/

   (3) https://wasi.dev/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://wasmtime.dev/

   (7) https://pyodide.org/

   (8) https://pyscript.net/

   (9) https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/networking.html


File: python.info,  Node: 모바일 플랫폼,  Prev: 웹어셈블리 플랫폼,  Up: 가용성에 대한 참고 사항

5.1.1.2 모바일 플랫폼
.....................

Android and iOS are, in most respects, POSIX operating systems.  File
I/O, socket handling, and threading all behave as they would on any
POSIX operating system.  However, there are several major differences:

   * Mobile platforms can only use Python in “embedded” mode.  There is
     no Python REPL, and no ability to use separate executables such as
     ‘python’ or ‘pip’.  To add Python code to your mobile app, you must
     use the *note Python embedding API: 1e5c.  For more details, see
     *note Using Python on Android: 1e5a. and *note Using Python on iOS:
     1e61.

   * Subprocesses:

        * On Android, creating subprocesses is possible but officially
          unsupported(1).  In particular, Android does not support any
          part of the System V IPC API, so *note multiprocessing: 94. is
          not available.

        * An iOS app cannot use any form of subprocessing,
          multiprocessing, or inter-process communication.  If an iOS
          app attempts to create a subprocess, the process creating the
          subprocess will either lock up, or crash.  An iOS app has no
          visibility of other applications that are running, nor any
          ability to communicate with other running applications,
          outside of the iOS-specific APIs that exist for this purpose.

   * Mobile apps have limited access to modify system resources (such as
     the system clock).  These resources will often be 'readable', but
     attempts to modify those resources will usually fail.

   * Console input and output:

        * On Android, the native ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ are not connected
          to anything, so Python installs its own streams which redirect
          messages to the system log.  These can be seen under the tags
          ‘python.stdout’ and ‘python.stderr’ respectively.

        * iOS apps have a limited concept of console output.  ‘stdout’
          and ‘stderr’ 'exist', and content written to ‘stdout’ and
          ‘stderr’ will be visible in logs when running in Xcode, but
          this content 'won’t' be recorded in the system log.  If a user
          who has installed your app provides their app logs as a
          diagnostic aid, they will not include any detail written to
          ‘stdout’ or ‘stderr’.

        * Mobile apps have no usable ‘stdin’ at all.  While apps can
          display an on-screen keyboard, this is a software feature, not
          something that is attached to ‘stdin’.

          As a result, Python modules that involve console manipulation
          (such as *note curses: 2b. and *note readline: ba.) are not
          available on mobile platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/128554619#comment4


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 함수,  Next: 내장 상수,  Prev: 소개<2>,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.2 내장 함수
=============

파이썬 인터프리터에는 항상 사용할 수 있는 많은 함수와 형이 내장되어 있습
니다.  여기에서 알파벳 순으로 나열합니다.

내장 함수

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     'A'                           'E'                         'L'                         'R'
     *note abs(): 1cac.            *note enumerate(): 1445.     *note len(): 628.          *note range(): 2161.
     *note aiter(): 7ce.           *note eval(): 180.          *note list(): 215f.         *note repr(): 7f7.
     *note all(): 13ea.            *note exec(): 17f.          *note locals(): 141.        *note reversed(): 860.
     *note anext(): 7cf.                                                                   *note round(): 12ca.
     *note any(): 13e9.            'F'                         'M'                         
     *note ascii(): 13af.          *note filter(): 85f.        *note map(): 85e.           'S'
                                   *note float(): 2ef.         *note max(): f01.           *note set(): 2162.
     'B'                           *note format(): 619.        *note memoryview(): 2160.     *note setattr(): 2163.
     *note bin(): 1298.            *note frozenset(): 215e.     *note min(): f00.          *note slice(): 463.
     *note bool(): 461.                                                                    *note sorted(): bcb.
     *note breakpoint(): 234.      'G'                         'N'                         *note staticmethod(): 410.
     *note bytearray(): 1ac1.      *note getattr(): bce.       *note next(): 7d1.          *note str(): 2164.
     *note bytes(): 1ac0.          *note globals(): 186e.                                  *note sum(): 464.
                                                               'O'                         *note super(): 4d5.
     'C'                           'H'                         *note object(): a89.        
     *note callable(): 11b5.       *note hasattr(): 4cc.       *note oct(): 12be.          'T'
     *note chr(): 1679.            *note hash(): 5e5.          *note open(): 515.          *note tuple(): 2165.
     *note classmethod(): 166.     *note help(): 8d4.          *note ord(): 1efa.          *note type(): d45.
     *note compile(): 192.         *note hex(): 12bf.                                      
     *note complex(): 2f0.                                     'P'                         'V'
                                   'I'                         *note pow(): 9cf.           *note vars(): 1a49.
     'D'                           *note id(): 13eb.           *note print(): f6d.         
     *note delattr(): 215c.        *note input(): 12c8.        *note property(): 194.      'Z'
     *note dict(): 215d.           *note int(): 257.                                       *note zip(): 7c9.
     *note dir(): 62c.             *note isinstance(): 43b.                                
     *note divmod(): 99e.          *note issubclass(): 7ba.                                '_'
                                   *note iter(): 7d0.                                      *note __import__(): 8d1.
                                                                                      

 -- 함수: abs (number, /)

     Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
     integer, a floating-point number, or an object implementing *note
     __abs__(): 1fbf.  If the argument is a complex number, its
     magnitude is returned.

 -- 함수: aiter (async_iterable, /)

     Return an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. for an *note
     asynchronous iterable: d74.  Equivalent to calling ‘x.__aiter__()’.

     Note: Unlike *note iter(): 7d0, *note aiter(): 7ce. has no
     2-argument variant.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: all (iterable, /)

     'iterable' 의 모든 요소가 참이면 (또는 iterable 이 비어있으면)
     ‘True’ 를 돌려줍니다.  다음과 동등합니다:

          def all(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if not element:
                      return False
              return True

 -- 함수: awaitable anext (async_iterator, /)

 -- 함수: awaitable anext (async_iterator, default, /)

     When awaited, return the next item from the given *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1ab, or 'default' if given and the iterator
     is exhausted.

     This is the async variant of the *note next(): 7d1. builtin, and
     behaves similarly.

     This calls the *note __anext__(): 157b. method of 'async_iterator',
     returning an *note awaitable: 1ad.  Awaiting this returns the next
     value of the iterator.  If 'default' is given, it is returned if
     the iterator is exhausted, otherwise *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1a34. is raised.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: any (iterable, /)

     'iterable' 의 요소 중 어느 하나라도 참이면 ‘True’ 를 돌려줍니다.
     iterable이 비어 있으면 ‘False’ 를 돌려줍니다.  다음과 동등합니다:

          def any(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if element:
                      return True
              return False

 -- 함수: ascii (object, /)

     As *note repr(): 7f7, return a string containing a printable
     representation of an object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in
     the string returned by *note repr(): 7f7. using ‘\x’, ‘\u’, or ‘\U’
     escapes.  This generates a string similar to that returned by *note
     repr(): 7f7. in Python 2.

 -- 함수: bin (integer, /)

     Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”.
     The result is a valid Python expression.  If 'integer' is not a
     Python *note int: 257. object, it has to define an *note
     __index__(): 716. method that returns an integer.  Some examples:

          >>> bin(3)
          '0b11'
          >>> bin(-10)
          '-0b1010'

     If the prefix “0b” is desired or not, you can use either of the
     following ways.

          >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
          ('0b1110', '1110')
          >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
          ('0b1110', '1110')

     자세한 내용은 *note format(): 619.을 보세요.

 -- 클래스: bool (object=False, /)

     Return a Boolean value, i.e.  one of ‘True’ or ‘False’.  The
     argument is converted using the standard *note truth testing
     procedure: 1550.  If the argument is false or omitted, this returns
     ‘False’; otherwise, it returns ‘True’.  The *note bool: 461. class
     is a subclass of *note int: 257. (see *note 숫자 형 — int, float,
     complex: 1bff.).  It cannot be subclassed further.  Its only
     instances are ‘False’ and ‘True’ (see *note Boolean Type - bool:
     2166.).

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The parameter is now positional-only.

 -- 함수: breakpoint (*args, **kws)

     This function drops you into the debugger at the call site.
     Specifically, it calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): ad7, passing
     ‘args’ and ‘kws’ straight through.  By default,
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ calls *note pdb.set_trace(): 235. expecting
     no arguments.  In this case, it is purely a convenience function so
     you don’t have to explicitly import *note pdb: a5. or type as much
     code to enter the debugger.  However, *note sys.breakpointhook():
     ad7. can be set to some other function and *note breakpoint(): 234.
     will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into the
     debugger of choice.  If *note sys.breakpointhook(): ad7. is not
     accessible, this function will raise *note RuntimeError: 195.

     By default, the behavior of *note breakpoint(): 234. can be changed
     with the *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ad8. environment variable.  See
     *note sys.breakpointhook(): ad7. for usage details.

     Note that this is not guaranteed if *note sys.breakpointhook():
     ad7. has been replaced.

     ‘breakpointhook’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘builtins.breakpoint’를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 클래스: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- 클래스: bytearray (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     새로운 바이트 배열을 돌려줍니다.  *note bytearray: 538. 클래스는 0
     <= x < 256 범위에 있는 정수의 가변 시퀀스입니다.  *note bytes: 1c2.
     형이 가진 대부분의 메서드뿐만 아니라 (*note 바이트열 과 바이트 배열
     연산: 2167. 를 보세요), *note 가변 시퀀스 형: 2168. 에 기술된 가변
     시퀀스의 일반적인 메서드 대부분을 갖고 있습니다.

     선택적 'source' 매개변수는 몇 가지 다른 방법으로 배열을 초기화하는
     데 사용할 수 있습니다:

        * '문자열' 이면, 반드시 'encoding' 매개변수도 제공해야 합니다 (그
          리고 선택적으로 'errors' 도); 그러면 *note bytearray(): 538. 는
          *note str.encode(): 8d2. 를 사용하여 문자열을 바이트로 변환합
          니다.

        * '정수' 면, 배열은 그 크기를 갖고, 널 바이트로 초기화됩니다.

        * *note 버퍼 인터페이스: 391.를 제공하는 객체면, 객체의 읽기 전
          용 버퍼가 바이트 배열을 초기화하는 데 사용됩니다.

        * '이터러블' 이면, 범위 ‘0 <= x < 256’ 의 정수를 제공하는 이터러
          블이어야 하고, 그 값들이 배열의 초기 내용물로 사용됩니다.

     인자가 없으면 크기 0의 배열이 만들어집니다.

     *note 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 2169.와
     *note 바이트 배열 객체: 216a. 도 보세요.

 -- 클래스: bytes (source=b'')

 -- 클래스: bytes (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     Return a new “bytes” object which is an immutable sequence of
     integers in the range ‘0 <= x < 256’.  *note bytes: 1c2. is an
     immutable version of *note bytearray: 538. – it has the same
     non-mutating methods and the same indexing and slicing behavior.

     따라서 생성자 인자는 *note bytearray(): 538. 와 같이 해석됩니다.

     바이트열 객체는 리터럴을 사용하여 만들 수도 있습니다 (*note 문자열과
     바이트열 리터럴: 1eac. 를 보세요).

     *note 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 2169,
     *note 바이트열 객체: 216b. 및 *note 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산:
     2167. 도 보세요.

 -- 함수: callable (object, /)

     Return *note True: c0a. if the 'object' argument appears callable,
     *note False: b34. if not.  If this returns ‘True’, it is still
     possible that a call fails, but if it is ‘False’, calling 'object'
     will never succeed.  Note that classes are callable (calling a
     class returns a new instance); instances are callable if their
     class has a *note __call__(): 553. method.

     Added in version 3.2: 이 함수는 파이썬 3.0에서 먼저 제거된 다음 파
     이썬 3.2에서 다시 도입했습니다.

 -- 함수: chr (codepoint, /)

     Return the string representing a character with the specified
     Unicode code point.  For example, ‘chr(97)’ returns the string
     ‘'a'’, while ‘chr(8364)’ returns the string ‘'€'’.  This is the
     inverse of *note ord(): 1efa.

     The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111
     (0x10FFFF in base 16).  *note ValueError: 202. will be raised if it
     is outside that range.

 -- 함수: @classmethod

     메서드를 클래스 메서드로 변환합니다.

     A class method receives the class as an implicit first argument,
     just like an instance method receives the instance.  To declare a
     class method, use this idiom:

          class C:
              @classmethod
              def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

     ‘@classmethod’ 형식은 함수 *note 데코레이터: 72a. 입니다 – 자세한 내
     용은 *note 함수 정의: 1c3e.를 보세요.

     클래스 메서드는 클래스 (‘C.f()’ 처럼) 또는 인스턴스 (‘C().f()’ 처럼
     ) 를 통해 호출할 수 있습니다.  인스턴스는 클래스만 참조하고 무시됩
     니다.  파생 클래스에 대해 클래스 메서드가 호출되면, 파생 클래스 객
     체가 묵시적인 첫 번째 인자로 전달됩니다.

     클래스 메서드는 C++ 또는 자바의 정적 메서드와 다릅니다.  그것들을 원
     하면, 이 섹션의 *note staticmethod(): 410.를 보세요.  클래스 메서드
     에 대한 더 자세한 정보는, *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.을 참고하세요.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 클래스 메서드는 이제 *note property(): 194.와 같
     은 다른 *note 디스크립터: 157a.를 래핑 할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Class methods now inherit the method attributes
     (*note __module__: 1f06, *note __name__: 12c4, *note __qualname__:
     1f05, *note __doc__: 11c8. and *note __annotations__: 11c7.) and
     have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13: Class
     methods can no longer wrap other *note descriptors: 157a. such as
     *note property(): 194.

 -- 함수: compile (source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False,
          optimize=-1)

     'source' 를 코드 또는 AST 객체로 컴파일합니다.  코드 객체는 *note
     exec(): 17f. 또는 *note eval(): 180. 로 실행할 수 있습니다.
     'source' 는 일반 문자열, 바이트열 또는 AST 객체 일 수 있습니다.
     AST 객체로 작업하는 방법에 대한 정보는 *note ast: 8. 모듈 문서를 참
     조하세요.

     'filename' 인자는 코드를 읽은 파일을 제공해야 합니다; 파일에서 읽지
     않으면 인식 가능한 값을 전달합니다 (‘'<string>'’ 이 일반적으로 사용
     됩니다).

     'mode' 인자는 컴파일해야 하는 코드 종류를 지정합니다; 'source' 가 문
     장의 시퀀스로 구성되어 있다면 ‘exec’, 단일 표현식으로 구성되어 있다
     면 ‘'eval'’, 단일 대화형 문장으로 구성되면 ‘'single'’ 이 될 수 있습
     니다 (마지막의 경우 ‘None’ 이외의 값으로 구해지는 표현식 문은 인쇄
     됩니다).

     선택적 인자 'flags' 와 'dont_inherit' 는 어떤 *note 컴파일러 옵션:
     216c.이 활성화되어야 하고 어떤 *note 퓨처 기능: 189.이 허락되어야 하
     는지 제어합니다.  둘 다 제공되지 않는 경우 (또는 둘 다 0의 경우), 코
     드는 *note compile(): 192. 을 호출하는 코드에 적용되고 있는 것과 같
     은 플래그로 컴파일됩니다.  'flags' 인자가 주어지고, 'dont_inherit'
     가 없으면 (또는 0) 원래 사용될 것에 더해 'flags' 인자로 지정된 컴파
     일러 옵션과 퓨처 문이 사용됩니다.  'dont_inherit' 가 0이 아닌 정수
     면 'flags' 인자가 사용됩니다 – 둘러싼 코드의 플래그(퓨처 기능과 컴
     파일러 옵션)는 무시됩니다.

     컴파일러 옵션과 퓨처 문은 여러 개의 옵션을 지정하기 위해 비트 OR 될
     수 있는 비트에 의해 지정됩니다.  주어진 퓨처 기능을 지정하는 데 필
     요한 비트 필드는 *note __future__: 0. 모듈의 *note _Feature: 216d.
     인스턴스에서 *note compiler_flag: 1f4e. 어트리뷰트로 찾을 수 있습니
     다.  *note 컴파일러 플래그: 216c.는 ‘PyCF_’ 접두사로 *note ast: 8.
     모듈에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

     인자 'optimize' 는 컴파일러의 최적화 수준을 지정합니다; 기본값 ‘-1’
     은 *note -O: db1. 옵션에 의해 주어진 인터프리터의 최적화 수준을 선
     택합니다.  명시적 수준은 ‘0’ (최적화 없음, ‘__debug__’ 이 참입니다
     ), ‘1’ (assert가 제거됩니다, ‘__debug__’ 이 거짓입니다) 또는 ‘2’ 다
     (독스트링도 제거됩니다).

     이 함수는 컴파일된 소스가 올바르지 않으면 *note SyntaxError: 18d. 를
     일으키고, 소스에 널 바이트가 들어있는 경우 *note ValueError: 202. 를
     일으킵니다.

     파이썬 코드를 AST 표현으로 파싱하려면, *note ast.parse(): 1a8. 를 보
     세요.

     ‘source’와 ‘filename’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘compile’을 발생시킵니다.  이 이벤트는 묵시적 컴파일로 인해 발
     생할 수도 있습니다.

          참고: ‘'single'’ 또는 ‘'eval'’ mode로 여러 줄 코드를 가진 문자
          열을 컴파일할 때, 적어도 하나의 개행 문자로 입력을 끝내야 합니
          다.  이것은 *note code: 1a. 모듈에서 문장이 불완전한지 완전한
          지를 쉽게 탐지하게 하기 위함입니다.

          경고: 파이썬의 AST 컴파일러에서 스택 깊이 제한으로 인해, AST 객
          체로 컴파일할 때 충분히 크고 복잡한 문자열로 파이썬 인터프리터
          가 크래시를 일으키도록 만들 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines.  Also,
     input in ‘'exec'’ mode does not have to end in a newline anymore.
     Added the 'optimize' parameter.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이전에는, 'source' 에서 널 바이트가 발견될 때
     *note TypeError: 532. 가 발생했습니다.

     Added in version 3.8: 이제 ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’를
     flags로 전달하여 최상위 수준 ‘await’, ‘async for’ 및 ‘async with’를
     지원할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: complex (number=0, /)

 -- 클래스: complex (string, /)

 -- 클래스: complex (real=0, imag=0)

     Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a
     complex number from real and imaginary parts.

     Examples:

          >>> complex('+1.23')
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex('-4.5j')
          -4.5j
          >>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
          (-inf+nanj)
          >>> complex(1.23)
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex(imag=-4.5)
          -4.5j
          >>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
          (-1.23+4.5j)

     If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in
     the same format as for *note float(): 2ef.) or an imaginary part
     (in the same format but with a ‘'j'’ or ‘'J'’ suffix), or both real
     and imaginary parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in
     this case).  The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces
     and the round parentheses ‘'('’ and ‘')'’, which are ignored.  The
     string must not contain whitespace between ‘'+'’, ‘'-'’, the ‘'j'’
     or ‘'J'’ suffix, and the decimal number.  For example,
     ‘complex('1+2j')’ is fine, but ‘complex('1 + 2j')’ raises *note
     ValueError: 202.  More precisely, the input must conform to the
     *note complexvalue: 216e. production rule in the following grammar,
     after parentheses and leading and trailing whitespace characters
     are removed:

          complexvalue ::= *note floatvalue: 216f. |
                           *note floatvalue: 216f. ("j" | "J") |
                           *note floatvalue: 216f. *note sign: 2170. *note absfloatvalue: 2171. ("j" | "J")

     If the argument is a number, the constructor serves as a numeric
     conversion like *note int: 257. and *note float: 2ef.  For a
     general Python object ‘x’, ‘complex(x)’ delegates to
     ‘x.__complex__()’.  If *note __complex__(): 5e1. is not defined
     then it falls back to *note __float__(): 9c9.  If ‘__float__()’ is
     not defined then it falls back to *note __index__(): 716.

     If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each
     argument may be any numeric type (including complex).  If both
     arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real
     component 'real' and the imaginary component 'imag'.  If both
     arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the
     real component ‘real.real-imag.imag’ and the imaginary component
     ‘real.imag+imag.real’.  If one of arguments is a real number, only
     its real component is used in the above expressions.

     If all arguments are omitted, returns ‘0j’.

     복소수 형은 *note 숫자 형 — int, float, complex: 1bff. 에서 설명합
     니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 코드 리터럴 처럼 숫자를 밑줄로 그룹화할 수 있습
     니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Falls back to *note __index__(): 716. if *note
     __complex__(): 5e1. and *note __float__(): 9c9. are not defined.

 -- 함수: delattr (object, name, /)

     This is a relative of *note setattr(): 2163.  The arguments are an
     object and a string.  The string must be the name of one of the
     object’s attributes.  The function deletes the named attribute,
     provided the object allows it.  For example, ‘delattr(x, 'foobar')’
     is equivalent to ‘del x.foobar’.  'name' need not be a Python
     identifier (see *note setattr(): 2163.).

 -- 클래스: dict (**kwargs)

 -- 클래스: dict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- 클래스: dict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     새 딕셔너리를 만듭니다.  *note dict: 256. 객체는 딕셔너리 클래스입
     니다.  이 클래스에 대한 설명서는 *note dict: 256. 및 *note 매핑 형
     — dict: ac3. 을 보세요.

     다른 컨테이너의 경우 *note list: 60b, *note set: 5d3. 및 *note
     tuple: 369. 클래스와 *note collections: 1d. 모듈을 보세요.

 -- 함수: dir ()

 -- 함수: dir (object, /)

     인자가 없으면, 현재 지역 스코프에 있는 이름들의 리스트를 돌려줍니다
     .  인자가 있으면, 해당 객체에 유효한 어트리뷰트들의 리스트를 돌려주
     려고 시도합니다.

     If the object has a method named *note __dir__(): 1f6f, this method
     will be called and must return the list of attributes.  This allows
     objects that implement a custom *note __getattr__(): 4cd. or *note
     __getattribute__(): bcf. function to customize the way *note dir():
     62c. reports their attributes.

     If the object does not provide *note __dir__(): 1f6f, the function
     tries its best to gather information from the object’s *note
     __dict__: 556. attribute, if defined, and from its type object.
     The resulting list is not necessarily complete and may be
     inaccurate when the object has a custom *note __getattr__(): 4cd.

     기본 *note dir(): 62c. 메커니즘은 다른 형의 객체에 대해서 다르게 동
     작하는데, 완전한 정보보다는 가장 적절한 정보를 만들려고 시도하기 때
     문입니다:

        * 객체가 모듈 객체면, 리스트에는 모듈 어트리뷰트의 이름이 포함됩
          니다.

        * 객체가 형 또는 클래스 객체면, 리스트에는 그것의 어트리뷰트 이
          름과 베이스의 어트리뷰트 이름들이 재귀적으로 포함됩니다.

        * 그 밖의 경우, 리스트에는 객체의 어트리뷰트 이름, 해당 클래스의
          어트리뷰트 이름 및 해당 클래스의 베이스 클래스들의 어트리뷰트
          이름을 재귀적으로 포함합니다.

     결과 리스트는 알파벳 순으로 정렬됩니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> import struct
          >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
          ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
          >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
          ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
           '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
           '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
           'unpack', 'unpack_from']
          >>> class Shape:
          ...     def __dir__(self):
          ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
          ...
          >>> s = Shape()
          >>> dir(s)
          ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

          참고: *note dir(): 62c. 은 주로 대화형 프롬프트에서의 사용 편
          의를 위해 제공되기 때문에, 엄격하거나 일관되게 정의된 이름 집
          합을 제공하기보다 흥미로운 이름 집합을 제공하려고 시도하며, 상
          세한 동작은 배포마다 변경될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 인자가 클
          래스면 메타 클래스 어트리뷰트는 결과 리스트에 없습니다.

 -- 함수: divmod (a, b, /)

     Take two (non-complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of
     numbers consisting of their quotient and remainder when using
     integer division.  With mixed operand types, the rules for binary
     arithmetic operators apply.  For integers, the result is the same
     as ‘(a // b, a % b)’.  For floating-point numbers the result is
     ‘(q, a % b)’, where 'q' is usually ‘math.floor(a / b)’ but may be 1
     less than that.  In any case ‘q * b + a % b’ is very close to 'a',
     if ‘a % b’ is non-zero it has the same sign as 'b', and ‘0 <= abs(a
     % b) < abs(b)’.

 -- 함수: enumerate (iterable, start=0)

     열거 객체를 돌려줍니다.  'iterable' 은 시퀀스, *note 이터레이터:
     1ac. 또는 이터레이션을 지원하는 다른 객체여야 합니다.  *note
     enumerate(): 1445. 에 의해 반환된 이터레이터의 *note __next__():
     12bd. 메서드는 카운트 (기본값 0을 갖는 'start' 부터)와 'iterable' 을
     이터레이션 해서 얻어지는 값을 포함하는 튜플을 돌려줍니다.

          >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
          [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
          [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

     다음과 동등합니다:

          def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
              n = start
              for elem in iterable:
                  yield n, elem
                  n += 1

 -- 함수: eval (source, /, globals=None, locals=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘source’ (*note str: 445. | *note code object: 1d2.) – A
          Python expression.

        * ‘globals’ (*note dict: 256. | ‘None’) – The global namespace
          (default: ‘None’).

        * ‘locals’ (*note mapping: 11ab. | ‘None’) – The local namespace
          (default: ‘None’).


     반환: The result of the evaluated expression.


     Raises: Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.

          경고: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling it with
          user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities.

     The 'expression' argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python
     expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the
     'globals' and 'locals' mappings as global and local namespace.  If
     the 'globals' dictionary is present and does not contain a value
     for the key ‘__builtins__’, a reference to the dictionary of the
     built-in module *note builtins: 12. is inserted under that key
     before 'expression' is parsed.  That way you can control what
     builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
     ‘__builtins__’ dictionary into 'globals' before passing it to *note
     eval(): 180.  If the 'locals' mapping is omitted it defaults to the
     'globals' dictionary.  If both mappings are omitted, the expression
     is executed with the 'globals' and 'locals' in the environment
     where *note eval(): 180. is called.  Note, 'eval()' will only have
     access to the *note nested scopes: 1f46. (non-locals) in the
     enclosing environment if they are already referenced in the scope
     that is calling *note eval(): 180. (e.g.  via a *note nonlocal:
     1297. statement).

     Example:

          >>> x = 1
          >>> eval('x+1')
          2

     This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects
     (such as those created by *note compile(): 192.).  In this case,
     pass a code object instead of a string.  If the code object has
     been compiled with ‘'exec'’ as the 'mode' argument, *note eval():
     180.'s return value will be ‘None’.

     Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the *note
     exec(): 17f. function.  The *note globals(): 186e. and *note
     locals(): 141. functions return the current global and local
     dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around for
     use by *note eval(): 180. or *note exec(): 17f.

     If the given source is a string, then leading and trailing spaces
     and tabs are stripped.

     리터럴 만 포함 된 표현식의 값을 안전하게 구할 수 있는 함수 *note
     ast.literal_eval(): c15. 를 보세요.

     코드 객체를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘exec’를
     발생시킵니다.  코드 컴파일 이벤트도 발생할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'globals' and 'locals' arguments can now be
     passed as keywords.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The semantics of the default 'locals' namespace
     have been adjusted as described for the *note locals(): 141.
     builtin.

 -- 함수: exec (source, /, globals=None, locals=None, *, closure=None)

          경고: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling it with
          user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities.

     This function supports dynamic execution of Python code.  'source'
     must be either a string or a code object.  If it is a string, the
     string is parsed as a suite of Python statements which is then
     executed (unless a syntax error occurs).  (1)  If it is a code
     object, it is simply executed.  In all cases, the code that’s
     executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section
     *note 파일 입력: 2146. in the Reference Manual).  Be aware that the
     *note nonlocal: 1297, *note yield: 9ca, and *note return: 9cb.
     statements may not be used outside of function definitions even
     within the context of code passed to the *note exec(): 17f.
     function.  The return value is ‘None’.

     In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is
     executed in the current scope.  If only 'globals' is provided, it
     must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will
     be used for both the global and the local variables.  If 'globals'
     and 'locals' are given, they are used for the global and local
     variables, respectively.  If provided, 'locals' can be any mapping
     object.  Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are
     the same dictionary.

          참고: When ‘exec’ gets two separate objects as 'globals' and
          'locals', the code will be executed as if it were embedded in
          a class definition.  This means functions and classes defined
          in the executed code will not be able to access variables
          assigned at the top level (as the “top level” variables are
          treated as class variables in a class definition).

     'globals' 딕셔너리가 ‘__builtins__’ 를 키로 하는 값을 갖고 있지 않
     으면, 그 키로 내장 모듈 *note builtins: 12. 에 대한 참조가 삽입됩니
     다.  이런 식으로 *note exec(): 17f. 에 전달하기 전에 'globals' 에 여
     러분 자신의 ‘__builtins__’ 딕셔너리를 삽입함으로써, 실행되는 코드에
     어떤 내장 객체들이 제공될지를 제어할 수 있습니다.

     The 'closure' argument specifies a closure–a tuple of cellvars.
     It’s only valid when the 'object' is a code object containing *note
     free (closure) variables: 1f47.  The length of the tuple must
     exactly match the length of the code object’s *note co_freevars:
     1f03. attribute.

     코드 객체를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘exec’를
     발생시킵니다.  코드 컴파일 이벤트도 발생할 수 있습니다.

          참고: The built-in functions *note globals(): 186e. and *note
          locals(): 141. return the current global and local namespace,
          respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use as
          the second and third argument to *note exec(): 17f.

          참고: The default 'locals' act as described for function *note
          locals(): 141. below.  Pass an explicit 'locals' dictionary if
          you need to see effects of the code on 'locals' after function
          *note exec(): 17f. returns.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'closure' parameter.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'globals' and 'locals' arguments can now be
     passed as keywords.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The semantics of the default 'locals' namespace
     have been adjusted as described for the *note locals(): 141.
     builtin.

 -- 함수: filter (function, iterable, /)

     Construct an iterator from those elements of 'iterable' for which
     'function' is true.  'iterable' may be either a sequence, a
     container which supports iteration, or an iterator.  If 'function'
     is ‘None’, the identity function is assumed, that is, all elements
     of 'iterable' that are false are removed.

     ‘filter(function, iterable)’ 는 function이 ‘None’ 이 아닐 때 제너레
     이터 표현식 ‘(item for item in iterable if function(item))’ 과,
     ‘None’ 일 때 ‘(item for item in iterable if item)’ 와 동등함에 유의
     하세요.

     See *note itertools.filterfalse(): 2173. for the complementary
     function that returns elements of 'iterable' for which 'function'
     is false.

 -- 클래스: float (number=0.0, /)

 -- 클래스: float (string, /)

     Return a floating-point number constructed from a number or a
     string.

     Examples:

          >>> float('+1.23')
          1.23
          >>> float('   -12345\n')
          -12345.0
          >>> float('1e-003')
          0.001
          >>> float('+1E6')
          1000000.0
          >>> float('-Infinity')
          -inf

     If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number,
     optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in
     whitespace.  The optional sign may be ‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’; a ‘'+'’ sign
     has no effect on the value produced.  The argument may also be a
     string representing a NaN (not-a-number), or positive or negative
     infinity.  More precisely, the input must conform to the *note
     floatvalue: 216f. production rule in the following grammar, after
     leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:

          sign          ::= "+" | "-"
          infinity      ::= "Infinity" | "inf"
          nan           ::= "nan"
          digit         ::= <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
          digitpart     ::= *note digit: 2176. (["_"] *note digit: 2176.)*
          number        ::= [*note digitpart: 2177.] "." *note digitpart: 2177. | *note digitpart: 2177. ["."]
          exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") [*note sign: 2170.] *note digitpart: 2177.
          floatnumber   ::= *note number: 2178. [*note exponent: 2179.]
          absfloatvalue ::= *note floatnumber: 217a. | *note infinity: 2174. | *note nan: 2175.
          floatvalue    ::= [*note sign: 2170.] *note absfloatvalue: 2171.

     Case is not significant, so, for example, “inf”, “Inf”, “INFINITY”,
     and “iNfINity” are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

     Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating-point
     number, a floating-point number with the same value (within
     Python’s floating-point precision) is returned.  If the argument is
     outside the range of a Python float, an *note OverflowError: 87d.
     will be raised.

     For a general Python object ‘x’, ‘float(x)’ delegates to
     ‘x.__float__()’.  If *note __float__(): 9c9. is not defined then it
     falls back to *note __index__(): 716.

     인자가 주어지지 않으면, ‘0.0’ 을 돌려줍니다.

     float 형은 *note 숫자 형 — int, float, complex: 1bff. 에 설명되어 있
     습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 코드 리터럴 처럼 숫자를 밑줄로 그룹화할 수 있습
     니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The parameter is now positional-only.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Falls back to *note __index__(): 716. if *note
     __float__(): 9c9. is not defined.

 -- 함수: format (value, format_spec='', /)

     Convert a 'value' to a “formatted” representation, as controlled by
     'format_spec'.  The interpretation of 'format_spec' will depend on
     the type of the 'value' argument; however, there is a standard
     formatting syntax that is used by most built-in types: *note 포맷
     명세 미니 언어: 1e8.

     기본 'format_spec' 은 빈 문자열이며 일반적으로 *note str(value):
     445. 를 호출하는 것과 같은 효과를 줍니다.

     A call to ‘format(value, format_spec)’ is translated to
     ‘type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)’ which bypasses the
     instance dictionary when searching for the value’s *note
     __format__(): 618. method.  A *note TypeError: 532. exception is
     raised if the method search reaches *note object: a89. and the
     'format_spec' is non-empty, or if either the 'format_spec' or the
     return value are not strings.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘object().__format__(format_spec)’ 은
     'format_spec' 이 빈 문자열이 아닌 경우 *note TypeError: 532. 를 일
     으킵니다.

 -- 클래스: frozenset (iterable=(), /)

     새 *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체를 돌려주는데, 선택적으로 'iterable' 에
     서 가져온 요소를 포함합니다.  ‘frozenset’ 은 내장 클래스입니다.  이
     클래스에 대한 설명서는 *note frozenset: 5d4. 과 *note 집합 형 —
     set, frozenset: 217b.을 보세요.

     다른 컨테이너의 경우 *note set: 5d3, *note list: 60b, *note tuple:
     369. 및 *note dict: 256. 클래스와 *note collections: 1d. 모듈을 보
     세요.

 -- 함수: getattr (object, name, /)

 -- 함수: getattr (object, name, default, /)

     Return the value of the named attribute of 'object'.  'name' must
     be a string.  If the string is the name of one of the object’s
     attributes, the result is the value of that attribute.  For
     example, ‘getattr(x, 'foobar')’ is equivalent to ‘x.foobar’.  If
     the named attribute does not exist, 'default' is returned if
     provided, otherwise *note AttributeError: 346. is raised.  'name'
     need not be a Python identifier (see *note setattr(): 2163.).

          참고: Since *note private name mangling: 1cc2. happens at
          compilation time, one must manually mangle a private
          attribute’s (attributes with two leading underscores) name in
          order to retrieve it with *note getattr(): bce.

 -- 함수: globals ()

     Return the dictionary implementing the current module namespace.
     For code within functions, this is set when the function is defined
     and remains the same regardless of where the function is called.

 -- 함수: hasattr (object, name, /)

     인자는 객체와 문자열입니다.  문자열이 객체의 속성 중 하나의 이름이
     면 결과는 ‘True’ 이고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 가 됩니다.  (이것은
     ‘getattr(object, name)’ 을 호출하고 *note AttributeError: 346. 를 발
     생시키는지를 보는 식으로 구현됩니다.)

 -- 함수: hash (object, /)

     객체의 해시값을 돌려줍니다 (해시가 있는 경우).  해시값은 정수다.  딕
     셔너리 조회 중에 딕셔너리 키를 빨리 비교하는 데 사용됩니다.  같다고
     비교되는 숫자 값은 같은 해시값을 갖습니다 (1과 1.0의 경우와 같이 형
     이 다른 경우조차도 그렇습니다).

          참고: For objects with custom *note __hash__(): af8. methods,
          note that *note hash(): 5e5. truncates the return value based
          on the bit width of the host machine.

 -- 함수: help ()

 -- 함수: help (request)

     내장 도움말 시스템을 호출합니다.  (이 함수는 대화형 사용을 위한 것
     입니다.)  인자가 제공되지 않으면, 인터프리터 콘솔에서 대화형 도움말
     시스템이 시작됩니다.  인자가 문자열이면 문자열은 모듈, 함수, 클래스
     , 메서드, 키워드 또는 설명서 주제의 이름으로 조회되고, 도움말 페이
     지가 콘솔에 인쇄됩니다.  인자가 다른 종류의 객체면, 객체에 대한 도
     움말 페이지가 만들어집니다.

     Note that if a slash(/) appears in the parameter list of a function
     when invoking *note help(): 8d4, it means that the parameters prior
     to the slash are positional-only.  For more info, see *note the FAQ
     entry on positional-only parameters: 217c.

     이 함수는 *note site: c7. 모듈에 의해 내장 이름 공간에 추가됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note pydoc: b5. 과 *note inspect: 7e. 의 변경 사
     항은 콜러블의 시그니처가 이제 더 포괄적이고 일관성이 있음을 의미합
     니다.

 -- 함수: hex (integer, /)

     Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string
     prefixed with “0x”.  If 'integer' is not a Python *note int: 257.
     object, it has to define an *note __index__(): 716. method that
     returns an integer.  Some examples:

          >>> hex(255)
          '0xff'
          >>> hex(-42)
          '-0x2a'

     정수를 대문자 또는 소문자 16진수로, 접두사가 있거나 없는 형태로 변
     환하려면 다음 방법의 하나를 사용할 수 있습니다:

          >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

     자세한 내용은 *note format(): 619.을 보세요.

     16진수 문자열을 진수 16을 사용해서 정수로 변환하려면 *note int():
     257. 도 보세요.

          참고: float에 대한 16진수 문자열 표현을 얻으려면, *note
          float.hex(): 1d1b. 메서드를 사용하세요.

 -- 함수: id (object, /)

     객체의 “아이덴티티”를 돌려준다.  이것은 객체의 수명 동안 유일하고 바
     뀌지 않음이 보장되는 정수입니다.  수명이 겹치지 않는 두 개의 객체는
     같은 *note id(): 13eb. 값을 가질 수 있습니다.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' This is the address of the object in memory.

     ‘id’ 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘builtins.id’를
     발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: input ()

 -- 함수: input (prompt, /)

     'prompt' 인자가 있으면, 끝에 개행 문자를 붙이지 않고 표준 출력에 씁
     니다.  그런 다음 함수는 입력에서 한 줄을 읽고, 문자열로 변환해서 (줄
     끝의 줄 바꿈 문자를 제거한다) 돌려줍니다.  EOF를 읽으면 *note
     EOFError: 12c9. 를 일으킵니다.  예:

          >>> s = input('--> ')
          --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
          >>> s
          "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

     *note readline: ba. 모듈이 로드되었다면, *note input(): 12c8. 은 그
     것을 사용하여 정교한 줄 편집과 히스토리 기능을 제공합니다.

     입력을 읽기 전에 ‘prompt’ 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘builtins.input’을 발생시킵니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘builtins.input/result’ with
     the result after successfully reading input.

 -- 클래스: int (number=0, /)

 -- 클래스: int (string, /, base=10)

     Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or
     return ‘0’ if no arguments are given.

     Examples:

          >>> int(123.45)
          123
          >>> int('123')
          123
          >>> int('   -12_345\n')
          -12345
          >>> int('FACE', 16)
          64206
          >>> int('0xface', 0)
          64206
          >>> int('01110011', base=2)
          115

     If the argument defines *note __int__(): 715, ‘int(x)’ returns
     ‘x.__int__()’.  If the argument defines *note __index__(): 716, it
     returns ‘x.__index__()’.  If the argument defines *note
     __trunc__(): 714, it returns ‘x.__trunc__()’.  For floating-point
     numbers, this truncates towards zero.

     If the argument is not a number or if 'base' is given, then it must
     be a string, *note bytes: 1c2, or *note bytearray: 538. instance
     representing an integer in radix 'base'.  Optionally, the string
     can be preceded by ‘+’ or ‘-’ (with no space in between), have
     leading zeros, be surrounded by whitespace, and have single
     underscores interspersed between digits.

     A base-n integer string contains digits, each representing a value
     from 0 to n-1.  The values 0–9 can be represented by any Unicode
     decimal digit.  The values 10–35 can be represented by ‘a’ to ‘z’
     (or ‘A’ to ‘Z’).  The default 'base' is 10.  The allowed bases are
     0 and 2–36.  Base-2, -8, and -16 strings can be optionally prefixed
     with ‘0b’/‘0B’, ‘0o’/‘0O’, or ‘0x’/‘0X’, as with integer literals
     in code.  For base 0, the string is interpreted in a similar way to
     an *note integer literal in code: 1ed0, in that the actual base is
     2, 8, 10, or 16 as determined by the prefix.  Base 0 also disallows
     leading zeros: ‘int('010', 0)’ is not legal, while ‘int('010')’ and
     ‘int('010', 8)’ are.

     정수 형은 *note 숫자 형 — int, float, complex: 1bff. 에 설명되어 있
     습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'base' 가 *note int: 257. 의 인스턴스가 아니고
     'base' 객체가 *note base.__index__: 716. 메서드를 가지면, 그 진수로
     쓸 정수를 얻기 위해 그 메서드를 호출합니다.  예전 버전에서는 *note
     base.__index__: 716. 대신에 *note base.__int__: 715. 가 사용되었습
     니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 코드 리터럴 처럼 숫자를 밑줄로 그룹화할 수 있습
     니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The first parameter is now positional-only.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Falls back to *note __index__(): 716. if *note
     __int__(): 715. is not defined.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The delegation to *note __trunc__(): 714. is
     deprecated.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note int: 257. string inputs and string
     representations can be limited to help avoid denial of service
     attacks.  A *note ValueError: 202. is raised when the limit is
     exceeded while converting a string to an *note int: 257. or when
     converting an *note int: 257. into a string would exceed the limit.
     See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef.
     documentation.

 -- 함수: isinstance (object, classinfo, /)

     Return ‘True’ if the 'object' argument is an instance of the
     'classinfo' argument, or of a (direct, indirect, or *note virtual:
     11a5.) subclass thereof.  If 'object' is not an object of the given
     type, the function always returns ‘False’.  If 'classinfo' is a
     tuple of type objects (or recursively, other such tuples) or a
     *note Union Type: 7bb. of multiple types, return ‘True’ if 'object'
     is an instance of any of the types.  If 'classinfo' is not a type
     or tuple of types and such tuples, a *note TypeError: 532.
     exception is raised.  *note TypeError: 532. may not be raised for
     an invalid type if an earlier check succeeds.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'classinfo' can be a *note Union Type: 7bb.

 -- 함수: issubclass (class, classinfo, /)

     Return ‘True’ if 'class' is a subclass (direct, indirect, or *note
     virtual: 11a5.) of 'classinfo'.  A class is considered a subclass
     of itself.  'classinfo' may be a tuple of class objects (or
     recursively, other such tuples) or a *note Union Type: 7bb, in
     which case return ‘True’ if 'class' is a subclass of any entry in
     'classinfo'.  In any other case, a *note TypeError: 532. exception
     is raised.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'classinfo' can be a *note Union Type: 7bb.

 -- 함수: iter (iterable, /)

 -- 함수: iter (callable, sentinel, /)

     Return an *note iterator: 1ac. object.  The first argument is
     interpreted very differently depending on the presence of the
     second argument.  Without a second argument, the single argument
     must be a collection object which supports the *note iterable:
     1217. protocol (the *note __iter__(): 1f64. method), or it must
     support the sequence protocol (the *note __getitem__(): 283. method
     with integer arguments starting at ‘0’).  If it does not support
     either of those protocols, *note TypeError: 532. is raised.  If the
     second argument, 'sentinel', is given, then the first argument must
     be a callable object.  The iterator created in this case will call
     'callable' with no arguments for each call to its *note __next__():
     12bd. method; if the value returned is equal to 'sentinel', *note
     StopIteration: bf7. will be raised, otherwise the value will be
     returned.

     *note 이터레이터 형: 217d. 도 보세요.

     두 번째 형태의 *note iter(): 7d0. 의 한가지 유용한 응용은 블록 리더
     를 만드는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 바이너리 데이터베이스 파일에서 파일
     의 끝까지 고정 폭 블록 읽기입니다:

          from functools import partial
          with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
              for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
                  process_block(block)

 -- 함수: len (object, /)

     객체의 길이 (항목 수)를 돌려줍니다.  인자는 시퀀스 (문자열, 바이트
     열, 튜플, 리스트 또는 range 같은) 또는 컬렉션 (딕셔너리, 집합 또는
     불변 집합 같은) 일 수 있습니다.

     ‘len’은 *note range(2 ** 100): 941.와 같이 *note sys.maxsize:
     11b4.보다 긴 길이에서 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: list (iterable=(), /)

     함수이기보다, *note 리스트: 217e. 와 *note 시퀀스 형 — list, tuple,
     range: 1c51. 에 문서화 된 것처럼, *note list: 60b. 는 실제로는 가변
     시퀀스 형입니다.

 -- 함수: locals ()

     Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol
     table, with variable names as the keys, and their currently bound
     references as the values.

     At module scope, as well as when using *note exec(): 17f. or *note
     eval(): 180. with a single namespace, this function returns the
     same namespace as *note globals(): 186e.

     At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the
     metaclass constructor.

     When using ‘exec()’ or ‘eval()’ with separate local and global
     arguments, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function
     call.

     In all of the above cases, each call to ‘locals()’ in a given frame
     of execution will return the 'same' mapping object.  Changes made
     through the mapping object returned from ‘locals()’ will be visible
     as assigned, reassigned, or deleted local variables, and assigning,
     reassigning, or deleting local variables will immediately affect
     the contents of the returned mapping object.

     In an *note optimized scope: 17e. (including functions, generators,
     and coroutines), each call to ‘locals()’ instead returns a fresh
     dictionary containing the current bindings of the function’s local
     variables and any nonlocal cell references.  In this case, name
     binding changes made via the returned dict are 'not' written back
     to the corresponding local variables or nonlocal cell references,
     and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local variables and
     nonlocal cell references does 'not' affect the contents of
     previously returned dictionaries.

     Calling ‘locals()’ as part of a comprehension in a function,
     generator, or coroutine is equivalent to calling it in the
     containing scope, except that the comprehension’s initialised
     iteration variables will be included.  In other scopes, it behaves
     as if the comprehension were running as a nested function.

     Calling ‘locals()’ as part of a generator expression is equivalent
     to calling it in a nested generator function.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The behaviour of ‘locals()’ in a comprehension
     has been updated as described in PEP 709(2).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: As part of PEP 667(3), the semantics of
     mutating the mapping objects returned from this function are now
     defined.  The behavior in *note optimized scopes: 17e. is now as
     described above.  Aside from being defined, the behaviour in other
     scopes remains unchanged from previous versions.

 -- 함수: map (function, iterable, *iterables)

     Return an iterator that applies 'function' to every item of
     'iterable', yielding the results.  If additional 'iterables'
     arguments are passed, 'function' must take that many arguments and
     is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel.  With
     multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the shortest iterable
     is exhausted.  For cases where the function inputs are already
     arranged into argument tuples, see *note itertools.starmap(): 10d6.

 -- 함수: max (iterable, /, *, key=None)

 -- 함수: max (iterable, /, *, default, key=None)

 -- 함수: max (arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)

     iterable 에서 가장 큰 항목이나 두 개 이상의 인자 중 가장 큰 것을 돌
     려줍니다.

     하나의 위치 인자가 제공되면, 그것은 *note 이터러블: 1217. 이어야 합
     니다.  iterable에서 가장 큰 항목을 돌려줍니다.  두 개 이상의 위치 인
     자가 제공되면, 위치 인자 중 가장 큰 것을 돌려줍니다.

     선택적 키워드-전용 인자가 두 개 있습니다.  'key' 인자는 *note
     list.sort(): bcc. 에 사용되는 것처럼 단일 인자 순서 함수를 지정합니
     다.  'default' 인자는 제공된 iterable이 비어있는 경우 돌려줄 객체를
     지정합니다.  iterable이 비어 있고 'default' 가 제공되지 않으면
     *note ValueError: 202. 가 발생합니다.

     여러 항목이 최댓값이면, 함수는 처음 만난 항목을 돌려줍니다.  이것은
     ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0]’ 와
     ‘heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)’ 같은 다른 정렬 안정성 보
     존 도구와 일관성을 유지합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: Added the 'default' keyword-only parameter.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'key'는 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: memoryview (object)

     지정된 인자로부터 만들어진 “메모리 뷰” 객체를 돌려줍니다.  자세한 정
     보는 *note 메모리 뷰: 217f. 를 보세요.

 -- 함수: min (iterable, /, *, key=None)

 -- 함수: min (iterable, /, *, default, key=None)

 -- 함수: min (arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)

     iterable 에서 가장 작은 항목이나 두 개 이상의 인자 중 가장 작은 것
     을 돌려줍니다.

     하나의 위치 인자가 제공되면, 그것은 *note 이터러블: 1217. 이어야 합
     니다.  iterable에서 가장 작은 항목을 돌려줍니다.  두 개 이상의 위치
     인자가 제공되면, 위치 인자 중 가장 작은 것을 돌려줍니다.

     선택적 키워드-전용 인자가 두 개 있습니다.  'key' 인자는 *note
     list.sort(): bcc. 에 사용되는 것처럼 단일 인자 순서 함수를 지정합니
     다.  'default' 인자는 제공된 iterable이 비어있는 경우 돌려줄 객체를
     지정합니다.  iterable이 비어 있고 'default' 가 제공되지 않으면
     *note ValueError: 202. 가 발생합니다.

     여러 항목이 최솟값이면, 함수는 처음 만난 항목을 돌려줍니다.  이것은
     ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]’ 와 ‘heapq.nsmallest(1, iterable,
     key=keyfunc)’ 같은 다른 정렬 안정성 보존 도구와 일관성을 유지합니다
     .

     버전 3.4에서 변경: Added the 'default' keyword-only parameter.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'key'는 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: next (iterator, /)

 -- 함수: next (iterator, default, /)

     Retrieve the next item from the *note iterator: 1ac. by calling its
     *note __next__(): 12bd. method.  If 'default' is given, it is
     returned if the iterator is exhausted, otherwise *note
     StopIteration: bf7. is raised.

 -- 클래스: object

     This is the ultimate base class of all other classes.  It has
     methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  When
     the constructor is called, it returns a new featureless object.
     The constructor does not accept any arguments.

          참고: *note object: a89. instances do 'not' have *note
          __dict__: 556. attributes, so you can’t assign arbitrary
          attributes to an instance of *note object: a89.

 -- 함수: oct (integer, /)

     Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”.
     The result is a valid Python expression.  If 'integer' is not a
     Python *note int: 257. object, it has to define an *note
     __index__(): 716. method that returns an integer.  For example:

          >>> oct(8)
          '0o10'
          >>> oct(-56)
          '-0o70'

     If you want to convert an integer number to an octal string either
     with the prefix “0o” or not, you can use either of the following
     ways.

          >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
          ('0o12', '12')

     자세한 내용은 *note format(): 619.을 보세요.

 -- 함수: open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     'file' 을 열고 해당 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 를 돌려줍니다.  파일을 열
     수 없으면, *note OSError: 411. 가 발생합니다.  이 함수를 사용하는 방
     법에 대한 더 많은 예제는 *note 파일을 읽고 쓰기: 1c87.를 참조하십시
     오.

     'file' is a *note path-like object: 2a0. giving the pathname
     (absolute or relative to the current working directory) of the file
     to be opened or an integer file descriptor of the file to be
     wrapped.  (If a file descriptor is given, it is closed when the
     returned I/O object is closed unless 'closefd' is set to ‘False’.)

     'mode' is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the
     file is opened.  It defaults to ‘'r'’ which means open for reading
     in text mode.  Other common values are ‘'w'’ for writing
     (truncating the file if it already exists), ‘'x'’ for exclusive
     creation, and ‘'a'’ for appending (which on 'some' Unix systems,
     means that 'all' writes append to the end of the file regardless of
     the current seek position).  In text mode, if 'encoding' is not
     specified the encoding used is platform-dependent: *note
     locale.getencoding(): 2de. is called to get the current locale
     encoding.  (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and
     leave 'encoding' unspecified.)  The available modes are:

     문자          의미
                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'r'’         읽기용으로 엽니다 (기본값)
                   
                   
     ‘'w'’         쓰기용으로 엽니다, 파일을 먼저 자릅니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         독점적인 파일 만들기용으로 엽니다, 이미 존재하는 경우에는 실패합
                   니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'a'’         open for writing, appending to the end of file if it exists
                   
                   
     ‘'b'’         바이너리 모드
                   
                   
     ‘'t'’         텍스트 모드 (기본값)
                   
                   
     ‘'+'’         갱신(읽기 및 쓰기)용으로 엽니다
                   

     The default mode is ‘'r'’ (open for reading text, a synonym of
     ‘'rt'’).  Modes ‘'w+'’ and ‘'w+b'’ open and truncate the file.
     Modes ‘'r+'’ and ‘'r+b'’ open the file with no truncation.

     *note 개요: 2181. 에서 언급했듯이, 파이썬은 바이너리와 텍스트 I/O를
     구별합니다.  바이너리 모드 ('mode' 인자에 ‘'b'’ 를 포함합니다)로 열
     린 파일은 내용을 디코딩 없이 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 돌려줍니다.  텍
     스트 모드 (기본값, 또는 'mode' 인자에 ‘'t'’ 가 포함될 때)에서는, 파
     일의 내용이 *note str: 445.로 반환되는데, 바이트열이 플랫폼 의존적
     인 인코딩이나 주어진 'encoding' 을 사용해서 먼저 디코드 됩니다.

          참고: 파이썬은 하위 운영 체제의 텍스트 파일 개념에 의존하지 않
          습니다.  모든 처리는 파이썬 자체에 의해 수행되므로 플랫폼에 독
          립적입니다.

     'buffering' is an optional integer used to set the buffering
     policy.  Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary
     mode), 1 to select line buffering (only usable when writing in text
     mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size in bytes of a
     fixed-size chunk buffer.  Note that specifying a buffer size this
     way applies for binary buffered I/O, but ‘TextIOWrapper’ (i.e.,
     files opened with ‘mode='r+'’) would have another buffering.  To
     disable buffering in ‘TextIOWrapper’, consider using the
     ‘write_through’ flag for *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): b46.
     When no 'buffering' argument is given, the default buffering policy
     works as follows:

        * Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of
          the buffer is chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the
          underlying device’s “block size” and falling back on *note
          io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 16ce.  On many systems, the buffer
          will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.

        * “대화형” 텍스트 파일 (*note isatty(): 1c8a. 가 ‘True’ 를 돌려
          주는 파일)은 줄 버퍼링을 사용합니다.  다른 텍스트 파일은 바이
          너리 파일에 대해 위에서 설명한 정책을 사용합니다.

     'encoding' is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the
     file.  This should only be used in text mode.  The default encoding
     is platform dependent (whatever *note locale.getencoding(): 2de.
     returns), but any *note text encoding: 2182. supported by Python
     can be used.  See the *note codecs: 1b. module for the list of
     supported encodings.

     'errors' 는 인코딩 및 디코딩 에러를 처리하는 방법을 지정하는 선택적
     문자열입니다.  바이너리 모드에서는 사용할 수 없습니다.  다양한 표준
     에러 처리기가 제공됩니다 (*note 에러 처리기: 17ec. 에 나열됩니다).
     하지만, *note codecs.register_error(): 145f.로 등록된 에러 처리기 이
     름 역시 사용할 수 있습니다.  표준 이름은 다음과 같습니다:

        * ‘'strict'’ 는 인코딩 에러가 있는 경우 *note ValueError: 202. 예
          외를 발생시킵니다.  기본값 ‘None’ 은 같은 효과를 냅니다.

        * ‘'ignore'’ 는 에러를 무시합니다.  인코딩 에러를 무시하면 데이
          터가 손실될 수 있음에 주의하세요.

        * ‘'replace'’ 는 잘못된 데이터가 있는 자리에 대체 마커(‘'?'’ 와
          같은)를 삽입합니다.

        * ‘'surrogateescape'’ will represent any incorrect bytes as low
          surrogate code units ranging from U+DC80 to U+DCFF. These
          surrogate code units will then be turned back into the same
          bytes when the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler is used when
          writing data.  This is useful for processing files in an
          unknown encoding.

        * ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ is only supported when writing to a
          file.  Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced
          with the appropriate XML character reference ‘&#NNN;’.

        * ‘'backslashreplace'’ 는 잘못된 데이터를 파이썬의 역 슬래시 이
          스케이프 시퀀스로 대체합니다.

        * ‘'namereplace'’ (역시 파일에 쓸 때만 지원됩니다)는 지원되지 않
          는 문자를 ‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프 시퀀스로 대체합니다.

     'newline' determines how to parse newline characters from the
     stream.  It can be ‘None’, ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, and ‘'\r\n'’.  It
     works as follows:

        * 스트림에서 입력을 읽을 때, 'newline' 이 ‘None’ 이면, 유니버설
          줄 넘김 모드가 활성화됩니다.  입력에 있는 줄은 ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’
          또는 ‘'\r\n'’ 로 끝날 수 있으며, 호출자에게 돌려주기 전에 모두
          ‘'\n'’ 로 변환됩니다.  그것이 ‘''’ 이면, 유니버설 줄 넘김 모드
          가 활성화되지만, 줄 끝은 변환되지 않은 채로 호출자에게 반환됩
          니다.  다른 유효한 값이면, 입력 줄은 주어진 문자열로만 끝나며,
          줄 끝은 변환되지 않은 채로 호출자에게 돌려줍니다.

        * 스트림에 출력을 쓸 때, 'newline' 이 ‘None’ 이면, 모든 ‘'\n'’ 문
          자는 시스템 기본 줄 구분자인 *note os.linesep: 2183. 로 변환됩
          니다.  'newline' 이 ‘''’ 또는 ‘'\n'’ 이면, 변환이 이루어지지 않
          습니다.  'newline' 이 다른 유효한 값이면, 쓰이는 모든 ‘'\n'’ 문
          자는 주어진 문자열로 변환됩니다.

     If 'closefd' is ‘False’ and a file descriptor rather than a
     filename was given, the underlying file descriptor will be kept
     open when the file is closed.  If a filename is given 'closefd'
     must be ‘True’ (the default); otherwise, an error will be raised.

     콜러블을 'opener' 로 전달하여 커스텀 오프너를 사용할 수 있습니다.  파
     일 객체를 위한 하위 파일 디스크립터는 'opener' 를 ('file', 'flags')
     로 호출해서 얻습니다.  'opener' 는 열린 파일 디스크립터를 반환해야
     합니다 ('opener' 에 *note os.open: d8e. 을 전달하는 것은 ‘None’ 을
     전달하는 것과 비슷한 기능을 수행하게 됩니다).

     새로 만들어진 파일은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1. 합니다.

     다음 예는 주어진 디렉터리에 상대적인 파일을 열기 위해 *note
     os.open(): d8e. 함수의 *note dir_fd: 10dc. 매개변수를 사용합니다:

          >>> import os
          >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
          >>> def opener(path, flags):
          ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
          ...
          >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
          ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
          ...
          >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

     *note open(): 515. 함수에 의해 반환된 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 의 형
     은 모드에 의존합니다.  *note open(): 515. 이 텍스트 모드(‘'w'’,
     ‘'r'’, ‘'wt'’, ‘'rt'’, 등)로 파일을 여는 데 사용되면, *note
     io.TextIOBase: 68f. 의 서브 클래스를 돌려줍니다 (구체적으로 *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.).  버퍼링과 함께 바이너리 모드로 파일을 여는
     데 사용되는 경우, 반환되는 클래스는 *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 의
     서브 클래스입니다.  정확한 클래스는 다양합니다: 읽기 바이너리 모드
     에서는, *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd. 를 돌려줍니다; 쓰기 바이너리
     와 덧붙이기 바이너리 모드에서는, *note io.BufferedWriter: 1551. 를
     돌려주고, 읽기/쓰기 모드에서는, *note io.BufferedRandom: 1552. 을 돌
     려줍니다.  버퍼링을 끄면, 날 스트림, *note io.RawIOBase: 10c3. 의 서
     브 클래스, *note io.FileIO: 1300, 을 돌려줍니다.

     See also the file handling modules, such as *note fileinput: 5b,
     *note io: 7f. (where *note open(): 515. is declared), *note os: a1,
     *note os.path: a2, *note tempfile: e0, and *note shutil: c5.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘open’ with arguments ‘path’,
     ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     ‘mode’와 ‘flags’ 인자는 원래 호출에서 수정되거나 추론되었을 수 있습
     니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경:

        * 'opener' 매개변수가 추가되었습니다.

        * ‘'x'’ 모드가 추가되었습니다.

        * *note IOError: 1048. 를 일으켜왔습니다.  이제는 *note OSError:
          411. 의 별칭입니다.

        * 독점적 파일 만들기 모드(‘'x'’)로 여는 파일이 이미 존재하면, 이
          제 *note FileExistsError: 1016. 를 일으킵니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경:

        * 파일은 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경:

        * 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외를 발생시키지
          않으면, 이 함수는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예외를 일
          으키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(4) 를 보
          세요).

        * ‘'namereplace'’ 오류 처리기가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경:

        * *note os.PathLike: c4e. 를 구현하는 객체를 받아들이도록 지원이
          추가되었습니다.

        * 윈도우에서, 콘솔 버퍼를 열면 *note io.FileIO: 1300. 가 아닌
          *note io.RawIOBase: 10c3. 의 서브 클래스가 반환될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘'U'’ mode has been removed.

 -- 함수: ord (character, /)

     Return the ordinal value of a character.

     If the argument is a one-character string, return the Unicode code
     point of that character.  For example, ‘ord('a')’ returns the
     integer ‘97’ and ‘ord('€')’ (Euro sign) returns ‘8364’.  This is
     the inverse of *note chr(): 1679.

     If the argument is a *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 538.
     object of length 1, return its single byte value.  For example,
     ‘ord(b'a')’ returns the integer ‘97’.

 -- 함수: pow (base, exp, mod=None)

     'base' 의 'exp' 거듭제곱을 돌려줍니다; 'mod' 가 있는 경우, 'base' 의
     'exp' 거듭제곱의 모듈로 'mod' 를 돌려줍니다 (‘pow(base, exp) % mod’
     보다 더 빠르게 계산됩니다).  두 개의 인자 형식인 ‘pow(base, exp)’ 는
     거듭제곱 연산자를 사용하는 것과 동등합니다: ‘base**exp’.

     When arguments are builtin numeric types with mixed operand types,
     the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
     *note int: 257. operands, the result has the same type as the
     operands (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative;
     in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(10, 2)’ returns ‘100’, but
     ‘pow(10, -2)’ returns ‘0.01’.  For a negative base of type *note
     int: 257. or *note float: 2ef. and a non-integral exponent, a
     complex result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 0.5)’ returns a
     value close to ‘3j’.  Whereas, for a negative base of type *note
     int: 257. or *note float: 2ef. with an integral exponent, a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 2.0)’ returns ‘81.0’.

     *note int: 257. 피연산자 'base' 및 'exp'의 경우, 'mod'가 있으면,
     'mod'도 정수 형이어야 하고 'mod'는 0이 아니어야 합니다.  'mod'가 있
     고 'exp'가 음수면, 'base'는 'mod'와 서로 소(relatively prime)여야 합
     니다.  이 경우, ‘pow(inv_base, -exp, mod)’가 반환되며, 여기서
     'inv_base'는 'base' 모듈로 'mod'의 역입니다.

     다음은 ‘38’ 모듈로 ‘97’의 역을 계산하는 예입니다:

          >>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)
          23
          >>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1
          True

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note int: 257. 피연산자의 경우, ‘pow’의 3 인자
     형식은 이제 두 번째 인자가 음수가 되는 것을 허용하여, 모듈러 역수를
     계산할 수 있게 합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 키워드 인자를 허용합니다.  이전에는, 위치 인자만
     지원되었습니다.

 -- 함수: print (*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None, flush=False)

     Print 'objects' to the text stream 'file', separated by 'sep' and
     followed by 'end'.  'sep', 'end', 'file', and 'flush', if present,
     must be given as keyword arguments.

     모든 비 키워드 인자는 *note str(): 445. 이 하듯이 문자열로 변환된 후
     스트림에 쓰이는데, 'sep' 로 구분되고 'end' 를 뒤에 붙입니다.  'sep'
     과 'end' 는 모두 문자열이어야 합니다; ‘None’ 일 수도 있는데, 기본값
     을 사용한다는 뜻입니다.  'objects' 가 주어지지 않으면 *note
     print(): f6d. 는 'end' 만 씁니다.

     'file' 인자는 ‘write(string)’ 메서드를 가진 객체여야 합니다; 존재하
     지 않거나 ‘None’ 이면, *note sys.stdout: ad3. 이 사용됩니다.  인쇄
     된 인자는 텍스트 문자열로 변환되기 때문에, *note print(): f6d. 는 바
     이너리 모드 파일 객체와 함께 사용할 수 없습니다.  이를 위해서는.  대
     신 ‘file.write(...)’ 를 사용합니다.

     Output buffering is usually determined by 'file'.  However, if
     'flush' is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'flush' 키워드 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: property (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

     프로퍼티 어트리뷰트를 돌려줍니다.

     'fget' 은 어트리뷰트 값을 얻는 함수입니다.  'fset' 은 어트리뷰트 값
     을 설정하는 함수입니다.  'fdel' 은 어트리뷰트 값을 삭제하는 함수입
     니다.  그리고 'doc' 은 어트리뷰트의 독스트링을 만듭니다.

     전형적인 사용은 관리되는 어트리뷰트 ‘x’ 를 정의하는 것입니다:

          class C:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._x = None

              def getx(self):
                  return self._x

              def setx(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              def delx(self):
                  del self._x

              x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

     If 'c' is an instance of 'C', ‘c.x’ will invoke the getter, ‘c.x =
     value’ will invoke the setter, and ‘del c.x’ the deleter.

     주어진 경우, 'doc' 은 프로퍼티 어트리뷰트의 독스트링이 됩니다.  그
     렇지 않으면, 'fget' 의 독스트링(있는 경우)이 복사됩니다.  이렇게 하
     면 *note property(): 194. 를 *note 데코레이터: 72a. 로 사용하여 읽
     기 전용 프로퍼티를 쉽게 만들 수 있습니다:

          class Parrot:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._voltage = 100000

              @property
              def voltage(self):
                  """Get the current voltage."""
                  return self._voltage

     The ‘@property’ decorator turns the ‘voltage()’ method into a
     “getter” for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets
     the docstring for 'voltage' to “Get the current voltage.”

      -- 함수: @getter

      -- 함수: @setter

      -- 함수: @deleter

          A property object has ‘getter’, ‘setter’, and ‘deleter’
          methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the
          property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
          decorated function.  This is best explained with an example:

               class C:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self._x = None

                   @property
                   def x(self):
                       """I'm the 'x' property."""
                       return self._x

                   @x.setter
                   def x(self, value):
                       self._x = value

                   @x.deleter
                   def x(self):
                       del self._x

          이 코드는 첫 번째 예제와 정확히 동등합니다.  추가적인 함수들에
          원래 프로퍼티(이 경우 ‘x’)와 같은 이름을 사용해야 합니다.

          반환된 프로퍼티 객체는 생성자 인자에 해당하는 ‘fget’, ‘fset’ 및
          ‘fdel’ 어트리뷰트를 가집니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 프로퍼티 개체의 독스트링이 쓰기 가능합니다.

      -- 속성: __name__

          Attribute holding the name of the property.  The name of the
          property can be changed at runtime.

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- 클래스: range (stop, /)

 -- 클래스: range (start, stop, step=1, /)

     함수라기보다, *note range: 941. 는 실제로는 *note 범위: 2184. 와
     *note 시퀀스 형 — list, tuple, range: 1c51. 에 설명된 대로 불변 시
     퀀스 형입니다.

 -- 함수: repr (object, /)

     Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.
     For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string
     that would yield an object with the same value when passed to *note
     eval(): 180.; otherwise, the representation is a string enclosed in
     angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object
     together with additional information often including the name and
     address of the object.  A class can control what this function
     returns for its instances by defining a *note __repr__(): 616.
     method.  If *note sys.displayhook(): 14e7. is not accessible, this
     function will raise *note RuntimeError: 195.

     This class has a custom representation that can be evaluated:

          class Person:
             def __init__(self, name, age):
                self.name = name
                self.age = age

             def __repr__(self):
                return f"Person('{self.name}', {self.age})"

 -- 함수: reversed (object, /)

     Return a reverse *note iterator: 1ac.  The argument must be an
     object which has a *note __reversed__(): 1f65. method or supports
     the sequence protocol (the *note __len__(): 1f6b. method and the
     *note __getitem__(): 283. method with integer arguments starting at
     ‘0’).

 -- 함수: round (number, ndigits=None)

     'number' 를 소수점 다음에 'ndigits' 정밀도로 반올림한 값을 돌려줍니
     다.  'ndigits' 가 생략되거나 ‘None’ 이면, 입력에 가장 가까운 정수를
     돌려줍니다.

     For the built-in types supporting *note round(): 12ca, values are
     rounded to the closest multiple of 10 to the power minus 'ndigits';
     if two multiples are equally close, rounding is done toward the
     even choice (so, for example, both ‘round(0.5)’ and ‘round(-0.5)’
     are ‘0’, and ‘round(1.5)’ is ‘2’).  Any integer value is valid for
     'ndigits' (positive, zero, or negative).  The return value is an
     integer if 'ndigits' is omitted or ‘None’.  Otherwise, the return
     value has the same type as 'number'.

     일반적인 파이썬 객체 ‘number’ 의 경우, ‘round’ 는
     ‘number.__round__’ 에 위임합니다.

          참고: float에 대한 *note round(): 12ca. 의 동작은 예상과 다를
          수 있습니다: 예를 들어, ‘round(2.675, 2)’ 는 ‘2.68’ 대신에
          ‘2.67’ 을 제공합니다.  이것은 버그가 아닙니다: 대부분의 십진 소
          수가 float로 정확히 표현될 수 없다는 사실로부터 오는 결과입니
          다.  자세한 정보는 *note 부동 소수점 산술; 문제점 및 한계:
          1d19. 를 보세요.

 -- 클래스: set (iterable=(), /)

     새 *note set: 5d3. 객체를 돌려줍니다.  선택적으로 'iterable' 에서 가
     져온 요소를 갖습니다.  ‘set’ 은 내장 클래스입니다.  이 클래스에 대
     한 설명서는 *note set: 5d3. 및 *note 집합 형 — set, frozenset:
     217b. 을 보세요.

     다른 컨테이너의 경우 내장 *note frozenset: 5d4, *note list: 60b,
     *note tuple: 369. 및 *note dict: 256. 클래스와 *note collections:
     1d. 모듈을 보세요.

 -- 함수: setattr (object, name, value, /)

     This is the counterpart of *note getattr(): bce.  The arguments are
     an object, a string, and an arbitrary value.  The string may name
     an existing attribute or a new attribute.  The function assigns the
     value to the attribute, provided the object allows it.  For
     example, ‘setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)’ is equivalent to ‘x.foobar =
     123’.

     'name' need not be a Python identifier as defined in *note 식별자와
     키워드: 1e9c. unless the object chooses to enforce that, for
     example in a custom *note __getattribute__(): bcf. or via *note
     __slots__: 14b2.  An attribute whose name is not an identifier will
     not be accessible using the dot notation, but is accessible through
     *note getattr(): bce. etc..

          참고: Since *note private name mangling: 1cc2. happens at
          compilation time, one must manually mangle a private
          attribute’s (attributes with two leading underscores) name in
          order to set it with *note setattr(): 2163.

 -- 클래스: slice (stop, /)

 -- 클래스: slice (start, stop, step=None, /)

     Return a *note slice: 2185. object representing the set of indices
     specified by ‘range(start, stop, step)’.  The 'start' and 'step'
     arguments default to ‘None’.

     Slice objects have read-only data attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’, and
     ‘step’ which merely return the argument values (or their default).
     They have no other explicit functionality; however, they are used
     by NumPy and other third-party packages.

      -- 속성: start

      -- 속성: stop

      -- 속성: step

     Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is
     used.  For example: ‘a[start:stop:step]’ or ‘a[start:stop, i]’.
     See *note itertools.islice(): b49. for an alternate version that
     returns an *note iterator: 1ac.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Slice objects are now *note hashable: 60a.
     (provided *note start: 1f5e, *note stop: 1f5f, and *note step:
     1f60. are hashable).

 -- 함수: sorted (iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

     'iterable' 의 항목들로 새 정렬된 리스트를 돌려줍니다.

     키워드 인자로만 지정해야 하는 두 개의 선택적 인자가 있습니다.

     'key' 는 하나의 인자를 받는 함수를 지정하는데, 'iterable'의 각 요소
     들로부터 비교 키를 추출하는 데 사용됩니다 (예를 들어, ‘key =
     str.lower’).  기본값은 ‘None’ 입니다 (요소를 직접 비교합니다).

     'reverse' 는 논리값입니다.  ‘True’ 로 설정되면, 각 비교가 뒤집힌 것
     처럼 리스트 요소들이 정렬됩니다.

     예전 스타일의 'cmp' 함수를 'key' 함수로 변환하려면 *note
     functools.cmp_to_key(): 11c9. 를 사용하세요.

     내장 *note sorted(): bcb. 함수는 안정적(stable)임이 보장됩니다.  정
     렬은 같다고 비교되는 요소의 상대적 순서를 변경하지 않으면 안정적입
     니다 — 이는 여러 번 정렬할 때 유용합니다 (예를 들어, 부서별로 정렬
     한 후에 급여 등급별로 정렬하기).

     The sort algorithm uses only ‘<’ comparisons between items.  While
     defining an *note __lt__(): 128f. method will suffice for sorting,
     PEP 8(5) recommends that all six *note rich comparisons: 207c. be
     implemented.  This will help avoid bugs when using the same data
     with other ordering tools such as *note max(): f01. that rely on a
     different underlying method.  Implementing all six comparisons also
     helps avoid confusion for mixed type comparisons which can call
     reflected the *note __gt__(): 12fc. method.

     정렬 예제와 간단한 정렬 자습서는 *note 정렬 기법: 2186. 를 보세요.

 -- 함수: @staticmethod

     메서드를 정적 메서드로 변환합니다.

     정적 메서드는 묵시적인 첫 번째 인자를 받지 않습니다.  정적 메서드를
     선언하려면, 이 관용구를 사용하세요:

          class C:
              @staticmethod
              def f(arg1, arg2, argN): ...

     ‘@staticmethod’ 형식은 함수 *note 데코레이터: 72a. 입니다 – 자세한
     내용은 *note 함수 정의: 1c3e.를 보세요.

     A static method can be called either on the class (such as ‘C.f()’)
     or on an instance (such as ‘C().f()’).  Moreover, the static method
     *note descriptor: 157a. is also callable, so it can be used in the
     class definition (such as ‘f()’).

     Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++.
     Also, see *note classmethod(): 166. for a variant that is useful
     for creating alternate class constructors.

     모든 데코레이터와 마찬가지로, ‘staticmethod’ 를 정규 함수로 호출하
     여 그 결과로 어떤 일을 할 수도 있습니다.  이것은 클래스 바디에서 함
     수에 대한 참조가 필요하고 인스턴스 메서드로 자동 변환되는 것을 피하
     고자 할 때 필요합니다.  이 경우 다음 관용구를 사용하세요:

          def regular_function():
              ...

          class C:
              method = staticmethod(regular_function)

     정적 메서드에 대한 더 자세한 정보는, *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.을 참
     조하세요.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Static methods now inherit the method
     attributes (*note __module__: 1f06, *note __name__: 12c4, *note
     __qualname__: 1f05, *note __doc__: 11c8. and *note __annotations__:
     11c7.), have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute, and are now callable as
     regular functions.

 -- 클래스: str (*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

 -- 클래스: str (object)

 -- 클래스: str (object, encoding, errors='strict')

 -- 클래스: str (object, *, errors)

     'object' 의 *note str: 445. 버전을 돌려줍니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
     str(): 445. 을 보세요.

     ‘str’ 은 내장 문자열 *note 클래스: 1939. 입니다.  문자열에 대한 일
     반적인 정보는 *note 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str: 1c04. 를 보세요.

 -- 함수: sum (iterable, /, start=0)

     'start' 및 'iterable' 의 항목들을 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 합하고 합계를
     돌려줍니다.  'iterable' 의 항목은 일반적으로 숫자며 시작 값은 문자
     열이 될 수 없습니다.

     For some use cases, there are good alternatives to *note sum():
     464.  The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings
     is by calling ‘''.join(sequence)’.  To add floating-point values
     with extended precision, see *note math.fsum(): 139d.  To
     concatenate a series of iterables, consider using *note
     itertools.chain(): 2187.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'start' 매개 변수는 키워드 인자로만 지정될 수 있
     습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Summation of floats switched to an algorithm
     that gives higher accuracy and better commutativity on most builds.

 -- 클래스: super

 -- 클래스: super (type, object_or_type=None, /)

     메서드 호출을 'type' 의 부모나 형제 클래스에 위임하는 프락시 객체를
     돌려줍니다.  이는 클래스에서 재정의된 상속 된 메서드를 액세스할 때
     유용합니다.

     The 'object_or_type' determines the *note method resolution order:
     2188. to be searched.  The search starts from the class right after
     the 'type'.

     For example, if *note __mro__: 1f31. of 'object_or_type' is ‘D -> B
     -> C -> A -> object’ and the value of 'type' is ‘B’, then *note
     super(): 4d5. searches ‘C -> A -> object’.

     The *note __mro__: 1f31. attribute of the class corresponding to
     'object_or_type' lists the method resolution search order used by
     both *note getattr(): bce. and *note super(): 4d5.  The attribute
     is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
     updated.

     두 번째 인자가 생략되면, 반환되는 슈퍼 객체는 연결되지 않았습니다
     (unbound).  두 번째 인자가 객체면, ‘isinstance(obj, type)’ 는 참이
     어야 합니다.  두 번째 인자가 형이면, ‘issubclass(type2, type)’ 는 참
     이어야 합니다 (이것은 클래스 메서드에 유용합니다).

     When called directly within an ordinary method of a class, both
     arguments may be omitted (“zero-argument ‘super()’”).  In this
     case, 'type' will be the enclosing class, and 'obj' will be the
     first argument of the immediately enclosing function (typically
     ‘self’).  (This means that zero-argument ‘super()’ will not work as
     expected within nested functions, including generator expressions,
     which implicitly create nested functions.)

     'super' 에는 두 가지 일반적인 사용 사례가 있습니다.  단일 상속 클래
     스 계층 구조에서는, 'super' 를 사용하여 명시적으로 이름을 지정하지
     않고 부모 클래스를 참조할 수 있으므로, 코드를 더 유지 관리하기 쉽게
     만들 수 있습니다.  이 사용은 다른 프로그래밍 언어에서 'super' 를 쓰
     는 것과 매우 유사합니다.

     The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance
     in a dynamic execution environment.  This use case is unique to
     Python and is not found in statically compiled languages or
     languages that only support single inheritance.  This makes it
     possible to implement “diamond diagrams” where multiple base
     classes implement the same method.  Good design dictates that such
     implementations have the same calling signature in every case
     (because the order of calls is determined at runtime, because that
     order adapts to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that
     order can include sibling classes that are unknown prior to
     runtime).

     두 경우 모두, 일반적인 슈퍼 클래스 호출은 이런 식입니다:

          class C(B):
              def method(self, arg):
                  super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                         # super(C, self).method(arg)

     메서드 조회 외에, *note super(): 4d5.는 어트리뷰트 조회에도 작동합
     니다.  한가지 가능한 사용 사례는 부모나 형제 클래스에 있는 *note
     디스크립터: 157a.를 호출하는 것입니다.

     Note that *note super(): 4d5. is implemented as part of the binding
     process for explicit dotted attribute lookups such as
     ‘super().__getitem__(name)’.  It does so by implementing its own
     *note __getattribute__(): bcf. method for searching classes in a
     predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
     Accordingly, *note super(): 4d5. is undefined for implicit lookups
     using statements or operators such as ‘super()[name]’.

     또한, 인자가 없는 형식을 제외하고는, *note super(): 4d5. 는 메서드
     내부에서만 사용하도록 제한되지 않는다는 점에 유의하세요.  두 개의 인
     자 형식은 인자를 정확하게 지정하고 적절한 참조를 만듭니다.  인자가
     없는 형식은 클래스 정의 내에서만 작동하는데, 컴파일러가 정의되고 있
     는 클래스를 올바르게 가져오고 일반 메서드에서 현재 인스턴스에 액세
     스하는 데 필요한 세부 정보를 채우기 때문입니다.

     *note super(): 4d5.를 사용하여 협력적 클래스를 설계하는 방법에 대한
     실용적인 제안은 super() 사용 안내(6) 를 보세요.

 -- 클래스: tuple (iterable=(), /)

     함수이기보다, *note tuple: 369. 은 실제로 *note 튜플: 20f4. 과
     *note 시퀀스 형 — list, tuple, range: 1c51. 에 문서화 된 것처럼 불
     변 시퀀스 형입니다.

 -- 클래스: type (object, /)

 -- 클래스: type (name, bases, dict, /, **kwargs)

     With one argument, return the type of an 'object'.  The return
     value is a type object and generally the same object as returned by
     *note object.__class__: 1473.

     객체의 형을 검사하는 데는 *note isinstance(): 43b. 내장 함수가 권장
     되는데, 서브 클래스를 고려하기 때문입니다.

     With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is
     essentially a dynamic form of the *note class: 12c7. statement.
     The 'name' string is the class name and becomes the *note __name__:
     1471. attribute.  The 'bases' tuple contains the base classes and
     becomes the *note __bases__: 1472. attribute; if empty, *note
     object: a89, the ultimate base of all classes, is added.  The
     'dict' dictionary contains attribute and method definitions for the
     class body; it may be copied or wrapped before becoming the *note
     __dict__: c5a. attribute.  The following two statements create
     identical ‘type’ objects:

          >>> class X:
          ...     a = 1
          ...
          >>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

     See also:

        * *note Documentation on attributes and methods on classes:
          1f2b.

        * *note 형 객체: 2189.

     세 인자 형식에 제공된 키워드 인자는 클래스 정의의 ('metaclass' 를 제
     외한) 키워드와 같은 방식으로 적절한 메타 클래스 장치(일반적으로
     *note __init_subclass__(): 62b.)에 전달됩니다.

     *note 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션: c48. 도 보세요.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Subclasses of ‘type’ which don’t override
     ‘type.__new__’ may no longer use the one-argument form to get the
     type of an object.

 -- 함수: vars ()

 -- 함수: vars (object, /)

     Return the *note __dict__: 556. attribute for a module, class,
     instance, or any other object with a ‘__dict__’ attribute.

     Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable *note
     __dict__: 556. attribute; however, other objects may have write
     restrictions on their ‘__dict__’ attributes (for example, classes
     use a *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. to prevent direct
     dictionary updates).

     Without an argument, *note vars(): 1a49. acts like *note locals():
     141.

     객체가 지정되었지만 *note __dict__: 556. 어트리뷰트가 없으면 *note
     TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다 (예를 들어, 해당 클래스가 *note
     __slots__: 14b2. 어트리뷰트를 정의하면).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The result of calling this function without an
     argument has been updated as described for the *note locals(): 141.
     builtin.

 -- 함수: zip (*iterables, strict=False)

     Iterate over several iterables in parallel, producing tuples with
     an item from each one.

     Example:

          >>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):
          ...     print(item)
          ...
          (1, 'sugar')
          (2, 'spice')
          (3, 'everything nice')

     More formally: *note zip(): 7c9. returns an iterator of tuples,
     where the 'i'-th tuple contains the 'i'-th element from each of the
     argument iterables.

     Another way to think of *note zip(): 7c9. is that it turns rows
     into columns, and columns into rows.  This is similar to
     transposing a matrix(7).

     *note zip(): 7c9. is lazy: The elements won’t be processed until
     the iterable is iterated on, e.g.  by a ‘for’ loop or by wrapping
     in a *note list: 60b.

     One thing to consider is that the iterables passed to *note zip():
     7c9. could have different lengths; sometimes by design, and
     sometimes because of a bug in the code that prepared these
     iterables.  Python offers three different approaches to dealing
     with this issue:

        * By default, *note zip(): 7c9. stops when the shortest iterable
          is exhausted.  It will ignore the remaining items in the
          longer iterables, cutting off the result to the length of the
          shortest iterable:

               >>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))
               [(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

        * *note zip(): 7c9. is often used in cases where the iterables
          are assumed to be of equal length.  In such cases, it’s
          recommended to use the ‘strict=True’ option.  Its output is
          the same as regular *note zip(): 7c9.:

               >>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))
               [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

          Unlike the default behavior, it raises a *note ValueError:
          202. if one iterable is exhausted before the others:

               >>> for item in zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True):
               ...     print(item)
               ...
               (0, 'fee')
               (1, 'fi')
               (2, 'fo')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

          Without the ‘strict=True’ argument, any bug that results in
          iterables of different lengths will be silenced, possibly
          manifesting as a hard-to-find bug in another part of the
          program.

        * Shorter iterables can be padded with a constant value to make
          all the iterables have the same length.  This is done by *note
          itertools.zip_longest(): 128d.

     Edge cases: With a single iterable argument, *note zip(): 7c9.
     returns an iterator of 1-tuples.  With no arguments, it returns an
     empty iterator.

     Tips and tricks:

        * The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is
          guaranteed.  This makes possible an idiom for clustering a
          data series into n-length groups using ‘zip(*[iter(s)]*n,
          strict=True)’.  This repeats the 'same' iterator ‘n’ times so
          that each output tuple has the result of ‘n’ calls to the
          iterator.  This has the effect of dividing the input into
          n-length chunks.

        * *note zip(): 7c9.을 ‘*’ 연산자와 함께 쓰면 리스트를 unzip 할 수
          있습니다:

               >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
               >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
               >>> list(zip(x, y))
               [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
               >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
               >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
               True

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the ‘strict’ argument.

 -- 함수: __import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(),
          level=0)

          참고: 이것은 *note importlib.import_module(): 511. 과 달리 일
          상적인 파이썬 프로그래밍에서는 필요하지 않은 고급 함수입니다.

     이 함수는 *note import: 5dc. 문에 의해 호출됩니다.  ‘import’ 문의 의
     미를 변경하기 위해 대체할 수 있습니다 (*note builtins: 12. 모듈을 임
     포트하고 ‘builtins .__ import__’ 에 대입합니다).  그러나 그렇게 하
     지 말 것을 '강하게' 권고하는데, 보통 같은 목적을 달성하는데 임포트
     훅( PEP 302(8) 를 보세요)을 사용하는 것이 더 간단하고 기본 임포트 구
     현이 사용될 것이라고 가정하는 코드들과 문제를 일으키지 않기 때문입
     니다.  *note __import__(): 8d1. 의 직접 사용 역시 피하고 *note
     importlib.import_module(): 511. 을 사용할 것을 권합니다.

     The function imports the module 'name', potentially using the given
     'globals' and 'locals' to determine how to interpret the name in a
     package context.  The 'fromlist' gives the names of objects or
     submodules that should be imported from the module given by 'name'.
     The standard implementation does not use its 'locals' argument at
     all and uses its 'globals' only to determine the package context of
     the *note import: 5dc. statement.

     'level' 은 절대 또는 상대 임포트를 사용할지를 지정합니다.  ‘0’ (기
     본값)은 오직 절대 임포트를 수행한다는 것을 의미합니다.  양수 값
     'level' 은 *note __import__(): 8d1. 를 호출하는 모듈 디렉터리에 상
     대적으로 검색할 상위 디렉터리들의 개수를 가리킵니다 (자세한 내용은
     PEP 328(9)을 보세요).

     'name' 변수가 ‘package.module’ 형식일 때, 일반적으로 'name' 에 의해
     명명된 모듈이 '아니라', 최상위 패키지(첫 번째 점까지의 이름)가 반환
     됩니다.  그러나 비어 있지 않은 'fromlist' 인자가 주어지면 'name' 에
     의해 명명된 모듈이 반환됩니다.

     예를 들어, 문장 ‘import spam’ 은 다음 코드를 닮은 바이트 코드를 생
     성합니다:

          spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     문장 ‘import spam.ham’ 은 이런 호출로 이어집니다:

          spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     여기에서 *note __import__(): 8d1. 가 최상위 모듈을 돌려주는 것에 주
     목하세요.  이것이 *note import: 5dc. 문에 의해 이름에 연결되는 객체
     이기 때문입니다.

     반면에, 문장 ‘from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as saus’ 는 이런 결
     과를 줍니다:

          _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
          eggs = _temp.eggs
          saus = _temp.sausage

     여기서 ‘spam.ham’ 모듈이 *note __import__(): 8d1. 에서 반환됩니다.
     이 객체로부터, 임포트할 이름들을 가져온 후 해당 이름들로 대입됩니다
     .

     단순히 이름으로 모듈을 임포트 하기 원한다면 (잠재적으로 패키지 내에
     서), *note importlib.import_module(): 511. 을 사용하세요.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 음수 'level' 은 더 지원되지 않습니다 (기본값도
     0으로 변경합니다).

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 명령 줄 옵션 *note -E: 95a.나 *note -I: 95b.를 사
     용 중일 때, 환경 변수 *note PYTHONCASEOK: 95c.는 이제 무시됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 파서는 유닉스 스타일의 줄 종료 규칙만 받아들이는 것에 주의하세요.
파일에서 코드를 읽는 경우, 줄 넘김 변환 모드를 사용해서 윈도우나 맥 스타
일 줄 넘김을 변환해야 합니다.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 상수,  Next: 내장형,  Prev: 내장 함수,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.3 내장 상수
=============

작은 개수의 상수가 내장 이름 공간에 있습니다.  그것들은:

 -- 데이터: False

     *note bool: 461. 형의 거짓 값.  ‘False’ 에 대입할 수 없고 *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 데이터: True

     *note bool: 461. 형의 참값.  ‘True’ 에 대입할 수 없고 *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 데이터: None

     기본 인자가 함수에 전달되지 않을 때처럼, 값의 부재를 나타내는 데 자
     주 사용되는 객체.  ‘None’ 으로의 대입은 허락되지 않고 *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. 를 일으킵니다.  ‘None’은 *note NoneType: 84c. 형
     의 유일한 인스턴스입니다.

 -- 데이터: NotImplemented

     연산이 다른 형에 대해 구현되지 않았음을 나타내기 위해, 이 항 특수 메
     서드(예를 들어, *note __eq__(): af7, *note __lt__(): 128f, *note
     __add__(): 1f94, *note __rsub__(): 1fa7. 등)가 돌려줘야 하는 특별한
     값; 같은 목적으로 증분 이 항 특수 메서드(예를 들어, *note
     __imul__(): 1f99, *note __iand__(): 1fb9. 등)가 반환할 수 있습니다.
     불리언 문맥에서 평가해서는 안됩니다.  ‘NotImplemented’는 *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 84d. 형의 유일한 인스턴스입니다.

          참고: 이 항 (또는 증분) 메서드가 ‘NotImplemented’ 를 반환하면
          인터프리터는 다른 형(또는 연산자에 따라 다른 폴백)에서 뒤집힌
          연산을 시도합니다.  모든 시도가 ‘NotImplemented’ 를 반환하면,
          인터프리터는 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.  부정확하게
          ‘NotImplemented’ 를 반환하면 오해의 소지가 있는 에러 메시지가
          나오거나 파이썬 코드에 ‘NotImplemented’ 값이 반환됩니다.

          예는 *note 산술 연산 구현: 1ef2.을 보세요.

          조심: ‘NotImplementedError’ 와 ‘NotImplemented’ 는 바꿔쓸 수 없
          습니다.  이 상수는 위에서 설명한 대로만 사용해야 합니다; 이 예
          외의 올바른 사용법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note
          NotImplementedError: 228.를 참조하세요.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 불리언 문맥에서 ‘NotImplemented’를 평가하는 것은
     폐지되었습니다.  현재는 참으로 평가되지만, *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.를 방출합니다.  향후 버전의 파이썬에서는
     *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킬 것입니다.

 -- 데이터: Ellipsis

     줄임표 리터럴 “‘...’” 와 같습니다.  주로 사용자 정의 컨테이너 데이
     터형에 대한 확장 슬라이스 문법과 함께 사용되는 특수 값.  ‘Ellipsis’는
     *note types.EllipsisType: 84b. 형의 유일한 인스턴스입니다.

 -- 데이터: __debug__

     이 상수는 파이썬이 *note -O: db1. 옵션으로 시작되지 않았다면 참이 됩
     니다.  *note assert: 965. 문도 볼 필요가 있습니다.

     참고: *note None: 66f, *note False: b34, *note True: c0a. 그리고
     *note __debug__: 7d3. 은 다시 대입할 수 없습니다 (이것들을 대입하면
     , 설사 어트리뷰트 이름으로 사용해도, *note SyntaxError: 18d. 를 일
     으킵니다).  그래서 이것들은 “진짜” 상수로 간주 될 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들::


File: python.info,  Node: site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들,  Up: 내장 상수

5.3.1 ‘site’ 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들
--------------------------------------

*note site: c7. 모듈(*note -S: 1198. 명령행 옵션이 주어진 경우를 제외하
고는, 시작할 때 자동으로 임포트 됩니다)은 내장 이름 공간에 여러 상수를 추
가합니다.  대화형 인터프리터 셸에 유용하고 프로그램에서 사용해서는 안 됩
니다.

 -- 데이터: quit (code=None)
 -- 데이터: exit (code=None)

     Objects that when printed, print a message like “Use quit() or
     Ctrl-D (i.e.  EOF) to exit”, and when accessed directly in the
     interactive interpreter or called as functions, raise *note
     SystemExit: d3d. with the specified exit code.

 -- 데이터: help

     Object that when printed, prints the message “Type help() for
     interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.”, and when
     accessed directly in the interactive interpreter, invokes the
     built-in help system (see *note help(): 8d4.).

 -- 데이터: copyright
 -- 데이터: credits

     인쇄하거나 호출할 때, 각각 저작권 또는 크레딧 텍스트를 인쇄하는 객
     체입니다.

 -- 데이터: license

     인쇄될 때 “Type license() to see the full license text”와 같은 메시
     지를 인쇄하고, 호출될 때 전체 라이센스 텍스트를 페이지 생성기와 같
     은 방식(한 번에 한 화면씩)으로 표시하는 객체입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장형,  Next: 내장 예외,  Prev: 내장 상수,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.4 내장형
==========

다음 섹션에서는 인터프리터에 내장된 표준형에 관해 설명합니다.

기본 내장 유형은 숫자, 시퀀스, 매핑, 클래스, 인스턴스 및 예외입니다.

일부 컬렉션 클래스는 가변입니다.  제자리에서 멤버를 추가, 삭제 또는 재배
치하고 특정 항목을 반환하지 않는 메서드는 컬렉션 인스턴스 자체를 반환하
지 않고 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

일부 연산들은 여러 객체 형에서 지원됩니다; 특히 사실상 모든 객체를 동등
비교하고, 논리값을 검사하고, (*note repr(): 7f7. 함수 또는 약간 다른
*note str(): 445. 함수를 사용해서) 문자열로 변환할 수 있습니다.  두 번째
함수는 *note print(): f6d. 함수로 객체를 쓸 때 묵시적으로 사용됩니다.

* Menu:

* 논리값 검사::
* 논리 연산 — and, or, not: 논리 연산 — and or not.
* 비교: 비교<2>.
* 숫자 형 — int, float, complex: 숫자 형 — int float complex.
* Boolean Type - bool::
* 이터레이터 형::
* 시퀀스 형 — list, tuple, range: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range.
* 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str::
* 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview.
* 집합 형 — set, frozenset: 집합 형 — set frozenset.
* 매핑 형 — dict::
* 컨텍스트 관리자 형::
* Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union.
* 기타 내장형::
* 특수 어트리뷰트::
* Integer string conversion length limitation::


File: python.info,  Node: 논리값 검사,  Next: 논리 연산 — and or not,  Up: 내장형

5.4.1 논리값 검사
-----------------

모든 객체는 논리값을 검사할 수 있는데, *note if: 2eb. 또는 *note while:
1c0c. 조건 또는 다음에 나오는 논리 연산의 피연산자로 사용될 수 있도록 합
니다.

By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either
a *note __bool__(): 12c5. method that returns ‘False’ or a *note
__len__(): 1f6b. method that returns zero, when called with the object.
(1)  Here are most of the built-in objects considered false:

   * constants defined to be false: ‘None’ and ‘False’

   * 모든 숫자 형들의 영: ‘0’, ‘0.0’, ‘0j’, ‘Decimal(0)’, ‘Fraction(0,
     1)’

   * 빈 시퀀스와 컬렉션: ‘''’, ‘()’, ‘[]’, ‘{}’, ‘set()’, ‘range(0)’

논리값을 돌려주는 연산과 내장 함수는 달리 명시하지 않는 한 항상 거짓의 경
우 ‘0’ 이나 ‘False’ 를, 참이면 ‘1’ 이나 ‘True’ 를 돌려줍니다.  (중요한 예
외: 논리 연산 ‘or’ 와 ‘and’ 는 항상 피연산자 중 하나를 돌려줍니다.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이 특수 메서드에 대한 추가 정보는 파이썬 레퍼런스 설명서(*note
기본적인 커스터마이제이션: 1f68.)에서 찾을 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 논리 연산 — and or not,  Next: 비교<2>,  Prev: 논리값 검사,  Up: 내장형

5.4.2 논리 연산 — ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’
------------------------------------

이것들은 우선순위에 따라 오름차순으로 정렬된 논리 연산들입니다:

연산              결과                                  노트
                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘x or y’          if 'x' is true, then 'x', else 'y'    (1)
                                                        
                                                        
‘x and y’         'x*가 거짓이면 *x', 그렇지 않으면     (2)
                  'y'                                   
                  
                                                        
‘not x’           'x' 가 거짓이면 ‘True’, 그렇지 않으   (3)
                  면 ‘False’                            
                  

노트:

  1. 이것은 단락-회로 연산자이므로 첫 번째 인자가 거짓일 때만 두 번째의
     값을 구합니다.

  2. 이것은 단락-회로 연산자이므로 첫 번째 인자가 참일 때만 두 번째의 값
     을 구합니다.

  3. ‘not’ 은 비논리 연산자들보다 낮은 우선순위를 갖습니다.  그래서,
     ‘not a == b’ 는 ‘not (a == b)’ 로 해석되고, ‘a == not b’ 는 문법 오
     류입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 비교<2>,  Next: 숫자 형 — int float complex,  Prev: 논리 연산 — and or not,  Up: 내장형

5.4.3 비교
----------

파이썬에는 8가지 비교 연산이 있습니다.  이들 모두는 같은 우선순위를 가집
니다 (논리 연산보다는 높습니다).  비교는 임의로 연결될 수 있습니다; 예를
들어 ‘x < y <= z’ 는 'y' 의 값을 한 번만 구한다는 점을 제외하고는 ‘x < y
and y <= z’ 와 동등합니다 (하지만 두 경우 모두 ‘x < y’ 가 거짓으로 밝혀
지면 'z' 의 값을 구하지 않습니다).

이 표는 비교 연산을 요약합니다:

연산             뜻
                 
-----------------------------------------------
                 
‘<’              엄격히 작다
                 
                 
‘<=’             작거나 같다
                 
                 
‘>’              엄격히 크다
                 
                 
‘>=’             크거나 같다
                 
                 
‘==’             같다
                 
                 
‘!=’             같지 않다
                 
                 
‘is’             객체 아이덴티티
                 
                 
‘is not’         부정된 객체 아이덴티티
                 

서로 다른 숫자 형을 제외하고는 서로 다른 형의 객체들은 같다고 비교되지 않
습니다.  ‘==’ 연산자는 항상 정의되지만, 일부 객체 형(예를 들어, 클래스 객
체)의 경우 *note is: 2ed.와 동등합니다.  ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ 및 ‘>=’ 연산자는
의미가 있는 경우에만 정의됩니다; 예를 들어, 인자 중 하나가 복소수이면
*note TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.

Non-identical instances of a class normally compare as non-equal unless
the class defines the *note __eq__(): af7. method.

Instances of a class cannot be ordered with respect to other instances
of the same class, or other types of object, unless the class defines
enough of the methods *note __lt__(): 128f, *note __le__(): 12fb, *note
__gt__(): 12fc, and *note __ge__(): 12fd. (in general, *note __lt__():
128f. and *note __eq__(): af7. are sufficient, if you want the
conventional meanings of the comparison operators).

*note is: 2ed. 와 *note is not: 2083. 연산자의 동작은 사용자 정의할 수 없
습니다; 또한 임의의 두 객체에 적용할 수 있으며 예외를 발생시키지 않습니
다.

Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, *note in: 2ec. and
*note not in: 629, are supported by types that are *note iterable: 1217.
or implement the *note __contains__(): 1f66. method.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 형 — int float complex,  Next: Boolean Type - bool,  Prev: 비교<2>,  Up: 내장형

5.4.4 숫자 형 — ‘int’, ‘float’, ‘complex’
-----------------------------------------

There are three distinct numeric types: 'integers', 'floating-point
numbers', and 'complex numbers'.  In addition, Booleans are a subtype of
integers.  Integers have unlimited precision.  Floating-point numbers
are usually implemented using double in C; information about the
precision and internal representation of floating-point numbers for the
machine on which your program is running is available in *note
sys.float_info: 19f2.  Complex numbers have a real and imaginary part,
which are each a floating-point number.  To extract these parts from a
complex number 'z', use ‘z.real’ and ‘z.imag’.  (The standard library
includes the additional numeric types *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7, for
rationals, and *note decimal.Decimal: 29d, for floating-point numbers
with user-definable precision.)

Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in
functions and operators.  Unadorned integer literals (including hex,
octal and binary numbers) yield integers.  Numeric literals containing a
decimal point or an exponent sign yield floating-point numbers.
Appending ‘'j'’ or ‘'J'’ to a numeric literal yields an imaginary number
(a complex number with a zero real part) which you can add to an integer
or float to get a complex number with real and imaginary parts.

파이썬은 혼합 산술을 완벽하게 지원합니다: 이항 산술 연산자가 다른 숫자 형
의 피연산자를 가질 때, “더 좁은” 형의 피연산자는 다른 피연산자의 형으로
넓혀집니다.  정수는 실수보다 좁고, 실수는 복소수보다 좁습니다.  다른 형
숫자 사이의 비교는 그 숫자들의 정확한 값들이 비교되는 것처럼 행동합니다.
(1)

생성자 *note int(): 257, *note float(): 2ef, *note complex(): 2f0.를 특
정 형의 숫자를 만드는데 사용할 수 있습니다.

(복소수를 제외한) 모든 숫자 형은 다음과 같은 연산들을 지원합니다 (연산의
우선순위는 *note 연산자 우선순위: 2098.를 참조하십시오):

연산                      결과                                  노트          전체 문서
                                                                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                              
‘x + y’                   'x' 와 'y' 의 합
                          
                                                                              
‘x - y’                   'x' 와 'y' 의 차
                          
                                                                              
‘x * y’                   'x' 와 'y' 의 곱
                          
                                                                              
‘x / y’                   'x' 와 'y' 의 몫
                          
                                                                              
‘x // y’                  'x' 와 'y' 의 정수로 내림한 몫        (1)(2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘x % y’                   ‘x / y’ 의 나머지                     (2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘-x’                      음의 'x'
                          
                                                                              
‘+x’                      'x' 그대로
                          
                                                                              
‘abs(x)’                  'x' 의 절댓값 또는 크기                             *note abs(): 1cac.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘int(x)’                  정수로 변환된 'x'                     (3)(6)        *note int(): 257.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘float(x)’                실수로 변환된 'x'                     (4)(6)        *note float(): 2ef.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘complex(re, im)’         실수부 're' 와 허수부 'im' 으로 구    (6)           *note complex(): 2f0.
                          성된 복소수.  'im' 의 기본값은 0입                  
                          니다.
                          
                                                                              
‘c.conjugate()’           복소수 'c' 의 켤레
                          
                                                                              
‘divmod(x, y)’            쌍 ‘(x // y, x % y)’                  (2)           *note divmod(): 99e.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘pow(x, y)’               'x' 의 'y' 거듭제곱                   (5)           *note pow(): 9cf.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘x ** y’                  'x' 의 'y' 거듭제곱                   (5)
                                                                

노트:

  1. Also referred to as integer division.  For operands of type *note
     int: 257, the result has type *note int: 257.  For operands of type
     *note float: 2ef, the result has type *note float: 2ef.  In
     general, the result is a whole integer, though the result’s type is
     not necessarily *note int: 257.  The result is always rounded
     towards minus infinity: ‘1//2’ is ‘0’, ‘(-1)//2’ is ‘-1’, ‘1//(-2)’
     is ‘-1’, and ‘(-1)//(-2)’ is ‘0’.

  2. 복소수에는 사용할 수 없습니다.  적절한 경우 *note abs(): 1cac.를 사
     용하여 실수로 변환하십시오.

  3. 
     Conversion from *note float: 2ef. to *note int: 257. truncates,
     discarding the fractional part.  See functions *note math.floor():
     138a. and *note math.ceil(): 138b. for alternative conversions.

  4. float는 또한 숫자가 아님(NaN)과 양 또는 음의 무한대를 나타내는 문자
     열 “nan”과 접두사 “+” 나 “-” 가 선택적으로 붙을 수 있는 “inf”를 받
     아들입니다.

  5. 파이썬은 프로그래밍 언어들에서 흔히 그렇듯이, 있는 것처럼 ‘pow(0,
     0)’ 와 ‘0 ** 0’ 이 ‘1’ 이 되도록 정의합니다.

  6. 받아들여지는 숫자 리터럴은 ‘0’ 에서 ‘9’ 까지 또는 모든 동등한 유니
     코드들을 (‘Nd’ 속성을 가진 코드 포인트들) 포함합니다.

     See the Unicode Standard(2) for a complete list of code points with
     the ‘Nd’ property.

모든 *note numbers.Real: 219e. 형 (*note int: 257. 와 *note float: 2ef.)
은 또한 다음과 같은 연산들을 포함합니다:

연산                     결과
                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
*note math.trunc(x): 138c.'x' 는 *note Integral: 1fc4. 로 잘립니다
                         
                         
*note round(x[, n]): 12ca.'x' 를 'n' 자리로 반올림하는데, 절반 값은 짝수
                         로 반올림합니다.  'n' 을 생략하면 기본값은 0입
                         니다.
                         
                         
*note math.floor(x): 138a.가장 큰 *note Integral: 1fc4. <= 'x'
                         
                         
*note math.ceil(x): 138b.가장 작은 *note Integral: 1fc4. >= 'x'
                         

추가적인 숫자 연산은 *note math: 8e.와 *note cmath: 18. 모듈을 보십시오.

* Menu:

* 정수 형에 대한 비트 연산::
* 정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드::
* 실수에 대한 추가 메서드::
* 숫자 형의 해싱::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 결과적으로, 리스트 ‘[1, 2]’ 는 ‘[1.0, 2.0]’ 과 같다고 취급되고, 튜
플도 마찬가지입니다.

   (2) 
https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 정수 형에 대한 비트 연산,  Next: 정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드,  Up: 숫자 형 — int float complex

5.4.4.1 정수 형에 대한 비트 연산
................................

비트 연산은 정수에 대해서만 의미가 있습니다.  비트 연산의 결과는 무한한
부호 비트를 갖는 2의 보수로 수행되는 것처럼 계산됩니다.

이진 비트 연산의 우선순위는 모두 숫자 연산보다 낮고 비교보다 높습니다; 일
항 연산 ‘~’ 은 다른 일항 연산들 (‘+’ 와 ‘-’) 과 같은 우선순위를 가집니다
.

이 표는 비트 연산을 나열하는데, 우선순위에 따라 오름차순으로 정렬되어 있
습니다:

연산             결과                                 노트
                                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘x | y’          'x' 와 'y' 의 비트별 'or'            (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x ^ y’          'x' 와 'y' 의 비트별 '배타적 or      (4)
                 (exclusive or)'                      
                 
                                                      
‘x & y’          'x' 와 'y' 의 비트별 'and'           (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x << n’         'x' 를 'n' 비트만큼 왼쪽으로 시프    (1)(2)
                 트                                   
                 
                                                      
‘x >> n’         'x' 를 'n' 비트만큼 오른쪽으로 시    (1)(3)
                 프트                                 
                 
                                                      
‘~x’             'x' 의 비트 반전
                 

노트:

  1. 음의 시프트 수는 허락되지 않고 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다
     .

  2. 'n' 비트만큼의 왼쪽 시프트는 ‘pow(2, n)’ 를 곱하는 것과 동등합니다.

  3. 'n' 비트만큼 오른쪽으로 시프트 하는 것은 ‘pow(2, n)’ 로 정수 나눗셈
     (floor division)하는 것과 동등합니다.

  4. 무한한 부호 비트가 있는 것과 같은 결과를 얻으려면, 유한한 2의 보수
     표현으로 적어도 하나의 추가적인 부호 확장 비트를 사용하여 (‘1 +
     max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length())’ 이상의 작업 비트 폭) 이러한 계
     산을 수행하는 것으로 충분합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드,  Next: 실수에 대한 추가 메서드,  Prev: 정수 형에 대한 비트 연산,  Up: 숫자 형 — int float complex

5.4.4.2 정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드
..................................

int 형은 *note numbers.Integral: 1fc4. *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5. 를
구현합니다.  또한, 몇 가지 메서드를 더 제공합니다:

 -- 메서드: int.bit_length ()

     부호와 선행 0을 제외하고, 이진수로 정수를 나타내는 데 필요한 비트 수
     를 돌려줍니다:

          >>> n = -37
          >>> bin(n)
          '-0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6

     좀 더 정확하게 말하자면, ‘x’ 가 0이 아니면, ‘x.bit_length()’ 는
     ‘2**(k-1) <= abs(x) < 2**k’ 를 만족하는 유일한 양의 정수 ‘k’ 입니다
     .  동등하게, ‘abs(x)’ 가 정확하게 반올림된 로그값을 가질 만큼 아주
     작으면, ‘k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2))’ 가 됩니다.  ‘x’ 가 0이면,
     ‘x.bit_length()’ 는 ‘0’ 을 돌려줍니다.

     다음 코드와 동등합니다:

          def bit_length(self):
              s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
              s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
              return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 메서드: int.bit_count ()

     Return the number of ones in the binary representation of the
     absolute value of the integer.  This is also known as the
     population count.  Example:

          >>> n = 19
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b10011'
          >>> n.bit_count()
          3
          >>> (-n).bit_count()
          3

     다음 코드와 동등합니다:

          def bit_count(self):
              return bin(self).count("1")

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 메서드: int.to_bytes (length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

     정수를 나타내는 바이트의 배열을 돌려줍니다.

          >>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
          b'\x04\x00'
          >>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
          b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
          >>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
          b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
          >>> x = 1000
          >>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
          b'\xe8\x03'

     The integer is represented using 'length' bytes, and defaults to 1.
     An *note OverflowError: 87d. is raised if the integer is not
     representable with the given number of bytes.

     The 'byteorder' argument determines the byte order used to
     represent the integer, and defaults to ‘"big"’.  If 'byteorder' is
     ‘"big"’, the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte
     array.  If 'byteorder' is ‘"little"’, the most significant byte is
     at the end of the byte array.

     'signed' 인자는 정수를 표현하는데 2의 보수가 사용되는지를 결정합니
     다.  'signed' 가 ‘False’ 이고 음의 정수가 주어지면, *note
     OverflowError: 87d. 가 일어납니다.  'signed' 의 기본값은 ‘False’ 입
     니다.

     The default values can be used to conveniently turn an integer into
     a single byte object:

          >>> (65).to_bytes()
          b'A'

     However, when using the default arguments, don’t try to convert a
     value greater than 255 or you’ll get an *note OverflowError: 87d.

     다음 코드와 동등합니다:

          def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  order = range(length)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  order = reversed(range(length))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              return bytes((n >> i*8) & 0xff for i in order)

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added default argument values for ‘length’ and
     ‘byteorder’.

 -- 메서드: classmethod int.from_bytes (bytes, byteorder='big', *,
          signed=False)

     주어진 바이트 배열로 표현되는 정수를 돌려줍니다.

          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
          16
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
          4096
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
          -1024
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
          64512
          >>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
          16711680

     인자 'bytes' 는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 이거나 바이트를 생성하
     는 이터러블이어야 합니다.

     The 'byteorder' argument determines the byte order used to
     represent the integer, and defaults to ‘"big"’.  If 'byteorder' is
     ‘"big"’, the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte
     array.  If 'byteorder' is ‘"little"’, the most significant byte is
     at the end of the byte array.  To request the native byte order of
     the host system, use *note sys.byteorder: 21a3. as the byte order
     value.

     'signed' 인자는 정수를 표현하는데 2의 보수가 사용되는지를 나타냅니
     다.

     다음 코드와 동등합니다:

          def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  little_ordered = list(bytes)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              n = sum(b << i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
              if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] & 0x80):
                  n -= 1 << 8*len(little_ordered)

              return n

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added default argument value for ‘byteorder’.

 -- 메서드: int.as_integer_ratio ()

     Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original
     integer and has a positive denominator.  The integer ratio of
     integers (whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and
     ‘1’ as the denominator.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 메서드: int.is_integer ()

     Returns ‘True’.  Exists for duck type compatibility with *note
     float.is_integer(): 21a4.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 실수에 대한 추가 메서드,  Next: 숫자 형의 해싱,  Prev: 정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드,  Up: 숫자 형 — int float complex

5.4.4.3 실수에 대한 추가 메서드
...............................

float 형은 *note numbers.Real: 219e. *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5. 를
구현합니다.  또한, float는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드를 갖습니다.

 -- 메서드: float.as_integer_ratio ()

     Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the
     original float.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive
     denominator.  Raises *note OverflowError: 87d. on infinities and a
     *note ValueError: 202. on NaNs.

 -- 메서드: float.is_integer ()

     float 인스턴스가 정숫값을 가진 유한이면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’ 를 돌려줍니다:

          >>> (-2.0).is_integer()
          True
          >>> (3.2).is_integer()
          False

두 가지 메서드가 16진수 문자열과의 변환을 지원합니다.  파이썬의 float는
내부적으로 이진수로 저장되기 때문에 float를 '십진수' 문자열로 또는 그 반
대로 변환하는 것은 보통 반올림 오류를 수반합니다.  이에 반해, 16진수 문
자열은 부동 소수점 숫자의 정확한 표현과 지정을 가능하게 합니다.  이것은
디버깅 및 수치 작업에 유용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: float.hex ()

     부동 소수점의 16진수 문자열 표현을 돌려줍니다.  유한 부동 소수점의
     경우, 이 표현은 항상 선행하는 ‘0x’ 와 후행하는 ‘p’ 와 지수를 포함합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod float.fromhex (s)

     16진수 문자열 's' 로 표현되는 float를 돌려주는 클래스 메서드.  문자
     열 's' 는 앞뒤 공백을 가질 수 있습니다.

*note float.hex(): 1d1b. 는 인스턴스 메서드인 반면, *note
float.fromhex(): 21a6. 는 클래스 메서드임에 주의하세요.

16진수 문자열은 다음과 같은 형식을 취합니다:

     [sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]

선택적인 ‘sign’ 은 ‘+’ 나 ‘-’ 가 될 수 있고, ‘integer’ 와 ‘fraction’ 은
16진수 문자열이고, ‘exponent’ 는 선택적인 선행 부호가 붙을 수 있는 십진
수입니다.  대소 문자는 중요하지 않으며 integer 나 fraction 중 어느 하나
에 적어도 하나의 16진수가 있어야 합니다.  이 문법은 C99 표준의 6.4.4.2 절
에 지정된 문법과 비슷하며, 자바 1.5 이상에서 사용되는 문법과도 비슷합니
다.  특히, *note float.hex(): 1d1b. 의 출력은 C 또는 자바 코드에서 16진
수의 부동 소수점 리터럴로 사용할 수 있으며, C의 ‘%a’ 포맷 문자나 자바의
‘Double.toHexString’ 가 만들어내는 16진수 문자열은 *note
float.fromhex(): 21a6. 가 받아들입니다.

지수는 16진수가 아닌 십진수로 쓰이고, 숫자에 곱해지는 2의 거듭제곱을 제
공한다는 점에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, 16진수 문자열 ‘0x3.a7p10’ 는 부
동 소수점 숫자 ‘(3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) * 2.0**10’ 또는 ‘3740.0’ 를 나타
냅니다:

     >>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
     3740.0

‘3740.0’ 에 역변환을 적용하면 같은 숫자를 나타내는 다른 16진수 문자열을
얻을 수 있습니다:

     >>> float.hex(3740.0)
     '0x1.d380000000000p+11'


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 형의 해싱,  Prev: 실수에 대한 추가 메서드,  Up: 숫자 형 — int float complex

5.4.4.4 숫자 형의 해싱
......................

For numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’, possibly of different types, it’s a requirement
that ‘hash(x) == hash(y)’ whenever ‘x == y’ (see the *note __hash__():
af8. method documentation for more details).  For ease of implementation
and efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including *note int:
257, *note float: 2ef, *note decimal.Decimal: 29d. and *note
fractions.Fraction: 1e7.) Python’s hash for numeric types is based on a
single mathematical function that’s defined for any rational number, and
hence applies to all instances of *note int: 257. and *note
fractions.Fraction: 1e7, and all finite instances of *note float: 2ef.
and *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.  Essentially, this function is given by
reduction modulo ‘P’ for a fixed prime ‘P’.  The value of ‘P’ is made
available to Python as the *note modulus: 21a9. attribute of *note
sys.hash_info: ff5.

현재, 사용되는 소수는 32-비트 C long을 가진 기계에서는 ‘P = 2**31 - 1’ 이
고, 64-비트 C long을 가진 기계에서는 ‘P = 2**61 - 1’ 입니다.

다음은 규칙에 대한 세부 사항입니다:

   - ‘x = m / n’ 이 음이 아닌 유리수이고 ‘n’ 이 ‘P’ 로 나뉘지 않는다면,
     ‘hash(x)’ 를 ‘m * invmod(n, P) % P’ 로 정의합니다.  여기서
     ‘invmod(n, P)’ 는 ‘n’ 의 모듈로 ‘P’ 역수를 줍니다.

   - ‘x = m / n’ 이 음이 아닌 유리수이고 ‘n’ 이 ‘P’ 나뉘면 (하지만 ‘m’ 은
     나뉘지 않으면) ‘n’ 은 모듈로 ‘P’ 역수를 가지지 않고 위의 규칙은 적
     용되지 않습니다; 이 경우 ‘hash(x)’ 를 상숫값 ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ 로
     정의합니다.

   - ‘x = m / n’ 이 음의 유리수이면 ‘hash(x)’ 를 ‘-hash(-x)’ 로 정의합니
     다.  얻어진 해시가 ‘-1’ 이면 ‘-2’ 로 바꿉니다.

   - The particular values ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ and ‘-sys.hash_info.inf’
     are used as hash values for positive infinity or negative infinity
     (respectively).

   - 복소수(*note complex: 2f0.) ‘z’ 의 경우, ‘hash(z.real) +
     sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)’ 를 계산하여 실수부와 허수부의 해
     시값을 결합하는데, ‘2**sys.hash_info.width’ 의 모듈로로 환원해서
     ‘range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
     1))’ 범위에 들어가도록 만듭니다.  다시 한번, 결과가 ‘-1’ 이라면
     ‘-2’ 로 바꿉니다.

위의 규칙을 명확히 하기 위해, 여기에 유리수, *note float: 2ef, *note
complex: 2f0. 의 해시를 계산하는, 내장 해시와 동등한, 파이썬 코드를 예시
합니다:

     import sys, math

     def hash_fraction(m, n):
         """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

         Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
         Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

         """
         P = sys.hash_info.modulus
         # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
         while m % P == n % P == 0:
             m, n = m // P, n // P

         if n % P == 0:
             hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
             # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
             hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
         if m < 0:
             hash_value = -hash_value
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value

     def hash_float(x):
         """Compute the hash of a float x."""

         if math.isnan(x):
             return object.__hash__(x)
         elif math.isinf(x):
             return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

     def hash_complex(z):
         """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""

         hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
         # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
         M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
         hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean Type - bool,  Next: 이터레이터 형,  Prev: 숫자 형 — int float complex,  Up: 내장형

5.4.5 Boolean Type - ‘bool’
---------------------------

Booleans represent truth values.  The *note bool: 461. type has exactly
two constant instances: ‘True’ and ‘False’.

The built-in function *note bool(): 461. converts any value to a
boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section
*note 논리값 검사: 1550. above).

For logical operations, use the *note boolean operators: 2199. ‘and’,
‘or’ and ‘not’.  When applying the bitwise operators ‘&’, ‘|’, ‘^’ to
two booleans, they return a bool equivalent to the logical operations
“and”, “or”, “xor”.  However, the logical operators ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘!=’
should be preferred over ‘&’, ‘|’ and ‘^’.

버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: The use of the bitwise inversion operator ‘~’ is
deprecated and will raise an error in Python 3.16.

*note bool: 461. is a subclass of *note int: 257. (see *note 숫자 형 —
int, float, complex: 1bff.).  In many numeric contexts, ‘False’ and
‘True’ behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.  However, relying
on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using *note int(): 257.
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이터 형,  Next: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range,  Prev: Boolean Type - bool,  Up: 내장형

5.4.6 이터레이터 형
-------------------

파이썬은 컨테이너에 대한 이터레이션 개념을 지원합니다.  이것은 두 개의 메
서드를 사용해서 구현됩니다; 이것들은 사용자 정의 클래스가 이터레이션을 지
원할 수 있도록 하는 데 사용됩니다.  아래에서 더 자세히 설명할 시퀀스는 항
상 이터레이션 메서드를 지원합니다.

One method needs to be defined for container objects to provide *note
iterable: 1217. support:

 -- 메서드: container.__iter__ ()

     Return an *note iterator: 1ac. object.  The object is required to
     support the iterator protocol described below.  If a container
     supports different types of iteration, additional methods can be
     provided to specifically request iterators for those iteration
     types.  (An example of an object supporting multiple forms of
     iteration would be a tree structure which supports both
     breadth-first and depth-first traversal.)  This method corresponds
     to the *note tp_iter: 14b6. slot of the type structure for Python
     objects in the Python/C API.

이터레이터 객체 자체는 다음과 같은 두 가지 메서드를 지원해야 하는데, 둘
이 함께 '이터레이터 프로토콜 (iterator protocol)' 를 이룹니다.:

 -- 메서드: iterator.__iter__ ()

     Return the *note iterator: 1ac. object itself.  This is required to
     allow both containers and iterators to be used with the *note for:
     2ea. and *note in: 2ec. statements.  This method corresponds to the
     *note tp_iter: 14b6. slot of the type structure for Python objects
     in the Python/C API.

 -- 메서드: iterator.__next__ ()

     Return the next item from the *note iterator: 1ac.  If there are no
     further items, raise the *note StopIteration: bf7. exception.  This
     method corresponds to the *note tp_iternext: 14b7. slot of the type
     structure for Python objects in the Python/C API.

파이썬은 일반적이거나 특정한 시퀀스 형, 딕셔너리, 기타 더 특화된 형태에
대한 이터레이션을 지원하기 위해 여러 이터레이터 객체를 정의합니다.  이터
레이터 프로토콜의 구현을 넘어서 개별적인 형이 중요하지는 않습니다.

일단 이터레이터의 *note __next__(): 12bd. 메서드가 *note StopIteration:
bf7. 를 일으키면, 그 이후의 호출에 대해서도 같이 동작해야 합니다.  이 속
성을 따르지 않는 구현은 망가진 것으로 간주합니다.

* Menu:

* 제너레이터 형::


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 형,  Up: 이터레이터 형

5.4.6.1 제너레이터 형
.....................

Python’s *note generator: 1057.s provide a convenient way to implement
the iterator protocol.  If a container object’s *note __iter__(): 1f64.
method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an
iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the *note
__iter__(): 1ccc. and *note __next__(): 1ccd. methods.  More information
about generators can be found in *note the documentation for the yield
expression: 2043.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range,  Next: 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str,  Prev: 이터레이터 형,  Up: 내장형

5.4.7 시퀀스 형 — ‘list’, ‘tuple’, ‘range’
------------------------------------------

세 가지 기본 시퀀스 형이 있습니다: 리스트, 튜플, 범위 객체.  *note
바이너리 데이터: 2169. 와 *note 텍스트 문자열: 1c04. 의 처리를 위해 추가
된 시퀀스 형들은 별도의 섹션에서 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 공통 시퀀스 연산::
* 불변 시퀀스 형::
* 가변 시퀀스 형::
* 리스트: 리스트<2>.
* 튜플::
* 범위::


File: python.info,  Node: 공통 시퀀스 연산,  Next: 불변 시퀀스 형,  Up: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range

5.4.7.1 공통 시퀀스 연산
........................

다음 표의 연산들은 대부분의 가변과 불변 시퀀스에서 지원됩니다.  사용자 정
의 시퀀스에서 이 연산들을 올바르게 구현하기 쉽게 하려고 *note
collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3. ABC가 제공됩니다.

이 표는 우선순위에 따라 오름차순으로 시퀀스 연산들을 나열합니다.  표에서
, 's' 와 't' 는 같은 형의 시퀀스고, 'n', 'i', 'j', 'k' 는 정수이고, 'x'
는 's' 가 요구하는 형과 값 제한을 만족하는 임의의 객체입니다.

‘in’ 과 ‘not in’ 연산은 비교 연산과 우선순위가 같습니다.  ‘+’ (이어 붙이
기)와 ‘*’ (반복) 연산은 대응하는 숫자 연산과 같은 우선순위를 갖습니다.
(1)

연산                           결과                                 노트
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘x in s’                       's' 의 항목 중 하나가 'x' 와 같으    (1)
                               면 ‘True’, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’     
                               
                                                                    
‘x not in s’                   's' 의 항목 중 하나가 'x' 와 같으    (1)
                               면 ‘False’, 그렇지 않으면 ‘True’     
                               
                                                                    
‘s + t’                        's' 와 't' 의 이어 붙이기            (6)(7)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s * n’ 또는 ‘n * s’           's' 를 그 자신에 'n' 번 더하는 것    (2)(7)
                               과 같습니다                          
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i]’                         's' 의 'i' 번째 항목, 0에서 시작합   (3)(9)
                               니다                                 
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i:j]’                       's' 의 'i' 에서 'j' 까지의 슬라이    (3)(4)
                               스                                   
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i:j:k]’                     's' 의 'i' 에서 'j' 까지 스텝 'k'    (3)(5)
                               의 슬라이스                          
                               
                                                                    
‘len(s)’                       's' 의 길이
                               
                                                                    
‘min(s)’                       's' 의 가장 작은 항목
                               
                                                                    
‘max(s)’                       's' 의 가장 큰 항목
                               
                                                                    
‘s.index(x[, i[, j]])’         (인덱스 'i' 또는 그 이후에, 인덱스   (8)
                               'j' 전에 등장하는) 's' 의 첫 번째    
                               'x' 의 인덱스
                               
                                                                    
‘s.count(x)’                   's' 등장하는 'x' 의 총수
                               

같은 형의 시퀀스는 비교를 지원합니다.  특히, 튜플과 리스트는 대응하는 항
목들을 사전적으로 비교합니다.  이것은 같다고 비교되기 위해서는, 모든 항
목이 같다고 비교되고, 두 시퀀스의 형과 길이가 같아야 함을 의미합니다.  (자
세한 내용은 언어 레퍼런스의 *note 비교: 207c.를 참조하십시오.)

Forward and reversed iterators over mutable sequences access values
using an index.  That index will continue to march forward (or backward)
even if the underlying sequence is mutated.  The iterator terminates
only when an *note IndexError: 14fc. or a *note StopIteration: bf7. is
encountered (or when the index drops below zero).

노트:

  1. ‘in’ 과 ‘not in’ 연산은 일반적으로 단순한 포함 검사를 위해서만 사용
     되지만, 몇몇 특수한 시퀀스 (*note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2, *note
     bytearray: 538. 같은) 들은 서브 시퀀스 검사에 사용하기도 합니다:

          >>> "gg" in "eggs"
          True

  2. 'n' 의 값이 ‘0’ 보다 작으면 ‘0’ 으로 처리됩니다 ('s' 와 같은 형의 빈
     시퀀스가 됩니다).  시퀀스 's' 의 항목들이 복사되지 않음에 주의해야
     합니다; 그들은 여러 번 참조됩니다.  이것은 종종 새 파이썬 프로그래
     머들을 괴롭힙니다; 이 코드를 살펴보세요:

          >>> lists = [[]] * 3
          >>> lists
          [[], [], []]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [3], [3]]

     무슨 일이 일어났는가 하면, ‘[[]]’ 는 빈 리스트를 포함하는 길이 1인
     리스트인데, ‘[[]] * 3’ 의 세 항목은 모두 같은 빈 리스트를 참조합니
     다.  ‘lists’ 의 어느 항목을 수정하더라도 이 하나의 리스트를 수정하
     게 됩니다.  서로 다른 리스트들을 포함하는 리스트는 이런 식으로 만들
     수 있습니다:

          >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists[1].append(5)
          >>> lists[2].append(7)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [5], [7]]

     더 자세한 설명은 FAQ 항목 *note 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?:
     21b2.에서 얻을 수 있습니다.

  3. 'i' 또는 'j' 가 음수인 경우, 인덱스는 시퀀스 's' 의 끝에 상대적입니
     다: ‘len(s) + i’ 이나 ‘len(s) + j’ 로 치환됩니다.  하지만 ‘-0’ 은 여
     전히 ‘0’ 입니다.

  4. 'i' 에서 'j' 까지의 's' 의 슬라이스는 ‘i <= k < j’ 를 만족하는 인덱
     스 'k' 의 항목들로 구성된 시퀀스로 정의됩니다.  'i' 또는 'j' 가
     ‘len(s)’ 보다 크면 ‘len(s)’ 을 사용합니다.  'i' 가 생략되거나
     ‘None’ 이라면 ‘0’ 을 사용합니다.  'j' 가 생략되거나 ‘None’ 이면
     ‘len(s)’ 을 사용합니다.  'i' 가 'j' 보다 크거나 같으면 빈 슬라이스
     가 됩니다.

  5. 스텝 'k' 가 있는 'i' 에서 'j' 까지의 슬라이스는 ‘0 <= n < (j-i)/k’
     를 만족하는 인덱스 ‘x = i + n*k’ 의 항목들로 구성된 시퀀스로 정의됩
     니다.  다시 말하면, 인덱스는 ‘i’, ‘i+k’, ‘i+2*k’, ‘i+3*k’ 등이며
     'j' 에 도달할 때 멈춥니다 (하지만 절대 'j' 를 포함하지는 않습니다).
     'k' 가 양수면 'i' 와 'j' 는 더 큰 경우 ‘len(s)’ 로 줄어듭니다.  'k'
     가 음수면, 'i' 와 'j' 는 더 큰 경우 ‘len(s) - 1’ 로 줄어듭니다.
     'i' 또는 'j' 가 생략되거나 ‘None’ 이면, 그것들은 “끝” 값이 됩니다
     (끝은 'k' 의 부호에 따라 달라집니다).  'k' 는 0일 수 없음에 주의하
     세요.  'k' 가 ‘None’ 이면 ‘1’ 로 취급됩니다.

  6. 불변 시퀀스를 이어 붙이면 항상 새로운 객체가 생성됩니다.  이것은 반
     복적으로 이어붙이기를 해서 시퀀스를 만들 때 실행 시간이 시퀀스의 총
     길이의 제곱에 비례한다는 뜻입니다.  선형 실행 시간 비용을 얻으려면
     아래 대안 중 하나로 전환해야 합니다:

        * *note str: 445. 객체를 이어붙이기를 한다면, 리스트를 만들고 마
          지막에 *note str.join(): 21b3. 을 사용하거나 *note
          io.StringIO: f1f. 인스턴스에 쓰고 완료될 때 값을 꺼낼 수 있습
          니다

        * *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 연결하는 경우 비슷하게 *note
          bytes.join(): 21b4. 또는 *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 를 사용하거나,
          *note bytearray: 538. 객체를 사용하여 제자리에서 이어붙이기를
          할 수 있습니다.  *note bytearray: 538. 객체는 가변이고 효율적
          인 과할당(overallocation) 메커니즘을 가지고 있습니다.

        * *note tuple: 369. 객체를 이어붙이기를 한다면, 대신 *note list:
          60b.를 extend 하십시오.

        * 다른 형의 경우 관련 클래스 문서를 조사하십시오.

  7. 일부 시퀀스 형 (예를 들어 *note range: 941.)은 특정 패턴을 따르는 항
     목 시퀀스 만 지원하기 때문에 시퀀스 이어붙이기나 반복을 지원하지 않
     습니다.

  8. 's' 에 'x' 가 없을 때 ‘index’ 는 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니
     다.  모든 구현이 추가 인자 'i' 및 'j' 전달을 지원하지는 않습니다.  이
     러한 인자를 사용하면 시퀀스의 부분을 효율적으로 검색할 수 있습니다.
     추가 인자를 전달하는 것은 대략 ‘s[i:j].index(x)’ 를 사용하는 것과 비
     슷한데, 데이터를 복사하지 않고 반환된 인덱스가 슬라이스의 시작이 아
     닌 시퀀스의 시작을 기준으로 삼습니다.

  9. An *note IndexError: 14fc. is raised if 'i' is outside the sequence
     range.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 파서가 피연산자 유형을 알 수 없으므로 그럴 수밖에 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 불변 시퀀스 형,  Next: 가변 시퀀스 형,  Prev: 공통 시퀀스 연산,  Up: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range

5.4.7.2 불변 시퀀스 형
......................

불변 시퀀스 형이 일반적으로 구현하지만, 가변 시퀀스 형에서는 구현되지 않
는 연산은 내장 *note hash(): 5e5. 에 대한 지원입니다.

이 지원은 *note tuple: 369. 인스턴스와 같은 불변 시퀀스를 *note dict:
256. 키로 사용하고 *note set: 5d3. 및 *note frozenset: 5d4. 인스턴스에 저
장할 수 있도록 합니다.

해시 불가능 값을 포함하는 불변 시퀀스를 해시 하려고 하면 *note
TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 가변 시퀀스 형,  Next: 리스트<2>,  Prev: 불변 시퀀스 형,  Up: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range

5.4.7.3 가변 시퀀스 형
......................

다음 표의 연산들은 가변 시퀀스 형에 정의되어 있습니다.  사용자 정의 시퀀
스에서 이 연산들을 올바르게 구현하기 쉽게 하려고 *note
collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1. ABC가 제공됩니다.

표에서 's' 는 가변 시퀀스 형의 인스턴스이고, 't' 는 임의의 이터러블 객체
이며, 'x' 는 's' 가 요구하는 형 및 값 제한을 충족시키는 임의의 객체입니
다 (예를 들어, *note bytearray: 538. 는 값 제한 ‘0 <= x <= 255’ 를 만족
하는 정수만 받아들입니다.

연산                               결과                                 노트
                                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                        
‘s[i] = x’                         's' 의 항목 'i' 를 'x' 로 대체합니
                                   다
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i]’                         removes item 'i' of 's'
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j] = t’                       'i' 에서 'j' 까지의 's' 슬라이스가
                                   이터러블 't' 의 내용으로 대체됩니
                                   다
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j]’                       removes the elements of ‘s[i:j]’
                                   from the list (same as ‘s[i:j] =
                                   []’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j:k] = t’                     ‘s[i:j:k]’ 의 항목들이 't' 의 항목   (1)
                                   들로 대체됩니다                      
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j:k]’                     리스트에서 ‘s[i:j:k]’ 의 항목들을
                                   제거합니다
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.append(x)’                      시퀀스의 끝에 'x' 를 추가합니다
                                   (‘s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]’ 와 같습
                                   니다)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.clear()’                        's' 에서 모든 항목을 제거합니다      (5)
                                   (‘del s[:]’ 와 같습니다)             
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.copy()’                         's' 의 얕은 복사본을 만듭니다        (5)
                                   (‘s[:]’ 와 같습니다)                 
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.extend(t)’ 또는 ‘s += t’        't' 의 내용으로 's' 를 확장합니다
                                   (대부분 ‘s[len(s):len(s)] = t’ 와
                                   같습니다)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s *= n’                           내용이 'n' 번 반복되도록 's' 를 갱   (6)
                                   신합니다                             
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.insert(i, x)’                   'x' 를 's' 의 'i' 로 주어진 인덱스
                                   에 삽입합니다 (‘s[i:i] = [x]’ 와 같
                                   습니다)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.pop()’ or ‘s.pop(i)’            'i' 에 있는 항목을 꺼냄과 동시에     (2)
                                   's' 에서 제거합니다                  
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.remove(x)’                      removes the first item from 's'      (3)
                                   where ‘s[i]’ is equal to 'x'         
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.reverse()’                      제자리에서 's' 의 항목들의 순서를    (4)
                                   뒤집습니다                           
                                   

노트:

  1. If 'k' is not equal to ‘1’, 't' must have the same length as the
     slice it is replacing.

  2. 선택적 인자 'i' 의 기본값은 ‘-1’ 입니다.  그래서 기본적으로 마지막
     항목이 제거되면서 반환됩니다.

  3. 'x' 가 's' 에서 발견되지 않으면 ‘remove()’ 는 *note ValueError:
     202. 를 일으킵니다.

  4. 큰 시퀀스를 뒤집을 때 공간 절약을 위해 ‘reverse()’ 메서드는 제자리
     에서 시퀀스를 수정합니다.  부작용으로 작동한다는 것을 사용자에게 상
     기시키기 위해 뒤집힌 시퀀스를 돌려주지 않습니다.

  5. ‘clear()’와 ‘copy()’ 는 슬라이싱 연산을 지원하지 않는 (*note dict:
     256. 와 *note set: 5d3. 같은) 가변 컨테이너들의 인터페이스와 일관성
     을 유지하기 위해 포함됩니다.  ‘copy()’는 *note
     collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1. ABC 일부가 아니지만, 대부분 구
     상 가변 시퀀스 클래스는 이것을 제공합니다.

     Added in version 3.3: ‘clear()’와 ‘copy()’ 메서드.

  6. 'n' 값은 정수이거나, *note __index__(): 716. 를 구현하는 객체입니다
     .  'n' 이 0 이거나 음수면 시퀀스를 지웁니다.  시퀀스의 항목들은 복
     사되지 않습니다; *note 공통 시퀀스 연산: 21b1.에서 ‘s * n’ 를 위해
     설명한 것처럼 여러 번 참조됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트<2>,  Next: 튜플,  Prev: 가변 시퀀스 형,  Up: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range

5.4.7.4 리스트
..............

리스트는 가변 시퀀스로, 일반적으로 등질 항목들의 모음을 저장하는 데 사용
됩니다 (정확한 유사도는 응용 프로그램마다 다를 수 있습니다).

 -- 클래스: list (iterable=(), /)

     리스트는 여러 가지 방법으로 만들 수 있습니다:

        * 대괄호를 사용하여 빈 리스트를 표시하기: ‘[]’

        * 대괄호를 사용하여 쉼표로 항목 구분하기: ‘[a]’, ‘[a, b, c]’

        * 리스트 컴프리헨션 사용하기: ‘[x for x in iterable]’

        * 형 생성자를 사용하기: ‘list()’ 또는 ‘list(iterable)’

     생성자는 항목들과 그 순서가 'iterable' 과 같은 리스트를 만듭니다.
     'iterable' 은 시퀀스, 이터레이션을 지원하는 컨테이너, 이터레이터 객
     체가 될 수 있습니다.  'iterable' 이 이미 리스트라면, ‘iterable[:]’
     과 비슷하게 복사본을 만들어서 반환합니다.  예를 들어, ‘list('abc')’
     는 ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’ 를 반환하고 ‘list( (1, 2, 3) )’ 는 ‘[1, 2, 3]’
     를 반환합니다.  인자가 주어지지 않으면, 생성자는 새로운 빈 리스트인
     ‘[]’ 을 만듭니다.

     다른 많은 연산도 리스트를 만드는데, 내장 *note sorted(): bcb. 도 그
     런 것 중 하나다.

     리스트는 *note 공통: 21b1. 과 *note 가변: 2168. 시퀀스 연산들을 모
     두 구현합니다.  또한, 리스트는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드를 제공합니다
     :

      -- 메서드: sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

          이 메서드는 항목 간의 ‘<’ 비교만 사용하여 리스트를 제자리에서
          정렬합니다.  예외는 억제되지 않습니다 - 비교 연산이 실패하면 전
          체 정렬 연산이 실패합니다 (리스트는 부분적으로 수정된 상태로 남
          아있게 됩니다).

          *note sort(): bcc. 는 키워드로만 전달할 수 있는 두 개의 인자를
          받아들입니다 (*note 키워드-전용 인자: 2a5.):

          'key' 는 인자 하나를 받아들이는 함수를 지정하는데, 각 리스트 요
          소에서 비교 키를 추출하는 데 사용됩니다 (예를 들어,
          ‘key=str.lower’).  리스트의 각 항목에 해당하는 키는 한 번만 계
          산된 후 전체 정렬 프로세스에 사용됩니다.  기본값 ‘None’ 은 리
          스트 항목들이 별도의 키값을 계산하지 않고 직접 정렬된다는 것을
          의미합니다.

          *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 11c9. 유틸리티는 2.x 스타일
          'cmp' 함수를 'key' 함수로 변환하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          'reverse' 는 논리값입니다.  ‘True’ 로 설정되면, 각 비교가 역전
          된 것처럼 리스트 요소들이 정렬됩니다.

          이 메서드는 큰 시퀀스를 정렬할 때 공간 절약을 위해 시퀀스를 제
          자리에서 수정합니다.  부작용으로 작동한다는 것을 사용자에게 상
          기시키기 위해 정렬된 시퀀스를 돌려주지 않습니다 (새 정렬 된 리
          스트 인스턴스를 명시적으로 요청하려면 *note sorted(): bcb.를 사
          용하십시오).

          *note sort(): bcc. 메서드는 안정적임이 보장됩니다.  정렬은 같
          다고 비교되는 요소들의 상대적 순서를 변경하지 않으면 안정적입
          니다 — 이는 여러 번 정렬하는 데 유용합니다 (예를 들어, 부서별
          로 정렬한 후에 급여 등급으로 정렬).

          정렬 예제와 간단한 정렬 자습서는 *note 정렬 기법: 2186.를 참조
          하십시오.

          리스트가 정렬되는 동안, 리스트를 변경하려고 할 때의, 또는 관찰
          하려고 할 때조차, 효과는 정의되지 않습니다.  파이썬의 C 구현은
          그동안 리스트를 비어있는 것으로 보이게 하고, 정렬 중에 리스트
          가 변경되었음을 감지할 수 있다면 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일
          으킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 튜플,  Next: 범위,  Prev: 리스트<2>,  Up: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range

5.4.7.5 튜플
............

튜플은 불변 시퀀스인데, 보통 이질적인 데이터의 모음을 저장하는 데 사용됩
니다 (예를 들어, 내장 *note enumerate(): 1445. 가 만드는 2-튜플).  튜플
은 등질적인 데이터의 불변 시퀀스가 필요한 경우에도 사용됩니다 (예를 들어
, *note set: 5d3. 이나 *note dict: 256. 인스턴스에 저장하고자 하는 경우
).

 -- 클래스: tuple (iterable=(), /)

     튜플은 여러 가지 방법으로 만들 수 있습니다:

        * 괄호를 사용하여 빈 튜플을 나타내기: ‘()’

        * 단일 항목 튜플을 위해 끝에 쉼표를 붙이기: ‘a,’ 또는 ‘(a,)’

        * 항목을 쉼표로 구분하기: ‘a, b, c’ 또는 ‘(a, b, c)’

        * 내장 *note tuple(): 369. 사용하기: ‘tuple()’ 또는
          ‘tuple(iterable)’

     생성자는 항목들과 그 순서가 'iterable' 과 같은 튜플을 만듭니다.
     'iterable' 은 시퀀스, 이터레이션을 지원하는 컨테이너, 이터레이터 객
     체가 될 수 있습니다.  'iterable' 이 이미 튜플이라면 변경되지 않은 상
     태로 반환됩니다.  예를 들어 ‘tuple('abc')’ 는 ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’ 를
     반환하고, ‘tuple( [1, 2, 3] )’ 는 ‘(1, 2, 3)’ 을 반환합니다.  인자
     가 주어지지 않으면, 생성자는 새로운 빈 튜플인 ‘()’ 을 만듭니다.

     튜플을 만드는 것은 실제로는 괄호가 아닌 쉼표임에 유의하십시오.  괄
     호는 빈 튜플의 경우를 제외하고는 선택적이거나 문법상의 모호함을 피
     하고자 필요합니다.  예를 들어, ‘f(a, b, c)’ 는 3개의 인자를 가진 함
     수 호출이지만, ‘f((a, b, c))’ 는 하나의 인자로 3-튜플을 갖는 함수 호
     출입니다.

     튜플은 *note 공통: 21b1. 시퀀스 연산을 모두 구현합니다.

이름에 의한 액세스가 인덱스에 의한 액세스보다 더 명확한 이질적 데이터 컬
렉션의 경우, *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. 이 단순한 튜플 객체보
다 더 적절한 선택일 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 범위,  Prev: 튜플,  Up: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range

5.4.7.6 범위
............

*note range: 941. 형은 숫자의 불변 시퀀스를 나타내며 *note for: 2ea. 루
프에서 특정 횟수만큼 반복하는 데 흔히 사용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: range (stop, /)

 -- 클래스: range (start, stop, step=1, /)

     The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either
     built-in *note int: 257. or any object that implements the *note
     __index__(): 716. special method).  If the 'step' argument is
     omitted, it defaults to ‘1’.  If the 'start' argument is omitted,
     it defaults to ‘0’.  If 'step' is zero, *note ValueError: 202. is
     raised.

     양수 'step' 의 경우, 범위 ‘r’ 의 내용은 식 ‘r[i] = start + step*i’
     에 의해 결정됩니다.  이때 ‘i >= 0’ 이고 ‘r[i] < stop’ 입니다.

     음수 'step' 의 경우, 범위의 내용은 여전히 식 ‘r[i] = start +
     step*i’ 에 의해 결정되지만, 제약 조건은 ‘i >= 0’ 과 ‘r[i] > stop’ 이
     됩니다.

     ‘r[0]’ 제약 조건을 만족시키지 않으면 범위 객체는 비게 됩니다.  범위
     는 음의 인덱스를 지원하지만, 이는 시퀀스의 끝에서부터 양의 인덱스만
     큼 떨어진 인덱스로 해석됩니다.

     *note sys.maxsize: 11b4. 보다 큰 절댓값을 포함하는 범위는 허용되지
     만, (*note len(): 628. 과 같은) 일부 기능은 *note OverflowError:
     87d. 를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

     범위 예제:

          >>> list(range(10))
          [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> list(range(1, 11))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
          >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
          [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
          >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
          [0, 3, 6, 9]
          >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
          >>> list(range(0))
          []
          >>> list(range(1, 0))
          []

     범위는 이어 붙이기와 반복을 제외한 *note 공통: 21b1. 시퀀스 연산을
     모두 구현합니다 (범위 객체는 엄격한 패턴을 따르는 시퀀스 만 나타낼
     수 있는데 반복과 이어 붙이기는 보통 그 패턴을 위반한다는 사실에 기
     인합니다).

      -- 속성: start

          'start' 매개변수의 값 (또는 매개변수가 제공되지 않으면 ‘0’)

      -- 속성: stop

          'stop' 매개변수의 값

      -- 속성: step

          'step' 매개변수의 값 (또는 매개변수가 제공되지 않으면 ‘1’)

정규 *note list: 60b. 나 *note tuple: 369. 에 비해 *note range: 941. 형
의 장점은 *note range: 941. 객체는 표현하는 범위의 크기에 무관하게 항상
같은 (작은) 양의 메모리를 사용한다는 것입니다 (‘start’, ‘stop’, ‘step’ 값
만을 저장하고, 필요에 따라 개별 항목과 하위 범위를 계산하기 때문입니다).

범위 객체는 *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3. ABC를 구현하고, 포함 검
사, 요소 인덱스 검색, 슬라이싱, 음수 인덱스 지원과 같은 기능을 제공합니
다 (*note 시퀀스 형 — list, tuple, range: 1c51. 를 보세요):

     >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> r
     range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> 11 in r
     False
     >>> 10 in r
     True
     >>> r.index(10)
     5
     >>> r[5]
     10
     >>> r[:5]
     range(0, 10, 2)
     >>> r[-1]
     18

‘==’ 나 ‘!=’ 로 범위 객체가 같은지 검사하면 시퀀스처럼 비교합니다.  즉,
두 범위 객체가 같은 시퀀스의 값을 나타낼 때 같다고 취급됩니다.  (같다고
비교되는 두 개의 범위 객체가 서로 다른 *note start: 21bb, *note stop:
21bc, *note step: 21bd. 어트리뷰트를 가질 수 있음에 주의하세요.  예를 들
어, ‘range(0) == range(2, 1, 3)’ 또는 ‘range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4,
2)’.)

버전 3.2에서 변경: 시퀀스 ABC를 구현합니다.  *note int: 257. 객체의 포함
검사는 모든 항목을 이터레이트하는 대신 상수 시간으로 수행됩니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: (객체 아이덴티티에 기반을 두는 대신) 범위 객체가 정의
하는 값들의 시퀀스에 기반을 둔 비교를 위해 ‘==’ 와 ‘!=’ 를 정의합니다.

Added the *note start: 21bb, *note stop: 21bc. and *note step: 21bd.
attributes.

더 보기
.......

   * The linspace recipe(1) shows how to implement a lazy version of
     range suitable for floating-point applications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str,  Next: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Prev: 시퀀스 형 — list tuple range,  Up: 내장형

5.4.8 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — ‘str’
------------------------------

파이썬의 텍스트 데이터는 *note str: 445, 또는 '문자열 (strings)', 객체를
사용하여 처리됩니다.  문자열은 유니코드 코드 포인트의 불변 *note 시퀀스:
1c51. 입니다.  문자열 리터럴은 다양한 방법으로 작성됩니다:

   * 작은따옴표: ‘'"큰" 따옴표를 담을 수 있습니다'’

   * Double quotes: ‘"allows embedded 'single' quotes"’

   * 삼중 따옴표: ‘'''세 개의 작은따옴표'''’, ‘"""세 개의 큰따옴표"""’

삼중 따옴표로 묶인 문자열은 여러 줄에 걸쳐있을 수 있습니다 - 연관된 모든
공백이 문자열 리터럴에 포함됩니다.

단일 표현식의 일부이고 그 들 사이에 공백만 있는 문자열 리터럴은 묵시적으
로 단일 문자열 리터럴로 변환됩니다.  즉, ‘("spam " "eggs") == "spam
eggs"’.

See *note 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴: 1eac. for more about the various
forms of string literal, including supported *note escape sequences:
453, and the ‘r’ (“raw”) prefix that disables most escape sequence
processing.

문자열은 *note str: 445. 생성자를 사용하여 다른 객체로부터 만들어질 수도
있습니다.

별도의 “문자” 형이 없으므로 문자열을 인덱싱하면 길이가 1인 문자열이 생성
됩니다.  즉, 비어 있지 않은 문자열 's' 의 경우, ‘s[0] == s[0:1]’ 입니다.

또한, 가변 문자열형은 없지만, 여러 단편으로부터 문자열을 효율적으로 구성
하는데 *note str.join(): 21b3. 또는 *note io.StringIO: f1f. 를 사용할 수
있습니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 파이썬 2시리즈와의 하위 호환성을 위해서, ‘u’ 접두어가
문자열 리터럴에 다시 한번 허용됩니다.  문자열 리터럴의 의미에 영향을 미
치지 않으며 ‘r’ 접두사와 결합 될 수 없습니다.

 -- 클래스: str (*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

 -- 클래스: str (object)

 -- 클래스: str (object, encoding, errors='strict')

 -- 클래스: str (object, *, errors)

     'object' 의 *note 문자열: 1c04. 버전을 돌려줍니다.  'object' 가 제
     공되지 않으면, 빈 문자열을 돌려줍니다.  그렇지 않으면, ‘str()’ 의 동
     작은 'encoding' 또는 'errors' 가 주어졌는지에 따라 달라지는데, 다음
     과 같습니다.

     If neither 'encoding' nor 'errors' is given, ‘str(object)’ returns
     *note type(object).__str__(object): 617, which is the “informal” or
     nicely printable string representation of 'object'.  For string
     objects, this is the string itself.  If 'object' does not have a
     *note __str__(): 617. method, then *note str(): 445. falls back to
     returning *note repr(object): 7f7.

     'encoding' 또는 'errors' 중 적어도 하나가 주어지면, 'object' 는
     *note bytes-like object: d2a. (예, *note bytes: 1c2. 또는 *note
     bytearray: 538.) 이어야 합니다.  이 경우, 'object' 가 *note bytes:
     1c2. (또는 *note bytearray: 538.) 객체이면, ‘str(bytes, encoding,
     errors)’ 는 *note bytes.decode(encoding, errors): 8d3. 와 동등합니
     다.  그 이외의 경우, *note bytes.decode(): 8d3. 호출 전에 버퍼 객체
     의 하부 바이트열 객체를 얻습니다.  버퍼 객체에 대한 정보는 *note
     바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 2169.와 *note
     버퍼 프로토콜: 391. 를 보십시오.

     'encoding' 또는 'errors' 인자 없이 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 *note
     str(): 445. 에 전달하는 것은 비형식적 문자열 표현을 반환하는 첫 번
     째 상황에 해당합니다 (파이썬 명령행 옵션 *note -b: 5dd. 도 보십시오
     ).  예를 들면:

          >>> str(b'Zoot!')
          "b'Zoot!'"

     ‘str’ 클래스와 그 메서드에 대한 더 자세한 정보는 *note 텍스트 시퀀스
     형 — str: 1c04.와 아래의 *note 문자열 메서드: 1c05. 섹션을 보십시오
     .  포맷된 문자열을 출력하려면 *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6. 및
     *note 포맷 문자열 문법: 1379. 섹션을 참조하십시오.  또한, *note
     텍스트 처리 서비스: 21bf. 섹션을 보십시오.

* Menu:

* 문자열 메서드::
* Formatted String Literals (f-strings): Formatted String Literals f-strings.
* printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅::


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 메서드,  Next: Formatted String Literals f-strings,  Up: 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str

5.4.8.1 문자열 메서드
.....................

문자열은 *note 공통: 21b1. 시퀀스 연산들을 모두 구현하고, 아래에 기술된
추가적인 메서드도 구현합니다.

문자열은 또한 두 가지 스타일의 문자열 포매팅을 지원합니다.  하나는 큰 폭
의 유연성과 사용자 지정을 제공하고 (참조 *note str.format(): 61b, *note
포맷 문자열 문법: 1379, *note 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅: 21c1.을 참조하
세요) 다른 하나는 C ‘printf’ 스타일에 기반을 두는데, 더 좁은 범위의 형을
처리하고 올바르게 사용하기는 다소 어렵지만, 처리할 수 있는 경우에는 종종
더 빠릅니다 (*note printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅: 6c6.).

표준 라이브러리의 *note 텍스트 처리 서비스: 21c2. 섹션은 다양한 텍스트 관
련 유틸리티를 (*note re: b9. 모듈의 정규식 지원을 포함합니다) 제공하는 많
은 다른 모듈들을 다룹니다.

 -- 메서드: str.capitalize ()

     첫 문자가 대문자이고 나머지가 소문자인 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니다
     .

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 첫 번째 문자는 대문자가 아닌 제목 케이스로
     바뀝니다.  이는 이중 문자(digraph)와 같은 문자는 전체 문자 대신 첫
     문자만 대문자로 표시된다는 뜻입니다.

 -- 메서드: str.casefold ()

     케이스 폴딩 된 문자열을 반환합니다.  케이스 폴딩 된 문자열은 대소문
     자를 무시한 매칭에 사용될 수 있습니다.

     케이스 폴딩은 소문자로 변환하는 것과 비슷하지만 문자열의 모든 케이
     스 구분을 제거하기 때문에 보다 공격적입니다.  예를 들어, 독일어 소
     문자 ‘'ß'’ 는 ‘"ss"’ 와 동등합니다.  이미 소문자이므로 *note
     lower(): 17f3. 는 ‘'ß'’ 에 아무런 영향을 미치지 않습니다; *note
     casefold(): dd2. 는 ‘"ss"’ 로 변환합니다.

     The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 'Default
     Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(1).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: str.center (width, fillchar=' ', /)

     Return centered in a string of length 'width'.  Padding is done
     using the specified 'fillchar' (default is an ASCII space).  The
     original string is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to
     ‘len(s)’.  For example:

          >>> 'Python'.center(10)
          '  Python  '
          >>> 'Python'.center(10, '-')
          '--Python--'
          >>> 'Python'.center(4)
          'Python'

 -- 메서드: str.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     범위 ['start', 'end'] 에서 부분 문자열 'sub' 가 중첩되지 않고 등장
     하는 횟수를 돌려줍니다.  선택적 인자 'start' 와 'end' 는 슬라이스 표
     기법으로 해석됩니다.

     If 'sub' is empty, returns the number of empty strings between
     characters which is the length of the string plus one.  For
     example:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam')
          3
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5)
          2
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5, 10)
          1
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('eggs')
          0
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('')
          17

 -- 메서드: str.encode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return the string encoded to *note bytes: 1c2.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’; see *note 표준 인코딩: db5. for
     possible values.

     'errors' controls how encoding errors are handled.  If ‘'strict'’
     (the default), a *note UnicodeError: 1293. exception is raised.
     Other possible values are ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’, ‘'backslashreplace'’ and any other name
     registered via *note codecs.register_error(): 145f.  See *note 에러
     처리기: 17ec. for details.

     For performance reasons, the value of 'errors' is not checked for
     validity unless an encoding error actually occurs, *note 파이썬 개발
     모드: 1f8. is enabled or a *note debug build: 1f9. is used.  For
     example:

          >>> encoded_str_to_bytes = 'Python'.encode()
          >>> type(encoded_str_to_bytes)
          <class 'bytes'>
          >>> encoded_str_to_bytes
          b'Python'

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 키워드 인자 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: The value of the 'errors' argument is now
     checked in *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8. and in *note debug mode:
     1f9.

 -- 메서드: str.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if the string ends with the specified 'suffix',
     otherwise return ‘False’.  'suffix' can also be a tuple of suffixes
     to look for.  With optional 'start', test beginning at that
     position.  With optional 'end', stop comparing at that position.
     Using 'start' and 'end' is equivalent to
     ‘str[start:end].endswith(suffix)’.  For example:

          >>> 'Python'.endswith('on')
          True
          >>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'in'))
          False
          >>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'es'))
          True
          >>> 'Python is amazing'.endswith('is', 0, 9)
          True

     See also *note startswith(): ec1. and *note removesuffix(): 8cd.

 -- 메서드: str.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced
     by one or more spaces, depending on the current column and the
     given tab size.  Tab positions occur every 'tabsize' characters
     (default is 8, giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on).
     To expand the string, the current column is set to zero and the
     string is examined character by character.  If the character is a
     tab (‘\t’), one or more space characters are inserted in the result
     until the current column is equal to the next tab position.  (The
     tab character itself is not copied.)  If the character is a newline
     (‘\n’) or return (‘\r’), it is copied and the current column is
     reset to zero.  Any other character is copied unchanged and the
     current column is incremented by one regardless of how the
     character is represented when printed.  For example:

          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          '01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          '01  012 0123    01234'
          >>> print('01\t012\n0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4))
          01  012
          0123    01234

 -- 메서드: str.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the lowest index in the string where substring 'sub' is
     found within the slice ‘s[start:end]’.  Optional arguments 'start'
     and 'end' are interpreted as in slice notation.  Return ‘-1’ if
     'sub' is not found.  For example:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp')
          0
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp', 5)
          6

     See also *note rfind(): e9f. and *note index(): 164c.

          참고: *note find(): e9e. 메서드는 'sub' 의 위치를 알아야 할 경
          우에만 사용해야 합니다.  'sub' 가 부분 문자열인지 확인하려면
          *note in: 2ec. 연산자를 사용하십시오:

               >>> 'Py' in 'Python'
               True

 -- 메서드: str.format (*args, **kwargs)

     문자열 포맷 연산을 수행합니다.  이 메서드가 호출되는 문자열은 리터
     럴 텍스트나 중괄호 ‘{}’ 로 구분된 치환 필드를 포함할 수 있습니다.  각
     치환 필드는 위치 인자의 숫자 인덱스나 키워드 인자의 이름을 가질 수
     있습니다.  각 치환 필드를 해당 인자의 문자열 값으로 치환한 문자열의
     사본을 돌려줍니다.

          >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
          'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'

     포맷 문자열에 지정할 수 있는 다양한 포맷 옵션에 대한 설명은 *note
     포맷 문자열 문법: 1379. 을 참조하십시오.

          참고: 숫자(*note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note complex:
          2f0, *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.와 서브 클래스)를 ‘n’ 형식으로
          포매팅할 때 (예: ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’), 이 함수는 일시적으로
          ‘LC_CTYPE’ 로케일을 ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 로케일로 설정하여
          ‘localeconv()’ 의 ‘decimal_point’ 와 ‘thousands_sep’ 필드를 디
          코드하는데, 이 필드들이 ASCII가 아니거나 1바이트보다 길고,
          ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 로케일이 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 로케일과 다를 때만 그렇게 합
          니다.  이 임시 변경은 다른 스레드에 영향을 줍니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 숫자를 ‘n’ 형식으로 포매팅할 때, 이 함수는 어떤
     경우에 일시적으로 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 로케일을 ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 로케일로 설정합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: str.format_map (mapping, /)

     ‘str.format(**mapping)’ 과 비슷하지만, *note dict: 256.로 복사되지
     않고 ‘mapping’ 을 직접 사용합니다.  예를 들어 ‘mapping’ 이 dict 서
     브 클래스면 유용합니다:

          >>> class Default(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return key
          ...
          >>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
          'Guido was born in country'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 메서드: str.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     *note find(): e9e. 과 비슷하지만, 부분 문자열을 찾을 수 없는 경우
     *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 메서드: str.isalnum ()

     문자열 내의 모든 문자가 알파벳과 숫자이고, 적어도 하나의 문자가 존
     재하는 경우 ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.
     문자 ‘c’ 는 다음 중 하나가 ‘True’ 를 반환하면 알파벳이거나 숫자입니
     다: ‘c.isalpha()’, ‘c.isdecimal()’, ‘c.isdigit()’, ‘c.isnumeric()’.

 -- 메서드: str.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphabetic and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic
     characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
     database as “Letter”, i.e., those with general category property
     being one of “Lm”, “Lt”, “Lu”, “Ll”, or “Lo”.  Note that this is
     different from the Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10
     'Letters, Alphabetic, and Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard(2).

 -- 메서드: str.isascii ()

     문자열이 비어 있거나 문자열의 모든 문자가 ASCII이면 ‘True’를 돌려주
     고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  ASCII 문자는 U+0000-U+007F
     범위의 코드 포인트를 가집니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: str.isdecimal ()

     문자열 내의 모든 문자가 십진수 문자이고, 적어도 하나의 문자가 존재
     하는 경우 ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  십
     진수 문자는 십진법으로 숫자를 구성할 때 사용될 수 있는 문자들입니다
     .  예를 들어, U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO. 형식적으로 십진수 문
     자는 유니코드 일반 범주 “Nd” 에 속하는 문자입니다.

 -- 메서드: str.isdigit ()

     문자열 내의 모든 문자가 디짓이고, 적어도 하나의 문자가 존재하는 경
     우 ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  디짓에는
     십진수 문자와 호환성 위 첨자 숫자와 같은 특수 처리가 필요한 숫자가
     포함됩니다.  여기에는 카로슈티 숫자처럼 십진법으로 숫자를 구성할 때
     사용될 수 없는 것들이 포함됩니다.  형식적으로, 디짓은 속성값이
     Numeric_Type=Digit 또는 Numeric_Type=Decimal인 문자입니다.

 -- 메서드: str.isidentifier ()

     문자열이 섹션 section *note 식별자와 키워드: 1e9c. 의 언어 정의에 따
     른 유효한 식별자면 ‘True’를 돌려줍니다.

     *note keyword.iskeyword(): 21c9. can be used to test whether string
     ‘s’ is a reserved identifier, such as *note def: 1420. and *note
     class: 12c7.

     예제:

          >>> from keyword import iskeyword

          >>> 'hello'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('hello')
          (True, False)
          >>> 'def'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('def')
          (True, True)

 -- 메서드: str.islower ()

     문자열 내의 모든 케이스 문자가 (3) 소문자이고, 적어도 하나의 케이스
     문자가 존재하는 경우 ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌
     려줍니다.

 -- 메서드: str.isnumeric ()

     문자열 내의 모든 문자가 숫자이고, 적어도 하나의 문자가 존재하는 경
     우 ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  숫자는 디
     짓과 유니코드 숫자 값 속성을 갖는 모든 문자를 포함합니다.  예를 들
     어, U+2155, VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH. 형식적으로, 숫자는 속성 값이
     Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal, Numeric_Type=Numeric인 문
     자입니다.

 -- 메서드: str.isprintable ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are printable,
     ‘False’ if it contains at least one non-printable character.

     Here “printable” means the character is suitable for *note repr():
     7f7. to use in its output; “non-printable” means that *note repr():
     7f7. on built-in types will hex-escape the character.  It has no
     bearing on the handling of strings written to *note sys.stdout:
     ad3. or *note sys.stderr: 937.

     The printable characters are those which in the Unicode character
     database (see *note unicodedata: 105.) have a general category in
     group Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, or Symbol (L, M, N, P, or
     S); plus the ASCII space 0x20.  Nonprintable characters are those
     in group Separator or Other (Z or C), except the ASCII space.

 -- 메서드: str.isspace ()

     문자열 내에 공백 문자만 있고, 적어도 하나의 문자가 존재하는 경우
     ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.

     유니코드 문자 데이터베이스(*note unicodedata: 105.를 참조하십시오
     )에서, 일반 범주(general category)가 ‘Zs’(“Separator, space”)이거나
     양방향 클래스(bidirectional class)가 ‘WS’, ‘B’ 또는 ‘S’ 중 하나이면
     문자는 '공백(whitespace)'입니다.

 -- 메서드: str.istitle ()

     문자열이 제목 케이스 문자열이고 하나 이상의 문자가 있는 경우
     ‘True’를 돌려줍니다.  예를 들어 대문자 앞에는 케이스 없는 문자만 올
     수 있고 소문자는 케이스 문자 뒤에만 올 수 있습니다.  그렇지 않은 경
     우는 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.

 -- 메서드: str.isupper ()

     문자열 내의 모든 케이스 문자가 (4) 대문자이고, 적어도 하나의 케이스
     문자가 존재하는 경우 ‘True’를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌
     려줍니다.

          >>> 'BANANA'.isupper()
          True
          >>> 'banana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> 'baNana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> ' '.isupper()
          False

 -- 메서드: str.join (iterable, /)

     'iterable' 의 문자열들을 이어 붙인 문자열을 돌려줍니다.  'iterable'
     에 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체나 기타 문자열이 아닌 값이 있으면 *note
     TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.  요소들 사이의 구분자는 이 메서드를
     제공하는 문자열입니다.

 -- 메서드: str.ljust (width, fillchar=' ', /)

     왼쪽으로 정렬된 문자열을 길이 'width' 인 문자열로 돌려줍니다.  지정
     된 'fillchar' (기본값은 ASCII 스페이스)을 사용하여 채웁니다.
     'width' 가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나 같은 경우 원래 문자열이 반환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: str.lower ()

     모든 케이스 문자 (5) 가 소문자로 변환된 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니
     다.

     The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13
     'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(6).

 -- 메서드: str.lstrip (chars=None, /)

     선행 문자가 제거된 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  'chars' 인자는 제
     거할 문자 집합을 지정하는 문자열입니다.  생략되거나 ‘None’ 이라면,
     'chars' 인자의 기본값은 공백을 제거하도록 합니다.  'chars' 인자는 접
     두사가 아닙니다; 모든 값 조합이 제거됩니다:

          >>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
          'spacious   '
          >>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
          'example.com'

     문자 집합의 모든 것이 아닌 단일 접두사 문자열을 제거하는 메서드는
     *note str.removeprefix(): 8cc.를 참조하십시오.  예를 들면:

          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.lstrip('Arthur: ')
          'ee!'
          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix('Arthur: ')
          'three!'

 -- 메서드: static str.maketrans (dict, /)

 -- 메서드: static str.maketrans (from, to, remove='', /)

     이 정적 메서드는 *note str.translate(): 21d0. 에 사용할 수 있는 변
     환표를 돌려줍니다.

     인자가 하나만 있으면 유니코드 포인트 (정수) 또는 문자 (길이가 1인 문
     자열)를 유니코드 포인트, 문자열 (임의 길이) 또는 ‘None’ 으로 매핑하
     는 딕셔너리여야 합니다.  문자 키는 유니코드 포인트로 변환됩니다.

     If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length,
     and in the resulting dictionary, each character in 'from' will be
     mapped to the character at the same position in 'to'.  If there is
     a third argument, it must be a string, whose characters will be
     mapped to ‘None’ in the result.

 -- 메서드: str.partition (sep, /)

     'sep' 가 처음 나타나는 위치에서 문자열을 나누고, 구분자 앞에 있는 부
     분, 구분자 자체, 구분자 뒤에 오는 부분으로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌려줍니
     다.  구분자가 발견되지 않으면, 문자열 자신과 그 뒤를 따르는 두 개의
     빈 문자열로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌려줍니다.

 -- 메서드: str.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     문자열이 'prefix' 문자열로 시작하면, ‘string[len(prefix):]’를 반환
     합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 원래 문자열의 사본을 반환합니다:

          >>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
          'Hook'
          >>> 'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix('Test')
          'BaseTestCase'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 메서드: str.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     문자열이 'suffix' 문자열로 끝나고 해당 'suffix'가 비어 있지 않으면,
     ‘string[:-len(suffix)]’를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 원래 문자열의
     사본을 반환합니다:

          >>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'Misc'
          >>> 'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'TmpDirMixin'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 메서드: str.replace (old, new, /, count=-1)

     Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring 'old'
     replaced by 'new'.  If 'count' is given, only the first 'count'
     occurrences are replaced.  If 'count' is not specified or ‘-1’,
     then all occurrences are replaced.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'count' is now supported as a keyword argument.

 -- 메서드: str.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     부분 문자열 'sub' 가 ‘s[start:end]’ 내에 등장하는 가장 큰 문자열의
     인덱스를 돌려줍니다.  선택적 인자 'start' 와 'end' 는 슬라이스 표기
     법으로 해석됩니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’ 을 돌려줍니다.

 -- 메서드: str.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     *note rfind(): e9f.와 비슷하지만, 부분 문자열 'sub' 를 찾을 수 없는
     경우 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 메서드: str.rjust (width, fillchar=' ', /)

     오른쪽으로 정렬된 문자열을 길이 'width' 인 문자열로 돌려줍니다.  지
     정된 'fillchar' (기본값은 ASCII 스페이스)을 사용하여 채웁니다.
     'width' 가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나 같은 경우 원래 문자열이 반환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: str.rpartition (sep, /)

     'sep' 가 마지막으로 나타나는 위치에서 문자열을 나누고, 구분자 앞에
     있는 부분, 구분자 자체, 구분자 뒤에 오는 부분으로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌
     려줍니다.  구분자가 발견되지 않으면, 두 개의 빈 문자열과 그 뒤를 따
     르는 문자열 자신으로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌려줍니다.

 -- 메서드: str.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     'sep' 를 구분자 문자열로 사용하여 문자열에 있는 단어들의 리스트를 돌
     려줍니다.  'maxsplit' 이 주어지면 가장 오른쪽에서 최대 'maxsplit' 번
     의 분할이 수행됩니다.  'sep' 이 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’ 이면, 구분자
     로 모든 공백 문자가 사용됩니다.  오른쪽에서 분리하는 것을 제외하면,
     *note rsplit(): 1246.는 아래에서 자세히 설명될 *note split(): ea0.처
     럼 동작합니다.

 -- 메서드: str.rstrip (chars=None, /)

     후행 문자가 제거된 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  'chars' 인자는 제
     거할 문자 집합을 지정하는 문자열입니다.  생략되거나 ‘None’ 이라면,
     'chars' 인자의 기본값은 공백을 제거하도록 합니다.  'chars' 인자는 접
     미사가 아닙니다; 모든 값 조합이 제거됩니다:

          >>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
          '   spacious'
          >>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
          'mississ'

     문자 집합의 모든 것이 아닌 단일 접미사 문자열을 제거하는 메서드는
     *note str.removesuffix(): 8cd.를 참조하십시오.  예를 들면:

          >>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
          'M'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
          'Monty'

 -- 메서드: str.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     'sep' 를 구분자 문자열로 사용하여 문자열에 있는 단어들의 리스트를 돌
     려줍니다.  'maxsplit' 이 주어지면 최대 'maxsplit' 번의 분할이 수행
     됩니다 (따라서, 리스트는 최대 ‘maxsplit+1’ 개의 요소를 가지게 됩니
     다).  'maxsplit' 이 지정되지 않았거나 ‘-1’ 이라면 분할 수에 제한이
     없습니다 (가능한 모든 분할이 만들어집니다).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example,
     ‘'1,,2'.split(',')’ returns ‘['1', '', '2']’).  The 'sep' argument
     may consist of multiple characters as a single delimiter (to split
     with multiple delimiters, use *note re.split(): 2a2.).  Splitting
     an empty string with a specified separator returns ‘['']’.

     예를 들면:

          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2,3']
          >>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '', '3', '']
          >>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
          ['1', '2', '3<4']

     'sep' 이 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’ 이면, 다른 분할 알고리즘이 적용됩니
     다: 연속된 공백 문자는 단일한 구분자로 간주하고, 문자열이 선행이나
     후행 공백을 포함해도 결과는 시작과 끝에 빈 문자열을 포함하지 않습니
     다.  결과적으로, 빈 문자열이나 공백만으로 구성된 문자열을 ‘None’ 구
     분자로 나누면 ‘[]’ 를 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> '1 2 3'.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2 3']
          >>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']

     If 'sep' is not specified or is ‘None’ and 'maxsplit' is ‘0’, only
     leading runs of consecutive whitespace are considered.

     예를 들면:

          >>> "".split(None, 0)
          []
          >>> "   ".split(None, 0)
          []
          >>> "   foo   ".split(maxsplit=0)
          ['foo   ']

 -- 메서드: str.splitlines (keepends=False)

     줄 경계에서 나눈 문자열의 줄 리스트를 돌려줍니다.  'keepends' 가 참
     으로 주어지지 않는 한 결과 리스트에 줄 바꿈은 포함되지 않습니다.

     이 메서드는 다음 줄 경계에서 나눕니다.  특히, 경계는 *note 유니버설
     줄 넘김: d37. 을 포함합니다.

     표현                        설명
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     ‘\n’                        줄 넘김
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r’                        캐리지 리턴
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r\n’                      캐리지 리턴 + 줄 넘김
                                 
                                 
     ‘\v’ 또는 ‘\x0b’            수직 탭
                                 
                                 
     ‘\f’ 또는 ‘\x0c’            폼 피드
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1c’                      파일 구분자
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1d’                      그룹 구분자
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1e’                      레코드 구분자
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x85’                      다음 줄 (C1 제어 코드)
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2028’                    줄 구분자
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2029’                    문단 구분자
                                 

     버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘\v’ 와 ‘\f’ 를 줄 경계 목록에 추가했습니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          ['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          ['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']

     구분자 문자열 'sep' 이 주어졌을 때 *note split(): ea0. 와 달리, 이
     메서드는 빈 문자열에 대해서 빈 리스트를 돌려주고, 마지막 줄 바꿈은
     새 줄을 만들지 않습니다:

          >>> "".splitlines()
          []
          >>> "One line\n".splitlines()
          ['One line']

     비교해 보면, ‘split('\n')’ 는 이렇게 됩니다:

          >>> ''.split('\n')
          ['']
          >>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
          ['Two lines', '']

 -- 메서드: str.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     문자열이 지정된 'prefix' 로 시작하면 ‘True’ 를 돌려주고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘False’ 를 돌려줍니다.  'prefix' 는 찾고자 하는 접두사들의 튜
     플이 될 수도 있습니다.  선택적 'start' 가 제공되면 그 위치에서 검사
     를 시작합니다.  선택적 'end' 를 사용하면 해당 위치에서 비교를 중단
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: str.strip (chars=None, /)

     선행과 후행 문자가 제거된 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  'chars' 인
     자는 제거할 문자 집합을 지정하는 문자열입니다.  생략되거나 ‘None’ 이
     라면, 'chars' 인자의 기본값은 공백을 제거하도록 합니다.  'chars' 인
     자는 접두사나 접미사가 아닙니다; 모든 값 조합이 제거됩니다:

          >>> '   spacious   '.strip()
          'spacious'
          >>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
          'example'

     가장 바깥쪽의 선행 또는 후행 'chars' 인자 값들이 문자열에서 제거됩
     니다.  문자는 'chars' 에 있는 문자 집합에 포함되지 않은 문자에 도달
     할 때까지 맨 앞에서 제거됩니다.  끝에서도 유사한 동작이 수행됩니다.
     예를 들면:

          >>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
          >>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
          'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'

 -- 메서드: str.swapcase ()

     대문자를 소문자로, 그 반대로 마찬가지로 변환 한 문자열의 복사본을 돌
     려줍니다.  ‘s.swapcase().swapcase() == s’ 가 반드시 성립하지 않음에
     주의하십시오.

 -- 메서드: str.title ()

     단어가 대문자로 시작하고 나머지 문자는 소문자가 되도록 문자열의 제
     목 케이스 버전을 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> 'Hello world'.title()
          'Hello World'

     이 알고리즘은 단어를 글자들의 연속으로 보는 간단한 언어 독립적 정의
     를 사용합니다.  이 정의는 여러 상황에서 작동하지만, 축약과 소유의 아
     포스트로피가 단어 경계를 형성한다는 것을 의미하고, 이는 원하는 결과
     가 아닐 수도 있습니다:

          >>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          "They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     The *note string.capwords(): 21d3. function does not have this
     problem, as it splits words on spaces only.

     Alternatively, a workaround for apostrophes can be constructed
     using regular expressions:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
          "They're Bill's Friends."

 -- 메서드: str.translate (table, /)

     Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped
     through the given translation table.  The table must be an object
     that implements indexing via *note __getitem__(): 283, typically a
     *note mapping: 11ab. or *note sequence: 4eb.  When indexed by a
     Unicode ordinal (an integer), the table object can do any of the
     following: return a Unicode ordinal or a string, to map the
     character to one or more other characters; return ‘None’, to delete
     the character from the return string; or raise a *note LookupError:
     21d4. exception, to map the character to itself.

     *note str.maketrans(): dd5. 를 사용하여 다른 형식의 문자 대 문자 매
     핑으로 부터 변환 맵을 만들 수 있습니다.

     커스텀 문자 매핑에 대한 보다 유연한 접근법은 *note codecs: 1b. 모듈
     을 참고하십시오.

 -- 메서드: str.upper ()

     모든 케이스 문자 (7) 가 대문자로 변환된 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니
     다.  ‘s’ 가 케이스 없는 문자를 포함하거나 결과 문자의 유니코드 범주
     가 “Lu” (Letter, 대문자) 가 아닌 경우, 예를 들어 “Lt” (Letter, 제목
     케이스), ‘s.upper().isupper()’ 가 ‘False’ 일 수 있음에 주의하십시오
     .

     The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13
     'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(8).

 -- 메서드: str.zfill (width, /)

     길이가 'width' 인 문자열을 만들기 위해 ASCII ‘'0'’ 문자를 왼쪽에 채
     운 문자열의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  선행 부호 접두어(‘'+'’/‘'-'’)는 부
     호 문자의 앞이 아니라 '뒤' 에 채워 넣는 것으로 처리됩니다.  'width'
     가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나 같은 경우 원래 문자열을 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> "42".zfill(5)
          '00042'
          >>> "-42".zfill(5)
          '-0042'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch04.pdf

   (3) 케이스 문자는 일반 범주 속성이 “Lu” (Letter, 대문자), “Ll”
(Letter, 소문자), “Lt” (Letter, 제목 문자) 중 한 가지인 경우입니다.

   (4) 케이스 문자는 일반 범주 속성이 “Lu” (Letter, 대문자), “Ll”
(Letter, 소문자), “Lt” (Letter, 제목 문자) 중 한 가지인 경우입니다.

   (5) 케이스 문자는 일반 범주 속성이 “Lu” (Letter, 대문자), “Ll”
(Letter, 소문자), “Lt” (Letter, 제목 문자) 중 한 가지인 경우입니다.

   (6) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf

   (7) 케이스 문자는 일반 범주 속성이 “Lu” (Letter, 대문자), “Ll”
(Letter, 소문자), “Lt” (Letter, 제목 문자) 중 한 가지인 경우입니다.

   (8) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Formatted String Literals f-strings,  Next: printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅,  Prev: 문자열 메서드,  Up: 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str

5.4.8.2 Formatted String Literals (f-strings)
.............................................

Added in version 3.6.

버전 3.7에서 변경: The *note await: 1b9. and *note async for: aa7. can
be used in expressions within f-strings.

버전 3.8에서 변경: Added the debugging operator (‘=’)

버전 3.12에서 변경: Many restrictions on expressions within f-strings
have been removed.  Notably, nested strings, comments, and backslashes
are now permitted.

An 'f-string' (formally a 'formatted string literal') is a string
literal that is prefixed with ‘f’ or ‘F’.  This type of string literal
allows embedding arbitrary Python expressions within 'replacement
fields', which are delimited by curly brackets (‘{}’).  These
expressions are evaluated at runtime, similarly to *note str.format():
61b, and are converted into regular *note str: 445. objects.  For
example:

     >>> who = 'nobody'
     >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
     >>> f'{who.title()} expects the {nationality} Inquisition!'
     'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'

It is also possible to use a multi line f-string:

     >>> f'''This is a string
     ... on two lines'''
     'This is a string\non two lines'

A single opening curly bracket, ‘'{'’, marks a 'replacement field' that
can contain any Python expression:

     >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
     >>> f'The {nationality} Inquisition!'
     'The Spanish Inquisition!'

To include a literal ‘{’ or ‘}’, use a double bracket:

     >>> x = 42
     >>> f'{{x}} is {x}'
     '{x} is 42'

Functions can also be used, and *note format specifiers: 1379.:

     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> f'√2 \N{ALMOST EQUAL TO} {sqrt(2):.5f}'
     '√2 ≈ 1.41421'

Any non-string expression is converted using *note str(): 445, by
default:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)}'
     '1/3'

To use an explicit conversion, use the ‘!’ (exclamation mark) operator,
followed by any of the valid formats, which are:

변환           뜻
               
----------------------------------
               
‘!a’           *note ascii(): 13af.
               
               
‘!r’           *note repr(): 7f7.
               
               
‘!s’           *note str(): 445.
               

For example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)!s}'
     '1/3'
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)!r}'
     'Fraction(1, 3)'
     >>> question = '¿Dónde está el Presidente?'
     >>> print(f'{question!a}')
     '\xbfD\xf3nde est\xe1 el Presidente?'

While debugging it may be helpful to see both the expression and its
value, by using the equals sign (‘=’) after the expression.  This
preserves spaces within the brackets, and can be used with a converter.
By default, the debugging operator uses the *note repr(): 7f7. (‘!r’)
conversion.  For example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> calculation = Fraction(1, 3)
     >>> f'{calculation=}'
     'calculation=Fraction(1, 3)'
     >>> f'{calculation = }'
     'calculation = Fraction(1, 3)'
     >>> f'{calculation = !s}'
     'calculation = 1/3'

Once the output has been evaluated, it can be formatted using a *note
format specifier: 1379. following a colon (‘':'’).  After the expression
has been evaluated, and possibly converted to a string, the
‘__format__()’ method of the result is called with the format specifier,
or the empty string if no format specifier is given.  The formatted
result is then used as the final value for the replacement field.  For
example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 7):.6f}'
     '0.142857'
     >>> f'{Fraction(1, 7):_^+10}'
     '___+1/7___'


File: python.info,  Node: printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅,  Prev: Formatted String Literals f-strings,  Up: 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str

5.4.8.3 ‘printf’ 스타일 문자열 포매팅
.....................................

     참고: 여기에 설명된 포맷 연산은 여러 가지 일반적인 오류를 (예를 들
     어 튜플과 딕셔너리를 올바르게 표시하지 못하는 것) 유발하는 다양한 문
     제점들이 있습니다.  새 *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6. 나 *note
     str.format(): 61b. 인터페이스 혹은 *note 템플릿 문자열: 21d8. 을 사
     용하면 이러한 오류를 피할 수 있습니다.  이 대안들은 또한 텍스트 포
     매팅에 더욱 강력하고 유연하며 확장 가능한 접근법을 제공합니다.

String objects have one unique built-in operation: the ‘%’ operator
(modulo).  This is also known as the string 'formatting' or
'interpolation' operator.  Given ‘format % values’ (where 'format' is a
string), ‘%’ conversion specifications in 'format' are replaced with
zero or more elements of 'values'.  The effect is similar to using the
‘sprintf()’ function in the C language.  For example:

     >>> print('%s has %d quote types.' % ('Python', 2))
     Python has 2 quote types.

'format' 이 하나의 인자를 요구하면, 'values' 는 하나의 비 튜플 객체 일 수
있습니다.  (1)  그렇지 않으면, 'values' 는 format 문자열이 지정하는 항목
의 수와 같은 튜플이거나 단일 매핑 객체 (예를 들어, 딕셔너리) 이어야 합니
다.

변환 명세는 두 개 이상의 문자를 포함하며 다음과 같은 구성 요소들을 포함
하는데, 반드시 이 순서대로 나와야 합니다:

  1. ‘'%'’ 문자: 명세의 시작을 나타냅니다.

  2. 매핑 키 (선택 사항): 괄호로 둘러싸인 문자들의 시퀀스로 구성됩니다
     (예를 들어, ‘(somename)’).

  3. 변환 플래그 (선택 사항): 일부 변환 유형의 결과에 영향을 줍니다.

  4. 최소 필드 폭 (선택 사항): ‘'*'’ (애스터리스크) 로 지정하면, 실제 폭
     은 'values' 튜플의 다음 요소에서 읽히고, 변환할 객체는 최소 필드 폭
     과 선택적 정밀도 뒤에 옵니다.

  5. 정밀도 (선택 사항): ‘'.'’ (점) 다음에 정밀도가 옵니다.  ‘'*'’ (애스
     터리스크) 로 지정하면, 실제 정밀도는 'values' 튜플의 다음 요소에서
     읽히고, 변환할 값은 정밀도 뒤에 옵니다.

  6. 길이 수정자 (선택 사항).

  7. 변환 유형.

오른쪽 인자가 딕셔너리 (또는 다른 매핑 형) 인 경우, 문자열에 있는 변환 명
세는 '반드시' ‘'%'’ 문자 바로 뒤에 그 딕셔너리의 매핑 키를 괄호로 둘러싼
형태로 포함해야 합니다.  매핑 키는 포맷할 값을 매핑으로 부터 선택합니다.
예를 들어:

     >>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
     Python has 002 quote types.

이 경우 ‘*’ 지정자를 사용할 수 없습니다 (순차적인 매개변수 목록이 필요하
기 때문입니다).

변환 플래그 문자는 다음과 같습니다:

플래그        뜻
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         값 변환에 “대체 형식” (아래에 정의되어있습니다) 을 사용합니다.
              
              
‘'0'’         변환은 숫자 값의 경우 0으로 채웁니다.
              
              
‘'-'’         변환된 값은 왼쪽으로 정렬됩니다 (둘 다 주어지면 ‘'0'’ 변환보다 우선 합
              니다).
              
              
‘' '’         (스페이스) 부호 있는 변환 때문에 만들어진 양수 앞에 빈칸을 남겨둡니다
              (음수면 빈 문자열입니다).
              
              
‘'+'’         부호 문자 (‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’) 가 변환 앞에 놓입니다 (‘' '’ 플래그에 우선합
              니다).
              

길이 수정자 (‘h’, ‘l’, ‘L’) 를 제공할 수는 있지만, 파이썬에서 필요하지 않
기 때문에 무시됩니다 – 예를 들어 ‘%ld’ 는 ‘%d’ 와 같습니다.

변환 유형은 다음과 같습니다:

변환             뜻                                                        노트
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            부호 있는 정수 십진 표기.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            부호 있는 정수 십진 표기.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            부호 있는 8진수 값.                                       (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            쓸데없는 유형 – ‘'d'’ 와 같습니다.                        (6)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            부호 있는 16진수 (소문자).                                (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            부호 있는 16진수 (대문자).                                (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            단일 문자 (정수 또는 길이 1인 문자열을 허용합니다).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            문자열 (*note repr(): 7f7.을 사용하여 파이썬 객체를 변    (5)
                 환합니다).                                                
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            문자열 (*note str(): 445. 을 사용하여 파이썬 객체를 변    (5)
                 환합니다).                                                
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            문자열 (*note ascii(): 13af. 를 사용하여 파이썬 객체를    (5)
                 변환합니다).                                              
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            인자는 변환되지 않고, 결과에 ‘'%'’ 문자가 표시됩니다.
                 

노트:

  1. 대체 형식은 첫 번째 숫자 앞에 선행 8진수 지정자 (‘'0o'’)를 삽입합니
     다.

  2. 대체 형식은 첫 번째 숫자 앞에 선행 ‘'0x'’ 또는 ‘'0X'’ (‘'x'’ 나
     ‘'X'’ 유형 중 어느 것을 사용하느냐에 따라 달라집니다) 를 삽입합니다
     .

  3. 대체 형식은 그 뒤에 숫자가 나오지 않더라도 항상 소수점을 포함합니다
     .

     정밀도는 소수점 이하 자릿수를 결정하며 기본값은 6입니다.

  4. 대체 형식은 결과에 항상 소수점을 포함하고 뒤에 오는 0은 제거되지 않
     습니다.

     정밀도는 소수점 앞뒤의 유효 자릿수를 결정하며 기본값은 6입니다.

  5. 정밀도가 ‘N’ 이라면, 출력은 ‘N’ 문자로 잘립니다.

  6. PEP 237(2)을 참조하세요.

파이썬 문자열은 명시적인 길이를 가지고 있으므로, ‘%s’ 변환은 문자열의 끝
이 ‘'\0'’ 이라고 가정하지 않습니다.

버전 3.1에서 변경: 절댓값이 1e50 을 넘는 숫자에 대한 ‘%f’ 변환은 더는
‘%g’ 변환으로 대체되지 않습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 그래서, 튜플만을 포매팅하려면 포맷할 튜플 하나만을 포함하는 1-튜
플을 제공해야 합니다.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Next: 집합 형 — set frozenset,  Prev: 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str,  Up: 내장형

5.4.9 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, ‘memoryview’
-------------------------------------------------------------

바이너리 데이터를 조작하기 위한 핵심 내장형은 *note bytes: 1c2. 와 *note
bytearray: 538. 입니다.  이것들은 *note memoryview: 462. 에 의해 지원되
는데, 다른 바이너리 객체들의 메모리에 복사 없이 접근하기 위해 *note 버퍼
프로토콜: 391. 을 사용합니다.

*note array: 7. 모듈은 32-비트 정수와 IEEE754 배정도 부동 소수점 같은 기
본 데이터형의 효율적인 저장을 지원합니다.

* Menu:

* 바이트열 객체::
* 바이트 배열 객체::
* 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산::
* printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅::
* 메모리 뷰::


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트열 객체,  Next: 바이트 배열 객체,  Up: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.1 바이트열 객체
.....................

바이트열 객체는 단일 바이트들의 불변 시퀀스입니다.  많은 주요 바이너리 프
로토콜이 ASCII 텍스트 인코딩을 기반으로 하므로, 바이트열 객체는 ASCII 호
환 데이터로 작업 할 때만 유효한 여러 가지 메서드를 제공하며 다양한 다른
방법으로 문자열 객체와 밀접한 관련이 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: bytes (source=b'')

 -- 클래스: bytes (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     첫째로, 바이트열 리터럴의 문법은 문자열 리터럴과 거의 같지만 ‘b’ 접
     두사가 추가된다는 점이 다릅니다.:

        * 작은따옴표: ‘b'still allows embedded "double" quotes'’

        * Double quotes: ‘b"still allows embedded 'single' quotes"’

        * 삼중 따옴표: ‘b'''3 single quotes'''’, ‘b"""3 double
          quotes"""’

     바이트열 리터럴에는 ASCII 문자만 허용됩니다 (선언된 소스 코드 인코
     딩과 관계없습니다).  127 보다 큰 바이너리 값은 적절한 이스케이프 시
     퀀스를 사용하여 바이트열 리터럴에 입력해야 합니다.

     문자열 리터럴의 경우와 마찬가지로 바이트열 리터럴은 이스케이프 시퀀
     스 처리를 비활성화하기 위해 ‘r’ 접두사를 사용할 수도 있습니다.  지
     원되는 이스케이프 시퀀스를 포함하여 바이트열 리터럴의 다양한 형식에
     대한 자세한 내용은 *note 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴: 1eac. 을 참조하
     십시오.

     바이트열 리터럴과 그 표현은 ASCII 텍스트를 기반으로 하지만, 바이트
     열 객체는 실제로는 정수의 불변 시퀀스처럼 동작하고, 시퀀스의 각 값
     은 ‘0 <= x < 256’ 이 되도록 제한됩니다 (이 제한을 위반하려고 시도하
     면 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다).  이것은 많은 바이너리 형
     식이 ASCII 기반 요소를 포함하고 일부 텍스트 지향 알고리즘으로 유용
     하게 조작될 수 있지만, 임의의 바이너리 데이터에 일반적으로 적용될 수
     는 없음을 강조하기 위한 것입니다 (텍스트 처리 알고리즘을 맹목적으로
     ASCII 호환이 아닌 바이너리 데이터 형식에 적용하면 대개 데이터 손상
     으로 이어집니다).

     리터럴 형식 외에도, 바이트열 객체는 여러 가지 다른 방법으로 만들 수
     있습니다.:

        * 지정된 길이의 0으로 채워진 바이트열 객체: ‘bytes(10)’

        * 정수의 이터러블로부터: ‘bytes(range(20))’

        * 버퍼 프로토콜을 통해 기존 바이너리 데이터 복사: ‘bytes(obj)’

     내장 *note bytes: 1ac0. 도 참조하세요.

     2개의 16진수는 정확히 하나의 바이트에 대응하기 때문에 16진수는 바이
     너리 데이터를 설명하는 데 일반적으로 사용되는 형식입니다.  따라서,
     바이트열 형은 그 형식의 데이터를 읽는 추가의 클래스 메서드를 갖습니
     다:

      -- 메서드: classmethod fromhex (string, /)

          이 *note bytes: 1c2. 클래스 메서드는 주어진 문자열 객체를 디코
          딩해서 바이트열 객체를 돌려줍니다.  문자열은 바이트 당 두 개의
          16진수가 포함되어야 하며 ASCII 공백은 무시됩니다.

               >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 *note bytes.fromhex(): aec. 는 스페이
          스뿐만 아니라 문자열에 있는 모든 ASCII 공백을 건너뜁니다.

     바이트열 객체를 16진수 표현으로 변환하기 위한 역변환 함수가 있습니
     다.

      -- 메서드: hex (*, bytes_per_sep=1)

      -- 메서드: hex (sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

          인스턴스의 바이트마다 2 자릿수의 16진수로 표현한 문자열 객체를
          돌려줍니다.

               >>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          If you want to make the hex string easier to read, you can
          specify a single character separator 'sep' parameter to
          include in the output.  By default, this separator will be
          included between each byte.  A second optional 'bytes_per_sep'
          parameter controls the spacing.  Positive values calculate the
          separator position from the right, negative values from the
          left.

               >>> value = b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'
               >>> value.hex('-')
               'f0-f1-f2'
               >>> value.hex('_', 2)
               'f0_f1f2'
               >>> b'UUDDLRLRAB'.hex(' ', -4)
               '55554444 4c524c52 4142'

          Added in version 3.5.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 *note bytes.hex(): d65.는 16진수 출력
          의 바이트 사이에 구분 기호를 삽입하기 위해 선택적 'sep'과
          'bytes_per_sep' 매개 변수를 지원합니다.

바이트열 객체는 정수의 시퀀스(튜플과 유사)이기 때문에, 바이트열 객체 'b'
에 대해서, ‘b[0]’ 는 정수가 됩니다.  반면, ‘b[0:1]’ 는 길이 1인 바이트열
객체가 됩니다.  (이것은 인덱싱과 슬라이싱 모두 길이 1인 문자열을 생성하
는 텍스트 문자열과 대조됩니다)

바이트열 객체의 표현은 리터럴 형식 (‘b'...'’) 을 사용하는데, 종종
‘bytes([46, 46, 46])’ 보다 유용하기 때문입니다.  ‘list(b)’ 를 사용하면 바
이트열 객체를 항상 정수 리스트로 변환할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트 배열 객체,  Next: 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산,  Prev: 바이트열 객체,  Up: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.2 바이트 배열 객체
........................

*note bytearray: 538. 객체는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체의 가변형입니다.

 -- 클래스: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- 클래스: bytearray (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     바이트 배열 객체에 대한 전용 리터럴 문법은 없으며 항상 생성자를 호
     출하여 만듭니다:

        * 빈 인스턴스 만들기: ‘bytearray()’

        * 주어진 길이의 0으로 채워진 인스턴스 만들기: ‘bytearray(10)’

        * 정수의 이터러블로부터: ‘bytearray(range(20))’

        * 버퍼 프로토콜을 통해 기존 바이너리 데이터 복사:
          ‘bytearray(b'Hi!')’

     바이트 배열 객체는 가변이기 때문에, *note 바이트열 과 바이트 배열
     연산: 2167. 에 설명되어있는 공통 바이트열과 바이트 배열 연산에 더해
     , *note 가변: 2168. 시퀀스 연산도 지원합니다.

     내장 *note bytearray: 1ac1. 도 참조하세요.

     2개의 16진수는 정확히 하나의 바이트에 대응하기 때문에 16진수는 바이
     너리 데이터를 설명하는 데 일반적으로 사용되는 형식입니다.  따라서,
     바이트 배열형은 그 형식의 데이터를 읽는 추가의 클래스 메서드를 갖습
     니다:

      -- 메서드: classmethod fromhex (string, /)

          이 *note bytearray: 538. 클래스 메서드는 주어진 문자열 객체를
          디코딩해서 바이트 배열 객체를 돌려줍니다.  문자열은 바이트 당
          두 개의 16진수가 포함되어야 하며 ASCII 공백은 무시됩니다.

               >>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 *note bytearray.fromhex(): aed. 는 스
          페이스뿐만 아니라 문자열에 있는 모든 ASCII 공백을 건너뜁니다.

     바이트 배열 객체를 16진수 표현으로 변환하기 위한 역변환 함수가 있습
     니다.

      -- 메서드: hex (*, bytes_per_sep=1)

      -- 메서드: hex (sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

          인스턴스의 바이트마다 2 자릿수의 16진수로 표현한 문자열 객체를
          돌려줍니다.

               >>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          Added in version 3.5.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: *note bytes.hex(): d65.와 비슷하게, 이제
          *note bytearray.hex(): d66.는 16진수 출력의 바이트 사이에 구분
          기호를 삽입하기 위해 선택적 'sep'과 'bytes_per_sep' 매개 변수
          를 지원합니다.

바이트 배열 객체는 정수의 시퀀스(리스트와 유사)이기 때문에, 바이트 배열
객체 'b' 에 대해서, ‘b[0]’ 는 정수가 됩니다.  반면, ‘b[0:1]’ 는 길이 1인
바이트 배열 객체가 됩니다.  (이것은 인덱싱과 슬라이싱 모두 길이 1인 문자
열을 생성하는 텍스트 문자열과 대조됩니다)

바이트 배열 객체의 표현은 바이트열 리터럴 형식 (‘bytearray(b'...')’) 을
사용하는데, 종종 ‘bytearray([46, 46, 46])’ 보다 유용하기 때문입니다.
‘list(b)’ 를 사용하면 바이트 배열 객체를 항상 정수 리스트로 변환할 수 있
습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산,  Next: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅,  Prev: 바이트 배열 객체,  Up: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.3 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산
....................................

바이트열와 바이트 배열 객체는 *note 공통: 21b1. 시퀀스 연산을 지원합니다
.  이것들은 같은 형의 피연산자뿐만 아니라 모든 *note bytes-like object:
d2a.와 상호 운용됩니다.  이러한 유연성으로 인해, 오류 없이 작업을 자유롭
게 혼합할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 결과의 반환형은 피연산자의 순서에 따라 달
라질 수 있습니다.

     참고: 바이트열 및 바이트 배열 객체의 메서드는 인자로 문자열을 받아
     들이지 않습니다, 문자열의 메서드가 바이트열을 인자로 허용하지 않는
     것과 마찬가지입니다.  예를 들어, 다음과 같이 작성해야 합니다:

          a = "abc"
          b = a.replace("a", "f")

     그리고:

          a = b"abc"
          b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")

일부 바이트열 및 바이트 배열 연산은 ASCII 호환 바이너리 형식을 가정하므
로, 임의의 바이너리 데이터로 작업 할 때는 피해야 합니다.  이러한 제한 사
항은 아래에서 다룹니다.

     참고: 이러한 ASCII 기반 연산을 사용하여 ASCII 기반 형식으로 저장되
     지 않은 바이너리 데이터를 조작하면 데이터가 손상될 수 있습니다.

바이트열 및 바이트 배열 객체에 대한 다음 메서드는 임의의 바이너리 데이터
와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.count (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     범위 ['start', 'end'] 에서 서브 시퀀스 'sub' 가 중첩되지 않고 등장
     하는 횟수를 돌려줍니다.  선택적 인자 'start' 와 'end' 는 슬라이스 표
     기법으로 해석됩니다.

     검색할 서브 시퀀스는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 또는 0에
     서 255 사이의 정수일 수 있습니다.

     If 'sub' is empty, returns the number of empty slices between
     characters which is the length of the bytes object plus one.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 서브 시퀀스로 0에서 255 사이의 정수도 허용합니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.removeprefix (prefix, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     바이너리 데이터가 'prefix' 문자열로 시작하면,
     ‘bytes[len(prefix):]’를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 원래 바이너리 데
     이터의 사본을 반환합니다:

          >>> b'TestHook'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'Hook'
          >>> b'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'BaseTestCase'

     'prefix'는 임의의 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 일 수 있습니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 메서드: bytes.removesuffix (suffix, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     바이너리 데이터가 'suffix' 문자열로 끝나고 해당 'suffix'가 비어 있
     지 않으면 ‘bytes[:-len(suffix)]’를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 원래
     바이너리 데이터의 사본을 반환합니다:

          >>> b'MiscTests'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'Misc'
          >>> b'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'TmpDirMixin'

     'suffix'는 임의의 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 일 수 있습니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 메서드: bytes.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
 -- 메서드: bytearray.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return the bytes decoded to a *note str: 445.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’; see *note 표준 인코딩: db5. for
     possible values.

     'errors' controls how decoding errors are handled.  If ‘'strict'’
     (the default), a *note UnicodeError: 1293. exception is raised.
     Other possible values are ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’, and any other
     name registered via *note codecs.register_error(): 145f.  See *note
     에러 처리기: 17ec. for details.

     For performance reasons, the value of 'errors' is not checked for
     validity unless a decoding error actually occurs, *note 파이썬 개발
     모드: 1f8. is enabled or a *note debug build: 1f9. is used.

          참고: Passing the 'encoding' argument to *note str: 445.
          allows decoding any *note bytes-like object: d2a. directly,
          without needing to make a temporary ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’
          object.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 키워드 인자 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: The value of the 'errors' argument is now
     checked in *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8. and in *note debug mode:
     1f9.

 -- 메서드: bytes.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     바이너리 데이터가 지정된 'suffix' 로 끝나면 ‘True’ 를 돌려주고, 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 돌려줍니다.  'suffix' 는 찾고자 하는 접미사
     들의 튜플이 될 수도 있습니다.  선택적 'start' 가 제공되면 그 위치에
     서 검사를 시작합니다.  선택적 'end' 를 사용하면 해당 위치에서 비교
     를 중단합니다.

     검색할 접미사(들)는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 일 수 있습
     니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.find (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     서브 시퀀스 'sub' 가 슬라이스 ‘s[start:end]’ 내에 등장하는 가장 작
     은 데이터의 인덱스를 돌려줍니다.  선택적 인자 'start' 와 'end' 는 슬
     라이스 표기법으로 해석됩니다.  'sub' 가 없으면 ‘-1’ 을 돌려줍니다.

     검색할 서브 시퀀스는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 또는 0에
     서 255 사이의 정수일 수 있습니다.

          참고: *note find(): 1844. 메서드는 'sub' 의 위치를 알아야 할 경
          우에만 사용해야 합니다.  'sub' 가 부분 문자열인지 여부를 확인
          하려면 *note in: 2ec. 연산자를 사용하십시오:

               >>> b'Py' in b'Python'
               True

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 서브 시퀀스로 0에서 255 사이의 정수도 허용합니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.index (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     *note find(): 1844. 과 비슷하지만, 서브 시퀀스를 찾을 수 없는 경우
     *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다.

     검색할 서브 시퀀스는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 또는 0에
     서 255 사이의 정수일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 서브 시퀀스로 0에서 255 사이의 정수도 허용합니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.join (iterable, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.join (iterable, /)

     'iterable' 의 바이너리 데이터 시퀀스들을 이어 붙이기 한 바이트열 또
     는 바이트 배열 객체를 돌려줍니다.  'iterable' 에 *note str: 445. 객
     체나 기타 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 가 아닌 값이 있으면 *note
     TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.  요소들 사이의 구분자는 이 메서드를
     제공하는 바이트열 이나 바이트 배열 객체입니다.

 -- 메서드: static bytes.maketrans (from, to, /)
 -- 메서드: static bytearray.maketrans (from, to, /)

     이 정적 메서드는 *note bytes.translate(): 21ea. 에 사용할 수 있는 변
     환표를 돌려주는데, 'from' 에 있는 문자를 'to' 의 같은 위치에 있는 문
     자로 매핑합니다; 'from' 과 'to' 는 모두 *note bytes-like object:
     d2a. 여야 하고 길이가 같아야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 메서드: bytes.partition (sep, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.partition (sep, /)

     'sep' 가 처음 나타나는 위치에서 시퀀스를 나누고, 구분자 앞에 있는 부
     분, 구분자 자체, 구분자 뒤에 오는 부분으로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌려줍니
     다.  구분자가 발견되지 않으면, 원래 시퀀스의 복사본과 그 뒤를 따르
     는 두 개의 빈 바이트열 또는 바이트 배열 객체로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌려
     줍니다.

     검색할 구분자는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 일 수 있습니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.replace (old, new, count=-1, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.replace (old, new, count=-1, /)

     모든 서브 시퀀스 'old' 가 'new' 로 치환된 시퀀스의 복사본을 돌려줍
     니다.  선택적 인자 'count' 가 주어지면, 앞의 'count' 개만 치환됩니
     다.

     검색할 서브 시퀀스와 그 대체물은 임의의 *note bytes-like object:
     d2a. 일 수 있습니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     서브 시퀀스 'sub' 가 ‘s[start:end]’ 내에 등장하는 가장 큰 시퀀스의
     인덱스를 돌려줍니다.  선택적 인자 'start' 와 'end' 는 슬라이스 표기
     법으로 해석됩니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’ 을 돌려줍니다.

     검색할 서브 시퀀스는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 또는 0에
     서 255 사이의 정수일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 서브 시퀀스로 0에서 255 사이의 정수도 허용합니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     *note rfind(): 1845. 와 비슷하지만, 서브 시퀀스 'sub' 를 찾을 수 없
     는 경우 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으킵니다.

     검색할 서브 시퀀스는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 또는 0에
     서 255 사이의 정수일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 서브 시퀀스로 0에서 255 사이의 정수도 허용합니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.rpartition (sep, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.rpartition (sep, /)

     'sep' 가 마지막으로 나타나는 위치에서 시퀀스를 나누고, 구분자 앞에
     있는 부분, 구분자 자체, 구분자 뒤에 오는 부분으로 구성된 3-튜플을 돌
     려줍니다.  구분자가 발견되지 않으면, 두 개의 빈 바이트열 또는 바이
     트 배열 객체와 그 뒤를 따르는 원래 시퀀스의 복사본으로 구성된 3-튜
     플을 돌려줍니다.

     검색할 구분자는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 일 수 있습니다
     .

 -- 메서드: bytes.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])
 -- 메서드: bytearray.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     바이너리 데이터가 지정된 'prefix' 로 시작하면 ‘True’ 를 돌려주고, 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 돌려줍니다.  'prefix' 는 찾고자 하는 접두사
     들의 튜플이 될 수도 있습니다.  선택적 'start' 가 제공되면 그 위치에
     서 검사를 시작합니다.  선택적 'end' 를 사용하면 해당 위치에서 비교
     를 중단합니다.

     검색할 접두사(들)는 임의의 *note bytes-like object: d2a. 일 수 있습
     니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.translate (table, /, delete=b'')
 -- 메서드: bytearray.translate (table, /, delete=b'')

     생략 가능한 인자 'delete' 의 모든 바이트를 제거하고, 나머지 바이트
     들을 주어진 변환표로 매핑한 바이트열이나 바이트 배열 객체의 복사본
     을 돌려줍니다.  table은 길이 256인 바이트열 객체이어야 합니다.

     *note bytes.maketrans(): 1265. 메서드를 사용하여 변환표를 만들 수 있
     습니다.

     문자를 지우기만 하는 변환에는 'table' 인자를 ‘None’ 으로 설정하십시
     오:

          >>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
          b'rd ths shrt txt'

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이제 'delete' 는 키워드 인자로 지원됩니다.

바이트열 및 바이트 배열 객체에 대한 다음 메서드는 ASCII 호환 바이너리 형
식의 사용을 가정하는 기본 동작을 갖지만, 적절한 인자를 전달하여 임의의 바
이너리 데이터와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 섹션의 바이트 배열 메서드는
모두 제자리에서 작동하지 않고 대신 새로운 객체를 생성함에 주의하십시오.

 -- 메서드: bytes.center (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.center (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

     길이 'width' 인 시퀀스의 가운데에 정렬한 객체의 복사본을 돌려줍니다
     .  지정된 'fillbyte' (기본값은 ASCII 스페이스)를 사용하여 채웁니다.
     *note bytes: 1c2. 객체의 경우, 'width' 가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나 같은
     경우 원래 시퀀스가 반환됩니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.ljust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.ljust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

     왼쪽으로 정렬된 객체의 복사본을 길이 'width' 인 시퀀스로 돌려줍니다
     .  지정된 'fillbyte' (기본값은 ASCII 스페이스)을 사용하여 채웁니다.
     *note bytes: 1c2. 객체의 경우, 'width' 가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나 같은
     경우 원래 시퀀스가 반환됩니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.lstrip (bytes=None, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.lstrip (bytes=None, /)

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed.
     The 'bytes' argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
     byte values to be removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the 'bytes'
     argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.  The 'bytes'
     argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values
     are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
          b'spacious   '
          >>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example.com'

     제거할 바이트 값의 바이너리 시퀀스는 임의의 *note 바이트열류 객체:
     d2a.일 수 있습니다.  문자 집합의 모든 것이 아닌 단일 접두사 문자열
     을 제거하는 메서드는 *note removeprefix(): 21df.를 참조하십시오.  예
     를 들면:

          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.lstrip(b'Arthur: ')
          b'ee!'
          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix(b'Arthur: ')
          b'three!'

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.rjust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.rjust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

     오른쪽으로 정렬된 객체의 복사본을 길이 'width' 인 시퀀스로 돌려줍니
     다.  지정된 'fillbyte' (기본값은 ASCII 스페이스)를 사용하여 채웁니
     다.  *note bytes: 1c2. 객체의 경우, 'width' 가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나
     같은 경우 원래 시퀀스가 반환됩니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     'sep' 을 구분자 시퀀스로 사용하여 바이너리 시퀀스를 같은 형의 서브
     시퀀스로 나눕니다.  'maxsplit' 이 주어지면 가장 오른쪽에서 최대
     'maxsplit' 번의 분할이 수행됩니다.  'sep' 이 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’
     이면, ASCII 공백 문자만으로 이루어진 모든 서브 시퀀스는 구분자입니
     다.  오른쪽에서 분리하는 것을 제외하면, *note rsplit(): 21ff.는 아
     래에서 자세히 설명될 *note split(): 2200.처럼 동작합니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.rstrip (bytes=None, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.rstrip (bytes=None, /)

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes
     removed.  The 'bytes' argument is a binary sequence specifying the
     set of byte values to be removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the
     'bytes' argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.  The
     'bytes' argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its
     values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
          b'   spacious'
          >>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
          b'mississ'

     제거할 바이트 값의 바이너리 시퀀스는 임의의 *note 바이트열류 객체:
     d2a.일 수 있습니다.  문자 집합의 모든 것이 아닌 단일 접미사 문자열
     을 제거하는 메서드는 *note removesuffix(): 21e1.를 참조하십시오.  예
     를 들면:

          >>> b'Monty Python'.rstrip(b' Python')
          b'M'
          >>> b'Monty Python'.removesuffix(b' Python')
          b'Monty'

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     'sep' 를 구분자 시퀀스로 사용하여 바이너리 시퀀스를 같은 형의 서브
     시퀀스로 나눕니다.  'maxsplit' 이 지정되고 음수가 아닌 경우, 최대
     'maxsplit' 분할이 수행됩니다 (따라서, 리스트는 최대 ‘maxsplit+1’ 개
     의 요소를 가지게 됩니다).  'maxsplit' 이 지정되지 않았거나 ‘-1’ 이
     라면 분할 수에 제한이 없습니다 (가능한 모든 분할이 만들어집니다).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example,
     ‘b'1,,2'.split(b',')’ returns ‘[b'1', b'', b'2']’).  The 'sep'
     argument may consist of a multibyte sequence as a single delimiter.
     Splitting an empty sequence with a specified separator returns
     ‘[b'']’ or ‘[bytearray(b'')]’ depending on the type of object being
     split.  The 'sep' argument may be any *note bytes-like object: d2a.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2,3']
          >>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
          >>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3<4']

     'sep' 이 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’ 이면, 다른 분할 알고리즘이 적용됩니
     다: 연속된 ASCII 공백 문자는 단일한 구분자로 간주하고, 시퀀스가 선
     행이나 후행 공백을 포함해도 결과는 시작과 끝에 빈 시퀀스를 포함하지
     않습니다.  결과적으로, 빈 시퀀스나 ASCII 공백만으로 구성된 시퀀스를
     ‘None’ 구분자로 나누면 ‘[]’ 를 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'1 2 3'.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2 3']
          >>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']

 -- 메서드: bytes.strip (bytes=None, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.strip (bytes=None, /)

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing
     bytes removed.  The 'bytes' argument is a binary sequence
     specifying the set of byte values to be removed.  If omitted or
     ‘None’, the 'bytes' argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.
     The 'bytes' argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all
     combinations of its values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
          b'spacious'
          >>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example'

     제거할 바이트 값의 바이너리 시퀀스는 임의의 *note bytes-like
     object: d2a. 일 수 있습니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

바이트열 및 바이트 배열 객체에 대한 다음 메서드는 ASCII 호환 바이너리 형
식의 사용을 가정하며 임의의 바이너리 데이터에 적용하면 안 됩니다.  이 섹
션의 바이트 배열 메서드는 모두 제자리에서 작동하지 '않고' 대신 새로운 객
체를 생성합니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.capitalize ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.capitalize ()

     각 바이트가 ASCII 문자로 해석되고 첫 번째 바이트는 대문자로, 나머지
     는 소문자로 만든 시퀀스의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  ASCII 바이트가 아닌
     값들은 변경되지 않고 전달됩니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.expandtabs (tabsize=8)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     모든 ASCII 탭 문자들을 현재의 열과 주어진 탭 크기에 따라 하나나 그
     이상의 ASCII 스페이스로 치환한 시퀀스의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  탭 위
     치는 'tabsize' 바이트마다 발생합니다 (기본값은 8이고, 열 0, 8, 16 등
     에 탭 위치를 지정합니다).  시퀀스를 확장하기 위해 현재 열이 0으로 설
     정되고 시퀀스를 바이트 단위로 검사합니다.  바이트가 ASCII 탭 문자
     (‘b'\t'’) 이면, 현재 열이 다음 탭 위치와 같아질 때까지 하나 이상의
     스페이스 문자가 삽입됩니다.  (탭 문자 자체는 복사되지 않습니다.)  현
     재 바이트가 ASCII 개행 문자 (‘b'\n'’) 또는 캐리지 리턴 (‘b'\r'’) 이
     면 복사되고 현재 열은 0으로 재설정됩니다.  다른 바이트는 변경되지 않
     고 복사되고 현재 열은 인쇄할 때 바이트가 어떻게 표시되는지에 관계없
     이 1씩 증가합니다.

          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          b'01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          b'01  012 0123    01234'

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.isalnum ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.isalnum ()

     시퀀스의 모든 바이트가 알파벳 ASCII 문자 또는 ASCII 십진수이고 시퀀
     스가 비어 있지 않으면 ‘True’를 돌려주고 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌
     려줍니다.  알파벳 ASCII 문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바
     이트 값입니다.  ASCII 십진수는 시퀀스 ‘b'0123456789'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
          True
          >>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
          False

 -- 메서드: bytes.isalpha ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.isalpha ()

     시퀀스의 모든 바이트가 알파벳 ASCII 문자이고 시퀀스가 비어 있지 않
     으면 ‘True’를 돌려주고 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  알파벳
     ASCII 문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바
     이트 값입니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
          True
          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
          False

 -- 메서드: bytes.isascii ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.isascii ()

     시퀀스가 비어 있거나 시퀀스의 모든 바이트가 ASCII면 ‘True’를 돌려주
     고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  ASCII 바이트의 범위는
     0-0x7F 입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: bytes.isdigit ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.isdigit ()

     시퀀스의 모든 바이트가 ASCII 십진수이며 시퀀스가 비어 있지 않으면
     ‘True’를 돌려주고 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  ASCII 십진수
     는 시퀀스 ‘b'0123456789'’ 에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'1234'.isdigit()
          True
          >>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
          False

 -- 메서드: bytes.islower ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.islower ()

     시퀀스에 적어도 하나의 ASCII 소문자가 있고, ASCII 대문자가 없으면
     ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'hello world'.islower()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.islower()
          False

     ASCII 소문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.  ASCII 대문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.isspace ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.isspace ()

     시퀀스의 모든 바이트가 ASCII 공백이고, 시퀀스가 비어 있지 않으면
     ‘True’를 돌려주고 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  ASCII 공백 문
     자는 시퀀스 ‘b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'’(스페이스, 탭, 줄 바꿈, 캐리지 리턴,
     수직 탭, 폼 피드)에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.istitle ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.istitle ()

     시퀀스가 ASCII 제목 케이스고 시퀀스가 비어있지 않으면 ‘True’를 돌려
     주고 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.  “제목 케이스” 의 정의에 대
     한 자세한 내용은 *note bytes.title(): 2218. 을 참조하십시오.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
          False

 -- 메서드: bytes.isupper ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.isupper ()

     시퀀스에 적어도 하나의 ASCII 대문자가 있고, ASCII 소문자가 없으면
     ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
          False

     ASCII 소문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.  ASCII 대문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.lower ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.lower ()

     모든 ASCII 대문자를 해당 소문자로 변환한 시퀀스의 복사본을 돌려줍니
     다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'Hello World'.lower()
          b'hello world'

     ASCII 소문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.  ASCII 대문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.splitlines (keepends=False)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.splitlines (keepends=False)

     ASCII 줄 경계에서 나눈 바이너리 시퀀스의 줄 리스트를 돌려줍니다.  이
     메서드는 줄을 나누는데 *note universal newlines: d37. 접근법을 사용
     합니다.  'keepends' 가 참으로 주어지지 않는 한 결과 리스트에 줄 바
     꿈은 포함되지 않습니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          [b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          [b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']

     구분자 시퀀스 'sep' 이 주어졌을 때 *note split(): 2203. 와 달리, 이
     메서드는 빈 시퀀스에 대해서 빈 리스트를 돌려주고, 마지막 줄 바꿈은
     새 줄을 만들지 않습니다:

          >>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
          ([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
          >>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
          ([], [b'One line'])

 -- 메서드: bytes.swapcase ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.swapcase ()

     모든 ASCII 소문자를 해당 대문자로, 그 반대도 마찬가지로 변환한 시퀀
     스의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
          b'hELLO wORLD'

     ASCII 소문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.  ASCII 대문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

     Unlike *note str.swapcase(): 21d1, it is always the case that
     ‘bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin’ for the binary versions.  Case
     conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not
     generally true for arbitrary Unicode code points.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.title ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.title ()

     단어가 ASCII 대문자로 시작하고 나머지 문자들은 소문자인 제목 케이스
     버전의 바이너리 시퀀스를 돌려줍니다.  케이스 없는 바이트 값은 수정
     되지 않은 상태로 남습니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'Hello world'.title()
          b'Hello World'

     ASCII 소문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.  ASCII 대문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’
     에 있는 바이트 값입니다.  다른 모든 바이트 값은 케이스가 없습니다.

     이 알고리즘은 단어를 글자들의 연속으로 보는 간단한 언어 독립적 정의
     를 사용합니다.  이 정의는 여러 상황에서 작동하지만, 축약과 소유의 아
     포스트로피가 단어 경계를 형성한다는 것을 의미하고, 이는 원하는 결과
     가 아닐 수도 있습니다:

          >>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     정규식을 사용하여 아포스트로피에 대한 해결 방법을 구성할 수 있습니
     다:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
          ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
          b"They're Bill's Friends."

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.upper ()
 -- 메서드: bytearray.upper ()

     모든 ASCII 소문자를 해당 대문자로 변환한 시퀀스의 복사본을 돌려줍니
     다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b'Hello World'.upper()
          b'HELLO WORLD'

     ASCII 소문자는 시퀀스 ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’ 에 있는 바이
     트 값입니다.  ASCII 대문자는, 시퀀스
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’ 에 있는 바이트 값입니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: bytes.zfill (width, /)
 -- 메서드: bytearray.zfill (width, /)

     길이가 'width' 인 시퀀스를 만들기 위해 ASCII ‘b'0'’ 문자를 왼쪽에 채
     운 시퀀스의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  선행 부호 접두어(‘b'+'’/‘b'-'’)는
     부호 문자의 앞이 아니라 '뒤' 에 채우는 것으로 처리됩니다.  *note
     bytes: 1c2. 객체의 경우, 'width' 가 ‘len(s)’ 보다 작거나 같은 경우
     원래 시퀀스를 돌려줍니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> b"42".zfill(5)
          b'00042'
          >>> b"-42".zfill(5)
          b'-0042'

          참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습
          니다' - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅,  Next: 메모리 뷰,  Prev: 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산,  Up: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.4 ‘printf’ 스타일 바이너리 포매팅
.......................................

     참고: 여기에 설명된 포맷 연산은 여러 가지 일반적인 오류를 (예를 들
     어 튜플과 딕셔너리를 올바르게 표시하지 못하는 것) 유발하는 다양한 문
     제점들이 있습니다.  인쇄될 값이 튜플 또는 딕셔너리일 경우 튜플로 감
     싸야 합니다.

바이너리 시퀀스 객체는 한가지 고유한 내장 연산을 갖고 있습니다: ‘%’ 연산
자 (모듈로).  이것은 바이너리 '포매팅' 또는 '치환' 연산자라고도 합니다.
‘format % values’ 가 주어질 때 ('format' 은 바이너리 시퀀스입니다),
'format' 내부의 ‘%’ 변환 명세는 0개 이상의 'values' 의 요소로 대체됩니다
.  이 효과는 C 언어에서 ‘sprintf()’를 사용하는 것과 비슷합니다.

'format' 이 하나의 인자를 요구하면, 'values' 는 하나의 비 튜플 객체 일 수
있습니다.  (1)  그렇지 않으면, 'values' 는 format 바이너리 시퀀스 객체가
지정하는 항목의 수와 같은 튜플이거나 단일 매핑 객체 (예를 들어, 딕셔너리
) 여야 합니다.

변환 명세는 두 개 이상의 문자를 포함하며 다음과 같은 구성 요소들을 포함
하는데, 반드시 이 순서대로 나와야 합니다:

  1. ‘'%'’ 문자: 명세의 시작을 나타냅니다.

  2. 매핑 키 (선택 사항): 괄호로 둘러싸인 문자들의 시퀀스로 구성됩니다
     (예를 들어, ‘(somename)’).

  3. 변환 플래그 (선택 사항): 일부 변환 유형의 결과에 영향을 줍니다.

  4. 최소 필드 폭 (선택 사항): ‘'*'’ (애스터리스크) 로 지정하면, 실제 폭
     은 'values' 튜플의 다음 요소에서 읽히고, 변환할 객체는 최소 필드 폭
     과 선택적 정밀도 뒤에 옵니다.

  5. 정밀도 (선택 사항): ‘'.'’ (점) 다음에 정밀도가 옵니다.  ‘'*'’ (애스
     터리스크) 로 지정하면, 실제 정밀도는 'values' 튜플의 다음 요소에서
     읽히고, 변환할 값은 정밀도 뒤에 옵니다.

  6. 길이 수정자 (선택 사항).

  7. 변환 유형.

오른쪽 인자가 딕셔너리 (또는 다른 매핑 형) 인 경우, 바이너리 시퀀스 객체
에 있는 변환 명세는 '반드시' ‘'%'’ 문자 바로 뒤에 그 딕셔너리의 매핑 키
를 괄호로 둘러싼 형태로 포함해야 합니다.  매핑 키는 포맷할 값을 매핑으로
부터 선택합니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
     b'Python has 002 quote types.'

이 경우 ‘*’ 지정자를 사용할 수 없습니다 (순차적인 매개변수 목록이 필요하
기 때문입니다).

변환 플래그 문자는 다음과 같습니다:

플래그        뜻
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         값 변환에 “대체 형식” (아래에 정의되어있습니다) 을 사용합니다.
              
              
‘'0'’         변환은 숫자 값의 경우 0으로 채웁니다.
              
              
‘'-'’         변환된 값은 왼쪽으로 정렬됩니다 (둘 다 주어지면 ‘'0'’ 변환보다 우선 합
              니다).
              
              
‘' '’         (스페이스) 부호 있는 변환 때문에 만들어진 양수 앞에 빈칸을 남겨둡니다
              (음수면 빈 문자열입니다).
              
              
‘'+'’         부호 문자 (‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’) 가 변환 앞에 놓입니다 (‘' '’ 플래그에 우선합
              니다).
              

길이 수정자 (‘h’, ‘l’, ‘L’) 를 제공할 수는 있지만, 파이썬에서 필요하지 않
기 때문에 무시됩니다 – 예를 들어 ‘%ld’ 는 ‘%d’ 와 같습니다.

변환 유형은 다음과 같습니다:

변환             뜻                                                        노트
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            부호 있는 정수 십진 표기.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            부호 있는 정수 십진 표기.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            부호 있는 8진수 값.                                       (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            쓸데없는 유형 – ‘'d'’ 와 같습니다.                        (8)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            부호 있는 16진수 (소문자).                                (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            부호 있는 16진수 (대문자).                                (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            단일 바이트 (정수 또는 길이 1인 바이너리 시퀀스를 허용
                 합니다).
                 
                                                                           
‘'b'’            Bytes (any object that follows the                        (5)
                 *note buffer protocol: 391. or has                        
                 *note __bytes__(): 5e2.).
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            ‘'s'’ 는 ‘'b'’ 의 별칭이고 파이썬 2/3에서만 사용되어야    (6)
                 합니다.                                                   
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            Bytes (converts any Python object using                   (5)
                 ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’).         
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            ‘'r'’ 는 ‘'a'’ 의 별칭이고 파이썬 2/3에서만 사용되어야    (7)
                 합니다.                                                   
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            인자는 변환되지 않고, 결과에 ‘'%'’ 문자가 표시됩니다.
                 

노트:

  1. 대체 형식은 첫 번째 숫자 앞에 선행 8진수 지정자 (‘'0o'’)를 삽입합니
     다.

  2. 대체 형식은 첫 번째 숫자 앞에 선행 ‘'0x'’ 또는 ‘'0X'’ (‘'x'’ 나
     ‘'X'’ 유형 중 어느 것을 사용하느냐에 따라 달라집니다) 를 삽입합니다
     .

  3. 대체 형식은 그 뒤에 숫자가 나오지 않더라도 항상 소수점을 포함합니다
     .

     정밀도는 소수점 이하 자릿수를 결정하며 기본값은 6입니다.

  4. 대체 형식은 결과에 항상 소수점을 포함하고 뒤에 오는 0은 제거되지 않
     습니다.

     정밀도는 소수점 앞뒤의 유효 자릿수를 결정하며 기본값은 6입니다.

  5. 정밀도가 ‘N’ 이라면, 출력은 ‘N’ 문자로 잘립니다.

  6. ‘b'%s'’ 는 폐지되었습니다.  하지만 3.x 시리즈에서는 제거되지 않습니
     다.

  7. ‘b'%r'’ 는 폐지되었습니다.  하지만 3.x 시리즈에서는 제거되지 않습니
     다.

  8. PEP 237(2)을 참조하세요.

     참고: 이 메서드의 바이트 배열 버전은 제자리에서 동작하지 '않습니다'
     - 변경되지 않는 경우조차 항상 새 객체를 만듭니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 461(3) - bytes와 bytearray에 % 포매팅 추가

Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 그래서, 튜플만을 포매팅하려면 포맷할 튜플 하나만을 포함하는 1-튜
플을 제공해야 합니다.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 뷰,  Prev: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅,  Up: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.5 메모리 뷰
.................

*note memoryview: 462. 객체는 파이썬 코드가 *note 버퍼 프로토콜: 391. 을
지원하는 객체의 내부 데이터에 복사 없이 접근할 수 있게 합니다.

 -- 클래스: memoryview (object)

     Create a *note memoryview: 462. that references 'object'.  'object'
     must support the buffer protocol.  Built-in objects that support
     the buffer protocol include *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray:
     538.

     A *note memoryview: 462. has the notion of an 'element', which is
     the atomic memory unit handled by the originating 'object'.  For
     many simple types such as *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray:
     538, an element is a single byte, but other types such as *note
     array.array: 1a0. may have bigger elements.

     ‘len(view)’ is equal to the length of *note tolist: 2228, which is
     the nested list representation of the view.  If ‘view.ndim = 1’,
     this is equal to the number of elements in the view.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: If ‘view.ndim == 0’, ‘len(view)’ now raises
     *note TypeError: 532. instead of returning 1.

     The *note itemsize: 2229. attribute will give you the number of
     bytes in a single element.

     *note memoryview: 462. 는 슬라이싱과 인덱싱을 지원하여 데이터를 노
     출합니다.  일차원 슬라이스는 서브 뷰를 만듭니다:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> v[1]
          98
          >>> v[-1]
          103
          >>> v[1:4]
          <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
          >>> bytes(v[1:4])
          b'bce'

     *note format: 222a. 이 *note struct: d5. 모듈의 네이티브 형식 지정
     자 중 하나인 경우, 정수 또는 정수의 튜플을 사용하는 인덱싱도 지원되
     며 올바른 형으로 하나의 요소를 돌려줍니다.  일차원 메모리 뷰는 정수
     또는 하나의 정수를 갖는 튜플로 인덱싱 할 수 있습니다.  다차원 메모
     리 뷰는 정확히 'ndim' 개의 정수를 갖는 튜플로 인덱싱할 수 있습니다.
     여기서 'ndim' 은 차원 수입니다.  영차원 메모리 뷰는 빈 튜플로 인덱
     싱할 수 있습니다.

     다음은 바이트가 아닌 형식의 예입니다:

          >>> import array
          >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
          >>> m = memoryview(a)
          >>> m[0]
          -11111111
          >>> m[-1]
          44444444
          >>> m[::2].tolist()
          [-11111111, -33333333]

     하부 객체가 쓰기 가능하면, 메모리 뷰는 일차원 슬라이스 대입을 지원
     합니다.  크기 변경은 허용되지 않습니다:

          >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
          >>> v = memoryview(data)
          >>> v.readonly
          False
          >>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'zbcefg')
          >>> v[1:4] = b'123'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z123fg')
          >>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
          >>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z1spam')

     One-dimensional memoryviews of *note hashable: 60a. (read-only)
     types with formats ‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are also hashable.  The hash is
     defined as ‘hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes())’:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
          True
          >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
          True
          >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
          True

     버전 3.3에서 변경: One-dimensional memoryviews can now be sliced.
     One-dimensional memoryviews with formats ‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are now
     *note hashable: 60a.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이제 메모리 뷰는 자동으로 *note
     collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3. 로 등록됩니다

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 메모리 뷰는 정수의 튜플로 인덱싱될 수 있습
     니다.

     *note memoryview: 462. 는 몇 가지 메서드를 가지고 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: __eq__ (exporter)

          메모리 뷰와 PEP 3118(1) 제공자(exporter)는 다음과 같은 조건을
          만족할 때 같다고 비교됩니다: 모양이 동등하고 피연산자의 각 형
          식 코드가 *note struct: d5. 문법을 사용하여 해석될 때 모든 해
          당 값이 같다.

          현재 *note tolist(): 2228. 가 지원하는 *note struct: d5. 형식
          문자열의 부분 집합의 경우, ‘v.tolist() == w.tolist()’ 면 ‘v’ 와
          ‘w’ 는 같습니다:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
               >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
               >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> y = memoryview(b)
               >>> x == a == y == b
               True
               >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
               True
               >>> z = y[::-2]
               >>> z == c
               True
               >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
               True

          형식 문자열이 *note struct: d5. 모듈에서 지원되지 않으면 객체
          는 항상 같지 않다고 비교됩니다 (형식 문자열과 버퍼 내용이 같더
          라도 그렇습니다):

               >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
               >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
               ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
               ...
               >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
               >>> a = memoryview(point)
               >>> b = memoryview(point)
               >>> a == point
               False
               >>> a == b
               False

          Note that, as with floating-point numbers, ‘v is w’ does 'not'
          imply ‘v == w’ for memoryview objects.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는 항목 형식과 논리 배열 구조
          를 무시하고 원시 메모리를 비교했습니다.

      -- 메서드: tobytes (order='C')

          버퍼의 데이터를 바이트열로 돌려줍니다.  이는 메모리 뷰에 *note
          bytes: 1c2. 생성자를 호출하는 것과 동등합니다.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.tobytes()
               b'abc'
               >>> bytes(m)
               b'abc'

          불연속 배열의 경우 결과는 모든 요소를 바이트로 변환하여 평평한
          리스트로 만든 것과 같습니다.  *note tobytes(): 222c. 는 *note
          struct: d5. 모듈 문법에 없는 것을 포함하여 모든 형식 문자열을
          지원합니다.

          Added in version 3.8: 'order'는 {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’} 일 수 있습니다
          .  'order'가 ‘C’ 나 ‘F’ 이면, 원래 배열의 데이터가 C 나 포트란
          순서로 변환됩니다.  연속 뷰의 경우, ‘A’ 는 물리적 메모리의 정
          확한 사본을 반환합니다.  특히, 메모리 내 포트란 순서가 보존됩
          니다.  연속적이지 않은 뷰의 경우, 데이터는 먼저 C로 변환됩니다
          .  'order=None'은 'order=’C’'와 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: hex (*, bytes_per_sep=1)

      -- 메서드: hex (sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

          버퍼 내의 각 바이트를 두 개의 16진수로 표현한 문자열 객체를 돌
          려줍니다.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.hex()
               '616263'

          Added in version 3.5.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: *note bytes.hex(): d65.와 비슷하게, 이제
          *note memoryview.hex(): d67.는 16진수 출력의 바이트 사이에 구
          분 기호를 삽입하기 위해 선택적 'sep'과 'bytes_per_sep' 매개 변
          수를 지원합니다.

      -- 메서드: tolist ()

          버퍼 내의 데이터를 요소들의 리스트로 돌려줍니다.

               >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> m.tolist()
               [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

          버전 3.3에서 변경: *note tolist(): 2228. 는 이제 *note struct:
          d5. 모듈 문법의 모든 단일 문자 네이티브 형식과 다차원 표현을 지
          원합니다.

      -- 메서드: toreadonly ()

          메모리 뷰 객체의 읽기 전용 버전을 반환합니다.  원래 메모리 뷰
          객체는 변경되지 않습니다.

               >>> m = memoryview(bytearray(b'abc'))
               >>> mm = m.toreadonly()
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> mm[0] = 42
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
               >>> m[0] = 43
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [43, 98, 99]

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          메모리 뷰 객체에 의해 노출된 하부 버퍼를 해제합니다.  많은 객
          체는 뷰가 그 객체에 연결될 때 특별한 조처를 합니다 (예를 들어,
          *note bytearray: 538. 는 일시적으로 크기 조절을 금지합니다); 따
          라서, release()를 호출하면 가능한 한 빨리 이 제한 사항을 제거
          하고 붙잡힌 자원을 해제할 수 있습니다.

          After this method has been called, any further operation on
          the view raises a *note ValueError: 202. (except *note
          release(): 11ad. itself which can be called multiple times):

               >>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
               >>> m.release()
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          ‘with’ 문을 사용한 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜은 비슷한 효과를 낼 수
          있습니다:

               >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
               ...     m[0]
               ...
               97
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: cast (format, /)

      -- 메서드: cast (format, shape, /)

          메모리 뷰를 새로운 형식이나 모양으로 캐스팅합니다.  'shape' 의
          기본값은 ‘[byte_length//new_itemsize]’ 인데, 결과 뷰가 일차원
          이 된다는 의미입니다.  반환 값은 새로운 메모리 뷰이지만 버퍼 자
          체는 복사되지 않습니다.  지원되는 캐스팅은 1D -> C-*note 연속:
          222f. 과 C-연속 -> 1D입니다.

          The destination format is restricted to a single element
          native format in *note struct: d5. syntax.  One of the formats
          must be a byte format (‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’).  The byte length of
          the result must be the same as the original length.  Note that
          all byte lengths may depend on the operating system.

          1D/long 을 1D/unsigned bytes 로 캐스트:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> x.format
               'l'
               >>> x.itemsize
               8
               >>> len(x)
               3
               >>> x.nbytes
               24
               >>> y = x.cast('B')
               >>> y.format
               'B'
               >>> y.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(y)
               24
               >>> y.nbytes
               24

          1D/unsigned bytes 를 1D/char 로 캐스트:

               >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
               >>> x = memoryview(b)
               >>> x[0] = b'a'
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format 'B'
               >>> y = x.cast('c')
               >>> y[0] = b'a'
               >>> b
               bytearray(b'ayz')

          1D/bytes 를 3D/ints 로 캐스트 한 후 다시 1D/signed char 로 캐
          스트:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
               >>> y.format
               'i'
               >>> y.itemsize
               4
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> z = y.cast('b')
               >>> z.format
               'b'
               >>> z.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(z)
               48
               >>> z.nbytes
               48

          1D/unsigned long 을 2D/unsigned long 으로 캐스트:

               >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]

          Added in version 3.3.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 바이트 형식으로 변환할 때 소스 형식이 더는
          제한되지 않습니다.

     몇 가지 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트도 사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: obj

          메모리 뷰의 하부 객체:

               >>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
               >>> m = memoryview(b)
               >>> m.obj is b
               True

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: nbytes

          ‘nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())’.  배
          열이 연속적일 때 차지하게 될 바이트 수입니다.  꼭 ‘len(m)’과 같
          을 필요는 없습니다:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> len(m)
               5
               >>> m.nbytes
               20
               >>> y = m[::2]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               12
               >>> len(y.tobytes())
               12

          다차원 배열:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               96

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: readonly

          메모리가 읽기 전용인지 여부를 나타내는 논리값.

      -- 속성: format

          뷰의 각 요소에 대한 형식(*note struct: d5. 모듈 스타일)을 포함
          하는 문자열입니다.  메모리 뷰는 제공자로부터 임의의 형식 문자
          열로 만들어질 수 있지만, 일부 메서드(예, *note tolist():
          2228.)는 원시 네이티브 단일 요소 형식으로 제한됩니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘'B'’ 형식은 이제 struct 모듈 문법에 따라 처
          리됩니다.  이것은 ‘memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97’ 이
          됨을 의미합니다.

      -- 속성: itemsize

          메모리 뷰 각 요소의 크기 (바이트):

               >>> import array, struct
               >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
               >>> m.itemsize
               2
               >>> m[0]
               32000
               >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
               True

      -- 속성: ndim

          메모리가 나타내는 다차원 배열의 차원 수를 나타내는 정수.

      -- 속성: shape

          N-차원 배열로서의 메모리의 모양을 가리키는, 길이 *note ndim:
          2233. 인 정수의 튜플입니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: ndim = 0 일 때 ‘None’ 대신 빈 튜플을 제공합
          니다.

      -- 속성: strides

          배열의 각 차원에 대해 각 요소를 참조하는데 필요한 바이트 수를
          제공하는, 길이 *note ndim: 2233. 인 정수의 튜플입니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: ndim = 0 일 때 ‘None’ 대신 빈 튜플을 제공합
          니다.

      -- 속성: suboffsets

          PIL 스타일 배열에 내부적으로 사용됩니다.  값은 정보 제공용입니
          다.

      -- 속성: c_contiguous

          메모리가 C-*note 연속: 222f. 인지를 나타내는 논리값.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: f_contiguous

          메모리가 포트란 *note 연속: 222f. 인지를 나타내는 논리값.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: contiguous

          메모리가 *note 연속: 222f. 인지를 나타내는 논리값.

          Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: 집합 형 — set frozenset,  Next: 매핑 형 — dict,  Prev: 바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Up: 내장형

5.4.10 집합 형 — ‘set’, ‘frozenset’
-----------------------------------

'집합 (set)' 객체는 서로 다른 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 객체의 순서 없는 컬
렉션입니다.  일반적인 용도는 멤버십 검사, 시퀀스에서 중복 제거와 교집합,
합집합, 차집합, 대칭 차집합과 같은 수학 연산을 계산하는 것입니다.  (다른
컨테이너들은 내장 *note dict: 256, *note list: 60b, *note tuple: 369. 클
래스 및 *note collections: 1d. 모듈을 참조하십시오.)

다른 컬렉션과 마찬가지로, 집합은 ‘x in set’, ‘len(set)’, ‘for x in set’
을 지원합니다.  순서가 없는 컬렉션이므로, 집합은 원소의 위치나 삽입 순서
를 기록하지 않습니다.  따라서 집합은 인덱싱, 슬라이싱 또는 기타 시퀀스와
유사한 동작을 지원하지 않습니다.

현재 두 가지 내장형이 있습니다, *note set: 5d3.과 *note frozenset: 5d4.
*note set: 5d3. 형은 가변입니다 — 내용을 ‘add()’ 나 ‘remove()’ 와 같은 메
서드를 사용하여 변경할 수 있습니다.  가변이기 때문에, 해시값이 없으며 딕
셔너리 키 또는 다른 집합의 원소로 사용할 수 없습니다.  *note frozenset:
5d4. 형은 불변이고 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 합니다 — 만들어진 후에는 내용을
바꿀 수 없습니다; 따라서 딕셔너리 키 또는 다른 집합의 원소로 사용할 수 있
습니다.

비어 있지 않은 set은 (frozenset 은 아닙니다) *note set: 5d3. 생성자뿐만
아니라 중괄호 안에 쉼표로 구분된 원소 목록을 넣어서 만들 수 있습니다, 예
를 들어: ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’.

두 클래스의 생성자는 같게 작동합니다:

 -- 클래스: set (iterable=(), /)
 -- 클래스: frozenset (iterable=(), /)

     'iterable' 에서 요소를 취하는 새 set 또는 frozenset 객체를 돌려줍니
     다.  집합의 원소는 반드시 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 해야 합니다.  집합
     의 집합을 표현하려면, 포함되는 집합은 반드시 *note frozenset: 5d4.
     객체여야 합니다.  'iterable' 을 지정하지 않으면 새 빈 집합을 돌려줍
     니다.

     집합은 여러 가지 방법으로 만들 수 있습니다:

        * 중괄호 안에 쉼표로 구분된 요소 나열하기: ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’

        * 집합 컴프리헨션 사용하기: ‘{c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not
          in 'abc'}’

        * 형 생성자 사용하기: ‘set()’, ‘set('foobar')’, ‘set(['a', 'b',
          'foo'])’

     *note set: 5d3.과 *note frozenset: 5d4. 의 인스턴스는 다음과 같은 연
     산을 제공합니다:

      -- Describe: len(s)

          집합 's' 의 원소 수('s' 의 크기)를 돌려줍니다.

      -- Describe: x in s

          's' 에 대해 'x' 의 멤버십을 검사합니다.

      -- Describe: x not in s

          's' 에 대해 'x' 의 비 멤버십을 검사합니다.

      -- 메서드: isdisjoint (other, /)

          집합이 'other' 와 공통 원소를 갖지 않는 경우 ‘True’ 을 돌려줍
          니다.  집합은 교집합이 공집합일 때, 그리고 그때만 서로소
          (disjoint)라고 합니다.

      -- 메서드: issubset (other, /)

      -- 메서드: set <= other

          집합의 모든 원소가 'other' 에 포함되는지 검사합니다.

      -- 메서드: set < other

          집합이 'other' 의 진부분집합인지 검사합니다, 즉, ‘set <= other
          and set != other’.

      -- 메서드: issuperset (other, /)

      -- 메서드: set >= other

          'other' 의 모든 원소가 집합에 포함되는지 검사합니다.

      -- 메서드: set > other

          집합이 'other' 의 진상위집합인지 검사합니다, 즉, ‘set >= other
          and set != other’.

      -- 메서드: union (*others)

      -- 메서드: set | other | ...

          집합과 모든 others에 있는 원소들로 구성된 새 집합을 돌려줍니다
          .

      -- 메서드: intersection (*others)

      -- 메서드: set & other & ...

          집합과 모든 others의 공통 원소들로 구성된 새 집합을 돌려줍니다
          .

      -- 메서드: difference (*others)

      -- 메서드: set - other - ...

          집합에는 포함되었으나 others에는 포함되지 않은 원소들로 구성된
          새 집합을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: symmetric_difference (other, /)

      -- 메서드: set ^ other

          집합이나 other에 포함되어 있으나 둘 모두에 포함되지는 않은 원
          소들로 구성된 새 집합을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          집합의 얕은 복사본을 돌려줍니다.

     Note, the non-operator versions of *note union(): 1447, *note
     intersection(): 1448, *note difference(): 223e, *note
     symmetric_difference(): 223f, *note issubset(): 223c, and *note
     issuperset(): 223d. methods will accept any iterable as an
     argument.  In contrast, their operator based counterparts require
     their arguments to be sets.  This precludes error-prone
     constructions like ‘set('abc') & 'cbs'’ in favor of the more
     readable ‘set('abc').intersection('cbs')’.

     *note set: 5d3.과 *note frozenset: 5d4. 모두 집합 간의 비교를 지원
     합니다.  두 집합은 각 집합의 모든 원소가 다른 집합에 포함되어있는 경
     우에만 같습니다 (서로 다른 집합의 부분집합입니다).  집합이 다른 집
     합의 진부분집합(부분집합이지만 같지는 않은 경우)일 때만 첫 번째 집
     합이 두 번째 집합보다 작습니다.  집합이 다른 집합의 진상위집합(상위
     집합이지만 같지는 않은 경우)일 때만 첫 번째 집합이 두 번째 집합보다
     큽니다.

     *note set: 5d3. 의 인스턴스는 그 원소를 기반으로 *note frozenset:
     5d4. 의 인스턴스와 비교됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘set('abc') ==
     frozenset('abc')’ 는 ‘True’ 를 돌려주고 ‘set('abc') in
     set([frozenset('abc')])’ 도 마찬가지입니다.

     부분 집합 및 동등 비교는 전 순서(total ordering) 함수로 일반화되지
     않습니다.  예를 들어, 비어 있지 않은 두 개의 서로소인 집합은 같지 않
     고 서로의 부분 집합이 아닙니다, 그래서 다음은 '모두' ‘False’ 를 돌
     려줍니다: ‘a<b’, ‘a==b’, ‘a>b’.

     집합은 부분 순서(부분 집합 관계)만 정의하기 때문에, 집합의 리스트에
     대한 *note list.sort(): bcc. 메서드의 결과는 정의되지 않습니다.

     딕셔너리 키처럼, 집합의 원소는 반드시 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 해야 합
     니다.

     *note set: 5d3. 인스턴스와 *note frozenset: 5d4. 을 혼합 한 이항 연
     산은 첫 번째 피연산자의 형을 돌려줍니다.  예를 들어:
     ‘frozenset('ab') | set('bc')’ 는 *note frozenset: 5d4. 의 인스턴스
     를 돌려줍니다.

     다음 표는 *note frozenset: 5d4. 의 불변 인스턴스에는 적용되지 않고
     *note set: 5d3. 에서만 사용할 수 있는 연산들을 나열합니다:

      -- 메서드: update (*others)

      -- 메서드: set |= other | ...

          집합을 갱신해서, 모든 others의 원소들을 더합니다.

      -- 메서드: intersection_update (*others)

      -- 메서드: set &= other & ...

          집합을 갱신해서, 그 집합과 others에 공통으로 포함된 원소들만 남
          깁니다.

      -- 메서드: difference_update (*others)

      -- 메서드: set -= other | ...

          집합을 갱신해서, others에 있는 원소들을 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: symmetric_difference_update (other, /)

      -- 메서드: set ^= other

          집합을 갱신해서, 두 집합의 어느 한 곳에만 포함된 원소들만 남깁
          니다.

      -- 메서드: add (elem, /)

          원소 'elem' 을 집합에 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: remove (elem, /)

          원소 'elem' 을 집합에서 제거합니다.  'elem' 가 집합에 포함되어
          있지 않으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.

      -- 메서드: discard (elem, /)

          원소 'elem' 이 집합에 포함되어 있으면 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: pop ()

          집합으로부터 임의의 원소를 제거해 돌려줍니다.  집합이 비어있는
          경우 *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          집합의 모든 원소를 제거합니다.

     참고로, *note update(): 2241, *note intersection_update(): 1449,
     *note difference_update(): 2242, *note
     symmetric_difference_update(): 144a. 메서드의 비 연산자 버전은 임의
     의 이터러블을 인자로 받아들입니다.

     Note, the 'elem' argument to the *note __contains__(): 1f66, *note
     remove(): 2244, and *note discard(): 2245. methods may be a set.
     To support searching for an equivalent frozenset, a temporary one
     is created from 'elem'.


File: python.info,  Node: 매핑 형 — dict,  Next: 컨텍스트 관리자 형,  Prev: 집합 형 — set frozenset,  Up: 내장형

5.4.11 매핑 형 — ‘dict’
-----------------------

*note 매핑: 11ab. 객체는 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 값을 임의의 객체에 대응합
니다.  매핑은 가변 객체입니다.  현재 오직 하나의 표준 매핑 형이 있습니다
, '딕셔너리 (dictionary)'.  (다른 컨테이너들은 내장 *note list: 60b,
*note set: 5d3, *note tuple: 369. 클래스 및 *note collections: 1d. 모듈
을 참조하십시오.)

A dictionary’s keys are 'almost' arbitrary values.  Values that are not
*note hashable: 60a, that is, values containing lists, dictionaries or
other mutable types (that are compared by value rather than by object
identity) may not be used as keys.  Values that compare equal (such as
‘1’, ‘1.0’, and ‘True’) can be used interchangeably to index the same
dictionary entry.

 -- 클래스: dict (**kwargs)

 -- 클래스: dict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- 클래스: dict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     선택적 위치 인자와 (비어있을 수 있는) 키워드 인자들의 집합으로부터
     초기화된 새 딕셔너리를 돌려줍니다.

     딕셔너리는 여러 가지 방법으로 만들 수 있습니다:

        * 중괄호 안에 쉼표로 구분된 ‘key: value’ 쌍을 나열하기:
          ‘{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}’ 또는 ‘{4098: 'jack', 4127:
          'sjoerd'}’

        * 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션 사용하기: ‘{}’, ‘{x: x ** 2 for x in
          range(10)}’

        * 형 생성자 사용하기: ‘dict()’, ‘dict([('foo', 100), ('bar',
          200)])’, ‘dict(foo=100, bar=200)’

     If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
     If a positional argument is given and it defines a ‘keys()’ method,
     a dictionary is created by calling *note __getitem__(): 283. on the
     argument with each returned key from the method.  Otherwise, the
     positional argument must be an *note iterable: 1217. object.  Each
     item in the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two
     elements.  The first element of each item becomes a key in the new
     dictionary, and the second element the corresponding value.  If a
     key occurs more than once, the last value for that key becomes the
     corresponding value in the new dictionary.

     키워드 인자가 제공되면, 키워드 인자와 해당 값이 위치 인자로부터 만
     들어진 딕셔너리에 추가됩니다.  추가되는 키가 이미 존재하면, 키워드
     인자에서 온 값이 위치 인자에게서 온 값을 대체합니다.

     첫 번째 예제에서와같이 키워드 인자는 유효한 파이썬 식별자인 키에 대
     해서만 작동합니다.  그 외의 경우는 모든 유효한 키를 사용할 수 있습
     니다.

     Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same ‘(key,
     value)’ pairs (regardless of ordering).  Order comparisons (‘<’,
     ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise *note TypeError: 532.  To illustrate
     dictionary creation and equality, the following examples all return
     a dictionary equal to ‘{"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}’:

          >>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
          >>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
          >>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
          >>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
          >>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
          >>> f = dict({'one': 1, 'three': 3}, two=2)
          >>> a == b == c == d == e == f
          True

     첫 번째 예제에서와같이 키워드 인자는 유효한 파이썬 식별자인 키에 대
     해서만 작동합니다.  그 외의 경우는 모든 유효한 키를 사용할 수 있습
     니다.

     딕셔너리는 삽입 순서를 유지합니다.  키를 갱신해도 순서에는 영향을 미
     치지 않습니다.  삭제 후에 추가된 키는 끝에 삽입됩니다.:

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(d)
          ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
          >>> list(d.values())
          [1, 2, 3, 4]
          >>> d["one"] = 42
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> del d["two"]
          >>> d["two"] = None
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 딕셔너리 순서는 삽입 순서임이 보장됩니다.  이 동
     작은 3.6부터 CPython의 구현 세부 사항입니다.

     이것들은 딕셔너리가 지원하는 연산들입니다 (그러므로, 사용자 정의 매
     핑 형도 지원해야 합니다):

      -- Describe: list(d)

          딕셔너리 'd' 에 사용된 모든 키의 리스트를 돌려줍니다.

      -- Describe: len(d)

          딕셔너리 'd' 에 있는 항목의 수를 돌려줍니다.

      -- Describe: d[key]

          키 'key' 인 'd' 의 항목을 돌려줍니다.  'key' 가 매핑에 없는 경
          우 *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.

          dict 의 서브 클래스가 method ‘__missing__()’ 을 정의하고 'key'
          가 존재하지 않는다면, ‘d[key]’ 연산은 키 'key' 를 인자로 하여
          그 메서드를 호출합니다.  그런 다음 ‘d[key]’ 연산은
          ‘__missing__(key)’ 호출이 반환한 값이나 일으킨 예외를 그대로 반
          환하거나 일으킵니다.  다른 연산이나 메서드는 ‘__missing__()’ 을
          호출하지 않습니다.  ‘__missing__()’ 이 정의되어 있지 않으면
          *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.  ‘__missing__()’ 은 메서드
          여야 합니다; 인스턴스 변수가 될 수 없습니다:

               >>> class Counter(dict):
               ...     def __missing__(self, key):
               ...         return 0
               ...
               >>> c = Counter()
               >>> c['red']
               0
               >>> c['red'] += 1
               >>> c['red']
               1

          위의 예는 *note collections.Counter: 1088. 구현 일부를 보여줍
          니다.  다른 ‘__missing__’ 메서드가 *note
          collections.defaultdict: 11ac. 에서 사용됩니다.

      -- Describe: d[key] = value

          ‘d[key]’ 를 'value' 로 설정합니다.

      -- Describe: del d[key]

          'd' 에서 ‘d[key]’ 를 제거합니다.  'key' 가 매핑에 없는 경우
          *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.

      -- Describe: key in d

          'd' 에 키 'key' 가 있으면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를
          돌려줍니다.

      -- Describe: key not in d

          ‘not key in d’ 와 동등합니다.

      -- Describe: iter(d)

          딕셔너리의 키에 대한 이터레이터를 돌려줍니다.  이것은
          ‘iter(d.keys())’ 의 단축입니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          딕셔너리에서 모든 항목을 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          딕셔너리의 얕은 복사본을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod fromkeys (iterable, value=None, /)

          'iterable' 이 제공하는 값들을 키로 사용하고 모든 값을 'value'
          로 설정한 새 딕셔러리를 돌려줍니다.

          *note fromkeys(): 1559. 는 새로운 딕셔너리를 돌려주는 클래스 메
          서드입니다.  'value' 의 기본값은 ‘None’ 입니다.  모든 값이 단
          일 인스턴스를 참조하므로, 'value'가 빈 목록과 같은 가변 객체가
          되는 것은 일반적으로 의미가 없습니다.  별개의 값을 얻으려면, 대
          신 *note 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션: d7b.을 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: get (key, default=None, /)

          'key' 가 딕셔너리에 있는 경우 'key' 에 대응하는 값을 돌려주고,
          그렇지 않으면 'default' 를 돌려줍니다.  'default' 가 주어지지
          않으면 기본값 ‘None’ 이 사용됩니다.  그래서 이 메서드는 절대로
          *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으키지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          딕셔너리 항목들(‘(key, value)’ 쌍들)의 새 뷰를 돌려줍니다.
          *note 뷰 객체의 설명서: 224b. 을 참조하세요.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          딕셔너리 키들의 새 뷰를 돌려줍니다.  *note 뷰 객체의 설명서:
          224b. 을 참조하세요.

      -- 메서드: pop (key, /)

      -- 메서드: pop (key, default, /)

          'key' 가 딕셔너리에 있으면 제거하고 그 값을 돌려줍니다.  그렇
          지 않으면 'default' 를 돌려줍니다.  'default' 가 주어지지 않고
          'key' 가 딕셔너리에 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 를 일으킵니다.

      -- 메서드: popitem ()

          딕셔너리에서 ‘(key, value)’ 쌍을 제거하고 돌려줍니다.  쌍은
          LIFO (last-in, first-out) 순서로 반환됩니다.

          *note popitem(): 14ee. 은 집합 알고리즘에서 종종 사용되듯이 딕
          셔너리를 파괴적으로 이터레이션 하는 데 유용합니다.  딕셔너리가
          비어 있으면 *note popitem(): 14ee. 호출은 *note KeyError: 33d.
          를 일으킵니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 LIFO 순서가 보장됩니다.  이전 버전에서
          는, *note popitem(): 14ee.가 임의의 키/값 쌍을 반환합니다.

      -- Describe: reversed(d)

          딕셔너리의 키에 대한 역순 이터레이터를 돌려줍니다.  이것은
          ‘reversed(d.keys())’ 의 단축입니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: setdefault (key, default=None, /)

          'key' 가 딕셔너리에 있으면 해당 값을 돌려줍니다.  그렇지 않으
          면, 'default' 값을 갖는 'key' 를 삽입한 후 'default' 를 돌려줍
          니다.  'default' 의 기본값은 ‘None’ 입니다.

      -- 메서드: update (**kwargs)

      -- 메서드: update (mapping, /, **kwargs)

      -- 메서드: update (iterable, /, **kwargs)

          Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from 'mapping'
          or 'iterable' and 'kwargs', overwriting existing keys.  Return
          ‘None’.

          *note update(): 142b. accepts either another object with a
          ‘keys()’ method (in which case *note __getitem__(): 283. is
          called with every key returned from the method) or an iterable
          of key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length
          two).  If keyword arguments are specified, the dictionary is
          then updated with those key/value pairs: ‘d.update(red=1,
          blue=2)’.

      -- 메서드: values ()

          딕셔너리 값들의 새 뷰를 돌려줍니다.  *note 뷰 객체의 설명서:
          224b. 을 참조하세요.

          한 ‘dict.values()’ 뷰와 다른 ‘dict.values()’ 뷰 간의 동등 비교
          는 항상 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  이것은 ‘dict.values()’를 자신과
          비교할 때도 적용됩니다:

               >>> d = {'a': 1}
               >>> d.values() == d.values()
               False

      -- Describe: d | other

          'd'와 'other'의 병합된 키와 값으로 새 딕셔너리를 만듭니다.  둘
          다 딕셔너리이어야 합니다.  'd'와 'other'가 키를 공유하면
          'other'의 값이 우선합니다.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Describe: d |= other

          'other'의 키와 값으로 딕셔너리 'd'를 갱신합니다.  'other'는
          *note 매핑: 11ab.이나 키/값 쌍의 *note 이터러블: 1217.일 수 있
          습니다.  'd'와 'other'가 키를 공유하면 'other'의 값이 우선합니
          다.

          Added in version 3.9.

     딕셔너리와 딕셔너리 뷰는 뒤집을 수 있습니다.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(reversed(d))
          ['four', 'three', 'two', 'one']
          >>> list(reversed(d.values()))
          [4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> list(reversed(d.items()))
          [('four', 4), ('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 딕셔너리는 이제 뒤집을 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

*note types.MappingProxyType: 467. 를 *note dict: 256. 의 읽기 전용 뷰를
만드는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 딕셔너리 뷰 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 뷰 객체,  Up: 매핑 형 — dict

5.4.11.1 딕셔너리 뷰 객체
.........................

*note dict.keys(): 7c6, *note dict.values(): 7c7, *note dict.items():
7c8. 가 돌려주는 객체는 '뷰 객체' 입니다.  딕셔너리의 항목들에 대한 동적
뷰를 제공합니다.  즉, 딕셔너리가 변경되면 뷰는 이러한 변경 사항을 반영합
니다.

딕셔너리 뷰는 이터레이션을 통해 각각의 데이터를 산출할 수 있고, 멤버십 검
사를 지원합니다:

 -- Describe: len(dictview)

     딕셔너리에 있는 항목 수를 돌려줍니다.

 -- Describe: iter(dictview)

     딕셔너리에서 키, 값, 항목(‘(key, value)’ 튜플로 표현됩니다)에 대한
     이터레이터를 돌려줍니다.

     키와 값은 삽입 순서로 이터레이션 됩니다.  이 때문에 *note zip():
     7c9.을 사용해서 ‘(value, key)’ 쌍을 만들 수 있습니다: ‘pairs =
     zip(d.values(), d.keys())’.  같은 리스트를 만드는 다른 방법은
     ‘pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]’ 입니다.

     딕셔너리에 항목을 추가하거나 삭제하는 동안 뷰를 이터레이션 하면
     *note RuntimeError: 195. 를 일으키거나 모든 항목을 이터레이션 하지
     못할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 딕셔너리의 순서가 삽입 순서임이 보장됩니다.

 -- Describe: x in dictview

     'x' 가 하부 딕셔너리의 키, 갑, 항목에 있는 경우 ‘True’ 를 돌려줍니
     다 (마지막의 경우 'x' 는 ‘(key, value)’ 튜플이어야 합니다).

 -- Describe: reversed(dictview)

     딕셔너리의 키, 값 또는 항목에 대한 역방향 이터레이터를 반환합니다.
     뷰는 삽입의 역순으로 이터레이트됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 딕셔너리 뷰는 이제 역 탐색할 수 있습니다.

 -- Describe: dictview.mapping

     Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. that wraps the original
     dictionary to which the view refers.

     Added in version 3.10.

Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and *note
hashable: 60a.  Items views also have set-like operations since the
(key, value) pairs are unique and the keys are hashable.  If all values
in an items view are hashable as well, then the items view can
interoperate with other sets.  (Values views are not treated as set-like
since the entries are generally not unique.)  For set-like views, all of
the operations defined for the abstract base class *note
collections.abc.Set: 224d. are available (for example, ‘==’, ‘<’, or
‘^’).  While using set operators, set-like views accept any iterable as
the other operand, unlike sets which only accept sets as the input.

딕셔너리 뷰 사용의 예:

     >>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
     >>> keys = dishes.keys()
     >>> values = dishes.values()

     >>> # iteration
     >>> n = 0
     >>> for val in values:
     ...     n += val
     ...
     >>> print(n)
     504

     >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
     >>> list(keys)
     ['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
     >>> list(values)
     [2, 1, 1, 500]

     >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
     >>> del dishes['eggs']
     >>> del dishes['sausage']
     >>> list(keys)
     ['bacon', 'spam']

     >>> # set operations
     >>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
     {'bacon'}
     >>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'} == {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
     True
     >>> keys | ['juice', 'juice', 'juice'] == {'bacon', 'spam', 'juice'}
     True

     >>> # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
     >>> values.mapping
     mappingproxy({'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500})
     >>> values.mapping['spam']
     500


File: python.info,  Node: 컨텍스트 관리자 형,  Next: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union,  Prev: 매핑 형 — dict,  Up: 내장형

5.4.12 컨텍스트 관리자 형
-------------------------

파이썬의 *note with: 5cc. 문은 컨텍스트 관리자가 정의한 실행 시간 컨텍스
트 개념을 지원합니다.  이는 한 쌍의 메서드를 사용해서 구현되는데, 사용자
정의 클래스가 문장 바디가 실행되기 전에 진입하고, 문장이 끝날 때 탈출하
는 실행 시간 컨텍스트를 정의할 수 있게 합니다:

 -- 메서드: contextmanager.__enter__ ()

     실행시간 컨텍스트에 진입하고 이 객체 자신이나 실행 시간 컨텍스트와
     관련된 다른 객체를 돌려줍니다.  이 메서드가 돌려주는 값은, 이 컨텍
     스트 관리자를 사용하는 *note with: 5cc. 문의 ‘as’ 절의 식별자에 연
     결됩니다.

     자신을 돌려주는 컨텍스트 관리자의 예는 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 입니
     다.  파일 객체는 __enter__() 에서 자기 자신을 돌려주는데 *note
     with: 5cc. 문의 컨텍스트 표현식으로 *note open(): 515. 을 사용할 수
     있도록 하기 위함입니다.

     관련 객체를 돌려주는 컨텍스트 관리자의 예는 *note
     decimal.localcontext(): 180a. 가 돌려주는 것입니다.  이 관리자들은
     활성 십진 소수 컨텍스트를 원래 십진 소수 컨텍스트의 복사본으로 설정
     한 다음 복사본을 돌려줍니다.  이것은 ‘with’ 문 바깥의 코드에 영향을
     주지 않으면서 *note with: 5cc. 문 바디에 있는 현재 십진 소수 컨텍스
     트를 변경할 수 있게 합니다.

 -- 메서드: contextmanager.__exit__ (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

     실행 시간 컨텍스트를 탈출하고 발생한 예외를 막아야 하는지를 가리키
     는 논리 플래그를 돌려줍니다.  *note with: 5cc. 문의 바디를 실행하는
     동안 예외가 발생하면, 인자에 예외 형, 값 및 추적 정보가 포함됩니다.
     그렇지 않으면, 세 가지 인자 모두 ‘None’ 입니다.

     이 메서드에서 참 값을 돌려주면 *note with: 5cc. 문이 예외를 막고
     ‘with’ 문 바로 뒤에 오는 문장에서 계속 실행됩니다.  그 이외의 경우,
     이 메서드의 실행이 완료된 후에 예외는 계속 퍼집니다.  이 메서드의 실
     행 중에 발생하는 예외는 ‘with’ 문의 바디에서 발생한 모든 예외를 대
     체합니다.

     The exception passed in should never be reraised explicitly -
     instead, this method should return a false value to indicate that
     the method completed successfully and does not want to suppress the
     raised exception.  This allows context management code to easily
     detect whether or not an *note __exit__(): 12f0. method has
     actually failed.

파이썬은 쉬운 스레드 동기화, 파일이나 다른 객체의 신속한 닫기, 그리고 활
성 십진 소수 산술 컨텍스트의 보다 간단한 조작을 지원하기 위해 몇 가지 컨
텍스트 관리자를 정의합니다.  컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜의 구현을 넘어 구체적
인 형은 특별히 취급되지 않습니다.  몇 가지 예제는 *note contextlib: 23.
모듈을 보십시오.

Python’s *note generator: 1057.s and the *note
contextlib.contextmanager: 11f1. decorator provide a convenient way to
implement these protocols.  If a generator function is decorated with
the *note contextlib.contextmanager: 11f1. decorator, it will return a
context manager implementing the necessary *note __enter__(): 224f. and
*note __exit__(): 2250. methods, rather than the iterator produced by an
undecorated generator function.

파이썬/C API의 파이썬 객체에 대한 형 구조체에는 이러한 메서드들을 위해 준
비된 슬롯이 없다는 점에 유의하십시오.  이러한 메서드를 정의하고자 하는 확
장형은 일반적인 파이썬 액세스가 가능한 메서드로 제공해야 합니다.  실행 시
간 컨텍스트를 설정하는 오버헤드와 비교할 때 한 번의 클래스 딕셔너리 조회
의 오버헤드는 무시할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union,  Next: 기타 내장형,  Prev: 컨텍스트 관리자 형,  Up: 내장형

5.4.13 Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union
---------------------------------------------------

The core built-in types for *note type annotations: 451. are *note
Generic Alias: 6ac. and *note Union: 7bb.

* Menu:

* 제네릭 에일리어스 형::
* Union Type::


File: python.info,  Node: 제네릭 에일리어스 형,  Next: Union Type,  Up: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union

5.4.13.1 제네릭 에일리어스 형
.............................

‘GenericAlias’ objects are generally created by *note subscripting:
1f8c. a class.  They are most often used with *note container classes:
1f92, such as *note list: 60b. or *note dict: 256.  For example,
‘list[int]’ is a ‘GenericAlias’ object created by subscripting the
‘list’ class with the argument *note int: 257.  ‘GenericAlias’ objects
are intended primarily for use with *note type annotations: 451.

     참고: It is generally only possible to subscript a class if the
     class implements the special method *note __class_getitem__(): 734.

A ‘GenericAlias’ object acts as a proxy for a *note generic type: 432,
implementing 'parameterized generics'.

For a container class, the argument(s) supplied to a *note subscription:
1f8c. of the class may indicate the type(s) of the elements an object
contains.  For example, ‘set[bytes]’ can be used in type annotations to
signify a *note set: 5d3. in which all the elements are of type *note
bytes: 1c2.

For a class which defines *note __class_getitem__(): 734. but is not a
container, the argument(s) supplied to a subscription of the class will
often indicate the return type(s) of one or more methods defined on an
object.  For example, *note regular expressions: b9. can be used on both
the *note str: 445. data type and the *note bytes: 1c2. data type:

   * If ‘x = re.search('foo', 'foo')’, ‘x’ will be a *note re.Match:
     f7f. object where the return values of ‘x.group(0)’ and ‘x[0]’ will
     both be of type *note str: 445.  We can represent this kind of
     object in type annotations with the ‘GenericAlias’ ‘re.Match[str]’.

   * If ‘y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar')’, (note the ‘b’ for *note bytes:
     1c2.), ‘y’ will also be an instance of ‘re.Match’, but the return
     values of ‘y.group(0)’ and ‘y[0]’ will both be of type *note bytes:
     1c2.  In type annotations, we would represent this variety of *note
     re.Match: f7f. objects with ‘re.Match[bytes]’.

‘GenericAlias’ objects are instances of the class *note
types.GenericAlias: 7e4, which can also be used to create ‘GenericAlias’
objects directly.

 -- Describe: T[X, Y, ...]

     Creates a ‘GenericAlias’ representing a type ‘T’ parameterized by
     types 'X', 'Y', and more depending on the ‘T’ used.  For example, a
     function expecting a *note list: 60b. containing *note float: 2ef.
     elements:

          def average(values: list[float]) -> float:
              return sum(values) / len(values)

     키 형과 값 형을 나타내는 두 개의 형 매개 변수를 기대하는 제네릭 형
     인 *note dict: 256.를 사용하는 *note 매핑: 11ab. 객체의 또 다른 예.
     이 예에서, 함수는 *note str: 445. 형의 키와 *note int: 257. 형의 값
     을 갖는 ‘dict’를 기대합니다:

          def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -> None:
              ...

내장 함수 *note isinstance(): 43b.와 *note issubclass(): 7ba.는 두 번째
인자로 ‘GenericAlias’ 형을 받아들이지 않습니다:

     >>> isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

The Python runtime does not enforce *note type annotations: 451.  This
extends to generic types and their type parameters.  When creating a
container object from a ‘GenericAlias’, the elements in the container
are not checked against their type.  For example, the following code is
discouraged, but will run without errors:

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> t([1, 2, 3])
     [1, 2, 3]

또한, 매개 변수화된 제네릭은 객체 생성 중에 형 매개 변수를 지웁니다:

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> type(t)
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

     >>> l = t()
     >>> type(l)
     <class 'list'>

제네릭에서 *note repr(): 7f7.이나 *note str(): 445.을 호출하면 매개 변수
화된 형이 표시됩니다:

     >>> repr(list[int])
     'list[int]'

     >>> str(list[int])
     'list[int]'

The *note __getitem__(): 283. method of generic containers will raise an
exception to disallow mistakes like ‘dict[str][str]’:

     >>> dict[str][str]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class

However, such expressions are valid when *note type variables: 1f87. are
used.  The index must have as many elements as there are type variable
items in the ‘GenericAlias’ object’s *note __args__: 2253.

     >>> from typing import TypeVar
     >>> Y = TypeVar('Y')
     >>> dict[str, Y][int]
     dict[str, int]

* Menu:

* Standard Generic Classes::
* Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Generic Classes,  Next: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects,  Up: 제네릭 에일리어스 형

5.4.13.2 Standard Generic Classes
.................................

The following standard library classes support parameterized generics.
This list is non-exhaustive.

   * *note tuple: 369.

   * *note list: 60b.

   * *note dict: 256.

   * *note set: 5d3.

   * *note frozenset: 5d4.

   * *note type: d45.

   * *note asyncio.Future: bca.

   * *note asyncio.Task: 1be.

   * *note collections.deque: 5d6.

   * *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac.

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5.

   * *note collections.Counter: 1088.

   * *note collections.ChainMap: c19.

   * *note collections.abc.Awaitable: dd8.

   * *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dd9.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: ddb.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dda.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c87.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterable: 2255.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterator: 2256.

   * *note collections.abc.Generator: dd7.

   * *note collections.abc.Reversible: c86.

   * *note collections.abc.Container: 2257.

   * *note collections.abc.Collection: c85.

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3.

   * *note collections.abc.Set: 224d.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2258.

   * *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 109f.

   * *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1.

   * *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2c3.

   * *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2259.

   * *note collections.abc.KeysView: 225a.

   * *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 225b.

   * *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 225c.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8a.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b28.

   * *note dataclasses.Field: 225d.

   * *note functools.cached_property: 53c.

   * *note functools.partialmethod: a78.

   * *note os.PathLike: c4e.

   * *note queue.LifoQueue: 225e.

   * *note queue.Queue: 1377.

   * *note queue.PriorityQueue: 225f.

   * *note queue.SimpleQueue: b67.

   * *note re.Pattern: f7e.

   * *note re.Match: f7f.

   * *note shelve.BsdDbShelf: 2260.

   * *note shelve.DbfilenameShelf: 2261.

   * *note shelve.Shelf: f92.

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 467.

   * *note weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 1974.

   * *note weakref.WeakMethod: fe5.

   * *note weakref.WeakSet: 5d7.

   * *note weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 1973.


File: python.info,  Node: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects,  Prev: Standard Generic Classes,  Up: 제네릭 에일리어스 형

5.4.13.3 Special Attributes of ‘GenericAlias’ objects
.....................................................

모든 매개 변수화된 제네릭은 특수 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트를 구현합니다.

 -- 속성: genericalias.__origin__

     이 어트리뷰트는 매개 변수화되지 않은 제네릭 클래스를 가리킵니다:

          >>> list[int].__origin__
          <class 'list'>

 -- 속성: genericalias.__args__

     This attribute is a *note tuple: 369. (possibly of length 1) of
     generic types passed to the original *note __class_getitem__():
     734. of the generic class:

          >>> dict[str, list[int]].__args__
          (<class 'str'>, list[int])

 -- 속성: genericalias.__parameters__

     이 어트리뷰트는 ‘__args__’에서 발견된 고유한 형 변수의 게으르게
     (lazily) 계산된 튜플(비어있을 수 있습니다)입니다:

          >>> from typing import TypeVar

          >>> T = TypeVar('T')
          >>> list[T].__parameters__
          (~T,)

          참고: A ‘GenericAlias’ object with *note typing.ParamSpec:
          15e. parameters may not have correct ‘__parameters__’ after
          substitution because *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e. is intended
          primarily for static type checking.

 -- 속성: genericalias.__unpacked__

     A boolean that is true if the alias has been unpacked using the ‘*’
     operator (see *note TypeVarTuple: 15f.).

     Added in version 3.11.

더 보기
.......

PEP 484(1) - Type Hints

     Introducing Python’s framework for type annotations.

PEP 585(2) - Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections

     Introducing the ability to natively parameterize standard-library
     classes, provided they implement the special class method *note
     __class_getitem__(): 734.

*note 제네릭: 1f87, *note user-defined generics: 4c9. and *note typing.Generic: 1620.

     Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be
     parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.

Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Union Type,  Prev: 제네릭 에일리어스 형,  Up: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union

5.4.13.4 Union Type
...................

A union object holds the value of the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operation on
multiple *note type objects: 2189.  These types are intended primarily
for *note type annotations: 451.  The union type expression enables
cleaner type hinting syntax compared to *note typing.Union: 635.

 -- Describe: X | Y | ...

     Defines a union object which holds types 'X', 'Y', and so forth.
     ‘X | Y’ means either X or Y. It is equivalent to ‘typing.Union[X,
     Y]’.  For example, the following function expects an argument of
     type *note int: 257. or *note float: 2ef.:

          def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
              return number ** 2

          참고: The ‘|’ operand cannot be used at runtime to define
          unions where one or more members is a forward reference.  For
          example, ‘int | "Foo"’, where ‘"Foo"’ is a reference to a
          class not yet defined, will fail at runtime.  For unions which
          include forward references, present the whole expression as a
          string, e.g.  ‘"int | Foo"’.

 -- Describe: union_object == other

     Union objects can be tested for equality with other union objects.
     Details:

        * Unions of unions are flattened:

               (int | str) | float == int | str | float

        * Redundant types are removed:

               int | str | int == int | str

        * When comparing unions, the order is ignored:

               int | str == str | int

        * It is compatible with *note typing.Union: 635.:

               int | str == typing.Union[int, str]

        * Optional types can be spelled as a union with ‘None’:

               str | None == typing.Optional[str]

 -- Describe: isinstance(obj, union_object)

 -- Describe: issubclass(obj, union_object)

     Calls to *note isinstance(): 43b. and *note issubclass(): 7ba. are
     also supported with a union object:

          >>> isinstance("", int | str)
          True

     However, *note parameterized generics: 6ac. in union objects cannot
     be checked:

          >>> isinstance(1, int | list[int])  # short-circuit evaluation
          True
          >>> isinstance([1], int | list[int])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

The user-exposed type for the union object can be accessed from *note
types.UnionType: 634. and used for *note isinstance(): 43b. checks.  An
object cannot be instantiated from the type:

     >>> import types
     >>> isinstance(int | str, types.UnionType)
     True
     >>> types.UnionType()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot create 'types.UnionType' instances

     참고: The ‘__or__()’ method for type objects was added to support
     the syntax ‘X | Y’.  If a metaclass implements ‘__or__()’, the
     Union may override it:

          >>> class M(type):
          ...     def __or__(self, other):
          ...         return "Hello"
          ...
          >>> class C(metaclass=M):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> C | int
          'Hello'
          >>> int | C
          int | C

더 보기
.......

PEP 604(1) – PEP proposing the ‘X | Y’ syntax and the Union type.

Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 내장형,  Next: 특수 어트리뷰트,  Prev: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union,  Up: 내장형

5.4.14 기타 내장형
------------------

인터프리터는 여러 가지 다른 객체를 지원합니다.  이것들 대부분은 한두 가
지 연산만 지원합니다.

* Menu:

* 모듈: 모듈<2>.
* 클래스와 클래스 인스턴스::
* 함수::
* 메서드::
* 코드 객체::
* 형 객체::
* 널 객체::
* Ellipsis 객체::
* NotImplemented 객체::
* 내부 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈<2>,  Next: 클래스와 클래스 인스턴스,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.1 모듈
.............

모듈에 대한 유일한 특별한 연산은 어트리뷰트 액세스입니다: ‘m.name’.  여
기서 'm' 은 모듈이고 'name' 은 'm' 의 심볼 테이블에 정의된 이름에 액세스
합니다.  모듈 어트리뷰트는 대입할 수 있습니다.  (*note import: 5dc. 문은
엄밀히 말하면 모듈 객체에 대한 연산이 아닙니다; ‘import foo’ 는 'foo' 라
는 이름의 모듈 객체가 존재할 것을 요구하지 않고, 어딘가에 있는 'foo' 라
는 이름의 (외부) '정의' 를 요구합니다.

모든 모듈의 특수 어트리뷰트는 *note __dict__: 556. 입니다.  이것은 모듈
의 심볼 테이블을 저장하는 딕셔너리입니다.  이 딕셔너리를 수정하면 모듈의
심볼 테이블이 실제로 변경되지만, *note __dict__: 556. 어트리뷰트에 대한
직접 대입은 불가능합니다 (‘m.__dict__['a'] = 1’ 라고 쓸 수 있고, ‘m.a’ 가
‘1’ 이 되지만, ‘m.__dict__ = {}’ 라고 쓸 수는 없습니다).  *note
__dict__: 556. 의 직접적인 수정은 추천하지 않습니다.

인터프리터에 내장된 모듈은 다음과 같이 쓰입니다: ‘<module 'sys'
(built-in)>’.  파일에서 로드되면, ‘<module 'os' from
'/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>’ 처럼 쓰입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스와 클래스 인스턴스,  Next: 함수,  Prev: 모듈<2>,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.2 클래스와 클래스 인스턴스
.................................

여기에 대해서는 *note 객체, 값, 형: 1eec.와 *note 클래스 정의: 12c7.를 참
조하세요.


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5.4.14.3 함수
.............

함수 객체는 함수 정의로 만들어집니다.  함수 객체에 대한 유일한 연산은 호
출하는 것입니다: ‘func(argument-list)’.

함수 객체에는 내장 함수와 사용자 정의 함수라는 두 가지 종류가 있습니다.
두 함수 모두 같은 연산(함수 호출)을 지원하지만, 구현이 다르므로 서로 다
른 객체 형입니다.

자세한 정보는 *note 함수 정의: 1c3e.을 보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드,  Next: 코드 객체,  Prev: 함수,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.4 메서드
...............

Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation.
There are two flavors: *note built-in methods: 1f15. (such as ‘append()’
on lists) and *note class instance method: 1cc6.  Built-in methods are
described with the types that support them.

If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through
an instance, you get a special object: a 'bound method' (also called
*note instance method: 1cc6.) object.  When called, it will add the
‘self’ argument to the argument list.  Bound methods have two special
read-only attributes: *note m.__self__: 1391. is the object on which the
method operates, and *note m.__func__: 12ec. is the function
implementing the method.  Calling ‘m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)’ is
completely equivalent to calling ‘m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2,
..., arg-n)’.

Like *note function objects: 299, bound method objects support getting
arbitrary attributes.  However, since method attributes are actually
stored on the underlying function object (*note method.__func__: 12ec.),
setting method attributes on bound methods is disallowed.  Attempting to
set an attribute on a method results in an *note AttributeError: 346.
being raised.  In order to set a method attribute, you need to
explicitly set it on the underlying function object:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # can't set on the method
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
     >>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
     >>> c.method.whoami
     'my name is method'

See *note 인스턴스 메서드(Instance methods): 1cc6. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: 코드 객체,  Next: 형 객체,  Prev: 메서드,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.5 코드 객체
..................

Code objects are used by the implementation to represent
“pseudo-compiled” executable Python code such as a function body.  They
differ from function objects because they don’t contain a reference to
their global execution environment.  Code objects are returned by the
built-in *note compile(): 192. function and can be extracted from
function objects through their *note __code__: 29a. attribute.  See also
the *note code: 1a. module.

Accessing *note __code__: 29a. raises an *note auditing event: 18c1.
‘object.__getattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"__code__"’.

코드 객체는 *note exec(): 17f. 또는 *note eval(): 180. 내장 함수에 (소스
문자열 대신) 전달하여 실행하거나 값을 구할 수 있습니다.

자세한 정보는 *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.를 보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 형 객체,  Next: 널 객체,  Prev: 코드 객체,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.6 형 객체
................

형 객체는 다양한 객체 형을 나타냅니다.  객체의 형은 내장 함수 *note
type(): d45.으로 액세스할 수 있습니다.  형에는 특별한 연산이 없습니다.  표
준 모듈 *note types: 103. 는 모든 표준 내장형의 이름을 정의합니다.

형은 다음과 같이 쓰입니다: ‘<class 'int'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: 널 객체,  Next: Ellipsis 객체,  Prev: 형 객체,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.7 널 객체
................

이 객체는 명시적으로 값을 돌려주지 않는 함수에 의해 반환됩니다.  특별한
연산을 지원하지 않습니다.  정확하게 하나의 널 객체가 있으며, 이름은
‘None’(내장 이름)입니다.  ‘type(None)()’ 은 같은 싱글톤을 만듭니다.

‘None’ 이라고 쓰입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis 객체,  Next: NotImplemented 객체,  Prev: 널 객체,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.8 Ellipsis 객체
......................

이 객체는 일반적으로 슬라이싱에 사용됩니다 (*note 슬라이싱(Slicings):
2059. 를 참조하세요).  특별한 연산을 지원하지 않습니다.  정확하게 하나의
Ellipsis 객체가 있으며, 이름은 *note Ellipsis: 218d.(내장 이름)입니다.
‘type(Ellipsis)()’ 는 *note Ellipsis: 218d. 싱글톤을 만듭니다.

‘Ellipsis’ 나 ‘...’ 로 쓰입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented 객체,  Next: 내부 객체,  Prev: Ellipsis 객체,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.9 NotImplemented 객체
............................

This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they
are asked to operate on types they don’t support.  See *note 비교: 207c.
for more information.  There is exactly one *note NotImplemented: 7cb.
object.  ‘type(NotImplemented)()’ produces the singleton instance.

It is written as ‘NotImplemented’.


File: python.info,  Node: 내부 객체,  Prev: NotImplemented 객체,  Up: 기타 내장형

5.4.14.10 내부 객체
...................

See *note 표준형 계층: 1eef. for this information.  It describes *note
stack frame objects: 6d9, *note traceback objects: af0, and slice
objects.


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 어트리뷰트,  Next: Integer string conversion length limitation,  Prev: 기타 내장형,  Up: 내장형

5.4.15 특수 어트리뷰트
----------------------

관련성이 있을 때, 구현은 몇 가지 객체 유형에 몇 가지 특수 읽기 전용 어트
리뷰트를 추가합니다.  이 중 일부는 *note dir(): 62c. 내장 함수에 의해 보
고되지 않습니다.

 -- 속성: definition.__name__

     클래스, 함수, 메서드, 디스크립터 또는 제너레이터 인스턴스의 이름.

 -- 속성: definition.__qualname__

     클래스, 함수, 메서드, 디스크립터 또는 제너레이터 인스턴스의 *note
     정규화된 이름: 1948.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 속성: definition.__module__

     The name of the module in which a class or function was defined.

 -- 속성: definition.__doc__

     The documentation string of a class or function, or ‘None’ if
     undefined.

 -- 속성: definition.__type_params__

     The *note type parameters: 2b3. of generic classes, functions, and
     *note type aliases: 44d.  For classes and functions that are not
     generic, this will be an empty tuple.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Integer string conversion length limitation,  Prev: 특수 어트리뷰트,  Up: 내장형

5.4.16 Integer string conversion length limitation
--------------------------------------------------

CPython has a global limit for converting between *note int: 257. and
*note str: 445. to mitigate denial of service attacks.  This limit
'only' applies to decimal or other non-power-of-two number bases.
Hexadecimal, octal, and binary conversions are unlimited.  The limit can
be configured.

The *note int: 257. type in CPython is an arbitrary length number stored
in binary form (commonly known as a “bignum”).  There exists no
algorithm that can convert a string to a binary integer or a binary
integer to a string in linear time, 'unless' the base is a power of 2.
Even the best known algorithms for base 10 have sub-quadratic
complexity.  Converting a large value such as ‘int('1' * 500_000)’ can
take over a second on a fast CPU.

Limiting conversion size offers a practical way to avoid CVE
2020-10735(1).

The limit is applied to the number of digit characters in the input or
output string when a non-linear conversion algorithm would be involved.
Underscores and the sign are not counted towards the limit.

When an operation would exceed the limit, a *note ValueError: 202. is
raised:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300)  # Illustrative, this is the default.
     >>> _ = int('2' * 5432)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> i = int('2' * 4300)
     >>> len(str(i))
     4300
     >>> i_squared = i*i
     >>> len(str(i_squared))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> len(hex(i_squared))
     7144
     >>> assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i  # Hexadecimal is unlimited.

The default limit is 4300 digits as provided in *note
sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1283.  The lowest limit that can be
configured is 640 digits as provided in *note
sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1283.

Verification:

     >>> import sys
     >>> assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
     >>> assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
     >>> msg = int('578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564'
     ...           '9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600'
     ...           '571186405732').to_bytes(53, 'big')
     ...

Added in version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Affected APIs::
* Configuring the limit::
* Recommended configuration::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Affected APIs,  Next: Configuring the limit,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.1 Affected APIs
......................

The limitation only applies to potentially slow conversions between
*note int: 257. and *note str: 445. or *note bytes: 1c2.:

   * ‘int(string)’ with default base 10.

   * ‘int(string, base)’ for all bases that are not a power of 2.

   * ‘str(integer)’.

   * ‘repr(integer)’.

   * any other string conversion to base 10, for example ‘f"{integer}"’,
     ‘"{}".format(integer)’, or ‘b"%d" % integer’.

The limitations do not apply to functions with a linear algorithm:

   * ‘int(string, base)’ with base 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32.

   * *note int.from_bytes(): 1856. and *note int.to_bytes(): 1896.

   * *note hex(): 12bf, *note oct(): 12be, *note bin(): 1298.

   * *note 포맷 명세 미니 언어: 1e8. for hex, octal, and binary numbers.

   * *note str: 445. to *note float: 2ef.

   * *note str: 445. to *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring the limit,  Next: Recommended configuration,  Prev: Affected APIs,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.2 Configuring the limit
..............................

Before Python starts up you can use an environment variable or an
interpreter command line flag to configure the limit:

   * *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17c4, e.g.  ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640
     python3’ to set the limit to 640 or ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0
     python3’ to disable the limitation.

   * *note -X int_max_str_digits: 176, e.g.  ‘python3 -X
     int_max_str_digits=640’

   * *note sys.flags.int_max_str_digits: 2282. contains the value of
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17c4. or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
     176.  If both the env var and the ‘-X’ option are set, the ‘-X’
     option takes precedence.  A value of '-1' indicates that both were
     unset, thus a value of *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits:
     2283. was used during initialization.

From code, you can inspect the current limit and set a new one using
these *note sys: d9. APIs:

   * *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 1535. and *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 17c5. are a getter and setter for the
     interpreter-wide limit.  Subinterpreters have their own limit.

Information about the default and minimum can be found in *note
sys.int_info: 1283.:

   * *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1283. is the compiled-in
     default limit.

   * *note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1283. is the lowest
     accepted value for the limit (other than 0 which disables it).

Added in version 3.11.

     조심: Setting a low limit 'can' lead to problems.  While rare, code
     exists that contains integer constants in decimal in their source
     that exceed the minimum threshold.  A consequence of setting the
     limit is that Python source code containing decimal integer
     literals longer than the limit will encounter an error during
     parsing, usually at startup time or import time or even at
     installation time - anytime an up to date ‘.pyc’ does not already
     exist for the code.  A workaround for source that contains such
     large constants is to convert them to ‘0x’ hexadecimal form as it
     has no limit.

     Test your application thoroughly if you use a low limit.  Ensure
     your tests run with the limit set early via the environment or flag
     so that it applies during startup and even during any installation
     step that may invoke Python to precompile ‘.py’ sources to ‘.pyc’
     files.


File: python.info,  Node: Recommended configuration,  Prev: Configuring the limit,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.3 Recommended configuration
..................................

The default *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2283. is expected
to be reasonable for most applications.  If your application requires a
different limit, set it from your main entry point using Python version
agnostic code as these APIs were added in security patch releases in
versions before 3.12.

Example:

     >>> import sys
     >>> if hasattr(sys, "set_int_max_str_digits"):
     ...     upper_bound = 68000
     ...     lower_bound = 4004
     ...     current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
     ...     if current_limit == 0 or current_limit > upper_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
     ...     elif current_limit < lower_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)

If you need to disable it entirely, set it to ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 예외,  Next: 텍스트 처리 서비스,  Prev: 내장형,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.5 내장 예외
=============

파이썬에서, 모든 예외는 *note BaseException: 5b5. 에서 파생된 클래스의 인
스턴스여야 합니다.  특정 클래스를 언급하는 *note except: 18b. 절을 갖는
*note try: 6e2. 문에서, 그 절은 그 클래스에서 파생된 모든 예외 클래스를
처리합니다 (하지만 '그것' 이 계승하는 예외 클래스는 처리하지 않습니다).
서브 클래싱을 통해 관련되지 않은 두 개의 예외 클래스는 같은 이름을 갖는
다 할지라도 결코 등등하게 취급되지 않습니다.

이 장에서 나열된 내장 예외는 인터프리터나 내장 함수에 의해 생성될 수 있
습니다.  따로 언급된 경우를 제외하고는, 에러의 자세한 원인을 나타내는 “연
관된 값”을 갖습니다.  이것은 여러 항목의 정보 (예, 에러 코드와 그 코드를
설명하는 문자열)를 담은 문자열이나 튜플 일 수 있습니다.  연관된 값은 보
통 예외 클래스의 생성자에 인자로 전달됩니다.

사용자 코드는 내장 예외를 일으킬 수 있습니다.  이것은 예외 처리기를 검사
하거나 인터프리터가 같은 예외를 발생시키는 상황과 “같은” 에러 조건을 보
고하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  그러나 사용자 코드가 부적절한 에러를 발생
시키는 것을 막을 방법이 없음을 유의하십시오.

내장 예외 클래스는 새 예외를 정의하기 위해 서브 클래싱 될 수 있습니다.
*note BaseException: 5b5. 이 아니라 *note Exception: 9d6. 클래스 나 그 서
브 클래스 중 하나에서 새로운 예외를 파생시킬 것을 권장합니다.  예외 정의
에 대한 더 많은 정보는 파이썬 자습서의 *note 사용자 정의 예외: 1c9c. 에
있습니다.

* Menu:

* 예외 컨텍스트::
* 내장 예외를 상속받기::
* 베이스 클래스::
* 구체적인 예외::
* 경고::
* 예외 그룹::
* 예외 계층 구조::


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 컨텍스트,  Next: 내장 예외를 상속받기,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.1 예외 컨텍스트
-------------------

Three attributes on exception objects provide information about the
context in which the exception was raised:

 -- 속성: BaseException.__context__
 -- 속성: BaseException.__cause__
 -- 속성: BaseException.__suppress_context__

     When raising a new exception while another exception is already
     being handled, the new exception’s ‘__context__’ attribute is
     automatically set to the handled exception.  An exception may be
     handled when an *note except: 18b. or *note finally: 9c7. clause,
     or a *note with: 5cc. statement, is used.

     이 묵시적인 예외 컨텍스트는 암시적인 예외 상황은 명시적 원인으로 보
     충될 수 있는데, *note raise: 5e7.와 ‘from’을 사용합니다:

          raise new_exc from original_exc

     *note from: 5e7. 다음의 표현식은 예외이거나 ‘None’ 이어야 합니다.  이
     표현식을 새로 일으키는 예외의 ‘__cause__’ 로 설정합니다.
     ‘__cause__’ 를 설정하면, 묵시적으로 ‘__suppress_context__’ 를
     ‘True’ 로 설정합니다.  그래서, ‘raise new_exc from None’ 을 사용하
     면 표시의 목적상 이전 예외를 새로운 것으로 대체 하는 효과를 주면서
     (예를 들어 *note KeyError: 33d. 를 *note AttributeError: 346. 로),
     디버깅할 때 검사할 수 있도록 이전의 예외를 ‘__context__’ 에 남겨둡
     니다.

     기본 트레이스백 표시 코드는 예외 자체의 트레이스백 뿐만 아니라 이러
     한 연결된 예외를 보여줍니다.  ‘__cause__’ 에 명시적으로 연결된 예외
     는 있으면 항상 표시됩니다.  ‘__context__’ 에 묵시적으로 연결된 예외
     는 ‘__cause__’ 가 *note None: 66f. 이고 ‘__suppress_context__’ 가 거
     짓인 경우에만 표시됩니다.

     두 경우 모두, 예외 자신은 항상 연결된 예외 뒤에 표시되어서, 트레이
     스백의 마지막 줄은 항상 마지막에 발생한 예외를 보여줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 예외를 상속받기,  Next: 베이스 클래스,  Prev: 예외 컨텍스트,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.2 내장 예외를 상속받기
--------------------------

User code can create subclasses that inherit from an exception type.
It’s recommended to only subclass one exception type at a time to avoid
any possible conflicts between how the bases handle the ‘args’
attribute, as well as due to possible memory layout incompatibilities.

'CPython 구현 상세:' Most built-in exceptions are implemented in C for
efficiency, see: Objects/exceptions.c(1).  Some have custom memory
layouts which makes it impossible to create a subclass that inherits
from multiple exception types.  The memory layout of a type is an
implementation detail and might change between Python versions, leading
to new conflicts in the future.  Therefore, it’s recommended to avoid
subclassing multiple exception types altogether.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/exceptions.c


File: python.info,  Node: 베이스 클래스,  Next: 구체적인 예외,  Prev: 내장 예외를 상속받기,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.3 베이스 클래스
-------------------

다음 예외는 주로 다른 예외의 베이스 클래스로 사용됩니다.

 -- 예외: BaseException

     모든 내장 예외의 베이스 클래스입니다.  사용자 정의 클래스에 의해 직
     접 상속되는 것이 아닙니다 (그런 목적으로는 *note Exception: 9d6.을
     사용하세요).  이 클래스의 인스턴스에 대해 *note str(): 445. 이 호출
     되면, 인스턴스로 전달된 인자(들)의 표현을 돌려줍니다.  인자가 없는
     경우는 빈 문자열을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 속성: args

          예외 생성자에 주어진 인자들의 튜플.  일부 내장 예외(예, *note
          OSError: 411.)는 특정 수의 인자를 기대하고 이 튜플의 요소에 특
          별한 의미를 할당하는 반면, 다른 것들은 보통 오류 메시지를 제공
          하는 단일 문자열로만 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: with_traceback (tb)

          This method sets 'tb' as the new traceback for the exception
          and returns the exception object.  It was more commonly used
          before the exception chaining features of PEP 3134(1) became
          available.  The following example shows how we can convert an
          instance of ‘SomeException’ into an instance of
          ‘OtherException’ while preserving the traceback.  Once raised,
          the current frame is pushed onto the traceback of the
          ‘OtherException’, as would have happened to the traceback of
          the original ‘SomeException’ had we allowed it to propagate to
          the caller.

               try:
                   ...
               except SomeException:
                   tb = sys.exception().__traceback__
                   raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)

      -- 속성: __traceback__

          A writable field that holds the *note traceback object: af0.
          associated with this exception.  See also: *note raise 문:
          5e7.

      -- 메서드: add_note (note)

          Add the string ‘note’ to the exception’s notes which appear in
          the standard traceback after the exception string.  A *note
          TypeError: 532. is raised if ‘note’ is not a string.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 속성: __notes__

          A list of the notes of this exception, which were added with
          *note add_note(): 5b4.  This attribute is created when *note
          add_note(): 5b4. is called.

          Added in version 3.11.

 -- 예외: Exception

     모든 시스템 종료 외의 내장 예외는 이 클래스 파생됩니다.  모든 사용
     자 정의 예외도 이 클래스에서 파생되어야 합니다.

 -- 예외: ArithmeticError

     다양한 산술 에러가 일으키는 내장 예외들의 베이스 클래스: *note
     OverflowError: 87d, *note ZeroDivisionError: 943, *note
     FloatingPointError: 228c.

 -- 예외: BufferError

     *note 버퍼: 391. 관련 연산을 수행할 수 없을 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: LookupError

     매핑 또는 시퀀스에 사용된 키 나 인덱스가 잘못되었을 때 발생하는 예
     외의 베이스 클래스: *note IndexError: 14fc, *note KeyError: 33d.
     *note codecs.lookup(): 961. 은 이 예외를 직접 일으킬 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: 구체적인 예외,  Next: 경고,  Prev: 베이스 클래스,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.4 구체적인 예외
-------------------

다음 예외는 일반적으로 직접 일으키는데 사용하는 예외입니다.

 -- 예외: AssertionError

     *note assert: 965. 문이 실패할 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: AttributeError

     어트리뷰트 참조(*note 어트리뷰트 참조: 2055.를 보세요)나 대입이 실
     패할 때 발생합니다.  (객체가 어트리뷰트 참조나 어트리뷰트 대입을 아
     예 지원하지 않으면 *note TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다.)

     The optional 'name' and 'obj' keyword-only arguments set the
     corresponding attributes:

      -- 속성: name

          The name of the attribute that was attempted to be accessed.

      -- 속성: obj

          The object that was accessed for the named attribute.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note name: 228e.과 *note obj: 228f. 어트리뷰트
     를 추가했습니다.

 -- 예외: EOFError

     Raised when the *note input(): 12c8. function hits an end-of-file
     condition (EOF) without reading any data.  (Note: the
     ‘io.IOBase.read()’ and *note io.IOBase.readline(): 1319. methods
     return an empty string when they hit EOF.)

 -- 예외: FloatingPointError

     현재 사용되지 않습니다.

 -- 예외: GeneratorExit

     *note 제너레이터: 1057. 또는 *note 코루틴: 48b. 이 닫힐 때 발생합니
     다; *note generator.close(): 16fb. 와 *note coroutine.close():
     1fd5. 를 보십시오.  기술적으로 에러가 아니므로 *note Exception:
     9d6. 대신에 *note BaseException: 5b5. 을 직접 계승합니다.

 -- 예외: ImportError

     *note import: 5dc. 문이 모듈을 로드하는 데 문제가 있을 때 발생합니
     다.  또한 ‘from ... import’ 에서 임포트 하려는 이름을 찾을 수 없을
     때도 발생합니다.

     The optional 'name' and 'path' keyword-only arguments set the
     corresponding attributes:

      -- 속성: name

          임포트가 시도된 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: path

          The path to any file which triggered the exception.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note name: 2290.과 *note path: 2291. 어트리뷰트
     를 추가했습니다.

 -- 예외: ModuleNotFoundError

     *note ImportError: 413. 의 서브 클래스인데, 모듈을 찾을 수 없을 때
     *note import: 5dc. 가 일으킵니다.  *note sys.modules: 1558. 에서
     ‘None’ 이 발견될 때도 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 예외: IndexError

     시퀀스 인덱스가 범위를 벗어날 때 발생합니다.  (슬라이스 인덱스는 허
     용된 범위 내에 들어가도록 자동으로 잘립니다; 인덱스가 정수가 아니면
     *note TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다.)

 -- 예외: KeyError

     매핑 (딕셔너리) 키가 기존 키 집합에서 발견되지 않을 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: KeyboardInterrupt

     사용자가 인터럽트 키(일반적으로 ‘Control’-‘C’ 또는 ‘Delete’)를 누를
     때 발생합니다.  실행 중에 인터럽트 검사가 정기적으로 수행됩니다.
     *note Exception: 9d6.을 잡는 코드에 의해 우연히 잡혀서, 인터프리터
     가 종료하는 것을 막지 못하도록 *note BaseException: 5b5. 를 계승합
     니다.

          참고: Catching a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. requires
          special consideration.  Because it can be raised at
          unpredictable points, it may, in some circumstances, leave the
          running program in an inconsistent state.  It is generally
          best to allow *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. to end the program
          as quickly as possible or avoid raising it entirely.  (See
          *note 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항: 2292.)

 -- 예외: MemoryError

     작업에 메모리가 부족하지만, 상황이 여전히 (일부 객체를 삭제해서) 복
     구될 수 있는 경우 발생합니다.  연관된 값은 어떤 종류의 (내부) 연산
     이 메모리를 다 써 버렸는지를 나타내는 문자열입니다.  하부 메모리 관
     리 아키텍처(C의 ‘malloc()’ 함수)때문에, 인터프리터가 항상 이 상황을
     완벽하게 복구할 수 있는 것은 아닙니다; 그런데도 통제를 벗어난 프로
     그램이 원인인 경우를 위해, 스택 트레이스백을 인쇄할 수 있도록 예외
     를 일으킵니다.

 -- 예외: NameError

     지역 또는 전역 이름을 찾을 수 없을 때 발생합니다.  이는 정규화되지
     않은 이름에만 적용됩니다.  연관된 값은 찾을 수 없는 이름을 포함하는
     에러 메시지입니다.

     The optional 'name' keyword-only argument sets the attribute:

      -- 속성: name

          The name of the variable that was attempted to be accessed.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note name: 2293. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다.

 -- 예외: NotImplementedError

     이 예외는 *note RuntimeError: 195. 에서 파생됩니다.  사용자 정의 베
     이스 클래스에서, 파생 클래스가 재정의하도록 요구하는 추상 메서드나,
     클래스가 개발되는 도중에 실제 구현이 추가될 필요가 있음을 나타낼 때
     이 예외를 발생시켜야 합니다.

          참고: 연산자 나 메서드가 아예 지원되지 않는다는 것을 나타내는
          데 사용해서는 안 됩니다 – 그 경우는 연산자 / 메서드를 정의하지
          않거나, 서브 클래스면 *note None: 66f. 으로 설정하십시오.

          조심: ‘NotImplementedError’ 와 ‘NotImplemented’ 는 바꿔쓸 수 없
          습니다.  이 예외는 위에서 설명한 대로만 사용되어야 합니다; 내
          장 상수의 올바른 사용에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note
          NotImplemented: 7cb. 를 참조하세요.

 -- 예외: OSError ([arg])

 -- 예외: OSError (errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[, filename2]]])

     이 예외는 시스템 함수가 시스템 관련 에러를 돌려줄 때 발생하는데, “파
     일을 찾을 수 없습니다(file not found)” 나 “디스크가 꽉 찼습니다
     (disk full)” 와 같은 (잘못된 인자형이나 다른 부수적인 에러가 아닌)
     입출력 실패를 포함합니다.

     생성자의 두 번째 형식은 아래에 설명된 해당 어트리뷰트를 설정합니다.
     어트리뷰트를 지정하지 않으면 기본적으로 *note None: 66f. 이 됩니다.
     이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, 세 개의 인자가 전달되면, *note args:
     567. 어트리뷰트는 처음 두 생성자 인자의 2-튜플만 포함합니다.

     아래의 *note OS 예외: 2294. 에서 설명하는 것처럼, 생성자는 종종
     *note OSError: 411. 의 서브 클래스를 돌려줍니다.  구체적인 서브 클
     래스는 최종 *note errno: 2295. 값에 따라 다릅니다.  이 동작은 *note
     OSError: 411. 를 직접 혹은 별칭을 통해 생성할 때만 일어나고, 서브 클
     래싱할 때는 상속되지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: errno

          C 변수 ‘errno’ 로부터 온 숫자 에러 코드.

      -- 속성: winerror

          윈도우에서, 네이티브 윈도우 에러 코드를 제공합니다.  *note
          errno: 2295. 어트리뷰트는 이 네이티브 에러 코드를 POSIX 코드로
          대략 변환한 것입니다.

          윈도우에서, 'winerror' 생성자 인자가 정수인 경우, *note errno:
          2295. 어트리뷰트는 윈도우 에러 코드에서 결정되며 'errno' 인자
          는 무시됩니다.  다른 플랫폼에서는 'winerror' 인자가 무시되고
          *note winerror: 2296. 어트리뷰트가 없습니다.

      -- 속성: strerror

          The corresponding error message, as provided by the operating
          system.  It is formatted by the C functions ‘perror()’ under
          POSIX, and ‘FormatMessage()’ under Windows.

      -- 속성: filename
      -- 속성: filename2

          (*note open(): 515. 또는 *note os.unlink(): 10e7. 와 같은) 파
          일 시스템 경로와 관련된 예외의 경우, *note filename: 2298. 은
          함수에 전달 된 파일 이름입니다.  (*note os.rename(): 10e3.처럼
          ) 두 개의 파일 시스템 경로를 수반하는 함수의 경우, *note
          filename2: 2299. 는 두 번째 파일 이름에 해당합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note EnvironmentError: 1049, *note IOError:
     1048, *note WindowsError: 104a, *note socket.error: 104b, *note
     select.error: 104c. and ‘mmap.error’ have been merged into *note
     OSError: 411, and the constructor may return a subclass.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note filename: 2298. 속성은 이제 *note 파일
     시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 인코딩되거나 디코딩된 이름 대신
     함수에 전달 된 원래 파일 이름입니다.  또한 'filename2' 생성자 인자
     및 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 예외: OverflowError

     산술 연산의 결과가 너무 커서 표현할 수 없을 때 발생합니다.  정수에
     서는 발생하지 않습니다 (포기하기보다는 *note MemoryError: 157e. 를
     일으키게 될 겁니다).  그러나, 역사적인 이유로, 때로 OverflowError는
     요구되는 범위를 벗어난 정수의 경우도 발생합니다.  C에서 부동 소수점
     예외 처리의 표준화가 부족하므로, 대부분의 부동 소수점 연산은 검사되
     지 않습니다.

 -- 예외: PythonFinalizationError

     This exception is derived from *note RuntimeError: 195.  It is
     raised when an operation is blocked during interpreter shutdown
     also known as *note Python finalization: 14e.

     Examples of operations which can be blocked with a *note
     PythonFinalizationError: 14d. during the Python finalization:

        * Creating a new Python thread.

        * *note os.fork(): 197.

     See also the *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8c. function.

     Added in version 3.13: 이전에는 평범한 *note RuntimeError: 195. 가
     발생했습니다.

 -- 예외: RecursionError

     이 예외는 *note RuntimeError: 195. 에서 파생됩니다.  인터프리터가 최
     대 재귀 깊이(*note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4be. 참조)가 초과하였음
     을 감지할 때 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.5: 이전에는 평범한 *note RuntimeError: 195. 가 발
     생했습니다.

 -- 예외: ReferenceError

     이 예외는 *note weakref.proxy(): a4e. 함수가 만든 약한 참조 프락시
     가 이미 가비지 수집된 참조 대상의 어트리뷰트를 액세스하는 데 사용될
     때 발생합니다.  약한 참조에 대한 더 자세한 정보는 *note weakref:
     114. 모듈을 보십시오.

 -- 예외: RuntimeError

     다른 범주에 속하지 않는 에러가 감지될 때 발생합니다.  연관된 값은 정
     확히 무엇이 잘못되었는지를 나타내는 문자열입니다.

 -- 예외: StopIteration

     이터레이터에 의해 생성된 항목이 더 없다는 것을 알려주기 위해, 내장
     함수 *note next(): 7d1.와 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.의 *note
     __next__(): 12bd. 메서드가 일으킵니다.

      -- 속성: value

          예외 객체는 ‘value’라는 하나의 어트리뷰트를 가지고 있습니다.  이
          어트리뷰트는 예외를 생성할 때 인자로 주어지며, 기본값은 *note
          None: 66f. 입니다.

     *note 제너레이터: 1057. 나 *note 코루틴: 48b. 함수가 복귀할 때, 새
     *note StopIteration: bf7. 인스턴스를 발생시키고, 함수가 돌려주는 값
     을 예외 생성자의 *note value: 1fd1. 매개변수로 사용합니다.

     제너레이터 코드가 직간접적으로 *note StopIteration: bf7. 를 일으키
     면, *note RuntimeError: 195. 로 변환됩니다 (*note StopIteration:
     bf7. 은 새 예외의 원인(‘__cause__’)으로 남겨둡니다).

     버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘value’ 어트리뷰트와 제너레이터 함수가 이 값을 돌
     려주는 기능을 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘from __future__ import generator_stop’ 를 통한
     RuntimeError 변환을 도입했습니다.  PEP 479(1)를 참조하세요.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 기본적으로 모든 코드에서 PEP 479(2)를 활성화합니
     다: 제너레이터에서 발생한 *note StopIteration: bf7. 에러는 *note
     RuntimeError: 195. 로 변환됩니다.

 -- 예외: StopAsyncIteration

     반드시 *note 비동기 이터레이터: 1ab. 객체의 *note __anext__():
     157b. 메서드가 이터레이션을 멈추고자 할 때 발생시켜야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 예외: SyntaxError (message, details)

     파서가 문법 오류를 만날 때 발생합니다.  *note import: 5dc. 문에서,
     내장 함수 *note compile(): 192, *note exec(): 17f. 또는 *note
     eval(): 180. 호출에서, 초기 스크립트나 (대화형으로) 표준 입력을 읽
     을 때 발생할 수 있습니다.

     예외 인스턴스의 *note str(): 445.은 에러 메시지만 돌려줍니다.
     details는 각 멤버가 별도의 어트리뷰트로도 제공되는 튜플입니다.

      -- 속성: filename

          문법 오류가 발생한 파일의 이름.

      -- 속성: lineno

          오류가 발생한 파일의 줄 번호.  1-인덱싱됩니다: 파일의 첫 번째
          줄은 ‘lineno’가 1입니다.

      -- 속성: offset

          오류가 발생한 줄의 열.  1-인덱싱됩니다: 줄의 첫 번째 문자는
          ‘offset’이 1입니다.

      -- 속성: text

          오류를 수반한 소스 코드 텍스트.

      -- 속성: end_lineno

          오류가 발생한 파일의 끝나는 줄 번호.  1-인덱싱됩니다: 파일의 첫
          번째 줄은 ‘lineno’가 1입니다.

      -- 속성: end_offset

          발생한 오류가 끝나는 줄의 열.  1-인덱싱됩니다: 줄의 첫 번째 문
          자는 ‘offset’이 1입니다.

     For errors in f-string fields, the message is prefixed by
     “f-string: ” and the offsets are offsets in a text constructed from
     the replacement expression.  For example, compiling f’Bad {a b}
     field’ results in this args attribute: (‘f-string: …’, (‘’, 1, 2,
     ‘(a b)n’, 1, 5)).

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note end_lineno: 229e.과 *note end_offset:
     229f. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다.

 -- 예외: IndentationError

     잘못된 들여쓰기와 관련된 문법 오류의 베이스 클래스입니다.  *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: TabError

     들여쓰기가 일관성없는 탭과 스페이스 사용을 포함하는 경우 발생합니다
     .  *note IndentationError: 7a1. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: SystemError

     인터프리터가 내부 에러를 발견했지만, 모든 희망을 포기할 만큼 상황이
     심각해 보이지는 않을 때 발생합니다.  연관된 값은 무엇이 잘못되었는
     지 (저수준의 용어로) 나타내는 문자열입니다.  *note CPython: 6ef.에
     서, 이는 가령 예외를 설정하지 않고 ‘NULL’을 반환하는 것과 같이, 파
     이썬의 C API를 잘못 사용함으로써 발생할 수 있습니다.

     이 예외가 여러분이나 사용 중인 패키지의 책임이 아니라고 확싱한다면,
     파이썬 인터프리터의 저자나 관리자에게 알려야 합니다.  파이썬 인터프
     리터의 버전 (‘sys.version’; 대화식 파이썬 세션의 시작 부분에도 출력
     됩니다), 정확한 에러 메시지 (예외의 연관된 값) 그리고 가능하다면 에
     러를 일으킨 프로그램의 소스를 제공해 주십시오.

 -- 예외: SystemExit

     This exception is raised by the *note sys.exit(): 1339. function.
     It inherits from *note BaseException: 5b5. instead of *note
     Exception: 9d6. so that it is not accidentally caught by code that
     catches *note Exception: 9d6.  This allows the exception to
     properly propagate up and cause the interpreter to exit.  When it
     is not handled, the Python interpreter exits; no stack traceback is
     printed.  The constructor accepts the same optional argument passed
     to *note sys.exit(): 1339.  If the value is an integer, it
     specifies the system exit status (passed to C’s ‘exit()’ function);
     if it is ‘None’, the exit status is zero; if it has another type
     (such as a string), the object’s value is printed and the exit
     status is one.

     *note sys.exit(): 1339. 에 대한 호출은 예외로 변환되어 뒷정리 처리
     기 (*note try: 6e2. 문의 *note finally: 9c7. 절) 가 실행될 수 있도
     록 합니다.  그래서 디버거는 제어권을 잃을 위험 없이 스크립트를 실행
     할 수 있습니다.  즉시 종료가 절대적으로 필요한 경우에는 *note
     os._exit(): 22a0. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, *note
     os.fork(): 197. 호출 후의 자식 프로세스에서).

      -- 속성: code

          생성자에 전달되는 종료 상태 또는 에러 메시지입니다.  (기본값은
          ‘None’ 입니다.)

 -- 예외: TypeError

     연산이나 함수가 부적절한 형의 객체에 적용될 때 발생합니다.  연관된
     값은 형 불일치에 대한 세부 정보를 제공하는 문자열입니다.

     이 예외는 객체에 시도된 연산이 지원되지 않으며 그럴 의도도 없음을 나
     타내기 위해 사용자 코드가 발생시킬 수 있습니다.  만약 객체가 주어진
     연산을 지원할 의사는 있지만, 아직 구현을 제공하지 않는 경우라면,
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. 를 발생시키는 것이 적합합니다.

     잘못된 형의 인자를 전달하면 (가령 *note int: 257. 를 기대하는데
     *note list: 60b.를 전달하기), *note TypeError: 532. 를 일으켜야 합
     니다.  하지만 잘못된 값을 갖는 인자를 전달하면 (가령 범위를 넘어서
     는 숫자) *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으켜야 합니다.

 -- 예외: UnboundLocalError

     함수 나 메서드에서 지역 변수를 참조하지만, 해당 변수에 값이 연결되
     지 않으면 발생합니다.  이것은 *note NameError: 438. 의 서브 클래스
     입니다.

 -- 예외: UnicodeError

     유니코드 관련 인코딩 또는 디코딩 에러가 일어날 때 발생합니다.
     *note ValueError: 202. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

     *note UnicodeError: 1293. 는 인코딩이나 디코딩 에러를 설명하는 어트
     리뷰트를 가지고 있습니다.  예를 들어,
     ‘err.object[err.start:err.end]’ 는 코덱이 실패한 잘못된 입력을 제공
     합니다.

      -- 속성: encoding

          에러를 발생시킨 인코딩의 이름입니다.

      -- 속성: reason

          구체적인 코덱 오류를 설명하는 문자열입니다.

      -- 속성: object

          코덱이 인코딩 또는 디코딩하려고 시도한 객체입니다.

      -- 속성: start

          *note object: a89. 에 있는 잘못된 데이터의 최초 인덱스입니다.

      -- 속성: end

          *note object: a89. 에 있는 마지막으로 잘못된 데이터의 바로 다
          음 인덱스입니다.

 -- 예외: UnicodeEncodeError

     인코딩 중에 유니코드 관련 에러가 일어나면 발생합니다.  *note
     UnicodeError: 1293. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: UnicodeDecodeError

     디코딩 중에 유니코드 관련 에러가 일어나면 발생합니다.  *note
     UnicodeError: 1293. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: UnicodeTranslateError

     번역 중에 유니코드 관련 에러가 일어나면 발생합니다.  *note
     UnicodeError: 1293. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: ValueError

     연산이나 함수가 올바른 형이지만 부적절한 값을 가진 인자를 받았고, 상
     황이 *note IndexError: 14fc. 처럼 더 구체적인 예외로 설명되지 않는
     경우 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: ZeroDivisionError

     나누기 또는 모듈로 연산의 두 번째 인자가 0일 때 발생합니다.  연관된
     값은 피연산자의 형과 연산을 나타내는 문자열입니다.

다음 예외는 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 유지됩니다; 파이썬 3.3부터는
*note OSError: 411. 의 별칭입니다.

 -- 예외: EnvironmentError

 -- 예외: IOError

 -- 예외: WindowsError

     윈도우에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* OS 예외::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: OS 예외,  Up: 구체적인 예외

5.5.4.1 OS 예외
...............

다음의 예외는 *note OSError: 411. 의 서브 클래스이며, 시스템 에러 코드에
따라 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: BlockingIOError

     비 블록 동작으로 설정된 객체(가령 소켓)에 블록이 필요한 연산이 수행
     되면 발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note EAGAIN: 22a6, *note EALREADY: 22a7,
     *note EWOULDBLOCK: 22a8, *note EINPROGRESS: 22a9. 에 해당합니다.

     *note OSError: 411. 의 것 외에도, *note BlockingIOError: 104d. 는 어
     트리뷰트를 하나 더 가질 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: characters_written

          블록 되기 전에 스트림에 쓴 문자 수를 포함하는 정수.  이 어트리
          뷰트는 *note io: 7f. 모듈에서 버퍼링 된 입출력 클래스를 사용할
          때 쓸 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: ChildProcessError

     자식 프로세스에 대한 작업이 실패할 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note
     ECHILD: 22ab. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: ConnectionError

     연결 관련 문제에 대한 베이스 클래스입니다.

     서브 클래스는 *note BrokenPipeError: 1052, *note
     ConnectionAbortedError: 1053, *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1054. 및
     *note ConnectionResetError: 1055. 입니다.

 -- 예외: BrokenPipeError

     *note ConnectionError: e06. 의 서브 클래스로서, 다른 쪽 끝이 닫힌 파
     이프에 쓰려고 하거나, 쓰기가 종료된 소켓에 쓰려고 할 때 발생합니다.
     ‘errno’ *note EPIPE: 22ac. 와 *note ESHUTDOWN: 22ad. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: ConnectionAbortedError

     *note ConnectionError: e06. 의 서브 클래스로서, 연결 시도가 상대방
     에 의해 중단(abort)될 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note ECONNABORTED:
     22ae. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: ConnectionRefusedError

     *note ConnectionError: e06. 의 서브 클래스로서, 연결 시도가 상대방
     에 의해 거부(refuse)될 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note ECONNREFUSED:
     22af. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: ConnectionResetError

     *note ConnectionError: e06. 의 서브 클래스로서, 연결이 상대방에 의
     해 강제 종료(reset)될 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note ECONNRESET:
     22b0. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: FileExistsError

     이미 존재하는 파일이나 디렉터리를 만들려고 할 때 발생합니다.
     ‘errno’ *note EEXIST: 22b1. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: FileNotFoundError

     파일이나 디렉터리가 요청되었지만 존재하지 않을 때 발생합니다.
     ‘errno’ *note ENOENT: 22b2. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: InterruptedError

     시스템 호출이 들어오는 시그널에 의해 중단될 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’
     *note EINTR: d83. 에 해당합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 파이썬은 시스템 호출이 시그널에 의해 중단될
     때, 시그널 처리기가 예외를 일으키는 경우를 제외하고 (이유는 PEP
     475(1) 를 참조하세요), *note InterruptedError: d84. 를 일으키는 대
     신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다.

 -- 예외: IsADirectoryError

     디렉터리에 파일 연산(가령 *note os.remove(): 10e2.)이 요청되었을 때
     발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note EISDIR: 22b3. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: NotADirectoryError

     디렉터리가 아닌 것에 디렉터리 연산(가령 *note os.listdir(): 10eb.)이
     요청되었을 때 발생합니다.  대부분의 POSIX 플랫폼에서, 연산이 디렉터
     리가 아닌 파일을 디렉터리인 것처럼 열거나 탐색하려고 할 때도 발생합
     니다.  ‘errno’ *note ENOTDIR: 22b4. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: PermissionError

     적절한 접근권 (가령 파일 시스템 권한) 없이 연산을 실행하려고 할 때
     발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note EACCES: 22b5, *note EPERM: 17d3. 및
     *note ENOTCAPABLE: 17c6. 에 해당합니다.

     버전 3.11.1에서 변경: WASI’s *note ENOTCAPABLE: 17c6. is now mapped
     to *note PermissionError: d3f.

 -- 예외: ProcessLookupError

     주어진 프로세스가 존재하지 않을 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’ *note
     ESRCH: 22b6. 에 해당합니다.

 -- 예외: TimeoutError

     시스템 함수가 시스템 수준에서 시간 초과 될 때 발생합니다.  ‘errno’
     *note ETIMEDOUT: 22b7. 에 해당합니다.

Added in version 3.3: 위의 모든 *note OSError: 411. 서브 클래스가 추가되
었습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3151(2) - OS 및 IO 예외 계층 구조 재작업

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: 경고,  Next: 예외 그룹,  Prev: 구체적인 예외,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.5 경고
----------

다음 예외는 경고 범주로 사용됩니다; 자세한 정보는 *note 경고 범주: 22ba.
설명서를 보십시오.

 -- 예외: Warning

     경고 범주의 베이스 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: UserWarning

     사용자 코드에 의해 만들어지는 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: DeprecationWarning

     폐지된 기능에 대한 경고의 베이스 클래스인데, 그 경고가 다른 파이썬
     개발자를 대상으로 하는 경우입니다.

     ‘__main__’ 모듈을 제외하고, 기본 경고 필터에 의해 무시됩니다 ( PEP
     565(1)).  *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활성화하면 이 경고가 표시
     됩니다.

     The deprecation policy is described in PEP 387(2).

 -- 예외: PendingDeprecationWarning

     더는 사용되지 않고 장래에 폐지될 예정이지만, 지금 당장 폐지되지는 않
     은 기능에 관한 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

     앞으로 있을 수도 있는 폐지에 관한 경고는 일반적이지 않기 때문에, 이
     클래스는 거의 사용되지 않습니다.  이미 활성화된 폐지에는 *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 선호합니다.

     기본 경고 필터에 의해 무시됩니다.  *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활
     성화하면 이 경고가 표시됩니다.

     The deprecation policy is described in PEP 387(3).

 -- 예외: SyntaxWarning

     모호한 문법에 대한 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

     This warning is typically emitted when compiling Python source
     code, and usually won’t be reported when running already compiled
     code.

 -- 예외: RuntimeWarning

     모호한 실행 시간 동작에 대한 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: FutureWarning

     폐지된 기능에 대한 경고의 베이스 클래스인데, 그 경고가 파이썬으로 작
     성된 응용 프로그램의 최종 사용자를 대상으로 하는 경우입니다.

 -- 예외: ImportWarning

     모듈 임포트에 있을 수 있는 실수에 대한 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

     기본 경고 필터에 의해 무시됩니다.  *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활
     성화하면 이 경고가 표시됩니다.

 -- 예외: UnicodeWarning

     유니코드와 관련된 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: EncodingWarning

     인코딩과 관련된 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

     See *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d5d. for details.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 예외: BytesWarning

     *note bytes: 1c2. 및 *note bytearray: 538. 와 관련된 경고의 베이스
     클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: ResourceWarning

     자원 사용과 관련된 경고의 베이스 클래스입니다.

     기본 경고 필터에 의해 무시됩니다.  *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활
     성화하면 이 경고가 표시됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 그룹,  Next: 예외 계층 구조,  Prev: 경고,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.6 예외 그룹
---------------

The following are used when it is necessary to raise multiple unrelated
exceptions.  They are part of the exception hierarchy so they can be
handled with *note except: 18b. like all other exceptions.  In addition,
they are recognised by *note except*: 5b2, which matches their subgroups
based on the types of the contained exceptions.

 -- 예외: ExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

 -- 예외: BaseExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

     Both of these exception types wrap the exceptions in the sequence
     ‘excs’.  The ‘msg’ parameter must be a string.  The difference
     between the two classes is that *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.
     extends *note BaseException: 5b5. and it can wrap any exception,
     while *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. extends *note Exception: 9d6. and
     it can only wrap subclasses of *note Exception: 9d6.  This design
     is so that ‘except Exception’ catches an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.
     but not *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.

     The *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f. constructor returns an *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b6. rather than a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.
     if all contained exceptions are *note Exception: 9d6. instances, so
     it can be used to make the selection automatic.  The *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b6. constructor, on the other hand, raises a *note
     TypeError: 532. if any contained exception is not an *note
     Exception: 9d6. subclass.

      -- 속성: message

          The ‘msg’ argument to the constructor.  This is a read-only
          attribute.

      -- 속성: exceptions

          A tuple of the exceptions in the ‘excs’ sequence given to the
          constructor.  This is a read-only attribute.

      -- 메서드: subgroup (condition)

          Returns an exception group that contains only the exceptions
          from the current group that match 'condition', or ‘None’ if
          the result is empty.

          The condition can be an exception type or tuple of exception
          types, in which case each exception is checked for a match
          using the same check that is used in an ‘except’ clause.  The
          condition can also be a callable (other than a type object)
          that accepts an exception as its single argument and returns
          true for the exceptions that should be in the subgroup.

          The nesting structure of the current exception is preserved in
          the result, as are the values of its *note message: 22bf,
          *note __traceback__: 12b6, *note __cause__: 12b8, *note
          __context__: 12b7. and *note __notes__: 228a. fields.  Empty
          nested groups are omitted from the result.

          The condition is checked for all exceptions in the nested
          exception group, including the top-level and any nested
          exception groups.  If the condition is true for such an
          exception group, it is included in the result in full.

          Added in version 3.13: ‘condition’ can be any callable which
          is not a type object.

      -- 메서드: split (condition)

          Like *note subgroup(): 16c8, but returns the pair ‘(match,
          rest)’ where ‘match’ is ‘subgroup(condition)’ and ‘rest’ is
          the remaining non-matching part.

      -- 메서드: derive (excs)

          Returns an exception group with the same *note message: 22bf,
          but which wraps the exceptions in ‘excs’.

          This method is used by *note subgroup(): 16c8. and *note
          split(): 1591, which are used in various contexts to break up
          an exception group.  A subclass needs to override it in order
          to make *note subgroup(): 16c8. and *note split(): 1591.
          return instances of the subclass rather than *note
          ExceptionGroup: 1b6.

          *note subgroup(): 16c8. and *note split(): 1591. copy the
          *note __traceback__: 12b6, *note __cause__: 12b8, *note
          __context__: 12b7. and *note __notes__: 228a. fields from the
          original exception group to the one returned by *note
          derive(): 16c7, so these fields do not need to be updated by
          *note derive(): 16c7.

               >>> class MyGroup(ExceptionGroup):
               ...     def derive(self, excs):
               ...         return MyGroup(self.message, excs)
               ...
               >>> e = MyGroup("eg", [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)])
               >>> e.add_note("a note")
               >>> e.__context__ = Exception("context")
               >>> e.__cause__ = Exception("cause")
               >>> try:
               ...    raise e
               ... except Exception as e:
               ...    exc = e
               ...
               >>> match, rest = exc.split(ValueError)
               >>> exc, exc.__context__, exc.__cause__, exc.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> match, match.__context__, match.__cause__, match.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> rest, rest.__context__, rest.__cause__, rest.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> exc.__traceback__ is match.__traceback__ is rest.__traceback__
               True

     Note that *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f. defines *note __new__():
     57b, so subclasses that need a different constructor signature need
     to override that rather than *note __init__(): 6aa.  For example,
     the following defines an exception group subclass which accepts an
     exit_code and constructs the group’s message from it.

          class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
             def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
                self = super().__new__(Errors, f"exit code: {exit_code}", errors)
                self.exit_code = exit_code
                return self

             def derive(self, excs):
                return Errors(excs, self.exit_code)

     Like *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, any subclass of *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 25f. which is also a subclass of *note
     Exception: 9d6. can only wrap instances of *note Exception: 9d6.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 계층 구조,  Prev: 예외 그룹,  Up: 내장 예외

5.5.7 예외 계층 구조
--------------------

내장 예외의 클래스 계층 구조는 다음과 같습니다:

     BaseException
      ├── BaseExceptionGroup
      ├── GeneratorExit
      ├── KeyboardInterrupt
      ├── SystemExit
      └── Exception
           ├── ArithmeticError
           │    ├── FloatingPointError
           │    ├── OverflowError
           │    └── ZeroDivisionError
           ├── AssertionError
           ├── AttributeError
           ├── BufferError
           ├── EOFError
           ├── ExceptionGroup [BaseExceptionGroup]
           ├── ImportError
           │    └── ModuleNotFoundError
           ├── LookupError
           │    ├── IndexError
           │    └── KeyError
           ├── MemoryError
           ├── NameError
           │    └── UnboundLocalError
           ├── OSError
           │    ├── BlockingIOError
           │    ├── ChildProcessError
           │    ├── ConnectionError
           │    │    ├── BrokenPipeError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionAbortedError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionRefusedError
           │    │    └── ConnectionResetError
           │    ├── FileExistsError
           │    ├── FileNotFoundError
           │    ├── InterruptedError
           │    ├── IsADirectoryError
           │    ├── NotADirectoryError
           │    ├── PermissionError
           │    ├── ProcessLookupError
           │    └── TimeoutError
           ├── ReferenceError
           ├── RuntimeError
           │    ├── NotImplementedError
           │    ├── PythonFinalizationError
           │    └── RecursionError
           ├── StopAsyncIteration
           ├── StopIteration
           ├── SyntaxError
           │    └── IndentationError
           │         └── TabError
           ├── SystemError
           ├── TypeError
           ├── ValueError
           │    └── UnicodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeDecodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeEncodeError
           │         └── UnicodeTranslateError
           └── Warning
                ├── BytesWarning
                ├── DeprecationWarning
                ├── EncodingWarning
                ├── FutureWarning
                ├── ImportWarning
                ├── PendingDeprecationWarning
                ├── ResourceWarning
                ├── RuntimeWarning
                ├── SyntaxWarning
                ├── UnicodeWarning
                └── UserWarning


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 처리 서비스,  Next: 바이너리 데이터 서비스,  Prev: 내장 예외,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.6 텍스트 처리 서비스
======================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 광범위한 문자열 조작 연산과 기타 텍스트 처리 서
비스를 제공합니다.

*note 바이너리 데이터 서비스: 22c4. 에 기술되어 있는 *note codecs: 1b. 모
듈 또한 텍스트 처리와 밀접한 관련이 있습니다.  또한, *note 텍스트 시퀀스
형 — str: 1c04. 에 있는 파이썬의 내장 문자열형에 대한 설명서를 참조하십
시오.

* Menu:

* string — 일반적인 문자열 연산::
* re — Regular expression operations::
* difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미::
* textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기::
* unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스::
* stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비::
* readline — GNU readline 인터페이스::
* rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수::


File: python.info,  Node: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산,  Next: re — Regular expression operations,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.1 ‘string’ — 일반적인 문자열 연산
-------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/string.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

더 보기
.......

*note 텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str: 1c04.

*note 문자열 메서드: 1c05.

* Menu:

* 문자열 상수::
* 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅::
* 포맷 문자열 문법::
* 템플릿 문자열::
* 도움 함수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/string.py


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 상수,  Next: 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅,  Up: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산

5.6.1.1 문자열 상수
...................

이 모듈에 정의된 상수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: string.ascii_letters

     아래에 나오는 *note ascii_lowercase: 22c8.와 *note ascii_uppercase:
     22c9. 상수를 이어붙인 것입니다.  이 값은 로케일에 의존적이지 않습니
     다.

 -- 데이터: string.ascii_lowercase

     소문자 ‘'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  이 값은 로케일에 의존적이지
     않고 변경되지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: string.ascii_uppercase

     대문자 ‘'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  이 값은 로케일에 의존적이지
     않고 변경되지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: string.digits

     문자열 ‘'0123456789'’.

 -- 데이터: string.hexdigits

     문자열 ‘'0123456789abcdefABCDEF'’.

 -- 데이터: string.octdigits

     문자열 ‘'01234567'’.

 -- 데이터: string.punctuation

     ‘C’ 로케일에서 구두점 문자로 간주하는 ASCII 문자의 문자열:
     ‘!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~’.

 -- 데이터: string.printable

     파이썬이 인쇄할 수 있는 것으로 간주하는 ASCII 문자의 문자열.  *note
     digits: 22ca, *note ascii_letters: 12b3, *note punctuation: 22cd,
     *note whitespace: 22ce. 의 조합입니다.

          참고: By design, *note string.printable.isprintable(): dd4.
          returns *note False: b34.  In particular, ‘string.printable’
          is not printable in the POSIX sense (see ‘LC_CTYPE(1)’).

 -- 데이터: string.whitespace

     공백으로 간주하는 모든 ASCII 문자를 포함하는 문자열.  여기에는 스페
     이스, 탭, 줄 바꿈, 캐리지 리턴, 세로 탭 및 폼 피드 문자가 포함됩니
     다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/locale(5)


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅,  Next: 포맷 문자열 문법,  Prev: 문자열 상수,  Up: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산

5.6.1.2 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅
.................................

내장 문자열 클래스는 PEP 3101(1) 에 설명된 *note format(): 61b. 메서드를
통해 복잡한 변수 치환 및 값 포매팅을 수행할 수 있는 기능을 제공합니다.
*note string: d3. 모듈의 *note Formatter: eb3. 클래스는 내장 *note
format(): 61b. 메서드와 같은 구현을 사용하여 자신만의 문자열 포매팅 동작
을 만들고 사용자 정의할 수 있게 합니다.

 -- 클래스: string.Formatter

     *note Formatter: eb3. 클래스에는 다음과 같은 공개 메서드가 있습니다
     :

      -- 메서드: format (format_string, /, *args, **kwargs)

          기본 API 메서드입니다.  포맷 문자열과 임의의 위치 및 키워드 인
          자의 집합을 받아들입니다.  이것은 *note vformat(): 22d0. 을 호
          출하는 래퍼일 뿐입니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 포맷 문자열 인자는 이제 *note 위치 전용:
          a82.입니다.

      -- 메서드: vformat (format_string, args, kwargs)

          이 함수는 실제 포맷 작업을 수행합니다.  ‘*args’ 와 ‘**kwargs’
          문법을 사용하여 딕셔너리를 개별적인 인자로 언 패킹한 후 다시 패
          킹하는 대신 미리 정의된 인자 딕셔너리를 전달하고자 하는 경우를
          위해 별도의 함수로 노출합니다.  *note vformat(): 22d0. 은 포맷
          문자열을 문자 데이터와 치환 필드로 분리하는 작업을 수행합니다.
          아래에 설명된 다양한 메서드를 호출합니다.

     이에 더해, *note Formatter: eb3. 는 서브 클래스에 의해 대체될 목적
     으로 많은 메서드를 정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: parse (format_string)

          format_string을 루핑하면서 튜플 ('literal_text', 'field_name',
          'format_spec', 'conversion') 의 이터러블을 반환합니다.  이것은
          *note vformat(): 22d0. 이 문자열을 리터럴 텍스트와 치환 필드로
          나누는 데 사용합니다.

          튜플의 값은 개념적으로 리터럴 텍스트와 그 뒤를 따르는 하나의 치
          환 필드의 범위를 나타냅니다.  리터럴 텍스트가 없는 경우 (두 개
          의 치환 필드가 연속적으로 나타나는 경우 발생할 수 있습니다),
          'literal_text' 는 길이가 0인 문자열입니다.  치환 필드가 없는 경
          우 'field_name', 'format_spec' 및 'conversion' 값은 ‘None’ 입
          니다.

      -- 메서드: get_field (field_name, args, kwargs)

          *note parse(): 22d1. 가 반환한 'field_name' 을 (위를 보세요) 포
          맷될 객체로 변환합니다.  튜플 (obj, used_key) 를 반환합니다.  기
          본 버전은 “0[name]” 이나 “label.title”과 같이 PEP 3101(2) 에 정
          의된 형식의 문자열을 받아들입니다.  'args' 와 'kwargs' 는
          *note vformat(): 22d0. 에 전달된 것과 같습니다.  반환 값
          'used_key' 는 *note get_value(): 22d3. 의 'key' 매개 변수와 같
          은 의미가 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_value (key, args, kwargs)

          지정된 필드의 값을 가져옵니다.  'key' 인자는 정수 또는 문자열
          입니다.  정수의 경우, 'args' 에 있는 위치 인자의 인덱스를 나타
          냅니다; 문자열인 경우, 'kwargs' 에 있는 이름있는 인자를 나타냅
          니다.

          'args' 매개 변수는 *note vformat(): 22d0. 의 위치 인자 목록으
          로 설정되고, 'kwargs' 매개 변수는 키워드 인자 딕셔너리로 설정
          됩니다.

          복합 필드 이름의 경우, 이러한 함수는 필드 이름의 첫 번째 구성
          요소에 대해서만 호출됩니다; 후속 구성 요소는 일반 어트리뷰트 및
          인덱싱 연산을 통해 처리됩니다.

          그래서 예를 들어, 필드 표현식 ‘0.name’ 은 *note get_value():
          22d3. 가 'key' 인자 0으로 호출되도록 합니다.  ‘name’ 어트리뷰
          트는 *note get_value(): 22d3. 가 반환한 후에 내장 *note
          getattr(): bce. 함수를 호출하여 조회합니다.

          인덱스 또는 키워드가 존재하지 않는 항목을 참조하면, *note
          IndexError: 14fc. 나 *note KeyError: 33d. 가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: check_unused_args (used_args, args, kwargs)

          원하는 경우 사용하지 않는 인자를 검사하도록 구현합니다.  이 함
          수에 대한 인자는 포맷 문자열에서 참조되는 모든 인자 키의 집합
          과 (위치 인자의 경우 정수, 이름있는 인자의 경우 문자열),
          vformat 으로 전달된 'args' 와 'kwargs' 에 대한 참조입니다.  사
          용되지 않은 인자의 집합은 이 매개 변수들로 계산할 수 있습니다.
          *note check_unused_args(): 22d4. 는 검사가 실패할 경우 예외를
          발생시킬 것으로 가정합니다.

      -- 메서드: format_field (value, format_spec)

          *note format_field(): 22d5. 는 단순히 전역 *note format():
          619. 내장 함수를 호출합니다.  서브 클래스가 재정의할 수 있도록
          메서드가 제공됩니다.

      -- 메서드: convert_field (value, conversion)

          (*note get_field(): 22d2. 가 반환한) 값(value)을 (*note
          parse(): 22d1. 메서드가 반환하는 튜플에 있는 것과 같은) 주어진
          변환 유형(conversion)으로 변환합니다.  기본 버전은 ‘s’ (str),
          ‘r’ (repr) 및 ‘a’ (ascii) 변환 유형을 인식합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 문자열 문법,  Next: 템플릿 문자열,  Prev: 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅,  Up: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산

5.6.1.3 포맷 문자열 문법
........................

*note str.format(): 61b. 메서드와 *note Formatter: eb3. 클래스는 포맷 문
자열에 대해서 같은 문법을 공유합니다 (*note Formatter: eb3. 의 경우, 서
브 클래스는 그들 자신의 포맷 문자열 문법을 정의 할 수 있습니다).  문법은
*note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6. 과 관련 있지만, 덜 정교하며, 특히 임의의
표현식을 지원하지 않습니다.

포맷 문자열에는 중괄호 ‘{}’ 로 둘러싸인 “치환 필드” 가 들어 있습니다.  중
괄호 안에 포함되지 않은 것은 리터럴 텍스트로 간주하며 변경되지 않고 그대
로 출력으로 복사됩니다.  리터럴 텍스트에 중괄호를 포함해야 하는 경우, 중
복으로 이스케이프 할 수 있습니다: ‘{{’ 와 ‘}}’.

치환 필드의 문법은 다음과 같습니다:

     replacement_field ::= "{" [*note field_name: 22d9.] ["!" *note conversion: 22da.] [":" *note format_spec: 22db.] "}"
     field_name        ::= *note arg_name: 22dc. ("." *note attribute_name: 22dd. | "[" *note element_index: 22de. "]")*
     arg_name          ::= [*note identifier: 1e9e. | *note digit: 1ed7.+]
     attribute_name    ::= *note identifier: 1e9e.
     element_index     ::= *note digit: 1ed7.+ | *note index_string: 22df.
     index_string      ::= <any source character except "]"> +
     conversion        ::= "r" | "s" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= *note format-spec;format_spec: 22e0.

덜 형식적인 용어로, 치환 필드는 'field_name' 으로 시작할 수 있는데, 값이
포맷되어 출력에 치환 필드 대신 삽입될 객체를 지정합니다.  'field_name' 다
음에는 선택적으로 느낌표 ‘'!'’ 가 앞에 오는 'conversion' 필드와 콜론
‘':'’ 이 앞에 오는 'format_spec' 이 옵니다.  이 값은 치환 값에 대해 기본
값이 아닌 포맷을 지정합니다.

*note 포맷 명세 미니 언어: 1e8. 섹션을 참고하십시오.

'field_name' 자체는 숫자나 키워드인 'arg_name' 으로 시작합니다.  숫자면
위치 인자를 나타내고, 키워드면 이름이 있는 키워드 인자를 나타냅니다.
'arg_name'은 문자열에 *note str.isdecimal(): 21c7.을 호출했을 때 참을 반
환한다면 숫자로 취급됩니다.  포맷 문자열의 숫자 arg_name이 0, 1, 2, … 순
으로 나열되는 경우, (일부가 아니라) 전부 생략 할 수 있으며 숫자 0, 1, 2,
…이 순서대로 자동 삽입됩니다.  'arg_name' 이 따옴표로 분리되어 있지 않기
때문에, 포맷 문자열 내에서 임의의 딕셔너리 키(예를 들어, ‘'10'’ 이나
‘':-]'’)를 지정할 수 없습니다.  'arg_name' 다음에는 제한 없는 개수의 인
덱스나 어트리뷰트 표현식이 올 수 있습니다.  ‘'.name'’ 형태의 표현식은
*note getattr(): bce.을 사용하여 이름있는 어트리뷰트를 선택하는 반면,
‘'[index]'’ 형태의 표현식은 *note __getitem__(): 283. 을 사용해서 인덱스
조회를 합니다.

버전 3.1에서 변경: 위치 인자 지정자는 *note str.format(): 61b. 에서 생략
할 수 있습니다.  그래서, ‘'{} {}'.format(a, b)’ 는 ‘'{0} {1}'.format(a,
b)’ 과 동등합니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 위치 인자 지정자는 *note Formatter: eb3.에서 생략 할
수 있습니다.

몇 가지 간단한 포맷 문자열 예제:

     "First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # 첫번째 위치 인자를 참조합니다
     "Bring me a {}"                   # 묵시적으로 첫번째 위치 인자를 참조합니다
     "From {} to {}"                   # "From {0} to {1}" 과 같습니다
     "My quest is {name}"              # 키워드 인자 'name' 을 참조합니다
     "Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 첫번째 위치 인자의 'weight' 어트리뷰트
     "Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # 키워드 인자 'players' 의 첫번째 요소.

'conversion' 필드는 포매팅 전에 형 코어션을 일으킵니다.  보통은, 값을 포
매팅하는 작업은 값 자체의 *note __format__(): 618. 메서드에 의해 수행됩
니다.  그러나 어떤 경우에는 형 자신의 포매팅 정의를 무시하고 문자열로 포
맷되도록 강제할 필요가 있습니다.  *note __format__(): 618. 을 호출하기 전
에 값을 문자열로 변환하면, 일반적인 포매팅 논리가 무시됩니다.

현재 세 가지 변환 플래그가 지원됩니다: ‘'!s'’ 는 값에 *note str(): 445.
을 호출하고, ‘'!r'’ 은 값에 *note repr(): 7f7. 을 호출하고, ‘'!a'’ 는 값
에 *note ascii(): 13af. 를 호출합니다.

몇 가지 예:

     "Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # 먼저 인자에 str() 을 호출합니다
     "Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # 먼저 인자에 repr() 을 호출합니다
     "More {!a}"                      # 먼저 인자에 ascii() 를 호출합니다

'format_spec' 필드에는 값을 표시하는 방법에 대한 명세가 포함되어 있는데,
필드 너비, 정렬, 채움, 십진 정밀도 등이 포함됩니다.  각 값 형은 자체 “포
매팅 미니 언어” 또는 'format_spec' 의 해석을 정의 할 수 있습니다.

대부분의 내장형은 다음 절에서 설명하는 공통 포매팅 미니 언어를 지원합니
다.

A 'format_spec' 필드는 그 안에 중첩된 치환 필드를 포함할 수도 있습니다.
이러한 중첩 된 치환 필드에는 필드 이름, 변환 플래그 및 포맷 명세가 포함
될 수 있지만, 더 깊은 중첩은 허용되지 않습니다.  format_spec 내의 치환 필
드는 'format_spec' 문자열이 해석되기 전에 치환됩니다.  이렇게 해서 값의
포매팅을 동적으로 지정할 수 있게 합니다.

몇 가지 예제는 *note 포맷 예제: 22e1. 섹션을 보십시오.

* Menu:

* 포맷 명세 미니 언어::
* 포맷 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 명세 미니 언어,  Next: 포맷 예제,  Up: 포맷 문자열 문법

5.6.1.4 포맷 명세 미니 언어
...........................

“포맷 명세” 는 포맷 문자열에 포함된 치환 필드 내에서 개별 값의 표시 방법
을 정의하는 데 사용됩니다 (*note 포맷 문자열 문법: 1379. 과 *note 포맷
문자열 리터럴: 9a6.을 보세요).  이것들은 내장 *note format(): 619. 함수
에 직접 전달될 수도 있습니다.  각 포맷 가능한 형은 포맷 명세를 해석하는
방법을 정의 할 수 있습니다.

대부분의 내장형은 포맷 명세에 대해 다음 옵션을 구현하지만, 일부 포맷 옵
션은 숫자 형에서만 지원됩니다.

일반적인 관례는 빈 포맷 명세가 값에 *note str(): 445. 을 호출한 것과 같
은 결과를 만드는 것입니다.  비어 있지 않은 포맷 명세는 보통 결과를 수정
합니다.

'표준 포맷 지정자' 의 일반적인 형식은 다음과 같습니다:

     format_spec ::= [*note options: 22e3.][*note width: 22e4.][*note grouping: 22e5.]["." *note precision: 22e6.][*note type: 22e7.]
     options     ::= [[*note fill: 22e8.]*note align: 22e9.][*note sign: 22ea.]["z"]["#"]["0"]
     fill        ::= <any character>
     align       ::= "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
     sign        ::= "+" | "-" | " "
     width       ::= *note digit: 1ed7.+
     grouping    ::= "," | "_"
     precision   ::= *note digit: 1ed7.+
     type        ::= "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g"
                     | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"

유효한 'align' 값이 지정되면, 'fill' 문자가 앞에 나올 수 있는데 임의의 문
자가 될 수 있고, 생략된 경우에는 스페이스가 기본값으로 사용됩니다.
*note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6. 에서나 *note str.format(): 61b. 메서드를
사용할 때는, 리터럴 중괄호(”‘{’” 또는 “‘}’”)를 'fill' 문자로 사용할 수 없
습니다.  그러나, 중첩된 치환 필드로 중괄호를 삽입 할 수 있습니다.  이 제
한은 *note format(): 619. 함수에는 영향을 미치지 않습니다.

다양한 정렬 옵션의 의미는 다음과 같습니다:

옵션          의미
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'<'’         사용 가능한 공간 내에서 필드가 왼쪽 정렬되도록 합니다 (대부
              분 객체에서 이것이 기본값입니다).
              
              
‘'>'’         사용 가능한 공간 내에서 필드가 오른쪽 정렬되도록 합니다 (숫
              자에서 이것이 기본값입니다).
              
              
‘'='’         채움이 부호 (있다면) 뒤에, 숫자 앞에 오도록 강제합니다.  이
              것은 ‘+000000120’ 형식으로 필드를 인쇄하는 데 사용됩니다.  이
              정렬 옵션은 *note complex: 2f0.를 제외한 숫자 형에게만 유효
              합니다.  이것은 필드 너비 바로 앞에 ‘0’ 이 있으면 숫자에 대
              한 기본값이 됩니다.
              
              
‘'^'’         사용 가능한 공간 내에서 필드를 가운데에 배치합니다.
              

최소 필드 너비가 정의되지 않으면, 필드 너비는 항상 필드를 채울 데이터와
같은 크기이므로, 정렬 옵션은 이 경우 의미가 없습니다.

'sign' 옵션은 숫자 형에게만 유효하며, 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

옵션          의미
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'+'’         음수뿐만 아니라 양수에도 부호를 사용해야 함을 나타냅니다.
              
              
‘'-'’         음수에 대해서만 부호를 사용해야 함을 나타냅니다 (이것이 기본
              동작입니다).
              
              
스페이스      양수에는 선행 스페이스를 사용하고, 음수에는 마이너스 부호를
              사용해야 함을 나타냅니다.
              

The ‘'z'’ option coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive
zero after rounding to the format precision.  This option is only valid
for floating-point presentation types.

버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘'z'’ 옵션을 추가했습니다 ( PEP 682(1) 도 보세요).

‘'#'’ 옵션은 변환에 “대안 형식” 이 사용되도록 만듭니다.  대안 형식은 형
별로 다르게 정의됩니다.  이 옵션은 정수, 실수와 복소수 형에게만 유효합니
다.  정수의 경우, 이진수, 8진수 또는 16진수 출력이 사용될 때, 이 옵션은
출력값에 각각 접두사 ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, ‘'0x'’ 또는 ‘'0X'’ 를 추가합니다.  실
수와 복소수의 경우, 대안 형식은 변환 결과의 소수점 아래 숫자가 없어도 항
상 소수점 문자가 포함되게 합니다.  보통은, 소수점 문자는 그 뒤에 숫자가
있는 경우에만 변환 결과에 나타납니다.  이에 더해, ‘'g'’ 및 ‘'G'’ 변환의
경우 끝에 붙는 0이 결과에서 제거되지 않습니다.

'width' 는 최소 총 필드 너비를 정의하는 십진 정수인데, 접두사, 구분자 및
다른 포매팅 문자들을 포함합니다.  지정하지 않으면, 필드 너비는 내용에 의
해 결정됩니다.

명시적 정렬이 주어지지 않을 때, 'width' 필드 앞에 ‘'0'’ 문자를 붙이면
*note complex: 2f0.를 제외한 숫자 형에 대해 부호를 고려하는 0 채움을 사
용할 수 있습니다.  이것은 ‘'0'’ 의 'fill' 문자와 ‘'='’ 의 'alignment' 유
형을 갖는 것과 동등합니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: Preceding the 'width' field by ‘'0'’ no longer
affects the default alignment for strings.

The 'grouping' option after the 'width' field specifies a digit group
separator for the integral part of a number.  It can be one of the
following:

옵션          의미
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘','’         정수 표시 유형 ‘'d'’와, ‘'n'’을 제외한 부동 소수점 표시 유형
              에 대해 3자리마다 쉼표를 삽입합니다.  다른 표시 유형에는 이
              옵션이 지원되지 않습니다.
              
              
‘'_'’         정수 표시 유형 ‘'d'’와, ‘'n'’을 제외한 부동 소수점 표시 유형
              에 대해 3자리마다 밑줄을 삽입합니다.  정수 표시 유형 ‘'b'’,
              ‘'o'’, ‘'x'’ 및 ‘'X'’ 의 경우 밑줄이 4자리마다 삽입됩니다.  다
              른 표시 유형에는 이 옵션이 지원되지 않습니다.
              

로케일을 고려하는 구분자의 경우, 대신 ‘'n'’ 표시 유형을 사용하십시오.

버전 3.1에서 변경: ‘','’ 옵션을 추가했습니다 ( PEP 378(2) 도 보세요).

버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘'_'’ 옵션을 추가했습니다 ( PEP 515(3) 도 보세요).

'precision' 은 표시 유형 ‘'f'’와 ‘'F'’의 경우 소수점 뒤에 표시될 자릿수
를, ‘'g'’와 ‘'G'’의 경우 소수점 앞, 뒤로 표시할 자릿수를 나타내는 십진 정
수입니다.  문자열 표시 유형의 경우 필드는 최대 필드 크기를 나타냅니다 -
즉, 필드 내용에서 몇 개의 문자가 사용되는지 나타냅니다.  정수 표시 유형
에는 'precision' 이 허용되지 않습니다.

마지막으로 'type' 은 데이터를 표시하는 방법을 결정합니다.

사용 가능한 문자열 표시 유형은 다음과 같습니다:

     유형          의미
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'s'’         문자열 포맷.  이것은 문자열의 기본 유형이고 생략될 수 있습니
                   다.
                   
                   
     없음          ‘'s'’ 와 같습니다.
                   

사용 가능한 정수 표시 유형은 다음과 같습니다:

     유형          의미
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'b'’         이진 형식.  이진법으로 숫자를 출력합니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'c'’         문자.  인쇄하기 전에 정수를 해당 유니코드 문자로 변환합니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'d'’         십진 정수.  십진법으로 숫자를 출력합니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'o'’         8진 형식.  8진법으로 숫자를 출력합니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         16진 형식.  9보다 큰 숫자의 경우 소문자를 사용하여 16진법으
                   로 숫자를 출력합니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'X'’         16진 형식.  9보다 큰 숫자의 경우 대문자를 사용하여 16진법으
                   로 숫자를 출력합니다.  ‘'#'’가 지정되면, 접두사 ‘'0x'’도 대
                   문자로 변환되어 ‘'0X'’로 표시됩니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         숫자.  이는 현재 로케일 설정을 사용하여 적절한 숫자 그룹 구
                   분자를 삽입한다는 점을 제외하고는 ‘'d'’ 와 같습니다.
                   
                   
     없음          ‘'d'’ 와 같습니다.
                   

위의 표시 유형에 더해, 정수는 아래에 나열된 부동 소수점 표시 유형으로 포
맷될 수 있습니다 (‘'n'’ 및 ‘없음’ 제외).  그렇게 할 때, 포매팅 전에 정수
를 부동 소수점 숫자로 변환하기 위해 *note float(): 2ef. 가 사용됩니다.

*note float: 2ef. 및 *note Decimal: 29d. 값에 사용할 수 있는 표시 유형은
다음과 같습니다:

     유형          의미
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'e'’         과학적 표기법.  주어진 정밀도 ‘p’에 대해, 지수에서 계수를 구
                   분하는 문자 ‘e’를 사용하여 과학적 표기법으로 숫자를 포맷합니
                   다.  계수는 소수점 앞의 한 자리와 소수점 뒤에 ‘p’ 자리를 가
                   져서, 총 ‘p + 1’ 유효 자릿수를 갖습니다.  정밀도가 지정되지
                   않으면, *note float: 2ef.의 경우는 소수점 뒤에 ‘6’ 숫자의 정
                   밀도를 사용하고, *note Decimal: 29d.의 경우는 모든 계수 숫자
                   를 표시합니다.  ‘p=0’이면, ‘#’ 옵션을 사용하지 않는 한 소수
                   점은 생략됩니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'E'’         과학적 표기법.  구분 문자로 대문자 ‘E’를 사용한다는 것을 제
                   외하고 ‘'e'’ 와 같습니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'f'’         고정 소수점 표기법.  주어진 정밀도 ‘p’에 대해, 소수점 뒤에 정
                   확히 ‘p’ 자리가 있는 십진수로 숫자를 포맷합니다.  정밀도가 지
                   정되지 않으면, *note float: 2ef.의 경우는 소수점 뒤에 ‘6’ 숫
                   자의 정밀도를 사용하고, *note Decimal: 29d.의 경우는 모든 계
                   수 숫자를 표시할 만큼 충분히 큰 정밀도를 사용합니다.  ‘p=0’이
                   면 , ‘#’ 옵션을 사용하지 않는 한 소수점은 생략됩니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'F'’         고정 소수점 표기법.  ‘'f'’ 와 같지만, ‘nan’ 을 ‘NAN’ 으로,
                   ‘inf’ 를 ‘INF’ 로 변환합니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'g'’         범용 형식.  주어진 정밀도 ‘p >= 1’ 에 대해, 숫자를 유효 숫자
                   ‘p’ 로 자리 올림 한 다음, 결과를 크기에 따라 고정 소수점 형
                   식이나 과학 표기법으로 포맷합니다.  정밀도 ‘0’은 정밀도 ‘1’과
                   동등하게 처리됩니다.
                   
                   정확한 규칙은 다음과 같습니다: 표시 유형 ‘'e'’ 와 정밀도
                   ‘p-1’ 로 포맷된 결과의 지수가 ‘exp’ 라고 가정하십시오.  이때
                   ‘-m <= exp < p’ 이면 (여기서 ‘m’은 float에서 -4이고
                   *note Decimal: 29d. 이면 -6입니다), 숫자는 표시 형식 ‘'f'’ 와
                   정밀도 ‘p-1-exp’ 로 포맷됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 숫자는 표시
                   유형 ‘'e'’ 와 정밀도 ‘p-1’ 로 포맷됩니다.  두 경우 유효하지
                   않은 후행 0은 모두 유효숫자부에서 제거되고, 뒤에 남아있는 숫
                   자가 없다면 ‘'#'’ 옵션이 사용되지 않는 한 소수점도 제거됩니
                   다.
                   
                   정밀도가 지정되지 않으면, *note float: 2ef.의 경우 ‘6’ 유효
                   자릿수의 정밀도를 사용합니다.  *note Decimal: 29d.의 경우, 결
                   과 계수는 값의 계수 숫자로 구성됩니다; 과학적 표기법은 절댓
                   값이 ‘1e-6’ 보다 작은 값과 최하위 숫자의 자릿값이 1보다 큰 값
                   에 사용되며, 그렇지 않으면 고정 소수점 표기법이 사용됩니다.
                   
                   양과 음의 무한대, 양과 음의 0, nans는 정밀도와 무관하게 각각
                   ‘inf’, ‘-inf’, ‘0’, ‘-0’, ‘nan’ 으로 포맷됩니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'G'’         범용 형식.  숫자가 너무 커지면 ‘'E'’ 로 전환하는 것을 제외하
                   고 ‘'g'’ 와 같습니다.  무한과 NaN 의 표현도 대문자로 바뀝니
                   다.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         숫자.  현재 로케일 설정을 사용하여 숫자의 정수부에 적절한 숫
                   자 그룹 구분자를 삽입한다는 점을 제외하면 ‘'g'’ 와 같습니다.
                   
                   
     ‘'%'’         백분율.  숫자에 100을 곱해서 고정 (‘'f'’) 형식으로 표시한 다
                   음 백분율 기호를 붙입니다.
                   
                   
     없음          *note float: 2ef.의 경우, ‘'g'’ 유형과 유사하지만, 고정 소수
                   점 표기법이 결과를 포맷하는데 사용될 때, 소수점 이하로 적어
                   도 하나의 숫자를 항상 포함하고, ‘exp >= p - 1’일 때 과학적 표
                   기법으로 전환합니다.  정밀도가 지정되지 않으면, 후자는 주어
                   진 값을 충실히 표현하는 데 필요한 만큼 크게 설정됩니다.
                   
                   *note Decimal: 29d.의 경우, 현재 십진 컨텍스트의
                   ‘context.capitals’ 값에 따라 ‘'g'’나 ‘'G'’와 같습니다.
                   
                   전체적인 효과는 *note str(): 445. 의 출력을 다른 포맷 수정자
                   에 의해 변경된 것처럼 만드는 것입니다.
                   

The result should be correctly rounded to a given precision ‘p’ of
digits after the decimal point.  The rounding mode for *note float: 2ef.
matches that of the *note round(): 12ca. builtin.  For *note Decimal:
29d, the rounding mode of the current *note context: 22eb. will be used.

The available presentation types for *note complex: 2f0. are the same as
those for *note float: 2ef. (‘'%'’ is not allowed).  Both the real and
imaginary components of a complex number are formatted as floating-point
numbers, according to the specified presentation type.  They are
separated by the mandatory sign of the imaginary part, the latter being
terminated by a ‘j’ suffix.  If the presentation type is missing, the
result will match the output of *note str(): 445. (complex numbers with
a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly
altered by other format modifiers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 예제,  Prev: 포맷 명세 미니 언어,  Up: 포맷 문자열 문법

5.6.1.5 포맷 예제
.................

이 절은 *note str.format(): 61b. 문법의 예와 예전 ‘%’-포매팅과의 비교를
포함합니다.

대부분은 문법이 예전의 ‘%’-포매팅과 유사하며, ‘{}’ 가 추가되고 ‘%’ 대신
및 ‘:’ 이 사용됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘'%03.2f'’ 는 ‘'{:03.2f}'’ 로 번역될 수
있습니다.

새 포맷 문법은 다음 예제에 보이는 것과 같이 새롭고 다양한 옵션도 지원합
니다.

위치로 인자 액세스:

     >>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ 에서만
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # 인자 시퀀스를 언패킹
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # 인자의 인덱스는 반복할 수 있습니다
     'abracadabra'

이름으로 인자 액세스:

     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
     >>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'

인자의 어트리뷰트 액세스:

     >>> c = 3-5j
     >>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
     ...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
     'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
     >>> class Point:
     ...     def __init__(self, x, y):
     ...         self.x, self.y = x, y
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
     ...
     >>> str(Point(4, 2))
     'Point(4, 2)'

인자의 항목 액세스:

     >>> coord = (3, 5)
     >>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
     'X: 3;  Y: 5'

‘%s’ 과 ‘%r’ 대체:

     >>> "repr() 은 따옴표를 표시하지만: {!r}; str() 은 그렇지 않습니다: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
     "repr() 은 따옴표를 표시하지만: 'test1'; str() 은 그렇지 않습니다: test2"

텍스트 정렬과 너비 지정:

     >>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
     'left aligned                  '
     >>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
     '                 right aligned'
     >>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
     '           centered           '
     >>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # 채움 문자로 '*' 를 사용합니다
     '***********centered***********'

‘%+f’, ‘%-f’, ‘% f’ 대체와 부호 지정:

     >>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # 항상 표시합니다
     '+3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # 양수는 스페이스를 표시합니다
     ' 3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # 음수만 표시합니다 -- '{:f}; {:f}' 와 같습니다
     '3.140000; -3.140000'

‘%x’, ‘%o’ 대체와 다른 진법으로 값 변환:

     >>> # format 은 이진수도 지원합니다
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
     >>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'

쉼표나 밑줄을 숫자 그룹 구분자로 사용:

     >>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
     '1,234,567,890'
     >>> '{:_}'.format(1234567890)
     '1_234_567_890'
     >>> '{:_b}'.format(1234567890)
     '100_1001_1001_0110_0000_0010_1101_0010'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(1234567890)
     '4996_02d2'

백분율 표현:

     >>> points = 19
     >>> total = 22
     >>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
     'Correct answers: 86.36%'

형별 포매팅 사용:

     >>> import datetime
     >>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
     >>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
     '2010-07-04 12:15:58'

인자 중첩과 보다 복잡한 예제:

     >>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
     ...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
     ...
     'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
     '^^^^^center^^^^^'
     '>>>>>>>>>>>right'
     >>>
     >>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
     >>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
     'C0A80001'
     >>> int(_, 16)
     3232235521
     >>>
     >>> width = 5
     >>> for num in range(5,12):
     ...     for base in 'dXob':
     ...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
     ...     print()
     ...
         5     5     5   101
         6     6     6   110
         7     7     7   111
         8     8    10  1000
         9     9    11  1001
        10     A    12  1010
        11     B    13  1011


File: python.info,  Node: 템플릿 문자열,  Next: 도움 함수,  Prev: 포맷 문자열 문법,  Up: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산

5.6.1.6 템플릿 문자열
.....................

템플릿 문자열은 PEP 292(1) 에 설명된 대로 더 간단한 문자열 치환을 제공합
니다.  템플릿 문자열의 주요 사례는 국제화(i18n)입니다.  이 문맥에서, 더
간단한 문법과 기능은 파이썬의 다른 내장 문자열 포매팅 기능보다 번역하기
쉽게 만들기 때문입니다.  i18n을 위해 템플릿 문자열을 기반으로 구축된 라
이브러리의 예는 flufl.i18n(2) 패키지를 보십시오.

템플릿 문자열은 다음 규칙을 사용하여 ‘$’-기반 치환을 지원합니다:

   * ‘$$’ 는 이스케이프입니다.  이것은 하나의 ‘$’ 로 치환됩니다.

   * ‘$identifier’ 는 매핑 키 ‘"identifier"’ 와 일치하는 치환 자리 표시
     자를 지정합니다.  기본적으로, ‘"identifier"’ 는 밑줄이나 ASCII 알파
     벳으로 시작하는 대소문자 구분 없는 ASCII 영숫자(밑줄 포함) 문자열로
     제한됩니다.  ‘$’ 문자 뒤의 첫 번째 비 식별자 문자는 이 자리 표시자
     명세를 종료합니다.

   * ‘${identifier}’ 는 ‘$identifier’ 와 동등합니다.  유효한 식별자 문자
     가 자리 표시자 뒤에 오지만, 자리 표시자의 일부가 아니면 필요합니다,
     가령 ‘"${noun}ification"’.

문자열에 다른 방식으로 ‘$’ 이 등장하면 *note ValueError: 202. 가 발생합
니다.

*note string: d3. 모듈은 이 규칙들을 구현하는 *note Template: 681. 클래
스를 제공합니다.  *note Template: 681. 의 메서드는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 클래스: string.Template (template)

     생성자는 템플릿 문자열 하나를 받아들입니다.

      -- 메서드: substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          템플릿 치환을 수행하고, 새 문자열을 반환합니다.  'mapping' 은
          템플릿의 자리 표시자와 일치하는 키를 가진 임의의 딕셔너리류 객
          체입니다.  또는, 키워드가 자리 표시자인 키워드 인자를 제공 할
          수 있습니다.  'mapping' 및 'kwds' 가 모두 제공되고 중복이 있는
          경우, 'kwds' 의 자리 표시자가 우선합니다.

      -- 메서드: safe_substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          *note substitute(): 1cf2.와 비슷하지만, 'mapping' 과 'kwds' 에
          자리 표시자가 없는 경우, *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시키
          지 않고 원래 자리 표시자가 결과 문자열에 그대로 나타납니다.  또
          한 *note substitute(): 1cf2. 와는 달리, ‘$’ 가 잘못 사용되는 경
          우 *note ValueError: 202. 를 일으키는 대신 단순히 ‘$’ 를 반환
          합니다.

          다른 예외가 여전히 발생할 수 있지만, 이 메서드가 항상 예외를 발
          생시키는 대신 사용 가능한 문자열을 반환하려고 시도하기 때문에
          “안전(safe)” 하다고 합니다.  다른 의미에서, *note
          safe_substitute(): 1cf3. 는 안전하다고 할 수 없습니다.  길 잃
          은(dangling) 구분 기호, 쌍을 이루지 않는 중괄호, 유효한 파이썬
          식별자가 아닌 자리 표시자를 포함하는 잘못된 템플릿을 조용히 무
          시하기 때문입니다.

      -- 메서드: is_valid ()

          Returns ‘False’ if the template has invalid placeholders that
          will cause *note substitute(): 1cf2. to raise *note
          ValueError: 202.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: get_identifiers ()

          Returns a list of the valid identifiers in the template, in
          the order they first appear, ignoring any invalid identifiers.

          Added in version 3.11.

     *note Template: 681. 인스턴스는 공개 데이터 어트리뷰트도 하나 제공
     합니다:

      -- 속성: template

          이것은 생성자의 'template' 인자로 전달된 객체입니다.  일반적으
          로, 변경해서는 안 되지만, 읽기 전용 액세스가 강제되지는 않습니
          다.

다음은 Template 사용 방법의 예입니다:

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
     >>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
     'tim likes kung pao'
     >>> d = dict(who='tim')
     >>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     KeyError: 'what'
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
     'tim likes $what'

고급 사용법: *note Template: 681. 의 서브 클래스를 파생하여, 자리 표시자
문법, 구분 기호 문자 또는 템플릿 문자열을 파싱하는데 사용되는 전체 정규
식을 사용자 정의 할 수 있습니다.  이렇게 하려면, 다음 클래스 어트리뷰트
를 재정의할 수 있습니다:

   * 'delimiter' – 자리 표시자를 도입하는 구분자를 나타내는 리터럴 문자
     열입니다.  기본값은 ‘$’ 입니다.  구현체는 필요할 때 이 문자열에
     *note re.escape(): c06. 를 호출하므로, 이 문자열은 정규식이 '아니어
     야' 합니다.  또한, 클래스 생성 후에 구분자를 변경할 수 없습니다 (즉
     , 다른 구분자는 반드시 서브 클래스의 클래스 이름 공간에 설정해야 합
     니다).

   * 'idpattern' – 중괄호로 둘러싸지 않은 자리 표시자의 패턴을 설명하는
     정규식입니다.  기본값은 정규식 ‘(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)’ 입니다.
     'braceidpattern' 이 ‘None’ 인 경우, 이 패턴은 중괄호가 있는 자리 표
     시자에게도 적용됩니다.

          참고: 기본 'flags' 가 ‘re.IGNORECASE’ 이기 때문에, 패턴
          ‘[a-z]’ 는 비 ASCII 문자와 일치 할 수 있습니다.  이 때문에 정
          규식에 ‘a’ 플래그를 사용했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'braceidpattern' 은 중괄호로 싸여있을 때와 그렇
     지 않을 때 사용되는 별도의 패턴을 정의하는데 사용할 수 있습니다.

   * 'braceidpattern' – 'idpattern' 과 유사하지만, 중괄호로 싸인 자리 표
     시자에 대한 패턴을 설명합니다.  기본값은 ‘None’ 인데, 'idpattern' 을
     사용하는 것을 의미합니다 (즉, 같은 패턴이 중괄호가 있을 때와 없을 때
     모두 사용됩니다).  이 값을 주면, 중괄호가 있을 때와 없을 때의 자리
     표시자에 서로 다른 패턴을 정의 할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

   * 'flags' – 치환 인식에 사용되는 정규식을 컴파일할 때 적용될 정규식 플
     래그입니다.  기본값은 ‘re.IGNORECASE’ 입니다.  ‘re.VERBOSE’ 가 항상
     플래그에 추가되므로, 사용자 정의 'idpattern' 은 상세한 정규식의 규
     칙을 따라야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

또는, 클래스 어트리뷰트 'pattern' 을 재정의하여 전체 정규식 패턴을 제공
할 수 있습니다.  이렇게 하는 경우, 값은 네 개의 이름있는 캡처 그룹이 있
는 정규식 객체여야 합니다.  캡처 그룹은 위에 제공된 규칙과 함께 유효하지
않은 자리 표시자 규칙에 해당합니다:

   * 'escaped' – 이 그룹은 이스케이프 시퀀스를 일치시킵니다, 예를 들어 기
     본 패턴에서 ‘$$’.

   * 'named' – 이 그룹은 중괄호가 없는 자리 표시자 이름을 일치합니다; 캡
     처 그룹에 구분자를 포함해서는 안 됩니다.

   * 'braced' – 이 그룹은 중괄호로 묶인 자리 표시자 이름을 일치시킵니다;
     캡처 그룹에 구분자나 중괄호를 포함해서는 안 됩니다.

   * 'invalid' – 이 그룹은 그 외의 구분자 패턴(일반적으로 단일 구분자)을
     일치시키고, 정규식의 마지막에 나타나야 합니다.

The methods on this class will raise *note ValueError: 202. if the
pattern matches the template without one of these named groups matching.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/

   (2) https://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: 도움 함수,  Prev: 템플릿 문자열,  Up: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산

5.6.1.7 도움 함수
.................

 -- 함수: string.capwords (s, sep=None)

     인자를 *note str.split(): ea0. 을 사용하여 단어로 나누고, *note
     str.capitalize(): 21c3. 를 사용하여 각 단어의 첫 글자를 대문자로 만
     들고, 이렇게 만들어진 단어들을 *note str.join(): 21b3. 을 사용하여
     결합합니다.  선택적 두 번째 인자 'sep' 가 없거나 ‘None’ 이면, 연속
     된 공백 문자는 단일 스페이스로 바뀌고 앞뒤 공백이 제거됩니다.  그렇
     지 않으면 'sep' 가 단어를 나누고 합치는 데 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: re — Regular expression operations,  Next: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미,  Prev: string — 일반적인 문자열 연산,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.2 ‘re’ — Regular expression operations
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/re/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 Perl에 있는 것과 유사한 정규식 일치 연산을 제공합니다.

Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (*note
str: 445.) as well as 8-bit strings (*note bytes: 1c2.).  However,
Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed: that is, you cannot
match a Unicode string with a bytes pattern or vice-versa; similarly,
when asking for a substitution, the replacement string must be of the
same type as both the pattern and the search string.

Regular expressions use the backslash character (‘'\'’) to indicate
special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
their special meaning.  This collides with Python’s usage of the same
character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
a literal backslash, one might have to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the pattern
string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each backslash
must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string literal.  Also,
please note that any invalid escape sequences in Python’s usage of the
backslash in string literals now generate a *note SyntaxWarning: 45f.
and in the future this will become a *note SyntaxError: 18d.  This
behaviour will happen even if it is a valid escape sequence for a
regular expression.

해결책은 정규식 패턴에 파이썬의 날 문자열(raw string) 표기법을 사용하는
것입니다; 역 슬래시는 ‘'r'’ 접두어가 붙은 문자열 리터럴에서 특별한 방법
으로 처리되지 않습니다.  따라서 ‘r"\n"’은 ‘'\'’와 ‘'n'’을 포함하는 두 글
자 문자열이고, ‘"\n"’은 개행을 포함하는 한 글자 문자열입니다.  일반적으
로 패턴은, 이 날 문자열 표기법을 사용하여 파이썬 코드로 표현됩니다.

대부분 정규식 연산은 모듈 수준 함수와 *note 컴파일된 정규식: f7e.의 메서
드로 사용할 수 있다는 점에 유의해야 합니다.  함수는 정규식 객체를 먼저 컴
파일할 필요가 없도록 하는 바로 가기이지만, 일부 미세 조정 매개 변수가 빠
져있습니다.

더 보기
.......

The third-party regex(2) module, which has an API compatible with the
standard library *note re: b9. module, but offers additional
functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.

* Menu:

* 정규식 문법::
* 모듈 내용::
* 정규식 객체::
* 일치 객체::
* 정규식 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/re/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/regex/


File: python.info,  Node: 정규식 문법,  Next: 모듈 내용,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.1 정규식 문법
...................

정규식(또는 RE)은 일치하는 문자열 집합을 지정합니다; 이 모듈의 함수는 특
정 문자열이 주어진 정규식과 일치하는지 확인할 수 있도록 합니다 (또는 주
어진 정규식이 특정 문자열과 일치하는지, 결국 같은 결과를 줍니다).

정규식을 이어붙여서 새로운 정규식을 만들 수 있습니다; 'A'와 'B'가 모두 정
규식이면 'AB'도 정규식입니다.  일반적으로 문자열 'p'가 'A'와 일치하고 다
른 문자열 'q'가 'B'와 일치하면 문자열 'pq'가 AB와 일치합니다.  이것은
'A'나 'B'가 우선순위가 낮은 연산, 'A'와 'B' 사이의 경계 조건 또는 숫자 그
룹 참조를 포함하지 않는 한 성립합니다.  따라서, 복잡한 정규식은 여기에 설
명된 것과 같은 더 단순한 기본 정규식으로 쉽게 구성할 수 있습니다.  정규
식의 이론과 구현에 관한 자세한 내용은 Friedl 책 *note [Frie09]: 22f3, 또
는 컴파일러 작성에 관한 거의 모든 교과서를 참조하십시오.

정규식의 형식에 대한 간단한 설명이 이어집니다.  더 자세한 정보와 더 친절
한 소개는 *note 정규식 HOWTO: 22f4.를 참조하십시오.

정규식은 특수 문자와 일반 문자를 모두 포함 할 수 있습니다.  ‘'A'’, ‘'a'’
또는 ‘'0'’과 같은 대부분의 일반 문자는 가장 단순한 정규식입니다; 그들은
단순히 자신과 일치합니다.  일반 문자를 이어 붙일 수 있어서, ‘last’는
‘'last'’ 문자열과 일치합니다.  (이 절의 나머지 부분에서는, RE를 (보통 따
옴표 없이) ‘이런 특별한 스타일’로, 일치할 문자열은 ‘'작은따옴표 안에'’ 씁
니다.)

‘'|'’나 ‘'('’와 같은 일부 문자는 특수합니다.  특수 문자는 일반 문자의 클
래스를 나타내거나, 그 주변의 정규식이 해석되는 방식에 영향을 줍니다.

Repetition operators or quantifiers (‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, ‘{m,n}’, etc) cannot
be directly nested.  This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier
suffix ‘?’, and with other modifiers in other implementations.  To apply
a second repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used.
For example, the expression ‘(?:a{6})*’ matches any multiple of six
‘'a'’ characters.

특수 문자는 다음과 같습니다:

‘.’

     (Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a
     newline.  If the *note DOTALL: 22f5. flag has been specified, this
     matches any character including a newline.  ‘(?s:.)’ matches any
     character regardless of flags.

‘^’

     (캐럿.)  문자열의 시작과 일치하고, *note MULTILINE: 22f6. 모드에서
     는 각 개행 직후에도 일치합니다.

‘$’

     문자열의 끝이나 문자열 끝의 개행 문자 바로 직전과 일치하고, *note
     MULTILINE: 22f6. 모드에서는 개행 문자 앞에서도 일치합니다.  ‘foo’는
     ‘foo’와 ‘foobar’를 모두 일치시키는 반면, 정규식 ‘foo$’는 ‘foo’ 만 일
     치합니다.  흥미롭게도, ‘'foo1\nfoo2\n'’에서 ‘foo.$’를 검색하면
     ‘foo2’ 는 정상적으로 일치되지만, ‘foo1’은 *note MULTILINE: 22f6. 모
     드에서 검색됩니다; ‘'foo\n'’에서 단일 ‘$’를 검색하면 두 개의 (빈) 일
     치가 발견됩니다: 하나는 개행 직전에, 다른 하나는 문자열 끝에.

‘*’

     결과 RE가 선행 RE의 가능한 한 많은 0회 이상의 반복과 일치하도록 합
     니다.  ‘ab*’는 ‘a’, ‘ab’ 또는 ‘a’ 다음에 임의의 수의 ‘b’가 오는 것
     과 일치합니다.

‘+’

     결과 RE가 선행 RE의 1회 이상의 반복과 일치하도록 합니다.  ‘ab+’는
     ‘a’ 다음에 하나 이상의 ‘b’가 오는 것과 일치합니다; 단지 ‘a’와는 일
     치하지 않습니다.

‘?’

     결과 RE가 선행 RE의 0 또는 1 반복과 일치하도록 합니다.  ‘ab?’는
     ‘a’나 ‘ab’와 일치합니다.

‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’

     The ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers are all 'greedy'; they
     match as much text as possible.  Sometimes this behaviour isn’t
     desired; if the RE ‘<.*>’ is matched against ‘'<a> b <c>'’, it will
     match the entire string, and not just ‘'<a>'’.  Adding ‘?’ after
     the quantifier makes it perform the match in 'non-greedy' or
     'minimal' fashion; as 'few' characters as possible will be matched.
     Using the RE ‘<.*?>’ will match only ‘'<a>'’.

‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’

     Like the ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers, those where ‘'+'’ is
     appended also match as many times as possible.  However, unlike the
     true greedy quantifiers, these do not allow back-tracking when the
     expression following it fails to match.  These are known as
     'possessive' quantifiers.  For example, ‘a*a’ will match ‘'aaaa'’
     because the ‘a*’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’s, but, when the final ‘'a'’
     is encountered, the expression is backtracked so that in the end
     the ‘a*’ ends up matching 3 ‘'a'’s total, and the fourth ‘'a'’ is
     matched by the final ‘'a'’.  However, when ‘a*+a’ is used to match
     ‘'aaaa'’, the ‘a*+’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’, but when the final
     ‘'a'’ fails to find any more characters to match, the expression
     cannot be backtracked and will thus fail to match.  ‘x*+’, ‘x++’
     and ‘x?+’ are equivalent to ‘(?>x*)’, ‘(?>x+)’ and ‘(?>x?)’
     correspondingly.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘{m}’

     선행 RE의 정확히 'm' 복사가 일치하도록 지정합니다; 적은 횟수의 일치
     는 전체 RE가 일치하지 않게 됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘a{6}’는 정확히 6개
     의 ‘'a'’ 문자와 일치하지만, 5개의 문자와는 일치하지 않습니다.

‘{m,n}’

     결과 RE를 선행 RE의 'm'에서 'n' 사이의 최대한 많은 반복과 일치하도
     록 합니다.  예를 들어, ‘a{3,5}’는 3에서 5개의 ‘'a'’ 문자와 일치합니
     다.  'm'을 생략하면 하한값 0이 지정되고, 'n'을 생략하면 무한한 상한
     이 지정됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘a{4,}b’는 ‘'aaaab'’ 나 1000개의 ‘'a'’ 문
     자와 ‘'b'’가 일치하지만, ‘'aaab'’는 일치하지 않습니다.  콤마는 생략
     할 수 없습니다, 그렇지 않으면 한정자가 앞에서 설명한 형식과 혼동될
     수 있습니다.

‘{m,n}?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as 'few' repetitions as possible.
     This is the non-greedy version of the previous quantifier.  For
     example, on the 6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}’ will match
     5 ‘'a'’ characters, while ‘a{3,5}?’ will only match 3 characters.

‘{m,n}+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible
     'without' establishing any backtracking points.  This is the
     possessive version of the quantifier above.  For example, on the
     6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}+aa’ attempt to match 5 ‘'a'’
     characters, then, requiring 2 more ‘'a'’s, will need more
     characters than available and thus fail, while ‘a{3,5}aa’ will
     match with ‘a{3,5}’ capturing 5, then 4 ‘'a'’s by backtracking and
     then the final 2 ‘'a'’s are matched by the final ‘aa’ in the
     pattern.  ‘x{m,n}+’ is equivalent to ‘(?>x{m,n})’.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘\’

     특수 문자를 이스케이프 하거나 (‘'*'’, ‘'?'’ 등의 문자를 일치시킬 수
     있도록 합니다), 특수 시퀀스를 알립니다; 특수 시퀀스는 아래에서 설명
     합니다.

     날 문자열을 사용하여 패턴을 표현하지 않는다면, 파이썬이 문자열 리터
     럴에서 이스케이프 시퀀스로 역 슬래시를 사용한다는 것을 기억하십시오
     ; 이스케이프 시퀀스가 파이썬의 구문 분석기에 의해 인식되지 않으면,
     역 슬래시와 후속 문자가 결과 문자열에 포함됩니다.  그러나 파이썬이
     결과 시퀀스를 인식한다면 역 슬래시는 두 번 반복되어야 합니다.  이것
     은 복잡하고 이해하기 어렵기 때문에, 가장 단순한 표현 이외에는 날 문
     자열을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

‘[]’

     문자 집합을 나타내는 데 사용됩니다.  집합 안에서:

        * 문자는 개별적으로 나열 할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 ‘[amk]’는
          ‘'a'’, ‘'m'’ 또는 ‘'k'’와 일치합니다.

        * 문자의 범위는 ‘'-'’로 구분된 두 문자를 주고는 것으로 나타낼 수
          있습니다, 예를 들어 ‘[a-z]’는 모든 소문자 ASCII 문자와 일치하
          고, ‘[0-5][0-9]’는 ‘00’에서 ‘59’까지의 모든 두 자리 숫자와 일
          치하며, ‘[0-9A-Fa-f]’는 모든 16진수와 일치합니다.  ‘-’가 이스
          케이프 처리되거나 (예를 들어 ‘[a\-z]’) 첫 번째나 마지막 문자로
          배치되면 (예를 들어 ‘[-a]’나 ‘[a-]’) 리터럴 ‘'-'’와 일치합니다
          .

        * Special characters except backslash lose their special meaning
          inside sets.  For example, ‘[(+*)]’ will match any of the
          literal characters ‘'('’, ‘'+'’, ‘'*'’, or ‘')'’.

        * Backslash either escapes characters which have special meaning
          in a set such as ‘'-'’, ‘']'’, ‘'^'’ and ‘'\\'’ itself or
          signals a special sequence which represents a single character
          such as ‘\xa0’ or ‘\n’ or a character class such as ‘\w’ or
          ‘\S’ (defined below).  Note that ‘\b’ represents a single
          “backspace” character, not a word boundary as outside a set,
          and numeric escapes such as ‘\1’ are always octal escapes, not
          group references.  Special sequences which do not match a
          single character such as ‘\A’ and ‘\Z’ are not allowed.

        * 범위 내에 있지 않은 문자는 '여집합(complementing)'을 만들어 일
          치할 수 있습니다.  집합의 첫 번째 문자가 ‘'^'’이면, 집합에 속
          하지 '않은' 모든 문자가 일치합니다.  예를 들어, ‘[^5]’는
          ‘'5'’를 제외한 모든 문자와 일치하며, ‘[^^]’는 ‘'^'’를 제외한 모
          든 문자와 일치합니다.  ‘^’는 집합의 첫 번째 문자가 아닐 때 특
          별한 의미가 없습니다.

        * To match a literal ‘']'’ inside a set, precede it with a
          backslash, or place it at the beginning of the set.  For
          example, both ‘[()[\]{}]’ and ‘[]()[{}]’ will match a right
          bracket, as well as left bracket, braces, and parentheses.

        * 유니코드 기술 표준 #18(1) 에서 정의하는 중첩 집합과 집합 연산
          의 지원이 다음에 추가될 수 있습니다.  이것은 문법을 변경하므로
          , 이 변경을 용이하게 하기 위해 당분간 *note FutureWarning:
          40f.이 모호한 경우에 발생합니다.  여기에는 리터럴 ‘'['’로 시작
          하거나 리터럴 문자 시퀀스 ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’ 및 ‘'||'’가 포
          함된 집합이 포함됩니다.  경고를 피하려면 역 슬래시로 이스케이
          프 처리하십시오.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 문자 집합이 미래에 의미가 변할 구조를 포함하고 있
     다면 *note FutureWarning: 40f.이 발생합니다.

‘|’

     ‘A|B’(여기서 'A'와 'B'는 임의의 RE일 수 있습니다)는 'A'나 'B'와 일
     치하는 정규식을 만듭니다.  이러한 방식으로 임의의 수의 RE를 ‘'|'’로
     분리 할 수 있습니다.  이것은 그룹(아래를 참조하세요)에서도 사용할 수
     있습니다.  대상 문자열이 스캔 될 때 ‘'|'’로 구분된 RE는 왼쪽에서 오
     른쪽으로 시도됩니다.  한 패턴이 완전히 일치하면, 해당 분기가 받아들
     여집니다.  이는 일단 'A'가 일치하면, 'B'는 전체적으로 더 긴 일치를
     생성하더라도 더 검사되지 않는다는 것을 뜻합니다.  즉, ‘'|'’ 연산자
     는 절대로 탐욕적이지 않습니다.  리터럴 ‘'|'’와 일치시키려면, ‘\|’를
     사용하거나, ‘[|]’처럼 문자 클래스 안에 넣으십시오.

‘(...)’

     괄호 안에 있는 정규식과 일치하며, 그룹의 시작과 끝을 나타냅니다; 그
     룹의 내용은 일치가 수행된 후 조회할 수 있으며, 나중에 문자열에서
     ‘\number’ 특수 시퀀스로 일치시킬 수 있습니다 (아래에서 설명됩니다).
     리터럴 ‘'('’나 ‘')'’를 일치시키려면, ‘\(’나 ‘\)’를 사용하거나, 문자
     클래스 안에 넣으십시오: ‘[(]’, ‘[)]’.

‘(?...)’

     이것은 확장 표기법입니다 (그렇지 않으면 ‘'('’ 다음에 오는 ‘'?'``는
     의미가 없습니다). ``'?'’ 다음의 첫 번째 문자는 확장의 의미와 이후의
     문법을 결정합니다.  확장은 대개 새 그룹을 만들지 않습니다; 이 규칙
     에 대한 유일한 예외는 ‘(?P<name>...)’입니다.  다음은 현재 지원되는
     확장입니다.

‘(?aiLmsux)’

     (One or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’.)  The group matches the empty string; the
     letters set the corresponding flags for the entire regular
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 22f7. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 22f8. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 22f9. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 22fa. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 22fb. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 22fc. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 22fd. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note 모듈 내용: 22fe.)  This is useful
     if you wish to include the flags as part of the regular expression,
     instead of passing a 'flag' argument to the *note re.compile():
     bd0. function.  Flags should be used first in the expression
     string.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: This construction can only be used at the start
     of the expression.

‘(?:...)’

     일반 괄호의 비 포착 버전.  괄호 안의 정규식과 일치하지만, 그룹과 일
     치하는 부분 문자열은 일치를 수행한 후 조회하거나 나중에 패턴에서 참
     조할 수 '없습니다'.

‘(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)’

     (Zero or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’, optionally followed by ‘'-'’ followed by one
     or more letters from the ‘'i'’, ‘'m'’, ‘'s'’, ‘'x'’.)  The letters
     set or remove the corresponding flags for the part of the
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 22f7. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 22f8. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 22f9. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 22fa. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 22fb. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 22fc. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 22fd. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note 모듈 내용: 22fe.)

     The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ are mutually exclusive when used
     as inline flags, so they can’t be combined or follow ‘'-'’.
     Instead, when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides
     the matching mode in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns
     ‘(?a:...)’ switches to ASCII-only matching, and ‘(?u:...)’ switches
     to Unicode matching (default).  In bytes patterns ‘(?L:...)’
     switches to locale dependent matching, and ‘(?a:...)’ switches to
     ASCII-only matching (default).  This override is only in effect for
     the narrow inline group, and the original matching mode is restored
     outside of the group.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 문자 ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ 및 ‘'u'’도 그룹에서 사용할 수
     있습니다.

‘(?>...)’

     Attempts to match ‘...’ as if it was a separate regular expression,
     and if successful, continues to match the rest of the pattern
     following it.  If the subsequent pattern fails to match, the stack
     can only be unwound to a point 'before' the ‘(?>...)’ because once
     exited, the expression, known as an 'atomic group', has thrown away
     all stack points within itself.  Thus, ‘(?>.*).’ would never match
     anything because first the ‘.*’ would match all characters
     possible, then, having nothing left to match, the final ‘.’ would
     fail to match.  Since there are no stack points saved in the Atomic
     Group, and there is no stack point before it, the entire expression
     would thus fail to match.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘(?P<name>...)’

     Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the
     group is accessible via the symbolic group name 'name'.  Group
     names must be valid Python identifiers, and in *note bytes: 1c2.
     patterns they can only contain bytes in the ASCII range.  Each
     group name must be defined only once within a regular expression.
     A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group
     were not named.

     이름 있는 그룹은 세 가지 문맥에서 참조될 수 있습니다.  패턴이
     ‘(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote)’면 (즉, 작은따옴표나 큰따옴표로 인용
     된 문자열과 일치):

     그룹 “quote”에 대한 참조 문맥               참조하는 방법
                                                 
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     같은 패턴 자체에서                             * ‘(?P=quote)’ (보이는 대로)
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 
                                                 
     일치 객체 'm'을 처리할 때                      * ‘m.group('quote')’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘m.end('quote')’ (등)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘re.sub()’의 'repl' 인자로 전달되는 문자       * ‘\g<quote>’
     열에서                                      
                                                    * ‘\g<1>’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 

     버전 3.12에서 변경: In *note bytes: 1c2. patterns, group 'name' can
     only contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

‘(?P=name)’

     이름있는 그룹에 대한 역참조; 'name'이라는 이름의 앞선 그룹과 일치하
     는 텍스트와 일치합니다.

‘(?#...)’

     주석; 괄호의 내용은 단순히 무시됩니다.

‘(?=...)’

     ‘...’가 다음과 일치하면 일치하지만, 문자열을 소비하지는 않습니다.  이
     를 '미리 보기 어서션 (lookahead assertion)'이라고 합니다.  예를 들
     어, ‘Isaac (?=Asimov)’는 ‘'Asimov'’가 뒤따를 때만 ‘'Isaac '’과 일치
     합니다.

‘(?!...)’

     ‘...’가 다음과 일치하지 않으면 일치합니다.  이것은 '부정적인 미리 보
     기 어서션 (negative lookahead assertion)'입니다.  예를 들어, ‘Isaac
     (?!Asimov)’는 ‘'Asimov'’가 뒤따르지 '않을' 때 만 ‘'Isaac '’과 일치
     합니다.

‘(?<=...)’

     문자열의 현재 위치 앞에 현재 위치에서 끝나는 ‘...’와의 일치가 있으
     면 일치합니다.  이를 '긍정적인 되돌아보기 어서션 (positive
     lookbehind assertion)'이라고 합니다.  되돌아보기가 3문자를 백업하고
     포함된 패턴이 일치하는지 확인하기 때문에 ‘(?<=abc)def’는
     ‘'abcdef'’에서 일치를 찾습니다.  포함된 패턴은 고정 길이의 문자열과
     일치해야 합니다, 즉, ‘abc’나 ‘a|b’는 허용되지만, ‘a*’와 ‘a{3,4}’는
     허용되지 않습니다.  긍정적인 되돌아보기 어서션으로 시작하는 패턴은
     검색되는 문자열의 시작 부분에서 일치하지 않음에 유의하십시오; *note
     match(): 121d. 함수보다는 *note search(): 121c. 함수를 사용하기를 원
     할 것입니다:

          >>> import re
          >>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'def'

     이 예에서는 하이픈 다음의 단어를 찾습니다:

          >>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'egg'

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 고정 길이의 그룹 참조에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니
     다.

‘(?<!...)’

     문자열의 현재 위치 앞에 ‘...’와의 일치가 없으면 일치합니다.  이를
     '부정적인 뒤돌아보기 어서션 (negative lookbehind assertion)'이라고
     합니다.  긍정적인 뒤돌아보기 어서션과 마찬가지로, 포함된 패턴은 고
     정 길이의 문자열과 일치해야 합니다.  부정적인 뒤돌아보기 어서션으로
     시작하는 패턴은 검색되는 문자열의 시작 부분에서 일치 할 수 있습니다
     .

‘(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)’

     주어진 'id'나 'name'의 그룹이 있으면 ‘yes-pattern’과, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘no-pattern’과 일치하려고 시도합니다.  ‘no-pattern’은 선택적이며 생
     략될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)’는
     정교하지 않은 전자 메일 일치 패턴인데, ‘'<user@host.com>'’ 및
     ‘'user@host.com'’과 일치하지만, ‘'<user@host.com'’이나
     ‘'user@host.com>'’과는 일치하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.  In
     *note bytes: 1c2. patterns, group 'name' can only contain bytes in
     the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

특수 시퀀스는 ‘'\'’와 아래 목록의 문자로 구성됩니다.  일반 문자가 ASCII
숫자나 ASCII 글자가 아니면, 결과 RE는 두 번째 문자와 일치합니다.  예를 들
어, ‘\$’는 문자 ‘'$'’와 일치합니다.

‘\number’

     같은 번호의 그룹 내용과 일치합니다.  그룹은 1부터 번호가 매겨집니다
     .  예를 들어, ‘(.+) \1’은 ‘'the the'’나 ‘'55 55'’와 일치하지만,
     ‘'thethe'’와는 일치하지 않습니다 (그룹 뒤의 공백에 유의하십시오).  이
     특수 시퀀스는 첫 99개 그룹 중 하나와 일치하는 데에만 사용될 수 있습
     니다.  'number'의 첫 자릿수가 0이거나, 'number'가 3 자릿수면, 그룹
     일치로 해석되지 않고, 8진수 값 'number'를 갖는 문자로 해석됩니다.  문
     자 클래스의 ‘'['’와 ‘']'’ 안에서는, 모든 숫자 이스케이프가 문자로 처
     리됩니다.

‘\A’

     문자열의 시작 부분에서만 일치합니다.

‘\b’

     Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a
     word.  A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note
     that formally, ‘\b’ is defined as the boundary between a ‘\w’ and a
     ‘\W’ character (or vice versa), or between ‘\w’ and the beginning
     or end of the string.  This means that ‘r'\bat\b'’ matches ‘'at'’,
     ‘'at.'’, ‘'(at)'’, and ‘'as at ay'’ but not ‘'attempt'’ or
     ‘'atlas'’.

     The default word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode
     alphanumerics and the underscore, but this can be changed by using
     the *note ASCII: 626. flag.  Word boundaries are determined by the
     current locale if the *note LOCALE: b69. flag is used.

          참고: Inside a character range, ‘\b’ represents the backspace
          character, for compatibility with Python’s string literals.

‘\B’

     Matches the empty string, but only when it is 'not' at the
     beginning or end of a word.  This means that ‘r'at\B'’ matches
     ‘'athens'’, ‘'atom'’, ‘'attorney'’, but not ‘'at'’, ‘'at.'’, or
     ‘'at!'’.  ‘\B’ is the opposite of ‘\b’, so word characters in
     Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore,
     although this can be changed by using the *note ASCII: 626. flag.
     Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the *note
     LOCALE: b69. flag is used.

          참고: Note that ‘\B’ does not match an empty string, which
          differs from RE implementations in other programming languages
          such as Perl.  This behavior is kept for compatibility
          reasons.

‘\d’

     유니코드 (str) 패턴일 때:

          Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
          Unicode character category [Nd](2)).  This includes ‘[0-9]’,
          and also many other digit characters.

          Matches ‘[0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used.

     8비트 (bytes) 패턴일 때:

          Matches any decimal digit in the ASCII character set; this is
          equivalent to ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any character which is not a decimal digit.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\d’.

     Matches ‘[^0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used.

‘\s’

     유니코드 (str) 패턴일 때:

          Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by *note
          str.isspace(): 21cc.).  This includes ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’, and
          also many other characters, for example the non-breaking
          spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.

          Matches ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used.

     8비트 (bytes) 패턴일 때:

          ASCII 문자 집합에서 공백으로 간주하는 문자와 일치합니다; 이것
          은 ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’와 동등합니다.

‘\S’

     Matches any character which is not a whitespace character.  This is
     the opposite of ‘\s’.

     Matches ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used.

‘\w’

     유니코드 (str) 패턴일 때:

          Matches Unicode word characters; this includes all Unicode
          alphanumeric characters (as defined by *note str.isalnum():
          21c5.), as well as the underscore (‘_’).

          Matches ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used.

     8비트 (bytes) 패턴일 때:

          Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the
          *note LOCALE: b69. flag is used, matches characters considered
          alphanumeric in the current locale and the underscore.

‘\W’

     Matches any character which is not a word character.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\w’.  By default, matches non-underscore (‘_’)
     characters for which *note str.isalnum(): 21c5. returns ‘False’.

     Matches ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used.

     If the *note LOCALE: b69. flag is used, matches characters which
     are neither alphanumeric in the current locale nor the underscore.

‘\Z’

     문자열 끝에만 일치합니다.

Most of the *note escape sequences: 453. supported by Python string
literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:

     \a      \b      \f      \n
     \N      \r      \t      \u
     \U      \v      \x      \\

(‘\b’는 단어 경계를 나타내는 데 사용되며, 문자 클래스 내에서만 “백스페이
스”를 의미함에 유의하십시오.)

‘'\u'’, ‘'\U'’, and ‘'\N'’ escape sequences are only recognized in
Unicode (str) patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown
escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and treated as
errors.

8진수 이스케이프는 제한된 형식으로 포함됩니다.  첫 번째 숫자가 0이거나,
3개의 8진수가 있으면, 8진수 이스케이프로 간주합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 그
룹 참조입니다.  문자열 리터럴과 마찬가지로, 8진수 이스케이프 길이는 항상
최대 3자리입니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘'\u'’와 ‘'\U'’ 이스케이프 시퀀스가 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘'\'’와 ASCII 글자로 구성된 알 수 없는 이스케이프는 이
제 에러입니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: The ‘'\N{NAME}'’ escape sequence has been added.  As
in string literals, it expands to the named Unicode character (e.g.
‘'\N{EM DASH}'’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf#G134153


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용,  Next: 정규식 객체,  Prev: 정규식 문법,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.2 모듈 내용
.................

모듈은 몇 가지 함수, 상수 및 예외를 정의합니다.  함수 중 일부는 컴파일된
정규식의 모든 기능을 갖춘 메서드의 단순화된 버전입니다.  대부분의 사소하
지 않은 응용 프로그램은 항상 컴파일된 형식을 사용합니다.

* Menu:

* Flags::
* Functions::
* Exceptions::


File: python.info,  Node: Flags,  Next: Functions,  Up: 모듈 내용

5.6.2.3 Flags
.............

버전 3.6에서 변경: 플래그 상수는 이제 *note enum.IntFlag: 2302.의 서브 클
래스인 *note RegexFlag: 627.의 인스턴스입니다.

 -- 클래스: re.RegexFlag

     An *note enum.IntFlag: 2302. class containing the regex options
     listed below.

     Added in version 3.11: - added to ‘__all__’

 -- 데이터: re.A
 -- 데이터: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\d’, ‘\D’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform
     ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
     meaningful for Unicode (str) patterns, and is ignored for bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?a)’.

          참고: The *note U: 22fc. flag still exists for backward
          compatibility, but is redundant in Python 3 since matches are
          Unicode by default for ‘str’ patterns, and Unicode matching
          isn’t allowed for bytes patterns.  *note UNICODE: b6a. and the
          inline flag ‘(?u)’ are similarly redundant.

 -- 데이터: re.DEBUG

     Display debug information about compiled expression.

     No corresponding inline flag.

 -- 데이터: re.I
 -- 데이터: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ‘[A-Z]’ will
     also match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as ‘Ü’
     matching ‘ü’) also works unless the *note ASCII: 626. flag is used
     to disable non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change
     the effect of this flag unless the *note LOCALE: b69. flag is also
     used.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?i)’.

     Note that when the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’ are used in
     combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 172c. flag, they will match
     the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: ‘İ’
     (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), ‘ı’ (U+0131, Latin
     small letter dotless i), ‘ſ’ (U+017F, Latin small letter long s)
     and ‘K’ (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  If the *note ASCII: 626. flag is
     used, only letters ‘a’ to ‘z’ and ‘A’ to ‘Z’ are matched.

 -- 데이터: re.L
 -- 데이터: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?L)’.

          경고: This flag is discouraged; consider Unicode matching
          instead.  The locale mechanism is very unreliable as it only
          handles one “culture” at a time and only works with 8-bit
          locales.  Unicode matching is enabled by default for Unicode
          (str) patterns and it is able to handle different locales and
          languages.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note LOCALE: b69. can be used only with bytes
     patterns and is not compatible with *note ASCII: 626.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Compiled regular expression objects with the
     *note LOCALE: b69. flag no longer depend on the locale at compile
     time.  Only the locale at matching time affects the result of
     matching.

 -- 데이터: re.M
 -- 데이터: re.MULTILINE

     When specified, the pattern character ‘'^'’ matches at the
     beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line
     (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character
     ‘'$'’ matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line
     (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, ‘'^'’ matches
     only at the beginning of the string, and ‘'$'’ only at the end of
     the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end
     of the string.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?m)’.

 -- 데이터: re.NOFLAG

     Indicates no flag being applied, the value is ‘0’.  This flag may
     be used as a default value for a function keyword argument or as a
     base value that will be conditionally ORed with other flags.
     Example of use as a default value:

          def myfunc(text, flag=re.NOFLAG):
              return re.match(text, flag)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: re.S
 -- 데이터: re.DOTALL

     Make the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?s)’.

 -- 데이터: re.U
 -- 데이터: re.UNICODE

     In Python 3, Unicode characters are matched by default for ‘str’
     patterns.  This flag is therefore redundant with 'no effect' and is
     only kept for backward compatibility.

     See *note ASCII: 626. to restrict matching to ASCII characters
     instead.

 -- 데이터: re.X
 -- 데이터: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer
     and are more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical
     sections of the pattern and add comments.  Whitespace within the
     pattern is ignored, except when in a character class, or when
     preceded by an unescaped backslash, or within tokens like ‘*?’,
     ‘(?:’ or ‘(?P<...>’.  For example, ‘(? :’ and ‘* ?’ are not
     allowed.  When a line contains a ‘#’ that is not in a character
     class and is not preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters
     from the leftmost such ‘#’ through the end of the line are ignored.

     이것은 십진수와 일치하는 다음 두 정규식 객체는 기능적으로 같음을 뜻
     합니다:

          a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
                             \.    # the decimal point
                             \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
          b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")

     인라인 플래그 ‘(?x)’ 에 해당합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions,  Next: Exceptions,  Prev: Flags,  Up: 모듈 내용

5.6.2.4 Functions
.................

 -- 함수: re.compile (pattern, flags=0)

     정규식 패턴을 *note 정규식 객체: f7e.로 컴파일합니다.  정규식 객체
     는 아래에 설명되는 *note match(): 2307, *note search(): 2308. 및 기
     타 메서드를 일치시키는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     시퀀스

          prog = re.compile(pattern)
          result = prog.match(string)

     는 다음과 동등합니다

          result = re.match(pattern, string)

     하지만 정규식이 단일 프로그램에서 여러 번 사용될 때, *note
     re.compile(): bd0.을 사용하고 결과 정규식 객체를 저장하여 재사용하
     는 것이 더 효율적입니다.

          참고: *note re.compile(): bd0.과 모듈 수준 일치 함수에 전달된
          가장 최근 패턴의 컴파일된 버전이 캐시 되므로, 한 번에 몇 가지
          정규식만 사용하는 프로그램은 정규식 컴파일에 대해 신경 쓸 필요
          가 없습니다.

 -- 함수: re.search (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where the
     regular expression 'pattern' produces a match, and return a
     corresponding *note Match: cc5.  Return ‘None’ if no position in
     the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from
     finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- 함수: re.match (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If zero or more characters at the beginning of 'string' match the
     regular expression 'pattern', return a corresponding *note Match:
     cc5.  Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note
     that this is different from a zero-length match.

     *note MULTILINE: 22f6. 모드에서도, *note re.match(): 121d.는 각 줄
     의 시작 부분이 아니라 문자열의 시작 부분에서만 일치함에 유의하십시
     오.

     'string'의 모든 위치에서 일치를 찾으려면, 대신 *note search():
     121c.를 사용하십시오 (*note search() 대 match(): 2309.도 참조하십시
     오).

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- 함수: re.fullmatch (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If the whole 'string' matches the regular expression 'pattern',
     return a corresponding *note Match: cc5.  Return ‘None’ if the
     string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from
     a zero-length match.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: re.split (pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)

     'string'을 'pattern'으로 나눕니다.  'pattern'에서 포착하는 괄호가 사
     용되면 패턴의 모든 그룹 텍스트도 결과 리스트의 일부로 반환됩니다.
     'maxsplit'이 0이 아니면, 최대 'maxsplit' 분할이 발생하고, 나머지 문
     자열이 리스트의 마지막 요소로 반환됩니다.

          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', maxsplit=1)
          ['Words', 'words, words.']
          >>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          ['0', '3', '9']

     구분자에 포착하는 그룹이 있고 문자열 시작 부분에서 일치하면, 결과는
     빈 문자열로 시작됩니다.  문자열의 끝에 대해서도 마찬가지입니다:

          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
          ['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']

     그런 식으로, 구분자 구성 요소는 항상 결과 리스트 내의 같은 상대 인
     덱스에서 발견됩니다.

     Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can
     occur immediately after a non-empty match.

          >>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
          >>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
          ['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
          ['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 선택적 flags 인자를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 빈 문자열과 일치 할 수 있는 패턴으로 분할하는 지
     원을 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: Passing 'maxsplit' and 'flags' as positional
     arguments is deprecated.  In future Python versions they will be
     *note keyword-only parameters: 2a5.

 -- 함수: re.findall (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return all non-overlapping matches of 'pattern' in 'string', as a
     list of strings or tuples.  The 'string' is scanned left-to-right,
     and matches are returned in the order found.  Empty matches are
     included in the result.

     The result depends on the number of capturing groups in the
     pattern.  If there are no groups, return a list of strings matching
     the whole pattern.  If there is exactly one group, return a list of
     strings matching that group.  If multiple groups are present,
     return a list of tuples of strings matching the groups.
     Non-capturing groups do not affect the form of the result.

          >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
          ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
          >>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
          [('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 비어 있지 않은 일치는 이제 이전의 비어 있는 일치
     직후에 시작할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: re.finditer (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return an *note iterator: 1ac. yielding *note Match: cc5. objects
     over all non-overlapping matches for the RE 'pattern' in 'string'.
     The 'string' is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
     the order found.  Empty matches are included in the result.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 비어 있지 않은 일치는 이제 이전의 비어 있는 일치
     직후에 시작할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: re.sub (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     'string'에서 겹치지 않는 'pattern'의 가장 왼쪽 일치를 'repl'로 치환
     하여 얻은 문자열을 반환합니다.  패턴을 찾지 못하면, 'string'이 변경
     되지 않고 반환됩니다.  'repl'은 문자열이나 함수가 될 수 있습니다; 문
     자열이면 모든 역 슬래시 이스케이프가 처리됩니다.  즉, ‘\n’은 단일 개
     행 문자로 변환되고, ‘\r’는 캐리지 리턴으로 변환되고, 등등.  알 수 없
     는 ASCII 글자 이스케이프는 나중에 사용하기 위해 예약되어 있으며 에
     러로 처리됩니다.  ‘\&’와 같은 다른 알려지지 않은 이스케이프는 그대
     로 있습니다.  ‘\6’과 같은 역참조는 패턴에서 그룹 6과 일치하는 부분
     문자열로 치환됩니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
          ...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
          ...        'def myfunc():')
          'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'

     If 'repl' is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping
     occurrence of 'pattern'.  The function takes a single *note Match:
     cc5. argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example:

          >>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
          ...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
          ...     else: return '-'
          ...
          >>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
          'pro--gram files'
          >>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          'Baked Beans & Spam'

     The pattern may be a string or a *note Pattern: 17e4.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     If omitted or zero, all occurrences will be replaced.

     Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can
     occur immediately after a non-empty match.  As a result, ‘sub('x*',
     '-', 'abxd')’ returns ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’.

     문자열형 'repl' 인자에서, 위에 설명된 문자 이스케이프와 역참조 외에
     , ‘\g<name>’는 ‘(?P<name>...)’ 문법으로 정의한 ‘name’이라는 그룹에
     일치하는 부분 문자열을 사용합니다.  ‘\g<number>’는 해당 그룹 번호를
     사용합니다; 따라서 ‘\g<2>’는 ‘\2’와 동등하지만, ‘\g<2>0’와 같은 치
     환에서 모호하지 않습니다.  ‘\20’은 그룹 2에 대한 참조에 리터럴 문자
     ‘'0'’이 뒤에 오는 것이 아니라, 그룹 20에 대한 참조로 해석됩니다.  역
     참조 ‘\g<0>’은 RE와 일치하는 전체 부분 문자열을 치환합니다.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 선택적 flags 인자를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 일치하지 않는 그룹은 빈 문자열로 치환됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'pattern'의 ‘'\'’와 ASCII 글자(letter)로 구성된
     알 수 없는 이스케이프는 이제 에러입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Unknown escapes in 'repl' consisting of ‘'\'’
     and an ASCII letter now are errors.  An empty match can occur
     immediately after a non-empty match.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.  In
     *note bytes: 1c2. replacement strings, group 'name' can only
     contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: Passing 'count' and 'flags' as positional
     arguments is deprecated.  In future Python versions they will be
     *note keyword-only parameters: 2a5.

 -- 함수: re.subn (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     *note sub(): 2a3.와 같은 연산을 수행하지만, 튜플 ‘(new_string,
     number_of_subs_made)’를 반환합니다.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2301. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- 함수: re.escape (pattern)

     'pattern'에서 특수 문자를 이스케이프 처리합니다.  이것은 정규식 메
     타 문자가 포함되어있을 수 있는 임의의 리터럴 문자열을 일치시키려는
     경우에 유용합니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> print(re.escape('https://www.python.org'))
          https://www\.python\.org

          >>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
          >>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
          [abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+

          >>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
          >>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
          /|\-|\+|\*\*|\*

     이 함수는 *note sub(): 2a3.와 *note subn(): 2a4.의 치환 문자열에 사
     용하면 안 되며, 역 슬래시만 이스케이프 해야 합니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> digits_re = r'\d+'
          >>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
          >>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
          /usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings

     버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘'_'’ 문자는 더는 이스케이프 되지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 정규식에서 특별한 의미를 가질 수 있는 문자만 이
     스케이프 됩니다.  결과적으로, ‘'!'’, ‘'"'’, ‘'%'’, ‘"'"’, ‘','’,
     ‘'/'’, ‘':'’, ‘';'’, ‘'<'’, ‘'='’, ‘'>'’, ‘'@'’ 및 ‘‘”’'는 더는 이
     스케이프 되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: re.purge ()

     정규식 캐시를 지웁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions,  Prev: Functions,  Up: 모듈 내용

5.6.2.5 Exceptions
..................

 -- 예외: re.PatternError (msg, pattern=None, pos=None)

     Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here
     is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain
     unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during
     compilation or matching.  It is never an error if a string contains
     no match for a pattern.  The ‘PatternError’ instance has the
     following additional attributes:

      -- 속성: msg

          포맷되지 않은 에러 메시지.

      -- 속성: pattern

          정규식 패턴.

      -- 속성: pos

          컴파일이 실패한 위치를 가리키는 'pattern'의 인덱스 (‘None’일 수
          있습니다).

      -- 속성: lineno

          'pos'에 해당하는 줄 (‘None’일 수 있습니다).

      -- 속성: colno

          'pos'에 해당하는 열 (‘None’일 수 있습니다).

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 추가 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘PatternError’ was originally named ‘error’;
     the latter is kept as an alias for backward compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: 정규식 객체,  Next: 일치 객체,  Prev: 모듈 내용,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.6 정규식 객체
...................

 -- 클래스: re.Pattern

     Compiled regular expression object returned by *note re.compile():
     bd0.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: *note re.Pattern: 17e4. supports ‘[]’ to
     indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern.  See *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 메서드: Pattern.search (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where this
     regular expression produces a match, and return a corresponding
     *note Match: cc5.  Return ‘None’ if no position in the string
     matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a
     zero-length match at some point in the string.

     선택적 두 번째 매개 변수 'pos'는 검색을 시작할 문자열의 인덱스를 제
     공합니다; 기본값은 ‘0’입니다.  이것은 문자열을 슬라이싱하는 것과 완
     전히 동등하지는 않습니다; ‘'^'’ 패턴 문자는 문자열의 실제 시작 부분
     과 개행 직후의 위치에서 일치하지만, 검색을 시작할 색인에서 반드시 일
     치하지는 않습니다.

     선택적 매개 변수 'endpos'는 문자열을 어디까지 검색할지를 제한합니다
     ; 문자열이 'endpos' 문자 길이인 것처럼 취급되어, 일치를 찾기 위해
     'pos'에서 ‘endpos - 1’까지의 문자만 검색됩니다.  'endpos'가 'pos'보
     다 작으면 일치는 없습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 'rx'가 컴파일된 정규식 객
     체일 때, ‘rx.search(string, 0, 50)’는 ‘rx.search(string[:50], 0)’와
     동등합니다.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("d")
          >>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
          >>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"

 -- 메서드: Pattern.match (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If zero or more characters at the 'beginning' of 'string' match
     this regular expression, return a corresponding *note Match: cc5.
     Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note that
     this is different from a zero-length match.

     선택적 'pos'와 'endpos' 매개 변수는 *note search(): 2308. 메서드에
     서와 같은 의미입니다.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o")
          >>> pattern.match("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.match("dog", 1)   # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>

     'string'의 임의 위치에서 일치를 찾으려면, 대신 *note search():
     2308.를 사용하십시오 (*note search() 대 match(): 2309.도 참조하십시
     오).

 -- 메서드: Pattern.fullmatch (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If the whole 'string' matches this regular expression, return a
     corresponding *note Match: cc5.  Return ‘None’ if the string does
     not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
     zero-length match.

     선택적 'pos'와 'endpos' 매개 변수는 *note search(): 2308. 메서드에
     서와 같은 의미입니다.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: Pattern.split (string, maxsplit=0)

     *note split(): 2a2. 함수와 같은데, 컴파일된 패턴을 사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: Pattern.findall (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     *note findall(): 1020. 함수와 유사한데, 컴파일된 패턴을 사용합니다.
     하지만, *note search(): 121c.처럼 검색 영역을 제한하는 선택적
     'pos'와 'endpos' 매개 변수도 받아들입니다.

 -- 메서드: Pattern.finditer (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     *note finditer(): 14c2. 함수와 유사한데, 컴파일된 패턴을 사용합니다
     .  하지만, *note search(): 121c.처럼 검색 영역을 제한하는 선택적
     'pos'와 'endpos' 매개 변수도 받아들입니다.

 -- 메서드: Pattern.sub (repl, string, count=0)

     *note sub(): 2a3. 함수와 같은데, 컴파일된 패턴을 사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: Pattern.subn (repl, string, count=0)

     *note subn(): 2a4. 함수와 같은데, 컴파일된 패턴을 사용합니다.

 -- 속성: Pattern.flags

     The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given
     to *note compile(): bd0, any ‘(?...)’ inline flags in the pattern,
     and implicit flags such as *note UNICODE: b6a. if the pattern is a
     Unicode string.

 -- 속성: Pattern.groups

     패턴에 있는 포착 그룹 수.

 -- 속성: Pattern.groupindex

     ‘(?P<id>)’로 정의된 기호 그룹 이름을 그룹 번호에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.
     패턴에 기호 그룹이 사용되지 않으면 딕셔너리는 비어 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Pattern.pattern

     패턴 객체가 컴파일된 패턴 문자열.

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note copy.copy(): 52d.와 *note copy.deepcopy(): b6b.
지원이 추가되었습니다.  컴파일된 정규식 객체는 원자적이라고 간주합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 일치 객체,  Next: 정규식 예제,  Prev: 정규식 객체,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.7 일치 객체
.................

일치 객체는 항상 불리언 값 ‘True’를 가집니다.  *note match(): 2307.와
*note search(): 2308.는 일치가 없을 때 ‘None’을 반환하기 때문에, 간단한
‘if’ 문으로 일치가 있는지 검사할 수 있습니다:

     match = re.search(pattern, string)
     if match:
         process(match)

 -- 클래스: re.Match

     Match object returned by successful ‘match’es and ‘search’es.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: *note re.Match: cc5. supports ‘[]’ to indicate a
     Unicode (str) or bytes match.  See *note 제네릭 에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 메서드: Match.expand (template)

     Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the
     template string 'template', as done by the *note sub(): 2315.
     method.  Escapes such as ‘\n’ are converted to the appropriate
     characters, and numeric backreferences (‘\1’, ‘\2’) and named
     backreferences (‘\g<1>’, ‘\g<name>’) are replaced by the contents
     of the corresponding group.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’ will be
     replaced by the entire match.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 일치하지 않는 그룹은 빈 문자열로 치환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Match.group ([group1, ...])

     일치의 하나 이상의 서브 그룹을 반환합니다.  단일 인자가 있으면, 결
     과는 단일 문자열입니다; 인자가 여러 개면, 결과는 인자당 하나의 항목
     이 있는 튜플입니다.  인자가 없으면, 'group1'의 기본값은 0입니다 (전
     체 일치가 반환됩니다).  'groupN' 인자가 0이면, 해당 반환 값은 전체
     일치 문자열입니다; 경계를 포함하는 범위 [1..99]에 있으면, 해당 괄호
     로 묶은 그룹과 일치하는 문자열입니다.  그룹 번호가 음수이거나 패턴
     에 정의된 그룹 수보다 크면, *note IndexError: 14fc. 예외가 발생합니
     다.  패턴이 일치하지 않는 부분에 그룹이 포함되어 있으면, 해당 결과
     는 ‘None’입니다.  그룹이 여러 번 일치하는 패턴의 일부에 포함되어 있
     으면, 마지막 일치가 반환됩니다.

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'
          >>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
          ('Isaac', 'Newton')

     정규식이 ‘(?P<name>...)’ 문법을 사용하면, 'groupN' 인자는 그룹 이름
     으로 그룹을 식별하는 문자열일 수도 있습니다.  문자열 인자가 패턴의
     그룹 이름으로 사용되지 않으면, *note IndexError: 14fc. 예외가 발생
     합니다.

     적당히 복잡한 예:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.group('first_name')
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group('last_name')
          'Reynolds'

     이름있는 그룹은 인덱스로 참조할 수도 있습니다:

          >>> m.group(1)
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group(2)
          'Reynolds'

     그룹이 여러 번 일치하면, 마지막 일치만 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
          >>> m.group(1)                        # Returns only the last match.
          'c3'

 -- 메서드: Match.__getitem__ (g)

     이것은 ‘m.group(g)’와 같습니다.  일치에서 개별 그룹에 더 쉽게 액세
     스 할 수 있게 합니다:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m[0]       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'

     Named groups are supported as well:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Isaac Newton")
          >>> m['first_name']
          'Isaac'
          >>> m['last_name']
          'Newton'

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 메서드: Match.groups (default=None)

     1에서 패턴에 있는 그룹의 수까지, 일치의 모든 서브 그룹을 포함하는 튜
     플을 반환합니다.  'default' 인자는 일치에 참여하지 않은 그룹에 사용
     됩니다; 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
          >>> m.groups()
          ('24', '1632')

     우리가 소수점과 그 이후의 모든 것을 선택적으로 만들면, 모든 그룹이
     일치에 참여하지 않을 수 있습니다.  이 그룹은 'default' 인자가 주어
     지지 않는 한 기본값 ‘None’이 됩니다:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
          >>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
          ('24', None)
          >>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
          ('24', '0')

 -- 메서드: Match.groupdict (default=None)

     일치의 모든 '이름 있는' 서브 그룹을 포함하고, 서브 그룹의 이름을 키
     로 사용하는 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  'default' 인자는 일치에 참여하
     지 않은 그룹에 사용됩니다; 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.groupdict()
          {'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}

 -- 메서드: Match.start ([group])
 -- 메서드: Match.end ([group])

     'group'과 일치하는 부분 문자열의 시작과 끝 인덱스를 반환합니다;
     'group'의 기본값은 0입니다 (전체 일치 문자열을 뜻합니다).  'group'이
     있지만, 일치에 기여하지 않으면, ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  일치 객체 'm'과
     일치에 기여한 그룹 'g'에서, 그룹 'g'와 일치하는 부분 문자열
     (‘m.group(g)’와 동등합니다)은 다음과 같습니다

          m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]

     'group'이 널 문자열과 일치하면 ‘m.start(group)’은 ‘m.end(group)’와
     같음에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, ‘m = re.search('b(c?)', 'cba')’ 이
     후에, ‘m.start(0)’은 1이고, ‘m.end(0)’은 2이며, ‘m.start(1)’과
     ‘m.end(1)’은 모두 2이고, ‘m.start(2)’는 *note IndexError: 14fc. 예
     외를 발생시킵니다.

     전자 메일 주소에서 'remove_this'를 제거하는 예:

          >>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
          >>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
          >>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
          'tony@tiger.net'

 -- 메서드: Match.span ([group])

     일치가 'm'일 때, 2-튜플 ‘(m.start(group), m.end(group))’를 반환합니
     다.  'group'이 일치에 기여하지 않으면, 이것은 ‘(-1, -1)’임에 유의하
     십시오.  'group'의 기본값은 0으로, 전체 일치입니다.

 -- 속성: Match.pos

     *note 정규식 객체: f7e.의 *note search(): 2308.나 *note match():
     2307. 메서드에 전달된 'pos' 값.  이것은 RE 엔진이 일치를 찾기 시작
     한 string에 대한 인덱스입니다.

 -- 속성: Match.endpos

     *note 정규식 객체: f7e.의 *note search(): 2308.나 *note match():
     2307. 메서드에 전달된 'endpos' 값.  이것은 RE 엔진이 넘어가지 않을
     string에 대한 인덱스입니다.

 -- 속성: Match.lastindex

     마지막으로 일치하는 포착 그룹의 정수 인덱스, 또는 그룹이 전혀 일치
     하지 않으면 ‘None’.  예를 들어, 정규식 ‘(a)b’, ‘((a)(b))’ 및
     ‘((ab))’는 문자열 ‘'ab'’에 적용될 경우 ‘lastindex == 1’이 되지만,
     ‘(a)(b)’ 정규식은 같은 문자열에 적용될 때 ‘lastindex == 2’가 됩니다
     .

 -- 속성: Match.lastgroup

     마지막으로 일치하는 포착 그룹의 이름, 또는 그룹에 이름이 없거나, 그
     룹이 전혀 일치하지 않으면 ‘None’.

 -- 속성: Match.re

     *note match(): 2307.나 *note search(): 2308. 메서드가 이 일치 인스
     턴스를 생성한 *note 정규식 객체: f7e.

 -- 속성: Match.string

     *note match(): 2307.나 *note search(): 2308.에 전달된 문자열.

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note copy.copy(): 52d.와 *note copy.deepcopy(): b6b.
지원이 추가되었습니다.  일치 객체는 원자적이라고 간주합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정규식 예제,  Prev: 일치 객체,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.8 정규식 예제
...................

* Menu:

* 쌍 검사하기::
* scanf() 시뮬레이션: scanf 시뮬레이션.
* search() 대 match(): search 대 match.
* 전화번호부 만들기::
* 텍스트 뒤섞기::
* 모든 부사 찾기::
* 모든 부사와 그 위치 찾기::
* 날 문자열 표기법::
* 토크나이저 작성하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 쌍 검사하기,  Next: scanf 시뮬레이션,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.9 쌍 검사하기
...................

이 예제에서는, 다음과 같은 도우미 함수를 사용하여 좀 더 세련되게 일치 객
체를 표시합니다:

     def displaymatch(match):
         if match is None:
             return None
         return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())

플레이어의 패를 5문자 문자열로 나타내는 포커 프로그램을 작성하고 있다고
가정해봅시다.  “a”는 에이스, “k”는 킹, “q”는 퀸, “j”는 잭, “t”는 10,
“2”에서 “9”는 그 값의 카드를 나타냅니다.

주어진 문자열이 유효한 패인지 보려면, 다음과 같이 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt"))    # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"

마지막 패 ‘"727ak"’는 페어, 즉 같은 값의 카드 두 장을 포함합니다.  이것
을 정규식과 일치시키려면, 역참조를 다음과 같이 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
     "<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak"))     # No pairs.
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
     "<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"

페어가 어떤 카드로 구성되어 있는지 알아내려면, 다음과 같이 일치 객체의
*note group(): 231d. 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
     '7'

     # Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
     >>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
         re.match(r".*(.).*\1", "718ak").group(1)
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'

     >>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
     'a'


File: python.info,  Node: scanf 시뮬레이션,  Next: search 대 match,  Prev: 쌍 검사하기,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.10 scanf() 시뮬레이션
...........................

Python does not currently have an equivalent to ‘scanf()’.  Regular
expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
‘scanf()’ format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
equivalent mappings between ‘scanf()’ format tokens and regular
expressions.

‘scanf()’ Token                      정규식
                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘%c’                                 ‘.’
                                     
                                     
‘%5c’                                ‘.{5}’
                                     
                                     
‘%d’                                 ‘[-+]?\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%e’, ‘%E’, ‘%f’, ‘%g’               ‘[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?’
                                     
                                     
‘%i’                                 ‘[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)’
                                     
                                     
‘%o’                                 ‘[-+]?[0-7]+’
                                     
                                     
‘%s’                                 ‘\S+’
                                     
                                     
‘%u’                                 ‘\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%x’, ‘%X’                           ‘[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+’
                                     

다음과 같은 문자열에서 파일명과 숫자를 추출하려면

     /usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings

you would use a ‘scanf()’ format like

     %s - %d errors, %d warnings

동등한 정규식은 다음과 같습니다

     (\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings


File: python.info,  Node: search 대 match,  Next: 전화번호부 만들기,  Prev: scanf 시뮬레이션,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.11 search() 대 match()
............................

Python offers different primitive operations based on regular
expressions:

   + *note re.match(): 121d. checks for a match only at the beginning of
     the string

   + *note re.search(): 121c. checks for a match anywhere in the string
     (this is what Perl does by default)

   + *note re.fullmatch(): f7d. checks for entire string to be a match

예를 들면:

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("c", "abcdef")   # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("p.*n", "python") # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='python'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("r.*n", "python") # No match

‘'^'’로 시작하는 정규식은 *note search(): 121c.와 함께 사용하여 문자열 시
작 부분의 일치로 제한 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")  # No match
     >>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>

그러나 *note MULTILINE: 22f6. 모드에서 *note match(): 121d.는 문자열 시
작 부분에서만 일치하지만, ‘'^'’로 시작하는 정규식을 *note search():
121c.에 사용하면 각 줄의 시작 부분에서 일치합니다.

     >>> re.match("X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # No match
     >>> re.search("^X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>


File: python.info,  Node: 전화번호부 만들기,  Next: 텍스트 뒤섞기,  Prev: search 대 match,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.12 전화번호부 만들기
..........................

*note split(): 2a2.는 문자열을, 전달된 패턴으로 구분된 리스트로 분할합니
다.  이 메서드는 전화번호부를 만드는 다음 예제에서 보이듯이 텍스트 데이
터를 파이썬에서 쉽게 읽고 수정할 수 있는 데이터 구조로 변환하는 데 매우
중요합니다.

먼저, 여기 입력이 있습니다.  보통 파일에서 올 수 있습니다만, 여기서는 삼
중 따옴표로 묶인 문자열 문법을 사용합니다.

     >>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
     ...
     ... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
     ... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
     ...
     ...
     ... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""

항목은 하나 이상의 개행으로 구분됩니다.  이제 비어있지 않은 각 줄이 항목
이 되도록 문자열을 리스트로 변환합니다:

     >>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
     >>> entries
     ['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
     'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
     'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
     'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']

마지막으로, 각 항목을 이름, 성, 전화번호 및 주소로 구성된 리스트로 분할
합니다.  주소에 우리의 분할 패턴인 스페이스가 들어있기 때문에, *note
split(): 2a2.의 ‘maxsplit’ 매개 변수를 사용합니다:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=3) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]

‘:?’ 패턴은 결과 리스트에 나타나지 않도록, 성 뒤의 콜론과 일치합니다.
‘maxsplit’로 ‘4’를 사용하면, 번지수를 거리 이름과 분리 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=4) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 뒤섞기,  Next: 모든 부사 찾기,  Prev: 전화번호부 만들기,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.13 텍스트 뒤섞기
......................

*note sub(): 2a3.는 패턴의 모든 일치를 문자열이나 함수의 결과로 치환합니
다.  이 예제는 *note sub(): 2a3.에 텍스트를 “뒤섞는”, 즉 문장의 각 단어
에서 첫 번째 문자와 마지막 문자를 제외한 모든 문자의 순서를 무작위로 바
꾸는 함수를 사용하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     >>> def repl(m):
     ...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
     ...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
     ...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
     ...
     >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 부사 찾기,  Next: 모든 부사와 그 위치 찾기,  Prev: 텍스트 뒤섞기,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.14 모든 부사 찾기
.......................

*note findall(): 1020.은 *note search(): 121c.처럼 첫 번째 등장뿐만 아니
라, 패턴의 '모든' 등장과 일치합니다.  예를 들어, 작가가 어떤 텍스트에서
부사를 모두 찾고 싶으면, 다음과 같은 방식으로 *note findall(): 1020.을 사
용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly\b", text)
     ['carefully', 'quickly']


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 부사와 그 위치 찾기,  Next: 날 문자열 표기법,  Prev: 모든 부사 찾기,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.15 모든 부사와 그 위치 찾기
.................................

If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the
matched text, *note finditer(): 14c2. is useful as it provides *note
Match: cc5. objects instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous
example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs 'and their
positions' in some text, they would use *note finditer(): 14c2. in the
following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly\b", text):
     ...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
     07-16: carefully
     40-47: quickly


File: python.info,  Node: 날 문자열 표기법,  Next: 토크나이저 작성하기,  Prev: 모든 부사와 그 위치 찾기,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.16 날 문자열 표기법
.........................

날 문자열 표기법(‘r"text"’)은 정규식을 합리적인 상태로 유지합니다.  이것
없이는, 정규식의 모든 역 슬래시(‘'\'’)를 이스케이프 하기 위해 그 앞에 또
하나의 역 슬래시를 붙여야 합니다.  예를 들어, 다음 두 코드 줄은 기능상으
로 같습니다:

     >>> re.match(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
     >>> re.match("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>

리터럴 역 슬래시와 일치시키려면, 정규식에서 이스케이프 되어야 합니다.  날
문자열 표기법을 사용하면, ‘r"\\"’이 됩니다.  날 문자열 표기법을 사용하지
않으면, ‘"\\\\"’를 사용해야 하는데, 다음 코드 줄들은 기능적으로 같습니다
:

     >>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
     >>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>


File: python.info,  Node: 토크나이저 작성하기,  Prev: 날 문자열 표기법,  Up: 정규식 예제

5.6.2.17 토크나이저 작성하기
............................

토크나이저나 스캐너(1)는 문자열을 분석하여 문자 그룹을 분류합니다.  이것
은 컴파일러나 인터프리터를 작성하는 데 유용한 첫 번째 단계입니다.

텍스트 범주는 정규식으로 지정됩니다.  이 기법은 이들을 하나의 마스터 정
규식으로 결합하고 연속적인 일치를 반복하는 것입니다:

     from typing import NamedTuple
     import re

     class Token(NamedTuple):
         type: str
         value: str
         line: int
         column: int

     def tokenize(code):
         keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
         token_specification = [
             ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
             ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
             ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
             ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
             ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
             ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
             ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
             ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
         ]
         tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
         line_num = 1
         line_start = 0
         for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
             kind = mo.lastgroup
             value = mo.group()
             column = mo.start() - line_start
             if kind == 'NUMBER':
                 value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
             elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
                 kind = value
             elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
                 line_start = mo.end()
                 line_num += 1
                 continue
             elif kind == 'SKIP':
                 continue
             elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
                 raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
             yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)

     statements = '''
         IF quantity THEN
             total := total + price * quantity;
             tax := price * 0.05;
         ENDIF;
     '''

     for token in tokenize(statements):
         print(token)

토크나이저는 다음과 같은 출력을 생성합니다:

     Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
     Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
     Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
     Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
     Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
     Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)

(Frie09) Friedl, Jeffrey.  Mastering Regular Expressions.  3rd ed.,
O’Reilly Media, 2009.  이 책의 세 번째 판은 더는 파이썬을 다루지 않지만,
초판은 훌륭한 정규식 패턴 작성을 아주 자세하게 다루었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis


File: python.info,  Node: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미,  Next: textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기,  Prev: re — Regular expression operations,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.3 ‘difflib’ — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미
-----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/difflib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 시퀀스 비교를 위한 클래스와 함수를 제공합니다.  예를 들어 파일
을 비교하는 데 사용할 수 있으며, HTML 및 문맥(context)과 통합(unified)
diff를 비롯한 다양한 형식의 파일 차이에 관한 정보를 생성할 수 있습니다.
디렉터리와 파일을 비교하려면, *note filecmp: 5a. 모듈을 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: difflib.SequenceMatcher

     이것은 시퀀스 요소가 *note 해시 가능: 60a.이기만 하다면, 모든 형의
     시퀀스 쌍을 비교할 수 있는 유연한 클래스입니다.  기본 알고리즘은
     1980년대 후반에 Ratcliff와 Obershelp가 ‘게슈탈트 패턴 매칭(gestalt
     pattern matching)’이라는 과장된 이름으로 발표한 알고리즘까지 거슬러
     올라가는데, 그보다는 약간 더 공을 들였습니다.  아이디어는 “정크” 요
     소가 없는 가장 긴 연속적으로 일치하는 서브 시퀀스를 찾는 것입니다;
     이러한 “정크” 요소는 빈 줄이나 공백과 같은 어떤 의미에서는 흥미롭지
     않은 요소들입니다.  (정크 처리는 Ratcliff와 Obershelp 알고리즘의 확
     장입니다.)  그런 다음 같은 아이디어를 일치하는 서브 시퀀스의 왼쪽과
     오른쪽에 있는 시퀀스 조각에 재귀적으로 적용합니다.  이것이 최소 편
     집 시퀀스를 산출하지는 않지만, 사람들에게 “그럴듯해 보이는” 일치를
     산출하는 경향이 있습니다.

     '타이밍:' 기본 Ratcliff-Obershelp 알고리즘은 최악의 상황(worst
     case)에 세제곱 시간이고, 평균적으로(expected case) 제곱 시간입니다.
     *note SequenceMatcher: 100f.는 최악의 상황에 제곱 시간이며, 평균적
     인 동작은 시퀀스에 공통으로 포함된 요소의 수에 따라 복잡한 방식으로
     달라집니다; 최상의 경우(best cast)는 선형 시간입니다.

     '자동 정크 휴리스틱:' *note SequenceMatcher: 100f.는 특정 시퀀스 항
     목을 자동으로 정크로 처리하는 경험적 방법을 지원합니다.  경험적 방
     법은 개별 항목이 시퀀스에 나타나는 횟수를 계산합니다.  (첫 번째 항
     목 이후의) 중복된 항목이 시퀀스의 1% 이상을 차지하고 시퀀스의 길이
     가 최소 200항목 이상이면, 이 항목은 “흔한” 것으로 표시되고 시퀀스 일
     치를 위해 정크로 처리됩니다.  이 경험적 방법은 *note
     SequenceMatcher: 100f.를 만들 때 ‘autojunk’ 인자를 ‘False’로 설정하
     여 끌 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'autojunk' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: difflib.Differ

     이것은 텍스트 줄의 시퀀스를 비교하고, 사람이 읽을 수 있는 차이 또는
     델타를 생성하는 클래스입니다.  Differ는 줄의 시퀀스를 비교하고, 유
     사한 (거의 일치하는) 줄 내의 문자 시퀀스를 비교하는데 *note
     SequenceMatcher: 100f.를 사용합니다.

     *note Differ: 2336. 델타의 각 줄은 2자 코드로 시작합니다:

     코드           뜻
                    
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘'- '’         시퀀스 1에만 있는 줄
                    
                    
     ‘'+ '’         시퀀스 2에만 있는 줄
                    
                    
     ‘' '’          두 시퀀스에 공통인 줄
                    
                    
     ‘'? '’         두 입력 시퀀스에 없는 줄
                    

     ‘‘?’'로 시작하는 줄은, 시선을 줄 내의 차이로 유도하려고 시도하며, 두
     입력 시퀀스 어디에도 나타나지 않습니다.  이 줄은 시퀀스에 스페이스,
     탭 또는 줄 넘김과 같은 공백 문자가 포함되면 혼동을 줄 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: difflib.HtmlDiff

     이 클래스는 HTML 표를 (또는 표를 포함하는 완전한 HTML 파일을) 만드
     는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 HTML은 줄 간과 줄 내의 변경을 강조하
     면서, 텍스트를 나란히 줄 단위로 비교하여 보여줍니다.  표는 전체 또
     는 문맥 차이 모드로 생성될 수 있습니다.

     이 클래스의 생성자는 다음과 같습니다:

      -- 메서드: __init__ (tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None,
               charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

          *note HtmlDiff: 1566.의 인스턴스를 초기화합니다.

          'tabsize'는 탭 간격을 지정하는 선택적 키워드 인자이며 기본값은
          ‘8’입니다.

          'wrapcolumn'는 줄이 자동 줄 넘김 되는 열 번호를 지정하는 선택
          적 키워드로, 줄을 자동 줄 넘김 하지 않는 ‘None’이 기본값입니다
          .

          'linejunk' 와 'charjunk'는 *note ndiff(): 2338.(*note
          HtmlDiff: 1566.가 나란히 배치된 HTML 차이를 만드는 데 사용됩니
          다)로 전달되는 선택적 키워드 인자입니다.  인자 기본값과 설명은
          *note ndiff(): 2338. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     다음과 같은 메서드가 공개됩니다:

      -- 메서드: make_file (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')

          'fromlines' 와 'tolines'(문자열의 리스트)를 비교하고, 줄 간 및
          줄 내부의 변경을 강조하면서, 줄 단위로 차이를 보여주는 표를 포
          함하는 완전한 HTML 파일을 문자열로 반환합니다.

          'fromdesc' 와 'todesc'는 from/to 파일 열 헤더 문자열을 지정하
          는 선택적 키워드 인자입니다 (기본값은 모두 빈 문자열입니다).

          'context' 와 'numlines'는 모두 선택적 키워드 인자입니다.  문맥
          차이를 표시하려면 'context'를 ‘True’로 설정하십시오, 그렇지 않
          으면 기본값은 전체 파일을 표시하는 ‘False’입니다.  'numlines'의
          기본값은 ‘5’입니다.  'context'가 ‘True’ 일 때, 'numlines'는 차
          이 하이라이트를 둘러싸는 문맥 줄의 수를 제어합니다.  'context'가
          ‘False’면 'numlines'는 “next” 하이퍼 링크를 사용할 때 차이 하
          이라이트 앞에 표시되는 줄 수를 제어합니다 (0으로 설정하면
          “next” 하이퍼 링크가 다음 차이 하이라이트를 아무런 선행 문맥 줄
          없이 브라우저의 맨 위에 놓도록 합니다).

               참고: 'fromdesc'와 'todesc'는 이스케이프 되지 않은 HTML로
               해석되며 신뢰할 수 없는 소스로부터 입력을 받는 동안 적절
               히 이스케이프 되어야 합니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 'charset' 키워드 전용 인자가 추가되었습니다
          .  HTML 문서의 기본 문자 집합이 ‘'ISO-8859-1'’에서 ‘'utf-8'’로
          변경되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: make_table (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5)

          'fromlines' 와 'tolines'(문자열의 리스트)를 비교하고, 줄 간 및
          줄 내부의 변경을 강조하면서, 줄 단위로 차이를 보여주는 완전한
          HTML 표를 문자열로 반환합니다.

          이 메서드의 인자는 *note make_file(): deb. 메서드의 인자와 같
          습니다.

 -- 함수: difflib.context_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     'a'와 'b'(문자열의 리스트)를 비교합니다; 델타(델타 줄을 생성하는
     *note 제너레이터: 1057.)를 문맥 diff 형식으로 반환합니다.

     문맥 diff는 단지 변경된 줄과 몇 줄의 문맥만을 더해서 표시하는 간결
     한 방법입니다.  변경 사항은 이전/이후 스타일로 표시됩니다.  문맥 줄
     의 수는 'n'에 의해 설정되며 기본값은 3입니다.

     기본적으로, diff 제어 줄(‘***’나 ‘---’가 포함된 것)은 끝에 줄 넘김
     을 붙여 만들어집니다.  이것은 *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 233b.로
     만들어진 입력이 *note io.IOBase.writelines(): 233c.와 함께 사용하기
     에 적합한 diff를 생성하도록 하는 데 유용합니다.  왜냐하면, 입력과 출
     력 모두 끝에 줄 넘김이 있기 때문입니다.

     끝에 줄 넘김이 없는 입력이면, 'lineterm' 인자를 ‘""’로 설정해서 출
     력에 일관되게 줄 넘김이 포함되지 않게 하십시오.

     문맥 diff 형식에는 일반적으로 파일명과 수정 시간에 대한 헤더가 있습
     니다.  이들 중 일부 또는 전부는 'fromfile', 'tofile',
     'fromfiledate' 및 'tofiledate'에 문자열을 사용하여 지정될 수 있습니
     다.  수정 시간은 일반적으로 ISO 8601 형식으로 표현됩니다.  지정하지
     않으면, 문자열들의 기본값은 빈 문자열입니다.

          >>> import sys
          >>> from difflib import *
          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py',
          ...                        tofile='after.py'))
          *** before.py
          --- after.py
          ***************
          *** 1,4 ****
          ! bacon
          ! eggs
          ! ham
            guido
          --- 1,4 ----
          ! python
          ! eggy
          ! hamster
            guido

     더욱 자세한 예제는 *note difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스: 233d.를 참조
     하십시오.

 -- 함수: difflib.get_close_matches (word, possibilities, n=3,
          cutoff=0.6)

     최상의 “충분히 좋은” 일치의 리스트를 반환합니다.  'word'는 근접 일
     치가 목표로 하는 시퀀스(일반적으로 문자열)며, 'possibilities'는
     'word'와 일치시킬 시퀀스의 리스트입니다 (일반적으로 문자열의 리스트
     ).

     선택적 인자 'n'(기본값 ‘3’)은 반환할 근접 일치의 최대 개수입니다;
     'n'는 ‘0’보다 커야 합니다.

     선택적 인자 'cutoff'(기본값 ‘0.6’)는 [0, 1] 범위의 float입니다.
     'word'와의 유사성 점수가 이 값보다 적은 possibilities는 무시됩니다.

     possibilities 중에서 가장 좋은 (최대 'n' 개의) 일치가 리스트로 반환
     되는데, 유사성 점수로 정렬되어 있고 가장 유사한 것이 먼저 나옵니다.

          >>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
          ['apple', 'ape']
          >>> import keyword
          >>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
          ['while']
          >>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
          []
          >>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
          ['except']

 -- 함수: difflib.ndiff (a, b, linejunk=None,
          charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

     'a'와 'b'(문자열의 리스트)를 비교합니다; *note Differ: 2336.-스타일
     델타(델타 줄을 생성하는 *note 제너레이터: 1057.)를 반환합니다.

     선택적 키워드 매개 변수 'linejunk' 와 'charjunk'는 필터링 함수(또는
     ‘None’)입니다:

     'linejunk': 단일 문자열 인자를 받아들이고 문자열이 정크면 참을 반환
     하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓을 반환하는 함수입니다.  기본값은 ‘None’입
     니다.  모듈 수준의 함수 *note IS_LINE_JUNK(): 233f.도 있는데, 최대
     로 한 개의 파운드 문자(‘'#'’)를 제외하고 눈에 보이는 문자가 없는 줄
     을 걸러냅니다 – 하지만 하부 *note SequenceMatcher: 100f. 클래스는 어
     떤 줄이 잡음으로 볼만큼 자주 등장하는지 동적으로 분석하고, 이것이 보
     통 이 함수를 사용하는 것보다 효과적입니다.

     'charjunk': 문자(길이 1의 문자열)를 받아들이고, 문자가 정크면 참을
     반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓을 반환하는 함수입니다.  기본값은 모듈
     수준의 함수 *note IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(): 2340.인데, 공백 문자(스페이
     스나 탭; 줄 넘김 문자를 포함하는 것은 좋은 생각이 아닙니다)를 걸러
     냅니다.

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
          - one
          ?  ^
          + ore
          ?  ^
          - two
          - three
          ?  -
          + tree
          + emu

 -- 함수: difflib.restore (sequence, which)

     델타를 만든 두 시퀀스 중 하나를 반환합니다.

     *note Differ.compare(): 2342. 나 *note ndiff(): 2338.로 만들어진
     'sequence'가 주어지면, 파일 1이나 2(매개 변수 'which')에서 원래 제
     공되었던 줄을 추출하고, 줄 접두어를 제거합니다.

     예:

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
          one
          two
          three
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
          ore
          tree
          emu

 -- 함수: difflib.unified_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     'a'와 'b'(문자열의 리스트)를 비교합니다; 델타(델타 줄을 생성하는
     *note 제너레이터: 1057.)를 통합 diff 형식으로 반환합니다.

     통합(unified) diff는 단지 변경된 줄과 몇 줄의 문맥만을 더해서 표시
     하는 간결한 방법입니다.  변경 사항은 (별도의 이전/이후 블록 대신) 인
     라인 스타일로 표시됩니다.  문맥 줄의 수는 'n'에 의해 설정되며 기본
     값은 3입니다.

     기본적으로, diff 제어 줄(‘---’, ‘+++’ 또는 ‘@@’가 포함된 것)은 끝에
     줄 넘김을 붙여 만들어집니다.  이것은 *note io.IOBase.readlines():
     233b.로 만들어진 입력이 *note io.IOBase.writelines(): 233c.와 함께
     사용하기에 적합한 diff를 생성하도록 하는 데 유용합니다.  왜냐하면,
     입력과 출력 모두 끝에 줄 넘김이 있기 때문입니다.

     끝에 줄 넘김이 없는 입력이면, 'lineterm' 인자를 ‘""’로 설정해서 출
     력에 일관되게 줄 넘김이 포함되지 않게 하십시오.

     통합(unified) diff 형식에는 일반적으로 파일명과 수정 시간에 대한 헤
     더가 있습니다.  이들 중 일부 또는 전부는 'fromfile', 'tofile',
     'fromfiledate' 및 'tofiledate'에 문자열을 사용하여 지정될 수 있습니
     다.  수정 시간은 일반적으로 ISO 8601 형식으로 표현됩니다.  지정하지
     않으면, 문자열들의 기본값은 빈 문자열입니다.

          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
          --- before.py
          +++ after.py
          @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
          -bacon
          -eggs
          -ham
          +python
          +eggy
          +hamster
           guido

     더욱 자세한 예제는 *note difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스: 233d.를 참조
     하십시오.

 -- 함수: difflib.diff_bytes (dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'', tofile=b'',
          fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3, lineterm=b'\n')

     'a'와 'b'(바이트열 객체의 리스트)를 'dfunc'를 사용하여 비교합니다;
     'dfunc'가 반환하는 형식으로 델타 줄(역시 바이트열)의 시퀀스를 산출
     합니다.  'dfunc'는 콜러블이어야하며, 보통 *note unified_diff():
     2343. 나 *note context_diff(): 233a.입니다.

     알 수 없거나 일관성 없는 인코딩의 데이터를 비교할 수 있게 합니다.
     'n'를 제외한 모든 입력은 바이트열 객체여야 합니다, str이 아닙니다.
     모든 입력('n' 제외)을 str로 무손실 변환하고, ‘dfunc(a, b, fromfile,
     tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n, lineterm)’를 호출하는 방식으로
     작동합니다.  'dfunc'의 출력은 다시 바이트로 변환되므로, 여러분이 얻
     는 델타 줄은 'a'와 'b' 처럼 알 수 없고/일관성 없는 인코딩을 갖습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK (line)

     무시할 수 있는 줄이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  'line'이 빈 줄이거나 하
     나의 ‘'#'’를 포함하면, 줄 'line'은 무시할 수 있습니다, 그렇지 않으
     면 무시할 수 없습니다.  이전 버전의 *note ndiff(): 2338.에서 매개 변
     수 'linejunk'의 기본값으로 사용되었습니다.

 -- 함수: difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK (ch)

     무시할 수 있는 문자면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  'ch'가 스페이스나 탭이
     면 문자 'ch'는 무시할 수 있습니다, 그렇지 않으면 무시할 수 없습니다
     .  *note ndiff(): 2338.에서 매개 변수 'charjunk'의 기본값으로 사용
     됩니다.

더 보기
.......

Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach(2)

     Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E.
     Metzener.  This was published in Dr.  Dobb’s Journal in July, 1988.

* Menu:

* SequenceMatcher 객체::
* SequenceMatcher 예제::
* Differ 객체::
* Differ 예제::
* difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스::
* ndiff 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/difflib.py

   (2) 
https://jacobfilipp.com/DrDobbs/articles/DDJ/1988/8807/8807c/8807c.htm


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher 객체,  Next: SequenceMatcher 예제,  Up: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

5.6.3.1 SequenceMatcher 객체
............................

*note SequenceMatcher: 100f. 클래스는 다음과 같은 생성자를 갖습니다:

 -- 클래스: difflib.SequenceMatcher (isjunk=None, a='', b='',
          autojunk=True)

     선택 인자 'isjunk'는 ‘None’(기본값)이거나, 시퀀스 요소를 받아서 요
     소가 “정크” 이고, 무시되어야 하는 경우에만 참을 반환하는 하나의 인
     자 함수여야 합니다.  'isjunk'에 ‘None’을 전달하는 것은, ‘lambda x:
     False’를 전달하는 것과 같습니다; 즉, 아무 요소도 무시하지 않습니다.
     예를 들어,:

          lambda x: x in " \t"

     줄을 문자의 시퀀스로 비교하고, 스페이스와 탭을 무시하고 싶으면, 위
     와 같은 것을 전달하면 됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'a' 와 'b'는 비교할 시퀀스입니다; 둘 다 빈 문자열이 기
     본값입니다.  두 시퀀스의 요소는 모두 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해야 합니
     다.

     선택적 인자 'autojunk'는 자동 정크 휴리스틱을 비활성화하는 데 사용
     할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'autojunk' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     SequenceMatcher 객체는 세 개의 데이터 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다:
     'bjunk'는 'isjunk'가 ‘True’ 인 'b' 요소의 집합입니다; 'bpopular'는
     휴리스틱(비활성화하지 않았다면)에서 흔하다고 판단되는 정크가 아닌 요
     소의 집합입니다; 'b2j'는 'b'의 나머지 요소를 그들이 나타난 위치의 리
     스트로 매핑하는 dict입니다.  'b'가 *note set_seqs(): 2346. 나 *note
     set_seq2(): 2347.로 재설정 될 때마다 세 개 모두 재설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2: 'bjunk' 및 'bpopular' 어트리뷰트

     *note SequenceMatcher: 100f. 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다
     :

      -- 메서드: set_seqs (a, b)

          비교할 두 시퀀스를 설정합니다.

     *note SequenceMatcher: 100f.는 두 번째 시퀀스에 대한 자세한 정보를
     계산하고 캐시 하므로, 많은 시퀀스에 대해 하나의 시퀀스를 비교하려면
     , *note set_seq2(): 2347.를 사용하여 자주 사용되는 시퀀스를 한 번 설
     정하고, *note set_seq1(): 2348.를 다른 시퀀스 각각에 대해 한 번 반
     복적으로 호출하십시오.

      -- 메서드: set_seq1 (a)

          비교할 첫 번째 시퀀스를 설정합니다.  비교할 두 번째 시퀀스는 변
          경되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: set_seq2 (b)

          비교할 두 번째 시퀀스를 설정합니다.  비교할 첫 번째 시퀀스는 변
          경되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: find_longest_match (alo=0, ahi=None, blo=0, bhi=None)

          ‘a[alo:ahi]’ 와 ‘b[blo:bhi]’에서 가장 긴 일치 블록을 찾습니다.

          'isjunk'가 생략되거나 ‘None’ 이면, *note find_longest_match():
          1966.는 ‘a[i:i+k]’가 ‘b[j:j+k]’와 같은 ‘(i, j, k)’를 반환하는
          데, 여기서 ‘alo <= i <= i+k <= ahi’ 이고 ‘blo <= j <= j+k <=
          bhi’ 입니다.  이 조건을 만족시키는 모든 ‘(i', j', k')’에 대해,
          추가 조건 ‘k >= k'’, ‘i <= i'’ 와 ‘i == i'’ 면 ‘j <= j'’ 도 만
          족합니다.  즉, 모든 최대 일치 블록 중에서 'a'에서 가장 먼저 시
          작하는 블록을 반환하고, 'a'에서 가장 먼저 시작하는 모든 최대 일
          치 블록 중에서 'b'에서 가장 먼저 시작하는 블록을 반환합니다.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)

          'isjunk'가 제공되면, 먼저 가장 긴 일치 블록이 상기와 같이 결정
          되지만, 정크 요소가 블록에 나타나지 않아야 한다는 추가 제약이
          있습니다.  그런 다음 그 블록의 좌우에서 정크 요소만 일치시켜 가
          능한 한 최대로 확장합니다.  그래서 결과 블록은 흥미로운 일치와
          인접하게 같은 정크가 등장할 때를 제외하고는, 정크와 일치하지 않
          습니다.

          여기에 이전과 같은 예가 있지만, 스페이스를 정크로 간주합니다.
          이렇게 하면 ‘' abcd'’가 두 번째 시퀀스의 끝에 있는 ‘' abcd'’와
          직접 일치하지 않게 됩니다.  대신 ‘'abcd'’ 만 일치 할 수 있으며
          , 두 번째 시퀀스에서 가장 왼쪽의 ‘'abcd'’와 일치합니다:

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)

          일치하는 블록이 없으면 ‘(alo, blo, 0)’를 반환합니다.

          이 메서드는 *note 네임드 튜플: 648. ‘Match(a, b, size)’를 반환
          합니다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 인자 기본값이 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_matching_blocks ()

          중첩하지 않는 일치하는 서브 시퀀스를 기술하는 3-튜플의 리스트
          를 반환합니다.  각 3-튜플은 ‘(i, j, n)’ 형식이며, ‘a[i:i+n] ==
          b[j:j+n]’를 뜻합니다.  3-튜플은 'i'와 'j'에 대해 단조 증가합니
          다.

          마지막 3-튜플은 더미이며, ‘(len(a), len(b), 0)’ 값을 가집니다.
          ‘n == 0’ 인 유일한 3-튜플입니다.  ‘(i, j, n)’와 ‘(i', j',
          n')’가 리스트에서 인접한 3-튜플이고, 두 번째가 리스트의 마지막
          3-튜플이 아니면 ‘i+n < i'’ 또는 ‘j+n < j'’입니다; 즉, 인접 3-튜
          플은 항상 인접하지 않은 같은 블록을 나타냅니다.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
               >>> s.get_matching_blocks()
               [Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]

      -- 메서드: get_opcodes ()

          'a'를 'b'로 변환하는 방법을 설명하는 5-튜플의 리스트를 반환합
          니다.  각 튜플은 ‘(tag, i1, i2, j1, j2)’ 형식입니다.  첫 번째
          튜플은 ‘i1 == j1 == 0’ 이고, 나머지 튜플에서는 'i1'이 이전 튜
          플의 'i2'와 같고, 마찬가지로 'j1'은 이전 'j2'와 같습니다.

          'tag' 값은 문자열이고, 이런 의미입니다:

          값                  뜻
                              
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
          ‘'replace'’         ‘a[i1:i2]’를 ‘b[j1:j2]’로 치환해야 합니다.
                              
                              
          ‘'delete'’          ‘a[i1:i2]’를 삭제해야 합니다.  이때 ‘j1 == j2’
                              임을 유의하십시오.
                              
                              
          ‘'insert'’          ‘b[j1:j2]’을 ‘a[i1:i1]’에 삽입해야 합니다.  이
                              때 ‘i1 == i2’ 임을 유의하십시오.
                              
                              
          ‘'equal'’           ‘a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2]’ (서브 시퀀스가 같습니다
                              ).
                              

          예를 들면:

               >>> a = "qabxcd"
               >>> b = "abycdf"
               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
               >>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
               ...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
               ...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
               delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
               equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
               replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
               equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
               insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'

      -- 메서드: get_grouped_opcodes (n=3)

          최대 'n' 줄의 문맥을 갖는 그룹의 *note 제너레이터: 1057.를 반
          환합니다.

          *note get_opcodes(): 234a.에서 반환된 그룹으로 출발해서, 이 메
          서드는 더 작은 변경 클러스터로 나누고, 변경 사항이 없는 중간 범
          위를 제거합니다.

          그룹은 *note get_opcodes(): 234a.와 같은 형식으로 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: ratio ()

          [0, 1]의 범위의 float로 시퀀스 유사성 척도를 돌려줍니다.

          T가 두 시퀀스의 요소의 총 개수이고, M은 일치 개수일 때, 척도는
          2.0*M / T입니다.  시퀀스가 같으면 ‘1.0’이고, 공통 요소가 없으
          면 ‘0.0’입니다.

          *note get_matching_blocks(): 2349. 나 *note get_opcodes():
          234a.가 아직 호출되지 않았으면, 계산하는 데 비용이 많이 듭니다
          .  이럴 때, *note quick_ratio(): 234d. 나 *note
          real_quick_ratio(): 234e.를 먼저 시도하여 상한값을 얻을 수 있
          습니다.

               참고: 주의: *note ratio(): 234c. 호출의 결과는 인자의 순
               서에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다.  예를 들어:

                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
                    0.25
                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
                    0.5

      -- 메서드: quick_ratio ()

          비교적 빨리 *note ratio(): 234c.의 상한을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: real_quick_ratio ()

          아주 빨리 *note ratio(): 234c.의 상한을 반환합니다.

총 문자 수에 대한 일치 비율을 반환하는 세 가지 메서드는 서로 다른 수준의
근삿값 때문에 다른 결과를 줄 수 있습니다.  하지만 *note quick_ratio():
234d. 와 *note real_quick_ratio(): 234e.는 항상 최소한 *note ratio():
234c.만큼 큰 값을 줍니다:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
     >>> s.ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.quick_ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.real_quick_ratio()
     1.0


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher 예제,  Next: Differ 객체,  Prev: SequenceMatcher 객체,  Up: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

5.6.3.2 SequenceMatcher 예제
............................

이 예제에서는 공백을 “정크”로 간주하여, 두 문자열을 비교합니다:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
     ...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
     ...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")

*note ratio(): 234c.는 [0, 1] 범위의 float를 반환하여, 시퀀스의 유사성을
측정합니다.  경험적으로, *note ratio(): 234c. 값이 0.6 이상이면 시퀀스가
근접하게 일치함을 뜻합니다:

     >>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
     0.866

시퀀스가 일치하는 부분에만 관심이 있다면, *note get_matching_blocks():
2349.가 유용합니다:

     >>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
     ...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
     a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
     a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
     a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements

*note get_matching_blocks(): 2349.에 의해 반환된 마지막 튜플은 항상 더미
인 ‘(len(a), len(b), 0)’이며, 이는 마지막 튜플 요소(일치하는 요소의 수
)가 ‘0’ 인 유일한 경우입니다.

첫 번째 시퀀스를 두 번째 시퀀스로 변경하는 방법을 알고 싶다면, *note
get_opcodes(): 234a.를 사용하십시오:

     >>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
     ...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
      equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
     insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
      equal a[8:29] b[17:38]

더 보기
.......

   * 이 모듈의 *note get_close_matches(): 233e. 함수는 *note
     SequenceMatcher: 100f.를 사용한 간단한 코드 작성을 통해 유용한 작업
     을 수행하는 방법을 보여줍니다.

   * *note SequenceMatcher: 100f.로 만들어진 작은 응용 프로그램을 위한 간
     단한 버전 관리 조리법(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729-simple-version-control/


File: python.info,  Node: Differ 객체,  Next: Differ 예제,  Prev: SequenceMatcher 예제,  Up: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

5.6.3.3 Differ 객체
...................

*note Differ: 2336.가 만든 델타는 '최소' diff라고 주장하지 않음에 유의하
십시오.  반대로, 최소 diff는 종종 반 직관적인데, 가능한 모든 곳에서 일치
를 취하기 때문입니다.  때로 우발적으로 100페이지가 떨어진 곳에서 일치시
키기도 합니다.  동기화 지점을 인접한 일치로 제한하면 가끔 더 긴 diff를 만
드는 대신 일종의 지역성을 보존합니다.

*note Differ: 2336. 클래스에는 다음과 같은 생성자가 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: difflib.Differ (linejunk=None, charjunk=None)

     선택적 키워드 매개 변수 'linejunk' 와 'charjunk'는 필터 함수(또는
     ‘None’)를 위한 것입니다:

     'linejunk': 단일 문자열 인자를 받아들이고 문자열이 정크면 참을 반환
     하는 함수입니다.  기본값은 ‘None’이며, 이는 어떤 줄도 정크로 간주하
     지 않음을 의미합니다.

     'charjunk': 문자(길이 1의 문자열)를 받아들이고, 문자가 정크면 참을
     반환하는 함수입니다.  기본값은 ‘None’이며, 이는 어떤 문자도 정크로
     간주하지 않음을 의미합니다.

     이러한 정크 필터링 함수는 차이점을 찾기 위한 일치 속도를 높이고 차
     이가 나는 줄이나 문자를 무시하지 않습니다.  설명이 필요하면 *note
     find_longest_match(): 1966. 메서드의 'isjunk' 매개 변수에 대한 설명
     을 읽으십시오.

     *note Differ: 2336. 객체는 단일 메서드를 통해 사용됩니다 (델타가 만
     들어집니다):

      -- 메서드: compare (a, b)

          줄의 시퀀스 두 개를 비교하고, 델타(줄의 시퀀스)를 만듭니다.

          각 시퀀스는 줄 넘김으로 끝나는 개별 단일 줄 문자열을 포함해야
          합니다.  이러한 시퀀스는 파일류 객체의 *note readlines():
          233b. 메서드로 얻을 수 있습니다.  생성된 델타 역시 파일류 객체
          의 *note writelines(): 233c. 메서드를 통해 그대로 인쇄될 수 있
          도록 줄 넘김으로 끝나는 문자열로 구성됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Differ 예제,  Next: difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스,  Prev: Differ 객체,  Up: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

5.6.3.4 Differ 예제
...................

이 예제는 두 개의 텍스트를 비교합니다.  먼저 텍스트를 설정하는데, 줄 넘
김 문자로 끝나는 개별 단일 줄 문자열의 시퀀스입니다 (이러한 시퀀스는 파
일류 객체의 *note readlines(): 233b. 메서드로도 얻을 수 있습니다):

     >>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     ...   3. Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
     >>> len(text1)
     4
     >>> text1[0][-1]
     '\n'
     >>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ...   5. Flat is better than nested.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)

다음으로 Differ 객체의 인스턴스를 만듭니다:

     >>> d = Differ()

*note Differ: 2336. 객체의 인스턴스를 만들 때, 줄과 문자 “정크”를 필터링
하는 함수를 전달할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  자세한 내용은 *note
Differ(): 2336. 생성자를 참조하십시오.

마지막으로, 두 개를 비교합니다:

     >>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))

‘result’는 문자열의 리스트이므로, 예쁜 인쇄를 해봅시다:

     >>> from pprint import pprint
     >>> pprint(result)
     ['    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
      '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
      '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '?     ++\n',
      '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
      '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
      '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
      '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
      '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n']

여러 줄이 포함된 하나의 문자열로 만들면 이렇게 보입니다:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
         1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     -   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     -   3. Simple is better than complex.
     +   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ?     ++
     -   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ?            ^                     ---- ^
     +   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ?           ++++ ^                      ^
     +   5. Flat is better than nested.


File: python.info,  Node: difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스,  Next: ndiff 예제,  Prev: Differ 예제,  Up: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

5.6.3.5 difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스
....................................

이 예제는 difflib를 사용하여 ‘diff’와 유사한 유틸리티를 만드는 방법을 보
여줍니다.

     """ 네 가지 형식의 diff를 제공하는 diffflib.py의 명령줄 인터페이스입니다:

     * ndiff:    모든 줄을 나열하고 줄 간 변경 사항을 강조 표시합니다.
     * context:  변경 사항의 뭉치를 이전/이후 형식으로 강조 표시합니다.
     * unified:  변경 사항의 뭉치를 인라인 형식으로 강조 표시합니다.
     * html:     좌우 비교를 변경 사항 강조 표시와 함께 생성합니다.

     """

     import sys, os, difflib, argparse
     from datetime import datetime, timezone

     def file_mtime(path):
         t = datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
                                    timezone.utc)
         return t.astimezone().isoformat()

     def main():

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-c', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a context format diff (default)')
         parser.add_argument('-u', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a unified format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-m', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce HTML side by side diff '
                                  '(can use -c and -l in conjunction)')
         parser.add_argument('-n', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a ndiff format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=3,
                             help='Set number of context lines (default 3)')
         parser.add_argument('fromfile')
         parser.add_argument('tofile')
         options = parser.parse_args()

         n = options.lines
         fromfile = options.fromfile
         tofile = options.tofile

         fromdate = file_mtime(fromfile)
         todate = file_mtime(tofile)
         with open(fromfile) as ff:
             fromlines = ff.readlines()
         with open(tofile) as tf:
             tolines = tf.readlines()

         if options.u:
             diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)
         elif options.n:
             diff = difflib.ndiff(fromlines, tolines)
         elif options.m:
             diff = difflib.HtmlDiff().make_file(fromlines,tolines,fromfile,tofile,context=options.c,numlines=n)
         else:
             diff = difflib.context_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)

         sys.stdout.writelines(diff)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: ndiff 예제,  Prev: difflib의 명령 줄 인터페이스,  Up: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미

5.6.3.6 ndiff 예제
..................

d이 예제는 *note difflib.ndiff(): 2338.를 사용하는 방법을 보여줍니다.

     """ndiff [-q] file1 file2
         or
     ndiff (-r1 | -r2) < ndiff_output > file1_or_file2

     사람이 읽기 쉬운 파일 차이 보고서를 표준 출력에 인쇄합니다.  줄 간 및 줄 내 차이점이 모두 표시됩니다.
     두 번째 형식에서는, 표준 입력의 ndiff 보고서로부터
      표준 출력으로 file1 (-r1) 이나 file2 (-r2) 를 다시 생성합니다.

     첫 번째 형식에서는, -q ("quiet") 가 지정되지 않으면, 출력의 처음
     두 줄은 다음과 같습니다

     -: file1
     +: file2

     나머지 각 줄은 두 글자 코드로 시작합니다:

         "- "    file1 에 고유한 줄
         "+ "    file2 에 고유한 줄
         "  "    두 파일에 공통된 줄
         "? "    두 입력 파일 어디에도 없는 줄

     "? " 로 시작하는 줄은 줄 내 차이로 눈을 안내하려고 시도하고,
     두 입력 파일 어디에도 존재하지 않습니다.  이 줄들은 소스 파일에
     탭 문자가 있을 경우 혼란스러울 수 있습니다.

     첫 번째 파일은 "  " 나 "- " 로 시작하는 줄만 유지하고, 두 문자 접두사를
     삭제해서 복구할 수 있습니다; ndiff 를 -r1 과 함께 사용하세요.

     두 번째 파일도 비슷하게 복구할 수 있지만, "  " 과
     "+ " 줄만 유지합니다; ndiff 를 -r2 와 함께 사용하세요; 또는, 유닉스에서, 두 번째 파일은
     다음과 같이 출력을 파이핑하여 복구할 수 있습니다

         sed -n '/^[+ ] /s/^..//p'
     """

     __version__ = 1, 7, 0

     import difflib, sys

     def fail(msg):
         out = sys.stderr.write
         out(msg + "\n\n")
         out(__doc__)
         return 0

     # 파일을 열고 파일 객체를 반환합니다; 열 수 없으면
     # 메시지를 출력하고 0을 반환합니다
     def fopen(fname):
         try:
             return open(fname)
         except IOError as detail:
             return fail("couldn't open " + fname + ": " + str(detail))

     # 두 파일을 열고 표준 출력으로 diff 를 뿌립니다; 문제가 있으면 거짓을 반환합니다
     def fcompare(f1name, f2name):
         f1 = fopen(f1name)
         f2 = fopen(f2name)
         if not f1 or not f2:
             return 0

         a = f1.readlines(); f1.close()
         b = f2.readlines(); f2.close()
         for line in difflib.ndiff(a, b):
             print(line, end=' ')

         return 1

     # args (보통 sys.argv[1:]) 를 쪼개고 비교합니다;
     # 문제가 있으면 & 문제가 있을 때만 거짓을 반환합니다

     def main(args):
         import getopt
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(args, "qr:")
         except getopt.error as detail:
             return fail(str(detail))
         noisy = 1
         qseen = rseen = 0
         for opt, val in opts:
             if opt == "-q":
                 qseen = 1
                 noisy = 0
             elif opt == "-r":
                 rseen = 1
                 whichfile = val
         if qseen and rseen:
             return fail("can't specify both -q and -r")
         if rseen:
             if args:
                 return fail("no args allowed with -r option")
             if whichfile in ("1", "2"):
                 restore(whichfile)
                 return 1
             return fail("-r value must be 1 or 2")
         if len(args) != 2:
             return fail("need 2 filename args")
         f1name, f2name = args
         if noisy:
             print('-:', f1name)
             print('+:', f2name)
         return fcompare(f1name, f2name)

     # 표준 입력에서 ndiff 출력을 읽고, file1 (which=='1') 이나
     # file2 (which=='2') 를 표준 출력에 인쇄합니다

     def restore(which):
         restored = difflib.restore(sys.stdin.readlines(), which)
         sys.stdout.writelines(restored)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main(sys.argv[1:])


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기,  Next: unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스,  Prev: difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.4 ‘textwrap’ — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/textwrap.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note textwrap: ec. 모듈은 모든 작업을 수행하는 클래스인 *note
TextWrapper: fc5.뿐만 아니라 몇 가지 편리 함수도 제공합니다.  한두 개의
텍스트 문자열을 래핑(wrapping)하거나 채운(filling)다면, 편리 함수로도 충
분해야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면 효율을 위해 *note TextWrapper: fc5. 인스턴
스를 사용해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: textwrap.wrap (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     'text'(문자열)에 있는 단일 문단을 래핑해서 모든 줄의 길이가 최대
     'width' 자가 되도록 합니다.  최종 줄 바꿈이 없는 출력 줄의 리스트를
     반환합니다.

     선택적 키워드 인자는 아래에 설명된 *note TextWrapper: fc5.의 인스턴
     스 어트리뷰트에 해당합니다.

     *note wrap(): 148d. 작동 방식에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note
     TextWrapper.wrap(): 2359. 메서드를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: textwrap.fill (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     'text'에 있는 단일 문단을 래핑하고, 래핑 된 문단을 포함하는 단일 문
     자열을 반환합니다.  *note fill(): 148c.은 다음의 줄임 표현입니다

          "\n".join(wrap(text, ...))

     특히, *note fill(): 148c.은 *note wrap(): 148d.과 같은 키워드 인자
     를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: textwrap.shorten (text, width, *, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, break_on_hyphens=True, placeholder='
          [...]')

     주어진 'width'에 맞게 주어진 'text'를 축약하거나 자릅니다.

     먼저 'text'에 있는 공백이 축약됩니다 (모든 공백이 단일 스페이스로 치
     환됩니다).  결과가 'width'에 맞으면 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 나
     머지 단어와 'placeholder'가 'width' 내에 맞도록 충분한 단어가 끝에
     서 삭제됩니다:

          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
          'Hello world!'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
          'Hello [...]'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
          'Hello...'

     선택적 키워드 인자는 아래에 설명된 *note TextWrapper: fc5.의 인스턴
     스 어트리뷰트에 해당합니다.  텍스트가 *note TextWrapper: fc5. *note
     fill(): 148c. 함수에 전달되기 전에 공백이 축약되므로, *note
     tabsize: 235a, *note expand_tabs: 235b, *note drop_whitespace:
     235c. 및 *note replace_whitespace: 235d. 값을 변경하는 것은 아무 효
     과가 없음에 유의하십시오.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: textwrap.dedent (text)

     'text'의 모든 줄에서 같은 선행 공백을 제거합니다.

     이것은 삼중 따옴표로 묶은 문자열을 소스 코드에서 여전히 들여쓰기 된
     형태로 제시하면서, 디스플레이의 왼쪽 가장자리에 맞추는 데 사용할 수
     있습니다.

     탭과 공백은 모두 공백으로 처리되지만, 이들이 같지 않음에 유의하십시
     오: ‘" hello"’와 ‘"\thello"’ 줄에는 공통 선행 공백이 없는 것으로 간
     주합니다.

     공백만 포함하는 줄은 입력에서 무시되고 출력에서 단일 개행 문자로 정
     규화됩니다.

     예를 들면:

          def test():
              # 빈 줄을 피하려고 첫 줄을 \ 로 끝냅니다!
              s = '''\
              hello
                world
              '''
              print(repr(s))          # '    hello\n      world\n    ' 를 인쇄합니다
              print(repr(dedent(s)))  # 'hello\n  world\n' 를 인쇄합니다

 -- 함수: textwrap.indent (text, prefix, predicate=None)

     'text'에서 선택된 줄의 시작 부분에 'prefix'를 추가합니다.

     ‘text.splitlines(True)’를 호출하여 줄을 분할합니다.

     기본적으로, 'prefix'는 공백으로만 구성되지 않는 모든 줄(마지막 줄 포
     함)에 추가됩니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
          >>> indent(s, '  ')
          '  hello\n\n \n  world'

     선택적 'predicate' 인자는 어떤 줄을 들여쓰기할지 제어하는 데 사용될
     수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 빈 줄과 공백만 있는 줄에도 'prefix'를 추가
     하기는 쉽습니다:

          >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
          + hello
          +
          +
          + world

     Added in version 3.3.

*note wrap(): 148d, *note fill(): 148c. 및 *note shorten(): fc8.은 *note
TextWrapper: fc5. 인스턴스를 만들고 그것의 단일 메서드를 호출하여 작동합
니다.  이 인스턴스는 재사용되지 않기 때문에, *note wrap(): 148d. 및/또는
*note fill(): 148c.을 사용하여 많은 텍스트 문자열을 처리하는 응용 프로그
램의 경우, 여러분 자신의 *note TextWrapper: fc5. 객체를 만드는 것이 더 효
율적일 수 있습니다.

텍스트는 공백과 하이픈이 있는 단어의 하이픈 바로 뒤에서 래핑하는 것을 선
호합니다; *note TextWrapper.break_long_words: 235f.가 거짓으로 설정되어
있지 않으면 그 후에만 긴 단어를 분할합니다.

 -- 클래스: textwrap.TextWrapper (**kwargs)

     *note TextWrapper: fc5. 생성자는 여러 개의 선택적 키워드 인자를 받
     아들입니다.  각 키워드 인자는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에 해당합니다, 그
     래서 예를 들면

          wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")

     는 다음과 같습니다

          wrapper = TextWrapper()
          wrapper.initial_indent = "* "

     같은 *note TextWrapper: fc5. 객체를 여러 번 재사용 할 수 있으며, 사
     용 도중 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에 직접 대입하여 옵션을 변경할 수 있습니
     다.

     *note TextWrapper: fc5. 인스턴스 어트리뷰트(와 생성자에 대한 키워드
     인자)는 다음과 같습니다:

      -- 속성: width

          (기본값: ‘70’) 래핑 된 줄의 최대 길이.  입력 텍스트에 *note
          width: 2360.보다 긴 개별 단어가 없는 한, *note TextWrapper:
          fc5.는 *note width: 2360. 문자보다 긴 출력 줄이 없음을 보장합
          니다.

      -- 속성: expand_tabs

          (기본값: ‘True’) 참이면, 'text'의 모든 탭 문자가 'text'의
          *note expandtabs(): 21c4. 메서드를 사용하여 스페이스로 확장됩
          니다.

      -- 속성: tabsize

          (기본값: ‘8’) *note expand_tabs: 235b.가 참이면, 'text'의 모든
          탭 문자는 현재 열과 주어진 탭 크기에 따라 0개 이상의 스페이스
          로 확장됩니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: replace_whitespace

          (기본값: ‘True’) 참이면, 탭 확장 후 래핑 전에, *note wrap():
          148d. 메서드는 각 공백 문자를 단일 스페이스로 치환합니다.  치
          환되는 공백 문자는 다음과 같습니다: 탭, 줄 바꿈, 세로 탭, 폼 피
          드 및 캐리지 리턴 (‘'\t\n\v\f\r'’).

               참고: *note expand_tabs: 235b.가 거짓이고 *note
               replace_whitespace: 235d.가 참이면, 각 탭 문자는 단일 스
               페이스로 치환되는데, 탭 확장과는 '다릅니다'.

               참고: *note replace_whitespace: 235d.가 거짓이면, 줄 중간
               에 줄 바꿈이 나타나서 이상한 결과가 발생할 수 있습니다.  이
               러한 이유로, 텍스트는 (*note str.splitlines(): 1247.나 유
               사한 것을 사용해서) 문단으로 분할한 후에 별도로 래핑해야
               합니다.

      -- 속성: drop_whitespace

          (기본값: ‘True’) 참이면, 모든 줄의 처음과 끝의 공백(래핑 이후
          들여쓰기 전)이 삭제됩니다.  문단 시작 부분의 공백은 공백이 아
          닌 것이 뒤에 오면 삭제되지 않습니다.  삭제되는 공백이 줄 전체
          를 차지하면, 줄 전체가 삭제됩니다.

      -- 속성: initial_indent

          (기본값: ‘''’) 래핑 된 출력의 첫 번째 줄 앞에 추가될 문자열입
          니다.  첫 번째 줄의 길이 계산에 포함됩니다.  빈 문자열은 들여
          쓰지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: subsequent_indent

          (기본값: ‘''’) 첫 줄을 제외한 래핑 된 출력의 모든 줄 앞에 추가
          될 문자열입니다.  첫 번째 줄을 제외한 각 줄의 길이 계산에 포함
          됩니다.

      -- 속성: fix_sentence_endings

          (기본값: ‘False’) 참이면, *note TextWrapper: fc5.는 문장의 끝
          을 감지하고 문장이 항상 정확히 두 개의 스페이스로 분리되도록 만
          들려고 합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 고정 폭 글꼴의 텍스트에 적합
          합니다.  그러나, 문장 감지 알고리즘은 불완전합니다: 문장 끝은
          ‘'.'’, ‘'!'’ 또는 ‘'?'’ 중 하나가 뒤에 오고, ‘'"'’나 ‘"'"’ 중
          하나가 뒤따르는 것도 가능, 그 뒤에 스페이스가 오는 소문자로 구
          성된다고 가정합니다.  이 알고리즘의 한가지 문제는 다음에 나오
          는 “Dr.” 와

               [...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]

          다음에 나오는 “Spot.” 사이의 차이점을 탐지할 수 없다는 것입니
          다

               [...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]

          *note fix_sentence_endings: 2363.는 기본적으로 거짓입니다.

          문장 감지 알고리즘은 “소문자” 의 정의에 ‘string.lowercase’에 의
          존하고, 같은 줄에서 문장을 분리하기 위해 마침표 뒤에 두 개의 스
          페이스를 사용하는 규칙을 따르므로, 영어 텍스트에만 적용됩니다.

      -- 속성: break_long_words

          (기본값: ‘True’) 참이면, *note width: 2360.보다 긴 줄이 없도록
          하기 위해, *note width: 2360.보다 긴 단어를 분할합니다.  거짓
          이면, 긴 단어가 깨지지 않으며, 일부 줄이 *note width: 2360.보
          다 길 수 있습니다.  (*note width: 2360.를 초과하는 양을 최소화
          하기 위해 긴 단어는 독립된 줄에 넣습니다.)

      -- 속성: break_on_hyphens

          (기본값: ‘True’) 참이면, 래핑이, 영어에서의 관례대로, 공백과 복
          합 단어의 하이픈 바로 뒤에서 발생합니다.  거짓이면, 공백만을 줄
          바꿈을 위한 좋은 장소로 간주하지만, 진정한 분할되지 않는 단어
          를 원한다면 *note break_long_words: 235f.를 거짓으로 설정해야
          합니다.  이전 버전의 기본 동작은 항상 하이픈으로 연결된 단어를
          분리 할 수 있게 하는 것이었습니다.

      -- 속성: max_lines

          (기본값: ‘None’) ‘None’이 아니면, 출력은 최대 'max_lines' 줄을
          포함하고, 'placeholder'가 출력 끝에 나타납니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 속성: placeholder

          (기본값: ‘' [...]'’) 잘렸을 때 출력 텍스트의 끝에 표시할 문자
          열.

          Added in version 3.4.

     *note TextWrapper: fc5.는 모듈 수준 편리 함수와 유사한 몇 가지 공용
     메서드도 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: wrap (text)

          'text'(문자열)에 있는 한 문단을 모든 줄의 길이가 최대 *note
          width: 2360. 자가 되도록 래핑합니다.  모든 래핑 옵션은 *note
          TextWrapper: fc5. 인스턴스의 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에서 가져옵니
          다.  최종 줄 바꿈이 없는 출력 줄의 리스트를 반환합니다.  래핑
          된 출력에 내용이 없으면 반환된 리스트는 비어 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: fill (text)

          'text'에 있는 단일 문단을 래핑하고, 래핑 된 문단을 포함하는 단
          일 문자열을 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/textwrap.py


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스,  Next: stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비,  Prev: textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.5 ‘unicodedata’ — 유니코드 데이터베이스
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 모든 유니코드 문자에 대한 문자 속성을 정의하는 유니코드 문자 데
이터베이스(UCD – Unicode Character Database)에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.
이 데이터베이스에 포함된 데이터는 UCD 버전 15.1.0(1)으로 컴파일됩니다.

모듈은 유니코드 표준 부속서 #44, "유니코드 문자 데이터베이스"(2)에 정의
된 것과 같은 이름과 기호를 사용합니다.  다음과 같은 함수를 정의합니다:

더 보기
.......

The *note 유니코드 HOWTO: 1294. for more information about Unicode and
how to use this module.

 -- 함수: unicodedata.lookup (name)

     Look up character by name.  If a character with the given name is
     found, return the corresponding character.  If not found, *note
     KeyError: 33d. is raised.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
          '{'

     The characters returned by this function are the same as those
     produced by ‘\N’ escape sequence in string literals.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.lookup('MIDDLE DOT') == '\N{MIDDLE DOT}'
          True

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이름 별칭 (3) 과 명명된 시퀀스 (4) 가 추가되었습
     니다.

 -- 함수: unicodedata.name (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the name assigned to the character 'chr' as a string.  If
     no name is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not given, *note
     ValueError: 202. is raised.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.name('½')
          'VULGAR FRACTION ONE HALF'
          >>> unicodedata.name('\uFFFF', 'fallback')
          'fallback'

 -- 함수: unicodedata.decimal (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the decimal value assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or,
     if not given, *note ValueError: 202. is raised.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT NINE}')
          9
          >>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}', -1)
          -1

 -- 함수: unicodedata.digit (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the digit value assigned to the character 'chr' as integer.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 202. is raised:

          >>> unicodedata.digit('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}')
          9

 -- 함수: unicodedata.numeric (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the numeric value assigned to the character 'chr' as float.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 202. is raised:

          >>> unicodedata.numeric('½')
          0.5

 -- 함수: unicodedata.category (chr)

     Returns the general category assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  General category names consist of two letters.  See the
     General Category Values section of the Unicode Character Database
     documentation(5) for a list of category codes.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
          'Lu'

 -- 함수: unicodedata.bidirectional (chr)

     Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.
     See the Bidirectional Class Values section of the Unicode Character
     Database(6) documentation for a list of bidirectional codes.  For
     example:

          >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT SEVEN}') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
          'AN'

 -- 함수: unicodedata.combining (chr)

     Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character
     'chr' as integer.  Returns ‘0’ if no combining class is defined.
     See the Canonical Combining Class Values section of the Unicode
     Character Database(7) for more information.

 -- 함수: unicodedata.east_asian_width (chr)

     Returns the east asian width assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  For a list of widths and or more information, see the
     Unicode Standard Annex #11(8).

 -- 함수: unicodedata.mirrored (chr)

     Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  Returns ‘1’ if the character has been identified as a
     “mirrored” character in bidirectional text, ‘0’ otherwise.  For
     example:

          >>> unicodedata.mirrored('>')
          1

 -- 함수: unicodedata.decomposition (chr)

     Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the
     character 'chr' as string.  An empty string is returned in case no
     such mapping is defined.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.decomposition('Ã')
          '0041 0303'

 -- 함수: unicodedata.normalize (form, unistr)

     유니코드 문자열 'unistr'에 대한 정규화 형식(normal form) 'form'을 반
     환합니다.  'form'의 유효한 값은 ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’ 및 ‘NFKD’ 입니
     다.

     유니코드 표준은 정준 동등성(canonical equivalence) 및 호환 동등성
     (compatibility equivalence)의 정의를 기반으로, 유니코드 문자열의 다
     양한 정규화 형식을 정의합니다.  유니코드에서, 여러 문자를 다양한 방
     법으로 표현할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, U+00C7 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER
     C WITH CEDILLA) 은 시퀀스 U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327
     (COMBINING CEDILLA) 로도 표현할 수 있습니다.

     각 문자에는, 두 개의 정규화 형식이 있습니다: 정규화 형식 C와 정규화
     형식 D. 정규화 형식 D(NFD)는 정준 분해라고도 하며, 각 문자를 분해된
     형식으로 변환합니다.  정규화 형식 C(NFC)는 먼저 정준 분해를 적용한
     다음, 미리 결합한 문자로 다시 조합합니다.

     In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal
     forms based on compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, certain
     characters are supported which normally would be unified with other
     characters.  For example, U+2160 (ROMAN NUMERAL ONE) is really the
     same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I). However, it is
     supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character sets
     (for example, gb2312).

     The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility
     decomposition, that is, replace all compatibility characters with
     their equivalents.  The normal form KC (NFKC) first applies the
     compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical composition.

     두 개의 유니코드 문자열이 정규화되고, 사람이 보기에 같아 보여도, 하
     나가 결합한 문자를 갖고 다른 것은 그렇지 않으면, 같다고 비교되지 않
     을 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: unicodedata.is_normalized (form, unistr)

     유니코드 문자열 'unistr'이 정규화 형식 'form'인지를 반환합니다.
     'form'의 유효한 값은 ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’ 및 ‘NFKD’ 입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

또한, 이 모듈은 다음 상수를 노출합니다:

 -- 데이터: unicodedata.unidata_version

     이 모듈에 사용된 유니코드 데이터베이스의 버전.

 -- 데이터: unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

     이것은 전체 모듈과 같은 메서드를 가지고 있는 객체이지만, 유니코드 데
     이터베이스 버전 3.2를 대신 사용합니다.  이 특정 버전의 유니코드 데
     이터베이스가 필요한 응용 프로그램(가령 IDNA)을 위한 것입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/

   (3) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’

   (4) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.1.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt’

   (5) 
https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-30.html#General_Category_Values

   (6) 
https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-30.html#Bidi_Class_Values

   (7) 
www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-30.html#Canonical_Combining_Class_Values

   (8) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr11/tr11-41.html


File: python.info,  Node: stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비,  Next: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스,  Prev: unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.6 ‘stringprep’ — 인터넷 문자열 준비
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/stringprep.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

인터넷에서 무언가(가령 호스트 이름)를 식별할 때, 종종 그러한 식별에 대해
“동등” 비교할 필요가 있습니다.  이 비교가 실행되는 정확한 방법은 응용 프
로그램 도메인에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 대/소문자를 구분하는
지 그렇지 않은지.  또한 “인쇄 가능” 문자로만 구성된 식별만 허용하기 위해
, 가능한 식별을 제한해야 할 수도 있습니다.

RFC 3454(2)는 인터넷 프로토콜에서 유니코드 문자열을 “준비” 하는 절차를 정
의합니다.  문자열을 전선에 전달하기 전에, 준비 절차를 통해 문자열을 처리
해서 어떤 정규화된 형식을 갖도록 만듭니다.  RFC는 프로파일로 결합할 수 있
는 테이블 집합을 정의합니다.  각 프로파일은 사용하는 테이블과
‘stringprep’ 절차의 어떤 선택적 부분이 프로파일 일부인지 정의해야 합니다
.  ‘stringprep’ 프로파일의 한 가지 예는 국제화된 도메인 이름에 사용되는
‘nameprep’입니다.

*note stringprep: d4. 모듈은 RFC 3454(3)의 테이블만 노출합니다.  이러한
테이블은 딕셔너리나 리스트로 표현하기에 매우 크기 때문에, 모듈은 내부적
으로 유니코드 문자 데이터베이스를 사용합니다.  모듈 소스 코드 자체는
‘mkstringprep.py’ 유틸리티를 사용하여 생성되었습니다.

결과적으로, 이러한 테이블은 데이터 구조가 아닌 함수로 노출됩니다.  RFC에
는 두 종류의 테이블이 있습니다: 집합과 매핑.  집합의 경우, *note
stringprep: d4.는 “특성 함수”, 즉 매개 변수가 집합 일부면 ‘True’를 반환
하는 함수를 제공합니다.  매핑의 경우, 매핑 함수를 제공합니다: 주어진 키
에 대해, 연관된 값을 반환합니다.  다음은 모듈에서 사용할 수 있는 모든 함
수의 목록입니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_a1 (code)

     'code'가 tableA.1(유니코드 3.2에서 지정되지 않은 코드 포인트)에 있
     는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_b1 (code)

     'code'가 tableB.1(일반적으로 아무것도 매핑되지 않습니다)에 있는지 판
     별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.map_table_b2 (code)

     tableB.2(NFKC와 함께 사용되는 케이스 폴딩용 매핑)에 따라 'code'의 매
     핑 된 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.map_table_b3 (code)

     tableB.3(정규화가 없는 케이스 폴딩용 매핑)에 따라 'code'의 매핑 된
     값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c11 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.1.1(ASCII 스페이스 문자)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c12 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.1.2(비 ASCII 스페이스 문자)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c11_c12 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.1(스페이스 문자, C.1.1과 C.1.2의 합집합)에 있는지 판
     별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c21 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.2.1(ASCII 제어 문자)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c22 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.2.2(비 ASCII 제어 문자)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c21_c22 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.2(제어 문자, C.2.1과 C.2.2의 합집합)에 있는지 판별
     합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c3 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.3(개인 사용)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c4 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.4(비문자 코드 포인트)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c5 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.5(대리 코드)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c6 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.6(일반 텍스트에는 부적절)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c7 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.7(규범적 표현에는 부적절)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c8 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.8(표시 특성 변경 또는 폐지)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_c9 (code)

     'code'가 tableC.9(문자 태깅)에 있는지 판별합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_d1 (code)

     'code'가 tableD.1(양방향 특성이 “R”이나 “AL”인 문자)에 있는지 판별
     합니다.

 -- 함수: stringprep.in_table_d2 (code)

     'code'가 tableD.2(양방향 특성이 “L”인 문자)에 있는지 판별합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/stringprep.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html


File: python.info,  Node: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스,  Next: rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수,  Prev: stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.7 ‘readline’ — GNU readline 인터페이스
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note readline: ba. 모듈은 파이썬 인터프리터에서 완성(completion)과 히스
토리 파일의 읽기/쓰기를 용이하게 하는 여러 함수를 정의합니다.  이 모듈은
직접 사용하거나, 대화식 프롬프트에서 파이썬 식별자 완성을 지원하는 *note
rlcompleter: bd. 모듈을 통해 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 모듈을 사용하여 설
정한 내용은 인터프리터의 대화식 프롬프트와 내장 *note input(): 12c8. 함
수가 제공하는 프롬프트의 동작에 영향을 줍니다.

Readline 키 바인딩은 초기화 파일을 통해 구성할 수 있습니다, 일반적으로 홈
디렉터리의 ‘.inputrc’.  이 파일의 형식과 허용되는 구성 및 Readline 라이
브러리의 기능에 대한 일반적인 정보는 GNU Readline 매뉴얼의 Readline Init
File(1)을 참조하십시오.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

     참고: 하부 Readline 라이브러리 API는 GNU readline 대신 ‘editline’
     (‘libedit’) 라이브러리로 구현될 수 있습니다.  macOS에서 *note
     readline: ba. 모듈은 실행 시간에 사용 중인 라이브러리를 감지합니다.

     ‘editline’의 구성 파일은 GNU readline의 구성 파일과 다릅니다.  프로
     그래밍 방식으로 구성 문자열을 로드하는 경우 어떤 라이브러리가 사용
     되고 있는지 *note backend: 16b6.를 사용하여 확인할 수 있습니다.

     macOS에서 ‘editline’/‘libedit’ readline 에뮬레이션을 사용하는 경우,
     홈 디렉터리에 있는 초기화 파일의 이름은 ‘.editrc’입니다.  예를 들어
     , ‘~/.editrc’의 다음 내용은 'vi' 키 바인딩과 TAB 완성을 켭니다:

          python:bind -v
          python:bind ^I rl_complete

     Also note that different libraries may use different history file
     formats.  When switching the underlying library, existing history
     files may become unusable.

 -- 데이터: readline.backend

     The name of the underlying Readline library being used, either
     ‘"readline"’ or ‘"editline"’.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* 초기화 파일::
* 줄 버퍼::
* 히스토리 파일::
* 히스토리 목록::
* 시동 훅::
* 완성::
* 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#Readline-Init-File


File: python.info,  Node: 초기화 파일,  Next: 줄 버퍼,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.1 초기화 파일
...................

다음 함수는 초기화 파일 및 사용자 구성과 관련이 있습니다:

 -- 함수: readline.parse_and_bind (string)

     'string' 인자에 제공된 초기화 줄을 실행합니다.  하부 라이브러리에서
     ‘rl_parse_and_bind()’를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.read_init_file ([filename])

     readline 초기화 파일을 실행합니다.  기본 파일 이름은 마지막으로 사
     용한 파일 이름입니다.  하부 라이브러리에서 ‘rl_read_init_file()’을
     호출합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 줄 버퍼,  Next: 히스토리 파일,  Prev: 초기화 파일,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.2 줄 버퍼
...............

다음 함수는 라인 버퍼에 대해 작용합니다:

 -- 함수: readline.get_line_buffer ()

     줄 버퍼의 현재 내용(하부 라이브러리의 ‘rl_line_buffer’)을 반환합니
     다.

 -- 함수: readline.insert_text (string)

     줄 버퍼의 커서 위치에 텍스트를 삽입합니다.  하부 라이브러리에서
     ‘rl_insert_text()’를 호출하지만, 반환 값은 무시합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.redisplay ()

     줄 버퍼의 현재 내용을 반영하도록 화면에 표시되는 내용을 변경합니다.
     하부 라이브러리에서 ‘rl_redisplay()’를 호출합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 히스토리 파일,  Next: 히스토리 목록,  Prev: 줄 버퍼,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.3 히스토리 파일
.....................

다음 함수는 히스토리 파일에 대해 작용합니다:

 -- 함수: readline.read_history_file ([filename])

     readline 히스토리 파일을 로드하고, 히스토리 목록에 추가합니다.  기
     본 파일명은 ‘~/.history’입니다.  하부 라이브러리에서
     ‘read_history()’를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.write_history_file ([filename])

     히스토리 목록을 readline 히스토리 파일에 저장하여, 기존 파일을 덮어
     씁니다.  기본 파일명은 ‘~/.history’입니다.  하부 라이브러리에서
     ‘write_history()’를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.append_history_file (nelements[, filename])

     히스토리의 마지막 'nelements' 항목을 파일에 추가합니다.  기본 파일
     명은 ‘~/.history’입니다.  파일이 이미 존재해야 합니다.  하부 라이브
     러리에서 ‘append_history()’를 호출합니다.  이 함수는 파이썬이 이를
     지원하는 라이브러리 버전으로 컴파일된 경우에만 존재합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: readline.get_history_length ()
 -- 함수: readline.set_history_length (length)

     히스토리 파일에 저장하기 원하는 줄 수를 설정하거나 반환합니다.
     *note write_history_file(): 2391. 함수는 이 값을 사용하여, 하부 라
     이브러리에서 ‘history_truncate_file()’을 호출하여 히스토리 파일을 자
     릅니다.  음수 값은 제한 없는 히스토리 파일 크기를 의미합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 히스토리 목록,  Next: 시동 훅,  Prev: 히스토리 파일,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.4 히스토리 목록
.....................

다음 함수는 전역 히스토리 목록에 대해 작용합니다:

 -- 함수: readline.clear_history ()

     현재 히스토리를 지웁니다.  하부 라이브러리에서 ‘clear_history()’를
     호출합니다.  파이썬 함수는 파이썬이 이를 지원하는 라이브러리 버전으
     로 컴파일된 경우에만 존재합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.get_current_history_length ()

     현재 히스토리에 있는 항목 수를 반환합니다.  (이것은 히스토리 파일에
     기록될 최대 줄 수를 반환하는 *note get_history_length(): 2392.와 다
     릅니다.)

 -- 함수: readline.get_history_item (index)

     'index'에 있는 히스토리 항목의 현재 내용을 반환합니다.  항목 인덱스
     는 1부터 시작합니다.  하부 라이브러리에서 ‘history_get()’을 호출합
     니다.

 -- 함수: readline.remove_history_item (pos)

     히스토리에서 위치(pos)로 지정된 히스토리 항목을 제거합니다.  위치는
     0부터 시작합니다.  하부 라이브러리에서 ‘remove_history()’를 호출합
     니다.

 -- 함수: readline.replace_history_item (pos, line)

     위치(pos)로 지정된 히스토리 항목을 'line'으로 교체합니다.  위치는
     0부터 시작합니다.  하부 라이브러리에서 ‘replace_history_entry()’를
     호출합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.add_history (line)

     마지막 줄이 입력된 것처럼 히스토리 버퍼에 'line'을 추가합니다.  하
     부 라이브러리에서 ‘add_history()’를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.set_auto_history (enabled)

     readline을 통해 입력을 읽을 때 ‘add_history()’에 대한 자동 호출을 활
     성화 또는 비활성화합니다.  'enabled' 인자는 참일 때 자동 히스토리를
     활성화하고, 거짓일 때 자동 기록을 비활성화하는 불리언 값이어야 합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.6.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' Auto history is enabled by default, and
     changes to this do not persist across multiple sessions.


File: python.info,  Node: 시동 훅,  Next: 완성,  Prev: 히스토리 목록,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.5 시동 훅
...............

 -- 함수: readline.set_startup_hook ([function])

     하부 라이브러리의 ‘rl_startup_hook’ 콜백에 의해 호출되는 함수를 설
     정하거나 제거합니다.  'function'이 지정되면 새 훅(hook) 함수로 사용
     됩니다; 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 이미 설치된 함수가 제거됩니다.  이 훅
     은 readline이 첫 번째 프롬프트를 인쇄하기 직전에 인자 없이 호출됩니
     다.

 -- 함수: readline.set_pre_input_hook ([function])

     하부 라이브러리의 ‘rl_pre_input_hook’ 콜백에 의해 호출되는 함수를 설
     정하거나 제거합니다.  'function'이 지정되면, 새 훅 함수로 사용됩니
     다; 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 이미 설치된 함수가 제거됩니다.  이 훅은
     첫 번째 프롬프트가 인쇄된 후 readline이 입력 문자를 읽기 시작하기 직
     전에 인자 없이 호출됩니다.  이 함수는 파이썬이 이를 지원하는 라이브
     러리 버전으로 컴파일된 경우에만 존재합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 완성,  Next: 예제,  Prev: 시동 훅,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.6 완성
............

다음 함수는 사용자 정의 단어 완성 기능 구현과 관련이 있습니다.  이것은 일
반적으로 Tab 키로 작동하며, 입력되는 단어를 제안하고 자동으로 완성할 수
있습니다.  기본적으로, Readline은 대화식 인터프리터를 위해 파이썬 식별자
를 완성하는 *note rlcompleter: bd.에서 사용하도록 설정되어 있습니다.
*note readline: ba. 모듈을 사용자 정의 완성기와 함께 사용하려면, 다른 단
어 구분자 집합을 설정해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.set_completer ([function])

     완성 함수를 설정하거나 제거합니다.  'function'이 지정되면 새 완성 함
     수로 사용됩니다; 생략하거나 ‘None’이면, 이미 설치된 완성 함수가 제
     거됩니다.  완성 함수는 문자열이 아닌 값을 반환할 때까지 ‘0’, ‘1’,
     ‘2’ 등의 'state'에 대해 ‘function(text, state)’로 호출됩니다.
     'text'로 시작하는 다음으로 가능한 완성을 반환해야 합니다.

     설치된 완성 함수는 하부 라이브러리의 ‘rl_completion_matches()’로 전
     달된 'entry_func' 콜백에 의해 호출됩니다.  'text' 문자열은 하부 라
     이브러리의 ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ 콜백의 첫 번째 매개 변
     수로부터 옵니다.

 -- 함수: readline.get_completer ()

     완성 함수나, 완성 함수가 설정되지 않았으면 ‘None’을 얻습니다.

 -- 함수: readline.get_completion_type ()

     시도 중인 완성 유형을 가져옵니다.  하부 라이브러리의
     ‘rl_completion_type’ 변수를 정수로 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.get_begidx ()
 -- 함수: readline.get_endidx ()

     완성 범위(completion scope)의 시작이나 끝 인덱스를 가져옵니다.  이
     인덱스는 하부 라이브러리의 ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ 콜백
     에 전달된 'start'와 'end' 인자입니다.  같은 입력 편집 시나리오에서
     하부 C readline 구현에 따라 값이 다를 수 있습니다.  예: libedit는
     libreadline과 다르게 동작하는 것으로 알려져 있습니다.

 -- 함수: readline.set_completer_delims (string)
 -- 함수: readline.get_completer_delims ()

     완성을 위한 단어 구분자를 설정하거나 가져옵니다.  이것들은 완성을 위
     해 고려할 단어의 시작(완성 범위)을 결정합니다.  이 함수는 하부 라이
     브러리의 ‘rl_completer_word_break_characters’ 변수를 액세스합니다.

 -- 함수: readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook ([function])

     완성 표시 함수를 설정하거나 제거합니다.  'function'이 지정되면, 새
     로운 완성 표시 함수로 사용됩니다; 생략하거나 ‘None’이면, 이미 설치
     된 완성 표시 함수가 제거됩니다.  하부 라이브러리에서
     ‘rl_completion_display_matches_hook’ 콜백을 설정하거나 지웁니다.  완
     성 표시 함수는 일치를 표시해야 할 때마다 한 번
     ‘function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)’로 호출됩
     니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제,  Prev: 완성,  Up: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스

5.6.7.7 예제
............

다음 예는 *note readline: ba. 모듈의 히스토리 읽기와 쓰기 함수를 사용하
여 사용자의 홈 디렉터리에서 ‘.python_history’라는 이름의 히스토리 파일을
자동으로 로드하고 저장하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  아래 코드는 일반적으로 사
용자의 *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. 파일에서 대화식 세션 중에 자동으로 실행
됩니다.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline

     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         # 기본 히스토리 길이는 -1(무한)이며, 제약 없이 커질 수 있습니다
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
     except FileNotFoundError:
         pass

     atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)

이 코드는 실제로 파이썬이 *note 대화형 모드: fbe.로 실행될 때 자동으로 실
행됩니다 (*note Readline 구성: fc1.을 참조하십시오).

다음 예는 같은 목표를 달성하지만 새 히스토리를 덧붙이기만 해서 동시적인
(concurrent) 대화형 세션을 지원합니다.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline
     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")

     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         open(histfile, 'wb').close()
         h_len = 0

     def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
         new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
         readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
     atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)

다음 예는 히스토리 저장/복원을 지원하도록 *note code.InteractiveConsole:
23a4. 클래스를 확장합니다.

     import atexit
     import code
     import os
     import readline

     class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
         def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
                      histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
             code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
             self.init_history(histfile)

         def init_history(self, histfile):
             readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
             if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
                 try:
                     readline.read_history_file(histfile)
                 except FileNotFoundError:
                     pass
                 atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)

         def save_history(self, histfile):
             readline.set_history_length(1000)
             readline.write_history_file(histfile)


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수,  Prev: readline — GNU readline 인터페이스,  Up: 텍스트 처리 서비스

5.6.8 ‘rlcompleter’ — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수
---------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/rlcompleter.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘rlcompleter’ 모듈은 *note readline: ba. 모듈의 *note set_completer():
239d.로 전달하기에 적합한 완성 함수를 정의합니다.

*note readline: ba. 모듈을 사용할 수 있는 유닉스 플랫폼에서 이 모듈이 임
포트될 때, *note Completer: 194b. 클래스의 인스턴스가 자동으로 만들어지
고, *note complete(): 23a7. 메서드가 *note readline 완성기: 239c.로 설정
됩니다.  이 메서드는 유효한 파이썬 *note 식별자외 키워드: 1e9c.의 완성을
제공합니다.

예제:

     >>> import rlcompleter
     >>> import readline
     >>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
     >>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
     readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
     readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
     readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
     >>> readline.

‘rlcompleter’ 모듈은 파이썬의 *note 대화형 모드: fbe.와 함께 사용하도록
설계되었습니다.  파이썬이 *note -S: 1198. 옵션으로 실행되지 않는 한, 모
듈은 자동으로 임포트되고 구성됩니다 (*note Readline 구성: fc1.를 보세요
).

*note readline: ba.이 없는 플랫폼에서, 이 모듈이 정의하는 *note
Completer: 194b. 클래스는 여전히 사용자 정의 목적에 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: rlcompleter.Completer

     Completer 객체는 다음과 같은 메서드를 가집니다:

      -- 메서드: complete (text, state)

          'text'에 대한 가능한 다음 완성을 반환합니다.

          When called by the *note readline: ba. module, this method is
          called successively with ‘state == 0, 1, 2, ...’ until the
          method returns ‘None’.

          마침표(‘'.'’)가 포함되지 않은 'text'로 호출되면, *note
          __main__: 1, *note builtins: 12. 및 키워드(*note keyword: 84.
          모듈에서 정의한 대로)에 현재 정의된 이름으로 완성됩니다.

          점으로 구분된 이름으로 호출하면, 명백한 부작용(함수는 평가되지
          않지만 *note __getattr__(): 4cd.에 대한 호출을 만들 수 있습니
          다)없이 마지막 부분까지 평가하려고 시도하고, 나머지는 *note
          dir(): 62c. 함수를 통해 일치하는 것을 찾습니다.  표현식을 평가
          하는 동안 발생하는 모든 예외는 잡히고, 억제하며 *note None:
          66f.을 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/rlcompleter.py


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 데이터 서비스,  Next: 데이터형,  Prev: 텍스트 처리 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.7 바이너리 데이터 서비스
==========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 바이너리 데이터를 다루기 위한 기본 서비스 연산
을 제공합니다.  파일 포맷, 네트워크 프로토콜과 관련 있는 바이너리 데이터
에 대한 연산은 관련 절에서 설명합니다.

*note 텍스트 처리 서비스: 21c2.에서 설명한 일부 라이브러리는 ASCII 호환
바이너리 형식 (예를 들면, *note re: b9.) 또는 모든 바이너리 데이터 (예를
들면, *note difflib: 37.)에 사용할 수 있습니다.

또한, 파이썬 내장 바이너리 데이터형에 대한 설명은 *note 바이너리 시퀀스
형 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 2169. 문서를 참고하세요.

* Menu:

* struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석::
* codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스::


File: python.info,  Node: struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석,  Next: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스,  Up: 바이너리 데이터 서비스

5.7.1 ‘struct’ — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석
----------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/struct.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module converts between Python values and C structs represented as
Python *note bytes: 1c2. objects.  Compact *note format strings: 23ad.
describe the intended conversions to/from Python values.  The module’s
functions and objects can be used for two largely distinct applications,
data exchange with external sources (files or network connections), or
data transfer between the Python application and the C layer.

     참고: When no prefix character is given, native mode is the
     default.  It packs or unpacks data based on the platform and
     compiler on which the Python interpreter was built.  The result of
     packing a given C struct includes pad bytes which maintain proper
     alignment for the C types involved; similarly, alignment is taken
     into account when unpacking.  In contrast, when communicating data
     between external sources, the programmer is responsible for
     defining byte ordering and padding between elements.  See *note
     바이트 순서, 크기 및 정렬: 23ae. for details.

여러 *note struct: d5. 함수(그리고 *note Struct: 16b8. 의 메서드)는
'buffer' 인자를 취합니다.  이는 *note 버퍼 프로토콜: 391.을 구현하고 읽
을 수 있거나 읽고 쓸 수 있는 버퍼를 제공하는 객체를 나타냅니다.  이 목적
으로 사용되는 가장 일반적인 형은 *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytearray:
538.지만, 바이트 배열로 볼 수 있는 많은 다른 형이 버퍼 프로토콜을 구현하
므로, *note bytes: 1c2. 객체에서 추가로 복사하지 않고도 읽고 채울 수 있
습니다.

* Menu:

* 함수와 예외::
* 포맷 문자열::
* 응용::
* 클래스: 클래스<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/struct.py


File: python.info,  Node: 함수와 예외,  Next: 포맷 문자열,  Up: struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석

5.7.1.1 함수와 예외
...................

이 모듈은 다음과 같은 예외와 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: struct.error

     여러 상황에서 발생하는 예외; 인자는 무엇이 잘못되었는지 설명하는 문
     자열입니다.

 -- 함수: struct.pack (format, v1, v2, ...)

     'v1', 'v2', … 값을 포함하고 포맷 문자열 'format'에 따라 패킹 된 바
     이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  인자는 포맷이 요구하는 값과 정확히 일치
     해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: struct.pack_into (format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

     포맷 문자열 'format'에 따라 값 'v1', 'v2', … 를 패킹하고 패킹 된 바
     이트열을 쓰기 가능한 버퍼 'buffer'에 'offset' 위치에서부터 씁니다.
     'offset'은 필수 인자임에 유의하십시오.

 -- 함수: struct.unpack (format, buffer)

     포맷 문자열 'format'에 따라 버퍼 'buffer'(아마도 ‘pack(format,
     ...)’으로 패킹 된)에서 언 패킹 합니다.  정확히 하나의 항목을 포함하
     더라도 결과는 튜플입니다.  바이트 단위의 버퍼 크기는 (*note
     calcsize(): 19cb.에 의해 반영되는) 포맷이 요구하는 크기와 일치해야
     합니다.

 -- 함수: struct.unpack_from (format, /, buffer, offset=0)

     포맷 문자열 'format'에 따라, 'offset' 위치에서 시작하여 'buffer'에
     서 언 패킹 합니다.  정확히 하나의 항목을 포함하더라도 결과는 튜플입
     니다.  'offset' 위치에서 시작하여 바이트 단위로 측정한 버퍼 크기는
     (*note calcsize(): 19cb.에 의해 반영되는) 포맷이 요구하는 크기 이상
     이어야 합니다.

 -- 함수: struct.iter_unpack (format, buffer)

     포맷 문자열 'format'에 따라 버퍼 'buffer'에서 이터레이션을 통해 언
     패킹 합니다.  이 함수는 모든 내용이 소비될 때까지 버퍼에서 같은 크
     기의 청크를 읽는 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  바이트 단위의 버퍼 크기
     는 (*note calcsize(): 19cb.에 의해 반영되는) 포맷이 요구하는 크기의
     배수여야 합니다.

     각 이터레이션은 포맷 문자열에 지정된 대로 튜플을 산출합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: struct.calcsize (format)

     포맷 문자열 'format'에 해당하는 구조체(‘pack(format, ...)’에 의해 생
     성되는 바이트열 객체)의 크기를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 문자열,  Next: 응용,  Prev: 함수와 예외,  Up: struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석

5.7.1.2 포맷 문자열
...................

포맷 문자열은 데이터를 패킹과 언 패킹할 때 데이터 배치를 설명합니다.  이
들은 패킹/언 패킹 될 데이터형을 지정하는 *note 포맷 문자: 23b3.로 구축됩
니다.  또한, 특수 문자가 *note 바이트 순서, 크기 및 정렬: 23ae.을 제어합
니다.  각 포맷 문자열은 데이터의 전체 속성을 설명하는 선택적 접두사 문자
와 실제 데이터 값과 패딩을 설명하는 하나 이상의 포맷 문자로 구성됩니다.

* Menu:

* 바이트 순서, 크기 및 정렬: 바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
* 포맷 문자::
* 예::


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬,  Next: 포맷 문자,  Up: 포맷 문자열

5.7.1.3 바이트 순서, 크기 및 정렬
.................................

기본적으로, C형은 기계의 네이티브 형식과 바이트 순서로 표현되며, 필요하
면 (C 컴파일러에서 사용하는 규칙에 따라) 패드 바이트로 건너뛰어 적절하게
정렬됩니다.  이 동작은 패킹된 구조체의 바이트가 해당 C 구조체의 메모리 배
치와 정확히 일치하도록 선택되었습니다.  네이티브 바이트 순서와 패딩을 사
용할지 아니면 표준 포맷을 사용할지는 응용 프로그램에 달려 있습니다.

또는, 다음 표에 따라, 포맷 문자열의 첫 번째 문자를 사용하여 패킹 된 데이
터의 바이트 순서, 크기 및 정렬을 표시할 수 있습니다:

문자            바이트 순서                  크기           정렬
                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
‘@’             네이티브                     네이티브       네이티브
                                                            
                                                            
‘=’             네이티브                     표준           none
                                                            
                                                            
‘<’             리틀 엔디안                  표준           none
                                                            
                                                            
‘>’             빅 엔디안                    표준           none
                                                            
                                                            
‘!’             네트워크 (= 빅 엔디안)       표준           none
                                                            

첫 번째 문자가 이들 중 하나가 아니면, ‘'@'’로 가정합니다.

     참고: The number 1023 (‘0x3ff’ in hexadecimal) has the following
     byte representations:

        * ‘03 ff’ in big-endian (‘>’)

        * ‘ff 03’ in little-endian (‘<’)

     파이썬 예제:

          >>> import struct
          >>> struct.pack('>h', 1023)
          b'\x03\xff'
          >>> struct.pack('<h', 1023)
          b'\xff\x03'

네이티브 바이트 순서는 호스트 시스템에 따라 빅 엔디안이나 리틀 엔디안입
니다.  예를 들어, 인텔 x86, AMD64 (x86-64) 및 애플 M1은 리틀 엔디안입니
다; IBM z 와 많은 레거시 아키텍처는 빅 엔디안입니다.  시스템의 엔디안을
확인하려면 *note sys.byteorder: 21a3.를 사용하십시오.

네이티브 크기와 정렬은 C 컴파일러의 ‘sizeof’ 표현식을 사용하여 결정됩니
다.  이것은 항상 네이티브 바이트 순서와 결합합니다.

표준 크기는 포맷 문자에만 의존합니다; *note 포맷 문자: 23b3. 섹션의 표를
참조하십시오.

‘'@'’과 ‘'='’의 차이점에 유의하십시오; 둘 다 네이티브 바이트 순서를 사용
하지만, 후자는 크기와 정렬이 표준화됩니다.

‘'!'’ 형식은 IETF RFC 1700(1)에 정의된 대로 항상 빅 엔디안인 네트워크 바
이트 순서를 나타냅니다.

네이티브가 아닌 바이트 순서(강제 바이트 스와핑)를 표시하는 방법은 없습니
다; ‘'<'’나 ‘'>'’를 적절히 선택하십시오.

노트:

  1. 패딩은 연속되는 구조체 멤버 간에만 자동으로 추가됩니다.  인코딩된 구
     조체의 시작이나 끝에는 패딩이 추가되지 않습니다.

  2. 네이티브가 아닌 크기와 정렬을 사용할 때는 패딩이 추가되지 않습니다,
     예를 들어 ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘=’ 및 ‘!’ 에서.

  3. 구조체의 끝을 특정 형의 정렬 요구 사항에 맞추려면, 반복 횟수가 0인
     해당 형의 코드로 포맷을 끝내십시오.  *note 예: 23b5.를 참조하십시오
     .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1700


File: python.info,  Node: 포맷 문자,  Next: 예,  Prev: 바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬,  Up: 포맷 문자열

5.7.1.4 포맷 문자
.................

포맷 문자는 다음과 같은 의미가 있습니다; C와 파이썬 값 사이의 변환은 형
을 주면 분명해야 합니다.  ‘표준 크기’ 열은 표준 크기를 사용할 때 패킹 된
값의 크기를 바이트 단위로 나타냅니다; 즉, 포맷 문자열이 ‘'<'’, ‘'>'’,
‘'!'’ 또는 ‘'='’ 중 하나로 시작하는 경우입니다.  네이티브 크기를 사용할
때, 패킹 된 값의 크기는 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.

포맷         C형                            파이썬 형                표준 크기            노트
                                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘x’          패드 바이트                    값이 없습니다                                 (7)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘c’          char                           길이가 1인 bytes         1
                                                                     
                                                                                          
‘b’          signed char                    정수                     1                    (1), (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘B’          unsigned char                  정수                     1                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘?’          _Bool                          bool                     1                    (1)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘h’          short                          정수                     2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘H’          unsigned short                 정수                     2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘i’          int                            정수                     4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘I’          unsigned int                   정수                     4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘l’          long                           정수                     4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘L’          unsigned long                  정수                     4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘q’          long long                      정수                     8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Q’          unsigned long long             정수                     8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘n’          ‘ssize_t’                      정수                                          (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘N’          ‘size_t’                       정수                                          (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘e’          (6)                            float                    2                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘f’          float                          float                    4                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘d’          double                         float                    8                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘s’          char[]                         bytes                                         (9)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘p’          char[]                         bytes                                         (8)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘P’          void*                          정수                                          (5)
                                                                                          

버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘'n'’과 ‘'N'’ 포맷에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘'e'’ 포맷에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

노트:

  1. 
     ‘'?'’ 변환 코드는 C99 이후의 C 표준이 정의한 _Bool 형에 해당합니다.
     표준 모드에서는, 1바이트로 표현됩니다.

  2. 정수 변환 코드 중 하나를 사용하여 정수가 아닌 값을 패킹하려고 할 때
     , 정수가 아닌 값에 *note __index__(): 716. 메서드가 있으면 패킹 전
     에 해당 메서드가 호출되어 인자를 정수로 변환합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 정수가 아닌 값에서 *note __index__(): 716. 메서
     드를 사용하는 것을 추가했습니다.

  3. ‘'n'’과 ‘'N'’ 변환 코드는 (기본값이나 ‘'@'’ 바이트 순서 문자로 선택
     된) 네이티브 크기에만 사용할 수 있습니다.  표준 크기의 경우, 응용 프
     로그램에 맞는 다른 정수 포맷을 사용할 수 있습니다.

  4. ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ 및 ‘'e'’ 변환 코드의 경우, 패킹 된 표현은 플랫폼에서 사
     용하는 부동 소수점 형식과 관계없이 IEEE 754 binary32, binary64 또는
     binary16 형식을 사용합니다 (각각 ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ 또는 ‘'e'’).

  5. ‘'P'’ 포맷 문자는 (기본값이나 ‘'@'’ 바이트 순서 문자로 선택된) 네이
     티브 바이트 순서에만 사용할 수 있습니다.  바이트 순서 문자 ‘'='’는
     호스트 시스템에 따라 리틀이나 빅 엔디안 순서를 사용하도록 선택합니
     다.  struct 모듈은 이를 네이티브 순서로 해석하지 않아서, ‘'P'’ 형식
     을 사용할 수 없습니다.

  6. IEEE 754 binary16 “반 정밀도” 형은 2008년 IEEE 754 표준(1) 개정판에
     서 도입되었습니다.  부호 비트, 5비트 지수 및 11비트 정밀도(10비트가
     명시적으로 저장됩니다)를 가지며, 전체 정밀도에서 대략 ‘6.1e-05’와
     ‘6.5e+04’ 사이의 숫자를 나타낼 수 있습니다.  이 형은 C 컴파일러에서
     널리 지원되지 않습니다: 일반적인 기계에서는, unsigned short를 저장
     에 사용할 수 있지만, 수학 연산에는 사용할 수 없습니다.  자세한 내용
     은 half-precision floating-point format(2)의 Wikipedia 페이지를 참
     조하십시오.

  7. When packing, ‘'x'’ inserts one NUL byte.

  8. ‘'p'’ 포맷 문자는 “파스칼 문자열”을 인코딩하는데, 이는 카운트에 의
     해 주어진 '고정된 바이트 수'에 저장된 짧은 가변 길이 문자열을 의미
     합니다.  저장된 첫 번째 바이트는 문자열의 길이나 255중 작은 값입니
     다.  문자열의 바이트가 그 뒤에 옵니다.  *note pack(): 1267.에 전달
     된 문자열이 너무 길면 (횟수 빼기 1보다 길면), 문자열의 선행
     ‘count-1’ 바이트만 저장됩니다.  문자열이 ‘count-1’보다 짧으면, 전부
     정확한 바이트 수가 되도록 널 바이트로 채워집니다.  *note unpack():
     17cd.의 경우, ‘'p'’ 포맷 문자는 ‘count’ 바이트를 소비하지만, 반환된
     문자열은 255바이트를 초과할 수 없음에 유의하십시오.

  9. ‘'s'’ 포맷 문자의 경우, 횟수는 다른 포맷 문자와 같은 반복 횟수가 아
     닌 바이트열의 길이로 해석됩니다; 예를 들어, ‘'10s'’는 단일 파이썬 바
     이트 문자열과 양 방향 매핑되는 단일 10바이트 문자열을 의미하는 반면
     에, ‘'10c'’는 10개의 서로 다른 파이썬 바이트 객체와 양 방향 매핑되
     는 10개의 개별 바이트 문자 요소를 의미합니다 (예를 들어,
     ‘cccccccccc’).  (차이점에 대한 구체적인 시연은 *note 예: 23b5.를 참
     조하세요.)  횟수를 지정하지 않으면, 기본값은 1입니다.  패킹의 경우,
     맞도록 문자열이 잘리거나 널 바이트로 채워집니다.  언 패킹의 경우, 결
     과 바이트열 객체는 항상 지정된 바이트 수를 갖습니다.  특별한 경우로
     , ‘'0s'’는 하나의 빈 문자열을 의미합니다(반면에 ‘'0c'’는 0문자를 의
     미합니다).

포맷 문자 앞에는 정수 반복 횟수가 올 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 포맷 문자
열 ‘'4h'’는 ‘'hhhh'’와 정확히 같습니다.

포맷 사이의 공백 문자는 무시됩니다; 횟수와 형식 사이에는 공백이 없어야 합
니다.

정수 형식 (‘'b'’, ‘'B'’, ‘'h'’, ‘'H'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'I'’, ‘'l'’, ‘'L'’,
‘'q'’, ‘'Q'’) 중 하나를 사용하여 값 ‘x’를 패킹할 때, ‘x’가 해당 포맷의 유
효한 범위를 벗어나면 *note struct.error: 1313.가 발생합니다.

버전 3.1에서 변경: 이전에는, 일부 정수 포맷은 범위를 벗어난 값을 래핑하
고 *note struct.error: 1313. 대신 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 발생
시켰습니다.

‘'?'’ 포맷 문자의 경우, 반환 값은 *note True: c0a.나 *note False: b34.입
니다.  패킹할 때, 인자 객체의 논리값이 사용됩니다.  네이티브나 표준 bool
표현에서 0이나 1이 패킹 되고, 언 패킹할 때 모든 0이 아닌 값은 ‘True’가 됩
니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format


File: python.info,  Node: 예,  Prev: 포맷 문자,  Up: 포맷 문자열

5.7.1.5 예
..........

     참고: Native byte order examples (designated by the ‘'@'’ format
     prefix or lack of any prefix character) may not match what the
     reader’s machine produces as that depends on the platform and
     compiler.

Pack and unpack integers of three different sizes, using big endian
ordering:

     >>> from struct import *
     >>> pack(">bhl", 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
     >>> unpack('>bhl', b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> calcsize('>bhl')
     7

Attempt to pack an integer which is too large for the defined field:

     >>> pack(">h", 99999)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     struct.error: 'h' format requires -32768 <= number <= 32767

Demonstrate the difference between ‘'s'’ and ‘'c'’ format characters:

     >>> pack("@ccc", b'1', b'2', b'3')
     b'123'
     >>> pack("@3s", b'123')
     b'123'

언 패킹 된 필드는 변수에 대입하거나 결과를 네임드 튜플로 감싸서 이름을 붙
일 수 있습니다:

     >>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
     >>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
     >>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
     Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)

The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size in native
mode since padding is implicit.  In standard mode, the user is
responsible for inserting any desired padding.  Note in the first ‘pack’
call below that three NUL bytes were added after the packed ‘'#'’ to
align the following integer on a four-byte boundary.  In this example,
the output was produced on a little endian machine:

     >>> pack('@ci', b'#', 0x12131415)
     b'#\x00\x00\x00\x15\x14\x13\x12'
     >>> pack('@ic', 0x12131415, b'#')
     b'\x15\x14\x13\x12#'
     >>> calcsize('@ci')
     8
     >>> calcsize('@ic')
     5

다음 포맷 ‘'llh0l'’는 플랫폼의 long이 4바이트 경계에 정렬된다고 가정할 때
끝에 2개의 패드 바이트를 추가합니다:

     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note array: 7.

     동종 데이터의 패킹 된 바이너리 저장소.

모듈 *note json: 82.

     JSON 인코더와 디코더.

모듈 *note pickle: a6.

     파이썬 객체 직렬화.


File: python.info,  Node: 응용,  Next: 클래스<2>,  Prev: 포맷 문자열,  Up: struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석

5.7.1.6 응용
............

Two main applications for the *note struct: d5. module exist, data
interchange between Python and C code within an application or another
application compiled using the same compiler (*note native formats:
23ba.), and data interchange between applications using agreed upon data
layout (*note standard formats: 23bb.).  Generally speaking, the format
strings constructed for these two domains are distinct.

* Menu:

* 네이티브 포맷::
* 표준 포맷::


File: python.info,  Node: 네이티브 포맷,  Next: 표준 포맷,  Up: 응용

5.7.1.7 네이티브 포맷
.....................

When constructing format strings which mimic native layouts, the
compiler and machine architecture determine byte ordering and padding.
In such cases, the ‘@’ format character should be used to specify native
byte ordering and data sizes.  Internal pad bytes are normally inserted
automatically.  It is possible that a zero-repeat format code will be
needed at the end of a format string to round up to the correct byte
boundary for proper alignment of consecutive chunks of data.

Consider these two simple examples (on a 64-bit, little-endian machine):

     >>> calcsize('@lhl')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18

Data is not padded to an 8-byte boundary at the end of the second format
string without the use of extra padding.  A zero-repeat format code
solves that problem:

     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24

The ‘'x'’ format code can be used to specify the repeat, but for native
formats it is better to use a zero-repeat format like ‘'0l'’.

By default, native byte ordering and alignment is used, but it is better
to be explicit and use the ‘'@'’ prefix character.


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 포맷,  Prev: 네이티브 포맷,  Up: 응용

5.7.1.8 표준 포맷
.................

When exchanging data beyond your process such as networking or storage,
be precise.  Specify the exact byte order, size, and alignment.  Do not
assume they match the native order of a particular machine.  For
example, network byte order is big-endian, while many popular CPUs are
little-endian.  By defining this explicitly, the user need not care
about the specifics of the platform their code is running on.  The first
character should typically be ‘<’ or ‘>’ (or ‘!’).  Padding is the
responsibility of the programmer.  The zero-repeat format character
won’t work.  Instead, the user must explicitly add ‘'x'’ pad bytes where
needed.  Revisiting the examples from the previous section, we have:

     >>> calcsize('<qh6xq')
     24
     >>> pack('<qh6xq', 1, 2, 3) == pack('@lhl', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18
     >>> pack('@llh', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     True

The above results (executed on a 64-bit machine) aren’t guaranteed to
match when executed on different machines.  For example, the examples
below were executed on a 32-bit machine:

     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     12
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스<2>,  Prev: 응용,  Up: struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석

5.7.1.9 클래스
..............

*note struct: d5. 모듈은 또한 다음 형을 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: struct.Struct (format)

     포맷 문자열 'format'에 따라 바이너리 데이터를 쓰고 읽는 새 Struct 객
     체를 반환합니다.  ‘Struct’ 객체를 한 번 만들고 메서드를 호출하는 것
     은 포맷 문자열이 한 번만 컴파일 되기 때문에 같은 포맷으로 모듈 수준
     함수를 호출하는 것보다 효율적입니다.

          참고: 모듈 수준 함수에 전달된 최신 포맷 문자열의 컴파일된 버전
          이 캐시 되므로, 몇 가지 포맷 문자열만 사용하는 프로그램은 단일
          *note Struct: 16b8. 인스턴스 재사용에 대해 신경 쓸 필요가 없습
          니다.

     컴파일된 Struct 객체는 다음 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 지원합니다:

      -- 메서드: pack (v1, v2, ...)

          *note pack(): 1267. 함수와 동일하고, 컴파일된 포맷을 사용합니
          다.  (‘len(result)’는 *note size: 23c1.와 같게 됩니다.)

      -- 메서드: pack_into (buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

          *note pack_into(): 23b0. 함수와 동일하고, 컴파일된 포맷을 사용
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: unpack (buffer)

          *note unpack(): 17cd. 함수와 동일하고, 컴파일된 포맷을 사용합
          니다.  바이트 단위의 버퍼 크기는 *note size: 23c1.와 같아야 합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: unpack_from (buffer, offset=0)

          *note unpack_from(): 23b1. 함수와 동일하고, 컴파일된 포맷을 사
          용합니다.  'offset' 위치에서 시작하는 바이트 단위의 버퍼 크기
          는 *note size: 23c1. 이상이어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: iter_unpack (buffer)

          *note iter_unpack(): fb6. 함수와 동일하고, 컴파일된 포맷을 사
          용합니다.  바이트 단위의 버퍼 크기는 *note size: 23c1.의 배수
          이어야 합니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 속성: format

          이 Struct 객체를 구성하는 데 사용된 포맷 문자열.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 포맷 문자열형은 이제 *note bytes: 1c2. 대신
          *note str: 445.입니다.

      -- 속성: size

          *note format: 619.에 해당하는 구조체(*note pack(): 1267. 메서
          드에 의해 생성된 바이트열 객체)의 계산된 크기.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'repr()' of structs has changed.  It is
     now:

          >>> Struct('i')
          Struct('i')


File: python.info,  Node: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스,  Prev: struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석,  Up: 바이너리 데이터 서비스

5.7.2 ‘codecs’ — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/codecs.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 표준 파이썬 코덱(인코더와 디코더)의 베이스 클래스를 정의하고,
코덱과 에러 처리 조회 프로세스를 관리하는 내부 파이썬 코덱 레지스트리에
대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  대부분의 표준 코덱은 텍스트를 바이트열로 인코
딩하는 (그리고 바이트열을 텍스트로 디코딩하는) *note 텍스트 인코딩:
2182.이지만, 텍스트를 텍스트로 인코딩하고 바이트열을 바이트열로 인코딩하
는 코덱도 제공됩니다.  사용자 정의 코덱은 임의 형 간에 인코딩과 디코딩 할
수 있지만, 일부 모듈 기능은 *note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182.이나 *note bytes:
1c2.로 인코딩하는 코덱과 함께 사용하도록 특별히 제한됩니다.

이 모듈은 임의의 코덱으로 인코딩과 디코딩하는 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.encode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     'encoding'을 위해 등록된 코덱을 사용하여 'obj'를 인코딩합니다.

     원하는 에러 처리 방식을 설정하기 위해 'errors'가 주어질 수 있습니다
     .  기본 에러 처리기는 ‘'strict'’이며 인코딩 에러가 *note
     ValueError: 202.(또는 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. 와 같은 더 많
     은 코덱 관련 서브 클래스)를 발생시킨다는 뜻입니다.  코덱 에러 처리
     에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 코덱 베이스 클래스: 23c7.를 참조하십시
     오.

 -- 함수: codecs.decode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     'encoding'을 위해 등록된 코덱을 사용하여 'obj'를 디코딩합니다.

     원하는 에러 처리 방식을 설정하기 위해 'errors'가 주어질 수 있습니다
     .  기본 에러 처리기는 ‘'strict'’이며 디코딩 에러가 *note
     ValueError: 202. (또는 *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. 와 같은 더 많
     은 코덱 관련 서브 클래스)를 발생시킨다는 뜻입니다.  코덱 에러 처리
     에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 코덱 베이스 클래스: 23c7.를 참조하십시
     오.

 -- 함수: codecs.charmap_build (string)

     Return a mapping suitable for encoding with a custom single-byte
     encoding.  Given a *note str: 445. 'string' of up to 256 characters
     representing a decoding table, returns either a compact internal
     mapping object ‘EncodingMap’ or a *note dictionary: 256. mapping
     character ordinals to byte values.  Raises a *note TypeError: 532.
     on invalid input.

각 코덱에 대한 자세한 내용도 직접 확인할 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.lookup (encoding)

     파이썬 코덱 레지스트리에서 코덱 정보를 조회하고 아래 정의된 *note
     CodecInfo: 1702. 객체를 반환합니다.

     인코딩은 먼저 레지스트리 캐시에서 조회됩니다.  찾을 수 없으면, 등록
     된 검색 함수 리스트를 탐색합니다.  *note CodecInfo: 1702. 객체가 없
     으면, *note LookupError: 21d4.가 발생합니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note
     CodecInfo: 1702. 객체가 캐시에 저장되고 호출자에게 반환됩니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.CodecInfo (encode, decode, streamreader=None,
          streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None,
          incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)

     코덱 레지스트리를 조회할 때의 코덱 세부 정보.  생성자 인자는 같은 이
     름의 어트리뷰트에 저장됩니다:

      -- 속성: name

          인코딩의 이름.

      -- 속성: encode
      -- 속성: decode

          상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩 함수.  이들은 코덱 인스턴스의 *note
          encode(): 23cc.와 *note decode(): 23cd. 메서드와 같은 인터페이
          스를 갖는 함수나 메서드여야 합니다 (*note 코덱 인터페이스:
          23ce.를 참조하십시오).  함수나 메서드는 상태 없는 모드로 작동
          할 것으로 기대됩니다.

      -- 속성: incrementalencoder
      -- 속성: incrementaldecoder

          증분형 인코더와 디코더 클래스 또는 팩토리 함수.  이들은 각각 베
          이스 클래스 *note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1.와 *note
          IncrementalDecoder: 23d2.가 정의하는 인터페이스를 제공해야 합
          니다.  증분 코덱은 상태를 유지할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: streamwriter
      -- 속성: streamreader

          스트림 기록기와 판독기 클래스 또는 팩토리 함수.  이들은 각각 베
          이스 클래스 *note StreamWriter: 23d5.와 *note StreamReader:
          23d6.가 정의하는 인터페이스를 제공해야 합니다.  스트림 코덱은
          상태를 유지할 수 있습니다.

다양한 코덱 구성 요소에 대한 액세스를 단순화하기 위해, 이 모듈은 코덱 조
회에 *note lookup(): 961.을 사용하는 다음과 같은 추가 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.getencoder (encoding)

     주어진 인코딩에 대한 코덱을 찾아서 해당 인코더 함수를 반환합니다.

     인코딩을 찾을 수 없는 경우 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.getdecoder (encoding)

     주어진 인코딩에 대한 코덱을 찾아서 해당 디코더 함수를 반환합니다.

     인코딩을 찾을 수 없는 경우 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.getincrementalencoder (encoding)

     주어진 인코딩에 대한 코덱을 찾아서 증분 인코더 클래스나 팩토리 함수
     를 반환합니다.

     인코딩을 찾을 수 없거나 코덱이 증분 인코더를 지원하지 않는 경우
     *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.getincrementaldecoder (encoding)

     주어진 인코딩에 대한 코덱을 찾아서 증분 디코더 클래스나 팩토리 함수
     를 반환합니다.

     인코딩을 찾을 수 없거나 코덱이 증분 디코더를 지원하지 않는 경우
     *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.getreader (encoding)

     주어진 인코딩의 코덱을 찾아서 *note StreamReader: 23d6. 클래스나 팩
     토리 함수를 반환합니다.

     인코딩을 찾을 수 없는 경우 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.getwriter (encoding)

     주어진 인코딩의 코덱을 찾아서 *note StreamWriter: 23d5. 클래스나 팩
     토리 함수를 반환합니다.

     인코딩을 찾을 수 없는 경우 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

적합한 코덱 검색 함수를 등록하여 사용자 정의 코덱을 사용할 수 있도록 합
니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.register (search_function)

     코덱 검색 함수를 등록합니다.  검색 함수는 모두 소문자로 이루어지고
     하이픈과 스페이스를 언더스코어로 변환한 인코딩 이름인 하나의 인자를
     취하고, *note CodecInfo: 1702. 객체를 반환해야 합니다.  검색 함수가
     주어진 인코딩을 찾지 못하면, ‘None’을 반환해야 합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: Hyphens and spaces are converted to underscore.

 -- 함수: codecs.unregister (search_function)

     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry’s cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.

     Added in version 3.10.

내장 *note open(): 515.과 관련 *note io: 7f. 모듈은 인코딩된 텍스트 파일
작업에 권장되는 접근 방법이지만, 이 모듈은 바이너리 파일로 작업할 때 더
넓은 범위의 코덱을 사용할 수 있도록 하는 추가 유틸리티 함수와 클래스를 제
공합니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.open (filename, mode='r', encoding=None,
          errors='strict', buffering=-1)

     주어진 'mode'를 사용하여 인코딩된 파일을 열고 투명한 인코딩/디코딩
     을 제공하는 *note StreamReaderWriter: 23de. 의 인스턴스를 반환합니
     다.  기본 파일 모드는 ‘'r'’이고, 파일을 읽기 모드로 연다는 뜻입니다
     .

          참고: 'encoding'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 하부 인코딩된 파일은 항상
          바이너리 모드로 열립니다.  읽기와 쓰기 시 ‘'\n'’의 자동 변환이
          수행되지 않습니다.  'mode' 인자는 내장 *note open(): 515. 함수
          에 허용되는 모든 바이너리 모드일 수 있습니다; ‘'b'’가 자동으로
          추가됩니다.

     'encoding'은 파일에 사용될 인코딩을 지정합니다.  바이트열에서 인코
     딩하고 바이트열로 디코딩하는 모든 인코딩이 허용되며, 파일 메서드가
     지원하는 데이터형은 사용된 코덱에 따라 다릅니다.

     에러 처리를 정의하기 위해 'errors'가 제공될 수 있습니다.  기본값은
     ‘'strict'’이고 인코딩 에러가 발생하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생
     합니다.

     'buffering'은 내장 *note open(): 515. 함수에서와 같은 의미입니다.  기
     본값은 -1이며 기본 버퍼 크기가 사용됨을 의미합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘'U'’ mode has been removed.

 -- 함수: codecs.EncodedFile (file, data_encoding, file_encoding=None,
          errors='strict')

     투명한 트랜스코딩을 제공하는 'file'의 래핑 된 버전인 *note
     StreamRecoder: 19f8. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  래핑 된 버전이 닫힐 때
     원본 파일이 닫힙니다.

     래핑 된 파일에 기록된 데이터는 주어진 'data_encoding'에 따라 디코딩
     된 다음 'file_encoding'을 사용하여 바이트열로 원본 파일에 기록됩니
     다.  원본 파일에서 읽은 바이트열은 'file_encoding'에 따라 디코딩되
     며, 결과는 'data_encoding'을 사용하여 인코딩됩니다.

     'file_encoding'이 제공되지 않으면, 기본값은 'data_encoding'입니다.

     에러 처리를 정의하기 위해 'errors'가 제공될 수 있습니다.  기본값은
     ‘'strict'’이며, 인코딩 에러가 발생하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발
     생합니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.iterencode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  'iterator' must yield *note str: 445.
     objects.  This function is a *note generator: 1057.  The 'errors'
     argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through
     to the incremental encoder.

     이 함수를 사용하려면 코덱에서 인코딩할 텍스트 *note str: 445. 객체
     를 허용해야 합니다.  따라서 ‘base64_codec’과 같은 바이트열-바이트열
     인코더는 지원하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.iterdecode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  'iterator' must yield *note bytes: 1c2.
     objects.  This function is a *note generator: 1057.  The 'errors'
     argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through
     to the incremental decoder.

     이 함수를 사용하려면 코덱에서 디코딩할 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 허
     용해야 합니다.  따라서 ‘rot_13’이 *note iterencode(): 23e0.로 동등
     하게 사용될 수 있지만, ‘rot_13’과 같은 텍스트-텍스트 인코더는 지원
     하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.readbuffer_encode (buffer, errors=None, /)

     Return a *note tuple: 369. containing the raw bytes of 'buffer', a
     *note buffer-compatible object: 391. or *note str: 445. (encoded to
     UTF-8 before processing), and their length in bytes.

     The 'errors' argument is ignored.

          >>> codecs.readbuffer_encode(b"Zito")
          (b'Zito', 4)

이 모듈은 또한 플랫폼 종속 파일을 읽고 쓰는 데 유용한 다음 상수를 제공합
니다:

 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_BE
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_LE
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF8
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF16
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF32
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE
 -- 데이터: codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

     이 상수는 여러 인코딩에서 유니코드 바이트 순서 표시(BOM)인 다양한 바
     이트 시퀀스를 정의합니다.  UTF-16과 UTF-32 데이터 스트림에서 사용된
     바이트 순서를 나타내는 데 사용되며, UTF-8에서 유니코드 서명으로 사
     용됩니다.  *note BOM_UTF16: 23e7.은 플랫폼의 네이티브 바이트 순서에
     따라 *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 23e8.나 *note BOM_UTF16_LE: 23e9.이며,
     *note BOM: 23e3.은 *note BOM_UTF16: 23e7.의 별칭, *note BOM_LE:
     23e5.는 *note BOM_UTF16_LE: 23e9.의 별칭, *note BOM_BE: 23e4.는
     *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 23e8.의 별칭입니다.  다른 것은 UTF-8과 UTF-32 인
     코딩에서 BOM을 나타냅니다.

* Menu:

* 코덱 베이스 클래스::
* 인코딩과 유니코드::
* 표준 인코딩::
* 파이썬 특정 인코딩::
* encodings — Encodings package::
* encodings.idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름: encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
* encodings.mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지: encodings mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지.
* encodings.utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱: encodings utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/codecs.py


File: python.info,  Node: 코덱 베이스 클래스,  Next: 인코딩과 유니코드,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.1 코덱 베이스 클래스
..........................

*note codecs: 1b. 모듈은 코덱 객체로 작업하기 위한 인터페이스를 정의하는
베이스 클래스 집합을 정의하며, 사용자 정의 코덱 구현의 기초로 사용될 수
도 있습니다.

각 코덱은 파이썬에서 코덱으로 사용할 수 있도록 네 가지 인터페이스를 정의
해야 합니다: 상태 없는 인코더, 상태 없는 디코더, 스트림 판독기 및 스트림
기록기.  스트림 판독기와 기록기는 일반적으로 상태 없는 인코더/디코더를 재
사용하여 파일 프로토콜을 구현합니다.  코덱 작성자는 코덱에서 인코딩과 디
코딩 에러를 처리하는 방법도 정의해야 합니다.
* Menu:

* 에러 처리기::
* 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩::
* 증분 인코딩과 디코딩::
* 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩::


File: python.info,  Node: 에러 처리기,  Next: 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩,  Up: 코덱 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.2 에러 처리기
...................

에러 처리를 단순화하고 표준화하기 위해, 코덱은 'errors' 문자열 인자를 받
아들여 다른 에러 처리 체계를 구현할 수 있습니다:

     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='backslashreplace')
     b'German \\xdf, \\u266c'
     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'German &#223;, &#9836;'

다음 에러 처리기는 모든 파이썬 *note 표준 인코딩: db5.과 함께 사용할 수
있습니다:

값                            의미
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'strict'’                    *note UnicodeError: 1293.(또는 서브 클래스)를 발
                              생시킵니다, 이것이 기본값입니다.
                              *note strict_errors(): 23f0.에서 구현되었습니다.
                              
                              
‘'ignore'’                    잘못된 데이터를 무시하고 추가 통지 없이 계속 진행
                              합니다.  *note ignore_errors(): 23f1.에서 구현되
                              었습니다.
                              
                              
‘'replace'’                   교체 마커로 교체합니다.  인코딩 시, ‘?’ (ASCII 문
                              자) 를 사용합니다.  디코딩 시, ‘�’ (U+FFFD, 공식
                              REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) 를 사용합니다.
                              *note replace_errors(): 23f2.에서 구현되었습니다.
                              
                              
‘'backslashreplace'’          Replace with backslashed escape sequences.  On
                              encoding, use hexadecimal form of Unicode code
                              point with formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.
                              On decoding, use hexadecimal form of byte value
                              with format ‘\xHH’.  Implemented in
                              *note backslashreplace_errors(): 23f3.
                              
                              
‘'surrogateescape'’           디코딩 시, 바이트를 ‘U+DC80’에서 ‘U+DCFF’ 범위의
                              개별 서로게이트 코드(surrogate code)로 바꿉니다.
                              이 코드는 데이터를 인코딩할 때
                              ‘'surrogateescape'’ 에러 처리기가 사용되면 같은 바
                              이트로 다시 변환됩니다.  (자세한 내용은 PEP
                              383(1)을 참조하십시오.)
                              

다음 에러 처리기는 인코딩에만 적용됩니다 (*note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182. 내
):

값                            의미
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’         ‘&#NUM;’ 포맷의 유니코드 코드 포인트의 십진수 형
                              식인 XML/HTML 숫자 문자 참조로 교체합니다.
                              *note xmlcharrefreplace_errors(): 23f4.에서 구현
                              되었습니다.
                              
                              
‘'namereplace'’               ‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프 시퀀스로 교체합니다, 중괄호
                              안에 나타나는 것은 유니코드 문자 데이터베이스의 이
                              름(Name) 속성입니다.
                              *note namereplace_errors(): 23f5.에서 구현되었습
                              니다.
                              

또한, 다음 에러 처리기는 지정된 코덱에만 적용됩니다:

값                      코덱                         의미
                                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
‘'surrogatepass'’       utf-8, utf-16, utf-32,       서로게이트 코드 포인트 (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’)
                        utf-16-be, utf-16-le,        를 일반 코드 포인트로 인코딩 및 디코딩하도록
                        utf-32-be, utf-32-le         허용합니다.  그렇지 않으면 이 코덱들은
                                                     *note str: 445.에 있는 서로게이트 코드 포인트
                                                     의 존재를 에러로 취급합니다.
                                                     

Added in version 3.1: ‘'surrogateescape'’와 ‘'surrogatepass'’ 에러 처리
기.

버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘'surrogatepass'’ 에러 처리기는 이제 utf-16* 와
utf-32* 코덱에서 작동합니다.

Added in version 3.5: ‘'namereplace'’ 에러 처리기.

버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘'backslashreplace'’ 에러 처리기는 이제 디코딩과 변환
(translating)에서 작동합니다.

새 이름으로 에러 처리기를 등록하여 허용되는 값 집합을 확장할 수 있습니다
:

 -- 함수: codecs.register_error (name, error_handler)

     에러 처리 함수 'error_handler'를 'name'이라는 이름으로 등록합니다.
     'error_handler' 인자는 'name'이 errors 매개 변수로 지정될 때, 인코
     딩과 디코딩 중에 에러가 있으면 호출됩니다.

     인코딩의 경우, 에러 위치에 대한 정보가 포함된 *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 671. 인스턴스와 함께 'error_handler'가 호출됩니
     다.  에러 처리기는 이 예외나 다른 예외를 발생시키거나, 입력의 인코
     딩할 수 없는 부분의 대체 값과 인코딩을 계속할 위치를 담은 튜플을 반
     환해야 합니다.  대체 값은 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2.일 수
     있습니다.  대체 값이 바이트열이면, 인코더는 이를 단순히 출력 버퍼에
     복사합니다.  대체 값이 문자열이면, 인코더는 대체 값을 인코딩합니다.
     지정된 위치에서 원래 입력으로 인코딩이 계속됩니다.  음수 위칫값은 입
     력 문자열의 끝을 기준으로 처리됩니다.  결과 위치가 범위를 벗어나면
     *note IndexError: 14fc.가 발생합니다.

     *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. 나 *note UnicodeTranslateError:
     22a5. 가 처리기로 전달되고 에러 처리기의 대체 값을 출력에 직접 넣는
     다는 점을 제외하면, 디코딩과 변환(translating)은 비슷하게 작동합니
     다.

이전에 등록된 에러 처리기(표준 에러 처리기를 포함하여)는 이름으로 조회할
수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.lookup_error (name)

     'name'이라는 이름으로 이전에 등록된 에러 처리기를 반환합니다.

     처리기를 찾을 수 없으면 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

다음과 같은 표준 에러 처리기가 모듈 수준 함수로 제공됩니다:

 -- 함수: codecs.strict_errors (exception)

     ‘'strict'’ 에러 처리를 구현합니다.

     각 인코딩이나 디코딩 에러는 *note UnicodeError: 1293.를 발생시킵니
     다.

 -- 함수: codecs.ignore_errors (exception)

     ‘'ignore'’ 에러 처리를 구현합니다.

     잘못된 형식의 데이터는 무시됩니다; 추가 통지 없이 인코딩이나 디코딩
     이 계속됩니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.replace_errors (exception)

     ‘'replace'’ 에러 처리를 구현합니다.

     Substitutes ‘?’ (ASCII character) for encoding errors or ‘�’
     (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) for decoding errors.

 -- 함수: codecs.backslashreplace_errors (exception)

     ‘'backslashreplace'’ 에러 처리를 구현합니다.

     Malformed data is replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.  On
     encoding, use the hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with
     formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.  On decoding, use the
     hexadecimal form of byte value with format ‘\xHH’.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 디코딩과 변환(translating)에서 작동합니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors (exception)

     ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ 에러 처리를 구현합니다 (*note 텍스트 인코딩:
     2182.으로 인코딩하는 경우에만 해당).

     인코드할 수 없는 문자는 ‘&#NUM;’ 포맷의 유니코드 코드 포인트의 십진
     수 형식인 적절한 XML/HTML 숫자 문자 참조로 대체됩니다.

 -- 함수: codecs.namereplace_errors (exception)

     ‘'namereplace'’ 에러 처리를 구현합니다 (*note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182.으
     로 인코딩하는 경우에만 해당).

     인코드할 수 없는 문자는 ‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프 시퀀스로 대체됩니다.  중
     괄호 안에 나타나는 문자 집합은 유니코드 문자 데이터베이스의 이름
     (Name) 속성입니다.  예를 들어, 독일어 소문자 ‘'ß'’는 바이트 시퀀스
     ‘\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S}’로 변환됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩,  Next: 증분 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: 에러 처리기,  Up: 코덱 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.3 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩
.................................

기본 *note Codec: 23f7. 클래스는 다음과 같은 메서드를 정의하는데, 상태 없
는 인코더와 디코더의 함수 인터페이스를 정의하기도 합니다:

 -- 클래스: codecs.Codec

      -- 메서드: encode (input, errors='strict')

          객체 'input'을 인코딩하고 튜플(출력 객체, 소비한 길이)을 반환
          합니다.  예를 들어, *note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182.은 특정 문자 집
          합 인코딩 (예를 들어, ‘cp1252’나 ‘iso-8859-1’)을 사용하여 문자
          열 객체를 바이트열 객체로 변환합니다.

          'errors' 인자는 적용할 에러 처리를 정의합니다.  기본값은
          ‘'strict'’ 처리입니다.

          이 메서드는 *note Codec: 23f7. 인스턴스에 상태를 저장하지 않을
          수 있습니다.  인코딩 효율을 높이기 위해 상태를 유지해야 하는 코
          덱에서는 *note StreamWriter: 23d5.를 사용하십시오.

          인코더는 길이가 0인 입력을 처리하고 이 상황에서는 출력 객체 형
          의 빈 객체를 반환할 수 있어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: decode (input, errors='strict')

          객체 'input'을 디코딩하고 튜플 (출력 객체, 소비한 길이)를 반환
          합니다.  예를 들어, *note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182.의 경우, 디코딩
          은 특정 문자 집합 인코딩을 사용하여 인코딩된 바이트열 객체를 문
          자열 객체로 변환합니다.

          텍스트 인코딩과 바이트열-바이트열 코덱의 경우, 'input'은 바이
          트열 객체이거나 읽기 전용 버퍼 인터페이스를 제공하는 객체여야
          합니다 – 예를 들어, 버퍼 객체와 및 메모리 맵핑 파일.

          'errors' 인자는 적용할 에러 처리를 정의합니다.  기본값은
          ‘'strict'’ 처리입니다.

          이 메서드는 *note Codec: 23f7. 인스턴스에 상태를 저장하지 않을
          수 있습니다.  디코딩 효율을 높이기 위해 상태를 유지해야 하는 코
          덱에서는 *note StreamReader: 23d6.를 사용하십시오.

          디코더는 길이가 0인 입력을 처리하고 이 상황에서 출력 객체 형의
          빈 객체를 반환할 수 있어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 증분 인코딩과 디코딩,  Next: 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩,  Up: 코덱 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.4 증분 인코딩과 디코딩
............................

*note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1.와 *note IncrementalDecoder: 23d2. 클래스
는 증분 인코딩과 디코딩을 위한 기본 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  입력을 인
코딩/디코딩하는 것이 상태 없는 인코더/디코더 함수를 한 번 호출하는 것이
아니라, 증분 인코더/디코더의 *note encode(): 23f9./*note decode(): 23fa.
메서드를 여러 번 호출하여 수행됩니다.  증분 인코더/디코더는 메서드 호출
중에 인코딩/디코딩 프로세스를 추적합니다.

*note encode(): 23f9./*note decode(): 23fa. 메서드에 대한 호출의 연결된
출력은 모든 단일 입력을 하나로 결합하여 상태 없는 인코더/디코더로 인코딩
/디코딩되는 것과 같습니다.

* Menu:

* IncrementalEncoder 객체::
* IncrementalDecoder 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalEncoder 객체,  Next: IncrementalDecoder 객체,  Up: 증분 인코딩과 디코딩

5.7.2.5 IncrementalEncoder 객체
...............................

*note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1. 클래스는 여러 단계로 입력을 인코딩하는 데
사용됩니다.  파이썬 코덱 레지스트리와 호환되도록 모든 증분 인코더가 정의
해야 하는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.IncrementalEncoder (errors='strict')

     *note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1. 인스턴스의 생성자.

     모든 증분 인코더는 이 생성자 인터페이스를 제공해야 합니다.  추가 키
     워드 인자를 자유롭게 추가할 수 있지만, 여기에 정의된 키워드 인자만
     파이썬 코덱 레지스트리에서 사용됩니다.

     *note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1.는 'errors' 키워드 인자를 제공하여 다
     른 에러 처리 체계를 구현할 수 있습니다.  가능한 값은 *note 에러
     처리기: 17ec.를 참조하십시오.

     'errors' 인자는 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트에 대입됩니다.  이 어트리뷰트
     에 대입하면 *note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1. 객체의 수명 동안 다른 에
     러 처리 전략 간에 전환할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: encode (object, final=False)

          'object'를 (인코더의 현재 상태를 고려하여) 인코딩하고 결과 인
          코딩된 객체를 반환합니다.  이것이 *note encode(): ef9.에 대한
          마지막 호출이면 'final'은 참이어야 합니다 (기본값은 거짓).

      -- 메서드: reset ()

          인코더를 초기 상태로 재설정합니다.  출력은 버려집니다: 인코더
          를 재설정하고 출력을 얻으려면, 필요하면 빈 바이트열이나 텍스트
          문자열을 전달하여, ‘.encode(object, final=True)’를 호출하십시
          오.

      -- 메서드: getstate ()

          인코더의 현재 상태를 반환하는데, 정수여야 합니다.  구현은 ‘0’이
          가장 흔한 상태가 되도록 해야 합니다.  (정수보다 복잡한 상태는
          상태를 마샬링/피클링하고 결과 문자열의 바이트열을 정수로 인코
          딩하여 정수로 변환할 수 있습니다.)

      -- 메서드: setstate (state)

          인코더 상태를 'state'로 설정합니다.  'state'는 *note
          getstate(): 23fe.가 반환한 인코더 상태여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalDecoder 객체,  Prev: IncrementalEncoder 객체,  Up: 증분 인코딩과 디코딩

5.7.2.6 IncrementalDecoder 객체
...............................

*note IncrementalDecoder: 23d2. 클래스는 여러 단계로 입력을 디코딩하는 데
사용됩니다.  파이썬 코덱 레지스트리와 호환되도록 모든 증분 디코더에서 정
의해야 하는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.IncrementalDecoder (errors='strict')

     *note IncrementalDecoder: 23d2. 인스턴스의 생성자.

     모든 증분 디코더는 이 생성자 인터페이스를 제공해야 합니다.  추가 키
     워드 인자를 자유롭게 추가할 수 있지만, 여기에 정의된 키워드 인자만
     파이썬 코덱 레지스트리에서 사용됩니다.

     *note IncrementalDecoder: 23d2.는 'errors' 키워드 인자를 제공하여 다
     른 에러 처리 체계를 구현할 수 있습니다.  가능한 값은 *note 에러
     처리기: 17ec.를 참조하십시오.

     'errors' 인자는 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트에 대입됩니다.  이 어트리뷰트
     에 대입하면 *note IncrementalDecoder: 23d2. 객체의 수명 동안 다른 에
     러 처리 전략 간에 전환할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: decode (object, final=False)

          'object'를 디코딩하고 (디코더의 현재 상태를 고려하여) 결과 디
          코딩된 객체를 반환합니다.  이것이 *note decode(): efa.에 대한
          마지막 호출이면 'final'은 참이어야 합니다 (기본값은 거짓).
          'final'이 참이면 디코더는 입력을 완전히 디코딩해야 하며 모든 버
          퍼를 플러시 해야 합니다.  이것이 가능하지 않으면 (예를 들어 입
          력 끝의 불완전한 바이트 시퀀스로 인해), 상태 없는 경우와 같이
          에러 처리를 시작해야 합니다 (예외가 발생시킬 수 있습니다).

      -- 메서드: reset ()

          디코더를 초기 상태로 재설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: getstate ()

          디코더의 현재 상태를 반환합니다.  두 항목이 있는 튜플이어야 하
          며, 첫 번째는 여전히 디코딩되지 않은 입력을 포함하는 버퍼여야
          합니다.  두 번째는 정수여야 하며 추가 상태 정보일 수 있습니다.
          (구현은 ‘0’이 가장 흔한 추가 상태 정보가 되도록 해야 합니다.)
          이 추가 상태 정보가 ‘0’이면, 입력 버퍼가 없고 추가 상태 정보가
          ‘0’인 상태로 디코더를 설정할 수 있어서, 이전에 버퍼링 된 입력
          을 디코더에 공급하면 출력을 생성하지 않고 이전 상태로 되돌아갈
          수 있어야 합니다.  (정수보다 복잡한 추가 상태 정보는 정보를 마
          샬링/피클링하고 결과 문자열의 바이트를 정수로 인코딩하여 정수
          로 변환할 수 있습니다.)

      -- 메서드: setstate (state)

          디코더의 상태를 'state'로 설정합니다.  'state'는 *note
          getstate(): 2403.가 반환한 디코더 상태여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: 증분 인코딩과 디코딩,  Up: 코덱 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.7 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩
..............................

*note StreamWriter: 23d5.와 *note StreamReader: 23d6. 클래스는 새로운 인
코딩 서브 모듈을 매우 쉽게 구현하는 데 사용할 수 있는 범용 작업 인터페이
스를 제공합니다.  이를 수행하는 방법에 대한 예는 ‘encodings.utf_8’을 참
조하십시오.

* Menu:

* StreamWriter 객체::
* StreamReader 객체::
* StreamReaderWriter 객체::
* StreamRecoder 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter 객체,  Next: StreamReader 객체,  Up: 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩

5.7.2.8 StreamWriter 객체
.........................

*note StreamWriter: 23d5. 클래스는 *note Codec: 23f7.의 서브 클래스이며
파이썬 코덱 레지스트리와 호환되도록 모든 스트림 기록기가 정의해야 하는 다
음 메서드를 정의합니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.StreamWriter (stream, errors='strict')

     *note StreamWriter: 23d5. 인스턴스의 생성자.

     모든 스트림 기록기는 이 생성자 인터페이스를 제공해야 합니다.  추가
     키워드 인자를 자유롭게 추가할 수 있지만, 여기에 정의된 키워드 인자
     만 파이썬 코덱 레지스트리에서 사용됩니다.

     'stream' 인자는 특정 코덱에 적합하도록 텍스트나 바이너리 데이터를 쓰
     기 위해 열린 파일류 객체여야 합니다.

     *note StreamWriter: 23d5.는 'errors' 키워드 인자를 제공하여 다른 에
     러 처리 체계를 구현할 수 있습니다.  하부 스트림 코덱이 지원할 수 있
     는 표준 에러 처리기에 대해서는 *note 에러 처리기: 17ec.를 참조하십
     시오.

     'errors' 인자는 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트에 대입됩니다.  이 어트리뷰트
     에 대입하면 *note StreamWriter: 23d5. 객체의 수명 동안 다른 에러 처
     리 전략 간에 전환할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: write (object)

          스트림에 인코딩된 객체의 내용을 씁니다.

      -- 메서드: writelines (list)

          이어붙인 문자열의 이터러블을 스트림에 씁니다 (*note write():
          2408. 메서드를 재사용할 수 있습니다).  무한하거나 아주 큰 이터
          러블은 지원되지 않습니다.  표준 바이트열-바이트열 코덱은 이 메
          서드를 지원하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: reset ()

          내부 상태를 유지하는 데 사용되는 코덱 버퍼를 재설정합니다.

          이 메서드를 호출하면 출력의 데이터가 깨끗한 상태가 되어 상태를
          복구하기 위해 전체 스트림을 다시 스캔하지 않고도 새로운 최신 데
          이터를 추가할 수 있도록 합니다.

위의 메서드 외에도, *note StreamWriter: 23d5.는 하부 스트림에서 온 다른
모든 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 상속해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader 객체,  Next: StreamReaderWriter 객체,  Prev: StreamWriter 객체,  Up: 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩

5.7.2.9 StreamReader 객체
.........................

*note StreamReader: 23d6. 클래스는 *note Codec: 23f7.의 서브 클래스이며
파이썬 코덱 레지스트리와 호환되도록 모든 스트림 판독기가 정의해야 하는 다
음 메서드를 정의합니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.StreamReader (stream, errors='strict')

     *note StreamReader: 23d6. 인스턴스의 생성자.

     모든 스트림 판독기는 이 생성자 인터페이스를 제공해야 합니다.  추가
     키워드 인자를 자유롭게 추가할 수 있지만, 여기에 정의된 키워드 인자
     만 파이썬 코덱 레지스트리에서 사용됩니다.

     'stream' 인자는 특정 코덱에 적합하게 텍스트나 바이너리 데이터를 읽
     기 위해 열린 파일류 객체여야 합니다.

     *note StreamReader: 23d6.는 'errors' 키워드 인자를 제공하여 다른 에
     러 처리 체계를 구현할 수 있습니다.  하부 스트림 코덱이 지원할 수 있
     는 표준 에러 처리기에 대해서는 *note 에러 처리기: 17ec.를 참조하십
     시오.

     'errors' 인자는 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트에 대입됩니다.  이 어트리뷰트
     에 대입하면 *note StreamReader: 23d6. 객체의 수명 동안 다른 에러 처
     리 전략 간에 전환할 수 있습니다.

     'errors' 인자에 허용되는 값 집합은 *note register_error(): 145f.로
     확장될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: read (size=-1, chars=-1, firstline=False)

          스트림에서 데이터를 디코딩하고 결과 객체를 반환합니다.

          'chars' 인자는 반환할 디코딩 된 코드 포인트나 바이트의 수를 나
          타냅니다.  *note read(): 240d. 메서드는 요청된 것보다 더 많은
          데이터를 반환하지 않지만, 사용 가능한 것이 충분하지 않으면 더
          적게 반환할 수 있습니다.

          'size' 인자는 디코딩을 위해 읽을 인코딩 된 바이트나 코드 포인
          트의 대략적인 최대 수를 나타냅니다.  디코더는 이 설정을 적절하
          게 수정할 수 있습니다.  기본값 -1은 가능한 한 많이 읽고 디코딩
          함을 나타냅니다.  이 매개 변수는 커다란 파일을 한 번에 디코딩
          하지 않도록 하기 위한 것입니다.

          'firstline' 플래그는 이후 줄에 디코딩 에러가 있으면 첫 번째 줄
          만 반환해도 충분함을 나타냅니다.

          이 메서드는 탐욕스러운(greedy) 읽기 전략을 사용해야 합니다.  즉
          , 인코딩 정의와 주어진 size 내에서 허용되는 만큼 많은 데이터를
          읽어야 합니다.  예를 들어 스트림에 선택적 인코딩 종료나 상태 마
          커가 있으면, 이것도 읽어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: readline (size=None, keepends=True)

          입력 스트림에서 한 줄을 읽고 디코딩된 데이터를 반환합니다.

          주어지면, 'size'는 스트림의 *note read(): 240d. 메서드에 size
          인자로 전달됩니다.

          'keepends'가 거짓이면 줄 종료가 반환된 줄에서 제거됩니다.

      -- 메서드: readlines (sizehint=None, keepends=True)

          입력 스트림에서 사용 가능한 모든 줄을 읽고 줄의 리스트로 반환
          합니다.

          줄 종료는 코덱의 *note decode(): efa. 메서드를 사용하여 구현되
          며 'keepends'가 참이면 리스트 항목에 포함됩니다.

          주어지면, 'sizehint'는 스트림의 *note read(): 240d. 메서드에
          'size' 인자로 전달됩니다.

      -- 메서드: reset ()

          내부 상태를 유지하는 데 사용되는 코덱 버퍼를 재설정합니다.

          스트림 위치 변경이 발생하지 않아야 함에 유의하십시오.  이 메서
          드는 주로 디코딩 에러에서 복구할 수 있도록 하기 위한 것입니다.

위의 메서드 외에도 *note StreamReader: 23d6.는 하부 스트림에서 다른 모든
메서드와 어트리뷰트를 상속해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReaderWriter 객체,  Next: StreamRecoder 객체,  Prev: StreamReader 객체,  Up: 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩

5.7.2.10 StreamReaderWriter 객체
................................

*note StreamReaderWriter: 23de. 는 읽기와 쓰기 모드 모두에서 작동하는 스
트림을 래핑하도록 하는 편의 클래스입니다.

*note lookup(): 961. 함수가 반환한 팩토리 함수를 사용하여 인스턴스를 구
성할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.StreamReaderWriter (stream, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     *note StreamReaderWriter: 23de. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  'stream'은 파
     일류 객체여야 합니다.  'Reader'와 'Writer'는 각각 *note
     StreamReader: 23d6.와 *note StreamWriter: 23d5. 인터페이스를 제공하
     는 팩토리 함수나 클래스여야 합니다.  에러 처리는 스트림 판독기와 기
     록기에 정의된 것과 같은 방식으로 수행됩니다.

*note StreamReaderWriter: 23de. 인스턴스는 *note StreamReader: 23d6.와
*note StreamWriter: 23d5. 클래스가 결합한 인터페이스를 정의합니다.  하부
스트림에서 다른 모든 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 상속합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamRecoder 객체,  Prev: StreamReaderWriter 객체,  Up: 스트림 인코딩과 디코딩

5.7.2.11 StreamRecoder 객체
...........................

*note StreamRecoder: 19f8.는 한 인코딩에서 다른 인코딩으로 데이터를 변환
하는데, 이는 때때로 다른 인코딩 환경을 다룰 때 유용합니다.

*note lookup(): 961. 함수가 반환한 팩토리 함수를 사용하여 인스턴스를 구
성할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: codecs.StreamRecoder (stream, encode, decode, Reader,
          Writer, errors='strict')

     양방향 변환을 구현하는 *note StreamRecoder: 19f8. 인스턴스를 만듭니
     다: 'encode'와 'decode'는 프런트 엔드에 작동합니다 - *note read():
     240d.와 *note write(): 2408.를 호출하는 코드가 보는 데이터, 반면에
     'Reader'와 'Writer'는 백 엔드에 작동합니다 - 'stream'의 데이터.

     이러한 객체를 사용하여 투명한 트랜스코딩을 수행 할 수 있습니다, 예
     를 들어, Latin-1 에서 UTF-8로 또는 그 반대로.

     'stream' 인자는 파일류 객체여야 합니다.

     'encode'와 'decode' 인자는 *note Codec: 23f7. 인터페이스를 준수해야
     합니다.  'Reader'와 'Writer'는 각각 *note StreamReader: 23d6.와
     *note StreamWriter: 23d5. 인터페이스의 객체를 제공하는 팩토리 함수
     나 클래스여야 합니다.

     에러 처리는 스트림 판독기와 기록기에 정의된 것과 같은 방식으로 수행
     됩니다.

*note StreamRecoder: 19f8. 인스턴스는 *note StreamReader: 23d6.와 *note
StreamWriter: 23d5. 클래스가 결합한 인터페이스를 정의합니다.  하부 스트
림에서 다른 모든 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 상속합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 인코딩과 유니코드,  Next: 표준 인코딩,  Prev: 코덱 베이스 클래스,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.12 인코딩과 유니코드
..........................

문자열은 ‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’ 범위의 코드 포인트 시퀀스로 내부적으로 저장
됩니다.  (구현에 대한 자세한 내용은 PEP 393(1)을 참조하십시오.)  일단 문
자열 객체가 CPU와 메모리 외부에서 사용되면, 엔디안(endianness)과 이러한
배열이 바이트열로 저장되는 방식이 문제가 됩니다.  다른 코덱과 마찬가지로
, 문자열을 바이트 시퀀스로 직렬화하는 것을 '인코딩'이라고 하며, 바이트 시
퀀스에서 문자열을 다시 만드는 것을 '디코딩'이라고 합니다.  다양한 텍스트
직렬화 코덱이 있으며, 이를 집합적으로 *note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182.이라고 합
니다.

가장 간단한 텍스트 인코딩(‘'latin-1'’ 또는 ‘'iso-8859-1'’이라고 합니다
)은 코드 포인트 0–255를 바이트 ‘0x0’–‘0xff’로 매핑합니다.  이것은
‘U+00FF’ 위의 코드 포인트를 포함하는 문자열 객체는 이 코덱으로 인코딩할
수 없음을 뜻합니다.  그렇게 하면 다음과 유사한 *note UnicodeEncodeError:
671. 가 발생합니다 (에러 메시지의 세부 사항은 다를 수 있습니다):
‘UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character '\u1234' in
position 3: ordinal not in range(256)’.

모든 유니코드 코드 포인트의 다른 부분 집합과 이러한 코드 포인트가 바이트
‘0x0’–‘0xff’에 매핑되는 방식을 선택하는 또 다른 인코딩 그룹(소위 charmap
인코딩)이 있습니다.  이 작업을 수행하는 방법을 보려면 간단히 예를 들어
‘encodings/cp1252.py’(윈도우에서 주로 사용되는 인코딩)를 열어보십시오.  어
떤 문자가 어떤 바이트 값에 매핑되는지를 나타내는 256개의 문자로 구성된 문
자열 상수가 있습니다.

이러한 모든 인코딩은 유니코드로 정의된 1114112 코드 포인트 중 256개만 인
코딩 할 수 있습니다.  각 유니코드 코드 포인트를 저장할 수 있는 간단하고
간단한 방법은 각 코드 포인트를 4개의 연속 바이트로 저장하는 것입니다.  두
가지 가능성이 있습니다: 바이트를 빅 엔디안이나 리틀 엔디안 순서로 저장합
니다.  이 두 가지 인코딩을 각각 ‘UTF-32-BE’와 ‘UTF-32-LE’라고 합니다.  단
점은, 예를 들어 리틀 엔디안 기계에서 ‘UTF-32-BE’를 사용하면 인코딩과 디
코딩 시 항상 바이트를 스와프해야 한다는 것입니다.  ‘UTF-32’는 이 문제를
피합니다: 바이트는 항상 자연 엔디안입니다.  이 바이트를 엔디안이 다른
CPU에서 읽을 때는, 바이트를 스와프해야 합니다.  ‘UTF-16’이나 ‘UTF-32’ 바
이트 시퀀스의 엔디안을 감지할 수 있도록, BOM(“Byte Order Mark – 바이트 순
서 마크”)이 있습니다.  이것은 유니코드 문자 ‘U+FEFF’입니다.  이 문자는 모
든 ‘UTF-16’이나 ‘UTF-32’ 바이트 시퀀스 앞에 붙일 수 있습니다.  이 문자의
바이트 스와프된 버전(‘0xFFFE’)은 유니코드 텍스트에 나타날 수 없는 잘못된
문자입니다.  따라서 ‘UTF-16’이나 ‘UTF-32’ 바이트 시퀀스의 첫 번째 문자가
‘U+FFFE’이면, 디코딩 시 바이트를 스와프해야 합니다.  불행히도 ‘U+FEFF’ 문
자는 ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’라는 두 번째 목적을 가지고 있었습니다: 너
비가 없고 단어를 나눌 수 없도록 하는 문자입니다.  예를 들어 합자
(ligature) 알고리즘에 힌트를 주기 위해 사용될 수 있습니다.  유니코드
4.0에서는 ‘U+FEFF’를 ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’로 사용하는 것이 폐지되
었습니다 (‘U+2060’(‘WORD JOINER’)이 이 역할을 맡습니다).  그런데도 유니
코드 소프트웨어는 여전히 두 가지 역할 모두로 ‘U+FEFF’를 처리할 수 있어야
합니다: 인코딩된 바이트의 스토리지 배치를 결정하는 장치이며, 바이트 시퀀
스가 문자열로 디코딩되면 사라지는 BOM의 역할, 다른 문자처럼 디코딩되는 일
반 문자 ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’의 역할.

유니코드 문자의 전체 범위를 인코딩 할 수 있는 또 다른 인코딩이 있습니다:
UTF-8.  UTF-8은 8비트 인코딩입니다.  UTF-8에서는 바이트 순서에 관한 문제
가 없음을 의미합니다.  UTF-8 바이트 시퀀스의 각 바이트는 두 부분으로 구
성됩니다: 마커 비트(최상위 비트)와 페이로드 비트.  마커 비트는 0에서 4개
의 ‘1’ 비트와 그 뒤에 ‘0’비트가 오는 시퀀스입니다.  유니코드 문자는 다음
과 같이 인코딩됩니다 (x는 페이로드 비트이며, 이어 붙이면 유니코드 문자가
됩니다):

범위                                    인코딩
                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
‘U-00000000’ … ‘U-0000007F’             0xxxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000080’ … ‘U-000007FF’             110xxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000800’ … ‘U-0000FFFF’             1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00010000’ … ‘U-0010FFFF’             11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        

유니코드 문자의 최하위 비트는 가장 오른쪽에 있는 x 비트입니다.

UTF-8은 8비트 인코딩이라서 BOM이 필요하지 않으며 디코딩된 문자열의 모든
‘U+FEFF’ 문자(첫 번째 문자라 할지라도)는 ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’로 처
리됩니다.

외부 정보 없이 문자열 인코딩에 사용된 인코딩을 신뢰성 있게 결정하는 것은
불가능합니다.  각 charmap 인코딩은 모든 임의의 바이트 시퀀스를 디코딩 할
수 있습니다.  그러나 UTF-8에서는 그렇지 않습니다, UTF-8 바이트 시퀀스는
임의의 바이트 시퀀스를 허용하지 않는 구조를 갖기 때문입니다.  UTF-8 인코
딩 감지의 신뢰성을 높이기 위해, Microsoft는 메모장(Notepad) 프로그램을 위
해 UTF-8의 변형을 발명했습니다 (파이썬에서 ‘"utf-8-sig"’라고 부릅니다):
유니코드 문자를 파일에 쓰기 전에, UTF-8 인코딩된 BOM(다음과 같은 바이트
시퀀스로 표시됩니다: ‘0xef’, ‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’)이 기록됩니다.  모든 charmap
인코딩된 파일이 이러한 바이트 값으로 시작한다는 것은 다소 불가능하기 때
문에 (예를 들어 iso-8859-1 에서 다음과 같은 것으로 매핑됩니다

          LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS
          RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK
          INVERTED QUESTION MARK

), 바이트 시퀀스에서 ‘utf-8-sig’ 인코딩을 정확하게 추측할 수 있는 가능성
을 높입니다.  따라서 여기서 BOM은 바이트 시퀀스를 생성하는 데 사용되는 바
이트 순서를 결정할 수 있도록 하는데 사용되지는 않지만, 인코딩을 추측하는
데 도움이 되는 서명으로 사용됩니다.  인코딩할 때 utf-8-sig 코덱은
‘0xef’, ‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’를 파일의 처음 3바이트로 기록합니다.  디코딩할 때
‘utf-8-sig’는 파일에서 처음 3바이트에 등장하면 이 3바이트를 건너뜁니다.
UTF-8에서는, BOM 사용을 권장하지 않으며 일반적으로 피해야 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 인코딩,  Next: 파이썬 특정 인코딩,  Prev: 인코딩과 유니코드,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.13 표준 인코딩
....................

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C
functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables.  The following table
lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the
languages for which the encoding is likely used.  Neither the list of
aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive.  Notice
that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen
instead of an underscore are also valid aliases because they are
equivalent when normalized by *note normalize_encoding(): 7f5.  For
example, ‘'utf-8'’ is a valid alias for the ‘'utf_8'’ codec.

     참고: The below table lists the most common aliases, for a complete
     list refer to the source aliases.py(1) file.

일부 공통 인코딩은 코덱 조회 메커니즘을 우회하여 성능을 향상할 수 있습니
다.  이러한 최적화 기회는 CPython에서만 제한된 (대소 문자를 구분하는) 별
칭 집합에 대해서 인식됩니다: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1,
iso8859-1, mbcs (윈도우 전용), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32,
utf32 및 대시 대신 밑줄을 사용한 것들.  이러한 인코딩에 대체 대안 별칭을
사용하면 실행 속도가 느려질 수 있습니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: us-ascii에서 최적화 기회가 인식됩니다.

많은 문자 집합이 같은 언어를 지원합니다.  개별 문자(예를 들어 EURO SIGN
지원 여부)와 코드 위치에 문자를 대입하는 것에서 다릅니다.  특히 유럽 언
어의 경우, 일반적으로 다음과 같은 변형이 있습니다:

   * ISO 8859 코드 집합

   * Microsoft 윈도우 코드 페이지, 일반적으로 8859 코드 집합에서 파생되
     지만, 제어 문자를 추가 그래픽 문자로 대체합니다

   * IBM EBCDIC 코드 페이지

   * IBM PC 코드 페이지, ASCII와 호환됩니다

코덱                  별칭                                 언어
                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
ascii                 646, us-ascii                        영어
                                                           
                                                           
big5                  big5-tw, csbig5                      중국어 번체
                                                           
                                                           
big5hkscs             big5-hkscs, hkscs                    중국어 번체
                                                           
                                                           
cp037                 IBM037, IBM039                       영어
                                                           
                                                           
cp273                 273, IBM273, csIBM273                독일어
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
cp424                 EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424                 히브리어
                                                           
                                                           
cp437                 437, IBM437                          영어
                                                           
                                                           
cp500                 EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH, IBM500   서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp720                                                      아랍어
                                                           
                                                           
cp737                                                      그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
cp775                 IBM775                               발트어
                                                           
                                                           
cp850                 850, IBM850                          서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp852                 852, IBM852                          중부와 동유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp855                 855, IBM855                          벨라루스어, 불가리아어, 마케도니아
                                                           어, 러시아어, 세르비아어
                                                           
                                                           
cp856                                                      히브리어
                                                           
                                                           
cp857                 857, IBM857                          터키어
                                                           
                                                           
cp858                 858, IBM858                          서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp860                 860, IBM860                          포르투갈어
                                                           
                                                           
cp861                 861, CP-IS, IBM861                   아이슬란드어
                                                           
                                                           
cp862                 862, IBM862                          히브리어
                                                           
                                                           
cp863                 863, IBM863                          캐나다어
                                                           
                                                           
cp864                 IBM864                               아랍어
                                                           
                                                           
cp865                 865, IBM865                          덴마크어, 노르웨이어
                                                           
                                                           
cp866                 866, IBM866                          러시아어
                                                           
                                                           
cp869                 869, CP-GR, IBM869                   그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
cp874                                                      태국어
                                                           
                                                           
cp875                                                      그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
cp932                 932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji,       일본어
                      windows-31j                          
                      
                                                           
cp949                 949, ms949, uhc                      한국어
                                                           
                                                           
cp950                 950, ms950                           중국어 번체
                                                           
                                                           
cp1006                                                     우르두어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1026                ibm1026                              터키어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1125                1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii        우크라이나어
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
cp1140                ibm1140                              서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1250                windows-1250                         중부와 동유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1251                windows-1251                         벨라루스어, 불가리아어, 마케도니아
                                                           어, 러시아어, 세르비아어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1252                windows-1252                         서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1253                windows-1253                         그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1254                windows-1254                         터키어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1255                windows-1255                         히브리어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1256                windows-1256                         아랍어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1257                windows-1257                         발트어
                                                           
                                                           
cp1258                windows-1258                         베트남어
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jp                eucjp, ujis, u-jis                   일본어
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jis_2004          jisx0213, eucjis2004                 일본어
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jisx0213          eucjisx0213                          일본어
                                                           
                                                           
euc_kr                euckr, korean, ksc5601, ks_c-5601,   한국어
                      ks_c-5601-1987, ksx1001, ks_x-1001   
                      
                                                           
gb2312                chinese, csiso58gb231280, euc-cn,    중국어 간체
                      euccn, eucgb2312-cn, gb2312-1980,    
                      gb2312-80, iso-ir-58
                      
                                                           
gbk                   936, cp936, ms936                    통합 중국어
                                                           
                                                           
gb18030               gb18030-2000                         통합 중국어
                                                           
                                                           
hz                    hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312              중국어 간체
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp            csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,              일본어
                      iso-2022-jp                          
                      
                                                           
iso2022_jp_1          iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1           일본어
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2          iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2           일본어, 한국어, 중국어 간체, 서유
                                                           럽어, 그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2004       iso2022jp-2004, iso-2022-jp-2004     일본어
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_3          iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3           일본어
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_ext        iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext       일본어
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_kr            csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,              한국어
                      iso-2022-kr                          
                      
                                                           
latin_1               iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,         서유럽어
                      cp819, latin, latin1, L1             
                      
                                                           
iso8859_2             iso-8859-2, latin2, L2               중부와 동유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_3             iso-8859-3, latin3, L3               에스페란토어, 몰타어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_4             iso-8859-4, latin4, L4               Northern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_5             iso-8859-5, cyrillic                 벨라루스어, 불가리아어, 마케도니아
                                                           어, 러시아어, 세르비아어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_6             iso-8859-6, arabic                   아랍어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_7             iso-8859-7, greek, greek8            그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_8             iso-8859-8, hebrew                   히브리어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_9             iso-8859-9, latin5, L5               터키어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_10            iso-8859-10, latin6, L6              북유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_11            iso-8859-11, thai                    태국어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_13            iso-8859-13, latin7, L7              발트어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_14            iso-8859-14, latin8, L8              켈틱어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_15            iso-8859-15, latin9, L9              서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_16            iso-8859-16, latin10, L10            남유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
johab                 cp1361, ms1361                       한국어
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_r                                                     러시아어
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_t                                                     타지크어
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_u                                                     우크라이나어
                                                           
                                                           
kz1048                kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048       카자흐어
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
mac_cyrillic          maccyrillic                          벨라루스어, 불가리아어, 마케도니아
                                                           어, 러시아어, 세르비아어
                                                           
                                                           
mac_greek             macgreek                             그리스어
                                                           
                                                           
mac_iceland           maciceland                           아이슬란드어
                                                           
                                                           
mac_latin2            maclatin2, maccentraleurope,         중부와 동유럽어
                      mac_centeuro                         
                      
                                                           
mac_roman             macroman, macintosh                  서유럽어
                                                           
                                                           
mac_turkish           macturkish                           터키어
                                                           
                                                           
ptcp154               csptcp154, pt154, cp154,             카자흐어
                      cyrillic-asian                       
                      
                                                           
shift_jis             csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis, s_jis    일본어
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jis_2004        shiftjis2004, sjis_2004, sjis2004    일본어
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jisx0213        shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,            일본어
                      s_jisx0213                           
                      
                                                           
utf_32                U32, utf32                           모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_be             UTF-32BE                             모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_le             UTF-32LE                             모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16                U16, utf16                           모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_be             UTF-16BE                             모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_le             UTF-16LE                             모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_7                 U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7                모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8                 U8, UTF, utf8, cp65001               모든 언어
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8_sig                                                  모든 언어
                                                           

버전 3.4에서 변경: utf-16* 과 utf-32* 인코더는 더는 서로게이트 코드 포인
트(‘U+D800’–‘U+DFFF’)를 인코딩할 수 없습니다.  utf-32* 디코더는 더는 서
로게이트 코드 포인트에 해당하는 바이트 시퀀스를 디코딩하지 않습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘cp65001’은 이제 ‘utf_8’의 별칭입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/encodings/aliases.py


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 특정 인코딩,  Next: encodings — Encodings package,  Prev: 표준 인코딩,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.14 파이썬 특정 인코딩
...........................

사전 정의된 많은 코덱이 파이썬에만 해당하여, 코덱 이름은 파이썬 외부에서
의미가 없습니다.  예상되는 입력과 출력형에 따라 아래 표에 나열되어 있습
니다 (텍스트 인코딩은 코덱의 가장 일반적인 사용 사례이지만, 하부 코덱 인
프라는 단지 텍스트 인코딩이 아닌 임의의 데이터 변환을 지원합니다).  비대
칭 코덱의 경우, 언급된 의미는 인코딩 방향을 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 텍스트 인코딩::
* 바이너리 변환::
* Standalone Codec Functions::
* 텍스트 변환::


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5.7.2.15 텍스트 인코딩
......................

다음 코덱은 유니코드 텍스트 인코딩과 유사하게, *note str: 445.에서 *note
bytes: 1c2.로의 인코딩과 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.에서 *note str:
445.로의 디코딩을 제공합니다.

코덱                     별칭          의미
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
idna                                   RFC 3490(1)을 구현합니다.
                                       *note encodings.idna: 52.도 참
                                       조하십시오.
                                       ‘errors='strict'’만 지원됩니
                                       다.
                                       
                                       
mbcs                     ansi, dbcs    윈도우 전용: ANSI 코드 페이지
                                       (CP_ACP)에 따라 피연산자를 인
                                       코딩합니다.
                                       
                                       
oem                                    윈도우 전용: OEM 코드 페이지
                                       (CP_OEMCP)에 따라 피연산자를
                                       인코딩합니다.
                                       
                                       Added in version 3.6.
                                       
                                       
palmos                                 PalmOS 3.5의 인코딩.
                                       
                                       
punycode                               RFC 3492(2)를 구현합니다.  상
                                       태 있는 코덱은 지원되지 않습
                                       니다.
                                       
                                       
raw_unicode_escape                     다른 코드 포인트를 위해
                                       ‘\uXXXX’와 ‘\UXXXXXXXX’를 사
                                       용하는 Latin-1 인코딩.  기존
                                       역 슬래시는 어떤 방식으로도 이
                                       스케이프 되지 않습니다.  파이
                                       썬 피클 프로토콜에서 사용됩니
                                       다.
                                       
                                       
undefined                              This Codec should only be
                                       used for testing purposes.
                                       
                                       모든 변환에 대해 예외를 발생
                                       시킵니다, 빈 문자열조차.  에
                                       러 처리기는 무시됩니다.
                                       
                                       
unicode_escape                         따옴표가 이스케이프 되지 않는
                                       것을 제외하고, ASCII로 인코딩
                                       된 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니
                                       코드 리터럴 내용으로 적합한 인
                                       코딩.  Latin-1 소스 코드에서
                                       디코딩합니다.  파이썬 소스 코
                                       드는 실제로는 기본적으로
                                       UTF-8을 사용합니다.
                                       

버전 3.8에서 변경: “unicode_internal” 코덱이 제거되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 변환,  Next: Standalone Codec Functions,  Prev: 텍스트 인코딩,  Up: 파이썬 특정 인코딩

5.7.2.16 바이너리 변환
......................

다음 코덱은 바이너리 변환을 제공합니다: *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.에서
*note bytes: 1c2.로의 매핑.  (*note str: 445. 출력만 생성하는) *note
bytes.decode(): 8d3.에서는 지원되지 않습니다.

코덱                       별칭                   의미                               인코더 / 디코더
                                                                                     
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
base64_codec (1)           base64, base_64        피연산자를 여러 줄 MIME base64로   *note base64.encodebytes(): 951.
                                                  변환합니다 (결과에는 항상 후행     /
                                                  ‘'\n'’이 포함됩니다).              *note base64.decodebytes(): 952.
                                                                                     
                                                  버전 3.4에서 변경: 인코딩과 디코
                                                  딩을 위해 모든
                                                  *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 입
                                                  력으로 받아들입니다.
                                                  
                                                                                     
bz2_codec                  bz2                    bz2를 사용하여 피연산자를 압축합   *note bz2.compress(): 241b. /
                                                  니다.                              *note bz2.decompress(): 1085.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
hex_codec                  hex                    바이트 당 두 자리 숫자를 사용하    *note binascii.b2a_hex(): 241c.
                                                  여, 피연산자를 16진 표현으로 변    /
                                                  환합니다.                          *note binascii.a2b_hex(): 241d.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
quopri_codec               quopri,                피연산자를 MIME quoted             ‘quotetabs=True’를 사용한
                           quotedprintable,       printable로 변환합니다.            *note quopri.encode(): 241e. /
                           quoted_printable                                          *note quopri.decode(): 241f.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
uu_codec                   uu                     uuencode를 사용하여 피연산자를 변
                                                  환합니다.
                                                  
                                                                                     
zlib_codec                 zip, zlib              gzip을 사용하여 피연산자를 압축    *note zlib.compress(): 639. /
                                                  합니다.                            *note zlib.decompress(): d0a.
                                                                                     

Added in version 3.2: 바이너리 변환의 복원.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 바이너리 변환에 대한 별칭의 복원.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘'base64_codec'’는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 외에도 디코딩을 위
해 ASCII만 있는 *note str: 445. 인스턴스도 허용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Standalone Codec Functions,  Next: 텍스트 변환,  Prev: 바이너리 변환,  Up: 파이썬 특정 인코딩

5.7.2.17 Standalone Codec Functions
...................................

The following functions provide encoding and decoding functionality
similar to codecs, but are not available as named codecs through *note
codecs.encode(): ef9. or *note codecs.decode(): efa.  They are used
internally (for example, by *note pickle: a6.) and behave similarly to
the ‘string_escape’ codec that was removed in Python 3.

 -- 함수: codecs.escape_encode (input, errors=None)

     Encode 'input' using escape sequences.  Similar to how *note
     repr(): 7f7. on bytes produces escaped byte values.

     'input' must be a *note bytes: 1c2. object.

     Returns a tuple ‘(output, length)’ where 'output' is a *note bytes:
     1c2. object and 'length' is the number of bytes consumed.

 -- 함수: codecs.escape_decode (input, errors=None)

     Decode 'input' from escape sequences back to the original bytes.

     'input' must be a *note bytes-like object: d2a.

     Returns a tuple ‘(output, length)’ where 'output' is a *note bytes:
     1c2. object and 'length' is the number of bytes consumed.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 변환,  Prev: Standalone Codec Functions,  Up: 파이썬 특정 인코딩

5.7.2.18 텍스트 변환
....................

다음 코덱은 텍스트 변환을 제공합니다: *note str: 445.에서 *note str:
445.로의 매핑.  (*note bytes: 1c2. 출력만 생성하는) *note str.encode():
8d2.에서는 지원되지 않습니다.

코덱                     별칭          의미
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
rot_13                   rot13         피연산자의 시저 암호
                                       (Caesar-cypher) 암호화를 반환
                                       합니다.
                                       

Added in version 3.2: ‘rot_13’ 텍스트 변환 복원.

버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘rot13’ 별칭 복원.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings — Encodings package,  Next: encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름,  Prev: 파이썬 특정 인코딩,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.19 ‘encodings’ — Encodings package
........................................

This module implements the following functions:

 -- 함수: encodings.normalize_encoding (encoding)

     Normalize encoding name 'encoding'.

     Normalization works as follows: all non-alphanumeric characters
     except the dot used for Python package names are collapsed and
     replaced with a single underscore, leading and trailing underscores
     are removed.  For example, ‘' -;#'’ becomes ‘'_'’.

     Note that 'encoding' should be ASCII only.

     참고: The following function should not be used directly, except
     for testing purposes; *note codecs.lookup(): 961. should be used
     instead.

 -- 함수: encodings.search_function (encoding)

     Search for the codec module corresponding to the given encoding
     name 'encoding'.

     This function first normalizes the 'encoding' using *note
     normalize_encoding(): 7f5, then looks for a corresponding alias.
     It attempts to import a codec module from the encodings package
     using either the alias or the normalized name.  If the module is
     found and defines a valid ‘getregentry()’ function that returns a
     *note codecs.CodecInfo: 1702. object, the codec is cached and
     returned.

     If the codec module defines a ‘getaliases()’ function any returned
     aliases are registered for future use.

This module implements the following exception:

 -- 예외: encodings.CodecRegistryError

     Raised when a codec is invalid or incompatible.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름,  Next: encodings mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지,  Prev: encodings — Encodings package,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.20 ‘encodings.idna’ — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름
....................................................................

이 모듈은 RFC 3490(1)(Internationalized Domain Names in Applications)과
RFC 3492(2)(Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for Internationalized Domain
Names (IDN))를 구현합니다.  ‘punycode’ 인코딩과 *note stringprep: d4.을
기반으로 합니다.

If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from RFC 5891(3) and RFC 5895(4), use
the third-party idna(5) module.

이 RFC는 함께 도메인 이름에서 비 ASCII 문자를 지원하는 프로토콜을 정의합
니다.  비 ASCII 문자(가령 ‘www.Alliancefrançaise.nu’)를 포함하는 도메인
이름은 ASCII 호환 인코딩(ACE, 가령 ‘www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu’)으
로 변환됩니다.  그런 다음 도메인 이름의 ACE 형식은 DNS 조회, HTTP ‘Host’
필드 등과 같이 프로토콜에 의해 임의의 문자가 허용되지 않는 모든 위치에서
사용됩니다.  이 변환은 응용 프로그램에서 수행됩니다; 가능하다면 사용자에
게 보이지 않습니다: 응용 프로그램은 전송 시에 유니코드 도메인 레이블을 투
명하게 IDNA로 변환하고, 사용자에게 표시하기 전에 ACE 레이블을 다시 유니
코드로 변환해야 합니다.

파이썬은 여러 가지 방식으로 이 변환을 지원합니다: ‘idna’ 코덱은 유니코드
와 ACE 간의 변환을 수행하여, RFC 3490의 섹션 3.1(6)에 정의된 구분 문자를
기반으로 입력 문자열을 레이블로 분리하고 필요에 따라 각 레이블을 ACE로 변
환하고, 반대로 입력 바이트 문자열을 ‘.’ 구분 기호를 기반으로 레이블로 분
리하고 모든 ACE 레이블을 유니코드로 변환합니다.  또한, *note socket: cc.
모듈은 유니코드 호스트 이름을 투명하게 ACE로 변환하므로, 응용 프로그램이
호스트 이름을 소켓 모듈로 전달할 때 호스트 이름 자체를 변환할 필요가 없
습니다.  이에 더해, *note http.client: 6f.와 *note ftplib: 5e.와 같은, 함
수 매개 변수로 호스트 이름이 있는 모듈은 유니코드 호스트 이름을 받아들입
니다 (*note http.client: 6f.는 해당 필드를 전송한다면 ‘Host’ 필드에 IDNA
호스트 이름을 투명하게 전송합니다).

회선에서 호스트 이름을 수신할 때 (가령 역 이름 조회(reverse name
lookup)에서), 유니코드로 자동 변환되지 않습니다: 이러한 호스트 이름을 사
용자에게 제시하려는 응용 프로그램은 유니코드로 디코딩해야 합니다.

또한 모듈 *note encodings.idna: 52.는 nameprep 절차를 구현합니다.  이는
국제 도메인 이름의 대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 유사한 문자를 통합하기 위해
호스트 이름에 대해 특정 정규화를 수행합니다.  원한다면 nameprep 함수를 직
접 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: encodings.idna.nameprep (label)

     'label'의 nameprep 된 버전을 반환합니다.  구현은 현재 쿼리 문자열을
     가정하므로, ‘AllowUnassigned’는 참입니다.

 -- 함수: encodings.idna.ToASCII (label)

     RFC 3490(7)에 지정된 대로 레이블을 ASCII로 변환합니다.
     ‘UseSTD3ASCIIRules’는 거짓으로 가정합니다.

 -- 함수: encodings.idna.ToUnicode (label)

     RFC 3490(8)에 지정된 대로 레이블을 유니코드로 변환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5891.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5895.html

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/idna/

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html


File: python.info,  Node: encodings mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지,  Next: encodings utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱,  Prev: encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.21 ‘encodings.mbcs’ — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지
...................................................

이 모듈은 ANSI 코드 페이지(CP_ACP)를 구현합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

버전 3.2에서 변경: 3.2 이전에는, 'errors' 인자가 무시되었습니다; 인코딩
에는 항상 ‘'replace'’가 사용되고, 디코딩에는 항상 ‘'ignore'’가 사용되었
습니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 모든 에러 처리기를 지원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱,  Prev: encodings mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지,  Up: codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스

5.7.2.22 ‘encodings.utf_8_sig’ — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱
...........................................................

이 모듈은 UTF-8 코덱의 변형을 구현합니다.  인코딩 시, UTF-8로 인코딩된
BOM을 UTF-8로 인코딩된 바이트열 앞에 붙입니다.  상태 있는 인코더의 경우
이 작업은 한 번만 수행됩니다 (바이트 스트림에 대한 첫 번째 쓰기 시).  디
코딩 시, 데이터 시작에 있는 선택적 UTF-8 인코딩된 BOM을 건너뜁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터형,  Next: 숫자와 수학 모듈,  Prev: 바이너리 데이터 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.8 데이터형
============

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 날짜와 시간, 고정형 배열, 힙 큐, 데크, 열거형
과 같은 다양한 특수 데이터형을 제공합니다.

파이썬은 또한 일부 내장 데이터형, 특히 *note dict: 256, *note list: 60b,
*note set: 5d3.과 *note frozenset: 5d4, *note tuple: 369.을 제공합니다.
*note str: 445. 클래스는 유니코드 문자열을 저장하는 데 사용되고, *note
bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytearray: 538. 클래스는 바이너리 데이터를 저장하는
데 사용됩니다.

이 장에서는 다음 모듈에 관해 설명합니다:

* Menu:

* datetime — Basic date and time types::
* zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원::
* calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수::
* collections — 컨테이너 데이터형::
* collections.abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스.
* heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘::
* bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘::
* array — 효율적인 숫자 배열::
* weakref — 약한 참조::
* types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름::
* copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산::
* pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기::
* reprlib — 대안 repr() 구현: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
* enum — 열거형 지원::
* graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능::


File: python.info,  Node: datetime — Basic date and time types,  Next: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.1 ‘datetime’ — Basic date and time types
--------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/datetime.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘datetime’ module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times.

날짜와 시간 산술이 지원되지만, 구현의 초점은 출력 포매팅과 조작을 위한 효
율적인 어트리뷰트 추출입니다.

     팁: Skip to *note the format codes: 2433.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note calendar: 14.

     일반 달력 관련 함수들.

모듈 *note time: ee.

     시간 액세스와 변환.

Module *note zoneinfo: 134.

     Concrete time zones representing the IANA time zone database.

패키지 dateutil(2)

     시간대와 구문 분석 지원이 확장된 제삼자 라이브러리.

Package DateType(3)

     Third-party library that introduces distinct static types to e.g.
     allow *note static type checkers: 26d. to differentiate between
     naive and aware datetimes.

* Menu:

* 어웨어와 나이브 객체::
* 상수::
* 사용 가능한 형::
* timedelta 객체::
* date 객체::
* datetime 객체::
* time 객체::
* tzinfo 객체::
* timezone 객체::
* strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/datetime.py

   (2) https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/DateType/


File: python.info,  Node: 어웨어와 나이브 객체,  Next: 상수,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.1 어웨어와 나이브 객체
............................

Date and time objects may be categorized as “aware” or “naive” depending
on whether or not they include time zone information.

시간대와 일광 절약 시간 정보와 같은 적용 가능한 알고리즘과 정치적 시간 조
정에 대한 충분한 지식을 통해, '어웨어' 객체는 다른 어웨어 객체와의 상대
적인 위치를 파악할 수 있습니다.  어웨어 객체는 자의적으로 해석할 여지 없
는 특정 시간을 나타냅니다.  (1)

A 'naive' object does not contain enough information to unambiguously
locate itself relative to other date/time objects.  Whether a naive
object represents Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time
in some other time zone is purely up to the program, just like it is up
to the program whether a particular number represents metres, miles, or
mass.  Naive objects are easy to understand and to work with, at the
cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.

어웨어 객체가 필요한 응용 프로그램을 위해, *note datetime: 1cc. 과 *note
time: 1ce. 객체에는 추상 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 클래스의 서브 클래스 인스턴
스로 설정할 수 있는 선택적 시간대 정보 어트리뷰트인 ‘tzinfo’가 있습니다.
이러한 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 객체는 UTC 시간으로부터의 오프셋, 시간대 이름
및 일광 절약 시간이 적용되는지에 대한 정보를 보관합니다.

Only one concrete *note tzinfo: 5d8. class, the *note timezone: 10b2.
class, is supplied by the ‘datetime’ module.  The ‘timezone’ class can
represent simple time zones with fixed offsets from UTC, such as UTC
itself or North American EST and EDT time zones.  Supporting time zones
at deeper levels of detail is up to the application.  The rules for time
adjustment across the world are more political than rational, change
frequently, and there is no standard suitable for every application
aside from UTC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 즉, 상대론적 효과를 무시한다면


File: python.info,  Node: 상수,  Next: 사용 가능한 형,  Prev: 어웨어와 나이브 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.2 상수
............

The ‘datetime’ module exports the following constants:

 -- 데이터: datetime.MINYEAR

     The smallest year number allowed in a *note date: 1cd. or *note
     datetime: 1cc. object.  *note MINYEAR: 2437. is 1.

 -- 데이터: datetime.MAXYEAR

     The largest year number allowed in a *note date: 1cd. or *note
     datetime: 1cc. object.  *note MAXYEAR: 2438. is 9999.

 -- 데이터: datetime.UTC

     Alias for the UTC time zone singleton *note datetime.timezone.utc:
     60e.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 가능한 형,  Next: timedelta 객체,  Prev: 상수,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.3 사용 가능한 형
......................

 -- 클래스: datetime.date

     현재의 그레고리력이 언제나 적용되어왔고, 앞으로도 그럴 것이라는 가
     정하에 이상적인 나이브 날짜.  어트리뷰트: *note year: 243a, *note
     month: 243b. 및 *note day: 243c.

 -- 클래스: datetime.time

     특정 날짜와 관계없이, 하루가 정확히 24*60*60초를 갖는다는 가정하에
     이상적인 시간.  (여기에는 “윤초”라는 개념이 없습니다.)  어트리뷰트:
     *note hour: 243d, *note minute: 243e, *note second: 243f, *note
     microsecond: 2440. 및 *note tzinfo: 2441.

 -- 클래스: datetime.datetime

     날짜와 시간의 조합.  어트리뷰트: *note year: 2442, *note month:
     2443, *note day: 2444, *note hour: 2445, *note minute: 2446, *note
     second: 2447, *note microsecond: 2448. 및 *note tzinfo: 2449.

 -- 클래스: datetime.timedelta

     A duration expressing the difference between two *note datetime:
     1cc. or *note date: 1cd. instances to microsecond resolution.

 -- 클래스: datetime.tzinfo

     시간대 정보 객체의 추상 베이스 클래스.  이것들은 *note datetime:
     1cc.과 *note time: 1ce. 클래스에서 사용자 정의할 수 있는 시간 조정
     개념(예를 들어, 시간대와/나 일광 절약 시간을 다루는 것)을 제공하기
     위해 사용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: datetime.timezone

     *note tzinfo: 5d8. 추상 베이스 클래스를 구현하는 클래스로, UTC로부
     터의 고정 오프셋을 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

이러한 형의 객체는 불변입니다.

서브 클래스 관계:

     object
         timedelta
         tzinfo
             timezone
         time
         date
             datetime

* Menu:

* 공통 속성::
* 객체가 어웨어한지 나이브한지 판단하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 공통 속성,  Next: 객체가 어웨어한지 나이브한지 판단하기,  Up: 사용 가능한 형

5.8.1.4 공통 속성
.................

*note date: 1cd, *note datetime: 1cc, *note time: 1ce. 및 *note
timezone: 10b2. 형은 다음과 같은 공통 기능을 공유합니다:

   - 이러한 형의 객체는 불변입니다.

   - Objects of these types are *note hashable: 60a, meaning that they
     can be used as dictionary keys.

   - 이러한 형의 객체는 *note pickle: a6. 모듈을 통한 효율적인 피클링을
     지원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체가 어웨어한지 나이브한지 판단하기,  Prev: 공통 속성,  Up: 사용 가능한 형

5.8.1.5 객체가 어웨어한지 나이브한지 판단하기
.............................................

*note date: 1cd. 형의 객체는 항상 나이브합니다.

*note time: 1ce.이나 *note datetime: 1cc. 형의 객체는 어웨어할 수도 나이
브할 수도 있습니다.

A *note datetime: 1cc. object ‘d’ is aware if both of the following
hold:

  1. ‘d.tzinfo’가 ‘None’이 아닙니다

  2. ‘d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)’가 ‘None’을 반환하지 않습니다

Otherwise, ‘d’ is naive.

A *note time: 1ce. object ‘t’ is aware if both of the following hold:

  1. ‘t.tzinfo’가 ‘None’이 아닙니다

  2. ‘t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’이 ‘None’을 반환하지 않습니다

Otherwise, ‘t’ is naive.

어웨어와 나이브 간의 차이점은 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체에는 적용되지 않
습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: timedelta 객체,  Next: date 객체,  Prev: 사용 가능한 형,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.6 ‘timedelta’ 객체
........................

A *note timedelta: 9cc. object represents a duration, the difference
between two *note datetime: 1cc. or *note date: 1cd. instances.

 -- 클래스: datetime.timedelta (days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0,
          milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

     All arguments are optional and default to 0.  Arguments may be
     integers or floats, and may be positive or negative.

     'days', 'seconds' 및 'microseconds'만 내부적으로 저장됩니다.  인자
     는 이 단위로 변환됩니다:

        * 밀리 초는 1000마이크로초로 변환됩니다.

        * 분은 60초로 변환됩니다.

        * 시간은 3600초로 변환됩니다.

        * 주는 7일로 변환됩니다.

     그런 다음 days, seconds 및 microseconds를 다음처럼 정규화하여 표현
     이 고유하도록 만듭니다

        * ‘0 <= microseconds < 1000000’

        * ‘0 <= seconds < 3600*24’ (하루 내의 초 수)

        * ‘-999999999 <= days <= 999999999’

     다음 예는 'days', 'seconds' 및 'microseconds' 이외의 인자가 어떻게
     “병합” 되어 세 개의 결과 어트리뷰트로 정규화되는지를 보여줍니다:

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> delta = timedelta(
          ...     days=50,
          ...     seconds=27,
          ...     microseconds=10,
          ...     milliseconds=29000,
          ...     minutes=5,
          ...     hours=8,
          ...     weeks=2
          ... )
          >>> # Only days, seconds, and microseconds remain
          >>> delta
          datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)

     인자가 float이고 부분 마이크로초가 있으면, 모든 인자의 남은 부분 마
     이크로초가 합쳐지고, 그 합은 동률일 때 짝수로 반올림하는 방식으로 가
     장 가까운 마이크로초로 반올림됩니다.  float 인자가 없으면, 변환과 정
     규화 프로세스는 정확합니다 (정보가 손실되지 않습니다).

     정규화된 days 값이 표시된 범위를 벗어나면, *note OverflowError:
     87d.가 발생합니다.

     음수 값의 정규화는 처음 보면 놀라울 수 있습니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> d = timedelta(microseconds=-1)
          >>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
          (-1, 86399, 999999)

     Since the string representation of ‘timedelta’ objects can be
     confusing, use the following recipe to produce a more readable
     format:

          >>> def pretty_timedelta(td):
          ...     if td.days >= 0:
          ...         return str(td)
          ...     return f'-({-td!s})'
          ...
          >>> d = timedelta(hours=-1)
          >>> str(d)  # not human-friendly
          '-1 day, 23:00:00'
          >>> pretty_timedelta(d)
          '-(1:00:00)'

클래스 어트리뷰트:

 -- 속성: timedelta.min

     가장 음수인 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체, ‘timedelta(-999999999)’.

 -- 속성: timedelta.max

     가장 양수인 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체, ‘timedelta(days=999999999,
     hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59, microseconds=999999)’.

 -- 속성: timedelta.resolution

     같지 않은 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체 간의 가능한 가장 작은 차이,
     ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Note that, because of normalization, ‘timedelta.max’ is greater than
‘-timedelta.min’.  ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note
timedelta: 9cc. object.

인스턴스 어트리뷰트 (읽기 전용):

 -- 속성: timedelta.days

     Between -999,999,999 and 999,999,999 inclusive.

 -- 속성: timedelta.seconds

     Between 0 and 86,399 inclusive.

          조심: It is a somewhat common bug for code to unintentionally
          use this attribute when it is actually intended to get a *note
          total_seconds(): 12f6. value instead:

               >>> from datetime import timedelta
               >>> duration = timedelta(seconds=11235813)
               >>> duration.days, duration.seconds
               (130, 3813)
               >>> duration.total_seconds()
               11235813.0

 -- 속성: timedelta.microseconds

     Between 0 and 999,999 inclusive.

지원되는 연산:

연산                                 결과
                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘t1 = t2 + t3’                       Sum of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 - t2 == t3’
                                     and ‘t1 - t3 == t2’ are true.  (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 - t3’                       Difference of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 ==
                                     t2 - t3’ and ‘t2 == t1 + t3’ are true.  (1)(6)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * i 또는 t1 = i * t2’       Delta multiplied by an integer.  Afterwards ‘t1
                                     // i == t2’ is true, provided ‘i != 0’.
                                     
                                     
                                     In general, ‘t1 * i == t1 * (i-1) + t1’ is true.
                                     (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * f 또는 t1 = f * t2’       델타에 float를 곱합니다.  결과는 동률일 때 짝수로
                                     반올림하는 방식으로 timedelta.resolution의 가장 가
                                     까운 배수로 자리 올림 됩니다.
                                     
                                     
‘f = t2 / t3’                        Division (3) of overall duration ‘t2’ by interval
                                     unit ‘t3’.  Returns a *note float: 2ef. object.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 / f 또는 t1 = t2 / i’       델타를 float나 int로 나눈 값.  결과는 동률일 때 짝
                                     수로 반올림하는 방식으로 timedelta.resolution의 가
                                     장 가까운 배수로 자리 올림 됩니다.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 // i’ 또는 ‘t1 = t2 //      floor가 계산되고 나머지(있다면)를 버립니다.  두 번
t3’                                  째 경우에는, 정수가 반환됩니다.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 % t3’                       나머지가 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체로 계산됩니다.
                                     (3)
                                     
                                     
‘q, r = divmod(t1, t2)’              Computes the quotient and the remainder: ‘q = t1
                                     // t2’ (3) and ‘r = t1 % t2’.  ‘q’ is an integer
                                     and ‘r’ is a *note timedelta: 9cc. object.
                                     
                                     
‘+t1’                                같은 값을 갖는 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 반환
                                     합니다.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘-t1’                                Equivalent to ‘timedelta(-t1.days, -t1.seconds,
                                     -t1.microseconds)’, and to ‘t1 * -1’.  (1)(4)
                                     
                                     
‘abs(t)’                             Equivalent to ‘+t’ when ‘t.days >= 0’, and to
                                     ‘-t’ when ‘t.days < 0’.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘str(t)’                             ‘[D day[s], ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]’ 형식의 문자열을
                                     반환합니다.  여기서 D는 음의 ‘t’일 때 음수입니다.
                                     (5)
                                     
                                     
‘repr(t)’                            규범적 어트리뷰트 값을 가진 생성자 호출로 표현한
                                     *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체의 문자열 표현을 반환합
                                     니다.
                                     

노트:

  1. 이것은 정확하지만, 오버플로 할 수 있습니다.

  2. 이것은 정확하고, 오버플로 할 수 없습니다.

  3. Division by zero raises *note ZeroDivisionError: 943.

  4. ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note timedelta: 9cc.
     object.

  5. *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체의 문자열 표현은 내부 표현과 유사하게 정
     규화됩니다.  이것은 음의 timedelta가 다소 이상하게 표현되는 결과로
     이어집니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> timedelta(hours=-5)
          datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
          >>> print(_)
          -1 day, 19:00:00

  6. ‘t2 - t3’ 표현식은 항상 ‘t2 + (-t3)’ 표현식과 같아지는데, t3이
     ‘timedelta.max’일 때만 예외입니다; 이때는 앞에 있는 것은 결과를 만
     들지만, 뒤에 있는 것은 오버플로를 일으킵니다.

위에 나열된 연산 외에도, *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체는 *note date: 1cd.와
*note datetime: 1cc. 객체와의 어떤 합과 차를 지원합니다 (아래를 참조하세
요).

버전 3.2에서 변경: 나머지 연산과 *note divmod(): 99e. 함수와 마찬가지로,
*note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 다른 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체로 정수 나누
기(floor division)와 실수 나누기(true division)가 이제 지원됩니다.
*note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 *note float: 2ef. 객체로 실수 나누기와 곱셈
도 이제 이제 지원됩니다.

*note timedelta: 9cc. objects support equality and order comparisons.

불리언 문맥에서 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체는 ‘timedelta(0)’와 같지 않을
때만 참으로 간주합니다.

인스턴스 메서드:

 -- 메서드: timedelta.total_seconds ()

     기간에 포함된 총 시간을 초(seconds)로 반환합니다.  ‘td /
     timedelta(seconds=1)’와 동등합니다.  초 이외의 구간 단위에는, 나누
     기 형식을 직접 사용하십시오 (예를 들어, ‘td /
     timedelta(microseconds=1)’).

     매우 큰 시간 구간에서는 (대부분 플랫폼에서 270년 이상), 이 메서드는
     마이크로초의 정확도를 잃게 됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* 사용 예; timedelta: 사용 예 timedelta.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예 timedelta,  Up: timedelta 객체

5.8.1.7 사용 예: ‘timedelta’
............................

정규화의 추가 예:

     >>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> another_year = timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
     ...                          minutes=50, seconds=600)
     >>> year == another_year
     True
     >>> year.total_seconds()
     31536000.0

*note timedelta: 9cc. 산술의 예:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> ten_years = 10 * year
     >>> ten_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
     >>> ten_years.days // 365
     10
     >>> nine_years = ten_years - year
     >>> nine_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3285)
     >>> three_years = nine_years // 3
     >>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
     (datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)


File: python.info,  Node: date 객체,  Next: datetime 객체,  Prev: timedelta 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.8 ‘date’ 객체
...................

*note date: 1cd. 객체는 현재의 그레고리력을 무한히 양방향으로 확장한, 이
상적인 달력에서의 날짜(년, 월, 일)를 나타냅니다.

1년 1월 1일을 날 번호 1, 1년 1월 2일을 날 번호 2라고 부르고, 이런 식으로
계속됩니다.  (1)

 -- 클래스: datetime.date (year, month, day)

     모든 인자가 필수입니다.  인자는 다음 범위에 있는 정수이어야 합니다:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’

        * ‘1 <= day <= 주어진 month와 year에서의 날 수’

     이 범위를 벗어나는 인자가 주어지면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.

다른 생성자, 모든 클래스 메서드:

 -- 메서드: classmethod date.today ()

     현재 지역 날짜를 반환합니다.

     이것은 ‘date.fromtimestamp(time.time())’과 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod date.fromtimestamp (timestamp)

     *note time.time(): 254.에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 POSIX 타임스탬프에
     해당하는 지역 날짜를 반환합니다.

     타임스탬프가 플랫폼 C ‘localtime()’ 함수에서 지원하는 값 범위를 벗
     어나면 *note OverflowError: 87d.가 발생하고, ‘localtime()’ 실패 시
     *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.  이것이 1970년에서 2038년으로 제
     한되는 것이 일반적입니다.  타임스탬프라는 개념에 윤초를 포함하는
     POSIX가 아닌 시스템에서는, 윤초가 *note fromtimestamp(): 1611.에서
     무시됨에 유의하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: timestamp가 플랫폼 C ‘localtime()’ 함수에서 지원
     하는 값 범위를 벗어나면 *note ValueError: 202. 대신 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.  ‘localtime()’ 실패 시 *note
     ValueError: 202. 대신 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod date.fromordinal (ordinal)

     역산 그레고리력 서수에 해당하는 date를 반환합니다.  1년 1월 1일이 서
     수 1입니다.

     *note ValueError: 202. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     date.max.toordinal()’.  For any date ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- 메서드: classmethod date.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note date: 1cd. corresponding to a 'date_string' given in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       2. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       3. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     예제:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('20191204')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
          datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this method only supported the
     format ‘YYYY-MM-DD’.

 -- 메서드: classmethod date.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     년, 주 및 일로 지정된 ISO 달력 날짜에 해당하는 *note date: 1cd.를 반
     환합니다.  이것은 함수 *note date.isocalendar(): 8f2.의 역입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

클래스 어트리뷰트:

 -- 속성: date.min

     표현 가능한 가장 이른 date, ‘date(MINYEAR, 1, 1)’.

 -- 속성: date.max

     표현 가능한 가장 늦은 date, ‘date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31)’.

 -- 속성: date.resolution

     같지 않은 date 객체 간의 가능한 가장 작은 차이,
     ‘timedelta(days=1)’.

인스턴스 어트리뷰트 (읽기 전용):

 -- 속성: date.year

     *note MINYEAR: 2437.와 *note MAXYEAR: 2438. 사이, 경계 포함.

 -- 속성: date.month

     1과 12 사이, 경계 포함.

 -- 속성: date.day

     1과 주어진 year의 주어진 month의 날 수 사이.

지원되는 연산:

연산                                결과
                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘date2 = date1 + timedelta’         ‘date2’ will be ‘timedelta.days’ days after
                                    ‘date1’.  (1)
                                    
                                    
‘date2 = date1 - timedelta’         Computes ‘date2’ such that ‘date2 + timedelta ==
                                    date1’.  (2)
                                    
                                    
‘timedelta = date1 - date2’         (3)
                                    
                                    
     ‘date1 == date2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘date1 != date2’               

     ‘date1 < date2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘date1 > date2’                
     ‘date1 <= date2’
     ‘date1 >= date2’

노트:

  1. 'date2'는 ‘timedelta.days > 0’이면 미래로, ‘timedelta.days < 0’이면
     과거로 이동합니다.  결국 ‘date2 - date1 == timedelta.days’이 됩니다
     .  ‘timedelta.seconds’와 ‘timedelta.microseconds’는 무시됩니다.
     ‘date2.year’가 *note MINYEAR: 2437.보다 작거나 *note MAXYEAR:
     2438.보다 크게 되려고 하면 *note OverflowError: 87d.가 발생합니다.

  2. ‘timedelta.seconds’와 ‘timedelta.microseconds’는 무시됩니다.

  3. This is exact, and cannot overflow.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and
     ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are 0, and ‘date2 + timedelta == date1’
     after.

  4. *note date: 1cd. objects are equal if they represent the same date.

     ‘date’ objects that are not also *note datetime: 1cc. instances are
     never equal to ‘datetime’ objects, even if they represent the same
     date.

  5. 'date1' is considered less than 'date2' when 'date1' precedes
     'date2' in time.  In other words, ‘date1 < date2’ if and only if
     ‘date1.toordinal() < date2.toordinal()’.

     Order comparison between a ‘date’ object that is not also a *note
     datetime: 1cc. instance and a ‘datetime’ object raises *note
     TypeError: 532.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Comparison between *note datetime: 1cc. object and
an instance of the *note date: 1cd. subclass that is not a ‘datetime’
subclass no longer converts the latter to ‘date’, ignoring the time part
and the time zone.  The default behavior can be changed by overriding
the special comparison methods in subclasses.

불리언 문맥에서, 모든 *note date: 1cd. 객체는 참으로 간주합니다.

인스턴스 메서드:

 -- 메서드: date.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day)

     Return a new *note date: 1cd. object with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.

     예제:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> d = date(2002, 12, 31)
          >>> d.replace(day=26)
          datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)

     The generic function *note copy.replace(): 151. also supports *note
     date: 1cd. objects.

 -- 메서드: date.timetuple ()

     *note time.localtime(): 14c1.이 반환하는 것과 같은 *note
     time.struct_time: ce7.을 반환합니다.

     시, 분 및 초는 0이고, DST 플래그는 -1입니다.

     ‘d.timetuple()’은 다음과 동등합니다:

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0, d.weekday(), yday, -1))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.

 -- 메서드: date.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1
     of year 1 has ordinal 1.  For any *note date: 1cd. object ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- 메서드: date.weekday ()

     정수로 요일을 반환합니다.  월요일은 0이고 일요일은 6입니다.  예를 들
     어, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).weekday() == 2’, 수요일.  *note
     isoweekday(): 245e.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: date.isoweekday ()

     정수로 요일을 반환합니다.  월요일은 1이고 일요일은 7입니다.  예를 들
     어, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday() == 3’, 수요일.  *note
     weekday(): 245d, *note isocalendar(): 8f2.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: date.isocalendar ()

     세 개의 구성 요소가 있는 *note 네임드 튜플: 648. 객체를 반환합니다:
     ‘year’, ‘week’ 및 ‘weekday’.

     ISO 달력은 널리 사용되는 그레고리력의 변형입니다.  (2)

     ISO 연도는 52나 53개의 완전한 주로 구성되고, 주는 월요일에 시작하여
     일요일에 끝납니다.  ISO 연도의 첫 번째 주는 그 해의 (그레고리) 달력
     에서 목요일이 들어있는 첫 번째 주입니다.  이것을 주 번호 1이라고 하
     며, 그 목요일의 ISO 연도는 그레고리 연도와 같습니다.

     예를 들어, 2004년은 목요일에 시작되므로, ISO 연도 2004의 첫 주는 월
     요일, 2003년 12월 29일에 시작하고, 일요일, 2004년 1월 4일에 끝납니
     다:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
          >>> date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 결과가 튜플에서 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.로 변경되
     었습니다.

 -- 메서드: date.isoformat ()

     ISO 8601 형식으로 날짜를 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다,
     ‘YYYY-MM-DD’:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
          '2002-12-04'

 -- 메서드: date.__str__ ()

     For a date ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to ‘d.isoformat()’.

 -- 메서드: date.ctime ()

     날짜를 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 00:00:00 2002'

     ‘d.ctime()’은 다음과:

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     네이티브 C ‘ctime()’ 함수(*note time.ctime(): 2462.은 호출하지만
     *note date.ctime(): 2461.은 호출하지 않습니다)가 C 표준을 준수하는
     플랫폼에서 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: date.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  Format codes referring to hours, minutes or seconds
     will see 0 values.  See also *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 17d0. and *note date.isoformat(): 245f.

 -- 메서드: date.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note date.strftime(): c8e.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note date: 1cd. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 9a6. and when using *note str.format():
     61b.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 17d0. and
     *note date.isoformat(): 245f.

* Menu:

* 사용 예; date: 사용 예 date.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이것은 Dershowitz와 Reingold의 책 'Calendrical Calculations'에 나
오는 “역산 그레고리(proleptic Gregorian)” 달력의 정의와 일치합니다.  이
달력은 모든 계산의 기본 달력입니다.  역산 그레고리력 서수(ordinal)와 다
른 많은 달력 시스템 사이의 변환을 위한 알고리즘에 관해서는 이 책을 참조
하십시오.

   (2) See R. H. van Gent’s guide to the mathematics of the ISO 8601
calendar
(https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm)
for a good explanation.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예 date,  Up: date 객체

5.8.1.9 사용 예: ‘date’
.......................

이벤트까지 남은 날 수 계산 예:

     >>> import time
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> today = date.today()
     >>> today
     datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
     >>> today == date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
     True
     >>> my_birthday = date(today.year, 6, 24)
     >>> if my_birthday < today:
     ...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
     ...
     >>> my_birthday
     datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
     >>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
     >>> time_to_birthday.days
     202

*note date: 1cd.로 작업하는 추가 예:

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> d = date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
     >>> d
     datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)

     >>> # Methods related to formatting string output
     >>> d.isoformat()
     '2002-03-11'
     >>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
     '11/03/02'
     >>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
     'Monday 11. March 2002'
     >>> d.ctime()
     'Mon Mar 11 00:00:00 2002'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
     'The day is 11, the month is March.'

     >>> # Methods for to extracting 'components' under different calendars
     >>> t = d.timetuple()
     >>> for i in t:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # year
     3                   # month
     11                  # day
     0
     0
     0
     0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
     70                  # 70th day in the year
     -1
     >>> ic = d.isocalendar()
     >>> for i in ic:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # ISO year
     11                  # ISO week number
     1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )

     >>> # A date object is immutable; all operations produce a new object
     >>> d.replace(year=2005)
     datetime.date(2005, 3, 11)


File: python.info,  Node: datetime 객체,  Next: time 객체,  Prev: date 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.10 ‘datetime’ 객체
........................

*note datetime: 1cc. 객체는 *note date: 1cd. 객체와 *note time: 1ce. 객
체의 모든 정보를 포함하는 단일 객체입니다.

*note date: 1cd. 객체와 마찬가지로, *note datetime: 1cc.은 현재의 그레고
리력을 양방향으로 확장한다고 가정합니다; *note time: 1ce. 객체와 마찬가
지로, *note datetime: 1cc.은 하루가 정확히 3600*24초인 것으로 가정합니다
.

생성자:

 -- 클래스: datetime.datetime (year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0,
          second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     'year', 'month', 'day' 인자는 필수입니다.  'tzinfo'는 ‘None’이거나
     *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.  나머지 인
     자는 다음 범위의 정수이어야 합니다:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’,

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’,

        * ‘1 <= day <= 주어진 month와 year에서의 날 수’,

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     이 범위를 벗어나는 인자가 주어지면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Added the 'fold' parameter.

다른 생성자, 모든 클래스 메서드:

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.today ()

     Return the current local date and time, with *note tzinfo: 2449.
     ‘None’.

     다음과 동등합니다:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())

     *note now(): 4e6, *note fromtimestamp(): 4e7.를 참조하십시오.

     이 메서드는 기능적으로 *note now(): 4e6.와 동등하지만, ‘tz’ 매개 변
     수는 없습니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.now (tz=None)

     현재의 지역 날짜와 시간을 반환합니다.

     선택적 인자 'tz'가 ‘None’이거나 지정되지 않으면, *note today():
     2467.와 유사합니다.  하지만, 가능하면 *note time.time(): 254. 타임
     스탬프를 통해 얻을 수 있는 것보다 더 높은 정밀도를 제공합니다 (예를
     들어, C ‘gettimeofday()’ 함수를 제공하는 플랫폼에서 가능합니다).

     'tz'가 ‘None’이 아니면, *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스여
     야 하며, 현재 날짜와 시간이 'tz'의 시간대로 변환됩니다.

     이 함수는 *note today(): 2467.와 *note utcnow(): 2f4.보다 선호됩니
     다.

          참고: Subsequent calls to ‘datetime.now()’ may return the same
          instant depending on the precision of the underlying clock.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.utcnow ()

     *note tzinfo: 2449.가 ‘None’인 현재 UTC 날짜와 시간을 반환합니다.

     이것은 *note now(): 4e6.와 비슷하지만, 현재의 UTC 날짜와 시간을 나
     이브 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체로 반환합니다.  현재 어웨어 UTC
     datetime은 ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’를 호출하여 얻을 수 있습니다
     .  *note now(): 4e6.도 참조하십시오.

          경고: 나이브 ‘datetime’ 객체는 많은 ‘datetime’ 메서드에 의해 지
          역 시간으로 취급되므로, UTC로 시간을 나타내는 어웨어 datetime을
          사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  따라서 UTC로 현재 시간을 나타내는 객
          체를 만드는 권장 방법은 ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’를 호출하
          는 것입니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note datetime.now(): 4e6. with *note
     UTC: 4e8. instead.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.fromtimestamp (timestamp, tz=None)

     *note time.time(): 254.가 반환하는 것과 같은, POSIX timestamp에 해
     당하는 지역 날짜와 시간을 반환합니다.  선택적 인자 'tz'가 ‘None’이
     거나 지정되지 않으면 timestamp는 플랫폼의 지역 날짜와 시간으로 변환
     되며, 반환된 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체는 나이브합니다.

     'tz'가 ‘None’이 아니면, *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스여
     야 하며, timestamp는 'tz'의 시간대로 변환됩니다.

     timestamp가 플랫폼 C ‘localtime()’ 이나 ‘gmtime()’ 함수에서 지원하
     는 값 범위를 벗어나면 *note fromtimestamp(): 4e7.가 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킬 수 있고, ‘localtime()’ 이나
     ‘gmtime()’이 실패하면 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.
     1970년에서 2038년까지로 제한되는 것이 일반적입니다.  타임스탬프에 윤
     초 개념을 포함하는 비 POSIX 시스템에서, *note fromtimestamp():
     4e7.는 윤초를 무시하므로, 1초 차이가 나는 두 개의 타임스탬프가 같은
     *note datetime: 1cc. 객체를 산출할 수 있습니다.  이 방법은 *note
     utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5.보다 선호됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: timestamp가 플랫폼 C ‘localtime()’ 이나
     ‘gmtime()’ 함수에서 지원하는 값 범위를 벗어나면 *note ValueError:
     202. 대신 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.  ‘localtime()’
     이나 ‘gmtime()’이 실패하면 *note ValueError: 202. 대신 *note
     OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note fromtimestamp(): 4e7.는 *note fold: c54.가
     1로 설정된 인스턴스를 반환할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.utcfromtimestamp (timestamp)

     *note tzinfo: 2449.가 ‘None’인 POSIX timestamp에 해당하는 UTC *note
     datetime: 1cc.을 반환합니다.  (결과 객체는 나이브합니다.)

     timestamp가 플랫폼 C ‘gmtime()’ 함수에서 지원하는 값 범위를 벗어나
     면 *note OverflowError: 87d.가 발생하고, ‘gmtime()’이 실패하면
     *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.  1970년에서 2038년까지로 제한되는
     것이 일반적입니다.

     어웨어 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체를 얻으려며, *note fromtimestamp():
     4e7.를 호출하십시오:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)

     POSIX 호환 플랫폼에서, 다음 표현식과 동등합니다:

          datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)

     단, 후자의 식은 항상 전체 연도 범위를 지원합니다: *note MINYEAR:
     2437.와 *note MAXYEAR: 2438. 사이, 경계 포함.

          경고: 나이브 ‘datetime’ 객체는 많은 ‘datetime’ 메서드에 의해 지
          역 시간으로 취급되므로.  UTC로 시간을 나타내는 어웨어
          datetime을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  따라서 UTC로 특정
          timestamp를 나타내는 객체를 만드는 권장 방법은
          ‘datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=timezone.utc)’를 호출하
          는 것입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: timestamp가 플랫폼 C ‘gmtime()’ 함수에서 지원하
     는 값 범위를 벗어나면 *note ValueError: 202. 대신 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.  ‘gmtime()’이 실패하면 *note
     ValueError: 202. 대신 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4e7. with
     *note UTC: 4e8. instead.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.fromordinal (ordinal)

     역산 그레고리력 서수(ordinal)에 해당하는 *note datetime: 1cc.을 반
     환합니다.  1년 1월 1일이 서수 1입니다.  ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     datetime.max.toordinal()’이 아니면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.  결과의 hour, minute, second 및 microsecond는 모두 0이고,
     *note tzinfo: 2449.는 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.combine (date, time,
          tzinfo=time.tzinfo)

     Return a new *note datetime: 1cc. object whose date components are
     equal to the given *note date: 1cd. object’s, and whose time
     components are equal to the given *note time: 1ce. object’s.  If
     the 'tzinfo' argument is provided, its value is used to set the
     *note tzinfo: 2449. attribute of the result, otherwise the *note
     tzinfo: 2441. attribute of the 'time' argument is used.  If the
     'date' argument is a *note datetime: 1cc. object, its time
     components and *note tzinfo: 2449. attributes are ignored.

     For any *note datetime: 1cc. object ‘d’, ‘d ==
     datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)’.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'tzinfo' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note datetime: 1cc. corresponding to a 'date_string' in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The ‘T’ separator may be replaced by any single unicode
          character.

       3. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

       4. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       5. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       6. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     예제:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
              tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this method only supported formats
     that could be emitted by *note date.isoformat(): 245f. or *note
     datetime.isoformat(): b2d.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     년, 주 및 일로 지정된 ISO 달력 날짜에 해당하는 *note datetime:
     1cc.을 반환합니다.  datetime의 날짜가 아닌 구성 요소는 일반적인 기
     본값으로 채워집니다.  이것은 함수 *note datetime.isocalendar():
     8f3.의 역입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 메서드: classmethod datetime.strptime (date_string, format)

     'format'에 따라 구문 분석된, 'date_string'에 해당하는 *note
     datetime: 1cc.를 반환합니다.

     If 'format' does not contain microseconds or time zone information,
     this is equivalent to:

          datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

     *note ValueError: 202. is raised if the date_string and format
     can’t be parsed by *note time.strptime(): 13f5. or if it returns a
     value which isn’t a time tuple.  See also *note strftime() and
     strptime() Behavior: 17d0. and *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 611.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: If 'format' specifies a day of month without a
     year a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now emitted.  This is to
     avoid a quadrennial leap year bug in code seeking to parse only a
     month and day as the default year used in absence of one in the
     format is not a leap year.  Such 'format' values may raise an error
     as of Python 3.15.  The workaround is to always include a year in
     your 'format'.  If parsing 'date_string' values that do not have a
     year, explicitly add a year that is a leap year before parsing:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> date_string = "02/29"
          >>> when = datetime.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # Avoids leap year bug.
          >>> when.strftime("%B %d")
          'February 29'

클래스 어트리뷰트:

 -- 속성: datetime.min

     표현 가능한 가장 이른 *note datetime: 1cc, ‘datetime(MINYEAR, 1, 1,
     tzinfo=None)’.

 -- 속성: datetime.max

     표현 가능한 가장 늦은 *note datetime: 1cc, ‘datetime(MAXYEAR, 12,
     31, 23, 59, 59, 999999, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- 속성: datetime.resolution

     같지 않은 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체 간의 가능한 가장 작은 차이,
     ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

인스턴스 어트리뷰트 (읽기 전용):

 -- 속성: datetime.year

     *note MINYEAR: 2437.와 *note MAXYEAR: 2438. 사이, 경계 포함.

 -- 속성: datetime.month

     1과 12 사이, 경계 포함.

 -- 속성: datetime.day

     1과 주어진 year의 주어진 month의 날 수 사이.

 -- 속성: datetime.hour

     범위 ‘range(24)’.

 -- 속성: datetime.minute

     범위 ‘range(60)’.

 -- 속성: datetime.second

     범위 ‘range(60)’.

 -- 속성: datetime.microsecond

     범위 ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- 속성: datetime.tzinfo

     *note datetime: 1cc. 생성자에 'tzinfo' 인자로 전달된 객체이거나, 전
     달되지 않았으면 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: datetime.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Added in version 3.6.

지원되는 연산:

연산                                        결과
                                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta’         (1)
                                            
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta’         (2)
                                            
                                            
‘timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2’         (3)
                                            
                                            
     ‘datetime1 == datetime2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘datetime1 != datetime2’               

     ‘datetime1 < datetime2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘datetime1 > datetime2’                
     ‘datetime1 <= datetime2’
     ‘datetime1 >= datetime2’

  1. ‘datetime2’ is a duration of ‘timedelta’ removed from ‘datetime1’,
     moving forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or backward if
     ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  The result has the same *note tzinfo: 2449.
     attribute as the input datetime, and ‘datetime2 - datetime1 ==
     timedelta’ after.  *note OverflowError: 87d. is raised if
     ‘datetime2.year’ would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 2437. or
     larger than *note MAXYEAR: 2438.  Note that no time zone
     adjustments are done even if the input is an aware object.

  2. Computes the ‘datetime2’ such that ‘datetime2 + timedelta ==
     datetime1’.  As for addition, the result has the same *note tzinfo:
     2449. attribute as the input datetime, and no time zone adjustments
     are done even if the input is aware.

  3. *note datetime: 1cc.에서 *note datetime: 1cc.을 빼는 것은 두 피연산
     자 모두 나이브하거나, 모두 어웨어할 때만 정의됩니다.  하나가 어웨어
     이고 다른 하나가 나이브면, *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same *note
     tzinfo: 2449. attribute, the *note tzinfo: 2449. attributes are
     ignored, and the result is a *note timedelta: 9cc. object ‘t’ such
     that ‘datetime2 + t == datetime1’.  No time zone adjustments are
     done in this case.

     If both are aware and have different *note tzinfo: 2449.
     attributes, ‘a-b’ acts as if ‘a’ and ‘b’ were first converted to
     naive UTC datetimes.  The result is ‘(a.replace(tzinfo=None) -
     a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None) - b.utcoffset())’ except
     that the implementation never overflows.

  4. *note datetime: 1cc. objects are equal if they represent the same
     date and time, taking into account the time zone.

     Naive and aware ‘datetime’ objects are never equal.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: c54. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 2449. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.  ‘datetime’ instances in a repeated
     interval are never equal to ‘datetime’ instances in other time
     zone.

  5. 'datetime1' is considered less than 'datetime2' when 'datetime1'
     precedes 'datetime2' in time, taking into account the time zone.

     Order comparison between naive and aware *note datetime: 1cc.
     objects raises *note TypeError: 532.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: c54. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 2449. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 어웨어와 나이브 *note datetime: 1cc. 인스턴스 간의 동
등 비교는 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시키지 않습니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Comparison between *note datetime: 1cc. object and
an instance of the *note date: 1cd. subclass that is not a ‘datetime’
subclass no longer converts the latter to ‘date’, ignoring the time part
and the time zone.  The default behavior can be changed by overriding
the special comparison methods in subclasses.

인스턴스 메서드:

 -- 메서드: datetime.date ()

     같은 year, month, day의 *note date: 1cd. 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.time ()

     같은 hour, minute, second, microsecond 및 fold의 *note time: 1ce. 객
     체를 반환합니다.  *note tzinfo: 2449.는 ‘None’입니다.  메서드 *note
     timetz(): 246d.도 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: fold 값은 반환된 *note time: 1ce. 객체에 복사됩
     니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.timetz ()

     같은 hour, minute, second, microsecond, fold 및 tzinfo 어트리뷰트의
     *note time: 1ce. 객체를 반환합니다.  메서드 *note time(): ee.도 참
     조하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: fold 값은 반환된 *note time: 1ce. 객체에 복사됩
     니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day, hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note datetime: 30. object with the same attributes,
     but with specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can
     be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware datetime with
     no conversion of date and time data.

     *note datetime: 1cc. objects are also supported by generic function
     *note copy.replace(): 151.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- 메서드: datetime.astimezone (tz=None)

     새로운 *note tzinfo: 2449. 어트리뷰트 'tz'를 갖는 *note datetime:
     1cc. 객체를 반환하는데, 결과가 'self'와 같은 UTC 시간이지만 'tz'의
     지역 시간이 되도록 날짜와 시간 데이터를 조정합니다.

     If provided, 'tz' must be an instance of a *note tzinfo: 5d8.
     subclass, and its *note utcoffset(): 246e. and *note dst(): 246f.
     methods must not return ‘None’.  If 'self' is naive, it is presumed
     to represent time in the system time zone.

     If called without arguments (or with ‘tz=None’) the system local
     time zone is assumed for the target time zone.  The ‘.tzinfo’
     attribute of the converted datetime instance will be set to an
     instance of *note timezone: 10b2. with the zone name and offset
     obtained from the OS.

     If ‘self.tzinfo’ is 'tz', ‘self.astimezone(tz)’ is equal to 'self':
     no adjustment of date or time data is performed.  Else the result
     is local time in the time zone 'tz', representing the same UTC time
     as 'self': after ‘astz = dt.astimezone(tz)’, ‘astz -
     astz.utcoffset()’ will have the same date and time data as ‘dt -
     dt.utcoffset()’.

     If you merely want to attach a *note timezone: 10b2. object 'tz' to
     a datetime 'dt' without adjustment of date and time data, use
     ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)’.  If you merely want to remove the
     ‘timezone’ object from an aware datetime 'dt' without conversion of
     date and time data, use ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=None)’.

     기본 *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2470. 메서드는 *note astimezone():
     9cd.에 의해 반환된 결과에 영향을 주도록 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클
     래스에서 재정의할 수 있습니다.  에러가 발생하는 경우를 무시하고,
     *note astimezone(): 9cd.는 다음과 같이 작동합니다:

          def astimezone(self, tz):
              if self.tzinfo is tz:
                  return self
              # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
              utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
              # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
              return tz.fromutc(utc)

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이제 'tz'를 생략할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이제 *note astimezone(): 9cd. 메서드는 이제 나이
     브 인스턴스에서 호출될 수 있는데, 시스템 지역 시간을 나타내는 것으
     로 간주합니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.utcoffset ()

     *note tzinfo: 2449.가 ‘None’이면, ‘None’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)’를 반환하고, 후자가 ‘None’이나 하루 미
     만의 크기를 가진 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 반환하지 않으면 예외
     를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: UTC 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.dst ()

     *note tzinfo: 2449.가 ‘None’이면, ‘None’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(self)’를 반환하고, 후자가 ‘None’이나 하루 미만의 크
     기를 가진 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 반환하지 않으면 예외를 발생
     시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: DST 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.tzname ()

     *note tzinfo: 2449.가 ‘None’이면, ‘None’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(self)’를 반환하고, 후자가 ‘None’이나 문자열 객
     체를 반환하지 않으면 예외를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.timetuple ()

     *note time.localtime(): 14c1.이 반환하는 것과 같은 *note
     time.struct_time: ce7.을 반환합니다.

     ‘d.timetuple()’은 다음과 동등합니다:

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
                            d.hour, d.minute, d.second,
                            d.weekday(), yday, dst))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.  The *note tm_isdst: 2473. flag of the result is set
     according to the *note dst(): 246f. method: *note tzinfo: 2449. is
     ‘None’ or *note dst(): 246f. returns ‘None’, ‘tm_isdst’ is set to
     ‘-1’; else if *note dst(): 246f. returns a non-zero value,
     ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 1; else ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 0.

 -- 메서드: datetime.utctimetuple ()

     If *note datetime: 1cc. instance ‘d’ is naive, this is the same as
     ‘d.timetuple()’ except that *note tm_isdst: 2473. is forced to 0
     regardless of what ‘d.dst()’ returns.  DST is never in effect for a
     UTC time.

     If ‘d’ is aware, ‘d’ is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
     ‘d.utcoffset()’, and a *note time.struct_time: ce7. for the
     normalized time is returned.  ‘tm_isdst’ is forced to 0.  Note that
     an *note OverflowError: 87d. may be raised if ‘d.year’ was
     ‘MINYEAR’ or ‘MAXYEAR’ and UTC adjustment spills over a year
     boundary.

          경고: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC; as a result, using
          *note datetime.utctimetuple(): 2474. may give misleading
          results.  If you have a naive ‘datetime’ representing UTC, use
          ‘datetime.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)’ to make it aware, at
          which point you can use *note datetime.timetuple(): 2472.

 -- 메서드: datetime.toordinal ()

     날짜의 역산 그레고리력 서수를 반환합니다.
     ‘self.date().toordinal()’과 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.timestamp ()

     *note datetime: 1cc. 인스턴스에 해당하는 POSIX 타임스탬프를 반환합
     니다.  반환 값은 *note time.time(): 254.이 반환하는 것과 비슷한
     *note float: 2ef.입니다.

     Naive *note datetime: 1cc. instances are assumed to represent local
     time and this method relies on the platform C ‘mktime()’ function
     to perform the conversion.  Since *note datetime: 1cc. supports
     wider range of values than ‘mktime()’ on many platforms, this
     method may raise *note OverflowError: 87d. or *note OSError: 411.
     for times far in the past or far in the future.

     어웨어 *note datetime: 1cc. 인스턴스의 경우, 반환 값은 다음과 같이
     계산됩니다:

          (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note timestamp(): 1090. 메서드는 *note fold:
     c54. 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 반복되는 구간의 시간을 구분합니다.

          참고: There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp
          directly from a naive *note datetime: 1cc. instance
          representing UTC time.  If your application uses this
          convention and your system time zone is not set to UTC, you
          can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
          ‘tzinfo=timezone.utc’:

               timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()

          또는 직접 타임스탬프를 계산할 수 있습니다:

               timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)

 -- 메서드: datetime.weekday ()

     정수로 요일을 반환합니다.  월요일은 0이고 일요일은 6입니다.
     ‘self.date().weekday()’와 같습니다.  *note isoweekday(): 2477.도 참
     조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: datetime.isoweekday ()

     정수로 요일을 반환합니다.  월요일은 1이고 일요일은 7입니다.
     ‘self.date().isoweekday()’ 와 같습니다.  *note weekday(): 2476,
     *note isocalendar(): 8f3.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: datetime.isocalendar ()

     세 개의 컴포넌트를 가진 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.을 반환합니다:
     ‘year’, ‘week’ 및 ‘weekday’.  ‘self.date().isocalendar()’와 같습니
     다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.isoformat (sep='T', timespec='auto')

     ISO 8601 형식으로 날짜와 시간을 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff’, *note microsecond: 2448.가 0이 아
          니면

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS’, *note microsecond: 2448.가 0이면

     *note utcoffset(): 246e.이 ‘None’을 반환하지 않으면, UTC 오프셋을 제
     공하는 문자열을 덧붙입니다:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, *note
          microsecond: 2448.가 0이 아니면

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, *note microsecond:
          2448.가 0이면

     예제:

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=timezone.utc).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'

     선택적 인자 'sep'(기본값 ‘'T'’)은 한 문자 구분자로, 결과의 날짜와 시
     간 부분 사이에 배치됩니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
          >>> class TZ(tzinfo):
          ...     """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
          ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
          ...         return timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
          ...
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
          '2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
          >>> datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
          '2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'

     선택적 인자 'timespec'은 포함할 시간의 추가 구성 요소 수를 지정합니
     다 (기본값은 ‘'auto'’입니다).  다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

        - ‘'auto'’: *note microsecond: 2448.가 0이면 ‘'seconds'’와 같고,
          그렇지 않으면 ‘'microseconds'’와 같습니다.

        - ‘'hours'’: *note hour: 2445.를 두 자리 숫자 ‘HH’ 형식으로 포함
          합니다.

        - ‘'minutes'’: *note hour: 2445.와 *note minute: 2446.를 ‘HH:MM’
          형식으로 포함합니다.

        - ‘'seconds'’: *note hour: 2445, *note minute: 2446. 및 *note
          second: 2447.를 ‘HH:MM:SS’ 형식으로 포함합니다.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: 전체 시간을 포함하지만, 초 미만은 밀리초 단
          위로 자릅니다.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ 형식입니다.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: 전체 시간을 ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’ 형식으로 포함
          합니다.

          참고: 제외된 시간 구성 요소는 반올림되지 않고 잘립니다.

     잘못된 'timespec' 인자는 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '2002-12-25T00:00'
          >>> dt = datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- 메서드: datetime.__str__ ()

     For a *note datetime: 1cc. instance ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to
     ‘d.isoformat(' ')’.

 -- 메서드: datetime.ctime ()

     날짜와 시간을 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'

     출력 문자열은 입력이 어웨어인지 나이브인지와 관계없이 시간대 정보를
     포함하지 '않습니다'.

     ‘d.ctime()’은 다음과:

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     네이티브 C ‘ctime()’ 함수(*note time.ctime(): 2462.이 호출하지만,
     *note datetime.ctime(): 2479.은 호출하지 않습니다)가 C 표준을 준수
     하는 플랫폼에서 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: datetime.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date and time, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  See also *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 17d0. and *note datetime.isoformat(): b2d.

 -- 메서드: datetime.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note datetime.strftime(): c8d.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note datetime: 1cc. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 9a6. and when using *note str.format():
     61b.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 17d0. and
     *note datetime.isoformat(): b2d.

* Menu:

* 사용 예; datetime: 사용 예 datetime.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예 datetime,  Up: datetime 객체

5.8.1.11 사용 예: ‘datetime’
............................

Examples of working with *note datetime: 1cc. objects:

     >>> from datetime import datetime, date, time, timezone

     >>> # Using datetime.combine()
     >>> d = date(2005, 7, 14)
     >>> t = time(12, 30)
     >>> datetime.combine(d, t)
     datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.now()
     >>> datetime.now()
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
     >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     >>> # Using datetime.strptime()
     >>> dt = datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
     >>> dt
     datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
     >>> tt = dt.timetuple()
     >>> for it in tt:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # year
     11      # month
     21      # day
     16      # hour
     30      # minute
     0       # second
     1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
     325     # number of days since 1st January
     -1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None

     >>> # Date in ISO format
     >>> ic = dt.isocalendar()
     >>> for it in ic:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # ISO year
     47      # ISO week
     2       # ISO weekday

     >>> # Formatting a datetime
     >>> dt.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
     'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(dt, "day", "month", "time")
     'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'

아래 예제는 1945년까지 +4 UTC를 사용한 후 +4:30 UTC로 변경한 아프가니스
탄 카불의 시간대 정보를 캡처하는 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클래스를 정의합
니다:

     from datetime import timedelta, datetime, tzinfo, timezone

     class KabulTz(tzinfo):
         # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
         UTC_MOVE_DATE = datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if dt.year < 1945:
                 return timedelta(hours=4)
             elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= dt.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
                 # An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
                 # a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
                 # If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
                 # to resolve. See PEP495.
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if dt.fold else 0))
             else:
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
             if not isinstance(dt, datetime):
                 raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
             if dt.tzinfo is not self:
                 raise ValueError("dt.tzinfo is not self")

             # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
             # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
             # but with a tzinfo set to self.
             # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
             if dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
             else:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4)

         def dst(self, dt):
             # Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
             return timedelta(0)

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if dt >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return "+04:30"
             return "+04"

위의 ‘KabulTz’ 사용법:

     >>> tz1 = KabulTz()

     >>> # Datetime before the change
     >>> dt1 = datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
     4:00:00

     >>> # Datetime after the change
     >>> dt2 = datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
     4:30:00

     >>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
     >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(timezone.utc)
     >>> dt3
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
     >>> dt2
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
     >>> dt2 == dt3
     True


File: python.info,  Node: time 객체,  Next: tzinfo 객체,  Prev: datetime 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.12 ‘time’ 객체
....................

A *note time: 1ce. object represents a (local) time of day, independent
of any particular day, and subject to adjustment via a *note tzinfo:
5d8. object.

 -- 클래스: datetime.time (hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0,
          tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     모든 인자는 선택적입니다.  'tzinfo'는 ‘None’, 또는 *note tzinfo:
     5d8. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.  나머지 인자는 다음 범위
     의 정수이어야 합니다:

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     202. is raised.  All default to 0 except 'tzinfo', which defaults
     to ‘None’.

클래스 어트리뷰트:

 -- 속성: time.min

     표현 가능한 가장 이른 *note time: 1ce, ‘time(0, 0, 0, 0)’.

 -- 속성: time.max

     표현 가능한 가장 늦은 *note time: 1ce, ‘time(23, 59, 59, 999999)’.

 -- 속성: time.resolution

     같지 않은 *note time: 1ce. 객체 간의 가능한 가장 작은 차이,
     ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’, 하지만 *note time: 1ce. 객체에 대한 산
     술은 지원되지 않습니다.

인스턴스 어트리뷰트 (읽기 전용):

 -- 속성: time.hour

     범위 ‘range(24)’.

 -- 속성: time.minute

     범위 ‘range(60)’.

 -- 속성: time.second

     범위 ‘range(60)’.

 -- 속성: time.microsecond

     범위 ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- 속성: time.tzinfo

     *note time: 1ce. 생성자에 'tzinfo' 인자로 전달된 객체이거나, 전달되
     지 않았으면 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: time.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Added in version 3.6.

*note time: 1ce. objects support equality and order comparisons, where
‘a’ is considered less than ‘b’ when ‘a’ precedes ‘b’ in time.

Naive and aware ‘time’ objects are never equal.  Order comparison
between naive and aware ‘time’ objects raises *note TypeError: 532.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same *note tzinfo: 2441.
attribute, the ‘tzinfo’ and ‘fold’ attributes are ignored and the base
times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different
‘tzinfo’ attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting
their UTC offsets (obtained from ‘self.utcoffset()’).

버전 3.3에서 변경: Equality comparisons between aware and naive *note
time: 1ce. instances don’t raise *note TypeError: 532.

불리언 문맥에서, *note time: 1ce. 객체는 항상 참으로 간주합니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 파이썬 3.5 이전에, *note time: 1ce. 객체는 UTC 자정을
나타낼 때 거짓으로 간주했습니다.  이 동작은 애매하고 에러가 발생하기 쉬
운 것으로 간주하여 파이썬 3.5에서 제거되었습니다.  자세한 내용은
bpo-13936(1)을 참조하십시오.

기타 생성자:

 -- 메서드: classmethod time.fromisoformat (time_string)

     Return a *note time: 1ce. corresponding to a 'time_string' in any
     valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The leading ‘T’, normally required in cases where there may be
          ambiguity between a date and a time, is not required.

       3. Fractional seconds may have any number of digits (anything
          beyond 6 will be truncated).

       4. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

     Examples:

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T042301')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this method only supported formats
     that could be emitted by *note time.isoformat(): 2482.

인스턴스 메서드:

 -- 메서드: time.replace (hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note time: 1ce. with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can be
     specified to create a naive *note time: 1ce. from an aware *note
     time: 1ce, without conversion of the time data.

     *note time: 1ce. objects are also supported by generic function
     *note copy.replace(): 151.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- 메서드: time.isoformat (timespec='auto')

     ISO 8601 형식으로 시간을 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다, 다음 중 한가
     지입니다:

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’, *note microsecond: 2440.가 0이 아니면

        - ‘HH:MM:SS’, *note microsecond: 2440.가 0이면

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, *note utcoffset():
          2483.이 ‘None’을 반환하지 않으면

        - ‘HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, *note microsecond: 2440.가 0이
          고 *note utcoffset(): 2483.이 ‘None’을 반환하지 않으면

     선택적 인자 'timespec'은 포함할 시간의 추가 구성 요소 수를 지정합니
     다 (기본값은 ‘'auto'’입니다).  다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

        - ‘'auto'’: *note microsecond: 2440.가 0이면 ‘'seconds'’와 같고,
          그렇지 않으면 ‘'microseconds'’와 같습니다.

        - ‘'hours'’: *note hour: 243d.를 두 자리 숫자 ‘HH’ 형식으로 포함
          합니다.

        - ‘'minutes'’: *note hour: 243d.와 *note minute: 243e.를 ‘HH:MM’
          형식으로 포함합니다.

        - ‘'seconds'’: *note hour: 243d, *note minute: 243e. 및 *note
          second: 243f.를 ‘HH:MM:SS’ 형식으로 포함합니다.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: 전체 시간을 포함하지만, 초 미만은 밀리초 단
          위로 자릅니다.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ 형식입니다.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: 전체 시간을 ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’ 형식으로 포함
          합니다.

          참고: 제외된 시간 구성 요소는 반올림되지 않고 잘립니다.

     잘못된 'timespec' 인자는 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     예제:

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '12:34'
          >>> dt = time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '12:34:56.000000'
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='auto')
          '12:34:56'

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- 메서드: time.__str__ ()

     For a time ‘t’, ‘str(t)’ is equivalent to ‘t.isoformat()’.

 -- 메서드: time.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the time, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior:
     17d0. and *note time.isoformat(): 2482.

 -- 메서드: time.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note time.strftime(): 1789.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note time: 1ce. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 9a6. and when using *note str.format():
     61b.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 17d0. and
     *note time.isoformat(): 2482.

 -- 메서드: time.utcoffset ()

     *note tzinfo: 2441.가 ‘None’이면, ‘None’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’를 반환하고, 후자가 ‘None’이나 하루 미
     만의 크기를 가진 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 반환하지 않으면 예외
     를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: UTC 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: time.dst ()

     *note tzinfo: 2441.가 ‘None’이면, ‘None’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(None)’를 반환하고, 후자가 ‘None’이나 하루 미만의 크
     기를 가진 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 반환하지 않으면 예외를 발생
     시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: DST 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: time.tzname ()

     *note tzinfo: 2441.가 ‘None’이면, ‘None’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(None)’를 반환하고, 후자가 ‘None’이나 문자열 객
     체를 반환하지 않으면 예외를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 사용 예; time: 사용 예 time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예 time,  Up: time 객체

5.8.1.13 사용 예: ‘time’
........................

*note time: 1ce. 객체로 작업하는 예제:

     >>> from datetime import time, tzinfo, timedelta
     >>> class TZ1(tzinfo):
     ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(hours=1)
     ...     def dst(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(0)
     ...     def tzname(self,dt):
     ...         return "+01:00"
     ...     def  __repr__(self):
     ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
     ...
     >>> t = time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t
     datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t.isoformat()
     '12:10:30+01:00'
     >>> t.dst()
     datetime.timedelta(0)
     >>> t.tzname()
     '+01:00'
     >>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
     '12:10:30 +01:00'
     >>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
     'The time is 12:10.'


File: python.info,  Node: tzinfo 객체,  Next: timezone 객체,  Prev: time 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.14 ‘tzinfo’ 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: datetime.tzinfo

     이것은 추상 베이스 클래스입니다.  즉, 이 클래스를 직접 인스턴스로 만
     들면 안 됩니다.  특정 시간대에 대한 정보를 캡처하려면 *note tzinfo:
     5d8.의 서브 클래스를 정의하십시오.

     *note tzinfo: 5d8.의 (구상 서브 클래스의) 인스턴스는 *note
     datetime: 1cc.과 *note time: 1ce. 객체의 생성자에 전달될 수 있습니
     다.  이 객체들은 자신의 어트리뷰트를 지역 시간으로 간주하며, *note
     tzinfo: 5d8. 객체는 지역 시간의 UTC로부터의 오프셋, 시간대 이름 및
     DST 오프셋을 모두 전달된 날짜나 시간 객체에 상대적으로 얻는 메서드
     들을 지원합니다.

     You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least) supply
     implementations of the standard *note tzinfo: 5d8. methods needed
     by the *note datetime: 1cc. methods you use.  The ‘datetime’ module
     provides *note timezone: 10b2, a simple concrete subclass of *note
     tzinfo: 5d8. which can represent time zones with fixed offset from
     UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and EDT.

     Special requirement for pickling: A *note tzinfo: 5d8. subclass
     must have an *note __init__(): 6aa. method that can be called with
     no arguments, otherwise it can be pickled but possibly not
     unpickled again.  This is a technical requirement that may be
     relaxed in the future.

     A concrete subclass of *note tzinfo: 5d8. may need to implement the
     following methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the
     uses made of aware ‘datetime’ objects.  If in doubt, simply
     implement all of them.

 -- 메서드: tzinfo.utcoffset (dt)

     지역 시간의 UTC로부터의 오프셋을 UTC의 동쪽에 있을 때 양의 값을 갖
     는 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체로 반환합니다.  지역 시간이 UTC의 서쪽
     이면 이 값은 음수여야 합니다.

     이것은 UTC로부터의 총 오프셋을 나타냅니다; 예를 들어, *note tzinfo:
     5d8. 객체가 시간대와 DST 조정을 모두 나타내면, *note utcoffset():
     248b.은 그들의 합계를 반환해야 합니다.  UTC 오프셋을 알 수 없으면,
     ‘None’을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 반환되는 값은 반드시
     ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’와 ‘timedelta(hours=24)’ 사이의 *note
     timedelta: 9cc. 객체여야 합니다 (오프셋의 크기는 하루 미만이어야 합
     니다).  *note utcoffset(): 248b.의 대부분 구현은 아마도 이 두 가지
     중 하나일 것입니다:

          return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
          return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class

     *note utcoffset(): 248b.이 ‘None’을 반환하지 않으면, *note dst():
     248c.도 ‘None’을 반환하지 않아야 합니다.

     *note utcoffset(): 248b.의 기본 구현은 *note NotImplementedError:
     228.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: UTC 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: tzinfo.dst (dt)

     일광 절약 시간 (DST) 조정을 *note timedelta: 9cc. 객체로, 또는 DST
     정보를 모르면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     Return ‘timedelta(0)’ if DST is not in effect.  If DST is in
     effect, return the offset as a *note timedelta: 9cc. object (see
     *note utcoffset(): 248b. for details).  Note that DST offset, if
     applicable, has already been added to the UTC offset returned by
     *note utcoffset(): 248b, so there’s no need to consult *note dst():
     248c. unless you’re interested in obtaining DST info separately.
     For example, *note datetime.timetuple(): 2472. calls its *note
     tzinfo: 2449. attribute’s *note dst(): 248c. method to determine
     how the *note tm_isdst: 2473. flag should be set, and *note
     tzinfo.fromutc(): 2470. calls *note dst(): 248c. to account for DST
     changes when crossing time zones.

     표준과 일광 절약 시간을 모두 모형화하는 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클
     래스의 인스턴스 'tz'는 다음과 같은 의미에서 일관되어야 합니다:

     ‘tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)’

     must return the same result for every *note datetime: 1cc. 'dt'
     with ‘dt.tzinfo == tz’.  For sane *note tzinfo: 5d8. subclasses,
     this expression yields the time zone’s “standard offset”, which
     should not depend on the date or the time, but only on geographic
     location.  The implementation of *note datetime.astimezone(): 9cd.
     relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it’s the programmer’s
     responsibility to ensure it.  If a *note tzinfo: 5d8. subclass
     cannot guarantee this, it may be able to override the default
     implementation of *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2470. to work correctly
     with *note astimezone(): 9cd. regardless.

     *note dst(): 248c.의 대부분 구현은 아마도 이 두 가지 중 하나일 것입
     니다:

          def dst(self, dt):
              # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
              return timedelta(0)

     또는:

          def dst(self, dt):
              # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
              # transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed
              # in standard local time.

              if dston <= dt.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
                  return timedelta(hours=1)
              else:
                  return timedelta(0)

     *note dst(): 248c.의 기본 구현은 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를
     발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: DST 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: tzinfo.tzname (dt)

     Return the time zone name corresponding to the *note datetime: 1cc.
     object 'dt', as a string.  Nothing about string names is defined by
     the ‘datetime’ module, and there’s no requirement that it mean
     anything in particular.  For example, ‘"GMT"’, ‘"UTC"’, ‘"-500"’,
     ‘"-5:00"’, ‘"EDT"’, ‘"US/Eastern"’, ‘"America/New York"’ are all
     valid replies.  Return ‘None’ if a string name isn’t known.  Note
     that this is a method rather than a fixed string primarily because
     some *note tzinfo: 5d8. subclasses will wish to return different
     names depending on the specific value of 'dt' passed, especially if
     the *note tzinfo: 5d8. class is accounting for daylight time.

     *note tzname(): 248d.의 기본 구현은 *note NotImplementedError:
     228.를 발생시킵니다.

이 메서드들은 *note datetime: 1cc.나 *note time: 1ce. 객체에서 같은 이름
의 메서드에 대한 응답으로 호출됩니다.  *note datetime: 1cc. 객체는 자신
을 인자로 전달하고, *note time: 1ce. 객체는 인자로 ‘None’을 전달합니다.
따라서 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클래스의 메서드는 ‘None’이나 *note
datetime: 1cc. 클래스의 'dt' 인자를 받아들일 준비가 되어 있어야 합니다.

‘None’이 전달되면, 최선의 응답을 결정하는 것은 클래스 설계자에게 달려있
습니다.  예를 들어, 클래스가 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 프로토콜에 time 객체가 참
여하지 않는다고 말하고 싶다면 ‘None’을 반환하는 것이 적절합니다.  표준 오
프셋을 발견하는 다른 규칙이 없으므로, ‘utcoffset(None)’이 표준 UTC 오프
셋을 반환하는 것이 더 유용할 수 있습니다.

When a *note datetime: 1cc. object is passed in response to a *note
datetime: 1cc. method, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is the same object as 'self'.  *note
tzinfo: 5d8. methods can rely on this, unless user code calls *note
tzinfo: 5d8. methods directly.  The intent is that the *note tzinfo:
5d8. methods interpret 'dt' as being in local time, and not need worry
about objects in other time zones.

서브 클래스가 재정의할 수 있는 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 메서드가 하나 더 있습
니다:

 -- 메서드: tzinfo.fromutc (dt)

     This is called from the default *note datetime.astimezone(): 9cd.
     implementation.  When called from that, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is 'self', and
     'dt'’s date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC
     time.  The purpose of *note fromutc(): 2470. is to adjust the date
     and time data, returning an equivalent datetime in 'self'’s local
     time.

     Most *note tzinfo: 5d8. subclasses should be able to inherit the
     default *note fromutc(): 2470. implementation without problems.
     It’s strong enough to handle fixed-offset time zones, and time
     zones accounting for both standard and daylight time, and the
     latter even if the DST transition times differ in different years.
     An example of a time zone the default *note fromutc(): 2470.
     implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where
     the standard offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and
     time passed, which can happen for political reasons.  The default
     implementations of *note astimezone(): 9cd. and *note fromutc():
     2470. may not produce the result you want if the result is one of
     the hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.

     에러가 발생하는 경우를 위한 코드를 생략하면, 기본 *note fromutc():
     2470. 구현은 다음과 같이 동작합니다:

          def fromutc(self, dt):
              # raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self
              dtoff = dt.utcoffset()
              dtdst = dt.dst()
              # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
              delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
              if delta:
                  dt += delta   # convert to standard local time
                  dtdst = dt.dst()
                  # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
              if dtdst:
                  return dt + dtdst
              else:
                  return dt

다음 ‘tzinfo_examples.py’ 파일에는 *note tzinfo: 5d8. 클래스의 몇 가지 예
가 나와 있습니다:

     from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime

     ZERO = timedelta(0)
     HOUR = timedelta(hours=1)
     SECOND = timedelta(seconds=1)

     # A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
     # (May result in wrong values on historical times in
     #  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
     #  changed in the past.)
     import time as _time

     STDOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.timezone)
     if _time.daylight:
         DSTOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.altzone)
     else:
         DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET

     DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET

     class LocalTimezone(tzinfo):

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             stamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
             args = _time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
             dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
             # Detect fold
             fold = (args == _time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
             return datetime(*args, microsecond=dt.microsecond,
                             tzinfo=self, fold=fold)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTOFFSET
             else:
                 return STDOFFSET

         def dst(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTDIFF
             else:
                 return ZERO

         def tzname(self, dt):
             return _time.tzname[self._isdst(dt)]

         def _isdst(self, dt):
             tt = (dt.year, dt.month, dt.day,
                   dt.hour, dt.minute, dt.second,
                   dt.weekday(), 0, 0)
             stamp = _time.mktime(tt)
             tt = _time.localtime(stamp)
             return tt.tm_isdst > 0

     Local = LocalTimezone()


     # A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.

     def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
         days_to_go = 6 - dt.weekday()
         if days_to_go:
             dt += timedelta(days_to_go)
         return dt


     # US DST Rules
     #
     # This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
     # DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
     # and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
     # http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
     # https://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
     #
     # In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
     # Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
     DSTSTART_2007 = datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
     # and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
     DSTEND_2007 = datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
     # From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
     # Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
     # Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
     DSTEND_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
     # From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
     # Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
     # on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
     # on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1967_1986 = datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
     DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006

     def us_dst_range(year):
         # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
         # start = end for no DST.
         if 2006 < year:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
         elif 1986 < year < 2007:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
         elif 1966 < year < 1987:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
         else:
             return (datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2

         start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
         end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
         return start, end


     class USTimeZone(tzinfo):

         def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
             self.stdoffset = timedelta(hours=hours)
             self.reprname = reprname
             self.stdname = stdname
             self.dstname = dstname

         def __repr__(self):
             return self.reprname

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if self.dst(dt):
                 return self.dstname
             else:
                 return self.stdname

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             return self.stdoffset + self.dst(dt)

         def dst(self, dt):
             if dt is None or dt.tzinfo is None:
                 # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
                 # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
                 # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
                 # implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.
                 return ZERO
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
             # dt first.
             dt = dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
             if start + HOUR <= dt < end - HOUR:
                 # DST is in effect.
                 return HOUR
             if end - HOUR <= dt < end:
                 # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.
                 return ZERO if dt.fold else HOUR
             if start <= dt < start + HOUR:
                 # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
                 return HOUR if dt.fold else ZERO
             # DST is off.
             return ZERO

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
             end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
             std_time = dt + self.stdoffset
             dst_time = std_time + HOUR
             if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
                 # Repeated hour
                 return std_time.replace(fold=1)
             if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
                 # Standard time
                 return std_time
             if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
                 # Daylight saving time
                 return dst_time


     Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
     Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
     Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
     Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")

DST 전환점에서 표준 시간과 일광 절약 시간을 모두 고려하는 *note tzinfo:
5d8. 서브 클래스에는 일 년에 두 번 불가피한 미묘함이 있음에 유의하십시오
.  구체적으로, 3월 두 번째 일요일의 1:59 (EST) 다음 분에 시작하고, 11월
첫 번째 일요일 1:59 (EDT) 다음 분에 끝나는 미국 Eastern(UTC -0500)을 고
려하십시오:

       UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
       EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
       EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM

     start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM

       end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM

DST가 시작할 때 (“start” 줄), 지역 벽시계는 1:59에서 3:00로 도약합니다.
그날에는 2:MM 형식의 벽 시간은 실질적인 의미가 없으므로,
‘astimezone(Eastern)’은 DST가 시작하는 날에 ‘hour == 2’인 결과를 전달하
지 않습니다.  예를 들어, 2016년 봄의 전진 전환(forward transition)에서,
다음과 같은 결과를 얻습니다:

     >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
     >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
     ...
     05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
     07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
     08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT

When DST ends (the “end” line), there’s a potentially worse problem:
there’s an hour that can’t be spelled unambiguously in local wall time:
the last hour of daylight time.  In Eastern, that’s times of the form
5:MM UTC on the day daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from
1:59 (daylight time) back to 1:00 (standard time) again.  Local times of
the form 1:MM are ambiguous.  *note astimezone(): 9cd. mimics the local
clock’s behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC hours into the same local
hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the form 5:MM and 6:MM
both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times have the
*note fold: c54. attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to
1.  For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

Note that the *note datetime: 1cc. instances that differ only by the
value of the *note fold: c54. attribute are considered equal in
comparisons.

Applications that can’t bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly
check the value of the *note fold: c54. attribute or avoid using hybrid
*note tzinfo: 5d8. subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using *note
timezone: 10b2, or any other fixed-offset *note tzinfo: 5d8. subclass
(such as a class representing only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only
EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).

더 보기
.......

     *note zoneinfo: 134.

          The ‘datetime’ module has a basic *note timezone: 10b2. class
          (for handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its *note
          timezone.utc: 60e. attribute (a UTC ‘timezone’ instance).

          ‘zoneinfo’ brings the 'IANA time zone database' (also known as
          the Olson database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.

IANA time zone database(1)

     시간대 데이터베이스 (종종 tz, tzdata 또는 zoneinfo라고 합니다)에는
     전 세계 여러 지역에서 지역 시간의 히스토리를 표현하는 코드와 데이터
     가 포함되어 있습니다.  정치 단체가 변경 한 시간대 경계, UTC 오프셋
     및 일광 절약 시간 규칙을 반영하기 위해 주기적으로 갱신됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/time-zones


File: python.info,  Node: timezone 객체,  Next: strftime and strptime Behavior,  Prev: tzinfo 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.15 ‘timezone’ 객체
........................

The *note timezone: 10b2. class is a subclass of *note tzinfo: 5d8, each
instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from
UTC.

Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information
in the locations where different offsets are used in different days of
the year or where historical changes have been made to civil time.

 -- 클래스: datetime.timezone (offset, name=None)

     'offset' 인자는 지역 시간과 UTC 간의 차이를 나타내는 *note
     timedelta: 9cc. 객체로 지정해야 합니다.  엄격히(경계를 포함하지 않
     는) ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’와 ‘timedelta(hours=24)’ 사이여야 합니다.
     그렇지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     'name' 인자는 선택적입니다.  지정되면 *note datetime.tzname():
     2471. 메서드가 반환하는 값으로 사용될 문자열이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: UTC 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: timezone.utcoffset (dt)

     *note timezone: 10b2. 인스턴스가 구축될 때 지정된 고정값을 반환합니
     다.

     'dt' 인자는 무시됩니다.  반환 값은 지역 시간과 UTC 간의 차이와 같은
     *note timedelta: 9cc. 인스턴스입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: UTC 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: timezone.tzname (dt)

     *note timezone: 10b2. 인스턴스가 구축될 때 지정된 고정값을 반환합니
     다.

     'name'을 생성자에 제공하지 않았으면, ‘tzname(dt)’에 의해 반환되는 이
     름은 다음과 같이 ‘offset’ 값으로부터 생성됩니다.  'offset'이
     ‘timedelta(0)’이면, 이름은 “UTC”이고, 그렇지 않으면 문자열
     ‘UTC±HH:MM’입니다.  여기서 ±는 ‘offset’의 부호이고, HH와 MM은 각각
     ‘offset.hours’와 ‘offset.minutes’의 두 자리 숫자입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Name generated from ‘offset=timedelta(0)’ is now
     plain ‘'UTC'’, not ‘'UTC+00:00'’.

 -- 메서드: timezone.dst (dt)

     항상 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: timezone.fromutc (dt)

     ‘dt + offset’을 반환합니다.  'dt' 인자는 ‘tzinfo’가 ‘self’로 설정된
     어웨어 *note datetime: 1cc. 인스턴스여야 합니다.

클래스 어트리뷰트:

 -- 속성: timezone.utc

     The UTC time zone, ‘timezone(timedelta(0))’.


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime Behavior,  Prev: timezone 객체,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.16 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ Behavior
...............................................

*note date: 1cd, *note datetime: 1cc. 및 *note time: 1ce. 객체는 모두
‘strftime(format)’ 메서드를 지원하여, 명시적 포맷 문자열로 제어된 시간을
나타내는 문자열을 만듭니다.

반대로, *note datetime.strptime(): 1612. 클래스 메서드는 날짜와 시간을 나
타내는 문자열과 해당 포맷 문자열로 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체를 만듭니다.

The table below provides a high-level comparison of *note strftime():
c8d. versus *note strptime(): 1612.:

                     ‘strftime’                                                   ‘strptime’
                                                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
용도                 주어진 포맷에 따라 객체를 문자열로 변환합니다                주어진 해당 포맷으로 문자열을 *note datetime: 1cc. 객체로 구문 분석합니다
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
메서드의 형          인스턴스 메서드                                              클래스 메서드
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
메서드가 제공되는    *note date: 1cd.; *note datetime: 1cc.; *note time: 1ce.     *note datetime: 1cc.
곳                                                                                

서명                 ‘strftime(format)’                                           ‘strptime(date_string, format)’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes.
* 기술적 세부 사항::


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes,  Next: 기술적 세부 사항,  Up: strftime and strptime Behavior

5.8.1.17 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ Format Codes
...................................................

These methods accept format codes that can be used to parse and format
dates:

     >>> datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
     ...                   '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
     datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
     >>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
     'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'

다음은 1989 C 표준이 요구하는 모든 포맷 코드 목록이며, 표준 C 구현이 있
는 모든 플랫폼에서 작동합니다.

지시자          의미                                 예                           노트
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%a’            요일을 로케일의 축약된 이름으로.          Sun, Mon, …, Sat (en_US);(1)
                                                          So, Mo, …, Sa (de_DE)   
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%A’            요일을 로케일의 전체 이름으로.            Sunday, Monday, …, Saturday (en_US);(1)
                                                          Sonntag, Montag, …, Samstag (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%w’            요일을 10진수로, 0은 일요일이고 6은  0, 1, …, 6
                토요일입니다.                        
                
                                                                                  
‘%d’            월중 일(day of the month)을 0으로    01, 02, …, 31                (9)
                채워진 10진수로.                                                  
                
                                                                                  
‘%b’            월을 로케일의 축약된 이름으로.            Jan, Feb, …, Dec (en_US);(1)
                                                          Jan, Feb, …, Dez (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%B’            월을 로케일의 전체 이름으로.              January, February, …, December (en_US);(1)
                                                          Januar, Februar, …, Dezember (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%m’            월을 0으로 채워진 10진수로.          01, 02, …, 12                (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%y’            세기가 없는 해(year)를 0으로 채워    00, 01, …, 99                (9)
                진 10진수로.                                                      
                
                                                                                  
‘%Y’            세기가 있는 해(year)를 10진수로.     0001, 0002, …, 2013, 2014,   (2)
                                                     …, 9998, 9999                
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%H’            시(24시간제)를 0으로 채워진 십진수   00, 01, …, 23                (9)
                로.                                                               
                
                                                                                  
‘%I’            시(12시간제)를 0으로 채워진 십진수   01, 02, …, 12                (9)
                로.                                                               
                
                                                                                  
‘%p’            로케일의 오전이나 오후에 해당하는         AM, PM (en_US);         (1), (3)
                것.                                       am, pm (de_DE)          
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%M’            분을 0으로 채워진 십진수로.          00, 01, …, 59                (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%S’            초를 0으로 채워진 10진수로.          00, 01, …, 59                (4), (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%f’            Microsecond as a decimal number,     000000, 000001, …, 999999    (5)
                zero-padded to 6 digits.                                          
                
                                                                                  
‘%z’            ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’ 형태의 UTC 오   (비어 있음), +0000, -0400,   (6)
                프셋 (객체가 나이브하면 빈 문자열    +1030, +063415,              
                ).                                   -030712.345216
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%Z’            시간대 이름 (객체가 나이브하면 빈    (비어 있음), UTC, GMT        (6)
                문자열).                                                          
                
                                                                                  
‘%j’            연중 일(day of the year)을 0으로 채  001, 002, …, 366             (9)
                워진 십진수로.                                                    
                
                                                                                  
‘%U’            Week number of the year (Sunday as   00, 01, …, 53                (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Sunday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%W’            Week number of the year (Monday as   00, 01, …, 53                (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Monday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%c’            로케일의 적절한 날짜와 시간 표현.         Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988 (en_US);(1)
                                                          Di 16 Aug 21:30:00 1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%x’            로케일의 적절한 날짜 표현.                08/16/88 (None);        (1)
                                                          08/16/1988 (en_US);     
                                                          16.08.1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%X’            로케일의 적절한 시간 표현.                21:30:00 (en_US);       (1)
                                                          21:30:00 (de_DE)        
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%%’            리터럴 ‘'%'’ 문자.                   %
                                                     

C89 표준에서 요구하지 않는 몇 가지 추가 지시자가 편의상 포함되어 있습니
다.  이 파라미터들은 모두 ISO 8601 날짜 값에 해당합니다.

지시자          의미                                 예                           노트
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%G’            ISO 주(‘%V’)의 더 큰 부분을 포함하   0001, 0002, …, 2013, 2014,   (8)
                는 연도를 나타내는 세기가 있는 ISO   …, 9998, 9999                
                8601 연도.                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%u’            ISO 8601 요일을 10진수로, 1은 월요   1, 2, …, 7
                일입니다.                            
                
                                                                                  
‘%V’            ISO 8601 주를 월요일을 주의 시작으   01, 02, …, 53                (8), (9)
                로 하는 십진수로.  주 01은 1월 4일                                
                을 포함하는 주입니다.
                
                                                                                  
‘%:z’           UTC offset in the form               (empty), +00:00, -04:00,     (6)
                ‘±HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty        +10:30, +06:34:15,           
                string if the object is naive).      -03:07:12.345216
                                                     

These may not be available on all platforms when used with the *note
strftime(): c8d. method.  The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives
are not interchangeable with the year and week number directives above.
Calling *note strptime(): 1612. with incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601
directives will raise a *note ValueError: 202.

The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because
Python calls the platform C library’s ‘strftime()’ function, and
platform variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes
supported on your platform, consult the ‘strftime(3)(1)’ documentation.
There are also differences between platforms in handling of unsupported
format specifiers.

Added in version 3.6: ‘%G’, ‘%u’ 및 ‘%V’가 추가되었습니다.

Added in version 3.12: ‘%:z’ was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 기술적 세부 사항,  Prev: strftime and strptime Format Codes,  Up: strftime and strptime Behavior

5.8.1.18 기술적 세부 사항
.........................

Broadly speaking, ‘d.strftime(fmt)’ acts like the *note time: ee.
module’s ‘time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple())’ although not all objects
support a *note timetuple(): 245b. method.

For the *note datetime.strptime(): 1612. class method, the default value
is ‘1900-01-01T00:00:00.000’: any components not specified in the format
string will be pulled from the default value.  (1)

‘datetime.strptime(date_string, format)’은 다음과 동등합니다:

     datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone
offset information, which are supported in ‘datetime.strptime’ but are
discarded by ‘time.strptime’.

For *note time: 1ce. objects, the format codes for year, month, and day
should not be used, as ‘time’ objects have no such values.  If they’re
used anyway, 1900 is substituted for the year, and 1 for the month and
day.

For *note date: 1cd. objects, the format codes for hours, minutes,
seconds, and microseconds should not be used, as *note date: 1cd.
objects have no such values.  If they’re used anyway, 0 is substituted
for them.

같은 이유로, 현재 로케일의 문자 집합으로는 표현할 수 없는 유니코드 코드
포인트를 포함하는 포맷 문자열의 처리도 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.  일부 플
랫폼에서는 이러한 코드 포인트가 그대로 출력에 보존되지만, 다른 곳에서는
‘strftime’이 *note UnicodeError: 1293.를 발생시키거나 대신 빈 문자열을 반
환할 수 있습니다.

노트:

  1. Because the format depends on the current locale, care should be
     taken when making assumptions about the output value.  Field
     orderings will vary (for example, “month/day/year” versus
     “day/month/year”), and the output may contain non-ASCII characters.

  2. The *note strptime(): 1612. method can parse years in the full [1,
     9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: In previous versions, *note strftime(): c8d.
     method was restricted to years >= 1900.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: In version 3.2, *note strftime(): c8d. method
     was restricted to years >= 1000.

  3. When used with the *note strptime(): 1612. method, the ‘%p’
     directive only affects the output hour field if the ‘%I’ directive
     is used to parse the hour.

  4. Unlike the *note time: ee. module, the ‘datetime’ module does not
     support leap seconds.

  5. When used with the *note strptime(): 1612. method, the ‘%f’
     directive accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the
     right.  ‘%f’ is an extension to the set of format characters in the
     C standard (but implemented separately in datetime objects, and
     therefore always available).

  6. For a naive object, the ‘%z’, ‘%:z’ and ‘%Z’ format codes are
     replaced by empty strings.

     어웨어 객체의 경우:

     ‘%z’

          *note utcoffset(): 246e. is transformed into a string of the
          form ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’, where ‘HH’ is a 2-digit string
          giving the number of UTC offset hours, ‘MM’ is a 2-digit
          string giving the number of UTC offset minutes, ‘SS’ is a
          2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset seconds and
          ‘ffffff’ is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
          microseconds.  The ‘ffffff’ part is omitted when the offset is
          a whole number of seconds and both the ‘ffffff’ and the ‘SS’
          part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of minutes.
          For example, if *note utcoffset(): 246e. returns
          ‘timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30)’, ‘%z’ is replaced with the
          string ‘'-0330'’.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: UTC 오프셋은 분 단위로 제한되지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the *note
     strptime(): 1612. method, the UTC offsets can have a colon as a
     separator between hours, minutes and seconds.  For example,
     ‘'+01:00:00'’ will be parsed as an offset of one hour.  In
     addition, providing ‘'Z'’ is identical to ‘'+00:00'’.

     ‘%:z’

          Behaves exactly as ‘%z’, but has a colon separator added
          between hours, minutes and seconds.

     ‘%Z’

          In *note strftime(): c8d, ‘%Z’ is replaced by an empty string
          if *note tzname(): 2471. returns ‘None’; otherwise ‘%Z’ is
          replaced by the returned value, which must be a string.

          *note strptime(): 1612. only accepts certain values for ‘%Z’:

            1. 컴퓨터의 로케일에 대한 ‘time.tzname’의 모든 값

            2. 하드 코딩된 값 ‘UTC’와 ‘GMT’

          따라서 일본에 거주하는 사람은 ‘JST’, ‘UTC’ 및 ‘GMT’를 유효한 값
          으로 가질 수 있지만, 아마도 ‘EST’는 아닙니다.  유효하지 않은 값
          에 대해서는 ‘ValueError’가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the *note
     strptime(): 1612. method, an aware *note datetime: 1cc. object will
     be produced.  The ‘tzinfo’ of the result will be set to a *note
     timezone: 10b2. instance.

  7. When used with the *note strptime(): 1612. method, ‘%U’ and ‘%W’
     are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the
     calendar year (‘%Y’) are specified.

  8. Similar to ‘%U’ and ‘%W’, ‘%V’ is only used in calculations when
     the day of the week and the ISO year (‘%G’) are specified in a
     *note strptime(): 1612. format string.  Also note that ‘%G’ and
     ‘%Y’ are not interchangeable.

  9. When used with the *note strptime(): 1612. method, the leading zero
     is optional for formats ‘%d’, ‘%m’, ‘%H’, ‘%I’, ‘%M’, ‘%S’, ‘%j’,
     ‘%U’, ‘%W’, and ‘%V’.  Format ‘%y’ does require a leading zero.

  10. When parsing a month and day using *note strptime(): 1612, always
     include a year in the format.  If the value you need to parse lacks
     a year, append an explicit dummy leap year.  Otherwise your code
     will raise an exception when it encounters leap day because the
     default year used by the parser is not a leap year.  Users run into
     this bug every four years…

          >>> month_day = "02/29"
          >>> datetime.strptime(f"{month_day};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # No leap year bug.
          datetime.datetime(1984, 2, 29, 0, 0)

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note strptime(): 1612. calls using a format string containing a
     day of month without a year now emit a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  In 3.15 or later we may change this into an error or change
     the default year to a leap year.  See gh-70647(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Passing ‘datetime.strptime('Feb 29', '%b %d')’ will fail since
1900 is not a leap year.

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원,  Next: calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수,  Prev: datetime — Basic date and time types,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.2 ‘zoneinfo’ — IANA 시간대 지원
-----------------------------------

Added in version 3.9.

'소스 코드:' Lib/zoneinfo(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note zoneinfo: 134. 모듈은 원래 PEP 615(2)에서 지정된 대로 IANA 시간대
데이터베이스를 지원하기 위한 구상 시간대 구현을 제공합니다.  기본적으로,
*note zoneinfo: 134.는 가능하면 시스템의 시간대 데이터를 사용합니다; 사
용 가능한 시스템 시간대 데이터가 없으면, 라이브러리는 PyPI에 있는 자사
(first-party) tzdata(3) 패키지를 사용하는 것으로 대체합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈: *note datetime: 30.

     *note ZoneInfo: 8dc. 클래스가 사용되도록 설계된 *note time: 1ce.과
     *note datetime: 1cc. 형을 제공합니다.

패키지 tzdata(4)

     PyPI를 통해 시간대 데이터를 제공하기 위해 CPython 핵심 개발자가 유
     지 보수하는 자사(first-party) 패키지.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

* Menu:

* ZoneInfo 사용하기::
* 데이터 소스::
* ZoneInfo 클래스::
* 함수: 함수<2>.
* 전역::
* 예외와 경고::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zoneinfo

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: ZoneInfo 사용하기,  Next: 데이터 소스,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

5.8.2.1 ‘ZoneInfo’ 사용하기
...........................

*note ZoneInfo: 8dc.는 *note datetime.tzinfo: 5d8. 추상 베이스 클래스의
구상 구현이며, 생성자, *note datetime.replace: 1493. 메서드 또는 *note
datetime.astimezone: 9cd.을 통해 ‘tzinfo’에 연결하려는 것입니다:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00

     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

이 방식으로 구성된 datetime들은 datetime 산술과 호환되며 추가 개입 없이
일광 절약 시간제 전환을 처리합니다:

     >>> dt_add = dt + timedelta(days=1)

     >>> print(dt_add)
     2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00

     >>> dt_add.tzname()
     'PST'

이 시간대는 PEP 495(1)에 도입된 *note fold: c54. 어트리뷰트도 지원합니다
.  모호한 시간을 유발하는 오프셋 전환(가령 일광 절약 시간에서 표준 시간
으로의 전환) 중, 전환 '전'의 오프셋이 ‘fold=0’일 때 사용되며, 전환 '후
'의 오프셋은 ‘fold=1’일 때 사용됩니다, 예를 들어:

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> print(dt.replace(fold=1))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

다른 시간대에서 변환할 때, fold는 올바른 값으로 설정됩니다:

     >>> from datetime import timezone
     >>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
     >>> dt_utc = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

     >>> # PDT -> PST 전환 전
     >>> print(dt_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> # PDT -> PST 전환 후
     >>> print((dt_utc + timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 소스,  Next: ZoneInfo 클래스,  Prev: ZoneInfo 사용하기,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

5.8.2.2 데이터 소스
...................

‘zoneinfo’ 모듈은 시간대 데이터를 직접 제공하지 않고, 시스템 시간대 데이
터베이스나 자사(first-party) PyPI 패키지 tzdata(1)(있다면)에서 시간대 정
보를 가져옵니다.  특히 윈도우 시스템을 포함한 일부 시스템에는 사용 가능
한 IANA 데이터베이스가 없어서, 시간대 데이터가 필요한 플랫폼 간 호환성을
목표로 하는 프로젝트는 tzdata에 대한 종속성을 선언하는 것이 좋습니다.  시
스템 데이터나 tzdata를 모두 사용할 수 없으면, *note ZoneInfo: 8dc.에 대
한 모든 호출은 *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 1532.를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 데이터 소스 구성::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 소스 구성,  Up: 데이터 소스

5.8.2.3 데이터 소스 구성
........................

‘ZoneInfo(key)’가 호출될 때, 생성자는 먼저 *note TZPATH: 1d7a.에 지정된
디렉터리에서 ‘key’와 일치하는 파일을 검색하고, 실패하면 tzdata 패키지에
서 일치하는 것을 찾습니다.  이 동작은 세 가지 방법으로 구성할 수 있습니
다:

  1. 달리 지정되지 않을 때의 기본 *note TZPATH: 1d7a.는 *note 컴파일
     시간: 1d7b.에 구성할 수 있습니다.

  2. *note TZPATH: 1d7a.는 *note 환경 변수: 249d.를 사용하여 구성할 수 있
     습니다.

  3. *note 실행 시간: 249e.에는, *note reset_tzpath(): 249f. 함수를 사용
     하여 검색 경로를 조작할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 컴파일 시간 구성::
* 환경 구성::
* 실행 시간 구성::


File: python.info,  Node: 컴파일 시간 구성,  Next: 환경 구성,  Up: 데이터 소스 구성

5.8.2.4 컴파일 시간 구성
........................

기본 *note TZPATH: 1d7a.에는 시간대 데이터베이스에 대한 몇 가지 일반적인
배포 위치가 포함되어 있습니다 (윈도우는 예외인데, 시간대 데이터에 대한
“잘 알려진” 위치가 없습니다).  POSIX 시스템에서, 시스템 시간대 데이터가
배치된 위치를 알고 있는 다운 스트림 배포자와 소스에서 파이썬을 빌드하는
사람은 컴파일 시간 옵션 ‘TZPATH’(또는, 더 가능성 있는, *note configure
flag -with-tzpath: 1d79.)를 지정하여 기본 시간대 경로를 변경할 수 있습니
다.  *note os.pathsep: 1d4c.으로 구분된 문자열이어야 합니다.

모든 플랫폼에서, 구성된 값은 *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1021.에서
‘TZPATH’ 키로 사용 가능합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 환경 구성,  Next: 실행 시간 구성,  Prev: 컴파일 시간 구성,  Up: 데이터 소스 구성

5.8.2.5 환경 구성
.................

*note TZPATH: 1d7a.를 초기화할 때 (임포트 시점이나 인자 없이 *note
reset_tzpath(): 249f.가 호출될 때마다) ‘zoneinfo’ 모듈은 환경 변수
‘PYTHONTZPATH’(있다면)를 사용하여 검색 경로를 설정합니다.

 -- 환경 변수: PYTHONTZPATH

     사용할 시간대 검색 경로를 포함하는 *note os.pathsep: 1d4c.으로 구분
     된 문자열입니다.  상대 경로가 아닌 절대 경로로만 구성되어야 합니다.
     ‘PYTHONTZPATH’에 지정된 상대 컴포넌트는 사용되지 않지만, 그 밖의 상
     대 경로가 지정된 경우의 동작은 구현이 정의합니다; CPython은 *note
     InvalidTZPathWarning: 24a3.을 발생시키지만, 다른 구현에서는 잘못된
     구성 요소를 조용히 무시하거나 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

시스템이 시스템 데이터를 무시하고 tzdata 패키지를 대신 사용하도록 설정하
려면, ‘PYTHONTZPATH=""’를 설정하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 실행 시간 구성,  Prev: 환경 구성,  Up: 데이터 소스 구성

5.8.2.6 실행 시간 구성
......................

*note reset_tzpath(): 249f. 함수를 사용하여 실행 시간에 TZ 검색 경로를 구
성할 수도 있습니다.  일반적으로 권장되는 작업은 아닙니다만, 특정 시간대
경로를 사용해야 하는 (또는 시스템 시간대에 대한 액세스를 비활성화해야 하
는) 테스트 함수에 사용하는 것은 합리적입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ZoneInfo 클래스,  Next: 함수<2>,  Prev: 데이터 소스,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

5.8.2.7 ‘ZoneInfo’ 클래스
.........................

 -- 클래스: zoneinfo.ZoneInfo (key)

     문자열 ‘key’로 지정된 IANA 시간대를 나타내는 구상 *note
     datetime.tzinfo: 5d8. 서브 클래스.  기본 생성자에 대한 호출은 항상
     동일하다고 비교되는 객체를 반환합니다; 다르게 말하면, *note
     ZoneInfo.clear_cache(): 24a6.를 통한 캐시 무효화를 방지한다면, 다음
     어서션이 항상 참입니다:

          a = ZoneInfo(key)
          b = ZoneInfo(key)
          assert a is b

     ‘key’는 상위 수준 참조가 없는 상대적인 정규화된 POSIX 경로의 형식이
     어야 합니다.  적합하지 않은 key가 전달되면 생성자가 *note
     ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     ‘key’와 일치하는 파일이 없으면, 생성자는 *note
     ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 1532.를 발생시킵니다.

‘ZoneInfo’ 클래스에는 두 개의 대체 생성자가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: classmethod ZoneInfo.from_file (file_obj, /, key=None)

     바이트열을 반환하는 파일류 객체(예를 들어 바이너리 모드로 열린 파일
     이나 *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 객체)에서 ‘ZoneInfo’ 객체를 생성합니다.
     기본 생성자와 달리, 항상 새로운 객체를 생성합니다.

     ‘key’ 매개 변수는 *note __str__(): 617.과 *note __repr__(): 616.를
     위해 시간대 이름을 설정합니다.

     이 생성자를 통해 만들어진 객체는 피클 할 수 없습니다 (*note 피클
     직렬화: 24a8.를 참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: classmethod ZoneInfo.no_cache (key)

     생성자의 캐시를 우회하는 대체 생성자.  기본 생성자와 동일하지만, 호
     출마다 새 객체를 반환합니다.  이것은 테스트나 데모 목적으로 유용 할
     수 있지만, 다른 캐시 무효화 전략을 갖는 시스템을 만드는 데 사용될 수
     도 있습니다.

     이 생성자를 통해 만들어진 객체는 역 피클 될 때 역 직렬화 프로세스의
     캐시도 우회합니다.

          조심: 이 생성자를 사용하면 예기치 못한 방식으로 날짜 시간의 의
          미가 변경될 수 있기 때문에, 필요한 경우에만 사용하십시오.

다음과 같은 클래스 메서드도 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: classmethod ZoneInfo.clear_cache (*, only_keys=None)

     ‘ZoneInfo’ 클래스에서 캐시를 무효로 하는 메서드.  인자가 전달되지 않
     으면, 모든 캐시가 무효가 되고 각 키의 기본 생성자에 대한 다음 호출
     은 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     키 이름의 이터러블이 ‘only_keys’ 매개 변수에 전달되면, 지정된 키만
     캐시에서 제거됩니다.  ‘only_keys’에 전달되었지만, 캐시에서 찾을 수
     없는 키는 무시됩니다.

          경고: 이 함수를 호출하면 예기치 못한 방식으로 ‘ZoneInfo’를 사
          용하는 날짜 시간의 의미를 변경할 수 있습니다; 이는 모듈 상태를
          수정하므로 광범위한 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다.  필요한 경우에만
          사용하십시오.

이 클래스에는 하나의 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: ZoneInfo.key

     이것은 읽기 전용 *note 어트리뷰트: 24ab.이며 생성자에 전달된 ‘key’의
     값을 반환하는데, IANA 시간대 데이터베이스의 조회 키이어야 합니다 (예
     를 들어 ‘America/New_York’, ‘Europe/Paris’ 또는 ‘Asia/Tokyo’).

     ‘key’ 매개 변수를 지정하지 않고 파일에서 생성된 시간대의 경우,
     ‘None’으로 설정됩니다.

          참고: 이들을 최종 사용자에게 노출하는 것이 다소 일반적인 관행
          이지만, 이 값들은 관련 시간대를 나타내는 기본 키로 설계되었을
          뿐, 사용자 대면 요소일 필요는 없습니다.  CLDR (the Unicode
          Common Locale Data Repository)과 같은 프로젝트를 사용하면 이러
          한 키에서 더 사용자 친화적인 문자열을 얻을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 문자열 표현::
* 피클 직렬화::


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 표현,  Next: 피클 직렬화,  Up: ZoneInfo 클래스

5.8.2.8 문자열 표현
...................

*note ZoneInfo: 8dc. 객체에 대해 *note str: 445.을 호출할 때 반환되는 문
자열 표현은 기본적으로 *note ZoneInfo.key: 24aa. 어트리뷰트를 사용합니다
(어트리뷰트 설명서의 사용법에 관한 참고를 보십시오):

     >>> zone = ZoneInfo("Pacific/Kwajalein")
     >>> str(zone)
     'Pacific/Kwajalein'

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
     >>> f"{dt.isoformat()} [{dt.tzinfo}]"
     '2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'

‘key’ 매개 변수를 지정하지 않고 파일에서 생성된 객체의 경우, ‘str’은
*note repr(): 7f7. 호출로 대체됩니다.  ‘ZoneInfo’의 ‘repr’은 구현 정의이
며 버전 간에 반드시 안정적일 필요는 없지만, 유효한 ‘ZoneInfo’ 키가 될 수
는 없음이 보장됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 피클 직렬화,  Prev: 문자열 표현,  Up: ZoneInfo 클래스

5.8.2.9 피클 직렬화
...................

모든 전환 데이터를 직렬화하는 대신, ‘ZoneInfo’ 객체는 키로 직렬화되며 파
일에서 생성된 ‘ZoneInfo’ 객체는 (지정된 ‘key’ 값을 가진 객체조차) 피클 할
수 없습니다.

‘ZoneInfo’ 파일의 동작은 파일 생성 방식에 따라 다릅니다:

  1. ‘ZoneInfo(key)’: 기본 생성자로 생성될 때, ‘ZoneInfo’ 객체는 키로 직
     렬화되며, 역 직렬화할 때, 역 직렬화 프로세스는 기본 생성자를 사용해
     서 같은 시간대에 대한 다른 참조와 같은 객체가 될 것으로 예상됩니다.
     예를 들어, ‘europe_berlin_pkl’이 ‘ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")’에서 생
     성된 피클을 포함하는 문자열이면, 다음과 같은 동작이 예상됩니다:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl)
          >>> a is b
          True

  2. ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)’: 캐시 우회 생성자에서 생성될 때, 이
     ‘ZoneInfo’ 객체도 키로 직렬화되지만, 역 직렬화할 때, 역 직렬화 프로
     세스는 캐시 우회 생성자를 사용합니다.  ‘europe_berlin_pkl_nc’가
     ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache("Europe/Berlin")’에서 생성된 피클을 포함하는 문
     자열이면, 다음과 같은 동작이 예상됩니다:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl_nc)
          >>> a is b
          False

  3. ‘ZoneInfo.from_file(file_obj, /, key=None)’: When constructed from
     a file, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object raises an exception on pickling.  If
     an end user wants to pickle a ‘ZoneInfo’ constructed from a file,
     it is recommended that they use a wrapper type or a custom
     serialization function: either serializing by key or storing the
     contents of the file object and serializing that.

이 직렬화 방법에서는 직렬화와 역 직렬화 환경 모두에서 클래스와 함수에 대
한 참조가 존재해야 하는 방식과 유사하게, 직렬화와 역 직렬화 측 모두에서
필요한 키의 시간대 데이터를 사용할 수 있어야 합니다.  또한 다른 버전의 시
간대 데이터가 있는 환경에서 피클링 된 ‘ZoneInfo’를 역 피클링 할 때 결과
의 일관성에 대해 보장되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<2>,  Next: 전역,  Prev: ZoneInfo 클래스,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

5.8.2.10 함수
.............

 -- 함수: zoneinfo.available_timezones ()

     시간대 경로의 어느 곳에서건 사용 가능한 IANA 시간대에 유효한 모든 키
     가 포함된 집합을 가져옵니다.  이것은 함수를 호출할 때마다 다시 계산
     됩니다.

     이 함수는 규범적(canonical) 시간대 이름 만 포함하고 ‘posix/’와
     ‘right/’ 디렉터리에 있는 것이나 ‘posixrules’ 시간대와 같은 “특수” 시
     간대는 포함하지 않습니다.

          조심: 시간대 경로에 있는 파일이 유효한 시간대인지 확인하는 가
          장 좋은 방법은 시작 부분에 나오는 “매직 문자열”을 읽는 것이라
          서, 이 함수는 많은 파일을 열 수 있습니다.

          참고: 이 값은 최종 사용자에게 노출되도록 설계되지 않았습니다;
          사용자 대면 요소의 경우, 응용 프로그램은 CLDR (the Unicode
          Common Locale Data Repository)과 같은 것을 사용하여 더 사용자
          친화적인 문자열을 가져와야 합니다.  *note ZoneInfo.key: 24aa.에
          있는 주의 사항도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: zoneinfo.reset_tzpath (to=None)

     모듈의 시간대 검색 경로(*note TZPATH: 1d7a.)를 설정하거나 재설정합
     니다.  인자 없이 호출하면, *note TZPATH: 1d7a.가 기본값으로 설정됩
     니다.

     ‘reset_tzpath’를 호출해도 *note ZoneInfo: 8dc. 캐시가 무효가 되지 않
     아서, 기본 ‘ZoneInfo’ 생성자에 대한 호출은 캐시 누락의 경우에만 새
     ‘TZPATH’를 사용합니다.

     ‘to’ 매개 변수는 문자열이나 *note os.PathLike: c4e.의 *note 시퀀스:
     4eb.이어야 하며 문자열이 아닙니다.  모두 절대 경로여야 합니다.  절
     대 경로 이외의 것이 전달되면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 전역,  Next: 예외와 경고,  Prev: 함수<2>,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

5.8.2.11 전역
.............

 -- 데이터: zoneinfo.TZPATH

     시간대 검색 경로를 나타내는 읽기 전용 시퀀스 – 키에서 ‘ZoneInfo’를
     생성할 때, 키는 ‘TZPATH’의 각 항목에 결합하며, 발견된 첫 번째 파일
     이 사용됩니다.

     ‘TZPATH’는 구성 방법과 관계없이 절대 경로만 포함할 수 있고, 상대 경
     로는 절대 포함하지 않습니다.

     ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’가 가리키는 객체는 *note reset_tzpath(): 249f.에 대
     한 호출에 따라 변경될 수 있어서, ‘zoneinfo’에서 ‘TZPATH’를 임포트 하
     거나 수명이 긴 변수에 ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’를 대입하는 대신
     ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     시간대 검색 경로 구성에 대한 자세한 정보는 *note 데이터 소스 구성:
     249c.을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외와 경고,  Prev: 전역,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원

5.8.2.12 예외와 경고
....................

 -- 예외: zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError

     지정된 키를 시스템에서 찾을 수 없어서 *note ZoneInfo: 8dc. 객체 생
     성에 실패할 때 발생합니다.  이것은 *note KeyError: 33d.의 서브 클래
     스입니다.

 -- 예외: zoneinfo.InvalidTZPathWarning

     *note PYTHONTZPATH: 24a2.에 상대 경로와 같이 필터링 될 유효하지 않
     은 구성 요소가 포함되어있을 때 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수,  Next: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형,  Prev: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.3 ‘calendar’ — 일반 달력 관련 함수
--------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/calendar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈을 사용하면 유닉스 ‘cal’ 프로그램과 같은 달력을 출력할 수 있으며,
달력과 관련된 유용한 추가 함수를 제공합니다.  기본적으로, 이 달력은 월요
일을 주의 첫째 날로 하고, 일요일을 마지막 날로 합니다 (유럽 관례).  주의
첫째 날을 일요일(6)이나 다른 요일로 설정하려면 *note setfirstweekday():
24b3.를 사용하십시오.  날짜를 지정하는 매개 변수는 정수로 제공됩니다.  관
련 기능에 대해서는, *note datetime: 30.과 *note time: ee. 모듈도 참조하
십시오.

이 모듈에 정의된 함수와 클래스는 이상적인 달력을 사용합니다, 양방향으로
무한정 확장된 현재 그레고리력.  이것은 Dershowitz와 Reingold의 저서
“Calendrical Calculations”에 나오는 “역산 그레고리(proleptic Gregorian)”
달력의 정의와 일치하며, 모든 계산의 기본 달력입니다.  0과 음의 연도는
ISO 8601 표준에 규정된 대로 해석됩니다.  0년은 BC 1년, -1년은 BC 2년 등
입니다.

 -- 클래스: calendar.Calendar (firstweekday=0)

     *note Calendar: 24b4. 객체를 만듭니다.  'firstweekday'는 주의 첫 번
     째 날을 지정하는 정수입니다.  *note MONDAY: 24b5.는 ‘0’(기본값)이고
     , *note SUNDAY: 24b6.는 ‘6’입니다.

     *note Calendar: 24b4. 객체는 포매팅을 위해 달력 데이터를 준비하는 데
     사용할 수 있는 몇 가지 메서드를 제공합니다.  이 클래스는 스스로 포
     매팅을 수행하지 않습니다.  이는 서브 클래스의 역할입니다.

     *note Calendar: 24b4. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트
     가 있습니다:

      -- 속성: firstweekday

          The first weekday as an integer (0–6).

          This property can also be set and read using *note
          setfirstweekday(): 24b8. and *note getfirstweekday(): 24b9.
          respectively.

      -- 메서드: getfirstweekday ()

          Return an *note int: 257. for the current first weekday (0–6).

          Identical to reading the *note firstweekday: 24b7. property.

      -- 메서드: setfirstweekday (firstweekday)

          Set the first weekday to 'firstweekday', passed as an *note
          int: 257. (0–6)

          Identical to setting the *note firstweekday: 24b7. property.

      -- 메서드: iterweekdays ()

          한 주 동안 사용될 요일 번호의 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  이터레
          이터의 첫 번째 값은 *note firstweekday: 24b7. 프로퍼티 값과 같
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: itermonthdates (year, month)

          'year' 연도의 'month' 월 (1–12) 동안의 이터레이터를 반환합니다
          .  이 이터레이터는 해당 월의 모든 날(*note datetime.date: 1cd.
          객체로)과 완전한 주를 얻기 위해 필요한 해당 월의 시작일 전이나
          해당 월의 종료일 이후의 모든 날을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: itermonthdays (year, month)

          *note itermonthdates(): c16.와 유사하게 'year' 연도의 'month'
          월 동안의 이터레이터를 반환하지만, *note datetime.date: 1cd. 범
          위로 제한되지 않습니다.  반환된 날은 단순히 월 중 날 번호입니
          다.  지정된 월 바깥에 있는 날의 경우, 날 번호는 ‘0’입니다.

      -- 메서드: itermonthdays2 (year, month)

          *note itermonthdates(): c16.와 유사하게 'year' 연도의 'month'
          월 동안의 이터레이터를 반환하지만, *note datetime.date: 1cd. 범
          위로 제한되지 않습니다.  반환된 날은 월 중 날 번호와 요일 번호
          로 구성된 튜플입니다.

      -- 메서드: itermonthdays3 (year, month)

          *note itermonthdates(): c16.와 유사하게 'year' 연도의 'month'
          월 동안의 이터레이터를 반환하지만, *note datetime.date: 1cd. 범
          위로 제한되지 않습니다.  반환된 날은 연도, 월 및 월 중 날 번호
          로 구성된 튜플입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: itermonthdays4 (year, month)

          *note itermonthdates(): c16.와 유사하게 'year' 연도의 'month'
          월 동안의 이터레이터를 반환하지만, *note datetime.date: 1cd. 범
          위로 제한되지 않습니다.  반환된 날은 연도, 월, 월 중 날 및 요
          일 번호로 구성된 튜플입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: monthdatescalendar (year, month)

          'year'의 'month' 월에 있는 주의 리스트를 전체 주로 반환합니다.
          주는 7개의 *note datetime.date: 1cd. 객체 리스트입니다.

      -- 메서드: monthdays2calendar (year, month)

          'year'의 'month' 월에 있는 주의 리스트를 전체 주로 반환합니다.
          주는 날 번호와 요일 번호 튜플 7개의 리스트입니다.

      -- 메서드: monthdayscalendar (year, month)

          'year'의 'month' 월에 있는 주의 리스트를 전체 주로 반환합니다.
          주는 날 번호 7개의 리스트입니다.

      -- 메서드: yeardatescalendar (year, width=3)

          포매팅 준비된 지정된 연도의 데이터를 반환합니다.  반환 값은 월
          행의 리스트입니다.  각 월 행에는 최대 'width' 월(기본값은 3)이
          포함됩니다.  각 월은 4–6주를 포함하고, 각 주는 1–7일을 포함합
          니다.  날은 *note datetime.date: 1cd. 객체입니다.

      -- 메서드: yeardays2calendar (year, width=3)

          포매팅 준비된 지정된 연도의 데이터를 반환합니다 (*note
          yeardatescalendar(): 24c0.와 유사합니다).  주 리스트의 항목은
          날 번호와 요일 번호의 튜플입니다.  이달 밖의 날 번호는 0입니다
          .

      -- 메서드: yeardayscalendar (year, width=3)

          포매팅 준비된 지정된 연도의 데이터를 반환합니다 (*note
          yeardatescalendar(): 24c0.와 유사합니다).  주 리스트의 항목은
          날 번호입니다.  이달 밖의 날 번호는 0입니다.

 -- 클래스: calendar.TextCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     이 클래스는 평문 텍스트 달력을 생성하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note TextCalendar: 24c3. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니
     다:

      -- 메서드: formatday (theday, weekday, width)

          Return a string representing a single day formatted with the
          given 'width'.  If 'theday' is ‘0’, return a string of spaces
          of the specified width, representing an empty day.  The
          'weekday' parameter is unused.

      -- 메서드: formatweek (theweek, w=0)

          한 주를 줄 넘김이 없는 문자열로 반환합니다.  'w'가 제공되면, 가
          운데 정렬되는 날짜 열의 너비를 지정합니다.  생성자에 지정되거
          나 *note setfirstweekday(): 24b3. 메서드로 설정된 첫 번째 요일
          에 따라 다릅니다.

      -- 메서드: formatweekday (weekday, width)

          Return a string representing the name of a single weekday
          formatted to the specified 'width'.  The 'weekday' parameter
          is an integer representing the day of the week, where ‘0’ is
          Monday and ‘6’ is Sunday.

      -- 메서드: formatweekheader (width)

          Return a string containing the header row of weekday names,
          formatted with the given 'width' for each column.  The names
          depend on the locale settings and are padded to the specified
          width.

      -- 메서드: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          월의 달력을 여러 줄 문자열로 반환합니다.  'w'가 제공되면, 가운
          데 정렬되는 날짜 열의 너비를 지정합니다.  'l'이 제공되면, 각 주
          가 사용할 줄 수를 지정합니다.  생성자에 지정되거나 *note
          setfirstweekday(): 24b3. 메서드로 설정된 첫 번째 요일에 따라 다
          릅니다.

      -- 메서드: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, width=0,
               withyear=True)

          Return a string representing the month’s name centered within
          the specified 'width'.  If 'withyear' is ‘True’, include the
          year in the output.  The 'theyear' and 'themonth' parameters
          specify the year and month for the name to be formatted
          respectively.

      -- 메서드: prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          *note formatmonth(): 24c8.에서 반환한 월의 달력을 인쇄합니다.

      -- 메서드: formatyear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          전체 연도의 'm'-열 달력을 여러 줄 문자열로 반환합니다.  선택적
          매개 변수 'w', 'l' 및 'c'는 각각 날짜 열 너비, 주당 줄 수 및 월
          열 사이의 스페이스 수입니다.  생성자에 지정되거나 *note
          setfirstweekday(): 24b3. 메서드로 설정된 첫 번째 요일에 따라 다
          릅니다.  달력을 생성할 수 있는 가장 빠른 연도는 플랫폼에 따라
          다릅니다.

      -- 메서드: pryear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          *note formatyear(): 24cb.에서 반환 연도의 달력을 인쇄합니다.

 -- 클래스: calendar.HTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     이 클래스는 HTML 달력을 생성하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          월의 달력을 HTML 테이블로 반환합니다.  'withyear'가 참이면 연
          도가 헤더에 포함되고, 그렇지 않으면 월 이름 만 사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: formatyear (theyear, width=3)

          연도의 달력을 HTML 테이블로 반환합니다.  'width'(기본값은 3)는
          행 당 개월 수를 지정합니다.

      -- 메서드: formatyearpage (theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css',
               encoding=None)

          연도의 달력을 완전한 HTML 페이지로 반환합니다.  'width'(기본값
          은 3)는 행 당 개월 수를 지정합니다.  'css'는 사용할 캐스케이딩
          스타일 시트의 이름입니다.  스타일 시트를 사용하지 않으면 *note
          None: 66f.을 전달할 수 있습니다.  'encoding'은 출력에 사용될 인
          코딩을 지정합니다 (기본값은 시스템 기본 인코딩입니다).

      -- 메서드: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          월 이름을 HTML 테이블 행으로 반환합니다.  'withyear'가 참이면
          연도가 행에 포함되고, 그렇지 않으면 월 이름 만 사용됩니다.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’에는 달력에서 사용하는 CSS 클래스를 사용자 정의하기 위
     해 재정의할 수 있는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

      -- 속성: cssclasses

          각 요일에 사용되는 CSS 클래스 리스트.  기본 클래스 리스트는 다
          음과 같습니다:

               cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]

          각 날에 더 많은 스타일을 추가할 수 있습니다:

               cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]

          이 리스트의 길이는 7개의 항목임에 유의하십시오.

      -- 속성: cssclass_noday

          지난달이나 다음 달에 등장하는 요일의 CSS 클래스.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: cssclasses_weekday_head

          헤더 행에 있는 요일 이름에 사용되는 CSS 클래스 리스트.  기본값
          은 *note cssclasses: 24d1.와 같습니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: cssclass_month_head

          월 헤드 CSS 클래스 (*note formatmonthname(): 24d0. 에서 사용됩
          니다).  기본값은 ‘"month"’입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: cssclass_month

          월 전체 테이블의 CSS 클래스 (*note formatmonth(): 24cd.에서 사
          용됩니다).  기본값은 ‘"month"’입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: cssclass_year

          연도 전체 표의 CSS 클래스 (*note formatyear(): 24ce.에서 사용
          됩니다).  기본값은 ‘"year"’입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: cssclass_year_head

          연도 전체의 테이블 헤드의 CSS 클래스 (*note formatyear():
          24ce.에서 사용됩니다).  기본값은 ‘"year"’입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

     위에서 설명한 클래스 어트리뷰트의 이름은 단수이지만 (예를 들어
     ‘cssclass_month’ ‘cssclass_noday’), 단일 CSS 클래스를 스페이스로 구
     분된 CSS 클래스 목록으로 바꿀 수 있습니다.  예를 들면 다음과 같습니
     다:

          "text-bold text-red"

     다음은 ‘HTMLCalendar’를 사용자 정의하는 방법에 대한 예입니다:

          class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
              cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
                            calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
              cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
              cssclass_month = "text-center month"
              cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"

 -- 클래스: calendar.LocaleTextCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     *note TextCalendar: 24c3.의 이 서브 클래스는 생성자에 로케일 이름을
     전달할 수 있으며 지정된 로케일에서 월과 요일 이름을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     *note HTMLCalendar: b20.의 이 서브 클래스는 생성자에 로케일 이름을
     전달할 수 있으며 지정된 로케일에서 월과 요일 이름을 반환합니다.

     참고: 이 두 클래스의 생성자, ‘formatweekday()’와
     ‘formatmonthname()’ 메서드는 ‘LC_TIME’ 로케일을 주어진 'locale'로 임
     시 변경합니다.  현재 로케일은 프로세스 전체 설정이므로, 스레드 안전
     하지 않습니다.

간단한 텍스트 달력을 위해 이 모듈은 다음 함수를 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.setfirstweekday (weekday)

     매주 시작일을 weekday(‘0’은 월요일, ‘6’은 일요일)로 설정합니다.  편
     의를 위해 *note MONDAY: 24b5, *note TUESDAY: 24d8, *note WEDNESDAY:
     24d9, *note THURSDAY: 24da, *note FRIDAY: 24db, *note SATURDAY:
     24dc. 및 *note SUNDAY: 24b6. 값이 제공됩니다.  예를 들어, 주의 첫 번
     째 날을 일요일로 설정하려면:

          import calendar
          calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)

 -- 함수: calendar.firstweekday ()

     각 주를 시작하는 요일의 현재 설정을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.isleap (year)

     'year'가 윤년이면 *note True: c0a.를, 그렇지 않으면 *note False:
     b34.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.leapdays (y1, y2)

     'y1'에서 'y2'(우측 경계 제외) 범위에서 윤년의 수를 반환합니다, 여기
     서 'y1'과 'y2'는 연도입니다.

     이 함수는 세기(century)의 변경을 포함하는 범위에서 작동합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.weekday (year, month, day)

     'year' (‘1970’–…), 'month' (‘1’–‘12’), 'day' (‘1’–‘31’)의 요일
     (‘0’은 월요일)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.weekheader (n)

     약식 요일 이름이 포함된 헤더를 반환합니다.  'n'은 한 주의 너비를 문
     자 수로 지정합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.monthrange (year, month)

     지정된 'year'와 'month'에 대해 월의 첫 번째 날의 요일과 월의 날 수
     를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.monthcalendar (year, month)

     한 달의 달력을 나타내는 행렬을 반환합니다.  각 행은 한 주를 나타냅
     니다; 월 바깥의 날은 0으로 표시됩니다.  *note setfirstweekday():
     24b3.로 설정하지 않는 한 각 주는 월요일에 시작합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     *note month(): 15a7.가 반환하는 월의 달력을 인쇄합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.month (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     *note TextCalendar: 24c3. 클래스의 *note formatmonth(): 24c8.를 사
     용하여, 한 달의 달력을 여러 줄 문자열로 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.prcal (year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)

     *note calendar(): 14.에서 반환 한 연도 전체 달력을 인쇄합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.calendar (year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

     *note TextCalendar: 24c3. 클래스의 *note formatyear(): 24cb.를 사용
     하여 전체 연도의 3-열 달력을 여러 줄 문자열로 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: calendar.timegm (tuple)

     *note time: ee. 모듈의 *note gmtime(): 11af. 함수가 반환하는 것과 같
     은 시간 튜플을 취하고, 1970년의 시작과 POSIX 인코딩을 가정하는 해당
     유닉스 타임스탬프 값을 반환하는 관련이 없지만 편리한 함수.  실제로,
     *note time.gmtime(): 11af.과 *note timegm(): 24e7.은 서로의 역 함수
     입니다.

*note calendar: 14. 모듈은 다음 데이터 어트리뷰트를 내보냅니다:

 -- 데이터: calendar.day_name

     현재 로케일의 요일을 나타내는 시퀀스, 여기서 Monday 는 요일 번호 0입
     니다.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_name)
          ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']

 -- 데이터: calendar.day_abbr

     현재 로케일의 약식 요일을 나타내는 시퀀스, 여기서 Mon 은 요일 번호
     0입니다.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
          ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']

 -- 데이터: calendar.MONDAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.TUESDAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.WEDNESDAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.THURSDAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.FRIDAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.SATURDAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.SUNDAY

     Aliases for the days of the week, where ‘MONDAY’ is ‘0’ and
     ‘SUNDAY’ is ‘6’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 클래스: calendar.Day

     Enumeration defining days of the week as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note MONDAY: 24b5. through *note SUNDAY: 24b6.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: calendar.month_name

     현재 로케일에서 연중 월을 나타내는 시퀀스.  이는 1월이 월 번호 1인
     일반적인 규칙을 따르므로, 길이는 13이고 ‘month_name[0]’은 빈 문자열
     입니다.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_name)
          ['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']

 -- 데이터: calendar.month_abbr

     현재 로케일에서 연중 약식 월을 나타내는 시퀀스.  이는 1월이 월 번호
     1인 일반적인 규칙을 따르므로, 길이는 13이고 ‘month_abbr[0]’은 빈 문
     자열입니다.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
          ['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']

 -- 데이터: calendar.JANUARY
 -- 데이터: calendar.FEBRUARY
 -- 데이터: calendar.MARCH
 -- 데이터: calendar.APRIL
 -- 데이터: calendar.MAY
 -- 데이터: calendar.JUNE
 -- 데이터: calendar.JULY
 -- 데이터: calendar.AUGUST
 -- 데이터: calendar.SEPTEMBER
 -- 데이터: calendar.OCTOBER
 -- 데이터: calendar.NOVEMBER
 -- 데이터: calendar.DECEMBER

     Aliases for the months of the year, where ‘JANUARY’ is ‘1’ and
     ‘DECEMBER’ is ‘12’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 클래스: calendar.Month

     Enumeration defining months of the year as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note JANUARY: 2f1. through *note DECEMBER: 24f5.

     Added in version 3.12.

*note calendar: 14. 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: calendar.IllegalMonthError (month)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 202, raised when the given month
     number is outside of the range 1-12 (inclusive).

      -- 속성: month

          The invalid month number.

 -- 예외: calendar.IllegalWeekdayError (weekday)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 202, raised when the given weekday
     number is outside of the range 0-6 (inclusive).

      -- 속성: weekday

          The invalid weekday number.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note datetime: 30.

     *note time: ee. 모듈과 유사한 기능을 가진 날짜와 시간에 대한 객체 지
     향 인터페이스.

모듈 *note time: ee.

     저수준 시간 관련 함수.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/calendar.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage,  Up: calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수

5.8.3.1 Command-Line Usage
..........................

Added in version 2.5.

The *note calendar: 14. module can be executed as a script from the
command line to interactively print a calendar.

     python -m calendar [-h] [-L LOCALE] [-e ENCODING] [-t {text,html}]
                        [-w WIDTH] [-l LINES] [-s SPACING] [-m MONTHS] [-c CSS]
                        [-f FIRST_WEEKDAY] [year] [month]

For example, to print a calendar for the year 2000:

     $ python -m calendar 2000
                                       2000

           January                   February                   March
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6             1  2  3  4  5
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       6  7  8  9 10 11 12
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      13 14 15 16 17 18 19
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      20 21 22 23 24 25 26
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29                     27 28 29 30 31
     31

            April                      May                       June
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2       1  2  3  4  5  6  7                1  2  3  4
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       8  9 10 11 12 13 14       5  6  7  8  9 10 11
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      15 16 17 18 19 20 21      12 13 14 15 16 17 18
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      22 23 24 25 26 27 28      19 20 21 22 23 24 25
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      29 30 31                  26 27 28 29 30

             July                     August                  September
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6                   1  2  3
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29 30 31               25 26 27 28 29 30
     31

           October                   November                  December
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                        1             1  2  3  4  5                   1  2  3
      2  3  4  5  6  7  8       6  7  8  9 10 11 12       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
      9 10 11 12 13 14 15      13 14 15 16 17 18 19      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     16 17 18 19 20 21 22      20 21 22 23 24 25 26      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     23 24 25 26 27 28 29      27 28 29 30               25 26 27 28 29 30 31
     30 31

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: --help, -h

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: --locale LOCALE, -L LOCALE

     The locale to use for month and weekday names.  Defaults to
     English.

 -- Option: --encoding ENCODING, -e ENCODING

     The encoding to use for output.  *note -encoding: 24ff. is required
     if *note -locale: 24fd. is set.

 -- Option: --type {text,html}, -t {text,html}

     Print the calendar to the terminal as text, or as an HTML document.

 -- Option: --first-weekday FIRST_WEEKDAY, -f FIRST_WEEKDAY

     The weekday to start each week.  Must be a number between 0
     (Monday) and 6 (Sunday).  Defaults to 0.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: year

     The year to print the calendar for.  Defaults to the current year.

 -- Option: month

     The month of the specified *note year: 2505. to print the calendar
     for.  Must be a number between 1 and 12, and may only be used in
     text mode.  Defaults to printing a calendar for the full year.

'Text-mode options:'

 -- Option: --width WIDTH, -w WIDTH

     The width of the date column in terminal columns.  The date is
     printed centred in the column.  Any value lower than 2 is ignored.
     Defaults to 2.

 -- Option: --lines LINES, -l LINES

     The number of lines for each week in terminal rows.  The date is
     printed top-aligned.  Any value lower than 1 is ignored.  Defaults
     to 1.

 -- Option: --spacing SPACING, -s SPACING

     The space between months in columns.  Any value lower than 2 is
     ignored.  Defaults to 6.

 -- Option: --months MONTHS, -m MONTHS

     The number of months printed per row.  Defaults to 3.

'HTML-mode options:'

 -- Option: --css CSS, -c CSS

     The path of a CSS stylesheet to use for the calendar.  This must
     either be relative to the generated HTML, or an absolute HTTP or
     ‘file:///’ URL.


File: python.info,  Node: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형,  Next: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스,  Prev: calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.4 ‘collections’ — 컨테이너 데이터형
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/collections/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬의 범용 내장 컨테이너 *note dict: 256, *note list: 60b,
*note set: 5d3. 및 *note tuple: 369.에 대한 대안을 제공하는 특수 컨테이
너 데이터형을 구현합니다.

*note namedtuple(): 1ca.  이름 붙은 필드를 갖는 튜플 서브 클래스를 만들기 위한 팩토리 함수
                          
                          
*note deque: 5d6.         양쪽 끝에서 빠르게 추가와 삭제를 할 수 있는 리스트류 컨테이너
                          
                          
*note ChainMap: c19.      여러 매핑의 단일 뷰를 만드는 딕셔너리류 클래스
                          
                          
*note Counter: 1088.      *note 해시 가능: 60a. 객체를 세는 데 사용하는 딕셔너리 서브 클래스
                          
                          
*note OrderedDict: 5d5.   항목이 추가된 순서를 기억하는 딕셔너리 서브 클래스
                          
                          
*note defaultdict: 11ac.  누락된 값을 제공하기 위해 팩토리 함수를 호출하는 딕셔너리 서브 클래스
                          
                          
*note UserDict: 199b.     더 쉬운 딕셔너리 서브 클래싱을 위해 딕셔너리 객체를 감싸는 래퍼
                          
                          
*note UserList: 14ab.     더 쉬운 리스트 서브 클래싱을 위해 리스트 객체를 감싸는 래퍼
                          
                          
*note UserString: dd1.    더 쉬운 문자열 서브 클래싱을 위해 문자열 객체를 감싸는 래퍼
                          

* Menu:

* ChainMap 객체::
* Counter 객체::
* deque 객체::
* defaultdict 객체::
* 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple() 팩토리 함수: 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
* OrderedDict 객체::
* UserDict 객체::
* UserList 객체::
* UserString 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/collections/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap 객체,  Next: Counter 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.1 ‘ChainMap’ 객체
.......................

Added in version 3.3.

*note ChainMap: c19. 클래스는 여러 매핑을 빠르게 연결하여 단일 단위로 취
급 할 수 있도록 합니다.  종종 새로운 딕셔너리를 만들고 여러 *note
update(): 142b. 호출을 실행하는 것보다 훨씬 빠릅니다.

이 클래스는 중첩된 스코프를 시뮬레이션하는 데 사용할 수 있으며 템플릿에
유용합니다.

 -- 클래스: collections.ChainMap (*maps)

     *note ChainMap: c19.은 여러 딕셔너리나 다른 매핑을 함께 묶어 갱신 가
     능한 단일 뷰를 만듭니다.  'maps'가 지정되지 않으면, 새 체인에 항상
     하나 이상의 매핑이 있도록, 빈 딕셔너리 하나가 제공됩니다.

     하부 매핑은 리스트에 저장됩니다.  이 리스트는 공개이며 'maps' 어트
     리뷰트를 사용하여 액세스하거나 갱신할 수 있습니다.  다른 상태는 없
     습니다.

     조회는 키를 찾을 때까지 하부 매핑을 검색합니다.  반면에, 쓰기, 갱신
     및 삭제는 첫 번째 매핑에만 작동합니다.

     *note ChainMap: c19.은 하부 매핑을 참조로 통합합니다.  따라서 하부
     매핑 중 하나가 갱신되면 해당 변경 사항이 *note ChainMap: c19.에 반
     영됩니다.

     일반적인 딕셔너리 메서드가 모두 지원됩니다.  또한, 'maps' 어트리뷰
     트, 새 서브 컨텍스트를 만드는 메서드 및 첫 번째 매핑을 제외한 모든
     것에 액세스하는 프로퍼티가 있습니다:

      -- 속성: maps

          사용자 갱신 가능한 매핑 리스트.  리스트는 먼저 검색되는 것에서
          나중에 검색되는 순서를 따릅니다.  저장된 유일한 상태이며 검색
          할 매핑을 변경하도록 수정할 수 있습니다.  리스트는 항상 하나 이
          상의 매핑이 포함되어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: new_child (m=None, **kwargs)

          새 맵과 그 뒤로 현재 인스턴스의 모든 맵을 포함하는 새 *note
          ChainMap: c19.을 반환합니다.  ‘m’이 지정되면, 매핑 리스트의 맨
          앞에 놓이는 새 맵이 됩니다.  지정하지 않으면, 빈 딕셔너리가 사
          용되므로 ‘d.new_child()’ 호출은 ‘ChainMap({}, *d.maps)’과 동등
          합니다.  키워드 인자가 지정되면, 전달된 맵이나 새로운 빈 딕셔
          너리를 갱신합니다.  이 메서드는 어떤 부모 매핑에 있는 값도 변
          경하지 않으면서 갱신할 수 있는 서브 컨텍스트를 만드는 데 사용
          됩니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 선택적 ‘m’ 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: Keyword arguments support was added.

      -- 속성: parents

          첫 번째 맵을 제외하고 현재 인스턴스의 모든 맵을 포함하는 새
          *note ChainMap: c19.을 반환하는 프로퍼티.  검색에서 첫 번째 맵
          을 건너뛰려고 할 때 유용합니다.  사용 사례는 *note 중첩된
          스코프: 1f46.에서 사용되는 *note nonlocal: 1297. 키워드와 유사
          합니다.  사용 사례는 내장 *note super(): 4d5. 함수와도 유사합
          니다.  ‘d.parents’에 대한 참조는 ‘ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])’과 동
          등합니다.

     *note ChainMap: c19.의 이터레이션 순서는 매핑을 마지막에서 첫 번째
     방향으로 스캔하여 결정됩니다:

          >>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
          >>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
          >>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     이것은 마지막 매핑에서 시작하는 일련의 *note dict.update(): 142b. 호
     출과 같은 순서를 제공합니다:

          >>> combined = baseline.copy()
          >>> combined.update(adjustments)
          >>> list(combined)
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(1)에 지정된, ‘|’와 ‘|=’ 연산자에 대한 지
     원이 추가되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

   * Enthought CodeTools 패키지(2)의 MultiContext 클래스(3)에는 체인의 모
     든 매핑으로의 쓰기를 지원하는 옵션이 있습니다.

   * 템플릿을 위한 Django의 Context 클래스(4)는 읽기 전용 매핑 체인입니
     다.  또한 *note new_child(): f1b. 메서드와 *note parents: 2515. 프
     로퍼티와 유사하게 컨텍스트를 푸시(push)하고 팝(pop) 하는 기능이 있
     습니다.

   * 중첩된 컨텍스트 조리법(5)에는 쓰기와 기타 변경이 첫 번째 매핑에만 적
     용되는지 아니면 체인의 모든 매핑에 적용되는지를 제어하는 옵션이 있
     습니다.

   * 매우 단순화된 체인 맵의 읽기 전용 버전(6)

* Menu:

* ChainMap 예제와 조리법::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://github.com/enthought/codetools

   (3) 
https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py

   (4) 
https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/template/context.py

   (5) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434-nested-contexts-a-chain-of-mapping-objects/

   (6) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap 예제와 조리법,  Up: ChainMap 객체

5.8.4.2 ‘ChainMap’ 예제와 조리법
................................

이 절에서는 체인 맵으로 작업하는 다양한 접근 방식을 보여줍니다.

파이썬의 내부 조회 체인을 시뮬레이션하는 예:

     import builtins
     pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))

사용자 지정 명령 줄 인자가 환경 변수보다 우선하고, 환경 변수는 기본값보
다 우선하도록 하는 예:

     import os, argparse

     defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
     namespace = parser.parse_args()
     command_line_args = {k: v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v is not None}

     combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
     print(combined['color'])
     print(combined['user'])

중첩된 컨텍스트를 시뮬레이션하기 위해 *note ChainMap: c19. 클래스를 사용
하는 예제 패턴:

     c = ChainMap()        # 루트 컨텍스트를 만듭니다
     d = c.new_child()     # 중첩된 자식 컨텍스트를 만듭니다
     e = c.new_child()     # c의 자식, d와 독립적입니다
     e.maps[0]             # 현재 컨텍스트 딕셔너리 -- 파이썬의 locals()와 유사합니다
     e.maps[-1]            # 루트 컨텍스트 -- 파이썬의 globals()와 유사합니다
     e.parents             # 둘러싼 컨텍스트 체인 -- 파이썬의 nonlocal과 유사합니다

     d['x'] = 1            # 현재 컨텍스트에 값을 설정합니다
     d['x']                # 컨텍스트 체인에서 첫 번째 키를 가져옵니다
     del d['x']            # 현재 컨텍스트에서 지웁니다
     list(d)               # 모든 중첩된 값
     k in d                # 모든 중첩된 값을 검사합니다
     len(d)                # 중첩된 값의 개수
     d.items()             # 모든 중첩된 항목
     dict(d)               # 일반 딕셔너리로 펼칩니다

*note ChainMap: c19. 클래스는 체인의 첫 번째 매핑만 갱신(쓰기와 삭제)하
지만, 조회는 전체 체인을 검색합니다.  그러나, 깊은 쓰기와 삭제가 필요하
면, 체인의 더 깊은 곳에서 발견된 키를 갱신하는 서브 클래스를 쉽게 만들 수
있습니다:

     class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
         '내부 스코프를 직접 갱신할 수 있는 ChainMap의 변형'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     mapping[key] = value
                     return
             self.maps[0][key] = value

         def __delitem__(self, key):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     del mapping[key]
                     return
             raise KeyError(key)

     >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
     >>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # 두 수준 아래에 있는 기존 키를 갱신합니다
     >>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # 새 키를 최상단 딕셔너리에 추가합니다
     >>> del d['elephant']            # 한 수준 아래에 있는 기존 키를 삭제합니다
     >>> d                            # 결과를 표시합니다
     DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})


File: python.info,  Node: Counter 객체,  Next: deque 객체,  Prev: ChainMap 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.3 ‘Counter’ 객체
......................

편리하고 빠르게 개수를 세도록 지원하는 계수기 도구가 제공됩니다.  예를 들
면:

     >>> # 목록에 있는 단어의 빈도를 집계합니다
     >>> cnt = Counter()
     >>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
     ...     cnt[word] += 1
     ...
     >>> cnt
     Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     >>> # 햄릿에서 가장 흔한 단어를 찾습니다
     >>> import re
     >>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
     >>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
     [('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
      ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]

 -- 클래스: collections.Counter ([iterable-or-mapping])

     *note Counter: 1088.는 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 객체를 세기 위한 *note
     dict: 256. 서브 클래스입니다.  요소가 딕셔너리 키로 저장되고 개수가
     딕셔너리값으로 저장되는 컬렉션입니다.  개수는 0이나 음수를 포함하는
     임의의 정숫값이 될 수 있습니다.  *note Counter: 1088. 클래스는 다른
     언어의 백(bag)이나 멀티 셋(multiset)과 유사합니다.

     요소는 '이터러블'로부터 계산되거나 다른 '매핑'(또는 계수기)에서 초
     기화됩니다:

          >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
          >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
          >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
          >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

     계수기 객체는 누락된 항목에 대해 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시키는
     대신 0을 반환한다는 점을 제외하고 딕셔너리 인터페이스를 갖습니다:

          >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
          >>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
          0

     개수를 0으로 설정해도 계수기에서 요소가 제거되지 않습니다.  완전히
     제거하려면 ‘del’을 사용하십시오:

          >>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
          >>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

     Added in version 3.1.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note dict: 256. 서브 클래스로서, *note Counter:
     1088.는 삽입 순서를 기억하는 기능을 상속했습니다.  'Counter' 객체에
     대한 수학 연산도 순서를 유지합니다.  결과는 요소가 왼쪽 피연산자에
     서 처음 발견된 순서로 먼저 나열된 후 오른쪽 피연산자에서 새로 발견
     되는 순서로 나열되는 순서를 따릅니다.

     계수기 객체는 모든 딕셔너리에서 사용할 수 있는 메서드 이외의 추가 메
     서드를 지원합니다:

      -- 메서드: elements ()

          개수만큼 반복되는 요소에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  요소는
          처음 발견되는 순서대로 반환됩니다.  요소의 개수가 1보다 작으면
          *note elements(): 12f4.는 이를 무시합니다.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> sorted(c.elements())
               ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']

      -- 메서드: most_common ([n])

          'n' 개의 가장 흔한 요소와 그 개수를 가장 흔한 것부터 가장 적은
          것 순으로 나열한 리스트를 반환합니다.  'n'이 생략되거나
          ‘None’이면, *note most_common(): 12f3.은 계수기의 '모든' 요소
          를 반환합니다.  개수가 같은 요소는 처음 발견된 순서를 유지합니
          다:

               >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
               [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]

      -- 메서드: subtract ([iterable-or-mapping])

          '이터러블'이나 다른 '매핑' (또는 계수기)으로부터 온 요소들을 뺍
          니다.  *note dict.update(): 142b.와 비슷하지만 교체하는 대신 개
          수를 뺍니다.  입력과 출력 모두 0이나 음수일 수 있습니다.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
               >>> c.subtract(d)
               >>> c
               Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: total ()

          Compute the sum of the counts.

               >>> c = Counter(a=10, b=5, c=0)
               >>> c.total()
               15

          Added in version 3.10.

     일반적인 딕셔너리 메서드를 *note Counter: 1088. 객체에 사용할 수 있
     습니다만, 두 메서드는 계수기에서 다르게 동작합니다.

      -- 메서드: fromkeys (iterable)

          이 클래스 메서드는 *note Counter: 1088. 객체에 구현되지 않았습
          니다.

      -- 메서드: update ([iterable-or-mapping])

          요소는 '이터러블'에서 세거나 다른 '매핑'(또는 계수기)에서 더해
          집니다.  *note dict.update(): 142b.와 비슷하지만, 교체하는 대
          신 더합니다.  또한, '이터러블'은 ‘(key, value)’ 쌍의 시퀀스가
          아닌, 요소의 시퀀스일 것으로 기대합니다.

Counters support rich comparison operators for equality, subset, and
superset relationships: ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’.  All of those
tests treat missing elements as having zero counts so that ‘Counter(a=1)
== Counter(a=1, b=0)’ returns true.

버전 3.10에서 변경: Rich comparison operations were added.

버전 3.10에서 변경: In equality tests, missing elements are treated as
having zero counts.  Formerly, ‘Counter(a=3)’ and ‘Counter(a=3, b=0)’
were considered distinct.

*note Counter: 1088. 객체로 작업하는 일반적인 패턴:

     c.total()                       # 모든 개수의 총합
     c.clear()                       # 모든 개수를 재설정합니다
     list(c)                         # 고유한 요소들의 리스트
     set(c)                          # 집합으로 변환합니다
     dict(c)                         # 일반 딕셔너리로 변환합니다
     c.items()                       # (elem, cnt) 쌍을 액세스합니다
     Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # (elem, cnt) 쌍의 리스트를 변환합니다
     c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # 가장 드문 n 개의 요소
     +c                              # 0과 음의 개수를 제거합니다

*note Counter: 1088. 객체를 결합하여 멀티 셋(multiset, 개수가 0보다 큰 계
수기)을 생성하는 여러 수학 연산이 제공됩니다.  더하기와 빼기는 해당 요소
의 개수를 더 하거나 빼서 계수기를 결합합니다.  교집합(intersection)과 합
집합(union)은 해당 개수의 최솟값과 최댓값을 반환합니다.  동등성과 포함은
해당 개수를 비교합니다.  각 연산은 부호 있는 개수를 입력으로 받을 수 있
지만, 출력은 개수가 0 이하면 결과에서 제외합니다.

     >>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
     >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
     >>> c + d                       # 두 계수기를 합합니다:  c[x] + d[x]
     Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
     >>> c - d                       # 뺍니다 (양의 개수만 유지합니다)
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> c & d                       # 교집합:  min(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
     >>> c | d                       # 합집합:  max(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
     >>> c == d                      # 동등성:  c[x] == d[x]
     False
     >>> c <= d                      # 포함:  c[x] <= d[x]
     False

단항 덧셈과 뺄셈은 빈 계수기를 더하거나 빈 계수기를 빼는 것의 줄임 표현
입니다.

     >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
     >>> +c
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> -c
     Counter({'b': 4})

Added in version 3.3: 단항 플러스, 단항 마이너스 및 제자리 멀티 셋 연산
에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     참고: 계수기는 주로 양의 정수로 작동하여 횟수를 나타내도록 설계되었
     습니다; 그러나, 다른 형이나 음수 값이 필요한 사용 사례를 불필요하게
     배제하지 않도록 주의를 기울였습니다.  이러한 사용 사례에 도움이 되
     도록, 이 절은 최소 범위와 형 제약 사항을 설명합니다.

        * *note Counter: 1088. 클래스 자체는 키와 값에 제한이 없는 딕셔
          너리 서브 클래스입니다.  값은 개수를 나타내는 숫자로 의도되었
          지만, 값 필드에 어떤 것이든 저장할 '수' 있습니다.

        * *note most_common(): 12f3. 메서드는 값에 대해 순서만을 요구합
          니다.

        * ‘c[key] += 1’과 같은 제자리 연산의 경우, 값 형은 덧셈과 뺄셈만
          지원하면 됩니다.  따라서 분수(fractions), 부동 소수점(floats)
          및 십진수(decimals)가 작동하고 음수 값이 지원됩니다.  *note
          update(): 251a.와 *note subtract(): 11cd.에 대해서도 마찬가지
          인데, 입력과 출력 모두 음수와 0을 허용합니다.

        * 멀티 셋(multiset) 메서드는 양의 값에 대한 사용 사례를 위해서만
          설계되었습니다.  입력은 음수이거나 0일 수 있지만, 양수 값을 갖
          는 출력만 만들어집니다.  형 제한은 없지만, 값 형은 더하기, 빼
          기 및 비교를 지원해야 합니다.

        * *note elements(): 12f4. 메서드는 정수 개수를 요구합니다.  0과
          음수 개수는 무시합니다.

더 보기
.......

   * 스몰토크(Smalltalk)의 Bag 클래스(1).

   * Multisets(2)에 대한 위키피디아 항목.

   * 예제가 포함된 C++ multisets(3) 자습서.

   * 멀티 셋에 대한 수학 연산과 그 사용 사례에 대해서는, 'Knuth, Donald.
     The Art of Computer Programming Volume II, Section 4.6.3, Exercise
     19'를 참조하십시오.

   * 주어진 요소 집합에 대해 주어진 크기의 모든 서로 다른 멀티 셋을 열거
     하려면, *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1271.를 참
     조하십시오:

          map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset

   (3) 
http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm


File: python.info,  Node: deque 객체,  Next: defaultdict 객체,  Prev: Counter 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.4 ‘deque’ 객체
....................

 -- 클래스: collections.deque ([iterable[, maxlen]])

     'iterable'의 데이터로 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 (*note append(): 251c.를
     사용해서) 초기화된 새 데크(deque) 객체를 반환합니다.  'iterable'을
     지정하지 않으면, 새 데크는 비어 있습니다.

     데크는 스택과 큐를 일반화 한 것입니다 (이름은 “deck”이라고 발음하며
     “double-ended queue”의 약자입니다).  데크는 스레드 안전하고 메모리
     효율적인 데크의 양쪽 끝에서의 추가(append)와 팝(pop)을 양쪽에서 거
     의 같은 'O'(1) 성능으로 지원합니다.

     *note list: 60b. 객체는 유사한 연산을 지원하지만, 빠른 고정 길이 연
     산에 최적화되어 있으며, 하부 데이터 표현의 크기와 위치를 모두 변경
     하는 ‘pop(0)’과 ‘insert(0, v)’ 연산에 대해 'O'('n') 메모리 이동 비
     용이 발생합니다.

     'maxlen'이 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 데크는 임의의 길이로 커질 수
     있습니다.  그렇지 않으면, 데크는 지정된 최대 길이로 제한됩니다.  일
     단 제한된 길이의 데크가 가득 차면, 새 항목이 추가될 때, 해당하는 수
     의 항목이 반대쪽 끝에서 삭제됩니다.  제한된 길이의 데크는 유닉스의
     ‘tail’ 필터와 유사한 기능을 제공합니다.  또한 가장 최근 활동만 관심
     이 있는 트랜잭션과 기타 데이터 풀을 추적하는 데 유용합니다.

     deque 객체는 다음 메서드를 지원합니다:

      -- 메서드: append (x)

          데크의 오른쪽에 'x'를 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: appendleft (x)

          데크의 왼쪽에 'x'를 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          데크에서 모든 요소를 제거하고 길이가 0인 상태로 만듭니다.

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          데크의 얕은 복사본을 만듭니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: count (x)

          'x' 와 같은 데크 요소의 수를 셉니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: extend (iterable)

          iterable 인자에서 온 요소를 추가하여 데크의 오른쪽을 확장합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: extendleft (iterable)

          'iterable'에서 온 요소를 추가하여 데크의 왼쪽을 확장합니다.  일
          련의 왼쪽 추가는 iterable 인자에 있는 요소의 순서를 뒤집는 결
          과를 줍니다.

      -- 메서드: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          데크에 있는 'x'의 위치를 반환합니다 (인덱스 'start' 또는 그 이
          후, 그리고 인덱스 'stop' 이전).  첫 번째 일치를 반환하거나 찾
          을 수 없으면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: insert (i, x)

          'x'를 데크의 'i' 위치에 삽입합니다.

          삽입으로 인해 제한된 길이의 데크가 'maxlen' 이상으로 커지면,
          *note IndexError: 14fc.가 발생합니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: pop ()

          데크의 오른쪽에서 요소를 제거하고 반환합니다.  요소가 없으면,
          *note IndexError: 14fc.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: popleft ()

          데크의 왼쪽에서 요소를 제거하고 반환합니다.  요소가 없으면,
          *note IndexError: 14fc.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: remove (value)

          'value'의 첫 번째 항목을 제거합니다.  찾을 수 없으면, *note
          ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: reverse ()

          데크의 요소들을 제자리에서 순서를 뒤집고 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: rotate (n=1)

          데크를 'n' 단계 오른쪽으로 회전합니다.  'n'이 음수이면, 왼쪽으
          로 회전합니다.

          데크가 비어 있지 않으면, 오른쪽으로 한 단계 회전하는 것은
          ‘d.appendleft(d.pop())’과 동등하고, 왼쪽으로 한 단계 회전하는
          것은 ‘d.append(d.popleft())’와 동등합니다.

     데크 객체는 하나의 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트도 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: maxlen

          데크의 최대 크기 또는 제한이 없으면 ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.1.

상기한 것들 외에도, 데크는 이터레이션, 피클링, ‘len(d)’, ‘reversed(d)’,
‘copy.copy(d)’, ‘copy.deepcopy(d)’, *note in: 2ec. 연산자를 사용한 멤버
십 검사 및 첫 번째 요소를 액세스하는 ‘d[0]’과 같은 서브 스크립트 참조를
지원합니다.  인덱스를 사용하는 액세스는 양쪽 끝에서는 'O'(1) 이지만 중간
에서는 'O'('n') 으로 느려집니다.  빠른 무작위 액세스를 위해서는 대신 리
스트를 사용하십시오.

버전 3.5부터, 데크는 ‘__add__()’, ‘__mul__()’ 및 ‘__imul__()’을 지원합니
다.

예:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque('ghi')                 # 세 항목의 새 데크를 만듭니다
     >>> for elem in d:                   # 데크의 요소들을 이터레이트 합니다
     ...     print(elem.upper())
     G
     H
     I

     >>> d.append('j')                    # 오른쪽에 새 항목을 추가합니다
     >>> d.appendleft('f')                # 왼쪽에 새 항목을 추가합니다
     >>> d                                # 데크의 표현을 보여줍니다
     deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

     >>> d.pop()                          # 가장 오른쪽의 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다
     'j'
     >>> d.popleft()                      # 가장 왼쪽의 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다
     'f'
     >>> list(d)                          # 데크의 내용을 나열합니다
     ['g', 'h', 'i']
     >>> d[0]                             # 가장 왼쪽의 항목을 들여다봅니다
     'g'
     >>> d[-1]                            # 가장 오른쪽의 항목을 들여다봅니다
     'i'

     >>> list(reversed(d))                # 데크의 내용을 역순으로 나열합니다
     ['i', 'h', 'g']
     >>> 'h' in d                         # 데크를 검색합니다
     True
     >>> d.extend('jkl')                  # 여러 요소를 한 번에 추가합니다
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
     >>> d.rotate(1)                      # 오른쪽으로 회전합니다
     >>> d
     deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
     >>> d.rotate(-1)                     # 왼쪽으로 회전합니다
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

     >>> deque(reversed(d))               # 역순으로 새 데크를 만듭니다
     deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
     >>> d.clear()                        # 데크를 비웁니다
     >>> d.pop()                          # 빈 데크에서는 pop 할 수 없습니다
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
             d.pop()
     IndexError: pop from an empty deque

     >>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() 는 입력의 순서를 뒤집습니다
     >>> d
     deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

* Menu:

* deque 조리법::


File: python.info,  Node: deque 조리법,  Up: deque 객체

5.8.4.5 ‘deque’ 조리법
......................

이 절은 데크로 작업하는 다양한 접근 방식을 보여줍니다.

제한된 길이의 데크는 유닉스의 ‘tail’ 필터와 유사한 기능을 제공합니다:

     def tail(filename, n=10):
         '파일의 마지막 n 줄을 반환합니다'
         with open(filename) as f:
             return deque(f, n)

데크를 사용하는 또 다른 접근법은 오른쪽에 추가하고 왼쪽에서 팝 하여 최근
에 추가된 요소의 시퀀스를 유지하는 것입니다:

     def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
         # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
         # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
         it = iter(iterable)
         d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
         d.appendleft(0)
         s = sum(d)
         for elem in it:
             s += elem - d.popleft()
             d.append(elem)
             yield s / n

라운드 로빈 스케줄러(round-robin scheduler)(1)는 *note deque: 5d6.에 저
장된 입력 이터레이터로 구현할 수 있습니다.  위치 0에 있는 활성 이터레이
터에서 값이 산출됩니다.  그 이터레이터가 소진되면, *note popleft():
2522.로 제거할 수 있습니다; 그렇지 않으면, *note rotate(): 18dd. 메서드
로 끝으로 보내 순환할 수 있습니다:

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
         iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
         while iterators:
             try:
                 while True:
                     yield next(iterators[0])
                     iterators.rotate(-1)
             except StopIteration:
                 # 소진된 이터레이터를 제거합니다.
                 iterators.popleft()

*note rotate(): 18dd. 메서드는 *note deque: 5d6. 슬라이싱과 삭제를 구현
하는 방법을 제공합니다.  예를 들어, ‘del d[n]’의 순수 파이썬 구현은 팝 될
요소의 위치를 잡기 위해 ‘rotate()’ 메서드에 의존합니다:

     def delete_nth(d, n):
         d.rotate(-n)
         d.popleft()
         d.rotate(n)

*note deque: 5d6. 슬라이싱을 구현하려면, 대상 요소를 데크의 왼쪽으로 가
져오기 위해 *note rotate(): 18dd.를 적용하는 유사한 접근법을 사용하십시
오.  *note popleft(): 2522.로 이전 항목을 제거하고, *note extend():
251f.로 새 항목을 추가한 다음, 회전을 되돌립니다.  이 접근 방식에 약간의
변형을 가하면, ‘dup’, ‘drop’, ‘swap’, ‘over’, ‘pick’, ‘rot’ 및 ‘roll’과
같은 Forth 스타일 스택 조작을 쉽게 구현할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict 객체,  Next: 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수,  Prev: deque 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.6 ‘defaultdict’ 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: collections.defaultdict (default_factory=None, /[, ...])

     새 딕셔너리류 객체를 반환합니다.  *note defaultdict: 11ac.는 내장
     *note dict: 256. 클래스의 서브 클래스입니다.  하나의 메서드를 재정
     의하고 하나의 쓰기 가능한 인스턴스 변수를 추가합니다.  나머지 기능
     은 *note dict: 256. 클래스와 같고 여기에 설명하지 않습니다.

     첫 번째 인자는 *note default_factory: 2525. 어트리뷰트의 초깃값을 제
     공합니다; 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.  나머지 모든 인자는 키워드 인자를
     포함하여 *note dict: 256. 생성자에 전달될 때와 마찬가지로 취급됩니
     다.

     *note defaultdict: 11ac. 객체는 표준 *note dict: 256. 연산 외에도 다
     음 메서드를 지원합니다:

      -- 메서드: __missing__ (key)

          *note default_factory: 2525. 어트리뷰트가 ‘None’이면, 'key'를
          인자로 사용하는 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외가 발생합니다.

          *note default_factory: 2525.가 ‘None’이 아니면, 주어진 'key'에
          대한 기본값을 제공하기 위해 인자 없이 호출되며, 반환 값은
          'key'로 딕셔너리에 삽입되고 반환됩니다.

          *note default_factory: 2525.를 호출할 때 예외가 발생하면 이 예
          외는 변경되지 않고 전파됩니다.

          이 메서드는 요청된 키를 찾을 수 없을 때 *note dict: 256. 클래
          스의 *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드에 의해 호출됩니다; 이것
          이 반환하거나 발생시키는 모든 것은, *note __getitem__(): 283.이
          반환하거나 발생시킵니다.

          *note __missing__(): 2526.은 *note __getitem__(): 283. 이외의
          어떤 연산에서도 호출되지 '않음'에 유의하십시오.  이것은 *note
          get(): 224a.이 일반 딕셔너리와 마찬가지로 *note
          default_factory: 2525.를 사용하지 않고 ‘None’을 기본값으로 반
          환한다는 것을 의미합니다.

     *note defaultdict: 11ac. 객체는 다음 인스턴스 변수를 지원합니다:

      -- 속성: default_factory

          이 어트리뷰트는 *note __missing__(): 2526. 메서드에서 사용됩니
          다; 생성자의 첫 번째 인자가 있으면 그것으로, 없으면 ‘None’으로
          초기화됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(1)에 지정된, 병합(‘|’)과 업데이트(‘|=’)
     연산자가 추가되었습니다.

* Menu:

* defaultdict 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict 예,  Up: defaultdict 객체

5.8.4.7 ‘defaultdict’ 예
........................

*note list: 60b.를 *note default_factory: 2525.로 사용하면, 키-값 쌍의 시
퀀스를 리스트의 딕셔너리로 쉽게 그룹화 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(list)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

각 키가 처음 발견될 때, 아직 매핑에 있지 않게 됩니다; 그래서 *note
default_factory: 2525. 함수를 사용하여 항목이 자동으로 만들어지는데, 빈
*note list: 60b.를 반환합니다.  그런 다음 ‘list.append()’ 연산이 값을 새
리스트에 추가합니다.  키를 다시 만나면, 조회가 정상적으로 진행되고 (해당
키의 리스트를 반환합니다), ‘list.append()’ 연산은 다른 값을 리스트에 추
가합니다.  이 기법은 *note dict.setdefault(): 106f.를 사용하는 동등한 기
법보다 간단하고 빠릅니다:

     >>> d = {}
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

*note default_factory: 2525.를 *note int: 257.로 설정하면 *note
defaultdict: 11ac.를 세는(counting) 데 유용하게 사용할 수 있습니다 (다른
언어의 백(bag)이나 멀티 셋(multiset)처럼):

     >>> s = 'mississippi'
     >>> d = defaultdict(int)
     >>> for k in s:
     ...     d[k] += 1
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]

글자가 처음 발견될 때, 매핑에서 누락되었으므로, *note default_factory:
2525. 함수는 *note int(): 257.를 호출하여 기본 계수 0을 제공합니다.  증
분 연산은 각 문자의 개수를 쌓아나갑니다.

항상 0을 반환하는 함수 *note int(): 257.는 상수 함수의 특별한 경우일 뿐
입니다.  상수 함수를 만드는 더 빠르고 유연한 방법은 (단지 0이 아니라) 임
의의 상숫값을 제공 할 수 있는 람다 함수를 사용하는 것입니다:

     >>> def constant_factory(value):
     ...     return lambda: value
     ...
     >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
     >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
     >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
     'John ran to <missing>'

*note default_factory: 2525.를 *note set: 5d3.으로 설정하면, *note
defaultdict: 11ac.를 집합의 딕셔너리를 만드는 데 유용하게 만듭니다:

     >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(set)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].add(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]


File: python.info,  Node: 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수,  Next: OrderedDict 객체,  Prev: defaultdict 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.8 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 ‘namedtuple()’ 팩토리 함수
...................................................................

네임드 튜플은 튜플의 각 위치에 의미를 부여하고 더 읽기 쉽고 스스로 설명
하는 코드를 만들도록 합니다.  일반 튜플이 사용되는 곳이라면 어디에서나 사
용할 수 있으며, 위치 인덱스 대신 이름으로 필드에 액세스하는 기능을 추가
합니다.

 -- 함수: collections.namedtuple (typename, field_names, *,
          rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)

     'typename'이라는 이름의 새 튜플 서브 클래스를 반환합니다.  새로운 서
     브 클래스는 인덱싱되고 이터러블일 뿐만 아니라 어트리뷰트 조회로 액
     세스 할 수 있는 필드를 갖는 튜플류 객체를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.  서
     브 클래스의 인스턴스에는 유용한 독스트링('typename'과
     'field_names'를 포함합니다)과 튜플 내용을 ‘name=value’ 형식으로 나
     열하는 유용한 *note __repr__(): 616. 메서드가 있습니다.

     'field_names'는 ‘['x', 'y']’와 같은 문자열의 시퀀스입니다.  또는,
     'field_names'는 각 필드명이 공백 및/또는 쉼표로 구분된 단일 문자열
     일 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 ‘'x y'’나 ‘'x, y'’.

     밑줄로 시작하는 이름을 제외한 모든 유효한 파이썬 식별자를 필드명에
     사용할 수 있습니다.  유효한 식별자는 글자, 숫자 및 밑줄로 구성되지
     만, 숫자나 밑줄로 시작하지 않으며 'class', 'for', 'return',
     'global', 'pass' 또는 'raise'와 같은 *note keyword: 84.일 수 없습니
     다.

     'rename'이 참이면, 유효하지 않은 필드명은 위치 이름으로 자동 대체됩
     니다.  예를 들어, ‘['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']’는 ‘['abc', '_1',
     'ghi', '_3']’으로 변환되어 키워드 ‘def’와 중복된 필드명 ‘abc’를 제
     거합니다.

     'defaults'는 ‘None’이나 기본값의 *note 이터러블: 1217. 일 수 있습니
     다.  기본값이 있는 필드는 기본값이 없는 필드 뒤에 와야 하므로,
     'defaults'는 가장 오른쪽의 매개 변수에 적용됩니다.  예를 들어,
     field_names가 ‘['x', 'y', 'z']’이고 defaults가 ‘(1, 2)’이면 ‘x’는 필
     수 인자이고, ‘y’의 기본값은 ‘1’, ‘z’의 기본값은 ‘2’입니다.

     'module'이 정의되면, 네임드 튜플의 *note __module__: 36d. 어트리뷰
     트가 해당 값으로 설정됩니다.

     네임드 튜플 인스턴스에는 인스턴스 별 딕셔너리가 없어서, 가볍고 일반
     튜플보다 더 많은 메모리가 필요하지 않습니다.

     피클링을 지원하려면, 네임드 튜플 클래스를 'typename'과 일치하는 변
     수에 대입해야 합니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'rename'에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'verbose'와 'rename' 매개 변수는 *note 키워드
     전용 인자: 2a5.가 되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'module' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'verbose' 매개 변수와 ‘_source’ 어트리뷰트를 제
     거했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'defaults' 매개 변수와 *note _field_defaults:
     2529. 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다.

     >>> # Basic example
     >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     >>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # 위치와 키워드 인자로 인스턴스를 만듭니다
     >>> p[0] + p[1]             # 일반 튜플 (11, 22) 처럼 인덱싱할 수 있습니다
     33
     >>> x, y = p                # 일반 튜플처럼 언팩합니다
     >>> x, y
     (11, 22)
     >>> p.x + p.y               # 필드는 이름으로도 액세스할 수 있습니다
     33
     >>> p                       # name=value 스타일의 가독성 있는 __repr__
     Point(x=11, y=22)

네임드 튜플은 *note csv: 29. 나 *note sqlite3: cf. 모듈이 반환한 결과 튜
플에 필드 이름을 할당하는 데 특히 유용합니다:

     EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

     import csv
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

     import sqlite3
     conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
     cursor = conn.cursor()
     cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

튜플에서 상속된 메서드 외에도 네임드 튜플은 세 가지 추가 메서드와 두 가
지 어트리뷰트를 지원합니다.  필드 이름과의 충돌을 방지하기 위해, 메서드
와 어트리뷰트 이름은 밑줄로 시작합니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod somenamedtuple._make (iterable)

     기존 시퀀스나 이터러블로 새 인스턴스를 만드는 클래스 메서드.

          >>> t = [11, 22]
          >>> Point._make(t)
          Point(x=11, y=22)

 -- 메서드: somenamedtuple._asdict ()

     필드 이름을 해당 값으로 매핑하는 새 *note dict: 256.를 반환합니다:

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._asdict()
          {'x': 11, 'y': 22}

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 일반 *note dict: 256. 대신 *note OrderedDict:
     5d5.를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note OrderedDict: 5d5. 대신 일반 *note dict:
     256.를 반환합니다.  파이썬 3.7부터, 일반 딕셔너리의 순서가 유지되도
     록 보장합니다.  *note OrderedDict: 5d5.의 추가 기능이 필요할 때, 제
     안하는 처방은 결과를 원하는 형으로 캐스트 하는 것입니다:
     ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.

 -- 메서드: somenamedtuple._replace (**kwargs)

     지정된 필드들을 새로운 값으로 치환하는 네임드 튜플의 새 인스턴스를
     반환합니다:

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._replace(x=33)
          Point(x=33, y=22)

          >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
          ...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())

     Named tuples are also supported by generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 151.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raise *note TypeError: 532. instead of *note
     ValueError: 202. for invalid keyword arguments.

 -- 속성: somenamedtuple._fields

     필드 이름을 나열하는 문자열의 튜플.  인트로스펙션과 기존 네임드 튜
     플에서 새로운 네임드 튜플 형을 만드는 데 유용합니다.

          >>> p._fields            # 필드 이름을 봅니다
          ('x', 'y')

          >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
          >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
          >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
          Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

 -- 속성: somenamedtuple._field_defaults

     필드 이름을 기본값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

          >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
          >>> Account._field_defaults
          {'balance': 0}
          >>> Account('premium')
          Account(type='premium', balance=0)

이름이 문자열에 저장된 필드를 조회하려면 *note getattr(): bce. 함수를 사
용하십시오.:

     >>> getattr(p, 'x')
     11

딕셔너리를 네임드 튜플로 변환하려면 이중 애스터리스크 연산자를 사용하십
시오 (*note 인자 목록 언 패킹: 1c37.에서 설명합니다).:

     >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
     >>> Point(**d)
     Point(x=11, y=22)

네임드 튜플은 일반적인 파이썬 클래스이므로, 서브 클래스를 사용하여 기능
을 쉽게 추가하거나 변경할 수 있습니다.  계산된 필드와 고정 너비 인쇄 포
맷을 추가하는 방법은 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
     ...     __slots__ = ()
     ...     @property
     ...     def hypot(self):
     ...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)

     >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
     ...     print(p)
     Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
     Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

위에 표시된 서브 클래스는 ‘__slots__’를 빈 튜플로 설정합니다.  이렇게 하
면 인스턴스 딕셔너리 생성을 방지하여 메모리 요구 사항을 낮게 유지할 수 있
습니다.

서브 클래싱은 저장된 새 필드를 추가하는 데는 유용하지 않습니다.  대신,
*note _fields: 252c. 어트리뷰트로 새로운 네임드 튜플 형을 만드십시오:

     >>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

‘__doc__’ 필드에 직접 대입하여 독스트링을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다:

     >>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
     >>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
     >>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
     >>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
     >>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'

버전 3.5에서 변경: 프로퍼티 독스트링이 쓰기 가능하게 되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

   * 네임드 튜플에 형 힌트를 추가하는 방법은 *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2b0.을 참조하십시오.  이것은 *note class: 12c7. 키워드를 사용하는 우
     아한 표기법도 제공합니다:

          class Component(NamedTuple):
              part_number: int
              weight: float
              description: Optional[str] = None

   * 튜플 대신 하부 딕셔너리를 기반으로 하는 가변 이름 공간에 대해서는
     *note types.SimpleNamespace(): 1d1.를 참조하십시오.

   * *note dataclasses: 2f. 모듈은 사용자 정의 클래스에 생성된 특수 메서
     드를 자동으로 추가하는 데코레이터와 함수를 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict 객체,  Next: UserDict 객체,  Prev: 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.9 ‘OrderedDict’ 객체
..........................

순서 있는 딕셔너리는 일반 딕셔너리와 비슷하지만, 순서를 다루는 연산과 관
련된 몇 가지 추가 기능이 있습니다.  내장 *note dict: 256. 클래스가 삽입
순서를 기억하는 기능을 얻었으므로 (이 새로운 동작은 파이썬 3.7에서 보장
되었습니다), 이제 덜 중요해졌습니다.

몇 가지 *note dict: 256.와의 차이점은 여전히 남아 있습니다:

   * 일반 *note dict: 256.는 매핑 연산에 매우 적합하도록 설계되었습니다.
     삽입 순서 추적은 부차적입니다.

   * *note OrderedDict: 5d5.는 순서를 바꾸는 연산에 적합하도록 설계되었
     습니다.  공간 효율성, 이터레이션 속도 및 갱신 연산의 성능은 부차적
     입니다.

   * *note OrderedDict: 5d5. 알고리즘은 *note dict: 256.보다 빈번한 순서
     변경 연산을 더 잘 처리할 수 있습니다.  아래의 조리법에서 볼 수 있듯
     이, 이는 다양한 종류의 LRU 캐시를 구현하는 데 적합합니다.

   * *note OrderedDict: 5d5.의 동등 비교 연산은 순서의 일치를 확인합니다
     .

     A regular *note dict: 256. can emulate the order sensitive equality
     test with ‘p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1, k2 in zip(p, q))’.

   * *note OrderedDict: 5d5.의 *note popitem(): 12dd. 메서드는 서명이 다
     릅니다.  어떤 항목을 팝 할지는 지정하는 선택적 인자를 받아들입니다.

     A regular *note dict: 256. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.popitem(last=True)’ with ‘d.popitem()’ which is guaranteed to
     pop the rightmost (last) item.

     A regular *note dict: 256. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.popitem(last=False)’ with ‘(k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k))’
     which will return and remove the leftmost (first) item if it
     exists.

   * *note OrderedDict: 5d5.에는 요소를 효율적으로 끝으로 재배치하는
     *note move_to_end(): 11ce. 메서드가 있습니다.

     A regular *note dict: 256. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=True)’ with ‘d[k] = d.pop(k)’ which will
     move the key and its associated value to the rightmost (last)
     position.

     A regular *note dict: 256. does not have an efficient equivalent
     for OrderedDict’s ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=False)’ which moves the
     key and its associated value to the leftmost (first) position.

   * 파이썬 3.8 이전에는, *note dict: 256.에 *note __reversed__(): 1f65.
     메서드가 없었습니다.

 -- 클래스: collections.OrderedDict ([items])

     딕셔너리 순서 재배치에 특화된 메서드가 있는 *note dict: 256. 서브 클
     래스의 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: popitem (last=True)

          순서 있는 딕셔너리의 *note popitem(): 12dd. 메서드는 (키, 값)
          쌍을 반환하고 제거합니다.  'last'가 참이면 쌍이 LIFO 순서로 반
          환되고, 거짓이면 FIFO (first-in, first-out - 선입선출) 순서로
          반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: move_to_end (key, last=True)

          기존 'key'를 순서 있는 딕셔너리의 한쪽 끝으로 옮깁니다.
          'last'가 참(기본값)이면 항목은 오른쪽 끝으로 이동하고, 'last'가
          거짓이면 처음으로 이동합니다.  'key'가 존재하지 않으면 *note
          KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다:

               >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
               >>> d.move_to_end('b')
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'acdeb'
               >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'bacde'

          Added in version 3.2.

일반적인 매핑 메서드 외에도 순서 있는 딕셔너리는 *note reversed(): 860.를
사용하는 역 이터레이션을 지원합니다.  *note OrderedDict: 5d5. 객체 간의
동등성(equality) 테스트는 순서를 고려하며 대략
‘list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())’와 동등합니다.

*note OrderedDict: 5d5. 객체와 다른 *note Mapping: 8c7. 객체 간의 동등성
테스트는 일반 딕셔너리처럼 순서를 고려하지 않습니다.  이 때문에 *note
OrderedDict: 5d5. 객체를 일반 딕셔너리가 사용되는 모든 곳에 대체 할 수 있
습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: *note OrderedDict: 5d5.의 items, keys 및 values *note
뷰: 252e.는 이제 *note reversed(): 860.를 사용하는 역 이터레이션을 지원
합니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: PEP 468(1)을 수락함에 따라, *note OrderedDict: 5d5. 생
성자와 *note update(): 142b. 메서드로 전달된 키워드 인자의 순서가 보존됩
니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(2)에 지정된, 병합(‘|’)과 업데이트(‘|=’) 연산
자가 추가되었습니다.

* Menu:

* OrderedDict 예제와 조리법::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict 예제와 조리법,  Up: OrderedDict 객체

5.8.4.10 ‘OrderedDict’ 예제와 조리법
....................................

키가 '마지막에' 삽입된 순서를 기억하는 순서 있는 딕셔너리 변형을 만드는
것은 간단합니다.  새 항목이 기존 항목을 덮어쓰면, 원래 삽입 위치가 변경
되고 끝으로 이동합니다:

     class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
         '키가 마지막에 삽입된 순서로 항목을 저장합니다'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             super().__setitem__(key, value)
             self.move_to_end(key)

*note OrderedDict: 5d5.는 *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb.의 변형을 구
현하는 데에도 유용합니다:

     from collections import OrderedDict
     from time import time

     class TimeBoundedLRU:
         "오래된 항목을 무효화하고 새로 고치는 LRU 캐시."

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxage=30):
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { args : (timestamp, result)}
             self.func = func
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.maxage = maxage

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
                 if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
                     return result
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.cache[args] = time(), result
             if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                 self.cache.popitem(last=False)
             return result

     class MultiHitLRUCache:
         """ 여러 번 요청될 때까지 결과 캐싱을
              지연시키는 LRU 캐시.

             일회성 요청으로 인해 LRU 캐시를 비우는 것을 방지하기 위해,
             요청이 두 번 이상 이루어질 때까지 개시하지 않습니다.

         """

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxrequests=4096, cache_after=1):
             self.requests = OrderedDict()   # { uncached_key : request_count }
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { cached_key : function_result }
             self.func = func
             self.maxrequests = maxrequests  # 캐시되지 않은 요청의 최대 수
             self.maxsize = maxsize          # 저장된 반환값의 최대 수
             self.cache_after = cache_after

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 return self.cache[args]
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.requests[args] = self.requests.get(args, 0) + 1
             if self.requests[args] <= self.cache_after:
                 self.requests.move_to_end(args)
                 if len(self.requests) > self.maxrequests:
                     self.requests.popitem(last=False)
             else:
                 self.requests.pop(args, None)
                 self.cache[args] = result
                 if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                     self.cache.popitem(last=False)
             return result


File: python.info,  Node: UserDict 객체,  Next: UserList 객체,  Prev: OrderedDict 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.11 ‘UserDict’ 객체
........................

*note UserDict: 199b. 클래스는 딕셔너리 객체를 감싸는 래퍼 역할을 합니다
.  이 클래스의 필요성은 *note dict: 256.에서 직접 서브 클래싱 할 수 있는
능력에 의해 부분적으로 대체되었습니다; 그러나 하부 딕셔너리를 어트리뷰트
로 액세스 할 수 있어서, 이 클래스를 사용하면 작업하기가 더 쉬울 수 있습
니다.

 -- 클래스: collections.UserDict ([initialdata])

     딕셔너리를 시뮬레이트 하는 클래스.  인스턴스의 내용은 일반 딕셔너리
     에 보관되며, *note UserDict: 199b. 인스턴스의 *note data: 2531. 어
     트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있습니다.  'initialdata'가 제공되면
     *note data: 2531.는 그 내용으로 초기화됩니다; 'initialdata'에 대한
     참조는 유지되지 않아서, 다른 용도로 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note UserDict: 199b. 인스턴스는 매핑의 메서드와 연산을 지원할 뿐만
     아니라, 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: data

          *note UserDict: 199b. 클래스의 내용을 저장하는 데 사용되는 실
          제 딕셔너리.


File: python.info,  Node: UserList 객체,  Next: UserString 객체,  Prev: UserDict 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.12 ‘UserList’ 객체
........................

이 클래스는 리스트 객체를 둘러싸는 래퍼 역할을 합니다.  여러분 자신의 리
스트류 클래스가 상속하고 기존 메서드를 재정의하거나 새로운 메서드를 추가
할 수 있는 유용한 베이스 클래스입니다.  이런 식으로 리스트에 새로운 동작
을 추가 할 수 있습니다.

이 클래스의 필요성은 *note list: 60b.에서 직접 서브 클래싱할 수 있는 능
력에 의해 부분적으로 대체되었습니다; 그러나 하부 리스트에 어트리뷰트로 액
세스할 수 있어서, 이 클래스를 사용하면 작업하기가 더 쉬울 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: collections.UserList ([list])

     리스트를 시뮬레이트 하는 클래스.  인스턴스의 내용은 일반 리스트로 유
     지되며 *note UserList: 14ab. 인스턴스의 *note data: 2533. 어트리뷰
     트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있습니다.  인스턴스의 내용은 초기에 'list'의
     사본으로 설정되며, 기본값은 빈 목록 ‘[]’입니다.  'list'는 모든 이터
     러블일 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 실제 파이썬 리스트나 *note UserList:
     14ab. 객체.

     *note UserList: 14ab. 인스턴스는 가변 시퀀스의 메서드와 연산을 지원
     할 뿐만 아니라 다음 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: data

          *note UserList: 14ab. 클래스의 내용을 저장하는 데 사용되는 실
          제 *note list: 60b. 객체.

'서브 클래싱 요구 사항:' *note UserList: 14ab.의 서브 클래스는 인자가 없
거나 하나의 인자로 호출 할 수 있는 생성자를 제공해야 합니다.  새 시퀀스
를 반환하는 리스트 연산은 실제 구현 클래스의 인스턴스를 만들려고 시도합
니다.  이를 위해, 데이터 소스로 사용되는 시퀀스 객체인 단일 매개 변수로
생성자를 호출할 수 있다고 가정합니다.

파생 클래스가 이 요구 사항을 준수하고 싶지 않다면, 이 클래스에서 지원하
는 모든 특수 메서드를 재정의해야 합니다; 이때 제공해야 하는 메서드에 대
한 정보는 소스를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: UserString 객체,  Prev: UserList 객체,  Up: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형

5.8.4.13 ‘UserString’ 객체
..........................

*note UserString: dd1. 클래스는 문자열 객체를 둘러싸는 래퍼 역할을 합니
다.  이 클래스의 필요성은 *note str: 445.에서 직접 서브 클래싱할 수 있는
능력에 의해 부분적으로 대체되었습니다; 그러나 하부 문자열을 어트리뷰트로
액세스할 수 있어서, 이 클래스를 사용하면 작업하기가 더 쉬울 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: collections.UserString (seq)

     문자열 객체를 시뮬레이트 하는 클래스.  인스턴스의 내용은 일반 문자
     열 객체로 유지되며, *note UserString: dd1. 인스턴스의 *note data:
     2535. 어트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있습니다.  인스턴스의 내용은 처
     음에 'seq'의 사본으로 설정됩니다.  'seq' 인자는 내장 *note str():
     445. 함수를 사용하여 문자열로 변환 할 수 있는 모든 객체가 될 수 있
     습니다.

     *note UserString: dd1. 인스턴스는 문자열의 메서드와 연산을 지원할 뿐
     만 아니라 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: data

          *note UserString: dd1. 클래스의 내용을 저장하는 데 사용되는 실
          제 *note str: 445. 객체.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 새로운 메서드 ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__rmod__’,
     ‘casefold’, ‘format_map’, ‘isprintable’ 및 ‘maketrans’.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스,  Next: heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘,  Prev: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.5 ‘collections.abc’ — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스
-------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3: 이전에는, 이 모듈이 *note collections: 1d. 모듈의
일부였습니다.

'소스 코드:' Lib/_collections_abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 클래스가 특정 인터페이스를 제공하는지를 검사하는 데 사용할 수
있는 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5.를 제공합니다; 예를 들어, *note 해시
가능: 60a.인지 또는 *note 매핑: 11ab.인지입니다.

An *note issubclass(): 7ba. or *note isinstance(): 43b. test for an
interface works in one of three ways.

  1. A newly written class can inherit directly from one of the abstract
     base classes.  The class must supply the required abstract methods.
     The remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be
     overridden if desired.  Other methods may be added as needed:

          class C(Sequence):                      # 직접 상속
              def __init__(self): ...             # ABC 가 요구하지 않는 추가 메서드
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...  # 필수 추상 메서드
              def __len__(self):  ...             # 필수 추상 메서드
              def count(self, value): ...         # 선택적으로 믹스인 메서드를 재정의합니다

          >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
          True

  2. Existing classes and built-in classes can be registered as “virtual
     subclasses” of the ABCs.  Those classes should define the full API
     including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods.
     This lets users rely on *note issubclass(): 7ba. or *note
     isinstance(): 43b. tests to determine whether the full interface is
     supported.  The exception to this rule is for methods that are
     automatically inferred from the rest of the API:

          class D:                                 # 상속 없음
              def __init__(self): ...              # ABC 가 요구하지 않는 추가 메서드
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...   # 추상 메서드
              def __len__(self):  ...              # 추상 메서드
              def count(self, value): ...          # 믹스인 메서드
              def index(self, value): ...          # 믹스인 메서드

          Sequence.register(D)                     # 상속하는 대신 등록합니다

          >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
          True

     In this example, class ‘D’ does not need to define ‘__contains__’,
     ‘__iter__’, and ‘__reversed__’ because the *note in-operator: 207c,
     the *note iteration: 1217. logic, and the *note reversed(): 860.
     function automatically fall back to using ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__len__’.

  3. Some simple interfaces are directly recognizable by the presence of
     the required methods (unless those methods have been set to *note
     None: 66f.):

          class E:
              def __iter__(self): ...
              def __next__(self): ...

          >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
          True
          >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
          True

     Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an
     interface is more than just the presence of method names.
     Interfaces specify semantics and relationships between methods that
     cannot be inferred solely from the presence of specific method
     names.  For example, knowing that a class supplies ‘__getitem__’,
     ‘__len__’, and ‘__iter__’ is insufficient for distinguishing a
     *note Sequence: 11b3. from a *note Mapping: 8c7.

Added in version 3.9: These abstract classes now support ‘[]’.  See
*note 제네릭 에일리어스 형: 6ac. and PEP 585(2).

* Menu:

* Collections 추상 베이스 클래스::
* Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명::
* 예제와 조리법::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/_collections_abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Collections 추상 베이스 클래스,  Next: Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명,  Up: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스

5.8.5.1 Collections 추상 베이스 클래스
......................................

collections 모듈은 다음과 같은 *note ABC: 11a5.를 제공합니다:

ABC                                상속                       추상 메서드                 믹스인 메서드
                                                                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note Container: 2257. (1)                                    ‘__contains__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Hashable: 4ef. (2)                                      ‘__hash__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterable: 2255. (3) (4)                                 ‘__iter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterator: 2256. (5)          *note Iterable: 2255.      ‘__next__’                  ‘__iter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Reversible: c86. (6)         *note Iterable: 2255.      ‘__reversed__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Generator: dd7. (7)          *note Iterator: 2256.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Sized: 4f0. (8)                                         ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Callable: 7e3. (9)                                      ‘__call__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Collection: c85. (10)        *note Sized: 4f0,          ‘__contains__’,
                                   *note Iterable: 2255,      ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                   *note Container: 2257.     
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Sequence: 11b3.              *note Reversible: c86,     ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’, ‘index’ 및
                                   *note Collection: c85.                                 ‘count’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSequence: 1a1.        *note Sequence: 11b3.      ‘__getitem__’,              상속된 *note Sequence: 11b3. 메서드와 ‘append’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘clear’, ‘reverse’, ‘extend’, ‘pop’, ‘remove’ 및
                                                              ‘__delitem__’, ‘__len__’,   ‘__iadd__’
                                                              ‘insert’                    
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note ByteString: 2c3.             *note Sequence: 11b3.      ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    상속된 *note Sequence: 11b3. 메서드
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Set: 224d.                   *note Collection: c85.     ‘__contains__’,             ‘__le__’, ‘__lt__’, ‘__eq__’, ‘__ne__’, ‘__gt__’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__ge__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__or__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__rsub__’,
                                                                                          ‘__xor__’, ‘__rxor__’ 및 ‘isdisjoint’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSet: 2258.            *note Set: 224d.           ‘__contains__’,             상속된 *note Set: 224d. 메서드와 ‘clear’, ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’,      ‘remove’, ‘__ior__’, ‘__iand__’, ‘__ixor__’ 및
                                                              ‘add’, ‘discard’            ‘__isub__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Mapping: 8c7.                *note Collection: c85.     ‘__getitem__’,              ‘__contains__’, ‘keys’, ‘items’, ‘values’, ‘get’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__eq__’ 및 ‘__ne__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableMapping: 109f.        *note Mapping: 8c7.        ‘__getitem__’,              상속된 *note Mapping: 8c7. 메서드와 ‘pop’, ‘popitem’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘clear’, ‘update’ 및 ‘setdefault’
                                                              ‘__delitem__’,              
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note MappingView: 2259.           *note Sized: 4f0.                                      ‘__init__’, ‘__len__’ 및 ‘__repr__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note ItemsView: 225b.             *note MappingView: 2259,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 224d.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note KeysView: 225a.              *note MappingView: 2259,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 224d.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note ValuesView: 225c.            *note MappingView: 2259,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Collection: c85.                                 
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Awaitable: dd8. (11)                                    ‘__await__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Coroutine: dd9. (12)         *note Awaitable: dd8.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterable: ddb. (13)                                ‘__aiter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterator: dda. (14)     *note AsyncIterable: ddb.  ‘__anext__’                 ‘__aiter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncGenerator: c87. (15)    *note AsyncIterator: dda.  ‘asend’, ‘athrow’           ‘aclose’, ‘__aiter__’, ‘__anext__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Buffer: 2c4. (16)                                       ‘__buffer__’
                                                              

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (2) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (3) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (4) ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’를 검사하면 *note Iterable: 2255.로 등
록되었거나 *note __iter__(): 1cc9. 메서드가 있는 클래스를 감지하지만,
*note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드로 이터레이트 하는 클래스는 감지하지 않
습니다.  객체가 *note 이터러블: 1217.인지를 확인하는 유일하게 신뢰성 있
는 방법은 ‘iter(obj)’를 호출하는 것입니다.

   (5) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (6) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (7) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (8) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (9) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (10) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (11) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (12) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (13) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (14) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (15) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (16) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 66f.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.


File: python.info,  Node: Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명,  Next: 예제와 조리법,  Prev: Collections 추상 베이스 클래스,  Up: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스

5.8.5.2 Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명
....................................................

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Container

     *note __contains__(): 1f66. 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Hashable

     *note __hash__(): af8. 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Sized

     *note __len__(): 1f6b. 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Callable

     *note __call__(): 553. 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 253b. for details on how to
     use ‘Callable’ in type annotations.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Iterable

     *note __iter__(): 1cc9. 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC.

     ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’를 검사하면 *note Iterable: 2255.로 등록
     되었거나 *note __iter__(): 1cc9. 메서드가 있는 클래스를 감지하지만,
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드로 이터레이트 하는 클래스는 감지하
     지 않습니다.  객체가 *note 이터러블: 1217.인지를 확인하는 유일하게
     신뢰성 있는 방법은 ‘iter(obj)’를 호출하는 것입니다.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Collection

     길이가 있는 이터러블 컨테이너 클래스의 ABC.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Iterator

     *note __iter__(): 1ccc. 와 *note __next__(): 12bd. 메서드를 제공하
     는 클래스의 ABC. *note 이터레이터: 1ac.의 정의도 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Reversible

     *note __reversed__(): 1f65. 메서드도 제공하는 이터러블 클래스의
     ABC.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Generator

     *note send(): 1fd4, *note throw(): 4f2. 및 *note close(): 16fb. 메
     서드로 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 확장하는 PEP 342(1)에 정의된 프로토
     콜을 구현하는 *note 제너레이터: 1057. 클래스의 ABC.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 253c. for details
     on using ‘Generator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Sequence
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.MutableSequence
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.ByteString

     읽기 전용과 가변 *note 시퀀스: 4eb.의 ABC.

     구현 참고 사항: *note __iter__(): 1cc9, *note __reversed__(): 1f65.
     및 ‘index()’와 같은 일부 믹스인(mixin) 메서드는 하부 *note
     __getitem__(): 283. 메서드를 반복적으로 호출합니다.  따라서, *note
     __getitem__(): 283.이 상수 액세스 속도로 구현되면 믹스인 메서드는 선
     형 성능을 갖습니다; 그러나 하부 메서드가 선형이면 (링크드 리스트에
     서처럼), 믹스인은 2차 함수 성능을 가지므로 재정의해야 할 수 있습니
     다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: index() 메서드는 'stop'과 'start' 인자에 대한 지
     원을 추가했습니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     *note ByteString: 2c3. ABC has been deprecated.  For use in typing,
     prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4.  For use as an ABC, prefer *note
     Sequence: 11b3. or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Set
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.MutableSet

     읽기 전용과 가변 *note 집합: 217b.의 ABC.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Mapping
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.MutableMapping

     읽기 전용과 가변 *note 매핑: 11ab.의 ABC.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.MappingView
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.ItemsView
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.KeysView
 -- 클래스: collections.abc.ValuesView

     매핑, 항목, 키 및 값 *note 뷰: 252e.의 ABC.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Awaitable

     *note await: 1b9. 표현식에서 사용할 수 있는 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad.
     객체의 ABC. 사용자 정의 구현은 *note __await__(): 1fcf. 메서드를 제
     공해야 합니다.

     *note 코루틴: 48b. 객체와 *note Coroutine: dd9. ABC의 인스턴스는 모
     두 이 ABC의 인스턴스입니다.

          참고: CPython에서, 제너레이터 기반 코루틴(*note
          @types.coroutine: e80.으로 데코레이트 된 *note 제너레이터:
          1057.)은, *note __await__(): 1fcf. 메서드가 없어도 '어웨이터블
          ' 입니다.  이들에 대해 ‘isinstance(gencoro, Awaitable)’를 사용
          하면 ‘False’가 반환됩니다.  이들을 감지하려면 *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): e13.을 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Coroutine

     *note 코루틴: 48b. 호환 클래스의 ABC. *note 코루틴 객체(Coroutine
     Objects): 1f11.에 정의된 다음 메서드를 구현합니다: *note send():
     1fd3, *note throw(): 4f1. 및 *note close(): 1fd5.  사용자 정의 구현
     은 *note __await__(): 1fcf.도 구현해야 합니다.  모든 *note
     Coroutine: dd9. 인스턴스는 *note Awaitable: dd8.의 인스턴스이기도 합
     니다.

          참고: CPython에서, 제너레이터 기반 코루틴(*note
          @types.coroutine: e80.으로 데코레이트 된 *note 제너레이터:
          1057.)은, *note __await__(): 1fcf. 메서드가 없어도 '어웨이터블
          ' 입니다.  이들에 대해 ‘isinstance(gencoro, Coroutine)’을 사용
          하면 ‘False’가 반환됩니다.  이들을 감지하려면 *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): e13.을 사용하십시오.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 253c. for details
     on using ‘Coroutine’ in type annotations.  The variance and order
     of type parameters correspond to those of *note Generator: dd7.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.AsyncIterable

     ‘__aiter__’ 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC. *note 비동기 이터러블:
     d74.의 정의도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.AsyncIterator

     ‘__aiter__’ 와 ‘__anext__’ 메서드를 제공하는 클래스의 ABC. *note
     비동기 이터레이터: 1ab.의 정의도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

     PEP 525(2)와 PEP 492(3)에 정의된 프로토콜을 구현하는 *note 비동기
     제너레이터: 2046. 클래스의 ABC.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 253c. for details
     on using ‘AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: collections.abc.Buffer

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __buffer__(): 458. method,
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 391.  See PEP 688(4).

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: 예제와 조리법,  Prev: Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명,  Up: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스

5.8.5.3 예제와 조리법
.....................

ABC들은 클래스나 인스턴스가 특정 기능을 제공하는지 묻는 것을 허용합니다,
예를 들어:

     size = None
     if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
         size = len(myvar)

ABC 중 일부는 믹스인으로도 유용하여 컨테이너 API를 지원하는 클래스를 쉽
게 개발할 수 있게 합니다.  예를 들어, 전체 *note Set: 224d. API를 지원하
는 클래스를 작성하려면, *note __contains__(): 1f66, *note __iter__():
1cc9. 및 *note __len__(): 1f6b.의 세 가지 하부 추상 메서드 만 제공하면 됩
니다.  ABC는 ‘__and__()’와 *note isdisjoint(): 223b.와 같은 나머지 메서
드를 제공합니다:

     class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
         ''' 속도보다 공간을 선호하고 집합 원소가
             해시 가능할 필요가 없는 대안 집합 구현. '''
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.elements = lst = []
             for value in iterable:
                 if value not in lst:
                     lst.append(value)

         def __iter__(self):
             return iter(self.elements)

         def __contains__(self, value):
             return value in self.elements

         def __len__(self):
             return len(self.elements)

     s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
     s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
     overlap = s1 & s2            # __and__() 메서드는 자동으로 지원됩니다

*note Set: 224d.과 *note MutableSet: 2258.을 믹스인으로 사용할 때의 주의
사항:

  1. 일부 집합 연산은 새로운 집합을 만들기 때문에, 기본 믹스인 메서드는
     *note 이터러블: 1217.로부터 새 인스턴스를 만드는 방법이 필요합니다.
     클래스 생성자가 ‘ClassName(iterable)’ 형식의 서명을 가진 것으로 가
     정합니다.  이 가정은 새로운 집합을 생성하기 위해 ‘cls(iterable)’를
     호출하는 ‘_from_iterable()’이라는 내부 *note classmethod: 166.로 분
     리되었습니다.  *note Set: 224d. 믹스인이 다른 생성자 서명을 갖는 클
     래스에서 사용되고 있으면, 이터러블 인자로부터 새 인스턴스를 생성할
     수 있는 클래스 메서드나 일반 메서드로 ‘_from_iterable()’을 재정의해
     야 합니다.

  2. 비교를 재정의하려면 (의미는 고정되었으므로, 아마도 속도 때문에),
     *note __le__(): 12fb.와 *note __ge__(): 12fd.를 재정의하십시오, 그
     러면 다른 연산은 자동으로 맞춰집니다.

  3. *note Set: 224d. 믹스인은 집합의 해시값을 계산하는 ‘_hash()’ 메서드
     를 제공합니다; 그러나 모든 집합이 *note 해시 가능: 60a.하거나 불변
     이지는 않기 때문에 *note __hash__(): af8.는 정의되지 않습니다.  믹
     스인을 사용하여 집합 해시 가능성을 추가하려면, *note Set(): 224d.와
     *note Hashable(): 4ef.을 모두 상속한 다음, ‘__hash__ = Set._hash’를
     정의하십시오.

더 보기
.......

   * *note MutableSet: 2258.으로 구축한 예제 OrderedSet 조리법(1).

   * ABC에 대한 자세한 내용은, *note abc: 4. 모듈과 PEP 3119(2)를 참조하
     십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘,  Next: bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘,  Prev: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.6 ‘heapq’ — 힙 큐 알고리즘
------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/heapq.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 우선순위 큐 알고리즘이라고도 하는 힙(heap) 큐 알고리즘의 구현
을 제공합니다.

힙은 모든 부모 노드가 자식보다 작거나 같은 값을 갖는 이진 트리입니다.  이
조건을 힙 불변성이라고 합니다.

이 구현에서는 모든 'k'에 대해 ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’과 ‘heap[k] <=
heap[2*k+2]’인 배열을 사용합니다, 요소는 0부터 셉니다.  비교를 위해, 존
재하지 않는 요소는 무한으로 간주합니다.  힙의 흥미로운 특성은 가장 작은
요소가 항상 루트인 ‘heap[0]’이라는 것입니다.

아래의 API는 두 가지 측면에서 교과서 힙 알고리즘과 다릅니다: (a) 우리는
0부터 시작하는 인덱싱을 사용합니다.  이것은 노드의 인덱스와 자식의 인덱
스 사이의 관계를 약간 덜 분명하게 만들지만, 파이썬이 0부터 시작하는 인덱
스를 사용하기 때문에 더 적합합니다.  (b) pop 메서드는 가장 큰 항목이 아
닌 가장 작은 항목을 반환합니다 (교과서에서는 “최소 힙(min heap)”이라고 합
니다; “최대 힙(max heap)”은 제자리 정렬에 적합하기 때문에 텍스트에서 더
흔합니다).

이 두 가지가 힙을 놀라지 않고도 일반 파이썬 목록으로 볼 수 있도록 만듭니
다: ‘heap[0]’은 가장 작은 항목이고, ‘heap.sort()’는 힙의 불변성
(invariant)을 유지합니다!

힙을 만들려면, ‘[]’로 초기화된 리스트를 사용하거나, 함수 *note
heapify(): 2540.를 통해 값이 들어 있는 리스트를 힙으로 변환 할 수 있습니
다.

다음과 같은 함수가 제공됩니다:

 -- 함수: heapq.heappush (heap, item)

     힙 불변성을 유지하면서, 'item' 값을 'heap'으로 푸시합니다.

 -- 함수: heapq.heappop (heap)

     힙 불변성을 유지하면서, 'heap'에서 가장 작은 항목을 팝하고 반환합니
     다.  힙이 비어 있으면, *note IndexError: 14fc.가 발생합니다.  팝 하
     지 않고 가장 작은 항목에 액세스하려면, ‘heap[0]’을 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: heapq.heappushpop (heap, item)

     힙에 'item'을 푸시한 다음, 'heap'에서 가장 작은 항목을 팝하고 반환
     합니다.  결합한 액션은 *note heappush(): 1482.한 다음 *note
     heappop(): 1483.을 별도로 호출하는 것보다 더 효율적으로 실행합니다.

 -- 함수: heapq.heapify (x)

     리스트 'x'를 선형 시간으로 제자리에서 힙으로 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: heapq.heapreplace (heap, item)

     'heap'에서 가장 작은 항목을 팝하고 반환하며, 새로운 'item'도 푸시합
     니다.  힙 크기는 변경되지 않습니다.  힙이 비어 있으면, *note
     IndexError: 14fc.가 발생합니다.

     이 한 단계 연산은 *note heappop(): 1483.한 다음 *note heappush():
     1482.하는 것보다 더 효율적이며 고정 크기 힙을 사용할 때 더 적합 할
     수 있습니다.  팝/푸시 조합은 항상 힙에서 요소를 반환하고 그것을
     'item'으로 대체합니다.

     반환된 값은 추가된 'item'보다 클 수 있습니다.  그것이 바람직하지 않
     다면, 대신 *note heappushpop(): 2541. 사용을 고려하십시오.  푸시/팝
     조합은 두 값 중 작은 값을 반환하여, 힙에 큰 값을 남겨 둡니다.

이 모듈은 또한 힙 기반의 세 가지 범용 함수를 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: heapq.merge (*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)

     여러 정렬된 입력을 단일 정렬된 출력으로 병합합니다 (예를 들어, 여러
     로그 파일에서 타임 스탬프 된 항목을 병합합니다).  정렬된 값에 대한
     *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 반환합니다.

     ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))’와 비슷하지만 이터러블을 반환
     하고, 데이터를 한 번에 메모리로 가져오지 않으며, 각 입력 스트림이 이
     미 (최소에서 최대로) 정렬된 것으로 가정합니다.

     키워드 인자로 지정해야 하는 두 개의 선택적 인자가 있습니다.

     'key'는 각 입력 요소에서 비교 키를 추출하는 데 사용되는 단일 인자의
     *note 키 함수: e01.를 지정합니다.  기본값은 ‘None’입니다 (요소를 직
     접 비교합니다).

     'reverse'는 불리언 값입니다.  ‘True’로 설정하면, 각 비교가 반대로 된
     것처럼 입력 요소가 병합됩니다.
     ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables), reverse=True)’와 유사한 동작을
     달성하려면 모든 이터러블이 최대에서 최소로 정렬되어 있어야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 선택적 'key'와 'reverse' 매개 변수를 추가했습니
     다.

 -- 함수: heapq.nlargest (n, iterable, key=None)

     'iterable'에 의해 정의된 데이터 집합에서 'n' 개의 가장 큰 요소로 구
     성된 리스트를 반환합니다.  'key'가 제공되면 'iterable'의 각 요소에
     서 비교 키를 추출하는 데 사용되는 단일 인자 함수를 지정합니다 (예를
     들어, ‘key=str.lower’).  다음과 동등합니다: ‘sorted(iterable,
     key=key, reverse=True)[:n]’.

 -- 함수: heapq.nsmallest (n, iterable, key=None)

     'iterable'에 의해 정의된 데이터 집합에서 'n' 개의 가장 작은 요소로
     구성된 리스트를 반환합니다.  'key'가 제공되면 'iterable'의 각 요소
     에서 비교 키를 추출하는 데 사용되는 단일 인자 함수를 지정합니다 (예
     를 들어, ‘key=str.lower’).  다음과 동등합니다: ‘sorted(iterable,
     key=key)[:n]’.

마지막 두 함수는 작은 'n' 값에서 가장 잘 동작합니다.  값이 크면, *note
sorted(): bcb. 기능을 사용하는 것이 더 효율적입니다.  또한, ‘n==1’일 때
는, 내장 *note min(): f00.과 *note max(): f01. 함수를 사용하는 것이 더 효
율적입니다.  이 함수를 반복해서 사용해야 하면, iterable을 실제 힙으로 바
꾸는 것이 좋습니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 예::
* 우선순위 큐 구현 참고 사항::
* 이론::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/heapq.py


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 예,  Next: 우선순위 큐 구현 참고 사항,  Up: heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘

5.8.6.1 기본 예
...............

힙 정렬(1)은 모든 값을 힙으로 푸시한 다음 한 번에 하나씩 가장 작은 값을
팝 하여 구현할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def heapsort(iterable):
     ...     h = []
     ...     for value in iterable:
     ...         heappush(h, value)
     ...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
     ...
     >>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

이것은 ‘sorted(iterable)’과 비슷하지만, *note sorted(): bcb.와 달리, 이
구현은 안정적(stable)이지 않습니다.

힙 요소는 튜플일 수 있습니다.  추적하는 기본 레코드와 함께 비교 값(가령
작업 우선순위)을 지정하는 데 유용합니다:

     >>> h = []
     >>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
     >>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
     >>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
     >>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
     >>> heappop(h)
     (1, 'write spec')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort


File: python.info,  Node: 우선순위 큐 구현 참고 사항,  Next: 이론,  Prev: 기본 예,  Up: heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘

5.8.6.2 우선순위 큐 구현 참고 사항
..................................

우선순위 큐(1)는 힙의 일반적인 사용이며, 몇 가지 구현 과제가 있습니다:

   * 정렬 안정성: 우선순위가 같은 두 개의 작업을 어떻게 원래 추가된 순서
     대로 반환합니까?

   * 우선순위가 같고 작업에 기본 비교 순서가 없으면 (우선순위, 작업) 쌍
     에 대한 튜플 비교가 성립하지 않습니다.

   * 작업의 우선순위가 변경되면, 어떻게 힙의 새로운 위치로 옮깁니까?

   * 또는 계류 중인 작업을 삭제해야 하면, 작업을 어떻게 찾고 큐에서 제거
     합니까?

처음 두 가지 과제에 대한 해결책은 항목을 우선순위, 항목 수 및 작업을 포
함하는 3-요소 리스트로 저장하는 것입니다.  항목 수는 순위 결정자 역할을
하므로 우선순위가 같은 두 작업이 추가된 순서대로 반환됩니다.  두 항목 수
가 같은 경우는 없어서, 튜플 비교는 두 작업을 직접 비교하려고 하지 않습니
다.

비교할 수 없는 작업의 문제에 대한 또 다른 해결책은 작업 항목을 무시하고
우선순위 필드만 비교하는 래퍼 클래스를 만드는 것입니다:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     from typing import Any

     @dataclass(order=True)
     class PrioritizedItem:
         priority: int
         item: Any=field(compare=False)

나머지 과제는 계류 중인 작업을 찾고 우선순위를 변경하거나 완전히 제거하
는 것과 관련이 있습니다.  작업을 찾는 것은 큐에 있는 항목을 가리키는 딕
셔너리를 사용해서 해결할 수 있습니다.

힙 구조 불변성을 깨뜨리기 때문에 항목을 제거하거나 우선순위를 변경하는 것
은 더 어렵습니다.  따라서, 가능한 해결책은 항목을 제거된 것으로 표시하고
우선순위가 수정된 새 항목을 추가하는 것입니다:

     pq = []                         # l힙에 배치된 항목의 리스트
     entry_finder = {}               # 작업에서 항목으로의 매핑
     REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # 삭제된 작업을 위한 자리 표시기
     counter = itertools.count()     # 고유한 시퀀스 카운트

     def add_task(task, priority=0):
         '새 작업을 추가하거나 기존 작업의 우선순위를 갱신합니다'
         if task in entry_finder:
             remove_task(task)
         count = next(counter)
         entry = [priority, count, task]
         entry_finder[task] = entry
         heappush(pq, entry)

     def remove_task(task):
         '기존 작업을 REMOVED로 표시합니다.  발견되지 않으면 KeyError를 발생시킵니다.'
         entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
         entry[-1] = REMOVED

     def pop_task():
         '가장 낮은 우선순위 작업을 삭제하고 반환합니다. 비어있으면 KeyError를 발생시킵니다.
         while pq:
             priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
             if task is not REMOVED:
                 del entry_finder[task]
                 return task
         raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue


File: python.info,  Node: 이론,  Prev: 우선순위 큐 구현 참고 사항,  Up: heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘

5.8.6.3 이론
............

힙은 0부터 요소를 셀 때, 모든 'k'에 대해 ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+1]’와 ‘a[k] <=
a[2*k+2]’가 유지되는 배열입니다.  비교를 위해, 존재하지 않는 요소는 무한
인 것으로 간주합니다.  힙의 흥미로운 특성은 ‘a[0]’이 항상 가장 작은 요소
라는 것입니다.

위의 특이한 불변성은 토너먼트를 위한 효율적인 메모리 표현을 위한 것입니
다.  아래 숫자는 ‘a[k]’가 아니라 'k'입니다:

     0

                   1                                 2

           3               4                5               6

       7       8       9       10      11      12      13      14

     15 16   17 18   19 20   21 22   23 24   25 26   27 28   29 30

위의 트리에서, 각 셀 'k'는 ‘2*k+1’과 ‘2*k+2’위에 있습니다.  우리가 스포
츠에서 볼 수 있는 일반적인 이진 토너먼트에서, 각 셀은 아래에 있는 두 개
의 셀의 승자가 되며, 트리 아래로 승자를 추적하여 모든 상대를 볼 수 있습
니다.  그러나, 이러한 토너먼트의 많은 컴퓨터 응용에서 승자의 이력을 추적
할 필요는 없습니다.  메모리 효율성을 높이기 위해, 승자가 승격될 때, 하위
수준에서 다른 것으로 대체하려고 시도합니다.  규칙은 셀과 셀 아래의 두 셀
이 세 개의 다른 항목을 포함하지만, 위의 셀은 아래의 두 셀에 “이기는” 것
입니다.

이 힙 불변성이 항상 보호된다면, 인덱스 0은 분명히 최종 승자입니다.  이것
을 제거하고 “다음” 승자를 찾는 가장 간단한 알고리즘 적인 방법은 어떤 패
자(위의 도표에서 셀 30이라고 합시다)를 0 위치로 옮기고, 불변성을 다시 만
족할 때까지 값을 교환하면서 이 새로운 0을 트리 아래로 침투시키는 것입니
다.  이것은 트리의 총 항목 수에 대해 분명히 로그 함수적(logarithmic)입니
다.  모든 항목에 대해 반복하면, 'O'('n' log 'n') 정렬을 얻게 됩니다.

이 정렬의 멋진 기능은 삽입된 항목이 추출한 마지막 0번째 요소보다 “더 나
은” 항목이 아니라면, 정렬이 진행되는 동안 새 항목을 효율적으로 삽입 할 수
있다는 것입니다.  이는 트리가 들어오는 모든 이벤트를 담고, “승리” 조건이
가장 작은 예약 시간을 의미하는 시뮬레이션 문맥에서 특히 유용합니다.  이
벤트가 실행을 위해 다른 이벤트를 예약하면, 이들은 미래에 예약되어서, 쉽
게 힙에 들어갈 수 있습니다.  따라서, 힙은 스케줄러를 구현하기에 좋은 구
조입니다 (이것이 제가 MIDI 시퀀서에 사용한 것입니다 :-).

스케줄러를 구현하기 위한 다양한 구조가 광범위하게 연구되었으며, 힙은 합
리적으로 빠르며, 속도가 거의 일정합니다, 최악의 경우는 평균 경우와 크게
다르지 않기 때문에 스케줄러에 좋습니다.  하지만, 최악의 경우는 끔찍할 수
있습니다만, 전반적으로 더 효율적인 다른 표현이 있기는 합니다.

힙은 큰 디스크 정렬에도 매우 유용합니다.  여러분은 아마도 큰 정렬은 “런
(runs)”(크기가 일반적으로 CPU 메모리 크기와 관련된 사전 정렬된 시퀀스)을
생성한 후에 이러한 런들에 대한 병합 패스가 따라옴을 의미하며, 이러한 병
합은 종종 매우 영리하게 조직됨을 알고 있을 겁니다 (1).  초기 정렬이 가능
한 한 가장 긴 런을 생성하는 것이 매우 중요합니다.  토너먼트는 이를 달성
하기 위한 좋은 방법입니다.  토너먼트를 개최하는 데 사용할 수 있는 모든 메
모리를 사용하여 현재 런에 맞는 항목들을 교체하고 침투시키면, 무작위 입력
을 위한 메모리 크기의 두 배인 런을 생성하게 되고, 적당히 정렬된 입력에 대
해서는 더 좋습니다.

더 나아가, 또한 디스크에 0번째 항목을 출력하고 현재 토너먼트에 맞지 않는
입력을 받으면 (그 값이 마지막 출력값을 “이기기” 때문에), 힙에 넣을 수 없
어서 힙의 크기가 줄어듭니다.  해제된 메모리는 두 번째 힙을 점진적으로 구
축하는데 즉시 영리하게 재사용될 수 있고, 두 번째 힙이 자라는 속도는 첫 번
째 힙이 줄어드는 것과 같습니다.  첫 번째 힙이 완전히 사라지면, 힙을 전환
하고 새 런을 시작합니다.  영리하고 매우 효과적입니다!

한마디로, 힙은 알아두어야 할 유용한 메모리 구조입니다.  저는 몇 가지 응
용 프로그램에서 사용하며, ‘힙’ 모듈을 근처에 두는 것이 좋다고 생각합니다
.  :-)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 요즘 최신 디스크 밸런싱 알고리즘은 영리하다기보다는 성가시며, 이
는 디스크의 탐색(seek) 기능으로 인한 결과입니다.  큰 테이프 드라이브와 같
이 탐색할 수 없는 장치에서는, 이야기가 상당히 달랐으며, 각 테이프 움직임
이 가장 효과적일 수 있도록 (즉, 병합을 “진행하는데” 최대한 참여할 수 있
도록) (일찌감치) 계획하기 위해 아주 영리해야 했습니다.  일부 테이프는 반
대 방향으로 읽을 수도 있었으며, 이것은 되감기 시간을 피하는 데 사용되기
도 했습니다.  저를 믿으십시오, 진짜 훌륭한 테이프 정렬은 장관이었습니다!
언제나, 정렬은 항상 위대한 예술이었습니다!  :-)


File: python.info,  Node: bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘,  Next: array — 효율적인 숫자 배열,  Prev: heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.7 ‘bisect’ — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/bisect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 정렬된 리스트를 삽입 후에 다시 정렬할 필요 없도록 관리할 수 있
도록 지원합니다.  값비싼 비교 연산이 포함된 항목의 긴 리스트의 경우, 이
는 선형 검색이나 빈번한 재정렬에 비해 개선된 것입니다.

이 모듈은 기본적인 이진 분할 알고리즘을 사용하기 때문에 *note bisect:
11.라고 불립니다.  특정 값을 검색하는 다른 이진 분할 도구와 달리, 이 모
듈의 함수는 삽입 지점을 찾도록 설계되었습니다.  따라서, 함수는 값을 찾았
는지 판단하기 위해 *note __eq__(): af7. 메서드를 호출하지 않습니다.  대
신, 함수는 *note __lt__(): 128f. 메서드만 호출하고 배열에 있는 값 사이의
삽입 지점을 반환합니다.

     참고: The functions in this module are not thread-safe.  If
     multiple threads concurrently use *note bisect: 11. functions on
     the same sequence, this may result in undefined behaviour.
     Likewise, if the provided sequence is mutated by a different thread
     while a *note bisect: 11. function is operating on it, the result
     is undefined.  For example, using *note insort_left(): 254a. on the
     same list from multiple threads may result in the list becoming
     unsorted.
다음과 같은 함수가 제공됩니다:

 -- 함수: bisect.bisect_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     정렬된 순서를 유지하도록 'a'에 'x'를 삽입할 위치를 찾습니다.  매개
     변수 'lo' 와 'hi'는 고려해야 할 리스트의 부분집합을 지정하는 데 사
     용될 수 있습니다; 기본적으로 전체 리스트가 사용됩니다.  'x'가 'a'에
     이미 있으면, 삽입 위치는 기존 항목 앞(왼쪽)이 됩니다.  반환 값은
     'a'가 이미 정렬되었다고 가정할 때 ‘list.insert()’의 첫 번째 매개 변
     수로 사용하기에 적합합니다.

     반환된 삽입 위치 'ip'는 배열 'a'를 두 개의 조각으로 분할하여, 왼쪽
     에 대해서는 ‘all(elem < x for elem in a[lo : ip])’이 참이고, 오른쪽
     에 대해서는 ‘all(elem >= x for elem in a[ip : hi])’이 참이 되도록 만
     듭니다.

     'key' specifies a *note key function: e01. of one argument that is
     used to extract a comparison key from each element in the array.
     To support searching complex records, the key function is not
     applied to the 'x' value.

     If 'key' is ‘None’, the elements are compared directly and no key
     function is called.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'key' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: bisect.bisect_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- 함수: bisect.bisect (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     *note bisect_left(): 254c.와 비슷하지만, 'a'에 있는 'x'의 기존 항목
     뒤(오른쪽)에 오는 삽입 위치를 반환합니다.

     반환된 삽입 위치 'ip'는 배열 'a'를 두 개의 조각으로 분할하여, 왼쪽
     에 대해서는 ‘all(elem <= x for elem in a[lo : ip])’이 참이고, 오른
     쪽에 대해서는 ‘all(elem > x for elem in a[ip : hi])’이 참이 되도록
     만듭니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'key' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: bisect.insort_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Insert 'x' in 'a' in sorted order.

     This function first runs *note bisect_left(): 254c. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the ‘insert()’ method on 'a' to
     insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'key' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: bisect.insort_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- 함수: bisect.insort (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     *note insort_left(): 254a.와 비슷하지만, 'a'에 'x'를 'x'의 기존 항
     목 다음에 삽입합니다.

     This function first runs *note bisect_right(): 254d. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the ‘insert()’ method on 'a' to
     insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'key' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

* Menu:

* Performance Notes::
* 정렬된 리스트 검색하기::
* 예제: 예제<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bisect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Performance Notes,  Next: 정렬된 리스트 검색하기,  Up: bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘

5.8.7.1 Performance Notes
.........................

When writing time sensitive code using 'bisect()' and 'insort()', keep
these thoughts in mind:

   * Bisection is effective for searching ranges of values.  For
     locating specific values, dictionaries are more performant.

   * The 'insort()' functions are 'O'('n') because the logarithmic
     search step is dominated by the linear time insertion step.

   * The search functions are stateless and discard key function results
     after they are used.  Consequently, if the search functions are
     used in a loop, the key function may be called again and again on
     the same array elements.  If the key function isn’t fast, consider
     wrapping it with *note functools.cache(): 1527. to avoid duplicate
     computations.  Alternatively, consider searching an array of
     precomputed keys to locate the insertion point (as shown in the
     examples section below).

더 보기
.......

   * Sorted Collections(1) is a high performance module that uses
     'bisect' to managed sorted collections of data.

   * bisect를 사용하여 직접적인 검색 메서드와 키 함수 지원을 포함하는 완
     전한 기능을 갖춘 컬렉션 클래스를 만드는 SortedCollection recipe(2).
     검색 중에 불필요한 키 함수 호출을 피하고자 키는 미리 계산됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://grantjenks.com/docs/sortedcollections/

   (2) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/


File: python.info,  Node: 정렬된 리스트 검색하기,  Next: 예제<2>,  Prev: Performance Notes,  Up: bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘

5.8.7.2 정렬된 리스트 검색하기
..............................

위의 *note bisect functions: 254b.는 삽입 위치를 찾는 데 유용하지만, 일
반적인 검색 작업에 사용하기가 까다롭거나 어색할 수 있습니다.  다음 다섯
함수는 정렬된 리스트에 대한 표준 조회로 변환하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     def index(a, x):
         'x 와 정확히 같은 가장 왼쪽의 값을 찾습니다'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
             return i
         raise ValueError

     def find_lt(a, x):
         'x보다 작은 가장 오른쪽 값을 찾습니다'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_le(a, x):
         'x보다 작거나 같은 가장 오른쪽 값을 찾습니다'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_gt(a, x):
         'x보다 큰 가장 왼쪽 값을 찾습니다'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError

     def find_ge(a, x):
         'x보다 크거나 같은 가장 왼쪽 항목을 찾습니다'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<2>,  Prev: 정렬된 리스트 검색하기,  Up: bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘

5.8.7.3 예제
............

*note bisect(): 254e. 함수는 숫자 테이블 조회에 유용할 수 있습니다.  이
예제는 *note bisect(): 254e.를 사용하여 (가령) 시험 점수에 대한 문자 등
급을 조회하는데, 정렬된 숫자 경계점 집합에 기반합니다: 90 이상은 ‘A’,
80에서 89는 ‘B’ 등입니다:

     >>> def grade(score, breakpoints=[60, 70, 80, 90], grades='FDCBA'):
     ...     i = bisect(breakpoints, score)
     ...     return grades[i]
     ...
     >>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
     ['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']

The *note bisect(): 254e. and *note insort(): 2550. functions also work
with lists of tuples.  The 'key' argument can serve to extract the field
used for ordering records in a table:

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> from operator import attrgetter
     >>> from bisect import bisect, insort
     >>> from pprint import pprint

     >>> Movie = namedtuple('Movie', ('name', 'released', 'director'))

     >>> movies = [
     ...     Movie('Jaws', 1975, 'Spielberg'),
     ...     Movie('Titanic', 1997, 'Cameron'),
     ...     Movie('The Birds', 1963, 'Hitchcock'),
     ...     Movie('Aliens', 1986, 'Cameron')
     ... ]

     >>> # 1960년 이후 개봉한 최초의 영화를 찾습니다
     >>> by_year = attrgetter('released')
     >>> movies.sort(key=by_year)
     >>> movies[bisect(movies, 1960, key=by_year)]
     Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock')

     >>> # 정렬 순서를 유지하면서 영화를 삽입합니다
     >>> romance = Movie('Love Story', 1970, 'Hiller')
     >>> insort(movies, romance, key=by_year)
     >>> pprint(movies)
     [Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock'),
      Movie(name='Love Story', released=1970, director='Hiller'),
      Movie(name='Jaws', released=1975, director='Spielberg'),
      Movie(name='Aliens', released=1986, director='Cameron'),
      Movie(name='Titanic', released=1997, director='Cameron')]

키 함수가 비싸면, 미리 계산된 키 목록을 검색하여 레코드의 인덱스를 찾으
면 반복돠는 함수 호출을 피할 수 있습니다:

     >>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
     >>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])       # 또는 operator.itemgetter(1) 를 사용하세요.
     >>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # 미리 계산된 키 리스트.
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
     ('black', 0)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
     ('blue', 1)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
     ('red', 5)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
     ('yellow', 8)


File: python.info,  Node: array — 효율적인 숫자 배열,  Next: weakref — 약한 참조,  Prev: bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.8 ‘array’ — 효율적인 숫자 배열
----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 문자, 정수, 부동 소수점 숫자와 같은 기본적인 값의 배열을 간결
하게 표현할 수 있는 객체 형을 정의합니다.  배열은 시퀀스 형이며 리스트와
매우 비슷하게 행동합니다만, 그곳에 저장되는 객체의 형이 제약된다는 점이
다릅니다.  형은 객체 생성 시에 단일 문자인 '형 코드(type code)'를 사용하
여 지정됩니다.  다음 형 코드가 정의됩니다:

형 코드         C 형                     파이썬 형               최소 크기(바이트)           노트
                                                                                             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             
‘'b'’           signed char              int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'B'’           unsigned char            int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'u'’           wchar_t                  유니코드 문자           2                           (1)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'w'’           Py_UCS4                  유니코드 문자           4                           (2)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'h'’           signed short             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'H'’           unsigned short           int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'i'’           signed int               int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'I'’           unsigned int             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'l'’           signed long              int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'L'’           unsigned long            int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'q'’           signed long long         int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'Q'’           unsigned long long       int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'f'’           float                    float                   4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'d'’           double                   float                   8
                                                                 

노트:

  1. 플랫폼에 따라 16비트 또는 32비트 일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘array('u')’는 이제 폐지된 ‘Py_UNICODE’ 대신
     ‘wchar_t’를 C형으로 사용합니다.  ‘Py_UNICODE’는 파이썬 3.3부터
     ‘wchar_t’의 별칭이라서 이 변경은 동작에 영향을 미치지 않습니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 3.16:
     Please migrate to ‘'w'’ typecode.

  2. 
     Added in version 3.13.

값의 실제 표현은 기계 아키텍처에 의해(엄격히 말하자면 C 구현에 의해) 결
정됩니다.  실제 크기는 *note array.itemsize: 2557. 어트리뷰트를 통해 액
세스할 수 있습니다.

모듈은 다음 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: array.typecodes

     사용 가능한 모든 형 코드가 있는 문자열.

모듈은 다음 형을 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: array.array (typecode[, initializer])

     항목이 'typecode'에 의해 제한되는 새 배열, 선택적인 'initializer' 값
     으로 초기화되는데, *note bytes: 1c2. 나 *note bytearray: 538. 객체,
     유니코드 문자열 또는 적절한 형의 요소에 대한 이터러블이어야 합니다.

     *note bytes: 1c2. 나 *note bytearray: 538. 객체가 주어지면,
     initializer는 새 배열의 *note frombytes(): 1262. 메서드로 전달됩니
     다; 유니코드 문자열이 주어지면, initializer는 *note fromunicode():
     2559. 메서드로 전달됩니다; 그렇지 않으면, initializer의 이터레이터
     가 *note extend(): 255a. 메서드에 전달되어 배열에 초기 항목들을 추
     가합니다.

     배열 객체는 인덱싱, 슬라이싱, 이어붙이기 및 곱셈과 같은 일반적인 시
     퀀스 연산을 지원합니다.  슬라이스 대입을 사용할 때, 대입되는 값은 같
     은 형 코드의 배열 객체여야 합니다; 다른 모든 경우에는, *note
     TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.  배열 객체는 버퍼 인터페이스도 구현하
     며, *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.가 지원되는 곳이면 어디에서나 사용될
     수 있습니다.

     ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’ 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘array.__new__’를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 속성: typecode

          배열을 만드는 데 사용된 typecode 문자.

      -- 속성: itemsize

          내부 표현에서 하나의 배열 항목의 길이 (바이트).

      -- 메서드: append (x)

          배열의 끝에 값 'x'로 새 항목을 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: buffer_info ()

          배열의 내용을 담는 데 사용된 버퍼의 현재 메모리 주소와 요소의
          수로 표현한 길이를 제공하는 튜플 ‘(address, length)’를 반환합
          니다.  바이트 단위의 메모리 버퍼 크기는
          ‘array.buffer_info()[1] * array.itemsize’로 계산할 수 있습니다
          .  이것은 특정 ‘ioctl()’ 연산과 같은 메모리 주소가 필요한 저수
          준(그리고 근본적으로 안전하지 않은) I/O 인터페이스로 작업할 때
          간혹 유용합니다.  반환된 숫자는 배열이 존재하고 길이 변경 연산
          이 적용되지 않는 한 유효합니다.

               참고: C나 C++로 작성된 코드(이 정보를 효율적으로 사용하는
               유일한 방법)에서 배열 객체를 사용할 때, 배열 객체가 지원
               하는 버퍼 인터페이스를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  이 메서드
               는 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 유지되며 새 코드에서는 사
               용하지 않아야 합니다.  버퍼 인터페이스는 *note 버퍼
               프로토콜: 391.에 설명되어 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: byteswap ()

          배열의 모든 항목을 “바이트 스와프(byteswap)” 합니다.  1, 2, 4
          또는 8바이트 크기의 값에 대해서만 지원됩니다; 다른 형의 값이면
          *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  바이트 순서가 다른 컴
          퓨터에서 작성된 파일에서 데이터를 읽을 때 유용합니다.

      -- 메서드: count (x)

          배열 내에서 'x'가 등장하는 횟수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: extend (iterable)

          'iterable'의 항목을 배열의 끝에 추가합니다.  'iterable'이 다른
          배열이면, '정확히' 같은 형 코드를 가져야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면
          , *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.  'iterable'이 배열이 아
          니면, 이터러블이어야 하며 요소는 배열에 추가할 올바른 형이어야
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: frombytes (buffer)

          *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.에서 항목을 추가합니다.  내용을 기
          곗값(machine value)의 배열로 해석합니다 (마치 *note
          fromfile(): 12b0. 메서드를 사용하여 파일에서 읽은 것처럼).

          Added in version 3.2: ‘fromstring()’은 명확하게 하려고 *note
          frombytes(): 1262.로 이름을 바꿨습니다.

      -- 메서드: fromfile (f, n)

          *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'f'에서 (기곗값으로) 'n' 항목을 읽고 배
          열의 끝에 추가합니다.  'n' 미만의 항목만 사용할 수 있으면
          *note EOFError: 12c9.가 발생하지만, 사용 가능한 항목은 여전히
          배열에 삽입됩니다.

      -- 메서드: fromlist (list)

          리스트에서 항목을 추가합니다.  이것은 형 에러가 있으면 배열이
          변경되지 않는다는 점만 제외하면 ‘for x in list: a.append(x)’와
          동등합니다.

      -- 메서드: fromunicode (s)

          주어진 유니코드 문자열의 데이터로 이 배열을 확장합니다.  배열
          은 형 코드가 ‘'u'’ 나 ‘'w'’ 이어야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면 *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  다른 형의 배열에 유니코드 데이
          터를 추가하려면 ‘array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))’를
          사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          Return the smallest 'i' such that 'i' is the index of the
          first occurrence of 'x' in the array.  The optional arguments
          'start' and 'stop' can be specified to search for 'x' within a
          subsection of the array.  Raise *note ValueError: 202. if 'x'
          is not found.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: Added optional 'start' and 'stop'
          parameters.

      -- 메서드: insert (i, x)

          'i' 위치 앞에 값이 'x'인 새 항목을 배열에 삽입합니다.  음수 값
          은 배열 끝에 상대적인 값으로 처리됩니다.

      -- 메서드: pop ([i])

          배열에서 인덱스 'i'에 있는 항목을 제거하고 이를 반환합니다.  선
          택적 인자의 기본값은 ‘-1’이므로, 기본적으로 마지막 항목이 제거
          되고 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: remove (x)

          배열에서 첫 번째 'x'를 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          배열에서 모든 항목을 제거합니다.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: reverse ()

          배열의 항목 순서를 뒤집습니다.

      -- 메서드: tobytes ()

          배열을 기곗값 배열로 변환하고 바이트열 표현(*note tofile():
          12b1. 메서드로 파일에 기록될 바이트 시퀀스와 같습니다)을 반환
          합니다.

          Added in version 3.2: ‘tostring()’은 명확하게 하려고 *note
          tobytes(): 1261.로 이름을 바꿨습니다.

      -- 메서드: tofile (f)

          모든 항목을 (기곗값으로) *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'f'에 씁니다.

      -- 메서드: tolist ()

          배열을 같은 항목이 있는 일반 리스트로 변환합니다.

      -- 메서드: tounicode ()

          배열을 유니코드 문자열로 변환합니다.  배열은 형 코드가 ‘'u'’ 나
          ‘'w'’ 이어야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발
          생합니다.  다른 형의 배열로부터 유니코드 문자열을 얻으려면
          ‘array.tobytes().decode(enc)’를 사용하십시오.

배열 객체의 문자열 표현은 ‘array(typecode, initializer)’ 형태를 취합니다
.  배열이 비어 있으면 'initializer'가 생략되고, 그렇지 않으면
'typecode'가 ‘'u'’ 나 ‘'w'’ 인 경우 유니코드 문자열이 되고, 그렇지 않으
면 숫자 리스트가 됩니다.  문자열 표현은 *note eval(): 180.을 사용하여 같
은 형과 값을 갖는 배열로 다시 변환될 수 있음이 보장됩니다.  단 ‘from
array import array’를 사용하여 *note array: 1a0. 클래스를 임포트 한다고
가정합니다.  변수 ‘inf’ 와 ‘nan’ 도 해당 부동소수점 값을 포함하는 경우 정
의해야합니다.  예:

     array('l')
     array('w', 'hello \u2641')
     array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
     array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14, -inf, nan])

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note struct: d5.

     이질적인(heterogeneous) 바이너리 데이터의 패킹과 언 패킹.

NumPy(1)

     NumPy 패키지는 다른 배열형을 정의합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: weakref — 약한 참조,  Next: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름,  Prev: array — 효율적인 숫자 배열,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.9 ‘weakref’ — 약한 참조
---------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/weakref.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note weakref: 114. 모듈은 파이썬 프로그래머가 객체에 대한 '약한 참조
(weak references)'를 만들 수 있도록 합니다.

이하에서, 용어 '참조대상(referent)'은 약한 참조로 참조되는 객체를 의미합
니다.

객체에 대한 약한 참조만으로는 객체를 살아있게 유지할 수 없습니다: 참조대
상에 대한 유일한 남은 참조가 약한 참조면, *note 가비지 수거: 1920.는 자
유롭게 참조대상을 파괴하고 메모리를 다른 용도로 재사용할 수 있습니다.  그
러나 객체가 실제로 파괴될 때까지 약한 참조는 강한 참조가 없어도 객체를 반
환할 수 있습니다.

약한 참조의 주요 용도는 큰 객체를 보유하는 캐시나 매핑을 구현하는 것입니
다.  큰 객체는 캐시나 매핑에 등장한다는 이유만으로 살아 있지 않아야 합니
다.

예를 들어, 큰 바이너리 이미지 객체가 여러 개 있을 때, 이름을 각 객체와 연
관 지을 수 있습니다.  파이썬 딕셔너리를 사용하여 이름을 이미지에 매핑하
거나 이미지를 이름에 매핑하면, 이미지 객체는 딕셔너리에 값이나 키로 등장
하기 때문에 계속 살아있게 됩니다.  *note weakref: 114. 모듈에서 제공하는
*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1974.와 *note WeakValueDictionary: 1973. 클래스
는 대안이며, 약한 참조를 사용하여 매핑을 구축하기 때문에 매핑 객체에 등
장한다는 이유만으로 객체를 살려두지 않습니다.  예를 들어 이미지 객체가
*note WeakValueDictionary: 1973. 의 값이면, 해당 이미지 객체에 대한 마지
막 남은 참조가 약한 매핑에 들어 있는 약한 참조이면, 가비지 수거는 객체를
회수할 수 있으며, 약한 매핑의 해당 항목은 간단히 삭제됩니다.

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1974.와 *note WeakValueDictionary: 1973.는 구현
에 약한 참조를 사용하여, 가비지 수거에서 키나 값이 회수될 때, 약한 딕셔
너리에 알리는 약한 참조에 대한 콜백 함수를 설정합니다.  *note WeakSet:
5d7.은 *note set: 5d3. 인터페이스를 구현하지만, *note WeakKeyDictionary:
1974. 처럼 원소에 대한 약한 참조를 유지합니다.

*note finalize: a79.는 객체가 가비지 수거될 때 호출될 정리 함수를 등록하
는 간단한 방법을 제공합니다.  이 모듈은 원시 약한 참조에 콜백 함수를 설
정하는 것보다 사용하기가 더 쉽습니다.  모듈은 객체가 수거될 때까지 자동
으로 파이널라이저가 활성 상태로 유지되도록 하기 때문입니다.

대부분의 프로그램은 이러한 약한 컨테이너형이나 *note finalize: a79.를 사
용하는 것으로 충분합니다 – 일반적으로 여러분 스스로 약한 참조를 직접 만
들 필요는 없습니다.  저수준 장치는 고급 용도를 위해 *note weakref: 114.
모듈이 노출합니다.

모든 객체를 약하게 참조할 수 있는 것은 아닙니다.  약한 참조를 지원하는 객
체에는 클래스 인스턴스, 파이썬으로 작성된 함수 (C로 작성된 함수는 아닙니
다), 인스턴스 메서드, 집합, 불변 집합(frozenset), 일부 *note 파일 객체:
11b2, *note 제너레이터: 1057, 형 객체, 소켓, 배열, 데크(deque), 정규식 패
턴 객체 및 코드 객체가 포함됩니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: thread.lock, threading.Lock 및 코드 객체에 대한 지원
이 추가되었습니다.

*note list: 60b.와 *note dict: 256.와 같은 여러 내장형은 약한 참조를 직
접 지원하지 않지만, 서브 클래싱을 통해 지원을 추가할 수 있습니다:

     class Dict(dict):
         pass

     obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # 이 객체는 약한 참조할 수 있습니다

*note tuple: 369.과 *note int: 257.와 같은 다른 내장형은 서브 클래싱 될
때도 약한 참조를 지원하지 않습니다.

확장형은 쉽게 약한 참조를 지원하도록 만들 수 있습니다; *note 약한 참조
지원: 2569.을 참조하십시오.

When ‘__slots__’ are defined for a given type, weak reference support is
disabled unless a ‘'__weakref__'’ string is also present in the sequence
of strings in the ‘__slots__’ declaration.  See *note __slots__
documentation: 1f38. for details.

 -- 클래스: weakref.ref (object[, callback])

     'object'에 대한 약한 참조를 반환합니다.  참조대상이 아직 살아있으면
     참조 객체를 호출하여 원래 객체를 얻을 수 있습니다.  참조대상이 더는
     존재하지 않으면 참조 객체를 호출할 때 *note None: 66f.이 반환됩니다
     .  *note None: 66f.이 아닌 'callback'이 제공되고, 반환된 약한 참조
     객체가 여전히 살아있으면, 객체가 파이널라이즈 되려고 할 때 콜백이 호
     출됩니다; 약한 참조 객체는 콜백에 유일한 매개 변수로 전달됩니다; 참
     조대상은 더는 사용할 수 없습니다.

     같은 객체에 대해 여러 개의 약한 참조를 구성할 수 있습니다.  각 약한
     참조에 등록된 콜백은 가장 최근에 등록된 콜백에서 가장 오래전에 등록
     된 콜백 순으로 호출됩니다.

     콜백에 의해 발생한 예외는 표준 에러 출력에 표시되지만, 전파될 수는
     없습니다; 객체의 *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드에서 발생한 예외와 정
     확히 같은 방식으로 처리됩니다.

     약한 참조는 'object'가 해시 가능하면 *note 해시 가능: 60a.입니다.
     'object'가 삭제된 후에도 해시값을 유지합니다.  오직 'object'가 삭제
     된 후에 *note hash(): 5e5.를 처음 호출하면, 호출은 *note TypeError:
     532.를 발생시킵니다.

     약한 참조는 동등 검사를 지원하지만, 순서는 지원하지 않습니다.  참조
     대상이 여전히 살아 있다면, 두 참조는 ('callback'과 관계없이) 참조대
     상과 같은 동등 관계를 갖습니다.  참조대상이 삭제되었으면, 참조 객체
     가 같은 객체일 때만 참조가 같습니다.

     이것은 팩토리 함수가 아니라 서브 클래싱 할 수 있는 형입니다.

      -- 속성: __callback__

          이 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트는 현재 약한 참조와 연관된 콜백을 반환
          합니다.  콜백이 없거나 약한 참조의 참조대상이 더는 살아있지 않
          으면 이 어트리뷰트의 값은 ‘None’이 됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note __callback__: fe7. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니
     다.

 -- 함수: weakref.proxy (object[, callback])

     'object'로의 약한 참조를 사용하는 프락시를 반환합니다.  이는 약한 참
     조 객체에서 사용되는 명시적 역참조를 요구하는 대신 대부분의 문맥에
     서 프락시의 사용을 지원합니다.  반환된 객체는 'object'가 콜러블인지
     에 따라 ‘ProxyType’이나 ‘CallableProxyType’ 형을 갖습니다.  프락시
     객체는 참조대상에 관계없이 *note 해시 가능: 60a.하지 않습니다; 이것
     은 그들의 근본적인 가변 특성과 관련된 여러 가지 문제를 피하고, 딕셔
     너리 키로 사용하는 것을 방지합니다.  'callback'은 *note ref(): fe6.
     함수의 같은 이름의 매개 변수와 같습니다.

     Accessing an attribute of the proxy object after the referent is
     garbage collected raises *note ReferenceError: 14d6.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 행렬 곱셈 연산자 ‘@’와 ‘@=’을 포함하도록 프락시
     객체에 대한 연산자 지원을 확장했습니다.

 -- 함수: weakref.getweakrefcount (object)

     'object'를 참조하는 약한 참조와 프락시의 개수를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: weakref.getweakrefs (object)

     'object'를 참조하는 모든 약한 참조와 프락시 객체의 리스트를 반환합
     니다.

 -- 클래스: weakref.WeakKeyDictionary ([dict])

     키를 약하게 참조하는 매핑 클래스.  더는 키에 대한 강한 참조가 없으
     면 딕셔너리의 항목이 삭제됩니다.  이것은 응용 프로그램의 다른 부분
     이 소유한 객체에 어트리뷰트를 추가하지 않고도 추가 데이터를 연결하
     는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  어트리뷰트 액세스를 재정의하는 객체에 특
     히 유용할 수 있습니다.

     Note that when a key with equal value to an existing key (but not
     equal identity) is inserted into the dictionary, it replaces the
     value but does not replace the existing key.  Due to this, when the
     reference to the original key is deleted, it also deletes the entry
     in the dictionary:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k1: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {}

     A workaround would be to remove the key prior to reassignment:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> del d[k1]
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k2: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {k2: 2}

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(2)에 지정된 대로, ‘|’와 ‘|=’ 연산자에 대
     한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1974. 객체에는 내부 참조를 직접 노출하는 추가 메
서드가 있습니다.  참조는 사용되는 시점에 “살아있다고” 보장되지 않아서, 참
조를 호출한 결과를 사용하기 전에 확인해야 합니다.  가비지 수거기가 키를
필요 이상으로 길게 유지하도록 하는 참조를 만들지 않도록 하는 데 사용할 수
있습니다.

 -- 메서드: WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs ()

     키에 대한 약한 참조의 이터러블을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: weakref.WeakValueDictionary ([dict])

     값을 약하게 참조하는 매핑 클래스.  값에 대한 강한 참조가 더는 존재
     하지 않을 때 딕셔너리의 항목이 삭제됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(3)에 지정된 대로, ‘|’와 ‘|=’ 연산자에 대
     한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

*note WeakValueDictionary: 1973. 객체에는 *note
WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs: 256c. 메서드와 같은 문제가 있는 추가 메서드가
있습니다.

 -- 메서드: WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs ()

     값에 대한 약한 참조의 이터러블을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: weakref.WeakSet ([elements])

     원소에 대한 약한 참조를 유지하는 집합 클래스.  원소에 대한 강한 참
     조가 더는 존재하지 않을 때 원소가 삭제됩니다.

 -- 클래스: weakref.WeakMethod (method[, callback])

     연결된 메서드(즉, 클래스에 정의되고 인스턴스에서 조회된 메서드)에 대
     한 약한 참조를 시뮬레이트 하는 사용자 지정 *note ref: fe6. 서브 클
     래스.  연결된 메서드는 일시적이므로, 표준 약한 참조는 유지할 수 없
     습니다.  *note WeakMethod: fe5.에는 객체나 원래 함수가 죽을 때까지
     연결된 메서드를 다시 만드는 특별한 코드가 있습니다:

          >>> class C:
          ...     def method(self):
          ...         print("method called!")
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
          >>> r()
          >>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
          >>> r()
          <bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
          >>> r()()
          method called!
          >>> del c
          >>> gc.collect()
          0
          >>> r()
          >>>

     'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to the
     *note ref(): fe6. function.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 클래스: weakref.finalize (obj, func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     'obj'가 가비지 수거될 때 호출되는 콜러블 파이널라이저 객체를 반환합
     니다.  일반적인 약한 참조와 달리, 파이널라이저는 참조 객체가 수집될
     때까지 항상 생존하므로, 수명 주기 관리가 크게 간소화됩니다.

     파이널라이저는 (명시적으로나 가비지 수거에서) 호출될 때까지 '살아있
     다고' 간주하며, 그 후 '죽습니다'.  살아있는 파이널라이저를 호출하면
     ‘func(*arg, **kwargs)’를 평가한 결과가 반환되고, 죽은 파이널라이저
     를 호출하면 *note None: 66f.이 반환됩니다.

     가비지 수거 중에 파이널라이저 콜백에서 발생한 예외는 표준 에러 출력
     에 표시되지만, 전파할 수는 없습니다.  객체의 *note __del__(): 1f69.
     메서드나 약한 참조의 콜백에서 발생하는 예외와 같은 방식으로 처리됩
     니다.

     프로그램이 종료될 때, *note atexit: c. 어트리뷰트가 거짓으로 설정되
     지 않은 한 각 남은 살아있는 파이널라이저가 호출됩니다.  만들어진 순
     서와 반대 순서로 호출됩니다.

     모듈 전역이 *note None: 66f.으로 교체된 경우 *note 인터프리터 종료:
     14e.의 후반 동안에는 파이널라이저가 콜백을 호출하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: __call__ ()

          'self'가 살아 있으면 이를 죽은 것으로 표시하고 ‘func(*args,
          **kwargs)’ 호출 결과를 반환합니다.  'self'가 죽었으면 *note
          None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: detach ()

          'self'가 살아 있으면 이를 죽은 것으로 표시하고 튜플 ‘(obj,
          func, args, kwargs)’를 반환합니다.  'self'가 죽었으면 *note
          None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: peek ()

          'self'가 살아 있으면 튜플 ‘(obj, func, args, kwargs)’를 반환합
          니다.  'self'가 죽었으면 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

      -- 속성: alive

          파이널라이저가 살아 있으면 참이고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓인 프로퍼
          티.

      -- 속성: atexit

          기본값이 참인, 쓰기 가능한 불리언 프로퍼티.  프로그램이 종료할
          때, *note atexit: 2572.가 참인 남은 모든 살아있는 파이널라이저
          를 호출합니다.  그것들은 만들어진 순서와 반대 순서로 호출됩니
          다.

          참고: 'func', 'args' 및 'kwargs'가 직접이나 간접적으로 'obj'에
          대한 참조를 소유하지 않는 것이 중요합니다.  그렇지 않으면
          'obj'는 가비지 수거되지 않습니다.  특히, 'func'는 'obj'의 연결
          된 메서드가 아니어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: weakref.ReferenceType

     약한 참조 객체의 형 객체.

 -- 데이터: weakref.ProxyType

     콜러블이 아닌 객체의 프락시를 위한 형 객체.

 -- 데이터: weakref.CallableProxyType

     콜러블 객체의 프락시를 위한 형 객체.

 -- 데이터: weakref.ProxyTypes

     프락시의 모든 형 객체를 포함하는 시퀀스.  이것은 두 프락시 형 모두
     의 이름 지정에 의존하지 않고 객체가 프락시인지 검사하기 더 쉽게 만
     들 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 205(4) - 약한 참조

     이전 구현에 대한 링크와 다른 언어의 유사한 기능에 대한 정보를 포함
     하는, 이 기능에 대한 제안과 근거.

* Menu:

* 약한 참조 객체::
* 예: 예<2>.
* 파이널라이저 객체::
* 파이널라이저와 __del__() 메서드의 비교: 파이널라이저와 __del__ 메서드의 비교.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/weakref.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: 약한 참조 객체,  Next: 예<2>,  Up: weakref — 약한 참조

5.8.9.1 약한 참조 객체
......................

약한 참조 객체에는 *note ref.__callback__: fe7. 외에 메서드와 어트리뷰트
가 없습니다.  약한 참조 객체는 참조대상이 아직 존재한다면 호출함으로써 얻
을 수 있도록 합니다:

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> o = Object()
     >>> r = weakref.ref(o)
     >>> o2 = r()
     >>> o is o2
     True

참조대상이 더는 존재하지 않을 때, 참조 객체를 호출하면 *note None: 66f.을
반환합니다:

     >>> del o, o2
     >>> print(r())
     None

약한 참조 객체가 여전히 살아있는지를 검사하는 것은 ‘ref() is not None’ 표
현식을 사용하여 수행해야 합니다.  일반적으로, 참조 객체를 사용할 필요가
있는 응용 프로그램 코드는 다음 패턴을 따라야 합니다:

     # r은 약한 참조 객체입니다
     o = r()
     if o is None:
         # 참조대상이 가비지 수거되었습니다
         print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
     else:
         print("Object is still live!")
         o.do_something_useful()

“생존”에 대해 별도의 검사를 사용하면 스레드 응용 프로그램에서 경쟁 조건
이 발생합니다; 약한 참조가 호출되기 전에 다른 스레드가 약한 참조를 무효
화 할 수 있습니다; 위에 표시된 관용구는 단일 스레드 응용 프로그램뿐만 아
니라 다중 스레드 응용 프로그램에서도 안전합니다.

서브 클래싱을 통해 *note ref: fe6. 객체의 특수한 버전을 만들 수 있습니다
.  이는 *note WeakValueDictionary: 1973. 구현에 사용되어 매핑의 각 항목
에 대한 메모리 오버헤드를 줄입니다.  이는 추가 정보를 참조와 연관시키는
데 가장 유용 할 수 있지만, 참조대상을 꺼내기 위한 호출에 추가 처리를 삽
입하는 데 사용될 수도 있습니다.

이 예제는 *note ref: fe6.의 서브 클래스를 사용하여 객체에 대한 추가 정보
를 저장하고 참조대상에 액세스할 때 반환되는 값에 영향을 주는 방법을 보여
줍니다:

     import weakref

     class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
         def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, /, **annotations):
             super().__init__(ob, callback)
             self.__counter = 0
             for k, v in annotations.items():
                 setattr(self, k, v)

         def __call__(self):
             """참조대상과 참조가 호출된 횟수를 포함하는 쌍을 반환합니다.
             """
             ob = super().__call__()
             if ob is not None:
                 self.__counter += 1
                 ob = (ob, self.__counter)
             return ob


File: python.info,  Node: 예<2>,  Next: 파이널라이저 객체,  Prev: 약한 참조 객체,  Up: weakref — 약한 참조

5.8.9.2 예
..........

이 간단한 예제는 응용 프로그램이 객체 ID를 사용하여 이전에 본 객체를 조
회하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  그런 다음 객체를 강제로 살아있도록 하지 않으
면서 다른 자료 구조에서 객체의 ID를 사용할 수 있지만, 살아있다면 객체를
여전히 ID로 조회할 수 있습니다.

     import weakref

     _id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()

     def remember(obj):
         oid = id(obj)
         _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
         return oid

     def id2obj(oid):
         return _id2obj_dict[oid]


File: python.info,  Node: 파이널라이저 객체,  Next: 파이널라이저와 __del__ 메서드의 비교,  Prev: 예<2>,  Up: weakref — 약한 참조

5.8.9.3 파이널라이저 객체
.........................

*note finalize: a79.를 사용해서 얻을 수 있는 주요 이점은 반환된 파이널라
이저 객체를 보존할 필요 없이 콜백을 간단하게 등록할 수 있다는 것입니다.
예를 들어

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> kenny = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> del kenny
     You killed Kenny!

파이널라이저를 직접 호출할 수도 있습니다.  그러나 파이널라이저는 콜백을
최대 한 번 호출합니다.

     >>> def callback(x, y, z):
     ...     print("CALLBACK")
     ...     return x + y + z
     ...
     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> assert f.alive
     >>> assert f() == 6
     CALLBACK
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
     >>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead

*note detach(): 256f. 메서드를 사용하여 파이널라이저를 등록 취소할 수 있
습니다.  그러면 파이널라이저를 죽이고 만들어질 때 생성자에 전달된 인자가
반환됩니다.

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> f.detach()
     (<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
     >>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> assert newobj is obj
     >>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
     CALLBACK

*note atexit: 2572. 어트리뷰트를 *note False: b34.로 설정하지 않는 한, 파
이널라이저가 살아있다면 프로그램이 종료될 때 호출됩니다.  예를 들어

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> exit()
     obj dead or exiting


File: python.info,  Node: 파이널라이저와 __del__ 메서드의 비교,  Prev: 파이널라이저 객체,  Up: weakref — 약한 참조

5.8.9.4 파이널라이저와 ‘__del__()’ 메서드의 비교
................................................

인스턴스가 임시 디렉터리를 나타내는 클래스를 만들고 싶다고 가정하십시오.
다음 이벤트 중 첫 번째 것이 발생할 때 디렉터리는 내용과 함께 삭제되어야
합니다:

   * 객체가 가비지 수거됩니다,

   * 객체의 ‘remove()’ 메서드가 호출됩니다, 또는

   * 프로그램이 종료합니다.

다음과 같이 *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드를 사용하여 클래스를 구현하려고
시도할 수 있습니다:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()

         def remove(self):
             if self.name is not None:
                 shutil.rmtree(self.name)
                 self.name = None

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return self.name is None

         def __del__(self):
             self.remove()

파이썬 3.4부터, *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드는 더는 참조 순환이 가비지
수거되는 것을 막지 않으며, *note 인터프리터 종료: 14e. 중에 모듈 전역이
더는 *note None: 66f.으로 강제되지 않습니다.  따라서 이 코드는 CPython에
서 아무런 문제 없이 작동해야 합니다.

그러나, *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드의 처리는 인터프리터의 가비지 수거
기 구현에 대한 내부 세부 사항에 의존하기 때문에 구현에 따라 다르기로 악
명 높습니다.

더욱 강인한 대안은 객체의 전체 상태에 액세스하기보다 필요한 특정 함수와
객체만 참조하는 파이널라이저를 정의하는 것일 수 있습니다:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
             self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)

         def remove(self):
             self._finalizer()

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return not self._finalizer.alive

이처럼 정의된 파이널라이저는 디렉터리를 적절히 정리하는 데 필요한 세부 사
항에 대한 참조만 받습니다.  객체가 가비지 수거되지 않으면 종료 시에 파이
널라이저는 여전히 호출됩니다.

약한 참조 기반 파이널라이저의 다른 장점은 제삼자가 정의를 제어하는 클래
스에 대해 파이널라이저를 등록하는 데 사용할 수 있다는 것입니다, 가령 모
듈이 언로드 될 때 코드 실행하기:

     import weakref, sys
     def unloading_module():
         # 함수 바디에서 모듈 전역으로의 묵시적 참조
     weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)

     참고: 프로그램이 종료될 때 데몬 스레드에서 파이널라이저 객체를 만들
     면 종료 시에 파이널라이저가 호출되지 않을 가능성이 있습니다.  그러
     나, 데몬 스레드 *note atexit.register(): 879.에서, ‘try: ...
     finally: ...’와 ‘with: ...’는 정리가 발생한다고 보장하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름,  Next: copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산,  Prev: weakref — 약한 참조,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.10 ‘types’ — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름
-------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/types.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 새로운 형의 동적 생성을 지원하는 유틸리티 함수를 정의합니다.

표준 파이썬 인터프리터가 사용하지만, *note int: 257.나 *note str: 445.처
럼 내장으로 노출되지 않는 일부 객체 형의 이름도 정의합니다.

마지막으로, 내장되기에 충분히 기본적이지 않은 몇 가지 추가 형 관련 유틸
리티 클래스와 함수를 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 동적 형 생성::
* 표준 인터프리터 형::
* 추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수::
* 코루틴 유틸리티 함수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/types.py


File: python.info,  Node: 동적 형 생성,  Next: 표준 인터프리터 형,  Up: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름

5.8.10.1 동적 형 생성
.....................

 -- 함수: types.new_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None)

     적절한 메타 클래스를 사용하여 동적으로 클래스 객체를 만듭니다.

     처음 세 개의 인자는 클래스 정의 헤더를 구성하는 요소들입니다: 클래
     스 이름, 베이스 클래스 (순서대로), 키워드 인자 (가령 ‘metaclass’).

     'exec_body' 인자는 새로 만들어진 클래스 이름 공간을 채우는 데 사용
     되는 콜백입니다.  클래스 이름 공간을 유일한 인자로 받아들이고 클래
     스 내용으로 이름 공간을 직접 갱신해야 합니다.  콜백이 제공되지 않으
     면, ‘lambda ns: None’를 전달하는 것과 같은 효과가 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: types.prepare_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None)

     적절한 메타 클래스를 계산하고 클래스 이름 공간을 만듭니다.

     인자는 클래스 정의 헤더를 구성하는 요소들입니다: 클래스 이름, 베이
     스 클래스 (순서대로) 및 키워드 인자 (가령 ‘metaclass’).

     반환 값은 3-튜플입니다: ‘metaclass, namespace, kwds’

     'metaclass'는 적절한 메타 클래스이고, 'namespace'는 준비된 클래스 이
     름 공간이며 'kwds'는 ‘'metaclass'’ 항목이 제거된 전달된 'kwds' 인자
     의 갱신된 사본입니다.  'kwds' 인자가 전달되지 않으면, 빈 딕셔너리가
     됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 반환된 튜플의 ‘namespace’ 요소의 기본값이 변경되
     었습니다.  이제 메타 클래스에 ‘__prepare__’ 메서드가 없으면 삽입 순
     서 보존 맵핑이 사용됩니다.

더 보기
.......

*note 메타 클래스: 1f7b.

     이 함수들이 지원하는 클래스 생성 절차에 대한 자세한 내용

PEP 3115(1) - 파이썬 3000의 메타 클래스

     ‘__prepare__’ 이름 공간 훅을 도입했습니다

 -- 함수: types.resolve_bases (bases)

     PEP 560(2)의 명세에 따라 MRO 항목을 동적으로 결정합니다.

     이 함수는 *note type: d45.의 인스턴스가 아닌 항목들을 'bases'에서 찾
     고, *note __mro_entries__(): 1f7d. 메서드가 있는 각 객체가 이 메서
     드 호출의 언 패킹 된 결과로 대체된 튜플을 반환합니다.  'bases' 항목
     이 *note type: d45.의 인스턴스이거나, ‘__mro_entries__()’ 메서드가
     없으면, 반환 튜플에 변경되지 않은 상태로 포함됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: types.get_original_bases (cls, /)

     Return the tuple of objects originally given as the bases of 'cls'
     before the *note __mro_entries__(): 1f7d. method has been called on
     any bases (following the mechanisms laid out in PEP 560(3)).  This
     is useful for introspecting *note Generics: 4c9.

     For classes that have an ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, this function
     returns the value of ‘cls.__orig_bases__’.  For classes without the
     ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, *note cls.__bases__: 1472. is returned.

     예제:

          from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

          T = TypeVar("T")
          class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
          class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
          class Baz(list[str]): ...
          Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
          Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

          assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
          assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

          assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
          assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

          assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
          assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

          assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
          assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

          assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
          assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

     Added in version 3.12.

더 보기
.......

PEP 560(4) - typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 인터프리터 형,  Next: 추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수,  Prev: 동적 형 생성,  Up: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름

5.8.10.2 표준 인터프리터 형
...........................

이 모듈은 파이썬 인터프리터를 구현하는 데 필요한 많은 형의 이름을 제공합
니다.  ‘listiterator’ 형과 같이 처리 중에 우연히 발생하는 일부 형은 의도
적으로 포함하지 않았습니다.

이러한 이름의 일반적인 용도는 *note isinstance(): 43b.나 *note
issubclass(): 7ba. 검사입니다.

이러한 형을 인스턴스 화할 때는 서명이 파이썬 버전마다 다를 수 있음에 유
의해야 합니다.

다음과 같은 형들에 대해 표준 이름이 정의됩니다:

 -- 데이터: types.NoneType

     The type of *note None: 66f.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: types.FunctionType
 -- 데이터: types.LambdaType

     사용자 정의 함수와 *note lambda: 128c. 표현식이 만든 함수의 형.

     인자 ‘code’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘function.__new__’를 발생시
     킵니다.

     감사 이벤트는 함수 객체의 직접 인스턴스 화에서만 발생하며, 일반 컴
     파일에서는 발생하지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: types.GeneratorType

     제너레이터 함수가 만든, *note 제너레이터: 1057.-이터레이터 객체의 형
     .

 -- 데이터: types.CoroutineType

     *note async def: 5cb. 함수가 만든 *note 코루틴: 48b. 객체의 형.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: types.AsyncGeneratorType

     비동기 제너레이터 함수가 만든, *note 비동기 제너레이터: 2046.-이터
     레이터 객체의 형.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: types.CodeType (**kwargs)

     *note compile(): 192.이 반환하는 것과 같은 *note 코드 객체: 1d2.의
     형.

     인자 ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’, ‘posonlyargcount’,
     ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’, ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’로 *note 감사
     이벤트: 18c1. ‘code.__new__’를 발생시킵니다.

     감사된 인자는 초기화자가 요구하는 이름이나 위치와 일치하지 않을 수
     있음에 유의하십시오.  감사 이벤트는 코드 객체의 직접 인스턴스 화에
     서만 발생하며, 일반 컴파일에서는 발생하지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: types.CellType

     셀 객체의 형: 이러한 객체는 함수의 *note 클로저 변수: 1f47.에 대한
     컨테이너로 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: types.MethodType

     사용자 정의 클래스 인스턴스의 메서드 형.

 -- 데이터: types.BuiltinFunctionType
 -- 데이터: types.BuiltinMethodType

     *note len(): 628.이나 *note sys.exit(): 1339. 와 같은 내장 함수와 내
     장 클래스의 메서드의 형.  (여기서, “내장”이라는 용어는 “C로 작성된
     ”을 의미합니다.)

 -- 데이터: types.WrapperDescriptorType

     *note object.__init__(): 6aa.나 *note object.__lt__(): 128f.와 같은
     , 일부 내장 데이터형과 베이스 클래스의 메서드의 형.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: types.MethodWrapperType

     일부 내장 데이터형과 베이스 클래스의 '연결된(bound)' 메서드의 형.  예
     를 들어 ‘object().__str__’의 형입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: types.NotImplementedType

     The type of *note NotImplemented: 7cb.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: types.MethodDescriptorType

     *note str.join(): 21b3.과 같은 일부 내장 데이터형의 메서드의 형.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

     ‘dict.__dict__['fromkeys']’와 같은 일부 내장 데이터형의 '연결되지 않
     은(unbound)' 클래스 메서드의 형.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 클래스: types.ModuleType (name, doc=None)

     *note 모듈: 1666.의 형.  생성자는 만들 모듈의 이름과 선택적으로
     *note 독스트링: 2131.을 취합니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Documentation on module objects: 1f19.

          Provides details on the special attributes that can be found
          on instances of ‘ModuleType’.

     *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): e0e.

          Modules created using the ‘ModuleType’ constructor are created
          with many of their special attributes unset or set to default
          values.  ‘module_from_spec()’ provides a more robust way of
          creating ‘ModuleType’ instances which ensures the various
          attributes are set appropriately.

 -- 데이터: types.EllipsisType

     The type of *note Ellipsis: 218d.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: types.GenericAlias (t_origin, t_args)

     ‘list[int]’와 같은 *note 매개 변수화된 제네릭: 6ac.의 형입니다.

     ‘t_origin’은 ‘list’, ‘tuple’ 또는 ‘dict’와 같이 매개 변수화되지 않
     은 제네릭 클래스여야 합니다.  ‘t_args’는 ‘t_origin’을 매개 변수화하
     는 형의 *note tuple: 369.(길이 1일 수 있습니다)이어야 합니다:

          >>> from types import GenericAlias

          >>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
          True
          >>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
          True

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.9.2에서 변경: 이 형은 이제 서브 클래싱 할 수 있습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Generic Alias Types: 6ac.

          In-depth documentation on instances of ‘types.GenericAlias’

     PEP 585(1) - Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections

          Introducing the ‘types.GenericAlias’ class

 -- 클래스: types.UnionType

     The type of *note union type expressions: 7bb.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: types.TracebackType (tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

     ‘sys.exception().__traceback__’에서 발견되는 것과 같은 트레이스백 객
     체의 형.

     사용 가능한 어트리뷰트와 연산에 대한 세부 사항 및 동적으로 트레이스
     백을 만드는 것에 대한 지침은 *note 언어 레퍼런스: af0.를 참조하십시
     오.

 -- 데이터: types.FrameType

     ‘tb’가 트레이스백 객체일 때 *note tb.tb_frame: 1f5a.에서 발견되는 것
     과 같은 *note 프레임 객체: 6d9.의 형.

 -- 데이터: types.GetSetDescriptorType

     *note FrameType.f_locals: 182.나 ‘array.array.typecode’와 같은,
     ‘PyGetSetDef’가 있는 확장 모듈에서 정의된 객체의 형.  이 형은 객체
     어트리뷰트에 대한 디스크립터로 사용됩니다.  *note property: 194. 형
     과 같은 목적을 갖지만, 확장 모듈에 정의된 클래스에 사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: types.MemberDescriptorType

     ‘datetime.timedelta.days’와 같은, ‘PyMemberDef’가 있는 확장 모듈에
     서 정의된 객체의 형.  이 형은 표준 변환 함수를 사용하는 간단한 C 데
     이터 멤버의 디스크립터로 사용됩니다; *note property: 194. 형과 같은
     목적을 갖지만, 확장 모듈에 정의된 클래스를 위한 것입니다.

     In addition, when a class is defined with a *note __slots__: 14b2.
     attribute, then for each slot, an instance of
     ‘MemberDescriptorType’ will be added as an attribute on the class.
     This allows the slot to appear in the class’s *note __dict__: c5a.

     파이썬의 다른 구현에서, 이 형은 ‘GetSetDescriptorType’과 같을 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 클래스: types.MappingProxyType (mapping)

     매핑의 읽기 전용 프락시.  매핑 항목에 대한 동적 뷰를 제공하는데, 매
     핑이 변경될 때 뷰가 이러한 변경 사항을 반영함을 의미합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(2)의 새 병합 (‘|’) 연산자를 지원하도록 갱
     신되었습니다.  단순히 하부 매핑에 위임합니다.

      -- Describe: key in proxy

          하부 매핑에 키 'key'가 있으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를
          반환합니다.

      -- Describe: proxy[key]

          키 'key'를 사용하여 하부 매핑의 항목을 반환합니다.  'key'가 하
          부 매핑에 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- Describe: iter(proxy)

          하부 매핑의 키에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  이것은
          ‘iter(proxy.keys())’의 줄임 표현입니다.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          하부 매핑의 항목 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          하부 매핑의 얕은 사본을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get (key[, default])

          'key'가 하부 매핑에 있으면 'key'의 값을, 그렇지 않으면
          'default'를 반환합니다.  'default'를 지정하지 않으면, 기본적으
          로 ‘None’으로 설정되므로, 이 메서드는 절대 *note KeyError:
          33d.를 발생시키지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          하부 매핑의 항목(items)(‘(key, value)’ 쌍)의 새 뷰를 반환합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          하부 매핑의 키(keys)의 새로운 뷰를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: values ()

          하부 매핑의 값(values)의 새 뷰를 반환합니다.

      -- Describe: reversed(proxy)

          하부 매핑의 키(keys)에 대한 역 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Describe: hash(proxy)

          하부 매핑의 해시를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.12.

 -- 클래스: types.CapsuleType

     The type of *note capsule objects: 258c.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: 추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수,  Next: 코루틴 유틸리티 함수,  Prev: 표준 인터프리터 형,  Up: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름

5.8.10.3 추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수
....................................

 -- 클래스: types.SimpleNamespace

     이름 공간에 대한 어트리뷰트 액세스와 의미 있는 repr을 제공하는 간단
     한 *note object: a89. 서브 클래스.

     Unlike *note object: a89, with ‘SimpleNamespace’ you can add and
     remove attributes.

     *note SimpleNamespace: 1d1. objects may be initialized in the same
     way as *note dict: 256.: either with keyword arguments, with a
     single positional argument, or with both.  When initialized with
     keyword arguments, those are directly added to the underlying
     namespace.  Alternatively, when initialized with a positional
     argument, the underlying namespace will be updated with key-value
     pairs from that argument (either a mapping object or an *note
     iterable: 1217. object producing key-value pairs).  All such keys
     must be strings.

     형은 다음 코드와 대략 동등합니다:

          class SimpleNamespace:
              def __init__(self, mapping_or_iterable=(), /, **kwargs):
                  self.__dict__.update(mapping_or_iterable)
                  self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

              def __repr__(self):
                  items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
                  return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
                     return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
                  return NotImplemented

     ‘SimpleNamespace’는 ‘class NS: pass’의 대체품으로 유용할 수 있습니
     다.  하지만, 구조화된 레코드형에는 *note namedtuple(): 1ca.을 대신
     사용하십시오.

     ‘SimpleNamespace’ objects are supported by *note copy.replace():
     151.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: repr의 어트리뷰트 순서가 알파벳순에서 삽입 순으
     로 변경되었습니다 (‘dict’처럼).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support for an optional positional
     argument.

 -- 함수: types.DynamicClassAttribute (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None,
          doc=None)

     클래스의 어트리뷰트 액세스를 __getattr__ 로 보냅니다.

     디스크립터이며, 인스턴스와 클래스를 통해 액세스할 때 다르게 작동하
     는 어트리뷰트를 정의하는 데 사용됩니다.  인스턴스 액세스는 정상적으
     로 유지되지만, 클래스를 통한 어트리뷰트 액세스는 클래스의
     __getattr__ 메서드로 보냅니다; 이는 AttributeError를 발생 시켜 수행
     됩니다.

     이를 통해 인스턴스에서 활성화된 프로퍼티를 가짐과 동시에, 클래스에
     서 같은 이름을 가진 가상 어트리뷰트를 가질 수 있습니다 (예제는
     *note enum.Enum: 62a.을 참조하십시오).

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴 유틸리티 함수,  Prev: 추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수,  Up: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름

5.8.10.4 코루틴 유틸리티 함수
.............................

 -- 함수: types.coroutine (gen_func)

     이 함수는 *note 제너레이터: 1057. 함수를 제너레이터 기반 코루틴을 반
     환하는 *note 코루틴 함수: d73.로 변환합니다.  제너레이터 기반 코루
     틴은 여전히 *note 제너레이터 이터레이터: bdb.이지만, *note 코루틴:
     48b. 객체로도 간주하며 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad.입니다.  그러나, 반드
     시 *note __await__(): 1fcf. 메서드를 구현할 필요는 없습니다.

     'gen_func'가 제너레이터 함수면 제자리(in-place)에서 수정됩니다.

     'gen_func'가 제너레이터 함수가 아니면, 래핑 됩니다.  *note
     collections.abc.Generator: dd7.의 인스턴스를 반환하면, 인스턴스는
     '어웨이터블' 프락시 객체로 래핑 됩니다.  다른 모든 형의 객체는 그대
     로 반환됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산,  Next: pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기,  Prev: types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.11 ‘copy’ — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/copy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

파이썬에서 대입문은 객체를 복사하지 않고, 대상과 객체 사이에 바인딩을 만
듭니다.가변(mutable) 컬렉션 또는 가변(mutable) 항목들을 포함한 컬렉션의
경우때로 컬렉션을 변경하지 않고 사본을 변경하기 위해 복사가 필요합니다
.이 모듈은 일반적인 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산을 제공합니다.  (아래 설명
참고)

인터페이스 요약:

 -- 함수: copy.copy (obj)

     'obj'의 얕은 사본을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: copy.deepcopy (obj[, memo])

     'obj'의 깊은 사본을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: copy.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 예외: copy.Error

     모듈 특정 에러의 경우 발생됩니다.
얕은 복사와 깊은 복사의 차이점은복합 객체(리스트 또는 클래스 인스턴스들
과 같은 다른 객체를 포함한 객체)에만 유효합니다.

   * '얕은 복사'는 새로운 복합 객체를 만들고,(가능한 범위까지) 원본 객체
     를 가리키는 '참조'를 새로운 복합 객체에 삽입합니다.

   * '깊은 복사'는 새로운 복합 객체를 만들고,재귀적으로 원본 객체의 '사
     본'을 새로 만든 복합 객체에 삽입합니다.

깊은 복사 연산은 얕은 복사 연산에는 없는 두 가지 문제가 있습니다:

   * 재귀 객체(직접적 또는 간접적으로 자신에 대한 참조를 포함하는 복합 객
     체)는 순환 루프의 원인이 될 수 있습니다.

   * 깊은 복사는 모든 것을 복사하기 때문에, 지나치게 많이 복사할 수 있습
     니다.  가령, 복사본 간에 공유할 의도가 있는 것까지도.

*note deepcopy(): b6b. 함수는 다음과 같은 방법으로 이 문제들을 피합니다:

   * 현재 복사 패스 중에 이미 복사된 객체의 ‘memo’ 딕셔너리를 가지고 있
     습니다; 그리고

   * 사용자 정의 클래스가 복사 연산 또는 복사된 구성요소 집합을 재정의하
     도록 합니다.

이 모듈은 모듈, 메서드, 스택 트레이스, 스택 프레임, 파일, 소켓, 윈도우나
그 비슷한 유형들은 복사하지 않습니다.  원래 객체를 변화시키지 않고 반환
함으로써 함수와 클래스를 (얕고 깊게) “복사” 합니다; 이것은 *note pickle:
a6. 모듈로 처리되는 방식과 호환됩니다.

딕셔너리의 얕은 복사는 *note dict.copy(): bcd.를 사용하여 복사할 수 있습
니다.그리고 리스트의 얕은 복사는 예를 들어 ‘copied_list =
original_list[:]’ 처럼전체 리스트의 슬라이스를 대입하여 리스트를 복사할
수도 있습니다.

클래스는 피클링을 제어하기 위해 사용하는 것과 같은 인터페이스를 사용하여
복사를 제어할 수 있습니다.이러한 메서드들의 정보는 *note pickle: a6. 모
듈 설명을 참고하세요.실제로 *note copy: 25. 모듈은 *note copyreg: 26. 모
듈에 등록된 피클 함수를 사용합니다.

클래스가 자체적으로 복사 구현을 정의하기 위해선, *note __copy__(): 2592.
와 *note __deepcopy__(): 154e. 같은 특수 메서드를 정의할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__copy__ (self)

     얕은 복사 연산을 실행하기 위해 호출됩니다; 추가적인 인자를 전달 하
     지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__deepcopy__ (self, memo)

     깊은 복사 연산을 실행하기 위해 호출됩니다; 'memo' 딕셔너리가 하나의
     인자로 전달됩니다.  ‘__deepcopy__’ 구현에서 구성요소의 깊은 복사를
     만들기 위해선, 구성요소를 첫 번째 인자로 하고 'memo' 딕셔너리를 두
     번째 인자로 하여 *note deepcopy(): b6b. 함수를 호출해야 합니다.
     'memo' 딕셔너리는 불투명 객체로 취급해야 합니다.

Function ‘copy.replace()’ is more limited than *note copy(): 52d. and
*note deepcopy(): b6b, and only supports named tuples created by *note
namedtuple(): 1ca, *note dataclasses: 2f, and other classes which define
method *note __replace__(): 152.

 -- 메서드: object.__replace__ (self, /, **changes)

     This method should create a new object of the same type, replacing
     fields with values from 'changes'.

     Added in version 3.13.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note pickle: a6.

     객체 상태 조회와 복원을 지원하는데 사용되는 특수 메서드에 관한 논의

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/copy.py


File: python.info,  Node: pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기,  Next: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현,  Prev: copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.12 ‘pprint’ — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pprint.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note pprint: ae. 모듈은 임의의 파이썬 데이터 구조를 인터프리터의 입력으
로 사용할 수 있는 형태로 “예쁘게 인쇄”할 수 있는 기능을 제공합니다.  포
맷된 구조에 기본 파이썬 형이 아닌 객체가 포함되면, 표현은 로드되지 않을
수 있습니다.  파일, 소켓 또는 클래스와 같은 객체뿐만 아니라 파이썬 리터
럴로 표현할 수 없는 다른 많은 객체가 포함된 경우입니다.

포맷된 표현은 할 수 있다면 객체를 한 줄에 유지하고, 허용된 너비에 맞지 않
으면 여러 줄로 나눕니다.  허용된 너비는 'width' 매개 변수로 조정할 수 있
고, 기본 값은 80 자 입니다.

딕셔너리는 디스플레이를 계산하기 전에 키로 정렬됩니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1.를 예쁘게 인쇄하는 지
원이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: *note dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb.를 예쁘게 인쇄하는
지원이 추가되었습니다.

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<3>.
* PrettyPrinter 객체::
* 예제: 예제<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pprint.py


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<3>,  Next: PrettyPrinter 객체,  Up: pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기

5.8.12.1 함수
.............

 -- 함수: pprint.pp (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=False,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     'object'의 포맷된 표현에 줄 바꿈을 추가해서 인쇄합니다.  이 함수는
     *note print(): f6d. 함수 대신 대화형 인터프리터에서 값을 검사하는 데
     사용할 수 있습니다.  팁: 스코프 내에서 사용하기 위해 ‘print =
     pprint.pp’를 다시 대입할 수도 있습니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘object’ – The object to be printed.

        * ‘stream’ (*note file-like object: 2597. | None) – A file-like
          object to which the output will be written by calling its
          ‘write()’ method.  If ‘None’ (the default), *note sys.stdout:
          ad3. is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 257.) – 각 중첩 수준에 대해 추가되는 들여
          쓰기 양.

        * ‘width’ (*note int: 257.) – The desired maximum number of
          characters per line in the output.  If a structure cannot be
          formatted within the width constraint, a best effort will be
          made.

        * ‘depth’ (*note int: 257.‘ | ’‘None’) – The number of nesting
          levels which may be printed.  If the data structure being
          printed is too deep, the next contained level is replaced by
          ‘...’.  If ‘None’ (the default), there is no constraint on the
          depth of the objects being formatted.

        * ‘compact’ (*note bool: 461.) – Control the way long *note
          sequences: 4eb. are formatted.  If ‘False’ (the default), each
          item of a sequence will be formatted on a separate line,
          otherwise as many items as will fit within the 'width' will be
          formatted on each output line.

        * ‘sort_dicts’ (*note bool: 461.) – If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be formatted with their keys sorted, otherwise they will be
          displayed in insertion order (the default).

        * ‘underscore_numbers’ (*note bool: 461.) – If ‘True’, integers
          will be formatted with the ‘_’ character for a thousands
          separator, otherwise underscores are not displayed (the
          default).

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
          >>> pprint.pp(stuff)
          [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
           'spam',
           'eggs',
           'lumberjack',
           'knights',
           'ni']

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: pprint.pprint (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Alias for *note pp(): a1f. with 'sort_dicts' set to ‘True’ by
     default, which would automatically sort the dictionaries’ keys, you
     might want to use *note pp(): a1f. instead where it is ‘False’ by
     default.

 -- 함수: pprint.pformat (object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *,
          compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

     'object'의 포맷된 표현을 문자열로 반환합니다.  'indent', 'width',
     'depth', 'compact', 'sort_dicts' 및 'underscore_numbers'는 포매팅 매
     개 변수로 *note PrettyPrinter: f77. 생성자에 전달되고, 그 의미는 위
     설명서에서 기술된 대입니다.

 -- 함수: pprint.isreadable (object)

     'object'의 포맷된 표현이 “읽을 수 있는”지, 즉 *note eval(): 180.을
     사용하여 값을 재구성하는 데 사용할 수 있는지 판단합니다.  재귀적 객
     체에 대해서는 항상 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          >>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
          False

 -- 함수: pprint.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if 'object' requires a recursive representation.  This
     function is subject to the same limitations as noted in *note
     saferepr(): 259a. below and may raise an *note RecursionError: d68.
     if it fails to detect a recursive object.

 -- 함수: pprint.saferepr (object)

     일부 일반적인 자료 구조(*note dict: 256, *note list: 60b, *note
     tuple: 369. 과 ‘__repr__’이 재정의되지 않은 서브클래스의 인스턴스
     )에서의 재귀에 대해 보호되는, 'object'의 문자열 표현을 반환합니다.
     객체의 표현이 재귀적 항목을 노출하면, 재귀적 참조는 ‘<Recursion on
     typename with id=number>’로 표시됩니다.  표현에는 이외의 다른 포매
     팅이 적용되지 않습니다.

          >>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
          "[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"


File: python.info,  Node: PrettyPrinter 객체,  Next: 예제<3>,  Prev: 함수<3>,  Up: pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기

5.8.12.2 PrettyPrinter 객체
...........................

 -- 클래스: pprint.PrettyPrinter (indent=1, width=80, depth=None,
          stream=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     *note PrettyPrinter: f77. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

     Arguments have the same meaning as for *note pp(): a1f.  Note that
     they are in a different order, and that 'sort_dicts' defaults to
     ‘True’.

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [   ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
              'spam',
              'eggs',
              'lumberjack',
              'knights',
              'ni']
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
            'knights', 'ni'],
           'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
           'ni']
          >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
          ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
          >>> pp.pprint(tup)
          ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'compact' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'sort_dicts' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'underscore_numbers' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.11에서 변경: No longer attempts to write to ‘sys.stdout’ if
     it is ‘None’.

*note PrettyPrinter: f77. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: PrettyPrinter.pformat (object)

     'object'의 포맷된 표현을 반환합니다.  *note PrettyPrinter: f77. 생
     성자에 전달된 옵션을 고려합니다.

 -- 메서드: PrettyPrinter.pprint (object)

     구성된 스트림에 'object'의 포맷된 표현과 불 넘김을 인쇄합니다.

다음 메서드는 같은 이름의 해당 함수에 대한 구현을 제공합니다.  새로운
*note PrettyPrinter: f77. 객체를 만들 필요가 없으므로, 인스턴스에서 이러
한 메서드를 사용하는 것이 약간 더 효율적입니다.

 -- 메서드: PrettyPrinter.isreadable (object)

     object의 포맷된 표현이 “읽을 수 있는”지, 즉 *note eval(): 180.을 사
     용하여 값을 재구성하는 데 사용할 수 있는지 판단합니다.  재귀 객체에
     대해 ‘False’를 반환함에 유의하십시오.  *note PrettyPrinter: f77.의
     'depth' 매개 변수가 설정되고 객체가 허용된 것보다 더 깊으면,
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: PrettyPrinter.isrecursive (object)

     object가 재귀적 표현을 요구하는지 판단합니다.

이 메서드는 서브 클래스가 객체가 문자열로 변환되는 방식을 수정할 수 있도
록 하는 훅으로 제공됩니다.  기본 구현은 *note saferepr(): 259a. 구현의 내
부를 사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: PrettyPrinter.format (object, context, maxlevels, level)

     세 가지 값을 반환합니다: 포맷된 버전의 'object'를 문자열로, 결과가
     읽을 수 있는지를 나타내는 플래그와 재귀가 감지되었는지를 나타내는 플
     래그.  첫 번째 인자는 표시할 객체입니다.  두 번째는 현재 표현 컨텍
     스트(표현에 영향을 주는 'object'의 직접 및 간접 컨테이너)의 일부인
     객체의 *note id(): 13eb.를 키로 포함하는 딕셔너리입니다; 이미
     'context'에 표현된 객체가 표현되어야 할 필요가 있으면, 세 번째 반환
     값은 ‘True’이어야 합니다.  *note format(): 1925. 메서드에 대한 재귀
     호출은 컨테이너에 대한 추가 항목을 이 딕셔너리에 추가해야 합니다.  세
     번째 인자 'maxlevels'는 재귀에 요청된 제한을 줍니다; 요청된 제한이
     없으면 ‘0’입니다.  이 인자는 재귀 호출에 수정되지 않은 채 전달되어
     야 합니다.  네 번째 인자 'level'은 현재 수준을 제공합니다; 재귀 호
     출은 현재 호출보다 작은 값으로 전달되어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<3>,  Prev: PrettyPrinter 객체,  Up: pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기

5.8.12.3 예제
.............

*note pp(): a1f. 함수와 매개 변수의 여러 용도를 예시하기 위해, PyPI(1)에
서 프로젝트에 대한 정보를 가져옵시다:

     >>> import json
     >>> import pprint
     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/1.2.0/json') as resp:
     ...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']

기본적인 형태에서, *note pp(): a1f.는 전체 객체를 보여줍니다:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
                      'Intended Audience :: Developers',
                      'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
                      'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools'],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN',
                       'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

결과는 특정 'depth'로 제한될 수 있습니다 (더 깊은 내용에는 줄임표가 사용
됩니다):

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

또한, 최대 문자 'width'를 제안할 수 있습니다.  긴 객체를 분할 할 수 없으
면, 지정된 너비를 초과합니다:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the '
                     'project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be '
                     'written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project '
                     'webpage on PyPI, and should be written '
                     'for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would '
                     'include an overview of the project, '
                     'basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including '
                     'the project changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s '
                     'New" section for the most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현,  Next: enum — 열거형 지원,  Prev: pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.13 ‘reprlib’ — 대안 ‘repr()’ 구현
-------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/reprlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘reprlib’ 모듈은 결과 문자열의 크기에 제한이 있는 객체 표현을 생성하는 수
단을 제공합니다.  파이썬 디버거에서 사용되며 다른 문맥에서도 유용할 수 있
습니다.

이 모듈은 클래스, 인스턴스 및 함수를 제공합니다.:

 -- 클래스: reprlib.Repr (*, maxlevel=6, maxtuple=6, maxlist=6,
          maxarray=5, maxdict=4, maxset=6, maxfrozenset=6, maxdeque=6,
          maxstring=30, maxlong=40, maxother=30, fillvalue='...',
          indent=None)

     내장 *note repr(): 7f7.과 유사한 함수를 구현하는 데 유용한 포매팅 서
     비스를 제공하는 클래스; 과도하게 긴 표현의 생성을 피하고자 객체 형
     별로 크기 제한이 추가됩니다.

     The keyword arguments of the constructor can be used as a shortcut
     to set the attributes of the *note Repr: 25a5. instance.  Which
     means that the following initialization:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr(maxlevel=3)

     Is equivalent to:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          aRepr.maxlevel = 3

     See section *note Repr Objects: 25a6. for more information about
     *note Repr: 25a5. attributes.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Allow attributes to be set via keyword
     arguments.

 -- 데이터: reprlib.aRepr

     아래에 설명된 *note repr(): 25a8.로 함수를 제공하는 데 사용되는
     *note Repr: 25a5.의 인스턴스입니다.  이 객체의 어트리뷰트를 변경하
     면 *note repr(): 25a8.과 파이썬 디버거에서 사용되는 크기 제한에 영
     향을 줍니다.

 -- 함수: reprlib.repr (obj)

     ‘aRepr’의 *note repr(): 25a9. 메서드입니다.  같은 이름의 내장 함수
     에 의해 반환된 것과 비슷한 문자열을 반환하지만, 대부분의 크기에는 제
     한이 있습니다.

크기 제한 도구 외에도, 모듈은 *note __repr__(): 616.에 대한 재귀 호출을
감지하고 대신 자리 표시자 문자열을 치환하는 데코레이터를 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: @reprlib.recursive_repr (fillvalue='...')

     같은 스레드 내에서의 재귀 호출을 감지하는 *note __repr__(): 616. 메
     서드용 데코레이터.  재귀 호출이 이루어지면, 'fillvalue'가 반환되고,
     그렇지 않으면 평상시의 ‘__repr__()’ 호출이 수행됩니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
          >>> class MyList(list):
          ...     @recursive_repr()
          ...     def __repr__(self):
          ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
          ...
          >>> m = MyList('abc')
          >>> m.append(m)
          >>> m.append('x')
          >>> print(m)
          <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Repr 객체::
* Repr 객체 서브 클래싱::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/reprlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Repr 객체,  Next: Repr 객체 서브 클래싱,  Up: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현

5.8.13.1 Repr 객체
..................

*note Repr: 25a5. 인스턴스는 여러 객체 형의 표현에 대한 크기 제한과 특정
객체 형을 포맷하는 메서드를 제공하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Repr.fillvalue

     This string is displayed for recursive references.  It defaults to
     ‘...’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 속성: Repr.maxlevel

     재귀적 표현의 생성에 대한 심도 한계.  기본값은 ‘6’입니다.

 -- 속성: Repr.maxdict
 -- 속성: Repr.maxlist
 -- 속성: Repr.maxtuple
 -- 속성: Repr.maxset
 -- 속성: Repr.maxfrozenset
 -- 속성: Repr.maxdeque
 -- 속성: Repr.maxarray

     명명된 객체 형을 표현하는 항목 수 제한.  기본값은 *note maxdict:
     25ad.은 ‘4’, *note maxarray: 25b3.는 ‘5’ 이고 그 외는 ‘6’입니다.

 -- 속성: Repr.maxlong

     정수 표현의 최대 문자 수입니다.  숫자는 가운데에서 삭제됩니다.  기
     본값은 ‘40’입니다.

 -- 속성: Repr.maxstring

     문자열 표현의 문자 수 제한.  문자열의 “통상” 표현이 문자 소스로써 사
     용되는 것에 주의해 주세요: 표현에 이스케이프 시퀀스가 필요하면, 표
     현이 짧아질 때 이것이 망가질 수 있습니다.  기본값은 ‘30’입니다.

 -- 속성: Repr.maxother

     이 제한은 *note Repr: 25a5. 객체에서 구체적인 포맷 메서드를 사용할
     수 없는 객체 형의 크기를 제어하는 데 사용됩니다.  *note maxstring:
     25b5.과 비슷한 방식으로 적용됩니다.  기본값은 ‘20’입니다.

 -- 속성: Repr.indent

     If this attribute is set to ‘None’ (the default), the output is
     formatted with no line breaks or indentation, like the standard
     *note repr(): 7f7.  For example:

          >>> example = [
          ...     1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']
          >>> import reprlib
          >>> aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']

     If *note indent: 25b7. is set to a string, each recursion level is
     placed on its own line, indented by that string:

          >>> aRepr.indent = '-->'
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
          -->1,
          -->'spam',
          -->{
          -->-->'a': 2,
          -->-->'b': 'spam eggs',
          -->-->'c': {
          -->-->-->3: 4.5,
          -->-->-->6: [],
          -->-->},
          -->},
          -->'ham',
          ]

     Setting *note indent: 25b7. to a positive integer value behaves as
     if it was set to a string with that number of spaces:

          >>> aRepr.indent = 4
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
              1,
              'spam',
              {
                  'a': 2,
                  'b': 'spam eggs',
                  'c': {
                      3: 4.5,
                      6: [],
                  },
              },
              'ham',
          ]

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 메서드: Repr.repr (obj)

     인스턴스에 의해 부과된 포매팅을 사용하는 내장 *note repr(): 7f7.와
     등등합니다.

 -- 메서드: Repr.repr1 (obj, level)

     *note repr(): 25a9.에서 사용되는 재귀적 구현.  'obj'의 형을 사용하
     여 호출할 포매팅 메서드를 결정하고, 'obj' 와 'level'을 전달합니다.
     형별 메서드는 재귀적 포매팅을 수행하기 위해 *note repr1(): 25b8.을
     호출해야 하는데, 재귀 호출에서 'level' 값으로 ‘level - 1’을 사용합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: Repr.repr_TYPE (obj, level)

     특정 형의 포매팅 메서드는 형 이름에 기반하는 이름의 메서드로 구현됩
     니다.  메서드 이름에서, 'TYPE' 은
     ‘'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())’으로 치환됩니다.  이 메서드로
     의 디스패치는 *note repr1(): 25b8.에 의해 처리됩니다.  재귀적으로 값
     을 포맷해야 하는 형별 메서드는 ‘self.repr1(subobj, level - 1)’을 호
     출해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Repr 객체 서브 클래싱,  Prev: Repr 객체,  Up: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현

5.8.13.2 Repr 객체 서브 클래싱
..............................

*note Repr.repr1(): 25b8.에 의한 동적 디스패치의 사용은 *note Repr:
25a5.의 서브 클래스가 추가 내장 객체 형에 대한 지원을 추가하거나 이미 지
원되는 형의 처리를 수정할 수 있도록 합니다.  이 예제는 파일 객체에 대한
특별한 지원이 어떻게 추가될 수 있는지 보여줍니다:

     import reprlib
     import sys

     class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):

         def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
             if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
                 return obj.name
             return repr(obj)

     aRepr = MyRepr()
     print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # '<stdin>' 을 인쇄합니다

     <stdin>


File: python.info,  Node: enum — 열거형 지원,  Next: graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능,  Prev: reprlib — 대안 repr 구현,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.14 ‘enum’ — 열거형 지원
---------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'소스 코드:' Lib/enum.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains the API reference information.  For tutorial
information and discussion of more advanced topics, see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 25bd.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 25be.

   * *note Enum Cookbook: 25bf.

__________________________________________________________________

열거형은:

   * is a set of symbolic names (members) bound to unique values

   * can be iterated over to return its canonical (i.e.  non-alias)
     members in definition order

   * uses 'call' syntax to return members by value

   * uses 'index' syntax to return members by name

Enumerations are created either by using *note class: 12c7. syntax, or
by using function-call syntax:

     >>> from enum import Enum

     >>> # 클래스 문법
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

     >>> # 함수형 문법
     >>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])

*note class: 12c7. 문법을 사용하여 Enum을 만들 수 있기는 하지만, Enum은
일반적인 파이썬 클래스가 아닙니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 열거형은 어떻게
다릅니까?: 25c0. 를 참조하십시오.

     참고: 명명법

        - ‘Color’ 클래스는 '열거형(enumeration)' (또는 'enum') 입니다.

        - ‘Color.RED’, ‘Color.GREEN’ 등의 어트리뷰트는 '열거형 멤버
          (enumeration members)'(또는 'members')이며 기능상 상수입니다.

        - 열거형 멤버에는 '이름(names)'과 '값(values)'이 있습니다
          (‘Color.RED’의 이름은 ‘RED’, ‘Color.BLUE’의 값은 ‘3’, 등)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<2>.
* Data Types::
* Utilities and Decorators::
* 참고 사항::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/enum.py


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<2>,  Next: Data Types,  Up: enum — 열거형 지원

5.8.14.1 모듈 내용
..................

     *note EnumType: 1e5.

          The ‘type’ for Enum and its subclasses.

     *note Enum: 62a.

          열거형 상수를 만들기 위한 베이스 클래스.

     *note IntEnum: cdc.

          *note int: 257.의 서브 클래스이기도 한 열거형 상수를 만들기 위
          한 베이스 클래스.  (*note Notes: 25c2.)

     *note StrEnum: 614.

          *note str: 445.의 서브 클래스이기도 한 열거형 상수를 만들기 위
          한 베이스 클래스.  (*note Notes: 25c2.)

     *note Flag: 61d.

          *note Flag: 61d. 멤버십을 잃지 않고 비트 연산을 사용하여 결합
          할 수 있는 열거형 상수를 만들기 위한 베이스 클래스.

     *note IntFlag: 2302.

          *note IntFlag: 2302. 멤버십을 잃지 않고 비트 연산자를 사용하여
          결합할 수 있는 열거형 상수를 만들기 위한 베이스 클래스.  *note
          IntFlag: 2302. 멤버도 *note int: 257.의 서브 클래스입니다.
          (*note Notes: 25c2.)

     *note ReprEnum: 615.

          Used by *note IntEnum: cdc, *note StrEnum: 614, and *note
          IntFlag: 2302. to keep the *note str(): 445. of the mixed-in
          type.

     *note EnumCheck: 620.

          An enumeration with the values ‘CONTINUOUS’, ‘NAMED_FLAGS’,
          and ‘UNIQUE’, for use with *note verify(): 61f. to ensure
          various constraints are met by a given enumeration.

     *note FlagBoundary: 61e.

          An enumeration with the values ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’,
          and ‘KEEP’ which allows for more fine-grained control over how
          invalid values are dealt with in an enumeration.

     *note EnumDict: 1e4.

          A subclass of *note dict: 256. for use when subclassing *note
          EnumType: 1e5.

     *note auto: c99.

          Instances are replaced with an appropriate value for Enum
          members.  *note StrEnum: 614. defaults to the lower-cased
          version of the member name, while other Enums default to 1 and
          increase from there.

     *note property(): 623.

          Allows *note Enum: 62a. members to have attributes without
          conflicting with member names.  The ‘value’ and ‘name’
          attributes are implemented this way.

     *note unique(): 25c3.

          한 값에 하나의 이름 만 연결되도록 하는 Enum 클래스 데코레이터.

     *note verify(): 61f.

          Enum class decorator that checks user-selectable constraints
          on an enumeration.

     *note member(): 621.

          Make ‘obj’ a member.  Can be used as a decorator.

     *note nonmember(): 622.

          Do not make ‘obj’ a member.  Can be used as a decorator.

     *note global_enum(): 625.

          Modify the *note str(): 445. and *note repr(): 7f7. of an enum
          to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its
          class, and export the enum members to the global namespace.

     *note show_flag_values(): 25c4.

          Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a
          flag.

Added in version 3.6: ‘Flag’, ‘IntFlag’, ‘auto’

Added in version 3.11: ‘StrEnum’, ‘EnumCheck’, ‘ReprEnum’,
‘FlagBoundary’, ‘property’, ‘member’, ‘nonmember’, ‘global_enum’,
‘show_flag_values’

Added in version 3.13: ‘EnumDict’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types,  Next: Utilities and Decorators,  Prev: 모듈 내용<2>,  Up: enum — 열거형 지원

5.8.14.2 Data Types
...................

 -- 클래스: enum.EnumType

     'EnumType' is the *note metaclass: 1f8e. for 'enum' enumerations.
     It is possible to subclass 'EnumType' – see *note Subclassing
     EnumType: 25c6. for details.

     ‘EnumType’ is responsible for setting the correct ‘__repr__()’,
     ‘__str__()’, ‘__format__()’, and ‘__reduce__()’ methods on the
     final 'enum', as well as creating the enum members, properly
     handling duplicates, providing iteration over the enum class, etc.

     Added in version 3.11: Before 3.11 ‘EnumType’ was called
     ‘EnumMeta’, which is still available as an alias.

      -- 메서드: __call__ (cls, value, names=None, *, module=None,
               qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)

          This method is called in two different ways:

             * to look up an existing member:


                    cls: The enum class being called.


                    value: The value to lookup.

             * to use the ‘cls’ enum to create a new enum (only if the
               existing enum does not have any members):


                    cls: The enum class being called.


                    value: The name of the new Enum to create.


                    names: The names/values of the members for the new
                    Enum.


                    module: 새로운 Enum 이 만들어지는 모듈의 이름.


                    qualname: 이 Enum 이 모듈에서 실제로 위치한 곳.


                    type: A mix-in type for the new Enum.


                    start: The first integer value for the Enum (used by
                    *note auto: c99.).


                    boundary: How to handle out-of-range values from bit
                    operations (*note Flag: 61d. only).

      -- 메서드: __contains__ (cls, member)

          Returns ‘True’ if member belongs to the ‘cls’:

               >>> some_var = Color.RED
               >>> some_var in Color
               True
               >>> Color.RED.value in Color
               True

          버전 3.12에서 변경: Before Python 3.12, a ‘TypeError’ is
          raised if a non-Enum-member is used in a containment check.

      -- 메서드: __dir__ (cls)

          Returns ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__members__',
          '__module__']’ and the names of the members in 'cls':

               >>> dir(Color)
               ['BLUE', 'GREEN', 'RED', '__class__', '__contains__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__members__', '__module__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

      -- 메서드: __getitem__ (cls, name)

          Returns the Enum member in 'cls' matching 'name', or raises a
          *note KeyError: 33d.:

               >>> Color['BLUE']
               <Color.BLUE: 3>

      -- 메서드: __iter__ (cls)

          'cls' 의 각 멤버를 정의 순서로 반환합니다:

               >>> list(Color)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 3>]

      -- 메서드: __len__ (cls)

          Returns the number of member in 'cls':

               >>> len(Color)
               3

      -- 속성: __members__

          Returns a mapping of every enum name to its member, including
          aliases

      -- 메서드: __reversed__ (cls)

          Returns each member in 'cls' in reverse definition order:

               >>> list(reversed(Color))
               [<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]

 -- 클래스: enum.Enum

     'Enum' is the base class for all 'enum' enumerations.

      -- 속성: name

          The name used to define the ‘Enum’ member:

               >>> Color.BLUE.name
               'BLUE'

      -- 속성: value

          The value given to the ‘Enum’ member:

               >>> Color.RED.value
               1

          멤버의 값, *note __new__(): 25d1.에서 설정할 수 있습니다.

               참고: Enum 멤버 값

               멤버 값은 아무것이나 될 수 있습니다: *note int: 257,
               *note str: 445. 등.  정확한 값이 중요하지 않다면, *note
               auto: c99. 인스턴스를 사용할 수 있으며 적절한 값이 선택됩
               니다.  자세한 내용은 *note auto: c99.를 참조하세요.

               While mutable/unhashable values, such as *note dict: 256,
               *note list: 60b. or a mutable *note dataclass: 1cb, can
               be used, they will have a quadratic performance impact
               during creation relative to the total number of
               mutable/unhashable values in the enum.

      -- 속성: _name_

          멤버의 이름.

      -- 속성: _value_

          멤버의 값, *note __new__(): 25d1.에서 설정할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: _order_

          더는 사용되지 않습니다, 하위 호환성을 위해 유지됩니다.  (클래
          스 생성 중 제거되는 클래스 어트리뷰트)

      -- 속성: _ignore_

          ‘_ignore_’ is only used during creation and is removed from
          the enumeration once creation is complete.

          ‘_ignore_’ is a list of names that will not become members,
          and whose names will also be removed from the completed
          enumeration.  See *note TimePeriod: 25d6. for an example.

      -- 메서드: __dir__ (self)

          Returns ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name',
          'value']’ and any public methods defined on 'self.__class__':

               >>> from datetime import date
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1
               ...     TUESDAY = 2
               ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
               ...     THURSDAY = 4
               ...     FRIDAY = 5
               ...     SATURDAY = 6
               ...     SUNDAY = 7
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def today(cls):
               ...         print('today is %s' % cls(date.today().isoweekday()).name)
               ...
               >>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
               ['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']

      -- 메서드: _generate_next_value_ (name, start, count, last_values)


               name: The name of the member being defined (e.g.  ‘RED’).


               start: The start value for the Enum; the default is 1.


               count: The number of members currently defined, not
               including this one.


               last_values: A list of the previous values.

          A 'staticmethod' that is used to determine the next value
          returned by *note auto: c99.:

               >>> from enum import auto
               >>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
               ...     @staticmethod
               ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
               ...         return 3 ** (count + 1)
               ...     FIRST = auto()
               ...     SECOND = auto()
               ...
               >>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
               9

      -- 메서드: __init__ (self, *args, **kwds)

          By default, does nothing.  If multiple values are given in the
          member assignment, those values become separate arguments to
          ‘__init__’; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1, 'Mon'

          ‘Weekday.__init__()’ would be called as
          ‘Weekday.__init__(self, 1, 'Mon')’

      -- 메서드: __init_subclass__ (cls, **kwds)

          A 'classmethod' that is used to further configure subsequent
          subclasses.  By default, does nothing.

      -- 메서드: _missing_ (cls, value)

          A 'classmethod' for looking up values not found in 'cls'.  By
          default it does nothing, but can be overridden to implement
          custom search behavior:

               >>> from enum import StrEnum
               >>> class Build(StrEnum):
               ...     DEBUG = auto()
               ...     OPTIMIZED = auto()
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def _missing_(cls, value):
               ...         value = value.lower()
               ...         for member in cls:
               ...             if member.value == value:
               ...                 return member
               ...         return None
               ...
               >>> Build.DEBUG.value
               'debug'
               >>> Build('deBUG')
               <Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>

      -- 메서드: __new__ (cls, *args, **kwds)

          By default, doesn’t exist.  If specified, either in the enum
          class definition or in a mixin class (such as ‘int’), all
          values given in the member assignment will be passed; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
               ...     TWENTYSIX = '1a', 16

          results in the call ‘int('1a', 16)’ and a value of ‘26’ for
          the member.

               참고: When writing a custom ‘__new__’, do not use
               ‘super().__new__’ – call the appropriate ‘__new__’
               instead.

      -- 메서드: __repr__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'repr()' calls.  By default,
          returns the 'Enum' name, member name, and value, but can be
          overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __repr__(self):
               ...         cls_name = self.__class__.__name__
               ...         return f'{cls_name}.{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE')

      -- 메서드: __str__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'str()' calls.  By default,
          returns the 'Enum' name and member name, but can be
          overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __str__(self):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

      -- 메서드: __format__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'format()' and 'f-string' calls.
          By default, returns *note __str__(): 61c. return value, but
          can be overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __format__(self, spec):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

          참고: Using *note auto: c99. with *note Enum: 62a. results in
          integers of increasing value, starting with ‘1’.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added *note Dataclass support: 178a.

      -- 메서드: _add_alias_ ()

          Adds a new name as an alias to an existing member:

               >>> Color.RED._add_alias_("ERROR")
               >>> Color.ERROR
               <Color.RED: 1>

          Raises a *note NameError: 438. if the name is already assigned
          to a different member.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: _add_value_alias_ ()

          Adds a new value as an alias to an existing member:

               >>> Color.RED._add_value_alias_(42)
               >>> Color(42)
               <Color.RED: 1>

          Raises a *note ValueError: 202. if the value is already linked
          with a different member.

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- 클래스: enum.IntEnum

     'IntEnum' is the same as *note Enum: 62a, but its members are also
     integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.  If
     any integer operation is performed with an 'IntEnum' member, the
     resulting value loses its enumeration status.

          >>> from enum import IntEnum
          >>> class Number(IntEnum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...
          >>> Number.THREE
          <Number.THREE: 3>
          >>> Number.ONE + Number.TWO
          3
          >>> Number.THREE + 5
          8
          >>> Number.THREE == 3
          True

          참고: Using *note auto: c99. with *note IntEnum: cdc. results
          in integers of increasing value, starting with ‘1’.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note __str__(): 617. is now ‘int.__str__()’ to
     better support the 'replacement of existing constants' use-case.
     *note __format__(): 618. was already ‘int.__format__()’ for that
     same reason.

 -- 클래스: enum.StrEnum

     'StrEnum' is the same as *note Enum: 62a, but its members are also
     strings and can be used in most of the same places that a string
     can be used.  The result of any string operation performed on or
     with a 'StrEnum' member is not part of the enumeration.

          >>> from enum import StrEnum, auto
          >>> class Color(StrEnum):
          ...     RED = 'r'
          ...     GREEN = 'g'
          ...     BLUE = 'b'
          ...     UNKNOWN = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED
          <Color.RED: 'r'>
          >>> Color.UNKNOWN
          <Color.UNKNOWN: 'unknown'>
          >>> str(Color.UNKNOWN)
          'unknown'

          참고: There are places in the stdlib that check for an exact
          *note str: 445. instead of a *note str: 445. subclass (i.e.
          ‘type(unknown) == str’ instead of ‘isinstance(unknown, str)’),
          and in those locations you will need to use
          ‘str(MyStrEnum.MY_MEMBER)’.

          참고: Using *note auto: c99. with *note StrEnum: 614. results
          in the lower-cased member name as the value.

          참고: *note __str__(): 617. is ‘str.__str__()’ to better
          support the 'replacement of existing constants' use-case.
          *note __format__(): 618. is likewise ‘str.__format__()’ for
          that same reason.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: enum.Flag

     ‘Flag’ is the same as *note Enum: 62a, but its members support the
     bitwise operators ‘&’ ('AND'), ‘|’ ('OR'), ‘^’ ('XOR'), and ‘~’
     ('INVERT'); the results of those operations are (aliases of)
     members of the enumeration.

      -- 메서드: __contains__ (self, value)

          Returns 'True' if value is in self:

               >>> from enum import Flag, auto
               >>> class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
               >>> white = Color.RED | Color.GREEN | Color.BLUE
               >>> Color.GREEN in purple
               False
               >>> Color.GREEN in white
               True
               >>> purple in white
               True
               >>> white in purple
               False

      -- 메서드: __iter__(self):

          Returns all contained non-alias members:

               >>> list(Color.RED)
               [<Color.RED: 1>]
               >>> list(purple)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: __len__(self):

          Returns number of members in flag:

               >>> len(Color.GREEN)
               1
               >>> len(white)
               3

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: __bool__(self):

          Returns 'True' if any members in flag, 'False' otherwise:

               >>> bool(Color.GREEN)
               True
               >>> bool(white)
               True
               >>> black = Color(0)
               >>> bool(black)
               False

      -- 메서드: __or__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary or’ed with other:

               >>> Color.RED | Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

      -- 메서드: __and__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary and’ed with other:

               >>> purple & white
               <Color.RED|BLUE: 5>
               >>> purple & Color.GREEN
               <Color: 0>

      -- 메서드: __xor__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary xor’ed with other:

               >>> purple ^ white
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

      -- 메서드: __invert__(self):

          Returns all the flags in 'type(self)' that are not in 'self':

               >>> ~white
               <Color: 0>
               >>> ~purple
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> ~Color.RED
               <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

      -- 메서드: _numeric_repr_ ()

          Function used to format any remaining unnamed numeric values.
          Default is the value’s repr; common choices are *note hex():
          12bf. and *note oct(): 12be.

          참고: Using *note auto: c99. with *note Flag: 61d. results in
          integers that are powers of two, starting with ‘1’.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The 'repr()' of zero-valued flags has changed.
     It is now::

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

 -- 클래스: enum.IntFlag

     ‘IntFlag’ is the same as *note Flag: 61d, but its members are also
     integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.

          >>> from enum import IntFlag, auto
          >>> class Color(IntFlag):
          ...     RED = auto()
          ...     GREEN = auto()
          ...     BLUE = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED & 2
          <Color: 0>
          >>> Color.RED | 2
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

     If any integer operation is performed with an 'IntFlag' member, the
     result is not an 'IntFlag':

          >>> Color.RED + 2
          3

     If a *note Flag: 61d. operation is performed with an 'IntFlag'
     member and:

        * the result is a valid 'IntFlag': an 'IntFlag' is returned

        * the result is not a valid 'IntFlag': the result depends on the
          *note FlagBoundary: 61e. setting

     The *note repr(): 7f7. of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed.
     It is now:

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

          참고: Using *note auto: c99. with *note IntFlag: 2302. results
          in integers that are powers of two, starting with ‘1’.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note __str__(): 617. is now ‘int.__str__()’ to
     better support the 'replacement of existing constants' use-case.
     *note __format__(): 618. was already ‘int.__format__()’ for that
     same reason.

     Inversion of an ‘IntFlag’ now returns a positive value that is the
     union of all flags not in the given flag, rather than a negative
     value.  This matches the existing *note Flag: 61d. behavior.

 -- 클래스: enum.ReprEnum

     ‘ReprEnum’ uses the *note repr(): 178b. of *note Enum: 62a, but the
     *note str(): 445. of the mixed-in data type:

        * ‘int.__str__()’ for *note IntEnum: cdc. and *note IntFlag:
          2302.

        * ‘str.__str__()’ for *note StrEnum: 614.

     Inherit from ‘ReprEnum’ to keep the *note str(): 445. / *note
     format(): 619. of the mixed-in data type instead of using the *note
     Enum: 62a.-default *note str(): 61c.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: enum.EnumCheck

     'EnumCheck' contains the options used by the *note verify(): 61f.
     decorator to ensure various constraints; failed constraints result
     in a *note ValueError: 202.

      -- 속성: UNIQUE

          Ensure that each value has only one name:

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, UNIQUE
               >>> @verify(UNIQUE)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 3
               ...     CRIMSON = 1
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: aliases found in <enum 'Color'>: CRIMSON -> RED

      -- 속성: CONTINUOUS

          Ensure that there are no missing values between the
          lowest-valued member and the highest-valued member:

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, CONTINUOUS
               >>> @verify(CONTINUOUS)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 5
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid enum 'Color': missing values 3, 4

      -- 속성: NAMED_FLAGS

          Ensure that any flag groups/masks contain only named flags –
          useful when values are specified instead of being generated by
          *note auto(): c99.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, verify, NAMED_FLAGS
               >>> @verify(NAMED_FLAGS)
               ... class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 4
               ...     WHITE = 15
               ...     NEON = 31
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid Flag 'Color': aliases WHITE and NEON are missing combined values of 0x18 [use enum.show_flag_values(value) for details]

          참고: CONTINUOUS and NAMED_FLAGS are designed to work with
          integer-valued members.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: enum.FlagBoundary

     ‘FlagBoundary’ controls how out-of-range values are handled in
     *note Flag: 61d. and its subclasses.

      -- 속성: STRICT

          Out-of-range values cause a *note ValueError: 202. to be
          raised.  This is the default for *note Flag: 61d.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, STRICT, auto
               >>> class StrictFlag(Flag, boundary=STRICT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> StrictFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: <flag 'StrictFlag'> invalid value 20
                   given 0b0 10100
                 allowed 0b0 00111

      -- 속성: CONFORM

          Out-of-range values have invalid values removed, leaving a
          valid *note Flag: 61d. value:

               >>> from enum import Flag, CONFORM, auto
               >>> class ConformFlag(Flag, boundary=CONFORM):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> ConformFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <ConformFlag.BLUE: 4>

      -- 속성: EJECT

          Out-of-range values lose their *note Flag: 61d. membership and
          revert to *note int: 257.

               >>> from enum import Flag, EJECT, auto
               >>> class EjectFlag(Flag, boundary=EJECT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> EjectFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               20

      -- 속성: KEEP

          Out-of-range values are kept, and the *note Flag: 61d.
          membership is kept.  This is the default for *note IntFlag:
          2302.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, KEEP, auto
               >>> class KeepFlag(Flag, boundary=KEEP):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: enum.EnumDict

     'EnumDict' is a subclass of *note dict: 256. that is used as the
     namespace for defining enum classes (see *note 클래스 이름 공간
     준비하기: c5b.).  It is exposed to allow subclasses of *note
     EnumType: 1e5. with advanced behavior like having multiple values
     per member.  It should be called with the name of the enum class
     being created, otherwise private names and internal classes will
     not be handled correctly.

     Note that only the *note MutableMapping: 109f. interface (*note
     __setitem__(): 12bb. and *note update(): 142b.) is overridden.  It
     may be possible to bypass the checks using other ‘dict’ operations
     like *note |=: 1fbb.

      -- 속성: member_names

          멤버 이름의 리스트.

     Added in version 3.13.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 지원되는 __dunder__ 이름::
* 지원되는 _sunder_ 이름::


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되는 __dunder__ 이름,  Next: 지원되는 _sunder_ 이름,  Up: Data Types

5.8.14.3 지원되는 ‘__dunder__’ 이름
...................................

*note __members__: 25cd.는 ‘member_name’:‘member’ 항목의 읽기 전용 순서
있는 매핑입니다.  클래스에서만 이용할 수 있습니다.

지정된다면, *note __new__(): 25d1.는 열거형 멤버를 만들고 반환해야 합니
다; 멤버의 ‘_value_’를 적절하게 설정하는 것도 좋습니다.  일단 모든 멤버
가 만들어지면 더는 사용되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되는 _sunder_ 이름,  Prev: 지원되는 __dunder__ 이름,  Up: Data Types

5.8.14.4 지원되는 ‘_sunder_’ 이름
.................................

   - *note _name_: 25d2. – 멤버의 이름

   - *note _value_: 25d3. – 멤버의 값; ‘__new__’에서 설정할 수 있습니다

   - *note _missing_(): 25da. – 값을 찾을 수 없을 때 사용되는 조회 함수;
     재정의할 수 있습니다

   - *note _ignore_: 25d5. – 멤버로 변환되지 않고 최종 클래스에서 제거될
     *note list: 60b.나 *note str: 445. 형의 이름 목록

   - *note _order_: 25d4. – 더는 사용되지 않습니다, 하위 호환성을 위해 유
     지됩니다 (클래스 생성 중 제거되는 클래스 어트리뷰트)

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 25d7. – 열거형 멤버에 대한 적절한 값
     을 얻기 위해 사용합니다; 재정의할 수 있습니다

          참고: For standard *note Enum: 62a. classes the next value
          chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one.

          For *note Flag: 61d. classes the next value chosen will be the
          next highest power-of-two.

   - *note _add_alias_(): 25db. – adds a new name as an alias to an
     existing member.

   - *note _add_value_alias_(): 25dc. – adds a new value as an alias to
     an existing member.

   - While ‘_sunder_’ names are generally reserved for the further
     development of the *note Enum: 62a. class and can not be used, some
     are explicitly allowed:

        - ‘_repr_*’ (e.g.  ‘_repr_html_’), as used in IPython's rich
          display(1)

Added in version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’, ‘_generate_next_value_’

Added in version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

Added in version 3.13: ‘_add_alias_’, ‘_add_value_alias_’, ‘_repr_*’

__________________________________________________________________

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/config/integrating.html#rich-display


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities and Decorators,  Next: 참고 사항,  Prev: Data Types,  Up: enum — 열거형 지원

5.8.14.5 Utilities and Decorators
.................................

 -- 클래스: enum.auto

     'auto' can be used in place of a value.  If used, the 'Enum'
     machinery will call an *note Enum: 62a.’s *note
     _generate_next_value_(): 25d7. to get an appropriate value.  For
     *note Enum: 62a. and *note IntEnum: cdc. that appropriate value
     will be the last value plus one; for *note Flag: 61d. and *note
     IntFlag: 2302. it will be the first power-of-two greater than the
     highest value; for *note StrEnum: 614. it will be the lower-cased
     version of the member’s name.  Care must be taken if mixing
     'auto()' with manually specified values.

     'auto' instances are only resolved when at the top level of an
     assignment:

        * ‘FIRST = auto()’ will work (auto() is replaced with ‘1’);

        * ‘SECOND = auto(), -2’ will work (auto is replaced with ‘2’, so
          ‘2, -2’ is used to create the ‘SECOND’ enum member;

        * ‘THREE = [auto(), -3]’ will 'not' work (‘<auto instance>, -3’
          is used to create the ‘THREE’ enum member)

     버전 3.11.1에서 변경: In prior versions, ‘auto()’ had to be the
     only thing on the assignment line to work properly.

     ‘_generate_next_value_’ can be overridden to customize the values
     used by 'auto'.

          참고: in 3.13 the default ‘_generate_next_value_’ will always
          return the highest member value incremented by 1, and will
          fail if any member is an incompatible type.

 -- 함수: @enum.property

     A decorator similar to the built-in 'property', but specifically
     for enumerations.  It allows member attributes to have the same
     names as members themselves.

          참고: the 'property' and the member must be defined in
          separate classes; for example, the 'value' and 'name'
          attributes are defined in the 'Enum' class, and 'Enum'
          subclasses can define members with the names ‘value’ and
          ‘name’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @enum.unique

     열거형 용 *note class: 12c7. 데코레이터입니다.  열거형의 *note
     __members__: 25cd.를 검색하여, 별칭을 수집합니다; 발견되면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 세부 정보와 함께 발생합니다:

          >>> from enum import Enum, unique
          >>> @unique
          ... class Mistake(Enum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...     FOUR = 3
          ...
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

 -- 함수: @enum.verify

     A *note class: 12c7. decorator specifically for enumerations.
     Members from *note EnumCheck: 620. are used to specify which
     constraints should be checked on the decorated enumeration.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @enum.member

     A decorator for use in enums: its target will become a member.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @enum.nonmember

     A decorator for use in enums: its target will not become a member.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @enum.global_enum

     A decorator to change the *note str(): 445. and *note repr(): 7f7.
     of an enum to show its members as belonging to the module instead
     of its class.  Should only be used when the enum members are
     exported to the module global namespace (see *note re.RegexFlag:
     627. for an example).

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: enum.show_flag_values (value)

     Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag
     'value'.

     Added in version 3.11.

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: 참고 사항,  Prev: Utilities and Decorators,  Up: enum — 열거형 지원

5.8.14.6 참고 사항
..................

*note IntEnum: cdc, *note StrEnum: 614, 및 *note IntFlag: 2302.

     These three enum types are designed to be drop-in replacements for
     existing integer- and string-based values; as such, they have extra
     limitations:

        - ‘__str__’ uses the value and not the name of the enum member

        - ‘__format__’, because it uses ‘__str__’, will also use the
          value of the enum member instead of its name

     If you do not need/want those limitations, you can either create
     your own base class by mixing in the ‘int’ or ‘str’ type yourself:

          >>> from enum import Enum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
          ...     pass

     or you can reassign the appropriate *note str(): 445, etc., in your
     enum:

          >>> from enum import Enum, IntEnum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(IntEnum):
          ...     __str__ = Enum.__str__


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능,  Prev: enum — 열거형 지원,  Up: 데이터형

5.8.15 ‘graphlib’ — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능
--------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/graphlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- 클래스: graphlib.TopologicalSorter (graph=None)

     *note 해시 가능: 60a. 노드의 그래프(graph)를 위상 정렬(topological
     sort)하는 기능을 제공합니다.

     위상 순서(topological order)는 그래프(graph)에서 꼭짓점(vertex)의 선
     형 순서로, 꼭짓점 u에서 꼭짓점 v로 가는 모든 유향 변(directed edge)
     u -> v 에 대해, 꼭짓점 u가 꼭짓점 v보다 앞에 옵니다.  예를 들어, 그
     래프의 꼭짓점은 수행될 작업을 나타낼 수 있고, 변은 하나의 작업이 다
     른 작업보다 먼저 수행되어야 한다는 제약을 나타낼 수 있습니다; 이 예
     에서, 위상 순서는 유효한 작업 순서입니다.  그래프에 유향 순환이 없
     는 경우, 즉 유향 비순환 그래프인 경우에만 완전한 위상 정렬이 가능합
     니다.

     선택적 'graph' 인자가 제공되면 키가 노드이고 값이 그래프에서 해당 노
     드의 모든 선행 노드(키의 값을 가리키는 변이 있는 노드)의 이터러블인
     비순환 그래프를 나타내는 딕셔너리이어야 합니다).  *note add():
     25f0. 메서드를 사용하여 그래프에 추가 노드를 추가할 수 있습니다.

     일반적으로, 주어진 그래프의 정렬을 수행하는 데 필요한 단계는 다음과
     같습니다:

        * 선택적 초기 그래프를 사용하여 *note TopologicalSorter: 8de.의
          인스턴스를 만듭니다.

        * 그래프에 노드를 추가합니다.

        * 그래프에서 *note prepare(): 25f1.를 호출합니다.

        * *note is_active(): 25f2.가 ‘True’인 동안, *note get_ready():
          25f3.가 반환하는 노드를 이터레이트하고 이들을 처리합니다.  처
          리가 완료됨에 따라, 각 노드에 *note done(): 25f4.을 호출합니다
          .

     그래프에서 노드의 즉각적인 정렬이 필요하고 병렬화가 개입하지 않으면
     , 편의 메서드 *note TopologicalSorter.static_order(): 25f5.를 직접
     사용할 수 있습니다:

          >>> graph = {"D": {"B", "C"}, "C": {"A"}, "B": {"A"}}
          >>> ts = TopologicalSorter(graph)
          >>> tuple(ts.static_order())
          ('A', 'C', 'B', 'D')

     이 클래스는 노드가 준비됨에 따라 병렬 처리를 쉽게 지원하도록 설계되
     었습니다.  예를 들어:

          topological_sorter = TopologicalSorter()

          # 'topological_sorter' 에 노드를 추가합니다...

          topological_sorter.prepare()
          while topological_sorter.is_active():
              for node in topological_sorter.get_ready():
                  # 작업자 스레드나 프로세스는 'task_queue' 큐에서 작업할 노드를 꺼냅니다.
                  task_queue.put(node)

              # 노드의 작업이 완료되면, 작업자는 노드를 'finalized_tasks_queue' 에 넣어서
              # 작업할 더 많은 노드를 얻을 수 있도록 합니다. 'is_active()'의 정의는, 이 시점에서,
              # 아직 'done()'으로 전달되지 않은 하나 이상의 노드가 'task_queue'에 있다고 보장해서,
              # 이 블로킹 'get()'은 (결국) 성공합니다. 'done()'을 호출한 후, 다시 'get_ready()'를
              # 호출하도록 루프로 돌아가서, 새로 풀려난 노드를 논리적으로 가능한 한 빨리 'task_queue'에
              # 넣습니다.
              node = finalized_tasks_queue.get()
              topological_sorter.done(node)

      -- 메서드: add (node, *predecessors)

          새 노드와 그 선행 노드를 그래프에 추가합니다.  'node'와
          'predecessors'의 모든 요소는 모두 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해야 합
          니다.

          같은 노드 인자로 여러 번 호출되면, 종속성 집합은 전달된 모든 종
          속성의 합집합입니다.

          종속성이 없는 노드를 추가하거나('predecessors'가 제공되지 않는
          경우) 종속성을 두 번 제공할 수 있습니다.  이전에 제공되지 않은
          노드가 'predecessors'에 포함되면, 노드는 그 자신의 선행 노드 없
          이 자동으로 그래프에 추가됩니다.

          *note prepare(): 25f1. 이후에 호출되면 *note ValueError: 202.가
          발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: prepare ()

          그래프를 완료로 표시하고 그래프에서 순환을 검사합니다.  순환이
          감지되면, *note CycleError: 25f6.가 발생하지만, 순환이 더 진행
          하는 것을 차단할 때까지 *note get_ready(): 25f3.를 사용하여 여
          전히 가능한 많은 노드를 얻을 수 있습니다.  이 함수를 호출한 후
          에는, 그래프를 수정할 수 없어서, *note add(): 25f0.를 사용하여
          더는 노드를 추가할 수 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_active ()

          더 진행할 수 있으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니
          다.  순환이 결정을 차단하지 않고 *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25f3.에 의해 아직 반환되지 않은
          준비된 노드가 아직 있거나 *note TopologicalSorter.done():
          25f4.으로 표시된 노드 수가 *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25f3.에 의해 반환된 수보다 작으
          면 진행할 수 있습니다.

          이 클래스의 *note __bool__(): 12c5. 메서드는 이 함수로 위임됩
          니다, 그래서 다음 대신:

               if ts.is_active():
                   ...

          다음처럼 간단하게 할 수 있습니다:

               if ts:
                   ...

          이전에 *note prepare(): 25f1.를 호출하지 않고 호출되면 *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: done (*nodes)

          *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25f3.에 의해 반환된 노드
          집합이 처리된 것으로 표시하여, 'nodes'에 있는 각 노드의 모든 후
          속 노드들이 *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 25f3.에 대한
          호출로 나중에 반환되도록 차단 해제합니다.

          'nodes'에 있는 노드가 이 메서드에 대한 이전 호출에 의해 이미 처
          리된 것으로 표시되었거나 *note TopologicalSorter.add(): 25f0.를
          사용하여 그래프에 추가되지 않았거나, *note prepare(): 25f1.를
          호출하지 않고 호출되었거나, 또는 *note get_ready(): 25f3.가 아
          직 노드를 반환하지 않았으면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵
          니다.

      -- 메서드: get_ready ()

          준비된 모든 노드가 담긴 ‘tuple’을 반환합니다.  처음에는 선행 노
          드가 없는 모든 노드를 반환하며, 일단 *note
          TopologicalSorter.done(): 25f4.을 호출하여 처리된 것으로 표시
          되면, 추가 호출은 모든 선행 노드가 이미 처리된 모든 새 노드를
          반환합니다.  더는 진행할 수 없으면, 빈 튜플이 반환됩니다.

          이전에 *note prepare(): 25f1.를 호출하지 않고 호출되면 *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: static_order ()

          노드들을 위상 순서로 이터레이트하는 이터레이터 객체를 반환합니
          다.  이 메서드를 사용할 때, *note prepare(): 25f1.와 *note
          done(): 25f4.은 호출하지 않아야 합니다.  이 메서드는 다음과 동
          등합니다:

               def static_order(self):
                   self.prepare()
                   while self.is_active():
                       node_group = self.get_ready()
                       yield from node_group
                       self.done(*node_group)

          반환되는 특정 순서는 항목이 그래프에 삽입된 특정 순서에 따라 달
          라질 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

               >>> ts = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> ts.add(1, 0)
               >>> print([*ts.static_order()])
               [2, 0, 1, 3]

               >>> ts2 = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts2.add(1, 0)
               >>> ts2.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> print([*ts2.static_order()])
               [0, 2, 1, 3]

          이것은 그래프에서 “0”과 “2”가 같은 수준에 있고 (*note
          get_ready(): 25f3.에 대한 같은 호출에서 반환됩니다) 이들 간의
          순서는 삽입 순서에 따라 결정되기 때문입니다.

          순환이 감지되면 *note CycleError: 25f6.가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

* Menu:

* 예외: 예외<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/graphlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<3>,  Up: graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능

5.8.15.1 예외
.............

*note graphlib: 65. 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: graphlib.CycleError

     작업 그래프에 순환이 있으면 *note TopologicalSorter.prepare():
     25f1.가 발생시키는 *note ValueError: 202.의 서브 클래스.  여러 순환
     이 존재하면, 그들 중 오직 하나의 정의되지 않은 선택만 보고되고 예외
     에 포함됩니다.

     감지된 순환은 예외 인스턴스의 *note args: 567. 어트리뷰트에서 두 번
     째 요소를 통해 액세스 할 수 있으며 각 노드가 그래프에서 리스트에 있
     는 다음 노드의 직전 선행 노드가 되도록 노드 리스트로 구성됩니다.  보
     고된 리스트에서, 순환임을 분명히 하기 위해, 처음과 마지막 노드는 같
     습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자와 수학 모듈,  Next: 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈,  Prev: 데이터형,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.9 숫자와 수학 모듈
====================

이 장에 나와있는 모듈들은 숫자와 수학에 관련된 함수와 데이터 타입을 제공
합니다.  *note numbers: 9e. 모듈은 숫자 데이터 타입을 위한 추상 계층 구
조를 정의합니다.  *note math: 8e. 와 *note cmath: 18. 모듈은 부동소수와
복소수를 위한 여러 수학 함수를 가지고 있습니다.  *note decimal: 36. 모듈
은 임의의 정밀도 계산을 사용하여 정확한 10진수 표현을 지원합니다.

이 장에는 다음과 같은 모듈이 설명되어 있습니다:

* Menu:

* numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스::
* math — 수학 함수::
* cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수::
* decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic::
* fractions — 유리수::
* random — 의사 난수 생성::
* statistics — 수학 통계 함수::


File: python.info,  Node: numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스,  Next: math — 수학 함수,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.1 ‘numbers’ — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스
-----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/numbers.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘numbers’ 모듈( PEP 3141(2))은 숫자에 대한 *note 추상 베이스 클래스:
11a5. 의 계층 구조를 정의합니다.  계층 구조가 깊어질수록 더 많은 연산이
정의되어 있습니다.  이 모듈에 정의된 모든 형은 인스턴스로 만들 수 없습니
다.

 -- 클래스: numbers.Number

     숫자 계층의 최상위 클래스입니다.  형에 상관없이 인자 'x' 가 숫자인
     지 확인하려면 ‘isinstance(x, Number)’ 를 사용하세요.

* Menu:

* 숫자 계층::
* 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/numbers.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 계층,  Next: 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항,  Up: numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스

5.9.1.1 숫자 계층
.................

 -- 클래스: numbers.Complex

     이 서브 클래스는 복소수를 표현하고 내장 *note complex: 2f0. 형에 사
     용되는 연산을 포함합니다.  여기에는 *note complex: 2f0. 와 *note
     bool: 461. 형으로의 변환과 *note real: 2600, *note imag: 2601, ‘+’,
     ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘/’, ‘**’, *note abs(): 1cac, *note conjugate(): 2602,
     ‘==’, ‘!=’ 이 포함됩니다.  ‘-’ 와 ‘!=’ 를 제외하고는 모두 추상입니
     다.

      -- 속성: real

          추상.  복소수의 실수부를 반환합니다.

      -- 속성: imag

          추상.  복소수의 허수부를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod conjugate ()

          추상 메서드.  켤레 복소수를 반환합니다.  예를 들어
          ‘(1+3j).conjugate() == (1-3j)’ 입니다.

 -- 클래스: numbers.Real

     ‘Real’ 클래스는 *note Complex: 25ff. 클래스에 실수 연산을 추가합니
     다.

     요약하면 *note float: 2ef. 로의 변환과 *note math.trunc(): 138c,
     *note round(): 12ca, *note math.floor(): 138a, *note math.ceil():
     138b, *note divmod(): 99e, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’ 가 포함
     됩니다.

     이 클래스는 또한 *note complex(): 2f0, *note real: 2600, *note
     imag: 2601, *note conjugate(): 2602. 를 위한 기본값을 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: numbers.Rational

     *note Real: 219e. 의 하위 형이고 *note numerator: 2603. 와 *note
     denominator: 2604. 프로퍼티가 추가됩니다.  또한 *note float(): 2ef.
     함수를 위한 기본값을 제공합니다.

     The *note numerator: 2603. and *note denominator: 2604. values
     should be instances of *note Integral: 1fc4. and should be in
     lowest terms with *note denominator: 2604. positive.

      -- 속성: numerator

          Abstract.  The numerator of this rational number.

      -- 속성: denominator

          Abstract.  The denominator of this rational number.

 -- 클래스: numbers.Integral

     *note Rational: 12ae. 의 하위 형이고 *note int: 257. 클래스로 변환
     기능이 추가됩니다.  *note float(): 2ef, *note numerator: 2603,
     *note denominator: 2604. 를 위한 기본값을 제공합니다.  모듈러스가 있
     는 *note pow(): 9cf.를 위한 추상 메서드와 비트 연산 ‘<<’, ‘>>’,
     ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’, ‘~’ 를 추가합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항,  Prev: 숫자 계층,  Up: numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스

5.9.1.2 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항
..................................

구현자는 동일한 숫자가 같게 취급되고 같은 값으로 해싱되도록 해야 합니다.
만약 종류가 다른 실수의 하위 형이 있는 경우 조금 까다로울 수 있습니다.  예
를 들어 *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. 클래스는 *note hash(): 5e5. 함수
를 다음과 같이 구현합니다:

     def __hash__(self):
         if self.denominator == 1:
             # 정수입니다.
             return hash(self.numerator)
         # 비싼 검사이지만, 확실히 맞습니다.
         if self == float(self):
             return hash(float(self))
         else:
             # 간단한 분수에서의 높은 충돌률을 피하기위해 튜플의 해시를 사용합니다.
             return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))

* Menu:

* 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스(ABC) 추가: 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스 ABC 추가.
* 산술 연산 구현::


File: python.info,  Node: 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스 ABC 추가,  Next: 산술 연산 구현,  Up: 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항

5.9.1.3 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스(ABC) 추가
.................................................

물론 숫자를 위한 ABC를 추가하는 것이 가능합니다.  그렇지 않으면 엉망으로
상속 계층이 구현될 것입니다.  *note Complex: 25ff. 와 *note Real: 219e.
사이에 다음과 같이 ‘MyFoo’ 를 추가할 수 있습니다:

     class MyFoo(Complex): ...
     MyFoo.register(Real)


File: python.info,  Node: 산술 연산 구현,  Prev: 더 많은 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스 ABC 추가,  Up: 형 구현자를 위한 주의 사항

5.9.1.4 산술 연산 구현
......................

다른 형에 대한 연산은 두 인자의 형에 관해 알고 있는 구현을 호출하거나 두
인자를 가장 비슷한 내장형으로 변환하여 연산하도록 산술 연산을 구현하는 것
이 좋습니다.  *note Integral: 1fc4. 클래스의 하위 형일 경우에 *note
__add__(): 1f94. 와 *note __radd__(): 1f95. 메서드는 다음과 같이 정의되
어야 함을 의미합니다:

     class MyIntegral(Integral):

         def __add__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

         def __radd__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, Integral):
                 return int(other) + int(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Real):
                 return float(other) + float(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Complex):
                 return complex(other) + complex(self)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

*note Complex: 25ff. 클래스의 서브클래스에는 다섯 가지의 서로 다른 혼합
형 연산이 있습니다.  위의 코드에서 ‘MyIntegral’ 와 ‘OtherTypeIKnowAbout’
를 제외한 나머지를 기본구조라고 하겠습니다.  ‘a’ 는 *note Complex: 25ff.
의 하위 형인 ‘A’ 의 인스턴스입니다(즉 ‘a : A <: Complex’ 입니다).  비슷
하게 ‘b : B <: Complex’ 입니다.  ‘a + b’ 인 경우를 생각해 보겠습니다:

  1. 만약 ‘A’ 가 ‘b’ 를 받는 *note __add__(): 1f94. 메서드를 정의했다면
     모든 것이 문제없이 처리됩니다.

  2. ‘A’ 가 기본구조 코드로 진입하고 *note __add__(): 1f94.로 부터 어떤
     값을 반환한다면 ‘B’ 가 똑똑하게 정의한 *note __radd__(): 1f95. 메서
     드를 놓칠 수 있습니다.  이를 피하려면 기본구조는 ‘__add__()’ 에서
     *note NotImplemented: 7cb. 를 반환해야 합니다.  (또는 ‘A’ 가
     ‘__add__()’ 메서드를 전혀 구현하지 않을 수도 있습니다.)

  3. 그다음 ‘B’ 의 *note __radd__(): 1f95. 메서드가 기회를 얻습니다.  이
     메서드가 ‘a’ 를 받을 수 있다면 모든 것이 문제없이 처리됩니다.

  4. 기본구조 코드로 돌아온다면 더 시도해 볼 수 있는 메서드가 없으므로 기
     본적으로 수행될 구현을 작성해야 합니다.

  5. 만약 ‘B <: A’ 라면 파이썬은 ‘A.__add__’ 메서드 전에 ‘B.__radd__’ 를
     시도합니다.  ‘A’ 에 대해서 알고 ‘B’ 가 구현되었기 때문에 이런 행동
     은 문제없습니다.  따라서 *note Complex: 25ff. 에 위임하기 전에 이 인
     스턴스를 처리할 수 있습니다.

만약 어떤 것도 공유하지 않는 ‘A <: Complex’ 와 ‘B <: Real’ 라면 적절한 공
유 연산(shared operation)은 내장 *note complex: 2f0. 클래스에 연관된 것
입니다.  양쪽의 *note __radd__(): 1f95. 메서드가 여기에 해당하므로 ‘a+b
== b+a’ 가 됩니다.

대부분 주어진 어떤 형에 대한 연산은 매우 비슷하므로, 주어진 연산자의 정
방향(forward) 인스턴스와 역방향(reverse) 인스턴스를 생성하는 헬퍼 함수를
정의하는 것이 유용합니다.  예를 들어 *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7. 클래
스는 다음과 같이 사용합니다:

     def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
         def forward(a, b):
             if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(b, float):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
             elif isinstance(b, complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         def reverse(b, a):
             if isinstance(a, Rational):
                 # 정수를 포함합니다.
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(a, Real):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
             elif isinstance(a, Complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         return forward, reverse

     def _add(a, b):
         """a + b"""
         return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
                         b.numerator * a.denominator,
                         a.denominator * b.denominator)

     __add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)

     # ...


File: python.info,  Node: math — 수학 함수,  Next: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수,  Prev: numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.2 ‘math’ — 수학 함수
------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to common mathematical functions and
constants, including those defined by the C standard.

이 함수는 복소수와 함께 사용할 수 없습니다; 복소수를 지원해야 하면 *note
cmath: 18. 모듈에 있는 같은 이름의 함수를 사용하십시오.  대부분 사용자는
복소수를 이해하는 데 필요한 수준의 수학을 배우고 싶어 하지 않기 때문에 복
소수를 지원하는 함수와 그렇지 않은 함수를 구별했습니다.  복소수 결과 대
신 예외를 수신하면 매개 변수로 사용된 예상치 못한 복소수를 조기에 감지할
수 있기 때문에, 프로그래머는 처음 위치에서 생성된 경로와 원인을 파악할 수
있습니다.

이 모듈에서 제공하는 함수는 다음과 같습니다.  달리 명시되지 않는 한 모든
반환 값은 float입니다.

'수론적 함수'

*note comb(n, k): 6c9.                                   반복과 순서 없이 'n' 개의 항목에서 'k' 개의 항목을 선택하는 방법의 수
                                                         
                                                         
*note factorial(n): 945.                                 'n' 계승
                                                         
                                                         
*note gcd(*integers): 90d.                               정수 인자의 최대 공약수
                                                         
                                                         
*note isqrt(n): a01.                                     음이 아닌 정수 'n'의 정수 제곱근
                                                         
                                                         
*note lcm(*integers): 90e.                               정수 인자의 최소 공배수
                                                         
                                                         
*note perm(n, k): 6ca.                                   반복 없고 순서 있게 'n' 개의 항목에서 'k' 개의 항목을 선택하는 방법의 수
                                                         
                                                         
'부동 소수점 산술'

*note ceil(x): 138b.                                     'x'의 천장값, 'x'보다 크거나 같은 가장 작은 정수
                                                         
                                                         
*note fabs(x): 260a.                                     'x'의 절댓값
                                                         
                                                         
*note floor(x): 138a.                                    'x'의 바닥값, 'x'보다 작거나 같은 가장 큰 정수
                                                         
                                                         
*note fma(x, y, z): 205.                                 Fused multiply-add operation: ‘(x * y) + z’
                                                         
                                                         
*note fmod(x, y): 2074.                                  나누기 ‘x / y’의 나머지
                                                         
                                                         
*note modf(x): 260b.                                     'x'의 소수와 정수 부분
                                                         
                                                         
*note remainder(x, y): b50.                              'y'에 대한 'x'의 나머지
                                                         
                                                         
*note trunc(x): 138c.                                    'x'의 정수부
                                                         
                                                         
'부종 소수점 조작 함수'

*note copysign(x, y): 139c.                              'x'의 크기(절댓값)와 'y'의 부호를 갖는 값
                                                         
                                                         
*note frexp(x): 260c.                                    'x'의 가수(mantissa)와 지수(exponent)
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, rel_tol, abs_tol): dac.              값 'a'와 'b'가 서로 가까이 있는지 검사합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note isfinite(x): 11da.                                 'x'가 무한대나 NaN이 아닌지 검사합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(x): 139a.                                    'x'가 양 또는 음의 무한대인지 검사합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(x): 139b.                                    'x'가 NaN(not a number)인지 검사합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note ldexp(x, i): 154c.                                 ‘x * (2**i)’, 함수 *note frexp(): 260c.의 역
                                                         
                                                         
*note nextafter(x, y, steps): 492.                       'x' 에서 'y' 방향으로 'steps' 스텝 다음의 부동 소수점 값
                                                         
                                                         
*note ulp(x): 90f.                                       'x'의 최하위 비트 값
                                                         
                                                         
'거듭제곱, 지수 및 로그 함수'

*note cbrt(x): 65b.                                      'x'의 세제곱근
                                                         
                                                         
*note exp(x): 1304.                                      'e' 의 'x' 거듭제곱
                                                         
                                                         
*note exp2(x): 65a.                                      '2' 의 'x' 거듭제곱
                                                         
                                                         
*note expm1(x): 11db.                                    'e' 의 'x' 거듭제곱 빼기 1
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(x, base): 1486.                                주어진 밑(기본값 'e')의 'x' 의 로그
                                                         
                                                         
*note log1p(x): 13a1.                                    'x'의 자연로그 (밑 'e')
                                                         
                                                         
*note log2(x): 10ce.                                     'x'의 밑이 2인 로그
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(x): 260d.                                    'x'의 밑이 10인 로그
                                                         
                                                         
*note pow(x, y): 65c.                                    'x'의 'y' 거듭제곱
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(x): a02.                                      'x'의 제곱근
                                                         
                                                         
'합과 곱 함수'

*note dist(p, q): 9fe.                                   좌표의 이터러블로 제공되는, 두 점 'p'와 'q' 사이의 유클리드 거리
                                                         
                                                         
*note fsum(iterable): 139d.                              입력 'iterable'에 있는 값들의 합
                                                         
                                                         
*note hypot(*coordinates): 9ff.                          좌표 이터러블의 유클리드 크기(norm)
                                                         
                                                         
*note prod(iterable, start): a00.                        'start' 값으로 시작하는, 입력 'iterable'에 있는 요소들의 곱
                                                         
                                                         
*note sumprod(p, q): 491.                                Sum of products from two iterables 'p' and 'q'
                                                         
                                                         
'각도 변환'

*note degrees(x): 260e.                                  각도 'x'를 라디안에서 도(degree)로 변환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note radians(x): 260f.                                  각도 'x'를 도(degree)에서 라디안으로 변환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
'삼각 함수'

*note acos(x): 2610.                                     'x'의 아크 코사인(arc cosine)
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(x): 2611.                                     'x'의 아크 사인(arc sine)
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(x): 2612.                                     'x'의 아크 탄젠트(arc tangent)
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan2(y, x): 2613.                                 ‘atan(y / x)’
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(x): 1485.                                      'x'의 코사인
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(x): 1484.                                      'x'의 사인
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(x): 2614.                                      'x'의 탄젠트
                                                         
                                                         
'쌍곡선 함수'

*note acosh(x): 139e.                                    'x'의 역 쌍곡 코사인(inverse hyperbolic cosine)
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(x): 139f.                                    'x'의 역 쌍곡 사인(inverse hyperbolic sine)
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(x): 13a0.                                    'x'의 역 쌍곡 탄젠트(inverse hyperbolic tangent)
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(x): 2615.                                     'x'의 쌍곡 코사인(hyperbolic cosine)
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(x): 2616.                                     'x'의 쌍곡 사인(hyperbolic sine)
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(x): 2617.                                     'x'의 쌍곡 탄젠트(hyperbolic tangent)
                                                         
                                                         
'특수 함수'

*note erf(x): bd5.                                       'x'의 오차 함수(error function)(1)
                                                         
                                                         
*note erfc(x): bd6.                                      'x'의 여오차 함수(complementary error function)(2)
                                                         
                                                         
*note gamma(x): 11dc.                                    'x'의 감마 함수(Gamma function)(3)
                                                         
                                                         
*note lgamma(x): 11dd.                                   'x'의 감마 함수(Gamma function)(4)의 절댓값의 자연로그
                                                         
                                                         
'상수'

*note pi: 2618.                                          'π' = 3.141592…
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 2619.                                           'e' = 2.718281…
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: 261a.                                         'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185…
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: c7f.                                          양의 무한대
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: 65d.                                          “Not a number” (NaN)
                                                         

* Menu:

* 수론적 함수::
* 부동 소수점 산술::
* 부동 소수점 조작 함수::
* 거듭제곱, 지수 및 로그 함수: 거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
* 합과 곱 함수::
* 각도 변환::
* 삼각 함수::
* 쌍곡선 함수::
* 특수 함수::
* 상수: 상수<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: 수론적 함수,  Next: 부동 소수점 산술,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.1 수론적 함수
...................

 -- 함수: math.comb (n, k)

     반복과 순서 없이 'n' 개의 항목에서 'k' 개의 항목을 선택하는 방법의
     수를 반환합니다.

     ‘k <= n’이면 ‘n! / (k! * (n - k)!)’로 평가되고, ‘k > n’이면 0으로 평
     가됩니다.

     ‘(1 + x)ⁿ’의 다항식 전개에서 k 번째 항의 계수와 같기 때문에 이항 계
     수(binomial coefficient)라고도 합니다.

     인자 중 어느 하나라도 정수가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시
     킵니다.  인자 중 어느 하나라도 음수이면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
     생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: math.factorial (n)

     Return factorial of the nonnegative integer 'n'.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 정숫값 부동 소수점(‘5.0’과 같은)은 더는 허용되
     지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: math.gcd (*integers)

     지정된 정수 인자의 최대 공약수를 반환합니다.  인자 중 하나가 0이 아
     니면, 반환된 값은 모든 인자를 나누는 가장 큰 양의 정수입니다.  모든
     인자가 0이면, 반환 값은 ‘0’입니다.  인자가 없는 ‘gcd()’는 ‘0’을 반
     환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 임의의 개수 인자에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.  이
     전에는, 단지 두 개의 인자만 지원되었습니다.

 -- 함수: math.isqrt (n)

     음이 아닌 정수 'n'의 정수 제곱근을 반환합니다.  이것은 'n'의 정확한
     제곱근의 바닥(floor)입니다, 또는, 동등하게, 'a'² ≤ 'n'을 만족하는 가
     장 큰 정수 'a'입니다.

     일부 응용 프로그램에서는, 'n' ≤ 'a'² 을 만족하는 가장 작은 정수
     'a', 즉 'n'의 정확한 제곱근의 천장(ceiling)을 구하는 것이 더 편리합
     니다.  양의 'n'에 대해, 이것은 ‘a = 1 + isqrt(n - 1)’을 사용하여 계
     산할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: math.lcm (*integers)

     지정된 정수 인자의 최소 공배수를 반환합니다.  모든 인자가 0이 아니
     면, 반환 값은 모든 인자의 배수인 가장 작은 양의 정수입니다.  인자 중
     어느 하나가 0이면, 반환 값은 ‘0’입니다.  인자가 없는 ‘lcm()’은 ‘1’을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: math.perm (n, k=None)

     반복 없고 순서 있게 'n' 개의 항목에서 'k' 개의 항목을 선택하는 방법
     의 수를 반환합니다.

     ‘k <= n’이면 ‘n! / (n - k)!’ 로 평가되고, ‘k > n’이면 0으로 평가됩
     니다.

     'k'가 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 'k'의 기본값은 'n'이고 함수는
     ‘n!’ 을 반환합니다.

     인자 중 어느 하나라도 정수가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시
     킵니다.  인자 중 어느 하나라도 음수이면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
     생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: 부동 소수점 산술,  Next: 부동 소수점 조작 함수,  Prev: 수론적 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.2 부동 소수점 산술
........................

 -- 함수: math.ceil (x)

     'x'보다 크거나 같은 가장 작은 정수인 'x'의 천장값(ceiling)을 반환합
     니다.  'x'가 float가 아니면, *note x.__ceil__: 1fc3.에 위임하고, 이
     것은 *note Integral: 1fc4. 값을 반환해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: math.fabs (x)

     'x'의 절댓값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.floor (x)

     'x'보다 작거나 같은 가장 큰 정수인 'x'의 바닥값(floor)을 반환합니다
     .  'x'가 float가 아니면, *note x.__floor__: 1fc2.에 위임하고, 이것
     은 *note Integral: 1fc4. 값을 반환해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: math.fma (x, y, z)

     Fused multiply-add operation.  Return ‘(x * y) + z’, computed as
     though with infinite precision and range followed by a single round
     to the ‘float’ format.  This operation often provides better
     accuracy than the direct expression ‘(x * y) + z’.

     This function follows the specification of the fusedMultiplyAdd
     operation described in the IEEE 754 standard.  The standard leaves
     one case implementation-defined, namely the result of ‘fma(0, inf,
     nan)’ and ‘fma(inf, 0, nan)’.  In these cases, ‘math.fma’ returns a
     NaN, and does not raise any exception.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: math.fmod (x, y)

     플랫폼 C 라이브러리 함수 ‘fmod(x, y)’이 정의한 대로, ‘x / y’의 부동
     소수점 나머지를 반환합니다.  파이썬 표현식 ‘x % y’가 같은 결과를 반
     환하지 않을 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  C 표준의 의도는 어떤 정수 'n'에
     대해 ‘fmod(x, y)’가 ‘x - n*y’와 정확히 (수학적으로; 무한 정밀도로)
     같고, 결과는 'x'와 같은 부호를 가지며 크기(절댓값)는 ‘abs(y)’보다 작
     아지도록 하는 것입니다.  파이썬의 ‘x % y’는 대신 'y'의 부호를 갖는
     결과를 반환하며 float 인자에 대해 정확하게 계산할 수 없을 수 있습니
     다.  예를 들어, ‘fmod(-1e-100, 1e100)’는 ‘-1e-100’이지만, 파이썬의
     ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’의 결과는 ‘1e100-1e-100’이며, 부동 소수점으로 정확
     하게 표현할 수 없어서, 의외의 ‘1e100’으로 반올림됩니다.  이러한 이
     유로, 함수 *note fmod(): 2074.는 일반적으로 float로 작업할 때 선호
     되는 반면 파이썬의 ‘x % y’는 정수로 작업할 때 선호됩니다.

 -- 함수: math.modf (x)

     'x'의 소수와 정수 부분을 반환합니다.  두 결과 모두 'x'의 부호를 가
     지며 float입니다.

     *note modf(): 260b.는 C 대응물과는 다른 호출/반환 패턴을 가지고 있
     음에 유의하십시오: 두 번째 반환 값을 ‘출력 매개 변수’로 반환하는 대
     신 (파이썬에는 그러한 것이 없습니다), 단일 인자를 받아서 값의 쌍을
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.remainder (x, y)

     'y'에 대한 'x'의 IEEE 754 스타일 나머지를 반환합니다.  유한한 'x' 와
     0이 아닌 유한한 'y'에 대해, 이것은 차이 ‘x - n*y’입니다.  여기서
     ‘n’은 몫 ‘x / y’의 정확한 값에 가장 가까운 정수입니다.  ‘x / y’가 두
     개의 인접한 정수 사이의 정확히 중간이면, 가장 가까운 '짝수' 정수가
     ‘n’으로 사용됩니다.  따라서 나머지 ‘r = remainder(x, y)’는 항상
     ‘abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y)’를 만족합니다.

     IEEE 754에 따른 특별한 경우: 특히, ‘remainder(x, math.inf)’는 모든
     유한한 'x'에 대해서는 'x'이고, ‘remainder(x, 0)’과
     ‘remainder(math.inf, x)’는 모든 NaN이 아닌 'x'에 대해 *note
     ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  나머지 연산의 결과가 0이면, 해당
     0은 'x' 와 같은 부호를 갖습니다.

     IEEE 754 이진 부동 소수점을 사용하는 플랫폼에서, 이 연산의 결과는 항
     상 정확하게 표현 가능합니다: 자리 올림 오차는 발생하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: math.trunc (x)

     Return 'x' with the fractional part removed, leaving the integer
     part.  This rounds toward 0: ‘trunc()’ is equivalent to *note
     floor(): 138a. for positive 'x', and equivalent to *note ceil():
     138b. for negative 'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note
     x.__trunc__: 714, which should return an *note Integral: 1fc4.
     value.

*note ceil(): 138b, *note floor(): 138a. 및 *note modf(): 260b. 함수의 경
우, 충분히 큰 절댓값을 갖는 '모든' 부동 소수점 숫자는 정확한 정수입니다.
파이썬 float는 일반적으로 53비트 이하의 정밀도를 가지는데 (플랫폼 C
double 형과 같습니다), 이때 ‘abs(x) >= 2**52’를 만족하는 모든 float 'x'는
소수 비트를 갖지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 부동 소수점 조작 함수,  Next: 거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수,  Prev: 부동 소수점 산술,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.3 부동 소수점 조작 함수
.............................

 -- 함수: math.copysign (x, y)

     'x'의 크기(절댓값)와 'y'의 부호를 갖는 float를 반환합니다.  부호 있
     는 0을 지원하는 플랫폼에서, ‘copysign(1.0, -0.0)’은 '-1.0'을 반환합
     니다.

 -- 함수: math.frexp (x)

     'x'의 가수(mantissa)와 지수(exponent)를 ‘(m, e)’ 쌍으로 반환합니다.
     'm'은 float이고, 'e'는 정수이며, 정확히 ‘x == m * 2**e’가 성립합니
     다.  'x'가 0이면, ‘(0.0, 0)’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0.5 <=
     abs(m) < 1’입니다.  이것은 float의 내부 표현을 이식성 있는 방식으로
     “분리”하는 데 사용됩니다.

     *note frexp(): 260c.는 C 대응물과는 다른 호출/반환 패턴을 가지고 있
     음에 유의하십시오: 두 번째 반환 값을 ‘출력 매개 변수’로 반환하는 대
     신 (파이썬에는 그러한 것이 없습니다), 단일 인자를 받아서 값의 쌍을
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     값 'a'와 'b'가 서로 가까이 있으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를
     반환합니다.

     두 값이 근접한 것으로 간주하는지는 주어진 절대와 상대 허용 오차에 따
     라 결정됩니다.  에러가 발생하지 않으면, 결과는 다음과 같습니다:
     ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol'은 상대 허용 오차입니다 – 'a'와 'b' 중 더 큰 절댓값에 대해
     상대적으로, 'a'와 'b' 간에 허용되는 최대 차이입니다.  예를 들어, 허
     용 오차를 5%로 설정하려면, ‘rel_tol=0.05’를 전달하십시오.  기본 허
     용 오차는 ‘1e-09’이며, 두 값이 약 9자리 십진 숫자 내에서 같다는 것
     을 보장합니다.  'rel_tol'은 음이 아니고 ‘1.0’보다 작아야 합니다.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any nonzero ‘x’ and 'rel_tol' less than ‘1.0’.  So add an
     appropriate positive 'abs_tol' argument to the call.

     IEEE 754 특수 값 ‘NaN’, ‘inf’ 및 ‘-inf’는 IEEE 규칙에 따라 처리됩니
     다.  특히, ‘NaN’은 ‘NaN’을 포함하여 다른 어떤 값과도 근접한 것으로
     간주하지 않습니다.  ‘inf’와 ‘-inf’는 오직 자신과만 가까운 것으로 간
     주합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 485(1) – 근사적 동등성을 검사하는 함수

 -- 함수: math.isfinite (x)

     'x'가 무한대나 NaN이 아니면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환
     합니다.  (‘0.0’은 '유한'한 것으로 간주합니다.)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: math.isinf (x)

     'x'가 양 또는 음의 무한대이면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.isnan (x)

     'x'가 NaN(not a number)이면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환
     합니다.

 -- 함수: math.ldexp (x, i)

     ‘x * (2**i)’를 반환합니다.  이것은 본질적으로 함수 *note frexp():
     260c.의 역입니다.

 -- 함수: math.nextafter (x, y, steps=1)

     'x'에서 'y' 방향으로 'steps' 스텝 다음의 부동 소수점 값을 반환합니
     다.

     'x'가 'y'와 같으면, 'steps'이 0이 아닌 한 'y'를 반환합니다.

     예:

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.inf)’는 올라갑니다: 양의 무한대를 향해
          .

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, -math.inf)’는 내려갑니다: 음의 무한대를 향
          해.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, 0.0)’는 0을 향합니다.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.copysign(math.inf, x))’는 0에서 멀어집
          니다.

     *note math.ulp(): 90f.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'steps' 인자를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: math.ulp (x)

     float 'x'의 최하위 비트 값을 반환합니다:

        * 'x'가 NaN(not a number)이면, 'x'를 반환합니다.

        * 'x'가 음수이면, ‘ulp(-x)’를 반환합니다.

        * 'x'가 양의 무한대이면, 'x'를 반환합니다.

        * 'x'가 0과 같으면, 가장 작은 양의 '정규화되지 않은
          (denormalized)' 표현 가능한 float를 반환합니다 (가장 작은 양의
          '정규화된' float, *note sys.float_info.min: 19f2.보다 작습니다
          ).

        * 'x'가 가장 큰 양의 표현 가능한 float와 같으면, 'x'보다 작은 첫
          번째 float가 ‘x - ulp(x)’가 되도록, 'x'의 최하위 비트 값을 반
          환합니다.

        * 그렇지 않으면 ('x'가 양의 유한 수이면), 'x'보다 큰 첫 번째
          float가 ‘x + ulp(x)’가 되도록, 'x'의 최하위 비트 값을 반환합니
          다.

     ULP는 “Unit in the Last Place(마지막 자리의 단위)”를 나타냅니다.

     *note math.nextafter(): 492.와 *note sys.float_info.epsilon: 19f2.도
     참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: 거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수,  Next: 합과 곱 함수,  Prev: 부동 소수점 조작 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.4 거듭제곱, 지수 및 로그 함수
...................................

 -- 함수: math.cbrt (x)

     'x'의 세제곱근을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: math.exp (x)

     'e'의 'x' 거듭제곱을 반환합니다.  여기서 'e' = 2.718281… 는 자연로
     그의 밑(base)입니다.  일반적으로 ‘math.e ** x’나 ‘pow(math.e, x)’보
     다 정확합니다.

 -- 함수: math.exp2 (x)

     '2'의 'x' 거듭제곱을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: math.expm1 (x)

     'e'의 'x' 거듭제곱에서 1을 뺀 값을 반환합니다.  여기서 'e'는 자연로
     그의 밑(base)입니다.  작은 float 'x'의 경우, ‘exp(x) - 1’의 뺄셈은
     상당한 정밀도 소실(1)을 일으킬 수 있습니다; *note expm1(): 11db. 함
     수는 이 양을 최대 정밀도로 계산하는 방법을 제공합니다:

          >>> from math import exp, expm1
          >>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
          1.0000050000069649e-05
          >>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
          1.0000050000166668e-05

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: math.log (x[, base])

     하나의 인자를 제공하면, 'x'의 자연로그를 반환합니다 (밑 'e').

     두 개의 인자를 제공하면, 주어진 '밑(base)'으로 'x'의 로그를 반환합
     니다, ‘log(x)/log(base)’로 계산합니다.

 -- 함수: math.log1p (x)

     '1+x'의 자연로그를 반환합니다 (밑 'e').  결과는 0에 가까운 'x'에 대
     해 정확한 방식으로 계산됩니다.

 -- 함수: math.log2 (x)

     'x'의 밑이 2인 로그를 반환합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 ‘log(x, 2)’보
     다 정확합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note int.bit_length(): 21a2.는 부호와 선행 0을 제외하고 정수를 이
     진수로 나타내는 데 필요한 비트 수를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.log10 (x)

     'x'의 밑이 10인 로그를 반환합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 ‘log(x, 10)’보
     다 정확합니다.

 -- 함수: math.pow (x, y)

     'x'의 'y' 거듭제곱을 반환합니다.  예외적인 경우는 최대한 IEEE 754 표
     준을 따릅니다.  특히, 'x'가 0이거나 NaN일 때도 ‘pow(1.0, x)’와
     ‘pow(x, 0.0)’는 항상 ‘1.0’을 반환합니다.  'x' 와 'y'가 모두 유한하
     고, 'x'가 음수이고, 'y'가 정수가 아니면 ‘pow(x, y)’는 정의되지 않고
     *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     내장 ‘**’ 연산자와 달리, *note math.pow(): 65c.는 두 인자를 모두
     *note float: 2ef. 형으로 변환합니다.  정확한 정수 거듭제곱을 계산하
     려면 ‘**’나 내장 *note pow(): 9cf. 함수를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The special cases ‘pow(0.0, -inf)’ and
     ‘pow(-0.0, -inf)’ were changed to return ‘inf’ instead of raising
     *note ValueError: 202, for consistency with IEEE 754.

 -- 함수: math.sqrt (x)

     'x'의 제곱근을 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance


File: python.info,  Node: 합과 곱 함수,  Next: 각도 변환,  Prev: 거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.5 합과 곱 함수
....................

 -- 함수: math.dist (p, q)

     각각 좌표 시퀀스(또는 이터러블)로 제공되는, 두 점 'p'와 'q' 사이의
     유클리드 거리를 반환합니다.  두 점의 차원(dimension)은 같아야 합니
     다.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          sqrt(sum((px - qx) ** 2.0 for px, qx in zip(p, q)))

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: math.fsum (iterable)

     이터러블(iterable)에 있는 값의 정확한(accurate) 부동 소수점 합을 반
     환합니다.  여러 중간 부분 합을 추적하여 정밀도 손실을 방지합니다.

     알고리즘의 정확도는 IEEE-754 산술의 보증과 자리 올림 모드가 짝수로
     반올림(half-even)인 일반적인 경우에 의존합니다.  윈도우 이외의 일부
     빌드에서, 하부 C 라이브러리는 확장 정밀도 덧셈을 사용하고, 때때로 중
     간 합을 이중 자리 올림(double-round) 하여 최하위 비트(least
     significant bit)에서 분리할 수 있습니다.

     자세한 논의와 두 가지 대안은, ASPN cookbook recipes for accurate
     floating point summation(1)을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: math.hypot (*coordinates)

     유클리드 크기(norm) ‘sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in coordinates))’를 반환합
     니다.  원점에서 coordinates로 지정된 점까지의 벡터의 길이입니다.

     2차원 점 ‘(x, y)’의 경우, 피타고라스 정리를 사용하여 직각 삼각형의
     빗변(hypotenuse)을 계산하는 것과 동등합니다, ‘sqrt(x*x + y*y)’.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: n 차원 점에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.  이전에
     는, 2차원인 경우만 지원되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Improved the algorithm’s accuracy so that the
     maximum error is under 1 ulp (unit in the last place).  More
     typically, the result is almost always correctly rounded to within
     1/2 ulp.

 -- 함수: math.prod (iterable, *, start=1)

     입력 '이터러블(iterable)'에 있는 모든 요소의 곱을 계산합니다.  곱의
     기본 'start' 값은 ‘1’입니다.

     iterable이 비어 있으면, start 값을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 숫자 값과
     함께 사용하기 위한 것으로, 숫자가 아닌 형을 거부 할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: math.sumprod (p, q)

     Return the sum of products of values from two iterables 'p' and
     'q'.

     Raises *note ValueError: 202. if the inputs do not have the same
     length.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          sum(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, zip(p, q, strict=True)))

     For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products and
     sums are computed with extended precision.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/


File: python.info,  Node: 각도 변환,  Next: 삼각 함수,  Prev: 합과 곱 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.6 각도 변환
.................

 -- 함수: math.degrees (x)

     각도 'x'를 라디안에서 도(degree)로 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.radians (x)

     각도 'x'를 도(degree)에서 라디안으로 변환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 삼각 함수,  Next: 쌍곡선 함수,  Prev: 각도 변환,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.7 삼각 함수
.................

 -- 함수: math.acos (x)

     'x'의 아크 코사인(arc cosine)을 라디안으로 반환합니다.  결과는 ‘0’과
     ‘pi’ 사이입니다.

 -- 함수: math.asin (x)

     'x'의 아크 사인(arc sine)을 라디안으로 반환합니다.  결과는 ‘-pi/2’와
     ‘pi/2’ 사이입니다.

 -- 함수: math.atan (x)

     'x'의 아크 탄젠트(arc tangent)를 라디안으로 반환합니다.  결과는
     ‘-pi/2’와 ‘pi/2’ 사이입니다.

 -- 함수: math.atan2 (y, x)

     ‘atan(y / x)’를 라디안으로 반환합니다.  결과는 ‘-pi’와 ‘pi’ 사이입
     니다.  평면에 있는 원점에서 점 ‘(x, y)’까지의 벡터는 양의 X 축과 이
     각도를 이룹니다.  *note atan2(): 2613.의 요점은 두 입력의 부호가 모
     두 알려져 있기 때문에 각도에 대한 정확한 사분면을 계산할 수 있다는
     것입니다.  예를 들어, ‘atan(1)’과 ‘atan2(1, 1)’은 모두 ‘pi/4’이지만
     , ‘atan2(-1, -1)’은 ‘-3*pi/4’입니다.

 -- 함수: math.cos (x)

     'x' 라디안의 코사인(cosine)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.sin (x)

     'x' 라디안의 사인(sine)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.tan (x)

     'x' 라디안의 탄젠트(tangent)를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 쌍곡선 함수,  Next: 특수 함수,  Prev: 삼각 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.8 쌍곡선 함수
...................

쌍곡선 함수(1)는 원 대신 쌍곡선을 기반으로 하는 삼각 함수의 동류
(analog)입니다.

 -- 함수: math.acosh (x)

     'x'의 역 쌍곡 코사인(inverse hyperbolic cosine)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.asinh (x)

     'x'의 역 쌍곡 사인(inverse hyperbolic sine)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.atanh (x)

     'x'의 역 쌍곡 탄젠트(inverse hyperbolic tangent)를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.cosh (x)

     'x'의 쌍곡 코사인(hyperbolic cosine)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.sinh (x)

     'x'의 쌍곡 사인(hyperbolic sine)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: math.tanh (x)

     'x'의 쌍곡 탄젠트(hyperbolic tangent)를 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 함수,  Next: 상수<2>,  Prev: 쌍곡선 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.9 특수 함수
.................

 -- 함수: math.erf (x)

     'x'의 오차 함수(error function)(1)를 반환합니다.

     *note erf(): bd5. 함수는 누적 표준 정규 분포(2)와 같은 전통적인 통
     계 함수를 계산하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다:

          def phi(x):
              '표준 정규 분포의 누적 분포 함수'
              return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: math.erfc (x)

     'x'의 여오차 함수를 반환합니다.  여오차 함수(complementary error
     function)(3)는 ‘1.0 - erf(x)’로 정의됩니다.  뺄셈으로 인해 유효 숫
     자의 소실(4)이 발생하는 'x'의 큰 값에 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: math.gamma (x)

     'x'의 감마 함수(Gamma function)(5)를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: math.lgamma (x)

     'x'의 감마 함수의 절댓값의 자연로그를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<2>,  Prev: 특수 함수,  Up: math — 수학 함수

5.9.2.10 상수
.............

 -- 데이터: math.pi

     사용 가능한 정밀도로, 수학 상수 'π' = 3.141592…

 -- 데이터: math.e

     사용 가능한 정밀도로, 수학 상수 'e' = 2.718281…

 -- 데이터: math.tau

     The mathematical constant 'τ' = 6.283185…, to available precision.
     Tau is a circle constant equal to 2'π', the ratio of a circle’s
     circumference to its radius.  To learn more about Tau, check out Vi
     Hart’s video Pi is (still) Wrong(1), and start celebrating Tau
     day(2) by eating twice as much pie!

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: math.inf

     부동 소수점 양의 무한대.  (음의 무한대는 ‘-math.inf’를 사용하십시오
     .)  ‘float('inf')’의 출력과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: math.nan

     A floating-point “not a number” (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the
     output of ‘float('nan')’.  Due to the requirements of the IEEE-754
     standard(3), ‘math.nan’ and ‘float('nan')’ are not considered to
     equal to any other numeric value, including themselves.  To check
     whether a number is a NaN, use the *note isnan(): 139b. function to
     test for NaNs instead of ‘is’ or ‘==’.  Example:

          >>> import math
          >>> math.nan == math.nan
          False
          >>> float('nan') == float('nan')
          False
          >>> math.isnan(math.nan)
          True
          >>> math.isnan(float('nan'))
          True

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: It is now always available.

*note math: 8e. 모듈은 대부분 플랫폼 C 수학 라이브러리 함수 주위의 얇은
래퍼로 구성됩니다.  예외적인 경우의 행동은 적절한 경우 C99 표준의 부록
F를 따릅니다.  현재 구현은 ‘sqrt(-1.0)’이나 ‘log(0.0)’과 같은 잘못된 연
산의 경우 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시키고 (C99 부록 F에서 잘못된 연
산이나 0으로 나누기를 신호를 주도록 권장하는 경우), 오버플로 하는 결과
(예를 들어, ‘exp(1000.0)’)의 경우 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니
다.  하나 이상의 입력 인자가 NaN이 아니면, NaN은 위의 함수에서 반환되지
않습니다; 입력 인자가 NaN이면 대부분 함수는 NaN을 반환하지만, (다시 한번
C99 부록 F를 따라) 이 규칙에는 예를 들어 ‘pow(float('nan'), 0.0)’이나
‘hypot(float('nan'), float('inf'))’와 같은 몇 가지 예외가 있습니다.

파이썬은 신호를 주는 NaN(signaling NaN)을 조용한 NaN(quiet NaN)과 구별하
기 위해 노력하지 않으며, 신호를 주는 NaN의 동작은 지정되지 않은 상태로 남
아 있습니다.  일반적인 동작은 모든 NaN을 조용한 것으로 취급하는 것입니다
.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note cmath: 18.

     이 함수 중 많은 것들의 복소수 버전.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://vimeo.com/147792667

   (2) https://tauday.com/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754


File: python.info,  Node: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수,  Next: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Prev: math — 수학 함수,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.3 ‘cmath’ — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수
---------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 복소수를 위한 수학 함수에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  이 모듈의
함수는 정수, 부동 소수점 수 또는 복소수를 인자로 받아들입니다.  이들은 또
한 *note __complex__(): 5e1.나 *note __float__(): 9c9. 메서드를 가진 임
의의 파이썬 객체를 받아들일 것입니다: 이 메서드는 객체를 각각 복소수나 부
동 소수점 수로 변환하기 위해 사용되며, 함수는 변환 결과에 적용됩니다.

     참고: For functions involving branch cuts, we have the problem of
     deciding how to define those functions on the cut itself.
     Following Kahan’s “Branch cuts for complex elementary functions”
     paper, as well as Annex G of C99 and later C standards, we use the
     sign of zero to distinguish one side of the branch cut from the
     other: for a branch cut along (a portion of) the real axis we look
     at the sign of the imaginary part, while for a branch cut along the
     imaginary axis we look at the sign of the real part.

     For example, the *note cmath.sqrt(): 2627. function has a branch
     cut along the negative real axis.  An argument of ‘complex(-2.0,
     -0.0)’ is treated as though it lies 'below' the branch cut, and so
     gives a result on the negative imaginary axis:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, -0.0))
          -1.4142135623730951j

     But an argument of ‘complex(-2.0, 0.0)’ is treated as though it
     lies above the branch cut:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, 0.0))
          1.4142135623730951j

'극좌표 변환'

*note phase(z): 2628.                                    'z'의 위상을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note polar(z): 2629.                                    'z'의 극좌표 표현을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note rect(r, phi): 262a.                                극좌표 'r'과 'phi'를 가지는 복소수 'z'를 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
'거듭제곱과 로그 함수'

*note exp(z): 262b.                                      Return 'e' raised to the power 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(z[, base]): 262c.                              Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base' ('e' by default)
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(z): 262d.                                    'z'의 10을 밑으로하는 로그를 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(z): 2627.                                     'z'의 제곱근을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
'삼각 함수'

*note acos(z): 262e.                                     'z'의 아크 코사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(z): 262f.                                     'z'의 아크 사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(z): 2630.                                     'z'의 아크 탄젠트를 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(z): 2631.                                      'z'의 코사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(z): 2632.                                      'z'의 사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(z): 2633.                                      'z'의 탄젠트를 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
'쌍곡선(hyperbolic) 함수'

*note acosh(z): 2634.                                    'z'의 역 쌍곡선 코사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(z): 2635.                                    'z'의 역 쌍곡선 사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(z): 2636.                                    'z'의 역 쌍곡선 탄젠트를 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(z): 2637.                                     'z'의 쌍곡선 코사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(z): 2638.                                     'z'의 쌍곡선 사인을 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(z): 2639.                                     'z'의 쌍곡선 탄젠트를 반환합니다
                                                         
                                                         
'분류 함수'

*note isfinite(z): 263a.                                 Check if all components of 'z' are finite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(z): 263b.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is infinite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(z): 263c.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is a NaN
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol, abs_tol): dad.           'a'와 'b' 값이 서로 가까운지 검사합니다
                                                         
                                                         
'상수'

*note pi: 263d.                                          'π' = 3.141592…
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 263e.                                           'e' = 2.718281…
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: c7e.                                          'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185…
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: c80.                                          Positive infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note infj: c82.                                         Pure imaginary infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: c81.                                          “Not a number” (NaN)
                                                         
                                                         
*note nanj: c83.                                         Pure imaginary NaN
                                                         

* Menu:

* 극좌표 변환::
* 거듭제곱과 로그 함수::
* 삼각 함수: 삼각 함수<2>.
* 쌍곡선(hyperbolic) 함수: 쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
* 분류 함수::
* 상수: 상수<3>.


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5.9.3.1 극좌표 변환
...................

파이썬 복소수 ‘z’는 '직교' 혹은 '데카르트' 좌표를 사용하여 내부적으로 저
장됩니다.  '실수부' ‘z.real’과 '허수부' ‘z.imag’에 의해 완전히 결정됩니
다.

'극좌표(polar coordinates)'는 복소수를 나타내는 다른 방법을 제공합니다.
극좌표에서, 복소수 'z'는 모듈러스(modulus) 'r'과 위상 각(phase angle)
'phi'로 정의됩니다.  모듈러스 'r'은 'z'에서 원점까지의 거리이며, 위상
'phi'는 양의 x축에서 원점과 'z'를 잇는 선분으로의 라디안(radian)으로 측
정한 반 시계 방향 각도입니다.

네이티브 직교 좌표와 극좌표 간의 변환에 다음 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.phase (z)

     'z'의 위상('z'의 '편각(argument)'이라고도 합니다)을 float로 반환합
     니다.  ‘phase(z)’는 ‘math.atan2(z.imag, z.real)’과 동등합니다.  결
     과는 [-'π', 'π'] 범위에 놓이고, 이 작업의 분지 절단은 음의 실수 축
     에 놓입니다.  결과의 부호가 ‘z.imag’가 0일 때도 ‘z.imag’의 부호와 같
     음을 의미합니다:

          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, 0.0))
          3.141592653589793
          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, -0.0))
          -3.141592653589793

     참고: 복소수 'z'의 모듈러스(절댓값)는 내장 *note abs(): 1cac. 함수
     를 사용하여 계산할 수 있습니다.  이 연산을 위한 별도의 *note cmath:
     18. 모듈 함수는 없습니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.polar (z)

     'z' 표현을 극좌표로 반환합니다.  쌍 ‘(r, phi)’를 반환합니다.  여기
     서 'r'은 'z'의 모듈러스이고 'phi'는 'z'의 위상입니다.  ‘polar(z)’는
     ‘(abs(z), phase(z))’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.rect (r, phi)

     극좌표 'r'과 'phi'를 가지는 복소수 'z'를 반환합니다.  ‘complex(r *
     math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi))’와 동등합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 거듭제곱과 로그 함수,  Next: 삼각 함수<2>,  Prev: 극좌표 변환,  Up: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수

5.9.3.2 거듭제곱과 로그 함수
............................

 -- 함수: cmath.exp (z)

     'e'의 'z' 거듭제곱을 반환합니다.  여기서 'e'는 자연로그(natural
     logarithms)의 밑입니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.log (z[, base])

     주어진 밑 'base'에 대한 'z'의 로그를 반환합니다.  'base'가 지정되지
     않으면, 'z'의 자연로그를 반환합니다.  음의 실수 축을 따라 0에서부터
     -∞ 까지 가는 하나의 분지 절단이 있습니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.log10 (z)

     'z'의 밑이 10인 로그를 반환합니다.  이것은 *note log(): 262c.와 같
     은 분지 절단을 가집니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.sqrt (z)

     'z'의 제곱근을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note log(): 262c.와 같은 분지 절
     단을 가집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 삼각 함수<2>,  Next: 쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수,  Prev: 거듭제곱과 로그 함수,  Up: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수

5.9.3.3 삼각 함수
.................

 -- 함수: cmath.acos (z)

     'z'의 아크 코사인을 반환합니다.  두 개의 분지 절단이 있습니다: 하나
     는 실수 축을 따라 1에서 오른쪽으로 ∞까지 확장합니다.  다른 하나는 실
     수 축을 따라 -1에서 왼쪽으로 -∞까지 확장합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.asin (z)

     'z'의 아크 사인을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note acos(): 262e.와 같은 분
     지 절단을 가집니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.atan (z)

     'z'의 아크 탄젠트를 반환합니다.  두 개의 분지 절단이 있습니다: 하나
     는 허수 축을 따라 ‘1j’에서 ‘∞j’까지 확장합니다.  다른 하나는 허수 축
     을 따라 ‘-1j’에서 ‘-∞j’까지 확장합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.cos (z)

     'z'의 코사인을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.sin (z)

     'z'의 사인을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.tan (z)

     'z'의 탄젠트를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수,  Next: 분류 함수,  Prev: 삼각 함수<2>,  Up: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수

5.9.3.4 쌍곡선(hyperbolic) 함수
...............................

 -- 함수: cmath.acosh (z)

     'z'의 역 쌍곡선 코사인을 반환합니다.  하나의 분지 절단이 있습니다,
     실수 축을 따라 1에서 왼쪽으로 -∞까지 확장합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.asinh (z)

     'z'의 역 쌍곡선 사인을 반환합니다.  두 개의 분지 절단이 있습니다: 하
     나는 허수 축을 따라 ‘1j’에서 ‘∞j’까지 확장합니다.  다른 하나는 허수
     축을 따라 ‘-1j’에서 ‘-∞j’까지 확장합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.atanh (z)

     'z'의 역 쌍곡선 탄젠트를 반환합니다.  두 개의 분지 절단이 있습니다:
     하나는 실수 축을 따라 ‘1’에서 ‘∞’까지 확장합니다.  다른 하나는 실수
     축을 따라 ‘-1’에서 ‘-∞’까지 확장합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.cosh (z)

     'z'의 쌍곡선 코사인을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.sinh (z)

     'z'의 쌍곡선 사인을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.tanh (z)

     'z'의 쌍곡선 탄젠트를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 분류 함수,  Next: 상수<3>,  Prev: 쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수,  Up: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수

5.9.3.5 분류 함수
.................

 -- 함수: cmath.isfinite (z)

     'z'의 실수부와 허수부가 모두 유한이면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: cmath.isinf (z)

     'z'의 실수부나 허수부 중 하나가 무한이면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지
     않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.isnan (z)

     'z'의 실수부나 허수부 중 하나가 NaN이면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: cmath.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     'a'와 'b' 값이 서로 가까우면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     두 값을 가까운 것으로 간주하는지는 주어진 절대와 상대 허용 오차에 따
     라 결정됩니다.  에러가 발생하지 않으면, 결과는 다음과 같습니다:
     ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol'은 상대 허용 오차입니다 – 'a'와 'b' 사이의 최대 허용 차이
     이고, 'a'나 'b'의 절댓값 중 더 큰 값에 상대적입니다.  예를 들어,
     5%의 허용 오차를 설정하려면, ‘rel_tol=0.05’를 전달하십시오.  기본 허
     용 오차는 ‘1e-09’이며, 이는 두 값이 약 9자리 십진 숫자 내에서 같음
     을 보장합니다.  'rel_tol'은 음이 아니고 ‘1.0’보다 작아야 합니다.

     'abs_tol'은 절대 허용 오차입니다; 기본값은 ‘0.0’이고 음이 아니어야
     합니다.  ‘x’를 ‘0.0’과 비교할 때, ‘isclose(x, 0)’는 ‘abs(x) <=
     rel_tol * abs(x)’로 계산되며, 모든 ‘x’와 ‘1.0’보다 작은 rel_tol 에
     대해 ‘False’가 됩니다.  따라서 호출에 적절한 양의 abs_tol 인자를 추
     가하십시오.

     IEEE 754 특수 값 ‘NaN’, ‘inf’ 및 ‘-inf’는 IEEE 규칙에 따라 처리됩니
     다.  특히, ‘NaN’은 ‘NaN’을 포함한 다른 모는 값과 가깝다고 간주하지
     않습니다.  ‘inf’와 ‘-inf’는 그들 자신하고만 가깝다고 간주합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 485(1) – 근사 동등을 검사하는 함수.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<3>,  Prev: 분류 함수,  Up: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수

5.9.3.6 상수
............

 -- 데이터: cmath.pi

     수학 상수 'π'의 float 값.

 -- 데이터: cmath.e

     수학 상수 'e'의 float 값.

 -- 데이터: cmath.tau

     수학 상수 'τ'의 float 값.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: cmath.inf

     부동 소수점 양의 무한대.  ‘float('inf')’와 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: cmath.infj

     0 실수부와 양의 무한대 허수부를 갖는 복소수.  ‘complex(0.0,
     float('inf'))’와 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: cmath.nan

     부동 소수점 “not a number” (NaN) 값.  ‘float('nan')’과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: cmath.nanj

     0 실수부와 NaN 허수부를 갖는 복소수.  ‘complex(0.0, float('nan'))’과
     동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

함수 선택은 모듈 *note math: 8e.에서와 유사하지만 동일하지는 않습니다.  두
개의 모듈이 있는 이유는 일부 사용자가 복소수에 관심이 없고, 어쩌면 복소
수가 무엇인지 모를 수도 있기 때문입니다.  그들에게는 ‘math.sqrt(-1)’이 복
소수를 반환하기보다 예외를 발생시키는 것이 좋습니다.  또한, *note cmath:
18.에 정의된 함수는, 결과를 실수로 표현할 수 있을 때도 항상 복소수를 반
환합니다 (이때 복소수의 허수부는 0입니다).

분지 절단에 대한 참고 사항: 주어진 함수가 연속적이지 않은 점을 지나는 곡
선입니다.  이것들은 많은 복소수 기능에서 필요한 기능입니다.  복소수 함수
로 계산해야 할 때, 분지 절단에 대해 이해가 필요하다고 가정합니다.  이해
를 위해서는 복소 변수에 관한 (너무 기초적이지 않은) 아무 책이나 참고하면
됩니다.  수치 계산의 목적으로 분지 절단을 적절히 선택하는 방법에 대한 정
보에 대해서는, 다음과 같은 좋은 참고 문헌이 있습니다:

더 보기
.......

Kahan, W: Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado
about nothing’s sign bit.  Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The state
of the art in numerical analysis.  Clarendon Press (1987) pp165–211.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Next: fractions — 유리수,  Prev: cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.4 ‘decimal’ — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
-------------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/decimal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note decimal: 36. module provides support for fast correctly
rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic.  It offers several advantages
over the *note float: 2ef. datatype:

   * Decimal “은 사람을 염두에 두고 설계된 부동 소수점 모델에 기반하고,
     필연적으로 최고 원리를 갖습니다 – 컴퓨터는 사람들이 학교에서 배우는
     산술과 같은 방식으로 동작하는 산술을 반드시 제공해야 한다.” – 십진
     산술 명세에서 발췌.

   * Decimal numbers can be represented exactly.  In contrast, numbers
     like ‘1.1’ and ‘2.2’ do not have exact representations in binary
     floating point.  End users typically would not expect ‘1.1 + 2.2’
     to display as ‘3.3000000000000003’ as it does with binary floating
     point.

   * The exactness carries over into arithmetic.  In decimal floating
     point, ‘0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3’ is exactly equal to zero.  In binary
     floating point, the result is ‘5.5511151231257827e-017’.  While
     near to zero, the differences prevent reliable equality testing and
     differences can accumulate.  For this reason, decimal is preferred
     in accounting applications which have strict equality invariants.

   * The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so
     that ‘1.30 + 1.20’ is ‘2.50’.  The trailing zero is kept to
     indicate significance.  This is the customary presentation for
     monetary applications.  For multiplication, the “schoolbook”
     approach uses all the figures in the multiplicands.  For instance,
     ‘1.3 * 1.2’ gives ‘1.56’ while ‘1.30 * 1.20’ gives ‘1.5600’.

   * 하드웨어 기반 이진 부동 소수점과는 달리, decimal 모듈은 사용자가 변
     경할 수 있는 정밀도(기본값은 28자리)를 가지며, 주어진 문제에 따라 필
     요한 만큼 커질 수 있습니다:

          >>> from decimal import *
          >>> getcontext().prec = 6
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.142857')
          >>> getcontext().prec = 28
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')

   * 이진 및 십진 부동 소수점 모두 출판된 표준에 따라 구현됩니다.  내장
     float 형이 기능의 적당한 부분만을 드러내지만, decimal 모듈은 표준의
     모든 필수 부분을 노출합니다.  필요한 경우, 프로그래머는 자리 올림
     (rounding) 및 신호(signal) 처리를 완전히 제어할 수 있습니다.  여기
     에는 정확하지 않은 연산을 차단하기 위한 예외를 사용하여 정확한 산술
     을 강제하는 옵션이 포함됩니다.

   * decimal 모듈은 “편견 없이, (때로 고정 소수점 산술이라고도 불리는) 정
     확한 자리 올림 없는 십진 산술과 자리 올림 있는 부동 소수점 산술을 모
     두” 지원하도록 설계되었습니다.  – 십진 산술 명세에서 발췌.

모듈 설계의 중심 개념은 세 가지입니다: 십진수, 산술을 위한 컨텍스트, 신
호(signal).

A decimal number is immutable.  It has a sign, coefficient digits, and
an exponent.  To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not
truncate trailing zeros.  Decimals also include special values such as
‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’, and ‘NaN’.  The standard also differentiates
‘-0’ from ‘+0’.

산술 컨텍스트는 정밀도, 자리 올림 규칙, 지수에 대한 제한, 연산 결과를 나
타내는 플래그 및 신호가 예외로 처리될지를 결정하는 트랩 활성화기(trap
enabler)를 지정하는 환경입니다.  자리 올림 옵션에는 *note ROUND_CEILING:
2647, *note ROUND_DOWN: 2648, *note ROUND_FLOOR: 2649, *note
ROUND_HALF_DOWN: 264a, *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 264b, *note ROUND_HALF_UP:
264c, *note ROUND_UP: 264d. 및 *note ROUND_05UP: 264e. 가 있습니다.

신호는 계산 과정에서 발생하는 예외적인 조건의 그룹입니다.  응용 프로그램
의 필요에 따라, 신호가 무시되거나, 정보로 간주하거나, 예외로 처리될 수 있
습니다.  decimal 모듈의 신호는 *note Clamped: 264f, *note
InvalidOperation: 109b, *note DivisionByZero: 2650, *note Inexact: 2651,
*note Rounded: 2652, *note Subnormal: 2653, *note Overflow: 2654, *note
Underflow: 2655, *note FloatOperation: 1093. 입니다.

각 신호에는 플래그와 트랩 활성화기가 있습니다.  신호와 만났을 때, 플래그
가 1로 설정되고 트랩 활성화기가 1로 설정된 경우, 예외가 발생합니다.  플
래그는 상태가 유지되므로(sticky) 계산을 감시하기 전에 재설정할 필요가 있
습니다.

더 보기
.......

   * IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, The General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification(2).

* Menu:

* Quick-start tutorial::
* Decimal 객체::
* Context 객체::
* 상수: 상수<4>.
* 자리 올림 모드::
* 신호::
* Floating-point notes::
* 스레드로 작업하기::
* 조리법::
* Decimal FAQ::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/decimal.py

   (2) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html


File: python.info,  Node: Quick-start tutorial,  Next: Decimal 객체,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.1 Quick-start tutorial
............................

decimal을 사용하는 일반적인 시작은 모듈을 임포트하고, *note
getcontext(): 15dc. 로 현재 컨텍스트를 보고, 필요하다면 정밀도, 자리 올
림 또는 활성화된 트랩에 대해 새 값을 설정하는 것입니다:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
             InvalidOperation])

     >>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision

Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or
tuples.  Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact
conversion of the value of that integer or float.  Decimal numbers
include special values such as ‘NaN’ which stands for “Not a number”,
positive and negative ‘Infinity’, and ‘-0’:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(10)
     Decimal('10')
     >>> Decimal('3.14')
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
     >>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
     Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
     >>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal('NaN')
     Decimal('NaN')
     >>> Decimal('-Infinity')
     Decimal('-Infinity')

*note FloatOperation: 1093. 신호를 트랩 하는 경우, 실수로 생성자나 대소
비교에서 Decimal 수와 실수(float)를 혼합하면 예외가 발생합니다:

     >>> c = getcontext()
     >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
     True

Added in version 3.3.

새로운 Decimal의 유효 숫자는 입력된 숫자의 개수에 의해서만 결정됩니다.  컨
텍스트 정밀도 및 자리 올림은 오직 산술 연산 중에만 작용합니다.

     >>> getcontext().prec = 6
     >>> Decimal('3.0')
     Decimal('3.0')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85987')
     >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85988')

C 버전의 내부 제한을 초과하면, Decimal 을 만들 때 *note
InvalidOperation: 109b. 를 일으킵니다:

     >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

버전 3.3에서 변경.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small
decimal floating-point flying circus:

     >>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
     >>> max(data)
     Decimal('9.25')
     >>> min(data)
     Decimal('0.03')
     >>> sorted(data)
     [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
      Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
     >>> sum(data)
     Decimal('19.29')
     >>> a,b,c = data[:3]
     >>> str(a)
     '1.34'
     >>> float(a)
     1.34
     >>> round(a, 1)
     Decimal('1.3')
     >>> int(a)
     1
     >>> a * 5
     Decimal('6.70')
     >>> a * b
     Decimal('2.5058')
     >>> c % a
     Decimal('0.77')

그리고 Decimal에는 몇 가지 수학 함수도 있습니다:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal(1).exp()
     Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
     >>> Decimal('10').ln()
     Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
     >>> Decimal('10').log10()
     Decimal('1')

The *note quantize(): 10a3. method rounds a number to a fixed exponent.
This method is useful for monetary applications that often round results
to a fixed number of places:

     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
     Decimal('7.32')
     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
     Decimal('8')

위에서 보듯이, *note getcontext(): 15dc. 함수는 현재 컨텍스트에 액세스하
고 설정을 변경할 수 있게 합니다.  이 방법은 대부분 응용 프로그램의 요구
를 충족시킵니다.

고급 작업을 위해, Context() 생성자를 사용하여 대체 컨텍스트를 만드는 것
이 유용할 수 있습니다.  대체 컨텍스트를 활성화하려면, *note
setcontext(): 2658. 함수를 사용하십시오.

표준에 따라, *note decimal: 36. 모듈은 당장 사용할 수 있는 두 개의 표준
컨텍스트 *note BasicContext: 1097. 와 *note ExtendedContext: 1098. 를 제
공합니다.  특히 전자는 많은 트랩이 활성화되어있어 디버깅에 유용합니다:

     >>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
     >>> setcontext(myothercontext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

     >>> ExtendedContext
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857143')
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')

     >>> setcontext(BasicContext)
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions
encountered during computations.  The flags remain set until explicitly
cleared, so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored
computations by using the *note clear_flags(): 2659. method.

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> getcontext().clear_flags()
     >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
     Decimal('3.14159292')
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

The 'flags' entry shows that the rational approximation to pi was
rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that
the result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).

Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the *note traps: 10a1.
attribute of a context:

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')
     >>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

대부분 프로그램은 프로그램 시작 시에 한 번만 현재 컨텍스트를 조정합니다.
그리고, 많은 응용 프로그램에서, 데이터는 루프 내에서 단일형변환으로
*note Decimal: 29d.로 변환되어, 프로그램 대부분은 다른 파이썬 숫자 형과
별로 다르지 않게 데이터를 조작합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal 객체,  Next: Context 객체,  Prev: Quick-start tutorial,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.2 Decimal 객체
....................

 -- 클래스: decimal.Decimal (value='0', context=None)

     'value' 를 기반으로 새 *note Decimal: 29d. 객체를 만듭니다.

     'value' 는 정수, 문자열, 튜플, *note float: 2ef. 또는 다른 *note
     Decimal: 29d. 객체일 수 있습니다.  'value' 가 주어지지 않으면,
     ‘Decimal('0')’ 을 반환합니다.  'value' 가 문자열이면, 앞뒤의 공백 문
     자 및 밑줄이 제거된 후 십진수 문자열 문법에 맞아야 합니다:

          sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
          digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
          indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
          digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
          decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
          exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
          infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
          nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
          numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
          numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

     Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where ‘digit’
     appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
     alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
     with the fullwidth digits ‘'\uff10'’ through ‘'\uff19'’.  Case is
     not significant, so, for example, ‘inf’, ‘Inf’, ‘INFINITY’, and
     ‘iNfINity’ are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

     If 'value' is a *note tuple: 369, it should have three components,
     a sign (‘0’ for positive or ‘1’ for negative), a *note tuple: 369.
     of digits, and an integer exponent.  For example, ‘Decimal((0, (1,
     4, 1, 4), -3))’ returns ‘Decimal('1.414')’.

     If 'value' is a *note float: 2ef, the binary floating-point value
     is losslessly converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This
     conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision.  For
     example, ‘Decimal(float('1.1'))’ converts to
     ‘Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')’.

     'context' 정밀도는 저장되는 자릿수에 영향을 주지 않습니다.  저장되
     는 자릿수는 'value' 의 자릿수만으로 결정됩니다.  예를 들어
     ‘Decimal('3.00000')’ 은 컨텍스트 정밀도가 단지 3이라도 5개의 모든
     0을 기록합니다.

     The purpose of the 'context' argument is determining what to do if
     'value' is a malformed string.  If the context traps *note
     InvalidOperation: 109b, an exception is raised; otherwise, the
     constructor returns a new Decimal with the value of ‘NaN’.

     일단 만들어지면, *note Decimal: 29d. 객체는 불변입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 생성자에 대한 인자는 이제 *note float: 2ef. 인스
     턴스가 될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note float: 2ef. 인자는 *note FloatOperation:
     1093. 트랩이 설정되면 예외를 발생시킵니다.  기본적으로 트랩은 꺼져
     있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 코드에서의 정수와 부동 소수점 리터럴과 마찬가지
     로, 밑줄로 무리 지을 수 있습니다.

     Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other
     built-in numeric types such as *note float: 2ef. and *note int:
     257.  All of the usual math operations and special methods apply.
     Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as
     dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and
     coerced to another type (such as *note float: 2ef. or *note int:
     257.).

     Decimal 객체에 대한 산술과 정수 및 실수에 대한 산술에는 약간의 차이
     가 있습니다.  Decimal 객체에 나머지 연산자 ‘%’ 가 적용될 때, 결과의
     부호는 제수의 부호가 아닌 '피제수'의 부호가 됩니다:

          >>> (-7) % 4
          1
          >>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-3')

     정수 나눗셈 연산자 ‘//’ 의 동작 역시 비슷한 차이를 보입니다.  즉, 가
     장 가까운 정수로 내림하는 대신 실제 몫의 정수 부(0을 향해 자르기)를
     돌려줍니다.  그래서 일반적인 항등식 ‘x == (x // y) * y + x % y’ 를
     유지합니다:

          >>> -7 // 4
          -2
          >>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-1')

     ‘%’ 와 ‘//’ 연산자는 명세에 설명된 대로 각각 ‘remainder’ 와
     ‘divide-integer’ 연산을 구현합니다.

     Decimal 객체는 일반적으로 산술 연산에서 float 나 *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1e7. 인스턴스와 결합 할 수 없습니다: 예를 들어,
     *note float: 2ef. 에 a *note Decimal: 29d.을 더하려고 하면 *note
     TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.  그러나, 파이썬의 비교 연산자를 사용
     하여 *note Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스 ‘x’ 와 다른 숫자 ‘y’ 를 비교할 수
     있습니다.  이렇게 해서 서로 다른 형의 숫자 간에 동등 비교를 할 때 혼
     란스러운 결과를 피합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스와 다른 숫자 형 사이
     의 혼합형 비교가 이제 완전히 지원됩니다.

     In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal
     floating-point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

      -- 메서드: adjusted ()

          최상위 숫자만 남을 때까지 계수의 가장 오른쪽 숫자들을 밀어내도
          록 조정된 지수를 반환합니다.  ‘Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()’ 는
          7을 반환합니다.  소수점으로부터의 최상위 유효 숫자의 위치를 결
          정하는 데 사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: as_integer_ratio ()

          주어진 *note Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스를, 분모가 양수인 기약 분수
          로 나타내는 정수의 쌍 ‘(n, d)’ 을 돌려줍니다:

               >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
               (-157, 50)

          변환은 정확합니다.  무한대는 OverflowError를, NaN 은
          ValueError를 일으킵니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: as_tuple ()

          숫자의 *note 네임드 튜플: 648. 표현을 반환합니다:
          ‘DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent)’.

      -- 메서드: canonical ()

          인자의 규범적인 인코딩을 돌려줍니다.  현재 *note Decimal: 29d.
          인스턴스의 인코딩은 항상 규범적이므로, 이 연산은 인자를 변경하
          지 않고 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: compare (other, context=None)

          두 Decimal 인스턴스의 값을 비교합니다.  *note compare(): 265f.
          는 Decimal 인스턴스를 반환하고, 피연산자 중 하나가 NaN이면 결
          과는 NaN입니다:

               a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
               a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
               a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
               a > b            ==> Decimal('1')

      -- 메서드: compare_signal (other, context=None)

          이 연산은, 모든 NaN 이 신호를 준다는 것을 제외하면 *note
          compare(): 265f. 메서드와 같습니다.  즉, 피연산자가 모두 신호
          를 주는 NaN이 아니면, 모든 조용한 NaN 피연산자가 마치 신호를 주
          는 NaN 인 것처럼 처리됩니다.

      -- 메서드: compare_total (other, context=None)

          두 개의 피연산자를 숫자 값 대신 추상 표현을 사용하여 비교합니
          다.  *note compare(): 265f. 메서드와 비슷하지만, 결과는 *note
          Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스에 대해 전 순서(total ordering)를 부여합
          니다.  같은 숫자 값을 갖지만 다른 표현의 두 *note Decimal:
          29d. 인스턴스는 이 순서에 의해 다른 것으로 비교됩니다:

               >>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
               Decimal('-1')

          조용한 NaN과 신호를 주는 NaN도 전 순서에 포함됩니다.  이 함수
          의 결과는, 두 피연산자가 같은 표현을 가질 때 ‘Decimal('0')’, 첫
          번째 피연산자가 전 순서에서 두 번째 피연산자보다 낮으면
          ‘Decimal('-1')’, 첫 번째 피연산자가 전 순서에서 두 번째 피연산
          자보다 높으면 ‘Decimal('1')’ 입니다.  전 순서에 대한 세부 사항
          은 명세를 참조하십시오.

          이 연산은 컨텍스트의 영향을 받지 않고, 조용합니다: 어떤 플래그
          도 변경되지 않고, 어떤 자리 올림도 수행되지 않습니다.  예외적
          으로, 두 번째 피연산자를 정확하게 변환할 수 없으면 C 버전은
          InvalidOperation을 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: compare_total_mag (other, context=None)

          *note compare_total(): 2661.처럼 두 개의 피연산자를 숫자 값 대
          신 추상 표현을 사용하여 비교하지만, 각 피연산자의 부호를 무시
          합니다.  ‘x.compare_total_mag(y)’ 는
          ‘x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())’ 와 동등합니다.

          이 연산은 컨텍스트의 영향을 받지 않고, 조용합니다: 어떤 플래그
          도 변경되지 않고, 어떤 자리 올림도 수행되지 않습니다.  예외적
          으로, 두 번째 피연산자를 정확하게 변환할 수 없으면 C 버전은
          InvalidOperation을 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: conjugate ()

          그냥 self를 돌려줍니다.  이 메서드는 Decimal 명세를 준수하기 위
          한 것뿐입니다.

      -- 메서드: copy_abs ()

          인자의 절댓값을 반환합니다.  이 연산은 컨텍스트의 영향을 받지
          않고, 조용합니다: 어떤 플래그도 변경되지 않고, 어떤 자리 올림
          도 수행되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: copy_negate ()

          인자의 음의 부정을 돌려줍니다.  이 연산은 컨텍스트의 영향을 받
          지 않고, 조용합니다: 어떤 플래그도 변경되지 않고, 어떤 자리 올
          림도 수행되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: copy_sign (other, context=None)

          두 번째 피연산자의 부호와 같은 부호로 설정된 첫 번째 피연산자
          의 복사본을 반환합니다.  예를 들어:

               >>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
               Decimal('-2.3')

          이 연산은 컨텍스트의 영향을 받지 않고, 조용합니다: 어떤 플래그
          도 변경되지 않고, 어떤 자리 올림도 수행되지 않습니다.  예외적
          으로, 두 번째 피연산자를 정확하게 변환할 수 없으면 C 버전은
          InvalidOperation을 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: exp (context=None)

          주어진 숫자에 대한 (자연) 지수 함수 ‘e**x’ 의 값을 반환합니다.
          결과는 *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 264b. 자리 올림 모드를 사용하여
          올바르게 자리 올림 됩니다.

               >>> Decimal(1).exp()
               Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
               >>> Decimal(321).exp()
               Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_float (f, /)

          Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of *note
          float: 2ef. or *note int: 257.

          Note ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ is not the same as
          ‘Decimal('0.1')’.  Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in
          binary floating point, the value is stored as the nearest
          representable value which is ‘0x1.999999999999ap-4’.  That
          equivalent value in decimal is
          ‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’.

               참고: 파이썬 3.2 이후부터는, *note Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스
               를 *note float: 2ef.에서 직접 생성할 수 있습니다.

               >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
               Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
               Decimal('NaN')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
               Decimal('Infinity')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
               Decimal('-Infinity')

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: fma (other, third, context=None)

          합성된 곱셈-덧셈(fused multiply-add).  중간값 self*other의 자
          리 올림 없이 self*other+third를 반환합니다.

               >>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
               Decimal('11')

      -- 메서드: is_canonical ()

          인자가 규범적이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
          *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.  현재 *note Decimal: 29d. 인스
          턴스는 항상 규범적이므로 이 연산은 항상 *note True: c0a.를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_finite ()

          인자가 유한 수이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 인자가 무한대
          나 NaN 이면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_infinite ()

          인자가 양이나 음의 무한대면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇
          지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_nan ()

          인자가 (조용한 또는 신호를 주는) NaN이면 *note True: c0a.를 반
          환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_normal (context=None)

          인자가 '정상(normal)' 유한 수이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니
          다.  인자가 0, 비정상(subnormal), 무한대 또는 NaN 이면 *note
          False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_qnan ()

          인자가 조용한 NaN이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으
          면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_signed ()

          인자가 음의 부호를 가지면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지
          않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.  0과 NaN 모두 부호를 가
          질 수 있다는 것에 유의하세요.

      -- 메서드: is_snan ()

          인자가 신호를 주는 NaN이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지
          않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_subnormal (context=None)

          인자가 비정상(subnormal)이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇
          지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_zero ()

          인자가 (양 또는 음의) 0이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇
          지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: ln (context=None)

          피연산자의 자연로그(밑 e)를 반환합니다.  결과는 *note
          ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 264b. 자리 올림 모드를 사용하여 올바르게 반올
          림됩니다.

      -- 메서드: log10 (context=None)

          피연산자의 상용로그를 반환합니다.  결과는 *note
          ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 264b. 자리 올림 모드를 사용하여 올바르게 반올
          림됩니다.

      -- 메서드: logb (context=None)

          0이 아닌 수의 경우, 피연산자의 조정된 지수를 *note Decimal:
          29d. 인스턴스로 반환합니다.  피연산자가 0이면
          ‘Decimal('-Infinity')’ 가 반환되고 *note DivisionByZero: 2650.
          플래그가 발생합니다.  피연산자가 무한대면
          ‘Decimal('Infinity')’ 가 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_and (other, context=None)

          *note logical_and(): 2674. 는 두 개의 '논리적 피연산자'(*note
          논리적 피연산자: 2675.를 보세요)를 취하는 논리적 연산입니다.  결
          과는 두 피연산자의 자릿수별 ‘and’ 입니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_invert (context=None)

          *note logical_invert(): 2676. 는 논리적 연산입니다.  결과는 피
          연산자의 자릿수별 반전입니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_or (other, context=None)

          *note logical_or(): 2677. 는 두 개의 '논리적 피연산자'(*note
          논리적 피연산자: 2675.를 보세요)를 취하는 논리적 연산입니다.  결
          과는 두 피연산자의 자릿수별 ‘or’ 입니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_xor (other, context=None)

          *note logical_xor(): 2678.은 두 개의 '논리적 피연산자'(*note
          논리적 피연산자: 2675.를 보세요)를 취하는 논리적 연산입니다.  결
          과는 두 피연산자의 자릿수별 배타적 or입니다.

      -- 메서드: max (other, context=None)

          Like ‘max(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- 메서드: max_mag (other, context=None)

          *note max(): 2679.와 비슷하지만, 피연산자의 절댓값을 사용하여
          비교가 이루어집니다.

      -- 메서드: min (other, context=None)

          Like ‘min(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- 메서드: min_mag (other, context=None)

          *note min(): 267b.과 비슷하지만, 피연산자의 절댓값을 사용하여
          비교가 이루어집니다.

      -- 메서드: next_minus (context=None)

          주어진 피연산자보다 작고, 주어진 컨텍스트(또는 context가 주어
          지지 않으면 현재 스레드의 컨텍스트)에서 표현 가능한 가장 큰 수
          를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: next_plus (context=None)

          주어진 피연산자보다 크고, 주어진 컨텍스트(또는 context가 주어
          지지 않으면 현재 스레드의 컨텍스트)에서 표현 가능한 가장 작은
          수를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: next_toward (other, context=None)

          두 피연산자가 같지 않으면, 두 번째 피연산자의 방향으로 첫 번째
          피연산자에 가장 가까운 숫자를 반환합니다.  두 피연산자가 수치
          로 같으면, 첫 번째 피연산자의 복사본을 반환하는데, 부호를 두 번
          째 피연산자의 것으로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: normalize (context=None)

          Used for producing canonical values of an equivalence class
          within either the current context or the specified context.

          This has the same semantics as the unary plus operation,
          except that if the final result is finite it is reduced to its
          simplest form, with all trailing zeros removed and its sign
          preserved.  That is, while the coefficient is non-zero and a
          multiple of ten the coefficient is divided by ten and the
          exponent is incremented by 1.  Otherwise (the coefficient is
          zero) the exponent is set to 0.  In all cases the sign is
          unchanged.

          For example, ‘Decimal('32.100')’ and ‘Decimal('0.321000e+2')’
          both normalize to the equivalent value ‘Decimal('32.1')’.

          Note that rounding is applied 'before' reducing to simplest
          form.

          In the latest versions of the specification, this operation is
          also known as ‘reduce’.

      -- 메서드: number_class (context=None)

          피연산자의 '클래스' 를 설명하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  반환 값
          은 다음 10개의 문자열 중 하나입니다.

             * ‘"-Infinity"’, 피연산자가 음의 무한대임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"-Normal"’, 피연산자가 음의 정상 수임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"-Subnormal"’, 피연산자가 음의 비정상 수임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"-Zero"’, 피연산자가 음의 0임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"+Zero"’, 피연산자가 양의 0임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"+Subnormal"’, 피연산자가 양의 비정상 수임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"+Normal"’, 피연산자가 양의 정상 수임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"+Infinity"’, 피연산자가 양의 무한대임을 나타냅니다.

             * ‘"NaN"’, 피연산자가 조용한 NaN(Not a Number)임을 나타냅니
               다.

             * ‘"sNaN"’, 피연산자가 신호를 주는 NaN임을 나타냅니다.

      -- 메서드: quantize (exp, rounding=None, context=None)

          자리 올림 후에 첫 번째 피연산자와 같고 두 번째 피연산자의 지수
          를 갖는 값을 반환합니다.

               >>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
               Decimal('1.414')

          다른 연산과 달리, quantize 연산 후의 계수의 길이가 정밀도보다
          크면, *note InvalidOperation: 109b. 신호를 줍니다.  이는, 에러
          조건이 없으면, quantize 된 지수가 항상 오른쪽 피연산자의 지수
          와 같음을 보장합니다.

          또한, 다른 연산과는 달리, 결과가 비정상(subnormal)이고 부정확
          한 경우조차도, quantize는 결코 Underflow 신호를 보내지 않습니
          다.

          두 번째 피연산자의 지수가 첫 번째 피연산자의 지수보다 크면 자
          리 올림이 필요할 수 있습니다.  이 경우, 자리 올림 모드는 (주어
          지면) ‘rounding’ 인자에 의해 결정됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 주어진
          ‘context’ 인자에 의해 결정됩니다; 두 인자 모두 주어지지 않으면
          , 현재 스레드의 컨텍스트의 자리 올림 모드가 사용됩니다.

          An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is
          greater than *note Emax: 1099. or less than *note Etiny():
          2682.

      -- 메서드: radix ()

          *note Decimal: 29d. 클래스가 모든 산술을 수행하는 진수(기수)인
          ‘Decimal(10)’ 을 반환합니다.  명세와의 호환성을 위해 포함됩니
          다.

      -- 메서드: remainder_near (other, context=None)

          'self' 를 'other' 로 나눈 나머지를 반환합니다.  이것은 나머지
          의 절댓값을 최소화하기 위해 나머지의 부호가 선택된다는 점에서
          ‘self % other’ 와 다릅니다.  좀 더 정확히 말하면, 반환 값은
          ‘self - n * other’ 인데, 여기서 ‘n’ 은 ‘self / other’ 의 정확
          한 값에 가장 가까운 정수이고, 두 개의 정수와의 거리가 같으면 짝
          수가 선택됩니다.

          결과가 0이면 그 부호는 'self' 의 부호가 됩니다.

               >>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-2')
               >>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('5')
               >>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-5')

      -- 메서드: rotate (other, context=None)

          첫 번째 피연산자의 계수를 두 번째 피연산자로 지정된 양만큼 회
          전한 결과를 반환합니다.  두 번째 피연산자는 -precision에서
          precision 범위의 정수여야 합니다.  두 번째 피연산자의 절댓값은
          회전할 자리의 수를 나타냅니다.  두 번째 피연산자가 양수면 왼쪽
          으로 회전합니다; 그렇지 않으면 오른쪽으로 회전합니다.  필요하
          면 정밀도에 맞추기 위해 첫 번째 피연산자의 계수에 0이 왼쪽에 채
          워집니다.  첫 번째 피연산자의 부호와 지수는 변경되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: same_quantum (other, context=None)

          Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether
          both are ‘NaN’.

          이 연산은 컨텍스트의 영향을 받지 않고, 조용합니다: 어떤 플래그
          도 변경되지 않고, 어떤 자리 올림도 수행되지 않습니다.  예외적
          으로, 두 번째 피연산자를 정확하게 변환할 수 없으면 C 버전은
          InvalidOperation을 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: scaleb (other, context=None)

          첫 번째 피연산자의 지수를 두 번째 피연산자만큼 조정한 값을 반
          환합니다.  달리 표현하면, 첫 번째 피연산자에 ‘10**other’ 를 곱
          한 값을 반환합니다.  두 번째 피연산자는 정수여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: shift (other, context=None)

          첫 번째 피연산자의 계수를 두 번째 피연산자로 지정된 양만큼 이
          동한 결과를 반환합니다.  두 번째 피연산자는 -precision에서
          precision 범위의 정수여야 합니다.  두 번째 피연산자의 절댓값은
          이동할 자리의 수를 나타냅니다.  두 번째 피연산자가 양수면 왼쪽
          으로 이동합니다; 그렇지 않으면 오른쪽으로 이동합니다.  이동으
          로 인해 계수에 들어오는 숫자는 0입니다.  첫 번째 피연산자의 부
          호와 지수는 변경되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: sqrt (context=None)

          인자의 제곱근을 완전한 정밀도로 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: to_eng_string (context=None)

          문자열로 변환합니다.  지수가 필요하면 공학 표기법을 사용합니다
          .

          공학 표기법의 지수는 3의 배수입니다.  이렇게 하면 소수점 왼쪽
          에 최대 3자리를 남기게 되고, 하나나 두 개의 후행 0을 추가해야
          할 수 있습니다.

          예를 들어, 이 메서드는 ‘Decimal('123E+1')’ 을
          ‘Decimal('1.23E+3')’ 으로 변환합니다.

      -- 메서드: to_integral (rounding=None, context=None)

          *note to_integral_value(): 268c. 메서드와 같습니다.
          ‘to_integral’ 이름은 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 유지되었습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: to_integral_exact (rounding=None, context=None)

          *note Inexact: 2651. 나 *note Rounded: 2652. 신호를 주면서 가
          장 가까운 정수로 자리 올림 합니다.  자리 올림 모드는 (주어지면
          ) ‘rounding’ 매개 변수에 의해, 그렇지 않으면 그렇지 않으면
          ‘context’ 에 의해 결정됩니다.  두 매개 변수 모두 지정되지 않으
          면, 현재 컨텍스트의 자리 올림 모드가 사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: to_integral_value (rounding=None, context=None)

          *note Inexact: 2651. 나 *note Rounded: 2652. 신호를 주지 않고
          가장 가까운 정수로 자리 올림 합니다.  주어지면, 'rounding' 을
          적용합니다; 그렇지 않으면, 제공된 'context' 나 현재 컨텍스트의
          자리 올림 방법을 사용합니다.

     Decimal numbers can be rounded using the *note round(): 12ca.
     function:

      -- Describe: round(number)

      -- Describe: round(number, ndigits)

          If 'ndigits' is not given or ‘None’, returns the nearest *note
          int: 257. to 'number', rounding ties to even, and ignoring the
          rounding mode of the *note Decimal: 29d. context.  Raises
          *note OverflowError: 87d. if 'number' is an infinity or *note
          ValueError: 202. if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.

          If 'ndigits' is an *note int: 257, the context’s rounding mode
          is respected and a *note Decimal: 29d. representing 'number'
          rounded to the nearest multiple of ‘Decimal('1E-ndigits')’ is
          returned; in this case, ‘round(number, ndigits)’ is equivalent
          to ‘self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits'))’.  Returns
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’ if 'number' is a quiet NaN. Raises *note
          InvalidOperation: 109b. if 'number' is an infinity, a
          signaling NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after the
          quantize operation would be greater than the current context’s
          precision.  In other words, for the non-corner cases:

             * if 'ndigits' is positive, return 'number' rounded to
               'ndigits' decimal places;

             * if 'ndigits' is zero, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest integer;

             * if 'ndigits' is negative, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest multiple of ‘10**abs(ndigits)’.

          For example:

               >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
               >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'))     # context rounding ignored
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.5'))      # round-ties-to-even
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0)  # uses the context rounding
               Decimal('3')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
               Decimal('3.7')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
               Decimal('0E+1')

* Menu:

* 논리적 피연산자::


File: python.info,  Node: 논리적 피연산자,  Up: Decimal 객체

5.9.4.3 논리적 피연산자
.......................

The *note logical_and(): 2674, *note logical_invert(): 2676, *note
logical_or(): 2677, and *note logical_xor(): 2678. methods expect their
arguments to be 'logical operands'.  A 'logical operand' is a *note
Decimal: 29d. instance whose exponent and sign are both zero, and whose
digits are all either ‘0’ or ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context 객체,  Next: 상수<4>,  Prev: Decimal 객체,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.4 Context 객체
....................

컨텍스트는 산술 연산을 위한 환경입니다.  정밀도를 제어하고, 자리 올림 규
칙을 설정하며, 어떤 신호가 예외로 처리되는지 결정하고, 지수의 범위를 제
한합니다.

각 스레드는 자신만의 현재 컨텍스트를 가지는데, *note getcontext(): 15dc.
와 *note setcontext(): 2658. 함수를 사용하여 액세스하거나 변경합니다:

 -- 함수: decimal.getcontext ()

     활성 스레드의 현재 컨텍스트를 돌려줍니다.

 -- 함수: decimal.setcontext (c, /)

     활성 스레드의 현재 컨텍스트를 'c' 로 설정합니다.

또한 *note with: 5cc. 문과 *note localcontext(): 180a. 함수를 사용하여 활
성 컨텍스트를 일시적으로 변경할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: decimal.localcontext (ctx=None, **kwargs)

     Return a context manager that will set the current context for the
     active thread to a copy of 'ctx' on entry to the with-statement and
     restore the previous context when exiting the with-statement.  If
     no context is specified, a copy of the current context is used.
     The 'kwargs' argument is used to set the attributes of the new
     context.

     예를 들어, 다음 코드는 현재 십진 정밀도를 42자리로 설정하고, 계산을
     수행한 다음, 이전 컨텍스트를 자동으로 복원합니다:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext() as ctx:
              ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision

     Using keyword arguments, the code would be the following:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext(prec=42) as ctx:
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s

     Raises *note TypeError: 532. if 'kwargs' supplies an attribute that
     *note Context: 10a2. doesn’t support.  Raises either *note
     TypeError: 532. or *note ValueError: 202. if 'kwargs' supplies an
     invalid value for an attribute.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note localcontext(): 180a. now supports
     setting context attributes through the use of keyword arguments.

아래에 설명된 *note Context: 10a2. 생성자를 사용하여 새로운 컨텍스트를 만
들 수도 있습니다.  또한, 이 모듈은 세 가지 미리 만들어진 컨텍스트를 제공
합니다:

 -- 데이터: decimal.BasicContext

     이것은 일반 십진 산술 명세에서 정의된 표준 컨텍스트입니다.  정밀도
     는 9로 설정됩니다.  자리 올림은 *note ROUND_HALF_UP: 264c.으로 설정
     됩니다.  모든 플래그가 지워집니다.  모든 트랩은 *note Inexact:
     2651, *note Rounded: 2652, *note Subnormal: 2653.을 제외하고는 활성
     화됩니다 (예외로 처리됩니다).

     많은 트랩이 활성화되었으므로, 이 컨텍스트는 디버깅에 유용합니다.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ExtendedContext

     이것은 일반 십진 산술 명세에서 정의된 표준 컨텍스트입니다.  정밀도
     는 9로 설정됩니다.  자리 올림은 *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 264b.으로 설
     정됩니다.  모든 플래그가 지워집니다.  아무 트랩도 활성화되지 않습니
     다 (그래서 계산 중에 예외가 발생하지 않습니다).

     Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for
     applications that prefer to have result value of ‘NaN’ or
     ‘Infinity’ instead of raising exceptions.  This allows an
     application to complete a run in the presence of conditions that
     would otherwise halt the program.

 -- 데이터: decimal.DefaultContext

     이 컨텍스트는 새로운 컨텍스트의 프로토타입으로 *note Context: 10a2.
     생성자에 의해 사용됩니다.  필드(가령 정밀도)를 변경하면 *note
     Context: 10a2. 생성자에 의해 생성된 새로운 컨텍스트에 대한 기본값을
     변경하는 효과가 있습니다.

     이 컨텍스트는 다중 스레드 환경에서 가장 유용합니다.  스레드가 시작
     되기 전에 필드 중 하나를 변경하면 시스템 전체의 기본값을 설정하는 효
     과가 있습니다.  스레드가 시작된 후에 필드를 변경하는 것은.  스레드
     동기화를 통해 경쟁 조건을 방지해야 하므로 권장되지 않습니다.

     단일 스레드 환경에서는, 이 컨텍스트를 아예 사용하지 않는 것이 좋습
     니다.  대신, 아래에 설명된 대로 명시적으로 컨텍스트를 만드십시오.

     The default values are *note Context.prec: 2690.=‘28’, *note
     Context.rounding: 2691.=*note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 264b, and enabled
     traps for *note Overflow: 2654, *note InvalidOperation: 109b, and
     *note DivisionByZero: 2650.

3개의 제공된 컨텍스트 외에도, 새로운 컨텍스트를 *note Context: 10a2. 생
성자를 사용하여 만들 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: decimal.Context (prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None,
          Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)

     새로운 컨텍스트를 만듭니다.  필드가 지정되지 않았거나 *note None:
     66f. 이면, 기본값은 *note DefaultContext: 1096. 에서 복사됩니다.
     'flags' 필드가 지정되지 않았거나 *note None: 66f. 이면, 모든 플래그
     가 지워집니다.

      -- 속성: prec

          An integer in the range [‘1’, *note MAX_PREC: 2692.] that sets
          the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.

      -- 속성: rounding

          One of the constants listed in the section *note Rounding
          Modes: 2693.

      -- 속성: traps
      -- 속성: flags

          Lists of any signals to be set.  Generally, new contexts
          should only set traps and leave the flags clear.

      -- 속성: Emin
      -- 속성: Emax

          Integers specifying the outer limits allowable for exponents.
          'Emin' must be in the range [*note MIN_EMIN: 2694, ‘0’],
          'Emax' in the range [‘0’, *note MAX_EMAX: 2695.].

      -- 속성: capitals

          Either ‘0’ or ‘1’ (the default).  If set to ‘1’, exponents are
          printed with a capital ‘E’; otherwise, a lowercase ‘e’ is
          used: ‘Decimal('6.02e+23')’.

      -- 속성: clamp

          Either ‘0’ (the default) or ‘1’.  If set to ‘1’, the exponent
          ‘e’ of a *note Decimal: 29d. instance representable in this
          context is strictly limited to the range ‘Emin - prec + 1 <= e
          <= Emax - prec + 1’.  If 'clamp' is ‘0’ then a weaker
          condition holds: the adjusted exponent of the *note Decimal:
          29d. instance is at most *note Emax: 1099.  When 'clamp' is
          ‘1’, a large normal number will, where possible, have its
          exponent reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to
          its coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints;
          this preserves the value of the number but loses information
          about significant trailing zeros.  For example:

               >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
               Decimal('1.23000E+999')

          A 'clamp' value of ‘1’ allows compatibility with the
          fixed-width decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.

     The *note Context: 10a2. class defines several general purpose
     methods as well as a large number of methods for doing arithmetic
     directly in a given context.  In addition, for each of the *note
     Decimal: 29d. methods described above (with the exception of the
     *note adjusted(): 265c. and *note as_tuple(): 265d. methods) there
     is a corresponding *note Context: 10a2. method.  For example, for a
     *note Context: 10a2. instance ‘C’ and *note Decimal: 29d. instance
     ‘x’, ‘C.exp(x)’ is equivalent to ‘x.exp(context=C)’.  Each *note
     Context: 10a2. method accepts a Python integer (an instance of
     *note int: 257.) anywhere that a Decimal instance is accepted.

      -- 메서드: clear_flags ()

          Resets all of the flags to ‘0’.

      -- 메서드: clear_traps ()

          Resets all of the traps to ‘0’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          컨텍스트의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: copy_decimal (num, /)

          Decimal 인스턴스 num의 복사본을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: create_decimal (num='0', /)

          'self' 를 컨텍스트로 사용해서, 'num' 으로 새 Decimal 인스턴스
          를 만듭니다.  *note Decimal: 29d. 생성자와 달리, 컨텍스트 정밀
          도, 자리 올림 방법, 플래그 및 트랩이 변환에 적용됩니다.

          이는 상수가 보통 응용 프로그램에 필요한 것보다 더 큰 정밀도로
          제공되기 때문에 유용합니다.  또 다른 이점은 자리 올림이 현재 정
          밀도를 초과하는 자릿수로 인한 의도하지 않은 결과를 즉시 제거한
          다는 것입니다.  다음 예제에서, 자리 올림 되지 않은 입력을 사용
          한다는 것은 합계에 0을 추가하면 결과가 달라질 수 있음을 의미합
          니다.:

               >>> getcontext().prec = 3
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.45')
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.44')

          이 메서드는 IBM 명세의 to-number 연산을 구현합니다.  인자가 문
          자열이면, 선행 또는 후행 공백이나 밑줄이 허용되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: create_decimal_from_float (f, /)

          float 'f' 로 새 Decimal 인스턴스를 만들지만, 'self' 를 컨텍스
          트로 사용하여 자리 올림 합니다.  *note Decimal.from_float():
          11f3. 클래스 메서드와는 달리, 컨텍스트 정밀도, 자리 올림 방법,
          플래그 및 트랩이 변환에 적용됩니다.

               >>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Decimal('3.1415')
               >>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                   ...
               decimal.Inexact: None

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: Etiny ()

          비정상 결과에 대한 최소 지수 값인 ‘Emin - prec + 1’ 과 같은 값
          을 반환합니다.  언더 플로우가 발생하면, 지수는 *note Etiny:
          2682. 로 설정됩니다.

      -- 메서드: Etop ()

          ‘Emax - prec + 1’ 과 같은 값을 반환합니다.

     십진수로 작업하는 일반적인 접근법은 *note Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스를
     생성한 다음 활성 스레드의 현재 컨텍스트 내에서 진행되는 산술 연산을
     적용하는 것입니다.  다른 방법은 특정 컨텍스트 내에서 계산하기 위해
     컨텍스트 메서드를 사용하는 것입니다.  메서드는 *note Decimal: 29d.
     클래스의 메서드와 비슷하며 여기에서는 간단히 설명합니다.

      -- 메서드: abs (x, /)

          'x' 의 절댓값을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: add (x, y, /)

          'x' 와 'y' 의 합을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: canonical (x, /)

          같은 Decimal 객체 'x' 를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: compare (x, y, /)

          'x' 와 'y' 를 수치로 비교합니다.

      -- 메서드: compare_signal (x, y, /)

          두 피연산자의 값을 수치로 비교합니다.

      -- 메서드: compare_total (x, y, /)

          추상 표현을 사용하여 두 피연산자를 비교합니다.

      -- 메서드: compare_total_mag (x, y, /)

          부호를 무시하고, 추상 표현을 사용하여 두 피연산자를 비교합니다
          .

      -- 메서드: copy_abs (x, /)

          부호가 0으로 설정되어있는 'x' 의 복사본을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: copy_negate (x, /)

          부호가 반전된 'x' 복사본을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: copy_sign (x, y, /)

          'y' 에서 'x' 로 부호를 복사합니다.

      -- 메서드: divide (x, y, /)

          'x' 를 'y' 로 나눈 값을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: divide_int (x, y, /)

          'x' 를 'y' 로 나눈 후 정수로 잘라낸 값을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: divmod (x, y, /)

          두 숫자를 나누고 결과의 정수 부분을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: exp (x, /)

          Returns ‘e ** x’.

      -- 메서드: fma (x, y, z, /)

          'x' 에 'y' 를 곱한 후 'z' 를 더한 값을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_canonical (x, /)

          'x' 가 규범적일 경우 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_finite (x, /)

          'x' 가 유한이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_infinite (x, /)

          'x' 가 무한대면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_nan (x, /)

          'x' 가 qNaN 이나 sNaN 이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_normal (x, /)

          'x' 가 정상 수면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_qnan (x, /)

          'x' 가 조용한 NaN이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_signed (x, /)

          'x' 가 음수면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_snan (x, /)

          'x' 가 신호를 주는 NaN 이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_subnormal (x, /)

          'x' 가 비정상이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_zero (x, /)

          'x' 가 0이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: ln (x, /)

          'x' 의 자연로그(밑 e)를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: log10 (x, /)

          'x' 의 상용로그를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: logb (x, /)

          피연산자의 최상위 유효 숫자의 크기의 지수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_and (x, y, /)

          각 피연산자의 자릿수별로 논리적 연산 'and' 를 적용합니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_invert (x, /)

          'x' 의 모든 자릿수를 반전합니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_or (x, y, /)

          각 피연산자의 자릿수별로 논리적 연산 'or' 를 적용합니다.

      -- 메서드: logical_xor (x, y, /)

          각 피연산자의 자릿수별로 논리적 연산 'xor' 를 적용합니다.

      -- 메서드: max (x, y, /)

          두 값을 수치로 비교해, 최댓값을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: max_mag (x, y, /)

          부호를 무시하고 값을 수치로 비교합니다.

      -- 메서드: min (x, y, /)

          두 값을 수치로 비교해, 최솟값을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: min_mag (x, y, /)

          부호를 무시하고 값을 수치로 비교합니다.

      -- 메서드: minus (x, /)

          minus는 파이썬에서 단항 접두사 빼기 연산자에 해당합니다.

      -- 메서드: multiply (x, y, /)

          'x' 와 'y' 의 곱을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: next_minus (x, /)

          'x' 보다 작고 표현 가능한 가장 큰 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: next_plus (x, /)

          'x' 보다 크고 표현 가능한 가장 작은 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: next_toward (x, y, /)

          'y' 방향으로 'x' 에 가장 가까운 숫자를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: normalize (x, /)

          'x' 를 가장 간단한 형태로 환원합니다.

      -- 메서드: number_class (x, /)

          'x' 의 클래스를 가리키는 문자열을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: plus (x, /)

          plus는 파이썬에서 단항 접두사 더하기 연산자에 해당합니다.  이
          연산은 컨텍스트 정밀도와 자리 올림을 적용하므로 항등 연산이 '아
          닙니다'.

      -- 메서드: power (x, y, modulo=None)

          ‘x’ 의 ‘y’ 거듭제곱을 돌려줍니다.  주어지면 ‘modulo’ 모듈로로
          환원합니다.

          With two arguments, compute ‘x**y’.  If ‘x’ is negative then
          ‘y’ must be integral.  The result will be inexact unless ‘y’
          is integral and the result is finite and can be expressed
          exactly in ‘precision’ digits.  The rounding mode of the
          context is used.  Results are always correctly rounded in the
          Python version.

          ‘Decimal(0) ** Decimal(0)’은 ‘InvalidOperation’이 되며,
          ‘InvalidOperation’가 트랩 되지 않으면, ‘Decimal('NaN')’이 됩니
          다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: The C module computes *note power(): 26c6.
          in terms of the correctly rounded *note exp(): 26a8. and *note
          ln(): 26b3. functions.  The result is well-defined but only
          “almost always correctly rounded”.

          세 인자로는 ‘(x**y) % modulo’ 를 계산합니다.  세 인자 형식의 경
          우, 인자에 다음과 같은 제한이 있습니다:

             - 세 인자는 모두 정수여야 합니다.

             - ‘y’ 는 음수가 아니어야 합니다.

             - ‘x’ 나 ‘y’ 중 적어도 하나는 0이 아니어야 합니다

             - ‘modulo’ 는 0이 아니고 최대 ‘precision’ 자릿수를 가져야 합
               니다

          ‘Context.power(x, y, modulo)’ 의 결괏값은 무한 정밀도로
          ‘(x**y) % modulo’ 를 계산할 때 얻을 수 있는 값과 같지만, 더 효
          율적으로 계산됩니다.  결과의 지수는 ‘x’, ‘y’ 및 ‘modulo’ 의 지
          수와 관계없이 0입니다.  결과는 항상 정확합니다.

      -- 메서드: quantize (x, y, /)

          'y' 의 지수를 가지는 (자리 올림 된) 'x' 와 같은 값을 반환합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: radix ()

          Decimal이기 때문에 단지 10을 반환합니다, :)

      -- 메서드: remainder (x, y, /)

          정수 나눗셈의 나머지를 반환합니다.

          결과가 0이 아닐 때, 결과의 부호는 원래의 피제수와 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: remainder_near (x, y, /)

          ‘x - y * n’ 을 반환하는데, 'n' 은 ‘x / y’ 의 정확한 값에 가장
          가까운 정수입니다 (결과가 0이면 그 부호는 'x' 의 부호가 됩니다
          ).

      -- 메서드: rotate (x, y, /)

          'x' 를 'y' 번 회전한 복사본을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: same_quantum (x, y, /)

          두 피연산자의 지수가 같으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: scaleb (x, y, /)

          첫 번째 피연산자의 지수에 두 번째 값을 더해서 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: shift (x, y, /)

          'x' 를 'y' 번 이동한 복사본을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: sqrt (x, /)

          음이 아닌 수의 제곱근을 컨텍스트의 정밀도로 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: subtract (x, y, /)

          'x' 와 'y' 의 차를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: to_eng_string (x, /)

          문자열로 변환합니다.  지수가 필요하면 공학 표기법을 사용합니다
          .

          공학 표기법의 지수는 3의 배수입니다.  이렇게 하면 소수점 왼쪽
          에 최대 3자리를 남기게 되고, 하나나 두 개의 후행 0을 추가해야
          할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: to_integral_exact (x, /)

          정수로 자리 올림 합니다.

      -- 메서드: to_sci_string (x, /)

          과학 표기법을 사용하여 숫자를 문자열로 변환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<4>,  Next: 자리 올림 모드,  Prev: Context 객체,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.5 상수
............

이 절의 상수는 C 모듈에서만 의미가 있습니다.  호환성을 위해 순수 파이썬
버전에도 포함되어 있습니다.

                          32-비트                   64-비트
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
 -- 데이터:               ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_PREC                          

 -- 데이터:               ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_EMAX                          

 -- 데이터:               ‘-425000000’              ‘-999999999999999999’
          decimal.MIN_EMIN                          

 -- 데이터:               ‘-849999999’              ‘-1999999999999999997’
          decimal.MIN_ETINY                         

 -- 데이터: decimal.HAVE_THREADS

     값은 ‘True’입니다.  이제 파이썬에는 항상 스레드가 있기 때문에, 폐지
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨.

 -- 데이터: decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR

     The default value is ‘True’.  If Python is *note configured using
     the -without-decimal-contextvar option: 1d7c, the C version uses a
     thread-local rather than a coroutine-local context and the value is
     ‘False’.  This is slightly faster in some nested context scenarios.

     Added in version 3.8.3.


File: python.info,  Node: 자리 올림 모드,  Next: 신호,  Prev: 상수<4>,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.6 자리 올림 모드
......................

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_CEILING

     Round towards ‘Infinity’.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_DOWN

     0을 향해 자리 올림 합니다.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_FLOOR

     Round towards ‘-Infinity’.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN

     가장 가까운 값으로 반올림하고, 동률이면 0에서 가까운 것을 선택합니
     다.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN

     가장 가까운 값으로 반올림하고, 동률이면 짝수를 선택합니다.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP

     가장 가까운 값으로 반올림하고, 동률이면 0에서 먼 것을 선택합니다.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_UP

     0에서 먼 쪽으로 자리 올림 합니다.

 -- 데이터: decimal.ROUND_05UP

     0을 향해 자리 올림 했을 때 마지막 숫자가 0이나 5면 0에서 먼 쪽으로
     자리 올림 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 0을 향해 자리 올림 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 신호,  Next: Floating-point notes,  Prev: 자리 올림 모드,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.7 신호
............

신호는 계산 중 발생하는 조건을 나타냅니다.  각각은 하나의 컨텍스트 플래
그와 하나의 컨텍스트 트랩 활성화기에 대응합니다.

컨텍스트 플래그는 조건이 발생할 때마다 설정됩니다.  계산 후에, 플래그는
정보를 얻기 위한 목적으로 확인될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, 계산이 정확한지
를 판별하기 위해).  플래그를 확인한 후 다음 계산을 시작하기 전에 모든 플
래그를 지우십시오.

컨텍스트의 트랩 활성화기가 신호에 대해 설정되면, 조건은 파이썬 예외를 일
으킵니다.  예를 들어, *note DivisionByZero: 2650. 트랩이 설정되면, 이 조
건을 만날 때 *note DivisionByZero: 2650. 예외가 발생합니다.

 -- 클래스: decimal.Clamped

     표현 제약 조건에 맞도록 지수를 변경했습니다.

     Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the
     context’s *note Emin: 109a. and *note Emax: 1099. limits.  If
     possible, the exponent is reduced to fit by adding zeros to the
     coefficient.

 -- 클래스: decimal.DecimalException

     다른 신호의 베이스 클래스이고 *note ArithmeticError: 228b. 의 서브
     클래스입니다.

 -- 클래스: decimal.DivisionByZero

     무한대가 아닌 숫자를 0으로 나눴다는 신호를 줍니다.

     Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number
     to a negative power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns
     ‘Infinity’ or ‘-Infinity’ with the sign determined by the inputs to
     the calculation.

 -- 클래스: decimal.Inexact

     자리 올림이 발생했고 결과가 정확하지 않음을 나타냅니다.

     자리 올림 도중 0이 아닌 숫자가 삭제된 경우 신호를 줍니다.  자리 올
     림 된 결과가 반환됩니다.  신호 플래그나 트랩은 결과가 정확하지 않을
     때를 감지하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: decimal.InvalidOperation

     유효하지 않은 연산이 수행되었습니다.

     Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense.
     If not trapped, returns ‘NaN’.  Possible causes include:

          Infinity - Infinity
          0 * Infinity
          Infinity / Infinity
          x % 0
          Infinity % x
          sqrt(-x) and x > 0
          0 ** 0
          x ** (non-integer)
          x ** Infinity

 -- 클래스: decimal.Overflow

     수치적 오버플로.

     Indicates the exponent is larger than *note Context.Emax: 1099.
     after rounding has occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on
     the rounding mode, either pulling inward to the largest
     representable finite number or rounding outward to ‘Infinity’.  In
     either case, *note Inexact: 2651. and *note Rounded: 2652. are also
     signaled.

 -- 클래스: decimal.Rounded

     정보가 손실되지는 않았지만 자리 올림이 발생했습니다.

     Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits
     are zero (such as rounding ‘5.00’ to ‘5.0’).  If not trapped,
     returns the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss
     of significant digits.

 -- 클래스: decimal.Subnormal

     Exponent was lower than *note Emin: 109a. prior to rounding.

     연산 결과가 비정상(지수가 너무 작음)일 때 발생합니다.  트랩 되지 않
     으면, 결과를 그대로 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: decimal.Underflow

     결과가 0으로 자리 올림 되는 수치적 언더플로.

     자리 올림에 의해 비정상 결과가 0으로 밀릴 때 발생합니다.  *note
     Inexact: 2651.와 *note Subnormal: 2653. 신호도 줍니다.

 -- 클래스: decimal.FloatOperation

     float와 Decimal을 혼합하는 데 더 엄격한 의미를 사용합니다.

     신호가 트랩되지 않으면 (기본값), *note Decimal: 29d. 생성자, *note
     create_decimal(): 109c. 및 모든 비교 연산자에서 float와 Decimal을 혼
     합 할 수 있습니다.  변환과 비교 모두 정확합니다.  복합 연산의 발생
     은 컨텍스트 플래그에 *note FloatOperation: 1093. 을 설정하여 조용히
     기록됩니다.  *note from_float(): 11f3. 나 *note
     create_decimal_from_float(): 269a. 를 사용한 명시적 변환은 플래그를
     설정하지 않습니다.

     그렇지 않으면 (신호가 트랩되면), 같음 비교와 명시적 변환만 조용히 수
     행됩니다.  다른 모든 혼합된 연산은 *note FloatOperation: 1093. 을 발
     생시킵니다.

다음 표는 신호의 계층 구조를 요약한 것입니다:

     exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
         DecimalException
             Clamped
             DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
             Inexact
                 Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
                 Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
             InvalidOperation
             Rounded
             Subnormal
             FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-point notes,  Next: 스레드로 작업하기,  Prev: 신호,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.8 Floating-point notes
............................

* Menu:

* 증가시킨 정밀도로 자리 올림 오차 줄이기::
* 특수 값::


File: python.info,  Node: 증가시킨 정밀도로 자리 올림 오차 줄이기,  Next: 특수 값,  Up: Floating-point notes

5.9.4.9 증가시킨 정밀도로 자리 올림 오차 줄이기
...............................................

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation
error (making it possible to represent ‘0.1’ exactly); however, some
operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed
the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or
subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of
significance.  Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded
floating-point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the
breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

     # Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
     >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
     >>> getcontext().prec = 8

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.5111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('10')

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.01')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')

*note decimal: 36. 모듈은 유효숫자의 손실을 피할 수 있을 만큼 정밀도를 확
장함으로써 항등 관계를 복구할 수 있게 합니다 :

     >>> getcontext().prec = 20
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>>
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 값,  Prev: 증가시킨 정밀도로 자리 올림 오차 줄이기,  Up: Floating-point notes

5.9.4.10 특수 값
................

The number system for the *note decimal: 36. module provides special
values including ‘NaN’, ‘sNaN’, ‘-Infinity’, ‘Infinity’, and two zeros,
‘+0’ and ‘-0’.

무한대는 다음과 같이 직접 생성될 수 있습니다: ‘Decimal('Infinity')’.  또
한, *note DivisionByZero: 2650. 신호가 트랩 되지 않을 때 0으로 나눠서 발
생할 수 있습니다.  마찬가지로, *note Overflow: 2654. 신호가 트랩 되지 않
을 때, 무한대는 표현 가능한 가장 큰 수의 한계를 넘어서 자리 올림 된 결과
가 될 수 있습니다.

무한대는 부호가 있고 (아핀) 산술 연산에 사용될 수 있는데, 매우 크고 불확
정적(indeterminate)인 숫자로 취급됩니다.  예를 들어, 무한대에 상수를 더
하면 또 다른 무한대를 줍니다.

Some operations are indeterminate and return ‘NaN’, or if the *note
InvalidOperation: 109b. signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For
example, ‘0/0’ returns ‘NaN’ which means “not a number”.  This variety
of ‘NaN’ is quiet and, once created, will flow through other
computations always resulting in another ‘NaN’.  This behavior can be
useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing
inputs — it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific
results as invalid.

A variant is ‘sNaN’ which signals rather than remaining quiet after
every operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result
needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python’s comparison operators can be a little surprising
where a ‘NaN’ is involved.  A test for equality where one of the
operands is a quiet or signaling ‘NaN’ always returns *note False: b34.
(even when doing ‘Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')’), while a test for
inequality always returns *note True: c0a.  An attempt to compare two
Decimals using any of the ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ or ‘>=’ operators will raise
the *note InvalidOperation: 109b. signal if either operand is a ‘NaN’,
and return *note False: b34. if this signal is not trapped.  Note that
the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the
behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a
‘NaN’ were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section
5.7).  To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the *note compare():
265f. and *note compare_signal(): 2660. methods instead.

부호 있는 0은 언더플로 하는 계산의 결과일 수 있습니다.  계산을 더 정밀하
게 수행한다면 얻게 될 결과의 기호를 유지합니다.  크기가 0이기 때문에, 양
과 음의 0은 같다고 취급되며 부호는 정보 용입니다.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there
are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet
equivalent in value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye
accustomed to normalized floating-point representations, it is not
immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal
to zero:

     >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
     Decimal('0E-1000026')


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드로 작업하기,  Next: 조리법,  Prev: Floating-point notes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.11 스레드로 작업하기
..........................

*note getcontext(): 15dc. 함수는 스레드마다 다른 *note Context: 10a2. 객
체에 접근합니다.  별도의 스레드 컨텍스트를 갖는다는 것은 스레드가 다른 스
레드를 방해하지 않고 변경할 수 있음을 의미합니다 (가령
‘getcontext().prec=10’).

마찬가지로, *note setcontext(): 2658. 함수는 자동으로 대상을 현재 스레드
에 할당합니다.

*note setcontext(): 2658. 가 *note getcontext(): 15dc. 전에 호출되지 않
았다면, *note getcontext(): 15dc. 는 현재 스레드에서 사용할 새로운 컨텍
스트를 자동으로 생성합니다.

새 컨텍스트는 'DefaultContext' 라는 프로토타입 컨텍스트에서 복사됩니다.
각 스레드가 응용 프로그램 전체에서 같은 값을 사용하도록 기본값을 제어하
려면, 'DefaultContext' 객체를 직접 수정하십시오.  *note getcontext():
15dc. 를 호출하는 스레드 사이에 경쟁 조건이 없도록, 어떤 스레드가 시작되
기 '전에' 수행되어야 합니다.  예를 들면:

     # Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
     DefaultContext.prec = 12
     DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
     DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
     DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
     setcontext(DefaultContext)

     # Afterwards, the threads can be started
     t1.start()
     t2.start()
     t3.start()
      . . .


File: python.info,  Node: 조리법,  Next: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: 스레드로 작업하기,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.12 조리법
...............

다음은 유틸리티 함수로 사용되고 *note Decimal: 29d. 클래스로 작업하는 방
법을 보여주는 몇 가지 조리법입니다:

     def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
                  pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
         """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

         places:  required number of places after the decimal point
         curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
         sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
         dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
                  only specify as blank when places is zero
         pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
         neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
         trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

         >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
         '-$1,234,567.89'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
         '1.234.568-'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
         '($1,234,567.89)'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
         '123 456 789.00'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
         '<0.02>'

         """
         q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
         sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
         result = []
         digits = list(map(str, digits))
         build, next = result.append, digits.pop
         if sign:
             build(trailneg)
         for i in range(places):
             build(next() if digits else '0')
         if places:
             build(dp)
         if not digits:
             build('0')
         i = 0
         while digits:
             build(next())
             i += 1
             if i == 3 and digits:
                 i = 0
                 build(sep)
         build(curr)
         build(neg if sign else pos)
         return ''.join(reversed(result))

     def pi():
         """Compute Pi to the current precision.

         >>> print(pi())
         3.141592653589793238462643383

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
         three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
         lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             n, na = n+na, na+8
             d, da = d+da, da+32
             t = (t * n) / d
             s += t
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

     def exp(x):
         """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.

         >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
         2.718281828459045235360287471
         >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
         7.389056098930650227230427461
         >>> print(exp(2.0))
         7.38905609893
         >>> print(exp(2+0j))
         (7.38905609893+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 1
             fact *= i
             num *= x
             s += num / fact
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def cos(x):
         """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.8775825618903727161162815826
         >>> print(cos(0.5))
         0.87758256189
         >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
         (0.87758256189+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def sin(x):
         """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.4794255386042030002732879352
         >>> print(sin(0.5))
         0.479425538604
         >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
         (0.479425538604+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: 조리법,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.13 Decimal FAQ
....................

Q. ‘decimal.Decimal('1234.5')’ 라고 입력하는 것은 귀찮은 일입니다.  대화
형 인터프리터를 사용할 때 타자를 최소화할 방법이 있습니까?

A. 일부 사용자는 생성자를 하나의 문자로 축약합니다:

     >>> D = decimal.Decimal
     >>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
     Decimal('4.68')

Q. 소수점 두 자리의 고정 소수점 응용 프로그램에서, 일부 입력에 여러 자리
가 있고 자리 올림 해야 합니다.  어떤 것은 여분의 자릿수가 없다고 가정되
지만, 유효성 검사가 필요합니다.  어떤 방법을 사용해야 합니까?

A. The *note quantize(): 10a3. method rounds to a fixed number of
decimal places.  If the *note Inexact: 2651. trap is set, it is also
useful for validation:

     >>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')

     >>> # Round to two places
     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
     >>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     Inexact: None

Q. 일단 유효한 두 자리 입력이 있으면, 응용 프로그램 전체에서 해당 불변성
을 어떻게 유지합니까?

A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an
integer will automatically preserve fixed point.  Others operations,
like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the number of
decimal places and need to be followed-up with a *note quantize(): 10a3.
step:

     >>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
     >>> b = Decimal('3.17')
     >>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
     Decimal('105.89')
     >>> a - b
     Decimal('99.55')
     >>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
     Decimal('4314.24')
     >>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
     Decimal('0.03')

In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define
functions to handle the *note quantize(): 10a3. step:

     >>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
     ...
     >>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)

     >>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> div(b, a)
     Decimal('0.03')

Q. There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers ‘200’,
‘200.000’, ‘2E2’, and ‘.02E+4’ all have the same value at various
precisions.  Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
canonical value?

A. The *note normalize(): 2680. method maps all equivalent values to a
single representative:

     >>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
     >>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
     [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q. When does rounding occur in a computation?

A. It occurs 'after' the computation.  The philosophy of the decimal
specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created
independent of the current context.  They can even have greater
precision than current context.  Computations process with those exact
inputs and then rounding (or other context operations) is applied to the
'result' of the computation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 5
     >>> pi = Decimal('3.1415926535')   # More than 5 digits
     >>> pi                             # All digits are retained
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> pi + 0                         # Rounded after an addition
     Decimal('3.1416')
     >>> pi - Decimal('0.00005')        # Subtract unrounded numbers, then round
     Decimal('3.1415')
     >>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005').   # Intermediate values are rounded
     Decimal('3.1416')

Q. 일부 십진수 값은 항상 지수 표기법으로 인쇄됩니다.  지수가 아닌 표현을
얻을 방법이 있습니까?

A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the
number of significant places in the coefficient.  For example,
expressing ‘5.0E+3’ as ‘5000’ keeps the value constant but cannot show
the original’s two-place significance.

응용 프로그램이 유효 숫자를 추적하는 데 신경 쓰지 않으면, 지수 및 후행
0을 제거하고 유효숫자를 잃지만, 값이 바뀌지 않도록 하기는 쉽습니다:

     >>> def remove_exponent(d):
     ...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

     >>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
     Decimal('5000')

Q. 일반 float를 *note Decimal: 29d.로 변환하는 방법이 있습니까?

A. Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a
Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than
intuition would suggest:

     >>> Decimal(math.pi)
     Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q. 복잡한 계산에서, 정밀도가 부족하거나 자리 올림 이상이 발생하여 엉터리
결과를 얻지는 않았는지 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?

A. decimal 모듈은 결과를 쉽게 테스트할 수 있게 합니다.  가장 좋은 방법은
더 높은 정밀도와 다양한 자리 올림 모드를 사용하여 계산을 다시 실행하는 것
입니다.  크게 다른 결과는 정밀도 부족, 자리 올림 모드 문제, 부적절한 입
력 또는 수치가 불안정한 알고리즘을 나타냅니다.

컨텍스트 정밀도가 입력이 아닌 연산 결과에 적용된다는 사실을 확인했습니다
.  다른 정밀도의 값을 혼합할 때 주의해야 할 것이 있습니까?

A. 그렇습니다.  원칙은 모든 값이 정확한 것으로 간주하므로 해당 값에 대한
산술도 마찬가지라는 것입니다.  결과 만 자리 올림 됩니다.  입력에 대한 이
점은 “입력하는 것이 얻는 것”이라는 것입니다.  단점은 입력값을 자리 올림
하는 것을 잊어버리면 결과가 이상하게 보일 수 있다는 점입니다:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.21')
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.20')

해법은 정밀도를 높이거나 단항 플러스 연산을 사용하여 입력의 자리 올림을
강제 수행하는 것입니다:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
     Decimal('1.23')

다른 방법으로, 입력은 *note Context.create_decimal(): 109c. 메서드를 사
용하여 생성 시에 자리 올림 될 수 있습니다:

     >>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
     Decimal('1.2345')

Q. CPython 구현은 커다란 수에서 빠릅니까?

A. Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions
of the decimal module integrate the high speed libmpdec(1) library for
arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic
(2).  ‘libmpdec’ uses Karatsuba multiplication(3) for medium-sized
numbers and the Number Theoretic Transform(4) for very large numbers.

The context must be adapted for exact arbitrary precision arithmetic.
*note Emin: 109a. and *note Emax: 1099. should always be set to the
maximum values, *note clamp: 118e. should always be 0 (the default).
Setting *note prec: 2690. requires some care.

The easiest approach for trying out bignum arithmetic is to use the
maximum value for *note prec: 2690. as well (5):

     >>> setcontext(Context(prec=MAX_PREC, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN))
     >>> x = Decimal(2) ** 256
     >>> x / 128
     Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')

For inexact results, *note MAX_PREC: 2692. is far too large on 64-bit
platforms and the available memory will be insufficient:

     >>> Decimal(1) / 3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     MemoryError

On systems with overallocation (e.g.  Linux), a more sophisticated
approach is to adjust *note prec: 2690. to the amount of available RAM.
Suppose that you have 8GB of RAM and expect 10 simultaneous operands
using a maximum of 500MB each:

     >>> import sys
     >>>
     >>> # Maximum number of digits for a single operand using 500MB in 8-byte words
     >>> # with 19 digits per word (4-byte and 9 digits for the 32-bit build):
     >>> maxdigits = 19 * ((500 * 1024**2) // 8)
     >>>
     >>> # Check that this works:
     >>> c = Context(prec=maxdigits, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN)
     >>> c.traps[Inexact] = True
     >>> setcontext(c)
     >>>
     >>> # Fill the available precision with nines:
     >>> x = Decimal(0).logical_invert() * 9
     >>> sys.getsizeof(x)
     524288112
     >>> x + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       decimal.Inexact: [<class 'decimal.Inexact'>]

일반적으로 (그리고 특히 초과 할당이 없는 시스템에서), 더 엄격한 경계를 추
정하고 모든 계산이 정확할 것으로 예상되면 *note Inexact: 2651. 트랩을 설
정하는 것이 좋습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html

   (2) 
Added in version 3.3.

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform

   (5) 
버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 접근법은 정수가 아닌 거듭제곱을 제외한 모든 정확한
결과에 적용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions — 유리수,  Next: random — 의사 난수 생성,  Prev: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.5 ‘fractions’ — 유리수
--------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/fractions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note fractions: 5d. 모듈은 유리수 산술을 지원합니다.

A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of rational numbers,
from a single number, or from a string.

 -- 클래스: fractions.Fraction (numerator=0, denominator=1)

 -- 클래스: fractions.Fraction (other_fraction)

 -- 클래스: fractions.Fraction (float)

 -- 클래스: fractions.Fraction (decimal)

 -- 클래스: fractions.Fraction (string)

     The first version requires that 'numerator' and 'denominator' are
     instances of *note numbers.Rational: 12ae. and returns a new *note
     Fraction: 1e7. instance with a value equal to
     ‘numerator/denominator’.  If 'denominator' is zero, it raises a
     *note ZeroDivisionError: 943.  The second version requires that
     'other_fraction' is an instance of *note numbers.Rational: 12ae.
     and returns a *note Fraction: 1e7. instance with the same value.
     The next two versions accept either a *note float: 2ef. or a *note
     decimal.Decimal: 29d. instance, and return a *note Fraction: 1e7.
     instance with exactly the same value.  Note that due to the usual
     issues with binary floating point (see *note 부동 소수점 산술;
     문제점 및 한계: 1d19.), the argument to ‘Fraction(1.1)’ is not
     exactly equal to 11/10, and so ‘Fraction(1.1)’ does 'not' return
     ‘Fraction(11, 10)’ as one might expect.  (But see the documentation
     for the *note limit_denominator(): 26e6. method below.)  The last
     version of the constructor expects a string or unicode instance.
     The usual form for this instance is:

          [sign] numerator ['/' denominator]

     이때, 선택적 ‘sign’은 ‘+’ 나 ‘-‘일 수 있으며 ‘numerator’ 와
     ‘denominator’(있다면)는 십진수 문자열입니다 (밑줄은 코드에서 정수 리
     터럴과 마찬가지로 숫자를 구분하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다).  또한, 유
     한한 값을 나타내고 *note float: 2ef. 생성자에서 허용하는 모든 문자
     열은 *note Fraction: 1e7. 생성자에서도 허용됩니다.  모든 형식에서,
     입력 문자열에는 선행과/이나 후행 공백이 있을 수도 있습니다.  여기 예
     제가 있습니다:

          >>> from fractions import Fraction
          >>> Fraction(16, -10)
          Fraction(-8, 5)
          >>> Fraction(123)
          Fraction(123, 1)
          >>> Fraction()
          Fraction(0, 1)
          >>> Fraction('3/7')
          Fraction(3, 7)
          >>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
          Fraction(-3, 7)
          >>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
          Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction('-.125')
          Fraction(-1, 8)
          >>> Fraction('7e-6')
          Fraction(7, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction(2.25)
          Fraction(9, 4)
          >>> Fraction(1.1)
          Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
          >>> from decimal import Decimal
          >>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
          Fraction(11, 10)

     *note Fraction: 1e7. 클래스는 추상 베이스 클래스 *note
     numbers.Rational: 12ae.를 상속하며, 그 클래스의 모든 메서드와 연산
     을 구현합니다.  *note Fraction: 1e7. 인스턴스는 *note 해시 가능:
     60a.하고, 불변으로 취급해야 합니다.  또한, *note Fraction: 1e7.에는
     다음과 같은 프로퍼티와 메서드가 있습니다:

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note Fraction: 1e7. 생성자는 이제 *note float:
     2ef.와 *note decimal.Decimal: 29d. 인스턴스를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: *note math.gcd(): 90d. 함수가 이제 'numerator'와
     'denominator'를 정규화하는 데 사용됩니다.  *note math.gcd(): 90d.는
     항상 *note int: 257. 형을 반환합니다.  이전에는, GCD 형이
     'numerator'와 'denominator'에 의존했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Underscores are now permitted when creating a
     *note Fraction: 1e7. instance from a string, following PEP 515(2)
     rules.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note Fraction: 1e7. implements ‘__int__’ now
     to satisfy ‘typing.SupportsInt’ instance checks.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Space is allowed around the slash for string
     inputs: ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: *note Fraction: 1e7. instances now support
     float-style formatting, with presentation types ‘"e"’, ‘"E"’,
     ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%""’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Formatting of *note Fraction: 1e7. instances
     without a presentation type now supports fill, alignment, sign
     handling, minimum width and grouping.

      -- 속성: numerator

          기약 분수로 나타낼 때 Fraction의 분자.

      -- 속성: denominator

          Denominator of the Fraction in lowest terms.  Guaranteed to be
          positive.

      -- 메서드: as_integer_ratio ()

          비율이 원래 Fraction과 같습니다.  비율은 양의 분모를 갖는 가장
          작은 항으로 표현됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: is_integer ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Fraction is an integer.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_float (f)

          *note float: 2ef. 나 *note numbers.Integral: 1fc4.의 인스턴스
          만 받아들이는 대체 생성자.  ‘Fraction.from_float(0.3)’가
          ‘Fraction(3, 10)’와 같은 값이 아니라는 점에 유의하십시오.

               참고: 파이썬 3.2 이상에서는, *note float: 2ef.에서 직접
               *note Fraction: 1e7. 인스턴스를 생성할 수도 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_decimal (dec)

          *note decimal.Decimal: 29d. 나 *note numbers.Integral: 1fc4.의
          인스턴스만 받아들이는 대체 생성자.

               참고: 파이썬 3.2 이상에서는, *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.
               인스턴스에서 직접 *note Fraction: 1e7. 인스턴스를 생성할
               수도 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: limit_denominator (max_denominator=1000000)

          분모가 최대 max_denominator인 ‘self’에 가장 가까운 *note
          Fraction: 1e7.을 찾아서 반환합니다.  이 메서드는 주어진 부동 소
          수점 수에 대한 유리한 근사를 찾는 데 유용합니다:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
               Fraction(355, 113)

          또는 float로 표현된 유리수를 복구할 때 유용합니다:

               >>> from math import pi, cos
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
               Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(1, 2)
               >>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(11, 10)

      -- 메서드: __floor__ ()

          가장 큰 *note int: 257. ‘<= self’를 반환합니다.  이 메서드는
          *note math.floor(): 138a. 함수를 통해 액세스할 수도 있습니다:

               >>> from math import floor
               >>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
               3

      -- 메서드: __ceil__ ()

          가장 작은 *note int: 257. ‘>= self’를 반환합니다.  이 메서드는
          *note math.ceil(): 138b. 함수를 통해 액세스할 수도 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: __round__ ()

      -- 메서드: __round__ (ndigits)

          첫 번째 버전은 ‘self’에 가장 가까운 *note int: 257.를 반환하는
          데, 절반은 짝수로 자리 올림 합니다.  두 번째 버전은 ‘self’를 가
          장 가까운 ‘Fraction(1, 10**ndigits)’의 배수로 자리 올림 하는데
          (‘ndigits’가 음수면 논리적으로), 역시 짝수로 자리 올림 합니다.
          이 메서드는 *note round(): 12ca. 함수를 통해 액세스할 수도 있
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: __format__ (format_spec, /)

          Provides support for formatting of *note Fraction: 1e7.
          instances via the *note str.format(): 61b. method, the *note
          format(): 619. built-in function, or *note Formatted string
          literals: 9a6.

          If the ‘format_spec’ format specification string does not end
          with one of the presentation types ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’,
          ‘'g'’, ‘'G'’ or ‘'%'’ then formatting follows the general
          rules for fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width, and
          grouping as described in the *note format specification
          mini-language: 1e8.  The “alternate form” flag ‘'#'’ is
          supported: if present, it forces the output string to always
          include an explicit denominator, even when the value being
          formatted is an exact integer.  The zero-fill flag ‘'0'’ is
          not supported.

          If the ‘format_spec’ format specification string ends with one
          of the presentation types ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’,
          ‘'G'’ or ‘'%'’ then formatting follows the rules outlined for
          the *note float: 2ef. type in the *note 포맷 명세 미니 언어:
          1e8. section.

          Here are some examples:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> format(Fraction(103993, 33102), '_')
               '103_993/33_102'
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.^+10')
               '...+1/7...'
               >>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '')
               '3'
               >>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '#')
               '3/1'
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.40g')
               '0.1428571428571428571428571428571428571429'
               >>> format(Fraction('1234567.855'), '_.2f')
               '1_234_567.86'
               >>> f"{Fraction(355, 113):*>20.6e}"
               '********3.141593e+00'
               >>> old_price, new_price = 499, 672
               >>> "{:.2%} price increase".format(Fraction(new_price, old_price) - 1)
               '34.67% price increase'

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note numbers: 9e.

     숫자 계층을 구성하는 추상 베이스 클래스.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/fractions.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: random — 의사 난수 생성,  Next: statistics — 수학 통계 함수,  Prev: fractions — 유리수,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.6 ‘random’ — 의사 난수 생성
-------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/random.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 다양한 분포에 대한 의사 난수 생성기를 구현합니다.

정수에 대해서는, 범위에서 균일한 선택이 있습니다.  시퀀스에 대해서는, 무
작위 요소의 균일한 선택, 리스트를 제자리(in-place)에서 임의 순열을 생성
하는 함수 및 중복 없는(without replacement) 무작위 표본 추출(sampling)을
위한 함수가 있습니다.

실수에 대해서는, 균일(uniform), 정규(normal) (가우시안(Gaussian)), 로그
정규(lognormal), 음의 지수(negative exponential), 감마(gamma) 및 베타
(beta) 분포를 계산하는 함수가 있습니다.  각도 분포를 생성하기 위해, 폰 미
제스(von Mises) 분포를 사용할 수 있습니다.

거의 모든 모듈 함수는 기본 함수 *note random(): 741.에 의존하는데, 이 함
수는 반 열린 구간 ‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’ 에서 무작위 float를 균일하게 생성합니
다.  파이썬은 메르센 트위스터(Mersenne Twister)를 핵심 생성기로 사용합니
다.  53비트 정밀도의 float를 생성하며, 주기는 2**19937-1 입니다.  C로 작
성된 하부 구현은 빠르고 스레드 안전합니다.  메르센 트위스터는 가장 광범
위하게 테스트 된 난수 생성기 중 하나입니다.  그러나, 완전히 결정적이므로
, 모든 목적에 적합하지는 않으며, 암호화 목적에는 전혀 적합하지 않습니다.

이 모듈에서 제공하는 함수는 실제로는 *note random.Random: 18ae. 클래스의
숨겨진 인스턴스에 대해 연결된 메서드입니다.  *note Random: 18ae. 인스턴
스를 직접 인스턴스 화하여 상태를 공유하지 않는 생성기를 얻을 수 있습니다
.

Class *note Random: 18ae. can also be subclassed if you want to use a
different basic generator of your own devising: see the documentation on
that class for more details.

*note random: b8. 모듈은 운영 체제에서 제공하는 소스에서 난수를 생성하는
시스템 함수 *note os.urandom(): 51c.을 사용하는 *note SystemRandom:
26ee. 클래스도 제공합니다.

     경고: 이 모듈의 의사 난수 생성기를 보안 목적으로 사용해서는 안 됩니
     다.  보안이나 암호화 용도를 위해서는, *note secrets: c0. 모듈을 참
     조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, “Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator”, ACM Transactions
on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol.  8, No.  1, January pp.3–30
1998.

긴 주기와 비교적 간단한 업데이트 연산을 하는 호환 가능한 대체 난수 생성
기를 위한 Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe(2)

     참고: The global random number generator and instances of *note
     Random: 18ae. are thread-safe.  However, in the free-threaded
     build, concurrent calls to the global generator or to the same
     instance of *note Random: 18ae. may encounter contention and poor
     performance.  Consider using separate instances of *note Random:
     18ae. per thread instead.

* Menu:

* 관리 함수::
* 바이트열 함수::
* 정수 함수::
* 시퀀스 함수::
* 이산 분포::
* 실수 분포::
* 대체 생성기::
* 재현성에 대한 참고 사항::
* 예제: 예제<4>.
* 조리법: 조리법<2>.
* Command-line usage::
* Command-line example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/random.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707-long-period-random-number-generator/


File: python.info,  Node: 관리 함수,  Next: 바이트열 함수,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.1 관리 함수
.................

 -- 함수: random.seed (a=None, version=2)

     난수 생성기를 초기화합니다.

     'a'가 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 현재 시스템 시간이 사용됩니다.  운영 체
     제에서 임의성 소스(randomness sources)를 제공하면, 시스템 시간 대신
     사용됩니다 (가용성에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note os.urandom(): 51c. 함
     수를 참조하십시오).

     'a'가 int이면, 직접 사용됩니다.

     버전(version) 2(기본값)에서는, *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 또
     는 *note bytearray: 538. 객체가 *note int: 257.로 변환되어 모든 비
     트가 사용됩니다.

     버전(version) 1(이전 버전의 파이썬에서 온 임의의 시퀀스를 재현하기
     위해 제공됩니다)에서는, *note str: 445.과 *note bytes: 1c2.를 위한
     알고리즘은 더 좁은 범위의 시드(seed)를 생성합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 문자열 시드의 모든 비트를 사용하는 버전 2 체계로
     이동했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'seed'는 다음 형 중 하나여야 합니다: ‘None’,
     *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2.
     또는 *note bytearray: 538.

 -- 함수: random.getstate ()

     생성기의 현재 내부 상태를 포착하는 객체를 반환합니다.  이 객체는
     *note setstate(): 26f1.로 전달되어 상태를 복원 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: random.setstate (state)

     'state'는 *note getstate(): 26f0.에 대한 이전 호출에서 얻은 것이어
     야 하고, *note setstate(): 26f1.는 생성기의 내부 상태를 *note
     getstate(): 26f0.가 호출될 당시의 상태로 복원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트열 함수,  Next: 정수 함수,  Prev: 관리 함수,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.2 바이트열 함수
.....................

 -- 함수: random.randbytes (n)

     'n' 무작위 바이트를 생성합니다.

     이 메서드를 사용하여 보안 토큰을 생성해서는 안 됩니다.  대신 *note
     secrets.token_bytes(): 26f3.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: 정수 함수,  Next: 시퀀스 함수,  Prev: 바이트열 함수,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.3 정수 함수
.................

 -- 함수: random.randrange (stop)

 -- 함수: random.randrange (start, stop[, step])

     Return a randomly selected element from ‘range(start, stop, step)’.

     This is roughly equivalent to ‘choice(range(start, stop, step))’
     but supports arbitrarily large ranges and is optimized for common
     cases.

     The positional argument pattern matches the *note range(): 941.
     function.

     Keyword arguments should not be used because they can be
     interpreted in unexpected ways.  For example ‘randrange(start=100)’
     is interpreted as ‘randrange(0, 100, 1)’.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note randrange(): 866.는 균일하게 분포된 값을 생
     성하는 데 있어 더욱 정교합니다.  이전에는 약간 고르지 않은 분포를 생
     성 할 수 있는 ‘int(random()*n)’와 같은 스타일을 사용했습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Automatic conversion of non-integer types is no
     longer supported.  Calls such as ‘randrange(10.0)’ and
     ‘randrange(Fraction(10, 1))’ now raise a *note TypeError: 532.

 -- 함수: random.randint (a, b)

     ‘a <= N <= b’를 만족하는 임의의 정수 'N'을 반환합니다.
     ‘randrange(a, b+1)’의 별칭.

 -- 함수: random.getrandbits (k)

     'k' 임의의 비트를 갖는 음이 아닌 파이썬 정수를 반환합니다.  이 메서
     드는 메르센 트위스터(Mersenne Twister) 생성기와 함께 제공되며, 일부
     다른 생성기도 API의 선택적 부분으로 제공할 수 있습니다.  사용 가능
     할 때, *note getrandbits(): 1003.는 *note randrange(): 866.가 임의
     로 넓은 범위를 처리 할 수 있도록 합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 메서드는 이제 'k'에 0을 허용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스 함수,  Next: 이산 분포,  Prev: 정수 함수,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.4 시퀀스 함수
...................

 -- 함수: random.choice (seq)

     비어 있지 않은 시퀀스 'seq'에서 임의의 요소를 반환합니다.  'seq'가
     비어 있으면, *note IndexError: 14fc.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: random.choices (population, weights=None, *, cum_weights=None,
          k=1)

     'population'에서 중복을 허락하면서(with replacement) 선택한 'k' 크
     기의 요소 리스트를 반환합니다.  'population'이 비어 있으면, *note
     IndexError: 14fc.를 발생시킵니다.

     'weights' 시퀀스가 지정되면, 상대 가중치에 따라 선택됩니다.  대안적
     으로, 'cum_weights' 시퀀스가 제공되면, (아마도 *note
     itertools.accumulate(): 9f9.를 사용하여 계산된) 누적 가중치
     (cumulative weights)에 따라 선택이 이루어집니다.  예를 들어, 상대 가
     중치 ‘[10, 5, 30, 5]’는 누적 가중치 ‘[10, 15, 45, 50]’과 동등합니다
     .  내부적으로, 상대 가중치는 선택하기 전에 누적 가중치로 변환되므로
     , 누적 가중치를 제공하면 작업이 줄어듭니다.

     'weights'나 'cum_weights'를 지정하지 않으면, 같은 확률로 선택됩니다
     .  weights 시퀀스가 제공되면, 'population' 시퀀스와 길이가 같아야 합
     니다.  'weights'와 'cum_weights'를 모두 지정하는 것은 *note
     TypeError: 532.입니다.

     'weights'나 'cum_weights'는 *note random(): b8.이 반환하는 *note
     float: 2ef. 값과 상호 운용되는 모든 숫자 형을 사용할 수 있습니다 (정
     수, 부동 소수점(float) 및 유리수(fractions)는 포함하지만, 십진수
     (decimal)는 제외합니다).  가중치는 음수가 아니고 유한하다고 가정합
     니다.  모든 가중치가 0이면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     주어진 시드에 대해, 균등한 가중치를 갖는 *note choices(): cc3. 함수
     는 일반적으로 *note choice(): 1220.에 대한 반복 호출과는 다른 시퀀
     스를 생성합니다.  *note choices(): cc3.에서 사용하는 알고리즘은 내
     부 일관성과 속도를 위해 부동 소수점 산술을 사용합니다.  *note
     choice(): 1220.에서 사용하는 알고리즘은 자리 올림 오차로 인한 작은
     바이어스(bias)를 피하려고 반복 선택을 통한 정수 산술로 기본 설정됩
     니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 모든 가중치가 0이면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
     생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: random.shuffle (x)

     시퀀스 'x'를 제자리에서 섞습니다.

     불변 시퀀스를 섞고 새로운 섞인 리스트를 반환하려면, 대신 ‘sample(x,
     k=len(x))’를 사용하십시오.

     작은 ‘len(x)’의 경우에조차, 'x'의 총 순열 수는 대부분의 난수 생성기
     주기보다 빠르게 커질 수 있습니다.  이것은 긴 시퀀스의 대부분 순열이
     절대로 생성될 수 없음을 의미합니다.  예를 들어, 길이가 2080인 시퀀
     스가 메르센 트위스터 난수 생성기의 주기 안에 들어갈 수 있는 최대입
     니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 선택적 매개 변수 'random'을 제거했습니다.

 -- 함수: random.sample (population, k, *, counts=None)

     population 시퀀스에서 선택한 고유한 요소의 'k' 길이 리스트를 반환합
     니다.  중복 없는(without replacement) 무작위 표본 추출(sampling)에
     사용됩니다.

     원래 population을 변경하지 않고, population의 요소를 포함하는 새 리
     스트를 반환합니다.  결과 리스트는 선택 순서를 따라서, 모든 서브 슬
     라이스도 유효한 임의의 표본이 됩니다.  이것은 추첨 당첨자(표본)를 대
     상(grand prize)과 차점자들(서브 슬라이스)로 나눌 수 있도록 합니다.

     population의 멤버는 *note 해시 가능: 60a.하거나 고유할 필요가 없습
     니다.  population이 반복을 포함하면, 각 등장(occurrence)은 표본에서
     가능한 선택입니다.

     반복되는 요소는 한 번에 하나씩 또는 선택적 키워드 전용 'counts' 매
     개 변수로 지정할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 ‘sample(['red', 'blue'],
     counts=[4, 2], k=5)’는 ‘sample(['red', 'red', 'red', 'red', 'blue',
     'blue'], k=5)’와 동등합니다.

     정수 범위에서 표본을 선택하려면, *note range(): 941. 객체를 인자로
     사용하십시오.  이는 큰 population에서 표본 추출할 때 특히 빠르고 공
     간 효율적입니다: ‘sample(range(10000000), k=60)’.

     표본 크기가 population 크기보다 크면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생
     합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'counts' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The 'population' must be a sequence.  Automatic
     conversion of sets to lists is no longer supported.


File: python.info,  Node: 이산 분포,  Next: 실수 분포,  Prev: 시퀀스 함수,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.5 이산 분포
.................

The following function generates a discrete distribution.

 -- 함수: random.binomialvariate (n=1, p=0.5)

     Binomial distribution(1).  Return the number of successes for 'n'
     independent trials with the probability of success in each trial
     being 'p':

     Mathematically equivalent to:

          sum(random() < p for i in range(n))

     The number of trials 'n' should be a non-negative integer.  The
     probability of success 'p' should be between ‘0.0 <= p <= 1.0’.
     The result is an integer in the range ‘0 <= X <= n’.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: 실수 분포,  Next: 대체 생성기,  Prev: 이산 분포,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.6 실수 분포
.................

다음 함수는 특정 실수 분포를 생성합니다.  함수 매개 변수는 일반적인 수학
적 관행에 사용되는 분포 방정식에서 해당 변수의 이름을 따서 명명됩니다; 이
러한 방정식의 대부분은 모든 통계 교과서에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: random.random ()

     ‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’ 구간에서 다음 임의의 부동 소수점 숫자를 반환합니다

 -- 함수: random.uniform (a, b)

     ‘a <= b’ 일 때 ‘a <= N <= b’, ‘b < a’ 일 때 ‘b <= N <= a’를 만족하
     는 임의의 부동 소수점 숫자 'N'을 반환합니다.

     종단 값 ‘b’는 표현식 ‘a + (b-a) * random()’의 부동 소수점 자리 올림
     에 따라 범위에 포함되거나 포함되지 않을 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: random.triangular (low, high, mode)

     ‘low <= N <= high’를 만족하고 이 경계 사이에 지정된 '모드(mode)'를
     갖는 임의의 부동 소수점 숫자 'N'을 반환합니다.  'low' 및 'high' 경
     계는 기본적으로 0과 1입니다.  'mode' 인자는 기본적으로 경계 사이의
     중간 점으로, 대칭 분포를 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: random.betavariate (alpha, beta)

     베타 분포.  매개 변수의 조건은 ‘alpha > 0’과 ‘beta > 0’입니다.  반
     환된 값의 범위는 0에서 1입니다.

 -- 함수: random.expovariate (lambd=1.0)

     지수 분포.  'lambd'는 1.0을 원하는 평균으로 나눈 값입니다.  0이 아
     니어야 합니다.  (매개 변수는 “lambda”라고 부르지만, 파이썬에서는 예
     약어입니다.)  반환된 값의 범위는, 'lambd'가 양수이면 0에서 양의 무
     한대이고, 'lambd'가 음수이면 음의 무한대에서 0입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added the default value for ‘lambd’.

 -- 함수: random.gammavariate (alpha, beta)

     Gamma distribution.  ('Not' the gamma function!)  The shape and
     scale parameters, 'alpha' and 'beta', must have positive values.
     (Calling conventions vary and some sources define ‘beta’ as the
     inverse of the scale).

     확률 분포 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

          x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
          pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
                      math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha

 -- 함수: random.gauss (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     정규 분포, 가우시안 분포라고도 합니다.  'mu'는 평균이고, 'sigma'는
     표준 편차입니다.  이것은 아래에 정의된 *note normalvariate(): 1849.
     함수보다 약간 빠릅니다.

     다중 스레딩 참고: 두 스레드가 이 함수를 동시에 호출하면, 같은 반환
     값을 받을 수 있습니다.  이것은 세 가지 방법으로 피할 수 있습니다.
     1) 각 스레드가 난수 생성기의 다른 인스턴스를 사용하도록 합니다.  2)
     모든 호출에 록을 둡니다.  3) 더 느리지만, 스레드 안전한 *note
     normalvariate(): 1849. 함수를 대신 사용합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'mu' and 'sigma' now have default arguments.

 -- 함수: random.lognormvariate (mu, sigma)

     로그 정규 분포.  이 분포의 자연로그를 취하면, 평균 'mu'와 표준 편차
     'sigma'를 갖는 정규 분포를 얻게 됩니다.  'mu'는 아무 값이나 될 수 있
     으며, 'sigma'는 0보다 커야 합니다.

 -- 함수: random.normalvariate (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     정규 분포.  'mu'는 평균이고, 'sigma'는 표준 편차입니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'mu' and 'sigma' now have default arguments.

 -- 함수: random.vonmisesvariate (mu, kappa)

     'mu'는 0과 2*'pi' 사이의 라디안으로 표현된 평균 각도이며, 'kappa'는
     0 이상이어야 하는 집중도(concentration) 매개 변수입니다.  'kappa'가
     0이면, 이 분포는 0에서 2*'pi'에 걸친 균등한 임의의 각도로 환원됩니
     다.

 -- 함수: random.paretovariate (alpha)

     파레토 분포.  'alpha'는 모양(shape) 매개 변수입니다.

 -- 함수: random.weibullvariate (alpha, beta)

     베이불 분포.  'alpha'는 크기(scale) 매개 변수이고 'beta'는 모양
     (shape) 매개 변수입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대체 생성기,  Next: 재현성에 대한 참고 사항,  Prev: 실수 분포,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.7 대체 생성기
...................

 -- 클래스: random.Random ([seed])

     *note random: b8. 모듈에서 사용하는 기본 의사 난수 생성기를 구현하
     는 클래스.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 이전에는 'seed'가 해시 가능한 어떤 객체라도 될
     수 있었습니다.  이제는 다음 형으로 제한됩니다: ‘None’, *note int:
     257, *note float: 2ef, *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 또는 *note
     bytearray: 538.

     Subclasses of ‘Random’ should override the following methods if
     they wish to make use of a different basic generator:

      -- 메서드: seed (a=None, version=2)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          seed(): 1264. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- 메서드: getstate ()

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          getstate(): 26f0. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- 메서드: setstate (state)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          setstate(): 26f1. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- 메서드: random ()

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          random(): 741. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

     Optionally, a custom generator subclass can also supply the
     following method:

      -- 메서드: getrandbits (k)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          getrandbits(): 1003. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- 메서드: randbytes (n)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          randbytes(): 154a. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

 -- 클래스: random.SystemRandom ([seed])

     운영 체제에서 제공하는 소스에서 난수를 생성하기 위해 *note
     os.urandom(): 51c. 함수를 사용하는 클래스.  모든 시스템에서 사용 가
     능한 것은 아닙니다.  소프트웨어 상태에 의존하지 않으며, 시퀀스는 재
     현되지 않습니다.  따라서, *note seed(): 1264. 메서드는 효과가 없으
     며, 무시됩니다.  *note getstate(): 26f0.와 *note setstate(): 26f1.
     메서드는 호출되면 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 재현성에 대한 참고 사항,  Next: 예제<4>,  Prev: 대체 생성기,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.8 재현성에 대한 참고 사항
...............................

때때로 의사 난수 생성기가 만든 시퀀스를 재현하는 것이 유용 할 수 있습니
다.  시드 값을 재사용하면, 여러 스레드가 실행되고 있지 않은 한 실행할 때
마다 같은 시퀀스를 재현할 수 있어야 합니다.

random 모듈의 알고리즘과 시딩(seeding) 함수의 대부분은 파이썬 버전에 따
라 변경될 수 있지만, 두 가지 측면은 변경되지 않음이 보장됩니다:

   * 새로운 시딩 메서드가 추가되면, 이전 버전과 호환되는 시더(seeder)가
     제공될 것입니다.

   * 호환 시더에 같은 시드가 제공되면 생성기의 *note random(): 2704. 메
     서드는 같은 시퀀스를 계속 생성할 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<4>,  Next: 조리법<2>,  Prev: 재현성에 대한 참고 사항,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.9 예제
............

기본 예제:

     >>> random()                          # 무작위 float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
     0.37444887175646646

     >>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                # 무작위 float:  2.5 <= x <= 10.0
     3.1800146073117523

     >>> expovariate(1 / 5)                # 평균 5초의 도착 간격
     5.148957571865031

     >>> randrange(10)                     # 경계를 포함하는 0에서 9 사이의 정수
     7

     >>> randrange(0, 101, 2)              # 경계를 포함하는 0에서 100 사이의 짝수 정수
     26

     >>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])   # 시퀀스로부터의 단일 무작위 요소
     'draw'

     >>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
     >>> shuffle(deck)                     # 리스트를 섞습니다
     >>> deck
     ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']

     >>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4) # 중복 없는 4개의 표본
     [40, 10, 50, 30]

시뮬레이션:

     >>> # 여섯 개의 룰렛 휠이 회전합니다 (중복을 허락하는 가중치 있는 샘플링)
     >>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
     ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']

     >>> # 52장의 카드 덱에서 중복 없이 20장의 카드를 나누고,
     >>> # 10 값(10, 잭, 퀸 또는 킹)을
     >>> # 가진 카드의 비율을 결정합니다.
     >>> deal = sample(['tens', 'low cards'], counts=[16, 36], k=20)
     >>> deal.count('tens') / 20
     0.15

     >>> # 60%의 확률로 앞(head)이 나오는 편향된(biased) 동전을 7번 던졌을 때 5번 이상
     >>> # 앞이 나올 확률을 추정합니다.
     >>> sum(binomialvariate(n=7, p=0.6) >= 5 for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.4169

     >>> # 다섯 표본의 중간값이 가운데 2개의 사분위(quartile)에 있을 확률
     >>> def trial():
     ...     return 2_500 <= sorted(choices(range(10_000), k=5))[2] < 7_500
     ...
     >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.7958

표본의 평균에 대한 신뢰 구간을 추정하기 위해 중복을 허용하는(with
replacement) 재표본추출(resampling)을 사용하는 통계적 부트스트래핑
(statistical bootstrapping)(1)의 예:

     # https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import choices

     data = [41, 50, 29, 37, 81, 30, 73, 63, 20, 35, 68, 22, 60, 31, 95]
     means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=len(data))) for i in range(100))
     print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
           f'interval from {means[5]:.1f} to {means[94]:.1f}')

약물과 위약의 효과 간에 관찰된 차이의 통계적 유의성 또는 p-값(2)을 결정
하기 위한 재표본추출 순열 검증(resampling permutation test)(3)의 예:

     # Dennis Shasha 와 Manda Wilson의 "Statistics is Easy" 에서 따온 예제
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import shuffle

     drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
     placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
     observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)

     n = 10_000
     count = 0
     combined = drug + placebo
     for i in range(n):
         shuffle(combined)
         new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
         count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)

     print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
     print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
     print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
     print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')

다중 서버 큐를 위한 도착 시간과 서비스 제공의 시뮬레이션:

     from heapq import heapify, heapreplace
     from random import expovariate, gauss
     from statistics import mean, quantiles

     average_arrival_interval = 5.6
     average_service_time = 15.0
     stdev_service_time = 3.5
     num_servers = 3

     waits = []
     arrival_time = 0.0
     servers = [0.0] * num_servers  # 각 서버를 사용할 수 있는 시간
     heapify(servers)
     for i in range(1_000_000):
         arrival_time += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
         next_server_available = servers[0]
         wait = max(0.0, next_server_available - arrival_time)
         waits.append(wait)
         service_duration = max(0.0, gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time))
         service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration
         heapreplace(servers, service_completed)

     print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}   Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}')
     print('Quartiles:', [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(waits)])

더 보기
.......

시뮬레이션(simulation), 표본 추출(sampling), 섞기(shuffling) 및 교차 검
증(cross-validation)을 포함하는 몇 가지 기본 개념만을 사용한, 통계 분석
에 대한 Jake Vanderplas(4)의 비디오 자습서 Statistics for Hackers(5)

Economics Simulation(6) 이 모듈에서 제공하는 많은 도구와 분포(gauss,
uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular 및 randrange)의 효과적
인 사용을 보여주는 Peter Norvig(7)의 시장(marketplace) 시뮬레이션.

A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python)(8) 확률 이론의 기
초, 시뮬레이션 작성 방법 및 파이썬을 사용해서 데이터 분석을 수행하는 방
법을 다루는 Peter Norvig(9)의 자습서.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests

   (4) https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/

   (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA

   (6) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb

   (7) https://norvig.com/bio.html

   (8) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb

   (9) https://norvig.com/bio.html


File: python.info,  Node: 조리법<2>,  Next: Command-line usage,  Prev: 예제<4>,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.10 조리법
...............

These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections from the
combinatoric iterators in the *note itertools: 81. module:

     def random_product(*args, repeat=1):
         "itertools.product(*args, **kwds) 에서 무작위 선택"
         pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
         return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))

     def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
         "itertools.permutations(iterable, r) 에서 무작위 선택"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         r = len(pool) if r is None else r
         return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))

     def random_combination(iterable, r):
         "itertools.combinations(iterable, r) 에서 무작위 선택"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
         "중복을 허락하면서 r 요소를 선택합니다. 결과를 iterable 과 일치하도록 정렬합니다."
         # 결과는 set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)) 의 원소입니다.
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

기본 *note random(): 741.은 '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0' 범위에서 2⁻⁵³의 배수를 반환
합니다.  이러한 모든 숫자는 균등 간격으로 분포되어있고 파이썬 float로 정
확하게 표현할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 해당 범위의 다른 많은 표현 가능한 부
동 소수점은 가능한 선택이 아닙니다.  예를 들어, ‘0.05954861408025609’는
2⁻⁵³의 정수배가 아닙니다.

다음 조리법은 다른 접근 방식을 사용합니다.  범위의 모든 부동 소수점이 가
능한 선택입니다.  가수(mantissa)는 '2⁵² ≤ mantissa < 2⁵³' 범위에 있는 정
수의 균등 분포(uniform distribution)에서 옵니다.  지수(exponent)는
'-53'보다 작은 지수가 다음으로 큰 지수의 절반만큼 자주 발생하는 기하 분
포(geometric distribution)에서 옵니다.

     from random import Random
     from math import ldexp

     class FullRandom(Random):

         def random(self):
             mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 | self.getrandbits(52)
             exponent = -53
             x = 0
             while not x:
                 x = self.getrandbits(32)
                 exponent += x.bit_length() - 32
             return ldexp(mantissa, exponent)

클래스의 모든 *note 실숫값 분포: 26f8.는 새 메서드를 사용합니다:

     >>> fr = FullRandom()
     >>> fr.random()
     0.05954861408025609
     >>> fr.expovariate(0.25)
     8.87925541791544

조리법은 개념적으로 '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0' 범위의 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴의 모든 배수에서 선택하
는 알고리즘과 동등합니다.  이러한 모든 숫자는 균등한 간격이지만, 대부분
은 가장 가까운 표현 가능한 파이썬 부동 소수점으로 자리 내림해야 합니다.
(값 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴은 가장 작은 양의 정규화되지 않은 부동 소수점이며
‘math.ulp(0.0)’과 같습니다.)

더 보기
.......

Generating Pseudo-random Floating-Point Values(1) Allen B. Downey의 논문
은 *note random(): 741.이 일반적으로 생성하는 것보다 더 세밀한 부동 소수
점을 생성하는 방법을 설명합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://allendowney.com/research/rand/downey07randfloat.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage,  Next: Command-line example,  Prev: 조리법<2>,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.11 Command-line usage
...........................

Added in version 3.13.

The ‘random’ module can be executed from the command line.

     python -m random [-h] [-c CHOICE [CHOICE ...] | -i N | -f N] [input ...]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: -c CHOICE [CHOICE ...]
 -- Option: --choice CHOICE [CHOICE ...]

     Print a random choice, using *note choice(): 1220.

 -- Option: -i <N>
 -- Option: --integer <N>

     Print a random integer between 1 and N inclusive, using *note
     randint(): 121f.

 -- Option: -f <N>
 -- Option: --float <N>

     Print a random floating-point number between 0 and N inclusive,
     using *note uniform(): 26f9.

If no options are given, the output depends on the input:

   * String or multiple: same as *note -choice: 270d.

   * Integer: same as *note -integer: 270f.

   * Float: same as *note -float: 2711.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line example,  Prev: Command-line usage,  Up: random — 의사 난수 생성

5.9.6.12 Command-line example
.............................

Here are some examples of the ‘random’ command-line interface:

     $ # 무작위로 하나를 선택합니다
     $ python -m random egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
     Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce

     $ # 정수 난수
     $ python -m random 6
     6

     $ # 실수 난수
     $ python -m random 1.8
     1.7080016272295635

     $ # 명시적 인자로
     $ python  -m random --choice egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
     egg

     $ python -m random --integer 6
     3

     $ python -m random --float 1.8
     1.5666339105010318

     $ python -m random --integer 6
     5

     $ python -m random --float 6
     3.1942323316565915


File: python.info,  Node: statistics — 수학 통계 함수,  Prev: random — 의사 난수 생성,  Up: 숫자와 수학 모듈

5.9.7 ‘statistics’ — 수학 통계 함수
-----------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'소스 코드:' Lib/statistics.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 숫자 (*note Real: 219e. 값) 데이터의 수학적 통계를 계산하는 함
수를 제공합니다.

이 모듈은 NumPy(2), SciPy(3)와 같은 제삼자 라이브러리나 Minitab, SAS 및
Matlab과 같은 통계 전문가를 대상으로 하는 완전한 기능의 통계 패키지와 경
쟁하기 위한 것이 아닙니다.  그래프를 그릴 수 있는 과학 계산기의 수준을 목
표로 합니다.

달리 명시되지 않는 한, 이 함수는 *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note
decimal.Decimal: 29d. 및 *note fractions.Fraction: 1e7.을 지원합니다.  다
른 형(숫자 계층에 있든 없든)에서의 동작은 현재 지원되지 않습니다.  여러
형의 컬렉션도 정의되지 않으며 구현에 따라 다릅니다.  입력 데이터가 혼합
형으로 구성되었으면, *note map(): 85e.을 사용하여 일관된 결과를 보장 할
수 있습니다, 예를 들어 ‘map(float, input_data)’.

Some datasets use ‘NaN’ (not a number) values to represent missing data.
Since NaNs have unusual comparison semantics, they cause surprising or
undefined behaviors in the statistics functions that sort data or that
count occurrences.  The functions affected are ‘median()’,
‘median_low()’, ‘median_high()’, ‘median_grouped()’, ‘mode()’,
‘multimode()’, and ‘quantiles()’.  The ‘NaN’ values should be stripped
before calling these functions:

     >>> from statistics import median
     >>> from math import isnan
     >>> from itertools import filterfalse

     >>> data = [20.7, float('NaN'),19.2, 18.3, float('NaN'), 14.4]
     >>> sorted(data)  # 놀라운 행동을 보입니다
     [20.7, nan, 14.4, 18.3, 19.2, nan]
     >>> median(data)  # 예상치 못한 결과입니다
     16.35

     >>> sum(map(isnan, data))    # 누락된 값의 수
     2
     >>> clean = list(filterfalse(isnan, data))  # NaN 값을 제거합니다
     >>> clean
     [20.7, 19.2, 18.3, 14.4]
     >>> sorted(clean)  # 정렬이 이제 예상대로 작동합니다
     [14.4, 18.3, 19.2, 20.7]
     >>> median(clean)       # 이제 결과가 잘 정의됩니다
     18.75

* Menu:

* 평균과 중심 위치의 측정::
* 분산 측정::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* 함수 세부 사항::
* 예외: 예외<4>.
* NormalDist 객체::
* 예제와 조리법: 예제와 조리법<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/statistics.py

   (2) https://numpy.org

   (3) https://scipy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 평균과 중심 위치의 측정,  Next: 분산 측정,  Up: statistics — 수학 통계 함수

5.9.7.1 평균과 중심 위치의 측정
...............................

이 함수는 모집단(population)이나 표본(sample)에서 평균이나 최빈값을 계산
합니다.

*note mean(): 6cb.          데이터의 산술 평균(arithmetic mean) ( “average”).
                            
                            
*note fmean(): a30.         빠른, 부동 소수점 산술 평균, 선택적 가중치 적용.
                            
                            
*note geometric_mean(): a31.데이터의 기하 평균(geometric mean).
                            
                            
*note harmonic_mean(): cde. 데이터의 조화 평균(harmonic mean).
                            
                            
*note kde(): 24a.           Estimate the probability density distribution of the data.
                            
                            
*note kde_random(): 24b.    Random sampling from the PDF generated by kde().
                            
                            
*note median(): 2717.       데이터의 중앙값(median) (중간값).
                            
                            
*note median_low(): 2718.   데이터의 낮은 중앙값(low median).
                            
                            
*note median_high(): 2719.  데이터의 높은 중앙값(high median).
                            
                            
*note median_grouped(): 271a.그룹화된 데이터의 중앙값 (50번째 백분위 수)
                            
                            
*note mode(): a8f.          이산(discrete) 또는 범주(nominal) 데이터의 단일 최빈값(mode) (가
                            장 흔한 값)
                            
                            
*note multimode(): a32.     이산 또는 범주 데이터의 최빈값(mode) (가장 흔한 값) 리스트.
                            
                            
*note quantiles(): a33.     데이터를 같은 확률을 갖는 구간으로 나눕니다.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: 분산 측정,  Next: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Prev: 평균과 중심 위치의 측정,  Up: statistics — 수학 통계 함수

5.9.7.2 분산 측정
.................

이 함수는 모집단이나 표본이 평균값에서 벗어나는 정도를 측정합니다.

*note pstdev(): 271c.       데이터의 모집단 표준 편차(population standard
                            deviation).
                            
                            
*note pvariance(): 271d.    데이터의 모집단 분산(population variance).
                            
                            
*note stdev(): 6cd.         데이터의 표본 표준 편차(sample standard
                            deviation).
                            
                            
*note variance(): 6cc.      데이터의 표본 분산(sample variance).
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Next: 함수 세부 사항,  Prev: 분산 측정,  Up: statistics — 수학 통계 함수

5.9.7.3 Statistics for relations between two inputs
...................................................

These functions calculate statistics regarding relations between two
inputs.

*note covariance(): 82a.      두 변수의 표본 공분산.
                              
                              
*note correlation(): 4b6.     Pearson and Spearman’s correlation coefficients.
                              
                              
*note linear_regression(): 82b.Slope and intercept for simple linear regression.
                              


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 세부 사항,  Next: 예외<4>,  Prev: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Up: statistics — 수학 통계 함수

5.9.7.4 함수 세부 사항
......................

참고: 함수에 전달되는 데이터가 정렬될 필요는 없습니다.  하지만, 읽기 쉽
도록 대부분 예제는 정렬된 시퀀스를 보여줍니다.

 -- 함수: statistics.mean (data)

     시퀀스나 이터러블일 수 있는 'data'의 표본 산술 평균을 반환합니다.

     산술 평균은 데이터의 합을 데이터 포인트 수로 나눈 값입니다.  흔히
     “평균”이라고 합니다만, 많은 수학적 평균 중 하나일 뿐입니다.  데이터
     의 중심 위치에 대한 측정(measure)입니다.

     'data'가 비어 있으면, *note StatisticsError: 2720.가 발생합니다.

     사용 예:

          >>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
          2.8
          >>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
          2.625

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
          Fraction(13, 21)

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
          Decimal('0.5625')

          참고: 평균은 특이치(1)의 영향을 많이 받으며, 반드시 데이터 포
          인트의 전형적인 예는 아닙니다.  비록 효율성은 떨어지지만, 더 강
          인한, 중심 경향성(2)의 측정은, *note median(): 2717.을 참조하
          십시오.

          표본 평균은 실제 모집단 평균의 편향되지 않은(unbiased) 추정치
          를 제공합니다.  즉, 가능한 모든 표본에 대해 평균을 취하면,
          ‘mean(sample)’은 전체 모집단의 실제 평균에 수렴합니다.  'data'가
          표본이 아닌 전체 모집단을 나타낸다면, ‘mean(data)’는 실제 모집
          단 평균 μ를 계산하는 것과 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: statistics.fmean (data, weights=None)

     'data'를 float로 변환하고 산술 평균을 계산합니다.

     *note mean(): 6cb. 함수보다 빠르게 실행되며 항상 *note float: 2ef.를
     반환합니다.  'data'는 시퀀스나 이터러블일 수 있습니다.  입력 data가
     비어 있으면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵니다.

          >>> fmean([3.5, 4.0, 5.25])
          4.25

     Optional weighting is supported.  For example, a professor assigns
     a grade for a course by weighting quizzes at 20%, homework at 20%,
     a midterm exam at 30%, and a final exam at 30%:

          >>> grades = [85, 92, 83, 91]
          >>> weights = [0.20, 0.20, 0.30, 0.30]
          >>> fmean(grades, weights)
          87.6

     If 'weights' is supplied, it must be the same length as the 'data'
     or a *note ValueError: 202. will be raised.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- 함수: statistics.geometric_mean (data)

     'data'를 float로 변환하고 기하 평균(geometric mean)을 계산합니다.

     기하 평균은 값의 곱을 사용하는 'data'의 중심 경향(central
     tendency)이나 대표값(typical value)을 나타냅니다 (합을 사용하는 산
     술 평균과 달리).

     입력 data가 비어 있거나, 0을 포함하거나, 음수 값을 포함하면 *note
     StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵니다.  'data'는 시퀀스나 이터러블
     일 수 있습니다.

     정확한 결과를 얻기 위해 특별한 노력을 기울이지는 않습니다.  (하지만
     , 향후 변경될 수 있습니다.)

          >>> round(geometric_mean([54, 24, 36]), 1)
          36.0

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: statistics.harmonic_mean (data, weights=None)

     실숫값 숫자의 시퀀스나 이터러블인 'data'의 조화 평균(harmonic
     mean)을 반환합니다.  'weights'가 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 균등 가중치
     를 가정합니다.

     조화 평균은 데이터의 역수의 산술 *note mean(): 6cb.의 역수입니다.  예
     를 들어, 세 'a', 'b' 및 'c' 값의 조화 평균은 ‘3/(1/a + 1/b + 1/c)’와
     동등합니다.  값 중 하나가 0이면, 결과는 0입니다.

     조화 평균은 데이터의 중심 위치의 측정인 평균의 한가지 유형입니다.  예
     를 들어 속도와 같은 비율(ratio)이나 율(rate)을 평균할 때 종종 적합
     합니다.

     자동차가 40km/hr로 10km를 주행한 다음, 60km/hr로 10km를 주행한다고
     가정해 봅시다.  평균 속도는 얼마입니까?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60])
          48.0

     Suppose a car travels 40 km/hr for 5 km, and when traffic clears,
     speeds-up to 60 km/hr for the remaining 30 km of the journey.  What
     is the average speed?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60], weights=[5, 30])
          56.0

     'data'가 비어 있거나, 0보다 작은 값이 있거나, 가중 합이 양수가 아니
     면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.가 발생합니다.

     현재 알고리즘은 입력에서 0을 만나면 조기 종료됩니다.  이는 후속 입
     력의 유효성을 검사하지 않았음을 의미합니다.  (이 동작은 나중에 변경
     될 수 있습니다.)

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- 함수: statistics.kde (data, h, kernel='normal', *, cumulative=False)

     Kernel Density Estimation (KDE)(3): Create a continuous probability
     density function or cumulative distribution function from discrete
     samples.

     The basic idea is to smooth the data using a kernel function(4).
     to help draw inferences about a population from a sample.

     The degree of smoothing is controlled by the scaling parameter 'h'
     which is called the bandwidth.  Smaller values emphasize local
     features while larger values give smoother results.

     The 'kernel' determines the relative weights of the sample data
     points.  Generally, the choice of kernel shape does not matter as
     much as the more influential bandwidth smoothing parameter.

     Kernels that give some weight to every sample point include
     'normal' ('gauss'), 'logistic', and 'sigmoid'.

     Kernels that only give weight to sample points within the bandwidth
     include 'rectangular' ('uniform'), 'triangular', 'parabolic'
     ('epanechnikov'), 'quartic' ('biweight'), 'triweight', and
     'cosine'.

     If 'cumulative' is true, will return a cumulative distribution
     function.

     'data' 시퀀스가 비어 있으면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵
     니다.

     Wikipedia has an example(5) where we can use *note kde(): 24a. to
     generate and plot a probability density function estimated from a
     small sample:

          >>> sample = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
          >>> f_hat = kde(sample, h=1.5)
          >>> xarr = [i/100 for i in range(-750, 1100)]
          >>> yarr = [f_hat(x) for x in xarr]

     The points in ‘xarr’ and ‘yarr’ can be used to make a PDF plot:

[image src="python-figures/kde_example.png" alt="Scatter plot of the estimated probability density function."]


     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: statistics.kde_random (data, h, kernel='normal', *, seed=None)

     Return a function that makes a random selection from the estimated
     probability density function produced by ‘kde(data, h, kernel)’.

     Providing a 'seed' allows reproducible selections.  In the future,
     the values may change slightly as more accurate kernel inverse CDF
     estimates are implemented.  The seed may be an integer, float, str,
     or bytes.

     'data' 시퀀스가 비어 있으면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵
     니다.

     Continuing the example for *note kde(): 24a, we can use *note
     kde_random(): 24b. to generate new random selections from an
     estimated probability density function:

          >>> data = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
          >>> rand = kde_random(data, h=1.5, seed=8675309)
          >>> new_selections = [rand() for i in range(10)]
          >>> [round(x, 1) for x in new_selections]
          [0.7, 6.2, 1.2, 6.9, 7.0, 1.8, 2.5, -0.5, -1.8, 5.6]

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: statistics.median (data)

     일반적인 “중간 2개의 평균” 방법을 사용하여, 숫자 data의 중앙값(중간
     값)을 반환합니다.  'data'가 비어 있으면, *note StatisticsError:
     2720.가 발생합니다.  'data'는 시퀀스나 이터러블일 수 있습니다.

     중앙값은 중심 위치에 대한 강인한 측정이며, 특이치가 있을 때 영향을
     덜 받습니다.  데이터 포인트 수가 홀수면, 가운데 데이터 포인트가 반
     환됩니다:

          >>> median([1, 3, 5])
          3

     데이터 포인트 수가 짝수면, 중앙값은 두 가운데 값의 평균을 취하여 보
     간됩니다:

          >>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
          4.0

     데이터가 이산(discrete)적이고, 중앙값이 실제 데이터 포인트가 아니라
     도 상관없을 때 적합합니다.

     데이터가 순서는 있지만 (대소 비교 지원) 숫자가 아니면 (덧셈을 지원
     하지 않음), 대신 *note median_low(): 2718.나 *note median_high():
     2719.를 사용하는 것을 고려하십시오.

 -- 함수: statistics.median_low (data)

     숫자 데이터의 낮은 중앙값을 반환합니다.  'data'가 비어 있으면 *note
     StatisticsError: 2720.가 발생합니다.  'data'는 시퀀스나 이터러블일
     수 있습니다.

     낮은 중앙값은 항상 데이터 세트의 멤버입니다.  데이터 포인트 수가 홀
     수이면 중간값이 반환됩니다.  짝수이면, 두 중간값 중 작은 값이 반환
     됩니다.

          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
          3

     데이터가 이산(discrete)적이고 보간된 값이 아닌 실제 데이터 포인트를
     중앙값으로 선호할 때 낮은 중앙값을 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: statistics.median_high (data)

     데이터의 높은 중앙값을 반환합니다.  'data'가 비어 있으면 *note
     StatisticsError: 2720.가 발생합니다.  'data'는 시퀀스나 이터러블일
     수 있습니다.

     높은 중앙값은 항상 데이터 세트의 멤버입니다.  데이터 포인트 수가 홀
     수이면 중간값이 반환됩니다.  짝수이면, 두 중간값 중 큰 값이 반환됩
     니다.

          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
          5

     데이터가 이산(discrete)적이고 보간된 값이 아닌 실제 데이터 포인트를
     중앙값으로 선호할 때 높은 중앙값을 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: statistics.median_grouped (data, interval=1.0)

     Estimates the median for numeric data that has been grouped or
     binned(6) around the midpoints of consecutive, fixed-width
     intervals.

     The 'data' can be any iterable of numeric data with each value
     being exactly the midpoint of a bin.  At least one value must be
     present.

     The 'interval' is the width of each bin.

     For example, demographic information may have been summarized into
     consecutive ten-year age groups with each group being represented
     by the 5-year midpoints of the intervals:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> demographics = Counter({
          ...    25: 172,   # 20 에서 30 세
          ...    35: 484,   # 30 에서 40 세
          ...    45: 387,   # 40 에서 50 세
          ...    55:  22,   # 50 에서 60 세
          ...    65:   6,   # 60 에서 70 세
          ... })
          ...

     The 50th percentile (median) is the 536th person out of the 1071
     member cohort.  That person is in the 30 to 40 year old age group.

     The regular *note median(): 2717. function would assume that
     everyone in the tricenarian age group was exactly 35 years old.  A
     more tenable assumption is that the 484 members of that age group
     are evenly distributed between 30 and 40.  For that, we use *note
     median_grouped(): 271a.:

          >>> data = list(demographics.elements())
          >>> median(data)
          35
          >>> round(median_grouped(data, interval=10), 1)
          37.5

     The caller is responsible for making sure the data points are
     separated by exact multiples of 'interval'.  This is essential for
     getting a correct result.  The function does not check this
     precondition.

     Inputs may be any numeric type that can be coerced to a float
     during the interpolation step.

 -- 함수: statistics.mode (data)

     이산(discrete)적이거나 범주(nominal)적인 'data'에서 가장 흔한 단일
     데이터 포인트를 반환합니다.  최빈값(mode)은 (존재할 때) 가장 흔한 값
     이며 중심 위치의 측정으로 기능합니다.

     같은 빈도의 여러 최빈값이 있으면, 'data'에서 처음 발견된 첫 번째 값
     을 반환합니다.  여러 최빈값 중 가장 작거나 가장 큰 값이 필요하면 대
     신 ‘min(multimode(data))’나 ‘max(multimode(data))’를 사용하십시오.
     입력 'data'가 비어 있으면, *note StatisticsError: 2720.가 발생합니
     다.

     ‘mode’는 이산 데이터를 가정하고 단일 값을 반환합니다.  이것이 학교
     에서 일반적으로 가르치는 최빈값의 표준적인 처리입니다:

          >>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
          3

     최빈값은 범주(nominal)적 (숫자가 아닌) 데이터에도 적용되는 이 패키
     지에 있는 유일한 통계라는 점에서 특별합니다:

          >>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
          'red'

     Only hashable inputs are supported.  To handle type *note set: 5d3,
     consider casting to *note frozenset: 5d4.  To handle type *note
     list: 60b, consider casting to *note tuple: 369.  For mixed or
     nested inputs, consider using this slower quadratic algorithm that
     only depends on equality tests: ‘max(data, key=data.count)’.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 첫 번째 최빈값을 모드를 반환하여 다봉
     (multimodal) 데이터 세트를 처리합니다.  이전에는, 둘 이상의 최빈값
     이 발견되면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.가 발생했습니다.

 -- 함수: statistics.multimode (data)

     'data'에서 먼저 발견되는 순서대로 가장 자주 등장하는 값의 리스트를
     반환합니다.  여러 최빈값이 있으면 둘 이상의 결과를 반환하고,
     'data'가 비어 있으면 빈 리스트를 반환합니다:

          >>> multimode('aabbbbccddddeeffffgg')
          ['b', 'd', 'f']
          >>> multimode('')
          []

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: statistics.pstdev (data, mu=None)

     모집단 표준 편차(모집단 분산의 제곱근)를 반환합니다.  인자와 기타 세
     부 사항은 *note pvariance(): 271d.를 참조하십시오.

          >>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          0.986893273527251

 -- 함수: statistics.pvariance (data, mu=None)

     실수 숫자의 비어있지 않은 시퀀스나 이터러블인 'data'의 모집단 분산
     을 반환합니다.  분산(또는 평균에 대한 이차 모멘트)은 데이터 변동성
     (퍼진 정도)의 측정입니다.  큰 분산은 데이터가 퍼져 있음을 나타냅니
     다; 작은 분산은 평균 주변에 군집되어 있음을 나타냅니다.

     선택적 두 번째 인자 'mu'가 제공되면, 'data'의 '모집단' 평균이어야 합
     니다.  평균이 아닌 점을 기준으로 이차 모멘트를 계산하는 데에도 사용
     할 수 있습니다.  누락되었거나 ‘None’(기본값)이면, 산술 평균이 자동
     으로 계산됩니다.

     이 함수를 사용하여 전체 모집단의 분산을 계산하십시오.  표본으로 분
     산을 추정하려면, 일반적으로 *note variance(): 6cc. 함수가 더 좋은 선
     택입니다.

     'data'가 비어 있으면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵니다.

     예:

          >>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
          >>> pvariance(data)
          1.25

     데이터의 평균을 이미 계산했다면, 재계산을 피하고자 선택적인 두 번째
     인자 'mu'로 전달할 수 있습니다:

          >>> mu = mean(data)
          >>> pvariance(data, mu)
          1.25

     Decimal과 Fraction이 지원됩니다:

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('24.815')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
          Fraction(13, 72)

          참고: 전체 모집단으로 호출하면, 모집단 분산 σ²을 줍니다.  대신
          표본으로 호출하면, 편향된(biased) 표본 분산 s²이 됩니다, N 자
          유도의 분산이라고도 합니다.

          실제 모집단 평균 μ를 어떻게든 알고 있다면, 알려진 모집단 평균
          을 두 번째 인자로 지정해서, 이 함수를 사용하여 표본의 분산을 계
          산할 수 있습니다.  데이터 포인트가 모집단의 무작위 표본이면, 결
          과는 모집단 분산의 편향 없는(unbiased) 추정치가 됩니다.

 -- 함수: statistics.stdev (data, xbar=None)

     표본 표준 편차(표본 분산의 제곱근)를 반환합니다.  인자와 기타 세부
     사항은 *note variance(): 6cc.를 참조하십시오.

          >>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          1.0810874155219827

 -- 함수: statistics.variance (data, xbar=None)

     적어도 두 개의 실수 숫자를 제공하는 이터러블인 'data'의 표본 분산을
     반환합니다.  분산(또는 평균에 대한 이차 모멘트)은 데이터 변동성(퍼
     진 정도)의 측정입니다.  큰 분산은 데이터가 퍼져 있음을 나타냅니다;
     작은 분산은 평균 주변에 군집되어 있음을 나타냅니다.

     선택적 두 번째 인자 'xbar'가 제공되면, 'data'의 '표본' 평균이어야 합
     니다.  누락되었거나 ‘None’(기본값)이면, 평균은 자동으로 계산됩니다.

     데이터가 모집단의 표본이면 이 함수를 사용하십시오.  전체 모집단의 분
     산을 계산하려면, *note pvariance(): 271d.를 참조하십시오.

     'data'의 두 개 미만의 값을 갖고 있으면 *note StatisticsError:
     2720.를 발생시킵니다.

     예:

          >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
          >>> variance(data)
          1.3720238095238095

     데이터의 표본 평균을 이미 계산했다면, 재계산을 피하고자 선택적인 두
     번째 인자 'xbar'로 전달할 수 있습니다:

          >>> m = mean(data)
          >>> variance(data, m)
          1.3720238095238095

     이 함수는 실제 평균을 'xbar'로 전달했는지 확인하지 않습니다.
     'xbar'에 임의의 값을 사용하면 결과가 유효하지 않거나 불가능한 값일
     수 있습니다.

     Decimal과 Fraction 값이 지원됩니다:

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('31.01875')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
          Fraction(67, 108)

          참고: 이것은 베셀 보정(Bessel’s correction)을 적용한 표본 분산
          s² 입니다, N-1 자유도의 분산이라고도 합니다.  데이터 포인트가
          대표적(예를 들어, 독립적이고 동일하게 분포된)이라면, 결과는 실
          제 모집단 분산의 편향 없는(unbiased) 추정치가 되어야 합니다.

          실제 모집단 평균 μ를 어떻게든 알고 있다면 'mu' 매개 변수로
          *note pvariance(): 271d. 함수에 전달하여 표본의 분산을 구해야
          합니다.

 -- 함수: statistics.quantiles (data, *, n=4, method='exclusive')

     'data'를 같은 확률을 갖는 'n' 개의 연속 구간으로 나눕니다.  구간을
     분할하는 ‘n - 1’개의 절단 점(cut point) 리스트를 반환합니다.

     사분위는 'n'을 4로 설정하십시오 (기본값).  십분위는 'n'을 10으로 설
     정하십시오.  백분위는 'n'을 100으로 설정하십시오.  그러면 'data'를
     100개의 같은 크기 그룹으로 분할하는 99개의 절단 점이 제공됩니다.
     'n'이 1 미만이면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵니다.

     'data'는 표본 데이터를 포함하는 모든 이터러블일 수 있습니다.  의미
     있는 결과를 얻으려면, 'data'의 데이터 포인트 수가 'n'보다 커야 합니
     다.  최소한 하나의 데이터 포인트도 없으면 *note StatisticsError:
     2720.를 발생시킵니다.

     절단 점은 가장 가까운 두 개의 데이터 포인트에서 선형 보간됩니다.  예
     를 들어, 절단 점이 두 표본 값 ‘100’과 ‘112’ 사이의 거리로 1/3 지점
     에 해당하면, 절단 점은 ‘104’로 평가됩니다.

     균등 분위(quantile) 계산 방법('method')은 'data'가 모집단에서 가능
     한 최젓값과 최곳값을 포함하는지 제외하는지에 따라 달라질 수 있습니
     다.

     기본 'method'는 “exclusive”이며, 표본에서 발견되는 것보다 더 극단적
     인 값을 가질 수 있는 모집단에서 표본 추출된 데이터에 사용됩니다.
     'm' 개의 정렬된 데이터 포인트의 'i-번째' 아래로 떨어지는 모집단 부
     분은 ‘i / (m + 1)’로 계산됩니다.  9개의 표본 값을 주면, 이 방법은 그
     들을 정렬한 다음, 다음과 같은 백분위를 할당합니다: 10%, 20%, 30%,
     40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%.

     'method'를 “inclusive”로 설정하는 것은 모집단 데이터를 기술하거나 모
     집단의 가장 극단적인 값을 포함하는 것으로 알려진 표본에 사용됩니다.
     'data'의 최솟값은 0번째 백분위 수로 취급되고 최댓값은 100번째 백분
     위 수로 취급됩니다.  'm' 개의 정렬된 데이터 포인트의 'i-번째' 아래
     로 떨어지는 모집단 부분은 ‘(i - 1) / (m - 1)’로 계산됩니다.  11개의
     표본 값을 주면, 이 방법은 그들을 정렬한 다음, 다음과 같은 백분위를
     할당합니다: 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%.

          # 경험적으로 표본 추출된 데이터에 대한 십 분위 절단 점
          >>> data = [105, 129, 87, 86, 111, 111, 89, 81, 108, 92, 110,
          ...         100, 75, 105, 103, 109, 76, 119, 99, 91, 103, 129,
          ...         106, 101, 84, 111, 74, 87, 86, 103, 103, 106, 86,
          ...         111, 75, 87, 102, 121, 111, 88, 89, 101, 106, 95,
          ...         103, 107, 101, 81, 109, 104]
          >>> [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(data, n=10)]
          [81.0, 86.2, 89.0, 99.4, 102.5, 103.6, 106.0, 109.8, 111.0]

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: No longer raises an exception for an input with
     only a single data point.  This allows quantile estimates to be
     built up one sample point at a time becoming gradually more refined
     with each new data point.

 -- 함수: statistics.covariance (x, y, /)

     Return the sample covariance of two inputs 'x' and 'y'.  Covariance
     is a measure of the joint variability of two inputs.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two),
     otherwise *note StatisticsError: 2720. is raised.

     예:

          >>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
          >>> covariance(x, y)
          0.75
          >>> z = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> covariance(x, z)
          -7.5
          >>> covariance(z, x)
          -7.5

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: statistics.correlation (x, y, /, *, method='linear')

     Return the Pearson's correlation coefficient(7) for two inputs.
     Pearson’s correlation coefficient 'r' takes values between -1 and
     +1.  It measures the strength and direction of a linear
     relationship.

     If 'method' is “ranked”, computes Spearman's rank correlation
     coefficient(8) for two inputs.  The data is replaced by ranks.
     Ties are averaged so that equal values receive the same rank.  The
     resulting coefficient measures the strength of a monotonic
     relationship.

     Spearman’s correlation coefficient is appropriate for ordinal data
     or for continuous data that doesn’t meet the linear proportion
     requirement for Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and need
     not to be constant, otherwise *note StatisticsError: 2720. is
     raised.

     Example with Kepler's laws of planetary motion(9):

          >>> # 수성, 금성, 지구, 화성, 목성, 토성, 천왕성 및  해왕성
          >>> orbital_period = [88, 225, 365, 687, 4331, 10_756, 30_687, 60_190]    # days
          >>> dist_from_sun = [58, 108, 150, 228, 778, 1_400, 2_900, 4_500] # million km

          >>> # 완벽한 단조 관계가 존재함을 보입니다
          >>> correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun, method='ranked')
          1.0

          >>> # 선형 관계가 불완전함을 관찰합니다
          >>> round(correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun), 4)
          0.9882

          >>> # 케플러의 제3법칙을 시연합니다: 궤도 주기의 제곱과
          >>> # 태양으로부터의 거리 세제곱 간에 선형 상관관계가
          >>> # 존재합니다.
          >>> period_squared = [p * p for p in orbital_period]
          >>> dist_cubed = [d * d * d for d in dist_from_sun]
          >>> round(correlation(period_squared, dist_cubed), 4)
          1.0

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added support for Spearman’s rank correlation
     coefficient.

 -- 함수: statistics.linear_regression (x, y, /, *, proportional=False)

     Return the slope and intercept of simple linear regression(10)
     parameters estimated using ordinary least squares.  Simple linear
     regression describes the relationship between an independent
     variable 'x' and a dependent variable 'y' in terms of this linear
     function:

          'y = slope * x + intercept + noise'

     where ‘slope’ and ‘intercept’ are the regression parameters that
     are estimated, and ‘noise’ represents the variability of the data
     that was not explained by the linear regression (it is equal to the
     difference between predicted and actual values of the dependent
     variable).

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and the
     independent variable 'x' cannot be constant; otherwise a *note
     StatisticsError: 2720. is raised.

     For example, we can use the release dates of the Monty Python
     films(11) to predict the cumulative number of Monty Python films
     that would have been produced by 2019 assuming that they had kept
     the pace.

          >>> year = [1971, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1983]
          >>> films_total = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
          >>> slope, intercept = linear_regression(year, films_total)
          >>> round(slope * 2019 + intercept)
          16

     If 'proportional' is true, the independent variable 'x' and the
     dependent variable 'y' are assumed to be directly proportional.
     The data is fit to a line passing through the origin.  Since the
     'intercept' will always be 0.0, the underlying linear function
     simplifies to:

          'y = slope * x + noise'

     Continuing the example from *note correlation(): 4b6, we look to
     see how well a model based on major planets can predict the orbital
     distances for dwarf planets:

          >>> model = linear_regression(period_squared, dist_cubed, proportional=True)
          >>> slope = model.slope

          >>> # 왜행성:             명왕성,    에리스,     마케마케,    하우메아,    세레스
          >>> orbital_periods = [90_560, 204_199, 111_845, 103_410, 1_680]  # 일
          >>> predicted_dist = [math.cbrt(slope * (p * p)) for p in orbital_periods]
          >>> list(map(round, predicted_dist))
          [5912, 10166, 6806, 6459, 414]

          >>> [5_906, 10_152, 6_796, 6_450, 414]  # 백만 km 단위의 실제 거리
          [5906, 10152, 6796, 6450, 414]

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for 'proportional'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_tendency

   (3) 
https://www.itm-conferences.org/articles/itmconf/pdf/2018/08/itmconf_sam2018_00037.pdf

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(statistics)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_density_estimation#Example

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_binning

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient

   (8) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python#Films


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5.9.7.5 예외
............

하나의 예외가 정의됩니다:

 -- 예외: statistics.StatisticsError

     통계 관련 예외를 위한 *note ValueError: 202.의 서브 클래스.


File: python.info,  Node: NormalDist 객체,  Next: 예제와 조리법<2>,  Prev: 예외<4>,  Up: statistics — 수학 통계 함수

5.9.7.6 ‘NormalDist’ 객체
.........................

*note NormalDist: a34.는 무작위 변수(1)의 정규 분포를 만들고 조작하기 위
한 도구입니다.  데이터 측정의 평균과 표준 편차를 단일 엔티티로 취급하는
클래스입니다.

정규 분포는 중심 극한 정리(Central Limit Theorem)(2)에서 도출되며 통계에
서 광범위하게 응용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: statistics.NormalDist (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     'mu'가 산술 평균(3)을 나타내고 'sigma'가 표준 편차(4)를 나타내는 새
     'NormalDist' 객체를 반환합니다.

     'sigma'가 음수이면 *note StatisticsError: 2720.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 속성: mean

          정규 분포의 산술 평균(5)에 대한 읽기 전용 프로퍼티.

      -- 속성: median

          정규 분포의 중앙값(6)에 대한 읽기 전용 프로퍼티.

      -- 속성: mode

          정규 분포의 최빈값(7)에 대한 읽기 전용 프로퍼티.

      -- 속성: stdev

          정규 분포의 표준 편차(8)에 대한 읽기 전용 프로퍼티.

      -- 속성: variance

          정규 분포의 분산(9)에 대한 읽기 전용 프로퍼티.  표준 편차의 제
          곱과 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_samples (data)

          *note fmean(): a30.과 *note stdev(): 6cd.를 사용해서 'data'에
          서 추정된 'mu'와 'sigma' 매개 변수로 정규 분포 인스턴스를 만듭
          니다.

          'data'는 임의의 *note 이터러블: 1217.일 수 있으며 *note float:
          2ef. 형으로 변환될 수 있는 값으로 구성되어야 합니다.  'data'가
          두 개 이상의 값을 포함하지 않으면 *note StatisticsError:
          2720.를 발생시키는데, 중심 값을 추정하는 데 적어도 한 점이 필
          요하고 분산을 추정하는 데 적어도 두 점이 필요하기 때문입니다.

      -- 메서드: samples (n, *, seed=None)

          주어진 평균과 표준 편차로 'n' 개의 무작위 표본을 생성합니다.
          *note float: 2ef. 값의 *note list: 60b.를 반환합니다.

          'seed'가 제공되면, 하부 난수 생성기의 새 인스턴스를 만듭니다.
          이는 다중 스레딩 문맥에서도, 재현 가능한 결과를 만드는 데 유용
          합니다.

          버전 3.13에서 변경.

          Switched to a faster algorithm.  To reproduce samples from
          previous versions, use *note random.seed(): 1264. and *note
          random.gauss(): 1848.

      -- 메서드: pdf (x)

          확률 밀도 함수(pdf)(10)를 사용하여, 무작위 변수 'X'가 주어진 값
          'x'에 가까울 상대적 가능도(likelihood)를 계산합니다.  수학적으
          로, 비율 ‘P(x <= X < x+dx) / dx’의 'dx'가 0으로 접근할 때의 극
          한값입니다.

          상대적 가능도는 좁은 구간에 표본이 발생할 수 있는 확률을 구간
          의 너비로 나눈 값으로 계산됩니다 (그래서 “밀도”라고 합니다).  가
          능도는 다른 점에 상대적이기 때문에, ‘1.0’보다 클 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: cdf (x)

          누적 분포 함수 (cdf)(11)를 사용하여, 무작위 변수 'X'가 'x'보다
          작거나 같을 확률을 계산합니다.  수학적으로, ‘P(X <= x)’라고 씁
          니다.

      -- 메서드: inv_cdf (p)

          분위 함수(quantile function)(12)나 백분위 수
          (percent-point)(13) 함수라고도 하는 역 누적 분포 함수를 계산합
          니다.  수학적으로, ‘x : P(X <= x) = p’라고 씁니다.

          변수가 'x'보다 작거나 같을 확률이 주어진 확률 'p'와 같아지도록
          하는 무작위 변수 'X'의 값 'x'를 찾습니다.

      -- 메서드: overlap (other)

          두 정규 확률 분포 간의 일치를 측정합니다.  두 확률 밀도 함수가
          겹치는 영역의 면적(14)을 제공하는 0.0과 1.0 사이의 값을 반환합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: quantiles (n=4)

          정규 분포를 같은 확률을 갖는 'n' 개의 연속 구간으로 나눕니다.
          구간을 분할하는 (n - 1)개의 절단 점(cut point) 리스트를 반환합
          니다.

          사분위는 'n'을 4로 설정하십시오 (기본값).  십분위는 'n'을 10으
          로 설정하십시오.  백분위는 'n'을 100으로 설정하십시오, 그러면
          정규 분포를 100개의 같은 크기 그룹으로 분할하는 99개의 절단 점
          이 제공됩니다.

      -- 메서드: zscore (x)

          정규 분포의 평균 위나 아래의 표준 편차 수로 'x'를 설명하는 표
          준 점수(Standard Score)(15)를 계산합니다: ‘(x - mean) /
          stdev’.

          Added in version 3.9.

     *note NormalDist: a34.의 인스턴스는 상수에 의한 덧셈, 뺄셈, 곱셈 및
     나눗셈을 지원합니다.  이러한 연산은 이동(translation)과 확대
     (scaling)에 사용됩니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> temperature_february = NormalDist(5, 2.5)             # 섭씨
          >>> temperature_february * (9/5) + 32                     # 화씨
          NormalDist(mu=41.0, sigma=4.5)

     상수를 *note NormalDist: a34.의 인스턴스로 나누는 것은 결과가 정규
     분포가 되지 않기 때문에 지원되지 않습니다.

     정규 분포는 독립 변수의 가산(additive) 효과에서 발생하므로, 두 독립
     된 정규 분포 무작위 변수를 더하고 빼는 것(16)은 *note NormalDist:
     a34.의 인스턴스로 나타낼 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> birth_weights = NormalDist.from_samples([2.5, 3.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 3.5])
          >>> drug_effects = NormalDist(0.4, 0.15)
          >>> combined = birth_weights + drug_effects
          >>> round(combined.mean, 1)
          3.1
          >>> round(combined.stdev, 1)
          0.5

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/ranvar.htm

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)

   (8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (12) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantile_function

   (13) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20190203145224/https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/inverse-distribution-function/

   (14) https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt101r.htm

   (15) 
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/z-score/

   (16) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables


File: python.info,  Node: 예제와 조리법<2>,  Prev: NormalDist 객체,  Up: statistics — 수학 통계 함수

5.9.7.7 예제와 조리법
.....................

* Menu:

* 고전적인 확률 문제::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::


File: python.info,  Node: 고전적인 확률 문제,  Next: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: 예제와 조리법<2>

5.9.7.8 고전적인 확률 문제
..........................

*note NormalDist: a34.는 고전적인 확률 문제를 쉽게 해결합니다.

예를 들어, 점수가 평균 1060이고 표준 편차가 195인 정규 분포를 보이는 SAT
시험의 역사적 데이터(1)를 줄 때, 시험 점수가 1100에서 1200 사이인 학생들
의 백분율을 결정하십시오.  가장 가까운 정수로 반올림하십시오:

     >>> sat = NormalDist(1060, 195)
     >>> fraction = sat.cdf(1200 + 0.5) - sat.cdf(1100 - 0.5)
     >>> round(fraction * 100.0, 1)
     18.4

SAT 점수의 사분위 수(quartiles)(2)와 십분위 수(deciles)(3)를 찾으십시오:

     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles()))
     [928, 1060, 1192]
     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles(n=10)))
     [810, 896, 958, 1011, 1060, 1109, 1162, 1224, 1310]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_226.40.asp

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decile


File: python.info,  Node: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Next: Approximating binomial distributions,  Prev: 고전적인 확률 문제,  Up: 예제와 조리법<2>

5.9.7.9 Monte Carlo inputs for simulations
..........................................

분석적으로 풀기 쉽지 않은 모델의 분포를 추정하기 위해, *note NormalDist:
a34.는 몬테카를로 시뮬레이션(Monte Carlo simulation)(1)을 위한 입력 표본
을 생성 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def model(x, y, z):
     ...     return (3*x + 7*x*y - 5*y) / (11 * z)
     ...
     >>> n = 100_000
     >>> X = NormalDist(10, 2.5).samples(n, seed=3652260728)
     >>> Y = NormalDist(15, 1.75).samples(n, seed=4582495471)
     >>> Z = NormalDist(50, 1.25).samples(n, seed=6582483453)
     >>> quantiles(map(model, X, Y, Z))
     [1.4591308524824727, 1.8035946855390597, 2.175091447274739]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating binomial distributions,  Next: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: 예제와 조리법<2>

5.9.7.10 Approximating binomial distributions
.............................................

표본 크기가 크고 성공적인 시행의 확률이 50%에 가까울 때 정규 분포를 사용
하여 이항 분포(Binomial distributions)(1)를 근사할 수 있습니다.

예를 들어, 오픈 소스 회의에는 750명의 참석자와 500명 정원의 방 두 개가 있
습니다.  파이썬과 루비에 대한 발표가 있습니다.  이전 회의에서는, 참석자
의 65%가 파이썬 발표를 듣는 것을 선호했습니다.  모집단 선호도가 변경되지
않았다고 가정할 때, 파이썬 방이 정원 한도 내에 머무를 확률은 얼마입니까?

     >>> n = 750             # 표본 크기
     >>> p = 0.65            # 파이썬 선호도
     >>> q = 1.0 - p         # 루비 선호도
     >>> k = 500             # 방 정원

     >>> # 누적 정규 분포를 사용한 근사
     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> round(NormalDist(mu=n*p, sigma=sqrt(n*p*q)).cdf(k + 0.5), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # 누적 이항 분포를 사용한 정확한 해법
     >>> from math import comb, fsum
     >>> round(fsum(comb(n, r) * p**r * q**(n-r) for r in range(k+1)), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # 시뮬레이션을 사용한 근사
     >>> from random import seed, binomialvariate
     >>> seed(8675309)
     >>> mean(binomialvariate(n, p) <= k for i in range(10_000))
     0.8406

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Approximating binomial distributions,  Up: 예제와 조리법<2>

5.9.7.11 Naive bayesian classifier
..................................

정규 분포는 기계 학습 문제에서 흔히 등장합니다.

위키백과에는 나이브 베이즈 분류기(Naive Bayesian Classifier)의 멋진 예
(1)가 있습니다.  문제는 키, 몸무게 및 발 크기를 포함하는 정규 분포된 피
처(feature)들로부터 사람의 성별을 예측하는 것입니다.

우리는 8명을 측정한 훈련 데이터 집합을 받았습니다.  측정값은 정규 분포로
가정되므로, *note NormalDist: a34.로 데이터를 요약합니다:

     >>> height_male = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 5.92, 5.58, 5.92])
     >>> height_female = NormalDist.from_samples([5, 5.5, 5.42, 5.75])
     >>> weight_male = NormalDist.from_samples([180, 190, 170, 165])
     >>> weight_female = NormalDist.from_samples([100, 150, 130, 150])
     >>> foot_size_male = NormalDist.from_samples([12, 11, 12, 10])
     >>> foot_size_female = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 8, 7, 9])

다음으로, 피처 측정은 알려졌지만, 성별을 모르는 새로운 사람을 만납니다:

     >>> ht = 6.0        # 키
     >>> wt = 130        # 몸무게
     >>> fs = 8          # 발 크기

남성이나 여성일 50%의 사전 확률(prior probability)(2)로 시작하여, 사전 확
률에 주어진 성별이 피처 측정을 줄 우도(likelihood)를 곱해서 사후 확률
(posterior)을 계산합니다.:

     >>> prior_male = 0.5
     >>> prior_female = 0.5
     >>> posterior_male = (prior_male * height_male.pdf(ht) *
     ...                   weight_male.pdf(wt) * foot_size_male.pdf(fs))

     >>> posterior_female = (prior_female * height_female.pdf(ht) *
     ...                     weight_female.pdf(wt) * foot_size_female.pdf(fs))

최종 예측은 가장 큰 사후 확률(posterior)이 됩니다.  이것을 최대 사후 확
률(maximum a posteriori)(3) 또는 MAP이라고 합니다.:

     >>> 'male' if posterior_male > posterior_female else 'female'
     'female'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier#Person_classification

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_probability

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation


File: python.info,  Node: 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈,  Next: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스,  Prev: 숫자와 수학 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.10 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈
===========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 함수형 프로그래밍 스타일을 지원하는 함수 및 클
래스와 콜러블에 대한 일반 연산을 제공합니다.

이 장에서는 다음 모듈에 관해 설명합니다:

* Menu:

* itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping::
* functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산::
* operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자::


File: python.info,  Node: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Next: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈

5.10.1 ‘itertools’ — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 APL, Haskell 및 SML의 구성물들에서 영감을 얻은 여러 *note
이터레이터: 1ac. 빌딩 블록을 구현합니다.  각각을 파이썬에 적합한 형태로
개선했습니다.

이 모듈은 자체적으로 혹은 조합하여 유용한 빠르고 메모리 효율적인 도구의
핵심 집합을 표준화합니다.  함께 모여, 순수 파이썬에서 간결하고 효율적으
로 특수화된 도구를 구성할 수 있도록 하는 “이터레이터 대수(iterator
algebra)”를 형성합니다.

예를 들어, SML은 테이블 화 도구를 제공합니다: 시퀀스 ‘f(0), f(1), ...’를
생성하는 ‘tabulate(f)’.  *note map(): 85e.과 *note count(): 1273.를 결합
하여 ‘map(f, count())’를 형성해서 파이썬에서도 같은 효과를 얻을 수 있습
니다.

'무한 이터레이터:'

이터레이터             인자                  결과                                                  예
                                                                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                   
*note count(): 1273.   [start[, step]]       start, start+step, start+2*step, …                    ‘count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note cycle(): 2739.   p                     p0, p1, … plast, p0, p1, …                            ‘cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note repeat(): 273a.  elem [,n]             elem, elem, elem, … 끝없이 또는 최대 n 번             ‘repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10’
                                                                                                   

'가장 짧은 입력 시퀀스에서 종료되는 이터레이터:'

이터레이터                       인자                             결과                                                  예
                                                                                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                        
*note accumulate(): 9f9.         p [,func]                        p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, …                                ‘accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note batched(): 201.            p, n                             (p0, p1, …, p_n-1), …                                 ‘batched('ABCDEFG', n=2) → AB CD EF G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain(): 2187.             p, q, …                          p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                            ‘chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain.from_iterable(): 273b.iterable                        p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                            ‘chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note compress(): 1272.          data, selectors                  (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), …                     ‘compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note dropwhile(): 273c.         predicate, seq                   seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails       ‘dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note filterfalse(): 2173.       predicate, seq                   elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails           ‘filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note groupby(): 273d.           iterable[, key]                  key(v)의 값으로 그룹화된 서브 이터레이터들            ‘groupby(['A','B','DEF'], len) → (1, A B) (3, DEF)’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note islice(): b49.             seq, [start,] stop [, step]      seq[start:stop:step]의 요소들                         ‘islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note pairwise(): 80f.           iterable                         (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                            ‘pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note starmap(): 10d6.           func, seq                        func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), …                       ‘starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note takewhile(): 273e.         predicate, seq                   seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails                 ‘takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note tee(): 273f.               it, n                            it1, it2, … itn 하나의 이터레이터를 n개의 이터레이
                                                                  터로 나눕니다
                                                                  
                                                                                                                        
*note zip_longest(): 128d.       p, q, …                          (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), …                         ‘zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-’
                                                                                                                        

'조합형 이터레이터:'

이터레이터                                         인자                     결과
                                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
*note product(): 1303.                             p, q, … [repeat=1]       데카르트 곱(cartesian product), 중첩된 for 루프와 동등합니다
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note permutations(): 1921.                        p[, r]                   r-길이 튜플들, 모든 가능한 순서, 반복되는 요소 없음
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations(): 1302.                        p, r                     r-길이 튜플들, 정렬된 순서, 반복되는 요소 없음
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations_with_replacement(): 1271.       p, r                     r-길이 튜플들, 정렬된 순서, 반복되는 요소 있음
                                                                            

예                                                 결과
                                                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
‘product('ABCD', repeat=2)’                        ‘AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘permutations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BC BD CD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)’         ‘AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD’
                                                   

* Menu:

* Itertool Functions::
* Itertools 조리법::


File: python.info,  Node: Itertool Functions,  Next: Itertools 조리법,  Up: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.10.1.1 Itertool Functions
...........................

The following functions all construct and return iterators.  Some
provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by
functions or loops that truncate the stream.

 -- 함수: itertools.accumulate (iterable[, function, *, initial=None])

     Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated
     results from other binary functions.

     The 'function' defaults to addition.  The 'function' should accept
     two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the
     'iterable'.

     If an 'initial' value is provided, the accumulation will start with
     that value and the output will have one more element than the input
     iterable.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
              'Return running totals'
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              total = initial
              if initial is None:
                  try:
                      total = next(iterator)
                  except StopIteration:
                      return

              yield total
              for element in iterator:
                  total = function(total, element)
                  yield total

     To compute a running minimum, set 'function' to *note min(): f00.
     For a running maximum, set 'function' to *note max(): f01.  Or for
     a running product, set 'function' to *note operator.mul(): 2742.
     To build an amortization table(1), accumulate the interest and
     apply payments:

          >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
          [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
          [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

          # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
          >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
          >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
          [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

     최종 누적값만 반환하는 유사한 함수에 대해서는 *note
     functools.reduce(): 12cc.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the optional 'function' parameter.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 선택적 'initial' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: itertools.batched (iterable, n, *, strict=False)

     Batch data from the 'iterable' into tuples of length 'n'.  The last
     batch may be shorter than 'n'.

     If 'strict' is true, will raise a *note ValueError: 202. if the
     final batch is shorter than 'n'.

     Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up
     to size 'n'.  The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a
     batch.  The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when
     the input iterable is exhausted:

          >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
          >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
          >>> unflattened
          [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def batched(iterable, n, *, strict=False):
              # batched('ABCDEFG', 2) → AB CD EF G
              if n < 1:
                  raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
                  if strict and len(batch) != n:
                      raise ValueError('batched(): incomplete batch')
                  yield batch

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'strict' option.

 -- 함수: itertools.chain (*iterables)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable
     until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until
     all of the iterables are exhausted.  This combines multiple data
     sources into a single iterator.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def chain(*iterables):
              # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- 메서드: classmethod chain.from_iterable (iterable)

     *note chain(): 2187.의 대체 생성자.  게으르게 평가되는 단일 이터러
     블 인자에서 연쇄 입력을 가져옵니다.  대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def from_iterable(iterables):
              # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- 함수: itertools.combinations (iterable, r)

     입력 'iterable'에서 요소의 길이 'r' 서브 시퀀스들을 반환합니다.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 1303. keeping only
     entries that are subsequences of the 'iterable'.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.comb(): 6c9. which computes ‘n! / r!
     / (n - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within each combination.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def combinations(iterable, r):
              # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
              # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if r > n:
                  return
              indices = list(range(r))

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i] += 1
                  for j in range(i+1, r):
                      indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

 -- 함수: itertools.combinations_with_replacement (iterable, r)

     입력 'iterable'에서 요소의 길이 'r' 서브 시퀀스들을 반환하는데, 개
     별 요소를 두 번 이상 반복할 수 있습니다.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 1303. that keeps
     only entries that are subsequences (with possible repeated
     elements) of the 'iterable'.  The number of subsequence returned is
     ‘(n + r - 1)! / r! / (n - 1)!’ when ‘n > 0’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  if the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, the generated
     combinations will also be unique.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
              # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if not n and r:
                  return
              indices = [0] * r

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != n - 1:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: itertools.compress (data, selectors)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from 'data' where the
     corresponding element in 'selectors' is true.  Stops when either
     the 'data' or 'selectors' iterables have been exhausted.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def compress(data, selectors):
              # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
              return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: itertools.count (start=0, step=1)

     Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with
     'start'.  Can be used with *note map(): 85e. to generate
     consecutive data points or with *note zip(): 7c9. to add sequence
     numbers.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def count(start=0, step=1):
              # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
              # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
              n = start
              while True:
                  yield n
                  n += step

     When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can
     sometimes be achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as:
     ‘(start + step * i for i in count())’.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'step' 인자를 추가하고 정수가 아닌 인자를 허용했
     습니다.

 -- 함수: itertools.cycle (iterable)

     Make an iterator returning elements from the 'iterable' and saving
     a copy of each.  When the iterable is exhausted, return elements
     from the saved copy.  Repeats indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def cycle(iterable):
              # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...

              saved = []
              for element in iterable:
                  yield element
                  saved.append(element)

              while saved:
                  for element in saved:
                      yield element

     This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
     on the length of the iterable).

 -- 함수: itertools.dropwhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that drops elements from the 'iterable' while the
     'predicate' is true and afterwards returns every element.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
              # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              for x in iterator:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x
                      break

              for x in iterator:
                  yield x

     Note this does not produce 'any' output until the predicate first
     becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.

 -- 함수: itertools.filterfalse (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that filters elements from the 'iterable'
     returning only those for which the 'predicate' returns a false
     value.  If 'predicate' is ‘None’, returns the items that are false.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
              # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8

              if predicate is None:
                  predicate = bool

              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x

 -- 함수: itertools.groupby (iterable, key=None)

     'iterable'에서 연속적인 키와 그룹을 반환하는 이터레이터를 만듭니다.
     'key'는 각 요소의 키값을 계산하는 함수입니다.  지정되지 않거나
     ‘None’이면, 'key'의 기본값은 항등함수(identity function)이고 요소를
     변경하지 않고 반환합니다.  일반적으로, iterable은 같은 키 함수로 이
     미 정렬되어 있어야 합니다.

     *note groupby(): 273d.의 작동은 유닉스의 ‘uniq’ 필터와 유사합니다.
     키 함수의 값이 변경될 때마다 중단(break)이나 새 그룹을 생성합니다
     (이것이 일반적으로 같은 키 함수를 사용하여 데이터를 정렬해야 하는 이
     유입니다).  이 동작은 입력 순서와 관계없이 공통 요소를 집계하는
     SQL의 GROUP BY와 다릅니다.

     반환되는 그룹 자체는 *note groupby(): 273d.와 하부 이터러블
     (iterable)을 공유하는 이터레이터입니다.  소스가 공유되므로, *note
     groupby(): 273d. 객체가 진행하면, 이전 그룹은 이 더는 보이지 않게 됩
     니다.  따라서, 나중에 데이터가 필요하면, 리스트로 저장해야 합니다:

          groups = []
          uniquekeys = []
          data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
          for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
              groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
              uniquekeys.append(k)

     *note groupby(): 273d.는 대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def groupby(iterable, key=None):
              # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
              # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

              keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              exhausted = False

              def _grouper(target_key):
                  nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
                  yield curr_value
                  for curr_value in iterator:
                      curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
                      if curr_key != target_key:
                          return
                      yield curr_value
                  exhausted = True

              try:
                  curr_value = next(iterator)
              except StopIteration:
                  return
              curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

              while not exhausted:
                  target_key = curr_key
                  curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
                  yield curr_key, curr_group
                  if curr_key == target_key:
                      for _ in curr_group:
                          pass

 -- 함수: itertools.islice (iterable, stop)

 -- 함수: itertools.islice (iterable, start, stop[, step])

     Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
     Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values
     for 'start', 'stop', or 'step'.

     If 'start' is zero or ‘None’, iteration starts at zero.  Otherwise,
     elements from the iterable are skipped until 'start' is reached.

     If 'stop' is ‘None’, iteration continues until the input is
     exhausted, if at all.  Otherwise, it stops at the specified
     position.

     If 'step' is ‘None’, the step defaults to one.  Elements are
     returned consecutively unless 'step' is set higher than one which
     results in items being skipped.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def islice(iterable, *args):
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

              s = slice(*args)
              start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
              stop = s.stop
              step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
              if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
                  raise ValueError

              indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
              next_i = start
              for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
                  if i == next_i:
                      yield element
                      next_i += step

     If the input is an iterator, then fully consuming the 'islice'
     advances the input iterator by ‘max(start, stop)’ steps regardless
     of the 'step' value.

 -- 함수: itertools.pairwise (iterable)

     Return successive overlapping pairs taken from the input
     'iterable'.

     The number of 2-tuples in the output iterator will be one fewer
     than the number of inputs.  It will be empty if the input iterable
     has fewer than two values.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def pairwise(iterable):
              # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              a = next(iterator, None)

              for b in iterator:
                  yield a, b
                  a = b

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: itertools.permutations (iterable, r=None)

     Return successive 'r' length permutations of elements(2) from the
     'iterable'.

     'r'이 지정되지 않았거나 ‘None’이면, 'r'의 기본값은 'iterable'의 길
     이이며 가능한 모든 최대 길이 순열이 생성됩니다.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 1303. where entries
     with repeated elements have been filtered out.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.perm(): 6ca. which computes ‘n! / (n
     - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within a permutation.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def permutations(iterable, r=None):
              # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
              # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              r = n if r is None else r
              if r > n:
                  return

              indices = list(range(n))
              cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

              while n:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      cycles[i] -= 1
                      if cycles[i] == 0:
                          indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                          cycles[i] = n - i
                      else:
                          j = cycles[i]
                          indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                          break
                  else:
                      return

 -- 함수: itertools.product (*iterables, repeat=1)

     Cartesian product(3) of the input iterables.

     대략 제너레이터 표현식에서의 중첩된 for-루프와 동등합니다.  예를 들
     어, ‘product(A, B)’는 ‘((x,y) for x in A for y in B)’와 같은 것을 반
     환합니다.

     중첩된 루프는 매 이터레이션마다 가장 오른쪽 요소가 진행되는 주행 거
     리계처럼 순환합니다.  이 패턴은 사전식 순서를 만들어서 입력의 이터
     러블들이 정렬되어 있다면, 곱(product) 튜플이 정렬된 순서로 방출됩니
     다.

     이터러블의 자신과의 곱을 계산하려면, 선택적 'repeat' 키워드 인자를
     사용하여 반복 횟수를 지정하십시오.  예를 들어, ‘product(A,
     repeat=4)’는 ‘product(A, A, A, A)’와 같은 것을 뜻합니다.

     이 함수는 실제 구현이 메모리에 중간 결과를 쌓지 않는다는 점을 제외
     하고 다음 코드와 대략 동등합니다:

          def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
              # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
              # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

              if repeat < 0:
                  raise ValueError('repeat argument cannot be negative')
              pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

              result = [[]]
              for pool in pools:
                  result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

              for prod in result:
                  yield tuple(prod)

     *note product(): 1303.가 실행되기 전에, 입력 이터러블을 완전히 소비
     하여, 곱을 생성하기 위해 값의 풀(pool)을 메모리에 유지합니다.  따라
     서, 유한 입력에만 유용합니다.

 -- 함수: itertools.repeat (object[, times])

     Make an iterator that returns 'object' over and over again.  Runs
     indefinitely unless the 'times' argument is specified.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def repeat(object, times=None):
              # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
              if times is None:
                  while True:
                      yield object
              else:
                  for i in range(times):
                      yield object

     A common use for 'repeat' is to supply a stream of constant values
     to 'map' or 'zip':

          >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
          [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

 -- 함수: itertools.starmap (function, iterable)

     Make an iterator that computes the 'function' using arguments
     obtained from the 'iterable'.  Used instead of *note map(): 85e.
     when argument parameters have already been “pre-zipped” into
     tuples.

     The difference between *note map(): 85e. and *note starmap(): 10d6.
     parallels the distinction between ‘function(a,b)’ and
     ‘function(*c)’.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def starmap(function, iterable):
              # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
              for args in iterable:
                  yield function(*args)

 -- 함수: itertools.takewhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the 'iterable' as long
     as the 'predicate' is true.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
              # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      break
                  yield x

     Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
     consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
     This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume
     the input iterator after 'takewhile' has been run to exhaustion.
     To work around this problem, consider using more-itertools
     before_and_after()(4) instead.

 -- 함수: itertools.tee (iterable, n=2)

     단일 iterable에서 'n' 개의 독립 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def tee(iterable, n=2):
              if n < 0:
                  raise ValueError
              if n == 0:
                  return ()
              iterator = _tee(iterable)
              result = [iterator]
              for _ in range(n - 1):
                  result.append(_tee(iterator))
              return tuple(result)

          class _tee:

              def __init__(self, iterable):
                  it = iter(iterable)
                  if isinstance(it, _tee):
                      self.iterator = it.iterator
                      self.link = it.link
                  else:
                      self.iterator = it
                      self.link = [None, None]

              def __iter__(self):
                  return self

              def __next__(self):
                  link = self.link
                  if link[1] is None:
                      link[0] = next(self.iterator)
                      link[1] = [None, None]
                  value, self.link = link
                  return value

     When the input 'iterable' is already a tee iterator object, all
     members of the return tuple are constructed as if they had been
     produced by the upstream *note tee(): 273f. call.  This “flattening
     step” allows nested *note tee(): 273f. calls to share the same
     underlying data chain and to have a single update step rather than
     a chain of calls.

     The flattening property makes tee iterators efficiently peekable:

          def lookahead(tee_iterator):
               "Return the next value without moving the input forward"
               [forked_iterator] = tee(tee_iterator, 1)
               return next(forked_iterator)

          >>> iterator = iter('abcdef')
          >>> [iterator] = tee(iterator, 1)   # Make the input peekable
          >>> next(iterator)                  # Move the iterator forward
          'a'
          >>> lookahead(iterator)             # Check next value
          'b'
          >>> next(iterator)                  # Continue moving forward
          'b'

     ‘tee’ iterators are not threadsafe.  A *note RuntimeError: 195. may
     be raised when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same
     *note tee(): 273f. call, even if the original 'iterable' is
     threadsafe.

     이 이터레이터 도구에는 상당한 보조 기억 장치가 필요할 수 있습니다
     (일시적으로 저장해야 하는 데이터양에 따라 다릅니다).  일반적으로, 다
     른 이터레이터가 시작하기 전에 하나의 이터레이터가 대부분이나 모든 데
     이터를 사용하면, *note tee(): 273f. 대신 *note list(): 60b.를 사용
     하는 것이 더 빠릅니다.

 -- 함수: itertools.zip_longest (*iterables, fillvalue=None)

     Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
     'iterables'.

     If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in
     with 'fillvalue'.  If not specified, 'fillvalue' defaults to
     ‘None’.

     Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
              # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

              iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
              num_active = len(iterators)
              if not num_active:
                  return

              while True:
                  values = []
                  for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
                      try:
                          value = next(iterator)
                      except StopIteration:
                          num_active -= 1
                          if not num_active:
                              return
                          iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                          value = fillvalue
                      values.append(value)
                  yield tuple(values)

     If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the *note
     zip_longest(): 128d. function should be wrapped with something that
     limits the number of calls (for example *note islice(): b49. or
     *note takewhile(): 273e.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule

   (2) https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product

   (4) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after


File: python.info,  Node: Itertools 조리법,  Prev: Itertool Functions,  Up: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.10.1.2 Itertools 조리법
.........................

이 섹션에서는 기존 itertools를 빌딩 블록으로 사용하여 확장 도구 집합을 만
드는 방법을 보여줍니다.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational.  The
recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for
example, that ‘chain.from_iterable’ is related to the concept of
flattening.  The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can
be combined — for example, how ‘starmap()’ and ‘repeat()’ can work
together.  The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the
*note operator: 9f. and *note collections: 1d. modules as well as with
the built-in itertools such as ‘map()’, ‘filter()’, ‘reversed()’, and
‘enumerate()’.

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator.  The
‘accumulate()’, ‘compress()’, and ‘pairwise()’ itertools started out as
recipes.  Currently, the ‘sliding_window()’, ‘iter_index()’, and
‘sieve()’ recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their
worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be
installed from the more-itertools(1) project found on the Python Package
Index:

     python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying
toolset.  Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one
at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at
once.  Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a
functional style(2).  High speed is retained by preferring “vectorized”
building blocks over the use of for-loops and *note generators: 1057.
which incur interpreter overhead.

     from collections import Counter, deque
     from contextlib import suppress
     from functools import reduce
     from math import comb, prod, sumprod, isqrt
     from operator import itemgetter, getitem, mul, neg

     def take(n, iterable):
         "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
         return list(islice(iterable, n))

     def prepend(value, iterable):
         "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
         # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
         return chain([value], iterable)

     def tabulate(function, start=0):
         "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
         return map(function, count(start))

     def repeatfunc(function, times=None, *args):
         "Repeat calls to a function with specified arguments."
         if times is None:
             return starmap(function, repeat(args))
         return starmap(function, repeat(args, times))

     def flatten(list_of_lists):
         "Flatten one level of nesting."
         return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

     def ncycles(iterable, n):
         "Returns the sequence elements n times."
         return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

     def loops(n):
         "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
         # for _ in loops(100): ...
         return repeat(None, n)

     def tail(n, iterable):
         "Return an iterator over the last n items."
         # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
         return iter(deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

     def consume(iterator, n=None):
         "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
         # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
         if n is None:
             deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
         else:
             next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

     def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
         "Returns the nth item or a default value."
         return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

     def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
         "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
         return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

     def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
         "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
         # first_true([a,b,c], x) → a or b or c or x
         # first_true([a,b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
         return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

     def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
         "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
         # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
         return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

     def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
         # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
         # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
         if key is None:
             return map(itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
         return map(next, map(itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

     def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
         # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
         # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
         seen = set()
         if key is None:
             for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
                 seen.add(element)
                 yield element
         else:
             for element in iterable:
                 k = key(element)
                 if k not in seen:
                     seen.add(k)
                     yield element

     def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
        "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
        # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
        sequenced = sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse)
        return unique_justseen(sequenced, key=key)

     def sliding_window(iterable, n):
         "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
         iterator = iter(iterable)
         window = deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
         for x in iterator:
             window.append(x)
             yield tuple(window)

     def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
         "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x') → ABC DEF Gxx
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
         iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
         match incomplete:
             case 'fill':
                 return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
             case 'strict':
                 return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
             case 'ignore':
                 return zip(*iterators)
             case _:
                 raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
         # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
         # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
         iterators = map(iter, iterables)
         for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
             iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
             yield from map(next, iterators)

     def subslices(seq):
         "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
         # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
         slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
         return map(getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

     def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
         "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
         # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
         seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
         if seq_index is None:
             iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
             for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
                 if element is value or element == value:
                     yield i
         else:
             stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
             i = start
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 while True:
                     yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                     i += 1

     def iter_except(function, exception, first=None):
         "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
         # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
         with suppress(exception):
             if first is not None:
                 yield first()
             while True:
                 yield function()

The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:

     def multinomial(*counts):
         "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
         # Counter('abracadabra').values() → 5 2 2 1 1
         # multinomial(5, 2, 2, 1, 1) → 83160
         return prod(map(comb, accumulate(counts), counts))

     def powerset(iterable):
         "Subsequences of the iterable from shortest to longest."
         # powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)
         s = list(iterable)
         return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

     def sum_of_squares(iterable):
         "Add up the squares of the input values."
         # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
         return sumprod(*tee(iterable))

     def reshape(matrix, columns):
         "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
         # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
         return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), columns, strict=True)

     def transpose(matrix):
         "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
         # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
         return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

     def matmul(m1, m2):
         "Multiply two matrices."
         # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
         n = len(m2[0])
         return batched(starmap(sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

     def convolve(signal, kernel):
         """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
         Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

         Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
         evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
         infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

         Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
         Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
         """
         # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
         # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
         # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
         # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
         kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
         n = len(kernel)
         padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
         windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
         return map(sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

     def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
         """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

            (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
         """
         # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
         factors = zip(repeat(1), map(neg, roots))
         return list(reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

     def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
         """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

         Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
         """
         # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
         # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
         n = len(coefficients)
         if not n:
             return type(x)(0)
         powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
         return sumprod(coefficients, powers)

     def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
         """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

            f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
            f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
         """
         # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
         n = len(coefficients)
         powers = reversed(range(1, n))
         return list(map(mul, coefficients, powers))

     def sieve(n):
         "Primes less than n."
         # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
         if n > 2:
             yield 2
         data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
         for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=isqrt(n) + 1):
             data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
         yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

     def factor(n):
         "Prime factors of n."
         # factor(99) → 3 3 11
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
         for prime in sieve(isqrt(n) + 1):
             while not n % prime:
                 yield prime
                 n //= prime
                 if n == 1:
                     return
         if n > 1:
             yield n

     def is_prime(n):
         "Return True if n is prime."
         # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
         return n > 1 and next(factor(n)) == n

     def totient(n):
         "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
         # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
         # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
         for prime in set(factor(n)):
             n -= n // prime
         return n

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/

   (2) https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산,  Next: operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자,  Prev: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈

5.10.2 ‘functools’ — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산
--------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/functools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note functools: 5f. 모듈은 고차 함수를 위한 것입니다: 다른 함수에 작용
하거나 다른 함수를 반환하는 함수.  일반적으로, 모든 콜러블 객체는 이 모
듈의 목적상 함수로 취급될 수 있습니다.

*note functools: 5f. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: @functools.cache (user_function)

     단순하고 가벼운 무제한 함수 캐시.  때때로 "memoize"(2)라고도 합니다
     .

     ‘lru_cache(maxsize=None)’와 같은 것을 반환하여, 함수 인자의 딕셔너
     리 조회 주위로 얇은 래퍼를 만듭니다.  이전 값을 제거할 필요가 없어
     서, 크기 제한이 있는 *note lru_cache(): 9eb.보다 작고 빠릅니다.

     예를 들면:

          @cache
          def factorial(n):
              return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1

          >>> factorial(10)      # 이전에 캐시 된 결과가 없습니다, 11번의 재귀 호출을 만듭니다
          3628800
          >>> factorial(5)       # 캐시 된 값 결과를 조회만 합니다
          120
          >>> factorial(12)      # 두 개의 새로운 재귀 호출을 만듭니다, 다른 10개는 캐시 된 것입니다
          479001600

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: @functools.cached_property (func)

     클래스의 메서드를 값이 한 번 계산된 다음 인스턴스 수명 동안 일반 어
     트리뷰트로 캐시 되는 프로퍼티로 변환합니다.  *note property():
     194.와 유사하고, 캐싱이 추가되었습니다.  비싸게 계산되고 그 외에는
     사실상 불변인 인스턴스의 프로퍼티에 유용합니다.

     예:

          class DataSet:

              def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
                  self._data = tuple(sequence_of_numbers)

              @cached_property
              def stdev(self):
                  return statistics.stdev(self._data)

     *note cached_property(): 53c.의 메커니즘은 *note property(): 194.와
     다소 다릅니다.  일반 프로퍼티는 setter가 정의되지 않은 경우 어트리
     뷰트 쓰기를 차단합니다.  이와는 달리, 'cached_property'는 쓰기를 허
     용합니다.

     'cached_property' 데코레이터는 조회 시에만, 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트
     가 존재하지 않을 때만 실행됩니다.  실행되면, 'cached_property'는 같
     은 이름의 어트리뷰트에 기록합니다.  후속 어트리뷰트 읽기와 쓰기는
     'cached_property' 메서드보다 우선하며 일반 어트리뷰트처럼 작동합니
     다.

     캐시 된 값은 어트리뷰트를 삭제하여 지울 수 있습니다.  이렇게 하면
     'cached_property' 메서드가 다시 실행됩니다.

     The 'cached_property' does not prevent a possible race condition in
     multi-threaded usage.  The getter function could run more than once
     on the same instance, with the latest run setting the cached value.
     If the cached property is idempotent or otherwise not harmful to
     run more than once on an instance, this is fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement the necessary locking inside
     the decorated getter function or around the cached property access.

     이 데코레이터는 PEP 412(3) 키 공유 딕셔너리의 작동을 방해함에 유의
     하십시오.  이는 인스턴스 딕셔너리가 평소보다 더 많은 공간을 차지할
     수 있음을 의미합니다.

     또한, 이 데코레이터는 각 인스턴스의 ‘__dict__’ 어트리뷰트가 가변 매
     핑일 것을 요구합니다.  이는 메타 클래스(형 인스턴스의 ‘__dict__’ 어
     트리뷰트가 클래스 이름 공간에 대한 읽기 전용 프락시이기 때문에)와
     ‘__dict__’를 정의된 슬롯 중 하나로 포함하지 않고 ‘__slots__’를 지정
     하는 것(이러한 클래스는 ‘__dict__’ 어트리뷰트를 전혀 제공하지 않기
     때문에)과 같은 일부 형에서 작동하지 않음을 의미합니다.

     가변 매핑을 사용할 수 없거나 공간 효율적인 키 공유가 필요하면,
     *note lru_cache(): 9eb. 위에 *note property(): 194.를 쌓아서 *note
     cached_property(): 53c.와 유사한 효과를 얻을 수도 있습니다.  이것이
     *note cached_property(): 53c.와 어떻게 다른지에 관한 자세한 내용은
     *note How do I cache method calls?: 2746.을 찹조하세요.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Prior to Python 3.12, ‘cached_property’
     included an undocumented lock to ensure that in multi-threaded
     usage the getter function was guaranteed to run only once per
     instance.  However, the lock was per-property, not per-instance,
     which could result in unacceptably high lock contention.  In Python
     3.12+ this locking is removed.

 -- 함수: functools.cmp_to_key (func)

     구식 비교 함수를 *note 키 함수: e01.로 변환합니다.  (*note
     sorted(): bcb, *note min(): f00, *note max(): f01, *note
     heapq.nlargest(): 2543, *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2544, *note
     itertools.groupby(): 273d.와 같은) 키 함수를 받아들이는 도구와 함께
     사용됩니다.  이 함수는 주로 비교 함수 사용을 지원하는 파이썬 2에서
     변환되는 프로그램의 전이 도구로 사용됩니다.

     비교 함수는 두 개의 인자를 받아들이고, 그들을 비교하여, 작으면 음수
     , 같으면 0, 크면 양수를 반환하는 콜러블입니다.  키 함수는 하나의 인
     자를 받아들이고 정렬 키로 사용할 다른 값을 반환하는 콜러블입니다.

     예:

          sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # 로케일을 고려한 정렬 순서

     정렬 예제와 간략한 정렬 자습서는 *note 정렬 기법: 2186.를 참조하십
     시오.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: @functools.lru_cache (user_function)

 -- 함수: @functools.lru_cache (maxsize=128, typed=False)

     가장 최근의 'maxsize' 호출까지 저장하는 기억하는(memoizing) 콜러블
     함수를 감싸는 데코레이터.  비싸거나 I/O 병목 함수가 같은 인자로 주
     기적으로 호출될 때 시간을 절약할 수 있습니다.

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     결과를 캐시 하는 데 딕셔너리가 사용되기 때문에, 함수에 대한 위치와
     키워드 인자는 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해야 합니다.

     서도 다른 인자 패턴은 별도의 캐시 항목을 갖는 별개의 호출로 간주할
     수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘f(a=1, b=2)’와 ‘f(b=2, a=1)’은 키워드 인
     자 순서가 다르며 두 개의 개별 캐시 항목을 가질 수 있습니다.

     'user_function'이 지정되면, 콜러블이어야 합니다.  이는 'lru_cache'
     데코레이터를 사용자 함수에 직접 적용 할 수 있도록 하며, 'maxsize'를
     기본값 128로 유지합니다:

          @lru_cache
          def count_vowels(sentence):
              return sum(sentence.count(vowel) for vowel in 'AEIOUaeiou')

     'maxsize'가 ‘None’으로 설정되면, LRU 기능이 비활성화되고 캐시가 제
     한 없이 커질 수 있습니다.

     If 'typed' is set to true, function arguments of different types
     will be cached separately.  If 'typed' is false, the implementation
     will usually regard them as equivalent calls and only cache a
     single result.  (Some types such as 'str' and 'int' may be cached
     separately even when 'typed' is false.)

     Note, type specificity applies only to the function’s immediate
     arguments rather than their contents.  The scalar arguments,
     ‘Decimal(42)’ and ‘Fraction(42)’ are be treated as distinct calls
     with distinct results.  In contrast, the tuple arguments
     ‘('answer', Decimal(42))’ and ‘('answer', Fraction(42))’ are
     treated as equivalent.

     래핑 된 함수는 'maxsize'와 'typed'의 값을 표시하는 새 *note dict:
     256.를 반환하는 ‘cache_parameters()’ 함수로 인스트루먼트 됩니다.  이
     것은 정보 제공만을 위한 것입니다.  값을 변경해도 효과가 없습니다.

     To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the
     'maxsize' parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a
     ‘cache_info()’ function that returns a *note named tuple: 648.
     showing 'hits', 'misses', 'maxsize' and 'currsize'.

     The decorator also provides a ‘cache_clear()’ function for clearing
     or invalidating the cache.

     원래의 하부 함수는 ‘__wrapped__’ 어트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있
     습니다.  이것은 인트로스펙션, 캐시 우회 또는 다른 캐시로 함수를 다
     시 래핑하는 데 유용합니다.

     The cache keeps references to the arguments and return values until
     they age out of the cache or until the cache is cleared.

     If a method is cached, the ‘self’ instance argument is included in
     the cache.  See *note How do I cache method calls?: 2746.

     LRU (least recently used) 캐시(4)는 가장 최근 호출이 향후 호출에 대
     한 최상의 예측일 때 가장 잘 작동합니다 (예를 들어, 뉴스 서버에서 가
     장 인기 있는 기사는 매일 바뀌는 경향이 있습니다).  캐시의 크기 제한
     은 웹 서버와 같은 오래 실행되는 프로세스에서 제한 없이 캐시가 커지
     지 않도록 합니다.

     일반적으로, LRU 캐시는 이전에 계산된 값을 재사용하려고 할 때만 사용
     해야 합니다.  따라서, 부작용이 있는 함수, 각 호출에서 고유한 가변 객
     체를 만들어야 하는 함수 (가령 제너레이터와 비동기 함수), time()이나
     random()과 같은 비순수(impure) 함수를 캐시 하는 것은 의미가 없습니
     다.

     정적 웹 콘텐츠를 위한 LRU 캐시의 예:

          @lru_cache(maxsize=32)
          def get_pep(num):
              'PEP(Python Enhancement Proposal) 텍스트를 가져옵니다'
              resource = f'https://peps.python.org/pep-{num:04d}'
              try:
                  with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
                      return s.read()
              except urllib.error.HTTPError:
                  return 'Not Found'

          >>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
          ...     pep = get_pep(n)
          ...     print(n, len(pep))

          >>> get_pep.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)

     동적 프로그래밍(dynamic programming)(5) 기법을 구현하기 위해 캐시를
     사용하여 피보나치 수(6)를 효율적으로 계산하는 예:

          @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
          def fib(n):
              if n < 2:
                  return n
              return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

          >>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
          [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]

          >>> fib.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'typed' 옵션을 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'user_function' 옵션을 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘cache_parameters()’ 함수를 추가했습니다

 -- 함수: @functools.total_ordering

     하나 이상의 풍부한 비교(rich comparison) 순서 메서드를 정의하는 클
     래스를 주면, 이 클래스 데코레이터가 나머지를 제공합니다.  가능한 모
     든 풍부한 비교 연산을 지정하는 데 드는 노력이 단순화됩니다:

     The class must define one of *note __lt__(): 128f, *note __le__():
     12fb, *note __gt__(): 12fc, or *note __ge__(): 12fd.  In addition,
     the class should supply an *note __eq__(): af7. method.

     예를 들면:

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
                  return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
                          hasattr(other, "firstname"))
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
              def __lt__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

          참고: 이 데코레이터를 사용하면 올바르게 동작하는 전 순서
          (totally ordered) 형을 쉽게 만들 수 있지만, 파생된 비교 메서드
          에서 실행 속도가 느려지고 스택 트레이스가 더 복잡해지는 대가를
          지불합니다.  성능 벤치마킹이 이것이 특정 응용 프로그램의 병목
          임을 가리키면, 6가지의 풍부한 비교 메서드를 모두 구현하여 속도
          를 쉽게 높일 수 있습니다.

          참고: This decorator makes no attempt to override methods that
          have been declared in the class 'or its superclasses'.
          Meaning that if a superclass defines a comparison operator,
          'total_ordering' will not implement it again, even if the
          original method is abstract.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 인식할 수 없는 형에 대해 하부 비교 함수에서
     ‘NotImplemented’를 반환하는 것이 이제 지원됩니다.

 -- 함수: functools.partial (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     호출될 때 위치 인자 'args'와 키워드 인자 'keywords'로 호출된
     'func'처럼 동작하는 새 *note partial 객체: 2749.를 반환합니다.  더
     많은 인자가 호출에 제공되면, 'args'에 추가됩니다.  추가 키워드 인자
     가 제공되면, 'keywords'를 확장하고 대체합니다.  대략 다음과 동등합
     니다:

          def partial(func, /, *args, **keywords):
              def newfunc(*fargs, **fkeywords):
                  newkeywords = {**keywords, **fkeywords}
                  return func(*args, *fargs, **newkeywords)
              newfunc.func = func
              newfunc.args = args
              newfunc.keywords = keywords
              return newfunc

     *note partial(): 40e.은 함수의 인자 및/또는 키워드의 일부를 “고정
     ”하여 서명이 단순화된 새 객체를 생성하는 부분 함수 응용에 사용됩니
     다.  예를 들어, *note partial(): 40e.을 사용하여 'base' 인자의 기본
     값이 2이면서 *note int(): 257. 함수 같은 동작을 하는 콜러블을 만들
     수 있습니다:

          >>> from functools import partial
          >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
          >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
          >>> basetwo('10010')
          18

 -- 클래스: functools.partialmethod (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     직접 호출하기보다는 메서드 정의로 사용되도록 설계된 것을 제외하고는
     *note partial: 40e.과 같이 동작하는 새 *note partialmethod: a78. 디
     스크립터를 반환합니다.

     'func'는 *note 디스크립터: 157a.나 콜러블이어야 합니다 (일반 함수처
     럼 둘 모두인 객체는 디스크립터로 처리됩니다).

     When 'func' is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function,
     *note classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 410, *note
     abstractmethod(): 107c. or another instance of *note partialmethod:
     a78.), calls to ‘__get__’ are delegated to the underlying
     descriptor, and an appropriate *note partial object: 2749. returned
     as the result.

     'func'가 디스크립터가 아닌 콜러블이면, 적절한 연결된 메서드가 동적
     으로 만들어집니다.  이것은 메서드로 사용될 때 일반 파이썬 함수처럼
     작동합니다: *note partialmethod: a78. 생성자에 제공된 'args'와
     'keywords'보다도 전에 'self' 인자가 첫 번째 위치 인자로 삽입됩니다.

     예:

          >>> class Cell:
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self._alive = False
          ...     @property
          ...     def alive(self):
          ...         return self._alive
          ...     def set_state(self, state):
          ...         self._alive = bool(state)
          ...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
          ...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
          ...
          >>> c = Cell()
          >>> c.alive
          False
          >>> c.set_alive()
          >>> c.alive
          True

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: functools.reduce (function, iterable[, initial], /)

     두 인자의 'function'을 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 'iterable'의 항목에 누적
     적으로 적용해서, 이터러블을 단일 값으로 줄입니다.  예를 들어,
     ‘reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])’는 ‘((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)’를
     계산합니다.  왼쪽 인자 'x'는 누적값이고 오른쪽 인자 'y'는
     'iterable'에서 온 갱신 값입니다.  선택적 'initial'가 있으면, 계산에
     서 이터러블의 항목 앞에 배치되고, 이터러블이 비어있을 때 기본값의 역
     할을 합니다.  'initial'가 제공되지 않고 'iterable'에 하나의 항목만
     포함되면, 첫 번째 항목이 반환됩니다.

     대략 다음과 동등합니다:

          initial_missing = object()

          def reduce(function, iterable, initial=initial_missing, /):
              it = iter(iterable)
              if initial is initial_missing:
                  value = next(it)
              else:
                  value = initial
              for element in it:
                  value = function(value, element)
              return value

     모든 중간값을 산출하는 이터레이터는 *note itertools.accumulate():
     9f9.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: @functools.singledispatch

     함수를 *note 싱글 디스패치: 9ec. *note 제네릭 함수: 9ed.로 변환합니
     다.

     제네릭 함수를 정의하려면, ‘@singledispatch’ 데코레이터로 데코레이트
     하십시오.  ‘@singledispatch’를 사용해서 함수를 정의할 때, 디스패치
     는 첫 번째 인자의 형으로 일어남에 유의하십시오:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)

     To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the
     ‘register()’ attribute of the generic function, which can be used
     as a decorator.  For functions annotated with types, the decorator
     will infer the type of the first argument automatically:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

     *note types.UnionType: 634. and *note typing.Union: 635. can also
     be used:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     형 어노테이션을 사용하지 않는 코드의 경우, 적절한 형 인자를 데코레
     이터 자체에 명시적으로 전달할 수 있습니다:

          >>> @fun.register(complex)
          ... def _(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
          ...

     For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., ‘list’), but
     wants to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., ‘list[int]’),
     the dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator
     itself with the typehint going into the function definition:

          >>> @fun.register(list)
          ... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

          참고: At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance of
          a list regardless of the type contained within the list i.e.
          ‘[1,2,3]’ will be dispatched the same as ‘["foo", "bar",
          "baz"]’.  The annotation provided in this example is for
          static type checkers only and has no runtime impact.

     To enable registering *note lambdas: 274b. and pre-existing
     functions, the *note register(): 274a. attribute can also be used
     in a functional form:

          >>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     print("Nothing.")
          ...
          >>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)

     The *note register(): 274a. attribute returns the undecorated
     function.  This enables decorator stacking, *note pickling: a6, and
     the creation of unit tests for each variant independently:

          >>> @fun.register(float)
          ... @fun.register(Decimal)
          ... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg / 2)
          ...
          >>> fun_num is fun
          False

     호출되면, 제네릭 함수는 첫 번째 인자의 형에 따라 디스패치 합니다:

          >>> fun("Hello, world.")
          Hello, world.
          >>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
          Let me just say, test.
          >>> fun(42, verbose=True)
          Strength in numbers, eh? 42
          >>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
          Enumerate this:
          0 spam
          1 spam
          2 eggs
          3 spam
          >>> fun(None)
          Nothing.
          >>> fun(1.23)
          0.615

     특정 형에 대해 등록된 구현이 없으면, 더 일반적인 구현을 찾는 데 메
     서드 결정 순서가 사용됩니다.  ‘@singledispatch’로 데코레이트 된 원
     래 함수는 베이스 *note object: a89. 형으로 등록되어서, 더 나은 구현
     이 발견되지 않으면 사용됩니다.

     구현이 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5.에 등록되면, 베이스 클래스의
     가상 서브 클래스는 그 구현으로 디스패치 됩니다:

          >>> from collections.abc import Mapping
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Mapping, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Keys & Values")
          ...     for key, value in arg.items():
          ...         print(key, "=>", value)
          ...
          >>> fun({"a": "b"})
          a => b

     제네릭 함수가 주어진 형에 대해 어떤 구현을 선택하는지 확인하려면
     ‘dispatch()’ 어트리뷰트를 사용하십시오:

          >>> fun.dispatch(float)
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # 참고: 기본 구현
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     등록된 모든 구현에 액세스하려면, 읽기 전용 ‘registry’ 어트리뷰트를
     사용하십시오:

          >>> fun.registry.keys()
          dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
                    <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
                    <class 'float'>])
          >>> fun.registry[float]
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.registry[object]
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The *note register(): 274a. attribute now
     supports using type annotations.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The *note register(): 274a. attribute now
     supports *note types.UnionType: 634. and *note typing.Union: 635.
     as type annotations.

 -- 클래스: functools.singledispatchmethod (func)

     메서드를 *note 싱글 디스패치: 9ec. *note 제네릭 함수: 9ed.로 변환합
     니다.

     제네릭 메서드를 정의하려면, ‘@singledispatchmethod’ 데코레이터로 장
     식하십시오.  ‘@singledispatchmethod’를 사용해서 함수를 정의할 때, 디
     스패치는 첫 번째 'self'나 'cls'가 아닌 인자의 형에 따라 일어남에 유
     의하십시오:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              def neg(self, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     ‘@singledispatchmethod’는 *note @classmethod: 166.와 같은 다른 데코
     레이터와의 중첩을 지원합니다.  ‘dispatcher.register’를 허용하기 위
     해, ‘singledispatchmethod’는 '가장 바깥' 데코레이터이어야 함에 유의
     하십시오.  다음은 ‘neg’ 메서드가 클래스의 인스턴스가 아니라 클래스
     에 연결되는 ‘Negator’ 클래스입니다:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              @classmethod
              def neg(cls, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     다른 유사한 데코레이터에도 같은 패턴을 사용할 수 있습니다: *note
     @staticmethod: 410, *note @abstractmethod: 107c. 및 기타.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: functools.update_wrapper (wrapper, wrapped,
          assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     'wrapped' 함수처럼 보이도록 'wrapper' 함수를 갱신합니다.  선택적 인
     자는 원래 함수의 어떤 어트리뷰트가 wrapper 함수의 일치하는 어트리뷰
     트에 직접 대입되고 wrapper 함수의 어떤 어트리뷰트가 원래 함수의 해
     당 어트리뷰트로 갱신되는지 지정하는 튜플입니다.  이 인자들의 기본값
     은 모듈 수준 상수 ‘WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS’(wrapper 함수의 *note
     __module__: 1f06, *note __name__: 12c4, *note __qualname__: 1f05,
     *note __annotations__: 11c7, *note __type_params__: 1f08. 및 *note
     __doc__: 11c8. 독스트링에 대입합니다)와 ‘WRAPPER_UPDATES’(wrapper 함
     수의 *note __dict__: 12c2, 즉 인스턴스 딕셔너리를 갱신합니다)입니다
     .

     내부 검사와 기타 목적(예를 들어 *note lru_cache(): 9eb.와 같은 캐싱
     데코레이터 우회)을 위해 원래 함수에 액세스 할 수 있도록, 이 함수는
     래핑 되는 함수를 가리키는 ‘__wrapped__’ 어트리뷰트를 wrapper에 자동
     으로 추가합니다.

     이 함수의 주요 용도는 데코레이트 된 함수를 래핑하고 wrapper를 반환
     하는 *note 데코레이터: 72a. 함수에서 사용하는 것입니다.  wrapper 함
     수가 갱신되지 않으면, 반환된 함수의 메타 데이터는 원래 함수 정의가
     아닌 wrapper 정의를 반영하게 되어 일반적으로 도움이 되지 않습니다.

     *note update_wrapper(): 1018.는 함수 이외의 콜러블과 함께 사용할 수
     있습니다.  래핑 되는 객체에서 누락된 'assigned'나 'updated'로 이름
     지정된 어트리뷰트는 무시됩니다 (즉, 이 함수는 wrapper 함수에서 그 어
     트리뷰트를 설정하려고 시도하지 않습니다).  wrapper 함수 자체에
     'updated'에 이름 지정된 어트리뷰트가 없으면 여전히 *note
     AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute is now automatically
     added.  The *note __annotations__: 11c7. attribute is now copied by
     default.  Missing attributes no longer trigger an *note
     AttributeError: 346.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘__wrapped__’ 어트리뷰트는 이제 해당 함수가
     ‘__wrapped__’ 어트리뷰트를 정의한 경우에도 항상 래핑 된 함수를 참조
     합니다.  (bpo-17482(7)를 참조하십시오)

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The *note __type_params__: 1f08. attribute is
     now copied by default.

 -- 함수: @functools.wraps (wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS,
          updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     래퍼 함수를 정의할 때 함수 데코레이터로 *note update_wrapper():
     1018.를 호출하기 위한 편의 함수입니다.  ‘partial(update_wrapper,
     wrapped=wrapped, assigned=assigned, updated=updated)’와 동등합니다.
     예를 들면:

          >>> from functools import wraps
          >>> def my_decorator(f):
          ...     @wraps(f)
          ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
          ...         print('Calling decorated function')
          ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
          ...     return wrapper
          ...
          >>> @my_decorator
          ... def example():
          ...     """Docstring"""
          ...     print('Called example function')
          ...
          >>> example()
          Calling decorated function
          Called example function
          >>> example.__name__
          'example'
          >>> example.__doc__
          'Docstring'

     Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example
     function would have been ‘'wrapper'’, and the docstring of the
     original ‘example()’ would have been lost.

* Menu:

* partial 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/functools.py

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17482


File: python.info,  Node: partial 객체,  Up: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산

5.10.2.1 ‘partial’ 객체
.......................

*note partial: 40e. 객체는 *note partial(): 40e.이 만든 콜러블 객체입니
다.  세 가지 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: partial.func

     콜러블 객체나 함수.  *note partial: 40e. 객체에 대한 호출은 새로운
     인자와 키워드와 함께 *note func: 274d.로 전달됩니다.

 -- 속성: partial.args

     *note partial: 40e. 객체 호출에 제공되는 위치 인자 앞에 추가될 가장
     왼쪽 위치 인자들입니다.

 -- 속성: partial.keywords

     *note partial: 40e. 객체가 호출될 때 제공될 키워드 인자들입니다.

*note partial: 40e. 객체는 콜러블이고, 약한 참조 가능하며, 어트리뷰트를
가질 수 있다는 점에서 *note 함수 객체: 299.와 같습니다.  몇 가지 중요한
차이점이 있습니다.  예를 들어, *note __name__: 12c4.과 *note
function.__doc__: 11c8. 어트리뷰트는 자동으로 만들어지지 않습니다.  또한
, 클래스에 정의된 *note partial: 40e. 객체는 정적 메서드처럼 동작하며 인
스턴스 어트리뷰트 조회 중에 연결된 메서드로 변환되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자,  Prev: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈

5.10.3 ‘operator’ — 함수로서의 표준 연산자
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/operator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note operator: 9f. 모듈은 파이썬의 내장 연산자에 해당하는 효율적인 함수
집합을 내보냅니다.  예를 들어, ‘operator.add(x, y)’는 ‘x+y’ 표현식과 동
등합니다.  많은 함수 이름은 특수 메서드에 사용되는 이름인데, 이중 밑줄이
없습니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, 이들 중 많은 것은 이중 밑줄이 있
는 변형을 가집니다.  이중 밑줄이 없는 변형이 명확성을 위해 선호됩니다.

함수는 객체 비교, 논리 연산, 수학 연산 및 시퀀스 연산을 수행하는 범주로
분류됩니다.

객체 비교 함수는 모든 객체에 유용하며, 이들이 지원하는 풍부한 비교(rich
comparison) 연산자의 이름을 따릅니다:

 -- 함수: operator.lt (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.le (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.eq (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.ne (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.ge (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.gt (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__lt__ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__le__ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__eq__ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ne__ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ge__ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__gt__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b' 사이에 “풍부한 비교(rich comparisons)”를 수행합니다.  구
     체적으로, ‘lt(a, b)’는 ‘a < b’와 동등하고, ‘le(a, b)’는 ‘a <= b’와
     동등하고, ‘eq(a, b)’는 ‘a == b’와 동등하고, ‘ne(a, b)’는 ‘a != b’와
     동등하고, ‘gt(a, b)’는 ‘a > b’와 동등하고, ‘ge(a, b)’는 ‘a >= b’와
     동등합니다.  이러한 함수는 불리언 값으로 해석 할 수도 있고, 그렇지
     않을 수도 있는 임의의 값을 반환 할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  풍부한
     비교에 대한 자세한 정보는 *note 비교: 207c.를 참조하십시오.

논리 연산도 일반적으로 모든 객체에 적용 할 수 있으며, 진릿값 검사, 아이
덴티티 검사 및 불리언 연산을 지원합니다:

 -- 함수: operator.not_ (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.__not__ (obj)

     *note not: 2086. 'obj'의 결과를 반환합니다.  (객체 인스턴스에는
     ‘__not__()’ 메서드가 없음에 유의하십시오; 인터프리터의 코어만이 이
     연산을 정의합니다.  결과는 *note __bool__(): 12c5.과 *note
     __len__(): 1f6b. 메서드의 영향을 받습니다.)

 -- 함수: operator.truth (obj)

     'obj'가 참이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     False: b34.를 반환합니다.  이것은 *note bool: 461. 생성자를 사용하
     는 것과 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.is_ (a, b)

     ‘a is b’를 반환합니다.  객체 아이덴티티를 검사합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.is_not (a, b)

     ‘a is not b’를 반환합니다.  객체 아이덴티티를 검사합니다.

수학적 및 비트별 연산이 가장 많습니다:

 -- 함수: operator.abs (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.__abs__ (obj)

     'obj'의 절댓값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.add (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__add__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b' 숫자에 대해, ‘a + b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.and_ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__and__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b'의 비트별 논리곱(and)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.floordiv (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__floordiv__ (a, b)

     ‘a // b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.index (a)
 -- 함수: operator.__index__ (a)

     정수로 변환된 'a'를 반환합니다.  ‘a.__index__()’와 동등합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The result always has exact type *note int:
     257.  Previously, the result could have been an instance of a
     subclass of ‘int’.

 -- 함수: operator.inv (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.invert (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.__inv__ (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.__invert__ (obj)

     숫자 'obj'의 비트별 반전을 반환합니다.  이것은 ‘~obj’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.lshift (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__lshift__ (a, b)

     'a'를 'b'만큼 왼쪽으로 시프트 한 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.mod (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__mod__ (a, b)

     ‘a % b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.mul (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__mul__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b' 숫자에 대해, ‘a * b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.matmul (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__matmul__ (a, b)

     ‘a @ b’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: operator.neg (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.__neg__ (obj)

     'obj'의 부정(‘-obj’)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.or_ (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__or__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b'의 비트별 논리합(or)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.pos (obj)
 -- 함수: operator.__pos__ (obj)

     양의 'obj'(‘+obj’)를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.pow (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__pow__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b' 숫자에 대해, ‘a ** b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.rshift (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__rshift__ (a, b)

     'a'를 'b'만큼 오른쪽으로 시프트 한 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.sub (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__sub__ (a, b)

     ‘a - b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.truediv (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__truediv__ (a, b)

     ‘a / b’를 반환합니다.  여기서 2/3는 0이 아니라 .66입니다.  이것은
     “실수(true)” 나누기라고 도합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.xor (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__xor__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b'의 비트별 배타적 논리합을 반환합니다.

시퀀스에 적용되는 연산(일부는 매핑에도 적용됩니다)은 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 함수: operator.concat (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__concat__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b' 시퀀스에 대해 ‘a + b’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.contains (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__contains__ (a, b)

     ‘b in a’ 검사의 결과를 반환합니다.  피연산자가 뒤집혀 있음에 유의하
     십시오.

 -- 함수: operator.countOf (a, b)

     'a'에서 'b'가 발생하는 횟수를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.delitem (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__delitem__ (a, b)

     'a'의 값을 인덱스 'b'에서 제거합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.getitem (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__getitem__ (a, b)

     인덱스 'b'에 있는 'a'의 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.indexOf (a, b)

     'a'에서 'b'가 처음으로 발견되는 인덱스를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.setitem (a, b, c)
 -- 함수: operator.__setitem__ (a, b, c)

     인덱스 'b'의 'a'의 값을 'c'로 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.length_hint (obj, default=0)

     'obj' 객체의 추정된 길이를 반환합니다.  먼저 실제 길이를 반환하려고
     시도한 다음, *note object.__length_hint__(): f03.를 사용하여 추정치
     를 반환하려고 하고, 마지막으로 default 값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

The following operation works with callables:

 -- 함수: operator.call (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)
 -- 함수: operator.__call__ (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

     ‘obj(*args, **kwargs)’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

*note operator: 9f. 모듈은 일반화된 어트리뷰트와 항목 조회를 위한 도구도
정의합니다.  이것은 *note map(): 85e, *note sorted(): bcb, *note
itertools.groupby(): 273d. 또는 함수 인자를 기대하는 다른 함수의 인자로
사용될 고속 필드 추출기를 만드는 데 유용합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.attrgetter (attr)

 -- 함수: operator.attrgetter (*attrs)

     피연산자에서 'attr'을 꺼내는 콜러블 객체를 반환합니다.  둘 이상의 어
     트리뷰트가 요청되면, 어트리뷰트의 튜플을 반환합니다.  어트리뷰트 이
     름은 점을 포함할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들어:

        * ‘f = attrgetter('name')’ 다음에, ‘f(b)’ 호출은 ‘b.name’을 반환
          합니다.

        * ‘f = attrgetter('name', 'date')’ 다음에, ‘f(b)’ 호출은
          ‘(b.name, b.date)’를 반환합니다.

        * ‘f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last')’ 다음에, ‘f(b)’ 호
          출은 ‘(b.name.first, b.name.last)’를 반환합니다.

     다음과 동등합니다:

          def attrgetter(*items):
              if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
                  raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
              if len(items) == 1:
                  attr = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
              return g

          def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
              for name in attr.split("."):
                  obj = getattr(obj, name)
              return obj

 -- 함수: operator.itemgetter (item)

 -- 함수: operator.itemgetter (*items)

     피연산자의 *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드를 사용하여 피연산자에서
     'item'을 꺼내는 콜러블 객체를 반환합니다.  여러 항목이 지정되면, 조
     회 값의 튜플을 반환합니다.  예를 들어:

        * ‘f = itemgetter(2)’ 다음에, ‘f(r)’ 호출은 ‘r[2]’를 반환합니다.

        * ‘g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3)’ 다음에, ‘g(r)’ 호출은 ‘(r[2], r[5],
          r[3])’을 반환합니다.

     다음과 동등합니다:

          def itemgetter(*items):
              if len(items) == 1:
                  item = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return obj[item]
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
              return g

     항목은 피연산자의 *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드에서 허용되는 모
     든 형이 될 수 있습니다.  딕셔너리는 모든 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 값을
     허용합니다.  리스트, 튜플 및 문자열은 인덱스나 슬라이스를 허용합니
     다:

          >>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
          'B'
          >>> itemgetter(1, 3, 5)('ABCDEFG')
          ('B', 'D', 'F')
          >>> itemgetter(slice(2, None))('ABCDEFG')
          'CDEFG'
          >>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
          >>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
          'captain'

     튜플 레코드에서 특정 필드를 꺼내기 위해 *note itemgetter(): a5e.를
     사용하는 예:

          >>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
          >>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
          >>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
          [3, 2, 5, 1]
          >>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
          [('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]

 -- 함수: operator.methodcaller (name, /, *args, **kwargs)

     피연산자에서 'name' 메서드를 호출하는 콜러블 객체를 반환합니다.  추
     가 인자 및/또는 키워드 인자가 주어지면, 해당 인자도 메서드에 제공됩
     니다.  예를 들어:

        * ‘f = methodcaller('name')’ 다음에, ‘f(b)’ 호출은 ‘b.name()’을
          반환합니다.

        * ‘f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1)’ 다음에, ‘f(b)’ 호출은
          ‘b.name('foo', bar=1)’을 반환합니다.

     다음과 동등합니다:

          def methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs):
              def caller(obj):
                  return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
              return caller

* Menu:

* 연산자를 함수에 매핑하기::
* 제자리 연산자::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/operator.py


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자를 함수에 매핑하기,  Next: 제자리 연산자,  Up: operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자

5.10.3.1 연산자를 함수에 매핑하기
.................................

이 표는 추상 연산이 파이썬 문법의 연산자 기호와 *note operator: 9f. 모듈
의 함수로 어떻게 대응되는지를 보여줍니다.

연산                        문법                          함수
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
더하기(Addition)            ‘a + b’                       ‘add(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
이어붙이기(Concatenation)   ‘seq1 + seq2’                 ‘concat(seq1, seq2)’
                                                          
                                                          
포함 검사(Containment       ‘obj in seq’                  ‘contains(seq, obj)’
Test)                                                     

나누기(Division)            ‘a / b’                       ‘truediv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
나누기(Division)            ‘a // b’                      ‘floordiv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
비트별 논리곱(Bitwise       ‘a & b’                       ‘and_(a, b)’
And)                                                      

비트별 배타적 논리합        ‘a ^ b’                       ‘xor(a, b)’
(Bitwise Exclusive Or)                                    

비트별 반전(Bitwise         ‘~ a’                         ‘invert(a)’
Inversion)                                                

비트별 논리합(Bitwise Or)   ‘a | b’                       ‘or_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
거듭제곱(Exponentiation)    ‘a ** b’                      ‘pow(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
아이덴티티(Identity)        ‘a is b’                      ‘is_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
아이덴티티(Identity)        ‘a is not b’                  ‘is_not(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
인덱싱된 대입(Indexed       ‘obj[k] = v’                  ‘setitem(obj, k, v)’
Assignment)                                               

인덱싱된 삭제(Indexed       ‘del obj[k]’                  ‘delitem(obj, k)’
Deletion)                                                 

인덱싱(Indexing)            ‘obj[k]’                      ‘getitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
왼쪽으로 시프트(Left        ‘a << b’                      ‘lshift(a, b)’
Shift)                                                    

모듈로(Modulo)              ‘a % b’                       ‘mod(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
곱하기(Multiplication)      ‘a * b’                       ‘mul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
행렬 곱하기(Matrix          ‘a @ b’                       ‘matmul(a, b)’
Multiplication)                                           

부정 (산술)(Negation        ‘- a’                         ‘neg(a)’
(Arithmetic))                                             

부정 (논리)(Negation        ‘not a’                       ‘not_(a)’
(Logical))                                                

양(Positive)                ‘+ a’                         ‘pos(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
오른쪽으로 시프트(Right     ‘a >> b’                      ‘rshift(a, b)’
Shift)                                                    

슬라이스 대입(Slice         ‘seq[i:j] = values’           ‘setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)’
Assignment)                                               

슬라이스 삭제(Slice         ‘del seq[i:j]’                ‘delitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
Deletion)                                                 

슬라이싱(Slicing)           ‘seq[i:j]’                    ‘getitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
문자열 포매팅(String        ‘s % obj’                     ‘mod(s, obj)’
Formatting)                                               

빼기(Subtraction)           ‘a - b’                       ‘sub(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
진릿값 검사(Truth Test)     ‘obj’                         ‘truth(obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
대소비교(Ordering)          ‘a < b’                       ‘lt(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
대소비교(Ordering)          ‘a <= b’                      ‘le(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
동등성(Equality)            ‘a == b’                      ‘eq(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
다름(Difference)            ‘a != b’                      ‘ne(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
대소비교(Ordering)          ‘a >= b’                      ‘ge(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
대소비교(Ordering)          ‘a > b’                       ‘gt(a, b)’
                                                          


File: python.info,  Node: 제자리 연산자,  Prev: 연산자를 함수에 매핑하기,  Up: operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자

5.10.3.2 제자리 연산자
......................

많은 연산에는 “제자리(in-place)” 버전이 있습니다.  아래에 나열된 것들은
일반적인 문법보다 제자리 연산자에 대한 더 기본적인 액세스를 제공하는 함
수입니다; 예를 들어, *note 문장: 2793. ‘x += y’는 ‘x = operator.iadd(x,
y)’와 동등합니다.  또 다른 식으로는, ‘z = operator.iadd(x, y)’가 복합문
‘z = x; z += y’와 동등하다고 말하는 것입니다.

이 예제들에서, 제자리 메서드가 호출될 때, 계산과 대입이 두 개의 분리된 단
계에서 수행된다는 점에 유의하십시오.  아래 나열된 제자리 함수는 제자리 메
서드를 호출하는 첫 번째 단계만 수행합니다.  두 번째 단계인 대입은 처리되
지 않습니다.

문자열, 숫자 및 튜플과 같은 불변 대상의 경우, 갱신된 값이 계산되지만, 입
력 변수에 다시 할당되지 않습니다:

     >>> a = 'hello'
     >>> iadd(a, ' world')
     'hello world'
     >>> a
     'hello'

리스트와 딕셔너리 같은 가변 대상의 경우, 제자리 메서드가 갱신을 수행하므
로, 이후 대입이 필요하지 않습니다:

     >>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
     >>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
     >>> s
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']

 -- 함수: operator.iadd (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__iadd__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iadd(a, b)’는 ‘a += b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.iand (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__iand__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iand(a, b)’는 ‘a &= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.iconcat (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__iconcat__ (a, b)

     'a'와 'b' 시퀀스에 대해, ‘a = iconcat(a, b)’는 ‘a += b’와 동등합니
     다.

 -- 함수: operator.ifloordiv (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ifloordiv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ifloordiv(a, b)’는 ‘a //= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.ilshift (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ilshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ilshift(a, b)’는 ‘a <<= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.imod (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__imod__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imod(a, b)’는 ‘a %= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.imul (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__imul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imul(a, b)’는 ‘a *= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.imatmul (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__imatmul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imatmul(a, b)’는 ‘a @= b’와 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: operator.ior (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ior__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ior(a, b)’는 ‘a |= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.ipow (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ipow__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ipow(a, b)’는 ‘a **= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.irshift (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__irshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = irshift(a, b)’는 ‘a >>= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.isub (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__isub__ (a, b)

     ‘a = isub(a, b)’는 ‘a -= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.itruediv (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__itruediv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = itruediv(a, b)’는 ‘a /= b’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: operator.ixor (a, b)
 -- 함수: operator.__ixor__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ixor(a, b)’는 ‘a ^= b’와 동등합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스,  Next: 데이터 지속성,  Prev: 함수형 프로그래밍 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.11 파일과 디렉터리 액세스
===========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 디스크 파일과 디렉터리를 다룹니다.  예를 들어,
파일의 속성을 읽고, 이식성 있는 방식으로 경로를 조작하고, 임시 파일을 만
드는 모듈이 있습니다.  이 장의 전체 모듈 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths::
* os.path — 일반적인 경로명 조작: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
* stat — stat() 결과 해석하기: stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
* filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교::
* tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성::
* glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장::
* fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치::
* linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스::
* shutil — 고수준 파일 연산::


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths,  Next: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.1 ‘pathlib’ — Object-oriented filesystem paths
---------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/pathlib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 다른 운영 체제에 적합한 의미 체계를 가진 파일 시스템 경로를 나
타내는 클래스를 제공합니다.  경로 클래스는 I/O 없이 순수한 계산 연산을 제
공하는 *note 순수한 경로: 27b4.와 순수한 경로를 상속하지만, I/O 연산도 제
공하는 *note 구상 경로: 27b5.로 구분됩니다.

[image src="python-figures/pathlib-inheritance.png" alt="Inheritance diagram showing the classes available in pathlib. The most basic class is PurePath, which has three direct subclasses: PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath, and Path. Further to these four classes, there are two classes that use multiple inheritance: PosixPath subclasses PurePosixPath and Path, and WindowsPath subclasses PureWindowsPath and Path."]


이전에 이 모듈을 사용한 적이 없거나 어떤 클래스가 작업에 적합한지 확신이
없다면, *note Path: 229.가 가장 적합할 가능성이 높습니다.  코드가 실행되
는 플랫폼의 *note 구상 경로: 27b5.를 인스턴스화 합니다.

순수한 경로는 특별한 경우에 유용합니다; 예를 들면:

  1. 유닉스 기계에서 윈도우 경로를 조작하려고 할 때 (또는 그 반대).  유
     닉스에서 실행할 때는 *note WindowsPath: 27b6.를 인스턴스화 할 수 없
     지만, *note PureWindowsPath: 170b.는 인스턴스화 할 수 있습니다.

  2. 코드가 실제로 OS에 액세스하지 않고 경로만 조작한다는 확신이 필요할
     때.  이 경우, 순수 클래스 중 하나를 인스턴스화 하면 OS 액세스 연산
     이 없어서 유용 할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 428(2): pathlib 모듈 – 객체 지향 파일 시스템 경로.

더 보기
.......

문자열에 대한 저수준 경로 조작을 위해, *note os.path: a2. 모듈을 사용할
수도 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 사용::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.
* 순수한 경로::
* 구상 경로::
* Pattern language::
* Comparison to the glob module::
* Comparison to the os and os.path modules: Comparison to the os and os path modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pathlib/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 사용,  Next: Exceptions<2>,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.1 기본 사용
..................

메인 클래스 임포트 하기:

     >>> from pathlib import Path

서브 디렉터리 나열하기:

     >>> p = Path('.')
     >>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
     [PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
      PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]

이 디렉터리 트리에 있는 파이썬 소스 파일 나열하기:

     >>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
     [PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
      PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
      PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]

디렉터리 트리 내에서 탐색하기:

     >>> p = Path('/etc')
     >>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
     >>> q
     PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
     >>> q.resolve()
     PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')

경로 속성 조회하기:

     >>> q.exists()
     True
     >>> q.is_dir()
     False

파일 열기:

     >>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
     ...
     '#!/bin/bash\n'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<2>,  Next: 순수한 경로,  Prev: 기본 사용,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.2 Exceptions
...................

 -- 예외: pathlib.UnsupportedOperation

     An exception inheriting *note NotImplementedError: 228. that is
     raised when an unsupported operation is called on a path object.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 순수한 경로,  Next: 구상 경로,  Prev: Exceptions<2>,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.3 순수한 경로
....................

순수한 경로 객체는 실제로 파일 시스템에 액세스하지 않는 경로 처리 연산을
제공합니다.  이 클래스에 액세스하는 방법에는 세 가지가 있으며, '플레이버
(flavours)'라고도 부릅니다:

 -- 클래스: pathlib.PurePath (*pathsegments)

     시스템의 경로 플레이버를 나타내는 일반 클래스 (인스턴스화 하면
     *note PurePosixPath: 27ba.나 *note PureWindowsPath: 170b.를 만듭니
     다):

          >>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
          PurePosixPath('setup.py')

     Each element of 'pathsegments' can be either a string representing
     a path segment, or an object implementing the *note os.PathLike:
     c4e. interface where the *note __fspath__(): c4f. method returns a
     string, such as another path object:

          >>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
          >>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')

     'pathsegments'가 비어 있으면, 현재 디렉터리를 가정합니다:

          >>> PurePath()
          PurePosixPath('.')

     If a segment is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored
     (like *note os.path.join(): 163a.):

          >>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
          PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
          PureWindowsPath('d:bar')

     On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted relative path
     segment (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’) is encountered:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

     Spurious slashes and single dots are collapsed, but double dots
     (‘'..'’) and leading double slashes (‘'//'’) are not, since this
     would change the meaning of a path for various reasons (e.g.
     symbolic links, UNC paths):

          >>> PurePath('foo//bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('//foo/bar')
          PurePosixPath('//foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')

     (나이브한 접근법은 ‘PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')’를
     ‘PurePosixPath('bar')’와 동등하게 만드는데, ‘foo’가 다른 디렉터리에
     대한 심볼릭 링크일 때는 잘못됩니다)

     순수한 경로 객체는 *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 구현하여, 이
     인터페이스가 허용되는 모든 위치에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스에 대한 지원이
     추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: pathlib.PurePosixPath (*pathsegments)

     *note PurePath: 4a0.의 서브 클래스, 이 경로 플레이버는 윈도우 이외
     의 파일 시스템 경로를 나타냅니다:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments'는 *note PurePath: 4a0.와 유사하게 지정됩니다.

 -- 클래스: pathlib.PureWindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 4a0, this path flavour represents
     Windows filesystem paths, including UNC paths(1):

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
          PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')

     'pathsegments'는 *note PurePath: 4a0.와 유사하게 지정됩니다.

실행 중인 시스템과 관계없이, 이러한 모든 클래스를 인스턴스화 할 수 있는
데, 시스템 호출을 수행하는 연산을 제공하지 않기 때문입니다.

* Menu:

* 일반 속성::
* 연산자: 연산자<2>.
* 개별 부분에 액세스하기::
* 메서드와 프로퍼티::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)#UNC


File: python.info,  Node: 일반 속성,  Next: 연산자<2>,  Up: 순수한 경로

5.11.1.4 일반 속성
..................

Paths are immutable and *note hashable: 60a.  Paths of a same flavour
are comparable and orderable.  These properties respect the flavour’s
case-folding semantics:

     >>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
     True

다른 플레이버의 경로는 다르다고 비교되며 대소 비교할 수 없습니다:

     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자<2>,  Next: 개별 부분에 액세스하기,  Prev: 일반 속성,  Up: 순수한 경로

5.11.1.5 연산자
...............

The slash operator helps create child paths, like *note os.path.join():
163a.  If the argument is an absolute path, the previous path is
ignored.  On Windows, the drive is not reset when the argument is a
rooted relative path (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’):

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> p
     PurePosixPath('/etc')
     >>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
     PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
     >>> q = PurePath('bin')
     >>> '/usr' / q
     PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
     >>> p / '/an_absolute_path'
     PurePosixPath('/an_absolute_path')
     >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
     PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

경로 객체는 *note os.PathLike: c4e.을 구현하는 객체가 허용되는 모든 곳에
서 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import os
     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> os.fspath(p)
     '/etc'

경로의 문자열 표현은 원시 파일 시스템 경로 자체(네이티브 형식으로, 예를
들어 윈도우에서 역 슬래시)로, 파일 경로를 문자열로 받아들이는 모든 함수
에 전달할 수 있습니다:

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> str(p)
     '/etc'
     >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
     >>> str(p)
     'c:\\Program Files'

마찬가지로, 경로에 대해 *note bytes: 1c2.를 호출하면 *note
os.fsencode(): c52.로 인코딩된 바이트열 객체로 원시 파일 시스템 경로를 제
공합니다:

     >>> bytes(p)
     b'/etc'

     참고: *note bytes: 1c2. 호출은 유닉스에서만 권장됩니다.  윈도우에서
     , 유니코드 형식이 파일 시스템 경로의 규범적(canonical) 표현입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 개별 부분에 액세스하기,  Next: 메서드와 프로퍼티,  Prev: 연산자<2>,  Up: 순수한 경로

5.11.1.6 개별 부분에 액세스하기
...............................

경로의 개별 “부분”(구성 요소)에 액세스하려면, 다음 프로퍼티를 사용하십시
오:

 -- 속성: PurePath.parts

     경로의 다양한 구성 요소로의 액세스를 제공하는 튜플:

          >>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
          >>> p.parts
          ('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
          >>> p.parts
          ('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')

     (드라이브와 로컬 루트가 단일 부분으로 다시 그룹화되는 방식에 유의하
     십시오)


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드와 프로퍼티,  Prev: 개별 부분에 액세스하기,  Up: 순수한 경로

5.11.1.7 메서드와 프로퍼티
..........................

순수한 경로는 다음과 같은 메서드와 프로퍼티를 제공합니다:

 -- 속성: PurePath.parser

     The implementation of the *note os.path: a2. module used for
     low-level path parsing and joining: either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 속성: PurePath.drive

     드라이브 문자나 이름을 나타내는 문자열, 있다면:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
          'c:'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
          ''

     UNC 공유도 드라이브로 간주합니다:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
          '\\\\host\\share'

 -- 속성: PurePath.root

     (로컬이나 글로벌) 루트를 나타내는 문자열, 있다면:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
          '\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
          '/'

     UNC 공유에는 항상 루트가 있습니다:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
          '\\'

     If the path starts with more than two successive slashes, *note
     PurePosixPath: 27ba. collapses them:

          >>> PurePosixPath('//etc').root
          '//'
          >>> PurePosixPath('///etc').root
          '/'
          >>> PurePosixPath('////etc').root
          '/'

          참고: This behavior conforms to 'The Open Group Base
          Specifications Issue 6', paragraph 4.11 Pathname
          Resolution(1):

          '“A pathname that begins with two successive slashes may be
          interpreted in an implementation-defined manner, although more
          than two leading slashes shall be treated as a single slash.”'

 -- 속성: PurePath.anchor

     드라이브와 루트의 이어 붙이기:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
          'c:\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
          'c:'
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
          '/'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
          '\\\\host\\share\\'

 -- 속성: PurePath.parents

     경로의 논리적 조상에 대한 액세스를 제공하는 불변 시퀀스:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
          >>> p.parents[0]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
          >>> p.parents[1]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
          >>> p.parents[2]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/')

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The parents sequence now supports *note slices:
     2185. and negative index values.

 -- 속성: PurePath.parent

     경로의 논리적 부모:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')

     앵커나 빈 경로를 넘어갈 수 없습니다:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('.')

          참고: 이것은 순수한 어휘(lexical) 연산이라서, 다음과 같이 동작
          합니다:

               >>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
               >>> p.parent
               PurePosixPath('foo')

          If you want to walk an arbitrary filesystem path upwards, it
          is recommended to first call *note Path.resolve(): 1703. so as
          to resolve symlinks and eliminate ‘".."’ components.

 -- 속성: PurePath.name

     드라이브와 루트를 제외하고, 마지막 경로 구성 요소를 나타내는 문자열
     , 있다면:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'

     UNC 드라이브 이름은 고려되지 않습니다:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
          ''

 -- 속성: PurePath.suffix

     The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
          '.py'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
          '.gz'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
          ''

     This is commonly called the file extension.

 -- 속성: PurePath.suffixes

     A list of the path’s suffixes, often called file extensions:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gar']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gz']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
          []

 -- 속성: PurePath.stem

     suffix가 없는, 마지막 경로 구성 요소:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
          'library.tar'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
          'library'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
          'library'

 -- 메서드: PurePath.as_posix ()

     슬래시(‘/’)가 있는 경로의 문자열 표현을 반환합니다:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
          >>> str(p)
          'c:\\windows'
          >>> p.as_posix()
          'c:/windows'

 -- 메서드: PurePath.is_absolute ()

     경로가 절대적인지 아닌지를 반환합니다.  루트와 (플레이버가 허락하면
     ) 드라이브가 모두 있으면 경로를 절대적이라고 간주합니다:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
          False

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
          True

 -- 메서드: PurePath.is_relative_to (other)

     이 경로가 'other' 경로에 상대적인지를 반환합니다.

          >>> p = PurePath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/etc')
          True
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/usr')
          False

     This method is string-based; it neither accesses the filesystem nor
     treats “‘..’” segments specially.  The following code is
     equivalent:

          >>> u = PurePath('/usr')
          >>> u == p or u in p.parents
          False

     Added in version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Passing additional arguments is deprecated; if supplied, they are
     joined with 'other'.

 -- 메서드: PurePath.is_reserved ()

     *note PureWindowsPath: 170b.에서는, 경로를 윈도우에서 예약된 것으로
     간주하면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  *note
     PurePosixPath: 27ba.에서는, 항상 ‘False’가 반환됩니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Windows path names that contain a colon, or end
     with a dot or a space, are considered reserved.  UNC paths may be
     reserved.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     This method is deprecated; use *note os.path.isreserved(): 223. to
     detect reserved paths on Windows.

 -- 메서드: PurePath.joinpath (*pathsegments)

     Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each
     of the given 'pathsegments' in turn:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

 -- 메서드: PurePath.full_match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern.  Return
     ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’ otherwise.  For example:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('a/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('*.py')
          False
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('/a/**')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('**/*.py')
          True

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Pattern language: 27c9. documentation.

     다른 메서드와 마찬가지로, 대소 문자를 구분할지는 플랫폼 기본값을 따
     릅니다:

          >>> PurePosixPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
          True

     Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or ‘False’ to override this
     behaviour.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: PurePath.match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided non-recursive glob-style
     pattern.  Return ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     This method is similar to *note full_match(): 22b, but empty
     patterns aren’t allowed (*note ValueError: 202. is raised), the
     recursive wildcard “‘**’” isn’t supported (it acts like
     non-recursive “‘*’”), and if a relative pattern is provided, then
     matching is done from the right:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
          False

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'pattern' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: PurePath.relative_to (other, walk_up=False)

     Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by
     'other'.  If it’s impossible, *note ValueError: 202. is raised:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/')
          PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/etc')
          PurePosixPath('passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/usr')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

     When 'walk_up' is false (the default), the path must start with
     'other'.  When the argument is true, ‘..’ entries may be added to
     form the relative path.  In all other cases, such as the paths
     referencing different drives, *note ValueError: 202. is raised.:

          >>> p.relative_to('/usr', walk_up=True)
          PurePosixPath('../etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('foo', walk_up=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not on the same drive as 'foo' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

          경고: This function is part of *note PurePath: 4a0. and works
          with strings.  It does not check or access the underlying file
          structure.  This can impact the 'walk_up' option as it assumes
          that no symlinks are present in the path; call *note
          resolve(): 1703. first if necessary to resolve symlinks.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'walk_up' parameter was added (old behavior
     is the same as ‘walk_up=False’).

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Passing additional positional arguments is deprecated; if supplied,
     they are joined with 'other'.

 -- 메서드: PurePath.with_name (name)

     *note name: 27c3.이 변경된 새 경로를 반환합니다.  원래 경로에 이름
     (name)이 없으면 ValueError가 발생합니다:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

 -- 메서드: PurePath.with_stem (stem)

     *note stem: 27c6.이 변경된 새 경로를 반환합니다.  원래 경로에 이름
     (name)이 없으면, ValueError가 발생합니다:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/draft.txt')
          >>> p.with_stem('final')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/final.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_stem('lib')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/lib.gz')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_stem('')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 861, in with_stem
              return self.with_name(stem + self.suffix)
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 851, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 메서드: PurePath.with_suffix (suffix)

     *note suffix: 27c4.가 변경된 새 경로를 반환합니다.  원래 경로에 접
     미사(suffix)가 없으면, 새 'suffix'가 대신 추가됩니다.  'suffix'가 빈
     문자열이면, 원래 접미사가 제거됩니다:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
          PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p.with_suffix('')
          PureWindowsPath('README')

 -- 메서드: PurePath.with_segments (*pathsegments)

     Create a new path object of the same type by combining the given
     'pathsegments'.  This method is called whenever a derivative path
     is created, such as from *note parent: 1733. and *note
     relative_to(): 2cb.  Subclasses may override this method to pass
     information to derivative paths, for example:

          from pathlib import PurePosixPath

          class MyPath(PurePosixPath):
              def __init__(self, *pathsegments, session_id):
                  super().__init__(*pathsegments)
                  self.session_id = session_id

              def with_segments(self, *pathsegments):
                  return type(self)(*pathsegments, session_id=self.session_id)

          etc = MyPath('/etc', session_id=42)
          hosts = etc / 'hosts'
          print(hosts.session_id)  # 42

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/basedefs/xbd_chap04.html#tag_04_11


File: python.info,  Node: 구상 경로,  Next: Pattern language,  Prev: 순수한 경로,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.8 구상 경로
..................

구상 경로는 순수한 경로 클래스의 서브 클래스입니다.  후자가 제공하는 연
산 외에도, 경로 객체에 대해 시스템 호출을 수행하는 메서드도 제공합니다.
구상 경로를 인스턴스화 하는 세 가지 방법이 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: pathlib.Path (*pathsegments)

     *note PurePath: 4a0.의 서브 클래스, 이 클래스는 시스템의 경로 플레
     이버의 구상 경로를 나타냅니다 (인스턴스화 하면 *note PosixPath:
     27cb.나 *note WindowsPath: 27b6.를 만듭니다):

          >>> Path('setup.py')
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     'pathsegments'는 *note PurePath: 4a0.와 유사하게 지정됩니다.

 -- 클래스: pathlib.PosixPath (*pathsegments)

     *note Path: 229.와 *note PurePosixPath: 27ba.의 서브 클래스, 이 클
     래스는 윈도우 이외의 구상 파일 시스템 경로를 나타냅니다:

          >>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments'는 *note PurePath: 4a0.와 유사하게 지정됩니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. on
     Windows.  In previous versions, *note NotImplementedError: 228. was
     raised instead.

 -- 클래스: pathlib.WindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     *note Path: 229.와 *note PureWindowsPath: 170b.의 서브 클래스, 이 클
     래스는 구상 윈도우 파일 시스템 경로를 나타냅니다:

          >>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')

     'pathsegments'는 *note PurePath: 4a0.와 유사하게 지정됩니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. on
     non-Windows platforms.  In previous versions, *note
     NotImplementedError: 228. was raised instead.

여러분의 시스템에 해당하는 클래스 플레이버만 인스턴스화 할 수 있습니다
(호환되지 않는 경로 플레이버에 대한 시스템 호출을 허용하면 응용 프로그램
에서 버그나 실패가 발생할 수 있습니다):

     >>> import os
     >>> os.name
     'posix'
     >>> Path('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> PosixPath('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
         % (cls.__name__,))
     UnsupportedOperation: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system

Some concrete path methods can raise an *note OSError: 411. if a system
call fails (for example because the path doesn’t exist).

* Menu:

* Parsing and generating URIs::
* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* Reading directories::
* Creating files and directories::
* Renaming and deleting::
* Permissions and ownership::


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing and generating URIs,  Next: Expanding and resolving paths,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.9 Parsing and generating URIs
....................................

Concrete path objects can be created from, and represented as, ‘file’
URIs conforming to RFC 8089(1).

     참고: File URIs are not portable across machines with different
     *note filesystem encodings: 27cd.

 -- 메서드: classmethod Path.from_uri (uri)

     Return a new path object from parsing a ‘file’ URI. For example:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     On Windows, DOS device and UNC paths may be parsed from URIs:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///c:/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file://server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')

     Several variant forms are supported:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:////server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file://///server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:c:/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:/c|/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')

     *note ValueError: 202. is raised if the URI does not start with
     ‘file:’, or the parsed path isn’t absolute.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: Path.as_uri ()

     Represent the path as a ‘file’ URI. *note ValueError: 202. is
     raised if the path isn’t absolute.

          >>> p = PosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///etc/passwd'
          >>> p = WindowsPath('c:/Windows')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///c:/Windows'

     For historical reasons, this method is also available from *note
     PurePath: 4a0. objects.  However, its use of *note os.fsencode():
     c52. makes it strictly impure.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8089.html


File: python.info,  Node: Expanding and resolving paths,  Next: Querying file type and status,  Prev: Parsing and generating URIs,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.10 Expanding and resolving paths
.......................................

 -- 메서드: classmethod Path.home ()

     Return a new path object representing the user’s home directory (as
     returned by *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. with ‘~’ construct).
     If the home directory can’t be resolved, *note RuntimeError: 195.
     is raised.

          >>> Path.home()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine')

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: Path.expanduser ()

     Return a new path with expanded ‘~’ and ‘~user’ constructs, as
     returned by *note os.path.expanduser(): a10.  If a home directory
     can’t be resolved, *note RuntimeError: 195. is raised.

          >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
          >>> p.expanduser()
          PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: classmethod Path.cwd ()

     현재 디렉터리를 나타내는 새 경로 객체를 반환합니다.  *note
     os.getcwd(): 15a3.가 반환하는 것과 유사합니다:

          >>> Path.cwd()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

 -- 메서드: Path.absolute ()

     Make the path absolute, without normalization or resolving
     symlinks.  Returns a new path object:

          >>> p = Path('tests')
          >>> p
          PosixPath('tests')
          >>> p.absolute()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')

 -- 메서드: Path.resolve (strict=False)

     심볼릭 링크를 결정하여, 경로를 절대적으로 만듭니다.  새로운 경로 객
     체가 반환됩니다:

          >>> p = Path()
          >>> p
          PosixPath('.')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

     “‘..’” 구성 요소도 제거됩니다 (이것이 이렇게 하는 유일한 메서드입니
     다):

          >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')

     If a path doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and
     'strict' is ‘True’, *note OSError: 411. is raised.  If 'strict' is
     ‘False’, the path is resolved as far as possible and any remainder
     is appended without checking whether it exists.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: The 'strict' parameter was added (pre-3.6
     behavior is strict).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Symlink loops are treated like other errors:
     *note OSError: 411. is raised in strict mode, and no exception is
     raised in non-strict mode.  In previous versions, *note
     RuntimeError: 195. is raised no matter the value of 'strict'.

 -- 메서드: Path.readlink ()

     심볼릭 링크가 가리키는 경로를 반환합니다 (*note os.readlink():
     91c.가 반환하는 것과 유사합니다):

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.readlink()
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. if
     *note os.readlink(): 91c. is not available.  In previous versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying file type and status,  Next: Reading and writing files,  Prev: Expanding and resolving paths,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.11 Querying file type and status
.......................................

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note exists(): a12, *note is_dir(): 230, *note
is_file(): 22f, *note is_mount(): a13, *note is_symlink(): a14, *note
is_block_device(): a15, *note is_char_device(): a16, *note is_fifo():
a17, *note is_socket(): a18. now return ‘False’ instead of raising an
exception for paths that contain characters unrepresentable at the OS
level.

 -- 메서드: Path.stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return an *note os.stat_result: 1487. object containing information
     about this path, like *note os.stat(): 49a.  The result is looked
     up at each call to this method.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note lstat(): 27d1.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.stat().st_mtime
          1327883547.852554

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.lstat ()

     *note Path.stat(): 81d.과 비슷하지만, 경로가 심볼릭 링크를 가리키면
     , 대상이 아닌 심볼릭 링크의 정보를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.exists (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to an existing file or directory.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to check if a symlink
     exists, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

          >>> Path('.').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('setup.py').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('/etc').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
          False

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a regular file, ‘False’ if it
     points to another kind of file.

     경로가 존재하지 않거나 깨진 심볼릭 링크일 때도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다
     ; 다른 에러(가령 권한 에러)는 전파됩니다.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks, add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a directory, ‘False’ if it
     points to another kind of file.

     경로가 존재하지 않거나 깨진 심볼릭 링크일 때도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다
     ; 다른 에러(가령 권한 에러)는 전파됩니다.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks to
     directories, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_symlink ()

     경로가 심볼릭 링크를 가리키면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반
     환합니다.

     경로가 존재하지 않아도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다; 다른 에러(가령 권한 오
     류)는 전파됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_junction ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a junction, and ‘False’ for any
     other type of file.  Currently only Windows supports junctions.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_mount ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path is a 'mount point': a point in a file
     system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX,
     the function checks whether 'path'’s parent, ‘path/..’, is on a
     different device than 'path', or whether ‘path/..’ and 'path' point
     to the same i-node on the same device — this should detect mount
     points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  On Windows, a mount point
     is considered to be a drive letter root (e.g.  ‘c:\’), a UNC share
     (e.g.  ‘\\server\share’), or a mounted filesystem directory.

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Windows support was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_socket ()

     경로가 유닉스 소켓(또는 유닉스 소켓을 가리키는 심볼릭 링크)을 가리
     키면 ‘True’를, 다른 유형의 파일을 가리키면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     경로가 존재하지 않거나 깨진 심볼릭 링크일 때도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다
     ; 다른 에러(가령 권한 에러)는 전파됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_fifo ()

     경로가 FIFO(또는 FIFO를 가리키는 심볼릭 링크)를 가리키면 ‘True’를,
     다른 유형의 파일을 가리키면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     경로가 존재하지 않거나 깨진 심볼릭 링크일 때도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다
     ; 다른 에러(가령 권한 에러)는 전파됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_block_device ()

     경로가 블록 장치(또는 블록 장치를 가리키는 심볼릭 링크)를 가리키면
     ‘True’를, 다른 유형의 파일을 가리키면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     경로가 존재하지 않거나 깨진 심볼릭 링크일 때도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다
     ; 다른 에러(가령 권한 에러)는 전파됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_char_device ()

     경로가 문자 장치(또는 문자 장치를 가리키는 심볼릭 링크)를 가리키면
     ‘True’를, 다른 유형의 파일을 가리키면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     경로가 존재하지 않거나 깨진 심볼릭 링크일 때도 ‘False’가 반환됩니다
     ; 다른 에러(가령 권한 에러)는 전파됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.samefile (other_path)

     이 경로가 'other_path'와 같은 파일을 가리키는지를 반환합니다.
     'other_path'는 Path 객체이거나 문자열일 수 있습니다.  의미는 *note
     os.path.samefile(): f69.과 *note os.path.samestat(): f68.과 유사합
     니다.

     어떤 이유로 파일에 액세스할 수 없으면 *note OSError: 411.가 발생할
     수 있습니다.

          >>> p = Path('spam')
          >>> q = Path('eggs')
          >>> p.samefile(q)
          False
          >>> p.samefile('spam')
          True

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing files,  Next: Reading directories,  Prev: Querying file type and status,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.12 Reading and writing files
...................................

 -- 메서드: Path.open (mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     내장 *note open(): 515. 함수처럼, 경로가 가리키는 파일을 엽니다:

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> with p.open() as f:
          ...     f.readline()
          ...
          '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'

 -- 메서드: Path.read_text (encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     가리키는 파일의 디코딩된 내용을 문자열로 반환합니다:

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     파일이 열린 다음에 닫힙니다.  선택적 매개 변수는 *note open():
     515.과 같은 의미입니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'newline' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.read_bytes ()

     가리키는 파일의 바이너리 내용을 바이트열 객체로 반환합니다:

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: Path.write_text (data, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     가리키는 파일을 텍스트 모드로 열고, 'data'를 쓴 다음, 파일을 닫습니
     다:

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     같은 이름의 기존 파일을 덮어씁니다.  선택적 매개 변수는 *note
     open(): 515.에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'newline' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.write_bytes (data)

     가리키는 파일을 바이너리 모드로 열고, 'data'를 쓴 다음, 파일을 닫습
     니다:

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     같은 이름의 기존 파일을 덮어씁니다.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading directories,  Next: Creating files and directories,  Prev: Reading and writing files,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.13 Reading directories
.............................

 -- 메서드: Path.iterdir ()

     경로가 디렉터리를 가리킬 때, 디렉터리 내용의 경로 객체를 산출합니다
     :

          >>> p = Path('docs')
          >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
          ...
          PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
          PosixPath('docs/_templates')
          PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
          PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
          PosixPath('docs/_build')
          PosixPath('docs/_static')
          PosixPath('docs/Makefile')

     The children are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special
     entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed
     from or added to the directory after creating the iterator, it is
     unspecified whether a path object for that file is included.

     If the path is not a directory or otherwise inaccessible, *note
     OSError: 411. is raised.

 -- 메서드: Path.glob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None,
          recurse_symlinks=False)

     이 경로로 표현되는 디렉터리에서, 주어진 상대 'pattern'을 glob 하여,
     일치하는 모든 파일을 (종류와 관계없이) 산출합니다:

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
          [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Pattern language: 27c9. documentation.

     By default, or when the 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘None’, this method matches paths using platform-specific
     casing rules: typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and
     case-insensitive on Windows.  Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to override this behaviour.

     By default, or when the 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘False’, this method follows symlinks except when expanding
     “‘**’” wildcards.  Set 'recurse_symlinks' to ‘True’ to always
     follow symlinks.

     인자 ‘self’, ‘pattern’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘pathlib.Path.glob’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'recurse_symlinks' parameter was added.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'pattern' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Any *note OSError: 411. exceptions raised from
     scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  In previous versions, such
     exceptions are suppressed in many cases, but not all.

 -- 메서드: Path.rglob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None,
          recurse_symlinks=False)

     Glob the given relative 'pattern' recursively.  This is like
     calling *note Path.glob(): 22d. with “‘**/’” added in front of the
     'pattern'.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Pattern language: 27c9. and *note Path.glob(): 22d.
     documentation.

     인자 ‘self’, ‘pattern’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘pathlib.Path.rglob’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'recurse_symlinks' parameter was added.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'pattern' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

 -- 메서드: Path.walk (top_down=True, on_error=None,
          follow_symlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.

     For each directory in the directory tree rooted at 'self'
     (including 'self' but excluding ‘.’ and ‘..’), the method yields a
     3-tuple of ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a *note Path: 229. to the directory currently being
     walked, 'dirnames' is a list of strings for the names of
     subdirectories in 'dirpath' (excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’), and
     'filenames' is a list of strings for the names of the non-directory
     files in 'dirpath'.  To get a full path (which begins with 'self')
     to a file or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘dirpath / name’.  Whether
     or not the lists are sorted is file system-dependent.

     If the optional argument 'top_down' is true (which is the default),
     the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any
     of its subdirectories (directories are walked top-down).  If
     'top_down' is false, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are walked
     bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'top_down', the list of
     subdirectories is retrieved before the triples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are walked.

     When 'top_down' is true, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (for example, using *note del: 17ad. or slice assignment),
     and *note Path.walk(): 4a2. will only recurse into the
     subdirectories whose names remain in 'dirnames'.  This can be used
     to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting, or
     even to inform *note Path.walk(): 4a2. about directories the caller
     creates or renames before it resumes *note Path.walk(): 4a2. again.
     Modifying 'dirnames' when 'top_down' is false has no effect on the
     behavior of *note Path.walk(): 4a2. since the directories in
     'dirnames' have already been generated by the time 'dirnames' is
     yielded to the caller.

     By default, errors from *note os.scandir(): a5b. are ignored.  If
     the optional argument 'on_error' is specified, it should be a
     callable; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     411. instance.  The callable can handle the error to continue the
     walk or re-raise it to stop the walk.  Note that the filename is
     available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, *note Path.walk(): 4a2. does not follow symbolic links,
     and instead adds them to the 'filenames' list.  Set
     'follow_symlinks' to true to resolve symlinks and place them in
     'dirnames' and 'filenames' as appropriate for their targets, and
     consequently visit directories pointed to by symlinks (where
     supported).

          참고: Be aware that setting 'follow_symlinks' to true can lead
          to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent directory
          of itself.  *note Path.walk(): 4a2. does not keep track of the
          directories it has already visited.

          참고: *note Path.walk(): 4a2. assumes the directories it walks
          are not modified during execution.  For example, if a
          directory from 'dirnames' has been replaced with a symlink and
          'follow_symlinks' is false, *note Path.walk(): 4a2. will still
          try to descend into it.  To prevent such behavior, remove
          directories from 'dirnames' as appropriate.

          참고: Unlike *note os.walk(): 4a3, *note Path.walk(): 4a2.
          lists symlinks to directories in 'filenames' if
          'follow_symlinks' is false.

     This example displays the number of bytes used by all files in each
     directory, while ignoring ‘__pycache__’ directories:

          from pathlib import Path
          for root, dirs, files in Path("cpython/Lib/concurrent").walk(on_error=print):
            print(
                root,
                "consumes",
                sum((root / file).stat().st_size for file in files),
                "bytes in",
                len(files),
                "non-directory files"
            )
            if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')

     This next example is a simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.  Walking the tree bottom-up is essential as
     *note rmdir(): 27d5. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before it
     is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory "top".
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous! For example, if top == Path('/'),
          # it could delete all of your files.
          for root, dirs, files in top.walk(top_down=False):
              for name in files:
                  (root / name).unlink()
              for name in dirs:
                  (root / name).rmdir()

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating files and directories,  Next: Renaming and deleting,  Prev: Reading directories,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.14 Creating files and directories
........................................

 -- 메서드: Path.touch (mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)

     Create a file at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it is
     combined with the process’s ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the file already exists, the function
     succeeds when 'exist_ok' is true (and its modification time is
     updated to the current time), otherwise *note FileExistsError:
     1016. is raised.

     더 보기
     .......

     The *note open(): 27d3, *note write_text(): e40. and *note
     write_bytes(): e42. methods are often used to create files.

 -- 메서드: Path.mkdir (mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)

     Create a new directory at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it
     is combined with the process’s ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the path already exists, *note
     FileExistsError: 1016. is raised.

     'parents'가 참이면, 이 경로의 누락 된 부모를 필요하면 만듭니다; 이
     것들은 'mode'를 고려하지 않고 기본 권한으로 만들어집니다 (POSIX
     ‘mkdir -p’ 명령을 모방합니다).

     'parents'가 거짓(기본값)이면, 누락된 부모가 *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425.를 발생시킵니다.

     'exist_ok'가 거짓(기본값)이면, 대상 디렉터리가 이미 존재하면 *note
     FileExistsError: 1016.가 발생합니다.

     If 'exist_ok' is true, *note FileExistsError: 1016. will not be
     raised unless the given path already exists in the file system and
     is not a directory (same behavior as the POSIX ‘mkdir -p’ command).

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'exist_ok' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.symlink_to (target, target_is_directory=False)

     Make this path a symbolic link pointing to 'target'.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is true or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.lstat().st_size
          8

          참고: 인자의 순서(링크, 대상)는 *note os.symlink(): 10e6.와 반
          대입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. if
     *note os.symlink(): 10e6. is not available.  In previous versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. was raised.

 -- 메서드: Path.hardlink_to (target)

     Make this path a hard link to the same file as 'target'.

          참고: The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse of
          *note os.link(): 10e1.’s.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. if
     *note os.link(): 10e1. is not available.  In previous versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Renaming and deleting,  Next: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Creating files and directories,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.15 Renaming and deleting
...............................

 -- 메서드: Path.rename (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  On Unix, if 'target'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  On Windows, if 'target' exists, *note FileExistsError:
     1016. will be raised.  'target' can be either a string or another
     path object:

          >>> p = Path('foo')
          >>> p.open('w').write('some text')
          9
          >>> target = Path('bar')
          >>> p.rename(target)
          PosixPath('bar')
          >>> target.open().read()
          'some text'

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     It is implemented in terms of *note os.rename(): 10e3. and gives
     the same guarantees.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Added return value, return the new ‘Path’
     instance.

 -- 메서드: Path.replace (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  If 'target' points to an
     existing file or empty directory, it will be unconditionally
     replaced.

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Added return value, return the new ‘Path’
     instance.

 -- 메서드: Path.unlink (missing_ok=False)

     이 파일이나 심볼릭 링크를 제거합니다.  경로가 디렉터리를 가리키면,
     *note Path.rmdir(): 27d5.을 대신 사용하십시오.

     'missing_ok'가 거짓(기본값)이면, 경로가 없을 때 *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425.가 발생합니다.

     'missing_ok'가 참이면, *note FileNotFoundError: 425. 예외는 무시됩
     니다 (POSIX ‘rm -f’ 명령과 같은 동작).

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'missing_ok' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.rmdir ()

     이 디렉터리를 제거합니다.  디렉터리는 비어 있어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Renaming and deleting,  Up: 구상 경로

5.11.1.16 Permissions and ownership
...................................

 -- 메서드: Path.owner (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the name of the user owning the file.  *note KeyError: 33d.
     is raised if the file’s user identifier (UID) isn’t found in the
     system database.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to get the owner of the
     symlink, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. if the
     *note pwd: b2. module is not available.  In earlier versions, *note
     NotImplementedError: 228. was raised.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.group (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the name of the group owning the file.  *note KeyError: 33d.
     is raised if the file’s group identifier (GID) isn’t found in the
     system database.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to get the group of the
     symlink, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 227. if the
     *note grp: 66. module is not available.  In earlier versions, *note
     NotImplementedError: 228. was raised.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.chmod (mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the file mode and permissions, like *note os.chmod(): 21b.

     This method normally follows symlinks.  Some Unix flavours support
     changing permissions on the symlink itself; on these platforms you
     may add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note
     lchmod(): 27dc.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33277
          >>> p.chmod(0o444)
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33060

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- 메서드: Path.lchmod (mode)

     *note Path.chmod(): 81e.와 비슷하지만, 경로가 심볼릭 링크를 가리키
     면, 대상이 아닌 심볼릭 링크의 모드가 변경됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern language,  Next: Comparison to the glob module,  Prev: 구상 경로,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.17 Pattern language
..........................

The following wildcards are supported in patterns for *note
full_match(): 22b, *note glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e.:

‘**’ (entire segment)

     Matches any number of file or directory segments, including zero.

‘*’ (entire segment)

     Matches one file or directory segment.

‘*’ (part of a segment)

     Matches any number of non-separator characters, including zero.

‘?’

     Matches one non-separator character.

‘[seq]’

     Matches one character in 'seq', where 'seq' is a sequence of
     characters.  Range expressions are supported; for example, ‘[a-z]’
     matches any lowercase ASCII letter.  Multiple ranges can be
     combined: ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ matches any ASCII letter, digit, or
     underscore.

‘[!seq]’

     Matches one character not in 'seq', where 'seq' follows the same
     rules as above.

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘"[?]"’ matches the character ‘"?"’.

The “‘**’” wildcard enables recursive globbing.  A few examples:

Pattern                       Meaning
                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
“‘**/*’”                      Any path with at least one segment.
                              
                              
“‘**/*.py’”                   Any path with a final segment ending “‘.py’”.
                              
                              
“‘assets/**’”                 Any path starting with “‘assets/’”.
                              
                              
“‘assets/**/*’”               Any path starting with “‘assets/’”, excluding “‘assets/’” itself.
                              

     참고: Globbing with the “‘**’” wildcard visits every directory in
     the tree.  Large directory trees may take a long time to search.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Globbing with a pattern that ends with “‘**’”
returns both files and directories.  In previous versions, only
directories were returned.

In *note Path.glob(): 22d. and *note rglob(): 22e, a trailing slash may
be added to the pattern to match only directories.

버전 3.11에서 변경: Globbing with a pattern that ends with a pathname
components separator (*note sep: 664. or *note altsep: 665.) returns
only directories.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison to the glob module,  Next: Comparison to the os and os path modules,  Prev: Pattern language,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.18 Comparison to the ‘glob’ module
.........................................

The patterns accepted and results generated by *note Path.glob(): 22d.
and *note Path.rglob(): 22e. differ slightly from those by the *note
glob: 64. module:

  1. Files beginning with a dot are not special in pathlib.  This is
     like passing ‘include_hidden=True’ to *note glob.glob(): 29f.

  2. “‘**’” pattern components are always recursive in pathlib.  This is
     like passing ‘recursive=True’ to *note glob.glob(): 29f.

  3. “‘**’” pattern components do not follow symlinks by default in
     pathlib.  This behaviour has no equivalent in *note glob.glob():
     29f, but you can pass ‘recurse_symlinks=True’ to *note Path.glob():
     22d. for compatible behaviour.

  4. Like all *note PurePath: 4a0. and *note Path: 229. objects, the
     values returned from *note Path.glob(): 22d. and *note
     Path.rglob(): 22e. don’t include trailing slashes.

  5. The values returned from pathlib’s ‘path.glob()’ and ‘path.rglob()’
     include the 'path' as a prefix, unlike the results of
     ‘glob.glob(root_dir=path)’.

  6. The values returned from pathlib’s ‘path.glob()’ and ‘path.rglob()’
     may include 'path' itself, for example when globbing “‘**’”,
     whereas the results of ‘glob.glob(root_dir=path)’ never include an
     empty string that would correspond to 'path'.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison to the os and os path modules,  Prev: Comparison to the glob module,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.19 Comparison to the ‘os’ and ‘os.path’ modules
......................................................

pathlib implements path operations using *note PurePath: 4a0. and *note
Path: 229. objects, and so it’s said to be 'object-oriented'.  On the
other hand, the *note os: a1. and *note os.path: a2. modules supply
functions that work with low-level ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ objects, which is a
more 'procedural' approach.  Some users consider the object-oriented
style to be more readable.

Many functions in *note os: a1. and *note os.path: a2. support ‘bytes’
paths and *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 10dc.  These
features aren’t available in pathlib.

Python’s ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ types, and portions of the *note os: a1. and
*note os.path: a2. modules, are written in C and are very speedy.
pathlib is written in pure Python and is often slower, but rarely slow
enough to matter.

pathlib’s path normalization is slightly more opinionated and consistent
than *note os.path: a2.  For example, whereas *note os.path.abspath():
130b. eliminates “‘..’” segments from a path, which may change its
meaning if symlinks are involved, *note Path.absolute(): 16b5. preserves
these segments for greater safety.

pathlib’s path normalization may render it unsuitable for some
applications:

  1. pathlib normalizes ‘Path("my_folder/")’ to ‘Path("my_folder")’,
     which changes a path’s meaning when supplied to various operating
     system APIs and command-line utilities.  Specifically, the absence
     of a trailing separator may allow the path to be resolved as either
     a file or directory, rather than a directory only.

  2. pathlib normalizes ‘Path("./my_program")’ to ‘Path("my_program")’,
     which changes a path’s meaning when used as an executable search
     path, such as in a shell or when spawning a child process.
     Specifically, the absence of a separator in the path may force it
     to be looked up in ‘PATH’ rather than the current directory.

As a consequence of these differences, pathlib is not a drop-in
replacement for *note os.path: a2.

* Menu:

* Corresponding tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Corresponding tools,  Up: Comparison to the os and os path modules

5.11.1.20 Corresponding tools
.............................

아래는 다양한 *note os: a1. 함수를 해당 *note PurePath: 4a0./*note Path:
229. 대응 물에 매핑하는 표입니다.

*note os: a1. and *note os.path: a2.      *note pathlib: a4.
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
*note os.path.dirname(): 27e1.            *note PurePath.parent: 1733.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.basename(): 27e2.           *note PurePath.name: 27c3.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.splitext(): 27e3.           *note PurePath.stem: 27c6,
                                          *note PurePath.suffix: 27c4.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.join(): 163a.               *note PurePath.joinpath(): 27c8.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isabs(): 224.               *note PurePath.is_absolute(): 1732.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.relpath(): 4a4.             *note PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb. (1)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.expanduser(): a10.          *note Path.expanduser(): e3e. (2)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.realpath(): 225.            *note Path.resolve(): 1703.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.abspath(): 130b.            *note Path.absolute(): 16b5. (3)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.exists(): a0a.              *note Path.exists(): a12.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isfile(): a0d.              *note Path.is_file(): 22f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isdir(): a0c.               *note Path.is_dir(): 230.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.islink(): a08.              *note Path.is_symlink(): a14.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isjunction(): 49d.          *note Path.is_junction(): 4a5.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.ismount(): a0e.             *note Path.is_mount(): a13.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.samefile(): f69.            *note Path.samefile(): e3c.
                                          
                                          
*note os.getcwd(): 15a3.                  *note Path.cwd(): 1731.
                                          
                                          
*note os.stat(): 49a.                     *note Path.stat(): 81d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lstat(): 49b.                    *note Path.lstat(): 27d1.
                                          
                                          
*note os.listdir(): 10eb.                 *note Path.iterdir(): 1638.
                                          
                                          
*note os.walk(): 4a3.                     *note Path.walk(): 4a2. (4)
                                          
                                          
*note os.mkdir(): 21d,                    *note Path.mkdir(): e3d.
*note os.makedirs(): 21e.                 

*note os.link(): 10e1.                    *note Path.hardlink_to(): 81b.
                                          
                                          
*note os.symlink(): 10e6.                 *note Path.symlink_to(): 81c.
                                          
                                          
*note os.readlink(): 91c.                 *note Path.readlink(): 91d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.rename(): 10e3.                  *note Path.rename(): 27d9.
                                          
                                          
*note os.replace(): 10e4.                 *note Path.replace(): 27da.
                                          
                                          
*note os.remove(): 10e2,                  *note Path.unlink(): 19f9.
*note os.unlink(): 10e7.                  

*note os.rmdir(): 10e5.                   *note Path.rmdir(): 27d5.
                                          
                                          
*note os.chmod(): 21b.                    *note Path.chmod(): 81e.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lchmod(): 21a.                   *note Path.lchmod(): 27dc.
                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note os.path.relpath(): 4a4. calls *note abspath(): 130b. to
make paths absolute and remove “‘..’” parts, whereas *note
PurePath.relative_to(): 2cb. is a lexical operation that raises *note
ValueError: 202. when its inputs’ anchors differ (e.g.  if one path is
absolute and the other relative.)

   (2) *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. returns the path unchanged if
the home directory can’t be resolved, whereas *note Path.expanduser():
e3e. raises *note RuntimeError: 195.

   (3) *note os.path.abspath(): 130b. removes “‘..’” components without
resolving symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas
*note Path.absolute(): 16b5. leaves any “‘..’” components in the path.

   (4) *note os.walk(): 4a3. always follows symlinks when categorizing
paths into 'dirnames' and 'filenames', whereas *note Path.walk(): 4a2.
categorizes all symlinks into 'filenames' when 'follow_symlinks' is
false (the default.)


File: python.info,  Node: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작,  Next: stat — stat 결과 해석하기,  Prev: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.2 ‘os.path’ — 일반적인 경로명 조작
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/genericpath.py(1), Lib/posixpath.py(2) (POSIX용) 및
Lib/ntpath.py(3) (윈도우용)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 경로명에 유용한 함수를 구현합니다.  파일을 읽거나 쓰려면 *note
open(): 515.을 참조하고, 파일 시스템에 액세스하려면 *note os: a1. 모듈을
참조하십시오.  경로 매개 변수는 문자열, 바이트열 또는 *note os.PathLike:
c4e. 프로토콜을 구현하는 모든 객체로 전달할 수 있습니다.

유닉스 셸과 달리, 파이썬은 어떤 '자동' 경로 확장도 수행하지 않습니다.
*note expanduser(): a10.와 *note expandvars(): 13a2.와 같은 함수는 응용
프로그램이 셸과 같은 경로 확장을 원할 때 명시적으로 호출할 수 있습니다.
(*note glob: 64. 모듈도 참조하십시오.)

더 보기
.......

*note pathlib: a4. 모듈은 고수준의 경로 객체를 제공합니다.

     참고: 이 모든 함수는 매개 변수가 모두 바이트열 객체이거나 모두 문자
     열 객체인 것만 허락합니다.  경로나 파일 이름이 반환되면, 결과는 같
     은 형의 객체입니다.

     참고: 운영 체제마다 경로 이름 규칙이 다르기 때문에, 표준 라이브러리
     에 이 모듈의 여러 버전이 있습니다.  *note os.path: a2. 모듈은 항상
     파이썬이 실행 중인 운영 체제에 적합한 경로 모듈이고, 따라서 지역 경
     로에 사용할 수 있습니다.  그러나, '항상' 다른 형식 중 하나인 경로를
     조작하려면 개별 모듈을 임포트 해서 사용할 수도 있습니다.  그들은 모
     두 같은 인터페이스를 가지고 있습니다:

        * 유닉스 스타일 경로는 ‘posixpath’

        * 윈도우 경로는 ‘ntpath’

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note exists(): a0a, *note lexists(): a0b, *note
isdir(): a0c, *note isfile(): a0d, *note islink(): a08. 및 *note
ismount(): a0e.는 이제 OS 수준에서 표현할 수 없는 문자나 바이트를 포함하
는 경로에 대해 예외를 발생시키는 대신 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.abspath (path)

     경로명 'path'의 정규화된 절대 버전을 반환합니다.  대부분의 플랫폼에
     서, 이는 다음과 같이 *note normpath(): 130a. 함수를 호출하는 것과 동
     등합니다: ‘normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))’.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.basename (path, /)

     경로명 'path'의 기본 이름을 반환합니다.  이것은 'path'를 함수 *note
     split(): 27e6.에 전달하여 반환된 쌍의 두 번째 요소입니다.  이 함수
     의 결과는 유닉스 ‘basename’ 프로그램과 다름에 유의하십시오;
     ‘'/foo/bar/'’에 대해 ‘basename’은 ‘'bar'’를 반환하고, *note
     basename(): 27e2. 함수는 빈 문자열(‘''’)을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.commonpath (paths)

     이터러블 'paths'에 있는 각 경로명의 가장 긴 공통 하위 경로
     (sub-path)를 반환합니다.  'paths'에 절대 경로명과 상대 경로명이 모
     두 있거나, 'paths'가 다른 드라이브에 있거나, 'paths'가 비어 있으면
     *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  *note commonprefix(): e3a.와
     달리, 유효한 경로를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.의 시퀀스를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Any iterable can now be passed, rather than
     just sequences.

 -- 함수: os.path.commonprefix (list, /)

     'list'에 있는 모든 경로의 접두사인 가장 긴 경로 접두사(문자 단위로
     취합니다)를 반환합니다.  'list'가 비어 있으면, 빈 문자열(‘''’)을 반
     환합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 한 번에 한 문자씩 다루기 때문에 유효하지 않은
          경로를 반환할 수 있습니다.  유효한 경로를 얻으려면, *note
          commonpath(): e39.를 참조하십시오.

               >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr/l'

               >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr'

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.dirname (path, /)

     경로명 'path'의 디렉터리 이름을 반환합니다.  이것은 'path'를 함수
     *note split(): 27e6.에 전달하여 반환된 쌍의 첫 번째 요소입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.exists (path)

     'path'가 기존 경로나 열린 파일 기술자를 참조하면 ‘True’를 반환합니
     다.  깨진 심볼릭 링크에 대해서는 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  일부 플랫폼
     에서, 'path'가 물리적으로 존재하더라도, 요청된 파일에 대해 *note
     os.stat(): 49a.을 실행할 권한이 없으면 이 함수는 ‘False’를 반환할 수
     있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'path'는 이제 정수가 될 수 있습니다: 열린 파일 기
     술자이면 ‘True’가 반환되고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’가 반환됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.lexists (path)

     'path'가 깨진 심볼릭 링크를 포함하여 기존 경로를 참조하면 ‘True’를
     반환합니다.  *note os.lstat(): 49b.이 없는 플랫폼에서 *note
     exists(): a0a.와 동등합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.expanduser (path)

     유닉스와 윈도우에서, ‘~’나 ‘~user’의 초기 구성 요소가 해당 '사용자
     '의 홈 디렉터리로 치환된 인자를 반환합니다.

     유닉스에서, 초기 ‘~’는 환경 변수 ‘HOME’이 설정되어 있다면 그것으로
     치환됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 현재 사용자의 홈 디렉터리가 내장 모듈
     *note pwd: b2.를 통해 비밀번호 디렉터리에서 조회됩니다.  초기
     ‘~user’는 비밀번호 디렉터리에서 직접 조회됩니다.

     윈도우에서, ‘USERPROFILE’이 설정되었으면 이것이 사용됩니다, 그렇지
     않으면 ‘HOMEPATH’와 ‘HOMEDRIVE’의 조합이 사용됩니다.  초기 ‘~user’는
     현재 사용자의 홈 디렉터리의 마지막 디렉터리 구성 요소가 ‘USERNAME’과
     일치하는지 확인하고, 일치하면 교체하는 방식으로 처리됩니다.

     확장이 실패하거나 경로가 물결표로 시작하지 않으면, 경로는 변경되지
     않은 상태로 반환됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 더는 윈도우에서 ‘HOME’을 사용하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.expandvars (path)

     환경 변수로 확장된 인자를 반환합니다.  ‘$name’이나 ‘${name}’ 형식의
     부분 문자열이 환경 변수 'name'의 값으로 치환됩니다.  잘못된 변수 이
     름과 존재하지 않는 변수에 대한 참조는 변경되지 않고 남습니다.

     윈도우에서, ‘$name’과 ‘${name}’ 외에 ‘%name%’ 확장이 지원됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.getatime (path, /)

     'path'의 마지막 액세스 시간을 반환합니다.  반환 값은 에포크(epoch)
     이후 초 수를 나타내는 부동 소수점 숫자입니다 (*note time: ee. 모듈
     을 참조하십시오).  파일이 없거나 액세스할 수 없으면 *note OSError:
     411.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.getmtime (path, /)

     'path'를 마지막으로 수정한 시간을 반환합니다.  반환 값은 에포크
     (epoch) 이후 초 수를 나타내는 부동 소수점 숫자입니다 (*note time:
     ee. 모듈을 참조하십시오).  파일이 없거나 액세스할 수 없으면 *note
     OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.getctime (path, /)

     시스템의 ctime을 반환하는데, 일부 시스템(가령 유닉스)에서는 마지막
     메타 데이터 변경 시간이고, 다른 시스템(가령 윈도우)에서는 'path' 생
     성 시간입니다.  반환 값은 에포크(epoch) 이후 초 수를 나타내는 부동
     소수점 숫자입니다 (*note time: ee. 모듈을 참조하십시오).  파일이 없
     거나 액세스할 수 없으면 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.getsize (path, /)

     'path'의 크기를 바이트 단위로 반환합니다.  파일이 없거나 액세스할 수
     없으면 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.isabs (path, /)

     'path'가 절대 경로명이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  유닉스에서는 슬래시
     로 시작하고, 윈도우에서는 두 개의 (역)슬래시나 드라이브 문자, 콜론
     및 (역)슬래시를 합친 것으로 시작함을 의미합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: On Windows, returns ‘False’ if the given path
     starts with exactly one (back)slash.

 -- 함수: os.path.isfile (path)

     'path'가 *note 존재하는: a0a. 일반 파일이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이
     것은 심볼릭 링크를 따르므로, 같은 경로에 대해 *note islink(): a08.와
     *note isfile(): a0d.이 모두 참일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.isdir (path, /)

     'path'가 *note 존재하는: a0a. 디렉터리이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이
     것은 심볼릭 링크를 따르므로, 같은 경로에 대해 *note islink(): a08.와
     *note isdir(): a0c.이 모두 참일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.isjunction (path)

     'path'가 정션(junction)인 *note 존재하는: a0b. 디렉터리 항목을 가리
     키면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  현재 플랫폼에서 정션을 지원하지 않으면 항
     상 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.path.islink (path)

     'path'가 심볼릭 링크인 *note 존재하는: a0a. 디렉터리 항목을 가리키
     면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  파이썬 런타임에서 심볼릭 링크를 지원하지 않
     으면 항상 ‘False’입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.ismount (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is a 'mount point': a point in a
     file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On
     POSIX, the function checks whether 'path'’s parent, ‘`path'/..’, is
     on a different device than 'path', or whether ‘`path'/..’ and
     'path' point to the same i-node on the same device — this should
     detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  It is not
     able to reliably detect bind mounts on the same filesystem.  On
     Linux systems, it will always return ‘True’ for btrfs subvolumes,
     even if they aren’t mount points.  On Windows, a drive letter root
     and a share UNC are always mount points, and for any other path
     ‘GetVolumePathName’ is called to see if it is different from the
     input path.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 윈도우에서 비 루트 마운트 지점 감지 지원을 추가
     했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.isdevdrive (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is located on a Windows Dev Drive.
     A Dev Drive is optimized for developer scenarios, and offers faster
     performance for reading and writing files.  It is recommended for
     use for source code, temporary build directories, package caches,
     and other IO-intensive operations.

     May raise an error for an invalid path, for example, one without a
     recognizable drive, but returns ‘False’ on platforms that do not
     support Dev Drives.  See the Windows documentation(4) for
     information on enabling and creating Dev Drives.

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The function is now available on all platforms,
     and will always return ‘False’ on those that have no support for
     Dev Drives

 -- 함수: os.path.isreserved (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is a reserved pathname on the current
     system.

     On Windows, reserved filenames include those that end with a space
     or dot; those that contain colons (i.e.  file streams such as
     “name:stream”), wildcard characters (i.e.  ‘'*?"<>'’), pipe, or
     ASCII control characters; as well as DOS device names such as
     “NUL”, “CON”, “CONIN$”, “CONOUT$”, “AUX”, “PRN”, “COM1”, and
     “LPT1”.

          참고: This function approximates rules for reserved paths on
          most Windows systems.  These rules change over time in various
          Windows releases.  This function may be updated in future
          Python releases as changes to the rules become broadly
          available.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.path.join (path, /, *paths)

     하나 이상의 경로 세그먼트를 지능적으로 결합합니다.  반환 값은 마지
     막을 제외한 'path'와 '*paths'의 모든 멤버에 대해 비어 있지 않은 각
     부분 다음에 정확히 하나의 디렉터리 구분자가 오도록 이어붙인 것입니
     다.  즉 마지막 부분이 비어 있거나 구분자로 끝날 때만 결과가 구분자
     로 끝남을 의미합니다.  세그먼트가 절대 경로이면 (윈도우에서는 드라
     이브와 루트가 모두 필요합니다), 그 앞의 모든 세그먼트가 무시되고 절
     대 경로 세그먼트에서부터 결합이 계속됩니다.

     윈도우에서 루트 경로 세그먼트(예를 들어 ‘r'\foo'’)를 만날 때 드라이
     브가 재설정되지 않습니다.  세그먼트가 다른 드라이브이거나 절대 경로
     면, 이전의 모든세그먼트는 무시되고 드라이브를 재설정합니다.  각 드
     라이브에 현재 디렉터리가 있기 때문에, ‘os.path.join("c:", "foo")’는
     ‘c:\foo’가 아니라 드라이브 ‘C:’의 현재 디렉터리에 상대적인 경로를 나
     타냅니다 (‘c:foo’).

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'path'와 'paths'에 대해 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를
     받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.normcase (path, /)

     경로명의 대소 문자를 정규화합니다.  윈도우에서는, 경로명의 모든 문
     자를 소문자로 변환하고, 슬래시도 역 슬래시로 변환합니다.  다른 운영
     체제에서는, 경로를 변경하지 않고 반환합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.normpath (path)

     중복된 구분자와 상위 수준 참조를 접어 경로명을 정규화합니다.  그래
     서 ‘A//B’, ‘A/B/’, ‘A/./B’ 및 ‘A/foo/../B’가 모두 ‘A/B’가 됩니다.  이
     문자열 조작은 심볼릭 링크가 포함된 경로의 의미를 변경할 수 있습니다
     .  윈도우에서는, 슬래시를 역 슬래시로 변환합니다.  대소 문자를 정규
     화하려면, *note normcase(): 27eb.를 사용하십시오.

          참고: On POSIX systems, in accordance with IEEE Std 1003.1
          2013 Edition; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(5), if a pathname
          begins with exactly two slashes, the first component following
          the leading characters may be interpreted in an
          implementation-defined manner, although more than two leading
          characters shall be treated as a single character.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.realpath (path, /, *, strict=False)

     (운영 체제에서 지원한다면) 경로에서 발견된 심볼릭 링크를 제거해서 지
     정된 파일명의 규범적(canonical) 경로를 반환합니다.  윈도우에서, 이
     함수는 또한 ‘C:\\PROGRA~1’와 같은 MS-DOS (8.3 이라고도 합니다) 스타
     일 이름을 ‘C:\\Program Files’로 해석합니다.

     By default, the path is evaluated up to the first component that
     does not exist, is a symlink loop, or whose evaluation raises *note
     OSError: 411.  All such components are appended unchanged to the
     existing part of the path.

     Some errors that are handled this way include “access denied”, “not
     a directory”, or “bad argument to internal function”.  Thus, the
     resulting path may be missing or inaccessible, may still contain
     links or loops, and may traverse non-directories.

     This behavior can be modified by keyword arguments:

     If 'strict' is ‘True’, the first error encountered when evaluating
     the path is re-raised.  In particular, *note FileNotFoundError:
     425. is raised if 'path' does not exist, or another *note OSError:
     411. if it is otherwise inaccessible.

     If 'strict' is *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 424, errors other than
     *note FileNotFoundError: 425. are re-raised (as with
     ‘strict=True’).  Thus, the returned path will not contain any
     symbolic links, but the named file and some of its parent
     directories may be missing.

          참고: This function emulates the operating system’s procedure
          for making a path canonical, which differs slightly between
          Windows and UNIX with respect to how links and subsequent path
          components interact.

          Operating system APIs make paths canonical as needed, so it’s
          not normally necessary to call this function.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서 심볼릭 링크와 정션(junctions)이 이제
     해석됩니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'strict' parameter was added.

     버전 3.13.4에서 변경: The *note ALLOW_MISSING: 424. value for the
     'strict' parameter was added.

 -- 데이터: os.path.ALLOW_MISSING

     Special value used for the 'strict' argument in *note realpath():
     225.

     Added in version 3.13.4.

 -- 함수: os.path.relpath (path, start=os.curdir)

     현재 디렉터리나 선택적 'start' 디렉터리로부터 'path'로의 상대 파일
     경로를 반환합니다.  이것은 경로 계산입니다: 'path'나 'start'의 존재
     나 특성을 확인하기 위해 파일 시스템을 액세스하지 않습니다.  윈도우
     에서, 'path'와 'start'가 다른 드라이브에 있을 때 *note ValueError:
     202.가 발생합니다.

     'start'의 기본값은 *note os.curdir: 27ec.입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.samefile (path1, path2, /)

     두 경로명 인자가 같은 파일이나 디렉터리를 가리키면 ‘True’를 반환합
     니다.  장치 번호와 i-노드 번호로 결정하며 경로명 중 어느 하나에 대
     해 *note os.stat(): 49a. 호출이 실패하면 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 윈도우는 이제 다른 모든 플랫폼과 같은 구현을 사
     용합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.sameopenfile (fp1, fp2)

     파일 기술자 'fp1'과 'fp2'가 같은 파일을 가리키면 ‘True’를 반환합니
     다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.samestat (stat1, stat2, /)

     stat 튜플 'stat1'과 'stat2'가 같은 파일을 가리키면 ‘True’를 반환합
     니다.  이러한 구조는 *note os.fstat(): d88, *note os.lstat(): 49b.
     또는 *note os.stat(): 49a.에 의해 반환되었을 수 있습니다.  이 함수
     는 *note samefile(): f69.과 *note sameopenfile(): 27ed.에서 사용하
     는 하부 비교를 구현합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.split (path, /)

     'path' 경로명을 ‘(head, tail)’ 쌍으로 분할합니다.  여기서 'tail'은
     마지막 경로명 구성 요소이고 'head'는 그 앞에 오는 모든 것입니다.
     'tail' 부분에는 슬래시가 포함되지 않습니다; 'path'가 슬래시로 끝나
     면, 'tail'은 비어 있습니다.  'path'에 슬래시가 없으면, 'head'는 비
     어 있습니다.  'path'가 비어 있으면, 'head'와 'tail'이 모두 비어 있
     습니다.  후행 슬래시는 루트(하나나 그 이상의 슬래시로만 구성됩니다
     )가 아니라면 'head'에서 제거됩니다.  모든 경우에, ‘join(head,
     tail)’은 'path'와 같은 위치에 대한 경로를 반환합니다 (하지만 문자열
     은 다를 수 있습니다).  *note dirname(): 27e1.과 *note basename():
     27e2. 함수도 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.splitdrive (path, /)

     경로명 'path'를 쌍 ‘(drive, tail)’로 분할합니다.  여기서 'drive'는
     마운트 지점이나 빈 문자열입니다.  드라이브 지정을 사용하지 않는 시
     스템에서 'drive'는 항상 빈 문자열입니다.  모든 경우에, ‘drive +
     tail’은 'path'와 같습니다.

     윈도우에서는, 경로명을 드라이브/UNC 공유 지점과 상대 경로로 분할합
     니다.

     경로에 드라이브 문자가 포함되면, drive는 콜론까지의 콜론을 포함하는
     모든 것을 포함합니다:

          >>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
          ("c:", "/dir")

     경로에 UNC 경로가 포함되면, drive는 호스트 이름과 공유를 포함합니다
     :

          >>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
          ("//host/computer", "/dir")

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.path.splitroot (path, /)

     경로명 'path'를 3항 튜플 ‘(drive, root, tail)’로 분할합니다.  여기
     서 'drive'는 장치 이름이나 마운트 지점, 'root'는 드라이브 뒤에 오는
     구분자 문자열, 'tail'은 루트 뒤의 모든 것입니다.  이 항목들 모두 빈
     문자열일 수 있습니다.  모든 경우에, ‘drive + root + tail’은 'path'와
     같습니다.

     On POSIX systems, 'drive' is always empty.  The 'root' may be empty
     (if 'path' is relative), a single forward slash (if 'path' is
     absolute), or two forward slashes (implementation-defined per IEEE
     Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(6).)  For example:

          >>> splitroot('/home/sam')
          ('', '/', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('//home/sam')
          ('', '//', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('///home/sam')
          ('', '/', '//home/sam')

     On Windows, 'drive' may be empty, a drive-letter name, a UNC share,
     or a device name.  The 'root' may be empty, a forward slash, or a
     backward slash.  For example:

          >>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
          ('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
          >>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
          ('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.path.splitext (path, /)

     경로명 'path'를 ‘root + ext == path’가 되도록 쌍 ‘(root, ext)’로 분
     할하는데, 확장자 'ext'는 비어 있거나 마침표로 시작하고 최대 하나의
     마침표를 포함합니다.

     If the path contains no extension, 'ext' will be ‘''’:

          >>> splitext('bar')
          ('bar', '')

     If the path contains an extension, then 'ext' will be set to this
     extension, including the leading period.  Note that previous
     periods will be ignored:

          >>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
          ('foo.bar', '.exe')
          >>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
          ('/foo/bar', '.exe')

     Leading periods of the last component of the path are considered to
     be part of the root:

          >>> splitext('.cshrc')
          ('.cshrc', '')
          >>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
          ('/foo/....jpg', '')

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 데이터: os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

     (파일 시스템에 의해 부과된 제한 내에서) 임의의 유니코드 문자열을 파
     일 이름으로 사용할 수 있으면 ‘True’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/genericpath.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/posixpath.py

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ntpath.py

   (4) https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/dev-drive/

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13

   (6) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13


File: python.info,  Node: stat — stat 결과 해석하기,  Next: filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교,  Prev: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.3 ‘stat’ — ‘stat()’ 결과 해석하기
--------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/stat.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note stat: d1. 모듈은 *note os.stat(): 49a, *note os.fstat(): d88. 및
*note os.lstat(): 49b.의 (이들이 존재한다면) 결과를 해석하기 위한 상수와
함수를 정의합니다.  ‘stat()’, ‘fstat()’ 및 ‘lstat()’ 호출에 대한 자세한
내용은 여러분의 시스템 설명서를 참조하십시오.

버전 3.4에서 변경: stat 모듈은 C 구현으로 지원됩니다.

*note stat: d1. 모듈은 특정 파일 유형을 검사하기 위해 다음 함수를 정의합
니다:

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISDIR (mode)

     mode가 디렉터리로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISCHR (mode)

     mode가 문자 특수 장치(character special device) 파일로부터 왔으면
     0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISBLK (mode)

     mode가 블록 특수 장치(block special device) 파일로부터 왔으면 0이 아
     닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISREG (mode)

     mode가 일반 파일로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISFIFO (mode)

     mode가 FIFO(네임드 파이프)로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISLNK (mode)

     mode가 심볼릭 링크로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISSOCK (mode)

     mode가 소켓으로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISDOOR (mode)

     mode가 door로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISPORT (mode)

     mode가 이벤트 포트(event port)로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: stat.S_ISWHT (mode)

     mode가 화이트 아웃(whiteout)으로부터 왔으면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.4.

파일의 모드(mode)를 보다 일반적으로 조작하기 위한 두 가지 추가 함수가 정
의됩니다:

 -- 함수: stat.S_IMODE (mode)

     *note os.chmod(): 21b.로 설정할 수 있는 파일 모드 부분을 반환합니다
     —즉, 파일의 권한(permission) 비트, 끈끈한(sticky) 비트,
     set-group-id 및 set-user-id 비트 (지원하는 시스템에서).

 -- 함수: stat.S_IFMT (mode)

     파일 유형을 기술하는 파일 모드 부분을 반환합니다 (위의 ‘S_IS*()’ 함
     수에서 사용됩니다).

일반적으로, 파일 유형을 검사하는 데 ‘os.path.is*()’ 함수를 사용합니다; 이
함수들은 같은 파일에 대해 여러 개의 검사를 수행하고, 검사마다 ‘stat()’ 시
스템 호출 하는 오버헤드를 피하려고 할 때 유용합니다.  또한, 블록과 문자
장치 검사와 같이, *note os.path: a2.에서 처리되지 않는 파일에 대한 정보
를 확인할 때 유용합니다.

예제:

     import os, sys
     from stat import *

     def walktree(top, callback):
         '''top에 뿌리를 둔 디렉터리 트리를 재귀적으로 탐색해 내려가면서,
            각 일반 파일에 대해 콜백 함수를 호출합니다'''

         for f in os.listdir(top):
             pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
             mode = os.lstat(pathname).st_mode
             if S_ISDIR(mode):
                 # 디렉터리입니다, 재귀적으로 내려갑니다
                 walktree(pathname, callback)
             elif S_ISREG(mode):
                 # 파일입니다, 콜백 함수를 호출합니다.
                 callback(pathname)
             else:
                 # 알 수 없는 파일 유형입니다, 메시지를 인쇄합니다
                 print('Skipping %s' % pathname)

     def visitfile(file):
         print('visiting', file)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)

파일의 모드를 사람이 읽을 수 있는 문자열로 변환하기 위한 추가 유틸리티 함
수가 제공됩니다:

 -- 함수: stat.filemode (mode)

     파일의 mode를 ‘-rwxrwxrwx’ 형식의 문자열로 변환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 함수는 *note S_IFDOOR: fb2, *note S_IFPORT:
     fb3. 및 *note S_IFWHT: fb4.를 지원합니다.

아래의 모든 변수는 단순히 *note os.stat(): 49a, *note os.fstat(): d88. 또
는 *note os.lstat(): 49b.에 의해 반환된 10-튜플에 대한 기호 인덱스입니다
.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_MODE

     아이 노드(inode) 보호 모드.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_INO

     아이 노드(inode) 번호.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_DEV

     아이 노드(inode)가 위치한 장치.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_NLINK

     아이 노드(inode)에 대한 링크 수.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_UID

     소유자의 사용자 id.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_GID

     소유자의 그룹 id.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_SIZE

     일반 파일의 크기(바이트); 일부 특수 파일에서는 대기중인 데이터의 양
     .

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_ATIME

     마지막 액세스 시간.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_MTIME

     마지막 수정 시간.

 -- 데이터: stat.ST_CTIME

     운영 체제에서 보고한 “ctime”.  (유닉스와 같은) 일부 시스템에서는 마
     지막 메타 데이터 변경 시간이고, (윈도우와 같은) 다른 시스템에서는 생
     성 시간입니다 (자세한 내용은 플랫폼 설명서를 참조하십시오).

“파일 크기”의 해석은 파일 유형에 따라 달라집니다.  일반 파일에서는 바이
트로 표현한 파일의 크기입니다.  대부분의 유닉스(특히 리눅스를 포함하는
)의 FIFO와 소켓에서, “크기”는 *note os.stat(): 49a, *note os.fstat():
d88. 또는 *note os.lstat(): 49b.를 호출한 시점에 읽기 대기 중인 바이트 수
입니다; 이것은 때때로, 특히 비 블로킹으로 연 후에 이러한 특수 파일 중 하
나를 폴링할 때 유용할 수 있습니다.  다른 문자와 블록 장치에서 크기 필드
의 의미는 하부 시스템 호출의 구현에 따라 더 다양합니다.

아래의 변수는 *note ST_MODE: fb1. 필드에서 사용되는 플래그를 정의합니다.

첫 번째 플래그 집합을 사용하는 것보다 위의 함수를 사용하는 것이 더 이식
성 있습니다:

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFSOCK

     소켓.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFLNK

     심볼릭 링크.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFREG

     일반 파일.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFBLK

     블록 장치.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFDIR

     디렉터리.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFCHR

     문자 장치.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFIFO

     FIFO.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFDOOR

     Door.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFPORT

     이벤트 포트.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IFWHT

     화이트 아웃(whiteout).

     Added in version 3.4.

     참고: 플랫폼이 파일 유형을 지원하지 않으면, *note S_IFDOOR: fb2,
     *note S_IFPORT: fb3. 또는 *note S_IFWHT: fb4.는 0으로 정의됩니다.

다음 플래그는 *note os.chmod(): 21b.의 'mode' 인자에서도 사용할 수 있습
니다:

 -- 데이터: stat.S_ISUID

     Set-user-ID 비트.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_ISGID

     Set-group-ID 비트.  이 비트는 몇 가지 특별한 용도로 사용됩니다.  디
     렉터리에서는 그 디렉터리가 BSD의 의미가 있음을 나타냅니다: 여기에 만
     들어진 파일은 만드는 프로세스의 유효 그룹 ID가 아니라 디렉터리에서
     그룹 ID를 상속받고, *note S_ISGID: 280a. 비트 설정도 얻습니다.  그
     룹 실행 비트(*note S_IXGRP: 280b.)가 설정되지 않은 파일의 경우,
     set-group-ID 비트는 필수 파일/레코드 잠금을 나타냅니다 (*note
     S_ENFMT: 280c.도 참조하십시오).

 -- 데이터: stat.S_ISVTX

     끈끈한(sticky) 비트.  이 비트가 디렉터리에 설정되면, 해당 디렉터리
     의 파일은 파일의 소유자, 디렉터리의 소유자 또는 권한 있는
     (privileged) 프로세스에 의해서만 이름이 바뀌거나 삭제될 수 있음을 의
     미합니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IRWXU

     파일 소유자 권한(permission) 마스크.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IRUSR

     소유자에게 읽기 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IWUSR

     소유자에게 쓰기 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IXUSR

     소유자에게 실행 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IRWXG

     그룹 권한 마스크.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IRGRP

     그룹에 읽기 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IWGRP

     그룹에 쓰기 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IXGRP

     그룹에 실행 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IRWXO

     다른 사용자(그룹에 없는)에 대한 권한 마스크.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IROTH

     다른 사용자에게 읽기 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IWOTH

     다른 사용자에게 쓰기 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IXOTH

     다른 사용자에게 실행 권한이 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_ENFMT

     System V 파일 잠금 강제.  이 플래그는 *note S_ISGID: 280a.와 공유됩
     니다: 파일/레코드 잠금이 그룹 실행 비트(*note S_IXGRP: 280b.)가 설
     정되지 않은 파일에 적용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IREAD

     *note S_IRUSR: 280f.에 대한 유닉스 V7 동의어.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IWRITE

     *note S_IWUSR: 2810.에 대한 유닉스 V7 동의어.

 -- 데이터: stat.S_IEXEC

     *note S_IXUSR: 2811.에 대한 유닉스 V7 동의어.

다음 플래그는 *note os.chflags(): 10df.의 'flags' 인자에서 사용될 수 있
습니다:

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_SETTABLE

     All user settable flags.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_NODUMP

     파일을 덤프하지 마십시오.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

     파일을 변경할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_APPEND

     파일은 덧붙이기만 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_OPAQUE

     디렉터리는 유니언 스택(union stack)을 통해 볼 때 불투명합니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_NOUNLINK

     파일의 이름을 변경하거나 삭제할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_COMPRESSED

     파일은 압축되어 저장됩니다 (맥 OS 10.6+).

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_TRACKED

     Used for handling document IDs (macOS)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_DATAVAULT

     The file needs an entitlement for reading or writing (macOS 10.13+)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.UF_HIDDEN

     파일을 GUI에 표시하면 안 됩니다 (맥 OS 10.5+).

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_SETTABLE

     All super-user changeable flags

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_SUPPORTED

     All super-user supported flags

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: macOS

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_SYNTHETIC

     All super-user read-only synthetic flags

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: macOS

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_ARCHIVED

     파일을 보관(archive)할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

     파일을 변경할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_APPEND

     파일은 덧붙이기만 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_RESTRICTED

     The file needs an entitlement to write to (macOS 10.13+)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_NOUNLINK

     파일의 이름을 변경하거나 삭제할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

     파일은 스냅숏(snapshot) 파일입니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_FIRMLINK

     The file is a firmlink (macOS 10.15+)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: stat.SF_DATALESS

     The file is a dataless object (macOS 10.15+)

     Added in version 3.13.

자세한 정보는 *BSD나 맥 OS 시스템 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘chflags(2)(2)’를 참조하
십시오.

윈도우에서 *note os.stat(): 49a.에 의해 반환된 ‘st_file_attributes’ 멤버
의 비트를 검사할 때 다음 파일 어트리뷰트 상수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  이
러한 상수의 의미에 대한 자세한 내용은 Windows API documentation(3)을 참
조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY
 -- 데이터: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL

     Added in version 3.5.

윈도우에서, *note os.lstat(): 49b.이 반환한 ‘st_reparse_tag’ 멤버와 비교
하기 위해 다음 상수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  이것들은 잘 알려진 상수이지만
, 완전한 목록은 아닙니다.

 -- 데이터: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK
 -- 데이터: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT
 -- 데이터: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/stat.py

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/chflags(2)

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교,  Next: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성,  Prev: stat — stat 결과 해석하기,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.4 ‘filecmp’ — 파일과 디렉터리 비교
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/filecmp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note filecmp: 5a. 모듈은 다양한 선택적 시간/정확도 절충을 통해 파일과 디
렉터리를 비교하는 함수를 정의합니다.  파일 비교에 대해서는, *note
difflib: 37. 모듈을 참조하십시오.

*note filecmp: 5a. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: filecmp.cmp (f1, f2, shallow=True)

     'f1'와 'f2'로 이름이 지정된 파일을 비교하여, 같아 보이면 ‘True’를 반
     환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     'shallow'가 참이고 두 파일의 *note os.stat(): 49a. 서명(파일 유형,
     크기, 수정 시간)이 동일하면, 파일을 같다고 취급합니다.

     그렇지 않으면, 파일의 크기나 내용이 다를 때 다르다고 취급합니다.

     이 함수는 외부 프로그램을 호출하지 않으므로 이식성과 효율성을 제공
     합니다.

     이 함수는 과거 비교와 결과에 대해 캐시를 사용합니다.  파일에 대한
     *note os.stat(): 49a. 정보가 변경되면 캐시 항목이 무효화 됩니다.  전
     체 캐시는 *note clear_cache(): f36.를 사용하여 지울 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: filecmp.cmpfiles (dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)

     두 디렉터리 'dir1' 과 'dir2'에 있는 이름이 'common'으로 지정된 파일
     들을 비교합니다.

     파일 이름의 세 가지 리스트를 반환합니다: 'match', 'mismatch',
     'errors'.  'match'는 일치하는 파일 리스트를 포함하고, 'mismatch'는
     일치하지 않는 파일의 이름을 포함하며, 'errors'는 비교할 수 없는 파
     일의 이름을 나열합니다.  파일이 디렉터리 중 하나에 없거나, 사용자가
     읽을 수 있는 권한이 없거나, 다른 이유로 인해 비교를 수행할 수 없으
     면 파일은 'errors'에 나열됩니다.

     'shallow' 매개 변수는 *note filecmp.cmp(): 1665.와 같은 의미와 기본
     값을 가집니다.

     예를 들어, ‘cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e'])’는 ‘a/c’와 ‘b/c’,
     ‘a/d/e’와 ‘b/d/e’를 비교합니다.  ‘'c'’ 와 ‘'d/e'’는 각각 반환된 세
     개의 리스트 중 하나에 포함됩니다.

 -- 함수: filecmp.clear_cache ()

     filecmp 캐시를 지웁니다.  파일이 수정된 후 너무 빨리 비교되어 하부
     파일 시스템의 mtime 해상도 내에 있을 때 유용합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

* Menu:

* dircmp 클래스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/filecmp.py


File: python.info,  Node: dircmp 클래스,  Up: filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교

5.11.4.1 ‘dircmp’ 클래스
........................

 -- 클래스: filecmp.dircmp (a, b, ignore=None, hide=None, *,
          shallow=True)

     'a'와 'b' 디렉터리를 비교하기 위한, 새로운 디렉터리 비교 객체를 만
     듭니다.  'ignore'는 무시할 이름 리스트며, 기본값은 *note
     filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES: f37.입니다.  'hide'는 숨길 이름 리스트며 기
     본값은 ‘[os.curdir, os.pardir]’입니다.

     *note dircmp: f38. 클래스는 ('shallow' 매개 변수를 지원하지만) 기본
     적으로는 *note filecmp.cmp(): 1665.에서 설명하는 '얕은(shallow)' 비
     교를 통해 파일을 비교합니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'shallow' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     *note dircmp: f38. 클래스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: report ()

          'a'와 'b' 사이의 비교를 (*note sys.stdout: ad3.로) 인쇄합니다.

      -- 메서드: report_partial_closure ()

          'a'와 'b' 및 공통 직접 하위 디렉터리 사이의 비교를 인쇄합니다.

      -- 메서드: report_full_closure ()

          'a'와 'b' 및 공통 하위 디렉터리 (재귀적으로) 사이의 비교를 인
          쇄합니다.

     *note dircmp: f38. 클래스는 비교되는 디렉터리 트리에 대한 다양한 정
     보 비트를 얻는 데 사용될 수 있는 여러 가지 흥미로운 어트리뷰트를 제
     공합니다.

     *note __getattr__(): 4cd. 훅을 통해, 모든 어트리뷰트가 느긋하게
     (lazily) 계산되므로, 계산하기가 가벼운 어트리뷰트만 사용하면 속도가
     저하되지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: left

          디렉터리 'a'.

      -- 속성: right

          디렉터리 'b'.

      -- 속성: left_list

          'hide' 와 'ignore'로 필터링 된, 'a'의 파일과 하위 디렉터리.

      -- 속성: right_list

          'hide' 와 'ignore'로 필터링 된, 'b'의 파일과 하위 디렉터리.

      -- 속성: common

          'a' 와 'b'의 공통 파일과 하위 디렉터리.

      -- 속성: left_only

          'a'에만 있는 파일과 하위 디렉터리.

      -- 속성: right_only

          'b'에만 있는 파일과 하위 디렉터리.

      -- 속성: common_dirs

          'a' 및 'b'의 공통 하위 디렉터리.

      -- 속성: common_files

          'a' 와 'b'의 공통 파일.

      -- 속성: common_funny

          'a'와 'b'의 공통 이름으로, 디렉터리 간에 유형이 다르거나,
          *note os.stat(): 49a.가 에러를 보고하는 이름.

      -- 속성: same_files

          'a' 와 'b'에 모두 있고, 클래스의 파일 비교 연산자를 사용할 때
          같은 파일.

      -- 속성: diff_files

          'a' 및 'b'에 모두 있고, 클래스의 파일 비교 연산자를 사용할 때
          내용이 다른 파일.

      -- 속성: funny_files

          'a' 및 'b'에 모두 있지만, 비교할 수 없는 파일.

      -- 속성: subdirs

          *note common_dirs: 2853.의 이름을 *note dircmp: f38. 인스턴스
          로 (또는 이 인스턴스가 *note dircmp: f38.의 서브 클래스인
          MyDirCmp 형이면 MyDirCmp 인스턴스로) 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: Previously entries were always *note
          dircmp: f38. instances.  Now entries are the same type as
          'self', if 'self' is a subclass of *note dircmp: f38.

 -- 데이터: filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES

     Added in version 3.4.

     *note dircmp: f38.에 의해 기본적으로 무시되는 디렉터리 리스트.

다음은 이름이 같지만, 내용이 다른 파일을 표시하기 위해, ‘subdirs’ 어트리
뷰트로 두 개의 디렉터리를 재귀적으로 검색하는 간단한 예제입니다:

     >>> from filecmp import dircmp
     >>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
     ...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
     ...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
     ...               dcmp.right))
     ...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
     ...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
     ...
     >>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2')
     >>> print_diff_files(dcmp)


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성,  Next: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장,  Prev: filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.5 ‘tempfile’ — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tempfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 임시 파일과 디렉터리를 만듭니다.  지원되는 모든 플랫폼에서 작
동합니다.  *note TemporaryFile: 285b, *note NamedTemporaryFile: 4c0,
*note TemporaryDirectory: 1224. 및 *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 68d.은 자
동 정리를 제공하고 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.로 사용할 수 있는 고수준 인
터페이스입니다.  *note mkstemp(): 285c.와 *note mkdtemp(): 21f.는 수동 정
리가 필요한 저수준 함수입니다.

사용자가 호출할 수 있는 모든 함수와 생성자는 임시 파일과 디렉터리의 위치
와 이름을 직접 제어할 수 있도록 하는 추가 인자를 취합니다.  이 모듈에서
사용하는 파일 이름에는 무작위 문자의 문자열이 포함되어있어 공유 임시 디
렉터리에서 해당 파일을 안전하게 만들 수 있도록 합니다.  이전 버전과의 호
환성을 유지하기 위해, 인자 순서는 다소 이상합니다; 명확성을 위해 키워드
인자를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

이 모듈은 다음과 같은 사용자 호출 가능 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: tempfile.TemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, *, errors=None)

     임시 저장 영역으로 사용할 수 있는 *note 파일류 객체: 2597.를 반환합
     니다.  *note mkstemp(): 285c.와 같은 규칙을 사용하여 파일이 안전하
     게 만들어집니다.  닫히는 즉시 삭제됩니다 (객체가 가비지 수집될 때 묵
     시적인 닫기를 포함합니다).  유닉스에서, 파일의 디렉터리 항목은 전혀
     만들어지지 않거나 파일이 만들어진 직후에 제거됩니다.  다른 플랫폼은
     이를 지원하지 않습니다; 코드는 이 함수를 사용하여 만들어진 임시 파
     일이 파일 시스템에서 보이는 이름이 있거나 없는지에 의존해서는 안 됩
     니다.

     결과 객체는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.로 사용할 수 있습니다 (*note
     예: 285d.를 참조하십시오).  컨텍스트가 완료되거나 파일 객체가 파괴
     되면 임시 파일이 파일 시스템에서 제거됩니다.

     'mode' 매개 변수는 기본적으로 ‘'w+b'’로 설정되므로 만들어진 파일을
     닫지 않고 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다.  저장된 데이터와 관계없이 모든 플랫
     폼에서 일관되게 작동하도록 바이너리 모드가 사용됩니다.
     'buffering', 'encoding', 'errors' 및 'newline'은 *note open():
     515.처럼 해석됩니다.

     'dir', 'prefix' 및 'suffix' 매개 변수는 *note mkstemp(): 285c.와 같
     은 의미와 기본값을 갖습니다.

     반환된 객체는 POSIX 플랫폼에서 실제 파일 객체입니다.  다른 플랫폼에
     서는, ‘file’ 어트리뷰트가 하부 실제 파일 객체인 파일류 객체입니다.

     *note os.O_TMPFILE: f6b. 플래그는 사용할 수 있고 작동하면 사용됩니
     다 (리눅스 특정, 리눅스 커널 3.11 이상이 필요합니다).

     On platforms that are neither Posix nor Cygwin, TemporaryFile is an
     alias for NamedTemporaryFile.

     인자 ‘fullpath’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note os.O_TMPFILE: f6b. 플래그
     가 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, delete=True, *, errors=None, delete_on_close=True)

     이 함수는 다음과 같은 차이를 제외하고는 *note TemporaryFile():
     285b.과 똑같이 작동합니다:

        * 이 함수는 파일 시스템에서 보이는 이름을 가지는 것이 보장되는 파
          일을 반환합니다.

        * To manage the named file, it extends the parameters of *note
          TemporaryFile(): 285b. with 'delete' and 'delete_on_close'
          parameters that determine whether and how the named file
          should be automatically deleted.

     반환된 객체는 항상 ‘file’ 어트리뷰트가 하부 실제 파일 객체인 *note
     파일류 객체: 2597.입니다.  이 파일류 객체는 일반 파일과 마찬가지로
     *note with: 5cc. 문에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  임시 파일의 이름은 반
     환된 파일류 객체의 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트에서 꺼낼 수 있습니다.  유닉스
     에서, *note TemporaryFile(): 285b.과 달리, 파일 생성 직후에 디렉터
     리 항목이 삭제(unlink)되지 않습니다.

     If 'delete' is true (the default) and 'delete_on_close' is true
     (the default), the file is deleted as soon as it is closed.  If
     'delete' is true and 'delete_on_close' is false, the file is
     deleted on context manager exit only, or else when the *note
     file-like object: 2597. is finalized.  Deletion is not always
     guaranteed in this case (see *note object.__del__(): 1f69.).  If
     'delete' is false, the value of 'delete_on_close' is ignored.

     Therefore to use the name of the temporary file to reopen the file
     after closing it, either make sure not to delete the file upon
     closure (set the 'delete' parameter to be false) or, in case the
     temporary file is created in a *note with: 5cc. statement, set the
     'delete_on_close' parameter to be false.  The latter approach is
     recommended as it provides assistance in automatic cleaning of the
     temporary file upon the context manager exit.

     Opening the temporary file again by its name while it is still open
     works as follows:

        * On POSIX the file can always be opened again.

        * On Windows, make sure that at least one of the following
          conditions are fulfilled:

             * 'delete' is false

             * additional open shares delete access (e.g.  by calling
               *note os.open(): d8e. with the flag ‘O_TEMPORARY’)

             * 'delete' is true but 'delete_on_close' is false.  Note,
               that in this case the additional opens that do not share
               delete access (e.g.  created via builtin *note open():
               515.) must be closed before exiting the context manager,
               else the *note os.unlink(): 10e7. call on context manager
               exit will fail with a *note PermissionError: d3f.

     On Windows, if 'delete_on_close' is false, and the file is created
     in a directory for which the user lacks delete access, then the
     *note os.unlink(): 10e7. call on exit of the context manager will
     fail with a *note PermissionError: d3f.  This cannot happen when
     'delete_on_close' is true because delete access is requested by the
     open, which fails immediately if the requested access is not
     granted.

     On POSIX (only), a process that is terminated abruptly with SIGKILL
     cannot automatically delete any NamedTemporaryFiles it created.

     인자 ‘fullpath’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'delete_on_close' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile (max_size=0, mode='w+b',
          buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None,
          prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

     이 클래스는 파일 크기가 'max_size'를 초과할 때까지, 또는 파일의
     *note fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 호출될 때까지 데이터가 메모리에 스풀
     링 되는 것을 제외하고는 *note TemporaryFile(): 285b.과 똑같이 작동
     합니다.  이 시점에서 내용은 디스크에 기록되고 *note
     TemporaryFile(): 285b.처럼 작업이 진행됩니다.

      -- 메서드: rollover ()

          결과 파일에는 추가 메서드인 ‘rollover()’가 있으며, 파일 크기와
          관계없이 파일을 디스크 상의 파일로 롤오버(roll over) 합니다.

     반환된 객체는 파일류 객체인데, *note rollover(): 285f.가 호출되었는
     지에 따라 ‘_file’ 어트리뷰트는 *note io.BytesIO: e9a.나 *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 객체(바이너리나 텍스트 'mode'가 지정되었는지
     에 따라)이거나 실제 파일 객체입니다.  이 파일류 객체는 일반 파일과
     마찬가지로 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: truncate 메서드는 이제 'size' 인자를 허용합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Fully implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     68e. and *note io.TextIOBase: 68f. abstract base classes (depending
     on whether binary or text 'mode' was specified).

 -- 클래스: tempfile.TemporaryDirectory (suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, ignore_cleanup_errors=False, *, delete=True)

     이 클래스는 *note mkdtemp(): 21f.와 같은 규칙을 사용하여 임시 디렉
     터리를 안전하게 만듭니다.  결과 객체는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.로
     사용할 수 있습니다 (*note 예: 285d.를 참조하십시오).  컨텍스트가 완
     료되거나 임시 디렉터리 객체가 파괴되면 새로 만들어진 임시 디렉터리
     와 모든 내용이 파일 시스템에서 제거됩니다.

      -- 속성: name

          반환된 객체의 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트에서 디렉터리 이름을 꺼낼 수 있
          습니다.  반환된 객체가 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.로 사용될 때
          , ‘name’은 *note with: 5cc. 문의 ‘as’ 절의 대상에 (있다면) 대
          입됩니다.

      -- 메서드: cleanup ()

          The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the
          ‘cleanup()’ method.  If 'ignore_cleanup_errors' is true, any
          unhandled exceptions during explicit or implicit cleanup (such
          as a *note PermissionError: d3f. removing open files on
          Windows) will be ignored, and the remaining removable items
          deleted on a “best-effort” basis.  Otherwise, errors will be
          raised in whatever context cleanup occurs (the ‘cleanup()’
          call, exiting the context manager, when the object is
          garbage-collected or during interpreter shutdown).

     The 'delete' parameter can be used to disable cleanup of the
     directory tree upon exiting the context.  While it may seem unusual
     for a context manager to disable the action taken when exiting the
     context, it can be useful during debugging or when you need your
     cleanup behavior to be conditional based on other logic.

     인자 ‘fullpath’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'ignore_cleanup_errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니
     다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'delete' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: tempfile.mkstemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None,
          text=False)

     가장 안전한 방식으로 임시 파일을 만듭니다.  플랫폼이 *note
     os.open(): d8e.에서 *note os.O_EXCL: 2862. 플래그를 올바르게 구현한
     다고 가정할 때, 파일 생성에 경쟁 조건이 없습니다.  파일은 만드는 사
     용자 ID만 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다.  플랫폼이 권한 비트를 사용하여 파일
     이 실행 가능한지를 나타내면, 파일은 아무도 실행할 수 없습니다.  파
     일 기술자는 자식 프로세스에 의해 상속되지 않습니다.

     *note TemporaryFile(): 285b.과 달리, *note mkstemp(): 285c.의 사용
     자는 임시 파일로의 작업을 끝내면 파일을 삭제해야 합니다.

     'suffix'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 파일 이름은 해당 접미사로 끝납니다, 그
     렇지 않으면 접미사가 없습니다.  *note mkstemp(): 285c.는 파일 이름
     과 접미사 사이에 점을 넣지 않습니다; 필요하면 'suffix'의 시작 부분
     에 넣으십시오.

     'prefix'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 파일 이름은 해당 접두사로 시작합니다; 그
     렇지 않으면 기본 접두사가 사용됩니다.  기본값은 *note
     gettempprefix(): 2863.나 *note gettempprefixb(): 2864. 중 적절한 것
     의 반환 값입니다.

     'dir'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 파일은 해당 디렉터리에 만들어집니다; 그렇
     지 않으면 기본 디렉터리가 사용됩니다.  기본 디렉터리는 플랫폼별 목
     록에서 선택되지만, 응용 프로그램 사용자는 'TMPDIR', 'TEMP' 또는
     'TMP' 환경 변수를 설정하여 디렉터리 위치를 제어할 수 있습니다.  따
     라서 생성된 파일명이 ‘os.popen()’을 통해 외부 명령에 전달될 때 따옴
     표 처리할 필요가 없는 것과 같은 멋진 속성을 가질 것이라는 보장은 없
     습니다.

     'suffix', 'prefix' 및 'dir' 중 어느 것이라도 ‘None’이 아니면, 그들
     은 같은 형이어야 합니다.  이들이 바이트열이면, 반환되는 이름은 str
     대신 바이트열입니다.  기본 동작으로 바이트열 반환 값을 강제하려면
     ‘suffix=b''’를 전달하십시오.

     'text'가 지정되고 참이면, 파일은 텍스트 모드로 열립니다.  그렇지 않
     으면 (기본값) 파일은 바이너리 모드로 열립니다.

     *note mkstemp(): 285c.는 열린 파일에 대한 OS 수준 핸들(*note
     os.open(): d8e.에서 반환하는 것)과 해당 파일의 절대 경로를 이 순서
     대로 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.

     인자 ‘fullpath’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 바이트열 반환 값을 얻기 위해 'suffix', 'prefix'
     및 'dir'를 이제 바이트열로 제공할 수 있습니다.  이전에는, str만 허
     용되었습니다.  'suffix'와 'prefix'는 이제 기본값이 ‘None’이고 적절
     한 기본값이 사용되도록 합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'dir' 매개 변수는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를
     받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: tempfile.mkdtemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)

     가장 안전한 방식으로 임시 디렉터리를 만듭니다.  디렉터리 생성에 경
     쟁 조건이 없습니다.  디렉터리는 만드는 사용자 ID만 읽고 쓰고 검색할
     수 있습니다.

     *note mkdtemp(): 21f.의 사용자는 임시 디렉터리로의 작업을 끝내면 임
     시 디렉터리와 디렉터리의 내용을 삭제해야 합니다.

     'prefix', 'suffix' 및 'dir' 인자는 *note mkstemp(): 285c.와 같습니
     다.

     *note mkdtemp(): 21f.는 새 디렉터리의 절대 경로명을 반환합니다.

     인자 ‘fullpath’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 바이트열 반환 값을 얻기 위해 'suffix', 'prefix'
     및 'dir'를 이제 바이트열로 제공할 수 있습니다.  이전에는, str만 허
     용되었습니다.  'suffix'와 'prefix'는 이제 기본값이 ‘None’이고 적절
     한 기본값이 사용되도록 합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'dir' 매개 변수는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를
     받아들입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 이제 'dir'이 상대 경로일 때도, *note mkdtemp():
     21f.는 항상 절대 경로를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tempfile.gettempdir ()

     임시 파일에 사용된 디렉터리 이름을 반환합니다.  이것은 이 모듈의 모
     든 함수에 대한 'dir' 인자의 기본값을 정의합니다.

     파이썬은 표준 디렉터리 목록을 검색하여 호출하는 사용자가 파일을 만
     들 수 있는 디렉터리를 찾습니다.  목록은 다음과 같습니다:

       1. ‘TMPDIR’ 환경 변수로 명명된 디렉터리.

       2. ‘TEMP’ 환경 변수로 명명된 디렉터리.

       3. ‘TMP’ 환경 변수로 명명된 디렉터리.

       4. 플랫폼별 위치:

             * 윈도우에서, 디렉터리 ‘C:\TEMP’, ‘C:\TMP’, ‘\TEMP’ 및
               ‘\TMP’, 이 순서대로.

             * 다른 모든 플랫폼에서, 디렉터리 ‘/tmp’, ‘/var/tmp’ 및
               ‘/usr/tmp’, 이 순서대로.

       5. 최후의 수단으로, 현재 작업 디렉터리.

     이 검색 결과는 캐시 됩니다, 아래 *note tempdir: 18df. 설명을 참조하
     십시오.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Always returns a str.  Previously it would
     return any *note tempdir: 18df. value regardless of type so long as
     it was not ‘None’.

 -- 함수: tempfile.gettempdirb ()

     *note gettempdir(): 18e0.과 같지만, 반환 값이 바이트열입니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: tempfile.gettempprefix ()

     임시 파일을 만드는 데 사용된 파일명 접두사를 반환합니다.  디렉터리
     구성 요소가 포함되어 있지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: tempfile.gettempprefixb ()

     *note gettempprefix(): 2863.와 같지만, 반환 값이 바이트열입니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

모듈은 전역 변수를 사용하여 *note gettempdir(): 18e0.이 반환한 임시 파일
에 사용되는 디렉터리의 이름을 저장합니다.  선택 절차를 무시하도록 직접 설
정할 수 있지만, 권장하지 않습니다.  이 모듈의 모든 함수는 디렉터리를 지
정하는 데 사용할 수 있는 'dir' 인자를 사용합니다.  이는 전역 API 동작을
변경하여 주의하지 않는 다른 코드를 놀라게 하지 않도록 권장되는 방법입니
다.

 -- 데이터: tempfile.tempdir

     ‘None’ 이외의 값으로 설정되면, 이 변수는 이 모듈에 정의된 함수의
     'dir' 인자의 기본값을 정의합니다 (형이 바이트열인지 문자열인지도 정
     의합니다).  *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.일 수 없습니다.

     *note gettempprefix(): 2863.를 제외한 위의 함수를 호출할 때
     ‘tempdir’이 ‘None’(기본값)이면 *note gettempdir(): 18e0.에 설명된 알
     고리즘에 따라 초기화됩니다.

          참고: Beware that if you set ‘tempdir’ to a bytes value, there
          is a nasty side effect: The global default return type of
          *note mkstemp(): 285c. and *note mkdtemp(): 21f. changes to
          bytes when no explicit ‘prefix’, ‘suffix’, or ‘dir’ arguments
          of type str are supplied.  Please do not write code expecting
          or depending on this.  This awkward behavior is maintained for
          compatibility with the historical implementation.

* Menu:

* 예: 예<3>.
* 폐지된 함수와 변수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tempfile.py


File: python.info,  Node: 예<3>,  Next: 폐지된 함수와 변수,  Up: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성

5.11.5.1 예
...........

다음은 *note tempfile: e0. 모듈의 일반적인 사용법에 대한 몇 가지 예입니
다:

     >>> import tempfile

     # 임시 파일을 만들고 약간의 데이터를 기록합니다
     >>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
     >>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     # 파일에서 데이터를 읽습니다
     >>> fp.seek(0)
     >>> fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     # 파일을 닫습니다, 삭제됩니다
     >>> fp.close()

     # 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용해서 임시 파일을 만듭니다
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.seek(0)
     ...     fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # 파일은 이제 닫히고 삭제됩니다

     # 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용해서 임시 파일을 만듭니다
     # 파일을 닫고, 이름을 사용해서 파일을 다십 엽니다
     >>> with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete_on_close=False) as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.close()
     ... # 파일은 닫히지만, 삭제되지는 않습니다
     ... # 이름을 사용해서 파일을 다시 엽니다
     ...     with open(fp.name, mode='rb') as f:
     ...         f.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # 파일은 이제 삭제됩니다

     # 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용해서 임시 디렉터리를 만듭니다
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
     ...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
     >>>
     # 디렉터리와 내용은 삭제되었습니다


File: python.info,  Node: 폐지된 함수와 변수,  Prev: 예<3>,  Up: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성

5.11.5.2 폐지된 함수와 변수
...........................

임시 파일을 만드는 역사적인 방법은 먼저 *note mktemp(): 1894. 함수를 사
용하여 파일 이름을 생성한 다음 이 이름을 사용하여 파일을 만드는 것입니다
.  불행히도 *note mktemp(): 1894. 호출과 파일을 만들려는 후속 시도 사이
에 다른 프로세스가 이 이름으로 파일을 만들 수 있어서 이 방법은 안전하지
않습니다.  해결책은 두 단계를 결합하고 파일을 즉시 만드는 것입니다.  이
접근법이 *note mkstemp(): 285c.와 위에서 설명한 다른 함수에서 사용됩니다
.

 -- 함수: tempfile.mktemp (suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)

     버전 2.3부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note mkstemp(): 285c.를 사용하십시오.

     호출하는 시점에 존재하지 않는 파일의 절대 경로명을 반환합니다.
     'prefix', 'suffix' 및 'dir' 인자는 바이트열 파일 이름,
     ‘suffix=None’ 및 ‘prefix=None’이 지원되지 않는다는 점을 제외하고
     *note mkstemp(): 285c.의 같은 인자와 유사합니다.

          경고: 이 함수를 사용하면 프로그램에 보안 허점이 생길 수 있습니
          다.  반환된 파일 이름으로 무언가를 하면서 시간을 보내는 동안,
          다른 누군가가 당신에게 펀치를 날릴 수 있습니다.  *note
          mktemp(): 1894. 사용은 ‘delete=False’ 매개 변수를 전달하여
          *note NamedTemporaryFile(): 4c0.로 쉽게 대체할 수 있습니다:

               >>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
               >>> f.name
               '/tmp/tmptjujjt'
               >>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
               13
               >>> f.close()
               >>> os.unlink(f.name)
               >>> os.path.exists(f.name)
               False


File: python.info,  Node: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장,  Next: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치,  Prev: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.6 ‘glob’ — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장
----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/glob.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note glob: 64. 모듈은 유닉스 셸이 사용하는 규칙에 따라 지정된 패턴과 일
치하는 모든 경로명을 찾습니다.  하지만 결과는 임의의 순서로 반환됩니다.
물결표(tilde) 확장은 수행되지 않지만, ‘*’, ‘?’ 및 ‘[]’로 표시되는 문자 범
위는 올바르게 일치합니다.  이는 서브 셸을 실제로 호출하지 않고 *note
os.scandir(): a5b. 과 *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 18a6. 함수를 사용하여 수
행됩니다.

*note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 18a6.나 *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d.과 달리,
점(‘.’)으로 시작하는 파일은 점으로 시작하는 패턴으로만 일치시킬 수 있습
니다.  (물결표와 셸 변수 확장은 *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. 와
*note os.path.expandvars(): 13a2.를 사용하십시오.)

리터럴 일치를 위해서는, 대괄호 안에 메타 문자를 넣습니다.  예를 들어,
‘'[?]'’는 ‘'?'’ 문자와 일치합니다.

The *note glob: 64. module defines the following functions:

 -- 함수: glob.glob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     경로 지정을 포함하는 문자열인 'pathname'에 일치하는 경로 이름의 비
     어있을 수 있는 리스트를 반환합니다.  'pathname'은 절대
     (‘/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile’처럼)나 상대(‘../../Tools/*/*.gif’처
     럼)일 수 있으며, 셸 스타일 와일드카드를 포함할 수 있습니다.  깨진 심
     볼릭 링크가 결과에 포함됩니다 (셸과 마찬가지로).  결과가 정렬되는지
     는 파일 시스템에 따라 다릅니다.  이 함수 호출 중에 조건을 만족하는
     파일이 제거되거나 추가되면, 해당 파일의 경로 이름이 포함될지는 지정
     되지 않습니다.

     If 'root_dir' is not ‘None’, it should be a *note path-like object:
     2a0. specifying the root directory for searching.  It has the same
     effect on *note glob(): 64. as changing the current directory
     before calling it.  If 'pathname' is relative, the result will
     contain paths relative to 'root_dir'.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 10dc. with the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     'recursive'가 참이면, “‘**’” 패턴은 모든 파일과 0개 이상의 디렉터리
     , 서브 디렉터리 및 디렉터리로의 심볼릭 링크와 일치합니다.  패턴 다
     음에 *note os.sep: 664.이나 *note os.altsep: 665.이 오면, 파일은 일
     치하지 않습니다.

     If 'include_hidden' is true, “‘**’” pattern will match hidden
     directories.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘glob.glob’을 발생시킵니다.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘glob.glob/2’을 발생시킵니다.

          참고: 커다란 디렉터리 트리에서 “‘**’” 패턴을 사용하면 과도한 시
          간이 걸릴 수 있습니다.

          참고: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple “‘**’” patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: “‘**’” 를 사용하는 재귀적 glob 지원.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'root_dir' 과 'dir_fd' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'include_hidden' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: glob.iglob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     실제로 동시에 저장하지 않고 *note glob(): 64.과 같은 값을 산출하는
     *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 반환합니다.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘glob.glob’을 발생시킵니다.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘glob.glob/2’을 발생시킵니다.

          참고: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple “‘**’” patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: “‘**’” 를 사용하는 재귀적 glob 지원.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'root_dir' 과 'dir_fd' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'include_hidden' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: glob.escape (pathname)

     모든 특수 문자(‘'?'’, ‘'*'’ 및 ‘'['’)를 이스케이프 처리합니다.  이
     것은 특수 문자가 들어있을 수 있는 임의의 리터럴 문자열을 일치시키려
     는 경우에 유용합니다.  드라이브/UNC 셰어 포인트의 특수 문자는 이스
     케이프 되지 않습니다, 예를 들어, 윈도우에서 ‘escape('//?/c:/Quo
     vadis?.txt')’는 ‘'//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: glob.translate (pathname, *, recursive=False,
          include_hidden=False, seps=None)

     Convert the given path specification to a regular expression for
     use with *note re.match(): 121d.  The path specification can
     contain shell-style wildcards.

     예를 들어:

          >>> import glob, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = glob.translate('**/*.txt', recursive=True, include_hidden=True)
          >>> regex
          '(?s:(?:.+/)?[^/]*\\.txt)\\Z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.match('foo/bar/baz.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 15), match='foo/bar/baz.txt'>

     Path separators and segments are meaningful to this function,
     unlike *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a4d.  By default wildcards do
     not match path separators, and ‘*’ pattern segments match precisely
     one path segment.

     If 'recursive' is true, the pattern segment “‘**’” will match any
     number of path segments.

     If 'include_hidden' is true, wildcards can match path segments that
     start with a dot (‘.’).

     A sequence of path separators may be supplied to the 'seps'
     argument.  If not given, *note os.sep: 664. and *note altsep: 665.
     (if available) are used.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note pathlib.PurePath.full_match(): 22b. and *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 22d. methods, which call this function to
     implement pattern matching and globbing.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/glob.py


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<5>,  Up: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장

5.11.6.1 예제
.............

다음과 같은 파일을 포함하는 디렉터리를 고려하십시오: ‘1.gif’, ‘2.txt’,
‘card.gif’ 및 ‘3.txt’ 파일 만 포함하는 서브 디렉터리 ‘sub’.  *note
glob(): 64.은 다음과 같은 결과를 산출합니다.  경로의 선행 구성 요소가 보
존되는 방법에 유의하십시오.

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
     ['./1.gif', './2.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['1.gif', 'card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('?.gif')
     ['1.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
     ['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
     ['./', './sub/']

디렉터리에 ‘.’으로 시작하는 파일이 있으면, 기본적으로 일치하지 않습니다.
예를 들어, ‘card.gif’ 와 ‘.card.gif’를 포함하는 디렉터리를 고려하십시오:

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('.c*')
     ['.card.gif']

더 보기
.......

*note fnmatch: 5c. 모듈은 셸 스타일 파일명 (경로가 아님) 확장을 제공합니
다.

더 보기
.......

*note pathlib: a4. 모듈은 고수준의 경로 객체를 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치,  Next: linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스,  Prev: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.7 ‘fnmatch’ — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/fnmatch.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 유닉스 셸 스타일의 와일드카드를 지원하며, 이는 정규식(*note
re: b9. 모듈에서 설명합니다)과는 '다릅니다'.  셸 스타일 와일드카드에 사
용되는 특수 문자는 다음과 같습니다:

패턴             의미
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘*’              모든 것과 일치합니다
                 
                 
‘?’              모든 단일 문자와 일치합니다
                 
                 
‘[seq]’          'seq'의 모든 문자와 일치합니다.
                 
                 
‘[!seq]’         'seq'에 없는 모든 문자와 일치합니다
                 

리터럴 일치의 경우, 대괄호 안에 메타 문자를 넣습니다.  예를 들어,
‘'[?]'’는 ‘'?'’ 문자와 일치합니다.

파일명 분리 기호(유닉스에서 ‘'/'’)는 이 모듈에서 특수하지 '않습니다'.  경
로명 확장은 모듈 *note glob: 64.을 참조하십시오 (*note glob: 64.은 경로
명 세그먼트와 일치시키기 위해 *note filter(): 18a8.를 사용합니다).  마찬
가지로, 마침표로 시작하는 파일명은 이 모듈에서 특수하지 않으며, ‘*’ 및
‘?’ 패턴과 일치합니다.

Unless stated otherwise, “filename string” and “pattern string” either
refer to *note str: 445. or ‘ISO-8859-1’ encoded *note bytes: 1c2.
objects.  Note that the functions documented below do not allow to mix a
‘bytes’ pattern with a ‘str’ filename, and vice-versa.

Finally, note that *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb. with a 'maxsize' of
32768 is used to cache the (typed) compiled regex patterns in the
following functions: *note fnmatch(): 5c, *note fnmatchcase(): 18a7,
*note filter(): 18a8.

 -- 함수: fnmatch.fnmatch (name, pat)

     파일명 문자열 'name'이 패턴 문자열 'pat'와 일치하는지를 검사하여,
     ‘True’ 나 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  두 매개 변수는 모두 *note
     os.path.normcase(): 27eb.를 사용하여 대소 문자를 정규화합니다.
     *note fnmatchcase(): 18a7.는 운영 체제의 표준인지에 관계없이, 대소
     문자를 구분하는 비교를 수행하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     이 예제는 현재 디렉터리의 확장자 ‘.txt’ 인 모든 파일 이름을 인쇄합
     니다:

          import fnmatch
          import os

          for file in os.listdir('.'):
              if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
                  print(file)

 -- 함수: fnmatch.fnmatchcase (name, pat)

     파일명 문자열 'name'이 패턴 문자열 'pat'와 일치하는지를 검사하여,
     ‘True’ 나 ‘False’를 반환합니다; 비교는 대소 문자를 구분하며, *note
     os.path.normcase(): 27eb.를 적용하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: fnmatch.filter (names, pat)

     패턴 문자열 'pat'와 일치하는 파일명 문자열의 *note 이터러블: 1217.
     'names'의 요소로 리스트를 구축합니다.  ‘[n for n in names if
     fnmatch(n, pat)]’과 같지만, 더 효율적으로 구현됩니다.

 -- 함수: fnmatch.translate (pat)

     셸 스타일의 패턴 'pat'를 *note re.match(): 121d.에서 사용하기 위해
     정규식으로 변환한 값을 반환합니다.  패턴은 *note str: 445.일 것으로
     기대합니다.

     예제:

          >>> import fnmatch, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
          >>> regex
          '(?s:.*\\.txt)\\Z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.match('foobar.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note glob: 64.

     유닉스 셸 스타일 경로 확장.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/fnmatch.py


File: python.info,  Node: linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스,  Next: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산,  Prev: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.8 ‘linecache’ — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스
---------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/linecache.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note linecache: 85. 모듈은 파이썬 소스 파일에서 임의의 줄을 가져올 수 있
도록 하는데, 캐시를 사용하여 단일 파일에서 여러 줄을 읽는 일반적인 상황
을 내부적으로 최적화하려고 시도합니다.  이것은 *note traceback: fe. 모듈
에서 포맷된 트레이스백에 포함할 소스 줄을 가져오는 데 사용됩니다.

*note tokenize.open(): 286f. 함수가 파일을 여는 데 사용됩니다.  이 함수
는 *note tokenize.detect_encoding(): 2870.를 사용하여 파일의 인코딩을 가
져옵니다; 인코딩 토큰이 없으면, 파일 인코딩의 기본값은 UTF-8입니다.

*note linecache: 85. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: linecache.getline (filename, lineno, module_globals=None)

     'filename' 파일에서 'lineno' 줄을 가져옵니다.  이 함수는 절대 예외
     를 발생시키지 않을 것입니다 — 에러 시 ‘''’를 반환합니다 (발견된 줄
     의 줄 바꿈 문자는 포함됩니다).

     'filename'이라는 파일이 없으면, 이 함수는 먼저 'module_globals'에서
     PEP 302(2) ‘__loader__’를 확인합니다.  그런 로더가 있고
     ‘get_source’ 메서드를 정의하고 있으면, 그것이 소스 줄을 결정합니다
     (‘get_source()’가 ‘None’을 반환하면, ‘''’이 반환됩니다).  마지막으
     로, 'filename'이 상대 파일명이면, 모듈 검색 경로, ‘sys.path’, 에 있
     는 항목들에 상대적으로 검색됩니다.

 -- 함수: linecache.clearcache ()

     캐시를 지웁니다.  이전에 *note getline(): e1f.를 사용하여 읽은 파일
     의 줄이 더는 필요하지 않으면 이 함수를 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: linecache.checkcache (filename=None)

     캐시의 유효성을 확인합니다.  캐시의 파일이 디스크에서 변경되었을 수
     있고, 갱신된 버전이 필요하면 이 함수를 사용하십시오.  'filename'이
     생략되면, 캐시의 모든 항목을 검사합니다.

 -- 함수: linecache.lazycache (filename, module_globals)

     이후 호출에서 'module_globals'가 ‘None’이더라도 *note getline():
     e1f.을 통해 나중에 해당 줄을 가져올 수 있도록, 파일 기반이 아닌 모
     듈에 대한 충분한 정보를 캡처합니다.  이렇게 하면 라인이 실제로 필요
     할 때까지 모듈 전역을 무기한으로 들고 있지 않고도 I/O를 회피합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

예제:

     >>> import linecache
     >>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
     'import sys\n'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/linecache.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산,  Prev: linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스

5.11.9 ‘shutil’ — 고수준 파일 연산
----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/shutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note shutil: c5. 모듈은 파일과 파일 모음에 대한 여러 가지 고수준 연산을
제공합니다.  특히, 파일 복사와 삭제를 지원하는 함수가 제공됩니다.  개별
파일에 대한 연산에 대해서는, *note os: a1. 모듈도 참조하십시오.

     경고: 더 고수준의 파일 복사 함수(*note shutil.copy(): a56, *note
     shutil.copy2(): a57.)조차도 모든 파일 메타 데이터를 복사할 수는 없
     습니다.

     POSIX 플랫폼에서, 이는 ACL뿐만 아니라 파일 소유자와 그룹이 유실됨을
     의미합니다.  Mac OS에서는, 리소스 포크(resource fork)와 기타 메타 데
     이터가 사용되지 않습니다.  이는 리소스가 손실되고 파일 유형과 작성
     자 코드가 올바르지 않음을 의미합니다.  윈도우에서는, 파일 소유자,
     ACL 및 대체 데이터 스트림(alternate data streams)이 복사되지 않습니
     다.

* Menu:

* 디렉터리와 파일 연산::
* 아카이브 연산::
* 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shutil.py


File: python.info,  Node: 디렉터리와 파일 연산,  Next: 아카이브 연산,  Up: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산

5.11.9.1 디렉터리와 파일 연산
.............................

 -- 함수: shutil.copyfileobj (fsrc, fdst[, length])

     *note 파일류 객체: 11b2. 'fsrc'의 내용을 파일류 객체 'fdst'에 복사
     합니다.  주어지면, 정수 'length'는 버퍼 크기입니다.  특히, 음의
     'length' 값은 청크 단위로 소스 데이터를 반복하지 않고 데이터를 복사
     하는 것을 의미합니다; 기본적으로 제어되지 않은 메모리 소비를 피하고
     자 데이터를 청크로 읽습니다.  'fsrc' 객체의 현재 파일 위치가 0이 아
     니면, 현재 파일 위치에서 파일 끝까지의 내용만 복사됨에 유의하십시오
     .

 -- 함수: shutil.copyfile (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     가능한 가장 효율적인 방법으로 이름이 'src' 인 파일의 내용을 (메타 데
     이터 없이) 이름이 'dst' 인 파일에 복사하고 'dst'를 반환합니다.
     'src'와 'dst'는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.나 문자열로 지정된 경로 이름
     입니다.

     'dst'는 완전한 대상 파일 이름이어야 합니다; 대상 디렉터리 경로를 허
     용하는 복사는 *note copy(): a56.를 참조하십시오.  'src'와 'dst'가 같
     은 파일을 지정하면, *note SameFileError: f95.가 발생합니다.

     대상 위치는 쓰기 가능해야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면, *note OSError:
     411. 예외가 발생합니다.  'dst'가 이미 존재하면, 교체됩니다.  문자나
     블록 장치 및 파이프와 같은 특수 파일은 이 함수로 복사할 수 없습니다
     .

     'follow_symlinks'가 거짓이고 'src'가 심볼릭 링크이면, 'src'가 가리
     키는 파일을 복사하는 대신 새 심볼릭 링크가 만들어집니다.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copyfile’을 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 예전에는 *note OSError: 411. 대신 *note IOError:
     1048.를 발생시켰습니다.  'follow_symlinks' 인자가 추가되었습니다.  이
     제 'dst'를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note Error: f94. 대신 *note SameFileError:
     f95.를 발생시킵니다.  후자는 전자의 서브 클래스라서, 이 변경은 이전
     버전과 호환됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파일을 더 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 플랫폼별 빠른
     복사(fast-copy) 시스템 호출을 내부적으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
     플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산: a5a. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 예외: shutil.SameFileError

     이 예외는 *note copyfile(): a55.의 소스와 대상이 같은 파일일 때 발
     생합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: shutil.copymode (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     'src'에서 'dst'로 권한 비트를 복사합니다.  파일 내용, 소유자 및 그
     룹은 영향을 받지 않습니다.  'src'와 'dst'는 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.나 문자열로 지정된 경로 이름입니다.  'follow_symlinks'가 거짓이
     고 'src'와 'dst'가 모두 심볼릭 링크이면, *note copymode(): 16b2.는
     (가리키는 파일이 아니라) 'dst' 자체의 모드를 수정하려고 시도합니다.
     이 기능이 모든 플랫폼에서 사용 가능한 것은 아닙니다; 자세한 내용은
     *note copystat(): 111f.을 참조하십시오.  *note copymode(): 16b2.가
     로컬 플랫폼에서 심볼릭 링크를 수정할 수 없고, 그렇게 하도록 요청받
     으면, 아무것도 하지 않고 반환합니다.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copymode’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'follow_symlinks' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.copystat (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     권한 비트, 마지막 액세스 시간, 마지막 수정 시간 및 플래그를 'src'에
     서 'dst'로 복사합니다.  리눅스에서 *note copystat(): 111f.은 가능하
     면 “확장 어트리뷰트(extended attributes)”도 복사합니다.  파일 내용,
     소유자 및 그룹은 영향을 받지 않습니다.  'src'와 'dst'는 *note 경로류
     객체: 2a0.나 문자열로 지정된 경로 이름입니다.

     'follow_symlinks'가 거짓이고 'src'와 'dst'가 모두 심볼릭 링크를 참
     조하면, *note copystat(): 111f.은 심볼릭 링크가 참조하는 파일이 아
     닌 심볼릭 링크 자체에 대해 작동합니다 - 'src' 심볼릭 링크에서 정보
     를 읽고, 'dst' 심볼릭 링크로 정보를 씁니다.

          참고: 모든 플랫폼이 심볼릭 링크를 검사하고 수정할 수 있는 기능
          을 제공하지는 않습니다.  파이썬 자체는 어떤 기능이 로컬에서 사
          용 가능한지 알려줄 수 있습니다.

             * ‘os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks’가 ‘True’이면,
               *note copystat(): 111f.은 심볼릭 링크의 권한 비트를 수정
               할 수 있습니다.

             * ‘os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks’가 ‘True’이면,
               *note copystat(): 111f.은 심볼릭 링크의 마지막 액세스와 수
               정 시간을 수정할 수 있습니다.

             * ‘os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks’가 ‘True’이면,
               *note copystat(): 111f.은 심볼릭 링크의 플래그를 수정할 수
               있습니다.  (‘os.chflags’가 모든 플랫폼에서 사용 가능한 것
               은 아닙니다.)

          이 기능 중 일부나 전부를 사용할 수 없는 플랫폼에서, 심볼릭 링
          크를 수정하라는 요청을 하면, *note copystat(): 111f.은 가능한
          모든 것들을 복사합니다.  *note copystat(): 111f.은 절대 실패를
          반환하지 않습니다.

          자세한 내용은 *note os.supports_follow_symlinks: 2876.를 참조
          하십시오.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copystat’을 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'follow_symlinks' 인자와 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트
     지원을 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.copy (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     파일 'src'를 파일이나 디렉터리 'dst'에 복사합니다.  'src'와 'dst'는
     *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.나 문자열이어야 합니다.  'dst'가 디렉터리를
     지정하면, 파일은 'src'의 기본 파일명을 사용하여 'dst'로 복사됩니다.
     'dst'가 이미 존재하는 파일을 지정하면 대체됩니다.  새로 만든 파일의
     경로를 반환합니다.

     'follow_symlinks'가 거짓이고, 'src'가 심볼릭 링크이면, 'dst'는 심볼
     릭 링크로 만들어집니다.  'follow_symlinks'가 참이고 'src'가 심볼릭
     링크이면, 'dst'는 'src'가 참조하는 파일의 사본이 됩니다.

     *note copy(): a56.는 파일 데이터와 파일의 권한 모드(*note
     os.chmod(): 21b.를 참조하십시오)를 복사합니다.  파일의 생성과 수정
     시간과 같은 다른 메타 데이터는 유지되지 않습니다.  원본의 모든 파일
     메타 데이터를 유지하려면 대신 *note copy2(): a57.를 사용하십시오.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copyfile’을 발
     생시킵니다.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copymode’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'follow_symlinks' 인자가 추가되었습니다.  이제 새
     로 만든 파일의 경로를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파일을 더 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 플랫폼별 빠른
     복사(fast-copy) 시스템 호출을 내부적으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
     플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산: a5a. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: shutil.copy2 (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     *note copy2(): a57.가 파일 메타 데이터 보존도 시도한다는 점을 제외
     하고는 *note copy(): a56.와 동일합니다.

     'follow_symlinks'가 거짓이고, 'src'가 심볼릭 링크이면, *note
     copy2(): a57.는 'src' 심볼릭 링크의 모든 메타 데이터를 새로 만들어
     진 'dst' 심볼릭 링크로 복사하려고 시도합니다.  그러나, 이 기능이 모
     든 플랫폼에서 사용 가능한 것은 아닙니다.  이 기능의 일부나 전부를 사
     용할 수 없는 플랫폼에서, *note copy2(): a57.는 가능한 모든 메타 데
     이터를 보존합니다; *note copy2(): a57.는 파일 메타 데이터를 보존할
     수 없다는 이유로 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

     *note copy2(): a57.는 *note copystat(): 111f.을 사용하여 파일 메타
     데이터를 복사합니다.  심볼릭 링크 메타 데이터 수정을 위한 플랫폼 지
     원에 대한 자세한 정보는 *note copystat(): 111f.을 참조하십시오.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copyfile’을 발
     생시킵니다.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copystat’을 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'follow_symlinks' 인자를 추가하고, 확장 파일 시
     스템 어트리뷰트도 복사하려고 합니다 (현재 리눅스만 해당합니다).  이
     제 새로 만든 파일의 경로를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파일을 더 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 플랫폼별 빠른
     복사(fast-copy) 시스템 호출을 내부적으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
     플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산: a5a. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: shutil.ignore_patterns (*patterns)

     이 팩토리 함수는 *note copytree(): a25.의 'ignore' 인자를 위한 콜러
     블 함수로 사용할 수 있는 함수를 만드는데, 제공된 glob 스타일
     'patterns' 중 하나와 일치하는 파일과 디렉터리를 무시하도록 합니다.
     아래 예를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: shutil.copytree (src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None,
          copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False,
          dirs_exist_ok=False)

     'src'를 루트로 하는 전체 디렉터리 트리를 'dst'라는 디렉터리에 재귀
     적으로 복사하고 대상 디렉터리를 반환합니다.  'dst'를 포함해야 하는
     모든 중간 디렉터리도 기본적으로 생성됩니다.

     디렉터리의 권한과 시간은 *note copystat(): 111f.으로 복사되고, 개별
     파일은 *note copy2(): a57.를 사용하여 복사됩니다.

     'symlinks'가 참이면, 소스 트리의 심볼릭 링크가 새 트리에서 심볼릭 링
     크로 표시되고 플랫폼이 허용하는 한 원래 링크의 메타 데이터가 복사됩
     니다; 거짓이거나 생략되면, 링크된 파일의 내용과 메타 데이터가 새 트
     리에 복사됩니다.

     'symlinks'가 거짓이면, 심볼릭 링크가 가리키는 파일이 존재하지 않으
     면, 복사 과정 종료 시 발생하는 *note Error: f94. 예외의 에러 리스트
     에 예외가 추가됩니다.  이 예외를 침묵시키려면 선택적
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' 플래그를 참으로 설정할 수 있습니다.  이
     옵션은 *note os.symlink(): 10e6.를 지원하지 않는 플랫폼에는 영향을
     미치지 않음에 주목하십시오.

     'ignore'가 주어지면, *note copytree(): a25.가 방문하는 디렉터리와
     *note os.listdir(): 10eb.가 반환한 이 디렉터리 내용의 리스트를 인자
     로 수신하는 콜러블 이어야 합니다.  *note copytree(): a25.는 재귀적
     으로 호출되기 때문에, 복사되는 디렉터리마다 'ignore' 콜러블이 한 번
     호출됩니다.  콜러블은 현재 디렉터리에 상대적인 디렉터리와 파일 이름
     의 시퀀스를 반환해야 합니다 (즉, 두 번째 인자에 있는 항목의 부분집
     합); 이 이름들은 복사 과정에서 무시됩니다.  *note
     ignore_patterns(): 2877.를 사용하여 glob 스타일 패턴을 기반으로 이
     름을 무시하는 콜러블을 만들 수 있습니다.

     예외가 발생하면, 이유 리스트와 함께 *note Error: f94.가 발생합니다.

     'copy_function'이 제공되면, 각 파일을 복사하는 데 사용되는 콜러블 이
     어야 합니다.  소스 경로와 대상 경로를 인자로 호출됩니다.  기본적으
     로, *note copy2(): a57.가 사용되지만, 같은 서명을 지원하는 (*note
     copy(): a56.와 같은) 모든 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.

     If 'dirs_exist_ok' is false (the default) and 'dst' already exists,
     a *note FileExistsError: 1016. is raised.  If 'dirs_exist_ok' is
     true, the copying operation will continue if it encounters existing
     directories, and files within the 'dst' tree will be overwritten by
     corresponding files from the 'src' tree.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.copytree’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 사용자 정의 복사 함수를 제공할 수 있도록
     'copy_function' 인자를 추가했습니다.  'symlinks'가 거짓일 때 연결이
     끊긴(dangling) 심볼릭 링크 에러를 침묵시키도록
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' 인자를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'symlinks'가 거짓일 때 메타 데이터를 복사합니다.
     이제 'dst'를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파일을 더 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 플랫폼별 빠른
     복사(fast-copy) 시스템 호출을 내부적으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
     플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산: a5a. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'dirs_exist_ok' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.rmtree (path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None, *,
          onexc=None, dir_fd=None)

     전체 디렉터리 트리를 삭제합니다; 'path'는 디렉터리를 가리켜야 합니
     다 (하지만 디렉터리에 대한 심볼릭 링크는 아닙니다).
     'ignore_errors'가 참이면, 삭제 실패로 인한 에러는 무시됩니다; 거짓
     이거나 생략되면, 이러한 에러는 'onexc'나 'onerror'로 지정된 처리기
     를 호출하여 처리하거나, 모두 생략하면 예외는 호출자에게 전파됩니다.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 10dc.

          참고: 필요한 fd 기반 함수를 지원하는 플랫폼에서는 기본적으로
          *note rmtree(): 2f9.의 심볼릭 링크 공격 방지 버전이 사용됩니다
          .  다른 플랫폼에서는, *note rmtree(): 2f9. 구현이 심볼릭 링크
          공격에 취약합니다: 적절한 타이밍과 상황에 따라, 공격자는 파일
          시스템에서 심볼릭 링크를 조작하여 다른 방법으로는 액세스할 수
          없는 파일을 삭제할 수 있습니다.  응용 프로그램은 *note
          rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks: 2878. 함수 어트리뷰트를 사용하
          여 어떤 버전이 사용되는지 판별할 수 있습니다.

     'onexc'가 제공되면, 세 가지 매개 변수를 받아들이는 콜러블 이어야 합
     니다: 'function', 'path' 및 'excinfo'.

     첫 번째 매개 변수 'function'은 예외를 발생시킨 함수입니다; 플랫폼과
     구현에 따라 다릅니다.  두 번째 매개 변수 'path'는 'function'에 전달
     된 경로 이름입니다.  세 번째 매개 변수 'excinfo'는 발생한 예외입니
     다.  'onexc'에 의해 발생한 예외는 포착되지 않습니다.

     The deprecated 'onerror' is similar to 'onexc', except that the
     third parameter it receives is the tuple returned from *note
     sys.exc_info(): 684.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note rmtree 예: 2879. for an example of handling the removal of a
     directory tree that contains read-only files.

     인자 ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.rmtree’를
     발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 플랫폼이 fd 기반 함수를 지원하면 자동으로 사용되
     는 심볼릭 링크 공격 방지 버전을 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 정션(junction)을 제거하기 전에 더는
     디렉터리 정션의 내용을 삭제하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added the 'onexc' parameter, deprecated
     'onerror'.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘rmtree()’ now ignores *note FileNotFoundError:
     425. exceptions for all but the top-level path.  Exceptions other
     than *note OSError: 411. and subclasses of ‘OSError’ are now always
     propagated to the caller.

      -- 속성: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks

          현재 플랫폼과 구현이 *note rmtree(): 2f9.의 심볼릭 링크 공격 방
          지 버전을 제공하는지를 나타냅니다.  현재 이것은 fd 기반 디렉터
          리 액세스 함수를 지원하는 플랫폼에서만 참입니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: shutil.move (src, dst, copy_function=copy2)

     파일이나 디렉터리('src')를 다른 위치로 재귀적으로 옮기고 대상을 반
     환합니다.

     대상이 기존 디렉터리이거나 디렉터리를 가리키는 심볼릭 링크면,
     'src'가 해당 디렉터리 내로 이동됩니다.  해당 디렉터리 내의 대상 경
     로는 이미 존재해서는 안 됩니다.

     'dst'가 이미 존재하지만, 디렉터리가 아니면, *note os.rename():
     10e3. 의미에 따라 덮어쓸 수 있습니다.

     대상이 현재 파일 시스템에 있으면, *note os.rename(): 10e3.이 사용됩
     니다.  그렇지 않으면, 'copy_function'을 사용하여 'src'를 대상으로 복
     사한 다음 제거합니다.  심볼릭 링크의 경우, 'src'의 대상을 가리키는
     새 심볼릭 링크가 대상으로 만들어지고 'src'가 제거됩니다.

     'copy_function'이 제공되면, 'src'와 대상 두 개의 인자를 취하는 콜러
     블 이어야 하며, *note os.rename(): 10e3.을 사용할 수 없을 때 'src'를
     대상으로 복사하는 데 사용됩니다.  소스가 디렉터리이면, *note
     copytree(): a25.가 호출되고 'copy_function'을 전달합니다.  기본
     'copy_function'은 *note copy2(): a57.입니다.  'copy_function'으로
     *note copy(): a56.를 사용하면 메타 데이터를 복사하지 않는 비용을 지
     불하는 대신 메타 데이터도 복사할 때 실패하는 이동이 성공할 수 있습
     니다.

     인자 ‘src’, ‘dst’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.move’를 발생시
     킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 외부 파일 시스템에 대한 명시적 심볼릭 링크 처리
     를 추가하여, GNU ‘mv’의 동작에 맞게 조정했습니다.  이제 'dst'를 반
     환합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'copy_function' 키워드 인자를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파일을 더 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 플랫폼별 빠른
     복사(fast-copy) 시스템 호출을 내부적으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
     플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산: a5a. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'src'와 'dst' 모두에 대해 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.disk_usage (path)

     지정된 경로(path)에 대한 디스크 사용량 통계를 'total', 'used' 및
     'free' 어트리뷰트를 갖는 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.로 반환합니다.  이
     들은 바이트 단위의 총, 사용된, 여유 공간의 양입니다.  'path'는 파일
     이나 디렉터리일 수 있습니다.

          참고: On Unix filesystems, 'path' must point to a path within
          a 'mounted' filesystem partition.  On those platforms, CPython
          doesn’t attempt to retrieve disk usage information from
          non-mounted filesystems.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 'path'는 이제 파일이나 디렉터리일 수
     있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 함수: shutil.chown (path, user=None, group=None, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     주어진 'path'의 소유자 'user' 및/또는 'group'을 변경합니다.

     'user'는 시스템 사용자 이름이나 uid 일 수 있습니다; 'group'도 마찬
     가지입니다.  최소한 하나의 인자가 필요합니다.

     하부 함수인 *note os.chown(): 10e0.도 참조하십시오.

     인자 ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘shutil.chown’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 와 'follow_symlinks' 매개 변수가 추가
     되었습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.which (cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)

     주어진 'cmd'가 호출되면 실행될 실행 파일의 경로를 반환합니다.  아무
     런 'cmd'도 호출되지 않을 것이라면, ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     'mode'는 *note os.access(): 10de.에 전달되는 권한 마스크입니다, 기
     본적으로 파일이 존재하고 실행 가능한지를 판단합니다.

     'path' is a “‘PATH’ string” specifying the directories to look in,
     delimited by *note os.pathsep: 1d4c.  When no 'path' is specified,
     the ‘PATH’ environment variable is read from *note os.environ:
     11a9, falling back to *note os.defpath: 1a09. if it is not set.

     If 'cmd' contains a directory component, ‘which()’ only checks the
     specified path directly and does not search the directories listed
     in 'path' or in the system’s ‘PATH’ environment variable.

     On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the 'path' if
     'mode' does not include ‘os.X_OK’.  When the 'mode' does include
     ‘os.X_OK’, the Windows API ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ will
     be consulted to determine if the current directory should be
     prepended to 'path'.  To avoid consulting the current working
     directory for executables: set the environment variable
     ‘NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath’.

     또한 윈도우에서, ‘PATHEXT’ 환경 변수는 확장자가 포함되지 않은 명령
     을 해석하는 데 사용됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘shutil.which("python")’을 호
     출하면, *note which(): 4ae.는 ‘PATHEXT’를 검색하여 'path' 디렉터리
     에서 ‘python.exe’를 찾아야 한다는 것을 알 수 있습니다.  예를 들어,
     윈도우에서:

          >>> shutil.which("python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     This is also applied when 'cmd' is a path that contains a directory
     component:

          >>> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 *note bytes: 1c2. 형을 받아들입니다.  'cmd'
     형이 *note bytes: 1c2.이면 결과 형도 *note bytes: 1c2.입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: On Windows, the current directory is no longer
     prepended to the search path if 'mode' includes ‘os.X_OK’ and
     WinAPI ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW(cmd)’ is false, else the
     current directory is prepended even if it is already in the search
     path; ‘PATHEXT’ is used now even when 'cmd' includes a directory
     component or ends with an extension that is in ‘PATHEXT’; and
     filenames that have no extension can now be found.

 -- 예외: shutil.Error

     이 예외는 다중 파일 연산 중에 발생한 예외를 수집합니다.  *note
     copytree(): a25.의 경우, 예외 인자는 3-튜플('srcname', 'dstname',
     'exception')의 리스트입니다.

* Menu:

* 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산::
* copytree 예::
* rmtree 예::


File: python.info,  Node: 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산,  Next: copytree 예,  Up: 디렉터리와 파일 연산

5.11.9.2 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산
.........................................

파이썬 3.8부터, 파일 복사를 수반하는 모든 함수(*note copyfile(): a55,
*note copy(): a56, *note copy2(): a57, *note copytree(): a25. 및 *note
move(): a58.)는 파일을 더 효율적으로 복사하기 위해 플랫폼별 “빠른 복사
(fast-copy)” 시스템 호출을 사용할 수 있습니다 (bpo-33671(1)을 참조하십시
오).  “빠른 복사”는 복사 연산이 커널 내에서 발생하여,
“‘outfd.write(infd.read())’”와 같이 파이썬에서 사용자 공간 버퍼 사용을 피
함을 의미합니다.

macOS에서는 fcopyfile(2)이 (메타 데이터가 아닌) 파일 내용을 복사하는 데
사용됩니다.

리눅스에서는 *note os.sendfile(): b0c.이 사용됩니다.

윈도우에서는 *note shutil.copyfile(): a55.이 더 큰 기본 버퍼 크기(64 KiB
대신 1 MiB)를 사용하고 *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a59.의 *note
memoryview(): 462. 기반 변형이 사용됩니다.

빠른 복사 연산이 실패하고 대상 파일에 아무런 데이터도 기록되지 않았으면
shutil은 내부적으로 덜 효율적인 *note copyfileobj(): a59. 함수를 사용하
여 조용히 폴 백 됩니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (2) http://www.manpagez.com/man/3/copyfile/


File: python.info,  Node: copytree 예,  Next: rmtree 예,  Prev: 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산,  Up: 디렉터리와 파일 연산

5.11.9.3 copytree 예
....................

*note ignore_patterns(): 2877. 도우미를 사용하는 예:

     from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))

이것은 ‘.pyc’ 파일과 이름이 ‘tmp’로 시작하는 파일이나 디렉터리를 제외한
모든 것을 복사합니다.

로깅 호출을 추가하기 위해 'ignore' 인자를 사용하는 또 다른 예:

     from shutil import copytree
     import logging

     def _logpath(path, names):
         logging.info('Working in %s', path)
         return []   # 아무것도 무시되지 않습니다

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)


File: python.info,  Node: rmtree 예,  Prev: copytree 예,  Up: 디렉터리와 파일 연산

5.11.9.4 rmtree 예
..................

이 예는 윈도우에서 일부 파일에 읽기 전용 비트가 설정된 디렉터리 트리를 삭
제하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  onexc 콜백을 사용하여 읽기 전용 비트를 지우고
삭제를 다시 시도합니다.  후속 실패는 전파됩니다.

     import os, stat
     import shutil

     def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
         "읽기 전용 비트를 지우고 삭제를 다시 시도합니다"
         os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
         func(path)

     shutil.rmtree(directory, onexc=remove_readonly)


File: python.info,  Node: 아카이브 연산,  Next: 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기,  Prev: 디렉터리와 파일 연산,  Up: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산

5.11.9.5 아카이브 연산
......................

Added in version 3.2.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 'xztar' 형식에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

압축 및 아카이브 된 파일을 만들고 읽는 고수준 유틸리티도 제공됩니다.  이
들은 *note zipfile: 131.과 *note tarfile: de. 모듈에 의존합니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.make_archive (base_name, format[, root_dir[, base_dir[,
          verbose[, dry_run[, owner[, group[, logger]]]]]]])

     아카이브 파일(가령 zip이나 tar)을 만들고 이름을 반환합니다.

     'base_name'은 만들 파일의 이름인데, 경로를 포함하고 형식별 확장자는
     제외합니다.

     'format'은 아카이브 형식입니다: “zip” (*note zlib: 133. 모듈을 사용
     할 수 있으면), “tar”, “gztar” (*note zlib: 133. 모듈을 사용할 수 있
     으면), “bztar” (*note bz2: 13. 모듈을 사용할 수 있으면) 또는
     “xztar” (*note lzma: 8a. 모듈을 사용할 수 있으면) 중 하나.

     'root_dir'은 아카이브의 루트 디렉터리가 될 디렉터리입니다, 아카이브
     의 모든 경로는 이것에 상대적입니다; 예를 들어, 보통 아카이브를 만들
     기 전에 'root_dir'로 chdir 합니다.

     'base_dir'은 아카이브를 시작할 디렉터리입니다; 즉, 'base_dir'은 아
     카이브에 있는 모든 파일과 디렉터리의 공통 접두사가 됩니다.
     'base_dir'은 'root_dir'에 상대적으로 제공되어야 합니다.  'base_dir'과
     'root_dir'을 함께 사용하는 방법은 *note base_dir을 사용한 아카이브
     예: 287f.를 참조하십시오.

     'root_dir'과 'base_dir'은 모두 현재 디렉터리가 기본값입니다.

     'dry_run'이 참이면, 아카이브가 만들어지지 않지만, 실행될 연산이
     'logger'에 로그 됩니다.

     tar 아카이브를 만들 때 'owner와 *group'이 사용됩니다.  기본적으로,
     현재 소유자와 그룹을 사용합니다.

     'logger'는 PEP 282(1)와 호환되는 객체여야 합니다, 일반적으로 *note
     logging.Logger: b4c.의 인스턴스.

     'verbose' 인자는 사용되지 않으며 폐지되었습니다.

     인자 ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’로 *note 감사
     이벤트: 18c1. ‘shutil.make_archive’를 발생시킵니다.

          참고: This function is not thread-safe when custom archivers
          registered with *note register_archive_format(): 2880. do not
          support the 'root_dir' argument.  In this case it temporarily
          changes the current working directory of the process to
          'root_dir' to perform archiving.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘format="tar"’로 만들어진 아카이브에 기존 GNU 형
     식 대신 최신 pax (POSIX.1-2001) 형식이 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.10.6에서 변경: This function is now made thread-safe during
     creation of standard ‘.zip’ and tar archives.

 -- 함수: shutil.get_archive_formats ()

     아카이브에 지원되는 형식의 리스트를 반환합니다.  반환된 시퀀스의 각
     요소는 튜플 ‘(name, description)’입니다.

     기본적으로 *note shutil: c5.은 다음 형식을 제공합니다:

        - 'zip': ZIP 파일 (*note zlib: 133. 모듈을 사용할 수 있으면).

        - 'tar': 압축되지 않은 tar 파일.  새 아카이브에 POSIX.1-2001 pax
          형식을 사용합니다.

        - 'gztar': gzip 된 tar 파일 (*note zlib: 133. 모듈을 사용할 수 있
          으면).

        - 'bztar': bzip2 된 tar 파일 (*note bz2: 13. 모듈을 사용할 수 있
          으면).

        - 'xztar': xz 된 tar 파일 (*note lzma: 8a. 모듈을 사용할 수 있으
          면).

     *note register_archive_format(): 2880.을 사용하여, 새 형식을 등록하
     거나 기존 형식에 대해 여러분 자신의 아카이버를 제공할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.register_archive_format (name, function[, extra_args[,
          description]])

     'name' 형식을 위한 아카이버를 등록합니다.

     'function'은 아카이브를 만드는 데 사용되는 콜러블입니다.  콜러블은
     만들 파일의 'base_name'과 그 뒤에 아카이브를 시작할 'base_dir'(기본
     값은 *note os.curdir: 27ec.)를 받습니다.  추가 인자는 키워드 인자로
     전달됩니다: 'owner', 'group', 'dry_run' 및 'logger' (*note
     make_archive(): 4ad.로 전달됩니다).

     If 'function' has the custom attribute ‘function.supports_root_dir’
     set to ‘True’, the 'root_dir' argument is passed as a keyword
     argument.  Otherwise the current working directory of the process
     is temporarily changed to 'root_dir' before calling 'function'.  In
     this case *note make_archive(): 4ad. is not thread-safe.

     주어지면, 'extra_args'는 아카이버 콜러블이 사용될 때 추가 키워드 인
     자로 사용되는 ‘(name, value)’ 쌍의 시퀀스입니다.

     'description'은 아카이버 목록을 반환하는 *note
     get_archive_formats(): 2881.에서 사용됩니다.  기본값은 빈 문자열입
     니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'root_dir' 인자를 지원하는 함수들에 대한 지원이
     추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.unregister_archive_format (name)

     지원되는 형식 리스트에서 'name' 아카이브 형식을 제거합니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.unpack_archive (filename[, extract_dir[, format[,
          filter]]])

     아카이브를 풉니다.  'filename'은 아카이브의 전체 경로입니다.

     'extract_dir'은 아카이브가 풀리는 대상 디렉터리의 이름입니다.  제공
     되지 않으면, 현재 작업 디렉터리가 사용됩니다.

     'format'은 아카이브 형식입니다: “zip”, “tar”, “gztar”, “bztar” 또는
     “xztar” 중 하나.  또는 *note register_unpack_format(): 2883.으로 등
     록된 다른 형식.  제공되지 않으면, *note unpack_archive(): 465.는 아
     카이브 파일 이름 확장자를 사용하여 그 확장자에 대한 아카이브 해제기
     가 등록되었는지 확인합니다.  아무것도 발견되지 않으면, *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     The keyword-only 'filter' argument is passed to the underlying
     unpacking function.  For zip files, 'filter' is not accepted.  For
     tar files, it is recommended to set it to ‘'data'’, unless using
     features specific to tar and UNIX-like filesystems.  (See *note
     Extraction filters: 466. for details.)  The ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default for tar files in Python 3.14.

     인자 ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’으로 *note 감사 이벤트:
     18c1. ‘shutil.unpack_archive’를 발생시킵니다.

          경고: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of the path specified in the 'extract_dir' argument,
          e.g.  members that have absolute filenames starting with “/”
          or filenames with two dots “..”.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'filename'과 'extract_dir'에 대해 *note 경로류
     객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'filter' 인자를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.register_unpack_format (name, extensions, function[,
          extra_args[, description]])

     아카이브 해제기를 등록합니다.  'name'은 형식의 이름이고
     'extensions'는 형식에 해당하는 확장자의 리스트입니다, 가령 Zip 파일
     의 경우 ‘.zip’.

     'function'은 아카이브를 푸는 데 사용되는 콜러블입니다.  콜러블은 다
     음을 받습니다:

        - 아카이브의 경로, 위치 인자로;

        - 아카이브를 추출해야 하는 디렉터리, 위치 인자로;

        - possibly a 'filter' keyword argument, if it was given to *note
          unpack_archive(): 465.;

        - additional keyword arguments, specified by 'extra_args' as a
          sequence of ‘(name, value)’ tuples.

     'description'은 형식을 설명하기 위해 제공될 수 있으며, *note
     get_unpack_formats(): 2884. 함수에 의해 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.unregister_unpack_format (name)

     아카이브 해제 형식을 등록 취소합니다.  'name'은 형식의 이름입니다.

 -- 함수: shutil.get_unpack_formats ()

     아카이브 해제를 위해 등록된 모든 형식의 리스트를 반환합니다.  반환
     된 시퀀스의 각 요소는 튜플 ‘(name, extensions, description)’입니다.

     기본적으로 *note shutil: c5.은 다음 형식을 제공합니다:

        - 'zip': ZIP 파일 (압축된 파일의 해제는 해당 모듈을 사용할 수 있
          을 때만 작동합니다).

        - 'tar': 압축되지 않은 tar 파일.

        - 'gztar': gzip 된 tar 파일 (*note zlib: 133. 모듈을 사용할 수 있
          으면).

        - 'bztar': bzip2 된 tar 파일 (*note bz2: 13. 모듈을 사용할 수 있
          으면).

        - 'xztar': xz 된 tar 파일 (*note lzma: 8a. 모듈을 사용할 수 있으
          면).

     *note register_unpack_format(): 2883.을 사용하여, 새 형식을 등록하
     거나 기존 형식에 대한 여러분 자신의 아카이브 해제기를 제공할 수 있
     습니다.

* Menu:

* 아카이브 예::
* base_dir을 사용한 아카이브 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: 아카이브 예,  Next: base_dir을 사용한 아카이브 예,  Up: 아카이브 연산

5.11.9.6 아카이브 예
....................

이 예에서는, 사용자의 ‘.ssh’ 디렉터리에 있는 모든 파일을 포함하는 gzip 된
tar 파일 아카이브를 만듭니다:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
     >>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'

결과 아카이브에는 다음이 포함됩니다:

     $ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
     drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
     -rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
     -rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts


File: python.info,  Node: base_dir을 사용한 아카이브 예,  Prev: 아카이브 예,  Up: 아카이브 연산

5.11.9.7 'base_dir'을 사용한 아카이브 예
........................................

이 예에서는, *note 위의 예: 2887.와 유사하게, *note make_archive():
4ad.를 사용하는 방법을 보여 주지만, 이번에는 'base_dir'을 사용합니다.  이
제 다음 디렉터리 구조가 있습니다:

     $ tree tmp
     tmp
     └── root
         └── structure
             ├── content
                 └── please_add.txt
             └── do_not_add.txt

최종 아카이브에는, ‘please_add.txt’가 포함되어야 하지만,
‘do_not_add.txt’는 포함되지 않아야 합니다.  따라서 다음을 사용합니다:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> make_archive(
     ...     archive_name,
     ...     'tar',
     ...     root_dir='tmp/root',
     ...     base_dir='structure/content',
     ... )
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar'

결과 아카이브에 파일을 나열하면 다음과 같습니다:

     $ python -m tarfile -l /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar
     structure/content/
     structure/content/please_add.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기,  Prev: 아카이브 연산,  Up: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산

5.11.9.8 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기
....................................

 -- 함수: shutil.get_terminal_size (fallback=(columns, lines))

     터미널 창의 크기를 가져옵니다.

     두 차원 각각에 대해, 환경 변수 ‘COLUMNS’와 ‘LINES’가 각각 확인됩니
     다.  변수가 정의되고 값이 양의 정수이면 사용됩니다.

     ‘COLUMNS’나 ‘LINES’가 정의되지 않으면 (이것이 일반적입니다), *note
     os.get_terminal_size(): 10f3.를 호출하여 *note sys.__stdout__:
     288a.에 연결된 터미널을 조회합니다.

     시스템이 조회를 지원하지 않거나, 터미널에 연결되어 있지 않기 때문에
     터미널 크기를 성공적으로 조회할 수 없으면, ‘fallback’ 매개 변수에 제
     공된 값이 사용됩니다.  ‘fallback’의 기본값은 많은 터미널 에뮬레이터
     에서 사용하는 기본 크기인 ‘(80, 24)’입니다.

     반환된 값은 *note os.terminal_size: 288b. 형의 네임드 튜플입니다.

     참조: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, Other Environment
     Variables(1).

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘fallback’ values are also used if *note
     os.get_terminal_size(): 10f3. returns zeroes.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note os: a1.

     운영 체제 인터페이스.  파이썬 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.보다 저수준으로
     파일을 다루는 함수를 포함합니다.

모듈 *note io: 7f.

     파이썬의 내장 I/O 라이브러리.  추상 클래스와 파일 I/O와 같은 구상 클
     래스를 모두 포함합니다.

내장 함수 *note open(): 515.

     파이썬으로 읽고 쓰기 위해 파일을 여는 표준 방법.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 지속성,  Next: 데이터 압축 및 보관,  Prev: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.12 데이터 지속성
==================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 파이썬 데이터를 디스크에 지속적인 형태로 저장
하는 것을 지원합니다.  *note pickle: a6.과 *note marshal: 8d. 모듈은 많
은 파이썬 데이터형을 바이트 스트림으로 바꿀 수 있고 그 바이트열로부터 객
체를 재생성할 수 있습니다.  다양한 DBM 관련 모듈은 문자열에서 다른 문자
열로의 매핑을 저장하는 일군의 해시 기반 파일 형식을 지원합니다.

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화::
* copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록::
* shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성::
* marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화::
* dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스::
* sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화,  Next: copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록,  Up: 데이터 지속성

5.12.1 ‘pickle’ — 파이썬 객체 직렬화
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pickle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note pickle: a6. 모듈은 파이썬 객체 구조의 직렬화와 역 직렬화를 위한 바
이너리 프로토콜을 구현합니다.  '“피클링(pickling)”'은 파이썬 객체 계층 구
조가 바이트 스트림으로 변환되는 절차이며, '“역 피클링(unpickling)”'은 반
대 연산으로, (*note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f. 이나 *note 바이트열류 객체:
d2a.로 부터의) 바이트 스트림을 객체 계층 구조로 복원합니다.  피클링(그리
고 역 피클링)은 “직렬화(serialization)”, “마샬링(marshalling)” (2) 또는
“평탄화(flattening)” 라고도 합니다; 그러나, 혼란을 피하고자, 여기에서 사
용된 용어는 “피클링” 과 “역 피클링” 입니다.

     경고: ‘pickle’ 모듈은 '안전하지 않습니다'.  신뢰할 수 있는 데이터만
     언 피클 하십시오.

     '언 피클 시 임의의 코드를 실행하는' 악의적인 피클 데이터를 구성할 수
     있습니다.  신뢰할 수 없는 출처에서 왔거나 변조되었을 수 있는 데이터
     를 절대로 언 피클 하지 마십시오.

     변조되지 않았음을 보장하려면 *note hmac: 6a.으로 데이터에 서명하는
     것을 고려하십시오.

     신뢰할 수 없는 데이터를 처리한다면, *note json: 82.과 같은 안전한 직
     렬화 형식이 더 적합 할 수 있습니다.  *note json 과의 비교: 2891.를
     참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계::
* 데이터 스트림 형식::
* 모듈 인터페이스::
* 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?::
* 클래스 인스턴스 피클링::
* 형, 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원: 형 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원.
* 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼::
* 전역 제한하기::
* 성능::
* 예제: 예제<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pickle.py

   (2) 이것을 *note marshal: 8d. 모듈과 혼동하지 마십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계,  Next: 데이터 스트림 형식,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.1 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계
..................................

* Menu:

* marshal 과의 비교::
* json 과의 비교::


File: python.info,  Node: marshal 과의 비교,  Next: json 과의 비교,  Up: 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계

5.12.1.2 ‘marshal’ 과의 비교
............................

파이썬이 *note marshal: 8d. 이라 불리는 좀 더 원시적인 직렬화 모듈을 가
지고 있지만, 일반적으로 *note pickle: a6. 은 항상 파이썬 객체를 직렬화하
기 위해 선호되는 방법이어야 합니다.  *note marshal: 8d. 은 주로 파이썬의
‘.pyc’ 파일을 지원하기 위해 존재합니다.

*note pickle: a6. 모듈은 *note marshal: 8d.과 몇 가지 중요한 점에서 다릅
니다:

   * *note pickle: a6. 모듈은 이미 직렬화된 객체를 추적하므로 나중에 같
     은 객체에 대한 참조가 다시 직렬화되지 않습니다.  *note marshal: 8d.
     은 이렇게 하지 않습니다.

     이는 재귀 객체와 객체 공유에 모두 관련이 있습니다.  재귀 객체는 자
     신에 대한 참조를 포함하는 객체입니다.  이것은 마샬에 의해 처리되지
     않으며, 실제로 재귀 객체를 마샬 하려고 하면 파이썬 인터프리터가 충
     돌합니다.  객체 공유는 직렬화되는 객체 계층의 다른 위치에서 같은 객
     체에 대한 다중 참조가 있을 때 발생합니다.  *note pickle: a6. 은 그
     러한 객체를 한 번만 저장하고, 다른 모든 참조가 마스터 복사본을 가리
     키도록 만듭니다.  공유 객체는 공유된 상태로 유지되는데, 가변 객체의
     경우 매우 중요할 수 있습니다.

   * *note marshal: 8d.은 사용자 정의 클래스와 인스턴스를 직렬화하는 데
     사용할 수 없습니다.  *note pickle: a6. 은 클래스 인스턴스를 투명하
     게 저장하고 복원할 수 있지만, 클래스 정의는 객체를 저장할 때와 같은
     모듈에 존재하고 임포트 할 수 있어야 합니다.

   * *note marshal: 8d. 직렬화 형식은 파이썬 버전 간에 이식성이 보장되지
     않습니다.  가장 중요한 일은 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 지원하는 것이므로, 파이썬
     구현자는 필요할 때 직렬화 형식을 과거 호환되지 않는 방식으로 변경할
     권리를 갖습니다.  *note pickle: a6. 직렬화 형식은, 호환성 있는 피클
     프로토콜이 선택되고 여러분의 데이터가 파이썬 2와 파이썬 3의 호환되
     지 않는 언어 경계를 가로지를 때 피클링과 역 피클링 코드가 두 파이썬
     형의 차이점을 다루는 한, 파이썬 배포 간의 과거 호환성을 보장합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: json 과의 비교,  Prev: marshal 과의 비교,  Up: 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계

5.12.1.3 ‘json’ 과의 비교
.........................

pickle 프로토콜과 JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(1) 간에는 근본적인 차
이가 있습니다:

   * JSON은 텍스트 직렬화 형식(유니코드 텍스트를 출력하지만, 대개는
     ‘utf-8’ 으로 인코딩됩니다)인 반면, pickle은 바이너리 직렬화 형식입
     니다.

   * JSON은 사람이 읽을 수 있지만, 피클은 그렇지 않습니다.

   * JSON은 상호 운용이 가능하며 파이썬 생태계 외부에서 널리 사용되는 반
     면, 피클은 파이썬으로만 한정됩니다.

   * JSON은, 기본적으로, 파이썬 내장형 일부만 표시할 수 있으며 사용자 정
     의 클래스는 표시할 수 없습니다; 피클은 매우 많은 수의 파이썬 형을 나
     타낼 수 있습니다 (그중 많은 것들은 파이썬의 인트로스펙션 기능을 영
     리하게 사용하여 자동으로; 복잡한 경우는 *note 특정 객체 API: 2895.
     를 구현해서 해결할 수 있습니다);

   * pickle과 달리, 신뢰할 수 없는 JSON의 역 직렬화는 그 자체로 임의 코
     드 실행 취약점을 만들지는 않습니다.

더 보기
.......

*note json: 82. 모듈: JSON 직렬화와 역 직렬화를 가능하게 하는 표준 라이
브러리 모듈.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 스트림 형식,  Next: 모듈 인터페이스,  Prev: 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.4 데이터 스트림 형식
...........................

*note pickle: a6. 이 사용하는 데이터 형식은 파이썬에 고유합니다.  이것은
JSON(포인터 공유를 나타낼 수 없음)과 같은 외부 표준에 의해 부과된 제약이
없다는 장점이 있습니다.  그러나 비 파이썬 프로그램은 피클 된 파이썬 객체
를 재구성할 수 없다는 것을 의미합니다.

기본적으로, *note pickle: a6. 데이터 포맷은 상대적으로 간결한 바이너리 표
현을 사용합니다.  최적의 크기 특성이 필요하다면, 피클 된 데이터를 효율적
으로 *note 압축: 2897. 할 수 있습니다.

모듈 *note pickletools: a7. 에는 *note pickle: a6. 에 의해 생성된 데이터
스트림을 분석하는 도구가 있습니다.  *note pickletools: a7. 소스 코드에는
피클 프로토콜에서 사용되는 옵코드(opcode)에 대한 광범위한 주석이 있습니
다.

현재 피클링에 쓸 수 있는 6가지 프로토콜이 있습니다.  사용된 프로토콜이 높
을수록, 생성된 피클을 읽으려면 더 최신 파이썬 버전이 필요합니다.

   * 프로토콜 버전 0은 최초의 “사람이 읽을 수 있는” 프로토콜이며 이전 버
     전의 파이썬과 과거 호환됩니다.

   * 프로토콜 버전 1은 역시 이전 버전의 파이썬과 호환되는 오래된 바이너
     리 형식입니다.

   * 프로토콜 버전 2는 파이썬 2.3에서 소개되었습니다.  그것은 훨씬 더 효
     율적인 *note 뉴스타일 클래스: 2898.의 피클링을 제공합니다.  프로토
     콜 2에 의해 개선된 사항에 대한 정보는 PEP 307(1)을 참조하십시오.

   * 프로토콜 버전 3은 파이썬 3.0에서 추가되었습니다.  명시적으로 *note
     bytes: 1c2. 객체를 지원하며 파이썬 2.x에서 역 피클 될 수 없습니다.
     이것은 파이썬 3.0–3.7에서 기본 프로토콜이었습니다.

   * 프로토콜 버전 4가 파이썬 3.4에 추가되었습니다.  매우 큰 객체, 더 많
     은 종류의 객체에 대한 피클링, 일부 데이터 형식 최적화에 대한 지원을
     추가합니다.  파이썬 3.8부터 이것이 기본 프로토콜입니다.  프로토콜
     4에 의해 개선된 사항에 대한 정보는 PEP 3154(2)를 참조하십시오.

   * 프로토콜 버전 5는 파이썬 3.8에서 추가되었습니다.  아웃 오브 밴드 데
     이터에 대한 지원과 인 밴드 데이터에 대한 속도 향상을 추가합니다.  프
     로토콜 5의 개선 사항에 대한 정보는 PEP 574(3)를 참조하십시오.

     참고: 직렬화는 지속성보다 더 원시적인 개념입니다; *note pickle: a6.
     이 파일 객체를 읽거나 쓰기는 하지만, 지속적인 객체의 이름 지정도 (더
     복잡한) 지속적인 객체에 대한 동시 액세스 문제도 처리하지 않습니다.
     *note pickle: a6. 모듈은 복잡한 객체를 바이트 스트림으로 변환할 수
     있고 바이트 스트림을 같은 내부 구조를 가진 객체로 변환할 수 있습니
     다.  아마도 이러한 바이트 스트림으로 할 가장 분명한 작업은 파일에 쓰
     는 것이겠지만, 네트워크를 통해 보내거나 데이터베이스에 저장하는 것
     도 고려할 수 있습니다.  *note shelve: c3. 모듈은 DBM 스타일의 데이
     터베이스 파일에 객체를 피클/역 피클 하는 간단한 인터페이스를 제공합
     니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 인터페이스,  Next: 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?,  Prev: 데이터 스트림 형식,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.5 모듈 인터페이스
........................

객체 계층 구조를 직렬화하려면, 단순히 *note dumps(): 1468. 함수를 호출하
면 됩니다.  마찬가지로, 데이터 스트림을 역 직렬화하려면 *note loads():
d0e. 함수를 호출합니다.  그러나, 직렬화와 역 직렬화에 대한 더 많은 제어
를 원하면, 각각 *note Pickler: a1a. 나 *note Unpickler: 16ae. 객체를 만
들 수 있습니다.

*note pickle: a6. 모듈은 다음과 같은 상수를 제공합니다:

 -- 데이터: pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL

     정수, 사용 가능한 가장 높은 *note 프로토콜 버전: cbe.  이 값은 함수
     *note dump(): 289a.와 *note dumps(): 1468. 그리고 *note Pickler:
     a1a. 생성자에 'protocol' 값으로 전달될 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL

     정수, 피클링에 사용되는 기본 *note 프로토콜 버전: cbe.  *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1469. 보다 작을 수 있습니다.  현재 기본 프로토콜
     은 4인데, 파이썬 3.4에서 처음 소개되었으며 이전 버전과 호환되지 않
     습니다.

     버전 3.0에서 변경: 기본 프로토콜은 3입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 기본 프로토콜은 4입니다.

*note pickle: a6. 모듈은 피클링 절차를 보다 편리하게 하려고 다음과 같은
함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: pickle.dump (obj, file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     객체 'obj' 의 피클 된 표현을 열린 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'file' 에
     씁니다.  이것은 ‘Pickler(file, protocol).dump(obj)’ 와 동등합니다.

     인자 'file', 'protocol', 'fix_imports' 및 'buffer_callback'은 *note
     Pickler: a1a. 생성자에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'buffer_callback' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pickle.dumps (obj, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     객체 'obj'의 피클 된 표현을 파일에 쓰는 대신 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체
     로 반환합니다.

     인자 'protocol', 'fix_imports' 및 'buffer_callback'은 *note
     Pickler: a1a. 생성자에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'buffer_callback' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pickle.load (file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     열린 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'file' 에서 객체의 피클 된 표현을 읽고,
     그 안에 지정된 객체 계층 구조를 재구성하여 반환합니다.  이것은
     ‘Unpickler(file).load()’ 와 동등합니다.

     피클의 프로토콜 버전이 자동으로 감지되므로 프로토콜 인자가 필요하지
     않습니다.  객체의 피클 된 표현 뒤에 남는 바이트열은 무시됩니다.

     인자 'file', 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' 및
     'buffers'는 *note Unpickler: 16ae. 생성자에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'buffers' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pickle.loads (data, /, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     객체의 피클 된 표현 'data'의 재구성된 객체 계층 구조를 반환합니다.
     'data'는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.여야 합니다.

     피클의 프로토콜 버전이 자동으로 감지되므로 프로토콜 인자가 필요하지
     않습니다.  객체의 피클 된 표현 뒤에 남는 바이트열은 무시됩니다.

     인자 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' 및 'buffers'는
     *note Unpickler: 16ae. 생성자에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'buffers' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

*note pickle: a6. 모듈은 세 가지 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: pickle.PickleError

     다른 피클링 예외의 공통 베이스 클래스입니다.  *note Exception:
     9d6.을 상속합니다.

 -- 예외: pickle.PicklingError

     *note Pickler: a1a. 가 피클 가능하지 않은 객체를 만날 때 발생하는 에
     러.  *note PickleError: 289b. 를 상속합니다.

     어떤 종류의 객체가 피클 될 수 있는지 배우려면 *note 어떤 것이 피클
     되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?: 289d.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 예외: pickle.UnpicklingError

     데이터 손상 또는 보안 위반과 같이 객체를 역 피클 할 때 문제가 있으
     면 발생하는 에러.  *note PickleError: 289b. 를 상속합니다.

     역 피클링 중에 다른 예외도 발생할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.
     AttributeError, EOFError, ImportError, IndexError 등이 발생할 수 있
     지만, 이에 국한되지는 않습니다.

*note pickle: a6. 모듈은 세 개의 클래스를 노출합니다, *note Pickler:
a1a, *note Unpickler: 16ae. 및 *note PickleBuffer: 17fe.:

 -- 클래스: pickle.Pickler (file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     피클 데이터 스트림을 쓸 바이너리 파일을 받아들입니다.

     선택적 'protocol' 인자(정수)는 피클러가 주어진 프로토콜을 사용하도
     록 지시합니다; 지원되는 프로토콜은 0부터 *note HIGHEST_PROTOCOL:
     1469. 입니다.  지정하지 않으면 기본값은 *note DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     828. 입니다.  음수가 지정되면, *note HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1469. 이 선
     택됩니다.

     'file' 인자에는 단일 바이트열 인자를 받아들이는 write() 메서드가 있
     어야 합니다.  따라서 바이너리 쓰기를 위해 열린 디스크 상의 파일,
     *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 인스턴스 또는 이 인터페이스를 충족시키는 다
     른 사용자 정의 객체일 수 있습니다.

     'fix_imports' 가 참이고 'protocol' 이 3보다 작으면, pickle은 새로운
     파이썬 3 이름을 파이썬 2에서 사용된 이전 모듈 이름에 매핑하려고 시
     도하여, 파이썬 2에서 피클 데이터 스트림을 읽을 수 있도록 합니다.

     'buffer_callback'이 ‘None’ (기본값) 이면, 버퍼 뷰는 피클 스트림의 일
     부로 'file'로 직렬화됩니다.

     'buffer_callback'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 버퍼 뷰로 여러 번 호출될 수 있
     습니다.  콜백이 거짓 값(가령 ‘None’)을 반환하면, 주어진 버퍼는
     *note 아웃 오브 밴드: 289f.입니다; 그렇지 않으면 버퍼는 인 밴드, 즉
     피클 스트림 내부에 직렬화됩니다.

     'buffer_callback'이 ‘None’이 아니고 'protocol'이 ‘None’이거나 5보다
     작으면 에러입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'buffer_callback' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: dump (obj)

          생성자에 주어진 열린 파일 객체에 'obj' 의 피클 된 표현을 씁니
          다.

      -- 메서드: persistent_id (obj)

          기본적으로 아무것도 하지 않습니다.  이것은 서브 클래스가 재정
          의할 수 있게 하려고 존재합니다.

          *note persistent_id(): 15a8. 가 ‘None’ 을 반환하면, 'obj' 는 보
          통 때처럼 피클 됩니다.  다른 값은 *note Pickler: a1a. 가 'obj'
          의 지속성(persistent) ID로 반환 값을 출력하도록 합니다.  이 지
          속성 ID의 의미는 *note Unpickler.persistent_load(): 15b0. 에 의
          해 정의되어야 합니다.  *note persistent_id(): 15a8. 에 의해 반
          환된 값 자체는 지속성 ID를 가질 수 없음에 유의하십시오.

          자세한 내용과 사용 예는 *note 외부 객체의 지속성: 28a0.를 참조
          하십시오.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Add the default implementation of this
          method in the C implementation of ‘Pickler’.

      -- 속성: dispatch_table

          피클러 객체의 디스패치 테이블은 *note copyreg.pickle(): 28a1.
          을 사용하여 선언할 수 있는 '환원 함수(reduction functions)' 의
          등록소입니다.  키가 클래스이고 값이 환원 함수인 매핑입니다.  환
          원 함수는 관련 클래스의 단일 인자를 취하며 *note __reduce__():
          9d0. 메서드와 같은 인터페이스를 따라야 합니다.

          기본적으로, 피클러 객체는 *note dispatch_table: 1113. 어트리뷰
          트를 가지지 않을 것이고, 대신 *note copyreg: 26. 모듈에 의해 관
          리되는 전역 디스패치 테이블을 사용할 것입니다.  그러나 특정 피
          클러 객체의 피클링을 사용자 정의하기 위해서 *note
          dispatch_table: 1113. 어트리뷰트를 딕셔너리류 객체로 설정할 수
          있습니다.  또는, *note Pickler: a1a. 의 서브 클래스가 *note
          dispatch_table: 1113. 어트리뷰트를 가지고 있다면, 이 클래스의
          인스턴스를 위한 기본 디스패치 테이블로 사용됩니다.

          사용 예는 *note 디스패치 테이블: 28a2.을 참조하십시오.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: reducer_override (obj)

          *note Pickler: a1a. 서브 클래스에서 정의할 수 있는 특수 환원기
          (reducer).  이 메서드는 *note dispatch_table: 1113.에 있는 모
          든 감속기보다 우선순위가 높습니다.  *note __reduce__(): 9d0. 메
          서드와 같은 인터페이스를 따라야 하며, 선택적으로 *note
          NotImplemented: 7cb.를 반환하여 ‘obj’를 피클 하기 위해 *note
          dispatch_table: 1113. 등록 환원기로 폴백(fallback)하도록 할 수
          있습니다.

          자세한 예는 *note 형, 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의
          환원: 28a3.을 참조하십시오.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 속성: fast

          폐지되었습니다.  참값으로 설정된 경우 빠른 모드를 활성화합니다
          .  빠른 모드는 메모 사용을 비활성화하므로, 불필요한 PUT 옵코드
          를 생성하지 않아 피클링 절차의 속도를 높입니다.  자신을 참조하
          는 객체에 사용되면 안 됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 *note Pickler:
          a1a. 가 무한 재귀에 빠집니다.

          더 간결한 피클이 필요하면 *note pickletools.optimize(): 28a5.
          를 사용하십시오.

 -- 클래스: pickle.Unpickler (file, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     피클 데이터 스트림을 읽는 데 사용될 바이너리 파일을 받아들입니다.

     피클의 프로토콜 버전이 자동으로 감지되므로 프로토콜 인자가 필요하지
     않습니다.

     인자 'file' 에는 세 가지 메서드가 있어야 합니다, *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 인터페이스 처럼, 정수 인자를 받아들이는
     read() 메서드, 버퍼 인자를 받아들이는 readinto() 메서드 그리고 인자
     가 없는 readline() 메서드.  따라서 'file' 은 바이너리 읽기를 위해 열
     린 디스크 상의 파일, *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 객체 또는 이 인터페이스
     를 만족하는 다른 사용자 정의 객체일 수 있습니다.

     선택적 인자 'fix_imports', 'encoding' 및 'errors'는 파이썬 2에서 생
     성된 피클 스트림에 대한 호환성 지원을 제어하는 데 사용됩니다.
     'fix_imports' 가 참이면, pickle은 이전 파이썬 2 이름을 파이썬 3에서
     사용된 새로운 이름으로 매핑하려고 합니다.  'encoding' 과 'errors' 는
     파이썬 2에 의해 피클 된 8비트 문자열 인스턴스를 디코딩하는 방법을
     pickle에게 알려줍니다.  기본값은 각각 ‘ASCII’와 ‘strict’ 입니다.
     'encoding' 은 ‘bytes’ 가 될 수 있는데, 8비트 문자열 인스턴스를 바이
     트열 객체로 읽습니다.  NumPy 배열과 파이썬 2에서 피클 된 *note
     datetime: 1cc, *note date: 1cd. 및 *note time: 1ce. 인스턴스를 역 피
     클링하려면 ‘encoding='latin1'’을 사용해야 합니다.

     'buffers'가 ‘None’ (기본값) 이면, 역 직렬화에 필요한 모든 데이터가
     피클 스트림에 포함되어야 합니다.  이것은 *note Pickler: a1a.가 인스
     턴스 화 될 때 (또는 *note dump(): 289a.나 *note dumps(): 1468.가 호
     출될 때) 'buffer_callback' 인자가 ‘None’이었음을 뜻합니다.

     'buffers'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 피클 스트림이 *note 아웃 오브 밴드:
     289f. 버퍼 뷰를 참조할 때마다 소비되는 버퍼가 활성화된 객체의 이터
     러블이어야 합니다.  이러한 버퍼는 Pickler 객체의 'buffer_callback'에
     순서대로 제공되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'buffers' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: load ()

          생성자에 주어진 열린 파일 객체에서 객체의 피클 된 표현을 읽고,
          그 안에 지정된 객체 계층 구조를 재구성하여 반환합니다.  객체의
          피클 된 표현 뒤에 남는 바이트열은 무시됩니다.

      -- 메서드: persistent_load (pid)

          기본적으로 *note UnpicklingError: 289e.를 발생시킵니다.

          정의되면, *note persistent_load(): 15b0. 는 지속성 ID 'pid' 로
          지정된 객체를 반환해야 합니다.  유효하지 않은 지속성 ID가 발견
          되면 *note UnpicklingError: 289e.를 일으켜야 합니다.

          자세한 내용과 사용 예는 *note 외부 객체의 지속성: 28a0.를 참조
          하십시오.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Add the default implementation of this
          method in the C implementation of ‘Unpickler’.

      -- 메서드: find_class (module, name)

          필요하면 'module' 을 임포트하고 거기에서 'name' 이라는 객체를
          반환합니다.  여기서 'module' 및 'name' 인자는 *note str: 445.
          객체입니다.  그 이름이 제시하는 것과는 달리, *note
          find_class(): 28a7. 는 함수를 찾는 데에도 사용됨에 유의하십시
          오.

          로드되는 객체의 형과 로드 방법을 제어하기 위해 서브 클래스는 이
          것을 재정의할 수 있고, 잠재적으로 보안 위험을 감소시킵니다.  자
          세한 내용은 *note 전역 제한하기: 28a8.를 참조하십시오.

          ‘module’, ‘name’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
          18c1. ‘pickle.find_class’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: pickle.PickleBuffer (buffer)

     피클 가능한 데이터를 나타내는 버퍼의 래퍼.  'buffer'는 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 N-차원 배열과 같은 *note 버퍼 제공: 391. 객
     체여야 합니다.

     *note PickleBuffer: 17fe. 자체가 버퍼 제공자이므로, *note
     memoryview: 462.와 같은 버퍼 제공 객체를 기대하는 다른 API로 전달할
     수 있습니다.

     *note PickleBuffer: 17fe. 객체는 피클 프로토콜 5 이상만 사용하여 직
     렬화할 수 있습니다.  그들은 *note 아웃 오브 밴드 직렬화: 289f. 대상
     입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: raw ()

          이 버퍼의 하부 메모리 영역의 *note memoryview: 462.를 반환합니
          다.  반환된 객체는 ‘B’ (부호 없는 바이트) 형식의 1-차원 C 연속
          메모리 뷰입니다.  버퍼가 C나 포트란 연속적이지 않으면 *note
          BufferError: 182b.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          PickleBuffer 객체에 의해 노출된 하부 버퍼를 해제합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?,  Next: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링,  Prev: 모듈 인터페이스,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.6 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?
....................................................

다음 형을 피클 할 수 있습니다:

   * built-in constants (‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’, ‘Ellipsis’, and *note
     NotImplemented: 7cb.);

   * 정수, 실수, 복소수;

   * 문자열, 바이트열, 바이트 배열(bytearray);

   * 피클 가능한 객체만 포함하는 튜플, 리스트, 집합과 딕셔너리;

   * 모듈의 최상위 수준에서 액세스할 수 있는 (내장 및 사용자 정의) 함수
     (*note lambda: 128c. 가 아니라 *note def: 1420. 를 사용하는);

   * 모듈의 최상위 수준에서 액세스할 수 있는 클래스;

   * 그런 클래스의 인스턴스 중에서 *note __getstate__(): 5d2. 를 호출한
     결과가 피클 가능한 것들 (자세한 내용은 *note 클래스 인스턴스
     피클링: 2895. 절을 참조하세요).

피클 가능하지 않은 객체를 피클 하려고 하면 *note PicklingError: 289c. 예
외가 발생합니다; 이런 일이 일어났을 때, 특정할 수 없는 길이의 바이트열이
하부 파일에 이미 기록되었을 수 있습니다.  매우 재귀적인 데이터 구조를 피
클 하려고 하면 최대 재귀 깊이를 초과할 수 있고, 이때 *note
RecursionError: d68. 가 발생합니다.  *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bd.
을 사용하여 이 제한을 조심스럽게 올릴 수 있습니다.

함수(내장 및 사용자 정의)는 값이 아니라 완전히 *note 정규화된 이름:
1948.으로 피클 됨에 유의하십시오.  (1)  이것은 함수를 포함하는 모듈과 클
래스의 이름과 함께 함수의 이름만 피클 된다는 것을 의미합니다.  함수의 코
드도 함수 어트리뷰트도 피클 되지 않습니다.  따라서 정의하는 모듈은 역 피
클 환경에서 임포트 가능해야 하며, 모듈에는 그 이름의 객체가 있어야 합니
다.  그렇지 않으면 예외가 발생합니다.  (2)

마찬가지로, 클래스는 완전히 정규화된 이름으로 피클 되므로 역 피클링 환경
에서 같은 제한이 적용됩니다.  클래스의 코드 나 데이터가 피클 되지 않음에
유의하세요.  그래서 다음 예제에서 클래스 어트리뷰트 ‘attr’ 은 역 피클링
환경에서 복원되지 않습니다:

     class Foo:
         attr = 'A class attribute'

     picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)

이러한 제한이 피클 가능한 함수와 클래스가 모듈의 최상위 수준에서 정의되
어야 하는 이유입니다.

마찬가지로, 클래스 인스턴스가 피클 될 때, 클래스의 코드와 데이터는 함께
피클 되지 않습니다.  인스턴스 데이터만 피클 됩니다.  이는 의도한 것으로,
클래스의 버그를 수정하거나 클래스에 메서드를 추가할 수 있고, 이전 버전의
클래스로 만들어진 객체를 여전히 로드 할 수 있습니다.  여러 버전의 클래스
에 걸치는 수명이 긴 객체를 만들 계획이라면, 클래스의 *note
__setstate__(): 146a. 메서드로 적절한 변환을 할 수 있도록 객체에 버전 번
호를 넣는 것이 좋습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이것이 ‘lambda’ 함수가 pickle 될 수 없는 이유입니다: 모든 *note
lambda: 128c. 함수는 같은 이름을 공유합니다: ‘<lambda>’.

   (2) 발생하는 예외는 *note ImportError: 413. 나 *note AttributeError:
346. 일 가능성이 크지만, 그 밖의 다른 것일 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링,  Next: 형 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원,  Prev: 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.7 클래스 인스턴스 피클링
...............................

이 절에서는 클래스 인스턴스를 피클 및 역 피클 하는 방법을 정의, 사용자 정
의 및 제어할 수 있는 일반적인 메커니즘을 설명합니다.

대부분은, 인스턴스를 피클 가능하게 만드는 데 추가 코드가 필요하지 않습니
다.  기본적으로, pickle은 인트로스펙션을 통해 인스턴스의 클래스와 어트리
뷰트를 조회합니다.  클래스 인스턴스가 역 피클 될 때, *note __init__():
6aa. 메서드는 보통 호출되지 '않습니다'.  기본 동작은, 먼저 초기화되지 않
은 인스턴스를 만든 다음 저장된 어트리뷰트를 복원합니다.  다음 코드는 이
동작의 구현을 보여줍니다:

     def save(obj):
         return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)

     def restore(cls, attributes):
         obj = cls.__new__(cls)
         obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
         return obj

클래스는 다음과 같은 하나 이상의 특수 메서드를 제공하여 기본 동작을 변경
할 수 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: object.__getnewargs_ex__ ()

     프로토콜 2 이상에서, *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 28ad. 메서드를 구현
     하는 클래스는 역 피클링 때 *note __new__(): 57b. 메서드에 전달되는
     값을 지시할 수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 ‘(args, kwargs)’ 쌍을 반환해
     야 합니다.  'args' 는 위치 인자의 튜플이고 'kwargs' 는 이름있는 인
     자의 딕셔너리인데, 객체를 구성하는 데 사용됩니다.  그것들은 역 피클
     링 때 *note __new__(): 57b. 메서드로 전달될 것입니다.

     클래스의 *note __new__(): 57b. 메서드에 키워드 전용 인자가 필요하면
     이 메서드를 구현해야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 호환성을 위해 *note
     __getnewargs__(): 146b. 를 구현하는 것이 좋습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 28ad. 는 이제 프로토
     콜 2와 3에서 사용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__getnewargs__ ()

     이 메서드는 *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 28ad. 와 비슷한 목적을 수행
     하지만, 위치 인자만 지원합니다.  역 피클링 때 *note __new__(): 57b.
     메서드에 전달될 인자의 튜플 ‘args’ 를 반환해야 합니다.

     *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 28ad. 가 정의되면 *note
     __getnewargs__(): 146b. 는 호출되지 않습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 파이썬 3.6 이전에는, 프로토콜 2와 3에서 *note
     __getnewargs_ex__(): 28ad. 대신 *note __getnewargs__(): 146b. 가 호
     출되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__getstate__ ()

     클래스는 *note __getstate__(): 5d2. 메서드를 재정의함으로써 인스턴
     스가 피클 되는 방식을 추가로 제어할 수 있습니다.  기본 상태 대신, 이
     메서드가 호출되고 반환된 객체를 인스턴스의 내용으로 피클 합니다.  다
     음과 같은 경우가 있습니다:

        * For a class that has no instance *note __dict__: 556. and no
          *note __slots__: 14b2, the default state is ‘None’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 556. and no
          *note __slots__: 14b2, the default state is ‘self.__dict__’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 556. and
          *note __slots__: 14b2, the default state is a tuple consisting
          of two dictionaries: ‘self.__dict__’, and a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values.  Only slots that have a value are
          included in the latter.

        * For a class that has *note __slots__: 14b2. and no instance
          *note __dict__: 556, the default state is a tuple whose first
          item is ‘None’ and whose second item is a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values described in the previous bullet.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the default implementation of the
     ‘__getstate__()’ method in the *note object: a89. class.

 -- 메서드: object.__setstate__ (state)

     역 피클링 때, 클래스가 *note __setstate__(): 146a. 를 정의하면, 그
     것은 역 피클 된 상태(state)로 호출됩니다.  이 경우 상태 객체가 딕셔
     너리일 필요는 없습니다.  그렇지 않으면, 피클 된 상태는 딕셔너리 여
     야하고 그 항목이 새 인스턴스의 딕셔너리에 삽입됩니다.

          참고: *note __reduce__(): 9d0. 가 피클링 때 값이 거짓 ‘None’인
          상태를 반환하면, *note __setstate__(): 146a. 메서드가 역 피클
          링 때 호출되지 않습니다.

*note __getstate__(): 5d2. 와 *note __setstate__(): 146a. 메서드를 사용
하는 방법에 대한 더 자세한 정보는 *note 상태 저장 객체 처리: 28ae. 절을
참조하십시오.

     참고: 역 피클링 시간에, *note __getattr__(): 4cd, *note
     __getattribute__(): bcf, 또는 *note __setattr__(): 1f35. 같은 메서
     드가 인스턴스에 호출될 수 있습니다.  그러한 메서드들이 어떤 내부 불
     변성이 참인 것에 의존하는 경우, 형은 그런 불변성을 유지하기 위해
     *note __new__(): 57b. 를 구현해야 합니다, 인스턴스를 역 피클링할 때
     *note __init__(): 6aa.가 호출되지 않기 때문입니다.

앞으로 살펴보겠지만, 피클은 위에서 설명한 메서드를 직접 사용하지 않습니
다.  사실, 이 메서드들은 *note __reduce__(): 9d0. 특수 메서드를 구현하는
복사 프로토콜의 일부입니다.  복사 프로토콜은 객체를 피클 하고 복사하는 데
필요한 데이터를 조회하기 위한 통일된 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  (1)

강력하기는 하지만, 여러분의 클래스에서 직접 *note __reduce__(): 9d0. 를
구현하면 잘못되기 쉽습니다.  이런 이유로, 클래스 설계자는 가능하면 고수
준 인터페이스(즉, *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 28ad, *note __getstate__():
5d2. 및 *note __setstate__(): 146a.)를 사용해야 합니다.  하지만, 우리는
‘__reduce__()’ 를 사용하는 것이 유일한 옵션이거나 더 효율적인 피클링을 제
공하거나 혹은 둘 다인 경우를 보여줄 것입니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__reduce__ ()

     인터페이스는 현재 다음과 같이 정의됩니다.  *note __reduce__(): 9d0.
     메서드는 아무런 인자도 받아들이지 않으며 문자열이나 바람직하게는 튜
     플을 반환합니다 (반환된 객체는 흔히 “환원 값(reduce value)”이라고 불
     립니다).

     문자열이 반환되면, 문자열은 전역 변수의 이름으로 해석되어야 합니다.
     모듈에 상대적인 객체의 지역 이름이어야 합니다; pickle 모듈은 객체의
     모듈을 결정하기 위해 모듈 이름 공간을 검색합니다.  이 동작은 일반적
     으로 싱글톤에 유용합니다.

     튜플이 반환될 때는, 길이가 2나 6이 되어야 합니다.  선택적인 항목은
     생략되거나 ‘None’ 이 값으로 제공될 수 있습니다.  각 항목의 의미는 순
     서대로 다음과 같습니다:

        * 객체의 초기 버전을 만들기 위해 호출할 콜러블 객체.

        * 콜러블 객체에 대한 인자의 튜플.  콜러블 객체가 인자를 받아들이
          지 않으면 빈 튜플을 제공해야 합니다.

        * 선택적으로, 객체의 상태.  앞에서 설명한 대로 객체의 *note
          __setstate__(): 146a. 메서드에 전달됩니다.  객체에 그런 메서드
          가 없다면, 그 값은 딕셔너리 여야 하며 객체의 *note __dict__:
          556. 어트리뷰트에 추가됩니다.

        * 선택적으로, 연속적인 항목을 생성하는 이터레이터(시퀀스가 아닙
          니다).  이 항목들은 ‘obj.append(item)’ 을 사용하거나 한꺼번에
          ‘obj.extend(list_of_items)’ 를 사용하여 객체에 추가될 것입니다
          .  이것은 주로 리스트 서브 클래스에 사용되지만, 적절한 서명을
          갖는 *note append 와 extend 메서드: 21b1.가 있는 한 다른 클래
          스에서 사용될 수 있습니다.  (‘append()’ 나 ‘extend()’ 중 어느
          것이 사용되는지는 어떤 피클 프로토콜 버전이 사용되는가와 추가
          할 항목의 수에 따라 달려있으므로 둘 다 지원되어야 합니다.)

        * 선택적으로, 연속적인 키-값 쌍을 생성하는 이터레이터(시퀀스가 아
          닙니다).  이 항목들은 ‘obj[key] = value’ 를 사용하여 객체에 저
          장됩니다.  이것은 주로 딕셔너리 서브 클래스에 사용되지만,
          *note __setitem__(): 12bb. 을 구현하는 한 다른 클래스에서 사용
          될 수 있습니다.

        * 선택적으로, ‘(obj, state)’ 서명을 가진 콜러블.  이 콜러블은
          ‘obj’의 정적 *note __setstate__(): 146a. 메서드 대신에 특정 객
          체의 상태 갱신 동작을 프로그래밍 방식으로 제어할 수 있도록 합
          니다.  ‘None’이 아니면, 이 콜러블은 ‘obj’의 *note
          __setstate__(): 146a.보다 우선 합니다.

          Added in version 3.8: 선택적인 여섯 번째 튜플 항목 ‘(obj,
          state)’가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: object.__reduce_ex__ (protocol)

     또는, *note __reduce_ex__(): 15c2. 메서드를 정의할 수 있습니다.  유
     일한 차이점은 이 메서드가 프로토콜 버전인 단일 정수 인자를 받아들여
     야 한다는 것입니다.  정의되면, pickle은 *note __reduce__(): 9d0. 메
     서드보다 선호합니다.  또한, *note __reduce__(): 9d0. 는 자동으로 확
     장 버전의 동의어가 됩니다.  이 메서드의 주된 용도는 구형 파이썬 배
     포를 위해 과거 호환성 있는 환원 값을 제공하는 것입니다.

* Menu:

* 외부 객체의 지속성::
* 디스패치 테이블::
* 상태 저장 객체 처리::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note copy: 25. 모듈은 얕거나 깊은 복사 연산에 이 프로토콜을 사용
합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 외부 객체의 지속성,  Next: 디스패치 테이블,  Up: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링

5.12.1.8 외부 객체의 지속성
...........................

객체 지속성의 효용을 위해, *note pickle: a6. 모듈은 피클 된 데이터 스트
림 밖의 객체에 대한 참조 개념을 지원합니다.  이러한 객체는 지속성 ID에 의
해 참조되며, 영숫자 문자열(프로토콜 0의 경우) (1) 또는 임의의 객체(모든
최신 프로토콜의 경우)여야 합니다.

그러한 지속성 ID의 해석은 *note pickle: a6. 모듈에 의해 정의되지 않습니
다; 이 해석을 피클러와 역 피클러의 사용자 정의 메서드에 위임합니다, 각각
*note persistent_id(): 15a8.와 *note persistent_load(): 15b0.

지속성 ID를 가진 객체를 피클 하기 위해서, 피클러는 객체를 인자로 받아서
그 객체에 대해 ‘None’ 또는 지속성 ID를 반환하는 사용자 정의 *note
persistent_id(): 15a8. 메서드가 있어야 합니다.  ‘None’ 이 반환되면, 피클
러는 단순히 객체를 피클 합니다.  지속성 ID 문자열이 반환되면, 피클러는 마
커와 함께 해당 객체를 피클 하여 역 피클러가 이를 지속성 ID로 인식하게 합
니다.

외부 객체를 역 피클 하려면, 역 피클러는 지속성 ID 객체를 받아들여 참조된
객체를 반환하는 사용자 정의 *note persistent_load(): 15b0. 메서드를 가져
야 합니다.

다음은 지속성 ID를 외부 객체를 참조로 피클 하는데 사용하는 방법을 보여주
는 포괄적인 예입니다.

     # 지속성 ID를 외부 객체를 참조로 피클 하는데 사용하는 방법을 보여주는 간단한 예제.
     # external objects by reference.

     import pickle
     import sqlite3
     from collections import namedtuple

     # 우리 데이터베이스의 레코드를 나타내는 간단한 클래스.
     MemoRecord = namedtuple("MemoRecord", "key, task")

     class DBPickler(pickle.Pickler):

         def persistent_id(self, obj):
             # MemoRecord를 일반 클래스 인스턴스로 피클 하는 대신,
             # 지속성 ID를 출력합니다.
             if isinstance(obj, MemoRecord):
                 # 여기서, 우리의 지속성 ID는 태그와 데이터베이스의 특정 레코드를 참조하는 키를 포함하는
                 # 단순한 튜플입니다.
                 return ("MemoRecord", obj.key)
             else:
                 # obj에 지속성 ID가 없으면, None을 반환합니다. 이것은 obj가 평소와 같이 피클 되어야
                 # 함을 의미합니다.
                 return None


     class DBUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def __init__(self, file, connection):
             super().__init__(file)
             self.connection = connection

         def persistent_load(self, pid):
             # 이 메서드는, 지속성 ID를 만날 때마다 호출됩니다.
             # 여기에서, pid는 DBPickler가 반환한 튜플입니다.
             cursor = self.connection.cursor()
             type_tag, key_id = pid
             if type_tag == "MemoRecord":
                 # 데이터베이스에서 참조 된 레코드를 반입하여 리턴하십시오.
                 cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?", (str(key_id),))
                 key, task = cursor.fetchone()
                 return MemoRecord(key, task)
             else:
                 # 올바른 객체를 반환할 수 없으면 항상 에러를 일으켜야 합니다.
                 # 그렇지 않으면, 언피클러는 None이 지속성 ID에 의해 참조되는 객체라고
                 # 생각할 것입니다.
                 raise pickle.UnpicklingError("unsupported persistent object")


     def main():
         import io
         import pprint

         # 데이터베이스를 초기화하고 값을 채웁니다.
         conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
         cursor = conn.cursor()
         cursor.execute("CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)")
         tasks = (
             'give food to fish',
             'prepare group meeting',
             'fight with a zebra',
             )
         for task in tasks:
             cursor.execute("INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)", (task,))

         # 피클 할 레코드를 가져옵니다.
         cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos")
         memos = [MemoRecord(key, task) for key, task in cursor]
         # 사용자 정의 DBPickler를 사용하여 레코드를 저장합니다.
         file = io.BytesIO()
         DBPickler(file).dump(memos)

         print("Pickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)

         # 확인을 위해 레코드를 갱신합니다.
         cursor.execute("UPDATE memos SET task='learn italian' WHERE key=1")

         # 피클 데이터 스트림에서 레코드를 로드합니다.
         file.seek(0)
         memos = DBUnpickler(file, conn).load()

         print("Unpickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 영숫자 문자의 제한은 프로토콜 0에서 지속성 ID가 개행 문자로 구분
되기 때문입니다.  따라서 지속성 ID에 개행 문자가 포함되면 결과 피클돤 데
이터를 읽을 수 없게 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 디스패치 테이블,  Next: 상태 저장 객체 처리,  Prev: 외부 객체의 지속성,  Up: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링

5.12.1.9 디스패치 테이블
........................

피클링에 의존하는 다른 코드를 방해하지 않고 일부 클래스의 피클링을 사용
자 정의하려면, 사설 디스패치 테이블을 갖는 피클러를 만들 수 있습니다.

*note copyreg: 26. 모듈에 의해 관리되는 전역 디스패치 테이블은
‘copyreg.dispatch_table’로 사용 가능합니다.  그러므로, 사설 디스패치 테
이블로 ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’ 의 수정된 복사본을 사용할 수 있습니다.

예를 들면

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)
     p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
     p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass

는 ‘SomeClass’ 클래스를 특별히 처리하는 사설 디스패치 테이블을 갖는
*note pickle.Pickler: a1a. 의 인스턴스를 생성합니다.  또는, 코드

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
         dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)

가 같은 일을 하지만, ‘MyPickler’ 의 모든 인스턴스는 기본적으로 사설 디스
패치 테이블을 공유합니다.  반면에, 다음 코드

     copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)

는 *note copyreg: 26. 모듈의 모든 사용자가 공유하는 전역 디스패치 테이블
을 수정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 상태 저장 객체 처리,  Prev: 디스패치 테이블,  Up: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링

5.12.1.10 상태 저장 객체 처리
.............................

다음은 클래스의 피클 동작을 수정하는 방법을 보여주는 예제입니다.  아래의
‘TextReader’ 클래스는 텍스트 파일을 열고, ‘readline()’ 메서드가 호출될 때
마다 줄 번호와 줄 내용을 반환합니다.  ‘TextReader’ 인스턴스가 피클 되면,
파일 객체 멤버를 '제외한' 모든 어트리뷰트가 저장됩니다.  인스턴스가 역 피
클 될 때, 파일이 다시 열리고, 마지막 위치에서 읽기가 다시 시작됩니다.
‘__setstate__()’ 와 ‘__getstate__()’ 메서드가 이 행동을 구현하는 데 사용
됩니다.

     class TextReader:
         """텍스트 파일의 줄을 인쇄하고 번호를 매깁니다."""

         def __init__(self, filename):
             self.filename = filename
             self.file = open(filename)
             self.lineno = 0

         def readline(self):
             self.lineno += 1
             line = self.file.readline()
             if not line:
                 return None
             if line.endswith('\n'):
                 line = line[:-1]
             return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)

         def __getstate__(self):
             # 우리의 모든 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 self.__dict__ 에서 객체의
             # 상태를 복사합니다. 원래 상태를 수정하지 않으려면 항상 dict.copy()
             # 메서드를 사용하십시오.
             state = self.__dict__.copy()
             # 피클 가능하지 않은 항목을 제거합니다.
             del state['file']
             return state

         def __setstate__(self, state):
             # 인스턴스 어트리뷰트(즉, filename 과 lineno)를 복원합니다.
             self.__dict__.update(state)
             # 이전에 열린 파일의 상태를 복원합니다. 그렇게 하려면, 다시 열어서 행 수를 복원할
             # 때까지 읽어야 합니다.
             file = open(self.filename)
             for _ in range(self.lineno):
                 file.readline()
             # 마지막으로, 파일을 저장합니다.
             self.file = file

사용 예는 다음과 같은 식입니다:

     >>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
     >>> reader.readline()
     '1: Hello world!'
     >>> reader.readline()
     '2: I am line number two.'
     >>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
     >>> new_reader.readline()
     '3: Goodbye!'


File: python.info,  Node: 형 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원,  Next: 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼,  Prev: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.11 형, 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원
.......................................................

Added in version 3.8.

때로, *note dispatch_table: 1113.이 충분히 유연하지 않을 수 있습니다.  특
히 객체의 형이 아닌 다른 기준에 따라 피클링을 사용자 정의하거나, 함수와
클래스 피클링을 사용자 정의하고 싶을 수 있습니다.

이럴 때, *note Pickler: a1a. 클래스의 서브 클래스를 만들고 *note
reducer_override(): a1b. 메서드를 구현할 수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 임의
의 환원 튜플을 반환할 수 있습니다 (*note __reduce__(): 9d0.를 참조하십시
오).  또는 *note NotImplemented: 7cb.를 반환하여 전통적인 동작으로 폴백
(fallback)할 수 있습니다.

*note dispatch_table: 1113.과 *note reducer_override(): a1b.가 모두 정의
되면, *note reducer_override(): a1b. 메서드가 우선합니다.

     참고: 성능상의 이유로, 다음과 같은 객체에 대해서는 *note
     reducer_override(): a1b.가 호출되지 않을 수 있습니다: ‘None’,
     ‘True’, ‘False’ 및 *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note bytes:
     1c2, *note str: 445, *note dict: 256, *note set: 5d3, *note
     frozenset: 5d4, *note list: 60b. 및 *note tuple: 369.의 정확한
     (exact) 인스턴스.

다음은 주어진 클래스를 피클링하고 재구성할 수 있도록 하는 간단한 예제입
니다:

     import io
     import pickle

     class MyClass:
         my_attribute = 1

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         def reducer_override(self, obj):
             """MyClass를 위한 사용자 정의 환원자."""
             if getattr(obj, "__name__", None) == "MyClass":
                 return type, (obj.__name__, obj.__bases__,
                               {'my_attribute': obj.my_attribute})
             else:
                 # 다른 모든 객체는, 일반적인 환원을 사용합니다
                 return NotImplemented

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)
     p.dump(MyClass)

     del MyClass

     unpickled_class = pickle.loads(f.getvalue())

     assert isinstance(unpickled_class, type)
     assert unpickled_class.__name__ == "MyClass"
     assert unpickled_class.my_attribute == 1


File: python.info,  Node: 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼,  Next: 전역 제한하기,  Prev: 형 함수 및 기타 객체에 대한 사용자 정의 환원,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.12 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼
.............................

Added in version 3.8.

일부 상황에서는, *note pickle: a6. 모듈을 사용하여 많은 양의 데이터를 전
송합니다.  따라서 성능과 자원 소비를 보존하기 위해 메모리 복사 횟수를 최
소화하는 것이 중요할 수 있습니다.  그러나, *note pickle: a6. 모듈의 정상
적인 작동은, 객체의 그래프(graph)적인 구조를 순차적인 바이트 스트림으로
변환하기 때문에, 본질적으로 피클 스트림과의 데이터 복사를 수반합니다.

'제공자(provider)'(전송될 객체 형의 구현)와 '소비자(consumer)'(통신 시스
템의 구현)가 모두 피클 프로토콜 5 이상에서 제공되는 아웃 오브 밴드 전송
기능을 지원하면 이 제약 조건을 피할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 제공자 API::
* 소비자 API::
* 예제: 예제<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: 제공자 API,  Next: 소비자 API,  Up: 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼

5.12.1.13 제공자 API
....................

피클 될 대형 데이터 객체는 프로토콜 5 이상에 특화된 *note
__reduce_ex__(): 15c2. 메서드를 구현해야 합니다.  이 메서드는 대형 데이
터에 대해 (예를 들어 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체 대신) *note PickleBuffer:
17fe. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

*note PickleBuffer: 17fe. 객체는 하부 버퍼가 아웃 오브 밴드 전송 대상이
라는 '신호를 보냅니다'.  이러한 객체는 *note pickle: a6. 모듈의 일반적인
사용과 호환됩니다.  그러나, 소비자는 *note pickle: a6.에게 그 버퍼를 스
스로 처리하겠다고 알릴 수도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 소비자 API,  Next: 예제<6>,  Prev: 제공자 API,  Up: 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼

5.12.1.14 소비자 API
....................

통신 시스템은 객체 그래프를 직렬화할 때 생성된 *note PickleBuffer: 17fe.
객체의 사용자 정의 처리를 활성화할 수 있습니다.

송신 측에서는, 'buffer_callback' 인자를 *note Pickler: a1a. (또는 *note
dump(): 289a.나 *note dumps(): 1468. 함수)에 전달해야 합니다.  이 인자는
객체 그래프를 피클링할 때 생성된 각 *note PickleBuffer: 17fe.로 호출됩니
다.  'buffer_callback'에 의해 누적된 버퍼는 피클 스트림으로 복사되지 않
고, 저렴한 마커만 삽입됩니다.

수신 측에서는, 'buffer_callback'에 전달된 버퍼의 이터러블인 'buffers' 인
자를 *note Unpickler: 16ae. (또는 *note load(): d0d.나 *note loads():
d0e. 함수)에 전달해야 합니다.  그 이터러블은 'buffer_callback'에 전달된
것과 같은 순서로 버퍼를 만들어야 합니다.  이러한 버퍼는 피클링이 원래
*note PickleBuffer: 17fe. 객체를 생성한 객체의 재구성자가 기대하는 데이
터를 제공합니다.

송신 측과 수신 측 사이에서, 통신 시스템은 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼를 위한 자
체 전송 메커니즘을 자유롭게 구현할 수 있습니다.  잠재적인 최적화에는 공
유 메모리나 데이터 유형에 따른 압축이 포함됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<6>,  Prev: 소비자 API,  Up: 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼

5.12.1.15 예제
..............

다음은 아웃 오브 버퍼 피클링에 참여할 수 있는 *note bytearray: 538. 서브
클래스를 구현하는 간단한 예제입니다:

     class ZeroCopyByteArray(bytearray):

         def __reduce_ex__(self, protocol):
             if protocol >= 5:
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (PickleBuffer(self),), None
             else:
                 # PickleBuffer는 피클 프로토콜 <= 4 에서는 금지됩니다.
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (bytearray(self),)

         @classmethod
         def _reconstruct(cls, obj):
             with memoryview(obj) as m:
                 # 원래 버퍼 객체에 대한 핸들을 얻습니다
                 obj = m.obj
                 if type(obj) is cls:
                     # 원래 버퍼 객체는 ZeroCopyByteArray 이며,
                     # 그대로 반환합니다.
                     return obj
                 else:
                     return cls(obj)

재구성자(‘_reconstruct’ 클래스 메서드)는 올바른 형이면 버퍼를 제공하는 객
체를 반환합니다.  이것은 이 장난감 예제에서 제로-복사 동작을 흉내 내는 손
쉬운 방법입니다.

소비자 측에서는, 그 객체들을 일반적인 방법으로 피클 할 수 있습니다.  역
직렬화될 때 원래 객체의 사본을 제공합니다:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # False: 복사가 발생했습니다

그러나 'buffer_callback'을 전달하고 역 직렬화할 때 누적된 버퍼를 돌려주
면, 원래의 객체를 다시 얻을 수 있습니다:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     buffers = []
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5, buffer_callback=buffers.append)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data, buffers=buffers)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # True: 복사가 발생하지 않았습니다

이 예제는 *note bytearray: 538.가 자체 메모리를 할당한다는 사실로 인해 제
한됩니다: 즉, 다른 객체의 메모리를 사용하는 *note bytearray: 538. 인스턴
스를 만들 수 없습니다.  그러나, NumPy 배열과 같은 제삼자 데이터형에는 이
러한 제한이 없으며, 별개의 프로세스나 시스템 간에 전송할 때 제로-복사 피
클링(또는 최소한의 복사)을 사용할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 574(1) – 아웃 오브 밴드 데이터를 포함하는 피클 프로토콜 5

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: 전역 제한하기,  Next: 성능,  Prev: 아웃 오브 밴드 버퍼,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.16 전역 제한하기
.......................

기본적으로, 역 피클링은 피클 데이터에서 찾은 모든 클래스나 함수를 임포트
합니다.  많은 응용 프로그램에서는, 역 피클러가 임의 코드를 임포트하고 호
출할 수 있으므로, 이 동작을 받아들일 수 없습니다.  이 손으로 만든 피클 데
이터 스트림이 로드될 때 하는 일을 생각해보십시오:

     >>> import pickle
     >>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     hello world
     0

이 예제에서, 역 피클러는 *note os.system(): 1423. 함수를 임포트하고 문자
열 인자 “echo hello world”를 적용합니다.  이 예제가 공격적이지는 않지만,
어떤 것들은 시스템을 손상할 수 있다고 상상하기 어렵지 않습니다.

이런 이유로, 여러분은 *note Unpickler.find_class(): 28a7.를 사용자 정의
하여 언 피클 되는 것을 제어하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  이름이 제안하는 것과
는 달리, *note Unpickler.find_class(): 28a7. 는 전역(즉, 클래스나 함수
)이 요청될 때마다 호출됩니다.  따라서 전역을 완전히 금지하거나 안전한 부
분집합으로 제한할 수 있습니다.

다음은 *note builtins: 12. 모듈에서 몇 가지 안전한 클래스만 로드되도록 허
용하는 역 피클러의 예입니다:

     import builtins
     import io
     import pickle

     safe_builtins = {
         'range',
         'complex',
         'set',
         'frozenset',
         'slice',
     }

     class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def find_class(self, module, name):
             # builtins의 안전한 클래스만 허용합니다.
             if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
                 return getattr(builtins, name)
             # 다른 모든 것을 금지합니다.
             raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
                                          (module, name))

     def restricted_loads(s):
         """pickle.loads()와 유사한 도움 함수."""
         return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()

우리의 역 피클러가 의도대로 작동하는 사용 예:

     >>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
     [1, 2, range(0, 15)]
     >>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
     >>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
     ...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
     ...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden

예를 통해 알 수 있듯이, 역 피클을 허락하는 것에 주의를 기울여야 합니다.
따라서 보안이 중요하다면, *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. 나 제삼자 솔루션의 마
샬링 API 같은 대안을 고려할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 성능,  Next: 예제<7>,  Prev: 전역 제한하기,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.17 성능
..............

최신 버전의 피클 프로토콜(프로토콜 2 이상)은 몇 가지 공통 기능 및 내장형
에 대한 효율적인 바이너리 인코딩을 제공합니다.  또한, *note pickle: a6.
모듈은 C로 작성된 투명한 최적화기를 가지고 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<7>,  Prev: 성능,  Up: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화

5.12.1.18 예제
..............

가장 간단한 코드로, *note dump(): 289a.와 *note load(): d0d. 함수를 사용
하십시오.

     import pickle

     # pickle이 지원하는 임의의 객체 모음.
     data = {
         'a': [1, 2.0, 3+4j],
         'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
         'c': {None, True, False}
     }

     with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
         # 사용 가능한 가장 높은 프로토콜을 사용하여 'data' 딕셔너리를 피클 합니다.
         pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)

다음 예제는 결과로 나온 피클 데이터를 읽습니다.

     import pickle

     with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
         # 사용된 프로토콜 버전이 자동으로 감지되므로,
         # 지정할 필요가 없습니다.
         data = pickle.load(f)

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note copyreg: 26.

     확장형에 대한 피클 인터페이스 생성자 등록

모듈 *note pickletools: a7.

     피클 된 데이터로 작업하고 분석하는 도구.

모듈 *note shelve: c3.

     객체의 인덱싱 된 데이터베이스; *note pickle: a6.을 사용합니다.

모듈 *note copy: 25.

     얕거나 깊은 객체 복사.

모듈 *note marshal: 8d.

     내장형의 고성능 직렬화.


File: python.info,  Node: copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록,  Next: shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성,  Prev: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화,  Up: 데이터 지속성

5.12.2 ‘copyreg’ — ‘pickle’ 지원 함수 등록
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/copyreg.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note copyreg: 26. 모듈은 특정 객체를 피클 하는 동안 사용되는 함수를 정
의하는 방법을 제공합니다.  *note pickle: a6.과 *note copy: 25. 모듈은 해
당 객체를 피클/복사할 때 이 함수를 사용합니다.  이 모듈은 클래스가 아닌
객체 생성자에 대한 구성 정보를 제공합니다.  이러한 생성자는 팩토리 함수
나 클래스 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: copyreg.constructor (object)

     'object'를 유효한 생성자로 선언합니다.  'object'가 콜러블이 아니면
     (따라서 생성자로 유효하지 않으면), *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니
     다.

 -- 함수: copyreg.pickle (type, function, constructor_ob=None)

     'function'이 'type' 형의 객체에 대한 “환원” 함수로 사용되어야 한다
     고 선언합니다.  'function'는 문자열이나 2개에서 또는 6개 사이의 요
     소를 포함하는 튜플을 반환해야 합니다.  'function'의 인터페이스에 대
     한 자세한 내용은 *note dispatch_table: 1113.을 참조하십시오.

     The 'constructor_ob' parameter is a legacy feature and is now
     ignored, but if passed it must be a callable.

     피클러 객체나 *note pickle.Pickler: a1a.의 서브 클래스의 *note
     dispatch_table: 1113. 어트리뷰트도 환원 함수를 선언하는 데 사용될 수
     있습니다.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/copyreg.py


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<8>,  Up: copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록

5.12.2.1 예제
.............

아래 예제는 피클 함수를 등록하는 방법과 사용법을 보여줍니다.:

     >>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, a):
     ...         self.a = a
     ...
     >>> def pickle_c(c):
     ...     print("pickling a C instance...")
     ...     return C, (c.a,)
     ...
     >>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
     >>> c = C(1)
     >>> d = copy.copy(c)
     pickling a C instance...
     >>> p = pickle.dumps(c)
     pickling a C instance...


File: python.info,  Node: shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성,  Next: marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화,  Prev: copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록,  Up: 데이터 지속성

5.12.3 ‘shelve’ — 파이썬 객체 지속성
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/shelve.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

“쉘프(shelf)”는 영속적인(persistent) 딕셔너리류 객체입니다.  “dbm” 데이
터베이스와의 차이점은 쉘프의 값(키가 아닙니다!)이 사실상 임의의 파이썬 객
체일 수 있다는 것입니다 — *note pickle: a6. 모듈에서 처리할 수 있는 모든
것입니다.  여기에는 대부분의 클래스 인스턴스, 재귀적 데이터형 및 많은 공
유 서브 객체를 포함하는 객체가 포함됩니다.  키는 일반 문자열입니다.

 -- 함수: shelve.open (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     영속적 딕셔너리를 엽니다.  지정된 filename은 하부 데이터베이스의 기
     본 파일명입니다.  부작용으로, 확장명이 파일명에 추가될 수 있으며 여
     러 개의 파일이 만들어질 수 있습니다.  기본적으로, 하부 데이터베이스
     파일은 읽기와 쓰기 용으로 열립니다.  선택적 'flag' 매개 변수는
     *note dbm.open(): f22.의 'flag' 매개 변수와 같게 해석됩니다.

     기본적으로, 값을 직렬화하는 데 *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 828.로
     생성된 피클이 사용됩니다.  피클 프로토콜의 버전은 'protocol' 매개 변
     수로 지정할 수 있습니다.

     파이썬 의미론 때문에, 쉘프는 가변 영속 딕셔너리 항목이 언제 수정되
     는지 알 수 없습니다.  기본적으로 수정된 객체는 쉘프에 '대입될 때만'
     기록됩니다 (*note 예제: 28c1.를 참조하십시오).  선택적인
     'writeback' 매개 변수가 ‘True’로 설정되면, 액세스 된 모든 항목도 메
     모리에 캐시 되고, *note sync(): 28c2.와 *note close(): 28c3.가 호출
     될 때 다시 기록됩니다; 이것은 영속 딕셔너리의 가변 항목을 변경하는
     것을 더 수월하게 만들지만, 많은 항목이 액세스 되면, 캐시를 위해 막
     대한 양의 메모리를 소비할 수 있으며, 액세스 된 모든 항목을 다시 기
     록하기 때문에 닫기 연산이 매우 느려질 수 있습니다 (어떤 액세스 된 항
     목이 가변인지, 어떤 것이 실제로 변경되었는지를 판별할 방법이 없습니
     다).

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 828. is now used
     as the default pickle protocol.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Accepts *note path-like object: 2a0. for
     filename.

          참고: 쉘프가 자동으로 닫히는 것에 의지하지 마십시오; 더는 필요
          없을 때 *note close(): 28c3.를 명시적으로 호출하거나, *note
          shelve.open(): 1707.을 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용하십시오:

               with shelve.open('spam') as db:
                   db['eggs'] = 'eggs'
     경고: *note shelve: c3. 모듈은 *note pickle: a6.로 뒷받침되기 때문
     에, 신뢰할 수 없는 소스에서 쉘프를 로드하는 것은 안전하지 않습니다.
     피클과 마찬가지로, 쉘프를 로드하면 임의의 코드를 실행할 수 있습니다
     .

쉘프 객체는 딕셔너리에서 지원하는 대부분의 메서드와 연산을 지원합니다 (복
사, 생성자 및 연산자 ‘|’와 ‘|=’는 제외합니다).  이것은 딕셔너리 기반 스
크립트에서 영속적인 저장소를 요구하는 것으로의 전환을 쉽게 만듭니다.

두 가지 추가 메서드가 지원됩니다:

 -- 메서드: Shelf.sync ()

     'writeback'을 *note True: c0a.로 설정하여 쉘프를 열었으면, 캐시의 모
     든 항목을 다시 기록합니다.  또한, 적절하다면, 캐시를 비우고 디스크
     상의 영속 딕셔너리를 동기화합니다.  *note close(): 28c3.로 쉘프를 닫
     을 때 자동으로 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Shelf.close ()

     영구 '딕셔너리' 객체를 동기화하고 닫습니다.  닫힌 쉘프에 대한 연산
     은 *note ValueError: 202.로 실패합니다.

더 보기
.......

널리 지원되는 저장 형식과 기본 딕셔너리의 속도를 갖춘 Persistent
dictionary recipe(2)

* Menu:

* 제약 사항::
* 예제: 예제<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shelve.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642-persistent-dict-with-multiple-standard-file-format/


File: python.info,  Node: 제약 사항,  Next: 예제<9>,  Up: shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성

5.12.3.1 제약 사항
..................

   * 사용되는 데이터베이스 패키지의 선택(가령 *note dbm.ndbm: 34.이나
     *note dbm.gnu: 33.)은 어떤 인터페이스가 사용 가능한지에 따라 다릅니
     다.  따라서 *note dbm: 31.을 사용하여 데이터베이스를 직접 여는 것은
     안전하지 않습니다.  또한, 데이터베이스는 (불행히도) *note dbm: 31.이
     사용된다면 그것의 제약이 적용됩니다 — 이것은 데이터베이스에 저장되
     는 객체(의 피클 된 표현이)가 상당히 작아야 하며, 드물긴 하지만 키 충
     돌로 인해 데이터베이스가 업데이트를 거부할 수 있음을 뜻합니다.

   * *note shelve: c3. 모듈은 쉘브된 객체에 대한 '동시성(concurrent)' 읽
     기/쓰기 액세스를 지원하지 않습니다.  (여러 동시적인 읽기 액세스는 안
     전합니다.)  어떤 프로그램이 쓰기 용으로 쉘프를 열고 있으면, 다른 어
     떤 프로그램도 읽기나 쓰기 용으로 열지 않아야 합니다.  유닉스 파일 잠
     금을 이 문제를 해결하는 데 사용할 수 있지만, 이것은 유닉스 버전마다
     다르며 사용된 데이터베이스 구현에 대한 지식이 필요합니다.

   * On macOS *note dbm.ndbm: 34. can silently corrupt the database file
     on updates, which can cause hard crashes when trying to read from
     the database.

 -- 클래스: shelve.Shelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     'dict' 객체에 피클 된 값을 저장하는 *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: 109f.의 서브 클래스.

     기본적으로, 값을 직렬화하는 데 *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 828.로
     생성된 피클이 사용됩니다.  피클 프로토콜의 버전은 'protocol' 매개 변
     수로 지정할 수 있습니다.  피클 프로토콜에 대한 설명은 *note pickle:
     a6. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     'writeback' 매개 변수가 ‘True’이면, 객체는 액세스 된 모든 항목의 캐
     시를 보유하고 sync와 close 할 때 'dict'에 다시 씁니다.  이것은 가변
     항목에 대한 자연스러운 연산을 허락하지만, 더 많은 메모리를 소비하고
     sync와 close 연산이 오래 걸릴 수 있습니다.

     'keyencoding' 매개 변수는 하부 dict에 사용되기 전에 키를 인코딩하는
     데 사용되는 인코딩입니다.

     *note Shelf: f92. 객체는 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수도 있습니다.  이
     경우 *note with: 5cc. 블록이 끝날 때 자동으로 닫힙니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'keyencoding' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다; 이전에
     는 키가 항상 UTF-8으로 인코딩되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자 지원 추가.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 828. is now used
     as the default pickle protocol.

 -- 클래스: shelve.BsdDbShelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     ‘first()’, ‘next()’, ‘previous()’, ‘last()’ 및 ‘set_location()’ 메
     서드를 노출하는 *note Shelf: f92.의 서브 클래스.  pybsddb(1)의 제삼
     자 ‘bsddb’ 모듈에서는 사용할 수 있지만 다른 데이터베이스 모듈에서는
     사용할 수 없습니다.  생성자에 전달된 'dict' 객체는 이러한 메서드를
     지원해야 합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 ‘bsddb.hashopen()’,
     ‘bsddb.btopen()’ 또는 ‘bsddb.rnopen()’ 중 하나를 호출하여 수행됩니
     다.  선택적 'protocol', 'writeback' 및 'keyencoding' 매개 변수는
     *note Shelf: f92. 클래스와 같게 해석됩니다.

 -- 클래스: shelve.DbfilenameShelf (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     딕셔너리류 객체 대신에 'filename'을 받아들이는 *note Shelf: f92.의
     서브 클래스.  하부 파일은 *note dbm.open(): f22.을 사용하여 열립니
     다.  기본적으로, 파일은 읽기와 쓰기가 가능하도록 만들어지고 열립니
     다.  선택적 'flag' 매개 변수는 *note open(): 1707. 기능과 같게 해석
     됩니다.  선택적 'protocol'과 'writeback' 매개 변수는 *note Shelf:
     f92. 클래스와 같게 해석됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<9>,  Prev: 제약 사항,  Up: shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성

5.12.3.2 예제
.............

인터페이스를 요약하면 (‘key’는 문자열입니다, ‘data’는 임의의 객체입니다
):

     import shelve

     d = shelve.open(filename)  # 열기 -- 파일은 저수준 라이브러리에 의해 추가된 접미사를 얻을
                                # 수 있습니다

     d[key] = data              # 키에 데이터를 저장합니다 (기존 키를 사용하면 예전 데이터를
                                # 덮어씁니다)
     data = d[key]              # 키에서 데이터의 사본을 꺼냅니다 (그런 키가 없으면 KeyError를
                                # 발생시킵니다)
     del d[key]                 # 키에 저장된 데이터를 삭제합니다 (그런 키가 없으면 KeyError를
                                # 발생시킵니다)

     flag = key in d            # 키가 존재하면 참입니다
     klist = list(d.keys())     # 존재하는 모든 키의 리스트 (느립니다!)

     # d가 writeback=True 없이 열렸으므로, 주의하십시오:
     d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # 이것은 예상대로 작동합니다, 하지만...
     d['xx'].append(3)          # *이것은 그렇지 않습니다!* -- d['xx']는 여전히 [0, 1, 2]입니다!

     # writeback=True 없이 열린 d에서는, 신중하게 코딩해야 합니다:
     temp = d['xx']             # 사본을 꺼냅니다
     temp.append(5)             # 사본을 수정합니다
     d['xx'] = temp             # 영속적으로 만들기 위해, 사본을 다시 저장합니다

     # 또는, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True)는 단지 d['xx'].append(5)로
     # 코딩해도 기대한 대로 동작하게 만들지만, 더 많은 메모리를 소비하고 d.close() 연산을 더
     # 느리게 만듭니다.

     d.close()                  # 닫습니다

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note dbm: 31.

     ‘dbm’ 스타일 데이터베이스에 대한 범용 인터페이스.

모듈 *note pickle: a6.

     *note shelve: c3.에 의해 사용되는 객체 직렬화.


File: python.info,  Node: marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화,  Next: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스,  Prev: shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성,  Up: 데이터 지속성

5.12.4 ‘marshal’ — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 바이너리 형식으로 파이썬 값을 읽고 쓸 수 있는 함수를 포함합니
다.  형식은 파이썬에만 국한되지만, 기계 아키텍처 문제에는 독립적입니다
(예를 들어, 파이썬 값을 PC의 파일에 기록하고 파일을 맥으로 보낸 다음, 그
곳에서 다시 읽을 수 있습니다).  형식의 세부 사항은 의도적으로 설명하지 않
습니다; 파이썬 버전 간에 변경될 수 있습니다 (드물긴 하지만).  (1)

이것은 범용 “지속성” 모듈이 아닙니다.  범용 지속성과 RPC 호출을 통한 파
이썬 객체의 전송에 대해서는, *note pickle: a6.과 *note shelve: c3. 모듈
을 참조하십시오.  *note marshal: 8d. 모듈은 주로 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 파이썬 모
듈에 대한 “의사 컴파일된” 코드 읽기와 쓰기를 지원하기 위해 존재합니다.  따
라서, 파이썬 관리자는 필요에 따라 이전 버전과 호환되지 않는 방식으로 마
샬 형식을 수정할 수 있는 권한을 갖습니다.  코드 객체의 형식은 형식의 버
전이 같더라도 파이썬 버전 간에 호환되지 않습니다.  잘못된 파이썬 버전에
서 코드 객체를 역 직렬화하면 정의되지 않은 동작이 발생합니다.  파이썬 객
체를 직렬화하고 역 직렬화하는 데는, 대신 *note pickle: a6. 모듈을 사용하
십시오 – 성능은 비슷하고, 버전 독립성이 보장되며, pickle은 marshal보다 훨
씬 넓은 범위의 객체를 지원합니다.

     경고: *note marshal: 8d. 모듈은 잘못되었거나 악의적으로 구성된 데이
     터에 대해 보안성을 갖추려는 것이 아닙니다.  신뢰할 수 없거나 인증되
     지 않은 출처에서 받은 데이터를 역 마샬 하지 마십시오.

모든 파이썬 객체 형이 지원되는 것은 아닙니다; 일반적으로, 파이썬의 특정
실행에 무관한 값을 가진 객체만 이 모듈에서 쓰고 읽을 수 있습니다.  다음
형이 지원됩니다: 논릿값, 정수, 부동 소수점 수, 복소수, 문자열, 바이트열,
바이트 배열, 튜플, 리스트, 집합, frozenset, 딕셔너리 및 ('allow_code'가
참이면) 코드 객체, 여기서 튜플, 리스트, 집합, frozenset 및 딕셔너리는 포
함된 값이 자체적으로 지원될 때만 지원됩니다.  싱글톤 *note None: 66f,
*note Ellipsis: 218d. 및 *note StopIteration: bf7.도 마샬과 역 마샬 될 수
있습니다.  형식 'version'이 3보다 작으면, 재귀적인 리스트, 집합 및 딕셔
너리를 기록할 수 없습니다 (아래를 참조하십시오).

파일을 읽고 쓰는 함수는 물론 바이트열류 객체에서 작동하는 함수도 있습니
다.

모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: marshal.dump (value, file, version=version, /, *,
          allow_code=True)

     열린 파일에 값을 기록합니다.  value는 지원되는 형이어야 합니다.  파
     일은 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f. 이어야 합니다.

     value가 지원되지 않는 형이면 (또는 지원되지 않는 형의 객체를 담고 있
     다면) *note ValueError: 202. 예외가 발생합니다 — 하지만, 찌꺼기 데
     이터도 파일에 기록됩니다.  *note load(): 1a1a.로 객체를 제대로 읽을
     수 없습니다.  *note 코드 객체: 1d2.는 'allow_code'가 참일 때만 지원
     됩니다.

     'version' 인자는 ‘dump’가 사용해야 하는 데이터 형식을 나타냅니다 (아
     래를 참조하십시오).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- 함수: marshal.load (file, /, *, allow_code=True)

     열린 파일에서 하나의 값을 읽고 그것을 반환합니다.  유효한 값을 읽히
     지 않으면 (예를 들어, 데이터가 다른 파이썬 버전의 호환되지 않는 마
     샬 형식이라서) *note EOFError: 12c9, *note ValueError: 202. 또는
     *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  *note 코드 객체: 1d2.는
     'allow_code'가 참일 때만 지원됩니다.  파일은 읽을 수 있는 *note
     바이너리 파일: 1c8f. 이어야 합니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘marshal.load’ with no
     arguments.

          참고: 지원하지 않는 형을 포함하는 객체가 *note dump(): 28c9.로
          마샬 되었으면, *note load(): 1a1a.는 역 마샬이 불가능한 형을
          ‘None’으로 치환합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This call used to raise a ‘code.__new__’ audit
     event for each code object.  Now it raises a single ‘marshal.load’
     event for the entire load operation.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- 함수: marshal.dumps (value, version=version, /, *, allow_code=True)

     ‘dump(value, file)’에 의해 파일에 기록될 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다
     .  value는 지원되는 형이어야 합니다.  value가 지원되지 않는 형이면
     (또는 지원되지 않는 형의 객체를 담고 있다면) *note ValueError: 202.
     예외를 발생시킵니다.  *note 코드 객체: 1d2.는 'allow_code'가 참일 때
     만 지원됩니다.

     'version' 인자는 ‘dumps’가 사용해야 하는 데이터 형식을 나타냅니다
     (아래를 참조하십시오).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- 함수: marshal.loads (bytes, /, *, allow_code=True)

     *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 값으로 변환합니다.  유효한 값이 없으
     면 *note EOFError: 12c9, *note ValueError: 202. 또는 *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  *note 코드 객체: 1d2.는
     'allow_code'가 참일 때만 지원됩니다.  입력의 여분의 바이트는 무시됩
     니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘marshal.loads’ with argument
     ‘bytes’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This call used to raise a ‘code.__new__’ audit
     event for each code object.  Now it raises a single ‘marshal.loads’
     event for the entire load operation.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

또한, 다음 상수가 정의됩니다:

 -- 데이터: marshal.version

     모듈이 사용하는 형식을 나타냅니다.  버전 0은 역사적인 형식이고, 버
     전 1은 인턴 된 문자열을 공유하고, 버전 2는 부동 소수점 숫자에 바이
     너리 형식을 사용합니다.  버전 3에서는 객체 인스턴스 화와 재귀에 대
     한 지원이 추가되었습니다.  현재 버전은 4입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이 모듈의 이름은 (다른 것 중에서도) Modula-3의 설계자가 사용하는
약간의 용어에서 유래합니다.  이들은 자급적(self-contained) 형식으로 데이
터를 전달하는 데 “마샬링(marshalling)”이라는 용어를 사용합니다.  엄밀히
말하면, “마샬”은 내부의 어떤 데이터를 외부 형식(예를 들어 RPC 버퍼에)으
로 변환하는 것을, “역 마샬”은 그 반대 절차를 뜻합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스,  Next: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화,  Up: 데이터 지속성

5.12.5 ‘dbm’ — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스
-----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/dbm/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dbm: 31.은 DBM 데이터베이스의 변형에 대한 일반 인터페이스입니다:

   * *note dbm.sqlite3: 35.

   * *note dbm.gnu: 33.

   * *note dbm.ndbm: 34.

이러한 모듈이 설치되어 있지 않으면, *note dbm.dumb: 32. 모듈에 있는 느리
지만 간단한 구현이 사용됩니다.  오라클 Berkeley DB에 대한 제삼자 인터페
이스(2)가 있습니다.

 -- 예외: dbm.error

     지원되는 각 모듈에 의해 발생할 수 있는 예외를 포함하는 튜플.  역시
     *note dbm.error: 28ce.라고 이름 붙인 고유한 예외를 첫 번째 항목으로
     갖고 있습니다 — *note dbm.error: 28ce.가 발생할 때 이것이 사용됩니
     다.

 -- 함수: dbm.whichdb (filename)

     이 함수는 사용 가능한 몇 가지 간단한 데이터베이스 모듈 — *note
     dbm.sqlite3: 35, *note dbm.gnu: 33, *note dbm.ndbm: 34. 또는 *note
     dbm.dumb: 32. — 중 어느 것을 사용하여 주어진 파일을 열어야 하는지 추
     측합니다.

     다음 값 중 하나를 반환합니다:

        * 읽을 수 없거나 존재하지 않아 파일을 열 수 없으면 ‘None’

        * 파일 형식을 추측할 수 없으면 빈 문자열(‘''’)

        * 필요한 모듈 이름을 포함하는 문자열, 가령 ‘'dbm.ndbm'’이나
          ‘'dbm.gnu'’

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like object:
     2a0.

 -- 함수: dbm.open (file, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     데이터베이스를 열고 해당 데이터베이스 객체를 반환합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘file’ (*note path-like object: 2a0.) – 열 데이터베이스 파일.
          데이터베이스 파일이 이미 존재하면, *note whichdb(): 28cf. 함수
          를 사용하여 유형을 판별하고 적절한 모듈이 사용됩니다; 존재하지
          않으면, 위에 나열된 것 중 임포트 할 수 있는 첫 번째 서브 모듈
          이 사용됩니다.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 445.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (기본값): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 257.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'file' accepts a *note path-like object: 2a0.

The object returned by *note open(): f22. supports the basic
functionality of mutable *note mappings: 11ab.; keys and their
corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and deleted, and
iteration, the *note in: 2ec. operator and methods ‘keys()’, ‘get()’,
‘setdefault()’ and ‘clear()’ are available.  The ‘keys()’ method returns
a list instead of a view object.  The ‘setdefault()’ method requires two
arguments.

키와 값은 항상 *note bytes: 1c2.로 저장됩니다.  이는 문자열이 사용될 때
저장되기 전에 기본 인코딩으로 묵시적으로 변환됨을 의미합니다.

이 객체는 *note with: 5cc. 문에서도 사용되도록 지원해서, 완료될 때 자동
으로 닫힙니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: 이제 모든 *note dbm: 31. 백엔드에서 ‘get()’과
‘setdefault()’ 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: *note open(): f22.이 반환한 객체에 컨텍스트 관리 프로
토콜에 대한 기본 지원을 추가했습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 읽기 전용 데이터베이스에서 키를 삭제하면 *note
KeyError: 33d. 대신 데이터베이스 모듈 특정 예외가 발생합니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘clear()’ methods are now available for all *note
dbm: 31. backends.

다음 예제는 일부 호스트 명과 해당 제목을 기록한 다음, 데이터베이스의 내
용을 인쇄합니다:

     import dbm

     # 데이터베이스를 엽니다, 필요하면 만듭니다.
     with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:

         # 어떤 값을 저장합니다
         db[b'hello'] = b'there'
         db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
         db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'

         # 키는 이제 바이트열로 간주함에 유의하십시오.
         assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
         # 값이 바이트열임에 주목하십시오.
         assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'

         # 종종 사용되는 dict 인터페이스의 메서드도 작동합니다.
         print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))

         # 문자열이 아닌 키나 값을 저장하면 예외(대부분 TypeError)가
         # 발생합니다.
         db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4

     # with 문을 떠날 때 db가 자동으로 닫힙니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note shelve: c3.

     문자열이 아닌 데이터를 저장하는 지속성 모듈.

개별 서브 모듈은 다음 섹션에서 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* dbm.sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드: dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드.
* dbm.gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자: dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
* dbm.ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자(New Database Manager): dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
* dbm.dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현: dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드,  Next: dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자,  Up: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스

5.12.5.1 ‘dbm.sqlite3’ — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드
.............................................

Added in version 3.13.

'소스 코드:' Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module uses the standard library *note sqlite3: cf. module to
provide an SQLite backend for the *note dbm: 31. module.  The files
created by *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. can thus be opened by *note sqlite3:
cf, or any other SQLite browser, including the SQLite CLI.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

 -- 함수: dbm.sqlite3.open (filename, /, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open an SQLite database.


     매개변수:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 2a0.) – The path to the
          database to be opened.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 445.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (기본값): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ – 파일의 유닉스 파일 액세스 모드 (기본값: 8진수
          ‘0o666’), 데이터베이스를 만들어야 할 때만 사용됩니다.

     The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable *note
     mapping: 11ab, but the ‘keys()’ method returns a list, and the
     ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also supports a
     “closing” context manager via the *note with: 5cc. keyword.

     The following method is also provided:

      -- 메서드: sqlite3.close ()

          Close the SQLite database.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자,  Next: dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager,  Prev: dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드,  Up: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스

5.12.5.2 ‘dbm.gnu’ — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자
............................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/dbm/gnu.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.gnu: 33. module provides an interface to the GDBM (GNU
dbm) library, similar to the *note dbm.ndbm: 34. module, but with
additional functionality like crash tolerance.

     참고: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 33. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- 예외: dbm.gnu.error

     I/O 에러와 같은 *note dbm.gnu: 33. 특정 에러에서 발생합니다.  잘못
     된 키 지정과 같은 일반적인 매핑 에러에 대해서는 *note KeyError:
     33d.가 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: dbm.gnu.open_flags

     A string of characters the 'flag' parameter of *note open(): 1a46.
     supports.

 -- 함수: dbm.gnu.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     GDBM 데이터베이스를 열고 ‘gdbm’ 객체를 반환합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 2a0.) – 열 데이터베이스 파
          일.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 445.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (기본값): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

          데이터베이스를 여는 방법을 제어하기 위해 다음과 같은 추가 문자
          가 추가될 수 있습니다:

             * ‘'f'’: 데이터베이스를 빠른 모드로 엽니다.  데이터베이스로
               의 쓰기는 동기화되지 않습니다.

             * ‘'s'’: 동기화 모드.  데이터베이스 변경 사항이 파일에 즉시
               기록됩니다.

             * ‘'u'’: 데이터베이스를 잠그지 않습니다.

          모든 플래그가 모든 버전의 GDBM에서 유효한 것은 아닙니다.  지원
          되는 플래그 문자의 목록은 ‘open_flags’ 멤버를 참조하세요.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 257.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.


     예외 발생: *note error: a97. – 유효하지 않은 'flag' 인자가 전달될 때
     .

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like object:
     2a0.

     ‘gdbm’ objects behave similar to mutable *note mappings: 11ab, but
     methods ‘items()’, ‘values()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, and ‘update()’
     are not supported, the ‘keys()’ method returns a list, and the
     ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also supports a
     “closing” context manager via the *note with: 5cc. keyword.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: Added the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the ‘clear()’ method.

     The following methods are also provided:

      -- 메서드: gdbm.close ()

          GDBM 데이터베이스를 닫습니다.

      -- 메서드: gdbm.firstkey ()

          이 메서드와 *note nextkey(): 28d7. 메서드를 사용하여 데이터베
          이스의 모든 키를 순회할 수 있습니다.  순회는 GDBM의 내부 해시
          값 순이며, 키의 값으로 정렬되지 않습니다.  이 메서드는 시작 키
          를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: gdbm.nextkey (key)

          순회에서 'key' 뒤에 오는 키를 반환합니다.  다음 코드는 메모리
          에 모든 키를 포함하는 리스트를 만들지 않고, 데이터베이스 ‘db’의
          모든 키를 인쇄합니다:

               k = db.firstkey()
               while k is not None:
                   print(k)
                   k = db.nextkey(k)

      -- 메서드: gdbm.reorganize ()

          많은 삭제를 수행한 후에, GDBM 파일이 사용하는 공간을 줄이려면,
          이 루틴이 데이터베이스를 재구성합니다.  ‘gdbm’ 객체는 이 재구
          성을 사용할 때 외에는 데이터베이스 파일의 길이를 줄이지 않습니
          다; 그렇지 않으면, 삭제된 파일 공간이 유지되고 새 (키, 값) 쌍
          이 추가될 때 재사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: gdbm.sync ()

          데이터베이스가 빠른 모드로 열렸을 때, 이 메서드를 사용하면 기
          록되지 않은 데이터가 디스크에 기록됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/gnu.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager,  Next: dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현,  Prev: dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자,  Up: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스

5.12.5.3 ‘dbm.ndbm’ — 새 데이터베이스 관리자(New Database Manager)
..................................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/dbm/ndbm.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dbm.ndbm: 34. 모듈은 NDBM (New Database Manager) 라이브러리에 대한
인터페이스를 제공합니다.  이 모듈은 “고전적인” NDBM 인터페이스나 GDBM 호
환 인터페이스와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.

     참고: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 33. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

     경고: The NDBM library shipped as part of macOS has an undocumented
     limitation on the size of values, which can result in corrupted
     database files when storing values larger than this limit.  Reading
     such corrupted files can result in a hard crash (segmentation
     fault).

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- 예외: dbm.ndbm.error

     I/O 에러와 같은 *note dbm.ndbm: 34. 특정 에러에서 발생합니다.  잘못
     된 키 지정과 같은 일반적인 매핑 에러에 대해서는 *note KeyError:
     33d.가 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: dbm.ndbm.library

     사용된 NDBM 구현 라이브러리의 이름.

 -- 함수: dbm.ndbm.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     NDBM 데이터베이스를 열고 ‘ndbm’ 객체를 반환합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 2a0.) – 데이터베이스 파일
          의 (‘.dir’이나 ‘.pag’ 확장자가 제거된) 이름(basename)입니다.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 445.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (기본값): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 257.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Accepts *note path-like object: 2a0. for
     filename.

     ‘ndbm’ objects behave similar to mutable *note mappings: 11ab, but
     methods ‘items()’, ‘values()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, and ‘update()’
     are not supported, the ‘keys()’ method returns a list, and the
     ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also supports a
     “closing” context manager via the *note with: 5cc. keyword.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: Added the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the ‘clear()’ method.

     The following method is also provided:

      -- 메서드: ndbm.close ()

          NDBM 데이터베이스를 닫습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현,  Prev: dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager,  Up: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스

5.12.5.4 ‘dbm.dumb’ — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현
..........................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/dbm/dumb.py(1)

     참고: *note dbm.dumb: 32. 모듈은 더욱 강인한 모듈을 사용할 수 없을
     때 *note dbm: 31. 모듈에 대한 최후의 대체 폴백으로 사용됩니다.
     *note dbm.dumb: 32. 모듈은 속도를 위해 작성되지 않았으며 다른 데이
     터베이스 모듈만큼 많이 사용되지는 않습니다.

__________________________________________________________________

*note dbm.dumb: 32. 모듈은 완전히 파이썬으로 작성된 지속적인(persistent)
*note dict: 256.와 유사한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  *note dbm.gnu: 33.와
같은 다른 *note dbm: 31. 백엔드와 달리, 외부 라이브러리가 필요하지 않습
니다.

‘dbm.dumb’ 모듈은 다음과 같은 것들을 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: dbm.dumb.error

     I/O 에러와 같은 *note dbm.dumb: 32. 특정 에러에서 발생합니다.  잘못
     된 키 지정과 같은 일반적인 매핑 에러에 대해서는 *note KeyError:
     33d.가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: dbm.dumb.open (filename, flag='c', mode=0o666)

     Open a ‘dbm.dumb’ database.


     매개변수:

        * ‘filename’ – The basename of the database file (without
          extensions).  A new database creates the following files:

             - ‘`filename'.dat’

             - ‘`filename'.dir’

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 445.) –

             * ‘'r'’: Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’ (기본값): Open database for reading and writing,
               creating it if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 257.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

          경고: 파이썬 AST 컴파일러의 스택 깊이 제한으로 인해, 충분히 큰
          /복잡한 항목이 있는 데이터베이스를 로드할 때 파이썬 인터프리터
          가 충돌할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'flag'이 ‘'n'’ 일 때, *note open(): a93.은 항상
     새 데이터베이스를 만듭니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: A database opened read-only if 'flag' is ‘'r'’.
     A database is not created if it does not exist if 'flag' is ‘'r'’
     or ‘'w'’.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like object:
     2a0.

     The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable *note
     mapping: 11ab, but the ‘keys()’ and ‘items()’ methods return lists,
     and the ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also
     supports a “closing” context manager via the *note with: 5cc.
     keyword.

     The following methods are also provided:

      -- 메서드: dumbdbm.close ()

          데이터베이스를 닫습니다.

      -- 메서드: dumbdbm.sync ()

          디스크 상의 디렉터리와 데이터 파일을 동기화합니다.  이 메서드
          는 *note shelve.Shelf.sync(): 28c2. 메서드에 의해 호출됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dbm/dumb.py


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스,  Up: 데이터 지속성

5.12.6 ‘sqlite3’ — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/sqlite3/(1)

SQLite는 별도의 서버 프로세스가 필요 없고 SQL 질의 언어의 비표준 변형을
사용하여 데이터베이스에 액세스할 수 있는 경량 디스크 기반 데이터베이스를
제공하는 C 라이브러리입니다.  일부 응용 프로그램은 내부 데이터 저장을 위
해 SQLite를 사용할 수 있습니다.  SQLite를 사용하여 응용 프로그램을 프로
토타입 한 다음 PostgreSQL 이나 Oracle과 같은 더 큰 데이터베이스로 코드를
이식할 수도 있습니다.

The ‘sqlite3’ module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides an SQL
interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP
249(2), and requires SQLite 3.15.2 or newer.

This document includes four main sections:

   * *note Tutorial: 28e3. teaches how to use the ‘sqlite3’ module.

   * *note Reference: 28e4. describes the classes and functions this
     module defines.

   * *note How-to guides: 28e5. details how to handle specific tasks.

   * *note Explanation: 28e6. provides in-depth background on
     transaction control.

더 보기
.......

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     SQLite 웹 페이지; 설명서는 지원되는 SQL 언어에 대한 문법과 사용 가
     능한 데이터형을 설명합니다.

‘https://www.w3schools.com/sql/’

     SQL 문법 학습을 위한 자습서, 레퍼런스 및 예제

PEP 249(3) - 데이터베이스 API 명세 2.0

     Marc-André Lemburg가 작성한 PEP.

* Menu:

* Tutorial::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sqlite3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial,  Next: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.1 Tutorial
.................

In this tutorial, you will create a database of Monty Python movies
using basic ‘sqlite3’ functionality.  It assumes a fundamental
understanding of database concepts, including cursors(1) and
transactions(2).

First, we need to create a new database and open a database connection
to allow ‘sqlite3’ to work with it.  Call *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a8.
to create a connection to the database ‘tutorial.db’ in the current
working directory, implicitly creating it if it does not exist:

     import sqlite3
     con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")

The returned *note Connection: 245. object ‘con’ represents the
connection to the on-disk database.

In order to execute SQL statements and fetch results from SQL queries,
we will need to use a database cursor.  Call *note con.cursor(): 28e8.
to create the *note Cursor: 28e9.:

     cur = con.cursor()

Now that we’ve got a database connection and a cursor, we can create a
database table ‘movie’ with columns for title, release year, and review
score.  For simplicity, we can just use column names in the table
declaration – thanks to the flexible typing(3) feature of SQLite,
specifying the data types is optional.  Execute the ‘CREATE TABLE’
statement by calling *note cur.execute(...): 2d2.:

     cur.execute("CREATE TABLE movie(title, year, score)")

We can verify that the new table has been created by querying the
‘sqlite_master’ table built-in to SQLite, which should now contain an
entry for the ‘movie’ table definition (see The Schema Table(4) for
details).  Execute that query by calling *note cur.execute(...): 2d2,
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchone(): 28ea. to
fetch the resulting row:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master")
     >>> res.fetchone()
     ('movie',)

We can see that the table has been created, as the query returns a *note
tuple: 369. containing the table’s name.  If we query ‘sqlite_master’
for a non-existent table ‘spam’, ‘res.fetchone()’ will return ‘None’:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name='spam'")
     >>> res.fetchone() is None
     True

Now, add two rows of data supplied as SQL literals by executing an
‘INSERT’ statement, once again by calling *note cur.execute(...): 2d2.:

     cur.execute("""
         INSERT INTO movie VALUES
             ('Monty Python and the Holy Grail', 1975, 8.2),
             ('And Now for Something Completely Different', 1971, 7.5)
     """)

The ‘INSERT’ statement implicitly opens a transaction, which needs to be
committed before changes are saved in the database (see *note
Transaction control: 28eb. for details).  Call *note con.commit(): 28ec.
on the connection object to commit the transaction:

     con.commit()

We can verify that the data was inserted correctly by executing a
‘SELECT’ query.  Use the now-familiar *note cur.execute(...): 2d2. to
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchall(): 28ed. to
return all resulting rows:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT score FROM movie")
     >>> res.fetchall()
     [(8.2,), (7.5,)]

The result is a *note list: 60b. of two ‘tuple’s, one per row, each
containing that row’s ‘score’ value.

Now, insert three more rows by calling *note cur.executemany(...): 2d3.:

     data = [
         ("Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl", 1982, 7.9),
         ("Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", 1983, 7.5),
         ("Monty Python's Life of Brian", 1979, 8.0),
     ]
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO movie VALUES(?, ?, ?)", data)
     con.commit()  # Remember to commit the transaction after executing INSERT.

Notice that ‘?’ placeholders are used to bind ‘data’ to the query.
Always use placeholders instead of *note string formatting: 1c7b. to
bind Python values to SQL statements, to avoid SQL injection attacks(5)
(see *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries: 2d4.
for more details).

We can verify that the new rows were inserted by executing a ‘SELECT’
query, this time iterating over the results of the query:

     >>> for row in cur.execute("SELECT year, title FROM movie ORDER BY year"):
     ...     print(row)
     (1971, 'And Now for Something Completely Different')
     (1975, 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail')
     (1979, "Monty Python's Life of Brian")
     (1982, 'Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl')
     (1983, "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")

Each row is a two-item *note tuple: 369. of ‘(year, title)’, matching
the columns selected in the query.

Finally, verify that the database has been written to disk by calling
*note con.close(): 246. to close the existing connection, opening a new
one, creating a new cursor, then querying the database:

     >>> con.close()
     >>> new_con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")
     >>> new_cur = new_con.cursor()
     >>> res = new_cur.execute("SELECT title, year FROM movie ORDER BY score DESC")
     >>> title, year = res.fetchone()
     >>> print(f'The highest scoring Monty Python movie is {title!r}, released in {year}')
     The highest scoring Monty Python movie is 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', released in 1975
     >>> new_con.close()

You’ve now created an SQLite database using the ‘sqlite3’ module,
inserted data and retrieved values from it in multiple ways.

더 보기
.......

   * *note How-to guides: 28e5. for further reading:

        * *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries:
          2d4.

        * *note How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values: 28ee.

        * *note How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types:
          28ef.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 17e9.

        * *note How to create and use row factories: 28f0.

   * *note Explanation: 28e6. for in-depth background on transaction
     control.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/schematab.html

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Reference,  Next: How-to guides,  Prev: Tutorial,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.2 Reference
..................

* Menu:

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* 예외: 예외<5>.
* SQLite 와 파이썬 형::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface::


File: python.info,  Node: Module functions,  Next: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.3 Module functions
.........................

 -- 함수: sqlite3.connect (database, timeout=5.0, detect_types=0,
          isolation_level='DEFERRED', check_same_thread=True,
          factory=sqlite3.Connection, cached_statements=128, uri=False,
          *, autocommit=sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL)

     Open a connection to an SQLite database.


     매개변수:

        * ‘database’ (*note path-like object: 2a0.) – The path to the
          database file to be opened.  You can pass ‘":memory:"’ to
          create an SQLite database existing only in memory(1), and open
          a connection to it.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ef.) – How many seconds the
          connection should wait before raising an *note
          OperationalError: 18a4. when a table is locked.  If another
          connection opens a transaction to modify a table, that table
          will be locked until the transaction is committed.  Default
          five seconds.

        * ‘detect_types’ (*note int: 257.) – Control whether and how
          data types not *note natively supported by SQLite: 28f5. are
          looked up to be converted to Python types, using the
          converters registered with *note register_converter(): 28f6.
          Set it to any combination (using ‘|’, bitwise or) of *note
          PARSE_DECLTYPES: 28f7. and *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 28f8. to
          enable this.  Column names takes precedence over declared
          types if both flags are set.  By default (‘0’), type detection
          is disabled.

        * ‘isolation_level’ (*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – Control
          legacy transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.isolation_level: 28f9. and *note Transaction
          control via the isolation_level attribute: 28fa. for more
          information.  Can be ‘"DEFERRED"’ (default), ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’ or
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’; or ‘None’ to disable opening transactions
          implicitly.  Has no effect unless *note Connection.autocommit:
          4b0. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb. (the
          default).

        * ‘check_same_thread’ (*note bool: 461.) – If ‘True’ (default),
          *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. will be raised if the database
          connection is used by a thread other than the one that created
          it.  If ‘False’, the connection may be accessed in multiple
          threads; write operations may need to be serialized by the
          user to avoid data corruption.  See *note threadsafety: 676.
          for more information.

        * ‘factory’ (*note Connection: 245.) – A custom subclass of
          *note Connection: 245. to create the connection with, if not
          the default *note Connection: 245. class.

        * ‘cached_statements’ (*note int: 257.) – The number of
          statements that ‘sqlite3’ should internally cache for this
          connection, to avoid parsing overhead.  By default, 128
          statements.

        * ‘uri’ (*note bool: 461.) – If set to ‘True’, 'database' is
          interpreted as a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) with a file
          path and an optional query string.  The scheme part 'must' be
          ‘"file:"’, and the path can be relative or absolute.  The
          query string allows passing parameters to SQLite, enabling
          various *note How to work with SQLite URIs: 28fc.

        * ‘autocommit’ (*note bool: 461.) – Control PEP 249(2)
          transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.autocommit: 4b0. and *note Transaction control via
          the autocommit attribute: 4b1. for more information.
          'autocommit' currently defaults to *note
          LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb.  The default will change to
          ‘False’ in a future Python release.


     반환 형식: *note Connection: 245.

     인자 ‘database’로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘sqlite3.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ with
     argument ‘connection_handle’.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'uri' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'database'는 이제 문자열뿐만 아니라 *note 경로류
     객체: 2a0. 일 수도 있습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ auditing
     event.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added the 'autocommit' parameter.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Positional use of the parameters 'timeout',
     'detect_types', 'isolation_level', 'check_same_thread', 'factory',
     'cached_statements', and 'uri' is deprecated.  They will become
     keyword-only parameters in Python 3.15.

 -- 함수: sqlite3.complete_statement (statement)

     Return ‘True’ if the string 'statement' appears to contain one or
     more complete SQL statements.  No syntactic verification or parsing
     of any kind is performed, other than checking that there are no
     unclosed string literals and the statement is terminated by a
     semicolon.

     For example:

          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo FROM bar;")
          True
          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo")
          False

     This function may be useful during command-line input to determine
     if the entered text seems to form a complete SQL statement, or if
     additional input is needed before calling *note execute(): 2d2.

     See ‘runsource()’ in Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py(3) for real-world use.

 -- 함수: sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks (flag, /)

     Enable or disable callback tracebacks.  By default you will not get
     any tracebacks in user-defined functions, aggregates, converters,
     authorizer callbacks etc.  If you want to debug them, you can call
     this function with 'flag' set to ‘True’.  Afterwards, you will get
     tracebacks from callbacks on *note sys.stderr: 937.  Use ‘False’ to
     disable the feature again.

          참고: Errors in user-defined function callbacks are logged as
          unraisable exceptions.  Use an *note unraisable hook handler:
          1f7. for introspection of the failed callback.

 -- 함수: sqlite3.register_adapter (type, adapter, /)

     Register an 'adapter' *note callable: 2900. to adapt the Python
     type 'type' into an SQLite type.  The adapter is called with a
     Python object of type 'type' as its sole argument, and must return
     a value of a *note type that SQLite natively understands: 28f5.

 -- 함수: sqlite3.register_converter (typename, converter, /)

     Register the 'converter' *note callable: 2900. to convert SQLite
     objects of type 'typename' into a Python object of a specific type.
     The converter is invoked for all SQLite values of type 'typename';
     it is passed a *note bytes: 1c2. object and should return an object
     of the desired Python type.  Consult the parameter 'detect_types'
     of *note connect(): 2a8. for information regarding how type
     detection works.

     Note: 'typename' and the name of the type in your query are matched
     case-insensitively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/inmemorydb.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module constants,  Next: Connection objects,  Prev: Module functions,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.4 Module constants
.........................

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL

     Set *note autocommit: 4b0. to this constant to select old style
     (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour.  See *note
     Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 28fa. for
     more information.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 2a8. to look up a converter function using the declared
     types for each column.  The types are declared when the database
     table is created.  ‘sqlite3’ will look up a converter function
     using the first word of the declared type as the converter
     dictionary key.  For example:

          CREATE TABLE test(
             i integer primary key,  ! will look up a converter named "integer"
             p point,                ! will look up a converter named "point"
             n number(10)            ! will look up a converter named "number"
           )

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 28f8. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

          참고: Generated fields (for example ‘MAX(p)’) are returned as
          *note str: 445.  Use ‘PARSE_COLNAMES’ to enforce types for
          such queries.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 2a8. to look up a converter function by using the type
     name, parsed from the query column name, as the converter
     dictionary key.  The query column name must be wrapped in double
     quotes (‘"’) and the type name must be wrapped in square brackets
     (‘[]’).

          SELECT MAX(p) as "p [point]" FROM test;  ! will look up converter "point"

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 28f7. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_OK
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DENY
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_IGNORE

     Flags that should be returned by the 'authorizer_callback' *note
     callable: 2900. passed to *note Connection.set_authorizer(): 2ab,
     to indicate whether:

        * Access is allowed (‘SQLITE_OK’),

        * The SQL statement should be aborted with an error
          (‘SQLITE_DENY’)

        * The column should be treated as a ‘NULL’ value
          (‘SQLITE_IGNORE’)

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.apilevel

     String constant stating the supported DB-API level.  Required by
     the DB-API. Hard-coded to ‘"2.0"’.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.paramstyle

     String constant stating the type of parameter marker formatting
     expected by the ‘sqlite3’ module.  Required by the DB-API.
     Hard-coded to ‘"qmark"’.

          참고: The ‘named’ DB-API parameter style is also supported.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.sqlite_version

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note string:
     445.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.sqlite_version_info

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note tuple: 369.
     of *note integers: 257.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.threadsafety

     Integer constant required by the DB-API 2.0, stating the level of
     thread safety the ‘sqlite3’ module supports.  This attribute is set
     based on the default threading mode(1) the underlying SQLite
     library is compiled with.  The SQLite threading modes are:

       1. 'Single-thread': In this mode, all mutexes are disabled and
          SQLite is unsafe to use in more than a single thread at once.

       2. 'Multi-thread': In this mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads provided that no single database connection
          is used simultaneously in two or more threads.

       3. 'Serialized': In serialized mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads with no restriction.

     The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety
     levels are as follows:

     SQLite threading       threadsafety(2)            SQLITE_THREADSAFE(3)       DB-API 2.0 meaning
     mode                                                                         

     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     single-thread          0                          0                          Threads may not share the module
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     multi-thread           1                          2                          Threads may share the module, but
                                                                                  not connections
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     serialized             3                          1                          Threads may share the module,
                                                                                  connections and cursors
                                                                                  

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Set 'threadsafety' dynamically instead of
     hard-coding it to ‘1’.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.version

     Version number of this module as a *note string: 445.  This is not
     the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.version_info

     Version number of this module as a *note tuple: 369. of *note
     integers: 257.  This is not the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA
 -- 데이터: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA

     These constants are used for the *note Connection.setconfig(): 4b4.
     and *note getconfig(): 4b3. methods.

     The availability of these constants varies depending on the version
     of SQLite Python was compiled with.

     Added in version 3.12.

     더 보기
     .......

     ‘https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html’

          SQLite docs: Database Connection Configuration Options

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/threadsafe.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety

   (3) https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe


File: python.info,  Node: Connection objects,  Next: Cursor objects,  Prev: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.5 Connection objects
...........................

 -- 클래스: sqlite3.Connection

     Each open SQLite database is represented by a ‘Connection’ object,
     which is created using *note sqlite3.connect(): 2a8.  Their main
     purpose is creating *note Cursor: 28e9. objects, and *note
     Transaction control: 28eb.

     더 보기
     .......

        * *note How to use connection shortcut methods: 291d.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 17e9.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: A *note ResourceWarning: 244. is emitted if
     *note close(): 246. is not called before a ‘Connection’ object is
     deleted.

     An SQLite database connection has the following attributes and
     methods:

      -- 메서드: cursor (factory=Cursor)

          Create and return a *note Cursor: 28e9. object.  The cursor
          method accepts a single optional parameter 'factory'.  If
          supplied, this must be a *note callable: 2900. returning an
          instance of *note Cursor: 28e9. or its subclasses.

      -- 메서드: blobopen (table, column, row, /, *, readonly=False,
               name='main')

          Open a *note Blob: 67c. handle to an existing BLOB (Binary
          Large OBject).


          매개변수:

             * ‘table’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the table where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘column’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the column where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘row’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the row where the
               blob is located.

             * ‘readonly’ (*note bool: 461.) – Set to ‘True’ if the blob
               should be opened without write permissions.  Defaults to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the database where
               the blob is located.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          예외 발생: *note OperationalError: 18a4. – When trying to open
          a blob in a ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ table.


          반환 형식: *note Blob: 67c.

               참고: The blob size cannot be changed using the *note
               Blob: 67c. class.  Use the SQL function ‘zeroblob’ to
               create a blob with a fixed size.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: commit ()

          Commit any pending transaction to the database.  If *note
          autocommit: 4b0. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          committed by this method.

      -- 메서드: rollback ()

          Roll back to the start of any pending transaction.  If *note
          autocommit: 4b0. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          rolled back by this method.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          Close the database connection.  If *note autocommit: 4b0. is
          ‘False’, any pending transaction is implicitly rolled back.
          If ‘autocommit’ is ‘True’ or *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          28fb, no implicit transaction control is executed.  Make sure
          to *note commit(): 28ec. before closing to avoid losing
          pending changes.

      -- 메서드: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 28e9. object and call *note
          execute(): 2d2. on it with the given 'sql' and 'parameters'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- 메서드: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 28e9. object and call *note
          executemany(): 2d3. on it with the given 'sql' and
          'parameters'.  Return the new cursor object.

      -- 메서드: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 28e9. object and call *note
          executescript(): 2922. on it with the given 'sql_script'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- 메서드: create_function (name, narg, func, *,
               deterministic=False)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL function.


          매개변수:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the SQL function.

             * ‘narg’ (*note int: 257.) – The number of arguments the
               SQL function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take any number
               of arguments.

             * ‘func’ (*note callback: 2923. | None) – A *note callable:
               2900. that is called when the SQL function is invoked.
               The callable must return *note a type natively supported
               by SQLite: 28f5.  Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL
               function.

             * ‘deterministic’ (*note bool: 461.) – If ‘True’, the
               created SQL function is marked as deterministic(1), which
               allows SQLite to perform additional optimizations.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: Added the 'deterministic' parameter.

          예:

               >>> import hashlib
               >>> def md5sum(t):
               ...     return hashlib.md5(t).hexdigest()
               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> con.create_function("md5", 1, md5sum)
               >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT md5(?)", (b"foo",)):
               ...     print(row)
               ('acbd18db4cc2f85cedef654fccc4a4d8',)
               >>> con.close()

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Passing 'name', 'narg', and 'func' as
          keyword arguments is deprecated.  These parameters will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- 메서드: create_aggregate (name, n_arg, aggregate_class)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL aggregate function.


          매개변수:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the SQL aggregate
               function.

             * ‘n_arg’ (*note int: 257.) – The number of arguments the
               SQL aggregate function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take
               any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 1939. | None) – A class
               must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the aggregate.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 28f5.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ method must
               accept is controlled by 'n_arg'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate
               function.

          예:

               class MySum:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       self.count += value

                   def finalize(self):
                       return self.count

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_aggregate("mysum", 1, MySum)
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(i)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(1)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(2)")
               cur.execute("SELECT mysum(i) FROM test")
               print(cur.fetchone()[0])

               con.close()

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Passing 'name', 'n_arg', and
          'aggregate_class' as keyword arguments is deprecated.  These
          parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- 메서드: create_window_function (name, num_params,
               aggregate_class, /)

          Create or remove a user-defined aggregate window function.


          매개변수:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the SQL aggregate
               window function to create or remove.

             * ‘num_params’ (*note int: 257.) – The number of arguments
               the SQL aggregate window function can accept.  If ‘-1’,
               it may take any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 1939. | None) – A class
               that must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the current window.

                  * ‘value()’: Return the current value of the
                    aggregate.

                  * ‘inverse()’: Remove a row from the current window.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 28f5.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ and ‘value()’
               methods must accept is controlled by 'num_params'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate window
               function.


          예외 발생: *note NotSupportedError: 2924. – If used with a
          version of SQLite older than 3.25.0, which does not support
          aggregate window functions.

          Added in version 3.11.

          예:

               # Example taken from https://www.sqlite.org/windowfunctions.html#udfwinfunc
               class WindowSumInt:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       """Add a row to the current window."""
                       self.count += value

                   def value(self):
                       """Return the current value of the aggregate."""
                       return self.count

                   def inverse(self, value):
                       """Remove a row from the current window."""
                       self.count -= value

                   def finalize(self):
                       """Return the final value of the aggregate.

                       Any clean-up actions should be placed here.
                       """
                       return self.count


               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x, y)")
               values = [
                   ("a", 4),
                   ("b", 5),
                   ("c", 3),
                   ("d", 8),
                   ("e", 1),
               ]
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test VALUES(?, ?)", values)
               con.create_window_function("sumint", 1, WindowSumInt)
               cur.execute("""
                   SELECT x, sumint(y) OVER (
                       ORDER BY x ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING
                   ) AS sum_y
                   FROM test ORDER BY x
               """)
               print(cur.fetchall())
               con.close()

      -- 메서드: create_collation (name, callable, /)

          Create a collation named 'name' using the collating function
          'callable'.  'callable' is passed two *note string: 445.
          arguments, and it should return an *note integer: 257.:

             * ‘1’ if the first is ordered higher than the second

             * ‘-1’ if the first is ordered lower than the second

             * ‘0’ if they are ordered equal

          The following example shows a reverse sorting collation:

               def collate_reverse(string1, string2):
                   if string1 == string2:
                       return 0
                   elif string1 < string2:
                       return 1
                   else:
                       return -1

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_collation("reverse", collate_reverse)

               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x)")
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test(x) VALUES(?)", [("a",), ("b",)])
               cur.execute("SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY x COLLATE reverse")
               for row in cur:
                   print(row)
               con.close()

          Remove a collation function by setting 'callable' to ‘None’.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: The collation name can contain any Unicode
          character.  Earlier, only ASCII characters were allowed.

      -- 메서드: interrupt ()

          Call this method from a different thread to abort any queries
          that might be executing on the connection.  Aborted queries
          will raise an *note OperationalError: 18a4.

      -- 메서드: set_authorizer (authorizer_callback)

          Register *note callable: 2900. 'authorizer_callback' to be
          invoked for each attempt to access a column of a table in the
          database.  The callback should return one of *note SQLITE_OK:
          2903, *note SQLITE_DENY: 2904, or *note SQLITE_IGNORE: 2905.
          to signal how access to the column should be handled by the
          underlying SQLite library.

          The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of
          operation is to be authorized.  The second and third argument
          will be arguments or ‘None’ depending on the first argument.
          The 4th argument is the name of the database (“main”, “temp”,
          etc.)  if applicable.  The 5th argument is the name of the
          inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access
          attempt or ‘None’ if this access attempt is directly from
          input SQL code.

          Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible
          values for the first argument and the meaning of the second
          and third argument depending on the first one.  All necessary
          constants are available in the ‘sqlite3’ module.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'authorizer_callback' will disable the
          authorizer.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for disabling the authorizer
          using ‘None’.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Passing 'authorizer_callback' as a keyword
          argument is deprecated.  The parameter will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- 메서드: set_progress_handler (progress_handler, n)

          Register *note callable: 2900. 'progress_handler' to be
          invoked for every 'n' instructions of the SQLite virtual
          machine.  This is useful if you want to get called from SQLite
          during long-running operations, for example to update a GUI.

          If you want to clear any previously installed progress
          handler, call the method with ‘None’ for 'progress_handler'.

          Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will
          terminate the currently executing query and cause it to raise
          a *note DatabaseError: 2926. exception.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Passing 'progress_handler' as a keyword
          argument is deprecated.  The parameter will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- 메서드: set_trace_callback (trace_callback)

          Register *note callable: 2900. 'trace_callback' to be invoked
          for each SQL statement that is actually executed by the SQLite
          backend.

          The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as
          *note str: 445.) that is being executed.  The return value of
          the callback is ignored.  Note that the backend does not only
          run statements passed to the *note Cursor.execute(): 2d2.
          methods.  Other sources include the *note transaction
          management: 28eb. of the ‘sqlite3’ module and the execution of
          triggers defined in the current database.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'trace_callback' will disable the trace
          callback.

               참고: Exceptions raised in the trace callback are not
               propagated.  As a development and debugging aid, use
               *note enable_callback_tracebacks(): 28fe. to enable
               printing tracebacks from exceptions raised in the trace
               callback.

          Added in version 3.3.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Passing 'trace_callback' as a keyword
          argument is deprecated.  The parameter will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.

      -- 메서드: enable_load_extension (enabled, /)

          Enable the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions from shared
          libraries if 'enabled' is ‘True’; else, disallow loading
          SQLite extensions.  SQLite extensions can define new
          functions, aggregates or whole new virtual table
          implementations.  One well-known extension is the
          fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

               참고: The ‘sqlite3’ module is not built with loadable
               extension support by default, because some platforms
               (notably macOS) have SQLite libraries which are compiled
               without this feature.  To get loadable extension support,
               you must pass the *note
               -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: 1d76. option to
               ‘configure’.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1.
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ with arguments ‘connection’,
          ‘enabled’.

          Added in version 3.2.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’
          auditing event.

               con.enable_load_extension(True)

               # Load the fulltext search extension
               con.execute("select load_extension('./fts3.so')")

               # alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:
               # con.load_extension("./fts3.so")

               # disable extension loading again
               con.enable_load_extension(False)

               # example from SQLite wiki
               con.execute("CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE recipe USING fts3(name, ingredients)")
               con.executescript("""
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli stew', 'broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin stew', 'pumpkin onions garlic celery');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli pie', 'broccoli cheese onions flour');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin pie', 'pumpkin sugar flour butter');
                   """)
               for row in con.execute("SELECT rowid, name, ingredients FROM recipe WHERE name MATCH 'pie'"):
                   print(row)

      -- 메서드: load_extension (path, /, *, entrypoint=None)

          Load an SQLite extension from a shared library.  Enable
          extension loading with *note enable_load_extension(): 838.
          before calling this method.


          매개변수:

             * ‘path’ (*note str: 445.) – The path to the SQLite
               extension.

             * ‘entrypoint’ (*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – Entry point
               name.  If ‘None’ (the default), SQLite will come up with
               an entry point name of its own; see the SQLite docs
               Loading an Extension(2) for details.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          with arguments ‘connection’, ‘path’.

          Added in version 3.2.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          auditing event.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: Added the 'entrypoint' parameter.

      -- 메서드: iterdump (*, filter=None)

          Return an *note iterator: 1ac. to dump the database as SQL
          source code.  Useful when saving an in-memory database for
          later restoration.  Similar to the ‘.dump’ command in the
          ‘sqlite3’ shell.


          매개변수: ‘filter’ (*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – An optional
          ‘LIKE’ pattern for database objects to dump, e.g.  ‘prefix_%’.
          If ‘None’ (the default), all database objects will be
          included.

          예:

               # Convert file example.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
               con = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
                   for line in con.iterdump():
                       f.write('%s\n' % line)
               con.close()

          더 보기
          .......

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2927.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'filter' parameter.

      -- 메서드: backup (target, *, pages=-1, progress=None,
               name='main', sleep=0.250)

          Create a backup of an SQLite database.

          Works even if the database is being accessed by other clients
          or concurrently by the same connection.


          매개변수:

             * ‘target’ (*note Connection: 245.) – The database
               connection to save the backup to.

             * ‘pages’ (*note int: 257.) – The number of pages to copy
               at a time.  If equal to or less than ‘0’, the entire
               database is copied in a single step.  Defaults to ‘-1’.

             * ‘progress’ (*note callback: 2923. | None) – If set to a
               *note callable: 2900, it is invoked with three integer
               arguments for every backup iteration: the 'status' of the
               last iteration, the 'remaining' number of pages still to
               be copied, and the 'total' number of pages.  Defaults to
               ‘None’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The name of the database to
               back up.  Either ‘"main"’ (the default) for the main
               database, ‘"temp"’ for the temporary database, or the
               name of a custom database as attached using the ‘ATTACH
               DATABASE’ SQL statement.

             * ‘sleep’ (*note float: 2ef.) – The number of seconds to
               sleep between successive attempts to back up remaining
               pages.

          Example 1, copy an existing database into another:

               def progress(status, remaining, total):
                   print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
               with dst:
                   src.backup(dst, pages=1, progress=progress)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
               src.backup(dst)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Added in version 3.7.

          더 보기
          .......

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2927.

      -- 메서드: getlimit (category, /)

          Get a connection runtime limit.


          매개변수: ‘category’ (*note int: 257.) – The SQLite limit
          category(3) to be queried.


          반환 형식: *note int: 257.


          예외 발생: *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. – If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, query the maximum length of an SQL statement for
          *note Connection: 245. ‘con’ (the default is 1000000000):

               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH)
               1000000000

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: setlimit (category, limit, /)

          Set a connection runtime limit.  Attempts to increase a limit
          above its hard upper bound are silently truncated to the hard
          upper bound.  Regardless of whether or not the limit was
          changed, the prior value of the limit is returned.


          매개변수:

             * ‘category’ (*note int: 257.) – The SQLite limit
               category(4) to be set.

             * ‘limit’ (*note int: 257.) – The value of the new limit.
               If negative, the current limit is unchanged.


          반환 형식: *note int: 257.


          예외 발생: *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. – If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, limit the number of attached databases to 1 for *note
          Connection: 245. ‘con’ (the default limit is 10):

               >>> con.setlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED, 1)
               10
               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED)
               1

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: getconfig (op, /)

          Query a boolean connection configuration option.


          매개변수: ‘op’ (*note int: 257.) – A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG
          code: 290a.


          반환 형식: *note bool: 461.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: setconfig (op, enable=True, /)

          Set a boolean connection configuration option.


          매개변수:

             * ‘op’ (*note int: 257.) – A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG code:
               290a.

             * ‘enable’ (*note bool: 461.) – ‘True’ if the configuration
               option should be enabled (default); ‘False’ if it should
               be disabled.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: serialize (*, name='main')

          Serialize a database into a *note bytes: 1c2. object.  For an
          ordinary on-disk database file, the serialization is just a
          copy of the disk file.  For an in-memory database or a “temp”
          database, the serialization is the same sequence of bytes
          which would be written to disk if that database were backed up
          to disk.


          매개변수: ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The database name to be
          serialized.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          반환 형식: *note bytes: 1c2.

               참고: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the serialize API.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: deserialize (data, /, *, name='main')

          Deserialize a *note serialized: 678. database into a *note
          Connection: 245.  This method causes the database connection
          to disconnect from database 'name', and reopen 'name' as an
          in-memory database based on the serialization contained in
          'data'.


          매개변수:

             * ‘data’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) – A serialized database.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – The database name to
               deserialize into.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          예외 발생:

             * *note OperationalError: 18a4. – If the database
               connection is currently involved in a read transaction or
               a backup operation.

             * *note DatabaseError: 2926. – If 'data' does not contain a
               valid SQLite database.

             * *note OverflowError: 87d. – If *note len(data): 628. is
               larger than ‘2**63 - 1’.

               참고: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the deserialize API.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 속성: autocommit

          This attribute controls PEP 249(5)-compliant transaction
          behaviour.  ‘autocommit’ has three allowed values:

             * ‘False’: Select PEP 249(6)-compliant transaction
               behaviour, implying that ‘sqlite3’ ensures a transaction
               is always open.  Use *note commit(): 28ec. and *note
               rollback(): 291e. to close transactions.

               This is the recommended value of ‘autocommit’.

             * ‘True’: Use SQLite’s autocommit mode(7).  *note commit():
               28ec. and *note rollback(): 291e. have no effect in this
               mode.

             * *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb.: Pre-Python 3.12
               (non- PEP 249(8)-compliant) transaction control.  See
               *note isolation_level: 28f9. for more details.

               This is currently the default value of ‘autocommit’.

          Changing ‘autocommit’ to ‘False’ will open a new transaction,
          and changing it to ‘True’ will commit any pending transaction.

          See *note Transaction control via the autocommit attribute:
          4b1. for more details.

               참고: The *note isolation_level: 28f9. attribute has no
               effect unless *note autocommit: 4b0. is *note
               LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 속성: in_transaction

          This read-only attribute corresponds to the low-level SQLite
          autocommit mode(9).

          ‘True’ if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted
          changes), ‘False’ otherwise.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 속성: isolation_level

          Controls the *note legacy transaction handling mode: 28fa. of
          ‘sqlite3’.  If set to ‘None’, transactions are never
          implicitly opened.  If set to one of ‘"DEFERRED"’,
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’, or ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’, corresponding to the
          underlying SQLite transaction behaviour(10), *note implicit
          transaction management: 28fa. is performed.

          If not overridden by the 'isolation_level' parameter of *note
          connect(): 2a8, the default is ‘""’, which is an alias for
          ‘"DEFERRED"’.

               참고: Using *note autocommit: 4b0. to control transaction
               handling is recommended over using ‘isolation_level’.
               ‘isolation_level’ has no effect unless *note autocommit:
               4b0. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb.
               (the default).

      -- 속성: row_factory

          The initial *note row_factory: 2929. for *note Cursor: 28e9.
          objects created from this connection.  Assigning to this
          attribute does not affect the ‘row_factory’ of existing
          cursors belonging to this connection, only new ones.  Is
          ‘None’ by default, meaning each row is returned as a *note
          tuple: 369.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 28f0. for more
          details.

      -- 속성: text_factory

          A *note callable: 2900. that accepts a *note bytes: 1c2.
          parameter and returns a text representation of it.  The
          callable is invoked for SQLite values with the ‘TEXT’ data
          type.  By default, this attribute is set to *note str: 445.

          See *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2927. for
          more details.

      -- 속성: total_changes

          Return the total number of database rows that have been
          modified, inserted, or deleted since the database connection
          was opened.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/deterministic.html

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/loadext.html#loading_an_extension

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (7) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (9) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (10) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Cursor objects,  Next: Row objects,  Prev: Connection objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.6 Cursor objects
.......................

     A ‘Cursor’ object represents a database cursor(1) which is used to
     execute SQL statements, and manage the context of a fetch
     operation.  Cursors are created using *note Connection.cursor():
     28e8, or by using any of the *note connection shortcut methods:
     291d.

     Cursor objects are *note iterators: 1ac, meaning that if you *note
     execute(): 2d2. a ‘SELECT’ query, you can simply iterate over the
     cursor to fetch the resulting rows:

          for row in cur.execute("SELECT t FROM data"):
              print(row)

 -- 클래스: sqlite3.Cursor

     *note Cursor: 28e9. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트와 메서드가
     있습니다.

      -- 메서드: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Execute a single SQL statement, optionally binding Python
          values using *note placeholders: 2d4.


          매개변수:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 445.) – A single SQL statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note dict: 256. | *note sequence: 4eb.) –
               Python values to bind to placeholders in 'sql'.  A ‘dict’
               if named placeholders are used.  A sequence if unnamed
               placeholders are used.  See *note How to use placeholders
               to bind values in SQL queries: 2d4.


          예외 발생: *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. – If 'sql' contains
          more than one SQL statement.

          If *note autocommit: 4b0. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          28fb, *note isolation_level: 28f9. is not ‘None’, 'sql' is an
          ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or ‘REPLACE’ statement, and
          there is no open transaction, a transaction is implicitly
          opened before executing 'sql'.

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 2d4. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence
          instead of a *note dict: 256.  Starting with Python 3.14,
          *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. will be raised instead.

          Use *note executescript(): 2922. to execute multiple SQL
          statements.

      -- 메서드: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          For every item in 'parameters', repeatedly execute the *note
          parameterized: 2d4. DML (Data Manipulation Language) SQL
          statement 'sql'.

          Uses the same implicit transaction handling as *note
          execute(): 2d2.


          매개변수:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 445.) – A single SQL DML statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note iterable: 1217.) – An iterable of
               parameters to bind with the placeholders in 'sql'.  See
               *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL
               queries: 2d4.


          예외 발생: *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. – If 'sql' contains
          more than one SQL statement, or is not a DML statement.

          예:

               rows = [
                   ("row1",),
                   ("row2",),
               ]
               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO data VALUES(?)", rows)

               참고: Any resulting rows are discarded, including DML
               statements with RETURNING clauses(2).

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 2d4. are used and the items in 'parameters' are
          sequences instead of *note dict: 256.s.  Starting with Python
          3.14, *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. will be raised instead.

      -- 메서드: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Execute the SQL statements in 'sql_script'.  If the *note
          autocommit: 4b0. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb.
          and there is a pending transaction, an implicit ‘COMMIT’
          statement is executed first.  No other implicit transaction
          control is performed; any transaction control must be added to
          'sql_script'.

          'sql_script' must be a *note string: 445.

          예:

               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executescript("""
                   BEGIN;
                   CREATE TABLE person(firstname, lastname, age);
                   CREATE TABLE book(title, author, published);
                   CREATE TABLE publisher(name, address);
                   COMMIT;
               """)

      -- 메서드: fetchone ()

          If *note row_factory: 2929. is ‘None’, return the next row
          query result set as a *note tuple: 369.  Else, pass it to the
          row factory and return its result.  Return ‘None’ if no more
          data is available.

      -- 메서드: fetchmany (size=cursor.arraysize)

          Return the next set of rows of a query result as a *note list:
          60b.  Return an empty list if no more rows are available.

          The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the
          'size' parameter.  If 'size' is not given, *note arraysize:
          292f. determines the number of rows to be fetched.  If fewer
          than 'size' rows are available, as many rows as are available
          are returned.

          'size' 매개 변수와 관련된 성능 고려 사항이 있습니다.  최적의 성
          능을 위해서, 일반적으로 arraysize 어트리뷰트를 사용하는 것이 가
          장 좋습니다.  'size' 매개 변수가 사용되면, *note fetchmany():
          292e. 호출마다 같은 값을 유지하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.

      -- 메서드: fetchall ()

          Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a *note list:
          60b.  Return an empty list if no rows are available.  Note
          that the *note arraysize: 292f. attribute can affect the
          performance of this operation.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          (‘__del__’이 호출 될 때가 아니라) 지금 커서를 닫습니다.

          이 시점부터는 커서를 사용할 수 없습니다; 커서로 어떤 연산이건
          시도하면 *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. 예외가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: setinputsizes (sizes, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- 메서드: setoutputsize (size, column=None, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- 속성: arraysize

          *note fetchmany(): 292e.에 의해 반환되는 행의 수를 제어하는 읽
          기/쓰기 어트리뷰트.  기본값은 1입니다.  이는 호출 당 하나의 행
          을 가져오는 것을 뜻합니다.

      -- 속성: connection

          Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database *note
          Connection: 245. belonging to the cursor.  A *note Cursor:
          28e9. object created by calling *note con.cursor(): 28e8. will
          have a *note connection: 2933. attribute that refers to 'con':

               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> cur = con.cursor()
               >>> cur.connection == con
               True
               >>> con.close()

      -- 속성: description

          Read-only attribute that provides the column names of the last
          query.  To remain compatible with the Python DB API, it
          returns a 7-tuple for each column where the last six items of
          each tuple are ‘None’.

          일치하는 행이 없는 ‘SELECT’ 문에도 설정됩니다.

      -- 속성: lastrowid

          Read-only attribute that provides the row id of the last
          inserted row.  It is only updated after successful ‘INSERT’ or
          ‘REPLACE’ statements using the *note execute(): 2d2. method.
          For other statements, after *note executemany(): 2d3. or *note
          executescript(): 2922, or if the insertion failed, the value
          of ‘lastrowid’ is left unchanged.  The initial value of
          ‘lastrowid’ is ‘None’.

               참고: Inserts into ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ tables are not
               recorded.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘REPLACE’ 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

      -- 속성: rowcount

          Read-only attribute that provides the number of modified rows
          for ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, and ‘REPLACE’ statements; is
          ‘-1’ for other statements, including CTE (Common Table
          Expression) queries.  It is only updated by the *note
          execute(): 2d2. and *note executemany(): 2d3. methods, after
          the statement has run to completion.  This means that any
          resulting rows must be fetched in order for ‘rowcount’ to be
          updated.

      -- 속성: row_factory

          Control how a row fetched from this ‘Cursor’ is represented.
          If ‘None’, a row is represented as a *note tuple: 369.  Can be
          set to the included *note sqlite3.Row: e69.; or a *note
          callable: 2900. that accepts two arguments, a *note Cursor:
          28e9. object and the ‘tuple’ of row values, and returns a
          custom object representing an SQLite row.

          Defaults to what *note Connection.row_factory: 1635. was set
          to when the ‘Cursor’ was created.  Assigning to this attribute
          does not affect *note Connection.row_factory: 1635. of the
          parent connection.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 28f0. for more
          details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/lang_returning.html


File: python.info,  Node: Row objects,  Next: Blob objects,  Prev: Cursor objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.7 Row objects
....................

 -- 클래스: sqlite3.Row

     A ‘Row’ instance serves as a highly optimized *note row_factory:
     1635. for *note Connection: 245. objects.  It supports iteration,
     equality testing, *note len(): 628, and *note mapping: 11ab. access
     by column name and index.

     Two ‘Row’ objects compare equal if they have identical column names
     and values.

     See *note How to create and use row factories: 28f0. for more
     details.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          Return a *note list: 60b. of column names as *note strings:
          445.  Immediately after a query, it is the first member of
          each tuple in *note Cursor.description: 156b.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 슬라이싱 지원이 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Blob objects,  Next: PrepareProtocol objects,  Prev: Row objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.8 Blob objects
.....................

 -- 클래스: sqlite3.Blob

     Added in version 3.11.

     A *note Blob: 67c. instance is a *note file-like object: 2597. that
     can read and write data in an SQLite BLOB.  Call *note len(blob):
     628. to get the size (number of bytes) of the blob.  Use indices
     and *note slices: 2185. for direct access to the blob data.

     Use the *note Blob: 67c. as a *note context manager: 5ce. to ensure
     that the blob handle is closed after use.

          con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
          con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(blob_col blob)")
          con.execute("INSERT INTO test(blob_col) VALUES(zeroblob(13))")

          # Write to our blob, using two write operations:
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              blob.write(b"hello, ")
              blob.write(b"world.")
              # Modify the first and last bytes of our blob
              blob[0] = ord("H")
              blob[-1] = ord("!")

          # Read the contents of our blob
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              greeting = blob.read()

          print(greeting)  # outputs "b'Hello, world!'"
          con.close()

      -- 메서드: close ()

          Close the blob.

          The blob will be unusable from this point onward.  An *note
          Error: 1887. (or subclass) exception will be raised if any
          further operation is attempted with the blob.

      -- 메서드: read (length=-1, /)

          Read 'length' bytes of data from the blob at the current
          offset position.  If the end of the blob is reached, the data
          up to EOF (End of File) will be returned.  When 'length' is
          not specified, or is negative, *note read(): 293b. will read
          until the end of the blob.

      -- 메서드: write (data, /)

          Write 'data' to the blob at the current offset.  This function
          cannot change the blob length.  Writing beyond the end of the
          blob will raise *note ValueError: 202.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          Return the current access position of the blob.

      -- 메서드: seek (offset, origin=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the current access position of the blob to 'offset'.  The
          'origin' argument defaults to *note os.SEEK_SET: 127d.
          (absolute blob positioning).  Other values for 'origin' are
          *note os.SEEK_CUR: 127e. (seek relative to the current
          position) and *note os.SEEK_END: 127f. (seek relative to the
          blob’s end).


File: python.info,  Node: PrepareProtocol objects,  Next: 예외<5>,  Prev: Blob objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.9 PrepareProtocol objects
................................

 -- 클래스: sqlite3.PrepareProtocol

     The PrepareProtocol type’s single purpose is to act as a PEP 246(1)
     style adaption protocol for objects that can *note adapt
     themselves: 2940. to *note native SQLite types: 28f5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<5>,  Next: SQLite 와 파이썬 형,  Prev: PrepareProtocol objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.10 예외
..............

The exception hierarchy is defined by the DB-API 2.0 ( PEP 249(1)).

 -- 예외: sqlite3.Warning

     This exception is not currently raised by the ‘sqlite3’ module, but
     may be raised by applications using ‘sqlite3’, for example if a
     user-defined function truncates data while inserting.  ‘Warning’ is
     a subclass of *note Exception: 9d6.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.Error

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  Use this to
     catch all errors with one single *note except: 18b. statement.
     ‘Error’ is a subclass of *note Exception: 9d6.

     If the exception originated from within the SQLite library, the
     following two attributes are added to the exception:

      -- 속성: sqlite_errorcode

          The numeric error code from the SQLite API(2)

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 속성: sqlite_errorname

          The symbolic name of the numeric error code from the SQLite
          API(3)

          Added in version 3.11.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.InterfaceError

     Exception raised for misuse of the low-level SQLite C API. In other
     words, if this exception is raised, it probably indicates a bug in
     the ‘sqlite3’ module.  ‘InterfaceError’ is a subclass of *note
     Error: 1887.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.DatabaseError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.  This
     serves as the base exception for several types of database errors.
     It is only raised implicitly through the specialised subclasses.
     ‘DatabaseError’ is a subclass of *note Error: 1887.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.DataError

     Exception raised for errors caused by problems with the processed
     data, like numeric values out of range, and strings which are too
     long.  ‘DataError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2926.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.OperationalError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database’s
     operation, and not necessarily under the control of the programmer.
     For example, the database path is not found, or a transaction could
     not be processed.  ‘OperationalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 2926.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.IntegrityError

     데이터베이스의 관계형 무결성이 영향을 받을 때 발생하는 예외.  예를
     들어, 외부 키(foreign key) 검사가 실패할 때.  *note DatabaseError:
     2926.의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.InternalError

     Exception raised when SQLite encounters an internal error.  If this
     is raised, it may indicate that there is a problem with the runtime
     SQLite library.  ‘InternalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 2926.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.ProgrammingError

     Exception raised for ‘sqlite3’ API programming errors, for example
     supplying the wrong number of bindings to a query, or trying to
     operate on a closed *note Connection: 245.  ‘ProgrammingError’ is a
     subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2926.

 -- 예외: sqlite3.NotSupportedError

     Exception raised in case a method or database API is not supported
     by the underlying SQLite library.  For example, setting
     'deterministic' to ‘True’ in *note create_function(): 2a9, if the
     underlying SQLite library does not support deterministic functions.
     ‘NotSupportedError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2926.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html

   (3) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html


File: python.info,  Node: SQLite 와 파이썬 형,  Next: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Prev: 예외<5>,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.11 SQLite 와 파이썬 형
.............................

SQLite는 기본적으로 다음 형을 지원합니다: ‘NULL’, ‘INTEGER’, ‘REAL’,
‘TEXT’, ‘BLOB’.

따라서 다음과 같은 파이썬 형을 아무 문제 없이 SQLite로 보낼 수 있습니다:

파이썬 형                           SQLite 형
                                    
------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘None’                              ‘NULL’
                                    
                                    
*note int: 257.                     ‘INTEGER’
                                    
                                    
*note float: 2ef.                   ‘REAL’
                                    
                                    
*note str: 445.                     ‘TEXT’
                                    
                                    
*note bytes: 1c2.                   ‘BLOB’
                                    

이것은 SQLite 형이 기본적으로 파이썬 형으로 변환되는 방법입니다:

SQLite 형         파이썬 형
                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                  
‘NULL’            ‘None’
                  
                  
‘INTEGER’         *note int: 257.
                  
                  
‘REAL’            *note float: 2ef.
                  
                  
‘TEXT’            *note text_factory: 292a.에 따라 다릅니다, 기본
                  적으로 *note str: 445.
                  
                  
‘BLOB’            *note bytes: 1c2.
                  

The type system of the ‘sqlite3’ module is extensible in two ways: you
can store additional Python types in an SQLite database via *note object
adapters: 28ee, and you can let the ‘sqlite3’ module convert SQLite
types to Python types via *note converters: 28ef.


File: python.info,  Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Next: Command-line interface,  Prev: SQLite 와 파이썬 형,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.12 Default adapters and converters (deprecated)
......................................................

     참고: The default adapters and converters are deprecated as of
     Python 3.12.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter recipes:
     4ea. and tailor them to your needs.

The deprecated default adapters and converters consist of:

   * An adapter for *note datetime.date: 1cd. objects to *note strings:
     445. in ISO 8601(1) format.

   * An adapter for *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. objects to strings in
     ISO 8601 format.

   * A converter for *note declared: 28ef. “date” types to *note
     datetime.date: 1cd. objects.

   * A converter for declared “timestamp” types to *note
     datetime.datetime: 1cc. objects.  Fractional parts will be
     truncated to 6 digits (microsecond precision).

     참고: The default “timestamp” converter ignores UTC offsets in the
     database and always returns a naive *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.
     object.  To preserve UTC offsets in timestamps, either leave
     converters disabled, or register an offset-aware converter with
     *note register_converter(): 28f6.

버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface,  Prev: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.13 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘sqlite3’ module can be invoked as a script, using the interpreter’s
*note -m: 5db. switch, in order to provide a simple SQLite shell.  The
argument signature is as follows:

     python -m sqlite3 [-h] [-v] [filename] [sql]

Type ‘.quit’ or CTRL-D to exit the shell.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print CLI help.

 -- Option: -v, --version

     Print underlying SQLite library version.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: How-to guides,  Next: Explanation,  Prev: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.14 How-to guides
.......................

* Menu:

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Next: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.15 How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries
...............................................................

SQL operations usually need to use values from Python variables.
However, beware of using Python’s string operations to assemble queries,
as they are vulnerable to SQL injection attacks(1).  For example, an
attacker can simply close the single quote and inject ‘OR TRUE’ to
select all rows:

     >>> # Never do this -- insecure!
     >>> symbol = input()
     ' OR TRUE; --
     >>> sql = "SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol
     >>> print(sql)
     SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '' OR TRUE; --'
     >>> cur.execute(sql)

Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  To insert a variable
into a query string, use a placeholder in the string, and substitute the
actual values into the query by providing them as a *note tuple: 369. of
values to the second argument of the cursor’s *note execute(): 2d2.
method.

An SQL statement may use one of two kinds of placeholders: question
marks (qmark style) or named placeholders (named style).  For the qmark
style, 'parameters' must be a *note sequence: 4eb. whose length must
match the number of placeholders, or a *note ProgrammingError: 4ec. is
raised.  For the named style, 'parameters' must be an instance of a
*note dict: 256. (or a subclass), which must contain keys for all named
parameters; any extra items are ignored.  Here’s an example of both
styles:

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")

     # This is the named style used with executemany():
     data = (
         {"name": "C", "year": 1972},
         {"name": "Fortran", "year": 1957},
         {"name": "Python", "year": 1991},
         {"name": "Go", "year": 2009},
     )
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO lang VALUES(:name, :year)", data)

     # This is the qmark style used in a SELECT query:
     params = (1972,)
     cur.execute("SELECT * FROM lang WHERE first_appeared = ?", params)
     print(cur.fetchall())
     con.close()

     참고: PEP 249(2) numeric placeholders are 'not' supported.  If
     used, they will be interpreted as named placeholders.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Next: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Prev: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.16 How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values
...........................................................

SQLite supports only a limited set of data types natively.  To store
custom Python types in SQLite databases, 'adapt' them to one of the
*note Python types SQLite natively understands: 28f5.

There are two ways to adapt Python objects to SQLite types: letting your
object adapt itself, or using an 'adapter callable'.  The latter will
take precedence above the former.  For a library that exports a custom
type, it may make sense to enable that type to adapt itself.  As an
application developer, it may make more sense to take direct control by
registering custom adapter functions.

* Menu:

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::


File: python.info,  Node: How to write adaptable objects,  Next: How to register adapter callables,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.17 How to write adaptable objects
........................................

Suppose we have a ‘Point’ class that represents a pair of coordinates,
‘x’ and ‘y’, in a Cartesian coordinate system.  The coordinate pair will
be stored as a text string in the database, using a semicolon to
separate the coordinates.  This can be implemented by adding a
‘__conform__(self, protocol)’ method which returns the adapted value.
The object passed to 'protocol' will be of type *note PrepareProtocol:
17e8.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __conform__(self, protocol):
             if protocol is sqlite3.PrepareProtocol:
                 return f"{self.x};{self.y}"

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(4.0, -3.2),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to register adapter callables,  Prev: How to write adaptable objects,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.18 How to register adapter callables
...........................................

The other possibility is to create a function that converts the Python
object to an SQLite-compatible type.  This function can then be
registered using *note register_adapter(): 28ff.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(1.0, 2.5),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Next: Adapter and converter recipes,  Prev: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.19 How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types
.............................................................

Writing an adapter lets you convert 'from' custom Python types 'to'
SQLite values.  To be able to convert 'from' SQLite values 'to' custom
Python types, we use 'converters'.

Let’s go back to the ‘Point’ class.  We stored the x and y coordinates
separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.

First, we’ll define a converter function that accepts the string as a
parameter and constructs a ‘Point’ object from it.

     참고: Converter functions are 'always' passed a *note bytes: 1c2.
     object, no matter the underlying SQLite data type.

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
         return Point(x, y)

We now need to tell ‘sqlite3’ when it should convert a given SQLite
value.  This is done when connecting to a database, using the
'detect_types' parameter of *note connect(): 2a8.  There are three
options:

   * Implicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 28f7.

   * Explicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 28f8.

   * Both: set 'detect_types' to ‘sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES |
     sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES’.  Column names take precedence over
     declared types.

The following example illustrates the implicit and explicit approaches:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __repr__(self):
             return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = list(map(float, s.split(b";")))
         return Point(x, y)

     # Register the adapter and converter
     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)
     sqlite3.register_converter("point", convert_point)

     # 1) Parse using declared types
     p = Point(4.0, -3.2)
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p point)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute("SELECT p FROM test")
     print("with declared types:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()

     # 2) Parse using column names
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute('SELECT p AS "p [point]" FROM test')
     print("with column names:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Adapter and converter recipes,  Next: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Prev: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.20 Adapter and converter recipes
.......................................

This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.

     import datetime
     import sqlite3

     def adapt_date_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.date to ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.replace(tzinfo=None).isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
         return int(val.timestamp())

     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.date, adapt_date_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)

     def convert_date(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
         return datetime.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_datetime(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_timestamp(val):
         """Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))

     sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
     sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
     sqlite3.register_converter("timestamp", convert_timestamp)


File: python.info,  Node: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Next: How to use the connection context manager,  Prev: Adapter and converter recipes,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.21 How to use connection shortcut methods
................................................

Using the *note execute(): 291f, *note executemany(): 2920, and *note
executescript(): 2921. methods of the *note Connection: 245. class, your
code can be written more concisely because you don’t have to create the
(often superfluous) *note Cursor: 28e9. objects explicitly.  Instead,
the *note Cursor: 28e9. objects are created implicitly and these
shortcut methods return the cursor objects.  This way, you can execute a
‘SELECT’ statement and iterate over it directly using only a single call
on the *note Connection: 245. object.

     # Create and fill the table.
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")
     data = [
         ("C++", 1985),
         ("Objective-C", 1984),
     ]
     con.executemany("INSERT INTO lang(name, first_appeared) VALUES(?, ?)", data)

     # Print the table contents
     for row in con.execute("SELECT name, first_appeared FROM lang"):
         print(row)

     print("I just deleted", con.execute("DELETE FROM lang").rowcount, "rows")

     # close() is not a shortcut method and it's not called automatically;
     # the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to use the connection context manager,  Next: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Prev: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.22 How to use the connection context manager
...................................................

A *note Connection: 245. object can be used as a context manager that
automatically commits or rolls back open transactions when leaving the
body of the context manager.  If the body of the *note with: 5cc.
statement finishes without exceptions, the transaction is committed.  If
this commit fails, or if the body of the ‘with’ statement raises an
uncaught exception, the transaction is rolled back.  If *note
autocommit: 4b0. is ‘False’, a new transaction is implicitly opened
after committing or rolling back.

If there is no open transaction upon leaving the body of the ‘with’
statement, or if *note autocommit: 4b0. is ‘True’, the context manager
does nothing.

     참고: The context manager neither implicitly opens a new
     transaction nor closes the connection.  If you need a closing
     context manager, consider using *note contextlib.closing(): 2955.

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR UNIQUE)")

     # Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards
     with con:
         con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))

     # con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception,
     # the exception is still raised and must be caught
     try:
         with con:
             con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))
     except sqlite3.IntegrityError:
         print("couldn't add Python twice")

     # Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,
     # so the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Next: How to create and use row factories,  Prev: How to use the connection context manager,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.23 How to work with SQLite URIs
......................................

Some useful URI tricks include:

   * Open a database in read-only mode:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:tutorial.db?mode=ro", uri=True)
     >>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
     >>> con.close()

   * Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already
     exist; will raise *note OperationalError: 18a4. if unable to create
     a new file:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:nosuchdb.db?mode=rw", uri=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: unable to open database file

   * Create a shared named in-memory database:

     db = "file:mem1?mode=memory&cache=shared"
     con1 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     con2 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     with con1:
         con1.execute("CREATE TABLE shared(data)")
         con1.execute("INSERT INTO shared VALUES(28)")
     res = con2.execute("SELECT data FROM shared")
     assert res.fetchone() == (28,)

     con1.close()
     con2.close()

More information about this feature, including a list of parameters, can
be found in the SQLite URI documentation(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to create and use row factories,  Next: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.24 How to create and use row factories
.............................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ represents each row as a *note tuple: 369.  If a
‘tuple’ does not suit your needs, you can use the *note sqlite3.Row:
e69. class or a custom *note row_factory: 2929.

While ‘row_factory’ exists as an attribute both on the *note Cursor:
28e9. and the *note Connection: 245, it is recommended to set *note
Connection.row_factory: 1635, so all cursors created from the connection
will use the same row factory.

‘Row’ provides indexed and case-insensitive named access to columns,
with minimal memory overhead and performance impact over a ‘tuple’.  To
use ‘Row’ as a row factory, assign it to the ‘row_factory’ attribute:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = sqlite3.Row

Queries now return ‘Row’ objects:

     >>> res = con.execute("SELECT 'Earth' AS name, 6378 AS radius")
     >>> row = res.fetchone()
     >>> row.keys()
     ['name', 'radius']
     >>> row[0]         # Access by index.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["name"]    # Access by name.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["RADIUS"]  # Column names are case-insensitive.
     6378
     >>> con.close()

     참고: The ‘FROM’ clause can be omitted in the ‘SELECT’ statement,
     as in the above example.  In such cases, SQLite returns a single
     row with columns defined by expressions, e.g.  literals, with the
     given aliases ‘expr AS alias’.

You can create a custom *note row_factory: 2929. that returns each row
as a *note dict: 256, with column names mapped to values:

     def dict_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         return {key: value for key, value in zip(fields, row)}

Using it, queries now return a ‘dict’ instead of a ‘tuple’:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = dict_factory
     >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b"):
     ...     print(row)
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> con.close()

The following row factory returns a *note named tuple: 648.:

     from collections import namedtuple

     def namedtuple_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         cls = namedtuple("Row", fields)
         return cls._make(row)

‘namedtuple_factory()’ can be used as follows:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = namedtuple_factory
     >>> cur = con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b")
     >>> row = cur.fetchone()
     >>> row
     Row(a=1, b=2)
     >>> row[0]  # Indexed access.
     1
     >>> row.b   # Attribute access.
     2
     >>> con.close()

With some adjustments, the above recipe can be adapted to use a *note
dataclass: 1cb, or any other custom class, instead of a *note
namedtuple: 1ca.


File: python.info,  Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to create and use row factories,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.25 How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings
................................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ uses *note str: 445. to adapt SQLite values with
the ‘TEXT’ data type.  This works well for UTF-8 encoded text, but it
might fail for other encodings and invalid UTF-8.  You can use a custom
*note text_factory: 292a. to handle such cases.

Because of SQLite’s flexible typing(1), it is not uncommon to encounter
table columns with the ‘TEXT’ data type containing non-UTF-8 encodings,
or even arbitrary data.  To demonstrate, let’s assume we have a database
with ISO-8859-2 (Latin-2) encoded text, for example a table of
Czech-English dictionary entries.  Assuming we now have a *note
Connection: 245. instance ‘con’ connected to this database, we can
decode the Latin-2 encoded text using this *note text_factory: 292a.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, encoding="latin2")

For invalid UTF-8 or arbitrary data in stored in ‘TEXT’ table columns,
you can use the following technique, borrowed from the *note 유니코드
HOWTO: 1294.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, errors="surrogateescape")

     참고: The ‘sqlite3’ module API does not support strings containing
     surrogates.

더 보기
.......

*note 유니코드 HOWTO: 1294.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation,  Prev: How-to guides,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.26 Explanation
.....................

* Menu:

* Transaction control::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control,  Up: Explanation

5.12.6.27 Transaction control
.............................

‘sqlite3’ offers multiple methods of controlling whether, when and how
database transactions are opened and closed.  *note Transaction control
via the autocommit attribute: 4b1. is recommended, while *note
Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 28fa. retains the
pre-Python 3.12 behaviour.

* Menu:

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Next: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.28 Transaction control via the ‘autocommit’ attribute
............................................................

The recommended way of controlling transaction behaviour is through the
*note Connection.autocommit: 4b0. attribute, which should preferably be
set using the 'autocommit' parameter of *note connect(): 2a8.

It is suggested to set 'autocommit' to ‘False’, which implies PEP
249(1)-compliant transaction control.  This means:

   * ‘sqlite3’ ensures that a transaction is always open, so *note
     connect(): 2a8, *note Connection.commit(): 28ec, and *note
     Connection.rollback(): 291e. will implicitly open a new transaction
     (immediately after closing the pending one, for the latter two).
     ‘sqlite3’ uses ‘BEGIN DEFERRED’ statements when opening
     transactions.

   * Transactions should be committed explicitly using ‘commit()’.

   * Transactions should be rolled back explicitly using ‘rollback()’.

   * An implicit rollback is performed if the database is *note close():
     246.-ed with pending changes.

Set 'autocommit' to ‘True’ to enable SQLite’s autocommit mode(2).  In
this mode, *note Connection.commit(): 28ec. and *note
Connection.rollback(): 291e. have no effect.  Note that SQLite’s
autocommit mode is distinct from the PEP 249(3)-compliant *note
Connection.autocommit: 4b0. attribute; use *note
Connection.in_transaction: 2928. to query the low-level SQLite
autocommit mode.

Set 'autocommit' to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb. to leave
transaction control behaviour to the *note Connection.isolation_level:
28f9. attribute.  See *note Transaction control via the isolation_level
attribute: 28fa. for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Prev: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.29 Transaction control via the ‘isolation_level’ attribute
.................................................................

     참고: The recommended way of controlling transactions is via the
     *note autocommit: 4b0. attribute.  See *note Transaction control
     via the autocommit attribute: 4b1.

If *note Connection.autocommit: 4b0. is set to *note
LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 28fb. (the default), transaction behaviour
is controlled using the *note Connection.isolation_level: 28f9.
attribute.  Otherwise, ‘isolation_level’ has no effect.

If the connection attribute *note isolation_level: 28f9. is not ‘None’,
new transactions are implicitly opened before *note execute(): 2d2. and
*note executemany(): 2d3. executes ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or
‘REPLACE’ statements; for other statements, no implicit transaction
handling is performed.  Use the *note commit(): 28ec. and *note
rollback(): 291e. methods to respectively commit and roll back pending
transactions.  You can choose the underlying SQLite transaction
behaviour(1) — that is, whether and what type of ‘BEGIN’ statements
‘sqlite3’ implicitly executes – via the *note isolation_level: 28f9.
attribute.

If *note isolation_level: 28f9. is set to ‘None’, no transactions are
implicitly opened at all.  This leaves the underlying SQLite library in
autocommit mode(2), but also allows the user to perform their own
transaction handling using explicit SQL statements.  The underlying
SQLite library autocommit mode can be queried using the *note
in_transaction: 2928. attribute.

The *note executescript(): 2922. method implicitly commits any pending
transaction before execution of the given SQL script, regardless of the
value of *note isolation_level: 28f9.

버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘sqlite3’ used to implicitly commit an open
transaction before DDL statements.  This is no longer the case.

버전 3.12에서 변경: The recommended way of controlling transactions is
now via the *note autocommit: 4b0. attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 압축 및 보관,  Next: 파일 형식,  Prev: 데이터 지속성,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.13 데이터 압축 및 보관
========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 zlib, gzip, bzip2 및 lzma 알고리즘을 사용한 데
이터 압축과 ZIP- 및 tar- 형식 저장소 생성을 지원합니다.  *note shutil:
c5. 모듈에서 제공하는 *note 아카이브 연산: 1208.도 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축::
* gzip — gzip 파일 지원::
* bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원::
* lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축::
* zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업::
* tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기::


File: python.info,  Node: zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축,  Next: gzip — gzip 파일 지원,  Up: 데이터 압축 및 보관

5.13.1 ‘zlib’ — ‘gzip’ 과 호환되는 압축
---------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

데이터 압축이 필요한 응용 프로그램의 경우, 이 모듈의 함수는 zlib 라이브
러리를 사용하여 압축과 압축 해제를 하도록 합니다.  zlib 라이브러리는
‘https://www.zlib.net’ 에 자체 홈페이지가 있습니다.  파이썬 모듈과 1.1.3
이전의 zlib 라이브러리 버전 간에는 호환성 문제가 알려져 있습니다; 1.1.3에
는 보안 취약점(1)이 있기 때문에, 1.1.4 이상을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

zlib의 함수에는 많은 옵션이 있으며 종종 특정 순서로 사용해야 합니다.  이
설명서는 모든 순열을 다루려고 시도하지는 않습니다; 권위 있는 정보는 zlib
매뉴얼(‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’)을 참조하십시오.

‘.gz’ 파일 읽기와 쓰기에 대해서는 *note gzip: 67. 모듈을 참조하십시오.

이 모듈에서 사용 가능한 예외와 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 예외: zlib.error

     압축과 압축 해제 에러에서 발생하는 예외.

 -- 함수: zlib.adler32 (data[, value])

     'data'의 Adler-32 체크섬을 계산합니다.  (Adler-32 체크섬은 CRC32만
     큼 신뢰성 있지만, 훨씬 빠르게 계산할 수 있습니다.)  결과는 부호 없
     는 32비트 정수입니다.  'value'가 있으면, 체크섬의 시작 값으로 사용
     됩니다; 그렇지 않으면, 기본값 1이 사용됩니다.  'value'를 전달하면 여
     러 입력을 이어붙인 것에 대한 잇따른(running) 체크섬을 계산할 수 있
     습니다.  알고리즘은 암호학적으로 강력하지 않아서, 인증이나 디지털 서
     명에 사용해서는 안 됩니다.  알고리즘은 체크섬 알고리즘으로 사용하도
     록 설계되었으므로, 일반적인 해시 알고리즘으로 사용하기에 적합하지 않
     습니다.

     버전 3.0에서 변경: 결과는 항상 부호 없는 값입니다.

 -- 함수: zlib.compress (data, /, level=-1, wbits=MAX_WBITS)

     'data'에 있는 바이트열을 압축하여, 압축된 데이터를 포함하는 바이트
     열 객체를 반환합니다.  'level'은 압축 수준을 제어하는 ‘0’에서 ‘9’ 또
     는 ‘-1’인 정수입니다; ‘1’(Z_BEST_SPEED)은 가장 빠르고 압축률이 가장
     낮습니다, ‘9’(Z_BEST_COMPRESSION)는 가장 느리고 최대 압축을 생성합
     니다.  ‘0’(Z_NO_COMPRESSION)은 압축하지 않습니다.  기본값은
     ‘-1’(Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION)입니다.  Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION은 속도와
     압축률 사이의 기본 절충(현재 수준 6과 동등합니다)을 나타냅니다.
     'wbits' 인자는 데이터를 압축할 때 사용되는 히스토리 버퍼의 크기(또
     는 “창 크기(window size)”)와, 출력에 헤더와 트레일러가 포함되는지를
     제어합니다.  여러 범위의 값을 취할 수 있으며, 기본값은
     ‘15’(MAX_WBITS)입니다:

        * +9 에서 +15: 창 크기의 밑이 2인 로그, 그래서 창 크기는 512에서
          32768 사이의 범위입니다.  값이 클수록 메모리 사용량이 증가하면
          서 압축률이 높아집니다.  결과 출력에는 zlib 특정 헤더와 트레일
          러가 포함됩니다.

        * −9 에서 −15: 'wbits'의 절댓값을 창 크기의 로그로 사용하면서, 헤
          더나 후행 체크섬 없이 원시 출력 스트림을 생성합니다.

        * +25 에서 +31 = 16 + (9 에서 15): 하위 4비트를 창 크기의 로그로
          사용하면서, 출력에 기본 ‘gzip’ 헤더와 후행 체크섬을 포함합니다
          .

     에러가 발생하면 *note error: 2962. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'level'은 이제 키워드 매개 변수로 사용될 수 있습
     니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The 'wbits' parameter is now available to set
     window bits and compression type.

 -- 함수: zlib.compressobj (level=-1, method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])

     메모리에 한 번에 맞지 않는 데이터 스트림을 압축하는 데 사용되는 압
     축 객체를 반환합니다.

     'level'은 압축 수준입니다 – ‘0’에서 ‘9’ 또는 ‘-1’인 정수입니다.
     ‘1’(Z_BEST_SPEED) 값은 가장 빠르고 압축률이 가장 낮지만,
     ‘9’(Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) 값은 가장 느리고 최대 압축을 생성합니다.
     ‘0’(Z_NO_COMPRESSION)은 압축하지 않습니다.  기본값은
     ‘-1’(Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION)입니다.  Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION은 속도와
     압축률 사이의 기본 절충(현재 수준 6과 동등합니다)을 나타냅니다.

     'method'는 압축 알고리즘입니다.  현재, 유일하게 지원되는 값은
     ‘DEFLATED’입니다.

     'wbits' 매개 변수는 히스토리 버퍼의 크기(또는 “창 크기(window
     size)”)와, 어떤 헤더와 트레일러 형식을 사용할지를 제어합니다.
     *note compress()에서 설명된 것: 2963.과 같은 의미입니다.

     'memLevel' 인자는 내부 압축 상태에 사용되는 메모리양을 제어합니다.
     유효한 값의 범위는 ‘1’에서 ‘9’입니다.  값이 클수록 더 많은 메모리를
     사용하지만, 더 빠르고 더 작은 출력을 생성합니다.

     'strategy'는 압축 알고리즘을 조정하는 데 사용됩니다.  가능한 값은
     ‘Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY’, ‘Z_FILTERED’, ‘Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY’, ‘Z_RLE’(zlib
     1.2.0.1) 및 ‘Z_FIXED’(zlib 1.2.2.2)입니다.

     'zdict'는 사전 정의된 압축 딕셔너리입니다.  이것은 압축될 데이터에
     서 자주 나타날 것으로 예상되는 서브 시퀀스를 포함하는 일련의 바이트
     시퀀스(가령 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체)입니다.  가장 흔할 것으로 예상되
     는 서브 시퀀스는 딕셔너리 끝에 와야 합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'zdict' 매개 변수와 키워드 인자 지원이 추가되었
     습니다.

 -- 함수: zlib.crc32 (data[, value])

     'data'의 CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check; 순환 중복 검사) 체크섬을 계
     산합니다.  결과는 부호 없는 32비트 정수입니다.  'value'가 있으면, 체
     크섬의 시작 값으로 사용됩니다; 그렇지 않으면, 기본값 1이 사용됩니다
     .  'value'를 전달하면 여러 입력을 이어붙인 것에 대한 잇따른
     (running) 체크섬을 계산할 수 있습니다.  알고리즘은 암호학적으로 강
     력하지 않아서, 인증이나 디지털 서명에 사용해서는 안 됩니다.  알고리
     즘은 체크섬 알고리즘으로 사용하도록 설계되었으므로, 일반적인 해시 알
     고리즘으로 사용하기에 적합하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.0에서 변경: 결과는 항상 부호 없는 값입니다.

 -- 함수: zlib.decompress (data, /, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)

     'data'에 있는 바이트열을 압축 해제하여, 압축되지 않은 데이터를 포함
     하는 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  'wbits' 매개 변수는 'data'의 형식
     에 따라 다르며, 아래에서 자세히 설명합니다.  'bufsize'가 제공되면,
     출력 버퍼의 초기 크기로 사용됩니다.  에러가 발생하면 *note error:
     2962. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  'wbits' 인자는 히스토리 버퍼의 크기(또
     는 “창 크기(window size)”)와, 어떤 헤더와 트레일러 형식을 기대하는
     지를 제어합니다.  *note compressobj(): 2964.의 매개 변수와 유사하지
     만, 더 많은 범위의 값을 받아들입니다:

        * +8 에서 +15: 창 크기의 밑이 2인 로그.  입력은 zlib 헤더와 트레
          일러를 포함해야 합니다.

        * 0: zlib 헤더에서 창 크기를 자동으로 결정합니다.  zlib 1.2.3.5부
          터 지원됩니다.

        * −8 에서 −15: 'wbits'의 절댓값을 창 크기의 로그로 사용합니다.  입
          력은 헤더나 트레일러가 없는 원시 스트림이어야 합니다.

        * +24 에서 +31 = 16 + (8 에서 15): 값의 하위 4비트를 창 크기의 로
          그로 사용합니다.  입력은 gzip 헤더와 트레일러를 포함해야 합니
          다.

        * +40 에서 +47 = 32 + (8 에서 15): 값의 하위 4비트를 창 크기의 로
          그로 사용하고, zlib나 gzip 형식을 자동으로 받아들입니다.

     스트림을 압축 해제할 때, 창 크기는 스트림을 압축하는 데 원래 사용된
     크기보다 작아서는 안 됩니다; 너무 작은 값을 사용하면 *note error:
     2962. 예외가 발생할 수 있습니다.  기본 'wbits' 값은 가장 큰 창 크기
     에 해당하며 zlib 헤더와 트레일러가 포함될 것을 요구합니다.

     'bufsize'는 압축 해제된 데이터를 담는 데 사용되는 버퍼의 초기 크기
     입니다.  더 많은 공간이 필요하면, 필요에 따라 버퍼 크기가 증가하므
     로, 이 값을 정확하게 얻을 필요는 없습니다; 조정하면 ‘malloc()’에 대
     한 몇 번의 호출만 절약됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'wbits'와 'bufsize'는 키워드 인자로 사용할 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 함수: zlib.decompressobj (wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])

     메모리에 한 번에 맞지 않는 데이터 스트림을 압축 해제하는 데 사용되
     는 압축 해제 객체를 반환합니다.

     'wbits' 인자는 히스토리 버퍼의 크기(또는 “창 크기(window size)”)와,
     어떤 헤더와 트레일러 형식을 기대하는지를 제어합니다.  *note
     decompress()에서 설명된 것: 2965.과 같은 의미입니다.

     'zdict' 매개 변수는 사전 정의된 압축 딕셔너리를 지정합니다.  제공되
     면,, 압축 해제할 데이터를 생성한 압축기에서 사용한 것과 같은 딕셔너
     리이어야 합니다.

          참고: 'zdict'가 가변 객체(가령 *note bytearray: 538.)이면,
          *note decompressobj(): 2966.에 대한 호출과 압축 해제기의
          ‘decompress()’ 메서드에 대한 첫 번째 호출 사이에 내용을 수정해
          서는 안 됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'zdict' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

압축 객체는 다음 메서드를 지원합니다:

 -- 메서드: Compress.compress (data)

     'data'를 압축하여, 'data'의 데이터 중 적어도 일부에 대한 압축된 데
     이터가 포함된 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  이 데이터는 *note
     compress(): 639. 메서드에 대한 이전 호출에서 생성된 출력에 이어붙여
     야 합니다.  일부 입력은 나중에 처리하기 위해 내부 버퍼에 보관될 수
     있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Compress.flush ([mode])

     계류 중인 모든 입력이 처리되고, 나머지 압축 출력을 포함하는 바이트
     열 객체가 반환됩니다.  'mode'는 상수 ‘Z_NO_FLUSH’,
     ‘Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH’, ‘Z_SYNC_FLUSH’, ‘Z_FULL_FLUSH’, ‘Z_BLOCK’(zlib
     1.2.3.4) 또는 ‘Z_FINISH’에서 선택할 수 있으며, 기본값은 ‘Z_FINISH’입
     니다.  ‘Z_FINISH’를 제외한 모든 상수는 추가 바이트열 데이터를 압축
     하도록 허락하는 반면, ‘Z_FINISH’는 압축된 스트림을 완료하고 추가 데
     이터의 압축을 방지합니다.  'mode'를 ‘Z_FINISH’로 설정하고 *note
     flush(): 2968.를 호출한 후, *note compress(): 639. 메서드를 다시 호
     출할 수 없습니다; 유일한 현실적인 조치는 객체를 삭제하는 것입니다.

 -- 메서드: Compress.copy ()

     압축 객체의 복사본을 반환합니다.  공통 초기 접두사를 공유하는 데이
     터 집합을 효율적으로 압축하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 압축 객체에 *note copy.copy(): 52d.와 *note
copy.deepcopy(): b6b. 지원이 추가되었습니다.

압축 해제 객체는 다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 지원합니다:

 -- 속성: Decompress.unused_data

     압축된 데이터가 끝난 뒤의 바이트를 포함하는 바이트열 객체.  즉, 압
     축 데이터가 들어 있는 마지막 바이트를 사용할 수 있을 때까지 ‘b""’로
     남습니다.  전체 바이트열이 압축된 데이터를 포함하는 것으로 판명되면
     , 이것은 빈 바이트열 객체인 ‘b""’입니다.

 -- 속성: Decompress.unconsumed_tail

     압축되지 않은 데이터 버퍼의 한계를 초과하기 때문에 마지막 *note
     decompress(): d0a. 호출에 의해 소비되지 않은 모든 데이터를 포함하는
     바이트열 객체.  이 데이터는 아직 zlib 장치가 볼 수 없었기 때문에 올
     바른 출력을 얻으려면 후속 *note decompress(): d0a. 메서드 호출에 다
     시 공급해야 합니다 (아마도 추가 데이터를 이것에 이어붙여서).

 -- 속성: Decompress.eof

     압축된 데이터 스트림의 끝에 도달했는지를 나타내는 불리언.

     올바르게 구성된 압축 스트림과 불완전하거나 잘린 스트림을 구별할 수
     있도록 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: Decompress.decompress (data, max_length=0)

     'data'를 압축 해제하여, 'string'의 데이터 중 적어도 일부에 해당하는
     압축되지 않은 데이터를 포함하는 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  이 데
     이터는 *note decompress(): d0a. 메서드에 대한 이전 호출에서 생성된
     출력에 이어붙여야 합니다.  입력 데이터 중 일부는 나중에 처리하기 위
     해 내부 버퍼에 보존될 수 있습니다.

     선택적 매개 변수 'max_length'가 0이 아니면 반환 값은 'max_length'보
     다 길지 않습니다.  이는 모든 압축 입력을 처리할 수 없음을 뜻합니다;
     소비되지 않은 데이터는 *note unconsumed_tail: 296b. 어트리뷰트에 저
     장됩니다.  압축 해제를 계속하려면 이 바이트열을 *note decompress():
     d0a.에 대한 후속 호출로 전달해야 합니다.  'max_length'가 0이면 전체
     입력이 압축 해제되고, *note unconsumed_tail: 296b.은 비어 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'max_length'는 키워드 인자로 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Decompress.flush ([length])

     계류 중인 모든 입력이 처리되고, 나머지 압축되지 않은 출력을 포함하
     는 바이트열 객체가 반환됩니다.  *note flush(): 296d.를 호출한 후,
     *note decompress(): d0a. 메서드를 다시 호출할 수 없습니다; 유일한 현
     실적인 조치는 객체를 삭제하는 것입니다.

     선택적 매개 변수 'length'는 출력 버퍼의 초기 크기를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: Decompress.copy ()

     압축 해제 객체의 복사본을 반환합니다.  이것은 미래 시점에 스트림으
     로의 임의 탐색(random seek) 속도를 높이기 위해 데이터 스트림의 중간
     지점에서 압축 해제기의 상태를 저장하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 압축 해제 객체에 *note copy.copy(): 52d.와 *note
copy.deepcopy(): b6b. 지원이 추가되었습니다.

사용 중인 zlib 라이브러리 버전에 대한 정보는 다음 상수를 통해 사용할 수
있습니다:

 -- 데이터: zlib.ZLIB_VERSION

     모듈을 빌드하는 데 사용된 zlib 라이브러리의 버전 문자열.  *note
     ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 115f.으로 사용 가능한, 실행 시간에 실제로 사
     용되는 zlib 라이브러리와 다를 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION

     인터프리터가 실제로 로드한 zlib 라이브러리의 버전 문자열.

     Added in version 3.3.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note gzip: 67.

     ‘gzip’ 형식 파일 읽기와 쓰기

‘http://www.zlib.net’

     zlib 라이브러리 홈페이지.

‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’

     zlib 매뉴얼은 라이브러리의 많은 함수의 의미와 사용법을 설명합니다.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal(2) package
speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://zlib.net/zlib_faq.html#faq33

   (2) https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal


File: python.info,  Node: gzip — gzip 파일 지원,  Next: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원,  Prev: zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축,  Up: 데이터 압축 및 보관

5.13.2 ‘gzip’ — ‘gzip’ 파일 지원
--------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/gzip.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 GNU 프로그램 ‘gzip’과 ‘gunzip’처럼 파일을 압축하고 압축을 푸는
간단한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

데이터 압축은 *note zlib: 133. 모듈에 의해 제공됩니다.

*note gzip: 67. 모듈은 *note open(): 2972, *note compress(): 638. 및
*note decompress(): 11fc. 편리 함수뿐만 아니라 *note GzipFile: 414. 클래
스도 제공합니다.  *note GzipFile: 414. 클래스는 ‘gzip’-형식 파일을 읽고
쓰는데, 자동으로 데이터를 압축하거나 압축을 풀어서 일반적인 *note 파일
객체: 11b2.처럼 보이게 합니다.

‘compress’와 ‘pack’ 프로그램에서 생성된 것과 같은, ‘gzip’과 ‘gunzip’ 프
로그램으로 압축을 풀 수 있는 추가 파일 형식은 이 모듈에서 지원하지 않습
니다.

이 모듈은 다음 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: gzip.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     바이너리나 텍스트 모드로 gzip으로 압축된 파일을 열고, *note 파일
     객체: 11b2.를 반환합니다.

     'filename' 인자는 실제 파일명(*note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2.
     객체)이나, 읽거나 쓸 기존 파일 객체가 될 수 있습니다.

     'mode' 인자는 바이너리 모드의 경우 ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'xb'’, 또는 텍스트 모드의 경우 ‘'rt'’,
     ‘'at'’, ‘'wt'’ 또는 ‘'xt'’ 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  기본값은 ‘'rb'’입
     니다.

     'compresslevel' 인자는 *note GzipFile: 414. 생성자와 마찬가지로 0에
     서 9 사이의 정수입니다.

     바이너리 모드의 경우, 이 함수는 *note GzipFile: 414. 생성자
     ‘GzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel)’와 동등합니다.  이 경우,
     'encoding', 'errors' 및 'newline' 인자를 제공하면 안 됩니다.

     텍스트 모드의 경우, *note GzipFile: 414. 객체가 만들어지고, 지정된
     인코딩, 에러 처리 동작 및 줄 종료를 갖는 *note io.TextIOWrapper:
     7b4. 인스턴스로 감싸집니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 파일 객체인 'filename' 지원, 텍스트 모드 지원 및
     'encoding', 'errors' 및 'newline' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’ 및 ‘'xt'’ 모드에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 예외: gzip.BadGzipFile

     유효하지 않은 gzip 파일에 대한 예외.  *note OSError: 411.를 상속합
     니다.  *note EOFError: 12c9.와 *note zlib.error: 2962.도 유효하지 않
     은 gzip 파일에 대해서 발생할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 클래스: gzip.GzipFile (filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9,
          fileobj=None, mtime=None)

     *note truncate(): 1301. 메서드를 제외하고, 대부분 *note 파일 객체:
     11b2. 메서드를 흉내 내는 *note GzipFile: 414. 클래스의 생성자입니다
     .  'fileobj'와 'filename' 중 적어도 하나는 의미 있는 값을 부여해야
     합니다.

     새 클래스 인스턴스는 'fileobj'를 기반으로 하는데, 일반 파일, *note
     io.BytesIO: e9a. 객체 또는 파일을 흉내 내는 다른 객체가 될 수 있습
     니다.  기본값은 ‘None’이며, 이 경우 파일 객체를 제공하기 위해
     'filename'이 열립니다.

     'fileobj'가 ‘None’이 아닐 때, 'filename' 인자는 ‘gzip’ 파일 헤더에
     포함되는 데만 사용되며, 이 헤더에는 압축되지 않은 파일의 원래 파일
     명이 포함될 수 있습니다.  보고 알 수 있다면, 'fileobj'의 파일명을 기
     본값으로 사용합니다; 그렇지 않으면, 기본값은 빈 문자열이며, 이 경우
     원래 파일명은 헤더에 포함되지 않습니다.

     'mode' 인자는 파일을 읽을지 쓸지에 따라 ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’,
     ‘'ab'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'xb'’ 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  보
     고 알 수 있다면, 기본값은 'fileobj'의 모드입니다; 그렇지 않으면, 기
     본값은 ‘'rb'’입니다.  향후 파이썬 릴리스에서는 'fileobj'의 모드가 사
     용되지 않습니다.  항상 쓰기를 위해서는 'mode'를 지정하는 것이 좋습
     니다.

     파일이 항상 바이너리 모드로 열림에 유의하십시오.  텍스트 모드로 압
     축 파일을 열려면, *note open(): 2972.을 사용하십시오 (또는 *note
     GzipFile: 414.을 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.로 감싸십시오).

     'compresslevel' 인자는 압축 수준을 제어하는 ‘0’에서 ‘9’까지의 정수
     입니다; ‘1’은 가장 빠르고 압축률이 가장 낮으며, ‘9’는 가장 느리고 압
     축률이 가장 높습니다.  ‘0’은 압축하지 않습니다.  기본값은 ‘9’입니다
     .

     The optional 'mtime' argument is the timestamp requested by gzip.
     The time is in Unix format, i.e., seconds since 00:00:00 UTC,
     January 1, 1970.  If 'mtime' is omitted or ‘None’, the current time
     is used.  Use 'mtime' = 0 to generate a compressed stream that does
     not depend on creation time.

     See below for the *note mtime: 2973. attribute that is set when
     decompressing.

     *note GzipFile: 414. 객체의 ‘close()’ 메서드를 호출해도 'fileobj'를
     닫지 않습니다, 압축된 데이터 뒤에 뭔가 추가하기를 원할 수 있기 때문
     입니다.  또한, 이는 'fileobj'로 쓰기 위해 열린 *note io.BytesIO:
     e9a. 객체를 전달하고, *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 객체의 *note
     getvalue(): 2974. 메서드를 사용하여 결과 메모리 버퍼를 얻을 수 있도
     록 합니다.

     *note GzipFile: 414.은 이터레이션과 *note with: 5cc. 문을 포함하여
     *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 인터페이스를 지원합니다.  *note
     truncate(): 1301. 메서드 만 구현되지 않습니다.

     *note GzipFile: 414.은 다음 메서드와 어트리뷰트도 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: peek (n)

          파일 위치를 전진시키지 않고 압축되지 않은 'n' 바이트를 읽습니
          다.  반환된 바이트 수는 요청한 것보다 많거나 적을 수 있습니다.

               참고: *note peek(): 11fb.를 호출할 때 *note GzipFile:
               414.의 파일 위치가 변경되지는 않지만, 하부 파일 객체의 위
               치는 변경될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, *note GzipFile: 414.이
               'fileobj' 매개 변수로 생성된 경우).

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 속성: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: In previous versions it was an integer ‘1’
          or ‘2’.

      -- 속성: mtime

          압축을 풀 때, 이 어트리뷰트는 가장 최근에 읽은 헤더의 마지막 타
          임스탬프로 설정됩니다.  유닉스 에포크 (1970-01-01 00:00:00
          UTC) 이후의 시간(초)를 나타내는 정수입니다.  헤더를 읽기 전의
          초깃값은 ‘None’입니다.

      -- 속성: name

          The path to the gzip file on disk, as a *note str: 445. or
          *note bytes: 1c2.  Equivalent to the output of *note
          os.fspath(): c50. on the original input path, with no other
          normalization, resolution or expansion.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'mtime' 생성자 인자와 *note mtime: 2973. 어트리
     뷰트와 함께 *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 제로 패딩(zero-padded)된 파일과 위치 변경할 수 없
     는(unseekable) 파일에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note io.BufferedIOBase.read1(): 2976. 메서드가
     이제 구현됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘'x'’ 및 ‘'xb'’ 모드에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니
     다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 임의의 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 쓰는 지원이
     추가되었습니다.  이제 *note read(): 1318. 메서드는 ‘None’ 인자를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 'mode' 인자를 지정하지 않고 쓰기 위해 *note
     GzipFile: 414.을 여는 것은 폐지되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute, use the *note
     name: 506. attribute instead.

 -- 함수: gzip.compress (data, compresslevel=9, *, mtime=None)

     'data'를 압축하여, 압축된 데이터가 포함된 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를
     반환합니다.  'compresslevel'과 'mtime'은 위의 *note GzipFile: 414.
     생성자와 같은 의미입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 재현성 있는 출력을 위한 'mtime' 매개 변수가 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Speed is improved by compressing all data at
     once instead of in a streamed fashion.  Calls with 'mtime' set to
     ‘0’ are delegated to *note zlib.compress(): 639. for better speed.
     In this situation the output may contain a gzip header “OS” byte
     value other than 255 “unknown” as supplied by the underlying zlib
     implementation.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The gzip header OS byte is guaranteed to be set
     to 255 when this function is used as was the case in 3.10 and
     earlier.

 -- 함수: gzip.decompress (data)

     Decompress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 1c2. object
     containing the uncompressed data.  This function is capable of
     decompressing multi-member gzip data (multiple gzip blocks
     concatenated together).  When the data is certain to contain only
     one member the *note zlib.decompress(): d0a. function with 'wbits'
     set to 31 is faster.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Speed is improved by decompressing members at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

* Menu:

* 사용 예: 사용 예<2>.
* 명령 줄 인터페이스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/gzip.py


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예<2>,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스,  Up: gzip — gzip 파일 지원

5.13.2.1 사용 예
................

압축된 파일을 읽는 방법의 예:

     import gzip
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
         file_content = f.read()

압축된 GZIP 파일을 만드는 방법의 예:

     import gzip
     content = b"Lots of content here"
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(content)

기존 파일을 GZIP 압축하는 방법의 예:

     import gzip
     import shutil
     with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
         with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
             shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)

바이너리 문자열을 GZIP 압축하는 방법의 예:

     import gzip
     s_in = b"Lots of content here"
     s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note zlib: 133.

     ‘gzip’ 파일 형식을 지원하는 데 필요한 기본 데이터 압축 모듈.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal(1) package
speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스,  Prev: 사용 예<2>,  Up: gzip — gzip 파일 지원

5.13.2.2 명령 줄 인터페이스
...........................

*note gzip: 67. 모듈은 파일을 압축하거나 압축 해제하는 간단한 명령 줄 인
터페이스를 제공합니다.

일단 실행되면 *note gzip: 67. 모듈은 입력 파일을 유지합니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 새로운 명령 중 인터페이스를 사용법과 함께 추가합니다.
기본적으로, CLI를 실행할 때, 기본 압축 수준은 6입니다.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 옵션::


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 옵션,  Up: 명령 줄 인터페이스

5.13.2.3 명령 줄 옵션
.....................

 -- Option: file

     'file'이 지정되지 않으면, *note sys.stdin: 537.에서 읽습니다.

 -- Option: --fast

     가장 빠른 압축 방법(압축을 덜 함)을 나타냅니다.

 -- Option: --best

     가장 느린 압축 방법(최상의 압축)을 나타냅니다.

 -- Option: -d, --decompress

     주어진 파일의 압축을 풉니다.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     도움말 메시지를 표시합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원,  Next: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축,  Prev: gzip — gzip 파일 지원,  Up: 데이터 압축 및 보관

5.13.3 ‘bz2’ — ‘bzip2’ 압축 지원
--------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/bz2.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 bzip2 압축 알고리즘을 사용하여 데이터 압축과 압축 해제를 위한
포괄적인 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

*note bz2: 13. 모듈에는 다음이 포함됩니다:

   * 압축된 파일을 읽고 쓰기 위한 *note open(): 1084. 함수와 *note
     BZ2File: 861. 클래스.

   * 증분 압축(해제)을 위한 *note BZ2Compressor: 1764.와 *note
     BZ2Decompressor: 1762. 클래스.

   * 일괄 압축(해제)을 위한 *note compress(): 241b.와 *note
     decompress(): 1085. 함수.

* Menu:

* 파일 압축(해제): 파일 압축 해제.
* 증분 압축(해제): 증분 압축 해제.
* 일괄 압축(해제): 일괄 압축 해제.
* 사용 예: 사용 예<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bz2.py


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 압축 해제,  Next: 증분 압축 해제,  Up: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원

5.13.3.1 파일 압축(해제)
........................

 -- 함수: bz2.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     바이너리나 텍스트 모드로 bzip2 압축된 파일을 열고, *note 파일 객체:
     11b2.를 반환합니다.

     *note BZ2File: 861.의 생성자와 마찬가지로, 'filename' 인자는 실제 파
     일명(*note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체)이거나, 읽거나 쓸 기
     존 파일 객체가 될 수 있습니다.

     'mode' 인자는 바이너리 모드의 경우 ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’, ‘'a'’ 또는 ‘'ab'’, 또는 텍스트 모드의 경우 ‘'rt'’,
     ‘'wt'’, ‘'xt'’ 또는 ‘'at'’ 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  기본값은 ‘'rb'’입
     니다.

     'compresslevel' 인자는 *note BZ2File: 861. 생성자와 마찬가지로 1에
     서 9 사이의 정수입니다.

     바이너리 모드의 경우, 이 함수는 *note BZ2File: 861. 생성자
     ‘BZ2File(filename, mode, compresslevel=compresslevel)’와 동등합니다
     .  이 경우, 'encoding', 'errors' 및 'newline' 인자를 제공하면 안 됩
     니다.

     텍스트 모드의 경우, *note BZ2File: 861. 객체가 만들어지고, 지정된 인
     코딩, 에러 처리 동작 및 줄 종료를 갖는 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.
     인스턴스로 감싸집니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘'x'’ (배타적 생성) 모드가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 클래스: bz2.BZ2File (filename, mode='r', *, compresslevel=9)

     바이너리 모드로 bzip2 압축된 파일을 엽니다.

     'filename'이 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체면, 명명된 파
     일을 직접 엽니다.  그렇지 않으면, 'filename'은 *note 파일 객체:
     11b2. 여야 하며, 압축된 데이터를 읽거나 쓰는 데 사용됩니다.

     'mode' 인자는 읽기를 위한 ‘'r'’ (기본값), 덮어쓰기를 위한 ‘'w'’, 배
     타적 생성을 위한 ‘'x'’ 또는 덧붙이기를 위한 ‘'a'’ 중 하나일 수 있습
     니다.  이들은 각각 ‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'xb'’ 및 ‘'ab'’로 주어지는 것과
     동등합니다.

     'filename'이 (실제 파일 이름 대신) 파일 객체면, ‘'w'’ 모드는 파일을
     자르지 않으며, 대신 ‘'a'’와 동등합니다.

     'mode'가 ‘'w'’나 ‘'a'’이면, 'compresslevel'은 압축 수준을 지정하는
     ‘1’과 ‘9’ 사이의 정수일 수 있습니다: ‘1’은 압축률이 가장 낮고,
     ‘9’(기본값)는 압축률이 가장 높습니다.

     'mode'가 ‘'r'’이면, 입력 파일은 여러 개의 압축된 스트림을 이어 붙인
     것일 수 있습니다.

     *note BZ2File: 861.은 *note detach(): 2986.와 *note truncate():
     1301.를 제외하고, *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e.가 지정하는 모든 멤
     버를 제공합니다.  이터레이션과 *note with: 5cc. 문이 지원됩니다.

     *note BZ2File: 861.는 다음 메서드와 어트리뷰트도 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: peek ([n])

          파일 위치를 전진시키지 않고 버퍼링 된 데이터를 반환합니다.
          (EOF에 있지 않은 한) 적어도 1바이트의 데이터가 반환됩니다.  반
          환되는 정확한 바이트 수는 지정되지 않습니다.

               참고: *note peek(): 2987.를 호출할 때 *note BZ2File:
               861.의 파일 위치가 변경되지는 않지만, 하부 파일 객체의 위
               치는 변경될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, *note BZ2File: 861.이
               'filename'에 파일 객체를 전달하여 생성된 경우).

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor for the underlying file.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: readable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for reading.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: writable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for writing.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: read1 (size=-1)

          Read up to 'size' uncompressed bytes, while trying to avoid
          making multiple reads from the underlying stream.  Reads up to
          a buffer’s worth of data if size is negative.

          Returns ‘b''’ if the file is at EOF.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: readinto (b)

          Read bytes into 'b'.

          Returns the number of bytes read (0 for EOF).

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 속성: name

          The bzip2 file name.  Equivalent to the *note name: 2990.
          attribute of the underlying *note file object: 11b2.

          Added in version 3.13.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 실제 파일명 대신 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 인
     'filename'에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     다중 스트림 파일 읽기 지원과 함께, ‘'a'’ (덧붙이기) 모드가 추가되었
     습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘'x'’ (배타적 생성) 모드가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note read(): 1318. 메서드는 이제 ‘None’ 인자를
     받아들입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'buffering' 매개 변수가 제거되었습니다.  파이썬
     3.0부터 무시되고 폐지되었습니다.  파일을 여는 방법을 제어하려면 열
     린 파일 객체를 전달하십시오.

     'compresslevel' 매개 변수가 키워드 전용이 되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This class is thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 67. and *note lzma: 8a. have always been.


File: python.info,  Node: 증분 압축 해제,  Next: 일괄 압축 해제,  Prev: 파일 압축 해제,  Up: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원

5.13.3.2 증분 압축(해제)
........................

 -- 클래스: bz2.BZ2Compressor (compresslevel=9)

     새로운 압축기 객체를 만듭니다.  이 객체는 증분 적으로
     (incrementally) 데이터를 압축하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  일괄
     (one-shot) 압축에는, 대신 *note compress(): 241b. 함수를 사용하십시
     오.

     주어진다면, 'compresslevel'은 ‘1’과 ‘9’ 사이의 정수여야 합니다.  기
     본값은 ‘9’입니다.

      -- 메서드: compress (data)

          압축기 객체에 데이터를 제공합니다.  가능하면 압축된 데이터 청
          크를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 빈 바이트열을 반환합니다.

          압축기에 데이터 제공이 끝나면, *note flush(): 2993. 메서드를 호
          출하여 압축 공정을 마무리하십시오.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          압축 공정을 마칩니다.  내부 버퍼에 남아있는 압축된 데이터를 반
          환합니다.

          이 메서드가 호출된 후에는, 압축기 객체를 사용할 수 없습니다.

 -- 클래스: bz2.BZ2Decompressor

     새로운 압축 해제기 객체를 만듭니다.  이 객체는 데이터를 증분 적으로
     압축 해제하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  일괄 압축에는, 대신 *note
     decompress(): 1085. 함수를 사용하십시오.

          참고: 이 클래스는 *note decompress(): 1085.와 *note BZ2File:
          861.과 달리 다중 압축 스트림을 포함하는 입력을 투명하게 처리하
          지 않습니다.  *note BZ2Decompressor: 1762.로 다중 스트림 입력
          의 압축을 풀어야 한다면, 각 스트림 마다 새 압축 해제기를 사용
          해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          'data'(*note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.)의 압축을 풀고, 압축되지 않
          은 데이터를 바이트열로 반환합니다.  일부 'data'는 나중에 *note
          decompress(): 1085.를 호출할 때 사용할 수 있도록 내부에 버퍼링
          됩니다.  반환된 데이터는 *note decompress(): 1085.에 대한 이전
          호출의 출력에 이어붙여야 합니다.

          'max_length'가 음수가 아니면, 최대 'max_length' 바이트의 압축
          해제된 데이터를 반환합니다.  이 제한에 도달했고, 추가 출력을 생
          성할 수 없으면, *note needs_input: 2994. 어트리뷰트는 ‘False’로
          설정됩니다.  이때, *note decompress(): dc8.에 대한 다음 호출은
          출력을 더 얻기 위해 'data'를 ‘b''’로 제공할 수 있습니다.

          입력 데이터가 모두 압축 해제되고 반환되었으면 ('max_length' 바
          이트 미만이거나 'max_length'가 음수라서), *note needs_input:
          2994. 어트리뷰트가 ‘True’로 설정됩니다.

          스트림의 끝에 도달한 이후에 데이터의 압축을 풀려고 하면, *note
          EOFError: 12c9.가 발생합니다.  스트림의 끝 이후에 발견된 모든
          데이터는 무시되고, *note unused_data: 2995. 어트리뷰트에 저장
          됩니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 'max_length' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 속성: eof

          스트림의 끝(end-of-stream) 마커에 도달했으면 ‘True’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: unused_data

          압축된 스트림의 끝 이후에 발견된 데이터.

          스트림의 끝에 도달하기 전에 이 어트리뷰트를 액세스하면, 값은
          ‘b''’가 됩니다.

      -- 속성: needs_input

          *note decompress(): dc8. 메서드가 새로운 압축된 입력을 요구하
          기 전에 압축 해제된 데이터를 더 제공할 수 있으면 ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: 일괄 압축 해제,  Next: 사용 예<3>,  Prev: 증분 압축 해제,  Up: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원

5.13.3.3 일괄 압축(해제)
........................

 -- 함수: bz2.compress (data, compresslevel=9)

     *note 비이트열류 객체: d2a, 'data'를 압축합니다.

     주어진다면, 'compresslevel'은 ‘1’과 ‘9’ 사이의 정수여야 합니다.  기
     본값은 ‘9’입니다.

     증분 압축에는, 대신 *note BZ2Compressor: 1764.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: bz2.decompress (data)

     *note 비이트열류 객체: d2a, 'data'를 압축 해제합니다.

     'data'가 다중 압축 스트림을 이어붙인 것이면, 모든 스트림의 압축을 풉
     니다.

     증분 압축 해제에는, 대신 *note BZ2Decompressor: 1762.를 사용하십시
     오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 다중 스트림 입력에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 예<3>,  Prev: 일괄 압축 해제,  Up: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원

5.13.3.4 사용 예
................

다음은 *note bz2: 13. 모듈의 일반적인 사용법에 대한 몇 가지 예입니다.

왕복 압축을 시연하기 위해 *note compress(): 241b.와 *note decompress():
1085. 사용하기:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> c = bz2.compress(data)
     >>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
     1.513595166163142
     >>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
     >>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True

증분 압축을 위한 *note BZ2Compressor: 1764. 사용하기:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
     ...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
     ...     for _ in range(chunks):
     ...         yield b"z" * chunksize
     ...
     >>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
     >>> out = b""
     >>> for chunk in gen_data():
     ...     # Provide data to the compressor object
     ...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
     ...
     >>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
     >>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
     >>> out = out + comp.flush()

위의 예제는 매우 “무작위적이지 않은” 데이터 스트림(‘b"z"’ 청크의 스트림
)을 사용합니다.  무작위 데이터는 압축이 잘되지 않지만, 반복적인 데이터는
일반적으로 높은 압축률을 산출합니다.

바이너리 모드로 bzip2 압축된 파일을 쓰고 읽기:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
     ...     # Write compressed data to file
     ...     unused = f.write(data)
     ...
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
     ...     # Decompress data from file
     ...     content = f.read()
     ...
     >>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True


File: python.info,  Node: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축,  Next: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업,  Prev: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원,  Up: 데이터 압축 및 보관

5.13.4 ‘lzma’ — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축
-------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'소스 코드:' Lib/lzma.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 LZMA 압축 알고리즘을 사용하여 데이터를 압축 및 압축 해제하기 위
한 클래스와 편의 함수를 제공합니다.  또한 ‘xz’ 유틸리티에서 사용되는
‘.xz’와 레거시 ‘.lzma’ 파일 형식뿐만 아니라 원시 압축 스트림을 지원하는
파일 인터페이스도 포함되어 있습니다.

이 모듈에서 제공하는 인터페이스는 *note bz2: 13. 모듈의 인터페이스와 매
우 유사합니다.  *note LZMAFile: 1002.과 *note bz2.BZ2File: 861.은 스레드
안전하지 '않아서', 여러 스레드에서 단일 *note LZMAFile: 1002. 인스턴스를
사용해야 하면 록으로 보호해야 합니다.

 -- 예외: lzma.LZMAError

     이 예외는 압축이나 압축 해제 중, 또는 압축기/압축 해제기 상태를 초
     기화하는 동안 에러가 발생할 때 발생합니다.

* Menu:

* 압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기::
* 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제::
* 기타::
* 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정::
* 예: 예<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/lzma.py


File: python.info,  Node: 압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기,  Next: 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제,  Up: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축

5.13.4.1 압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기
..............................

 -- 함수: lzma.open (filename, mode='rb', *, format=None, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     바이너리나 텍스트 모드에서 LZMA 압축 파일을 열고, *note 파일 객체:
     11b2.를 반환합니다.

     'filename' 인자는 실제 파일 이름(*note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2.
     또는 *note 경로류: 2a0. 객체로 제공됩니다)일 수 있고, 이때는 명명된
     파일이 열립니다.  또는 읽거나 쓸 기존 파일 객체일 수 있습니다.

     'mode' 인자는 바이너리 모드의 경우 ‘"r"’, ‘"rb"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’, ‘"a"’ 또는 ‘"ab"’이거나, 텍스트 모드의 경우 ‘"rt"’,
     ‘"wt"’, ‘"xt"’ 또는 ‘"at"’ 일 수 있습니다.  기본값은 ‘"rb"’입니다.

     파일을 읽기 위해 열 때, 'format'과 'filters' 인자는 *note
     LZMADecompressor: 1761.와 같은 의미입니다.  이 경우, 'check'과
     'preset' 인자를 사용하지 않아야 합니다.

     파일을 쓰기 위해 열 때, 'format', 'check', 'preset' 및 'filters' 인
     자는 *note LZMACompressor: 1763.와 같은 의미입니다.

     바이너리 모드의 경우, 이 함수는 *note LZMAFile: 1002. 생성자와 동등
     합니다: ‘LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)’.  이 경우, 'encoding',
     'errors' 및 'newline' 인자는 제공하지 않아야 합니다.

     텍스트 모드의 경우, *note LZMAFile: 1002. 객체가 만들어지고, 지정된
     인코딩, 에러 처리 동작 및 줄 종료로 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 인
     스턴스로 감쌉니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’ 및 ‘"xt"’ 모드에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 허용합니다.

 -- 클래스: lzma.LZMAFile (filename=None, mode='r', *, format=None,
          check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

     바이너리 모드로 LZMA 압축 파일을 엽니다.

     *note LZMAFile: 1002.은 이미 열려있는 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.를 래핑
     하거나, 명명된 파일에 직접 작용할 수 있습니다.  'filename' 인자는 래
     핑할 파일 객체나 열 파일의 이름(*note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 또
     는 *note 경로류: 2a0. 객체로)을 지정합니다.  기존 파일 객체를 래핑
     할 때, 래핑 된 파일은 *note LZMAFile: 1002.이 닫힐 때 닫히지 않습니
     다.

     'mode' 인자는 읽기 위한 ‘"r"’ (기본값), 덮어쓰기 위한 ‘"w"’, 배타적
     생성을 위한 ‘"x"’ 또는 덧붙이기를 위한 ‘"a"’ 일 수 있습니다.  이들
     은 각각 ‘"rb"’, ‘"wb"’, ‘"xb"’ 및 ‘"ab"’로 동등하게 제공될 수 있습
     니다.

     'filename'이 (실제 파일 이름이 아닌) 파일 객체이면, ‘"w"’ 모드는 파
     일을 자르지 않으며, 대신 ‘"a"’와 동등합니다.

     읽기 위해 파일을 열 때, 입력 파일은 여러 개의 개별 압축 스트림을 연
     결한 것일 수 있습니다.  이들은 단일 논리 스트림으로 투명하게 디코딩
     됩니다.

     파일을 읽기 위해 열 때, 'format'과 'filters' 인자는 *note
     LZMADecompressor: 1761.와 같은 의미입니다.  이 경우, 'check'과
     'preset' 인자를 사용하지 않아야 합니다.

     파일을 쓰기 위해 열 때, 'format', 'check', 'preset' 및 'filters' 인
     자는 *note LZMACompressor: 1763.와 같은 의미입니다.

     *note LZMAFile: 1002.은 *note detach(): 2986.와 *note truncate():
     1301.를 제외하고, *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 가 지정하는 모든 멤
     버를 지원합니다.  이터레이션과 *note with: 5cc. 문이 지원됩니다.

     다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트도 제공됩니다:

      -- 메서드: peek (size=-1)

          파일 위치를 진행하지 않고 버퍼링 된 데이터를 반환합니다.  EOF에
          도달하지 않았으면, 최소 1바이트의 데이터가 반환됩니다.  반환되
          는 정확한 바이트 수는 지정되지 않습니다 ('size' 인자는 무시됩
          니다).

               참고: *note peek(): 299f.를 호출해도 *note LZMAFile:
               1002.의 파일 위치는 변경되지 않지만, 하부 파일 객체의 위
               치는 변경될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어 *note LZMAFile: 1002.이
               'filename'으로 파일 객체를 전달하여 생성되었을 때).

      -- 속성: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 속성: name

          The lzma file name.  Equivalent to the *note name: 2990.
          attribute of the underlying *note file object: 11b2.

          Added in version 3.13.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘"x"’와 ‘"xb"’ 모드에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note read(): 1318. 메서드는 이제 ‘None’ 인자를
     허용합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 허용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제,  Next: 기타,  Prev: 압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기,  Up: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축

5.13.4.2 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제
.............................................

 -- 클래스: lzma.LZMACompressor (format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None)

     데이터를 증분 압축하는 데 사용할 수 있는 압축기 객체를 만듭니다.

     단일 데이터 청크를 압축하는 더 편리한 방법은, *note compress():
     29a3.를 참조하십시오.

     'format' 인자는 사용해야 할 컨테이너 형식을 지정합니다.  가능한 값
     은 다음과 같습니다:

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_XZ’: ‘.xz’ 컨테이너 형식.

               이것이 기본 형식입니다.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_ALONE’: 레거시 ‘.lzma’ 컨테이너 형식.

               이 형식은 ‘.xz’보다 제한적입니다 – 무결성 검사나 다중 필
               터를 지원하지 않습니다.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’: 컨테이너 형식을 사용하지 않는 원시 데이터 스트림.

               이 형식 지정자는 무결성 검사를 지원하지 않으며, 항상 사용
               자 지정 필터 체인(압축과 압축 해제 모두를 위한)을 지정해
               야 합니다.  또한, 이 방식으로 압축된 데이터는
               ‘FORMAT_AUTO’를 사용하여 압축 해제할 수 없습니다 (*note
               LZMADecompressor: 1761.를 참조하십시오).

     'check' 인자는 압축된 데이터에 포함할 무결성 검사 유형을 지정합니다
     .  이 검사는 압축을 풀 때 데이터가 손상되지 않았는지 확인하는 데 사
     용됩니다.  가능한 값은 다음과 같습니다:

        * ‘CHECK_NONE’: 무결성 검사가 없습니다.  이것은 ‘FORMAT_ALONE’과
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’에 대한 기본값(그리고 유일하게 허용된 값)입니다.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC32’: 32비트 순환 중복 검사(Cyclic Redundancy Check).

        * ‘CHECK_CRC64’: 64비트 순환 중복 검사(Cyclic Redundancy Check).
          이것이 ‘FORMAT_XZ’의 기본값입니다.

        * ‘CHECK_SHA256’: 256비트 보안 해시 알고리즘(Secure Hash
          Algorithm).

     지정된 검사가 지원되지 않으면, *note LZMAError: 299c.가 발생합니다.

     압축 설정은 사전 설정 압축 수준('preset' 인자 사용), 또는 사용자 정
     의 필터 체인('filters' 인자 사용)으로 지정할 수 있습니다.

     'preset' 인자(제공된 경우)는 ‘0’rhk ‘9’ 사이의 (경계 포함) 정수여야
     하며, 선택적으로 상수 ‘PRESET_EXTREME’과 OR 할 수 있습니다.
     'preset*과 *filters'가 모두 제공되지 않으면, 기본 동작은
     ‘PRESET_DEFAULT’(사전 설정 수준 ‘6’)를 사용하는 것입니다.  사전 설
     정이 높을수록 출력은 작아 지지만, 압축 과정은 느려집니다.

          참고: CPU를 많이 사용하는 것 외에도, 사전 설정이 높은 압축은 훨
          씬 더 많은 메모리를 요구합니다 (그리고 압축을 풀기 위해 더 많
          은 메모리를 요구하는 출력을 생성합니다).  예를 들어 사전 설정
          ‘9’를 사용하면, *note LZMACompressor: 1763. 객체의 오버헤드가
          800 MiB에 이를 수 있습니다.  이런 이유로, 일반적으로 기본 사전
          설정을 사용하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.

     'filters' 인자(제공된 경우)는 필터 체인 지정자여야 합니다.  자세한
     내용은 *note 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정: 29a4.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: compress (data)

          'data'(*note bytes: 1c2. 객체)를 압축하여, 적어도 입력의 일부
          에 대한 압축 데이터가 포함된 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 반환합니
          다.  'data'의 일부는 나중에 *note compress(): 29a3.와 *note
          flush(): 29a6.에 대한 호출에 사용하기 위해 내부적으로 버퍼링 될
          수 있습니다.  반환된 데이터는 *note compress(): 29a3.에 대한 이
          전 호출의 출력에 이어 붙여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          압축 과정을 마치고, 압축기의 내부 버퍼에 저장된 모든 데이터가
          포함된 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 반환합니다.

          이 메서드를 호출한 후에는 압축기를 사용할 수 없습니다.

 -- 클래스: lzma.LZMADecompressor (format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     데이터를 점진적으로 압축 해제하는 데 사용할 수 있는 압축 해제기 객
     체를 만듭니다.

     전체 압축 스트림을 한 번에 압축 해제하는 더 편리한 방법은 *note
     decompress(): 29a7.를 참조하십시오.

     'format' 인자는 사용해야 하는 컨테이너 형식을 지정합니다.  기본값은
     ‘FORMAT_AUTO’이며, ‘.xz’와 ‘.lzma’ 파일을 모두 압축 해제할 수 있습
     니다.  다른 가능한 값은 ‘FORMAT_XZ’, ‘FORMAT_ALONE’ 및
     ‘FORMAT_RAW’입니다.

     'memlimit' 인자는 압축 해제기가 사용할 수 있는 메모리양의 한계(바이
     트)를 지정합니다.  이 인자를 사용할 때, 주어진 메모리 한계 내에서 입
     력을 압축 해제할 수 없으면 *note LZMAError: 299c.로 압축 해제에 실
     패합니다.

     'filters' 인자는 압축 해제 중인 스트림을 만드는 데 사용된 필터 체인
     을 지정합니다.  'format'이 ‘FORMAT_RAW’이면 이 인자가 필요하지만, 다
     른 형식에는 사용하지 않아야 합니다.  필터 체인에 대한 자세한 내용은
     *note 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정: 29a4.을 참조하십시오.

          참고: 이 클래스는 *note decompress(): 29a7.와 *note LZMAFile:
          1002.과 달리, 여러 압축 스트림을 포함하는 입력을 투명하게 처리
          하지 않습니다.  *note LZMADecompressor: 1761.로 다중 스트림 입
          력을 압축 해제하려면 각 스트림에 대해 새로운 압축 해제기를 만
          들어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          'data'(*note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.)를 압축 해제하고, 압축되지
          않은 데이터를 바이트열로 반환합니다.  'data'의 일부는 나중에
          *note decompress(): 29a7.를 호출할 때 사용하기 위해 내부적으로
          버퍼링 될 수 있습니다.  반환된 데이터는 *note decompress():
          29a7.에 대한 이전 호출의 출력에 이어 붙여야 합니다.

          'max_length'가 음수가 아니면, 최대 'max_length' 바이트의 압축
          해제된 데이터를 반환합니다.  이 한계에 도달하고 추가 출력을 생
          성할 수 있으면, *note needs_input: 29a8. 어트리뷰트가 ‘False’로
          설정됩니다.  이 경우, 다음 *note decompress(): e2a. 호출은
          'data'를 ‘b''’로 제공하여 더 많은 출력을 얻을 수 있습니다.

          모든 입력 데이터가 압축 해제되어 반환되면 (이것이 'max_length'
          바이트 미만이거나 'max_length'가 음수이기 때문에), *note
          needs_input: 29a8. 어트리뷰트는 ‘True’로 설정됩니다.

          스트림 끝에 도달한 후 데이터 압축 해제를 시도하면 *note
          EOFError: 12c9.가 발생합니다.  스트림 끝 이후에 발견되는 모든
          데이터는 무시되고 *note unused_data: 29a9. 어트리뷰트에 저장됩
          니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 'max_length' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

      -- 속성: check

          입력 스트림이 사용하는 무결성 검사의 ID. 사용되는 무결성 검사
          를 결정하기 위해 충분한 입력이 디코딩될 때까지
          ‘CHECK_UNKNOWN’일 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: eof

          스트림 끝 마커에 도달하면 ‘True’.

      -- 속성: unused_data

          압축된 스트림이 끝난 후 발견된 데이터.

          스트림의 끝에 도달하기 전에, 이것은 ‘b""’입니다.

      -- 속성: needs_input

          *note decompress(): e2a. 메서드가 새로운 압축 입력을 요구하기
          전에 더 많은 압축 해제된 데이터를 제공 할 수 있으면 ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: lzma.compress (data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None,
          filters=None)

     'data'(*note bytes: 1c2. 객체)를 압축하여, 압축된 데이터를 *note
     bytes: 1c2. 객체로 반환합니다.

     'format', 'check', 'preset' 및 'filters' 인자에 대한 설명은 위의
     *note LZMACompressor: 1763.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: lzma.decompress (data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     'data'(*note bytes: 1c2. 객체)를 압축 해제하여, 압축되지 않은 데이
     터를 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 반환합니다.

     'data'가 여러 개의 개별 압축 스트림의 연결이면, 이러한 스트림들을 모
     두 압축 해제하고 결과를 이어붙여 반환합니다.

     'format', 'memlimit' 및 'filters' 인자에 대한 설명은 위의 *note
     LZMADecompressor: 1761.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타,  Next: 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정,  Prev: 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제,  Up: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축

5.13.4.3 기타
.............

 -- 함수: lzma.is_check_supported (check)

     주어진 무결성 검사가 이 시스템에서 지원되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     ‘CHECK_NONE’과 ‘CHECK_CRC32’는 항상 지원됩니다.  제한된 기능 집합으
     로 컴파일된 ‘liblzma’ 버전을 사용하는 경우 ‘CHECK_CRC64’와
     ‘CHECK_SHA256’을 사용하지 못할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정,  Next: 예<4>,  Prev: 기타,  Up: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축

5.13.4.4 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정
...................................

필터 체인 지정자는 딕셔너리의 시퀀스로, 각 딕셔너리에는 단일 필터의 ID와
옵션이 포함됩니다.  각 딕셔너리는 키 ‘"id"’를 포함해야 하며, 필터 종속 옵
션을 지정하기 위해 추가 키를 포함할 수 있습니다.  유효한 필터 ID는 다음
과 같습니다:

   * 압축 필터:

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA1’ (‘FORMAT_ALONE’과 함께 사용)

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA2’ (‘FORMAT_XZ’ 및 ‘FORMAT_RAW’와 함께 사용)

   * 델타 필터:

        * ‘FILTER_DELTA’

   * Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) 필터:

        * ‘FILTER_X86’

        * ‘FILTER_IA64’

        * ‘FILTER_ARM’

        * ‘FILTER_ARMTHUMB’

        * ‘FILTER_POWERPC’

        * ‘FILTER_SPARC’

필터 체인은 최대 4개의 필터로 구성될 수 있으며, 비워 둘 수 없습니다.  체
인의 마지막 필터는 압축 필터여야 하고, 다른 필터는 델타나 BCJ 필터여야 합
니다.

압축 필터는 다음 옵션을 지원합니다 (필터를 나타내는 딕셔너리에 추가 항목
으로 지정됩니다):

   * ‘preset’: 명시적으로 지정되지 않은 옵션의 기본값 소스로 사용할 압축
     사전 설정.

   * ‘dict_size’: 바이트로 표현한 딕셔너리 크기.  4 KiB와 1.5 GiB 사이여
     야 합니다 (경계 포함).

   * ‘lc’: 리터럴 컨텍스트 비트 수.

   * ‘lp’: 리터럴 위치 비트 수.  합계 ‘lc + lp’는 최대 4여야 합니다.

   * ‘pb’: 위치 비트 수; 최대 4여야 합니다.

   * ‘mode’: ‘MODE_FAST’나 ‘MODE_NORMAL’.

   * ‘nice_len’: 매치에서 “좋은 길이”로 간주하는 것.  273 이하여야 합니
     다.

   * ‘mf’: 사용할 매치 파인더 – ‘MF_HC3’, ‘MF_HC4’, ‘MF_BT2’, ‘MF_BT3’ 또
     는 ‘MF_BT4’.

   * ‘depth’: 매치 파인더가 사용하는 최대 검색 깊이.  0(기본값)은 다른 필
     터 옵션을 기반으로 자동 선택함을 의미합니다.

델타 필터는 바이트 간 차이를 저장하여, 특정 상황에서 압축기에 대해 더 반
복적인 입력을 생성합니다.  한 가지 옵션을 지원합니다, ‘dist’.  이것은 빼
야 할 바이트 간의 거리를 나타냅니다.  기본값은 1입니다.  즉, 인접 바이트
간 차이를 취합니다.

BCJ 필터는 기계 코드에 적용하려는 것입니다.  이들은 압축기가 이용할 수 있
는 중복성을 높이기 위해 코드에서 상대 분기, 호출 및 점프를 절대 주소 지
정을 사용하도록 변환합니다.  이 필터는 한 가지 옵션을 지원합니다,
‘start_offset’.  이것은 입력 데이터의 시작 부분으로 매핑되어야 하는 주소
를 지정합니다.  기본값은 0입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<4>,  Prev: 사용자 정의 필터 체인 지정,  Up: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축

5.13.4.5 예
...........

압축 파일 읽기:

     import lzma
     with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
         file_content = f.read()

압축 파일 만들기:

     import lzma
     data = b"Insert Data Here"
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
         f.write(data)

메모리에서 데이터 압축하기:

     import lzma
     data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
     data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)

증분 압축:

     import lzma
     lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
     out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
     out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
     out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
     out4 = lzc.flush()
     # 모든 부분 결과를 이어 붙입니다:
     result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

이미 열린 파일에 압축된 데이터 쓰기:

     import lzma
     with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
         f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
         with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
             lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
         f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

사용자 정의 필터 체인을 사용하여 압축 파일 만들기:

     import lzma
     my_filters = [
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
     ]
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
         f.write(b"blah blah blah")


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업,  Next: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기,  Prev: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축,  Up: 데이터 압축 및 보관

5.13.5 ‘zipfile’ — ZIP 아카이브 작업
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/zipfile/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

ZIP 파일 형식은 흔히 쓰이는 아카이브와 압축 표준입니다.  이 모듈은 ZIP 파
일을 만들고, 읽고, 쓰고, 추가하고, 나열하는 도구를 제공합니다.  이 모듈
의 고급 사용을 위해서는 PKZIP Application Note(2)에 정의된 형식의 이해가
필요합니다.

이 모듈은 현재 다중 디스크 ZIP 파일을 처리하지 않습니다.  ZIP64 확장을 사
용하는 ZIP 파일(즉, 크기가 4GiB 이상인 ZIP 파일)을 처리할 수 있습니다.
ZIP 아카이브에 있는 암호화된 파일의 암호 해독을 지원하지만, 현재 암호화
된 파일을 만들 수는 없습니다.  C가 아닌 네이티브 파이썬으로 구현되므로 해
독 속도가 매우 느립니다.

이 모듈은 다음 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: zipfile.BadZipFile

     잘못된 ZIP 파일로 인해 발생하는 에러.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 예외: zipfile.BadZipfile

     이전 파이썬 버전과의 호환성을 위한, *note BadZipFile: 17e5.의 별칭.

     버전 3.2부터 폐지됨.

 -- 예외: zipfile.LargeZipFile

     ZIP 파일에 ZIP64 기능이 필요하지만 활성화되지 않았을 때 발생하는 에
     러.

 -- 클래스: zipfile.ZipFile

     ZIP 파일을 읽고 쓰는 클래스.  생성자 세부 사항은 *note ZipFile
     객체: 29b4. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: zipfile.Path

     Class that implements a subset of the interface provided by *note
     pathlib.Path: 229, including the full *note
     importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3. interface.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 클래스: zipfile.PyZipFile

     파이썬 라이브러리를 포함하는 ZIP 아카이브를 만들기 위한 클래스.

 -- 클래스: zipfile.ZipInfo (filename='NoName', date_time=(1980, 1, 1,
          0, 0, 0))

     아카이브 멤버에 관한 정보를 나타내는 데 사용되는 클래스.  이 클래스
     의 인스턴스는 *note ZipFile: 6be. 객체의 *note getinfo(): 29b5.와
     *note infolist(): 29b6. 메서드에 의해 반환됩니다.  *note zipfile:
     131. 모듈의 대부분 사용자는 이것들을 만들 필요는 없고, 이 모듈에서
     만든 것들을 사용하기만 합니다.  'filename'은 아카이브 멤버의 전체 이
     름이어야 하고, 'date_time'은 파일을 마지막으로 수정한 시간을 기술하
     는 6개의 필드를 포함하는 튜플이어야 합니다; 필드는 *note ZipInfo
     객체: 29b7. 섹션에 설명되어 있습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: A public ‘compress_level’ attribute has been
     added to expose the formerly protected ‘_compresslevel’.  The older
     protected name continues to work as a property for backwards
     compatibility.

 -- 함수: zipfile.is_zipfile (filename)

     'filename'이 매직 번호에 기반하여 유효한 ZIP 파일이면 ‘True’를, 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  'filename'은 파일이거나 파일류 객
     체일 수도 있습니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 파일과 파일류 객체를 지원합니다.

 -- 데이터: zipfile.ZIP_STORED

     압축되지 않은 아카이브 멤버를 위한 숫자 상수.

 -- 데이터: zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED

     일반적인 ZIP 압축 방법을 위한 숫자 상수.  *note zlib: 133. 모듈이 필
     요합니다.

 -- 데이터: zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2

     BZIP2 압축 방법을 위한 숫자 상수.  *note bz2: 13. 모듈이 필요합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: zipfile.ZIP_LZMA

     LZMA 압축 방법을 위한 숫자 상수.  *note lzma: 8a. 모듈이 필요합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.3.

          참고: ZIP 파일 형식 명세에는 2001년 이후 bzip2 압축, 2006년 이
          후 LZMA 압축 지원이 포함되어 있습니다.  그러나, 일부 도구(이전
          파이썬 릴리스도 포함합니다)는 이러한 압축 방법을 지원하지 않으
          며, ZIP 파일 처리를 완전히 거부하거나, 개별 파일을 추출하는 데
          실패합니다.

더 보기
.......

PKZIP Application Note(3)

     사용된 형식과 알고리즘의 저자인 Phil Katz의 ZIP 파일 형식에 대한 설
     명서.

Info-ZIP 홈페이지(4)

     Info-ZIP 프로젝트의 ZIP 아카이브 프로그램과 개발 라이브러리에 관한
     정보.

* Menu:

* ZipFile 객체::
* Path 객체::
* PyZipFile 객체::
* ZipInfo 객체::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<2>.
* 압축 해제 함정::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipfile/

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (4) https://infozip.sourceforge.net/


File: python.info,  Node: ZipFile 객체,  Next: Path 객체,  Up: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

5.13.5.1 ZipFile 객체
.....................

 -- 클래스: zipfile.ZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, compresslevel=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True, metadata_encoding=None)

     ZIP 파일을 엽니다, 여기서 'file'은 파일에 대한 경로 (문자열), 파일
     류 객체 또는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.일 수 있습니다.

     'mode' 매개 변수는 기존 파일을 읽으려면 ‘'r'’, 새 파일을 자르고 쓰
     려면 ‘'w'’, 기존 파일에 추가하려면 ‘'a'’, 새 파일을 독점적으로 작성
     하고 쓰려면 ‘'x'’ 이어야 합니다.  'mode'가 ‘'x'’이고 'file'이 기존
     파일을 참조하면, *note FileExistsError: 1016. 가 발생합니다.
     'mode'가 ‘'a'’이고 'file'이 기존 ZIP 파일을 참조하면, 추가 파일이 이
     곳으로 추가됩니다.  'file'이 ZIP 파일을 참조하지 않으면, 새 ZIP 아
     카이브를 파일에 덧붙입니다(append).  이는 ZIP 아카이브를 다른 파일
     (가령 ‘python.exe’)에 추가하기 위한 것입니다.  'mode'가 ‘'a'’이고 파
     일이 아예 존재하지 않으면, 파일이 만들어집니다.  'mode'가 ‘'r'’이나
     ‘'a'’이면, 파일은 탐색 가능(seekable)해야 합니다.

     'compression'은 아카이브를 기록할 때 사용할 ZIP 압축 방법이며,
     *note ZIP_STORED: 29b8, *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 29b9, *note ZIP_BZIP2:
     29ba. 또는 *note ZIP_LZMA: 29bb. 이어야 합니다; 인식할 수 없는 값은
     *note NotImplementedError: 228. 를 발생시킵니다.  *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 29b9, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 29ba. 또는 *note ZIP_LZMA:
     29bb.가 지정되었지만, 해당 모듈(*note zlib: 133, *note bz2: 13. 또
     는 *note lzma: 8a.)을 사용할 수 없으면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발
     생합니다.  기본값은 *note ZIP_STORED: 29b8.입니다.

     'allowZip64'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면 zipfile은 ZIP 파일이 4GiB보다 클
     때 ZIP64 확장을 사용하는 ZIP 파일을 만듭니다.  ‘false’이면 ZIP 파일
     에 ZIP64 확장자가 필요할 때 *note zipfile: 131.은 예외를 발생시킵니
     다.

     'compresslevel' 매개 변수는 파일을 아카이브에 기록할 때 사용할 압축
     수준을 제어합니다.  *note ZIP_STORED: 29b8.나 *note ZIP_LZMA:
     29bb.를 사용할 때는 효과가 없습니다.  *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 29b9.를 사
     용할 때는 ‘0’에서 ‘9’까지의 정수가 허용됩니다 (자세한 내용은 *note
     zlib: 2964.를 참조하십시오).  *note ZIP_BZIP2: 29ba.를 사용할 때는
     ‘1’부터 ‘9’까지의 정수가 허용됩니다 (자세한 내용은 *note bz2: 861.를
     참조하십시오).

     'strict_timestamps' 인자를 ‘False’로 설정하면, 1980-01-01 이전의
     zip 파일을 허용하는 대신 타임 스탬프를 1980-01-01로 설정합니다.
     2107-12-31 이후의 파일에 대해서도 비슷한 동작이 발생하며, 타임 스탬
     프는 역시 한곗값으로 설정됩니다.

     When mode is ‘'r'’, 'metadata_encoding' may be set to the name of a
     codec, which will be used to decode metadata such as the names of
     members and ZIP comments.

     파일이 ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'a'’ 모드로 만들어졌고 아카이브에 아무런
     파일도 추가하지 않고 *note 닫히면: 29bd, 비어있는 아카이브에 적합한
     ZIP 구조가 파일에 기록됩니다.

     ZipFile은 또한 컨텍스트 관리자이므로 *note with: 5cc. 문을 지원합니
     다.  이 예에서, 'myzip'은 ‘with’ 문 스위트가 완료된 후에 닫힙니다 –
     예외가 발생할 때조차 그렇습니다:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
              myzip.write('eggs.txt')

          참고: 'metadata_encoding' is an instance-wide setting for the
          ZipFile.  It is not currently possible to set this on a
          per-member basis.

          This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations
          which produce archives with names in the current locale
          encoding or code page (mostly on Windows).  According to the
          .ZIP standard, the encoding of metadata may be specified to be
          either IBM code page (default) or UTF-8 by a flag in the
          archive header.  That flag takes precedence over
          'metadata_encoding', which is a Python-specific extension.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note ZipFile: 6be.을 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용하는
     기능이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note bzip2: 13.와 *note lzma: 8a. 압축에 대한 지
     원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ZIP64 확장은 기본적으로 활성화됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 탐색할 수 없는(unseekable) 스트림으로의 쓰기 지
     원을 추가했습니다.  ‘'x'’ 모드에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이전에는, 인식할 수 없는 compression 값에 대해 평
     범한 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.

     버전 3.6.2에서 변경: 'file' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'compresslevel' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'strict_timestamps' 키워드 전용 매개 변수

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for specifying member name
     encoding for reading metadata in the zipfile’s directory and file
     headers.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.close ()

     아카이브 파일을 닫습니다.  프로그램을 종료하기 전에 *note close():
     29bd.를 호출해야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 필수 레코드가 기록되지 않습
     니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.getinfo (name)

     아카이브 멤버 'name'에 관한 정보가 있는 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체를
     반환합니다.  현재 아카이브에 포함되지 않은 이름에 대해 *note
     getinfo(): 29b5.를 호출하면 *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.infolist ()

     아카이브의 각 멤버에 대한 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체를 포함하는 리스
     트를 반환합니다.  기존 아카이브가 열린 경우 객체는 디스크의 실제
     ZIP 파일에 있는 항목과 순서가 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.namelist ()

     아카이브 멤버의 리스트를 이름으로 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.open (name, mode='r', pwd=None, *,
          force_zip64=False)

     아카이브 멤버를 바이너리 파일류 객체로 액세스합니다.  'name'은 아카
     이브 내의 파일 이름이거나 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체일 수 있습니다.  포
     함될 때 'mode' 매개 변수는 ‘'r'’(기본값)이거나 ‘'w'’ 이어야 합니다.
     'pwd'는 암호화된 ZIP 파일을 해독하는 데 사용되는 *note bytes: 1c2.
     객체인 비밀번호입니다.

     *note open(): 415.은 컨텍스트 관리자이기도 하므로 *note with: 5cc.
     문을 지원합니다:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
              with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
                  print(myfile.read())

     'mode' ‘'r'’에서 파일류 객체(‘ZipExtFile’)는 읽기 전용이며 다음 메
     서드를 제공합니다: *note read(): 1318, *note readline(): 1319,
     *note readlines(): 233b, *note seek(): 127c, *note tell(): 29bf,
     *note __iter__(): 1cc9, *note __next__(): 12bd.  이러한 객체는
     ZipFile과 독립적으로 작동할 수 있습니다.

     ‘mode='w'’에서, *note write(): cd8. 메서드를 지원하는 쓰기 가능한 파
     일 핸들이 반환됩니다.  쓰기 가능한 파일 핸들이 열려있는 동안, ZIP 파
     일에서 다른 파일을 읽거나 쓰려고 시도하면 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

     In both cases the file-like object has also attributes ‘name’,
     which is equivalent to the name of a file within the archive, and
     ‘mode’, which is ‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’ depending on the input mode.

     파일을 기록할 때, 파일 크기를 미리 알 수 없지만 2GiB를 초과할 수 있
     으면, 헤더 형식이 큰 파일을 지원할 수 있도록 ‘force_zip64=True’를 전
     달하십시오.  파일 크기가 미리 알려졌으면, *note file_size: 29c0.가
     설정된 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체를 구성하고, 이를 'name' 매개 변수로
     사용하십시오.

          참고: *note open(): 415, *note read(): 29c1. 및 *note
          extract(): 29c2. 메서드는 파일명이나 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체
          를 취할 수 있습니다.  중복 이름을 가진 멤버가 포함된 ZIP 파일
          을 읽으려고 할 때 이 점에 감사할 것입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘mode='U'’ 지원이 제거되었습니다.  *note 유니버설
     줄 넘김: d37. 모드로 압축된 텍스트 파일을 읽으려면 *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이제 *note ZipFile.open(): 415.은 이제
     ‘mode='w'’ 옵션으로 파일을 아카이브에 기록하는 데 사용될 수 있습니
     다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 닫힌 ZipFile에 *note open(): 415.을 호출하면
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  이전에는, *note RuntimeError:
     195.가 발생했습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added attributes ‘name’ and ‘mode’ for the
     writeable file-like object.  The value of the ‘mode’ attribute for
     the readable file-like object was changed from ‘'r'’ to ‘'rb'’.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.extract (member, path=None, pwd=None)

     아카이브에서 현재 작업 디렉터리로 멤버를 추출합니다.  'member'는 전
     체 이름이거나 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체여야 합니다.  파일 정보는 최
     대한 정확하게 추출됩니다.  'path'는 추출할 다른 디렉터리를 지정합니
     다.  'member'는 파일 이름이나 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체일 수 있습니
     다.  'pwd'는 암호화된 파일에 사용되는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체인 비밀
     번호입니다.

     만들어진 정규화된 경로(디렉터리나 새 파일)를 반환합니다.

          참고: 멤버 파일명이 절대 경로이면, 드라이브/UNC 공유 지점
          (sharepoint)과 선행 (역) 슬래시가 제거됩니다, 예를 들어:
          ‘///foo/bar’는 유닉스에서 ‘foo/bar’가 되고, 윈도우에서
          ‘C:\foo\bar’는 ‘foo\bar’가 됩니다.  그리고 멤버 파일명의 모든
          ‘".."’ 구성 요소가 제거됩니다, 예를 들어:
          ‘../../foo../../ba..r’은 ‘foo../ba..r’이 됩니다.  윈도우에서 잘
          못된 문자(‘:’, ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘|’, ‘"’, ‘?’ 및 ‘*’)는 밑줄(‘_’)로 대
          체됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 닫힌 ZipFile에서 *note extract(): 29c2.를 호출하
     면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  이전에는 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.

     버전 3.6.2에서 변경: 'path' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.extractall (path=None, members=None, pwd=None)

     아카이브에서 현재 작업 디렉터리로 모든 멤버를 추출합니다.  'path'는
     추출할 다른 디렉터리를 지정합니다.  'members'는 선택적이며 *note
     namelist(): 29be.가 반환한 리스트의 부분 집합이어야 합니다.  'pwd'는
     암호화된 파일에 사용되는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체인 비밀번호입니다.

          경고: 사전 검사 없이 신뢰할 수 없는 출처의 아카이브를 추출하지
          마십시오.  파일이 'path' 밖에 만들어질 수 있습니다, 예를 들어
          ‘"/"’로 시작하는 절대 파일명을 가진 멤버나 두 점 ‘".."’을 포함
          하는 파일명.  이 모듈은 이를 방지하려고 시도합니다.  *note
          extract(): 29c2. 참고를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 닫힌 ZipFile에서 *note extractall(): 29c3.을 호
     출하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  이전에는 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.

     버전 3.6.2에서 변경: 'path' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.printdir ()

     아카이브의 목차를 ‘sys.stdout’으로 인쇄합니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.setpassword (pwd)

     암호화된 파일을 추출하기 위해 'pwd'(*note bytes: 1c2. 객체)를 기본
     비밀번호로 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.read (name, pwd=None)

     아카이브에서 파일 'name'의 바이트열을 반환합니다.  'name'은 아카이
     브의 파일 이름이나 *note ZipInfo: d07. 객체입니다.  아카이브는 읽기
     (read)나 추가(append)로 열려 있어야 합니다.  'pwd'는 암호화된 파일
     에 사용되는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체인 비밀번호이며, 지정되면 *note
     setpassword(): 29c5.로 설정된 기본 비밀번호를 대체합니다.  *note
     ZIP_STORED: 29b8, *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 29b9, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 29ba.
     또는 *note ZIP_LZMA: 29bb. 이외의 압축 방법을 사용하는 ZipFile에서
     *note read(): 29c1.를 호출하면 *note NotImplementedError: 228. 가 발
     생합니다.  해당 압축 모듈을 사용할 수 없는 경우에도 에러가 발생합니
     다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 닫힌 ZipFile에서 *note read(): 29c1.를 호출하면
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  이전에는 *note RuntimeError:
     195.가 발생했습니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.testzip ()

     아카이브의 모든 파일을 읽고 CRC와 파일 헤더를 확인합니다.  첫 번째
     불량 파일의 이름을 반환하거나, ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 닫힌 ZipFile에서 *note testzip(): 29c6.을 호출하
     면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  이전에는 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.write (filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None,
          compresslevel=None)

     'filename'이라는 파일을 아카이브에 기록하고, 아카이브 이름으로
     'arcname'을 지정합니다 (기본적으로, 'filename'과 같지만, 드라이브 문
     자가 없고 선행 경로 구분 기호가 제거됩니다).  주어지면,
     'compress_type'은 새 항목에 대해 생성자의 'compression' 매개 변수에
     제공된 값을 대체합니다.  마찬가지로, 'compresslevel'은 주어지면 생
     성자를 대체합니다.  아카이브는 ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'a'’ 모드로 열려
     있어야 합니다.

          참고: The ZIP file standard historically did not specify a
          metadata encoding, but strongly recommended CP437 (the
          original IBM PC encoding) for interoperability.  Recent
          versions allow use of UTF-8 (only).  In this module, UTF-8
          will automatically be used to write the member names if they
          contain any non-ASCII characters.  It is not possible to write
          member names in any encoding other than ASCII or UTF-8.

          참고: 아카이브 이름은 아카이브 루트에 상대적이어야 합니다.  즉
          , 경로 구분 기호로 시작해서는 안 됩니다.

          참고: ‘arcname’(또는 ‘arcname’이 제공되지 않으면 ‘filename’)에
          널 바이트가 포함되어 있으면, 아카이브의 파일 이름이 널 바이트
          에서 잘립니다.

          참고: A leading slash in the filename may lead to the archive
          being impossible to open in some zip programs on Windows
          systems.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘'r'’ 모드로 만들어진 ZipFile이나 닫힌 ZipFile에
     서 *note write(): d49.를 호출하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니
     다.  이전에는 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.writestr (zinfo_or_arcname, data,
          compress_type=None, compresslevel=None)

     파일을 아카이브에 기록합니다.  내용은 'data'이며, *note str: 445.이
     나 *note bytes: 1c2. 인스턴스일 수 있습니다; *note str: 445.이면 먼
     저 UTF-8로 인코딩됩니다.  'zinfo_or_arcname'은 아카이브에 제공될 파
     일 이름이거나 *note ZipInfo: d07. 인스턴스입니다.  인스턴스이면 최
     소한 파일명, 날짜 및 시간을 지정해야 합니다.  이름이면, 날짜와 시간
     이 현재 날짜와 시간으로 설정됩니다.  아카이브는 ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ 또는
     ‘'a'’ 모드로 열려 있어야 합니다.

     주어지면, 'compress_type'은 새 항목에 대해 생성자의 'compression' 매
     개 변수에 제공되거나 'zinfo_or_arcname'(*note ZipInfo: d07. 인스턴
     스인 경우)의 값을 대체합니다.  마찬가지로, 'compresslevel'은 주어지
     면 생성자를 대체합니다.

          참고: *note ZipInfo: d07. 인스턴스를 'zinfo_or_arcname' 매개 변
          수로 전달할 때, 사용되는 압축 방법은 주어진 *note ZipInfo:
          d07. 인스턴스의 'compress_type' 멤버에 지정된 압축 방법입니다.
          기본적으로, *note ZipInfo: d07. 생성자는 이 멤버를 *note
          ZIP_STORED: 29b8.로 설정합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'compress_type' 인자.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘'r'’ 모드로 만들어진 ZipFile이나 닫힌 ZipFile에
     서 *note writestr(): 131b.을 호출하면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발
     생합니다.  이전에는 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생했습니다.

 -- 메서드: ZipFile.mkdir (zinfo_or_directory, mode=511)

     Create a directory inside the archive.  If 'zinfo_or_directory' is
     a string, a directory is created inside the archive with the mode
     that is specified in the 'mode' argument.  If, however,
     'zinfo_or_directory' is a *note ZipInfo: d07. instance then the
     'mode' argument is ignored.

     The archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     Added in version 3.11.

다음과 같은 데이터 어트리뷰트도 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 속성: ZipFile.filename

     ZIP 파일의 이름.

 -- 속성: ZipFile.debug

     사용할 디버그 출력 수준.  이것은 ‘0’(기본값, 출력 없음)에서 ‘3’(가
     장 많은 출력)으로 설정될 수 있습니다.  디버깅 정보는 ‘sys.stdout’에
     기록됩니다.

 -- 속성: ZipFile.comment

     ZIP 파일에 연관되는 주석은 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체입니다.  ‘'w'’,
     ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'a'’ 모드로 만들어진 *note ZipFile: 6be. 인스턴스에 주
     석을 대입하면, 65535바이트를 넘지 않아야 합니다.  이보다 긴 주석은
     잘립니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Path 객체,  Next: PyZipFile 객체,  Prev: ZipFile 객체,  Up: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

5.13.5.2 Path 객체
..................

 -- 클래스: zipfile.Path (root, at='')

     ‘root’ zip 파일(*note ZipFile: 6be. 생성자에 전달하기에 적합한
     *note ZipFile: 6be. 인스턴스나 ‘file’일 수 있습니다)에서 Path 객체
     를 생성합니다.

     ‘at’은 zip 파일 내에서 이 Path의 위치를 지정합니다, 예를 들어
     ‘dir/file.txt’, ‘dir/’ 또는 ‘’.  기본값은 빈 문자열이며, 루트를 나
     타냅니다.

          참고: The *note Path: 6c3. class does not sanitize filenames
          within the ZIP archive.  Unlike the *note ZipFile.extract():
          29c2. and *note ZipFile.extractall(): 29c3. methods, it is the
          caller’s responsibility to validate or sanitize filenames to
          prevent path traversal vulnerabilities (e.g., filenames
          containing “..” or absolute paths).  When handling untrusted
          archives, consider resolving filenames using *note
          os.path.abspath(): 130b. and checking against the target
          directory with *note os.path.commonpath(): e39.

Path 객체는 *note pathlib.Path: 229. 객체의 다음 기능을 노출합니다:

‘/’ 연산자나 ‘joinpath’를 사용하여 Path 객체를 순회할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Path.name

     최종 경로 구성 요소.

 -- 메서드: Path.open (mode='r', *, pwd, **)

     현재 경로에서 *note ZipFile.open(): 415.을 호출합니다.  지원되는 모
     드를 통해 읽기 또는 쓰기, 텍스트 또는 바이너리로 여는 것을 허락합니
     다: ‘r’, ‘w’, ‘rb’, ‘wb’.  위치와 키워드 인자는 텍스트로 열 때
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.로 전달되고 그렇지 않으면 무시됩니다.
     ‘pwd’는 *note ZipFile.open(): 415.에 대한 ‘pwd’ 매개 변수입니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: open에 텍스트와 바이너리 모드에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.  기본 모드는 이제 텍스트입니다.

     버전 3.11.2에서 변경: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied as a
     positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 532.  As it
     could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched 3.10
     and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- 메서드: Path.iterdir ()

     현재 디렉터리의 자식을 열거합니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_dir ()

     현재 컨텍스트가 디렉터리를 참조하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_file ()

     현재 컨텍스트가 파일을 참조하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.is_symlink ()

     현재 컨텍스트가 심볼릭 링크를 참조하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Previously, ‘is_symlink’ would unconditionally
     return ‘False’.

 -- 메서드: Path.exists ()

     현재 컨텍스트가 zip 파일에 있는 파일이나 디렉터리를 참조하면
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 데이터: Path.suffix

     The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any.
     This is commonly called the file extension.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Path.suffix: 6c1. property.

 -- 데이터: Path.stem

     접미사(suffix)가 없는 최종 경로 구성 요소.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Path.stem: 6c0. property.

 -- 데이터: Path.suffixes

     A list of the path’s suffixes, commonly called file extensions.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Path.suffixes: 6c2. property.

 -- 메서드: Path.read_text (*, **)

     현재 파일을 유니코드 텍스트로 읽습니다.  위치와 키워드 인자는 *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.로 전달됩니다 (컨텍스트에 의해 암시되는
     ‘buffer’ 제외).

     버전 3.11.2에서 변경: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied as a
     positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 532.  As it
     could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched 3.10
     and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- 메서드: Path.read_bytes ()

     현재 파일을 바이트열로 읽습니다.

 -- 메서드: Path.joinpath (*other)

     Return a new Path object with each of the 'other' arguments joined.
     The following are equivalent:

          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child').joinpath('grandchild')
          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child', 'grandchild')
          >>> Path(...) / 'child' / 'grandchild'

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Prior to 3.10, ‘joinpath’ was undocumented and
     accepted exactly one parameter.

The zipp(1) project provides backports of the latest path object
functionality to older Pythons.  Use ‘zipp.Path’ in place of
‘zipfile.Path’ for early access to changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/zipp/


File: python.info,  Node: PyZipFile 객체,  Next: ZipInfo 객체,  Prev: Path 객체,  Up: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

5.13.5.3 PyZipFile 객체
.......................

*note PyZipFile: ff0. 생성자는 *note ZipFile: 6be. 생성자와 같은 매개 변
수와 하나의 추가 매개 변수 'optimize'를 취합니다.

 -- 클래스: zipfile.PyZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, optimize=-1)

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'optimize' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ZIP64 확장은 기본적으로 활성화됩니다.

     인스턴스에는 *note ZipFile: 6be. 객체의 메서드들 외에 한 가지 추가
     메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: writepy (pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)

          파일 ‘*.py’를 검색하고 해당 파일을 아카이브에 추가합니다.

          *note PyZipFile: ff0.에 대한 'optimize' 매개 변수가 제공되지 않
          았거나 ‘-1’이면, 해당 파일은 ‘*.pyc’ 파일이며, 필요하면 컴파일
          합니다.

          *note PyZipFile: ff0.에 대한 'optimize' 매개 변수가 ‘0’, ‘1’ 또
          는 ‘2’이면, 해당 최적화 수준(*note compile(): 192.을 참조하십
          시오)의 파일 만 아카이브에 추가되며, 필요하면 컴파일합니다.

          'pathname'이 파일이면, 파일 이름은 ‘.py’로 끝나야하며, 단지 그
          (해당 ‘*.pyc’) 파일 만 최상위 수준에 추가됩니다 (경로 정보 없
          음).  'pathname'이 ‘.py’로 끝나지 않는 파일이면, *note
          RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  디렉터리이고, 디렉터리가 패
          키지 디렉터리가 아니면, 모든 파일 ‘*.pyc’가 최상위 수준에 추가
          됩니다.  디렉터리가 패키지 디렉터리이면, 모든 ‘*.pyc’가 패키지
          이름의 파일 경로 아래에 추가되고, 서브 디렉터리가 패키지 디렉
          터리이면, 이들 모두도 재귀적으로 정렬된 순서로 추가됩니다.

          'basename'은 내부 전용입니다.

          'filterfunc'가 주어지면, 단일 문자열 인자를 취하는 함수여야 합
          니다.  아카이브에 추가되기 전에 각 경로(개별 전체 파일 경로를
          포함합니다)를 전달합니다.  'filterfunc'가 거짓 값을 반환하면,
          경로가 추가되지 않으며, 디렉터리이면 내용이 무시됩니다.  예를
          들어, 테스트 파일이 모두 ‘test’ 디렉터리에 있거나 문자열
          ‘test_’로 시작하면, 'filterfunc'를 사용하여 해당 파일들을 제외
          할 수 있습니다:

               >>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
               >>> def notests(s):
               ...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
               ...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
               ...
               >>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)

          *note writepy(): fef. 메서드는 다음과 같은 파일 이름으로 아카
          이브를 만듭니다:

               string.pyc                   # 최상위 이름
               test/__init__.pyc            # 패키지 디렉터리
               test/testall.pyc             # 모듈 test.testall
               test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # 서브 패키지 디렉터리
               test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # 서브 모듈 test.bogus.myfile

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 'filterfunc' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

          버전 3.6.2에서 변경: 'pathname' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체:
          2a0.를 받아들입니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 재귀는 디렉터리 항목을 정렬합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ZipInfo 객체,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<2>,  Prev: PyZipFile 객체,  Up: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

5.13.5.4 ZipInfo 객체
.....................

*note ZipInfo: d07. 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note ZipFile: 6be. 객체의 *note
getinfo(): 29b5.와 *note infolist(): 29b6. 메서드가 반환합니다.  각 객체
는 ZIP 아카이브의 단일 멤버에 대한 정보를 저장합니다.

파일 시스템 파일의 *note ZipInfo: d07. 인스턴스를 만드는 클래스 메서드가
하나 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: classmethod ZipInfo.from_file (filename, arcname=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True)

     zip 파일에 파일을 추가할 수 있도록, 파일 시스템의 파일에 대한 *note
     ZipInfo: d07. 인스턴스를 생성합니다.

     'filename'은 파일 시스템에서 파일이나 디렉터리의 경로여야 합니다.

     'arcname'이 지정되면, 아카이브 내에서의 이름으로 사용됩니다.
     'arcname'을 지정하지 않으면, 이름은 'filename'과 같지만, 드라이브 문
     자와 선행 경로 구분 기호가 제거됩니다.

     'strict_timestamps' 인자를 ‘False’로 설정하면, 1980-01-01 이전의
     zip 파일을 허용하는 대신 타임 스탬프를 1980-01-01로 설정합니다.
     2107-12-31 이후의 파일에 대해서도 비슷한 동작이 발생하며, 타임 스탬
     프는 역시 한곗값으로 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.6.2에서 변경: 'filename' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'strict_timestamps' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가
     했습니다.

인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: ZipInfo.is_dir ()

     이 아카이브 멤버가 디렉터리이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     이것은 항목 이름을 사용합니다: 디렉터리는 항상 ‘/’로 끝나야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.filename

     아카이브에서의 파일의 이름.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.date_time

     The time and date of the last modification to the archive member.
     This is a tuple of six values representing the “last [modified]
     file time” and “last [modified] file date” fields from the ZIP
     file’s central directory.

     The tuple contains:

     인덱스      값
                 
     -------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         연도 (>= 1980)
                 
                 
     ‘1’         월 (1에서 시작)
                 
                 
     ‘2’         월 중 일 (1에서 시작)
                 
                 
     ‘3’         시간 (0에서 시작)
                 
                 
     ‘4’         분 (0에서 시작)
                 
                 
     ‘5’         초 (0에서 시작)
                 

          참고: The ZIP format supports multiple timestamp fields in
          different locations (central directory, extra fields for
          NTFS/UNIX systems, etc.).  This attribute specifically returns
          the timestamp from the central directory.  The central
          directory timestamp format in ZIP files does not support
          timestamps before 1980.  While some extra field formats (such
          as UNIX timestamps) can represent earlier dates, this
          attribute only returns the central directory timestamp.

          The central directory timestamp is interpreted as representing
          local time, rather than UTC time, to match the behavior of
          other zip tools.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.compress_type

     아카이브 멤버의 압축 유형.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.comment

     *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 제공되는 개별 아카이브 멤버에 대한 주석.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.extra

     확장 필드 데이터.  PKZIP Application Note(1)는 이 *note bytes: 1c2.
     객체에 포함된 데이터의 내부 구조에 대한 주석을 포함합니다.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.create_system

     ZIP 아카이브를 만든 시스템.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.create_version

     ZIP 아카이브를 만든 PKZIP 버전.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.extract_version

     아카이브를 추출하기 위해 필요한 PKZIP 버전.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.reserved

     반드시 0이어야 합니다.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.flag_bits

     ZIP 플래그 비트.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.volume

     파일 헤더의 볼륨 번호.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.internal_attr

     내부 어트리뷰트.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.external_attr

     외부 파일 어트리뷰트.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.header_offset

     파일 헤더의 바이트 오프셋.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.CRC

     압축되지 않은 파일의 CRC-32.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.compress_size

     압축된 데이터의 크기.

 -- 속성: ZipInfo.file_size

     압축되지 않은 파일의 크기.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<2>,  Next: 압축 해제 함정,  Prev: ZipInfo 객체,  Up: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

5.13.5.5 명령 줄 인터페이스
...........................

*note zipfile: 131. 모듈은 ZIP 아카이브와 상호 작용하기 위한 간단한 명령
줄 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

새 ZIP 아카이브를 만들려면 *note -c: 29e9. 옵션 뒤에 이름을 지정한 다음
포함해야 할 파일 이름을 나열하십시오:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt

디렉터리 전달도 허용됩니다:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/

ZIP 아카이브를 지정된 디렉터리로 추출하려면, *note -e: 29ea. 옵션을 사용
하십시오:

     $ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/

ZIP 아카이브에 있는 파일 목록을 보려면, *note -l: 29eb. 옵션을 사용하십
시오:

     $ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 옵션<2>,  Up: 명령 줄 인터페이스<2>

5.13.5.6 명령 줄 옵션
.....................

 -- Option: -l <zipfile>
 -- Option: --list <zipfile>

     zip 파일에 있는 파일을 나열합니다.

 -- Option: -c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     소스 파일로 zip 파일을 만듭니다.

 -- Option: -e <zipfile> <output_dir>
 -- Option: --extract <zipfile> <output_dir>

     zip 파일을 대상 디렉터리로 추출합니다.

 -- Option: -t <zipfile>
 -- Option: --test <zipfile>

     zip 파일이 유효한지 테스트합니다.

 -- Option: --metadata-encoding <encoding>

     Specify encoding of member names for *note -l: 29eb, *note -e:
     29ea. and *note -t: 29f0.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: 압축 해제 함정,  Prev: 명령 줄 인터페이스<2>,  Up: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업

5.13.5.7 압축 해제 함정
.......................

아래 나열된 일부 함정으로 인해 zipfile 모듈에서의 추출이 실패할 수 있습
니다.

* Menu:

* 파일 자체에서::
* 파일 시스템 제한::
* 자원 제한::
* 중단::
* 추출의 기본 동작::


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 자체에서,  Next: 파일 시스템 제한,  Up: 압축 해제 함정

5.13.5.8 파일 자체에서
......................

잘못된 암호 / CRC 체크섬 / ZIP 형식 또는 지원되지 않는 압축 방법 / 암호
해독으로 인해 압축 해제에 실패할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 시스템 제한,  Next: 자원 제한,  Prev: 파일 자체에서,  Up: 압축 해제 함정

5.13.5.9 파일 시스템 제한
.........................

다른 파일 시스템의 제한을 초과하면 압축 해제에 실패할 수 있습니다.  가령
디렉터리 항목에 허용되는 문자, 파일 이름 길이, 경로명 길이, 단일 파일 크
기 및 파일 수 등.


File: python.info,  Node: 자원 제한,  Next: 중단,  Prev: 파일 시스템 제한,  Up: 압축 해제 함정

5.13.5.10 자원 제한
...................

메모리나 디스크 볼륨이 부족하면 압축 해제에 실패합니다.  예를 들어, 압축
해제 폭탄(일명 ZIP bomb(1))을 zipfile 라이브러리에 적용하면 디스크 볼륨
이 소진될 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb


File: python.info,  Node: 중단,  Next: 추출의 기본 동작,  Prev: 자원 제한,  Up: 압축 해제 함정

5.13.5.11 중단
..............

Ctrl-C 누르기나 압축 해제 프로세스를 죽이는 것과 같은 압축 해제 중 중단
으로 인해 아카이브 압축 해제가 불완전할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 추출의 기본 동작,  Prev: 중단,  Up: 압축 해제 함정

5.13.5.12 추출의 기본 동작
..........................

기본 추출 동작을 모르면 예기치 않은 압축 해제 결과가 발생할 수 있습니다.
예를 들어, 같은 아카이브를 두 번 추출하면, 묻지 않고 파일을 덮어씁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기,  Prev: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업,  Up: 데이터 압축 및 보관

5.13.6 ‘tarfile’ — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tarfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tarfile: de. 모듈을 사용하면 gzip, bz2 및 lzma 압축을 사용하는 것
을 포함하여, tar 아카이브를 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다.  ‘.zip’ 파일을 읽거나 쓰
려면 *note zipfile: 131. 모듈이나 *note shutil: 1208.에 있는 고수준 함수
를 사용하십시오.

몇 가지 세부 사항:

   * 해당 모듈을 사용할 수 있으면 *note gzip: 67, *note bz2: 13. 및
     *note lzma: 8a. 압축 아카이브를 읽고 씁니다.

   * POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) 형식에 대한 읽기/쓰기 지원.

   * 'longname'과 'longlink' 확장을 포함한 GNU tar 형식에 대한 읽기/쓰기
     지원, 스파스(sparse) 파일 복원을 포함하여 모든 'sparse' 확장 변형에
     대한 읽기 전용 지원.

   * POSIX.1-2001 (pax) 형식에 대한 읽기/쓰기 지원.

   * 디렉터리, 일반 파일, 하드 링크, 심볼릭 링크, fifo, 문자 장치 및 블
     록 장치를 처리하고 타임 스탬프, 액세스 권한 및 소유자와 같은 파일 정
     보를 획득하고 복원할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: *note lzma: 8a. 압축에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Archives are extracted using a *note filter: 466,
which makes it possible to either limit surprising/dangerous features,
or to acknowledge that they are expected and the archive is fully
trusted.  By default, archives are fully trusted, but this default is
deprecated and slated to change in Python 3.14.

 -- 함수: tarfile.open (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          bufsize=10240, **kwargs)

     경로명 'name'에 대한 *note TarFile: 11ff. 객체를 반환합니다.  *note
     TarFile: 11ff. 객체와 허용되는 키워드 인자에 대한 자세한 정보는
     *note TarFile 객체: 29fc.를 참조하십시오.

     'mode'는 ‘'filemode[:compression]'’ 형식의 문자열이어야 하며, 기본
     값은 ‘'r'’입니다.  다음은 mode 조합의 전체 목록입니다:

     모드                   동작
                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
     ‘'r'’ or ‘'r:*'’       투명한 압축으로 읽기 위해 엽니다 (권장합니다).
                            
                            
     ‘'r:'’                 압축하지 않고 독점적으로 읽기 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:gz'’               gzip 압축으로 읽기 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:bz2'’              bzip2 압축으로 읽기 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:xz'’               lzma 압축으로 읽기 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'x:'’      압축하지 않고 독점적으로 tar 파일을 만듭니다.  이
                            미 있으면 *note FileExistsError: 1016. 예외를 발
                            생시킵니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:gz'’               gzip 압축으로 tar 파일을 만듭니다.  이미 있으면
                            *note FileExistsError: 1016. 예외를 발생시킵니
                            다.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:bz2'’              bzip2 압축으로 tar 파일을 만듭니다.  이미 있으
                            면 *note FileExistsError: 1016. 예외를 발생시킵
                            니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:xz'’               lzma 압축으로 tar 파일을 만듭니다.  이미 있으면
                            *note FileExistsError: 1016. 예외를 발생시킵니
                            다.
                            
                            
     ‘'a'’ or ‘'a:'’        압축하지 않고 추가하기 위해 엽니다.  파일이 없
                            으면 만들어집니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'w'’ or ‘'w:'’        압축되지 않은 쓰기를 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:gz'’               gzip 압축 쓰기를 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:bz2'’              bzip2 압축 쓰기를 위해 엽니다.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:xz'’               lzma 압축 쓰기를 위해 엽니다.
                            

     ‘'a:gz'’, ‘'a:bz2'’ 또는 ‘'a:xz'’는 불가능함에 유의하십시오.
     'mode'가 특정 (압축된) 파일을 읽기 위해 여는 데 적합하지 않으면
     *note ReadError: 18a1.가 발생합니다.  이것을 피하려면 'mode' ‘'r'’을
     사용하십시오.  압축 방법이 지원되지 않으면, *note CompressionError:
     29fd.가 발생합니다.

     'fileobj'가 지정되면, 'name'에 대해 바이너리 모드로 열린 *note 파일
     객체: 11b2.의 대안으로 사용됩니다.  위치 0에 있다고 가정합니다.

     ‘'w:gz'’, ‘'x:gz'’, ‘'w|gz'’, ‘'w:bz2'’, ‘'x:bz2'’, ‘'w|bz2'’ 모드
     의 경우, *note tarfile.open(): e6f.은 파일의 압축 수준을 지정하는 키
     워드 인자 'compresslevel'(기본값 ‘9’)을 받아들입니다.

     ‘'w:xz'’ 와 ‘'x:xz'’ 모드의 경우, *note tarfile.open(): e6f.은 파일
     의 압축 수준을 지정하는 키워드 인자 'preset'을 받아들입니다.

     특별한 목적으로, 'mode'에는 두 번째 형식이 있습니다:
     ‘'filemode|[compression]'’.  *note tarfile.open(): e6f.은 데이터를
     블록 스트림으로 처리하는 *note TarFile: 11ff. 객체를 반환합니다.  파
     일에서 무작위 탐색(random seeking)을 수행하지 않습니다.  주어지면,,
     'fileobj'는 ('mode'에 따라) 바이트열과 호환되는 *note read(): e17.나
     *note write(): 29fe. 메서드가 있는 임의의 객체일 수 있습니다.
     'bufsize'는 블록 크기를 지정하고 기본값은 ‘20 * 512’ 바이트입니다.
     이 변형을 예를 들어 ‘sys.stdin.buffer’, 소켓 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.
     또는 테이프 장치와 함께 사용하십시오.  그러나, 이러한 *note
     TarFile: 11ff. 객체는 무작위 액세스를 허용하지 않는다는 제한이 있습
     니다 (*note 예: 29ff.를 참조하십시오).  현재 가능한 모드는 다음과 같
     습니다:

     모드              동작
                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
     ‘'r|*'’           투명한 압축으로 읽기 위해 tar 블록의 '스트림
                       '을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|'’            읽기 위해 압축되지 않은 tar 블록의 '스트림'을
                       엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|gz'’          읽기 위해 gzip 압축 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|bz2'’         읽기 위해 bzip2 압축 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|xz'’          읽기 위해 lzma 압축 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|'’            쓰기 위해 압축되지 않은 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|gz'’          쓰기 위해 gzip 압축 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|bz2'’         쓰기 위해 bzip2 압축 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|xz'’          쓰기 위해 lzma 압축 '스트림'을 엽니다.
                       

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘'x'’ (독점 생성) 모드가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'name' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'compresslevel' keyword argument also works
     for streams.

 -- 클래스: tarfile.TarFile

     tar 아카이브를 읽고 쓰는 클래스.  이 클래스를 직접 사용하지 마십시
     오: 대신 *note tarfile.open(): e6f.을 사용하십시오.  *note TarFile
     객체: 29fc.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: tarfile.is_tarfile (name)

     'name'이 *note tarfile: de. 모듈이 읽을 수 있는 tar 아카이브 파일이
     면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.  'name'은 *note str: 445, 파일 또
     는 파일류 객체일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 파일과 파일류 객체 지원.

*note tarfile: de. 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: tarfile.TarError

     모든 *note tarfile: de. 예외의 베이스 클래스.

 -- 예외: tarfile.ReadError

     *note tarfile: de. 모듈에서 처리할 수 없거나 어떤 식으로든 유효하지
     않은 tar 아카이브가 열릴 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: tarfile.CompressionError

     압축 방법이 지원되지 않거나 데이터를 올바르게 디코딩할 수 없을 때 발
     생합니다.

 -- 예외: tarfile.StreamError

     스트림류 *note TarFile: 11ff. 객체에 일반적인 제한 사항으로 인해 발
     생합니다.

 -- 예외: tarfile.ExtractError

     *note TarFile.extract(): 429.를 사용할 때 '치명적이지 않은' 에러에
     대해 발생하지만, *note TarFile.errorlevel: 42b.‘== 2’일 때만 발생합
     니다.

 -- 예외: tarfile.HeaderError

     버퍼가 유효하지 않을 때 *note TarInfo.frombuf(): 2a04.에 의해 발생
     합니다.

 -- 예외: tarfile.FilterError

     Base class for members *note refused: 2a06. by filters.

      -- 속성: tarinfo

          Information about the member that the filter refused to
          extract, as *note TarInfo: 2a08.

 -- 예외: tarfile.AbsolutePathError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member with an absolute path.

 -- 예외: tarfile.OutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member outside the destination
     directory.

 -- 예외: tarfile.SpecialFileError

     Raised to refuse extracting a special file (e.g.  a device or
     pipe).

 -- 예외: tarfile.AbsoluteLinkError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link with an absolute path.

 -- 예외: tarfile.LinkOutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the
     destination directory.

 -- 예외: tarfile.LinkFallbackError

     Raised to refuse emulating a link (hard or symbolic) by extracting
     another archive member, when that member would be rejected by the
     filter location.  The exception that was raised to reject the
     replacement member is available as ‘BaseException.__context__’.

     Added in version 3.13.4.

모듈 수준에서 다음 상수를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 데이터: tarfile.ENCODING

     기본 문자 인코딩: 윈도우의 경우 ‘'utf-8'’, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. 이 반환하는 값.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.REGTYPE
 -- 데이터: tarfile.AREGTYPE

     A regular file *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.LNKTYPE

     A link (inside tarfile) *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.SYMTYPE

     A symbolic link *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.CHRTYPE

     A character special device *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.BLKTYPE

     A block special device *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.DIRTYPE

     A directory *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.FIFOTYPE

     A FIFO special device *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.CONTTYPE

     A contiguous file *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGNAME

     A GNU tar longname *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGLINK

     A GNU tar longlink *note type: 2a11.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.GNUTYPE_SPARSE

     A GNU tar sparse file *note type: 2a11.

다음의 각 상수는 *note tarfile: de. 모듈이 만들 수 있는 tar 아카이브 형
식을 정의합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 지원되는 tar 형식: 2a1c. 섹션을 참
조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) 형식.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.GNU_FORMAT

     GNU tar 형식.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.PAX_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-2001 (pax) 형식.

 -- 데이터: tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT

     아카이브를 만들기 위한 기본 형식.  이것은 현재 *note PAX_FORMAT:
     2a1f.입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 새 아카이브의 기본 형식이 *note GNU_FORMAT:
     2a1e.에서 *note PAX_FORMAT: 2a1f.으로 변경되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note zipfile: 131.

     *note zipfile: 131. 표준 모듈의 설명서.

*note 아카이브 연산: 1208.

     표준 *note shutil: c5. 모듈이 제공하는 고수준 아카이브 기능에 대한
     설명서.

GNU tar manual, Basic Tar Format(2)

     GNU tar 확장을 포함한, tar 아카이브 파일에 대한 설명서.

* Menu:

* TarFile 객체::
* TarInfo 객체::
* Extraction filters::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<3>.
* 예: 예<5>.
* 지원되는 tar 형식::
* 유니코드 문제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tarfile.py

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html


File: python.info,  Node: TarFile 객체,  Next: TarInfo 객체,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.1 TarFile 객체
.....................

*note TarFile: 11ff. 객체는 tar 아카이브에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.
tar 아카이브는 블록의 시퀀스입니다.  아카이브 멤버(저장된 파일)는 헤더 블
록과 그 뒤에 오는 데이터 블록으로 구성됩니다.  tar 아카이브에 파일을 여
러 번 저장할 수 있습니다.  각 아카이브 멤버는 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체
로 표현됩니다.  세부 사항은 *note TarInfo 객체: 2a08.를 참조하십시오.

*note TarFile: 11ff. 객체는 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 컨텍스트 관리자로 사
용될 수 있습니다.  블록이 완료되면 자동으로 닫힙니다.  예외가 있는 경우,
쓰기 위해 열린 아카이브는 마무리되지 않음에 유의하십시오; 내부적으로 사
용된 파일 객체만 닫힙니다.  사용 사례는 *note 예: 29ff. 섹션을 참조하십
시오.

Added in version 3.2: 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니
다.

 -- 클래스: tarfile.TarFile (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False,
          ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0,
          errorlevel=1, stream=False)

     다음의 모든 인자는 선택적이며 인스턴스 어트리뷰트로도 액세스 할 수
     있습니다.

     'name'은 아카이브의 경로명입니다.  'name'은 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.일 수 있습니다.  'fileobj'가 주어지면 생략할 수 있습니다.  이 경
     우, 파일 객체의 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트가 있다면 사용됩니다.

     'mode'는 기존 아카이브에서 읽는 ‘'r'’, 기존 파일에 데이터를 추가하
     는 ‘'a'’, 기존 파일을 덮어쓰는 새 파일을 만드는 ‘'w'’ 또는 존재하지
     않을 때만 새 파일을 만드는 ‘'x'’입니다.

     'fileobj'가 주어지면, 데이터를 읽거나 쓰는 데 사용됩니다.  그것이 결
     정될 수 있다면, 'mode'는 'fileobj'의 모드에 의해 재정의됩니다.
     'fileobj'는 위치 0에서 사용됩니다.

          참고: *note TarFile: 11ff.이 닫힐 때, 'fileobj'는 닫히지 않습
          니다.

     'format'은 쓰기를 위한 아카이브 형식을 제어합니다.  모듈 수준에서 정
     의되는 상수 *note USTAR_FORMAT: 2a1d, *note GNU_FORMAT: 2a1e. 또는
     *note PAX_FORMAT: 2a1f. 중 하나여야 합니다.  읽을 때, 형식은 자동 감
     지됩니다, 단일 아카이브에 다른 형식이 존재할 때조차 그렇습니다.

     'tarinfo' 인자를 사용하여 기본 *note TarInfo: 1200. 클래스를 다른 클
     래스로 바꿀 수 있습니다.

     'dereference'가 *note False: b34.이면, 아카이브에 심볼릭과 하드 링
     크를 추가합니다.  *note True: c0a.이면, 대상 파일의 내용을 아카이브
     에 추가합니다.  이는 심볼릭 링크를 지원하지 않는 시스템에는 영향을
     미치지 않습니다.

     'ignore_zeros'가 *note False: b34.이면, 빈 블록을 아카이브의 끝으로
     처리합니다.  *note True: c0a.이면, 비어있는 (그래서 잘못된) 블록을
     건너뛰고 최대한 많은 멤버를 확보하려고 합니다.  이어붙였거나 손상된
     아카이브를 읽을 때만 유용합니다.

     'debug'는 ‘0’(디버그 메시지 없음)에서 ‘3’(모든 디버그 메시지)까지 설
     정할 수 있습니다.  메시지는 ‘sys.stderr’에 기록됩니다.

     'errorlevel' controls how extraction errors are handled, see *note
     the corresponding attribute: 42b.

     'encoding'과 'errors' 인자는 아카이브를 읽거나 쓰는 데 사용되는 문
     자 인코딩과 변환 에러 처리 방법을 정의합니다.  기본 설정은 대부분의
     사용자에게 적용됩니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 유니코드 문제: 2a22. 섹
     션을 참조하십시오.

     'pax_headers' 인자는 선택적인 문자열의 딕셔너리로, 'format'이 *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 2a1f.이면 pax 전역 헤더로 추가됩니다.

     If 'stream' is set to *note True: c0a. then while reading the
     archive info about files in the archive are not cached, saving
     memory.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'errors' 인자의 기본값으로 ‘'surrogateescape'’를
     사용합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘'x'’ (독점 생성) 모드가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'name' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'stream' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod TarFile.open (...)

     대체 생성자.  *note tarfile.open(): e6f. 함수는 실제로 이 클래스 메
     서드의 바로 가기입니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.getmember (name)

     멤버 'name'에 대한 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체를 반환합니다.  아카이
     브에서 'name'을 찾을 수 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.

          참고: 아카이브에서 멤버가 두 번 이상 등장하면, 마지막 등장을 최
          신 버전으로 간주합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.getmembers ()

     아카이브 멤버를 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체의 리스트로 반환합니다.  리
     스트는 아카이브의 멤버와 순서가 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.getnames ()

     멤버를 이름의 리스트로 반환합니다.  *note getmembers(): e71.가 반환
     하는 리스트와 순서가 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.list (verbose=True, *, members=None)

     목차를 ‘sys.stdout’으로 인쇄합니다.  'verbose'가 *note False: b34.이
     면, 멤버 이름만 인쇄됩니다.  *note True: c0a.이면, ‘ls -l’과 유사한
     출력이 생성됩니다.  선택적 'members'가 제공되면, *note
     getmembers(): e71.가 반환한 리스트의 부분집합이어야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'members' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.next ()

     *note TarFile: 11ff.을 읽기 위해 열었을 때, 아카이브의 다음 멤버를
     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체로 반환합니다.  더는 없으면, *note None:
     66f.을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.extractall (path='.', members=None, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     아카이브의 모든 멤버(members)를 현재 작업 디렉터리나 디렉터리
     'path'로 추출합니다.  선택적 'members'가 제공되면, *note
     getmembers(): e71.가 반환하는 리스트의 부분집합이어야 합니다.  소유
     자, 수정 시간 및 권한과 같은 디렉터리 정보는 모든 멤버가 추출된 후
     에 설정됩니다.  이것은 두 가지 문제를 해결하기 위한 것입니다: 디렉
     터리의 수정 시간은 파일이 생성될 때마다 재설정됩니다.  또한 디렉터
     리의 권한이 쓰기를 허용하지 않으면, 파일 추출이 실패합니다.

     'numeric_owner'가 *note True: c0a.이면, tar 파일의 uid와 gid 번호는
     추출된 파일의 소유자/그룹을 설정하는 데 사용됩니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     tar 파일의 이름값이 사용됩니다.

     The 'filter' argument specifies how ‘members’ are modified or
     rejected before extraction.  See *note Extraction filters: 466. for
     details.  It is recommended to set this explicitly depending on
     which 'tar' features you need to support.

          경고: 사전 검사 없이 신뢰할 수 없는 출처에서 온 아카이브를 추
          출하지 마십시오.  파일이 'path' 외부에 만들어질 수 있습니다, 예
          를 들어 ‘"/"’로 시작하는 절대 파일명이나 두 개의 점 ‘".."’이 포
          함된 파일명을 가진 멤버.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 466. section
          for details.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'numeric_owner' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'path' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'filter' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.extract (member, path='', set_attrs=True, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     전체 이름을 사용하여, 아카이브에서 현재 작업 디렉터리로 멤버
     (member)를 추출합니다.  파일 정보는 최대한 정확하게 추출됩니다.
     'member'는 파일명이나 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체일 수 있습니다.
     'path'를 사용하여 다른 디렉터리를 지정할 수 있습니다.  'path'는
     *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.일 수 있습니다.  'set_attrs'가 거짓이 아닌 한
     파일 어트리뷰트(소유자, 수정 시간, 모드)가 설정됩니다.

     The 'numeric_owner' and 'filter' arguments are the same as for
     *note extractall(): 428.

          참고: *note extract(): 429. 메서드는 여러 추출 문제를 처리하지
          않습니다.  대부분의 경우 *note extractall(): 428. 메서드 사용
          을 고려해야 합니다.

          경고: *note extractall(): 428.에 대한 경고를 참조하십시오.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 466. section
          for details.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'set_attrs' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'numeric_owner' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'path' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'filter' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.extractfile (member)

     아카이브에서 멤버(member)를 파일 객체로 추출합니다.  'member'는 파
     일명이나 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체일 수 있습니다.  'member'가 일반
     파일이나 링크이면, *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd. 객체가 반환됩니다
     .  다른 모든 기존 멤버에 대해서는, *note None: 66f.이 반환됩니다.
     'member'가 아카이브에 없으면, *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd. 객체를 반환합니다
     .

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The returned *note io.BufferedReader: 11fd.
     object has the ‘mode’ attribute which is always equal to ‘'rb'’.

 -- 속성: TarFile.errorlevel: *note int: 257.

     'errorlevel'이 ‘0’이면, *note TarFile.extract(): 429.와 *note
     TarFile.extractall(): 428.를 사용할 때 에러가 무시됩니다.  그런데도
     , 'debug'이 0보다 크면, 디버그 출력에 에러 메시지로 나타납니다.
     ‘1’이면 (기본값), 모든 '치명적' 에러가 *note OSError: 411.나 *note
     FilterError: 2a05. 예외로 발생합니다.  ‘2’이면, 모든 '치명적이지 않
     은' 에러도 *note TarError: 2a00. 예외로 발생합니다.

     Some exceptions, e.g.  ones caused by wrong argument types or data
     corruption, are always raised.

     Custom *note extraction filters: 466. should raise *note
     FilterError: 2a05. for 'fatal' errors and *note ExtractError: 2a02.
     for 'non-fatal' ones.

     Note that when an exception is raised, the archive may be partially
     extracted.  It is the user’s responsibility to clean up.

 -- 속성: TarFile.extraction_filter

     Added in version 3.12.

     The *note extraction filter: 466. used as a default for the
     'filter' argument of *note extract(): 429. and *note extractall():
     428.

     The attribute may be ‘None’ or a callable.  String names are not
     allowed for this attribute, unlike the 'filter' argument to *note
     extract(): 429.

     If ‘extraction_filter’ is ‘None’ (the default), calling an
     extraction method without a 'filter' argument will raise a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’, and fall back to the *note fully_trusted:
     2a27. filter, whose dangerous behavior matches previous versions of
     Python.

     In Python 3.14+, leaving ‘extraction_filter=None’ will cause
     extraction methods to use the *note data: 427. filter by default.

     The attribute may be set on instances or overridden in subclasses.
     It also is possible to set it on the ‘TarFile’ class itself to set
     a global default, although, since it affects all uses of 'tarfile',
     it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or
     *note site configuration: c7.  To set a global default this way, a
     filter function needs to be wrapped in *note staticmethod(): 410.
     to prevent injection of a ‘self’ argument.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.add (name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *,
          filter=None)

     'name' 파일을 아카이브에 추가합니다.  'name'은 모든 유형의 파일(디
     렉터리, fifo, 심볼릭 링크 등)일 수 있습니다.  지정되면, 'arcname'은
     아카이브에 있는 파일의 대체 이름을 지정합니다.  디렉터리는 기본적으
     로 재귀적으로 추가됩니다.  'recursive'를 *note False: b34.로 설정하
     면, 이를 피할 수 있습니다.  재귀는 항목을 정렬된 순서로 추가합니다.
     'filter'가 제공되면, *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체 인자를 취하고 변경된
     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체를 반환하는 함수여야 합니다.  이것이 대신
     *note None: 66f.을 반환하면, *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체가 아카이브에
     서 제외됩니다.  예는 *note 예: 29ff.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'filter' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 재귀는 항목을 정렬된 순서로 추가합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.addfile (tarinfo, fileobj=None)

     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체 'tarinfo'를 아카이브에 추가합니다.
     'tarinfo'가 0이 아닌 크기의 일반 파일이면, 'fileobj' 인자는 *note
     바이너리 파일: 1c8f.이어야 하고, 여기서 ‘tarinfo.size’ 바이트를 읽
     어서 아카이브에 추가합니다.  *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체를 직접 혹은
     *note gettarinfo(): 2a28.를 사용하여 만들 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'fileobj' must be given for non-zero-sized
     regular files.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.gettarinfo (name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)

     기존 파일에서 *note os.stat(): 49a.이나 이와 동등한 것의 결과로부터
     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체를 만듭니다.  파일은 'name'으로 이름을 지
     정하거나, 파일 기술자를 갖는 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'fileobj'로 지
     정됩니다.  'name'은 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.일 수 있습니다.  주어지
     면, 'arcname'은 아카이브에 있는 파일의 대체 이름을 지정하고, 그렇지
     않으면, 이름은 'fileobj'의 *note name: 2990. 어트리뷰트나 'name' 인
     자에서 취합니다.  이름은 텍스트 문자열이어야 합니다.

     *note addfile(): 1637.을 사용하여 추가하기 전에 *note TarInfo:
     1200.의 일부 어트리뷰트를 수정할 수 있습니다.  파일 객체가 파일의 시
     작 부분에 위치한 일반 파일 객체가 아니면, *note size: 2a29.와 같은
     어트리뷰트를 수정해야 할 수 있습니다.  *note GzipFile: 414.과 같은
     객체가 이 상황에 해당합니다.  *note name: 2a2a.도 수정될 수 있으며,
     이 경우 'arcname'은 더미 문자열일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'name' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받
     아들입니다.

 -- 메서드: TarFile.close ()

     *note TarFile: 11ff.을 닫습니다.  쓰기 모드에서는, 두 개의 마무리
     0블록이 아카이브에 추가됩니다.

 -- 속성: TarFile.pax_headers: *note dict: 256.

     pax 전역 헤더의 키-값 쌍을 포함하는 딕셔너리.


File: python.info,  Node: TarInfo 객체,  Next: Extraction filters,  Prev: TarFile 객체,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.2 TarInfo 객체
.....................

*note TarInfo: 1200. 객체는 *note TarFile: 11ff.에 있는 하나의 멤버를 나
타냅니다.  파일의 모든 필수 어트리뷰트(파일 유형, 크기, 시간, 권한, 소유
자 등과 같은)를 저장하는 것 외에도, 파일 유형을 결정하는 유용한 메서드를
제공합니다.  파일의 데이터 자체를 포함하지 '않습니다'.

*note TarInfo: 1200. 객체는 *note TarFile: 11ff.의 메서드 *note
getmember(): 185a, *note getmembers(): e71. 및 *note gettarinfo():
2a28.에 의해 반환됩니다.

Modifying the objects returned by *note getmember(): 185a. or *note
getmembers(): e71. will affect all subsequent operations on the archive.
For cases where this is unwanted, you can use *note copy.copy(): 25. or
call the *note replace(): 2a2e. method to create a modified copy in one
step.

Several attributes can be set to ‘None’ to indicate that a piece of
metadata is unused or unknown.  Different *note TarInfo: 1200. methods
handle ‘None’ differently:

   - The *note extract(): 429. or *note extractall(): 428. methods will
     ignore the corresponding metadata, leaving it set to a default.

   - *note addfile(): 1637. will fail.

   - *note list(): e70. will print a placeholder string.

 -- 클래스: tarfile.TarInfo (name='')

     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod TarInfo.frombuf (buf, encoding, errors)

     문자열 버퍼 'buf'에서 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체를 만들고 반환합니다
     .

     버퍼가 유효하지 않으면 *note HeaderError: 2a03.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: classmethod TarInfo.fromtarfile (tarfile)

     *note TarFile: 11ff. 객체 'tarfile'에서 다음 멤버를 읽고 *note
     TarInfo: 1200. 객체로 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.tobuf (format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape')

     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체에서 문자열 버퍼를 만듭니다.  인자에 대한
     정보는 *note TarFile: 11ff. 클래스의 생성자를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'errors' 인자의 기본값으로 ‘'surrogateescape'’를
     사용합니다.

‘TarInfo’ 객체에는 다음과 같은 공개 데이터 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: TarInfo.name: *note str: 445.

     아카이브 멤버의 이름

 -- 속성: TarInfo.size: *note int: 257.

     바이트 단위의 크기.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.mtime: *note int: 257. | *note float: 2ef.

     Time of last modification in seconds since the *note epoch: 2a32,
     as in *note os.stat_result.st_mtime: 2a33.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): 429.
     and *note extractall(): 428, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.mode: *note int: 257.

     Permission bits, as for *note os.chmod(): 21b.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): 429.
     and *note extractall(): 428, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.type

     파일 유형.  'type'은 일반적으로 다음 상수 중 하나입니다: *note
     REGTYPE: 2a0f, *note AREGTYPE: 2a10, *note LNKTYPE: 2a12, *note
     SYMTYPE: 2a13, *note DIRTYPE: 2a16, *note FIFOTYPE: 2a17, *note
     CONTTYPE: 2a18, *note CHRTYPE: 2a14, *note BLKTYPE: 2a15, *note
     GNUTYPE_SPARSE: 2a1b.  *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체의 유형을 더 편리하
     게 결정하려면, 아래 ‘is*()’ 메서드를 사용하십시오.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.linkname: *note str: 445.

     대상 파일 이름의 이름, *note LNKTYPE: 2a12.과 *note SYMTYPE: 2a13.
     유형의 *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체에만 존재합니다.

     For symbolic links (‘SYMTYPE’), the 'linkname' is relative to the
     directory that contains the link.  For hard links (‘LNKTYPE’), the
     'linkname' is relative to the root of the archive.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.uid: *note int: 257.

     이 멤버를 처음 저장한 사용자의 사용자 ID.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): 429.
     and *note extractall(): 428, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.gid: *note int: 257.

     이 멤버를 처음 저장한 사용자의 그룹 ID.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): 429.
     and *note extractall(): 428, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.uname: *note str: 445.

     사용자 이름.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): 429.
     and *note extractall(): 428, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.gname: *note str: 445.

     그룹 이름.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract(): 429.
     and *note extractall(): 428, causing extraction to skip applying
     this attribute.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.chksum: *note int: 257.

     Header checksum.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.devmajor: *note int: 257.

     Device major number.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.devminor: *note int: 257.

     Device minor number.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.offset: *note int: 257.

     The tar header starts here.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.offset_data: *note int: 257.

     The file’s data starts here.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.sparse

     Sparse member information.

 -- 속성: TarInfo.pax_headers: *note dict: 256.

     연관된 pax 확장 헤더의 키-값 쌍을 포함하는 딕셔너리.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.replace (name=..., mtime=..., mode=...,
          linkname=..., uid=..., gid=..., uname=..., gname=...,
          deep=True)

     Added in version 3.12.

     Return a 'new' copy of the ‘TarInfo’ object with the given
     attributes changed.  For example, to return a ‘TarInfo’ with the
     group name set to ‘'staff'’, use:

          new_tarinfo = old_tarinfo.replace(gname='staff')

     By default, a deep copy is made.  If 'deep' is false, the copy is
     shallow, i.e.  ‘pax_headers’ and any custom attributes are shared
     with the original ‘TarInfo’ object.

*note TarInfo: 1200. 객체는 편리한 조회 메서드도 제공합니다:

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.isfile ()

     *note TarInfo: 1200. 객체가 일반 파일이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.isreg ()

     *note isfile(): 2a41.과 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.isdir ()

     디렉터리이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.issym ()

     심볼릭 링크이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.islnk ()

     하드 링크이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.ischr ()

     문자 장치이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.isblk ()

     블록 장치이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.isfifo ()

     FIFO이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: TarInfo.isdev ()

     문자 장치, 블록 장치 또는 FIFO 중 하나이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환
     합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Extraction filters,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<3>,  Prev: TarInfo 객체,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.3 Extraction filters
...........................

Added in version 3.12.

The 'tar' format is designed to capture all details of a UNIX-like
filesystem, which makes it very powerful.  Unfortunately, the features
make it easy to create tar files that have unintended – and possibly
malicious – effects when extracted.  For example, extracting a tar file
can overwrite arbitrary files in various ways (e.g.  by using absolute
paths, ‘..’ path components, or symlinks that affect later members).

In most cases, the full functionality is not needed.  Therefore,
'tarfile' supports extraction filters: a mechanism to limit
functionality, and thus mitigate some of the security issues.

더 보기
.......

PEP 706(1)

     Contains further motivation and rationale behind the design.

The 'filter' argument to *note TarFile.extract(): 429. or *note
extractall(): 428. can be:

   * the string ‘'fully_trusted'’: Honor all metadata as specified in
     the archive.  Should be used if the user trusts the archive
     completely, or implements their own complex verification.

   * the string ‘'tar'’: Honor most 'tar'-specific features (i.e.
     features of UNIX-like filesystems), but block features that are
     very likely to be surprising or malicious.  See *note tar_filter():
     2a4b. for details.

   * the string ‘'data'’: Ignore or block most features specific to
     UNIX-like filesystems.  Intended for extracting cross-platform data
     archives.  See *note data_filter(): 427. for details.

   * ‘None’ (default): Use *note TarFile.extraction_filter: 2a26.

     If that is also ‘None’ (the default), raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’,
     and fall back to the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter, whose dangerous
     behavior matches previous versions of Python.

     In Python 3.14, the ‘'data'’ filter will become the default
     instead.  It’s possible to switch earlier; see *note
     TarFile.extraction_filter: 2a26.

   * A callable which will be called for each extracted member with a
     *note TarInfo: 2a08. describing the member and the destination path
     to where the archive is extracted (i.e.  the same path is used for
     all members):

          filter(member: TarInfo, path: str, /) -> TarInfo | None

     The callable is called just before each member is extracted, so it
     can take the current state of the disk into account.  It can:

        - return a *note TarInfo: 1200. object which will be used
          instead of the metadata in the archive, or

        - return ‘None’, in which case the member will be skipped, or

        - raise an exception to abort the operation or skip the member,
          depending on *note errorlevel: 42b.  Note that when extraction
          is aborted, *note extractall(): 428. may leave the archive
          partially extracted.  It does not attempt to clean up.

* Menu:

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Default named filters,  Next: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.4 Default named filters
..............................

The pre-defined, named filters are available as functions, so they can
be reused in custom filters:

 -- 함수: tarfile.fully_trusted_filter (member, path)

     Return 'member' unchanged.

     This implements the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter.

 -- 함수: tarfile.tar_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'tar'’ filter.

        - Strip leading slashes (‘/’ and *note os.sep: 664.) from
          filenames.

        - *note Refuse: 2a06. to extract files with absolute paths (in
          case the name is absolute even after stripping slashes, e.g.
          ‘C:/foo’ on Windows).  This raises *note AbsolutePathError:
          2a09.

        - *note Refuse: 2a06. to extract files whose absolute path
          (after following symlinks) would end up outside the
          destination.  This raises *note OutsideDestinationError: 2a0a.

        - Clear high mode bits (setuid, setgid, sticky) and group/other
          write bits (*note S_IWGRP: 2814. | *note S_IWOTH: 2817.).

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

 -- 함수: tarfile.data_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'data'’ filter.  In addition to what ‘tar_filter’
     does:

        - Normalize link targets (*note TarInfo.linkname: 2a35.) using
          *note os.path.normpath(): 130a.  Note that this removes
          internal ‘..’ components, which may change the meaning of the
          link if the path in ‘TarInfo.linkname’ traverses symbolic
          links.

        - *note Refuse: 2a06. to extract links (hard or soft) that link
          to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.

          This raises *note AbsoluteLinkError: 2a0c. or *note
          LinkOutsideDestinationError: 2a0d.

          Note that such files are refused even on platforms that do not
          support symbolic links.

        - *note Refuse: 2a06. to extract device files (including pipes).
          This raises *note SpecialFileError: 2a0b.

        - For regular files, including hard links:

             - Set the owner read and write permissions (*note S_IRUSR:
               280f. | *note S_IWUSR: 2810.).

             - Remove the group & other executable permission (*note
               S_IXGRP: 280b. | *note S_IXOTH: 2818.) if the owner
               doesn’t have it (*note S_IXUSR: 2811.).

        - For other files (directories), set ‘mode’ to ‘None’, so that
          extraction methods skip applying permission bits.

        - Set user and group info (‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘uname’, ‘gname’) to
          ‘None’, so that extraction methods skip setting it.

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

     버전 3.13.4에서 변경: Link targets are now normalized.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter errors,  Next: Hints for further verification,  Prev: Default named filters,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.5 Filter errors
......................

When a filter refuses to extract a file, it will raise an appropriate
exception, a subclass of *note FilterError: 2a05.  This will abort the
extraction if *note TarFile.errorlevel: 42b. is 1 or more.  With
‘errorlevel=0’ the error will be logged and the member will be skipped,
but extraction will continue.


File: python.info,  Node: Hints for further verification,  Next: Supporting older Python versions,  Prev: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.6 Hints for further verification
.......................................

Even with ‘filter='data'’, 'tarfile' is not suited for extracting
untrusted files without prior inspection.  Among other issues, the
pre-defined filters do not prevent denial-of-service attacks.  Users
should do additional checks.

Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:

   * Extract to a *note new temporary directory: 21f. to prevent e.g.
     exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to clean up
     after a failed extraction.

   * Disallow symbolic links if you do not need the functionality.

   * When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g.  OS-level)
     limits on disk, memory and CPU usage.

   * Check filenames against an allow-list of characters (to filter out
     control characters, confusables, foreign path separators, etc.).

   * Check that filenames have expected extensions (discouraging files
     that execute when you “click on them”, or extension-less files like
     Windows special device names).

   * Limit the number of extracted files, total size of extracted data,
     filename length (including symlink length), and size of individual
     files.

   * Check for files that would be shadowed on case-insensitive
     filesystems.

Also note that:

   * Tar files may contain multiple versions of the same file.  Later
     ones are expected to overwrite any earlier ones.  This feature is
     crucial to allow updating tape archives, but can be abused
     maliciously.

   * 'tarfile' does not protect against issues with “live” data, e.g.
     an attacker tinkering with the destination (or source) directory
     while extraction (or archiving) is in progress.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting older Python versions,  Next: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Hints for further verification,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.7 Supporting older Python versions
.........................................

Extraction filters were added to Python 3.12, but may be backported to
older versions as security updates.  To check whether the feature is
available, use e.g.  ‘hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter')’ rather than
checking the Python version.

The following examples show how to support Python versions with and
without the feature.  Note that setting ‘extraction_filter’ will affect
any subsequent operations.

   * Fully trusted archive:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = (lambda member, path: member)
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter if available, but revert to Python 3.11
     behavior (‘'fully_trusted'’) if this feature is not available:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = getattr(tarfile, 'data_filter',
                                                 (lambda member, path: member))
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'fail' if it is not available:

          my_tarfile.extractall(filter=tarfile.data_filter)

     or:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = tarfile.data_filter
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'warn' if it is not available:

          if hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter'):
              my_tarfile.extractall(filter='data')
          else:
              # 더는 필요하지 않을 때 제거하세요
              warn_the_user('Extracting may be unsafe; consider updating Python')
              my_tarfile.extractall()


File: python.info,  Node: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Supporting older Python versions,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.8 Stateful extraction filter example
...........................................

While 'tarfile'’s extraction methods take a simple 'filter' callable,
custom filters may be more complex objects with an internal state.  It
may be useful to write these as context managers, to be used like this:

     with StatefulFilter() as filter_func:
         tar.extractall(path, filter=filter_func)

Such a filter can be written as, for example:

     class StatefulFilter:
         def __init__(self):
             self.file_count = 0

         def __enter__(self):
             return self

         def __call__(self, member, path):
             self.file_count += 1
             return member

         def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
             print(f'{self.file_count} files extracted')


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<3>,  Next: 예<5>,  Prev: Extraction filters,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.9 명령 줄 인터페이스
...........................

Added in version 3.4.

*note tarfile: de. 모듈은 tar 아카이브와 상호 작용하기 위한 간단한 명령
줄 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

새 tar 아카이브를 만들려면, *note -c: 2a52. 옵션 뒤에 이름을 지정한 다음
포함해야 하는 파일 이름을 나열하십시오:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt

디렉터리 전달도 허용됩니다:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/

tar 아카이브를 현재 디렉터리로 추출하려면, *note -e: 2a53. 옵션을 사용하
십시오:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar

디렉터리 이름을 전달하여 tar 아카이브를 다른 디렉터리로 추출할 수도 있습
니다:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/

tar 아카이브에 있는 파일 목록을 보려면, *note -l: 2a54. 옵션을 사용하십
시오:

     $ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 옵션<3>,  Up: 명령 줄 인터페이스<3>

5.13.6.10 명령 줄 옵션
......................

 -- Option: -l <tarfile>
 -- Option: --list <tarfile>

     tarfile에 있는 파일을 나열합니다.

 -- Option: -c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     소스 파일에서 tarfile을 만듭니다.

 -- Option: -e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
 -- Option: --extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

     'output_dir'이 지정되지 않으면 tarfile을 현재 디렉터리로 추출합니다
     .

 -- Option: -t <tarfile>
 -- Option: --test <tarfile>

     tarfile이 유효한지 테스트합니다.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     상세한 출력.

 -- Option: --filter <filtername>

     Specifies the 'filter' for ‘--extract’.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 466. for details.  Only string names are accepted (that
     is, ‘fully_trusted’, ‘tar’, and ‘data’).


File: python.info,  Node: 예<5>,  Next: 지원되는 tar 형식,  Prev: 명령 줄 인터페이스<3>,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.11 예
............

* Menu:

* Reading examples::
* Writing examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Reading examples,  Next: Writing examples,  Up: 예<5>

5.13.6.12 Reading examples
..........................

전체 tar 아카이브를 현재 작업 디렉터리로 추출하는 방법:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(filter='data')
     tar.close()

리스트 대신 제너레이터 함수를 사용하여 *note TarFile.extractall(): 428.로
tar 아카이브의 부분집합을 추출하는 방법:

     import os
     import tarfile

     def py_files(members):
         for tarinfo in members:
             if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
                 yield tarinfo

     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
     tar.close()

gzip 압축 tar 아카이브를 읽고 일부 멤버 정보를 표시하는 방법:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
     for tarinfo in tar:
         print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
         if tarinfo.isreg():
             print("a regular file.")
         elif tarinfo.isdir():
             print("a directory.")
         else:
             print("something else.")
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Writing examples,  Prev: Reading examples,  Up: 예<5>

5.13.6.13 Writing examples
..........................

파일명 리스트로 압축되지 않은 tar 아카이브를 만드는 방법:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
     for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
         tar.add(name)
     tar.close()

*note with: 5cc. 문을 사용한 같은 예제:

     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

How to create and write an archive to stdout using *note
sys.stdout.buffer: ad3. in the 'fileobj' parameter in *note
TarFile.add(): bf0.:

     import sys
     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w|gz", fileobj=sys.stdout.buffer) as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

*note TarFile.add(): bf0.의 'filter' 매개 변수를 사용하여 아카이브를 만
들고 사용자 정보를 재설정하는 방법:

     import tarfile
     def reset(tarinfo):
         tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
         tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
         return tarinfo
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
     tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되는 tar 형식,  Next: 유니코드 문제,  Prev: 예<5>,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.14 지원되는 tar 형식
...........................

*note tarfile: de. 모듈로 만들 수 있는 tar 형식은 세 가지입니다:

   * POSIX.1-1988 ustar 형식 (*note USTAR_FORMAT: 2a1d.).  최대 256자 길
     이의 파일명과 최대 100자 링크 이름을 지원합니다.  최대 파일 크기는
     8 GiB입니다.  이것은 오래되고 제한적이지만 널리 지원되는 형식입니다
     .

   * GNU tar 형식 (*note GNU_FORMAT: 2a1e.).  긴 파일명과 링크 이름,
     8GiB보다 큰 파일과 스파스(sparse) 파일을 지원합니다.  이것은
     GNU/Linux 시스템에서 사실상 표준입니다.  *note tarfile: de.은 긴 이
     름에 대한 GNU tar 확장을 완전히 지원하며 스파스(sparse) 파일 지원은
     읽기 전용입니다.

   * POSIX.1-2001 pax 형식 (*note PAX_FORMAT: 2a1f.).  사실상 제한이 없
     는 가장 유연한 형식입니다.  긴 파일명과 링크 이름, 큰 파일을 지원하
     며 경로명을 이식성 있는 방식으로 저장합니다.  GNU tar,
     bsdtar/libarchive 및 star를 포함한 최신 tar 구현은 확장된 'pax' 기
     능을 완벽하게 지원합니다; 일부 오래되었거나 유지 관리되지 않는 라이
     브러리는 그렇지 않을 수 있지만, 'pax' 아카이브를 마치 범용적으로 지
     원되는 'ustar' 형식인 것처럼 취급해야 합니다.  새 아카이브의 현재 기
     본 형식입니다.

     다른 방법으로 저장할 수 없는 정보를 위해 추가 헤더를 사용하여 기존
     'ustar' 형식을 확장합니다.  pax 헤더에는 두 가지 종류가 있습니다: 확
     장(extended) 헤더는 후속 파일 헤더에만 영향을 미치며, 전역(global)
     헤더는 전체 아카이브에 유효하며 뒤따르는 파일 모두에 영향을 미칩니
     다.  pax 헤더의 모든 데이터는 이식성의 이유로 'UTF-8'로 인코딩됩니
     다.

읽을 수는 있지만 만들 수 없는 tar 형식의 변형이 더 있습니다:

   * 고대 V7 형식.  이것은 일반 파일과 디렉터리 만 저장하는 유닉스 7판
     (Unix Seventh Edition)에서 온 첫 번째 tar 형식입니다.  이름은 100자
     이하여야 합니다.  사용자/그룹 이름 정보는 없습니다.  ASCII가 아닌 문
     자가 있는 필드의 경우 일부 아카이브에서 헤더 체크섬이 잘못 계산되었
     습니다.

   * SunOS tar 확장 형식.  이 형식은 POSIX.1-2001 pax 형식의 변형이지만,
     호환되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 문제,  Prev: 지원되는 tar 형식,  Up: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.13.6.15 유니코드 문제
.......................

tar 형식은 원래 파일 시스템 정보 보존에 중점을 두고 테이프 드라이브에서
백업하기 위해 고안되었습니다.  현재 tar 아카이브는 일반적으로 파일 배포
와 네트워크를 통한 아카이브 교환에 사용됩니다.  원래 형식(다른 모든 형식
의 기초)의 한 가지 문제점은 다른 문자 인코딩을 지원한다는 개념이 없다는
것입니다.  예를 들어, 'UTF-8' 시스템에서 만들어진 일반 tar 아카이브는
'ASCII'가 아닌 문자가 포함되면 'Latin-1' 시스템에서 올바르게 읽을 수 없
습니다.  (파일명, 링크 이름, 사용자/그룹 이름과 같은) 텍스트 메타 데이터
가 손상된 것으로 나타납니다.  불행히도, 아카이브의 인코딩을 자동 감지하
는 방법은 없습니다.  pax 형식은 이 문제를 해결하도록 설계되었습니다.  범
용 문자 인코딩 'UTF-8'을 사용하여 ASCII가 아닌 메타 데이터를 저장합니다.

*note tarfile: de.에서 문자 변환의 세부 사항은 *note TarFile: 11ff. 클래
스의 'encoding'과 'errors' 키워드 인자에 의해 제어됩니다.

'encoding'은 아카이브의 메타 데이터에 사용할 문자 인코딩을 정의합니다.  기
본값은 *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. 이고, 또는 폴 백으로
‘'ascii'’입니다.  아카이브를 읽거나 쓰는지에 따라, 메타 데이터를 디코딩
하거나 인코딩해야 합니다.  'encoding'이 올바르게 설정되지 않으면, 이 변
환이 실패 할 수 있습니다.

'errors' 인자는 변환할 수 없는 문자를 처리하는 방법을 정의합니다.  가능
한 값은 섹션 *note 에러 처리기: 17ec.에 나열되어 있습니다.  기본 체계는
파이썬은 파일 시스템 호출에도 사용하는 ‘'surrogateescape'’입니다, *note
파일명, 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수: 2a63.를 참조하십시오.

*note PAX_FORMAT: 2a1f. 아카이브(기본값)의 경우, 모든 메타 데이터가
'UTF-8'을 사용하여 저장기 때문에 'encoding'은 일반적으로 필요하지 않습니
다.  'encoding'은 바이너리 pax 헤더가 디코딩되거나 서로게이트 문자가 있
는 문자열이 저장될 때와 같은 드문 경우에만 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 형식,  Next: 암호화 서비스,  Prev: 데이터 압축 및 보관,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.14 파일 형식
==============

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈들은 마크업 언어가 아니고 전자 메일과 무관한 다양
한 파일 형식을 구문 분석합니다.

* Menu:

* csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기::
* configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기::
* tomllib — Parse TOML files::
* netrc — netrc 파일 처리::
* plistlib — 애플 .plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석: plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.


File: python.info,  Node: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기,  Next: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기,  Up: 파일 형식

5.14.1 ‘csv’ — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/csv.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

소위 CSV (Comma Separated Values – 쉼표로 구분된 값) 형식은 스프레드시트
와 데이터베이스에 대한 가장 일반적인 가져오기 및 내보내기 형식입니다.
CSV 형식은 RFC 4180(2)에서 표준화된 방식으로 형식을 기술하기 전에 여러 해
동안 사용되었습니다.  잘 정의된 표준이 없다는 것은 다른 애플리케이션에 의
해 생성되고 소비되는 데이터에 미묘한 차이가 존재한다는 것을 의미합니다.
이러한 차이로 인해 여러 소스의 CSV 파일을 처리하는 것이 번거로울 수 있습
니다.  그러나 분리 문자와 인용 문자가 다양하기는 해도, 전체 형식은 유사
하여 프로그래머에게 데이터 읽기와 쓰기 세부 사항을 숨기면서도 이러한 데
이터를 효율적으로 조작할 수 있는 단일 모듈을 작성하는 것이 가능합니다.

*note csv: 29. 모듈은 CSV 형식의 표 형식 데이터를 읽고 쓰는 클래스를 구
현합니다.  이 모듈은 프로그래머가 Excel에서 사용하는 CSV 형식에 대한 자
세한 내용을 알지 못해도, “Excel에서 선호하는 형식으로 이 데이터를 쓰세요
”나 “Excel에서 생성된 이 파일의 데이터를 읽으세요”라고 말할 수 있도록 합
니다.  프로그래머는 다른 응용 프로그램에서 이해할 수 있는 CSV 형식을 기
술하거나 자신만의 특수 용도 CSV 형식을 정의할 수 있습니다.

*note csv: 29. 모듈의 *note reader: 480.와 *note writer: 481. 객체는 시
퀀스를 읽고 씁니다.  프로그래머는 *note DictReader: 9e1.와 *note
DictWriter: 11ed. 클래스를 사용하여 딕셔너리 형식으로 데이터를 읽고 쓸 수
있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 305(3) - CSV File API

     파이썬에 이 모듈의 추가를 제안한 파이썬 개선 제안.

* Menu:

* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<3>.
* 방언과 포매팅 파라미터::
* 판독기 객체::
* 기록기 객체::
* 예제: 예제<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/csv.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<3>,  Next: 방언과 포매팅 파라미터,  Up: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.14.1.1 모듈 내용
..................

*note csv: 29. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: csv.reader (csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     지정된 'csvfile'의 줄을 처리하는 *note 판독기(reader) 객체: 2a6b.를
     반환합니다.  csvfile은 문자열의 이터러블이어야 하며, 각 문자열은 판
     독기가 정의한 csv 형식이어야 합니다.  csvfile은 보통 파일류 객체이
     거나 리스트입니다.  'csvfile'가 파일 객체이면, ‘newline=''’로 열렸
     어야 합니다.  (1)  특정 CSV 방언(dialect)에만 적용되는 파라미터 집
     합을 정의하는 데 사용되는 선택적 'dialect' 매개 변수를 지정할 수 있
     습니다.  *note Dialect: 1682. 클래스의 서브 클래스의 인스턴스이거나
     *note list_dialects(): 180f. 함수가 반환하는 문자열 중 하나일 수 있
     습니다.  다른 선택적 'fmtparams' 키워드 인자는 현재 방언의 개별 포
     매팅 파라미터를 대체 할 수 있습니다.  방언과 포매팅 파라미터에 대한
     자세한 내용은 *note 방언과 포매팅 파라미터: 2a6c. 절을 참조하십시오
     .

     Each row read from the csv file is returned as a list of strings.
     No automatic data type conversion is performed unless the *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15f4. format option is specified (in which case
     unquoted fields are transformed into floats).

     간단한 사용 예:

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
          ...     for row in spamreader:
          ...         print(', '.join(row))
          Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
          Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam

 -- 함수: csv.writer (csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     지정된 파일류 객체에 분리된 문자열로 사용자의 데이터를 변환하는 기
     록기(writer) 객체를 반환합니다.  'csvfile'은 *note write(): 1c7c. 메
     서드가 있는 모든 객체일 수 있습니다.  'csvfile'이 파일 객체면,
     ‘newline=''’으로 열렸어야 합니다 (2).  특정 CSV 방언(dialect)에만 적
     용되는 파라미터 집합을 정의하는 데 사용되는 선택적 'dialect' 매개 변
     수를 지정할 수 있습니다.  *note Dialect: 1682. 클래스의 서브 클래스
     의 인스턴스이거나 *note list_dialects(): 180f. 함수가 반환하는 문자
     열 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  다른 선택적 'fmtparams' 키워드 인자는 현
     재 방언의 개별 포매팅 파라미터를 대체 할 수 있습니다.  방언과 포매
     팅 파라미터에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 방언과 포매팅 파라미터:
     2a6c. 절을 참조하십시오.  DB API를 구현하는 모듈과 가능한 한 쉽게 인
     터페이스 하기 위해, 값 *note None: 66f.은 빈 문자열로 기록됩니다.  이
     것은 가역 변환이 아니지만, ‘cursor.fetch*’ 호출에서 반환된 데이터를
     전처리하지 않고도, SQL NULL 데이터값을 CSV 파일로 쉽게 덤프할 수 있
     습니다.  다른 모든 비 문자열 데이터는 기록 전에 *note str(): 445.로
     문자열화 됩니다.

     간단한 사용 예:

          import csv
          with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
                                      quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])

 -- 함수: csv.register_dialect (name, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     'dialect'를 'name'과 연관시킵니다.  'name'은 문자열이어야 합니다.  방
     언은 *note Dialect: 1682.의 서브 클래스 전달, 'fmtparams' 키워드 인
     자 또는 둘 모두를 사용하여 지정할 수 있는데, 키워드 인자가 dialect의
     매개 변수보다 우선합니다.  방언과 포매팅 파라미터에 대한 자세한 내
     용은 *note 방언과 포매팅 파라미터: 2a6c. 절을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: csv.unregister_dialect (name)

     방언(dialect) 등록소에서 'name'과 관련된 연관된 방언을 삭제합니다.
     'name'이 등록된 방언 이름이 아니면 *note Error: 2a6e.가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: csv.get_dialect (name)

     'name'과 연관된 방언을 반환합니다.  'name'이 등록된 방언 이름이 아
     니면 *note Error: 2a6e.가 발생합니다.  이 함수는 불변 *note
     Dialect: 1682.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: csv.list_dialects ()

     등록된 모든 방언의 이름을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: csv.field_size_limit ()

 -- 함수: csv.field_size_limit (new_limit)

     구문 분석기가 허락하는 현재의 최대 필드 크기를 반환합니다.
     'new_limit'가 주어지면, 이것이 새로운 한계가 됩니다.

*note csv: 29. 모듈은 다음 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: csv.DictReader (f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None,
          restval=None, dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     일반 판독기처럼 작동하지만 각 행(row)의 정보를 키가 선택적
     'fieldnames' 매개 변수로 지정된 *note dict: 256.로 매핑하는 객체를
     만듭니다.

     'fieldnames' 매개 변수는 *note 시퀀스: 4eb.입니다.  'fieldnames'를
     생략하면, 파일 'f'의 첫 번째 행에 있는 값들을 fieldnames로 사용하며
     결과에서 생략됩니다.  'fieldnames'를 제공하면, 사용되고 첫 번째 행
     은 결과에 포함됩니다.  필드 이름이 어떻게 결정되는지와 관계없이, 딕
     셔너리는 원래 순서를 유지합니다.

     행에 fieldnames보다 많은 필드가 있으면, 나머지 데이터가 리스트에 저
     장되고 'restkey'(기본값은 ‘None’)로 지정된 필드 이름으로 저장됩니다
     .  비어 있지 않은 행에 fieldnames보다 필드 수가 적다면, 빠진 값은
     'restval'(기본값은 ‘None’)의 값으로 채워집니다.

     다른 모든 선택적 또는 키워드 인자는 하부 *note reader: 480. 인스턴
     스에 전달됩니다.

     If the argument passed to 'fieldnames' is an iterator, it will be
     coerced to a *note list: 60b.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 반환된 행은 이제 ‘OrderedDict’ 형입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 반환된 행은 이제 *note dict: 256. 형입니다.

     간단한 사용 예:

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
          ...     for row in reader:
          ...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
          ...
          Eric Idle
          John Cleese

          >>> print(row)
          {'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}

 -- 클래스: csv.DictWriter (f, fieldnames, restval='',
          extrasaction='raise', dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     일반 기록기처럼 작동하지만 딕셔너리를 출력 행에 매핑하는 객체를 만
     듭니다.  'fieldnames' 매개 변수는 키의 *note 시퀀스: 1e.인데, *note
     writerow(): de6. 메서드에 전달된 딕셔너리의 값이 'f' 파일에 기록되
     는 순서를 식별합니다.  선택적 'restval' 매개 변수는 딕셔너리에
     'fieldnames'의 키가 빠졌을 때 기록될 값을 지정합니다.  *note
     writerow(): de6. 메서드에 전달된 딕셔너리에 'fieldnames'에 없는 키
     가 포함되어 있으면, 선택적 'extrasaction' 매개 변수가 수행할 작업을
     지시합니다.  기본값인 ‘'raise'’로 설정되면, *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.  ‘'ignore'’로 설정하면, 딕셔너리의 추가 값이 무시됩니다
     .  다른 선택적 또는 키워드 인자는 하부 *note writer: 481. 인스턴스
     에 전달됩니다.

     *note DictReader: 9e1. 클래스와 달리 *note DictWriter: 11ed. 클래스
     의 'fieldnames' 매개 변수는 선택 사항이 아닙니다.

     If the argument passed to 'fieldnames' is an iterator, it will be
     coerced to a *note list: 60b.

     간단한 사용 예:

          import csv

          with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
              writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)

              writer.writeheader()
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})

 -- 클래스: csv.Dialect

     The *note Dialect: 1682. class is a container class whose
     attributes contain information for how to handle doublequotes,
     whitespace, delimiters, etc.  Due to the lack of a strict CSV
     specification, different applications produce subtly different CSV
     data.  *note Dialect: 1682. instances define how *note reader: 480.
     and *note writer: 481. instances behave.

     All available *note Dialect: 1682. names are returned by *note
     list_dialects(): 180f, and they can be registered with specific
     *note reader: 480. and *note writer: 481. classes through their
     initializer (‘__init__’) functions like this:

          import csv

          with open('students.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              writer = csv.writer(csvfile, dialect='unix')

 -- 클래스: csv.excel

     *note excel: 2a6f. 클래스는 Excel에서 생성한 CSV 파일의 일반적인 속
     성을 정의합니다.  방언 이름 ‘'excel'’로 등록됩니다.

 -- 클래스: csv.excel_tab

     *note excel_tab: 2a70. 클래스는 Excel에서 생성된 TAB 구분 파일의 일
     반적인 속성을 정의합니다.  방언 이름 ‘'excel-tab'’으로 등록됩니다.

 -- 클래스: csv.unix_dialect

     *note unix_dialect: 11ec. 클래스는 유닉스 시스템에서 생성된 CSV 파
     일의 일반적인 속성을 정의합니다.  즉, ‘'\n'’을 줄 종결자로 사용하고
     모든 필드를 인용 처리합니다.  방언 이름 ‘'unix'’로 등록됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: csv.Sniffer

     *note Sniffer: 2a71. 클래스는 CSV 파일의 형식을 추론하는 데 사용됩
     니다.

     *note Sniffer: 2a71. 클래스는 두 가지 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: sniff (sample, delimiters=None)

          지정된 'sample'을 분석하고 발견된 파라미터를 반영하는 *note
          Dialect: 1682. 서브 클래스를 반환합니다.  선택적인
          'delimiters' 매개 변수를 주면, 가능한 유효한 구분 문자를 포함
          하는 문자열로 해석됩니다.

      -- 메서드: has_header (sample)

          sample 텍스트(CSV 형식으로 추정합니다)를 분석하고, 첫 번째 행
          이 일련의 열 머리글로 보이면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.  각
          열을 검사하면서, 샘플에 헤더가 포함되어 있는지 추정하기 위해 두
          가지 주요 기준 중 하나가 고려됩니다:

             - the second through n-th rows contain numeric values

             - the second through n-th rows contain strings where at
               least one value’s length differs from that of the
               putative header of that column.

          Twenty rows after the first row are sampled; if more than half
          of columns + rows meet the criteria, *note True: c0a. is
          returned.

          참고: This method is a rough heuristic and may produce both
          false positives and negatives.

*note Sniffer: 2a71. 사용 예:

     with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
         dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
         csvfile.seek(0)
         reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
         # ... CSV 파일 내용을 여기에서 처리합니다 ...
*note csv: 29. 모듈은 다음 상수를 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: csv.QUOTE_ALL

     *note writer: 481. 객체에 모든 필드를 인용 처리하도록 지시합니다.

 -- 데이터: csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL

     Instructs *note writer: 481. objects to only quote those fields
     which contain special characters such as 'delimiter', 'quotechar',
     ‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ or any of the characters in 'lineterminator'.

 -- 데이터: csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC

     *note writer: 481. 객체에 모든 숫자가 아닌 필드를 인용 처리하도록 지
     시합니다.

     Instructs *note reader: 480. objects to convert all non-quoted
     fields to type *note float: 2ef.

          참고: Some numeric types, such as *note bool: 461, *note
          Fraction: 1e7, or *note IntEnum: cdc, have a string
          representation that cannot be converted to *note float: 2ef.
          They cannot be read in the *note QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15f4. and
          *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 47f. modes.

 -- 데이터: csv.QUOTE_NONE

     Instructs *note writer: 481. objects to never quote fields.  When
     the current 'delimiter', 'quotechar', 'escapechar', ‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’
     or any of the characters in 'lineterminator' occurs in output data
     it is preceded by the current 'escapechar' character.  If
     'escapechar' is not set, the writer will raise *note Error: 2a6e.
     if any characters that require escaping are encountered.  Set
     'quotechar' to ‘None’ to prevent its escaping.

     *note reader: 480. 객체에게 인용 문자의 특별한 처리를 수행하지 않도
     록 지시합니다.

 -- 데이터: csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL

     Instructs *note writer: 481. objects to quote all fields which are
     not ‘None’.  This is similar to *note QUOTE_ALL: 2a74, except that
     if a field value is ‘None’ an empty (unquoted) string is written.

     Instructs *note reader: 480. objects to interpret an empty
     (unquoted) field as ‘None’ and to otherwise behave as *note
     QUOTE_ALL: 2a74.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: csv.QUOTE_STRINGS

     Instructs *note writer: 481. objects to always place quotes around
     fields which are strings.  This is similar to *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15f4, except that if a field value is ‘None’ an
     empty (unquoted) string is written.

     Instructs *note reader: 480. objects to interpret an empty
     (unquoted) string as ‘None’ and to otherwise behave as *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 15f4.

     Added in version 3.12.

*note csv: 29. 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: csv.Error

     에러가 감지될 때 모든 함수가 발생시킵니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘newline=''’을 지정하지 않으면, 따옴표 처리된 필드에 포함된 줄 넘
김 문자가 올바르게 해석되지 않으며, 줄 끝 표시에 ‘\r\n’을 사용하는 플랫
폼에서 쓸 때 여분의 ‘\r’이 추가됩니다.  csv 모듈은 자체 (*note 유니버설:
d37.) 줄 넘김 처리를 하므로, ‘newline=''’을 지정하는 것은 항상 안전합니
다.

   (2) ‘newline=''’을 지정하지 않으면, 따옴표 처리된 필드에 포함된 줄 넘
김 문자가 올바르게 해석되지 않으며, 줄 끝 표시에 ‘\r\n’을 사용하는 플랫
폼에서 쓸 때 여분의 ‘\r’이 추가됩니다.  csv 모듈은 자체 (*note 유니버설:
d37.) 줄 넘김 처리를 하므로, ‘newline=''’을 지정하는 것은 항상 안전합니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 방언과 포매팅 파라미터,  Next: 판독기 객체,  Prev: 모듈 내용<3>,  Up: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.14.1.2 방언과 포매팅 파라미터
...............................

입력과 출력 레코드의 형식을 더 쉽게 지정할 수 있도록, 특정 포매팅 파라미
터가 함께 방언으로 묶입니다.  방언(dialect)은 CSV 파일의 형식을 설명하는
다양한 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 *note Dialect: 1682. 클래스의 서브 클래스입
니다.  *note reader: 480.나 *note writer: 481. 객체를 만들 때, 프로그래
머는 문자열이나 *note Dialect: 1682. 클래스의 서브 클래스를 dialect 매개
변수로 지정할 수 있습니다.  'dialect' 매개 변수에 추가하여, 또는 대신에,
프로그래머는 아래에서 *note Dialect: 1682. 클래스에 대해 정의된 어트리뷰
트와 같은 이름을 갖는 개별 포매팅 매개 변수를 지정할 수 있습니다.

방언은 다음 어트리뷰트를 지원합니다:

 -- 속성: Dialect.delimiter

     필드를 구분하는 데 사용되는 한 문자로 된 문자열.  기본값은 ‘','’입
     니다.

 -- 속성: Dialect.doublequote

     필드 안에 나타나는 'quotechar'의 인스턴스를 인용 처리하는 방법을 제
     어합니다.  *note True: c0a.일 때, 문자를 두 개로 늘립니다.  *note
     False: b34.일 때, 'escapechar'를 'quotechar'의 접두어로 사용합니다.
     기본값은 *note True: c0a.입니다.

     출력 시, 'doublequote'가 *note False: b34.이고 아무런 'escapechar'가
     설정되지 않았으면, 필드에 'quotechar'가 있으면 *note Error: 2a6e.가
     발생합니다.

 -- 속성: Dialect.escapechar

     A one-character string used by the writer to escape characters that
     require escaping:

             * the 'delimiter', the 'quotechar', ‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ and any
               of the characters in 'lineterminator' are escaped if
               'quoting' is set to *note QUOTE_NONE: 2a76.;

             * the 'quotechar' is escaped if 'doublequote' is *note
               False: b34.;

             * the 'escapechar' itself.

     On reading, the 'escapechar' removes any special meaning from the
     following character.  It defaults to *note None: 66f, which
     disables escaping.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: An empty 'escapechar' is not allowed.

 -- 속성: Dialect.lineterminator

     *note writer: 481.에 의해 생성된 행을 종료하는 데 사용되는 문자열.
     기본값은 ‘'\r\n'’입니다.

          참고: *note reader: 480.는 ‘'\r'’이나 ‘'\n'’을 줄 종료로 인식
          하도록 하드 코딩되어 있으며, 'lineterminator'를 무시합니다.  이
          동작은 앞으로 변경될 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Dialect.quotechar

     A one-character string used to quote fields containing special
     characters, such as the 'delimiter' or the 'quotechar', or which
     contain new-line characters (‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ or any of the
     characters in 'lineterminator').  It defaults to ‘'"'’.  Can be set
     to ‘None’ to prevent escaping ‘'"'’ if 'quoting' is set to *note
     QUOTE_NONE: 2a76.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: An empty 'quotechar' is not allowed.

 -- 속성: Dialect.quoting

     Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and
     recognised by the reader.  It can take on any of the *note QUOTE_*
     constants: 2a73. and defaults to *note QUOTE_MINIMAL: 2a75. if
     'quotechar' is not ‘None’, and *note QUOTE_NONE: 2a76. otherwise.

 -- 속성: Dialect.skipinitialspace

     *note True: c0a.일 때, 'delimiter' 바로 뒤에 오는 스페이스들은 무시
     됩니다.  기본값은 *note False: b34.입니다.

 -- 속성: Dialect.strict

     ‘True’일 때, 잘못된 CSV 입력에서 예외 *note Error: 2a6e.를 발생시킵
     니다.  기본값은 ‘False’입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 판독기 객체,  Next: 기록기 객체,  Prev: 방언과 포매팅 파라미터,  Up: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.14.1.3 판독기 객체
....................

판독기 객체(*note DictReader: 9e1. 인스턴스와 *note reader(): 480. 함수
에서 반환한 객체)에는 다음과 같은 공용 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: csvreader.__next__ ()

     판독기의 이터러블 객체의 다음 행을 현재 *note Dialect: 1682.에 따라
     구문 분석하여 리스트(객체가 *note reader(): 480.에서 반환된 경우)나
     딕셔너리(*note DictReader: 9e1. 인스턴스인 경우)로 반환합니다.  보
     통 이것을 ‘next(reader)’처럼 호출합니다.

판독기 객체에는 다음과 같은 공용 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: csvreader.dialect

     구문 분석기가 사용 중인 방언의 읽기 전용 설명.

 -- 속성: csvreader.line_num

     소스 이터레이터에서 읽은 줄 수.  레코드가 여러 줄에 걸쳐 있을 수 있
     으므로, 이것은 반환된 레코드 수와 같지 않습니다.

DictReader 객체에는 다음과 같은 공용 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: DictReader.fieldnames

     객체를 만들 때 매개 변수로 전달되지 않았으면, 이 어트리뷰트는 첫 번
     째 액세스 시나 파일에서 첫 번째 레코드를 읽을 때 초기화됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기록기 객체,  Next: 예제<10>,  Prev: 판독기 객체,  Up: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.14.1.4 기록기 객체
....................

*note writer: 481. 객체(*note DictWriter: 11ed. 인스턴스와 *note
writer(): 481. 함수에서 반환한 객체)에는 다음과 같은 공용 메서드가 있습
니다.  'row'는 *note writer: 481. 객체의 경우 문자열이나 숫자의 이터러블
이어야 하며, *note DictWriter: 11ed. 객체의 경우 fieldnames를 (*note
str(): 445.을 먼저 통과시킴으로써) 문자열이나 숫자로 매핑하는 딕셔너리이
어야 합니다.  복소수는 괄호로 둘러싸여 기록됨에 유의하십시오.  이것은
CSV 파일을 읽는 다른 프로그램에서 문제를 일으킬 수 있습니다 (복소수를 지
원한다고 가정할 때).

 -- 메서드: csvwriter.writerow (row, /)

     'row' 매개 변수를 현재 *note Dialect: 1682.에 따라 포매팅해서, 기록
     기의 파일 객체에 씁니다.  하부 파일 객체의 'write' 메서드 호출의 반
     환 값을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 임의의 이터러블 지원 추가.

 -- 메서드: csvwriter.writerows (rows, /)

     'rows'(위에서 설명한 'row' 객체의 이터러블)에 있는 모든 요소를 현재
     방언에 따라 포매팅해서, 기록기의 파일 객체에 씁니다.

기록기 객체에는 다음과 같은 공용 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: csvwriter.dialect

     기록기가 사용 중인 방언의 읽기 전용 설명.

DictWriter 객체의 공용 메서드는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 메서드: DictWriter.writeheader ()

     (생성자에 지정된 대로) 필드 이름을 담은 행을 현재 방언에 따라 포매
     팅해서, 기록기의 파일 객체에 씁니다.  내부적으로 사용되는 *note
     csvwriter.writerow(): de6. 호출의 반환 값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note writeheader(): 11ee.는 이제 내부적으로 사
     용하는 *note csvwriter.writerow(): de6. 메서드에서 반환된 값도 반환
     합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<10>,  Prev: 기록기 객체,  Up: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기

5.14.1.5 예제
.............

CSV 파일을 읽는 가장 간단한 예:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

다른 형식의 파일 읽기:

     import csv
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

대응하는 가장 간단한 쓰기 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
         writer = csv.writer(f)
         writer.writerows(someiterable)

CSV 파일을 읽기로 여는 데 *note open(): 515.이 사용되므로, 파일은 기본적
으로 시스템 기본 인코딩(*note locale.getencoding(): 2de.를 참조하세요)을
사용하여 유니코드로 디코딩됩니다.  다른 인코딩을 사용하여 파일을 디코딩
하려면 open의 ‘encoding’ 인자를 사용하십시오:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

시스템 기본 인코딩 이외의 다른 것으로 쓸 때도 마찬가지입니다: 출력 파일
을 열 때 encoding 인자를 지정하십시오.

새로운 방언 등록하기:

     import csv
     csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')

판독기의 약간 더 고급 사용 — 에러 잡기와 보고:

     import csv, sys
     filename = 'some.csv'
     with open(filename, newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         try:
             for row in reader:
                 print(row)
         except csv.Error as e:
             sys.exit(f'file {filename}, line {reader.line_num}: {e}')

또한, 모듈이 문자열 구문 분석을 직접 지원하지는 않지만, 쉽게 수행할 수 있
습니다:

     import csv
     for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
         print(row)


File: python.info,  Node: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기,  Next: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Prev: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기,  Up: 파일 형식

5.14.2 ‘configparser’ — 구성 파일 구문 분석기
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/configparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 마이크로소프트 윈도우 INI 파일과 유사한 구조를 제공하는 기본 구
성 언어를 구현하는 *note ConfigParser: 1c8. 클래스를 제공합니다.  이를 사
용하여 최종 사용자가 쉽게 사용자 정의 할 수 있는 파이썬 프로그램을 작성
할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 이 라이브러리는 윈도우 레지스트리 확장 버전의 INI 문법에 사용
     된 값-형 접두사를 해석하거나 기록하지 '않습니다'.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note tomllib: fc.

     TOML is a well-specified format for application configuration
     files.  It is specifically designed to be an improved version of
     INI.

모듈 *note shlex: c4.

     응용 프로그램 구성 파일에도 사용할 수 있는 유닉스 셸과 유사한 미니
     언어를 만드는 것에 관한 지원.

모듈 *note json: 82.

     ‘json’ 모듈은 자바스크립트 문법의 부분 집합을 구현하며, 때로는 구성
     에 사용되지만 주석을 지원하지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 빠른 시작::
* 지원되는 데이터형::
* 대체 값::
* 지원되는 INI 파일 구조::
* Unnamed Sections::
* 값의 보간::
* 매핑 프로토콜 액세스::
* 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의::
* 레거시 API 예제::
* ConfigParser 객체::
* RawConfigParser 객체::
* 예외: 예외<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/configparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: 빠른 시작,  Next: 지원되는 데이터형,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.1 빠른 시작
..................

다음과 같은 매우 기본적인 구성 파일을 봅시다:

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = 45
     Compression = yes
     CompressionLevel = 9
     ForwardX11 = yes

     [forge.example]
     User = hg

     [topsecret.server.example]
     Port = 50022
     ForwardX11 = no

INI 파일의 구조는 *note 다음 섹션에서: 2a8d. 설명됩니다.  기본적으로, 파
일은 섹션으로 구성되며, 각 섹션에는 값이 있는 키가 포함됩니다.  *note
configparser: 22. 클래스는 이러한 파일을 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다.  프로그래
밍 방식으로 위의 구성 파일을 만드는 것으로 시작하겠습니다.

     >>> import configparser
     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
     ...                      'Compression': 'yes',
     ...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
     >>> config['forge.example'] = {}
     >>> config['forge.example']['User'] = 'hg'
     >>> config['topsecret.server.example'] = {}
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # 구문 분석기를 변경합니다
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # 여기도 마찬가지입니다
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
     >>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...   config.write(configfile)
     ...

보시다시피, 구성 구문 분석기는 딕셔너리처럼 취급할 수 있습니다.  *note
나중에 설명되는: 2a8e. 차이점이 있지만, 동작은 딕셔너리에서 기대하는 것
과 매우 비슷합니다.

이제 구성 파일을 만들고 저장했으니, 파일을 다시 읽고 담긴 데이터를 탐색
합시다.

     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config.sections()
     []
     >>> config.read('example.ini')
     ['example.ini']
     >>> config.sections()
     ['forge.example', 'topsecret.server.example']
     >>> 'forge.example' in config
     True
     >>> 'python.org' in config
     False
     >>> config['forge.example']['User']
     'hg'
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
     'yes'
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
     'no'
     >>> topsecret['Port']
     '50022'
     >>> for key in config['forge.example']:
     ...     print(key)
     user
     compressionlevel
     serveraliveinterval
     compression
     forwardx11
     >>> config['forge.example']['ForwardX11']
     'yes'

위에서 볼 수 있듯이, API는 매우 간단합니다.  유일한 마법은 ‘DEFAULT’ 섹
션인데, 다른 모든 섹션에 대한 기본값을 제공합니다 (1).  섹션의 키는 대소
문자를 구분하지 않으며 소문자로 저장됨에 유의하십시오 (2).

It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
ConfigParser: 1c8, where the most recently added configuration has the
highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more recent
configuration while the previously existing keys are retained.  The
example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which will override any
conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = -1

     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
     >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...     config_override.write(configfile)
     ...
     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
     ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
     >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
     -1

This behaviour is equivalent to a *note ConfigParser.read(): 142e. call
with several files passed to the 'filenames' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   (2) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되는 데이터형,  Next: 대체 값,  Prev: 빠른 시작,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.2 지원되는 데이터형
..........................

구성 구문 분석기는 구성 파일에 있는 값의 데이터형을 추측하지 않고, 항상
내부적으로 문자열로 저장합니다.  이것은 다른 데이터형이 필요하면, 직접 변
환해야 함을 뜻합니다:

     >>> int(topsecret['Port'])
     50022
     >>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
     9.0

이 작업이 매우 흔하기 때문에, 구성 구문 분석기는 정수, 부동 소수점 및 불
리언을 처리하는 편리한 게터(getter) 메서드를 제공합니다.  마지막 것이 가
장 흥미로운데, ‘bool('False')’ 가 여전히 ‘True’이기 때문에 ‘bool()’ 에 값
을 전달하는 것만으로는 충분치 않기 때문입니다.  이것이 구성 구문 분석기
가 *note getboolean(): 2a91.도 제공하는 이유입니다.  이 메서드는 대소 문
자를 구분하지 않으며 ‘'yes'’/‘'no'’, ‘'on'’/‘'off'’, ‘'true'’/‘'false'’
및 ‘'1'’/‘'0'’에서 불리언 값을 인식합니다 (1).  예를 들면:

     >>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
     False
     >>> config['forge.example'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
     True
     >>> config.getboolean('forge.example', 'Compression')
     True

*note getboolean(): 2a91. 외에도, 구성 구문 분석기는 동등한 *note
getint(): 2a92.와 *note getfloat(): 2a93. 메서드를 제공합니다.  여러분 자
신의 변환기를 등록하고 제공된 변환기를 사용자 정의 할 수 있습니다.  (2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   (2) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 대체 값,  Next: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조,  Prev: 지원되는 데이터형,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.3 대체 값
................

딕셔너리와 마찬가지로, 섹션의 *note get(): 125c. 메서드를 사용하여 대체
(fallback) 값을 제공할 수 있습니다:

     >>> topsecret.get('Port')
     '50022'
     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
     '9'
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
     '3des-cbc'

기본값이 대체 값보다 우선함에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, 이 예에서
‘'CompressionLevel'’ 키는 ‘'DEFAULT'’ 섹션에서만 지정되었습니다.  이것을
‘'topsecret.server.example'’ 섹션에서 가져오려고 하면 대체 값을 지정하더
라도 항상 기본값을 얻습니다:

     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
     '9'

알아 두어야 할 또 다른 사항은 구문 분석기 수준의 *note get(): 125c. 메서
드가 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 유지되는 더 복잡한 사용자 정의 인터페이
스를 제공한다는 것입니다.  이 메서드를 사용할 때, ‘fallback’ 키워드 전용
인자를 통해 대체 값을 제공할 수 있습니다:

     >>> config.get('forge.example', 'monster',
     ...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
     'No such things as monsters'

*note getint(): 2a92, *note getfloat(): 2a93. 및 *note getboolean():
2a91. 메서드에 같은 ‘fallback’ 인자를 사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
     False
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     True
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조,  Next: Unnamed Sections,  Prev: 대체 값,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.4 지원되는 INI 파일 구조
...............................

구성 파일은 섹션으로 구성되며, 각 섹션은 ‘[section]’ 헤더로 시작하고, 특
정 문자열(기본적으로 ‘=’이나 ‘:’ (1))로 구분된 키/값 항목들이 뒤따릅니다
.  기본적으로, 섹션 이름은 대소 문자를 구분하지만 키는 구분하지 않습니다
(2).  선행과 후행 공백은 키와 값에서 제거됩니다.  구문 분석기가 이를 허
용하도록 구성되어 있다면 값을 생략할 수 있으며 (3), 이 경우 키/값 구분자
도 생략될 수 있습니다.  값의 첫 줄보다 깊이 들여쓰기만 하면 값이 여러 줄
에 걸쳐있을 수 있습니다.  구문 분석기의 모드에 따라, 빈 줄은 여러 줄 값
의 일부로 취급되거나 무시될 수 있습니다.

By default, a valid section name can be any string that does not contain
‘\n’.  To change this, see *note ConfigParser.SECTCRE: 2a95.

The first section name may be omitted if the parser is configured to
allow an unnamed top level section with ‘allow_unnamed_section=True’.
In this case, the keys/values may be retrieved by *note UNNAMED_SECTION:
2a96. as in ‘config[UNNAMED_SECTION]’.

구성 파일에는 특정 문자(기본적으로 ‘#’과 ‘;’ (4))를 접두사로 붙인 주석이
포함될 수 있습니다.  주석은 주석이 없다면 빈 줄일 곳에 있을 수 있으며, 들
여쓰기 될 수 있습니다.  (5)

예를 들면:

     [Simple Values]
     key=value
     spaces in keys=allowed
     spaces in values=allowed as well
     spaces around the delimiter = obviously
     you can also use : to delimit keys from values

     [All Values Are Strings]
     values like this: 1000000
     or this: 3.14159265359
     are they treated as numbers? : no
     integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
     can use the API to get converted values directly: true

     [Multiline Values]
     chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
         I sleep all night and I work all day

     [No Values]
     key_without_value
     empty string value here =

     [You can use comments]
     # 이것처럼
     ; 또는 이것처럼

     # 기본적으로 빈 줄에만 허용됩니다.
     # 인라인 주석은 사용자가 구분 문자를 값의 일부로
     # 사용하지 못하게 하므로 해로울 수 있습니다.
     # 그러해도, 이것을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다.

         [Sections Can Be Indented]
             can_values_be_as_well = True
             does_that_mean_anything_special = False
             purpose = formatting for readability
             multiline_values = are
                 handled just fine as
                 long as they are indented
                 deeper than the first line
                 of a value
             # 주석도 들여 쓸 수 있다고 언급했나요?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   (2) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   (3) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   (4) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

   (5) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Unnamed Sections,  Next: 값의 보간,  Prev: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.5 Unnamed Sections
.........................

The name of the first section (or unique) may be omitted and values
retrieved by the *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 2a96. attribute.

     >>> config = """
     ... option = value
     ...
     ... [  Section 2  ]
     ... another = val
     ... """
     >>> unnamed = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_unnamed_section=True)
     >>> unnamed.read_string(config)
     >>> unnamed.get(configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION, 'option')
     'value'


File: python.info,  Node: 값의 보간,  Next: 매핑 프로토콜 액세스,  Prev: Unnamed Sections,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.6 값의 보간
..................

핵심 기능 위에, *note ConfigParser: 1c8.는 보간(interpolation)을 지원합
니다.  이는 ‘get()’ 호출에서 값을 반환하기 전에 값을 전처리할 수 있음을
의미합니다.

 -- 클래스: configparser.BasicInterpolation

     *note ConfigParser: 1c8.에서 사용되는 기본 구현.  같은 섹션의 다른
     값이나 특수한 기본 섹션의 값을 참조하는 포맷 문자열을 포함하는 값을
     사용할 수 있도록 합니다 (1).  초기화할 때 추가 기본값을 제공할 수 있
     습니다.

     예를 들면:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
          my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # %% 를 사용하여 % 기호를 이스케이프 합니다 (% 는 이스케이프 해야 하는 유일한 문자입니다):
          gain: 80%%

     위의 예에서, 'interpolation'이 ‘BasicInterpolation()’ 으로 설정된
     *note ConfigParser: 1c8.는 ‘%(home_dir)s’를 ‘home_dir’의 값(이 경우
     ‘/Users’)으로 해석합니다.  결과적으로 ‘%(my_dir)s’는
     ‘/Users/lumberjack’으로 해석됩니다.  모든 보간은 요청 시 수행되므로
     참조 체인에 사용된 키를 구성 파일에서 특정 순서로 지정할 필요는 없
     습니다.

     ‘interpolation’을 ‘None’으로 설정하면, 구문 분석기는 ‘my_pictures’의
     값을 ‘%(my_dir)s/Pictures’로, ‘my_dir’의 값을
     ‘%(home_dir)s/lumberjack’으로 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: configparser.ExtendedInterpolation

     예를 들어 ‘zc.buildout’에서 사용되는 고급 문법을 구현하는 보간 대체
     처리기.  확장 보간은 ‘${section:option}’을 사용하여 외부 섹션의 값
     을 나타냅니다.  보간은 여러 수준으로 확장될 수 있습니다.  편의상,
     ‘section:’ 부분을 생략하면, 보간은 현재 섹션(그리고 가능하면 특수 섹
     션의 기본값)으로 기본 설정됩니다.

     예를 들어, 기본 보간으로 위에서 지정한 구성은, 확장 보간으로는 다음
     과 같습니다:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # $$ 를 사용하여 $ 기호를 이스케이프 합니다 ($ 는 이스케이프 해야 하는 유일한 문자입니다):
          cost: $$80

     다른 섹션의 값도 가져올 수 있습니다:

          [Common]
          home_dir: /Users
          library_dir: /Library
          system_dir: /System
          macports_dir: /opt/local

          [Frameworks]
          Python: 3.2
          path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/

          [Arthur]
          nickname: Two Sheds
          last_name: Jackson
          my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
          python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 매핑 프로토콜 액세스,  Next: 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의,  Prev: 값의 보간,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.7 매핑 프로토콜 액세스
.............................

Added in version 3.2.

매핑 프로토콜 액세스는 사용자 정의 객체를 딕셔너리처럼 사용하는 기능의 일
반적인 이름입니다.  *note configparser: 22.의 경우, 매핑 인터페이스 구현
은 ‘parser['section']['option']’ 표기법을 사용합니다.

‘parser['section']’은 특히 구문 분석기의 섹션 데이터에 대한 프락시를 반
환합니다.  이는 값은 복사되지 않지만 필요할 때 원래 구문 분석기에서 가져
옴을 뜻합니다.  더욱 중요한 것은 섹션 프락시에서 값이 변경되면, 실제로 원
래 구문 분석기에서 변경된다는 것입니다.

*note configparser: 22. 객체는 가능한 한 실제 딕셔너리에 가깝게 동작합니
다.  매핑 인터페이스가 완전하며 *note MutableMapping: 109f. ABC를 준수합
니다.  그러나, 고려해야 하는 몇 가지 차이점이 있습니다:

   * 기본적으로, 섹션의 모든 키는 대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 액세스 할 수
     있습니다 (1).  예를 들어 ‘for option in parser["section"]’는
     ‘optionxform’ 변환된 옵션 키 이름만 산출합니다.  이것은 기본적으로
     소문자 키를 의미합니다.  동시에, 키 ‘'a'’를 보유하는 섹션의 경우, 두
     표현식 모두 ‘True’를 반환합니다:

          "a" in parser["section"]
          "A" in parser["section"]

   * 모든 섹션에는 ‘DEFAULTSECT’ 값도 포함되어 있는데, 섹션에 대한
     ‘.clear()’가 섹션을 비어 보이게 만들 수 없다는 뜻입니다.  이것은 섹
     션에서 기본값을 삭제할 수 없기 때문입니다 (기술적으로는 기본값이 거
     기 없기 때문입니다).  섹션에서 재정의되었으면, 삭제하면 기본값이 다
     시 보입니다.  기본값을 삭제하려고 하면 *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생
     합니다.

   * ‘DEFAULTSECT’는 구문 분석기에서 제거할 수 없습니다:

        * 삭제하려고 하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다,

        * ‘parser.clear()’는 이것을 그대로 남겨둡니다,

        * ‘parser.popitem()’은 이것을 절대 반환하지 않습니다.

   * ‘parser.get(section, option, **kwargs)’ - 두 번째 인자는 대체 값이
     '아닙니다'.  그러나 섹션 수준 ‘get()’ 메서드는 매핑 프로토콜과 클래
     식 configparser API와 모두 호환됨에 유의하십시오.

   * ‘parser.items()’는 매핑 프로토콜과 호환됩니다 (DEFAULTSECT를 포함하
     여 'section_name', 'section_proxy' 쌍의 리스트를 반환합니다).  그러
     나, 이 메서드는 인자와 함께 호출 할 수도 있습니다:
     ‘parser.items(section, raw, vars)’.  후자의 호출은 지정된
     ‘section’에 대한 'option', 'value' 쌍의 리스트를 반환하며, 모든 보
     간이 확장됩니다 (‘raw=True’가 제공되지 않는 한).

매핑 프로토콜은 기존 레거시 API 위에 구현되므로 원래 인터페이스를 재정의
하는 서브 클래스에서도 여전히 매핑이 작동해야 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 구성 구문 분석기는 심도 있는 사용자 정의를 허용합니다.  각주 참조
로 요약된 동작을 변경하는 데 관심이 있으면 *note 구문 분석기 동작 사용자
정의: 2a8f. 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의,  Next: 레거시 API 예제,  Prev: 매핑 프로토콜 액세스,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.8 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의
.....................................

INI 형식을 사용하는 응용 프로그램만큼이나 많은 INI 형식 변형이 있습니다.
*note configparser: 22.는 사용 가능한 가장 큰 INI 스타일 집합을 지원하기
위해 먼 길을 갔습니다.  기본 기능은 주로 역사적 배경에 의해 결정되며 일
부 기능을 사용자 정의하고 싶을 가능성이 큽니다.

특정 구성 구문 분석기의 작동 방식을 변경하는 가장 흔한 방법은
‘__init__()’ 옵션을 사용하는 것입니다:

   * 'defaults', 기본값: ‘None’

     이 옵션은 처음에 ‘DEFAULT’ 섹션에 배치될 키-값 쌍의 딕셔너리를 받아
     들입니다.  이것은 지정하지 않으면 설명된 기본값과 같은 값이 되는 간
     결한 구성 파일을 지원하는 우아한 방법입니다.

     힌트: 특정 섹션에 대한 기본값을 지정하려면, 실제 파일을 읽기 전에
     *note read_dict(): 2a9a.를 사용하십시오.

   * 'dict_type', 기본값: *note dict: 256.

     이 옵션은 매핑 프로토콜의 작동 방식과 기록된 구성 파일의 꼴에 큰 영
     향을 미칩니다.  표준 딕셔너리를 사용하면, 모든 섹션이 구문 분석기에
     추가된 순서대로 저장됩니다.  섹션 내의 옵션도 마찬가지입니다.

     대체 딕셔너리 형을 사용하여 예를 들어 다시 쓸 때 섹션과 옵션을 정렬
     할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 단일 연산에서 키-값 쌍의 집합을 추가하는 방법이 있습니다.  이
     러한 연산에서 일반 딕셔너리를 사용하면 키 순서가 유지됩니다.  예를
     들면:

          >>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
          ...                                'key2': 'value2',
          ...                                'key3': 'value3'},
          ...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
          ...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
          ...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
          ...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
          ...                                'bar': 'y',
          ...                                'baz': 'z'}
          ... })
          >>> parser.sections()
          ['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
          >>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
          ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

   * 'allow_no_value', 기본값: ‘False’

     일부 구성 파일에는 값이 없는 설정이 포함되어 있지만, 그 외에는
     *note configparser: 22. 에서 지원하는 구문을 준수하는 것으로 알려져
     있습니다.  생성자에 대한 'allow_no_value' 매개 변수를 사용하여 이러
     한 값을 받아들여야 함을 표시할 수 있습니다:

          >>> import configparser

          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ...   user = mysql
          ...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ...   skip-external-locking
          ...   old_passwords = 1
          ...   skip-bdb
          ...   # we don't need ACID today
          ...   skip-innodb
          ... """
          >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.read_string(sample_config)

          >>> # 값이 있는 설정은 이전처럼 처리됩니다:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
          'mysql'

          >>> # 값이 없는 설정은 None을 제공합니다:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]

          >>> # 지정되지 않은 설정은 여전히 에러를 발생시킵니다:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          KeyError: 'does-not-exist'

   * 'delimiters', 기본값: ‘('=', ':')’

     구분자(delimiters)는 섹션 내의 값에서 키를 구분하는 부분 문자열입니
     다.  줄에서 처음 나타나는 구분하는 부분 문자열을 구분자로 간주합니
     다.  이는 값에 (하지만 키는 아닙니다) 구분자가 포함될 수 있음을 의
     미합니다.

     *note ConfigParser.write(): 2a9b.에 대한 'space_around_delimiters'
     인자도 참조하십시오.

   * 'comment_prefixes', 기본값: ‘('#', ';')’

   * 'inline_comment_prefixes', 기본값 : ‘None’

     주석 접두사는 구성 파일 내에서 유효한 주석의 시작을 나타내는 문자열
     입니다.  'comment_prefixes'는 주석이 없으면 빈 줄일 때만 (선택적으
     로 들여쓰기 됩니다) 사용되는 반면 'inline_comment_prefixes'는 모든
     유효한 값 (예를 들어 섹션 이름, 옵션 및 빈 줄 역시) 뒤에 사용될 수
     있습니다.  기본적으로 인라인 주석은 비활성화되어 있으며 ‘'#'’과
     ‘';'’이 전체 줄 주석의 접두사로 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note configparser: 22.의 이전 버전에서는 동작이
     ‘comment_prefixes=('#',';')’와 ‘inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)’와 일
     치했습니다.

     구성 구문 분석기는 주석 접두사 이스케이프를 지원하지 않아서
     'inline_comment_prefixes'를 사용하면 사용자가 주석 접두사로 사용되
     는 문자로 옵션값을 지정하지 못할 수 있습니다.  확실하지 않으면,
     'inline_comment_prefixes'를 설정하지 마십시오.  어떤 상황에서든, 여
     러 줄 값에서 줄의 시작 부분에 주석 접두사 문자를 저장하는 유일한 방
     법은 접두사를 보간하는 것입니다, 예를 들어:

          >>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
          >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
          >>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
          >>> parser.read_string("""
          ... [DEFAULT]
          ... hash = #
          ...
          ... [hashes]
          ... shebang =
          ...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
          ...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          ...
          ... extensions =
          ...   enabled_extension
          ...   another_extension
          ...   #disabled_by_comment
          ...   yet_another_extension
          ...
          ... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
          ... even in multiline values = line #1
          ...   line #2
          ...   line #3
          ... """)
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])

          #!/usr/bin/env python
          # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])

          enabled_extension
          another_extension
          yet_another_extension
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
          if # is not at line start
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
          line #1
          line #2
          line #3

   * 'strict', 기본값: ‘True’

     ‘True’로 설정하면, 구문 분석기는 단일 소스에서 읽는 (*note
     read_file(): 4ff, *note read_string(): 2a9c. 또는 *note
     read_dict(): 2a9a.를 사용해서) 동안 섹션이나 옵션 중복을 허용하지 않
     습니다.  새로운 응용 프로그램에서는 엄격한(strict) 구문 분석기를 사
     용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note configparser: 22.의 이전 버전에서는 동작이
     ‘strict=False’와 일치했습니다.

   * 'empty_lines_in_values', 기본값: ‘True’

     구성 구문 분석기에서는, 값을 담는 키보다 많이 들여쓰기만 하면 값이
     여러 줄에 걸쳐있을 수 있습니다.  기본적으로 구문 분석기는 빈 줄도 값
     의 일부가 되도록 합니다.  동시에, 가독성을 높이기 위해 키를 임의로
     들여 쓸 수 있습니다.  결과적으로, 구성 파일이 커지고 복잡해지면, 사
     용자가 파일 구조를 쉽게 놓칠 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 봅시다:

          [Section]
          key = multiline
            value with a gotcha

           this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'

     이것은 사용자가 가변 폭 글꼴을 사용하여 파일을 편집하고 있다면, 보
     는 데 특히 문제가 될 수 있습니다.  따라서 응용 프로그램에 빈 줄이 있
     는 값이 필요하지 않으면, 허용하지 않는 것이 좋습니다.  이렇게 하면
     빈 줄이 매번 키를 분리합니다.  위의 예에서는, ‘key’와 ‘this’의 두 키
     를 생성합니다.

   * 'default_section', 기본값: ‘configparser.DEFAULTSECT’ (즉:
     ‘"DEFAULT"’)

     다른 섹션이나 보간 목적으로 기본값의 특수한 섹션을 허용하는 규칙은
     이 라이브러리의 강력한 개념으로, 사용자가 복잡한 선언적 구성을 만들
     수 있도록 합니다.  이 섹션은 일반적으로 ‘"DEFAULT"’라고 하지만 다른
     유효한 섹션 이름을 가리키도록 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다.  몇 가지 흔
     한 값은 이렇습니다: ‘"general"’이나 ‘"common"’.  제공된 이름은 모든
     소스에서 읽을 때 기본값 섹션을 인식하는 데 사용되며 구성을 파일에 다
     시 쓸 때 사용됩니다.  현재 값은 ‘parser_instance.default_section’ 어
     트리뷰트를 사용하여 꺼낼 수 있으며 실행 시간에 수정될 수 있습니다
     (즉 파일을 한 형식에서 다른 형식으로 변환하기 위해).

   * 'interpolation', 기본값: ‘configparser.BasicInterpolation’

     'interpolation' 인자를 통해 사용자 정의 처리기를 제공하여 보간 동작
     을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다.  ‘None’은 보간을 완전히 끄는 데 사용
     할 수 있으며, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’ 은 ‘zc.buildout’에서 영감을
     얻은 고급 변형을 제공합니다.  이 주제에 관한 자세한 내용은 *note
     전용 설명서 섹션: 2a99.에 있습니다.  *note RawConfigParser: f5c. 의
     기본값은 ‘None’입니다.

   * 'converters', 기본값: 설정되지 않음

     구성 구문 분석기는 형 변환을 수행하는 옵션값 게터를 제공합니다.  기
     본적으로 *note getint(): 2a92, *note getfloat(): 2a93. 및 *note
     getboolean(): 2a91.가 구현됩니다.  다른 게터가 바람직하다면, 사용자
     는 그것들을 서브 클래스에 정의하거나 각 키가 변환기의 이름이고 각 값
     이 이 변환을 구현하는 콜러블인 딕셔너리를 전달할 수 있습니다.  예를
     들어, ‘{'decimal': decimal.Decimal}’을 전달하면 구문 분석기 객체와
     모든 섹션 프락시 모두에 ‘getdecimal()’이 추가됩니다.  즉,
     ‘parser_instance.getdecimal('section', 'key', fallback=0)’과
     ‘parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0)’을 모두 쓸 수 있습
     니다.

     변환기가 구문 분석기의 상태에 액세스해야 하면, 구성 구문 분석기 서
     브 클래스에서 메서드로 구현될 수 있습니다.  이 메서드의 이름이
     ‘get’으로 시작하면, 모든 섹션 프락시에서 dict 호환 형식으로 사용할
     수 있습니다 (위의 ‘getdecimal()’ 예를 참조하십시오).

이러한 구문 분석기 어트리뷰트의 기본값을 재정의하여 더 고급 사용자 정의
를 수행할 수 있습니다.  기본값은 클래스에서 정의되므로, 서브 클래스나 어
트리뷰트 대입으로 재정의할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES

     *note getboolean(): 2a91.을 사용할 때 기본적으로, 구성 구문 분석기
     는 다음 값들을 ‘True’로 간주하고: ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’, ‘'on'’
     다음 값들을 ‘False’로 간주합니다: ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’,
     ‘'off'’.  문자열과 불리언 결과를 사용자 정의 딕셔너리로 지정하여 이
     를 재정의할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
          >>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          False

     다른 일반적인 불리언 쌍에는 ‘accept’/‘reject’나
     ‘enabled’/‘disabled’가 포함됩니다.

 -- 메서드: ConfigParser.optionxform (option)

     이 메서드는 모든 읽기, get 또는 set 연산에서 옵션 이름을 변환합니다
     .  기본값은 이름을 소문자로 변환합니다.  이는 또한 구성 파일을 기록
     할 때 모든 키가 소문자가 됨을 의미합니다.  이것이 부적절하다면 이 메
     서드를 재정의하십시오.  예를 들면:

          >>> config = """
          ... [Section1]
          ... Key = Value
          ...
          ... [Section2]
          ... AnotherKey = Value
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
          ['key']
          >>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
          ['anotherkey']
          >>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
          >>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
          ['Key']
          >>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
          ['AnotherKey']

          참고: optionxform 함수는 옵션 이름을 규범적 형식으로 변환합니
          다.  이 함수는 멱등적(idempotent) 함수여야 합니다: 이름이 이미
          규범적 형식이면, 변경되지 않은 상태로 반환해야 합니다.

 -- 속성: ConfigParser.SECTCRE

     섹션 헤더를 구문 분석하는 데 사용되는 컴파일된 정규식.  기본값은
     ‘[section]’을 이름 ‘"section"’과 일치시킵니다.  공백은 섹션 이름의
     일부로 간주해서, ‘[ larch ]’는 이름이 ‘" larch "’인 섹션으로 읽힙니
     다.  이것이 부적절하다면 이 어트리뷰트를 재정의하십시오.  예를 들면
     :

          >>> import re
          >>> config = """
          ... [Section 1]
          ... option = value
          ...
          ... [  Section 2  ]
          ... another = val
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> typical.sections()
          ['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> custom.sections()
          ['Section 1', 'Section 2']

          참고: ConfigParser 객체는 옵션 줄을 인식하기 위해 ‘OPTCRE’ 어
          트리뷰트도 사용하지만, 생성자 옵션 'allow_no_value'와
          'delimiters'를 방해하기 때문에 재정의하지 않는 것이 좋습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 레거시 API 예제,  Next: ConfigParser 객체,  Prev: 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.9 레거시 API 예제
........................

주로 이전 버전과의 호환성 문제로 인해, *note configparser: 22.는 명시적
인 ‘get’/‘set’ 메서드로 레거시 API도 제공합니다.  아래에 설명된 메서드에
대한 유효한 사용 사례가 있지만, 새 프로젝트에는 매핑 프로토콜 액세스가 선
호됩니다.  레거시 API는 때때로 더 고급이고, 저수준(low-level)이며 완전히
반 직관적입니다.

구성 파일에 쓰는 예:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()

     # RawConfigParser 의 set 함수를 사용하면, 문자열이 아닌 값을
     # 키에 내부적으로 대입할 수 있지만, 파일에 쓰려고 할 때나
     # 비 원시 모드로 가져올 때 에러가 발생함에 유의하십시오.
     # 매핑 프로토콜이나 ConfigParser의 set()을 사용하여
     # 값을 설정하면 이러한 대입이 허용되지 않습니다.
     config.add_section('Section1')
     config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
     config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
     config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
     config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')

     # 구성 파일을 'example.cfg'에 기록하기
     with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
         config.write(configfile)

구성 파일을 다시 읽는 예:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
     config.read('example.cfg')

     # 값이 float가 아니면 getfloat()는 예외를 발생시킵니다
     # getint()와 getboolean() 또한 해당 유형에 대해 이렇게 합니다
     a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
     an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
     print(a_float + an_int)

     # 다음 출력은 '%(bar)s' 나 '%(baz)s' 를 보간하지 않음에 유의하십시오.
     # RawConfigParser() 를 사용하고 있기 때문입니다.
     if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
         print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))

보간을 얻으려면, *note ConfigParser: 1c8.를 사용하십시오:

     import configparser

     cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
     cfg.read('example.cfg')

     # 단일 get 연산에서 보간을 사용하지 않으려면 get()의 선택적 *raw* 인자를
     # True로 설정하십시오.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"

     # 선택적 *vars* 인자는 보간에서 우선하는 멤버가
     # 포함된 dict입니다.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
                                            'baz': 'evil'}))

     # 선택적 *fallback* 인자를 사용하여 대체 값을 제공할 수 있습니다
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
           # -> "No such things as monsters."

     # print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) 만은 NoOptionError 를 발생시킵니다
     # 하지만 이렇게 사용할 수도 있습니다:

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
           # -> None

기본값은 두 가지 유형의 ConfigParser 모두에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  사용
된 옵션이 다른 곳에 정의되어 있지 않으면 보간에 사용됩니다.

     import configparser

     # 'bar'와 'baz'의 기본값이 각각 'Life'와 'hard'인 새 인스턴스
     config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
     config.read('example.cfg')

     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"


File: python.info,  Node: ConfigParser 객체,  Next: RawConfigParser 객체,  Prev: 레거시 API 예제,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.10 ConfigParser 객체
...........................

 -- 클래스: configparser.ConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={},
          allow_unnamed_section=False)

     메인 구성 구문 분석기.  'defaults'가 주어지면, 내장 기본값의 딕셔너
     리로 초기화됩니다.  'dict_type'이 제공되면, 섹션 리스트, 섹션 내의
     옵션 및 기본값에 대한 딕셔너리 객체를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

     'delimiters'가 주어지면, 키를 값과 나누는 부분 문자열 집합으로 사용
     됩니다.  'comment_prefixes'가 주어지면, 주석이 없다면 빈 줄일 곳에
     서 주석을 시작하는 접두사의 부분 문자열 집합으로 사용됩니다.  주석
     은 들여 쓸 수 있습니다.  'inline_comment_prefixes'가 주어지면, 비어
     있지 않은 줄에서 주석을 시작하는 접두사의 부분 문자열 집합으로 사용
     됩니다.

     'strict'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면, 구문 분석기는 단일 소스(파일, 문자열
     또는 딕셔너리)에서 읽는 동안 섹션이나 옵션의 중복을 허용하지 않고,
     *note DuplicateSectionError: 125f. 나 *note DuplicateOptionError:
     1260.를 발생시킵니다.  'empty_lines_in_values'가 ‘False’이면 (기본
     값: ‘True’), 각 빈 줄은 옵션의 끝을 나타냅니다.  그렇지 않으면, 여
     러 줄 옵션의 내부 빈 줄이 값의 일부로 유지됩니다.  'allow_no_value'가
     ‘True’이면 (기본값: ‘False’), 값이 없는 옵션이 허용됩니다; 이들에 대
     해 저장되는 값은 ‘None’이며 후행 구분자 없이 직렬화됩니다.

     'default_section'이 주어지면, 다른 섹션과 보간 목적의 기본값을 담는
     특수한 섹션의 이름을 지정합니다 (보통 ‘"DEFAULT"’라는 이름).  이 값
     은 ‘default_section’ 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 실행 시간에 꺼
     내고 변경할 수 있습니다.  이는 이미 구문 분석된 구성 파일을 재평가
     하지 않지만, 구문 분석된 설정을 새 구성 파일에 기록할 때 사용됩니다
     .

     'interpolation' 인자를 통해 사용자 정의 처리기를 제공하여 보간 동작
     을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다.  ‘None’은 보간을 완전히 끄는 데 사용
     할 수 있으며, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’ 은 ‘zc.buildout’에서 영감을
     얻은 고급 변형을 제공합니다.  이 주제에 관한 자세한 내용은 *note
     전용 설명서 섹션: 2a99.에 있습니다.

     보간에 사용된 모든 옵션 이름은 다른 옵션 이름 참조와 마찬가지로
     *note optionxform(): 2aa1. 메서드를 통해 전달됩니다.  예를 들어, (옵
     션 이름을 소문자로 변환하는) *note optionxform(): 2aa1.의 기본 구현
     을 사용하면, 값 ‘foo %(bar)s’와 ‘foo %(BAR)s’가 동등합니다.

     'converters'가 주어지면, 각 키는 형 변환기의 이름을 나타내고 각 값
     은 문자열에서 원하는 데이터형으로의 변환을 구현하는 콜러블인 딕셔너
     리이어야 합니다.  모든 변환기는 구문 분석기 객체와 섹션 프락시에서
     자신만의 해당 ‘get*()’ 메서드를 갖습니다.

     When 'allow_unnamed_section' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), the
     first section name can be omitted.  See the *note "Unnamed
     Sections" section: 2a98.

     It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
     ConfigParser: 1c8, where the most recently added configuration has
     the highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more
     recent configuration while the previously existing keys are
     retained.  The example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which
     will override any conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

          [DEFAULT]
          ServerAliveInterval = -1

          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
          >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
          ...     config_override.write(configfile)
          ...
          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
          ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
          >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
          -1

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 기본 'dict_type'은 *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 5d5.입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' 및 'interpolation'이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'converters' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'defaults' 인자는 *note read_dict(): 2a9a.로 읽
     혀, 구문 분석기 전체에 일관된 동작을 제공합니다: 문자열이 아닌 키와
     값은 묵시적으로 문자열로 변환됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 삽입 순서를 유지하므로, 기본 'dict_type'은
     *note dict: 256.입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raise a *note MultilineContinuationError: 2aa2.
     when 'allow_no_value' is ‘True’, and a key without a value is
     continued with an indented line.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'allow_unnamed_section' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: defaults ()

          인스턴스 전체 기본값을 포함하는 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: sections ()

          사용 가능한 섹션 리스트를 반환합니다; '기본값 섹션'은 리스트에
          포함되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: add_section (section)

          'section'이라는 섹션을 인스턴스에 추가합니다.  주어진 이름의 섹
          션이 이미 존재하면, *note DuplicateSectionError: 125f. 가 발생
          합니다.  '기본값 섹션' 이름이 전달되면, *note ValueError:
          202.가 발생합니다.  섹션의 이름은 문자열이어야 합니다; 그렇지
          않으면, *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 문자열이 아닌 섹션 이름은 *note TypeError:
          532.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: has_section (section)

          이름 지정된 'section'이 구성에 있는지를 나타냅니다.  '기본값 섹
          션'은 인정되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: options (section)

          지정된 'section'에서 사용 가능한 옵션 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: has_option (section, option)

          주어진 'section'이 존재하고, 주어진 'option'을 포함하면, *note
          True: c0a.를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반
          환합니다.  지정된 'section'이 *note None: 66f.이거나 빈 문자열
          이면, DEFAULT로 가정합니다.

      -- 메서드: read (filenames, encoding=None)

          파일명들의 이터러블을 읽고 구문 분석하여, 성공적으로 구문 분석
          된 파일명의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          'filenames'가 문자열, *note bytes: 1c2. 객체 또는 *note 경로류
          객체: 2a0.이면 단일 파일명으로 처리됩니다.  'filenames'에서 이
          름 지정된 파일을 열 수 없으면, 해당 파일은 무시됩니다.  이는 잠
          재적인 구성 파일 위치(예를 들어, 현재 디렉터리, 사용자의 홈 디
          렉터리 및 일부 시스템 전체 디렉터리)의 이터러블을 지정할 수 있
          도록 설계되었으며, 이터러블에 있는 존재하는 모든 구성 파일을 읽
          습니다.

          제공된 이름의 파일이 아무것도 없으면, *note ConfigParser: 1c8.
          인스턴스는 빈 데이터 집합을 포함합니다.  파일에서 초깃값을 로
          드해야 하는 응용 프로그램은 선택적 파일에 대해 *note read():
          142e.를 호출하기 전에 *note read_file(): 4ff.을 사용하여 필수
          파일을 로드해야 합니다:

               import configparser, os

               config = configparser.ConfigParser()
               config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
               config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
                           encoding='cp1250')

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'encoding' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.  이전
          에는, *note open(): 515.의 기본 인코딩을 사용하여 모든 파일을
          읽었습니다.

          버전 3.6.1에서 변경: 'filenames' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류
          객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 'filenames' 매개 변수는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객
          체를 받아들입니다.

      -- 메서드: read_file (f, source=None)

          'f'에서 구성 데이터를 읽고 구문 분석합니다.  'f'는 유니코드 문
          자열을 산출하는 이터러블 이어야 합니다 (예를 들어 텍스트 모드
          로 열린 파일).

          선택적 인자 'source'는 읽을 파일의 이름을 지정합니다.  지정하
          지 않고 'f'에 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트가 있으면, 이것이 'source'로 사
          용됩니다; 기본값은 ‘'<???>'’입니다.

          Added in version 3.2: ‘readfp()’를 대체합니다.

      -- 메서드: read_string (string, source='<string>')

          문자열에서 구성 데이터를 구문 분석합니다.

          선택적 인자 'source'는 전달된 string의 문맥 특정 이름을 지정합
          니다.  지정하지 않으면, ‘'<string>'’이 사용됩니다.  일반적으로
          파일 시스템 경로나 URL이어야 합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: read_dict (dictionary, source='<dict>')

          딕셔너리와 같은 ‘items()’ 메서드를 제공하는 임의의 객체에서 구
          성을 로드합니다.  키는 섹션 이름이며, 값은 섹션에 있어야 하는
          키와 값이 들어 있는 딕셔너리입니다.  사용된 딕셔너리 형이 순서
          를 유지하면, 섹션과 해당 키가 순서대로 추가됩니다.  값은 자동
          으로 문자열로 변환됩니다.

          선택적 인자 'source'는 전달된 dictionary의 문맥 특정 이름을 지
          정합니다.  지정하지 않으면, ‘<dict>’가 사용됩니다.

          이 메서드를 사용하면 구문 분석 기간에 상태를 복사할 수 있습니
          다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: get (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          명명된 'section'에서 'option' 값을 가져옵니다.  'vars'가 제공
          되면, 딕셔너리이어야 합니다.  'option'은 'vars' (제공되면),
          'section' 및 'DEFAULTSECT' 에서 순서대로 조회됩니다.  키를 찾
          을 수 없고 'fallback'이 제공되면, 대체 값으로 사용됩니다.
          ‘None’은 'fallback' 값으로 제공될 수 있습니다.

          'raw' 인자가 참이 아닌 한, 모든 ‘'%'’ 보간이 반환 값에서 확장
          됩니다.  보간 키의 값은 옵션과 같은 방식으로 조회됩니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 인자 'raw', 'vars' 및 'fallback'은 사용자가
          세 번째 인자를 'fallback' 폴 백으로 사용하지 못하도록 하기 위
          해 키워드 전용입니다 (특히 매핑 프로토콜을 사용할 때).

      -- 메서드: getint (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          지정된 'section'의 'option'을 정수로 강제 변환하는 편의 메서드
          .  'raw', 'vars' 및 'fallback'에 대한 설명은 *note get():
          125c.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: getfloat (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          지정된 'section'의 'option'을 부동 소수점 수로 강제 변환하는 편
          의 메서드.  'raw', 'vars' 및 'fallback'에 대한 설명은 *note
          get(): 125c.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: getboolean (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          지정된 'section'의 'option'을 불리언 값으로 강제 변환하는 편의
          메서드.  옵션에 허용되는 값은 이 메서드가 ‘True’를 반환하게 하
          는 ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’ 및 ‘'on'’과 ‘False’를 반환하게 하
          는 ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’ 및 ‘'off'’입니다.  이 문자열 값은
          대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 확인됩니다.  다른 모든 값은 *note
          ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  'raw', 'vars' 및 'fallback'에
          대한 설명은 *note get(): 125c.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: items (raw=False, vars=None)

      -- 메서드: items (section, raw=False, vars=None)

          'section'이 제공되지 않으면, DEFAULTSECT를 포함하여,
          'section_name', 'section_proxy' 쌍의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          그렇지 않으면, 주어진 'section'의 옵션에 대해 'name', 'value'
          쌍의 리스트를 반환합니다.  선택적 인자는 *note get(): 125c. 메
          서드에서와 같은 의미입니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 'vars'에 있는 항목은 더는 결과에 나타나지 않
          습니다.  이전 동작은 실제 구문 분석기 옵션과 보간을 위해 제공
          된 변수를 혼합했습니다.

      -- 메서드: set (section, option, value)

          주어진 섹션이 존재하면, 주어진 옵션을 지정된 값으로 설정합니다
          ; 그렇지 않으면 *note NoSectionError: 2aa9.를 발생시킵니다.
          'option'과 'value'는 문자열이어야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면, *note
          TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: write (fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)

          텍스트 모드로 열렸어야 하는 (문자열을 받아들이는), 지정된
          *note 파일 객체: 11b2.에 구성의 표현을 기록합니다.  이 표현은
          향후 *note read(): 142e. 호출로 구문 분석할 수 있습니다.
          'space_around_delimiters'가 참이면, 키와 값 사이의 구분자는 공
          백으로 둘러싸입니다.

          참고: Comments in the original configuration file are not
          preserved when writing the configuration back.  What is
          considered a comment, depends on the given values for
          'comment_prefix' and 'inline_comment_prefix'.

      -- 메서드: remove_option (section, option)

          지정된 'section'에서 지정된 'option'을 제거합니다.  섹션이 존
          재하지 않으면, *note NoSectionError: 2aa9.를 발생시킵니다.  제
          거되는 옵션이 존재했으면 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다; 그렇지
          않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_section (section)

          지정된 'section'을 구성에서 제거합니다.  실제로 섹션이 존재하
          면, ‘True’를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: optionxform (option)

          입력 파일에서 발견되거나 클라이언트 코드에서 전달된 옵션 이름
          'option'을 내부 구조에서 사용되어야 하는 형식으로 변환합니다.
          기본 구현은 'option'의 소문자 버전을 반환합니다; 이 동작에 영
          향을 주기 위해 서브 클래스가 이것을 재정의하거나 클라이언트 코
          드가 인스턴스에 이 이름의 어트리뷰트를 설정할 수 있습니다.

          이 메서드를 사용하기 위해 구문 분석기를 서브 클래싱할 필요는 없
          으며, 문자열 인자를 취해서 문자열을 반환하는 함수로 인스턴스에
          설정할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들어 ‘str’로 설정하면 옵션 이름이
          대소 문자를 구분하게 됩니다:

               cfgparser = ConfigParser()
               cfgparser.optionxform = str

          구성 파일을 읽을 때, *note optionxform(): 2aa1.이 호출되기 전
          에 옵션 이름 주위의 공백이 제거됨에 유의하십시오.

 -- 데이터: configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION

     A special object representing a section name used to reference the
     unnamed section (see *note Unnamed Sections: 2a98.).

 -- 데이터: configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH

     'raw' 매개 변수가 거짓일 때 *note get(): 125c.의 재귀 보간의 최대 깊
     이.  기본 'interpolation'을 사용할 때만 의미 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: RawConfigParser 객체,  Next: 예외<6>,  Prev: ConfigParser 객체,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.11 RawConfigParser 객체
..............................

 -- 클래스: configparser.RawConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={},
          allow_unnamed_section=False)

     *note ConfigParser: 1c8.의 레거시 변형.  기본적으로 보간이 비활성화
     되어 있으며 레거시 ‘defaults=’ 키워드 인자 처리뿐만 아니라 안전하지
     않은 ‘add_section’과 ‘set’ 메서드를 통해 문자열이 아닌 섹션 이름, 옵
     션 이름 및 값을 허용합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' 및 'interpolation'이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'converters' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이제 삽입 순서를 유지하므로, 기본 'dict_type'은
     *note dict: 256.입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'allow_unnamed_section' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

          참고: 내부에 저장되는 값의 형을 검사하는 *note ConfigParser:
          1c8.를 대신 사용하는 것을 고려하십시오.  보간을 원하지 않으면,
          ‘ConfigParser(interpolation=None)’ 을 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: add_section (section)

          'section'이라는 이름의 섹션을 인스턴스에 추가합니다.  주어진 이
          름의 섹션이 이미 존재하면, *note DuplicateSectionError: 125f.
          가 발생합니다.  '기본값 섹션' 이름이 전달되면, *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          'section'의 형을 검사하지 않아서 사용자가 문자열이 아닌 섹션을
          만들 수 있도록 합니다.  이 동작은 지원되지 않으며 내부 에러를
          일으킬 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: set (section, option, value)

          주어진 섹션이 존재하면, 주어진 옵션을 지정된 값으로 설정합니다
          ; 그렇지 않으면 *note NoSectionError: 2aa9.를 발생시킵니다.  문
          자열이 아닌 값을 '내부에' 저장하도록 *note RawConfigParser:
          f5c.(또는 'raw' 매개 변수가 참으로 설정된 *note ConfigParser:
          1c8.)를 사용할 수 있지만, 전체 기능(보간과 파일로의 출력을 포
          함하는)은 문자열 값으로만 수행할 수 있습니다.

          이 메서드를 사용하면 문자열이 아닌 값을 키에 내부적으로 대입할
          수 있습니다.  이 동작은 지원되지 않으며 파일에 쓰려고 하거나 비
          원시 모드에서 가져오려고 할 때 에러가 발생합니다.  이러한 대입
          을 허용하지 않는 '매핑 프로토콜 API를 사용하십시오'.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<6>,  Prev: RawConfigParser 객체,  Up: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기

5.14.2.12 예외
..............

 -- 예외: configparser.Error

     다른 모든 *note configparser: 22. 예외의 베이스 클래스.

 -- 예외: configparser.NoSectionError

     지정된 섹션을 찾지 못할 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: configparser.DuplicateSectionError

     이미 존재하는 이름으로 *note add_section(): 125e.을 호출하거나 엄격
     한(strict) 구문 분석기에서 단일 입력 파일, 문자열 또는 딕셔너리에서
     섹션이 두 번 이상 발견될 때 발생하는 예외.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 선택적 'source'와 'lineno' 어트리뷰트 및
     ‘__init__()’에 대한 인자를 추가했습니다.

 -- 예외: configparser.DuplicateOptionError

     단일 파일, 문자열 또는 딕셔너리에서 읽는 동안 단일 옵션이 두 번 나
     타날 때 엄격한(strict) 구문 분석기가 발생시키는 예외.  이는 맞춤법
     과 대소 문자 구분과 관련된 에러를 잡습니다, 예를 들어 딕셔너리에는
     대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 같은 구성 키를 나타내는 두 개의 키가 있을
     수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: configparser.NoOptionError

     지정된 섹션에서 지정된 옵션을 찾지 못할 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: configparser.InterpolationError

     문자열 보간 수행 시 문제가 발생할 때 발생하는 예외의 베이스 클래스.

 -- 예외: configparser.InterpolationDepthError

     이터레이션 횟수가 *note MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH: 2aac.를 초과하여 문
     자열 보간을 완료할 수 없을 때 발생하는 예외.  *note
     InterpolationError: 2ab4.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError

     값에서 참조된 옵션이 존재하지 않을 때 발생하는 예외.  *note
     InterpolationError: 2ab4.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError

     치환이 이루어질 소스 텍스트가 요구되는 문법을 준수하지 않을 때 발생
     하는 예외.  *note InterpolationError: 2ab4.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError

     섹션 헤더가 없는 파일을 구문 분석하려고 할 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: configparser.ParsingError

     파일 구문 분석 중에 에러가 발생할 때 발생하는 예외.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 일관성을 위해 ‘filename’ 어트리뷰트와
     ‘__init__()’ 생성자 인자가 제거되었습니다.  3.2부터 ‘source’라는 이
     름으로 사용할 수 있었습니다.

 -- 예외: configparser.MultilineContinuationError

     Exception raised when a key without a corresponding value is
     continued with an indented line.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Next: netrc — netrc 파일 처리,  Prev: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기,  Up: 파일 형식

5.14.3 ‘tomllib’ — Parse TOML files
-----------------------------------

Added in version 3.11.

'Source code:' Lib/tomllib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for parsing TOML 1.0.0 (Tom’s Obvious
Minimal Language, https://toml.io(2)).  This module does not support
writing TOML.

더 보기
.......

The Tomli-W package(3) is a TOML writer that can be used in conjunction
with this module, providing a write API familiar to users of the
standard library *note marshal: 8d. and *note pickle: a6. modules.

더 보기
.......

The TOML Kit package(4) is a style-preserving TOML library with both
read and write capability.  It is a recommended replacement for this
module for editing already existing TOML files.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- 함수: tomllib.load (fp, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Read a TOML file.  The first argument should be a readable and
     binary file object.  Return a *note dict: 256.  Convert TOML types
     to Python using this *note conversion table: 2abc.

     'parse_float' will be called with the string of every TOML float to
     be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.
     This can be used to use another datatype or parser for TOML floats
     (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.).  The callable must not return
     a *note dict: 256. or a *note list: 60b, else a *note ValueError:
     202. is raised.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 2abd. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

 -- 함수: tomllib.loads (s, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Load TOML from a *note str: 445. object.  Return a *note dict: 256.
     Convert TOML types to Python using this *note conversion table:
     2abc.  The 'parse_float' argument has the same meaning as in *note
     load(): 2abb.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 2abd. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

The following exceptions are available:

 -- 예외: tomllib.TOMLDecodeError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 202.

* Menu:

* Examples::
* Conversion Table::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tomllib

   (2) https://toml.io/en/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tomli-w/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tomlkit/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples,  Next: Conversion Table,  Up: tomllib — Parse TOML files

5.14.3.1 Examples
.................

Parsing a TOML file:

     import tomllib

     with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
         data = tomllib.load(f)

Parsing a TOML string:

     import tomllib

     toml_str = """
     python-version = "3.11.0"
     python-implementation = "CPython"
     """

     data = tomllib.loads(toml_str)


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion Table,  Prev: Examples,  Up: tomllib — Parse TOML files

5.14.3.2 Conversion Table
.........................

TOML                   Python
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
TOML document          dict
                       
                       
string                 str
                       
                       
integer                int
                       
                       
float                  float (configurable with 'parse_float')
                       
                       
boolean                bool
                       
                       
offset date-time       datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to an instance of ‘datetime.timezone’)
                       
                       
local date-time        datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to ‘None’)
                       
                       
local date             datetime.date
                       
                       
local time             datetime.time
                       
                       
array                  list
                       
                       
table                  dict
                       
                       
inline table           dict
                       
                       
array of tables        list of dicts
                       


File: python.info,  Node: netrc — netrc 파일 처리,  Next: plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석,  Prev: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Up: 파일 형식

5.14.4 ‘netrc’ — netrc 파일 처리
--------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/netrc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note netrc: 18c8. 클래스는 유닉스 ‘ftp’ 프로그램과 다른 FTP 클라이언트
가 사용하는 netrc 파일 형식을 구문 분석하고 캡슐화합니다.

 -- 클래스: netrc.netrc ([file])

     A *note netrc: 18c8. instance or subclass instance encapsulates
     data from a netrc file.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies the file to parse.  If no argument is given, the file
     ‘.netrc’ in the user’s home directory – as determined by *note
     os.path.expanduser(): a10. – will be read.  Otherwise, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. exception will be raised.  Parse errors
     will raise *note NetrcParseError: 2ac3. with diagnostic information
     including the file name, line number, and terminating token.

     If no argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of
     passwords in the ‘.netrc’ file will raise a *note NetrcParseError:
     2ac3. if the file ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a
     user other than the user running the process, or accessible for
     read or write by any other user).  This implements security
     behavior equivalent to that of ftp and other programs that use
     ‘.netrc’.  Such security checks are not available on platforms that
     do not support *note os.getuid(): 1533.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: POSIX 권한 검사를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'file'이 인자로 전달되지 않으면 *note
     os.path.expanduser(): a10.가 ‘.netrc’ 파일의 위치를 찾는 데 사용됩
     니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note netrc: 9b. try UTF-8 encoding before
     using locale specific encoding.  The entry in the netrc file no
     longer needs to contain all tokens.  The missing tokens’ value
     default to an empty string.  All the tokens and their values now
     can contain arbitrary characters, like whitespace and non-ASCII
     characters.  If the login name is anonymous, it won’t trigger the
     security check.

 -- 예외: netrc.NetrcParseError

     소스 텍스트에 문법적인 에러가 있을 때 *note netrc: 18c8. 클래스에서
     발생하는 예외.  이 예외 인스턴스는 세 가지 흥미로운 어트리뷰트를 제
     공합니다.

      -- 속성: msg

          에러의 텍스트 설명.

      -- 속성: filename

          소스 파일의 이름.

      -- 속성: lineno

          에러가 발견된 줄 번호.

* Menu:

* netrc 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/netrc.py


File: python.info,  Node: netrc 객체,  Up: netrc — netrc 파일 처리

5.14.4.1 netrc 객체
...................

*note netrc: 18c8. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: netrc.authenticators (host)

     'host'에 대한 인증 자의 3-tuple ‘(login, account, password)’를 반환
     합니다.  netrc 파일에 주어진 호스트에 대한 항목이 없으면 ‘default’
     항목과 연관된 튜플을 반환합니다.  일치하는 호스트도 기본 항목도 사
     용할 수 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: netrc.__repr__ ()

     클래스 데이터를 netrc 파일의 형식의 문자열로 덤프합니다.  (이것은 주
     석을 버리고 엔트리를 재정렬할 수 있습니다.)

*note netrc: 18c8.의 인스턴스에는 공개 인스턴스 변수가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: netrc.hosts

     호스트 이름을 ‘(login, account, password)’ 튜플에 매핑하는 딕셔너리
     .  ‘default’ 항목이 있으면 그 이름의 의사 호스트로 표시됩니다.

 -- 속성: netrc.macros

     매크로 이름을 문자열 리스트에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석,  Prev: netrc — netrc 파일 처리,  Up: 파일 형식

5.14.5 ‘plistlib’ — 애플 ‘.plist’ 파일 생성과 구문 분석
-------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/plistlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 애플, 주로 macOS와 iOS에서 사용되는 “프로퍼티 리스트(property
list)” 파일을 읽고 쓰는 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  이 모듈은 바이너리와
XML plist 파일을 모두 지원합니다.

프로퍼티 리스트 (‘.plist’) 파일 형식은 딕셔너리, 리스트, 숫자 및 문자열
과 같은 기본 객체 형을 지원하는 간단한 직렬화입니다.  일반적으로 최상위
객체는 딕셔너리입니다.

plist 파일을 쓰고 구문 분석하려면, *note dump(): 94f.와 *note load():
94d. 함수를 사용하십시오.

plist 데이터를 바이트열이나 문자열 객체로 작업하려면, *note dumps():
950.와 *note loads(): 94e.를 사용하십시오.

값은 문자열, 정수, 부동 소수점, 논릿값, 튜플, 리스트, 딕셔너리 (단, 문자
열 키만 가능), *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 538. 또는 *note
datetime.datetime: 1cc. 객체일 수 있습니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 새 API, 이전 API는 폐지되었습니다.  바이너리 형식
plist에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: NSKeyedArchiver 와 NSKeyedUnarchiver 에서 사용되듯이
바이너리 plist에서 *note UID: a1d. 토큰을 읽고 쓰는 것에 대한 지원이 추
가되었습니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: 낡은 API가 제거되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

PList 매뉴얼 페이지(2)

     애플의 파일 형식 설명서.

이 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: plistlib.load (fp, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict,
          aware_datetime=False)

     plist 파일을 읽습니다.  'fp'는 읽을 수 있는 바이너리 파일 객체여야
     합니다.  해독된 루트 객체를 반환합니다 (일반적으로 딕셔너리입니다).

     'fmt'는 파일의 형식이며 다음 값이 유효합니다:

        * *note None: 66f.: 파일 형식을 자동 감지

        * *note FMT_XML: f71.: XML 파일 형식

        * *note FMT_BINARY: f72.: 바이너리 plist 형식

     'dict_type'은 plist 파일에서 읽은 딕셔너리에 사용되는 형입니다.

     When 'aware_datetime' is true, fields with type ‘datetime.datetime’
     will be created as *note aware object: 2435, with ‘tzinfo’ as *note
     datetime.UTC: 4e8.

     *note FMT_XML: f71. 형식의 XML 데이터는 *note xml.parsers.expat:
     126. 의 Expat 구문 분석기로 구문 분석됩니다 – 잘못된 형식의 XML로 인
     한 예외에 대해서는 해당 설명서를 참조하십시오.  알 수 없는 엘리먼트
     는 plist 구문분석기에서 단순히 무시됩니다.

     구문 분석기는 파일을 구문 분석할 수 없을 때 *note
     InvalidFileException: 1936.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 키워드 전용 매개 변수 'aware_datetime'이 추가되
     었습니다.

 -- 함수: plistlib.loads (data, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict,
          aware_datetime=False)

     바이트열이나 문자열 객체에서 plist를 로드합니다.  키워드 인자에 대
     한 설명은 *note load(): 94d.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'data' can be a string when 'fmt' equals *note
     FMT_XML: f71.

 -- 함수: plistlib.dump (value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

     plist 파일에 'value'를 씁니다.  'fp'는 쓰기 가능한 바이너리 파일 객
     체여야 합니다.

     'fmt' 인자는 plist 파일의 형식을 지정하며 다음 값 중 하나일 수 있습
     니다:

        * *note FMT_XML: f71.: XML 형식의 plist 파일

        * *note FMT_BINARY: f72.: 바이너리 형식의 plist 파일

     'sort_keys'가 참(기본값)이면 딕셔너리의 키가 정렬된 순서로 plist에
     기록되고, 그렇지 않으면 딕셔너리의 이터레이션 순서로 기록됩니다.

     'skipkeys'가 거짓(기본값)일 때, 딕셔너리의 키가 문자열이 아니면 함
     수는 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  그렇지 않으면 해당 키를
     건너뜁니다.

     When 'aware_datetime' is true and any field with type
     ‘datetime.datetime’ is set as an *note aware object: 2435, it will
     convert to UTC timezone before writing it.

     객체가 지원되지 않는 형이거나 지원되지 않는 형의 객체를 포함하는 컨
     테이너면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     (바이너리) plist 파일에서 표현할 수 없는 정숫값은 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 키워드 전용 매개 변수 'aware_datetime'이 추가되
     었습니다.

 -- 함수: plistlib.dumps (value, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

     plist 형식의 바이트열 객체로 'value'를 반환합니다.  이 함수의 키워
     드 인자에 대한 설명은 *note dump(): 94f. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.4.

다음 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: plistlib.UID (data)

     *note int: 257.를 감쌉니다.  이것은 UID를 포함하는 NSKeyedArchiver
     인코딩된 데이터를 읽거나 쓸 때 사용됩니다 (PList 매뉴얼을 참조하십
     시오).

      -- 속성: data

          UID의 int 값.  반드시 범위 ‘0 <= data < 2**64’에 있어야 합니다
          .

     Added in version 3.8.

다음 상수를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 데이터: plistlib.FMT_XML

     plist 파일의 XML 형식.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: plistlib.FMT_BINARY

     plist 파일의 바이너리 형식

     Added in version 3.4.

이 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: plistlib.InvalidFileException

     파일을 구문 분석할 수 없을 때 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/plistlib.py

   (2) 
https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<11>,  Up: plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석

5.14.5.1 예제
.............

plist 만들기:

     import datetime
     import plistlib

     pl = dict(
         aString = "Doodah",
         aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
         aFloat = 0.1,
         anInt = 728,
         aDict = dict(
             anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
             aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
             aTrueValue = True,
             aFalseValue = False,
         ),
         someData = b"<binary gunk>",
         someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
         aDate = datetime.datetime.now()
     )
     print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())

plist 구문 분석하기:

     import plistlib

     plist = b"""<plist version="1.0">
     <dict>
         <key>foo</key>
         <string>bar</string>
     </dict>
     </plist>"""
     pl = plistlib.loads(plist)
     print(pl["foo"])


File: python.info,  Node: 암호화 서비스,  Next: 일반 운영 체제 서비스,  Prev: 파일 형식,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.15 암호화 서비스
==================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 다양한 암호화 알고리즘을 구현합니다.  가용성은
설치에 달려있습니다.  다음은 개요입니다:

* Menu:

* hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약::
* hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱::
* secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성::


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약,  Next: hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱,  Up: 암호화 서비스

5.15.1 ‘hashlib’ — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/hashlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a common interface to many different hash
algorithms.  Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA224,
SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in the FIPS 180-4 standard(2)), the
SHA-3 series (defined in the FIPS 202 standard(3)) as well as the legacy
algorithms SHA1 (formerly part of FIPS(4)) and the MD5 algorithm
(defined in internet RFC 1321(5)).

     참고: adler32나 crc32 해시 함수를 원한다면, *note zlib: 133. 모듈에
     있습니다.

* Menu:

* 해시 알고리즘::
* 사용법::
* 생성자::
* 어트리뷰트::
* 해시 객체::
* SHAKE 가변 길이 요약::
* 파일 해싱::
* 키 파생::
* BLAKE2::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/hashlib.py

   (2) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final

   (3) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final

   (4) https://csrc.nist.gov/news/2023/decision-to-revise-fips-180-4

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1321.html


File: python.info,  Node: 해시 알고리즘,  Next: 사용법,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.1 해시 알고리즘
......................

'해시(hash)'의 유형마다 이름이 지정된 생성자 메서드가 있습니다.  모두 같
은 간단한 인터페이스를 갖는 해시 객체를 반환합니다.  예를 들어: SHA-256
해시 객체를 만들려면 *note sha256(): 156c.을 사용하십시오.  이제 *note
update: 2ad8. 메서드를 사용하여 이 객체에 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.(보
통 *note bytes: 1c2.)를 공급할 수 있습니다.  언제든지 *note digest():
2ad9.나 *note hexdigest(): 2ada. 메서드를 사용하여 지금까지 공급된 데이
터의 연결에 대한 '요약(digest)'을 요청할 수 있습니다.

To allow multithreading, the Python *note GIL: 159. is released while
computing a hash supplied more than 2047 bytes of data at once in its
constructor or *note .update: 2ad8. method.

이 모듈에 항상 존재하는 해시 알고리즘의 생성자는 *note sha1(): 2adb,
*note sha224(): 2adc, *note sha256(): 156c, *note sha384(): 2add, *note
sha512(): 2ade, *note sha3_224(): c9f, *note sha3_256(): ca0, *note
sha3_384(): ca1, *note sha3_512(): ca2, *note shake_128(): ca3, *note
shake_256(): ca4, *note blake2b(): 63c. 및 *note blake2s(): 63d.입니다.
*note md5(): 1547.는 일반적으로 사용할 수 있지만, 드문 “FIPS 호환” 파이
썬 빌드를 사용하는 경우에는 빠지거나 차단될 수 있습니다.  이는 *note
algorithms_guaranteed: 135c.에 해당합니다.

Additional algorithms may also be available if your Python
distribution’s *note hashlib: 68. was linked against a build of OpenSSL
that provides others.  Others 'are not guaranteed available' on all
installations and will only be accessible by name via *note new(): 194e.
See *note algorithms_available: 135d.

     경고: (MD5와 SHA1을 포함하는) 일부 알고리즘은 해시 충돌 약점(hash
     collision weaknesses)이 알려져 있습니다.  Attacks on cryptographic
     hash algorithms(1)와 이 문서의 끝에 있는 *note 더 보기: 2adf. 섹션
     을 참조하십시오.

Added in version 3.6: SHA3(Keccak)과 SHAKE 생성자 *note sha3_224(): c9f,
*note sha3_256(): ca0, *note sha3_384(): ca1, *note sha3_512(): ca2,
*note shake_128(): ca3, *note shake_256(): ca4.이 추가되었습니다.  *note
blake2b(): 63c.와 *note blake2s(): 63d.가 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: 모든 hashlib 생성자는 기본값이 ‘True’인 키워드 전용 인
자 'usedforsecurity'를 취합니다.  값이 거짓이면 제한된 환경에서 안전하지
않고 차단된 해싱 알고리즘 사용을 허락합니다.  ‘False’는 해싱 알고리즘이
보안 문맥에서 사용되지 않음을 나타냅니다, 예를 들어 암호화가 아닌 단방향
압축 함수로.

버전 3.9에서 변경: Hashlib는 이제 OpenSSL 에서 SHA3와 SHAKE를 제공하는 경
우 이를 사용합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: For any of the MD5, SHA1, SHA2, or SHA3 algorithms
that the linked OpenSSL does not provide we fall back to a verified
implementation from the HACL* project(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star


File: python.info,  Node: 사용법,  Next: 생성자,  Prev: 해시 알고리즘,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.2 사용법
...............

바이트 문자열 ‘b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition"’의 요약을 얻으
려면 다음을 수행하십시오:

     >>> import hashlib
     >>> m = hashlib.sha256()
     >>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
     >>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
     >>> m.digest()
     b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

더 압축하면:

     >>> hashlib.sha256(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'


File: python.info,  Node: 생성자,  Next: 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 사용법,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.3 생성자
...............

 -- 함수: hashlib.new (name[, data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

     원하는 알고리즘의 문자열 'name'을 첫 번째 매개 변수로 취하는 일반 생
     성자입니다.  또한 위에 나열된 해시뿐만 아니라 OpenSSL 라이브러리가
     제공할 수 있는 다른 알고리즘에 대한 액세스를 허용하기 위해 존재합니
     다.

알고리즘 이름으로 *note new(): 194e. 사용하기:

     >>> h = hashlib.new('sha256')
     >>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

 -- 함수: hashlib.md5 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha1 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha3_224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha3_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha3_384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.sha3_512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

이름 붙은 생성자는 알고리즘 이름을 *note new(): 194e.로 전달하는 것보다
빠릅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 어트리뷰트,  Next: 해시 객체,  Prev: 생성자,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.4 어트리뷰트
...................

hashlib는 다음과 같은 상수 모듈 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

 -- 데이터: hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed

     모든 플랫폼에서 이 모듈이 지원하도록 보장된 해시 알고리즘의 이름을
     포함하는 집합.  ‘md5’는 일부 업스트림 공급자가 이를 제외하는 이상한
     “FIPS 호환” 파이썬 빌드를 제공하지만, 이 목록에 있음에 유의하십시오
     .

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: hashlib.algorithms_available

     실행 중인 파이썬 인터프리터에서 사용 가능한 해시 알고리즘의 이름이
     포함된 집합.  이 이름들은 *note new(): 194e.에 전달될 때 인식됩니다
     .  *note algorithms_guaranteed: 135c.는 항상 부분 집합입니다.  이 집
     합에서 같은 알고리즘이 다른 이름으로 여러 번 나타날 수 있습니다
     (OpenSSL 덕분입니다).

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: 해시 객체,  Next: SHAKE 가변 길이 요약,  Prev: 어트리뷰트,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.5 해시 객체
..................

다음 값은 생성자가 반환한 해시 객체의 상수 어트리뷰트로 제공됩니다:

 -- 데이터: hash.digest_size

     결과 해시의 바이트 단위의 크기.

 -- 데이터: hash.block_size

     해시 알고리즘의 바이트 단위의 내부 블록 크기.

해시 객체에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: hash.name

     이 해시의 규범적 이름, 항상 소문자이며 항상 이 유형의 다른 해시를 만
     들기 위한 *note new(): 194e.에 대한 매개 변수로 적합합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: name 어트리뷰트는 처음부터 CPython에 존재했지만,
     파이썬 3.4 이전에는 공식적으로 지정되지 않아서, 일부 플랫폼에는 존
     재하지 않을 수 있습니다.

해시 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: hash.update (data)

     *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.로 해시 객체를 갱신합니다.  반복되는 호
     출은 모든 인자를 이어붙인 단일 호출과 동등합니다: ‘m.update(a);
     m.update(b)’는 ‘m.update(a+b)’와 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: hash.digest ()

     지금까지 *note update(): 2ad8. 메서드에 전달된 데이터의 요약을 반환
     합니다.  이것은 *note digest_size: 2ae5. 크기의 바이트열 객체이며
     0에서 255까지의 전체 범위에 있는 바이트를 포함할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: hash.hexdigest ()

     *note digest(): 2ad9.와 유사하지만, 요약은 16진수 숫자만 포함하는 두
     배 길이의 문자열 객체로 반환됩니다.  전자 메일이나 기타 바이너리가
     아닌 환경에서 값을 안전하게 교환하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: hash.copy ()

     해시 객체의 사본(“복제본”)을 반환합니다.  이것은 공통된 초기 부분 문
     자열을 공유하는 데이터의 요약을 효율적으로 계산하는 데 사용될 수 있
     습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: SHAKE 가변 길이 요약,  Next: 파일 해싱,  Prev: 해시 객체,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.6 SHAKE 가변 길이 요약
.............................

 -- 함수: hashlib.shake_128 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.shake_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

*note shake_128(): ca3.과 *note shake_256(): ca4. 알고리즘은
length_in_bits//2 (최대 128이나 256) 비트의 보안성으로 가변 길이 요약을
제공합니다.  따라서 digest 메서드에는 길이(length)가 필요합니다.  최대 길
이는 SHAKE 알고리즘에 의해 제한되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: shake.digest (length)

     지금까지 *note update(): 2ad8. 메서드에 전달된 데이터의 요약을 반환
     합니다.  이것은 'length' 크기의 바이트열 객체이며 0에서 255까지의 전
     체 범위에 있는 바이트를 포함할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: shake.hexdigest (length)

     *note digest(): 1a40.와 유사하지만, 요약은 16진수 숫자만 포함하는 두
     배 길이의 문자열 객체로 반환됩니다.  전자 메일이나 기타 바이너리가
     아닌 환경에서 값을 교환하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

사용 예:

     >>> h = hashlib.shake_256(b'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition')
     >>> h.hexdigest(20)
     '44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7'


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 해싱,  Next: 키 파생,  Prev: SHAKE 가변 길이 요약,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.7 파일 해싱
..................

The hashlib module provides a helper function for efficient hashing of a
file or file-like object.

 -- 함수: hashlib.file_digest (fileobj, digest, /)

     Return a digest object that has been updated with contents of file
     object.

     'fileobj' must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary
     mode.  It accepts file objects from builtin *note open(): 515,
     *note BytesIO: e9a. instances, SocketIO objects from *note
     socket.socket.makefile(): 118f, and similar.  'fileobj' must be
     opened in blocking mode, otherwise a *note BlockingIOError: 104d.
     may be raised.

     The function may bypass Python’s I/O and use the file descriptor
     from *note fileno(): 285e. directly.  'fileobj' must be assumed to
     be in an unknown state after this function returns or raises.  It
     is up to the caller to close 'fileobj'.

     'digest' must either be a hash algorithm name as a 'str', a hash
     constructor, or a callable that returns a hash object.

     예제:

          >>> import io, hashlib, hmac
          >>> with open("library/hashlib.rst", "rb") as f:
          ...     digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
          ...
          >>> digest.hexdigest()
          '...'

          >>> buf = io.BytesIO(b"somedata")
          >>> mac1 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> digest = hashlib.file_digest(buf, lambda: mac1)

          >>> digest is mac1
          True
          >>> mac2 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", b"somedata", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> mac1.digest() == mac2.digest()
          True

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.13.4에서 변경: Now raises a *note BlockingIOError: 104d. if
     the file is opened in blocking mode.  Previously, spurious null
     bytes were added to the digest.


File: python.info,  Node: 키 파생,  Next: BLAKE2,  Prev: 파일 해싱,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.8 키 파생
................

키 파생(key derivation)과 키 확장(key stretching) 알고리즘은 안전한 암호
해싱을 위해 설계되었습니다.  ‘sha1(password)’와 같은 순진한 알고리즘은 무
차별 대입 공격에 내성이 없습니다.  올바른 암호 해싱 함수는 조정할 수 있
고, 느리고, 솔트(salt)(1)를 포함해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac (hash_name, password, salt, iterations,
          dklen=None)

     이 함수는 PKCS#5 암호 기반 키 파생 함수 2를 제공합니다.  의사 난수
     함수로 HMAC을 사용합니다.

     문자열 'hash_name'은 원하는 HMAC을 위한 해시 요약 알고리즘의 이름입
     니다, 예를 들어 ‘sha1’이나 ‘sha256’.  'password'와 'salt'는 바이트
     버퍼로 해석됩니다.  응용 프로그램과 라이브러리는 'password'를 적당
     한 길이(예를 들어 1024)로 제한해야 합니다.  'salt'는 적절한 소스(예
     를 들어 *note os.urandom(): 51c.)로부터 온 약 16이나 그 이상의 바이
     트여야 합니다.

     The number of 'iterations' should be chosen based on the hash
     algorithm and computing power.  As of 2022, hundreds of thousands
     of iterations of SHA-256 are suggested.  For rationale as to why
     and how to choose what is best for your application, read 'Appendix
     A.2.2' of NIST-SP-800-132(2).  The answers on the stackexchange
     pbkdf2 iterations question(3) explain in detail.

     'dklen'은 파생 키의 바이트 수로 표현한 길이입니다.  'dklen'이
     ‘None’이면 해시 알고리즘 'hash_name'의 요약 크기가 사용됩니다, 예를
     들어 SHA-512의 경우 64.

          >>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
          >>> our_app_iters = 500_000  # Application specific, read above.
          >>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'bad salt' * 2, our_app_iters)
          >>> dk.hex()
          '15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9'

     Function only available when Python is compiled with OpenSSL.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Function now only available when Python is
     built with OpenSSL. The slow pure Python implementation has been
     removed.

 -- 함수: hashlib.scrypt (password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0,
          dklen=64)

     이 함수는 RFC 7914(4)에 정의된 대로 scrypt 암호 기반 키 파생 함수를
     제공합니다.

     'password'와 'salt'는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.여야 합니다.  응용
     프로그램과 라이브러리는 'password'를 적당한 길이(예를 들어 1024)로
     제한해야 합니다.  'salt'는 적절한 소스(예를 들어 *note
     os.urandom(): 51c.)로부터 온 약 16이나 그 이상의 바이트여야 합니다.

     'n'은 CPU/ 메모리 비용 계수, 'r'은 블록 크기, 'p'는 병렬화 계수이고
     'maxmem'은 메모리를 제한합니다 (OpenSSL 1.1.0의 기본값은 32 MiB 입
     니다).  'dklen'은 파생 키의 바이트 수로 표현한 길이입니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29

   (2) 
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf

   (3) 
https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7914.html


File: python.info,  Node: BLAKE2,  Prev: 키 파생,  Up: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약

5.15.1.9 BLAKE2
...............

BLAKE2(1)는 RFC 7693(2)에 정의된 암호화 해시 함수로, 두 가지 방식으로 제
공됩니다:

   * 'BLAKE2b', 64비트 플랫폼에 최적화되어 있으며 1에서 64바이트 사이의
     모든 크기의 요약을 생성합니다,

   * 'BLAKE2s', 8비트에서 32비트 플랫폼에 최적화되어 있으며 1에서 32바이
     트 사이의 모든 크기의 요약을 생성합니다.

BLAKE2는 '키 모드(keyed mode)' (HMAC(3)의 더 빠르고 간단한 대체), '솔트
해싱(salted hashing)', '개인화(personalization)' 및 '트리 해싱(tree
hashing)'을 지원합니다.

이 모듈의 해시 객체는 표준 라이브러리의 *note hashlib: 68. 객체의 API를
따릅니다.

* Menu:

* 해시 객체 만들기::
* 상수: 상수<5>.
* 예: 예<6>.
* 크레딧::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7693.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code


File: python.info,  Node: 해시 객체 만들기,  Next: 상수<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.10 해시 객체 만들기
..........................

생성자 함수를 호출하여 새 해시 객체를 만듭니다:

 -- 함수: hashlib.blake2b (data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

 -- 함수: hashlib.blake2s (data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

이 함수는 BLAKE2b나 BLAKE2s를 계산하기위한 해당 해시 객체를 반환합니다.
선택적으로 다음과 같은 일반 매개 변수를 취합니다:

   * 'data': 해시 할 초기 데이터 청크, *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.여야 합
     니다.  위치 인자로만 전달될 수 있습니다.

   * 'digest_size': 바이트 단위의 출력 요약 크기.

   * 'key': 키 해싱을 위한 키 (BLAKE2b의 경우 최대 64바이트, BLAKE2s의 경
     우 최대 32바이트).

   * 'salt': 무작위 해싱을 위한 솔트 (BLAKE2b의 경우 최대 16바이트,
     BLAKE2s의 경우 최대 8바이트).

   * 'person': 개인화 문자열 (BLAKE2b의 경우 최대 16바이트, BLAKE2s의 경
     우 최대 8바이트).

다음 표는 일반 매개 변수의 제한(바이트 단위)을 보여줍니다:

해시        digest_size     len(key)     len(salt)     len(person)
                                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
BLAKE2b     64              64           16            16
                                                       
                                                       
BLAKE2s     32              32           8             8
                                                       

     참고: BLAKE2 명세는 솔트와 개인화 매개 변수에 대해 상수 길이를 정의
     하지만, 편의상, 이 구현에서는 지정된 길이까지 모든 크기의 바이트 문
     자열을 받아들입니다.  매개 변수의 길이가 지정된 길이보다 작으면, 0으
     로 채워지므로, 예를 들어 ‘b'salt'’와 ‘b'salt\x00'’은 같은 값입니다.
     ('key'의 경우에는 해당하지 않습니다.)

이 크기는 아래 설명된 모듈 *note 상수: 2aed.로 제공됩니다.

생성자 함수는 다음 트리 해싱 매개 변수도 받아들입니다:

   * 'fanout': 팬아웃 (0에서 255, 무제한이면 0, 순차적 모드(sequential
     mode)이면 1).

   * 'depth': 트리의 최대 깊이 (1에서 255, 무제한이면 255, 순차적 모드이
     면 1).

   * 'leaf_size': 리프의 최대 바이트 길이 (0에서 ‘2**32-1’, 무제한이거나
     순차적 모드이면 0).

   * 'node_offset': 노드 오프셋 (BLAKE2b의 경우 0에서 ‘2**64-1’,
     BLAKE2s의 경우 0에서 ‘2**48-1’, 첫 번째, 가장 왼쪽, 리프 또는 순차
     적 모드이면 0).

   * 'node_depth': 노드 깊이 (0에서 255, 리프나 순차적 모드이면 0).

   * 'inner_size': 내부 요약 크기 (BLAKE2b의 경우 0에서 64, BLAKE2s의 경
     우 0에서 32, 순차적 모드이면 0).

   * 'last_node': 처리된 노드가 마지막 노드인지를 나타내는 불리언 (순차
     적 모드이면 ‘False’).

[image src="python-figures/hashlib-blake2-tree.png" alt="Explanation of tree mode parameters."]


Figure
트리 해싱에 대한 포괄적인 리뷰는 BLAKE2 명세(1)의 섹션 2.10을 참조하십시
오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<5>,  Next: 예<6>,  Prev: 해시 객체 만들기,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.11 상수
..............

 -- 데이터: blake2b.SALT_SIZE

 -- 데이터: blake2s.SALT_SIZE

솔트 길이 (생성자가 허용하는 최대 길이).

 -- 데이터: blake2b.PERSON_SIZE

 -- 데이터: blake2s.PERSON_SIZE

개인화 문자열 길이 (생성자가 허용하는 최대 길이).

 -- 데이터: blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE

 -- 데이터: blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE

최대 키 크기.

 -- 데이터: blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

 -- 데이터: blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

해시 함수가 출력할 수 있는 최대 요약 크기.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<6>,  Next: 크레딧,  Prev: 상수<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.12 예
............

* Menu:

* 간단한 해싱::
* 다른 요약 크기 사용하기::
* 키 해싱::
* 무작위 해싱::
* 개인화::
* 트리 모드::


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 해싱,  Next: 다른 요약 크기 사용하기,  Up: 예<6>

5.15.1.13 간단한 해싱
.....................

어떤 데이터의 해시를 계산하려면, 먼저 적절한 생성자 함수(*note
blake2b(): 63c.나 *note blake2s(): 63d.)를 호출하여 해시 객체를 생성한 다
음, 객체에서 *note update(): 2ad8.를 호출하여 데이터로 갱신하고, 마지막
으로 *note digest(): 2ad9.(또는 16진수 인코딩 문자열의 경우 *note
hexdigest(): 2ada.)를 호출하여 객체에서 요약을 가져와야 합니다.

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> h.update(b'Hello world')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

줄여서, 첫 번째 데이터 청크를 위치 인자로 생성자에 전달하여 직접 갱신할
수 있습니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

해시를 반복적으로 갱신하는 데 필요한 만큼 *note hash.update(): 2ad8.를 호
출할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> for item in items:
     ...     h.update(item)
     ...
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 요약 크기 사용하기,  Next: 키 해싱,  Prev: 간단한 해싱,  Up: 예<6>

5.15.1.14 다른 요약 크기 사용하기
.................................

BLAKE2는 BLAKE2b의 경우 최대 64바이트, BLAKE2s의 경우 최대 32바이트까지
요약 크기를 구성할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 출력 크기를 변경하지 않고
SHA-1을 BLAKE2b로 바꾸려면, BLAKE2b에 20바이트 요약을 생성하도록 지시할
수 있습니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
     >>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
     >>> h.digest_size
     20
     >>> len(h.digest())
     20

요약 크기가 다른 해시 객체의 출력은 완전히 다릅니다 (짧은 해시는 긴 해시
의 접두사가 '아닙니다'); BLAKE2b와 BLAKE2s는 출력 길이가 같더라도 다른 출
력을 생성합니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'


File: python.info,  Node: 키 해싱,  Next: 무작위 해싱,  Prev: 다른 요약 크기 사용하기,  Up: 예<6>

5.15.1.15 키 해싱
.................

키 해싱(keyed hashing)은 해시 기반 메시지 인증 코드(HMAC - Hash-based
message authentication code)(1)을 더 빠르고 간단하게 대체하는 인증에 사
용할 수 있습니다.  BLAKE2는 BLAKE에서 상속된 비구별성
(indifferentiability) 속성 덕분에 접두사-MAC 모드에서 안전하게 사용할 수
있습니다.

이 예는 키 ‘b'pseudorandom key'’로 메시지 ‘b'message data'’에 대한 (16진
인코딩된) 128비트 인증 코드를 얻는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
     >>> h.update(b'message data')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'

실용적인 예로, 웹 응용 프로그램은 사용자에게 전송된 쿠키에 대칭적으로 서
명한 후 나중에 변조되지 않았는지 확인할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> from hmac import compare_digest
     >>>
     >>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
     >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
     >>>
     >>> def sign(cookie):
     ...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
     ...     h.update(cookie)
     ...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
     >>>
     >>> def verify(cookie, sig):
     ...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
     ...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
     >>>
     >>> cookie = b'user-alice'
     >>> sig = sign(cookie)
     >>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
     user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
     >>> verify(cookie, sig)
     True
     >>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
     False
     >>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
     False

네이티브 키 해싱 모드가 있더라도, 물론 BLAKE2를 *note hmac: 6a. 모듈을 사
용하여 HMAC 구성에 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import hmac, hashlib
     >>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
     >>> m.update(b'message')
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAC


File: python.info,  Node: 무작위 해싱,  Next: 개인화,  Prev: 키 해싱,  Up: 예<6>

5.15.1.16 무작위 해싱
.....................

'salt' 매개 변수를 설정하면 해시 함수에 무작위화를 도입할 수 있습니다.  무
작위 해싱은 디지털 서명에 사용된 해시 함수에 대한 충돌 공격(collision
attacks)을 방지하는 데 유용합니다.

     무작위 해싱은 한 당사자(메시지 준비자)가 두 번째 당사자(메시지 서명
     자)가 서명할 메시지의 전부나 일부를 생성하는 상황을 위해 설계되었습
     니다.  메시지 준비자가 암호화 해시 함수 충돌(즉, 같은 해시값을 생성
     하는 두 메시지)을 찾을 수 있으면, 같은 해시값과 디지털 서명을 생성
     하는 의미 있는 메시지 버전을 준비할 수 있지만, 결과는 다릅니다 (예
     를 들어, 계정으로 $10 대신에 $1,000,000을 이체하는 행위).  암호화 해
     시 함수는 주요 목표로 충돌 내성을 갖도록 설계되었지만, 현재 암호화
     해시 함수 공격에 대한 집중으로 인해 주어진 암호화 해시 함수가 예상
     보다 적은 충돌 내성을 제공할 수 있습니다.  무작위 해싱은 준비자가 디
     지털 서명 생성 프로세스 동안 궁극적으로 같은 해시값을 산출하는 두 개
     이상의 메시지를 생성할 가능성을 줄여서, 서명자에게 추가적인 보호를
     제공합니다 – 설사 해시 함수의 충돌을 찾는 것이 실용적이더라도.  그
     러나, 무작위 해싱을 사용하면 메시지의 모든 부분을 서명자가 준비할 때
     디지털 서명이 제공하는 보안의 양을 줄일 수 있습니다.

     (NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures"(1))

BLAKE2에서 솔트는 각 압축 함수에 대한 입력이 아니라 초기화 중에 해시 함
수에 대한 일회성 입력으로 처리됩니다.

     경고: BLAKE2나 SHA-256과 같은 기타 범용 암호화 해시 함수를 사용하는
     '솔트 해싱(salted hashing)'(또는 그냥 해싱)은 암호(password) 해싱에
     적합하지 않습니다.  자세한 정보는 BLAKE2 FAQ(2)를 참조하십시오.

     >>> import os
     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> msg = b'some message'
     >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
     >>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
     >>> h1.update(msg)
     >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
     >>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
     >>> h2.update(msg)
     >>> # The digests are different.
     >>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final

   (2) https://www.blake2.net/#qa


File: python.info,  Node: 개인화,  Next: 트리 모드,  Prev: 무작위 해싱,  Up: 예<6>

5.15.1.17 개인화
................

때로는 해시 함수가 다른 목적으로 같은 입력에 대해 다른 요약을 생성하도록
강제하는 것이 유용합니다.  Skein 해시 함수의 저자를 인용합니다:

     모든 응용 프로그램 설계자는 이렇게 하는 것을 진지하게 고려하도록 권
     장합니다; 우리는 유사하거나 관련된 데이터에 대해 두 해시 계산이 수
     행되었기 때문에, 프로토콜의 한 부분에서 계산된 해시가 완전히 다른 부
     분에서 사용될 수 있는 프로토콜을 많이 보았으며, 공격자는 응용 프로
     그램이 해시 입력을 갖게 만들도록 강제할 수 있습니다.  프로토콜에 사
     용된 각 해시 함수를 개인화하면 이러한 유형의 공격이 중단됩니다.

     (The Skein Hash Function Family(1), p.  21)

BLAKE2는 바이트열을 'person' 인자에 전달하여 개인화할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
     >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'

키 모드와 함께 개인화를 사용하여, 한 키에서 다른 키들을 파생시킬 수도 있
습니다.

     >>> from hashlib import blake2s
     >>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
     >>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
     >>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
     >>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
     >>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
     rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
     >>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
     G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.schneier.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/skein.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: 트리 모드,  Prev: 개인화,  Up: 예<6>

5.15.1.18 트리 모드
...................

다음은 두 개의 리프 노드를 갖는 최소 트리를 해싱하는 예입니다:

     10
      /  \
     00  01

이 예는 64바이트 내부 요약을 사용하고, 32바이트 최종 요약을 반환합니다:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>>
     >>> FANOUT = 2
     >>> DEPTH = 2
     >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
     >>> INNER_SIZE = 64
     >>>
     >>> buf = bytearray(6000)
     >>>
     >>> # 왼쪽 리프
     ... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
     >>> # 오른쪽 리프
     ... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
     >>> # 루트 노드
     ... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
     >>> h10.update(h00.digest())
     >>> h10.update(h01.digest())
     >>> h10.hexdigest()
     '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'


File: python.info,  Node: 크레딧,  Prev: 예<6>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.19 크레딧
................

BLAKE2(1)는 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Luca Henzen', 'Willi Meier' 및
'Raphael C.-W. Phan'이 만든 SHA-3(2) 파이널리스트 BLAKE(3)를 기반으로
'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Samuel Neves', 'Zooko Wilcox-O’Hearn' 및
'Christian Winnerlein'이 설계했습니다.

'Daniel J. Bernstein'이 설계한 ChaCha(4) 암호(cipher)의 핵심 알고리즘을
사용합니다.

표준 라이브러리 구현은 pyblake2(5) 모듈에 기반합니다.  이것은 'Samuel
Neves'가 작성한 C 구현을 기반으로 'Dmitry Chestnykh'가 작성했습니다.  이
설명서는 pyblake2(6)에서 복사했으며 'Dmitry Chestnykh'가 작성했습니다.

C 코드는 'Christian Heimes'가 파이썬 용으로 부분적으로 재작성했습니다.

다음 공개 도메인 기부는 C 해시 함수 구현, 확장 코드 및 이 설명서 모두에
적용됩니다:

     법률에 따라 가능한 범위 내에서, 저자(들)는 이 소프트웨어에 대한 모
     든 저작권과 관련되고 둘러싼 권리를 전 세계 공개 도메인에 기부했습니
     다.  이 소프트웨어는 보증 없이 배포됩니다.

     이 소프트웨어와 함께 CC0 Public Domain Dedication의 사본을 받았어야
     합니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     ‘https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/’ 을 참조하십시
     오.

다음과 같은 사람들은 Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0
Universal에 따라 개발을 돕거나 프로젝트와 공개 도메인에 변경에 기여했습
니다:

   * 'Alexandr Sokolovskiy'

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note hmac: 6a.

     해시를 사용하여 메시지 인증 코드를 생성하는 모듈.

모듈 *note base64: e.

     바이너리가 아닌 환경을 위해 바이너리 해시를 인코딩하는 다른 방법.

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf’

     Secure Hash Algorithms에 관한 FIPS 180-4 발행물.

‘https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final’

     SHA-3 표준에 관한 FIPS 202 발행물.

‘https://www.blake2.net/’

     공식 BLAKE2 웹 사이트.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function’

     어떤 알고리즘에 알려진 문제가 있고 그것이 사용에 어떤 의미가 있는지
     에 대한 정보가 포함된 위키피디아 기사.

‘https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt’

     PKCS #5: Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.1

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf’

     NIST Recommendation for Password-Based Key Derivation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200918190133/https://131002.net/blake/

   (4) https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html

   (5) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/

   (6) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/


File: python.info,  Node: hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱,  Next: secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성,  Prev: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약,  Up: 암호화 서비스

5.15.2 ‘hmac’ — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/hmac.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by RFC 2104(2).
The interface allows to use any hash function with a 'fixed' digest
size.  In particular, extendable output functions such as SHAKE-128 or
SHAKE-256 cannot be used with HMAC.

 -- 함수: hmac.new (key, msg=None, digestmod)

     새로운 hmac 객체를 반환합니다.  'key'는 비밀 키를 제공하는 바이트열
     이나 바이트 배열(bytearray) 객체입니다.  'msg'가 있으면,
     ‘update(msg)’ 메서드 호출이 수행됩니다.  'digestmod'는 다이제스트 이
     름, 다이제스트 생성자 또는 HMAC 객체가 사용할 모듈입니다.  *note
     hashlib.new(): 194e.에 적합한 모든 이름일 수 있습니다.  인자의 위치
     에도 불구하고, 필수입니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 매개 변수 'key'는 바이트열 또는 바이트 배열 객체
     일 수 있습니다.  매개 변수 'msg'는 *note hashlib: 68.가 지원하는 모
     든 형이 될 수 있습니다.  매개 변수 'digestmod'는 해시 알고리즘의 이
     름이 될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'digestmod' 인자는 이제 필수입니다.  초기 'msg'가
     없을 때 어색함을 피하려면 키워드 인자로 전달하십시오.

 -- 함수: hmac.digest (key, msg, digest)

     주어진 비밀 'key' 와 'digest'로 'msg'의 다이제스트를 반환합니다.  이
     함수는 ‘HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest()’와 동등하지만, 최적화된 C 나
     인라인 구현을 사용해서, 메모리에 맞는 메시지에는 더 빠릅니다.  매개
     변수 'key', 'msg' 및 'digest'는 *note new(): a9c.에서와 같은 뜻입니
     다.

     CPython 구현 세부 사항, 최적화된 C 구현은 'digest'가 문자열이고
     OpenSSL에서 지원하는 다이제스트 알고리즘의 이름일 때만 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

HMAC 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: HMAC.update (msg)

     hmac 객체를 'msg'로 갱신합니다.  반복되는 호출은 모든 인자를 이어붙
     인 단일 호출과 동등합니다: ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’는 ‘m.update(a
     + b)’와 동등합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 매개 변수 'msg'는 *note hashlib: 68.가 지원하는
     모든 형이 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: HMAC.digest ()

     지금까지 *note update(): f42. 메서드로 전달된 바이트들의 다이제스트
     를 반환합니다.  이 바이트열 객체는 생성자에게 주어진 다이제스트의
     'digest_size'와 길이가 같습니다.  NUL 바이트를 포함하여 비 ASCII 바
     이트를 포함할 수 있습니다.

          경고: 검증 루틴에서 *note digest(): b3b.의 출력을 외부에서 제
          공되는 다이제스트와 비교할 때, ‘==’ 연산자 대신 *note
          compare_digest(): 10bc. 함수를 사용하여 타이밍 공격의 취약점을
          줄이는 것이 좋습니다.

 -- 메서드: HMAC.hexdigest ()

     다이제스트가 16진수만 포함하는 길이가 두 배인 문자열로 반환된다는 점
     을 제외하고는 *note digest(): b3b.와 같습니다.  이것은 전자 메일이
     나 기타 비 바이너리 환경에서 값을 안전하게 교환하는 데 사용될 수 있
     습니다.

          경고: 검증 루틴에서 *note hexdigest(): 2b01.의 출력을 외부에서
          제공되는 다이제스트와 비교할 때, ‘==’ 연산자 대신 *note
          compare_digest(): 10bc. 함수를 사용하여 타이밍 공격의 취약점을
          줄이는 것이 좋습니다.

 -- 메서드: HMAC.copy ()

     hmac 객체의 복사본(“클론”)을 반환합니다.  이것은 공통 초기 부분 문
     자열을 공유하는 문자열들의 다이제스트를 효율적으로 계산하는 데 사용
     할 수 있습니다.

hmac 객체에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: HMAC.digest_size

     결과 HMAC 다이제스트의 크기(바이트).

 -- 속성: HMAC.block_size

     해시 알고리즘의 내부 블록 크기(바이트).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 속성: HMAC.name

     이 HMAC의 규범적 이름, 항상 소문자, 예를 들어 ‘hmac-md5’.

     Added in version 3.4.

버전 3.10에서 변경: 설명되지 않은 어트리뷰트 ‘HMAC.digest_cons’,
‘HMAC.inner’ 및 ‘HMAC.outer’를 제거했습니다.

이 모듈은 또한 다음 도우미 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: hmac.compare_digest (a, b)

     ‘a == b’를 반환합니다.  이 함수는 내용 기반의 단락(short
     circuiting) 동작을 피함으로써 타이밍 분석을 방지하도록 설계된 접근
     법을 사용해서 암호화에 적합하게 만듭니다.  'a'와 'b'는 모두 같은 형
     이어야 합니다: *note str: 445. (ASCII만, 예를 들어 *note
     HMAC.hexdigest(): 2b01.에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 것) 이나 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a.

          참고: 'a'와 'b'의 길이가 다르거나 에러가 발생하면, 타이밍 공격
          이 이론적으로는 'a' 와 'b'의 형과 길이에 관한 정보를 드러낼 수
          있습니다 - 하지만 그 값은 아닙니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 이 함수는 사용할 수 있으면 내부적으로 OpenSSL의
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’를 사용합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note hashlib: 68.

     안전한 해시 함수를 제공하는 파이썬 모듈.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/hmac.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html


File: python.info,  Node: secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성,  Prev: hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱,  Up: 암호화 서비스

5.15.3 ‘secrets’ — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성
----------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.6.

'소스 코드:' Lib/secrets.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note secrets: c0. 모듈은 암호, 계정 인증, 보안 토큰 및 관련 비밀과 같은
데이터를 관리하는 데 적합한 암호학적으로 강력한 난수를 생성하는 데 사용
됩니다.

특히, *note secrets: c0.는 보안이나 암호화가 아닌 모델링과 시뮬레이션용
으로 설계된 *note random: b8. 모듈의 기본 의사 난수 생성기보다 먼저 사용
해야 합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 506(2)

* Menu:

* 난수::
* 토큰 생성::
* 기타 함수::
* 조리법과 모범 사례::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/secrets.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: 난수,  Next: 토큰 생성,  Up: secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성

5.15.3.1 난수
.............

*note secrets: c0. 모듈은 운영 체제가 제공하는 가장 안전한 무작위 소스에
대한 액세스를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: secrets.SystemRandom

     운영 체제에서 제공하는 최고 품질의 소스를 사용하여 난수를 생성하는
     클래스.  자세한 내용은 *note random.SystemRandom: 26ee.를 참조하십
     시오.

 -- 함수: secrets.choice (seq)

     비어있지 않은 시퀀스로부터 무작위로 선택된 요소를 돌려줍니다.

 -- 함수: secrets.randbelow (exclusive_upper_bound)

     범위 [0, 'exclusive_upper_bound')에서 무작위 int를 돌려줍니다.

 -- 함수: secrets.randbits (k)

     'k' 무작위 비트를 가지는 음이 아닌 int를 돌려줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 토큰 생성,  Next: 기타 함수,  Prev: 난수,  Up: secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성

5.15.3.2 토큰 생성
..................

*note secrets: c0. 모듈은 암호 재설정, 추측하기 어려운 URL 등과 같은 응
용에 적합한 보안 토큰을 생성하는 함수를 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: secrets.token_bytes ([nbytes=None])

     'nbytes' 바이트를 포함하는 임의의 바이트열을 반환합니다.  'nbytes'가
     ‘None’이거나 제공되지 않으면, 적절한 기본값이 사용됩니다.

          >>> token_bytes(16)
          b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'

 -- 함수: secrets.token_hex ([nbytes=None])

     무작위 16진수 텍스트 문자열을 돌려줍니다.  이 문자열에는 'nbytes' 무
     작위 바이트가 있으며, 각 바이트는 두 자리 16진수로 변환됩니다.
     'nbytes'가 ‘None’이거나 제공되지 않으면, 적절한 기본값이 사용됩니다
     .

          >>> token_hex(16)
          'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'

 -- 함수: secrets.token_urlsafe ([nbytes=None])

     'nbytes'의 무작위 바이트를 포함한, URL 안전한 무작위 텍스트 문자열
     을 돌려줍니다.  텍스트는 Base64로 인코딩되어 있으므로, 평균적으로 각
     바이트는 약 1.3 문자가 됩니다.  'nbytes'가 ‘None’이거나 제공되지 않
     으면, 적절한 기본값이 사용됩니다.

          >>> token_urlsafe(16)
          'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'

* Menu:

* 토큰은 몇 바이트를 사용해야 합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 토큰은 몇 바이트를 사용해야 합니까?,  Up: 토큰 생성

5.15.3.3 토큰은 몇 바이트를 사용해야 합니까?
............................................

무차별 공격(1)으로부터 안전하려면, 토큰에 충분한 무작위성이 있어야 합니
다.  불행하게도, 컴퓨터가 더 강력해지고 더 짧은 기간에 더 많은 추측을 할
수 있게 됨에 따라, 충분하다고 여겨지는 것은 필연적으로 증가합니다.  2015년
현재, *note secrets: c0. 모듈로 예상되는 일반적인 사용 사례에는 32바이트
(256비트)의 무작위성으로 충분하다고 여겨집니다.

자신의 토큰 길이를 관리하려는 사용자는, 여러 ‘token_*’ 함수에 *note int:
257. 인자를 제공하여 토큰에 사용되는 무작위성의 양을 명시적으로 지정할 수
있습니다.  이 인자는 사용할 무작위성의 바이트 수로 사용됩니다.

그렇지 않으면, 인자가 제공되지 않거나 인자가 ‘None’ 이면, ‘token_*’ 함수
는 적절한 기본값을 대신 사용합니다.

     참고: 이 기본값은 유지 보수 배포를 포함하여 언제든지 변경될 수 있습
     니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 함수,  Next: 조리법과 모범 사례,  Prev: 토큰 생성,  Up: secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성

5.15.3.4 기타 함수
..................

 -- 함수: secrets.compare_digest (a, b)

     문자열 혹은 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 'a'와 'b'가 같으면 ‘True’를
     , 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환하는데, “고정 시간 비교(constant-time
     compare)”를 사용하여 타이밍 공격(1)의 위험을 줄입니다.  자세한 내용
     은 *note hmac.compare_digest(): 10bc.를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/


File: python.info,  Node: 조리법과 모범 사례,  Prev: 기타 함수,  Up: secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성

5.15.3.5 조리법과 모범 사례
...........................

이 절에서는 *note secrets: c0.를 사용하여 기본 보안 수준을 관리하는 조리
법과 모범 사례를 보여줍니다.

8문자 영숫자 암호 생성합니다:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))

     참고: 응용 프로그램은 평문인지 암호문인지 관계없이, 암호를 복원 가
     능한 형식으로 저장(1)해서는 안 됩니다.  이들은 암호학적으로 강력한
     단방향(비가역적) 해시 함수를 사용하여 솔트되고 해시 되어야 합니다.

적어도 하나의 소문자, 적어도 하나의 대문자 및 적어도 3개의 숫자가 있는
10자의 영숫자 암호를 생성합니다:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     while True:
         password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
         if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
                 and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
                 and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
             break

XKCD-스타일 암호문(2)을 생성합니다:

     import secrets
     # 표준 리눅스 시스템에서는, 편리한 딕셔너리 파일을 사용하십시오.
     # 다른 플랫폼에서는, 자신의 단어 목록을 제공해야 할 수도 있습니다.
     with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
         words = [word.strip() for word in f]
         password = ' '.join(secrets.choice(words) for i in range(4))

암호 복구 응용에 적합한 보안 토큰을 포함하는 추측하기 어려운 임시 URL을
생성합니다:

     import secrets
     url = 'https://example.com/reset=' + secrets.token_urlsafe()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html

   (2) https://xkcd.com/936/


File: python.info,  Node: 일반 운영 체제 서비스,  Next: Command-line interface libraries,  Prev: 암호화 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.16 일반 운영 체제 서비스
==========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 파일 및 시계와 같은 (거의) 모든 운영 체제에서
사용할 수 있는 운영 체제 기능에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  인터페이
스는 일반적으로 유닉스 또는 C 인터페이스를 모델로 하지만, 대부분의 다른
시스템에서도 사용할 수 있습니다.  다음은 개요입니다:

* Menu:

* os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces::
* io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구::
* time — 시간 액세스와 변환::
* logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설::
* logging.config — 로깅 구성: logging config — 로깅 구성.
* logging.handlers — 로깅 처리기: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기.
* platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스::
* errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호::
* ctypes — A foreign function library for Python::


File: python.info,  Node: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Next: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.1 ‘os’ — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
-------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/os.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 운영 체제 종속 기능을 사용하는 이식성 있는 방법을 제공합니다.
파일을 읽거나 쓰고 싶으면 *note open(): 515.을 보세요, 경로를 조작하려면
*note os.path: a2. 모듈을 보시고, 명령 줄에서 주어진 모든 파일의 모든 줄
을 읽으려면 *note fileinput: 5b. 모듈을 보십시오.  임시 파일과 디렉터리
를 만들려면 *note tempfile: e0. 모듈을 보시고, 고수준의 파일과 디렉터리
처리는 *note shutil: c5. 모듈을 보십시오.

이러한 기능의 가용성에 대한 참고 사항:

   * 내장된 모든 운영 체제 종속적인 파이썬 모듈의 설계는, 같은 기능을 사
     용할 수 있는 한, 같은 인터페이스를 사용합니다; 예를 들어, 함수
     ‘os.stat(path)’는 'path' 에 대한 stat 정보를 같은 (POSIX 인터페이스
     에서 기원한) 형식으로 반환합니다.

   * 특정 운영 체제에 고유한 확장도 *note os: a1. 모듈을 통해서 사용할 수
     있지만, 이러한 기능을 사용하는 것은 물론 이식성에 대한 위협입니다.

   * 경로 또는 파일명을 받아들이는 모든 함수는 바이트열과 문자열 객체를
     모두 허용하며, 경로나 파일명이 반환되면 같은 형의 객체를 반환합니다
     .

   * On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawn*p* are not
     supported.

   * On WebAssembly platforms, Android and iOS, large parts of the *note
     os: a1. module are not available or behave differently.  APIs
     related to processes (e.g.  *note fork(): 197, *note execve():
     10ea.) and resources (e.g.  *note nice(): 10f2.) are not available.
     Others like *note getuid(): 1533. and *note getpid(): 2b15. are
     emulated or stubs.  WebAssembly platforms also lack support for
     signals (e.g.  *note kill(): 1350, *note wait(): d94.).

     참고: 이 모듈의 모든 함수는, 올바르지 않거나 액세스할 수 없는 파일
     명과 경로일 때, 또는 올바른 형의 인자이지만, 운영 체제에서 허용하지
     않으면 *note OSError: 411.(또는 이것의 서브 클래스)를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 예외: os.error

     내장 *note OSError: 411. 예외의 별칭.

 -- 데이터: os.name

     임포트 된 운영 체제 종속 모듈의 이름.  다음과 같은 이름이 현재 등록
     되어있습니다: ‘'posix'’, ‘'nt'’, ‘'java'’.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note sys.platform: a8a. has a finer granularity.  *note
     os.uname(): 1107. gives system-dependent version information.

     *note platform: aa. 모듈은 시스템의 아이덴티티에 대한 자세한 검사를
     제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 파일명, 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수: 파일명 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수.
* Python UTF-8 Mode::
* 프로세스 매개 변수::
* 파일 객체 생성::
* 파일 기술자 연산::
* 파일과 디렉터리::
* 프로세스 관리::
* 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스::
* 기타 시스템 정보::
* 난수: 난수<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/os.py


File: python.info,  Node: 파일명 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수,  Next: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.1 파일명, 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수
..........................................

In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables
are represented using the string type.  On some systems, decoding these
strings to and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the
operating system.  Python uses the *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 535. to perform this conversion (see *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56.).

The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. are configured at
Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 789. function: see *note
filesystem_encoding: 3e2. and *note filesystem_errors: 3e3. members of
*note PyConfig: 3a0.

버전 3.1에서 변경: On some systems, conversion using the file system
encoding may fail.  In this case, Python uses the *note surrogateescape
encoding error handler: 23ee, which means that undecodable bytes are
replaced by a Unicode character U+DC'xx' on decoding, and these are
again translated to the original byte on encoding.

The *note file system encoding: 535. must guarantee to successfully
decode all bytes below 128.  If the file system encoding fails to
provide this guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError:
1293.

See also the *note locale encoding: 242.


File: python.info,  Node: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Next: 프로세스 매개 변수,  Prev: 파일명 명령 줄 인자 및 환경 변수,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.2 Python UTF-8 Mode
..........................

Added in version 3.7: See PEP 540(1) for more details.

The Python UTF-8 Mode ignores the *note locale encoding: 242. and forces
the usage of the UTF-8 encoding:

   * Use UTF-8 as the *note filesystem encoding: 535.

   * *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. returns ‘'utf-8'’.

   * *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 534. returns ‘'utf-8'’ (the
     'do_setlocale' argument has no effect).

   * *note sys.stdin: 537, *note sys.stdout: ad3, and *note sys.stderr:
     937. all use UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 17ec. being enabled for
     *note sys.stdin: 537. and *note sys.stdout: ad3. (*note sys.stderr:
     937. continues to use ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in the default
     locale-aware mode)

   * On Unix, *note os.device_encoding(): 1898. returns ‘'utf-8'’ rather
     than the device encoding.

Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden
by *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1000. (just as they can be in the default
locale-aware mode).

As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher
level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:

   * Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are
     decoded to text using the UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note os.fsdecode(): c51. and *note os.fsencode(): c52. use the
     UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note open(): 515, *note io.open(): 516, and *note codecs.open():
     739. use the UTF-8 encoding by default.  However, they still use
     the strict error handler by default so that attempting to open a
     binary file in text mode is likely to raise an exception rather
     than producing nonsense data.

The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. is enabled if the LC_CTYPE locale is
‘C’ or ‘POSIX’ at Python startup (see the *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.
function).

It can be enabled or disabled using the *note -X utf8: 176. command line
option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5. environment variable.

If the *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5. environment variable is not set at all,
then the interpreter defaults to using the current locale settings,
'unless' the current locale is identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale
(as described for *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ad2.), and locale coercion
is either disabled or fails.  In such legacy locales, the interpreter
will default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to
do so.

The Python UTF-8 Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.  Its
value can be read from *note sys.flags.utf8_mode: 686.

See also the *note UTF-8 mode on Windows: 1e29. and the *note filesystem
encoding and error handler: 535.

더 보기
.......

PEP 686(2)

     Python 3.15 will make *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 매개 변수,  Next: 파일 객체 생성,  Prev: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.3 프로세스 매개 변수
...........................

이 함수들과 데이터 항목은 현재 프로세스와 사용자에 관한 정보와 관련 연산
을 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: os.ctermid ()

     프로세스의 제어 터미널에 해당하는 파일명을 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.environ

     A *note mapping: 11ab. object where keys and values are strings
     that represent the process environment.  For example,
     ‘environ['HOME']’ is the pathname of your home directory (on some
     platforms), and is equivalent to ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     This mapping is captured the first time the *note os: a1. module is
     imported, typically during Python startup as part of processing
     ‘site.py’.  Changes to the environment made after this time are not
     reflected in *note os.environ: 11a9, except for changes made by
     modifying *note os.environ: 11a9. directly.

     이 매핑은 환경을 조회하는 것뿐 아니라 환경을 수정하는 데도 사용될 수
     있습니다.  매핑이 수정될 때 *note putenv(): 919.가 자동으로 호출됩
     니다.

     유닉스에서, 키와 값은 *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. 과
     ‘'surrogateescape'’ 에러 처리기를 사용합니다.  다른 인코딩을 사용하
     려면 *note environb: 1206.를 사용하십시오.

     On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase.  This also applies
     when getting, setting, or deleting an item.  For example,
     ‘environ['monty'] = 'python'’ maps the key ‘'MONTY'’ to the value
     ‘'python'’.

          참고: Calling *note putenv(): 919. directly does not change
          *note os.environ: 11a9, so it’s better to modify *note
          os.environ: 11a9.

          참고: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment
     variables.  *note unsetenv(): 918. will be called automatically
     when an item is deleted from *note os.environ: 11a9, and when one
     of the ‘pop()’ or ‘clear()’ methods is called.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(1)의 병합(‘|’)과 업데이트(‘|=’) 연산자를
     지원하도록 갱신되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: os.environb

     Bytes version of *note environ: 11a9.: a *note mapping: 11ab.
     object where both keys and values are *note bytes: 1c2. objects
     representing the process environment.  *note environ: 11a9. and
     *note environb: 1206. are synchronized (modifying *note environb:
     1206. updates *note environ: 11a9, and vice versa).

     *note environb: 1206. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 1204. is ‘True’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: PEP 584(2)의 병합(‘|’)과 업데이트(‘|=’) 연산자를
     지원하도록 갱신되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.chdir (path)

 -- 함수: os.fchdir (fd)

 -- 함수: os.getcwd ()

     이 함수는 *note 파일과 디렉터리: 2b1d.에 설명되어 있습니다.

 -- 함수: os.fsencode (filename)

     Encode *note path-like: 2a0. 'filename' to the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 535.; return *note bytes: 1c2.
     unchanged.

     *note fsdecode(): c51.는 역 함수입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 구현하는 객
     체를 받아들이도록 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.fsdecode (filename)

     Decode the *note path-like: 2a0. 'filename' from the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 535.; return *note str: 445.
     unchanged.

     *note fsencode(): c52.는 역 함수입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 구현하는 객
     체를 받아들이도록 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.fspath (path)

     경로의 파일 시스템 표현을 돌려줍니다.

     *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2.가 전달되면, 변경되지 않은 상
     태로 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 *note __fspath__(): c4f.가 호출되고
     , 해당 값이 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체인 한 그 값이
     반환됩니다.  다른 모든 경우에는 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: os.PathLike

     파일 시스템 경로를 나타내는 객체(예를 들어 *note pathlib.PurePath:
     4a0.)의 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5.입니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod __fspath__ ()

          객체의 파일 시스템 경로 표현을 돌려줍니다.

          이 메서드는 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체만 반환
          해야 하며, *note str: 445.을 선호합니다.

 -- 함수: os.getenv (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as a string if
     it exists, or 'default' if it doesn’t.  'key' is a string.  Note
     that since *note getenv(): 2b1e. uses *note os.environ: 11a9, the
     mapping of *note getenv(): 2b1e. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     유닉스에서, 키와 값은 *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. 과
     ‘'surrogateescape'’ 에러 처리기로 디코딩됩니다.  다른 인코딩을 사용
     하려면 *note os.getenvb(): 1205.를 사용하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 함수: os.getenvb (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as bytes if it
     exists, or 'default' if it doesn’t.  'key' must be bytes.  Note
     that since *note getenvb(): 1205. uses *note os.environb: 1206, the
     mapping of *note getenvb(): 1205. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     *note getenvb(): 1205. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 1204. is ‘True’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.get_exec_path (env=None)

     셸과 비슷하게, 프로세스를 시작할 때 지정된 이름의 실행 파일을 검색
     할 디렉터리 리스트를 반환합니다.  (지정된다면) 'env' 는 PATH를 조회
     할 환경 변수 딕셔너리 여야 합니다.  기본적으로, 'env' 가 ‘None’이면
     , *note environ: 11a9.이 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.getegid ()

     현재 프로세스의 유효(effective) 그룹 ID를 반환합니다.  이것은 현재
     프로세스에서 실행 중인 파일의 “set id” 비트에 해당합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.geteuid ()

     현재 프로세스의 유효(effective) 사용자 ID를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.getgid ()

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real) 그룹 ID를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

 -- 함수: os.getgrouplist (user, group, /)

     Return list of group ids that 'user' belongs to.  If 'group' is not
     in the list, it is included; typically, 'group' is specified as the
     group ID field from the password record for 'user', because that
     group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.getgroups ()

     현재 프로세스와 관련된 보충(supplemental) 그룹 ID 목록을 반환합니다
     .

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

          참고: On macOS, *note getgroups(): 2b22. behavior differs
          somewhat from other Unix platforms.  If the Python interpreter
          was built with a deployment target of ‘10.5’ or earlier, *note
          getgroups(): 2b22. returns the list of effective group ids
          associated with the current user process; this list is limited
          to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16, and may
          be modified by calls to *note setgroups(): 2b23. if suitably
          privileged.  If built with a deployment target greater than
          ‘10.5’, *note getgroups(): 2b22. returns the current group
          access list for the user associated with the effective user id
          of the process; the group access list may change over the
          lifetime of the process, it is not affected by calls to *note
          setgroups(): 2b23, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
          deployment target value, ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’, can be
          obtained with *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1021.

 -- 함수: os.getlogin ()

     프로세스의 제어 터미널에 로그인한 사용자의 이름을 반환합니다.  대부
     분 목적에서, *note getpass.getuser(): 412.를 사용하는 것이 더 유용
     한데, 이 함수는 환경 변수 ‘LOGNAME’ 이나 ‘USERNAME’을 검사하여 사용
     자가 누구인지 알아내고, 현재 실제 사용자 ID의 로그인 이름을 얻기 위
     해 ‘pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]’로 폴백 하기 때문입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.getpgid (pid)

     프로세스 ID 'pid' 를 갖는 프로세스의 프로세스 그룹 ID를 반환합니다.
     'pid' 가 0이면, 현재 프로세스의 프로세스 그룹 id가 반환됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.getpgrp ()

     현재 프로세스 그룹의 ID를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.getpid ()

     현재의 프로세스 ID를 반환합니다.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

 -- 함수: os.getppid ()

     부모의 프로세스 ID를 반환합니다.  부모 프로세스가 종료했으면, 유닉
     스에서 반환된 id는 init 프로세스 (1) 중 하나이며, 윈도우에서는 여전
     히 같은 id인데, 다른 프로세스에서 이미 재사용했을 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.getpriority (which, who)

     프로그램 스케줄 우선순위를 얻습니다.  'which' 값은 *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 2b26, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2b27. 또는 *note PRIO_USER:
     2b28. 중 하나이고, 'who'는 'which' 에 상대적으로 해석됩니다 (*note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 2b26. 면 프로세스 식별자, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2b27. 면 프
     로세스 그룹 식별자, *note PRIO_USER: 2b28. 면 사용자 ID). 0 값의
     'who'는 (각각) 호출하는 프로세스, 호출하는 프로세스의 프로세스 그룹
     , 호출하는 프로세스의 실제 사용자 ID를 나타냅니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_PROCESS
 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_PGRP
 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_USER

     *note getpriority(): 10f0. 와 *note setpriority(): 10f1. 함수의 매
     개 변숫값

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD
 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS
 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG
 -- 데이터: os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI

     *note getpriority(): 10f0. 와 *note setpriority(): 10f1. 함수의 매
     개 변숫값

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: macOS

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.getresuid ()

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real), 유효(effective) 및 저장된(saved) 사용자
     ID를 나타내는 튜플 (ruid, euid, suid)를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.getresgid ()

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real), 유효(effective) 및 저장된(saved) 그룹
     ID를 나타내는 튜플 (rgid, egid, sgid)를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.getuid ()

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real) 사용자 ID를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

 -- 함수: os.initgroups (username, gid, /)

     지정된 사용자 이름이 구성원인 모든 그룹과 지정된 그룹 ID로 구성된 그
     룹 액세스 목록을 초기화하기 위해 시스템 initgroups()를 호출합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.putenv (key, value, /)

     'key' 라는 환경 변수를 문자열 'value' 로 설정합니다.  이러한 환경의
     변화는 *note os.system(): 1423, *note popen(): a84. 또는 *note
     fork(): 197. 및 *note execv(): 2b2d.로 시작된 자식 프로세스에 영향
     을 줍니다.

     Assignments to items in *note os.environ: 11a9. are automatically
     translated into corresponding calls to *note putenv(): 919.;
     however, calls to *note putenv(): 919. don’t update *note
     os.environ: 11a9, so it is actually preferable to assign to items
     of *note os.environ: 11a9.  This also applies to *note getenv():
     2b1e. and *note getenvb(): 1205, which respectively use *note
     os.environ: 11a9. and *note os.environb: 1206. in their
     implementations.

          참고: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     ‘key’, ‘value’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.putenv’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 항상 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: os.setegid (egid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 유효 그룹 ID를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- 함수: os.seteuid (euid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 유효 사용자 ID를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- 함수: os.setgid (gid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 그룹 ID를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- 함수: os.setgroups (groups, /)

     현재 프로세스와 연관된 보충(supplemental) 그룹 ID의 목록을
     'groups'로 설정합니다.  'groups' 는 시퀀스 여야 하며, 각 요소는 그
     룹을 식별하는 정수여야 합니다.  이 연산은 대개 슈퍼 유저만 사용할 수
     있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

          참고: On macOS, the length of 'groups' may not exceed the
          system-defined maximum number of effective group ids,
          typically 16.  See the documentation for *note getgroups():
          2b22. for cases where it may not return the same group list
          set by calling setgroups().

 -- 함수: os.setns (fd, nstype=0)

     Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace.  See the
     ‘setns(2)(3)’ and ‘namespaces(7)(4)’ man pages for more details.

     If 'fd' refers to a ‘/proc/`pid'/ns/’ link, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread with the namespace associated with that link,
     and 'nstype' may be set to one of the *note CLONE_NEW* constants:
     2b31. to impose constraints on the operation (‘0’ means no
     constraints).

     Since Linux 5.8, 'fd' may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained
     from *note pidfd_open(): 474.  In this case, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread into one or more of the same namespaces as the
     thread referred to by 'fd'.  This is subject to any constraints
     imposed by 'nstype', which is a bit mask combining one or more of
     the *note CLONE_NEW* constants: 2b31, e.g.  ‘setns(fd,
     os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID)’.  The caller’s memberships in
     unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.

     'fd' can be any object with a *note fileno(): 285e. method, or a
     raw file descriptor.

     This example reassociates the thread with the ‘init’ process’s
     network namespace:

          fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
          os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
          os.close(fd)

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.

     Added in version 3.12.

     더 보기
     .......

     The *note unshare(): 17c8. function.

 -- 함수: os.setpgrp ()

     Call the system call ‘setpgrp()’ or ‘setpgrp(0, 0)’ depending on
     which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.setpgid (pid, pgrp, /)

     Call the system call ‘setpgid()’ to set the process group id of the
     process with id 'pid' to the process group with id 'pgrp'.  See the
     Unix manual for the semantics.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.setpriority (which, who, priority)

     프로그램 스케줄 우선순위를 설정합니다.  'which' 값은 *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 2b26, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2b27. 또는 *note PRIO_USER:
     2b28. 중 하나이고, 'who'는 'which' 에 상대적으로 해석됩니다 (*note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 2b26. 면 프로세스 식별자, *note PRIO_PGRP: 2b27. 면 프
     로세스 그룹 식별자, *note PRIO_USER: 2b28. 면 사용자 ID). 0 값의
     'who'는 (각각) 호출하는 프로세스, 호출하는 프로세스의 프로세스 그룹
     , 호출하는 프로세스의 실제 사용자 ID를 나타냅니다.  'priority' 는
     -20에서 19 사이의 값입니다.  기본 우선순위는 0입니다; 우선순위가 낮
     으면 더 유리하게 스케줄 됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.setregid (rgid, egid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real) 및 유효한(effective) 그룹 ID를 설정합니
     다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- 함수: os.setresgid (rgid, egid, sgid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real), 유효(effective) 및 저장된(saved) 그룹
     ID를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.setresuid (ruid, euid, suid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real), 유효(effective) 및 저장된(saved) 사용자
     ID를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.setreuid (ruid, euid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 실제(real) 및 유효(effective) 사용자 ID를 설정합니
     다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- 함수: os.getsid (pid, /)

     Call the system call ‘getsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.setsid ()

     Call the system call ‘setsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.setuid (uid, /)

     현재 프로세스의 사용자 ID를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- 함수: os.strerror (code, /)

     Return the error message corresponding to the error code in 'code'.
     On platforms where ‘strerror()’ returns ‘NULL’ when given an
     unknown error number, *note ValueError: 202. is raised.

 -- 데이터: os.supports_bytes_environ

     환경의 원시 OS 형이 바이트열이면 ‘True’ (예를 들어, 윈도우에서는
     ‘False’).

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: os.umask (mask, /)

     현재 숫자 umask를 설정하고 이전 umask를 반환합니다.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

 -- 함수: os.uname ()

     현재 운영 체제를 식별하는 정보를 반환합니다.  반환 값은 5가지 어트
     리뷰트를 가진 객체입니다:

        * ‘sysname’ - 운영 체제 이름

        * ‘nodename’ - 네트워크상의 기계 이름 (구현이 정의)

        * ‘release’ - 운영 체제 릴리스

        * ‘version’ - 운영 체제 버전

        * ‘machine’ - 하드웨어 식별자

     하위 호환성을 위해, 이 객체는 이터러블이기도 해서, ‘sysname’,
     ‘nodename’, ‘release’, ‘version’ 및 ‘machine’이 이 순서로 포함된
     5-튜플처럼 작동합니다.

     일부 시스템에서는 ‘nodename’을 8자나 선행 구성 요소로 자릅니다; 호
     스트 이름을 얻는 더 좋은 방법은 *note socket.gethostname(): 2b3a. 또
     는 더 나아가 ‘socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())’입니다.

     On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the 'kernel' name and
     version (i.e., ‘'Darwin'’ on macOS and iOS; ‘'Linux'’ on Android).
     *note platform.uname(): 1a39. can be used to get the user-facing
     operating system name and version on iOS and Android.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 반환형이 튜플에서 이름이 지정된 어트리뷰트를 가
     진 튜플류 객체로 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.unsetenv (key, /)

     'key' 라는 이름의 환경 변수를 삭제합니다.  이러한 환경 변화는 *note
     os.system(): 1423, *note popen(): a84. 또는 *note fork(): 197. 및
     *note execv(): 2b2d.로 시작된 자식 프로세스에 영향을 줍니다.

     Deletion of items in *note os.environ: 11a9. is automatically
     translated into a corresponding call to *note unsetenv(): 918.;
     however, calls to *note unsetenv(): 918. don’t update *note
     os.environ: 11a9, so it is actually preferable to delete items of
     *note os.environ: 11a9.

     ‘key’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.unsetenv’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 항상 사용할 수 있고 윈도우에서도
     사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: os.unshare (flags)

     Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them
     into a newly created namespace.  See the ‘unshare(2)(5)’ man page
     for more details.  The 'flags' argument is a bit mask, combining
     zero or more of the *note CLONE_* constants: 2b31, that specifies
     which parts of the execution context should be unshared from their
     existing associations and moved to a new namespace.  If the 'flags'
     argument is ‘0’, no changes are made to the calling process’s
     execution context.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.16.

     Added in version 3.12.

     더 보기
     .......

     The *note setns(): 17c7. function.

Flags to the *note unshare(): 17c8. function, if the implementation
supports them.  See ‘unshare(2)(6)’ in the Linux manual for their exact
effect and availability.

 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_FILES
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_FS
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWCGROUP
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWIPC
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWNET
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWNS
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWPID
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWTIME
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWUSER
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_NEWUTS
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_SIGHAND
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_SYSVSEM
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_THREAD
 -- 데이터: os.CLONE_VM

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/setns(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/namespaces(7)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 객체 생성,  Next: 파일 기술자 연산,  Prev: 프로세스 매개 변수,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.4 파일 객체 생성
.......................

이 함수들은 새로운 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.를 만듭니다.  (파일 기술자를 여
는 것에 관해서는 *note open(): d8e.를 참조하십시오.)

 -- 함수: os.fdopen (fd, *args, **kwargs)

     파일 기술자 'fd에' 연결된 열린 파일 객체를 반환합니다.  이것은
     *note open(): 515. 내장 함수의 별칭이며 같은 인자를 받아들입니다.  유
     일한 차이점은 *note fdopen(): 1f3a.의 첫 번째 인자는 항상 정수여야
     한다는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 기술자 연산,  Next: 파일과 디렉터리,  Prev: 파일 객체 생성,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.5 파일 기술자 연산
.........................

이 함수들은 파일 기술자를 사용하여 참조된 I/O 스트림에 작용합니다.

파일 기술자는 현재 프로세스에 의해 열린 파일에 대응하는 작은 정수입니다.
예를 들어, 표준 입력은 보통 파일 기술자 0이고, 표준 출력은 1이며, 표준 에
러는 2입니다.  프로세스에 의해 열린 추가 파일은 3, 4, 5 등으로 지정됩니
다.  “파일 기술자”라는 이름은 약간 기만적입니다; 유닉스 플랫폼에서, 소켓
과 파이프도 파일 기술자에 의해 참조됩니다.

*note fileno(): 285e. 메서드는 필요할 때 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.와 연관된
파일 기술자를 얻는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  파일 기술자를 직접 사용하면 파
일 객체 메서드를 거치지 않아서, 데이터의 내부 버퍼링과 같은 측면을 무시
하게 되는 것에 유의하십시오.

 -- 함수: os.close (fd)

     파일 기술자 'fd'를 닫습니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 저수준 I/O를 위한 것이며, *note os.open():
          d8e. 또는 *note pipe(): 17e1.에 의해 반환된 파일 기술자에 적용
          되어야 합니다.  내장 함수 *note open(): 515. 나 *note popen():
          a84. 또는 *note fdopen(): 1f3a.에 의해 반환된 “파일 객체”를 닫
          으려면, *note close(): 1f6. 메서드를 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: os.closerange (fd_low, fd_high, /)

     에러는 무시하면서, 'fd_low'(포함)부터 'fd_high'(제외)까지 모든 파일
     기술자를 닫습니다.  다음과 동등합니다 (하지만 훨씬 빠릅니다):

          for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
              try:
                  os.close(fd)
              except OSError:
                  pass

 -- 함수: os.copy_file_range (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from offset
     'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from
     the current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.

     In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by 'src' and
     'dst' must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an *note
     OSError: 411. is raised with *note errno: 2295. set to *note
     errno.EXDEV: 2b4f.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations,
     such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share
     pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file
     systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of
     NFS).

     The function copies bytes between two file descriptors.  Text
     options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.

     반환 값은 복사된 바이트의 양입니다.  이것은 요구된 양보다 적을 수 있
     습니다.

          참고: On Linux, *note os.copy_file_range(): 2b4e. should not
          be used for copying a range of a pseudo file from a special
          filesystem like procfs and sysfs.  It will always copy no
          bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty because of a known
          Linux kernel issue.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: os.device_encoding (fd)

     'fd' 와 연관된 장치가 터미널에 연결되어 있을 때 인코딩을 설명하는 문
     자열을 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

     On Unix, if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. is enabled, return
     ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: On Unix, the function now implements the Python
     UTF-8 Mode.

 -- 함수: os.dup (fd, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd' 의 복사본을 반환합니다.  새 파일 기술자는 *note
     상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     윈도우에서는, 표준 스트림(0: stdin, 1: stdout, 2: stderr)을 복제할
     때, 새 파일 기술자가 *note 상속 가능: ef1.합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새로운 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

 -- 함수: os.dup2 (fd, fd2, inheritable=True)

     파일 기술자 'fd' 를 'fd2'에 복제하고, 필요하면 먼저 후자를 닫습니다
     .  'fd2'를 반환합니다.  새로운 파일 기술자는 기본적으로 *note 상속
     가능: ef1.하고, 'inheritable' 이 ‘False’면 상속 불가능합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 선택적 'inheritable' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 성공하면 'fd2' 를 반환합니다.  이전에는 항상
     ‘None’을 반환했습니다.

 -- 함수: os.fchmod (fd, mode)

     'fd' 에 의해 주어진 파일의 모드를 숫자 'mode' 로 변경합니다.
     'mode'의 가능한 값은 *note chmod(): 21b. 문서를 참조하십시오.  파이
     썬 3.3부터는, ‘os.chmod(fd, mode)’와 같습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.chmod’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support on Windows.

 -- 함수: os.fchown (fd, uid, gid)

     'fd' 에 의해 주어진 파일의 소유자와 그룹 id를 숫자 'uid' 와 'gid'로
     변경합니다.  ID 중 하나를 변경하지 않으려면, 그것을 -1로 설정하십시
     오.  *note chown(): 10e0.를 참조하십시오.  파이썬 3.3부터는,
     ‘os.chown(fd, uid, gid)’와 같습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.chown’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

 -- 함수: os.fdatasync (fd)

     파일 기술자 'fd' 로 주어진 파일을 디스크에 쓰도록 강제합니다.  메타
     데이터를 갱신하도록 강제하지 않습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

          참고: 이 함수는 MacOS에서는 사용할 수 없습니다.

 -- 함수: os.fpathconf (fd, name, /)

     열린 파일과 관련된 시스템 구성 정보를 반환합니다.  'name' 은 조회할
     구성 값을 지정합니다; 정의된 시스템 값의 이름인 문자열일 수 있습니
     다; 이 이름은 여러 표준(POSIX.1, 유닉스 95, 유닉스 98 및 기타)에서
     지정됩니다.  일부 플랫폼은 추가 이름도 정의합니다.  호스트 운영 체
     제에 알려진 이름은 ‘pathconf_names’ 딕셔너리에서 제공됩니다.  이 매
     핑에 포함되지 않은 구성 변수의 경우, 'name'에 정수를 전달하는 것도
     허용됩니다.

     'name' 이 문자열이고 알 수 없으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.  'name'에 대한 특정 값이 호스트 시스템에서 지원되지 않으면,
     ‘pathconf_names’에 포함되어 있어도, 에러 번호가 *note errno.EINVAL:
     19f6.인 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

     파이썬 3.3부터, ‘os.pathconf(fd, name)’과 같습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.fstat (fd)

     파일 기술자 'fd' 의 상태를 가져옵니다.  *note stat_result: 1487. 객
     체를 반환합니다.

     파이썬 3.3부터는, ‘os.stat(fd)’와 같습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note stat(): 49a. 함수.

 -- 함수: os.fstatvfs (fd, /)

     *note statvfs(): 10ed. 처럼, 파일 기술자 'fd' 와 연관된 파일을 포함
     하는 파일 시스템에 대한 정보를 반환합니다.  파이썬 3.3부터는,
     ‘os.statvfs(fd)’와 같습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.fsync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  On Unix,
     this calls the native ‘fsync()’ function; on Windows, the MS
     ‘_commit()’ function.

     버퍼링 된 파이썬 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'f'로 시작하는 경우, 'f' 와
     연관된 모든 내부 버퍼가 디스크에 기록되게 하려면, 먼저 ‘f.flush()’를
     수행한 다음 ‘os.fsync(f.fileno())’를 하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 함수: os.ftruncate (fd, length, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에 해당하는 파일을 잘라내어 최대 'length' 바이트가
     되도록 만듭니다.  파이썬 3.3부터는, ‘os.truncate(fd, length)’와 같
     습니다.

     ‘fd’, ‘length’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.truncate’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우 지원 추가

 -- 함수: os.get_blocking (fd, /)

     파일 기술자의 블로킹 모드를 얻어옵니다: *note O_NONBLOCK: e37. 플래
     그가 설정되었으면 ‘False’, 플래그가 지워졌으면 ‘True’.

     *note set_blocking(): e36. 및 *note socket.socket.setblocking():
     2b51.도 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- 함수: os.grantpt (fd, /)

     Grant access to the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with
     the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd'
     refers.  The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘grantpt()’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.isatty (fd, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd' 가 열려 있고 tty(류의) 장치에 연결되어 있으면
     ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: os.lockf (fd, cmd, len, /)

     열린 파일 기술자에 POSIX 록을 적용, 검사 또는 제거합니다.  'fd' 는
     열린 파일 기술자입니다.  'cmd' 는 사용할 명령을 지정합니다 - *note
     F_LOCK: 2b52, *note F_TLOCK: 2b53, *note F_ULOCK: 2b54. 또는 *note
     F_TEST: 2b55. 중 하나.  'len' 은 잠글 파일의 영역을 지정합니다.

     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.lockf’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.F_LOCK
 -- 데이터: os.F_TLOCK
 -- 데이터: os.F_ULOCK
 -- 데이터: os.F_TEST

     *note lockf(): 1104.가 취할 조치를 지정하는 플래그.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.login_tty (fd, /)

     Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login
     session.  Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty
     the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the
     calling process; close fd.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: os.lseek (fd, pos, whence, /)

     Set the current position of file descriptor 'fd' to position 'pos',
     modified by 'whence', and return the new position in bytes relative
     to the start of the file.  Valid values for 'whence' are:

        * *note SEEK_SET: 127d. or ‘0’ – set 'pos' relative to the
          beginning of the file

        * *note SEEK_CUR: 127e. or ‘1’ – set 'pos' relative to the
          current file position

        * *note SEEK_END: 127f. or ‘2’ – set 'pos' relative to the end
          of the file

        * *note SEEK_HOLE: 2b56. – set 'pos' to the next data location,
          relative to 'pos'

        * *note SEEK_DATA: 2b57. – set 'pos' to the next data hole,
          relative to 'pos'

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Add support for ‘SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘SEEK_DATA’.

 -- 데이터: os.SEEK_SET
 -- 데이터: os.SEEK_CUR
 -- 데이터: os.SEEK_END

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): 1108. function and the *note
     seek(): 127c. method on *note file-like objects: 11b2, for whence
     to adjust the file position indicator.

     *note SEEK_SET: 127d.

          Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the
          file.

     *note SEEK_CUR: 127e.

          Adjust the file position relative to the current file
          position.

     *note SEEK_END: 127f.

          Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.

     Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.

 -- 데이터: os.SEEK_HOLE
 -- 데이터: os.SEEK_DATA

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): 1108. function and the *note
     seek(): 127c. method on *note file-like objects: 11b2, for seeking
     file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.

     ‘SEEK_DATA’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data,
          relative to the seek position.

     ‘SEEK_HOLE’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole,
          relative to the seek position.  A hole is defined as a
          sequence of zeros.

          참고: These operations only make sense for filesystems that
          support them.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.open (path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     파일 'path'를 열고 'flags' 에 따른 다양한 플래그와 때로 'mode' 따른
     모드를 설정합니다.  'mode'를 계산할 때, 현재 umask 값으로 먼저 마스
     킹합니다.  새롭게 열린 파일의 파일 기술자를 돌려줍니다.  새 파일 기
     술자는 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     플래그와 모드 값에 대한 설명은, C 런타임 설명서를 참조하십시오; 플
     래그 상수(*note O_RDONLY: 2b58. 와 *note O_WRONLY: 2b59.와 같은)는
     *note os: a1. 모듈에 정의되어 있습니다.  특히, 윈도우에서 바이너리
     모드로 파일을 열려면 *note O_BINARY: 2b5a.를 추가해야 합니다.

     이 함수는 'dir_fd' 매개 변수로 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인
     경로: 10dc.를 지원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘open’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새로운 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 저수준 I/O를 위한 것입니다.  일반적인 사용을 위
          해서는 내장 함수 *note open(): 515.을 사용하십시오, 이 함수는
          ‘read()’ 및 ‘write()’ 메서드(와 더 많은 메서드)가있는 *note
          파일 객체: 11b2.를 반환합니다.  파일 기술자를 파일 객체로 싸려
          면, *note fdopen(): 1f3a.을 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 함수는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예외
     를 일으키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(1)를 참
     조하세요).

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

다음 상수는 *note open(): d8e. 함수에 대한 'flags' 매개 변수의 옵션입니
다.  비트별 OR 연산자 ‘|’를 사용하여 결합할 수 있습니다.  일부는 모든 플
랫폼에서 사용할 수는 없습니다.  가용성과 사용에 대한 설명은 유닉스의
‘open(2)(2)’ 매뉴얼 페이지 또는 윈도우의 MSDN(3)을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: os.O_RDONLY
 -- 데이터: os.O_WRONLY
 -- 데이터: os.O_RDWR
 -- 데이터: os.O_APPEND
 -- 데이터: os.O_CREAT
 -- 데이터: os.O_EXCL
 -- 데이터: os.O_TRUNC

     위의 상수는 유닉스 및 윈도우에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: os.O_DSYNC
 -- 데이터: os.O_RSYNC
 -- 데이터: os.O_SYNC
 -- 데이터: os.O_NDELAY
 -- 데이터: os.O_NONBLOCK
 -- 데이터: os.O_NOCTTY
 -- 데이터: os.O_CLOEXEC

     위의 상수는 유닉스에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note O_CLOEXEC: 1072. 상수를 추가합니다.

 -- 데이터: os.O_BINARY
 -- 데이터: os.O_NOINHERIT
 -- 데이터: os.O_SHORT_LIVED
 -- 데이터: os.O_TEMPORARY
 -- 데이터: os.O_RANDOM
 -- 데이터: os.O_SEQUENTIAL
 -- 데이터: os.O_TEXT

     위의 상수는 윈도우에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: os.O_EVTONLY
 -- 데이터: os.O_FSYNC
 -- 데이터: os.O_SYMLINK
 -- 데이터: os.O_NOFOLLOW_ANY

     The above constants are only available on macOS.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Add *note O_EVTONLY: 814, *note O_FSYNC: 815,
     *note O_SYMLINK: 816. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 817. constants.

 -- 데이터: os.O_ASYNC
 -- 데이터: os.O_DIRECT
 -- 데이터: os.O_DIRECTORY
 -- 데이터: os.O_NOFOLLOW
 -- 데이터: os.O_NOATIME
 -- 데이터: os.O_PATH
 -- 데이터: os.O_TMPFILE
 -- 데이터: os.O_SHLOCK
 -- 데이터: os.O_EXLOCK

     위의 상수는 확장이며 C 라이브러리에서 정의하지 않으면 존재하지 않습
     니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 지원하는 시스템에 *note O_PATH: f6a.를 추가합니
     다.  리눅스 커널 3.11 이상에서만 사용 가능한 *note O_TMPFILE: f6b.를
     추가합니다.

 -- 함수: os.openpty ()

     새로운 의사 터미널 쌍을 엽니다.  파일 기술자의 쌍 ‘(master, slave)’
     를 반환하는데, 각각 pty와 tty 입니다.  새 파일 기술자는 *note 상속
     불가능: ef1.합니다.  (약간) 더 이식성 있는 접근 방식을 사용하려면,
     *note pty: b1. 모듈을 사용하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새로운 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

 -- 함수: os.pipe ()

     파이프를 만듭니다.  파일 기술자 쌍 ‘(r, w)’ 를 반환하는데, 각각 읽
     기와 쓰기에 사용할 수 있습니다.  새 파일 기술자는 *note 상속
     불가능: ef1.합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새로운 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

 -- 함수: os.pipe2 (flags, /)

     'flags' 가 원자적으로 설정된 파이프를 만듭니다.  'flags' 는 다음과
     같은 값들을 하나 이상 OR 해서 만들 수 있습니다: *note O_NONBLOCK:
     e37, *note O_CLOEXEC: 1072.  파일 기술자 쌍 ‘(r, w)’ 를 반환하는데,
     각각 읽기와 쓰기에 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.posix_fallocate (fd, offset, len, /)

     'fd'로 지정된 파일이 'offset' 에서 시작하여 'len' 바이트 동안 계속
     되도록 충분한 디스크 공간을 할당합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.posix_fadvise (fd, offset, len, advice, /)

     특정 패턴으로 데이터에 액세스하려는 의도를 알려 커널이 최적화할 수
     있도록 합니다.  조언(advice)은 'fd에' 의해 지정된 파일의 'offset' 에
     서 시작하여 'len' 바이트 동안 계속되는 영역에 적용됩니다.  'advice'는
     *note POSIX_FADV_NORMAL: 2b70, *note POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL: 2b71,
     *note POSIX_FADV_RANDOM: 2b72, *note POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE: 2b73,
     *note POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED: 2b74. 또는 *note POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED:
     2b75. 중 하나입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL
 -- 데이터: os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- 데이터: os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM
 -- 데이터: os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE
 -- 데이터: os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED
 -- 데이터: os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED

     사용 가능성이 큰 액세스 패턴을 지정하는 *note posix_fadvise():
     d8f.의 'advice' 에 사용될 수 있는 플래그.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.pread (fd, n, offset, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에서 'offset' 의 위치부터 최대 'n' 바이트를 읽어 들
     이고, 파일 오프셋은 변경되지 않은 채로 남겨 둡니다.

     읽어 들인 바이트를 포함하는 바이트열을 돌려줍니다.  'fd' 에 의해 참
     조된 파일의 끝에 도달하면, 빈 바이트열 객체가 반환됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.posix_openpt (oflag, /)

     Open and return a file descriptor for a master pseudo-terminal
     device.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘posix_openpt()’.  The
     'oflag' argument is used to set file status flags and file access
     modes as specified in the manual page of ‘posix_openpt()’ of your
     system.

     The returned file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ef1.  If the
     value *note O_CLOEXEC: 1072. is available on the system, it is
     added to 'oflag'.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.preadv (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에서 'offset' 위치부터 가변 *note 바이트열류
     객체들: d2a. 'buffers' 로 읽어 들이고, 파일 오프셋은 변경되지 않은
     채로 남겨 둡니다.  데이터가 가득 찰 때까지 각 버퍼로 데이터를 전송
     한 다음 나머지 데이터를 보관하기 위해 시퀀스의 다음 버퍼로 이동합니
     다.

     flags 인자는 다음 플래그 중 0개 이상의 비트별 OR를 포함합니다:

        - *note RWF_HIPRI: 2b76.

        - *note RWF_NOWAIT: 2b77.

     실제로 읽힌 총 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  이 값은 모든 객체의 총 용량
     보다 작을 수 있습니다.

     운영 체제는 사용할 수 있는 버퍼 수에 한계(*note sysconf(): 1573. 값
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’)를 설정할 수 있습니다.

     *note os.readv(): b5b. 와 *note os.pread(): b5c.의 기능을 결합합니
     다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD >=
     2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: os.RWF_NOWAIT

     즉시 사용할 수 없는 데이터를 기다리지 않습니다.  이 플래그를 지정하
     면, 하부 저장 장치에서 데이터를 읽어야 하거나 록을 기다려야 할 때 즉
     시 시스템 호출이 반환됩니다.

     If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of
     bytes read.  If no bytes were read, it will return ‘-1’ and set
     errno to *note errno.EAGAIN: 22a6.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.14.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: os.RWF_HIPRI

     우선순위가 높은 읽기/쓰기.  블록 기반 파일 시스템이 장치의 폴링을 사
     용할 수 있게 하여, 지연은 짧아 지지만, 추가 자원을 사용할 수 있습니
     다.

     현재, 리눅스에서, 이 기능은 *note O_DIRECT: 2b6b. 플래그를 사용하여
     열린 파일 기술자에만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: os.ptsname (fd, /)

     Return the name of the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with
     the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd'
     refers.  The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the reentrant C standard library function ‘ptsname_r()’ if it
     is available; otherwise, the C standard library function
     ‘ptsname()’, which is not guaranteed to be thread-safe, is called.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.pwrite (fd, str, offset, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'의 'offset' 위치에 'str' 바이트열을 쓰고, 파일 오프
     셋은 변경되지 않은 채로 남겨 둡니다.

     실제로 쓴 바이트 수를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.pwritev (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Write the 'buffers' contents to file descriptor 'fd' at an offset
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.  'buffers' must be a
     sequence of *note bytes-like objects: d2a.  Buffers are processed
     in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is written
     before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     flags 인자는 다음 플래그 중 0개 이상의 비트별 OR를 포함합니다:

        - *note RWF_DSYNC: 2b78.

        - *note RWF_SYNC: 2b79.

        - *note RWF_APPEND: 194d.

     실제로 쓴 총 바이트 수를 반환합니다.

     운영 체제는 사용할 수 있는 버퍼 수에 한계(*note sysconf(): 1573. 값
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’)를 설정할 수 있습니다.

     *note os.writev(): b5e. 와 *note os.pwrite(): b5f.의 기능을 결합합
     니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD >=
     2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: os.RWF_DSYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_DSYNC: 2b5f. *note
     os.open(): d8e. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: os.RWF_SYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_SYNC: 2b61. *note
     os.open(): d8e. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: os.RWF_APPEND

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_APPEND: 2b5c. *note
     os.open(): d8e. flag.  This flag is meaningful only for *note
     os.pwritev(): b5d, and its effect applies only to the data range
     written by the system call.  The 'offset' argument does not affect
     the write operation; the data is always appended to the end of the
     file.  However, if the 'offset' argument is ‘-1’, the current file
     'offset' is updated.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.16.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: os.read (fd, n, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에서 최대 'n' 바이트를 읽습니다.

     읽어 들인 바이트를 포함하는 바이트열을 돌려줍니다.  'fd' 에 의해 참
     조된 파일의 끝에 도달하면, 빈 바이트열 객체가 반환됩니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 저수준 I/O를 위한 것이며 *note os.open(): d8e.
          이나 *note pipe(): 17e1.에 의해 반환된 파일 기술자에 적용되어
          야 합니다.  내장 함수 *note open(): 515. 이나 *note popen():
          a84. 또는 *note fdopen(): 1f3a.에 의해 반환된 “파일 객체”나
          *note sys.stdin: 537.을 읽으려면, 그것의 ‘read()’ 나
          ‘readline()’ 메서드를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 함수는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예외
     를 일으키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(4)를 참
     조하세요).

 -- 함수: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count)

 -- 함수: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(),
          trailers=(), flags=0)

     파일 기술자 'in_fd'에서 파일 기술자 'out_fd' 로 'offset'에서 시작하
     여 'count' 바이트를 복사합니다.  전송된 바이트 수를 반환합니다.
     EOF에 도달하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     첫 번째 함수 서명은 *note sendfile(): b0c.를 정의하는 모든 플랫폼에
     서 지원됩니다.

     리눅스에서, 'offset'이 ‘None’으로 주어지면, 'in_fd'의 현재 위치에서
     바이트를 읽고 'in_fd'의 위치가 갱신됩니다.

     The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where 'headers'
     and 'trailers' are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written
     before and after the data from 'in_fd' is written.  It returns the
     same as the first case.

     On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of ‘0’ for 'count' specifies to send
     until the end of 'in_fd' is reached.

     모든 플랫폼은 'out_fd' 파일 기술자로 소켓을 지원하고, 일부 플랫폼은
     다른 유형(예를 들어 일반 파일, 파이프)들도 허락합니다.

     이기종 플랫폼 응용 프로그램은 'headers', 'trailers' 및 'flags' 인자
     를 사용해서는 안 됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

          참고: *note sendfile(): b0c.의 고수준 래퍼는, *note
          socket.socket.sendfile(): e55.을 보십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 매개 변수 'out'과 'in'의 이름이 'out_fd'와
     'in_fd'로 변경되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: os.SF_NODISKIO
 -- 데이터: os.SF_MNOWAIT
 -- 데이터: os.SF_SYNC

     구현이 지원하는 경우, *note sendfile(): b0c. 함수에 대한 매개 변수
     입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.SF_NOCACHE

     Parameter to the *note sendfile(): b0c. function, if the
     implementation supports it.  The data won’t be cached in the
     virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: os.set_blocking (fd, blocking, /)

     지정된 파일 기술자의 블로킹 모드를 설정합니다.  blocking이 ‘False’면
     *note O_NONBLOCK: e37. 플래그를 설정하고, 그렇지 않으면 플래그를 지
     웁니다.

     *note get_blocking(): e35.과 *note socket.socket.setblocking():
     2b51.도 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- 함수: os.splice (src, dst, count, offset_src=None, offset_dst=None)

     Transfer 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from
     offset 'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a
     pipe.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from the
     current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.  The offset
     associated to the file descriptor that refers to a pipe must be
     ‘None’.  The files pointed to by 'src' and 'dst' must reside in the
     same filesystem, otherwise an *note OSError: 411. is raised with
     *note errno: 2295. set to *note errno.EXDEV: 2b4f.

     이 복사는 커널에서 사용자 공간으로 데이터를 전송한 다음 다시 커널로
     전송하는 추가 비용 없이 수행됩니다.  또한, 일부 파일 시스템은 추가
     최적화를 구현할 수 있습니다.  두 파일이 바이너리로 열린 것처럼 복사
     가 수행됩니다.

     Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to
     or from the pipe.  A return value of 0 means end of input.  If
     'src' refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to
     transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no
     writers connected to the write end of the pipe.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: os.SPLICE_F_MOVE
 -- 데이터: os.SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK
 -- 데이터: os.SPLICE_F_MORE

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: os.readv (fd, buffers, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에서 여러 가변 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.
     'buffers'로 읽어 들입니다.  데이터가 가득 찰 때까지 각 버퍼로 데이
     터를 전송한 다음 나머지 데이터를 보관하기 위해 시퀀스의 다음 버퍼로
     이동합니다.

     실제로 읽힌 총 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  이 값은 모든 객체의 총 용량
     보다 작을 수 있습니다.

     운영 체제는 사용할 수 있는 버퍼 수에 한계(*note sysconf(): 1573. 값
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’)를 설정할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.tcgetpgrp (fd, /)

     'fd'(*note os.open(): d8e.에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 열린 파일 기술자
     )에 의해 주어진 터미널과 관련된 프로세스 그룹을 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.tcsetpgrp (fd, pg, /)

     'fd'(*note os.open(): d8e.에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 열린 파일 기술자
     )에 의해 주어진 터미널과 관련된 프로세스 그룹을 'pg'로 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.ttyname (fd, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'와 관련된 터미널 장치를 나타내는 문자열을 돌려줍니
     다.  'fd' 가 터미널 장치와 연관되어 있지 않으면, 예외가 발생합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.unlockpt (fd, /)

     Unlock the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master
     pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd' refers.
     The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘unlockpt()’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.write (fd, str, /)

     'str' 바이트열을 파일 기술자 'fd' 에 씁니다.

     실제로 쓴 바이트 수를 반환합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 저수준 I/O를 위한 것이며 *note os.open(): d8e.
          이나 *note pipe(): 17e1.에 의해 반환된 파일 기술자에 적용되어
          야 합니다.  내장 함수 *note open(): 515. 이나 *note popen():
          a84. 또는 *note fdopen(): 1f3a.에 의해 반환된 “파일 객체”나
          *note sys.stdout: ad3. 또는 *note sys.stderr: 937.에 쓰려면, 그
          것의 ‘write()’ 메서드를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 함수는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예외
     를 일으키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(5)를 참
     조하세요).

 -- 함수: os.writev (fd, buffers, /)

     'buffers' 내용을 파일 기술자 'fd'에 씁니다.  'buffers' 는 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a.의 시퀀스 여야 합니다.  버퍼는 배열 순서로 처
     리됩니다.  첫 번째 버퍼의 전체 내용은 두 번째 버퍼로 진행하기 전에
     기록되고, 같은 식으로 계속 진행합니다.

     실제로 쓴 총 바이트 수를 반환합니다.

     운영 체제는 사용할 수 있는 버퍼 수에 한계(*note sysconf(): 1573. 값
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’)를 설정할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* 터미널의 크기 조회하기::
* 파일 기술자의 상속::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/open(2)

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 터미널의 크기 조회하기,  Next: 파일 기술자의 상속,  Up: 파일 기술자 연산

5.16.1.6 터미널의 크기 조회하기
...............................

Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.get_terminal_size (fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)

     터미널 창의 크기를 ‘(columns, lines)’ 로 반환하는데, *note
     terminal_size: 288b. 형의 튜플입니다.

     선택적 인자 ‘fd’(기본값 ‘STDOUT_FILENO’, 즉 표준 출력)는 조회할 파
     일 기술자를 지정합니다.

     파일 기술자가 터미널에 연결되어 있지 않으면, *note OSError: 411.가
     발생합니다.

     *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f4.가 일반적으로 사용해야 하는
     고수준 함수이며, ‘os.get_terminal_size’는 저수준 구현입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 클래스: os.terminal_size

     터미널 창 크기 ‘(columns, lines)’를 저장하는 튜플의 서브 클래스.

      -- 속성: columns

          문자 단위의 터미널 창의 너비.

      -- 속성: lines

          문자 단위의 터미널 창의 높이.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 기술자의 상속,  Prev: 터미널의 크기 조회하기,  Up: 파일 기술자 연산

5.16.1.7 파일 기술자의 상속
...........................

Added in version 3.4.

파일 기술자는 자식 프로세스가 파일 기술자를 상속받을 수 있는지를 나타내
는 “상속 가능” 플래그를 가지고 있습니다.  파이썬 3.4부터, 파이썬에 의해
생성된 파일 기술자는 기본적으로 상속 불가능합니다.

유닉스에서는, 상속 불가능한 파일 기술자는 새 프로그램 실행 시 자식 프로
세스에서 닫히고, 다른 파일 기술자는 상속됩니다.

윈도우에서는, 항상 상속되는 표준 스트림(파일 기술자 0, 1, 2: stdin,
stdout, stderr)을 제외하고, 상속 불가능한 핸들 및 파일 기술자는 자식 프
로세스에서 닫힙니다.  *note spawn*: 1738. 함수를 사용하면, 상속 가능한 모
든 핸들과 상속 가능한 모든 파일 기술자가 상속됩니다.  *note subprocess:
d6. 모듈을 사용하면, 표준 스트림을 제외한 모든 파일 기술자가 닫히고, 상
속 가능한 핸들은 'close_fds' 매개 변수가 ‘False’ 일 때만 상속됩니다.

On WebAssembly platforms, the file descriptor cannot be modified.

 -- 함수: os.get_inheritable (fd, /)

     지정된 파일 기술자의 “상속 가능” 플래그를 가져옵니다 (논릿값).

 -- 함수: os.set_inheritable (fd, inheritable, /)

     지정된 파일 기술자의 “상속 가능(inheritable)” 플래그를 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: os.get_handle_inheritable (handle, /)

     지정된 핸들의 “상속 가능” 플래그를 가져옵니다 (논릿값).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- 함수: os.set_handle_inheritable (handle, inheritable, /)

     지정된 핸들의 “상속 가능(inheritable)” 플래그를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일과 디렉터리,  Next: 프로세스 관리,  Prev: 파일 기술자 연산,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.8 파일과 디렉터리
........................

일부 유닉스 플랫폼에서, 이 함수 중 많은 것들이 다음 기능 중 하나 이상을
지원합니다:

   * '파일 기술자 지정:' 일반적으로 *note os: a1. 모듈에 있는 함수에 제
     공되는 'path' 인자는 파일 경로를 지정하는 문자열이어야 합니다.  하
     지만, 일부 함수는 이제 'path' 인자로 열린 파일 기술자를 대신 받아들
     입니다.  그러면 그 함수는 기술자가 참조하는 파일에서 작동합니다.
     (POSIX 시스템에서, 파이썬은 함수의 ‘f’ 접두어가 붙은 함수의 변종을
     호출합니다 (예를 들어, ‘chdir’ 대신 ‘fchdir’).)

     *note os.supports_fd: 10ee.를 사용하여, 여러분의 플랫폼에서 특정 함
     수에 파일 기술자로 'path'를 지정할 수 있는지를 확인할 수 있습니다.
     사용할 수 없을 때, 사용하면 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생
     시킵니다.

     함수가 'dir_fd' 나 'follow_symlinks' 인자도 지원하면, 'path' 에 파
     일 기술자를 제공할 때, 이 중 하나를 지정하는 것은 에러입니다.

   * '디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로:' 'dir_fd' 가 ‘None’이 아니면, 디
     렉터리를 가리키는 파일 기술자여야 하며, 대상 경로는 상대 경로여야 합
     니다; 그러면 경로는 그 디렉터리에 상대적입니다.  절대 경로이면,
     'dir_fd' 는 무시됩니다.  (POSIX 시스템에서, 파이썬은 ‘at’ 접미사를
     붙이거나 어쩌면 ‘f’ 접두사도 붙인 함수의 변종을 호출합니다.  예를 들
     어, ‘access’ 대신 ‘faccessat’를 호출합니다)

     *note os.supports_dir_fd: 10e9.를 사용하여, 여러분의 플랫폼에서 특
     정 함수에 'dir_fd'가 지원되는지를 확인할 수 있습니다.  사용할 수 없
     을 때, 사용하면 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

   * '심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음:' 'follow_symlinks' 가 ‘False’고, 대상 경
     로의 마지막 요소가 심볼릭 링크면, 함수는 링크가 가리키는 파일 대신
     심볼릭 링크 자체에 대해 작동합니다.  (POSIX 시스템에서, 파이썬은 함
     수의 ‘l...’ 변종을 호출합니다.)

     *note os.supports_follow_symlinks: 2876.를 사용하여, 여러분의 플랫
     폼에서 특정 함수에 'follow_symlinks'가 지원되는지를 확인할 수 있습
     니다.  사용할 수 없을 때, 사용하면 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를
     발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: os.access (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     실제(real) uid/gid를 사용해서 'path'를 액세스할 수 있는지 검사합니
     다.  대부분의 연산은 유효한(effective) uid/gid를 사용할 것이므로, 이
     함수는 suid/sgid 환경에서 호출하는 사용자가 지정된 'path' 에 대한 액
     세스 권한이 있는지 검사하는데 사용할 수 있습니다.  'path'가 존재하
     는지를 검사하려면 'mode' 는 *note F_OK: 2b8a. 여야 하며, 권한을 검
     사하려면 하나 이상의 *note R_OK: 2b8b, *note W_OK: 2b8c. 및 *note
     X_OK: 2b8d.를 OR 값일 수 있습니다.  액세스가 허용되면 *note True:
     c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.  더
     자세한 정보는 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘access(2)(1)’를 참조하십시오.

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc. 와 *note
     심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     'effective_ids' 가 ‘True’면, *note access(): 10de.는 실제(real)
     uid/gid 대신 유효한(effective) uid/gid를 사용하여 액세스 검사를 수
     행합니다.  'effective_ids' 는 플랫폼에서 지원되지 않을 수 있습니다;
     *note os.supports_effective_ids: 10ef.를 사용하여, 사용할 수 있는지
     를 확인할 수 있습니다.  사용할 수 없을 때, 사용하면 *note
     NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

          참고: 예를 들어, 실제로 *note open(): 515.를 사용하여 파일을 열
          기 전에, *note access(): 10de.를 사용하여 파일을 여는 권한이 있
          는지 확인하는 것은 보안 구멍을 만듭니다.  사용자가 파일을 확인
          하고 조작을 위해 열기 사이의 짧은 시간 간격을 악용할 수 있기 때
          문입니다.  *note EAFP: 2b8e. 기법을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  예
          를 들면:

               if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
                   with open("myfile") as fp:
                       return fp.read()
               return "some default data"

          는 다음과 같이 쓰는 것이 더 좋습니다:

               try:
                   fp = open("myfile")
               except PermissionError:
                   return "some default data"
               else:
                   with fp:
                       return fp.read()

          참고: *note access(): 10de.가 성공할 것임을 알릴 때도, I/O 연
          산이 실패할 수 있습니다.  특히 일반적인 POSIX 권한 비트 모델을
          넘어서는 권한 의미가 있을 수 있는 네트워크 파일 시스템에 대한
          연산에서 그럴 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd', 'effective_ids' 및 'follow_symlinks' 매
     개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 데이터: os.F_OK
 -- 데이터: os.R_OK
 -- 데이터: os.W_OK
 -- 데이터: os.X_OK

     'path' 의 존재 여부, 읽기 가능성, 쓰기 가능성 및 실행 가능성을 검사
     하기 위해, *note access(): 10de.의 'mode' 매개 변수로 전달할 값입니
     다.

 -- 함수: os.chdir (path)

     현재 작업 디렉터리를 'path'로 변경합니다.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59.을 지원할 수 있습니다.  기술
     자는 열려있는 파일이 아니라, 열려있는 디렉터리를 참조해야 합니다.

     이 함수는 *note OSError: 411.와 *note FileNotFoundError: 425, *note
     PermissionError: d3f. 및 *note NotADirectoryError: 1050.와 같은 서
     브 클래스를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.chdir’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 일부 플랫폼에서 'path' 를 파일 기술자로 지정하는
     지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.chflags (path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     'path' 의 플래그를 숫자 'flags'로 설정합니다.  'flags'는 다음 값들
     (*note stat: d1. 모듈에 정의된 대로)의 조합(비트별 OR)을 취할 수 있
     습니다:

        * *note stat.UF_NODUMP: 281d.

        * *note stat.UF_IMMUTABLE: 281e.

        * *note stat.UF_APPEND: 281f.

        * *note stat.UF_OPAQUE: 2820.

        * *note stat.UF_NOUNLINK: 2821.

        * *note stat.UF_COMPRESSED: 2822.

        * *note stat.UF_HIDDEN: 2825.

        * *note stat.SF_ARCHIVED: 2829.

        * *note stat.SF_IMMUTABLE: 282a.

        * *note stat.SF_APPEND: 282b.

        * *note stat.SF_NOUNLINK: 282d.

        * *note stat.SF_SNAPSHOT: 282e.

     이 함수는 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니
     다.

     ‘path’, ‘flags’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.chflags’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the 'follow_symlinks' parameter.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.chmod (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     'path'의 모드를 숫자 'mode'로 변경합니다.  'mode' 는 다음 값들
     (*note stat: d1. 모듈에 정의된 대로)이나 이들의 비트별 OR 조합을 취
     할 수 있습니다:

        * *note stat.S_ISUID: 2809.

        * *note stat.S_ISGID: 280a.

        * *note stat.S_ENFMT: 280c.

        * *note stat.S_ISVTX: 280d.

        * *note stat.S_IREAD: 2819.

        * *note stat.S_IWRITE: 281a.

        * *note stat.S_IEXEC: 281b.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXU: 280e.

        * *note stat.S_IRUSR: 280f.

        * *note stat.S_IWUSR: 2810.

        * *note stat.S_IXUSR: 2811.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXG: 2812.

        * *note stat.S_IRGRP: 2813.

        * *note stat.S_IWGRP: 2814.

        * *note stat.S_IXGRP: 280b.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXO: 2815.

        * *note stat.S_IROTH: 2816.

        * *note stat.S_IWOTH: 2817.

        * *note stat.S_IXOTH: 2818.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59, *note 디렉터리 기술자에
     상대적인 경로: 10dc. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지
     원할 수 있습니다.

          참고: Although Windows supports *note chmod(): 21b, you can
          only set the file’s read-only flag with it (via the
          ‘stat.S_IWRITE’ and ‘stat.S_IREAD’ constants or a
          corresponding integer value).  All other bits are ignored.
          The default value of 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’ on Windows.

          The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼:
          17e7. for more information.

     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.chmod’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'path'를 열린 파일 기술자로 지정하는 지원과
     'dir_fd' 및 'follow_symlinks' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support for a file descriptor and the
     'follow_symlinks' argument on Windows.

 -- 함수: os.chown (path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     'path' 의 소유자와 그룹 ID를 숫자 'uid' 와 'gid'로 변경합니다.  ID
     중 하나를 변경하지 않으려면, 그것을 -1로 설정하십시오.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59, *note 디렉터리 기술자에
     상대적인 경로: 10dc. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지
     원할 수 있습니다.

     숫자 ID 이외에 이름을 허용하는 고수준 함수는 *note shutil.chown():
     240.를 참조하십시오.

     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.chown’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'path'를 열린 파일 기술자로 지정하는 지원과
     'dir_fd' 및 'follow_symlinks' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 지원합니다.

 -- 함수: os.chroot (path)

     현재 프로세스의 루트 디렉터리를 'path'로 변경합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.fchdir (fd)

     현재 작업 디렉터리를 파일 기술자 'fd'가 나타내는 디렉터리로 변경합
     니다.  기술자는 열려있는 파일이 아니라 열려있는 디렉터리를 참조해야
     합니다.  파이썬 3.3부터는, ‘os.chdir(fd)’와 같습니다.

     ‘path’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.chdir’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.getcwd ()

     현재 작업 디렉터리를 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: os.getcwdb ()

     현재 작업 디렉터리를 나타내는 바이트열을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 윈도우에서 ANSI 코드 페이지가 아
     닌 UTF-8 인코딩을 사용합니다: 이유는 PEP 529(2)를 참조하십시오.  이
     함수는 윈도우에서 더는 폐지되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: os.lchflags (path, flags)

     'path' 의 플래그를, *note chflags(): 10df. 처럼, 숫자 'flags'로 설
     정하지만, 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.3부터는,
     ‘os.chflags(path, flags, follow_symlinks=False)’와 같습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘flags’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.chflags’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.lchmod (path, mode)

     'path' 모드를 숫자 'mode'로 변경합니다.  path가 심볼릭 링크면, 이 함
     수는 타깃이 아닌 심볼릭 링크에 영향을 미칩니다.  'mode'의 가능한 값
     은 *note chmod(): 21b. 문서를 참조하십시오.  파이썬 3.3부터는,
     ‘os.chmod(path, mode, follow_symlinks=False)’와 같습니다.

     ‘lchmod()’ is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have
     it if changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.

     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.chmod’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not Linux, FreeBSD >= 1.3,
     NetBSD >= 1.3, not OpenBSD

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support on Windows.

 -- 함수: os.lchown (path, uid, gid)

     'path' 의 소유자와 그룹 ID를 숫자 'uid' 와 'gid'로 변경합니다.  이
     함수는 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.3부터는,
     ‘os.chown(path, uid, gid, follow_symlinks=False)’와 같습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.chown’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.link (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     'src'를 가리키는 'dst' 라는 이름의 하드 링크를 만듭니다.

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.를 제공하기 위
     해 'src_dir_fd' 와/나 'dst_dir_fd' 를 지정하는 것과, *note 심볼릭
     링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.link’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the 'src_dir_fd', 'dst_dir_fd', and
     'follow_symlinks' parameters.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'src' 및 'dst'로 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아
     들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.listdir (path='.')

     'path'에 의해 주어진 디렉터리에 있는 항목들의 이름을 담고 있는 리스
     트를 반환합니다.  리스트는 임의의 순서로 나열되며, 디렉터리에 존재
     하더라도 특수 항목 ‘'.'’ 과 ‘'..'’는 포함하지 않습니다.  이 함수 호
     출 중에 디렉터리에서 파일이 제거되거나 추가되면, 해당 파일의 이름이
     포함되는지는 지정되지 않습니다.

     'path'는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0. 일 수 있습니다.  'path' 가 ‘bytes’
     형이면 (직접 또는 *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 통해 간접적으로
     ), 반환되는 파일명도 ‘bytes’ 형입니다; 다른 모든 상황에서는 형
     ‘str’이 됩니다.

     이 함수는 또한 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59.을 지원할 수 있습니다; 파
     일 기술자는 디렉터리를 참조해야 합니다.

     ‘path’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.listdir’을 발생시킵니다.

          참고: ‘str’ 파일명을 ‘bytes’로 인코딩하려면, *note fsencode():
          c52.를 사용하십시오.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note scandir(): a5b. 함수는 파일 어트리뷰트 정보와 함께 디렉터리 항
     목을 반환하므로, 많은 일반적인 사용 사례에서 더 나은 성능을 제공합
     니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'path' 매개 변수는 선택 사항이 되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'path'에 열린 파일 기술자를 지정하는 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.listdrives ()

     Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.

     A drive name typically looks like ‘'C:\\'’.  Not every drive name
     will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for
     a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity
     or missing media.  This function does not test for access.

     May raise *note OSError: 411. if an error occurs collecting the
     drive names.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘os.listdrives’ with no
     arguments.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.listmounts (volume)

     Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows
     system.

     'volume' must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by
     *note os.listvolumes(): 498.  Volumes may be mounted in multiple
     locations or not at all.  In the latter case, the list will be
     empty.  Mount points that are not associated with a volume will not
     be returned by this function.

     The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths,
     and may be longer than the drive name.

     Raises *note OSError: 411. if the volume is not recognized or if an
     error occurs collecting the paths.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘os.listmounts’ with argument
     ‘volume’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.listvolumes ()

     Return a list containing the volumes in the system.

     Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like
     ‘\\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\’.  Files can
     usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing.
     However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the
     recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points using
     *note os.listmounts(): 499.

     May raise *note OSError: 411. if an error occurs collecting the
     volumes.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘os.listvolumes’ with no
     arguments.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.lstat (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Perform the equivalent of an ‘lstat()’ system call on the given
     path.  Similar to *note stat(): 49a, but does not follow symbolic
     links.  Return a *note stat_result: 1487. object.

     심볼릭 링크를 지원하지 않는 플랫폼에서, 이 함수는 *note stat():
     49a.의 별칭입니다.

     파이썬 3.3부터는, ‘os.stat(path, dir_fd=dir_fd,
     follow_symlinks=False)’와 같습니다.

     이 기능은 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.도 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note stat(): 49a. 함수.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 6.0 (Vista) 심볼릭 링크에 대한 지원이 추
     가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 이제 심볼릭 링크와 디렉터리 정션
     (directory junction)을 포함하는 다른 경로를 나타내는 재해석 지점
     (reparse point, 이름 서로게이트)을 엽니다.  다른 유형의 재해석 지점
     은 운영 체제에서 *note stat(): 49a.에서 처럼 결정됩니다.

 -- 함수: os.mkdir (path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     숫자 모드 'mode'로 'path' 라는 디렉터리를 만듭니다.

     If the directory already exists, *note FileExistsError: 1016. is
     raised.  If a parent directory in the path does not exist, *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. is raised.  일부 시스템에서는, 'mode'가 무
     시됩니다.  모드가 사용될 때, 현재 umask 값으로 먼저 마스킹합니다.  마
     지막 9비트 (즉, 'mode' 의 8진 표현의 마지막 3자리 수) 이외의 비트가
     설정되면, 그 의미는 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.  일부 플랫폼에서는, 이
     것들이 무시되며, 설정하려면 명시적으로 *note chmod(): 21b.를 호출해
     야 합니다.

     On Windows, a 'mode' of ‘0o700’ is specifically handled to apply
     access control to the new directory such that only the current user
     and administrators have access.  Other values of 'mode' are
     ignored.

     이 기능은 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.도 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     임시 디렉터리를 만들 수도 있습니다; *note tempfile: e0. 모듈의
     *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f. 함수를 참조하십시오.

     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.mkdir’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Windows now handles a 'mode' of ‘0o700’.

 -- 함수: os.makedirs (name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)

     재귀적 디렉터리 생성 함수.  *note mkdir(): 21d.와 비슷하지만, 말단
     디렉터리를 포함하는 데 필요한 모든 중간 수준 디렉터리들을 만듭니다.

     The 'mode' parameter is passed to *note mkdir(): 21d. for creating
     the leaf directory; see *note the mkdir() description: 2b91. for
     how it is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any
     newly created parent directories you can set the umask before
     invoking *note makedirs(): 21e.  The file permission bits of
     existing parent directories are not changed.

     If 'exist_ok' is ‘False’ (the default), a *note FileExistsError:
     1016. is raised if the target directory already exists.

          참고: *note makedirs(): 21e.는 생성할 경로 요소에 *note
          pardir: 2b92.(예를 들어, 유닉스 시스템의 경우 “..”)이 포함되어
          있으면 혼란해 할 수 있습니다.

     이 함수는 UNC 경로를 올바르게 처리합니다.

     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.mkdir’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: Added the 'exist_ok' parameter.

     버전 3.4.1에서 변경: 파이썬 3.4.1 이전에는, 'exist_ok' 가 ‘True’이
     고 디렉터리가 존재한다면, 'mode' 가 기존 디렉터리의 모드와 일치하지
     않을 때, *note makedirs(): 21e.는 여전히 에러를 발생시킵니다.  이 동
     작은 안전하게 구현할 수 없으므로, 파이썬 3.4.1에서 제거되었습니다.
     bpo-21082(3)를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The 'mode' argument no longer affects the file
     permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.

 -- 함수: os.mkfifo (path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)

     숫자 모드 'mode'로 'path' 라는 이름의 FIFO(이름있는 파이프)를 만듭
     니다.  현재 umask 값으로 먼저 모드를 마스킹합니다.

     이 기능은 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.도 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     FIFO는 일반 파일처럼 액세스할 수 있는 파이프입니다.  FIFO는 삭제될
     때까지 존재합니다 (예를 들어 *note os.unlink(): 10e7.로).  일반적으
     로, FIFO는 “클라이언트”와 “서버” 유형 프로세스 사이에서 랑데부로 사
     용됩니다: 서버는 FIFO를 읽기 용도로 열고, 클라이언트는 쓰기 용도로
     엽니다.  *note mkfifo(): d8c.가 FIFO를 열지는 않는다는 점에 유의하
     십시오 — 단지 랑데부 포인트를 생성합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.mknod (path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)

     'path' 라는 이름의 파일 시스템 노드(파일, 장치 특수 파일 또는 이름
     있는 파이프)를 만듭니다.  'mode' 는 사용 권한과 생성될 노드의 유형
     을 모두 지정하며, ‘stat.S_IFREG’, ‘stat.S_IFCHR’, ‘stat.S_IFBLK’ 및
     ‘stat.S_IFIFO’ 중 하나와 결합(비트별 OR)합니다 (이 상수들은 *note
     stat: d1.에 있습니다).  ‘stat.S_IFCHR’와 ‘stat.S_IFBLK’의 경우,
     'device' 는 새로 만들어지는 장치 특수 파일(아마도 *note
     os.makedev(): 1623.를 사용해서)을 정의합니다, 그렇지 않으면 무시됩
     니다.

     이 기능은 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.도 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.major (device, /)

     Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- 함수: os.minor (device, /)

     Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- 함수: os.makedev (major, minor, /)

     주 장치 번호와 부 장치 번호로 원시 장치 번호를 조립합니다.

 -- 함수: os.pathconf (path, name)

     이름있는 파일과 관련된 시스템 구성 정보를 반환합니다.  'name' 은 조
     회할 구성 값을 지정합니다; 정의된 시스템 값의 이름인 문자열일 수 있
     습니다; 이 이름은 여러 표준(POSIX.1, 유닉스 95, 유닉스 98 및 기타
     )에서 지정됩니다.  일부 플랫폼은 추가적인 이름도 정의합니다.  호스
     트 운영 체제에 알려진 이름은 ‘pathconf_names’ 딕셔너리에서 제공됩니
     다.  이 매핑에 포함되지 않은 구성 변수를 위해, 'name'에 정수를 전달
     하는 것도 허용됩니다.

     'name' 이 문자열이고 알 수 없으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.  'name'에 대한 특정 값이 호스트 시스템에서 지원되지 않으면,
     ‘pathconf_names’에 포함되어 있어도, 에러 번호가 *note errno.EINVAL:
     19f6.인 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 데이터: os.pathconf_names

     *note pathconf(): 10ec.와 *note fpathconf(): 2b50.가 받아들이는 이
     름을 호스트 운영 체제에서 해당 이름에 대해 정의된 정숫값으로 매핑하
     는 딕셔너리.  이것은 시스템에 알려진 이름 집합을 판별하는 데 사용될
     수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.readlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     심볼릭 링크가 가리키는 경로를 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다.  결과는
     절대 또는 상대 경로명일 수 있습니다; 상대 경로이면
     ‘os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)’를 사용하여 절대 경로
     명으로 변환할 수 있습니다.

     'path' 가 (직접 또는 *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 통해 간접적
     으로) 문자열 객체면, 결과도 문자열 객체가 되고, 호출은
     UnicodeDecodeError를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.  'path' 가 (직접 또는 간
     접적으로) 바이트열 객체면, 결과는 바이트열 객체가 됩니다.

     이 기능은 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.도 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     링크를 포함할 수 있는 경로를 결정(resolve)하려고 할 때, *note
     realpath(): 225.를 사용하여 재귀와 플랫폼 차이를 올바르게 처리하십
     시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 6.0 (Vista) 심볼릭 링크에 대한 지원이 추
     가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 유닉스에서 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니
     다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.와 바이트열 객
     체를 받아들입니다.

     디렉터리 정션(directory junction)에 대한 지원이 추가되었고, 이전에
     반환되던 선택적 “print name” 필드 대신 치환 경로(일반적으로 ‘\\?\’
     접두사를 포함합니다)를 반환하도록 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.remove (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  If 'path' is a directory, an
     *note OSError: 411. is raised.  Use *note rmdir(): 10e5. to remove
     directories.  If the file does not exist, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: 425. is raised.

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.를 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     윈도우에서, 사용 중인 파일을 제거하려고 시도하면 예외가 발생합니다;
     유닉스에서는 디렉터리 항목이 제거되지만, 원본 파일이 더는 사용되지
     않을 때까지 파일에 할당된 저장 공간을 사용할 수 없습니다.

     이 함수는 의미 적으로 *note unlink(): 10e7.와 같습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.remove’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.removedirs (name)

     재귀적으로 디렉터리를 제거합니다.  *note rmdir(): 10e5. 처럼 동작하
     는데 다음과 같은 차이가 있습니다.  말단 디렉터리가 성공적으로 제거
     되면, *note removedirs(): 2b94.는 에러가 발생할 때까지 'path'에 언
     급된 모든 상위 디렉터리를 연속적으로 제거하려고 합니다 (에러는 무시
     되는데, 이는 일반적으로 부모 디렉터리가 비어 있음을 뜻하기 때문입니
     다).  예를 들어, ‘os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')’는 먼저
     ‘'foo/bar/baz'’ 디렉터리를 제거한 다음, ‘'foo/bar'’ 및 ‘'foo'’가 비
     어 있으면 제거합니다.  말단 디렉터리를 성공적으로 제거할 수 없으면,
     *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.remove’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.rename (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     파일 또는 디렉터리 'src'의 이름을 'dst'로 바꿉니다.  'dst'가 존재하
     면, 많은 경우에 *note OSError: 411. 서브 클래스로 연산이 실패합니다
     :

     On Windows, if 'dst' exists a *note FileExistsError: 1016. is
     always raised.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  Use *note shutil.move(): a58. to support
     moves to a different filesystem.

     On Unix, if 'src' is a file and 'dst' is a directory or vice-versa,
     an *note IsADirectoryError: 104f. or a *note NotADirectoryError:
     1050. will be raised respectively.  If both are directories and
     'dst' is empty, 'dst' will be silently replaced.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, an *note OSError: 411. is raised.  If both are
     files, 'dst' will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
     The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if 'src' and 'dst' are
     on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.를 제공하도록
     'src_dir_fd' 와/나 'dst_dir_fd' 를 지정하는 것을 지원할 수 있습니다
     .

     플랫폼에 무관하게 대상을 덮어쓰길 원하면, *note replace(): 10e4.를
     사용하십시오.

     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.rename’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the 'src_dir_fd' and 'dst_dir_fd'
     parameters.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'src' 및 'dst'로 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아
     들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.renames (old, new)

     재귀적 디렉터리 또는 파일 이름 바꾸기 함수.  *note rename(): 10e3.처
     럼 작동하지만, 새 경로명이 유효하도록 만들기 위해 먼저 필요한 중간
     디렉터리를 만드는 점이 다릅니다.  이름을 변경한 후에는, 이전 이름의
     가장 오른쪽 경로 세그먼트에 해당하는 디렉터리를 *note removedirs():
     2b94.를 사용하여 제거합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 말단 디렉터리나 파일을 제거하는 데 필요한 권한
          이 없을 때, 새 디렉터리 구조를 만든 상태에서 실패할 수 있습니
          다.

     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.rename’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'old' 와 'new' 에 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아
     들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.replace (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, *note OSError: 411. will be raised.  If 'dst'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.를 제공하도록
     'src_dir_fd' 와/나 'dst_dir_fd' 를 지정하는 것을 지원할 수 있습니다
     .

     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.rename’을 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'src' 및 'dst'로 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아
     들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.rmdir (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the directory 'path'.  If the directory does not
     exist or is not empty, a *note FileNotFoundError: 425. or an *note
     OSError: 411. is raised respectively.  In order to remove whole
     directory trees, *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9. can be used.

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.를 지원할 수
     있습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.rmdir’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.scandir (path='.')

     'path'로 지정된 디렉터리 내의 항목에 대응하는 *note os.DirEntry:
     495. 객체의 이터레이터를 돌려줍니다.  항목은 임의의 순서로 제공되며
     , 특수 항목 ‘'.'’ 및 ‘'..'’는 포함되지 않습니다.  이터레이터를 만든
     후에 디렉터리에서 파일이 제거되거나 추가되면, 해당 파일의 항목이 포
     함되는지는 지정되지 않습니다.

     *note listdir(): 10eb. 대신 *note scandir(): a5b.를 사용하면, 디렉
     터리를 검색할 때 운영 체제가 제공한다면 *note os.DirEntry: 495. 객
     체가 파일 유형과 파일 어트리뷰트 정보를 제공하기 때문에, 이것들이 필
     요한 코드의 성능을 크게 개선할 수 있습니다.  모든 *note
     os.DirEntry: 495. 메서드가 시스템 호출을 수행할 수 있지만, 일반적으
     로 *note is_dir(): 2b96. 및 *note is_file(): d80.는 심볼릭 링크에 대
     해서만 시스템 호출을 요구합니다; *note os.DirEntry.stat(): 1701.는
     유닉스에서 항상 시스템 호출을 요구하지만 윈도우에서는 심볼릭 링크에
     대해서만 시스템 호출을 요구합니다.

     'path' 는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0. 일 수 있습니다.  'path' 가 (직접
     또는 *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 통해 간접적으로) ‘bytes’ 형
     이면, 각 *note os.DirEntry: 495.의 *note name: 2b97. 및 *note path:
     1683. 어트리뷰트의 형은 ‘bytes’입니다.  다른 모든 상황에서는 형
     ‘str’이 됩니다.

     이 함수는 또한 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59.을 지원할 수 있습니다; 파
     일 기술자는 디렉터리를 참조해야 합니다.

     ‘path’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.scandir’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note scandir(): a5b. 이터레이터는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로
     토콜을 지원하고 다음과 같은 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: scandir.close ()

          이터레이터를 닫고 확보한 자원을 반납합니다.

          이터레이터가 소진되거나 가비지 수집될 때 또는 이터레이션 중에
          에러가 발생하면 자동으로 호출됩니다.  하지만 명시적으로 호출하
          거나 *note with: 5cc. 문을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

          Added in version 3.6.

     다음 예제는 주어진 'path'의 ‘'.'’로 시작하지 않는 모든 파일(디렉터
     리 제외)을 표시하기 위한 *note scandir(): a5b.의 간단한 사용을 보여
     줍니다.  ‘entry.is_file()’ 호출은 일반적으로 추가 시스템 호출을 하
     지 않습니다:

          with os.scandir(path) as it:
              for entry in it:
                  if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
                      print(entry.name)

          참고: On Unix-based systems, *note scandir(): a5b. uses the
          system’s opendir()(4) and readdir()(5) functions.  On Windows,
          it uses the Win32 FindFirstFileW(6) and FindNextFileW(7)
          functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Added support for the *note context manager:
     5ce. protocol and the *note close(): cb9. method.  If a *note
     scandir(): a5b. iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed
     a *note ResourceWarning: 244. will be emitted in its destructor.

     이 함수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 유닉스에서 *note 파일 기술자: b59.에 대한 지원이
     추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: os.DirEntry

     디렉터리 항목의 파일 경로와 다른 파일 어트리뷰트를 노출하기 위해
     *note scandir(): a5b.에 의해 산출되는 객체.

     *note scandir(): a5b.는 추가 시스템 호출 없이 가능한 많은 정보를 제
     공합니다.  ‘stat()’ 또는 ‘lstat()’ 시스템 호출이 이루어지면,
     ‘os.DirEntry’ 객체는 결과를 캐시 합니다.

     ‘os.DirEntry’ 인스턴스는 수명이 긴 데이터 구조에 저장하는 용도가 아
     닙니다; 파일 메타 데이터가 변경되었거나 *note scandir(): a5b.를 호
     출한 후 오랜 시간이 지났음을 안다면, ‘os.stat(entry.path)’를 호출하
     여 최신 정보를 가져오십시오.

     ‘os.DirEntry’ 메서드는 운영 체제 시스템 호출을 할 수 있으므로,
     *note OSError: 411.를 일으킬 수도 있습니다.  에러에 대해 매우 세부
     적인 제어가 필요하면, ‘os.DirEntry’ 메서드 중 하나를 호출할 때
     *note OSError: 411.를 잡은 후 적절하게 처리할 수 있습니다.

     *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.로 직접 사용할 수 있도록, ‘os.DirEntry’는
     *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 구현합니다.

     ‘os.DirEntry’ 인스턴스의 어트리뷰트 및 메서드는 다음과 같습니다:

      -- 속성: name

          *note scandir(): a5b. 'path' 인자에 상대적인, 항목의 기본
          (base) 파일명.

          *note name: 2b17. 어트리뷰트는 *note scandir(): a5b. 'path' 인
          자가 ‘bytes’ 형이면 ‘bytes’ 고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘str’ 입니다.  바
          이트열 파일명을 디코딩하려면 *note fsdecode(): c51.를 사용하십
          시오.

      -- 속성: path

          항목의 전체 경로명: ‘os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name)’과
          같습니다.  여기서 'scandir_path' 는 *note scandir(): a5b.
          'path' 인자입니다.  경로는 *note scandir(): a5b. 'path' 인자가
          절대 경로일 때만 절대 경로입니다.  *note scandir(): a5b.
          'path' 인자가 *note 파일 기술자: b59.면, *note path: a2. 어트
          리뷰트는 *note name: 2b17. 어트리뷰트와 같습니다.

          *note path: a2. 어트리뷰트는 *note scandir(): a5b. 'path' 인자
          가 ‘bytes’ 형이면 ‘bytes’고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘str’ 입니다.  바이
          트열 파일명을 디코딩하려면 *note fsdecode(): c51.를 사용하십시
          오.

      -- 메서드: inode ()

          항목의 아이노드(inode) 번호를 반환합니다.

          결과는 ‘os.DirEntry’ 객체에 캐시 됩니다.  최신 정보를 가져오려
          면 ‘os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino’를 사용
          하십시오.

          최초의 캐시 되지 않은 호출에서, 윈도우 에서는 시스템 호출이 필
          요하지만, 유닉스에서는 그렇지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          이 항목이 디렉터리 또는 디렉터리를 가리키는 심볼릭 링크면
          ‘True’를 반환합니다; 항목이 다른 종류의 파일이거나 다른 종류의
          파일을 가리키면, 또는 더는 존재하지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니
          다.

          'follow_symlinks' 가 ‘False’면, 이 항목이 디렉터리일 때만 (심
          볼릭 링크를 따르지 않고) ‘True’를 반환합니다; 항목이 다른 종류
          의 파일이거나 더는 존재하지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          결과는 'follow_symlinks' 가 ‘True’ 및 ‘False’일 때에 대해 별도
          로 ‘os.DirEntry’ 객체에 캐시 됩니다.  최신 정보를 가져오려면,
          *note stat.S_ISDIR(): 27f0.로 *note os.stat(): 49a.을 호출하십
          시오.

          최초의 캐시 되지 않은 호출에서, 대부분 시스템 호출이 필요하지
          않습니다.  특히, 심볼릭 링크가 아니면, 윈도우나 유닉스 모두 시
          스템 호출이 필요하지 않은데, 네트워크 파일 시스템과 같이
          ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’를 반환하는 특정 유닉스 파일 시스
          템은 예외입니다.  항목이 심볼릭 링크면, 'follow_symlinks' 가
          ‘False’가 아닌 이상, 심볼릭 링크를 따르기 위해 시스템 호출이 필
          요합니다.

          이 메서드는, *note PermissionError: d3f.와 같은, *note
          OSError: 411.를 발생시킬 수 있지만, *note FileNotFoundError:
          425.는 잡혀서 발생하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          이 항목이 파일이나 파일을 가리키는 심볼릭 링크면 ‘True’를 반환
          합니다; 항목이 디렉터리 또는 다른 비 파일 항목이거나, 그런 것
          을 가리키거나, 더는 존재하지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          'follow_symlinks' 가 ‘False’면, 이 항목이 파일일 때만 (심볼릭
          링크를 따르지 않고) ‘True’를 반환합니다; 항목이 디렉터리 나 다
          른 비 파일 항목이거나 더는 존재하지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니
          다.

          결과는 ‘os.DirEntry’ 객체에 캐시 됩니다.  캐싱, 시스템 호출, 예
          외 발생은 *note is_dir(): 2b96.과 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_symlink ()

          이 항목이 심볼릭 링크면 (망가졌다 하더라도) ‘True’를 반환합니
          다; 항목이 디렉터리 나 어떤 종류의 파일이거나 더는 존재하지 않
          으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          결과는 ‘os.DirEntry’ 객체에 캐시 됩니다.  최신 정보를 가져오려
          면 *note os.path.islink(): a08.를 호출하십시오.

          첫 번째, 캐시 되지 않은 호출에서는 시스템 호출이 필요하지 않습
          니다.  특히 윈도우 나 유닉스는 ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’를
          반환하는 특정 유닉스 파일 시스템 (예 : 네트워크 파일 시스템)을
          제외하고는 시스템 호출이 필요하지 않습니다.

          이 메서드는, *note PermissionError: d3f.와 같은, *note
          OSError: 411.를 발생시킬 수 있지만, *note FileNotFoundError:
          425.는 잡혀서 발생하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_junction ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a junction (even if broken);
          return ‘False’ if the entry points to a regular directory, any
          kind of file, a symlink, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.isjunction(): 49d. to fetch up-to-date information.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          이 항목의 *note stat_result: 1487. 객체를 돌려줍니다.  이 메서
          드는 기본적으로 심볼릭 링크를 따릅니다; 심볼릭 링크를 stat 하
          려면, ‘follow_symlinks=False’ 인자를 추가하십시오.

          유닉스에서, 이 메서드는 항상 시스템 호출을 요구합니다.  윈도우
          에서, 'follow_symlinks' 가 ‘True’이고 항목이 재해석 지점
          (reparse point, 예를 들어, 심볼릭 링크나 디렉터리 정션
          (directory junction))일 때만 시스템 호출이 필요합니다.

          윈도우에서, *note stat_result: 1487.의 ‘st_ino’, ‘st_dev’ 및
          ‘st_nlink’ 어트리뷰트는 항상 0으로 설정됩니다.  이러한 어트리
          뷰트를 얻으려면 *note os.stat(): 49a.을 호출하십시오.

          결과는 'follow_symlinks' 가 ‘True’ 및 ‘False’일 때에 대해 별도
          로 ‘os.DirEntry’ 객체에 캐시 됩니다.  최신 정보를 가져오려면,
          *note os.stat(): 49a.을 호출하십시오.

     Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
     and methods of ‘os.DirEntry’ and of *note pathlib.Path: 229.  In
     particular, the ‘name’ attribute has the same meaning, as do the
     ‘is_dir()’, ‘is_file()’, ‘is_symlink()’, ‘is_junction()’, and
     ‘stat()’ methods.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스에 대한 지원이 추
     가되었습니다.  윈도우에서 *note bytes: 1c2. 경로에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The ‘st_ctime’ attribute of a stat result is
     deprecated on Windows.  The file creation time is properly
     available as ‘st_birthtime’, and in the future ‘st_ctime’ may be
     changed to return zero or the metadata change time, if available.

 -- 함수: os.stat (path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     파일 또는 파일 기술자의 상태를 가져옵니다.  주어진 경로에 대해
     ‘stat()’ 시스템 호출과 같은 작업을 수행합니다.  'path' 는 문자열이
     나 바이트열 – 직접 또는 *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 통해 간접
     적으로 – 또는 열린 파일 기술자로 지정될 수 있습니다.  *note
     stat_result: 1487. 객체를 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 일반적으로 심볼릭 링크를 따릅니다; 심볼릭 링크를 stat 하
     려면, 인자 ‘follow_symlinks=False’를 추가하거나 *note lstat():
     49b.를 사용하십시오.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지
     않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     윈도우에서, ‘follow_symlinks=False’를 전달하면 심볼릭 링크와 디렉터
     리 정션(directory junction)을 포함하는 모든 이름 서로게이트
     (name-surrogate) 재해석 지점(reparse point)을 따라가지 않습니다.  링
     크처럼 보이지 않거나 운영 체제에서 따라갈 수 없는 다른 유형의 재해
     석 지점은 직접 열립니다.  여러 링크 체인을 따라갈 때, 전체 탐색을 방
     해하는 비 링크 대신 원래 링크가 반환될 수 있습니다.  이 경우 최종 경
     로에 대한 stat 결과를 얻으려면, *note os.path.realpath(): 225. 함수
     를 사용하여 가능한 한 멀리 간 경로 이름을 확인한 다음 드 결과에 대
     해 *note lstat(): 49b.을 호출하십시오.  매달린(dangling) 심볼릭 링
     크나 정션 지점에는 적용되지 않고, 일반적인 예외가 발생합니다.

     예:

          >>> import os
          >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
          >>> statinfo
          os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
          st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
          st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
          >>> statinfo.st_size
          264

     더 보기
     .......

     *note fstat(): d88. 및 *note lstat(): 49b. 함수.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     parameters, specifying a file descriptor instead of a path.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 이제 운영 체제가 결정할 수 있는 모든
     재해석 지점을 따라가고, ‘follow_symlinks=False’를 전달하면 모든 이
     름 서로게이트 재해석 지점을 따라가지 않습니다.  운영 체제가 따라갈
     수 없는 재해석 지점에 도달하면, 'stat'은 이제 에러를 발생시키는 대
     신 ‘follow_symlinks=False’가 지정된 것처럼 원래 경로에 대한 정보를
     반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: os.stat_result

     Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
     ‘stat’ structure.  It is used for the result of *note os.stat():
     49a, *note os.fstat(): d88. and *note os.lstat(): 49b.

     어트리뷰트:

      -- 속성: st_mode

          파일 모드: 파일 유형 및 파일 모드 비트 (사용 권한).

      -- 속성: st_ino

          플랫폼에 따라 다르지만, 0이 아니면, 지정된 값의 ‘st_dev’은 파
          일을 고유하게 식별합니다.  일반적으로:

             * 유닉스의 아이노드 번호,

             * 윈도우의 파일 인덱스(8)

      -- 속성: st_dev

          이 파일이 있는 장치의 식별자.

      -- 속성: st_nlink

          하드 링크 수.

      -- 속성: st_uid

          파일 소유자의 사용자 식별자.

      -- 속성: st_gid

          파일 소유자의 그룹 식별자.

      -- 속성: st_size

          일반 파일 또는 심볼릭 링크면, 바이트 단위의 파일의 크기.  심볼
          릭 링크의 크기는 포함하고 있는 경로명의 길이이며, 끝나는 널 바
          이트는 포함하지 않습니다.

     타임스탬프:

      -- 속성: st_atime

          초 단위의 가장 최근의 액세스 시간.

      -- 속성: st_mtime

          초 단위의 가장 최근의 내용 수정 시간.

      -- 속성: st_ctime

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated on Windows.  Use
          ‘st_birthtime’ for the file creation time.  In the future,
          ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most recent metadata
          change, as for other platforms.

      -- 속성: st_atime_ns

          나노초 정수 단위의 가장 최근의 액세스 시간.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: st_mtime_ns

          나노초 정수 단위의 가장 최근의 내용 수정 시간.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: st_ctime_ns

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds
          as an integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘st_ctime_ns’ is deprecated on Windows.
          Use ‘st_birthtime_ns’ for the file creation time.  In the
          future, ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most recent
          metadata change, as for other platforms.

      -- 속성: st_birthtime

          Time of file creation expressed in seconds.  This attribute is
          not always available, and may raise *note AttributeError: 346.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘st_birthtime’ is now available on
          Windows.

      -- 속성: st_birthtime_ns

          Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
          This attribute is not always available, and may raise *note
          AttributeError: 346.

          Added in version 3.12.

          참고: The exact meaning and resolution of the *note st_atime:
          2ba0, *note st_mtime: 2a33, *note st_ctime: 2ba1. and *note
          st_birthtime: 2ba5. attributes depend on the operating system
          and the file system.  For example, on Windows systems using
          the FAT32 file systems, *note st_mtime: 2a33. has 2-second
          resolution, and *note st_atime: 2ba0. has only 1-day
          resolution.  See your operating system documentation for
          details.

          Similarly, although *note st_atime_ns: 2ba2, *note
          st_mtime_ns: 2ba3, *note st_ctime_ns: 2ba4. and *note
          st_birthtime_ns: 2ba6. are always expressed in nanoseconds,
          many systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems
          that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point
          object used to store *note st_atime: 2ba0, *note st_mtime:
          2a33, *note st_ctime: 2ba1. and *note st_birthtime: 2ba5.
          cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly
          inexact.  If you need the exact timestamps you should always
          use *note st_atime_ns: 2ba2, *note st_mtime_ns: 2ba3, *note
          st_ctime_ns: 2ba4. and *note st_birthtime_ns: 2ba6.

     (리눅스와 같은) 일부 유닉스 시스템에서는, 다음 어트리뷰트도 사용할
     수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: st_blocks

          파일에 할당된 512-바이트 블록 수.  파일에 구멍이 있으면 *note
          st_size: 2b9f./512보다 작을 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: st_blksize

          효율적인 파일 시스템 I/O를 위해 “선호되는” 블록 크기.  더 작은
          크기로 파일에 기록하면 비효율적인 읽기-수정-다시 쓰기가 발생할
          수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: st_rdev

          아이노드 장치면 장치 유형.

      -- 속성: st_flags

          파일에 대한 사용자 정의 플래그.

     (FreeBSD와 같은) 다른 유닉스 시스템에서는, 다음 어트리뷰트를 사용할
     수 있습니다 (그러나 root가 사용하려고 할 때만 채워질 수 있습니다):

      -- 속성: st_gen

          파일 생성 번호.

     Solaris 및 파생 상품에서, 다음 어트리뷰트도 사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: st_fstype

          파일을 포함하는 파일 시스템의 유형을 고유하게 식별하는 문자열.

     On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:

      -- 속성: st_rsize

          파일의 실제 크기.

      -- 속성: st_creator

          파일의 생성자.

      -- 속성: st_type

          파일 유형.

     윈도우 시스템에서는, 다음 어트리뷰트도 사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: st_file_attributes

          Windows file attributes: ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of the
          ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
          ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  See the ‘FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*
          <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE>’ constants in the *note stat:
          d1. module.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 속성: st_reparse_tag

          When *note st_file_attributes: e34. has the *note
          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT: 283d. set, this field contains
          the tag identifying the type of reparse point.  See the *note
          IO_REPARSE_TAG_*: 2842. constants in the *note stat: d1.
          module.

     The standard module *note stat: d1. defines functions and constants
     that are useful for extracting information from a ‘stat’ structure.
     (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)

     For backward compatibility, a *note stat_result: 1487. instance is
     also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
     important (and portable) members of the ‘stat’ structure, in the
     order *note st_mode: 2b99, *note st_ino: 2b9a, *note st_dev: 2b9b,
     *note st_nlink: 2b9c, *note st_uid: 2b9d, *note st_gid: 2b9e, *note
     st_size: 2b9f, *note st_atime: 2ba0, *note st_mtime: 2a33, *note
     st_ctime: 2ba1.  More items may be added at the end by some
     implementations.  For compatibility with older Python versions,
     accessing *note stat_result: 1487. as a tuple always returns
     integers.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우는 이제 사용 가능할 때 파일 인덱스를 *note
     st_ino: 2b9a.로 반환합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Solaris/파생 제품에 *note st_fstype: b61. 멤버를
     추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서 *note st_reparse_tag: 2baf. 멤버를 추
     가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, *note st_mode: 2b99. 멤버는 이제 특
     수 파일을 ‘S_IFCHR’, ‘S_IFIFO’ 또는 ‘S_IFBLK’로 적절히 식별합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: On Windows, *note st_ctime: 2ba1. is
     deprecated.  Eventually, it will contain the last metadata change
     time, for consistency with other platforms, but for now still
     contains creation time.  Use *note st_birthtime: 2ba5. for the
     creation time.

     On Windows, *note st_ino: 2b9a. may now be up to 128 bits,
     depending on the file system.  Previously it would not be above 64
     bits, and larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.

     On Windows, *note st_rdev: 2ba9. no longer returns a value.
     Previously it would contain the same as *note st_dev: 2b9b, which
     was incorrect.

     Added the *note st_birthtime: 2ba5. member on Windows.

 -- 함수: os.statvfs (path)

     Perform a ‘statvfs()’ system call on the given path.  The return
     value is an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the
     given path, and correspond to the members of the ‘statvfs’
     structure, namely: ‘f_bsize’, ‘f_frsize’, ‘f_blocks’, ‘f_bfree’,
     ‘f_bavail’, ‘f_files’, ‘f_ffree’, ‘f_favail’, ‘f_flag’,
     ‘f_namemax’, ‘f_fsid’.

     ‘f_flag’ 어트리뷰트의 비트 플래그에 대해 두 개의 모듈 수준 상수가 정
     의됩니다: ‘ST_RDONLY’가 설정되면, 파일 시스템은 읽기 전용으로 마운
     트되었고, ‘ST_NOSUID’가 설정되면, setuid/setgid 비트의 의미가 비활
     성화되었거나 지원되지 않습니다.

     추가적인 모듈 수준 상수가 GNU/glibc 기반 시스템에 대해 정의됩니다.
     이들은 ‘ST_NODEV’ (장치 특수 파일에 대한 액세스 금지), ‘ST_NOEXEC’
     (프로그램 실행 금지), ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’ (한 번에 쓰기 동기화),
     ‘ST_MANDLOCK’ (FS에 필수 잠금 허용), ‘ST_WRITE’ (파일/디렉터리/심볼
     릭 링크 쓰기), ‘ST_APPEND’ (덧붙이기 전용 파일), ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’ (불
     변 파일), ‘ST_NOATIME’ (액세스 시간을 갱신하지 않음),
     ‘ST_NODIRATIME’ (디렉터리 액세스 시간을 갱신하지 않음),
     ‘ST_RELATIME’ (mtime/ctime에 상대적으로 atime을 갱신).

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘ST_RDONLY’ 및 ‘ST_NOSUID’ 상수가 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'path'에 열린 파일 기술자를 지정하는 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘ST_NODEV’, ‘ST_NOEXEC’, ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’,
     ‘ST_MANDLOCK’, ‘ST_WRITE’, ‘ST_APPEND’, ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’,
     ‘ST_NOATIME’, ‘ST_NODIRATIME’ 및 ‘ST_RELATIME’ 상수가 추가되었습니
     다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Added the ‘f_fsid’ attribute.

 -- 데이터: os.supports_dir_fd

     *note os: a1. 모듈의 어떤 함수가 'dir_fd' 매개 변수로 열린 파일 기
     술자를 받아들이는지를 나타내는 *note set: 5d3. 객체.  플랫폼마다 다
     른 기능을 제공하며, 파이썬이 'dir_fd' 매개 변수를 구현하는 데 사용
     하는 하부 기능이 파이썬이 지원하는 모든 플랫폼에서 제공되지는 않습
     니다.  일관성을 위해, 'dir_fd' 를 지원할 수도 있는 함수는 항상 매개
     변수를 지정할 수 있도록 하지만, 로컬에서 사용할 수 없을 때, 기능을
     사용하면 예외를 발생시킵니다.  ('dir_fd'에 ‘None’을 지정하는 것은 모
     든 플랫폼에서 항상 지원됩니다.)

     특정 함수가 'dir_fd' 매개 변수로 열린 파일 기술자를 받아들이는지 확
     인하려면, ‘supports_dir_fd’에 ‘in’ 연산자를 사용하십시오.  예를 들
     어, 이 표현식은 로컬 플랫폼에서 *note os.stat(): 49a.이 'dir_fd' 매
     개 변수로 열린 파일 기술자를 받아들이면 ‘True’로 평가됩니다:

          os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd

     현재 'dir_fd' 매개 변수는 유닉스 플랫폼에서만 작동합니다; 어느 것도
     윈도우에서 작동하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.supports_effective_ids

     *note os.access(): 10de.가 로컬 플랫폼에서 'effective_ids' 매개 변
     수에 ‘True’를 지정하는 것을 허용하는지를 나타내는 *note set: 5d3. 객
     체.  ('effective_ids'에 ‘False’를 지정하는 것은 모든 플랫폼에서 항
     상 지원됩니다.)  로컬 플랫폼이 지원하면, 컬렉션에 *note
     os.access(): 10de.가 포함됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 비어있게 됩니다.

     이 표현식은 로컬 플랫폼에서 *note os.access(): 10de.가
     ‘effective_ids=True’를 지원하면 ‘True’로 평가됩니다:

          os.access in os.supports_effective_ids

     현재 'effective_ids' 는 유닉스 플랫폼에서만 지원됩니다; 윈도우에서
     는 작동하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.supports_fd

     *note os: a1. 모듈의 어떤 함수가 로컬 플랫폼에서 자신의 'path' 매개
     변수에 열린 파일 기술자를 지정하는 것을 허용하는지를 나타내는 *note
     set: 5d3. 객체.  플랫폼마다 다른 기능을 제공하며, 파이썬이 'path'로
     열린 파일 기술자를 받아들이는 데 사용하는 하부 기능이 파이썬이 지원
     하는 모든 플랫폼에서 제공되지는 않습니다.

     특정 함수가 'path' 매개 변수에 열린 파일 기술자를 지정할 수 있도록
     허용하는지를 판단하려면, ‘supports_fd’에 ‘in’ 연산자를 사용하십시오
     .  예를 들어, 이 표현식은 로컬 플랫폼에서 *note os.chdir(): 607.가
     'path'로 열린 파일 기술자를 받아들이면 ‘True’로 평가됩니다:

          os.chdir in os.supports_fd

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.supports_follow_symlinks

     *note os: a1. 모듈의 어떤 함수가 'follow_symlinks' 매개 변수로
     ‘False’를 받아들이는지를 나타내는 *note set: 5d3. 객체.  플랫폼마다
     다른 기능을 제공하며, 파이썬이 'follow_symlinks'를 구현하는 데 사용
     하는 하부 기능이 파이썬이 지원하는 모든 플랫폼에서 제공되지는 않습
     니다.  일관성을 위해, 'follow_symlinks' 를 지원할 수도 있는 함수는
     항상 매개 변수를 지정할 수 있도록 하지만, 로컬에서 사용할 수 없을 때
     , 기능이 사용되면 예외를 발생시킵니다.  ('follow_symlinks'에
     ‘None’을 지정하는 것은 모든 플랫폼에서 항상 지원됩니다.)

     특정 함수가 'follow_symlinks' 매개 변수로 ‘False’를 받아들이는지 확
     인하려면, ‘supports_follow_symlinks’에 ‘in’ 연산자를 사용하십시오.
     예를 들어, 이 표현식은 로컬 플랫폼에서 *note os.stat(): 49a.을 호출
     할 때 ‘follow_symlinks=False’를 지정할 수 있으면 ‘True’로 평가됩니
     다:

          os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.symlink (src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *,
          dir_fd=None)

     'src를' 가리키는 'dst' 라는 이름의 심볼릭 링크를 만듭니다.

     윈도우에서, 심볼릭 링크는 파일이나 디렉터리를 나타내며, 동적으로 대
     상에 맞춰 변형되지 않습니다.  대상이 있으면, 일치하도록 심볼릭 링크
     의 유형이 만들어집니다.  그렇지 않으면, 'target_is_directory' 가
     ‘True’ 면 심볼릭 링크가 디렉터리로 만들어지고, 그렇지 않으면 파일 심
     볼릭 링크(기본값)가 만들어집니다.  비 윈도우 플랫폼에서는
     'target_is_directory' 가 무시됩니다.

     이 함수는 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc.를 지원할 수
     있습니다.

          참고: 최신 버전의 윈도우 10에서, 개발자 모드가 활성화되면, 권
          한이 없는 계정이 심볼릭 링크를 만들 수 있습니다.  개발자 모드
          를 사용할 수 없거나 활성화되어 있지 않으면,
          'SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege' 권한이 필요하거나, 프로세스를
          관리자로 실행해야 합니다.

          권한이 없는 사용자가 함수를 호출하면 *note OSError: 411.가 발
          생합니다.

     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.symlink’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.
     for more information.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 6.0 (Vista) 심볼릭 링크에 대한 지원이 추
     가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter, and now allow
     'target_is_directory' on non-Windows platforms.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'src' 및 'dst'로 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아
     들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 개발자 모드가 있는 윈도우에서 권한 상승 없는
     (unelevated) 심볼릭 링크에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.sync ()

     디스크에 모든 것을 쓰도록 강제합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: os.truncate (path, length)

     최대 'length' 바이트가 되도록 'path'에 해당하는 파일을 자릅니다.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘length’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.truncate’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우 지원 추가

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.unlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     파일 'path'를 제거(삭제)합니다.  이 함수는 의미상 *note remove():
     10e2.와 같습니다; ‘unlink’ 라는 이름은 전통적인 유닉스 이름입니다.
     자세한 내용은 *note remove(): 10e2. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.remove’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'dir_fd' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.utime (path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     'path'로 지정된 파일의 액세스 및 수정 시간을 설정합니다.

     *note utime(): 10e8.은 'times' 과 'ns' 라는 두 개의 선택적 매개 변
     수를 취합니다.  'path'에 설정할 시간을 지정하며 다음과 같이 사용됩
     니다:

        - 'ns' 가 지정되면, ‘(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ 형식의 2-튜플이어야 하
          며, 각 멤버는 나노초를 나타내는 int입니다.

        - 'times' 가 ‘None’이 아니면, ‘(atime, mtime)’ 형식의 2-튜플이어
          야 하며, 각 멤버는 초를 나타내는 int 또는 float입니다.

        - 'times' 가 ‘None’이고 'ns' 가 지정되지 않으면, ‘ns=(atime_ns,
          mtime_ns)’를 지정하는 것과 같은데, 두 시간 모두 현재 시각입니
          다.

     'times' 와 'ns'에 모두 튜플을 지정하는 것은 에러입니다.

     Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a
     subsequent *note stat(): 49a. call, depending on the resolution
     with which your operating system records access and modification
     times; see *note stat(): 49a.  The best way to preserve exact times
     is to use the 'st_atime_ns' and 'st_mtime_ns' fields from the *note
     os.stat(): 49a. result object with the 'ns' parameter to *note
     utime(): 10e8.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59, *note 디렉터리 기술자에
     상대적인 경로: 10dc. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지
     원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.utime’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'path'에 열린 파일 기술자를 지정하는 것과
     'dir_fd' , 'follow_symlinks' 및 'ns' 매개 변수 지원이 추가되었습니
     다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.walk (top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)

     트리를 하향식 또는 상향식으로 탐색하여 디렉터리 트리에 있는 파일명
     을 생성합니다.  디렉터리 'top'을 루트로 하는 트리의 디렉터리('top'
     자체를 포함합니다)마다, 3-튜플 ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’를 산
     출합니다.

     'dirpath' is a string, the path to the directory.  'dirnames' is a
     list of the names of the subdirectories in 'dirpath' (including
     symlinks to directories, and excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’).
     'filenames' is a list of the names of the non-directory files in
     'dirpath'.  Note that the names in the lists contain no path
     components.  To get a full path (which begins with 'top') to a file
     or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘os.path.join(dirpath, name)’.
     Whether or not the lists are sorted depends on the file system.  If
     a file is removed from or added to the 'dirpath' directory during
     generating the lists, whether a name for that file be included is
     unspecified.

     선택적 인자 'topdown' 이 ‘True’이거나 지정되지 않으면, 디렉터리에 대
     한 3-튜플은 하위 디렉터리에 대한 3-튜플이 생성되기 전에 생성됩니다
     (디렉터리는 하향식으로 생성됩니다).  'topdown' 이 ‘False’면, 모든 하
     위 디렉터리에 대한 3-튜플 다음에 디렉터리에 대한 3-튜플이 생성됩니
     다 (디렉터리가 상향식으로 생성됨).  'topdown' 의 값에 상관없이, 디
     렉터리와 해당 하위 디렉터리의 튜플이 생성되기 전에 하위 디렉터리 목
     록이 조회됩니다.

     'topdown' 이 ‘True’ 일 때, 호출자는 (아마도 *note del: 17ad. 또는 슬
     라이스 대입을 사용하여) 'dirnames' 리스트를 수정할 수 있으며, *note
     walk(): 4a3.는 이름이 'dirnames' 남아있는 하위 디렉터리로만 재귀합
     니다; 검색을 가지치기하거나, 특정 방문 순서를 지정하거나, 심지어
     *note walk(): 4a3.가 다시 시작하기 전에 호출자가 새로 만들거나 이름
     을 바꾼 디렉터리에 대해 *note walk(): 4a3.에 알릴 때도 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  'topdown' 이 ‘False’일 때 'dirnames'를 수정하는 것은 walk의
     동작에 영향을 주지 못하는데, 상향식 모드에서 'dirnames'의 디렉터리
     는 'dirpath' 자체가 생성되기 전에 생성되기 때문입니다.

     기본적으로, *note scandir(): a5b. 호출의 에러는 무시됩니다.  선택적
     인자 'onerror' 가 지정되면, 함수여야 합니다; 하나의 인자 *note
     OSError: 411. 인스턴스로 호출됩니다.  에러를 보고하고 walk를 계속하
     도록 하거나, 예외를 발생시켜 walk를 중단할 수 있습니다.  파일명은 예
     외 객체의 ‘filename’ 어트리뷰트로 제공됩니다.

     기본적으로, *note walk(): 4a3.는 디렉터리로 해석되는 심볼릭 링크로
     이동하지 않습니다.  지원하는 시스템에서, 심볼릭 링크가 가리키는 디
     렉터리를 방문하려면, 'followlinks'를 ‘True’로 설정하십시오.

          참고: 심볼릭 링크가 자신의 부모 디렉터리를 가리킬 때,
          'followlinks'를 ‘True’로 설정하면 무한 재귀가 발생할 수 있음에
          주의해야 합니다.  *note walk(): 4a3.는 이미 방문한 디렉터리를
          추적하지 않습니다.

          참고: 상대 경로명을 전달할 때는, *note walk(): 4a3.가 실행되는
          도중 현재 작업 디렉터리를 변경하지 마십시오.  *note walk():
          4a3.는 현재 디렉터리를 절대로 변경하지 않으며, 호출자도 마찬가
          지라고 가정합니다.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn’t look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          from os.path import join, getsize
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
              print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     다음 예(*note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.의 간단한 구현)에서는, 트리를 상
     향식으로 탐색하는 것이 필수적입니다, *note rmdir(): 10e5.는 비어 있
     지 않은 디렉터리를 삭제할 수 없습니다:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
          os.rmdir(top)

     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.walk’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note os.listdir(): 10eb. 대신
     *note os.scandir(): a5b.를 호출하기 때문에, *note os.stat(): 49a. 호
     출 수를 줄여 더 빨라졌습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.fwalk (top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *,
          follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)

     이 함수는 *note walk(): 4a3.와 똑같이 동작합니다.  단, 4-튜플
     ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)’를 산출하고 ‘dir_fd’를 지원
     합니다.

     'dirpath' , 'dirnames' 및 'filenames' 은 *note walk(): 4a3. 출력과
     같고, 'dirfd' 는 'dirpath' 디렉터리를 가리키는 파일 기술자입니다.

     이 함수는 항상 *note 디렉터리 기술자에 상대적인 경로: 10dc. 및
     *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않음: 10dd.을 지원합니다.  하지만, 다른
     함수와는 달리, 'follow_symlinks'에 대한 *note fwalk(): b58.의 기본
     값은 ‘False’임에 주의하십시오.

          참고: *note fwalk(): b58.는 다음 이터레이션 단계까지만 유효한
          파일 기술자를 산출하기 때문에, 더 오래 유지하려면 복제해야 합
          니다 (예를 들어, *note dup(): 19e4.로).

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn’t look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end="")
              print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
                    end="")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     다음 예에서는, 트리를 상향식으로 탐색하는 것이 필수적입니다: *note
     rmdir(): 10e5.는 비어 있지 않은 디렉터리를 삭제할 수 없습니다:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)

     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’를 인자로
     *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.fwalk’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note bytes: 1c2. 경로에 대한 지원이 추가되었습
     니다.

 -- 함수: os.memfd_create (name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])

     익명 파일을 만들고 이를 가리키는 파일 기술자를 반환합니다.  'flags'는
     시스템에서 사용할 수 있는 ‘os.MFD_*’ 상수(또는 이들의 비트별 OR 조
     합) 중 하나여야 합니다.  기본적으로, 새 파일 기술자는 *note 상속
     불가능: ef1.합니다.

     'name'에 제공된 이름은 파일명으로 사용되며 해당 심볼릭 링크의 대상
     으로 ‘/proc/self/fd/’ 디렉터리에 표시됩니다.  표시된 이름에는 항상
     ‘memfd:’ 접두어가 붙으며 디버깅 목적으로만 사용됩니다.  이름은 파일
     기술자의 동작에 영향을 미치지 않고, 여러 파일이 부작용 없이 같은 이
     름을 가질 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: os.MFD_CLOEXEC
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_ALLOW_SEALING
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGETLB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_SHIFT
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_MASK
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_64KB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_512KB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_1MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_2MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_8MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_16MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_32MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_256MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_512MB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_1GB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_2GB
 -- 데이터: os.MFD_HUGE_16GB

     이 플래그들은 *note memfd_create(): a07.로 전달될 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27

     The ‘MFD_HUGE*’ flags are only available since Linux 4.14.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: os.eventfd (initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create and return an event file descriptor.  The file descriptors
     supports raw *note read(): d91. and *note write(): d97. with a
     buffer size of 8, *note select(): d9c, *note poll(): 2bc1. and
     similar.  See man page ‘eventfd(2)(9)’ for more information.  By
     default, the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: ef1.

     'initval' is the initial value of the event counter.  The initial
     value must be a 32 bit unsigned integer.  Please note that the
     initial value is limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the
     event counter is an unsigned 64 bit integer with a maximum value of
     2^64-2.

     'flags' can be constructed from *note EFD_CLOEXEC: 17d5, *note
     EFD_NONBLOCK: 17d6, and *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 17d7.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 17d7. is specified and the event counter is
     non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 2bc2. returns 1 and decrements the
     counter by one.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 17d7. is not specified and the event
     counter is non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 2bc2. returns the
     current event counter value and resets the counter to zero.

     If the event counter is zero and *note EFD_NONBLOCK: 17d6. is not
     specified, *note eventfd_read(): 2bc2. blocks.

     *note eventfd_write(): 2bc3. increments the event counter.  Write
     blocks if the write operation would increment the counter to a
     value larger than 2^64-2.

     예:

          import os

          # semaphore with start value '1'
          fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFC_CLOEXEC)
          try:
              # acquire semaphore
              v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
              try:
                  do_work()
              finally:
                  # release semaphore
                  os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
          finally:
              os.close(fd)

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: os.eventfd_read (fd)

     Read value from an *note eventfd(): 812. file descriptor and return
     a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that 'fd' is
     an *note eventfd(): 812.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: os.eventfd_write (fd, value)

     Add value to an *note eventfd(): 812. file descriptor.  'value'
     must be a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that
     'fd' is an *note eventfd(): 812.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: os.EFD_CLOEXEC

     Set close-on-exec flag for new *note eventfd(): 812. file
     descriptor.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: os.EFD_NONBLOCK

     Set *note O_NONBLOCK: e37. status flag for new *note eventfd():
     812. file descriptor.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: os.EFD_SEMAPHORE

     Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an *note eventfd():
     812. file descriptor.  On read the internal counter is decremented
     by one.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.30

     Added in version 3.10.

* Menu:

* Timer File Descriptors::
* 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/access(2)

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082

   (4) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx

   (8) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/eventfd(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Timer File Descriptors,  Next: 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리

5.16.1.9 Timer File Descriptors
...............................

Added in version 3.13.

These functions provide support for Linux’s 'timer file descriptor' API.
Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.

 -- 함수: os.timerfd_create (clockid, /, *, flags=0)

     Create and return a timer file descriptor ('timerfd').

     The file descriptor returned by *note timerfd_create(): 211.
     supports:

        - *note read(): d91.

        - *note select(): d9c.

        - *note poll(): 2bc1.

     The file descriptor’s *note read(): d91. method can be called with
     a buffer size of 8.  If the timer has already expired one or more
     times, *note read(): d91. returns the number of expirations with
     the host’s endianness, which may be converted to an *note int: 257.
     by ‘int.from_bytes(x, byteorder=sys.byteorder)’.

     *note select(): d9c. and *note poll(): 2bc1. can be used to wait
     until timer expires and the file descriptor is readable.

     'clockid' must be a valid *note clock ID: 2bc5, as defined in the
     *note time: ee. module:

        - *note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 694.

        - *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693.

        - *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b8b. (Since Linux 3.15 for
          timerfd_create)

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 694, a settable
     system-wide real-time clock is used.  If system clock is changed,
     timer setting need to be updated.  To cancel timer when system
     clock is changed, see *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 219.

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693, a non-settable
     monotonically increasing clock is used.  Even if the system clock
     is changed, the timer setting will not be affected.

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b8b, same as *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693. except it includes any time that the
     system is suspended.

     The file descriptor’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a
     'flags' value.  Any of the following variables may used, combined
     using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        - *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 216.

        - *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 217.

     If *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 216. is not set as a flag, *note read():
     d91. blocks until the timer expires.  If it is set as a flag, *note
     read(): d91. doesn’t block, but If there hasn’t been an expiration
     since the last call to read, *note read(): d91. raises *note
     OSError: 411. with ‘errno’ is set to *note errno.EAGAIN: 22a6.

     *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 217. is always set by Python automatically.

     The file descriptor must be closed with *note os.close(): b71. when
     it is no longer needed, or else the file descriptor will be leaked.

     더 보기
     .......

     The ‘timerfd_create(2)(1)’ man page.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.timerfd_settime (fd, /, *, flags=flags, initial=0.0,
          interval=0.0)

     Alter a timer file descriptor’s internal timer.  This function
     operates the same interval timer as *note timerfd_settime_ns():
     213.

     'fd' must be a valid timer file descriptor.

     The timer’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Any of the following variables may used, combined using
     bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        - *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 218.

        - *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 219.

     The timer is disabled by setting 'initial' to zero (‘0’).  If
     'initial' is equal to or greater than zero, the timer is enabled.
     If 'initial' is less than zero, it raises an *note OSError: 411.
     exception with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.EINVAL: 19f6.

     By default the timer will fire when 'initial' seconds have elapsed.
     (If 'initial' is zero, timer will fire immediately.)

     However, if the *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 218. flag is set, the
     timer will fire when the timer’s clock (set by 'clockid' in *note
     timerfd_create(): 211.) reaches 'initial' seconds.

     The timer’s interval is set by the 'interval' *note float: 2ef.  If
     'interval' is zero, the timer only fires once, on the initial
     expiration.  If 'interval' is greater than zero, the timer fires
     every time 'interval' seconds have elapsed since the previous
     expiration.  If 'interval' is less than zero, it raises *note
     OSError: 411. with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.EINVAL: 19f6.

     If the *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 219. flag is set along with
     *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 218. and the clock for this timer is *note
     time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 694, the timer is marked as cancelable if the
     real-time clock is changed discontinuously.  Reading the descriptor
     is aborted with the error ECANCELED.

     Linux manages system clock as UTC. A daylight-savings time
     transition is done by changing time offset only and doesn’t cause
     discontinuous system clock change.

     Discontinuous system clock change will be caused by the following
     events:

        - ‘settimeofday’

        - ‘clock_settime’

        - set the system date and time by ‘date’ command

     Return a two-item tuple of (‘next_expiration’, ‘interval’) from the
     previous timer state, before this function executed.

     더 보기
     .......

     ‘timerfd_create(2)(2)’, ‘timerfd_settime(2)(3)’,
     ‘settimeofday(2)(4)’, ‘clock_settime(2)(5)’, and ‘date(1)(6)’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.timerfd_settime_ns (fd, /, *, flags=0, initial=0,
          interval=0)

     Similar to *note timerfd_settime(): 212, but use time as
     nanoseconds.  This function operates the same interval timer as
     *note timerfd_settime(): 212.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.timerfd_gettime (fd, /)

     Return a two-item tuple of floats (‘next_expiration’, ‘interval’).

     ‘next_expiration’ denotes the relative time until next the timer
     next fires, regardless of if the *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 218. flag
     is set.

     ‘interval’ denotes the timer’s interval.  If zero, the timer will
     only fire once, after ‘next_expiration’ seconds have elapsed.

     더 보기
     .......

     ‘timerfd_gettime(2)(7)’

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.timerfd_gettime_ns (fd, /)

     Similar to *note timerfd_gettime(): 214, but return time as
     nanoseconds.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: os.TFD_NONBLOCK

     A flag for the *note timerfd_create(): 211. function, which sets
     the *note O_NONBLOCK: e37. status flag for the new timer file
     descriptor.  If *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 216. is not set as a flag,
     *note read(): d91. blocks.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: os.TFD_CLOEXEC

     A flag for the *note timerfd_create(): 211. function, If *note
     TFD_CLOEXEC: 217. is set as a flag, set close-on-exec flag for new
     file descriptor.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: os.TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME

     A flag for the *note timerfd_settime(): 212. and *note
     timerfd_settime_ns(): 213. functions.  If this flag is set,
     'initial' is interpreted as an absolute value on the timer’s clock
     (in UTC seconds or nanoseconds since the Unix Epoch).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: os.TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET

     A flag for the *note timerfd_settime(): 212. and *note
     timerfd_settime_ns(): 213. functions along with *note
     TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 218.  The timer is cancelled when the time of
     the underlying clock changes discontinuously.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_settime(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/settimeofday(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/clock_settime(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/date(1)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_gettime(2)


File: python.info,  Node: 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트,  Prev: Timer File Descriptors,  Up: 파일과 디렉터리

5.16.1.10 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트
................................

Added in version 3.3.

이 함수들은 모두 리눅스에서만 사용 가능합니다.

 -- 함수: os.getxattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     'path'의 확장 파일 시스템 어트리뷰트 'attribute'의 값을 반환합니다.
     'attribute' 는 bytes 또는 str(직접 또는 *note PathLike: c4e. 인터페
     이스를 통해 간접적으로)일 수 있습니다.  str이면, 파일 시스템 인코딩
     으로 인코딩됩니다.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지
     않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘attribute’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.getxattr’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'path' 및 'attribute'에 대해 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.listxattr (path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     'path' 의 확장 파일 시스템 어트리뷰트 목록을 반환합니다.  목록의 어
     트리뷰트는 파일 시스템 인코딩으로 디코딩된 문자열로 표시됩니다.
     'path' 가 ‘None’이면, *note listxattr(): 10f6.는 현재 디렉터리를 검
     사합니다.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지
     않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.listxattr’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.removexattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Removes the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' from 'path'.
     'attribute' should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through
     the *note PathLike: c4e. interface).  If it is a string, it is
     encoded with the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지
     않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘attribute’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.removexattr’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'path' 및 'attribute'에 대해 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os.setxattr (path, attribute, value, flags=0, *,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' on 'path' to
     'value'.  'attribute' must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs
     (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: c4e.
     interface).  If it is a str, it is encoded with the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 535.  'flags' may be *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 2bc7. or *note XATTR_CREATE: 2bc8.  If *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 2bc7. is given and the attribute does not exist,
     ‘ENODATA’ will be raised.  If *note XATTR_CREATE: 2bc8. is given
     and the attribute already exists, the attribute will not be created
     and ‘EEXISTS’ will be raised.

     이 함수는 *note 파일 기술자 지정: b59. 및 *note 심볼릭 링크를 따르지
     않음: 10dd.을 지원할 수 있습니다.

          참고: 리눅스 커널 버전 2.6.39 미만의 버그로 인해 flags 인자가
          일부 파일 시스템에서 무시되었습니다.

     ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.setxattr’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'path' 및 'attribute'에 대해 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 데이터: os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX

     확장 어트리뷰트 값의 최대 크기입니다.  현재, 리눅스에서 64 KiB입니
     다.

 -- 데이터: os.XATTR_CREATE

     이것은 *note setxattr(): 10f8.의 flags 인자를 위한 값입니다.  연산
     이 반드시 어트리뷰트를 새로 만들어야 함을 나타냅니다.

 -- 데이터: os.XATTR_REPLACE

     이것은 *note setxattr(): 10f8.의 flags 인자를 위한 값입니다.  연산
     이 반드시 기존 어트리뷰트를 대체해야 함을 나타냅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 관리,  Next: 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스,  Prev: 파일과 디렉터리,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.11 프로세스 관리
.......................

이 함수들은 프로세스를 만들고 관리하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

다양한 *note exec*: 2bcc. 함수는 프로세스로 로드되는 새 프로그램에 대한
인자 목록을 받아들입니다.  각각의 경우에, 첫 번째 인자는 사용자가 명령 줄
에 입력할 수 있는 인자가 아닌 프로그램 자체의 이름으로 새 프로그램에 전
달됩니다.  C 프로그래머에게, 이것은 프로그램의 ‘main()’에 전달된
‘argv[0]’입니다.  예를 들어, ‘os.execv('/bin/echo', ['foo', 'bar'])’는 표
준 출력에 ‘bar’만 인쇄합니다; ‘foo’는 무시되는 것처럼 보이게 됩니다.

 -- 함수: os.abort ()

     현재 프로세스에 ‘SIGABRT’ 시그널을 생성합니다.  유닉스에서, 기본 동
     작은 코어 덤프를 생성하는 것입니다; 윈도우에서, 프로세스는 즉시 종
     료 코드 ‘3’을 반환합니다.  이 함수를 호출하면 *note
     signal.signal(): 1125.를 사용하여 ‘SIGABRT’에 등록된 파이썬 시그널
     처리기를 호출하지 않게 됨에 주의하시기 바랍니다.

 -- 함수: os.add_dll_directory (path)

     DLL 검색 경로에 path를 추가합니다.

     This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported
     extension modules (the module itself is resolved through *note
     sys.path: 3ae.), and also by *note ctypes: 2a.

     반환된 객체의 'close()'를 호출하거나 반환된 객체를 *note with: 5cc.
     문에서 사용하여 디렉터리를 제거하십시오.

     DLL이 로드되는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 마이크로소프트 설명서(1)를
     참조하십시오.

     ‘path’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.add_dll_directory’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.8: 이전 버전의 CPython은 현재 프로세스의 기본 동
     작을 사용하여 DLL을 해결(resolve)합니다.  이로 인해 때때로 ‘PATH’나
     현재 작업 디렉터리를 검색하거나, ‘AddDllDirectory’와 같은 OS 함수가
     효과가 없게 되는 것과 같은 일관성 없는 결과를 낳습니다.

     3.8에서는, 일관성을 보장하기 위해 이제 DLL이 로드되는 두 가지 기본
     방법이 프로세스 전반의 동작을 명시적으로 재정의합니다.  라이브러리
     갱신에 대한 정보는 *note 이식 주의 사항: a9b.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: os.execl (path, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- 함수: os.execle (path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- 함수: os.execlp (file, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- 함수: os.execlpe (file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- 함수: os.execv (path, args)
 -- 함수: os.execve (path, args, env)
 -- 함수: os.execvp (file, args)
 -- 함수: os.execvpe (file, args, env)

     이 함수들은 모두 현재 프로세스를 대체해서 새로운 프로그램을 실행합
     니다; 반환되지 않습니다.  유닉스에서, 새로운 실행 파일이 현재 프로
     세스에 로드되고, 호출자와 같은 프로세스 ID를 갖게 됩니다.  에러는
     *note OSError: 411. 예외로 보고됩니다.

     현재 프로세스가 즉시 교체됩니다.  열린 파일 객체와 기술자는 플러시
     되지 않으므로, 이러한 열린 파일에 버퍼링 된 데이터가 있으면, *note
     exec*: 2bcc. 함수를 호출하기 전에 ‘sys.stdout.flush()’ 또는 *note
     os.fsync(): d8a.를 사용하여 플러시 해야 합니다.

     The “l” and “v” variants of the *note exec*: 2bcc. functions differ
     in how command-line arguments are passed.  The “l” variants are
     perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘execl*()’ functions.  The “v”
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process
     should start with the name of the command being run, but this is
     not enforced.

     The variants which include a “p” near the end (*note execlp():
     2bcf, *note execlpe(): 2bd0, *note execvp(): 2bd1, and *note
     execvpe(): 2bd2.) will use the ‘PATH’ environment variable to
     locate the program 'file'.  When the environment is being replaced
     (using one of the *note exec*e: 2bcc. variants, discussed in the
     next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of the
     ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, *note execl(): 2bcc, *note
     execle(): 2bce, *note execv(): 2b2d, and *note execve(): 10ea, will
     not use the ‘PATH’ variable to locate the executable; 'path' must
     contain an appropriate absolute or relative path.  Relative paths
     must include at least one slash, even on Windows, as plain names
     will not be resolved.

     *note execle(): 2bce, *note execlpe(): 2bd0, *note execve(): 10ea,
     *note execvpe(): 2bd2.의 경우 (모두 “e”로 끝납니다), 'env' 매개 변
     수는 새 프로세스의 환경 변수를 정의하는 데 사용되는 매핑이어야 합니
     다 (이것이 현재 프로세스의 환경 대신 사용됩니다); 함수 *note
     execl(): 2bcc, *note execlp(): 2bcf, *note execv(): 2b2d. 및 *note
     execvp(): 2bd1.는 모두 새 프로세스가 현재 프로세스의 환경을 상속하
     게 합니다.

     일부 플랫폼에서 *note execve(): 10ea.의 경우, 'path' 는 열린 파일 기
     술자로도 지정될 수 있습니다.  이 기능은 여러분의 플랫폼에서 지원되
     지 않을 수 있습니다; *note os.supports_fd: 10ee.를 사용하여 사용할
     수 있는지를 확인할 수 있습니다.  사용할 수 없을 때, 이를 사용하면
     *note NotImplementedError: 228.가 발생합니다.

     ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.exec’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note execve(): 10ea.의 'path'에 열린 파일 기술
     자를 지정하는 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: os._exit (n)

     상태 'n'으로 프로세스를 종료합니다.  클린업 처리기를 호출하거나,
     stdio 버퍼를 플러시 하거나 등등은 수행하지 않습니다.

          참고: The standard way to exit is *note sys.exit(n): 1339.
          ‘_exit()’ should normally only be used in the child process
          after a *note fork(): 197.

필수 조건은 아니지만, 다음 종료 코드가 정의되어 있으며 *note _exit():
22a0.와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.  이것은 메일 서버의 외부 명령 배달 프로
그램과 같이 파이썬으로 작성된 시스템 프로그램에서 일반적으로 사용됩니다.

     참고: 약간의 차이점이 있어서, 이들 중 일부는 모든 유닉스 플랫폼에서
     사용하지는 못할 수 있습니다.  이 상수는 하부 플랫폼에서 정의될 때만
     정의됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_OK

     Exit code that means no error occurred.  May be taken from the
     defined value of ‘EXIT_SUCCESS’ on some platforms.  Generally has a
     value of zero.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_USAGE

     잘못된 개수의 인자가 제공된 경우처럼, 명령이 잘못 사용되었음을 나타
     내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_DATAERR

     입력 데이터가 잘못되었음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_NOINPUT

     입력 파일이 없거나 읽을 수 없음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_NOUSER

     지정된 사용자가 존재하지 않음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_NOHOST

     지정된 호스트가 존재하지 않음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_UNAVAILABLE

     필수 서비스를 사용할 수 없음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_SOFTWARE

     내부 소프트웨어 에러가 감지되었음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_OSERR

     포크 하거나 파이프를 만들 수 없는 등, 운영 체제 에러가 감지되었음을
     나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_OSFILE

     일부 시스템 파일이 없거나, 열 수 없거나, 다른 에러가 있음을 나타내
     는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_CANTCREAT

     사용자가 지정한 출력 파일을 만들 수 없음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_IOERR

     일부 파일에서 I/O를 수행하는 동안 에러가 발생했음을 나타내는 종료 코
     드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_TEMPFAIL

     임시 에러가 발생했음을 나타내는 종료 코드.  이는 재시도 가능한 작업
     중에 만들 수 없었던 네트워크 연결과 같이 실제로는 에러가 아닐 수 있
     는 것을 나타냅니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_PROTOCOL

     프로토콜 교환이 불법이거나 유효하지 않거나 이해되지 않았음을 나타내
     는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_NOPERM

     작업을 수행할 수 있는 권한이 충분하지 않음을 나타내는 종료 코드 (파
     일 시스템 문제에는 사용하지 않습니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_CONFIG

     어떤 종류의 구성 에러가 발생했음을 나타내는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 데이터: os.EX_NOTFOUND

     “항목을 찾을 수 없습니다” 와 같은 것을 의미하는 종료 코드.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.fork ()

     자식 프로세스를 포크 합니다.  자식에서는 ‘0’을 반환하고, 부모에서는
     자식의 프로세스 ID를 반환합니다.  에러가 발생하면 *note OSError:
     411.를 일으킵니다.

     FreeBSD <= 6.3 및 Cygwin을 포함한 일부 플랫폼은 스레드에서
     ‘fork()’를 사용할 때 알려진 문제점이 있습니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.fork’를 발생
     시킵니다.

          경고: If you use TLS sockets in an application calling
          ‘fork()’, see the warning in the *note ssl: d0. documentation.

          경고: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 10b.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 서브 인터프리터에서 ‘fork()’를 호출하는 것은 더
     는 지원되지 않습니다 (*note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다).

     버전 3.12에서 변경: If Python is able to detect that your process
     has multiple threads, *note os.fork(): 197. now raises a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.

     We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better
     inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform
     specifically notes as not supported.  Even in code that 'appears'
     to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with *note
     os.fork(): 197. on POSIX platforms.  The CPython runtime itself has
     always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child
     process when threads existed in the parent (such as ‘malloc’ and
     ‘free’).

     Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other
     than those typically found in glibc to date are among those already
     more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.

     See this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads(2) for
     technical details of why we’re surfacing this longstanding platform
     compatibility problem to developers.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.forkpty ()

     새 의사 터미널을 자식의 제어 터미널로 사용하여 자식 프로세스를 포크
     합니다.  ‘(pid, fd)’ 쌍을 반환하는데, 여기서 'pid' 는 자식에서 ‘0’이
     고, 부모에서는 새 자식의 프로세스 ID이고, 'fd' 는 의사 터미널의 마
     스터 단의 파일 기술자입니다.  좀 더 이식성 있는 접근법을 사용하려면
     , *note pty: b1. 모듈을 사용하십시오.  에러가 발생하면 *note
     OSError: 411.를 일으킵니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘os.forkpty’를 발
     생시킵니다.

          경고: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 10b.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 서브 인터프리터에서 ‘forkpty()’를 호출하는 것은
     더는 지원되지 않습니다 (*note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다).

     버전 3.12에서 변경: If Python is able to detect that your process
     has multiple threads, this now raises a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5.  See the longer explanation on *note os.fork(): 197.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.kill (pid, sig, /)

     프로세스 'pid'에 시그널 'sig'를 보냅니다.  호스트 플랫폼에서 사용할
     수 있는 구체적인 시그널에 대한 상수는 *note signal: c6. 모듈에 정의
     되어 있습니다.

     Windows: The *note signal.CTRL_C_EVENT: 1351. and *note
     signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1352. signals are special signals which
     can only be sent to console processes which share a common console
     window, e.g., some subprocesses.  Any other value for 'sig' will
     cause the process to be unconditionally killed by the
     TerminateProcess API, and the exit code will be set to 'sig'.

     *note signal.pthread_kill(): 1122.도 참조하십시오.

     ‘pid’, ‘sig’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.kill’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.killpg (pgid, sig, /)

     시그널 'sig' 를 프로세스 그룹 'pgid' 로 보냅니다.

     ‘pgid’, ‘sig’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.killpg’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.nice (increment, /)

     프로세스의 “우선도(niceness)”에 'increment' 를 추가합니다.  새로운
     우선도를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- 함수: os.pidfd_open (pid, flags=0)

     Return a file descriptor referring to the process 'pid' with
     'flags' set.  This descriptor can be used to perform process
     management without races and signals.

     자세한 내용은 ‘pidfd_open(2)(3)’ 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 5.3, Android >= *note build-time:
     b87. API level 31

     Added in version 3.9.

      -- 데이터: os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK

          This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be
          non-blocking.  If the process referred to by the file
          descriptor has not yet terminated, then an attempt to wait on
          the file descriptor using ‘waitid(2)(4)’ will immediately
          return the error *note EAGAIN: 22a6. rather than blocking.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 5.10

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: os.plock (op, /)

     프로그램 세그먼트를 메모리에 잠급니다.  (‘<sys/lock.h>’에서 정의된)
     'op' 값은 잠기는 세그먼트를 판별합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.popen (cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)

     Open a pipe to or from command 'cmd'.  The return value is an open
     file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written
     depending on whether 'mode' is ‘'r'’ (default) or ‘'w'’.  The
     'buffering' argument have the same meaning as the corresponding
     argument to the built-in *note open(): 515. function.  The returned
     file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.

     ‘close’ 메서드는 자식 프로세스가 성공적으로 종료되면 *note None:
     66f.을 반환하고, 에러가 있으면 자식 프로세스가 반환한 코드를 반환합
     니다.  POSIX 시스템에서, 반환 코드가 양수면, 프로세스의 반환 값을
     1바이트 왼쪽으로 시프트 한 값을 나타냅니다.  반환 코드가 음수면, 음
     의 반환 코드로 주어진 시그널에 의해 강제 종료된 것입니다.  예를 들
     어, 자식 프로세스가 죽었을(kill) 때 반환 값은 ‘- signal.SIGKILL’ 일
     수 있습니다.  윈도우 시스템에서, 반환 값은 자식 프로세스의 부호 있
     는 정수 반환 코드를 포함합니다.

     유닉스에서, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.는 ‘None’이 아닐 때
     ‘close’ 메서드 결과(종료 상태)를 종료 코드로 변환하는 데 사용할 수
     있습니다.  윈도우에서, ‘close’ 메서드 결과는 직접 종료 코드(또는
     ‘None’)입니다.

     이것은 *note subprocess.Popen: 199.를 사용하여 구현됩니다; 자식 프
     로세스를 관리하고 통신하는 보다 강력한 방법에 대해서는 이 클래스의
     설명서를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

          참고: The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. affects encodings used
          for 'cmd' and pipe contents.

          *note popen(): a84. is a simple wrapper around *note
          subprocess.Popen: 199.  Use *note subprocess.Popen: 199. or
          *note subprocess.run(): b83. to control options like
          encodings.

 -- 함수: os.posix_spawn (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawn()’ C library API for use from Python.

     대부분 사용자는 *note posix_spawn(): 220. 대신 *note
     subprocess.run(): b83.을 사용해야 합니다.

     The positional-only arguments 'path', 'args', and 'env' are similar
     to *note execve(): 10ea.  'env' is allowed to be ‘None’, in which
     case current process’ environment is used.

     'path' 매개 변수는 실행 파일의 경로입니다.  'path'에는 디렉터리가 있
     어야 합니다.  디렉터리 없이 실행 파일을 전달하려면 *note
     posix_spawnp(): 1a36.를 사용하십시오.

     'file_actions' 인자는 C 라이브러리 구현의 ‘fork()’와 ‘exec()’ 단계
     사이의 자식 프로세스에서 특정 파일 기술자에 취할 동작을 설명하는 튜
     플의 시퀀스 일 수 있습니다.  각 튜플의 첫 번째 항목은 나머지 튜플 요
     소를 설명하는, 아래에 나열된 세 가지 형 지시자 중 하나여야 합니다:

      -- 데이터: os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN’, 'fd', 'path', 'flags', 'mode')

          ‘os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd)’를 수행합니다.

      -- 데이터: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE’, 'fd')

          ‘os.close(fd)’를 수행합니다.

      -- 데이터: os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2’, 'fd', 'new_fd')

          ‘os.dup2(fd, new_fd)’를 수행합니다.

      -- 데이터: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.closerange(fd, INF)’.

     These tuples correspond to the C library
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2()’, and
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’ API calls used to
     prepare for the ‘posix_spawn()’ call itself.

     The 'setpgroup' argument will set the process group of the child to
     the value specified.  If the value specified is 0, the child’s
     process group ID will be made the same as its process ID. If the
     value of 'setpgroup' is not set, the child will inherit the
     parent’s process group ID. This argument corresponds to the C
     library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP’ flag.

     If the 'resetids' argument is ‘True’ it will reset the effective
     UID and GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent
     process.  If the argument is ‘False’, then the child retains the
     effective UID and GID of the parent.  In either case, if the
     set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission bits are enabled on the
     executable file, their effect will override the setting of the
     effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS’ flag.

     If the 'setsid' argument is ‘True’, it will create a new session ID
     for ‘posix_spawn’.  'setsid' requires ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID’ or
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP’ flag.  Otherwise, *note
     NotImplementedError: 228. is raised.

     The 'setsigmask' argument will set the signal mask to the signal
     set specified.  If the parameter is not used, then the child
     inherits the parent’s signal mask.  This argument corresponds to
     the C library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK’ flag.

     The 'sigdef' argument will reset the disposition of all signals in
     the set specified.  This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF’ flag.

     The 'scheduler' argument must be a tuple containing the (optional)
     scheduler policy and an instance of *note sched_param: 15ab. with
     the scheduler parameters.  A value of ‘None’ in the place of the
     scheduler policy indicates that is not being provided.  This
     argument is a combination of the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM’ and ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER’ flags.

     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.posix_spawn’을 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'env' parameter accepts ‘None’.
     ‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM’ is available on platforms where
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’ exists.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.posix_spawnp (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawnp()’ C library API for use from Python.

     시스템이 (‘execvp(3)’과 같은 방식으로) ‘PATH’ 환경 변수에 의해 지정
     된 디렉터리 목록에서 '실행' 파일을 검색한다는 점을 제외하고는 *note
     posix_spawn(): 220.과 유사합니다.

     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.posix_spawn’을 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     See *note posix_spawn(): 220. documentation.

 -- 함수: os.register_at_fork (*, before=None, after_in_parent=None,
          after_in_child=None)

     *note os.fork(): 197. 또는 유사한 프로세스 복제 API를 사용하여 새 자
     식 프로세스가 포크 될 때 실행될 콜러블들을 등록합니다.  매개 변수는
     선택적이며 키워드 전용입니다.  각각은 다른 호출 지점을 지정합니다.

        * 'before' 는 자식 프로세스를 포크 하기 전에 호출되는 함수입니다
          .

        * 'after_in_parent' 는 자식 프로세스를 포크 한 후에 부모 프로세
          스에서 호출되는 함수입니다.

        * 'after_in_child' 는 자식 프로세스에서 호출되는 함수입니다.

     이러한 호출은 제거가 파이썬 인터프리터로 반환될 것으로 예상되는 경
     우에만 수행됩니다.  일반적인 *note subprocess: d6. 실행은 자식이 인
     터프리터로 재진입하지 않기 때문에, 이 호출들이 일어나지 않습니다.

     포크 이전에 실행되도록 등록된 함수는 등록 역순으로 실행됩니다.  포
     크 후에 실행되도록 등록된 함수(부모나 자식 모두)는 등록 순서로 호출
     됩니다.

     제삼자 C 코드에 의한 ‘fork()’ 호출은, 그것이 명시적으로 *note
     PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbc, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bbd. 및
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5.를 호출하지 않는 한, 이 함수들을
     호출하지 않습니다.

     함수 등록을 취소할 방법은 없습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: os.spawnl (mode, path, ...)
 -- 함수: os.spawnle (mode, path, ..., env)
 -- 함수: os.spawnlp (mode, file, ...)
 -- 함수: os.spawnlpe (mode, file, ..., env)
 -- 함수: os.spawnv (mode, path, args)
 -- 함수: os.spawnve (mode, path, args, env)
 -- 함수: os.spawnvp (mode, file, args)
 -- 함수: os.spawnvpe (mode, file, args, env)

     새 프로세스에서 프로그램 'path' 를 실행합니다.

     (*note subprocess: d6. 모듈은 새 프로세스를 생성하고 결과를 조회하
     는데, 더욱 강력한 기능을 제공합니다; 이 모듈을 사용하는 것이 이 함
     수들을 사용하는 것보다 더 바람직합니다.  특히 *note 이전 함수를
     subprocess 모듈로 교체하기: 1179. 섹션을 확인하십시오.)

     'mode' 가 *note P_NOWAIT: 2bef.면, 이 함수는 새 프로세스의 프로세스
     ID를 반환합니다; 'mode'가 *note P_WAIT: 2bf0.면, 종료 코드(정상적으
     로 종료했을 때)나 ‘-signal’('signal'은 프로세스를 죽인 시그널입니다
     )을 반환합니다.  윈도우에서, 프로세스 ID는 실제로 프로세스 핸들이므
     로, *note waitpid(): d96. 함수에 사용할 수 있습니다.

     VxWorks에서, 이 함수는 새로운 프로세스가 죽을(kill) 때 ‘-signal’을
     반환하지 않습니다.  대신 OSError 예외가 발생합니다.

     The “l” and “v” variants of the *note spawn*: 1738. functions
     differ in how command-line arguments are passed.  The “l” variants
     are perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘spawnl*()’ functions.  The “v”
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
     start with the name of the command being run.

     끝 근처에 두 번째 “p”가 포함된 변형(*note spawnlp(): 2be9, *note
     spawnlpe(): 2bea, *note spawnvp(): 2bed. 및 *note spawnvpe():
     2bee.)은 ‘PATH’ 환경 변수를 사용하여 프로그램 'file' 을 찾습니다.  환
     경이 대체 될 때 (다음 단락에서 설명할 *note spawn*e: 1738. 변형 중
     하나를 사용하여), 새 환경이 ‘PATH’ 변수의 소스로 사용됩니다.  다른
     변형 *note spawnl(): 1738, *note spawnle(): 2be8, *note spawnv():
     2beb. 및 *note spawnve(): 2bec.는 ‘PATH’ 변수를 사용하여 실행 파일
     을 찾지 않습니다; 'path' 에는 반드시 적절한 절대 또는 상대 경로가 있
     어야 합니다.

     *note spawnle(): 2be8, *note spawnlpe(): 2bea, *note spawnve():
     2bec. 및 *note spawnvpe(): 2bee.의 경우 (모두 “e”로 끝납니다),
     'env' 매개 변수는 새 프로세스의 환경 변수를 정의하는 데 사용되는 매
     핑이어야 합니다 (이것이 현재 프로세스의 환경 대신 사용됩니다); 함수
     *note spawnl(): 1738, *note spawnlp(): 2be9, *note spawnv(): 2beb.
     및 *note spawnvp(): 2bed.는 모두 새 프로세스가 현재 프로세스의 환경
     을 상속하게 합니다.  'env' 딕셔너리의 키와 값은 반드시 문자열이어야
     함에 주의하십시오; 잘못된 키나 값은 반환 값 ‘127’로 함수가 실패하게
     합니다.

     예를 들어, *note spawnlp(): 2be9. 및 *note spawnvpe(): 2bee.에 대한
     다음 호출은 동등합니다:

          import os
          os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')

          L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
          os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)

     ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘os.spawn’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     *note spawnlp(): 2be9, *note spawnlpe(): 2bea, *note spawnvp():
     2bed. and *note spawnvpe(): 2bee. are not available on Windows.
     *note spawnle(): 2be8. and *note spawnve(): 2bec. are not
     thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the *note subprocess:
     d6. module instead.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 데이터: os.P_NOWAIT
 -- 데이터: os.P_NOWAITO

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 1738.
     family of functions.  If either of these values is given, the *note
     spawn*: 1738. functions will return as soon as the new process has
     been created, with the process id as the return value.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 데이터: os.P_WAIT

     Possible value for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 1738.
     family of functions.  If this is given as 'mode', the *note spawn*:
     1738. functions will not return until the new process has run to
     completion and will return the exit code of the process the run is
     successful, or ‘-signal’ if a signal kills the process.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 데이터: os.P_DETACH
 -- 데이터: os.P_OVERLAY

     *note spawn*: 1738. 계열 함수의 'mode' 매개 변수에 사용할 수 있는 값
     .  이들은 위에 나열된 것보다 이식성이 낮습니다.  *note P_DETACH:
     2bf2.는 *note P_NOWAIT: 2bef.와 비슷하지만, 새 프로세스는 호출 프로
     세스의 콘솔에서 분리됩니다.  *note P_OVERLAY: 2bf3.가 사용되면, 현
     재 프로세스가 대체됩니다; *note spawn*: 1738. 함수가 반환되지 않습
     니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- 함수: os.startfile (path[, operation][, arguments][, cwd][,
          show_cmd])

     연관된 응용 프로그램으로 파일을 시작합니다.

     When 'operation' is not specified, this acts like double-clicking
     the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an
     argument to the ‘start’ command from the interactive command shell:
     the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension
     is associated.

     When another 'operation' is given, it must be a “command verb” that
     specifies what should be done with the file.  Common verbs
     documented by Microsoft are ‘'open'’, ‘'print'’ and ‘'edit'’ (to be
     used on files) as well as ‘'explore'’ and ‘'find'’ (to be used on
     directories).

     When launching an application, specify 'arguments' to be passed as
     a single string.  This argument may have no effect when using this
     function to launch a document.

     The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden
     by the 'cwd' argument.  This should be an absolute path.  A
     relative 'path' will be resolved against this argument.

     Use 'show_cmd' to override the default window style.  Whether this
     has any effect will depend on the application being launched.
     Values are integers as supported by the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function.

     *note startfile(): 18d2. returns as soon as the associated
     application is launched.  There is no option to wait for the
     application to close, and no way to retrieve the application’s exit
     status.  The 'path' parameter is relative to the current directory
     or 'cwd'.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first
     character is not a slash (‘'/'’) Use *note pathlib: a4. or the
     *note os.path.normpath(): 130a. function to ensure that paths are
     properly encoded for Win32.

     To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If
     the function cannot be resolved, *note NotImplementedError: 228.
     will be raised.

     ‘path’, ‘operation’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘os.startfile’을 발생시킵니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘os.startfile/2’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the 'arguments', 'cwd' and 'show_cmd'
     arguments, and the ‘os.startfile/2’ audit event.

 -- 함수: os.system (command)

     Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented
     by calling the Standard C function ‘system()’, and has the same
     limitations.  Changes to *note sys.stdin: 537, etc.  are not
     reflected in the environment of the executed command.  If 'command'
     generates any output, it will be sent to the interpreter standard
     output stream.  The C standard does not specify the meaning of the
     return value of the C function, so the return value of the Python
     function is system-dependent.

     On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded
     in the format specified for *note wait(): d94.

     윈도우에서, 반환 값은 'command'를 실행한 후 시스템 셸에서 반환한 값
     입니다.  셸은 윈도우 환경 변수 ‘COMSPEC’에 의해 제공됩니다: 보통
     ‘cmd.exe’인데, 명령 실행의 종료 상태를 반환합니다; 기본이 아닌 셸을
     사용하는 시스템에서는 셸 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     *note subprocess: d6. 모듈은 새 프로세스를 생성하고 결과를 조회하는
     데, 더욱 강력한 기능을 제공합니다; 이 모듈을 사용하는 것이 이 함수
     들을 사용하는 것보다 더 바람직합니다.  *note subprocess: d6. 설명서
     의 *note 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기: 1179. 섹션에서 유
     용한 조리법을 확인하십시오.

     유닉스에서, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.를 사용하여 결과(종
     료 상태)를 종료 코드로 변환할 수 있습니다.  윈도우에서, 결과는 직접
     종료 코드입니다.

     ‘command’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘os.system’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.times ()

     현재 전역 프로세스 시간을 반환합니다.  반환 값은 5가지 어트리뷰트를
     가진 객체입니다:

        * ‘user’ - user time

        * ‘system’ - system time

        * ‘children_user’ - user time of all child processes

        * ‘children_system’ - system time of all child processes

        * ‘elapsed’ - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past

     For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a
     five-tuple containing ‘user’, ‘system’, ‘children_user’,
     ‘children_system’, and ‘elapsed’ in that order.

     See the Unix manual page ‘times(2)(5)’ and times(3)(6) manual page
     on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN(7) on Windows.  On Windows,
     only ‘user’ and ‘system’ are known; the other attributes are zero.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 반환형이 튜플에서 이름이 지정된 어트리뷰트를 가
     진 튜플류 객체로 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: os.wait ()

     자식 프로세스가 완료될 때까지 기다렸다가, pid 및 종료 상태 표시를 포
     함하는 튜플을 반환합니다: 종료 상태 표시는 16비트 숫자인데, 하위 바
     이트가 프로세스를 죽인 시그널 번호이고, 상위 바이트가 종료 상태(시
     그널 번호가 0이면)입니다; 코어 파일이 생성되면 하위 바이트의 상위 비
     트가 설정됩니다.

     If there are no children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: 104e. is raised.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.를 사용하여 종료 상태를 종료 코
     드로 변환할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     더 보기
     .......

     The other ‘wait*()’ functions documented below can be used to wait
     for the completion of a specific child process and have more
     options.  *note waitpid(): d96. is the only one also available on
     Windows.

 -- 함수: os.waitid (idtype, id, options, /)

     Wait for the completion of a child process.

     'idtype' can be *note P_PID: 2bf4, *note P_PGID: 2bf5, *note P_ALL:
     2bf6, or (on Linux) *note P_PIDFD: 917.  The interpretation of 'id'
     depends on it; see their individual descriptions.

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  At least one of *note
     WEXITED: 2bf7, *note WSTOPPED: 2bf8. or *note WCONTINUED: 2bf9. is
     required; *note WNOHANG: 2bfa. and *note WNOWAIT: 2bfb. are
     additional optional flags.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure with the following attributes:

        * ‘si_pid’ (process ID)

        * ‘si_uid’ (real user ID of the child)

        * ‘si_signo’ (always *note SIGCHLD: 2bfc.)

        * ‘si_status’ (the exit status or signal number, depending on
          ‘si_code’)

        * ‘si_code’ (see *note CLD_EXITED: 2bfd. for possible values)

     If *note WNOHANG: 2bfa. is specified and there are no matching
     children in the requested state, ‘None’ is returned.  Otherwise, if
     there are no matching children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: 104e. is raised.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This function is now available on macOS as
     well.

 -- 함수: os.waitpid (pid, options, /)

     이 함수의 세부 사항은 유닉스 및 윈도우에서 다릅니다.

     유닉스에서: 프로세스 ID 'pid'에 의해 주어진 자식 프로세스의 완료를
     기다리고, 프로세스 ID와 종료 상태 표시(*note wait(): d94.처럼 인코
     딩됨)를 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.  호출의 의미는 정수 'options' 의
     값에 영향을 받는데, 일반 작업의 경우 ‘0’ 이어야 합니다.

     'pid' 가 ‘0’보다 크면, *note waitpid(): d96.는 해당 프로세스에 대한
     상태 정보를 요청합니다.  'pid' 가 ‘0’이면, 현재 프로세스의 프로세스
     그룹에 있는 모든 자식의 상태를 요청합니다.  'pid' 가 ‘-1’이면, 현재
     프로세스의 모든 자식의 상태를 요청합니다.  'pid' 가 ‘-1’보다 작으면
     , 프로세스 그룹 ‘-pid’('pid' 의 절댓값)에 있는 모든 프로세스의 상태
     를 요청합니다.

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  If it contains *note
     WNOHANG: 2bfa. and there are no matching children in the requested
     state, ‘(0, 0)’ is returned.  Otherwise, if there are no matching
     children that could be waited for, *note ChildProcessError: 104e.
     is raised.  Other options that can be used are *note WUNTRACED:
     2bfe. and *note WCONTINUED: 2bf9.

     윈도우에서: 프로세스 핸들 'pid'로 지정된 프로세스가 완료될 때까지 기
     다리고, 'pid'와 종료 상태를 8비트 왼쪽으로 시프트 한 값을 포함하는
     튜플을 반환합니다 (시프팅이 함수를 더 이식성 있게 만듭니다).  ‘0’보
     다 작거나 같은 'pid' 는 윈도우에서 특별한 의미가 없고 예외가 발생합
     니다.  정수 'options' 의 값은 아무 효과가 없습니다.  'pid' 는 id가
     알려진 모든 프로세스를 가리킬 수 있습니다, 반드시 자식 프로세스일 필
     요는 없습니다.  *note P_NOWAIT: 2bef.로 호출된 *note spawn*: 1738.
     함수는 적절한 프로세스 핸들을 반환합니다.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.를 사용하여 종료 상태를 종료 코
     드로 변환할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 함수는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예외
     를 일으키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(8)를 참
     조하세요).

 -- 함수: os.wait3 (options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): d96, except no process id argument is
     given and a 3-element tuple containing the child’s process id, exit
     status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
     Refer to *note resource.getrusage(): 13f9. for details on resource
     usage information.  The 'options' argument is the same as that
     provided to *note waitpid(): d96. and *note wait4(): d93.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.를 사용하여 종료 상태를 종료 코
     드로 변환할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.wait4 (pid, options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): d96, except a 3-element tuple,
     containing the child’s process id, exit status indication, and
     resource usage information is returned.  Refer to *note
     resource.getrusage(): 13f9. for details on resource usage
     information.  The arguments to *note wait4(): d93. are the same as
     those provided to *note waitpid(): d96.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.를 사용하여 종료 상태를 종료 코
     드로 변환할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 데이터: os.P_PID
 -- 데이터: os.P_PGID
 -- 데이터: os.P_ALL
 -- 데이터: os.P_PIDFD

     These are the possible values for 'idtype' in *note waitid(): d95.
     They affect how 'id' is interpreted:

        * ‘P_PID’ - wait for the child whose PID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_PGID’ - wait for any child whose progress group ID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_ALL’ - wait for any child; 'id' is ignored.

        * ‘P_PIDFD’ - wait for the child identified by the file
          descriptor 'id' (a process file descriptor created with *note
          pidfd_open(): 474.).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

          참고: ‘P_PIDFD’ is only available on Linux >= 5.4.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Added in version 3.9: The ‘P_PIDFD’ constant.

 -- 데이터: os.WCONTINUED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): d96, *note wait3(): d92,
     *note wait4(): d93, and *note waitid(): d95. causes child processes
     to be reported if they have been continued from a job control stop
     since they were last reported.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 데이터: os.WEXITED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): d95. causes child processes
     that have terminated to be reported.

     The other ‘wait*’ functions always report children that have
     terminated, so this option is not available for them.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.WSTOPPED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): d95. causes child processes
     that have been stopped by the delivery of a signal to be reported.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: os.WUNTRACED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): d96, *note wait3(): d92,
     and *note wait4(): d93. causes child processes to also be reported
     if they have been stopped but their current state has not been
     reported since they were stopped.

     This option is not available for *note waitid(): d95.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 데이터: os.WNOHANG

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitpid(): d96, *note wait3():
     d92, *note wait4(): d93, and *note waitid(): d95. to return right
     away if no child process status is available immediately.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 데이터: os.WNOWAIT

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitid(): d95. to leave the child
     in a waitable state, so that a later ‘wait*()’ call can be used to
     retrieve the child status information again.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 데이터: os.CLD_EXITED
 -- 데이터: os.CLD_KILLED
 -- 데이터: os.CLD_DUMPED
 -- 데이터: os.CLD_TRAPPED
 -- 데이터: os.CLD_STOPPED
 -- 데이터: os.CLD_CONTINUED

     These are the possible values for ‘si_code’ in the result returned
     by *note waitid(): d95.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: *note CLD_KILLED: 915.와 *note CLD_STOPPED: 916.
     값을 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: os.waitstatus_to_exitcode (status)

     대기 상태(wait status)를 종료 코드로 변환합니다.

     유닉스에서:

        * 프로세스가 정상적으로 종료되면 (‘WIFEXITED(status)’가 참이면),
          프로세스 종료 상태를 반환합니다 (‘WEXITSTATUS(status)’를 반환
          합니다): 결과는 0보다 크거나 같습니다.

        * 프로세스가 시그널에 의해 종료되면 (‘WIFSIGNALED(status)’가 참
          이면), ‘-signum’을 반환합니다, 여기서 'signum'은 프로세스를 종
          료시킨 시그널 번호입니다 (‘-WTERMSIG(status)’를 반환합니다): 결
          과는 0보다 작습니다.

        * 그렇지 않으면, *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     윈도우에서, 8비트만큼 오른쪽으로 시프트된 'status'를 반환합니다.

     유닉스에서, 프로세스가 추적되고 있거나 *note waitpid(): d96.가
     *note WUNTRACED: 2bfe. 옵션으로 호출되었으면, 호출자는 먼저
     ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’가 참인지 확인해야 합니다.
     ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’가 참이면 이 함수를 호출하면 안 됩니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note WIFEXITED(): 2c02, *note WEXITSTATUS(): 2c03, *note
     WIFSIGNALED(): 2c04, *note WTERMSIG(): 2c05, *note WIFSTOPPED():
     2c06, *note WSTOPSIG(): 2c07. 함수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.9.

다음 함수들은 *note system(): 1423, *note wait(): d94. 또는 *note
waitpid(): d96.에 의해 반환된 프로세스 상태 코드를 매개 변수로 받아들입
니다.  이것들은 프로세스의 처리를 결정하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: os.WCOREDUMP (status, /)

     프로세스에 대해 코어 덤프가 생성되었으면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지
     않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 *note WIFSIGNALED(): 2c04.가 참일 때만 사용해야 합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WIFCONTINUED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of
     *note SIGCONT: 2c0a. (if the process has been continued from a job
     control stop), otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note WCONTINUED: 2bf9. 옵션을 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WIFSTOPPED (status)

     시그널의 전달로 인해 프로세스가 중지되었으면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     *note WIFSTOPPED(): 2c06.는 *note WUNTRACED: 2bfe. 옵션을 사용하여
     *note waitpid(): d96.을 호출했거나 프로세스가 추적되고 있을 때만
     ‘True’를 반환합니다 (‘ptrace(2)(9)’를 참조하십시오).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WIFSIGNALED (status)

     시그널로 인해 프로세스가 종료되었으면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WIFEXITED (status)

     프로세스가 정상 종료했으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다, 즉 ‘exit()’나
     ‘_exit()’를 호출했거나, ‘main()’에서 반환하여; 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WEXITSTATUS (status)

     프로세스 종료 상태를 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 *note WIFEXITED(): 2c02.가 참일 때만 사용해야 합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WSTOPSIG (status)

     프로세스를 멈추게 한 시그널을 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 *note WIFSTOPPED(): 2c06.가 참일 때만 사용해야 합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- 함수: os.WTERMSIG (status)

     프로세스를 종료시킨 시그널의 번호를 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 *note WIFSIGNALED(): 2c04.가 참일 때만 사용해야 합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/t/33555

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_open(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/waitid(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/times(2)

   (6) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)

   (7) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/ptrace(2)


File: python.info,  Node: 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스,  Next: 기타 시스템 정보,  Prev: 프로세스 관리,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.12 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스
....................................

이 함수들은 운영 체제가 프로세스에 CPU 시간을 할당하는 방법을 제어합니다
.  일부 유닉스 플랫폼에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.  자세한 내용은 유닉스 매
뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.

Added in version 3.3.

다음 스케줄 정책은 운영 체제에서 지원하는 경우 공개됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_OTHER

     기본 스케줄 정책.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_BATCH

     컴퓨터의 나머지 부분에서 반응성을 유지하려고 하는 CPU 집약적인 프로
     세스를 위한 스케줄 정책.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_IDLE

     매우 낮은 우선순위의 배경 작업에 대한 스케줄 정책.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_SPORADIC

     간헐적인 서버 프로그램을 위한 스케줄 정책.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_FIFO

     선입 선출 (First In First Out) 스케줄 정책.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_RR

     라운드 로빈 스케줄 정책.

 -- 데이터: os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK

     이 플래그는 다른 스케줄 정책과 OR 될 수 있습니다.  이 플래그가 설정
     되어있는 프로세스가 포크 할 때, 자식의 스케줄링 정책 및 우선순위가
     기본값으로 재설정됩니다.

 -- 클래스: os.sched_param (sched_priority)

     이 클래스는 *note sched_setparam(): 1100, *note
     sched_setscheduler(): 1101, 및 *note sched_getparam(): 10fc.에서 사
     용되는 튜닝 가능한 스케줄 파라미터를 나타냅니다.  불변입니다.

     현재, 가능한 매개 변수는 하나뿐입니다:

      -- 속성: sched_priority

          스케줄 정책의 스케줄 우선순위.

 -- 함수: os.sched_get_priority_min (policy)

     'policy'의 최소 우선순위 값을 가져옵니다.  'policy' 는 위의 스케줄
     정책 상수 중 하나입니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_get_priority_max (policy)

     'policy'의 최대 우선순위 값을 가져옵니다.  'policy' 는 위의 스케줄
     정책 상수 중 하나입니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_setscheduler (pid, policy, param, /)

     PID가 'pid'인 프로세스의 스케줄 정책을 설정합니다.  'pid' 가 0이면,
     호출하는 프로세스를 의미합니다.  'policy' 는 위의 스케줄 정책 상수
     중 하나입니다.  'param' 은 *note sched_param: 15ab. 인스턴스입니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_getscheduler (pid, /)

     PID가 'pid'인 프로세스의 스케줄 정책을 반환합니다.  'pid' 가 0이면,
     호출하는 프로세스를 의미합니다.  결과는 위의 스케줄 정책 상수 중 하
     나입니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_setparam (pid, param, /)

     Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  'param' is a *note
     sched_param: 15ab. instance.

 -- 함수: os.sched_getparam (pid, /)

     PID가 'pid'인 프로세스의 스케줄 매개 변수를 *note sched_param:
     15ab. 인스턴스로 반환합니다.  'pid' 가 0이면 호출하는 프로세스를 의
     미합니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_rr_get_interval (pid, /)

     PID가 'pid'인 프로세스의 라운드 로빈 퀀텀을 초 단위로 반환합니다.
     'pid' 가 0이면 호출하는 프로세스를 의미합니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_yield ()

     Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See ‘sched_yield(2)(1)’ for
     details.

 -- 함수: os.sched_setaffinity (pid, mask, /)

     PID가 'pid'인 프로세스(또는 0이면 현재 프로세스)를 CPU 집합으로 제
     한합니다.  'mask' 는 프로세스가 제한되어야 하는 CPU 집합을 나타내는
     정수의 이터러블입니다.

 -- 함수: os.sched_getaffinity (pid, /)

     Return the set of CPUs the process with PID 'pid' is restricted to.

     If 'pid' is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the
     current process is restricted to.

     See also the *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sched_yield(2)


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 시스템 정보,  Next: 난수<2>,  Prev: 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.13 기타 시스템 정보
..........................

 -- 함수: os.confstr (name, /)

     문자열 값 시스템 구성 값을 반환합니다.  'name' 은 조회할 구성 값을
     지정합니다; 정의된 시스템 값의 이름인 문자열일 수 있습니다; 이 이름
     은 여러 표준(POSIX, 유닉스 95, 유닉스 98 및 기타)에서 지정됩니다.  일
     부 플랫폼은 추가 이름도 정의합니다.  호스트 운영 체제에 알려진 이름
     은 ‘confstr_names’ 딕셔너리의 키로 제공됩니다.  해당 매핑에 포함되
     지 않은 구성 변수를 위해, 'name'에 정수를 전달하는 것도 허용됩니다.

     'name' 으로 지정된 구성 값이 정의되어 있지 않으면, ‘None’이 반환됩
     니다.

     'name' 이 문자열이고 알 수 없으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.  'name'에 대한 특정 값이 호스트 시스템에서 지원되지 않으면,
     ‘confstr_names’에 포함되어 있어도, 에러 번호 *note errno.EINVAL:
     19f6.로 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: os.confstr_names

     *note confstr(): 1572.에서 허용하는 이름을 호스트 운영 체제가 해당
     이름에 대해 정의한 정숫값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리입니다.  이것은 시스
     템에 알려진 이름 집합을 판별하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of logical CPUs in the 'system'.  Returns ‘None’
     if undetermined.

     The *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. function can be used to get the
     number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the 'current
     process'.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: If *note -X cpu_count: 176. is given or *note
     PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 210. is set, *note cpu_count(): 1c5. returns the
     overridden value 'n'.

 -- 함수: os.getloadavg ()

     마지막 1, 5, 15분에 걸쳐 평균한 시스템 실행 대기열의 프로세스 수를
     반환하거나, 로드 평균을 얻을 수 없으면, *note OSError: 411.를 발생
     시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: os.process_cpu_count ()

     Get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the
     'current process'.  Returns ‘None’ if undetermined.  It can be less
     than *note cpu_count(): 1c5. depending on the CPU affinity.

     The *note cpu_count(): 1c5. function can be used to get the number
     of logical CPUs in the 'system'.

     If *note -X cpu_count: 176. is given or *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:
     210. is set, *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. returns the overridden
     value 'n'.

     See also the *note sched_getaffinity(): 10fb. function.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: os.sysconf (name, /)

     정숫값 시스템 구성 값을 반환합니다.  'name' 으로 지정된 구성 값이 정
     의되어 있지 않으면, ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.  *note confstr(): 1572.의
     'name' 매개 변수에 관한 주석은 여기에도 적용됩니다; 알려진 이름에 대
     한 정보를 제공하는 딕셔너리는 ‘sysconf_names’에 의해 제공됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: os.sysconf_names

     *note sysconf(): 1573.에서 허용하는 이름을 호스트 운영 체제가 해당
     이름에 대해 정의한 정숫값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리입니다.  이것은 시스
     템에 알려진 이름 집합을 판별하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Add ‘'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ'’ name.

다음 데이터값들은 경로 조작 연산을 지원하는 데 사용됩니다.  이는 모든 플
랫폼에서 정의됩니다.

경로명에 대한 고수준 연산은 *note os.path: a2. 모듈에서 정의됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.curdir

     현재 디렉터리를 가리키기 위해 운영 체제에서 사용하는 상수 문자열.  이
     것은 윈도우 및 POSIX의 경우 ‘'.'’입니다.  *note os.path: a2.를 통해
     서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.pardir

     부모 디렉터리를 가리키기 위해 운영 체제에서 사용하는 상수 문자열입
     니다.  이것은 윈도우 및 POSIX의 경우 ‘'..'’입니다.  *note os.path:
     a2.를 통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.sep

     경로명 구성 요소를 분리하기 위해 운영 체제에서 사용하는 문자.  이것
     은 POSIX의 경우 ‘'/'’이고, 윈도우의 경우 ‘'\\'’입니다.  이것을 아는
     것만으로는 경로명을 구문 분석하거나 이어붙일 수는 없습니다만 —
     *note os.path.split(): 27e6.와 *note os.path.join(): 163a.를 사용하
     세요 — 가끔 유용합니다.  *note os.path: a2.를 통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.altsep

     경로명 구성 요소를 분리하기 위해 운영 체제에서 사용하는 대체 문자이
     거나, 단 하나의 구분 문자만 있는 경우 ‘None’입니다.  ‘sep’가 백 슬
     래시인 윈도우 시스템에서는 ‘'/'’로 설정됩니다.  *note os.path: a2.를
     통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.extsep

     기본 파일명과 확장자를 구분하는 문자; 예를 들어, ‘os.py’에서 ‘'.'’.
     *note os.path: a2.를 통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.pathsep

     검색 경로 구성 요소( ‘PATH’에서와 같이)를 분리하기 위해 운영 체제에
     서 관습적으로 사용하는 문자, 가령 POSIX의 ‘':'’ 또는 윈도우의
     ‘';'’.  *note os.path: a2.를 통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.defpath

     환경에 ‘'PATH'’ 키가 없을 때, *note exec*p*: 2bcc. 및 *note
     spawn*p*: 1738.에서 사용하는 기본 검색 경로.  *note os.path: a2.를
     통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.linesep

     현재 플랫폼에서 행을 분리(또는 종료)하는 데 사용되는 문자열.  이는
     POSIX의 ‘'\n'’와 같은 단일 문자이거나, 윈도우의 ‘'\r\n'’와 같은 여
     러 문자일 수 있습니다.  텍스트 모드로 열린(기본값) 파일에 쓸 때 줄
     종결자로 'os.linesep'를 사용하지 마십시오; 대신 모든 플랫폼에서 단
     일 ‘'\n'’를 사용하십시오.

 -- 데이터: os.devnull

     널(null) 장치의 파일 경로.  예를 들어: POSIX의 경우 ‘'/dev/null'’,
     윈도우의 경우 ‘'nul'’.  *note os.path: a2.를 통해서도 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_LAZY
 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_NOW
 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_GLOBAL
 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_LOCAL
 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_NODELETE
 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_NOLOAD
 -- 데이터: os.RTLD_DEEPBIND

     *note setdlopenflags(): 1110. 및 *note getdlopenflags(): 14d7. 함수
     에 사용하는 플래그.  각 플래그가 의미하는 바는 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지
     ‘dlopen(3)(1)’를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 난수<2>,  Prev: 기타 시스템 정보,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.14 난수
..............

 -- 함수: os.getrandom (size, flags=0)

     최대 'size' 크기의 난수 바이트열을 업습니다.  이 함수는 요청한 것보
     다 짧은 바이트열를 반환할 수 있습니다.

     이 바이트열은 사용자 공간 난수 발생기를 시드 하거나 암호화 목적으로
     사용할 수 있습니다.

     ‘getrandom()’는 장치 드라이버 및 기타 환경 소음원에서 수집한 엔트로
     피에 의존합니다.  대량의 데이터를 불필요하게 읽는 것은
     ‘/dev/random’ 및 ‘/dev/urandom’ 장치의 다른 사용자에게 부정적인 영
     향을 미칩니다.

     The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of
     the following values ORed together: *note os.GRND_RANDOM: 2c1b. and
     *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2c1c.

     See also the Linux getrandom() manual page(1).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.17.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 함수: os.urandom (size, /)

     Return a bytestring of 'size' random bytes suitable for
     cryptographic use.

     이 함수는 OS 종속적인 임의성 소스에서 난수 바이트열을 반환합니다.  반
     환된 데이터는 암호화 응용에 충분하도록 예측할 수 없어야 하지만, 정
     확한 품질은 OS 구현에 따라 달라집니다.

     리눅스에서, ‘getrandom()’ 시스템 호출을 사용할 수 있으면, 블로킹 모
     드로 사용됩니다: 시스템의 urandom 엔트로피 풀이 초기화될 때까지 블
     록 됩니다 (커널이 128비트의 엔트로피를 수집합니다).  이유는 PEP
     524(2)를 참조하십시오.  리눅스에서, *note getrandom(): cba. 함수는
     (*note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2c1c. 플래그를 사용하여) 비 블로킹 모드로 난
     수 바이트열을 얻거나, 시스템 urandom 엔트로피 풀이 초기화될 때까지
     폴링 할 수 있습니다.

     유닉스류 시스템에서, ‘/dev/urandom’ 장치에서 난수 바이트열을 읽습니
     다.  ‘/dev/urandom’ 장치를 사용할 수 없거나 읽을 수 없으면, *note
     NotImplementedError: 228. 예외가 발생합니다.

     On Windows, it will use ‘BCryptGenRandom()’.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note secrets: c0. 모듈은 고수준 함수를 제공합니다.  플랫폼에서 제
     공되는 난수 발생기에 대한 사용하기 쉬운 인터페이스는 *note
     random.SystemRandom: 26ee.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 리눅스 3.17 및 이후 버전에서, 이제 ‘getrandom()’
     시스템 호출을 사용할 수 있으면 사용합니다.  OpenBSD 5.6 이상에서, C
     ‘getentropy()’ 함수가 이제 사용됩니다.  이 함수들은 내부 파일 기술
     자의 사용을 피합니다.

     버전 3.5.2에서 변경: 리눅스에서, ‘getrandom()’ 시스템 호출이 블록 하
     면 (urandom 엔트로피 풀이 아직 초기화되지 않았으면),
     ‘/dev/urandom’을 읽는 것으로 대체됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 리눅스에서, ‘getrandom()’은 이제 보안을 강화하기
     위해 블로킹 모드로 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: On Windows, ‘BCryptGenRandom()’ is used instead
     of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.

 -- 데이터: os.GRND_NONBLOCK

     기본적으로, ‘/dev/random’에서 읽을 때, *note getrandom(): cba.는 사
     용할 수 있는 난수 바이트열이 없으면 블록 하고, ‘/dev/urandom’에서 읽
     을 때는, 엔트로피 풀이 아직 초기화되지 않았으면 블록 합니다.

     *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 2c1c. 플래그가 설정되면, *note getrandom():
     cba.는 이럴 때 블록 하지 않고, 대신 즉시 *note BlockingIOError:
     104d.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: os.GRND_RANDOM

     이 비트가 설정되면, ‘/dev/urandom’ 풀 대신 ‘/dev/random’ 풀에서 난
     수 바이트열을 얻습니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구,  Next: time — 시간 액세스와 변환,  Prev: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.2 ‘io’ — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/io.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 개요: 개요<2>.
* 텍스트 인코딩: 텍스트 인코딩<2>.
* 고수준 모듈 인터페이스::
* 클래스 위계::
* 성능: 성능<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/io.py


File: python.info,  Node: 개요<2>,  Next: 텍스트 인코딩<2>,  Up: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구

5.16.2.1 개요
.............

*note io: 7f. 모듈은 다양한 유형의 I/O를 처리하기 위한 파이썬의 주 장치
를 제공합니다.  I/O에는 세 가지 주요 유형이 있습니다: '텍스트(text)
I/O', '바이너리(binary) I/O' 및 '원시(raw) I/O'. 이들은 일반적인 범주이
며 다양한 배경 저장소를 각각에 사용할 수 있습니다.  이러한 범주 중 하나
에 속하는 구상 객체를 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.라고 합니다.  다른 일반적인
용어는 '스트림(stream)'과 '파일류 객체(file-like object)'입니다.

범주와 상관없이, 각 구상 스트림 객체에는 다양한 기능이 있습니다: 읽기 전
용, 쓰기 전용 또는 읽고-쓰기일 수 있습니다.  또한 임의의 무작위 액세스
(임의의 위치로 전방이나 후방 탐색)를 허용하거나 순차적 액세스(예를 들어
소켓이나 파이프의 경우)만 허용할 수 있습니다.

모든 스트림은 그것에 제공하는 데이터형에 주의를 기울입니다.  예를 들어
*note str: 445. 객체를 바이너리 스트림의 ‘write()’ 메서드에 제공하면
*note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.  텍스트 스트림의 ‘write()’ 메서드에
*note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 제공해도 마찬가지입니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: *note IOError: 1048.가 이제는 *note OSError: 411.의 별
칭이라서, *note IOError: 1048.를 발생시켰던 연산은 이제 *note OSError:
411.를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 텍스트 I/O::
* 바이너리 I/O::
* 원시 I/O::


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 I/O,  Next: 바이너리 I/O,  Up: 개요<2>

5.16.2.2 텍스트 I/O
...................

텍스트 I/O는 *note str: 445. 객체를 기대하고 생성합니다.  이는 배경 저장
소가 네이티브 하게 바이트열로 구성되었을 때마다 (가령 파일의 경우), 플랫
폼별 줄 넘김 문자의 선택적 변환뿐만 아니라 데이터의 인코딩과 디코딩이 투
명하게 이루어짐을 의미합니다.

텍스트 스트림을 만드는 가장 쉬운 방법은 *note open(): 515.을 사용하는 것
이고, 선택적으로 인코딩을 지정합니다:

     f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")

인 메모리 텍스트 스트림도 *note StringIO: f1f. 객체로 제공됩니다:

     f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")

텍스트 스트림 API는 *note TextIOBase: 68f.의 설명서에 자세히 설명되어 있
습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 I/O,  Next: 원시 I/O,  Prev: 텍스트 I/O,  Up: 개요<2>

5.16.2.3 바이너리 I/O
.....................

바이너리 I/O('버퍼링 된(buffered) I/O'라고도 합니다)는 *note 바이트열류
객체: d2a.를 기대하고 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 생성합니다.  인코딩, 디코
딩 또는 줄 넘김 변환이 수행되지 않습니다.  이 범주의 스트림은 모든 종류
의 텍스트가 아닌 데이터에 사용할 수 있으며, 텍스트 데이터 처리를 수동으
로 제어해야 할 때도 사용할 수 있습니다.

바이너리 스트림을 만드는 가장 쉬운 방법은 모드 문자열에 ‘'b'’를 제공하여
*note open(): 515.을 사용하는 것입니다:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")

인 메모리 바이너리 스트림도 *note BytesIO: e9a. 객체로 제공됩니다:

     f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")

바이너리 스트림 API는 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. 설명서에 자세히 설명되
어 있습니다.

다른 라이브러리 모듈은 텍스트나 바이너리 스트림을 만드는 다른 방법을 제
공할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 *note socket.socket.makefile(): 118f.을 참
조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 원시 I/O,  Prev: 바이너리 I/O,  Up: 개요<2>

5.16.2.4 원시 I/O
.................

원시 I/O('버퍼링 되지 않은(unbuffered) I/O'라고도 합니다)는 일반적으로 바
이너리와 텍스트 스트림을 위한 저수준 빌딩 블록으로 사용됩니다; 사용자 코
드에서 원시 스트림을 직접 조작하는 것은 거의 유용하지 않습니다.  그런데
도, 버퍼링을 비활성화해서 바이너리 모드로 파일을 열어 원시 스트림을 만들
수 있습니다:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)

원시 스트림 API는 *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 설명서에 자세히 설명되어 있습니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 인코딩<2>,  Next: 고수준 모듈 인터페이스,  Prev: 개요<2>,  Up: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구

5.16.2.5 텍스트 인코딩
......................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. and *note open(): 515.
is locale-specific (*note locale.getencoding(): 2de.).

However, many developers forget to specify the encoding when opening
text files encoded in UTF-8 (e.g.  JSON, TOML, Markdown, etc…) since
most Unix platforms use UTF-8 locale by default.  This causes bugs
because the locale encoding is not UTF-8 for most Windows users.  For
example:

     # 파일에 비 ASCII 문자가 있을 때 윈도우에서 작동하지 않을 수 있습니다.
     with open("README.md") as f:
         long_description = f.read()

Accordingly, it is highly recommended that you specify the encoding
explicitly when opening text files.  If you want to use UTF-8, pass
‘encoding="utf-8"’.  To use the current locale encoding,
‘encoding="locale"’ is supported since Python 3.10.

더 보기
.......

*note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.

     Python UTF-8 Mode can be used to change the default encoding to
     UTF-8 from locale-specific encoding.

PEP 686(1)

     Python 3.15 will make *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. default.

* Menu:

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-in EncodingWarning,  Up: 텍스트 인코딩<2>

5.16.2.6 Opt-in EncodingWarning
...............................

Added in version 3.10: See PEP 597(1) for more details.

To find where the default locale encoding is used, you can enable the
*note -X warn_default_encoding: 176. command line option or set the
*note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7b5. environment variable, which will
emit an *note EncodingWarning: 1d45. when the default encoding is used.

If you are providing an API that uses *note open(): 515. or *note
TextIOWrapper: 7b4. and passes ‘encoding=None’ as a parameter, you can
use *note text_encoding(): 16cd. so that callers of the API will emit an
*note EncodingWarning: 1d45. if they don’t pass an ‘encoding’.  However,
please consider using UTF-8 by default (i.e.  ‘encoding="utf-8"’) for
new APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: 고수준 모듈 인터페이스,  Next: 클래스 위계,  Prev: 텍스트 인코딩<2>,  Up: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구

5.16.2.7 고수준 모듈 인터페이스
...............................

 -- 데이터: io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE

     모듈의 버퍼링 된 I/O 클래스에서 사용하는 기본 버퍼 크기를 포함하는
     int.  *note open(): 515.은 가능하면 파일의 blksize(*note os.stat():
     49a.으로 얻은)를 사용합니다.

 -- 함수: io.open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     이것은 내장 *note open(): 515. 함수의 별칭입니다.

     이 함수는 인자 'path', 'mode' 및 'flags'로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘open’을 발생시킵니다.  'mode'와 'flags' 인자는 원래 호출에서 수정
     되었거나 유추되었을 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: io.open_code (path)

     제공된 파일을 ‘'rb'’ 모드로 엽니다.  이 함수는 내용을 실행 코드로 취
     급하려고 할 때 사용해야 합니다.

     'path'는 *note str: 445.이고 절대 경로여야 합니다.

     이 함수의 동작은 *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1730. 에 대한 이전
     호출로 재정의될 수 있습니다.  하지만, 'path'가 *note str: 445.이고
     절대 경로임을 가정할 때, ‘open_code(path)’는 항상 ‘open(path,
     'rb')’와 같게 동작해야 합니다.  동작의 재정의는 파일의 추가 유효성
     검사나 사전 처리를 위한 것입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: io.text_encoding (encoding, stacklevel=2, /)

     This is a helper function for callables that use *note open(): 515.
     or *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. and have an ‘encoding=None’ parameter.

     This function returns 'encoding' if it is not ‘None’.  Otherwise,
     it returns ‘"locale"’ or ‘"utf-8"’ depending on *note UTF-8 Mode:
     650.

     This function emits an *note EncodingWarning: 1d45. if *note
     sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 686. is true and 'encoding' is
     ‘None’.  'stacklevel' specifies where the warning is emitted.  For
     example:

          def read_text(path, encoding=None):
              encoding = io.text_encoding(encoding)  # stacklevel=2
              with open(path, encoding) as f:
                  return f.read()

     In this example, an *note EncodingWarning: 1d45. is emitted for the
     caller of ‘read_text()’.

     See *note 텍스트 인코딩: 7b6. for more information.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note text_encoding(): 16cd. returns “utf-8”
     when UTF-8 mode is enabled and 'encoding' is ‘None’.

 -- 예외: io.BlockingIOError

     이것은 내장 *note BlockingIOError: 104d. 예외에 대한 호환 별칭입니
     다.

 -- 예외: io.UnsupportedOperation

     지원되지 않는 연산이 스트림에서 호출될 때 발생하는 *note OSError:
     411.와 *note ValueError: 202.를 상속하는 예외.

더 보기
.......

*note sys: d9.

     표준 IO 스트림을 포함합니다: *note sys.stdin: 537, *note
     sys.stdout: ad3. 및 *note sys.stderr: 937.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 위계,  Next: 성능<2>,  Prev: 고수준 모듈 인터페이스,  Up: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구

5.16.2.8 클래스 위계
....................

I/O 스트림의 구현은 클래스의 위계(hierarchy)로 구성됩니다.  먼저 다양한
범주의 스트림을 지정하는 데 사용되는 *note 추상 베이스 클래스:
11a5.(ABC)가 있고, 그다음으로 표준 스트림 구현을 제공하는 구상 클래스가
있습니다.

     참고: 추상 베이스 클래스는 또한 구상 스트림 클래스의 구현을 돕기 위
     해 일부 메서드의 기본 구현을 제공합니다.  예를 들어, *note
     BufferedIOBase: 68e.는 최적화되지 않은 ‘readinto()’와 ‘readline()’
     구현을 제공합니다.

I/O 위계의 맨 위에는 추상 베이스 클래스 *note IOBase: 1f5.가 있습니다.  스
트림에 대한 기본 인터페이스를 정의합니다.  그러나 스트림에 대한 읽기와 쓰
기가 분리되지 않음에 유의하십시오; 구현은 주어진 연산을 지원하지 않으면
*note UnsupportedOperation: 199d.을 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

*note RawIOBase: 10c3. ABC는 *note IOBase: 1f5.를 확장합니다.  스크림에
대한 바이트열의 읽기와 쓰기를 처리합니다.  *note FileIO: 1300.는 *note
RawIOBase: 10c3.를 서브 클래싱하여 기계의 파일 시스템에 있는 파일에 대한
인터페이스를 제공합니다.

*note BufferedIOBase: 68e. ABC는 *note IOBase: 1f5.를 확장합니다.  원시
바이너리 스트림(*note RawIOBase: 10c3.)에 대한 버퍼링을 다룹니다.  이것
의 서브 클래스, *note BufferedWriter: 1551, *note BufferedReader: 11fd.
및 *note BufferedRWPair: 2c28.는 각각 쓸 수 있는, 읽을 수 있는, 그리고 읽
고 쓸 수 있는 원시 바이너리 스트림을 버퍼링합니다.  *note
BufferedRandom: 1552.은 탐색할 수 있는 (seekable) 스트림에 버퍼 인터페이
스를 제공합니다.  또 다른 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. 서브 클래스 *note
BytesIO: e9a.는 인 메모리 바이트열의 스트림입니다.

*note TextIOBase: 68f. ABC는 *note IOBase: 1f5.를 확장합니다.  이것은 바
이트가 텍스트를 나타내는 스트림을 다루고, 문자열과의 인코딩과 디코딩을 처
리합니다.  *note TextIOBase: 68f.를 확장하는 *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4.는
버퍼링 된 원시 스트림(*note BufferedIOBase: 68e.)에 대한 버퍼링 된 텍스
트 인터페이스입니다.  마지막으로, *note StringIO: f1f.는 텍스트에 대한 인
메모리 스트림입니다.

인자 이름은 명세의 일부가 아니며, *note open(): 515.의 인자는 키워드 인
자로만 사용하려는 의도입니다.

다음 표는 *note io: 7f. 모듈에서 제공하는 ABC를 요약합니다:

ABC                           상속                   스텁(stub) 메서드            믹스 인 메서드와 프로퍼티
                                                                                  
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
*note IOBase: 1f5.                                   ‘fileno’, ‘seek’ 및          ‘close’, ‘closed’, ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘flush’,
                                                     ‘truncate’                   ‘isatty’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’, ‘readable’,
                                                                                  ‘readline’, ‘readlines’, ‘seekable’, ‘tell’,
                                                                                  ‘writable’ 및 ‘writelines’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note RawIOBase: 10c3.        *note IOBase: 1f5.     ‘readinto’와 ‘write’         상속된 *note IOBase: 1f5. 메서드, ‘read’ 및
                                                                                  ‘readall’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note BufferedIOBase: 68e.    *note IOBase: 1f5.     ‘detach’, ‘read’, ‘read1’    상속된 *note IOBase: 1f5. 메서드, ‘readinto’ 및
                                                     및 ‘write’                   ‘readinto1’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note TextIOBase: 68f.        *note IOBase: 1f5.     ‘detach’, ‘read’,            상속된 *note IOBase: 1f5. 메서드, ‘encoding’,
                                                     ‘readline’ 및 ‘write’        ‘errors’ 및 ‘newlines’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* I/O 베이스 클래스::
* 원시 파일 I/O::
* 버퍼링 된 스트림::
* 텍스트 I/O: 텍스트 I/O<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O 베이스 클래스,  Next: 원시 파일 I/O,  Up: 클래스 위계

5.16.2.9 I/O 베이스 클래스
..........................

 -- 클래스: io.IOBase

     모든 I/O 클래스의 추상 베이스 클래스.

     이 클래스는 파생 클래스가 선택적으로 재정의할 수 있는 많은 메서드에
     대해 빈 추상 구현을 제공합니다; 기본 구현은 읽거나 쓰거나 탐색할 수
     없는 파일을 나타냅니다.

     *note IOBase: 1f5.가 서명이 다양하기 때문에 ‘read()’나 ‘write()’를
     선언하지 않더라도, 구현과 클라이언트는 해당 메서드를 인터페이스의 일
     부로 고려해야 합니다.  또한, 지원하지 않는 연산이 호출될 때 구현은
     *note ValueError: 202.(또는 *note UnsupportedOperation: 199d.)를 발
     생시킬 수 있습니다.

     파일에서 읽거나 파일에 쓰는 바이너리 데이터에 사용되는 기본형은
     *note bytes: 1c2.입니다.  다른 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.도 메서드
     인자로 허용됩니다.  텍스트 I/O 클래스는 *note str: 445. 데이터로 작
     동합니다.

     닫힌 스트림에 대한 모든 메서드(조회조차도) 호출은 정의되어 있지 않
     습니다.  이 경우 구현은 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킬 수 있습니
     다.

     *note IOBase: 1f5.(및 그 서브 클래스)는 이터레이터 프로토콜을 지원
     합니다.  즉, 스트림에서 줄을 산출하면서 *note IOBase: 1f5. 객체를 이
     터레이트 할 수 있습니다.  스트림이 바이너리 스트림(바이트열을 산출
     합니다)인지 텍스트 스트림(문자열을 산출합니다)인지에 따라 줄은 약간
     다르게 정의됩니다.  아래 *note readline(): 1319.을 참조하십시오.

     *note IOBase: 1f5.는 컨텍스트 관리자이기도 해서, *note with: 5cc. 문
     을 지원합니다.  이 예에서, 'file'은 ‘with’ 문의 스위트가 완료된 후
     에 닫힙니다 — 예외가 발생하더라도:

          with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
              file.write('Spam and eggs!')

     *note IOBase: 1f5.는 다음 데이터 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: close ()

          이 스트림을 플러시하고 닫습니다.  파일이 이미 닫혔으면 이 메서
          드는 효과가 없습니다.  일단 파일이 닫히면, 파일에 대한 모든 연
          산(예를 들어 읽기나 쓰기)이 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵
          니다.

          편의상, 이 메서드를 두 번 이상 호출할 수 있습니다; 그러나 첫 번
          째 호출만 효과가 있습니다.

      -- 속성: closed

          스트림이 닫혔으면 ‘True’.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          존재한다면 스트림의 하부 파일 기술자(정수)를 반환합니다.  IO 객
          체가 파일 기술자를 사용하지 않으면 *note OSError: 411.가 발생
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          해당하면 스트림의 쓰기 버퍼를 플러시합니다.  이것은 읽기 전용
          과 비 블로킹 스트림에 대해서는 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: isatty ()

          스트림이 대화형이면 (즉, 터미널/tty 장치에 연결되었으면)
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: readable ()

          스트림을 읽을 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  ‘False’이면,
          ‘read()’는 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: readline (size=-1, /)

          스트림에서 한 줄을 읽고 반환합니다.  'size'가 지정되면, 최대
          'size' 바이트를 읽습니다.

          줄 종결자는 바이너리 파일의 경우 항상 ‘b'\n'’입니다; 텍스트 파
          일의 경우, *note open(): 515.에 대한 'newline' 인자를 사용하여
          인식되는 줄 종결자를 선택할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: readlines (hint=-1, /)

          스트림에서 줄 리스트를 읽고 반환합니다.  'hint'는 읽을 줄 수를
          제어하도록 지정할 수 있습니다: 지금까지 모든 줄의 총 크기(바이
          트/문자 단위)가 'hint'를 초과하면 더는 줄을 읽지 않습니다.

          'hint' values of ‘0’ or less, as well as ‘None’, are treated
          as no hint.

          ‘file.readlines()’를 호출하지 않고 ‘for line in file: ...’을 사
          용하여 파일 객체를 이미 이터레이트 할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: seek (offset, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          스트림 위치를 'whence'가 가리키는 위치를 기준으로 상대적으로 해
          석되는 지정된 바이트 'offset'으로 변경하고, 새 절대 위치를 반
          환합니다.  'whence'의 값은 다음과 같습니다:

             * *note os.SEEK_SET: 127d. 또는 ‘0’ – 스트림의 시작(기본값
               ); 'offset'은 0이거나 양수여야 합니다

             * *note os.SEEK_CUR: 127e. 또는 ‘1’ – 현재 스트림 위치;
               'offset'은 음수일 수 있습니다

             * *note os.SEEK_END: 127f. 또는 ‘2’ – 스트림의 끝;
               'offset'은 일반적으로 음수입니다

          Added in version 3.1: ‘SEEK_*’ 상수.

          Added in version 3.3: 일부 운영 체제는 *note os.SEEK_HOLE:
          2b56.이나 *note os.SEEK_DATA: 2b57.와 같은 추가 값을 지원할 수
          있습니다.  파일에 대해 유효한 값은 그것이 텍스트나 바이너리 모
          드 중 어느 것으로 열렸는지에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: seekable ()

          스트림이 무작위 액세스를 지원하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
          ‘False’이면, *note seek(): 127c, *note tell(): 29bf. 및 *note
          truncate(): 1301.가 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          현재의 스트림 위치를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: truncate (size=None, /)

          바이트 단위로 지정된 'size'로 스트림 크기를 조정합니다 (또는
          'size'가 지정되지 않으면 현재 위치).  현재 스트림 위치는 변경
          되지 않습니다.  이 크기 조정은 현재 파일 크기를 늘리거나 줄일
          수 있습니다.  확장의 경우, 새 파일 영역의 내용은 플랫폼에 따라
          다릅니다 (대부분의 시스템에서, 추가 바이트는 0으로 채워집니다
          ).  새 파일 크기가 반환됩니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우는 이제 확장 시 파일을 0으로 채웁니다
          .

      -- 메서드: writable ()

          스트림이 쓰기를 지원하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  ‘False’이면,
          ‘write()’와 *note truncate(): 1301.는 *note OSError: 411.를 발
          생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: writelines (lines, /)

          스트림에 줄 리스트를 씁니다.  줄 구분자는 추가되지 않아서, 제
          공된 각 줄 끝에 줄 구분자가 있는 것이 일반적입니다.

      -- 메서드: __del__ ()

          객체 파괴를 준비합니다.  *note IOBase: 1f5.는 인스턴스의 *note
          close(): 1f6. 메서드를 호출하는 이 메서드의 기본 구현을 제공합
          니다.

 -- 클래스: io.RawIOBase

     원시 바이너리 스트림의 베이스 클래스.  *note IOBase: 1f5.를 상속합
     니다.

     원시 바이너리 스트림은 일반적으로 하부 OS 장치나 API에 대한 저수준
     액세스를 제공하며, 이것을 고수준 프리미티브로 캡슐화하려고 하지 않
     습니다 (이 기능은 이 페이지에서 나중에 설명할 버퍼링 된 바이너리 스
     트림과 텍스트 스트림에서 고수준으로 수행됩니다).

     *note RawIOBase: 10c3.는 *note IOBase: 1f5.에서 온 것 외에 이 메서
     드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: read (size=-1, /)

          객체에서 최대 'size' 바이트를 읽고 반환합니다.  편의상,
          'size'가 지정되지 않거나 -1이면, EOF까지의 모든 바이트가 반환
          됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 하나의 시스템 호출만 수행됩니다.  운영
          체제 시스템 호출이 'size' 바이트 미만을 반환하면 'size' 바이트
          미만이 반환될 수 있습니다.

          0바이트가 반환되고, 'size'가 0이 아니면, 파일의 끝을 나타냅니
          다.  객체가 비 블로킹 모드이고 사용 가능한 바이트가 없으면
          ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

          기본 구현은 *note readall(): 2c2f.과 *note readinto(): e18.로
          위임합니다.

      -- 메서드: readall ()

          필요한 경우 스트림에 대한 다중 호출을 사용하여, EOF까지 스트림
          의 모든 바이트를 읽고 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: readinto (b, /)

          미리 할당되고, 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 'b'로 바
          이트를 읽고 읽은 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  예를 들어, 'b'는
          *note bytearray: 538.일 수 있습니다.  객체가 비 블로킹 모드이
          고 사용 가능한 바이트가 없으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: write (b, /)

          주어진 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a, 'b'를 하부 원시 스트림에 쓰
          고, 쓴 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  하부 원시 스트림의 특성에 따라
          , 특히 비 블로킹 모드이면 바이트 단위로 'b'의 길이보다 짧을 수
          있습니다.  원시 스트림이 블록 하지 않도록 설정되었고 단일 바이
          트를 당장 쓸 수 없으면 ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  호출자는 이 메서
          드가 반환된 후 'b'를 해제하거나 변경할 수 있어서, 구현은 메서
          드 호출 중에만 'b'에 액세스해야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: io.BufferedIOBase

     어떤 종류의 버퍼링을 지원하는 바이너리 스트림의 베이스 클래스.
     *note IOBase: 1f5.를 상속합니다.

     The main difference with *note RawIOBase: 10c3. is that methods
     *note read(): 1318, *note readinto(): 2c30. and *note write(): cd8.
     will try (respectively) to read as much input as requested or to
     emit all provided data.

     In addition, if the underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode,
     when the system returns would block *note write(): cd8. will raise
     *note BlockingIOError: 104d. with *note
     BlockingIOError.characters_written: 22aa. and *note read(): 1318.
     will return data read so far or ‘None’ if no data is available.

     또한, *note read(): 1318. 메서드에는 *note readinto(): 2c30.로 위임
     하는 기본 구현이 없습니다.

     일반적인 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. 구현은 *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 구
     현에서 상속하지 말고, *note BufferedWriter: 1551.와 *note
     BufferedReader: 11fd.처럼 감싸야 합니다.

     *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.는 *note IOBase: 1f5.에서 온 것 외에 다음
     데이터 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 제공하거나 재정의합니다:

      -- 속성: raw

          *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. 가 다루는 하부 원시 스트림 (*note
          RawIOBase: 10c3. 인스턴스).  이것은 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.
          API의 일부가 아니며 일부 구현에는 없을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: detach ()

          하부 원시 스트림을 버퍼에서 분리하고 반환합니다.

          원시 스트림이 분리된 후에는, 버퍼가 사용할 수 없는 상태가 됩니
          다.

          *note BytesIO: e9a.와 같은 일부 버퍼에는 이 메서드가 반환할 단
          일 원시 스트림 개념이 없습니다.  그들은 *note
          UnsupportedOperation: 199d.을 발생시킵니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes.  If the argument is
          omitted, ‘None’, or negative read as much as possible.

          Fewer bytes may be returned than requested.  An empty *note
          bytes: 1c2. object is returned if the stream is already at
          EOF.  More than one read may be made and calls may be retried
          if specific errors are encountered, see *note os.read(): d91.
          and PEP 475(1) for more details.  Less than size bytes being
          returned does not imply that EOF is imminent.

          When reading as much as possible the default implementation
          will use ‘raw.readall’ if available (which should implement
          *note RawIOBase.readall(): 2c2f.), otherwise will read in a
          loop until read returns ‘None’, an empty *note bytes: 1c2, or
          a non-retryable error.  For most streams this is to EOF, but
          for non-blocking streams more data may become available.

               참고: When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking,
               implementations may either raise *note BlockingIOError:
               104d. or return ‘None’ if no data is available.  *note
               io: 7f. implementations return ‘None’.

      -- 메서드: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes, calling *note readinto():
          e18. which may retry if *note EINTR: d83. is encountered per
          PEP 475(2).  If 'size' is ‘-1’ or not provided, the
          implementation will choose an arbitrary value for 'size'.

               참고: When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking,
               implementations may either raise *note BlockingIOError:
               104d. or return ‘None’ if no data is available.  *note
               io: 7f. implementations return ‘None’.

      -- 메서드: readinto (b, /)

          미리 할당되고, 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 'b'로 바
          이트를 읽고 읽은 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  예를 들어, 'b'는
          *note bytearray: 538.일 수 있습니다.

          *note read(): 1318.와 마찬가지로, 하부 원시 스트림이 대화식이
          아닌 한, 여러 읽기가 수행될 수 있습니다.

          하부 원시 스트림이 비 블로킹 모드이고, 현재 사용 가능한 데이터
          가 없으면 *note BlockingIOError: 104d. 가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: readinto1 (b, /)

          하부 원시 스트림의 *note read(): e17. (또는 *note readinto():
          e18.) 메서드를 최대 한 번만 호출하여, 미리 할당된 쓰기 가능한
          *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 'b'로 바이트를 읽습니다.  읽은 바
          이트 수를 반환합니다.

          하부 원시 스트림이 비 블로킹 모드이고, 현재 사용 가능한 데이터
          가 없으면 *note BlockingIOError: 104d. 가 발생합니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: write (b, /)

          주어진 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a, 'b'를 쓰고 기록된 바이트 수
          를 반환합니다 (쓰기에 실패하면 *note OSError: 411.가 발생하기
          때문에 항상 바이트 단위로 'b' 길이와 같습니다).  실제 구현에 따
          라, 이러한 바이트는 하부 스트림에 쉽게 쓸 수 있거나, 성능과 지
          연 이유로 버퍼에 보관될 수 있습니다.

          비 블로킹 모드에서, 데이터를 원시 스트림에 기록해야 하지만 원
          시 스트림이 블로킹 없이 모든 데이터를 받아들일 수 없으면,
          *note BlockingIOError: 104d. 가 발생합니다.

          호출자는 이 메서드가 반환된 후 'b'를 해제하거나 변경할 수 있어
          서, 구현은 메서드 호출 중에만 'b'에 액세스해야 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 원시 파일 I/O,  Next: 버퍼링 된 스트림,  Prev: I/O 베이스 클래스,  Up: 클래스 위계

5.16.2.10 원시 파일 I/O
.......................

 -- 클래스: io.FileIO (name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)

     바이트열 데이터를 포함하는 OS 수준 파일을 나타내는 원시 바이너리 스
     트림.  *note RawIOBase: 10c3.를 상속합니다.

     'name'은 다음 두 가지 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

        * 열릴 파일의 경로를 나타내는 문자열이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체.
          이 경우 closefd는 ‘True’(기본값)이어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면
          에러가 발생합니다.

        * 결과 *note FileIO: 1300. 객체가 액세스할 기존 OS 수준 파일 기
          술자의 번호를 나타내는 정수.  FileIO 객체가 닫힐 때,
          'closefd'가 ‘False’로 설정되어 있지 않은 한 이 fd도 닫힙니다.

     'mode'는 읽기(기본값), 쓰기, 배타적 생성 또는 덧붙이기를 위해
     ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ 또는 ‘'a'’일 수 있습니다.  쓰기나 덧붙이기로 열
     때 파일이 존재하지 않으면 만들어집니다; 쓰기 위해 열면 파일이 잘립
     니다.  생성을 위해 열었을 때 파일이 이미 존재하면 *note
     FileExistsError: 1016. 가 발생합니다.  생성하기 위해 파일을 여는 것
     은 쓰기를 의미하므로, 이 모드는 ‘'w'’와 유사한 방식으로 작동합니다.
     읽기와 쓰기를 동시에 허락하려면 ‘'+'’를 모드에 추가하십시오.

     이 클래스의 *note read(): e17. (양수 인자로 호출되었을 때), *note
     readinto(): e18. 및 *note write(): 29fe. 메서드는 하나의 시스템 호
     출만 수행합니다.

     콜러블을 'opener'로 전달하여 사용자 정의 오프너를 사용할 수 있습니
     다.  그러면 파일 객체의 하부 파일 기술자는 ('name', 'flags')로
     'opener'를 호출하여 얻습니다.  'opener'는 열린 파일 기술자를 반환해
     야 합니다 (*note os.open: d8e.을 'opener'로 전달하면 ‘None’을 전달
     하는 것과 유사한 기능이 됩니다).

     새로 만들어진 파일은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     'opener' 매개 변수 사용에 대한 예는 *note open(): 515. 내장 함수를
     참조하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'opener' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.  ‘'x'’ 모드
     가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이제 파일이 상속 불가능합니다.

     *note FileIO: 1300.는 *note RawIOBase: 10c3.와 *note IOBase: 1f5.에
     서 온 것 외에 다음 데이터 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: mode

          생성자에 제공된 모드.

      -- 속성: name

          파일 이름.  생성자에 이름이 지정되지 않으면 파일의 파일 기술자
          입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼링 된 스트림,  Next: 텍스트 I/O<2>,  Prev: 원시 파일 I/O,  Up: 클래스 위계

5.16.2.11 버퍼링 된 스트림
..........................

버퍼링 된 I/O 스트림은 원시 I/O보다 I/O 장치에 대한 더 고수준의 인터페이
스를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: io.BytesIO (initial_bytes=b'')

     인 메모리 바이트 버퍼를 사용하는 바이너리 스트림.  *note
     BufferedIOBase: 68e.를 상속합니다.  *note close(): 1f6. 메서드가 호
     출될 때 버퍼가 폐기됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'initial_bytes'는 초기 데이터를 포함하는 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a.입니다.

     *note BytesIO: e9a.는 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.와 *note IOBase:
     1f5.의 메서드 외에 다음 메서드를 제공하거나 재정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: getbuffer ()

          복사하지 않고 버퍼의 내용에 대한 읽을 수 있고 쓸 수 있는 뷰를
          반환합니다.  또한, 뷰를 변경하면 버퍼의 내용이 투명하게 갱신됩
          니다:

               >>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
               >>> view = b.getbuffer()
               >>> view[2:4] = b"56"
               >>> b.getvalue()
               b'ab56ef'

               참고: 뷰가 존재하는 한, *note BytesIO: e9a. 객체의 크기를
               조정하거나 닫을 수 없습니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: getvalue ()

          버퍼의 전체 내용을 포함하는 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: read1 (size=-1, /)

          *note BytesIO: e9a.에서, 이것은 *note read(): 1318.와 같습니다
          .

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 'size' 인자는 이제 선택적입니다.

      -- 메서드: readinto1 (b, /)

          *note BytesIO: e9a.에서, 이것은 *note readinto(): 2c30.와 같습
          니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: io.BufferedReader (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     읽을 수 있고 탐색할 수 없는(non seekable) *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 원
     시 바이너리 스트림에 대한 고수준의 액세스를 제공하는 버퍼링 된 바이
     너리 스트림.  *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.를 상속합니다.

     이 객체에서 데이터를 읽을 때, 하부 원시 스트림에서 더 많은 양의 데
     이터가 요청되어, 내부 버퍼에 보관될 수 있습니다.  버퍼링 된 데이터
     는 후속 읽기에서 직접 반환될 수 있습니다.

     생성자는 주어진 읽을 수 있는 'raw' 스트림과 'buffer_size'에 대해
     *note BufferedReader: 11fd.를 만듭니다.  'buffer_size'를 생략하면,
     *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 16ce.가 사용됩니다.

     *note BufferedReader: 11fd.는 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.와 *note
     IOBase: 1f5.의 메서드 외에 다음 메서드를 제공하거나 재정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: peek (size=0, /)

          Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.
          The number of bytes returned may be less or more than
          requested.  If the underlying raw stream is non-blocking and
          the operation would block, returns empty bytes.

      -- 메서드: read (size=-1, /)

          In *note BufferedReader: 11fd. this is the same as *note
          io.BufferedIOBase.read(): 1318.

      -- 메서드: read1 (size=-1, /)

          In *note BufferedReader: 11fd. this is the same as *note
          io.BufferedIOBase.read1(): 2976.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 'size' 인자는 이제 선택적입니다.

 -- 클래스: io.BufferedWriter (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     쓸 수 있고 탐색할 수 없는(non seekable) *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 원시
     바이너리 스트림에 대한 고수준 액세스를 제공하는 버퍼링 된 바이너리
     스트림.  *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.를 상속합니다.

     이 객체에 쓸 때, 데이터는 일반적으로 내부 버퍼에 배치됩니다.  버퍼
     는 다음과 같은 다양한 조건에서 하부 *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 객체에 기
     록됩니다:

        * 계류 중인 모든 데이터에 비해 버퍼가 너무 작아질 때;

        * *note flush(): 2c3a.가 호출될 때;

        * *note seek(): 127c.이 요청될 때 (*note BufferedRandom: 1552. 객
          체의 경우);

        * *note BufferedWriter: 1551. 객체가 닫히거나 파괴될 때.

     생성자는 주어진 쓰기 가능한 'raw' 스트림에 대해 *note
     BufferedWriter: 1551.를 만듭니다.  'buffer_size'가 제공되지 않으면,
     기본값은 *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 16ce.입니다.

     *note BufferedWriter: 1551.는 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e.와 *note
     IOBase: 1f5.의 메서드 외에 다음 메서드를 제공하거나 재정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          버퍼에 있는 바이트를 원시 스트림으로 강제 출력합니다.  원시 스
          트림이 블록되면 *note BlockingIOError: 104d.를 발생시켜야 합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: write (b, /)

          Write the *note bytes-like object: d2a, 'b', and return the
          number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a *note
          BlockingIOError: 104d. with *note
          BlockingIOError.characters_written: 22aa. set is raised if the
          buffer needs to be written out but the raw stream blocks.

 -- 클래스: io.BufferedRandom (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     탐색할 수 있는 (seekable) *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 원시 바이너리 스트
     림에 고수준의 액세스를 제공하는 버퍼링 된 바이너리 스트림.  *note
     BufferedReader: 11fd.와 *note BufferedWriter: 1551.를 상속합니다.

     생성자는 첫 번째 인자로 주어진 탐색 가능한 원시 스트림에 대한 판독
     기(reader)와 기록기(writer)를 만듭니다.  'buffer_size'를 생략하면 기
     본값은 *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 16ce.입니다.

     *note BufferedRandom: 1552.은 *note BufferedReader: 11fd.나 *note
     BufferedWriter: 1551.가 수행 할 수 있는 모든 작업을 수행할 수 있습
     니다.  또한, *note seek(): 127c.과 *note tell(): 29bf.이 구현되도록
     보장됩니다.

 -- 클래스: io.BufferedRWPair (reader, writer,
          buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, /)

     하나는 읽을 수 있고, 다른 하나는 쓸 수 있는, 두 개의 탐색할 수 없는
     (non seekable) *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 원시 바이너리 스트림에 대한 고
     수준 액세스를 제공하는 버퍼링 된 바이너리 스트림.  *note
     BufferedIOBase: 68e.를 상속합니다.

     'reader'와 'writer'는 각각 읽고 쓸 수 있는 *note RawIOBase: 10c3. 객
     체입니다.  'buffer_size'가 생략되면 기본값은 *note
     DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 16ce.입니다.

     *note BufferedRWPair: 2c28.는 *note UnsupportedOperation: 199d.을 발
     생시키는 *note detach(): 2986.를 제외한 모든 *note BufferedIOBase:
     68e. 의 메서드를 구현합니다.

          경고: *note BufferedRWPair: 2c28.는 하부 원시 스트림에 대한 동
          기화된 액세스를 시도하지 않습니다.  reader와 writer로 같은 객
          체를 전달해서는 안 됩니다; 대신 *note BufferedRandom: 1552.을
          사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 I/O<2>,  Prev: 버퍼링 된 스트림,  Up: 클래스 위계

5.16.2.12 텍스트 I/O
....................

 -- 클래스: io.TextIOBase

     텍스트 스트림의 베이스 클래스.  이 클래스는 스트림 I/O를 위한 문자
     와 줄 기반 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  *note IOBase: 1f5.를 상속합니
     다.

     *note TextIOBase: 68f.는 *note IOBase: 1f5.에서 온 것 외에 다음 데
     이터 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 제공하거나 재정의합니다:

      -- 속성: encoding

          스트림의 바이트열을 문자열로 디코딩하고, 문자열을 바이트열로 인
          코딩하는 데 사용되는 인코딩의 이름.

      -- 속성: errors

          디코더나 인코더의 에러 설정.

      -- 속성: newlines

          지금까지 번역된 줄 넘김을 나타내는, 문자열, 문자열 튜플 또는
          ‘None’.  구현과 초기 생성자 플래그에 따라, 사용하지 못할 수 있
          습니다.

      -- 속성: buffer

          The underlying binary buffer (a *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. or
          *note RawIOBase: 10c3. instance) that *note TextIOBase: 68f.
          deals with.  This is not part of the *note TextIOBase: 68f.
          API and may not exist in some implementations.

      -- 메서드: detach ()

          하부 바이너리 버퍼를 *note TextIOBase: 68f.와 분리하여 반환합
          니다.

          하부 버퍼가 분리된 후에는, *note TextIOBase: 68f.는 사용할 수
          없는 상태가 됩니다.

          *note StringIO: f1f.와 같은 일부 *note TextIOBase: 68f. 구현에
          는 하부 버퍼 개념이 없을 수 있으며 이 메서드를 호출하면 *note
          UnsupportedOperation: 199d.이 발생합니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: read (size=-1, /)

          스트림에서 최대 'size' 문자를 단일 *note str: 445.로 읽고 반환
          합니다.  'size'가 음수이거나 ‘None’이면 EOF까지 읽습니다.

      -- 메서드: readline (size=-1, /)

          줄 넘김이나 EOF까지 읽고 단일 *note str: 445.을 반환합니다.  스
          트림이 이미 EOF에 있으면, 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

          'size'가 지정되면, 최대 'size' 문자를 읽습니다.

      -- 메서드: seek (offset, whence=SEEK_SET, /)

          스트림 위치를 지정된 'offset'으로 변경합니다.  동작은 'whence'
          매개 변수에 따라 다릅니다.  'whence'의 기본값은 ‘SEEK_SET’입니
          다.

             * ‘SEEK_SET’이나 ‘0’: 스트림의 시작부터 탐색합니다 (기본값
               ); 'offset'은 *note TextIOBase.tell(): 2c41.이 반환한 숫
               자이거나 0이어야 합니다.  다른 'offset' 값은 정의되지 않
               은 동작을 생성합니다.

             * ‘SEEK_CUR’이나 ‘1’: 현재 위치로 “seek” 합니다; 'offset'은
               0이어야 하며, 이는 아무런 일도 하지 않습니다 (다른 모든 값
               은 지원되지 않습니다).

             * ‘SEEK_END’나 ‘2’: 스트림의 끝으로 seek 합니다; 'offset'은
               0이어야 합니다 (다른 모든 값은 지원되지 않습니다).

          새로운 절대 위치를 불투명한 숫자로 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.1: ‘SEEK_*’ 상수.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          현재 스트림 위치를 불투명한 숫자로 반환합니다.  숫자는 일반적
          으로 하부 바이너리 저장소의 바이트 수를 나타내지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: write (s, /)

          문자열 's'를 스트림에 쓰고 쓴 문자 수를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: io.TextIOWrapper (buffer, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None, line_buffering=False, write_through=False)

     *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. 버퍼링 된 바이너리 스트림에 대한 고수준
     의 액세스를 제공하는 버퍼링 된 텍스트 스트림.  *note TextIOBase:
     68f.를 상속합니다.

     'encoding' gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be
     decoded or encoded with.  In *note UTF-8 Mode: 650, this defaults
     to UTF-8.  Otherwise, it defaults to *note locale.getencoding():
     2de.  ‘encoding="locale"’ can be used to specify the current
     locale’s encoding explicitly.  See *note 텍스트 인코딩: 7b6. for
     more information.

     'errors'는 인코딩과 디코딩 에러 처리 방법을 지정하는 선택적 문자열
     입니다.  인코딩 에러가 있을 때 *note ValueError: 202. 예외를 발생시
     키려면 ‘'strict'’를 전달하고 (기본값 ‘None’은 같은 효과를 줍니다),
     에러를 무시하려면 ‘'ignore'’를 전달하십시오.  (인코딩 에러를 무시하
     면 데이터가 손실될 수 있음에 유의하십시오.)  ‘'replace'’는 잘못된 데
     이터가 있는 곳에 대체 마커(가령 ‘'?'’)가 삽입되도록 합니다.
     ‘'backslashreplace'’는 잘못된 데이터를 역 슬래시 이스케이프 시퀀스
     로 대체합니다.  기록할 때, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’(적절한 XML 문자 참
     조로 대체합니다)나 ‘'namereplace'’(‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프 시퀀스로 대
     체합니다)를 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note codecs.register_error():
     145f.로 등록된 다른 에러 처리 이름도 유효합니다.

     'newline'은 줄 끝 처리 방법을 제어합니다.  ‘None’, ‘''’, ‘'\n'’,
     ‘'\r'’ 및 ‘'\r\n'’ 일 수 있습니다.  다음과 같이 작동합니다:

        * 스트림에서 입력을 읽을 때, 'newline'이 ‘None’이면, *note
          유니버설 줄 넘김: d37. 모드가 활성화됩니다.  입력의 줄은
          ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ 또는 ‘'\r\n'’으로 끝날 수 있으며, 호출자에게 반
          환되기 전에 ‘'\n'’으로 변환됩니다.  'newline'이 ‘''’이면, 유니
          버설 줄 넘김 모드가 활성화되지만, 줄 끝은 변환되지 않은 상태로
          호출자에게 반환됩니다.  'newline'이 다른 유효한 값이면, 입력 줄
          은 주어진 문자열로만 끝나고, 줄 끝은 변환되지 않은 상태로 호출
          자에게 반환됩니다.

        * 스트림에 출력을 기록할 때, 'newline'이 ‘None’이면, 기록되는 모
          든 ‘'\n'’ 문자는 시스템 기본 줄 구분자 *note os.linesep:
          2183.으로 변환됩니다.  'newline'이 ‘''’이나 ‘'\n'’이면, 변환이
          수행되지 않습니다.  'newline'이 다른 유효한 값이면, 기록되는 모
          든 ‘'\n'’ 문자는 주어진 문자열로 변환됩니다.

     'line_buffering'이 ‘True’이면, write 호출에 줄 넘김 문자나 캐리지 리
     턴이 포함되어 있으면 *note flush(): 2c2a.가 암시됩니다.

     'write_through'가 ‘True’이면, *note write(): cd8.에 대한 호출은 버
     퍼링 되지 않음이 보장됩니다: *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 객체에 기록
     된 모든 데이터는 즉시 하부 바이너리 'buffer'로 처리됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'write_through' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 기본 'encoding'은 이제
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ 대신
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’입니다.  *note
     locale.setlocale(): 2dd.을 사용하여 임시 로케일 인코딩을 변경하지 않
     고, 사용자가 선호하는 인코딩 대신 현재 로케일 인코딩을 사용합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'encoding' argument now supports the
     ‘"locale"’ dummy encoding name.

     *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4.는 *note TextIOBase: 68f.와 *note IOBase:
     1f5.에서 온 것 외에 다음 데이터 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: line_buffering

          줄 버퍼링이 활성화되었는지 여부.

      -- 속성: write_through

          쓰기가 하부 바이너리 버퍼로 즉시 전달되는지 여부.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: reconfigure (*, encoding=None, errors=None,
               newline=None, line_buffering=None, write_through=None)

          'encoding', 'errors', 'newline', 'line_buffering' 및
          'write_through'에 대한 새로운 설정을 사용하여 이 텍스트 스트림
          을 재구성합니다.

          'encoding'이 지정되었지만, 'errors'가 지정되지 않았을 때
          ‘errors='strict'’가 사용되는 것을 제외하고, 지정되지 않은 매개
          변수는 현재 설정을 유지합니다.

          스트림에서 일부 데이터를 이미 읽었다면 encoding이나 newline을
          변경할 수 없습니다.  반면에, 기록 후의 encoding 변경은 가능합
          니다.

          이 메서드는 새 매개 변수를 설정하기 전에 묵시적 스트림 플러시
          를 수행합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: The method supports ‘encoding="locale"’
          option.

      -- 메서드: seek (cookie, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the stream position.  Return the new stream position as an
          *note int: 257.

          Four operations are supported, given by the following argument
          combinations:

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_SET)’: Rewind to the start of the stream.

             * ‘seek(cookie, SEEK_SET)’: Restore a previous position;
               'cookie' 'must be' a number returned by *note tell():
               2c45.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_END)’: Fast-forward to the end of the
               stream.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_CUR)’: 현재의 스트림 위치를 변경하지 않습니
               다.

          Any other argument combinations are invalid, and may raise
          exceptions.

          더 보기
          .......

          *note os.SEEK_SET: 127d, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 127e, and *note
          os.SEEK_END: 127f.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          Return the stream position as an opaque number.  The return
          value of ‘tell()’ can be given as input to *note seek(): 2c44,
          to restore a previous stream position.

 -- 클래스: io.StringIO (initial_value='', newline='\n')

     인 메모리 텍스트 버퍼를 사용하는 텍스트 스트림.  *note TextIOBase:
     68f.를 상속합니다.

     *note close(): 1f6. 메서드가 호출될 때 텍스트 버퍼가 폐기됩니다.

     버퍼의 초깃값은 'initial_value'를 제공하여 설정할 수 있습니다.  줄
     바꿈 변환이 활성화되면, 줄 바꿈은 *note write(): 1c7c. 한 것처럼 인
     코딩됩니다.  스트림은 버퍼의 시작 부분에 위치하며, 이는 기존 파일을
     ‘w+’ 모드로 여는 것을 흉내내어 시작부터 즉시 쓰기나 초기 값을 텊어
     쓰는 쓰기에 준비되도록 합니다.  ‘a+’ 모드로 파일을 여는 것을 흉내내
     려면, ‘f.seek(0, io.SEEK_END)’을 사용하여 스트림을 버퍼의 끝으로 재
     위치 시키세요.

     출력을 스트림에 쓸 때, 'newline'이 ‘None’이면, 모든 플랫폼에서 줄 넘
     김이 ‘\n’로 기록된다는 점을 제외하고는, 'newline' 인자는 *note
     TextIOWrapper: 7b4.에서 처럼 작동합니다.

     *note StringIO: f1f.는 *note TextIOBase: 68f.와 *note IOBase: 1f5.의
     메서드 외에 이 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: getvalue ()

          버퍼의 전체 내용을 포함하는 *note str: 445.을 반환합니다.  스
          트림 위치는 변경되지 않지만, 줄 넘김은 *note read(): 1c8d.와 같
          이 디코딩됩니다.

     사용 예:

          import io

          output = io.StringIO()
          output.write('First line.\n')
          print('Second line.', file=output)

          # 파일 내용을 꺼냅니다 -- 'First line.\nSecond line.\n' 이 됩니다.
          contents = output.getvalue()

          # 객체를 닫고 메모리 버퍼를 폐기합니다 --
          # .getvalue() 는 이제 예외를 발생시킵니다.
          output.close()

 -- 클래스: io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder

     *note 유니버설 줄 넘김: d37. 모드의 줄 넘김 디코딩을 하는 도우미 코
     덱.  *note codecs.IncrementalDecoder: 23d2.를 상속합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 성능<2>,  Prev: 클래스 위계,  Up: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구

5.16.2.13 성능
..............

이 섹션에서는 제공된 구상 I/O 구현의 성능에 대해 논합니다.

* Menu:

* 바이너리 I/O: 바이너리 I/O<2>.
* 텍스트 I/O: 텍스트 I/O<3>.
* 다중 스레드::
* 재진입::


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 I/O<2>,  Next: 텍스트 I/O<3>,  Up: 성능<2>

5.16.2.14 바이너리 I/O
......................

사용자가 단일 바이트를 요청할 때조차 큰 데이터 청크만 읽고 써서, 버퍼링
된 I/O는 운영 체제의 버퍼링 되지 않은 I/O 루틴을 호출하고 실행할 때의 비
효율성을 숨깁니다.  이득은 OS 와 수행되는 I/O 종류에 따라 다릅니다.  예
를 들어, 리눅스와 같은 일부 최신 OS에서는, 버퍼링 되지 않은 디스크 I/O는
버퍼링 된 I/O만큼 빠를 수 있습니다.  그러나 요점은 버퍼링 된 I/O가 플랫
폼과 배경 장치와 관계없이 예측 가능한 성능을 제공한다는 것입니다.  따라
서, 바이너리 데이터에는 버퍼링 되지 않은 I/O보다는 버퍼링 된 I/O를 사용
하는 것이 거의 항상 바람직합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 I/O<3>,  Next: 다중 스레드,  Prev: 바이너리 I/O<2>,  Up: 성능<2>

5.16.2.15 텍스트 I/O
....................

바이너리 저장소(가령 파일)에 대한 텍스트 I/O는 같은 저장소에 대한 바이너
리 I/O보다 상당히 느린데, 문자 코덱을 사용하여 유니코드와 바이너리 데이
터 간의 변환이 필요하기 때문입니다.  이것은 큰 로그 파일과 같은 많은 양
의 텍스트 데이터를 처리할 때 드러날 수 있습니다.  또한, *note tell():
2c41.과 *note seek(): 2c40.은 사용된 재구성 알고리즘으로 인해 상당히 느
립니다.

그러나, *note StringIO: f1f.는 네이티브 인 메모리 유니코드 컨테이너이며
*note BytesIO: e9a.와 비슷한 속도를 나타냅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다중 스레드,  Next: 재진입,  Prev: 텍스트 I/O<3>,  Up: 성능<2>

5.16.2.16 다중 스레드
.....................

*note FileIO: 1300. 객체는 감싼 운영 체제 호출(가령 유닉스의
‘read(2)(1)’)이 스레드 안전하다면 스레드 안전합니다.

바이너리 버퍼링 된 객체(*note BufferedReader: 11fd, *note
BufferedWriter: 1551, *note BufferedRandom: 1552. 및 *note
BufferedRWPair: 2c28. 의 인스턴스)는 록을 사용하여 내부 구조를 보호합니
다; 따라서 여러 스레드에서 동시에 호출하는 것이 안전합니다.

*note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 객체는 스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/read(2)


File: python.info,  Node: 재진입,  Prev: 다중 스레드,  Up: 성능<2>

5.16.2.17 재진입
................

바이너리 버퍼링 된 객체(*note BufferedReader: 11fd, *note
BufferedWriter: 1551, *note BufferedRandom: 1552. 및 *note
BufferedRWPair: 2c28. 의 인스턴스)는 재진입할 수 없습니다.  재진입 호출
이 정상적인 상황에서는 발생하지 않지만, *note signal: c6. 처리기에서
I/O를 수행한다면 발생할 수 있습니다.  스레드가 이미 액세스 중인 버퍼링 된
객체에 다시 진입하려고 하면, *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  이
것이 다른 스레드가 버퍼링 된 객체에 진입하는 것을 막는 것은 아님에 유의
하십시오.

*note open(): 515. 함수는 버퍼링 된 객체를 *note TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 안
에 감싸기 때문에, 위의 내용은 텍스트 파일에도 묵시적으로 확장됩니다.  여
기에는 표준 스트림이 포함되므로 내장 *note print(): f6d. 함수에도 영향을
줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: time — 시간 액세스와 변환,  Next: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설,  Prev: io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.3 ‘time’ — 시간 액세스와 변환
----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 다양한 시간 관련 함수를 제공합니다.  관련 기능에 대해서는,
*note datetime: 30.과 *note calendar: 14. 모듈도 참조하십시오.

이 모듈을 항상 사용할 수 있지만, 모든 플랫폼에서 모든 함수를 사용할 수 있
는 것은 아닙니다.  이 모듈에 정의된 대부분의 함수는 같은 이름의 플랫폼 C
라이브러리 함수를 호출합니다.  이러한 함수의 의미는 플랫폼마다 달라서, 플
랫폼 설명서를 참조하면 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

일부 용어와 관례에 대한 설명을 순서대로 제시합니다.

   * '에포크(epoch)'는 시간이 시작되는 시점이며, ‘time.gmtime(0)’의 반환
     값입니다.  모든 플랫폼에서 1970년 1월 1일, 00:00:00(UTC) 입니다.

   * 용어 '에포크 이후의 초(seconds since the epoch)'는 에포크 이후로 총
     지나간 초를 나타내는데, 보통 윤초(1)는 제외합니다.  모든 POSIX 호환
     플랫폼에서 윤초는 이 총계에서 제외됩니다.

   * 이 모듈의 함수는 *note 에포크: 2a32. 전이나 먼 미래의 날짜와 시간을
     처리하지 못할 수 있습니다.  미래의 컷오프 지점은 C 라이브러리에 의
     해 결정됩니다; 32비트 시스템의 경우, 일반적으로 2038년입니다.

   * 함수 *note strptime(): 13f5.은 ‘%y’ 포맷 코드가 제공될 때 2자리 연
     도를 구문 분석할 수 있습니다.  2자리 연도를 구문 분석할 때, POSIX와
     ISO C 표준에 따라 변환됩니다: 값 69–99는 1969–1999에, 값 0–68은
     2000–2068에 매핑됩니다.

   * UTC is Coordinated Universal Time(2) and superseded Greenwich Mean
     Time(3) or GMT as the basis of international timekeeping.  The
     acronym UTC is not a mistake but conforms to an earlier,
     language-agnostic naming scheme for time standards such as UT0,
     UT1, and UT2.

   * DST는 일광 절약 시간(Daylight Saving Time)인데, 일 년 중 일부 기간
     시간대를 (일반적으로) 한 시간 조정합니다.  DST 규칙은 매직(현지 법
     에 따라 결정됩니다)이며 해가 바뀜에 따라 변경될 수 있습니다.  C 라
     이브러리에는 현지 규칙이 포함된 테이블이 있으며 (종종 유연성을 위해
     시스템 파일에서 읽습니다) 이 점에서 진정한 지혜(True Wisdom)의 유일
     한 원천입니다.

   * 다양한 실시간 함수의 정밀도는 값이나 인자가 표현되는 단위가 제안하
     는 것보다 못할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 대부분의 유닉스 시스템에서 시
     계는 초당 50회나 100회만 “틱(ticks)”합니다.

   * 반면에, *note time(): 254.과 *note sleep(): 697.의 정밀도는 그들의
     유닉스의 해당하는 것보다 낫습니다: 시간은 부동 소수점 숫자로 표현되
     고, *note time(): 254.은 사용 가능한 가장 정확한 시간을 반환하며 (사
     용할 수 있으면 유닉스 ‘gettimeofday()’를 사용합니다), *note
     sleep(): 697.은 0이 아닌 소수부를 갖는 시간을 받아들입니다 (사용할
     수 있으면, 이것을 구현하는 데 유닉스 ‘select()’를 사용합니다).

   * *note gmtime(): 11af, *note localtime(): 14c1. 및 *note strptime():
     13f5.에 의해 반환되고 *note asctime(): 11d6, *note mktime(): 11d7.
     및 *note strftime(): 11d8.이 받아들이는 시간 값은 9개의 정수의 시퀀
     스입니다.  *note gmtime(): 11af, *note localtime(): 14c1. 및 *note
     strptime(): 13f5.의 반환 값은 개별 필드에 대한 어트리뷰트 이름도 제
     공합니다.

     이러한 객체에 대한 설명은 *note struct_time: ce7.을 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 플랫폼이 해당 ‘struct tm’ 멤버를 지원할 때 *note
     tm_gmtoff: 2c4e.와 *note tm_zone: 2c4f. 어트리뷰트를 제공하도록
     *note struct_time: ce7. 형이 확장되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note struct_time: ce7. 어트리뷰트 *note
     tm_gmtoff: 2c4e.와 *note tm_zone: 2c4f.은 이제 모든 플랫폼에서 사용
     가능합니다.

   * 시간 표현 간에 변환하려면 다음 함수를 사용하십시오:

     변환 전                       변환 후                       변환 함수
                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 
     에포크 이후 초                UTC의                         *note gmtime(): 11af.
                                   *note struct_time: ce7.       
                                   
                                                                 
     에포크 이후 초                현지 시간의                   *note localtime(): 14c1.
                                   *note struct_time: ce7.       
                                   
                                                                 
     UTC의                         에포크 이후 초                *note calendar.timegm(): 24e7.
     *note struct_time: ce7.                                     

     현지 시간의                   에포크 이후 초                *note mktime(): 11d7.
     *note struct_time: ce7.                                     

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<4>.
* 시계 ID 상수::
* 시간대 상수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<4>,  Next: 시계 ID 상수,  Up: time — 시간 액세스와 변환

5.16.3.1 함수
.............

 -- 함수: time.asctime ([t])

     *note gmtime(): 11af.이나 *note localtime(): 14c1. 이 반환한 시간을
     나타내는 튜플이나 *note struct_time: ce7.을 ‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05
     1993'’ 형식의 문자열로 변환합니다.  날짜(day) 필드는 두 문자 길이이
     며 날짜가 한자리이면 스페이스로 채워집니다, 예를 들어: ‘'Wed Jun 9
     04:26:40 1993'’.

     't'가 제공되지 않으면, *note localtime(): 14c1. 에서 반환된 현재 시
     각이 사용됩니다.  로케일 정보는 *note asctime(): 11d6.에서 사용되지
     않습니다.

          참고: 같은 이름의 C 함수와 달리, *note asctime(): 11d6.은 끝에
          줄 바꿈을 추가하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: time.pthread_getcpuclockid (thread_id)

     지정된 'thread_id'에 대한 스레드 특정 CPU-시간 시계의 'clk_id'를 반
     환합니다.

     'thread_id'에 적합한 값을 얻으려면 *note threading.get_ident():
     114b. 나 *note threading.Thread: 94a. 객체의 *note ident: 2c52. 어
     트리뷰트를 사용하십시오.

          경고: 유효하지 않거나 만료된 'thread_id'를 전달하면 정의되지 않
          은 동작이 발생할 수 있습니다, 가령 세그먼트 폴트(segmentation
          fault).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix

     자세한 내용은 ‘pthread_getcpuclockid(3)(1)’ 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하
     십시오.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.clock_getres (clk_id)

     지정된 시계 'clk_id'의 해상도(정밀도)를 반환합니다.  'clk_id'에 허
     용되는 값 리스트는 *note 시계 ID 상수: 2bc5.를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: time.clock_gettime (clk_id) -> float

     지정된 시계 'clk_id'의 시간을 반환합니다.  'clk_id'에 허용되는 값 리
     스트는 *note 시계 ID 상수: 2bc5.를 참조하십시오.

     Use *note clock_gettime_ns(): adf. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ef. type.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: time.clock_gettime_ns (clk_id) -> int

     *note clock_gettime(): 114f.과 비슷하지만, 시간을 나노초로 반환합니
     다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.clock_settime (clk_id, time: float)

     지정된 시계 'clk_id'의 시간을 설정합니다.  현재, *note
     CLOCK_REALTIME: 694.이 'clk_id'에 대해 유일하게 허용되는 값입니다.

     Use *note clock_settime_ns(): ae0. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ef. type.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: time.clock_settime_ns (clk_id, time: int)

     *note clock_settime(): 1150.과 비슷하지만, 나노초로 시간을 설정합니
     다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.ctime ([secs])

     *note 에포크: 2a32. 이후 초로 표현된 시간을 현지 시간을 나타내는
     ‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'’ 형식의 문자열로 변환합니다.  날짜(day)
     필드는 두 문자 길이이며 날짜가 한자리이면 스페이스로 채워집니다, 예
     를 들어: ‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’.

     'secs'가 제공되지 않거나 *note None: 66f.이면, *note time(): 254.이
     반환하는 현재 시각이 사용됩니다.  ‘ctime(secs)’는
     ‘asctime(localtime(secs))’와 동등합니다.  로케일 정보는 *note
     ctime(): 2462.에서 사용되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: time.get_clock_info (name)

     지정된 시계에 대한 정보를 이름 공간 객체로 가져옵니다.  지원되는 시
     계 이름과 그 값을 읽는 해당 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

        * ‘'monotonic'’: *note time.monotonic(): 253.

        * ‘'perf_counter'’: *note time.perf_counter(): a85.

        * ‘'process_time'’: *note time.process_time(): a86.

        * ‘'thread_time'’: *note time.thread_time(): 934.

        * ‘'time'’: *note time.time(): 254.

     결과는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다:

        - 'adjustable': 시계가 자동으로 (예를 들어 NTP 데몬에 의해) 또는
          시스템 관리자에 의해 수동으로 변경될 수 있으면 ‘True’, 그렇지
          않으면 ‘False’

        - 'implementation': 시계값을 얻는 데 사용되는 하부 C 함수의 이름
          .  가능한 값은 *note 시계 ID 상수: 2bc5.를 참조하십시오.

        - 'monotonic': 시계가 뒤로 이동할 수 없으면 ‘True’, 그렇지 않으
          면 ‘False’

        - 'resolution': 초 단위의 시계 해상도 (*note float: 2ef.)

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: time.gmtime ([secs])

     *note 에포크: 2a32. 이후의 초 단위 시간을 dst 플래그가 항상 0인
     UTC인 *note struct_time: ce7.으로 변환합니다.  'secs'가 제공되지 않
     거나 *note None: 66f.이면, *note time(): 254.에서 반환된 현재 시각
     이 사용됩니다.  초의 소수부는 무시됩니다.  *note struct_time: ce7.
     객체에 대한 설명은 위를 참조하십시오.  이 함수의 역에 대해서는
     *note calendar.timegm(): 24e7.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: time.localtime ([secs])

     *note gmtime(): 11af.과 같지만, 현지 시간으로 변환합니다.  'secs'가
     제공되지 않거나 *note None: 66f.이면 *note time(): 254.에서 반환된
     현재 시각이 사용됩니다.  DST가 주어진 시간에 적용되면 dst 플래그는
     ‘1’로 설정됩니다.

     *note localtime(): 14c1. may raise *note OverflowError: 87d, if the
     timestamp is outside the range of values supported by the platform
     C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ functions, and *note OSError: 411. on
     ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It’s common for this to be
     restricted to years between 1970 and 2038.

 -- 함수: time.mktime (t)

     이것은 *note localtime(): 14c1. 의 역함수입니다.  인자는 UTC가 아니
     라 '현지' 시간으로 시간을 표현하는 *note struct_time: ce7.이나 전체
     9-튜플 (dst 플래그가 필요하기 때문에; 알 수 없으면 dst 플래그로
     ‘-1’을 사용하십시오)입니다.  *note time(): 254.과의 호환성을 위해,
     부동 소수점 숫자를 반환합니다.  입력값을 유효한 시간으로 표현할 수
     없으면, *note OverflowError: 87d.나 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다 (유효하지 않은 값이 파이썬이나 하부 C 라이브러리 중 어디에서 잡
     히는지에 따라 다릅니다).  시간을 생성 할 수 있는 가장 이른 날짜는 플
     랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.

 -- 함수: time.monotonic () -> float

     단조(monotonic) 시계, 즉 뒤로 갈 수 없는 시계의 값을 (소수부가 있는
     초로) 반환합니다.  시계는 시스템 시계 갱신의 영향을 받지 않습니다.
     반환된 값의 기준점은 정의되어 있지 않아서, 두 호출 결과 간의 차이만
     유효합니다.

     Clock:

        * On Windows, call ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ and
          ‘QueryPerformanceFrequency()’.

        * On macOS, call ‘mach_absolute_time()’ and
          ‘mach_timebase_info()’.

        * On HP-UX, call ‘gethrtime()’.

        * Call ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_HIGHRES)’ if available.

        * Otherwise, call ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC)’.

     Use *note monotonic_ns(): ae1. to avoid the precision loss caused
     by the *note float: 2ef. type.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: The function is now always available and the
     clock is now the same for all processes.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: On macOS, the clock is now the same for all
     processes.

 -- 함수: time.monotonic_ns () -> int

     *note monotonic(): 253.과 비슷하지만, 시간을 나노초로 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.perf_counter () -> float

     Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a performance counter,
     i.e.  a clock with the highest available resolution to measure a
     short duration.  It does include time elapsed during sleep.  The
     clock is the same for all processes.  The reference point of the
     returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between
     the results of two calls is valid.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' On CPython, use the same clock as *note
     time.monotonic(): 253. and is a monotonic clock, i.e.  a clock that
     cannot go backwards.

     Use *note perf_counter_ns(): ae2. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ef. type.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: On Windows, the clock is now the same for all
     processes.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note time.monotonic(): 253. 과 같은 시계를 사
     용합니다.

 -- 함수: time.perf_counter_ns () -> int

     *note perf_counter(): a85.와 비슷하지만, 시간을 나노초로 반환합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.process_time () -> float

     현재 프로세스의 시스템과 사용자 CPU 시간 합계의 값을 (소수부가 있는
     초로) 반환합니다.  수면 중 경과 시간은 포함되지 않습니다.  정의상 프
     로세스 수준입니다.  반환된 값의 기준점은 정의되어 있지 않아서, 두 호
     출 결과 간의 차이만 유효합니다.

     Use *note process_time_ns(): ae3. to avoid the precision loss
     caused by the *note float: 2ef. type.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: time.process_time_ns () -> int

     *note process_time(): a86.과 비슷하지만, 시간을 나노초로 반환합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.sleep (secs)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of
     seconds.  The argument may be a floating-point number to indicate a
     more precise sleep time.

     If the sleep is interrupted by a signal and no exception is raised
     by the signal handler, the sleep is restarted with a recomputed
     timeout.

     The suspension time may be longer than requested by an arbitrary
     amount, because of the scheduling of other activity in the system.

     윈도우 구현
     ...........

     On Windows, if 'secs' is zero, the thread relinquishes the
     remainder of its time slice to any other thread that is ready to
     run.  If there are no other threads ready to run, the function
     returns immediately, and the thread continues execution.  On
     Windows 8.1 and newer the implementation uses a high-resolution
     timer(2) which provides resolution of 100 nanoseconds.  If 'secs'
     is zero, ‘Sleep(0)’ is used.

     유닉스 구현
     ...........

        * Use ‘clock_nanosleep()’ if available (resolution: 1
          nanosecond);

        * Or use ‘nanosleep()’ if available (resolution: 1 nanosecond);

        * Or use ‘select()’ (resolution: 1 microsecond).

          참고: To emulate a “no-op”, use *note pass: 1c22. instead of
          ‘time.sleep(0)’.

          To voluntarily relinquish the CPU, specify a real-time *note
          scheduling policy: 2c0c. and use *note os.sched_yield(): 1102.
          instead.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘time.sleep’ with argument
     ‘secs’.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널 처리기가 예외를 발생시키는 경우를 제외하
     고, 시그널에 의해 휴면이 중단되더라도 이 함수는 이제 최소한 'secs'
     동안 휴면합니다 (근거는 PEP 475(3)를 참조하십시오).

     버전 3.11에서 변경: On Unix, the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ and
     ‘nanosleep()’ functions are now used if available.  On Windows, a
     waitable timer is now used.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises an auditing event.

 -- 함수: time.strftime (format[, t])

     *note gmtime(): 11af.이나 *note localtime(): 14c1. 에 의해 반환된 시
     간을 나타내는 튜플이나 *note struct_time: ce7.을 'format' 인자로 지
     정된 문자열로 변환합니다.  't'가 제공되지 않으면, *note
     localtime(): 14c1. 에서 반환된 현재 시각이 사용됩니다.  'format'은
     문자열이어야 합니다.  't'의 필드 중 어느 것이라도 허용 범위를 벗어
     나면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     0은 시간 튜플의 어느 위치에 대해서도 유효한 인자입니다; 그것이 일반
     적으로 유효하지 않으면 값이 올바른 값으로 강제 변환됩니다.

     'format' 문자열은 다음 지시자(directives)를 포함할 수 있습니다.  선
     택적 필드 너비와 정밀도 명세 없이 표시되며, *note strftime(): 11d8.
     결과에서 표시된 문자로 대체됩니다:

     지시자          의미                                                 노트
                                                                          
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     ‘%a’            로케일의 약식 요일 이름.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%A’            로케일의 전체 요일 이름.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%b’            로케일의 약식 월 이름.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%B’            로케일의 전체 월 이름.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%c’            로케일의 적절한 날짜와 시간 표현.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%d’            월중 일(day of the month)을 십진수로 [01,31].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%f’            마이크로 초를 십진수로                               (1)
                                                                          
                          [000000,999999].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%H’            시(24시간제)를 십진수로 [00,23].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%I’            시(12시간제)를 십진수로 [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%j’            연중 일(day of the year)을 십진수로 [001,366].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%m’            월을 십진수로 [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%M’            분을 십진수로 [00,59].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%p’            AM이나 PM에 해당하는 로케일의 값.                    (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%S’            초를 십진수로 [00,61].                               (3)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%U’            연중 주 번호(일요일이 주의 시작)를 십진수로          (4)
                     [00,53].  첫 번째 일요일에 선행하는 새해의 모든 날   
                     은 주 0으로 간주합니다.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%u’            요일(월요일은 1; 일요일은 7)을 십진수로 [1, 7].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%w’            요일을 십진수로 [0(일요일),6].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%W’            연중 주 번호(월요일이 주의 시작)를 십진수로          (4)
                     [00,53].  첫 번째 월요일에 선행하는 새해의 모든 말   
                     은 주 0으로 간주합니다.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%x’            로케일의 적절한 날짜 표현.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%X’            로케일의 적절한 시간 표현.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%y’            세기가 없는 해(year)를 십진수로 [00,99].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Y’            세기가 있는 해(year)를 십진수로.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%z’            UTC/GMT로부터의 양이나 음의 시차를 +HHMM 또는
                     -HHMM 형식으로 나타내는 시간대 오프셋.  여기서 H는
                     십진수 시 숫자를 나타내고 M은 십진수 분 숫자를 나
                     타냅니다 [-23:59, +23:59].  (4)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Z’            시간대 이름 (시간대가 없으면 문자가 없습니다).  폐
                     지되었습니다.  (5)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%G’            ISO 8601 year (similar to ‘%Y’ but follows the
                     rules for the ISO 8601 calendar year).  The year
                     starts with the week that contains the first
                     Thursday of the calendar year.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%V’            ISO 8601 week number (as a decimal number
                     [01,53]).  The first week of the year is the one
                     that contains the first Thursday of the year.
                     Weeks start on Monday.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%%’            리터럴 ‘'%'’ 문자.
                     

     노트:

       1. The ‘%f’ format directive only applies to *note strptime():
          13f5, not to *note strftime(): 11d8.  However, see also *note
          datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1612. and *note
          datetime.datetime.strftime(): c8d. where the ‘%f’ format
          directive *note applies to microseconds: 2433.

       2. *note strptime(): 13f5. 함수와 함께 사용할 때, ‘%I’ 지시자를 사
          용하여 시(hour)를 구문 분석하면 ‘%p’ 지시자는 출력 시(hour) 필
          드에만 영향을 줍니다.

       3. 범위는 실제로 ‘0’에서 ‘61’입니다; 값 ‘60’은 윤초(6)를 나타내는
          타임 스탬프에서 유효하고 값 ‘61’은 역사적 이유로 지원됩니다.

       4. *note strptime(): 13f5. 함수와 함께 사용할 때, ‘%U’와 ‘%W’는 주
          중 일(day of the week)과 해(year)가 지정된 경우에만 계산에 사
          용됩니다.

     다음은 RFC 2822(7) 인터넷 전자우편 표준에서 지정된 것과 호환되는 날
     짜 형식의 예입니다.  (8)

          >>> from time import gmtime, strftime
          >>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
          'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'

     특정 플랫폼에서는 추가 지시자가 지원될 수 있지만, 여기에 나열된 지
     시자에만 ANSI C에서 표준화된 의미가 있습니다.  플랫폼에서 지원되는
     전체 포맷 코드 집합을 보려면, ‘strftime(3)(9)’ 설명서를 참조하십시
     오.

     일부 플랫폼에서, 선택적 필드 너비와 정밀도 명세는 지시자의 초기
     ‘'%'’ 뒤에 그 순서대로 나올 수 있습니다; 이것 또한 이식성이 없습니
     다.  필드 너비는 일반적으로 2이며, ‘%j’는 3입니다.

 -- 함수: time.strptime (string[, format])

     포맷(format)에 따라 시간을 나타내는 문자열을 구문 분석합니다.  반환
     값은 *note gmtime(): 11af.이나 *note localtime(): 14c1. 에 의해 반
     환되는 것과 같은 *note struct_time: ce7.입니다.

     'format' 매개 변수는 *note strftime(): 11d8.에서 사용된 것과 같은 지
     시자를 사용합니다; 기본값은 *note ctime(): 2462.이 반환한 포맷과 일
     치하는 ‘"%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"’입니다.  'format'에 따라 'string'을
     구문 분석할 수 없거나, 구문 분석 후 여분의 데이터가 있으면, *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  더 정확한 값을 유추할 수 없을 때 누
     락된 데이터를 채우는 데 사용되는 기본값은 ‘(1900, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
     1, -1)’입니다.  'string'과 'format'은 모두 문자열이어야 합니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> import time
          >>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")
          time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
                           tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)

     ‘%Z’ 지시자에 대한 지원은 ‘tzname’에 포함된 값과 ‘daylight’가 참인
     지를 기반으로 합니다.  이로 인해, 항상 알려진 (그리고 일광 절약 시
     간제가 아닌 시간대로 간주하는) UTC와 GMT를 인식하는 것을 제외하고는
     플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.

     설명서에 지정된 지시자만 지원됩니다.  ‘strftime()’은 플랫폼별로 구
     현되기 때문에 때로는 나열된 것보다 많은 지시자를 제공할 수 있습니다
     .  그러나 ‘strptime()’은 플랫폼과 독립적이라서 지원된다고 설명하지
     않은 사용 가능한 모든 지시자를 반드시 지원하지는 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: time.struct_time

     *note gmtime(): 11af, *note localtime(): 14c1. 및 *note strptime():
     13f5.이 반환하는 시간 값 시퀀스의 형.  *note 네임드 튜플: 648. 인터
     페이스를 갖는 객체입니다: 인덱스와 어트리뷰트 이름으로 값에 액세스
     할 수 있습니다.  다음과 같은 값이 있습니다:

     인덱스                                어트리뷰트                            값
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     0                                      -- 속성: tm_year                     (예를 들어, 1993)
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     1                                      -- 속성: tm_mon                      범위 [1, 12]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     2                                      -- 속성: tm_mday                     범위 [1, 31]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     3                                      -- 속성: tm_hour                     범위 [0, 23]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     4                                      -- 속성: tm_min                      범위 [0, 59]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     5                                      -- 속성: tm_sec                      범위 [0, 61];
                                                                                 *note strftime(): 11d8. 의
                                                                                 *note 노트 (2): 2c53.를 참조하십시
                                                                                 오
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     6                                      -- 속성: tm_wday                     범위 [0, 6]; 월요일은 0
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     7                                      -- 속성: tm_yday                     범위 [1, 366]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     8                                      -- 속성: tm_isdst                    0, 1 또는 -1; 아래를 참조하십시오
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     해당 없음                              -- 속성: tm_zone                     시간대 이름의 약어
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     해당 없음                              -- 속성: tm_gmtoff                   UTC에서 동쪽으로 초 단위 오프셋
                                                                                 

     C 구조체와 달리, 월 값의 범위는 [0, 11]이 아니라 [1, 12] 임에 유의
     하십시오.

     *note mktime(): 11d7. 호출에서, 일광 절약 시간제가 발효 중이면
     *note tm_isdst: 2473.가 1로 설정되고, 그렇지 않으면 0으로 설정될 수
     있습니다.  값이 -1이면 알 수 없다는 뜻이고, 일반적으로 올바른 상태
     가 채워집니다.

     길이가 잘못된 튜플이 *note struct_time: ce7.을 기대하는 함수에 전달
     되거나, 잘못된 형의 요소가 있으면, *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니
     다.

 -- 함수: time.time () -> float

     *note 에포크: 2a32. 이후 초를 나타내는 시간을 부동 소수점 숫자로 반
     환합니다.  윤초(10)의 처리는 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.  윈도우와 대부
     분의 유닉스 시스템에서, 윤초는 *note 에포크: 2a32. 이후의 초를 나타
     내는 시간에 계산되지 않습니다.  이것을 흔히 유닉스 시간(11)이라고 합
     니다.

     시간이 항상 부동 소수점 숫자로 반환되더라도, 모든 시스템이 1초보다
     정밀한 정밀도를 제공하는 것은 아님에 유의하십시오.  이 함수는 일반
     적으로 감소하지 않는 값을 반환하지만, 두 호출 사이에 시스템 시계가
     뒤로 설정되면 이전 호출보다 작은 값을 반환할 수 있습니다.

     *note time(): 254.에 의해 반환된 숫자는 더 일반적인 시간 형식(즉 년
     , 월, 일, 시 등…)으로 변환될 수 있는데, *note gmtime(): 11af. 함수
     에 전달하여 UTC로, *note localtime(): 14c1. 함수에 전달하여 현지 시
     간으로 변환할 수 있습니다.  두 경우 모두 달력 날짜의 구성 요소를 어
     트리뷰트로 액세스 할 수 있는 *note struct_time: ce7. 객체가 반환됩
     니다.

     Clock:

        * On Windows, call ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’.

        * Call ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME)’ if available.

        * Otherwise, call ‘gettimeofday()’.

     Use *note time_ns(): ae4. to avoid the precision loss caused by the
     *note float: 2ef. type.

버전 3.13에서 변경: On Windows, calls ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’
instead of ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’.

 -- 함수: time.time_ns () -> int

     *note time(): 254.과 비슷하지만, 시간을 *note 에포크: 2a32. 이후의
     나노초를 나타내는 정수로 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.thread_time () -> float

     현재 스레드의 시스템과 사용자 CPU 시간 합계의 값을 (소수부가 있는 초
     로) 반환합니다.  수면 중에 지난 시간은 포함되지 않습니다.  정의상 스
     레드 수준입니다.  반환된 값의 기준점은 정의되어 있지 않아서, 같은 스
     레드에서 이루어지는 두 호출 결과 간의 차이만 유효합니다.

     Use *note thread_time_ns(): b8e. to avoid the precision loss caused
     by the *note float: 2ef. type.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux, Unix, Windows.

     ‘CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID’를 지원하는 유닉스 시스템.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.thread_time_ns () -> int

     *note thread_time(): 934.과 비슷하지만, 시간을 나노초로 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: time.tzset ()

     라이브러리 루틴이 사용하는 시간 변환 규칙을 재설정합니다.  환경 변
     수 ‘TZ’는 이것이 수행되는 방법을 지정합니다.  또한 변수 ‘tzname’ (
     ‘TZ’ 환경 변수에서), ‘timezone’ (UTC에서 서쪽으로 DST가 아닌 초),
     ‘altzone’ (UTC에서 서쪽으로 DST 초) 및 ‘daylight’ (이 시간대가 일광
     절약 시간 규칙이 없으면 0으로, 일광 절약 시간이 적용될 때 시간, 과
     거, 현재 또는 미래가 있으면 0이 아닌 값으로)를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

          참고: 많은 경우에, ‘TZ’ 환경 변수를 변경하면 *note tzset():
          2c5b.을 호출하지 않고도 *note localtime(): 14c1. 과 같은 함수
          의 출력에 영향을 줄 수 있지만, 이 동작에 의존해서는 안 됩니다.

          ‘TZ’ 환경 변수에는 공백이 없어야 합니다.

     ‘TZ’ 환경 변수의 표준 형식은 다음과 같습니다 (명확함을 위해 공백을
     추가했습니다):

          std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

     구성 요소는 다음과 같습니다:

     ‘std’와 ‘dst’

          시간대 약어를 제공하는 세 개 이상의 영숫자.  이들은
          time.tzname으로 전파됩니다

     ‘offset’

          오프셋은 다음과 같은 형식입니다: ‘± hh[:mm[:ss]]’.  UTC에 도달
          하기 위해 현지 시간에 더하는 값을 나타냅니다.  앞에 ‘-‘가 있으
          면, 시간대는 본초 자오선(Prime Meridian)의 동쪽입니다; 그렇지
          않으면, 서쪽입니다.  dst 다음에 오프셋이 없으면, 일광 절약 시
          간은 표준 시간보다 1시간 빠르다고 가정합니다.

     ‘start[/time], end[/time]’

          언제 DST로 변경하고, 언제 돌아오는지를 나타냅니다.  시작
          (start) 날짜와 종료(end) 날짜의 형식은 다음 중 하나입니다:

          ‘JN’

               율리우스 일 'n' (1 <= 'n' <= 365).  윤일(leap days)은 계
               산되지 않아서, 모든 연도에서 2월 28일은 59일이고 3월 1일
               은 60일입니다.

          ‘N’

               0부터 시작하는 율리우스 일 (0 <= 'n' <= 365).  윤일(leap
               days)이 계산되며, 2월 29일을 가리킬 수 있습니다.

          ‘MM.N.D’

               연중 월 'm'의 주 'n'의 'd'번째 요일 (0 <= 'd' <= 6, 1 <=
               'n' <= 5, 1 <= 'm' <= 12, 여기서 주 5는 “월 'm'의 마지막
               'd' 요일”을 뜻하는데, 4번째나 5번째 주에 발생할 수 있습니
               다).  주 1은 'd'번째 요일이 등장하는 첫 주입니다.  요일
               0은 일요일입니다.

          ‘time’은 선행 부호(‘-‘나 ‘+’)가 허용되지 않는다는 점을 제외하
          고 ‘offset’과 형식이 같습니다.  time이 제공되지 않으면, 기본값
          은 02:00:00입니다.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'

     많은 유닉스 시스템(*BSD, 리눅스, Solaris 및 Darwin을 포함합니다)에
     서, 시스템의 zoneinfo (‘tzfile(5)(12)’) 데이터베이스를 사용하여 시
     간대 규칙을 지정하는 것이 더 편리합니다.  이렇게 하려면, ‘TZ’ 환경
     변수를 시스템 ‘zoneinfo’ 시간대 데이터베이스의 루트(일반적으로
     ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo’에 있습니다)에 상대적인 필요한 시간대 데이터 파
     일의 경로로 설정하십시오.  예를 들어, ‘'US/Eastern'’,
     ‘'Australia/Melbourne'’, ‘'Egypt'’ 또는 ‘'Europe/Amsterdam'’.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EST', 'EDT')
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EET', 'EEST')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getcpuclockid(3)

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (4) ‘%Z’ 사용은 이제 폐지되었지만, 선호하는 시/분 오프셋으로 확장되는
‘%z’ 이스케이프가 모든 ANSI C 라이브러리에서 지원되는 것은 아닙니다.  또
한, 원래 1982년 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) 표준을 엄격하게 읽으
면 2자리 연도(‘%Y’가 아닌 ‘%y’)가 필요하지만, 실제로는 2000년 훨씬 이전
에 4자리 연도로 옮겨졌습니다.  그 후, RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html)는 더는 사용되지 않고
4자리 연도는 RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html)에서 처음 권장한 다
음 RFC 2822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html)에서 의
무화합니다.

   (5) ‘%Z’ 사용은 이제 폐지되었지만, 선호하는 시/분 오프셋으로 확장되는
‘%z’ 이스케이프가 모든 ANSI C 라이브러리에서 지원되는 것은 아닙니다.  또
한, 원래 1982년 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) 표준을 엄격하게 읽으
면 2자리 연도(‘%Y’가 아닌 ‘%y’)가 필요하지만, 실제로는 2000년 훨씬 이전
에 4자리 연도로 옮겨졌습니다.  그 후, RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html)는 더는 사용되지 않고
4자리 연도는 RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html)에서 처음 권장한 다
음 RFC 2822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html)에서 의
무화합니다.

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) ‘%Z’ 사용은 이제 폐지되었지만, 선호하는 시/분 오프셋으로 확장되는
‘%z’ 이스케이프가 모든 ANSI C 라이브러리에서 지원되는 것은 아닙니다.  또
한, 원래 1982년 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) 표준을 엄격하게 읽으
면 2자리 연도(‘%Y’가 아닌 ‘%y’)가 필요하지만, 실제로는 2000년 훨씬 이전
에 4자리 연도로 옮겨졌습니다.  그 후, RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html)는 더는 사용되지 않고
4자리 연도는 RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html)에서 처음 권장한 다
음 RFC 2822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html)에서 의
무화합니다.

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/tzfile(5)


File: python.info,  Node: 시계 ID 상수,  Next: 시간대 상수,  Prev: 함수<4>,  Up: time — 시간 액세스와 변환

5.16.3.2 시계 ID 상수
.....................

이 상수들은 *note clock_getres(): 114e.와 *note clock_gettime(): 114f.의
매개 변수로 사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME

     *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693.과 동일하지만, 시스템이 일시 중단된 시간
     도 포함합니다.

     이를 통해 응용 프로그램은 ‘settimeofday()’ 등을 사용하여 시간이 변
     경되면 불연속성이 발생할 수 있는 *note CLOCK_REALTIME: 694.의 복잡
     함을 다루지 않고도 일시 중단을 인식하는 단조 시계를 얻을 수 있습니
     다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.39.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_HIGHRES

     Solaris OS에는 최적의 하드웨어 소스를 사용하려고 하는
     ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ 타이머가 있으며, 나노초에 가까운 해상도를 제공합니
     다.  ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’는 조정 불가능한 고해상도 시계입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Solaris.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

     설정할 수 없고 어떤 지정되지 않은 시작점 이후의 단조 시간을 나타내
     는 시계.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW

     *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 693.과 비슷하지만, NTP 조정이 적용되지 않는
     원시 하드웨어 기반 시간에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.28, macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX

     Similar to *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW: 2c5e, but reads a value
     cached by the system at context switch and hence has less accuracy.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID

     CPU의 고해상도 프로세스별 타이머.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_PROF

     CPU의 고해상도 프로세스별 타이머.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD, NetBSD >= 7, OpenBSD.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_TAI

     International Atomic Time(1)

     이것이 정확한 답을 주려면 시스템에 최신 윤초 표가 있어야 합니다.
     PTP나 NTP 소프트웨어는 윤초 표를 유지할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID

     스레드별 CPU 시간 시계.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_UPTIME

     절댓값이 시스템이 실행되고 정지되지 않은 시간인 시간, 절대와 간격 모
     두로, 정확한 가동 시간 측정을 제공합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD, OpenBSD >= 5.5.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW

     주파수나 시간 조정에 영향을 받지 않고 시스템이 휴면하는 중에는 증가
     하지 않는 임의의 지점 이후의 시간을 추적하면서 단조 증가 하는 시계.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX

     Like *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a3f, but the value is cached by the
     system at context switches and therefore has less accuracy.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.13.

다음 상수는 *note clock_settime(): 1150.에 보낼 수 있는 유일한 매개 변수
입니다.

 -- 데이터: time.CLOCK_REALTIME

     Real-time clock.  Setting this clock requires appropriate
     privileges.  The clock is the same for all processes.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/how-utcnist-related-coordinated-universal-time-utc-international


File: python.info,  Node: 시간대 상수,  Prev: 시계 ID 상수,  Up: time — 시간 액세스와 변환

5.16.3.3 시간대 상수
....................

 -- 데이터: time.altzone

     정의된 것이 있다면, 현지 DST 시간대의 UTC 서쪽으로 초 단위 오프셋.
     현지 DST 시간대가 UTC 동쪽이면 음수입니다 (영국을 포함한 서유럽의 경
     우).  ‘daylight’가 0이 아닌 경우에만 사용하십시오.  아래 참고 사항
     을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: time.daylight

     DST 시간대가 정의되면 0이 아닙니다.  아래 참고 사항을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: time.timezone

     UTC 서쪽으로 초 단위의, 현지 (DST가 아닌) 시간대의 오프셋 (대부분 서
     부 유럽 지역에서는 음수, 미국에서는 양수, 영국에서는 0).  아래 참고
     사항을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: time.tzname

     두 문자열의 튜플: 첫 번째는 현지 DST가 아닌 시간대의 이름이고, 두 번
     째는 현지 DST 시간대의 이름입니다.  DST 시간대가 정의되어 있지 않으
     면, 두 번째 문자열을 사용하지 않아야 합니다.  아래 참고 사항을 참조
     하십시오.

     참고: 위의 시간대 상수 (*note altzone: 2c65, *note daylight: 2c66,
     *note timezone: 2c67. 및 *note tzname: 2c68.)의 경우, 값은 모듈 로
     드 시간이나 *note tzset(): 2c5b.이 마지막으로 호출된 시간에 적용되
     는 시간대 규칙에 의해 결정되며 과거의 시간에는 올바르지 않을 수 있
     습니다.  시간대 정보를 얻으려면 *note localtime(): 14c1. 결과의
     *note tm_gmtoff: 2c4e.와 *note tm_zone: 2c4f.을 사용하는 것이 좋습
     니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note datetime: 30.

     날짜와 시간에 대한 더 객체 지향적인 인터페이스.

모듈 *note locale: 86.

     국제화 서비스.  로케일 설정은 *note strftime(): 11d8.과 *note
     strptime(): 13f5.의 많은 포맷 지시자의 해석에 영향을 줍니다.

모듈 *note calendar: 14.

     일반적인 캘린더 관련 함수.  *note timegm(): 24e7.은 이 모듈에 있는
     *note gmtime(): 11af.의 역함수입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설,  Next: logging config — 로깅 구성,  Prev: time — 시간 액세스와 변환,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.4 ‘logging’ — 파이썬 로깅 시설
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/logging/__init__.py(1)

Important
.........

이 페이지는 API 레퍼런스 정보를 담고 있습니다.  자습서 정보 및 고급 주제
에 대한 설명은 다음을 참조하십시오.

   * *note 기초 자습서: 11e4.

   * *note 고급 자습서: 11e5.

   * *note 로깅 요리책: 11e6.

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 응용 프로그램과 라이브러리를 위한 유연한 이벤트 로깅 시스템을
구현하는 함수와 클래스를 정의합니다.

표준 라이브러리 모듈로 로깅 API를 제공하는 것의 주요 이점은, 모든 파이썬
모듈이 로깅에 참여할 수 있어서, 응용 프로그램 로그에 여러분 자신의 메시
지를 제삼자 모듈의 메시지와 통합할 수 있다는 것입니다.

Here’s a simple example of idiomatic usage:

     # myapp.py
     import logging
     import mylib
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
         logger.info('Started')
         mylib.do_something()
         logger.info('Finished')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

     # mylib.py
     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def do_something():
         logger.info('Doing something')

If you run 'myapp.py', you should see this in 'myapp.log':

     INFO:__main__:Started
     INFO:mylib:Doing something
     INFO:__main__:Finished

The key feature of this idiomatic usage is that the majority of code is
simply creating a module level logger with ‘getLogger(__name__)’, and
using that logger to do any needed logging.  This is concise, while
allowing downstream code fine-grained control if needed.  Logged
messages to the module-level logger get forwarded to handlers of loggers
in higher-level modules, all the way up to the highest-level logger
known as the root logger; this approach is known as hierarchical
logging.

For logging to be useful, it needs to be configured: setting the levels
and destinations for each logger, potentially changing how specific
modules log, often based on command-line arguments or application
configuration.  In most cases, like the one above, only the root logger
needs to be so configured, since all the lower level loggers at module
level eventually forward their messages to its handlers.  *note
basicConfig(): 9fc. provides a quick way to configure the root logger
that handles many use cases.

이 모듈은 많은 기능과 유연성을 제공합니다.  로깅에 익숙하지 않다면, 감을
잡는 가장 좋은 방법은 자습서를 보는 것입니다 ('위와 오른쪽에 있는 링크를
참조하세요').

모듈에 의해 정의된 기본 클래스는, 그들의 어트리뷰트와 메서드와 함께, 아
래 절에서 나열됩니다.

   * 로거는 응용 프로그램 코드가 직접 사용하는 인터페이스를 노출합니다.

   * 처리기는 (로거가 만든) 로그 레코드를 적절한 목적지로 보냅니다.

   * 필터는 출력할 로그 레코드를 결정하기 위한 더 세분된 기능을 제공합니
     다.

   * 포매터는 최종 출력에서 로그 레코드의 배치를 지정합니다.

* Menu:

* Logger 객체::
* 로깅 수준::
* Handler 객체::
* Formatter 객체::
* Filter 객체::
* LogRecord 객체::
* LogRecord 어트리뷰트::
* LoggerAdapter 객체::
* 스레드 안전성::
* 모듈 수준 함수::
* 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트::
* warnings 모듈과의 통합::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/logging/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Logger 객체,  Next: 로깅 수준,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.1 Logger 객체
....................

로거에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트와 메서드가 있습니다.  로거는 '결코' 직접
인스턴스를 만드는 일 없이, 항상 모듈 수준의 함수
‘logging.getLogger(name)’ 를 거치는 것에 주의하십시오.  같은 이름
(name)으로 *note getLogger(): 95e. 를 여러 번 호출해도 항상 같은 로거 객
체에 대한 참조를 돌려줍니다.

‘name’ 은 잠재적으로 ‘foo.bar.baz’ 와 같이 마침표로 구분된 계층적 값입니
다 (하지만 그냥 간단한 ‘foo’ 도 가능합니다).  계층적 목록에서 더 아래쪽
에 있는 로거는 목록에서 상위에 있는 로거의 자식입니다.  예를 들어, 이름
이 ‘foo’ 인 로거가 주어지면, ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’, 그리고 ‘foo.bam’
의 이름을 가진 로거는 모두 ‘foo’ 의 자손입니다.  또한, 모든 로거는 루트
로거의 자손입니다.  로거 이름 계층 구조는 파이썬 패키지 계층 구조와 비슷
하며, ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’ 를 사용하여 모듈 단위로 로거를 구성
하는 경우는 패키지 계층 구조와 같아집니다.  왜냐하면, 모듈에서,
‘__name__’ 은 파이썬 패키지 이름 공간의 모듈 이름이기 때문입니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.Logger

      -- 속성: name

          This is the logger’s name, and is the value that was passed to
          *note getLogger(): 95e. to obtain the logger.

               참고: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- 속성: level

          The threshold of this logger, as set by the *note setLevel():
          1457. method.

               참고: Do not set this attribute directly - always use
               *note setLevel(): 1457, which has checks for the level
               passed to it.

      -- 속성: parent

          The parent logger of this logger.  It may change based on
          later instantiation of loggers which are higher up in the
          namespace hierarchy.

               참고: This value should be treated as read-only.

      -- 속성: propagate

          이 어트리뷰트가 참으로 평가되면, 이 로거에 로그 된 이벤트는 이
          로거에 연결된 처리기뿐 아니라 상위 계층 (조상) 로거의 처리기로
          전달됩니다.  메시지는 조상 로거의 처리기에 직접 전달됩니다 - 조
          상 로거의 수준이나 필터는 고려하지 않습니다.

          이 값이 거짓으로 평가되면, 로깅 메시지가 조상 로거의 처리기로
          전달되지 않습니다.

          Spelling it out with an example: If the propagate attribute of
          the logger named ‘A.B.C’ evaluates to true, any event logged
          to ‘A.B.C’ via a method call such as
          ‘logging.getLogger('A.B.C').error(...)’ will [subject to
          passing that logger’s level and filter settings] be passed in
          turn to any handlers attached to loggers named ‘A.B’, ‘A’ and
          the root logger, after first being passed to any handlers
          attached to ‘A.B.C’.  If any logger in the chain ‘A.B.C’,
          ‘A.B’, ‘A’ has its ‘propagate’ attribute set to false, then
          that is the last logger whose handlers are offered the event
          to handle, and propagation stops at that point.

          생성자는 이 어트리뷰트를 ‘True’ 로 설정합니다.

               참고: 로거 '와' 하나 이상의 조상에 처리기를 중복해서 연결
               하면, 같은 레코드를 여러 번 출력할 수 있습니다.  일반적으
               로, 하나 이상의 로거에 처리기를 붙일 필요는 없습니다.  로
               거 계층에서 가장 높은 적절한 로거에 처리기를 연결하면,
               propagate 설정이 ‘True’ 로 남아있는 모든 자식 로거들이 로
               그 하는 모든 이벤트를 보게 됩니다.  일반적인 시나리오는 루
               트 로거에만 처리기를 연결하고, 전파가 나머지를 처리하도록
               하는 것입니다.

      -- 속성: handlers

          The list of handlers directly attached to this logger
          instance.

               참고: This attribute should be treated as read-only; it
               is normally changed via the *note addHandler(): 2c71. and
               *note removeHandler(): 2c72. methods, which use locks to
               ensure thread-safe operation.

      -- 속성: disabled

          This attribute disables handling of any events.  It is set to
          ‘False’ in the initializer, and only changed by logging
          configuration code.

               참고: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- 메서드: setLevel (level)

          이 로거의 수준 경계를 'level' 로 설정합니다.  'level' 보다 덜
          심각한 로깅 메시지는 무시됩니다; 심각도 'level' 이상의 로깅 메
          시지는, 처리기 수준이 'level' 보다 높은 심각도 수준으로 설정되
          지 않는 한, 이 로거에 연결된 처리기가 출력합니다.

          로거가 만들어질 때, 수준은 *note NOTSET: 2c74. (로거가 루트 로
          거 일 때는 모든 메시지를 처리하게 하고, 로거가 루트 로거가 아
          니면 모든 메시지를 부모에게 위임하도록 합니다) 으로 설정됩니다
          .  루트 로거는 수준 *note WARNING: 1cfc.으로 만들어짐에 유의하
          세요.

          ‘부모에게 위임’이라는 말은, 로거 수준이 NOTSET 인 경우, NOTSET
          이외의 수준을 갖는 조상이 발견되거나 루트에 도달할 때까지 조상
          로거 체인을 탐색함을 의미합니다.

          NOTSET 이외의 수준을 갖는 조상이 발견되면, 그 조상의 수준을 조
          상 검색이 시작된 로거의 유효 수준으로 간주하여, 로깅 이벤트를
          처리할지를 결정하는 데 사용됩니다.

          루트에 도달하면, 그리고 루트가 NOTSET 수준을 갖고 있으면, 모든
          메시지가 처리됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 루트 수준이 유효 수준으로
          사용됩니다.

          수준의 목록은 *note 로깅 수준: 654.를 보세요.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'level' 매개 변수는 이제 *note INFO: 1cfb.와
          같은 정수 상수 대신 ‘INFO’와 같은 수준의 문자열 표현을 허용합
          니다.  그러나 수준은 내부적으로 정수로 저장되며, *note
          getEffectiveLevel(): 2c75. 및 *note isEnabledFor(): 12e6.와 같
          은 메서드는 정수를 반환하거나 정수가 전달되기를 기대합니다.

      -- 메서드: isEnabledFor (level)

          심각도 'level' 의 메시지가 이 로거에서 처리될지를 알려줍니다.
          이 메서드는 먼저 ‘logging.disable(level)’ 에 의해 설정된 모듈
          수준의 수준을 확인한 다음, *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2c75.로
          확인되는 로거의 유효 수준을 검사합니다.

      -- 메서드: getEffectiveLevel ()

          이 로거의 유효 수준을 알려줍니다.  *note setLevel(): 1457. 을
          사용하여 *note NOTSET: 2c74. 이외의 값이 설정되면, 그 값이 반
          환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note NOTSET: 2c74. 이외의 값이 발견
          될 때까지 루트를 향해 계층 구조를 탐색하고, 그 값이 반환됩니다
          .  반환되는 값은 정수이며, 일반적으로 *note logging.DEBUG:
          1cfa, *note logging.INFO: 1cfb. 등 중 하나입니다.

      -- 메서드: getChild (suffix)

          접미사에 의해 결정되는, 이 로거의 자손 로거를 반환합니다.  그
          러므로, ‘logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')’ 는
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')’ 와 같은 로거를 반환합니다.
          이것은 편의 메서드인데, 부모 로거가 리터럴 문자열이 아닌 이름
          (가령 ‘__name__’)을 사용하여 명명될 때 유용합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: getChildren ()

          Returns a set of loggers which are immediate children of this
          logger.  So for example ‘logging.getLogger().getChildren()’
          might return a set containing loggers named ‘foo’ and ‘bar’,
          but a logger named ‘foo.bar’ wouldn’t be included in the set.
          Likewise, ‘logging.getLogger('foo').getChildren()’ might
          return a set including a logger named ‘foo.bar’, but it
          wouldn’t include one named ‘foo.bar.baz’.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 수준 *note DEBUG: 1cfa. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  'msg'
          는 메시지 포맷 문자열이고, 'args' 는 문자열 포매팅 연산자를 사
          용하여 'msg' 에 병합되는 인자입니다.  (이는 포맷 문자열에 키워
          드를 사용하고, 인자로 하나의 딕셔너리를 전달할 수 있음을 의미
          합니다.)  'args'가 제공되지 않으면 'msg'에 % 포매팅 연산이 수
          행되지 않습니다.

          'kwargs' 에서 검사되는 네 개의 키워드 인자가 있습니다:
          'exc_info', 'stack_info', 'stacklevel' 및 'extra'.

          'exc_info' 가 거짓으로 평가되지 않으면, 로깅 메시지에 예외 정
          보가 추가됩니다.  예외 튜플 (*note sys.exc_info(): 684. 에 의
          해 반환되는 형식) 또는 예외 인스턴스가 제공되면 사용됩니다; 그
          렇지 않으면 예외 정보를 얻기 위해 *note sys.exc_info(): 684. 를
          호출합니다.

          두 번째 선택적 키워드 인자는 'stack_info' 이며, 기본값은
          ‘False’ 입니다.  참이면, 실제 로깅 호출을 포함하는 스택 정보가
          로깅 메시지에 추가됩니다.  이것은 'exc_info' 를 지정할 때 표시
          되는 것과 같은 스택 정보가 아닙니다: 전자('stack_info')는 스택
          의 맨 아래에서 현재 스레드의 로깅 호출까지의 스택 프레임이며,
          후자('exc_info')는 예외가 일어난 후에 예외 처리기를 찾으면서 되
          감은 스택 프레임에 대한 정보입니다.

          'exc_info' 와는 독립적으로 'stack_info' 를 지정할 수 있습니다.
          예를 들어 예외가 발생하지 않은 경우에도 코드의 특정 지점에 어
          떻게 도달했는지 보여줄 수 있습니다.  스택 프레임은 다음과 같은
          헤더 행 다음에 인쇄됩니다:

               Stack (most recent call last):

          예외 프레임을 표시할 때 사용되는 ‘Traceback (most recent call
          last):’ 을 흉내 내고 있습니다.

          세 번째 선택적 키워드 인자는 'stacklevel'이며, 기본값은 ‘1’입
          니다.  1보다 크면, 로깅 이벤트용으로 만들어진 *note LogRecord:
          fde.에 설정된 줄 번호와 함수 이름을 계산할 때 해당 수의 스택 프
          레임을 건너뜁니다.  기록된 함수 이름, 파일명 및 줄 번호가 도우
          미 함수/메서드에 대한 정보가 아니라 호출자의 정보가 되도록, 로
          깅 도우미에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 매개 변수의 이름은 *note
          warnings: 112. 모듈에 있는 비슷한 것과 같도록 맞췄습니다.

          네 번째 키워드 인자는 'extra' 로, 로깅 이벤트용으로 만들어진
          *note LogRecord: fde.의 *note __dict__: 556. 를 사용자 정의 어
          트리뷰트로 채우는 데 사용되는 딕셔너리를 전달할 수 있습니다.  이
          러한 사용자 정의 어트리뷰트는 원하는 대로 사용할 수 있습니다.
          예를 들어, 로그 메시지에 포함할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

               FORMAT = '%(asctime)s %(clientip)-15s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
               logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
               d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
               logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
               logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)

          는 이렇게 인쇄할 것입니다

               2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset

          'extra' 에 전달된 딕셔너리의 키가, 로깅 시스템에서 사용하는 키
          와 충돌해서는 안 됩니다.  (어떤 키가 로깅 시스템에 의해 사용되
          는지에 대한 더 많은 정보는 *note LogRecord 어트리뷰트: 2c76.에
          있는 절을 보십시오.)

          로그 된 메시지에서 이러한 어트리뷰트를 사용하려면 몇 가지 주의
          를 기울여야 합니다.  위의 예에서, 예를 들어, *note Formatter:
          145b. 에 설정한 포맷 문자열은 *note LogRecord: fde.의 어트리뷰
          트 딕셔너리에 ‘clientip’ 과 ‘user’ 가 있을 것으로 기대하고 있
          습니다.  이것들이 없는 경우 문자열 포매팅 예외가 발생하기 때문
          에 메시지가 기록되지 않습니다.  따라서 이 경우, 항상 이 키를 포
          함하는 'extra' 딕셔너리를 전달해야 합니다.

          성가신 일입니다만, 이 기능은 여러 문맥에서 같은 코드가 실행되
          고 관심 있는 조건들(가령 원격 클라이언트 IP 주소와 인증된 사용
          자 이름)이 문맥에 따라 발생하는 다중 스레드 서버와 같은 특수한
          상황을 위한 것입니다.  이런 상황에서는, 특수한 *note
          Formatter: 145b. 가 특정한 *note Handler: 145a.와 함께 사용될
          가능성이 큽니다.

          If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its
          ancestors, taking into account the relevant *note
          Logger.propagate: 1459. attributes), the message will be sent
          to the handler set on *note lastResort: 11e9.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'stack_info' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 'exc_info' 매개 변수는 이제 예외 인스턴스를
          받아들입니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 'stacklevel' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 수준 *note INFO: 1cfb. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  인자는
          *note debug(): 2c78.처럼 해석됩니다.

      -- 메서드: warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 수준 *note WARNING: 1cfc. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  인
          자는 *note debug(): 2c78.처럼 해석됩니다.

               참고: 기능적으로 ‘warning’ 와 같은, 구식의 ‘warn’ 메서드
               가 있습니다.  ‘warn’ 은 폐지되었으므로 사용하지 마십시오
               - 대신 ‘warning’ 을 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 수준 *note ERROR: 1cfd. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  인자
          는 *note debug(): 2c78.처럼 해석됩니다.

      -- 메서드: critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 수준 *note CRITICAL: 1cfe. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  인
          자는 *note debug(): 2c78.처럼 해석됩니다.

      -- 메서드: log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 정수 수준 'level' 로 메시지를 로그 합니다.  다른 인
          자는 *note debug(): 2c78.처럼 해석됩니다.

      -- 메서드: exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          이 로거에 수준 *note ERROR: 1cfd. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  인자
          는 *note debug(): 2c78.처럼 해석됩니다.  예외 정보가 로깅 메시
          지에 추가됩니다.  이 메서드는 예외 처리기에서만 호출해야 합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: addFilter (filter)

          지정된 필터 'filter' 를 이 로거에 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: removeFilter (filter)

          이 로거에서 지정된 필터 'filter' 를 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: filter (record)

          이 로거의 필터를 레코드(record)에 적용하고 레코드가 처리 대상
          이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  필터 중 어느 하나가 거짓 값을 반환
          할 때까지 필터는 차례로 참조됩니다.  그중 아무것도 거짓 값을 반
          환하지 않으면 레코드가 처리됩니다 (처리기로 전달됩니다).  어느
          하나가 거짓 값을 반환하면, 더 이상의 레코드 처리는 이루어지지
          않습니다.

      -- 메서드: addHandler (hdlr)

          지정된 처리기 'hdlr' 를 이 로거에 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: removeHandler (hdlr)

          이 로거에서 지정된 처리기 'hdlr' 을 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: findCaller (stack_info=False, stacklevel=1)

          호출자의 소스 파일 이름과 행 번호를 찾습니다.  파일 이름, 행 번
          호, 함수 이름 및 스택 정보를 4-요소 튜플로 반환합니다.  스택 정
          보는 'stack_info' 가 ‘True’ 가 아니면 ‘None’ 으로 반환됩니다.

          'stacklevel' 매개 변수는 *note debug(): 2c78.과 기타 API를 호
          출하는 코드에서 전달됩니다.  1보다 크면, 반환되는 값을 결정하
          기 전에 초과분만큼 스택 프레임을 건너뜁니다.  일반적으로 도무
          미/래퍼 코드에서 로깅 API를 호출할 때 유용한데, 이벤트 로그의
          정보가 도우미/래퍼 코드가 아니라 호출자 코드를 참조하도록 합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: handle (record)

          이 로거와 그 조상(거짓 값의 'propagate' 가 발견될 때까지)과 연
          관된 모든 처리기에 레코드를 전달하여 레코드를 처리합니다.  이
          메서드는 로컬에서 만든 레코드뿐만 아니라 소켓에서 받아서 언피
          클된 레코드를 처리하는 데 사용됩니다.  *note filter(): 2c7c. 를
          사용하여 로거 수준 필터링을 적용합니다.

      -- 메서드: makeRecord (name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info,
               func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)

          이 메서드는 특수한 *note LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스를 만들기 위
          해 서브 클래스에서 재정의할 수 있는 팩토리 메서드입니다.

      -- 메서드: hasHandlers ()

          이 로거에 처리기가 구성되어 있는지 확인합니다.  이 로거의 처리
          기와 로거 계층의 부모를 찾습니다.  처리기가 발견되면 ‘True’ 를
          반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니다.  이 메서드는
          ‘propagate’ 어트리뷰트가 거짓으로 설정된 로거가 발견될 때 계층
          구조 검색을 중지합니다 - 그 로거가 처리기가 있는지 검사하는 마
          지막 로거가 됩니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 로거는 피클 되고 언피클 될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 수준,  Next: Handler 객체,  Prev: Logger 객체,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.2 로깅 수준
..................

로깅 수준의 숫자 값은 다음 표에 나와 있습니다.  여러분 자신의 수준을 정
의하고, 미리 정의된 수준과 상대적인 특정 값을 갖도록 하려는 경우 필요합
니다.  같은 숫자 값을 가진 수준을 정의하면 미리 정의된 값을 덮어씁니다;
미리 정의된 이름이 유실됩니다.

수준                        숫자 값             What it means / When to use it
                                                
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
 -- 데이터:                 0                   When set on a logger, indicates that
          logging.NOTSET                        ancestor loggers are to be consulted to
                                                determine the effective level.  If that
                                                still resolves to ‘NOTSET’, then all
                                                events are logged.  When set on a
                                                handler, all events are handled.
                                                
                                                
 -- 데이터: logging.DEBUG   10                  Detailed information, typically only of
                                                interest to a developer trying to
                                                diagnose a problem.
                                                
                                                
 -- 데이터: logging.INFO    20                  Confirmation that things are working as
                                                expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- 데이터:                 30                  An indication that something unexpected
          logging.WARNING                       happened, or that a problem might occur
                                                in the near future (e.g.  ‘disk space
                                                low’).  The software is still working
                                                as expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- 데이터: logging.ERROR   40                  Due to a more serious problem, the
                                                software has not been able to perform
                                                some function.
                                                
                                                
 -- 데이터:                 50                  A serious error, indicating that the
          logging.CRITICAL                      program itself may be unable to
                                                continue running.
                                                


File: python.info,  Node: Handler 객체,  Next: Formatter 객체,  Prev: 로깅 수준,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.3 Handler 객체
.....................

처리기에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트와 메서드가 있습니다.  *note Handler:
145a. 는 절대로 직접 인스턴스로 만들어지지 않음에 주의하세요; 이 클래스
는 더욱 유용한 서브 클래스의 베이스가 됩니다.  그러나, 서브 클래스의
‘__init__()’ 메서드는 *note Handler.__init__(): 2c84. 을 호출해야 합니다
.

 -- 클래스: logging.Handler

      -- 메서드: __init__ (level=NOTSET)

          수준을 설정하고, 필터 목록을 빈 리스트로 설정하고, I/O 메커니
          즘에 대한 액세스를 직렬화하기 위해 (*note createLock(): 2c85.
          을 사용하여) 록을 생성함으로써 *note Handler: 145a. 인스턴스를
          초기화합니다.

      -- 메서드: createLock ()

          스레드 안전하지 않은 하부 I/O 기능에 대한 액세스를 직렬화하는
          데 사용할 수 있는 스레드 록을 초기화합니다.

      -- 메서드: acquire ()

          *note createLock(): 2c85. 로 생성된 스레드 록을 확보합니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          *note acquire(): 2c86.로 확보한 스레드 록을 반납합니다.

      -- 메서드: setLevel (level)

          이 처리기의 수준 경계를 'level' 로 설정합니다.  'level' 보다 덜
          심각한 로깅 메시지는 무시됩니다.  처리기가 만들어질 때, 수준은
          *note NOTSET: 2c74. (모든 메시지가 처리되게 합니다) 으로 설정
          됩니다.

          수준의 목록은 *note 로깅 수준: 654.를 보세요.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'level' 매개 변수는 이제 *note INFO: 1cfb.와
          같은 정수 상수 대신 ‘INFO’와 같은 수준 문자열 표현을 허용합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: setFormatter (fmt)

          Sets the formatter for this handler to 'fmt'.  The 'fmt'
          argument must be a *note Formatter: 145b. instance or ‘None’.

      -- 메서드: addFilter (filter)

          지정된 필터 'filter' 를 이 처리기에 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: removeFilter (filter)

          이 처리기에서 지정된 필터 'filter' 를 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: filter (record)

          이 처리기의 필터를 레코드에 적용하고 레코드가 처리 대상이면
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.  필터 중 어느 하나가 거짓 값을 반환할 때
          까지 필터는 차례로 확인됩니다.  그중 아무것도 거짓 값을 반환하
          지 않으면 레코드가 출력됩니다.  어느 하나가 거짓 값을 반환하면
          처리기는 레코드를 출력하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          모든 로그 출력이 플러시 되었음을 확실히 합니다.  이 버전은 아
          무것도 하지 않으며, 서브 클래스에 의해 구현됩니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          처리기가 사용하는 자원을 정리합니다.  이 버전은 출력하지 않지
          만, 이름으로 처리기를 검색하는 데 사용되는 내부 맵에서 처리기
          를 제거합니다.

          서브 클래스는 이것이 재정의된 *note close(): 2c8e. 메서드에서
          이 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: handle (record)

          처리기에 추가된 필터에 따라 조건부로, 지정된 로깅 레코드를 출
          력합니다.  레코드의 실제 출력을 I/O 스레드 록의 확보/해제로 둘
          러쌉니다.

      -- 메서드: handleError (record)

          이 메서드는 *note emit(): 2c91. 호출 중에 예외가 발생할 때 처
          리기에서 호출됩니다.  모듈 수준 어트리뷰트 *note
          raiseExceptions: 11e8. 가 ‘False’ 인 경우 예외는 조용히 무시됩
          니다.  이 동작은 대부분 로깅 시스템에서 원하는 방식입니다 - 대
          부분 사용자는 로깅 시스템 자체의 에러에 관심이 없고, 응용 프로
          그램 에러에 더 관심이 있습니다.  그러나 원하는 경우, 사용자 정
          의 처리기로 바꿀 수 있습니다.  지정된 레코드는 예외가 발생할 때
          처리되고 있던 레코드입니다.  (*note raiseExceptions: 11e8. 의
          기본값은 ‘True’ 입니다.  개발 중에 더 유용합니다).

      -- 메서드: format (record)

          레코드를 포맷합니다 - 포매터가 설정된 경우 사용합니다.  그렇지
          않으면 모듈의 기본 포매터를 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          지정된 로깅 레코드를 실제로 로그 하는 데 필요한 작업을 수행합
          니다.  이 버전은 서브 클래스에 의해 구현될 것으로 보고 *note
          NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

               경고: This method is called after a handler-level lock is
               acquired, which is released after this method returns.
               When you override this method, note that you should be
               careful when calling anything that invokes other parts of
               the logging API which might do locking, because that
               might result in a deadlock.  Specifically:

                  * Logging configuration APIs acquire the module-level
                    lock, and then individual handler-level locks as
                    those handlers are configured.

                  * Many logging APIs lock the module-level lock.  If
                    such an API is called from this method, it could
                    cause a deadlock if a configuration call is made on
                    another thread, because that thread will try to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'before' the
                    handler-level lock, whereas this thread tries to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'after' the
                    handler-level lock (because in this method, the
                    handler-level lock has already been acquired).

표준으로 포함된 처리기 목록은 *note logging.handlers: 89. 를 참조하십시
오.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatter 객체,  Next: Filter 객체,  Prev: Handler 객체,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.4 Formatter 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: logging.Formatter (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%',
          validate=True, *, defaults=None)

     Responsible for converting a *note LogRecord: fde. to an output
     string to be interpreted by a human or external system.


     매개변수:

        * ‘fmt’ (*note str: 445.) – A format string in the given 'style'
          for the logged output as a whole.  The possible mapping keys
          are drawn from the *note LogRecord: fde. object’s *note
          LogRecord 어트리뷰트: 2c76.  If not specified, ‘'%(message)s'’
          is used, which is just the logged message.

        * ‘datefmt’ (*note str: 445.) – A format string in the given
          'style' for the date/time portion of the logged output.  If
          not specified, the default described in *note formatTime():
          2c95. is used.

        * ‘style’ (*note str: 445.) – ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ 또는 ‘'$'’ 중 하나일
          수 있으며, 포맷 문자열이 데이터와 병합되는 방식을 결정합니다:
          *note printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅: 6c6. (‘%’), *note
          str.format(): 61b. (‘{’) 또는 *note string.Template: 681.
          (‘$’) 중 하나를 사용합니다.  이는 로깅 메서드에 전달된 실제 로
          그 메시지가 아닌, 'fmt'와 'datefmt'에만 적용됩니다 (예를 들어
          ‘'%(message)s'’ 대 ‘'{message}'’).  하지만, 로그 메시지에 ‘{’-
          와 ‘$’-포매팅을 사용하는 *note 다른 방법: 2c96.이 있습니다.

        * ‘validate’ (*note bool: 461.) – ‘True’면 (기본값), 'fmt'와
          'style'이 잘못되거나 일치하지 않을 때 *note ValueError: 202.를
          발생시킵니다; 예를 들어, ‘logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s -
          %(message)s', style='{')’.

        * ‘defaults’ (*note dict: 256.‘[’*note str: 445.‘, ’‘Any’‘]’) –
          A dictionary with default values to use in custom fields.  For
          example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(ip)s %(message)s',
          defaults={"ip": None})’

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'style' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'validate' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'defaults' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: format (record)

          레코드의 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리가 문자열 포매팅 연산의 피연산자로
          사용됩니다.  결과 문자열을 반환합니다.  딕셔너리를 포맷하기 전
          에 몇 가지 준비 단계가 수행됩니다.  레코드의 'message' 어트리
          뷰트를 'msg' % 'args' 를 사용하여 계산합니다.  포매팅 문자열에
          ‘'(asctime)'’ 이 들어 있으면, *note formatTime(): 2c95. 이 호
          출되어 이벤트 시간을 포매팅합니다.  예외 정보가 있는 경우,
          *note formatException(): 2c98. 을 사용하여 포매팅 되고 메시지
          에 덧붙입니다.  포맷된 예외 정보는 'exc_text' 어트리뷰트에 캐
          시 됩니다.  예외 정보를 피클 해서 네트워크를 통해 전송할 수 있
          으므로 유용합니다만, 예외 정보의 포매팅을 사용자 정의하는
          *note Formatter: 145b. 서브 클래스가 두 개 이상 있는 경우 주의
          해야 합니다.  이 경우, 한 포매터가 포매팅을 완료한 후
          ('exc_text' 어트리뷰트를 ‘None’으로 설정하여) 캐시 된 값을 지
          워서 그 이벤트를 처리하는 다음 포매터가 캐시 된 값을 사용하지
          않고, 새로 계산할 수 있도록 해야 합니다.

          스택 정보가 있는 경우, 예외 정보 뒤에 덧붙입니다.  필요할 경우
          *note formatStack(): 2c99. 을 사용하여 변환합니다.

      -- 메서드: formatTime (record, datefmt=None)

          이 메서드는 포맷된 시간을 사용하려는 포매터에 의해 *note
          format(): 619.에서 호출되어야 합니다.  이 메서드는 특정 요구 사
          항을 제공하기 위해 포매터에서 재정의될 수 있지만, 기본 동작은
          다음과 같습니다: 'datefmt'(문자열)이 지정된 경우, *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8. 를 사용하여 레코드 생성 시간을 포매팅합
          니다.  그렇지 않으면 ‘%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu’ 포맷이 사용됩니다
          .  여기서 uuu 부분은 밀리 초 값이고, 다른 문자들은 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8. 설명서를 따릅니다.  이 포맷의 표현된 시
          간의 예는 ‘2003-01-23 00:29:50,411’ 입니다.  결과 문자열이 반
          환됩니다.

          이 함수는 사용자가 구성할 수 있는 함수를 사용하여 생성 시간을
          튜플로 변환합니다.  기본적으로 *note time.localtime(): 14c1. 이
          사용됩니다; 특정 포매터 인스턴스에서 이를 변경하려면,
          ‘converter’ 어트리뷰트를 *note time.localtime(): 14c1. 또는
          *note time.gmtime(): 11af. 과 같은 서명을 가진 함수로 설정하십
          시오.  모든 포매터를 변경하려면, 예를 들어 모든 로깅 시간을
          GMT로 표시하려면, ‘Formatter’ 클래스의 ‘converter’ 어트리뷰트
          를 설정하십시오.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 예전에는, 기본 포맷이 다음과 같이 하드 코딩
          되었습니다: ‘2010-09-06 22:38:15,292’.  쉼표 앞에 있는 부분은
          strptime 포맷 문자열(‘'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'’)이며, 쉼표 뒤의 부
          분은 밀리 초 값입니다.  strptime에 밀리 초 포맷 표시자가 없으
          므로, 밀리 초 값은 다른 포맷 문자열 ‘'%s,%03d'’ 을 사용하여 추
          가됩니다 — 이 두 포맷 문자열 모두 이 메서드에 하드 코드 되었습
          니다.  이 변경으로, 이 문자열들은 클래스 수준 어트리뷰트로 정
          의되었고, 원하는 경우 인스턴스 수준에서 재정의할 수 있습니다.
          어트리뷰트 이름은 ‘default_time_format’(strptime 포맷 문자열
          )과 ‘default_msec_format’(밀리 초 값 추가용)입니다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘default_msec_format’은 ‘None’일 수 있습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: formatException (exc_info)

          지정된 예외 정보(*note sys.exc_info(): 684. 에 의해 반환되는 표
          준 예외 튜플)를 문자열로 포맷합니다.  이 기본 구현은 *note
          traceback.print_exception(): 849.을 사용합니다.  결과 문자열이
          반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: formatStack (stack_info)

          지정된 스택 정보(*note traceback.print_stack(): e7e. 에 의해 반
          환된 문자열이지만 마지막 줄 바꿈이 제거됩니다)을 문자열로 포맷
          합니다.  이 기본 구현은 입력 값을 그대로 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.BufferingFormatter (linefmt=None)

     A base formatter class suitable for subclassing when you want to
     format a number of records.  You can pass a *note Formatter: 145b.
     instance which you want to use to format each line (that
     corresponds to a single record).  If not specified, the default
     formatter (which just outputs the event message) is used as the
     line formatter.

      -- 메서드: formatHeader (records)

          Return a header for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records, a title or a separator line.

      -- 메서드: formatFooter (records)

          Return a footer for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records or a separator line.

      -- 메서드: format (records)

          Return formatted text for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string if there are no
          records; otherwise, it returns the concatenation of the
          header, each record formatted with the line formatter, and the
          footer.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter 객체,  Next: LogRecord 객체,  Prev: Formatter 객체,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.5 Filter 객체
....................

‘Filter’ 는 수준을 통해 제공되는 것보다 더 정교한 필터링을 위해
‘Handler’ 와 ‘Logger’ 에 의해 사용될 수 있습니다.  베이스 필터 클래스는
로거 계층 구조의 특정 지점 아래에 있는 이벤트만 허용합니다.  예를 들어
‘A.B’로 초기화된 필터는, 로거 ‘A.B’, ‘A.B.C’, ‘A.B.C.D’, ‘A.B.D’ 등이 로
그 한 이벤트를 허용하지만, ‘A.BB’, ‘B.A.B’ 등은 허용하지 않습니다.  빈 문
자열을 사용하면 모든 이벤트를 통과시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.Filter (name='')

     *note Filter: 11ea. 클래스의 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  'name' 을 제공
     하면, 필터를 통과하도록 허용할 로거(그 자식들도 포함합니다)의 이름
     을 지정합니다.  'name' 이 빈 문자열이면, 모든 이벤트를 허용합니다.

      -- 메서드: filter (record)

          Is the specified record to be logged?  Returns false for no,
          true for yes.  Filters can either modify log records in-place
          or return a completely different record instance which will
          replace the original log record in any future processing of
          the event.

처리기에 연결된 필터는 이벤트를 처리기가 출력하기 전에 호출되는 반면, 로
거에 연결된 필터는 이벤트가 로깅될 때마다 (*note debug(): 2c78, *note
info(): 2ca1. 등) 처리기로 이벤트를 보내기 전에 호출됩니다.  이는 자손 로
거가 만든 이벤트들은, 같은 필터가 자손들에게도 적용되지 않는 한, 로거의
필터 설정으로 필터링 되지 않는다는 것을 뜻합니다.

실제로 ‘Filter’ 의 서브 클래스를 만들 필요는 없습니다: 같은 의미가 있는
‘filter’ 메서드를 가진 인스턴스는 무엇이건 전달할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: 특수한 ‘Filter’ 클래스를 만들거나 ‘filter’ 메서드를 가
진 다른 클래스를 사용할 필요가 없습니다: 함수(또는 다른 콜러블)를 필터로
사용할 수 있습니다.  필터링 로직은 필터 객체가 ‘filter’ 어트리뷰트를 가
졌는지 확인합니다: 만약 있다면 ‘Filter’ 라고 가정하고 *note filter():
2ca0. 메서드를 호출합니다.  그렇지 않으면 콜러블이라고 가정하고 레코드를
단일 매개 변수로 호출합니다.  반환된 값은 *note filter(): 2ca0. 가 반환
하는 값과 같은 의미를 지녀야 합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: You can now return a *note LogRecord: fde. instance
from filters to replace the log record rather than modifying it in
place.  This allows filters attached to a *note Handler: 145a. to modify
the log record before it is emitted, without having side effects on
other handlers.

필터는 수준보다 정교한 기준에 따라 레코드를 필터링하는 데 주로 사용되지
만, 필터가 연결되는 처리기나 로거에서 처리되는 모든 레코드를 볼 수 있습
니다: 이 특성은, 특정 로거나 처리기가 얼마나 많은 레코드를 처리하는지 센
다거나, 처리 중인 *note LogRecord: fde.에 어트리뷰트를 추가, 변경, 삭제
하려고 할 때 유용합니다.  당연히, LogRecord를 변경하는 것은 주의를 필요
로 하는 일이지만, 로그에 문맥 정보를 주입하는 것을 허용합니다 (*note 문맥
정보 전달에 필터 사용하기: 2ca2.를 보세요).


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord 객체,  Next: LogRecord 어트리뷰트,  Prev: Filter 객체,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.6 LogRecord 객체
.......................

*note LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스는 뭔가 로깅 될 때마다 *note Logger: b4c.
에 의해 자동으로 생성되며, *note makeLogRecord(): 2ca5.를 통해 수동으로
생성될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, 네트워크에서 수신된 피클 된 이벤트의 경우
).

 -- 클래스: logging.LogRecord (name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args,
          exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)

     로그 되는 이벤트와 관련된 모든 정보를 담고 있습니다.

     주요 정보는 'msg'와 'args' 로 전달되며, ‘msg % args’ 를 사용하여 병
     합되어 레코드의 ‘message’ 어트리뷰트를 만듭니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.) – 이 ‘LogRecord’가 나타내는 이벤트를
          로그 하는데 사용된 로거의 이름.  ‘LogRecord’의 로거 이름은 다
          른 (조상) 로거에 연결된 처리기가 출력하더라도 항상 이 값을 갖
          게됨에 유의하십시오.

        * ‘level’ (*note int: 257.) – 로깅 이벤트의 *note 숫자 수준:
          654. (가령 ‘10’은 ‘DEBUG’, ‘20’은 ‘INFO’ 등).  이 값은
          LogRecord의 '두' 어트리뷰트로 변환됩니다: 숫자 값을 위한
          ‘levelno’ 와 해당 수준 이름을 위한 ‘levelname’.

        * ‘pathname’ (*note str: 445.) – 로깅 호출이 발생한 소스 파일의
          전체 문자열 경로.

        * ‘lineno’ (*note int: 257.) – 로깅 호출이 발생한 소스 파일의 행
          번호.

        * ‘msg’ (*note Any: 6a6.) – 이벤트 설명 메시지.  변수 데이터를 위
          한 자리 표시자가 있는 %-포맷 문자열이거나, 임의의 객체일 수 있
          습니다 (*note 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기: 2ca6.를 참조하
          세요).

        * ‘args’ (*note tuple: 369.‘ | ’*note dict: 256.‘[’*note str:
          445.‘, ’*note Any: 6a6.‘]’) – 이벤트 설명을 얻기 위해 'msg' 인
          자에 병합할 변수 데이터.

        * ‘exc_info’ (*note tuple: 369.‘[’*note type: d45.‘[’*note
          BaseException: 5b5.‘]’‘, ’*note BaseException: 5b5.‘, ’*note
          types.TracebackType: aef.‘] ’‘| ’‘None’) – 현재의 예외 정보를
          가지는 예외 튜플로, *note sys.exc_info(): 684.가 반환하는 값.
          예외 정보가 없는 경우는 ‘None’.

        * ‘func’ (*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – 로깅 호출을 호출한 함수
          또는 메서드의 이름.

        * ‘sinfo’ (*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – 현재 스레드에서 스택의
          바닥부터 로깅 호출까지의 스택 정보를 나타내는 텍스트 문자열.

      -- 메서드: getMessage ()

          사용자가 제공 한 인자를 메시지와 병합한 후, 이 *note
          LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스에 대한 메시지를 반환합니다.  로깅 호
          출에 제공된 사용자 제공 메시지 인자가 문자열이 아닌 경우,
          *note str(): 445. 이 호출되어 문자열로 변환됩니다.  이렇게 해
          서 사용자 정의 클래스를 메시지로 사용할 수 있도록 하는데, 그 클
          래스의 ‘__str__’ 메서드는 사용할 실제 포맷 문자열을 반환 할 수
          있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 레코드를 생성하는 데 사용되는 팩토리를 제공함으
     로써, *note LogRecord: fde.의 생성을 더 구성할 수 있게 만들었습니다
     .  팩토리는 *note getLogRecordFactory(): 2ca8.와 *note
     setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca9. (팩토리의 서명은 이곳을 참조하십시오)
     를 사용하여 설정할 수 있습니다.

     이 기능은 *note LogRecord: fde. 생성 시에 여러분 자신의 값을 주입하
     는데 사용할 수 있습니다.  다음과 같은 패턴을 사용할 수 있습니다:

          old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

          def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
              record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
              record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
              return record

          logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

     이 패턴을 사용하면 여러 팩토리를 체인으로 묶을 수 있으며, 서로의 어
     트리뷰트를 덮어쓰거나 위에 나열된 표준 어트리뷰트를 실수로 덮어쓰지
     않는 한 놀랄만한 일이 일어나지는 않아야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord 어트리뷰트,  Next: LoggerAdapter 객체,  Prev: LogRecord 객체,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.7 LogRecord 어트리뷰트
.............................

LogRecord에는 많은 어트리뷰트가 있으며, 대부분 어트리뷰트는 생성자의 매
개 변수에서 옵니다.  (LogRecord 생성자 매개 변수와 LogRecord 어트리뷰트
의 이름이 항상 정확하게 일치하는 것은 아닙니다.)  이러한 어트리뷰트를 사
용하여 레코드의 데이터를 포맷 문자열로 병합 할 수 있습니다.  다음 표는 어
트리뷰트 이름, 의미와 해당 자리 표시자를 %-스타일 포맷 문자열로 (알파벳
순서로) 나열합니다.

{}-포매팅(*note str.format(): 61b.)을 사용한다면, ‘{attrname}’ 을 포맷 문
자열의 자리 표시자로 사용할 수 있습니다.  $-포매팅(*note
string.Template: 681.)을 사용하고 있다면, ‘${attrname}’ 형식을 사용하십
시오.  두 경우 모두, 물론, ‘attrname’ 을 사용하려는 실제 어트리뷰트 이름
으로 대체하십시오.

{}-포매팅의 경우, 어트리뷰트 이름 다음에 콜론(:)으로 구분하여 포매팅 플
래그를 지정할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘{msecs:03.0f}’ 자리 표시자는 밀
리 초 값 ‘4’ 를 ‘004’ 로 포맷합니다.  사용할 수 있는 옵션에 대한 자세한
내용은 *note str.format(): 61b. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

어트리뷰트 이름      포맷                          설명
                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
args                 직접 포맷할 필요는 없습니다   ‘message’ 를 생성하기 위해 ‘msg’ 에 병합되는 인자
                     .                             의 튜플.  또는 (인자가 하나뿐이고 딕셔너리일 때)
                                                   병합을 위해 값이 사용되는 딕셔너리.
                                                   
                                                   
asctime              ‘%(asctime)s’                 사람이 읽을 수 있는, *note LogRecord: fde. 가 생
                                                   성된 시간.  기본적으로 ‘2003-07-08 16:49:45,896’
                                                   형식입니다 (쉼표 뒤의 숫자는 밀리 초 부분입니다).
                                                   
                                                   
created              ‘%(created)f’                 *note LogRecord: fde. 가 생성된 시간
                                                   (*note time.time_ns(): ae4. / 1e9 이 반환하는 값
                                                   ).
                                                   
                                                   
exc_info             직접 포맷할 필요는 없습니다   예외 튜플 (‘sys.exc_info’ 에서 제공) 또는, 예외가
                     .                             발생하지 않았다면, ‘None’.
                                                   
                                                   
filename             ‘%(filename)s’                ‘pathname’ 의 파일명 부분.
                                                   
                                                   
funcName             ‘%(funcName)s’                로깅 호출을 포함하는 함수의 이름.
                                                   
                                                   
levelname            ‘%(levelname)s’               메시지의 텍스트 로깅 수준 (‘'DEBUG'’, ‘'INFO'’,
                                                   ‘'WARNING'’, ‘'ERROR'’, ‘'CRITICAL'’).
                                                   
                                                   
levelno              ‘%(levelno)s’                 메시지의 숫자 로깅 수준 (*note DEBUG: 1cfa,
                                                   *note INFO: 1cfb, *note WARNING: 1cfc,
                                                   *note ERROR: 1cfd, *note CRITICAL: 1cfe.).
                                                   
                                                   
lineno               ‘%(lineno)d’                  로깅 호출이 일어난 소스 행 번호 (사용 가능한 경우
                                                   ).
                                                   
                                                   
message              ‘%(message)s’                 로그 된 메시지.  ‘msg % args’ 로 계산됩니다.
                                                   *note Formatter.format(): 2c97. 이 호출 될 때 설
                                                   정됩니다.
                                                   
                                                   
module               ‘%(module)s’                  모듈 (‘filename’ 의 이름 부분).
                                                   
                                                   
msecs                ‘%(msecs)d’                   *note LogRecord: fde. 가 생성된 시간의 밀리 초 부
                                                   분.
                                                   
                                                   
msg                  직접 포맷할 필요는 없습니다   원래 로깅 호출에서 전달된 포맷 문자열.  ‘args’ 와
                     .                             병합하여 ‘message’ 를 만듭니다.  또는 임의의 객체
                                                   (*note 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기: 2ca6. 를
                                                   보세요).
                                                   
                                                   
name                 ‘%(name)s’                    로깅 호출에 사용된 로거의 이름.
                                                   
                                                   
pathname             ‘%(pathname)s’                로깅 호출이 일어난 소스 파일의 전체 경로명 (사용
                                                   가능한 경우).
                                                   
                                                   
process              ‘%(process)d’                 프로세스 ID (사용 가능한 경우).
                                                   
                                                   
processName          ‘%(processName)s’             프로세스 이름 (사용 가능한 경우).
                                                   
                                                   
relativeCreated      ‘%(relativeCreated)d’         logging 모듈이 로드된 시간을 기준으로 LogRecord가
                                                   생성된 시간 (밀리 초).
                                                   
                                                   
stack_info           직접 포맷할 필요는 없습니다   현재 스레드의 스택 바닥에서 이 레코드를 생성한 로
                     .                             깅 호출의 스택 프레임까지의 스택 프레임 정보 (사
                                                   용 가능한 경우).
                                                   
                                                   
thread               ‘%(thread)d’                  스레드 ID (사용 가능한 경우).
                                                   
                                                   
threadName           ‘%(threadName)s’              스레드 이름 (사용 가능한 경우).
                                                   
                                                   
taskName             ‘%(taskName)s’                *note asyncio.Task: 1be. 이름 (사용 가능한 경우).
                                                   

버전 3.1에서 변경: 'processName' 이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: 'taskName' 이 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: LoggerAdapter 객체,  Next: 스레드 안전성,  Prev: LogRecord 어트리뷰트,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.8 LoggerAdapter 객체
...........................

*note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 인스턴스는 문맥 정보를 로깅 호출에 편리하게 전
달하는 데 사용됩니다.  사용 예는, *note 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가:
2cad. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: logging.LoggerAdapter (logger, extra, merge_extra=False)

     Returns an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. initialized with
     an underlying *note Logger: b4c. instance, a dict-like object
     ('extra'), and a boolean ('merge_extra') indicating whether or not
     the 'extra' argument of individual log calls should be merged with
     the *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. extra.  The default behavior is to
     ignore the 'extra' argument of individual log calls and only use
     the one of the *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. instance

      -- 메서드: process (msg, kwargs)

          문맥 정보를 삽입하기 위해 로깅 호출에 전달된 메시지 와 키워드
          인자를 수정합니다.  이 구현은 생성자에 'extra' 로 전달된 객체
          를 가져와서 ‘extra’ 키를 사용하여 'kwargs' 에 추가합니다.  반
          환 값은 전달된 인자의 (수정된) 버전을 담은 ('msg', 'kwargs') 튜
          플입니다.

      -- 속성: manager

          Delegates to the underlying ‘manager’ on 'logger'.

      -- 속성: _log

          Delegates to the underlying ‘_log()’ method on 'logger'.

     위의 것에 더해, *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 는 다음과 같은 *note
     Logger: b4c. 의 메서드를 지원합니다: *note debug(): e26, *note
     info(): 2c77, *note warning(): 170a, *note error(): 2c79, *note
     exception(): e24, *note critical(): e25, *note log(): e23, *note
     isEnabledFor(): 12e6, *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2c75, *note
     setLevel(): 1457, *note hasHandlers(): 2c80.  이 메서드들은 *note
     Logger: b4c. 에 있는 것과 똑같은 서명을 가지므로, 두 형의 인스턴스
     를 바꿔쓸 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note isEnabledFor(): 12e6, *note
     getEffectiveLevel(): 2c75, *note setLevel(): 1457. 그리고 *note
     hasHandlers(): 2c80. 메서드가 *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 에 추가되
     었습니다.  이 메서드는 하부 로거로 위임합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Attribute ‘manager’ and method ‘_log()’ were
     added, which delegate to the underlying logger and allow adapters
     to be nested.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'merge_extra' 인자가 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드 안전성,  Next: 모듈 수준 함수,  Prev: LoggerAdapter 객체,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.9 스레드 안전성
......................

The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special
work needing to be done by its clients.  It achieves this through using
threading locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module’s
shared data, and each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to
its underlying I/O.

*note signal: c6. 모듈을 사용하여 비동기 시그널 처리기를 구현한다면, 그
처리기 내에서는 logging을 사용할 수 없을 수도 있습니다.  이는 *note
threading: ed. 모듈의 록 구현이 언제나 재진입할 수 있지는 않아서 그러한
시그널 처리기에서 호출할 수 없기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 수준 함수,  Next: 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 스레드 안전성,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.10 모듈 수준 함수
........................

위에서 설명한 클래스 외에도 많은 모듈 수준 함수가 있습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.getLogger (name=None)

     지정된 이름(name)의 로거를 돌려주거나, name이 ‘None’ 인 경우, 계층
     의 루트 로거를 돌려줍니다.  지정된 경우, name은 일반적으로 '‘a’',
     '‘a.b’' 또는 '‘a.b.c.d’' 와 같이 점으로 구분된 계층적 이름입니다.  이
     이름의 선택은 전적으로 logging을 사용하는 개발자에게 달려 있지만,
     *note Logger 객체: 2c6b.에서 언급한 대로, 특별한 이유가 없는 한
     ‘__name__’을 사용하는 것을 권장합니다.

     같은 이름으로 이 함수를 여러 번 호출하면 모두 같은 로거 인스턴스를
     반환합니다.  이것은 응용 프로그램의 다른 부분 간에 로거 인스턴스를
     전달할 필요가 없다는 것을 뜻합니다.

 -- 함수: logging.getLoggerClass ()

     표준 *note Logger: b4c. 클래스를 반환하거나, *note
     setLoggerClass(): 2cb4. 에 전달된 마지막 클래스를 반환합니다.  이 함
     수는 새 클래스 정의 내에서 호출하여, 사용자 정의 *note Logger: b4c.
     클래스를 설치할 때 다른 코드가 이미 적용한 사용자 정의를 취소하지 않
     도록 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

          class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
              # ... 여기에서 동작을 재정의 합니다

 -- 함수: logging.getLogRecordFactory ()

     *note LogRecord: fde. 를 생성하는 데 사용되는 콜러블을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2: 이 함수는 *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca9.와
     함께 제공되어, 개발자가 로깅 이벤트를 나타내는 *note LogRecord:
     fde. 가 만들어지는 방법을 더욱 잘 제어 할 수 있도록 합니다.

     팩토리가 어떻게 호출되는지에 대한 더 자세한 정보는 *note
     setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca9.를 보세요.

 -- 함수: logging.debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     This is a convenience function that calls *note Logger.debug():
     e26, on the root logger.  The handling of the arguments is in every
     way identical to what is described in that method.

     The only difference is that if the root logger has no handlers,
     then *note basicConfig(): 9fc. is called, prior to calling ‘debug’
     on the root logger.

     For very short scripts or quick demonstrations of ‘logging’
     facilities, ‘debug’ and the other module-level functions may be
     convenient.  However, most programs will want to carefully and
     explicitly control the logging configuration, and should therefore
     prefer creating a module-level logger and calling *note
     Logger.debug(): e26. (or other level-specific methods) on it, as
     described at the beginnning of this documentation.

 -- 함수: logging.info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     루트 로거에 수준 *note INFO: 1cfb. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  그 밖의 인
     자와 동작은 *note debug(): 2c78.와 같습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     루트 로거에 수준 *note WARNING: 1cfc. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  그 밖
     의 인자와 동작은 *note debug(): 2c78.와 같습니다.

          참고: 기능적으로 ‘warning’ 와 같은, 구식의 ‘warn’ 함수가 있습
          니다.  ‘warn’ 은 폐지되었으므로 사용하지 마십시오 - 대신
          ‘warning’ 을 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: logging.error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     루트 로거에 수준 *note ERROR: 1cfd. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  그 밖의
     인자와 동작은 *note debug(): 2c78.와 같습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     루트 로거에 수준 *note CRITICAL: 1cfe. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  그 밖
     의 인자와 동작은 *note debug(): 2c78.와 같습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     루트 로거에 수준 *note ERROR: 1cfd. 메시지를 로그 합니다.  그 밖의
     인자와 동작은 *note debug(): 2c78.와 같습니다.  예외 정보가 로깅 메
     시지에 추가됩니다.  이 메서드는 예외 처리기에서만 호출해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: logging.log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

     루트 로거에 수준 'level' 의 메시지를 로그 합니다.  그 밖의 인자와 동
     작은 *note debug(): 2c78.와 같습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.disable (level=CRITICAL)

     모든 로거의 수준을 'level' 로 오버라이드합니다.  로거 자체 수준보다
     우선합니다.  전체 응용 프로그램에서 로깅 출력을 일시적으로 억제해야
     할 필요가 생길 때 이 함수가 유용합니다.  그 효과는 심각도 'level' 및
     그 밑의 모든 로깅 호출을 무효화시킵니다.  따라서 INFO 값으로 호출하
     면 모든 INFO 및 DEBUG 이벤트는 삭제되지만, WARNING 이상의 심각도는
     로거의 유효 수준에 따라 처리됩니다.
     ‘logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)’ 이 호출되면, 이 오버라이딩 수준을
     실질적으로 제거하므로, 로깅 출력은 다시 개별 로거의 유효 수준에 따
     르게 됩니다.

     ‘CRITICAL’ 보다 더 높은 사용자 정의 로깅 수준을 정의했다면 (권장하
     지 않습니다), 'level' 매개 변수의 기본값에 의존할 수 없고 적절한 값
     을 명시적으로 제공해야 합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'level' 매개 변수의 기본값은 수준 ‘CRITICAL’ 입
     니다.  이 변경 사항에 대한 자세한 내용은 bpo-28524(1)를 참조하십시
     오.

 -- 함수: logging.addLevelName (level, levelName)

     내부 딕셔너리에 수준 'level' 을 텍스트 'levelName' 과 연결합니다.  이
     딕셔너리는 숫자 수준을 텍스트 표현으로 매핑하는데 (예를 들어, *note
     Formatter: 145b. 가 메시지를 포매팅할 때) 사용됩니다.  이 기능을 사
     용해서 여러분 자신의 수준을 정의할 수도 있습니다.  제약 조건은, 사
     용되는 모든 수준이 이 함수를 사용하여 등록되어야 하고, 수준은 양의
     정수이어야 하며, 심각도가 높아질수록 값이 커져야 한다는 것입니다.

          참고: 자신만의 수준을 정의할 생각이라면 *note 사용자 정의
          수준: 2cba. 섹션을 보십시오.

 -- 함수: logging.getLevelNamesMapping ()

     Returns a mapping from level names to their corresponding logging
     levels.  For example, the string “CRITICAL” maps to *note CRITICAL:
     1cfe.  The returned mapping is copied from an internal mapping on
     each call to this function.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: logging.getLevelName (level)

     로깅 수준 'level' 의 텍스트 표현을 반환합니다.

     'level'이 미리 정의된 수준 *note CRITICAL: 1cfe, *note ERROR: 1cfd,
     *note WARNING: 1cfc, *note INFO: 1cfb. 또는 *note DEBUG: 1cfa. 중 하
     나면 해당 문자열을 얻게 됩니다.  *note addLevelName(): 2cb9.을 사용
     하여 수준과 이름을 연관 지었다면, 'level' 과 연결된 이름이 반환됩니
     다.  정의된 수준 중 하나에 해당하는 숫자 값이 전달되면, 해당 문자열
     표현이 반환됩니다.

     'level' 매개 변수는 ‘INFO’ 와 같은 수준의 문자열 표현도 받아들입니
     다.  이럴 때, 이 함수는 해당 수준의 숫자 값을 반환합니다.

     일치하는 숫자나 문자열 값이 전달되지 않으면, 문자열 ‘Level %s’ %
     level 이 반환됩니다.

          참고: 수준은 (로깅 로직에서 비교해야 하므로) 내부적으로 정수입
          니다.  이 함수는 정수 수준과 ‘%(levelname)s’ 포맷 지정자(*note
          LogRecord 어트리뷰트: 2c76.를 보세요)로 포맷된 로그 출력에 표
          시된 이름 간의 변환에 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 3.4 이전의 파이썬 버전에서, 이 함수로 텍스트 수
     준을 전달할 수 있고, 해당 수준의 숫자 값을 반환합니다.  이 문서로 만
     들어지지 않은 동작은 실수로 간주하여, 파이썬 3.4에서 제거되었습니다
     .  하지만 이전 버전과의 호환성을 유지하기 위해 3.4.2에서 복원되었습
     니다.

 -- 함수: logging.getHandlerByName (name)

     Returns a handler with the specified 'name', or ‘None’ if there is
     no handler with that name.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: logging.getHandlerNames ()

     Returns an immutable set of all known handler names.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: logging.makeLogRecord (attrdict)

     어트리뷰트가 'attrdict' 로 정의된 새로운 *note LogRecord: fde. 인스
     턴스를 만들어서 반환합니다.  이 함수는 피클 된 *note LogRecord:
     fde. 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리를 소켓으로 보내고, 수신 단에서 *note
     LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스로 재구성할 때 유용합니다.

 -- 함수: logging.basicConfig (**kwargs)

     기본 *note Formatter: 145b.로 *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 를 생성하
     고 루트 로거에 추가하여 로깅 시스템의 기본 구성을 수행합니다.  함수
     *note debug(): 2c78, *note info(): 2ca1, *note warning(): 2f7,
     *note error(): 2cb5. 그리고 *note critical(): 2cb6.은 루트 로거에 처
     리기가 정의되어 있지 않으면 자동으로 *note basicConfig(): 9fc.를 호
     출합니다.

     이 함수는 루트 로거에 이미 처리기가 구성되어있는 경우, 키워드 인자
     'force'가 ‘True’로 설정되지 않는 한, 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 다른 스레드가 시작되기 전에 메인 스레드에서 호
          출되어야 합니다.  2.7.1과 3.2 이전의 파이썬 버전에서, 이 함수
          를 여러 스레드에서 호출하면, (드문 경우지만) 처리기가 두 번 이
          상 루트 로거에 추가되어, 로그에 메시지가 중복되는 것과 같은 예
          기치 않은 결과가 발생할 수 있습니다.

     다음 키워드 인자가 지원됩니다.

     포맷               설명
                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     'filename'         *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 대신 지정된 파일명을
                        사용해 *note FileHandler: 18a5.를 만들도록 지정
                        합니다.
                        
                        
     'filemode'         'filename' 이 지정되었으면, 이
                        *note 모드: 2180. 로 파일을 엽니다.  기본값은
                        ‘'a'’ 입니다.
                        
                        
     'format'           처리기에 지정된 포맷 문자열을 사용합니다.  기본
                        값은 콜론으로 구분된 어트리뷰트 ‘levelname’,
                        ‘name’ 및 ‘message’ 입니다.
                        
                        
     'datefmt'          *note time.strftime(): 11d8. 에서 허용하는 방식
                        대로 지정된 날짜/시간 포맷을 사용합니다.
                        
                        
     'style'            'format' 을 지정하면, 포맷 문자열에 이 스타일을
                        사용합니다.  ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’, ‘'$'’ 중 하나인데 각
                        각 *note printf 스타일: 6c6,
                        *note str.format(): 61b,
                        *note string.Template: 681. 에 대응됩니다.  기
                        본값은 ‘'%'’ 입니다.
                        
                        
     'level'            루트 로거의 수준을 지정된 *note 수준: 654. 으로
                        설정합니다.
                        
                        
     'stream'           *note StreamHandler: 11e7.의 초기화에 지정된 스
                        트림을 사용합니다.  이 인자는 'filename' 과 호
                        환되지 않습니다 - 둘 다 있으면 ‘ValueError’ 가
                        발생합니다.
                        
                        
     'handlers'         지정된 경우, 루트 로거에 추가할 이미 만들어진 처
                        리기의 이터러블이어야 합니다.  아직 포매터 세트
                        가 없는 처리기에는 이 함수에서 만들어진 기본 포
                        매터가 지정됩니다.  이 인자는 'filename' 또는
                        'stream' 과 호환되지 않습니다 - 둘 다 있으면
                        ‘ValueError’ 가 발생합니다.
                        
                        
     'force'            이 키워드 인자가 참으로 지정되면, 루트 로거에 연
                        결된 기존 처리기는 다른 인자에 지정된 대로 구성
                        을 수행하기 전에 모두 제거되고 닫힙니다.
                        
                        
     'encoding'         이 키워드 인자가 'filename'과 함께 지정되면, 그
                        값이 *note FileHandler: 18a5.가 만들어질 때 사
                        용되어, 결국 출력 파일을 열 때 사용됩니다.
                        
                        
     'errors'           이 키워드 인자가 'filename'과 함께 지정되면, 그
                        값이 *note FileHandler: 18a5.가 만들어질 때 사
                        용되어, 결국 출력 파일을 열 때 사용됩니다.  지
                        정하지 않으면, ‘backslashreplace’ 값이 사용됩니
                        다.  ‘None’이 지정되면, *note open(): 515.에 그
                        대로 전달되는데, 이는 ‘errors’를 전달한 것처럼
                        처리된다는 것에 유의하십시오.
                        

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'style' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'handlers' 인자가 추가되었습니다.  호환되지 않는
     인자(예를 들어, 'handlers' 를 'stream' 이나 'filename' 과 함께 쓰거
     나, 'stream' 을 'filename' 과 함께 쓰는 경우)가 있는 상황을 파악하
     기 위한 검사가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'force' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.shutdown ()

     로깅 시스템에 모든 처리기를 플러시하고 닫아서 순차적인 종료를 수행
     하도록 알립니다.  응용 프로그램 종료 시 호출되어야 하고, 이 호출 후
     에는 로깅 시스템을 더는 사용하지 않아야 합니다.

     logging 모듈이 임포트 될 때, 이 함수를 종료 처리기(*note atexit:
     c.를 참조하십시오)로 등록하므로, 일반적으로 수동으로 수행할 필요가
     없습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.setLoggerClass (klass)

     로거의 인스턴스를 만들 때 'klass' 클래스를 사용하도록 로깅 시스템에
     지시합니다.  클래스는 ‘__init__()’ 을 정의해야 하는데, name만 필수
     인자로 요구하고, ‘__init__()’ 는 ‘Logger.__init__()’ 을 호출해야 합
     니다.  이 함수는 일반적으로 사용자 정의된 로거 동작이 필요한 응용 프
     로그램에서 로거의 인스턴스가 만들어지기 전에 호출됩니다.  이 호출 후
     , 다른 때와 마찬가지로, 서브 클래스를 사용하여 직접 로거의 인스턴스
     를 만들지 마십시오: 계속 *note logging.getLogger(): 95e. API를 사용
     하여 로거를 얻으십시오.

 -- 함수: logging.setLogRecordFactory (factory)

     *note LogRecord: fde. 를 만드는데 사용되는 콜러블을 설정합니다.


     매개변수: ‘factory’ – 로그 레코드의 인스턴스를 만드는데 사용되는 팩
     토리 콜러블.

     Added in version 3.2: 이 함수는 *note getLogRecordFactory(): 2ca8.와
     함께 제공되어, 개발자가 로깅 이벤트를 나타내는 *note LogRecord:
     fde. 가 만들어지는 방법을 더욱 잘 제어 할 수 있도록 합니다.

     팩토리의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

     ‘factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None,
     sinfo=None, **kwargs)’


          name: 로거 이름.


          level: 로깅 수준 (숫자).


          fn: 로깅 호출이 이루어진 파일의 전체 경로명.


          lno: 로깅 호출이 이루어진 파일의 행 번호.


          msg: 로깅 메시지


          args: 로깅 메시지에 대한 인자.


          exc_info: 예외 튜플 또는 ‘None’.


          func: 로깅 호출을 호출한 함수 또는 메서드의 이름


          sinfo: *note traceback.print_stack(): e7e. 가 제공하는 것과 같
          은 스택 트레이스백.  호출 계층 구조를 보여줍니다.


          kwargs: 추가 키워드 인자.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28524


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트,  Next: warnings 모듈과의 통합,  Prev: 모듈 수준 함수,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.11 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트
..............................

 -- 데이터: logging.lastResort

     “최후 수단 처리기” 는 이 어트리뷰트를 통해 제공됩니다.  이것은
     ‘WARNING’ 수준으로 ‘sys.stderr’ 에 쓰는 *note StreamHandler: 11e7.
     이고, 로깅 구성이 없을 때 로깅 이벤트를 처리하는 데 사용됩니다.  최
     종 결과는 ‘sys.stderr’ 에 메시지를 출력하기만 하는 것입니다.  이것
     이 예전의 “no handlers could be found for logger XYZ” 라는 에러 메
     시지를 대체합니다.  어떤 이유로 이전 동작이 필요하면 ‘lastResort’ 를
     ‘None’ 으로 설정할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: logging.raiseExceptions

     Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.

     기본값: ‘True’.

     If *note raiseExceptions: 11e8. is ‘False’, exceptions get silently
     ignored.  This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most
     users will not care about errors in the logging system, they are
     more interested in application errors.


File: python.info,  Node: warnings 모듈과의 통합,  Prev: 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트,  Up: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설

5.16.4.12 warnings 모듈과의 통합
................................

*note captureWarnings(): 2cbf. 함수는 *note logging: 87.을 *note
warnings: 112. 모듈과 통합하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.captureWarnings (capture)

     이 함수는 logging 이 경고를 캡처하는 것을 켜고 끄는 데 사용됩니다.

     'capture' 가 ‘True’ 면, *note warnings: 112. 모듈에 의해 발행된 경
     고는 로깅 시스템으로 리디렉션됩니다.  특히, 경고는 *note
     warnings.formatwarning(): 1a1c. 을 사용하여 포맷되고, 결과 문자열을
     ‘'py.warnings'’ 라는 이름의 로거에 심각도 *note WARNING: 1cfc.으로
     로그 합니다.

     'capture' 가 ‘False’ 면, 로깅 시스템으로의 경고 리디렉션은 멈추고,
     경고는 원래 목적지(즉, ‘captureWarnings(True)’ 가 호출되기 전에 적
     용되던 곳)로 리디렉션됩니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note logging.config: 88.

     logging 모듈용 구성 API.

모듈 *note logging.handlers: 89.

     logging 모듈에 포함된 유용한 처리기.

PEP 282(1) - 로깅 시스템

     파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함하기 위해 이 기능을 설명한 제안.

원본 파이썬 로깅 패키지(2)

     *note logging: 87. 패키지의 원래 소스입니다.  이 사이트에서 제공되
     는 패키지 버전은 표준 라이브러리에 *note logging: 87. 패키지를 포함
     하지 않는 파이썬 1.5.2, 2.1.x 및 2.2.x에서 사용하기에 적합합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://old.red-dove.com/python_logging.html


File: python.info,  Node: logging config — 로깅 구성,  Next: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기,  Prev: logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.5 ‘logging.config’ — 로깅 구성
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/logging/config.py(1)

Important
.........

이 페이지에는 레퍼런스 정보만 있습니다.  자습서는 다음을 참조하십시오

   * *note 기초 자습서: 11e4.

   * *note 고급 자습서: 11e5.

   * *note 로깅 요리책: 11e6.

__________________________________________________________________

이 절에서는 logging 모듈을 구성하기 위한 API에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 구성 함수::
* 보안 고려 사항::
* 구성 딕셔너리 스키마::
* 구성 파일 형식::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/logging/config.py


File: python.info,  Node: 구성 함수,  Next: 보안 고려 사항,  Up: logging config — 로깅 구성

5.16.5.1 구성 함수
..................

다음 함수는 logging 모듈을 구성합니다.  *note logging.config: 88. 모듈에
있습니다.  사용은 선택 사항입니다 — 이 함수들을 사용하거나 (*note
logging: 87. 자체에서 정의된) 주 API를 호출하고 *note logging: 87.이나
*note logging.handlers: 89.에서 선언된 처리기를 정의해서 logging 모듈을
구성할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: logging.config.dictConfig (config)

     딕셔너리로 로깅 구성을 받습니다.  이 딕셔너리의 내용은 아래의 *note
     구성 딕셔너리 스키마: 2cc3.에 설명되어 있습니다.

     구성 중에 에러를 만나면, 이 함수는 적절하게 설명하는 메시지와 함께
     *note ValueError: 202, *note TypeError: 532, *note AttributeError:
     346. 또는 *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.  다음은 에러를 발
     생시킬 수 있는 (불완전한) 조건 목록입니다:

        * 문자열이 아니거나 실제 로깅 수준과 일치하지 않는 문자열인
          ‘level’.

        * 불리언이 아닌 ‘propagate’ 값.

        * 해당 대상이 없는 id.

        * 증분(incremental) 호출 중에 발견된 존재하지 않는 처리기 id.

        * 잘못된 로거 이름.

        * 결정할 수 없는 내부나 외부 객체.

     구문 분석은 ‘DictConfigurator’ 클래스에 의해 수행되며, 생성자로는 구
     성에 사용되는 딕셔너리가 전달되고, 객체는 ‘configure()’ 메서드를 가
     집니다.  *note logging.config: 88. 모듈에는 초기에
     ‘DictConfigurator’로 설정된 콜러블 어트리뷰트 ‘dictConfigClass’가 있
     습니다.  여러분 자신의 적절한 구현으로 ‘dictConfigClass’의 값을 바
     꿀 수 있습니다.

     *note dictConfig(): 119f.는 ‘dictConfigClass’를 호출해서 지정된 딕
     셔너리를 전달한 다음, 반환된 객체의 ‘configure()’ 메서드를 호출하여
     구성을 적용합니다:

          def dictConfig(config):
              dictConfigClass(config).configure()

     예를 들어, ‘DictConfigurator’의 서브 클래스는 자체 ‘__init__()’에서
     ‘DictConfigurator.__init__()’를 호출한 다음, 후속 ‘configure()’ 호
     출에서 사용할 수 있는 사용자 정의 접두사를 설정할 수 있습니다.
     ‘dictConfigClass’는 이 새 서브 클래스에 연결되고, *note
     dictConfig(): 119f.는 기본, 사용자 정의되지 않은 상태에서와 똑같이
     호출될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: logging.config.fileConfig (fname, defaults=None,
          disable_existing_loggers=True, encoding=None)

     *note configparser: 22.-형식 파일에서 로깅 구성을 읽습니다.  파일 형
     식은 *note 구성 파일 형식: 2cc4.에 설명된 것과 같아야 합니다.  이 함
     수는 응용 프로그램에서 여러 번 호출 할 수 있어서, 최종 사용자가 여
     러 가지 미리 준비된 구성 중에서 선택할 수 있도록 합니다 (개발자가 선
     택 사항을 표시하고 선택한 구성을 로드하는 메커니즘을 제공한다면).

     It will raise *note FileNotFoundError: 425. if the file doesn’t
     exist and *note RuntimeError: 195. if the file is invalid or empty.


     매개변수:

        * ‘fname’ – 파일명, 또는 파일류 객체, 또는 *note
          RawConfigParser: f5c.에서 파생된 인스턴스.  ‘RawConfigParser’-파
          생 인스턴스가 전달되면, 그대로 사용됩니다.  그렇지 않으면,
          *note ConfigParser: 1c8.의 인스턴스가 만들어지고, 이것으로
          ‘fname’으로 전달된 객체로부터 구성을 읽습니다.  *note
          readline(): ba. 메서드가 있으면, 파일류 객체라고 가정하고,
          *note read_file(): 4ff.을 사용하여 읽습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 파
          일명으로 간주하고 *note read(): 142e.로 전달됩니다.

        * ‘defaults’ – ‘ConfigParser’로 전달되는 기본값을 이 인자로 지정
          할 수 있습니다.

        * ‘disable_existing_loggers’ – ‘False’로 지정되면, 이 호출이 이
          루어졌을 때 존재하는 로거는 활성화된 상태로 남습니다.  기본값
          은 ‘True’이므로, 과거 호환성을 유지하도록 이전 동작을 활성화합
          니다.  이 동작은 이미 존재하는 비 루트 로거를 그들이나 그들의
          조상이 로깅 구성에서 명시적으로 명명되지 않으면 비활성화하는 것
          입니다.

        * ‘encoding’ – The encoding used to open file when 'fname' is
          filename.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note RawConfigParser: f5c.의 서브 클래스의 인스
     턴스가 이제 ‘fname’에 대한 값으로 허용됩니다.  이것은 다음을 쉽게 합
     니다:

             * 로깅 구성이 전체 응용 프로그램 구성의 일부인 구성 파일의
               사용.

             * 파일에서 읽어 들인 다음 ‘fileConfig’로 전달되기 전에 사용
               하는 응용 프로그램이 (예를 들어, 명령 줄 매개 변수나 실행
               시간 환경의 다른 측면에 기반하여) 수정하는 구성의 사용.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the 'encoding' parameter.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: An exception will be thrown if the provided
     file doesn’t exist or is invalid or empty.

 -- 함수: logging.config.listen (port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT,
          verify=None)

     지정된 포트에서 소켓 서버를 시작하고, 새 구성을 수신 대기합니다.  포
     트를 지정하지 않으면, 모듈의 기본 ‘DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT’가 사
     용됩니다.  로깅 구성은 *note dictConfig(): 119f.나 *note
     fileConfig(): b4e.로 처리하기에 적합한 파일로 전송됩니다.  서버를 시
     작하기 위해 *note start(): 2cc5.를 호출할 수 있는 *note Thread:
     94a. 인스턴스를 반환하고, 적절할 때 *note join(): 11d3.할 수 있습니
     다.  서버를 중지하려면, *note stopListening(): 2cc6.을 호출하십시오
     .

     ‘verify’ 인자가 지정되면, 소켓을 통해 수신된 바이트열이 유효하고 처
     리되어야 하는지를 확인하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.  소켓을 통해 전송되
     는 것을 암호화 및/또는 서명하고, ‘verify’ 콜러블이 서명 확인 및/또
     는 암호 해독을 수행할 수 있습니다.  ‘verify’ 콜러블은 단일 인자(소
     켓을 통해 수신된 바이트열)로 호출되며, 처리할 바이트열이나 바이트열
     을 버려야 함을 나타내기 위해 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  반환된 바이트열
     은 전달된 바이트열과 같을 수 있고 (예를 들어, 확인만 수행될 때), 또
     는 완전히 다를 수 있습니다 (아마도 암호 해독이 수행될 때).

     소켓으로 구성을 보내려면, 구성 파일을 읽어서 소켓에
     ‘struct.pack('>L', n)’를 사용하여 바이너리로 만든 4바이트의 길이를
     앞에 붙인 바이트 시퀀스를 보냅니다.
          참고: 구성 일부가 *note eval(): 180.로 전달되므로, 이 함수를 사
          용하면 사용자를 보안 위험에 노출할 수 있습니다.  이 함수는 소
          켓을 ‘localhost’에만 바인드하고, 원격 기계의 연결은 허용하지 않
          지만, 신뢰할 수 없는 코드가 *note listen(): f5d.을 호출하는 프
          로세스의 계정으로 실행될 수 있는 시나리오가 있습니다.  특히,
          *note listen(): f5d.을 호출하는 프로세스가 사용자가 서로를 신
          뢰할 수 없는 다중 사용자 시스템에서 실행되는 경우, 악의적인 사
          용자는 피해자의 *note listen(): f5d. 소켓에 연결하여 공격자가
          피해자의 프로세스에서 실행하고자 하는 코드를 실행하는 구성을 보
          내는 것만으로도, 피해 사용자의 프로세스에서 사실상 임의의 코드
          를 실행할 수 있습니다.  이것은 기본 포트를 사용하는 경우 특히
          쉽게 수행할 수 있지만, 다른 포트가 사용되는 경우에도 어렵지는
          않습니다.  이러한 일이 발생할 위험을 피하려면, *note listen():
          f5d.에 ‘verify’ 인자를 사용하여 인식되지 않은 구성이 적용되지
          않도록 하십시오.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘verify’ 인자가 추가되었습니다.

          참고: 리스너에 기존 로거를 비활성화하지 않는 구성을 보내려면,
          *note dictConfig(): 119f.를 사용하도록 구성에 JSON 형식을 사용
          해야 합니다.  이 방법은 보내는 구성에서
          ‘disable_existing_loggers’를 ‘False’로 지정할 수 있도록 합니다
          .

 -- 함수: logging.config.stopListening ()

     *note listen(): f5d.에 대한 호출로 만들어진 리스닝 서버를 중지합니
     다.  이것은 일반적으로 *note listen(): f5d.의 반환 값에 대해
     ‘join()’을 호출하기 전에 호출됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 보안 고려 사항,  Next: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마,  Prev: 구성 함수,  Up: logging config — 로깅 구성

5.16.5.2 보안 고려 사항
.......................

The logging configuration functionality tries to offer convenience, and
in part this is done by offering the ability to convert text in
configuration files into Python objects used in logging configuration -
for example, as described in *note 사용자 정의 객체: 2cc9.  However,
these same mechanisms (importing callables from user-defined modules and
calling them with parameters from the configuration) could be used to
invoke any code you like, and for this reason you should treat
configuration files from untrusted sources with 'extreme caution' and
satisfy yourself that nothing bad can happen if you load them, before
actually loading them.


File: python.info,  Node: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마,  Next: 구성 파일 형식,  Prev: 보안 고려 사항,  Up: logging config — 로깅 구성

5.16.5.3 구성 딕셔너리 스키마
.............................

로깅 구성을 기술하려면 만들려는 다양한 객체와 그들 간의 연결을 나열해야
합니다; 예를 들어, ‘console’이라는 처리기를 만든 다음 ‘startup’이라는 로
거가 ‘console’ 처리기에 메시지를 보낼 것이라고 말할 수 있습니다.  사용자
자신의 포매터나 처리기 클래스를 작성할 수 있으므로, 이러한 객체가 *note
logging: 87. 모듈에서 제공하는 객체로만 제한되지는 않습니다.  이러한 클
래스의 매개 변수는 ‘sys.stderr’과 같은 외부 객체를 포함할 수도 있습니다.
이러한 객체와 연결을 기술하는 문법은 아래의 *note 객체 연결: 2ccb.에 정
의되어 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 딕셔너리 스키마 세부사항::
* 증분 구성::
* 객체 연결::
* 사용자 정의 객체::
* 처리기 구성 순서::
* 외부 객체에 대한 액세스::
* 내부 객체에 대한 액세스::
* 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 스키마 세부사항,  Next: 증분 구성,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.4 딕셔너리 스키마 세부사항
.................................

*note dictConfig(): 119f.에 전달되는 딕셔너리에는 반드시 다음 키가 있어
야 합니다:

   * 'version' - 스키마 버전을 나타내는 정숫값으로 설정됩니다.  현재 유
     효한 유일한 값은 1이지만, 이 키를 사용하면 과거 호환성을 유지하면서
     스키마를 발전시킬 수 있습니다.

다른 모든 키는 선택 사항이지만, 있으면 아래에 설명된 대로 해석됩니다.  아
래에서 ‘구성 딕셔너리(configuring dict)’가 언급되는 모든 경우에, 특수한
‘'()'’ 키를 검사해서 사용자 정의 인스턴스화가 필요한지를 확인합니다.  있
다면, 아래의 *note 사용자 정의 객체: 2cc9.에 설명된 메커니즘을 사용하여
인스턴스를 만듭니다; 그렇지 않다면, 어떤 인스턴스를 만들지를 결정하는데
문맥이 사용됩니다.

   * 'formatters' - 해당 값은 딕셔너리인데, 각 키는 포매터 id이고, 각 값
     은 해당 *note Formatter: 145b. 인스턴스를 구성하는 방법을 설명하는
     딕셔너리입니다.

     *note Formatter: 145b. 객체를 만들 때 전달된 인자에 대응되는, 다음
     과 같은 선택적 키를 구성 딕셔너리에서 검색합니다:

        * ‘format’

        * ‘datefmt’

        * ‘style’

        * ‘validate’ (버전 >=3.8 부터)

        * ‘defaults’ (버전 >=3.12 부터)

     선택적 ‘class’ 키는 포매터 클래스의 이름을 나타냅니다 (점으로 구분
     된 모듈과 클래스 이름).  인스턴스화 인자는 *note Formatter: 145b.와
     같아서, 이 키는 사용자 정의 *note Formatter: 145b. 서브 클래스를 인
     스턴스화하는 데 가장 유용합니다.  예를 들어, 대체 클래스는 확장되거
     나 축약한 형식으로 예외 트레이스백을 표시할 수 있습니다.  포매터가
     다른 또는 추가 구성 키를 요구하면, *note 사용자 정의 객체: 2cc9.를
     사용해야 합니다.

   * 'filters' - 해당 값은 딕셔너리인데, 각 키가 필터 id이고 각 값은 해
     당 Filter 인스턴스를 구성하는 방법을 설명하는 딕셔너리입니다.

     구성 딕셔너리는 키 ‘name’(기본값은 빈 문자열)으로 검색되며, 이는
     *note logging.Filter: 11ea. 인스턴스를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

   * 'handlers' - 해당 값은 딕셔너리인데, 각 키가 처리기 id이고 각 값은
     해당 Handler 인스턴스를 구성하는 방법을 설명하는 딕셔너리입니다.

     구성 딕셔너리는 다음 키에서 검색합니다:

        * ‘class’ (필수).  이것은 처리기 클래스의 완전히 정규화된 이름입
          니다.

        * ‘level’ (선택).  처리기의 수준.

        * ‘formatter’ (선택).  이 처리기의 포매터의 id.

        * ‘filters’ (선택).  이 처리기의 필터의 id의 리스트.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘filters’ can take filter instances in
          addition to ids.

     모든 '다른' 키는, 처리기의 생성자에 키워드 인자로 전달됩니다.  예를
     들어, 다음과 같이 주어진 조각에서:

          handlers:
            console:
              class : logging.StreamHandler
              formatter: brief
              level   : INFO
              filters: [allow_foo]
              stream  : ext://sys.stdout
            file:
              class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
              formatter: precise
              filename: logconfig.log
              maxBytes: 1024
              backupCount: 3

     id가 ‘console’ 인 처리기는 ‘sys.stdout’를 하부 스트림으로 사용하는
     *note logging.StreamHandler: 11e7.로 인스턴스가 만들어집니다.  id가
     ‘file’ 인 처리기는 키워드 인자 ‘filename='logconfig.log',
     maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3’를 사용하여 *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 15e0.로 인스턴스가 만들어집니
     다.

   * 'loggers' - 해당 값은 딕셔너리인데, 각 키가 로거 이름이고 각 값은 해
     당 Logger 인스턴스를 구성하는 방법을 설명하는 딕셔너리입니다.

     구성 딕셔너리는 다음 키에서 검색합니다:

        * ‘level’ (선택).  로거의 수준.

        * ‘propagate’ (선택).  로거의 전파(propagation) 설정.

        * ‘filters’ (선택).  이 로거의 필터의 id의 리스트

          버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘filters’ can take filter instances in
          addition to ids.

        * ‘handlers’ (선택).  이 로거의 처리기의 id의 리스트.

     지정된 로거는 지정된 수준, 전파, 필터와 처리기에 따라 구성됩니다.

   * 'root' - 루트 로거에 대한 구성입니다.  ‘propagate’ 설정을 적용할 수
     없다는 점을 제외하고 구성 처리는 모든 로거와 같습니다.

   * 'incremental' - 구성을 기존 구성의 증분으로 해석할지 여부.  이 값의
     기본값은 ‘False’이며, 이는 지정된 구성이 기존 구성을 기존 *note
     fileConfig(): b4e. API에서 사용된 것과 같은 의미로 대체 함을 뜻합니
     다.

     지정된 값이 ‘True’이면, *note 증분 구성: 2cce. 절에서 설명하는 대로
     구성이 처리됩니다.

   * 'disable_existing_loggers' - 기존의 루트가 아닌 로거를 비활성화할지
     여부.  이 설정은 *note fileConfig(): b4e.의 같은 이름의 매개 변수를
     반영합니다.  없으면, 이 매개 변수의 기본값은 ‘True’입니다.
     'incremental'이 ‘True’이면 이 값은 무시됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 증분 구성,  Next: 객체 연결,  Prev: 딕셔너리 스키마 세부사항,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.5 증분 구성
..................

증분 구성에 완벽한 유연성을 제공하기는 어렵습니다.  예를 들어, 필터와 포
매터와 같은 객체는 익명이므로, 일단 구성이 설정되면, 이러한 익명 객체를
참조하여 구성을 보강할 수 없습니다.

또한, 일단 구성이 설정되면, 실행 시간에 로거, 처리기, 필터, 포매터의 객
체 그래프를 임의로 변경해야 할 강력한 사례는 없습니다; 로거와 처리기의 상
세도는 단지 수준(과, loggers에서는 전파 플래그)을 설정하여 제어할 수 있
습니다.  객체 그래프를 임의로 안전하게 변경하는 것은 다중 스레드 환경에
서 문제가 됩니다; 불가능하지는 않지만, 구현에 추가되는 복잡성을 상쇄할만
한 가치가 없습니다.

따라서, 구성 딕셔너리의 ‘incremental’ 키가 있고 ‘True’이면, 시스템은
‘formatters’와 ‘filters’ 항목을 완전히 무시하고 ‘handlers’ 항목의
‘level’ 설정과 ‘loggers’와 ‘root’ 항목의 ‘level’과 ‘propagate’ 설정만 처
리합니다.

구성 딕셔너리의 값을 사용하면 구성을 피클 된 딕셔너리의 형태로 네트워크
를 통해 소켓 리스너로 전송할 수 있습니다.  따라서, 장기 실행 응용 프로그
램의 로깅 상세도는 응용 프로그램을 중지하고 다시 시작할 필요 없이 도중에
변경될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 연결,  Next: 사용자 정의 객체,  Prev: 증분 구성,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.6 객체 연결
..................

스키마는 객체 그래프에서 서로 연결된 로깅 객체 집합(로거, 처리기, 포매터
, 필터)을 기술합니다.  따라서, 스키마는 객체 간의 연결을 표현할 필요가 있
습니다.  예를 들어, 일단 구성되면, 특정 로거가 특정 처리기에 연결된다고
합시다.  이 토론의 목적을 위해, 둘 간의 연결에서 로거는 소스를, 처리기는
대상(destination)을 나타낸다고 할 수 있습니다.  물론 구성된 객체에서 이
것은 처리기에 대한 참조를 갖는 로거로 표현됩니다.  구성 딕셔너리에서, 각
대상 객체에 명확하게 식별하는 id를 부여한 다음, 소스 객체의 구성에서 그
id를 사용하여, 소스와 그 id를 갖는 대상 객체 사이에 연결이 있음을 나타냅
니다.

그래서, 예를 들어, 다음 YAML 조각을 고려해보십시오:

     formatters:
       brief:
         # id 'brief'인 포매터 구성이 여기에 옵니다
       precise:
         # id 'precise'인 포매터 구성이 여기에 옵니다
     handlers:
       h1: #이것은 id입니다
        # id 'h1'인 처리기 구성이 여기에 옵니다
        formatter: brief
       h2: #이것은 다른 id입니다.
        # id 'h2'인 처리기 구성이 여기에 옵니다
        formatter: precise
     loggers:
       foo.bar.baz:
         # 로거 'foo.bar.baz'의 다른 구성
         handlers: [h1, h2]

(참고: 딕셔너리에 해당하는 파이썬 소스 형식보다 약간 더 읽기 쉬우므로 여
기에서 YAML을 사용했습니다.)

로거의 id는 로거로의 참조를 얻기 위해서 프로그램적으로 사용되는 로거 이
름입니다, 예를 들어 ‘foo.bar.baz’.  포매터와 필터의 id는 임의의 문자열 값
(가령 위의 ‘brief’, ‘precise’)이 될 수 있으며, 일시적이므로 구성 딕셔너
리 처리에만 의미가 있고 객체 간의 연결을 결정하는 데 사용되며, 구성 호출
이 완료된 후에는 어디에도 남아있지 않습니다.

위의 조각은 ‘foo.bar.baz’라는 로거에 두 개의 처리기가 연결되어 있어야 하
며, 이 처리기들은 처리기 id ‘h1’과 ‘h2’에 의해 기술됩니다.  ‘h1’의 포매
터는 id ‘brief’로 기술되는 것이고, ‘h2’의 포매터는 id ‘precise’로 기술되
는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 객체,  Next: 처리기 구성 순서,  Prev: 객체 연결,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.7 사용자 정의 객체
.........................

스키마는 처리기, 필터 및 포매터에 대한 사용자 정의 객체를 지원합니다.  (로
거에는 인스턴스마다 다른 형이 필요하지 않으므로, 이 구성 스키마에는 사용
자 정의 로거 클래스에 대한 지원이 없습니다.)

구성할 객체는 구성을 자세히 설명하는 딕셔너리로 시술됩니다.  어떤 곳에서
는, 로깅 시스템이 객체를 어떻게 인스턴스화할지 문맥으로부터 추측할 수 있
지만, 사용자 정의 객체를 인스턴스화 해야 할 때, 시스템은 이를 수행하는 방
법을 알 수 없습니다.  사용자 정의 객체 인스턴스화를 위한 완벽한 유연성을
제공하기 위해, 사용자는 ‘팩토리’를 제공해야 하는데, 구성 딕셔너리로 호출
되고 인스턴스화 된 객체를 반환하는 콜러블입니다.  이것은 특수키 ‘'()'’로
제공되는 팩토리로의 절대적 임포트 경로로 표시됩니다.  다음은 구체적인 예
입니다:

     formatters:
       brief:
         format: '%(message)s'
       default:
         format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
         datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
       custom:
           (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
           bar: baz
           spam: 99.9
           answer: 42

위의 YAML 조각은 세 가지 포매터를 정의합니다.  첫 번째(id ‘brief’)는 지
정된 포맷 문자열을 갖는 표준 *note logging.Formatter: 145b. 인스턴스입니
다.  두 번째(id ‘default’)는 더 긴 포맷을 가지며 명시적으로 시간 포맷을
정의하기도 하고, 이 두 포맷 문자열로 초기화된 *note logging.Formatter:
145b.가 됩니다.  파이썬 소스 형식으로 표시하면, ‘brief’와 ‘default’ 포매
터는 각각 다음과 같은 구성 서브 딕셔너리를 갖습니다:

     {
       'format' : '%(message)s'
     }

그리고:

     {
       'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
       'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
     }

그리고, 이 딕셔너리에는 특수키 ‘'()'’가 포함되어 있지 않으므로, 문맥에서
인스턴스가 추론됩니다: 결과적으로, 표준 *note logging.Formatter: 145b. 인
스턴스가 만들어집니다.  세 번째 포매터(id ‘custom’)에 대한 구성 서브 딕
셔너리는 다음과 같습니다:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42
     }

여기에는 특수키 ‘'()'’가 포함되어 있는데, 사용자 정의 인스턴스가 필요하
다는 뜻입니다.  이때, 지정된 팩토리 콜러블이 사용됩니다.  그것이 실제 콜
러블이면 직접 사용됩니다 - 그렇지 않고, (예에서와같이) 문자열을 지정하면
일반적인 임포트 메커니즘을 사용하여 실제 콜러블을 얻습니다.  콜러블은 구
성 서브 딕셔너리의 '나머지' 항목을 키워드 인자로 호출됩니다.  위의 예제
에서, id가 ‘custom’인 포매터는 다음과 같은 호출이 반환한다고 가정합니다:

     my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)

     경고: The values for keys such as ‘bar’, ‘spam’ and ‘answer’ in the
     above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but passed to the
     callable as-is.

‘'()'’ 키가 유효한 키워드 매개 변수 이름이 아니라서 특수키로 사용되었습
니다.  그러므로 호출에 사용되는 키워드 인자의 이름과 충돌하지 않습니다.
‘'()'’는 해당 값이 콜러블이라는 표시로도 기능합니다.

버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘filters’ member of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ can
take filter instances in addition to ids.

You can also specify a special key ‘'.'’ whose value is a mapping of
attribute names to values.  If found, the specified attributes will be
set on the user-defined object before it is returned.  Thus, with the
following configuration:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42,
       '.' {
         'foo': 'bar',
         'baz': 'bozz'
       }
     }

the returned formatter will have attribute ‘foo’ set to ‘'bar'’ and
attribute ‘baz’ set to ‘'bozz'’.

     경고: The values for attributes such as ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ in the
     above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but set as
     attribute values as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: 처리기 구성 순서,  Next: 외부 객체에 대한 액세스,  Prev: 사용자 정의 객체,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.8 처리기 구성 순서
.........................

Handlers are configured in alphabetical order of their keys, and a
configured handler replaces the configuration dictionary in (a working
copy of) the ‘handlers’ dictionary in the schema.  If you use a
construct such as ‘cfg://handlers.foo’, then initially ‘handlers['foo']’
points to the configuration dictionary for the handler named ‘foo’, and
later (once that handler has been configured) it points to the
configured handler instance.  Thus, ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ could resolve
to either a dictionary or a handler instance.  In general, it is wise to
name handlers in a way such that dependent handlers are configured
'after' any handlers they depend on; that allows something like
‘cfg://handlers.foo’ to be used in configuring a handler that depends on
handler ‘foo’.  If that dependent handler were named ‘bar’, problems
would result, because the configuration of ‘bar’ would be attempted
before that of ‘foo’, and ‘foo’ would not yet have been configured.
However, if the dependent handler were named ‘foobar’, it would be
configured after ‘foo’, with the result that ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ would
resolve to configured handler ‘foo’, and not its configuration
dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: 외부 객체에 대한 액세스,  Next: 내부 객체에 대한 액세스,  Prev: 처리기 구성 순서,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.9 외부 객체에 대한 액세스
................................

구성에서 구성 외부의 객체를 참조해야 하는 경우가 있습니다, 예를 들어
‘sys.stderr’.  구성 딕셔너리가 파이썬 코드를 사용하여 만들어질 때는 간단
하지만, 구성이 텍스트 파일(예를 들어, JSON, YAML)을 통해 제공될 때 문제
가 발생합니다.  텍스트 파일에서는, ‘sys.stderr’를 리터럴 문자열
‘'sys.stderr'’과 구별하는 표준 방법이 없습니다.  이 구별을 쉽게 하기 위
해, 구성 시스템은 문자열 값에서 특정 접두사를 찾아 특수하게 처리합니다.
예를 들어, 리터럴 문자열 ‘'ext://sys.stderr'’이 구성에서 값으로 제공되면
, ‘ext://’는 제거되고 값의 나머지 부분을 일반 임포트 메커니즘을 사용하여
처리합니다.

이러한 접두사의 처리는 프로토콜 처리와 유사한 방식으로 수행됩니다: 정규
식 ‘^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$’와 일치하는 접두사를 찾는 일반
메커니즘이 있습니다.  ‘prefix’가 인식되면 ‘suffix’는 접두사 종속적 방식
으로 처리되고 처리 결과가 문자열 값을 대체합니다.  접두사가 인식되지 않
으면, 문자열 값은 그대로 남습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 내부 객체에 대한 액세스,  Next: 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터,  Prev: 외부 객체에 대한 액세스,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.10 내부 객체에 대한 액세스
.................................

외부 객체뿐만 아니라, 때로 구성에 있는 객체를 참조할 필요도 있습니다.  이
것은 구성 시스템이 알고 있는 것들에 대해 묵시적으로 수행됩니다.  예를 들
어, 로거나 처리기의 ‘level’에 대한 문자열 값 ‘'DEBUG'’은 자동으로 값
‘logging.DEBUG’으로 변환되고, ‘handlers’, ‘filters’ 및 ‘formatter’ 항목
은 객체 id를 받아서 적절한 대상 객체로 결정합니다.

하지만, *note logging: 87. 모듈에 알려지지 않은 사용자 정의 객체에는 더
욱 일반적인 메커니즘이 필요합니다.  예를 들어, 위임할 다른 처리기인
‘target’ 인자를 취하는 *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2cd8.를 고
려해봅시다.  시스템이 이미 이 클래스에 대해 알고 있으므로, 구성에서, 주
어진 ‘target’은 단지 관련 target 처리기의 객체 id이기만 하면 되며, 시스
템은 id로부터 처리기를 결정합니다.  그러나 사용자가 ‘alternate’ 처리기를
갖는 ‘my.package.MyHandler’를 정의하면, 구성 시스템은 ‘alternate’가 처리
기를 참조한다는 것을 알 수 없습니다.  이 문제를 해결하기 위해, 일반 결정
시스템은 사용자가 다음과 같이 지정할 수 있게 합니다:

     handlers:
       file:
         # 파일 처리기의 구성은 여기에 옵니다

       custom:
         (): my.package.MyHandler
         alternate: cfg://handlers.file

리터럴 문자열 ‘'cfg://handlers.file'’은 ‘ext://’ 접두사가 있는 문자열과
비슷하게 결정되지만, 임포트 이름 공간이 아닌 구성 자체를 조회합니다.  이
메커니즘은 ‘str.format’에서 제공하는 것과 유사한 방식으로 점이나 인덱스
로 액세스하는 것을 허락합니다.  따라서, 구성에서 다음과 같은 조각이 주어
질 때:

     handlers:
       email:
         class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
         mailhost: localhost
         fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
         toaddrs:
           - support_team@domain.tld
           - dev_team@domain.tld
         subject: Houston, we have a problem.

문자열 ‘'cfg://handlers'’는 키 ‘handlers’의 딕셔너리로 결정되고, 문자열
‘'cfg://handlers.email’은 ‘handlers’ 딕셔너리에 있는 키 ‘email’의 딕셔너
리로 결정됩니다, 등등.  문자열 ‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]’은
‘'dev_team@domain.tld'’로 결정되고 문자열
‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'’은 값 ‘'support_team@domain.tld'’로 결
정됩니다.  ‘subject’ 값은 ‘'cfg://handlers.email.subject'’나 동등하게
‘'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'’를 사용하여 액세스할 수 있습니다.  후자
의 형식은 키에 공백이나 영숫자가 아닌 문자가 포함되어있을 때만 필요합니
다.  키에는 문자 ‘[’ 와 ‘]’가 허용되지 않음에 유의하십시오.  인덱스값이
십진수로만 구성되면, 해당 정숫값을 사용하여 액세스가 시도되고, 필요하면
문자열 값으로 다시 시도합니다.

문자열 ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123’이 주어지면,
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’으로 변환됩니다.  문
자열이 ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]’로 지정되면, 시스템은
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]’에서 값을 가져오려고
시도하고, 실패하면
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’으로 폴백합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터,  Next: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: 내부 객체에 대한 액세스,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.11 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터
..........................................

임포트 결정은, 기본적으로, 임포트 하는데 내장 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함
수를 사용합니다.  이것을 자신의 임포트 메커니즘으로 바꾸고 싶을 수 있습
니다: 그렇다면, ‘DictConfigurator’나 그것의 슈퍼 클래스
(‘BaseConfigurator’ 클래스)의 ‘importer’ 어트리뷰트를 바꿀 수 있습니다.
그러나, 함수가 클래스에서 디스크립터를 통해 액세스 되는 방식 때문에 주의
해야 합니다.  파이썬 콜러블을 사용하여 임포트를 수행하려고 하고, 인스턴
스 수준이 아닌 클래스 수준에서 정의하려고 한다면, *note staticmethod():
410.로 감쌀 필요가 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     from importlib import import_module
     from logging.config import BaseConfigurator

     BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)

구성자 'instance'에서 임포트 콜러블을 설정한다면, *note staticmethod():
410.로 감쌀 필요가 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터,  Up: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마

5.16.5.12 Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener
....................................................

If you want to configure a *note QueueHandler: 17de, noting that this is
normally used in conjunction with a *note QueueListener: e28, you can
configure both together.  After the configuration, the ‘QueueListener’
instance will be available as the *note listener: 2cdc. attribute of the
created handler, and that in turn will be available to you using *note
getHandlerByName(): 17df. and passing the name you have used for the
‘QueueHandler’ in your configuration.  The dictionary schema for
configuring the pair is shown in the example YAML snippet below.

     handlers:
       qhand:
         class: logging.handlers.QueueHandler
         queue: my.module.queue_factory
         listener: my.package.CustomListener
         handlers:
           - hand_name_1
           - hand_name_2
           ...

The ‘queue’ and ‘listener’ keys are optional.

If the ‘queue’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the
following:

   * An object implementing the *note Queue.put_nowait: 2cdd. and *note
     Queue.get: 2cde. public API. For instance, this may be an actual
     instance of *note queue.Queue: 1377. or a subclass thereof, or a
     proxy obtained by *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue(): 2cdf.

     This is of course only possible if you are constructing or
     modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no
     arguments, returns the queue instance to use.  That callable could
     be a *note queue.Queue: 1377. subclass or a function which returns
     a suitable queue instance, such as ‘my.module.queue_factory()’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note 사용자 정의 객체: 2cc9.  The result of this
     construction should be a *note queue.Queue: 1377. instance.

If the ‘queue’ key is absent, a standard unbounded *note queue.Queue:
1377. instance is created and used.

If the ‘listener’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of
the following:

   * A subclass of *note logging.handlers.QueueListener: e28.  This is
     of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the
     configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string which resolves to a class which is a subclass of
     ‘QueueListener’, such as ‘'my.package.CustomListener'’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note 사용자 정의 객체: 2cc9.  The result of this
     construction should be a callable with the same signature as the
     ‘QueueListener’ initializer.

If the ‘listener’ key is absent, *note logging.handlers.QueueListener:
e28. is used.

The values under the ‘handlers’ key are the names of other handlers in
the configuration (not shown in the above snippet) which will be passed
to the queue listener.

Any custom queue handler and listener classes will need to be defined
with the same initialization signatures as *note QueueHandler: 17de. and
*note QueueListener: e28.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 구성 파일 형식,  Prev: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마,  Up: logging config — 로깅 구성

5.16.5.13 구성 파일 형식
........................

*note fileConfig(): b4e.이 이해하는 구성 파일 형식은 *note configparser:
22. 기능을 기반으로 합니다.  파일에는 ‘[loggers]’, ‘[handlers]’ 및
‘[formatters]’라는 섹션이 있어야 하며, 이 섹션에서는 파일에 정의된 각 유
형의 엔티티를 이름으로 식별합니다.  이러한 엔티티마다 해당 엔티티 구성 방
법을 식별하는 별도의 섹션이 있습니다.  따라서, ‘[loggers]’ 섹션에서
‘log01’이라고 이름 붙은 로거에 대해, 관련 구성 세부 사항은
‘[logger_log01]’ 섹션에 담깁니다.  마찬가지로, ‘[handlers]’ 섹션에서
‘hand01’이라고 부르는 처리기는 ‘[handler_hand01]’이라는 섹션에 구성이 담
기고, ‘[formatters]’ 섹션에서 ‘form01’이라고 부르는 포매터는
‘[formatter_form01]’이라는 섹션에서 구성이 지정됩니다.  루트 로거 구성은
‘[logger_root]’라는 섹션에서 지정해야 합니다.

     참고: *note fileConfig(): b4e. API는 *note dictConfig(): 119f. API보
     다 오래되었으며 로깅의 특정 측면을 다루는 기능을 제공하지 않습니다.
     예를 들어, *note fileConfig(): b4e.를 사용해서는 간단한 정수 수준을
     넘어서는 메시지 필터링을 제공하는 *note Filter: 11ea. 객체를 구성할
     수 없습니다.  로깅 구성에 *note Filter: 11ea. 인스턴스가 필요하면,
     *note dictConfig(): 119f.를 사용해야 합니다.  향후 구성 기능의 개선
     은 *note dictConfig(): 119f.에 추가될 것임에 유의하십시오.  따라서,
     편리할 때 이 새로운 API로 전환하는 것을 고려해 볼 가치가 있습니다.

파일에 있는 이 절의 예는 아래에 나와 있습니다.

     [loggers]
     keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07

     [handlers]
     keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09

     [formatters]
     keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09

루트 로거는 수준과 처리기 목록을 지정해야 합니다.  루트 로거 섹션의 예가
아래에 나와 있습니다.

     [logger_root]
     level=NOTSET
     handlers=hand01

‘level’ 항목은 ‘DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL’ 또는 ‘NOTSET’ 중
하나일 수 있습니다.  루트 로거에서만, ‘NOTSET’는 모든 메시지가 로그 됨을
의미합니다.  수준 값은 ‘logging’ 패키지의 이름 공간 컨텍스트에서 *note
평가: 2172.됩니다.

‘handlers’ 항목은 ‘[handlers]’ 섹션에 나타나야 하는 처리기 이름의 쉼표로
구분된 목록입니다.  이 이름들은 ‘[handlers]’ 섹션에 나타나야 하며, 구성
파일에 해당 섹션이 있어야 합니다.

루트 로거가 아닌 로거의 경우, 몇 가지 추가 정보가 필요합니다.  이것은 다
음 예제가 보여줍니다.

     [logger_parser]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=hand01
     propagate=1
     qualname=compiler.parser

‘level’과 ‘handlers’ 항목은 루트 로거에서처럼 해석됩니다.  단, 루트가 아
닌 로거의 수준이 ‘NOTSET’로 지정되면, 시스템은 로거의 유효 수준을 판별하
기 위해 상위 계층 로거를 참조합니다.  ‘propagate’ 항목은 메시지가 이 로
거로부터 더 높은 로거 계층의 처리기로 전파되어야 함을 나타내려면 1로 설
정되고, 메시지가 계층 위의 처리기로 전달되지 '않음'을 나타내려면 0으로 설
정됩니다.  ‘qualname’ 항목은 로거의 계층적 채널 이름, 즉 응용 프로그램에
서 로거를 가져오는 데 사용되는 이름입니다.

처리기 구성을 지정하는 섹션은 다음과 같이 예시됩니다.

     [handler_hand01]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form01
     args=(sys.stdout,)

‘class’ 항목은 (‘logging’ 패키지의 이름 공간에서 *note eval(): 180.로 결
정되는) 처리기의 클래스를 나타냅니다.  ‘level’은 로거에서처럼 해석되며,
‘NOTSET’은 ‘모든 것을 로깅’을 의미합니다.

‘formatter’ 항목은 이 처리기의 포매터의 키 이름을 나타냅니다.  비어 있으
면, 기본 포매터(‘logging._defaultFormatter’)가 사용됩니다.  이름이 지정
되면, ‘[formatters]’ 섹션에 나타나야 하며 구성 파일에 해당 섹션이 있어야
합니다.

‘args’ 항목은, ‘logging’ 패키지의 이름 공간 컨텍스트에서 *note 평가:
2172.될 때, 처리기 클래스의 생성자에 대한 인자 목록입니다.  일반적인 항
목 작성 방법을 보려면, 관련 처리기의 생성자나 아래 예제를 참조하십시오.
제공되지 않으면, 기본값은 ‘()’입니다.

선택적 ‘kwargs’ 항목은, ‘logging’ 패키지의 이름 공간 컨텍스트에서 *note
평가: 2172.될 때, 처리기 클래스의 생성자에 대한 키워드 인자 딕셔너리입니
다.  제공되지 않으면, 기본값은 ‘{}’입니다.

     [handler_hand02]
     class=FileHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=form02
     args=('python.log', 'w')

     [handler_hand03]
     class=handlers.SocketHandler
     level=INFO
     formatter=form03
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand04]
     class=handlers.DatagramHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form04
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand05]
     class=handlers.SysLogHandler
     level=ERROR
     formatter=form05
     args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)

     [handler_hand06]
     class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
     level=CRITICAL
     formatter=form06
     args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')

     [handler_hand07]
     class=handlers.SMTPHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form07
     args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
     kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}

     [handler_hand08]
     class=handlers.MemoryHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form08
     target=
     args=(10, ERROR)

     [handler_hand09]
     class=handlers.HTTPHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form09
     args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
     kwargs={'secure': True}

포매터 구성을 지정하는 섹션은 다음과 같이 예시됩니다.

     [formatter_form01]
     format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s %(customfield)s
     datefmt=
     style=%
     validate=True
     defaults={'customfield': 'defaultvalue'}
     class=logging.Formatter

The arguments for the formatter configuration are the same as the keys
in the dictionary schema *note formatters section: 2ccd.

‘defaults’ 항목은, ‘logging’ 패키지의 이름 공간 컨텍스트에서 *note 평가:
2172.될 때, 사용자 정의 포매팅 필드에 대한 기본 값의 딕셔너리입니다.  제
공되지 않으면, 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.

     참고: 위에서 설명한 대로 *note eval(): 180.를 사용하기 때문에,
     *note listen(): f5d.을 사용하여 소켓을 통해 구성을 보내고 받을 때 발
     생할 수 있는 잠재적인 보안 위험이 있습니다.  위험은 상호 신뢰가 없
     는 여러 사용자가 같은 기계에서 코드를 실행할 때로 제한됩니다; 자세
     한 내용은 *note listen(): f5d. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note logging: 87.

     logging 모듈에 관한 API 레퍼런스.

모듈 *note logging.handlers: 89.

     logging 모듈에 포함된 유용한 처리기.


File: python.info,  Node: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기,  Next: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스,  Prev: logging config — 로깅 구성,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.6 ‘logging.handlers’ — 로깅 처리기
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/logging/handlers.py(1)

Important
.........

이 페이지에는 레퍼런스 정보만 있습니다.  자습서는 다음을 참조하십시오

   * *note 기초 자습서: 11e4.

   * *note 고급 자습서: 11e5.

   * *note 로깅 요리책: 11e6.

__________________________________________________________________

다음과 같은 유용한 처리기가 패키지에서 제공됩니다.  3개의 처리기(*note
StreamHandler: 11e7, *note FileHandler: 18a5, *note NullHandler: 1274.)는
실제로는 *note logging: 87. 모듈 자체에 정의되어 있지만, 다른 처리기들과
함께 여기에서 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/logging/handlers.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamHandler,  Next: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.1 StreamHandler
......................

핵심 *note logging: 87. 패키지에 있는 *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 클래스
는 'sys.stdout', 'sys.stderr' 또는 임의의 파일류 객체(또는 더 정확하게,
‘write()’와 ‘flush()’ 메서드를 지원하는 모든 객체)와 같은 스트림으로 로
깅 출력을 보냅니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.StreamHandler (stream=None)

     *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합니다.
     'stream' 이 지정되면, 인스턴스는 그것을 로그 출력용으로 사용합니다;
     그렇지 않으면, 'sys.stderr' 이 사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          포매터가 지정되면, 레코드를 포맷하는 데 사용됩니다.  그런 다음
          레코드는 *note terminator: 2ce6.를 붙여 스트림에 기록됩니다.  예
          외 정보가 있으면, *note traceback.print_exception(): 849.을 사
          용하여 포맷한 후 스트림에 덧붙입니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          스트림의 *note flush(): 2ce7. 메서드를 호출해서 플러시 합니다.
          ‘close()’ 메서드는 *note Handler: 145a. 에서 상속되고, 출력이
          없으므로, 명시적 *note flush(): 2ce7. 호출이 필요할 수도 있습
          니다.

      -- 메서드: setStream (stream)

          지정한 값이 현재 값과 다르면, 인스턴스의 스트림을 지정된 값으
          로 설정합니다.  새 스트림이 설정되기 전에 이전 스트림이 플러시
          됩니다.


          매개변수: ‘stream’ – 처리기가 사용할 스트림.


          반환: 스트림이 변경되면 이전 스트림, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: terminator

          포맷된 레코드를 스트림에 쓸 때 종결자로 사용되는 문자열.  기본
          값은 ‘'\n'’입니다.

          줄 바꿈 종료를 원하지 않으면, 처리기 인스턴스의 ‘terminator’ 어
          트리뷰트를 빈 문자열로 설정할 수 있습니다.

          이전 버전에서는, 종결자가 ‘'\n'’으로 하드 코딩되었습니다.

          Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler,  Next: NullHandler,  Prev: StreamHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.2 FileHandler
....................

핵심 *note logging: 87. 패키지에 있는 *note FileHandler: 18a5. 클래스는
로깅 출력을 디스크 파일로 보냅니다.  *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 에서 출
력 기능을 상속받습니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.FileHandler (filename, mode='a', encoding=None,
          delay=False, errors=None)

     *note FileHandler: 18a5. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  지
     정된 파일이 열리고 로깅을 위한 스트림으로 사용됩니다.  'mode' 가 지
     정되지 않으면, ‘'a'’ 가 사용됩니다.  'encoding' 이 ‘None’ 이 아니면
     , 'encoding'을 사용하여 파일을 엽니다.  'delay' 가 참이면, 파일 열
     기는 *note emit(): 2cea.의 첫 번째 호출이 있을 때까지 연기됩니다.  기
     본적으로, 파일은 제한 없이 커집니다.  'errors'가 지정되면, 인코딩 에
     러 처리 방법을 결정합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 문자열 값뿐만 아니라, *note Path: 229. 객체도
     'filename' 인자로 허용됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          파일을 닫습니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          레코드를 파일에 출력합니다.

          Note that if the file was closed due to logging shutdown at
          exit and the file mode is ‘w’, the record will not be emitted
          (see bpo-42378(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378


File: python.info,  Node: NullHandler,  Next: WatchedFileHandler,  Prev: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.3 NullHandler
....................

Added in version 3.1.

핵심 *note logging: 87. 패키지에 있는 *note NullHandler: 1274. 클래스는
포맷이나 출력을 일절 하지 않습니다.  기본적으로 라이브러리 개발자가 사용
하는 ‘no-op’ 처리기입니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.NullHandler

     *note NullHandler: 1274. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          이 메서드는 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: handle (record)

          이 메서드는 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: createLock ()

          액세스를 직렬화해야 하는 하부 I/O가 없으므로, 이 메서드는 록으
          로 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

*note NullHandler: 1274. 사용법에 대한 더 많은 정보는 *note 라이브러리
로깅 구성: 2cf1.를 참조하세요.


File: python.info,  Node: WatchedFileHandler,  Next: BaseRotatingHandler,  Prev: NullHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.4 WatchedFileHandler
...........................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note WatchedFileHandler: 2cf4.
클래스는 로깅 중인 파일을 감시하는 ‘FileHandler’ 입니다.  파일이 변경되
면, 닫은 후에 같은 이름의 파일을 다시 엽니다.

로그 파일 회전을 수행하는 'newsyslog' 나 'logrotate' 와 같은 프로그램의
사용으로 인해 파일이 변경될 수 있습니다.  유닉스/리눅스에서 사용하기 위
한 이 처리기는 마지막 출력 이후에 파일이 변경되었는지 감시합니다.  (파일
의 장치나 inode가 변경되면 파일이 변경된 것으로 간주합니다.)  파일이 변
경되면, 이전 파일 스트림이 닫히고, 새 스트림을 얻기 위해 파일을 엽니다.

이 처리기는 윈도우에서 사용하기에 적합하지 않습니다.  윈도우에서는 열린
로그 파일을 이동하거나 이름을 변경할 수 없어서 - logging은 파일을 배타적
록으로 엽니다 - 이런 처리기가 필요하지 않기 때문입니다.  또한 'ST_INO' 는
윈도우에서 지원되지 않습니다; *note stat(): 49a.는 항상 이 값에 대해 0을
반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     ‘FileHandler’ 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  지정된 파일이
     열리고 로깅을 위한 스트림으로 사용됩니다.  'mode' 가 지정되지 않으
     면, ‘'a'’ 가 사용됩니다.  'encoding' 이 ‘None’ 이 아니면,
     'encoding'을 사용하여 파일을 엽니다.  'delay' 가 참이면, 파일 열기
     는 *note emit(): 2cf5.의 첫 번째 호출이 있을 때까지 연기됩니다.  기
     본적으로, 파일은 제한 없이 커집니다.  'errors'가 제공되면, 인코딩 에
     러 처리 방법을 결정합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 문자열 값뿐만 아니라, *note Path: 229. 객체도
     'filename' 인자로 허용됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: reopenIfNeeded ()

          파일이 변경되었는지 확인합니다.  그렇다면, 기존 스트림을 플러
          시 한 후 닫고, 파일을 다시 엽니다.  일반적으로 레코드를 파일로
          출력하기 전에 수행합니다.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          레코드를 파일에 출력하지만, 파일이 변경되었을 때 다시 열기 위
          해 *note reopenIfNeeded(): cb3.를 먼저 호출합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseRotatingHandler,  Next: RotatingFileHandler,  Prev: WatchedFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.5 BaseRotatingHandler
............................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2cf8.
클래스는 회전하는 파일 처리기들(*note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0.와 *note
TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59.)의 베이스 클래스입니다.  이 클래스의 인스
턴스를 만들 필요는 없지만, 재정의가 필요할 수 있는 어트리뷰트와 메서드가
있습니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler (filename, mode,
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     매개 변수는 ‘FileHandler’ 와 같습니다.  어트리뷰트는 다음과 같습니
     다:

      -- 속성: namer

          이 어트리뷰트가 콜러블로 설정되면, *note rotation_filename():
          2cfa. 메서드는 이 콜러블에 위임합니다.  콜러블로 전달되는 매개
          변수는 *note rotation_filename(): 2cfa.로 전달되는 것입니다.

               참고: namer 함수는 롤오버 중에 꽤 자주 호출되므로, 가능한
               한 간단하고 빨라야 합니다.  또한, 주어진 입력에 대해 매번
               같은 출력을 반환해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 롤오버 동작이
               예상대로 작동하지 않을 수 있습니다.

               It’s also worth noting that care should be taken when
               using a namer to preserve certain attributes in the
               filename which are used during rotation.  For example,
               *note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0. expects to have a set of
               log files whose names contain successive integers, so
               that rotation works as expected, and *note
               TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59. deletes old log files
               (based on the ‘backupCount’ parameter passed to the
               handler’s initializer) by determining the oldest files to
               delete.  For this to happen, the filenames should be
               sortable using the date/time portion of the filename, and
               a namer needs to respect this.  (If a namer is wanted
               that doesn’t respect this scheme, it will need to be used
               in a subclass of *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59.
               which overrides the *note getFilesToDelete(): 2cfb.
               method to fit in with the custom naming scheme.)

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: rotator

          이 어트리뷰트가 콜러블로 설정되면, *note rotate(): 2cfd. 메서
          드는 이 콜러블에 위임합니다.  콜러블로 전달되는 매개 변수는
          *note rotate(): 2cfd.로 전달되는 것입니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: rotation_filename (default_name)

          회전할 때 로그 파일의 파일명을 수정합니다.

          사용자 정의 파일명을 제공할 수 있게 하려고 제공됩니다.

          기본 구현은 처리기의 ‘namer’ 어트리뷰트를(콜러블이라면) 호출하
          는데, 기본 이름을 전달합니다.  어트리뷰트가 콜러블이 아니면 (기
          본값은 ‘None’ 입니다), 이름은 변경되지 않고 반환됩니다.


          매개변수: ‘default_name’ – 로그 파일의 기본 이름.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: rotate (source, dest)

          회전할 때, 현재 로그를 회전합니다.

          기본 구현은 처리기의 ‘rotator’ 어트리뷰트를(콜러블이라면) 호출
          하는데, source와 dest 인자를 전달합니다.  어트리뷰트가 콜러블
          이 아니면 (기본값은 ‘None’ 입니다), source를 dest 로 단순히 이
          름을 바꿉니다.


          매개변수:

             * ‘source’ – 소스 파일명.  이것은 일반적으로 기본 파일명입
               니다, 예를 들어 ‘test.log’.

             * ‘dest’ – 대상 파일명.  이것은 일반적으로 소스가 회전되는
               곳입니다, 예를 들어 ‘test.log.1’.

          Added in version 3.3.

어트리뷰트가 존재하는 이유는 서브 클래싱해야 할 필요를 줄이는 것입니다 -
*note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0.와 *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59.
의 인스턴스에 같은 콜러블을 사용할 수 있습니다.  namer 나 rotator 콜러블
이 예외를 발생시키면, ‘emit()’ 동안 발생하는 다른 예외와 같은 방식으로 처
리됩니다, 즉 처리기의 ‘handleError()’ 메서드를 통해.

회전 처리를 더 크게 변경해야 하면, 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

예는 *note rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기: 2cfe.를 보십시
오.


File: python.info,  Node: RotatingFileHandler,  Next: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Prev: BaseRotatingHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.6 RotatingFileHandler
............................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0.
클래스는 디스크 로그 파일 회전을 지원합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False,
          errors=None)

     *note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합
     니다.  지정된 파일이 열리고 로깅을 위한 스트림으로 사용됩니다.
     'mode' 가 지정되지 않으면, ‘'a'’ 가 사용됩니다.  'encoding' 이
     ‘None’ 이 아니면, 'encoding'을 사용하여 파일을 엽니다.  'delay' 가
     참이면, 파일 열기는 *note emit(): 2d01.의 첫 번째 호출이 있을 때까
     지 연기됩니다.  기본적으로, 파일은 제한 없이 커집니다.  'errors'가
     제공되면, 인코딩 에러 처리 방법을 결정합니다.

     미리 결정된 크기에서 파일을 '롤오버 (rollover)' 하기 위해
     'maxBytes' 와 'backupCount' 값을 사용할 수 있습니다.  크기가 초과하
     려고 할 때, 파일이 닫히고 출력을 위해 새 파일이 조용히 열립니다.  롤
     오버는 현재 로그 파일이 거의 'maxBytes' 길이일 때마다 발생합니다; 그
     러나 'maxBytes' 나 'backupCount' 가 0이면 롤오버가 발생하지 않으므
     로, 일반적으로 'backupCount' 를 1 이상으로 설정하고, 0이 아닌
     'maxBytes'를 사용하기를 원할 겁니다.  'backupCount' 가 0이 아니면,
     시스템은 파일명에 확장자 ‘.1’, ‘.2’ 등을 추가하여 지난 로그 파일을
     저장합니다.  예를 들어, 'backupCount' 가 5이고 기본 파일명이
     ‘app.log’ 면, ‘app.log’, ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’부터 ‘app.log.5’ 까
     지의 파일을 얻게 됩니다.  기록되는 파일은 항상 ‘app.log’ 입니다.  이
     파일이 채워지면, 닫히고 ‘app.log.1’ 로 이름이 변경됩니다, 그리고 파
     일 ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’ 등이 존재하면, 이것들도 각기
     ‘app.log.2’, ‘app.log.3’ 등으로 이름이 변경됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 문자열 값뿐만 아니라, *note Path: 229. 객체도
     'filename' 인자로 허용됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: doRollover ()

          위에서 설명한 대로 롤오버를 수행합니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          앞에서 설명한 대로 롤오버를 처리하면서, 파일에 레코드를 출력합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: shouldRollover (record)

          See if the supplied record would cause the file to exceed the
          configured size limit.


File: python.info,  Node: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Next: SocketHandler,  Prev: RotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.7 TimedRotatingFileHandler
.................................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note TimedRotatingFileHandler:
f59. 클래스는 특정 시간 간격의 디스크 로그 파일 회전을 지원합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler (filename,
          when='h', interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None,
          delay=False, utc=False, atTime=None, errors=None)

     *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반
     환합니다.  지정된 파일이 열리고 로깅을 위한 스트림으로 사용됩니다.
     회전 시 파일명 접미사도 설정합니다.  'when' 과 'interval' 에 따라 회
     전이 일어납니다.

     'when' 을 사용하여 'interval' 의 유형을 지정할 수 있습니다.  가능한
     값의 목록은 아래와 같습니다.  대소 문자를 구분하지 않는다는 것에 유
     의하세요.

     값                   interval의 유형                  'atTime' 이 사용되는지와 사
                                                           용되는 방식
                                                           
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
     ‘'S'’                초                               무시됩니다
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'M'’                분                               무시됩니다
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'H'’                시간                             무시됩니다
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'D'’                일                               무시됩니다
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'W0'-'W6'’          요일 (0=월요일)                  최초 롤오버 시간을 계산하는
                                                           데 사용됩니다
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'midnight'’         'atTime' 을 지정하지 않으면 자   최초 롤오버 시간을 계산하는
                          정에, 그렇지 않으면 'atTime' 에  데 사용됩니다
                          롤오버 합니다                    
                          

     요일 기반 회전을 사용할 때, 월요일은 ‘W0’, 화요일은 ‘W1’, 등등 일요
     일은 ‘W6’까지 지정하십시오.  이 경우, 'interval' 에 전달된 값은 사
     용되지 않습니다.

     시스템은 파일명에 확장자를 추가하여 지난 로그 파일을 저장합니다.  확
     장자는 날짜와 시간 기반이며, 롤오버 간격에 따라 strftime 형식
     ‘%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S’ 이나 그 앞부분을 사용합니다.

     다음 롤오버 시간을 처음 계산할 때 (처리기가 만들어질 때), 기존 로그
     파일의 마지막 수정 시간 또는 (없으면) 현재 시각이 다음 회전이 발생
     할 때를 계산하는 데 사용됩니다.

     'utc' 인자가 참이면, UTC 시간이 사용됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 현지 시간
     이 사용됩니다.

     'backupCount' 가 0이 아니면, 최대 'backupCount' 개의 파일이 보관되
     고, 롤오버가 발생할 때 더 많은 파일이 생성되면 가장 오래된 파일이 삭
     제됩니다.  삭제 논리는 interval을 사용하여 삭제할 파일을 결정하므로
     , interval을 변경하면 오래된 파일이 남아있을 수 있습니다.

     'delay' 가 참이면, 파일 열기는 *note emit(): 2d06.에 대한 첫 번째 호
     출까지 지연됩니다.

     'atTime' 이 ‘None’ 이 아니면, 반드시 ‘datetime.time’ 인스턴스여야 하
     는데, 롤오버가 “자정에” 또는 “특정 요일에” 발생하도록 설정된 경우에
     롤오버가 발생하는 시간을 지정합니다.  이 경우, 'atTime' 값은 '최초'
     롤오버를 계산하는 데 사용되며, 이후 롤오버는 일반적인 간격 계산을 통
     해 계산됩니다.

     'errors'가 지정되면, 인코딩 에러 처리 방법을 결정하는 데 사용됩니다
     .

          참고: 최초 롤오버 시간의 계산은 처리기가 초기화될 때 수행됩니
          다.  후속 롤오버 시간 계산은 롤오버가 발생하는 경우에만 수행되
          며, 롤오버는 출력을 내보낼 때만 발생합니다.  이것을 명심하지 않
          으면, 혼란이 생길 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, “매분” 간격을 설정
          하면, 이것이 항상 1분 간격의 (파일명을 갖는) 로그 파일들을 보
          게 된다는 것을 뜻하지는 않습니다; 응용 프로그램을 실행하는 동
          안, 로그 출력이 1분당 한 번보다 더 자주 '발생하면', 1분 간격의
          로그 파일을 볼 것으로 예상할 수 있습니다.  반면, (가령) 로깅 메
          시지가 5분마다 한 번만 출력되면, 출력이 없는 (따라서 롤오버가
          없는) 분에 해당하는 파일 시간의 틈이 생깁니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'atTime' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 문자열 값뿐만 아니라, *note Path: 229. 객체도
     'filename' 인자로 허용됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'errors' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: doRollover ()

          위에서 설명한 대로 롤오버를 수행합니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          위에서 설명한 대로 롤오버를 처리하면서, 파일에 레코드를 출력합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: getFilesToDelete ()

          Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of
          rollover.  These

      -- 메서드: shouldRollover (record)

          See if enough time has passed for a rollover to occur and if
          it has, compute the next rollover time.


File: python.info,  Node: SocketHandler,  Next: DatagramHandler,  Prev: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.8 SocketHandler
......................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note SocketHandler: f5a. 클래스
는 로깅 출력을 네트워크 소켓에 보냅니다.  베이스 클래스는 TCP 소켓을 사
용합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.SocketHandler (host, port)

     'host' 와 'port'로 주어진 주소의 원격 기계와 통신하기 위한, *note
     SocketHandler: f5a. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘port’가 ‘None’으로 지정되면, ‘host’의 값을 사용
     하여 유닉스 도메인 소켓이 만들어집니다 - 그렇지 않으면 TCP 소켓이 만
     들어집니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          소켓을 닫습니다.

      -- 메서드: emit ()

          레코드의 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리를 피클하고 바이너리 형식으로 소켓
          에 씁니다.  소켓에 에러가 있으면 조용히 패킷을 버립니다.  이전
          에 연결이 끊어졌으면, 연결을 다시 맺습니다.  수신 단에서 레코
          드를 *note LogRecord: fde.로 역 피클 하려면, *note
          makeLogRecord(): 2ca5. 함수를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: handleError ()

          *note emit(): 2d0c. 중에 발생한 에러를 처리합니다.  가장 큰 원
          인은 연결이 끊어지는 것입니다.  다음 이벤트에서 다시 시도할 수
          있도록 소켓을 닫습니다.

      -- 메서드: makeSocket ()

          이것은 서브 클래스가 원하는 소켓의 정확한 유형을 정의 할 수 있
          게 하는 팩토리 메서드입니다.  기본 구현은 TCP 소켓(*note
          socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.)을 만듭니다.

      -- 메서드: makePickle (record)

          레코드의 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리를 바이너리 형식으로 피클하고 길이
          를 앞에 붙여서, 소켓을 통해 전송할 준비가 된 상태로 반환합니다
          .  이 연산의 세부 사항은 다음과 동등합니다:

               data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
               datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
               return datalen + data

          피클은 완전히 안전하지 않습니다.  보안이 염려되면, 이 메서드를
          재정의하여 더욱 안전한 메커니즘을 구현할 수 있습니다.  예를 들
          어, HMAC를 사용하여 피클에 서명한 다음 수신 단에서 확인하거나,
          수신 단에서 전역 객체의 역 피클링을 비활성화할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: send (packet)

          피클 된 바이트열 'packet' 을 소켓으로 보냅니다.  보내진 바이트
          열의 형식은 *note makePickle(): 2d0f.의 설명서에 있습니다.

          이 함수는 네트워크가 붐빌 때 발생할 수 있는 부분 전송을 허용합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: createSocket ()

          소켓을 만들려고 합니다; 실패 시, 지수 백 오프 알고리즘을 사용
          합니다.  최초 실패 시 처리기는 보내려는 메시지를 버립니다.  후
          속 메시지가 같은 인스턴스에 의해 처리될 때, 일정한 시간이 지날
          때까지 연결을 시도하지 않습니다.  기본 파라미터를 쓸 때, 최초
          지연은 1초이고, 지연 후에도 연결을 만들 수 없으면, 처리기가 최
          대 30초가 될 때까지 매번 지연 시간을 두 배로 늘립니다.

          이 동작은 다음 처리기 어트리뷰트에 의해 제어됩니다:

             * ‘retryStart’ (최초 지연, 기본값은 1.0 초).

             * ‘retryFactor’ (배율, 기본값은 2.0).

             * ‘retryMax’ (최대 지연, 기본값은 30.0 초).

          이것은, 처리기가 사용된 '후에' 원격 수신기가 시작되면, 메시지
          가 손실될 수 있음을 뜻합니다 (처리기가 지연이 경과 할 때까지 연
          결을 시도하지조차 않고, 지연 기간에 메시지를 조용히 버리기 때
          문입니다).


File: python.info,  Node: DatagramHandler,  Next: SysLogHandler,  Prev: SocketHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.9 DatagramHandler
........................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note DatagramHandler: f5b. 클래
스는 UDP 소켓을 통해 로깅 메시지를 보낼 수 있도록 *note SocketHandler:
f5a.를 상속합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.DatagramHandler (host, port)

     'host' 와 'port'로 주어진 주소의 원격 기계와 통신하기 위한, *note
     DatagramHandler: f5b. 클래스의 새로운 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

          참고: As UDP is not a streaming protocol, there is no
          persistent connection between an instance of this handler and
          'host'.  For this reason, when using a network socket, a DNS
          lookup might have to be made each time an event is logged,
          which can introduce some latency into the system.  If this
          affects you, you can do a lookup yourself and initialize this
          handler using the looked-up IP address rather than the
          hostname.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘port’가 ‘None’으로 지정되면, ‘host’의 값을 사용
     하여 유닉스 도메인 소켓이 만들어집니다 - 그렇지 않으면 UDP 소켓이 만
     들어집니다.

      -- 메서드: emit ()

          레코드의 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리를 피클하고 바이너리 형식으로 소켓
          에 씁니다.  소켓에 에러가 있으면 조용히 패킷을 버립니다.  수신
          단에서 레코드를 *note LogRecord: fde.로 역 피클 하려면, *note
          makeLogRecord(): 2ca5. 함수를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: makeSocket ()

          UDP 소켓(*note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2.)을 만들기 위해 *note
          SocketHandler: f5a.의 팩토리 메서드가 여기에서 재정의되었습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: send (s)

          피클 된 바이트열을 소켓으로 보냅니다.  보낸 바이트열의 형식은
          *note SocketHandler.makePickle(): 2d0f. 설명서에 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: SysLogHandler,  Next: NTEventLogHandler,  Prev: DatagramHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.10 SysLogHandler
.......................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note SysLogHandler: 656. 클래스
는 원격 또는 로컬 유닉스 syslog로 로깅 메시지를 보내는 것을 지원합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.SysLogHandler (address=('localhost',
          SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER,
          socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     ‘(host, port)’ 튜플 형태의 'address'로 주어진 주소의 원격 유닉스 기
     계와 통신하기 위한 *note SysLogHandler: 656. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를
     돌려줍니다.  'address' 를 지정하지 않으면 ‘('localhost', 514)’가 사
     용됩니다.  주소는 소켓을 여는 데 사용됩니다.  ‘(host, port)’ 튜플을
     제공하는 대신, 주소를 문자열로 제공할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어
     ‘/dev/log’.  이 경우, 메시지를 syslog로 보내는데 유닉스 도메인 소켓
     이 사용됩니다.  'facility' 가 지정되지 않으면, ‘LOG_USER’가 사용됩
     니다.  열리는 소켓의 유형은 'socktype' 인자에 따라 달라지며, 기본값
     은 *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2.이고, 따라서 UDP 소켓이 열립니다.
     TCP 소켓을 열려면 (rsyslog와 같은 최신 syslog 데몬을 사용할 때),
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. 값을 지정하십시오.

     서버가 UDP 포트 514에서 수신을 기다리지 않으면, *note
     SysLogHandler: 656.가 작동하지 않는 것처럼 보일 수 있습니다.  이 경
     우, 도메인 소켓에 대해 사용해야 하는 주소를 확인하십시오 - 이는 시
     스템에 따라 다릅니다.  예를 들어 리눅스에서는 보통 ‘/dev/log’ 이지
     만 OS/X에서는 ‘/var/run/syslog’ 입니다.  플랫폼을 확인하고 적절한 주
     소를 사용해야 합니다 (응용 프로그램을 여러 플랫폼에서 실행해야 하는
     경우 실행 시간에 검사를 수행해야 할 수도 있습니다).  윈도우에서는,
     UDP 옵션을 사용해야 합니다.

          참고: On macOS 12.x (Monterey), Apple has changed the
          behaviour of their syslog daemon - it no longer listens on a
          domain socket.  Therefore, you cannot expect *note
          SysLogHandler: 656. to work on this system.

          See gh-91070(1) for more information.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'socktype' 이 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          원격 호스트로의 소켓을 닫습니다.

      -- 메서드: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket and, if it’s not a datagram socket,
          connect it to the other end.  This method is called during
          handler initialization, but it’s not regarded as an error if
          the other end isn’t listening at this point - the method will
          be called again when emitting an event, if there is no socket
          at that point.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          레코드가 포맷된 다음, syslog 서버로 전송됩니다.  예외 정보가 있
          으면, 서버로 보내 지지 '않습니다'.

          버전 3.2.1에서 변경: (bpo-12168(2)를 보세요.)  이전 버전에서,
          syslog 데몬으로 보낸 메시지는 NUL 바이트로 항상 종료되었는데,
          이전 버전의 데몬에서 관련 사양( RFC 5424(3))에 없는데도 불구하
          고 NUL 종료 메시지를 요구했기 때문입니다.  최신 버전의 데몬은
          NUL 바이트를 기대하지는 않지만, 있는 경우 이를 제거하고, 더 최
          근의 (RFC 5424와 더 가깝게 일치하는) 데몬은 NUL 바이트를 메시
          지 일부로 전달합니다.

          이러한 모든 다른 데몬 동작에 직면하여 syslog 메시지를 더욱 쉽
          게 처리할 수 있도록, NUL 바이트를 추가하는 작업은 클래스 수준
          어트리뷰트 ‘append_nul’을 사용하여 구성할 수 있게 만들었습니다
          .  기본값은 ‘True’(기존 동작 유지)이지만, 특정 인스턴스가 NUL
          종결자를 추가하지 '않도록' ‘SysLogHandler’ 인스턴스에서
          ‘False’로 설정할 수 있습니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: (bpo-12419(4)를 보세요.)  이전 버전에서는,
          메시지 소스를 식별하는 “ident” 나 “tag” 접두사를 위한 기능이 없
          었습니다.  이제는 클래스 수준의 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 지정할 수
          있습니다, ‘""’을 기본값으로 사용하여 기존 동작을 유지하지만,
          ‘SysLogHandler’ 인스턴스에서 재정의하여 해당 인스턴스가 처리하
          는 모든 메시지에 ident를 추가하도록 할 수 있습니다.  제공된
          ident는 바이트열이 아닌 텍스트여야 하며 그대로 메시지 앞에 추
          가됩니다.

      -- 메서드: encodePriority (facility, priority)

          시설(facility)과 우선순위를 정수로 인코딩합니다.  문자열이나 정
          수를 전달할 수 있습니다 - 문자열이 전달되면, 내부 매핑 딕셔너
          리를 사용하여 정수로 변환합니다.

          ‘LOG_’ 기호 값은 *note SysLogHandler: 656.에 정의되고
          ‘sys/syslog.h’ 헤더 파일에 정의된 값을 그대로 옮깁니다.

          '우선순위'

          이름 (문자열)                  기호 값
                                         
          ---------------------------------------------------
                                         
          ‘alert’                        LOG_ALERT
                                         
                                         
          ‘crit’ 또는 ‘critical’         LOG_CRIT
                                         
                                         
          ‘debug’                        LOG_DEBUG
                                         
                                         
          ‘emerg’ 또는 ‘panic’           LOG_EMERG
                                         
                                         
          ‘err’ 또는 ‘error’             LOG_ERR
                                         
                                         
          ‘info’                         LOG_INFO
                                         
                                         
          ‘notice’                       LOG_NOTICE
                                         
                                         
          ‘warn’ 또는 ‘warning’          LOG_WARNING
                                         

          '시설'

          이름 (문자열)       기호 값
                              
          ----------------------------------------
                              
          ‘auth’              LOG_AUTH
                              
                              
          ‘authpriv’          LOG_AUTHPRIV
                              
                              
          ‘cron’              LOG_CRON
                              
                              
          ‘daemon’            LOG_DAEMON
                              
                              
          ‘ftp’               LOG_FTP
                              
                              
          ‘kern’              LOG_KERN
                              
                              
          ‘lpr’               LOG_LPR
                              
                              
          ‘mail’              LOG_MAIL
                              
                              
          ‘news’              LOG_NEWS
                              
                              
          ‘syslog’            LOG_SYSLOG
                              
                              
          ‘user’              LOG_USER
                              
                              
          ‘uucp’              LOG_UUCP
                              
                              
          ‘local0’            LOG_LOCAL0
                              
                              
          ‘local1’            LOG_LOCAL1
                              
                              
          ‘local2’            LOG_LOCAL2
                              
                              
          ‘local3’            LOG_LOCAL3
                              
                              
          ‘local4’            LOG_LOCAL4
                              
                              
          ‘local5’            LOG_LOCAL5
                              
                              
          ‘local6’            LOG_LOCAL6
                              
                              
          ‘local7’            LOG_LOCAL7
                              

      -- 메서드: mapPriority (levelname)

          로깅 수준 이름을 syslog 우선순위 이름으로 매핑합니다.  사용자
          정의 수준을 사용하거나 기본 알고리즘이 여러분의 요구에 적합하
          지 않으면, 이 값을 재정의해야 할 수 있습니다.  기본 알고리즘은
          ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ 및 ‘CRITICAL’을 동등한
          syslog 이름으로 매핑하고, 다른 모든 수준 이름은 ‘warning’으로
          매핑합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12168

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12419


File: python.info,  Node: NTEventLogHandler,  Next: SMTPHandler,  Prev: SysLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.11 NTEventLogHandler
...........................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note NTEventLogHandler: 2d1e. 클
래스는 로깅 메시지를 로컬 윈도우 NT, 윈도우 2000 또는 윈도우 XP 이벤트 로
그로 보내는 것을 지원합니다.  사용할 수 있으려면 먼저 Mark Hammond의 파
이썬 용 Win32 확장이 설치되어 있어야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler (appname, dllname=None,
          logtype='Application')

     *note NTEventLogHandler: 2d1e. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.
     'appname' 은 이벤트 로그에 나타나는 응용 프로그램 이름을 정의하는 데
     사용됩니다.  이 이름을 사용하여 적절한 레지스트리 항목이 만들어집니
     다.  'dllname' 은 로그에 보관할 메시지 정의를 포함하는 .dll 또는
     .exe의 완전히 정규화된 경로명을 제공해야 합니다 (지정되지 않으면,
     ‘'win32service.pyd'’이 사용됩니다 - 이것은 Win32 확장과 함께 설치되
     며 몇 가지 기본 자리 표시자 메시지 정의를 포함합니다.  이 자리 표시
     자를 사용하면 전체 메시지 소스가 로그에 보관되므로 이벤트 로그가 커
     진다는 것에 유의하십시오.  간략한 로그를 원하면, 이벤트 로그에서 사
     용할 원하는 메시지 정의가 포함된 .dll 또는 .exe의 이름을 전달해야 합
     니다).  'logtype' 은 ‘'Application'’, ‘'System'’ 또는 ‘'Security'’
     중 하나이며, 기본값은 ‘'Application'’입니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          이 시점에서, 이벤트 로그 항목의 소스로서의 응용 프로그램 이름
          을 레지스트리에서 제거할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 이렇게 하면, 이
          벤트 로그 뷰어에서 의도한 대로 이벤트를 볼 수 없게 됩니다 - 이
          벤트 로그 뷰어는 .dll 이름을 가져오기 위해 레지스트리에 액세스
          할 수 있어야 합니다.  현재 버전은 그렇게 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          메시지 ID, 이벤트 범주 및 이벤트 유형을 결정한 다음, 메시지를
          NT 이벤트 로그에 기록합니다.

      -- 메서드: getEventCategory (record)

          레코드의 이벤트 범주를 반환합니다.  여러분 자신의 범주를 지정
          하려면, 이것을 재정의하십시오.  이 버전은 0을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: getEventType (record)

          레코드의 이벤트 유형을 반환합니다.  여러분 자신의 유형을 지정
          하려면, 이것을 재정의하십시오.  이 버전은 처리기의 typemap 어
          트리뷰트를 사용하여 매핑하는데, ‘__init__()’에서 ‘DEBUG’,
          ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ 및 ‘CRITICAL’에 대한 매핑이 포함된
          딕셔너리로 설정됩니다.  여러분 자신의 수준을 사용한다면, 이 메
          서드를 재정의하거나 처리기의 'typemap' 어트리뷰트에 적절한 딕
          셔너리를 배치해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: getMessageID (record)

          레코드의 메시지 ID를 반환합니다.  여러분 자신의 메시지를 사용
          한다면, 로거에 전달된 'msg'를 포맷 문자열이 아닌 ID로 사용할 수
          있습니다.  그런 다음 여기에서 딕셔너리 조회를 사용하여 메시지
          ID를 가져올 수 있습니다.  이 버전은 ‘win32service.pyd’의 기본
          메시지 ID인 1을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: SMTPHandler,  Next: MemoryHandler,  Prev: NTEventLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.12 SMTPHandler
.....................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note SMTPHandler: 1570. 클래스
는 SMTP를 통해 전자 메일 주소로 로깅 메시지를 보내는 것을 지원합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler (mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs,
          subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)

     *note SMTPHandler: 1570. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  인스턴
     스는 전자 메일의 보내는 주소, 받는 주소와 제목 줄을 사용하여 초기화
     됩니다.  'toaddrs' 는 문자열 리스트여야 합니다.  비표준 SMTP 포트를
     지정하려면, 'mailhost' 인자에 (host, port) 튜플 형식을 사용하십시오
     .  문자열을 사용하면 표준 SMTP 포트가 사용됩니다.  SMTP 서버가 인증
     을 요구하면, 'credentials' 인자에 (username, password) 튜플을 지정
     할 수 있습니다.

     보안 프로토콜(TLS)의 사용을 지정하려면, 'secure' 인자에 튜플을 전달
     하십시오.  이것은 인증 자격 증명(credentials)이 제공될 때만 사용됩
     니다.  튜플은 빈 튜플이거나, 키 파일 이름을 가진 단일 값 튜플이거나
     , 키 파일과 인증서 파일의 이름을 가진 2-튜플이어야 합니다.  (이 튜
     플은 *note smtplib.SMTP.starttls(): 1129. 메서드에 전달됩니다.)

     'timeout' 인자를 사용하여 SMTP 서버와의 통신에 시간제한을 지정할 수
     있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          레코드를 포맷하고 지정된 주소로 보냅니다.

      -- 메서드: getSubject (record)

          레코드에 종속적인 제목 줄을 지정하려면, 이 메서드를 재정의하십
          시오.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryHandler,  Next: HTTPHandler,  Prev: SMTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.13 MemoryHandler
.......................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note MemoryHandler: 2cd8. 클래
스는 메모리에 로깅 레코드를 버퍼링하고, 주기적으로 '대상 (target)' 처리
기로 플러시 하는 것을 지원합니다.  플러시는 버퍼가 꽉 찼거나 특정 심각도
이상의 이벤트가 발생할 때마다 발생합니다.

*note MemoryHandler: 2cd8.는 추상 클래스이면서, 더 일반적인 *note
BufferingHandler: 2d2a.의 서브 클래스입니다.  이것은 레코드 로깅을 메모
리에 버퍼링합니다.  각 레코드가 버퍼에 추가될 때마다, ‘shouldFlush()’를
호출하여 버퍼를 플러시 할지 확인합니다.  필요하면, ‘flush()’가 플러시를
수행할 것으로 기대합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.BufferingHandler (capacity)

     지정된 용량(capacity)의 버퍼로 처리기를 초기화합니다.  여기서
     'capacity'는 버퍼링 된 로깅 레코드 수를 의미합니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          레코드를 버퍼에 추가합니다.  *note shouldFlush(): 2d2c.가 참을
          반환하면 *note flush(): 2d2d.를 호출하여 버퍼를 처리합니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          For a *note BufferingHandler: 2d2a. instance, flushing means
          that it sets the buffer to an empty list.  This method can be
          overwritten to implement more useful flushing behavior.

      -- 메서드: shouldFlush (record)

          버퍼의 용량이 찼으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이 메서드는 사용자
          정의 플러시 전략을 구현하기 위해 재정의될 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.MemoryHandler (capacity, flushLevel=ERROR,
          target=None, flushOnClose=True)

     *note MemoryHandler: 2cd8. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  인스
     턴스는 'capacity'(버퍼 된 레코드 수)의 버퍼 크기로 초기화됩니다.
     'flushLevel'을 지정하지 않으면, ‘ERROR’가 사용됩니다.  'target' 이
     지정되지 않으면, 이 처리기가 유용한 것을 하기 전에, *note
     setTarget(): 2d2e.를 사용해 대상을 설정할 필요가 있습니다.
     'flushOnClose' 가 ‘False’로 지정되면, 처리기가 닫힐 때 버퍼가 플러
     시 되지 '않습니다'.  지정되지 않거나 ‘True’로 지정되면, 처리기가 닫
     힐 때 버퍼를 플러시 하는 이전 동작이 발생합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'flushOnClose' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          *note flush(): 2d30.를 호출하고, 대상(target)을 ‘None’으로 설
          정하고, 버퍼를 비웁니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          *note MemoryHandler: 2cd8. 인스턴스의 경우, 플러시는 버퍼링 된
          레코드가 있다면 대상으로 보내는 것을 뜻합니다.  버퍼링된 레코
          드가 대상에 전송될 때 버퍼도 지워집니다.  다른 행동을 원하면 재
          정의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: setTarget (target)

          이 처리기의 대상 처리기를 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: shouldFlush (record)

          버퍼 가득 참이나 레코드가 'flushLevel' 이상을 만드는지 확인합
          니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler,  Next: QueueHandler,  Prev: MemoryHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.14 HTTPHandler
.....................

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note HTTPHandler: e27. 클래스는
‘GET’ 또는 ‘POST’ 를 사용해서 로깅 메시지를 웹 서버로 보내는 것을 지원합
니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.HTTPHandler (host, url, method='GET',
          secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)

     *note HTTPHandler: e27. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  'host'
     는 특정 포트 번호를 사용해야 하면 ‘host:port’ 형식일 수 있습니다.
     'method' 를 지정하지 않으면 ‘GET’이 사용됩니다.  'secure' 가 참이면
     , HTTPS 연결이 사용됩니다.  'context' 매개 변수는 *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스로 설정되어, HTTPS 연결에 사용되는 SSL
     설정을 구성할 수 있습니다.  'credentials' 가 지정되면, 기본 인증을
     사용하여 HTTP ‘Authorization’ 헤더에 배치되는 사용자 ID와 암호로 구
     성된 2-튜플이어야 합니다.  credentials를 지정하면, 사용자 ID와 암호
     가 단순 텍스트로 전달되지 않도록 secure=True를 지정해야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'context' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: mapLogRecord (record)

          URL 인코딩되어 웹 서버로 전송되는, ‘record’에 기반한 딕셔너리
          를 제공합니다.  기본 구현은 ‘record.__dict__’를 반환합니다.  이
          메서드는 재정의할 수 있는데, 예를 들어 *note LogRecord: fde.의
          일부만 웹 서버로 보내지거나, 서버로 보내는 내용에 대한 보다 구
          체적인 사용자 정의가 필요한 경우입니다.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          URL 인코딩된 딕셔너리로 웹 서버에 레코드를 보냅니다.  *note
          mapLogRecord(): 2d34. 메서드가 레코드를 전송할 딕셔너리로 변환
          하는 데 사용됩니다.

          참고: 웹 서버로 보내기 위해 레코드를 준비하는 것은, 일반 포매
          팅 연산과 같지 않으므로, *note setFormatter(): 2c89.를 사용해
          서 *note HTTPHandler: e27.의 *note Formatter: 145b.를 지정하는
          것은 효과가 없습니다.  *note format(): 2c92.을 호출하는 대신,
          이 처리기는 *note mapLogRecord(): 2d34.를 호출한 다음, *note
          urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b.를 호출하여 웹 서버로 보내기에 적
          합한 형식으로 딕셔너리를 인코딩합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueHandler,  Next: QueueListener,  Prev: HTTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.15 QueueHandler
......................

Added in version 3.2.

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note QueueHandler: 17de. 클래스
는, *note queue: b6. 나 *note multiprocessing: 94. 모듈에 구현된 것과 같
은 큐에 로깅 메시지를 보내는 것을 지원합니다.

*note QueueListener: e28. 클래스와 함께, *note QueueHandler: 17de.를 사
용하여 처리기가 로깅을 수행하는 스레드와 다른 스레드에서 작업을 수행하도
록 할 수 있습니다.  이는 클라이언트를 처리하는 스레드가 가능한 한 신속하
게 응답하고, 느린 작업(가령 *note SMTPHandler: 1570.를 통해 전자 메일 보
내기)은 별도의 스레드에서 수행되어야 하는 웹 응용 프로그램과 다른 서비스
응용 프로그램에서 중요합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.QueueHandler (queue)

     *note QueueHandler: 17de. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  인스
     턴스는 메시지를 보낼 큐로 초기화됩니다.  'queue'는 임의의 큐류
     (queue-like) 객체일 수 있습니다; 메시지를 보내는 방법을 알아야 하는
     *note enqueue(): 2d38. 메서드가 있는 그대로 사용합니다.  큐는 작업
     추적 API를 갖도록 '요구되지' 않아서, 'queue'에 *note SimpleQueue:
     b67. 인스턴스를 사용할 수 있습니다.

          참고: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 94, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: b67. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 1802.

          경고: The *note multiprocessing: 94. module uses an internal
          logger created and accessed via *note get_logger(): 2d39.
          *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1802. will log ‘DEBUG’ level
          messages upon items being queued.  If those log messages are
          processed by a *note QueueHandler: 17de. using the same *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 1802. instance, it will cause a
          deadlock or infinite recursion.

      -- 메서드: emit (record)

          LogRecord를 준비한 결과를 큐에 넣습니다.  예외가 발생하면 (예
          를 들어, 유한(bounded) 큐가 다 차서), *note handleError():
          2c90. 메서드가 호출되어 에러를 처리합니다.  이로 인해 레코드가
          조용히 버려지거나 (*note logging.raiseExceptions: 11e8.가
          ‘False’ 인 경우), 메시지가 ‘sys.stderr’에 인쇄됩니다 (*note
          logging.raiseExceptions: 11e8.가 ‘True’ 인 경우).

      -- 메서드: prepare (record)

          큐에 넣기 위해 레코드를 준비합니다.  이 메서드에 의해 반환된 객
          체는 큐에 들어갑니다.

          The base implementation formats the record to merge the
          message, arguments, exception and stack information, if
          present.  It also removes unpickleable items from the record
          in-place.  Specifically, it overwrites the record’s ‘msg’ and
          ‘message’ attributes with the merged message (obtained by
          calling the handler’s *note format(): 619. method), and sets
          the ‘args’, ‘exc_info’ and ‘exc_text’ attributes to ‘None’.

          레코드를 dict 나 JSON 문자열로 변환하거나, 원본을 그대로 두고
          레코드의 수정 된 복사본을 보내길 원한다면 이 메서드를 재정의할
          수 있습니다.

               참고: The base implementation formats the message with
               arguments, sets the ‘message’ and ‘msg’ attributes to the
               formatted message and sets the ‘args’ and ‘exc_text’
               attributes to ‘None’ to allow pickling and to prevent
               further attempts at formatting.  This means that a
               handler on the *note QueueListener: e28. side won’t have
               the information to do custom formatting, e.g.  of
               exceptions.  You may wish to subclass ‘QueueHandler’ and
               override this method to e.g.  avoid setting ‘exc_text’ to
               ‘None’.  Note that the ‘message’ / ‘msg’ / ‘args’ changes
               are related to ensuring the record is pickleable, and you
               might or might not be able to avoid doing that depending
               on whether your ‘args’ are pickleable.  (Note that you
               may have to consider not only your own code but also code
               in any libraries that you use.)

      -- 메서드: enqueue (record)

          ‘put_nowait()’를 사용하여 큐에 레코드를 넣습니다; 블로킹 동작
          이나 시간제한이나, 사용자 정의 큐 구현을 사용하려면 이 메서드
          를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: listener

          When created via configuration using *note dictConfig(): 119f,
          this attribute will contain a *note QueueListener: e28.
          instance for use with this handler.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueListener,  Prev: QueueHandler,  Up: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기

5.16.6.16 QueueListener
.......................

Added in version 3.2.

*note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에 있는 *note QueueListener: e28. 클래스
는 *note queue: b6. 나 *note multiprocessing: 94. 모듈에 구현된 것과 같
은 큐에서 로깅 메시지를 수신하는 것을 지원합니다.  메시지는 내부 스레드
의 큐에서 수신되고 처리를 위해 같은 스레드에서 하나 이상의 처리기로 전달
됩니다.  *note QueueListener: e28. 자체는 처리기가 아니지만, *note
QueueHandler: 17de. 와 함께 사용되기 때문에 여기에 설명되어 있습니다.

*note QueueHandler: 17de. 클래스와 함께, *note QueueListener: e28.를 사
용하여 처리기가 로깅을 수행하는 스레드와 다른 스레드에서 작업을 수행하도
록 할 수 있습니다.  이는 클라이언트를 처리하는 스레드가 가능한 한 신속하
게 응답하고, 느린 작업(가령 *note SMTPHandler: 1570.를 통해 전자 메일 보
내기)은 별도의 스레드에서 수행되어야 하는 웹 응용 프로그램과 다른 서비스
응용 프로그램에서 중요합니다.

 -- 클래스: logging.handlers.QueueListener (queue, *handlers,
          respect_handler_level=False)

     *note QueueListener: e28. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  인스
     턴스는 메시지를 보내는 큐와 큐에 있는 항목을 처리할 처리기의 리스트
     로 초기화됩니다.  큐는 임의의 큐류(queue-like) 객체일 수 있습니다;
     메시지를 꺼내는 방법을 알아야 하는 *note dequeue(): 2d3e. 메서드가
     있는 그대로 사용합니다.  큐는 작업 추적 API를 갖도록 '요구되지' 않
     아서 (가능하면 사용됩니다), 'queue'에 *note SimpleQueue: b67. 인스
     턴스를 사용할 수 있습니다.

          참고: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 94, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: b67. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 1802.

     ‘respect_handler_level’이 ‘True’ 면, 처리기에 메시지를 전달할지를 결
     정할 때, 처리기의 수준이 존중됩니다 (메시지의 수준과 비교); 그렇지
     않으면, 이전 파이썬 버전과 같게 동작합니다 - 항상 각 메시지를 모든
     처리기에 전달합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘respect_handler_level’ 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: dequeue (block)

          레코드를 큐에서 꺼내 반환합니다.  선택적으로 블록 됩니다.

          기본 구현은 ‘get()’을 사용합니다.  시간제한을 사용하거나 사용
          자 정의 큐 구현을 사용하려면 이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: prepare (record)

          처리를 위해 레코드를 준비합니다.

          이 구현은 단지 전달된 레코드를 반환합니다.  사용자 정의 직렬화
          를 수행하거나 처리기에 전달하기 전에 레코드를 조작해야 하면, 이
          메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: handle (record)

          레코드를 처리합니다.

          이것은 단지 모든 처리기로 레코드를 제공합니다.  처리기에 전달
          되는 실제 객체는 *note prepare(): 2d3f.에서 반환된 객체입니다.

      -- 메서드: start ()

          수신기를 시작합니다.

          이것은 처리하기 위해 큐에서 LogRecord를 관찰하는 배경 스레드를
          시작합니다.

          버전 3.13.4에서 변경: Raises *note RuntimeError: 195. if
          called and the listener is already running.

      -- 메서드: stop ()

          수신기를 정지합니다.

          스레드가 종료하도록 요청한 다음, 스레드가 종료할 때까지 대기합
          니다.  응용 프로그램이 종료되기 전에 이 함수를 호출하지 않으면
          , 레코드가 큐에 남아있을 수 있고, 이것들은 처리되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: enqueue_sentinel ()

          수신자에게 종료하도록 알리기 위해 큐에 종료 신호(sentinel)를 씁
          니다.  이 구현은 ‘put_nowait()’를 사용합니다.  시간제한을 사용
          하거나 사용자 정의 큐 구현을 사용하려면 이 메서드를 재정의할 수
          있습니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note logging: 87.

     logging 모듈에 관한 API 레퍼런스.

모듈 *note logging.config: 88.

     logging 모듈용 구성 API.


File: python.info,  Node: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스,  Next: errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호,  Prev: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.7 ‘platform’ — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스
-----------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/platform.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     참고: 각 플랫폼은 알파벳순으로 나열되고, 리눅스는 유닉스 절에 포함
     됩니다.

* Menu:

* Cross platform::
* Java platform::
* Windows platform::
* macOS platform::
* iOS platform::
* Unix platforms::
* Linux platforms::
* Android platform::
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/platform.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cross platform,  Next: Java platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.1 Cross platform
.......................

 -- 함수: platform.architecture (executable=sys.executable, bits='',
          linkage='')

     다양한 아키텍처 정보에 대해 주어진 실행 파일(기본값은 파이썬 인터프
     리터 바이너리)을 조회합니다.

     실행 파일에 사용된 비트 아키텍처와 링크 형식에 대한 정보가 들어있는
     튜플 ‘(bits, linkage)’를 반환합니다.  두 값은 모두 문자열로 반환됩
     니다.

     결정할 수 없는 값은 매개 변수 사전 설정에 따라 반환됩니다.  bits가
     ‘''’로 주어지면, ‘sizeof(pointer)’(또는 파이썬 버전 < 1.5.2 에서는
     ‘sizeof(long)’)가 지원되는 포인터 크기를 나타내는 데 사용됩니다.

     함수는 시스템의 ‘file’ 명령을 사용하여 실제 작업을 수행합니다.  이
     것은 대부분(전부가 아니라면)의 유닉스 플랫폼과 일부 유닉스가 아닌 플
     랫폼에서 가능하며 실행 파일이 파이썬 인터프리터를 가리키는 경우에만
     가능합니다.  위의 요구가 충족되지 않으면 합리적인 기본값이 사용됩니
     다.

          참고: 맥 OS(그리고 아마도 다른 플랫폼에서도)에서, 실행 파일은
          다중 아키텍처를 포함하는 유니버설 파일일 수 있습니다.

          현재 인터프리터가 “64-비트” 인지를 판단하려면, *note
          sys.maxsize: 11b4. 어트리뷰트를 조회하는 것이 더 신뢰성 있습니
          다.:

               is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32

 -- 함수: platform.machine ()

     기계 유형을 반환합니다, 예를 들어 ‘'AMD64'’.  값을 판별할 수 없으면
     빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: platform.node ()

     컴퓨터의 네트워크 이름을 반환합니다 (완전히 정규화되지 않았을 수 있
     습니다!).  값을 판별할 수 없으면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: platform.platform (aliased=False, terse=False)

     하부 플랫폼을 식별하는 가능한 한 많은 유용한 정보를 포함하는 단일 문
     자열을 반환합니다.

     출력은 기계가 구문 분석하기보다는 '사람이 읽을 수' 있도록 합니다.  다
     른 플랫폼에서는 다르게 보일 수 있는데, 이는 의도 된 것입니다.

     'aliased'가 참이면, 함수는 일반 이름과 다른 시스템 이름을 보고하는
     다양한 플랫폼에 대해 별칭을 사용합니다, 예를 들어 SunOS는 Solaris로
     보고됩니다.  이를 구현하는 데 *note system_alias(): 2d48. 함수가 사
     용됩니다.

     'terse'를 참으로 설정하면 함수가 플랫폼을 식별하는 데 필요한 절대적
     으로 최소한의 정보만 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: macOS에서, 이 함수는 이제 darwin 버전 대신 macOS
     버전을 얻기 위해 *note mac_ver(): 1a3b. 를 사용합니다 (비어 있지 않
     은 릴리스 문자열을 반환한다면).

 -- 함수: platform.processor ()

     (실제) 프로세서 이름을 반환합니다, 예를 들어 ‘'amdk6'’.

     값을 판별할 수 없으면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.  많은 플랫폼이 이 정
     보를 제공하지 않거나 단순히 *note machine(): 2d46.과 같은 값을 반환
     함에 유의하십시오.  NetBSD가 그렇습니다.

 -- 함수: platform.python_build ()

     파이썬 빌드 번호와 날짜를 문자열로 나타내는 튜플 ‘(buildno,
     builddate)’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: platform.python_compiler ()

     파이썬 컴파일에 사용된 컴파일러를 식별하는 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: platform.python_branch ()

     파이썬 구현 SCM 브랜치를 식별하는 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: platform.python_implementation ()

     파이썬 구현을 식별하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  가능한 반환 값은 이렇
     습니다: ‘CPython’, ‘IronPython’, ‘Jython’, ‘PyPy’.

 -- 함수: platform.python_revision ()

     파이썬 구현 SCM 리비전을 식별하는 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: platform.python_version ()

     파이썬 버전을 문자열 ‘'major.minor.patchlevel'’로 반환합니다.

     파이썬 ‘sys.version’과 달리, 반환 값은 항상 patchlevel을 포함함에 유
     의하십시오 (기본값은 0입니다).

 -- 함수: platform.python_version_tuple ()

     파이썬 버전을 문자열의 튜플 ‘(major, minor, patchlevel)’로 반환합니
     다.

     파이썬 ‘sys.version’과 달리, 반환 값은 항상 patchlevel을 포함함에 유
     의하십시오 (기본값은 ‘'0'’입니다).

 -- 함수: platform.release ()

     시스템의 릴리스를 반환합니다, 예를 들어 ‘'2.2.0'’이나 ‘'NT'’.  값을
     판별할 수 없으면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: platform.system ()

     시스템/OS 이름을 반환합니다, 가령 ‘'Linux'’, ‘'Darwin'’, ‘'Java'’,
     ‘'Windows'’.  값을 판별할 수 없으면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

     On iOS and Android, this returns the user-facing OS name (i.e,
     ‘'iOS’, ‘'iPadOS'’ or ‘'Android'’).  To obtain the kernel name
     (‘'Darwin'’ or ‘'Linux'’), use *note os.uname(): 1107.

 -- 함수: platform.system_alias (system, release, version)

     일부 시스템에서 사용되는 상용 마케팅 이름으로 별칭 된 ‘(system,
     release, version)’을 반환합니다.  혼동을 일으킬 수 있는 일부 경우에
     정보의 순서를 변경하기도 합니다.

 -- 함수: platform.version ()

     시스템의 릴리스 버전을 반환합니다, 예를 들어 ‘'#3 on degas'’.  값을
     판별할 수 없으면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

     On iOS and Android, this is the user-facing OS version.  To obtain
     the Darwin or Linux kernel version, use *note os.uname(): 1107.

 -- 함수: platform.uname ()

     꽤 이식성 있는 uname 인터페이스.  *note system: 1e67, *note node:
     2d47, *note release: 2d51, *note version: 2d52, *note machine:
     2d46, *note processor: 2d49.의 6개의 어트리뷰트를 포함한 *note
     namedtuple(): 1ca.를 반환합니다.

     *note processor: 2d49.는 요청 시 늦게 확인됩니다.

     Note: the first two attribute names differ from the names presented
     by *note os.uname(): 1107, where they are named ‘sysname’ and
     ‘nodename’.

     결정할 수 없는 항목은 ‘''’로 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 결과가 튜플에서 *note namedtuple(): 1ca.로 변경
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: *note processor: 2d49. is resolved late instead
     of immediately.


File: python.info,  Node: Java platform,  Next: Windows platform,  Prev: Cross platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.2 Java platform
......................

 -- 함수: platform.java_ver (release='', vendor='', vminfo=('', '', ''),
          osinfo=('', '', ''))

     Jython의 버전 인터페이스.

     튜플 ‘(release, vendor, vminfo, osinfo)’를 반환하는데, 'vminfo'는 튜
     플 ‘(vm_name, vm_release, vm_vendor)’이고, 'osinfo'는 튜플
     ‘(os_name, os_version, os_arch)’입니다.  결정할 수 없는 값은 매개 변
     수로 지정된 기본값으로 설정됩니다 (기본값은 모두 ‘''’입니다).

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: It
     was largely untested, had a confusing API, and was only useful for
     Jython support.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows platform,  Next: macOS platform,  Prev: Java platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.3 Windows platform
.........................

 -- 함수: platform.win32_ver (release='', version='', csd='', ptype='')

     윈도우 레지스트리에서 추가 버전 정보를 얻고 OS 릴리스, 버전 번호,
     CSD 수준 (서비스 팩) 및 OS 유형(다중/단일 프로세서)을 가리키는 튜플
     ‘(release, version, csd, ptype)’를 반환합니다.  파악할 수 없는 값은
     매개 변수로 주어지는 기본값(모두 빈 문자열이 기본값입니다)으로 설정
     됩니다.

     힌트: 'ptype'은 단일 프로세서 NT 기계에서는 ‘'Uniprocessor Free'’이
     고 다중 프로세서 기계에서는 ‘'Multiprocessor Free'’입니다.
     ‘'Free'’는 디버깅 코드가 없는 OS 버전을 나타냅니다.  또한
     ‘'Checked'’를 언급할 수 있는데, OS 버전이 디버깅 코드, 즉 인자, 범
     위 등을 검사하는 코드를 사용한다는 것을 뜻합니다.

 -- 함수: platform.win32_edition ()

     현재 윈도우 에디션을 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다.  값을 파악할 수
     없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  가능한 값은 ‘'Enterprise'’,
     ‘'IoTUAP'’, ‘'ServerStandard'’ 및 ‘'nanoserver'’를 포함하지만 이에
     국한되지는 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: platform.win32_is_iot ()

     *note win32_edition(): 2d55.에 의해 반환된 윈도우 에디션이 IoT 에디
     션으로 인식되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS platform,  Next: iOS platform,  Prev: Windows platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.4 macOS platform
.......................

 -- 함수: platform.mac_ver (release='', versioninfo=('', '', ''),
          machine='')

     맥 OS 버전 정보를 얻고 튜플 ‘(release, versioninfo, machine)’으로 반
     환하는데, 'versioninfo'는 튜플 ‘(version, dev_stage,
     non_release_version)’입니다.

     결정할 수 없는 항목은 ‘''’로 설정됩니다.  모든 튜플 항목은 문자열입
     니다.


File: python.info,  Node: iOS platform,  Next: Unix platforms,  Prev: macOS platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.5 iOS platform
.....................

 -- 함수: platform.ios_ver (system='', release='', model='',
          is_simulator=False)

     Get iOS version information and return it as a *note namedtuple():
     1ca. with the following attributes:

        * ‘system’ is the OS name; either ‘'iOS'’ or ‘'iPadOS'’.

        * ‘release’ is the iOS version number as a string (e.g.,
          ‘'17.2'’).

        * ‘model’ is the device model identifier; this will be a string
          like ‘'iPhone13,2'’ for a physical device, or ‘'iPhone'’ on a
          simulator.

        * ‘is_simulator’ is a boolean describing if the app is running
          on a simulator or a physical device.

     판단할 수 없는 항목은 매개 변수로 주어지는 기본값으로 설정됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix platforms,  Next: Linux platforms,  Prev: iOS platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.6 Unix platforms
.......................

 -- 함수: platform.libc_ver (executable=sys.executable, lib='',
          version='', chunksize=16384)

     파일 executable(기본값은 파이썬 인터프리터입니다)이 링크된 libc 버
     전을 확인하려고 시도합니다.  문자열의 튜플 ‘(lib, version)’을 반환
     하는데, 조회가 실패하면 지정된 매개 변수를 기본값으로 사용합니다.

     다른 libc 버전이 실행 파일에 심볼을 추가하는 방법에 대해 이 함수가
     가진 지식은 아마도 ‘gcc’로 컴파일된 실행 파일에서만 사용 가능하다는
     것에 유의하십시오.

     파일은 'chunksize' 바이트의 청크 단위로 읽고 스캔됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Linux platforms,  Next: Android platform,  Prev: Unix platforms,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.7 Linux platforms
........................

 -- 함수: platform.freedesktop_os_release ()

     Get operating system identification from ‘os-release’ file and
     return it as a dict.  The ‘os-release’ file is a freedesktop.org
     standard(1) and is available in most Linux distributions.  A
     noticeable exception is Android and Android-based distributions.

     Raises *note OSError: 411. or subclass when neither
     ‘/etc/os-release’ nor ‘/usr/lib/os-release’ can be read.

     On success, the function returns a dictionary where keys and values
     are strings.  Values have their special characters like ‘"’ and ‘$’
     unquoted.  The fields ‘NAME’, ‘ID’, and ‘PRETTY_NAME’ are always
     defined according to the standard.  All other fields are optional.
     Vendors may include additional fields.

     Note that fields like ‘NAME’, ‘VERSION’, and ‘VARIANT’ are strings
     suitable for presentation to users.  Programs should use fields
     like ‘ID’, ‘ID_LIKE’, ‘VERSION_ID’, or ‘VARIANT_ID’ to identify
     Linux distributions.

     예제:

          def get_like_distro():
              info = platform.freedesktop_os_release()
              ids = [info["ID"]]
              if "ID_LIKE" in info:
                  # id 들은 공백으로 구분되고 우선 순위에 따라 정렬됩니다
                  ids.extend(info["ID_LIKE"].split())
              return ids

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html


File: python.info,  Node: Android platform,  Next: Command-line usage<2>,  Prev: Linux platforms,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.8 Android platform
.........................

 -- 함수: platform.android_ver (release='', api_level=0,
          manufacturer='', model='', device='', is_emulator=False)

     Get Android device information.  Returns a *note namedtuple(): 1ca.
     with the following attributes.  Values which cannot be determined
     are set to the defaults given as parameters.

        * ‘release’ - Android version, as a string (e.g.  ‘"14"’).

        * ‘api_level’ - API level of the running device, as an integer
          (e.g.  ‘34’ for Android 14).  To get the API level which
          Python was built against, see *note sys.getandroidapilevel():
          b87.

        * ‘manufacturer’ - Manufacturer name(1).

        * ‘model’ - Model name(2) – typically the marketing name or
          model number.

        * ‘device’ - Device name(3) – typically the model number or a
          codename.

        * ‘is_emulator’ - ‘True’ if the device is an emulator; ‘False’
          if it’s a physical device.

     Google maintains a list of known model and device names(4).

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MANUFACTURER

   (2) https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MODEL

   (3) https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#DEVICE

   (4) https://storage.googleapis.com/play_public/supported_devices.html


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<2>,  Prev: Android platform,  Up: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스

5.16.7.9 Command-line usage
...........................

*note platform: aa. can also be invoked directly using the *note -m:
5db. switch of the interpreter:

     python -m platform [--terse] [--nonaliased] [{nonaliased,terse} ...]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: --terse

     Print terse information about the platform.  This is equivalent to
     calling *note platform.platform(): 175c. with the 'terse' argument
     set to ‘True’.

 -- Option: --nonaliased

     Print platform information without system/OS name aliasing.  This
     is equivalent to calling *note platform.platform(): 175c. with the
     'aliased' argument set to ‘True’.

You can also pass one or more positional arguments (‘terse’,
‘nonaliased’) to explicitly control the output format.  These behave
similarly to their corresponding options.


File: python.info,  Node: errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호,  Next: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.8 ‘errno’ — 표준 errno 시스템 기호
---------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 표준 ‘errno’ 시스템 기호를 제공합니다.  각 기호의 값은 해당 정
숫값입니다.  이름과 설명은 ‘linux/include/errno.h’에서 빌려 왔는데, 포괄
적이어야 합니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.errorcode

     errno 값에서 하부 시스템의 문자열 이름으로의 매핑을 제공하는 딕셔너
     리입니다.  예를 들어, ‘errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]’는 ‘'EPERM'’로
     매핑됩니다.

숫자 에러 코드를 에러 메시지로 변환하려면, *note os.strerror(): 2b38.를
사용하십시오.

다음 목록에서, 현재 플랫폼에서 사용되지 않는 기호는 모듈에서 정의하지 않
습니다.  정의된 기호의 구체적인 목록은 ‘errno.errorcode.keys()’로 사용 가
능합니다.  사용할 수 있는 기호는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: errno.EPERM

     Operation not permitted.  이 에러는 예외 *note PermissionError:
     d3f.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOENT

     No such file or directory – 그런 파일이나 디렉터리가 없습니다.  이
     에러는 예외 *note FileNotFoundError: 425.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ESRCH

     No such process – 그런 프로세스가 없습니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     ProcessLookupError: 1051.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EINTR

     Interrupted system call – 중단된 시스템 호출.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     InterruptedError: d84.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EIO

     I/O error – I/O 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.ENXIO

     No such device or address – 그런 장치나 주소가 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.E2BIG

     Arg list too long – 인자 목록이 너무 깁니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOEXEC

     Exec format error – Exec 포맷 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADF

     Bad file number – 잘못된 파일 번호

 -- 데이터: errno.ECHILD

     No child processes – 그런 자식 프로세스가 없습니다.  이 에러는 예외
     *note ChildProcessError: 104e.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EAGAIN

     Try again – 다시 시도하십시오.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     BlockingIOError: 104d.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOMEM

     Out of memory – 메모리 부족

 -- 데이터: errno.EACCES

     Permission denied – 사용 권한이 거부되었습니다.  이 에러는 예외
     *note PermissionError: d3f.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EFAULT

     Bad address – 잘못된 주소

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTBLK

     Block device required – 블록 장치가 필요합니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EBUSY

     Device or resource busy – 장치나 자원이 사용 중입니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EEXIST

     File exists – 파일이 존재합니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     FileExistsError: 1016.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EXDEV

     Cross-device link – 장치 간 링크

 -- 데이터: errno.ENODEV

     No such device – 그런 장치가 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTDIR

     Not a directory – 디렉터리가 아닙니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     NotADirectoryError: 1050.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EISDIR

     Is a directory – 디렉터리입니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     IsADirectoryError: 104f.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EINVAL

     Invalid argument – 잘못된 인자

 -- 데이터: errno.ENFILE

     File table overflow – 파일 테이블 오버플로

 -- 데이터: errno.EMFILE

     Too many open files – 열려있는 파일이 너무 많습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTTY

     Not a typewriter – 타자기가 아닙니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ETXTBSY

     Text file busy – 텍스트 파일이 사용 중입니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EFBIG

     File too large – 파일이 너무 큽니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOSPC

     No space left on device – 장치에 남은 공간이 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ESPIPE

     Illegal seek – 잘못된 탐색

 -- 데이터: errno.EROFS

     Read-only file system – 읽기 전용 파일 시스템

 -- 데이터: errno.EMLINK

     Too many links – 링크가 너무 많습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EPIPE

     Broken pipe – 깨진 파이프.  이 에러는 예외 *note BrokenPipeError:
     1052.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EDOM

     Math argument out of domain of func – 함수의 범위를 벗어난 수학 인
     자

 -- 데이터: errno.ERANGE

     Math result not representable – 수학 결과를 표현할 수 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EDEADLK

     Resource deadlock would occur – 자원 교착 상태가 발생합니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENAMETOOLONG

     File name too long – 파일 이름이 너무 깁니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOLCK

     No record locks available – 사용 가능한 레코드 록이 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOSYS

     Function not implemented – 기능이 구현되지 않았습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTEMPTY

     Directory not empty – 디렉터리가 비어 있지 않습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ELOOP

     Too many symbolic links encountered – 마주친 심볼릭 링크가 너무 많
     습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EWOULDBLOCK

     Operation would block – 연산이 블록 됩니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     BlockingIOError: 104d.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOMSG

     No message of desired type – 원하는 유형의 메시지가 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EIDRM

     Identifier removed – 식별자가 삭제되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ECHRNG

     Channel number out of range – 채널 번호가 범위를 벗어났습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EL2NSYNC

     Level 2 not synchronized – 수준 2가 동기화되지 않았습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EL3HLT

     Level 3 halted – 수준 3이 정지되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EL3RST

     Level 3 reset – 수준 3이 재설정되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ELNRNG

     Link number out of range – 링크 번호가 범위를 벗어났습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EUNATCH

     Protocol driver not attached – 프로토콜 드라이버가 연결되지 않았습
     니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOCSI

     No CSI structure available – 사용 가능한 CSI 구조가 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EL2HLT

     Level 2 halted – 수준 2가 중지되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADE

     Invalid exchange – 잘못된 교환

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADR

     Invalid request descriptor – 잘못된 요청 기술자

 -- 데이터: errno.EXFULL

     Exchange full – 교환 포화

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOANO

     No anode – anode가 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADRQC

     Invalid request code – 유효하지 않은 요청 코드

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADSLT

     Invalid slot – 유효하지 않은 슬롯

 -- 데이터: errno.EDEADLOCK

     File locking deadlock error – 파일 잠금 교착 상태 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EBFONT

     Bad font file format – 잘못된 글꼴 파일 형식

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOSTR

     Device not a stream – 장치가 스트림이 아닙니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENODATA

     No data available – 데이터가 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ETIME

     Timer expired – 타이머가 만료되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOSR

     Out of streams resources – 스트림 자원 부족

 -- 데이터: errno.ENONET

     Machine is not on the network – 기계가 네트워크에 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOPKG

     Package not installed – 패키지가 설치되지 않았습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EREMOTE

     Object is remote – 객체가 원격입니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOLINK

     Link has been severed – 링크가 절단되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EADV

     Advertise error – 광고 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.ESRMNT

     Srmount error – srmount 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.ECOMM

     Communication error on send – 전송 시 통신 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROTO

     Protocol error – 프로토콜 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EMULTIHOP

     Multihop attempted – 다중 홉을 시도했습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EDOTDOT

     RFS specific error – RFS 특정 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADMSG

     Not a data message – 데이터 메시지가 아닙니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EOVERFLOW

     Value too large for defined data type – 정의된 데이터형에 비해 값이
     너무 큽니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTUNIQ

     Name not unique on network – 이름이 네트워크에서 고유하지 않습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADFD

     File descriptor in bad state – 잘못된 상태의 파일 기술자

 -- 데이터: errno.EREMCHG

     Remote address changed – 원격 주소가 변경되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ELIBACC

     Can not access a needed shared library – 필요한 공유 라이브러리에 액
     세스할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ELIBBAD

     Accessing a corrupted shared library – 손상된 공유 라이브러리 액세
     스

 -- 데이터: errno.ELIBSCN

     .lib section in a.out corrupted – 손상된 a.out의 .lib 섹션

 -- 데이터: errno.ELIBMAX

     Attempting to link in too many shared libraries – 너무 많은 공유 라
     이브러리 연결 시도

 -- 데이터: errno.ELIBEXEC

     Cannot exec a shared library directly – 공유 라이브러리를 직접 실행
     할 수 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EILSEQ

     Illegal byte sequence – 잘못된 바이트 시퀀스

 -- 데이터: errno.ERESTART

     Interrupted system call should be restarted – 중단된 시스템 호출을
     다시 시작해야 합니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ESTRPIPE

     Streams pipe error – 스트림 파이프 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EUSERS

     Too many users – 사용자가 너무 많습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTSOCK

     Socket operation on non-socket – 비 소켓에 대한 소켓 연산

 -- 데이터: errno.EDESTADDRREQ

     Destination address required – 목적지 주소가 필요합니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EMSGSIZE

     Message too long – 메시지가 너무 깁니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROTOTYPE

     Protocol wrong type for socket – 소켓에 대한 프로토콜 유형이 잘못되
     었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOPROTOOPT

     Protocol not available – 프로토콜을 사용할 수 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT

     Protocol not supported – 지원되지 않는 프로토콜

 -- 데이터: errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT

     Socket type not supported – 지원되지 않는 소켓 유형

 -- 데이터: errno.EOPNOTSUPP

     Operation not supported on transport endpoint – 트랜스포트 끝점에서
     지원되지 않는 연산

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTSUP

     Operation not supported – 지원되지 않는 연산

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EPFNOSUPPORT

     Protocol family not supported – 지원되지 않는 프로토콜 패밀리

 -- 데이터: errno.EAFNOSUPPORT

     Address family not supported by protocol – 프로토콜이 지원하지 않는
     주소 패밀리

 -- 데이터: errno.EADDRINUSE

     Address already in use – 이미 사용 중인 주소

 -- 데이터: errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL

     Cannot assign requested address – 요청된 주소를 할당할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENETDOWN

     Network is down – 네트워크가 다운되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENETUNREACH

     Network is unreachable – 네트워크에 도달할 수 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENETRESET

     Network dropped connection because of reset – 재설정으로 인해 네트
     워크 연결이 끊겼습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ECONNABORTED

     Software caused connection abort – 소프트웨어로 인해 연결이 중단되
     었습니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1053.로 매
     핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ECONNRESET

     Connection reset by peer – 피어에 의한 연결 재설정.  이 에러는 예외
     *note ConnectionResetError: 1055.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOBUFS

     No buffer space available – 사용 가능한 버퍼 공간이 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EISCONN

     Transport endpoint is already connected – 트랜스포트 끝점이 이미 연
     결되어 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTCONN

     Transport endpoint is not connected – 트랜스포트 끝점이 연결되어 있
     지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ESHUTDOWN

     Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown – 트랜스포트 끝점 종
     료 후에 보낼 수 없습니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note BrokenPipeError:
     1052.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ETOOMANYREFS

     Too many references: cannot splice – 참조가 너무 많습니다: 연결할 수
     없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ETIMEDOUT

     Connection timed out – 연결 시간이 초과하였습니다.  이 에러는 예외
     *note TimeoutError: 82f.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ECONNREFUSED

     Connection refused – 연결이 거부되었습니다.  이 에러는 예외 *note
     ConnectionRefusedError: 1054.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EHOSTDOWN

     Host is down – 호스트가 다운되었습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EHOSTUNREACH

     No route to host – 호스트로 가는 길이 없습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EALREADY

     Operation already in progress – 이미 진행 중인 연산.  이 에러는 예
     외 *note BlockingIOError: 104d.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.EINPROGRESS

     Operation now in progress – 이제 연산이 진행 중입니다.  이 에러는 예
     외 *note BlockingIOError: 104d.로 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: errno.ESTALE

     Stale NFS file handle – 오래된 NFS 파일 핸들

 -- 데이터: errno.EUCLEAN

     Structure needs cleaning – 구조 청소 필요

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTNAM

     Not a XENIX named type file – XENIX 이름 붙은 형식 파일이 아닙니다

 -- 데이터: errno.ENAVAIL

     No XENIX semaphores available – 사용할 수 있는 XENIX 세마포어가 없
     습니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EISNAM

     Is a named type file – 이름 붙은 형식 파일입니다

 -- 데이터: errno.EREMOTEIO

     Remote I/O error – 원격 I/O 에러

 -- 데이터: errno.EDQUOT

     Quota exceeded – 할당량 초과

 -- 데이터: errno.EQFULL

     Interface output queue is full

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOMEDIUM

     No medium found

 -- 데이터: errno.EMEDIUMTYPE

     Wrong medium type

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOKEY

     Required key not available

 -- 데이터: errno.EKEYEXPIRED

     Key has expired

 -- 데이터: errno.EKEYREVOKED

     Key has been revoked

 -- 데이터: errno.EKEYREJECTED

     Key was rejected by service

 -- 데이터: errno.ERFKILL

     Operation not possible due to RF-kill

 -- 데이터: errno.ELOCKUNMAPPED

     Locked lock was unmapped

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTACTIVE

     Facility is not active

 -- 데이터: errno.EAUTH

     Authentication error

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADARCH

     Bad CPU type in executable

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADEXEC

     Bad executable (or shared library)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADMACHO

     Malformed Mach-o file

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EDEVERR

     Device error

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EFTYPE

     Inappropriate file type or format

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENEEDAUTH

     Need authenticator

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOATTR

     Attribute not found

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOPOLICY

     Policy not found

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROCLIM

     Too many processes

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROCUNAVAIL

     Bad procedure for program

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROGMISMATCH

     Program version wrong

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EPROGUNAVAIL

     RPC prog.  not avail

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EPWROFF

     Device power is off

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EBADRPC

     RPC struct is bad

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ERPCMISMATCH

     RPC version wrong

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ESHLIBVERS

     Shared library version mismatch

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTCAPABLE

     Capabilities insufficient.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: d3f.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: WASI, FreeBSD

     Added in version 3.11.1.

 -- 데이터: errno.ECANCELED

     Operation canceled

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.EOWNERDEAD

     Owner died

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: errno.ENOTRECOVERABLE

     State not recoverable

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호,  Up: 일반 운영 체제 서비스

5.16.9 ‘ctypes’ — A foreign function library for Python
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ctypes(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ctypes: 2a.는 파이썬용 외부 함수(foreign function) 라이브러리입니
다.  C 호환 데이터형을 제공하며, DLL 또는 공유 라이브러리에 있는 함수를
호출할 수 있습니다.  이 라이브러리들을 순수 파이썬으로 감싸는 데 사용할
수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* ctypes 자습서::
* ctypes 레퍼런스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ctypes


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes 자습서,  Next: ctypes 레퍼런스,  Up: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

5.16.9.1 ctypes 자습서
......................

Note: The code samples in this tutorial use *note doctest: 3a. to make
sure that they actually work.  Since some code samples behave
differently under Linux, Windows, or macOS, they contain doctest
directives in comments.

참고: 일부 코드 예제는 ctypes *note c_int: 2de7. 형을 참조합니다.
‘sizeof(long) == sizeof(int)’인 플랫폼에서, 이는 *note c_long: 2de8.의 별
칭입니다.  따라서 *note c_int: 2de7.를 기대할 때 *note c_long: 2de8.가 인
쇄되더라도 혼란스러워하지 않아도 됩니다 — 이것들은 실제로 같은 형입니다.

* Menu:

* 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드하기::
* 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기::
* 함수 호출하기::
* 기본 데이터형::
* 함수 호출하기, 계속: 함수 호출하기 계속.
* Calling variadic functions::
* 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기::
* 필수 인자 형 (함수 프로토타입) 지정하기: 필수 인자 형 함수 프로토타입 지정하기.
* 반환형::
* 포인터 전달하기 (또는; 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기): 포인터 전달하기 또는 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기.
* 구조체와 공용체::
* 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서::
* 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드::
* 배열::
* 포인터::
* 형 변환::
* 불완전한 형::
* 콜백 함수::
* dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기::
* 의외의 것들::
* 가변 크기 데이터형::


File: python.info,  Node: 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드하기,  Next: 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.2 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드하기
......................................

*note ctypes: 2a.는 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드를 위해 'cdll'을, 그리고 윈
도우에서는 'windll' 및 'oledll' 객체를, 노출합니다.

You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects.
'cdll' loads libraries which export functions using the standard ‘cdecl’
calling convention, while 'windll' libraries call functions using the
‘stdcall’ calling convention.  'oledll' also uses the ‘stdcall’ calling
convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows ‘HRESULT’ error
code.  The error code is used to automatically raise an *note OSError:
411. exception when the function call fails.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 윈도우 에러는 *note WindowsError: 104a.를 일으켜왔습
니다.  이제는 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

Here are some examples for Windows.  Note that ‘msvcrt’ is the MS
standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the
‘cdecl’ calling convention:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> print(windll.kernel32)
     <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
     >>> print(cdll.msvcrt)
     <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = cdll.msvcrt
     >>>

윈도우는 일반적인 ‘.dll’ 파일 접미사를 자동으로 추가합니다.

     참고: ‘cdll.msvcrt’를 통해 표준 C 라이브러리에 액세스하면 파이썬에
     서 사용되는 라이브러리와 호환되지 않는 오래된 라이브러리 버전이 사
     용됩니다.  가능하면 파이썬 자체의 기능을 사용하거나, ‘msvcrt’ 모듈
     을 임포트 해서 사용하십시오.

On Linux, it is required to specify the filename 'including' the
extension to load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load
libraries.  Either the *note LoadLibrary(): 2deb. method of the dll
loaders should be used, or you should load the library by creating an
instance of CDLL by calling the constructor:

     >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")
     >>> libc
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기,  Next: 함수 호출하기,  Prev: 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.3 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기
.........................................

함수는 dll 객체의 어트리뷰트로 액세스 됩니다:

     >>> libc.printf
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
     >>>

Note that win32 system dlls like ‘kernel32’ and ‘user32’ often export
ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function.  The UNICODE version is
exported with a ‘W’ appended to the name, while the ANSI version is
exported with an ‘A’ appended to the name.  The win32 ‘GetModuleHandle’
function, which returns a 'module handle' for a given module name, has
the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as
‘GetModuleHandle’ depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not:

     /* ANSI version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
     /* UNICODE version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);

'windll'는 마술적으로 이 중 하나를 선택하려고 하지 않으므로,
‘GetModuleHandleA’ 나 ‘GetModuleHandleW’를 명시적으로 지정하여 필요한 버
전에 액세스해야 하고, 그런 다음 각각 바이트열이나 문자열 객체로 호출해야
합니다.

때때로, dll은 ‘"??2@YAPAXI@Z"’와 같은 유효한 파이썬 식별자가 아닌 이름으
로 함수를 내보냅니다.  이때는 *note getattr(): bce.를 사용하여 함수를 조
회해야 합니다:

     >>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>>

윈도우에서, 일부 dll은 이름이 아니라 서수(ordinal)로 함수를 내보냅니다.
이 함수는 서수로 dll 객체를 인덱싱하여 액세스할 수 있습니다:

     >>> cdll.kernel32[1]
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> cdll.kernel32[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 호출하기,  Next: 기본 데이터형,  Prev: 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.4 함수 호출하기
......................

You can call these functions like any other Python callable.  This
example uses the ‘rand()’ function, which takes no arguments and returns
a pseudo-random integer:

     >>> print(libc.rand())
     1804289383

On Windows, you can call the ‘GetModuleHandleA()’ function, which
returns a win32 module handle (passing ‘None’ as single argument to call
it with a ‘NULL’ pointer):

     >>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))
     0x1d000000
     >>>

‘cdecl’ 호출 규칙을 사용하여 ‘stdcall’ 함수를 호출하면 *note ValueError:
202.가 발생하고, 그 반대도 마찬가지입니다:

     >>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
     >>>

     >>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
     >>>

올바른 호출 규칙을 찾으려면 C 헤더 파일이나 호출할 함수에 대한 설명서를
살펴봐야 합니다.

윈도우에서, *note ctypes: 2a.는 함수가 유효하지 않은 인자 값을 사용하여
호출될 때, 일반적인 보호 오류로 인한 충돌을 방지하기 위해 win32 구조적 예
외 처리를 사용합니다:

     >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
     >>>

그러나, *note ctypes: 2a.로 파이썬을 충돌시킬 방법이 많으므로, 어쨌든 주
의해야 합니다.  *note faulthandler: 58. 모듈은 충돌을 디버깅하는 데 도움
이 될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, 오류가 있는 C 라이브러리 호출로 인한 세그
먼트 오류).

‘None’, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only
native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these
function calls.  ‘None’ is passed as a C ‘NULL’ pointer, bytes objects
and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains
their data (char* or wchar_t*).  Python integers are passed as the
platform’s default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C
type.

다른 매개 변수 형으로 함수를 호출하기 전에, *note ctypes: 2a. 데이터형에
대해 더 알아야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 데이터형,  Next: 함수 호출하기 계속,  Prev: 함수 호출하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.5 기본 데이터형
......................

*note ctypes: 2a.는 많은 기본적인 C 호환 데이터형을 정의합니다.:

ctypes 형                  C 형                                           파이썬 형
                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
*note c_bool: 2df2.        _Bool                                          bool (1)
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char: 2df3.        char                                           1-문자 바이트열 객체
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar: 2df4.       ‘wchar_t’                                      1-문자 문자열
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_byte: 1776.        char                                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ubyte: 1777.       unsigned char                                  int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_short: 2df5.       short                                          int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ushort: 2df6.      unsigned short                                 int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int: 2de7.         int                                            int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int8: 2df7.        ‘int8_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int16: 2df8.       ‘int16_t’                                      int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int32: 2df9.       ‘int32_t’                                      int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int64: 2dfa.       ‘int64_t’                                      int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint: 2dfb.        unsigned int                                   int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint8: 2dfc.       ‘uint8_t’                                      int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint16: 2dfd.      ‘uint16_t’                                     int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint32: 2dfe.      ‘uint32_t’                                     int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint64: 2dff.      ‘uint64_t’                                     int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_long: 2de8.        long                                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulong: 2e00.       unsigned long                                  int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longlong: 2e01.    __int64 or long long                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulonglong: 2e02.   unsigned __int64 or unsigned long long         int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_size_t: 2e03.      ‘size_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ssize_t: 122c.     ‘ssize_t’ or *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.            int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_time_t: 17e0.      ‘time_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_float: 2e04.       float                                          float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_double: 1901.      double                                         float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longdouble: 1902.  long double                                    float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char_p: 16ed.      char* (NUL terminated)                         바이트열 객체나 ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar_p: 16ee.     wchar_t* (NUL terminated)                      문자열이나 ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_void_p: 16ef.      void*                                          int 나 ‘None’
                                                                          

  1. 생성자는 논릿값을 가진 모든 객체를 받아들입니다.

이 모든 형은 올바른 형과 값의 선택적 초기화자로 호출해서 만들어질 수 있
습니다:

     >>> c_int()
     c_long(0)
     >>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
     c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
     >>> c_ushort(-3)
     c_ushort(65533)
     >>>

이러한 형은 가변이므로, 값을 나중에 변경할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(42)
     >>> print(i.value)
     42
     >>> i.value = -99
     >>> print(i.value)
     -99
     >>>

Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types *note c_char_p:
16ed, *note c_wchar_p: 16ee, and *note c_void_p: 16ef. changes the
'memory location' they point to, 'not the contents' of the memory block
(of course not, because Python string objects are immutable):

     >>> s = "Hello, World"
     >>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
     >>> print(c_s)
     c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hello World
     >>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
     >>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
     c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hi, there
     >>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
     Hello, World
     >>>

그러나, 이것들을 가변 메모리에 대한 포인터를 예상하는 함수에 전달하지 않
도록 주의해야 합니다.  가변 메모리 블록이 필요하다면, ctypes에는 다양한
방법으로 이를 만드는 *note create_string_buffer(): 2e05. 함수가 있습니다
.  현재 메모리 블록 내용은 ‘raw’ 프로퍼티를 사용하여 액세스(또는 변경)할
수 있습니다; NUL 종료 문자열로 액세스하려면 ‘value’ 프로퍼티를 사용하십
시오:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     6 b'Hello\x00'
     >>> print(repr(p.value))
     b'Hello'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p.value = b"Hi"
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>>

The *note create_string_buffer(): 2e05. function replaces the old
‘c_buffer()’ function (which is still available as an alias).  To create
a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type
‘wchar_t’, use the *note create_unicode_buffer(): 19d6. function.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 호출하기 계속,  Next: Calling variadic functions,  Prev: 기본 데이터형,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.6 함수 호출하기, 계속
............................

printf는 *note sys.stdout: ad3.이 '아니라' 실제 표준 출력으로 인쇄하므로
, 이 예제는 콘솔 프롬프트에서만 작동하고 'IDLE' 이나 'PythonWin'에서는 작
동하지 않음에 유의하십시오:

     >>> printf = libc.printf
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
     >>>

이전에 언급했듯이, 정수, 문자열 및 바이트열 객체를 제외한 모든 파이썬 형
은 필요한 C 데이터형으로 변환될 수 있도록 해당하는 *note ctypes: 2a. 형
으로 래핑 되어야 합니다:

     >>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
     An int 1234, a double 3.140000
     31
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling variadic functions,  Next: 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기,  Prev: 함수 호출하기 계속,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.7 Calling variadic functions
...................................

On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is
exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters.
On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the
calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for
regular functions.

On those platforms it is required to specify the *note argtypes: 2e0a.
attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:

     libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]

Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is
advised to always specify *note argtypes: 2e0a. for all variadic
functions.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기,  Next: 필수 인자 형 함수 프로토타입 지정하기,  Prev: Calling variadic functions,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.8 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기
......................................................

You can also customize *note ctypes: 2a. argument conversion to allow
instances of your own classes be used as function arguments.  *note
ctypes: 2a. looks for an ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute and uses this as the
function argument.  The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a
*note ctypes: 2a. instance, or an object with an ‘_as_parameter_’
attribute:

     >>> class Bottles:
     ...     def __init__(self, number):
     ...         self._as_parameter_ = number
     ...
     >>> bottles = Bottles(42)
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>>

If you don’t want to store the instance’s data in the ‘_as_parameter_’
instance variable, you could define a *note property: 194. which makes
the attribute available on request.


File: python.info,  Node: 필수 인자 형 함수 프로토타입 지정하기,  Next: 반환형,  Prev: 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.9 필수 인자 형 (함수 프로토타입) 지정하기
................................................

It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions
exported from DLLs by setting the *note argtypes: 2e0a. attribute.

*note argtypes: 2e0a. must be a sequence of C data types (the ‘printf()’
function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a
variable number and different types of parameters depending on the
format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with
this feature):

     >>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
     >>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
     String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
     37
     >>>

포맷을 지정하면 호환되지 않는 인자 형으로부터 보호하고(C 함수의 프로토타
입처럼), 유효한 형으로 인자를 변환하려고 시도합니다:

     >>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: 'int' object cannot be interpreted as ctypes.c_char_p
     >>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
     X 2 3.000000
     13
     >>>

If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls,
you have to implement a *note from_param(): 2e0f. class method for them
to be able to use them in the *note argtypes: 2e0a. sequence.  The *note
from_param(): 2e0f. class method receives the Python object passed to
the function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to
make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself,
its ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C
function argument in this case.  Again, the result should be an integer,
string, bytes, a *note ctypes: 2a. instance, or an object with an
‘_as_parameter_’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: 반환형,  Next: 포인터 전달하기 또는 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기,  Prev: 필수 인자 형 함수 프로토타입 지정하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.10 반환형
................

By default functions are assumed to return the C int type.  Other return
types can be specified by setting the *note restype: 2e12. attribute of
the function object.

The C prototype of ‘time()’ is ‘time_t time(time_t *)’.  Because
‘time_t’ might be of a different type than the default return type int,
you should specify the ‘restype’ attribute:

     >>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t

The argument types can be specified using *note argtypes: 2e0a.:

     >>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)

To call the function with a ‘NULL’ pointer as first argument, use
‘None’:

     >>> print(libc.time(None))
     1150640792

Here is a more advanced example, it uses the ‘strchr()’ function, which
expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:

     >>> strchr = libc.strchr
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     8059983
     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     b'def'
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
     None
     >>>

If you want to avoid the *note ord("x"): 1efa. calls above, you can set
the *note argtypes: 2e0a. attribute, and the second argument will be
converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char:

     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
     >>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
     None
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>>

You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for
example) as the *note restype: 2e12. attribute, if the foreign function
returns an integer.  The callable will be called with the 'integer' the
C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the
result of your function call.  This is useful to check for error return
values and automatically raise an exception:

     >>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA
     >>> def ValidHandle(value):
     ...     if value == 0:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return value
     ...
     >>>
     >>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle
     >>> GetModuleHandle(None)
     486539264
     >>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
     OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
     >>>

‘WinError’는 윈도우 ‘FormatMessage()’ api를 호출하여 에러 코드의 문자열
표현을 가져오고, 예외를 '반환하는' 함수입니다.  ‘WinError’는 선택적 에러
코드 매개 변수를 취합니다, 제공하지 않으면 *note GetLastError(): 2e13.를
호출하여 에러 코드를 가져옵니다.

Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is
available through the *note errcheck: 2e14. attribute; see the reference
manual for details.


File: python.info,  Node: 포인터 전달하기 또는 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기,  Next: 구조체와 공용체,  Prev: 반환형,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.11 포인터 전달하기 (또는: 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기)
...........................................................

때때로 C api 함수는 매개 변수로 데이터형을 가리키는 '포인터'를 기대합니
다, 아마도 해당 위치에 쓰기 위해서, 또는 데이터가 너무 커서 값으로 전달
할 수 없어서.  이것은 '참조로 매개 변수 전달하기'로 알려져 있기도 합니다
.

*note ctypes: 2a.는 매개 변수를 참조로 전달하는 데 사용되는 *note
byref(): 2e17. 함수를 내보냅니다.  같은 효과를 *note pointer(): 16eb. 함
수로도 얻을 수 있습니다.  하지만 *note pointer(): 16eb.는 실제 포인터 객
체를 생성하기 때문에 더 많은 작업을 수행하므로, 파이썬 자체에서 포인터 객
체가 필요하지 않으면 *note byref(): 2e17.를 사용하는 것이 더 빠릅니다.:

     >>> i = c_int()
     >>> f = c_float()
     >>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     0 0.0 b''
     >>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
     ...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
     3
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 구조체와 공용체,  Next: 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서,  Prev: 포인터 전달하기 또는 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.12 구조체와 공용체
.........................

Structures and unions must derive from the *note Structure: 1d4. and
*note Union: 1688. base classes which are defined in the *note ctypes:
2a. module.  Each subclass must define a *note _fields_: 2e1a.
attribute.  ‘_fields_’ must be a list of '2-tuples', containing a 'field
name' and a 'field type'.

필드형은 *note c_int: 2de7.와 같은 *note ctypes: 2a. 형이거나 다른 파생
된 *note ctypes: 2a. 형(구조체, 공용체, 배열, 포인터)이어야 합니다.

다음은 'x' 및 'y'라는 두 개의 정수가 포함된 POINT 구조체의 간단한 예제이
며, 생성자에서 구조체를 초기화하는 방법도 보여줍니다:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
     ...                 ("y", c_int)]
     ...
     >>> point = POINT(10, 20)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     10 20
     >>> point = POINT(y=5)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     0 5
     >>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: too many initializers
     >>>

그러나, 훨씬 복잡한 구조를 만들 수 있습니다.  구조체는 필드형으로 구조체
를 사용하여 다른 구조체를 포함할 수 있습니다.

다음은 'upperleft' 및 'lowerright'라는 두 개의 POINT를 포함하는 RECT 구
조체입니다:

     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
     ...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
     ...
     >>> rc = RECT(point)
     >>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
     0 5
     >>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
     0 0
     >>>

중첩된 구조체는 여러 가지 방법으로 생성자에서 초기화할 수 있습니다:

     >>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
     >>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))

필드 *note 디스크립터: 157a.는 '클래스'에서 조회할 수 있습니다.  유용한
정보를 제공할 수 있으므로 디버깅에 유용합니다:

     >>> print(POINT.x)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0, size=4>
     >>> print(POINT.y)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=4, size=4>
     >>>
     경고: *note ctypes: 2a.는 비트 필드가 있는 공용체나 구조체를 값으로
     함수에 전달할 수 없습니다.  32비트 x86에서 작동할 수 있지만, 일반적
     으로 작동은 라이브러리가 보증하지 않습니다.  비트 필드가 있는 공용
     체와 구조체는 항상 포인터로 함수에 전달되어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서,  Next: 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드,  Prev: 구조체와 공용체,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.13 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서
..........................................

By default, Structure and Union fields are aligned in the same way the C
compiler does it.  It is possible to override this behavior by
specifying a *note _pack_: 2e1d. class attribute in the subclass
definition.  This must be set to a positive integer and specifies the
maximum alignment for the fields.  This is what ‘#pragma pack(n)’ also
does in MSVC. It is also possible to set a minimum alignment for how the
subclass itself is packed in the same way ‘#pragma align(n)’ works in
MSVC. This can be achieved by specifying a *note _align_: 1d5. class
attribute in the subclass definition.

*note ctypes: 2a.는 구조체와 공용체에 기본(native) 바이트 순서를 사용합
니다.  기본이 아닌 바이트 순서로 구조체를 만들려면 *note
BigEndianStructure: 2e1e, *note LittleEndianStructure: 2e1f, *note
BigEndianUnion: 182d. 및 *note LittleEndianUnion: 182e. 베이스 클래스 중
하나를 사용할 수 있습니다.  이러한 클래스들은 포인터 필드를 포함할 수 없
습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드,  Next: 배열,  Prev: 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.14 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드
.....................................

It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields.
Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is
specified as the third item in the *note _fields_: 2e1a. tuples:

     >>> class Int(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
     ...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
     ...
     >>> print(Int.first_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:0, bits=16>
     >>> print(Int.second_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:16, bits=16>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 배열,  Next: 포인터,  Prev: 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.15 배열
..............

배열은 같은 형의 고정 된 수의 인스턴스를 포함하는 시퀀스입니다.

배열형을 만드는 데 권장되는 방법은 데이터형에 양의 정수를 곱하는 것입니
다:

     TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10

다음은 다소 인공적인 데이터형의 예입니다.  다른 항목들과 함께 4개의
POINT를 포함하는 구조체입니다:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class MyStruct(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
     ...                 ("b", c_float),
     ...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
     >>>
     >>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
     4
     >>>

인스턴스는 클래스를 호출하는 일반적인 방법으로 만들어집니다:

     arr = TenPointsArrayType()
     for pt in arr:
         print(pt.x, pt.y)

위 코드는 배열 내용이 0으로 초기화되기 때문에, 일련의 ‘0 0’ 줄을 인쇄합
니다.

올바른 형의 초기화자를 지정할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
     >>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
     >>> print(ii)
     <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
     >>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 포인터,  Next: 형 변환,  Prev: 배열,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.16 포인터
................

포인터 인스턴스는 *note ctypes: 2a. 형에 *note pointer(): 16eb. 함수를 호
출해서 만듭니다:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> pi = pointer(i)
     >>>

포인터 인스턴스는 포인터가 가리키는 객체(위에서는 ‘i’ 객체)를 반환하는
*note contents: 2e26. 어트리뷰트를 가집니다:

     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(42)
     >>>

*note ctypes: 2a.에는 OOR(원래 객체 반환, original object return)이 없다
는 것에 유의하십시오.  어트리뷰트를 가져올 때마다 (동등하지만) 새로운 객
체를 만듭니다:

     >>> pi.contents is i
     False
     >>> pi.contents is pi.contents
     False
     >>>

다른 *note c_int: 2de7. 인스턴스를 포인터의 contents 어트리뷰트에 대입하
면 포인터는 이 인스턴스가 저장되어있는 메모리 위치를 가리키게 됩니다:

     >>> i = c_int(99)
     >>> pi.contents = i
     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(99)
     >>>

포인터 인스턴스는 정수로도 인덱싱할 수 있습니다.:

     >>> pi[0]
     99
     >>>

정수 인덱스에 대입하면 가리키고 있는 값이 바뀝니다:

     >>> print(i)
     c_long(99)
     >>> pi[0] = 22
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(22)
     >>>

0이 아닌 인덱스를 사용할 수도 있지만, C에서와 마찬가지로 자신이 하는 일
을 알아야 합니다: 임의의 메모리 위치를 액세스하거나 변경할 수 있습니다.
일반적으로 C 함수에서 포인터를 받고, 포인터가 실제로 단일 항목 대신 배열
을 가리키는 것을 '알' 때만 이 기능을 사용합니다.

장막 뒤에서, *note pointer(): 16eb. 함수는 단순히 포인터 인스턴스를 만드
는 것 이상을 수행합니다.  먼저 포인터 '형'을 만들어야 합니다.  이것은 임
의의 *note ctypes: 2a. 형을 받아들이고, 새로운 형을 반환하는 *note
POINTER(): 16ec. 함수로 수행됩니다:

     >>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
     >>> PI
     <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
     >>> PI(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
     >>> PI(c_int(42))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
     >>>

인자 없이 포인터형을 호출하면 ‘NULL’ 포인터가 만들어집니다.  ‘NULL’ 포인
터는 ‘False’ 논릿값을 갖습니다:

     >>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
     >>> print(bool(null_ptr))
     False
     >>>

*note ctypes: 2a.는 포인터를 역참조(dereference)할 때 ‘NULL’인지 확인합
니다 (하지만 ‘NULL’이 아닌 잘못된 포인터를 역참조하면 파이썬을 충돌시킵
니다):

     >>> null_ptr[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>

     >>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 형 변환,  Next: 불완전한 형,  Prev: 포인터,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.17 형 변환
.................

Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
‘POINTER(c_int)’ in the *note argtypes: 2e0a. list of a function or as
the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of
exactly the same type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this
rule, where ctypes accepts other objects.  For example, you can pass
compatible array instances instead of pointer types.  So, for
‘POINTER(c_int)’, ctypes accepts an array of c_int:

     >>> class Bar(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
     ...
     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
     >>> bar.count = 3
     >>> for i in range(bar.count):
     ...     print(bar.values[i])
     ...
     1
     2
     3
     >>>

In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a
pointer type (such as ‘POINTER(c_int)’) in *note argtypes: 2e0a, an
object of the pointed type (‘c_int’ in this case) can be passed to the
function.  ctypes will apply the required *note byref(): 2e17.
conversion in this case automatically.

POINTER 형 필드를 ‘NULL’로 설정하려면, ‘None’을 대입할 수 있습니다:

     >>> bar.values = None
     >>>

때에 따라 호환되지 않는 형의 인스턴스가 있을 수 있습니다.  C에서는, 한 형
을 다른 형으로 강제 변환(cast)할 수 있습니다.  *note ctypes: 2a.는 같은
방식으로 사용할 수 있는 *note cast(): 2e29. 함수를 제공합니다.  위에 정
의된 ‘Bar’ 구조체는 ‘values’ 필드에 대해 ‘POINTER(c_int)’ 포인터나 *note
c_int: 2de7. 배열을 받아들이지만 다른 형의 인스턴스는 허용하지 않습니다:

     >>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
     >>>

이럴 때, *note cast(): 2e29. 함수가 편리합니다.

*note cast(): 2e29. 함수는 ctypes 인스턴스를 다른 ctypes 데이터형에 대한
포인터로 변환하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note cast(): 2e29.는 두 개의
매개 변수, 어떤 종류의 포인터로 변환될 수 있는 ctypes 객체와 ctypes 포인
터형을 받아들입니다.  첫 번째 인자와 같은 메모리 블록을 참조하는 두 번째
인자의 인스턴스를 반환합니다:

     >>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
     >>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
     >>>

따라서, *note cast(): 2e29.는 ‘Bar’ 구조체의 ‘values’ 필드에 대입하는 데
사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
     >>> print(bar.values[0])
     0
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 불완전한 형,  Next: 콜백 함수,  Prev: 형 변환,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.18 불완전한 형
.....................

'불완전한 형'은 멤버가 아직 지정되지 않은 구조체, 공용체 또는 배열입니다
.  C에서, 이것들은 나중에 정의되는 전방 선언(forward declaration)으로 지
정됩니다:

     struct cell; /* forward declaration */

     struct cell {
         char *name;
         struct cell *next;
     };

ctypes 코드로 그대로 옮기면 이렇게 되지만, 작동하지는 않습니다:

     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
     NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
     >>>

because the new ‘class cell’ is not available in the class statement
itself.  In *note ctypes: 2a, we can define the ‘cell’ class and set the
*note _fields_: 2e1a. attribute later, after the class statement:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     >>>

해 봅시다.  우리는 두 개의 ‘cell’ 인스턴스를 만들고, 서로를 가리키도록 한
다음, 마지막으로 포인터 체인을 몇 번 따라갑니다:

     >>> c1 = cell()
     >>> c1.name = b"foo"
     >>> c2 = cell()
     >>> c2.name = b"bar"
     >>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
     >>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
     >>> p = c1
     >>> for i in range(8):
     ...     print(p.name, end=" ")
     ...     p = p.next[0]
     ...
     foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 함수,  Next: dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기,  Prev: 불완전한 형,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.19 콜백 함수
...................

*note ctypes: 2a.는 파이썬 콜러블로부터 C에서 호출 가능한 함수 포인터를
만들 수 있습니다.  이들은 때로 '콜백 함수(callback functions)'라고 불립
니다.

먼저, 콜백 함수를 위한 클래스를 만들어야 합니다.  클래스는 호출 규칙, 반
환형 및 이 함수가 받는 인자의 수와 형을 알고 있습니다.

*note CFUNCTYPE(): 2e2e. 팩토리 함수는 ‘cdecl’ 호출 규칙을 사용하여 콜백
함수의 형을 만듭니다.  윈도우에서, *note WINFUNCTYPE(): 2e2f. 팩토리 함
수는 ‘stdcall’ 호출 규칙을 사용하여 콜백 함수 형을 만듭니다.

이러한 팩토리 함수는 모두 첫 번째 인자로 결과 형을, 나머지 인자로 콜백 함
수가 기대하는 인자 형들로 호출됩니다.

I will present an example here which uses the standard C library’s
‘qsort()’ function, that is used to sort items with the help of a
callback function.  ‘qsort()’ will be used to sort an array of integers:

     >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
     >>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
     >>> qsort = libc.qsort
     >>> qsort.restype = None
     >>>

‘qsort()’ must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number
of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the
comparison function, the callback.  The callback will then be called
with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the
first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a
positive integer otherwise.

따라서 콜백 함수는 정수에 대한 포인터들을 받고 정수를 반환해야 합니다.  먼
저 콜백 함수를 위한 ‘형’을 만듭니다:

     >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     >>>

시작하기 위해, 전달된 값을 보여주는 간단한 콜백이 있습니다:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return 0
     ...
     >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
     >>>

결과:

     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     >>>

이제 실제로 두 항목을 비교하여 유용한 결과를 반환할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>>
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func))
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

쉽게 확인할 수 있듯이, 배열은 이제 정렬되었습니다:

     >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 5 7 33 99
     >>>

함수 팩토리는 데코레이터 팩토리로 사용할 수 있으므로, 다음과 같이 작성할
수도 있습니다:

     >>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     ... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

     참고: C 코드에서 사용되는 동안 *note CFUNCTYPE(): 2e2e. 객체에 대한
     참조를 유지해야 합니다.  *note ctypes: 2a.가 참조를 유지하지는 않으
     며, 여러분이 하지 않는다면 가비지 수집되어, 콜백이 발생할 때 프로그
     램이 충돌할 수 있습니다.

     또한, 콜백 함수가 파이썬 제어 바깥에서 만들어진 스레드(예를 들어, 콜
     백을 호출하는 외부 코드)에서 호출되면, ctypes는 모든 호출에 대해 새
     로운 더미 파이썬 스레드를 만듭니다.  이 동작은 대부분 적합하지만,
     *note threading.local: 1556.에 저장된 값은, 같은 C 스레드에서 호출
     되는 여러 콜백에서 살아남을 수 '없음'을 뜻합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기,  Next: 의외의 것들,  Prev: 콜백 함수,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.20 dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기
.........................................

Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export
variables.  An example in the Python library itself is the *note
Py_Version: 74f, Python runtime version number encoded in a single
constant integer.

*note ctypes: 2a. can access values like this with the *note in_dll():
2e32. class methods of the type.  'pythonapi' is a predefined symbol
giving access to the Python C api:

     >>> version = ctypes.c_int.in_dll(ctypes.pythonapi, "Py_Version")
     >>> print(hex(version.value))
     0x30c00a0

포인터의 사용법도 보여주는 확장 예제는 파이썬이 내 보낸 *note
PyImport_FrozenModules: 2e33. 포인터에 액세스합니다.

해당 값에 대한 문서를 인용하면:

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     76e. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

따라서, 이 포인터를 조작하는 것이 유용할 수도 있습니다.  예제 크기를 제
한하기 위해, *note ctypes: 2a.로 이 테이블을 읽는 방법만 보여줍니다:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>>
     >>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
     ...                 ("size", c_int),
     ...                 ("get_code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),  # Function pointer
     ...                ]
     ...
     >>>

We have defined the *note _frozen: 76e. data type, so we can get the
pointer to the table:

     >>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
     >>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap")
     >>>

‘table’이 ‘struct_frozen’ 레코드의 배열에 대한 ‘포인터’이므로, 이터레이
션할 수 있습니다.  하지만 포인터는 크기가 없으므로 루프를 종료하는 방법
이 필요합니다.  조만간 액세스 위반 등으로 인해 충돌이 발생할 수 있으므로
, ‘NULL’ 엔트리가 발견되자마자 루프에서 벗어나는 것이 좋습니다:

     >>> for item in table:
     ...     if item.name is None:
     ...         break
     ...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
     ...
     _frozen_importlib 31764
     _frozen_importlib_external 41499
     zipimport 12345
     >>>

표준 파이썬이 프로즌 모듈과 프로즌 패키지(음수 ‘size’ 멤버로 표시됨)를 가
지고 있다는 사실은 잘 알려지지 않았으며, 테스트용으로만 사용됩니다.  예
를 들어 ‘import __hello__’를 시도해보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 의외의 것들,  Next: 가변 크기 데이터형,  Prev: dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.21 의외의 것들
.....................

*note ctypes: 2a.에는 여러분이 기대하는 것과 실제로 일어나는 것이 다른 가
장자리가 있습니다.

다음 예제를 고려해보십시오:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
     ...
     >>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
     >>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
     >>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     1 2 3 4
     >>> # now swap the two points
     >>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     3 4 3 4
     >>>

흠.  아마도 마지막 문장이 ‘3 4 1 2’를 인쇄할 것으로 기대했을 겁니다.  어
떻게 된 걸까요?  위의 ‘rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a’ 줄의 단계는 다음과 같습
니다:

     >>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> rc.a = temp0
     >>> rc.b = temp1
     >>>

‘temp0’ 과 ‘temp1’은 여전히 위의 ‘rc’ 객체의 내부 버퍼를 사용하는 객체입
니다.  따라서 ‘rc.a = temp0’를 실행하면 ‘temp0’의 버퍼 내용이 ‘rc’의 버
퍼로 복사됩니다.  이것은, 결과적으로 ‘temp1’의 내용을 변경합니다.  따라
서 마지막 대입인 ‘rc.b = temp1’은 기대하는 효과를 주지 못합니다.

Structure, Union 및 Array에서 서브 객체를 가져오는 것은 서브 객체를 '복
사'하지 않고, 대신 루트 객체의 하부 버퍼에 액세스하는 래퍼 객체를 가져온
다는 점에 유의하십시오.

예상과 다른 행동을 하는 또 다른 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> s = c_char_p()
     >>> s.value = b"abc def ghi"
     >>> s.value
     b'abc def ghi'
     >>> s.value is s.value
     False
     >>>

     참고: *note c_char_p: 16ed.로 인스턴스를 만든 객체는 바이트열이나 정
     수로 설정된 value만 가질 수 있습니다.

‘False’를 인쇄하는 이유는 무엇일까요?  ctypes 인스턴스는 메모리 블록과 메
모리 내용에 액세스하는 어떤 *note 디스크립터: 157a.를 포함하는 객체입니
다.  메모리 블록에 파이썬 객체를 저장하면 객체 자체를 저장하지 않고, 대
신 객체의 ‘내용’을 저장합니다.  내용에 다시 액세스하면 매번 새로운 파이
썬 객체가 생성됩니다!


File: python.info,  Node: 가변 크기 데이터형,  Prev: 의외의 것들,  Up: ctypes 자습서

5.16.9.22 가변 크기 데이터형
............................

*note ctypes: 2a.는 가변 크기 배열과 구조체에 대한 일부 지원을 제공합니
다.

*note resize(): 2e38. 함수는 기존 ctypes 객체의 메모리 버퍼 크기를 바꾸
는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 함수는 객체를 첫 번째 인자로 가져오고, 바
이트 단위의 요청 된 크기를 두 번째 인자로 가져옵니다.  메모리 블록을 객
체 형이 지정하는 원래 메모리 블록보다 작게 만들 수 없습니다.  시도하면
*note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다:

     >>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
     >>> print(sizeof(short_array))
     8
     >>> resize(short_array, 4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: minimum size is 8
     >>> resize(short_array, 32)
     >>> sizeof(short_array)
     32
     >>> sizeof(type(short_array))
     8
     >>>

훌륭합니다, 하지만 이 배열에 포함된 추가 요소에 어떻게 액세스할 수 있습
니까?  형은 여전히 4개의 요소만 알고 있으므로, 다른 요소에 액세스하면 에
러가 발생합니다:

     >>> short_array[:]
     [0, 0, 0, 0]
     >>> short_array[7]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     IndexError: invalid index
     >>>

*note ctypes: 2a.에서 가변 크기 데이터형을 사용하는 또 다른 방법은, 파이
썬의 동적 특성을 사용하고 필요한 크기가 이미 알려진 후 매번 데이터형을
(재) 정의하는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes 레퍼런스,  Prev: ctypes 자습서,  Up: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

5.16.9.23 ctypes 레퍼런스
.........................

* Menu:

* 공유 라이브러리 찾기::
* 공유 라이브러리 로드하기::
* 외부 함수::
* 함수 프로토타입::
* 유틸리티 함수::
* 데이터형: 데이터형<2>.
* 기본 데이터형: 기본 데이터형<2>.
* 구조화된 데이터형::
* 배열과 포인터::


File: python.info,  Node: 공유 라이브러리 찾기,  Next: 공유 라이브러리 로드하기,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.24 공유 라이브러리 찾기
..............................

컴파일 언어로 프로그래밍할 때, 공유 라이브러리는 프로그램을 컴파일/링크
할 때와 프로그램을 실행할 때 액세스 됩니다.

The purpose of the *note find_library(): d46. function is to locate a
library in a way similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on
platforms with several versions of a shared library the most recent
should be loaded), while the ctypes library loaders act like when a
program is run, and call the runtime loader directly.

The ‘ctypes.util’ module provides a function which can help to determine
the library to load.

 -- 데이터: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     라이브러리를 찾아서 경로명을 반환하려고 시도합니다.  'name'은 'lib'
     같은 접두사, ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ 또는 버전 번호와 같은 접미사가 없는 라
     이브러리 이름입니다 (이것은 posix 링커 옵션 ‘-l’에 사용되는 양식입
     니다).  라이브러리를 찾을 수 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

정확한 기능은 시스템에 따라 다릅니다.

On Linux, *note find_library(): d46. tries to run external programs
(‘/sbin/ldconfig’, ‘gcc’, ‘objdump’ and ‘ld’) to find the library file.
It returns the filename of the library file.

버전 3.6에서 변경: 리눅스에서, 다른 수단으로 라이브러리를 찾을 수 없으면
, 라이브러리 검색 시 환경 변수 ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’의 값이 사용됩니다.

여기 예제가 있습니다:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("m")
     'libm.so.6'
     >>> find_library("c")
     'libc.so.6'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     'libbz2.so.1.0'
     >>>

On macOS and Android, *note find_library(): d46. uses the system’s
standard naming schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a
full pathname if successful:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("c")
     '/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
     >>> find_library("m")
     '/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
     >>> find_library("AGL")
     '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
     >>>

On Windows, *note find_library(): d46. searches along the system search
path, and returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined
naming scheme a call like ‘find_library("c")’ will fail and return
‘None’.

If wrapping a shared library with *note ctypes: 2a, it 'may' be better
to determine the shared library name at development time, and hardcode
that into the wrapper module instead of using *note find_library(): d46.
to locate the library at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: 공유 라이브러리 로드하기,  Next: 외부 함수,  Prev: 공유 라이브러리 찾기,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.25 공유 라이브러리 로드하기
..................................

공유 라이브러리를 파이썬 프로세스에 로드하는 방법에는 여러 가지가 있습니
다.  한 가지 방법은 다음 클래스 중 하나의 인스턴스를 만드는 것입니다:

 -- 클래스: ctypes.CDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries.
     Functions in these libraries use the standard C calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int.

     윈도우에서는 DLL 이름이 존재하더라도 *note CDLL: 9e5. 인스턴스 생성
     이 실패할 수 있습니다.  로드된 DLL의 종속 DLL을 찾을 수 없을 때,
     '“[WinError 126] The specified module could not be found”' 메시지로
     *note OSError: 411. 에러가 발생합니다.  윈도우 API가 정보를 반환하
     지 않아서 이 에러 메시지에는 누락된 DLL의 이름이 포함되어 있지 않고
     , 이 에러를 진단하기 어렵게 만듭니다.  이 에러를 해결하고 찾을 수 없
     는 DLL을 확인하려면, 윈도우 디버깅과 추적 도구를 사용하여 종속 DLL
     목록을 찾고 찾을 수 없는 DLL을 확인해야 합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

더 보기
.......

Microsoft DUMPBIN tool(1) – DLL 종속 항목을 찾는 도구.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.OleDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
     functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return the windows specific *note HRESULT: 2e3f.
     code.  *note HRESULT: 2e3f. values contain information specifying
     whether the function call failed or succeeded, together with
     additional error code.  If the return value signals a failure, an
     *note OSError: 411. is automatically raised.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note WindowsError: 104a. used to be raised,
     which is now an alias of *note OSError: 411.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.WinDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
     functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int by default.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

파이썬 *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148.은, 이 라이브러리들이 내보낸 함수를
호출하기 전에 해제되고 나중에 다시 획득됩니다.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.PyDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None)

     이 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note CDLL: 9e5. 인스턴스처럼 동작합니다.  단
     , 파이썬 GIL이 함수 호출 중에 릴리스 되지 '않고', 함수 실행 후 파이
     썬 에러 플래그가 확인된다는 점만 다릅니다.  에러 플래그가 설정되면
     파이썬 예외가 발생합니다.

     따라서, 이것은 파이썬 C API 함수를 직접 호출하는 경우에만 유용합니
     다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 2a0.

All these classes can be instantiated by calling them with at least one
argument, the pathname of the shared library.  If you have an existing
handle to an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the
‘handle’ named parameter, otherwise the underlying platform’s ‘dlopen()’
or ‘LoadLibrary()’ function is used to load the library into the
process, and to get a handle to it.

'mode' 매개 변수는 라이브러리가 로드되는 방법을 지정하는 데 사용될 수 있
습니다.  자세한 내용은, ‘dlopen(3)(2)’ 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.  윈
도우에서는, 'mode'가 무시됩니다.  posix 시스템에서는 RTLD_NOW가 항상 추
가되며 구성할 수 없습니다.

The 'use_errno' parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism
that allows accessing the system *note errno: 57. error number in a safe
way.  *note ctypes: 2a. maintains a thread-local copy of the system’s
*note errno: 57. variable; if you call foreign functions created with
‘use_errno=True’ then the *note errno: 57. value before the function
call is swapped with the ctypes private copy, the same happens
immediately after the function call.

*note ctypes.get_errno(): 2e40. 함수는 ctypes 내부 사본의 값을 반환하고,
*note ctypes.set_errno(): 2e41. 함수는 ctypes 내부 사본을 새 값으로 변경
하고 이전 값을 반환합니다.

The 'use_last_error' parameter, when set to true, enables the same
mechanism for the Windows error code which is managed by the *note
GetLastError(): 2e13. and ‘SetLastError()’ Windows API functions; *note
ctypes.get_last_error(): 2e42. and *note ctypes.set_last_error(): 2e43.
are used to request and change the ctypes private copy of the windows
error code.

The 'winmode' parameter is used on Windows to specify how the library is
loaded (since 'mode' is ignored).  It takes any value that is valid for
the Win32 API ‘LoadLibraryEx’ flags parameter.  When omitted, the
default is to use the flags that result in the most secure DLL load,
which avoids issues such as DLL hijacking.  Passing the full path to the
DLL is the safest way to ensure the correct library and dependencies are
loaded.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 'winmode' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL

     'mode' 매개 변수에 사용하는 플래그.  이 플래그를 사용할 수 없는 플
     랫폼에서는, 정수 0으로 정의됩니다.

 -- 데이터: ctypes.RTLD_LOCAL

     'mode' 매개 변수에 사용하는 플래그.  이 플래그를 사용할 수 없는 플
     랫폼에서는, 'RTLD_GLOBAL'과 같습니다.

 -- 데이터: ctypes.DEFAULT_MODE

     공유 라이브러리를 로드하는 데 사용되는 기본 모드.  OSX 10.3에서는
     'RTLD_GLOBAL'이고, 그렇지 않으면 'RTLD_LOCAL'과 같습니다.

이 클래스들의 인스턴스는 공개 메서드가 없습니다.  공유 라이브러리가 내보
낸 함수는 어트리뷰트나 인덱스로 액세스할 수 있습니다.  어트리뷰트를 통해
함수에 액세스하면 결과가 캐시 되므로 반복적으로 액세스할 때 매번 같은 객
체가 반환됨에 유의하십시오.  반면에 인덱스를 통해 액세스하면 매번 새로운
객체가 반환됩니다:

     >>> from ctypes import CDLL
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # On Linux
     >>> libc.time == libc.time
     True
     >>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
     False

다음 공개 어트리뷰트를 사용할 수 있습니다.  내보낸 함수 이름과의 충돌을
피하고자 이름은 밑줄로 시작합니다:

 -- 속성: PyDLL._handle

     라이브러리에 액세스하는 데 사용되는 시스템 핸들.

 -- 속성: PyDLL._name

     생성자에서 전달된 라이브러리의 이름.

Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated
objects, which are instances of the *note LibraryLoader: 2e46. class,
either by calling the *note LoadLibrary(): 2deb. method, or by
retrieving the library as attribute of the loader instance.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.LibraryLoader (dlltype)

     공유 라이브러리를 로드하는 클래스.  'dlltype'은 *note CDLL: 9e5,
     *note PyDLL: 177a, *note WinDLL: 1779. 또는 *note OleDLL: 1778. 형
     중 하나여야 합니다.

     ‘__getattr__()’ has special behavior: It allows loading a shared
     library by accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.
     The result is cached, so repeated attribute accesses return the
     same library each time.

      -- 메서드: LoadLibrary (name)

          공유 라이브러리를 프로세스에 로드하고 반환합니다.  이 메서드는
          항상 라이브러리의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

다음과 같은 사전 작성된 로더를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 데이터: ctypes.cdll

     *note CDLL: 9e5. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

 -- 데이터: ctypes.windll

     Creates *note WinDLL: 1779. instances.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 데이터: ctypes.oledll

     Creates *note OleDLL: 1778. instances.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 데이터: ctypes.pydll

     *note PyDLL: 177a. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

C 파이썬 API에 직접 액세스하기 위해, 바로 사용할 수 있는 파이썬 공유 라
이브러리 객체가 제공됩니다:

 -- 데이터: ctypes.pythonapi

     An instance of *note PyDLL: 177a. that exposes Python C API
     functions as attributes.  Note that all these functions are assumed
     to return C int, which is of course not always the truth, so you
     have to assign the correct ‘restype’ attribute to use these
     functions.

이러한 객체를 통해 라이브러리를 로드하면 라이브러리를 로드하는 데 사용된
이름인 ‘name’ 문자열 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
‘ctypes.dlopen’을 발생시킵니다.

로드된 라이브러리에서 함수에 액세스하면 인자 ‘library’(라이브러리 객체
)와 ‘name’(문자열이나 정수로 심볼의 이름)으로 감사 이벤트
‘ctypes.dlsym’을 발생시킵니다.

객체 대신 라이브러리 핸들만 사용 가능한 경우, 함수에 액세스하면 인자
‘handle’(원시 라이브러리 핸들)과 ‘name’으로 감사 이벤트
‘ctypes.dlsym/handle’을 발생시킵니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.microsoft.com/cpp/build/reference/dependents

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 외부 함수,  Next: 함수 프로토타입,  Prev: 공유 라이브러리 로드하기,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.26 외부 함수
...................

As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed
as attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created
in this way by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes
data instances as arguments, and return the default result type
specified by the library loader.

They are instances of a private local class ‘_FuncPtr’ (not exposed in
‘ctypes’) which inherits from the private *note _CFuncPtr: 2e49. class:

     >>> import ctypes
     >>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
     >>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
     True
     >>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
     False

 -- 클래스: ctypes._CFuncPtr

     C 호출 가능한 외부 함수의 베이스 클래스.

     외부 함수의 인스턴스는 C 호환 데이터형이기도 합니다; C 함수 포인터
     를 나타냅니다.

     이 동작은 외부 함수 객체의 특수 어트리뷰트에 대입하여 사용자 정의할
     수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: restype

          Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign
          function.  Use ‘None’ for void, a function not returning
          anything.

          It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not
          a ctypes type, in this case the function is assumed to return
          a C int, and the callable will be called with this integer,
          allowing further processing or error checking.  Using this is
          deprecated, for more flexible post processing or error
          checking use a ctypes data type as ‘restype’ and assign a
          callable to the *note errcheck: 2e14. attribute.

      -- 속성: argtypes

          ctypes 형의 튜플을 대입하여 함수가 받아들이는 인자 형을 지정합
          니다.  ‘stdcall’ 호출 규칙을 사용하는 함수는 이 튜플의 길이와
          같은 수의 인자로만 호출할 수 있습니다; C 호출 규칙을 사용하는
          함수는 추가적인 지정되지 않은 인자도 허용합니다.

          When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is
          passed to the *note from_param(): 2e0f. class method of the
          items in the *note argtypes: 2e0a. tuple, this method allows
          adapting the actual argument to an object that the foreign
          function accepts.  For example, a *note c_char_p: 16ed. item
          in the *note argtypes: 2e0a. tuple will convert a string
          passed as argument into a bytes object using ctypes conversion
          rules.

          New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not
          ctypes types, but each item must have a *note from_param():
          2e0f. method which returns a value usable as argument
          (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows defining
          adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.

      -- 속성: errcheck

          이 어트리뷰트에 파이썬 함수나 다른 콜러블을 대입합니다.  콜러
          블은 3개 이상의 인자로 호출됩니다:

           -- 함수: callable (result, func, arguments)

               'result' is what the foreign function returns, as
               specified by the ‘restype’ attribute.

               'func'는 외부 함수 객체 자체이며, 같은 콜러블 객체를 재사
               용하여 여러 함수의 결과를 확인하거나 사후 처리할 수 있도
               록 합니다.

               'arguments'는 원래 함수 호출에 전달된 매개 변수를 포함하
               는 튜플입니다.  사용된 인자에 따라 동작을 특수화할 수 있
               도록 합니다.

          이 함수가 반환하는 객체는 외부 함수 호출에서 반환되지만, 결괏
          값을 확인하고 외부 함수 호출이 실패하면 예외를 발생시킬 수도 있
          습니다.

 -- 예외: ctypes.ArgumentError

     외부 함수 호출이 전달된 인자 중 하나를 변환할 수 없을 때 발생하는 예
     외.

On Windows, when a foreign function call raises a system exception (for
example, due to an access violation), it will be captured and replaced
with a suitable Python exception.  Further, an auditing event
‘ctypes.set_exception’ with argument ‘code’ will be raised, allowing an
audit hook to replace the exception with its own.

외부 함수 호출을 일으키는 일부 방법은 인자 ‘function pointer’와
‘arguments’로 감사 이벤트 ‘ctypes.call_function’를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 프로토타입,  Next: 유틸리티 함수,  Prev: 외부 함수,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.27 함수 프로토타입
.........................

함수 프로토타입의 인스턴스를 만들어서 외부 함수를 만들 수도 있습니다.  함
수 프로토타입은 C의 함수 프로토타입과 비슷합니다; 구현을 정의하지 않고 함
수(반환형, 인자형, 호출 규칙)를 설명합니다.  팩토리 함수는 원하는 결과형
과 함수의 인자형들로 호출되어야 하며, 데코레이터 팩토리로 사용되어
‘@wrapper’ 문법을 통해 함수에 적용될 수 있습니다.  예제는 *note 콜백
함수: 2e2d.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: ctypes.CFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     반환된 함수 프로토타입은 표준 C 호출 규칙을 사용하는 함수를 만듭니
     다.  이 함수는 호출 중에 GIL을 해제합니다.  'use_errno'를 참으로 설
     정하면, 시스템 *note errno: 57. 변수의 ctypes 내부 복사본이 호출 전
     후에 실제 *note errno: 57. 값과 교환됩니다; 'use_last_error'는 윈도
     우 에러 코드에 대해 같은 일을 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     ‘stdcall’ calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  'use_errno' and 'use_last_error' have the same
     meaning as above.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 함수: ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes)

     반환된 함수 프로토타입은 파이썬 호출 규칙을 사용하는 함수를 만듭니
     다.  이 함수는 호출 도중 GIL을 해제하지 '않습니다'.

이러한 팩토리 함수로 만들어진 함수 프로토타입은 호출의 매개 변수 형과 수
에 따라 다른 방법으로 인스턴스를 만들 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: prototype (address)

     지정된 정수 주소에 있는 외부 함수를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: prototype (callable)

     파이썬 'callable'로 C 호출 가능 함수(콜백 함수)를 만듭니다.

 -- 함수: prototype (func_spec[, paramflags])

     공유 라이브러리가 내보낸 외부 함수를 반환합니다.  'func_spec'은 2-튜
     플 ‘(name_or_ordinal, library)’ 여야 합니다.  첫 번째 항목은 내보낸
     함수의 문자열 이름이거나, 작은 정수로 표현된 내보낸 함수의 서수
     (ordinal)입니다.  두 번째 항목은 공유 라이브러리 인스턴스입니다.

 -- 함수: prototype (vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])

     COM 메서드를 호출할 외부 함수를 반환합니다.  'vtbl_index'는 가상 함
     수 테이블에 대한 인덱스이며, 작은 음이 아닌 정수입니다.  'name'은
     COM 메서드의 이름입니다.  'iid'는 확장 에러 보고에 사용되는 인터페
     이스 식별자를 가리키는 선택적 포인터입니다.

     COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a
     pointer to the COM interface as first argument, in addition to
     those parameters that are specified in the ‘argtypes’ tuple.

선택적 'paramflags' 매개 변수는 위에 설명된 기능보다 훨씬 많은 기능을 갖
는 외부 함수 래퍼를 만듭니다.

'paramflags' must be a tuple of the same length as *note argtypes: 2e0a.

이 튜플의 각 항목에는 매개 변수에 대한 추가 정보가 들어 있으며, 한 개, 두
개 또는 세 개의 항목이 들어있는 튜플이어야 합니다.

첫 번째 항목은 매개 변수의 방향 플래그 조합을 포함하는 정수입니다:

     1

          함수에 대한 입력 매개 변수를 지정합니다.

     2

          출력 매개 변수.  외부 함수가 값을 채웁니다.

     4

          기본값이 정수 0인 입력 매개 변수.

선택적인 두 번째 항목은 문자열 매개 변수 이름입니다.  이것이 지정되면, 이
름있는 매개 변수로 외부 함수를 호출할 수 있습니다.

선택적 세 번째 항목은 이 매개 변수의 기본값입니다.

The following example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows ‘MessageBoxW’
function so that it supports default parameters and named arguments.
The C declaration from the windows header file is this:

     WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
     MessageBoxW(
         HWND hWnd,
         LPCWSTR lpText,
         LPCWSTR lpCaption,
         UINT uType);

다음은 *note ctypes: 2a.로 래핑하는 방법입니다:

     >>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
     >>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)

이제 ‘MessageBox’ 외부 함수를 다음과 같이 호출할 수 있습니다.:

     >>> MessageBox()
     >>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
     >>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")

두 번째 예제는 출력 매개 변수를 보여줍니다.  win32 ‘GetWindowRect’ 함수
는 지정된 창의 크기를 조회하는데, 호출자가 제공해야 하는 ‘RECT’ 구조체로
복사합니다.  다음은 C 선언입니다:

     WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
     GetWindowRect(
          HWND hWnd,
          LPRECT lpRect);

다음은 *note ctypes: 2a.로 래핑하는 방법입니다:

     >>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
     >>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
     >>>

출력 매개 변수가 있는 함수는, 하나뿐이면 자동으로 출력 매개 변숫값을 반
환하고, 여러 개면 출력 매개 변숫값을 포함하는 튜플을 반환하므로,
GetWindowRect 함수는 이제 호출되면 RECT 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

Output parameters can be combined with the *note errcheck: 2e14.
protocol to do further output processing and error checking.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ api function returns a ‘BOOL’ to signal success or
failure, so this function could do the error checking, and raises an
exception when the api call failed:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return args
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>

If the *note errcheck: 2e14. function returns the argument tuple it
receives unchanged, *note ctypes: 2a. continues the normal processing it
does on the output parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window
coordinates instead of a ‘RECT’ instance, you can retrieve the fields in
the function and return them instead, the normal processing will no
longer take place:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     rc = args[1]
     ...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: 유틸리티 함수,  Next: 데이터형<2>,  Prev: 함수 프로토타입,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.28 유틸리티 함수
.......................

 -- 함수: ctypes.addressof (obj)

     메모리 버퍼의 주소를 정수로 반환합니다.  'obj'는 ctypes 형의 인스턴
     스여야 합니다.

     인자 ‘obj’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘ctypes.addressof’를 발생시킵
     니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.alignment (obj_or_type)

     ctypes 형의 정렬 요구 사항을 반환합니다.  'obj_or_type'는 ctypes 형
     이나 인스턴스여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.byref (obj[, offset])

     'obj'에 대한 경량 포인터를 반환합니다.  'obj'는 ctypes 형의 인스턴
     스여야 합니다.  'offset'의 기본값은 0이며, 내부 포인터 값에 더해질
     정수여야 합니다.

     ‘byref(obj, offset)’는 이 C 코드에 해당합니다:

          (((char *)&obj) + offset)

     반환된 객체는 외부 함수 호출 매개 변수로만 사용할 수 있습니다.
     ‘pointer(obj)’와 비슷하게 동작하지만, 훨씬 빨리 만들어집니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.cast (obj, type)

     이 함수는 C의 형 변환 연산자와 유사합니다.  'obj'와 같은 메모리 블
     록을 가리키는 'type' 형의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  'type'은 포인
     터형이어야 하며, 'obj'는 포인터로 해석될 수 있는 객체여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.create_string_buffer (init, size=None)

 -- 함수: ctypes.create_string_buffer (size)

     이 함수는 가변 문자 버퍼를 만듭니다.  반환된 객체는 *note c_char:
     2df3.의 ctypes 배열입니다.

     If 'size' is given (and not ‘None’), it must be an *note int: 257.
     It specifies the size of the returned array.

     If the 'init' argument is given, it must be *note bytes: 1c2.  It
     is used to initialize the array items.  Bytes not initialized this
     way are set to zero (NUL).

     If 'size' is not given (or if it is ‘None’), the buffer is made one
     element larger than 'init', effectively adding a NUL terminator.

     If both arguments are given, 'size' must not be less than
     ‘len(init)’.

          경고: If 'size' is equal to ‘len(init)’, a NUL terminator is
          not added.  Do not treat such a buffer as a C string.

     For example:

          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(2))
          b'\x00\x00'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab'))
          b'ab\x00'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 2))
          b'ab'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 4))
          b'ab\x00\x00'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'abcdef', 2))
          Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
          ValueError: byte string too long

     ‘init’, ‘size’ 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘ctypes.create_string_buffer’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (init, size=None)

 -- 함수: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (size)

     이 함수는 가변 유니코드 문자 버퍼를 만듭니다.  반환된 객체는 *note
     c_wchar: 2df4.의 ctypes 배열입니다.

     The function takes the same arguments as *note
     create_string_buffer(): 2e05. except 'init' must be a string and
     'size' counts *note c_wchar: 2df4.

     ‘init’, ‘size’ 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘ctypes.create_unicode_buffer’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow
     function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 함수: ctypes.DllGetClassObject ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllGetClassObject
     function that the ‘_ctypes’ extension dll exports.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 함수: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     라이브러리를 찾아서 경로명을 반환하려고 시도합니다.  'name'은 ‘lib’
     같은 접두사, ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ 또는 버전 번호와 같은 접미사가 없는 라
     이브러리 이름입니다 (이것은 posix 링커 옵션 ‘-l’에 사용되는 양식입
     니다).  라이브러리를 찾을 수 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     정확한 기능은 시스템에 따라 다릅니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.util.find_msvcrt ()

     Returns the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python, and
     by the extension modules.  If the name of the library cannot be
     determined, ‘None’ is returned.

     예를 들어, ‘free(void *)’에 대한 호출로 확장 모듈에 의해 할당된 메
     모리를 해제해야 하면, 메모리를 할당한 것과 같은 라이브러리에 있는 함
     수를 사용하는 것이 중요합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 함수: ctypes.FormatError ([code])

     Returns a textual description of the error code 'code'.  If no
     error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the
     Windows api function GetLastError.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 함수: ctypes.GetLastError ()

     Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
     This function calls the Windows ‘GetLastError()’ function directly,
     it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 함수: ctypes.get_errno ()

     호출하는 스레드에서 시스템 *note errno: 57. 변수의 ctypes 내부 복사
     본의 현재 값을 반환합니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘ctypes.get_errno’를 발생시킵니
     다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.get_last_error ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘ctypes.get_last_error’를 발생시
     킵니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.memmove (dst, src, count)

     표준 C memmove 라이브러리 함수와 같습니다: 'count' 바이트를 'src'에
     서 'dst'로 복사합니다.  'dst' 와 'src'는 정수이거나 포인터로 변환할
     수 있는 ctypes 인스턴스여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.memset (dst, c, count)

     표준 C memset 라이브러리 함수와 같습니다: 주소 'dst'의 메모리 블록
     을 값 'c'의 'count' 바이트로 채웁니다.  'dst'는 주소를 지정하는 정
     수거나 ctypes 인스턴스여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.POINTER (type, /)

     Create and return a new ctypes pointer type.  Pointer types are
     cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly
     is cheap.  'type' must be a ctypes type.

 -- 함수: ctypes.pointer (obj, /)

     Create a new pointer instance, pointing to 'obj'.  The returned
     object is of the type ‘POINTER(type(obj))’.

     참고 사항: 객체에 대한 포인터를 단지 외부 함수 호출로 전달하려면 훨
     씬 빠른 ‘byref(obj)’를 사용해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.resize (obj, size)

     이 함수는 'obj'의 내부 메모리 버퍼의 크기를 조정합니다.  'obj'는
     ctypes 형의 인스턴스여야 합니다.  ‘sizeof(type(obj))’로 주어지는 객
     체 형의 원래 크기보다 버퍼를 작게 만들 수는 없지만, 버퍼를 확대할 수
     있습니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.set_errno (value)

     호출 중인 스레드의 시스템 *note errno: 57. 변수의 ctypes 내부 복사
     본의 현재 값을 'value'로 설정하고 이전 값을 반환합니다.

     인자 ‘errno’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘ctypes.set_errno’를 발생시
     킵니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.set_last_error (value)

     Sets the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread to 'value' and return
     the previous value.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     인자 ‘error’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘ctypes.set_last_error’를 발
     생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.sizeof (obj_or_type)

     ctypes 형이나 인스턴스 메모리 버퍼의 크기를 바이트 단위로 반환합니
     다.  C ‘sizeof’ 연산자와 같은 일을 합니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.string_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the byte string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is specified, it
     is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed to be
     zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘ctypes.string_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.

 -- 함수: ctypes.WinError (code=None, descr=None)

     This function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes.  It
     creates an instance of *note OSError: 411.  If 'code' is not
     specified, ‘GetLastError’ is called to determine the error code.
     If 'descr' is not specified, *note FormatError(): 2e55. is called
     to get a textual description of the error.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

     버전 3.3에서 변경: An instance of *note WindowsError: 104a. used to
     be created, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 411.

 -- 함수: ctypes.wstring_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the wide-character string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is
     specified, it is used as the number of characters of the string,
     otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘ctypes.wstring_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터형<2>,  Next: 기본 데이터형<2>,  Prev: 유틸리티 함수,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.29 데이터형
..................

 -- 클래스: ctypes._CData

     이 비공개 클래스는 모든 ctypes 데이터형의 공통 베이스 클래스입니다.
     무엇보다도, 모든 ctypes 형 인스턴스에는 C 호환 데이터를 보관하는 메
     모리 블록이 포함됩니다; 메모리 블록의 주소는 *note addressof():
     2e50. 도우미 함수에 의해 반환됩니다.  다른 인스턴스 변수는 *note
     _objects: 2e5f.로 노출됩니다; 여기에는 메모리 블록에 포인터가 포함
     되어있을 때, 살려둘 필요가 있는 다른 파이썬 객체가 포함되어 있습니
     다.

     ctypes 데이터형의 공통 메서드, 이것들은 모두 클래스 메서드입니다 (정
     확히 말하면, *note 메타 클래스: 1f8e.의 메서드입니다):

      -- 메서드: from_buffer (source[, offset])

          이 메서드는 'source' 객체의 버퍼를 공유하는 ctypes 인스턴스를
          반환합니다.  'source' 객체는 쓰기 가능한 버퍼 인터페이스를 지
          원해야 합니다.  선택적 'offset' 매개 변수는 source 버퍼의 오프
          셋을 바이트 단위로 지정합니다; 기본값은 0입니다.  source 버퍼
          가 충분히 크지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          인자 ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
          ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: from_buffer_copy (source[, offset])

          이 메서드는 읽을 수 있어야 하는 'source' 객체 버퍼에서 버퍼를
          복사하여 ctypes 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  선택적 'offset' 매개 변
          수는 원본 버퍼의 오프셋을 바이트 단위로 지정합니다.  기본값은
          0입니다.  소스 버퍼가 충분히 크지 않으면 *note ValueError:
          202.가 발생합니다.

          인자 ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
          ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: from_address (address)

          이 메서드는 정수 'address'로 지정된 메모리를 사용하여 ctypes 형
          인스턴스를 반환합니다.

          이 메서드와 이 메서드를 간접적으로 호출하는 다른 것들은 인자
          ‘address’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘ctypes.cdata’를 발생시킵
          니다.

      -- 메서드: from_param (obj)

          This method adapts 'obj' to a ctypes type.  It is called with
          the actual object used in a foreign function call when the
          type is present in the foreign function’s *note argtypes:
          2e0a. tuple; it must return an object that can be used as a
          function call parameter.

          모든 ctypes 데이터형은 이 클래스 메서드의 기본 구현을 갖는데,
          'obj' 가 이 형의 인스턴스면 'obj' 를 반환합니다.  일부 형은 다
          른 객체도 허용합니다.

      -- 메서드: in_dll (library, name)

          이 메서드는 공유 라이브러리가 내보낸 ctypes 형 인스턴스를 반환
          합니다.  'name'은 데이터를 내보내는 심볼의 이름이고,
          'library'는 로드된 공유 라이브러리입니다.

     ctypes 데이터형의 공통 인스턴스 변수:

      -- 속성: _b_base_

          때로 ctypes 데이터 인스턴스는 포함하는 메모리 블록을 소유하지
          않고, 베이스 객체의 메모리 블록의 일부를 공유합니다.  *note
          _b_base_: 2e63. 읽기 전용 멤버는 메모리 블록을 소유한 루트
          ctypes 객체입니다.

      -- 속성: _b_needsfree_

          이 읽기 전용 변수는 ctypes 데이터 인스턴스가 메모리 블록을 스
          스로 할당했을 때 참이고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓입니다.

      -- 속성: _objects

          이 멤버는 ‘None’ 이거나 메모리 블록 내용이 계속 유효하도록 유
          지되어야 하는 파이썬 객체를 포함하는 딕셔너리입니다.  이 객체
          는 디버깅을 위해서만 노출됩니다; 이 딕셔너리의 내용을 수정하지
          마십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 데이터형<2>,  Next: 구조화된 데이터형,  Prev: 데이터형<2>,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.30 기본 데이터형
.......................

 -- 클래스: ctypes._SimpleCData

     이 비공개 클래스는 모든 기본 ctypes 데이터형의 베이스 클래스입니다.
     여기에는 기본 ctypes 데이터형의 공통 어트리뷰트가 들어 있으므로 여
     기에서 언급합니다.  *note _SimpleCData: 2e67.는 *note _CData:
     2e5e.의 서브 클래스이므로, 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 상속받습니다.  포
     인터가 아니고 포인터를 포함하지 않는 ctypes 데이터형을 이제 피클 할
     수 있습니다.

     인스턴스에는 어트리뷰트가 하나 있습니다:

      -- 속성: value

          이 어트리뷰트는 인스턴스의 실제 값을 포함합니다.  정수형과 포
          인터형에서는 정수고, 문자형에서는 단일 문자 바이트열 객체나 문
          자열이고, 문자 포인터형에서는 파이썬 바이트열 객체나 문자열입
          니다.

          ctypes 인스턴스에서 ‘value’ 어트리뷰트를 조회하면, 대개 매번 새
          객체가 반환됩니다.  *note ctypes: 2a.는 원래의 객체 반환을 구
          현하지 '않습니다'.  항상 새로운 객체가 만들어집니다.  다른 모
          든 ctypes 객체 인스턴스에서도 마찬가지입니다.

Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results,
or, for example, by retrieving structure field members or array items,
are transparently converted to native Python types.  In other words, if
a foreign function has a *note restype: 2e12. of *note c_char_p: 16ed,
you will always receive a Python bytes object, 'not' a *note c_char_p:
16ed. instance.

Subclasses of fundamental data types do 'not' inherit this behavior.
So, if a foreign functions ‘restype’ is a subclass of *note c_void_p:
16ef, you will receive an instance of this subclass from the function
call.  Of course, you can get the value of the pointer by accessing the
‘value’ attribute.

다음은 기본 ctypes 데이터형입니다:

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_byte

     Represents the C signed char datatype, and interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_char

     Represents the C char datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character.  The constructor accepts an optional string
     initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one
     character.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_char_p

     Represents the C char* datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
     string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to
     binary data, ‘POINTER(c_char)’ must be used.  The constructor
     accepts an integer address, or a bytes object.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_double

     Represents the C double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_longdouble

     Represents the C long double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long
     double) == sizeof(double)’ it is an alias to *note c_double: 1901.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_float

     Represents the C float datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_int

     Represents the C signed int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias to
     *note c_long: 2de8.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_int8

     Represents the C 8-bit signed int datatype.  It is an alias for
     *note c_byte: 1776.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_int16

     Represents the C 16-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_short: 2df5.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_int32

     Represents the C 32-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_int: 2de7.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_int64

     Represents the C 64-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_longlong: 2e01.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_long

     Represents the C signed long datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_longlong

     Represents the C signed long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_short

     Represents the C signed short datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_size_t

     C ‘size_t’ 데이터형을 나타냅니다.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_ssize_t

     C ‘ssize_t’ 데이터형을 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_time_t

     Represents the C ‘time_t’ datatype.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_ubyte

     Represents the C unsigned char datatype, it interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_uint

     Represents the C unsigned int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias for
     *note c_ulong: 2e00.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_uint8

     Represents the C 8-bit unsigned int datatype.  It is an alias for
     *note c_ubyte: 1777.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_uint16

     Represents the C 16-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ushort: 2df6.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_uint32

     Represents the C 32-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_uint: 2dfb.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_uint64

     Represents the C 64-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ulonglong: 2e02.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_ulong

     Represents the C unsigned long datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_ulonglong

     Represents the C unsigned long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_ushort

     Represents the C unsigned short datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_void_p

     Represents the C void* type.  The value is represented as integer.
     The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_wchar

     C ‘wchar_t’ 데이터형을 나타내고, 값을 단일 문자 유니코드 문자열로 해
     석합니다.  생성자는 선택적 문자열 초기화자를 받아들입니다, 문자열의
     길이는 정확히 한 문자여야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_wchar_p

     Represents the C wchar_t* datatype, which must be a pointer to a
     zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an
     integer address, or a string.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.c_bool

     Represent the C bool datatype (more accurately, _Bool from C99).
     Its value can be ‘True’ or ‘False’, and the constructor accepts any
     object that has a truth value.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.HRESULT

     Represents a ‘HRESULT’ value, which contains success or error
     information for a function or method call.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows

 -- 클래스: ctypes.py_object

     Represents the C *note PyObject: 332.* datatype.  Calling this
     without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ *note PyObject: 332.* pointer.

The ‘ctypes.wintypes’ module provides quite some other Windows specific
data types, for example ‘HWND’, ‘WPARAM’, or ‘DWORD’.  Some useful
structures like ‘MSG’ or ‘RECT’ are also defined.


File: python.info,  Node: 구조화된 데이터형,  Next: 배열과 포인터,  Prev: 기본 데이터형<2>,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.31 구조화된 데이터형
...........................

 -- 클래스: ctypes.Union (*args, **kw)

     네이티브 바이트 순서의 공용체를 위한 추상 베이스 클래스.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.BigEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'big endian' byte order.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.LittleEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'little endian' byte order.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.BigEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     '빅엔디안(big endian)' 바이트 순서의 구조체를 위한 추상 베이스 클래
     스.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.LittleEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     '리틀엔디안(little endian)' 바이트 순서로의 구조체를 위한 추상 베이
     스 클래스.

Structures and unions with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer
type fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.

 -- 클래스: ctypes.Structure (*args, **kw)

     '네이티브' 바이트 순서의 구조체를 위한 추상 베이스 클래스.

     구상 구조체와 공용체 형은 이 형 중 하나를 서브 클래싱하고 적어도
     *note _fields_: 2e1a. 클래스 변수를 정의해서 만들어야 합니다.
     *note ctypes: 2a.는 직접 어트리뷰트 액세스로 필드를 읽고 쓸 수 있는
     *note 디스크립터: 157a.를 만듭니다.  이것들은

      -- 속성: _fields_

          구조체 필드를 정의하는 시퀀스.  항목은 2-튜플이나 3-튜플이어야
          합니다.  첫 번째 항목은 필드의 이름이고, 두 번째 항목은 필드의
          형을 지정합니다; 모든 ctypes 데이터형이 될 수 있습니다.

          *note c_int: 2de7.와 같은 정수형 필드에서는, 세 번째 선택적 항
          목을 지정할 수 있습니다.  필드의 비트 폭을 정의하는 작은 양의
          정수여야 합니다.

          필드 이름은 하나의 구조체나 공용체 내에서 고유해야 합니다.  이
          것은 검사되지 않습니다, 이름이 중복되면 하나의 필드만 액세스할
          수 있습니다.

          *note _fields_: 2e1a. 클래스 변수를, Structure 서브 클래스를 정
          의하는 클래스 문 '뒤에서' 정의할 수 있습니다.  직접 또는 간접
          적으로 자신을 참조하는 데이터형을 만들 수 있게 합니다:

               class List(Structure):
                   pass
               List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
                                ...
                               ]

          하지만, 형이 처음 사용되기 전에 *note _fields_: 2e1a. 클래스 변
          수를 정의해야 합니다 (인스턴스가 만들어지고, *note sizeof():
          2e58.가 호출되는 등의 일이 일어납니다).  나중에 *note
          _fields_: 2e1a. 클래스 변수에 대입하면 AttributeError가 발생합
          니다.

          구조체 형의 서브-서브 클래스를 정의할 수 있습니다.  베이스 클
          래스의 필드를 상속하고, 여기에 서브-서브 클래스에 정의된 *note
          _fields_: 2e1a.의 필드가 추가됩니다.

      -- 속성: _pack_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of structure fields in the instance.  *note _pack_: 2e1d. must
          already be defined when *note _fields_: 2e1a. is assigned,
          otherwise it will have no effect.  Setting this attribute to 0
          is the same as not setting it at all.

      -- 속성: _align_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of the structure when being packed or unpacked to/from memory.
          Setting this attribute to 0 is the same as not setting it at
          all.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 속성: _anonymous_

          이름 없는(익명) 필드의 이름을 나열하는 선택적 시퀀스.  *note
          _fields_: 2e1a.가 대입될 때 *note _anonymous_: 2e6b.는 이미 정
          의되어 있어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 아무 효과가 없습니다.

          이 변수에 나열된 필드는 구조체나 공용체 형 필드여야 합니다.
          *note ctypes: 2a.는 구조체나 공용체 필드를 만들 필요 없이, 중
          첩된 필드에 직접 액세스할 수 있는 디스크립터를 구조체 형에 만
          듭니다.

          다음은 예제 형입니다 (윈도우):

               class _U(Union):
                   _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
                               ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
                               ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]

               class TYPEDESC(Structure):
                   _anonymous_ = ("u",)
                   _fields_ = [("u", _U),
                               ("vt", VARTYPE)]

          ‘TYPEDESC’ 구조체는 COM 데이터형을 설명합니다.  ‘vt’ 필드는 공
          용체 필드 중 어느 것이 유효한지 지정합니다.  ‘u’ 필드가 익명 필
          드로 정의되었으므로, 이제 TYPEDESC 인스턴스에서 멤버에 직접 액
          세스할 수 있습니다.  ‘td.lptdesc’와 ‘td.u.lptdesc’는 동등하지
          만, 앞에 있는 것이 임시 공용체 인스턴스를 만들 필요가 없으므로
          더 빠릅니다:

               td = TYPEDESC()
               td.vt = VT_PTR
               td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
               td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)

     구조체 형의 서브-서브 클래스를 정의할 수 있으며, 베이스 클래스의 필
     드를 상속합니다.  서브 클래스 정의에 별도의 *note _fields_: 2e1a. 변
     수가 있으면, 여기에 지정된 필드가 베이스 클래스의 필드에 추가됩니다
     .

     구조체와 공용체 생성자는 위치와 키워드 인자를 모두 받아들입니다.  위
     치 인자는 *note _fields_: 2e1a.에 나타나는 순서대로 멤버 필드를 초
     기화하는 데 사용됩니다.  생성자의 키워드 인자는 어트리뷰트 대입으로
     해석되므로, *note _fields_: 2e1a.를 같은 이름으로 초기화하거나,
     *note _fields_: 2e1a.에 없는 이름에 대한 새 어트리뷰트를 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 배열과 포인터,  Prev: 구조화된 데이터형,  Up: ctypes 레퍼런스

5.16.9.32 배열과 포인터
.......................

 -- 클래스: ctypes.Array (*args)

     배열의 추상 베이스 클래스.

     The recommended way to create concrete array types is by
     multiplying any *note ctypes: 2a. data type with a non-negative
     integer.  Alternatively, you can subclass this type and define
     *note _length_: 2e6e. and *note _type_: 2e6f. class variables.
     Array elements can be read and written using standard subscript and
     slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is 'not'
     itself an *note Array: 1a31.

      -- 속성: _length_

          배열의 요소 수를 지정하는 양의 정수.  범위를 벗어나는 서브 스
          크립트는 *note IndexError: 14fc.를 일으킵니다.  *note len():
          628.에 의해 반환됩니다.

      -- 속성: _type_

          배열의 각 요소 형을 지정합니다.

     Array 서브 클래스 생성자는 요소를 순서대로 초기화하는 데 사용되는 위
     치 인자를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: ctypes.ARRAY (type, length)

     Create an array.  Equivalent to ‘type * length’, where 'type' is a
     *note ctypes: 2a. data type and 'length' an integer.

     This function is *note soft deprecated: 209. in favor of
     multiplication.  There are no plans to remove it.

 -- 클래스: ctypes._Pointer

     포인터를 위한 내부 추상 베이스 클래스.

     구상 포인터형은 가리킬 형으로 *note POINTER(): 16ec.를 호출해서 만
     들어집니다; 이것은 *note pointer(): 16eb.에 의해 자동으로 수행됩니
     다.

     포인터가 배열을 가리키면, 그것의 요소는 표준 서브 스크립트 및 슬라
     이스 액세스를 사용하여 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다.  포인터 객체는 크기가 없
     으므로, *note len(): 628.는 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  음
     수 서브 스크립트는 (C처럼) 포인터 '앞의' 메모리를 읽을 것이고, 범위
     를 벗어나는 서브 스크립트는 (운이 좋다면) 액세스 위반으로 인해 충돌
     을 일으킬 것입니다.

      -- 속성: _type_

          가리키는 형을 지정합니다.

      -- 속성: contents

          포인터가 가리키는 객체를 반환합니다.  이 어트리뷰트에 대입하면
          대입된 객체를 가리키도록 포인터가 변경됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface libraries,  Next: 동시 실행,  Prev: 일반 운영 체제 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.17 Command-line interface libraries
=====================================

The modules described in this chapter assist with implementing command
line and terminal interfaces for applications.

Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
* optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기::
* getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력::
* fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기::
* curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리::
* curses.textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯.
* curses.ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
* curses.panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장.
* cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원::


File: python.info,  Node: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Next: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.1 ‘argparse’ — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'소스 코드:' Lib/argparse.py(1)

     참고: While *note argparse: 6. is the default recommended standard
     library module for implementing basic command line applications,
     authors with more exacting requirements for exactly how their
     command line applications behave may find it doesn’t provide the
     necessary level of control.  Refer to *note Choosing an argument
     parsing library: 2e76. for alternatives to consider when ‘argparse’
     doesn’t support behaviors that the application requires (such as
     entirely disabling support for interspersed options and positional
     arguments, or accepting option parameter values that start with ‘-’
     even when they correspond to another defined option).

__________________________________________________________________

자습서
......

이 페이지는 API 레퍼런스 정보를 담고 있습니다.  파이썬 명령행 파싱에 대
한 더 친절한 소개를 원하시면, *note argparse 자습서: 2e77. 를 보십시오.

The ‘argparse’ module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  The program defines what arguments it requires, and
‘argparse’ will figure out how to parse those out of *note sys.argv:
1255.  The ‘argparse’ module also automatically generates help and usage
messages.  The module will also issue errors when users give the program
invalid arguments.

The ‘argparse’ module’s support for command-line interfaces is built
around an instance of *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 533.  It is a
container for argument specifications and has options that apply to the
parser as whole:

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                         prog='ProgramName',
                         description='What the program does',
                         epilog='Text at the bottom of help')

The *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19e. method attaches individual
argument specifications to the parser.  It supports positional
arguments, options that accept values, and on/off flags:

     parser.add_argument('filename')           # positional argument
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--count')      # option that takes a value
     parser.add_argument('-v', '--verbose',
                         action='store_true')  # on/off flag

The *note ArgumentParser.parse_args(): 2e78. method runs the parser and
places the extracted data in a *note argparse.Namespace: 2e79. object:

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)

     참고: If you’re looking for a guide about how to upgrade *note
     optparse: a0. code to ‘argparse’, see *note Upgrading Optparse
     Code: 119d.

* Menu:

* ArgumentParser 객체::
* add_argument() 메서드: add_argument 메서드.
* parse_args() 메서드: parse_args 메서드.
* 기타 유틸리티::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/argparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: ArgumentParser 객체,  Next: add_argument 메서드,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.1 ArgumentParser 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: argparse.ArgumentParser (prog=None, usage=None,
          description=None, epilog=None, parents=[],
          formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, prefix_chars='-',
          fromfile_prefix_chars=None, argument_default=None,
          conflict_handler='error', add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True,
          exit_on_error=True)

     새로운 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체를 만듭니다.  모든 매개 변수
     는 키워드 인자로 전달되어야 합니다.  매개 변수마다 아래에서 더 자세
     히 설명되지만, 요약하면 다음과 같습니다:

        * *note prog: 2e7b. - The name of the program (default:
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’)

        * *note usage: 2e7c. - 프로그램 사용법을 설명하는 문자열 (기본값
          : 파서에 추가된 인자로부터 만들어지는 값)

        * *note description: 2e7d. - Text to display before the argument
          help (by default, no text)

        * *note epilog: 2e7e. - Text to display after the argument help
          (by default, no text)

        * *note parents: 2e7f. - *note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체들의 리
          스트이고, 이 들의 인자들도 포함된다

        * *note formatter_class: 2e80. - 도움말 출력을 사용자 정의하기 위
          한 클래스

        * *note prefix_chars: 2e81. - 선택 인자 앞에 붙는 문자 집합 (기
          본값: ‘-‘).

        * *note fromfile_prefix_chars: 2e82. - 추가 인자를 읽어야 하는 파
          일 앞에 붙는 문자 집합 (기본값: ‘None’).

        * *note argument_default: 2e83. - 인자의 전역 기본값 (기본값:
          ‘None’)

        * *note conflict_handler: 2e84. - 충돌하는 선택 사항을 해결하기
          위한 전략 (일반적으로 불필요함)

        * *note add_help: 2e85. - 파서에 ‘-h/--help’ 옵션을 추가합니다
          (기본값: ‘True’)

        * *note allow_abbrev: dbb. - 약어가 모호하지 않으면 긴 옵션을 축
          약할 수 있도록 합니다.  (기본값: ‘True’)

        * *note exit_on_error: 2e86. - Determines whether or not
          ‘ArgumentParser’ exits with error info when an error occurs.
          (default: ‘True’)

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'allow_abbrev' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는, 'allow_abbrev'는 ‘-vv’가 ‘-v
     -v’를 뜻하는 것과 같은 짧은 플래그의 그룹화도 비활성화했습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'exit_on_error' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

다음 절에서는 이들 각각의 사용 방법에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* prog::
* usage::
* description::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::


File: python.info,  Node: prog,  Next: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.2 prog
.............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 533. calculates the name of the
program to display in help messages depending on the way the Python
interpreter was run:

   * The *note base name: 27e2. of ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a file was passed as
     argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a
     directory or a zipfile was passed as argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘-m’ followed by the module
     or package name if the *note -m: 5db. option was used.

This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help
messages match the string that was used to invoke the program on the
command line.  However, to change this default behavior, another value
can be supplied using the ‘prog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser:
533.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

프로그램 이름은 ‘%(prog)s’ 포맷 지정자를 사용해서 도움말에 쓸 수 있습니
다.  ‘sys.argv[0]’ 나 ‘prog=’ 인자 중 어떤 것으로부터 결정되든 상관없습
니다.

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program


File: python.info,  Node: usage,  Next: description,  Prev: prog,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.3 usage
..............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 533. calculates the usage message from
the arguments it contains.  The default message can be overridden with
the ‘usage=’ keyword argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [options]

     positional arguments:
      bar          bar help

     options:
      -h, --help   show this help message and exit
      --foo [FOO]  foo help

‘%(prog)s’ 포맷 지정자는 사용법 메시지에서 프로그램 이름을 채울 때 사용
할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: description,  Next: epilog,  Prev: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.4 description
....................

Most calls to the *note ArgumentParser: 533. constructor will use the
‘description=’ keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief
description of what the program does and how it works.  In help
messages, the description is displayed between the command-line usage
string and the help messages for the various arguments.

기본적으로, 설명은 주어진 공간에 맞도록 줄 바꿈 됩니다.  이 동작을 변경
하려면 *note formatter_class: 2e80. 인자를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: epilog,  Next: parents,  Prev: description,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.5 epilog
...............

일부 프로그램은 인자에 대한 설명 뒤에 프로그램에 대한 추가 설명을 표시하
려고 합니다.  이러한 텍스트는 ‘epilog=’ 에 대한 인자를 *note
ArgumentParser: 533. 에 사용하여 지정할 수 있습니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     description='A foo that bars',
     ...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: argparse.py [-h]

     A foo that bars

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     And that's how you'd foo a bar

*note description: 2e7d. 인자와 마찬가지로, ‘epilog=’ 텍스트가 기본적으
로 줄 바꿈 됩니다만, 이 동작은 *note formatter_class: 2e80. 인자를 *note
ArgumentParser: 533. 에 제공해서 조정할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: parents,  Next: formatter_class,  Prev: epilog,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.6 parents
................

때로는 여러 파서가 공통 인자 집합을 공유하는 경우가 있습니다.  이러한 인
자의 정의를 반복하는 대신, 모든 공유 인자를 갖는 파서를 *note
ArgumentParser: 533. 에 ‘parents=’ 인자로 전달할 수 있습니다.
‘parents=’ 인자는 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체의 리스트를 취하여, 그
것들로부터 모든 위치와 선택 액션을 수집해서 새로 만들어지는 *note
ArgumentParser: 533. 객체에 추가합니다:

     >>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
     >>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)

     >>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
     >>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
     Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)

     >>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
     >>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
     Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)

대부분의 부모 파서는 ‘add_help=False’ 를 지정합니다.  그렇지 않으면,
*note ArgumentParser: 533. 는 (하나는 부모에, 하나는 자식에 있는) 두 개
의 ‘-h/--help’ 옵션을 보게 될 것이고, 에러를 발생시킵니다.

     참고: ‘parents=’ 를 통해 전달하기 전에 파서를 완전히 초기화해야 합
     니다.  자식 파서 다음에 부모 파서를 변경하면 자식에 반영되지 않습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: formatter_class,  Next: prefix_chars,  Prev: parents,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.7 formatter_class
........................

*note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체는 대체 포매팅 클래스를 지정함으로써 도움
말 포매팅을 사용자 정의 할 수 있도록 합니다.  현재 네 가지 클래스가 있습
니다:

 -- 클래스: argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
 -- 클래스: argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter
 -- 클래스: argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
 -- 클래스: argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter

*note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 2e8a. 와 *note RawTextHelpFormatter:
2e8b. 는 텍스트 설명이 표시되는 방법을 더 제어할 수 있도록 합니다.  기본
적으로, *note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체는 명령행 도움말 메시지에서 *note
description: 2e7d. 및 *note epilog: 2e7e. 텍스트를 줄 바꿈 합니다.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     description='''this description
     ...         was indented weird
     ...             but that is okay''',
     ...     epilog='''
     ...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
     ...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
     ...         across a couple lines''')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     this description was indented weird but that is okay

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
     will be wrapped across a couple lines

*note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 2e8a. 를 ‘formatter_class=’ 로 전달하
는 것은 *note description: 2e7d. 과 *note epilog: 2e7e. 가 이미 올바르게
포맷되어 있어서 줄 바꿈 되어서는 안 된다는 것을 가리킵니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
     ...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
     ...         Please do not mess up this text!
     ...         --------------------------------
     ...             I have indented it
     ...             exactly the way
     ...             I want it
     ...         '''))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     Please do not mess up this text!
     --------------------------------
        I have indented it
        exactly the way
        I want it

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

*note RawTextHelpFormatter: 2e8b. maintains whitespace for all sorts of
help text, including argument descriptions.  However, multiple newlines
are replaced with one.  If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines,
add spaces between the newlines.

*note ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 18a2. 는 기본값에 대한 정보를 각각
의 인자 도움말 메시지에 자동으로 추가합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar ...]

     positional arguments:
      bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)

*note MetavarTypeHelpFormatter: 2e8c. 는 각 인자 값의 표시 이름으로 (일
반 포매터처럼 *note dest: 2e8d. 를 사용하는 대신에) *note type: 2e8e. 인
자의 이름을 사용합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float

     positional arguments:
       float

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --foo int


File: python.info,  Node: prefix_chars,  Next: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Prev: formatter_class,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.8 prefix_chars
.....................

Most command-line options will use ‘-’ as the prefix, e.g.  ‘-f/--foo’.
Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix characters,
e.g.  for options like ‘+f’ or ‘/foo’, may specify them using the
‘prefix_chars=’ argument to the *note ArgumentParser: 533. constructor:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('+f')
     >>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')

‘prefix_chars=’ 인자의 기본값은 ‘'-'’ 입니다.  ‘-’ 를 포함하지 않는 문자
집합을 제공하면 ‘-f/--foo’ 옵션이 허용되지 않게 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Next: argument_default,  Prev: prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.9 fromfile_prefix_chars
..............................

Sometimes, when dealing with a particularly long argument list, it may
make sense to keep the list of arguments in a file rather than typing it
out at the command line.  If the ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument is
given to the *note ArgumentParser: 533. constructor, then arguments that
start with any of the specified characters will be treated as files, and
will be replaced by the arguments they contain.  For example:

     >>> with open('args.txt', 'w', encoding=sys.getfilesystemencoding()) as fp:
     ...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
     Namespace(f='bar')

Arguments read from a file must be one per line by default (but see also
*note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 2e8f.) and are treated as if they were
in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the
command line.  So in the example above, the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'@args.txt']’ is considered equivalent to the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'-f', 'bar']’.

     참고: Empty lines are treated as empty strings (‘''’), which are
     allowed as values but not as arguments.  Empty lines that are read
     as arguments will result in an “unrecognized arguments” error.

*note ArgumentParser: 533. uses *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 535. to read the file containing arguments.

‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ 인자의 기본값은 ‘None’ 입니다.  이것은 인자가 절
대로 파일 참조로 취급되지 않는다는 것을 의미합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: *note ArgumentParser: 533. changed encoding and
errors to read arguments files from default (e.g.  *note
locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 534. and ‘"strict"’) to the *note
filesystem encoding and error handler: 535.  Arguments file should be
encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: argument_default,  Next: allow_abbrev,  Prev: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.10 argument_default
..........................

일반적으로 인자의 기본값은 *note add_argument(): 19e. 에 기본값을 전달하
거나 특정 이름-값 쌍 집합을 사용하여 *note set_defaults(): 2e90. 메서드
를 호출하여 지정됩니다.  그러나 때로는, 파서 전체에 적용되는 단일 기본값
을 지정하는 것이 유용 할 수 있습니다.  이것은 ‘argument_default=’ 키워드
인자를 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 에 전달함으로써 이루어질 수 있습니다.
예를 들어, *note parse_args(): 2e78. 호출에서 어트리뷰트 생성을 전역적으
로 억제하려면, ‘argument_default=SUPPRESS’ 를 제공합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()


File: python.info,  Node: allow_abbrev,  Next: conflict_handler,  Prev: argument_default,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.11 allow_abbrev
......................

일반적으로 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 의 *note parse_args(): 2e78. 메서
드에 인자 리스트를 건네주면 긴 옵션의 *note 약어를 인식합니다: dbc.

‘allow_abbrev’ 를 ‘False’ 로 설정하면 이 기능을 비활성화 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: conflict_handler,  Next: add_help,  Prev: allow_abbrev,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.12 conflict_handler
..........................

*note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체는 같은 옵션 문자열을 가진 두 개의 액션을
허용하지 않습니다.  기본적으로 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체는 이미 사
용 중인 옵션 문자열로 인자를 만들려고 시도하면 예외를 발생시킵니다

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ..
     ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo

때로는 (예를 들어 *note parents: 2e7f. 를 사용하는 경우) 같은 옵션 문자
열을 갖는 예전의 인자들을 간단히 대체하는 것이 유용 할 수 있습니다.  이
동작을 얻으려면, *note ArgumentParser: 533. 의 ‘conflict_handler=’ 인자
에 ‘'resolve'’ 값을 제공합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      -f FOO      old foo help
      --foo FOO   new foo help

*note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체는 모든 옵션 문자열이 재정의된 경우에만 액
션을 제거합니다.  위의 예에서, 이전의 ‘-f/--foo’ 액션은 ‘--foo’ 옵션 문
자열만 재정의되었기 때문에 ‘-f’ 액션으로 유지됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: add_help,  Next: exit_on_error,  Prev: conflict_handler,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.13 add_help
..................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 533. objects add an option which
simply displays the parser’s help message.  If ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ is
supplied at the command line, the ‘ArgumentParser’ help will be printed.

때에 따라, 이 도움말 옵션을 추가하지 않도록 설정하는 것이 유용 할 수 있
습니다.  ‘add_help=’ 인자를 ‘False’ 로 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 에 전
달하면 됩니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [--foo FOO]

     options:
      --foo FOO  foo help

도움말 옵션은 일반적으로 ‘-h/--help’ 입니다.  예외는 ‘prefix_chars=’ 가
지정되고 ‘-’ 을 포함하지 않는 경우입니다.  이 경우 ‘-h’ 와 ‘--help’ 는 유
효한 옵션이 아닙니다.  이 경우, ‘prefix_chars’ 의 첫 번째 문자가 도움말
옵션 접두어로 사용됩니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [+h]

     options:
       +h, ++help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: exit_on_error,  Prev: add_help,  Up: ArgumentParser 객체

5.17.1.14 exit_on_error
.......................

Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the *note
parse_args(): 2e78. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 533, it will
print a 'message' to *note sys.stderr: 937. and exit with a status code
of 2.

If the user would like to catch errors manually, the feature can be
enabled by setting ‘exit_on_error’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(exit_on_error=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--integers', type=int)
     _StoreAction(option_strings=['--integers'], dest='integers', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=<class 'int'>, choices=None, help=None, metavar=None)
     >>> try:
     ...     parser.parse_args('--integers a'.split())
     ... except argparse.ArgumentError:
     ...     print('Catching an argumentError')
     ...
     Catching an argumentError

Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: add_argument 메서드,  Next: parse_args 메서드,  Prev: ArgumentParser 객체,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.15 add_argument() 메서드
...............................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.add_argument (name or flags..., *[, action][,
          nargs][, const][, default][, type][, choices][, required][,
          help][, metavar][, dest][, deprecated])

     단일 명령행 인자를 구문 분석하는 방법을 정의합니다.  매개 변수마다
     아래에서 더 자세히 설명되지만, 요약하면 다음과 같습니다:

        * *note name or flags: 2e93. - Either a name or a list of option
          strings, e.g.  ‘'foo'’ or ‘'-f', '--foo'’.

        * *note action: 2e94. - 명령행에서 이 인자가 발견될 때 수행 할 액
          션의 기본형.

        * *note nargs: 15b5. - 소비되어야 하는 명령행 인자의 수.

        * *note const: 2e95. - 일부 *note action: 2e94. 및 *note nargs:
          15b5. 를 선택할 때 필요한 상숫값.

        * *note default: 2e96. - 인자가 명령행에 없고 namespace 객체에 없
          으면 생성되는 값.

        * *note type: 2e8e. - 명령행 인자가 변환되어야 할 형.

        * *note choices: 15b2. - A sequence of the allowable values for
          the argument.

        * *note required: 2e97. - 명령행 옵션을 생략 할 수 있는지 아닌지
          (선택적일 때만).

        * *note help: 2e98. - 인자가 하는 일에 대한 간단한 설명.

        * *note metavar: 2e99. - 사용 메시지에 사용되는 인자의 이름.

        * *note dest: 2e8d. - *note parse_args(): 2e78. 가 반환하는 객체
          에 추가될 어트리뷰트의 이름.

        * *note deprecated: 2e9a. - Whether or not use of the argument
          is deprecated.

다음 절에서는 이들 각각의 사용 방법에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* help::
* metavar::
* dest::
* deprecated::
* Action 클래스::


File: python.info,  Node: name or flags,  Next: action,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.16 name or flags
.......................

The *note add_argument(): 19e. method must know whether an optional
argument, like ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’, or a positional argument, like a list of
filenames, is expected.  The first arguments passed to *note
add_argument(): 19e. must therefore be either a series of flags, or a
simple argument name.

For example, an optional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')

반면에 위치 인자는 이렇게 만들어집니다:

     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')

*note parse_args(): 2e78. 가 호출되면, 선택 인자는 ‘-’ 접두사로 식별되고
, 그 밖의 인자는 위치 인자로 간주합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
     PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar


File: python.info,  Node: action,  Next: nargs,  Prev: name or flags,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.17 action
................

*note ArgumentParser: 533. 객체는 명령행 인자를 액션과 연관시킵니다.  대
부분의 액션은 단순히 *note parse_args(): 2e78. 에 의해 반환된 객체에 어
트리뷰트를 추가하기만 하지만, 액션은 관련된 명령행 인자로 무엇이든 할 수
있습니다.  ‘action’ 키워드 인자는 명령행 인자의 처리 방법을 지정합니다.
제공되는 액션은 다음과 같습니다:

   * ‘'store'’ - This just stores the argument’s value.  This is the
     default action.

   * ‘'store_const'’ - This stores the value specified by the *note
     const: 2e95. keyword argument; note that the *note const: 2e95.
     keyword argument defaults to ‘None’.  The ‘'store_const'’ action is
     most commonly used with optional arguments that specify some sort
     of flag.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(foo=42)

   * ‘'store_true'’ and ‘'store_false'’ - These are special cases of
     ‘'store_const'’ used for storing the values ‘True’ and ‘False’
     respectively.  In addition, they create default values of ‘False’
     and ‘True’ respectively:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
          Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)

   * ‘'append'’ - This stores a list, and appends each argument value to
     the list.  It is useful to allow an option to be specified multiple
     times.  If the default value is non-empty, the default elements
     will be present in the parsed value for the option, with any values
     from the command line appended after those default values.  Example
     usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
          Namespace(foo=['1', '2'])

   * ‘'append_const'’ - This stores a list, and appends the value
     specified by the *note const: 2e95. keyword argument to the list;
     note that the *note const: 2e95. keyword argument defaults to
     ‘None’.  The ‘'append_const'’ action is typically useful when
     multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list.  For
     example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
          >>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
          >>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
          Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])

   * ‘'extend'’ - This stores a list and appends each item from the
     multi-value argument list to it.  The ‘'extend'’ action is
     typically used with the *note nargs: 15b5. keyword argument value
     ‘'+'’ or ‘'*'’.  Note that when *note nargs: 15b5. is ‘None’ (the
     default) or ‘'?'’, each character of the argument string will be
     appended to the list.  Example usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
          >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
          Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])

     Added in version 3.8.

   * ‘'count'’ - 키워드 인자가 등장한 횟수를 계산합니다.  예를 들어, 상
     세도를 높이는 데 유용합니다:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count', default=0)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
          Namespace(verbose=3)

     참고, 명시적으로 '0'으로 설정되지 않으면 'default'는 ‘None’이 됩니
     다.

   * ‘'help'’ - 현재 파서의 모든 옵션에 대한 완전한 도움말 메시지를 출력
     하고 종료합니다.  기본적으로 help 액션은 자동으로 파서에 추가됩니다
     .  출력이 만들어지는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note
     ArgumentParser: 533. 를 보세요.

   * ‘'version'’ - *note add_argument(): 19e. 호출에서 ‘version=’ 키워드
     인자를 기대하고, 호출되면 버전 정보를 출력하고 종료합니다:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
          PROG 2.0

You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an *note Action:
1805. subclass (e.g.  *note BooleanOptionalAction: 185c.) or other
object that implements the same interface.  Only actions that consume
command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘'store'’, ‘'append'’, ‘'extend'’, or
custom actions with non-zero ‘nargs’) can be used with positional
arguments.

The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend *note Action:
1805, overriding the ‘__call__()’ method and optionally the ‘__init__()’
and ‘format_usage()’ methods.  You can also register custom actions
using the *note register(): 2e9d. method and reference them by their
registered name.

사용자 정의 액션의 예:

     >>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
     ...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
     ...         if nargs is not None:
     ...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
     ...         super().__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
     ...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
     ...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
     ...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
     >>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
     Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
     Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
     >>> args
     Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')

자세한 내용은 *note Action: 1805. 을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: nargs,  Next: const,  Prev: action,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.18 nargs
...............

*note ArgumentParser: 533. objects usually associate a single
command-line argument with a single action to be taken.  The ‘nargs’
keyword argument associates a different number of command-line arguments
with a single action.  See also *note Specifying ambiguous arguments:
2e9f.  The supported values are:

   * ‘N’ (정수).  명령행에서 ‘N’ 개의 인자를 함께 모아서 리스트에 넣습니
     다.  예를 들면:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
          >>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])

     ‘nargs=1’ 은 하나의 항목을 갖는 리스트를 생성합니다.  이는 항목 그
     대로 생성되는 기본값과 다릅니다.

   * ‘'?'’.  가능하다면 한 인자가 명령행에서 소비되고 단일 항목으로 생성
     됩니다.  명령행 인자가 없으면 *note default: 2e96. 의 값이 생성됩니
     다.  선택 인자의 경우 추가적인 경우가 있습니다 - 옵션 문자열은 있지
     만, 명령행 인자가 따라붙지 않는 경우입니다.  이 경우 *note const:
     2e95. 의 값이 생성됩니다.  이것을 보여주기 위해 몇 가지 예를 듭니다
     :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')

     ‘nargs='?'’ 의 흔한 사용법 중 하나는 선택적 입출력 파일을 허용하는
     것입니다:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('r'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdin)
          >>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('w'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdout)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='input.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='output.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>)
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

   * ‘'*'’.  모든 명령행 인자를 리스트로 수집합니다.  일반적으로 두 개 이
     상의 위치 인자에 대해 ‘nargs='*'’ 를 사용하는 것은 별로 의미가 없지
     만, ‘nargs='*'’ 를 갖는 여러 개의 선택 인자는 가능합니다.  예를 들
     면:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])

   * ‘'+'’.  Just like ‘'*'’, all command-line arguments present are
     gathered into a list.  Additionally, an error message will be
     generated if there wasn’t at least one command-line argument
     present.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
          Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
          PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo

If the ‘nargs’ keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments
consumed is determined by the *note action: 2e94.  Generally this means
a single command-line argument will be consumed and a single item (not a
list) will be produced.  Actions that do not consume command-line
arguments (e.g.  ‘'store_const'’) set ‘nargs=0’.


File: python.info,  Node: const,  Next: default,  Prev: nargs,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.19 const
...............

*note add_argument(): 19e. 의 ‘const’ 인자는 명령행에서 읽지는 않지만 다
양한 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 액션에 필요한 상숫값을 저장하는 데 사용
됩니다.  가장 흔한 두 가지 용도는 다음과 같습니다:

   * When *note add_argument(): 19e. is called with
     ‘action='store_const'’ or ‘action='append_const'’.  These actions
     add the ‘const’ value to one of the attributes of the object
     returned by *note parse_args(): 2e78.  See the *note action: 2e94.
     description for examples.  If ‘const’ is not provided to *note
     add_argument(): 19e, it will receive a default value of ‘None’.

   * When *note add_argument(): 19e. is called with option strings (like
     ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’) and ‘nargs='?'’.  This creates an optional
     argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line
     arguments.  When parsing the command line, if the option string is
     encountered with no command-line argument following it, the value
     of ‘const’ will be assumed to be ‘None’ instead.  See the *note
     nargs: 15b5. description for examples.

버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘const=None’ by default, including when
‘action='append_const'’ or ‘action='store_const'’.


File: python.info,  Node: default,  Next: type,  Prev: const,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.20 default
.................

모든 선택 인자와 일부 위치 인자는 명령행에서 생략될 수 있습니다.  *note
add_argument(): 19e. 의 ‘default’ 키워드 인자는, 기본값은 ‘None’ 입니다,
명령행 인자가 없을 때 어떤 값을 사용해야 하는지를 지정합니다.  선택 인자
의 경우, 옵션 문자열이 명령행에 없을 때 ‘default’ 값이 사용됩니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
     Namespace(foo='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action
'default' will not overwrite it:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args([], namespace=argparse.Namespace(foo=101))
     Namespace(foo=101)

‘default’ 값이 문자열이면, 파서는 마치 명령행 인자인 것처럼 파싱합니다.
특히, 파서는 *note Namespace: 2e79. 반환 값에 어트리뷰트를 설정하기 전에
, 제공된 모든 *note type: 2e8e. 변환 인자를 적용합니다.  그렇지 않은 경
우, 파서는 값을 있는 그대로 사용합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
     >>> parser.parse_args()
     Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)

*note nargs: 15b5. 가 ‘?’ 또는 ‘*’ 인 위치 인자의 경우, 명령행 인자가 없
을 때 ‘default’ 값이 사용됩니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
     Namespace(foo='a')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

For *note required: 2e97. arguments, the ‘default’ value is ignored.
For example, this applies to positional arguments with *note nargs:
15b5. values other than ‘?’ or ‘*’, or optional arguments marked as
‘required=True’.

‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ 를 지정하면 명령행 인자가 없는 경우 어트리뷰
트가 추가되지 않습니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
     Namespace(foo='1')


File: python.info,  Node: type,  Next: choices,  Prev: default,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.21 type
..............

기본적으로, 파서는 명령행 인자를 간단한 문자열로 읽습니다.  그러나 꽤 자
주 명령행 문자열은 *note float: 2ef.나 *note int: 257.와 같은 다른 형으
로 해석되어야 합니다.  *note add_argument(): 19e. 의 ‘type’ 키워드는 필
요한 형 검사와 형 변환이 수행되도록 합니다.

*note type: 2e8e. 키워드가 *note default: 2e96. 키워드와 함께 사용되면,
형 변환기는 기본값이 문자열일 때만 적용됩니다.

The argument to ‘type’ can be a callable that accepts a single string or
the name of a registered type (see *note register(): 2e9d.) If the
function raises *note ArgumentTypeError: 2ea3, *note TypeError: 532, or
*note ValueError: 202, the exception is caught and a nicely formatted
error message is displayed.  Other exception types are not handled.

일반적인 내장형과 함수는 형 변환기로 사용될 수 있습니다:

     import argparse
     import pathlib

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('count', type=int)
     parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
     parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
     parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
     parser.add_argument('dest_file', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='latin-1'))
     parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)

사용자 정의 함수도 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def hyphenated(string):
     ...     return '-'.join([word[:4] for word in string.casefold().split()])
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> _ = parser.add_argument('short_title', type=hyphenated)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['"The Tale of Two Cities"'])
     Namespace(short_title='"the-tale-of-two-citi')

*note bool(): 461. 함수는 형 변환기로 권장되지 않습니다.  빈 문자열을
‘False’로, 비어 있지 않은 문자열을 ‘True’로 변환하는 것뿐입니다.  이것은
일반적으로 원하는 것이 아닙니다.

일반적으로, ‘type’ 키워드는 지원되는 세 가지 예외 중 하나만 발생할 수 있
는 간단한 변환에만 사용해야 하는 편의 기능입니다.  더 흥미로운 에러 처리
나 리소스 관리가 필요한 모든 작업은 인자가 구문 분석된 후에 수행되어야 합
니다.

For example, JSON or YAML conversions have complex error cases that
require better reporting than can be given by the ‘type’ keyword.  A
*note JSONDecodeError: e1c. would not be well formatted and a *note
FileNotFoundError: 425. exception would not be handled at all.

Even *note FileType: f13. has its limitations for use with the ‘type’
keyword.  If one argument uses *note FileType: f13. and then a
subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not
automatically closed.  In this case, it would be better to wait until
after the parser has run and then use the *note with: 5cc.-statement to
manage the files.

고정된 값 집합에 대해 단순히 확인하는 형 검사기의 경우, 대신 *note
choices: 15b2. 키워드를 사용하는 것을 고려하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: choices,  Next: required,  Prev: type,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.22 choices
.................

Some command-line arguments should be selected from a restricted set of
values.  These can be handled by passing a sequence object as the
'choices' keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 19e.  When the
command line is parsed, argument values will be checked, and an error
message will be displayed if the argument was not one of the acceptable
values:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
     Namespace(move='rock')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
     usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
     game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
     'paper', 'scissors')

Note that inclusion in the 'choices' sequence is checked after any *note
type: 2e8e. conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects
in the 'choices' sequence should match the *note type: 2e8e. specified.

Any sequence can be passed as the 'choices' value, so *note list: 60b.
objects, *note tuple: 369. objects, and custom sequences are all
supported.

*note enum.Enum: 62a.은 사용법, 도움말 및 에러 메시지에서 나타나는 방식
을 제어하기 어렵기 때문에 사용하지 않는 것이 좋습니다.

Formatted choices override the default 'metavar' which is normally
derived from 'dest'.  This is usually what you want because the user
never sees the 'dest' parameter.  If this display isn’t desirable
(perhaps because there are many choices), just specify an explicit *note
metavar: 2e99.


File: python.info,  Node: required,  Next: help,  Prev: choices,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.23 required
..................

In general, the ‘argparse’ module assumes that flags like ‘-f’ and
‘--bar’ indicate 'optional' arguments, which can always be omitted at
the command line.  To make an option 'required', ‘True’ can be specified
for the ‘required=’ keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 19e.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(foo='BAR')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     usage: [-h] --foo FOO
     : error: the following arguments are required: --foo

예에서 보듯이, 옵션이 ‘required’ 로 표시되면, *note parse_args(): 2e78.
는 그 옵션이 명령행에 없을 때 에러를 보고합니다.

     참고: 필수 옵션은 사용자가 '옵션' 이 '선택적' 일 것으로 기대하기 때
     문에 일반적으로 나쁜 형식으로 간주하므로 가능하면 피해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: help,  Next: metavar,  Prev: required,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.24 help
..............

The ‘help’ value is a string containing a brief description of the
argument.  When a user requests help (usually by using ‘-h’ or ‘--help’
at the command line), these ‘help’ descriptions will be displayed with
each argument.

‘help’ 문자열은 프로그램 이름이나 인자 *note default: 2e96. 와 같은 것들
의 반복을 피하고자 다양한 포맷 지정자를 포함 할 수 있습니다.  사용할 수
있는 지정자는 프로그램 이름, ‘%(prog)s’ 와 *note add_argument(): 19e. 의
대부분의 키워드 인자, ‘%(default)s’, ‘%(type)s’ 등을 포함합니다.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
     ...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h] [bar]

     positional arguments:
      bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

도움말 문자열이 %-포매팅을 지원하기 때문에, 도움말 문자열에 리터럴 ‘%’ 을
표시하려면, ‘%%’ 로 이스케이프 처리해야 합니다.

‘argparse’ supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
setting the ‘help’ value to ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: metavar,  Next: dest,  Prev: help,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.25 metavar
.................

When *note ArgumentParser: 533. generates help messages, it needs some
way to refer to each expected argument.  By default, ‘ArgumentParser’
objects use the *note dest: 2e8d. value as the “name” of each object.
By default, for positional argument actions, the *note dest: 2e8d. value
is used directly, and for optional argument actions, the *note dest:
2e8d. value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
‘dest='bar'’ will be referred to as ‘bar’.  A single optional argument
‘--foo’ that should be followed by a single command-line argument will
be referred to as ‘FOO’.  An example:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar

     positional arguments:
      bar

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO

다른 이름은 ‘metavar’ 로 지정할 수 있습니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX

     positional arguments:
      XXX

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo YYY

‘metavar’ 는 '표시되는' 이름 만 변경합니다 - *note parse_args(): 2e78. 객
체의 어트리뷰트 이름은 여전히 *note dest: 2e8d. 값에 의해 결정됩니다.

‘nargs’ 값이 다르면 metavar 가 여러 번 사용될 수 있습니다.  ‘metavar’ 에
튜플을 제공하면 인자마다 다른 디스플레이가 지정됩니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]

     options:
      -h, --help     show this help message and exit
      -x X X
      --foo bar baz


File: python.info,  Node: dest,  Next: deprecated,  Prev: metavar,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.26 dest
..............

대부분 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 액션은 *note parse_args(): 2e78. 에 의
해 반환된 객체의 어트리뷰트로 어떤 값을 추가합니다.  이 어트리뷰트의 이
름은 *note add_argument(): 19e. 의 ‘dest’ 키워드 인자에 의해 결정됩니다.
위치 인자 액션의 경우, ‘dest’ 는 일반적으로 *note add_argument(): 19e. 에
첫 번째 인자로 제공됩니다.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
     Namespace(bar='XXX')

선택 인자 액션의 경우, ‘dest’ 의 값은 보통 옵션 문자열에서 유추됩니다.
*note ArgumentParser: 533. 는 첫 번째 긴 옵션 문자열을 취하고 앞의 ‘--’
문자열을 제거하여 ‘dest’ 의 값을 만듭니다.  긴 옵션 문자열이 제공되지 않
았다면 ‘dest’ 는 첫 번째 짧은 옵션 문자열에서 앞의 ‘-’ 문자를 제거하여 만
듭니다.  문자열이 항상 유효한 어트리뷰트 이름이 되도록 만들기 위해 중간
에 나오는 ‘-’ 문자는 ‘_’ 문자로 변환됩니다.  아래 예제는 이 동작을 보여
줍니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -x 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -y 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')

‘dest’ 는 사용자 정의 어트리뷰트 이름을 지정할 수 있게 합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
     Namespace(bar='XXX')


File: python.info,  Node: deprecated,  Next: Action 클래스,  Prev: dest,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.27 deprecated
....................

During a project’s lifetime, some arguments may need to be removed from
the command line.  Before removing them, you should inform your users
that the arguments are deprecated and will be removed.  The ‘deprecated’
keyword argument of *note add_argument(): 19e, which defaults to
‘False’, specifies if the argument is deprecated and will be removed in
the future.  For arguments, if ‘deprecated’ is ‘True’, then a warning
will be printed to *note sys.stderr: 937. when the argument is used:

     >>> import argparse
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='snake.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--legs', default=0, type=int, deprecated=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(legs=0)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--legs', '4'])
     snake.py: warning: option '--legs' is deprecated
     Namespace(legs=4)

Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Action 클래스,  Prev: deprecated,  Up: add_argument 메서드

5.17.1.28 Action 클래스
.......................

‘Action’ classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a
callable which processes arguments from the command-line.  Any object
which follows this API may be passed as the ‘action’ parameter to *note
add_argument(): 19e.

 -- 클래스: argparse.Action (option_strings, dest, nargs=None,
          const=None, default=None, type=None, choices=None,
          required=False, help=None, metavar=None)

     ‘Action’ objects are used by an *note ArgumentParser: 533. to
     represent the information needed to parse a single argument from
     one or more strings from the command line.  The ‘Action’ class must
     accept the two positional arguments plus any keyword arguments
     passed to *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19e. except for the
     ‘action’ itself.

     Instances of ‘Action’ (or return value of any callable to the
     ‘action’ parameter) should have attributes ‘dest’,
     ‘option_strings’, ‘default’, ‘type’, ‘required’, ‘help’, etc.
     defined.  The easiest way to ensure these attributes are defined is
     to call ‘Action.__init__()’.

      -- 메서드: __call__ (parser, namespace, values,
               option_string=None)

          ‘Action’ instances should be callable, so subclasses must
          override the ‘__call__()’ method, which should accept four
          parameters:

             * 'parser' - The *note ArgumentParser: 533. object which
               contains this action.

             * 'namespace' - The *note Namespace: 2e79. object that will
               be returned by *note parse_args(): 2e78.  Most actions
               add an attribute to this object using *note setattr():
               2163.

             * 'values' - The associated command-line arguments, with
               any type conversions applied.  Type conversions are
               specified with the *note type: 2e8e. keyword argument to
               *note add_argument(): 19e.

             * 'option_string' - The option string that was used to
               invoke this action.  The ‘option_string’ argument is
               optional, and will be absent if the action is associated
               with a positional argument.

          The ‘__call__()’ method may perform arbitrary actions, but
          will typically set attributes on the ‘namespace’ based on
          ‘dest’ and ‘values’.

      -- 메서드: format_usage ()

          ‘Action’ subclasses can define a ‘format_usage()’ method that
          takes no argument and return a string which will be used when
          printing the usage of the program.  If such method is not
          provided, a sensible default will be used.

 -- 클래스: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction

     A subclass of *note Action: 1805. for handling boolean flags with
     positive and negative options.  Adding a single argument such as
     ‘--foo’ automatically creates both ‘--foo’ and ‘--no-foo’ options,
     storing ‘True’ and ‘False’ respectively:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
          Namespace(foo=False)

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: parse_args 메서드,  Next: 기타 유틸리티,  Prev: add_argument 메서드,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.29 parse_args() 메서드
.............................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.parse_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     인자 문자열을 객체로 변환하고 namespace의 어트리뷰트로 설정합니다.
     값들이 설정된 namespace를 돌려줍니다.

     Previous calls to *note add_argument(): 19e. determine exactly what
     objects are created and how they are assigned.  See the
     documentation for ‘add_argument()’ for details.

        * *note args: 2eae. - 구문 분석할 문자열 리스트.  기본값은 *note
          sys.argv: 1255. 에서 취합니다.

        * *note namespace: 2eaf. - 어트리뷰트가 대입될 객체.  기본값은 새
          로 만들어지는 빈 *note Namespace: 2e79. 객체입니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션값 문법::
* 잘못된 인자::
* - 를 포함하는 인자들::
* 인자 약어 (접두사 일치): 인자 약어 접두사 일치.
* sys.argv 너머: sys argv 너머.
* Namespace 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션값 문법,  Next: 잘못된 인자,  Up: parse_args 메서드

5.17.1.30 옵션값 문법
.....................

*note parse_args(): 2e78. 메서드는 (취할 것이 있다면) 옵션의 값을 지정하
는 몇 가지 방법을 지원합니다.  가장 단순한 경우, 옵션과 그 값은 두 개의
독립적인 인자로 전달됩니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

긴 옵션(단일 문자보다 긴 이름을 가진 옵션)의 경우, 옵션과 값을 ‘=’ 로 구
분하여 단일 명령행 인자로 전달할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

짧은 옵션(한 문자 길이의 옵션)의 경우, 옵션과 해당 값을 이어붙일 수 있습
니다:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')

여러 개의 짧은 옵션은 마지막 옵션만 값을 요구하는 한 (또는 그들 중 아무
것도 값을 요구하지 않거나), 하나의 ‘-’ 접두어를 사용하여 함께 결합 할 수
있습니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-z')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
     Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')


File: python.info,  Node: 잘못된 인자,  Next: - 를 포함하는 인자들,  Prev: 옵션값 문법,  Up: parse_args 메서드

5.17.1.31 잘못된 인자
.....................

명령행을 파싱할 때, *note parse_args(): 2e78. 는 모호한 옵션, 유효하지 않
은 형, 유효하지 않은 옵션, 잘못된 위치 인자의 수 등을 포함한 다양한 에러
를 검사합니다.  이런 에러가 발생하면, 사용 메시지와 함께 에러를 인쇄합니
다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')

     >>> # invalid type
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'

     >>> # invalid option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: no such option: --bar

     >>> # wrong number of arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger


File: python.info,  Node: - 를 포함하는 인자들,  Next: 인자 약어 접두사 일치,  Prev: 잘못된 인자,  Up: parse_args 메서드

5.17.1.32 ‘-’ 를 포함하는 인자들
................................

*note parse_args(): 2e78. 메서드는 사용자가 분명히 실수했을 때마다 에러
를 주려고 하지만, 어떤 상황은 본질에서 모호합니다.  예를 들어, 명령행 인
자 ‘-1’ 은 옵션을 지정하려는 시도이거나 위치 인자를 제공하려는 시도일 수
있습니다.  *note parse_args(): 2e78. 메서드는 이럴 때 신중합니다: 위치 인
자는 음수처럼 보이고 파서에 음수처럼 보이는 옵션이 없을 때만 ‘-’ 로 시작
할 수 있습니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
     Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, one='X')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: no such option: -2

     >>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument

‘-’ 로 시작해야 하고, 음수처럼 보이지 않는 위치 인자가 있는 경우, *note
parse_args(): 2e78. 에 다음과 같은 의사 인자 ‘'--'’ 를 삽입 할 수 있습니
다.  그 이후의 모든 것은 위치 인자입니다:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)

See also *note the argparse howto on ambiguous arguments: 2e9f. for more
details.


File: python.info,  Node: 인자 약어 접두사 일치,  Next: sys argv 너머,  Prev: - 를 포함하는 인자들,  Up: parse_args 메서드

5.17.1.33 인자 약어 (접두사 일치)
.................................

*note parse_args(): 2e78. 메서드는 *note 기본적으로: dbb. 약어가 모호하
지 않으면 (접두사가 오직 하나의 옵션과 일치합니다) 긴 옵션을 접두사로 축
약 할 수 있도록 합니다:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
     Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
     Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
     usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
     PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon

둘 이상의 옵션과 일치하는 인자는 에러를 일으킵니다.  이 기능은 *note
allow_abbrev: dbb.를 ‘False’ 로 설정함으로써 비활성화시킬 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: sys argv 너머,  Next: Namespace 객체,  Prev: 인자 약어 접두사 일치,  Up: parse_args 메서드

5.17.1.34 ‘sys.argv’ 너머
.........................

Sometimes it may be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 533. parse
arguments other than those of *note sys.argv: 1255.  This can be
accomplished by passing a list of strings to *note parse_args(): 2e78.
This is useful for testing at the interactive prompt:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
     ...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
     ...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])


File: python.info,  Node: Namespace 객체,  Prev: sys argv 너머,  Up: parse_args 메서드

5.17.1.35 Namespace 객체
........................

 -- 클래스: argparse.Namespace

     *note parse_args(): 2e78. 가 어트리뷰트를 저장하고 반환할 객체를 만
     드는 데 기본적으로 사용하는 간단한 클래스.

     이 클래스는 의도적으로 단순한데, 단지 가독성 있는 문자열 표현을 갖
     는 *note object: a89. 의 서브 클래스입니다.  어트리뷰트를 딕셔너리
     처럼 보기 원한다면, 표준 파이썬 관용구를 사용할 수 있습니다, *note
     vars(): 1a49.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
          >>> vars(args)
          {'foo': 'BAR'}

     *note ArgumentParser: 533. 가 새 *note Namespace: 2e79. 객체가 아니
     라 이미 존재하는 객체에 어트리뷰트를 대입하는 것이 유용 할 수 있습
     니다.  ‘namespace=’ 키워드 인자를 지정하면 됩니다:

          >>> class C:
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
          >>> c.foo
          'BAR'


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 유틸리티,  Next: Exceptions<3>,  Prev: parse_args 메서드,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.36 기타 유틸리티
.......................

* Menu:

* 부속 명령::
* FileType 객체::
* 인자 그룹::
* 상호 배제::
* 파서 기본값::
* 도움말 인쇄::
* 부분 파싱::
* 파일 파싱 사용자 정의::
* 종료 메서드::
* 혼합 파싱::
* Registering custom types or actions::


File: python.info,  Node: 부속 명령,  Next: FileType 객체,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.37 부속 명령
...................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers (*[, title][, description][,
          prog][, parser_class][, action][, dest][, required][, help][,
          metavar])

     Many programs split up their functionality into a number of
     subcommands, for example, the ‘svn’ program can invoke subcommands
     like ‘svn checkout’, ‘svn update’, and ‘svn commit’.  Splitting up
     functionality this way can be a particularly good idea when a
     program performs several different functions which require
     different kinds of command-line arguments.  *note ArgumentParser:
     533. supports the creation of such subcommands with the
     ‘add_subparsers()’ method.  The ‘add_subparsers()’ method is
     normally called with no arguments and returns a special action
     object.  This object has a single method, ‘add_parser()’, which
     takes a command name and any ‘ArgumentParser’ constructor
     arguments, and returns an ‘ArgumentParser’ object that can be
     modified as usual.

     매개 변수 설명:

        * 'title' - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by
          default “subcommands” if description is provided, otherwise
          uses title for positional arguments

        * 'description' - description for the sub-parser group in help
          output, by default ‘None’

        * 'prog' - usage information that will be displayed with
          sub-command help, by default the name of the program and any
          positional arguments before the subparser argument

        * 'parser_class' - class which will be used to create sub-parser
          instances, by default the class of the current parser (e.g.
          *note ArgumentParser: 533.)

        * *note action: 2e94. - 이 인자를 명령행에서 만날 때 수행 할 액
          션의 기본형

        * *note dest: 2e8d. - 부속 명령 이름을 저장하는 어트리뷰트의 이
          름.  기본적으로 ‘None’ 이며 값은 저장되지 않습니다.

        * *note required: 2e97. - 부속 명령이 꼭 제공되어야 하는지 아닌
          지, 기본값은 ‘False’ (3.7에서 추가)

        * *note help: 2e98. - 도움말 출력의 부속 파서 그룹 도움말, 기본
          적으로 ‘None’

        * *note metavar: 2e99. - string presenting available subcommands
          in help; by default it is ‘None’ and presents subcommands in
          form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}

     몇 가지 사용 예:

          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "a" command
          >>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
          >>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "b" command
          >>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
          >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
          >>>
          >>> # parse some argument lists
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
          Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
          Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)

     *note parse_args(): 2e78. 에 의해 반환된 객체는 주 파서와 명령행에
     의해 선택된 부속 파서(다른 부속 파서는 아님)의 어트리뷰트만을 포함
     한다는 것에 주의하십시오.  그래서 위의 예에서, ‘a’ 명령이 지정되면
     ‘foo’ 와 ‘bar’ 어트리뷰트 만 존재하고, ‘b’ 명령이 지정되면 ‘foo’ 와
     ‘baz’ 어트리뷰트만 존재합니다.

     Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only
     the help for that particular parser will be printed.  The help
     message will not include parent parser or sibling parser messages.
     (A help message for each subparser command, however, can be given
     by supplying the ‘help=’ argument to ‘add_parser()’ as above.)

          >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...

          positional arguments:
            {a,b}   subcommand help
              a     a help
              b     b help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit
            --foo   foo help

          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
          usage: PROG a [-h] bar

          positional arguments:
            bar     bar help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          >>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
          usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]

          options:
            -h, --help     show this help message and exit
            --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help

     *note add_subparsers(): c14. 메서드는 또한 ‘title’ 과 ‘description’
     키워드 인자를 지원합니다.  둘 중 하나가 있으면 부속 파서의 명령이 도
     움말 출력에서 자체 그룹으로 나타납니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
          ...                                    description='valid subcommands',
          ...                                    help='additional help')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
          usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          subcommands:
            valid subcommands

            {foo,bar}   additional help

     Furthermore, ‘add_parser()’ supports an additional 'aliases'
     argument, which allows multiple strings to refer to the same
     subparser.  This example, like ‘svn’, aliases ‘co’ as a shorthand
     for ‘checkout’:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
          >>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
          Namespace(foo='bar')

     ‘add_parser()’ supports also an additional 'deprecated' argument,
     which allows to deprecate the subparser.

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='chicken.py')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> run = subparsers.add_parser('run')
          >>> fly = subparsers.add_parser('fly', deprecated=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['fly'])
          chicken.py: warning: command 'fly' is deprecated
          Namespace()

     Added in version 3.13.

     One particularly effective way of handling subcommands is to
     combine the use of the *note add_subparsers(): c14. method with
     calls to *note set_defaults(): 2e90. so that each subparser knows
     which Python function it should execute.  For example:

          >>> # subcommand functions
          >>> def foo(args):
          ...     print(args.x * args.y)
          ...
          >>> def bar(args):
          ...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
          ...
          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(required=True)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
          >>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
          >>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
          >>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
          >>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          2.0
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          ((XYZYX))

     이렇게 하면 *note parse_args(): 2e78. 가 파싱이 완료된 후 적절한 함
     수를 호출하게 할 수 있습니다.  이처럼 액션과 함수를 연결하는 것이,
     일반적으로 각 부속 파서가 서로 다른 액션을 처리하도록 하는 가장 쉬
     운 방법입니다.  그러나 호출된 부속 파서의 이름을 확인해야 하는 경우
     *note add_subparsers(): c14. 호출에 ‘dest’ 키워드 인자를 제공합니다
     :

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
          >>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
          >>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
          >>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
          >>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
          Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')

     버전 3.7에서 변경: New 'required' keyword-only parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: FileType 객체,  Next: 인자 그룹,  Prev: 부속 명령,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.38 FileType 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: argparse.FileType (mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     *note FileType: f13. 팩토리는 *note ArgumentParser.add_argument():
     19e. 의 type 인자로 전달될 수 있는 객체를 만듭니다.  type으로 *note
     FileType: f13. 객체를 사용하는 인자는 명령행 인자를 요청된 모드, 버
     퍼 크기, 인코딩 및 오류 처리의 파일로 엽니다 (자세한 내용은 *note
     open(): 515. 함수를 참조하세요):

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
          >>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
          Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)

     FileType objects understand the pseudo-argument ‘'-'’ and
     automatically convert this into *note sys.stdin: 537. for readable
     *note FileType: f13. objects and *note sys.stdout: ad3. for
     writable *note FileType: f13. objects:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

     버전 3.4에서 변경: Added the 'encodings' and 'errors' parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: 인자 그룹,  Next: 상호 배제,  Prev: FileType 객체,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.39 인자 그룹
...................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group (title=None,
          description=None, *[, argument_default][, conflict_handler])

     By default, *note ArgumentParser: 533. groups command-line
     arguments into “positional arguments” and “options” when displaying
     help messages.  When there is a better conceptual grouping of
     arguments than this default one, appropriate groups can be created
     using the ‘add_argument_group()’ method:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar

          group:
            bar    bar help
            --foo FOO  foo help

     The *note add_argument_group(): 2eba. method returns an argument
     group object which has an *note add_argument(): 19e. method just
     like a regular *note ArgumentParser: 533.  When an argument is
     added to the group, the parser treats it just like a normal
     argument, but displays the argument in a separate group for help
     messages.  The ‘add_argument_group()’ method accepts 'title' and
     'description' arguments which can be used to customize this
     display:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
          >>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
          >>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo

          group1:
            group1 description

            foo    foo help

          group2:
            group2 description

            --bar BAR  bar help

     The optional, keyword-only parameters *note argument_default: 2e83.
     and *note conflict_handler: 2e84. allow for finer-grained control
     of the behavior of the argument group.  These parameters have the
     same meaning as in the *note ArgumentParser: 533. constructor, but
     apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire
     parser.

     사용자 정의 그룹에 없는 인자는 일반적인 “positional arguments” 및
     “optional arguments” 섹션으로 들어갑니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Calling *note add_argument_group(): 2eba. on an
     argument group is deprecated.  This feature was never supported and
     does not always work correctly.  The function exists on the API by
     accident through inheritance and will be removed in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: 상호 배제,  Next: 파서 기본값,  Prev: 인자 그룹,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.40 상호 배제
...................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group (required=False)

     Create a mutually exclusive group.  ‘argparse’ will make sure that
     only one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was
     present on the command line:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
          Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
          PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo

     *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2ebc. 메서드는 상호 배타적 인
     자 중 적어도 하나가 필요하다는 것을 나타내기 위한 'required' 인자도
     받아들입니다:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
          PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required

     Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not
     support the 'title' and 'description' arguments of *note
     add_argument_group(): 2eba.  However, a mutually exclusive group
     can be added to an argument group that has a title and description.
     For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('Group title', 'Group description')
          >>> exclusive_group = group.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo FOO | --bar BAR)

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          Group title:
            Group description

            --foo FOO   foo help
            --bar BAR   bar help

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Calling *note add_argument_group(): 2eba. or
     *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2ebc. on a mutually exclusive
     group is deprecated.  These features were never supported and do
     not always work correctly.  The functions exist on the API by
     accident through inheritance and will be removed in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: 파서 기본값,  Next: 도움말 인쇄,  Prev: 상호 배제,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.41 파서 기본값
.....................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.set_defaults (**kwargs)

     대부분은, *note parse_args(): 2e78. 에 의해 반환된 객체의 어트리뷰
     트는 명령행 인자와 인자 액션을 검사하여 완전히 결정됩니다.  *note
     set_defaults(): 2e90. 는 명령행을 검사하지 않고 결정되는 몇 가지 추
     가적인 어트리뷰트를 추가할 수 있도록 합니다:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
          >>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
          Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)

     파서 수준의 기본값은 항상 인자 수준의 기본값보다 우선합니다:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
          >>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(foo='spam')

     파서 수준의 기본값은 여러 파서로 작업 할 때 특히 유용 할 수 있습니
     다.  이 유형의 예제는 *note add_subparsers(): c14. 메서드를 참조하
     십시오.

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.get_default (dest)

     *note add_argument(): 19e. 또는 *note set_defaults(): 2e90. 에 의해
     설정된 이름 공간 어트리뷰트의 기본값을 가져옵니다:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
          >>> parser.get_default('foo')
          'badger'


File: python.info,  Node: 도움말 인쇄,  Next: 부분 파싱,  Prev: 파서 기본값,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.42 도움말 인쇄
.....................

대부분의 일반적인 응용 프로그램에서 *note parse_args(): 2e78. 가 사용법
이나 오류 메시지를 포매팅하고 인쇄하는 것을 담당합니다.  그러나 여러 가
지 포매팅 방법이 제공됩니다:

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.print_usage (file=None)

     *note ArgumentParser: 533. 가 어떻게 명령행에서 호출되어야 하는지에
     대한 간단한 설명을 인쇄합니다.  'file' 이 ‘None’ 이면, *note
     sys.stdout: ad3. 이 가정됩니다.

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.print_help (file=None)

     프로그램 사용법과 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 에 등록된 인자에 대한
     정보를 포함하는 도움말 메시지를 출력합니다.  'file' 이 ‘None’ 이면,
     *note sys.stdout: ad3. 이 가정됩니다.

인쇄하는 대신 단순히 문자열을 반환하는, 이러한 메서드의 변형도 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.format_usage ()

     *note ArgumentParser: 533. 가 어떻게 명령행에서 호출되어야 하는지에
     대한 간단한 설명을 담은 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.format_help ()

     프로그램 사용법과 *note ArgumentParser: 533. 에 등록된 인자에 대한
     정보를 포함하는 도움말 메시지를 담은 문자열을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 부분 파싱,  Next: 파일 파싱 사용자 정의,  Prev: 도움말 인쇄,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.43 부분 파싱
...................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Sometimes a script only needs to handle a specific set of
     command-line arguments, leaving any unrecognized arguments for
     another script or program.  In these cases, the *note
     parse_known_args(): 2ec4. method can be useful.

     This method works similarly to *note parse_args(): 2e78, but it
     does not raise an error for extra, unrecognized arguments.
     Instead, it parses the known arguments and returns a two item tuple
     that contains the populated namespace and the list of any
     unrecognized arguments.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
          (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])

     경고: *note Prefix matching: dbc. rules apply to *note
     parse_known_args(): 2ec4.  The parser may consume an option even if
     it’s just a prefix of one of its known options, instead of leaving
     it in the remaining arguments list.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 파싱 사용자 정의,  Next: 종료 메서드,  Prev: 부분 파싱,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.44 파일 파싱 사용자 정의
...............................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args (arg_line)

     파일에서 읽은 인자는 (*note ArgumentParser: 533. 생성자의
     'fromfile_prefix_chars' 키워드 인자를 참조하세요) 한 줄에 하나의 인
     자로 읽습니다.  이 동작을 변경하려면 *note
     convert_arg_line_to_args(): 2e8f. 를 재정의합니다.

     이 메서드는 하나의 인자 'arg_line' 를 받아들이는데, 인자 파일에서 읽
     어 들인 문자열입니다.  이 문자열에서 파싱된 인자 리스트를 반환합니
     다.  메서드는 인자 파일에서 읽어 들이는 대로 한 줄에 한 번씩 순서대
     로 호출됩니다.

     이 메서드의 재정의하는 유용한 경우는 스페이스로 분리된 각 단어를 인
     자로 처리하는 것입니다.  다음 예제는 이렇게 하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

          class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
                  return arg_line.split()


File: python.info,  Node: 종료 메서드,  Next: 혼합 파싱,  Prev: 파일 파싱 사용자 정의,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.45 종료 메서드
.....................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.exit (status=0, message=None)

     This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified
     'status' and, if given, it prints a 'message' to *note sys.stderr:
     937. before that.  The user can override this method to handle
     these steps differently:

          class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
                  if status:
                      raise Exception(f'Exiting because of an error: {message}')
                  exit(status)

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.error (message)

     This method prints a usage message, including the 'message', to
     *note sys.stderr: 937. and terminates the program with a status
     code of 2.


File: python.info,  Node: 혼합 파싱,  Next: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: 종료 메서드,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.46 혼합 파싱
...................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

     많은 유닉스 명령은 사용자가 선택 인자와 위치 인자를 섞을 수 있도록
     합니다.  *note parse_intermixed_args(): afd. 와 *note
     parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2eca. 메서드는 이런 파싱 스타일을 지
     원합니다.

     These parsers do not support all the ‘argparse’ features, and will
     raise exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular,
     subparsers, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
     optionals and positionals are not supported.

     다음 예제는 *note parse_known_args(): 2ec4. 와 *note
     parse_intermixed_args(): afd. 의 차이점을 보여줍니다: 전자는 여분의
     인자로 ‘['2', '3']’ 을 반환하는 반면, 후자는 모든 위치 인자를
     ‘rest’ 로 모읍니다.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
          >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
          >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
          >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])

     *note parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2eca. 는 채워진 이름 공간과 잔
     여 인자 문자열의 리스트를 포함하는 두 항목 튜플을 반환합니다.
     *note parse_intermixed_args(): afd. 는 파싱되지 않은 인자 문자열이
     남아 있으면 에러를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: 혼합 파싱,  Up: 기타 유틸리티

5.17.1.47 Registering custom types or actions
.............................................

 -- 메서드: ArgumentParser.register (registry_name, value, object)

     Sometimes it’s desirable to use a custom string in error messages
     to provide more user-friendly output.  In these cases, ‘register()’
     can be used to register custom actions or types with a parser and
     allow you to reference the type by their registered name instead of
     their callable name.

     The ‘register()’ method accepts three arguments - a
     'registry_name', specifying the internal registry where the object
     will be stored (e.g., ‘action’, ‘type’), 'value', which is the key
     under which the object will be registered, and object, the callable
     to be registered.

     The following example shows how to register a custom type with a
     parser:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.register('type', 'hexadecimal integer', lambda s: int(s, 16))
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type='hexadecimal integer')
          _StoreAction(option_strings=['--foo'], dest='foo', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type='hexadecimal integer', choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None, deprecated=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '0xFA'])
          Namespace(foo=250)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1.2'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO]
          PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid 'hexadecimal integer' value: '1.2'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<3>,  Prev: 기타 유틸리티,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.17.1.48 Exceptions
....................

 -- 예외: argparse.ArgumentError

     An error from creating or using an argument (optional or
     positional).

     The string value of this exception is the message, augmented with
     information about the argument that caused it.

 -- 예외: argparse.ArgumentTypeError

     Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string
     to a type.

Guides and Tutorials
....................

* Menu:

* Argparse 자습서::
* Migrating optparse code to argparse::


File: python.info,  Node: Argparse 자습서,  Next: Migrating optparse code to argparse,  Up: Exceptions<3>

5.17.1.49 Argparse 자습서
.........................


저자: Tshepang Mbambo

이 자습서는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에서 권장하는 명령행 파싱 모듈인 *note
argparse: 6. 에 대한 소개입니다.

     참고: The standard library includes two other libraries directly
     related to command-line parameter processing: the lower level *note
     optparse: a0. module (which may require more code to configure for
     a given application, but also allows an application to request
     behaviors that ‘argparse’ doesn’t support), and the very low level
     *note getopt: 61. (which specifically serves as an equivalent to
     the ‘getopt()’ family of functions available to C programmers).
     While neither of those modules is covered directly in this guide,
     many of the core concepts in ‘argparse’ first originated in
     ‘optparse’, so some aspects of this tutorial will also be relevant
     to ‘optparse’ users.

* Menu:

* 개념::
* 기본::
* 위치 인자 소개::
* 옵션 인자 소개::
* 위치 및 옵션 인자 결합하기::
* 조금 더 발전시키기::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* 맺음말::


File: python.info,  Node: 개념,  Next: 기본,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.50 개념
..............

‘ls’ 명령을 사용하여 이 입문서에서 다룰 기능들을 살펴봅시다:

     $ ls
     cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls pypy
     ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
     $ ls -l
     total 20
     drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
     drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
     -rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
     drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
     -rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls --help
     Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
     List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
     Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
     ...

네 가지 명령에서 배울 수 있는 몇 가지 개념들입니다:

   * ‘ls’ 명령은 옵션 없이 실행될 때도 유용합니다.  기본적으로 현재 디렉
     터리의 내용을 표시합니다.

   * 기본적으로 제공하는 것 이상으로 원한다면, 조금 더 말합니다.  이 경
     우에는 다른 디렉터리인 ‘pypy’ 를 표시하기를 원합니다.  우리가 한 것
     은 위치 인자라고 알려진 것을 지정하는 것입니다.  프로그램이 명령행
     에 표시되는 위치를 기준으로 값을 어떻게 처리해야 하는지를 알아야 하
     므로 이런 이름이 사용됩니다.  이 개념은 ‘cp’ 와 같은 명령에 더 적절
     합니다.  가장 기본적인 사용법은 ‘cp SRC DEST’ 입니다.  첫 번째 위치
     는 '복사하고자 하는 것' 이고 두 번째 위치는 '사본을 저장할 곳' 입니
     다.

   * 자, 프로그램의 행동을 바꾸고 싶다고 합시다.  이 예에서는 파일 이름
     만 표시하는 대신 각 파일에 대한 정보를 더 많이 표시합니다.  이 경우
     ‘-l’ 은 옵션 인자로 알려져 있습니다.

   * 이것이 도움말 텍스트입니다.  이전에 사용해보지 않은 프로그램을 접했
     을 때 도움말 텍스트를 읽는 것만으로 작동하는 방식을 이해할 수 있다
     는 점에서 매우 유용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본,  Next: 위치 인자 소개,  Prev: 개념,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.51 기본
..............

(거의) 아무것도 하지 않는 아주 간단한 예제로 시작합시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.parse_args()

다음은 코드를 실행한 결과입니다:

     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py --verbose
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
     $ python prog.py foo
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo

일어난 일은 이렇습니다:

   * 옵션 없이 스크립트를 실행하면 아무것도 표준 출력에 표시되지 않습니
     다.  별로 유용하지 않습니다.

   * 두 번째는 *note argparse: 6. 모듈의 쓸모를 보여주기 시작합니다.  거
     의 아무것도 하지 않았지만 이미 도움말을 얻었습니다.

   * ‘--help’ 옵션은, ‘-h’ 로 단축할 수도 있습니다, 무료로 얻을 수 있는
     유일한 옵션입니다 (즉, 지정할 필요가 없습니다).  다른 값을 지정하면
     오류가 발생합니다.  그러나 그때조차도 우리는 사용 안내를 얻습니다,
     여전히 공짜입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 위치 인자 소개,  Next: 옵션 인자 소개,  Prev: 기본,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.52 위치 인자 소개
........................

예:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

코드를 실행합니다:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py foo
     foo

이런 일이 일어났습니다:

   * *note add_argument(): 19e. 메서드를 추가했습니다.  이 메서드는 프로
     그램이 받고 싶은 명령행 옵션을 지정하기 위해 사용합니다.  이 경우 기
     능과 일치하도록 ‘echo’ 라고 이름 붙였습니다.

   * 이제 프로그램을 호출하려면 옵션을 지정해야 합니다.

   * *note parse_args(): 2e78. 메서드는 실제로 지정된 옵션으로부터 온 데
     이터를 돌려줍니다.  이 경우에는 ‘echo’ 입니다.

   * 변수는 *note argparse: 6. 이 공짜로 수행하는 일종의 ‘마법’ 입니다
     (즉, 값이 저장되는 변수를 지정할 필요가 없습니다).  또한, 그 이름이
     메서드에 주어진 문자열 인자 ‘echo’ 와 일치함을 알 수 있습니다.

그러나 도움말이 멋지게 보이지만, 현재로서는 가능한 최선이 아닙니다.  예
를 들어 ‘echo’ 가 위치 인자임을 볼 수 있지만, 추측하거나 소스 코드를 읽
는 것 외에는 그것이 무엇을 하는지 모릅니다.  그럼 좀 더 유용하게 만들어
봅시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

그러면 이렇게 됩니다:

     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo        echo the string you use here

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit

이제, 뭔가 더 쓸모있는 일을 하는 것은 어떻습니까:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

다음은 코드를 실행한 결과입니다:

     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
         print(args.square**2)
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'

잘 안됐습니다.  우리가 달리 지시하지 않는다면, *note argparse: 6. 는 우
리가 준 옵션들을 문자열로 취급하기 때문입니다.  그럼, *note argparse: 6.
에게 그 입력을 정수로 취급하라고 알려줍시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
                         type=int)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

다음은 코드를 실행한 결과입니다:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py four
     usage: prog.py [-h] square
     prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'

잘 됩니다.  이제 이 프로그램은 잘못된 입력이 올 때 더 진행하지 않고 종료
하기조차 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 인자 소개,  Next: 위치 및 옵션 인자 결합하기,  Prev: 위치 인자 소개,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.53 옵션 인자 소개
........................

지금까지 우리는 위치 인자를 다뤘습니다.  옵션 인자를 추가하는 방법에 대
해 살펴봅시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbosity:
         print("verbosity turned on")

출력은 이렇습니다:

     $ python prog.py --verbosity 1
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --verbosity VERBOSITY
                             increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py --verbosity
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
     prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument

일어난 일은 이렇습니다:

   * 이 프로그램은 ‘--verbosity’ 가 지정되었을 때 어떤 것을 표시하고 그
     렇지 않을 때는 아무것도 표시하지 않도록 작성되었습니다.

   * 옵션이 실제로 선택 사항임을 확인하기 위해, 이 옵션을 사용하지 않고
     프로그램을 실행할 때 오류가 없습니다.  기본적으로 옵션 인자가 사용
     되지 않는다면 관련 변수 (이 경우 ‘args.verbosity’)는 값으로 ‘None’
     이 주어집니다.  이 때문에 *note if: 2eb. 문의 논리값 검사가 실패합
     니다.

   * 도움말 메시지가 약간 달라졌습니다.

   * ‘--verbosity’ 옵션을 사용할 때, 어떤 값을 지정해야 합니다.  어떤 값
     이건 상관없습니다.

위의 예제는 ‘--verbosity’ 에 임의의 정숫값을 허용하지만, 우리의 간단한 프
로그램에서는 실제로 ‘True’ 또는 ‘False’ 두 값만 쓸모 있습니다.  그것에 맞
게 코드를 수정합시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

출력은 이렇습니다:

     $ python prog.py --verbose
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --verbose 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --verbose   increase output verbosity

일어난 일은 이렇습니다:

   * 이 옵션은 이제 값을 요구하는 것이 아니라 플래그입니다.  이 개념과 일
     치하도록 옵션의 이름을 변경하기까지 했습니다.  새로운 키워드
     ‘action’ 을 지정하고, ‘"store_true"’ 값을 지정했습니다.  이것은, 옵
     션이 지정되면 ‘args.verbose’ 에 값 ‘True’ 를 대입하라는 뜻입니다.  지
     정하지 않으면 묵시적으로 ‘False’ 입니다.

   * 값을 지정하면 불평하는데, 플래그의 정의를 따르고 있습니다.

   * 도움말 텍스트가 바뀐 것을 확인하십시오.

* Menu:

* 짧은 옵션::


File: python.info,  Node: 짧은 옵션,  Up: 옵션 인자 소개

5.17.1.54 짧은 옵션
...................

명령행 사용법에 익숙하다면 짧은 옵션 버전에 관한 내용을 아직 다루지 않았
음을 알 수 있을 겁니다.  아주 간단합니다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

그러면 이렇게 됩니다:

     $ python prog.py -v
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity

새로운 기능은 도움말 텍스트에도 반영됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 위치 및 옵션 인자 결합하기,  Next: 조금 더 발전시키기,  Prev: 옵션 인자 소개,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.55 위치 및 옵션 인자 결합하기
....................................

프로그램이 점점 복잡해지고 있습니다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbose:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

이제 출력은 이렇게 됩니다:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbose
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py --verbose 4
     the square of 4 equals 16

   * 위치 인자를 다시 도입했기 때문에, 불평합니다.

   * 순서는 중요하지 않습니다.

이 프로그램에 여러 상세도를 지정할 수 있도록 하는 능력을 다시 부여하고,
실제로 그것을 사용하는 것은 어떨까요:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

출력은 이렇습니다:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 2
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     16

우리 프로그램의 버그를 드러내는 마지막 것을 제외하고는 그럴듯해 보입니다
.  ‘--verbosity’ 옵션이 받아들일 수 있는 값을 제한해서 고쳐봅시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

출력은 이렇습니다:

     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square

     positional arguments:
       square                display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity {0,1,2}
                             increase output verbosity

변경 내용은 오류 메시지와 도움말 문자열에도 반영됩니다.

이제 상세도를 다루는 다른 접근법을 사용해 봅시다, 이 방법은 꽤 널리 사용
됩니다.  또한, 이 방법은 CPython 실행 파일이 자신의 상세도를 처리하는 방
식과도 일치합니다 (‘python --help’ 의 결과를 확인하십시오):

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display the square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

특정 옵션을 지정한 횟수를 계산하기 위해 “count” 라는 또 다른 액션을 도입
했습니다.

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square

     positional arguments:
       square           display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     16

   * 예, 이제 이전 버전의 스크립트처럼 (‘action="store_true"’ 와 유사하
     게) 플래그가 되었습니다.  출력되는 불평이 설명됩니다.

   * 또한 “store_true” 액션과 비슷하게 작동하기도 합니다.

   * 이제 여기에서 “count” 액션이 제공하는 것을 보여줍니다.  이런 종류의
     사용법을 전에도 보았을 것입니다.

   * 그리고, ‘-v’ 플래그를 지정하지 않으면 그 플래그는 ‘None’ 값으로 간
     주합니다.

   * 예측하듯이, 플래그의 긴 형식을 지정하면, 같은 출력이 얻어져야 합니
     다.

   * 안타깝게도 스크립트가 얻은 새로운 기능에 대한 도움말 출력은 그다지
     유익하지 않지만, 스크립트의 문서를 개선하면 항상 해결할 수 있습니다
     (예, ‘help’ 키워드 인자를 사용해서).

   * 마지막 출력은 우리 프로그램의 버그를 노출합니다.

고칩시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2

     # bugfix: replace == with >=
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

그러면 이렇게 됩니다:

     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
         if args.verbosity >= 2:
     TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'

   * 첫 번째 출력은 잘 동작하고, 앞에서 나온 버그를 고칩니다.  즉, 2보다
     크거나 같은 (>=) 모든 값을 최대의 상세도로 취급하고 싶습니다.

   * 세 번째 결과가 좋지 않습니다.

이 버그를 고쳐 봅시다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

또 다른 키워드 ‘default’ 를 소개했습니다.  다른 int 값과 비교하기 위해
‘0’ 으로 설정했습니다.  기본적으로, 옵션 인자가 지정되지 않으면 ‘None’ 값
을 갖게 되고, 그것은 int 값과 비교될 수 없음을 (그래서 *note TypeError:
532. 예외를 일으킵니다) 기억하십시오.

그리고:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16

여러분은 지금까지 배운 것만으로도 아주 멀리 갈 수 있으며, 우리는 단지 표
면을 긁었을 뿐입니다.  *note argparse: 6. 모듈은 매우 강력합니다.  이 자
습서를 끝내기 전에 좀 더 탐색해 보겠습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 조금 더 발전시키기,  Next: How to translate the argparse output,  Prev: 위치 및 옵션 인자 결합하기,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.56 조금 더 발전시키기
............................

우리의 작은 프로그램을 확장하여 제곱만이 아닌 다른 거듭제곱을 수행하기를
원하면 어떻게 될까요:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

출력:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y

     positional arguments:
       x                the base
       y                the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16

지금까지는 표시되는 텍스트를 '변경' 하기 위해 상세도를 사용했습니다.  다
음 예제는 대신 '더 많은' 텍스트를 표시하기 위해 상세도를 사용합니다:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"Running '{__file__}'")
     if args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == ", end="")
     print(answer)

출력:

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vv
     Running 'prog.py'
     4^2 == 16

* Menu:

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* 충돌하는 옵션들::


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Next: 충돌하는 옵션들,  Up: 조금 더 발전시키기

5.17.1.57 Specifying ambiguous arguments
........................................

When there is ambiguity in deciding whether an argument is positional or
for an argument, ‘--’ can be used to tell *note parse_args(): 2e78. that
everything after that is a positional argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-n', nargs='+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs='*')

     >>> # ambiguous, so parse_args assumes it's an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-n N [N ...]] [args ...]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -f

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(args=['-f'], n=None)

     >>> # ambiguous, so the -n option greedily accepts arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=[], n=['1', '2', '3'])

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '--', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=['2', '3'], n=['1'])


File: python.info,  Node: 충돌하는 옵션들,  Prev: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Up: 조금 더 발전시키기

5.17.1.58 충돌하는 옵션들
.........................

지금까지 우리는 *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 533. 인스턴스의 두 가지 메
서드로 작업 해왔습니다.  세 번째를 소개합시다, *note
add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2ebc.  이것은 서로 배타적인 옵션을 지정
할 수 있도록 합니다.  새로운 기능을 더 잘 이해할 수 있도록 프로그램의 나
머지 부분을 변경해 보겠습니다: ‘--quiet’ 옵션을 도입하는데 ‘--verbose’ 의
반대입니다:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

프로그램은 이제 더 간단 해졌으며, 데모를 위해 일부 기능을 잃어버렸습니다
.  어쨌든, 출력은 이렇습니다:

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -q
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4 to the power 2 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vq
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose

따라가기 쉽습니다.  여러분이 얻는 유연성을 볼 수 있도록 마지막 출력을 추
가했습니다.  즉, 긴 형식 옵션을 짧은 형식 옵션과 섞어 쓸 수 있습니다.

결론을 내리기 전에, 여러분은 아마도 사용자들이 모를 경우를 대비해서 프로
그램의 주요 목적을 알려주기를 원할 것입니다:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

사용법 텍스트의 약간의 차이점에 유의하십시오.  ‘[-v | -q]’ 에 주목해야 하
는데, ‘-v’ 나 ‘-q’ 를 사용할 수 있지만 동시에 둘 다를 사용할 수는 없다는
뜻입니다:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet


File: python.info,  Node: How to translate the argparse output,  Next: Custom type converters,  Prev: 조금 더 발전시키기,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.59 How to translate the argparse output
..............................................

The output of the *note argparse: 6. module such as its help text and
error messages are all made translatable using the *note gettext: 63.
module.  This allows applications to easily localize messages produced
by *note argparse: 6.  See also *note 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화: 2eda.

For instance, in this *note argparse: 6. output:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet

The strings ‘usage:’, ‘positional arguments:’, ‘options:’ and ‘show this
help message and exit’ are all translatable.

In order to translate these strings, they must first be extracted into a
‘.po’ file.  For example, using Babel(1), run this command:

     $ pybabel extract -o messages.po /usr/lib/python3.12/argparse.py

This command will extract all translatable strings from the *note
argparse: 6. module and output them into a file named ‘messages.po’.
This command assumes that your Python installation is in ‘/usr/lib’.

You can find out the location of the *note argparse: 6. module on your
system using this script:

     import argparse
     print(argparse.__file__)

Once the messages in the ‘.po’ file are translated and the translations
are installed using *note gettext: 63, *note argparse: 6. will be able
to display the translated messages.

To translate your own strings in the *note argparse: 6. output, use
*note gettext: 63.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom type converters,  Next: 맺음말,  Prev: How to translate the argparse output,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.60 Custom type converters
................................

The *note argparse: 6. module allows you to specify custom type
converters for your command-line arguments.  This allows you to modify
user input before it’s stored in the *note argparse.Namespace: 2e79.
This can be useful when you need to pre-process the input before it is
used in your program.

When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes
a single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted
value.  However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can
use a custom action class with the 'action' parameter instead.

For example, let’s say you want to handle arguments with different
prefixes and process them accordingly:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')

     parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('-', x))
     parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('+', x))

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

출력:

     $ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
     Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])

이 예에서,:

   * Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the
     ‘prefix_chars’ parameter.

   * Defined two arguments, ‘-a’ and ‘+a’, which used the ‘type’
     parameter to create custom type converters to store the value in a
     tuple with the prefix.

Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the
‘-a’ and ‘+a’ as the same argument, which would have been undesirable.
By using custom type converters, we were able to differentiate between
the two arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: 맺음말,  Prev: Custom type converters,  Up: Argparse 자습서

5.17.1.61 맺음말
................

*note argparse: 6. 모듈은 여기에 제시된 것보다 훨씬 많은 것을 제공합니다
.  문서는 아주 상세하고 철저하며 예제가 풍부합니다.  이 자습서를 끝내면
압도감 없이 쉽게 소화할 수 있을 겁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Migrating optparse code to argparse,  Prev: Argparse 자습서,  Up: Exceptions<3>

5.17.1.62 Migrating ‘optparse’ code to ‘argparse’
.................................................

The *note argparse: 6. module offers several higher level features not
natively provided by the *note optparse: a0. module, including:

   * Handling positional arguments.

   * Supporting subcommands.

   * Allowing alternative option prefixes like ‘+’ and ‘/’.

   * Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.

   * Producing more informative usage messages.

   * Providing a much simpler interface for custom ‘type’ and ‘action’.

Originally, the *note argparse: 6. module attempted to maintain
compatibility with *note optparse: a0.  However, the fundamental design
differences between supporting declarative command line option
processing (while leaving positional argument processing to application
code), and supporting both named options and positional arguments in the
declarative interface mean that the API has diverged from that of
‘optparse’ over time.

As described in *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e76,
applications that are currently using *note optparse: a0. and are happy
with the way it works can just continue to use ‘optparse’.

Application developers that are considering migrating should also review
the list of intrinsic behavioural differences described in that section
before deciding whether or not migration is desirable.

For applications that do choose to migrate from *note optparse: a0. to
*note argparse: 6, the following suggestions should be helpful:

   * Replace all *note optparse.OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0. calls
     with *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19e. calls.

   * Replace ‘(options, args) = parser.parse_args()’ with ‘args =
     parser.parse_args()’ and add additional *note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 19e. calls for the positional
     arguments.  Keep in mind that what was previously called ‘options’,
     now in the *note argparse: 6. context is called ‘args’.

   * Replace *note optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args():
     2ee1. by using *note parse_intermixed_args(): afd. instead of *note
     parse_args(): 2e78.

   * Replace callback actions and the ‘callback_*’ keyword arguments
     with ‘type’ or ‘action’ arguments.

   * Replace string names for ‘type’ keyword arguments with the
     corresponding type objects (e.g.  int, float, complex, etc).

   * Replace *note optparse.Values: 2ee2. with *note Namespace: 2e79.
     and *note optparse.OptionError: 2ee3. and *note
     optparse.OptionValueError: 2ee4. with *note ArgumentError: 2ecd.

   * Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ‘%default’ or
     ‘%prog’ with the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to
     format strings, that is, ‘%(default)s’ and ‘%(prog)s’.

   * Replace the OptionParser constructor ‘version’ argument with a call
     to ‘parser.add_argument('--version', action='version',
     version='<the version>')’.


File: python.info,  Node: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기,  Next: getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력,  Prev: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.2 ‘optparse’ — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기
----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/optparse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Choosing an argument parsing library::
* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* 배경::
* 자습서::
* 레퍼런스 지침서::
* 옵션 콜백::
* optparse 확장하기::
* 예외: 예외<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/optparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: Choosing an argument parsing library,  Next: Introduction<4>,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.1 Choosing an argument parsing library
.............................................

The standard library includes three argument parsing libraries:

   * *note getopt: 61.: a module that closely mirrors the procedural C
     ‘getopt’ API. Included in the standard library since before the
     initial Python 1.0 release.

   * *note optparse: a0.: a declarative replacement for ‘getopt’ that
     provides equivalent functionality without requiring each
     application to implement its own procedural option parsing logic.
     Included in the standard library since the Python 2.3 release.

   * *note argparse: 6.: a more opinionated alternative to ‘optparse’
     that provides more functionality by default, at the expense of
     reduced application flexibility in controlling exactly how
     arguments are processed.  Included in the standard library since
     the Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 releases.

In the absence of more specific argument parsing design constraints,
*note argparse: 6. is the recommended choice for implementing command
line applications, as it offers the highest level of baseline
functionality with the least application level code.

*note getopt: 61. is retained almost entirely for backwards
compatibility reasons.  However, it also serves a niche use case as a
tool for prototyping and testing command line argument handling in
‘getopt’-based C applications.

*note optparse: a0. should be considered as an alternative to *note
argparse: 6. in the following cases:

   * an application is already using *note optparse: a0. and doesn’t
     want to risk the subtle behavioural changes that may arise when
     migrating to *note argparse: 6.

   * the application requires additional control over the way options
     and positional parameters are interleaved on the command line
     (including the ability to disable the interleaving feature
     completely)

   * the application requires additional control over the incremental
     parsing of command line elements (while ‘argparse’ does support
     this, the exact way it works in practice is undesirable for some
     use cases)

   * the application requires additional control over the handling of
     options which accept parameter values that may start with ‘-’ (such
     as delegated options to be passed to invoked subprocesses)

   * the application requires some other command line parameter
     processing behavior which ‘argparse’ does not support, but which
     can be implemented in terms of the lower level interface offered by
     ‘optparse’

These considerations also mean that *note optparse: a0. is likely to
provide a better foundation for library authors writing third party
command line argument processing libraries.

As a concrete example, consider the following two command line argument
parsing configurations, the first using ‘optparse’, and the second using
‘argparse’:

     import optparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = optparse.OptionParser()
         parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         opts, args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

The most obvious difference is that in the ‘optparse’ version, the
non-option arguments are processed separately by the application after
the option processing is complete.  In the ‘argparse’ version,
positional arguments are declared and processed in the same way as the
named options.

However, the ‘argparse’ version will also handle some parameter
combination differently from the way the ‘optparse’ version would handle
them.  For example (amongst other differences):

   * supplying ‘-o -v’ gives ‘output="-v"’ and ‘verbose=False’ when
     using ‘optparse’, but a usage error with ‘argparse’ (complaining
     that no value has been supplied for ‘-o/--output’, since ‘-v’ is
     interpreted as meaning the verbosity flag)

   * similarly, supplying ‘-o --’ gives ‘output="--"’ and ‘args=()’ when
     using ‘optparse’, but a usage error with ‘argparse’ (also
     complaining that no value has been supplied for ‘-o/--output’,
     since ‘--’ is interpreted as terminating the option processing and
     treating all remaining values as positional arguments)

   * supplying ‘-o=foo’ gives ‘output="=foo"’ when using ‘optparse’, but
     gives ‘output="foo"’ with ‘argparse’ (since ‘=’ is special cased as
     an alternative separator for option parameter values)

Whether these differing behaviors in the ‘argparse’ version are
considered desirable or a problem will depend on the specific command
line application use case.

더 보기
.......

click(1) is a third party argument processing library (originally based
on ‘optparse’), which allows command line applications to be developed
as a set of decorated command implementation functions.

Other third party libraries, such as typer(2) or msgspec-click(3), allow
command line interfaces to be specified in ways that more effectively
integrate with static checking of Python type annotations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/click/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typer/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/msgspec-click/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<4>,  Next: 배경,  Prev: Choosing an argument parsing library,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.2 Introduction
.....................

*note optparse: a0.는 최소한의 기능을 제공하는 *note getopt: 61. 모듈보
다 명령 줄 옵션을 구문 분석하기 위한 더 편리하고 유연하며 강력한 라이브
러리입니다.  *note optparse: a0.는 더 선언적인 스타일의 명령 줄 구문 분
석을 사용합니다: *note OptionParser: 1495.의 인스턴스를 만들고, 옵션으로
채우고, 명령 줄을 구문 분석합니다.  *note optparse: a0.를 사용하면 사용
자가 전통적인 GNU/POSIX 문법으로 옵션을 지정할 수 있으며, 추가로 사용법
과 도움말 메시지를 생성할 수 있습니다.

다음은 간단한 스크립트에서 *note optparse: a0.를 사용하는 예입니다:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()
     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                       help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="don't print status messages to stdout")

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

이 몇 줄의 코드로, 스크립트 사용자는 이제 명령 줄에서 “일반적인 작업”을
수행 할 수 있습니다, 예를 들면:

     <yourscript> --file=outfile -q

명령 줄을 구문 분석할 때, *note optparse: a0.는 사용자가 제공한 명령 줄
값을 기반으로 *note parse_args(): 1496.에서 반환한 ‘options’ 객체의 어트
리뷰트를 설정합니다.  이 명령 줄 구문 분석에서 *note parse_args():
1496.가 반환되면, ‘options.filename’은 ‘"outfile"’이 되고
‘options.verbose’는 ‘False’가 됩니다.  *note optparse: a0.는 긴 옵션과 짧
은 옵션을 모두 지원하고, 짧은 옵션을 함께 병합하도록 하며, 다양한 방법으
로 옵션을 인자와 연관시킬 수 있습니다.  따라서 다음 명령 줄은 모두 위의
예와 동등합니다:

     <yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
     <yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
     <yourscript> -q -foutfile
     <yourscript> -qfoutfile

또한, 사용자는 다음 중 하나를 실행할 수 있습니다

     <yourscript> -h
     <yourscript> --help

그러면 *note optparse: a0.는 스크립트 옵션에 대한 간략한 요약을 인쇄합니
다:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options]

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
       -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout

여기서 'yourscript'의 값은 (일반적으로 ‘sys.argv[0]’에서) 실행 시간에 결
정됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 배경,  Next: 자습서,  Prev: Introduction<4>,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.3 배경
.............

*note optparse: a0.는 C 개발자가 사용할 수 있는 ‘getopt()’ 함수 계열이 정
립한 관례를 따르는 간결한 명령 줄 인터페이스를 갖는 프로그램을 만들 수 있
도록 명시적으로 설계되었습니다.  이를 위해, 유닉스에서 전통적으로 사용되
는 가장 일반적인 명령 줄 문법과 의미 체계만 지원합니다.  이러한 관례에 익
숙하지 않으면, 이 섹션을 읽는 것으로 익히게 될 것입니다.

* Menu:

* 용어::
* 옵션은 무엇을 위한 것입니까?::
* 위치 인자는 무엇을 위한 것입니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 용어,  Next: 옵션은 무엇을 위한 것입니까?,  Up: 배경

5.17.2.4 용어
.............

인자(argument)

     명령 줄에 입력하고, 셸에서 ‘execl()’이나 ‘execv()’로 전달한 문자열.
     파이썬에서, 인자는 ‘sys.argv[1:]’의 요소입니다 (‘sys.argv[0]’은 실
     행 중인 프로그램의 이름입니다).  유닉스 셸은 “워드(word)”라는 용어
     도 사용합니다.

     때때로 ‘sys.argv[1:]’ 이외의 인자 리스트로 대체하는 것이 바람직해서
     , “인자”를 “‘sys.argv[1:]’이나 ‘sys.argv[1:]’의 대체로 제공된 다른
     리스트의 요소”로 읽어야 합니다.

옵션(option)

     프로그램 실행을 안내하거나 사용자 정의하기 위해 추가 정보를 제공하
     는 데 사용되는 인자.  옵션에 대한 다양한 문법이 있습니다; 전통적인
     유닉스 문법은 하이픈 (“-”) 뒤에 단일 문자가 옵니다, 예를 들어 ‘-x’나
     ‘-F’.  또한, 전통적인 유닉스 문법은 여러 옵션을 단일 인자로 병합할
     수 있도록 합니다, 예를 들어 ‘-x -F’는 ‘-xF’와 동등합니다.  GNU 프로
     젝트는 하이픈으로 구분된 일련의 단어가 뒤따르는 ‘--’를 도입했습니다
     , 예를 들어 ‘--file’이나 ‘--dry-run’.  이들이 *note optparse: a0.에
     서 제공하는 유일한 두 가지 옵션 문법입니다.

     세상에 등장했던 다른 옵션 문법은 다음과 같습니다:

        * 몇 개의 문자가 뒤따르는 하이픈, 예를 들어 ‘-pf’ (이것은 하나의
          인자로 병합된 여러 옵션과 같은 것이 '아닙니다')

        * 전체 단어가 뒤따르는 하이픈, 예를 들어 ‘-file’ (기술적으로 이
          전 문법과 동등하지만, 일반적으로 같은 프로그램에서 등장하지 않
          습니다)

        * 단일 문자나 몇 개의 문자 또는 단어가 뒤따르는 더하기 기호, 예
          를 들어 ‘+f’, ‘+rgb’

        * 단일 문자나 몇 개의 문자 또는 단어가 뒤따르는 슬래시, 예를 들
          어 ‘/f’, ‘/file’

     이러한 옵션 문법들은 *note optparse: a0.에서 지원되지 않으며, 앞으
     로도 지원되지 않을 것입니다.  이것은 의도적입니다: 처음 세 가지는 모
     든 환경에서 표준이 아니며, 마지막은 윈도우나 특정 레거시 플랫폼(예
     를 들어 VMS, MS-DOS)을 대상으로 하는 경우에만 의미가 있습니다.

옵션 인자(option argument)

     옵션 뒤에 오는 인자는 해당 옵션과 밀접하게 연관되어 있으며, 해당 옵
     션이 있으면 인자 목록에서 사용됩니다.  *note optparse: a0.를 사용하
     면, 옵션 인자가 해당 옵션과 별도의 인자로 있을 수 있습니다:

          -f foo
          --file foo

     또는 같은 인자에 포함될 수 있습니다:

          -ffoo
          --file=foo

     일반적으로, 주어진 옵션은 인자를 취하거나 취하지 않습니다.  많은 사
     람이 “선택적 옵션 인자” 기능을 원합니다.  즉, 일부 옵션은 있다면 인
     자를 취하고 그렇지 않으면 취하지 않습니다.  이것은 구문 분석을 모호
     하게 만들기 때문에 다소 논란의 여지가 있습니다: ‘-a’가 선택적 인자
     를 취하고 ‘-b’가 완전히 다른 옵션이면 ‘-ab’를 어떻게 해석합니까?  이
     러한 모호성 때문에, *note optparse: a0.는 이 기능을 지원하지 않습니
     다.

위치 인자(positional argument)

     옵션이 구문 분석된 후, 즉 옵션과 해당 인자가 구문 분석되고 인자 목
     록에서 제거된 후 인자 목록에 남은 것.

필수 옵션(required option)

     명령 줄에서 제공해야 하는 옵션; “필수 옵션”이라는 문구는 영어에서 모
     순된다는 점에 유의하십시오.  *note optparse: a0.는 필수 옵션을 구현
     하는 것을 방해하지 않지만, 그다지 도움을 주지도 않습니다.

예를 들어, 다음 가상 명령 줄을 고려하십시오:

     prog -v --report report.txt foo bar

‘-v’와 ‘--report’는 둘 다 옵션입니다.  ‘--report’가 하나의 인자를 취한다
고 가정하면, ‘report.txt’는 옵션 인자입니다.  ‘foo’와 ‘bar’는 위치 인자
입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션은 무엇을 위한 것입니까?,  Next: 위치 인자는 무엇을 위한 것입니까?,  Prev: 용어,  Up: 배경

5.17.2.5 옵션은 무엇을 위한 것입니까?
.....................................

옵션은 프로그램 실행을 조정하거나 사용자 정의하기 위한 추가 정보를 제공
하는 데 사용됩니다.  명확하지 않은 경우, 옵션은 일반적으로 '선택적'입니
다.  프로그램은 어떤 옵션도 없이 잘 실행될 수 있어야 합니다.  (유닉스나
GNU 도구 집합에서 임의의 프로그램을 선택하십시오.  옵션 없이도 실행될 수
있으며 여전히 의미가 있습니까?  주요 예외는 ‘find’, ‘tar’ 및 ‘dd’입니다
— 모두 비표준 문법과 혼란스러운 인터페이스 때문에 올바로 비판을 받은 돌
연변이 괴짜입니다.)

많은 사람이 프로그램에 “필수 옵션”이 있기를 원합니다.  생각해보십시오.  필
수라면, 그것은 '선택적(optional)이 아닙니다'!  당신의 프로그램이 성공적
으로 실행하기 위해 절대적으로 필요한 정보가 있다면, 그것이 바로 위치 인
자의 목적입니다.

좋은 명령 줄 인터페이스 설계의 예로, 파일 복사를 위한 겸손한 ‘cp’ 유틸리
티를 고려하십시오.  대상과 하나 이상의 소스를 제공하지 않고 파일을 복사
하는 것은 의미가 없습니다.  따라서, 인자 없이 실행하면 ‘cp’가 실패합니다
.  그러나 옵션이 전혀 필수로 요구하지 않는 유연하고 유용한 문법을 갖습니
다:

     cp SOURCE DEST
     cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR

그것만으로도 꽤 멀리 갈 수 있습니다.  대부분의 ‘cp’ 구현은 파일이 복사되
는 방식을 정확하게 조정할 수 있는 여러 옵션을 제공합니다: 모드 및 수정 시
간을 보존하고, 심볼릭 링크를 따르지 않고, 기존 파일을 건드리기 전에 물을
수 있습니다.  하지만 이 중 어느 것도 한 파일을 다른 파일로 복사하거나 여
러 파일을 다른 디렉터리로 복사하는 ‘cp’의 핵심 임무를 방해하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 위치 인자는 무엇을 위한 것입니까?,  Prev: 옵션은 무엇을 위한 것입니까?,  Up: 배경

5.17.2.6 위치 인자는 무엇을 위한 것입니까?
..........................................

위치 인자는 프로그램이 실행하기 위해 절대적으로 필요로하는 정보를 위한 것
입니다.

좋은 사용자 인터페이스에는 가능한 한 적은 절대 요구 사항이 있어야 합니다
.  프로그램을 성공적으로 실행하기 위해 17개의 개별 정보를 요구한다면, 사
용자로부터 해당 정보를 '어떻게' 얻는지는 중요하지 않습니다—대부분의 사람
은 프로그램을 성공적으로 실행하기 전에 포기하고 떠납니다.  이것은 사용자
인터페이스가 명령 줄이든, 구성 파일이든, GUI이든 상관없이 적용됩니다: 사
용자에게 그렇게 많은 요구를 하면, 대부분은 단순히 포기할 것입니다.

요컨대, 사용자가 절대적으로 제공해야 하는 정보의 양을 최소화하십시오—가
능할 때마다 합리적인 기본값을 사용하십시오.  물론, 프로그램을 합리적으로
유연하게 만들고 싶기도 합니다.  그것이 바로 옵션이 있는 이유입니다.  다
시 말하지만, 구성 파일의 항목인지, GUI의 “기본 설정” 대화 상자에 있는 위
젯인지, 명령 줄 옵션인지는 중요하지 않습니다—구현하는 옵션이 많을수록, 프
로그램이 더 유연해지고, 구현은 더 복잡해집니다.  물론 유연성이 너무 많으
면 단점도 있습니다; 너무 많은 옵션은 사용자를 압도하고 코드 유지 관리를
훨씬 더 어렵게 만들 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 자습서,  Next: 레퍼런스 지침서,  Prev: 배경,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.7 자습서
...............

*note optparse: a0.는 매우 유연하고 강력하지만, 대부분의 경우 사용하기도
간단합니다.  이 섹션에서는 모든 *note optparse: a0. 기반 프로그램에 공통
적인 코드 패턴을 다룹니다.

먼저, OptionParser 클래스를 임포트 해야 합니다; 그런 다음 메인 프로그램
의 초기에, OptionParser 인스턴스를 만듭니다:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()

그런 다음 옵션 정의를 시작할 수 있습니다.  기본 문법은 다음과 같습니다:

     parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
                       attr=value, ...)

각 옵션에는 ‘-f’나 ‘--file’과 같은 하나 이상의 옵션 문자열이 있고, 명령
줄에서 해당 옵션을 발견했을 때 *note optparse: a0.가 기대하는 것과 수행
할 작업을 알려주는 여러 옵션 어트리뷰트가 있습니다.

일반적으로, 각 옵션에는 하나의 짧은 옵션 문자열과 하나의 긴 옵션 문자열
이 있습니다, 예를 들어:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)

전체적으로 적어도 하나의 옵션 문자열이 있는 한 원하는 만큼 짧은 옵션 문
자열과 긴 옵션 문자열을 (없는 것도 포함합니다) 자유롭게 정의 할 수 있습
니다.

*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0.에 전달된 옵션 문자열은 해당 호출
에 의해 정의된 옵션에 대한 레이블입니다.  간결함을 위해, 명령 줄에서 '옵
션을 만난다'를 자주 언급할 것입니다; 실제로는, *note optparse: a0.가 '옵
션 문자열'을 만나고 이것으로 옵션을 찾습니다.

일단 모든 옵션이 정의되면, *note optparse: a0.가 프로그램의 명령 줄을 구
문 분석하도록 지시합니다:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

(원한다면, 사용자 정의 인자 리스트를 *note parse_args(): 1496.에 전달할
수 있지만, 거의 필요하지 않습니다: 기본적으로 ‘sys.argv[1:]’을 사용합니
다.)

*note parse_args(): 1496.는 두 가지 값을 반환합니다:

   * ‘options’, 모든 옵션에 대한 값을 포함하는 객체—예를 들어 ‘--file’이
     단일 문자열 인자를 취하면, ‘options.file’은 사용자가 제공한 파일명
     이거나, 사용자가 해당 옵션을 제공하지 않으면 ‘None’입니다.

   * ‘args’, 옵션 구문 분석 후 남은 위치 인자 리스트

이 자습서 섹션에서는 가장 중요한 4가지 옵션 어트리뷰트만 다룹니다: *note
action: 2ef3, *note type: 2ef4, *note dest: 2ef5. (destination) 및 *note
help: 2ef6.만 다룹니다.  이 중, *note action: 2ef3.이 가장 기본입니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션 액션의 이해::
* store 액션::
* 불리언 (플래그) 옵션 처리하기: 불리언 플래그 옵션 처리하기.
* 다른 액션들::
* 기본값::
* 도움말 생성하기::
* 버전 문자열 인쇄하기::
* optparse가 에러를 처리하는 방법::
* 모두 합치기::


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 액션의 이해,  Next: store 액션,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.8 옵션 액션의 이해
.........................

액션은 명령 줄에서 옵션을 발견할 때 수행 할 작업을 *note optparse: a0.에
알려줍니다.  *note optparse: a0.에 하드 코딩된 고정된 액션 집합이 있습니
다; 새로운 액션 추가는 섹션 *note optparse 확장하기: 2ef9.에서 다루는 고
급 주제입니다.  대부분의 액션은 *note optparse: a0.에게 어떤 변수에 값을
저장하도록 지시합니다—예를 들어, 명령 줄에서 문자열을 취해서 ‘options’의
어트리뷰트에 저장합니다.

옵션 액션을 지정하지 않으면, *note optparse: a0.의 기본값은 ‘store’입니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: store 액션,  Next: 불리언 플래그 옵션 처리하기,  Prev: 옵션 액션의 이해,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.9 store 액션
...................

가장 일반적인 옵션 액션은 ‘store’로, *note optparse: a0.에게 다음 인자
(또는 현재 인자의 나머지)를 취하고, 올바른 형인지 확인한 다음, 선택한 대
상에 저장하도록 지시합니다.

예를 들면:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
                       action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

이제 가짜 명령 줄을 만들고 *note optparse: a0.에게 구문 분석을 요청합시
다:

     args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)

*note optparse: a0.가 옵션 문자열 ‘-f’를 보면, 다음 인자인 ‘foo.txt’를 소
비하고, ‘options.filename’에 저장합니다.  따라서, 이 *note parse_args():
1496. 호출 후, ‘options.filename’은 ‘"foo.txt"’입니다.

*note optparse: a0.에서 지원하는 다른 옵션 형은 ‘int’와 ‘float’입니다.  정
수 인자를 기대하는 옵션은 다음과 같습니다:

     parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")

이 옵션에는 긴 옵션 문자열이 없는데, 완벽하게 허용됩니다.  또한, 기본값
이 ‘store’이기 때문에 명시적인 액션이 없습니다.

다른 가짜 명령 줄을 구문 분석해 봅시다.  이번에는, 옵션 인자를 옵션 바로
다음에 붙일 것입니다: ‘-n42’(하나의 인자)는 ‘-n 42’(두 개의 인자)와 동등
하므로, 다음 코드는

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
     print(options.num)

‘42’를 인쇄합니다.

형을 지정하지 않으면, *note optparse: a0.는 ‘string’을 가정합니다.  기본
액션이 ‘store’라는 사실과 결합하면, 첫 번째 예제를 훨씬 더 짧게 만들 수
있습니다:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")

대상을 제공하지 않으면, *note optparse: a0.는 옵션 문자열에서 합리적인 기
본값을 추측합니다: 첫 번째 긴 옵션 문자열이 ‘--foo-bar’이면 기본 대상은
‘foo_bar’입니다.  긴 옵션 문자열이 없으면, *note optparse: a0.는 첫 번째
짧은 옵션 문자열을 찾습니다: ‘-f’의 기본 대상은 ‘f’입니다.

*note optparse: a0.는 내장 ‘complex’ 형도 포함합니다.  형 추가는 섹션
*note optparse 확장하기: 2ef9.에서 다룹니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 불리언 플래그 옵션 처리하기,  Next: 다른 액션들,  Prev: store 액션,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.10 불리언 (플래그) 옵션 처리하기
.......................................

플래그 옵션(특정 옵션이 발견되면 변수를 참이나 거짓으로 설정합니다)은 매
우 흔합니다.  *note optparse: a0.는 ‘store_true’와 ‘store_false’의 두 가
지 별도의 액션으로 지원합니다.  예를 들어, ‘-v’로 켜고 ‘-q’로 끄는
‘verbose’ 플래그가 있을 수 있습니다:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

여기에 대상이 같은 두 가지 옵션이 있는데, 완벽하게 괜찮습니다.  (단지 기
본값을 설정할 때 약간 주의해야 함을 뜻합니다—아래를 참조하십시오.)

*note optparse: a0.가 명령 줄에서 ‘-v’를 만나면, ‘options.verbose’를
‘True’로 설정합니다; ‘-q’를 만나면 ‘options.verbose’는 ‘False’로 설정됩
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 액션들,  Next: 기본값,  Prev: 불리언 플래그 옵션 처리하기,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.11 다른 액션들
.....................

*note optparse: a0.에서 지원하는 다른 액션은 다음과 같습니다:

‘"store_const"’

     store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 2f00.

‘"append"’

     이 옵션의 인자를 리스트에 추가합니다

‘"count"’

     카운터를 1씩 증가시킵니다

‘"callback"’

     지정된 함수를 호출합니다

이들은 섹션 *note 레퍼런스 지침서: 2f01.와 섹션 *note 옵션 콜백: 2f02.에
서 다룹니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본값,  Next: 도움말 생성하기,  Prev: 다른 액션들,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.12 기본값
................

위의 모든 예에는 특정 명령 줄 옵션을 볼 때 일부 변수 (“대상
(destination)”) 설정이 수반됩니다.  이러한 옵션이 나타나지 않으면 어떻게
될까요?  기본값을 제공하지 않아서, 모두 ‘None’으로 설정됩니다.  이것은 일
반적으로 괜찮지만, 때로는 더 많은 제어가 필요합니다.  *note optparse:
a0.는 각 대상에 대한 기본값을 제공할 수 있도록 하는데, 명령 줄이 구문 분
석되기 전에 대입됩니다.

먼저, verbose/quiet 예를 고려하십시오.  ‘-q’가 나타나지 않는 한 *note
optparse: a0.가 ‘verbose’를 ‘True’로 설정하도록 하려면, 다음과 같이 할 수
있습니다:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

기본값은 특정 옵션이 아닌 '대상(destination)'에 적용되고, 이 두 옵션은 같
은 대상을 갖기 때문에, 다음과 정확히 동등합니다:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

이걸 생각해봅시다:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

다시, ‘verbose’의 기본값은 ‘True’입니다: 특정 대상에 대해 제공되는 마지
막 기본값이 사용되는 값입니다.

기본값을 지정하는 더 명확한 방법은 OptionParser의 ‘set_defaults()’ 메서
드인데, *note parse_args(): 1496.를 호출하기 전에 언제든지 호출할 수 있
습니다:

     parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
     parser.add_option(...)
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

이전과 마찬가지로, 주어진 옵션 대상에 대해 지정된 마지막 값이 사용됩니다
.  명확성을 위해, 둘 다가 아닌 한 가지 방법을 사용하여 기본값을 설정하십
시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 도움말 생성하기,  Next: 버전 문자열 인쇄하기,  Prev: 기본값,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.13 도움말 생성하기
.........................

도움말과 사용법 텍스트를 자동으로 생성하는 *note optparse: a0.의 기능은
사용자 친화적인 명령 줄 인터페이스를 만드는 데 유용합니다.  각 옵션에 대
해 *note help: 2ef6. 값을 제공하고, 선택적으로 전체 프로그램에 대한 짧은
사용법 메시지를 제공하기만 하면 됩니다.  다음은 사용자에게 친숙한 (문서
화된) 옵션으로 채워진 OptionParser입니다:

     usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
     parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
     parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                       action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="make lots of noise [default]")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose",
                       help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
     parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
                       metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
     parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
                       default="intermediate",
                       help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
                            "or expert [default: %default]")

*note optparse: a0.가 명령 줄에서 ‘-h’나 ‘--help’를 만나거나,
‘parser.print_help()’를 호출하면, 다음을 표준 출력에 인쇄합니다:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

(도움말 출력이 help 옵션으로 트리거 되면, *note optparse: a0.가 도움말 텍
스트를 인쇄한 후 종료합니다.)

여기에는 *note optparse: a0.가 최상의 도움말 메시지를 생성하는 데 도움이
되는 많은 것들이 있습니다:

   * 스크립트는 자체 사용법 메시지를 정의합니다:

          usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"

     *note optparse: a0.는 사용법 문자열의 ‘%prog’를 현재 프로그램의 이
     름, 즉 ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’으로 확장합니다.  확장된 문자
     열은 자세한 옵션 도움말 앞에 인쇄됩니다.

     사용법 문자열을 제공하지 않으면, *note optparse: a0.는 단순하지만,
     합리적인 기본값을 사용합니다: ‘"Usage: %prog [options]"’, 이는 스크
     립트가 위치 인자를 취하지 않는다면 괜찮습니다.

   * 모든 옵션은 도움말 문자열을 정의하고, 줄 바꿈에 대해 걱정하지 않습
     니다—*note optparse: a0.는 줄 바꿈을 처리하고 도움말 출력을 보기 좋
     게 만듭니다.

   * 값을 취하는 옵션은 자동으로 생성된 도움말 메시지에 이 사실을 나타냅
     니다, 예를 들어 “mode” 옵션의 경우:

          -m MODE, --mode=MODE

     여기서, “MODE”를 메타 변수(meta-variable)라고 합니다: 사용자가
     ‘-m’/‘--mode’에 제공할 것으로 기대되는 인자를 나타냅니다.  기본적으
     로, *note optparse: a0.는 대상 변수 이름을 대문자로 변환하고 이를 메
     타 변수에 사용합니다.  때로는, 이것이 여러분이 원하는 것이 아닙니다
     —예를 들어, ‘--filename’ 옵션은 명시적으로 ‘metavar="FILE"’을 설정
     하여 다음과 같은 자동 생성 옵션 설명을 생성합니다:

          -f FILE, --filename=FILE

     이것은 공간을 절약하는 것 이상으로 중요합니다: 수동으로 작성된 도움
     말 텍스트는 메타 변수 ‘FILE’을 사용하여 반 형식 구문 ‘-f FILE’과 비
     형식적 의미 설명 “write output to FILE” 사이에 연결이 있다는 단서를
     사용자에게 알려줍니다.  이는 최종 사용자에게 도움말 텍스트를 훨씬 더
     명확하고 유용하게 만드는 간단하지만, 효과적인 방법입니다.

   * 기본값이 있는 옵션은 도움말 문자열에 ‘%default’를 포함할 수 있습니
     다—*note optparse: a0.는 이를 옵션 기본값의 *note str(): 445.로 대
     체합니다.  옵션에 기본값이 없으면 (또는 기본값이 ‘None’이면),
     ‘%default’는 ‘none’으로 확장됩니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션 그룹화하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 그룹화하기,  Up: 도움말 생성하기

5.17.2.14 옵션 그룹화하기
.........................

많은 옵션을 다룰 때, 더 나은 도움말 출력을 위해 이러한 옵션을 그룹화하는
것이 편리합니다.  *note OptionParser: 1495.에는 여러 옵션 그룹이 포함될
수 있으며 각 그룹에는 여러 옵션이 포함될 수 있습니다.

옵션 그룹은 클래스 *note OptionGroup: 2f08.을 사용하여 얻습니다:

 -- 클래스: optparse.OptionGroup (parser, title, description=None)

     여기서

        * parser는 그룹이 삽입될 *note OptionParser: 1495. 인스턴스입니
          다

        * title은 그룹 제목입니다

        * description(선택 사항)은 그룹에 대한 자세한 설명입니다

*note OptionGroup: 2f08.은 (*note OptionParser: 1495. 처럼)
‘OptionContainer’에서 상속되므로 ‘add_option()’ 메서드를 사용하여 그룹에
옵션을 추가할 수 있습니다.

일단 모든 옵션이 선언되면, *note OptionParser: 1495. 메서드
‘add_option_group()’을 사용하여 그룹이 이전에 정의된 구문 분석기에 추가
됩니다.

이전 섹션에서 정의한 구문 분석기로 계속 진행하면, 구문 분석기에 *note
OptionGroup: 2f08.을 쉽게 추가할 수 있습니다:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

그러면 다음과 같은 도움말이 출력됩니다:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

좀 더 완전한 예는 둘 이상의 그룹을 수반할 수 있습니다: 여전히 이전 예를
확장합니다:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
     group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
                      help="Print debug information")
     group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
                      help="Print all SQL statements executed")
     group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

다음과 같은 출력을 줍니다:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
                             [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

       Debug Options:
         -d, --debug         Print debug information
         -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
         -e                  Print every action done

특히 옵션 그룹을 프로그래밍 방식으로 작업할 때, 또 다른 흥미로운 메서드
는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.get_option_group (opt_str)

     짧거나 긴 옵션 문자열 'opt_str'(예를 들어 ‘'-o'’나 ‘'--option'’)이
     속한 *note OptionGroup: 2f08.을 반환합니다.  그러한 *note
     OptionGroup: 2f08.이 없으면, ‘None’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 버전 문자열 인쇄하기,  Next: optparse가 에러를 처리하는 방법,  Prev: 도움말 생성하기,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.15 버전 문자열 인쇄하기
..............................

간단한 사용법 문자열과 유사하게, *note optparse: a0.는 프로그램의 버전 문
자열을 인쇄 할 수도 있습니다.  OptionParser에 ‘version’ 인자로 문자열을
제공해야 합니다:

     parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")

‘%prog’는 ‘usage’에서처럼 확장됩니다.  그 외에도, ‘version’은 원하는 무
엇이든 포함할 수 있습니다.  이를 제공하면, *note optparse: a0.는 자동으
로 구문 분석기에 ‘--version’ 옵션을 추가합니다.  명령 줄에서 이 옵션을 발
견하면, (‘%prog’를 대체하여) ‘version’ 문자열을 확장하고, stdout에 인쇄
한 다음, 종료합니다.

예를 들어, 스크립트가 ‘/usr/bin/foo’로 호출되면:

     $ /usr/bin/foo --version
     foo 1.0

다음 두 가지 메서드를 사용하여 ‘version’ 문자열을 인쇄하고 가져올 수 있
습니다:

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.print_version (file=None)

     현재 프로그램의 버전 메시지(‘self.version’)를 'file'(기본값은 표준
     출력)로 인쇄합니다.  *note print_usage(): 2f0d.와 마찬가지로,
     ‘self.version’에 등장하는 ‘%prog’는 현재 프로그램의 이름으로 대체됩
     니다.  ‘self.version’이 비어 있거나 정의되지 않았으면 아무 작업도 수
     행하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.get_version ()

     *note print_version(): 2f0c.과 같지만 인쇄하는 대신 버전 문자열을 반
     환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: optparse가 에러를 처리하는 방법,  Next: 모두 합치기,  Prev: 버전 문자열 인쇄하기,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.16 ‘optparse’가 에러를 처리하는 방법
...........................................

*note optparse: a0.가 걱정해야 할 에러에는 두 가지가 있습니다: 프로그래
머 에러와 사용자 에러.  프로그래머 에러는 일반적으로 *note
OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0.에 대한 잘못된 호출입니다, 예를 들어 잘
못된 옵션 문자열, 알 수 없는 옵션 어트리뷰트, 누락된 옵션 어트리뷰트 등.
이러한 에러는 일반적인 방식으로 처리됩니다: 예외(*note
optparse.OptionError: 2ee3.나 *note TypeError: 532.)를 발생시키고 프로그
램이 충돌하도록 합니다.

사용자 에러를 처리하는 것은 훨씬 더 중요합니다, 코드가 아무리 안정적이더
라도 발생하는 것이 보장되기 때문입니다.  *note optparse: a0.는 잘못된 옵
션 인자 (‘-n’이 정수 인자를 취할 때 ‘-n 4x’ 전달), 누락된 인자(‘-n’이 모
든 형의 인자를 취할 때, 명령 줄 끝의 ‘-n’)와 같은 일부 사용자 에러를 자
동으로 감지할 수 있습니다.  또한, ‘OptionParser.error()’를 호출하여 응용
프로그램 정의 에러 조건을 알릴 수 있습니다:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
     ...
     if options.a and options.b:
         parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")

두 경우 모두, *note optparse: a0.는 같은 방식으로 에러를 처리합니다: 프
로그램의 사용법 메시지와 에러 메시지를 표준 에러에 인쇄하고 에러 상태 2로
종료합니다.

사용자가 정수를 취하는 옵션에 ‘4x’를 전달하는 위의 첫 번째 예를 고려하십
시오:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'

또는 사용자가 값을 전혀 전달하지 못하는 경우:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: -n option requires an argument

*note optparse: a0.-생성 에러 메시지는 항상 에러와 관련된 옵션을 언급하
도록 주의를 기울입니다; 응용 프로그램 코드에서 ‘OptionParser.error()’를
호출할 때도 그래야 합니다.

*note optparse: a0.의 기본 에러 처리 동작이 여러분의 요구에 맞지 않으면,
OptionParser를 서브 클래스 화하고 ‘exit()’ 및/또는 ‘error()’ 메서드를 재
정의해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모두 합치기,  Prev: optparse가 에러를 처리하는 방법,  Up: 자습서

5.17.2.17 모두 합치기
.....................

일반적으로 *note optparse: a0. 기반 스크립트는 다음과 같습니다:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     def main():
         usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
         parser = OptionParser(usage)
         parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                           help="read data from FILENAME")
         parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                           action="store_true", dest="verbose")
         parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                           action="store_false", dest="verbose")
         ...
         (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
         if len(args) != 1:
             parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
         if options.verbose:
             print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: 레퍼런스 지침서,  Next: 옵션 콜백,  Prev: 자습서,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.18 레퍼런스 지침서
.........................

* Menu:

* 구문 분석기 만들기::
* 구문 분석기 채우기::
* 옵션 정의하기::
* 옵션 어트리뷰트::
* 표준 옵션 액션::
* 표준 옵션 형::
* 인자 구문 분석하기::
* 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기::
* 옵션 간의 충돌::
* 정리::
* 기타 메서드::


File: python.info,  Node: 구문 분석기 만들기,  Next: 구문 분석기 채우기,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.19 구문 분석기 만들기
............................

*note optparse: a0.를 사용하는 첫 번째 단계는 OptionParser 인스턴스를 만
드는 것입니다.

 -- 클래스: optparse.OptionParser (...)

     OptionParser 생성자에는 필수 인자가 없지만, 여러 선택적 키워드 인자
     가 있습니다.  이들을 항상 키워드 인자로 전달해야 합니다, 즉, 인자가
     선언된 순서에 의존하지 마십시오.

     ‘usage’ (기본값: ‘"%prog [options]"’)

          프로그램이 잘못 실행되거나 도움말(help) 옵션을 사용할 때 인쇄
          할 사용법 요약.  *note optparse: a0.가 사용법 문자열을 인쇄할
          때, ‘%prog’를 ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’(또는 해당 키워드
          인자를 전달한 경우 ‘prog’)으로 확장합니다.  사용법 메시지를 표
          시하지 않으려면, 특수 값 ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’를 전달하십
          시오.

     ‘option_list’ (기본값: ‘[]’)

          구문 분석기를 채울 Option 객체 리스트.  ‘option_list’의 옵션은
          ‘standard_option_list’(OptionParser 서브 클래스에서 설정할 수
          있는 클래스 어트리뷰트)의 모든 옵션 뒤에 추가되지만, 모든 버전
          (version) 또는 도움말(help) 옵션 앞에 추가됩니다.  폐지되었습
          니다; 대신 구문 분석기를 만든 후 *note add_option(): 2ee0.을 사
          용하십시오.

     ‘option_class’ (기본값: optparse.Option)

          *note add_option(): 2ee0.에서 구문 분석기에 옵션을 추가할 때 사
          용할 클래스.

     ‘version’ (기본값: ‘None’)

          사용자가 버전(version) 옵션을 제공할 때 인쇄 할 버전 문자열.
          ‘version’에 참값을 제공하면, *note optparse: a0.는 단일 옵션 문
          자열 ‘--version’으로 버전 옵션을 자동으로 추가합니다.  하위 문
          자열 ‘%prog’는 ‘usage’와 마찬가지로 확장됩니다.

     ‘conflict_handler’ (기본값: ‘"error"’)

          충돌하는 옵션 문자열이 있는 옵션이 구문 분석기에 추가될 때 수
          행 할 작업을 지정합니다; 섹션 *note 옵션 간의 충돌: 2f16.을 참
          조하십시오.

     ‘description’ (기본값: ‘None’)

          프로그램에 대한 간략한 개요를 제공하는 텍스트 단락.  *note
          optparse: a0.는 현재 터미널 너비에 맞게 이 단락을 다시 포맷하
          고 사용자가 도움말을 요청할 때 인쇄합니다 (‘usage’ 이후, 옵션
          목록 이전).

     ‘formatter’ (기본값: 새 ‘IndentedHelpFormatter’)

          도움말 텍스트를 인쇄하는 데 사용될 optparse.HelpFormatter의 인
          스턴스.  *note optparse: a0.는 이 목적으로 두 개의 구상 클래스
          를 제공합니다: IndentedHelpFormatter 와 TitledHelpFormatter.

     ‘add_help_option’ (기본값: ‘True’)

          참이면, *note optparse: a0.는 구문 분석기에 도움말 옵션(옵션 문
          자열 ‘-h’와 ‘--help’)을 추가합니다.

     ‘prog’

          ‘usage’와 ‘version’에서 ‘%prog’를 확장할 때
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’ 대신 사용할 문자열.

     ‘epilog’ (기본값: ‘None’)

          옵션 도움말 다음에 인쇄할 도움말 텍스트 단락.


File: python.info,  Node: 구문 분석기 채우기,  Next: 옵션 정의하기,  Prev: 구문 분석기 만들기,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.20 구문 분석기 채우기
............................

구문 분석기를 옵션으로 채우는 방법에는 여러 가지가 있습니다.  선호되는 방
법은 섹션 *note 자습서: 2ef1.에 표시된 대로, *note
OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0.을 사용하는 것입니다.  ‘add_option()’은
다음 두 가지 방법의 하나로 호출 할 수 있습니다:

   * (‘make_option()’에서 반환되는 것과 같은) Option 인스턴스를 전달합니
     다

   * ‘make_option()’(즉, Option 생성자)에 허용되는 위치와 키워드 인자의
     조합을 전달합니다, 그러면 Option 인스턴스를 만듭니다

다른 대안은 다음과 같이 미리 생성된 Option 인스턴스 리스트를
OptionParser 생성자에 전달하는 것입니다:

     option_list = [
         make_option("-f", "--filename",
                     action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
         make_option("-q", "--quiet",
                     action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
         ]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

(‘make_option()’은 Option 인스턴스를 만들기 위한 팩토리 함수입니다; 현재
는 Option 생성자의 별칭입니다.  *note optparse: a0.의 향후 버전은
Option을 여러 클래스로 나눌 수 있으며, ‘make_option()’은 인스턴스 화할 올
바른 클래스를 선택할 것입니다.  Option을 직접 인스턴스 화하지 마십시오.)


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 정의하기,  Next: 옵션 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 구문 분석기 채우기,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.21 옵션 정의하기
.......................

각 Option 인스턴스는 동의어 명령 줄 옵션 문자열 집합을 나타냅니다, 예를
들어 ‘-f’와 ‘--file’.  짧거나 긴 옵션 문자열을 얼마든지 지정할 수 있지만
, 전체적으로 옵션 문자열을 적어도 하나 지정해야 합니다.

*note Option: 2f1b. 인스턴스를 만드는 규범적 방법은 *note OptionParser:
1495.의 ‘add_option()’ 메서드를 사용하는 것입니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.add_option (option)

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.add_option (*opt_str, attr=value, ...)

     짧은 옵션 문자열로만 옵션을 정의하려면:

          parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)

     그리고 긴 옵션 문자열로만 옵션을 정의하려면:

          parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)

     키워드 인자는 새 Option 객체의 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다.  가장 중요
     한 옵션 어트리뷰트는 *note action: 2ef3.이며, 전체적으로 어떤 어트
     리뷰트가 관련성이 있거나 필요한지를 결정합니다.  관련 없는 옵션 어
     트리뷰트를 전달하거나, 필수 어트리뷰트를 전달하지 못하면, *note
     optparse: a0.는 실수를 설명하는 *note OptionError: 2ee3. 예외를 발
     생시킵니다.

     옵션의 'action'은 명령 줄에서 이 옵션을 만날 때 *note optparse:
     a0.가 수행하는 작업을 결정합니다.  *note optparse: a0.에 하드 코딩
     된 표준 옵션 액션은 다음과 같습니다:

     ‘"store"’

          이 옵션의 인자를 저장합니다 (기본값)

     ‘"store_const"’

          store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 2f00.

     ‘"store_true"’

          ‘True’를 저장합니다

     ‘"store_false"’

          ‘False’를 저장합니다

     ‘"append"’

          이 옵션의 인자를 리스트에 추가합니다

     ‘"append_const"’

          리스트에 상숫값을 추가합니다, *note Option.const: 2f00.로 사전
          설정

     ‘"count"’

          카운터를 1씩 증가시킵니다

     ‘"callback"’

          지정된 함수를 호출합니다

     ‘"help"’

          모든 옵션과 해당 설명을 포함하는 사용법 메시지를 인쇄합니다

     (액션을 제공하지 않으면, 기본값은 ‘"store"’입니다.  이 액션의 경우,
     *note type: 2ef4.과 *note dest: 2ef5. 옵션 어트리뷰트도 제공할 수 있
     습니다; *note 표준 옵션 액션: 2f1c.을 참조하십시오.)

보시다시피, 대부분의 액션은 값을 어딘가에 저장하거나 갱신하는 것을 수반
합니다.  *note optparse: a0.는 항상 이를 위해 일반적으로 ‘options’(*note
optparse.Values: 2ee2.의 인스턴스)라고 하는 특수 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 클래스: optparse.Values

     An object holding parsed argument names and values as attributes.
     Normally created by calling when calling *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1496, and can be overridden by a custom
     subclass passed to the 'values' argument of *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1496. (as described in *note 인자 구문
     분석하기: 2f1d.).

옵션 인자(및 기타 다양한 값)는 *note dest: 2ef5. (destination) 옵션 어트
리뷰트에 따라, 이 객체의 어트리뷰트로 저장됩니다.

예를 들어, 다음과 같이 호출할 때

     parser.parse_args()

*note optparse: a0.가 하는 첫 번째 작업 중 하나는 ‘options’ 객체를 만드
는 것입니다:

     options = Values()

이 구문 분석기의 옵션 중 하나가 다음과 같이 정의되었으면:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

그리고 구문 분석 중인 명령 줄에는 다음 중 하나가 포함되면:

     -ffoo
     -f foo
     --file=foo
     --file foo

*note optparse: a0.는 이 옵션을 볼 때 다음과 동등한 일을 합니다

     options.filename = "foo"

*note type: 2ef4.과 *note dest: 2ef5. 옵션 어트리뷰트는 *note action:
2ef3.만큼 중요하지만, *note action: 2ef3.은 '모든' 옵션에 적합한 유일한
어트리뷰트입니다.


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5.17.2.22 옵션 어트리뷰트
.........................

 -- 클래스: optparse.Option

     A single command line argument, with various attributes passed by
     keyword to the constructor.  Normally created with *note
     OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0. rather than directly, and can be
     overridden by a custom class via the 'option_class' argument to
     *note OptionParser: 1495.

다음 옵션 어트리뷰트는 *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0.에 키워드 인
자로 전달될 수 있습니다.  특정 옵션과 관련이 없는 옵션 어트리뷰트를 전달
하거나, 필수 옵션 어트리뷰트를 전달하지 못하면 *note optparse: a0.는
*note OptionError: 2ee3.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 속성: Option.action

     (기본값: ‘"store"’)

     이 옵션이 명령 줄에서 보일 때 *note optparse: a0.의 동작을 결정합니
     다; 사용 가능한 옵션은 *note 여기: 2f1c.에 설명되어 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Option.type

     (기본값: ‘"string"’)

     이 옵션이 기대하는 인자 형 (예를 들어, ‘"string"’이나 ‘"int"’); 사
     용 가능한 옵션 형은 *note 여기: 2f20.에 설명되어 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Option.dest

     (기본값: 옵션 문자열에서 파생됩니다)

     옵션의 액션이 어딘가에 값을 쓰거나 수정하는 것을 의미하면, 이것은
     *note optparse: a0.에게 어디에 쓸 것인지 알려줍니다: *note dest:
     2ef5.는 명령 줄을 구문 분석할 때 *note optparse: a0.가 빌드하는
     ‘options’ 객체의 어트리뷰트의 이름을 정합니다.

 -- 속성: Option.default

     옵션이 명령 줄에서 보이지 않으면 이 옵션의 대상에 사용할 값.  *note
     OptionParser.set_defaults(): 2f22.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 속성: Option.nargs

     (기본값: 1)

     이 옵션이 보일 때 소비되어야 하는 *note type: 2ef4. 형의 인자 수입
     니다.  > 1 이면, *note optparse: a0.는 값의 튜플을 *note dest:
     2ef5.에 저장합니다.

 -- 속성: Option.const

     상숫값을 저장하는 액션의 경우, 저장할 상숫값.

 -- 속성: Option.choices

     ‘"choice"’ 형 옵션의 경우, 사용자가 이 중에서 선택할 수 있는 문자열
     리스트.

 -- 속성: Option.callback

     액션 ‘"callback"’이 있는 옵션의 경우, 이 옵션이 보일 때 호출 할 콜
     러블.  콜러블에 전달된 인자에 대한 자세한 내용은 섹션 *note 옵션
     콜백: 2f02.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 속성: Option.callback_args
 -- 속성: Option.callback_kwargs

     4개의 표준 콜백 인자 다음에 ‘callback’에 전달할 추가 위치와 키워드
     인자.

 -- 속성: Option.help

     사용자가 *note help: 2ef6. 옵션을 제공한 (가령 ‘--help’) 후 사용 가
     능한 모든 옵션을 나열할 때 이 옵션에 대해 인쇄할 도움말 텍스트.  도
     움말 텍스트가 제공되지 않으면, 옵션이 도움말 텍스트 없이 나열됩니다
     .  이 옵션을 숨기려면, 특수 값 ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’를 사용하십
     시오.

 -- 속성: Option.metavar

     (기본값: 옵션 문자열에서 파생됩니다)

     도움말 텍스트를 인쇄할 때 사용할 옵션 인자를 나타냅니다.  예제는 섹
     션 *note 자습서: 2ef1.를 참조하십시오.


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5.17.2.23 표준 옵션 액션
........................

다양한 옵션 액션은 모두 요구 사항과 효과가 약간 다릅니다.  대부분의 액션
에는 *note optparse: a0.의 동작을 안내하기 위해 지정할 수 있는 몇 가지 연
관된 옵션 어트리뷰트가 있습니다; 일부는 해당 액션을 사용하는 모든 옵션에
대해 지정해야 하는 필수 어트리뷰트가 있습니다.

   * ‘"store"’ [연관된 옵션: *note type: 2ef4, *note dest: 2ef5, *note
     nargs: 2f23, *note choices: 2f24.]

     옵션 뒤에 인자가 와야 하며, 인자는 *note type: 2ef4.에 따라 값으로
     변환되고, *note dest: 2ef5.에 저장됩니다.  *note nargs: 2f23. > 1 이
     면, 명령 줄에서 여러 인자가 소비됩니다; 모두 *note type: 2ef4.에 따
     라 변환되고 *note dest: 2ef5.에 튜플로 저장됩니다.  *note 표준 옵션
     형: 2f20. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     *note choices: 2f24.가 제공되면 (문자열 리스트나 튜플), 형의 기본값
     은 ‘"choice"’입니다.

     *note type: 2ef4.이 제공되지 않으면, 기본값은 ‘"string"’입니다.

     *note dest: 2ef5.가 제공되지 않으면, *note optparse: a0.는 첫 번째
     긴 옵션 문자열에서 대상을 파생합니다 (예를 들어, ‘--foo-bar’는
     ‘foo_bar’를 암시합니다).  긴 옵션 문자열이 없으면, *note optparse:
     a0.는 첫 번째 짧은 옵션 문자열에서 대상을 파생합니다 (예를 들어,
     ‘-f’는 ‘f’를 암시합니다).

     예:

          parser.add_option("-f")
          parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")

     다음과 같은 명령 줄을 구문 분석할 때

          -f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt

     *note optparse: a0.는 다음과 같이 설정합니다

          options.f = "foo.txt"
          options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
          options.f = "bar.txt"

   * ‘"store_const"’ [필수 옵션: *note const: 2f00.; 연관된 옵션: *note
     dest: 2ef5.]

     값 *note const: 2f00.는 *note dest: 2ef5.에 저장됩니다.

     예:

          parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                            action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                            action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("--noisy",
                            action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")

     ‘--noisy’가 보이면, *note optparse: a0.는 다음과 같이 설정합니다

          options.verbose = 2

   * ‘"store_true"’ [연관된 옵션: *note dest: 2ef5.]

     ‘True’를 *note dest: 2ef5.에 저장하는 ‘"store_const"’의 특별한 경우
     .

   * ‘"store_false"’ [연관된 옵션: *note dest: 2ef5.]

     ‘"store_true"’와 비슷하지만, ‘False’를 저장합니다.

     예:

          parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
          parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")

   * ‘"append"’ [연관된 옵션: *note type: 2ef4, *note dest: 2ef5, *note
     nargs: 2f23, *note choices: 2f24.]

     옵션 다음에는 *note dest: 2ef5.의 리스트에 추가되는 인자가 와야 합
     니다.  *note dest: 2ef5.의 기본값이 제공되지 않으면, *note
     optparse: a0.가 명령 줄에서 이 옵션을 처음 발견할 때 빈 리스트가 자
     동으로 만들어집니다.  *note nargs: 2f23. > 1 이면, 여러 인자가 소비
     되며, *note nargs: 2f23. 길이의 튜플이 *note dest: 2ef5.에 추가됩니
     다.

     *note type: 2ef4.과 *note dest: 2ef5.의 기본값은 ‘"store"’ 액션의 경
     우와 같습니다.

     예:

          parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")

     ‘-t3’가 명령 줄에 보이면, *note optparse: a0.는 다음과 동등한 것을
     수행합니다:

          options.tracks = []
          options.tracks.append(int("3"))

     잠시 후, ‘--tracks=4’가 보이면, 다음을 수행합니다:

          options.tracks.append(int("4"))

     ‘append’ 액션은 옵션의 현재 값에 대해 ‘append’ 메서드를 호출합니다.
     이는 지정된 모든 기본값에 ‘append’ 메서드가 있어야 함을 의미합니다.
     또한, 기본값이 비어 있지 않으면, 기본 요소가 옵션의 구문 분석된 값
     에 존재하며, 명령 줄의 모든 값이 기본값 뒤에 추가됨을 의미합니다:

          >>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
          >>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
          >>> opts.files
          ['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']

   * ‘"append_const"’ [필수 옵션: *note const: 2f00.; 연관된 옵션: *note
     dest: 2ef5.]

     ‘"store_const"’와 비슷하지만, *note const: 2f00. 값이 *note dest:
     2ef5.에 추가됩니다; ‘"append"’와 마찬가지로, *note dest: 2ef5.의 기
     본값은 ‘None’이며, 옵션이 처음 발견될 때 빈 리스트가 자동으로 만들
     어집니다.

   * ‘"count"’ [연관된 옵션: *note dest: 2ef5.]

     *note dest: 2ef5.에 저장된 정수를 증가시킵니다.  기본값이 제공되지
     않으면, *note dest: 2ef5.는 처음으로 증가하기 전에 0으로 설정됩니다
     .

     예:

          parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")

     ‘-v’가 명령 줄에서 처음 보이면, *note optparse: a0.는 다음과 동등한
     작업을 수행합니다:

          options.verbosity = 0
          options.verbosity += 1

     이후에 ‘-v’가 나타날 때마다 다음과 같이 합니다

          options.verbosity += 1

   * ‘"callback"’ [필수 옵션: *note callback: 2f25.; 연관된 옵션: *note
     type: 2ef4, *note nargs: 2f23, *note callback_args: 2f26, *note
     callback_kwargs: 2f27.]

     *note callback: 2f25.으로 지정된 함수를 호출합니다, 이 함수는 다음
     과 같이 호출됩니다

          func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

     자세한 내용은 섹션 *note 옵션 콜백: 2f02.을 참조하십시오.

   * ‘"help"’

     현재 옵션 구문 분석기의 모든 옵션에 대한 전체 도움말 메시지를 인쇄
     합니다.  도움말 메시지는 OptionParser의 생성자에 전달된 ‘usage’ 문
     자열과 모든 옵션에 전달된 *note help: 2ef6. 문자열로 구성됩니다.

     옵션에 *note help: 2ef6. 문자열이 제공되지 않아도, 도움말 메시지에
     나열됩니다.  옵션을 완전히 생략하려면, 특수 값
     ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’를 사용하십시오.

     *note optparse: a0.는 모든 OptionParser에 *note help: 2ef6. 옵션을
     자동으로 추가하므로, 일반적으로 만들 필요가 없습니다.

     예:

          from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP

          # 일반적으로, 도움말 옵션은 자동으로 추가되지만, add_help_option 인자를
          # 사용하여 억제할 수 있습니다
          parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)

          parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
          parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
                            help="Be moderately verbose")
          parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
                            help="Input file to read data from")
          parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)

     *note optparse: a0.가 명령 줄에서 ‘-h’나 ‘--help’를 보면, 다음 도움
     말 메시지와 같은 내용을 stdout에 인쇄합니다 (‘sys.argv[0]’이
     ‘"foo.py"’라고 가정합니다):

          Usage: foo.py [options]

          Options:
            -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
            -v                Be moderately verbose
            --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from

     도움말 메시지를 인쇄한 후, *note optparse: a0.는 ‘sys.exit(0)’으로
     프로세스를 종료합니다.

   * ‘"version"’

     OptionParser에 제공된 버전 번호를 stdout에 인쇄하고 종료합니다.  버
     전 번호는 실제로 OptionParser의 ‘print_version()’ 메서드에 의해 포
     맷되고 인쇄됩니다.  일반적으로 ‘version’ 인자가 OptionParser 생성자
     에 제공되는 경우에만 의미가 있습니다.  *note help: 2ef6. 옵션과 마
     찬가지로, *note optparse: a0.는 필요할 때 자동으로 추가하기 때문에,
     ‘version’ 옵션을 거의 만들지 않습니다.


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5.17.2.24 표준 옵션 형
......................

*note optparse: a0.에는 다섯 가지 내장 옵션 형이 있습니다: ‘"string"’,
‘"int"’, ‘"choice"’, ‘"float"’ 및 ‘"complex"’.  새로운 옵션 형을 추가해
야 하면, 섹션 *note optparse 확장하기: 2ef9.를 참조하십시오.

문자열 옵션에 대한 인자는 어떤 방식으로도 검사되거나 변환되지 않습니다:
명령 줄의 텍스트는 있는 그대로 대상에 저장(또는 콜백에 전달)됩니다.

정수 인자(‘"int"’ 형)는 다음과 같이 구문 분석됩니다:

   * 숫자가 ‘0x’로 시작하면, 16진수로 구문 분석됩니다

   * 숫자가 ‘0’으로 시작하면, 8진수로 구문 분석됩니다

   * 숫자가 ‘0b’로 시작하면, 이진수로 구문 분석됩니다

   * 그렇지 않으면, 숫자는 10진수로 구문 분석됩니다

변환은 적절한 진수(2, 8, 10 또는 16)로 *note int(): 257.를 호출하여 수행
됩니다.  이것이 실패하면, 더 유용한 에러 메시지를 제공하기는 하지만,
*note optparse: a0.도 마찬가지로 실패합니다.

‘"float"’와 ‘"complex"’ 옵션 인자는 유사한 에러 처리로 *note float():
2ef.와 *note complex(): 2f0.로 직접 변환됩니다.

‘"choice"’ 옵션은 ‘"string"’ 옵션의 서브 형입니다.  *note choices: 2f24.
옵션 어트리뷰트(문자열 시퀀스)는 허용되는 옵션 인자 집합을 정의합니다.
‘optparse.check_choice()’는 사용자가 제공한 옵션 인자를 이 마스터 리스트
와 비교하고 유효하지 않은 문자열이 주어지면 *note OptionValueError:
2ee4. 를 발생시킵니다.


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5.17.2.25 인자 구문 분석하기
............................

OptionParser를 만들고 채우는 것의 요점은 *note parse_args(): 1496. 메서
드를 호출하는 것입니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.parse_args (args=None, values=None)

     Parse the command-line options found in 'args'.

     입력 매개 변수는

     ‘args’

          처리할 인자의 리스트 (기본값: ‘sys.argv[1:]’)

     ‘values’

          옵션 인자를 저장할 *note Values: 2ee2. 객체 (기본값: *note
          Values: 2ee2.의 새 인스턴스) – 기존 객체를 제공하면, 옵션 기본
          값이 초기화되지 않습니다.

     그리고 반환 값은 쌍 ‘(options, args)’이고

     ‘options’

          'values'로 전달된 것과 같은 객체, 또는 *note optparse: a0.가 만
          든 ‘optparse.Values’ 인스턴스

     ‘args’

          모든 옵션이 처리된 후 남은 위치 인자

가장 일반적인 사용법은 두 키워드 인자 중 어느 것도 제공하지 않는 것입니
다.  ‘values’를 제공하면, 반복된 *note setattr(): 2163. 호출(옵션 대상에
저장된 모든 옵션 인자에 대해 대략 하나씩)로 수정되고, *note
parse_args(): 1496.에서 반환됩니다.

*note parse_args(): 1496.가 인자 리스트에서 에러를 만나면, 적절한 최종 사
용자 에러 메시지와 함께 OptionParser의 ‘error()’ 메서드를 호출합니다.  이
는 궁극적으로 종료 상태 2(명령 줄 에러에 대한 전통적인 유닉스 종료 상태
)로 프로세스를 종료합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기,  Next: 옵션 간의 충돌,  Prev: 인자 구문 분석하기,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.26 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기
..............................................

옵션 구문 분석기의 기본 동작은 약간 사용자 정의 할 수 있으며, 옵션 구문
분석기를 들여다보고 거기에 무엇이 있는지 볼 수도 있습니다.  OptionParser는
다음과 같은 몇 가지 메서드를 제공합니다:

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args ()

     첫 번째 옵션이 아닌 것에서 중지하도록 구문 분석을 설정합니다.  예를
     들어 ‘-a’와 ‘-b’가 모두 인자를 취하지 않는 간단한 옵션이면, *note
     optparse: a0.는 일반적으로 다음 문법을 허용합니다:

          prog -a arg1 -b arg2

     그리고 다음과 동등하게 취급합니다

          prog -a -b arg1 arg2

     이 기능을 비활성화하려면, *note disable_interspersed_args(): 2ee1.를
     호출하십시오.  이렇게 하면 옵션 구문 분석이 첫 번째 옵션이 아닌 인
     자에서 중지되는, 전통적인 유닉스 문법이 복원됩니다.

     자체 옵션이 있는 다른 명령을 실행하는 명령 프로세서가 있고 이러한 옵
     션이 혼동되지 않도록 하려면 이것을 사용하십시오.  예를 들어, 각 명
     령에는 다른 옵션 집합이 있을 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args ()

     첫 번째 옵션이 아닌 것에서 구문 분석이 중지되지 않도록 설정하여, 명
     령 인자와 스위치를 분산시킬 수 있도록 합니다.  이것이 기본 동작입니
     다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.get_option (opt_str)

     옵션 문자열 'opt_str'을 갖는 Option 인스턴스를 반환합니다, 또는 해
     당 옵션 문자열을 갖는 옵션이 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.has_option (opt_str)

     OptionParser에 옵션 문자열 'opt_str'을 갖는 옵션이 있으면 ‘True’를
     반환합니다 (예를 들어, ‘-q’나 ‘--verbose’).

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.remove_option (opt_str)

     *note OptionParser: 1495.에 'opt_str'에 해당하는 옵션이 있으면, 해
     당 옵션이 제거됩니다.  해당 옵션이 다른 옵션 문자열을 제공하면, 해
     당 옵션 문자열은 모두 유효하지 않게 됩니다.  이 *note OptionParser:
     1495.에 속하는 옵션에서 'opt_str'이 등장하지 않으면, *note
     ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 간의 충돌,  Next: 정리,  Prev: 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.27 옵션 간의 충돌
........................

주의하지 않으면, 충돌하는 옵션 문자열을 갖는 옵션을 정의하기 쉽습니다:

     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)

(일부 표준 옵션을 사용하여 자체 OptionParser 서브 클래스를 정의한 경우 특
히 그렇습니다.)

옵션을 추가할 때마다, *note optparse: a0.는 기존 옵션과의 충돌을 확인합
니다.  발견되면, 현재 충돌 처리 메커니즘을 호출합니다.  충돌 처리 메커니
즘을 설정할 수 있는데, 생성자에서:

     parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)

또는 별도의 호출로 가능합니다:

     parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)

사용 가능한 충돌 처리기는 다음과 같습니다:

     ‘"error"’ (기본값)

          옵션 충돌이 프로그래밍 에러라고 가정하고 *note
          OptionConflictError: 2f33. 를 발생시킵니다

     ‘"resolve"’

          옵션 충돌을 지능적으로 해결합니다 (아래를 참조하십시오)

예를 들어, 충돌을 지능적으로 해결하고 *note OptionParser: 1495.를 정의하
고 충돌하는 옵션을 추가해 보겠습니다:

     parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")

이 시점에서, *note optparse: a0.는 이전에 추가된 옵션이 이미 ‘-n’ 옵션 문
자열을 사용하고 있음을 감지합니다.  ‘conflict_handler’가 ‘"resolve"’이므
로, 이전 옵션의 옵션 문자열 리스트에서 ‘-n’을 제거하여 상황을 해결합니다
.  이제 ‘--dry-run’은 사용자가 해당 옵션을 활성화하는 유일한 방법입니다.
사용자가 help를 요청하면, 도움말 메시지에 이것이 반영됩니다:

     Options:
       --dry-run     do no harm
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy

남아있는 옵션이 없을 때까지 이전에 추가된 옵션에 대한 옵션 문자열을 제거
할 수 있고, 사용자는 명령 줄에서 해당 옵션을 호출할 방법이 없을 가능성이
있습니다.  이 경우, *note optparse: a0.는 해당 옵션을 완전히 제거해서, 도
움말 텍스트나 다른 곳에 표시되지 않습니다.  기존 OptionParser를 계속 사
용해서:

     parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")

이 시점에서, 원래 ‘-n’/‘--dry-run’ 옵션에 더는 액세스할 수 없어서, *note
optparse: a0.는 해당 옵션을 제거하고, 다음 도움말 텍스트를 남깁니다:

     Options:
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy
       --dry-run     new dry-run option


File: python.info,  Node: 정리,  Next: 기타 메서드,  Prev: 옵션 간의 충돌,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.28 정리
..............

OptionParser 인스턴스에는 여러 순환 참조가 있습니다.  이것은 파이썬의 가
비지 수거기에선 문제가 되지 않지만, 작업이 끝나면 OptionParser에서
‘destroy()’를 호출하여 순환 참조를 명시적으로 끊을 수 있습니다.  이것은
OptionParser에서 큰 객체 그래프에 도달할 수 있는 장기 실행 응용 프로그램
에서 특히 유용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 메서드,  Prev: 정리,  Up: 레퍼런스 지침서

5.17.2.29 기타 메서드
.....................

OptionParser는 몇 가지 다른 공용 메서드를 지원합니다:

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.set_usage (usage)

     ‘usage’ 생성자 키워드 인자에 대해 위에서 설명한 규칙에 따라 사용법
     문자열을 설정합니다.  ‘None’을 전달하면 기본 사용법 문자열이 설정됩
     니다; 사용법 메시지를 억제하려면 ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’를 사용하
     십시오.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.print_usage (file=None)

     현재 프로그램의 사용법 메시지(‘self.usage’)를 'file'(기본값
     stdout)로 인쇄합니다.  ‘self.usage’에 등장하는 문자열 ‘%prog’는 현
     재 프로그램의 이름으로 대체됩니다.  ‘self.usage’가 비어 있거나 정의
     되지 않았으면 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.get_usage ()

     *note print_usage(): 2f0d.와 같지만 인쇄하는 대신 사용법 문자열을 반
     환합니다.

 -- 메서드: OptionParser.set_defaults (dest=value, ...)

     한 번에 여러 옵션 대상에 대한 기본값을 설정합니다.  여러 옵션이 같
     은 대상을 공유 할 수 있기 때문에, *note set_defaults(): 2f22.를 사
     용하여 옵션의 기본값을 설정하는 것이 좋습니다.  예를 들어, 여러
     “mode” 옵션이 모두 같은 대상을 설정하면, 그중 하나가 기본값을 설정
     할 수 있으며 마지막 옵션이 이깁니다:

          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced",
                            default="novice")    # 아래에서 재정의됩니다
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice",
                            default="advanced")  # 위의 설정을 재정의합니다

     이러한 혼동을 피하려면, *note set_defaults(): 2f22.를 사용하십시오:

          parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice")


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 콜백,  Next: optparse 확장하기,  Prev: 레퍼런스 지침서,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.30 옵션 콜백
...................

*note optparse: a0.의 내장 액션과 형이 여러분의 필요에 충분하지 않으면,
두 가지 선택이 있습니다: *note optparse: a0.를 확장하거나 콜백 옵션을 정
의합니다.  *note optparse: a0.를 확장하는 것이 더 일반적이지만, 많은 간
단한 경우에는 과합니다.  종종 간단한 콜백만 있으면 됩니다.

콜백 옵션을 정의하는 두 단계가 있습니다:

   * ‘"callback"’ 액션을 사용하여 옵션 자체를 정의합니다

   * 콜백을 작성합니다; 이것은 아래에 설명된 대로, 최소한 4개의 인자를 취
     하는 함수(또는 메서드)입니다

* Menu:

* 콜백 옵션 정의하기::
* 콜백이 호출되는 방법::
* 콜백에서 에러 발생시키기::
* 콜백 예제 1; 간단한 콜백: 콜백 예제 1 간단한 콜백.
* 콜백 예제 2; 옵션 순서 확인: 콜백 예제 2 옵션 순서 확인.
* 콜백 예제 3; 옵션 순서 확인 (일반화): 콜백 예제 3 옵션 순서 확인 일반화.
* 콜백 예제 4; 임의 조건 확인: 콜백 예제 4 임의 조건 확인.
* 콜백 예제 5; 고정 인자: 콜백 예제 5 고정 인자.
* 콜백 예제 6; 가변 인자: 콜백 예제 6 가변 인자.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 옵션 정의하기,  Next: 콜백이 호출되는 방법,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.31 콜백 옵션 정의하기
............................

항상 그렇듯이, 콜백 옵션을 정의하는 가장 쉬운 방법은 *note
OptionParser.add_option(): 2ee0. 메서드를 사용하는 것입니다.  *note
action: 2ef3.과 별도로 지정해야 하는 유일한 옵션 어트리뷰트는 호출할 함
수인 ‘callback’입니다:

     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)

‘callback’은 함수(또는 다른 콜러블 객체)이므로, 이 콜백 옵션을 만들 때
‘my_callback()’을 이미 정의했어야 합니다.  이 간단한 경우, *note
optparse: a0.는 ‘-c’가 인자를 취하는지조차 알지 못합니다.  이는 일반적으
로 옵션이 인자를 받지 않음을 의미합니다—명령 줄에 ‘-c’가 있다는 것만 알
필요가 있습니다.  그러나 일부 상황에서는, 콜백이 임의의 수의 명령 줄 인
자를 소비하도록 할 수 있습니다.  콜백 작성이 까다로워지는 곳입니다: 이 섹
션의 뒷부분에서 다룹니다.

*note optparse: a0.는 항상 4개의 특정 인자를 콜백에 전달하며, *note
callback_args: 2f26.와 *note callback_kwargs: 2f27.를 통해 지정하는 경우
에만 추가 인자를 전달합니다.  따라서 최소 콜백 함수 서명은 다음과 같습니
다:

     def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):

콜백에 대한 네 가지 인자가 아래에 설명되어 있습니다.

콜백 옵션을 정의할 때 제공할 수 있는 몇 가지 다른 옵션 어트리뷰트가 있습
니다:

*note type: 2ef4.

     일반적인 의미를 갖습니다: ‘"store"’나 ‘"append"’ 액션과 마찬가지로,
     *note optparse: a0.에게 하나의 인자를 소비하고 이를 *note type:
     2ef4.으로 변환하도록 지시합니다.  그러나 *note optparse: a0.는 변환
     된 값을 어딘가에 저장하는 대신 콜백 함수에 전달합니다.

*note nargs: 2f23.

     역시 일반적인 의미를 갖습니다: 제공되고 > 1 이면, *note optparse:
     a0.는 *note nargs: 2f23. 인자를 소비하며 각 인자는 *note type:
     2ef4.으로 변환 가능해야 합니다.  그런 다음 변환된 값의 튜플을 콜백
     에 전달합니다.

*note callback_args: 2f26.

     콜백에 전달할 추가 위치 인자의 튜플

*note callback_kwargs: 2f27.

     콜백에 전달할 추가 키워드 인자의 딕셔너리


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백이 호출되는 방법,  Next: 콜백에서 에러 발생시키기,  Prev: 콜백 옵션 정의하기,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.32 콜백이 호출되는 방법
..............................

모든 콜백은 다음과 같이 호출됩니다:

     func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

여기서

‘option’

     콜백을 호출하는 Option 인스턴스입니다

‘opt_str’

     콜백을 트리거 하는 명령 줄에 나타나는 옵션 문자열입니다.  (축약된 긴
     옵션이 사용되면, ‘opt_str’은 완전한, 규범적인 옵션 문자열이 됩니다
     —예를 들어 사용자가 ‘--foobar’의 약어로 명령 줄에 ‘--foo’를 입력하
     면, ‘opt_str’은 ‘"--foobar"’가 됩니다.)

‘value’

     명령 줄에 나타난 이 옵션에 대한 인자입니다.  *note optparse: a0.는
     *note type: 2ef4.이 설정되었을 때만 인자를 기대합니다; ‘value’의 형
     은 옵션의 형이 암시하는 형입니다.  이 옵션의 *note type: 2ef4.이
     ‘None’(기대하는 인자 없음)이면, ‘value’는 ‘None’이 됩니다.  *note
     nargs: 2f23. > 1 이면, ‘value’는 적절한 형의 값의 튜플이 됩니다.

‘parser’

     모든 것을 구동하는 OptionParser 인스턴스입니다, 인스턴스 어트리뷰트
     를 통해 다른 흥미로운 데이터에 액세스 할 수 있어서 주로 유용합니다:

     ‘parser.largs’

          남은 인자의 현재 리스트, 즉, 소비되었지만 옵션이나 옵션 인자가
          아닌 인자.  예를 들어 더 많은 인자를 추가하여, ‘parser.largs’를
          자유롭게 수정하십시오.  (이 리스트는 *note parse_args():
          1496.의 두 번째 반환 값인 ‘args’가 됩니다.)

     ‘parser.rargs’

          나머지 인자의 현재 리스트, 즉, ‘opt_str’과 ‘value’(해당한다면
          )가 제거되고, 그 뒤에 오는 인자만 그대로 남아 있습니다.  예를
          들어 더 많은 인자를 소비하여, ‘parser.rargs’를 자유롭게 수정하
          십시오.

     ‘parser.values’

          옵션값이 기본적으로 저장되는 객체 (optparse.OptionValues의 인
          스턴스).  이를 통해 콜백은 옵션값을 저장하기 위해 나머지 *note
          optparse: a0.와 같은 메커니즘을 사용할 수 있습니다; 전역이나 클
          로저를 엉망으로 만들 필요가 없습니다.  명령 줄에서 이미 발견된
          모든 옵션의 값에 액세스하거나 수정할 수도 있습니다.

‘args’

     *note callback_args: 2f26. 옵션 어트리뷰트를 통해 제공되는 임의의 위
     치 인자의 튜플입니다.

‘kwargs’

     *note callback_kwargs: 2f27.를 통해 제공된 임의의 키워드 인자의 딕
     셔너리입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백에서 에러 발생시키기,  Next: 콜백 예제 1 간단한 콜백,  Prev: 콜백이 호출되는 방법,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.33 콜백에서 에러 발생시키기
..................................

옵션이나 인자에 문제가 있으면 콜백 함수는 *note OptionValueError: 2ee4.
를 발생시켜야 합니다.  *note optparse: a0.는 이것을 포착하고 프로그램을
종료하고, stderr에 여러분이 제공하는 에러 메시지를 인쇄합니다.  메시지는
명확하고 간결하며 정확해야 하며 잘못된 옵션을 언급해야 합니다.  그렇지 않
으면, 사용자는 자신이 무엇을 잘못했는지 파악하는 데 어려움을 겪을 것입니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예제 1 간단한 콜백,  Next: 콜백 예제 2 옵션 순서 확인,  Prev: 콜백에서 에러 발생시키기,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.34 콜백 예제 1: 간단한 콜백
..................................

다음은 인자를 취하지 않고, 단순히 옵션이 발견되었음을 기록하는 콜백 옵션
의 예입니다:

     def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         parser.values.saw_foo = True

     parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)

물론 ‘"store_true"’ 액션으로 그렇게 할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예제 2 옵션 순서 확인,  Next: 콜백 예제 3 옵션 순서 확인 일반화,  Prev: 콜백 예제 1 간단한 콜백,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.35 콜백 예제 2: 옵션 순서 확인
.....................................

여기에 약간 더 흥미로운 예가 있습니다: ‘-a’가 발견되었다는 사실을 기록하
지만, 명령 줄에서 ‘-b’ 뒤에 오면 폭발합니다.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
         parser.values.a = 1
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예제 3 옵션 순서 확인 일반화,  Next: 콜백 예제 4 임의 조건 확인,  Prev: 콜백 예제 2 옵션 순서 확인,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.36 콜백 예제 3: 옵션 순서 확인 (일반화)
..............................................

이 콜백을 몇 가지 유사한 옵션에 다시 사용하려면 (플래그를 설정하지만,
‘-b’가 이미 보였으면 폭발함), 약간의 작업이 필요합니다: 에러 메시지와 설
정하는 플래그를 일반화해야 합니다.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예제 4 임의 조건 확인,  Next: 콜백 예제 5 고정 인자,  Prev: 콜백 예제 3 옵션 순서 확인 일반화,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.37 콜백 예제 4: 임의 조건 확인
.....................................

물론, 여기에 어떤 조건도 넣을 수 있습니다—이미 정의된 옵션의 값을 확인하
는 데 국한되지 않습니다.  예를 들어, 만월일 때 호출해서는 안 되는 옵션이
있으면, 다음과 같이 하면 됩니다:

     def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if is_moon_full():
             raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
                                    % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")

(‘is_moon_full()’의 정의는 독자를 위한 연습 문제로 남겨 둡니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예제 5 고정 인자,  Next: 콜백 예제 6 가변 인자,  Prev: 콜백 예제 4 임의 조건 확인,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.38 콜백 예제 5: 고정 인자
................................

고정된 수의 인자를 사용하는 콜백 옵션을 정의하면 상황이 약간 더 흥미로워
집니다.  콜백 옵션이 인자를 받도록 지정하는 것은 ‘"store"’나 ‘"append"’
옵션을 정의하는 것과 유사합니다: *note type: 2ef4.을 정의하면, 옵션은 해
당 형으로 변환 할 수 있어야 하는 하나의 인자를 취합니다; *note nargs:
2f23.를 추가로 정의하면, 옵션은 *note nargs: 2f23. 인자를 취합니다.

다음은 표준 ‘"store"’ 액션을 흉내 내는 예입니다:

     def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=store_value,
                       type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")

*note optparse: a0.가 3개의 인자를 소비하고 이를 정수로 변환하는 작업을
처리함에 유의하십시오; 여러분이 해야 할 일은 그것들을 저장하는 것뿐입니
다.  (또는 무엇이든; 분명히 이 예제에서는 콜백이 필요하지 않습니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예제 6 가변 인자,  Prev: 콜백 예제 5 고정 인자,  Up: 옵션 콜백

5.17.2.39 콜백 예제 6: 가변 인자
................................

가변적인 수의 인자를 취하는 옵션을 원할 때 상황이 복잡해집니다.  이 경우
, *note optparse: a0.는 이것을 위한 내장 기능을 제공하지 않아서 콜백을 작
성해야 합니다.  그리고 *note optparse: a0.가 일반적으로 처리하는 전통적
인 유닉스 명령 줄 구문 분석의 복잡한 문제를 여러분이 처리해야 합니다.  특
히, 콜백은 날(bare) ‘--’와 ‘-’ 인자에 대한 전통적인 규칙을 구현해야 합니
다:

   * ‘--’나 ‘-’는 옵션 인자가 될 수 있습니다

   * 날 ‘--’ (어떤 옵션에 대한 인자가 아닌 경우): 명령 줄 처리를 중단하
     고 ‘--’를 버립니다

   * 날 ‘-’ (어떤 옵션에 대한 인자가 아닌 경우): 명령 줄 처리를 중지하지
     만 ‘-’는 유지합니다 (‘parser.largs’에 추가합니다)

가변적인 수의 인자를 취하는 옵션을 원한다면, 몇 가지 미묘하고 까다로운 문
제가 있습니다.  여러분이 선택하는 정확한 구현은 여러분이 여러분의 응용 프
로그램을 위해 취하고자 하는 절충을 기반으로 할 것입니다 (이것이 *note
optparse: a0.가 이런 종류의 것을 직접 지원하지 않는 이유입니다).

그런데도, 가변 인자가 있는 옵션에 대한 콜백에는 가시가 있습니다:

     def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         assert value is None
         value = []

         def floatable(str):
             try:
                 float(str)
                 return True
             except ValueError:
                 return False

         for arg in parser.rargs:
             # --foo 와 같은 옵션에서 멈춥니다
             if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
                 break
             # -a 에서 멈추지만, -3 이나 -3.0 에서는 멈추지 않습니다
             if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
                 break
             value.append(arg)

         del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)

     ...
     parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
                       action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)


File: python.info,  Node: optparse 확장하기,  Next: 예외<7>,  Prev: 옵션 콜백,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.40 ‘optparse’ 확장하기
.............................

*note optparse: a0.가 명령 줄 옵션을 해석하는 방법의 두 가지 주요 제어 요
소는 각 옵션의 액션과 형이므로, 확장 방향은 새 액션과 새 형을 추가하는 것
입니다.

* Menu:

* 새로운 형 추가하기::
* 새로운 액션 추가하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 형 추가하기,  Next: 새로운 액션 추가하기,  Up: optparse 확장하기

5.17.2.41 새로운 형 추가하기
............................

새로운 형을 추가하려면, *note optparse: a0.의 *note Option: 2f1b. 클래스
의 여러분 자신의 서브 클래스를 정의해야 합니다.  이 클래스에는 *note
optparse: a0.의 형을 정의하는 몇 가지 어트리뷰트가 있습니다: *note
TYPES: 2f50.와 *note TYPE_CHECKER: 2f51.

 -- 속성: Option.TYPES

     형 이름의 튜플; 여러분의 서브 클래스에서, 표준 튜플을 기반으로 하는
     새 튜플 *note TYPES: 2f50.를 정의하십시오.

 -- 속성: Option.TYPE_CHECKER

     형 이름을 형 검사 함수에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.  형 검사 함수는 다음과
     같은 서명을 갖습니다:

          def check_mytype(option, opt, value)

     여기서 ‘option’은 *note Option: 2f1b. 인스턴스이고, ‘opt’는 옵션 문
     자열(예를 들어, ‘-f’)이며, ‘value’는 검사되고 원하는 형으로 변환되
     어야 하는 명령 줄의 문자열입니다.  ‘check_mytype()’은 가상의 형
     ‘mytype’의 객체를 반환해야 합니다.  형 검사 함수가 반환한 값은
     *note OptionParser.parse_args(): 1496.에서 반환한 OptionValues 인스
     턴스에 포함되거나 ‘value’ 매개 변수로 콜백에 전달됩니다.

     형 검사 함수는 문제가 발생하면 *note OptionValueError: 2ee4. 를 발
     생시켜야 합니다.  *note OptionValueError: 2ee4. 는 *note
     OptionParser: 1495.의 ‘error()’ 메서드에 있는 그대로 전달되는 단일
     문자열 인자를 취하며, 이는 차례로 프로그램 이름과 문자열
     ‘"error:"’를 앞에 붙이고 프로세스를 종료하기 전에 모든 것을 stderr에
     인쇄합니다.

다음은 명령 줄에서 파이썬 스타일 복소수를 구문 분석하기 위해 ‘"complex"’
옵션 형을 추가하는 것을 보여주는 우스꽝스러운 예입니다.  (*note
optparse: a0. 1.3은 복소수에 대한 기본 지원을 추가했기 때문에 전보다 훨
씬 우스꽝스럽지만, 신경 쓰지 마십시오.)

첫째, 필요한 임포트:

     from copy import copy
     from optparse import Option, OptionValueError

나중에 (Option 서브 클래스의 *note TYPE_CHECKER: 2f51. 클래스 어트리뷰트
에서) 참조되므로, 형 검사기를 먼저 정의해야 합니다:

     def check_complex(option, opt, value):
         try:
             return complex(value)
         except ValueError:
             raise OptionValueError(
                 "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))

마지막으로, Option 서브 클래스:

     class MyOption (Option):
         TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
         TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
         TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex

(*note Option.TYPE_CHECKER: 2f51.의 *note copy(): 25.를 만들지 않았다면,
*note optparse: a0.의 Option 클래스의 *note TYPE_CHECKER: 2f51. 어트리뷰
트를 수정하게 될 것입니다.  이것은 파이썬이기 때문에, 좋은 태도와 상식을
제외하고는 아무것도 이렇게 하는 것을 막을 수 없습니다.)

이것이 전부입니다!  이제 OptionParser가 Option 대신 MyOption을 사용하도
록 지시해야 한다는 점을 제외하고는, 다른 *note optparse: a0. 기반 스크립
트와 마찬가지로 새 옵션 형을 사용하는 스크립트를 작성할 수 있습니다:

     parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
     parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")

또는, 여러분 자신만의 옵션 목록을 만들어 OptionParser에 전달할 수 있습니
다; 위의 방법으로 ‘add_option()’을 사용하지 않으면, OptionParser에 사용
할 옵션 클래스를 알려줄 필요가 없습니다:

     option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 액션 추가하기,  Prev: 새로운 형 추가하기,  Up: optparse 확장하기

5.17.2.42 새로운 액션 추가하기
..............................

*note optparse: a0.에는 액션에 대한 몇 가지 분류가 있음을 이해해야 해서,
새 액션을 추가하는 것은 약간 까다롭습니다:

“저장” 액션

     *note optparse: a0.가 현재 OptionValues 인스턴스의 어트리뷰트에 값
     을 저장하는 결과를 주는 액션; 이러한 옵션을 사용하려면 Option 생성
     자에 *note dest: 2ef5. 어트리뷰트를 제공해야 합니다.

“형이 있는” 액션

     명령 줄에서 값을 취하고 이것이 특정 형일 것으로 기대하는 액션; 또는
     , 특정 형으로 변환할 수 있는 문자열.  이러한 옵션을 사용하려면
     Option 생성자에 *note type: 2ef4. 어트리뷰트를 제공해야 합니다.

이들은 겹치는 집합입니다: 일부 기본 “저장” 액션은 ‘"store"’,
‘"store_const"’, ‘"append"’ 및 ‘"count"’이고, 기본 “형이 있는” 액션은
‘"store"’, ‘"append"’ 및 ‘"callback"’입니다.

액션을 추가할 때, Option의 다음 클래스 어트리뷰트 중 하나 이상에 나열하
여 분류해야 합니다 (모두 문자열 리스트입니다):

 -- 속성: Option.ACTIONS

     모든 액션은 ACTIONS에 나열되어야 합니다.

 -- 속성: Option.STORE_ACTIONS

     “저장” 액션이 여기에 추가로 나열됩니다.

 -- 속성: Option.TYPED_ACTIONS

     “형이 있는” 액션이 여기에 추가로 나열됩니다.

 -- 속성: Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS

     항상 형을 취하는 액션(즉, 옵션이 항상 값을 취하는 액션)이 여기에 추
     가로 나열됩니다.  이것의 유일한 효과는 *note optparse: a0.가 *note
     ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 2f57.에 액션이 나열되는 명시적인 형이 없는 옵
     션에 기본형인 ‘"string"’을 대입한다는 것입니다.

새 액션을 실제로 구현하려면, Option의 ‘take_action()’ 메서드를 재정의하
고 액션을 인식하는 케이스를 추가해야 합니다.

예를 들어, ‘"extend"’ 액션을 추가해 보겠습니다.  이것은 표준 ‘"append"’
액션과 유사하지만, 명령 줄에서 단일 값을 취해서 기존 리스트에 추가하는 대
신, ‘"extend"’는 단일 쉼표로 구분된 문자열에서 여러 값을 취해서 기존 리
스트를 확장합니다.  즉, ‘--names’가 ‘"string"’ 형의 ‘"extend"’ 옵션이면,
다음과 같은 명령 줄은

     --names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong

다음과 같은 리스트를 만듭니다

     ["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]

다시 Option의 서브 클래스를 정의합니다:

     class MyOption(Option):

         ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)

         def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
             if action == "extend":
                 lvalue = value.split(",")
                 values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
             else:
                 Option.take_action(
                     self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)

참고할만한 특징:

   * ‘"extend"’는 명령 줄에서 값을 기대하기도 하고 그 값을 어딘가에 저장
     하기도 하므로, *note STORE_ACTIONS: 2f55.와 *note TYPED_ACTIONS:
     2f56. 모두에 들어갑니다.

   * *note optparse: a0.가 기본형 ‘"string"’을 ‘"extend"’ 액션에 대입하
     도록 하기 위해, *note ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 2f57.에도 ‘"extend"’ 액
     션을 넣습니다.

   * ‘MyOption.take_action()’은 이 하나의 새로운 액션만 구현하고, 표준
     *note optparse: a0. 액션을 위해 제어를 ‘Option.take_action()’으로 되
     돌립니다.

   * ‘values’는 매우 유용한 ‘ensure_value()’ 메서드를 제공하는
     optparse_parser.Values 클래스의 인스턴스입니다.  ‘ensure_value()’는
     본질적으로 안전밸브가 있는 *note getattr(): bce.입니다; 다음과 같이
     호출됩니다

          values.ensure_value(attr, value)

     ‘values’의 ‘attr’ 어트리뷰트가 존재하지 않거나 ‘None’이면,
     ensure_value()는 먼저 이를 ‘value’로 설정한 다음, ‘value’를 반환합
     니다.  이것은 ‘"extend"’, ‘"append"’ 및 ‘"count"’와 같은 액션에 매
     우 편리합니다.  이 액션들은 모두 변수에 데이터를 누적하고 해당 변수
     가 특정 형(처음 두 개는 리스트, 마지막은 정수)이 될 것으로 기대합니
     다.  ‘ensure_value()’를 사용한다는 것은 액션을 사용하는 스크립트가
     문제의 옵션 대상에 대한 기본값 설정에 대해 걱정할 필요가 없음을 의
     미합니다; 기본값을 ‘None’으로 그대로 둘 수 있으며 ‘ensure_value()’는
     필요할 때 올바르게 처리합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<7>,  Prev: optparse 확장하기,  Up: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기

5.17.2.43 예외
..............

 -- 예외: optparse.OptionError

     Raised if an *note Option: 2f1b. instance is created with invalid
     or inconsistent arguments.

 -- 예외: optparse.OptionConflictError

     Raised if conflicting options are added to an *note OptionParser:
     1495.

 -- 예외: optparse.OptionValueError

     Raised if an invalid option value is encountered on the command
     line.

 -- 예외: optparse.BadOptionError

     명령줄에서 잘못된 옵션이 전달되면 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: optparse.AmbiguousOptionError

     Raised if an ambiguous option is passed on the command line.


File: python.info,  Node: getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력,  Next: fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기,  Prev: optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.3 ‘getpass’ — 이식성 있는 암호 입력
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/getpass.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

*note getpass: 62. 모듈은 두 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: getpass.getpass (prompt='Password: ', stream=None)

     에코 없이 사용자에게 암호를 묻습니다.  사용자는 'prompt' 문자열을 사
     용하여 프롬프트 됩니다.  기본값은 ‘'Password: '’입니다.  유닉스에서
     프롬프트는 필요하다면 replace 에러 처리기를 사용하여 파일류 객체
     'stream'에 기록됩니다.  'stream'는 제어 터미널(‘/dev/tty’)이나 사용
     할 수 없으면 ‘sys.stderr’를 기본값으로 사용합니다 (이 인자는 윈도우
     에서 무시됩니다).

     에코가 없는 입력을 사용할 수 없으면, getpass()는 'stream'에 경고 메
     시지를 인쇄하고, ‘sys.stdin’에서 읽고, *note GetPassWarning: 2f5e.을
     방출하는 것으로 돌아갑니다.

          참고: IDLE 내에서 getpass를 호출하면, 대기 중인 창 자체가 아닌
          IDLE을 시작한 터미널에서 입력이 수행될 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: getpass.GetPassWarning

     패스워드 입력이 에코 될 때 방출되는 *note UserWarning: 22bc. 서브 클
     래스.

 -- 함수: getpass.getuser ()

     사용자의 “로그인 이름”을 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 환경 변수 ‘LOGNAME’, ‘USER’, ‘LNAME’ 및 ‘USERNAME’를 순서
     대로 검사하고, 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정된 첫 번째 값을 반환합니
     다.  아무것도 설정되지 않았으면, *note pwd: b2. 모듈을 지원하는 시
     스템에서는 암호 데이터베이스의 로그인 이름이 반환되고, 그렇지 않으
     면 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

     일반적으로, 이 함수는 *note os.getlogin(): 1534.보다 선호됩니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Previously, various exceptions beyond just
     *note OSError: 411. were raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/getpass.py


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기,  Next: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리,  Prev: getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.4 ‘fileinput’ — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기
--------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/fileinput.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 표준 입력이나 파일 목록에 대한 루프를 빠르게 작성하기 위한 도
우미 클래스와 함수를 구현합니다.  단지 하나의 파일을 읽거나 쓰려면 *note
open(): 515.을 참조하십시오.

일반적인 사용법은 다음과 같습니다:

     import fileinput
     for line in fileinput.input(encoding="utf-8"):
         process(line)

이것은 ‘sys.argv[1:]’에 나열된 모든 파일의 줄을 이터레이트 하며, 목록이
비어 있으면 기본값은 ‘sys.stdin’입니다.  파일 이름이 ‘'-'’이면, 이 또한
‘sys.stdin’으로 대체되고 선택적 인자 'mode'와 'openhook'은 무시됩니다.  대
체 파일명 목록을 지정하려면, *note input(): 7f9.의 첫 번째 인자로 전달하
십시오.  단일 파일 이름도 허용됩니다.

모든 파일은 기본적으로 텍스트 모드로 열리지만, *note input(): 7f9.이나
*note FileInput: 730.을 호출할 때 'mode' 매개 변수를 지정하여 이를 재정
의할 수 있습니다.  파일을 열거나 읽는 동안 I/O 에러가 발생하면, *note
OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: *note IOError: 1048.가 발생했었습니다; 이제 이것은
*note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

‘sys.stdin’이 두 번 이상 사용되면, 대화식으로 사용되거나 명시적으로 재설
정된 경우(예를 들어, ‘sys.stdin.seek(0)’을 사용해서)를 제외하고 두 번째
와 그 이후의 사용은 줄을 반환하지 않습니다.

빈 파일은 열리고 즉시 닫힙니다; 파일명 목록에 존재함이 인식되는 유일한 시
간은 마지막에 열린 파일이 비어있을 때입니다.

줄은 줄 바꿈이 그대로 유지된 채로 반환됩니다.  즉, 파일의 마지막 줄에는
줄 바꿈이 없을 수도 있습니다.

*note fileinput.input(): 7f9.이나 *note FileInput(): 730.의 'openhook' 매
개 변수를 통해 열기 훅을 제공하여 파일을 여는 방법을 제어할 수 있습니다.
훅은 두 개의 인자 'filename'과 'mode'를 취하고, 그에 따라 열린 파일류 객
체를 반환하는 함수여야 합니다.  'encoding' 및/또는 'errors'가 지정되면,
추가 키워드 인자로 훅에 전달됩니다.  이 모듈은 압축 파일을 지원하기 위해
*note hook_compressed(): 7fa.를 제공합니다.

다음 함수는 이 모듈의 기본 인터페이스입니다:

 -- 함수: fileinput.input (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     *note FileInput: 730. 클래스의 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  인스턴스는 이
     모듈의 함수에 대한 전역 상태로 사용되며, 이터레이션 중에 사용하기 위
     해 반환되기도 합니다.  이 함수의 매개 변수는 *note FileInput: 730.
     클래스의 생성자로 전달됩니다.

     *note FileInput: 730. 인스턴스는 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 컨텍스트 관
     리자로 사용될 수 있습니다.  이 예제에서, 예외가 발생하더라도 ‘with’
     문이 종료된 후 'input'이 닫힙니다:

          with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt'), encoding="utf-8") as f:
              for line in f:
                  process(line)

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 키워드 매개 변수 'mode'와 'openhook'은 이제 키워
     드 전용입니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 키워드 전용 매개 변수 'encoding' 와 'errors'를
     추가했습니다.

다음 함수는 *note fileinput.input(): 7f9.에 의해 만들어진 전역 상태를 사
용합니다; 활성 상태가 없으면, *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.filename ()

     현재 읽고 있는 파일의 이름을 반환합니다.  첫 번째 줄을 읽기 전에는,
     ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.fileno ()

     현재 파일의 정수 “파일 기술자”를 반환합니다.  파일이 열리지 않았으
     면 (첫 번째 줄 전과 파일 사이에), ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.lineno ()

     방금 읽은 줄의 누적 줄 번호를 반환합니다.  첫 번째 줄을 읽기 전에는
     , ‘0’을 반환합니다.  마지막 파일의 마지막 줄을 읽은 후에는, 그 줄의
     줄 번호를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.filelineno ()

     현재 파일의 줄 번호를 반환합니다.  첫 번째 줄을 읽기 전에는, ‘0’을
     반환합니다.  마지막 파일의 마지막 줄을 읽은 후에는, 그 줄의 파일 내
     에서의 줄 번호를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.isfirstline ()

     방금 읽은 줄이 파일의 첫 번째 줄이면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.isstdin ()

     마지막 줄을 ‘sys.stdin’에서 읽었으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.nextfile ()

     다음 이터레이션에서 다음 파일(있다면)의 첫 번째 줄을 읽도록 현재 파
     일을 닫습니다; 파일에서 읽지 않은 줄은 누적 줄 수에 포함되지 않습니
     다.  파일명은 다음 파일의 첫 번째 줄을 읽을 때까지 변경되지 않습니
     다.  첫 번째 줄을 읽기 전에는, 이 함수가 효과가 없습니다; 첫 번째 파
     일을 건너뛰는 데 사용할 수 없습니다.  마지막 파일의 마지막 줄을 읽
     은 후에는, 이 함수는 효과가 없습니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.close ()

     시퀀스를 닫습니다.

모듈이 제공하는 시퀀스 동작을 구현하는 클래스는 서브 클래싱에도 사용할 수
있습니다:

 -- 클래스: fileinput.FileInput (files=None, inplace=False, backup='',
          *, mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     *note FileInput: 730. 클래스는 구현입니다; 그 메서드 *note
     filename(): 2f61, *note fileno(): 13f6, *note lineno(): 2f62, *note
     filelineno(): 2f63, *note isfirstline(): 2f64, *note isstdin():
     2f65, *note nextfile(): 2f66. 및 *note close(): 2f67.는 모듈에 있는
     같은 이름의 함수에 해당합니다.  또한 *note 이터러블: 1217.이고, 다
     음 입력 줄을 반환하는 *note readline(): 1cc5. 메서드가 있습니다.  시
     퀀스는 엄격하게 순차적으로 액세스해야 합니다; 무작위 액세스와 *note
     readline(): 1cc5.은 혼합될 수 없습니다.

     'mode'로 *note open(): 515.에 전달할 파일 모드를 지정할 수 있습니다
     .  ‘'r'’ 과 ‘'rb'’ 중 하나여야 합니다.

     'openhook'이 제공되면 두 개의 인자 'filename'과 'mode'를 취하고, 이
     에 따라 열린 파일류 객체를 반환하는 함수여야 합니다.  'inplace'와
     'openhook'을 함께 사용할 수 없습니다.

     You can specify 'encoding' and 'errors' that is passed to *note
     open(): 515. or 'openhook'.

     *note FileInput: 730. 인스턴스는 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 컨텍스트 관
     리자로 사용될 수 있습니다.  이 예제에서, 예외가 발생하더라도 ‘with’
     문이 종료된 후 'input'이 닫힙니다:

          with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
              process(input)

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 키워드 매개 변수 'mode'와 'openhook'은 이제 키워
     드 전용입니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 키워드 전용 매개 변수 'encoding' 와 'errors'를
     추가했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘'rU'’ 및 ‘'U'’ 모드와 ‘__getitem__()’ 메서드는
     제거했습니다.

'선택적 제자리 필터링(in-place filtering):' 키워드 인자 ‘inplace=True’가
*note fileinput.input(): 7f9.이나 *note FileInput: 730. 생성자로 전달되
면, 파일이 백업 파일로 이동되고 표준 출력은 입력 파일로 보내집니다 (백업
파일과 같은 이름의 파일이 이미 있으면, 조용히 대체됩니다).  이를 통해 입
력 파일을 다시 쓰는 필터를 작성할 수 있습니다.  'backup' 매개 변수가 제
공되면 (일반적으로 ‘backup='.<some extension>'’으로), 백업 파일의 확장자
를 지정하고, 백업 파일은 그대로 남아 있습니다; 기본적으로 확장자는
‘'.bak'’이고, 출력 파일을 닫을 때 삭제됩니다.  표준 입력을 읽을 때는 제
자리 필터링이 비활성화됩니다.

이 모듈은 다음과 같은 두 개의 열기 훅을 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: fileinput.hook_compressed (filename, mode, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     *note gzip: 67.과 *note bz2: 13. 모듈을 사용하여 gzip과 bzip2로 압
     축된 파일(확장자 ‘'.gz'’와 ‘'.bz2'’로 인식합니다)을 투명하게 엽니다
     .  파일명 확장자가 ‘'.gz'’나 ‘'.bz2'’가 아니면, 파일이 정상적으로 열
     립니다 (즉, 압축 해제 없이 *note open(): 515.을 사용합니다).

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' values are passed to *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. for compressed files and open for normal
     files.

     사용 예: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed,
     encoding="utf-8")’

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 키워드 전용 매개 변수 'encoding' 와 'errors'를
     추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: fileinput.hook_encoded (encoding, errors=None)

     주어진 'encoding'과 'errors'를 사용하여 파일을 읽도록 *note open():
     515.으로 각 파일을 여는 훅을 반환합니다.

     사용 예: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8",
     "surrogateescape"))’

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 선택적 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: This function is deprecated since *note
     fileinput.input(): 7f9. and *note FileInput: 730. now have
     'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/fileinput.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리,  Next: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯,  Prev: fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.5 ‘curses’ — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리
-------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/curses(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note curses: 2b. 모듈은 이식성 있는 고급 터미널 처리를 위한 사실상의 표
준인 curses 라이브러리에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

curses는 유닉스 환경에서 가장 널리 사용되지만, 윈도우, DOS 및 기타 시스
템에서도 사용할 수 있는 버전이 있습니다.  이 확장 모듈은 리눅스와 유닉스
의 BSD 변형에서 동작하는 오픈 소스 curses 라이브러리인 ncurses의 API와 일
치하도록 설계되었습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

     참고: 설명서에 '문자(character)'가 언급될 때마다 정수, 한 문자 유니
     코드 문자열 또는 한 바이트 바이트열로 지정할 수 있습니다.

     설명서에 '문자 문자열(character string)'이 언급될 때마다 유니코드 문
     자열이나 바이트열로 지정할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note curses.ascii: 2c.

     로케일 설정과 관계없이, ASCII 문자로 작업하기 위한 유틸리티.

모듈 *note curses.panel: 2d.

     curses 창에 깊이를 추가하는 패널 스택 확장.

모듈 *note curses.textpad: 2e.

     ‘Emacs’와 유사한 바인딩을 지원하는 curses를 위한 편집 가능한 텍스트
     위젯.

*note 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍: 2f6a.

     Andrew Kuchling과 Eric Raymond가 작성한, curses를 파이썬에서 사용하
     는 것에 대한 자습서 자료.

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<5>.
* 창 객체::
* 상수: 상수<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/curses


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<5>,  Next: 창 객체,  Up: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리

5.17.5.1 함수
.............

*note curses: 2b. 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: curses.error

     curses 라이브러리 함수가 에러를 반환할 때 발생하는 예외.

     참고: 함수나 메서드에 대한 'x'나 'y' 인자가 선택 사항일 때마다, 기
     본값은 현재 커서 위치입니다.  'attr'이 선택적일 때마다 기본값은
     *note A_NORMAL: 2f6e.입니다.

*note curses: 2b. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: curses.baudrate ()

     터미널의 출력 속도를 초당 비트 수로 반환합니다.  소프트웨어 터미널
     에뮬레이터에서는 고정된 큰 값을 갖습니다.  역사적인 이유로 포함되었
     습니다; 이전에는, 시간 지연에 대한 출력 루프를 작성하는데, 때로는 회
     선 속도에 따라 인터페이스를 변경하는 데 사용되었습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.beep ()

     짧은 주의 음을 냅니다.

 -- 함수: curses.can_change_color ()

     프로그래머가 터미널에 표시되는 색상을 변경할 수 있는지에 따라
     ‘True’나 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.cbreak ()

     cbreak 모드로 들어갑니다.  cbreak 모드(“드문(rare)” 모드라고도 합니
     다)에서는 일반 tty 줄 버퍼링이 꺼지고 문자를 하나씩 읽을 수 있습니
     다.  그러나, 원시(raw) 모드와 달리, 특수 문자(인터럽트(interrupt),
     종료(quit), 일시 중단(suspend) 및 흐름 제어(flow control))는 tty 드
     라이버와 호출하는 프로그램에 영향을 미칩니다.  *note raw(): 2f73.를
     먼저 호출한 다음 *note cbreak(): 2f72.를 호출하면 터미널이 cbreak 모
     드로 유지됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.color_content (color_number)

     ‘0’과 ‘COLORS - 1’ 사이의 색상 'color_number'에서 빨강, 녹색 및 파
     랑 (RGB) 구성 요소의 강도(intensity)를 반환합니다.  주어진 색상에 대
     한 R,G,B 값이 포함된 3-튜플을 반환합니다.  이 값은 ‘0’(구성 요소 없
     음)과 ‘1000’(구성 요소의 최대량) 사이입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.color_pair (pair_number)

     지정된 색상 쌍으로 텍스트를 표시하기 위한 속성값을 반환합니다.  처
     음 256 색상 쌍만 지원됩니다.  이 속성값은 *note A_STANDOUT: 2f75,
     *note A_REVERSE: 2f76. 및 기타 ‘A_*’ 속성과 결합할 수 있습니다.
     *note pair_number(): 2f77.는 이 함수의 역입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.curs_set (visibility)

     커서 상태를 설정합니다.  'visibility'는 ‘0’, ‘1’ 또는 ‘2’로 설정될
     수 있는데, 각각 보이지 않음(invisible), 보통, 매우 잘 보임(very
     visible)입니다.  터미널이 요청된 visibility를 지원하면, 이전 커서 상
     태를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 예외가 발생합니다.  많은 터미널에서,
     “보이는(visible)” 모드는 밑줄 커서이고 “매우 잘 보이는(very
     visible)” 모드는 블록 커서입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.def_prog_mode ()

     현재 터미널 모드를 “프로그램(program)” 모드로 저장합니다.  프로그램
     모드는 실행 중인 프로그램이 curses를 사용 중인 모드입니다.  (반대는
     “셸(shell)” 모드이며, 프로그램이 curses를 사용하지 않을 때입니다.)
     이후에 *note reset_prog_mode(): 2f7a.를 호출하면 이 모드가 복원됩니
     다.

 -- 함수: curses.def_shell_mode ()

     현재 터미널 모드를 “셸(shell)” 모드로 저장합니다.  셸 모드는 실행 중
     인 프로그램이 curses를 사용하지 않는 모드입니다.  (반대는 “프로그램
     (program)” 모드이며, 프로그램이 curses 기능을 사용 중일 때입니다.)
     이후에 *note reset_shell_mode(): 2f7c.를 호출하면 이 모드가 복원됩
     니다.

 -- 함수: curses.delay_output (ms)

     출력에 'ms' 밀리초 일시 중지를 삽입합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.doupdate ()

     물리적 화면을 갱신합니다.  curses 라이브러리는 두 개의 데이터 구조
     를 유지합니다.  하나는 현재 물리적 화면 내용을 표현하고 다른 하나는
     원하는 다음 상태를 나타내는 가상 화면을 표현합니다.  *note
     doupdate(): 2f7e.는 물리적 화면을 가상 화면과 일치하도록 갱신합니다
     .

     가상 화면은 창에 *note addstr(): 2f7f.과 같은 쓰기 연산이 수행된 후
     *note noutrefresh(): 2f80. 호출로 갱신될 수 있습니다.  일반적인
     *note refresh(): 2f81. 호출은 단순히 ‘noutrefresh()’ 후에
     ‘doupdate()’ 하는 것입니다; 여러 개의 창을 갱신해야 하면, 모든 창에
     서 ‘noutrefresh()’ 호출을 실행한 다음 단일 ‘doupdate()’를 실행하여
     속도 성능을 높이고 아마도 화면 깜박임을 줄일 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.echo ()

     반향(echo) 모드로 들어갑니다.  반향 모드에서는, 각 문자 입력이 입력
     되는 대로 화면에 반향을 일으킵니다.

 -- 함수: curses.endwin ()

     라이브러리를 초기화 해제하고, 터미널을 정상 상태로 되돌립니다.

 -- 함수: curses.erasechar ()

     사용자의 현재 지우기 문자(erase character)를 1바이트 바이트열 객체
     로 반환합니다.  유닉스 운영 체제에서 이는 curses 프로그램의 제어
     tty의 특성이며, curses 라이브러리 자체에 의해 설정되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.filter ()

     *note filter(): 2f85. 루틴을 사용하는 경우 *note initscr(): 15aa.을
     호출하기 전에 호출해야 합니다.  이러한 호출 중에, 효과는 ‘LINES’가
     ‘1’로 설정되고; ‘clear’, ‘cup’, ‘cud’, ‘cud1’, ‘cuu1’, ‘cuu’, ‘vpa’
     기능이 비활성화되고; ‘home’ 문자열이 ‘cr’ 값으로 설정됩니다.  결과
     적으로 커서가 현재 줄에 갇혀서 화면이 갱신됩니다.  화면의 나머지 부
     분을 건드리지 않고 한 번에 한 글자(character-at-a-time) 줄 편집을 활
     성화하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.flash ()

     화면을 깜박입니다.  즉, 반전 비디오로 변경한 다음 짧은 간격으로 되
     돌립니다.  어떤 사람들은 *note beep(): 2f70.이 만드는 가청 주의 신
     호보다 이런 ‘시각적 벨’을 선호합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.flushinp ()

     모든 입력 버퍼를 플러시 합니다.  이렇게 하면 사용자가 입력했지만, 아
     직 프로그램에서 처리하지 않은 모든 선행 입력(typeahead)을 모두 버립
     니다.

 -- 함수: curses.getmouse ()

     *note getch(): 1548.가 *note KEY_MOUSE: 2f89.를 반환하여 마우스 이
     벤트를 알린 후, 이 메서드는 대기 중인 마우스 이벤트를 꺼내기 위해 호
     출되어야 합니다, 이벤트는 5-튜플 ‘(id, x, y, z, bstate)’로 표현됩니
     다.  'id'는 여러 장치를 구별하는 데 사용되는 ID 값이며, 'x', 'y',
     'z'는 이벤트 좌표입니다.  ('z'는 현재 사용되지 않습니다.)  'bstate'는
     비트가 이벤트 유형을 나타내도록 설정되는 정숫값이며, 다음 상수 중 하
     나 이상의 비트별 OR입니다.  여기서 'n'은 1에서 5까지의 버튼 번호입
     니다: *note BUTTONn_PRESSED: 2f8a, *note BUTTONn_RELEASED: 2f8b,
     *note BUTTONn_CLICKED: 2f8c, *note BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED: 2f8d,
     *note BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED: 2f8e, *note BUTTON_SHIFT: 2f8f, *note
     BUTTON_CTRL: 2f90, *note BUTTON_ALT: 2f91.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed if
     they are provided by the underlying curses library.

 -- 함수: curses.getsyx ()

     가상 화면 커서의 현재 좌표를 튜플 ‘(y, x)’로 반환합니다.  *note
     leaveok: 2f93.가 현재 ‘True’이면, ‘(-1, -1)’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.getwin (file)

     이전 *note window.putwin(): 2f95. 호출로 파일에 저장된 창 관련 데이
     터를 읽습니다.  그런 다음 루틴은 해당 데이터를 사용하여 새 창을 만
     들고 초기화하여, 새 창 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.has_colors ()

     터미널이 색상을 표시할 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으
     면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.has_extended_color_support ()

     Return ‘True’ if the module supports extended colors; otherwise,
     return ‘False’.  Extended color support allows more than 256 color
     pairs for terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g.
     xterm-256color).

     Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: curses.has_ic ()

     터미널에 문자 삽입과 삭제 기능이 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이 함
     수는 역사적인 이유로만 포함되는데, 모든 최신 소프트웨어 터미널 에뮬
     레이터에 이러한 기능이 있기 때문입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.has_il ()

     터미널에 줄 삽입과 삭제 기능이 있거나, 영역 스크롤을 사용하여 시뮬
     레이션 할 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이 함수는 역사적인 이유로
     만 포함되는데, 모든 최신 소프트웨어 터미널 에뮬레이터에 이러한 기능
     이 있기 때문입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.has_key (ch)

     키값 'ch'를 취하고, 현재 터미널 유형이 해당 값을 가진 키를 인식하면
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.halfdelay (tenths)

     사용자가 입력 한 문자를 프로그램에서 즉시 사용할 수 있다는 점에서
     cbreak 모드와 유사한, 반 지연(half-delay) 모드에 사용됩니다.  그러
     나 'tenths' 10분의 1초 동안 블록한 후 아무것도 입력하지 않으면 예외
     가 발생합니다.  'tenths'의 값은 ‘1’과 ‘255’ 사이의 숫자여야 합니다.
     반 지연 모드를 종료하려면 *note nocbreak(): 2f9b.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: curses.init_color (color_number, r, g, b)

     변경될 색상 번호와 뒤따르는 세 RGB 값(빨강, 녹색 및 파랑 성분의 양
     )을 취해서 색상의 정의를 변경합니다.  'color_number'의 값은 ‘0’과
     ‘COLORS - 1’ 사이여야 합니다.  'r', 'g', 'b'는 각각 ‘0’과 ‘1000’ 사
     이의 값이어야 합니다.  *note init_color(): 7eb.를 사용하면, 화면에
     서 해당 색상의 모든 항목이 즉시 새 정의로 변경됩니다.  이 함수는 대
     부분의 터미널에서 효과가 없습니다; *note can_change_color(): 2f71.가
     ‘True’를 반환할 때만 활성화됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.init_pair (pair_number, fg, bg)

     색상 쌍의 정의를 변경합니다.  세 가지 인자를 취합니다: 변경할 색상
     쌍 번호, 전경색 번호 및 배경색 번호.  'pair_number'의 값은 ‘1’과
     ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’ 사이여야 합니다 (‘0’ 색상 쌍은 검은 배경색에 흰 전
     경색으로 연결되어 있으며 변경할 수 없습니다).  'fg'와 'bg' 인자의 값
     은 ‘0’과 ‘COLORS - 1’ 사이, 또는, *note use_default_colors(): 2f9c.
     후에, ‘-1’이어야 합니다.  색상 쌍이 이전에 초기화되었으면, 화면이 새
     로 고쳐지고 해당 색상 쌍의 모든 항목이 새 정의로 변경됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.initscr ()

     라이브러리를 초기화합니다.  전체 화면을 나타내는 *note 창: 2f9d. 객
     체를 반환합니다.

          참고: 터미널을 여는 중 에러가 발생하면, 하부 curses 라이브러리
          가 인터프리터를 종료시킬 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.is_term_resized (nlines, ncols)

     *note resize_term(): 15b4.이 창 구조를 수정한다면 ‘True’를, 그렇지
     않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.isendwin ()

     *note endwin(): 2f83.이 호출되었으면 (즉, curses 라이브러리가 초기
     화 해제되었다면) ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.keyname (k)

     키 번호 'k'의 이름을 바이트열 객체로 반환합니다.  인쇄 가능한 ASCII
     문자를 생성하는 키의 이름은 키의 문자입니다.  제어 키(control-key)
     조합의 이름은 캐럿(‘b'^'’)과 그 뒤에오는 해당 인쇄 가능한 ASCII 문
     자로 구성된 2바이트 바이트열 객체입니다.  대체 키(alt-key) 조합
     (128–255)의 이름은 접두사 ‘b'M-'’와 그 뒤에 오는 해당 ASCII 문자의
     이름으로 구성되는 바이트열 객체입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.killchar ()

     사용자의 현재 줄 삭제 문자(line kill character)를 1바이트 바이트열
     객체로 반환합니다.  유닉스 운영 체제에서 이는 curses 프로그램의 제
     어 tty의 특성이며, curses 라이브러리 자체에 의해 설정되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.longname ()

     현재 터미널을 설명하는 terminfo 긴 이름 필드를 포함하는 바이트열 객
     체를 반환합니다.  자세한 설명의 최대 길이는 128자입니다.  *note
     initscr(): 15aa.을 호출한 후에만 정의됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.meta (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 8비트 문자 입력을 허용합니다.  'flag'가
     ‘False’이면 7비트 문자만 허용합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.mouseinterval (interval)

     클릭으로 인식되기 위해 눌림(press)과 해제(release) 이벤트 사이에 지
     날 수 있는 최대 시간을 밀리초 단위로 설정하고, 이전 간격 값을 반환
     합니다.  기본값은 200 밀리 초, 즉 1/5초입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.mousemask (mousemask)

     마우스 이벤트가 보고되도록 설정하고, 튜플 ‘(availmask, oldmask)’를
     반환합니다.  'availmask'는 지정된 마우스 이벤트 중 보고 할 수 있는
     것을 나타냅니다; 완전히 실패하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  'oldmask'는 주
     어진 창의 마우스 이벤트 마스크의 이전 값입니다.  이 함수를 한 번도
     호출하지 않으면, 마우스 이벤트가 보고되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.napms (ms)

     'ms' 밀리초 동안 휴면합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.newpad (nlines, ncols)

     주어진 수의 행과 열로 새로운 패드 데이터 구조에 대한 포인터를 만들
     고 반환합니다.  패드를 창 객체로 반환합니다.

     패드는 화면 크기에 의해 제한되지 않으며, 화면의 특정 부분과 반드시
     관련될 필요는 없다는 점을 제외하면 창과 같습니다.  큰 창이 필요할 때
     패드를 사용할 수 있으며, 한 번에 창의 일부만 화면에 표시됩니다.  패
     드의 자동 새로 고침(가령 스크롤이나 입력 반향)은 일어나지 않습니다.
     패드의 *note refresh(): 2f81.와 *note noutrefresh(): 2f80. 메서드는
     표시할 패드의 부분과 표시할 화면의 위치를 지정하기 위해 6개의 인자
     가 필요합니다.  인자는 'pminrow', 'pmincol', 'sminrow', 'smincol',
     'smaxrow', 'smaxcol'입니다; 'p' 인자는 표시할 패드 영역의 왼쪽 위 모
     서리를 가리키고, 's' 인자는 패드 영역이 표시될 화면 위의 클리핑 상
     자를 정의합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols)

 -- 함수: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     왼쪽 위 모서리가 ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’이고, 높이/너비가
     'nlines'/'ncols' 인 새 *note 창: 2f9d.을 반환합니다.

     기본적으로, 창은 지정된 위치에서 화면 오른쪽 하단으로 확장됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.nl ()

     줄 바꿈(newline) 모드로 들어갑니다.  이 모드는 입력에서 리턴 키를 줄
     바꿈으로 변환하고, 출력에서 줄 바꿈을 리턴(return)과 줄 넘김
     (line-feed)으로 변환합니다.  줄 바꿈 모드는 처음에 켜져 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.nocbreak ()

     cbreak 모드를 종료합니다.  줄 버퍼링을 사용하는 일반 “요리된
     (cooked)” 모드로 돌아갑니다.

 -- 함수: curses.noecho ()

     반향 모드를 종료합니다.  입력 문자 반향이 꺼집니다.

 -- 함수: curses.nonl ()

     줄 바꿈 모드를 종료합니다.  입력에서 리턴을 줄 바꿈으로 변환하는 것
     을 비활성화하고, 출력에서 줄 바꿈을 줄 바꿈/리턴으로 저수준 변환하
     는 것을 비활성화합니다 (그러나 이것은 ‘addch('\n')’의 동작을 변경하
     지는 않는데, 항상 가상 화면에서 리턴(return)과 줄 넘김(line feed)에
     동등한 역할을 합니다).  변환이 꺼져 있으면, curses가 때로 수직 동작
     속도를 약간 올릴 수 있습니다; 또한, 입력에서 리턴 키를 감지할 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.noqiflush ()

     ‘noqiflush()’ 루틴이 사용되면, ‘INTR’, ‘QUIT’ 및 ‘SUSP’ 문자와 연관
     된 입력과 출력 큐의 일반 플러시가 수행되지 않습니다.  처리기가 종료
     한 후, 인터럽트가 발생하지 않은 것처럼 출력을 계속하려면 시그널 처
     리기에서 ‘noqiflush()’를 호출할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.noraw ()

     원시(raw) 모드를 종료합니다.  줄 버퍼링을 사용하는 일반 “요리된
     (cooked)” 모드로 돌아갑니다.

 -- 함수: curses.pair_content (pair_number)

     요청된 색상 쌍의 색상이 포함된 튜플 ‘(fg, bg)’를 반환합니다.
     'pair_number'의 값은 ‘0’과 ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’ 사이여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.pair_number (attr)

     속성값 'attr'로 설정된 색상 쌍의 번호를 반환합니다.  *note
     color_pair(): 2f74.는 이 함수의 역입니다.

 -- 함수: curses.putp (str)

     ‘tputs(str, 1, putchar)’와 동등합니다; 현재 터미널에 대해 지정된
     terminfo 기능의 값을 내보냅니다.  *note putp(): 2fad.의 출력은 항상
     표준 출력을 향함에 유의하십시오.

 -- 함수: curses.qiflush ([flag])

     'flag'가 ‘False’이면, 효과는 *note noqiflush(): 2fab.를 호출하는 것
     과 같습니다.  'flag'가 ‘True’이거나, 인자가 제공되지 않으면, 이러한
     제어 문자를 읽을 때 큐가 플러시 됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.raw ()

     원시(raw) 모드로 들어갑니다.  원시 모드에서는, 일반 줄 버퍼링과 인
     터럽트, 종료, 일시 중단 및 흐름 제어 키 처리가 꺼집니다; curses 입
     력 함수로 문자가 한 번에 하나씩 제시됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.reset_prog_mode ()

     *note def_prog_mode(): 2f79.로 이전에 저장한 대로, 터미널을 “프로그
     램(program)” 모드로 복원합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.reset_shell_mode ()

     *note def_shell_mode(): 2f7b.로 이전에 저장한 대로, 터미널을 “셸
     (shell)” 모드로 복원합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.resetty ()

     터미널 모드의 상태를 *note savetty(): 2fb0.에 대한 마지막 호출 때의
     상태로 복원합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.resize_term (nlines, ncols)

     *note resizeterm(): 15b3.이 사용하는 백 엔드 함수로, 대부분의 작업
     을 수행합니다; 창 크기를 조정할 때, *note resize_term(): 15b4.은 확
     장되는 영역을 공백으로 채웁니다.  호출하는 응용 프로그램은 이러한 영
     역을 적절한 데이터로 채워야 합니다.  ‘resize_term()’ 함수는 모든 창
     의 크기를 조정하려고 합니다.  그러나, 패드의 호출 규칙으로 인해, 응
     용 프로그램과의 추가 상호 작용 없이 이들의 크기를 조정할 수 없습니
     다.

 -- 함수: curses.resizeterm (nlines, ncols)

     표준과 현재 창의 크기를 지정된 크기로 조정하고, 창 크기를 기록하는
     curses 라이브러리에서 사용하는 다른 관리 데이터를 조정합니다 (특히
     SIGWINCH 처리기).

 -- 함수: curses.savetty ()

     터미널 모드의 현재 상태를 *note resetty(): 2faf.에서 사용 가능한 버
     퍼에 저장합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.get_escdelay ()

     *note set_escdelay(): 8ee.로 설정된 값을 가져옵니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: curses.set_escdelay (ms)

     키보드에 입력된 개별 이스케이프 문자와 커서와 기능키로 전송된 이스
     케이프 시퀀스를 구별하기 위해, 이스케이프 문자를 읽은 후 기다릴 밀
     리초 수를 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: curses.get_tabsize ()

     *note set_tabsize(): 8f0.로 설정된 값을 가져옵니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: curses.set_tabsize (size)

     탭을 창에 추가해서 탭 문자를 스페이스로 변환할 때 curses 라이브러리
     가 사용하는 열 수를 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: curses.setsyx (y, x)

     가상 화면 커서를 'y', 'x'로 설정합니다.  'y'와 'x'가 모두 ‘-1’이면,
     *note leaveok: 2f93.는 ‘True’로 설정됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.setupterm (term=None, fd=-1)

     터미널을 초기화합니다.  'term'은 터미널 이름을 제공하는 문자열이거
     나 ‘None’입니다; 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, ‘TERM’ 환경 변수의 값이 사
     용됩니다.  'fd'는 초기화 시퀀스가 전송될 파일 기술자입니다; 제공되
     지 않거나 ‘-1’이면, ‘sys.stdout’의 파일 기술자가 사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.start_color ()

     프로그래머가 색상을 사용하려면, 다른 색상 조작 루틴을 호출하기 전에
     호출해야 합니다.  *note initscr(): 15aa. 직후 이 루틴을 호출하는 것
     이 좋습니다.

     *note start_color(): 2fb3.는 8개의 기본 색상(검정, 빨강, 녹색, 노랑
     , 파랑, 마젠타, 시안 및 흰색)과 터미널이 지원할 수 있는 색상과 색상
     쌍의 최댓값인 *note curses: 2b. 모듈의 2개의 전역 변수 *note
     COLORS: 2fb4.와 *note COLOR_PAIRS: 2fb5.를 초기화합니다.  또한 터미
     널의 전원을 켰을 때의 값으로 터미널의 색상을 복원합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.termattrs ()

     터미널이 지원하는 모든 비디오 속성의 논리적 OR를 반환합니다.  이 정
     보는 curses 프로그램이 화면 모양을 완전히 제어해야 할 때 유용합니다
     .

 -- 함수: curses.termname ()

     환경 변수 ‘TERM’의 값을 14자로 잘린 바이트열 객체로 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.tigetflag (capname)

     terminfo 기능 이름 'capname'에 해당하는 불리언 기능의 값을 정수로 반
     환합니다.  'capname'이 불리언 기능이 아니면 ‘-1’ 값을, 터미널 설명
     에서 취소되었거나 빠졌으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.tigetnum (capname)

     terminfo 기능 이름 'capname'에 해당하는 숫자 기능의 값을 정수로 반
     환합니다.  'capname'이 숫자 기능이 아니면 ‘-2’ 값을, 터미널 설명에
     서 취소되었거나 빠졌으면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.tigetstr (capname)

     terminfo 기능 이름 'capname'에 해당하는 문자열 기능의 값을 바이트열
     객체로 반환합니다.  'capname'이 terminfo “문자열 기능”이 아니거나,
     터미널 설명에서 취소되었거나 빠졌으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.tparm (str[, ...])

     제공된 매개 변수를 사용하여 바이트열 객체 'str'을 인스턴스 화합니다
     .  여기서 'str'은 terminfo 데이터베이스에서 얻은 매개 변수화된 문자
     열이어야 합니다.  예를 들어 ‘tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)’은
     ‘b'\033[6;4H'’가 될 수 있습니다, 정확한 결과는 터미널 유형에 따라 다
     릅니다.

 -- 함수: curses.typeahead (fd)

     파일 기술자 'fd'가 선행 입력 검사(typeahead checking)에 사용되도록
     지정합니다.  'fd'가 ‘-1’이면, 선행 입력 검사가 수행되지 않습니다.

     curses 라이브러리는 화면을 갱신하는 동안 정기적으로 선행 입력을 들
     여다보고 “라인 브레이크 아웃 최적화(line-breakout optimization)”를
     수행합니다.  입력이 발견되고, 그것이 tty에서 왔으면, refresh나
     doupdate가 다시 호출될 때까지 현재 갱신을 연기해서, 앞서 입력된 명
     령에 더 빠르게 응답 할 수 있도록 합니다.  이 함수를 사용하면 선행 입
     력 검사를 위해 다른 파일 기술자를 지정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.unctrl (ch)

     문자 'ch'의 인쇄 가능한 표현인 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  제어 문
     자는 캐럿과 그 뒤에 오는 문자로 표시됩니다, 예를 들어 ‘b'^C'’.  인
     쇄 문자는 그대로 남아 있습니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ungetch (ch)

     다음 *note getch(): 1548.가 반환하도록 'ch'를 푸시합니다.

          참고: ‘getch()’가 호출되기 전에 하나의 'ch' 만 푸시할 수 있습
          니다.

 -- 함수: curses.update_lines_cols ()

     *note LINES: 1712.와 *note COLS: 1713. 모듈 변수를 갱신합니다.  수
     동 화면 크기 조정을 감지하는 데 유용합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: curses.unget_wch (ch)

     다음 *note get_wch(): 108d.가 반환하도록 'ch'를 푸시합니다.

          참고: ‘get_wch()’가 호출되기 전에 하나의 'ch' 만 푸시할 수 있
          습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: curses.ungetmouse (id, x, y, z, bstate)

     주어진 상태 데이터와 결합하여, *note KEY_MOUSE: 2f89. 이벤트를 입력
     큐로 푸시합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.use_env (flag)

     사용되면, 이 함수는 *note initscr(): 15aa.이나 newterm을 호출하기 전
     에 호출해야 합니다.  'flag'가 ‘False’이면, 환경 변수 ‘LINES’와
     ‘COLUMNS’(기본적으로 사용됩니다)가 설정되어 있거나, 창에서 curses가
     실행 중인 경우(이때 기본 동작은 ‘LINES’와 ‘COLUMNS’가 설정되지 않았
     으면 창 크기를 사용하는 것입니다)에도 terminfo 데이터베이스에 지정
     된 행(lines)과 열(columns)의 값이 사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.use_default_colors ()

     이 기능을 지원하는 터미널에서 색상의 기본값을 사용하도록 허용합니다
     .  응용 프로그램에서 투명성을 지원하려면 이를 사용하십시오.  기본 색
     상은 색상 번호 ‘-1’에 할당됩니다.  이 함수를 호출하면, 예를 들어
     ‘init_pair(x, curses.COLOR_RED, -1)’은 기본 배경 위의 빨간 전경색으
     로 색상 쌍 'x'를 초기화합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.wrapper (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     curses를 초기화하고 다른 콜러블 객체 'func'를 호출하는데, 이 콜러블
     은 curses를 사용하는 응용 프로그램의 나머지 부분이어야 합니다.  응
     용 프로그램에서 예외가 발생하면, 이 함수는 예외를 다시 발생시키고 트
     레이스백을 생성하기 전에 터미널을 정상 상태로 복원합니다.  콜러블 객
     체 'func'는 메인 창 ‘stdscr’을 첫 번째 인자로 전달받고 ‘wrapper()’로
     전달된 다른 모든 인자가 그 뒤를 따릅니다.  'func'를 호출하기 전에,
     ‘wrapper()’는 cbreak 모드를 켜고, 반향을 끄고, 터미널 키패드를 활성
     화하고, 터미널에 색상이 지원되면 색상을 초기화합니다.  빠져나갈 때
     (정상인지 예외로 인한 것인지 관계없이) 요리된(cooked) 모드를 복원하
     고, 반향을 켜고, 터미널 키패드를 비활성화합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 창 객체,  Next: 상수<6>,  Prev: 함수<5>,  Up: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리

5.17.5.2 창 객체
................

위의 *note initscr(): 15aa.과 *note newwin(): 2fa7.에 의해 반환된 창 객
체에는 다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: window.addch (ch[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.addch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     속성 'attr'로 ‘(y, x)’에 문자 'ch'를 그려서, 그 위치에 이전에 그린
     문자를 덮어씁니다.  기본적으로, 문자 위치와 속성은 창 객체의 현재 설
     정입니다.

          참고: 창, 하위 창(subwindow) 또는 패드 외부에 쓰면 *note
          curses.error: 2f6d.가 발생합니다.  창, 하위 창 또는 패드의 오
          른쪽 하단에 쓰려고 하면 문자가 인쇄된 후 예외가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.addnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.addnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     ‘(y, x)’에 문자열 'str'의 최대 'n' 문자를 속성 'attr'로 그려, 이전
     디스플레이의 내용을 덮어씁니다.

 -- 메서드: window.addstr (str[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.addstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     ‘(y, x)’에 문자열 'str'을 속성 'attr'로 그려, 이전 디스플레이의 내
     용을 덮어씁니다.

          참고: 
             * 창, 하위 창 또는 패드 외부에 쓰면 *note curses.error:
               2f6d.가 발생합니다.  창, 하위 창 또는 패드의 오른쪽 하단
               에 쓰려고 하면 문자열이 인쇄된 후 예외가 발생합니다.

             * 이 파이썬 모듈의 백 엔드인 ncurses에 있는 버그(1)가 창 크
               기를 조정할 때 세그멘테이션 오류를 유발할 수 있습니다.  이
               것은 ncurses-6.1-20190511에서 수정되었습니다.  이전
               ncurses에 갇혀 있다면, 줄 바꿈이 포함된 'str'로 *note
               addstr(): 2f7f.을 호출하지 않으면 트리거를 피할 수 있습니
               다.  대신, 줄마다 *note addstr(): 2f7f.을 따로 호출하십시
               오.

 -- 메서드: window.attroff (attr)

     현재 창에 대한 모든 쓰기에 적용된 “배경(background)” 집합에서 속성
     'attr'을 제거합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.attron (attr)

     현재 창에 대한 모든 쓰기에 적용된 “배경(background)” 집합에 속성
     'attr'을 추가합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.attrset (attr)

     속성의 “배경(background)” 집합을 'attr'로 설정합니다.  이 집합은 처
     음에 ‘0’입니다 (속성 없음).

 -- 메서드: window.bkgd (ch[, attr])

     창의 배경 속성을 'attr' 속성을 가진 문자 'ch'로 설정합니다.  그런 다
     음 해당 창의 모든 문자 위치에 변경 사항이 적용됩니다:

        * 창의 모든 문자 속성이 새 배경 속성으로 변경됩니다.

        * 이전 배경 문자가 나타날 때마다, 새 배경 문자로 변경됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.bkgdset (ch[, attr])

     창의 배경을 설정합니다.  창의 배경은 문자와 속성의 모든 조합으로 구
     성됩니다.  배경의 속성 부분은 창에 쓰인 모든 비 공백 문자와 결합
     (OR)합니다.  배경의 문자와 속성 부분은 모두 공백 문자와 결합합니다.
     배경은 문자의 속성이 되고 스크롤과 줄/문자 삽입/삭제 연산을 통해 문
     자와 함께 이동합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.border ([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[,
          br]]]]]]]])

     창의 가장자리 주위에 테두리를 그립니다.  각 매개 변수는 테두리의 특
     정 부분에 사용할 문자를 지정합니다; 자세한 내용은 아래 표를 참조하
     십시오.

          참고: 모든 매개 변수의 ‘0’ 값은 해당 매개 변수에 기본 문자가 사
          용되도록 합니다.  키워드 매개 변수는 사용할 수 '없습니다'.  기
          본값은 이 표에 나열되어 있습니다:

     매개 변수       설명                      기본값
                                               
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
     'ls'            좌변                      *note ACS_VLINE: 2fca.
                                               
                                               
     'rs'            우변                      *note ACS_VLINE: 2fca.
                                               
                                               
     'ts'            상단                      *note ACS_HLINE: 2fcb.
                                               
                                               
     'bs'            하단                      *note ACS_HLINE: 2fcb.
                                               
                                               
     'tl'            왼쪽 위 모서리            *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2fcc.
                                               
                                               
     'tr'            오른쪽 위 모서리          *note ACS_URCORNER: 2fcd.
                                               
                                               
     'bl'            왼쪽 아래 모서리          *note ACS_LLCORNER: 2fce.
                                               
                                               
     'br'            오른쪽 아래 모서리        *note ACS_LRCORNER: 2fcf.
                                               

 -- 메서드: window.box ([vertch, horch])

     *note border(): 2fc9.와 유사하지만, 'ls'와 'rs'가 모두 'vertch'이고
     'ts'와 'bs'가 모두 'horch'입니다.  이 함수는 항상 기본 모서리 문자
     를 사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.chgat (attr)

 -- 메서드: window.chgat (num, attr)

 -- 메서드: window.chgat (y, x, attr)

 -- 메서드: window.chgat (y, x, num, attr)

     현재 커서 위치나 제공되면 ‘(y, x)’ 위치에 'num' 문자의 속성을 설정
     합니다.  'num'이 제공되지 않거나 ‘-1’이면, 줄 끝까지의 모든 문자에
     속성이 설정됩니다.  이 함수는 제공되면 커서를 ‘(y, x)’ 위치로 이동
     합니다.  변경된 줄을 *note touchline(): 2fd2. 메서드를 사용하여 터
     치해서 다음 창 refresh로 내용이 다시 표시됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.clear ()

     *note erase(): 2fd4.와 유사하지만, *note refresh(): 2f81.를 다음에
     호출할 때 전체 창이 다시 그려집니다.

 -- 메서드: window.clearok (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, *note refresh(): 2f81.에 대한 다음 호출은 창을
     완전히 지웁니다.

 -- 메서드: window.clrtobot ()

     커서에서 창끝까지 지웁니다: 커서 아래의 모든 줄이 삭제된 다음,
     *note clrtoeol(): 2fd7.과 동등한 것이 수행됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.clrtoeol ()

     커서에서 줄 끝까지 지웁니다.

 -- 메서드: window.cursyncup ()

     창의 현재 커서 위치를 반영하도록 창의 모든 조상의 현재 커서 위치를
     갱신합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.delch ([y, x])

     ‘(y, x)’에서 문자를 삭제합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.deleteln ()

     커서 아래의 줄을 삭제합니다.  다음 줄은 모두 한 줄씩 위로 이동합니
     다.

 -- 메서드: window.derwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- 메서드: window.derwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     “창 파생(derive window)”의 약어인 *note derwin(): 2fdb.은 *note
     subwin(): 2fdc.을 호출하는 것과 같지만, 'begin_y'와 'begin_x'가 전
     체 화면에 상대적이 아니라 창의 원점에 상대적이라는 차이가 있습니다.
     파생된 창에 대한 창 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.echochar (ch[, attr])

     'attr' 속성을 가진 문자 'ch'를 추가하고, 즉시 창에서 *note
     refresh(): 2f81.를 호출합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.enclose (y, x)

     주어진 화면 상대적인 문자 셀 좌표 쌍이 주어진 창에 속하는지를 검사
     하고, ‘True’나 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  마우스 이벤트의 위치를 포함하
     는 화면 창의 부분 집합을 결정하는 데 유용합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Previously it returned ‘1’ or ‘0’ instead of
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.

 -- 속성: window.encoding

     메서드 인자(유니코드 문자열과 문자)를 인코딩하는 데 사용되는 인코딩
     .  encoding 어트리뷰트는 하위 창(subwindow)을 만들 때 (예를 들어
     *note window.subwin(): 2fdc.으로) 부모 창에서 상속됩니다.  기본적으
     로, 현재 로케일 인코딩이 사용됩니다 (*note locale.getencoding():
     2de.를 참조하십시오).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: window.erase ()

     창을 지웁니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getbegyx ()

     왼쪽 위 모서리 좌표의 튜플 ‘(y, x)’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getbkgd ()

     주어진 창의 현재 배경 문자/속성 쌍을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getch ([y, x])

     문자를 얻습니다.  반환된 정수는 ASCII 범위일 필요가 '없음에' 유의하
     십시오: 기능키, 키패드 키 등은 255보다 큰 숫자로 표시됩니다.  지연
     없는(no-delay) 모드에서, 입력이 없으면 ‘-1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으
     면 키가 눌릴 때까지 기다립니다.

 -- 메서드: window.get_wch ([y, x])

     와이드 문자(wide character)를 얻습니다.  대부분의 키에 대해서는 문
     자를 반환하고, 기능키, 키패드 키 및 기타 특수키에 대해서는 정수를 반
     환합니다.  지연 없는(no-delay) 모드에서, 입력이 없으면 예외를 발생
     시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: window.getkey ([y, x])

     문자를 얻습니다.  *note getch(): 1548.처럼 정수를 반환하는 대신 문
     자열을 반환합니다.  기능키, 키패드 키 및 기타 특수키는 키 이름이 포
     함된 멀티 바이트 문자열을 반환합니다.  지연 없는(no-delay) 모드에서
     , 입력이 없으면 예외를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getmaxyx ()

     창의 높이와 너비의 튜플 ‘(y, x)’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getparyx ()

     부모 창에 대해 상대적인 이 창의 시작 좌표를 튜플 ‘(y, x)’로 반환합
     니다.  이 창에 부모가 없으면 ‘(-1, -1)’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getstr ()

 -- 메서드: window.getstr (n)

 -- 메서드: window.getstr (y, x)

 -- 메서드: window.getstr (y, x, n)

     프리미티브 줄 편집 용량으로, 사용자로부터 바이트열 객체를 읽습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.getyx ()

     창의 왼쪽 위 모서리에 상대적인 현재 커서 위치의 튜플 ‘(y, x)’를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.hline (ch, n)

 -- 메서드: window.hline (y, x, ch, n)

     문자 'ch'로 구성된 길이 'n'의 ‘(y, x)’에서 시작하는 수평선을 표시합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: window.idcok (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘False’이면, curses는 더는 터미널의 하드웨어 문자 삽입/삭
     제 기능 사용을 고려하지 않습니다; 'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 문자 삽입과
     삭제 사용이 활성화됩니다.  curses가 처음 초기화될 때, 기본적으로 문
     자 삽입/삭제 사용이 활성화됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.idlok (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, *note curses: 2b.는 하드웨어 줄 편집 기능을 시
     도하고 사용합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 줄 삽입/삭제가 비활성화됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.immedok (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 창 이미지의 모든 변경이 자동으로 창을 새로 고
     칩니다; 더는 *note refresh(): 2f81.를 직접 호출할 필요가 없습니다.
     그러나, wrefresh 호출이 반복되어, 성능이 크게 저하될 수 있습니다.  이
     옵션은 기본적으로 비활성화되어 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.inch ([y, x])

     창의 주어진 위치에 있는 문자를 반환합니다.  하위 8비트는 문자이고,
     상위 비트는 속성입니다.

 -- 메서드: window.insch (ch[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.insch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     속성 'attr'로 ‘(y, x)’에 문자 'ch'를 그리면서, 'x' 위치에서 한 문자
     씩 오른쪽으로 줄을 이동합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.insdelln (nlines)

     현재 줄 위의 지정된 창에 'nlines' 줄을 삽입합니다.  'nlines' 바닥 줄
     은 손실됩니다.  음의 'nlines'의 경우, 커서 아래에 있는 줄에서 시작
     하여 'nlines' 줄을 삭제하고, 나머지 줄을 위로 이동합니다.  바닥
     'nlines' 줄이 지워집니다.  현재 커서 위치는 같게 유지됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.insertln ()

     커서 아래에 빈 줄을 삽입합니다.  그다음 모든 줄은 한 줄 아래로 이동
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.insnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.insnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     커서 아래의 문자 앞에 최대 'n' 문자까지 문자열(줄에 맞는 최대 문자
     )을 삽입합니다.  'n'이 0이거나 음수이면, 전체 문자열이 삽입됩니다.
     커서 오른쪽의 모든 문자가 오른쪽으로 이동하고, 줄의 가장 오른쪽 문
     자들이 손실됩니다.  커서 위치는 변경되지 않습니다 (지정되면, 'y',
     'x'로 이동한 후에).

 -- 메서드: window.insstr (str[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.insstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     커서 아래의 문자 앞에 문자열(줄에 맞는 최대 문자)을 삽입합니다.  커
     서 오른쪽의 모든 문자가 오른쪽으로 이동하고, 줄의 가장 오른쪽 문자
     들이 손실됩니다.  커서 위치는 변경되지 않습니다 (지정되면, 'y',
     'x'로 이동한 후에).

 -- 메서드: window.instr ([n])

 -- 메서드: window.instr (y, x[, n])

     현재 커서 위치에서 시작하거나 지정되면 'y', 'x'에서 시작하여 창에서
     추출된 문자의 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  문자에서 속성이 제거됩니
     다.  'n'이 지정되면, *note instr(): 2fef.은 최대 'n' 문자의 문자열
     을 반환합니다 (끝의 NUL은 제외합니다).

 -- 메서드: window.is_linetouched (line)

     *note refresh(): 2f81.에 대한 마지막 호출 이후 지정된 줄이 수정되었
     으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  주어
     진 창에서 'line'이 유효하지 않으면 *note curses.error: 2f6d. 예외를
     발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: window.is_wintouched ()

     *note refresh(): 2f81.에 대한 마지막 호출 이후 지정된 창이 수정되었
     으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.keypad (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 일부 키(키패드, 기능키)가 생성한 이스케이프 시
     퀀스를 *note curses: 2b.가 해석합니다.  'flag'가 ‘False’이면, 이스
     케이프 시퀀스는 입력 스트림에 그대로 남아 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.leaveok (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 커서는 “커서 위치”가 아니라 갱신 중인 위치에 남
     아 있습니다.  가능하면 커서 이동이 줄어듭니다.  가능하면 커서가 보
     이지 않게 합니다.

     'flag'가 ‘False’이면, 커서는 갱신 후 항상 “커서 위치”에 있게 됩니다
     .

 -- 메서드: window.move (new_y, new_x)

     커서를 ‘(new_y, new_x)’로 이동합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.mvderwin (y, x)

     창을 부모 창 내부로 이동합니다.  창의 화면에 상대적인 매개 변수는 변
     경되지 않습니다.  이 루틴은 부모 창의 다른 부분을 화면에서 같은 물
     리적 위치에 표시하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.mvwin (new_y, new_x)

     왼쪽 위 모서리가 ‘(new_y, new_x)’가 되도록 창을 이동합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.nodelay (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, *note getch(): 1548.가 비 블로킹이 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.notimeout (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 이스케이프 시퀀스가 시간 초과하지 않습니다.

     'flag'가 ‘False’이면, 몇 밀리초 후에, 이스케이프 시퀀스가 해석되지
     않고, 그대로 입력 스트림에 남아 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.noutrefresh ()

     새로 고침을 표시하지만 기다립니다.  이 함수는 원하는 창의 상태를 나
     타내는 데이터 구조를 갱신하지만, 물리적 화면을 강제로 갱신하지는 않
     습니다.  이를 위해서는, *note doupdate(): 2f7e.를 호출하십시오.

 -- 메서드: window.overlay (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     'destwin' 위에 창을 오버레이 합니다.  창의 크기가 같을 필요는 없으
     며, 겹치는 영역만 복사됩니다.  이 복사는 비 파괴적인데, 현재 배경 문
     자가 'destwin'의 이전 내용을 덮어쓰지 않습니다.

     복사되는 영역을 세밀하게 제어하기 위해, *note overlay(): 2ff8.의 두
     번째 형식을 사용할 수 있습니다.  'sminrow'와 'smincol'은 소스 창의
     왼쪽 위 좌표이며, 다른 변수들은 대상 창의 사각형을 표시합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.overwrite (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     'destwin' 위에 창을 덮어씁니다.  창의 크기가 같을 필요는 없으며, 이
     경우 겹치는 영역만 복사됩니다.  이 복사는 파괴적인데, 현재 배경 문
     자가 'destwin'의 이전 내용을 덮어씁니다.

     복사된 영역을 세밀하게 제어하기 위해, *note overwrite(): 2ff9.의 두
     번째 형식을 사용할 수 있습니다.  'sminrow'와 'smincol'은 소스 창의
     왼쪽 위 좌표이며, 다른 변수들은 대상 창의 사각형을 표시합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.putwin (file)

     창과 연관된 모든 데이터를 제공된 파일 객체에 기록합니다.  이 정보는
     나중에 *note getwin(): 2f94. 함수를 사용하여 가져올 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.redrawln (beg, num)

     'beg' 줄에서 시작하는 'num' 화면 줄이 손상되었으며 다음 *note
     refresh(): 2f81. 호출에서 완전히 다시 그려야 함을 나타냅니다.

 -- 메서드: window.redrawwin ()

     전체 창을 터치하여, 다음 *note refresh(): 2f81. 호출에서 완전히 다
     시 그려지도록 합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.refresh ([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol,
          smaxrow, smaxcol])

     화면을 즉시 갱신합니다 (이전 그리기/삭제 메서드와 실제 화면을 동기
     화합니다).

     6개의 선택적 인자는 창이 *note newpad(): 2fa6.로 만들어진 패드일 때
     만 지정할 수 있습니다.  추가 매개 변수는 패드와 화면의 어떤 부분이
     관련되어 있는지를 나타내기 위해 필요합니다.  'pminrow'와 'pmincol'은
     패드에서 표시할 사각형의 왼쪽 위 모서리를 지정합니다.  'sminrow',
     'smincol', 'smaxrow' 및 'smaxcol'은 화면에 표시할 사각형의 변을 지
     정합니다.  사각형의 크기가 같아야 해서, 패드에서 표시할 사각형의 오
     른쪽 아래 모서리는 화면 좌표에서 계산됩니다.  두 사각형 모두 해당 구
     조 내에 완전히 포함되어야 합니다.  'pminrow', 'pmincol', 'sminrow'
     또는 'smincol'의 음수 값은 마치 0인 것처럼 처리됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.resize (nlines, ncols)

     curses 창의 스토리지를 재할당하여 지정된 값으로 크기를 조정합니다.
     두 크기 중 하나가 현재 값보다 크면, 창의 데이터는 현재 배경 변환
     (*note bkgdset(): 2fc8.으로 설정한)을 갖는 공백으로 채워집니다.

 -- 메서드: window.scroll ([lines=1])

     화면이나 스크롤 영역을 'lines' 줄 위로 스크롤 합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.scrollok (flag)

     맨 아래 줄에서의 줄 바꾸기나 마지막 줄의 마지막 문자 입력의 결과로,
     창의 커서가 창이나 스크롤 영역의 경계를 벗어날 때 어떻게 할지를 제
     어합니다.  'flag'가 ‘False’이면, 맨 아래 줄에 남습니다.  'flag'가
     ‘True’이면, 창은 한 줄 위로 스크롤 됩니다.  터미널에서 물리적 스크
     롤 효과를 얻으려면, *note idlok(): 2fe7.도 호출해야 함에 유의하십시
     오.

 -- 메서드: window.setscrreg (top, bottom)

     스크롤 영역을 'top' 줄에서 'bottom' 줄로 설정합니다.  모든 스크롤 작
     업은 이 영역에서 수행됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.standend ()

     스탠드 아웃(standout) 속성을 끕니다.  일부 터미널에서는 모든 속성을
     끄는 부작용이 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.standout ()

     속성 'A_STANDOUT'을 켭니다.

 -- 메서드: window.subpad (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- 메서드: window.subpad (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     왼쪽 위 모서리가 ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’이고, 너비/높이가
     'ncols'/'nlines'인 서브 창을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.subwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- 메서드: window.subwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     왼쪽 위 모서리가 ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’이고, 너비/높이가
     'ncols'/'nlines'인 서브 창을 반환합니다.

     기본적으로, 서브 창은 지정된 위치에서 창의 오른쪽 아래 모서리에 이
     릅니다.

 -- 메서드: window.syncdown ()

     조상 창에서 터치된 창의 각 위치를 터치합니다.  이 루틴은 *note
     refresh(): 2f81.에 의해 호출되므로, 수동으로 호출할 필요가 거의 없
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: window.syncok (flag)

     'flag'가 ‘True’이면, 창에 변경 사항이 있을 때마다 *note syncup():
     3005.이 자동으로 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: window.syncup ()

     창에서 변경된 창 조상의 모든 위치를 터치합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.timeout (delay)

     창의 블로킹이나 비 블로킹 읽기 동작을 설정합니다.  'delay'가 음수이
     면, 블로킹 읽기가 사용됩니다 (입력을 무한정 기다립니다).  'delay'가
     0이면, 비 블로킹 읽기가 사용되며, 대기 중인 입력이 없으면 *note
     getch(): 1548.는 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  'delay'가 양수이면, *note
     getch(): 1548.는 'delay' 밀리초 동안 블록 하고, 해당 시간이 지나도
     여전히 입력이 없으면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.touchline (start, count[, changed])

     줄 'start'로 시작하여 'count' 줄이 변경된 것으로 가정합니다.
     'changed'가 제공되면, 영향을 받는 줄이 변경되었다고
     ('changed'‘=True’) 또는 변경되지 않았다고 ('changed'‘=False’) 표시
     할지를 지정합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.touchwin ()

     그리기 최적화를 위해, 전체 창이 변경된 것으로 가정합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.untouchwin ()

     *note refresh(): 2f81.를 마지막으로 호출한 후에 창의 모든 줄을 변경
     되지 않은 것으로 표시합니다.

 -- 메서드: window.vline (ch, n[, attr])

 -- 메서드: window.vline (y, x, ch, n[, attr])

     'attr' 속성을 가진 문자 'ch'로 구성된 길이 'n'의 ‘(y, x)’에서 시작
     하는 세로 선을 표시합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue35924


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<6>,  Prev: 창 객체,  Up: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리

5.17.5.3 상수
.............

*note curses: 2b. 모듈은 다음 데이터 멤버를 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: curses.ERR

     정수를 반환하는 일부 curses 루틴은 (가령 *note getch(): 1548.) 실패
     시 *note ERR: 300a.을 반환합니다.

 -- 데이터: curses.OK

     정수를 반환하는 일부 curses 루틴은 (가령 *note napms(): 15a9.) 성공
     시 *note OK: 300b.를 반환합니다.

 -- 데이터: curses.version

 -- 데이터: curses.__version__

     모듈의 현재 버전을 나타내는 바이트열 객체.

 -- 데이터: curses.ncurses_version

     ncurses 라이브러리 버전의 세 가지 구성 요소를 포함하는 네임드 튜플:
     'major', 'minor' 및 'patch'.  모든 값은 정수입니다.  구성 요소는 이
     름으로도 액세스 할 수 있어서, ‘curses.ncurses_version[0]’은
     ‘curses.ncurses_version.major’와 동등합니다.

     가용성: ncurses 라이브러리가 사용된 경우.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: curses.COLORS

     The maximum number of colors the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2fb3.

 -- 데이터: curses.COLOR_PAIRS

     The maximum number of color pairs the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2fb3.

 -- 데이터: curses.COLS

     The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note initscr(): 15aa.  Updated by
     *note update_lines_cols(): de8, *note resizeterm(): 15b3. and *note
     resize_term(): 15b4.

 -- 데이터: curses.LINES

     The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines.  It is defined
     only after the call to *note initscr(): 15aa.  Updated by *note
     update_lines_cols(): de8, *note resizeterm(): 15b3. and *note
     resize_term(): 15b4.

문자 셀 속성을 지정하기 위해 일부 상수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  사용 가능
한 정확한 상수는 시스템에 따라 다릅니다.

속성                         의미
                             
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- 데이터:                  대체 문자 집합 모드
          curses.A_ALTCHARSET

 -- 데이터: curses.A_BLINK   깜박임 모드
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.A_BOLD    볼드 모드
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.A_DIM     희미한 모드
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.A_INVIS   보이지 않거나 공백 모드
                             
                             
 -- 데이터:                  기울임 꼴 모드
          curses.A_ITALIC    

 -- 데이터:                  일반 속성
          curses.A_NORMAL    

 -- 데이터:                  보호 모드
          curses.A_PROTECT   

 -- 데이터:                  배경과 전경색 반전
          curses.A_REVERSE   

 -- 데이터:                  눈에 띄는 모드
          curses.A_STANDOUT  

 -- 데이터:                  밑줄 모드
          curses.A_UNDERLINE 

 -- 데이터:                  수평 하이라이트
          curses.A_HORIZONTAL

 -- 데이터: curses.A_LEFT    왼쪽 하이라이트
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.A_LOW     낮은 하이라이트
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.A_RIGHT   오른쪽 하이라이트
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.A_TOP     상단 하이라이트
                             
                             
 -- 데이터:                  수직 하이라이트
          curses.A_VERTICAL  

Added in version 3.7: ‘A_ITALIC’이 추가되었습니다.

일부 메서드에서 반환한 해당 속성을 추출하기 위해 여러 상수를 사용할 수 있
습니다.

비트 마스크                   의미
                              
------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- 데이터:                   속성을 추출하는 비트 마스크
          curses.A_ATTRIBUTES 

 -- 데이터:                   문자를 추출하는 비트 마스크
          curses.A_CHARTEXT   

 -- 데이터: curses.A_COLOR    색상 쌍 필드 정보를 추출하는 비트
                              마스크
                              

키는 ‘KEY_’로 시작하는 이름을 가진 정수 상수로 참조됩니다.  사용 가능한
정확한 키 기능은 시스템에 따라 다릅니다.

키 상수                       키
                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_MIN    최소 키값
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   브레이크 키 (신뢰할 수 없습니다)
          curses.KEY_BREAK    

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_DOWN   아래쪽 화살표
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_UP     위쪽 화살표
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_LEFT   왼쪽 화살표
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   오른쪽 화살표
          curses.KEY_RIGHT    

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_HOME   홈 키 (위쪽+왼쪽 화살표)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   백스페이스 (신뢰할 수 없습니다)
          curses.KEY_BACKSPACE

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_F0     기능키.  최대 64개의 기능키가 지원됩니다.
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_Fn     기능키 'n'의 값
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_DL     줄 삭제
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_IL     줄 삽입
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_DC     문자 삭제
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_IC     문자 삽입이나 삽입 모드로 들어가기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_EIC    문자 삽입 모드 종료
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   화면 지우기
          curses.KEY_CLEAR    

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_EOS    화면 끝까지 지우기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_EOL    줄 끝까지 지우기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SF     한 줄 앞으로 스크롤
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SR     한 줄 뒤로 스크롤 (역)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   다음 페이지
          curses.KEY_NPAGE    

 -- 데이터:                   이전 페이지
          curses.KEY_PPAGE    

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_STAB   탭 설정
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_CTAB   탭 지우기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   모든 탭 지우기
          curses.KEY_CATAB    

 -- 데이터:                   엔터나 발송 (신뢰할 수 없습니다)
          curses.KEY_ENTER    

 -- 데이터:                   소프트(soft) (부분) 재설정 (신뢰할 수 없습니다
          curses.KEY_SRESET   )
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   재설정이나 하드(hard) 재설정 (신뢰할 수 없습니
          curses.KEY_RESET    다)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   인쇄
          curses.KEY_PRINT    

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_LL     홈 다운이나 바닥 (왼쪽 아래)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_A1     키패드의 왼쪽 위
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_A3     키패드의 오른쪽 위
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_B2     키패드 가운데
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_C1     키패드의 왼쪽 아래
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_C3     키패드의 오른쪽 아래
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_BTAB   백 탭
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_BEG    Beg (시작)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   취소
          curses.KEY_CANCEL   

 -- 데이터:                   닫기
          curses.KEY_CLOSE    

 -- 데이터:                   Cmd (명령)
          curses.KEY_COMMAND  

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_COPY   복사
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   생성
          curses.KEY_CREATE   

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_END    끝
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_EXIT   종료
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_FIND   찾기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_HELP   도움말
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_MARK   표시
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   메시지
          curses.KEY_MESSAGE  

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_MOVE   이동
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_NEXT   다음
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_OPEN   열기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   옵션
          curses.KEY_OPTIONS  

 -- 데이터:                   Prev (이전)
          curses.KEY_PREVIOUS 

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_REDO   다시 하기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   Ref (참조)
          curses.KEY_REFERENCE

 -- 데이터:                   새로 고침
          curses.KEY_REFRESH  

 -- 데이터:                   교체
          curses.KEY_REPLACE  

 -- 데이터:                   재시작
          curses.KEY_RESTART  

 -- 데이터:                   재개
          curses.KEY_RESUME   

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SAVE   저장
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SBEG   시프트 Beg (시작)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   시프트 취소
          curses.KEY_SCANCEL  

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 명령
          curses.KEY_SCOMMAND 

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 복사
          curses.KEY_SCOPY    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 생성
          curses.KEY_SCREATE  

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SDC    시프트 문자 삭제
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SDL    시프트 줄 삭제
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   선택
          curses.KEY_SELECT   

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SEND   시프트 끝
                              
                              
 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SEOL   시프트 줄 지우기
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   시프트 종료
          curses.KEY_SEXIT    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 찾기
          curses.KEY_SFIND    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 도움말
          curses.KEY_SHELP    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 홈
          curses.KEY_SHOME    

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_SIC    시프트 입력
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   시프트 왼쪽 화살표
          curses.KEY_SLEFT    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 메시지
          curses.KEY_SMESSAGE 

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 이동
          curses.KEY_SMOVE    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 다음
          curses.KEY_SNEXT    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 옵션
          curses.KEY_SOPTIONS 

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 Prev
          curses.KEY_SPREVIOUS

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 인쇄
          curses.KEY_SPRINT   

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 다시 하기
          curses.KEY_SREDO    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 교체
          curses.KEY_SREPLACE 

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 오른쪽 화살표
          curses.KEY_SRIGHT   

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 재개
          curses.KEY_SRSUME   

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 저장
          curses.KEY_SSAVE    

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 일시 중단
          curses.KEY_SSUSPEND 

 -- 데이터:                   시프트 실행 취소
          curses.KEY_SUNDO    

 -- 데이터:                   일시 중단
          curses.KEY_SUSPEND  

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_UNDO   실행 취소
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   마우스 이벤트가 발생했습니다
          curses.KEY_MOUSE    

 -- 데이터:                   터미널 크기 조정 이벤트
          curses.KEY_RESIZE   

 -- 데이터: curses.KEY_MAX    최대 키값
                              

VT100과 이의 소프트웨어 에뮬레이션(가령 X 터미널 에뮬레이터)에는, 일반적
으로 사용 가능한 기능키가 적어도 4개 (*note KEY_F1: 3028, *note KEY_F2:
3028, *note KEY_F3: 3028, *note KEY_F4: 3028.) 있고, 화살표 키는 *note
KEY_UP: 3022, *note KEY_DOWN: 3021, *note KEY_LEFT: 3023. 및 *note
KEY_RIGHT: 3024.에 명백한 방식으로 매핑됩니다.  여러분의 기계에 PC 키보
드가 있으면, 화살표 키와 12개의 기능키를 기대하는 것이 안전합니다 (이전
PC 키보드에는 10개의 기능키만 있을 수 있습니다); 또한, 다음과 같은 키패
드 매핑이 표준입니다:

키 기능                상수
                       
---------------------------------------
                       
‘Insert’               KEY_IC
                       
                       
‘Delete’               KEY_DC
                       
                       
‘Home’                 KEY_HOME
                       
                       
‘End’                  KEY_END
                       
                       
‘Page Up’              KEY_PPAGE
                       
                       
‘Page Down’            KEY_NPAGE
                       

다음 표는 대체 문자 집합의 문자를 나열합니다.  이들은 VT100 터미널에서 상
속되며, 일반적으로 X 터미널과 같은 소프트웨어 에뮬레이션에서 사용할 수 있
습니다.  사용 가능한 그래픽이 없으면, curses는 조잡한 인쇄 가능한 ASCII
근사치로 폴 백 합니다.

     참고: *note initscr(): 15aa.가 호출된 후에만 사용할 수 있습니다.

ACS 코드                     의미
                             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 위 모서리의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_BBSS    

 -- 데이터:                  채워진 사각형 블록
          curses.ACS_BLOCK   

 -- 데이터:                  사각형의 보드
          curses.ACS_BOARD   

 -- 데이터:                  수평선의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_BSBS    

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 위 모서리의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_BSSB    

 -- 데이터:                  상단 티(top tee)의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_BSSS    

 -- 데이터:                  하단 티(bottom tee)
          curses.ACS_BTEE    

 -- 데이터:                  불릿
          curses.ACS_BULLET  

 -- 데이터:                  체커 보드 (점각)
          curses.ACS_CKBOARD 

 -- 데이터:                  아래쪽을 가리키는 화살표
          curses.ACS_DARROW  

 -- 데이터:                  디그리 기호
          curses.ACS_DEGREE  

 -- 데이터:                  다이아몬드
          curses.ACS_DIAMOND 

 -- 데이터:                  크거나 같음
          curses.ACS_GEQUAL  

 -- 데이터:                  수평선
          curses.ACS_HLINE   

 -- 데이터:                  랜턴 기호
          curses.ACS_LANTERN 

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 화살표
          curses.ACS_LARROW  

 -- 데이터:                  작거나 같음
          curses.ACS_LEQUAL  

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 아래 모서리
          curses.ACS_LLCORNER

 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 아래 모서리
          curses.ACS_LRCORNER

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 티(left tee)
          curses.ACS_LTEE    

 -- 데이터:                  같지 않음 기호
          curses.ACS_NEQUAL  

 -- 데이터: curses.ACS_PI    글자 파이(pi)
                             
                             
 -- 데이터:                  더하기-또는-빼기 기호
          curses.ACS_PLMINUS 

 -- 데이터:                  큰 더하기 기호
          curses.ACS_PLUS    

 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 화살표
          curses.ACS_RARROW  

 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 티(right tee)
          curses.ACS_RTEE    

 -- 데이터: curses.ACS_S1    스캔 줄 1
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.ACS_S3    스캔 줄 3
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.ACS_S7    스캔 줄 7
                             
                             
 -- 데이터: curses.ACS_S9    스캔 줄 9
                             
                             
 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 아래 모서리의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_SBBS    

 -- 데이터:                  세로줄의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_SBSB    

 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 티의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_SBSS    

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 아래 모서리의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_SSBB    

 -- 데이터:                  하단 티의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_SSBS    

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 티의 대체 이름
          curses.ACS_SSSB    

 -- 데이터:                  크로스 오버(crossover) 또는 큰 더하기의 대체
          curses.ACS_SSSS    이름
                             
                             
 -- 데이터:                  파운드 스털링(pound sterling)
          curses.ACS_STERLING

 -- 데이터:                  상단 티(top tee)
          curses.ACS_TTEE    

 -- 데이터:                  위쪽 화살표
          curses.ACS_UARROW  

 -- 데이터:                  왼쪽 위 모서리
          curses.ACS_ULCORNER

 -- 데이터:                  오른쪽 위 모서리
          curses.ACS_URCORNER

 -- 데이터:                  수직선
          curses.ACS_VLINE   

The following table lists mouse button constants used by *note
getmouse(): 2f88.:

마우스 버튼 상수                       의미
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
 -- 데이터: curses.BUTTONn_PRESSED     Mouse button 'n' pressed
                                       
                                       
 -- 데이터: curses.BUTTONn_RELEASED    Mouse button 'n' released
                                       
                                       
 -- 데이터: curses.BUTTONn_CLICKED     Mouse button 'n' clicked
                                       
                                       
 -- 데이터:                            Mouse button 'n' double clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED

 -- 데이터:                            Mouse button 'n' triple clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED

 -- 데이터: curses.BUTTON_SHIFT        Shift was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- 데이터: curses.BUTTON_CTRL         Control was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- 데이터: curses.BUTTON_ALT          Control was down during button state change
                                       

버전 3.10에서 변경: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed if they
are provided by the underlying curses library.

다음 표는 사전 정의된 색상을 나열합니다:

상수                          색상
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- 데이터:                   검은색
          curses.COLOR_BLACK  

 -- 데이터:                   파랑
          curses.COLOR_BLUE   

 -- 데이터:                   시안 (청록색 - 밝은 초록이 섞
          curses.COLOR_CYAN   인 파랑)
                              
                              
 -- 데이터:                   초록
          curses.COLOR_GREEN  

 -- 데이터:                   마젠타 (자홍색)
          curses.COLOR_MAGENTA

 -- 데이터:                   빨강
          curses.COLOR_RED    

 -- 데이터:                   흰색
          curses.COLOR_WHITE  

 -- 데이터:                   노랑
          curses.COLOR_YELLOW 


File: python.info,  Node: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯,  Next: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티,  Prev: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.6 ‘curses.textpad’ — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯
-----------------------------------------------------------------

*note curses.textpad: 2e. 모듈은 curses 창에서 기본 텍스트 편집을 처리하
는 *note Textbox: 30ab. 클래스를 제공하며, Emacs와 유사한 일련의 키 바인
딩을 지원합니다 (따라서 Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x, FrameMaker 및 기
타 여러 프로그램과도 유사한).  이 모듈은 텍스트 상자의 틀이나 다른 목적
에 유용한 사각형 그리기 함수도 제공합니다.

*note curses.textpad: 2e. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: curses.textpad.rectangle (win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)

     직사각형을 그립니다.  첫 번째 인자는 창 객체여야 합니다; 나머지 인
     자는 그 창에 상대적인 좌표입니다.  두 번째와 세 번째 인자는 그릴 사
     각형의 왼쪽 위 모서리의 y와 x 좌표입니다; 네 번째와 다섯 번째 인자
     는 오른쪽 아래 모서리의 y와 x 좌표입니다.  사각형은 이것이 가능한 터
     미널(xterm과 대부분의 다른 소프트웨어 터미널 에뮬레이터를 포함합니
     다)에서 VT100/IBM PC 양식 문자를 사용하여 그려집니다.  그렇지 않으
     면 ASCII 대시, 세로 막대 및 더하기 기호로 그려집니다.

* Menu:

* Textbox 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: Textbox 객체,  Up: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯

5.17.6.1 Textbox 객체
.....................

다음과 같이 *note Textbox: 30ab. 객체를 인스턴스 화 할 수 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: curses.textpad.Textbox (win)

     텍스트 상자 위젯 객체를 반환합니다.  'win' 인자는 텍스트 상자가 포
     함될 curses *note 창: 2f9d. 객체여야 합니다.  텍스트 상자의 편집 커
     서는 처음에 좌표 ‘(0, 0)’으로 포함하는 창의 왼쪽 위 모서리에 있습니
     다.  인스턴스의 *note stripspaces: 30af. 플래그가 처음에 켜집니다.

     *note Textbox: 30ab. 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: edit ([validator])

          이것이 일반적으로 사용하는 진입점입니다.  종료 키 입력 중 하나
          를 입력할 때까지 편집 키 입력을 받아들입니다.  'validator'가 제
          공되면, 반드시 함수여야 합니다.  입력한 각 키 입력에 대해 키 입
          력을 매개 변수로 호출됩니다; 명령 디스패치가 그 결과에 대해 수
          행됩니다.  이 메서드는 창 내용을 문자열로 반환합니다; 창의 공
          백이 포함되는지는 *note stripspaces: 30af. 어트리뷰트의 영향을
          받습니다.

      -- 메서드: do_command (ch)

          단일 명령 키 입력을 처리합니다.  지원되는 특수키 입력은 다음과
          같습니다:

          키 입력                동작
                                 
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘A’          창의 왼쪽 가장자리로 이동합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘B’          커서를 왼쪽으로 옮깁니다, 필요하면 앞줄로 넘
                                 어갑니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘D’          커서 아래의 문자를 삭제합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘E’          오른쪽 가장자리(stripspaces가 꺼졌을 때)나 줄
                                 끝(stripspaces가 켜졌을 때)으로 이동합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘F’          커서를 오른쪽으로 옮깁니다, 필요하면 다음 줄
                                 로 넘어갑니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘G’          종료하고, 창 내용을 반환합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘H’          문자를 뒤로 삭제합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘J’          창이 한 줄이면 종료하고, 그렇지 않으면 줄 바
                                 꿈을 삽입합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘K’          줄이 비어 있으면, 삭제하고, 그렇지 않으면 줄
                                 끝까지 지웁니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘L’          화면을 새로 고칩니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘N’          커서를 아래로 옮깁니다; 한 줄 아래로 이동합니
                                 다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘O’          커서 위치에 빈 줄을 삽입합니다.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘P’          커서를 위로 옮깁니다; 한 줄 위로 이동합니다.
                                 

          이동이 불가능한 가장자리에 커서가 있으면 이동 연산이 수행되지
          않습니다.  가능하면 다음 동의어가 지원됩니다:

          상수                                 키 입력
                                               
          ------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
          *note KEY_LEFT: 3023.                ‘Control’-‘B’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_RIGHT: 3024.               ‘Control’-‘F’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_UP: 3022.                  ‘Control’-‘P’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_DOWN: 3021.                ‘Control’-‘N’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_BACKSPACE: 3026.           ‘Control’-‘h’
                                               

          다른 모든 키 입력은 주어진 문자를 삽입하고 (줄 넘김을 포함한)
          오른쪽으로 이동하는 명령으로 처리됩니다.

      -- 메서드: gather ()

          창 내용을 문자열로 반환합니다; 창의 공백이 포함되는지는 *note
          stripspaces: 30af. 멤버의 영향을 받습니다.

      -- 속성: stripspaces

          이 어트리뷰트는 창의 공백 해석을 제어하는 플래그입니다.  켜져
          있으면, 각 줄의 후행 공백이 무시됩니다; 후행 공백에 커서를 놓
          는 커서 동작은 대신 해당 줄의 끝으로 이동하고, 창 내용이 수집
          될 때 후행 공백이 제거됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티,  Next: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장,  Prev: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.7 ‘curses.ascii’ — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/curses/ascii.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note curses.ascii: 2c. 모듈은 ASCII 문자에 대한 이름 상수와 다양한
ASCII 문자 클래스에서 멤버십을 검사하는 함수를 제공합니다.  제공된 상수
는 다음과 같이 제어 문자의 이름입니다:

이름                의미
                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
 -- 데이터:
          curses.ascii.NUL

 -- 데이터:         헤딩의 시작(Start of heading), 콘솔 인터럽트
          curses.ascii.SOH

 -- 데이터:         텍스트의 시작(Start of text)
          curses.ascii.STX

 -- 데이터:         텍스트 끝(End of text)
          curses.ascii.ETX

 -- 데이터:         전송 끝(End of transmission)
          curses.ascii.EOT

 -- 데이터:         문의(Enquiry), *note ACK: 30bb. 흐름 제어와 함께
          curses.ascii.ENQ제공
                    
                    
 -- 데이터:         확인(Acknowledgement)
          curses.ascii.ACK

 -- 데이터:         벨(Bell)
          curses.ascii.BEL

 -- 데이터:         백스페이스(Backspace)
          curses.ascii.BS

 -- 데이터:         탭(Tab)
          curses.ascii.TAB

 -- 데이터:         *note TAB: 30be.의 별칭: “가로 탭(Horizontal
          curses.ascii.HTtab)”
                    
                    
 -- 데이터:         줄 바꿈(Line feed)
          curses.ascii.LF

 -- 데이터:         *note LF: 30c0.의 별칭: “새 줄(New line)”
          curses.ascii.NL

 -- 데이터:         세로 탭(Vertical tab)
          curses.ascii.VT

 -- 데이터:         용지 공급(Form feed)
          curses.ascii.FF

 -- 데이터:         캐리지 리턴(Carriage return)
          curses.ascii.CR

 -- 데이터:         시프트 아웃(Shift-out), 대체 문자 집합 시작
          curses.ascii.SO

 -- 데이터:         시프트 인(Shift-in), 기본 문자 집합 재개
          curses.ascii.SI

 -- 데이터:         데이터 링크 이스케이프(Data-link escape)
          curses.ascii.DLE

 -- 데이터:         XON, 흐름 제어용
          curses.ascii.DC1

 -- 데이터:         장치 제어(Device control) 2, 블록 모드 흐름 제어
          curses.ascii.DC2

 -- 데이터:         XOFF, 흐름 제어용
          curses.ascii.DC3

 -- 데이터:         장치 제어(Device control) 4
          curses.ascii.DC4

 -- 데이터:         부정적 확인(Negative acknowledgement)
          curses.ascii.NAK

 -- 데이터:         동기 대기(Synchronous idle)
          curses.ascii.SYN

 -- 데이터:         전송 블록 종료(End transmission block)
          curses.ascii.ETB

 -- 데이터:         취소(Cancel)
          curses.ascii.CAN

 -- 데이터:         매체의 끝(End of medium)
          curses.ascii.EM

 -- 데이터:         치환(Substitute)
          curses.ascii.SUB

 -- 데이터:         탈출(Escape)
          curses.ascii.ESC

 -- 데이터:         파일 구분자(File separator)
          curses.ascii.FS

 -- 데이터:         그룹 구분자(Group separator)
          curses.ascii.GS

 -- 데이터:         레코드 구분자(Record separator), 블록 모드 종료
          curses.ascii.RS자
                    
                    
 -- 데이터:         단위 구분자(Unit separator)
          curses.ascii.US

 -- 데이터:         스페이스(Space)
          curses.ascii.SP

 -- 데이터:         삭제(Delete)
          curses.ascii.DEL

이들 중 많은 것들이 현대적인 사용법에서 실질적인 중요성을 거의 가지고 있
지 않습니다.  니모닉은 디지털 컴퓨터 이전의 텔레 프린터 규칙에서 파생되
었습니다.

이 모듈은 표준 C 라이브러리의 함수에 따라 다음 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isalnum (c)

     ASCII 영숫자를 확인합니다; ‘isalpha(c) or isdigit(c)’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isalpha (c)

     ASCII 알파벳 문자를 확인합니다.  ‘isupper(c) or islower(c)’와 동등
     합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isascii (c)

     7비트 ASCII 집합에 맞는 문자 값을 확인합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isblank (c)

     ASCII 공백 문자를 확인합니다; 스페이스나 가로 탭.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.iscntrl (c)

     ASCII 제어 문자를 확인합니다 (0x00에서 0x1f 범위에 있거나 0x7f).

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isdigit (c)

     ASCII 십진 숫자, ‘'0'’ 에서 ‘'9'’를 확인합니다.  이것은 ‘c in
     string.digits’와 동등합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isgraph (c)

     스페이스를 제외한 인쇄 가능한 ASCII 문자를 확인합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.islower (c)

     ASCII 소문자를 확인합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isprint (c)

     스페이스를 포함하여 인쇄 가능한 ASCII 문자를 확인합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.ispunct (c)

     스페이스나 영숫자가 아닌 인쇄 가능한 ASCII 문자를 확인합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isspace (c)

     ASCII 공백 문자를 확인합니다; 스페이스, 줄 바꿈, 캐리지 리턴, 용지
     공급, 가로 탭, 세로 탭.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isupper (c)

     ASCII 대문자를 확인합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isxdigit (c)

     ASCII 16진수를 확인합니다.  이것은 ‘c in string.hexdigits’와 동등합
     니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.isctrl (c)

     ASCII 제어 문자를 확인합니다 (정숫값 0에서 31).

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.ismeta (c)

     비 ASCII 문자를 확인합니다 (0x80 이상의 정수 값).

이 함수는 정수나 단일 문자 문자열을 받아들입니다; 인자가 문자열이면, 내
장 함수 *note ord(): 1efa.를 사용하여 먼저 변환됩니다.

이 모든 함수는 전달한 문자열의 문자에서 파생된 서수 비트 값을 확인합니다
; 호스트 기계의 문자 인코딩에 대해서는 실제로 아무것도 모릅니다.

다음 두 함수는 단일 문자 문자열이나 정수 바이트 값을 취합니다; 이들은 같
은 유형의 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.ascii (c)

     'c'의 하위 7비트에 해당하는 ASCII 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.ctrl (c)

     주어진 문자에 해당하는 제어 문자를 반환합니다 (문자 비트 값은 0x1f와
     비트별 and 됩니다).

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.alt (c)

     주어진 ASCII 문자에 해당하는 8비트 문자를 반환합니다 (문자 비트 값
     은 0x80과 비트별 or 됩니다).

다음 함수는 단일 문자 문자열이나 정숫값을 취합니다; 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.ascii.unctrl (c)

     ASCII 문자 'c'의 문자열 표현을 반환합니다.  'c'가 인쇄 가능하면, 이
     문자열은 문자 자체입니다.  문자가 제어 문자(0x00–0x1f)이면 문자열은
     캐럿(‘'^'’)과 그 뒤에 오는 해당 대문자로 구성됩니다.  문자가 ASCII
     삭제(0x7f)이면 문자열은 ‘'^?'’입니다.  문자에 메타 비트(0x80)가 설
     정되어 있으면, 메타 비트가 제거되고, 앞의 규칙을 적용한 후, ‘'!'’를
     결과 앞에 붙입니다.

 -- 데이터: curses.ascii.controlnames

     0(NUL)에서 0x1f(US)까지 32개의 ASCII 제어 문자에 대한 ASCII 니모닉
     과 (순서대로), 스페이스 문자를 위한 니모닉 ‘SP’를 포함하는 33요소 문
     자열 배열입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/curses/ascii.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장,  Next: cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원,  Prev: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.8 ‘curses.panel’ — curses 용 패널 스택 확장
------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

패널은 깊이 기능이 추가된 창이라서, 서로의 위에 쌓을 수 있으며, 각 창의
보이는 부분만 표시됩니다.  패널을 추가하고, 스택에서 위나 아래로 옮기고,
제거할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<6>.
* Panel 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<6>,  Next: Panel 객체,  Up: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장

5.17.8.1 함수
.............

*note curses.panel: 2d. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: curses.panel.bottom_panel ()

     패널 스택에서 최하단 패널을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.panel.new_panel (win)

     주어진 창 'win'과 연관 지어진 패널 객체를 반환합니다.  반환된 패널
     객체가 명시적으로 참조되도록 유지해야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 패널 객
     체는 가비지 수집되어 패널 스택에서 제거됩니다.

 -- 함수: curses.panel.top_panel ()

     패널 스택의 최상단 패널을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: curses.panel.update_panels ()

     패널 스택이 변경된 후 가상 화면을 갱신합니다.  이것은 *note
     curses.doupdate(): 2f7e.를 호출하지 않아서, 여러분이 직접 해야 합니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: Panel 객체,  Prev: 함수<6>,  Up: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장

5.17.8.2 Panel 객체
...................

위의 *note new_panel(): 30f2.에 의해 반환된 패널 객체는 쌓인 순서가 있는
창입니다.  패널과 연관된 창이 항상 있고, 창이 내용을 결정합니다.  패널 메
서드는 패널 스택에서 창의 깊이를 담당합니다.

패널 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: Panel.above ()

     현재 패널 위의 패널을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.below ()

     현재 패널 아래의 패널을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.bottom ()

     패널을 스택 맨 아래로 밉니다.”

 -- 메서드: Panel.hidden ()

     패널이 숨겨져 있으면 (보이지 않으면) ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.hide ()

     패널을 숨깁니다.  이것은 객체를 삭제하지 않고, 화면의 창을 보이지 않
     게 합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.move (y, x)

     패널을 화면 좌표 ‘(y, x)’로 이동합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.replace (win)

     패널과 연관된 창을 창 'win'으로 변경합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.set_userptr (obj)

     패널의 사용자 포인터를 'obj'로 설정합니다.  이것은 임의의 데이터를
     패널과 연관시키는 데 사용되며, 임의의 파이썬 객체가 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.show ()

     (숨겼을 수도 있는) 패널을 표시합니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.top ()

     패널을 스택 맨 위로 밉니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.userptr ()

     패널의 사용자 포인터를 반환합니다.  이것은 임의의 파이썬 객체일 수
     있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Panel.window ()

     패널과 연관된 창 객체를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원,  Prev: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.17.9 ‘cmd’ — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원
-------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/cmd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Cmd: 16cc. 클래스는 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터를 작성하기 위한 간단한
프레임워크를 제공합니다.  이것들은 종종 테스트 하네스(test harnesses), 관
리 도구 및 나중에 더 복잡한 인터페이스로 포장될 프로토타입에 유용합니다.

 -- 클래스: cmd.Cmd (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)

     *note Cmd: 16cc. 인스턴스나 서브 클래스 인스턴스는 줄 지향 인터프리
     터 프레임워크입니다.  *note Cmd: 16cc. 자체를 인스턴스로 만들 이유
     는 없습니다; 그보다는, *note Cmd: 16cc.의 메서드를 상속하고 액션 메
     서드를 캡슐화하기 위해 여러분 스스로 정의한 인터프리터 클래스의 슈
     퍼 클래스로 유용합니다.

     선택적 인자 'completekey'는 완성 키(completion key)의 *note
     readline: ba. 이름입니다; 기본값은 ‘Tab’입니다.  'completekey'가
     *note None: 66f.이 아니고 *note readline: ba.을 사용할 수 있으면, 명
     령 완성이 자동으로 수행됩니다.

     The default, ‘'tab'’, is treated specially, so that it refers to
     the ‘Tab’ key on every *note readline.backend: 16b6.  Specifically,
     if *note readline.backend: 16b6. is ‘editline’, ‘Cmd’ will use
     ‘'^I'’ instead of ‘'tab'’.  Note that other values are not treated
     this way, and might only work with a specific backend.

     선택적 인자 'stdin'과 'stdout'은 Cmd 인스턴스나 서브 클래스 인스턴
     스가 입출력에 사용할 입력과 출력 파일 객체를 지정합니다.  지정하지
     않으면, 기본적으로 *note sys.stdin: 537.과 *note sys.stdout: ad3.이
     됩니다.

     지정된 'stdin'을 사용하려면, 인스턴스의 *note use_rawinput: 3105. 어
     트리뷰트를 ‘False’로 설정해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 'stdin'이 무시
     됩니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘completekey='tab'’ is replaced by ‘'^I'’ for
     ‘editline’.

* Menu:

* Cmd 객체::
* Cmd 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/cmd.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd 객체,  Next: Cmd 예,  Up: cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원

5.17.9.1 Cmd 객체
.................

*note Cmd: 16cc. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: Cmd.cmdloop (intro=None)

     반복해서 프롬프트를 제시하고, 입력을 받아들이고, 수신된 입력에서 초
     기 접두사를 구문 분석하고, 줄의 나머지 부분을 인자로 전달해서 액션
     메서드를 호출합니다.

     선택적 인자는 첫 번째 프롬프트 전에 제시할 배너나 소개 문자열입니다
     (이것은 *note intro: 3109. 클래스 어트리뷰트를 재정의합니다).

     *note readline: ba. 모듈이 로드되면, 입력은 자동으로 ‘bash’와 유사
     한 히스토리 목록 편집을 상속합니다 (예를 들어, ‘Control’-‘P’는 직전
     명령으로 돌아가고(scroll back), ‘Control’-‘N’은 다음 명령으로 이동
     하고(forward), ‘Control’-‘F’는 커서를 비파괴적으로 오른쪽으로 이동
     하고, ‘Control’-‘B’는 커서를 비파괴적으로 왼쪽으로 이동하고, 등등).

     입력의 파일 끝(end-of-file)은 문자열 ‘'EOF'’로 전달됩니다.

     인터프리터 인스턴스는 메서드 ‘do_foo()’가 있을 때만 명령 이름
     ‘foo’를 인식합니다.  특수한 경우로, 문자 ‘'?'’로 시작하는 줄은 메서
     드 *note do_help(): 16bb.를 호출합니다.  또 다른 특수한 경우로, 문
     자 ‘'!'’로 시작하는 줄은 메서드 ‘do_shell()’을 (해당 메서드가 정의
     되었다면) 호출합니다.

     이 메서드는 *note postcmd(): 310a. 메서드가 참값을 반환할 때 반환합
     니다.  *note postcmd(): 310a.에 대한 'stop' 인자는 명령의 해당
     ‘do_*()’ 메서드에서 반환되는 값입니다.

     완성(completion)이 활성화되면, 명령 완성이 자동으로 수행되고, 명령
     인자의 완성은 인자 'text', 'line', 'begidx' 및 'endidx'로
     ‘complete_foo()’를 호출하여 수행됩니다.  'text'는 일치시키려는 문자
     열 접두사입니다: 반환된 모든 일치는 이 문자열로 시작해야 합니다.
     'line'은 선행 공백이 제거된 현재 입력 줄이며, 'begidx'와 'endidx'는
     접두사 텍스트의 시작과 끝 인덱스로, 인자의 위치에 따라 다른 완성을
     제공하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.do_help (arg)

     *note Cmd: 16cc.의 모든 서브 클래스는 미리 정의된 ‘do_help()’를 상
     속합니다.  인자 ‘'bar'’로 호출되면, 이 메서드는 해당 메서드
     ‘help_bar()’를 호출하고, 존재하지 않으면 ‘do_bar()’의 독스트링이 있
     다면 인쇄합니다.  인자가 없으면, ‘do_help()’는 사용 가능한 모든 도
     움말 주제(즉, 해당 ‘help_*()’ 메서드가 있거나 독스트링이 있는 모든
     명령)을 나열하고, 설명이 없는 명령도 나열합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.onecmd (str)

     프롬프트에 대한 응답으로 입력된 것처럼 인자를 해석합니다.  재정의될
     수도 있지만, 일반적으로 그럴 필요가 없어야 합니다; 유용한 실행 훅에
     대해서는 *note precmd(): 310c.와 *note postcmd(): 310a. 메서드를 참
     조하십시오.  반환 값은 인터프리터의 명령 해석이 중지되어야 하는지를
     나타내는 플래그입니다.  명령 'str'을 위한 ‘do_*()’ 메서드가 있으면,
     해당 메서드의 반환 값이 반환되고, 그렇지 않으면 *note default():
     310d. 메서드의 반환 값이 반환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.emptyline ()

     프롬프트에 응답하여 빈 줄을 입력할 때 호출되는 메서드.  이 메서드를
     재정의하지 않으면, 입력된 마지막 비어 있지 않은 명령을 반복합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.default (line)

     명령 접두사가 인식되지 않을 때 입력 줄로 호출되는 메서드.  이 메서
     드를 재정의하지 않으면, 에러 메시지를 인쇄하고 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.completedefault (text, line, begidx, endidx)

     명령 별 ‘complete_*()’ 메서드가 없을 때 입력 줄을 완성하기 위해 호
     출되는 메서드.  기본적으로, 빈 리스트를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.columnize (list, displaywidth=80)

     Method called to display a list of strings as a compact set of
     columns.  Each column is only as wide as necessary.  Columns are
     separated by two spaces for readability.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.precmd (line)

     명령 줄 'line'을 해석하기 직전에, 하지만 입력 프롬프트가 생성되고 제
     시된 후에 실행되는 훅 메서드.  이 메서드는 *note Cmd: 16cc.에서는 스
     텁(stub)입니다; 서브 클래스에 의해 재정의되기 위해 존재합니다.  반
     환 값은 *note onecmd(): 310b. 메서드에 의해 실행될 명령으로 사용됩
     니다; *note precmd(): 310c. 구현은 명령을 다시 쓰거나 단순히
     'line'을 변경하지 않고 반환 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.postcmd (stop, line)

     명령 호출이 완료된 직후에 실행되는 훅 메서드.  이 메서는 *note Cmd:
     16cc.에서는 스텁(stub)입니다; 서브 클래스에 의해 재정의되기 위해 존
     재합니다.  'line'은 실행된 명령 줄이고, 'stop'은 *note postcmd():
     310a.를 호출한 후 실행이 종료될지를 나타내는 플래그입니다; 이것은
     *note onecmd(): 310b. 메서드의 반환 값입니다.  이 메서드의 반환 값
     은 'stop'에 해당하는 내부 플래그의 새 값으로 사용됩니다; 거짓을 반
     환하면 해석이 계속됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.preloop ()

     *note cmdloop(): 3108.가 호출될 때 한 번 실행되는 훅 메서드.  이 메
     서드는 *note Cmd: 16cc.에서는 스텁(stub)입니다; 서브 클래스에 의해
     재정의되기 위해 존재합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cmd.postloop ()

     *note cmdloop(): 3108.가 반환하려고 할 때 한 번 실행되는 훅 메서드.
     이 메서드는 *note Cmd: 16cc.에서는 스텁(stub)입니다; 서브 클래스에
     의해 재정의되기 위해 존재합니다.

*note Cmd: 16cc. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스에는 몇 가지 공용 인스턴스 변수가
있습니다:

 -- 속성: Cmd.prompt

     입력을 요청하는 프롬프트.

 -- 속성: Cmd.identchars

     명령 접두사에 허용되는 문자들의 문자열.

 -- 속성: Cmd.lastcmd

     비어 있지 않은 마지막 명령 접두사.

 -- 속성: Cmd.cmdqueue

     계류 중인 입력 줄의 리스트.  cmdqueue 리스트는 새로운 입력이 필요할
     때 *note cmdloop(): 3108.에서 점검됩니다; 비어 있지 않으면, 프롬프
     트에서 입력한 것처럼 해당 요소가 순서대로 처리됩니다.

 -- 속성: Cmd.intro

     소개나 배너로 제시할 문자열.  *note cmdloop(): 3108. 메서드에 인자
     를 제공하여 재정의할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Cmd.doc_header

     도움말 출력에 설명된 명령 섹션이 있을 때 제시할 헤더입니다.

 -- 속성: Cmd.misc_header

     도움말 출력에 기타 도움말 주제에 대한 섹션이 있을 때 제시할 헤더 (즉
     , 해당 ‘do_*()’ 메서드가 없는 ‘help_*()’ 메서드가 있을 때).

 -- 속성: Cmd.undoc_header

     도움말 출력에 설명되지 않은 명령에 대한 섹션이 있을 때 제시할 헤더
     (즉, 해당 ‘help_*()’ 메서드가 없는 ‘do_*()’ 메서드가 있을 때).

 -- 속성: Cmd.ruler

     도움말 메시지 헤더 아래에 구분선을 그리는 데 사용되는 문자입니다.  비
     어 있으면, 눈금자 선이 그려지지 않습니다.  기본값은 ‘'='’입니다.

 -- 속성: Cmd.use_rawinput

     기본값이 참인 플래그.  참이면, *note cmdloop(): 3108.는 *note
     input(): 12c8.을 사용하여 프롬프트를 표시하고 다음 명령을 읽습니다;
     거짓이면, *note sys.stdout.write(): ad3.와 *note
     sys.stdin.readline(): 537.이 사용됩니다.  (이는 지원하는 시스템에서
     *note readline: ba.를 임포트 함으로써, 인터프리터가 ‘Emacs’와 유사
     한 줄 편집과 명령 히스토리 키 입력을 자동으로 지원한다는 의미입니다
     .)


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd 예,  Prev: Cmd 객체,  Up: cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원

5.17.9.2 Cmd 예
...............

*note cmd: 19. 모듈은 주로 사용자가 대화식으로 프로그램을 사용할 수 있도
록 하는 사용자 정의 셸을 만드는 데 유용합니다.

이 섹션에서는 *note turtle: 101. 모듈의 몇 가지 명령을 중심으로 셸을 작
성하는 방법에 대한 간단한 예를 제공합니다.

*note forward(): 311c.와 같은 기본 turtle 명령은 ‘do_forward()’라는 메서
드로 *note Cmd: 16cc. 서브 클래스에 추가됩니다.  인자는 숫자로 변환되어
turtle 모듈로 전달됩니다.  독스트링은 셸에서 제공하는 도움말 유틸리티에
서 사용됩니다.

이 예제에는 *note precmd(): 310c. 메서드로 구현된 기초적인 녹화와 재생 기
능도 포함되는데, 이 메서드는 입력을 소문자로 변환하고 명령을 파일에 쓰는
역할을 합니다.  ‘do_playback()’ 메서드는 파일을 읽고 즉시 재생하기 위해
녹화된 명령을 *note cmdqueue: 3115.에 추가합니다:

     import cmd, sys
     from turtle import *

     class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
         intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
         prompt = '(turtle) '
         file = None

         # ----- basic turtle commands -----
         def do_forward(self, arg):
             'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
             forward(*parse(arg))
         def do_right(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
             right(*parse(arg))
         def do_left(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
             left(*parse(arg))
         def do_goto(self, arg):
             'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
             goto(*parse(arg))
         def do_home(self, arg):
             'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
             home()
         def do_circle(self, arg):
             'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
             circle(*parse(arg))
         def do_position(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
             print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
         def do_heading(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
             print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
         def do_color(self, arg):
             'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
             color(arg.lower())
         def do_undo(self, arg):
             'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
         def do_reset(self, arg):
             'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
             reset()
         def do_bye(self, arg):
             'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
             print('Thank you for using Turtle')
             self.close()
             bye()
             return True

         # ----- record and playback -----
         def do_record(self, arg):
             'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
             self.file = open(arg, 'w')
         def do_playback(self, arg):
             'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
             self.close()
             with open(arg) as f:
                 self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
         def precmd(self, line):
             line = line.lower()
             if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
                 print(line, file=self.file)
             return line
         def close(self):
             if self.file:
                 self.file.close()
                 self.file = None

     def parse(arg):
         'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
         return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         TurtleShell().cmdloop()

다음은 도움말 기능과, 명령을 반복하기 위해 빈 줄을 사용하는 방법과, 간단
한 녹화와 재생기능을 보여주기 위해 turtle 셀을 사용한 예제 세션입니다:

     Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.

     (turtle) ?

     Documented commands (type help <topic>):
     ========================================
     bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
     circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo

     (turtle) help forward
     Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
     (turtle) record spiral.cmd
     (turtle) position
     Current position is 0 0

     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 0

     (turtle) reset
     (turtle) circle 20
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 40
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 60
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 80
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 100
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 500
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 300
     (turtle) playback spiral.cmd
     Current position is 0 0

     Current heading is 0

     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) bye
     Thank you for using Turtle


File: python.info,  Node: 동시 실행,  Next: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신,  Prev: Command-line interface libraries,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.18 동시 실행
==============

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 코드의 동시 실행을 지원합니다.  적절한 도구 선
택은 실행할 작업(CPU 병목 대 IO 병목)과 선호하는 개발 스타일(이벤트 구동
협력적 다중작업 대 선점적 다중작업)에 따라 달라집니다.  다음은 개요입니
다:

* Menu:

* threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리::
* multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing.shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
* concurrent 패키지::
* concurrent.futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기.
* subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리::
* sched — 이벤트 스케줄러::
* queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스::
* contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수::
* _thread — 저수준 스레드 API::


File: python.info,  Node: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리,  Next: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.1 ‘threading’ — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/threading.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 저수준 *note _thread: 2. 모듈 위에 고수준 스레딩 인터페이스를
구축합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* GIL and performance considerations::
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* with 문으로 록, 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기: with 문으로 록 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/threading.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<5>,  Next: GIL and performance considerations,  Up: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리

5.18.1.1 Introduction
.....................

The ‘threading’ module provides a way to run multiple threads(1)
(smaller units of a process) concurrently within a single process.  It
allows for the creation and management of threads, making it possible to
execute tasks in parallel, sharing memory space.  Threads are
particularly useful when tasks are I/O bound, such as file operations or
making network requests, where much of the time is spent waiting for
external resources.

A typical use case for ‘threading’ includes managing a pool of worker
threads that can process multiple tasks concurrently.  Here’s a basic
example of creating and starting threads using *note Thread: 94a.:

     import threading
     import time

     def crawl(link, delay=3):
         print(f"crawl started for {link}")
         time.sleep(delay)  # Blocking I/O (simulating a network request)
         print(f"crawl ended for {link}")

     links = [
         "https://python.org",
         "https://docs.python.org",
         "https://peps.python.org",
     ]

     # Start threads for each link
     threads = []
     for link in links:
         # Using `args` to pass positional arguments and `kwargs` for keyword arguments
         t = threading.Thread(target=crawl, args=(link,), kwargs={"delay": 2})
         threads.append(t)

     # Start each thread
     for t in threads:
         t.start()

     # Wait for all threads to finish
     for t in threads:
         t.join()

버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 모듈은 선택 사양이었지만, 이제는 항상 사용 가능합
니다.

더 보기
.......

*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background thread without blocking
execution of the calling thread, while still being able to retrieve
their results when needed.

*note queue: b6. provides a thread-safe interface for exchanging data
between running threads.

*note asyncio: a. offers an alternative approach to achieving task level
concurrency without requiring the use of multiple operating system
threads.

     참고: In the Python 2.x series, this module contained ‘camelCase’
     names for some methods and functions.  These are deprecated as of
     Python 3.10, but they are still supported for compatibility with
     Python 2.5 and lower.

CPython에서는, *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148.으로 인해 한 번에 하나의 스
레드만 파이썬 코드를 실행할 수 있습니다 (설사 일부 성능 지향 라이브러리
가 이 제한을 극복할 수 있을지라도).  응용 프로그램에서 멀티 코어 기계의
계산 자원을 더 잘 활용하려면 *note multiprocessing: 94.이나 *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  그
러나, 여러 I/O 병목 작업을 동시에 실행하고 싶을 때 threading은 여전히 적
절한 모델입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)


File: python.info,  Node: GIL and performance considerations,  Next: Reference<2>,  Prev: Introduction<5>,  Up: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리

5.18.1.2 GIL and performance considerations
...........................................

Unlike the *note multiprocessing: 94. module, which uses separate
processes to bypass the *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL), the
threading module operates within a single process, meaning that all
threads share the same memory space.  However, the GIL limits the
performance gains of threading when it comes to CPU-bound tasks, as only
one thread can execute Python bytecode at a time.  Despite this, threads
remain a useful tool for achieving concurrency in many scenarios.

As of Python 3.13, experimental *note free-threaded: 152a. builds can
disable the GIL, enabling true parallel execution of threads, but this
feature is not available by default (see PEP 703(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<2>,  Next: with 문으로 록 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기,  Prev: GIL and performance considerations,  Up: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리

5.18.1.3 Reference
..................

이 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: threading.active_count ()

     현재 살아있는 *note Thread: 94a. 객체 수를 반환합니다.  반환된 수는
     *note enumerate(): 18ac.가 반환한 리스트의 길이와 같습니다.

     The function ‘activeCount’ is a deprecated alias for this function.

 -- 함수: threading.current_thread ()

     Return the current *note Thread: 94a. object, corresponding to the
     caller’s thread of control.  If the caller’s thread of control was
     not created through the ‘threading’ module, a dummy thread object
     with limited functionality is returned.

     The function ‘currentThread’ is a deprecated alias for this
     function.

 -- 함수: threading.excepthook (args, /)

     *note Thread.run(): a39.에 의해 발생한 포착되지 않은 예외를 처리합
     니다.

     'args' 인자에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

        * 'exc_type': 예외 형.

        * 'exc_value': 예외 값, ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

        * 'exc_traceback': 예외 트레이스백, ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

        * 'thread': 예외를 발생시킨 스레드, ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

     'exc_type'이 *note SystemExit: d3d.이면, 예외는 조용히 무시됩니다.
     그렇지 않으면, *note sys.stderr: 937.에 예외가 인쇄됩니다.

     이 함수에서 예외가 발생하면, 이를 처리하기 위해 *note
     sys.excepthook(): 805.이 호출됩니다.

     *note Thread.run(): a39.에 의해 발생한 포착되지 않은 예외를 처리하
     는 방법을 제어하기 위해 *note threading.excepthook(): 845.을 재정의
     할 수 있습니다.

     사용자 정의 훅을 사용하여 'exc_value'를 저장하면 참조 순환을 만들 수
     있습니다.  예외가 더는 필요하지 않을 때 참조 순환을 끊기 위해 명시
     적으로 지워야 합니다.

     사용자 정의 훅을 사용하여 'thread'를 저장하면 파이널라이즈 중인 객
     체로 설정되면 이를 되살릴 수 있습니다.  객체를 되살리는 것을 방지하
     려면 사용자 정의 훅이 완료된 후 'thread'를 보관하지 마십시오.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note sys.excepthook(): 805.은 포착되지 않은 예외를 처리합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: threading.__excepthook__

     Holds the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 845.  It
     is saved so that the original value can be restored in case they
     happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: threading.get_ident ()

     현재 스레드의 ‘스레드 식별자’를 반환합니다.  이것은 0이 아닌 정수입
     니다.  이 값은 직접적인 의미가 없습니다; 이것은 매직 쿠키로 사용하
     려는 것입니다, 예를 들어 스레드 특정 데이터의 딕셔너리를 인덱싱하는
     데 사용됩니다.  스레드 식별자는 스레드가 종료되고 다른 스레드가 만
     들어질 때 재활용될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: threading.get_native_id ()

     커널이 할당한 현재 스레드의 네이티브 정수 스레드 ID를 반환합니다.  음
     수가 아닌 정수입니다.  이 값은 시스템 전체에서 이 특정 스레드를 고
     유하게 식별하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다 (스레드가 종료될 때까지, 그 후
     에는 OS에서 값을 재활용할 수 있습니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

 -- 함수: threading.enumerate ()

     현재 활성인 모든 *note Thread: 94a. 객체의 리스트를 반환합니다.  이
     리스트에는 데몬 스레드와 *note current_thread(): 301.에서 만든 더미
     스레드 객체가 포함됩니다.  종료된 스레드와 아직 시작되지 않은 스레
     드는 제외합니다.  그러나, 메인 스레드는 종료되었을 때 조차 항상 결
     과의 일부입니다.

 -- 함수: threading.main_thread ()

     메인 *note Thread: 94a. 객체를 반환합니다.  정상적인 조건에서, 메인
     스레드는 파이썬 인터프리터가 시작된 스레드입니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: threading.settrace (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.settrace(): 14c7.
     for each thread, before its *note run(): a39. method is called.

 -- 함수: threading.settrace_all_threads (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module and all Python threads that are currently executing.

     'func'는 *note run(): a39. 메서드가 호출되기 전에 각 스레드에 대해
     *note sys.settrace(): 14c7.로 전달됩니다.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: threading.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 842.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: threading.setprofile (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6.
     for each thread, before its *note run(): a39. method is called.

 -- 함수: threading.setprofile_all_threads (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module and all Python threads that are currently executing.

     'func'는 *note run(): a39. 메서드가 호출되기 전에 각 스레드에 대해
     *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6.로 전달됩니다.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: threading.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 843.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: threading.stack_size ([size])

     새 스레드를 만들 때 사용된 스레드 스택 크기를 반환합니다.  선택적
     'size' 인자는 이후에 만들어지는 스레드에 사용할 스택 크기를 지정하
     며, 0(플랫폼이나 구성된 기본값을 사용합니다)이거나 32,768 (32 KiB)
     이상의 양의 정숫값이어야 합니다.  'size'를 지정하지 않으면, 0이 사
     용됩니다.  스레드 스택 크기 변경이 지원되지 않으면, *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  지정된 스택 크기가 유효하지 않으
     면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생하고 스택 크기는 수정되지 않습니다
     .  32 KiB는 현재 인터프리터 자체에 충분한 스택 공간을 보장하기 위해
     지원되는 최소 스택 크기 값입니다.  최소 스택 크기가 32 KiB 보다 커
     야 한다거나 시스템 메모리 페이지 크기의 배수로 할당해야 하는 등 일
     부 플랫폼에는 스택 크기 값에 대한 특정 제한이 있을 수 있습니다 - 자
     세한 내용은 플랫폼 설명서를 참조하십시오 (4 KiB 페이지는 흔합니다;
     스택 크기에 4096의 배수를 사용하는 것이 더 구체적인 정보가 없을 때
     제안하는 방법입니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

이 모듈은 또한 다음 상수를 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: threading.TIMEOUT_MAX

     블로킹 함수(*note Lock.acquire(): 692, *note RLock.acquire(): e73,
     *note Condition.wait(): 18b8. 등)의 'timeout' 매개 변수에 허용되는
     최댓값.  이 값보다 큰 timeout을 지정하면 *note OverflowError: 87d.가
     발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

이 모듈은 아래 섹션에 자세히 설명되는 많은 클래스를 정의합니다.

이 모듈의 설계는 Java의 스레딩 모델에 약하게 기반합니다.  그러나, Java가
록(locks)과 조건 변수(condition variables)를 모든 객체의 기본 동작으로 만
들지만, 파이썬에서는 별도의 객체입니다.  파이썬의 *note Thread: 94a. 클
래스는 Java Thread 클래스 동작의 부분 집합을 지원합니다; 현재, 우선순위
가 없고, 스레드 그룹이 없으며 스레드를 파괴, 중지, 일시 중지, 재개 또는
인터럽트 할 수 없습니다.  구현될 때, Java 스레드 클래스의 정적 메서드는
모듈 수준 함수에 매핑됩니다.

아래에 설명된 모든 메서드는 원자 적으로 실행됩니다.

* Menu:

* Thread-local data::
* Thread objects::
* Lock objects::
* RLock objects::
* Condition objects::
* Semaphore objects::
* Semaphore example::
* Event objects::
* Timer objects::
* Barrier objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Thread-local data,  Next: Thread objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.4 Thread-local data
..........................

Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific.  If you have
data that you want to be local to a thread, create a *note local: 1556.
object and use its attributes:

     >>> mydata = local()
     >>> mydata.number = 42
     >>> mydata.number
     42

You can also access the *note local: 1556.-object’s dictionary:

     >>> mydata.__dict__
     {'number': 42}
     >>> mydata.__dict__.setdefault('widgets', [])
     []
     >>> mydata.widgets
     []

If we access the data in a different thread:

     >>> log = []
     >>> def f():
     ...     items = sorted(mydata.__dict__.items())
     ...     log.append(items)
     ...     mydata.number = 11
     ...     log.append(mydata.number)

     >>> import threading
     >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
     >>> thread.start()
     >>> thread.join()
     >>> log
     [[], 11]

we get different data.  Furthermore, changes made in the other thread
don’t affect data seen in this thread:

     >>> mydata.number
     42

Of course, values you get from a *note local: 1556. object, including
their *note __dict__: 556. attribute, are for whatever thread was
current at the time the attribute was read.  For that reason, you
generally don’t want to save these values across threads, as they apply
only to the thread they came from.

You can create custom *note local: 1556. objects by subclassing the
*note local: 1556. class:

     >>> class MyLocal(local):
     ...     number = 2
     ...     def __init__(self, /, **kw):
     ...         self.__dict__.update(kw)
     ...     def squared(self):
     ...         return self.number ** 2

This can be useful to support default values, methods and
initialization.  Note that if you define an *note __init__(): 6aa.
method, it will be called each time the *note local: 1556. object is
used in a separate thread.  This is necessary to initialize each
thread’s dictionary.

Now if we create a *note local: 1556. object:

     >>> mydata = MyLocal(color='red')

we have a default number:

     >>> mydata.number
     2

an initial color:

     >>> mydata.color
     'red'
     >>> del mydata.color

And a method that operates on the data:

     >>> mydata.squared()
     4

As before, we can access the data in a separate thread:

     >>> log = []
     >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
     >>> thread.start()
     >>> thread.join()
     >>> log
     [[('color', 'red')], 11]

without affecting this thread’s data:

     >>> mydata.number
     2
     >>> mydata.color
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     AttributeError: 'MyLocal' object has no attribute 'color'

Note that subclasses can define *note __slots__: 5d9, but they are not
thread local.  They are shared across threads:

     >>> class MyLocal(local):
     ...     __slots__ = 'number'

     >>> mydata = MyLocal()
     >>> mydata.number = 42
     >>> mydata.color = 'red'

So, the separate thread:

     >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
     >>> thread.start()
     >>> thread.join()

affects what we see:

     >>> mydata.number
     11

 -- 클래스: threading.local

     스레드 로컬 데이터를 나타내는 클래스.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread objects,  Next: Lock objects,  Prev: Thread-local data,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.5 Thread objects
.......................

*note Thread: 94a. 클래스는 별도의 제어 스레드에서 실행되는 활동을 나타
냅니다.  활동을 지정하는 두 가지 방법이 있습니다: 콜러블 객체를 생성자에
전달하거나, 서브 클래스에서 *note run(): a39. 메서드를 재정의합니다.  서
브 클래스에서는 다른 메서드(생성자를 제외하고)를 재정의해서는 안 됩니다.
즉, '오직' 이 클래스의 ‘__init__()’와 *note run(): a39. 메서드만 재정의
합니다.

일단 스레드 객체가 만들어지면, 스레드의 *note start(): 2cc5. 메서드를 호
출하여 활동을 시작해야 합니다.  이것은 별도의 제어 스레드에서 *note
run(): a39. 메서드를 호출합니다.

일단 스레드의 활동이 시작되면, 스레드는 ‘살아있는(alive)’ 것으로 간주합
니다.  *note run(): a39. 메서드가 정상적으로 혹은 처리되지 않은 예외를 발
생시켜서 종료할 때 살아있음을 멈춥니다.  *note is_alive(): 94b. 메서드는
스레드가 살아있는지 검사합니다.

다른 스레드는 스레드의 *note join(): 11d3. 메서드를 호출할 수 있습니다.
이것은 *note join(): 11d3. 메서드가 호출된 스레드가 종료될 때까지 호출하
는 스레드를 블록 합니다.

스레드에는 이름이 있습니다.  이름은 생성자에 전달되고, *note name: 300.
어트리뷰트를 통해 읽거나 변경할 수 있습니다.

*note run(): a39. 메서드에서 예외가 발생하면, 이를 처리하기 위해 *note
threading.excepthook(): 845.이 호출됩니다.  기본적으로, *note
threading.excepthook(): 845.은 *note SystemExit: d3d.를 조용히 무시합니
다.

스레드는 “데몬 스레드”로 플래그 할 수 있습니다.  이 플래그의 의미는 오직
데몬 스레드만 남았을 때 전체 파이썬 프로그램이 종료된다는 것입니다.  초
깃값은 만드는 스레드에서 상속됩니다.  플래그는 *note daemon: 2fe. 프로퍼
티나 'daemon' 생성자 인자를 통해 설정할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 종료 시 데몬 스레드는 갑자기 중지됩니다.  그들의 자원(가령 열
     린 파일, 데이터베이스 트랜잭션 등)은 제대로 해제되지 않을 수 있습니
     다.  스레드가 우아하게 중지되도록 하려면, 스레드를 데몬이 아니도록
     만들고 *note Event: 1149.와 같은 적절한 신호 메커니즘을 사용하십시
     오.

“메인 스레드” 객체가 있습니다; 이것은 파이썬 프로그램의 초기 제어 스레드
에 해당합니다.  이것은 데몬 스레드가 아닙니다.

“더미 스레드 객체”가 만들어질 수 있습니다.  이들은 “외부 스레드”에 해당
하는 스레드 객체로, C 코드에서 직접 만든 것처럼 threading 모듈 외부에서
시작된 제어 스레드입니다.  더미 스레드 객체는 기능이 제한적입니다; 항상
살아 있고 데몬으로 간주하며, *note 조인: 312a.할 수 없습니다.  외부 스레
드의 종료를 감지하는 것이 불가능하므로 삭제되지 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: threading.Thread (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     이 생성자는 항상 키워드 인자로 호출해야 합니다.  인자는 다음과 같습
     니다:

     'group'은 ‘None’이어야 합니다; ‘ThreadGroup’ 클래스가 구현될 때 향
     후 확장을 위해 예약되어 있습니다.

     'target'은 *note run(): a39. 메서드에 의해 호출될 콜러블 객체입니다
     .  기본값은 ‘None’이며, 아무것도 호출되지 않습니다.

     'name'은 스레드 이름입니다.  기본적으로, 고유한 이름이 “Thread-'N'”
     형식으로 구성되는데, 여기서 'N'은 작은 십진수입니다.  혹은 'target'
     인자가 지정되면, “Thread-'N' (target)” 형식인데, 여기서 “target”은
     ‘target.__name__’입니다.

     'args'는 target 호출을 위한 인자의 리스트나 튜플입니다.  기본값은
     ‘()’입니다.

     'kwargs'는 target 호출을 위한 키워드 인자의 딕셔너리입니다.  기본값
     은 ‘{}’입니다.

     ‘None’이 아니면, 'daemon'은 스레드가 데몬인지를 명시적으로 설정합니
     다.  ‘None’(기본값)이면, 데몬 속성은 현재 스레드에서 상속됩니다.

     서브 클래스가 생성자를 재정의하면, 스레드에 다른 작업을 수행하기 전
     에 베이스 클래스 생성자(‘Thread.__init__()’)를 호출해야 합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'daemon' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Use the 'target' name if 'name' argument is
     omitted.

      -- 메서드: start ()

          스레드 활동을 시작합니다.

          스레드 객체 당 최대 한 번 호출되어야 합니다.  객체의 *note
          run(): a39. 메서드가 별도의 제어 스레드에서 호출되도록 배치합
          니다.

          이 메서드는 같은 스레드 객체에서 두 번 이상 호출되면, *note
          RuntimeError: 195.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: run ()

          스레드의 활동을 표현하는 메서드.

          서브 클래스에서 이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.  표준 *note
          run(): a39. 메서드는 'target' 인자로 객체의 생성자에 전달된 콜
          러블 객체를 호출합니다, 있다면 'args'와 'kwargs' 인자에서 각각
          취한 위치와 키워드 인자로 호출합니다.

          Using list or tuple as the 'args' argument which passed to the
          *note Thread: 94a. could achieve the same effect.

          예제:

               >>> from threading import Thread
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> t.run()
               1
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> t.run()
               1

      -- 메서드: join (timeout=None)

          스레드가 종료할 때까지 기다립니다.  *note join(): 11d3. 메서드
          가 호출된 스레드가 정상적으로 혹은 처리되지 않은 예외를 통해 종
          료하거나 선택적 시간제한 초과가 발생할 때까지 호출하는 스레드
          를 블록 합니다.

          'timeout' 인자가 있고 ‘None’이 아니면, 작업의 시간제한을 초(또
          는 부분 초)로 지정하는 부동 소수점 숫자여야 합니다.  *note
          join(): 11d3.은 항상 ‘None’을 반환하므로, *note join(): 11d3.
          이후에 *note is_alive(): 94b.를 호출하여 시간제한 초과가 발생
          했는지 판단해야 합니다 – 스레드가 아직 살아있다면, *note
          join(): 11d3. 호출이 시간제한을 초과한 것입니다.

          'timeout' 인자가 없거나 ‘None’이면, 스레드가 종료될 때까지 작
          업이 블록 됩니다.

          스레드는 여러 번 조인될 수 있습니다.

          교착 상태를 유발할 수 있어서 현재 스레드를 조인하려고 시도하면
          *note join(): 11d3.은 *note RuntimeError: 195.를 발생시킵니다.
          스레드가 시작되기 전에 *note join(): 11d3. 하는 것도 에러이고
          같은 예외가 발생합니다.

      -- 속성: name

          식별 목적으로만 사용되는 문자열.  의미는 없습니다.  여러 스레
          드에 같은 이름을 지정할 수 있습니다.  초기 이름은 생성자가 설
          정합니다.

      -- 메서드: getName ()
      -- 메서드: setName ()

          *note name: 300.을 위한 폐지된 getter/setter API; 대신 프로퍼
          티로 직접 사용하십시오.

          버전 3.10부터 폐지됨.

      -- 속성: ident

          이 스레드의 ‘스레드 식별자’ 또는 스레드가 시작되지 않았으면
          ‘None’.  이것은 0이 아닌 정수입니다.  *note get_ident(): 114b.
          함수를 참조하십시오.  스레드 식별자는 스레드가 종료되고 다른 스
          레드가 만들어질 때 재활용될 수 있습니다.  스레드가 종료된 후에
          도 식별자를 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: native_id

          OS(커널)에서 할당된, 이 스레드의 스레드 ID (‘TID’).  음수가 아
          닌 정수, 또는 스레드가 시작되지 않았으면 ‘None’입니다.  *note
          get_native_id(): a3a. 함수를 참조하십시오.  이 값은 시스템 전
          체에서 이 특정 스레드를 고유하게 식별하는 데 사용될 수 있습니
          다 (스레드가 종료될 때까지, OS가 값을 재활용 할 수 있습니다).

               참고: 프로세스 ID 와 유사하게, 스레드 ID는 스레드가 만들
               어진 시점부터 스레드가 종료될 때까지만 유효(시스템 전체에
               서 고유함이 보장)합니다.

          *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
          NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: is_alive ()

          스레드가 살아있는지를 반환합니다.

          이 메서드는 *note run(): a39. 메서드가 시작되기 직전부터 *note
          run(): a39. 메서드가 종료된 직후까지 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  모
          듈 함수 *note enumerate(): 18ac.는 모든 살아있는 스레드 리스트
          를 반환합니다.

      -- 속성: daemon

          이 스레드가 데몬 스레드인지(‘True’) 아닌지(‘False’)를 나타내는
          불리언 값.  *note start(): 2cc5.가 호출되기 전에 설정되어야 합
          니다, 그렇지 않으면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  초
          깃값은 만드는 스레드에서 상속됩니다; 메인 스레드는 데몬 스레드
          가 아니므로 메인 스레드에서 만드는 모든 스레드의 기본값은
          *note daemon: 2fe. = ‘False’입니다.

          살아있는 데몬이 아닌 스레드가 남아 있지 않으면 전체 파이썬 프
          로그램이 종료됩니다.

      -- 메서드: isDaemon ()
      -- 메서드: setDaemon ()

          *note daemon: 2fe.을 위한 폐지된 getter/setter API; 대신 프로
          퍼티로 직접 사용하십시오.

          버전 3.10부터 폐지됨.


File: python.info,  Node: Lock objects,  Next: RLock objects,  Prev: Thread objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.6 Lock objects
.....................

프리미티브 록(primitive lock)은 잠겨있을 때 특정 스레드가 소유하지 않는
동기화 프리미티브입니다.  파이썬에서는 현재 *note _thread: 2. 확장 모듈
에 의해 직접 구현되는 가장 낮은 수준의 동기화 프리미티브입니다.

프리미티브 록은 두 상태 중 하나입니다, “잠금(locked)”이나 “잠금 해제
(unlocked)”.  잠금 해제 상태로 만들어집니다.  두 가지 기본 메서드가 있습
니다, *note acquire(): 692.와 *note release(): 12b2.  상태가 잠금 해제일
때, *note acquire(): 692.는 상태를 잠금으로 변경하고 즉시 반환합니다.  상
태가 잠금일 때, *note acquire(): 692.는 다른 스레드에서의 *note
release(): 12b2.에 호출이 잠금 해제로 변경할 때까지 블록 된 후, *note
acquire(): 692. 호출이 이를 잠금으로 재설정하고 반환합니다.  *note
release(): 12b2. 메서드는 잠금 상태에서만 호출해야 합니다; 상태를 잠금 해
제로 변경하고 즉시 반환합니다.  잠금 해제된 록을 해제하려고 하면, *note
RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

록은 *note 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜: 312f.도 지원합니다.

둘 이상의 스레드가 *note acquire(): 692.에서 블록 되어 상태가 잠금 해제
가 되기를 기다릴 때, *note release(): 12b2. 호출이 상태를 잠금 해제로 재
설정하면 하나의 스레드만 진행됩니다; 대기 중인 스레드 중 어느 것이 진행
하는지는 정의되지 않았으며, 구현에 따라 다를 수 있습니다.

모든 메서드는 원자 적으로 실행됩니다.

 -- 클래스: threading.Lock

     프리미티브 록 객체를 구현하는 클래스.  일단 스레드가 록을 획득하면,
     이후에 해당 록을 확보하려고 시도하면 해제될 때까지 블록 합니다; 모
     든 스레드가 해제할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘Lock’ is now a class.  In earlier Pythons,
     ‘Lock’ was a factory function which returned an instance of the
     underlying private lock type.

      -- 메서드: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          블로킹이거나 비 블로킹으로, 록을 획득합니다.

          'blocking' 인자를 ‘True’(기본값)로 설정하여 호출하면, 록이 잠
          금 해제될 때까지 블록 한 다음, 잠금으로 설정하고 ‘True’를 반환
          합니다.

          'blocking' 인자를 ‘False’로 설정하여 호출하면, 블록 하지 않습
          니다.  'blocking'이 ‘True’로 설정된 호출이 블록 될 것이라면, 즉
          시 ‘False’를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면, 록을 잠금으로 설정하고
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          양수 값으로 설정된 부동 소수점 'timeout' 인자로 호출하면, 록을
          획득할 수 없는 한 최대 'timeout'에 지정된 초 동안 블록 합니다.
          ‘-1’의 'timeout' 인자는 제한 없는 대기를 지정합니다.
          'blocking'이 ‘False’일 때 'timeout'을 지정하는 것은 금지되어 있
          습니다.

          록이 성공적으로 획득되면 반환 값은 ‘True’이고, 그렇지 않으면
          (예를 들어 'timeout'이 만료되면) ‘False’입니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 하부 스레딩 구현이 지원한다면 POSIX에서 시
          그널로 록 획득을 중단할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          록을 해제합니다.  록을 획득한 스레드뿐만 아니라 모든 스레드에
          서 호출할 수 있습니다.

          록이 잠금일 때, 잠금 해제로 재설정하고 반환합니다.  록이 잠금
          해제될 때까지 다른 스레드가 블록 되어 기다리고 있으면, 그들 중
          정확히 하나의 스레드가 진행되도록 합니다.

          잠금 해제된 록에서 호출되면, *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합
          니다.

          반환 값이 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: locked ()

          록이 획득되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: RLock objects,  Next: Condition objects,  Prev: Lock objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.7 RLock objects
......................

재진입 록(reentrant lock)은 같은 스레드에 의해 여러 번 획득될 수 있는 동
기화 프리미티브입니다.  내부적으로, 프리미티브 록에서 사용하는 잠금/잠금
해제 상태에 더해 “소유하는 스레드(owning thread)”와 “재귀 수준(recursion
level)” 개념을 사용합니다.  잠금 상태에서는, 어떤 스레드가 록을 소유합니
다; 잠금 해제 상태에서는 아무런 스레드도 록을 소유하지 않습니다.

Threads call a lock’s *note acquire(): e73. method to lock it, and its
*note release(): 12b2. method to unlock it.

     참고: Reentrant locks support the *note context management
     protocol: 312f, so it is recommended to use *note with: 5cc.
     instead of manually calling *note acquire(): e73. and *note
     release(): 3133. to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a
     block of code.

RLock의 *note acquire(): e73./*note release(): 3133. 호출 쌍은 Lock의
*note acquire(): 692./*note release(): 12b2.와 달리 중첩될 수 있습니다.
오직 마지막 *note release(): 3133.(가장 바깥쪽 쌍의 *note release():
12b2.)만 록을 잠금 해제 상태로 재설정하고 *note acquire(): e73.에서 블록
된 다른 스레드가 진행하도록 할 수 있습니다.

*note acquire(): e73./*note release(): 3133. must be used in pairs: each
acquire must have a release in the thread that has acquired the lock.
Failing to call release as many times the lock has been acquired can
lead to deadlock.

 -- 클래스: threading.RLock

     이 클래스는 재진입 록 객체를 구현합니다.  재진입 록은 획득한 스레드
     에서 해제해야 합니다.  일단 스레드가 재진입 록을 획득하면, 같은 스
     레드는 블록 하지 않고 다시 스레드를 획득할 수 있습니다; 스레드는 획
     득할 때마다 한 번씩 해제해야 합니다.

     ‘RLock’은 실제로는 플랫폼에서 지원하는 가장 효율적인 버전의 구상
     RLock 클래스 인스턴스를 반환하는 팩토리 함수임에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          블로킹이거나 비 블로킹으로, 록을 획득합니다.

          더 보기
          .......

          *note Using RLock as a context manager: 312f.

               Recommended over manual ‘acquire()’ and *note release():
               3133. calls whenever practical.

          'blocking' 인자를 ‘True’(기본값)로 설정하여 호출할 때:

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, block until we are
                    able to acquire lock, or 'timeout', if set to a
                    positive float value.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again, and return immediately.  This is the
                    difference between *note Lock: 167e. and ‘RLock’;
                    *note Lock: 167e. handles this case the same as the
                    previous, blocking until the lock can be acquired.

          'blocking' 인자를 ‘False’로 설정하여 호출할 때:

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again and return immediately.

          In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock,
          return ‘True’.  If the thread was unable to acquire the lock
          (i.e.  if not blocking or the timeout was reached) return
          ‘False’.

          If called multiple times, failing to call *note release():
          3133. as many times may lead to deadlock.  Consider using
          ‘RLock’ as a context manager rather than calling
          acquire/release directly.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          재귀 수준을 낮추면서, 잠금을 해제합니다.  감소 후에 0이 되면,
          록을 잠금 해제로 (아무런 스레드도 소유하지 않은) 재설정하고, 록
          이 잠금 해제되도록 기다리면서 블록 된 다른 스레드가 있으면, 그
          중 정확히 하나가 진행되도록 합니다.  감소 후에 재귀 수준이 여
          전히 0이 아니면, 록은 잠금이고, 호출하는 스레드에 의해 소유된
          채로 유지됩니다.

          호출하는 스레드가 록을 소유했을 때만 이 메서드를 호출하십시오.
          록을 획득하지 않았을 때 이 메서드가 호출되면 *note
          RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

          반환 값이 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition objects,  Next: Semaphore objects,  Prev: RLock objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.8 Condition objects
..........................

조건 변수(condition variable)는 항상 어떤 종류의 록과 연관됩니다; 이것은
전달되거나 기본적으로 만들어집니다.  전달하는 것은 여러 조건 변수가 같은
록을 공유해야 할 때 유용합니다.  록은 조건 객체의 일부입니다: 별도로 추
적할 필요가 없습니다.

조건 변수는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜: 312f.을 준수합니다: ‘with’ 문
을 사용해서 감싼 블록의 지속 시간 동안 연관된 록을 획득합니다.  *note
acquire(): 3136.와 *note release(): 3137. 메서드도 연관된 록의 해당 메서
드를 호출합니다.

다른 메서드들은 연관된 록을 잡은 상태에서 호출해야 합니다.  *note
wait(): 18b8. 메서드는 록을 해제한 다음, 다른 스레드가 *note notify():
17e3.나 *note notify_all(): 2fb.을 호출하여 록을 해제할 때까지 블록 합니
다.  일단 깨어나면, *note wait(): 18b8.는 록을 다시 획득하고 반환합니다.
시간제한을 지정할 수도 있습니다.

*note notify(): 17e3. 메서드는 있다면 조건 변수를 기다리는 스레드 중 하
나를 깨웁니다.  *note notify_all(): 2fb. 메서드는 조건 변수를 기다리는 모
든 스레드를 깨웁니다.

참고: *note notify(): 17e3.와 *note notify_all(): 2fb. 메서드는 록을 해
제하지 않습니다; 이것은 깨어난 스레드나 스레드들이 *note wait(): 18b8. 호
출에서 즉시 반환되지 않지만, *note notify(): 17e3.나 *note notify_all():
2fb.을 호출한 스레드가 최종적으로 록 소유권을 포기할 때만 반환됨을 의미
합니다.

조건 변수를 사용하는 일반적인 프로그래밍 스타일은 록을 사용하여 어떤 공
유 상태에 대한 액세스를 동기화합니다; 특정 상태 변경에 관심 있는 스레드
는 원하는 상태를 볼 때까지 *note wait(): 18b8.를 반복적으로 호출하는 반
면, 상태를 변경하는 스레드는 대기자 중 하나가 원하는 상태일 수 있도록 상
태를 변경할 때 *note notify(): 17e3.나 *note notify_all(): 2fb.을 호출합
니다.  예를 들어, 다음 코드는 무제한 버퍼 용량의 일반적인 생산자-소비자
상황입니다:

     # 한 항목을 소비합니다
     with cv:
         while not an_item_is_available():
             cv.wait()
         get_an_available_item()

     # 한 항목을 생산합니다
     with cv:
         make_an_item_available()
         cv.notify()

*note wait(): 18b8.가 임의의 긴 시간 후에 반환될 수 있고, *note
notify(): 17e3. 호출을 유발한 조건이 더는 참이 아닐 수 있기 때문에, 응용
프로그램의 조건에 대한 ‘while’ 루프 검사가 필요합니다.  이것은 다중 스레
드 프로그래밍에 본질적으로 수반됩니다.  *note wait_for(): 3138. 메서드를
사용하면 조건 검사를 자동화하고 시간제한 계산을 쉽게 수행할 수 있습니다:

     # 한 항목을 소비합니다
     with cv:
         cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
         get_an_available_item()

*note notify(): 17e3.와 *note notify_all(): 2fb. 중에서 선택하려면, 하나
의 상태 변경에 흥미 있는 대기 중인 스레드가 하나일지 여러 개일지를 고려
하십시오.  예를 들어 일반적인 생산자-소비자 상황에서, 하나의 항목을 버퍼
에 추가하면 오직 하나의 소비자 스레드만 깨울 필요가 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: threading.Condition (lock=None)

     이 클래스는 조건 변수 객체를 구현합니다.  조건 변수를 사용하면 하나
     이상의 스레드가 다른 스레드에 의해 통지될 때까지 기다릴 수 있습니다
     .

     'lock' 인자가 제공되고 ‘None’이 아니면, *note Lock: 167e.이나 *note
     RLock: 2e0. 객체여야 하며, 하부 록으로 사용됩니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     새 *note RLock: 2e0. 객체가 만들어지고 하부 록으로 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 팩토리 함수에서 클래스로 변경되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: acquire (*args)

          하부 록을 획득합니다.  이 메서드는 하부 록에서 해당 메서드를 호
          출합니다; 반환 값은 그 메서드가 반환하는 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          하부 록을 해제합니다.  이 메서드는 하부 록에서 해당 메서드를 호
          출합니다; 반환 값이 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: wait (timeout=None)

          통지되거나 시간제한이 만료될 때까지 기다립니다.  이 메서드가 호
          출될 때 호출하는 스레드가 록을 획득하지 않았으면, *note
          RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

          이 메서드는 하부 록을 해제한 다음, 같은 조건 변수에 대한 다른
          스레드에서의 *note notify(): 17e3.나 *note notify_all(): 2fb.
          호출에 의해 깨어날 때까지 또는 선택적 시간제한 만료가 발생할 때
          까지 블록 합니다.  일단 깨어나거나 시간제한이 만료되면, 록을 다
          시 획득하고 반환합니다.

          'timeout' 인자가 있고 ‘None’이 아니면, 작업의 시간제한을 초(또
          는 부분 초)로 지정하는 부동 소수점 숫자여야 합니다.

          하부 록이 *note RLock: 2e0.일 때, 록이 여러 번 재귀적으로 획득
          되었을 때 록을 실제로 잠금 해제하지 못할 수 있기 때문에, *note
          release(): 3137. 메서드를 사용하여 록을 해제하지 않습니다.  대
          신, *note RLock: 2e0. 클래스의 내부 인터페이스가 사용되어, 재
          귀적으로 여러 번 획득한 경우에도 실제로 록을 잠금 해제합니다.
          그런 다음 다른 내부 인터페이스를 사용하여 록을 다시 획득할 때
          재귀 수준을 복원합니다.

          주어진 'timeout'이 만료되지 않는 한 반환 값은 ‘True’이며, 만료
          되면 ‘False’입니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 이전에는, 메서드가 항상 ‘None’을 반환했습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: wait_for (predicate, timeout=None)

          조건이 참으로 평가될 때까지 기다립니다.  'predicate'는 불리언
          값으로 해석될 결과를 반환하는 콜러블 이어야 합니다.  최대 대기
          시간을 주는 'timeout'이 제공될 수 있습니다.

          이 유틸리티 메서드는 술어(predicate)가 충족될 때까지, 또는 시
          간제한 만료가 발생할 때까지 *note wait(): 18b8.를 반복적으로 호
          출할 수 있습니다.  반환 값은 predicate의 마지막 반환 값이며 메
          서드가 시간제한 만료되면 ‘False’로 평가됩니다.

          시간제한 기능을 무시할 때, 이 메서드를 호출하는 것은 대략 다음
          과 같이 작성하는 것과 동등합니다:

               while not predicate():
                   cv.wait()

          따라서, *note wait(): 18b8.와 같은 규칙이 적용됩니다: 호출될 때
          록을 잡고 있어야 하며 반환할 때 다시 확보됩니다.  predicate는
          록을 잡고 있는 상태로 평가됩니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: notify (n=1)

          기본적으로, (있다면) 이 조건에서 대기 중인 하나의 스레드를 깨
          웁니다.  이 메서드가 호출될 때 호출하는 스레드가 잠금을 획득하
          지 않았으면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

          이 메서드는 조건 변수를 기다리는 스레드를 최대 'n' 개 깨웁니다
          ; 기다리는 스레드가 없으면 아무런 일도 하지 않습니다.

          적어도 'n' 스레드가 대기 중이면, 현재 구현은 정확히 'n' 스레드
          를 깨웁니다.  그러나, 이 동작에 의존하는 것은 안전하지 않습니
          다.  미래에는, 최적화된 구현이 때때로 'n' 스레드보다 많이 깨울
          수 있습니다.

          참고: 깨어난 스레드는 록을 다시 획득할 때까지 *note wait():
          18b8. 호출에서 실제로 반환하지 않습니다.  *note notify():
          17e3.가 록을 해제하지 않기 때문에, 호출자가 해제해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: notify_all ()

          이 조건에서 대기 중인 모든 스레드를 깨웁니다.  이 메서드는
          *note notify(): 17e3.처럼 작동하지만, 하나 대신에 대기 중인 모
          든 스레드를 깨웁니다.  이 메서드가 호출될 때 호출하는 스레드가
          잠금을 획득하지 않았으면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다
          .

          The method ‘notifyAll’ is a deprecated alias for this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore objects,  Next: Semaphore example,  Prev: Condition objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.9 Semaphore objects
..........................

이것은 일찌감치 네덜란드 컴퓨터 과학자 Edsger W. Dijkstra가 발명한, 컴퓨
터 과학 역사상 가장 오래된 동기화 프리미티브 중 하나입니다 (그는 *note
acquire(): 1244.와 *note release(): 313b. 대신 ‘P()’와 ‘V()’라는 이름을
사용했습니다).

세마포어는 각 *note acquire(): 1244. 호출에 의해 감소하고 각 *note
release(): 313b. 호출에 의해 증가하는 내부 카운터를 관리합니다.  카운터
는 절대 0 밑으로 떨어질 수 없습니다; *note acquire(): 1244.가 0임을 발견
하면, 다른 스레드가 *note release(): 313b.를 호출할 때까지 대기하면서 블
록 합니다.

세마포어도 *note 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜: 312f.을 지원합니다.

 -- 클래스: threading.Semaphore (value=1)

     이 클래스는 세마포어 객체를 구현합니다.  세마포어는 *note
     release(): 313b. 호출 수에서 *note acquire(): 1244. 호출 수를 빼고,
     초깃값을 더한 원자 적 카운터를 관리합니다.  *note acquire(): 1244.
     메서드는 카운터를 음수로 만들지 않고 반환할 수 있을 때까지 필요하면
     블록 합니다.  지정하지 않으면, 'value'의 기본값은 1입니다.

     선택적 인자는 내부 카운터의 초깃 '값(value)'을 제공합니다; 기본값은
     ‘1’입니다.  주어진 'value'가 0보다 작으면 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 팩토리 함수에서 클래스로 변경되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=None)

          세마포어를 획득합니다.

          인자 없이 호출될 때:

             * 진입 시 내부 카운터가 0보다 크면, 1 감소시키고 즉시
               ‘True’를 반환합니다.

             * 진입 시 내부 카운터가 0이면, *note release(): 313b.를 호
               출하여 깨울 때까지 블록 합니다.  일단 깨어나면 (그리고 카
               운터가 0보다 크면), 카운터를 1줄이고 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
               *note release(): 313b.를 호출할 때마다 정확히 하나의 스레
               드가 깨어납니다.  스레드가 깨어나는 순서에 의존해서는 안
               됩니다.

          ‘False’로 설정한 'blocking'으로 호출하면 블록 하지 않습니다.  인
          자가 없는 호출이 블록 할 것이라면, 즉시 ‘False’를 반환합니다;
          그렇지 않으면, 인자 없이 호출할 때와 같은 작업을 수행하고,
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          ‘None’ 이외의 'timeout'으로 호출하면, 최대 'timeout' 초 동안 블
          록 합니다.  그 기간 획득이 완료되지 않으면, ‘False’를 반환합니
          다.  그렇지 않으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: release (n=1)

          내부 카운터를 'n' 증가시키면서 세마포어를 해제합니다.  진입 시
          0이고 다른 스레드가 다시 0보다 커지기를 기다리고 있으면, 해당
          스레드를 'n'개 깨웁니다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 여러 대기 스레드를 한 번에 해제하기 위해
          'n' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: threading.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     경계 세마포어 객체를 구현하는 클래스.  경계 세마포어는 현재 값이 초
     깃값을 초과하지 않는지 확인합니다.  그렇다면, *note ValueError:
     202.가 발생합니다.  대부분은 세마포어는 제한된 용량의 자원을 보호하
     는 데 사용됩니다.  세마포어가 너무 여러 번 해제되면 버그의 징조입니
     다.  지정하지 않으면, 'value'의 기본값은 1입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 팩토리 함수에서 클래스로 변경되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore example,  Next: Event objects,  Prev: Semaphore objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.10 ‘Semaphore’ example
.............................

세마포어는 예를 들어 데이터베이스 서버와 같이 제한된 용량의 자원을 보호
하는 데 종종 사용됩니다.  자원의 크기가 고정된 상황에서는, 경계 세마포어
를 사용해야 합니다.  작업자 스레드를 만들기 전에, 메인 스레드가 세마포어
를 초기화합니다:

     maxconnections = 5
     # ...
     pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)

일단 만들어지면, 작업자 스레드는 서버에 연결해야 할 때 세마포어의
acquire 및 release 메서드를 호출합니다:

     with pool_sema:
         conn = connectdb()
         try:
             # ... 연결을 사용합니다 ...
         finally:
             conn.close()

경계 세마포어를 사용하면 세마포어가 획득한 것보다 더 많이 해제되는 프로
그래밍 에러가 감지되지 않을 가능성이 줄어듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Event objects,  Next: Timer objects,  Prev: Semaphore example,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.11 Event objects
.......................

이것은 스레드 간 통신을 위한 가장 간단한 메커니즘 중 하나입니다: 하나의
스레드는 이벤트를 알리고 다른 스레드는 이를 기다립니다.

이벤트 객체는 *note set(): 3140. 메서드를 사용하여 참으로 설정하고 *note
clear(): 3141. 메서드를 사용하여 거짓으로 재설정 할 수 있는 내부 플래그
를 관리합니다.  *note wait(): 1316. 메서드는 플래그가 참이 될 때까지 블
록 합니다.

 -- 클래스: threading.Event

     이벤트 객체를 구현하는 클래스.  이벤트는 *note set(): 3140. 메서드
     로 참으로 설정하고 *note clear(): 3141. 메서드로 거짓으로 재설정 할
     수 있는 플래그를 관리합니다.  *note wait(): 1316. 메서드는 플래그가
     참이 될 때까지 블록 합니다.  플래그는 처음에는 거짓입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 팩토리 함수에서 클래스로 변경되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_set ()

          내부 플래그가 참이면 그리고 오직 그때만 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          The method ‘isSet’ is a deprecated alias for this method.

      -- 메서드: set ()

          내부 플래그를 참으로 설정합니다.  이것이 참이 되기를 기다리는
          모든 스레드가 깨어납니다.  일단 플래그가 참이면 *note wait():
          1316.를 호출하는 스레드는 전혀 블록 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          내부 플래그를 거짓으로 재설정합니다.  이후 *note wait():
          1316.를 호출하는 스레드는 내부 플래그를 다시 참으로 설정하기 위
          해 *note set(): 3140.을 호출할 때까지 블록 합니다.

      -- 메서드: wait (timeout=None)

          Block as long as the internal flag is false and the timeout,
          if given, has not expired.  The return value represents the
          reason that this blocking method returned; ‘True’ if returning
          because the internal flag is set to true, or ‘False’ if a
          timeout is given and the internal flag did not become true
          within the given wait time.

          timeout 인자가 있고 ‘None’이 아니면, 작업의 시간제한을 초 또는
          부분 초로 지정하는 부동 소수점 숫자여야 합니다.

          버전 3.1에서 변경: 이전에는, 메서드가 항상 ‘None’을 반환했습니
          다.


File: python.info,  Node: Timer objects,  Next: Barrier objects,  Prev: Event objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.12 Timer objects
.......................

이 클래스는 특정 시간이 지난 후에만 실행되어야 하는 조치를 나타냅니다 –
타이머.  *note Timer: 114a.는 *note Thread: 94a.의 서브 클래스이며 사용
자 정의 스레드를 만드는 예제로도 기능합니다.

타이머는 스레드와 마찬가지로, *note Timer.start: 2cc5. 메서드를 호출하여
시작됩니다.  *note cancel(): 3144. 메서드를 호출하여 (조치를 시작하기 전
에) 타이머를 중지할 수 있습니다.  조치를 실행하기 전에 타이머가 대기하는
간격은 사용자가 지정한 간격과 정확히 같지 않을 수 있습니다.

예를 들면:

     def hello():
         print("hello, world")

     t = Timer(30.0, hello)
     t.start()  # 30초 후에, "hello, world" 가 인쇄됩니다

 -- 클래스: threading.Timer (interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)

     'interval' 초가 지난 후 'args' 인자와 'kwargs' 키워드 인자로
     'function'을 실행하는 타이머를 만듭니다.  'args'가 ‘None’(기본값)이
     면 빈 리스트가 사용됩니다.  'kwargs'가 ‘None’(기본값)이면 빈 딕셔너
     리가 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 팩토리 함수에서 클래스로 변경되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: cancel ()

          타이머를 중지하고, 타이머 조치의 실행을 취소합니다.  타이머가
          아직 대기 상태에 있을 때만 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier objects,  Prev: Timer objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.18.1.13 Barrier objects
.........................

Added in version 3.2.

이 클래스는 서로를 기다려야 하는 고정된 수의 스레드에서 사용할 수 있는 간
단한 동기화 프리미티브를 제공합니다.  각 스레드는 *note wait(): 3146. 메
서드를 호출하여 장벽(barrier)을 통과하려고 시도하고 모든 스레드가 *note
wait(): 3146. 호출을 수행할 때까지 블록 합니다.  이 시점에서, 스레드가 동
시에 해제됩니다.

장벽은 같은 수의 스레드에 대해 여러 번 재사용 할 수 있습니다.

예를 들어, 다음은 클라이언트와 서버 스레드를 동기화하는 간단한 방법입니
다:

     b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)

     def server():
         start_server()
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = accept_connection()
             process_server_connection(connection)

     def client():
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = make_connection()
             process_client_connection(connection)

 -- 클래스: threading.Barrier (parties, action=None, timeout=None)

     'parties' 수의 스레드에 대한 장벽 객체를 만듭니다.  제공되면,
     'action'은 해제될 때 스레드 중 하나가 호출할 콜러블입니다.
     'timeout'은 *note wait(): 3146. 메서드에 대해 지정되지 않을 때 사용
     될 기본 시간제한 값입니다.

      -- 메서드: wait (timeout=None)

          장벽을 통과합니다.  장벽에 속한 모든 스레드가 이 함수를 호출할
          때, 모두 동시에 해제됩니다.  'timeout'이 제공되면, 클래스 생성
          자에 제공된 것보다 우선하여 사용됩니다.

          반환 값은 0에서 'parties' - 1 범위의 정수이며, 스레드마다 다릅
          니다.  이것은 특별한 하우스키핑을 수행할 스레드를 선택하는데 사
          용될 수 있습니다, 예를 들어:

               i = barrier.wait()
               if i == 0:
                   # 오직 한 스레드만 이것을 인쇄하면 됩니다
                   print("passed the barrier")

          생성자에 'action'이 제공되면, 스레드 중 하나가 해제되기 전에 호
          출합니다.  이 호출로 에러가 발생하면, 장벽은 망가진 상태가 됩
          니다.

          호출 시간제한이 만료되면, 장벽은 망가진 상태가 됩니다.

          스레드가 기다리는 동안 장벽이 망가지거나 재설정되면 이 메서드
          는 *note BrokenBarrierError: 11d4. 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다
          .

      -- 메서드: reset ()

          장벽을 기본의 빈 상태로 되돌립니다.  대기 중인 모든 스레드는
          *note BrokenBarrierError: 11d4. 예외를 수신합니다.

          상태를 알 수 없는 다른 스레드가 있을 때 이 함수를 사용하려면 외
          부 동기화가 필요할 수 있습니다.  장벽이 망가지면 그냥 두고 새
          장벽을 만드는 것이 좋습니다.

      -- 메서드: abort ()

          장벽을 망가진 상태로 보냅니다.  이로 인해 *note wait(): 3146.에
          대한 활성 또는 미래의 호출이 *note BrokenBarrierError: 11d4.로
          실패합니다.  예를 들어 응용 프로그램의 교착 상태를 피하고자 스
          레드 중 하나를 중단해야 할 때 이를 사용하십시오.

          스레드 중 하나가 잘못되는 것을 막기 위해 단순히 적절한
          'timeout' 값으로 장벽을 만드는 것이 바람직 할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: parties

          장벽을 통과하는 데 필요한 스레드 수.

      -- 속성: n_waiting

          현재 장벽에서 대기 중인 스레드 수.

      -- 속성: broken

          장벽이 망가진 상태이면 ‘True’인 불리언.

 -- 예외: threading.BrokenBarrierError

     *note RuntimeError: 195.의 서브 클래스인, 이 예외는 *note Barrier:
     11d2. 객체가 재설정되거나 망가질 때 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: with 문으로 록 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기,  Prev: Reference<2>,  Up: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리

5.18.1.14 ‘with’ 문으로 록, 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기
.....................................................

이 모듈에서 제공하는 ‘acquire’와 ‘release’ 메서드가 있는 모든 객체는
*note with: 5cc. 문의 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 수 있습니다.  블록에 진입
할 때 ‘acquire’ 메서드가 호출되고, 블록을 벗어날 때 ‘release’가 호출됩니
다.  따라서, 다음 코드 조각은:

     with some_lock:
         # 뭔가 합니다...

다음과 동등합니다:

     some_lock.acquire()
     try:
         # 뭔가 합니다...
     finally:
         some_lock.release()

현재 *note Lock: 167e, *note RLock: 2e0, *note Condition: 1146, *note
Semaphore: 1147. 및 *note BoundedSemaphore: 1148. 객체는 *note with:
5cc. 문 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리,  Prev: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.2 ‘multiprocessing’ — Process-based parallelism
----------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/multiprocessing/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<3>.
* 레퍼런스::
* 프로그래밍 지침::
* 예제: 예제<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/multiprocessing/


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<3>,  Next: 레퍼런스,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.1 소개
.............

*note multiprocessing: 94. is a package that supports spawning processes
using an API similar to the *note threading: ed. module.  The *note
multiprocessing: 94. package offers both local and remote concurrency,
effectively side-stepping the *note Global Interpreter Lock: 148. by
using subprocesses instead of threads.  Due to this, the *note
multiprocessing: 94. module allows the programmer to fully leverage
multiple processors on a given machine.  It runs on both POSIX and
Windows.

*note multiprocessing: 94. 모듈은 *note threading: ed. 모듈에 대응 물이
없는 API도 제공합니다.  이것의 대표적인 예가 *note Pool: f63. 객체입니다
.  이 객체는 여러 입력 값에 걸쳐 함수의 실행을 병렬 처리하고 입력 데이터
를 프로세스에 분산시키는 편리한 방법을 제공합니다(데이터 병렬 처리).  다
음 예제는 자식 프로세스가 해당 모듈을 성공적으로 임포트 할 수 있도록, 모
듈에서 이러한 함수를 정의하는 일반적인 방법을 보여줍니다.  다음은 *note
Pool: f63. 를 사용하는 데이터 병렬 처리의 기본 예제입니다:

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(5) as p:
             print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

표준 출력으로 다음과 같은 것을 인쇄합니다

     [1, 4, 9]

더 보기
.......

*note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background process without blocking
execution of the calling process.  Compared to using the *note Pool:
f63. interface directly, the *note concurrent.futures: 21. API more
readily allows the submission of work to the underlying process pool to
be separated from waiting for the results.

* Menu:

* Process 클래스::
* 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법::
* 프로세스 간 객체 교환::
* 프로세스 간 동기화::
* 프로세스 간 상태 공유::
* 작업자 풀 사용::


File: python.info,  Node: Process 클래스,  Next: 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법,  Up: 소개<3>

5.18.2.2 ‘Process’ 클래스
.........................

*note multiprocessing: 94.에서, 프로세스는 *note Process: b56. 객체를 생
성한 후 *note start(): 3151. 메서드를 호출해서 스폰합니다.  *note
Process: b56. 는 *note threading.Thread: 94a. 의 API를 따릅니다.  다중 프
로세스 프로그램의 간단한 예는 다음과 같습니다

     from multiprocessing import Process

     def f(name):
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

이 과정에 참여하는 개별 프로세스의 ID를 보기 위해, 이렇게 예제를 확장합
니다:

     from multiprocessing import Process
     import os

     def info(title):
         print(title)
         print('module name:', __name__)
         print('parent process:', os.getppid())
         print('process id:', os.getpid())

     def f(name):
         info('function f')
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         info('main line')
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 부분이 필요한 이유에 대한 설명은 *note
프로그래밍 지침: 3152.을 보십시오.

The arguments to *note Process: b56. usually need to be unpickleable
from within the child process.  If you tried typing the above example
directly into a REPL it could lead to an *note AttributeError: 346. in
the child process trying to locate the 'f' function in the ‘__main__’
module.


File: python.info,  Node: 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법,  Next: 프로세스 간 객체 교환,  Prev: Process 클래스,  Up: 소개<3>

5.18.2.3 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법
..............................

플랫폼에 따라, *note multiprocessing: 94.은 프로세스를 시작하는 세 가지
방법을 지원합니다.  이러한 '시작 방법' 은

     'spawn'

          The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process.
          The child process will only inherit those resources necessary
          to run the process object’s *note run(): 3155. method.  In
          particular, unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the
          parent process will not be inherited.  Starting a process
          using this method is rather slow compared to using 'fork' or
          'forkserver'.

          Available on POSIX and Windows platforms.  The default on
          Windows and macOS.

     'fork'

          부모 프로세스는 *note os.fork(): 197. 를 사용하여 파이썬 인터
          프리터를 포크 합니다.  자식 프로세스는, 시작될 때, 부모 프로세
          스와 실질적으로 같습니다.  부모의 모든 자원이 자식 프로세스에
          의해 상속됩니다.  다중 스레드 프로세스를 안전하게 포크 하기 어
          렵다는 점에 주의하십시오.

          Available on POSIX systems.  Currently the default on POSIX
          except macOS.

               참고: The default start method will change away from
               'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' should
               explicitly specify that via *note get_context(): 2c7. or
               *note set_start_method(): 2c8.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: If Python is able to detect that your
          process has multiple threads, the *note os.fork(): 197.
          function that this start method calls internally will raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  Use a different start method.
          See the *note os.fork(): 197. documentation for further
          explanation.

     'forkserver'

          When the program starts and selects the 'forkserver' start
          method, a server process is spawned.  From then on, whenever a
          new process is needed, the parent process connects to the
          server and requests that it fork a new process.  The fork
          server process is single threaded unless system libraries or
          preloaded imports spawn threads as a side-effect so it is
          generally safe for it to use *note os.fork(): 197.  No
          unnecessary resources are inherited.

          Available on POSIX platforms which support passing file
          descriptors over Unix pipes such as Linux.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 'spawn' added on all POSIX platforms, and
'forkserver' added for some POSIX platforms.  Child processes no longer
inherit all of the parents inheritable handles on Windows.

버전 3.8에서 변경: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now the
default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe as it can
lead to crashes of the subprocess as macOS system libraries may start
threads.  See bpo-33725(1).

On POSIX using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods will also start
a 'resource tracker' process which tracks the unlinked named system
resources (such as named semaphores or *note SharedMemory: 1660.
objects) created by processes of the program.  When all processes have
exited the resource tracker unlinks any remaining tracked object.
Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
there may be some “leaked” resources.  (Neither leaked semaphores nor
shared memory segments will be automatically unlinked until the next
reboot.  This is problematic for both objects because the system allows
only a limited number of named semaphores, and shared memory segments
occupy some space in the main memory.)

시작 방법을 선택하려면 메인 모듈의 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 절에서
*note set_start_method(): 2c8.를 사용하십시오.  예를 들면:

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         mp.set_start_method('spawn')
         q = mp.Queue()
         p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

*note set_start_method(): 2c8. 는 프로그램에서 한 번만 사용되어야 합니다
.

또는, *note get_context(): 2c7.를 사용하여 컨텍스트 객체를 얻을 수 있습
니다.  컨텍스트 객체는 multiprocessing 모듈과 같은 API를 제공하므로 한 프
로그램에서 여러 시작 방법을 사용할 수 있습니다.

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
         q = ctx.Queue()
         p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

한 컨텍스트와 관련된 객체는 다른 컨텍스트의 프로세스와 호환되지 않을 수
있음에 주의하십시오.  특히 'fork' 컨텍스트를 사용하여 생성된 록은
'spawn' 또는 'forkserver' 시작 방법을 사용하여 시작된 프로세스로 전달될
수 없습니다.

Libraries using *note multiprocessing: 94. or *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
8eb. should be designed to allow their users to provide their own
multiprocessing context.  Using a specific context of your own within a
library can lead to incompatibilities with the rest of the library
user’s application.  Always document if your library requires a specific
start method.

     경고: The ‘'spawn'’ and ‘'forkserver'’ start methods generally
     cannot be used with “frozen” executables (i.e., binaries produced
     by packages like 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze') on POSIX systems.
     The ‘'fork'’ start method may work if code does not use threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 간 객체 교환,  Next: 프로세스 간 동기화,  Prev: 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법,  Up: 소개<3>

5.18.2.4 프로세스 간 객체 교환
..............................

*note multiprocessing: 94. 은 두 가지 유형의 프로세스 간 통신 채널을 지
원합니다:

'큐'

     *note Queue: 1802. 클래스는 *note queue.Queue: 1377. 의 클론에 가깝
     습니다.  예를 들면:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              q = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
              p.start()
              print(q.get())    # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     Queues are thread and process safe.  Any object put into a *note
     multiprocessing: 94. queue will be serialized.

'파이프'

     *note Pipe(): 3159. 함수는 파이프로 연결된 한 쌍의 연결 객체를 돌려
     주는데 기본적으로 양방향(duplex)입니다.  예를 들면:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

          def f(conn):
              conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
              conn.close()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
              p.start()
              print(parent_conn.recv())   # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     *note Pipe(): 3159. 가 반환하는 두 개의 연결 객체는 파이프의 두 끝
     을 나타냅니다.  각 연결 객체에는 (다른 것도 있지만) ‘send()’ 및
     ‘recv()’ 메서드가 있습니다.  두 프로세스 (또는 스레드)가 파이프의
     '같은' 끝에서 동시에 읽거나 쓰려고 하면 파이프의 데이터가 손상될 수
     있습니다.  물론 파이프의 다른 끝을 동시에 사용하는 프로세스로 인해
     손상될 위험은 없습니다.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object and ‘recv()’ re-creates
     the object.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 간 동기화,  Next: 프로세스 간 상태 공유,  Prev: 프로세스 간 객체 교환,  Up: 소개<3>

5.18.2.5 프로세스 간 동기화
...........................

*note multiprocessing: 94. 은 *note threading: ed. 에 있는 모든 동기화 프
리미티브의 등가물을 포함합니다.  예를 들어 한 번에 하나의 프로세스만 표
준 출력으로 인쇄하도록 록을 사용할 수 있습니다:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

     def f(l, i):
         l.acquire()
         try:
             print('hello world', i)
         finally:
             l.release()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         for num in range(10):
             Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

록을 사용하지 않으면 다른 프로세스의 출력들이 모두 섞일 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 간 상태 공유,  Next: 작업자 풀 사용,  Prev: 프로세스 간 동기화,  Up: 소개<3>

5.18.2.6 프로세스 간 상태 공유
..............................

위에서 언급했듯이, 동시성 프로그래밍을 할 때 보통 가능한 한 공유된 상태
를 사용하지 않는 것이 최선입니다.  여러 프로세스를 사용할 때 특히 그렇습
니다.

그러나, 정말로 공유 데이터를 사용해야 한다면 *note multiprocessing: 94.
이 몇 가지 방법을 제공합니다.

'공유 메모리'

     데이터는 *note Value: 315c. 또는 *note Array: 315d.를 사용하여 공유
     메모리 맵에 저장 될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음 코드는

          from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

          def f(n, a):
              n.value = 3.1415927
              for i in range(len(a)):
                  a[i] = -a[i]

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              num = Value('d', 0.0)
              arr = Array('i', range(10))

              p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
              p.start()
              p.join()

              print(num.value)
              print(arr[:])

     를 인쇄할 것입니다

          3.1415927
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

     ‘num’ 과 ‘arr’ 을 만들 때 사용되는 ‘'d'’ 와 ‘'i'’ 인자는 *note
     array: 7. 모듈에서 사용되는 종류의 타입 코드입니다: ‘'d'’ 는 배정밀
     도 부동 소수점을 나타내고, ‘'i'’ 는 부호 있는 정수를 나타냅니다.  이
     러한 공유 객체는 프로세스 및 스레드에 안전합니다.

     공유 메모리를 더 유연하게 사용하려면, 공유 메모리에 할당된 임의의
     ctypes 객체 생성을 지원하는 *note multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 9a.
     모듈을 사용할 수 있습니다.

'서버 프로세스'

     *note Manager(): cb6. 가 반환한 관리자 객체는 파이썬 객체를 유지하
     고 다른 프로세스가 프락시를 사용하여 이 객체를 조작할 수 있게 하는
     서버 프로세스를 제어합니다.

     *note Manager(): cb6. 가 반환한 관리자는 *note list: 60b, *note
     dict: 256, *note Namespace: 315e, *note Lock: 15a4, *note RLock:
     15a5, *note Semaphore: 315f, *note BoundedSemaphore: 3160, *note
     Condition: 3161, *note Event: 186a, *note Barrier: 3162, *note
     Queue: 1802, *note Value: 315c. 그리고 *note Array: 315d. 형을 지원
     합니다.  예를 들어, 다음 코드는

          from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

          def f(d, l):
              d[1] = '1'
              d['2'] = 2
              d[0.25] = None
              l.reverse()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              with Manager() as manager:
                  d = manager.dict()
                  l = manager.list(range(10))

                  p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l))
                  p.start()
                  p.join()

                  print(d)
                  print(l)

     를 인쇄할 것입니다

          {0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
          [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

     서버 프로세스 관리자는 임의의 객체 형을 지원하도록 만들 수 있으므로
     공유 메모리 객체를 사용하는 것보다 융통성이 있습니다.  또한, 단일 관
     리자를 네트워크를 통해 서로 다른 컴퓨터의 프로세스에서 공유 할 수 있
     습니다.  그러나 공유 메모리를 사용할 때보다 느립니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 작업자 풀 사용,  Prev: 프로세스 간 상태 공유,  Up: 소개<3>

5.18.2.7 작업자 풀 사용
.......................

*note Pool: f63. 클래스는 작업자 프로세스 풀을 나타냅니다.  여기에는 몇
가지 다른 방법으로 작업을 작업자 프로세스로 넘길 수 있는 메서드가 있습니
다.

예를 들면:

     from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
     import time
     import os

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # start 4 worker processes
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

             # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))

             # print same numbers in arbitrary order
             for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
                 print(i)

             # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"

             # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process

             # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
             multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
             print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])

             # make a single worker sleep for 10 seconds
             res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             try:
                 print(res.get(timeout=1))
             except TimeoutError:
                 print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")

             print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")

         # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
         print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")

풀의 메서드는 풀을 만든 프로세스에서만 사용되어야 함에 유의하세요.

     참고: 이 패키지 내의 기능을 사용하려면 ‘__main__’ 모듈을 자식이 임
     포트 할 수 있어야 합니다.  이것은 *note 프로그래밍 지침: 3152.에서
     다루지만, 여기에서 지적할 가치가 있습니다.  이것은 몇몇 예제, 가령
     *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool: f63. 예제가 대화형 인터프리터에서
     동작하지 않음을 의미합니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> from multiprocessing import Pool
          >>> p = Pool(5)
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     return x*x
          ...
          >>> with p:
          ...     p.map(f, [1,2,3])
          Process PoolWorker-1:
          Process PoolWorker-2:
          Process PoolWorker-3:
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>

     (이것을 시도해 보면 실제로 세 개의 전체 트레이스백이 어느 정도 임의
     로 번갈아 출력됩니다.  그런 다음 부모 프로세스를 중지시켜야 할 수도
     있습니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 레퍼런스,  Next: 프로그래밍 지침,  Prev: 소개<3>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.8 레퍼런스
.................

*note multiprocessing: 94. 패키지는 대부분 *note threading: ed. 모듈의
API를 복제합니다.

* Menu:

* Process와 예외::
* 파이프와 큐::
* 잡동사니: 잡동사니<3>.
* Connection 객체::
* 동기화 프리미티브::
* 공유 ctypes 객체::
* 관리자::
* 프락시 객체::
* 프로세스 풀::
* 리스너와 클라이언트::
* 인증 키::
* 로깅: 로깅<2>.
* multiprocessing.dummy 모듈: multiprocessing dummy 모듈.


File: python.info,  Node: Process와 예외,  Next: 파이프와 큐,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.9 ‘Process’와 예외
.........................

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Process (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     프로세스 객체는 별도의 프로세스에서 실행되는 작업을 나타냅니다.
     *note Process: b56. 클래스는 *note threading.Thread: 94a. 의 모든 메
     서드와 같은 메서드를 갖습니다.

     The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     'group' should always be ‘None’; it exists solely for compatibility
     with *note threading.Thread: 94a.  'target' is the callable object
     to be invoked by the *note run(): 3155. method.  It defaults to
     ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.  'name' is the process name (see
     *note name: 3166. for more details).  'args' is the argument tuple
     for the target invocation.  'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword
     arguments for the target invocation.  If provided, the keyword-only
     'daemon' argument sets the process *note daemon: 3167. flag to
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.  If ‘None’ (the default), this flag will be
     inherited from the creating process.

     By default, no arguments are passed to 'target'.  The 'args'
     argument, which defaults to ‘()’, can be used to specify a list or
     tuple of the arguments to pass to 'target'.

     If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it
     invokes the base class constructor (‘super().__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the process.

          참고: In general, all arguments to *note Process: b56. must be
          picklable.  This is frequently observed when trying to create
          a *note Process: b56. or use a *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. from a REPL with
          a locally defined 'target' function.

          Passing a callable object defined in the current REPL session
          causes the child process to die via an uncaught *note
          AttributeError: 346. exception when starting as 'target' must
          have been defined within an importable module in order to be
          loaded during unpickling.

          Example of this uncatchable error from the child:

               >>> import multiprocessing as mp
               >>> def knigit():
               ...     print("Ni!")
               ...
               >>> process = mp.Process(target=knigit)
               >>> process.start()
               >>> Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in spawn_main
                 File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in _main
               AttributeError: module '__main__' has no attribute 'knigit'
               >>> process
               <SpawnProcess name='SpawnProcess-1' pid=379473 parent=378707 stopped exitcode=1>

          See *note spawn 과 forkserver 시작 방법: 3168.  While this
          restriction is not true if using the ‘"fork"’ start method, as
          of Python ‘3.14’ that is no longer the default on any
          platform.  See *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.  See also
          gh-132898(1).

     버전 3.3에서 변경: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

      -- 메서드: run ()

          프로세스의 활동을 나타내는 메서드.

          서브 클래스에서 이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.  표준 *note
          run(): 3155. 메서드는 객체의 생성자에 target 인자로 전달된 콜
          러블 객체를 호출하는데 (있다면) 'args' 와 'kwargs' 인자를 각각
          위치 인자와 키워드 인자로 사용합니다.

          Using a list or tuple as the 'args' argument passed to *note
          Process: b56. achieves the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from multiprocessing import Process
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> p.run()
               1
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> p.run()
               1

      -- 메서드: start ()

          프로세스의 활동을 시작합니다.

          이것은 프로세스 객체 당 최대 한 번 호출되어야 합니다.  객체의
          *note run(): 3155. 메서드가 별도의 프로세스에서 호출되도록 합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: join ([timeout])

          선택적 인자 'timeout' 이 ‘None’ (기본값) 인 경우, 메서드는
          *note join(): 3169. 메서드가 호출된 프로세스가 종료될 때까지 블
          록 됩니다.  'timeout' 이 양수면 최대 'timeout' 초 동안 블록 됩
          니다.  이 메서드는 프로세스가 종료되거나 메서드가 시간 초과 되
          면 ‘None’ 을 돌려줌에 주의해야 합니다.  프로세스의 *note
          exitcode: 316a. 를 검사하여 종료되었는지 확인하십시오.

          프로세스는 여러 번 조인할 수 있습니다.

          교착 상태를 유발할 수 있으므로 프로세스는 자신을 조인할 수 없
          습니다.  프로세스가 시작되기 전에 프로세스에 조인하려고 하면 에
          러가 발생합니다.

      -- 속성: name

          프로세스의 이름.  이름은 식별 목적으로만 사용되는 문자열입니다
          .  다른 의미는 없습니다.  여러 프로세스에 같은 이름이 주어질 수
          있습니다.

          초기 이름은 생성자에 의해 설정됩니다.  명시적 이름이 생성자에
          제공되지 않으면, ‘Process-N[1]:N[2]:…:N[k]’ 형식의 이름이 만들
          어지는데, 각각의 N[k] 는 부모의 N 번째 자식입니다.

      -- 메서드: is_alive ()

          프로세스가 살아있는지 아닌지를 반환합니다.

          대략, 프로세스 객체는 *note start(): 3151. 메서드가 반환하는 순
          간부터 자식 프로세스가 종료될 때까지 살아있습니다.

      -- 속성: daemon

          프로세스의 데몬 플래그, 논리값.  *note start(): 3151. 가 호출
          되기 전에 설정되어야 합니다.

          초깃값은 생성 프로세스에서 상속됩니다.

          프로세스가 종료할 때, 모든 데몬 자식 프로세스를 강제 종료시키
          려고(terminate) 시도합니다.

          데몬 프로세스는 하위 프로세스를 만들 수 없음에 유의하십시오.  그
          렇지 않으면 부모 프로세스가 종료될 때 데몬 프로세스가 강제 종
          료되어, 데몬 프로세스가 자식 프로세스를 고아로 남기게 됩니다.
          또한, 이들은 유닉스 데몬이나 서비스가 '아닙니다', 데몬이 아닌
          프로세스들이 종료되면 강제 종료되는 (그리고 조인되지 않는) 일
          반 프로세스입니다.

     *note threading.Thread: 94a. API 외에도 *note Process: b56. 객체는
     다음 어트리뷰트와 메서드도 지원합니다 :

      -- 속성: pid

          프로세스 ID를 돌려줍니다.  프로세스가 스폰 되기 전에는 ‘None’
          입니다.

      -- 속성: exitcode

          The child’s exit code.  This will be ‘None’ if the process has
          not yet terminated.

          If the child’s *note run(): 3155. method returned normally,
          the exit code will be 0.  If it terminated via *note
          sys.exit(): 1339. with an integer argument 'N', the exit code
          will be 'N'.

          If the child terminated due to an exception not caught within
          *note run(): 3155, the exit code will be 1.  If it was
          terminated by signal 'N', the exit code will be the negative
          value '-N'.

      -- 속성: authkey

          프로세스의 인증 키 (바이트열) 입니다.

          *note multiprocessing: 94. 이 초기화될 때, 메인 프로세스는
          *note os.urandom(): 51c. 을 사용하여 임의의 문자열을 할당받습
          니다.

          *note Process: b56. 객체가 생성될 때, 부모 프로세스의 인증 키
          를 상속받습니다.  *note authkey: 316d. 를 다른 바이트열로 설정
          하여 변경할 수 있습니다.

          *note 인증 키: 316e.를 참조하세요.

      -- 속성: sentinel

          프로세스가 끝나면 “준비(ready)” 될 시스템 객체의 숫자 핸들.

          You can use this value if you want to wait on several events
          at once using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10d2.
          Otherwise calling *note join(): 3169. is simpler.

          On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the
          ‘WaitForSingleObject’ and ‘WaitForMultipleObjects’ family of
          API calls.  On POSIX, this is a file descriptor usable with
          primitives from the *note select: c1. module.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: terminate ()

          Terminate the process.  On POSIX this is done using the *note
          SIGTERM: 13a8. signal; on Windows ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          used.  Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will
          not be executed.

          프로세스의 자손 프로세스들은 강제 종료되지 '않을' 것입니다 – 단
          순히 고아가 될 것입니다.

               경고: 연결된 프로세스가 파이프 또는 큐를 사용할 때 이 메
               서드를 사용하면, 파이프 또는 큐가 손상되어 다른 프로세스
               에서 사용할 수 없게 될 수 있습니다.  마찬가지로, 프로세스
               가 록이나 세마포어 등을 획득한 경우 강제 종료하면 다른 프
               로세스가 교착 상태가 될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: kill ()

          Same as *note terminate(): 316f. but using the ‘SIGKILL’
          signal on POSIX.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          *note Process: b56. 객체를 닫아, 그것과 관련된 모든 자원을 해
          제합니다.  하부 프로세스가 여전히 실행 중이면 *note
          ValueError: 202. 가 발생합니다.  일단 *note close(): b54. 가 성
          공적으로 반환되면, *note Process: b56. 객체의 다른 대부분의 메
          서드와 어트리뷰트는 *note ValueError: 202. 를 발생시킵니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

     *note start(): 3151, *note join(): 3169, *note is_alive(): 316b,
     *note terminate(): 316f. 및 *note exitcode: 316a. 메서드는 프로세스
     객체를 생성한 프로세스에 의해서만 호출되어야 합니다.

     *note Process: b56. 의 몇몇 메서드를 사용하는 예제:

          >>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> p = mp_context.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... initial> False
          >>> p.start()
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... started> True
          >>> p.terminate()
          >>> time.sleep(0.1)
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... stopped exitcode=-SIGTERM> False
          >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
          True

 -- 예외: multiprocessing.ProcessError

     모든 *note multiprocessing: 94. 예외의 베이스 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: multiprocessing.BufferTooShort

     Exception raised by ‘Connection.recv_bytes_into()’ when the
     supplied buffer object is too small for the message read.

     ‘e’ 가 *note BufferTooShort: 3171. 의 인스턴스라면, ‘e.args[0]’ 는
     메시지를 바이트열로 줍니다.

 -- 예외: multiprocessing.AuthenticationError

     인증 에러가 일어날 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: multiprocessing.TimeoutError

     시간제한이 초과하였을 때 시간제한을 건 메서드에 의해 발생합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132898


File: python.info,  Node: 파이프와 큐,  Next: 잡동사니<3>,  Prev: Process와 예외,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.10 파이프와 큐
.....................

여러 프로세스를 사용할 때, 일반적으로 프로세스 간 통신을 위해 메시지 전
달을 사용하고 록과 같은 동기화 프리미티브 사용을 피합니다.

메시지를 전달하기 위해 *note Pipe(): 3159. (두 프로세스 간의 연결) 또는
큐(여러 생산자와 소비자를 허용합니다)를 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note Queue: 1802, *note SimpleQueue: 911. 그리고 *note JoinableQueue:
3175. 형은, 표준 라이브러리의 *note queue.Queue: 1377. 클래스에 따라 모
델링 된, 다중 생산자, 다중 소비자 FIFO 큐입니다.  이것들은 파이썬 2.5의
*note queue.Queue: 1377. 클래스에서 도입된 *note task_done(): 3176.과
*note join(): 3177. 메서드가 *note Queue: 1802. 에 없다는 점에서 다릅니
다.

*note JoinableQueue: 3175.를 사용하면, 큐에서 제거된 작업마다 *note
JoinableQueue.task_done(): 3178.을 호출해야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 완료
되지 않은 작업의 수를 세는 데 사용되는 세마포어가 결국 오버플로 되어 예
외를 일으킵니다.

One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that *note
multiprocessing: 94. queues serializes all objects that are put into
them using *note pickle: a6.  The object return by the get method is a
re-created object that does not share memory with the original object.

관리자 객체를 사용하여 공유 큐를 생성할 수도 있습니다 – *note 관리자:
3179.를 보세요.

     참고: *note multiprocessing: 94. 은 제한 시간 초과 신호를 보내기 위
     해 보통 *note queue.Empty: 317a. 와 *note queue.Full: 317b. 예외를
     사용합니다.  *note multiprocessing: 94. 이름 공간에는 없으므로
     *note queue: b6.에서 임포트 해야 합니다.

     참고: 객체를 큐에 넣으면, 객체는 피클 되고 배경 스레드가 나중에 피
     클 된 데이터를 하부 파이프로 플러시 합니다.  이것은 다소 의외의 결
     과로 이어지지만, 실제적인 어려움을 일으키지는 않아야 합니다 – 이것
     이 여러분을 정말로 신경 쓰이게 한다면, 대신 *note 관리자: 3179. 로
     만든 큐를 사용할 수 있습니다.

       1. 빈 큐에 객체를 넣은 후에, *note empty(): 1603. 메서드가 *note
          False: b34.를 반환하고 *note get_nowait(): 317c.가 *note
          queue.Empty: 317a. 를 일으키지 않고 반환할 수 있기 전까지 극히
          작은 지연이 있을 수 있습니다.

       2. 여러 프로세스가 객체를 큐에 넣는 경우, 반대편에서 객체가 다른
          순서로 수신될 수 있습니다.  그러나, 같은 프로세스에 의해 큐에
          들어간 객체들은 항상 상대적인 순서가 유지됩니다.

     경고: *note Queue: 1802.를 사용하려고 하는 동안 *note
     Process.terminate(): 316f. 또는 *note os.kill(): 1350. 을 사용하여
     프로세스를 죽이면, 큐의 데이터가 손상될 수 있습니다.  이로 인해 나
     중에 다른 프로세스가 큐를 사용하려고 할 때 예외가 발생할 수 있습니
     다.

     경고: 위에서 언급했듯이, 자식 프로세스가 항목을 큐에 넣었을 때 (그
     리고 *note JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread: 317d. 를 사용하지 않았
     다면), 버퍼링 된 모든 항목이 파이프로 플러시 될 때까지 해당 프로세
     스가 종료되지 않습니다.

     이것은, 여러분이 그 자식 프로세스를 조인하려고 하면, 큐에 넣은 모든
     항목을 소진하지 않는 한 교착 상태가 발생할 수 있다는 뜻입니다.  마
     찬가지로, 그 자식 프로세스가 데몬이 아니면 부모 프로세스가 종료 시
     점에 데몬이 아닌 모든 자식을 조인하려고 할 때 정지될 수 있습니다.

     관리자를 사용하여 생성된 큐에는 이 문제가 없습니다.  *note
     프로그래밍 지침: 3152.을 참조하세요.

프로세스 간 통신을 위해 큐를 사용하는 예는 *note 예제: 317e.을 참조하십
시오.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.Pipe ([duplex])

     파이프의 끝을 나타내는 *note Connection: 16b1. 객체 쌍 ‘(conn1,
     conn2)’ 를 반환합니다.

     'duplex' 가 ‘True’ (기본값) 면 파이프는 양방향입니다.  'duplex' 가
     ‘False’ 인 경우 파이프는 단방향입니다: ‘conn1’ 은 메시지를 받는 데
     에만 사용할 수 있고, ‘conn2’ 는 메시지를 보낼 때만 사용할 수 있습니
     다.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object using *note pickle: a6.
     and the ‘recv()’ re-creates the object.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Queue ([maxsize])

     파이프와 몇 개의 록/세마포어를 사용하여 구현된 프로세스 공유 큐를 반
     환합니다.  프로세스가 처음으로 항목을 큐에 넣으면 버퍼에서 파이프로
     객체를 전송하는 피더 스레드가 시작됩니다.

     제한 시간 초과를 알리기 위해 표준 라이브러리의 *note queue: b6. 모
     듈에서 정의되는 *note queue.Empty: 317a. 와 *note queue.Full: 317b.
     예외를 일으킵니다.

     *note Queue: 1802. 는 *note task_done(): 3176.과 *note join():
     3177. 을 제외한 *note queue.Queue: 1377. 의 모든 메서드를 구현합니
     다.

      -- 메서드: qsize ()

          큐의 대략의 크기를 돌려줍니다.  다중 스레딩/다중 프로세싱 특성
          을 타기 때문에 이 숫자는 신뢰할 수 없습니다.

          Note that this may raise *note NotImplementedError: 228. on
          platforms like macOS where ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not
          implemented.

      -- 메서드: empty ()

          큐가 비어 있다면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니
          다.  다중 스레딩/다중 프로세싱 특성을 타기 때문에 신뢰할 수 없
          습니다.

          May raise an *note OSError: 411. on closed queues.  (not
          guaranteed)

      -- 메서드: full ()

          큐가 가득 차면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니다.
          다중 스레딩/다중 프로세싱 특성을 타기 때문에 신뢰할 수 없습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: put (obj[, block[, timeout]])

          obj를 큐에 넣습니다.  선택적 인자 'block' 이 ‘True’ (기본값)이
          고 'timeout' 이 ‘None’ (기본값) 이면, 빈 슬롯이 생길 때까지 필
          요한 경우 블록합니다.  'timeout' 이 양수인 경우, 최대
          'timeout' 초만큼 블록하고 그 시간 내에 사용 가능 슬롯이 생기지
          않으면 *note queue.Full: 317b. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  그렇지 않
          으면 ('block' 이 ‘False’) 빈 슬롯을 즉시 사용할 수 있으면 큐에
          항목을 넣고, 그렇지 않으면 *note queue.Full: 317b. 예외를 발생
          시킵니다 (이 경우 'timeout' 은 무시됩니다).

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 큐가 닫혔으면, *note AssertionError: 6a3. 대
          신 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: put_nowait (obj)

          ‘put(obj, False)’ 와 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: get ([block[, timeout]])

          큐에서 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다.  선택적 인자 'block' 이
          ‘True’ (기본값)이고 'timeout' 이 ‘None’ (기본값) 이면, 항목이
          들어올 때까지 필요한 경우 블록합니다.  'timeout' 이 양수인 경
          우, 최대 'timeout' 초만큼 블록하고 그 시간 내에 항목이 들어오
          지 않으면 *note queue.Empty: 317a. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  그렇
          지 않으면 (block이 ‘False’) 즉시 사용할 수 있는 항목이 있으면
          반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note queue.Empty: 317a. 예외를 발생시
          킵니다 (이 경우 'timeout' 은 무시됩니다).

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 큐가 닫혔으면, *note OSError: 411. 대신
          *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_nowait ()

          ‘get(False)’ 와 같습니다.

     *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1802. 에는 *note queue.Queue: 1377. 에
     서 찾을 수 없는 몇 가지 추가 메서드가 있습니다.  일반적으로 이러한
     메서드는 대부분 코드에서 필요하지 않습니다:

      -- 메서드: close ()

          큐를 닫습니다: 내부 자원을 해제합니다.

          A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed.  For
          example, *note get(): 1a44, *note put(): 1a43. and *note
          empty(): 1603. methods must no longer be called.

          The background thread will quit once it has flushed all
          buffered data to the pipe.  This is called automatically when
          the queue is garbage collected.

      -- 메서드: join_thread ()

          배경 스레드에 조인합니다.  *note close(): 1803. 가 호출된 후에
          만 사용할 수 있습니다.  배경 스레드가 종료될 때까지 블록해서 버
          퍼의 모든 데이터가 파이프로 플러시 되었음을 보증합니다.

          기본적으로 프로세스가 큐를 만든 주체가 아니면 종료할 때 큐의 배
          경 스레드를 조인하려고 합니다.  프로세스는 *note
          cancel_join_thread(): 317d.를 호출하여 *note join_thread():
          3182. 가 아무것도 하지 않게 할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: cancel_join_thread ()

          *note join_thread(): 3182. 의 블록을 방지합니다.  특히, 프로세
          스가 종료할 때 배경 스레드를 자동으로 조인하는 것을 막습니다 –
          *note join_thread(): 3182.를 보십시오.

          A better name for this method might be
          ‘allow_exit_without_flush()’.  It is likely to cause enqueued
          data to be lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use
          it.  It is really only there if you need the current process
          to exit immediately without waiting to flush enqueued data to
          the underlying pipe, and you don’t care about lost data.

          참고: 이 클래스의 기능은 호스트 운영 체제의 작동하는 공유 세마
          포어 구현을 요구합니다.  그런 것이 없으면, 클래스의 기능이 비
          활성화되고, *note Queue: 1802. 의 인스턴스를 만들려고 하면
          *note ImportError: 413. 를 일으킵니다.  자세한 내용은
          bpo-3770(1)을 참조하십시오.  아래에 나열된 특수 큐 형들도 마찬
          가지입니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.SimpleQueue

     이것은 단순화된 *note Queue: 1802. 형으로, 록이 걸린 *note Pipe:
     3159. 에 매우 가깝습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          큐를 닫습니다: 내부 자원을 해제합니다.

          큐를 닫은 후에는 더는 사용해서는 안 됩니다.  예를 들어, *note
          get(): 3183, *note put(): 3184. 및 *note empty(): 1604. 메서드
          가 더는 호출되지 않아야 합니다.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- 메서드: empty ()

          큐가 비어 있다면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니
          다.

          Always raises an *note OSError: 411. if the SimpleQueue is
          closed.

      -- 메서드: get ()

          큐에서 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: put (item)

          'item' 을 큐에 넣습니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.JoinableQueue ([maxsize])

     *note Queue: 1802. 서브 클래스 *note JoinableQueue: 3175. 는 추가로
     *note task_done(): 3178.과 *note join(): 3185. 메서드를 가진 큐입니
     다.

      -- 메서드: task_done ()

          앞서 큐에 넣은 작업이 완료되었음을 나타냅니다.  큐 소비자가 사
          용합니다.  작업을 가져오는데 사용된 각 *note get(): 1a44. 마다
          , 뒤따르는 *note task_done(): 3178. 호출은 작업에 대한 처리가
          완료되었음을 큐에 알립니다.

          만약 *note join(): 3177. 이 현재 블록하고 있다면, 모든 항목이
          처리될 때 재개될 것입니다 (*note put(): 1a43. 으로 큐에 넣은 모
          든 항목에 대해 *note task_done(): 3178. 호출을 수신했다는 뜻입
          니다).

          큐에 있는 항목보다 많이 호출되면 *note ValueError: 202. 를 발
          생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: join ()

          큐의 모든 항목을 가져가서 처리할 때까지 블록합니다.

          항목이 큐에 추가될 때마다 완료되지 않은 작업의 수는 올라갑니다
          .  소비자가 그 항목을 꺼냈고 그에 대한 모든 작업을 완료했음을
          알리기 위해 *note task_done(): 3178.을 호출할 때마다 숫자는 줄
          어듭니다.  완료되지 않은 작업의 수가 0으로 떨어지면 *note
          join(): 3177. 이 블록으로부터 풀려납니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: 잡동사니<3>,  Next: Connection 객체,  Prev: 파이프와 큐,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.11 잡동사니
..................

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.active_children ()

     현재 프로세스의 모든 살아있는 자식 리스트를 반환합니다.

     이것을 호출하면 이미 완료된 프로세스에 “조인” 하는 부작용이 있습니
     다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.cpu_count ()

     시스템의 CPU 수를 반환합니다.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current
     process can use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
     *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. (or
     ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’).

     When the number of CPUs cannot be determined a *note
     NotImplementedError: 228. is raised.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The return value can also be overridden using
     the *note -X cpu_count: 176. flag or *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 210.
     as this is merely a wrapper around the *note os: a1. cpu count
     APIs.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.current_process ()

     현재 프로세스에 해당하는 *note Process: b56. 객체를 반환합니다.

     *note threading.current_thread(): 301.와 유사한 기능을 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.parent_process ()

     *note current_process(): 3188.의 부모 프로세스에 해당하는 *note
     Process: b56. 객체를 반환합니다.  메인 프로세스에서,
     ‘parent_process’는 ‘None’입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.freeze_support ()

     Add support for when a program which uses *note multiprocessing:
     94. has been frozen to produce an executable.  (Has been tested
     with 'py2exe', 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze'.)

     메인 모듈의 ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ 줄 바로 뒤에서 이 함수를 호
     출해야 합니다.  예를 들면:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

          def f():
              print('hello world!')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              Process(target=f).start()

     ‘freeze_support()’ 줄이 생략된 경우 고정된 실행 파일을 실행하려고 하
     면 *note RuntimeError: 195. 가 발생합니다.

     Calling ‘freeze_support()’ has no effect when the start method is
     not 'spawn'.  In addition, if the module is being run normally by
     the Python interpreter (the program has not been frozen), then
     ‘freeze_support()’ has no effect.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods ()

     Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
     is the default.  The possible start methods are ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’
     and ‘'forkserver'’.  Not all platforms support all methods.  See
     *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.get_context (method=None)

     *note multiprocessing: 94. 모듈과 같은 어트리뷰트를 가진 컨텍스트 객
     체를 반환합니다.

     If 'method' is ‘None’ then the default context is returned.  Note
     that if the global start method has not been set, this will set it
     to the default method.  Otherwise 'method' should be ‘'fork'’,
     ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’.  *note ValueError: 202. is raised if the
     specified start method is not available.  See *note 컨텍스트 및 시작
     방법: 2c9.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.get_start_method (allow_none=False)

     프로세스를 기동하기 위해서 사용되는 시작 방법의 이름을 돌려줍니다.

     If the global start method has not been set and 'allow_none' is
     ‘False’, then the start method is set to the default and the name
     is returned.  If the start method has not been set and 'allow_none'
     is ‘True’ then ‘None’ is returned.

     The return value can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’ or
     ‘None’.  See *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: macOS에서, 'spawn' 시작 방법이 이제 기본값입니다
     .  'fork' 시작 방법은 서브 프로세스의 충돌로 이어질 수 있기 때문에,
     안전하지 않은 것으로 간주해야 합니다.  bpo-33725(1)를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.set_executable (executable)

     Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child
     process.  (By default *note sys.executable: 3b2. is used).
     Embedders will probably need to do some thing like

          set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

     자식 프로세스를 만들기 전에 해야 합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: Now supported on POSIX when the ‘'spawn'’ start
     method is used.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a0.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload (module_names)

     Set a list of module names for the forkserver main process to
     attempt to import so that their already imported state is inherited
     by forked processes.  Any *note ImportError: 413. when doing so is
     silently ignored.  This can be used as a performance enhancement to
     avoid repeated work in every process.

     For this to work, it must be called before the forkserver process
     has been launched (before creating a ‘Pool’ or starting a *note
     Process: b56.).

     Only meaningful when using the ‘'forkserver'’ start method.  See
     *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.set_start_method (method, force=False)

     Set the method which should be used to start child processes.  The
     'method' argument can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’ or ‘'forkserver'’.
     Raises *note RuntimeError: 195. if the start method has already
     been set and 'force' is not ‘True’.  If 'method' is ‘None’ and
     'force' is ‘True’ then the start method is set to ‘None’.  If
     'method' is ‘None’ and 'force' is ‘False’ then the context is set
     to the default context.

     이것은 한 번만 호출해야 하며, 메인 모듈의 ‘if __name__ ==
     '__main__'’ 절 내에서 보호되어야 합니다.

     See *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

     Added in version 3.4.

     참고: *note multiprocessing: 94. 에는 *note
     threading.active_count(): 302, *note threading.enumerate(): 18ac,
     *note threading.settrace(): 842, *note threading.setprofile(): 843,
     *note threading.Timer: 114a. 또는 *note threading.local: 1556. 의 대
     응 물이 없습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Connection 객체,  Next: 동기화 프리미티브,  Prev: 잡동사니<3>,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.12 Connection 객체
.........................

연결 객체를 사용하면 피클 가능한 객체나 문자열을 보내고 받을 수 있습니다
.  메시지 지향 연결된 소켓으로 생각할 수 있습니다.

연결 객체는 보통 *note Pipe: 3159. 를 사용해서 만들어집니다 – *note
리스너와 클라이언트: 318b. 도 참고하세요.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.connection.Connection

      -- 메서드: send (obj)

          연결의 반대편 끝에서 *note recv(): 318d.를 사용하여 읽을 객체
          를 보냅니다.

          객체는 피클 가능해야 합니다.  매우 큰 피클(약 32 MiB+, OS에 따
          라 다릅니다)은 *note ValueError: 202. 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습
          니다.

      -- 메서드: recv ()

          연결의 반대편 끝에서 *note send(): 318c.로 보낸 객체를 반환합
          니다.  뭔가 수신할 때까지 블록합니다.  수신할 내용이 없고 반대
          편 끝이 닫혔으면 *note EOFError: 12c9.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          연결이 사용하는 파일 기술자나 핸들을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          연결을 닫습니다.

          연결이 가비지 수집될 때 자동으로 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: poll ([timeout])

          읽어 들일 데이터가 있는지를 돌려줍니다.

          'timeout' 을 지정하지 않으면 즉시 반환됩니다.  'timeout' 이 숫
          자면 블록할 최대 시간(초)을 지정합니다.  'timeout' 이 ‘None’ 이
          면 시간제한이 없습니다.

          여러 개의 연결 객체를 *note multiprocessing.connection.wait():
          10d2. 을 사용하여 한 번에 폴링 할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: send_bytes (buffer[, offset[, size]])

          *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 의 바이트 데이터를 하나의 완전한 메
          시지로 보냅니다.

          'offset' 이 주어지면 'buffer' 의 해당 위치부터 데이터를 읽습니
          다.  'size' 가 주어지면 그만큼의 바이트를 버퍼에서 읽습니다.  매
          우 큰 버퍼(약 32 MiB+, OS에 따라 다릅니다)는 *note ValueError:
          202. 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다

      -- 메서드: recv_bytes ([maxlength])

          접속의 반대편 끝에서 송신된 바이트 데이터의 완전한 메시지를 문
          자열로 돌려줍니다.  뭔가 수신할 때까지 블록합니다.  수신할 내
          용이 없고 반대편 끝이 닫혔으면 *note EOFError: 12c9.를 발생시
          킵니다.

          'maxlength' 가 지정되고 메시지가 'maxlength' 보다 길면 *note
          OSError: 411. 가 발생하고 연결은 더는 읽을 수 없게 됩니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 함수는 *note IOError: 1048. 를 발생시켜
          왔는데, 이제는 *note OSError: 411. 의 별칭입니다.

      -- 메서드: recv_bytes_into (buffer[, offset])

          연결의 반대편 끝에서 보낸 바이트 데이터의 전체 메시지를
          'buffer' 로 읽어 들이고, 메시지의 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  뭔
          가 수신할 때까지 블록합니다.  수신할 내용이 없고 반대편 끝이 닫
          혔으면 *note EOFError: 12c9.를 발생시킵니다.

          'buffer' 는 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 여야 합니
          다.  'offset' 이 지정되면, 버퍼의 그 위치로부터 메시지를 씁니
          다.  offset은 'buffer' 길이보다 작은 음수가 아닌 정수여야 합니
          다 (바이트 단위).

          버퍼가 너무 작으면 ‘BufferTooShort’ 예외가 발생하고, 완전한 메
          시지는 ‘e.args[0]’ 으로 제공되는데, 여기서 ‘e’ 는 예외 인스턴
          스입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이제 연결 객체 자체를 *note Connection.send():
     318c. 와 *note Connection.recv(): 318d. 를 사용하여 프로세스 간에 전
     송할 수 있습니다.

     Connection objects also now support the context management protocol
     – see *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형: 1fc7.  *note __enter__(): 224f.
     returns the connection object, and *note __exit__(): 2250. calls
     *note close(): 318f.

예를 들어:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
     >>> a, b = Pipe()
     >>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
     >>> b.recv()
     [1, 'hello', None]
     >>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
     >>> a.recv_bytes()
     b'thank you'
     >>> import array
     >>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
     >>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
     >>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
     >>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
     >>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
     >>> arr2
     array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
     경고: *note Connection.recv(): 318d. 메서드는 수신한 데이터를 자동
     으로 언 피클 합니다.  메시지를 보낸 프로세스를 신뢰할 수 없다면 보
     안상 위험 할 수 있습니다.

     따라서, 연결 객체가 ‘Pipe()’를 사용하여 생성되지 않았다면, 일종의 인
     증을 수행한 후에만 *note recv(): 318d. 및 *note send(): 318c. 메서
     드를 사용해야 합니다.  *note 인증 키: 316e.를 참조하세요.

     경고: 프로세스가 파이프에 읽거나 쓰려고 할 때 죽으면, 파이프의 데이
     터가 손상될 가능성이 있습니다.  메시지 경계가 어디에 있는지 확신할
     수 없는 상태가 될 가능성이 있기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 동기화 프리미티브,  Next: 공유 ctypes 객체,  Prev: Connection 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.13 동기화 프리미티브
...........................

일반적으로 다중 프로세스 프로그램에서는 동기화 프리미티브가 다중 스레드
프로그램에서만큼 필요하지는 않습니다.  *note threading: ed. 모듈에 대한
설명서를 참조하십시오.

관리자 객체를 사용하여 동기화 프리미티브를 생성할 수도 있습니다 – *note
관리자: 3179.를 참조하세요.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

     배리어(barrier) 객체: *note threading.Barrier: 11d2. 의 복제본.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore ([value])

     제한된 세마포어 객체: *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1148. 과 유
     사한 대응 물.

     대응 물과 한 가지 차이가 있습니다: ‘acquire’ 메서드의 첫 번째 인자
     에 'block' 이라는 이름을 사용해서 *note Lock.acquire(): 3196. 와의
     일관성을 유지합니다.

          참고: On macOS, this is indistinguishable from *note
          Semaphore: 315f. because ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not implemented
          on that platform.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Condition ([lock])

     조건 변수: *note threading.Condition: 1146. 의 별칭.

     'lock' 을 지정할 때는 *note multiprocessing: 94. 의 *note Lock:
     15a4. 이나 *note RLock: 15a5. 객체여야 합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note wait_for(): 3138. 메서드가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Event

     *note threading.Event: 1149. 의 복제본.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Lock

     비 재귀적 록 객체: *note threading.Lock: 167e. 과 유사한 대응 물.  일
     단 프로세스 또는 스레드가 록을 획득하면, 프로세스 또는 스레드에서 록
     을 획득하려는 후속 시도는 록이 해제될 때까지 블록 됩니다; 모든 프로
     세스 또는 스레드가 이를 해제할 수 있습니다.  스레드에 적용되는
     *note threading.Lock: 167e. 의 개념과 동작은, 명시된 경우를 제외하
     고, *note multiprocessing.Lock: 15a4. 를 통해 프로세스나 스레드에 그
     대로 적용됩니다.

     *note Lock: 15a4. 은 실제로 기본 컨텍스트로 초기화된
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock’ 의 인스턴스를 반환하는 팩토리 함
     수입니다.

     *note Lock: 15a4. 은 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지원하
     므로 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 사용될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          블록하거나 블록하지 않는 방식으로 록을 획득합니다.

          'block' 인자가 ‘True’ (기본값) 로 설정되면, 메서드 호출은 록이
          해제 상태가 될 때까지 블록 한 다음, 잠금 상태로 만들고 ‘True’
          를 반환합니다.  이 첫 번째 인자의 이름은 *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): 692. 와 다르다는 것에 유의하세요.

          'block' 인자가 ‘False’ 로 설정되면, 메서드 호출은 블록 되지 않
          습니다.  록이 현재 잠금 상태면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니다.  그렇지
          않으면 록을 잠금 상태로 설정하고 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

          'timeout' 에 대해 양의 부동 소수점 값을 사용하여 호출하는 경우
          , 록을 얻을 수 없는 한 최대 'timeout' 으로 지정된 시간(초) 동
          안 블록합니다.  'timeout' 을 음수 값으로 호출하는 것은
          'timeout' 에 0을 주는 것과 같습니다.  'timeout' 값이 ‘None’ (기
          본값) 인 호출은 제한 시간을 무한대로 설정합니다.  'timeout' 에
          대한 음수와 ‘None’ 값의 처리는 *note threading.Lock.acquire():
          692. 에서 구현된 동작과 다르다는 것에 주의하십시오.  'timeout'
          인자는 'block' 인자가 ‘False’ 로 설정되면 실제적인 의미는 없고
          무시됩니다.  록이 획득되면 ‘True’ 를 돌려주고, 제한 시간 초과
          가 발생하면 ‘False’ 를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          록을 해제합니다.  이것은 원래 록을 획득한 프로세스나 스레드뿐
          만 아니라 모든 프로세스나 스레드에서 호출 할 수 있습니다.

          동작은 *note threading.Lock.release(): 12b2. 와 같지만, 해제된
          록에서 호출될 때 *note ValueError: 202. 가 발생한다는 점만 다
          릅니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.RLock

     재귀적 록 객체: *note threading.RLock: 2e0. 과 유사한 대응 물.  재
     귀적 록은 획득한 프로세스 또는 스레드에 의해 해제되어야 합니다.  일
     단 프로세스나 스레드가 재귀적 록을 획득하면, 같은 프로세스나 스레드
     가 블록 없이 다시 획득할 수 있습니다; 해당 프로세스나 스레드는 획득
     할 때마다 한 번 해제해야 합니다.

     *note RLock: 15a5. 은 실제로 기본 컨텍스트로 초기화된
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock’ 의 인스턴스를 반환하는 팩토리 함
     수입니다.

     *note RLock: 15a5. 은 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지원하
     므로 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 사용될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          블록하거나 블록하지 않는 방식으로 록을 획득합니다.

          'block' 인자를 ‘True’ 로 설정해서 호출하면, 록이 현재 프로세스
          나 스레드가 이미 획득한 상태가 아니면 록이 (어떤 프로세스나 스
          레드도 획득하지 않은) 록 해제 상태가 될 때까지 블록합니다.  이
          후에 현재 프로세스나 스레드가 (소유권이 아직 없는 경우) 록 소
          유권을 얻게 되며 록 내 재귀 수준이 1 증가하고 ‘True’ 를 반환합
          니다.  이 첫 번째 인자의 동작에는, 인자의 이름부터 시작해서
          *note threading.RLock.acquire(): e73. 구현과 비교되는 몇 가지
          차이점이 있습니다.

          'block' 인자를 ‘False’ 로 설정해서 호출하면 블록하지 않습니다.
          록이 이미 다른 프로세스나 스레드에 의해 획득되었으면 (그래서 소
          유하고 있으면), 현재 프로세스나 스레드는 소유권을 갖지 않으며
          록 내 재귀 수준은 변경되지 않고 ‘False’ 를 반환합니다.  록이 해
          제 상태에 있으면, 현재 프로세스 또는 스레드가 소유권을 가져오
          며 재귀 수준이 증가하고 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

          'timeout' 인자의 사용법과 동작은 *note Lock.acquire(): 3196. 와
          같습니다.  'timeout' 의 이러한 동작 중 일부는 *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): e73. 에서 구현된 동작과 다르다는 것
          에 주의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          재귀 수준을 감소시키면서 록을 해제합니다.  감소 후에 재귀 수준
          이 0이면, 록을 해제 상태(어떤 프로세스나 스레드에도 소유되지 않
          음)로 재설정하고, 다른 프로세스나 스레드가 록이 해제될 때까지
          기다리며 블록하고 있는 경우 해당 프로세스나 스레드 중 정확히 하
          나가 계속 진행하도록 허용합니다.  감소 후에 재귀 수준이 여전히
          0이 아닌 경우, 록은 획득된 상태로 남고 호출한 프로세스나 스레
          드에 의해 소유됩니다.

          호출한 프로세스나 스레드가 록을 소유하고 있을 때만 이 메서드를
          호출하십시오.  이 메서드가 소유자가 아닌 프로세스나 스레드에 의
          해 호출되거나, 록이 해제 (소유되지 않은) 상태면 *note
          AssertionError: 6a3. 가 발생합니다.  이 상황에서 발생하는 예외
          형은 *note threading.RLock.release(): 3133. 에서 구현된 동작과
          다릅니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.Semaphore ([value])

     세마포어 객체: *note threading.Semaphore: 1147. 와 유사한 대응 물.

     대응 물과 한 가지 차이가 있습니다: ‘acquire’ 메서드의 첫 번째 인자
     에 'block' 이라는 이름을 사용해서 *note Lock.acquire(): 3196. 와의
     일관성을 유지합니다.

     참고: On macOS, ‘sem_timedwait’ is unsupported, so calling
     ‘acquire()’ with a timeout will emulate that function’s behavior
     using a sleeping loop.

     참고: 이 패키지의 기능 중 일부는 호스트 운영 체제의 작동하는 공유 세
     마포어 구현을 요구합니다.  그런 것이 없으면,
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ 모듈이 비활성화되고, 임포트하려고 하
     면 *note ImportError: 413. 를 일으킵니다.  자세한 내용은
     bpo-3770(1)을 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: 공유 ctypes 객체,  Next: 관리자,  Prev: 동기화 프리미티브,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.14 공유 ‘ctypes’ 객체
............................

자식 프로세스가 상속할 수 있는 공유 메모리를 사용하여 공유 객체를 만들 수
있습니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.Value (typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)

     공유 메모리에 할당된 *note ctypes: 2a. 객체를 반환합니다.  기본적으
     로 반환 값은, 사실 객체에 대한 동기화 된 래퍼입니다.  객체 자체는
     *note Value: 315c. 의 'value' 어트리뷰트를 통해 접근 할 수 있습니다
     .

     'typecode_or_type' 은 반환된 객체의 형을 결정합니다: ctypes 형이거
     나 *note array: 7. 모듈에 의해 사용되는 종류의 한 문자 typecode입니
     다.  '*args' 는 형의 생성자로 전달됩니다.

     'lock' 이 ‘True’ (기본값) 면 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하기 위해 새
     재귀적 록 객체가 생성됩니다.  'lock' 이 *note Lock: 15a4. 또는
     *note RLock: 15a5. 객체인 경우, 이 값이 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하
     는 데 사용됩니다.  'lock' 이 ‘False’ 면, 반환된 객체에 대한 액세스
     는 록에 의해 자동으로 보호되지 않으므로 “프로세스 안전” 하지 않습니
     다.

     읽기와 쓰기를 포함하는 ‘+=’ 와 같은 연산은 원자 적(atomic)이지 않습
     니다.  따라서, 예를 들어, 공유 값을 원자 적으로 증가시키려면, 다음
     과 같이 하는 것으로는 충분하지 않습니다:

          counter.value += 1

     연관된 록이 재귀적이라고 가정하면 (기본적으로 그렇습니다), 대신 다
     음과 같이 할 수 있습니다

          with counter.get_lock():
              counter.value += 1

     'lock' 은 키워드 전용 인자입니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.Array (typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer,
          *, lock=True)

     공유 메모리에서 할당된 ctypes 배열을 반환합니다.  기본적으로 반환 값
     은, 사실 배열에 대한 동기화 된 래퍼입니다.

     'typecode_or_type' 은 반환된 배열의 요소의 형을 결정합니다: ctypes
     형이거나 *note array: 7. 모듈에 의해 사용되는 종류의 한 문자
     typecode입니다.  'size_or_initializer' 가 정수면, 배열의 길이를 결
     정하고 배열은 0으로 초기화됩니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     'size_or_initializer' 는 배열을 초기화하는 데 사용되는 시퀀스고, 길
     이는 배열의 길이를 결정합니다.

     'lock' 이 ‘True’ (기본값) 면 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하기 위해 새
     록 객체가 생성됩니다.  'lock' 이 *note Lock: 15a4. 또는 *note
     RLock: 15a5. 객체인 경우, 이 값이 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하는 데
     사용됩니다.  'lock' 이 ‘False’ 면, 반환된 객체에 대한 액세스는 록에
     의해 자동으로 보호되지 않으므로 “프로세스 안전” 하지 않습니다.

     'lock' 은 키워드 전용 인자입니다.

     *note ctypes.c_char: 2df3. 의 배열은 'value' 와 'raw' 어트리뷰트를
     가지고 있습니다.  이 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 문자열을 저장하고 꺼낼 수
     있습니다.

* Menu:

* multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈: multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈,  Up: 공유 ctypes 객체

5.18.2.15 ‘multiprocessing.sharedctypes’ 모듈
.............................................

*note multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 9a. 모듈은 자식 프로세스에 의해 상속
될 수 있는 공유 메모리에 *note ctypes: 2a. 객체를 할당하는 기능을 제공합
니다.

     참고: 공유 메모리에 포인터를 저장할 수는 있지만, 특정 프로세스의 주
     소 공간에 있는 위치를 참조하게 됩니다.  그러나 포인터는 두 번째 프
     로세스의 컨텍스트에서는 유효하지 않을 가능성이 커서, 두 번째 프로세
     스에서 포인터를 역 참조하려고 하면 충돌이 일어날 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer)

     공유 메모리에 할당된 ctypes 배열을 반환합니다.

     'typecode_or_type' 은 반환된 배열의 요소의 형을 결정합니다: ctypes
     형이거나 *note array: 7. 모듈에 의해 사용되는 종류의 한 문자
     typecode입니다.  'size_or_initializer' 가 정수면, 배열의 길이를 결
     정하고 배열은 0으로 초기화됩니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     'size_or_initializer' 는 배열을 초기화하는 데 사용되는 시퀀스고, 길
     이는 배열의 길이를 결정합니다.

     요소를 쓰고 읽는 것은 잠재적으로 원자 적이지 않습니다 – 액세스가 록
     을 사용하여 자동으로 동기화되기 원하면 *note Array(): 319d.를 대신
     사용하세요.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue (typecode_or_type,
          *args)

     공유 메모리에 할당된 ctypes 객체를 반환합니다.

     'typecode_or_type' 은 반환된 객체의 형을 결정합니다: ctypes 형이거
     나 *note array: 7. 모듈에 의해 사용되는 종류의 한 문자 typecode입니
     다.  '*args' 는 형의 생성자로 전달됩니다.

     값을 쓰고 읽는 것은 잠재적으로 원자 적이지 않습니다 – 액세스가 록을
     사용하여 자동으로 동기화되기 원하면 *note Value(): 319f.를 대신 사
     용하세요.

     *note ctypes.c_char: 2df3. 의 배열은 'value' 와 'raw' 어트리뷰트를
     가지고 있습니다.  이 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 문자열을 저장하고 꺼낼 수
     있습니다 – *note ctypes: 2a. 설명서를 보십시오.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     'lock' 값에 따라, 날 ctypes 배열 대신 프로세스 안전한 동기화 래퍼가
     반환될 수 있다는 것을 제외하고는 *note RawArray(): 319c. 와 같습니
     다.

     'lock' 이 ‘True’ (기본값) 면 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하기 위해 새
     록 객체가 생성됩니다.  'lock' 이 *note Lock: 15a4. 또는 *note
     RLock: 15a5. 객체인 경우, 이 값이 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하는 데
     사용됩니다.  'lock' 이 ‘False’ 면, 반환된 객체에 대한 액세스는 록에
     의해 자동으로 보호되지 않으므로 “프로세스 안전” 하지 않습니다.

     'lock' 은 키워드 전용 인자입니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value (typecode_or_type, *args,
          lock=True)

     'lock' 값에 따라, 날 ctypes 객체 대신 프로세스 안전한 동기화 래퍼가
     반환될 수 있다는 것을 제외하고는 *note RawValue(): 319e. 와 같습니
     다.

     'lock' 이 ‘True’ (기본값) 면 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하기 위해 새
     록 객체가 생성됩니다.  'lock' 이 *note Lock: 15a4. 또는 *note
     RLock: 15a5. 객체인 경우, 이 값이 값에 대한 액세스를 동기화하는 데
     사용됩니다.  'lock' 이 ‘False’ 면, 반환된 객체에 대한 액세스는 록에
     의해 자동으로 보호되지 않으므로 “프로세스 안전” 하지 않습니다.

     'lock' 은 키워드 전용 인자입니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy (obj)

     공유 메모리에서 할당된 ctypes 객체를 반환합니다.  이 객체는 ctypes
     객체 'obj' 의 복사본입니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized (obj[, lock])

     'lock' 을 사용하여 액세스를 동기화하는 ctypes 객체에 대한 프로세스
     안전한 래퍼 객체를 반환합니다.  'lock' 이 ‘None’ (기본값)이면 *note
     multiprocessing.RLock: 15a5. 객체가 자동으로 생성됩니다.

     동기화 래퍼는 래핑 된 객체의 메서드 외에도 두 개의 메서드를 더 갖습
     니다: ‘get_obj()’ 는 래핑 된 객체를 반환하고, ‘get_lock()’ 은 동기
     화에 사용되는 록 객체를 반환합니다.

     래퍼를 통해 ctypes 객체에 액세스하는 것은, 날 ctypes 객체에 액세스
     하는 것보다 훨씬 느릴 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 동기화된 객체는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로
     토콜을 지원합니다.

아래 표는 공유 메모리에 공유 ctypes 객체를 만드는 문법과 일반적인 ctypes
문법을 비교합니다.  (표에서 ‘MyStruct’ 는 *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4. 의
서브 클래스입니다.)

ctypes                   type을 사용하는 공유 ctypes    typecode를 사용하는 공유
                                                        ctypes
                                                        
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
c_double(2.4)            RawValue(c_double, 2.4)        RawValue(‘d’, 2.4)
                                                        
                                                        
MyStruct(4, 6)           RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)
                         
                                                        
(c_short * 7)()          RawArray(c_short, 7)           RawArray(‘h’, 7)
                                                        
                                                        
(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)     RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))     RawArray(‘i’, (9, 2, 8))
                                                        

다음은 자식 프로세스가 여러 ctypes 객체를 수정하는 예입니다:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
     from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
     from ctypes import Structure, c_double

     class Point(Structure):
         _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

     def modify(n, x, s, A):
         n.value **= 2
         x.value **= 2
         s.value = s.value.upper()
         for a in A:
             a.x **= 2
             a.y **= 2

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         n = Value('i', 7)
         x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
         s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
         A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

         p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         print(n.value)
         print(x.value)
         print(s.value)
         print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])

인쇄되는 결과는 이렇습니다

     49
     0.1111111111111111
     HELLO WORLD
     [(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]


File: python.info,  Node: 관리자,  Next: 프락시 객체,  Prev: 공유 ctypes 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.16 관리자
................

관리자는 서로 다른 컴퓨터에서 실행되는 프로세스 간에 네트워크를 통해 공
유하는 것을 포함하여 서로 다른 프로세스 간에 공유할 수 있는 데이터를 만
드는 방법을 제공합니다.  관리자 객체는 '공유 객체' 를 관리하는 서버 프로
세스를 제어합니다.  다른 프로세스는 프락시를 사용하여 공유 객체에 액세스
할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.Manager ()

     프로세스 간에 객체를 공유하는 데 사용할 수 있는 시작된 *note
     SyncManager: 31a2. 객체를 반환합니다.  반환된 관리자 객체는 생성된
     자식 프로세스에 해당하며 공유 객체를 만들고 해당 프락시를 반환하는
     메서드가 있습니다.

관리자 프로세스는 가비지 수집되거나 상위 프로세스가 종료되자마자 종료됩
니다.  관리자 클래스는 *note multiprocessing.managers: 97. 모듈에 정의되
어 있습니다 :

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager (address=None,
          authkey=None, serializer='pickle', ctx=None, *,
          shutdown_timeout=1.0)

     BaseManager 객체를 만듭니다.

     일단 생성되면 관리자 객체가 시작된 관리자 프로세스를 참조하게 하려
     고 *note start(): 31a4. 또는 ‘get_server().serve_forever()’ 를 호출
     해야 합니다.

     'address' 는 관리자 프로세스가 새 연결을 리슨하는 주소입니다.
     'address' 가 ‘None’ 이면 임의의 것이 선택됩니다.

     'authkey' 는 서버 프로세스로 들어오는 연결의 유효성을 검사하는 데 사
     용되는 인증 키입니다.  'authkey' 가 ‘None’ 이면
     ‘current_process().authkey’ 가 사용됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 'authkey'
     가 사용되며 바이트열이어야 합니다.

     'serializer' must be ‘'pickle'’ (use *note pickle: a6.
     serialization) or ‘'xmlrpclib'’ (use *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.
     serialization).

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).
     See the ‘get_context()’ function.

     'shutdown_timeout' is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the
     process used by the manager completes in the *note shutdown():
     31a5. method.  If the shutdown times out, the process is
     terminated.  If terminating the process also times out, the process
     is killed.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'shutdown_timeout' parameter.

      -- 메서드: start ([initializer[, initargs]])

          관리자를 시작시키기 위해 서브 프로세스를 시작합니다.
          'initializer' 가 ‘None’ 이 아닌 경우, 서브 프로세스는 시작할 때
          ‘initializer(*initargs)’ 를 호출합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_server ()

          Manager의 제어를 받는 실제 서버를 나타내는 ‘Server’ 객체를 반
          환합니다.  ‘Server’ 객체는 ‘serve_forever()’ 메서드를 지원합니
          다:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> server = manager.get_server()
               >>> server.serve_forever()

          ‘Server’ 는 추가로 *note address: 31a7. 어트리뷰트를 가지고 있
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: connect ()

          지역 관리자 객체를 원격 관리자 프로세스에 연결합니다:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> m.connect()

      -- 메서드: shutdown ()

          관리자가 사용하는 프로세스를 중지합니다.  *note start():
          31a4.를 사용하여 서버 프로세스를 시작한 경우에만 사용할 수 있
          습니다.

          여러 번 호출 될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: register (typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[,
               method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])

          관리자 클래스에 형이나 콜러블을 등록하는데 사용할 수 있는 클래
          스 메서드.

          'typeid' 는 특정 형의 공유 객체를 식별하는 데 사용되는 “형 식
          별자” 입니다.  문자열이어야 합니다.

          'callable' 은 이 형 식별자에 대한 객체를 만드는 데 사용되는 콜
          러블 객체입니다.  관리자 인스턴스가 *note connect(): 31a8. 메
          서드를 사용하여 서버에 연결되거나, 'create_method' 인자가
          ‘False’ 면 ‘None’ 으로 남겨 둘 수 있습니다.

          'proxytype' 은, 이 'typeid' 의 공유 객체의 프락시를 만드는 데
          사용되는 *note BaseProxy: 31aa. 의 서브 클래스입니다.  ‘None’
          이면 프락시 클래스가 자동으로 생성됩니다.

          'exposed' 는 이 typeid에 대한 프락시가 *note
          BaseProxy._callmethod(): 31ab. 를 사용하여 액세스 할 수 있도록
          허용해야 하는 메서드 이름의 시퀀스를 지정하는 데 사용됩니다.
          (만약 'exposed' 가 ‘None’ 이면, 존재하는 경우,
          ‘proxytype._exposed_’ 가 대신 사용됩니다.)  exposed 리스트가 지
          정되지 않은 경우, 공유 객체의 모든 “공용 메서드” 에 액세스 할
          수 있습니다.  (여기서 “공용 메서드” 는 *note __call__(): 553.
          메서드가 있고 그 이름이 ‘'_'’ 로 시작하지 않는 어트리뷰트를 의
          미합니다.)

          'method_to_typeid' 는 프락시를 반환해야 하는 노출된 메서드의 반
          환형을 지정하는 데 사용되는 매핑입니다.  메서드 이름을 typeid
          문자열로 매핑합니다.  (만일 'method_to_typeid' 가 ‘None’ 이면,
          존재한다면, ‘proxytype._method_to_typeid_’ 가 대신 사용됩니다
          .)  메서드의 이름이 이 매핑의 키가 아니거나 매핑이 ‘None’ 이면
          , 메서드에 의해 반환된 객체는 값으로 복사됩니다.

          'create_method' 는 이름이 'typeid' 인 메서드를 만들어야 하는지
          를 결정합니다.  이 메서드는 서버 프로세스에 새 공유 객체를 만
          들고 프락시를 반환하도록 지시하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  기본
          적으로 ‘True’ 입니다.

     *note BaseManager: 31a3. 인스턴스는 읽기 전용 프로퍼티를 하나 가지
     고 있습니다:

      -- 속성: address

          관리자가 사용하는 주소.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 관리자 객체는 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜을 지원합니
     다 – *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형: 1fc7.를 보세요.  *note __enter__():
     224f. 는 서버 프로세스를 시작하고 (아직 시작하지 않았다면), 관리자
     객체를 반환합니다.  *note __exit__(): 2250. 는 *note shutdown():
     31a5.을 호출합니다.

     이전 버전에서 *note __enter__(): 224f. 는 관리자의 서버 프로세스가
     아직 시작되지 않았을 때 시작시키지 않았습니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager

     프로세스의 동기화에 사용할 수 있는 *note BaseManager: 31a3. 의 서브
     클래스입니다.  이 형의 객체는 *note multiprocessing.Manager(): cb6.
     에 의해 반환됩니다.

     이 클래스의 메서드는 여러 프로세스에서 동기화 할 수 있도록 일반적으
     로 사용되는 많은 데이터형을 생성하고 *note 프락시 객체: cb7.를 반환
     합니다.  특히 공유 리스트와 딕셔너리가 포함됩니다.

      -- 메서드: Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

          공유 *note threading.Barrier: 11d2. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반
          환합니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: BoundedSemaphore ([value])

          공유 *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1148. 객체를 생성하고 프
          락시를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: Condition ([lock])

          공유 *note threading.Condition: 1146. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를
          반환합니다.

          'lock' 이 제공되면 *note threading.Lock: 167e. 또는 *note
          threading.RLock: 2e0. 객체에 대한 프락시여야 합니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: *note wait_for(): 3138. 메서드가 추가되었습
          니다.

      -- 메서드: Event ()

          공유 *note threading.Event: 1149. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: Lock ()

          공유 *note threading.Lock: 167e. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: Namespace ()

          공유 *note Namespace: 315e. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반환합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: Queue ([maxsize])

          공유 *note queue.Queue: 1377. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반환합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: RLock ()

          공유 *note threading.RLock: 2e0. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: Semaphore ([value])

          공유 *note threading.Semaphore: 1147. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: Array (typecode, sequence)

          배열을 만들고 프락시를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: Value (typecode, value)

          쓰기 가능한 ‘value’ 어트리뷰트를 가진 객체를 생성하고 프락시를
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: dict ()

      -- 메서드: dict (mapping)

      -- 메서드: dict (sequence)

          공유 *note dict: 256. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: list ()

      -- 메서드: list (sequence)

          공유 *note list: 60b. 객체를 생성하고 프락시를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 공유 객체는 중첩될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 공유
     리스트와 같은 공유 컨테이너 객체는, *note SyncManager: 31a2. 에 의
     해 모두 관리되고 동기화되는 다른 공유 객체를 포함 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.managers.Namespace

     *note SyncManager: 31a2. 로 등록 할 수 있는 형입니다.

     이름 공간 객체에는 공용 메서드가 없지만, 쓰기 가능한 어트리뷰트가 있
     습니다.  repr 은 그것의 어트리뷰트 값을 보여줍니다.

     그러나, 이름 공간 객체의 프락시를 사용할 때, ‘'_'’ 로 시작하는 어트
     리뷰트는 프락시의 어트리뷰트가 되며 참조 대상의 어트리뷰트가 아닙니
     다:

          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
          >>> Global = manager.Namespace()
          >>> Global.x = 10
          >>> Global.y = 'hello'
          >>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
          >>> print(Global)
          Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

* Menu:

* 사용자 정의 관리자::
* 원격 관리자 사용하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 관리자,  Next: 원격 관리자 사용하기,  Up: 관리자

5.18.2.17 사용자 정의 관리자
............................

자신만의 관리자를 만들려면, *note BaseManager: 31a3. 의 서브 클래스를 만
들고 *note register(): 31a9. 클래스 메서드를 사용하여 새로운 형이나 콜러
블을 관리자 클래스에 등록합니다.  예를 들면:

     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

     class MathsClass:
         def add(self, x, y):
             return x + y
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with MyManager() as manager:
             maths = manager.Maths()
             print(maths.add(4, 3))         # prints 7
             print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # prints 56


File: python.info,  Node: 원격 관리자 사용하기,  Prev: 사용자 정의 관리자,  Up: 관리자

5.18.2.18 원격 관리자 사용하기
..............................

한 기계에서 관리자 서버를 실행하고 다른 기계의 클라이언트가 관리자 서버
를 사용하도록 할 수 있습니다 (관련된 방화벽이 허용한다고 가정합니다).

다음 명령을 실행하면 원격 클라이언트가 액세스 할 수 있는 단일 공유 큐를
위한 서버가 만들어집니다:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> from queue import Queue
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()

한 클라이언트는 다음과 같이 서버에 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.put('hello')

또 다른 클라이언트도 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.get()
     'hello'

지역 프로세스 역시, 위의 클라이언트가 원격으로 액세스하는 코드를 사용하
여 같은 큐에 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class Worker(Process):
     ...     def __init__(self, q):
     ...         self.q = q
     ...         super().__init__()
     ...     def run(self):
     ...         self.q.put('local hello')
     ...
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> w = Worker(queue)
     >>> w.start()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     ...
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: 프락시 객체,  Next: 프로세스 풀,  Prev: 관리자,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.19 프락시 객체
.....................

프락시는 (아마도) 다른 프로세스에 있는 공유 객체를 '가리키는' 객체입니다
.  공유 객체는 프락시의 '지시 대상' 이라고 합니다.  여러 프락시 객체는 같
은 지시 대상을 가질 수 있습니다.

프락시 객체에는 지시 대상의 해당 메서드를 호출하는 메서드가 있습니다 (그
러나 지시 대상의 모든 메서드가 반드시 프락시를 통해 사용할 수 있는 것은
아닙니다).  이런 식으로, 프락시는 지시 대상처럼 사용될 수 있습니다:

     >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
     >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
     >>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
     >>> print(l)
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
     >>> print(repr(l))
     <ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
     >>> l[4]
     16
     >>> l[2:5]
     [4, 9, 16]

프락시에 *note str(): 445. 을 적용하면 지시 대상의 표현이 반환되는 반면,
*note repr(): 7f7. 을 적용하면 프락시의 표현이 반환됩니다.

프락시 객체의 중요한 특징은, 피클 가능해서 프로세스 간에 전달될 수 있다
는 것입니다.  지시 대상은 *note 프락시 객체: cb7.를 포함 할 수 있습니다.
이것은 관리된 리스트, 딕셔너리 및 다른 *note 프락시 객체: cb7. 의 중첩을
허용합니다:

     >>> a = manager.list()
     >>> b = manager.list()
     >>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
     >>> print(a, b)
     [<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
     >>> b.append('hello')
     >>> print(a[0], b)
     ['hello'] ['hello']

비슷하게, 딕셔너리와 리스트 프락시는 서로 중첩될 수 있습니다:

     >>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
     >>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
     >>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
     >>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
     >>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
     >>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
     >>> print(l_outer[0])
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> print(l_outer[1])
     {'c': 3, 'z': 26}

(프락시가 아닌) 표준 *note list: 60b. 또는 *note dict: 256. 객체가 지시
대상에 포함되어있는 경우, 이 가변 값들에 대한 수정은 관리자를 통해 전파
되지 않습니다.  포함된 값이 언제 수정되는지 프락시가 알 방법이 없기 때문
입니다.  그러나 컨테이너 프락시에 값을 저장하는 것(프락시 객체의
‘__setitem__’ 을 호출합니다)은 관리자를 통해 전파되므로, 그 항목을 효과
적으로 수정하기 위해, 수정된 값을 컨테이너 프락시에 다시 대입할 수 있습
니다:

     # create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
     lproxy = manager.list()
     lproxy.append({})
     # now mutate the dictionary
     d = lproxy[0]
     d['a'] = 1
     d['b'] = 2
     # at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
     # updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
     lproxy[0] = d

이 접근법은 아마도 대부분의 사용 사례에서 중첩된 *note 프락시 객체:
cb7.를 사용하는 것보다 불편하지만, 동기화에 대한 제어 수준을 보여줍니다.

     참고: *note multiprocessing: 94. 의 프락시 형은 값으로 비교하는 것
     을 지원하지 않습니다.  그래서, 예를 들어, 이런 결과를 얻습니다:

          >>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
          False

     비교할 때는 지시 대상의 사본을 대신 사용해야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy

     프락시 객체는 *note BaseProxy: 31aa. 의 서브 클래스의 인스턴스입니
     다.

      -- 메서드: _callmethod (methodname[, args[, kwds]])

          프락시의 지시 대상 메서드를 호출하고 결과를 반환합니다.

          ‘proxy’ 가 프락시이고, 그 지시 대상이 ‘obj’ 면, 표현식

               proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

          은 표현식

               getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

          을 관리자 프로세스에서 평가합니다.

          반환된 값은 호출 결과의 복사본이거나 새 공유 객체에 대한 프락
          시입니다 – *note BaseManager.register(): 31a9. 의
          'method_to_typeid' 인자에 대한 설명서를 보십시오.

          호출 때문에 예외가 발생하면, *note _callmethod(): 31ab. 가 다
          시 일으킵니다.  관리자 프로세스에서 다른 예외가 발생하면
          ‘RemoteError’ 예외로 변환되어 *note _callmethod(): 31ab. 가 일
          으킵니다.

          특히, 'methodname' 이 '노출되지' 않았으면 예외가 발생합니다.

          *note _callmethod(): 31ab. 사용법의 예:

               >>> l = manager.list(range(10))
               >>> l._callmethod('__len__')
               10
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # equivalent to l[2:7]
               [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # equivalent to l[20]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               IndexError: list index out of range

      -- 메서드: _getvalue ()

          지시 대상의 복사본을 반환합니다.

          지시 대상이 피클 가능하지 않으면 예외가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: __repr__ ()

          프락시 객체의 표현을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          지시 대상의 표현을 반환합니다.

* Menu:

* 정리: 정리<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 정리<2>,  Up: 프락시 객체

5.18.2.20 정리
..............

프락시 객체는 weakref 콜백을 사용해서 가비지 수집 시 자신의 지시 대상을
소유한 관리자에서 자신을 등록 취소합니다.

더는 참조하는 프락시가 없는 경우 공유 객체는 관리자 프로세스에서 삭제됩
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 풀,  Next: 리스너와 클라이언트,  Prev: 프락시 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.21 프로세스 풀
.....................

*note Pool: f63. 클래스를 사용하여, 제출된 작업을 수행할 프로세스 풀을 만
들 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.pool.Pool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs[, maxtasksperchild[, context]]]]])

     작업을 제출할 수 있는 작업자 프로세스 풀을 제어하는 프로세스 풀 객
     체.  제한 시간과 콜백을 사용하는 비동기 결과를 지원하고 병렬 map 구
     현을 제공합니다.

     'processes' is the number of worker processes to use.  If
     'processes' is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. is used.

     'initializer' 가 ‘None’ 이 아니면, 각 작업자 프로세스는 시작할 때
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ 를 호출합니다.

     'maxtasksperchild' 는, 사용되지 않는 자원을 해제할 수 있도록, 작업
     프로세스가 종료되고 새 작업 프로세스로 교체되기 전에 완료할 수 있는
     작업 수입니다.  기본 'maxtasksperchild' 는 ‘None’ 입니다.  이는 작
     업자 프로세스가 풀만큼 오래감을 의미합니다.

     'context' 는 작업자 프로세스를 시작하는 데 사용되는 컨텍스트를 지정
     하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  보통 풀은 ‘multiprocessing.Pool()’ 또
     는 컨텍스트 객체의 *note Pool(): f63. 메서드를 사용하여 생성됩니다.
     두 경우 모두 'context' 가 적절하게 설정됩니다.

     풀 객체의 메서드는 풀을 생성한 프로세스에 의해서만 호출되어야 합니
     다.

          경고: *note multiprocessing.pool: 98. 객체에는 풀을 컨텍스트 관
          리자로 사용하거나 *note close(): 31c0.와 *note terminate():
          31c1.를 수동으로 호출하여 (다른 자원과 마찬가지로) 올바르게 관
          리해야 하는 내부 자원이 있습니다.  이를 수행하지 않으면 파이널
          리제이션 때 프로세스가 멈출 수 있습니다.

          Note that it is 'not correct' to rely on the garbage collector
          to destroy the pool as CPython does not assure that the
          finalizer of the pool will be called (see *note
          object.__del__(): 1f69. for more information).

     버전 3.2에서 변경: Added the 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: Added the 'context' parameter.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'processes' uses *note os.process_cpu_count():
     1c4. by default, instead of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5.

          참고: *note Pool: f63. 내의 작업자 프로세스는 일반적으로 Pool의
          작업 큐의 전체 지속 기간 지속합니다.  작업자가 잡은 자원을 해
          제하기 위해 다른 시스템 (가령 Apache, mod_wsgi 등)에서 흔히 사
          용되는 패턴은, 풀 내에 있는 작업자가 종료되고 새 프로세스가 스
          폰 되어 예전 것을 교체하기 전에 일정한 분량의 작업만 완료하도
          록 하는 것입니다.  *note Pool: f63. 의 'maxtasksperchild' 인자
          는 이 기능을 일반 사용자에게 노출합니다.

      -- 메서드: apply (func[, args[, kwds]])

          인자 'args' 및 키워드 인자 'kwds' 를 사용하여 'func' 를 호출합
          니다.  결과가 준비될 때까지 블록 됩니다.  이 블록 때문에,
          *note apply_async(): 31c3. 가 병렬로 작업을 수행하는 데 더 적
          합합니다.  또한 'func' 는 풀의 작업자 중 하나에서만 실행됩니다
          .

      -- 메서드: apply_async (func[, args[, kwds[, callback[,
               error_callback]]]])

          *note AsyncResult: 31c4. 객체를 반환하는 *note apply(): 31c2.
          메서드의 변형입니다.

          'callback' 이 지정되면 단일 인자를 받아들이는 콜러블이어야 합
          니다.  결과가 준비되면 'callback' 을 이 결과를 인자로 호출합니
          다.  실패한 결과면 'error_callback' 이 대신 적용됩니다.

          'error_callback' 이 지정되면 단일 인자를 허용하는 콜러블이어야
          합니다.  대상 함수가 실패하면, 'error_callback' 이 예외 인스턴
          스를 인자로 호출됩니다.

          콜백은 즉시 완료되어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 결과를 처리하는
          스레드가 블록 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: map (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          *note map(): 85e. 내장 함수의 병렬 버전입니다 (하지만 하나의
          'iterable' 인자만 지원합니다, 여러 이터러블에 대해서는 *note
          starmap(): 10d4.을 참조하십시오).  결과가 준비될 때까지 블록 됩
          니다.

          이 메서드는 iterable을 여러 묶음으로 잘라서 별도의 작업으로 프
          로세스 풀에 제출합니다.  이러한 묶음의 (대략적인) 크기는
          'chunksize' 를 양의 정수로 설정하여 지정할 수 있습니다.

          매우 긴 이터러블은 높은 메모리 사용을 유발할 수 있습니다.  더
          나은 효율성을 위해, 명시적인 'chunksize' 옵션으로 *note
          imap(): 31c5.이나 *note imap_unordered(): 31c6.를 사용하는 것
          을 고려하십시오.

      -- 메서드: map_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          *note AsyncResult: 31c4. 객체를 반환하는 *note map(): 10d7. 메
          서드의 변형입니다.

          'callback' 이 지정되면 단일 인자를 받아들이는 콜러블이어야 합
          니다.  결과가 준비되면 'callback' 을 이 결과를 인자로 호출합니
          다.  실패한 결과면 'error_callback' 이 대신 적용됩니다.

          'error_callback' 이 지정되면 단일 인자를 허용하는 콜러블이어야
          합니다.  대상 함수가 실패하면, 'error_callback' 이 예외 인스턴
          스를 인자로 호출됩니다.

          콜백은 즉시 완료되어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 결과를 처리하는
          스레드가 블록 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: imap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          *note map(): 10d7. 의 느긋한 버전.

          'chunksize' 인자는 *note map(): 10d7. 메서드에서 사용된 인자와
          같습니다.  매우 긴 iterable의 경우 'chunksize' 에 큰 값을 사용
          하면 기본값 ‘1’ 을 사용하는 것보다 작업을 '많이' 빠르게 완료 할
          수 있습니다.

          또한 'chunksize' 가 ‘1’ 이면 *note imap(): 31c5. 메서드에 의해
          반환된 이터레이터의 ‘next()’ 메서드는 선택적 'timeout' 매개 변
          수를 가집니다: ‘next(timeout)’ 은 결과가 'timeout' 초 내에 반
          환될 수 없는 경우 *note multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 3173. 를
          발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: imap_unordered (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          *note imap(): 31c5.과 같지만, 반환된 이터레이터가 제공하는 결
          과의 순서가 임의적인 것으로 간주하여야 합니다.  (단 하나의 작
          업자 프로세스가 있는 경우에만 순서가 “올바름” 이 보장됩니다.

      -- 메서드: starmap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Like *note map(): 10d7. except that the elements of the
          'iterable' are expected to be iterables that are unpacked as
          arguments.

          따라서 'iterable' 이 ‘[(1,2), (3, 4)]’ 미면 결과는
          ‘[func(1,2), func(3,4)]’ 가 됩니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: starmap_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          *note starmap(): 10d4. 과 *note map_async(): 10d8. 의 조합으로
          이터러블의 'iterable' 을 이터레이트하고 이터러블을 언팩해서
          'func' 를 호출합니다.  결과 객체를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          더는 작업이 풀에 제출되지 않도록 합니다.  모든 작업이 완료되면
          작업자 프로세스가 종료됩니다.

      -- 메서드: terminate ()

          계류 중인 작업을 완료하지 않고 즉시 작업자 프로세스를 중지합니
          다.  풀 객체가 가비지 수집될 때 *note terminate(): 31c1. 가 즉
          시 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: join ()

          작업자 프로세스가 종료될 때까지 기다립니다.  *note join():
          31c7. 호출 전에 반드시 *note close(): 31c0. 나 *note
          terminate(): 31c1.를 호출해야합니다 .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 풀 객체는 이제 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜을 지원합니
     다 – *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형: 1fc7.를 보십시오.  *note
     __enter__(): 224f. 는 풀 객체를 반환하고, *note __exit__(): 2250. 는
     *note terminate(): 31c1.를 호출합니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult

     *note Pool.apply_async(): 31c3.와 *note Pool.map_async(): 10d8. 에
     의해 반환되는 결과의 클래스.

      -- 메서드: get ([timeout])

          결과가 도착할 때 반환합니다.  'timeout' 이 ‘None’ 이 아니고 결
          과가 'timeout' 초 내에 도착하지 않으면 *note
          multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 3173. 가 발생합니다.  원격 호출
          이 예외를 발생시키는 경우 해당 예외는 *note get(): 31c8. 에 의
          해 다시 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: wait ([timeout])

          결과가 사용 가능할 때까지 또는 'timeout' 초가 지날 때까지 기다
          립니다.

      -- 메서드: ready ()

          호출이 완료했는지를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: successful ()

          예외를 발생시키지 않고 호출이 완료되었는지를 돌려줍니다.  결과
          가 준비되지 않았으면 *note ValueError: 202. 를 발생시킵니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 결과가 준비되지 않았으면, *note
          AssertionError: 6a3. 대신 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

다음 예제는 풀 사용 방법을 보여줍니다.:

     from multiprocessing import Pool
     import time

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
             result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

             it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
             print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
             print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
             print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

             result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError


File: python.info,  Node: 리스너와 클라이언트,  Next: 인증 키,  Prev: 프로세스 풀,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.22 리스너와 클라이언트
.............................

보통 프로세스 간 메시지 전달은 큐를 사용하거나 *note Pipe(): 3159. 가 반
환하는 *note Connection: 16b1. 객체를 사용하여 수행됩니다.

그러나, *note multiprocessing.connection: 95. 모듈은 약간의 추가적인 유
연성을 허용합니다.  기본적으로 소켓이나 윈도우의 이름있는 파이프를 다루
는 높은 수준의 메시지 지향 API를 제공합니다.  또한 *note hmac: 6a. 모듈
을 사용한 '다이제스트 인증' 과 다중 연결을 동시에 폴링하는 방법을 지원합
니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     무작위로 생성된 메시지를 연결의 다른 쪽 끝으로 보내고 응답을 기다립
     니다.

     응답이 'authkey' 를 키로 사용하는 메시지의 다이제스트와 일치하면 환
     영 메시지가 연결의 다른 끝으로 전송됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 *note
     AuthenticationError: 3172. 가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     메시지를 수신하고, 'authkey' 를 키로 사용하여 메시지의 다이제스트를
     계산한 다음, 다이제스트를 다시 보냅니다.

     환영 메시지가 수신되지 않으면, *note AuthenticationError: 3172. 가
     발생합니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.connection.Client (address[, family[,
          authkey]])

     주소 'address' 를 사용하는 리스너에 대한 연결을 설정하려고 시도하고
     , *note Connection: 16b1.을 반환합니다.

     연결 유형은 'family' 인자에 의해 결정되지만, 일반적으로 'address' 형
     식에서 유추 할 수 있으므로 일반적으로 생략 할 수 있습니다.  (*note
     주소 형식: 31d0.를 참조하세요)

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 3172. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note 인증 키: 316e.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.connection.Listener ([address[, family[,
          backlog[, authkey]]]])

     연결을 ‘리스닝’ 하는 바인드된 소켓이나 윈도우의 이름있는 파이프에 대
     한 래퍼입니다.

     'address' 는 리스너 객체의 바인드된 소켓이나 이름있는 파이프가 사용
     할 주소입니다.

          참고: 주소가 ‘0.0.0.0’ 인 경우, 주소는 윈도우에서 연결 가능한
          끝점이 아닙니다.  연결할 수 있는 끝점이 필요한 경우,
          ‘127.0.0.1’을 사용해야 합니다.

     'family' 는 사용할 소켓(또는 이름있는 파이프)의 유형입니다.  문자열
     ‘'AF_INET'’ (TCP 소켓), ‘'AF_UNIX'’ (유닉스 도메인 소켓),
     ‘'AF_PIPE'’ (윈도우 이름있는 파이프) 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  이 중
     오직 첫 번째 것만 항상 사용할 수 있음이 보장됩니다.  'family' 가
     ‘None’ 이면, 'address' 의 형식으로부터 유추됩니다.  'address' 역시
     ‘None’ 이면, 기본값이 선택됩니다.  이 기본값은 사용 가능한 것 중 가
     장 빠른 것으로 기대되는 것입니다.  *note 주소 형식: 31d0.를 참조하
     세요.  'family' 가 ‘'AF_UNIX'’ 이고 주소가 ‘None’ 이면, 소켓은
     *note tempfile.mkstemp(): 285c. 를 사용하여 만들어진 비공개 임시 디
     렉터리에 생성됩니다.

     리스너 객체가 소켓을 사용하면, 'backlog' (기본적으로 1) 는 소켓이 바
     인드되면 소켓의 *note listen(): e56. 메서드에 전달됩니다.

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 3172. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note 인증 키: 316e.

      -- 메서드: accept ()

          리스너 객체의 바인드된 소켓 또는 이름있는 파이프에 대한 연결을
          수락하고 *note Connection: 16b1. 객체를 반환합니다.  인증이 시
          도되고 실패하면 *note AuthenticationError: 3172. 가 발생합니다
          .

      -- 메서드: close ()

          리스너 객체의 바운드된 소켓 또는 이름있는 파이프를 닫습니다.  리
          스너가 가비지 수집될 때 자동으로 호출됩니다.  그러나 명시적으
          로 호출하는 것이 좋습니다.

     리스너 객체는 다음과 같은 읽기 전용 프로퍼티를 가집니다:

      -- 속성: address

          리스너 객체에서 사용 중인 주소.

      -- 속성: last_accepted

          마지막으로 수락한 연결이 온 주소.  없으면 ‘None’ 입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 리스너 객체는 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜을 지원합니
     다 – *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형: 1fc7.를 보세요.  *note __enter__():
     224f. 는 리스너 객체를 반환하고, *note __exit__(): 2250. 는 *note
     close(): 31d1.를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.connection.wait (object_list, timeout=None)

     'object_list' 에 있는 객체가 준비될 때까지 기다립니다.
     'object_list' 에 있는 객체 중 준비된 것들의 리스트를 반환합니다.
     'timeout' 이 float면, 호출이 최대 지정된 초만큼 블록 됩니다.
     'timeout' 이 ‘None’ 이면, 시간제한 없이 블록 됩니다.  음수 timeout은
     0과 같습니다.

     For both POSIX and Windows, an object can appear in 'object_list'
     if it is

        * 읽기 가능한 *note Connection: 16b1. 객체;

        * 연결되고 읽기 가능한 *note socket.socket: d9d. 객체; 또는

        * *note Process: b56. 객체의 *note sentinel: 10d3. 어트리뷰트.

     연결이나 소켓 객체는 읽을 수 있는 데이터가 있거나 반대편 끝이 닫히
     면 준비가 됩니다.

     'POSIX': ‘wait(object_list, timeout)’ almost equivalent
     ‘select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)’.  The difference is
     that, if *note select.select(): d9c. is interrupted by a signal, it
     can raise *note OSError: 411. with an error number of ‘EINTR’,
     whereas *note wait(): 10d2. will not.

     'Windows': An item in 'object_list' must either be an integer
     handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
     documentation of the Win32 function ‘WaitForMultipleObjects()’) or
     it can be an object with a *note fileno(): 285e. method which
     returns a socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles
     and socket handles are 'not' waitable handles.)

     Added in version 3.3.

'예제'

다음 서버 코드는 인증 키로 ‘'secret password'’ 를 사용하는 리스너를 만듭
니다.  그런 다음 연결을 기다리고 어떤 데이터를 클라이언트로 보냅니다.:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

     with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
         with listener.accept() as conn:
             print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)

             conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

             conn.send_bytes(b'hello')

             conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

다음 코드는 서버에 연결하고 서버로부터 어떤 데이터를 받습니다:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Client
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)

     with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
         print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

         print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'

         arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
         print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
         print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

다음 코드는 *note wait(): 10d2. 을 사용하여 여러 프로세스로부터 오는 메
시지를 한 번에 기다립니다:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
     from multiprocessing.connection import wait

     def foo(w):
         for i in range(10):
             w.send((i, current_process().name))
         w.close()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         readers = []

         for i in range(4):
             r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
             readers.append(r)
             p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
             p.start()
             # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
             # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
             # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
             # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
             w.close()

         while readers:
             for r in wait(readers):
                 try:
                     msg = r.recv()
                 except EOFError:
                     readers.remove(r)
                 else:
                     print(msg)

* Menu:

* 주소 형식::


File: python.info,  Node: 주소 형식,  Up: 리스너와 클라이언트

5.18.2.23 주소 형식
...................

   * ‘'AF_INET'’ 주소는 ‘(hostname, port)’ 형식의 튜플입니다.
     'hostname' 은 문자열이고, 'port' 는 정수입니다.

   * ‘'AF_UNIX'’ 주소는 파일 시스템의 파일 이름을 나타내는 문자열입니다.

   * An ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address is a string of the form
     ‘r'\\.\pipe\PIPENAME'’.  To use *note Client(): 31cf. to connect to
     a named pipe on a remote computer called 'ServerName' one should
     use an address of the form ‘r'\\SERVERNAME\pipe\PIPENAME'’ instead.

두 개의 역 슬래시로 시작하는 문자열은 기본적으로 ‘'AF_UNIX'’ 주소가 아니
라 ‘'AF_PIPE'’ 주소로 간주합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 인증 키,  Next: 로깅<2>,  Prev: 리스너와 클라이언트,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.24 인증 키
.................

*note Connection.recv: 318d. 를 사용할 때, 수신된 데이터는 자동으로 언 피
클 됩니다.  안타깝게도, 신뢰할 수 없는 출처의 데이터를 언 피클 하는 것은
보안상의 위험입니다.  때문에 *note Listener: 16b0.와 *note Client():
31cf. 는 *note hmac: 6a. 모듈을 사용하여 다이제스트 인증을 제공합니다.

인증 키는 암호로 여겨질 수 있는 바이트열입니다: 일단 연결이 이루어지면 양
끝은 다른 쪽이 인증 키를 알고 있음을 증명하도록 요구합니다.  (양쪽 끝이
같은 키를 사용하고 있음을 증명하는 데는 연결을 통해 키를 보내는 것을 수
반하지 '않습니다'.)

인증이 요청되었지만 인증 키가 지정되지 않으면,
‘current_process().authkey’ 의 반환 값이 사용됩니다 (*note Process: b56.
를 보세요).  이 값은 현재 프로세스가 생성하는 *note Process: b56. 객체에
의해 자동으로 상속됩니다.  이것은 다중 프로세스 프로그램의 모든 프로세스
는 (기본적으로) 자신들 간의 연결을 설정할 때 사용할 수 있는 하나의 인증
키를 공유한다는 것을 뜻합니다.

적절한 인증 키는 *note os.urandom(): 51c. 을 사용하여 생성할 수도 있습니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅<2>,  Next: multiprocessing dummy 모듈,  Prev: 인증 키,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.25 로깅
..............

로깅에 대한 일부 지원이 제공됩니다.  그러나, *note logging: 87. 패키지는
프로세스 공유 록을 사용하지 않으므로 (처리기형에 따라) 다른 프로세스의 메
시지가 뒤섞일 가능성이 있습니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.get_logger ()

     *note multiprocessing: 94.에서 사용되는 로거를 반환합니다.  필요하
     다면, 새로운 것이 만들어집니다.

     When first created the logger has level *note logging.NOTSET: 2c74.
     and no default handler.  Messages sent to this logger will not by
     default propagate to the root logger.

     윈도우에서 자식 프로세스는 부모 프로세스의 로거의 수준만 상속받습니
     다 – 그 밖의 다른 로거 사용자 지정은 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: multiprocessing.log_to_stderr (level=None)

     This function performs a call to *note get_logger(): 2d39. but in
     addition to returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a
     handler which sends output to *note sys.stderr: 937. using format
     ‘'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'’.  You can modify
     ‘levelname’ of the logger by passing a ‘level’ argument.

다음은 로깅이 켜져 있는 예제 세션입니다:

     >>> import multiprocessing, logging
     >>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
     >>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     >>> logger.warning('doomed')
     [WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
     >>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
     >>> del m
     [INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

로깅 수준의 전체 표는 *note logging: 87. 모듈을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing dummy 모듈,  Prev: 로깅<2>,  Up: 레퍼런스

5.18.2.26 ‘multiprocessing.dummy’ 모듈
......................................

*note multiprocessing.dummy: 96. 는 *note multiprocessing: 94. 의 API를
복제하지만 *note threading: ed. 모듈에 대한 래퍼일 뿐입니다.

특히, *note multiprocessing.dummy: 96.에서 제공하는 ‘Pool’ 함수는 같은 메
서드 호출을 모두 지원하지만, 작업자 프로세스가 아닌 작업자 스레드 풀을 사
용하는 *note Pool: f63.의 서브 클래스인 *note ThreadPool: 1917.의 인스턴
스를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs]]])

     작업을 제출할 수 있는 작업자 스레드 풀을 제어하는 스레드 풀 객체.
     *note ThreadPool: 1917. 인스턴스는 *note Pool: f63. 인스턴스와 완전
     히 호환되며, 해당 리소스는 컨텍스트 관리자로 풀을 사용하거나 *note
     close(): 31c0.와 *note terminate(): 31c1.를 수동으로 호출하여 적절
     하게 관리해야 합니다.

     'processes' is the number of worker threads to use.  If 'processes'
     is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note os.process_cpu_count():
     1c4. is used.

     'initializer' 가 ‘None’ 이 아니면, 각 작업자 프로세스는 시작할 때
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ 를 호출합니다.

     *note Pool: f63.과 달리, 'maxtasksperchild'와 'context'는 제공할 수
     없습니다.

          참고: *note ThreadPool: 1917.은 프로세스 풀을 중심으로 설계되
          고 *note concurrent.futures: 21. 모듈 도입 이전에 설계된 *note
          Pool: f63.과 같은 인터페이스를 공유합니다.  따라서, 스레드가 지
          원하는 풀에 적합하지 않은 일부 연산을 상속하고, 비동기 작업의
          상태를 나타내는 자체 형 *note AsyncResult: 31c4.를 가지고 있는
          데 다른 라이브러리에서는 이해하지 못합니다.

          사용자는 일반적으로 처음부터 스레드를 중심으로 설계되고 *note
          asyncio: a.를 포함한 다른 많은 라이브러리와 호환되는 *note
          concurrent.futures.Future: 11a1. 인스턴스를 반환하는 더 간단한
          인터페이스를 가진 *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
          73b.를 사용하는 것을 선호해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그래밍 지침,  Next: 예제<12>,  Prev: 레퍼런스,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.27 프로그래밍 지침
.........................

*note multiprocessing: 94.를 사용할 때 준수해야 할 지침과 관용구가 있습
니다.

* Menu:

* 모든 시작 방법::
* spawn 과 forkserver 시작 방법::


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 시작 방법,  Next: spawn 과 forkserver 시작 방법,  Up: 프로그래밍 지침

5.18.2.28 모든 시작 방법
........................

다음은 모든 시작 방법에 적용됩니다.

공유 상태를 피하세요

     가능한 한 프로세스 간에 많은 양의 데이터가 이동하지 않도록 해야 합
     니다.

     저수준 동기화 프리미티브를 사용하기보다, 프로세스 간 통신을 위해 큐
     나 파이프를 사용하는 것이 아마도 최선입니다.

피클 가능성

     프락시 메서드에 대한 인자가 피클 가능한지 확인하십시오.

프락시의 스레드 안전성

     록으로 보호하지 않는 한 둘 이상의 스레드에서 프락시 객체를 사용하지
     마십시오.

     (여러 프로세스가 '같은' 프락시를 사용하는 문제는 존재하지 않습니다
     .)

좀비 프로세스 조인하기

     On POSIX when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes
     a zombie.  There should never be very many because each time a new
     process starts (or *note active_children(): 3187. is called) all
     completed processes which have not yet been joined will be joined.
     Also calling a finished process’s *note Process.is_alive: 316b.
     will join the process.  Even so it is probably good practice to
     explicitly join all the processes that you start.

피클/언 피클보다 상속하는 것이 더 좋습니다.

     'spawn' 이나 'forkserver' 시작 방법을 사용할 때, *note
     multiprocessing: 94. 의 여러 형은 자식 프로세스가 사용할 수 있도록
     피클 가능할 필요가 있습니다.  그러나, 일반적으로 파이프나 큐를 사용
     하여 공유 객체를 다른 프로세스로 보내는 것을 피해야 합니다.  대신 다
     른 곳에 만들어진 공유 자원에 접근해야 하는 프로세스가 조상 프로세스
     에서 그것들을 상속받을 수 있도록 프로그램을 배치해야 합니다.

프로세스 강제 종료를 피하세요

     *note Process.terminate: 316f. 메서드를 사용해서 프로세스를 정지시
     키는 것은, 그 프로세스가 현재 사용하고 있는 공유 자원(가령 록, 세마
     포어, 파이프, 큐)을 손상하거나 다른 프로세스에서 사용할 수 없게 만
     들 수 있습니다.

     따라서, 아마도 어떤 공유 자원도 사용하지 않는 프로세스에만 *note
     Process.terminate: 316f. 사용을 고려하는 것이 최선일 겁니다.

큐를 사용하는 프로세스 조인하기

     큐에 항목을 넣은 프로세스는 종료되기 전에 버퍼링 된 모든 항목이 “피
     더” 스레드에 의해 하부 파이프로 공급될 때까지 대기합니다.  (자식 프
     로세스는 *note Queue.cancel_join_thread: 317d. 메서드를 호출해서 이
     동작을 회피할 수 있습니다.)

     이것은, 큐를 사용할 때마다 큐에 넣은 모든 항목이 결국 프로세스가 조
     인되기 전에 제거되도록 해야 함을 의미합니다.  그렇지 않으면 큐에 항
     목을 넣은 프로세스가 종료되리라고 보장할 수 없습니다.  데몬이 아닌
     프로세스가 자동으로 조인된다는 것도 기억하세요.

     교착 상태에 빠지는 예는 다음과 같습니다:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put('X' * 1000000)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              queue = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
              p.start()
              p.join()                    # this deadlocks
              obj = queue.get()

     이 문제를 고치는 방법은 마지막 두 줄의 순서를 바꾸는 것입니다 (또는
     간단히 ‘p.join()’ 줄을 지우는 것입니다).

자식 프로세스에 자원을 명시적으로 전달하세요.

     On POSIX using the 'fork' start method, a child process can make
     use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a global
     resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an argument
     to the constructor for the child process.

     윈도우 및 다른 시작 방법과 (잠재적으로) 호환될 수 있는 코드를 만드
     는 것 외에도, 이것은 자식 프로세스가 아직 살아있는 동안 객체가 부모
     프로세스에서 가비지 수집되지 않음을 보장합니다.  부모 프로세스에서
     그 객체가 가비지 수집될 때 일부 자원이 해제되면 이것이 중요 할 수 있
     습니다.

     그래서 예를 들면

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f():
              ... do something using "lock" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f).start()

     는 다음과 같이 다시 써야 합니다

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f(l):
              ... do something using "l" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

*note sys.stdin: 537. 을 “파일류 객체”로 교체할 때 조심하세요

     *note multiprocessing: 94.은 원래 무조건 다음과 같이 호출했습니다

          os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

     ‘multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap()’ 메서드에서 하는 작업입니다 —
     이것은 손자 프로세스와 관련된 문제로 이어졌습니다.  이것은 다음과 같
     이 변경되었습니다:

          sys.stdin.close()
          sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)

     Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each
     other resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a
     potential danger to applications which replace *note sys.stdin():
     537. with a “file-like object” with output buffering.  This danger
     is that if multiple processes call *note close(): 1f6. on this
     file-like object, it could result in the same data being flushed to
     the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

     파일류 객체를 작성하고 여러분 자신의 캐싱을 구현하면, 캐시에 추가할
     때마다 pid를 저장하고, pid가 변경되면 캐시를 버려서 포크에 안전하게
     만들 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

          @property
          def cache(self):
              pid = os.getpid()
              if pid != self._pid:
                  self._pid = pid
                  self._cache = []
              return self._cache

     자세한 내용은 bpo-5155(1), bpo-5313(2) 및 bpo-5331(3)을 참조하십시
     오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5331


File: python.info,  Node: spawn 과 forkserver 시작 방법,  Prev: 모든 시작 방법,  Up: 프로그래밍 지침

5.18.2.29 'spawn' 과 'forkserver' 시작 방법
...........................................

There are a few extra restrictions which don’t apply to the 'fork' start
method.

더 높은 피클 가능성

     Ensure that all arguments to *note Process: b56. are picklable.
     Also, if you subclass ‘Process.__init__’, you must make sure that
     instances will be picklable when the *note Process.start: 3151.
     method is called.

전역 변수

     자식 프로세스에서 실행되는 코드가 전역 변수에 접근하려고 시도하면,
     그 값은 (있는 경우) *note Process.start: 3151. 가 호출되는 시점의 부
     모 프로세스의 값과 같지 않을 수 있습니다.

     하지만, 모듈 수준의 상수인 전역 변수는 문제가 되지 않습니다.
메인 모듈의 안전한 임포트

     Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new
     Python interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such as
     starting a new process).

     예를 들어, 'spawn' 또는 'forkserver' 시작 방법을 사용해서 다음 모듈
     을 실행하면 *note RuntimeError: 195. 로 실패합니다:

          from multiprocessing import Process

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          p = Process(target=foo)
          p.start()

     대신 다음과 같이 ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’ 을 사용하여 프로그램
     의 “진입 지점”을 보호해야 합니다:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              set_start_method('spawn')
              p = Process(target=foo)
              p.start()

     (‘freeze_support()’ 줄은 프로그램이 프로즌 되지 않고 정상적으로 실
     행될 경우 생략될 수 있습니다.)

     이것은 새로 스폰 된 파이썬 인터프리터가 모듈을 안전하게 임포트 한 다
     음 모듈의 ‘foo()’ 함수를 실행할 수 있게 해줍니다.

     메인 모듈에서 풀이나 관리자를 만들면 비슷한 제한이 적용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<12>,  Prev: 프로그래밍 지침,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.18.2.30 예제
..............

사용자 정의된 관리자와 프락시를 만들고 사용하는 방법에 대한 시연:

     from multiprocessing import freeze_support
     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
     import operator

     ##

     class Foo:
         def f(self):
             print('you called Foo.f()')
         def g(self):
             print('you called Foo.g()')
         def _h(self):
             print('you called Foo._h()')

     # A simple generator function
     def baz():
         for i in range(10):
             yield i*i

     # Proxy type for generator objects
     class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
         _exposed_ = ['__next__']
         def __iter__(self):
             return self
         def __next__(self):
             return self._callmethod('__next__')

     # Function to return the operator module
     def get_operator_module():
         return operator

     ##

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     # register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

     # register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

     # register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies
     MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

     # register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

     ##

     def test():
         manager = MyManager()
         manager.start()

         print('-' * 20)

         f1 = manager.Foo1()
         f1.f()
         f1.g()
         assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
         assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

         print('-' * 20)

         f2 = manager.Foo2()
         f2.g()
         f2._h()
         assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
         assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

         print('-' * 20)

         it = manager.baz()
         for i in it:
             print('<%d>' % i, end=' ')
         print()

         print('-' * 20)

         op = manager.operator()
         print('op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45))
         print('op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94))
         print('op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_)

     ##

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()

*note Pool: f63. 사용하기:

     import multiprocessing
     import time
     import random
     import sys

     #
     # Functions used by test code
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
             multiprocessing.current_process().name,
             func.__name__, args, result
             )

     def calculatestar(args):
         return calculate(*args)

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a + b

     def f(x):
         return 1.0 / (x - 5.0)

     def pow3(x):
         return x ** 3

     def noop(x):
         pass

     #
     # Test code
     #

     def test():
         PROCESSES = 4
         print('Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES)

         with multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES) as pool:
             #
             # Tests
             #

             TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \
                     [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

             results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]
             imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

             print('Ordered results using pool.apply_async():')
             for r in results:
                 print('\t', r.get())
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.imap():')
             for x in imap_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():')
             for x in imap_unordered_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:')
             for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             #
             # Test error handling
             #

             print('Testing error handling:')

             try:
                 print(pool.apply(f, (5,)))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(pool.map(f, list(range(10))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(list(pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             it = pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))
             for i in range(10):
                 try:
                     x = next(it)
                 except ZeroDivisionError:
                     if i == 5:
                         pass
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 else:
                     if i == 5:
                         raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             assert i == 9
             print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()')
             print()

             #
             # Testing timeouts
             #

             print('Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:', end=' ')
             res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()

             print('Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:', end=' ')
             it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         multiprocessing.freeze_support()
         test()

큐를 사용하여 작업을 작업자 프로세스 집단에 제공하고 결과를 수집하는 방
법을 보여주는 예:

     import time
     import random

     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

     #
     # Function run by worker processes
     #

     def worker(input, output):
         for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
             result = calculate(func, args)
             output.put(result)

     #
     # Function used to calculate result
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
             (current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

     #
     # Functions referenced by tasks
     #

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a + b

     #
     #
     #

     def test():
         NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
         TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
         TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

         # Create queues
         task_queue = Queue()
         done_queue = Queue()

         # Submit tasks
         for task in TASKS1:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Start worker processes
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

         # Get and print results
         print('Unordered results:')
         for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Add more tasks using `put()`
         for task in TASKS2:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Get and print some more results
         for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Tell child processes to stop
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             task_queue.put('STOP')


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리,  Next: concurrent 패키지,  Prev: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.3 ‘multiprocessing.shared_memory’ — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py(1)

Added in version 3.8.

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 멀티 코어나 대칭 멀티 프로세서 (SMP) 기계에서 하나 이상의 프로
세스가 액세스할 공유 메모리의 할당과 관리를 위한 클래스 *note
SharedMemory: 1660.를 제공합니다.  특히 별개의 프로세스에 걸친 공유 메모
리의 수명 주기 관리를 지원하기 위해, *note BaseManager: 31a3. 서브 클래
스인 *note SharedMemoryManager: 31e1.도 *note multiprocessing.managers:
97. 모듈에서 제공됩니다.

이 모듈에서, 공유 메모리는 “POSIX 스타일” 공유 메모리 블록을 가리키며 (꼭
그런 식으로 구현돼야 할 필요는 없습니다), “분산 공유 메모리”를 가리키지
는 않습니다.  이 스타일의 공유 메모리는 개별 프로세스가 잠재적으로 휘발
성 메모리의 공통 (또는 공유) 영역을 읽고 쓸 수 있게 합니다.  프로세스는
일반적으로 자체 프로세스 메모리 공간에만 액세스 할 수 있도록 제한되지만,
공유 메모리는 프로세스 간에 데이터를 공유 할 수 있도록 해서, 프로세스 간
에 대신 해당 데이터가 포함된 메시지를 보낼 필요가 없도록 합니다.  메모리
를 통해 직접 데이터를 공유하면 디스크나 소켓 또는 직렬화/역 직렬화와 데
이터의 복사를 요구하는 다른 통신과 비교하여 상당한 성능상의 이점을 얻을
수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory (name=None,
          create=False, size=0, *, track=True)

     새 공유 메모리 블록을 만들거나 기존 공유 메모리 블록에 연결하기 위
     해 ‘SharedMemory’ 클래스의 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  각 공유 메모리 블
     록에는 고유한 이름이 지정됩니다.  이런 식으로, 하나의 프로세스가 특
     정 이름을 가진 공유 메모리 블록을 생성 할 수 있으며, 다른 프로세스
     가 같은 이름을 사용하여 같은 공유 메모리 블록에 연결할 수 있습니다.

     프로세스 간에 데이터를 공유하기 위한 자원으로서, 공유 메모리 블록은
     생성한 원래 프로세스보다 오래갈 수 있습니다.  한 프로세스가 더는 다
     른 프로세스가 필요로 할 수도 있는 공유 메모리 블록에 대한 액세스를
     필요로하지 않으면 *note close(): 31e2. 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.  어
     떤 프로세스에서도 공유 메모리 블록이 더는 필요하지 않으면, 적절한 정
     리를 위해 *note unlink(): 31e3. 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – 문자열로 지정된, 요청된
          공유 메모리의 고유한 이름.  새 공유 메모리 블록을 만들 때, 이
          름에 ‘None’(기본값)이 제공되면, 새로운 이름이 생성됩니다.

        * ‘create’ (*note bool: 461.) – 새 공유 메모리 블록을 만들지
          (‘True’), 또는 기존 공유 메모리 블록을 연결할지(‘False’)를 제
          어합니다.

        * ‘size’ (*note int: 257.) – 새 공유 메모리 블록을 만들 때 요청
          된 바이트 수.  일부 플랫폼은 해당 플랫폼의 메모리 페이지 크기
          를 기반으로 메모리 덩어리를 할당하기 때문에, 공유 메모리 블록
          의 정확한 크기는 요청한 크기보다 크거나 같을 수 있습니다.  기
          존 공유 메모리 블록에 연결할 때는, 'size' 매개 변수가 무시됩니
          다.

        * ‘track’ (*note bool: 461.) – When ‘True’, register the shared
          memory block with a resource tracker process on platforms
          where the OS does not do this automatically.  The resource
          tracker ensures proper cleanup of the shared memory even if
          all other processes with access to the memory exit without
          doing so.  Python processes created from a common ancestor
          using *note multiprocessing: 94. facilities share a single
          resource tracker process, and the lifetime of shared memory
          segments is handled automatically among these processes.
          Python processes created in any other way will receive their
          own resource tracker when accessing shared memory with 'track'
          enabled.  This will cause the shared memory to be deleted by
          the resource tracker of the first process that terminates.  To
          avoid this issue, users of *note subprocess: d6. or standalone
          Python processes should set 'track' to ‘False’ when there is
          already another process in place that does the bookkeeping.
          'track' is ignored on Windows, which has its own tracking and
          automatically deletes shared memory when all handles to it
          have been closed.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'track' parameter.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          Close the file descriptor/handle to the shared memory from
          this instance.  *note close(): 31e2. should be called once
          access to the shared memory block from this instance is no
          longer needed.  Depending on operating system, the underlying
          memory may or may not be freed even if all handles to it have
          been closed.  To ensure proper cleanup, use the *note
          unlink(): 31e3. method.

      -- 메서드: unlink ()

          Delete the underlying shared memory block.  This should be
          called only once per shared memory block regardless of the
          number of handles to it, even in other processes.  *note
          unlink(): 31e3. and *note close(): 31e2. can be called in any
          order, but trying to access data inside a shared memory block
          after *note unlink(): 31e3. may result in memory access
          errors, depending on platform.

          This method has no effect on Windows, where the only way to
          delete a shared memory block is to close all handles.

      -- 속성: buf

          공유 메모리 블록의 내용에 대한 메모리 뷰.

      -- 속성: name

          공유 메모리 블록의 고유한 이름에 대한 읽기 전용 액세스.

      -- 속성: size

          공유 메모리 블록의 크기(바이트)에 대한 읽기 전용 액세스.

다음 예제는 *note SharedMemory: 1660. 인스턴스의 저수준 사용을 보여줍니
다:

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm_a = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=10)
     >>> type(shm_a.buf)
     <class 'memoryview'>
     >>> buffer = shm_a.buf
     >>> len(buffer)
     10
     >>> buffer[:4] = bytearray([22, 33, 44, 55])  # 여러 바이트를 한 번에 수정합니다
     >>> buffer[4] = 100                           # 한 번에 한 바이트씩 수정합니다
     >>> # 기존 공유 메모리 블록에 연결합니다
     >>> shm_b = shared_memory.SharedMemory(shm_a.name)
     >>> import array
     >>> array.array('b', shm_b.buf[:5])  # 새 array.array로 데이터를 복사합니다
     array('b', [22, 33, 44, 55, 100])
     >>> shm_b.buf[:5] = b'howdy'  # shm_b를 통해 bytes를 사용해서 수정합니다
     >>> bytes(shm_a.buf[:5])      # shm_a를 통해 액세스합니다
     b'howdy'
     >>> shm_b.close()   # 각 SharedMemory 인스턴스를 닫습니다
     >>> shm_a.close()
     >>> shm_a.unlink()  # 공유 메모리를 해제하기 위해 오직 한 번만 unlink를 호출합니다

다음 예제는 두 개의 다른 파이썬 셸에서 같은 ‘numpy.ndarray’에 액세스하는
, NumPy 배열(2)과 함께 *note SharedMemory: 1660. 클래스를 사용하는 실용
적인 방법을 보여줍니다:

     >>> # 첫 번째 파이썬 대화형 셸에서
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> a = np.array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])  # 기존 NumPy 배열로 시작합니다
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=a.nbytes)
     >>> # 이제 공유 메모리에 NumPy 배열을 만듭니다
     >>> b = np.ndarray(a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, buffer=shm.buf)
     >>> b[:] = a[:]  # 원래 데이터를 공유 메모리로 복사합니다
     >>> b
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> type(b)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> type(a)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> shm.name  # 이름을 지정하지 않았으므로, 우리를 위해 이름이 선택되었습니다
     'psm_21467_46075'

     >>> # 같은 셸이나 같은 기계 상의 새로운 파이썬 셀에서
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> # 기존 공유 메모리 블록에 연결합니다
     >>> existing_shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(name='psm_21467_46075')
     >>> # 이 예제에서 a.shape은 (6,)이고 a.dtype은 np.int64 입니다
     >>> c = np.ndarray((6,), dtype=np.int64, buffer=existing_shm.buf)
     >>> c
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> c[-1] = 888
     >>> c
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # 첫 번째 파이썬 대화형 셸로 돌아가면, b가 이 변경을 반영합니다
     >>> b
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # 두 번째 파이썬 셀 내에서 정리합니다
     >>> del c  # 필요 없습니다; 단순히 배열이 더는 사용되지 않는다는 것을 강조하기 위함입니다
     >>> existing_shm.close()

     >>> # 첫 번째 파이썬 셀 내에서 정리합니다
     >>> del b  # 필요 없습니다; 단순히 배열이 더는 사용되지 않는다는 것을 강조하기 위함입니다
     >>> shm.close()
     >>> shm.unlink()  # 제일 끝에서 공유 메모리 블록을 해제하고 반납합니다

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager ([address[,
          authkey]])

     프로세스 간 공유 메모리 블록을 관리하는 데 사용할 수 있는 *note
     multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager: 31a3.의 서브 클래스.

     ‘SharedMemoryManager’ 인스턴스에서 *note start(): 31a4.를 호출하면
     새 프로세스가 시작됩니다.  이 새로운 프로세스의 유일한 목적은 이를
     통해 생성된 모든 공유 메모리 블록의 수명 주기를 관리하는 것입니다.
     해당 프로세스가 관리하는 모든 공유 메모리 블록의 해제를 시작시키려
     면, 해당 인스턴스에서 *note shutdown(): 31a5.을 호출하십시오.  그러
     면 이 프로세스에 의해 관리되는 모든 *note SharedMemory: 31e7. 객체
     에 대해 *note unlink(): 31e3. 호출을 일으키고, 그런 다음 프로세스 자
     체를 중지합니다.  ‘SharedMemoryManager’를 통해 ‘SharedMemory’ 인스
     턴스를 생성함으로써, 공유 메모리 자원을 수동으로 추적하여 해제할 필
     요가 없습니다.

     이 클래스는 *note SharedMemory: 31e7. 인스턴스를 만들고 반환하는 메
     서드와, 공유 메모리로 지원되는 리스트류 객체(*note ShareableList:
     31e8.)를 만드는 메서드를 제공합니다.

     상속된 'address'와 'authkey' 선택적 입력 인자에 대한 설명과 이 인자
     를 사용하여 다른 프로세스의 기존 ‘SharedMemoryManager’ 서비스에 연
     결하는 방법에 대해서는 *note BaseManager: 31a3.를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: SharedMemory (size)

          바이트로 지정된 'size' 크기의 새로운 *note SharedMemory: 31e7.
          객체를 만들고 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: ShareableList (sequence)

          입력 'sequence'의 값으로 초기화된, 새 *note ShareableList:
          31e8. 객체를 만들고 반환합니다.

다음 예제는 *note SharedMemoryManager: 31e1.의 기본 메커니즘을 보여줍니
다:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import SharedMemoryManager
     >>> smm = SharedMemoryManager()
     >>> smm.start()  # 공유 메모리 블록을 관리하는 프로세스를 시작합니다
     >>> sl = smm.ShareableList(range(4))
     >>> sl
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3], name='psm_6572_7512')
     >>> raw_shm = smm.SharedMemory(size=128)
     >>> another_sl = smm.ShareableList('alpha')
     >>> another_sl
     ShareableList(['a', 'l', 'p', 'h', 'a'], name='psm_6572_12221')
     >>> smm.shutdown()  # sl, raw_shm, 및 another_sl 에 대해 unlink()를 호출합니다

다음 예제는 *note with: 5cc. 문을 통해 *note SharedMemoryManager: 31e1.
객체를 사용하여 더는 필요하지 않은 모든 공유 메모리 블록이 해제되도록 하
는, 잠재적으로 더 편리한 패턴을 보여줍니다:

     >>> with SharedMemoryManager() as smm:
     ...     sl = smm.ShareableList(range(2000))
     ...     # 작업을 두 프로세스로 나누고, 부분적인 결과를 sl에 저장합니다
     ...     p1 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 0, 1000))
     ...     p2 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 1000, 2000))
     ...     p1.start()
     ...     p2.start()  # multiprocessing.Pool이 더 효율적일 수 있습니다
     ...     p1.join()
     ...     p2.join()   # 두 프로세스가 모두 작업을 끝낼 때까지 기다립니다
     ...     total_result = sum(sl)  # 이제 sl에 있는 부분 결과들을 통합합니다

*note with: 5cc. 문에서 *note SharedMemoryManager: 31e1.를 사용할 때,
‘with’ 문의 코드 블록 실행이 완료되면 해당 관리자를 사용하여 만들어진 공
유 메모리 블록이 모두 해제됩니다.

 -- 클래스: multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList (sequence=None,
          *, name=None)

     Provide a mutable list-like object where all values stored within
     are stored in a shared memory block.  This constrains storable
     values to the following built-in data types:

        * *note int: 257. (부호있는 64-비트)

        * *note float: 2ef.

        * *note bool: 461.

        * *note str: 445. (less than 10M bytes each when encoded as
          UTF-8)

        * *note bytes: 1c2. (less than 10M bytes each)

        * ‘None’

     It also notably differs from the built-in *note list: 60b. type in
     that these lists can not change their overall length (i.e.  no
     ‘append()’, ‘insert()’, etc.)  and do not support the dynamic
     creation of new ‘ShareableList’ instances via slicing.

     'sequence'는 새로운 ‘ShareableList’를 값으로 가득 채우는 데 사용됩
     니다.  고유한 공유 메모리 이름으로 이미 존재하는 ‘ShareableList’에
     대신 연결하려면 ‘None’으로 설정하십시오.

     'name'은 *note SharedMemory: 1660.에 대한 정의에서 설명한 대로, 요
     청된 공유 메모리의 고유한 이름입니다.  기존 ‘ShareableList’에 연결
     할 때, 'sequence'를 ‘None’으로 설정하고 공유 메모리 블록의 고유한 이
     름을 지정하십시오.

          참고: A known issue exists for *note bytes: 1c2. and *note
          str: 445. values.  If they end with ‘\x00’ nul bytes or
          characters, those may be 'silently stripped' when fetching
          them by index from the ‘ShareableList’.  This
          ‘.rstrip(b'\x00')’ behavior is considered a bug and may go
          away in the future.  See gh-106939(3).

     For applications where rstripping of trailing nulls is a problem,
     work around it by always unconditionally appending an extra non-0
     byte to the end of such values when storing and unconditionally
     removing it when fetching:

          >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
          >>> nul_bug_demo = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'])
          >>> nul_bug_demo[0]
          '?'
          >>> nul_bug_demo[1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01'
          >>> nul_bug_demo.shm.unlink()
          >>> padded = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00\x07', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00\x07'])
          >>> padded[0][:-1]
          '?\x00'
          >>> padded[1][:-1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'
          >>> padded.shm.unlink()

      -- 메서드: count (value)

          'value'의 발생 횟수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: index (value)

          'value'의 첫 번째 인덱스 위치를 반환합니다.  'value'가 없으면
          *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 속성: format

          현재 저장된 모든 값이 사용하는 *note struct: d5. 패킹 형식을 포
          함하는 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트.

      -- 속성: shm

          값이 저장되는 *note SharedMemory: 1660. 인스턴스.

다음 예제는 *note ShareableList: 1975. 인스턴스의 기본 사용을 보여줍니다
.:

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> a = shared_memory.ShareableList(['howdy', b'HoWdY', -273.154, 100, None, True, 42])
     >>> [ type(entry) for entry in a ]
     [<class 'str'>, <class 'bytes'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'NoneType'>, <class 'bool'>, <class 'int'>]
     >>> a[2]
     -273.154
     >>> a[2] = -78.5
     >>> a[2]
     -78.5
     >>> a[2] = 'dry ice'  # Changing data types is supported as well
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> a[2] = 'larger than previously allocated storage space'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: exceeds available storage for existing str
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> len(a)
     7
     >>> a.index(42)
     6
     >>> a.count(b'howdy')
     0
     >>> a.count(b'HoWdY')
     1
     >>> a.shm.close()
     >>> a.shm.unlink()
     >>> del a  # Use of a ShareableList after call to unlink() is unsupported

다음 예는 하나, 둘 또는 여러 프로세스가 그 뒤에 있는 공유 메모리 블록의
이름을 제공하여 같은 *note ShareableList: 1975.에 액세스하는 방법을 보여
줍니다:

     >>> b = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(5))         # In a first process
     >>> c = shared_memory.ShareableList(name=b.shm.name)  # In a second process
     >>> c
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], name='...')
     >>> c[-1] = -999
     >>> b[-1]
     -999
     >>> b.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.unlink()

The following examples demonstrates that *note ShareableList: 1975. (and
underlying *note SharedMemory: 1660.) objects can be pickled and
unpickled if needed.  Note, that it will still be the same shared
object.  This happens, because the deserialized object has the same
unique name and is just attached to an existing object with the same
name (if the object is still alive):

     >>> import pickle
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> sl = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(10))
     >>> list(sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> deserialized_sl = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sl))
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl[0] = -1
     >>> deserialized_sl[1] = -2
     >>> list(sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl.shm.close()
     >>> sl.shm.unlink()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py

   (2) https://numpy.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106939


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent 패키지,  Next: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기,  Prev: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.4 ‘concurrent’ 패키지
--------------------------

현재, 이 패키지에는 하나의 모듈만 있습니다.:

   * *note concurrent.futures: 21. – 병렬 작업 시작하기


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기,  Next: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리,  Prev: concurrent 패키지,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.5 ‘concurrent.futures’ — 병렬 작업 실행하기
------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'소스 코드:' Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py(1)와
Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

*note concurrent.futures: 21. 모듈은 비동기적으로 콜러블을 실행하는 고수
준 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

비동기 실행은 (*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.를 사용해서) 스레드나
(*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.를 사용해서) 별도의 프로세스로 수행 할 수
있습니다.  둘 다 추상 *note Executor: 31f1. 클래스로 정의된 것과 같은 인
터페이스를 구현합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

* Menu:

* Executor 객체::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future 객체::
* 모듈 함수::
* 예외 클래스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py


File: python.info,  Node: Executor 객체,  Next: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

5.18.5.1 Executor 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: concurrent.futures.Executor

     비동기적으로 호출을 실행하는 메서드를 제공하는 추상 클래스입니다.  직
     접 사용해서는 안 되며, 구체적인 하위 클래스를 통해 사용해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: submit (fn, /, *args, **kwargs)

          콜러블 'fn' 이 ‘fn(*args, **kwargs)’ 처럼 실행되도록 예약하고,
          콜러블 객체의 실행을 나타내는 *note Future: 11a1. 객체를 반환
          합니다.

               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
                   future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
                   print(future.result())

      -- 메서드: map (fn, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1)

          *note map(fn, *iterables): 85e. 과 비슷하지만, 다음과 같은 차
          이가 있습니다:

             * 'iterables' 는 느긋하게 처리되는 것이 아니라 즉시 수집됩
               니다.

             * 'fn' 는 비동기적으로 실행되며 'fn' 에 대한 여러 호출이 동
               시에 이루어질 수 있습니다.

          반환된 이터레이터는 *note __next__(): 12bd. 가 호출되었을 때,
          *note Executor.map(): de0. 에 대한 최초 호출에서 'timeout' 초
          후에도 결과를 사용할 수 없는 경우 *note TimeoutError: 82f. 를
          발생시킵니다.  'timeout' 은 int 또는 float가 될 수 있습니다.
          'timeout' 이 지정되지 않았거나 ‘None’ 인 경우, 대기 시간에는 제
          한이 없습니다.

          'fn' 호출이 예외를 일으키면, 값을 이터레이터에서 꺼낼 때 해당
          예외가 발생합니다.

          *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.를 사용할 때, 이 메서드는
          'iterables' 를 다수의 덩어리로 잘라서 별도의 작업으로 풀에 제
          출합니다.  이러한 덩어리의 (대략적인) 크기는 'chunksize' 를 양
          의 정수로 설정하여 지정할 수 있습니다.  매우 긴 이터러블의 경
          우 'chunksize' 에 큰 값을 사용하면 기본 크기인 1에 비해 성능이
          크게 향상될 수 있습니다.  *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 의 경
          우, 'chunksize' 는 아무런 효과가 없습니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 'chunksize' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: shutdown (wait=True, *, cancel_futures=False)

          현재 계류 중인 퓨처가 실행 완료될 때, 사용 중인 모든 자원을 해
          제해야 한다는 것을 실행기에 알립니다.  종료(shutdown) 후에 이
          루어지는 *note Executor.submit(): a7f. 과 *note
          Executor.map(): de0. 호출은 *note RuntimeError: 195. 를 발생시
          킵니다.

          'wait' 가 ‘True’ 면, 계류 중인 모든 퓨처가 실행을 마치고 실행
          기와 관련된 자원이 해제될 때까지 이 메서드는 돌아오지 않습니다
          .  'wait' 가 ‘False’ 면, 이 메서드는 즉시 돌아오고 실행기와 연
          관된 자원은 계류 중인 모든 퓨처가 실행을 마칠 때 해제됩니다.
          'wait' 의 값과 관계없이, 모든 계류 중인 퓨처가 실행을 마칠 때
          까지 전체 파이썬 프로그램이 종료되지 않습니다.

          'cancel_futures'가 ‘True’이면, 이 메서드는 실행기가 실행을 시
          작시키지 않은 계류 중인 모든 퓨처를 취소합니다.
          'cancel_futures'의 값과 관계없이 완료되었거나 실행 중인 퓨처는
          취소되지 않습니다.

          'cancel_futures'와 'wait'가 모두 ‘True’이면, 이 메서드가 반환
          하기 전에 실행기가 실행을 시작한 모든 퓨처가 완료됩니다.  나머
          지 퓨처는 취소됩니다.

          You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use
          the executor as a *note context manager: 5ce. via the *note
          with: 5cc. statement, which will shutdown the *note Executor:
          31f1. (waiting as if *note Executor.shutdown(): 8ea. were
          called with 'wait' set to ‘True’):

               import shutil
               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 'cancel_futures'를 추가했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Next: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Prev: Executor 객체,  Up: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

5.18.5.2 ThreadPoolExecutor
...........................

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 는 스레드 풀을 사용하여 호출을 비동기적으
로 실행하는 *note Executor: 31f1. 서브 클래스입니다.

*note Future: 11a1.와 관련된 콜러블 객체가 다른 *note Future: 11a1. 의 결
과를 기다릴 때 교착 상태가 발생할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     import time
     def wait_on_b():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(b.result())  # b 는 a 를 기다리기 때문에 완료되지 않습니다.
         return 5

     def wait_on_a():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(a.result())  # a 는 b 를 기다리기 때문에 완료되지 않습니다.
         return 6


     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
     a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
     b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)

그리고:

     def wait_on_future():
         f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
         # 작업자 스레드가 하나뿐인데, wait_on_future 를 실행하고 있으므로
         # f 는 완료되지 않습니다.
         print(f.result())

     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
     executor.submit(wait_on_future)

 -- 클래스: concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

     최대 'max_workers' 스레드의 풀을 사용하여 호출을 비동기적으로 실행
     하는 *note Executor: 31f1. 서브 클래스.

     All threads enqueued to ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ will be joined before
     the interpreter can exit.  Note that the exit handler which does
     this is executed 'before' any exit handlers added using ‘atexit’.
     This means exceptions in the main thread must be caught and handled
     in order to signal threads to exit gracefully.  For this reason, it
     is recommended that ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ not be used for
     long-running tasks.

     'initializer' 는 각 작업자 스레드의 시작 부분에서 호출되는 선택적 콜
     러블입니다; 'initargs' 는 initializer에 전달되는 인자들의 튜플입니
     다.  'initializer' 가 예외를 발생시키는 경우, 현재 계류 중인 모든 작
     업과 풀에 추가로 작업을 제출하려는 시도는 *note BrokenThreadPool:
     31f4. 을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'max_workers' 가 ‘None’ 이거나 주어지지 않았다면
     , 기본값으로 기계의 프로세서 수에 ‘5’ 를 곱한 값을 사용합니다.
     *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 가 CPU 작업보다는 I/O를 동시에 진행
     하는데 자주 쓰이고, 작업자의 수가 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 보
     다 많아야 한다고 가정하고 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 디버깅 편의를 위해 사용자가 풀이 만드는 작업자 스
     레드의 *note threading.Thread: 94a. 이름을 제어 할 수 있도록,
     'thread_name_prefix' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'initializer' 및 'initargs' 인자가 추가되었습니
     다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'max_workers'의 기본값은 ‘min(32, os.cpu_count()
     + 4)’로 변경됩니다.  이 기본값은 I/O 병목 작업을 위해 최소 5개의 작
     업자를 유지합니다.  GIL을 반납하는 CPU 병목 작업을 위해 최대 32개의
     CPU 코어를 사용합니다.  또한 많은 코어를 가진 시스템에서 매우 큰 자
     원을 묵시적으로 사용하는 것을 방지합니다.

     ThreadPoolExecutor는 이제 'max_workers' 작업자 스레드를 시작하기 전
     에 유휴 작업자 스레드를 재사용합니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Default value of 'max_workers' is changed to
     ‘min(32, (os.process_cpu_count() or 1) + 4)’.

* Menu:

* ThreadPoolExecutor 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor 예제,  Up: ThreadPoolExecutor

5.18.5.3 ThreadPoolExecutor 예제
................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import urllib.request

     URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
             'http://www.cnn.com/',
             'http://europe.wsj.com/',
             'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
             'http://nonexistent-subdomain.python.org/']

     # 페이지 하나를 가져오고 URL 과 내용을 보고합니다
     def load_url(url, timeout):
         with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
             return conn.read()

     # with 문을 사용하여 스레드가 즉시 정리되도록 할 수 있습니다
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
         # 로드 작업을 시작하고 각 퓨처의 해당 URL을 기록합니다
         future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
         for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
             url = future_to_url[future]
             try:
                 data = future.result()
             except Exception as exc:
                 print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
             else:
                 print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Future 객체,  Prev: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

5.18.5.4 ProcessPoolExecutor
............................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 클래스는 프로세스 풀을 사용하여 호출을 비
동기적으로 실행하는 *note Executor: 31f1. 서브 클래스입니다.  *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 는 *note multiprocessing: 94. 모듈을 사용합니
다.  *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148. 을 피할 수 있도록 하지만, 오직 피클
가능한 객체만 실행되고 반환될 수 있음을 의미합니다.

‘__main__’ 모듈은 작업자 서브 프로세스가 임포트 할 수 있어야 합니다.  즉
, *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 는 대화형 인터프리터에서 작동하지 않습
니다.

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 에 제출된 콜러블에서 *note Executor:
31f1. 나 *note Future: 11a1. 메서드를 호출하면 교착 상태가 발생합니다.

Note that the restrictions on functions and arguments needing to
picklable as per *note multiprocessing.Process: b56. apply when using
*note submit(): a7f. and *note map(): de0. on a *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.  A function defined in a REPL or a lambda
should not be expected to work.

 -- 클래스: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(),
          max_tasks_per_child=None)

     최대 'max_workers' 프로세스의 풀을 사용하여 호출을 비동기적으로 실
     행하는 *note Executor: 31f1. 서브 클래스.  'max_workers' 가 ‘None’
     이거나 주어지지 않았다면, *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4.를 기본
     값으로 사용합니다.  'max_workers' 가 ‘0’ 보다 작거나 같으면 *note
     ValueError: 202. 가 발생합니다.  윈도우에서, 'max_workers'는 ‘61’보
     다 작거나 같아야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발
     생합니다.  'max_workers'가 ‘None’ 이면, 더 많은 프로세서를 사용할 수
     있다 할지라도 선택된 기본값은 최대 ‘61’이 될 것입니다.
     'mp_context' 는 *note multiprocessing: 94. 컨텍스트이거나 ‘None’일
     수 있습니다.  작업자들을 만드는데 사용될 것입니다.  'mp_context' 가
     ‘None’ 이거나 주어지지 않으면 기본 *note multiprocessing: 94. 컨텍
     스트가 사용됩니다.  *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.을 참조하세요.

     'initializer' 는 각 작업자 프로세스의 시작 부분에서 호출되는 선택적
     콜러블입니다; 'initargs' 는 initializer에 전달되는 인자들의 튜플입
     니다.  'initializer' 가 예외를 발생시키는 경우, 현재 계류 중인 모든
     작업과 풀에 추가로 작업을 제출하려는 시도는 *note
     BrokenProcessPool: 31f7. 을 발생시킵니다.

     'max_tasks_per_child' is an optional argument that specifies the
     maximum number of tasks a single process can execute before it will
     exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process.  By default
     'max_tasks_per_child' is ‘None’ which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.  When a max is specified, the “spawn”
     multiprocessing start method will be used by default in absence of
     a 'mp_context' parameter.  This feature is incompatible with the
     “fork” start method.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 작업자 프로세스 중 하나가 갑자기 종료되면, *note
     BrokenProcessPool: 31f7. 오류가 발생합니다.  이전에는, 동작이 정의
     되지 않았지만, 실행기나 그 퓨처에 대한 연산이 종종 멈추거나 교착 상
     태에 빠졌습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'mp_context' 인자가 추가되어 사용자가 풀에서 만
     드는 작업자 프로세스의 시작 방법을 제어 할 수 있습니다.

     'initializer' 및 'initargs' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

          참고: The default *note multiprocessing: 94. start method (see
          *note 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.) will change away from
          'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' be used for
          their *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. should explicitly
          specify that by passing a
          ‘mp_context=multiprocessing.get_context("fork")’ parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'max_tasks_per_child' 인자가 추가되어 사용자가
     풀에 있는 작업자의 수명을 제어 할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: On POSIX systems, if your application has
     multiple threads and the *note multiprocessing: 94. context uses
     the ‘"fork"’ start method: The *note os.fork(): 197. function
     called internally to spawn workers may raise a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5.  Pass a 'mp_context' configured to use a
     different start method.  See the *note os.fork(): 197.
     documentation for further explanation.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'max_workers' uses *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. by default, instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 1c5.

* Menu:

* ProcessPoolExecutor 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor 예제,  Up: ProcessPoolExecutor

5.18.5.5 ProcessPoolExecutor 예제
.................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import math

     PRIMES = [
         112272535095293,
         112582705942171,
         112272535095293,
         115280095190773,
         115797848077099,
         1099726899285419]

     def is_prime(n):
         if n < 2:
             return False
         if n == 2:
             return True
         if n % 2 == 0:
             return False

         sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
         for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
             if n % i == 0:
                 return False
         return True

     def main():
         with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
             for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
                 print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Future 객체,  Next: 모듈 함수,  Prev: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

5.18.5.6 Future 객체
....................

*note Future: 11a1. 클래스는 콜러블 객체의 비동기 실행을 캡슐화합니다.
*note Future: 11a1. 인스턴스는 *note Executor.submit(): a7f. 에 의해 생
성됩니다.

 -- 클래스: concurrent.futures.Future

     콜러블 객체의 비동기 실행을 캡슐화합니다.  *note Future: 11a1. 인스
     턴스는 *note Executor.submit(): a7f. 에 의해 생성되며 테스트를 제외
     하고는 직접 생성되어서는 안 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: cancel ()

          호출을 취소하려고 시도합니다.  호출이 현재 실행 중이거나 실행
          종료했고 취소할 수 없는 경우 메서드는 ‘False’ 를 반환하고, 그
          렇지 않으면 호출이 취소되고 메서드는 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: cancelled ()

          호출이 성공적으로 취소되었으면 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: running ()

          호출이 현재 실행 중이고 취소할 수 없는 경우 ‘True’ 를 반환합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: done ()

          호출이 성공적으로 취소되었거나 실행이 완료되었으면 ‘True’ 를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: result (timeout=None)

          호출이 반환한 값을 돌려줍니다.  호출이 아직 완료되지 않는 경우
          , 이 메서드는 'timeout' 초까지 대기합니다.  'timeout' 초 내에
          호출이 완료되지 않으면 *note TimeoutError: 82f. 가 발생합니다.
          'timeout' 은 int 또는 float가 될 수 있습니다.  'timeout' 이 지
          정되지 않았거나 ‘None’ 인 경우, 대기 시간에는 제한이 없습니다.

          완료하기 전에 퓨처가 취소되면 *note CancelledError: 9d7. 가 발
          생합니다.

          호출이 예외를 일으키는 경우, 이 메서드는 같은 예외를 발생시킵
          니다.

      -- 메서드: exception (timeout=None)

          호출이 일으킨 예외를 돌려줍니다.  호출이 아직 완료되지 않는 경
          우, 이 메서드는 'timeout' 초까지 대기합니다.  'timeout' 초 내
          에 호출이 완료되지 않으면 *note TimeoutError: 82f. 가 발생합니
          다.  'timeout' 은 int 또는 float가 될 수 있습니다.  'timeout'
          이 지정되지 않았거나 ‘None’ 인 경우, 대기 시간에는 제한이 없습
          니다.

          완료하기 전에 퓨처가 취소되면 *note CancelledError: 9d7. 가 발
          생합니다.

          호출이 예외 없이 완료되면, ‘None’ 이 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: add_done_callback (fn)

          콜러블 'fn' 을 퓨처에 연결합니다.  'fn' 은 퓨처가 취소되거나 실
          행이 종료될 때 퓨처를 유일한 인자로 호출됩니다.

          추가된 콜러블은 추가된 순서대로 호출되며, 항상 콜러블을 추가한
          프로세스에 속하는 스레드에서 호출됩니다.  콜러블이 *note
          Exception: 9d6. 서브 클래스를 발생시키면, 로그 되고 무시됩니다
          .  콜러블이 *note BaseException: 5b5. 서브 클래스를 발생시키면
          , 동작은 정의되지 않습니다.

          퓨처가 이미 완료되었거나 취소된 경우 'fn' 이 즉시 호출됩니다.

     다음 *note Future: 11a1. 메서드는 단위 테스트와 *note Executor:
     31f1. 의 구현을 위한 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: set_running_or_notify_cancel ()

          이 메서드는 *note Future: 11a1.와 관련된 작업을 실행하기 전에
          *note Executor: 31f1. 구현에 의해서만 호출되거나 단위 테스트에
          서만 호출되어야 합니다.

          메서드가 ‘False’ 를 반환하면, *note Future: 11a1. 가 취소된 것
          입니다.  즉 *note Future.cancel(): 31fa. 이 호출되었고 ‘True’를
          반환했습니다.  *note Future: 11a1. 완료를 기다리는 (즉, *note
          as_completed(): 1654. 또는 *note wait(): 1869.를 통해) 모든 스
          레드는 깨어납니다.

          메서드가 ‘True’ 를 반환하면, *note Future: 11a1. 가 취소되지 않
          았고 실행 상태로 진입했습니다.  즉 *note Future.running():
          31fc. 을 호출하면 ‘True’ 가 반환됩니다.

          이 메서드는 한 번만 호출 할 수 있으며, *note
          Future.set_result(): 3202. 또는 *note Future.set_exception():
          3203. 이 호출 된 후에는 호출할 수 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: set_result (result)

          *note Future: 11a1.와 관련된 작업 결과를 'result' 로 설정합니
          다.

          이 메서드는 *note Executor: 31f1. 구현과 단위 테스트에서만 사
          용해야 합니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 메서드는 *note Future: 11a1.가 이미 완료
          되었으면 *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1613.를 발
          생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: set_exception (exception)

          *note Future: 11a1.와 관련된 작업 결과를 *note Exception: 9d6.
          'exception' 으로 설정합니다.

          이 메서드는 *note Executor: 31f1. 구현과 단위 테스트에서만 사
          용해야 합니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 메서드는 *note Future: 11a1.가 이미 완료
          되었으면 *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1613.를 발
          생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 함수,  Next: 예외 클래스,  Prev: Future 객체,  Up: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

5.18.5.7 모듈 함수
..................

 -- 함수: concurrent.futures.wait (fs, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     'fs' 로 주어진 여러 (서로 다른 *note Executor: 31f1. 인스턴스가 만
     든 것들도 가능합니다) *note Future: 11a1. 인스턴스들이 완료할 때까
     지 기다립니다.  'fs' 로 주어진 중복 퓨처는 제거되고 한 번만 반환됩
     니다.  집합들의 이름있는 2-튜플을 돌려줍니다.  ‘done’ 이라는 이름의
     첫 번째 집합은 대기가 끝나기 전에 완료된 (끝났거나 취소된) 퓨처를 담
     고 있습니다.  ‘not_done’ 이라는 이름의 두 번째 집합은 완료되지 않은
     (계류 중이거나 실행 중인) 퓨처를 담고 있습니다.

     'timeout' 은 반환하기 전에 대기 할 최대 시간(초)을 제어하는 데 사용
     할 수 있습니다.  'timeout' 은 int 또는 float가 될 수 있습니다.
     'timeout' 이 지정되지 않았거나 ‘None’ 인 경우, 대기 시간에는 제한이
     없습니다.

     'return_when' 은, 이 함수가 언제 반환되어야 하는지를 나타냅니다.  다
     음 상수 중 하나여야 합니다:

     상수                                                   설명
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- 데이터: concurrent.futures.FIRST_COMPLETED         퓨처가 어느 하나라도 끝나거나 취소될 때 함수가 반환
                                                            됩니다.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 데이터: concurrent.futures.FIRST_EXCEPTION         어느 한 퓨처가 예외를 일으켜 완료하면 함수가 반환됩
                                                            니다.  어떤 퓨처도 예외를 발생시키지 않으면
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 3207.와 같습니다.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 데이터: concurrent.futures.ALL_COMPLETED           모든 퓨처가 끝나거나 취소되면 함수가 반환됩니다.
                                                            

 -- 함수: concurrent.futures.as_completed (fs, timeout=None)

     'fs' 로 주어진 여러 (서로 다른 *note Executor: 31f1. 인스턴스가 만
     든 것들도 가능합니다) 퓨처들이 완료되는 대로 (끝났거나 취소된 퓨처)
     일드 하는 *note Future: 11a1. 인스턴스의 이터레이터를 반환합니다.
     'fs' 에 중복된 퓨처가 들어있으면 한 번만 반환됩니다.  *note
     as_completed(): 1654. 가 호출되기 전에 완료한 모든 퓨처들이 먼저 일
     드 됩니다.  반환된 이터레이터는, *note __next__(): 12bd. 가 호출되
     고, *note as_completed(): 1654. 호출 시점으로부터 'timeout' 초 후에
     결과를 얻을 수 없는 경우 *note TimeoutError: 82f. 를 발생시킵니다.
     'timeout' 은 int 또는 float가 될 수 있습니다.  'timeout' 이 지정되
     지 않았거나 ‘None’ 인 경우, 대기 시간에는 제한이 없습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 3148(1) – 퓨처 - 계산을 비동기적으로 실행

     파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함하기 위해, 이 기능을 설명한 제안.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 클래스,  Prev: 모듈 함수,  Up: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기

5.18.5.8 예외 클래스
....................

 -- 예외: concurrent.futures.CancelledError

     퓨처가 취소될 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: concurrent.futures.TimeoutError

     *note TimeoutError: 82f.의 폐지된 별칭, 퓨처 연산이 지정된 시간제한
     을 초과할 때 발생합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: 82f.

 -- 예외: concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor

     *note RuntimeError: 195. 에서 파생됩니다, 이 예외 클래스는 어떤 이
     유로 실행기가 망가져서 새 작업을 제출하거나 실행할 수 없을 때 발생
     합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 예외: concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError

     퓨처에 현재 상태에서 허용되지 않는 연산이 수행될 때 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 예외: concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool

     *note BrokenExecutor: 320a. 에서 파생됩니다, 이 예외 클래스는 *note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 의 작업자 중 하나가 초기화에 실패했을 때 발
     생합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 예외: concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool

     *note BrokenExecutor: 320a. 에서 파생됩니다 (예전에는 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.), 이 예외 클래스는 *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8eb. 의 작업자 중 하나가 깨끗하지 못한 방식으로 (예를 들어, 외부에
     서 강제 종료된 경우) 종료되었을 때 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리,  Next: sched — 이벤트 스케줄러,  Prev: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.6 ‘subprocess’ — 서브 프로세스 관리
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/subprocess.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note subprocess: d6. 모듈은 새로운 프로세스를 생성하고, 그들의 입력/출
력/에러 파이프에 연결하고, 반환 코드를 얻을 수 있도록 합니다.  이 모듈은
몇 가지 이전 모듈과 함수를 대체하려고 합니다:

     os.system
     os.spawn*

*note subprocess: d6. 모듈을 사용하여 이러한 모듈과 함수를 교체하는 방법
에 대한 정보는 다음 섹션에서 확인할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 324(2) – subprocess 모듈을 제안하는 PEP

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* subprocess 모듈 사용하기::
* 보안 고려 사항: 보안 고려 사항<2>.
* Popen 객체::
* 윈도우 Popen 도우미::
* 오래된 고수준 API::
* 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기::
* 레거시 셸 호출 함수::
* 노트::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/subprocess.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess 모듈 사용하기,  Next: 보안 고려 사항<2>,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.1 ‘subprocess’ 모듈 사용하기
...................................

서브 프로세스 호출에 권장되는 접근법은 처리할 수 있는 모든 사용 사례에
*note run(): b83. 함수를 사용하는 것입니다.  고급 사용 사례의 경우, 하부
*note Popen: 199. 인터페이스를 직접 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: subprocess.run (args, *, stdin=None, input=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, capture_output=False, shell=False, cwd=None,
          timeout=None, check=False, encoding=None, errors=None,
          text=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     'args'가 기술하는 명령을 실행합니다.  명령이 완료될 때까지 기다린 다
     음, *note CompletedProcess: e6b. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     위에 표시된 인자는 가장 일반적인 인자로, 아래 *note 자주 사용되는
     인자: 320e.에서 설명됩니다 (따라서 약식 서명에 키워드 전용 표기법을
     사용합니다).  전체 함수 서명은 *note Popen: 199. 생성자와 거의 같습
     니다 - 이 함수에 대한 대부분의 인자는 해당 인터페이스로 전달됩니다.
     ('timeout', 'input', 'check' 및 'capture_output'은 아닙니다.)

     'capture_output'이 참이면, 표준 출력(stdout)과 표준 에러(stderr)가
     캡처됩니다.  사용되면, 내부 *note Popen: 199. 객체는 자동으로
     'stdout'과 'stderr'이 모두 *note PIPE: b84.로 설정되어 만들어집니다
     .  'stdout'과 'stderr' 인자는 'capture_output'과 동시에 제공되지 않
     을 수 있습니다.  두 스트림을 모두 캡처하여 하나로 결합하려면,
     'capture_output'을 사용하는 대신, 'stdout'을 *note PIPE: b84.로
     'stderr'을 *note STDOUT: 320f.으로 설정하십시오.

     'timeout'은 초 단위로 지정될 수 있으며, 내부적으로 *note
     Popen.communicate(): 3210.로 전달됩니다.  시간제한이 만료되면, 자식
     프로세스를 죽이고 기다립니다.  자식 프로세스가 종료된 후 *note
     TimeoutExpired: 154d. 예외가 다시 발생합니다.  많은 플랫폼 API에서
     초기 프로세스 생성 자체는 중단될 수 없기 때문에, 프로세스 생성에 소
     요되는 시간이 지나기 전에 시간제한 예외를 본다는 보장이 없습니다.

     'input' 인자는 *note Popen.communicate(): 3210.로 전달되고, 그래서
     서브 프로세스의 표준 입력으로 전달됩니다.  사용된다면 바이트 시퀀스
     이거나, 'encoding'이나 'errors'가 지정되었거나 'text'가 참이면 문자
     열이어야 합니다.  사용하면, 내부 *note Popen: 199. 객체가 자동으로
     'stdin'을 *note PIPE: b84.로 설정하여 만들어지고 'stdin' 인자는 사
     용되지 않을 수 있습니다.

     'check'가 참이고, 프로세스가 0이 아닌 종료 코드로 종료되면, *note
     CalledProcessError: 1314. 예외가 발생합니다.  해당 예외의 어트리뷰
     트가 인자 및 종료 코드와 캡처되었다면 stdout과 stderr을 담습니다.

     'encoding'이나 'errors'가 지정되거나, 'text'가 참이면, stdin,
     stdout 및 stderr의 파일 객체는 지정된 'encoding'과 'errors' 또는
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 기본값을 사용하여 텍스트 모드로 열립니
     다.  'universal_newlines' 인자는 'text'와 동등하고 이전 버전과의 호
     환성을 위해 제공됩니다.  기본적으로, 파일 객체는 바이너리 모드로 열
     립니다.

     'env'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 새 프로세스의 환경 변수를 정의하는 매핑이
     어야 합니다; 이것은 현재 프로세스의 환경을 상속하는 기본 동작 대신
     사용됩니다.  *note Popen: 199.으로 직접 전달됩니다.  이 매핑은 모든
     플랫폼에서 문자열에서 문자열로, POSIX 플랫폼에서는 바이트열에서 바
     이트열로 일 수 있으며, 이는 *note os.environ: 11a9.이나 *note
     os.environb: 1206.와 유사합니다.

     예:

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # 출력을 캡처하지 않습니다
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

          >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
          stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'universal_newlines'의 더 이해하기 쉬운 별칭으로
     'text' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.  'capture_output' 매개 변수를 추가
     했습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- 클래스: subprocess.CompletedProcess

     완료된 프로세스를 나타내는, *note run(): b83.의 반환 값.

      -- 속성: args

          프로세스를 시작하는 데 사용된 인자.  리스트나 문자열일 수 있습
          니다.

      -- 속성: returncode

          자식 프로세스의 종료 상태.  일반적으로, 종료 상태 0은 성공적으
          로 실행되었음을 나타냅니다.

          음수 값 ‘-N’은 자식이 시그널 ‘N’에 의해 종료되었음을 나타냅니
          다 (POSIX 전용).

      -- 속성: stdout

          자식 프로세스에서 캡처된 stdout.  바이트 시퀀스, 또는 *note
          run(): b83.이 encoding, errors, 또는 text=True로 호출되었으면
          문자열.  stdout이 캡처되지 않았으면 ‘None’.

          ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’으로 프로세스를 실행했으면, stdout과
          stderr이 이 어트리뷰트에 결합하고, *note stderr: 3214.은
          ‘None’이 됩니다.

      -- 속성: stderr

          자식 프로세스에서 캡처된 stderr.  바이트 시퀀스, 또는 *note
          run(): b83.이 encoding, errors, 또는 text=True로 호출되었으면
          문자열.  stderr이 캡처되지 않았으면 ‘None’.

      -- 메서드: check_returncode ()

          *note returncode: 3212.가 0이 아니면, *note
          CalledProcessError: 1314.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.DEVNULL

     *note Popen: 199.의 'stdin', 'stdout' 또는 'stderr' 인자로 사용할 수
     있고 특수 파일 *note os.devnull: 1a3a.이 사용될 것임을 나타내는 특
     수 값.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.PIPE

     *note Popen: 199.의 'stdin', 'stdout' 또는 'stderr' 인자로 사용할 수
     있고 표준 스트림에 대한 파이프를 열어야 함을 나타내는 특수 값.
     *note Popen.communicate(): 3210.에서 가장 유용합니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STDOUT

     *note Popen: 199.의 'stderr' 인자로 사용할 수 있고 표준 에러가 표준
     출력과 같은 핸들로 가야 함을 나타내는 특수 값.

 -- 예외: subprocess.SubprocessError

     이 모듈의 다른 모든 예외에 대한 베이스 클래스.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: subprocess.TimeoutExpired

     자식 프로세스를 기다리는 동안 시간제한이 만료될 때 발생하는 *note
     SubprocessError: 3216.의 서브 클래스.

      -- 속성: cmd

          자식 프로세스를 생성하는 데 사용된 명령.

      -- 속성: timeout

          초 단위의 시간제한.

      -- 속성: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          b83. or *note check_output(): fb9.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This
          is always *note bytes: 1c2. when any output was captured
          regardless of the ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’
          instead of ‘b''’ when no output was observed.

      -- 속성: stdout

          output의 별칭, *note stderr: 321b.과의 대칭을 위한 것입니다.

      -- 속성: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): b83.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This is always *note bytes:
          1c2. when stderr output was captured regardless of the
          ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’
          when no stderr output was observed.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'stdout'과 'stderr' 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다

 -- 예외: subprocess.CalledProcessError

     *note check_call(): 321c, *note check_output(): fb9. 또는 *note
     run(): b83. (‘check=True’와 함께) 에 의해 실행되는 프로세스가 0이 아
     닌 종료 상태를 반환할 때 발생하는 *note SubprocessError: 3216. 의 서
     브 클래스.

      -- 속성: returncode

          자식 프로세스의 종료 상태.  시그널로 인해 프로세스가 종료되었
          으면, 음의 시그널 번호가 됩니다.

      -- 속성: cmd

          자식 프로세스를 생성하는 데 사용된 명령.

      -- 속성: output

          *note run(): b83.이나 *note check_output(): fb9.에 의해 캡처되
          었다면 자식 프로세스의 출력.  그렇지 않으면, ‘None’.

      -- 속성: stdout

          output의 별칭, *note stderr: 3221.과의 대칭을 위한 것입니다.

      -- 속성: stderr

          *note run(): b83.에 의해 캡처되었다면 자식 프로세스의 stderr 출
          력.  그렇지 않으면, ‘None’.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'stdout'과 'stderr' 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다

* Menu:

* 자주 사용되는 인자::
* Popen 생성자::
* 예외: 예외<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: 자주 사용되는 인자,  Next: Popen 생성자,  Up: subprocess 모듈 사용하기

5.18.6.2 자주 사용되는 인자
...........................

다양한 사용 사례를 지원하기 위해, *note Popen: 199. 생성자(및 편의 함수
)는 많은 선택적 인자를 받아들입니다.  가장 일반적인 사용 사례에서, 이러
한 인자 중 많은 부분을 기본값으로 안전하게 남겨둘 수 있습니다.  가장 흔
히 필요한 인자는 다음과 같습니다:

     'args'는 모든 호출에 필요하며 문자열 또는 프로그램 인자의 시퀀스여
     야 합니다.  인자의 시퀀스를 제공하는 것이 일반적으로 선호되는데, 모
     듈이 필요한 인자의 이스케이프와 인용을 처리하도록 하기 때문입니다
     (예를 들어 파일 이름에 공백을 허용하도록).  단일 문자열을 전달하면,
     'shell'이 *note True: c0a.(아래를 참조하십시오)이거나, 그렇지 않으
     면 문자열은 단순히 인자를 지정하지 않고 실행할 프로그램의 이름이어
     야 합니다.

     'stdin', 'stdout' 및 'stderr'은 각각 실행된 프로그램의 표준 입력, 표
     준 출력 및 표준 에러 파일 핸들을 지정합니다.  유효한 값은 ‘None’,
     *note PIPE: b84, *note DEVNULL: 113f, 기존 파일 기술자 (양의 정수)
     및 유효한 파일 기술자를 가진 기존 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.입니다.  기
     본 설정 ‘None’으로는, 리디렉션은 발생하지 않습니다.  *note PIPE:
     b84.는 자식에 대한 새 파이프를 만들어야 함을 나타냅니다.  *note
     DEVNULL: 113f.은 특수 파일 *note os.devnull: 1a3a.이 사용될 것임을
     나타냅니다.  또한, 'stderr'은 *note STDOUT: 320f.일 수 있으며, 이는
     자식 프로세스의 stderr 데이터가 'stdout'과 같은 파일 핸들로 캡처되
     어야 함을 나타냅니다.

     'encoding'이나 'errors'가 지정되거나, 'text'('universal_newlines'라
     고도 합니다)가 참이면, 파일 객체 'stdin', 'stdout' 및 'stderr'은 호
     출에 지정된 'encoding'과 'errors' 또는 *note io.TextIOWrapper:
     7b4.의 기본값을 사용하여 텍스트 모드로 열립니다.

     'stdin'의 경우, 입력의 줄 종료 문자 ‘'\n'’이 기본 줄 구분자 *note
     os.linesep: 2183.으로 변환됩니다.  'stdout'과 'stderr'의 경우, 출력
     의 모든 줄 종료가 ‘'\n'’으로 변환됩니다.  자세한 정보는 생성자에 대
     한 'newline' 인자가 ‘None’일 때에 관한 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.
     클래스의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     텍스트 모드를 사용하지 않으면, 'stdin', 'stdout' 및 'stderr'이 바이
     너리 스트림으로 열립니다.  인코딩이나 줄 종료 변환이 수행되지 않습
     니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'text' 매개 변수를 'universal_newlines'의 별칭으
     로 추가했습니다.

          참고: 파일 객체 *note Popen.stdin: 3223, *note Popen.stdout:
          3224. 및 *note Popen.stderr: 3225.의 newlines 어트리뷰트는
          *note Popen.communicate(): 3210. 메서드에 의해 갱신되지 않습니
          다.

     'shell'이 ‘True’이면, 지정된 명령이 셸을 통해 실행됩니다.  이것은 대
     부분의 시스템 셸에서 제공하는 것보다 향상된 제어 흐름을 위해 파이썬
     을 주로 사용하면서, 여전히 셸 파이프, 파일명 와일드카드, 환경 변수
     확장 및 사용자 홈 디렉터리로의 ‘~’ 확장과 같은 다른 셸 기능에 대한
     편리한 액세스를 원할 때 유용할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 파이썬 자체가
     많은 셸과 유사한 기능의 구현을 제공함에 유의하십시오 (특히, *note
     glob: 64, *note fnmatch: 5c, *note os.walk(): 4a3, *note
     os.path.expandvars(): 13a2, *note os.path.expanduser(): a10. 및
     *note shutil: c5.).

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'universal_newlines'가 ‘True’일 때, 클래스는
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ 대신 인코딩 *note
     locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 534.를 사용합니다.  이 변경에 대
     한 자세한 내용은 *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. 클래스를 참조하십시오
     .

          참고: ‘shell=True’를 사용하기 전에 *note 보안 고려 사항: 3226.
          섹션을 읽으십시오.

이러한 옵션들은, 다른 모든 옵션과 함께, *note Popen: 199. 생성자 설명서
에 더 자세히 설명되어 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Popen 생성자,  Next: 예외<8>,  Prev: 자주 사용되는 인자,  Up: subprocess 모듈 사용하기

5.18.6.3 Popen 생성자
.....................

이 모듈에서 하부 프로세스 생성과 관리는 *note Popen: 199. 클래스에 의해
처리됩니다.  개발자가 편의 함수가 다루지 않는 덜 일반적인 사례를 처리할
수 있도록 큰 유연성을 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: subprocess.Popen (args, bufsize=-1, executable=None,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None,
          close_fds=True, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None,
          universal_newlines=None, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0,
          restore_signals=True, start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *,
          group=None, extra_groups=None, user=None, umask=-1,
          encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, pipesize=-1,
          process_group=None)

     새 프로세스에서 자식 프로그램을 실행합니다.  POSIX에서, 클래스는 자
     식 프로그램을 실행하는 데 *note os.execvpe(): 2bd2.와 유사한 동작을
     사용합니다.  윈도우에서 클래스는 윈도우 ‘CreateProcess()’ 함수를 사
     용합니다.  *note Popen: 199.에 대한 인자는 다음과 같습니다.

     'args'는 프로그램 인자의 시퀀스이거나 그렇지 않으면 단일한 문자열이
     나 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.여야 합니다.  기본적으로, 'args'가 시퀀스
     이면 실행할 프로그램은 'args'의 첫 번째 항목입니다.  'args'가 문자
     열이면, 해석은 플랫폼에 따라 다르며 아래에 설명되어 있습니다.  기본
     동작과의 추가 차이점에 관해서는 'shell'과 'executable' 인자를 참조
     하십시오.  별도의 언급이 없는 한, 'args'를 시퀀스로 전달하는 것이 좋
     습니다.

          경고: For maximum reliability, use a fully qualified path for
          the executable.  To search for an unqualified name on ‘PATH’,
          use *note shutil.which(): 4ae.  On all platforms, passing
          *note sys.executable: 3b2. is the recommended way to launch
          the current Python interpreter again, and use the ‘-m’
          command-line format to launch an installed module.

          Resolving the path of 'executable' (or the first item of
          'args') is platform dependent.  For POSIX, see *note
          os.execvpe(): 2bd2, and note that when resolving or searching
          for the executable path, 'cwd' overrides the current working
          directory and 'env' can override the ‘PATH’ environment
          variable.  For Windows, see the documentation of the
          ‘lpApplicationName’ and ‘lpCommandLine’ parameters of WinAPI
          ‘CreateProcess’, and note that when resolving or searching for
          the executable path with ‘shell=False’, 'cwd' does not
          override the current working directory and 'env' cannot
          override the ‘PATH’ environment variable.  Using a full path
          avoids all of these variations.

     시퀀스로 외부 프로그램에 어떤 인자를 전달하는 예는 다음과 같습니다:

          Popen(["/usr/bin/git", "commit", "-m", "Fixes a bug."])

     POSIX에서, 'args'가 문자열이면, 문자열은 실행할 프로그램의 이름이나
     경로로 해석됩니다.  그러나, 이것은 프로그램에 인자를 전달하지 않을
     때만 수행할 수 있습니다.

          참고: 특히 복잡한 경우에, 셸 명령을 인자의 시퀀스로 나누는 방
          법이 명확하지 않을 수 있습니다.  *note shlex.split(): 536.는
          'args'의 올바른 토큰화를 결정하는 방법을 보여줄 수 있습니다:

               >>> import shlex, subprocess
               >>> command_line = input()
               /bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
               >>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
               >>> print(args)
               ['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
               >>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # 성공!

          특히 셸에서 공백으로 구분된 옵션(가령 '-input')과 인자(가령
          'eggs.txt')는 별도의 리스트 요소로 들어가지만, 셸에서 사용될 때
          인용(quoting)이나 역 슬래시 이스케이프가 필요한 인자(가령 스페
          이스가 포함된 파일명이나 위에 표시된 'echo' 명령)는 단일 리스
          트 요소임에 유의하십시오.

     윈도우에서, 'args'가 시퀀스이면, *note 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를
     문자열로 변환하기: 3228.에 설명된 방식으로 문자열로 변환됩니다.  하
     부 ‘CreateProcess()’가 문자열에서 작동하기 때문입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: POSIX에서, 'args' 매개 변수는 'shell'이 ‘False’이
     면 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.나 경로류 객체를 포함하는 시퀀스를 받아들
     입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 'args' 매개 변수는 'shell'이
     ‘False’이면 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.나 바이트열과 경로류 객체를 포함
     하는 시퀀스를 받아들입니다.

     'shell' 인자(기본값은 ‘False’)는 셸을 실행할 프로그램으로 사용할지
     를 지정합니다.  'shell'이 ‘True’이면, 'args'를 시퀀스가 아닌 문자열
     로 전달하는 것이 좋습니다.

     POSIX에서 ‘shell=True’일 때, 셸의 기본값은 ‘/bin/sh’입니다.  'args'가
     문자열이면, 문자열은 셸을 통해 실행할 명령을 지정합니다.  이것은 문
     자열이 프롬프트에서 입력할 때와 똑같이 포맷되어야 한다는 것을 의미
     합니다.  예를 들어, 스페이스가 포함된 파일명을 인용하거나 역 슬래시
     이스케이핑 하는 것을 포함합니다.  'args'가 시퀀스이면, 첫 번째 항목
     이 명령 문자열을 지정하고, 추가 항목은 셸 자체에 대한 추가 인자로 처
     리됩니다.  즉, *note Popen: 199.은 다음과 동등한 것을 수행합니다:

          Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])

     윈도우에서 ‘shell=True’일 때, ‘COMSPEC’ 환경 변수는 기본 셸을 지정
     합니다.  윈도우에서 ‘shell=True’를 지정해야 하는 유일한 경우는 실행
     하려는 명령이 셸에 내장되었을 때입니다 (예를 들어 ‘dir’이나
     ‘copy’).  배치 파일이나 콘솔 기반 실행 파일을 실행하기 위해
     ‘shell=True’가 필요하지 않습니다.

          참고: ‘shell=True’를 사용하기 전에 *note 보안 고려 사항: 3226.
          섹션을 읽으십시오.

     'bufsize'는 stdin/stdout/stderr 파이프 파일 객체를 만들 때 *note
     open(): 515. 함수에 해당 인자로 제공됩니다:

        - ‘0’은 버퍼링 되지 않음을 의미합니다 (읽기와 쓰기는 한 번의 시
          스템 호출이며 짧게 반환할 수 있습니다)

        - ‘1’은 줄 버퍼링을 의미합니다 (‘text=True’이거나
          ‘universal_newlines=True’인 경우만 사용할 수 있습니다)

        - 다른 양수 값은 대략 그 크기의 버퍼를 사용함을 의미합니다.

        - 음의 bufsize(기본값)는 시스템 기본값 io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE가
          사용됨을 의미합니다.

     버전 3.3.1에서 변경: 'bufsize'의 기본값은 이제 -1이 되어 대부분의 코
     드가 기대하는 동작과 일치하도록 기본적으로 버퍼링을 활성화합니다.  파
     이썬 3.2.4와 3.3.1 이전 버전에서는 버퍼링 되지 않고 짧은 읽기를 허
     용하는 ‘0’으로 기본값이 잘못 설정되었습니다.  이것은 의도하지 않은
     것이며 대부분의 코드가 기대하는 파이썬 2의 동작과 일치하지 않았습니
     다.

     'executable' 인자는 실행할 대체 프로그램을 지정합니다.  거의 필요하
     지 않습니다.  ‘shell=False’일 때, 'executable'은 'args'에 의해 지정
     된 프로그램을 대체합니다.  그러나, 원래 'args'는 여전히 프로그램으
     로 전달됩니다.  대부분의 프로그램은 'args'에 의해 지정된 프로그램을
     명령 이름으로 취급합니다, 그래서 실제로 실행되는 프로그램과 다를 수
     있습니다.  POSIX에서, 'args' 이름은 ‘ps’와 같은 유틸리티에서 실행 파
     일의 표시 이름이 됩니다.  ‘shell=True’이면, POSIX에서 'executable'
     인자는 기본 ‘/bin/sh’의 대체 셸을 지정합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: POSIX에서 'executable' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류
     객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서 'executable' 매개 변수는 바이트열과
     *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

     'stdin', 'stdout' 및 'stderr'은 각각 실행된 프로그램의 표준 입력, 표
     준 출력 및 표준 에러 파일 핸들을 지정합니다.  유효한 값은 ‘None’,
     *note PIPE: b84, *note DEVNULL: 113f, 기존 파일 기술자 (양의 정수)
     및 유효한 파일 기술자를 가진 기존 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.입니다.  기
     본 설정 ‘None’으로는, 리디렉션은 발생하지 않습니다.  *note PIPE:
     b84.는 자식에 대한 새 파이프를 만들어야 함을 나타냅니다.  *note
     DEVNULL: 113f.은 특수 파일 *note os.devnull: 1a3a.이 사용될 것임을
     나타냅니다.  또한, 'stderr'은 *note STDOUT: 320f.일 수 있으며, 이는
     응용 프로그램의 stderr 데이터가 'stdout'과 같은 파일 핸들로 캡처되
     어야 함을 나타냅니다.

     'preexec_fn'이 콜러블 객체로 설정되면, 이 객체는 자식 프로세스가 실
     행되기 직전에 자식 프로세스에서 호출됩니다.  (POSIX 전용)

          경고: 'preexec_fn' 매개 변수는 응용 프로그램에 스레드가 있을 때
          사용하기에 안전하지 않습니다.  exec가 호출되기 전에 자식 프로
          세스가 교착 상태에 빠질 수 있습니다.

          참고: 자식의 환경을 수정해야 하면 'preexec_fn'에서 하지 말고
          'env' 매개 변수를 사용하십시오.  'start_new_session'과
          'process_group' 매개 변수는 자식에서 *note os.setsid(): 19dc.나
          *note os.setpgid(): 2b33.를 호출하려고 'preexec_fn'을 사용하는
          코드를 대체해야 합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 서브 인터프리터에서 'preexec_fn' 매개 변수가 더
     는 지원되지 않습니다.  서브 인터프리터에서 매개 변수를 사용하면
     *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  새로운 제약 사항은
     mod_wsgi, uWSGI 및 기타 내장(embedded) 환경에 배치된 응용 프로그램
     에 영향을 줄 수 있습니다.

     'close_fds'가 참이면, ‘0’, ‘1’ 및 ‘2’를 제외한 모든 파일 기술자가 자
     식 프로세스가 실행되기 전에 닫힙니다.  그렇지 않고 'close_fds'가 거
     짓이면, 파일 기술자는 *note 파일 기술자의 상속: ef1.에 설명된 대로
     상속 가능 플래그를 따릅니다.

     윈도우에서, 'close_fds'가 참이면 *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList:
     c0b.의 ‘handle_list’ 요소에 명시적으로 전달되거나 표준 핸들 리디렉
     션에 의하지 않는 한 자식 프로세스가 핸들을 상속하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'close_fds'의 기본값은 *note False: b34.에서 위
     에서 설명한 것으로 변경되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 윈도우에서 표준 핸들을 리디렉션 할 때
     'close_fds'의 기본값이 *note False: b34.에서 *note True: c0a.로 변
     경되었습니다.  이제 표준 핸들을 리디렉션 할 때 'close_fds'를 *note
     True: c0a.로 설정할 수 있습니다.

     'pass_fds'는 부모와 자식 사이에 열려있는 파일 기술자의 선택적 시퀀
     스입니다.  'pass_fds'를 제공하면 'close_fds'가 *note True: c0a.가 됩
     니다.  (POSIX 전용)

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'pass_fds' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     'cwd'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 함수는 자식을 실행하기 전에 작업 디렉터리
     를 'cwd'로 변경합니다.  'cwd'는 문자열, 바이트열 또는 *note 경로류:
     2a0. 객체일 수 있습니다.  POSIX 에서, 함수는 실행 파일 경로가 상대
     경로이면 'cwd'를 기준으로 'executable'(또는 'args'의 첫 번째 항목
     )을 찾습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: POSIX에서 'cwd' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 윈도우에서 'cwd' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서 'cwd' 매개 변수는 바이트열 객체를 받
     아들입니다.

     'restore_signals'가 참(기본값)이면 파이썬이 SIG_IGN으로 설정한 모든
     시그널은 실행 전에 자식 프로세스에서 SIG_DFL로 복원됩니다.  현재 여
     기에는 SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ 및 SIGXFSZ 시그널이 포함됩니다.  (POSIX 전용
     )

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'restore_signals'가 추가되었습니다.

     'start_new_session'이 참이면 서브 프로세스를 실행하기 전에 자식 프
     로세스에서 ‘setsid()’ 시스템 호출이 수행됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'start_new_session'이 추가되었습니다.

     'process_group'이 음이 아닌 정수면, 서브 프로세스를 실행하기 전에 자
     식 프로세스에서 ‘setpgid(0, value)’ 시스템 호출이 수행됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'process_group'이 추가되었습니다.

     'group'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 서브 프로세스를 실행하기 전에 자식 프로
     세스에서 setregid() 시스템 호출이 수행됩니다.  제공된 값이 문자열이
     면, *note grp.getgrnam(): 3229.을 통해 조회되고 ‘gr_gid’의 값이 사
     용됩니다.  값이 정수이면, 그대로 전달됩니다.  (POSIX 전용)

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     'extra_groups'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 서브 프로세스를 실행하기 전에 자
     식 프로세스에서 setgroups() 시스템 호출이 수행됩니다.
     'extra_groups'에 제공된 문자열은 *note grp.getgrnam(): 3229.을 통해
     조회되며 ‘gr_gid’의 값이 사용됩니다.  정숫값은 그대로 전달됩니다.
     (POSIX 전용)

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     'user'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 서브 프로세스를 실행하기 전에 자식 프로세
     스에서 setreuid() 시스템 호출이 수행됩니다.  제공된 값이 문자열이면
     , *note pwd.getpwnam(): 322a.을 통해 조회되고 ‘pw_uid’의 값이 사용
     됩니다.  값이 정수이면, 그대로 전달됩니다.  (POSIX 전용)

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     'umask'가 음이 아니면, 서브 프로세스를 실행하기 전에 자식 프로세스
     에서 umask() 시스템 호출이 수행됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     'env'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 새 프로세스의 환경 변수를 정의하는 매핑이
     어야 합니다; 이것은 현재 프로세스의 환경을 상속하는 기본 동작 대신
     사용됩니다.  이 매핑은 모든 플랫폼에서 문자열에서 문자열로, POSIX 플
     랫폼에서는 바이트열에서 바이트열로 일 수 있으며, 이는 *note
     os.environ: 11a9.이나 *note os.environb: 1206.와 유사합니다.

          참고: 지정되면, 'env'는 프로그램 실행에 필요한 모든 변수를 제
          공해야 합니다.  윈도우에서, side-by-side assembly(1)를 실행하
          려면 지정된 'env'에 유효한 ‘SystemRoot’가 '반드시' 포함되어야
          합니다.

     'encoding'이나 'errors'가 지정되거나, 'text'가 참이면, 파일 객체
     'stdin', 'stdout' 및 'stderr'은 위의 *note 자주 사용되는 인자:
     320e.에서 설명한 대로 지정된 'encoding'과 'errors'로 텍스트 모드로
     열립니다.  'universal_newlines' 인자는 'text'와 동등하며 이전 버전
     과의 호환성을 위해 제공됩니다.  기본적으로, 파일 객체는 바이너리 모
     드로 열립니다.

     Added in version 3.6: 'encoding'과 'errors'가 추가되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.7: 'text'가 'universal_newlines'의 더 가독성 있
     는 별칭으로 추가되었습니다.

     주어지면, 'startupinfo'는 *note STARTUPINFO: 322b. 객체가 되며, 하
     부 ‘CreateProcess’ 함수로 전달됩니다.

     주어지면, 'creationflags'는 다음 플래그 중 하나 이상일 수 있습니다:

        * *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 322c.

        * *note CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP: 322d.

        * *note ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 322e.

        * *note BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 322f.

        * *note HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3230.

        * *note IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3231.

        * *note NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3232.

        * *note REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3233.

        * *note CREATE_NO_WINDOW: 3234.

        * *note DETACHED_PROCESS: 3235.

        * *note CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE: 3236.

        * *note CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB: 3237.

     'pipesize' can be used to change the size of the pipe when *note
     PIPE: b84. is used for 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'.  The size of
     the pipe is only changed on platforms that support this (only Linux
     at this time of writing).  Other platforms will ignore this
     parameter.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'pipesize' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     Popen 객체는 *note with: 5cc. 문을 통해 컨텍스트 관리자로 지원됩니
     다; 빠져나갈 때, 표준 파일 기술자가 닫히고 프로세스를 기다립니다.

          with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
              log.write(proc.stdout.read())

     Popen과 이 모듈에서 이를 사용하는 다른 함수는 인자 ‘executable’,
     ‘args’, ‘cwd’ 및 ‘env’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘subprocess.Popen’을 발생시킵니다.  ‘args’의 값은 플랫폼에 따라 단
     일 문자열이나 문자열 리스트일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 자식 프로세스가 여전히 실행 중이면 이제 Popen 파
     괴자(destructor)가 *note ResourceWarning: 244. 경고를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Popen은 성능 향상을 위해 때에 따라 *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 220.을 사용할 수 있습니다.  리눅스용 윈도우 서브
     시스템(Windows Subsystem for Linux)과 QEMU 사용자 에뮬레이션(QEMU
     User Emulation)에서, *note os.posix_spawn(): 220.을 사용하는 Popen
     생성자는 더는 프로그램 누락과 같은 에러에 대한 예외를 발생시키지 않
     지만, 자식 프로세스는 0이 아닌 *note returncode: 19af.로 실패합니다
     .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<8>,  Prev: Popen 생성자,  Up: subprocess 모듈 사용하기

5.18.6.4 예외
.............

새 프로그램이 실행을 시작하기 전에 자식 프로세스에서 발생한 예외는 부모
에서 다시 발생합니다.

The most common exception raised is *note OSError: 411.  This occurs,
for example, when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications
should prepare for *note OSError: 411. exceptions.  Note that, when
‘shell=True’, *note OSError: 411. will be raised by the child only if
the selected shell itself was not found.  To determine if the shell
failed to find the requested application, it is necessary to check the
return code or output from the subprocess.

*note Popen: 199.이 유효하지 않은 인자로 호출되면 *note ValueError:
202.가 발생합니다.

호출된 프로세스가 0이 아닌 반환 코드를 반환하면 *note check_call():
321c.과 *note check_output(): fb9.은 *note CalledProcessError: 1314.를 발
생시킵니다.

*note run(): b83.과 *note Popen.communicate(): 3210.와 같은 'timeout' 매
개 변수를 받아들이는 모든 함수와 메서드는 프로세스가 종료되기 전에 시간
제한이 만료되면 *note TimeoutExpired: 154d.를 발생시킵니다.

이 모듈에 정의된 예외는 모두 *note SubprocessError: 3216.를 상속합니다.

Added in version 3.3: *note SubprocessError: 3216. 베이스 클래스가 추가
되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 보안 고려 사항<2>,  Next: Popen 객체,  Prev: subprocess 모듈 사용하기,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.5 보안 고려 사항
.......................

다른 popen 함수와 달리, 이 라이브러리는 시스템 셸을 호출하도록 묵시적으
로 선택하지 않습니다.  이는 셸 메타 문자를 포함한 모든 문자를 자식 프로
세스로 안전하게 전달할 수 있음을 의미합니다.  ‘shell=True’를 통해 셸을 명
시적으로 호출하면, 셸 주입(1) 취약점을 피하고자 모든 공백과 메타 문자를
적절하게 인용하는 것은 응용 프로그램의 책임입니다.  *note 일부 플랫폼:
323a.에서, 이 이스케이핑을 위해 *note shlex.quote(): 27d.를 사용할 수 있
습니다.

On Windows, batch files (‘*.bat’ or ‘*.cmd’) may be launched by the
operating system in a system shell regardless of the arguments passed to
this library.  This could result in arguments being parsed according to
shell rules, but without any escaping added by Python.  If you are
intentionally launching a batch file with arguments from untrusted
sources, consider passing ‘shell=True’ to allow Python to escape special
characters.  See gh-114539(2) for additional discussion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114539


File: python.info,  Node: Popen 객체,  Next: 윈도우 Popen 도우미,  Prev: 보안 고려 사항<2>,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.6 Popen 객체
...................

*note Popen: 199. 클래스의 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: Popen.poll ()

     자식 프로세스가 종료되었는지 확인합니다.  *note returncode: 19af. 어
     트리뷰트를 설정하고 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, ‘None’을 반환합니다
     .

 -- 메서드: Popen.wait (timeout=None)

     자식 프로세스가 종료될 때까지 기다립니다.  *note returncode: 19af.
     어트리뷰트를 설정하고 반환합니다.

     'timeout' 초 후에 프로세스가 종료되지 않으면, *note TimeoutExpired:
     154d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  이 예외를 잡고 다시 기다리는 것은 안전
     합니다.

          참고: 이는 ‘stdout=PIPE’나 ‘stderr=PIPE’를 사용하고 자식 프로
          세스가 파이프에 너무 많은 출력을 보내서 OS 파이프 버퍼가 더 많
          은 데이터를 받아들일 때까지 기다리느라 블록하면 교착 상태에 빠
          집니다.  파이프를 사용할 때 이를 피하려면 *note
          Popen.communicate(): 3210.를 사용하십시오.

          참고: ‘timeout’ 매개 변수가 ‘None’이 아닐 때, (POSIX 에서) 이
          함수는 비지 루프(비 블로킹 호출과 짧은 잠자기)를 사용하여 구현
          됩니다.  비동기 대기에는 *note asyncio: a. 모듈을 사용하십시오
          : *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec: a74.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timeout'이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: Popen.communicate (input=None, timeout=None)

     프로세스와 상호 작용합니다: stdin에 데이터를 보냅니다.  파일 끝에 도
     달할 때까지 stdout과 stderr에서 데이터를 읽습니다.  프로세스가 종료
     될 때까지 기다리고, *note returncode: 19af. 어트리뷰트를 설정합니다
     .  선택적 'input' 인자는 자식 프로세스로 전송될 데이터이거나, 자식
     으로 데이터를 보내지 않으면 ‘None’이어야 합니다.  스트림이 텍스트 모
     드로 열렸으면, 'input'은 문자열이어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 바이
     트열이어야 합니다.

     *note communicate(): 3210.는 튜플 ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’를 반
     환합니다.  스트림이 텍스트 모드로 열렸으면 데이터는 문자열이 됩니다
     .  그렇지 않으면 바이트열입니다.

     프로세스의 stdin으로 데이터를 보내려면, ‘stdin=PIPE’를 사용하여
     Popen 객체를 만들어야 함에 유의하십시오.  마찬가지로, 결과 튜플에서
     ‘None’ 이외의 것을 얻으려면, ‘stdout=PIPE’ 및/또는 ‘stderr=PIPE’도
     제공해야 합니다.

     'timeout' 초 후에 프로세스가 종료되지 않으면, *note TimeoutExpired:
     154d. 예외가 발생합니다.  이 예외를 잡고 통신을 다시 시도해도 출력
     이 손실되지 않습니다.

     시간제한이 만료되면 자식 프로세스를 죽이지 않습니다, 올바르게 정리
     하려면 제대로 작동하는 응용 프로그램은 자식 프로세스를 죽이고 통신
     을 완료해야 합니다:

          proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
          try:
              outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
          except TimeoutExpired:
              proc.kill()
              outs, errs = proc.communicate()

          참고: 읽은 데이터는 메모리에 버퍼링 되므로, 데이터 크기가 크거
          나 무제한이면 이 메서드를 사용하지 마십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timeout'이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: Popen.send_signal (signal)

     시그널 'signal'을 자식에게 보냅니다.

     프로세스가 완료되었으면 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

          참고: 윈도우에서, SIGTERM은 *note terminate(): 13a5.의 별칭입
          니다.  CTRL_C_EVENT와 CTRL_BREAK_EVENT는
          ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’을 포함하는 'creationflags' 매개 변
          수로 시작된 프로세스로 보낼 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: Popen.terminate ()

     자식을 멈춥니다.  POSIX OS에서 이 메서드는 *note SIGTERM: 13a8.을 자
     식에게 보냅니다.  윈도우에서는 자식을 중지하기 위해 Win32 API 함수
     ‘TerminateProcess()’가 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Popen.kill ()

     자식을 죽입니다.  POSIX OS에서 이 함수는 SIGKILL을 자식에게 보냅니
     다.  윈도우에서 *note kill(): 13a6.은 *note terminate(): 13a5.의 별
     칭입니다.

The following attributes are also set by the class for you to access.
Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:

 -- 속성: Popen.args

     *note Popen: 199.으로 전달된 'args' 인자 – 프로그램 인자의 시퀀스거
     나 단일 문자열.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 속성: Popen.stdin

     'stdin' 인자가 *note PIPE: b84.이면, 이 어트리뷰트는 *note open():
     515.이 반환한 쓰기 가능한 스트림 객체입니다.  'encoding'이나
     'errors' 인자가 지정되었거나 'text'나 'universal_newlines' 인자가
     ‘True’이면, 스트림은 텍스트 스트림이고, 그렇지 않으면 바이트 스트림
     입니다.  'stdin' 인자가 *note PIPE: b84.가 아니면, 이 어트리뷰트는
     ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: Popen.stdout

     'stdout' 인자가 *note PIPE: b84.이면, 이 어트리뷰트는 *note open():
     515.이 반환한 읽기 가능한 스트림 객체입니다.  스트림에서 읽으면 자
     식 프로세스의 출력을 제공합니다.  'encoding'이나 'errors' 인자가 지
     정되었거나 'text'나 'universal_newlines' 인자가 ‘True’이면, 스트림
     은 텍스트 스트림이고, 그렇지 않으면 바이트 스트림입니다.  'stdout'
     인자가 *note PIPE: b84.가 아니면, 이 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: Popen.stderr

     'stderr' 인자가 *note PIPE: b84.이면, 이 어트리뷰트는 *note open():
     515.이 반환한 읽기 가능한 스트림 객체입니다.  스트림에서 읽으면 자
     식 프로세스의 에러 출력을 제공합니다.  'encoding'이나 'errors' 인자
     가 지정되었거나 'text'나 'universal_newlines' 인자가 ‘True’이면, 스
     트림은 텍스트 스트림이고, 그렇지 않으면 바이트 스트림입니다.
     'stderr' 인자가 *note PIPE: b84.가 아니면, 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’입니
     다.

     경고: 다른 OS 파이프 버퍼가 차고 자식 프로세스를 블로킹하는 것으로
     인한 교착 상태를 피하려면 *note .stdin.write: 3223, *note
     .stdout.read: 3224. 또는 *note .stderr.read: 3225. 대신 *note
     communicate(): 3210.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 속성: Popen.pid

     자식 프로세스의 프로세스 ID

     'shell' 인자를 ‘True’로 설정하면, 이것은 생성된 셸의 프로세스 ID입
     니다.

 -- 속성: Popen.returncode

     자식 반환 코드.  초기값은 ‘None’이며, *note returncode: 19af.는
     *note poll(): 323c, *note wait(): ce1. 또는 *note communicate():
     3210. 메서드가 프로세스가 종료되었음을 감지하면 설정합니다.

     A ‘None’ value indicates that the process hadn’t yet terminated at
     the time of the last method call.

     음수 값 ‘-N’은 자식이 시그널 ‘N’에 의해 종료되었음을 나타냅니다
     (POSIX 전용).


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 Popen 도우미,  Next: 오래된 고수준 API,  Prev: Popen 객체,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.7 윈도우 Popen 도우미
............................

*note STARTUPINFO: 322b. 클래스와 다음 상수는 윈도우에서만 사용 가능합니
다.

 -- 클래스: subprocess.STARTUPINFO (*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None,
          hStdOutput=None, hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0,
          lpAttributeList=None)

     윈도우 STARTUPINFO(1) 구조체의 부분적인 지원이 *note Popen: 199. 생
     성에 사용됩니다.  다음 어트리뷰트는 키워드 전용 인자로 전달하여 설
     정할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 키워드 전용 인자 지원이 추가되었습니다.

      -- 속성: dwFlags

          프로세스가 창을 만들 때 특정 *note STARTUPINFO: 322b. 어트리뷰
          트가 사용되는지를 결정하는 비트 필드.

               si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
               si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

      -- 속성: hStdInput

          *note dwFlags: 3240.가 *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 3242.를 지
          정하면, 이 어트리뷰트는 프로세스의 표준 입력 핸들입니다.
          *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 3242.가 지정되지 않으면, 표준 입력
          의 기본값은 키보드 버퍼입니다.

      -- 속성: hStdOutput

          *note dwFlags: 3240.가 *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 3242.를 지
          정하면, 이 어트리뷰트는 프로세스의 표준 출력 핸들입니다.  그렇
          지 않으면, 이 어트리뷰트가 무시되고 표준 출력의 기본값은 콘솔
          창의 버퍼입니다.

      -- 속성: hStdError

          *note dwFlags: 3240.가 *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 3242.를 지
          정하면, 이 어트리뷰트는 프로세스의 표준 에러 핸들입니다.  그렇
          지 않으면, 이 어트리뷰트는 무시되고 표준 에러의 기본값은 콘솔
          창의 버퍼입니다.

      -- 속성: wShowWindow

          *note dwFlags: 3240.가 *note STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW: 3246.를 지
          정하면, 이 어트리뷰트는 ‘SW_SHOWDEFAULT’를 제외하고
          ShowWindow(2) 함수의 ‘nCmdShow’ 매개 변수에 지정할 수 있는 값
          중 어느 것이건 될 수 있습니다.  그렇지 않으면, 이 어트리뷰트는
          무시됩니다.

          이 어트리뷰트에 *note SW_HIDE: 3247.가 제공됩니다.  *note
          Popen: 199.이 ‘shell=True’와 함께 호출될 때 사용됩니다.

      -- 속성: lpAttributeList

          ‘STARTUPINFOEX’에 제공된 대로 프로세스 생성을 위한 추가 어트리
          뷰트 딕셔너리, UpdateProcThreadAttribute(3)를 참조하십시오.

          지원되는 어트리뷰트:

          'handle_list'

               상속될 핸들의 시퀀스.  비어 있지 않으면 'close_fds'는 참
               이어야 합니다.

               *note Popen: 199. 생성자에 전달될 때 *note
               os.set_handle_inheritable(): ef5.로 핸들을 일시적으로 상
               속할 수 있도록 만들어야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 윈도우 에러
               ‘ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER’ (87) 로 *note OSError: 411.가 발
               생합니다.

                    경고: 다중 스레드 프로세스에서, 이 기능을 *note
                    os.system(): 1423.과 같은 모든 핸들을 상속하는 다른
                    프로세스 생성 함수에 대한 동시 호출과 결합할 때 상속
                    가능으로 표시된 핸들의 누수를 피하도록 주의하십시오.
                    이것은 일시적으로 상속 가능한 핸들을 만드는 표준 핸
                    들 리디렉션에도 적용됩니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* 윈도우 상수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx

   (2) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 상수,  Up: 윈도우 Popen 도우미

5.18.6.8 윈도우 상수
....................

*note subprocess: d6. 모듈은 다음 상수를 노출합니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE

     표준 입력 장치.  처음에는, 콘솔 입력 버퍼입니다, ‘CONIN$’.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE

     표준 출력 장치.  처음에는, 활성 콘솔 화면 버퍼입니다, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE

     표준 에러 장치.  처음에는, 활성 콘솔 화면 버퍼입니다, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.SW_HIDE

     창을 숨깁니다.  다른 창이 활성화됩니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES

     *note STARTUPINFO.hStdInput: 3241, *note STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput:
     3243. 및 *note STARTUPINFO.hStdError: 3244. 어트리뷰트에 추가 정보
     가 포함되었음을 지정합니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

     *note STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow: 3245. 어트리뷰트에 추가 정보가 포함
     되었음을 지정합니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK

     A *note STARTUPINFO.dwFlags: 3240. parameter to specify that the
     'Working in Background' mouse cursor will be displayed while a
     process is launching.  This is the default behavior for GUI
     processes.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK

     A *note STARTUPINFO.dwFlags: 3240. parameter to specify that the
     mouse cursor will not be changed when launching a process.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

     새로운 프로세스는 부모의 콘솔을 상속(기본값)하는 대신 새로운 콘솔을
     갖습니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

     새 프로세스 그룹이 만들어지도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.  이 플래그는 서브 프로세스에 *note
     os.kill(): 1350.을 사용하기 위해 필요합니다.

     *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 322c.이 지정되면 이 플래그는 무시됩니다.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     새 프로세스가 평균 우선순위를 초과하도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     새 프로세스가 평균 우선순위보다 낮도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

     새 프로세스가 높은 우선순위를 갖도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

     새 프로세스가 유휴 (가장 낮은) 우선순위를 갖도록 지정하는 *note
     Popen: 199. ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     새 프로세스가 보통 우선순위를 갖도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.  (기본값)

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

     새 프로세스가 실시간 우선순위를 갖도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.  REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS를 사용하면 마우
     스 입력, 키보드 입력 및 백그라운드 디스크 플러시를 관리하는 시스템
     스레드가 중단되므로 거의 사용하지 않아야 합니다.  이 클래스는 하드
     웨어와 직접 “대화”하거나 중단이 제한되어야 하는 짧은 작업을 수행하
     는 응용 프로그램에 적합할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW

     새 프로세스가 창을 만들지 않도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS

     새 프로세스가 부모의 콘솔을 상속하지 않도록 지정하는 *note Popen:
     199. ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.  이 값은 CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE과 함께
     사용할 수 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

     새 프로세스가 호출하는 프로세스의 에러 모드를 상속하지 않도록 지정
     하는 *note Popen: 199. ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.  대신, 새 프로세
     스는 기본 에러 모드를 갖습니다.  이 기능은 하드(hard) 에러가 비활성
     화된 상태로 실행되는 다중 스레드 셸 응용 프로그램에 특히 유용합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

     새 프로세스가 잡(job)과 연관되지 않도록 지정하는 *note Popen: 199.
     ‘creationflags’ 매개 변수.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 오래된 고수준 API,  Next: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기,  Prev: 윈도우 Popen 도우미,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.9 오래된 고수준 API
..........................

파이썬 3.5 이전에는, 이 세 가지 함수가 subprocess에 대한 고수준 API로 구
성되었습니다.  이제 많은 경우에 *note run(): b83.을 사용할 수 있지만, 많
은 기존 코드가 이러한 함수를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: subprocess.call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     'args'로 기술된 명령을 실행합니다.  명령이 완료될 때까지 기다린 후
     *note returncode: 19af. 어트리뷰트를 반환합니다.

     stdout이나 stderr을 캡처해야 하는 코드는 대신 *note run(): b83.을 사
     용해야 합니다:

          run(...).returncode

     stdout이나 stderr을 억제하려면, *note DEVNULL: 113f. 값을 제공하십
     시오.

     위에 표시된 인자는 단지 몇 가지 일반적인 인자입니다.  전체 함수 서
     명은 *note Popen: 199. 생성자의 서명과 같습니다 - 이 함수는
     'timeout' 이외의 모든 제공된 인자를 해당 인터페이스로 직접 전달합니
     다.

          참고: 이 함수에 ‘stdout=PIPE’나 ‘stderr=PIPE’를 사용하지 마십
          시오.  파이프를 읽지 않기 때문에 자식 프로세스가 OS 파이프 버
          퍼를 가득 채우기 충분한 출력을 생성하면 자식 프로세스가 블록 됩
          니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timeout'이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- 함수: subprocess.check_call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     인자로 명령을 실행합니다.  명령이 완료될 때까지 기다립니다.  반환 코
     드가 0이면 반환합니다, 그렇지 않으면 *note CalledProcessError:
     1314.를 발생시킵니다.  *note CalledProcessError: 1314. 객체는 *note
     returncode: 321d. 어트리뷰트에 반환 코드를 갖습니다.  *note
     check_call(): 321c.이 프로세스를 시작하지 못하면 발생된 예외를 확산
     합니다.

     stdout이나 stderr을 캡처해야 하는 코드는 대신 *note run(): b83.을 사
     용해야 합니다:

          run(..., check=True)

     stdout이나 stderr을 억제하려면, *note DEVNULL: 113f. 값을 제공하십
     시오.

     위에 표시된 인자는 단지 몇 가지 일반적인 인자입니다.  전체 함수 서
     명은 *note Popen: 199. 생성자의 서명과 같습니다 - 이 함수는
     'timeout' 이외의 모든 제공된 인자를 해당 인터페이스로 직접 전달합니
     다.

          참고: 이 함수에 ‘stdout=PIPE’나 ‘stderr=PIPE’를 사용하지 마십
          시오.  파이프를 읽지 않기 때문에 자식 프로세스가 OS 파이프 버
          퍼를 가득 채우기 충분한 출력을 생성하면 자식 프로세스가 블록 됩
          니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timeout'이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- 함수: subprocess.check_output (args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None,
          shell=False, cwd=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     인자로 명령을 실행하고 출력을 반환합니다.

     반환 코드가 0이 아니면 *note CalledProcessError: 1314. 가 발생합니
     다.  *note CalledProcessError: 1314. 객체는 *note returncode: 321d.
     어트리뷰트에 반환 코드가 있고 *note output: 321f. 어트리뷰트에 출력
     이 있습니다.

     이것은 다음과 동등합니다:

          run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout

     위에 표시된 인자는 단지 몇 가지 일반적인 인자입니다.  전체 함수 서
     명은 *note run(): b83.의 서명과 거의 같습니다 - 대부분의 인자는 해
     당 인터페이스로 직접 전달됩니다.  *note run(): b83. 동작과 비교할 때
     한가지 API 편차가 있습니다: ‘input=None’을 전달하면 부모의 표준 입
     력 파일 핸들을 사용하는 대신 ‘input=b''’ (또는 다른 인자에 따라
     ‘input=''’) 와 같게 동작합니다.

     기본적으로, 이 함수는 데이터를 인코딩된 바이트열로 반환합니다.  출
     력 데이터의 실제 인코딩은 호출되는 명령에 따라 달라질 수 있어서, 텍
     스트로의 디코딩은 종종 응용 프로그램 수준에서 처리해야 합니다.

     *note 자주 사용되는 인자: 320e.와 *note run(): b83.에 설명된 대로
     'text', 'encoding', 'errors' 또는 'universal_newlines'를 ‘True’로 설
     정하면 이 동작을 재정의할 수 있습니다.

     결과에서 표준 에러도 캡처하려면 ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’을 사용하
     십시오:

          >>> subprocess.check_output(
          ...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
          ...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
          ...     shell=True)
          'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'

     Added in version 3.1.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timeout'이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'input' 키워드 인자에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors'가 추가되었습니다.  자세한
     내용은 *note run(): b83.을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.7: 'text'가 'universal_newlines'의 더 가독성 있
     는 별칭으로 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.


File: python.info,  Node: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기,  Next: 레거시 셸 호출 함수,  Prev: 오래된 고수준 API,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.10 이전 함수를 ‘subprocess’ 모듈로 교체하기
..................................................

이 섹션에서, “a는 b가 됩니다”는 b가 a의 대체로 사용될 수 있음을 의미합니
다.

     참고: 이 섹션의 모든 “a” 함수는 실행되는 프로그램을 찾을 수 없으면
     (다소간) 조용히 실패합니다; “b” 대체는 대신 *note OSError: 411.를 발
     생시킵니다.

     또한, 요청된 연산이 0이 아닌 반환 코드를 생성하면 *note
     check_output(): fb9.을 사용한 대체는 *note CalledProcessError:
     1314.로 실패합니다.  출력은 여전히 발생한 예외의 *note output:
     321f. 어트리뷰트로 사용 가능합니다.

다음 예에서는, 관련 함수들을 *note subprocess: d6. 모듈에서 이미 임포트
했다고 가정합니다.

* Menu:

* /bin/sh 셸 명령 치환 교체하기::
* 셸 파이프라인 교체하기::
* os.system() 교체하기: os system 교체하기.
* os.spawn 패밀리 교체하기: os spawn 패밀리 교체하기.
* os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 교체하기: os popen os popen2 os popen3 교체하기.
* popen2 모듈의 함수 교체하기::


File: python.info,  Node: /bin/sh 셸 명령 치환 교체하기,  Next: 셸 파이프라인 교체하기,  Up: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

5.18.6.11 ‘/bin/sh’ 셸 명령 치환 교체하기
.........................................

     output=$(mycmd myarg)

는 다음처럼 됩니다:

     output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])


File: python.info,  Node: 셸 파이프라인 교체하기,  Next: os system 교체하기,  Prev: /bin/sh 셸 명령 치환 교체하기,  Up: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

5.18.6.12 셸 파이프라인 교체하기
................................

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

는 다음처럼 됩니다:

     p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
     p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
     p1.stdout.close()  # p2가 종료되면 p1이 SIGPIPE를 수신하도록 허용합니다.
     output = p2.communicate()[0]

p2가 p1보다 먼저 종료될 때 p1이 SIGPIPE를 수신하려면 p2를 시작한 후
‘p1.stdout.close()’ 호출이 중요합니다.

또는, 신뢰할 수 있는 입력의 경우, 셸의 자체 파이프라인 지원을 계속 사용
할 수 있습니다:

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

는 다음처럼 됩니다:

     output = check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)


File: python.info,  Node: os system 교체하기,  Next: os spawn 패밀리 교체하기,  Prev: 셸 파이프라인 교체하기,  Up: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

5.18.6.13 ‘os.system()’ 교체하기
................................

     sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
     # 는 다음처럼 됩니다
     retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)

노트:

   * 보통 셸을 통해 프로그램을 호출할 필요는 없습니다.

   * The *note call(): b85. return value is encoded differently to that
     of *note os.system(): 1423.

   * The *note os.system(): 1423. function ignores SIGINT and SIGQUIT
     signals while the command is running, but the caller must do this
     separately when using the *note subprocess: d6. module.

더욱 현실적인 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     try:
         retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
         if retcode < 0:
             print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
         else:
             print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
     except OSError as e:
         print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)


File: python.info,  Node: os spawn 패밀리 교체하기,  Next: os popen os popen2 os popen3 교체하기,  Prev: os system 교체하기,  Up: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

5.18.6.14 ‘os.spawn’ 패밀리 교체하기
....................................

P_NOWAIT 예:

     pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid

P_WAIT 예:

     retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])

벡터 예:

     os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
     ==>
     Popen([path] + args[1:])

환경 예:

     os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
     ==>
     Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})


File: python.info,  Node: os popen os popen2 os popen3 교체하기,  Next: popen2 모듈의 함수 교체하기,  Prev: os spawn 패밀리 교체하기,  Up: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

5.18.6.15 ‘os.popen()’, ‘os.popen2()’, ‘os.popen3()’ 교체하기
.............................................................

     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = os.popen2(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = os.popen3(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout, p.stderr)

     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = os.popen4(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=STDOUT, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

반환 코드 처리는 다음과 같이 번역됩니다:

     pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
     ...
     rc = pipe.close()
     if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
         print("There were some errors")
     ==>
     process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
     ...
     process.stdin.close()
     if process.wait() != 0:
         print("There were some errors")


File: python.info,  Node: popen2 모듈의 함수 교체하기,  Prev: os popen os popen2 os popen3 교체하기,  Up: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기

5.18.6.16 ‘popen2’ 모듈의 함수 교체하기
.......................................

     참고: popen2 함수에 대한 cmd 인자가 문자열이면, 명령은 /bin/sh 를 통
     해 실행됩니다.  리스트면, 명령이 직접 실행됩니다.

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2("somestring", bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen("somestring", shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

‘popen2.Popen3’과 ‘popen2.Popen4’는 다음과 같은 점을 제외하고는 기본적으
로 *note subprocess.Popen: 199.처럼 작동합니다:

   * 실행이 실패하면 *note Popen: 199.은 예외를 발생시킵니다.

   * 'capturestderr' 인자는 'stderr' 인자로 대체됩니다.

   * ‘stdin=PIPE’와 ‘stdout=PIPE’를 반드시 지정해야 합니다.

   * popen2는 기본적으로 모든 파일 기술자를 닫지만, 모든 플랫폼이나 이전
     파이썬 버전에서 이 동작을 보장하려면 *note Popen: 199.에
     ‘close_fds=True’를 지정해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 레거시 셸 호출 함수,  Next: 노트,  Prev: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.17 레거시 셸 호출 함수
.............................

이 모듈은 2.x ‘commands’ 모듈의 다음과 같은 레거시 함수도 제공합니다.  이
러한 연산은 시스템 셸을 묵시적으로 호출하고 보안과 예외 처리 일관성과 관
련하여 위에서 설명한 보증 중 어느 것도 이러한 함수에 유효하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: subprocess.getstatusoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     셸에서 'cmd'를 실행한 후 ‘(exitcode, output)’을 반환합니다.

     ‘Popen.check_output()’으로 셸에서 문자열 'cmd'를 실행하고 2-튜플
     ‘(exitcode, output)’을 반환합니다.  출력을 디코딩하는 데
     'encoding'과 'errors'가 사용됩니다; 자세한 내용은 *note 자주
     사용되는 인자: 320e.에 대한 참고 사항을 참조하십시오.

     후행 줄 바꿈이 출력에서 제거됩니다.  명령의 종료 코드는 서브 프로세
     스의 반환 코드로 해석될 수 있습니다.  예:

          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          (0, '/bin/ls')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
          (1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
          (127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
          (-15, '')

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.3.4에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     이 함수는 이제 파이썬 3.3.3과 이전 버전에서와같이 (status, output)
     대신 (exitcode, output) 을 반환합니다.  exitcode는 *note
     returncode: 19af.와 같은 값을 갖습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: subprocess.getoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

     셸에서 'cmd'를 실행한 출력(stdout과 stderr)을 반환합니다.

     종료 코드를 무시하고 반환 값은 명령의 출력을 포함하는 문자열인 것을
     제외하고, *note getstatusoutput(): fba. 과 유사합니다.  예:

          >>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          '/bin/ls'

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.3.4에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 노트,  Prev: 레거시 셸 호출 함수,  Up: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리

5.18.6.18 노트
..............

* Menu:

* Timeout Behavior::
* 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기::
* Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeout Behavior,  Next: 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기,  Up: 노트

5.18.6.19 Timeout Behavior
..........................

When using the ‘timeout’ parameter in functions like *note run(): b83,
*note Popen.wait(): ce1, or *note Popen.communicate(): 3210, users
should be aware of the following behaviors:

  1. 'Process Creation Delay': The initial process creation itself
     cannot be interrupted on many platform APIs.  This means that even
     when specifying a timeout, you are not guaranteed to see a timeout
     exception until at least after however long process creation takes.

  2. 'Extremely Small Timeout Values': Setting very small timeout values
     (such as a few milliseconds) may result in almost immediate *note
     TimeoutExpired: 154d. exceptions because process creation and
     system scheduling inherently require time.


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기,  Next: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn,  Prev: Timeout Behavior,  Up: 노트

5.18.6.20 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기
....................................................

윈도우에서, 'args' 시퀀스는 다음 규칙을 사용하여 구문 분석할 수 있는 문
자열로 변환됩니다 (MS C 런타임에서 사용하는 규칙에 해당합니다):

  1. 인자는 스페이스나 탭인 공백으로 구분됩니다.

  2. 큰따옴표로 묶인 문자열은 포함된 공백과 관계없이 단일 인자로 해석됩
     니다.  인용된 문자열을 인자에 포함할 수 있습니다.

  3. 백 슬래시가 앞에 붙는 큰따옴표는 리터럴 큰따옴표로 해석됩니다.

  4. 역 슬래시는 큰따옴표 바로 앞에 오지 않는 한 문자 그대로 해석됩니다.

  5. 역 슬래시가 큰따옴표 바로 앞에 있으면, 모든 역 슬래시 쌍은 리터럴 역
     슬래시로 해석됩니다.  역 슬래시 수가 홀수이면, 규칙 3에 설명된 대로
     마지막 역 슬래시는 다음 큰따옴표를 이스케이프 합니다.

더 보기
.......

*note shlex: c4.

     명령 줄을 구문 분석하고 이스케이프 하는 함수를 제공하는 모듈.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn,  Prev: 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기,  Up: 노트

5.18.6.21 Disabling use of ‘vfork()’ or ‘posix_spawn()’
.......................................................

On Linux, *note subprocess: d6. defaults to using the ‘vfork()’ system
call internally when it is safe to do so rather than ‘fork()’.  This
greatly improves performance.

If you ever encounter a presumed highly unusual situation where you need
to prevent ‘vfork()’ from being used by Python, you can set the
‘subprocess._USE_VFORK’ attribute to a false value.

     subprocess._USE_VFORK = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

Setting this has no impact on use of ‘posix_spawn()’ which could use
‘vfork()’ internally within its libc implementation.  There is a similar
‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ attribute if you need to prevent use of
that.

     subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

It is safe to set these to false on any Python version.  They will have
no effect on older versions when unsupported.  Do not assume the
attributes are available to read.  Despite their names, a true value
does not indicate that the corresponding function will be used, only
that it may be.

Please file issues any time you have to use these private knobs with a
way to reproduce the issue you were seeing.  Link to that issue from a
comment in your code.

Added in version 3.8: ‘_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’

Added in version 3.11: ‘_USE_VFORK’


File: python.info,  Node: sched — 이벤트 스케줄러,  Next: queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스,  Prev: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.7 ‘sched’ — 이벤트 스케줄러
--------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/sched.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note sched: bf. 모듈은 범용 이벤트 스케줄러를 구현하는 클래스를 정의합
니다:

 -- 클래스: sched.scheduler (timefunc=time.monotonic,
          delayfunc=time.sleep)

     *note scheduler: 1118. 클래스는 이벤트 스케줄링을 위한 일반적인 인
     터페이스를 정의합니다.  “외부 세계”를 실제로 다루기 위해 두 개의 함
     수를 요구합니다 — 'timefunc'는 인자 없이 호출할 수 있어야 하고, 숫
     자(단위가 무엇이든, “시간”)를 반환합니다.  'delayfunc' 함수는 하나
     의 인자로 호출 가능해야 하며, 'timefunc'의 출력과 호환되어야 하고,
     그 시간 동안 지연시켜야 합니다.  'delayfunc'는 다중 스레드 응용 프
     로그램에서 다른 스레드가 실행할 기회를 주기 위해 각 이벤트가 실행된
     후 ‘0’ 인자로 호출되기도 합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'timefunc' 와 'delayfunc' 매개 변수는 선택적입니
     다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note scheduler: 1118. 클래스는 다중 스레드 환경
     에서 안전하게 사용할 수 있습니다.

예제:

     >>> import sched, time
     >>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
     >>> def print_time(a='default'):
     ...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
     ...
     >>> def print_some_times():
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
     ...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
     ...     # 우선순위가 더 높음에도 불구하고, enter() 가 상대적이라서 'keyword' 는 'positional' 다음에 실행됩니다
     ...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 10, print_time, argument=("first enterabs",))
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 5, print_time, argument=("second enterabs",))
     ...     s.run()
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...
     >>> print_some_times()
     1652342830.3640375
     From print_time 1652342830.3642538 second enterabs
     From print_time 1652342830.3643398 first enterabs
     From print_time 1652342835.3694863 positional
     From print_time 1652342835.3696074 keyword
     From print_time 1652342840.369612 default
     1652342840.3697174

* Menu:

* 스케줄러 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sched.py


File: python.info,  Node: 스케줄러 객체,  Up: sched — 이벤트 스케줄러

5.18.7.1 스케줄러 객체
......................

*note scheduler: 1118. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트가 있
습니다:

 -- 메서드: scheduler.enterabs (time, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     새 이벤트를 예약합니다.  'time' 인자는 생성자에 전달된 'timefunc' 함
     수의 반환 값과 호환되는 숫자 형이어야 합니다.  같은 'time'으로 예약
     된 이벤트는 'priority' 순으로 실행됩니다.  낮은 숫자는 높은 우선순
     위를 나타냅니다.

     이벤트를 실행하는 것은 ‘action(*argument, **kwargs)’를 실행하는 것
     을 의미합니다.  'argument'는 'action'에 대한 위치 인자가 들어있는 시
     퀀스입니다.  'kwargs'는 'action'에 대한 키워드 인자가 들어있는 딕셔
     너리입니다.

     반환 값은 나중에 이벤트를 취소하는 데 사용할 수 있는 이벤트입니다
     (*note cancel(): 1937. 참조).

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'argument' 매개 변수는 선택적입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'kwargs' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: scheduler.enter (delay, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     'delay' 시간 단위 후로 이벤트를 예약합니다.  상대 시간 이외의 다른
     인자, 효과 및 반환 값은 *note enterabs(): 111a.와 같습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'argument' 매개 변수는 선택적입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'kwargs' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: scheduler.cancel (event)

     큐에서 이벤트를 제거합니다.  'event'가 현재 큐에 없으면, 이 메서드
     는 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: scheduler.empty ()

     이벤트 큐가 비어있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: scheduler.run (blocking=True)

     모든 예약된 이벤트를 실행합니다.  이 메서드는 다음 이벤트를 (생성자
     에 전달된 'delayfunc' 함수를 사용하여) 기다린 다음 예약된 이벤트가
     소진될 때까지 계속 실행합니다.

     'blocking'이 거짓이면 시간이 도래한 (있다면) 예약된 이벤트를 모두 실
     행한 다음, 스케줄러에서 다음 예약된 호출까지의 (있다면) 대기시간을
     반환합니다 .

     'action' 이나 'delayfunc'는 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.  두 경우 모
     두, 스케줄러는 일관된 상태를 유지하고 예외를 전파합니다.  'action'에
     의해 예외가 발생하면, 이후에 *note run(): 1117.을 호출할 때 이벤트
     를 실행하려고 하지 않습니다.

     일련의 이벤트가 다음 이벤트 이전에 사용 가능한 시간보다 실행하는 데
     더 오래 걸리면, 스케줄러는 단순히 지연됩니다.  어떤 이벤트도 삭제되
     지 않습니다; 더는 적절하지 않은 이벤트를 취소할 책임은 호출 코드에
     있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'blocking' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 속성: scheduler.queue

     남은 이벤트의 리스트를 실행될 순서대로 반환하는 읽기 전용 어트리뷰
     트입니다.  각 이벤트는 다음과 같은 필드를 갖는 *note 네임드 튜플:
     648.로 표시됩니다: time, priority, action, argument, kwargs.


File: python.info,  Node: queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스,  Next: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수,  Prev: sched — 이벤트 스케줄러,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.8 ‘queue’ — 동기화된 큐 클래스
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/queue.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note queue: b6. 모듈은 다중 생산자, 다중 소비자 큐를 구현합니다.  정보
가 여러 스레드 간에 안전하게 교환되어야 할 때 스레드 프로그래밍에서 특히
유용합니다.  이 모듈의 *note Queue: 1377. 클래스는 필요한 모든 로킹 개념
을 구현합니다.

모듈은 항목을 꺼내는 순서 만 다른 3가지 유형의 큐를 구현합니다.  FIFO 큐
에서는, 추가된 첫 번째 작업이 처음으로 꺼내지는 작업입니다.  LIFO 큐에서
는, 가장 최근에 추가된 항목이 처음으로 꺼내지는 항목입니다 (스택처럼 작
동합니다).  우선순위(priority) 큐에서는, 항목이 정렬된 상태로 유지되고
(*note heapq: 69. 모듈을 사용합니다) 가장 낮은 값을 갖는 항목이 먼저 꺼
내집니다.

내부적으로, 이러한 3가지 유형의 큐는 록을 사용하여 경쟁 스레드를 일시적
으로 블록합니다; 그러나, 스레드 내에서의 재진입을 처리하도록 설계되지는
않았습니다.

또한, 이 모듈은 “간단한” FIFO 큐 유형인 *note SimpleQueue: b67.를 구현합
니다.  이 특정 구현은 작은 기능을 포기하는 대신 추가 보장을 제공합니다.

*note queue: b6. 모듈은 다음 클래스와 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: queue.Queue (maxsize=0)

     FIFO 큐의 생성자.  'maxsize'는 큐에 배치할 수 있는 항목 수에 대한 상
     한을 설정하는 정수입니다.  일단, 이 크기에 도달하면, 큐 항목이 소비
     될 때까지 삽입이 블록 됩니다.  'maxsize'가 0보다 작거나 같으면, 큐
     크기는 무한합니다.

 -- 클래스: queue.LifoQueue (maxsize=0)

     LIFO 큐의 생성자.  'maxsize'는 큐에 배치할 수 있는 항목 수에 대한 상
     한을 설정하는 정수입니다.  일단, 이 크기에 도달하면, 큐 항목이 소비
     될 때까지 삽입이 블록 됩니다.  'maxsize'가 0보다 작거나 같으면, 큐
     크기는 무한합니다.

 -- 클래스: queue.PriorityQueue (maxsize=0)

     우선순위 큐의 생성자.  'maxsize'는 큐에 배치할 수 있는 항목 수에 대
     한 상한을 설정하는 정수입니다.  일단, 이 크기에 도달하면, 큐 항목이
     소비될 때까지 삽입이 블록 됩니다.  'maxsize'가 0보다 작거나 같으면,
     큐 크기는 무한합니다.

     가장 낮은 값을 갖는 항목이 먼저 꺼내집니다 (가장 낮은 값을 갖는 항
     목은 ‘min(entries)’ 에 의해 반환될 항목입니다).  항목의 전형적인 패
     턴은 ‘(priority_number, data)’ 형식의 튜플입니다.

     'data' 요소를 비교할 수 없으면, 데이터는 데이터 항목을 무시하고 우
     선순위 숫자만 비교하는 클래스로 감쌀 수 있습니다:

          from dataclasses import dataclass, field
          from typing import Any

          @dataclass(order=True)
          class PrioritizedItem:
              priority: int
              item: Any=field(compare=False)

 -- 클래스: queue.SimpleQueue

     상한 없는 FIFO 큐의 생성자.  단순 큐에는 작업 추적과 같은 고급 기능
     이 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 예외: queue.Empty

     비 블로킹 *note get(): 2cde.(또는 *note get_nowait(): 3267.)이 비어
     있는 *note Queue: 1377. 객체에 호출될 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: queue.Full

     비 블로킹 *note put(): 3268.(또는 *note put_nowait(): 2cdd.)이 가득
     찬 *note Queue: 1377. 객체에 호출될 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: queue.ShutDown

     *note put(): 3268.(또는 *note put(): 3268.)이 종료된 *note Queue:
     1377. 객체에 호출될 때 발생하는 예외.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* 큐 객체::
* SimpleQueue 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/queue.py


File: python.info,  Node: 큐 객체,  Next: SimpleQueue 객체,  Up: queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스

5.18.8.1 큐 객체
................

큐 객체(*note Queue: 1377, *note LifoQueue: 225e. 또는 *note
PriorityQueue: 225f.)는 아래에 설명된 공용 메서드를 제공합니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.qsize ()

     큐의 대략의 크기를 돌려줍니다.  주의하십시오, qsize() > 0 은 후속
     get()이 블록 되지 않는다는 것을 보장하지 않으며, qsize() < maxsize
     도 put()이 블록 되지 않는다고 보장하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.empty ()

     큐가 비어 있으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.
     empty()가 ‘True’를 반환하면, put()에 대한 후속 호출이 블록 되지 않
     는다고 보장하는 것은 아닙니다.  마찬가지로 empty()가 ‘False’를 반환
     하면, get()에 대한 후속 호출이 블록 되지 않는다고 보장하는 것은 아
     닙니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.full ()

     큐가 가득 차면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.
     full()이 ‘True’를 반환하면, get()에 대한 후속 호출이 블록 되지 않는
     다고 보장하는 것은 아닙니다.  마찬가지로 full()이 ‘False’를 반환하
     면, put()에 대한 후속 호출이 블록 되지 않는다고 보장하는 것은 아닙
     니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     큐에 'item'을 넣습니다.  선택적 인자 'block'이 참이고 'timeout'이
     ‘None’(기본값)이면, 사용 가능한 슬롯이 확보될 때까지 필요하면 블록
     합니다.  'timeout'이 양수면, 최대 'timeout' 초 동안 블록하고 그 시
     간 내에 사용 가능한 슬롯이 없으면 *note Full: 317b. 예외가 발생합니
     다.  그렇지 않으면 ('block'이 거짓), 빈 슬롯이 즉시 사용할 수 있으
     면 큐에 항목을 넣고, 그렇지 않으면 *note Full: 317b. 예외를 발생시
     킵니다 (이때 'timeout'은 무시됩니다).

     Raises *note ShutDown: 23b. if the queue has been shut down.

 -- 메서드: Queue.put_nowait (item)

     ‘put(item, block=False)’와 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     큐에서 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다.  선택적 인자 'block'이 참이고
     'timeout'이 ‘None’(기본값)이면, 항목이 사용 가능할 때까지 필요하면
     블록합니다.  'timeout'이 양수면, 최대 'timeout' 초 동안 블록하고 그
     시간 내에 사용 가능한 항목이 없으면 *note Empty: 317a. 예외가 발생
     합니다.  그렇지 않으면 ('block'이 거짓), 즉시 사용할 수 있는 항목이
     있으면 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note Empty: 317a. 예외를 발생시킵니
     다 (이때 'timeout'은 무시됩니다).

     POSIX 시스템에서 3.0 이전에서, 윈도우의 모든 버전에서, 'block'이 참
     이고 'timeout'이 ‘None’이면, 이 연산은 하부 록에 대한 중단되지 않는
     (uninterruptible) 대기로 들어갑니다.  이는 어떤 예외도 발생할 수 없
     음을 뜻하고, 특히 SIGINT가 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.를 일으키지
     않습니다.

     Raises *note ShutDown: 23b. if the queue has been shut down and is
     empty, or if the queue has been shut down immediately.

 -- 메서드: Queue.get_nowait ()

     ‘get(False)’와 동등합니다.

큐에 넣은 작업이 데몬 소비자 스레드에 의해 완전히 처리되었는지를 추적하
는 것을 지원하는 두 가지 메서드가 제공됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.task_done ()

     앞서 큐에 넣은 작업이 완료되었음을 나타냅니다.  큐 소비자 스레드에
     서 사용됩니다.  작업을 꺼내는 데 사용되는 *note get(): 2cde.마다, 후
     속 *note task_done(): 3176. 호출은 작업에 대한 처리가 완료되었음을
     큐에 알려줍니다.

     *note join(): 3177.이 현재 블로킹 중이면, 모든 항목이 처리되면 (큐
     로 *note put(): 3268. 된 모든 항목에 대해 *note task_done(): 3176.
     호출이 수신되었음을 뜻합니다) 재개됩니다.

     큐에 있는 항목보다 더 많이 호출되면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시
     킵니다.

 -- 메서드: Queue.join ()

     큐의 모든 항목을 꺼내서 처리할 때까지 블록합니다.

     완료되지 않은 작업 카운트는 항목이 큐에 추가될 때마다 올라갑니다.  소
     비자 스레드가 *note task_done(): 3176.을 호출해서 항목을 꺼내고 작
     업이 모두 완료되었음을 나타낼 때마다 카운트가 내려갑니다.  완료되지
     않은 작업 카운트가 0으로 떨어지면, *note join(): 3177.이 블록 해제
     됩니다.

* Menu:

* Waiting for task completion::
* Terminating queues::


File: python.info,  Node: Waiting for task completion,  Next: Terminating queues,  Up: 큐 객체

5.18.8.2 Waiting for task completion
....................................

큐에 포함된 작업이 완료될 때까지 대기하는 방법의 예:

     import threading
     import queue

     q = queue.Queue()

     def worker():
         while True:
             item = q.get()
             print(f'Working on {item}')
             print(f'Finished {item}')
             q.task_done()

     # 작업자 스레드를 켭니다.
     threading.Thread(target=worker, daemon=True).start()

     # 작업자에게 30개의 작업 요청을 보냅니다.
     for item in range(30):
         q.put(item)

     # 모든 작업이 완료될 때까지 블록합니다.
     q.join()
     print('All work completed')


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating queues,  Prev: Waiting for task completion,  Up: 큐 객체

5.18.8.3 Terminating queues
...........................

When no longer needed, *note Queue: 1377. objects can be wound down
until empty or terminated immediately with a hard shutdown.

 -- 메서드: Queue.shutdown (immediate=False)

     Put a *note Queue: 1377. instance into a shutdown mode.

     The queue can no longer grow.  Future calls to *note put(): 3268.
     raise *note ShutDown: 23b.  Currently blocked callers of *note
     put(): 3268. will be unblocked and will raise *note ShutDown: 23b.
     in the formerly blocked thread.

     If 'immediate' is false (the default), the queue can be wound down
     normally with *note get(): 2cde. calls to extract tasks that have
     already been loaded.

     And if *note task_done(): 3176. is called for each remaining task,
     a pending *note join(): 3177. will be unblocked normally.

     Once the queue is empty, future calls to *note get(): 2cde. will
     raise *note ShutDown: 23b.

     If 'immediate' is true, the queue is terminated immediately.  The
     queue is drained to be completely empty and the count of unfinished
     tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained.  If unfinished
     tasks is zero, callers of *note join(): 3177. are unblocked.  Also,
     blocked callers of *note get(): 2cde. are unblocked and will raise
     *note ShutDown: 23b. because the queue is empty.

     Use caution when using *note join(): 3177. with 'immediate' set to
     true.  This unblocks the join even when no work has been done on
     the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a queue.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleQueue 객체,  Prev: 큐 객체,  Up: queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스

5.18.8.4 SimpleQueue 객체
.........................

*note SimpleQueue: b67. 객체는 아래에서 설명하는 공용 메서드를 제공합니
다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleQueue.qsize ()

     큐의 대략의 크기를 돌려줍니다.  주의하십시오, qsize() > 0 은 후속
     get()이 블록 되지 않는다는 것을 보장하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleQueue.empty ()

     큐가 비어 있으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.
     empty()가 ‘False’를 반환하면, get()에 대한 후속 호출이 블록 되지 않
     는다는 것을 보장하지는 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleQueue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     'item'을 큐에 넣습니다.  이 메서드는 결코 블록하지 않고 항상 성공합
     니다 (메모리 할당 실패와 같은 잠재적 저수준 에러 제외).  선택적 인
     자 'block'과 'timeout'은 무시되고 *note Queue.put(): 3268.과의 호환
     성을 위해서만 제공됩니다.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' This method has a C implementation which is
     reentrant.  That is, a ‘put()’ or ‘get()’ call can be interrupted
     by another ‘put()’ call in the same thread without deadlocking or
     corrupting internal state inside the queue.  This makes it
     appropriate for use in destructors such as ‘__del__’ methods or
     *note weakref: 114. callbacks.

 -- 메서드: SimpleQueue.put_nowait (item)

     ‘put(item, block=False)’과 동등합니다, *note Queue.put_nowait():
     2cdd.와의 호환성을 위해 제공됩니다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleQueue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     큐에서 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다.  선택적 인자 'block'이 참이고
     'timeout'이 ‘None’(기본값)이면, 항목이 사용 가능할 때까지 필요하면
     블록합니다.  'timeout'이 양수면, 최대 'timeout' 초 동안 블록하고 그
     시간 내에 사용 가능한 항목이 없으면 *note Empty: 317a. 예외가 발생
     합니다.  그렇지 않으면 ('block'이 거짓), 즉시 사용할 수 있는 항목이
     있으면 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note Empty: 317a. 예외를 발생시킵니
     다 (이때 'timeout'은 무시됩니다).

 -- 메서드: SimpleQueue.get_nowait ()

     ‘get(False)’와 동등합니다.

더 보기
.......

*note multiprocessing.Queue: 1802. 클래스

     (다중 스레드 대신) 다중 프로세스 문맥에서 사용하기 위한 큐 클래스.

*note collections.deque: 5d6.는 록을 필요로하지 않고 인덱싱을 지원하는 빠
른 원자적 *note append(): 251c.와 *note popleft(): 2522. 연산을 제공하는
크기 제한 없는 큐의 대체 구현입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수,  Next: _thread — 저수준 스레드 API,  Prev: queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.9 ‘contextvars’ — 컨텍스트 변수
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 컨텍스트-로컬 상태를 관리, 저장, 액세스하기 위한 API를 제공합
니다.  *note ContextVar: 1565. 클래스는 '컨텍스트 변수' 를 선언하고 사용
하는 데 쓰입니다.  *note copy_context(): 3279. 함수와 *note Context:
15b1. 클래스는 비동기 프레임워크에서 현재 컨텍스트를 관리하는 데 사용해
야 합니다.

상태가 있는 컨텍스트 관리자는 동시성 코드에서 상태가 예기치 않게 다른 코
드로 유출되는 것을 방지하기 위해 *note threading.local(): 1556. 대신 컨
텍스트 변수를 사용해야 합니다.

자세한 내용은 PEP 567(1)을 참조하십시오.

Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* 컨텍스트 변수::
* 수동 컨텍스트 관리::
* asyncio 지원::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: 컨텍스트 변수,  Next: 수동 컨텍스트 관리,  Up: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수

5.18.9.1 컨텍스트 변수
......................

 -- 클래스: contextvars.ContextVar (name[, *, default])

     이 클래스는 새로운 컨텍스트 변수를 선언하는 데 사용됩니다.  예:

          var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)

     필수 'name' 매개 변수는 인트로스팩션 및 디버그 목적으로 사용됩니다.

     선택적 키워드 전용 'default' 매개 변수는 변수에 대한 값이 현재 컨텍
     스트에서 발견되지 않으면 *note ContextVar.get(): 327b. 에 의해 반환
     됩니다.

     '중요:' 컨텍스트 변수는 최상위 모듈 수준에서 만들어져야 하고 클로저
     에서 만들어져서는 안 됩니다.  *note Context: 15b1. 객체는 컨텍스트
     변수에 대해 강한 참조를 유지해서 컨텍스트 변수가 제대로 가비지 수집
     되지 못하게 합니다.

      -- 속성: name

          변수의 이름.  읽기 전용 프로퍼티입니다.

          Added in version 3.7.1.

      -- 메서드: get ([default])

          현재 컨텍스트의 컨텍스트 변수에 대한 값을 반환합니다.

          현재 컨텍스트에서 변수에 대한 값이 없는 경우 메서드는:

             * 제공된 경우 메서드의 'default' 인자 값을 반환합니다; 또는

             * 생성 시에 제공된 경우, 컨텍스트 변수의 기본값을 반환합니
               다; 또는

             * *note LookupError: 21d4. 를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: set (value)

          현재 컨텍스트에서 컨텍스트 변수의 새 값을 설정하려면 호출합니
          다.

          필수 'value' 인자는 컨텍스트 변수의 새 값입니다.

          *note ContextVar.reset(): 327e. 메서드를 통해 변수를 이전 값으
          로 복원하는 데 사용할 수 있는 *note Token: 327f. 객체를 반환합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: reset (token)

          'token' 을 생성 한 *note ContextVar.set(): 327d. 이 사용되기 전
          의 값으로 컨텍스트 변수를 재설정합니다.

          예를 들면:

               var = ContextVar('var')

               token = var.set('new value')
               # 'var'를 사용하는 코드; var.get() 은 'new value'를 반환합니다.
               var.reset(token)

               # reset 호출 후에 var에는 값이 다시 없으므로, var.get() 은
               # LookupError를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: contextvars.Token

     'Token' 객체는 *note ContextVar.set(): 327d. 메서드에 의해 반환됩니
     다.  *note ContextVar.reset(): 327e. 메서드에 전달해서 변수의 값을
     해당 'set' 이전의 값으로 되돌릴 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: var

          읽기 전용 프로퍼티.  토큰을 생성 한 *note ContextVar: 1565. 객
          체를 가리 킵니다.

      -- 속성: old_value

          읽기 전용 프로퍼티.  토큰을 생성 한 *note ContextVar.set():
          327d. 메서드 호출 전 변수의 값으로 설정됩니다.  호출 전에 변수
          가 설정되지 않았으면 *note Token.MISSING: 3282.을 가리킵니다.

      -- 속성: MISSING

          *note Token.old_value: 3281. 에 의해 사용되는 표지 객체.


File: python.info,  Node: 수동 컨텍스트 관리,  Next: asyncio 지원,  Prev: 컨텍스트 변수,  Up: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수

5.18.9.2 수동 컨텍스트 관리
...........................

 -- 함수: contextvars.copy_context ()

     현재 *note Context: 15b1. 객체의 복사본을 반환합니다.

     다음 코드 조각은 현재 컨텍스트의 복사본을 가져와서 모든 변수와 그 변
     수에 설정된 값을 출력합니다:

          ctx: Context = copy_context()
          print(list(ctx.items()))

     이 함수는 'O'(1) 복잡도를 갖고 있습니다.  즉, 몇 가지 컨텍스트 변수
     가 있는 컨텍스트와 컨텍스트 변수가 잔뜩 있는 컨텍스트에 대해 똑같이
     빠르게 작동합니다.

 -- 클래스: contextvars.Context

     *note ContextVars: 1565. 에서 그 값으로의 매핑.

     ‘Context()’ 는 값이 없는 빈 컨텍스트를 만듭니다.  현재 컨텍스트의 복
     사본을 얻으려면 *note copy_context(): 3279. 함수를 사용하십시오.

     Each thread has its own effective stack of ‘Context’ objects.  The
     *note current context: 15ba. is the ‘Context’ object at the top of
     the current thread’s stack.  All ‘Context’ objects in the stacks
     are considered to be 'entered'.

     'Entering' a context, which can be done by calling its *note run():
     160e. method, makes the context the current context by pushing it
     onto the top of the current thread’s context stack.

     'Exiting' from the current context, which can be done by returning
     from the callback passed to the *note run(): 160e. method, restores
     the current context to what it was before the context was entered
     by popping the context off the top of the context stack.

     Since each thread has its own context stack, *note ContextVar:
     1565. objects behave in a similar fashion to *note
     threading.local(): 1556. when values are assigned in different
     threads.

     Attempting to enter an already entered context, including contexts
     entered in other threads, raises a *note RuntimeError: 195.

     After exiting a context, it can later be re-entered (from any
     thread).

     Any changes to *note ContextVar: 1565. values via the *note
     ContextVar.set(): 327d. method are recorded in the current context.
     The *note ContextVar.get(): 327b. method returns the value
     associated with the current context.  Exiting a context effectively
     reverts any changes made to context variables while the context was
     entered (if needed, the values can be restored by re-entering the
     context).

     Context는 *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7. 인터페이스를 구현합니
     다.

      -- 메서드: run (callable, *args, **kwargs)

          컨텍스트에 진입하고, ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’를 실행한 다음
          , 컨텍스트에서 빠져나옵니다.  'callable'의 반환값을 반환하거나
          , 예외가 발생하면 예외를 전파합니다.

          예제:

               import contextvars

               var = contextvars.ContextVar('var')
               var.set('spam')
               print(var.get())  # 'spam'

               ctx = contextvars.copy_context()

               def main():
                   # 'var' 는 'copy_context()' 와 'ctx.run(main)' 을
                   # 호출하기 전에 'spam' 으로 설정되었습니다. 그래서:
                   print(var.get())  # 'spam'
                   print(ctx[var])  # 'spam'

                   var.set('ham')

                   # 이제, 'var' 를 'ham' 으로 설정한 후에:
                   print(var.get())  # 'ham'
                   print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

               # 'main' 함수가 'var' 에 적용한 모든 변경은 'ctx' 에 포함됩니다.
               ctx.run(main)

               # 'main()' 함수는 'ctx' 컨텍스트에서 실행되었으므로,
               # 'var' 에 대한 변경은 'ctx' 에 포함되어 있습니다:
               print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

               # 그러나, 'ctx' 외부에서, 'var' 는 여전히 'spam' 으로 설정되어있습니다:
               print(var.get())  # 'spam'

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          컨텍스트 객체의 얕은 복사본을 반환합니다.

      -- Describe: var in context

          'context' 에 'var' 의 값이 설정되었으면 ‘True’ 를, 그렇지 않으
          면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- Describe: context[var]

          'var' *note ContextVar: 1565. 변수의 값을 돌려줍니다.  컨텍스
          트 객체에 변수가 설정되어 있지 않으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 가
          발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: get (var[, default])

          컨텍스트 객체에 'var' 의 값이 있으면, 'var' 의 값을 돌려줍니다
          .  그렇지 않으면 'default' 를 반환합니다.  'default' 가 주어지
          지 않으면 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

      -- Describe: iter(context)

          컨텍스트 객체에 저장된 변수에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          컨텍스트 객체에 설정된 변수의 개수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          컨텍스트 객체의 모든 변수 목록을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: values ()

          컨텍스트 객체의 모든 변수의 값 목록을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          컨텍스트 객체에서 모든 변수와 해당 값을 포함하는 2-튜플의 목록
          을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio 지원,  Prev: 수동 컨텍스트 관리,  Up: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수

5.18.9.3 asyncio 지원
.....................

컨텍스트 변수는 *note asyncio: a. 에서 기본적으로 지원되며 추가 구성없이
사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 이것은 컨텍스트 변수를 사용하여, 원격 클
라이언트의 주소를 해당 클라이언트를 처리하는 Task에서 사용할 수 있도록 하
는 간단한 메아리 서버입니다:

     import asyncio
     import contextvars

     client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')

     def render_goodbye():
         # 현재 처리중인 클라이언트의 주소를 이 함수에 명시 적으로 전달하지 않고도
         # 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

         client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
         return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()

     async def handle_request(reader, writer):
         addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
         client_addr_var.set(addr)

         # 우리가 호출하는 모든 코드에서 이제 'client_addr_var.get()' 을
         # 호출하여 클라이언트의 주소를 가져올 수 있습니다.

         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             print(line)
             if not line.strip():
                 break

         writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n')  # status line
         writer.write(b'\r\n')  # headers
         writer.write(render_goodbye())  # body
         writer.close()

     async def main():
         srv = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)

         async with srv:
             await srv.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

     # 테스트하려면 telnet이나 curl을 사용할 수 있습니다:
     #     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
     #     curl 127.0.0.1:8081

다음은 위 서비스 중 일부에 대한 지원 모듈입니다:


File: python.info,  Node: _thread — 저수준 스레드 API,  Prev: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수,  Up: 동시 실행

5.18.10 ‘_thread’ — 저수준 스레드 API
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 다중 스레드('경량 프로세스 (light-weight processes)' 나 '태스
크 (tasks)'라고도 합니다)로 작업하는데 필요한 저수준 기본 요소를 제공합
니다 — 전역 데이터 공간을 공유하는 여러 개의 제어 스레드를 뜻합니다.  동
기화를 위해서, 간단한 록('뮤텍스 (mutexes)'나 '이진 세마포어 (binary
semaphores)'라고도 합니다)이 제공됩니다.  *note threading: ed. 모듈은 이
모듈 위에 구축되어 사용하기 쉬운 고수준의 스레딩 API를 제공합니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 모듈은 선택 사항이었지만, 이제는 항상 사용할 수 있
습니다.

이 모듈은 다음 상수와 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: _thread.error

     스레드 특정 에러에서 발생합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이것은 이제 내장 *note RuntimeError: 195.의 동의
     어입니다.

 -- 데이터: _thread.LockType

     이것은 록 객체의 형입니다.

 -- 함수: _thread.start_new_thread (function, args[, kwargs])

     새 스레드를 시작하고 식별자를 반환합니다.  스레드는 인자 목록
     'args'(튜플이어야 합니다)로 함수 'function'을 실행합니다.  선택적
     'kwargs' 인자는 키워드 인자 딕셔너리를 지정합니다.

     함수가 반환되면, 스레드는 조용히 종료합니다.

     함수가 처리되지 않은 예외로 종료되면, 예외를 처리하기 위해 *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.이 호출됩니다.  훅 인자의 'object' 어트리
     뷰트는 'function'입니다.  기본적으로, 스택 트레이스가 인쇄된 다음 스
     레드가 종료합니다 (하지만 다른 스레드는 계속 실행됩니다).

     함수가 *note SystemExit: d3d. 예외를 발생시키면, 조용히 무시됩니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘_thread.start_new_thread’
     with arguments ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.은 이제 처리되지
     않은 예외를 처리하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: _thread.interrupt_main (signum=signal.SIGINT, /)

     메인 스레드에 도달한 시그널의 효과를 시뮬레이트합니다.  스레드는 이
     함수를 사용하여 메인 스레드를 인터럽트 할 수 있지만, 중단이 즉시 일
     어난다는 보장은 없습니다.

     If given, 'signum' is the number of the signal to simulate.  If
     'signum' is not given, *note signal.SIGINT: 83e. is simulated.

     주어진 시그널이 파이썬에 의해 처리되지 않으면 (*note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 1827.이나 *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1826.으로 설정됩니
     다), 이 함수는 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'signum' argument is added to customize the
     signal number.

          참고: This does not emit the corresponding signal but
          schedules a call to the associated handler (if it exists).  If
          you want to truly emit the signal, use *note
          signal.raise_signal(): 1808.

 -- 함수: _thread.exit ()

     *note SystemExit: d3d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  잡히지 않으면, 스레드
     가 조용히 종료되도록 합니다.

 -- 함수: _thread.allocate_lock ()

     새로운 록 객체를 반환합니다.  록의 메서드는 아래에 설명되어 있습니
     다.  록은 초기에 잠금 해제되어 있습니다.

 -- 함수: _thread.get_ident ()

     현재 스레드의 ‘스레드 식별자(thread identifier)’를 반환합니다.  이
     것은 0이 아닌 정수입니다.  그 값은 직접적인 의미가 없습니다; 이것은
     예를 들어 스레드 특정 데이터의 딕셔너리를 인덱싱하는 데 사용되는 매
     직 쿠키로 사용하려는 의도입니다.  스레드 식별자는 스레드가 종료되고
     다른 스레드가 만들어질 때 재활용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: _thread.get_native_id ()

     커널에 의해 할당된 현재 스레드의 네이티브 정수 스레드 ID를 반환합니
     다.  이것은 음수가 아닌 정수입니다.  이 값은 시스템 전반에 걸쳐 이
     특정 스레드를 고유하게 식별하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다 (스레드가 종
     료될 때까지, 그 후에는 값이 OS에 의해 재활용될 수 있습니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

 -- 함수: _thread.stack_size ([size])

     새로운 스레드를 만들 때 사용된 스레드의 스택 크기를 반환합니다.  선
     택적 'size' 인자는 이후에 만들어지는 스레드에 사용할 스택 크기를 지
     정하며, 0(플랫폼 또는 구성된 기본값을 사용합니다)이나 최소
     32,768(32 KiB)의 양의 정숫값이어야 합니다.  'size'를 지정하지 않으
     면 0이 사용됩니다.  스레드 스택 크기 변경이 지원되지 않으면, *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.  지정된 스택 크기가 유효하지 않으
     면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생하고, 스택 크기는 변경되지 않습니
     다.  32 KiB는 현재 인터프리터 자체에 충분한 스택 공간을 보장하기 위
     해 지원되는 최소 스택 크기 값입니다.  일부 플랫폼에서는 스택 크기 값
     에 특별한 제한이 있을 수 있습니다, 가령 최소 스택 크기 > 32KB를 요
     구하거나 시스템 메모리 페이지 크기의 배수로 할당하는 것을 요구할 수
     있습니다 - 자세한 내용은 플랫폼 설명서를 참조하십시오 (4 KiB 페이지
     가 일반적입니다; 더 구체적인 정보가 없으면 스택 크기로 4096의 배수
     를 사용하는 것이 제안된 방법입니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

 -- 데이터: _thread.TIMEOUT_MAX

     *note Lock.acquire: 692.의 'timeout' 매개 변수에 허용되는 최댓값.  이
     값보다 큰 timeout을 지정하면 *note OverflowError: 87d.가 발생합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.2.

록 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: lock.acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

     선택적 인자가 아무것도 없으면, 이 메서드는 조건 없이 록을 획득합니
     다, 필요하면 다른 스레드가 록을 해제할 때까지 대기합니다 (한 번에 하
     나의 스레드만 록을 획득할 수 있습니다 — 이것이 록의 존재 이유입니다
     ).

     'blocking' 인자가 있으면, 행동은 그 값에 따라 다릅니다: 거짓이면 대
     기하지 않고 즉시 획득할 수 있을 때만 록이 획득되고, 참이면 위와 같
     이 록이 조건 없이 획득됩니다.

     부동 소수점 'timeout' 인자가 있고 양수이면, 반환하기 전에 대기할 최
     대 시간을 초로 지정합니다.  음의 'timeout' 인자는 제한 없는 대기를
     지정합니다.  'blocking'이 거짓이면 'timeout'을 지정할 수 없습니다.

     록이 성공적으로 획득되면 반환 값은 ‘True’이고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 록 획득은 이제 POSIX의 시그널에 의해 중단될 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: lock.release ()

     록을 해제합니다.  록은 반드시 이전에 획득된 것이어야 하지만, 반드시
     같은 스레드에 의해 획득된 것일 필요는 없습니다.

 -- 메서드: lock.locked ()

     록의 상태를 반환합니다: 어떤 스레드에 의해 획득되었으면 ‘True’, 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

이러한 메서드 외에도, *note with: 5cc. 문을 통해 록 객체를 사용할 수도 있
습니다, 예를 들어:

     import _thread

     a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()

     with a_lock:
         print("a_lock is locked while this executes")

'주의 사항:'

   * Interrupts always go to the main thread (the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. exception will be received by that thread.)

   * *note sys.exit(): 1339.를 호출하거나 *note SystemExit: d3d. 예외를
     발생시키는 것은 *note _thread.exit(): 328e.를 호출하는 것과 동등합
     니다.

   * It is platform-dependent whether the *note acquire(): 692. method
     on a lock can be interrupted (so that the *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     9ce. exception will happen immediately, rather than only after the
     lock has been acquired or the operation has timed out).  It can be
     interrupted on POSIX, but not on Windows.

   * 메인 스레드가 종료할 때, 다른 스레드가 살아남는지는 시스템이 정의합
     니다.  대부분 시스템에서, *note try: 6e2. … *note finally: 9c7. 절
     을 실행하거나 객체 파괴자(destructor)를 실행하지 않고 강제 종료됩니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신,  Next: 인터넷 데이터 처리,  Prev: 동시 실행,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.19 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신
================================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신을 위한 메커니즘을
제공합니다.

어떤 모듈은 같은 기계에 있는 두 개의 프로세스에서만 작동합니다 (예를 들
어, *note signal: c6.과 *note mmap: 90.).  다른 모듈은 두 개 이상의 프로
세스가 여러 기계에서 통신하는 데 사용할 수 있는 네트워킹 프로토콜을 지원
합니다.

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* asyncio — 비동기 I/O::
* socket — Low-level networking interface::
* ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects::
* select — I/O 완료 대기::
* selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화::
* signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정::
* mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio — 비동기 I/O,  Next: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.1 ‘asyncio’ — 비동기 I/O
-----------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Hello World!
............

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         print('Hello ...')
         await asyncio.sleep(1)
         print('... World!')

     asyncio.run(main())

asyncio는 'async/await' 구문을 사용하여 '동시성' 코드를 작성하는 라이브
러리입니다.

asyncio는 고성능 네트워크 및 웹 서버, 데이터베이스 연결 라이브러리, 분산
작업 큐 등을 제공하는 여러 파이썬 비동기 프레임워크의 기반으로 사용됩니
다.

asyncio는 종종 IO 병목이면서 고수준의 '구조화된' 네트워크 코드에 가장 적
합합니다.

더 보기
.......

*note A Conceptual Overview of asyncio: 329c.

     Explanation of the fundamentals of asyncio.

asyncio는 다음과 같은 작업을 위한 '고수준' API 집합을 제공합니다:

   * *note 파이썬 코루틴들: 329d.을 동시에 실행하고 실행을 완전히 제어할
     수 있습니다.

   * *note 네트워크 IO와 IPC: 329e.를 수행합니다;

   * *note 자식 프로세스: 329f.를 제어합니다;

   * *note 큐: 32a0.를 통해 작업을 분산합니다;

   * 동시성 코드를 *note 동기화: 32a1.합니다;

또한, '라이브러리와 프레임워크 개발자'가 다음과 같은 작업을 할 수 있도록
하는 '저수준' API가 있습니다:

   * *note 네트워킹: 32a2, *note 자식 프로세스: 32a3. 실행, *note OS
     시그널: 32a4. 처리 등의 비동기 API를 제공하는 *note 이벤트 루프:
     d75.를 만들고 관리합니다.

   * *note 트랜스포트: 32a5.를 사용하여 효율적인 프로토콜을 구현합니다.

   * 콜백 기반 라이브러리와 async/await 구문을 사용한 코드 간에 *note
     다리를 놓습니다: 32a6.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

asyncio REPL
............

You can experiment with an ‘asyncio’ concurrent context in the *note
REPL: 16a.:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL ...
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     'hello'

Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
arguments.

버전 3.12.5에서 변경: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20) Emits
audit events.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case *note
PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. is also executed.  Emits audit events.

레퍼런스
........

* Menu:

* Runners::
* 코루틴과 태스크::
* 스트림::
* 동기화 프리미티브: 동기화 프리미티브<2>.
* 서브 프로세스::
* 큐::
* 예외: 예외<10>.
* 이벤트 루프::
* 퓨처::
* 트랜스포트와 프로토콜::
* 정책::
* 플랫폼 지원::
* Extending::
* 고수준 API 색인::
* 저수준 API 색인::
* asyncio로 개발하기::


File: python.info,  Node: Runners,  Next: 코루틴과 태스크,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.1 Runners
................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/runners.py(1)

This section outlines high-level asyncio primitives to run asyncio code.

They are built on top of an *note event loop: d75. with the aim to
simplify async code usage for common wide-spread scenarios.

* Menu:

* Running an asyncio Program::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/runners.py


File: python.info,  Node: Running an asyncio Program,  Next: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners

5.19.1.2 Running an asyncio Program
...................................

 -- 함수: asyncio.run (coro, *, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     Execute the *note coroutine: 48b. 'coro' and return the result.

     This function runs the passed coroutine, taking care of managing
     the asyncio event loop, 'finalizing asynchronous generators', and
     closing the executor.

     This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop is
     running in the same thread.

     If 'debug' is ‘True’, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
     ‘False’ disables debug mode explicitly.  ‘None’ is used to respect
     the global *note 디버그 모드: 1d57. settings.

     If 'loop_factory' is not ‘None’, it is used to create a new event
     loop; otherwise *note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 32ab. is used.  The
     loop is closed at the end.  This function should be used as a main
     entry point for asyncio programs, and should ideally only be called
     once.  It is recommended to use 'loop_factory' to configure the
     event loop instead of policies.  Passing *note asyncio.EventLoop:
     16fd. allows running asyncio without the policy system.

     The executor is given a timeout duration of 5 minutes to shutdown.
     If the executor hasn’t finished within that duration, a warning is
     emitted and the executor is closed.

     Example:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          asyncio.run(main())

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: Updated to use *note
     loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8e4.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'debug' is ‘None’ by default to respect the
     global debug mode settings.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added 'loop_factory' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Runner context manager,  Next: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Running an asyncio Program,  Up: Runners

5.19.1.3 Runner context manager
...............................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Runner (*, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     A context manager that simplifies 'multiple' async function calls
     in the same context.

     Sometimes several top-level async functions should be called in the
     same *note event loop: d75. and *note contextvars.Context: 15b1.

     If 'debug' is ‘True’, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
     ‘False’ disables debug mode explicitly.  ‘None’ is used to respect
     the global *note 디버그 모드: 1d57. settings.

     'loop_factory' could be used for overriding the loop creation.  It
     is the responsibility of the 'loop_factory' to set the created loop
     as the current one.  By default *note asyncio.new_event_loop():
     32ab. is used and set as current event loop with *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 17d1. if 'loop_factory' is ‘None’.

     Basically, *note asyncio.run(): 476. example can be rewritten with
     the runner usage:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
              runner.run(main())

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: run (coro, *, context=None)

          Run a *note coroutine: 48b. 'coro' in the embedded loop.

          Return the coroutine’s result or raise its exception.

          An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying
          a custom *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. for the 'coro' to
          run in.  The runner’s default context is used if ‘None’.

          This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop
          is running in the same thread.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          Close the runner.

          Finalize asynchronous generators, shutdown default executor,
          close the event loop and release embedded *note
          contextvars.Context: 15b1.

      -- 메서드: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop associated with the runner instance.

          참고: *note Runner: 5fa. uses the lazy initialization
          strategy, its constructor doesn’t initialize underlying
          low-level structures.

          Embedded 'loop' and 'context' are created at the *note with:
          5cc. body entering or the first call of *note run(): 476. or
          *note get_loop(): 32ae.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners

5.19.1.4 Handling Keyboard Interruption
.......................................

Added in version 3.11.

When *note signal.SIGINT: 83e. is raised by ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. exception is raised in the main thread by
default.  However this doesn’t work with *note asyncio: a. because it
can interrupt asyncio internals and can hang the program from exiting.

To mitigate this issue, *note asyncio: a. handles *note signal.SIGINT:
83e. as follows:

  1. *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 16b4. installs a custom *note
     signal.SIGINT: 83e. handler before any user code is executed and
     removes it when exiting from the function.

  2. The *note Runner: 5fa. creates the main task for the passed
     coroutine for its execution.

  3. When *note signal.SIGINT: 83e. is raised by ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, the custom
     signal handler cancels the main task by calling *note
     asyncio.Task.cancel(): 1b7. which raises *note
     asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. inside the main task.  This causes the
     Python stack to unwind, ‘try/except’ and ‘try/finally’ blocks can
     be used for resource cleanup.  After the main task is cancelled,
     *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 16b4. raises *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     9ce.

  4. A user could write a tight loop which cannot be interrupted by
     *note asyncio.Task.cancel(): 1b7, in which case the second
     following ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ immediately raises the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. without cancelling the main task.


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴과 태스크,  Next: 스트림,  Prev: Runners,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.5 코루틴과 태스크
........................

이 절에서는 코루틴과 태스크로 작업하기 위한 고급 asyncio API에 관해 설명
합니다.

* Menu:

* 코루틴: 코루틴<2>.
* 어웨이터블::
* 태스크 만들기::
* Task Cancellation::
* Task Groups::
* 잠자기::
* 동시에 태스크 실행하기::
* Eager Task Factory::
* 취소로부터 보호하기::
* 시간제한::
* 대기 프리미티브::
* 스레드에서 실행하기::
* 다른 스레드에서 예약하기::
* 인트로스펙션::
* Task 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴<2>,  Next: 어웨이터블,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.6 코루틴
...............

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Coroutines: 48b. declared with the async/await syntax is the
preferred way of writing asyncio applications.  For example, the
following snippet of code prints “hello”, waits 1 second, and then
prints “world”:

     >>> import asyncio

     >>> async def main():
     ...     print('hello')
     ...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
     ...     print('world')

     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     hello
     world

단지 코루틴을 호출하는 것으로 실행되도록 예약하는 것은 아닙니다:

     >>> main()
     <coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>

To actually run a coroutine, asyncio provides the following mechanisms:

   * 최상위 진입점 “main()” 함수를 실행하는 *note asyncio.run(): 476. 함
     수 (위의 예를 보세요.)

   * 코루틴을 기다리기.  다음 코드 조각은 1초를 기다린 후 “hello”를 인쇄
     한 다음 '또' 2초를 기다린 후 “world”를 인쇄합니다:

          import asyncio
          import time

          async def say_after(delay, what):
              await asyncio.sleep(delay)
              print(what)

          async def main():
              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await say_after(1, 'hello')
              await say_after(2, 'world')

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          asyncio.run(main())

     예상 출력:

          started at 17:13:52
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:13:55

   * 코루틴을 asyncio *note 태스크: 1be.로 동시에 실행하는 *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. 함수.

     위의 예를 수정해서 두 개의 ‘say_after’ 코루틴을 '동시에' 실행해 봅
     시다:

          async def main():
              task1 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(1, 'hello'))

              task2 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(2, 'world'))

              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
              # around 2 seconds.)
              await task1
              await task2

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     예상 출력은 이제 코드 조각이 이전보다 1초 빠르게 실행되었음을 보여
     줍니다:

          started at 17:14:32
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:14:34

   * The *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. class provides a more modern
     alternative to *note create_task(): 1bf.  Using this API, the last
     example becomes:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
                  task1 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(1, 'hello'))

                  task2 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(2, 'world'))

                  print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # The await is implicit when the context manager exits.

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     The timing and output should be the same as for the previous
     version.

     Added in version 3.11: *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py


File: python.info,  Node: 어웨이터블,  Next: 태스크 만들기,  Prev: 코루틴<2>,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.7 어웨이터블
...................

우리는 객체가 *note await: 1b9. 표현식에서 사용될 수 있을 때 '어웨이터블
' 객체라고 말합니다.  많은 asyncio API는 어웨이터블을 받아들이도록 설계
되었습니다.

'어웨이터블' 객체에는 세 가지 주요 유형이 있습니다: '코루틴', '태스크' 및
'퓨처'.

코루틴
......

파이썬 코루틴은 '어웨이터블'이므로 다른 코루틴에서 기다릴 수 있습니다:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
         # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
         # so it *won't run at all*.
         nested()  # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".

         # Let's do it differently now and await it:
         print(await nested())  # will print "42".

     asyncio.run(main())

     중요: 이 설명서에서 “코루틴” 이라는 용어는 두 가지 밀접한 관련 개념
     에 사용될 수 있습니다:

        * '코루틴 함수': *note async def: 5cb. 함수;

        * '코루틴 객체': '코루틴 함수'를 호출하여 반환된 객체.

태스크
......

'태스크'는 코루틴을 '동시에' 예약하는 데 사용됩니다.

코루틴이 *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf.와 같은 함수를 사용하여 '태스
크'로 싸일 때 코루틴은 곧 실행되도록 자동으로 예약됩니다:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
         # with "main()".
         task = asyncio.create_task(nested())

         # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
         # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
         await task

     asyncio.run(main())

퓨처
....

*note Future: bca.는 비동기 연산의 '최종 결과'를 나타내는 특별한 '저수준
' 어웨이터블 객체입니다.

Future 객체를 '기다릴' 때, 그것은 코루틴이 Future가 다른 곳에서 해결될 때
까지 기다릴 것을 뜻합니다.

콜백 기반 코드를 async/await와 함께 사용하려면 asyncio의 Future 객체가 필
요합니다.

일반적으로 응용 프로그램 수준 코드에서 Future 객체를 만들 '필요는 없습니
다'.

때때로 라이브러리와 일부 asyncio API에 의해 노출되는 Future 객체를 기다
릴 수 있습니다:

     async def main():
         await function_that_returns_a_future_object()

         # this is also valid:
         await asyncio.gather(
             function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
             some_python_coroutine()
         )

Future 객체를 반환하는 저수준 함수의 좋은 예는 *note
loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6.입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 태스크 만들기,  Next: Task Cancellation,  Prev: 어웨이터블,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.8 태스크 만들기
......................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/tasks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- 함수: asyncio.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     'coro' *note 코루틴: 329d.을 *note Task: 1be.로 감싸고 실행을 예약
     합니다.  Task 객체를 반환합니다.

     'name'이 ‘None’이 아니면, *note Task.set_name(): 9d9.을 사용하여 태
     스크의 이름으로 설정됩니다.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. for the 'coro' to run in.
     The current context copy is created when no 'context' is provided.

     *note get_running_loop(): b08.에 의해 반환된 루프에서 태스크가 실행
     되고, 현재 스레드에 실행 중인 루프가 없으면 *note RuntimeError:
     195.가 발생합니다.

          참고: *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc. is a new
          alternative leveraging structural concurrency; it allows for
          waiting for a group of related tasks with strong safety
          guarantees.

          중요: Save a reference to the result of this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn’t referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it’s done.  For reliable “fire-and-forget” background tasks,
          gather them in a collection:

               background_tasks = set()

               for i in range(10):
                   task = asyncio.create_task(some_coro(param=i))

                   # Add task to the set. This creates a strong reference.
                   background_tasks.add(task)

                   # To prevent keeping references to finished tasks forever,
                   # make each task remove its own reference from the set after
                   # completion:
                   task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Added the 'name' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'context' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/tasks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Task Cancellation,  Next: Task Groups,  Prev: 태스크 만들기,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.9 Task Cancellation
..........................

Tasks can easily and safely be cancelled.  When a task is cancelled,
*note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. will be raised in the task at the
next opportunity.

It is recommended that coroutines use ‘try/finally’ blocks to robustly
perform clean-up logic.  In case *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. is
explicitly caught, it should generally be propagated when clean-up is
complete.  *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. directly subclasses *note
BaseException: 5b5. so most code will not need to be aware of it.

The asyncio components that enable structured concurrency, like *note
asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5. and *note asyncio.timeout(): 5f8, are
implemented using cancellation internally and might misbehave if a
coroutine swallows *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8.  Similarly, user
code should not generally call *note uncancel: 1bb.  However, in cases
when suppressing *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. is truly desired, it
is necessary to also call ‘uncancel()’ to completely remove the
cancellation state.


File: python.info,  Node: Task Groups,  Next: 잠자기,  Prev: Task Cancellation,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.10 Task Groups
.....................

Task groups combine a task creation API with a convenient and reliable
way to wait for all tasks in the group to finish.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.TaskGroup

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 5f6. holding a group of
     tasks.  Tasks can be added to the group using *note create_task():
     1bf.  All tasks are awaited when the context manager exits.

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

          Create a task in this task group.  The signature matches that
          of *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf.  If the task group is
          inactive (e.g.  not yet entered, already finished, or in the
          process of shutting down), we will close the given ‘coro’.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Close the given coroutine if the task
          group is not active.

예:

     async def main():
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             task1 = tg.create_task(some_coro(...))
             task2 = tg.create_task(another_coro(...))
         print(f"Both tasks have completed now: {task1.result()}, {task2.result()}")

The ‘async with’ statement will wait for all tasks in the group to
finish.  While waiting, new tasks may still be added to the group (for
example, by passing ‘tg’ into one of the coroutines and calling
‘tg.create_task()’ in that coroutine).  Once the last task has finished
and the ‘async with’ block is exited, no new tasks may be added to the
group.

The first time any of the tasks belonging to the group fails with an
exception other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8, the remaining
tasks in the group are cancelled.  No further tasks can then be added to
the group.  At this point, if the body of the ‘async with’ statement is
still active (i.e., *note __aexit__(): 1631. hasn’t been called yet),
the task directly containing the ‘async with’ statement is also
cancelled.  The resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. will
interrupt an ‘await’, but it will not bubble out of the containing
‘async with’ statement.

Once all tasks have finished, if any tasks have failed with an exception
other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8, those exceptions are
combined in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. or *note BaseExceptionGroup:
25f. (as appropriate; see their documentation) which is then raised.

Two base exceptions are treated specially: If any task fails with *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. or *note SystemExit: d3d, the task group still
cancels the remaining tasks and waits for them, but then the initial
*note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. or *note SystemExit: d3d. is re-raised
instead of *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. or *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.

If the body of the ‘async with’ statement exits with an exception (so
*note __aexit__(): 1631. is called with an exception set), this is
treated the same as if one of the tasks failed: the remaining tasks are
cancelled and then waited for, and non-cancellation exceptions are
grouped into an exception group and raised.  The exception passed into
*note __aexit__(): 1631, unless it is *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8,
is also included in the exception group.  The same special case is made
for *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. and *note SystemExit: d3d. as in the
previous paragraph.

Task groups are careful not to mix up the internal cancellation used to
“wake up” their *note __aexit__(): 1631. with cancellation requests for
the task in which they are running made by other parties.  In
particular, when one task group is syntactically nested in another, and
both experience an exception in one of their child tasks simultaneously,
the inner task group will process its exceptions, and then the outer
task group will receive another cancellation and process its own
exceptions.

In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must
raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, it will call the parent task’s *note
cancel(): 1b7. method.  This ensures that a *note
asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. will be raised at the next *note await:
1b9, so the cancellation is not lost.

Task groups preserve the cancellation count reported by *note
asyncio.Task.cancelling(): 1ba.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Improved handling of simultaneous internal and
external cancellations and correct preservation of cancellation counts.

* Menu:

* Terminating a Task Group::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating a Task Group,  Up: Task Groups

5.19.1.11 Terminating a Task Group
..................................

While terminating a task group is not natively supported by the standard
library, termination can be achieved by adding an exception-raising task
to the task group and ignoring the raised exception:

     import asyncio
     from asyncio import TaskGroup

     class TerminateTaskGroup(Exception):
         """Exception raised to terminate a task group."""

     async def force_terminate_task_group():
         """Used to force termination of a task group."""
         raise TerminateTaskGroup()

     async def job(task_id, sleep_time):
         print(f'Task {task_id}: start')
         await asyncio.sleep(sleep_time)
         print(f'Task {task_id}: done')

     async def main():
         try:
             async with TaskGroup() as group:
                 # spawn some tasks
                 group.create_task(job(1, 0.5))
                 group.create_task(job(2, 1.5))
                 # sleep for 1 second
                 await asyncio.sleep(1)
                 # add an exception-raising task to force the group to terminate
                 group.create_task(force_terminate_task_group())
         except* TerminateTaskGroup:
             pass

     asyncio.run(main())

Expected output:

     Task 1: start
     Task 2: start
     Task 1: done


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5.19.1.12 잠자기
................

 -- 함수: async asyncio.sleep (delay, result=None)

     'delay' 초 동안 블록합니다.

     'result'가 제공되면, 코루틴이 완료될 때 호출자에게 반환됩니다.

     ‘sleep()’은 항상 현재 태스크를 일시 중단해서 다른 태스크를 실행할 수
     있도록 합니다.

     Setting the delay to 0 provides an optimized path to allow other
     tasks to run.  This can be used by long-running functions to avoid
     blocking the event loop for the full duration of the function call.
     5초 동안 현재 날짜를 매초 표시하는 코루틴의 예:

          import asyncio
          import datetime

          async def display_date():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
              end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
              while True:
                  print(datetime.datetime.now())
                  if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
                      break
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)

          asyncio.run(display_date())

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Raises *note ValueError: 202. if 'delay' is
     *note nan: 65d.


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5.19.1.13 동시에 태스크 실행하기
................................

 -- 함수: awaitable asyncio.gather (*aws, return_exceptions=False)

     'aws' 시퀀스에 있는 *note 어웨이터블 객체: 32b3.를 '동시에' 실행합
     니다.

     'aws'에 있는 어웨이터블이 코루틴이면 자동으로 태스크로 예약됩니다.

     모든 어웨이터블이 성공적으로 완료되면, 결과는 반환된 값들이 합쳐진
     리스트입니다.  결괏값의 순서는 'aws'에 있는 어웨이터블의 순서와 일
     치합니다.

     'return_exceptions'가 ‘False’(기본값)면, 첫 번째 발생한 예외가
     ‘gather()’를 기다리는 태스크로 즉시 전파됩니다.  'aws' 시퀀스의 다
     른 어웨이터블은 '취소되지 않고' 계속 실행됩니다.

     'return_exceptions'가 ‘True’면, 예외는 성공적인 결과처럼 처리되고,
     결과 리스트에 집계됩니다.

     ‘gather()’가 '취소되면', 모든 제출된 (아직 완료되지 않은) 어웨이터
     블도 '취소됩니다'.

     'aws' 시퀀스의 Task나 Future가 '취소되면', 그것이 *note
     CancelledError: 1b8.를 일으킨 것처럼 처리됩니다 – 이때 ‘gather()’ 호
     출은 취소되지 '않습니다'.  이것은 제출된 태스크/퓨처 하나를 취소하
     는 것이 다른 태스크/퓨처를 취소하게 되는 것을 막기 위한 것입니다.

          참고: A new alternative to create and run tasks concurrently
          and wait for their completion is *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 1b5.
          'TaskGroup' provides stronger safety guarantees than 'gather'
          for scheduling a nesting of subtasks: if a task (or a subtask,
          a task scheduled by a task) raises an exception, 'TaskGroup'
          will, while 'gather' will not, cancel the remaining scheduled
          tasks).
     예:

          import asyncio

          async def factorial(name, number):
              f = 1
              for i in range(2, number + 1):
                  print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({number}), currently i={i}...")
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)
                  f *= i
              print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
              return f

          async def main():
              # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
              L = await asyncio.gather(
                  factorial("A", 2),
                  factorial("B", 3),
                  factorial("C", 4),
              )
              print(L)

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     Task A: Compute factorial(2), currently i=2...
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=2...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=2...
          #     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=3...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=3...
          #     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=4...
          #     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
          #     [2, 6, 24]

          참고: If 'return_exceptions' is false, cancelling gather()
          after it has been marked done won’t cancel any submitted
          awaitables.  For instance, gather can be marked done after
          propagating an exception to the caller, therefore, calling
          ‘gather.cancel()’ after catching an exception (raised by one
          of the awaitables) from gather won’t cancel any other
          awaitables.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'gather' 자체가 취소되면, 'return_exceptions'와
     관계없이 취소가 전파됩니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if no
     positional arguments are provided or not all positional arguments
     are Future-like objects and there is no running event loop.


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5.19.1.14 Eager Task Factory
............................

 -- 함수: asyncio.eager_task_factory (loop, coro, *, name=None,
          context=None)

     A task factory for eager task execution.

     When using this factory (via *note
     loop.set_task_factory(asyncio.eager_task_factory): dc2.),
     coroutines begin execution synchronously during *note Task: 1be.
     construction.  Tasks are only scheduled on the event loop if they
     block.  This can be a performance improvement as the overhead of
     loop scheduling is avoided for coroutines that complete
     synchronously.

     A common example where this is beneficial is coroutines which
     employ caching or memoization to avoid actual I/O when possible.

          참고: Immediate execution of the coroutine is a semantic
          change.  If the coroutine returns or raises, the task is never
          scheduled to the event loop.  If the coroutine execution
          blocks, the task is scheduled to the event loop.  This change
          may introduce behavior changes to existing applications.  For
          example, the application’s task execution order is likely to
          change.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: asyncio.create_eager_task_factory (custom_task_constructor)

     Create an eager task factory, similar to *note
     eager_task_factory(): 471, using the provided
     'custom_task_constructor' when creating a new task instead of the
     default *note Task: 1be.

     'custom_task_constructor' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching the signature of *note Task.__init__: 1be.  The callable
     must return a *note asyncio.Task: 1be.-compatible object.

     This function returns a 'callable' intended to be used as a task
     factory of an event loop via *note loop.set_task_factory(factory):
     dc2.).

     Added in version 3.12.


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5.19.1.15 취소로부터 보호하기
.............................

 -- 함수: awaitable asyncio.shield (aw)

     *note 어웨이터블 객체: 32b3.를 *note 취소: 1b7.로부터 보호합니다.

     'aw'가 코루틴이면 자동으로 태스크로 예약됩니다.

     다음 문장:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          res = await shield(task)

     은 다음과 동등합니다:

          res = await something()

     '단', 그것을 포함하는 코루틴이 취소되면, ‘something()’에서 실행 중
     인 태스크는 취소되지 않는다는 것만 예외입니다.  ‘something()’의 관
     점에서는, 취소가 일어나지 않았습니다.  호출자는 여전히 취소되었고,
     “await” 표현식은 여전히 *note CancelledError: 1b8.를 발생시킵니다.

     ‘something()’가 다른 수단(즉, 그 안에서 스스로)에 의해 취소되면,
     ‘shield()’도 취소됩니다.

     취소를 완전히 무시하려면(권장되지 않습니다), 다음과 같이 ‘shield()’
     함수를 try/except 절과 결합해야 합니다:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          try:
              res = await shield(task)
          except CancelledError:
              res = None

          중요: Save a reference to tasks passed to this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn’t referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it’s done.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'aw' is not
     Future-like object and there is no running event loop.


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5.19.1.16 시간제한
..................

 -- 함수: asyncio.timeout (delay)

     Return an *note asynchronous context manager: 5f6. that can be used
     to limit the amount of time spent waiting on something.

     'delay' can either be ‘None’, or a float/int number of seconds to
     wait.  If 'delay' is ‘None’, no time limit will be applied; this
     can be useful if the delay is unknown when the context manager is
     created.

     In either case, the context manager can be rescheduled after
     creation using *note Timeout.reschedule(): 32c2.

     예:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                  await long_running_task()

     If ‘long_running_task’ takes more than 10 seconds to complete, the
     context manager will cancel the current task and handle the
     resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. internally,
     transforming it into a *note TimeoutError: 82f. which can be caught
     and handled.

          참고: The *note asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. context manager is
          what transforms the *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. into a
          *note TimeoutError: 82f, which means the *note TimeoutError:
          82f. can only be caught 'outside' of the context manager.

     Example of catching *note TimeoutError: 82f.:

          async def main():
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     The context manager produced by *note asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. can
     be rescheduled to a different deadline and inspected.

      -- 클래스: asyncio.Timeout (when)

          An *note asynchronous context manager: 5f6. for cancelling
          overdue coroutines.

          ‘when’ should be an absolute time at which the context should
          time out, as measured by the event loop’s clock:

             - If ‘when’ is ‘None’, the timeout will never trigger.

             - If ‘when < loop.time()’, the timeout will trigger on the
               next iteration of the event loop.

                -- 메서드: when () -> float | None

                    Return the current deadline, or ‘None’ if the
                    current deadline is not set.

                -- 메서드: reschedule (when: float | None)

                    Reschedule the timeout.

                -- 메서드: expired () -> bool

                    Return whether the context manager has exceeded its
                    deadline (expired).

     예:

          async def main():
              try:
                  # We do not know the timeout when starting, so we pass ``None``.
                  async with asyncio.timeout(None) as cm:
                      # We know the timeout now, so we reschedule it.
                      new_deadline = get_running_loop().time() + 10
                      cm.reschedule(new_deadline)

                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  pass

              if cm.expired():
                  print("Looks like we haven't finished on time.")

     Timeout context managers can be safely nested.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: asyncio.timeout_at (when)

     Similar to *note asyncio.timeout(): 5f8, except 'when' is the
     absolute time to stop waiting, or ‘None’.

     예:

          async def main():
              loop = get_running_loop()
              deadline = loop.time() + 20
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout_at(deadline):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: async asyncio.wait_for (aw, timeout)

     'aw' *note 어웨이터블: 32b3.이 제한된 시간 내에 완료될 때까지 기다
     립니다.

     'aw'가 코루틴이면 자동으로 태스크로 예약됩니다.

     'timeout'은 ‘None’ 또는 대기할 float 나 int 초 수입니다.  'timeout'이
     ‘None’이면 퓨처가 완료될 때까지 블록합니다.

     If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises *note
     TimeoutError: 82f.

     태스크 *note 취소: 1b7.를 피하려면, *note shield(): a6d.로 감싸십시
     오.

     이 함수는 퓨처가 실제로 취소될 때까지 대기하므로, 총 대기 시간이
     'timeout'을 초과할 수 있습니다.  취소하는 동안 예외가 발생하면, 전
     파됩니다.

     대기가 취소되면, 퓨처 'aw'도 취소됩니다.  예:

          async def eternity():
              # Sleep for one hour
              await asyncio.sleep(3600)
              print('yay!')

          async def main():
              # Wait for at most 1 second
              try:
                  await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
              except TimeoutError:
                  print('timeout!')

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     timeout!

     버전 3.7에서 변경: When 'aw' is cancelled due to a timeout,
     ‘wait_for’ waits for 'aw' to be cancelled.  Previously, it raised
     *note TimeoutError: 82f. immediately.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Raises *note TimeoutError: 82f. instead of
     *note asyncio.TimeoutError: 174a.


File: python.info,  Node: 대기 프리미티브,  Next: 스레드에서 실행하기,  Prev: 시간제한,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.17 대기 프리미티브
.........................

 -- 함수: async asyncio.wait (aws, *, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Run *note Future: bca. and *note Task: 1be. instances in the 'aws'
     iterable concurrently and block until the condition specified by
     'return_when'.

     'aws' 이터러블은 비어있을 수 없습니다.

     두 집합의 태스크/퓨처를 반환합니다: ‘(done, pending)’.

     사용법:

          done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)

     'timeout'(float나 int)을 지정하면, 반환하기 전에 대기할 최대 시간
     (초)을 제어할 수 있습니다.

     Note that this function does not raise *note TimeoutError: 82f.
     Futures or Tasks that aren’t done when the timeout occurs are
     simply returned in the second set.

     'return_when'는 이 함수가 언제 반환해야 하는지 나타냅니다.  다음 상
     수 중 하나여야 합니다:

     상수                                                   설명
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- 데이터: asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED                    퓨처가 하나라도 끝나거나 취소될 때 함수가 반환됩니다
                                                            .
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 데이터: asyncio.FIRST_EXCEPTION                    The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 32c9.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 데이터: asyncio.ALL_COMPLETED                      모든 퓨처가 끝나거나 취소되면 함수가 반환됩니다.
                                                            

     *note wait_for(): 5f9.와 달리, ‘wait()’는 시간 초과가 발생할 때 퓨
     처를 취소하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Passing coroutine objects to ‘wait()’ directly
     is forbidden.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added support for generators yielding tasks.

 -- 함수: asyncio.as_completed (aws, *, timeout=None)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 32b3. in the 'aws' iterable
     concurrently.  The returned object can be iterated to obtain the
     results of the awaitables as they finish.

     The object returned by ‘as_completed()’ can be iterated as an *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1ab. or a plain *note iterator: 1ac.  When
     asynchronous iteration is used, the originally-supplied awaitables
     are yielded if they are tasks or futures.  This makes it easy to
     correlate previously-scheduled tasks with their results.  Example:

          ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
          ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
          tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

          async for earliest_connect in as_completed(tasks):
              # earliest_connect is done. The result can be obtained by
              # awaiting it or calling earliest_connect.result()
              reader, writer = await earliest_connect

              if earliest_connect is ipv6_connect:
                  print("IPv6 connection established.")
              else:
                  print("IPv4 connection established.")

     During asynchronous iteration, implicitly-created tasks will be
     yielded for supplied awaitables that aren’t tasks or futures.

     When used as a plain iterator, each iteration yields a new
     coroutine that returns the result or raises the exception of the
     next completed awaitable.  This pattern is compatible with Python
     versions older than 3.13:

          ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
          ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
          tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

          for next_connect in as_completed(tasks):
              # next_connect is not one of the original task objects. It must be
              # awaited to obtain the result value or raise the exception of the
              # awaitable that finishes next.
              reader, writer = await next_connect

     A *note TimeoutError: 82f. is raised if the timeout occurs before
     all awaitables are done.  This is raised by the ‘async for’ loop
     during asynchronous iteration or by the coroutines yielded during
     plain iteration.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if not all
     awaitable objects in the 'aws' iterable are Future-like objects and
     there is no running event loop.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added support for generators yielding tasks.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The result can now be used as either an *note
     asynchronous iterator: 1ab. or as a plain *note iterator: 1ac.
     (previously it was only a plain iterator).


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5.19.1.18 스레드에서 실행하기
.............................

 -- 함수: async asyncio.to_thread (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     별도의 스레드에서 'func' 함수를 비동기적으로 실행합니다.

     이 함수에 제공된 모든 *args 와 **kwargs 는 'func'로 직접 전달됩니다
     .  또한, 현재 *note contextvars.Context: 15b1.가 전파되어, 이벤트 루
     프 스레드의 컨텍스트 변수가 별도의 스레드에서 액세스 될 수 있습니다
     .

     'func'의 최종 결과를 얻기 위해 어웨이트 할 수 있는 코루틴을 반환합
     니다.

     This coroutine function is primarily intended to be used for
     executing IO-bound functions/methods that would otherwise block the
     event loop if they were run in the main thread.  For example:

          def blocking_io():
              print(f"start blocking_io at {time.strftime('%X')}")
              # Note that time.sleep() can be replaced with any blocking
              # IO-bound operation, such as file operations.
              time.sleep(1)
              print(f"blocking_io complete at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          async def main():
              print(f"started main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await asyncio.gather(
                  asyncio.to_thread(blocking_io),
                  asyncio.sleep(1))

              print(f"finished main at {time.strftime('%X')}")


          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          # started main at 19:50:53
          # start blocking_io at 19:50:53
          # blocking_io complete at 19:50:54
          # finished main at 19:50:54

     Directly calling ‘blocking_io()’ in any coroutine would block the
     event loop for its duration, resulting in an additional 1 second of
     run time.  Instead, by using ‘asyncio.to_thread()’, we can run it
     in a separate thread without blocking the event loop.

          참고: Due to the *note GIL: 159, ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can
          typically only be used to make IO-bound functions
          non-blocking.  However, for extension modules that release the
          GIL or alternative Python implementations that don’t have one,
          ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can also be used for CPU-bound
          functions.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 스레드에서 예약하기,  Next: 인트로스펙션,  Prev: 스레드에서 실행하기,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.19 다른 스레드에서 예약하기
..................................

 -- 함수: asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe (coro, loop)

     주어진 이벤트 루프에 코루틴을 제출합니다.  스레드 안전합니다.

     다른 OS 스레드에서 결과를 기다리는 *note concurrent.futures.Future:
     11a1.를 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 이벤트 루프가 실행 중인 스레드가 아닌, 다른 OS 스레드에서
     호출하기 위한 것입니다.  예:

          # Create a coroutine
          coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

          # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
          future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

          # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
          assert future.result(timeout) == 3

     코루틴에서 예외가 발생하면, 반환된 Future에 통지됩니다.  또한, 이벤
     트 루프에서 태스크를 취소하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다:

          try:
              result = future.result(timeout)
          except TimeoutError:
              print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
              future.cancel()
          except Exception as exc:
              print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
          else:
              print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')

     설명서의 *note 동시성과 다중 스레드: 32cc. 절을 참조하십시오.

     다른 asyncio 함수와 달리, 이 함수는 'loop' 인자가 명시적으로 전달되
     어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.1.


File: python.info,  Node: 인트로스펙션,  Next: Task 객체,  Prev: 다른 스레드에서 예약하기,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.20 인트로스펙션
......................

 -- 함수: asyncio.current_task (loop=None)

     현재 실행 중인 *note Task: 1be. 인스턴스를 반환하거나 태스크가 실행
     되고 있지 않으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     'loop'가 ‘None’이면, 현재 루프를 가져오는 데 *note
     get_running_loop(): b08.가 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: asyncio.all_tasks (loop=None)

     루프에 의해 실행되는 아직 완료되지 않은 *note Task: 1be. 객체 집합
     을 반환합니다.

     'loop'가 ‘None’이면, 현재 루프를 가져오는 데 *note
     get_running_loop(): b08.가 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: asyncio.iscoroutine (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if 'obj' is a coroutine object.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Task 객체,  Prev: 인트로스펙션,  Up: 코루틴과 태스크

5.19.1.21 Task 객체
...................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Task (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=False)

     파이썬 *note 코루틴: 329d.을 실행하는 *note 퓨처류: bca. 객체입니다
     .  스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

     태스크는 이벤트 루프에서 코루틴을 실행하는 데 사용됩니다.  만약 코
     루틴이 Future를 기다리고 있다면, 태스크는 코루틴의 실행을 일시 중지
     하고 Future의 완료를 기다립니다.  퓨처가 '완료'되면, 감싸진 코루틴
     의 실행이 다시 시작됩니다.

     이벤트 루프는 협업 스케줄링을 사용합니다: 이벤트 루프는 한 번에 하
     나의 Task를 실행합니다.  Task가 Future의 완료를 기다리는 동안, 이벤
     트 루프는 다른 태스크, 콜백을 실행하거나 IO 연산을 수행합니다.

     테스크를 만들려면 고수준 *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. 함수를 사
     용하거나, 저수준 *note loop.create_task(): 1c0. 나 *note
     ensure_future(): c73. 함수를 사용하십시오.  태스크의 인스턴스를 직
     접 만드는 것은 권장되지 않습니다.

     실행 중인 Task를 취소하려면 *note cancel(): 1b7. 메서드를 사용하십
     시오.  이를 호출하면 태스크가 감싼 코루틴으로 *note CancelledError:
     1b8. 예외를 던집니다.  코루틴이 취소 중에 Future 객체를 기다리고 있
     으면, Future 객체가 취소됩니다.

     *note cancelled(): 32d0.는 태스크가 취소되었는지 확인하는 데 사용할
     수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 감싼 코루틴이 *note CancelledError: 1b8.
     예외를 억제하지 않고 실제로 취소되었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     *note asyncio.Task: 1be.는 *note Future.set_result(): 32d1.와 *note
     Future.set_exception(): 32d2.을 제외한 모든 API를 *note Future:
     bca.에서 상속받습니다.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. for the 'coro' to run in.
     If no 'context' is provided, the Task copies the current context
     and later runs its coroutine in the copied context.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows eagerly
     starting the execution of the *note asyncio.Task: 1be. at task
     creation time.  If set to ‘True’ and the event loop is running, the
     task will start executing the coroutine immediately, until the
     first time the coroutine blocks.  If the coroutine returns or
     raises without blocking, the task will be finished eagerly and will
     skip scheduling to the event loop.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note contextvars: 24. 모듈에 대한 지원이 추가되
     었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Added the 'name' parameter.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'loop' is
     not specified and there is no running event loop.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'context' parameter.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added the 'eager_start' parameter.

      -- 메서드: done ()

          Task가 '완료(done)'되었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          감싼 코루틴이 값을 반환하거나 예외를 일으키거나, Task가 취소되
          면 Task는 '완료(done)'됩니다.

      -- 메서드: result ()

          Task의 결과를 반환합니다.

          Task가 '완료(done)'되었으면 감싼 코루틴의 결과가 반환됩니다 (또
          는 코루틴이 예외를 발생시켰으면 해당 예외가 다시 발생합니다).

          태스크가 '취소(cancelled)'되었으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          CancelledError: 1b8. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          If the Task’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 32d5. exception.

      -- 메서드: exception ()

          Task의 예외를 반환합니다.

          감싼 코루틴이 예외를 발생시키면, 그 예외가 반환됩니다.  감싼 코
          루틴이 정상적으로 반환되면, 이 메서드는 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          태스크가 '취소(cancelled)'되었으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          CancelledError: 1b8. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          태스크가 아직 '완료(done)'되지 않았으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          InvalidStateError: 32d5. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          태스크가 '완료(done)'될 때 실행할 콜백을 추가합니다.

          이 메서드는 저수준 콜백 기반 코드에서만 사용해야 합니다.

          자세한 내용은 *note Future.add_done_callback(): b05. 설명서를
          참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: remove_done_callback (callback)

          콜백 목록에서 'callback'을 제거합니다.

          이 메서드는 저수준 콜백 기반 코드에서만 사용해야 합니다.

          자세한 내용은 *note Future.remove_done_callback(): 15ad. 설명
          서를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: get_stack (*, limit=None)

          이 Task의 스택 프레임 리스트를 돌려줍니다.

          감싼 코루틴이 완료되지 않았으면, 일시 정지된 곳의 스택을 반환
          합니다.  코루틴이 성공적으로 완료되었거나 취소되었으면 빈 리스
          트가 반환됩니다.  코루틴이 예외로 종료되었으면, 이것은 트레이
          스백 프레임의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          프레임은 항상 가장 오래된 것부터 순서대로 정렬됩니다.

          일시 정지된 코루틴에서는 하나의 스택 프레임만 반환됩니다.

          선택적 'limit' 인자는 반환할 최대 프레임 수를 설정합니다; 기본
          적으로 사용 가능한 모든 프레임이 반환됩니다.  반환되는 리스트
          의 순서는 스택과 트레이스백 중 어느 것이 반환되는지에 따라 다
          릅니다: 스택은 최신 프레임이 반환되지만, 트레이스백은 가장 오
          래된 프레임이 반환됩니다.  (이는 traceback 모듈의 동작과 일치
          합니다.)

      -- 메서드: print_stack (*, limit=None, file=None)

          이 Task의 스택이나 트레이스백을 인쇄합니다.

          이것은 *note get_stack(): 32d9.으로 얻은 프레임에 대해
          traceback 모듈과 유사한 출력을 생성합니다.

          'limit' 인자는 *note get_stack(): 32d9.에 직접 전달됩니다.

          The 'file' argument is an I/O stream to which the output is
          written; by default output is written to *note sys.stdout:
          ad3.

      -- 메서드: get_coro ()

          *note Task: 1be.로 싸인 코루틴 객체를 반환합니다.

               참고: This will return ‘None’ for Tasks which have
               already completed eagerly.  See the *note Eager Task
               Factory: 32be.

          Added in version 3.8.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: Newly added eager task execution means
          result may be ‘None’.

      -- 메서드: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. object associated
          with the task.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: get_name ()

          Task의 이름을 반환합니다.

          Task에 명시적으로 이름이 지정되지 않으면, 기본 asyncio Task 구
          현은 인스턴스화 중에 기본 이름을 생성합니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: set_name (value)

          Task의 이름을 설정합니다.

          'value' 인자는 모든 객체가 될 수 있으며, 문자열로 변환됩니다.

          기본 Task 구현에서, 이름은 태스크 객체의 *note repr(): 7f7. 출
          력에 표시됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: cancel (msg=None)

          Task 취소를 요청합니다.

          If the Task is already 'done' or 'cancelled', return ‘False’,
          otherwise, return ‘True’.

          The method arranges for a *note CancelledError: 1b8. exception
          to be thrown into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of
          the event loop.

          The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
          request by suppressing the exception with a *note try: 6e2. …
          … ‘except CancelledError’ … *note finally: 9c7. block.
          Therefore, unlike *note Future.cancel(): 1820, *note
          Task.cancel(): 1b7. does not guarantee that the Task will be
          cancelled, although suppressing cancellation completely is not
          common and is actively discouraged.  Should the coroutine
          nevertheless decide to suppress the cancellation, it needs to
          call *note Task.uncancel(): 1bb. in addition to catching the
          exception.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: Added the 'msg' parameter.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘msg’ parameter is propagated from
          cancelled task to its awaiter.

          다음 예는 코루틴이 취소 요청을 가로채는 방법을 보여줍니다:

               async def cancel_me():
                   print('cancel_me(): before sleep')

                   try:
                       # Wait for 1 hour
                       await asyncio.sleep(3600)
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
                       raise
                   finally:
                       print('cancel_me(): after sleep')

               async def main():
                   # Create a "cancel_me" Task
                   task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())

                   # Wait for 1 second
                   await asyncio.sleep(1)

                   task.cancel()
                   try:
                       await task
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")

               asyncio.run(main())

               # Expected output:
               #
               #     cancel_me(): before sleep
               #     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
               #     cancel_me(): after sleep
               #     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now

      -- 메서드: cancelled ()

          Task가 '취소(cancelled)'되었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          Task는 *note cancel(): 1b7.로 취소가 요청되고 감싼 코루틴이 자
          신에게 전달된 *note CancelledError: 1b8. 예외를 확산할 때 '최
          소(cancelled)'됩니다.

      -- 메서드: uncancel ()

          Decrement the count of cancellation requests to this Task.

          Returns the remaining number of cancellation requests.

          Note that once execution of a cancelled task completed,
          further calls to *note uncancel(): 1bb. are ineffective.

          Added in version 3.11.

          This method is used by asyncio’s internals and isn’t expected
          to be used by end-user code.  In particular, if a Task gets
          successfully uncancelled, this allows for elements of
          structured concurrency like *note Task Groups: 32b8. and *note
          asyncio.timeout(): 5f8. to continue running, isolating
          cancellation to the respective structured block.  For example:

               async def make_request_with_timeout():
                   try:
                       async with asyncio.timeout(1):
                           # Structured block affected by the timeout:
                           await make_request()
                           await make_another_request()
                   except TimeoutError:
                       log("There was a timeout")
                   # Outer code not affected by the timeout:
                   await unrelated_code()

          While the block with ‘make_request()’ and
          ‘make_another_request()’ might get cancelled due to the
          timeout, ‘unrelated_code()’ should continue running even in
          case of the timeout.  This is implemented with *note
          uncancel(): 1bb.  *note TaskGroup: 1b5. context managers use
          *note uncancel(): 1bb. in a similar fashion.

          If end-user code is, for some reason, suppressing cancellation
          by catching *note CancelledError: 1b8, it needs to call this
          method to remove the cancellation state.

          When this method decrements the cancellation count to zero,
          the method checks if a previous *note cancel(): 1b7. call had
          arranged for *note CancelledError: 1b8. to be thrown into the
          task.  If it hasn’t been thrown yet, that arrangement will be
          rescinded (by resetting the internal ‘_must_cancel’ flag).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Changed to rescind pending cancellation
     requests upon reaching zero.

      -- 메서드: cancelling ()

          Return the number of pending cancellation requests to this
          Task, i.e., the number of calls to *note cancel(): 1b7. less
          the number of *note uncancel(): 1bb. calls.

          Note that if this number is greater than zero but the Task is
          still executing, *note cancelled(): 32d0. will still return
          ‘False’.  This is because this number can be lowered by
          calling *note uncancel(): 1bb, which can lead to the task not
          being cancelled after all if the cancellation requests go down
          to zero.

          This method is used by asyncio’s internals and isn’t expected
          to be used by end-user code.  See *note uncancel(): 1bb. for
          more details.

          Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: 스트림,  Next: 동기화 프리미티브<2>,  Prev: 코루틴과 태스크,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.22 스트림
................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/streams.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

스트림은 네트워크 연결로 작업하기 위해, async/await에서 사용할 수 있는 고
수준 프리미티브입니다.  스트림은 콜백이나 저수준 프로토콜과 트랜스포트를
사용하지 않고 데이터를 송수신할 수 있게 합니다.  다음은 asyncio 스트림을
사용하여 작성된 TCP 메아리 클라이언트의 예입니다:

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

아래의 *note 예제: 32df. 절도 참조하십시오.

스트림 함수
...........

다음 최상위 asyncio 함수를 사용하여 스트림을 만들고 작업할 수 있습니다.:

 -- 함수: async asyncio.open_connection (host=None, port=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)

     네트워크 연결을 만들고 ‘(reader, writer)’ 객체 쌍을 반환합니다.

     반환된 'reader' 와 'writer' 객체는 *note StreamReader: 18cc. 와
     *note StreamWriter: 1706. 클래스의 인스턴스입니다.

     'limit'는 반환된 *note StreamReader: 18cc. 인스턴스가 사용하는 버퍼
     크기 한계를 결정합니다.  기본적으로 'limit'는 64KiB로 설정됩니다.

     나머지 인자는 *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd.로 직접 전달됩니
     다.

          참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the *note StreamWriter: 1706. created.  To close the socket,
          call its *note close(): 32e0. method.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Added the 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and
     'interleave' parameters.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

 -- 함수: async asyncio.start_server (client_connected_cb, host=None,
          port=None, *, limit=None, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     소켓 서버를 시작합니다.

     새 클라이언트 연결이 만들어질 때마다 'client_connected_cb' 콜백이 호
     출됩니다.  이 콜백은 두 개의 인자로 ‘(reader, writer)’ 쌍을 받는데,
     *note StreamReader: 18cc. 와 *note StreamWriter: 1706. 클래스의 인
     스턴스입니다.

     'client_connected_cb'는 일반 콜러블이나 *note 코루틴 함수: 329d. 일
     수 있습니다; 코루틴 함수면, 자동으로 *note Task: 1be.로 예약됩니다.

     'limit'는 반환된 *note StreamReader: 18cc. 인스턴스가 사용하는 버퍼
     크기 한계를 결정합니다.  기본적으로 'limit'는 64KiB로 설정됩니다.

     나머지 인자는 *note loop.create_server(): b10.로 직접 전달됩니다.

          참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the server created.  To close the socket, call the server’s
          *note close(): 32e1. method.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 와 'start_serving' 매개
     변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'keep_alive' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

유닉스 소켓
...........

 -- 함수: async asyncio.open_unix_connection (path=None, *, limit=None,
          ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     유닉스 소켓 연결을 만들고 ‘(reader, writer)’ 쌍을 반환합니다.

     *note open_connection(): b15.과 비슷하지만, 유닉스 소켓에서 작동합
     니다.

     *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 32e3.의 설명서도 참조하십시오.

          참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the *note StreamWriter: 1706. created.  To close the socket,
          call its *note close(): 32e0. method.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .  'path' 매개 변수는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.가 될 수 있습니다
     .

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

 -- 함수: async asyncio.start_unix_server (client_connected_cb,
          path=None, *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

     유닉스 소켓 서버를 시작합니다.

     *note start_server(): b16.와 비슷하지만, 유닉스 소켓에서 작동합니다
     .

     If 'cleanup_socket' is true then the Unix socket will automatically
     be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless
     the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

     *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae.의 설명서도 참조하십시오.

          참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the server created.  To close the socket, call the server’s
          *note close(): 32e1. method.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 와 'start_serving' 매개
     변수를 추가했습니다.  'path' 매개 변수는 이제 *note 경로류 객체:
     2a0.가 될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'cleanup_socket' parameter.

* Menu:

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* 예제: 예제<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/streams.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader,  Next: StreamWriter,  Up: 스트림

5.19.1.23 StreamReader
......................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.StreamReader

     IO 스트림에서 데이터를 읽는 API를 제공하는 판독기(reader) 객체를 나
     타냅니다.  *note 비동기 이터러블: d74.로서, 객체는 *note async for:
     aa7. 문을 지원합니다.

     'StreamReader' 객체를 직접 인스턴스로 만드는 것은 권장되지 않습니다
     .  대신 *note open_connection(): b15.과 *note start_server(): b16.를
     사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: feed_eof ()

          Acknowledge the EOF.

      -- 메서드: async read (n=-1)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the stream.

          'n'이 제공되지 않거나 ‘-1’로 설정되면, EOF까지 읽은 다음, 모든
          읽어들인 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.  EOF를 수신했고 내부
          버퍼가 비어 있으면, 빈 ‘bytes’ 객체를 반환합니다.

          If 'n' is ‘0’, return an empty ‘bytes’ object immediately.

          If 'n' is positive, return at most 'n' available ‘bytes’ as
          soon as at least 1 byte is available in the internal buffer.
          If EOF is received before any byte is read, return an empty
          ‘bytes’ object.

      -- 메서드: async readline ()

          한 줄을 읽습니다.  여기서 “줄”은 ‘\n’로 끝나는 바이트의 시퀀스
          입니다.

          EOF를 수신했고, ‘\n’를 찾을 수 없으면, 이 메서드는 부분적으로
          읽은 데이터를 반환합니다.

          EOF를 수신했고, 내부 버퍼가 비어 있으면 빈 ‘bytes’ 객체를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: async readexactly (n)

          정확히 'n' 바이트를 읽습니다.

          'n' 바이트를 읽기 전에 EOF에 도달하면, *note
          IncompleteReadError: 1926.를 일으킵니다.  부분적으로 읽은 데이
          터를 가져오려면 *note IncompleteReadError.partial: 32e9. 어트
          리뷰트를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: async readuntil (separator=b'\n')

          'separator'가 발견될 때까지 스트림에서 데이터를 읽습니다.

          성공하면, 데이터와 separator가 내부 버퍼에서 제거됩니다 (소비
          됩니다).  반환된 데이터에는 끝에 separator가 포함됩니다.

          읽은 데이터의 양이 구성된 스트림 제한을 초과하면 *note
          LimitOverrunError: 32ea. 예외가 발생하고, 데이터는 내부 버퍼에
          그대로 남아 있으며 다시 읽을 수 있습니다.

          완전한 separator가 발견되기 전에 EOF에 도달하면 *note
          IncompleteReadError: 1926. 예외가 발생하고, 내부 버퍼가 재설정
          됩니다.  *note IncompleteReadError.partial: 32e9. 어트리뷰트에
          는 separator 일부가 포함될 수 있습니다.

          The 'separator' may also be a tuple of separators.  In this
          case the return value will be the shortest possible that has
          any separator as the suffix.  For the purposes of *note
          LimitOverrunError: 32ea, the shortest possible separator is
          considered to be the one that matched.

          Added in version 3.5.2.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: 'separator' 매개 변수는 이제 구분자들의
          *note tuple: 369.일 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: at_eof ()

          버퍼가 비어 있고 *note feed_eof(): 32e6.가 호출되었으면
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter,  Next: 예제<13>,  Prev: StreamReader,  Up: 스트림

5.19.1.24 StreamWriter
......................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.StreamWriter

     IO 스트림에 데이터를 쓰는 API를 제공하는 기록기(writer) 객체를 나타
     냅니다.

     'StreamWriter' 객체를 직접 인스턴스로 만드는 것은 권장되지 않습니다
     .  대신 *note open_connection(): b15.과 *note start_server(): b16.를
     사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: write (data)

          이 메서드는 하부 소켓에 'data'를 즉시 기록하려고 시도합니다.  실
          패하면, data는 보낼 수 있을 때까지 내부 쓰기 버퍼에 계류됩니다
          .

          이 메서드는 ‘drain()’ 메서드와 함께 사용해야 합니다:

               stream.write(data)
               await stream.drain()

               참고: The 'data' buffer should be a C contiguous
               one-dimensional *note bytes-like object: d2a.

      -- 메서드: writelines (data)

          이 메서드는 하부 소켓에 바이트열의 리스트(또는 임의의 이터러블
          )를 즉시 기록합니다.  실패하면, data는 보낼 수 있을 때까지 내
          부 쓰기 버퍼에 계류됩니다.

          이 메서드는 ‘drain()’ 메서드와 함께 사용해야 합니다:

               stream.writelines(lines)
               await stream.drain()

      -- 메서드: close ()

          이 메서드는 스트림과 하부 소켓을 닫습니다.

          이 메서드는 필수는 아니지만 ‘wait_closed()’ 메서드와 함께 사용
          해야 합니다:

               stream.close()
               await stream.wait_closed()

      -- 메서드: can_write_eof ()

          하부 트랜스포트가 *note write_eof(): 32f0. 메서드를 지원하면
          ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: write_eof ()

          버퍼링 된 쓰기 데이터가 플러시 된 후에 스트림의 쓰기 끝을 닫습
          니다.

      -- 속성: transport

          하부 asyncio 트랜스포트를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: get_extra_info (name, default=None)

          선택적 트랜스포트 정보에 액세스합니다; 자세한 내용은 *note
          BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): a99.를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: async drain ()

          스트림에 기록을 다시 시작하는 것이 적절할 때까지 기다립니다.  예
          :

               writer.write(data)
               await writer.drain()

          이것은 하부 IO 쓰기 버퍼와 상호 작용하는 흐름 제어 메서드입니
          다.  버퍼의 크기가 높은 수위에 도달하면, 버퍼 크기가 낮은 수위
          까지 내려가서 쓰기가 다시 시작될 수 있을 때까지 'drain()'은 블
          록합니다.  기다릴 것이 없으면, *note drain(): 17b5.은 즉시 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: async start_tls (sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None,
               ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

          Upgrade an existing stream-based connection to TLS.

          Parameters:

             * 'sslcontext': a configured instance of *note SSLContext:
               294.

             * 'server_hostname': sets or overrides the host name that
               the target server’s certificate will be matched against.

             * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait
               for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

             * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for
               the SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

          Added in version 3.11.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_closing ()

          스트림이 닫혔거나 닫히고 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: async wait_closed ()

          스트림이 닫힐 때까지 기다립니다.

          가령 프로그램 종료 전에 모든 데이터가 플러시되었음을 확인하기
          위해, 하부 연결이 닫힐 때까지 기다리려면 *note close(): 32e0.
          뒤에 호출해야 합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<13>,  Prev: StreamWriter,  Up: 스트림

5.19.1.25 예제
..............

* Menu:

* 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이언트::
* 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버::
* HTTP 헤더 가져오기::
* 스트림을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록::


File: python.info,  Node: 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이언트,  Next: 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버,  Up: 예제<13>

5.19.1.26 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이언트
.................................................

*note asyncio.open_connection(): b15. 함수를 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이
언트:

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

더 보기
.......

*note TCP 메아리 클라이언트 프로토콜: 32f5. 예제는 저수준 *note
loop.create_connection(): 5fd. 메서드를 사용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버,  Next: HTTP 헤더 가져오기,  Prev: 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이언트,  Up: 예제<13>

5.19.1.27 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버
...........................................

*note asyncio.start_server(): b16. 함수를 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버:

     import asyncio

     async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
         data = await reader.read(100)
         message = data.decode()
         addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')

         print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")

         print(f"Send: {message!r}")
         writer.write(data)
         await writer.drain()

         print("Close the connection")
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     async def main():
         server = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         addrs = ', '.join(str(sock.getsockname()) for sock in server.sockets)
         print(f'Serving on {addrs}')

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

더 보기
.......

*note TCP 메아리 서버 프로토콜: 32f8. 예제는 *note loop.create_server():
b10. 메서드를 사용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 헤더 가져오기,  Next: 스트림을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록,  Prev: 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버,  Up: 예제<13>

5.19.1.28 HTTP 헤더 가져오기
............................

명령 줄로 전달된 URL의 HTTP 헤더를 조회하는 간단한 예제:

     import asyncio
     import urllib.parse
     import sys

     async def print_http_headers(url):
         url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
         if url.scheme == 'https':
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
         else:
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 80)

         query = (
             f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
             f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
             f"\r\n"
         )

         writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             if not line:
                 break

             line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
             if line:
                 print(f'HTTP header> {line}')

         # 바디를 무시하고, 소켓을 닫습니다
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     url = sys.argv[1]
     asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))

사용법:

     python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html

또는 HTTPS를 사용하면:

     python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html


File: python.info,  Node: 스트림을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록,  Prev: HTTP 헤더 가져오기,  Up: 예제<13>

5.19.1.29 스트림을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록
............................................................

*note open_connection(): b15. 함수를 사용하여 소켓이 데이터를 수신할 때
까지 기다리는 코루틴:

     import asyncio
     import socket

     async def wait_for_data():
         # 저수준 API에 액세스하기 위해 현재 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 가져옵니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # 연결된 소켓 쌍을 만듭니다.
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓을 등록합니다.
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)

         # 네트워크로부터의 데이터 수신을 시뮬레이션합니다
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         # 데이터를 기다립니다
         data = await reader.read(100)

         # 데이터를 받았습니다, 할 일을 마쳤습니다: 소켓을 닫습니다.
         print("Received:", data.decode())
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

         # 두 번째 소켓을 닫습니다
         wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(wait_for_data())

더 보기
.......

*note 프로토콜을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록: 32fc. 예제는
저수준 프로토콜과 *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd. 메서드를 사용합니
다.

*note 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기: 32fd. 예제는 저수준 *note
loop.add_reader(): 32fe. 메서드를 사용하여 파일 기술자를 관찰합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 동기화 프리미티브<2>,  Next: 서브 프로세스,  Prev: 스트림,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.30 동기화 프리미티브
...........................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/locks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio 동기화 프리미티브는 *note threading: ed. 모듈의 것과 유사하도록
설계되었습니다만 두 가지 중요한 주의 사항이 있습니다:

   * asyncio 프리미티브는 스레드 안전하지 않으므로, OS 스레드 동기화(이
     를 위해서는 *note threading: ed.을 사용하십시오)에 사용하면 안 됩니
     다.

   * 이러한 동기화 프리미티브의 메서드는 'timeout' 인자를 받아들이지 않
     습니다; *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. 함수를 사용하여 시간제한이 있
     는 연산을 수행하십시오.

asyncio에는 다음과 같은 기본 동기화 프리미티브가 있습니다:

   * *note Lock: a6e.

   * *note Event: a6f.

   * *note Condition: a70.

   * *note Semaphore: a71.

   * *note BoundedSemaphore: a72.

   * *note Barrier: 5fb.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/locks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Lock,  Next: Event,  Up: 동기화 프리미티브<2>

5.19.1.31 Lock
..............

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Lock

     asyncio 태스크를 위한 뮤텍스 록을 구현합니다.  스레드 안전하지 않습
     니다.

     asyncio 록은 공유 자원에 대한 독점 액세스를 보장하는 데 사용될 수 있
     습니다.

     Lock을 사용하는 가장 좋은 방법은 *note async with: 5cf. 문입니다:

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... 나중에
          async with lock:
              # 공유 상태를 액세스합니다

     이는 다음과 동등합니다:

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... 나중에
          await lock.acquire()
          try:
              # 공유 상태를 액세스합니다
          finally:
              lock.release()

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

      -- 메서드: async acquire ()

          록을 얻습니다.

          이 메서드는 록이 '풀림(unlocked)'이 될 때까지 기다리고, '잠김
          (locked)'으로 설정한 다음 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          잠금이 해제되기를 기다리는 *note acquire(): 3302.에서 둘 이상
          의 코루틴 블록 될 때, 결국 한 개의 코루틴만 진행됩니다.

          록을 얻는 것은 '공평(fair)'합니다: 진행할 코루틴은 록을 기다리
          기 시작한 첫 번째 코루틴이 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          록을 반납합니다.

          록이 '잠김(locked)'이면 '풀림(unlocked)'으로 재설정하고 돌아옵
          니다.

          록이 '풀림(unlocked)'이면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: locked ()

          록이 '잠김(locked)'이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Event,  Next: Condition,  Prev: Lock,  Up: 동기화 프리미티브<2>

5.19.1.32 Event
...............

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Event

     이벤트 객체.  스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

     asyncio 이벤트는 어떤 이벤트가 발생했음을 여러 asyncio 태스크에 알
     리는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     Event 객체는 *note set(): 3306. 메서드로 '참'으로 설정하고 *note
     clear(): 3307. 메서드로 '거짓'으로 재설정할 수 있는 내부 플래그를 관
     리합니다.  *note wait(): 3308. 메서드는 플래그가 '참'으로 설정될 때
     까지 블록합니다.  플래그는 초기에 '거짓'으로 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

     예:

          async def waiter(event):
              print('waiting for it ...')
              await event.wait()
              print('... got it!')

          async def main():
              # Event 객체를 만듭니다.
              event = asyncio.Event()

              # 'event'가 설정될 때까지 대기 할 Task를 만듭니다.
              waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))

              # 1초 동안 잠잔 후에 event를 설정합니다.
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              event.set()

              # waiter 태스크가 끝날 때까지 기다립니다.
              await waiter_task

          asyncio.run(main())

      -- 메서드: async wait ()

          이벤트가 설정될 때까지 기다립니다.

          이벤트가 설정되었으면 ‘True’를 즉시 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면
          다른 태스크가 *note set(): 3306.을 호출할 때까지 블록합니다.

      -- 메서드: set ()

          이벤트를 설정합니다.

          이벤트가 설정되기를 기다리는 모든 태스크는 즉시 깨어납니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          이벤트를 지웁니다 (재설정).

          Subsequent tasks awaiting on *note wait(): 3308. will now
          block until the *note set(): 3306. method is called again.

      -- 메서드: is_set ()

          이벤트가 설정되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition,  Next: Semaphore,  Prev: Event,  Up: 동기화 프리미티브<2>

5.19.1.33 Condition
...................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Condition (lock=None)

     Condition 객체.  스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

     asyncio 조건 프리미티브는 태스크가 어떤 이벤트가 발생하기를 기다린
     다음 공유 자원에 독점적으로 액세스하는데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     본질에서, Condition 객체는 *note Event: a6f.와 *note Lock: a6e.의 기
     능을 결합합니다.  여러 개의 Condition 객체가 하나의 Lock을 공유할 수
     있으므로, 공유 자원의 특정 상태에 관심이 있는 다른 태스크 간에 공유
     자원에 대한 독점적 액세스를 조정할 수 있습니다.

     선택적 'lock' 인자는 *note Lock: a6e. 객체나 ‘None’ 이어야 합니다.
     후자의 경우 새로운 Lock 객체가 자동으로 만들어집니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

     Condition을 사용하는 가장 좋은 방법은 *note async with: 5cf. 문입니
     다:

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... 나중에
          async with cond:
              await cond.wait()

     이는 다음과 동등합니다:

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... 나중에
          await cond.acquire()
          try:
              await cond.wait()
          finally:
              cond.release()

      -- 메서드: async acquire ()

          하부 록을 얻습니다.

          이 메서드는 하부 록이 '풀림(unlocked)'이 될 때까지 대기하고,
          '잠김(locked)'으로 설정한 다음 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: notify (n=1)

          이 조건을 기다리는 'n' 태스크(기본적으로 1개)를 깨웁니다.  대
          기 중인 태스크가 'n' 개 보다 작으면 모두 깨어납니다.

          이 메서드를 호출하기 전에 록을 얻어야 하고, 호출 직후에 반납해
          야 합니다.  '풀린(unlocked)' 록으로 호출하면 *note
          RuntimeError: 195. 에러가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: locked ()

          하부 록을 얻었으면 ‘True’를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: notify_all ()

          이 조건에 대기 중인 모든 태스크를 깨웁니다.

          이 메서드는 *note notify(): 1681.처럼 작동하지만, 대기 중인 모
          든 태스크를 깨웁니다.

          이 메서드를 호출하기 전에 록을 얻어야 하고, 호출 직후에 반납해
          야 합니다.  '풀린(unlocked)' 록으로 호출하면 *note
          RuntimeError: 195. 에러가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          하부 록을 반납합니다.

          풀린 록으로 호출하면, *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: async wait ()

          알릴 때까지 기다립니다.

          이 메서드가 호출될 때 호출하는 태스크가 록을 얻지 않았으면
          *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

          이 메서드는 하부 잠금을 반납한 다음, *note notify(): 1681. 나
          *note notify_all(): 330e. 호출 때문에 깨어날 때까지 블록합니다
          .  일단 깨어나면, Condition은 록을 다시 얻고, 이 메서드는
          ‘True’를 돌려줍니다.

          Note that a task 'may' return from this call spuriously, which
          is why the caller should always re-check the state and be
          prepared to *note wait(): 16ac. again.  For this reason, you
          may prefer to use *note wait_for(): 3310. instead.

      -- 메서드: async wait_for (predicate)

          predicate가 '참'이 될 때까지 기다립니다.

          predicate는 논릿값으로 해석될 결과를 돌려주는 콜러블이어야 합
          니다.  메서드는 predicate가 '참'으로 평가될 때까지 반복적으로
          *note wait(): 16ac.합니다.  최종값이 반환 값입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore,  Next: BoundedSemaphore,  Prev: Condition,  Up: 동기화 프리미티브<2>

5.19.1.34 Semaphore
...................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Semaphore (value=1)

     Semaphore 객체.  스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

     세마포어는 각 *note acquire(): 16ad. 호출로 감소하고, 각 *note
     release(): 3312. 호출로 증가하는 내부 카운터를 관리합니다.  카운터
     는 절대로 0 밑으로 내려갈 수 없습니다; *note acquire(): 16ad.가 0을
     만나면, *note release(): 3312.를 호출할 때까지 기다리면서 블록합니
     다.

     선택적 'value' 인자는 내부 카운터의 초깃값을 제공합니다 (기본적으로
     ‘1’).  지정된 값이 ‘0’보다 작으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니
     다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

     Semaphore를 사용하는 가장 좋은 방법은 *note async with: 5cf. 문입니
     다:

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... 나중에
          async with sem:
              # 공유 자원으로 작업합니다

     이는 다음과 동등합니다:

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... 나중에
          await sem.acquire()
          try:
              # 공유 자원으로 작업합니다
          finally:
              sem.release()

      -- 메서드: async acquire ()

          세마포어를 얻습니다.

          내부 카운터가 0보다 크면, 1 감소시키고 ‘True’를 즉시 반환합니
          다.  0이면, *note release(): 3312.가 호출될 때까지 기다린 다음
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: locked ()

          세마포어를 즉시 얻을 수 없으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: release ()

          세마포어를 반납하고 내부 카운터를 1 증가시킵니다.  세마포어를
          얻기 위해 대기하는 태스크를 깨울 수 있습니다.

          *note BoundedSemaphore: a72.와 달리, *note Semaphore: a71.는
          ‘acquire()’ 호출보다 더 많은 ‘release()’ 호출을 허용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: BoundedSemaphore,  Next: Barrier,  Prev: Semaphore,  Up: 동기화 프리미티브<2>

5.19.1.35 BoundedSemaphore
..........................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     제한된 세마포어 객체.  스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

     제한된 세마포어는 초기 'value' 위로 내부 카운터를 증가시키면 *note
     release(): 3312.에서 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시키는 *note
     Semaphore: a71. 버전입니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier,  Prev: BoundedSemaphore,  Up: 동기화 프리미티브<2>

5.19.1.36 Barrier
.................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Barrier (parties)

     장벽 객체.  스레드 안전하지 않습니다.

     A barrier is a simple synchronization primitive that allows to
     block until 'parties' number of tasks are waiting on it.  Tasks can
     wait on the *note wait(): 3316. method and would be blocked until
     the specified number of tasks end up waiting on *note wait(): 3316.
     At that point all of the waiting tasks would unblock
     simultaneously.

     *note async with: 5cf. can be used as an alternative to awaiting on
     *note wait(): 3316.

     The barrier can be reused any number of times.  예:

          async def example_barrier():
             # 3자 간 장벽
             b = asyncio.Barrier(3)

             # 기다리는 태스크를 2개 만듭니다
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

             # 세 번째 .wait() 호출은 장벽을 통과합니다
             await b.wait()
             print(b)
             print("barrier passed")

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

          asyncio.run(example_barrier())

     Result of this example is:

          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:2/3]>
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [draining, waiters:0/3]>
          barrier passed
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:0/3]>

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: async wait ()

          Pass the barrier.  When all the tasks party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all unblocked
          simultaneously.

          When a waiting or blocked task in the barrier is cancelled,
          this task exits the barrier which stays in the same state.  If
          the state of the barrier is “filling”, the number of waiting
          task decreases by 1.

          The return value is an integer in the range of 0 to
          ‘parties-1’, different for each task.  This can be used to
          select a task to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               ...
               async with barrier as position:
                  if position == 0:
                     # 오직 한 태스크만 이것을 인쇄합니다
                     print('End of *draining phase*')

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 5fc.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a task is
          waiting.  It could raise a *note CancelledError: 1b8. if a
          task is cancelled.

      -- 메서드: async reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any tasks
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 5fc.
          exception.

          If a barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and
          create a new one.

      -- 메서드: async abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 3316. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 5fc.  Use this for example if one of the
          tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite waiting tasks.

      -- 속성: parties

          The number of tasks required to pass the barrier.

      -- 속성: n_waiting

          The number of tasks currently waiting in the barrier while
          filling.

      -- 속성: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- 예외: asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 195, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 5fb. object is reset or broken.

__________________________________________________________________

버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘await lock’ 이나 ‘yield from lock’ 및/또는 *note
with: 5cc. 문(‘with await lock’, ‘with (yield from lock)’)을 사용하여 록
을 얻는 것은 제거되었습니다.  대신 ‘async with lock’을 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스,  Next: 큐,  Prev: 동기화 프리미티브<2>,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.37 서브 프로세스
.......................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

이 절에서는 서브 프로세스를 만들고 관리하기 위한 고수준 async/await
asyncio API에 관해 설명합니다.  다음은 asyncio가 셸 명령을 실행하고 결과
를 얻는 방법의 예입니다:

     import asyncio

     async def run(cmd):
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
             cmd,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
             stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()

         print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
         if stdout:
             print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
         if stderr:
             print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')

     asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))

는 다음과 같이 인쇄할 것입니다:

     ['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
     [stderr]
     ls: /zzz: No such file or directory

모든 asyncio 서브 프로세스 함수는 비동기이고, asyncio가 이러한 함수로 작
업 할 수 있는 많은 도구를 제공하기 때문에, 여러 서브 프로세스를 병렬로 실
행하고 감시하기가 쉽습니다.  여러 명령을 동시에 실행하도록 위 예제를 수
정하는 것은 아주 간단합니다:

     async def main():
         await asyncio.gather(
             run('ls /zzz'),
             run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))

     asyncio.run(main())

*note 예제: 3320. 하위 절도 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 서브 프로세스 만들기::
* 상수: 상수<7>.
* 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스 만들기,  Next: 상수<7>,  Up: 서브 프로세스

5.19.1.38 서브 프로세스 만들기
..............................

 -- 함수: async asyncio.create_subprocess_exec (program, *args,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     서브 프로세스를 만듭니다.

     'limit' 인자는 *note stdout: 3322. 과 *note stderr: 3323.에 대한
     *note StreamReader: 18cc. 래퍼의 버퍼 한계를 설정합니다 (*note
     subprocess.PIPE: b84.가 'stdout' 및 'stderr' 인자에 전달되었을 때).

     *note Process: 3324. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     다른 매개 변수에 관해서는 *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325.의 설
     명서를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

 -- 함수: async asyncio.create_subprocess_shell (cmd, stdin=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     'cmd' 셸 명령을 실행합니다.

     'limit' 인자는 *note stdout: 3322. 과 *note stderr: 3323.에 대한
     *note StreamReader: 18cc. 래퍼의 버퍼 한계를 설정합니다 (*note
     subprocess.PIPE: b84.가 'stdout' 및 'stderr' 인자에 전달되었을 때).

     *note Process: 3324. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     다른 매개 변수에 관해서는 *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3326.의 설
     명서를 참조하십시오.

          중요: 셸 주입(1) 취약점을 피하고자 모든 공백과 특수 문자를 적
          절하게 따옴표로 감싸는 것은 응용 프로그램의 책임입니다.  *note
          shlex.quote(): 27d. 함수는 셸 명령을 구성하는 데 사용될 문자열
          의 공백 문자와 특수 셸 문자를 올바르게 이스케이프 하는 데 사용
          할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

     참고: *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.를 쓰면 윈도우에서 서브 프로세스
     를 사용할 수 있습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 윈도우에서의 서브
     프로세스 지원: 3327.을 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

또한, asyncio에는 서브 프로세스와 함께 작동하는 다음과 같은 '저수준'
API가 있습니다: *note 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트: 3328. 와 *note 서브
프로세스 프로토콜: 3329. 뿐만 아니라 *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325,
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3326, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
332a, *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 332b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<7>,  Next: 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기,  Prev: 서브 프로세스 만들기,  Up: 서브 프로세스

5.19.1.39 상수
..............

 -- 데이터: asyncio.subprocess.PIPE

     'stdin', 'stdout' 또는 'stderr' 매개 변수로 전달될 수 있습니다.

     'PIPE'가 'stdin' 인자로 전달되면, *note Process.stdin: 332e. 어트리
     뷰트는 *note StreamWriter: 1706. 인스턴스를 가리킵니다.

     'PIPE'가 'stdout' 이나 'stderr' 인자로 전달되면, *note
     Process.stdout: 3322. 과 *note Process.stderr: 3323. 어트리뷰트는
     *note StreamReader: 18cc. 인스턴스를 가리 킵니다.

 -- 데이터: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT

     'stderr' 인자로 사용할 수 있는 특수 값이며, 표준 에러를 표준 출력으
     로 리디렉션해야 함을 나타냅니다.

 -- 데이터: asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL

     프로세스 생성 함수의 'stdin', 'stdout' 또는 'stderr' 인자로 사용할
     수 있는 특수 값입니다.  특수 파일 *note os.devnull: 1a3a.이 해당 서
     브 프로세스 스트림에 사용됨을 나타냅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기,  Prev: 상수<7>,  Up: 서브 프로세스

5.19.1.40 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기
.......................................

*note create_subprocess_exec(): a74. 와 *note create_subprocess_shell():
a75. 함수는 모두 'Process' 클래스의 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  'Process'는
서브 프로세스와 통신하고 완료를 관찰할 수 있는 고수준 래퍼입니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.subprocess.Process

     *note create_subprocess_exec(): a74. 와 *note
     create_subprocess_shell(): a75. 함수로 만들어진 OS 프로세스를 감싸
     는 객체.

     이 클래스는 *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 클래스와 비슷한 API를 갖도
     록 설계되었지만, 주목할만한 차이점이 있습니다:

        * Popen과 달리, Process 인스턴스에는 *note poll(): 323c. 메서드
          와 동등한 것이 없습니다;

        * *note communicate(): 1735. 와 *note wait(): 3332. 메서드에는
          'timeout' 매개 변수가 없습니다: *note wait_for(): 5f9. 함수를
          사용하십시오;

        * *note Process.wait(): 3332. 메서드는 비동기이지만, *note
          subprocess.Popen.wait(): ce1. 메서드는 블로킹 비지 루프
          (blocking busy loop)로 구현됩니다;

        * 'universal_newlines' 매개 변수는 지원되지 않습니다.

     이 클래스는 *note 스레드 안전하지 않습니다: 32cc.

     *note 서브 프로세스와 스레드: 3333. 절도 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: async wait ()

          자식 프로세스가 종료할 때까지 기다립니다.

          *note returncode: 3334. 어트리뷰트를 설정하고 반환합니다.

               참고: 이 메서드는 ‘stdout=PIPE’ 나 ‘stderr=PIPE’를 사용하
               고 자식 프로세스가 너무 많은 출력을 만들면 교착 상태가 될
               수 있습니다.  자식 프로세스는 OS 파이프 버퍼가 더 많은 데
               이터를 받아들이도록 기다리면서 블록 됩니다.  이 조건을 피
               하고자, 파이프를 사용할 때는 *note communicate(): 1735. 메
               서드를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: async communicate (input=None)

          프로세스와 상호 작용합니다:

            1. 데이터를 'stdin'으로 보냅니다 ('input'이 ‘None’이 아니면
               );

            2. 'stdin'을 닫습니다;

            3. EOF에 도달할 때까지 'stdout' 과 'stderr'에서 데이터를 읽
               습니다;

            4. 프로세스가 종료할 때까지 기다립니다.

          선택적 'input' 인자는 자식 프로세스로 전송될 데이터(*note
          bytes: 1c2. 객체)입니다.

          튜플 ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’를 반환합니다.

          'input'을 'stdin'에 쓸 때 *note BrokenPipeError: 1052. 나
          *note ConnectionResetError: 1055. 예외가 발생하면, 예외를 무시
          합니다.  이 조건은 모든 데이터가 'stdin'에 기록되기 전에 프로
          세스가 종료할 때 발생합니다.

          프로세스의 ‘'stdin'으로 데이터를 보내려면, 프로세스를
          ‘stdin=PIPE’로 만들어야 합니다.  마찬가지로, 결과 튜플에서
          ‘None’ 이외의 것을 얻으려면, ‘stdout=PIPE’ 와/나 ‘stderr=PIPE’
          인자를 사용하여 프로세스를 만들어야 합니다.

          데이터가 메모리에 버퍼링 되므로, 데이터 크기가 크거나 무제한이
          면 이 메서드를 사용하지 마십시오.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘input=None’일 때도 'stdin'이 닫힙니다.

      -- 메서드: send_signal (signal)

          시그널 'signal'를 자식 프로세스로 보냅니다.

               참고: 윈도우에서, *note SIGTERM: 13a8.은 *note
               terminate(): 3335.의 별칭입니다.  ‘CTRL_C_EVENT’ 와
               ‘CTRL_BREAK_EVENT’는 ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’을 포함하
               는 'creationflags' 매개 변수로 시작된 프로세스로 전송될 수
               있습니다.

      -- 메서드: terminate ()

          자식 프로세스를 중지합니다.

          POSIX 시스템에서 이 메서드는 *note SIGTERM: 13a8.를 자식 프로
          세스로 보냅니다.

          윈도우에서는 Win32 API 함수 ‘TerminateProcess()’가 호출되어 자
          식 프로세스를 중지합니다.

      -- 메서드: kill ()

          자식 프로세스를 죽입니다.

          POSIX 시스템에서 이 메서드는 *note SIGKILL: 3337.를 자식 프로
          세스로 보냅니다.

          윈도우에서 이 메서드는 *note terminate(): 3335.의 별칭입니다.

      -- 속성: stdin

          표준 입력 스트림(*note StreamWriter: 1706.) 또는 프로세스가
          ‘stdin=None’으로 만들어졌으면 ‘None’.

      -- 속성: stdout

          표준 출력 스트림(*note StreamReader: 18cc.) 또는 프로세스가
          ‘stdout=None’으로 만들어졌으면 ‘None’.

      -- 속성: stderr

          표준 에러 스트림(*note StreamReader: 18cc.) 또는 프로세스가
          ‘stderr=None’으로 만들어졌으면 ‘None’.

          경고: *note process.stdin.write(): 332e, *note await
          process.stdout.read(): 3322. 또는 *note await
          process.stderr.read(): 3323. 대신 *note communicate(): 1735. 메
          서드를 사용하십시오.  이렇게 하면 스트림이 읽기나 쓰기를 일시
          중지하고 자식 프로세스를 블록하는 것으로 인한 교착 상태가 발생
          하지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: pid

          프로세스 식별 번호 (PID).

          *note create_subprocess_shell(): a75. 함수로 만들어진 프로세스
          의 경우, 이 어트리뷰트는 생성된 셸의 PID입니다.

      -- 속성: returncode

          프로세스가 종료할 때의 반환 코드.

          ‘None’ 값은 프로세스가 아직 종료하지 않았음을 나타냅니다.

          음수 값 ‘-N’은 자식이 시그널 ‘N’으로 종료되었음을 나타냅니다
          (POSIX만 해당).

* Menu:

* 서브 프로세스와 스레드::
* 예제: 예제<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스와 스레드,  Next: 예제<14>,  Up: 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기

5.19.1.41 서브 프로세스와 스레드
................................

표준 asyncio 이벤트 루프는 기본적으로 다른 스레드에서 서브 프로세스를 실
행하는 것을 지원합니다.

윈도우에서 서브 프로세스는 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.(기본값)에서만 제
공되며, *note SelectorEventLoop: 602.에는 서브 프로세스 지원이 없습니다.

유닉스에서 'child watchers'는 서브 프로세스 종료 대기에 사용됩니다.  자
세한 정보는 *note 프로세스 감시자: 333a.를 참조하십시오.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 유닉스는 제한 없이 다른 스레드에서 서브 프로세스를 스
폰하기 위해 *note ThreadedChildWatcher: 475.를 사용하도록 전환했습니다.

'활성화되지 않은' 현재 자식 감시자를 사용하여 서브 프로세스를 스폰하면
*note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

대체 이벤트 루프 구현에는 나름의 제한 사항이 있을 수 있습니다; 해당 설명
서를 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

*note asyncio의 동시성과 다중 스레드: 32cc. 절.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<14>,  Prev: 서브 프로세스와 스레드,  Up: 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기

5.19.1.42 예제
..............

*note Process: 3324. 클래스를 사용하여 서브 프로세스를 제어하고 *note
StreamReader: 18cc. 클래스를 사용하여 표준 출력을 읽는 예제.  서브 프로
세스는 *note create_subprocess_exec(): a74. 함수로 만듭니다:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     async def get_date():
         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'

         # 서브 프로세스를 만듭니다; 표준 출력을 파이프로 리디렉트합니다.
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         # 한 줄의 출력을 읽습니다.
         data = await proc.stdout.readline()
         line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

         # 서브 프로세스 종료를 기다립니다.
         await proc.wait()
         return line

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

저수준 API를 사용하여 작성된 *note 같은 예제: 333c.도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 큐,  Next: 예외<10>,  Prev: 서브 프로세스,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.43 큐
............

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/queues.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio 큐는 *note queue: b6. 모듈의 클래스와 유사하도록 설계되었습니다.
asyncio 큐는 스레드 안전하지 않지만, async/await 코드에서 사용되도록 설
계되었습니다.

asyncio 큐의 메서드에는 'timeout' 매개 변수가 없습니다; 시간제한이 있는
큐 연산을 하려면 *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5f9. 함수를 사용하십시오.

아래의 *note 예제: 333f. 절도 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* Queue::
* 우선순위 큐::
* LIFO 큐::
* 예외: 예외<9>.
* 예제: 예제<15>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/queues.py


File: python.info,  Node: Queue,  Next: 우선순위 큐,  Up: 큐

5.19.1.44 Queue
...............

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Queue (maxsize=0)

     선입 선출 (FIFO) 큐.

     'maxsize'가 0보다 작거나 같으면 큐 크기는 무한합니다.  ‘0’보다 큰 정
     수면, 큐가 'maxsize'에 도달했을 때 *note get(): 3341.이 항목을 제거
     할 때까지 ‘await put()’이 블록합니다.

     표준 라이브러리의 스레드를 쓰는 *note queue: b6.와는 달리, 큐의 크
     기는 항상 알려져 있으며 *note qsize(): 3342. 메서드를 호출하여 얻을
     수 있습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 'loop' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

     이 클래스는 *note 스레드 안전하지 않습니다: 32cc.

      -- 속성: maxsize

          큐에 허용되는 항목 수.

      -- 메서드: empty ()

          큐가 비어 있으면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: full ()

          큐에 *note maxsize: 3343. 항목이 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          큐가 ‘maxsize=0’ (기본값)으로 초기화되었으면, *note full():
          3345.은 절대 ‘True’를 반환하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: async get ()

          큐에서 항목을 제거하고 반환합니다.  큐가 비어 있으면, 항목이 들
          어올 때까지 기다립니다.

          Raises *note QueueShutDown: 1b1. if the queue has been shut
          down and is empty, or if the queue has been shut down
          immediately.

      -- 메서드: get_nowait ()

          항목을 즉시 사용할 수 있으면 항목을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
          *note QueueEmpty: 3347.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: async join ()

          큐의 모든 항목을 수신하여 처리할 때까지 블록합니다.

          완료되지 않은 작업 수는 항목이 큐에 추가될 때마다 증가합니다.
          이 수는 소비자 코루틴이 항목을 수신했고 그 항목에 관한 작업이
          모두 완료되었음을 나타내는 *note task_done(): dc5.를 호출할 때
          마다 감소합니다.  완료되지 않은 작업 수가 0으로 떨어지면 *note
          join(): dc4.가 블록 해제됩니다.

      -- 메서드: async put (item)

          큐에 항목을 넣습니다.  큐가 가득 차면, 항목을 추가할 빈자리가
          생길 때까지 기다립니다.

          Raises *note QueueShutDown: 1b1. if the queue has been shut
          down.

      -- 메서드: put_nowait (item)

          블록하지 않고 항목을 큐에 넣습니다.

          자리가 즉시 나지 않으면, *note QueueFull: 334a.를 일으킵니다.

      -- 메서드: qsize ()

          큐에 있는 항목 수를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: shutdown (immediate=False)

          Put a *note Queue: a73. instance into a shutdown mode.

          The queue can no longer grow.  Future calls to *note put():
          3348. raise *note QueueShutDown: 1b1.  Currently blocked
          callers of *note put(): 3348. will be unblocked and will raise
          *note QueueShutDown: 1b1. in the formerly blocked thread.

          If 'immediate' is false (the default), the queue can be wound
          down normally with *note get(): 3341. calls to extract tasks
          that have already been loaded.

          And if *note task_done(): dc5. is called for each remaining
          task, a pending *note join(): dc4. will be unblocked normally.

          Once the queue is empty, future calls to *note get(): 3341.
          will raise *note QueueShutDown: 1b1.

          If 'immediate' is true, the queue is terminated immediately.
          The queue is drained to be completely empty and the count of
          unfinished tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained.
          If unfinished tasks is zero, callers of *note join(): dc4. are
          unblocked.  Also, blocked callers of *note get(): 3341. are
          unblocked and will raise *note QueueShutDown: 1b1. because the
          queue is empty.

          Use caution when using *note join(): dc4. with 'immediate' set
          to true.  This unblocks the join even when no work has been
          done on the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a
          queue.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: task_done ()

          이전에 큐에 넣은 작업 항목이 완료되었음을 나타냅니다.

          큐 소비자가 사용합니다.  작업 항목을 꺼내는 데 사용된 *note
          get(): 3341. 마다, 뒤따르는 *note task_done(): dc5. 호출은 작
          업 항목에 관한 처리가 완료되었음을 큐에 알려줍니다.

          *note join(): dc4.이 현재 블록 중이면, 모든 항목이 처리될 때 다
          시 시작됩니다 (큐에 *note put(): 3348.한 모든 항목에 대해
          *note task_done(): dc5. 호출이 수신되었음을 뜻합니다).

          큐에 넣은 항목보다 더 많이 호출되면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
          생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 우선순위 큐,  Next: LIFO 큐,  Prev: Queue,  Up: 큐

5.19.1.45 우선순위 큐
.....................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.PriorityQueue

     *note Queue: a73.의 변형; 우선순위 순서로 항목을 꺼냅니다 (가장 낮
     은 우선순위가 처음입니다).

     엔트리는 일반적으로 ‘(priority_number, data)’ 형식의 튜플입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: LIFO 큐,  Next: 예외<9>,  Prev: 우선순위 큐,  Up: 큐

5.19.1.46 LIFO 큐
.................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.LifoQueue

     가장 최근에 추가된 항목을 먼저 꺼내는 *note Queue: a73.의 변형 (후
     입 선출).


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<9>,  Next: 예제<15>,  Prev: LIFO 큐,  Up: 큐

5.19.1.47 예외
..............

 -- 예외: asyncio.QueueEmpty

     이 예외는 *note get_nowait(): 3346. 메서드가 빈 큐에 호출될 때 발생
     합니다.

 -- 예외: asyncio.QueueFull

     *note put_nowait(): 3349. 메서드가 'maxsize'에 도달한 큐에 호출될 때
     발생하는 예외입니다.

 -- 예외: asyncio.QueueShutDown

     *note put(): 3348. 이나 *note get(): 3341. 메서드가 종료된 큐에 호
     출될 때 발생하는 예외입니다.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<15>,  Prev: 예외<9>,  Up: 큐

5.19.1.48 예제
..............

큐를 사용하여 여러 동시 태스크로 작업 부하를 분산시킬 수 있습니다:

     import asyncio
     import random
     import time


     async def worker(name, queue):
         while True:
             # 큐에서 "작업 항목"을 가져옵니다.
             sleep_for = await queue.get()

             # "sleep_for" 초 동안 잡니다.
             await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)

             # 큐에 "작업 항목"이 처리되었음을 알립니다.
             queue.task_done()

             print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')


     async def main():
         # "작업 부하"를 저장하는 데 사용할 큐를 만듭니다.
         queue = asyncio.Queue()

         # 무작위 대기 시간을 만들어서 큐에 넣습니다.
         total_sleep_time = 0
         for _ in range(20):
             sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
             total_sleep_time += sleep_for
             queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)

         # 큐를 동시에 처리할 세 개의 worker 태스크를 만듭니다.
         tasks = []
         for i in range(3):
             task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
             tasks.append(task)

         # 큐가 완전히 처리될 때까지 기다립니다.
         started_at = time.monotonic()
         await queue.join()
         total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at

         # worker 태스크를 취소합니다.
         for task in tasks:
             task.cancel()
         # 모든 worker 태스크가 취소될 때까지 기다립니다.
         await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

         print('====')
         print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
         print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<10>,  Next: 이벤트 루프,  Prev: 큐,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.49 예외
..............

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- 예외: asyncio.TimeoutError

     *note TimeoutError: 82f.의 폐지된 별칭입니다.  작업이 주어진 마감 시
     간을 초과했을 때 발생합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 이 클래스를 *note TimeoutError: 82f.의 별칭으로
     만들었습니다.

 -- 예외: asyncio.CancelledError

     작업이 취소되었습니다.

     이 예외는 asyncio 태스크가 취소될 때 사용자 정의 작업을 수행하기 위
     해 잡을 수 있습니다.  거의 모든 상황에서 예외를 다시 일으켜야 합니
     다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note CancelledError: 1b8.는 이제 *note
     Exception: 9d6.가 아니라 *note BaseException: 5b5.의 서브 클래스입
     니다.

 -- 예외: asyncio.InvalidStateError

     *note Task: 1be. 나 *note Future: bca.의 내부 상태가 잘못되었습니다
     .

     이미 결괏값이 설정된 'Future' 객체에 대해 결괏값을 설정하는 것과 같
     은 상황에서 발생할 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError

     주어진 소켓이나 파일 유형에서는 “sendfile” 시스템 호출을 사용할 수
     없습니다.

     *note RuntimeError: 195.의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: asyncio.IncompleteReadError

     요청한 읽기 작업이 완전히 완료되지 않았습니다.

     *note asyncio 스트림 API: 329e.가 일으킵니다.

     이 예외는 *note EOFError: 12c9.의 서브 클래스입니다.

      -- 속성: expected

          기대하는 바이트의 총수 (*note int: 257.).

      -- 속성: partial

          스트림이 끝나기 전에 읽은 *note bytes: 1c2. 문자열.

 -- 예외: asyncio.LimitOverrunError

     구분 기호를 찾는 동안 버퍼 크기 제한에 도달했습니다.

     *note asyncio 스트림 API: 329e.가 일으킵니다.

      -- 속성: consumed

          소비된 바이트의 총수.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 루프,  Next: 퓨처,  Prev: 예외<10>,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.50 이벤트 루프
.....................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/events.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

머리말
......

이벤트 루프는 모든 asyncio 응용 프로그램의 핵심입니다.  이벤트 루프는 비
동기 태스크 및 콜백을 실행하고 네트워크 IO 연산을 수행하며 자식 프로세스
를 실행합니다.

응용 프로그램 개발자는 일반적으로 *note asyncio.run(): 476.과 같은 고수
준의 asyncio 함수를 사용해야 하며, 루프 객체를 참조하거나 메서드를 호출
할 필요가 거의 없습니다.  이 절은 주로 이벤트 루프 동작을 세부적으로 제
어해야 하는 저수준 코드, 라이브러리 및 프레임워크의 작성자를 대상으로 합
니다.

이벤트 루프 얻기
................

다음 저수준 함수를 사용하여 이벤트 루프를 가져오거나 설정하거나 만들 수
있습니다.:

 -- 함수: asyncio.get_running_loop ()

     현재 OS 스레드에서 실행 중인 이벤트 루프를 반환합니다.

     실행 중인 이벤트 루프가 없으면 *note RuntimeError: 195.를 발생시킵
     니다.

     이 함수는 코루틴이나 콜백에서만 호출할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: asyncio.get_event_loop ()

     현재의 이벤트 루프를 가져옵니다.

     When called from a coroutine or a callback (e.g.  scheduled with
     call_soon or similar API), this function will always return the
     running event loop.

     If there is no running event loop set, the function will return the
     result of the ‘get_event_loop_policy().get_event_loop()’ call.

     이 함수는 (특히 사용자 정의 이벤트 루프 정책을 사용할 때) 다소 복잡
     한 동작을 하므로, 코루틴과 콜백에서 *note get_event_loop(): 2c2.보
     다 *note get_running_loop(): b08. 함수를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     위에서 언급된 바와 같이, 이 저수준 함수를 사용하여 수동으로 이벤트
     루프를 만들고 닫는 대신, 고수준 *note asyncio.run(): 476. 함수를 사
     용하는 것을 고려하십시오.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if there is no
     current event loop.  In some future Python release this will become
     an error.

 -- 함수: asyncio.set_event_loop (loop)

     'loop'를 현재 OS 스레드의 현재 이벤트 루프로 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: asyncio.new_event_loop ()

     새 이벤트 루프 객체를 만들고 반환합니다.

*note get_event_loop(): 2c2, *note set_event_loop(): 17d1. 및 *note
new_event_loop(): 32ab. 함수의 동작은 *note 사용자 정의 이벤트 루프 정책
설정: 3359.에 의해 변경될 수 있음에 유의하십시오.

목차
....

이 설명서 페이지는 다음과 같은 절로 구성됩니다:

   * *note 이벤트 루프 메서드: 335a. 절은 이벤트 루프 API의 레퍼런스 설
     명서입니다.

   * *note 콜백 핸들: 335b. 절은 *note loop.call_soon(): b01. 및 *note
     loop.call_later(): b03.와 같은 예약 메서드에서 반환된 *note Handle:
     1aaa. 및 *note TimerHandle: 1773. 인스턴스를 설명합니다.

   * *note 서버 객체: 335c. 절은 *note loop.create_server(): b10.와 같은
     이벤트 루프 메서드에서 반환되는 형을 설명합니다.

   * *note 이벤트 루프 구현: 335d. 절은 *note SelectorEventLoop: 602. 및
     *note ProactorEventLoop: 603. 클래스를 설명합니다.

   * *note 예제: 335e. 절에서는 일부 이벤트 루프 API로 작업하는 방법을 보
     여줍니다.

* Menu:

* 이벤트 루프 메서드::
* 콜백 핸들::
* 서버 객체::
* 이벤트 루프 구현::
* 예제: 예제<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 루프 메서드,  Next: 콜백 핸들,  Up: 이벤트 루프

5.19.1.51 이벤트 루프 메서드
............................

이벤트 루프에는 다음과 같은 '저수준' API가 있습니다:

* Menu:

* 루프 실행 및 중지::
* 콜백 예약하기::
* 지연된 콜백 예약::
* 퓨처와 태스크 만들기::
* 네트워크 연결 열기::
* 네트워크 서버 만들기::
* 파일 전송::
* TLS 업그레이드::
* 파일 기술자 관찰하기::
* 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기::
* DNS::
* 파이프로 작업하기::
* 유닉스 시그널::
* 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기::
* 에러 처리 API::
* 디버그 모드 활성화::
* 자식 프로세스 실행하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 루프 실행 및 중지,  Next: 콜백 예약하기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.52 루프 실행 및 중지
...........................

 -- 메서드: loop.run_until_complete (future)

     'future'(*note Future: bca.의 인스턴스)가 완료할 때까지 실행합니다.

     인자가 *note 코루틴 객체: 329d. 면, *note asyncio.Task: 1be.로 실행
     되도록 묵시적으로 예약 됩니다.

     퓨처의 결과를 반환하거나 퓨처의 예외를 일으킵니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.run_forever ()

     *note stop(): c79.가 호출될 때까지 이벤트 루프를 실행합니다.

     *note run_forever(): 3361. 가 호출되기 전에 *note stop(): c79. 이 호
     출되었으면, 루프는 시간제한 0으로 I/O 셀렉터를 한 번 폴링하고, I/O
     이벤트에 따라 예약된 모든 콜백(과 이미 예약된 것들)을 실행한 다음 종
     료합니다.

     만약 *note stop(): c79. 이 *note run_forever(): 3361. 가 실행 중일
     때 호출되면, 루프는 현재 걸려있는 콜백들을 실행한 다음 종료합니다.
     콜백에 의해 예약되는 새 콜백은 이 경우 실행되지 않습니다; 대신 그것
     들은 다음에 *note run_forever(): 3361.나 *note
     run_until_complete(): c74.가 호출될 때 실행됩니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.stop ()

     이벤트 루프를 중지합니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.is_running ()

     이벤트 루프가 현재 실행 중이면 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.is_closed ()

     이벤트 루프가 닫혔으면 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.close ()

     이벤트 루프를 닫습니다.

     이 함수를 호출할 때 루프는 반드시 실행 중이지 않아야 합니다.  계류
     중인 모든 콜백을 버립니다.

     이 메서드는 모든 큐를 비우고 실행기를 종료하지만, 실행기가 완료할 때
     까지 기다리지 않습니다.

     이 메서드는 멱등적(itempotent)이고 되돌릴 수 없습니다.  이벤트 루프
     가 닫힌 후에 다른 메서드를 호출해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.shutdown_asyncgens ()

     현재 열려있는 *note 비동기 제너레이터: 2046. 객체를 모두 *note
     aclose(): 8d5. 호출로 닫도록 예약 합니다.  이 메서드를 호출한 후에
     는, 새 비동기 생성기가 이터레이트 되면 이벤트 루프에서 경고를 보냅
     니다.  예약된 모든 비동기 제너레이터를 신뢰성 있게 종료하는 데 사용
     해야 합니다.

     *note asyncio.run(): 476.가 사용될 때 이 함수를 호출할 필요는 없다
     는 점에 유의하세요.

     예:

          try:
              loop.run_forever()
          finally:
              loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
              loop.close()

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 메서드: async loop.shutdown_default_executor (timeout=None)

     기본 실행기의 닫힘을 예약하고 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.의 모든
     스레드가 조인(join)될 때까지 기다립니다.  이 메서드가 호출된 후,
     *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6.로 기본 실행기를 사용하면 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

     The 'timeout' parameter specifies the amount of time (in *note
     float: 2ef. seconds) the executor will be given to finish joining.
     With the default, ‘None’, the executor is allowed an unlimited
     amount of time.

     If the 'timeout' is reached, a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. is
     emitted and the default executor is terminated without waiting for
     its threads to finish joining.

          참고: Do not call this method when using *note asyncio.run():
          476, as the latter handles default executor shutdown
          automatically.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 예약하기,  Next: 지연된 콜백 예약,  Prev: 루프 실행 및 중지,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.53 콜백 예약하기
.......................

 -- 메서드: loop.call_soon (callback, *args, context=None)

     이벤트 루프의 다음 이터레이션 때 'args' 인자로 호출할 'callback'
     *note 콜백: 2923.을 예약합니다.

     *note asyncio.Handle: 1aaa. 인스턴스를 반환하는데, 나중에 콜백을 취
     소하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     콜백은 등록된 순서대로 호출됩니다.  각 콜백은 정확히 한 번 호출됩니
     다.

     선택적인 키워드 전용 'context' 인자는 'callback' 을 실행할 사용자 정
     의 *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. 를 지정합니다.  'context' 가 제
     공되지 않을 때, 콜백은 현재 컨텍스트를 사용합니다.

     *note call_soon_threadsafe(): b02.와 달리, 이 메서드는 스레드 안전
     하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.call_soon_threadsafe (callback, *args, context=None)

     스레드 안전한 *note call_soon(): b01. 변형입니다.  *note
     call_soon(): b01.은 스레드 안전하지 않기 때문에, 다른 스레드에서 콜
     백을 예약할 때, '반드시' 이 함수를 사용해야 합니다.

     This function is safe to be called from a reentrant context or
     signal handler, however, it is not safe or fruitful to use the
     returned handle in such contexts.

     Raises *note RuntimeError: 195. if called on a loop that’s been
     closed.  This can happen on a secondary thread when the main
     application is shutting down.

     설명서의 *note 동시성과 다중 스레딩: 32cc. 절을 참고하십시오.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'context' 키워드 전용 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
     .  자세한 정보는 PEP 567(1)을 보십시오.

     참고: 대부분 *note asyncio: a. 예약 함수는 키워드 인자 전달을 허용
     하지 않습니다.  그렇게 하려면 *note functools.partial(): 40e.을 사
     용하십시오:

          # "print("Hello", flush=True)" 를 예약합니다
          loop.call_soon(
              functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))

     asyncio는 디버그 및 오류 메시지에서 partial 객체를 더욱 잘 표시할 수
     있으므로, partial 객체를 사용하는 것이 람다를 사용하는 것보다 편리
     합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: 지연된 콜백 예약,  Next: 퓨처와 태스크 만들기,  Prev: 콜백 예약하기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.54 지연된 콜백 예약
..........................

이벤트 루프는 콜백 함수가 미래의 어떤 시점에서 호출되도록 예약하는 메커
니즘을 제공합니다.  이벤트 루프는 단조 시계를 사용하여 시간을 추적합니다
.

 -- 메서드: loop.call_later (delay, callback, *args, context=None)

     지정된 'delay' 초 (int 또는 float) 뒤에 'callback' 이 호출되도록 예
     약합니다.

     *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1773. 의 인스턴스가 반환되는데, 콜백을 취
     소하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'callback' 은 정확히 한번 호출됩니다.  두 콜백이 정확히 같은 시간에
     예약되면, 어떤 것이 먼저 호출되는지는 정의되지 않습니다.

     선택적 위치 'args' 는 호출 될 때 콜백에 전달됩니다.  콜백을 키워드
     인자로 호출하고 싶으면 *note functools.partial(): 40e. 를 사용하십
     시오.

     선택적인 키워드 전용 'context' 인자는 'callback' 을 실행할 사용자 정
     의 *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. 를 지정할 수 있게 합니다.
     'context' 가 제공되지 않을 때는 현재 컨텍스트가 사용됩니다.

          참고: For performance, callbacks scheduled with *note
          loop.call_later(): b03. may run up to one clock-resolution
          early (see ‘time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution’).

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'context' 키워드 전용 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
     .  자세한 정보는 PEP 567(1)을 보십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파이썬 3.7 및 이전 버전에서 기본 이벤트 루프 구
     현을 사용할 때, 'delay'는 하루를 초과할 수 없었습니다.  이 문제는 파
     이썬 3.8에서 수정되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.call_at (when, callback, *args, context=None)

     지정된 절대 타임스탬프 'when'(int 또는 float)에 'callback' 이 호출
     되도록 예약합니다.  *note loop.time(): 3368. 과 같은 시간 참조를 사
     용하십시오.

     이 메서드의 동작은 *note call_later(): b03.와 같습니다.

     *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1773. 의 인스턴스가 반환되는데, 콜백을 취
     소하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          참고: For performance, callbacks scheduled with *note
          loop.call_at(): b04. may run up to one clock-resolution early
          (see ‘time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution’).

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'context' 키워드 전용 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
     .  자세한 정보는 PEP 567(2)을 보십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파이썬 3.7 및 이전 버전에서 기본 이벤트 루프 구
     현을 사용할 때, 'when'와 현재 시각의 차이는 하루를 초과할 수 없었습
     니다.  이 문제는 파이썬 3.8에서 수정되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.time ()

     이벤트 루프의 내부 단조 시계에 따라, *note float: 2ef. 값으로 현재
     시각을 반환합니다.

     참고: 
     버전 3.8에서 변경: 파이썬 3.7 및 이전 버전에서 제한 시간(상대적인
     'delay' 나 절대적인 'when')은 1일을 초과하지 않아야 했습니다.  이 문
     제는 파이썬 3.8에서 수정되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

*note asyncio.sleep(): a6c. 함수.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: 퓨처와 태스크 만들기,  Next: 네트워크 연결 열기,  Prev: 지연된 콜백 예약,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.55 퓨처와 태스크 만들기
..............................

 -- 메서드: loop.create_future ()

     이벤트 루프에 연결된 *note asyncio.Future: bca. 객체를 만듭니다.

     이것이 asyncio에서 퓨처를 만드는 데 선호되는 방법입니다.  이렇게 하
     면 제삼자 이벤트 루프가 Future 객체의 다른 구현(더 나은 성능이나 계
     측(instrumentation))을 제공할 수 있습니다

     Added in version 3.5.2.

 -- 메서드: loop.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None,
          **kwargs)

     *note 코루틴: 329d. 'coro'의 실행을 예약합니다.  *note Task: 1be. 객
     체를 반환합니다.

     제삼자 이벤트 루프는 상호 운용성을 위해 자신만의 *note Task: 1be. 의
     서브 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 경우, 결과 형은 *note Task:
     1be. 의 서브 클래스입니다.

     The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
     *note Task: 1be. constructor (or factory) - all of the keyword
     arguments to this function are passed through to that interface,
     except 'name', or 'context' if it is ‘None’.

     'name' 인자가 제공되고 ‘None’이 아니면, *note Task.set_name():
     9d9.을 사용하여 태스크의 이름으로 설정됩니다.

     선택적인 키워드 전용 'context' 인자는 'coro' 를 실행할 사용자 정의
     *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. 를 지정할 수 있게 합니다.
     'context' 가 제공되지 않을 때는 현재 컨텍스트 사본이 만들어집니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'name' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'context' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.13.3에서 변경: Added ‘kwargs’ which passes on arbitrary
     extra parameters, including ‘name’ and ‘context’.

     버전 3.13.4에서 변경: Rolled back the change that passes on 'name'
     and 'context' (if it is None), while still passing on other
     arbitrary keyword arguments (to avoid breaking backwards
     compatibility with 3.13.3).

 -- 메서드: loop.set_task_factory (factory)

     *note loop.create_task(): 1c0. 에 의해 사용되는 태스크 팩토리를 설
     정합니다.

     'factory' 가 ‘None’ 이면 기본 태스크 팩토리가 설정됩니다.  그렇지 않
     으면, 'factory' 는 반드시 '콜러블' 이어야 하고, ‘(loop, coro,
     **kwargs)’ 과 일치하는 서명을 가져야 합니다.  여기서 'loop' 는 활성
     이벤트 루프에 대한 참조가 되고, 'coro' 는 코루틴 객체가 됩니다.  콜
     러블은 모든 'kwargs' 를 전달해야 하며, *note asyncio.Task: 1be. 호
     환 객체를 반환해야 합니다.

     버전 3.13.3에서 변경: Required that all 'kwargs' are passed on to
     *note asyncio.Task: 1be.

     버전 3.13.4에서 변경: 'name' is no longer passed to task factories.
     'context' is no longer passed to task factories if it is ‘None’.

 -- 메서드: loop.get_task_factory ()

     태스크 팩토리를 반환하거나, 기본값이 사용 중이면 ‘None’ 을 반환합니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워크 연결 열기,  Next: 네트워크 서버 만들기,  Prev: 퓨처와 태스크 만들기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.56 네트워크 연결 열기
............................

 -- 메서드: async loop.create_connection (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, all_errors=False)

     주어진 'host' 와 'port'로 지정된 주소로의 스트리밍 트랜스포트 연결
     을 엽니다.

     소켓 패밀리는 'host'(또는 지정된 경우 'family')에 따라 *note
     AF_INET: 1823. 또는 *note AF_INET6: 1824.일 수 있습니다.

     소켓 유형은 *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.이 됩니다.

     'protocol_factory' 는 반드시 *note asyncio 프로토콜: 336b. 구현을 반
     환하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

     이 메서드는 백그라운드에서 연결을 맺으려고 시도합니다.  성공하면,
     ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍을 반환합니다.

     하부 연산의 시간순 개요는 다음과 같습니다:

       1. 연결이 맺어지고, 이를 위한 *note 트랜스포트(transport): 336c.
          가 만들어집니다.

       2. 'protocol_factory' 가 인자 없이 호출되고, *note
          프로토콜(protocol): 336b. 인스턴스를 반환할 것으로 기대됩니다.

       3. 프로토콜 인스턴스는 ‘connection_made()’ 메서드를 호출함으로써
          트랜스포트와 연결됩니다.

       4. 성공하면 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 튜플이 반환됩니다.

     만들어진 트랜스포트는 구현 의존적인 양방향 스트림입니다.

     다른 인자들:

        * 'ssl': 주어지고 거짓이 아니면, SSL/TLS 트랜스포트가 만들어집니
          다 (기본적으로는 평범한 TCP 트랜스포트가 만들어집니다).  'ssl'
          이 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 객체면, 트랜스포트를 만들 때 이
          컨텍스트가 사용됩니다; 'ssl' 이 *note True: c0a. 면, *note
          ssl.create_default_context(): 155. 가 반환하는 기본 컨텍스트가
          사용됩니다.

          더 보기
          .......

          *note SSL/TLS 보안 고려 사항: 336d.

        * 'server_hostname'는 대상 서버의 인증서가 일치될 호스트 이름을
          설정하거나 대체합니다.  'ssl'이 ‘None’이 아닐 때만 전달되어야
          합니다.  기본적으로 'host' 인자의 값이 사용됩니다.  'host' 가
          비어 있으면, 기본값이 없고 'server_hostname' 값을 전달해야 합
          니다.  'server_hostname' 이 빈 문자열이면, 호스트 이름 일치가
          비활성화됩니다 (이것은 심각한 보안 위험으로, 잠재적인 중간자 공
          격을 허용하게 됩니다).

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' 는 'host' 결정을 위해 getaddrinfo()
          에 전달할 선택적 주소 패밀리, 프로토콜, 플래그입니다.  주어지
          면, 이것들은 모두 해당하는 *note socket: cc. 모듈 상수에 대응
          하는 정수여야 합니다.

        * 주어지면, 'happy_eyeballs_delay'는 이 연결에 대해 Happy
          Eyeballs를 활성화합니다.  다음 시도를 병렬로 시작하기 전에, 연
          결 시도가 완료되기를 기다리는 시간(초)을 나타내는 부동 소수점
          숫자여야 합니다.  이것은 RFC 8305(1)에 정의된 “연결 시도 지연
          (Connection Attempt Delay)” 입니다.  RFC에서 권장하는 적절한 기
          본값은 ‘0.25’(250밀리 초)입니다.

        * 'interleave'는 호스트 이름이 여러 IP 주소로 해석될 때 주소 재
          정렬을 제어합니다.  ‘0’이거나 지정되지 않으면, 재정렬이 수행되
          지 않고, 주소는 *note getaddrinfo(): c11.에 의해 반환된 순서대
          로 시도됩니다.  양의 정수가 지정되면, 주소는 주소 패밀리에 의
          해 인터리브 되고, 주어진 정수는 RFC 8305(2)에 정의된 대로 “첫
          번째 주소 패밀리 수(First Address Family Count)”로 해석됩니다.
          기본값은 'happy_eyeballs_delay'가 지정되지 않으면 ‘0’이고, 지
          정되면 ‘1’입니다.

        * 'sock' 이 주어지면, 트랜스포트가 사용할, 기존의 이미 연결된
          *note socket.socket: d9d. 객체여야 합니다.  'sock' 이 주어지면
          , 'host', 'port', 'family', 'proto', 'flags',
          'happy_eyeballs_delay', 'interleave', 'local_addr' 를 지정해서
          는 안 됩니다.

               참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 336e. method.

        * 'local_addr' 이 주어지면, 소켓을 로컬에 바인드 하는데 사용되는
          ‘(local_host, local_port)’ 튜플이어야 합니다.  'local_host' 와
          'local_port' 는 'host' 및 'port' 와 유사하게 ‘getaddrinfo()’ 를
          사용하여 조회됩니다.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 은 (TLS 연결의 경우) 연결을 중단하기 전
          에 TLS 핸드 셰이크가 완료될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.
          ‘None’ (기본값) 이면 ‘60.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 은 연결을 중단하기 전에 SSL 종료가 완료
          될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.  ‘None’ (기본값) 이면
          ‘30.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

        * 'all_errors' determines what exceptions are raised when a
          connection cannot be created.  By default, only a single
          ‘Exception’ is raised: the first exception if there is only
          one or all errors have same message, or a single ‘OSError’
          with the error messages combined.  When ‘all_errors’ is
          ‘True’, an ‘ExceptionGroup’ will be raised containing all
          exceptions (even if there is only one).

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.에 SSL/TLS에 대한 지
     원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 소켓 옵션 *note socket.TCP_NODELAY: 336f.는 기본
     적으로 모든 TCP 연결에 대해 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'happy_eyeballs_delay'와 'interleave' 매개 변수
     가 추가되었습니다.

     Happy Eyeballs 알고리즘: 듀얼 스택 호스트의 성공.  서버의 IPv4 경로
     와 프로토콜이 작동하지만, 서버의 IPv6 경로와 프로토콜은 작동하지 않
     을 때, 이중 스택 클라이언트 응용 프로그램은 IPv4 전용 클라이언트와
     비교하여 상당한 연결 지연이 발생합니다.  이중 스택 클라이언트의 사
     용자 환경이 더 나빠지기 때문에 바람직하지 않습니다.  이 문서는 이런
     사용자가 볼 수 있는 지연을 줄이고 알고리즘에 대한 요구 사항을 지정
     하고 알고리즘을 제공합니다.

     자세한 정보: ‘https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6555’

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'all_errors' was added.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note open_connection(): b15. 함수는 고수준 대안 API입니다.
     async/await 코드에서 직접 사용할 수 있는 (*note StreamReader: 18cc,
     *note StreamWriter: 1706.) 쌍을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.create_datagram_endpoint (protocol_factory,
          local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, family=0, proto=0,
          flags=0, reuse_port=None, allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)

     데이터 그램 연결을 만듭니다.

     소켓 패밀리는 'host'(또는 주어지면 'family')에 따라 *note AF_INET:
     1823, *note AF_INET6: 1824. 또는 *note AF_UNIX: 1825.일 수 있습니다
     .

     소켓 유형은 *note SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2.이 됩니다.

     'protocol_factory' 는 반드시 *note 프로토콜: 336b. 구현을 반환하는
     콜러블이어야 합니다.

     성공하면 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 튜플이 반환됩니다.

     다른 인자들:

        * 'local_addr' 이 주어지면, 소켓을 로컬에 바인드 하는 데 사용되
          는 ‘(local_host, local_port)’ 튜플입니다.  'local_host' 와
          'local_port' 는 *note getaddrinfo(): c11.를 사용하여 조회됩니
          다.

               참고: On Windows, when using the proactor event loop with
               ‘local_addr=None’, an *note OSError: 411. with
               ‘errno.WSAEINVAL’ will be raised when running it.

        * 'remote_addr' 이 주어지면, 소켓을 원격 주소에 연결하는 데 사용
          되는 ‘(remote_host, remote_port)’ 튜플입니다.  'remote_host' 와
          'remote_port' 는 *note getaddrinfo(): c11.를 사용하여 조회됩니
          다.

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' 는 'host' 결정을 위해 *note
          getaddrinfo(): c11. 에 전달할 선택적 주소 패밀리, 프로토콜, 플
          래그입니다.  주어지면, 이것들은 모두 해당하는 *note socket:
          cc. 모듈 상수에 대응하는 정수여야 합니다.

        * 'reuse_port' 는 모두 만들 때 이 플래그를 설정하는 한, 이 말단
          이 다른 기존 말단이 바인드 된 것과 같은 포트에 바인드 되도록 허
          용하도록 커널에 알려줍니다.  이 옵션은 윈도우나 일부 유닉스에
          서는 지원되지 않습니다.  *note socket.SO_REUSEPORT: 336f. 상수
          가 정의되어 있지 않으면, 이 기능은 지원되지 않는 것입니다.

        * 'allow_broadcast' 는 이 말단이 브로드캐스트 주소로 메시지를 보
          낼 수 있도록 커널에 알립니다.

        * 'sock' 은 트랜스포트가 사용할 소켓 객체로, 기존의 이미 연결된
          *note socket.socket: d9d. 객체를 사용하기 위해 선택적으로 지정
          할 수 있습니다.  지정되면 'local_addr' 과 'remote_addr' 를 생
          략해야 합니다 (반드시 *note None: 66f. 이어야 합니다).

               참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 336e. method.

     *note UDP 메아리 클라이언트 프로토콜: 3370. 과 *note UDP 메아리 서버
     프로토콜: 3371. 예제를 참고하세요.

     버전 3.4.4에서 변경: 'family', 'proto', 'flags', 'reuse_address',
     'reuse_port', 'allow_broadcast', 'sock' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8.1에서 변경: 'reuse_address' 매개 변수는 더는 지원되지 않습
     니다, *note socket.SO_REUSEADDR: 336f.를 사용하면 UDP에서 심각한 보
     안 문제가 발생하기 때문입니다.  ‘reuse_address=True’를 명시적으로 전
     달하면 예외가 발생합니다.

     UID가 다른 여러 프로세스가 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’를 사용하여 소켓을 같은
     UDP 소켓 주소에 할당하면, 들어오는 패킷이 소켓 간에 무작위로 분산될
     수 있습니다.

     지원되는 플랫폼의 경우, 'reuse_port'를 유사한 기능의 대체품으로 사
     용할 수 있습니다.  'reuse_port'에서는 *note socket.SO_REUSEPORT:
     336f.가 대신 사용되는데, 다른 UID를 가진 프로세스가 같은 소켓 주소
     에 소켓을 할당하지 못하게 구체적으로 막습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The 'reuse_address' parameter, disabled since
     Python 3.8.1, 3.7.6 and 3.6.10, has been entirely removed.

 -- 메서드: async loop.create_unix_connection (protocol_factory,
          path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     유닉스 연결을 만듭니다.

     소켓 패밀리는 *note AF_UNIX: 1825.가 됩니다; 소켓 유형은 *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.이 됩니다.

     성공하면 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 튜플이 반환됩니다.

     'path' 는 유닉스 도메인 소켓의 이름이며, 'sock' 매개 변수가 지정되
     지 않으면 필수입니다.  추상 유닉스 소켓, *note str: 445, *note
     bytes: 1c2, *note Path: 229. 경로가 지원됩니다.

     이 메서드의 인자에 관한 정보는 *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd.
     메서드의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .  'path' 매개 변수는 이제 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0. 가 될 수 있습니
     다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워크 서버 만들기,  Next: 파일 전송,  Prev: 네트워크 연결 열기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.57 네트워크 서버 만들기
..............................

 -- 메서드: async loop.create_server (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     'host' 주소의 'port' 에서 리스닝하는 TCP 서버(소켓 유형 *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.)를 만듭니다.

     *note Server: b0f. 객체를 반환합니다.

     인자:

        * 'protocol_factory' 는 반드시 *note 프로토콜: 336b. 구현을 반환
          하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

        * 'host' 매개 변수는 서버가 리스닝할 위치를 결정하는 여러 형으로
          설정할 수 있습니다.:

             - 'host'가 문자열이면, TCP 서버는 'host'로 지정된 단일 네트
               워크 인터페이스에 바인딩 됩니다.

             - 'host'가 문자열의 시퀀스면, TCP 서버는 시퀀스로 지정된 모
               든 네트워크 인터페이스에 바인딩 됩니다.

             - 'host'가 빈 문자열이거나 ‘None’이면, 모든 인터페이스가 사
               용되는 것으로 가정하고, 여러 소켓의 리스트가 반환됩니다
               (대체로 IPv4 하나와 IPv6 하나).

        * The 'port' parameter can be set to specify which port the
          server should listen on.  If ‘0’ or ‘None’ (the default), a
          random unused port will be selected (note that if 'host'
          resolves to multiple network interfaces, a different random
          port will be selected for each interface).

        * 'family' 는 *note socket.AF_INET: 1823. 또는 *note AF_INET6:
          1824. 중 하나로 설정되어, 소켓이 IPv4 또는 IPv6을 사용하게 할
          수 있습니다.  설정되지 않으면, 'family' 는 호스트 이름에 의해
          결정됩니다(기본값 *note AF_UNSPEC: 3373.).

        * 'flags' 은 *note getaddrinfo(): c11.를 위한 비트 마스크입니다.

        * 'sock' 은 기존 소켓 객체를 사용하기 위해 선택적으로 지정할 수
          있습니다.  지정되면, 'host' 및 'port' 는 지정할 수 없습니다.

               참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the server created.  To close the socket, call
               the server’s *note close(): 32e1. method.

        * 'backlog' 는 *note listen(): e56. 으로 전달되는 최대 대기 연결
          수 입니다 (기본값은 100).

        * 'ssl' 을 *note SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스로 설정하면, 들어오는
          연결에 TLS를 사용합니다.

        * 'reuse_address' 는, 일반적인 시간제한이 만료될 때까지 기다리지
          않고, ‘TIME_WAIT’ 상태의 로컬 소켓을 재사용하도록 커널에 알려
          줍니다.  지정하지 않으면 유닉스에서 자동으로 ‘True’ 로 설정됩
          니다.

        * 'reuse_port' 는 모두 만들 때 이 플래그를 설정하는 한, 이 말단
          이 다른 기존 말단이 바인드 된 것과 같은 포트에 바인드 되도록 허
          용하도록 커널에 알려줍니다.  이 옵션은 윈도우에서 지원되지 않
          습니다.

        * 'keep_alive' set to ‘True’ keeps connections active by
          enabling the periodic transmission of messages.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'keep_alive' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 은 (TLS 서버의 경우) 연결을 중단하기 전
          에 TLS 핸드 셰이크가 완료될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.
          ‘None’ (기본값) 이면 ‘60.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 은 연결을 중단하기 전에 SSL 종료가 완료
          될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.  ‘None’ (기본값) 이면
          ‘30.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

        * 'start_serving' 을 ‘True’ (기본값) 로 설정하면, 생성된 서버가
          즉시 연결을 받아들입니다.  ‘False’ 로 설정되면, 사용자는 서버
          가 연결을 받기 시작하도록 *note Server.start_serving(): b11. 이
          나 *note Server.serve_forever(): b12.를 await 해야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.에 SSL/TLS에 대한 지
     원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5.1에서 변경: 'host' 매개 변수는 문자열의 시퀀스가 될 수 있
     습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 과 'start_serving' 매개
     변수를 추가했습니다.  소켓 옵션 *note socket.TCP_NODELAY: 336f.는 기
     본적으로 모든 TCP 연결에 대해 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     더 보기
     .......

     *note start_server(): b16. 함수는 async/await 코드에서 사용할 수 있
     는 *note StreamReader: 18cc. 및 *note StreamWriter: 1706. 쌍을 반환
     하는 고수준의 대체 API입니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.create_unix_server (protocol_factory, path=None,
          *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

     *note loop.create_server(): b10.와 유사하지만, 소켓 패밀리 *note
     AF_UNIX: 1825. 용입니다.

     'path' 는 유닉스 도메인 소켓의 이름이며, 'sock' 매개 변수가 제공되
     지 않으면 필수입니다.  추상 유닉스 소켓, *note str: 445, *note
     bytes: 1c2, *note Path: 229. 경로가 지원됩니다.

     If 'cleanup_socket' is true then the Unix socket will automatically
     be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless
     the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

     이 메서드의 인자에 대한 정보는 *note loop.create_server(): b10. 메
     서드의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 과 'start_serving' 매개
     변수를 추가했습니다.  'path' 매개 변수는 이제 *note Path: 229. 객체
     일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'cleanup_socket' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.connect_accepted_socket (protocol_factory, sock,
          *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None,
          ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     이미 받아들인 연결을 트랜스포트/프로토콜 쌍으로 래핑합니다.

     이 메서드는 asyncio 밖에서 연결을 받아들이지만, 그 연결을 처리하는
     데 asyncio 를 사용하는 서버에서 사용됩니다.

     매개 변수:

        * 'protocol_factory' 는 반드시 *note 프로토콜: 336b. 구현을 반환
          하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

        * 'sock' 은 *note socket.accept: d9e. 가 반환한 기존 소켓 객체입
          니다.

               참고: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 336e. method.

        * 'ssl' 을 *note SSLContext: 294. 로 설정하면, 들어오는 연결에
          SSL을 사용합니다.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 은 (SSL 연결의 경우) 연결을 중단하기 전
          에 SSL 핸드 셰이크가 완료될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.
          ‘None’ (기본값) 이면 ‘60.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 은 연결을 중단하기 전에 SSL 종료가 완료
          될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.  ‘None’ (기본값) 이면
          ‘30.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

     ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 전송,  Next: TLS 업그레이드,  Prev: 네트워크 서버 만들기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.58 파일 전송
...................

 -- 메서드: async loop.sendfile (transport, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     'file' 을 'transport' 로 보냅니다.  전송된 총 바이트 수를 반환합니
     다.

     이 메서드는 가능한 경우 고성능 *note os.sendfile(): b0c. 을 사용합
     니다.

     'file' 는 바이너리 모드로 열린 일반 파일 객체여야 합니다.

     'offset' 은 파일 읽기 시작할 위치를 알려줍니다.  'count' 를 제공하
     면, EOF에 도달할 때까지 파일을 보내는 대신, 전송할 총 바이트 수를 지
     정합니다.  파일의 위치가 갱신됩니다, 이 메서드가 에러를 일으킬 때조
     차.  그리고, *note file.tell(): 29bf. 는 실제 전송된 바이트 수를 얻
     는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     'fallback' 을 ‘True’ 로 설정하면, 플랫폼이 sendfile 시스템 호출을 지
     원하지 않을 때 (가령 유닉스에서 SSL 소켓을 사용하거나 윈도우인 경우
     ), asyncio 가 파일을 수동으로 읽고 보내도록 합니다.

     시스템이 'sendfile' 시스템 호출을 지원하지 않고 'fallback' 이
     ‘False’ 면 *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3354. 를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 업그레이드,  Next: 파일 기술자 관찰하기,  Prev: 파일 전송,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.59 TLS 업그레이드
........................

 -- 메서드: async loop.start_tls (transport, protocol, sslcontext, *,
          server_side=False, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     기존 트랜스포트 기반 연결을 TLS로 업그레이드합니다.

     Create a TLS coder/decoder instance and insert it between the
     'transport' and the 'protocol'.  The coder/decoder implements both
     'transport'-facing protocol and 'protocol'-facing transport.

     Return the created two-interface instance.  After 'await', the
     'protocol' must stop using the original 'transport' and communicate
     with the returned object only because the coder caches
     'protocol'-side data and sporadically exchanges extra TLS session
     packets with 'transport'.

     In some situations (e.g.  when the passed transport is already
     closing) this may return ‘None’.

     매개 변수:

        * *note create_server(): b10.와 *note create_connection(): 5fd.
          같은 메서드가 반환하는 'transport' 와 'protocol' 인스턴스.

        * 'sslcontext': 구성된 *note SSLContext: 294. 의 인스턴스.

        * (*note create_server(): b10. 에 의해 생성된 것과 같은) 서버 측
          연결이 업그레이드될 때 'server_side' 에 ‘True’ 를 전달합니다.

        * 'server_hostname': 대상 서버의 인증서가 일치될 호스트 이름을 설
          정하거나 대체합니다.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' 은 (TLS 연결의 경우) 연결을 중단하기 전
          에 TLS 핸드 셰이크가 완료될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.
          ‘None’ (기본값) 이면 ‘60.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 은 연결을 중단하기 전에 SSL 종료가 완료
          될 때까지 대기하는 시간(초)입니다.  ‘None’ (기본값) 이면
          ‘30.0’ 초가 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 기술자 관찰하기,  Next: 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기,  Prev: TLS 업그레이드,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.60 파일 기술자 관찰하기
..............................

 -- 메서드: loop.add_reader (fd, callback, *args)

     'fd' 파일 기술자가 읽기 가능한지 관찰하기 시작하고, 일단 'fd'가 읽
     기 가능해지면 지정한 인자로 'callback' 을 호출합니다.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

 -- 메서드: loop.remove_reader (fd)

     'fd' 파일 기술자가 읽기 가능한지 관찰하는 것을 중단합니다.  'fd'가
     이전에 읽기에 대해 관찰 중이었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.add_writer (fd, callback, *args)

     'fd' 파일 기술자가 쓰기 가능한지 관찰하기 시작하고, 일단 'fd'가 쓰
     기 가능해지면 지정한 인자로 'callback' 을 호출합니다.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

     'callback' 에 *note 키워드 인자를 전달하려면: 3365. *note
     functools.partial(): 40e.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: loop.remove_writer (fd)

     'fd' 파일 기술자가 쓰기 가능한지 관찰하는 것을 중단합니다.  'fd'가
     이전에 쓰기에 대해 관찰 중이었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

이 메서드의 일부 제한 사항은 *note 플랫폼 지원: 337b. 절을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기,  Next: DNS,  Prev: 파일 기술자 관찰하기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.61 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기
...................................

일반적으로 *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd. 및 *note
loop.create_server(): b10.와 같은 트랜스포트 기반 API를 사용하는 프로토
콜 구현은 소켓을 직접 사용하는 구현보다 빠릅니다.  그러나, 성능이 결정적
이지 않고 *note socket: d9d. 객체로 직접 작업하는 것이 더 편리한 사용 사
례가 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_recv (sock, nbytes)

     'sock' 에서 최대 'nbytes' 를 수신합니다.  *note socket.recv(): da0.
     의 비동기 버전.

     수신한 데이터를 바이트열 객체로 반환합니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드가 항상 코루틴 메서드라고 설명되어왔지
     만, 파이썬 3.7 이전에는 *note Future: bca.를 반환했습니다.  파이썬
     3.7부터, 이것은 ‘async def’ 메서드입니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_recv_into (sock, buf)

     'sock' 에서 'buf' 버퍼로 데이터를 수신합니다.  블로킹 *note
     socket.recv_into(): 130d. 메서드를 따라 만들어졌습니다.

     버퍼에 기록된 바이트 수를 돌려줍니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_recvfrom (sock, bufsize)

     'sock' 에서 최대 'bufsize' 크기의 데이터그램을 수신합니다.  *note
     socket.recvfrom(): da1. 의 비동기 버전.

     (수신된 데이터, 원격 주소) 튜플을 반환합니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_recvfrom_into (sock, buf, nbytes=0)

     'sock' 에서 최대 'nbytes' 크기의 데이터그램을 'buf'로 수신합니다.
     *note socket.recvfrom_into(): 130e. 의 비동기 버전.

     (수신된 바이트 수, 원격 주소) 튜플을 반환합니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_sendall (sock, data)

     'data' 를 'sock' 소켓으로 보냅니다.  *note socket.sendall(): da4. 의
     비동기 버전.

     이 메서드는 'data' 의 모든 데이터가 송신되거나 에러가 발생할 때까지
     소켓으로 계속 송신합니다.  성공하면 ‘None’ 이 반환됩니다.  에러가 발
     생하면 예외가 발생합니다.  또한, 연결의 수신 단에서 성공적으로 처리
     한 (있기는 하다면) 데이터의 크기를 확인하는 방법은 없습니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드가 항상 코루틴 메서드라고 설명되어왔지
     만, 파이썬 3.7 이전에는 *note Future: bca.를 반환했습니다.  파이썬
     3.7부터, 이것은 ‘async def’ 메서드입니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_sendto (sock, data, address)

     'sock' 에서 데이터그램을 'address'로 보냅니다.  *note
     socket.sendto(): da5. 의 비동기 버전.

     보낸 바이트 수를 돌려줍니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_connect (sock, address)

     'sock'을 'address'에 있는 원격 소켓에 연결합니다.

     *note socket.connect(): d9f. 의 비동기 버전.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     버전 3.5.2에서 변경: ‘address’ 는 더는 결정될 필요가 없습니다.
     ‘sock_connect’ 는 *note socket.inet_pton(): 960.을 호출하여
     'address' 가 이미 결정되었는지를 검사합니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): c11. 가 'address' 를 결정하는 데 사용됩니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd.과 *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): b15.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_accept (sock)

     연결을 받아들입니다.  블로킹 *note socket.accept(): d9e. 메서드를 따
     라 만들어졌습니다.

     소켓은 주소에 바인드 되어 연결을 리스닝해야 합니다.  반환 값은
     ‘(conn, address)’ 쌍인데, 'conn' 은 연결로 데이터를 주고받을 수 있
     는 '새' 소켓 객체이고, 'address' 는 연결의 반대편 끝의 소켓에 바인
     드 된 주소입니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드가 항상 코루틴 메서드라고 설명되어왔지
     만, 파이썬 3.7 이전에는 *note Future: bca.를 반환했습니다.  파이썬
     3.7부터, 이것은 ‘async def’ 메서드입니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note loop.create_server(): b10.와 *note start_server(): b16.

 -- 메서드: async loop.sock_sendfile (sock, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     가능하면 고성능 *note os.sendfile: b0c. 을 사용하여 파일을 보냅니다
     .  전송된 총 바이트 수를 반환합니다.

     *note socket.sendfile(): e55.의 비동기 버전.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. *note
     socket: d9d. 이어야 합니다.

     'file' 는 바이너리 모드로 열린 일반 파일 객체여야 합니다.

     'offset' 은 파일 읽기 시작할 위치를 알려줍니다.  'count' 를 제공하
     면, EOF에 도달할 때까지 파일을 보내는 대신, 전송할 총 바이트 수를 지
     정합니다.  파일의 위치가 갱신됩니다, 이 메서드가 에러를 일으킬 때조
     차.  그리고, *note file.tell(): 29bf. 는 실제 전송된 바이트 수를 얻
     는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     'fallback' 을 ‘True’ 로 설정하면, 플랫폼이 sendfile 시스템 호출을 지
     원하지 않을 때 (가령 유닉스에서 SSL 소켓을 사용하거나 윈도우인 경우
     ), asyncio 가 파일을 수동으로 읽고 보내도록 합니다.

     시스템이 'sendfile' 시스템 호출을 지원하지 않고 'fallback' 이
     ‘False’ 면 *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3354. 를 발생시킵니다.

     'sock' 은 반드시 비 블로킹 소켓이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: DNS,  Next: 파이프로 작업하기,  Prev: 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.62 DNS
.............

 -- 메서드: async loop.getaddrinfo (host, port, *, family=0, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1759. 의 비동기 버전.

 -- 메서드: async loop.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags=0)

     *note socket.getnameinfo(): 16ca. 의 비동기 버전.

     참고: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' internally utilize their
     synchronous versions through the loop’s default thread pool
     executor.  When this executor is saturated, these methods may
     experience delays, which higher-level networking libraries may
     report as increased timeouts.  To mitigate this, consider using a
     custom executor for other user tasks, or setting a default executor
     with a larger number of workers.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 'getaddrinfo' 와 'getnameinfo' 메서드는 모두 코루틴 메
서드라고 설명되어왔지만, 파이썬 3.7 이전에 실제로는 *note
asyncio.Future: bca. 객체를 반환했습니다.  파이썬 3.7부터 두 가지 메서드
모두 코루틴입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이프로 작업하기,  Next: 유닉스 시그널,  Prev: DNS,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.63 파이프로 작업하기
...........................

 -- 메서드: async loop.connect_read_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     이벤트 루프에 'pipe'의 읽기용 끝을 등록합니다.

     'protocol_factory' 는 반드시 *note asyncio 프로토콜: 336b. 구현을 반
     환하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

     'pipe'는 *note 파일류 객체: 11b2.입니다.

     쌍 ‘(transport, protocol)’를 반환합니다.  여기서 'transport'는
     *note ReadTransport: 337f. 인터페이스를 지원하고, 'protocol'은
     'protocol_factory'에 의해 인스턴스로 만들어진 객체입니다.

     *note SelectorEventLoop: 602. 이벤트 루프를 사용하면, 'pipe' 는 비
     블로킹 모드로 설정됩니다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.connect_write_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     이벤트 루프에 'pipe'의 쓰기용 끝을 등록합니다.

     'protocol_factory' 는 반드시 *note asyncio 프로토콜: 336b. 구현을 반
     환하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

     'pipe'는 *note 파일류 객체: 11b2.입니다.

     쌍 ‘(transport, protocol)’를 반환합니다.  여기서 'transport'는
     *note WriteTransport: 3380. 인터페이스를 지원하고, 'protocol'은
     'protocol_factory'에 의해 인스턴스로 만들어진 객체입니다.

     *note SelectorEventLoop: 602. 이벤트 루프를 사용하면, 'pipe' 는 비
     블로킹 모드로 설정됩니다.

     참고: 윈도우에서 *note SelectorEventLoop: 602.는 위의 메서드들을 지
     원하지 않습니다.  윈도우에서는 대신 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.를
     사용하십시오.

더 보기
.......

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325. 와 *note loop.subprocess_shell():
3326. 메서드.


File: python.info,  Node: 유닉스 시그널,  Next: 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기,  Prev: 파이프로 작업하기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.64 유닉스 시그널
.......................

 -- 메서드: loop.add_signal_handler (signum, callback, *args)

     'callback'을 'signum' 시그널의 처리기로 설정합니다.

     콜백은 다른 대기 중인 콜백과 해당 이벤트 루프의 실행 가능한 코루틴
     과 함께 'loop'에 의해 호출됩니다.  *note signal.signal(): 1125.을 사
     용하여 등록된 시그널 처리기와 달리, 이 함수로 등록된 콜백은 이벤트
     루프와 상호 작용할 수 있습니다.

     시그널 번호가 유효하지 않거나 잡을 수 없으면 *note ValueError: 202.
     를 발생시킵니다.  처리기를 설정하는 데 문제가 있는 경우 *note
     RuntimeError: 195. 를 발생시킵니다.

     'callback' 에 *note 키워드 인자를 전달하려면: 3365. *note
     functools.partial(): 40e.를 사용하십시오.

     *note signal.signal(): 1125.와 마찬가지로, 이 함수는 메인 스레드에
     서 호출되어야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.remove_signal_handler (sig)

     'sig' 시그널의 처리기를 제거합니다.

     시그널 처리기가 제거되면 ‘True’ 를, 주어진 시그널에 처리기가 설정되
     지 않았으면 ‘False’ 를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

더 보기
.......

*note signal: c6. 모듈.


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기,  Next: 에러 처리 API,  Prev: 유닉스 시그널,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.65 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기
.....................................................

 -- 메서드: awaitable loop.run_in_executor (executor, func, *args)

     지정된 실행기에서 'func' 가 호출되도록 배치합니다.

     The 'executor' argument should be an *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor: 31f1. instance.  The default executor
     is used if 'executor' is ‘None’.  The default executor can be set
     by *note loop.set_default_executor(): 73c, otherwise, a *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. will be
     lazy-initialized and used by *note run_in_executor(): 8e6. if
     needed.

     예:

          import asyncio
          import concurrent.futures

          def blocking_io():
              # 파일 연산(가령 로깅)은 이벤트 루프를 블록할 수 있습니다:
              # 스레드 풀에서 실행하십시오.
              with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
                  return f.read(100)

          def cpu_bound():
              # CPU 병목 작업은 이벤트 루프를 블록합니다:
              # 일반적으로 프로세스 풀에서 실행하는 것이
              # 좋습니다.
              return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))

          async def main():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

              ## 선택지:

              # 1. 기본 루프의 실행기에서 실행:
              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                  None, blocking_io)
              print('default thread pool', result)

              # 2. 사용자 정의 스레드 풀에서 실행:
              with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, blocking_io)
                  print('custom thread pool', result)

              # 3. 사용자 정의 프로세스 풀에서 실행:
              with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, cpu_bound)
                  print('custom process pool', result)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              asyncio.run(main())

     Note that the entry point guard (‘if __name__ == '__main__'’) is
     required for option 3 due to the peculiarities of *note
     multiprocessing: 94, which is used by *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     8eb.  See *note Safe importing of main module: 31dd.

     이 메서드는 *note asyncio.Future: bca. 객체를 반환합니다.

     'func' 에 *note 키워드 인자를 전달하려면: 3365. *note
     functools.partial(): 40e.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.5.3에서 변경: *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6. 는 더는 자
     신이 만드는 스레드 풀 실행기의 ‘max_workers’ 를 설정하지 않습니다.
     대신 스레드 풀 실행기(*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.)가 스스로 기본
     값을 설정하도록 합니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.set_default_executor (executor)

     'executor'를 *note run_in_executor(): 8e6.에서 사용하는 기본 실행기
     로 설정합니다.  'executor'는 반드시 *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.의
     인스턴스여야 합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'executor'는 반드시 *note ThreadPoolExecutor:
     73b.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 에러 처리 API,  Next: 디버그 모드 활성화,  Prev: 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.66 에러 처리 API
.......................

이벤트 루프에서 예외를 처리하는 방법을 사용자 정의 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.set_exception_handler (handler)

     'handler' 를 새 이벤트 루프 예외 처리기로 설정합니다.

     'handler'가 ‘None’ 이면, 기본 예외 처리기가 설정됩니다.  그렇지 않
     으면, 'handler'는 반드시 ‘(loop, context)’ 와 일치하는 서명을 가진
     콜러블이어야 합니다.  여기서 ‘loop’는 활성 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조
     가 될 것이고, ‘context’ 는 예외에 관한 세부 정보를 담고 있는 ‘dict’
     객체가 됩니다 (context에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note
     call_exception_handler(): 3387. 문서를 참조하십시오).

     If the handler is called on behalf of a *note Task: 1be. or *note
     Handle: 1aaa, it is run in the *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. of
     that task or callback handle.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The handler may be called in the *note Context:
     15b1. of the task or handle where the exception originated.

 -- 메서드: loop.get_exception_handler ()

     현재 예외 처리기를 반환하거나, 사용자 정의 예외 처리기가 설정되지 않
     았으면 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

 -- 메서드: loop.default_exception_handler (context)

     기본 예외 처리기.

     예외가 발생하고 예외 처리기가 설정되지 않았을 때 호출됩니다.  기본
     동작으로 위임하려는 사용자 정의 예외 처리기가 호출할 수 있습니다.

     'context' 매개 변수는 *note call_exception_handler(): 3387. 에서와
     같은 의미입니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.call_exception_handler (context)

     현재 이벤트 루프 예외 처리기를 호출합니다.

     'context' 는 다음 키를 포함하는 ‘dict’ 객체입니다 (새 키가 미래의 파
     이썬 버전에서 추가될 수 있습니다):

        * ‘message’: 에러 메시지;

        * ‘exception’ (선택적): 예외 객체;

        * ‘future’ (선택적): *note asyncio.Future: bca. 인스턴스;

        * ‘task’ (선택적): *note asyncio.Task: 1be. 인스턴스;

        * ‘handle’ (선택적): *note asyncio.Handle: 1aaa. 인스턴스;

        * ‘protocol’ (선택적): *note 프로토콜: 336b. 인스턴스;

        * ‘transport’ (선택적): *note 트랜스포트: 336c. 인스턴스;

        * ‘socket’ (선택적): *note socket.socket: d9d. 인스턴스;

        * ‘source_traceback’ (optional): Traceback of the source;

        * ‘handle_traceback’ (optional): Traceback of the handle;

        * 
          ‘asyncgen’ (optional): Asynchronous generator that caused

               예외.

          참고: 이 메서드는 서브 클래스 된 이벤트 루프에서 재정의되지 않
          아야 합니다.  사용자 정의 예외 처리를 위해서는 *note
          set_exception_handler(): 3386. 메서드를 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 디버그 모드 활성화,  Next: 자식 프로세스 실행하기,  Prev: 에러 처리 API,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.67 디버그 모드 활성화
............................

 -- 메서드: loop.get_debug ()

     이벤트 루프의 디버그 모드(*note bool: 461.)를 가져옵니다.

     기본값은 환경 변수 *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1d56. 가 비어 있지 않
     은 문자열로 설정되면 ‘True’ 이고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’ 입니다.

 -- 메서드: loop.set_debug (enabled: bool)

     이벤트 루프의 디버그 모드를 설정합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 새로운 *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 사용
     하여 디버그 모드를 활성화할 수도 있습니다.

 -- 속성: loop.slow_callback_duration

     This attribute can be used to set the minimum execution duration in
     seconds that is considered “slow”.  When debug mode is enabled,
     “slow” callbacks are logged.

     Default value is 100 milliseconds.

더 보기
.......

*note asyncio의 디버그 모드: 1d57.


File: python.info,  Node: 자식 프로세스 실행하기,  Prev: 디버그 모드 활성화,  Up: 이벤트 루프 메서드

5.19.1.68 자식 프로세스 실행하기
................................

이 하위 절에서 설명하는 메서드는 저수준입니다.  일반적인 async/await 코
드에서는 대신 고수준의 *note asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a75. 및
*note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a74. 편리 함수를 사용하는 것을 고
려하십시오.

     참고: 윈도우에서, 기본 이벤트 루프 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.는
     자식 프로세스를 지원합니다, 반면에 *note SelectorEventLoop: 602.는
     지원하지 않습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 윈도우에서의 자식 프로세스
     지원: 3327.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: async loop.subprocess_exec (protocol_factory, *args,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     'args'로 지정된 하나 이상의 문자열 인자로 서브 프로세스를 만듭니다.

     'args'는 반드시 다음과 같은 것으로 표현되는 문자열의 목록이어야 합
     니다:

        * *note str: 445.;

        * 또는 *note 파일 시스템 인코딩: 27cd.으로로 인코딩된 *note
          bytes: 1c2.

     첫 번째 문자열은 프로그램 실행 파일을 지정하고, 나머지 문자열은 인
     자를 지정합니다.  함께, 문자열 인자들은 프로그램의 ‘argv’를 구성합
     니다.

     이것은 ‘shell=False’와 문자열의 목록을 첫 번째 인자로 호출된 표준 라
     이브러리 *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 클래스와 유사합니다.  그러나
     *note Popen: 199.이 문자열 목록인 단일 인자를 받아들이지만,
     'subprocess_exec'는 여러 문자열 인자를 받아들입니다.

     'protocol_factory'는 반드시 *note asyncio.SubprocessProtocol: 338c.
     클래스의 서브 클래스를 반환하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

     다른 매개 변수:

        * 'stdin'은 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

             * a file-like object

             * an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for
               example those created with *note os.pipe(): 17e1.

             * *note subprocess.PIPE: b84. 상수 (기본값), 새 파이프를 만
               들고 연결합니다,

             * 서브 프로세스가 이 프로세스의 파일 기술자를 상속하게 하는
               값 ‘None’

             * 특수 *note os.devnull: 1a3a. 파일이 사용될 것임을 나타내
               는 *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 113f. 상수

        * 'stdout'은 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

             * a file-like object

             * *note subprocess.PIPE: b84. 상수 (기본값), 새 파이프를 만
               들고 연결합니다,

             * 서브 프로세스가 이 프로세스의 파일 기술자를 상속하게 하는
               값 ‘None’

             * 특수 *note os.devnull: 1a3a. 파일이 사용될 것임을 나타내
               는 *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 113f. 상수

        * 'stderr'은 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

             * a file-like object

             * *note subprocess.PIPE: b84. 상수 (기본값), 새 파이프를 만
               들고 연결합니다,

             * 서브 프로세스가 이 프로세스의 파일 기술자를 상속하게 하는
               값 ‘None’

             * 특수 *note os.devnull: 1a3a. 파일이 사용될 것임을 나타내
               는 *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 113f. 상수

             * *note subprocess.STDOUT: 320f. 상수, 표준 에러 스트림을 프
               로세스의 표준 출력 스트림에 연결합니다

        * 다른 모든 키워드 인자는 해석 없이 *note subprocess.Popen:
          199.로 전달됩니다.  다만, 'bufsize', 'universal_newlines',
          'shell', 'text', 'encoding' 및 'errors'는 예외인데, 이것들은 지
          정되지 않아야 합니다.

          ‘asyncio’ 서브 프로세스 API는 스트림을 텍스트로 디코딩하는 것
          을 지원하지 않습니다.  *note bytes.decode(): 8d3.는 스트림에서
          반환된 바이트열을 텍스트로 변환하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     If a file-like object passed as 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     represents a pipe, then the other side of this pipe should be
     registered with *note connect_write_pipe(): 332b. or *note
     connect_read_pipe(): 332a. for use with the event loop.

     다른 인자에 관한 설명은 *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 클래스의 생성
     자를 참조하십시오.

     ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍을 반환합니다.  여기에서 'transport'는
     *note asyncio.SubprocessTransport: 338d. 베이스 클래스를 따르고,
     'protocol'은 'protocol_factory'에 의해 인스턴스로 만들어진 객체입니
     다.

 -- 메서드: async loop.subprocess_shell (protocol_factory, cmd, *,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     플랫폼의 “셸” 구문을 사용하는 'cmd'로 자식 프로세스를 만듭니다.
     'cmd'는 *note str: 445.이나 *note 파일 시스템 인코딩: 27cd.으로 인
     코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2. 일 수 있습니다.

     이것은 ‘shell=True’로 호출된 표준 라이브러리 *note
     subprocess.Popen: 199. 클래스와 유사합니다.

     'protocol_factory'는 반드시 *note SubprocessProtocol: 338c. 클래스
     의 서브 클래스를 반환하는 콜러블이어야 합니다.

     나머지 인자에 관한 자세한 내용은 *note subprocess_exec(): 3325.를 참
     조하십시오.

     ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍을 반환합니다.  여기서 'transport'는
     *note SubprocessTransport: 338d. 베이스 클래스를 따르고,
     'protocol'은 'protocol_factory'에 의해 인스턴스로 만들어진 객체입니
     다.

     참고: 셸 주입(1) 취약점을 피하고자 모든 공백과 특수 문자를 적절하게
     따옴표 처리하는 것은 응용 프로그램의 책임입니다.  *note
     shlex.quote(): 27d. 함수를 사용하여 셸 명령을 구성하는 데 사용될 문
     자열에 있는 공백 및 특수 문자를 올바르게 이스케이프 할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: 콜백 핸들,  Next: 서버 객체,  Prev: 이벤트 루프 메서드,  Up: 이벤트 루프

5.19.1.69 콜백 핸들
...................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Handle

     *note loop.call_soon(): b01, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe():
     b02. 에 의해 반환되는 콜백 래퍼 객체.

      -- 메서드: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. object associated
          with the handle.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 메서드: cancel ()

          콜백을 취소합니다.  콜백이 이미 취소되었거나 실행되었다면 이 메
          서드는 아무 효과가 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: cancelled ()

          콜백이 취소되었으면 ‘True’ 을 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.TimerHandle

     *note loop.call_later(): b03. 및 *note loop.call_at(): b04. 에 의해
     반환되는 콜백 래퍼 객체.

     이 클래스는 *note Handle: 1aaa.의 서브 클래스입니다.

      -- 메서드: when ()

          예약된 콜백 시간을 *note float: 2ef. 초로 반환합니다.

          시간은 절대 타임스탬프입니다.  *note loop.time(): 3368. 과 같
          은 시간 참조를 사용합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 서버 객체,  Next: 이벤트 루프 구현,  Prev: 콜백 핸들,  Up: 이벤트 루프

5.19.1.70 서버 객체
...................

Server 객체는 *note loop.create_server(): b10, *note
loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae, *note start_server(): b16, *note
start_unix_server(): 32e4.로 만듭니다.

*note Server: b0f. 클래스의 인스턴스를 직접 만들지 마십시오.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Server

     'Server' 객체는 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자입니다.  ‘async with’ 문에서
     사용될 때, ‘async with’ 문이 완료되면 서버 객체가 닫혀 있고 새 연결
     을 받아들이지 않는다는 것이 보장됩니다:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # 코드

          # 이 지점에서, srv 는 닫혔고 더는 새 연결을 받아들이지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Server 객체는 파이썬 3.7부터 비동기 컨텍스트 관
     리자입니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: This class was exposed publicly as
     ‘asyncio.Server’ in Python 3.9.11, 3.10.3 and 3.11.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          서버를 중지합니다: 리스닝 소켓을 닫고 *note sockets: c13. 어트
          리뷰트를 ‘None’ 으로 설정합니다.

          이미 받아들여진 클라이언트 연결을 나타내는 소켓은 열린 채로 있
          습니다.

          서버는 비동기적으로 닫힙니다; 서버가 닫힐 때까지 (그리고 더는
          활성 연결이 남아있지 않을 때까지) 대기하려면 *note
          wait_closed(): 16d0. 코루틴을 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: close_clients ()

          모든 이미 받아들여진 클라이언트 연결을 답습니다.

          Calls *note close(): 336e. on all associated transports.

          *note close(): 32e1. should be called before *note
          close_clients(): 1b2. when closing the server to avoid races
          with new clients connecting.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: abort_clients ()

          Close all existing incoming client connections immediately,
          without waiting for pending operations to complete.

          Calls *note abort(): 3390. on all associated transports.

          *note close(): 32e1. should be called before *note
          abort_clients(): 1b3. when closing the server to avoid races
          with new clients connecting.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: get_loop ()

          서버 객체와 연관된 이벤트 루프를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: async start_serving ()

          연결을 받아들이기 시작합니다.

          이 메서드는 멱등적이라서, 서버가 이미 시작되었을 때도 호출 할
          수 있습니다.

          *note loop.create_server(): b10.와 *note
          asyncio.start_server(): b16. 의 'start_serving' 키워드 전용 매
          개 변수는 즉시 연결을 받아들이지 않는 서버 객체를 만들 수 있도
          록 합니다.  이 경우 ‘Server.start_serving()’, 또는 *note
          Server.serve_forever(): b12.를 사용하여 Server가 연결을 받아들
          이기 시작하도록 할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: async serve_forever ()

          코루틴이 취소될 때까지 연결을 받아들이기 시작합니다.
          ‘serve_forever’ 태스크를 취소하면 서버가 닫힙니다.

          이 메서드는 서버가 이미 연결을 받아들이고 있어도 호출 할 수 있
          습니다.  하나의 'Server' 객체 당 하나의 ‘serve_forever’ 태스크
          만 존재할 수 있습니다.

          예:

               async def client_connected(reader, writer):
                   # reader/writer 스트림으로 클라이언트와
                   # 통신합니다. 예를 들어:
                   await reader.readline()

               async def main(host, port):
                   srv = await asyncio.start_server(
                       client_connected, host, port)
                   await srv.serve_forever()

               asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: is_serving ()

          서버가 새 연결을 받아들이고 있으면 ‘True’ 를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: async wait_closed ()

          *note close(): 32e1. 메서드가 완료되고 모든 활성 연결이 종료될
          때까지 기다립니다.

      -- 속성: sockets

          서버가 리스닝하고 있는 소켓류 객체
          ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’의 리스트.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 파이썬 3.7 이전에는 ‘Server.sockets’ 가 서
          버 소켓의 내부 리스트를 직접 반환했습니다.  3.7에서는 그 리스
          트의 복사본이 반환됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 루프 구현,  Next: 예제<16>,  Prev: 서버 객체,  Up: 이벤트 루프

5.19.1.71 이벤트 루프 구현
..........................

asyncio에는 두 가지 이벤트 루프 구현이 함께 제공됩니다: *note
SelectorEventLoop: 602. 및 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.

기본적으로 asyncio는 *note EventLoop: 16fd.를 사용하도록 구성됩니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop

     *note selectors: c2. 모듈을 기반으로 하는 *note AbstractEventLoop:
     95d. 의 서브 클래스.

     주어진 플랫폼에서 사용할 수 있는 가장 효율적인 'selector'를 사용합
     니다.  정확한 셀렉터 구현을 수동으로 구성하여 사용할 수도 있습니다
     .:

          import asyncio
          import selectors

          class MyPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):
             def new_event_loop(self):
                selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
                return asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)

          asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyPolicy())

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.ProactorEventLoop

     “I/O 완료 포트”(IOCP)를 사용하는 윈도우용 *note AbstractEventLoop:
     95d.의 서브 클래스.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     더 보기
     .......

     I/O 완료 포트에 관한 MSDN 설명서(1).

 -- 클래스: asyncio.EventLoop

          An alias to the most efficient available subclass of *note
          AbstractEventLoop: 95d. for the given platform.

          유닉스에서는 *note SelectorEventLoop: 602.의, 윈도우에서는
          *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.의 별칭입니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop

     asyncio 호환 이벤트 루프의 추상 베이스 클래스.

     *note 이벤트 루프 메서드: 335f. 절은 ‘AbstractEventLoop’의 다른 구
     현이 정의해야 하는 모든 메서드를 나열합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/fileio/i-o-completion-ports


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<16>,  Prev: 이벤트 루프 구현,  Up: 이벤트 루프

5.19.1.72 예제
..............

이 절의 모든 예는 '의도적으로' *note loop.run_forever(): 3361. 및 *note
loop.call_soon(): b01.와 같은 저수준 이벤트 루프 API를 사용하는 방법을 보
여줍니다.  현대 asyncio 응용 프로그램은 거의 이런 식으로 작성할 필요가 없
습니다; *note asyncio.run(): 476.과 같은 고수준 함수를 사용하는 것을 고
려하십시오.

* Menu:

* call_soon()을 사용하는 Hello World: call_soon 을 사용하는 Hello World.
* call_later()로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다.: call_later 로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다.
* 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기::
* SIGINT 및 SIGTERM에 대한 시그널 처리기 설정::


File: python.info,  Node: call_soon 을 사용하는 Hello World,  Next: call_later 로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다,  Up: 예제<16>

5.19.1.73 call_soon()을 사용하는 Hello World
............................................

콜백을 예약하기 위해 *note loop.call_soon(): b01. 메서드를 사용하는 예제
.  콜백은 ‘"Hello World"’ 를 표시한 다음 이벤트 루프를 중지합니다:

     import asyncio

     def hello_world(loop):
         """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
         print('Hello World')
         loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # hello_world() 호출을 예약합니다
     loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)

     # 블로킹 호출이 loop.stop() 에 의해 중단됩니다
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

더 보기
.......

코루틴과 *note run(): 476. 함수로 작성된 유사한 *note Hello World: 329d.
예제.


File: python.info,  Node: call_later 로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다,  Next: 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기,  Prev: call_soon 을 사용하는 Hello World,  Up: 예제<16>

5.19.1.74 call_later()로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다.
................................................

초마다 현재 날짜를 표시하는 콜백의 예입니다.  콜백은 *note
loop.call_later(): b03. 메서드를 사용하여 5초 동안 자신을 다시 예약한 다
음 이벤트 루프를 중지합니다:

     import asyncio
     import datetime

     def display_date(end_time, loop):
         print(datetime.datetime.now())
         if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
             loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
         else:
             loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # 첫번째 display_date() 호출을 예약합니다
     end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
     loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)

     # 블로킹 호출이 loop.stop() 에 의해 중단됩니다
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

더 보기
.......

코루틴과 *note run(): 476. 함수로 작성된 유사한 *note 현재 날짜: 32bb. 예
제.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기,  Next: SIGINT 및 SIGTERM에 대한 시그널 처리기 설정,  Prev: call_later 로 현재 날짜를 표시합니다,  Up: 예제<16>

5.19.1.75 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기
................................................

*note loop.add_reader(): 32fe. 메서드를 사용하여 파일 기술자가 데이터를
수신할 때까지 기다렸다가 이벤트 루프를 닫습니다:

     import asyncio
     from socket import socketpair

     # 연결된 파일 기술자 쌍을 만듭니다
     rsock, wsock = socketpair()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     def reader():
         data = rsock.recv(100)
         print("Received:", data.decode())

         # 할 일을 끝냈습니다: 파일 기술자를 등록 취소합니다
         loop.remove_reader(rsock)

         # 이벤트 루프를 중지합니다
         loop.stop()

     # 읽기 이벤트를 위해 파일 기술자를 등록합니다
     loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)

     # 네트웍으로 부터의 데이터 수신을 흉내냅니다
     loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

     try:
         # 이벤트 루프를 실행합니다
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         # 할 일을 끝냈습니다, 소켓과 이벤트 루프를 닫습니다
         rsock.close()
         wsock.close()
         loop.close()

더 보기
.......

   * 트랜스포트, 프로토콜, *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd. 메서드를
     사용한 유사한 *note 예제: 32fc.

   * 고수준의 *note asyncio.open_connection(): b15. 함수와 스트림을 사용
     하는 또 다른 유사한 *note 예제: 32fa.


File: python.info,  Node: SIGINT 및 SIGTERM에 대한 시그널 처리기 설정,  Prev: 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기,  Up: 예제<16>

5.19.1.76 SIGINT 및 SIGTERM에 대한 시그널 처리기 설정
.....................................................

(이 ‘signals’ 예제는 유닉스에서만 작동합니다.)

*note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3382. 메서드를 사용하여 *note SIGINT:
83e.와 *note SIGTERM: 13a8. 시그널을 위한 처리기를 등록합니다:

     import asyncio
     import functools
     import os
     import signal

     def ask_exit(signame, loop):
         print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
         loop.stop()

     async def main():
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
             loop.add_signal_handler(
                 getattr(signal, signame),
                 functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))

         await asyncio.sleep(3600)

     print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
     print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")

     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: 퓨처,  Next: 트랜스포트와 프로토콜,  Prev: 이벤트 루프,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.77 퓨처
..............

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/futures.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

'Future' 객체는 '저수준 콜백 기반 코드'와 고수준 async/await 코드 간에 다
리를 놓는 데 사용됩니다.

* Menu:

* 퓨처 함수::
* Future 객체: Future 객체<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/futures.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py


File: python.info,  Node: 퓨처 함수,  Next: Future 객체<2>,  Up: 퓨처

5.19.1.78 퓨처 함수
...................

 -- 함수: asyncio.isfuture (obj)

     'obj'가 다음 중 하나면 ‘True’를 반환합니다:

        * *note asyncio.Future: bca.의 인스턴스,

        * *note asyncio.Task: 1be.의 인스턴스,

        * ‘_asyncio_future_blocking’ 어트리뷰트를 가진 퓨처류 객체.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: asyncio.ensure_future (obj, *, loop=None)

     다음을 반환합니다:

        * 'obj'가 *note Future: bca, *note Task: 1be. 또는 퓨처류 객체면
          , 'obj' 인자를 있는 그대로 (*note isfuture(): 339d.로 검사합니
          다.)

        * 'obj'가 코루틴이면, 'obj'를 감싸는 *note Task: 1be. 객체
          (*note iscoroutine(): 478.로 검사합니다); 이 경우 코루틴은
          ‘ensure_future()’로 예약됩니다.

        * 'obj'가 어웨이터블이면, 'obj'를 기다릴 *note Task: 1be. 객체
          (*note inspect.isawaitable(): e13.로 검사합니다.)

     'obj'가 이 중 어느 것도 아니면, *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

          중요: 새 태스크를 만드는 데 선호되는 *note create_task(): 1bf.
          함수도 참조하십시오.

          Save a reference to the result of this function, to avoid a
          task disappearing mid-execution.

     버전 3.5.1에서 변경: 함수는 모든 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad. 객체를 받아
     들입니다.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'obj' is
     not a Future-like object and 'loop' is not specified and there is
     no running event loop.

 -- 함수: asyncio.wrap_future (future, *, loop=None)

     *note concurrent.futures.Future: 11a1. 객체를 *note asyncio.Future:
     bca. 객체로 감쌉니다.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'future' is
     not a Future-like object and 'loop' is not specified and there is
     no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Future 객체<2>,  Prev: 퓨처 함수,  Up: 퓨처

5.19.1.79 Future 객체
.....................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Future (*, loop=None)

     Future는 비동기 연산의 최종 결과를 나타냅니다.  스레드 안전하지 않
     습니다.

     Future는 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad. 객체입니다.  코루틴은 결과나 예외가
     설정되거나 취소될 때까지 Future 객체를 기다릴 수 있습니다.  Future는
     여러번 어웨이트할 수 있으며 결과는 같습니다.

     일반적으로 퓨처는 저수준 콜백 기반 코드(예를 들어, asyncio *note
     트랜스포트: 32a5.를 사용하여 구현된 프로토콜에서)가 고수준
     async/await 코드와 상호 운용되도록 하는 데 사용됩니다.

     간단한 규칙은 사용자가 만나는 API에서 Future 객체를 절대 노출하지 않
     는 것이며, Future 객체를 만드는 권장 방법은 *note
     loop.create_future(): c76.를 호출하는 것입니다.  이런 식으로 대체 이
     벤트 루프 구현이 자신의 최적화된 Future 객체 구현을 주입할 수 있습
     니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note contextvars: 24. 모듈에 대한 지원이 추가되
     었습니다.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'loop' is
     not specified and there is no running event loop.

      -- 메서드: result ()

          Future의 결과를 반환합니다.

          Future가 '완료(done)'했고 *note set_result(): 32d1. 메서드로 결
          과가 설정되었으면, 결괏값이 반환됩니다.

          Future가 '완료(done)'했고 *note set_exception(): 32d2. 메서드
          로 예외가 설정되었으면, 이 메서드는 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          Future가 '취소(cancelled)'되었으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          CancelledError: 1b8. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          Future의 결과를 아직 사용할 수 없으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          InvalidStateError: 32d5. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: set_result (result)

          Future를 '완료(done)'로 표시하고, 그 결과를 설정합니다.

          Future가 이미 '완료(done)'했으면, *note InvalidStateError:
          32d5. 에러를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: set_exception (exception)

          Future를 '완료(done)'로 표시하고, 예외를 설정합니다.

          Future가 이미 '완료(done)'했으면, *note InvalidStateError:
          32d5. 에러를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: done ()

          Future가 '완료(done)'했으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          Future는 '취소(cancelled)'되었거나 *note set_result(): 32d1. 나
          *note set_exception(): 32d2. 호출로 결과나 예외가 설정되면 '완
          료(done)'됩니다.

      -- 메서드: cancelled ()

          Future가 '최소(cancelled)'되었으면, ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          이 메서드는 대개 결과나 예외를 설정하기 전에 Future가 '취소
          (cancelled)'되었는지 확인하는 데 사용됩니다:

               if not fut.cancelled():
                   fut.set_result(42)

      -- 메서드: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Future가 '완료(done)'될 때 실행할 콜백을 추가합니다.

          'callback'는 유일한 인자인 Future 객체로 호출됩니다.

          이 메서드가 호출될 때 Future가 이미 '완료(done)'되었으면, 콜백
          이 *note loop.call_soon(): b01.으로 예약됩니다.

          선택적 키워드 전용 'context' 인자는 'callback'이 실행될 사용자
          정의 *note contextvars.Context: 15b1.를 지정할 수 있도록 합니
          다.  'context'가 제공되지 않으면 현재 컨텍스트가 사용됩니다.

          *note functools.partial(): 40e.을 사용하여 매개 변수를
          callback에 전달할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어:

               # "fut"가 완료되면 'print("Future:", fut)'를 호출합니다.
               fut.add_done_callback(
                   functools.partial(print, "Future:"))

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 'context' 키워드 전용 매개 변수가 추가되었
          습니다.  자세한 내용은 PEP 567(1)을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: remove_done_callback (callback)

          콜백 목록에서 'callback'을 제거합니다.

          제거된 콜백 수를 반환합니다.  콜백이 두 번 이상 추가되지 않는
          한 일반적으로 1입니다.

      -- 메서드: cancel (msg=None)

          Future를 취소하고 콜백을 예약합니다.

          Future가 이미 '완료(done)'했거나 '취소(cancelled)'되었으면,
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 Future의 상태를 '취소
          (cancelled)'로 변경하고, 콜백을 예약한 다음 ‘True’를 반환합니
          다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 'msg' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

      -- 메서드: exception ()

          이 Future에 설정된 예외를 반환합니다.

          Future가 '완료(done)'했을 때만 예외(또는 예외가 설정되지 않았
          으면 ‘None’)가 반환됩니다.

          Future가 '취소(cancelled)'되었으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          CancelledError: 1b8. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          Future가 아직 '완료(done)'하지 않았으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          InvalidStateError: 32d5. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: get_loop ()

          Future 객체가 연결된 이벤트 루프를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

이 예제는 Future 객체를 만들고, Future에 결과를 설정하는 비동기 Task를 만
들고 예약하며, Future가 결과를 얻을 때까지 기다립니다:

     async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
         # *delay* 초 동안 잠잡니다.
         await asyncio.sleep(delay)

         # *fut* 퓨처의 결과로 *value* 를 설정합니다.
         fut.set_result(value)

     async def main():
         # 현재 이벤트 루프를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # 새로운 Future 객체를 만듭니다.
         fut = loop.create_future()

         # 병렬 태스크로 "set_after()" 코루틴을 실행합니다.
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 이미 가지고 있으므로, 여기서는 저수준 "loop.create_task()"
         # API를 사용하고 있습니다.
         # 그렇지 않다면 그저 "asyncio.create_task()" 를 사용할 수 있었습니다.
         loop.create_task(
             set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))

         print('hello ...')

         # *fut* 에 결과가 올 때까지 기다렸다가 (1초) 그것을 인쇄합니다.
         print(await fut)

     asyncio.run(main())

     중요: Future 객체는 *note concurrent.futures.Future: 11a1.를 흉내 내
     도록 설계되었습니다.  주요 차이점은 다음과 같습니다:

        - asyncio 퓨처와는 달리, *note concurrent.futures.Future: 11a1.
          인스턴스는 await 할 수 없습니다.

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 33a0. 와 *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 33a3.은 'timeout' 인자를 받아들이
          지 않습니다.

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 33a0. 와 *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 33a3.는 Future가 '완료(done)'하지
          않았을 때 *note InvalidStateError: 32d5. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

        - *note asyncio.Future.add_done_callback(): b05.으로 등록된 콜백
          은 즉시 호출되지 않습니다.  대신 *note loop.call_soon(): b01.로
          예약됩니다.

        - asyncio Future는 *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 1869. 와
          *note concurrent.futures.as_completed(): 1654. 함수와 호환되지
          않습니다.

        - *note asyncio.Future.cancel(): 1820.은 선택적 ‘msg’ 인자를 받
          아들이지만, *note concurrent.futures.Future.cancel(): 31fa.은
          받아들이지 않습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


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5.19.1.80 트랜스포트와 프로토콜
...............................

머리말
......

트랜스포트와 프로토콜은 *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd.와 같은 '저
수준' 이벤트 루프 API에서 사용됩니다.  그들은 콜백 기반 프로그래밍 스타
일을 사용하고 네트워크 나 IPC 프로토콜(예를 들어 HTTP)의 고성능 구현을 가
능하게 합니다.

본질에서 트랜스포트와 프로토콜은 라이브러리와 프레임워크에서만 사용되어
야 하며 고수준 asyncio 응용 프로그램에서는 사용되지 않아야 합니다.

이 문서 페이지는 *note 트랜스포트: 33a7.와 *note 프로토콜: 33a8.을 모두
다룹니다.

소개
....

최상위 수준에서, 트랜스포트는 '어떻게(how)' 바이트를 전송할지를 다루지만
, 프로토콜은 '어떤(which)' 바이트를 전송할지를 결정합니다 (그리고 어느 정
도는 언제(when)도).

같은 것을 다른 식으로 말하면: 트랜스포트는 소켓(또는 유사한 I/O 엔드포인
트)의 추상화지만, 프로토콜은 트랜스포트의 관점에서 응용 프로그램의 추상
화입니다.

또 다른 시각은 트랜스포트와 프로토콜 인터페이스가 함께 네트워크 I/O와 프
로세스 간 I/O를 사용하기 위한 추상 인터페이스를 정의한다는 것입니다.

트랜스포트 객체와 프로토콜 객체 간에는 항상 1:1 관계가 있습니다: 프로토
콜은 트랜스포트 메서드를 호출하여 데이터를 보내지만, 트랜스포트는 프로토
콜 메서드를 호출하여 받은 데이터를 전달합니다.

대부분의 연결 지향 이벤트 루프 메서드(가령 *note
loop.create_connection(): 5fd.)는 'Transport' 객체로 표현되는 받아들인 연
결을 위한 'Protocol' 객체를 만드는 데 사용되는 'protocol_factory' 인자를
받아들입니다.  이러한 메서드는 대개 ‘(transport, protocol)’의 튜플을 반
환합니다.

목차
....

이 설명서 페이지는 다음 절로 구성됩니다:

   * *note 트랜스포트: 33a7. 절은 asyncio *note BaseTransport: 33a9,
     *note ReadTransport: 337f, *note WriteTransport: 3380, *note
     Transport: 33aa, *note DatagramTransport: 17b3. 및 *note
     SubprocessTransport: 338d. 클래스를 설명합니다.

   * *note 프로토콜: 33a8. 절은 asyncio *note BaseProtocol: 33ab, *note
     Protocol: 33ac, *note BufferedProtocol: a9a, *note
     DatagramProtocol: 6c8. 및 *note SubprocessProtocol: 338c. 클래스를
     설명합니다.

   * *note 예제: 33ad. 절은 트랜스포트, 프로토콜 및 저수준 이벤트 루프
     API를 사용하는 방법을 보여줍니다.

* Menu:

* 트랜스포트::
* 프로토콜::
* 예제: 예제<17>.


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5.19.1.81 트랜스포트
....................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/transports.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

트랜스포트는 다양한 종류의 통신 채널을 추상화하기 위해 *note asyncio:
a.에서 제공하는 클래스입니다.

트랜스포트 객체는 항상 *note asyncio 이벤트 루프: d75.에 의해 인스턴스로
만들어집니다.

asyncio는 TCP, UDP, SSL 및 서브 프로세스 파이프를 위한 트랜스포트를 구현
합니다.  트랜스포트에서 사용할 수 있는 메서드는 트랜스포트의 종류에 따라
다릅니다.

트랜스포트 클래스는 *note 스레드 안전하지 않습니다: 32cc.

* Menu:

* 트랜스포트 계층 구조::
* 베이스 트랜스포트::
* 읽기 전용 트랜스포트::
* 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트::
* 데이터 그램 트랜스포트::
* 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/transports.py


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5.19.1.82 트랜스포트 계층 구조
..............................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.BaseTransport

     모든 트랜스포트의 베이스 클래스.  모든 asyncio 트랜스포트가 공유하
     는 메서드를 포함합니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.WriteTransport (BaseTransport)

     쓰기 전용 연결을 위한 베이스 트랜스포트

     'WriteTransport' 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note
     loop.connect_write_pipe(): 332b. 이벤트 루프 메서드에서 반환되며
     *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325.와 같은 서브 프로세스 관련 메서
     드에서도 사용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.ReadTransport (BaseTransport)

     읽기 전용 연결을 위한 베이스 트랜스포트

     'ReadTransport' 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
     332a. 이벤트 루프 메서드에서 반환되며 *note loop.subprocess_exec():
     3325.와 같은 서브 프로세스 관련 메서드에서도 사용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Transport (WriteTransport, ReadTransport)

     TCP 연결과 같은 양방향 트랜스포트를 나타내는 인터페이스.

     사용자는 트랜스포트를 직접 인스턴스로 만들지 않습니다; 유틸리티 함
     수를 호출하고, 프로토콜 팩토리와 트랜스포트와 프로토콜을 만드는 데
     필요한 기타 정보를 전달합니다.

     'Transport' 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note loop.create_connection():
     5fd, *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 32e3, *note
     loop.create_server(): b10, *note loop.sendfile(): 3375. 등과 같은 이
     벤트 루프 메서드에서 반환되거나 사용됩니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.DatagramTransport (BaseTransport)

     데이터 그램 (UDP) 연결을 위한 트랜스포트.

     'DatagramTransport' 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note
     loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c. 이벤트 루프 메서드에서 반환됩
     니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.SubprocessTransport (BaseTransport)

     부모와 그 자식 OS 프로세스 간의 연결을 나타내는 추상화.

     'SubprocessTransport' 클래스의 인스턴스는 이벤트 루프 메서드 *note
     loop.subprocess_shell(): 3326.과 *note loop.subprocess_exec():
     3325.에서 반환됩니다.


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5.19.1.83 베이스 트랜스포트
...........................

 -- 메서드: BaseTransport.close ()

     트랜스포트를 닫습니다.

     트랜스포트에 송신 데이터용 버퍼가 있으면, 버퍼 된 데이터는 비동기적
     으로 플러시 됩니다.  더는 데이터가 수신되지 않습니다.  버퍼 된 모든
     데이터가 플러시 된 후, 프로토콜의 *note protocol.connection_lost():
     33b0. 메서드가 *note None: 66f.을 인자로 사용하여 호출됩니다.  트랜
     스포트가 닫힌 후에는 사용해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseTransport.is_closing ()

     트랜스포트가 닫히는 중이거나 닫혔으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseTransport.get_extra_info (name, default=None)

     트랜스포트나 그것이 사용하는 하부 자원에 대한 정보를 반환합니다.

     'name'은 얻고자 하는 트랜스포트 특정 정보의 조각을 나타내는 문자열
     입니다.

     'default'는 정보가 없거나 트랜스포트가 제삼자 이벤트 루프 구현이나
     현재 플랫폼에서 조회를 지원하지 않을 때 반환 할 값입니다.

     예를 들어, 다음 코드는 트랜스포트의 하부 소켓 객체를 가져오려고 시
     도합니다:

          sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
          if sock is not None:
              print(sock.getsockopt(...))

     일부 트랜스포트에서 조회할 수 있는 정보의 범주:

        * 소켓:

             - ‘'peername'’: 소켓이 연결된 원격 주소, *note
               socket.socket.getpeername(): 33b1.의 결과 (에러 시
               ‘None’)

             - ‘'socket'’: *note socket.socket: d9d. 인스턴스

             - ‘'sockname'’: 소켓 자체 주소, *note
               socket.socket.getsockname(): 33b2.의 결과

        * SSL 소켓:

             - ‘'compression'’: 문자열로 표현된 사용된 압축 알고리즘, 또
               는 연결이 압축되지 않았으면 ‘None’; *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.compression(): 1136.의 결과

             - ‘'cipher'’: 사용되는 암호 체계의 이름, 이의 사용을 정의하
               는 SSL 프로토콜의 버전 및 사용되는 비밀 비트의 수를 포함
               하는 3-튜플; *note ssl.SSLSocket.cipher(): 33b3.의 결과

             - ‘'peercert'’: 피어 인증서; *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf.의 결과

             - ‘'sslcontext'’: *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스

             - ‘'ssl_object'’: *note ssl.SSLObject: b7e. 나 *note
               ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7. 인스턴스

        * 파이프:

             - ‘'pipe'’: 파이프 객체

        * 서브 프로세스:

             - ‘'subprocess'’: *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 인스턴스

 -- 메서드: BaseTransport.set_protocol (protocol)

     새 프로토콜을 설정합니다.

     프로토콜의 교환은 두 프로토콜이 교환을 지원한다고 문서화 되었을 때
     만 수행되어야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseTransport.get_protocol ()

     현재 프로토콜을 반환합니다.


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5.19.1.84 읽기 전용 트랜스포트
..............................

 -- 메서드: ReadTransport.is_reading ()

     트랜스 포트가 새로운 데이터를 받고 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: ReadTransport.pause_reading ()

     트랜스포트의 수신 끝을 일시 중지합니다.  *note resume_reading():
     b1a.이 호출 될 때까지 프로토콜의 *note protocol.data_received():
     1793. 메서드에 데이터가 전달되지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드는 멱등적(idempotent)입니다.  즉, 트랜
     스포트가 이미 일시 중지되거나 닫혔을 때도 호출할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: ReadTransport.resume_reading ()

     수신 끝을 재개합니다.  읽을 수 있는 데이터가 있다면 프로토콜의
     *note protocol.data_received(): 1793. 메서드가 다시 한번 호출됩니다
     .

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드는 멱등적(idempotent)입니다.  즉, 트랜
     스포트가 이미 읽고 있을 때도 호출할 수 있습니다.


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5.19.1.85 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트
..............................

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.abort ()

     계류 중인 작업이 완료될 때까지 기다리지 않고, 즉시 트랜스포트를 닫
     습니다.  버퍼 된 데이터는 손실됩니다.  더는 데이터가 수신되지 않습
     니다.  프로토콜의 *note protocol.connection_lost(): 33b0. 메서드는
     결국 *note None: 66f.을 인자로 사용하여 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.can_write_eof ()

     트랜스포트가 *note write_eof(): 33b9.를 지원하면 *note True: c0a.를
     반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size ()

     트랜스포트가 사용하는 출력 버퍼의 현재 크기를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits ()

     쓰기 흐름 제어를 위한 'high' 와 'low' 수위(watermark)를 가져옵니다.
     튜플 ‘(low, high)’를 반환합니다.  여기서 'low' 와 'high'는 양의 바
     이트 수입니다.

     제한을 설정하려면 *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 33bb.를 사용하십
     시오.

     Added in version 3.4.2.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits (high=None, low=None)

     쓰기 흐름 제어를 위한 'high' 와 'low' 수위(watermark)를 설정합니다.

     이 두 값(바이트 수로 측정)은 프로토콜의 *note
     protocol.pause_writing(): 33bc. 과 *note protocol.resume_writing():
     33bd. 메서드가 언제 호출될지를 제어합니다.  지정하면, low 수위는
     high 수위보다 작거나 같아야 합니다.  'high' 와 'low'는 음수가 될 수
     없습니다.

     버퍼 크기가 'high' 값보다 크거나 같아질 때 *note pause_writing():
     33bc.가 호출됩니다.  쓰기가 일시 중지되면, 버퍼 크기가 'low' 값보다
     작거나 같아질 때 *note resume_writing(): 33bd.이 호출됩니다.

     기본값은 구현에 따라 다릅니다.  high 수위만 주어지면, low 수위는
     high 수위보다 작거나 같은 구현 특정 기본값이 사용됩니다.  'high'를
     0으로 설정하면, 'low'도 0으로 설정되고, 버퍼가 비어있지 않게 될 때
     마다 *note pause_writing(): 33bc.가 호출되도록 합니다.  'low'를 0으
     로 설정하면 버퍼가 빌 때만 *note resume_writing(): 33bd.이 호출됩니
     다.  두 제한 중 하나에 0을 사용하는 것은 I/O와 계산을 동시에 수행할
     기회를 줄이기 때문에 일반적으로 최선이 아닙니다.

     제한을 가져오려면 *note get_write_buffer_limits(): dc1.를 사용하십
     시오.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.write (data)

     어떤 'data' 바이트열을 트랜스포트에 기록합니다.

     이 메서드는 블록하지 않습니다; 데이터를 버퍼하고 비동기적으로 전송
     되도록 배치합니다.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.writelines (list_of_data)

     트랜스포트에 데이터 바이트열 리스트(또는 임의의 이터러블)를 기록합
     니다.  이것은 이터러블이 산출하는 각 요소에 대해 *note write():
     33be.를 호출하는 것과 기능 면에서 동등하지만, 더 효율적으로 구현될
     수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: WriteTransport.write_eof ()

     버퍼 된 모든 데이터를 플러시 한 후 트랜스포트의 쓰기 끝을 닫습니다.
     데이터가 여전히 수신될 수 있습니다.

     이 메서드는 트랜스포트(예를 들어 SSL)가 반만 닫힌 연결을 지원하지 않
     으면 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.


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5.19.1.86 데이터 그램 트랜스포트
................................

 -- 메서드: DatagramTransport.sendto (data, addr=None)

     'addr'(트랜스포트 종속적인 대상 주소)에 의해 주어진 원격 피어로
     'data' 바이트열을 보냅니다.  'addr'가 *note None: 66f.이면, 트랜스
     포트를 만들 때 지정된 대상 주소로 data가 전송됩니다.

     이 메서드는 블록하지 않습니다; 데이터를 버퍼하고 비동기적으로 전송
     되도록 배치합니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This method can be called with an empty bytes
     object to send a zero-length datagram.  The buffer size calculation
     used for flow control is also updated to account for the datagram
     header.

 -- 메서드: DatagramTransport.abort ()

     계류 중인 작업이 완료될 때까지 기다리지 않고, 즉시 트랜스포트를 닫
     습니다.  버퍼 된 데이터는 손실됩니다.  더는 데이터가 수신되지 않습
     니다.  프로토콜의 *note protocol.connection_lost(): 33b0. 메서드는
     결국 *note None: 66f.을 인자로 사용하여 호출됩니다.


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5.19.1.87 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트
..................................

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.get_pid ()

     서브 프로세스 ID를 정수로 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport (fd)

     정수 파일 기술자 'fd'에 대응하는 통신 파이프의 트랜스포트를 돌려줍
     니다:

        * ‘0’: writable streaming transport of the standard input
          ('stdin'), or *note None: 66f. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdin=PIPE’

        * ‘1’: readable streaming transport of the standard output
          ('stdout'), or *note None: 66f. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdout=PIPE’

        * ‘2’: readable streaming transport of the standard error
          ('stderr'), or *note None: 66f. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stderr=PIPE’

        * 다른 'fd': *note None: 66f.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.get_returncode ()

     서브 프로세스 반환 값을 정수로, 혹은 반환되지 않았으면 *note None:
     66f.을 반환합니다.  *note subprocess.Popen.returncode: 19af. 어트리
     뷰트와 유사합니다.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.kill ()

     서브 프로세스를 죽입니다.

     POSIX 시스템에서, 이 함수는 SIGKILL을 서브 프로세스로 보냅니다.  윈
     도우에서, 이 메서드는 *note terminate(): 33c6.의 별칭입니다.

     *note subprocess.Popen.kill(): 13a6.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.send_signal (signal)

     *note subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 13a7.와 마찬가지로 'signal' 번
     호를 서브 프로세스로 보냅니다.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.terminate ()

     서브 프로세스를 중지합니다.

     POSIX 시스템에서, 이 메서드는 *note SIGTERM: 13a8.을 서브 프로세스
     로 보냅니다.  윈도에서, 서브 프로세스를 중지하기 위해 윈도우 API 함
     수 ‘TerminateProcess()’가 호출됩니다.

     *note subprocess.Popen.terminate(): 13a5.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessTransport.close ()

     *note kill(): 33c5. 메서드를 호출하여 서브 프로세스를 죽입니다.

     서브 프로세스가 아직 반환하지 않았으면, 'stdin', 'stdout' 및
     'stderr' 파이프의 트랜스포트를 닫습니다.


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5.19.1.88 프로토콜
..................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/protocols.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio는 네트워크 프로토콜을 구현하는 데 사용해야 하는 추상 베이스 클래
스 집합을 제공합니다.  이러한 클래스는 *note 트랜스포트: 336c.와 함께 사
용해야 합니다.

추상 베이스 프로토콜 클래스의 서브 클래스는 일부 또는 모든 메서드를 구현
할 수 있습니다.  이 모든 메서드는 콜백입니다: 이것들은 특정 이벤트에서 트
랜스포트에 의해 호출됩니다, 예를 들어 어떤 데이터가 수신될 때.  베이스 프
로토콜 메서드는 해당 트랜스포트에 의해 호출되어야 합니다.

* Menu:

* 베이스 프로토콜::
* 베이스 프로토콜: 베이스 프로토콜<2>.
* 스트리밍 프로토콜::
* 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜::
* 데이터 그램 프로토콜::
* 서브 프로세스 프로토콜::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/protocols.py


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5.19.1.89 베이스 프로토콜
.........................

 -- 클래스: asyncio.BaseProtocol

     모든 프로토콜이 공유하는 메서드를 가진 베이스 프로토콜.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.Protocol (BaseProtocol)

     스트리밍 프로토콜(TCP, 유닉스 소켓 등)을 구현하기 위한 베이스 클래
     스.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.BufferedProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     수신 버퍼의 수동 제어로 스트리밍 프로토콜을 구현하기 위한 베이스 클
     래스.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.DatagramProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     데이터 그램 (UDP) 프로토콜을 구현하기 위한 베이스 클래스.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.SubprocessProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     자식 프로세스와 통신하는 (단방향 파이프) 프로토콜을 구현하기 위한 베
     이스 클래스.


File: python.info,  Node: 베이스 프로토콜<2>,  Next: 스트리밍 프로토콜,  Prev: 베이스 프로토콜,  Up: 프로토콜

5.19.1.90 베이스 프로토콜
.........................

모든 asyncio 프로토콜은 베이스 프로토콜 콜백을 구현할 수 있습니다.

연결 콜백
.........

연결 콜백은 모든 프로토콜에서 성공적으로 연결될 때마다 정확히 한 번 호출
됩니다.  다른 모든 프로토콜 콜백은 이 두 메서드 사이에서만 호출될 수 있
습니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseProtocol.connection_made (transport)

     연결이 이루어질 때 호출됩니다.

     'transport' 인자는 연결을 나타내는 트랜스포트입니다.  트랜스포트에
     대한 참조를 저장하는 것은 프로토콜의 책임입니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseProtocol.connection_lost (exc)

     연결이 끊어지거나 닫힐 때 호출됩니다.

     인자는 예외 객체나 *note None: 66f.입니다.  후자는 정상적인 EOF가 수
     신되었거나, 연결의 이쪽에서 연결이 중단(abort)되거나 닫혔다는 것을
     의미합니다.

흐름 제어 콜백
..............

흐름 제어 콜백은 프로토콜에 의해 수행되는 쓰기를 일시 중지하거나 다시 시
작하도록 트랜스포트에 의해 호출될 수 있습니다.

자세한 내용은 *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 33bb. 메서드 설명서를 참
조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: BaseProtocol.pause_writing ()

     트랜스포트 버퍼가 높은 수위를 넘을 때 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseProtocol.resume_writing ()

     트랜스포트 버퍼가 낮은 수위 아래로 내려갈 때 호출됩니다.

버퍼 크기가 높은 수위와 같으면, *note pause_writing(): 33bc.이 호출되지
않습니다: 버퍼 크기는 엄격하게 초과해야 합니다.

반대로, *note resume_writing(): 33bd.은 버퍼 크기가 낮은 수위와 같거나 낮
을 때 호출됩니다.  이러한 종료 조건은 수위가 0일 때 예상대로 진행되게 하
려면 중요합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스트리밍 프로토콜,  Next: 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜,  Prev: 베이스 프로토콜<2>,  Up: 프로토콜

5.19.1.91 스트리밍 프로토콜
...........................

*note loop.create_server(): b10, *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae,
*note loop.create_connection(): 5fd, *note
loop.create_unix_connection(): 32e3, *note
loop.connect_accepted_socket(): b17, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
332a. 및 *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 332b.와 같은 이벤트 메서드는 스
트리밍 프로토콜을 반환하는 팩토리를 받아들입니다.

 -- 메서드: Protocol.data_received (data)

     어떤 데이터가 수신될 때 호출됩니다.  'data'는 수신 데이터가 들어있
     는 비어 있지 않은 바이트열 객체입니다.

     데이터가 버퍼 되고, 조각으로 나뉘고, 재조립되는지는 트랜스포트에 달
     려있습니다.  일반적으로, 특정 의미에 의존해서는 안 되며, 구문 분석
     을 일반적이고 유연하게 만들어야 합니다.  그러나, 데이터는 항상 올바
     른 순서로 수신됩니다.

     이 메서드는 연결이 열려있는 동안 임의의 횟수만큼 호출될 수 있습니다
     .

     그러나, *note protocol.eof_received(): 33cd.는 최대한 한 번만 호출
     됩니다.  일단 ‘eof_received()’가 호출되면, ‘data_received()’는 더는
     호출되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: Protocol.eof_received ()

     다른 쪽 끝이 더는 데이터를 보내지 않을 것이라는 신호를 보낼 때 호출
     됩니다 (예를 들어, 다른 쪽 끝도 asyncio를 사용하면, *note
     transport.write_eof(): 33b9.를 호출하여).

     이 메서드는 거짓 값(‘None’ 포함)을 반환할 수 있으며, 이때 트랜스포
     트는 스스로 닫힙니다.  반대로, 이 메서드가 참값을 반환하면, 사용된
     프로토콜이 트랜스포트를 닫을지를 결정합니다.  기본 구현이 ‘None’을
     반환하기 때문에, 묵시적으로 연결을 닫습니다.

     SSL을 포함한 일부 트랜스포트는, 반만 닫힌 연결을 지원하지 않습니다.
     이때, 이 메서드에서 참을 반환하면 연결이 닫힙니다.

상태 기계:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> data_received]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜,  Next: 데이터 그램 프로토콜,  Prev: 스트리밍 프로토콜,  Up: 프로토콜

5.19.1.92 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜
...................................

Added in version 3.7.

버퍼 된 프로토콜은 *note 스트리밍 프로토콜: 33cc.을 지원하는 모든 이벤트
루프 메서드와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.

‘BufferedProtocol’ 구현은 수신 버퍼의 명시적 수동 할당과 제어를 허용합니
다.  이벤트 루프는 프로토콜에서 제공하는 버퍼를 사용하여 불필요한 데이터
복사를 피할 수 있습니다.  이로 인해 대량의 데이터를 수신하는 프로토콜의
성능이 크게 향상될 수 있습니다.  정교한 프로토콜 구현은 버퍼 할당 수를 크
게 줄일 수 있습니다.

다음 콜백은 *note BufferedProtocol: a9a. 인스턴스에 호출됩니다.:

 -- 메서드: BufferedProtocol.get_buffer (sizehint)

     새로운 수신 버퍼를 할당하기 위해서 호출됩니다.

     'sizehint'는 반환되는 버퍼에 대해 권장되는 최소 크기입니다.
     'sizehint'가 제안하는 것보다 더 작거나 큰 버퍼를 반환하는 것이 허용
     됩니다.  -1로 설정하면 버퍼 크기는 임의적일 수 있습니다.  크기가 0인
     버퍼를 반환하는 것은 에러입니다.

     ‘get_buffer()’는 *note 버퍼 프로토콜: 391.을 구현하는 객체를 반환해
     야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated (nbytes)

     수신된 데이터로 버퍼가 갱신될 때 호출됩니다.

     'nbytes'는 버퍼에 기록된 총 바이트 수입니다.

 -- 메서드: BufferedProtocol.eof_received ()

     *note protocol.eof_received(): 33cd. 메서드의 설명서를 참조하십시오
     .

*note get_buffer(): 33cf.는 연결 중에 임의의 횟수만큼 호출될 수 있습니다
.  그러나, *note protocol.eof_received(): 33cd.는 최대한 한 번만 호출되
며, 호출되면 *note get_buffer(): 33cf.와 *note buffer_updated(): 33d0.는
그 이후로 호출되지 않습니다.

상태 기계:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> get_buffer
             [-> buffer_updated]?
         ]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 그램 프로토콜,  Next: 서브 프로세스 프로토콜,  Prev: 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜,  Up: 프로토콜

5.19.1.93 데이터 그램 프로토콜
..............................

데이터 그램 프로토콜 인스턴스는 *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint():
72c. 메서드에 전달된 프로토콜 팩토리에 의해 만들어져야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: DatagramProtocol.datagram_received (data, addr)

     데이터 그램이 수신될 때 호출됩니다.  'data'는 수신 데이터를 포함하
     는 바이트열 객체입니다.  'addr'는 데이터를 보내는 피어의 주소입니다
     ; 정확한 형식은 트랜스포트에 따라 다릅니다.

 -- 메서드: DatagramProtocol.error_received (exc)

     이전의 송신이나 수신 연산이 *note OSError: 411.를 일으킬 때 호출됩
     니다.  'exc'는 *note OSError: 411. 인스턴스입니다.

     이 메서드는 드문 조건에서 호출됩니다, 트랜스포트(예를 들어 UDP)가 데
     이터 그램을 수신자에게 전달할 수 없음을 감지했을 때입니다.  하지만
     대부분 전달할 수 없는 데이터 그램은 조용히 삭제됩니다.

     참고: BSD 시스템(macOS, FreeBSD 등)에서는, 너무 많은 패킷을 쓰는 것
     으로 인한 전송 실패를 감지하는 신뢰성 있는 방법이 없으므로 데이터 그
     램 프로토콜에 대한 흐름 제어가 지원되지 않습니다.

     소켓은 항상 ‘ready’로 나타나고 여분의 패킷은 삭제됩니다.  ‘errno’가
     *note errno.ENOBUFS: 17ee.로 설정된 *note OSError: 411.가 발생할 수
     도 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다; 발생하면, *note
     DatagramProtocol.error_received(): 33d4.에게 보고되지만 그렇지 않으
     면 무시됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스 프로토콜,  Prev: 데이터 그램 프로토콜,  Up: 프로토콜

5.19.1.94 서브 프로세스 프로토콜
................................

서브 프로세스 프로토콜 인스턴스는 *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325. 와
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3326. 메서드에 전달된 프로토콜 팩토리에 의
해 만들어져야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received (fd, data)

     자식 프로세스가 stdout 이나 stderr 파이프에 데이터를 쓸 때 호출됩니
     다.

     'fd'는 파이프의 정수 파일 기술자입니다.

     'data'는 수신 된 데이터를 포함하는 비어 있지 않은 바이트열 객체입니
     다.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost (fd, exc)

     자식 프로세스와 통신하는 파이프 중 하나가 닫히면 호출됩니다.

     'fd'는 닫힌 정수 파일 기술자입니다.

 -- 메서드: SubprocessProtocol.process_exited ()

     자식 프로세스가 종료할 때 호출됩니다.

     It can be called before *note pipe_data_received(): 17cb. and *note
     pipe_connection_lost(): 33d6. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<17>,  Prev: 프로토콜,  Up: 트랜스포트와 프로토콜

5.19.1.95 예제
..............

* Menu:

* TCP 메아리 서버::
* TCP 메아리 클라이언트::
* UDP 메아리 서버::
* UDP 메아리 클라이언트::
* 기존 소켓 연결하기::
* loop.subprocess_exec() 와 SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec 와 SubprocessProtocol.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP 메아리 서버,  Next: TCP 메아리 클라이언트,  Up: 예제<17>

5.19.1.96 TCP 메아리 서버
.........................

*note loop.create_server(): b10. 메서드를 사용하여 TCP 메아리 서버를 만
들고, 받은 데이터를 다시 보내고, 연결을 닫습니다:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
             print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))

             print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
             self.transport.write(data)

             print('Close the client socket')
             self.transport.close()


     async def main():
         # 저수준 API를 사용할 계획이므로
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         server = await loop.create_server(
             EchoServerProtocol,
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()


     asyncio.run(main())

더 보기
.......

*note 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 서버: 32f6. 예제는 고수준 *note
asyncio.start_server(): b16. 함수를 사용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP 메아리 클라이언트,  Next: UDP 메아리 서버,  Prev: TCP 메아리 서버,  Up: 예제<17>

5.19.1.97 TCP 메아리 클라이언트
...............................

*note loop.create_connection(): 5fd. 메서드를 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이
언트, 데이터를 보내고 연결이 닫힐 때까지 기다립니다:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             transport.write(self.message.encode())
             print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))

         def data_received(self, data):
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print('The server closed the connection')
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # 저수준 API를 사용할 계획이므로
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = 'Hello World!'

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         # 프로토콜이 연결이 끊어졌음을 알릴 때까지 기다리고
         # 트랜스포트를 닫습니다.
         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())

더 보기
.......

*note 스트림을 사용하는 TCP 메아리 클라이언트: 32f3. 예제는 고수준 *note
asyncio.open_connection(): b15. 함수를 사용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: UDP 메아리 서버,  Next: UDP 메아리 클라이언트,  Prev: TCP 메아리 클라이언트,  Up: 예제<17>

5.19.1.98 UDP 메아리 서버
.........................

*note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c. 메서드를 사용하는 UDP 메아리
서버, 수신된 데이터를 다시 보냅니다:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol:
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
             print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
             self.transport.sendto(data, addr)


     async def main():
         print("Starting UDP server")

         # 저수준 API를 사용할 계획이므로
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # 모든 클라이언트 요청을 처리할
         # 하나의 프로토콜 인스턴스가 만들어집니다.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             EchoServerProtocol,
             local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # 1시간 동안 서비스합니다.
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: UDP 메아리 클라이언트,  Next: 기존 소켓 연결하기,  Prev: UDP 메아리 서버,  Up: 예제<17>

5.19.1.99 UDP 메아리 클라이언트
...............................

*note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c. 메서드를 사용하는 UDP 메아리
클라이언트, 데이터를 보내고 응답을 받으면 트랜스포트를 닫습니다:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol:
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
             self.transport = None

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport
             print('Send:', self.message)
             self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             print("Close the socket")
             self.transport.close()

         def error_received(self, exc):
             print('Error received:', exc)

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print("Connection closed")
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # 저수준 API를 사용할 계획이므로
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = "Hello World!"

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: 기존 소켓 연결하기,  Next: loop subprocess_exec 와 SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: UDP 메아리 클라이언트,  Up: 예제<17>

5.19.1.100 기존 소켓 연결하기
.............................

프로토콜과 함께 *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd. 메서드를 사용하여 소
켓이 데이터를 수신할 때까지 기다립니다:

     import asyncio
     import socket


     class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):

         def __init__(self, on_con_lost):
             self.transport = None
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             # 작업을 완료했습니다: 트랜스포트를 닫습니다;
             # connection_lost()가 자동으로 호출됩니다.
             self.transport.close()

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             # 소켓이 닫혔습니다
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # 저수준 API를 사용할 계획이므로
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()

         # 연결된 소켓 쌍을 만듭니다
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # 데이터를 기다릴 소켓을 등록합니다.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: MyProtocol(on_con_lost), sock=rsock)

         # 네트워크로부터의 데이터 수신을 흉내 냅니다.
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         try:
             await protocol.on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()
             wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(main())

더 보기
.......

*note 파일 기술자에서 읽기 이벤트를 관찰하기: 32fd. 예제는 저수준의
*note loop.add_reader(): 32fe. 메서드를 사용하여 FD를 등록합니다.

*note 스트림을 사용하여 데이터를 기다리는 열린 소켓 등록: 32fa. 예제는 코
루틴에서 *note open_connection(): b15. 함수에 의해 생성된 고수준 스트림
을 사용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: loop subprocess_exec 와 SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: 기존 소켓 연결하기,  Up: 예제<17>

5.19.1.101 loop.subprocess_exec() 와 SubprocessProtocol
.......................................................

서브 프로세스의 출력을 가져오고 서브 프로세스가 끝날 때까지 대기하는 데
사용되는 서브 프로세스 프로토콜의 예.

서브 프로세스는 *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325. 메서드에 의해 만들어
집니다:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
         def __init__(self, exit_future):
             self.exit_future = exit_future
             self.output = bytearray()
             self.pipe_closed = False
             self.exited = False

         def pipe_connection_lost(self, fd, exc):
             self.pipe_closed = True
             self.check_for_exit()

         def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
             self.output.extend(data)

         def process_exited(self):
             self.exited = True
             # pipe_connection_lost() 메서드 전에
             # process_exited() 메서드가 호출될 수 있습니다:
             # 두 메서드가 모두 호출될 때까지 기다립니다.
             self.check_for_exit()

         def check_for_exit(self):
             if self.pipe_closed and self.exited:
                 self.exit_future.set_result(True)

     async def get_date():
         # 저수준 API를 사용할 계획이므로
         # 이벤트 루프에 대한 참조를 얻습니다.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
         exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)

         # DateProtocol이 제어하는 서브 프로세스를 만듭니다;
         # 표준 출력을 파이프로 리디렉트합니다.
         transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
             lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdin=None, stderr=None)

         # 프로토콜의 process_exited() 메서드를 사용하여
         # 서브 프로세스 종료를 기다립니다.
         await exit_future

         # stdout 파이프를 닫습니다.
         transport.close()

         # 프로토콜의 pipe_data_received() 메서드로
         # 수집된 출력을 읽습니다.
         data = bytes(protocol.output)
         return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

고수준 API를 사용하여 작성된 *note 같은 예제: 333b.도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 정책,  Next: 플랫폼 지원,  Prev: 트랜스포트와 프로토콜,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.102 정책
...............

An event loop policy is a global object used to get and set the current
*note event loop: d75, as well as create new event loops.  The default
policy can be *note replaced: 33df. with *note built-in alternatives:
33e0. to use different event loop implementations, or substituted by a
*note custom policy: 33e1. that can override these behaviors.

The *note policy object: 33e2. gets and sets a separate event loop per
'context'.  This is per-thread by default, though custom policies could
define 'context' differently.

사용자 정의 이벤트 루프 정책은 *note get_event_loop(): 2c2, *note
set_event_loop(): 17d1. 및 *note new_event_loop(): 32ab.의 동작을 제어할
수 있습니다.

정책 객체는 *note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 33e3. 추상 베이스 클래스에 정
의된 API를 구현해야 합니다.

* Menu:

* 정책을 얻고 설정하기::
* 정책 객체::
* 프로세스 감시자::
* 사용자 정의 정책::


File: python.info,  Node: 정책을 얻고 설정하기,  Next: 정책 객체,  Up: 정책

5.19.1.103 정책을 얻고 설정하기
...............................

다음 함수는 현재 프로세스의 정책을 가져오고 설정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니
다:

 -- 함수: asyncio.get_event_loop_policy ()

     현재의 프로세스 전반의 정책을 돌려줍니다.

 -- 함수: asyncio.set_event_loop_policy (policy)

     현재 프로세스 전반의 정책을 'policy'로 설정합니다.

     'policy'를 ‘None’으로 설정하면, 기본 정책이 복원됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정책 객체,  Next: 프로세스 감시자,  Prev: 정책을 얻고 설정하기,  Up: 정책

5.19.1.104 정책 객체
....................

추상 이벤트 루프 정책 베이스 클래스는 다음과 같이 정의됩니다:

 -- 클래스: asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

     asyncio 정책의 추상 베이스 클래스.

      -- 메서드: get_event_loop ()

          현재 컨텍스트의 이벤트 루프를 가져옵니다.

          *note AbstractEventLoop: 95d. 인터페이스를 구현하는 이벤트 루
          프 객체를 반환합니다.

          이 메서드는 절대 ‘None’을 반환해서는 안 됩니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경.

      -- 메서드: set_event_loop (loop)

          현재 컨텍스트에 대한 이벤트 루프를 'loop'로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: new_event_loop ()

          새 이벤트 루프 객체를 만들고 반환합니다.

          이 메서드는 절대 ‘None’을 반환해서는 안 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_child_watcher ()

          자식 프로세스 감시자 객체를 얻습니다.

          *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc. 인터페이스를 구현하고 있는 감
          시자 객체를 돌려줍니다.

          이 함수는 유닉스 전용입니다.

          버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

      -- 메서드: set_child_watcher (watcher)

          현재의 자식 프로세스 감시자를 'watcher'로 설정합니다.

          이 함수는 유닉스 전용입니다.

          버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

asyncio에는 다음과 같은 내장 정책이 제공됩니다:

 -- 클래스: asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

     기본 asyncio 정책.  유닉스에서는 *note SelectorEventLoop: 602.를, 윈
     도우에서는 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.를 사용합니다.

     수동으로 기본 정책을 설치할 필요는 없습니다.  asyncio는 기본 정책을
     자동으로 사용하도록 구성됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 이제 기본적으로 *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 603.가 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: The *note get_event_loop(): 2c2. method of
     the default asyncio policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning:
     1a5. if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
     one.  In some future Python release this will become an error.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

     *note SelectorEventLoop: 602. 이벤트 루프 구현을 사용하는 대안 이벤
     트 루프 정책.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

     *note ProactorEventLoop: 603. 이벤트 루프 구현을 사용하는 대안 이벤
     트 루프 정책.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 감시자,  Next: 사용자 정의 정책,  Prev: 정책 객체,  Up: 정책

5.19.1.105 프로세스 감시자
..........................

프로세스 감시자는 이벤트 루프가 유닉스에서 자식 프로세스를 관찰하는 방법
을 사용자 정의할 수 있도록 합니다.  특히, 이벤트 루프는 자식 프로세스가
언제 종료했는지 알 필요가 있습니다.

asyncio에서, 자식 프로세스는 *note create_subprocess_exec(): a74. 와
*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325. 함수로 만들어집니다.

asyncio는 자식 관찰자가 구현해야 하는 *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc. 추
상 베이스 클래스를 정의하며, 네 가지 구현이 있습니다: *note
ThreadedChildWatcher: 475. (기본적으로 사용하도록 구성됩니다), *note
MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2ba, *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bd. 및 *note
FastChildWatcher: 2bb.

*note 서브 프로세스와 스레드: 3333. 절도 참조하십시오.

다음 두 함수를 사용하여 asyncio 이벤트 루프에서 사용되는 자식 프로세스 감
시자 구현을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: asyncio.get_child_watcher ()

     현재 정책에 대한 현재 자식 감시자를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

 -- 함수: asyncio.set_child_watcher (watcher)

     현재 정책에 대한 현재 자식 관찰자를 'watcher'로 설정합니다.
     'watcher'는 *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc. 베이스 클래스에 정의된
     메서드를 구현해야 합니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

     참고: 제삼자 이벤트 루프 구현은 사용자 정의 자식 관찰자를 지원하지
     않을 수 있습니다.  이러한 이벤트 루프에서는, *note
     set_child_watcher(): 2be. 사용은 금지되거나 효과가 없습니다.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher

      -- 메서드: add_child_handler (pid, callback, *args)

          새로운 자식 처리기를 등록합니다.

          PID가 'pid' 인 프로세스가 종료할 때 ‘callback(pid, returncode,
          *args)’가 호출되도록 배치합니다.  같은 프로세스에 대해 다른 콜
          백을 지정하면 이전 처리기가 교체됩니다.

          'callback' 콜러블은 스레드 안전해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_child_handler (pid)

          PID가 'pid' 인 프로세스의 처리기를 제거합니다.

          이 함수는 처리기가 성공적으로 제거되면 ‘True’를, 제거할 것이 없
          으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: attach_loop (loop)

          감시자를 이벤트 루프에 연결합니다.

          감시자가 이전에 이벤트 루프에 연결되었으면, 새 루프에 연결하기
          전에 먼저 제거됩니다.

          참고: loop는 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_active ()

          감시자가 사용할 준비가 되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          '활성화되지 않은' 현재 자식 감시자를 사용하여 서브 프로세스를
          스폰하면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          감시자를 닫습니다.

          이 메서드는 하부 자원을 정리하기 위해 호출해야 합니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher

     이 구현은 모든 서브 프로세스 스폰에 대해 새로운 대기 스레드를 시작
     합니다.

     메인 외의 OS 스레드에서 asyncio 이벤트 루프가 실행되는 경우에도 신
     뢰성 있게 작동합니다.

     많은 수의 자식을 처리할 때 눈에 띄는 오버헤드가 없습니다만 (자식이
     종료될 때마다 'O'(1)), 프로세스마다 스레드를 시작하는 데 추가 메모
     리가 필요합니다.

     기본적으로 이 감시자가 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher

     이 구현은 인스턴스를 만들 때 ‘SIGCHLD’ 시그널 처리기를 등록합니다.
     ‘SIGCHLD’ 시그널용 사용자 지정 처리기를 설치하는 제삼자 코드가 손상
     될 수 있습니다.).

     감시자는 ‘SIGCHLD’ 시그널에 대해 명시적으로 모든 프로세스를 폴링하
     여, 프로세스를 스포닝하는 다른 코드를 방해하지 않습니다.

     감시자가 일단 설치되면 다른 스레드에서 서브 프로세스를 실행하는 데
     제한이 없습니다.

     이 해법은 안전하지만 많은 수의 프로세스를 처리할 때 상당한 오버헤드
     가 있습니다 (‘SIGCHLD’가 수신될 때마다 'O'('n')).

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.SafeChildWatcher

     이 구현은 메인 스레드의 활성 이벤트 루프를 사용하여 ‘SIGCHLD’ 시그
     널을 처리합니다.  메인 스레드에 실행 중인 이벤트 루프가 없으면 다른
     스레드는 서브 프로세스를 스폰할 수 없습니다 (*note RuntimeError:
     195.가 발생합니다).

     감시자는 ‘SIGCHLD’ 시그널에 대해 명시적으로 모든 프로세스를 폴링하
     여, 프로세스를 스포닝하는 다른 코드를 방해하지 않습니다.

     이 해법은 *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2ba.만큼 안전하고 같은
     'O'('n') 복잡성을 갖고 있지만, 작동하려면 메인 스레드에서 실행 중인
     이벤트 루프가 필요합니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.FastChildWatcher

     이 구현은 ‘os.waitpid(-1)’를 직접 호출하여 종료된 모든 프로세스를 거
     둡니다.  프로세스를 스포닝하는 다른 코드를 망가뜨리고 그들의 종료를
     기다릴 수 있습니다.

     많은 수의 자식을 처리할 때 눈에 띄는 오버헤드가 없습니다 (자식이 종
     료될 때마다 'O'(1)).

     이 해법은 *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bd.처럼 작동하려면 메인 스레드에
     서 실행 중인 이벤트 루프가 필요합니다.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨.

 -- 클래스: asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher

     이 구현은 프로세스 파일 기술자(pidfd)를 폴링하여 자식 프로세스 종료
     를 어웨이트 합니다.  어떤 면에서, *note PidfdChildWatcher: 473.는
     “골디락스(Goldilocks)” 자식 감시자 구현입니다.  시그널이나 스레드가
     필요하지 않고, 이벤트 루프 외부에서 시작된 프로세스를 방해하지 않으
     며, 이벤트 루프에 의해 시작된 서브 프로세스 수에 선형으로 확장됩니
     다.  가장 큰 단점은 pidfd가 리눅스에만 해당하며 최근 (5.3+) 커널에
     서만 작동한다는 것입니다.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 정책,  Prev: 프로세스 감시자,  Up: 정책

5.19.1.106 사용자 정의 정책
...........................

새로운 이벤트 루프 정책을 구현하려면, *note DefaultEventLoopPolicy:
33eb.의 서브 클래스를 만들고 사용자 정의 동작이 필요한 메서드를 재정의하
는 것이 좋습니다, 예를 들어:

     class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):

         def get_event_loop(self):
             """이벤트 루프를 가져옵니다.

             None이거나 EventLoop의 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.
             """
             loop = super().get_event_loop()
             # loop로 무언가를 합니다 ...
             return loop

     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())


File: python.info,  Node: 플랫폼 지원,  Next: Extending,  Prev: 정책,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.107 플랫폼 지원
......................

*note asyncio: a. 모듈은 이식성이 있도록 설계되었지만, 플랫폼의 하부 아
키텍처와 기능으로 인해 일부 플랫폼에는 미묘한 차이점과 제약이 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 모든 플랫폼::
* 윈도우::
* macOS: macOS<50>.


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 플랫폼,  Next: 윈도우,  Up: 플랫폼 지원

5.19.1.108 모든 플랫폼
......................

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 32fe.와 *note loop.add_writer(): 3379.는 파
     일 I/O를 감시하는데 사용할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우,  Next: macOS<50>,  Prev: 모든 플랫폼,  Up: 플랫폼 지원

5.19.1.109 윈도우
.................

'소스 코드:' Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py(2), Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py(3)

__________________________________________________________________

버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우에서, *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.는 이제 기본
이벤트 루프입니다.

윈도우의 모든 이벤트 루프는 다음 메서드를 지원하지 않습니다:

   * *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 32e3. 와 *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae.는 지원되지 않습니다.  *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 1825. 소켓 패밀리는 유닉스에만 적용됩니다.

   * *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3382.와 *note
     loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3383.는 지원되지 않습니다.

*note SelectorEventLoop: 602.에는 다음과 같은 제약이 있습니다:

   * *note SelectSelector: 33f8.는 소켓 이벤트를 기다리는 데 사용됩니다:
     소켓을 지원하며 512개의 소켓으로 제한됩니다.

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 32fe.와 *note loop.add_writer(): 3379.는 소
     켓 핸들만 받아들입니다 (예를 들어, 파이프 파일 기술자는 지원되지 않
     습니다).

   * 파이프는 지원되지 않으므로, *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 332a.와
     *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 332b. 메서드는 구현되지 않습니다.

   * *note 서브 프로세스: 329f.는 지원되지 않습니다, 즉, *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325. 와 *note loop.subprocess_shell():
     3326. 메서드가 구현되지 않습니다.

*note ProactorEventLoop: 603.에는 다음과 같은 제약이 있습니다:

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 32fe.와 *note loop.add_writer(): 3379. 메
     서드는 지원되지 않습니다.

윈도우에서 단조 시계의 해상도는 대개 15.6 밀리초 근처입니다.  최상의 해
상도는 0.5 밀리초입니다.  해상도는 하드웨어(HPET(4)이 사용 가능한지)와 윈
도우 구성에 따라 다릅니다.

* Menu:

* 윈도우에서의 서브 프로세스 지원::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우에서의 서브 프로세스 지원,  Up: 윈도우

5.19.1.110 윈도우에서의 서브 프로세스 지원
..........................................

윈도우에서, 기본 이벤트 루프 *note ProactorEventLoop: 603.는 서브 프로세
스를 지원하지만, *note SelectorEventLoop: 602.는 그렇지 않습니다.

*note ProactorEventLoop: 603.가 자식 프로세스를 관찰하는 다른 메커니즘을
가지고 있으므로, *note policy.set_child_watcher(): 2c0. 함수도 지원되지
않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<50>,  Prev: 윈도우,  Up: 플랫폼 지원

5.19.1.111 macOS
................

최신 macOS 버전은 완전하게 지원됩니다.

macOS <= 10.8
.............

macOS 10.6, 10.7 및 10.8에서, 기본 이벤트 루프는 *note
selectors.KqueueSelector: 33fb.를 사용하는데, 이 버전에서는 문자 장치를
지원하지 않습니다.  이러한 이전 버전의 macOS에서 문자 장치를 지원하려면,
*note SelectorEventLoop: 602.가 *note SelectSelector: 33f8. 나 *note
PollSelector: bd2.를 사용하도록 수동으로 구성할 수 있습니다.  예:

     import asyncio
     import selectors

     selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
     loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending,  Next: 고수준 API 색인,  Prev: 플랫폼 지원,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.112 Extending
....................

The main direction for *note asyncio: a. extending is writing custom
'event loop' classes.  Asyncio has helpers that could be used to
simplify this task.

     참고: Third-parties should reuse existing asyncio code with
     caution, a new Python version is free to break backward
     compatibility in 'internal' part of API.

* Menu:

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Next: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: Extending

5.19.1.113 Writing a Custom Event Loop
......................................

*note asyncio.AbstractEventLoop: 95d. declares very many methods.
Implementing all them from scratch is a tedious job.

A loop can get many common methods implementation for free by inheriting
from ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

In turn, the successor should implement a bunch of 'private' methods
declared but not implemented in ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

For example, ‘loop.create_connection()’ checks arguments, resolves DNS
addresses, and calls ‘loop._make_socket_transport()’ that should be
implemented by inherited class.  The ‘_make_socket_transport()’ method
is not documented and is considered as an 'internal' API.


File: python.info,  Node: Future and Task private constructors,  Next: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Up: Extending

5.19.1.114 Future and Task private constructors
...............................................

*note asyncio.Future: bca. and *note asyncio.Task: 1be. should be never
created directly, please use corresponding *note loop.create_future():
c76. and *note loop.create_task(): 1c0, or *note asyncio.create_task():
1bf. factories instead.

However, third-party 'event loops' may 'reuse' built-in future and task
implementations for the sake of getting a complex and highly optimized
code for free.

For this purpose the following, 'private' constructors are listed:

 -- 메서드: Future.__init__ (*, loop=None)

     Create a built-in future instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.

 -- 메서드: Task.__init__ (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None)

     Create a built-in task instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.  The rest of arguments
     are described in *note loop.create_task(): 1c0. description.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'context' argument is added.


File: python.info,  Node: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: Extending

5.19.1.115 Task lifetime support
................................

A third party task implementation should call the following functions to
keep a task visible by *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 954. and *note
asyncio.current_task(): 477.:

 -- 함수: asyncio._register_task (task)

     Register a new 'task' as managed by 'asyncio'.

     Call the function from a task constructor.

 -- 함수: asyncio._unregister_task (task)

     Unregister a 'task' from 'asyncio' internal structures.

     The function should be called when a task is about to finish.

 -- 함수: asyncio._enter_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task to the 'task' argument.

     Call the function just before executing a portion of embedded
     'coroutine' (*note coroutine.send(): 1fd3. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 4f1.).

 -- 함수: asyncio._leave_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task back from 'task' to ‘None’.

     Call the function just after *note coroutine.send(): 1fd3. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 4f1. execution.


File: python.info,  Node: 고수준 API 색인,  Next: 저수준 API 색인,  Prev: Extending,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.116 고수준 API 색인
..........................

이 페이지에는 모든 고수준의 async/await 활성화된 asyncio API가 나열됩니
다.

* Menu:

* 태스크::
* 큐: 큐<2>.
* 서브 프로세스: 서브 프로세스<2>.
* 스트림: 스트림<2>.
* 동기화::
* 예외: 예외<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: 태스크,  Next: 큐<2>,  Up: 고수준 API 색인

5.19.1.117 태스크
.................

asyncio 프로그램을 실행하고, 태스크를 만들고, 시간제한 있게 여러 가지를
기다리는 유틸리티.

*note run(): 476.                                      이벤트 루프를 만들고, 코루틴을 실행하고, 루프를 닫습
                                                       니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Runner: 5fa.                                     A context manager that simplifies multiple async
                                                       function calls.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Task: 1be.                                       Task 객체.
                                                       
                                                       
*note TaskGroup: 1b5.                                  A context manager that holds a group of tasks.
                                                       Provides a convenient and reliable way to wait for
                                                       all tasks in the group to finish.
                                                       
                                                       
*note create_task(): 1bf.                              asyncio Task를 시작한 후 반환합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note current_task(): 477.                             현재 Task를 돌려줍니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note all_tasks(): 954.                                이벤트 루프의 아직 종료하지 않은 모든 태스크를 반환
                                                       합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note sleep(): a6c.                            몇 초 동안 잠잡니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note gather(): 5f7.                           여러 가지를 동시에 예약하고 기다립니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait_for(): 5f9.                         시간제한 있게 실행합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note shield(): a6d.                           취소로부터 보호합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait(): 479.                             완료를 감시합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note timeout(): 5f8.                                  Run with a timeout.  Useful in cases when ‘wait_for’
                                                       is not suitable.
                                                       
                                                       
*note to_thread(): 8e5.                                별도의 OS 스레드에서 함수를 비동기적으로 실행합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 87e.                 다른 OS 스레드에서 코루틴을 예약합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘for in’ *note as_completed(): 1aa.                    ‘for’ 루프로 완료를 감시합니다.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note 여러 가지를 병렬로 실행하기 위해 asyncio.gather() 사용하기:
     32bd.

   * *note 시간제한을 주기 위해 asyncio.wait_for() 사용하기: 32c5.

   * *note 취소: 32db.

   * *note asyncio.sleep() 사용하기: 32bb.

   * 주 *note 태스크 설명서 페이지: 329d.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 큐<2>,  Next: 서브 프로세스<2>,  Prev: 태스크,  Up: 고수준 API 색인

5.19.1.118 큐
.............

큐는 여러 asyncio 태스크 간에 작업을 분산하고, 연결 풀과 pub/sub 패턴을
구현하는 데 사용해야 합니다.

*note Queue: a73.                                      FIFO 큐.
                                                       
                                                       
*note PriorityQueue: 334c.                             우선순위 큐.
                                                       
                                                       
*note LifoQueue: 334e.                                 LIFO 큐.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note 여러 태스크로 작업부하를 분산하는데 asyncio.Queue 사용하기:
     3350.

   * *note 큐 설명서 페이지: 32a0.도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스<2>,  Next: 스트림<2>,  Prev: 큐<2>,  Up: 고수준 API 색인

5.19.1.119 서브 프로세스
........................

서브 프로세스를 생성하고 셸 명령을 실행하는 유틸리티.

‘await’ *note create_subprocess_exec(): a74.           서브 프로세스를 만듭니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note create_subprocess_shell(): a75.          셸 명령을 실행합니다.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note 셸 명령 실행하기: 331f.

   * *note 서브 프로세스 API: 329f. 설명서도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 스트림<2>,  Next: 동기화,  Prev: 서브 프로세스<2>,  Up: 고수준 API 색인

5.19.1.120 스트림
.................

네트워크 IO로 작업하는 고수준 API

‘await’ *note open_connection(): b15.                  TCP 연결을 만듭니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note open_unix_connection(): 32e2.            유닉스 소켓 연결을 만듭니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_server(): b16.                     TCP 서버를 시작합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_unix_server(): 32e4.               유닉스 소켓 서버를 시작합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamReader: 18cc.                              네트워크 데이터를 수신하는 고수준 async/await 객체.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamWriter: 1706.                              네트워크 데이터를 보내는 고수준 async/await 객체.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note 예제 TCP 클라이언트: 32de.

   * *note 스트림 API: 329e. 설명서도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 동기화,  Next: 예외<11>,  Prev: 스트림<2>,  Up: 고수준 API 색인

5.19.1.121 동기화
.................

태스크에 쓸 수 있는 threading과 유사한 동기화 프리미티브.

*note Lock: a6e.                                       뮤텍스 록.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Event: a6f.                                      이벤트 객체.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Condition: a70.                                  조건 객체.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Semaphore: a71.                                  세마포어.
                                                       
                                                       
*note BoundedSemaphore: a72.                           제한된 세마포어.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Barrier: 5fb.                                    장벽 객체.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note asyncio.Event 사용하기: 3309.

   * *note asyncio.Barrier 사용하기: 3317.

   * asyncio *note 동기화 프리미티브: 32a1.의 설명서도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<11>,  Prev: 동기화,  Up: 고수준 API 색인

5.19.1.122 예외
...............

*note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8.                     Task가 취소될 때 발생합니다.
                                                       *note Task.cancel(): 1b7.도 참조하십시오.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.BrokenBarrierError: 5fc.                 Barrier 가 깨질 때 발생합니다.
                                                       *note Barrier.wait(): 3316.도 참조하십시오.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note 취소 요청 시에 코드를 실행하기 위해 CancelledError 처리하기:
     32db.

   * *note asyncio 전용 예외: 3352.의 전체 목록도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 저수준 API 색인,  Next: asyncio로 개발하기,  Prev: 고수준 API 색인,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.123 저수준 API 색인
..........................

이 페이지는 모든 저수준 asyncio API를 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* 이벤트 루프 얻기::
* 이벤트 루프 메서드: 이벤트 루프 메서드<2>.
* 트랜스포트: 트랜스포트<2>.
* 프로토콜: 프로토콜<2>.
* 이벤트 루프 정책::


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 루프 얻기,  Next: 이벤트 루프 메서드<2>,  Up: 저수준 API 색인

5.19.1.124 이벤트 루프 얻기
...........................

*note asyncio.get_running_loop(): b08.                 실행 중인 이벤트 루프를 가져오는 데 '선호되는' 함수.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c2.                   이벤트 루프 인스턴스를 가져옵니다 (실행 중이거나 현
                                                       재 정책을 통해 현재).
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop(): 17d1.                  현재 정책을 통해 현재 이벤트 루프를 설정합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 32ab.                  새 이벤트 루프를 만듭니다.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note asyncio.get_running_loop() 사용하기: 33a4.


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 루프 메서드<2>,  Next: 트랜스포트<2>,  Prev: 이벤트 루프 얻기,  Up: 저수준 API 색인

5.19.1.125 이벤트 루프 메서드
.............................

*note 이벤트 루프 메서드: 335f.에 관한 주 설명서 절도 참조하십시오.

수명주기
........

*note loop.run_until_complete(): c74.                  완료할 때까지 퓨처/태스크/어웨이터블을 실행합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.run_forever(): 3361.                        이벤트 루프를 영원히 실행합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.stop(): c79.                                이벤트 루프를 중지합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.close(): 3363.                              이벤트 루프를 닫습니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_running(): 3362.                         이벤트 루프가 실행 중이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_closed(): dc0.                           이벤트 루프가 닫혔으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): c7a.          비동기 제너레이터를 닫습니다.
                                                       

디버깅
......

*note loop.set_debug(): dbe.                           디버그 모드를 활성화 또는 비활성화합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_debug(): dbf.                           현재의 디버그 모드를 얻습니다.
                                                       

콜백 예약하기
.............

*note loop.call_soon(): b01.                           콜백을 곧 호출합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): b02.                스레드 안전한 *note loop.call_soon(): b01.의 변형입
                                                       니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_later(): b03.                          주어진 시간 '후'에 콜백을 호출합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_at(): b04.                             주어진 시간 '에' 콜백을 호출합니다.
                                                       

스레드/프로세스 풀
..................

‘await’ *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6.             *note concurrent.futures: 21. 실행기에서 CPU-병목이
                                                       나 다른 블로킹 함수를 실행합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_default_executor(): 73c.                *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6.의 기본 실행기를 설
                                                       정합니다.
                                                       

태스크와 퓨처
.............

*note loop.create_future(): c76.                       *note Future: bca. 객체를 만듭니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.create_task(): 1c0.                         코루틴을 *note Task: 1be.로 예약합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_task_factory(): dc2.                    *note loop.create_task(): 1c0.가 *note 태스크: 1be.를
                                                       만드는데 사용하는 팩토리를 설정합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_task_factory(): dc3.                    *note loop.create_task(): 1c0.가 *note 태스크: 1be.를
                                                       만드는데 사용하는 팩토리를 얻습니다.
                                                       

DNS
...

‘await’ *note loop.getaddrinfo(): c11.                 *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1759.의 비동기 버전.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.getnameinfo(): c12.                 *note socket.getnameinfo(): 16ca.의 비동기 버전.
                                                       

네트워킹과 IPC
..............

‘await’ *note loop.create_connection(): 5fd.           TCP 연결을 엽니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_server(): b10.               TCP 서버를 만듭니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 32e3.     유닉스 소켓 연결을 엽니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae.          Unix 소켓 서버를 만듭니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): b17.     *note socket: d9d.을 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍으로
                                                       감쌉니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c.    데이터 그램 (UDP) 연결을 엽니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sendfile(): 3375.                   트랜스포트를 통해 파일을 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.start_tls(): b06.                   기존 연결을 TLS로 업그레이드합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 332a.          파이프의 읽기 끝을 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍으로 감
                                                       쌉니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 332b.         파이프의 쓰기 끝을 ‘(transport, protocol)’ 쌍으로 감
                                                       쌉니다.
                                                       

소켓
....

‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv(): c0e.                   *note socket: d9d.에서 데이터를 수신합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv_into(): b07.              *note socket: d9d.에서 데이터를 버퍼로 수신합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom(): 600.               *note socket: d9d.에서 데이터 그램을 수신합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom_into(): 601.          *note socket: d9d.에서 데이터 그램을 버퍼로 수신합니
                                                       다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendall(): c0f.                데이터를 *note socket: d9d.으로 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendto(): 5ff.                 데이터 그램을 *note socket: d9d.을 통해 주어진 주소
                                                       로 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_connect(): dc6.                *note socket: d9d.을 연결합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_accept(): c10.                 *note socket: d9d. 연결을 수락합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendfile(): b0b.               *note socket: d9d.를 통해 파일을 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_reader(): 32fe.                         파일 기술자가 읽기 가능한지 관찰하기 시작합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_reader(): 3378.                      파일 기술자가 읽기 가능한지 관찰하는 것을 중단합니다
                                                       .
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_writer(): 3379.                         파일 기술자가 쓰기 가능한지 관찰하기 시작합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_writer(): 337a.                      파일 기술자가 쓰기 가능한지 관찰하는 것을 중단합니다
                                                       .
                                                       

유닉스 시그널
.............

*note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3382.                 *note signal: c6.에 대한 처리기를 추가합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3383.              *note signal: c6.에 대한 처리기를 제거합니다.
                                                       

서브 프로세스
.............

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325.                    서브 프로세스를 스폰합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3326.                   셸 명령으로 서브 프로세스를 스폰합니다.
                                                       

에러 처리
.........

*note loop.call_exception_handler(): 3387.             예외 처리기를 호출합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_exception_handler(): 3386.              새로운 예외 처리기를 설정합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_exception_handler(): c77.               현재 예외 처리기를 가져옵니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.default_exception_handler(): 3388.          기본 예외 처리기 구현.
                                                       

예제
....

   * *note asyncio.new_event_loop() 와 loop.run_forever() 사용하기:
     3393.

   * *note loop.call_later() 사용하기: 3395.

   * ‘loop.create_connection()’을 사용하여 *note 메아리 클라이언트:
     32f5. 구현하기.

   * ‘loop.create_connection()’을 사용하여 *note 소켓 연결하기: 32fc.

   * *note add_reader()를 사용하여 FD에서 읽기 이벤트 관찰하기: 32fd.

   * *note loop.add_signal_handler() 사용하기: 3398.

   * *note loop.subprocess_exec() 사용하기: 333c.


File: python.info,  Node: 트랜스포트<2>,  Next: 프로토콜<2>,  Prev: 이벤트 루프 메서드<2>,  Up: 저수준 API 색인

5.19.1.126 트랜스포트
.....................

모든 트랜스포트는 다음과 같은 메서드를 구현합니다:

*note transport.close(): 336e.                         트랜스포트를 닫습니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.is_closing(): c75.                     트랜스포트가 닫히고 있거나 닫혔으면 ‘True’를 반환합
                                                       니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_extra_info(): a99.                 트랜스포트에 대한 정보를 요청합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_protocol(): 33b4.                  새 프로토콜을 설정합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_protocol(): 33b5.                  현재 프로토콜을 돌려줍니다.
                                                       

데이터를 받을 수 있는 트랜스포트 (TCP 및 유닉스 연결, 파이프 등).  *note
loop.create_connection(): 5fd, *note loop.create_unix_connection():
32e3, *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 332a. 등의 메서드에서 반환됩니다:

트랜스포트 읽기
...............

*note transport.is_reading(): b19.                     트랜스포트가 수신 중이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.pause_reading(): b1b.                  수신을 일시 정지합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.resume_reading(): b1a.                 수신을 재개합니다.
                                                       

데이터를 전송할 수 있는 트랜스포트 (TCP와 유닉스 연결, 파이프 등).
*note loop.create_connection(): 5fd, *note
loop.create_unix_connection(): 32e3, *note loop.connect_write_pipe():
332b. 등의 메서드에서 반환됩니다:

트랜스포트 쓰기
...............

*note transport.write(): 33be.                         데이터를 트랜스포트에 씁니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.writelines(): 1588.                    버퍼들을 트랜스포트에 씁니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.can_write_eof(): 33b8.                 트랜스포트가 EOF 전송을 지원하면 *note True: c0a.를
                                                       반환합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.write_eof(): 33b9.                     버퍼 된 데이터를 플러시 한 후 닫고 EOF를 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3390.                         즉시 트랜스포트를 닫습니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_size(): 33ba.         출력 버퍼의 현재 크기를 돌려줍니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): dc1.        쓰기 흐름 제어를 위한 높은 수위와 낮은 수위를 반환합
                                                       니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_write_buffer_limits(): 33bb.       쓰기 흐름 제어를 위한 새로운 높은 수위와 낮은 수위를
                                                       설정합니다.
                                                       

*note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72c.에서 반환된 트랜스포트:

데이터 그램 트랜스포트
......................

*note transport.sendto(): 1af.                         데이터를 원격 피어로 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 33c0.                         즉시 트랜스포트를 닫습니다.
                                                       

서브 프로세스에 대한 저수준 트랜스포트 추상화.  *note
loop.subprocess_exec(): 3325. 와 *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3326.가
반환합니다:

서브 프로세스 트랜스포트
........................

*note transport.get_pid(): 33c2.                       서브 프로세스의 프로세스 ID를 돌려줍니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_pipe_transport(): 33c3.            요청한 통신 파이프 ('stdin', 'stdout' 또는
                                                       'stderr')에 대한 트랜스포트를 반환합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_returncode(): 33c4.                서브 프로세스 반환 코드를 돌려줍니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.kill(): 33c5.                          서브 프로세스를 죽입니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.send_signal(): 33c7.                   서브 프로세스에 시그널을 보냅니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.terminate(): 33c6.                     서브 프로세스를 중지합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.close(): 33c8.                         서브 프로세스를 죽이고 모든 파이프를 닫습니다.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 프로토콜<2>,  Next: 이벤트 루프 정책,  Prev: 트랜스포트<2>,  Up: 저수준 API 색인

5.19.1.127 프로토콜
...................

프로토콜 클래스는 다음 '콜백 메서드를' 구현할 수 있습니다:

‘callback’ *note connection_made(): 33cb.              연결이 이루어질 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note connection_lost(): 33b0.              연결이 끊어지거나 닫힐 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pause_writing(): 33bc.                트랜스포트 버퍼가 높은 수위를 초과할 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note resume_writing(): 33bd.               트랜스포트 버퍼가 낮은 수위 아래로 내려갈 때 호출됩
                                                       니다.
                                                       

스트리밍 프로토콜 (TCP, 유닉스 소켓, 파이프)
............................................

‘callback’ *note data_received(): 1793.                어떤 데이터가 수신될 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 33cd.                 EOF가 수신될 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       

버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜
.........................

‘callback’ *note get_buffer(): 33cf.                   새로운 수신 버퍼를 할당하기 위해서 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note buffer_updated(): 33d0.               수신된 데이터로 버퍼가 갱신될 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 33d1.                 EOF가 수신될 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       

데이터 그램 프로토콜
....................

‘callback’ *note datagram_received(): 33d3.            데이터 그램이 수신될 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note error_received(): 33d4.               이전의 송신이나 수신 연산이 *note OSError: 411.를 일
                                                       으킬 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       

서브 프로세스 프로토콜
......................

‘callback’ *note pipe_data_received(): 17cb.           자식 프로세스가 'stdout' 이나 'stderr' 파이프에 데이
                                                       터를 쓸 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pipe_connection_lost(): 33d6.         자식 프로세스와 통신하는 파이프 중 하나가 닫힐 때 호
                                                       출됩니다.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note process_exited(): 17ca.               자식 프로세스가 종료할 때 호출됩니다.
                                                       *note pipe_data_received(): 17cb. 와
                                                       *note pipe_connection_lost(): 33d6. 메서드 전에 호출
                                                       될 수 있습니다.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 루프 정책,  Prev: 프로토콜<2>,  Up: 저수준 API 색인

5.19.1.128 이벤트 루프 정책
...........................

정책은 *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c2.와 같은 함수의 동작을 변경하
는 저수준 메커니즘입니다.  자세한 내용은 주 *note 정책 절: 3359.을 참조
하십시오.

정책 액세스하기
...............

*note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 33e5.           현재 프로세스 전반의 정책을 돌려줍니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 33e6.           새로운 프로세스 전반의 정책을 설정합니다.
                                                       
                                                       
*note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 33e3.                   정책 객체의 베이스 클래스.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio로 개발하기,  Prev: 저수준 API 색인,  Up: asyncio — 비동기 I/O

5.19.1.129 asyncio로 개발하기
.............................

비동기 프로그래밍은 고전적인 “순차적” 프로그래밍과 다릅니다.

이 페이지는 흔한 실수와 함정을 나열하고, 이를 피하는 방법을 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 디버그 모드::
* 동시성과 다중 스레드::
* 블로킹 코드 실행하기::
* 로깅: 로깅<3>.
* await 하지 않은 코루틴 감지::
* 전달되지 않은 예외 감지::


File: python.info,  Node: 디버그 모드,  Next: 동시성과 다중 스레드,  Up: asyncio로 개발하기

5.19.1.130 디버그 모드
......................

기본적으로 asyncio는 프로덕션 모드로 실행됩니다.  개발을 쉽게 하려고
asyncio에는 '디버그 모드'를 제공합니다.

여러 가지 방법으로 asyncio 디버그 모드를 활성화할 수 있습니다:

   * *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1d56. 환경 변수를 ‘1’로 설정.

   * *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8. 사용.

   * ‘debug=True’를 *note asyncio.run(): 476.로 전달.

   * *note loop.set_debug(): dbe.를 호출.

디버그 모드를 활성화하는 것 외에도, 다음을 고려하십시오:

   * *note asyncio 로거: 3419.의 로그 수준을 *note logging.DEBUG: 1cfa.로
     설정, 예를 들어 응용 프로그램 시작 시 다음 코드 조각을 실행할 수 있
     습니다:

          logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

   * *note ResourceWarning: 244. 경고를 표시하도록 *note warnings: 112.
     모듈을 구성.  이렇게 하는 한 가지 방법은 *note -W: 8c4. ‘default’ 명
     령 줄 옵션을 사용하는 것입니다.

디버그 모드가 활성화되면:

   * 많은 스레드 안전하지 않은 asyncio API(*note loop.call_soon(): b01.과
     *note loop.call_at(): b04. 메서드와 같은)가 잘못된 스레드에서 호출
     될 때 예외를 발생시킵니다.

   * I/O 선택기의 실행 시간은 I/O 연산 수행에 너무 오래 걸리면 로그 됩니
     다.

   * 100 밀리 초 보다 오래 걸리는 콜백이 로그 됩니다.  *note
     loop.slow_callback_duration: 338a. 어트리뷰트는 “느린” 것으로 간주
     할 최소 실행 시간(초)을 설정하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 동시성과 다중 스레드,  Next: 블로킹 코드 실행하기,  Prev: 디버그 모드,  Up: asyncio로 개발하기

5.19.1.131 동시성과 다중 스레드
...............................

이벤트 루프는 스레드(일반적으로 주 스레드)에서 실행되며 그 스레드에서 모
든 콜백과 태스크를 실행합니다.  태스크가 이벤트 루프에서 실행되는 동안,
다른 태스크는 같은 스레드에서 실행될 수 없습니다.  태스크가 ‘await’ 표현
식을 실행하면, 실행 중인 태스크가 일시 중지되고 이벤트 루프는 다음 태스
크를 실행합니다.

다른 OS 스레드에서 *note 콜백: 2923.을 예약하려면, *note
loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): b02. 메서드를 사용해야 합니다.  예:

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)

거의 모든 asyncio 객체는 스레드 안전하지 않습니다.  태스크나 콜백 외부에
서 작동하는 코드가 없으면 일반적으로 문제가 되지 않습니다.  그러한 코드
가 저수준 asyncio API를 호출해야 하면, *note
loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): b02. 메서드를 사용해야 합니다, 예를 들어:

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)

다른 OS 스레드에서 코루틴 객체를 예약하려면, *note
run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 87e. 함수를 사용해야 합니다.  결과에 액세스
할 수 있도록 *note concurrent.futures.Future: 11a1.를 반환합니다:

     async def coro_func():
          return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)

     # 나중에 다른 OS 스레드에서:

     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
     # 결과를 기다립니다:
     result = future.result()

시그널을 처리하려면, 이벤트 루프를 메인 스레드에서 실행해야 합니다.

*note loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6. 메서드는 *note
concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b.와 함께 사용되어, 이벤트 루프
가 실행되는 OS 스레드를 블록하지 않고 다른 OS 스레드에서 블로킹 코드를 실
행할 수 있습니다.

현재 다른 프로세스(가령 *note multiprocessing: 94.으로 시작된 프로세스
)에서 직접 코루틴이나 콜백을 예약할 방법은 없습니다.  *note 이벤트 루프
메서드: 335f. 섹션은 이벤트 루프를 블록하지 않고 파이프를 읽고 파일 기술
자를 감시할 수 있는 API를 나열합니다.  또한 asyncio의 *note 서브
프로세스: 329f. API는 프로세스를 시작하고 이벤트 루프에서 프로세스와 통
신하는 방법을 제공합니다.  마지막으로, 앞서 언급한 *note
loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6. 메서드를 *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.와 함께 사용하여 다른 프로세
스에서 코드를 실행할 수도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 블로킹 코드 실행하기,  Next: 로깅<3>,  Prev: 동시성과 다중 스레드,  Up: asyncio로 개발하기

5.19.1.132 블로킹 코드 실행하기
...............................

블로킹 (CPU 병목) 코드는 직접 호출하면 안 됩니다.  예를 들어, 함수가 CPU
집약적인 계산을 1초 동안 수행하면, 모든 동시 asyncio 태스크와 IO 연산이
1초 지연됩니다.

실행기를 사용하여, 블로킹이 이벤트 루프가 실행되는 OS 스레드를 블록하지
않도록, 다른 스레드 또는 다른 프로세스에서 태스크를 실행할 수 있습니다.
자세한 내용은 *note loop.run_in_executor(): 8e6. 메서드를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅<3>,  Next: await 하지 않은 코루틴 감지,  Prev: 블로킹 코드 실행하기,  Up: asyncio로 개발하기

5.19.1.133 로깅
...............

asyncio는 *note logging: 87. 모듈을 사용하고, 모든 로깅은 ‘"asyncio"’ 로
거를 통해 수행됩니다.

기본 로그 수준은 *note logging.INFO: 1cfb.며, 쉽게 조정할 수 있습니다:

     logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)

Network logging can block the event loop.  It is recommended to use a
separate thread for handling logs or use non-blocking IO. For example,
see *note 블록 하는 처리기 다루기: 341e.


File: python.info,  Node: await 하지 않은 코루틴 감지,  Next: 전달되지 않은 예외 감지,  Prev: 로깅<3>,  Up: asyncio로 개발하기

5.19.1.134 await 하지 않은 코루틴 감지
......................................

코루틴 함수가 호출되었지만 기다리지 않을 때(예를 들어, ‘await coro()’ 대
신 ‘coro()’)나 코루틴이 *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf.로 예약되지 않
으면 asyncio가 *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.을 방출합니다:

     import asyncio

     async def test():
         print("never scheduled")

     async def main():
         test()

     asyncio.run(main())

출력:

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
       test()

디버그 모드에서의 출력:

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
     Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

       < .. >

       File "../t.py", line 7, in main
         test()
       test()

일반적인 수정법은 코루틴을 await 하거나 *note asyncio.create_task():
1bf. 함수를 호출하는 것입니다:

     async def main():
         await test()


File: python.info,  Node: 전달되지 않은 예외 감지,  Prev: await 하지 않은 코루틴 감지,  Up: asyncio로 개발하기

5.19.1.135 전달되지 않은 예외 감지
..................................

*note Future.set_exception(): 32d2.가 호출되었지만, Future 객체가 await
되지 않으면, 예외는 절대로 사용자 코드로 전파되지 않습니다.  이럴 때,
Future 객체가 가비지 수집될 때 asyncio가 로그 메시지를 출력합니다.

처리되지 않은 예외의 예:

     import asyncio

     async def bug():
         raise Exception("not consumed")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(bug())

     asyncio.run(main())

출력:

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
       exception=Exception('not consumed')>

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "test.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

태스크가 만들어진 곳의 트레이스백을 얻으려면 *note 디버그 모드를
활성화하세요: 1d57.:

     asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

디버그 모드에서의 출력:

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
         exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>

     source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

     < .. >

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

     참고: asyncio의 소스 코드는 Lib/asyncio/(1)에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/


File: python.info,  Node: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Next: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Prev: asyncio — 비동기 I/O,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.2 ‘socket’ — Low-level networking interface
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/socket.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 BSD 'socket' 인터페이스에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  모든 현대
유닉스 시스템, 윈도우, MacOS, 그리고 아마 추가 플랫폼에서 사용할 수 있습
니다.

     참고: 호출이 운영 체제 소켓 API로 이루어지기 때문에, 일부 동작은 플
     랫폼에 따라 다를 수 있습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix
system call and library interface for sockets to Python’s
object-oriented style: the *note socket(): d9d. function returns a
'socket object' whose methods implement the various socket system calls.
Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than in the C interface: as
with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’ operations on Python files, buffer
allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length is
implicit on send operations.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note socketserver: cd.

     네트워크 서버 작성을 단순화하는 클래스.

모듈 *note ssl: d0.

     소켓 객체용 TLS/SSL 래퍼.

* Menu:

* 소켓 패밀리::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<4>.
* 소켓 객체::
* 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항::
* 예제: 예제<18>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/socket.py


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 패밀리,  Next: 모듈 내용<4>,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.1 소켓 패밀리
....................

시스템과 빌드 옵션에 따라, 다양한 소켓 패밀리가 이 모듈에서 지원됩니다.

특정 소켓 객체가 요구하는 주소 형식은 소켓 객체를 만들 때 지정된 주소 패
밀리에 따라 자동으로 선택됩니다.  소켓 주소는 다음과 같이 표현됩니다:

   - 파일 시스템 노드에 바인드 된 *note AF_UNIX: 1825. 소켓의 주소는 파
     일 시스템 인코딩과 ‘'surrogateescape'’ 에러 처리기( PEP 383(1)을 참
     조하세요)를 사용하는 문자열로 표현됩니다.  리눅스의 추상 이름 공간
     (abstract namespace)에 있는 주소는 처음에 널 바이트가 있는 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a.로 반환됩니다; 이 이름 공간의 소켓은 일반 파일
     시스템 소켓과 통신 할 수 있으므로, 리눅스에서 실행하려는 프로그램은
     두 가지 유형의 주소를 모두 다뤄야 할 수도 있습니다.  문자열이나 바
     이트열류 객체는 인자로 전달할 때 두 가지 유형의 주소에 모두 사용할
     수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전에는, *note AF_UNIX: 1825. 소켓 경로가 UTF-8
     인코딩을 사용한다고 가정했습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 받
     아들입니다.

   - A pair ‘(host, port)’ is used for the *note AF_INET: 1823. address
     family, where 'host' is a string representing either a hostname in
     internet domain notation like ‘'daring.cwi.nl'’ or an IPv4 address
     like ‘'100.50.200.5'’, and 'port' is an integer.

        - IPv4 주소의 경우, 호스트 주소 대신 두 개의 특수 형식이 허용됩
          니다: ‘''’는 모든 인터페이스에 바인딩하는 데 사용되는
          ‘INADDR_ANY’를 나타내며 ‘'<broadcast>'’ 문자열은
          ‘INADDR_BROADCAST’를 나타냅니다.  이 동작은 IPv6와 호환되지 않
          으므로, 여러분의 파이썬 프로그램에서 IPv6를 지원하려는 경우에
          는 이것들을 사용하지 않을 수 있습니다.

   - *note AF_INET6: 1824. 주소 패밀리의 경우, 4-튜플 ‘(host, port,
     flowinfo, scope_id)’가 사용됩니다.  여기서 'flowinfo' 와
     'scope_id'는 C에서 ‘struct sockaddr_in6’의 ‘sin6_flowinfo’ 와
     ‘sin6_scope_id’ 멤버를 나타냅니다.  *note socket: cc. 모듈 메서드의
     경우, 'flowinfo' 와 'scope_id'는 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 생략할
     수 있습니다.  그러나, 'scope_id'를 생략하면 스코프가 지정된(scoped)
     IPv6 주소를 조작하는 데 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 멀티캐스트 주소(의미 있는 'scope_id'를 가진)의 경
     우, 'address'에는 ‘%scope_id’ (또는 ‘zone id’) 부분이 포함될 수 없
     습니다.  이 정보는 불필요하므로 안전하게 생략할 수 있습니다 (권장 사
     항).

   - ‘AF_NETLINK’ 소켓은 ‘(pid, groups)’ 쌍으로 표현됩니다.

   - TIPC에 대한 리눅스 전용 지원은 ‘AF_TIPC’ 주소 패밀리를 사용하여 사
     용할 수 있습니다.  TIPC는 클러스터 된 컴퓨터 환경에서 사용하도록 설
     계된 개방형 비 IP 기반 네트워크 프로토콜입니다.  주소는 튜플로 표현
     되며 필드는 주소 유형에 따라 다릅니다.  일반적인 튜플 형식은
     ‘(addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope])’입니다.  이때:

        - 'addr_type'은 ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’ 또는
          ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’ 중 하나입니다.

        - 'scope'는 ‘TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE’, ‘TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE’ 또는
          ‘TIPC_NODE_SCOPE’ 중 하나입니다.

        - 'addr_type'이 ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’이면, 'v1'은 서버 유형이고,
          'v2'는 포트 식별자이며, 'v3'은 0이어야 합니다.

          'addr_type'이 ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’면, 'v1'은 서버 유형이고,
          'v2'는 하위 포트 번호이며, 'v3'는 상위 포트 번호입니다.

          'addr_type'이 ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’면, 'v1'은 노드이고, 'v2'는 참조이
          며, 'v3'는 0으로 설정되어야 합니다.

   - 튜플 ‘(interface, )’가 *note AF_CAN: 3426. 주소 패밀리에 사용됩니다
     .  여기서 'interface'는 ‘'can0'’과 같은 네트워크 인터페이스 이름을
     나타내는 문자열입니다.  네트워크 인터페이스 이름 ‘''’는 이 패밀리의
     모든 네트워크 인터페이스에서 패킷을 수신하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

        - *note CAN_ISOTP: 3427. 프로토콜은 튜플 ‘(interface, rx_addr,
          tx_addr)’를 요구하는데, 두 개의 추가 매개 변수는 모두 CAN 식별
          자(표준 또는 확장)를 나타내는 부호 없는 long 정수입니다.

        - *note CAN_J1939: 930. 프로토콜에는 ‘(interface, name, pgn,
          addr)’가 필요한데, 여기서 추가 파라미터는 ECU 이름을 나타내는
          64 비트 부호 없는 정수, PGN(Parameter Group Number)을 나타내는
          32비트 부호 없는 정수 및 주소를 나타내는 8비트 정수입니다.

   - A string or a tuple ‘(id, unit)’ is used for the ‘SYSPROTO_CONTROL’
     protocol of the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ family.  The string is the name of a
     kernel control using a dynamically assigned ID. The tuple can be
     used if ID and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a
     registered ID is used.

     Added in version 3.3.

   - ‘AF_BLUETOOTH’는 다음 프로토콜 및 주소 형식을 지원합니다:

        - ‘BTPROTO_L2CAP’는 ‘(bdaddr, psm)’를 받아들입니다.  여기서
          ‘bdaddr’은 문자열 블루투스 주소이고 ‘psm’은 정수입니다.

        - ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’은 ‘(bdaddr, channel)’를 받아들입니다.  여기서
          ‘bdaddr’은 문자열 블루투스 주소이고 ‘channel’은 정수입니다.

        - ‘BTPROTO_HCI’ accepts a format that depends on your OS.

             - On Linux it accepts a tuple ‘(device_id,)’ where
               ‘device_id’ is an integer specifying the number of the
               Bluetooth device.

             - On FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD it accepts ‘bdaddr’
               where ‘bdaddr’ is the Bluetooth address as a string.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: NetBSD 및 DragonFlyBSD 지원이 추가되었습니
          다.

          버전 3.13.3에서 변경: FreeBSD support added.

        - ‘BTPROTO_SCO’ accepts ‘bdaddr’ where ‘bdaddr’ is the Bluetooth
          address as a string or a *note bytes: 1c2. object.  (ex.
          ‘'12:23:34:45:56:67'’ or ‘b'12:23:34:45:56:67'’) This protocol
          is not supported under FreeBSD.

   - *note AF_ALG: cd4.는 커널 암호 인터페이스에 기반한 리눅스 전용 소켓
     입니다.  알고리즘 소켓은 2~4개의 요소를 갖는 ‘(type, name [, feat
     [, mask]])’ 튜플로 구성됩니다.  여기서:

        - 'type'은 문자열의 알고리즘 유형입니다, 예를 들어, ‘aead’,
          ‘hash’, ‘skcipher’ 또는 ‘rng’.

        - 'name'은 알고리즘 이름과 연산 모드 문자열입니다, 예를 들어,
          ‘sha256’, ‘hmac(sha256)’, ‘cbc(aes)’ 또는
          ‘drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256’.

        - 'feat' 과 'mask'는 부호 없는 32비트 정수입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.

     Added in version 3.6.

   - *note AF_VSOCK: b72.은 가상 기계와 호스트가 통신할 수 있게 합니다.
     소켓은 ‘(CID, port)’ 튜플로 표현되는데, 컨텍스트 ID 또는 CID와
     port는 정수입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.9

     See ‘vsock(7)(2)’

     Added in version 3.7.

   - *note AF_PACKET: 3428. is a low-level interface directly to network
     devices.  The addresses are represented by the tuple ‘(ifname,
     proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]])’ where:

        - 'ifname' - 장치 이름을 지정하는 문자열

        - 'proto' - The Ethernet protocol number.  May be *note
          ETH_P_ALL: 17af. to capture all protocols, one of the *note
          ETHERTYPE_* constants: 17b0. or any other Ethernet protocol
          number.

        - 'pkttype' - 패킷 유형을 지정하는 선택적 정수.:

             - ‘PACKET_HOST’ (기본값) - 로컬 호스트로 향하는 패킷.

             - ‘PACKET_BROADCAST’ - 물리 계층 브로드캐스트 패킷.

             - ‘PACKET_MULTICAST’ - Packet sent to a physical-layer
               multicast address.

             - ‘PACKET_OTHERHOST’ - 무차별 모드의 장치 관리자에 의해 포
               착된 다른 호스트로 향하는 패킷.

             - ‘PACKET_OUTGOING’ - 패킷 소켓으로 루프 백 된 로컬 호스트
               에서 시작된 패킷.

        - 'hatype' - ARP 하드웨어 주소 유형을 지정하는 선택적 정수.

        - 'addr' - 하드웨어 물리 주소를 지정하는 선택적 바이트열류 객체,
          해석은 장치에 따라 다릅니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.2.

   - *note AF_QIPCRTR: 3429.는 Qualcomm 플랫폼의 코 프로세서에서 실행되
     는 서비스와 통신하기 위한 리눅스 전용 소켓 기반 인터페이스입니다.  주
     소 패밀리는 ‘(node, port)’ 튜플로 표현되는데, 'node'와 'port'는 음
     수가 아닌 정수입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.8.

   - ‘IPPROTO_UDPLITE’는 UDP의 변형으로, 체크섬으로 커버되는 패킷 부분을
     지정할 수 있습니다.  변경할 수 있는 두 개의 소켓 옵션이 추가되었습
     니다.  ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV,
     length)’는 체크섬으로 커버되는 나가는 패킷 부분을 변경하고
     ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV, length)’는 너
     무 적은 데이터를 커버하는 패킷을 걸러냅니다.  두 경우 모두
     ‘length’는 ‘range(8, 2**16, 8)’에 있어야합니다.

     이러한 소켓은 IPv4의 경우 ‘socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM,
     IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ 또는 IPv6의 경우 ‘socket(AF_INET6, SOCK_DGRAM,
     IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’로 구성되어야 합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.20, FreeBSD >= 10.1

     Added in version 3.9.

   - *note AF_HYPERV: 342a. is a Windows-only socket based interface for
     communicating with Hyper-V hosts and guests.  The address family is
     represented as a ‘(vm_id, service_id)’ tuple where the ‘vm_id’ and
     ‘service_id’ are UUID strings.

     The ‘vm_id’ is the virtual machine identifier or a set of known
     VMID values if the target is not a specific virtual machine.  Known
     VMID constants defined on ‘socket’ are:

        - ‘HV_GUID_ZERO’

        - ‘HV_GUID_BROADCAST’

        - ‘HV_GUID_WILDCARD’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connections from all partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_CHILDREN’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connection from child partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_LOOPBACK’ - Used as a target to itself.

        - ‘HV_GUID_PARENT’ - When used as a bind accepts connection from
          the parent partition.  When used as an address target it will
          connect to the parent partition.

     The ‘service_id’ is the service identifier of the registered
     service.

     Added in version 3.12.

IPv4/v6 소켓 주소의 'host' 부분에 호스트 명을 사용하면, 파이썬이 DNS 결
정에서 반환된 첫 번째 주소를 사용하기 때문에, 프로그램은 비결정적인 동작
을 보일 수 있습니다.  소켓 주소는 DNS 결정 결과 및/또는 호스트 구성에 따
라 실제 IPv4/v6 주소로 다르게 결정됩니다.  결정론적 동작을 위해서는
'host' 부분에 숫자 주소를 사용하십시오.

All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument
types and out-of-memory conditions can be raised.  Errors related to
socket or address semantics raise *note OSError: 411. or one of its
subclasses.

비 블로킹 모드는 *note setblocking(): 2b51.을 통해 지원됩니다.  시간제한
을 기반으로 하는 일반화는 *note settimeout(): 342b.을 통해 지원됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsock(7)


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<4>,  Next: 소켓 객체,  Prev: 소켓 패밀리,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.2 모듈 내용
..................

모듈 *note socket: cc.은 다음 요소를 노출합니다.

* Menu:

* 예외: 예외<12>.
* 상수: 상수<8>.
* 함수: 함수<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<12>,  Next: 상수<8>,  Up: 모듈 내용<4>

5.19.2.3 예외
.............

 -- 예외: socket.error

     *note OSError: 411.의 폐지된 별칭.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: PEP 3151(1)을 따라, 이 클래스는 *note OSError:
     411.의 별칭이 되었습니다.

 -- 예외: socket.herror

     *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스, 이 예외는 주소 관련 에러에서 발
     생합니다.  즉 *note gethostbyname_ex(): 18d4.와 *note
     gethostbyaddr(): 18d3.를 포함하는 POSIX C API의 'h_errno'를 사용하
     는 함수들.  수반되는 값은 라이브러리 호출이 반환한 에러를 나타내는
     ‘(h_errno, string)’ 쌍입니다.  'h_errno'는 숫자 값이고, 'string'은
     ‘hstrerror()’ C 함수에 의해 반환된 'h_errno'의 설명을 나타냅니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 클래스는 *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스가
     되었습니다.

 -- 예외: socket.gaierror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 411, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors by *note getaddrinfo(): 1759. and *note
     getnameinfo(): 16ca.  The accompanying value is a pair ‘(error,
     string)’ representing an error returned by a library call.
     'string' represents the description of 'error', as returned by the
     ‘gai_strerror()’ C function.  The numeric 'error' value will match
     one of the ‘EAI_*’ constants defined in this module.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 클래스는 *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스가
     되었습니다.

 -- 예외: socket.timeout

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 82f.

     *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스, 이 예외는 앞서 *note
     settimeout(): 342b. 호출을 통해 (또는 묵시적으로 *note
     setdefaulttimeout(): 342f.를 통해) 시간제한이 활성화된 소켓에서 시
     간 초과가 일어날 때 발생합니다.  수반되는 값은 현재는 항상 “timed
     out” 값을 갖는 문자열입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 클래스는 *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: 82f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<8>,  Next: 함수<7>,  Prev: 예외<12>,  Up: 모듈 내용<4>

5.19.2.4 상수
.............

AF_* 와 SOCK_* 상수는 이제 ‘AddressFamily’ 와 ‘SocketKind’ *note
IntEnum: cdc. 컬렉션입니다.

Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_UNIX
 -- 데이터: socket.AF_INET
 -- 데이터: socket.AF_INET6

     These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used
     for the first argument to *note socket(): d9d.  If the *note
     AF_UNIX: 1825. constant is not defined then this protocol is
     unsupported.  More constants may be available depending on the
     system.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_UNSPEC

     *note AF_UNSPEC: 3373. means that *note getaddrinfo(): 1759. should
     return socket addresses for any address family (either IPv4, IPv6,
     or any other) that can be used.

 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_STREAM
 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_DGRAM
 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_RAW
 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_RDM
 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET

     These constants represent the socket types, used for the second
     argument to *note socket(): d9d.  More constants may be available
     depending on the system.  (Only *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. and *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2. appear to be generally useful.)

 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC
 -- 데이터: socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK

     이 두 상수는, 정의되었다면, 소켓 유형과 결합하여 일부 플래그를 원자
     적으로 설정할 수 있도록 합니다 (따라서 경쟁 조건의 가능성과 별도 호
     출의 필요성을 피할 수 있습니다).

     더 보기
     .......

     Secure File Descriptor Handling(1) for a more thorough explanation.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.27.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: SO_*
 -- 데이터: socket.SOMAXCONN

 -- 데이터: MSG_*

 -- 데이터: SOL_*

 -- 데이터: SCM_*

 -- 데이터: IPPROTO_*

 -- 데이터: IPPORT_*

 -- 데이터: INADDR_*

 -- 데이터: IP_*

 -- 데이터: IPV6_*

 -- 데이터: EAI_*

 -- 데이터: AI_*

 -- 데이터: NI_*

 -- 데이터: TCP_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation
     on sockets and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket
     module.  They are generally used in arguments to the *note
     setsockopt(): cd3. and *note getsockopt(): cd2. methods of socket
     objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined in the
     Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values
     are provided.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’, ‘SO_PEERSEC’,
     ‘SO_PASSSEC’, ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’, ‘TCP_CONGESTION’가 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.6.5에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 런타임 윈도우가 지원하면
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN’, ‘TCP_KEEPCNT’가 나타납니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’가 추가되었습니다.

     윈도우에서, 런타임 윈도우가 지원하면 ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’,
     ‘TCP_KEEPINTVL’가 나타납니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘IP_RECVTOS’ was added.  Added ‘TCP_KEEPALIVE’.
     On MacOS this constant can be used in the same way that
     ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’ is used on Linux.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’.  On MacOS this
     constant can be used in the same way that ‘TCP_INFO’ is used on
     Linux and BSD.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’.  On
     OpenBSD and FreeBSD respectively those constants can be used in the
     same way that ‘SO_MARK’ is used on Linux.  Also added missing TCP
     socket options from Linux: ‘TCP_MD5SIG’,
     ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’, ‘TCP_REPAIR’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’,
     ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’, ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’,
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.  Added
     ‘IP_PKTINFO’, ‘IP_UNBLOCK_SOURCE’, ‘IP_BLOCK_SOURCE’,
     ‘IP_ADD_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’, ‘IP_DROP_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added ‘SO_BINDTOIFINDEX’.  On Linux this
     constant can be used in the same way that ‘SO_BINDTODEVICE’ is
     used, but with the index of a network interface instead of its
     name.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_CAN
 -- 데이터: socket.PF_CAN

 -- 데이터: SOL_CAN_*

 -- 데이터: CAN_*

     리눅스 설명서에 설명되어있는 이 형식의 많은 상수는 소켓 모듈에도 정
     의되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.25, NetBSD >= 8.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: NetBSD support was added.

     버전 3.13.4에서 변경: Restored missing ‘CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ on
     Linux.

 -- 데이터: socket.CAN_BCM

 -- 데이터: CAN_BCM_*

     CAN 프로토콜 패밀리에서 CAN_BCM은 브로드캐스트 관리자 (Broadcast
     Manager, BCM) 프로토콜입니다.  리눅스 설명서에서 설명된 브로드캐스
     트 관리자 상수도 소켓 모듈에 정의되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

          참고: ‘CAN_BCM_CAN_FD_FRAME’ 플래그는 리눅스 >= 4.8 에서만 사
          용 가능합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES

     CAN_RAW 소켓에서 CAN FD 지원을 활성화합니다.  기본적으로 비활성화되
     어 있습니다.  여러분의 응용 프로그램이 CAN과 CAN FD 프레임을 모두 보
     낼 수 있도록 합니다; 그러나 소켓에서 읽을 때 CAN과 CAN FD 프레임을
     모두 받아들여야 합니다.

     이 상수는 리눅스 설명서에 설명되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.6.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: socket.CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS

     주어진 모든 CAN 필터와 일치하는 CAN 프레임 만 사용자 공간으로 전달
     되도록 적용된 CAN 필터를 결합합니다.

     이 상수는 리눅스 설명서에 설명되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: socket.CAN_ISOTP

     CAN 프로토콜 패밀리의 CAN_ISOTP는 ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2) 프로토콜입니
     다.  ISO-TP 상수는 리눅스 설명서에 설명되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: socket.CAN_J1939

     CAN 프로토콜 패밀리의 CAN_J1939는 SAE J1939 프로토콜입니다.  J1939
     상수는 리눅스 설명서에 설명되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 5.4.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_DIVERT
 -- 데이터: socket.PF_DIVERT

     These two constants, documented in the FreeBSD divert(4) manual
     page, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD >= 14.0.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_PACKET
 -- 데이터: socket.PF_PACKET

 -- 데이터: PACKET_*

     리눅스 설명서에 설명되어있는 이 형식의 많은 상수는 소켓 모듈에도 정
     의되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.2.

 -- 데이터: socket.ETH_P_ALL

     ‘ETH_P_ALL’ can be used in the *note socket: d9d. constructor as
     'proto' for the *note AF_PACKET: 3428. family in order to capture
     every packet, regardless of protocol.

     For more information, see the ‘packet(7)(2)’ manpage.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_RDS
 -- 데이터: socket.PF_RDS
 -- 데이터: socket.SOL_RDS

 -- 데이터: RDS_*

     리눅스 설명서에 설명되어있는 이 형식의 많은 상수는 소켓 모듈에도 정
     의되어 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.30.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: socket.SIO_RCVALL
 -- 데이터: socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS
 -- 데이터: socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH

 -- 데이터: RCVALL_*

     윈도우 WSAIoctl()용 상수.  이 상수는 소켓 객체의 *note ioctl():
     cd0. 메서드에 대한 인자로 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: TIPC_*

     TIPC 관련 상수.  C 소켓 API에서 내보낸 것과 일치합니다.  자세한 정
     보는 TIPC 설명서를 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_ALG
 -- 데이터: socket.SOL_ALG

 -- 데이터: ALG_*

     리눅스 커널 암호화용 상수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_VSOCK
 -- 데이터: socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID

 -- 데이터: VMADDR*

 -- 데이터: SO_VM*

     리눅스 호스트/게스트 통신용 상수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.8.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_LINK

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: BSD, macOS.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: socket.has_ipv6

     이 상수는 이 플랫폼에서 IPv6가 지원되는지를 나타내는 논릿값을 포함
     합니다.

 -- 데이터: socket.BDADDR_ANY
 -- 데이터: socket.BDADDR_LOCAL

     이들은 특수한 의미를 지닌 블루투스 주소를 포함하는 문자열 상수입니
     다.  예를 들어, *note BDADDR_ANY: 3440.는 바인딩 소켓을
     ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’로 지정할 때 임의의(any) 주소를 나타내는 데 사용할
     수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: socket.HCI_FILTER
 -- 데이터: socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP
 -- 데이터: socket.HCI_DATA_DIR

     For use with ‘BTPROTO_HCI’.  ‘HCI_FILTER’ is only available on
     Linux and FreeBSD. ‘HCI_TIME_STAMP’ and ‘HCI_DATA_DIR’ are only
     available on Linux.

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_QIPCRTR

     원격 프로세서를 제공하는 서비스와 통신하는 데 사용되는 Qualcomm의
     IPC 라우터 프로토콜용 상수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 4.7.

 -- 데이터: socket.SCM_CREDS2
 -- 데이터: socket.LOCAL_CREDS
 -- 데이터: socket.LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT

     LOCAL_CREDS and LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT can be used with SOCK_DGRAM,
     SOCK_STREAM sockets, equivalent to Linux/DragonFlyBSD SO_PASSCRED,
     while LOCAL_CREDS sends the credentials at first read,
     LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT sends for each read, SCM_CREDS2 must be then
     used for the latter for the message type.

     Added in version 3.11.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD.

 -- 데이터: socket.SO_INCOMING_CPU

     Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction with
     ‘SO_REUSEPORT’.

     Added in version 3.11.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 3.9

 -- 데이터: socket.AF_HYPERV
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_PROTOCOL_RAW
 -- 데이터: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
 -- 데이터: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX
 -- 데이터: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND
 -- 데이터: socket.HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_GUID_ZERO
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_GUID_WILDCARD
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_GUID_BROADCAST
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_GUID_CHILDREN
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_GUID_LOOPBACK
 -- 데이터: socket.HV_GUID_PARENT

     Constants for Windows Hyper-V sockets for host/guest
     communications.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: socket.ETHERTYPE_ARP
 -- 데이터: socket.ETHERTYPE_IP
 -- 데이터: socket.ETHERTYPE_IPV6
 -- 데이터: socket.ETHERTYPE_VLAN

     IEEE 802.3 protocol number(3).  constants.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux, FreeBSD, macOS.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: socket.SHUT_RD
 -- 데이터: socket.SHUT_WR
 -- 데이터: socket.SHUT_RDWR

     These constants are used by the *note shutdown(): 345b. method of
     socket objects.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/packet(7)

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ieee-802-numbers/ieee-802-numbers.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<7>,  Prev: 상수<8>,  Up: 모듈 내용<4>

5.19.2.5 함수
.............

* Menu:

* 소켓 만들기::
* 기타 함수: 기타 함수<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 만들기,  Next: 기타 함수<2>,  Up: 함수<7>

5.19.2.6 소켓 만들기
....................

다음 함수는 모두 *note 소켓 객체: 345e.를 만듭니다.

 -- 클래스: socket.socket (family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0,
          fileno=None)

     지정된 주소 패밀리, 소켓 유형, 및 프로토콜 번호를 사용하여 새로운 소
     켓을 만듭니다.  주소 패밀리는 *note AF_INET: 1823. (기본값), *note
     AF_INET6: 1824, *note AF_UNIX: 1825, *note AF_CAN: 3426, *note
     AF_PACKET: 3428. 또는 *note AF_RDS: 3438. 여야 합니다.  소켓 유형은
     *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. (기본값), *note SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2, *note
     SOCK_RAW: 3431. 또는 기타 ‘SOCK_’ 상수 중 하나여야 합니다.  프로토
     콜 번호는 일반적으로 0이며 생략될 수도 있고, 주소 패밀리가 *note
     AF_CAN: 3426. 일 때 프로토콜은 ‘CAN_RAW’, *note CAN_BCM: f9a, *note
     CAN_ISOTP: 3427. 또는 *note CAN_J1939: 930. 중 하나여야 합니다.

     If 'fileno' is specified, the values for 'family', 'type', and
     'proto' are auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.
     Auto-detection can be overruled by calling the function with
     explicit 'family', 'type', or 'proto' arguments.  This only affects
     how Python represents e.g.  the return value of *note
     socket.getpeername(): 33b1. but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
     *note socket.fromfd(): 345f, 'fileno' will return the same socket
     and not a duplicate.  This may help close a detached socket using
     *note socket.close(): b70.

     새로 만들어진 소켓은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’를 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘socket.__new__’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: AF_CAN 패밀리가 추가되었습니다.  AF_RDS 패밀리가
     추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: CAN_BCM 프로토콜이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 반환된 소켓은 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: CAN_ISOTP 프로토콜이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: When *note SOCK_NONBLOCK: c07. or *note
     SOCK_CLOEXEC: c08. bit flags are applied to 'type' they are
     cleared, and *note socket.type: c09. will not reflect them.  They
     are still passed to the underlying system ‘socket()’ call.
     Therefore,

          sock = socket.socket(
              socket.AF_INET,
              socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)

     는 여전히 ‘SOCK_NONBLOCK’를 지원하는 OS에서 비 블로킹 소켓을 만들지
     만, ‘sock.type’은 ‘socket.SOCK_STREAM’로 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: CAN_J1939 프로토콜이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.

 -- 함수: socket.socketpair ([family[, type[, proto]]])

     Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address
     family, socket type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket
     type, and protocol number are as for the *note socket(): d9d.
     function above.  The default family is *note AF_UNIX: 1825. if
     defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is *note AF_INET:
     1823.

     새로 만들어진 소켓은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 반환된 소켓 객체는 이제 부분 집합이 아닌 전체 소
     켓 API를 지원합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 반환된 소켓은 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: socket.create_connection (address, timeout=GLOBAL_DEFAULT,
          source_address=None, *, all_errors=False)

     Connect to a TCP service listening on the internet 'address' (a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’), and return the socket object.  This is a
     higher-level function than *note socket.connect(): d9f.: if 'host'
     is a non-numeric hostname, it will try to resolve it for both *note
     AF_INET: 1823. and *note AF_INET6: 1824, and then try to connect to
     all possible addresses in turn until a connection succeeds.  This
     makes it easy to write clients that are compatible to both IPv4 and
     IPv6.

     선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수를 전달하면 연결을 시도하기 전에 소켓 인
     스턴스의 시간제한을 설정합니다.  'timeout'이 제공되지 않으면, *note
     getdefaulttimeout(): 3460.에 의해 반환된 전역 기본 시간제한 설정이
     사용됩니다.

     제공되면, 'source_address'는 연결하기 전에 소켓이 소스 주소로 바인
     드 할 2-튜플 ‘(host, port)’ 여야 합니다.  호스트나 포트가 각각 ‘’ 나
     0이면 OS 기본 동작이 사용됩니다.

     When a connection cannot be created, an exception is raised.  By
     default, it is the exception from the last address in the list.  If
     'all_errors' is ‘True’, it is an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6.
     containing the errors of all attempts.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'source_address'가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'all_errors' was added.

 -- 함수: socket.create_server (address, *, family=AF_INET,
          backlog=None, reuse_port=False, dualstack_ipv6=False)

     Convenience function which creates a TCP socket bound to 'address'
     (a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’) and returns the socket object.

     'family' should be either *note AF_INET: 1823. or *note AF_INET6:
     1824.  'backlog' is the queue size passed to *note socket.listen():
     e56.; if not specified , a default reasonable value is chosen.
     'reuse_port' dictates whether to set the ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ socket
     option.

     If 'dualstack_ipv6' is true, 'family' is *note AF_INET6: 1824. and
     the platform supports it the socket will be able to accept both
     IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will raise *note ValueError:
     202.  Most POSIX platforms and Windows are supposed to support this
     functionality.  When this functionality is enabled the address
     returned by *note socket.getpeername(): 33b1. when an IPv4
     connection occurs will be an IPv6 address represented as an
     IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  If 'dualstack_ipv6' is false it will
     explicitly disable this functionality on platforms that enable it
     by default (e.g.  Linux).  This parameter can be used in
     conjunction with *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): a28.:

          import socket

          addr = ("", 8080)  # all interfaces, port 8080
          if socket.has_dualstack_ipv6():
              s = socket.create_server(addr, family=socket.AF_INET6, dualstack_ipv6=True)
          else:
              s = socket.create_server(addr)

          참고: POSIX 플랫폼에서 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ 소켓 옵션은 같은
          'address'에 바인드 되었고 TIME_WAIT 상태로 남아 있던 이전 소켓
          을 즉시 재사용하기 위해 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: socket.has_dualstack_ipv6 ()

     플랫폼이 IPv4와 IPv6 연결을 모두 처리할 수 있는 TCP 소켓을 만드는 것
     을 지원하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: socket.fromfd (fd, family, type, proto=0)

     Duplicate the file descriptor 'fd' (an integer as returned by a
     file object’s *note fileno(): 285e. method) and build a socket
     object from the result.  Address family, socket type and protocol
     number are as for the *note socket(): d9d. function above.  The
     file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked —
     subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor
     is invalid.  This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get
     or set socket options on a socket passed to a program as standard
     input or output (such as a server started by the Unix inet daemon).
     The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

     새로 만들어진 소켓은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 반환된 소켓은 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

 -- 함수: socket.fromshare (data)

     *note socket.share(): c04. 메서드에서 얻은 데이터로 소켓의 인스턴스
     를 만듭니다.  소켓은 블로킹 모드로 간주합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: socket.SocketType

     이것은 소켓 객체 형을 나타내는 파이썬 형 객체입니다.
     ‘type(socket(...))’과 같습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 함수<2>,  Prev: 소켓 만들기,  Up: 함수<7>

5.19.2.7 기타 함수
..................

*note socket: cc. 모듈은 또한 다양한 네트워크 관련 서비스를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: socket.close (fd)

     소켓 파일 기술자를 닫습니다.  이것은 *note os.close(): b71.와 비슷
     하지만, 소켓 용입니다.  일부 플랫폼(가장 눈에 띄는 것은 윈도우)에서
     는 *note os.close(): b71.가 소켓 파일 기술자에 대해 작동하지 않습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: socket.getaddrinfo (host, port, family=AF_UNSPEC, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     This function wraps the C function ‘getaddrinfo’ of the underlying
     system.

     'host'/'port' 인자를 해당 서비스에 연결된 소켓을 만드는 데 필요한 모
     든 인자가 들어있는 5-튜플의 시퀀스로 변환합니다.  'host'는 도메인 이
     름, IPv4/v6 주소의 문자열 표현 또는 ‘None’입니다.  'port'는
     ‘'http'’와 같은 문자열 서비스 이름, 숫자 포트 번호 또는 ‘None’입니
     다.  ‘None’을 'host' 와 'port'의 값으로 전달해서, ‘NULL’을 하부 C
     API에 전달할 수 있습니다.

     The 'family', 'type' and 'proto' arguments can be optionally
     specified in order to provide options and limit the list of
     addresses returned.  Pass their default values (*note AF_UNSPEC:
     3373, 0, and 0, respectively) to not limit the results.  See the
     note below for details.

     The 'flags' argument can be one or several of the ‘AI_*’ constants,
     and will influence how results are computed and returned.  For
     example, ‘AI_NUMERICHOST’ will disable domain name resolution and
     will raise an error if 'host' is a domain name.

     이 함수는 다음과 같은 구조의 5-튜플의 리스트를 반환합니다:

     ‘(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)’

     In these tuples, 'family', 'type', 'proto' are all integers and are
     meant to be passed to the *note socket(): d9d. function.
     'canonname' will be a string representing the canonical name of the
     'host' if ‘AI_CANONNAME’ is part of the 'flags' argument; else
     'canonname' will be empty.  'sockaddr' is a tuple describing a
     socket address, whose format depends on the returned 'family' (a
     ‘(address, port)’ 2-tuple for *note AF_INET: 1823, a ‘(address,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ 4-tuple for *note AF_INET6: 1824.), and
     is meant to be passed to the *note socket.connect(): d9f. method.

          참고: If you intend to use results from ‘getaddrinfo()’ to
          create a socket (rather than, for example, retrieve
          'canonname'), consider limiting the results by 'type' (e.g.
          *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. or *note SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2.) and/or
          'proto' (e.g.  ‘IPPROTO_TCP’ or ‘IPPROTO_UDP’) that your
          application can handle.

          The behavior with default values of 'family', 'type', 'proto'
          and 'flags' is system-specific.

          Many systems (for example, most Linux configurations) will
          return a sorted list of all matching addresses.  These
          addresses should generally be tried in order until a
          connection succeeds (possibly tried in parallel, for example,
          using a Happy Eyeballs(1) algorithm).  In these cases,
          limiting the 'type' and/or 'proto' can help eliminate
          unsuccessful or unusable connection attempts.

          Some systems will, however, only return a single address.
          (For example, this was reported on Solaris and AIX
          configurations.)  On these systems, limiting the 'type' and/or
          'proto' helps ensure that this address is usable.

     ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’을 인자로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘socket.getaddrinfo’를 발생시킵니다.

     다음 예제는 ‘example.org’의 포트 80으로 가는 가상의 TCP 연결에 대한
     주소 정보를 가져옵니다 (IPv6가 활성화되지 않았으면 여러분의 시스템
     에서는 결과가 다를 수 있습니다):

          >>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
          [(socket.AF_INET6, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
           (socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 매개 변수는 이제 키워드 인자를 사용하여 전달할 수
     있습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: IPv6 멀티캐스트 주소의 경우, 주소를 나타내는 문
     자열에는 ‘%scope_id’ 부분이 포함되지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: socket.getfqdn ([name])

     Return a fully qualified domain name for 'name'.  If 'name' is
     omitted or empty, it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the
     fully qualified name, the hostname returned by *note
     gethostbyaddr(): 18d3. is checked, followed by aliases for the
     host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is
     selected.  In case no fully qualified domain name is available and
     'name' was provided, it is returned unchanged.  If 'name' was empty
     or equal to ‘'0.0.0.0'’, the hostname from *note gethostname():
     2b3a. is returned.

 -- 함수: socket.gethostbyname (hostname)

     호스트 이름을 IPv4 주소 형식으로 변환합니다.  IPv4 주소는
     ‘'100.50.200.5'’와 같은 문자열로 반환됩니다.  호스트 이름이 IPv4 주
     소면 변경되지 않고 반환됩니다.  더욱 완전한 인터페이스는 *note
     gethostbyname_ex(): 18d4.를 참조하십시오.  *note gethostbyname():
     3463.는 IPv6 이름 결정을 지원하지 않으며, IPv4/v6 이중 스택 지원을
     위해서는 대신 *note getaddrinfo(): 1759.를 사용해야 합니다.

     ‘hostname’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.gethostbyname’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.gethostbyname_ex (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface.
     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the host’s primary host name, 'aliaslist' is a
     (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same
     address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of IPv4 addresses for the same
     interface on the same host (often but not always a single address).
     *note gethostbyname_ex(): 18d4. does not support IPv6 name
     resolution, and *note getaddrinfo(): 1759. should be used instead
     for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     ‘hostname’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.gethostbyname’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.gethostname ()

     파이썬 인터프리터가 현재 실행 중인 기계의 호스트 명을 포함한 문자열
     을 반환합니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.gethostname’을 발생시킵니다.

     참고: *note gethostname(): 2b3a.은 항상 완전히 정규화된 도메인 이름
     을 반환하지는 않습니다; 원한다면 *note getfqdn(): 1782.을 사용하십
     시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.gethostbyaddr (ip_address)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the primary host name responding to the given
     'ip_address', 'aliaslist' is a (possibly empty) list of alternative
     host names for the same address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of
     IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same host (most
     likely containing only a single address).  To find the fully
     qualified domain name, use the function *note getfqdn(): 1782.
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 18d3. supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

     ‘ip_address’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.gethostbyaddr’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags)

     Translate a socket address 'sockaddr' into a 2-tuple ‘(host,
     port)’.  Depending on the settings of 'flags', the result can
     contain a fully qualified domain name or numeric address
     representation in 'host'.  Similarly, 'port' can contain a string
     port name or a numeric port number.

     IPv6 주소의 경우, 'sockaddr'에 의미 있는 'scope_id'가 있으면
     ‘%scope_id’를 host 부분에 덧붙입니다.  보통 이것은 멀티캐스트 주소
     에서 일어납니다.

     'flags'에 대한 자세한 내용은 ‘getnameinfo(3)(2)’을 참조하십시오.

     ‘sockaddr’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.getnameinfo’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.getprotobyname (protocolname)

     Translate an internet protocol name (for example, ‘'icmp'’) to a
     constant suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to
     the *note socket(): d9d. function.  This is usually only needed for
     sockets opened in “raw” mode (*note SOCK_RAW: 3431.); for the
     normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen automatically
     if the protocol is omitted or zero.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.getservbyname (servicename[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet service name and protocol name to a port
     number for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘socket.getservbyname’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.getservbyport (port[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet port number and protocol name to a service
     name for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     ‘port’, ‘protocolname’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘socket.getservbyport’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 함수: socket.ntohl (x)

     32비트 양의 정수를 네트워크 바이트 순서에서 호스트 바이트 순서로 변
     환합니다.  호스트 바이트 순서가 네트워크 바이트 순서와 같은 시스템
     에서, 이것은 아무 일도 하지 않습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 4바이트 스와프
     연산을 수행합니다.

 -- 함수: socket.ntohs (x)

     16비트 양의 정수를 네트워크 바이트 순서에서 호스트 바이트 순서로 변
     환합니다.  호스트 바이트 순서가 네트워크 바이트 순서와 같은 시스템
     에서, 이것은 아무 일도 하지 않습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 2바이트 스와프
     연산을 수행합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Raises *note OverflowError: 87d. if 'x' does
     not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- 함수: socket.htonl (x)

     32비트 양의 정수를 호스트 바이트 순서에서 네트워크 바이트 순서로 변
     환합니다.  호스트 바이트 순서가 네트워크 바이트 순서와 같은 시스템
     에서, 이것은 아무 일도 하지 않습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 4바이트 스와프
     연산을 수행합니다.

 -- 함수: socket.htons (x)

     16비트 양의 정수를 호스트 바이트 순서에서 네트워크 바이트 순서로 변
     환합니다.  호스트 바이트 순서가 네트워크 바이트 순서와 같은 시스템
     에서, 이것은 아무 일도 하지 않습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 2바이트 스와프
     연산을 수행합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Raises *note OverflowError: 87d. if 'x' does
     not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- 함수: socket.inet_aton (ip_string)

     Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for
     example, ‘123.45.67.89’) to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes
     object four characters in length.  This is useful when conversing
     with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects
     of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary
     this function returns.

     *note inet_aton(): 95f.는 3점 미만의 문자열도 허용합니다; 자세한 내
     용은 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘inet(3)(3)’을 참조하십시오.

     이 함수에 전달된 IPv4 주소 문자열이 유효하지 않으면, *note OSError:
     411.가 발생합니다.  정확히 무엇이 유효한지는 ‘inet_aton()’의 하부 C
     구현에 따라 달라짐에 유의하십시오.

     *note inet_aton(): 95f.은 IPv6를 지원하지 않으며, IPv4/v6 이중 스택
     지원을 위해서는 대신 *note inet_pton(): 960.를 사용해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: socket.inet_ntoa (packed_ip)

     Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a *note bytes-like object:
     d2a. four bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string
     representation (for example, ‘123.45.67.89’).  This is useful when
     conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and
     needs objects of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit
     packed binary data this function takes as an argument.

     이 함수에 전달된 바이트 시퀀스가 정확히 4바이트 길이가 아니면,
     *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.  *note inet_ntoa(): 3469.는 IPv6를
     지원하지 않으며, IPv4/v6 이중 스택 지원을 위해서는 대신 *note
     inet_ntop(): f9c.를 사용해야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 받
     아들입니다.

 -- 함수: socket.inet_pton (address_family, ip_string)

     Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a
     packed, binary format.  *note inet_pton(): 960. is useful when a
     library or network protocol calls for an object of type ‘in_addr’
     (similar to *note inet_aton(): 95f.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     'address_family'에 대해 지원되는 값은 현재 *note AF_INET: 1823.과
     *note AF_INET6: 1824.입니다.  IP 주소 문자열 'ip_string'가 유효하지
     않으면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.  정확히 무엇이 유효한지는
     'address_family'의 값과 ‘inet_pton()’의 하부 구현에 따라 달라집니다
     .

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다

 -- 함수: socket.inet_ntop (address_family, packed_ip)

     Convert a packed IP address (a *note bytes-like object: d2a. of
     some number of bytes) to its standard, family-specific string
     representation (for example, ‘'7.10.0.5'’ or ‘'5aef:2b::8'’).
     *note inet_ntop(): f9c. is useful when a library or network
     protocol returns an object of type ‘in_addr’ (similar to *note
     inet_ntoa(): 3469.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     'address_family'에 대해 지원되는 값은 현재 *note AF_INET: 1823.과
     *note AF_INET6: 1824.입니다.  바이트열 객체 'packed_ip'가 지정된 주
     소 패밀리의 올바른 길이가 아니면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니
     다.  *note inet_ntop(): f9c. 호출로 인한 에러에는 *note OSError:
     411.가 발생합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 받
     아들입니다.

 -- 함수: socket.CMSG_LEN (length)

     주어진 'length'의 연관된 데이터가 있는 보조(ancillary) 데이터 항목
     의 (후행 패딩을 제외한) 총 길이를 반환합니다.  이 값은 *note
     recvmsg(): da2.가 보조 데이터의 단일 항목을 수신하기 위한 버퍼 크기
     로 종종 사용될 수 있지만, RFC 3542(4)는 이식성 있는 응용 프로그램에
     서 *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1a3d.를 사용하도록 요구하는데, 항목이 버퍼의
     마지막 부분일 때도 패딩을 위한 공간을 포함합니다.  'length'가 허용
     되는 값 범위를 벗어나면 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: socket.CMSG_SPACE (length)

     주어진 'length'의 연관된 데이터가 있는 보조(ancillary) 데이터 항목
     을 수신하기 위해 *note recvmsg(): da2.에 필요한 버퍼 크기를 반환하
     는데, 후행 패딩을 포함합니다.  여러 항목을 수신하는 데 필요한 버퍼
     공간은 연관된 데이터 길이에 대한 *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1a3d. 값의 합
     입니다.  'length'가 허용되는 값 범위를 벗어나면 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     일부 시스템에서는 이 함수를 제공하지 않으면서 보조(ancillary) 데이
     터를 지원할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  또한, 이 함수의 결과를 사용하
     여 버퍼 크기를 설정하면 수신할 수 있는 보조 데이터의 양이 정확하게
     제한되지 않을 수 있음에도 유의하십시오.  추가 데이터가 패딩 영역에
     들어갈 수 있기 때문입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: socket.getdefaulttimeout ()

     새로운 소켓 객체의 기본 시간제한을 초 단위로 (float) 반환합니다.
     ‘None’ 값은 새 소켓 객체가 시간제한이 없음을 나타냅니다.  소켓 모듈
     을 처음 임포트 할 때 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 함수: socket.setdefaulttimeout (timeout)

     새 소켓 객체의 기본 시간제한을 초 단위로 (float) 설정합니다.  소켓
     모듈을 처음 임포트 할 때 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.  가능한 값과 해당 의
     미는 *note settimeout(): 342b.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: socket.sethostname (name)

     기계의 호스트 명을 'name'으로 설정합니다.  충분한 권한이 없으면
     *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

     ‘name’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.sethostname’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not Android.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: socket.if_nameindex ()

     네트워크 인터페이스 정보 (인덱스 정수, 이름 문자열) 튜플의 리스트를
     반환합니다.  시스템 호출이 실패하면 *note OSError: 411.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

          참고: 윈도우에서 네트워크 인터페이스는 다른 문맥에서 다른 이름
          을 갖습니다 (모든 이름은 예입니다):

             * UUID: ‘{FB605B73-AAC2-49A6-9A2F-25416AEA0573}’

             * 이름: ‘ethernet_32770’

             * 친숙한 이름: ‘vEthernet (nat)’

             * 설명: ‘Hyper-V Virtual Ethernet Adapter’

          이 함수는 목록에서 두 번째 형식의 이름을 반환합니다, 이 예의 경
          우 ‘ethernet_32770’.

 -- 함수: socket.if_nametoindex (if_name)

     인터페이스 이름에 대응하는 네트워크 인터페이스 인덱스 번호를 반환합
     니다.  주어진 이름을 가진 인터페이스가 없으면 *note OSError: 411.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     “인터페이스 이름”은 *note if_nameindex(): a29.에 설명된 이름입니다.

 -- 함수: socket.if_indextoname (if_index)

     인터페이스 인덱스 번호에 해당하는 네트워크 인터페이스 이름을 반환합
     니다.  지정된 인덱스의 인터페이스가 없으면 *note OSError: 411.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 윈도우 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     “인터페이스 이름”은 *note if_nameindex(): a29.에 설명된 이름입니다.

 -- 함수: socket.send_fds (sock, buffers, fds[, flags[, address]])

     Send the list of file descriptors 'fds' over an *note AF_UNIX:
     1825. socket 'sock'.  The 'fds' parameter is a sequence of file
     descriptors.  Consult *note sendmsg(): 470. for the documentation
     of these parameters.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 470. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: socket.recv_fds (sock, bufsize, maxfds[, flags])

     Receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors from an *note AF_UNIX:
     1825. socket 'sock'.  Return ‘(msg, list(fds), flags, addr)’.
     Consult *note recvmsg(): da2. for the documentation of these
     parameters.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note recvmsg(): da2. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Added in version 3.9.

          참고: 파일 기술자 리스트 끝에 있는 모든 잘린 정수.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getnameinfo(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/inet(3)

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 객체,  Next: 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항,  Prev: 모듈 내용<4>,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.8 소켓 객체
..................

소켓 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다.  *note makefile(): 118f.를
제외하고, 이것들은 소켓에 적용할 수 있는 유닉스 시스템 호출에 해당합니다
.

버전 3.2에서 변경: *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜 지원이 추가되었
습니다.  컨텍스트 관리자를 빠져나가는 것은 *note close(): b70.를 호출하
는 것과 동등합니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.accept ()

     연결을 받아들입니다.  소켓은 주소에 바인드되어 연결을 리스닝하고 있
     어야 합니다.  반환 값은 ‘(conn, address)’ 쌍입니다.  여기서 'conn'는
     연결에서 데이터를 보내고 받을 수 있는 '새로운' 소켓 객체이고,
     'address'는 연결의 다른 끝에 있는 소켓에 바인드 된 주소입니다.

     새로 만들어진 소켓은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 소켓은 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(1)를
     참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.bind (address)

     소켓을 'address'에 바인드 합니다.  소켓은 이미 바인드 되어 있으면 안
     됩니다.  ('address'의 형식은 주소 패밀리에 따라 다릅니다 — 위를 보
     십시오.)

     ‘self’, ‘address’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.bind’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.close ()

     Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g.  a
     file descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from *note
     makefile(): 118f. are closed.  Once that happens, all future
     operations on the socket object will fail.  The remote end will
     receive no more data (after queued data is flushed).

     소켓은 가비지 수집될 때 자동으로 닫히지만, 명시적으로 *note
     close(): b70.하거나 *note with: 5cc. 문을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 하부 ‘close()’ 호출이 수행될 때 에러가 발생하면
     이제 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

          참고: *note close(): b70. releases the resource associated
          with a connection but does not necessarily close the
          connection immediately.  If you want to close the connection
          in a timely fashion, call *note shutdown(): 345b. before *note
          close(): b70.

 -- 메서드: socket.connect (address)

     'address'에 있는 원격 소켓에 연결합니다.  ('address'의 형식은 주소
     패밀리에 따라 다릅니다 — 위를 보십시오.)

     If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits
     until the connection completes, or raise a *note TimeoutError: 82f.
     on timeout, if the signal handler doesn’t raise an exception and
     the socket is blocking or has a timeout.  For non-blocking sockets,
     the method raises an *note InterruptedError: d84. exception if the
     connection is interrupted by a signal (or the exception raised by
     the signal handler).

     ‘self’, ‘address’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 연결이 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 되고, 시그널 처리
     기가 예외를 발생시키지 않고, 소켓이 블로킹하거나 시간제한을 가지면,
     이 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예외를 발생시키는 대
     신 연결이 완료될 때까지 대기합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(2)를 참조하십시
     오).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.connect_ex (address)

     ‘connect(address)’와 비슷하지만, C 수준의 ‘connect()’ 호출로 반환된
     에러에 대한 예외를 발생시키는 대신 에러 표시기를 반환합니다 (“호스
     트를 찾을 수 없음”과 같은 다른 문제는 여전히 예외를 발생시킬 수 있
     습니다).  연산이 성공하면 에러 표시기는 ‘0’이고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘errno’ 변수의 값입니다.  예를 들어 비동기 연결을 지원하는 데 유용
     합니다.

     ‘self’, ‘address’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.detach ()

     하부 파일 기술자를 실제로 닫지 않으면서 소켓 객체를 닫힌 상태로 만
     듭니다.  파일 기술자가 반환되고, 다른 용도로 재사용 될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 메서드: socket.dup ()

     소켓을 복제합니다.

     새로 만들어진 소켓은 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 소켓은 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.fileno ()

     소켓의 파일 기술자(작은 정수)를 반환하거나, 실패하면 -1을 반환합니
     다.  이것은 *note select.select(): d9c.에서 유용합니다.

     윈도우에서, 이 메서드가 돌려주는 작은 정수는 파일 기술자를 사용할 수
     있는 곳(가령 *note os.fdopen(): 1f3a.)에 사용할 수 없습니다.  유닉
     스에는 이러한 제한이 없습니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.get_inheritable ()

     소켓의 파일 기술자나 소켓 핸들의 *note 상속 가능 플래그: ef1.를 가
     져옵니다: 소켓이 자식 프로세스에서 상속될 수 있으면 ‘True’, 그렇지
     않으면 ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: socket.getpeername ()

     소켓이 연결된 원격 주소를 반환합니다.  이것은 예를 들어, 원격
     IPv4/v6 소켓의 포트 번호를 찾는 데 유용합니다.  (반환되는 주소의 형
     식은 주소 패밀리에 따라 다릅니다 — 위를 보십시오.)  일부 시스템에서
     는 이 함수가 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.getsockname ()

     소켓 자신의 주소를 반환합니다.  이것은 예를 들어 IPv4/v6 소켓의 포
     트 번호를 찾는 데 유용합니다.  (반환되는 주소의 형식은 주소 패밀리
     에 따라 다릅니다 — 위를 보십시오.)

 -- 메서드: socket.getsockopt (level, optname[, buflen])

     Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
     ‘getsockopt(2)(3)’).  The needed symbolic constants (*note SO_*
     etc.: 336f.) are defined in this module.  If 'buflen' is absent, an
     integer option is assumed and its integer value is returned by the
     function.  If 'buflen' is present, it specifies the maximum length
     of the buffer used to receive the option in, and this buffer is
     returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
     contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module *note
     struct: d5. for a way to decode C structures encoded as byte
     strings).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.getblocking ()

     소켓이 블로킹 모드면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 비 블로킹이면 ‘False’를 반
     환합니다.

     This is equivalent to checking ‘socket.gettimeout() != 0’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: socket.gettimeout ()

     소켓 연산에 관련한 시간제한을 초(float)로 돌려줍니다.  시간제한이 설
     정되어 있지 않으면 ‘None’를 돌려줍니다.  이것은 *note
     setblocking(): 2b51. 이나 *note settimeout(): 342b.에 대한 마지막 호
     출을 반영합니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.ioctl (control, option)


     플랫폼: 윈도우

     *note ioctl(): cd0. 메서드는 WSAIoctl 시스템 인터페이스에 대한 제한
     된 인터페이스입니다.  자세한 내용은 Win32 설명서(4)를 참조하십시오.

     다른 플랫폼에서는, 범용 *note fcntl.fcntl(): 346e. 과 *note
     fcntl.ioctl(): 1440. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다; 첫 번째 인자로 소켓
     객체를 받아들입니다.

     현재 다음 제어 코드만 지원됩니다: ‘SIO_RCVALL’,
     ‘SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS’ 및 ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.listen ([backlog])

     서버가 연결을 수락하도록 합니다.  'backlog'가 지정되면, 0 이상이어
     야 합니다 (더 낮으면 0으로 설정됩니다); 새로운 연결을 거부하기 전에
     시스템이 허락할 수락되지 않은 연결 수를 지정합니다.  지정하지 않으
     면, 기본값으로 적당한 값이 선택됩니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 'backlog' 매개 변수가 선택적입니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.makefile (mode='r', buffering=None, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     Return a *note file object: 11b2. associated with the socket.  The
     exact returned type depends on the arguments given to *note
     makefile(): 118f.  These arguments are interpreted the same way as
     by the built-in *note open(): 515. function, except the only
     supported 'mode' values are ‘'r'’ (default), ‘'w'’, ‘'b'’, or a
     combination of those.

     소켓은 블로킹 모드 여야 합니다; 시간제한을 가질 수 있지만, 시간 초
     과가 발생하면 파일 객체의 내부 버퍼가 일관성없는 상태로 끝날 수 있
     습니다.

     *note makefile(): 118f.에 의해 반환된 파일 객체를 닫는 것은, 다른 모
     든 파일 객체가 닫혔고 소켓 객체에서 *note socket.close(): b70.가 호
     출되었지 않은 한 원래 소켓을 닫지는 않습니다.

          참고: 윈도우에서, *note makefile(): 118f.로 만든 파일류 객체는
          파일 기술자가 있는 파일 객체가 필요한 곳에서는 사용할 수 없습
          니다, 가령 *note subprocess.Popen(): 199.의 stream 인자.

 -- 메서드: socket.recv (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object
     representing the data received.  The maximum amount of data to be
     received at once is specified by 'bufsize'.  A returned empty bytes
     object indicates that the client has disconnected.  See the Unix
     manual page ‘recv(2)(5)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(6)를
     참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.recvfrom (bufsize[, flags])

     소켓에서 데이터를 수신합니다.  반환 값은 ‘(bytes, address)’ 쌍입니
     다.  여기서 'bytes'는 수신한 데이터를 나타내는 바이트열 객체이고,
     'address'는 데이터를 보내는 소켓의 주소입니다.  선택적 인자
     'flags'의 의미는 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘recv(2)(7)’를 보십시오; 기본
     값은 0입니다.  ('address'의 형식은 주소 패밀리에 따라 다릅니다 — 위
     를 보십시오.)

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(8)를
     참조하십시오).

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 멀티캐스트 IPv6 주소의 경우, 'address'의 첫 번째
     항목에는 ‘%scope_id’ 부분이 더는 포함되지 않습니다.  전체 IPv6 주소
     를 얻으려면 *note getnameinfo(): 16ca.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: socket.recvmsg (bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     일반 데이터(최대 'bufsize' 바이트)와 보조(ancillary) 데이터를 소켓
     에서 수신합니다.  'ancbufsize' 인자는 보조 데이터 수신에 사용되는 내
     부 버퍼의 크기를 바이트 단위로 설정합니다; 기본값은 0이며 보조 데이
     터가 수신되지 않는다는 뜻입니다.  보조 데이터를 위한 적절한 버퍼 크
     기는 *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1a3d. 나 *note CMSG_LEN(): 1a3e.를 사용하
     여 계산할 수 있으며, 버퍼에 들어가지 않는 항목은 잘리거나 삭제될 수
     있습니다.  'flags' 인자의 기본값은 0이고 *note recv(): da0.와 같은
     의미입니다.

     반환 값은 4-튜플입니다: ‘(data, ancdata, msg_flags, address)’.
     'data' 항목은 일반 데이터를 담은 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체입니다.
     'ancdata' 항목은 수신된 보조 데이터(제어 메시지)를 나타내는 0개 이
     상의 튜플 ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’의 리스트입니다:
     'cmsg_level' 와 'cmsg_type'는 각각 프로토콜 수준과 프로토콜 특정 형
     을 지정하는 정수이고, 'cmsg_data'는 연결된 데이터를 담은 *note
     bytes: 1c2. 객체입니다.  'msg_flags' 항목은 수신된 메시지의 조건을
     나타내는 다양한 플래그의 비트별 OR입니다; 자세한 내용은 시스템 설명
     서를 참조하십시오.  수신 소켓이 연결되어있지 않으면, 'address'는 송
     신 소켓의 주소입니다, (사용 가능하다면); 그렇지 않으면 값은 지정되
     지 않습니다.

     On some systems, *note sendmsg(): 470. and *note recvmsg(): da2.
     can be used to pass file descriptors between processes over an
     *note AF_UNIX: 1825. socket.  When this facility is used (it is
     often restricted to *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e3. sockets), *note
     recvmsg(): da2. will return, in its ancillary data, items of the
     form ‘(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)’, where 'fds' is
     a *note bytes: 1c2. object representing the new file descriptors as
     a binary array of the native C int type.  If *note recvmsg(): da2.
     raises an exception after the system call returns, it will first
     attempt to close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.

     일부 시스템은 부분적으로만 수신된 보조 데이터 항목의 절단 길이를 나
     타내지 않습니다.  항목이 버퍼의 끝을 넘어 확장된 것처럼 보이면,
     *note recvmsg(): da2.는 *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.를 발생시키고, 관
     련 데이터의 시작 전에 절단되지 않은 버퍼 내에 있는 부분을 반환합니
     다.

     ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ 메커니즘을 지원하는 시스템에서, 다음 함수는 최대
     'maxfds' 파일 기술자를 수신하여, 메시지 데이터와 기술자를 담은 리스
     트를 반환합니다 (관련 없는 수신되는 제어 메시지와 같은 예기치 않은
     조건은 무시하면서).  *note sendmsg(): 470.를 참조하십시오.

          import socket, array

          def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
              fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
              msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
              for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
                  if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
                      # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
                      fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
              return msg, list(fds)

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP 475(9)를
     참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.recvmsg_into (buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     *note recvmsg(): da2.처럼 동작해서, 일반 데이터와 보조 데이터를 소
     켓에서 수신하지만, 새로운 바이트열 객체를 반환하는 대신 일반 데이터
     를 일련의 버퍼로 분산시킵니다.  'buffers' 인자는 쓰기 가능한 버퍼
     (예를 들어, *note bytearray: 538. 객체)를 내보내는 객체의 이터러블
     이어야 합니다; 이것들은 모두 기록되었거나 버퍼가 더는 없을 때까지 일
     반 데이터의 연속적인 덩어리로 채워질 것입니다.  운영 체제는 사용할
     수 있는 버퍼 수에 제한(*note sysconf(): 1573. 값 ‘SC_IOV_MAX’)을 설
     정할 수 있습니다.  'ancbufsize' 와 'flags' 인자는 *note recvmsg():
     da2.와 같은 의미가 있습니다.

     반환 값은 4-튜플입니다: ‘(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags, address)’.  여
     기서 'nbytes'는 버퍼에 기록된 일반 데이터의 총 바이트 수이며,
     'ancdata', 'msg_flags' 및 'address'는 *note recvmsg(): da2.와 같습
     니다.

     예제:

          >>> import socket
          >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
          >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
          >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
          >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
          >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
          22
          >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
          (22, [], 0, None)
          >>> [b1, b2, b3]
          [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: socket.recvfrom_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     소켓에서 데이터를 수신하는데, 새로운 바이트열을 만드는 대신
     'buffer'에 씁니다.  반환 값은 쌍 ‘(nbytes, address)’입니다.  여기서
     'nbytes'는 수신 된 바이트 수이고, 'address'는 데이터를 보내는 소켓
     의 주소입니다.  선택적 인자 'flags'의 의미에 대해서는 유닉스 매뉴얼
     페이지 ‘recv(2)(10)’를 보십시오; 기본값은 0입니다.  ('address'의 형
     식은 주소 패밀리에 따라 다릅니다 — 위를 보십시오.)

 -- 메서드: socket.recv_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     소켓에서 최대 'nbytes' 바이트까지 수신하는데, 새 바이트열을 만드는
     대신 데이터를 버퍼에 저장합니다.  'nbytes'가 지정되지 않으면 (또는
     0), 지정된 버퍼에서 사용 가능한 크기까지 수신합니다.  수신 한 바이
     트 수를 반환합니다.  선택적 인자 'flags'의 의미에 대해서는 유닉스 매
     뉴얼 페이지 ‘recv(2)(11)’를 보십시오; 기본값은 0입니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.send (bytes[, flags])

     소켓에 데이터를 보냅니다.  소켓은 원격 소켓에 연결되어야 합니다.  선
     택적 'flags' 인자는 위의 *note recv(): da0.와 같은 의미입니다.  전
     송된 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  응용 프로그램은 모든 데이터가 전송되
     었는지 확인해야 합니다; 일부 데이터만 전송되었으면, 응용 프로그램은
     나머지 데이터의 전달을 시도해야 합니다.  이 주제에 대한 자세한 정보
     는, *note 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO: 346f.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP
     475(12)를 참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.sendall (bytes[, flags])

     소켓에 데이터를 보냅니다.  소켓은 원격 소켓에 연결되어야 합니다.  선
     택적 'flags' 인자는 위의 *note recv(): da0.와 같은 의미입니다.
     *note send(): da3.와 달리, 이 메서드는 모든 데이터가 전송되거나 에
     러가 발생할 때까지 'bytes'의 데이터를 계속 전송합니다.  성공하면
     ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  에러가 발생하면, 예외가 발생하는데, 성공적으
     로 전송된 데이터양을 (있기는 하다면) 확인하는 방법은 없습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time
     data is sent successfully.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
     total duration to send all data.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP
     475(13)를 참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.sendto (bytes, address)

 -- 메서드: socket.sendto (bytes, flags, address)

     소켓에 데이터를 보냅니다.  대상 소켓이 'address'로 지정되므로, 소켓
     은 원격 소켓에 연결되지 않아야 합니다.  선택적 'flags' 인자는 위의
     *note recv(): da0.와 같은 의미가 있습니다.  전송된 바이트 수를 반환
     합니다.  ('address'의 형식은 주소 패밀리에 따라 다릅니다 — 위를 보
     십시오.)

     ‘self’, ‘address’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.sendto’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP
     475(14)를 참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.sendmsg (buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])

     소켓에 일반과 보조 데이터를 보는데, 일련의 버퍼에서 일반 데이터를 모
     아서 단일 메시지로 연결합니다.  'buffers' 인자는 일반 데이터를
     *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.의 이터러블로 지정합니다 (예를 들어,
     *note bytes: 1c2. 객체); 운영 체제는 사용할 수 있는 버퍼 수에 제한
     (*note sysconf(): 1573. 값 ‘SC_IOV_MAX’)을 설정할 수 있습니다.
     'ancdata' 인자는 보조 데이터 (제어 메시지)를 0개 이상의 튜플
     ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’의 이터러블로 지정합니다.  여기
     서 'cmsg_level' 와 'cmsg_type'는 각각 프로토콜 수준과 프로토콜 특정
     형을 지정하는 정수이고, 'cmsg_data'는 연결된 데이터를 담은 바이트열
     류 객체입니다.  일부 시스템(특히, *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1a3d.가 없는
     시스템)은 호출 당 하나의 제어 메시지를 송신하는 것만 지원할 수 있습
     니다.  'flags' 인자의 기본값은 0이고 *note send(): da3.와 같은 의미
     입니다.  'address'가 제공되고 ‘None’이 아니면, 메시지의 대상 주소를
     설정합니다.  반환 값은 전송된 일반 데이터의 바이트 수입니다.

     다음 함수는 ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ 메커니즘을 지원하는 시스템에서, *note
     AF_UNIX: 1825. 소켓을 통해 파일 기술자 리스트 'fds'를 보냅니다.
     *note recvmsg(): da2.도 참조하세요.

          import socket, array

          def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
              return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     ‘self’, ‘address’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘socket.sendmsg’를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시스템 호출이 인터럽트 되고 시그널 처리기가 예외
     를 발생시키지 않으면, 메서드는 이제 *note InterruptedError: d84. 예
     외를 발생시키는 대신 시스템 호출을 재시도합니다 (이유는 PEP
     475(15)를 참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: socket.sendmsg_afalg ([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[,
          flags]]])

     *note AF_ALG: cd4. 소켓용, *note sendmsg(): 470.의 특수한 버전.
     *note AF_ALG: cd4. 소켓에 대한 모드, IV, AEAD 관련 데이터 길이 및 플
     래그를 설정합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 메서드: socket.sendfile (file, offset=0, count=None)

     고성능 *note os.sendfile: b0c.을 사용하여 EOF에 도달할 때까지 파일
     을 보내고, 보낸 총 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  'file'은 바이너리 모드
     로 열린 일반 파일 객체여야 합니다.  *note os.sendfile: b0c.을 사용
     할 수 없거나 (예를 들어, 윈도우) 'file'가 일반 파일이 아니면, *note
     send(): da3.가 대신 사용됩니다.  'offset'은 파일 읽기 시작할 위치를
     알려줍니다.  지정되면, 'count'는 EOF에 도달할 때까지 파일을 전송하
     는 대신 전송할 총 바이트 수입니다.  파일 위치는 반환하거나 에러가 발
     생했을 때 갱신됩니다.  이때 *note file.tell(): 29bf.을 사용하여 전
     송된 바이트 수를 계산할 수 있습니다.  소켓은 *note SOCK_STREAM:
     12e3. 유형이어야 합니다.  비 블로킹 소켓은 지원되지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: socket.set_inheritable (inheritable)

     소켓의 파일 기술자나 소켓 핸들의 *note 상속 가능 플래그: ef1.를 설
     정합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: socket.setblocking (flag)

     소켓의 블로킹이나 비 블로킹 모드를 설정합니다.  'flag'가 거짓이면,
     소켓은 비 블로킹으로 설정되고, 그렇지 않으면 블로킹 모드로 설정됩니
     다.

     이 메서드는 특정 *note settimeout(): 342b. 호출의 줄인 표현입니다:

        * ‘sock.setblocking(True)’는 ‘sock.settimeout(None)’와 동등합니
          다

        * ‘sock.setblocking(False)’는 ‘sock.settimeout(0.0)’와 동등합니
          다

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드는 더는 *note socket.type: c09.에 *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: c07. 플래그를 적용하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.settimeout (value)

     Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The 'value' argument
     can be a nonnegative floating-point number expressing seconds, or
     ‘None’.  If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations
     will raise a *note timeout: 82e. exception if the timeout period
     'value' has elapsed before the operation has completed.  If zero is
     given, the socket is put in non-blocking mode.  If ‘None’ is given,
     the socket is put in blocking mode.

     자세한 내용은, *note 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항: 3470.을 보십시
     오.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 메서드는 더는 *note socket.type: c09.의 *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: c07. 플래그를 토글하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: int)

 -- 메서드: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: buffer)

 -- 메서드: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, None, optlen: int)

     Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
     ‘setsockopt(2)(16)’).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in
     this module (SO_* etc.  <socket-unix-constants>).  The value can be
     an integer, ‘None’ or a *note bytes-like object: d2a. representing
     a buffer.  In the later case it is up to the caller to ensure that
     the bytestring contains the proper bits (see the optional built-in
     module *note struct: d5. for a way to encode C structures as
     bytestrings).  When 'value' is set to ‘None’, 'optlen' argument is
     required.  It’s equivalent to call ‘setsockopt()’ C function with
     ‘optval=NULL’ and ‘optlen=optlen’.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 받
     아들입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) 형
     식이 추가되었습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.shutdown (how)

     연결의 한쪽 또는 양쪽 절반을 닫습니다.  'how'가 *note SHUT_RD:
     3458.면, 추가 수신이 허용되지 않습니다.  'how'가 *note SHUT_WR:
     3459.이면, 추가 전송이 허용되지 않습니다.  'how'가 *note SHUT_RDWR:
     345a.이면, 추가 송수신이 허용되지 않습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

 -- 메서드: socket.share (process_id)

     소켓을 복제하고 대상 프로세스와 공유할 수 있도록 준비합니다.  대상
     프로세스는 'process_id'로 제공되어야 합니다.  결과 바이트열 객체는
     어떤 프로세스 간 통신의 형태를 사용하여 대상 프로세스로 전달될 수 있
     으며 그곳에서 *note fromshare(): c05.를 사용하여 소켓을 다시 만들 수
     있습니다.  일단, 이 메서드가 호출되면, 운영 체제가 이미 대상 프로세
     스를 위해 이를 복제 했으므로 소켓을 닫아도 안전합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

메서드 ‘read()’ 나 ‘write()’가 없다는 점에 유의하십시오; 대신 *note
recv(): da0. 와 *note send(): da3.를 'flags' 인자 없이 사용하십시오.

소켓 객체는 또한 *note socket: d9d. 생성자에 지정된 값에 대응하는 다음과
같은 (읽기 전용) 어트리뷰트를 가집니다.

 -- 속성: socket.family

     소켓 패밀리.

 -- 속성: socket.type

     소켓 유형.

 -- 속성: socket.proto

     소켓 프로토콜.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/getsockopt(2)

   (4) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/setsockopt(2)


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항,  Next: 예제<18>,  Prev: 소켓 객체,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.9 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항
.......................................

소켓 객체는 세 가지 모드 중 하나일 수 있습니다: 블로킹, 비 블로킹, 또는
시간제한.  소켓은 기본적으로 항상 블로킹 모드로 생성되지만, 이는 *note
setdefaulttimeout(): 342f.를 호출하여 변경할 수 있습니다.

   * '블로킹 모드'에서, 연산은 완료되거나 시스템에서 에러(가령 연결 시간
     초과)를 반환할 때까지 블록합니다.

   * In 'non-blocking mode', operations fail (with an error that is
     unfortunately system-dependent) if they cannot be completed
     immediately: functions from the *note select: c1. module can be
     used to know when and whether a socket is available for reading or
     writing.

   * '시간제한 모드'에서, 연산은 소켓에 대해 지정된 제한 시간 내에 완료
     할 수 없거나 (*note timeout: 82e. 예외 발생), 시스템이 에러를 반환
     하면 실패합니다.

     참고: At the operating system level, sockets in 'timeout mode' are
     internally set in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and
     timeout modes are shared between file descriptors and socket
     objects that refer to the same network endpoint.  This
     implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g.  you
     decide to use the *note fileno(): 346c. of a socket.

* Menu:

* 시간제한과 connect 메서드::
* 시간제한과 accept 메서드::


File: python.info,  Node: 시간제한과 connect 메서드,  Next: 시간제한과 accept 메서드,  Up: 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항

5.19.2.10 시간제한과 ‘connect’ 메서드
.....................................

*note connect(): d9f. 연산도 시간제한 설정의 영향을 받으며, 일반적으로
*note connect(): d9f.를 호출하기 전에 *note settimeout(): 342b.를 호출하
거나 *note create_connection(): 66c.에 timeout 매개 변수를 전달하는 것이
좋습니다.  그러나, 시스템 네트워크 스택은 파이썬 소켓 시간제한 설정과 관
계없이 자체의 연결 시간제한 에러를 반환할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시간제한과 accept 메서드,  Prev: 시간제한과 connect 메서드,  Up: 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항

5.19.2.11 시간제한과 ‘accept’ 메서드
....................................

*note getdefaulttimeout(): 3460.가 *note None: 66f.이 아니면, *note
accept(): d9e. 메서드에서 반환된 소켓은 그 시간제한을 상속합니다.  그렇
지 않으면, 동작은 리스닝 소켓의 설정에 따라 다릅니다:

   * 리스닝 소켓이 '블로킹 모드' 나 '시간제한 모드'에 있으면, *note
     accept(): d9e.에 의해 반환된 소켓은 '블로킹 모드'에 있습니다.

   * 리스닝 소켓이 '비 블로킹 모드'에 있으면, *note accept(): d9e.에 의
     해 반환된 소켓이 블로킹 모드인지 비 블로킹 모드인지는 운영 체제에 따
     라 다릅니다.  플랫폼 간 동작을 보장하려면, 이 설정을 직접 재정의하
     는 것이 좋습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<18>,  Prev: 소켓 시간제한에 대한 참고 사항,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.19.2.12 예제
..............

Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a
server that echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one
client), and a client using it.  Note that a server must perform the
sequence *note socket(): d9d, *note bind(): 1501, *note listen(): e56,
*note accept(): d9e. (possibly repeating the *note accept(): d9e. to
service more than one client), while a client only needs the sequence
*note socket(): d9d, *note connect(): d9f.  Also note that the server
does not *note sendall(): da4./*note recv(): da0. on the socket it is
listening on but on the new socket returned by *note accept(): d9e.

처음 두 예제는 IPv4만 지원합니다.

     # Echo server program
     import socket

     HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.bind((HOST, PORT))
         s.listen(1)
         conn, addr = s.accept()
         with conn:
             print('Connected by', addr)
             while True:
                 data = conn.recv(1024)
                 if not data: break
                 conn.sendall(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.connect((HOST, PORT))
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both
IPv4 and IPv6.  The server side will listen to the first address family
available (it should listen to both instead).  On most of IPv6-ready
systems, IPv6 will take precedence and the server may not accept IPv4
traffic.  The client side will try to connect to all the addresses
returned as a result of the name resolution, and sends traffic to the
first one connected successfully.

     # Echo server program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
                                   socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.bind(sa)
             s.listen(1)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     conn, addr = s.accept()
     with conn:
         print('Connected by', addr)
         while True:
             data = conn.recv(1024)
             if not data: break
             conn.send(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.connect(sa)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     with s:
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

다음 예제는 윈도우에서 원시(raw) 소켓으로 매우 간단한 네트워크 스니퍼를
작성하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  이 예제는 인터페이스를 수정하기 위해 관리자
권한이 필요합니다:

     import socket

     # the public network interface
     HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())

     # create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
     s.bind((HOST, 0))

     # Include IP headers
     s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)

     # receive all packets
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)

     # receive a packet
     print(s.recvfrom(65565))

     # disabled promiscuous mode
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)

다음 예제는 원시(raw) 소켓 프로토콜을 사용하여, 소켓 인터페이스를 사용하
여 CAN 네트워크와 통신하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  대신 브로드캐스트 관리자
프로토콜로 CAN을 사용하려면, 소켓을 이렇게 여십시오:

     socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)

After binding (‘CAN_RAW’) or connecting (*note CAN_BCM: f9a.) the
socket, you can use the *note socket.send(): da3. and *note
socket.recv(): da0. operations (and their counterparts) on the socket
object as usual.

이 마지막 예제는 특별한 권한이 필요할 수 있습니다:

     import socket
     import struct


     # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)

     can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
     can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)

     def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
         can_dlc = len(data)
         data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
         return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)

     def dissect_can_frame(frame):
         can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
         return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])


     # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
     s.bind(('vcan0',))

     while True:
         cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)

         print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))

         try:
             s.send(cf)
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

         try:
             s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

실행 간격이 너무 짧게 여러 번 예제를 실행하면 이 에러가 발생할 수 있습니
다:

     OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use

이것은 이전 실행이 소켓을 ‘TIME_WAIT’ 상태로 남겨 두었고, 즉시 재사용할
수 없기 때문입니다.

There is a *note socket: cc. flag to set, in order to prevent this,
‘socket.SO_REUSEADDR’:

     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
     s.bind((HOST, PORT))

‘SO_REUSEADDR’ 플래그는 자연스러운 시간제한이 만료되기를 기다리지 않고
‘TIME_WAIT’ 상태의 지역 소켓을 재사용하도록 커널에 알립니다.

더 보기
.......

(C로 하는) 소켓 프로그래밍에 대한 소개는 다음 논문을 참조하십시오:

   - 'An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial',
     Stuart Sechrest 저

   - 'An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', Samuel J.
     Leffler 외 저,

둘 다 유닉스 프로그래머 매뉴얼, 보충 문서 1 (섹션 PS1:7과 PS1:8)에 있습
니다.  다양한 소켓 관련 시스템 호출에 대한 플랫폼별 레퍼런스 자료는 소켓
의미의 세부 정보에 대한 중요한 소스입니다.  유닉스에서는 매뉴얼 페이지를
참조하십시오; 윈도우에서는, WinSock (또는 Winsock 2) 명세를 참조하십시오
.  IPv6 지원 API의 경우, 독자는 Basic Socket Interface Extensions for
IPv6라는 제목의 RFC 3493(1)를 참조하고 싶을 겁니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3493.html


File: python.info,  Node: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Next: select — I/O 완료 대기,  Prev: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.3 ‘ssl’ — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
-------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/ssl.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as
“Secure Sockets Layer”) encryption and peer authentication facilities
for network sockets, both client-side and server-side.  This module uses
the OpenSSL library.  It is available on all modern Unix systems,
Windows, macOS, and probably additional platforms, as long as OpenSSL is
installed on that platform.

     참고: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made
     to the operating system socket APIs.  The installed version of
     OpenSSL may also cause variations in behavior.  For example,
     TLSv1.3 comes with OpenSSL version 1.1.1.

     경고: *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.을 읽지 않고 이 모듈을 사용하지 마
     십시오.  그렇게 하면 ssl 모듈의 기본 설정이 반드시 여러분의 응용 프
     로그램에 적합하지는 않으므로 잘못된 보안 인식으로 이어질 수 있습니
     다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

이 절에서는 ‘ssl’ 모듈의 객체와 함수를 설명합니다; TLS, SSL 및 인증서에
대한보다 일반적인 정보는, 하단의 “더 보기” 절에 있는 문서를 참조하십시오
.

This module provides a class, *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7, which is derived
from the *note socket.socket: d9d. type, and provides a socket-like
wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket
with SSL. It supports additional methods such as ‘getpeercert()’, which
retrieves the certificate of the other side of the connection,
‘cipher()’, which retrieves the cipher being used for the secure
connection or ‘get_verified_chain()’, ‘get_unverified_chain()’ which
retrieves certificate chain.

더욱 정교한 응용 프로그램의 경우, *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 클래스는 설
정과 인증서를 관리하는 데 도움이 되며, *note SSLContext.wrap_socket():
51e. 메서드를 통해 만들어진 SSL 소켓이 상속할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.5.3에서 변경: OpenSSL 1.1.0과의 링크를 지원하도록 갱신되었습니다

버전 3.6에서 변경: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 및 1.0.1은 폐지되었으며 더는 지
원되지 않습니다.  미래에는 ssl 모듈이 최소한 OpenSSL 1.0.2 나 1.1.0을 요
구할 것입니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: PEP 644(2) has been implemented.  The ssl module
requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.

Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation
warnings.

* Menu:

* 함수, 상수 및 예외: 함수 상수 및 예외.
* SSL 소켓::
* SSL 컨텍스트::
* 인증서::
* 예제: 예제<19>.
* 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항::
* 메모리 BIO 지원: 메모리 BIO 지원<2>.
* SSL 세션::
* 보안 고려 사항: 보안 고려 사항<3>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ssl.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 상수 및 예외,  Next: SSL 소켓,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.1 함수, 상수 및 예외
...........................

* Menu:

* 소켓 생성::
* 컨텍스트 생성::
* 예외: 예외<13>.
* 난수 생성::
* 인증서 처리::
* 상수: 상수<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 생성,  Next: 컨텍스트 생성,  Up: 함수 상수 및 예외

5.19.3.2 소켓 생성
..................

Instances of *note SSLSocket: 8e7. must be created using the *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e. method.  The helper function *note
create_default_context(): 155. returns a new context with secure default
settings.

기본 컨텍스트와 IPv4/IPv6 이중 스택을 사용하는 클라이언트 소켓 예제:

     import socket
     import ssl

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     context = ssl.create_default_context()

     with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

사용자 정의 컨텍스트와 IPv4를 사용하는 클라이언트 소켓 예제:

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

localhost IPv4에서 리스닝하는 서버 소켓 예제:

     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
     context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
         sock.listen(5)
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
             conn, addr = ssock.accept()
             ...


File: python.info,  Node: 컨텍스트 생성,  Next: 예외<13>,  Prev: 소켓 생성,  Up: 함수 상수 및 예외

5.19.3.3 컨텍스트 생성
......................

편리 함수는 공통 목적을 위한 *note SSLContext: 294. 객체를 만드는 데 도
움이 됩니다.

 -- 함수: ssl.create_default_context (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH,
          cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

     지정된 'purpose'를 위한 기본 설정으로 새 *note SSLContext: 294. 객
     체를 반환합니다.  설정은 *note ssl: d0. 모듈에 의해 선택되며, 일반
     적으로 *note SSLContext: 294. 생성자를 직접 호출할 때 보다 높은 보
     안 수준을 나타냅니다.

     'cafile', 'capath', 'cadata'는, *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee3.에서와 같이, 인증서 확인을
     위해 신뢰할 수 있는 선택적 CA 인증서를 나타냅니다.  세 개 모두가
     *note None: 66f.이면, 이 함수는 대신 시스템의 기본 CA 인증서를 신뢰
     하도록 선택할 수 있습니다.

     The settings are: *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. or *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 834. with high encryption cipher suites without RC4
     and without unauthenticated cipher suites.  Passing *note
     SERVER_AUTH: faa. as 'purpose' sets *note verify_mode: 347d. to
     *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e. and either loads CA certificates (when
     at least one of 'cafile', 'capath' or 'cadata' is given) or uses
     *note SSLContext.load_default_certs(): fa9. to load default CA
     certificates.

     *note keylog_filename: 347f.이 지원되고 환경 변수 ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’이
     설정될 때, *note create_default_context(): 155.는 키 로깅을 활성화
     합니다.

     The default settings for this context include *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157.
     These make the underlying OpenSSL implementation behave more like a
     conforming implementation of RFC 5280(1), in exchange for a small
     amount of incompatibility with older X.509 certificates.

          참고: 프로토콜, 옵션, 사이퍼 및 기타 설정은 사전 폐지 없이 언
          제든지 더욱 제한적인 값으로 변경될 수 있습니다.  이 값은 호환
          성과 보안 간의 적절한 균형을 나타냅니다.

          응용 프로그램에 특정 설정이 필요하면, *note SSLContext: 294.를
          만들어 설정을 직접 적용해야 합니다.

          참고: 특정 이전 클라이언트나 서버가 이 함수로 만든 *note
          SSLContext: 294.로 연결을 시도할 때 “Protocol or cipher suite
          mismatch”라는 에러가 발생하면, 이 함수가 *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
          834.를 사용해서 제외하는 SSL3.0만 지원하는 것일 수 있습니다.
          SSL3.0은 완전히 망가진(2)것으로 널리 인식되고 있습니다.  이 함
          수를 계속 사용하면서 SSL 3.0 연결을 계속 허용하려면 다음과 같
          이 다시 활성화할 수 있습니다:

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
               ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

          참고: This context enables *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. by
          default, which may reject pre- RFC 5280(3) or malformed
          certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation
          otherwise would accept.  While disabling this is not
          recommended, you can do so using:

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
               ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.4.4에서 변경: RC4는 기본 사이퍼 문자열에서 삭제되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ChaCha20/Poly1305가 기본 사이퍼 문자열에 추가되
     었습니다.

     3DES가 기본 사이퍼 문자열에서 삭제되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’에 대한 키 로깅 지원이 추가되었습
     니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The context now uses *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT:
     86d. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e. protocol instead of generic
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The context now uses *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157.
     in its default verify flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<13>,  Next: 난수 생성,  Prev: 컨텍스트 생성,  Up: 함수 상수 및 예외

5.19.3.4 예외
.............

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLError

     하부 SSL 구현(현재 OpenSSL 라이브러리에서 제공)으로부터의 에러를 알
     리기 위해 발생합니다.  이는 하부 네트워크 연결에 겹쳐진 상위 수준의
     암호화와 인증 계층에서 문제가 있음을 나타냅니다.  이 에러는 *note
     OSError: 411.의 서브 형입니다.  *note SSLError: 126a. 인스턴스의 에
     러 코드와 메시지는 OpenSSL 라이브러리에 의해 제공됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note SSLError: 126a.는 *note socket.error:
     104b.의 서브 형이었습니다.

      -- 속성: library

          ‘SSL’, ‘PEM’ 또는 ‘X509’와 같이, 에러가 발생한 OpenSSL 하위 모
          듈을 지정하는 문자열 기호입니다.  가능한 값의 범위는 OpenSSL 버
          전에 따라 다릅니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: reason

          이 에러가 발생한 이유를 나타내는 문자열 기호, 예를 들어,
          ‘CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  가능한 값의 범위는 OpenSSL 버전
          에 따라 다릅니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLZeroReturnError

     읽기나 쓰기를 시도하고 SSL 연결이 정상적으로 닫혔을 때 발생하는
     *note SSLError: 126a.의 서브 클래스.  이것이 하부 트랜스포트(TCP 읽
     기)가 닫혔음을 뜻하지는 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLWantReadError

     데이터를 읽거나 쓰려고 하지만, 요청을 만족하려면 하부 TCP 트랜스포
     트에서 데이터를 더 수신해야 할 때, *note 비 블로킹 SSL 소켓: 3483.에
     의해 발생하는 *note SSLError: 126a.의 서브 클래스.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLWantWriteError

     데이터를 읽거나 쓰려고 하지만, 요청을 만족하려면 하부 TCP 트랜스포
     트로 데이터를 더 보내야 할 때, *note 비 블로킹 SSL 소켓: 3483.에 의
     해 발생하는 *note SSLError: 126a.의 서브 클래스.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLSyscallError

     SSL 소켓에서 작업을 수행하는 동안 시스템 에러를 만났을 때 발생하는
     *note SSLError: 126a.의 서브 클래스.  불행히도 원래의 errno 번호를
     검사하는 쉬운 방법은 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLEOFError

     SSL 연결이 갑자기 종료되었을 때 발생하는 *note SSLError: 126a.의 서
     브 클래스.  일반적으로, 이 에러가 발생하면 하부 트랜스포트를 다시 사
     용하지 않아야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: ssl.SSLCertVerificationError

     인증서 유효성 검사가 실패했을 때 발생하는 *note SSLError: 126a.의 서
     브 클래스.

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: verify_code

          유효성 검사 에러를 나타내는 숫자 에러 번호.

      -- 속성: verify_message

          사람이 읽을 수 있는 유효성 검사 에러 문자열.

 -- 예외: ssl.CertificateError

     *note SSLCertVerificationError: b79.의 별칭.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 예외는 이제 *note SSLCertVerificationError:
     b79.의 별칭입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 난수 생성,  Next: 인증서 처리,  Prev: 예외<13>,  Up: 함수 상수 및 예외

5.19.3.5 난수 생성
..................

 -- 함수: ssl.RAND_bytes (num)

     길이 'num'의 암호학적으로 강한 의사 난수 바이트열을 반환합니다.
     PRNG에 충분한 데이터가 시드(seed) 되지 않았거나 현재 RAND 메서드에
     서 지원되지 않는 연산이면 *note SSLError: 126a.를 발생시킵니다.
     *note RAND_status(): 18cd.를 PRNG의 상태를 확인하는 데 사용할 수 있
     으며 *note RAND_add(): 3489.는 PRNG를 시드 하는 데 사용할 수 있습니
     다.

     거의 모든 응용 프로그램에서 *note os.urandom(): 51c.을 선호합니다.

     암호학적으로 강한 생성기의 요구 사항을 얻으려면 위키피디아 기사
     Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG)(1)를
     읽으십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: ssl.RAND_status ()

     SSL 의사 난수 생성기에 ‘충분한’ 임의성이 시드 되었으면 ‘True’를 반
     환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  ‘ssl.RAND_egd()’와
     *note ssl.RAND_add(): 3489.를 사용하여 의사 난수 생성기의 임의성을
     높일 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: ssl.RAND_add (bytes, entropy)

     Mix the given 'bytes' into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.
     The parameter 'entropy' (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy
     contained in string (so you can always use ‘0.0’).  See RFC 1750(2)
     for more information on sources of entropy.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 받
     아들입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1750.html


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5.19.3.6 인증서 처리
....................

 -- 함수: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds (cert_time)

     인증서의 “notBefore” 나 “notAfter” 날짜를 나타내는 ‘"%b %d %H:%M:%S
     %Y %Z"’ strptime 형식(C 로케일)의 ‘cert_time’ 문자열이 지정하는 시
     간을 Epoch 이후 초 단위로 반환합니다.

     여기 예제가 있습니다:

          >>> import ssl
          >>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
          >>> timestamp
          1515144883
          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> print(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp))
          2018-01-05 09:34:43

     “notBefore” 나 “notAfter” 날짜는 GMT( RFC 5280(1))를 사용해야 합니
     다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 입력된 시간을 입력 문자열의 ‘GMT’ 시간대로 지정
     된 UTC 시간으로 해석합니다.  이전에는 지역 시간대가 사용되었습니다.
     정수를 반환합니다 (입력 형식에는 부분 초가 없습니다).

 -- 함수: ssl.get_server_certificate (addr,
          ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, ca_certs=None[, timeout])

     Given the address ‘addr’ of an SSL-protected server, as a
     ('hostname', 'port-number') pair, fetches the server’s certificate,
     and returns it as a PEM-encoded string.  If ‘ssl_version’ is
     specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to
     connect to the server.  If 'ca_certs' is specified, it should be a
     file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as
     used for the 'cafile' parameter in *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee3.  The call will attempt to
     validate the server certificate against that set of root
     certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails.  A
     timeout can be specified with the ‘timeout’ parameter.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 IPv6와 호환됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 최신 서버와의 호환성을 최대화하기 위해 기본
     'ssl_version'이 *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 348b.에서 *note PROTOCOL_TLS:
     3480.로 변경되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- 함수: ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert (DER_cert_bytes)

     인증서가 DER-인코딩된 바이트열로 주어지면, 같은 인증서의 PEM-인코딩
     된 문자열 버전을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert (PEM_cert_string)

     인증서가 ASCII PEM 문자열로 주어지면, 같은 인증서의 DER-인코딩된 바
     이트열 시퀀스를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: ssl.get_default_verify_paths ()

     OpenSSL의 기본 cafile 및 capath에 대한 경로가 있는 네임드 튜플을 반
     환합니다.  경로는 *note SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths():
     fa2.에서 사용하는 경로와 같습니다.  반환 값은 *note 네임드 튜플:
     648. ‘DefaultVerifyPaths’입니다.:

        * ‘cafile’ - cafile에 대한 확인된 경로나 파일이 존재하지 않으면
          ‘None’,

        * ‘capath’ - capath에 대한 확인된 경로나 디렉터리가 존재하지 않
          으면 ‘None’,

        * ‘openssl_cafile_env’ - cafile을 가리키는 OpenSSL의 환경 키,

        * ‘openssl_cafile’ - cafile에 대한 하드 코딩된 경로,

        * ‘openssl_capath_env’ - capath를 가리키는 OpenSSL의 환경 키,

        * ‘openssl_capath’ - capath 디렉터리에 대한 하드 코딩된 경로

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: ssl.enum_certificates (store_name)

     윈도우의 시스템 인증서 저장소에서 인증서를 꺼냅니다.  'store_name'은
     ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ 또는 ‘MY’ 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  윈도우가 추가 인증서
     저장소를 제공 할 수도 있습니다.

     이 함수는 (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) 튜플의 리스트를 반환합
     니다.  encoding_type은 cert_bytes의 인코딩을 지정합니다.  X.509
     ASN.1 데이터를 위한 ‘x509_asn’이거나 PKCS#7 ASN.1 데이터를 위한
     ‘pkcs_7_asn’입니다.  Trust는 인증서의 목적을 OIDS 집합으로 지정하거
     나, 인증서가 모든 목적에 대해 신뢰할 수 있으면 정확히 ‘True’입니다.

     예제:

          >>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
          [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
           (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: ssl.enum_crls (store_name)

     윈도우의 시스템 인증서 저장소에서 CRL을 꺼냅니다.  'store_name'는
     ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ 또는 ‘MY’ 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  윈도우가 추가 인증서
     저장소를 제공 할 수도 있습니다.

     이 함수는 (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) 튜플의 리스트를 반환합
     니다.  encoding_type은 cert_bytes의 인코딩을 지정합니다.  X.509
     ASN.1 데이터를 위한 ‘x509_asn’이거나 PKCS#7 ASN.1 데이터를 위한
     ‘pkcs_7_asn’입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


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5.19.3.7 상수
.............

     모든 상수는 이제 *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. 이나 *note enum.IntFlag:
     2302. 컬렉션입니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: ssl.CERT_NONE

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 347d.  Except for
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d, it is the default mode.  With
     client-side sockets, just about any cert is accepted.  Validation
     errors, such as untrusted or expired cert, are ignored and do not
     abort the TLS/SSL handshake.

     서버 모드에서는, 클라이언트에서 인증서를 요청하지 않으므로 클라이언
     트는 클라이언트 인증서 인증을 위해 인증서를 보내지 않습니다.

     아래의 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.의 논의를 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 347d.  In client
     mode, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3490. has the same meaning as *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.  It is recommended to use *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     347e. for client-side sockets instead.

     서버 모드에서는, 클라이언트 인증서 요청이 클라이언트로 전송됩니다.
     클라이언트는 요청을 무시하거나 TLS 클라이언트 인증서 인증을 수행하
     기 위해 인증서를 보낼 수 있습니다.  클라이언트가 인증서를 보내기로
     선택하면, 인증서가 유효성 검사됩니다.  모든 유효성 검사 에러는, TLS
     핸드 셰이크를 즉시 중단합니다.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.CERT_REQUIRED

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 347d.  In this
     mode, certificates are required from the other side of the socket
     connection; an *note SSLError: 126a. will be raised if no
     certificate is provided, or if its validation fails.  This mode is
     'not' sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as it does
     not match hostnames.  *note check_hostname: 3491. must be enabled
     as well to verify the authenticity of a cert.  *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. uses *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e. and
     enables *note check_hostname: 3491. by default.

     서버 소켓에서, 이 모드는 필수 TLS 클라이언트 인증서 인증을 제공합니
     다.  클라이언트 인증서 요청이 클라이언트에 보내지고 클라이언트는 유
     효하고 신뢰할 수 있는 인증서를 제공해야 합니다.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee3.

 -- 클래스: ssl.VerifyMode

     CERT_* 상수의 *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. 컬렉션.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.의 가능한 값.  이 모드에서는 인
     증서 해지 목록(CRL)을 검사하지 않습니다.  기본적으로 OpenSSL은 CRL을
     요구하지도 검사하지도 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.의 가능한 값.  이 모드에서는, 피
     어 인증서만 확인할 뿐 중간 CA 인증서는 확인하지 않습니다.  이 모드
     는 피어 인증서의 발급자(그것의 직계 조상 CA)가 서명한 유효한 CRL을
     요구합니다.  적절한 CRL이 *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations:
     ee3.로 로드되지 않았으면 유효성 검사가 실패합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.의 가능한 값.  이 모드에서는, 피
     어 인증서 체인의 모든 인증서에 대한 CRL이 확인됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     망가진 X.509 인증서에 대한 우회를 사용하지 못하도록 하는 *note
     SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.의 가능한 값.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5. to enables
     proxy certificate verification.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST

     *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.의 가능한 값.  OpenSSL이 인증서
     의 유효성을 검사하기 위해 트러스트 체인을 구축할 때 신뢰할 수 있는
     인증서를 선호하도록 지시합니다.  이 플래그는 기본적으로 활성화됩니
     다.

     Added in version 3.4.4.

 -- 데이터: ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to accept intermediate CAs in the trust store to
     be treated as trust-anchors, in the same way as the self-signed
     root CA certificates.  This makes it possible to trust certificates
     issued by an intermediate CA without having to trust its ancestor
     root CA.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ssl.VerifyFlags

     VERIFY_* 상수의 *note enum.IntFlag: 2302. 컬렉션.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

     클라이언트와 서버가 모두 지원하는 가장 높은 프로토콜 버전을 선택합
     니다.  이름에도 불구하고, 이 옵션은 “SSL” 과 “TLS” 프로토콜을 모두
     선택할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: TLS clients and servers require different
     default settings for secure communication.  The generic TLS
     protocol constant is deprecated in favor of *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context client-side
     connections.  The protocol enables *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e. and
     *note check_hostname: 3491. by default.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context server-side
     connections.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23

     *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.의 별칭.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

     채널 암호화 프로토콜로 SSL 버전 3을 선택합니다.

     This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
     ‘no-ssl3’ option.

          경고: SSL 버전 3은 안전하지 않습니다.  사용하지 말도록 강력히
          권고합니다.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific
     protocols.  Use the default protocol *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER:
     86e. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. with *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 86b. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 86c. instead.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

     채널 암호화 프로토콜로 TLS 버전 1.0을 선택합니다.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific
     protocols.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

     채널 암호화 프로토콜로 TLS 버전 1.1을 선택합니다.  openssl 버전
     1.0.1+ 에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific
     protocols.

 -- 데이터: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

     Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific
     protocols.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_ALL

     다른 SSL 구현에 있는 다양한 버그에 대한 해결 방법을 활성화합니다.  이
     옵션은 기본적으로 설정됩니다.  반드시 OpenSSL의 ‘SSL_OP_ALL’ 상수와
     같은 플래그를 설정할 필요는 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2

     SSLv2 연결을 방지합니다.  이 옵션은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.와 결
     합해서만 적용할 수 있습니다.  피어가 SSLv2를 프로토콜 버전으로 선택
     하지 못하도록 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: SSLv2는 폐지되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     SSLv3 연결을 방지합니다.  이 옵션은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.와 결
     합해서만 적용할 수 있습니다.  피어가 프로토콜 버전으로 SSLv3을 선택
     하지 못하게 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: SSLv3은 폐지되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1

     TLSv1 연결을 금지합니다.  이 옵션은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.와 결
     합해서만 적용할 수 있습니다.  피어가 TLSv1을 프로토콜 버전으로 선택
     하지 못하게 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: 이 옵션은 OpenSSL 1.1.0부터 폐지되었습니다, 새
     로운 *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 86b.과 *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 86c.을 대신 사용하십시오.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1

     TLSv1.1 연결을 금지합니다.  이 옵션은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.와 결
     합해서만 적용할 수 있습니다.  피어가 TLSv1.1을 프로토콜 버전으로 선
     택하지 못하게 합니다.  openssl 버전 1.0.1+ 에서만 사용할 수 있습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: 이 옵션은 OpenSSL 1.1.0부터 폐지되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2

     TLSv1.2 연결을 방지합니다.  이 옵션은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.와 결
     합해서만 적용할 수 있습니다.  피어가 프로토콜 버전으로 TLSv1.2를 선
     택하지 못하게 합니다.  openssl 버전 1.0.1+ 에서만 사용할 수 있습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: 이 옵션은 OpenSSL 1.1.0부터 폐지되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

     TLSv1.3 연결을 방지합니다.  이 옵션은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.와 결
     합해서만 적용할 수 있습니다.  피어가 프로토콜 버전으로 TLSv1.3을 선
     택하지 못하게 합니다.  TLS 1.3은 OpenSSL 1.1.1 이상에서 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  파이썬이 OpenSSL의 이전 버전에 대해 컴파일되면, 플래그의 기
     본값은 '0'입니다.

     Added in version 3.6.3.

     버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.
     It was added to 2.7.15 and 3.6.3 for backwards compatibility with
     OpenSSL 1.0.2.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION

     TLSv1.2와 그 이전 버전에서 모든 재협상을 비활성화합니다.
     HelloRequest 메시지를 보내지 않고, ClientHello를 통한 재협상 요청을
     무시합니다.

     이 옵션은 OpenSSL 1.1.0h 이상에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE

     클라이언트보다는 서버의 사이퍼 순서 선호를 사용합니다.  이 옵션은 클
     라이언트 소켓과 SSLv2 서버 소켓에는 영향을 미치지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
     improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
     This option only applies to server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions.
     This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational
     resources.  This option only applies to server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT

     TLS 1.3 연결을 더 TLS 1.2 연결처럼 보이게 하려고 TLS 1.3 핸드 셰이
     크에서 더미 암호 변경 사양(CCS - Change Cipher Spec) 메시지를 보냅
     니다.

     이 옵션은 OpenSSL 1.1.1 이상에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION

     SSL 채널에서 압축을 사용하지 않습니다.  응용 프로그램 프로토콜이 자
     체 압축 방법을 지원할 때 유용합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 클래스: ssl.Options

     OP_* 상수의 *note enum.IntFlag: 2302. 컬렉션.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_NO_TICKET

     클라이언트 측에서 세션 티켓을 요청하지 못하게 합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF

     Ignore unexpected shutdown of TLS connections.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_ENABLE_KTLS

     Enable the use of the kernel TLS. To benefit from the feature,
     OpenSSL must have been compiled with support for it, and the
     negotiated cipher suites and extensions must be supported by it (a
     list of supported ones may vary by platform and kernel version).

     Note that with enabled kernel TLS some cryptographic operations are
     performed by the kernel directly and not via any available OpenSSL
     Providers.  This might be undesirable if, for example, the
     application requires all cryptographic operations to be performed
     by the FIPS provider.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

     Allow legacy insecure renegotiation between OpenSSL and unpatched
     servers only.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_ALPN

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 RFC 7301(1)에서 설명한 대로 '응용 계층 프로토
     콜 협상(Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation)' TLS 확장에 대한 지
     원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 SCN(subject common name)을 검사하지 않는 지원
     을 기본 제공하고 *note SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name:
     b7a.가 쓰기 가능한지 아닌지.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_ECDH

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 타원 곡선(Elliptic Curve) 기반 Diffie-Hellman
     키 교환 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부.  기능이 배포자에 의해 명시적으
     로 비활성화되어 있지 않은 한, 참이어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_SNI

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 '서버 이름 표시(Server Name Indication)' 확장(
     RFC 6066(2)에 정의된 대로)에 대한 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_NPN

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 Application Layer Protocol Negotiation(3)에 설
     명된 대로 'NPN(Next Protocol Negotiation)'에 대한 지원을 기본 제공
     하는지 여부.  참이면 *note SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2fa. 메
     서드를 사용하여 지원할 프로토콜을 알릴 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_SSLv2

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 SSL 2.0 프로토콜 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_SSLv3

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 SSL 3.0 프로토콜 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_TLSv1

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 TLS 1.0 프로토콜 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 TLS 1.1 프로토콜 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 TLS 1.2 프로토콜 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3

     OpenSSL 라이브러리가 TLS 1.3 프로토콜 지원을 기본 제공하는지 여부

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 데이터: ssl.HAS_PSK

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PSK.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES

     지원되는 TLS 채널 바인딩 유형의 리스트.  이 리스트의 문자열은 *note
     SSLSocket.get_channel_binding(): 1135.에 대한 인자로 사용될 수 있습
     니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION

     인터프리터에 의해 로드된 OpenSSL 라이브러리의 버전 문자열:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
          'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO

     OpenSSL 라이브러리에 대한 버전 정보를 나타내는 5개의 정수 튜플:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
          (1, 0, 2, 11, 15)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER

     단일 정수로 표현되는, OpenSSL 라이브러리의 원시 버전 번호:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
          268443839
          >>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
          '0x100020bf'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE
 -- 데이터: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR

 -- 데이터: ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*

     RFC 5246(4) 및 기타의 경고 설명.  IANA TLS Alert Registry(5)에는 이
     목록과 그 의미가 정의된 RFC에 대한 참조가 들어 있습니다.

     *note SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fae.에서 콜백 함수의 반
     환 값으로 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 클래스: ssl.AlertDescription

     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* 상수의 *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. 컬렉션.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: Purpose.SERVER_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): 155. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): fa9.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web servers (therefore, it
     will be used to create client-side sockets).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): 155. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): fa9.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web clients (therefore, it
     will be used to create server-side sockets).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 클래스: ssl.SSLErrorNumber

     SSL_ERROR_* 상수의 *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. 컬렉션.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: ssl.TLSVersion

     *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 86c.과 *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 86b. 용 SSL과 TLS 버전의 *note
     enum.IntEnum: cdc. 컬렉션.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED

     지원되는 SSL 또는 TLS 버전의 최소 또는 최대.  이것들은 마법 상수
     (magic constant)입니다.  이들의 값은 사용 가능한 가장 낮거나 높은
     TLS/SSL 버전을 반영하지 않습니다.

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.SSLv3

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.TLSv1

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.TLSv1_2

 -- 속성: TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

     SSL 3.0 에서 TLS 1.3.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: All *note TLSVersion: 34b0. members except
     *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 34b6. and *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_3: 34b7.
     are deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6


File: python.info,  Node: SSL 소켓,  Next: SSL 컨텍스트,  Prev: 함수 상수 및 예외,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.8 SSL 소켓
.................

 -- 클래스: ssl.SSLSocket (socket.socket)

     SSL 소켓은 다음과 같은 *note 소켓 객체: 345e. 메서드를 제공합니다:

        - *note accept(): d9e.

        - *note bind(): 1501.

        - *note close(): d40.

        - *note connect(): d9f.

        - *note detach(): 120c.

        - *note fileno(): 346c.

        - *note getpeername(): 33b1, *note getsockname(): 33b2.

        - *note getsockopt(): cd2, *note setsockopt(): cd3.

        - *note gettimeout(): 346d, *note settimeout(): 342b, *note
          setblocking(): 2b51.

        - *note listen(): e56.

        - *note makefile(): 118f.

        - *note recv(): da0, *note recv_into(): 130d. (but passing a
          non-zero ‘flags’ argument is not allowed)

        - *note send(): da3, *note sendall(): da4. (with the same
          limitation)

        - *note sendfile(): e55. (but *note os.sendfile: b0c. will be
          used for plain-text sockets only, else *note send(): da3. will
          be used)

        - *note shutdown(): 345b.

     그러나 SSL (및 TLS) 프로토콜은 TCP 위에 자체 프레임을 가지고 있으므
     로, SSL 소켓 추상화는 특정 측면에서 정상적인 OS 수준 소켓의 사양에
     서 벗어날 수 있습니다.  특히 *note 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항:
     3483.을 보십시오.

     *note SSLSocket: 8e7.의 인스턴스는 *note SSLContext.wrap_socket():
     51e. 메서드를 사용하여 민들어야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘sendfile()’ 메서드가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: The ‘shutdown()’ does not reset the socket
     timeout each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout
     is now the maximum total duration of the shutdown.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: *note SSLSocket: 8e7. 인스턴스를 직접 만드는 것
     은 폐지되었습니다, *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e.를 사용하여
     소켓을 감싸십시오.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note SSLSocket: 8e7. 인스턴스는 *note
     wrap_socket(): 51e.로 만들어야 합니다.  이전 버전에서는 직접 인스턴
     스를 만들 수 있었습니다.  이것은 문서로 만들어지거나 공식적으로 지
     원된 적이 없습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Python now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

SSL 소켓에는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드와 어트리뷰트도 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.read (len=1024, buffer=None)

     SSL 소켓에서 최대 'len' 바이트의 데이터를 읽고 그 결과를 ‘bytes’ 인
     스턴스로 반환합니다.  'buffer'가 지정되면, 대신 버퍼로 읽어 들이고,
     읽은 바이트 수를 반환합니다.

     소켓이 *note 비 블로킹: 3483.이고 읽기가 블록 되려고 하면 *note
     SSLWantReadError: e61. 나 *note SSLWantWriteError: e62.를 발생시킵
     니다.

     언제나 재협상이 가능하므로, *note read(): e66.를 호출해도 쓰기 연산
     이 발생할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time
     bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
     total duration to read up to 'len' bytes.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: *note read(): e66. 대신 ‘recv()’를 사용하십시
     오.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.write (buf)

     SSL 소켓에 'buf'를 기록하고, 기록한 바이트 수를 돌려줍니다.  'buf'
     인자는 버퍼 인터페이스를 지원하는 객체여야 합니다.

     소켓이 *note 비 블로킹: 3483.이고, 쓰기가 블록 하려고 하면 *note
     SSLWantReadError: e61. 나 *note SSLWantWriteError: e62.를 발생시킵
     니다.

     언제나 재협상이 가능하므로, *note write(): e67.를 호출해도 읽기 연
     산이 발생할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time
     bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
     total duration to write 'buf'.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: *note write(): e67. 대신 ‘send()’를 사용하십시
     오.

     참고: *note read(): e66. 과 *note write(): e67. 메서드는 암호화되지
     않은 응용 프로그램 수준 데이터를 읽고 쓰고 그것을 암호화되고 와이어
     수준(wire-level) 데이터로 복호화/암호화하는 저수준 메서드입니다.  이
     메서드는 활성화된 SSL 연결, 즉, 핸드 셰이크가 완료되고, *note
     SSLSocket.unwrap(): 34b9.가 호출되지 않은 것이 필요합니다.

     일반적으로 이러한 메서드 대신 *note recv(): da0. 와 *note send():
     da3.와 같은 소켓 API 메서드를 사용해야합니다.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.do_handshake ()

     SSL 설정 핸드 셰이크를 수행합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 핸드 셰이크 메서드는 소켓의 *note context:
     34ba.의 *note check_hostname: 3491. 어트리뷰트가 참일 때
     ‘match_hostname()’도 수행합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time
     bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
     total duration of the handshake.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL
     during handshake.  The function ‘match_hostname()’ is no longer
     used.  In case OpenSSL refuses a hostname or IP address, the
     handshake is aborted early and a TLS alert message is sent to the
     peer.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.getpeercert (binary_form=False)

     연결의 다른 끝의 피어에 대한 인증서가 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.
     SSL 핸드 셰이크가 아직 수행되지 않았으면, *note ValueError: 202.를
     발생시킵니다.

     ‘binary_form’ 매개 변수가 *note False: b34.이고, 피어에서 인증서를
     받았으면, 이 메서드는 *note dict: 256. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  인증
     서의 유효성을 검사하지 않았으면, 딕셔너리는 비어 있습니다.  인증서
     의 유효성을 검사했으면 ‘subject’(인증서가 발행된 주체)와 ‘issuer’(인
     증서를 발급한 주체)와 같은 몇 가지 키가 있는 dict를 반환합니다.  인
     증서가 'SAN(Subject Alternative Name)' 확장( RFC 3280(1) 참조)의 인
     스턴스를 포함하면 딕셔너리에 ‘subjectAltName’ 키도 있습니다.

     ‘subject’ 와 ‘issuer’ 필드는 각 필드에 대한 인증서의 데이터 구조에
     제공된 RDN(relative distinguished name)의 시퀀스를 포함하는 튜플이
     며, 각 RDN은 이름-값 쌍의 시퀀스입니다.  실제 예를 들어 보겠습니다:

          {'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
                      (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
                      (('organizationalUnitName',
                        'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
                      (('commonName',
                        'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
           'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
           'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
           'serialNumber': '95F0',
           'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
                       (('countryName', 'US'),),
                       (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
                       (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
                       (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
                       (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
                       (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
           'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
           'version': 3}

     ‘binary_form’ 매개 변수가 *note True: c0a.이고, 인증서가 제공되었으
     면, 이 메서드는 전체 인증서의 DER-인코딩 형식을 바이트 시퀀스로 반
     환하고, 피어가 인증서를 제공하지 않았으면 *note None: 66f.을 반환합
     니다.  피어가 인증서를 제공하는지는 SSL 소켓의 역할에 따라 다릅니다
     :

        * 클라이언트 SSL 소켓의 경우, 서버는 유효성 검사가 필요한지에 관
          계없이 항상 인증서를 제공합니다.

        * 서버 SSL 소켓의 경우, 클라이언트는 서버가 요청할 때만 인증서를
          제공합니다; 따라서 *note CERT_NONE: 348f.(*note CERT_OPTIONAL:
          3490. 나 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e. 대신)을 사용하면 *note
          getpeercert(): faf.는 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

     See also *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 반환된 딕셔너리에는 ‘issuer’ 와 ‘notBefore’와 같
     은 추가 항목이 포함됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 핸드 셰이크가 완료되지 않았으면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  반환된 딕셔너리에는
     ‘crlDistributionPoints’, ‘caIssuers’ 및 ‘OCSP’ URI와 같은 추가
     X509v3 확장 항목이 포함됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: IPv6 주소 문자열에는 더는 후행 줄 바꿈이 없습니
     다.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.get_verified_chain ()

     Returns verified certificate chain provided by the other end of the
     SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.  If certificate
     verification was disabled method acts the same as *note
     get_unverified_chain(): 15e5.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain ()

     Returns raw certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL
     channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.cipher ()

     사용되는 사이퍼의 이름, 그것의 사용을 정의하는 SSL 프로토콜의 버전
     및 사용되는 비밀 비트의 수를 포함하는 3-튜플을 반환합니다.  연결이
     이루어지지 않았으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.shared_ciphers ()

     Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server.
     Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing
     the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that
     defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses.
     *note shared_ciphers(): e64. returns ‘None’ if no connection has
     been established or the socket is a client socket.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.compression ()

     사용되는 압축 알고리즘을 문자열로 반환하거나, 연결이 압축되지 않으
     면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     상위-수준 프로토콜이 자체 압축 메커니즘을 지원하면, *note
     OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 1137.을 사용하여 SSL-수준 압축을 비활성화할 수 있
     습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding (cb_type='tls-unique')

     현재 연결에 대한 채널 바인딩 데이터를 바이트열 객체로 가져옵니다.  연
     결되어 있지 않거나 핸드 셰이크가 완료되지 않았으면 ‘None’을 반환합
     니다.

     'cb_type' 매개 변수를 사용하여 원하는 채널 바인딩 유형을 선택할 수
     있습니다.  유효한 채널 바인딩 유형은 *note CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES:
     34ab. 리스트에 나열됩니다.  현재는 RFC 5929(2)가 정의한
     ‘tls-unique’ 채널 바인딩만 지원됩니다.  지원되지 않는 채널 바인딩 유
     형이 요청되면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol ()

     TLS 핸드 셰이크 중에 선택된 프로토콜을 반환합니다.  *note
     SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): e5c.가 호출되지 않았거나, 상대방이
     ALPN을 지원하지 않거나, 이 소켓이 클라이언트가 제안한 프로토콜 중 어
     떤 것도 지원하지 않거나, 핸드 셰이크가 아직 발생하지 않았으면
     ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol ()

     TLS/SSL 핸드 셰이크 중에 선택된 상위-수준의 프로토콜을 반환합니다.
     *note SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2fa.가 호출되지 않았거나, 상
     대방이 NPN을 지원하지 않거나, 핸드 셰이크가 아직 발생하지 않았으면
     ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.unwrap ()

     SSL 종료 핸드 셰이크를 수행해서 하부 소켓에서 TLS 계층을 제거하고,
     하부 소켓 객체를 반환합니다.  이것은 연결을 통한 암호화된 연산에서
     암호화되지 않은 것으로 이동하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  원래 소켓이
     아닌 반환된 소켓을 연결의 다른 쪽과 계속 통신하기 위해 항상 사용해
     야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake ()

     TLS 1.3 클라이언트로부터 PHA(post-handshake authentication)를 요청
     합니다.  PHA는 양쪽에서 PHA가 활성화된 초기 TLS 핸드 셰이크 후에 서
     버 측 소켓에서 TLS 1.3 연결에 대해서만 시작할 수 있습니다, *note
     SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a2d.를 참조하세요.

     이 메서드는 즉시 인증서 교환을 수행하지 않습니다.  서버 측은 다음 쓰
     기 이벤트 중에 CertificateRequest를 보내고 클라이언트가 다음 읽기 이
     벤트에서 인증서로 응답할 것으로 기대합니다.

     사전 조건이 모두 충족되지 않으면 (예를 들어, TLS 1.3이 아니거나
     PHA가 활성화되지 않았을 때), *note SSLError: 126a.가 발생합니다.

          참고: OpenSSL 1.1.1과 TLS 1.3이 활성화된 경우에만 사용할 수 있
          습니다.  TLS 1.3 지원이 없으면, 이 메서드는 *note
          NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.version ()

     Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
     as a string, or ‘None’ if no secure connection is established.  As
     of this writing, possible return values include ‘"SSLv2"’,
     ‘"SSLv3"’, ‘"TLSv1"’, ‘"TLSv1.1"’ and ‘"TLSv1.2"’.  Recent OpenSSL
     versions may define more return values.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: SSLSocket.pending ()

     접속에 계류 중인, 읽기용으로 이미 복호화된 바이트의 수를 돌려줍니다
     .

 -- 속성: SSLSocket.context

     The *note SSLContext: 294. object this SSL socket is tied to.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 속성: SSLSocket.server_side

     서버 측 소켓에서는 ‘True’이고 클라이언트 측 소켓에서는 ‘False’ 인 논
     릿값.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 속성: SSLSocket.server_hostname

     서버의 호스트 이름: *note str: 445. 형, 또는 서버 측 소켓이거나 호
     스트 이름이 생성자에 지정되지 않았으면 ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 어트리뷰트는 이제 항상 ASCII 텍스트입니다.
     ‘server_hostname’이 국제화 된 도메인 이름(IDN)일 때, 이 어트리뷰트
     는 이제 U-레이블 형식(‘"pythön.org"’) 대신 A-레이블 형식
     (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’)을 저장합니다.

 -- 속성: SSLSocket.session

     이 SSL 연결을 위한 *note SSLSession: cda.  이 세션은 TLS 핸드 셰이
     크가 수행된 후 클라이언트와 서버 측 소켓에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  클
     라이언트 소켓의 경우 세션을 다시 사용하기 위해 *note
     do_handshake(): e65.가 호출되기 전에 세션을 설정할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 속성: SSLSocket.session_reused

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3280.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5929.html


File: python.info,  Node: SSL 컨텍스트,  Next: 인증서,  Prev: SSL 소켓,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.9 SSL 컨텍스트
.....................

Added in version 3.2.

SSL 컨텍스트는 SSL 구성 옵션, 인증서 및 개인 키와 같이 단일 SSL 연결보다
수명이 긴 다양한 데이터를 보관합니다.  또한, 같은 클라이언트의 반복된 연
결 속도를 높이기 위해 서버 측 소켓에 대한 SSL 세션 캐시를 관리합니다.

 -- 클래스: ssl.SSLContext (protocol=None)

     새 SSL 컨텍스트를 만듭니다.  'protocol'를 전달할 수 있는데, 이 모듈
     에 정의된 ‘PROTOCOL_*’ 상수 중 하나여야 합니다.  매개 변수는 사용할
     SSL 프로토콜의 버전을 지정합니다.  일반적으로 서버는 특정 프로토콜
     버전을 선택하고, 클라이언트는 서버의 선택에 적응해야 합니다.  대부
     분의 버전은 다른 버전과 상호 운용할 수 없습니다.  지정하지 않으면,
     기본값은 *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480.입니다; 다른 버전과의 호환성이 가
     장 뛰어납니다.

     다음은 클라이언트의 어느 버전(행)이 서버의 어떤 버전(열)에 연결할 수
     있는지 보여주는 표입니다:

     '클라이언트' / '서버'        'SSLv2'          'SSLv3'          'TLS' (1)         'TLSv1'       'TLSv1.1'       'TLSv1.2'
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv2'                      yes              no               no (2)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv3'                      no               yes              no (3)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLS' ('SSLv23') (4)         no (5)           no (6)           yes               yes           yes             yes
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1'                      no               no               yes               yes           no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.1'                    no               no               yes               no            yes             no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.2'                    no               no               yes               no            no              yes
                                                                                                                    

     더 보기
     .......

     *note create_default_context(): 155.는 *note ssl: d0. 모듈이 주어진
     목적을 위한 보안 설정을 선택할 수 있게 합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: The context is created with secure default
     values.  The options *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 1137, *note
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 113a, *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 349c,
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 349d, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 834. (except for *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 348b.) are set
     by default.  The initial cipher suite list contains only ‘HIGH’
     ciphers, no ‘NULL’ ciphers and no ‘MD5’ ciphers.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: *note SSLContext: 294. without protocol
     argument is deprecated.  The context class will either require
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e.
     protocol in the future.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The default cipher suites now include only
     secure AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and security
     level 2.  RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC keys
     with less than 224 bits are prohibited.  *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480,
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e.
     use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.

          참고: *note SSLContext: 294. only supports limited mutation
          once it has been used by a connection.  Adding new
          certificates to the internal trust store is allowed, but
          changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS certificates
          may result in surprising behavior.

          참고: *note SSLContext: 294. is designed to be shared and used
          by multiple connections.  Thus, it is thread-safe as long as
          it is not reconfigured after being used by a connection.

*note SSLContext: 294. 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드와 어트리뷰트가 있습니
다:

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.cert_store_stats ()

     로드된 X.509 인증서 수량, CA 인증서로 표시된 X.509 인증서 및 인증서
     취소 목록(CRL)의 수에 대한 통계를 딕셔너리로 가져옵니다.

     하나의 CA 인증서와 다른 인증서 하나를 가진 컨텍스트 예:

          >>> context.cert_store_stats()
          {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.load_cert_chain (certfile, keyfile=None,
          password=None)

     Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The
     'certfile' string must be the path to a single file in PEM format
     containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates
     needed to establish the certificate’s authenticity.  The 'keyfile'
     string, if present, must point to a file containing the private
     key.  Otherwise the private key will be taken from 'certfile' as
     well.  See the discussion of *note 인증서: 34bf. for more
     information on how the certificate is stored in the 'certfile'.

     'password' 인자는 개인 키의 복호화를 위한 암호를 얻기 위해 호출하는
     함수가 될 수 있습니다.  개인 키가 암호화되어있고 암호가 필요한 경우
     에만 호출됩니다.  인자 없이 호출되며, 문자열, 바이트열 또는
     bytearray를 반환해야 합니다.  반환 값이 문자열이면 키를 해독하기 전
     에 UTF-8로 인코딩됩니다.  또는 문자열, 바이트열 또는 bytearray 값을
     'password' 인자로 직접 제공할 수 있습니다.  개인 키가 암호화되지 않
     고 암호가 필요 없으면 무시됩니다.

     'password' 인자가 지정되지 않고 암호가 필요하면, OpenSSL의 기본 암
     호 프롬프트 메커니즘을 사용하여 대화식으로 사용자에게 암호를 묻습니
     다.

     개인 키가 인증서와 일치하지 않으면 *note SSLError: 126a.가 발생합니
     다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 새로운 선택적 인자 'password'.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.load_default_certs (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)

     Load a set of default “certification authority” (CA) certificates
     from default locations.  On Windows it loads CA certs from the ‘CA’
     and ‘ROOT’ system stores.  On all systems it calls *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): fa2.  In the future the
     method may load CA certificates from other locations, too.

     The 'purpose' flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are
     loaded.  The default settings *note Purpose.SERVER_AUTH: faa. loads
     certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server
     authentication (client side sockets).  *note Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH:
     fab. loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on
     the server side.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.load_verify_locations (cafile=None, capath=None,
          cadata=None)

     *note verify_mode: 347d.가 *note CERT_NONE: 348f.가 아닐 때, 다른 피
     어의 인증서를 확인하는 데 사용되는 “인증 기관” (CA) 인증서 집합을 로
     드합니다.  'cafile' 나 'capath' 중 적어도 하나는 지정해야 합니다.

     이 메서드는 PEM 이나 DER 형식으로 인증서 해지 목록(CRL)을 로드할 수
     도 있습니다.  CRL을 사용하려면 *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.를
     올바르게 구성해야 합니다.

     'cafile' 문자열이 있으면 이어붙인 PEM 형식의 CA 인증서 파일 경로입
     니다.  이 파일에 인증서를 정렬하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note
     인증서: 34bf.의 논의를 참조하십시오.

     The 'capath' string, if present, is the path to a directory
     containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an
     OpenSSL specific layout(7).

     'cadata' 객체가 있으면, 하나 이상의 PEM-인코딩된 인증서의 ASCII 문
     자열이거나 DER-인코딩된 인증서의 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.입니다.
     'capath'와 마찬가지로 PEM-인코딩된 인증서 주위에 추가한 줄은 무시되
     지만 적어도 하나의 인증서가 있어야 합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새로운 선택적 인자 'cadata'

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.get_ca_certs (binary_form=False)

     로드된 “인증 기관” (CA) 인증서 목록을 가져옵니다.  ‘binary_form’ 매
     개 변수가 *note False: b34.면 각 리스트 항목은 *note
     SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf.의 출력과 같은 딕셔너리입니다.  그렇지
     않으면, 이 메서드는 DER-인코딩된 인증서의 리스트를 반환합니다.  반
     환된 리스트에는 인증서가 SSL 연결이 요청하고 로드되지 않는 한
     'capath'의 인증서가 포함되어 있지 않습니다.

          참고: capath 디렉터리의 인증서는 적어도 한 번 이상 사용하지 않
          으면 로드되지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.get_ciphers ()

     활성화된 사이퍼의 리스트를 가져옵니다.  리스트는 사이퍼 우선순위 순
     입니다.  *note SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 34c0.를 참조하십시오.

     예제:

          >>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
          >>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
          >>> ctx.get_ciphers()
          [{'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 256,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380848,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 256,
            'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
           {'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 128,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380847,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 128,
            'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths ()

     OpenSSL 라이브러리를 빌드할 때 정의된 파일 시스템 경로에서 기본 “인
     증 기관” (CA) 인증서 집합을 로드합니다.  불행히도, 이 메서드가 성공
     하는지를 쉽게 알 방법이 없습니다: 인증서를 찾을 수 없어도 에러가 반
     환되지 않습니다.  하지만 OpenSSL 라이브러리가 운영 체제 일부로 제공
     되면 올바르게 구성되었을 가능성이 큽니다.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_ciphers (ciphers)

     Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
     It should be a string in the OpenSSL cipher list format(8).  If no
     cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
     configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an *note
     SSLError: 126a. will be raised.

          참고: 연결될 때, SSL 소켓의 *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 33b3. 메
          서드가 현재 선택된 사이퍼를 제공합니다.

          TLS 1.3 cipher suites cannot be disabled with *note
          set_ciphers(): 34c0.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols (protocols)

     SSL/TLS 핸드 셰이크 중에 소켓이 알려야 하는 프로토콜을 지정합니다.
     우선순위에 따라 정렬된 ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’와 같은 ASCII 문자열
     리스트여야 합니다.  프로토콜 선택은 핸드 셰이크 중에 발생하며, RFC
     7301(9)에 따라 처리됩니다.  성공적인 핸드 셰이크가 끝나면, *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e5d. 메서드는 합의된 프로토콜을
     반환합니다.

     *note HAS_NPN: 34a4.이 ‘False’면, 이 메서드는 *note
     NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols (protocols)

     SSL/TLS 핸드 셰이크 중에 소켓이 알려야 하는 프로토콜을 지정합니다.
     우선순위에 따라 정렬된 ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’와 같은 문자열 리스
     트여야 합니다.  프로토콜 선택은 핸드 셰이크 중에 발생하며,
     Application Layer Protocol Negotiation(10)에 따라 처리됩니다.  성공
     적인 핸드 셰이크가 끝나면, *note SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol():
     86f. 메서드는 합의된 프로토콜을 반환합니다.

     *note HAS_NPN: 34a4.이 ‘False’면, 이 메서드는 *note
     NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- 속성: SSLContext.sni_callback

     TLS 클라이언트가 서버 이름 표시를 지정할 때 SSL/TLS 서버에서 TLS 클
     라이언트 Hello 핸드 셰이크 메시지를 받은 후 호출될 콜백 함수를 등록
     합니다.  서버 이름 표시 메커니즘은 RFC 6066(11) section 3 - Server
     Name Indication에서 지정됩니다.

     ‘SSLContext’ 당 하나의 콜백 만 설정할 수 있습니다.  'sni_callback'이
     ‘None’으로 설정되면 콜백이 비활성화됩니다.  이 함수를 호출하면 이전
     에 등록된 콜백이 비활성화됩니다.

     콜백 함수는 세 개의 인자로 호출됩니다.  첫 번째는 *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7.이고, 두 번째는 클라이언트가 통신하려는 서버 이
     름을 나타내는 문자열(또는 TLS 클라이언트 Hello에 서버 이름이 없으면
     *note None: 66f.)이며, 세 번째 인자는 원래 *note SSLContext: 294.입
     니다.  서버 이름 인자는 텍스트입니다.  국제화된 도메인 이름의 경우,
     서버 이름은 IDN A-레이블(‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’)입니다.

     이 콜백은 일반적으로 *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e7.의 *note
     SSLSocket.context: 34ba. 어트리뷰트를 서버 이름과 일치하는 인증서 체
     인을 나타내는 *note SSLContext: 294. 형의 새 객체로 변경하는 데 사
     용됩니다.

     Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only
     limited methods and attributes are usable like *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e5d. and *note
     SSLSocket.context: 34ba.  The *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf,
     *note SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 15e4, *note
     SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 15e5. *note SSLSocket.cipher():
     33b3. and *note SSLSocket.compression(): 1136. methods require that
     the TLS connection has progressed beyond the TLS Client Hello and
     therefore will not return meaningful values nor can they be called
     safely.

     TLS 협상을 계속하려면 'sni_callback' 함수가 ‘None’을 반환해야 합니
     다.  TLS 실패가 필요하면, 상수 *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*: 34ad.를 반
     환할 수 있습니다.  다른 반환 값은 *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR: 34ad.로 TLS 치명적인 에러를 발생
     시킵니다.

     'sni_callback' 함수에서 예외가 발생하면, TLS 연결이 치명적인 TLS 경
     고 메시지 *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE: 34ac.로 종료됩
     니다.

     이 메서드는 OpenSSL 라이브러리가 빌드될 때 OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT가 정의
     되었으면 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.set_servername_callback (server_name_callback)

     이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 유지되는 기존 API입니다.  가능하면, 대
     신 *note sni_callback: 18dc.을 사용해야 합니다.  주어진
     'server_name_callback'은 'sni_callback'과 비슷하지만, 서버 호스트 이
     름이 IDN-인코딩된 국제화된 도메인 이름일 때 'server_name_callback'은
     디코딩된 U-레이블(‘"pythön.org"’)을 받습니다.

     If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection
     will terminate with an *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR:
     34ad. fatal TLS alert message to the client.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.load_dh_params (dhfile)

     Diffie-Hellman (DH) 키 교환을 위한 키 생성 매개 변수를 로드합니다.
     DH 키 교환을 사용하면 계산 자원(서버와 클라이언트 모두)을 희생하여
     FS(forward secrecy)를 향상합니다.  'dhfile' 매개 변수는 PEM 형식의
     DH 매개 변수를 포함하는 파일의 경로여야 합니다.

     이 설정은 클라이언트 소켓에는 적용되지 않습니다.  *note
     OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 349c. 옵션을 사용하여 보안을 더 향상할 수도 있습
     니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve (curve_name)

     타원 곡선(Elliptic Curve) 기반 Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) 키 교환을 위한
     곡선 이름을 설정합니다.  보안성에 대한 논란의 여지는 있지만 ECDH는
     일반 DH보다 상당히 빠릅니다.  'curve_name' 매개 변수는 잘 알려진 타
     원 곡선을 설명하는 문자열이어야 합니다, 예를 들어, 널리 지원되는 곡
     선인 ‘prime256v1’.

     이 설정은 클라이언트 소켓에는 적용되지 않습니다.  *note
     OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 349d. 옵션을 사용하여 보안을 더 향상할 수도 있
     습니다.

     *note HAS_ECDH: 34a2.가 ‘False’면 이 메서드를 사용할 수 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     더 보기
     .......

     SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy(12)

          Vincent Bernat.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.wrap_socket (sock, server_side=False,
          do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap an existing Python socket 'sock' and return an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 34c1. (default *note SSLSocket:
     8e7.).  The returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its
     settings and certificates.  'sock' must be a *note SOCK_STREAM:
     12e3. socket; other socket types are unsupported.

     매개 변수 ‘server_side’는 서버 측과 클라이언트 측 동작 중 어느 것이
     소켓에서 필요한지를 식별하는 논릿값입니다.

     클라이언트 측 소켓의 경우, 컨텍스트 구성이 지연됩니다; 하부 소켓이
     아직 연결되어 있지 않으면, ‘connect()’가 소켓에서 호출된 후 컨텍스
     트 생성이 수행됩니다.  서버 측 소켓의 경우, 소켓에 원격 피어가 없으
     면, 리스닝 소켓이라고 가정하고, 서버 측 SSL 감싸기는 ‘accept()’ 메
     서드를 통해 받아들인 클라이언트 연결에 대해 자동으로 수행됩니다.  메
     서드는 *note SSLError: 126a.를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

     클라이언트 연결에서, 선택적 매개 변수 'server_hostname'는 연결하려
     는 서비스의 호스트 이름을 지정합니다.  이를 통해 단일 서버는 HTTP 가
     상 호스트와 매우 흡사하게 서로 다른 인증서로 여러 SSL 기반 서비스를
     호스팅 할 수 있습니다.  'server_side'가 참일 때 'server_hostname'를
     지정하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     매개 변수 ‘do_handshake_on_connect’는 ‘socket.connect()’를 수행한 후
     SSL 핸드 셰이크를 자동으로 수행할지, 또는 응용 프로그램이 *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e65. 메서드를 호출하여 명시적으로 호출할
     지를 지정합니다.  *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e65.를 명시적으로
     호출하면, 핸드 셰이크에 수반되는 소켓 I/O의 블로킹 동작을 프로그램
     에서 제어할 수 있습니다.

     매개 변수 ‘suppress_ragged_eofs’는 ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ 메서드가 연결
     의 다른 끝으로부터의 예기치 않은 EOF를 알리는 방법을 지정합니다.
     *note True: c0a.(기본값)로 지정되면, 하부 소켓에서 발생한 예기치 않
     은 EOF 에러에 대한 응답으로 정상 EOF(빈 바이트열 객체)를 반환합니다
     .  *note False: b34.면 예외를 호출자에게 다시 발생시킵니다.

     'session', *note session: 15b6.을 참조하십시오.

     To wrap an *note SSLSocket: 8e7. in another *note SSLSocket: 8e7,
     use *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b7f.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: OpenSSL에 SNI가 없더라도 항상 server_hostname을
     전달할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'session' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 34c1. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLSocket: 8e7.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.sslsocket_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e, defaults to
     *note SSLSocket: 8e7.  The attribute can be assigned to on
     instances of *note SSLContext: 294. in order to return a custom
     subclass of *note SSLSocket: 8e7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.wrap_bio (incoming, outgoing, server_side=False,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     BIO 객체 'incoming' 과 'outgoing'을 감싸고 *note
     SSLContext.sslobject_class: 34c2.(기본값 *note SSLObject: b7e.)의 인
     스턴스를 반환합니다.  SSL 루틴은 incoming BIO에서 입력 데이터를 읽
     고 outgoing BIO에 데이터를 씁니다.

     'server_side', 'server_hostname' 및 'session' 매개 변수는 *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e.에서와 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'session' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslobject_class: 34c2. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLObject: b7e.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.sslobject_class

     *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b7f.의 반환형, 기본값은 *note
     SSLObject: b7e.입니다.  이 어트리뷰트는 *note SSLObject: b7e.의 사
     용자 정의 서브 클래스를 반환하기 위해 클래스의 인스턴스에서 재정의
     될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.session_stats ()

     Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this
     context.  A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each
     piece of information(13) to their numeric values.  For example,
     here is the total number of hits and misses in the session cache
     since the context was created:

          >>> stats = context.session_stats()
          >>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
          (0, 0)

 -- 속성: SSLContext.check_hostname

     *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e65.에서 피어 인증서의 호스트 이름
     을 일치시킬지 여부.  컨텍스트의 *note verify_mode: 347d.는 *note
     CERT_OPTIONAL: 3490.나 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.로 설정되어야 하며
     , 호스트 이름을 일치시키려면 'server_hostname'을 *note
     wrap_socket(): 51e.로 전달해야 합니다.  호스트 이름 확인을 활성화하
     면 *note verify_mode: 347d.가 *note CERT_NONE: 348f.에서 *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.로 자동 설정됩니다.  호스트 이름 검사가 활성화
     되어 있으면 *note CERT_NONE: 348f.로 다시 설정할 수 없습니다.
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. 프로토콜은 기본적으로 호스트 이름 확
     인을 활성화합니다.  다른 프로토콜의 경우, 호스트 이름 확인을 명시적
     으로 활성화해야 합니다.

     예제:

          import socket, ssl

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2)
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
          context.check_hostname = True
          context.load_default_certs()

          s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
          ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
          ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 호스트 이름 검사가 활성화되고 *note verify_mode:
     347d.가 *note CERT_NONE: 348f.이면 이제 *note verify_mode: 347d.가
     *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.로 자동 변경됩니다.  이전에는 같은 작업이
     *note ValueError: 202.로 실패했을 것입니다.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.keylog_filename

     키 자료가 생성되거나 수신될 때마다, TLS 키를 키로그(keylog) 파일에
     기록합니다.  키로그 파일은 디버깅 목적으로만 설계되었습니다.  파일
     형식은 NSS에 의해 지정되었고 Wireshark과 같은 많은 트래픽 분석기에
     서 사용됩니다.  로그 파일은 덧붙이기 전용 모드로 열립니다.  쓰기는
     스레드 간에 동기화되지만, 프로세스 간에는 동기화되지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.maximum_version

     A *note TLSVersion: 34b0. enum member representing the highest
     supported TLS version.  The value defaults to *note
     TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED: 34b2.  The attribute is read-only for
     protocols other than *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3480, *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e.

     어트리뷰트 *note maximum_version: 86c, *note minimum_version: 86b.
     및 *note SSLContext.options: 832.는 모두 컨텍스트의 지원되는 SSL과
     TLS 버전에 영향을 줍니다.  구현은 부적합한 조합을 방지하지 못합니다
     .  예를 들어, *note options: 832.에 *note OP_NO_TLSv1_2: 349a.가 있
     고 *note maximum_version: 86c.이 *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 34b6.로
     설정된 컨텍스트는 TLS 1.2 연결을 이룰 수 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.minimum_version

     가장 낮은 지원 버전 또는 *note TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED: 34b1.이
     라는 것만 제외하면 *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 86c.과 같습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.num_tickets

     Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e. context.  The setting has no impact on
     TLS 1.0 to 1.2 connections.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.options

     이 컨텍스트에서 활성화된 SSL 옵션 집합을 나타내는 정수.  기본값은
     *note OP_ALL: 3497.이지만, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833.와 같은 다른 옵션
     을 함께 OR로 연결하여 지정할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note SSLContext.options: 832.는 *note Options:
     349f. 플래그를 반환합니다.:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().options
          <Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>

     버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: All ‘OP_NO_SSL*’ and ‘OP_NO_TLS*’ options have
     been deprecated since Python 3.7.  Use *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 86b. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 86c. instead.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth

     TLS 1.3 포스트 핸드 셰이크 클라이언트 인증을 사용합니다.  포스트 핸
     드 셰이크 인증은 기본적으로 사용되지 않으며 서버는 초기 핸드 셰이크
     중에 TLS 클라이언트 인증서만 요청할 수 있습니다.  활성화되면, 서버
     는 핸드 셰이크 후에 언제든지 TLS 클라이언트 인증서를 요청할 수 있습
     니다.

     클라이언트 측 소켓에서 활성화될 때, 클라이언트는 포스트 핸드 셰이크
     인증을 지원하는 서버에 신호를 보냅니다.

     서버 측 소켓에서 활성화될 때, *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 347d.도
     *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3490.이나 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.로 설정해
     야 합니다.  실제 클라이언트 인증서 교환은 *note
     SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a2e.가 호출되고 일부 I/O가
     수행될 때까지 지연됩니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.protocol

     컨텍스트를 구성할 때 선택한 프로토콜 버전.  이 어트리뷰트는 읽기 전
     용입니다.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name

     *note check_hostname: 3491.가 SAN(subject alternative name) 확장이
     없을 때 인증서의 SCN(subject common name)을 유효성 검사하는 것으로
     폴백 할지 아닐지 (기본값: 참)

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The flag had no effect with OpenSSL before
     version 1.1.1l.  Python 3.8.9, 3.9.3, and 3.10 include workarounds
     for previous versions.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.security_level

     An integer representing the security level(14) for the context.
     This attribute is read-only.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 속성: SSLContext.verify_flags

     The flags for certificate verification operations.  You can set
     flags like *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: fa7. by ORing them
     together.  By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify
     certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note SSLContext.verify_flags: fa5.는 *note
     VerifyFlags: 3494. 플래그를 반환합니다.:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags
          <VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>

 -- 속성: SSLContext.verify_mode

     다른 피어의 인증서를 확인할지와 확인이 실패할 때 어떻게 해야 하는지
     를 나타냅니다.  이 어트리뷰트는 *note CERT_NONE: 348f, *note
     CERT_OPTIONAL: 3490. 또는 *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e. 중 하나여야 합
     니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 347d.는 *note
     VerifyMode: 3492. 열거형을 반환합니다.:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
          <VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_psk_client_callback (callback)

     Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a client-side
     connection.

     In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred
     over this method.

     The parameter ‘callback’ is a callable object with the signature:
     ‘def callback(hint: str | None) -> tuple[str | None, bytes]’.  The
     ‘hint’ parameter is an optional identity hint sent by the server.
     The return value is a tuple in the form (client-identity, psk).
     Client-identity is an optional string which may be used by the
     server to select a corresponding PSK for the client.  The string
     must be less than or equal to ‘256’ octets when UTF-8 encoded.  PSK
     is a *note bytes-like object: d2a. representing the pre-shared key.
     Return a zero length PSK to reject the connection.

     Setting ‘callback’ to *note None: 66f. removes any existing
     callback.

          참고: When using TLS 1.3:

             - the ‘hint’ parameter is always *note None: 66f.

             - client-identity must be a non-empty string.

     Example usage:

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
          context.check_hostname = False
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_NONE
          context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
          context.set_ciphers('PSK')

          # A simple lambda:
          psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
          context.set_psk_client_callback(lambda hint: (None, psk))

          # A table using the hint from the server:
          psk_table = { 'ServerId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
                        'ServerId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
          }
          def callback(hint):
              return 'ClientId_1', psk_table.get(hint, b'')
          context.set_psk_client_callback(callback)

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 228. if *note
     HAS_PSK: 34aa. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: SSLContext.set_psk_server_callback (callback,
          identity_hint=None)

     Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a server-side
     connection.

     In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred
     over this method.

     The parameter ‘callback’ is a callable object with the signature:
     ‘def callback(identity: str | None) -> bytes’.  The ‘identity’
     parameter is an optional identity sent by the client which can be
     used to select a corresponding PSK. The return value is a *note
     bytes-like object: d2a. representing the pre-shared key.  Return a
     zero length PSK to reject the connection.

     Setting ‘callback’ to *note None: 66f. removes any existing
     callback.

     The parameter ‘identity_hint’ is an optional identity hint string
     sent to the client.  The string must be less than or equal to ‘256’
     octets when UTF-8 encoded.

          참고: When using TLS 1.3 the ‘identity_hint’ parameter is not
          sent to the client.

     Example usage:

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
          context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
          context.set_ciphers('PSK')

          # A simple lambda:
          psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
          context.set_psk_server_callback(lambda identity: psk)

          # A table using the identity of the client:
          psk_table = { 'ClientId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
                        'ClientId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
          }
          def callback(identity):
              return psk_table.get(identity, b'')
          context.set_psk_server_callback(callback, 'ServerId_1')

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 228. if *note
     HAS_PSK: 34aa. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) TLS 1.3 프로토콜은 OpenSSL >= 1.1.1에서 *note PROTOCOL_TLS:
3480.로 사용할 수 있습니다.  TLS 1.3만을 위한 전용 PROTOCOL 상수는 없습
니다.

   (2) *note SSLContext: 294.는 기본적으로 *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833.로
SSLv2를 비활성화합니다.

   (3) *note SSLContext: 294.는 기본적으로 *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 834.으로
SSLv3을 비활성화합니다.

   (4) TLS 1.3 프로토콜은 OpenSSL >= 1.1.1에서 *note PROTOCOL_TLS:
3480.로 사용할 수 있습니다.  TLS 1.3만을 위한 전용 PROTOCOL 상수는 없습
니다.

   (5) *note SSLContext: 294.는 기본적으로 *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 833.로
SSLv2를 비활성화합니다.

   (6) *note SSLContext: 294.는 기본적으로 *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 834.으로
SSLv3을 비활성화합니다.

   (7) 
https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/

   (8) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (10) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (12) 
https://vincent.bernat.ch/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy

   (13) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/

   (14) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/


File: python.info,  Node: 인증서,  Next: 예제<19>,  Prev: SSL 컨텍스트,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.10 인증서
................

인증서는 일반적으로 공개키/개인키 시스템 일부입니다.  이 시스템에서, 각
'주체(principal)'(시스템, 사람 또는 조직일 수 있습니다)에게는 고유한 두
부분으로 된 암호화 키가 지정됩니다.  열쇠의 한 부분은 공개(public)며, '공
개키(public key)'라고 불립니다; 다른 부분은 비밀로 유지되며, '개인키
(private key)'라고 합니다.  두 부분은 관련이 있습니다.  두 부분 중 하나
를 사용하여 메시지를 암호화하면, 다른 부분으로 해독할 수 있고, '오직' 다
른 부분으로만 해독할 수 있습니다.

인증서에는 두 주체에 대한 정보가 들어 있습니다.  '주체(subject)'의 이름
과 주체의 공개키가 들어 있습니다.  또한 '발행자(issuer)'라는 두 번째 주
체의 진술을 포함하는데, 해당 주체(subject)는 자신이 주장하는 존재며, 실
제로 공개키 또한 주체(subject)의 것이 맞는다는 내용입니다.  발행자의 진
술은 발행자만이 알고 있는 발행자의 개인키로 서명됩니다.  그러나 누구든지
발행자의 공개키를 찾고 이를 사용하여 진술을 해독하고 인증서의 다른 정보
와 비교함으로써 발행자의 진술을 확인할 수 있습니다.  또한, 인증서에는 유
효 기간에 대한 정보가 들어 있습니다.  이것은 “notBefore”와 “notAfter”라
고 하는 두 개의 필드로 표현됩니다.

파이썬에서 인증서를 사용할 때, 클라이언트나 서버는 인증서를 사용하여 자
신이 누구인지 증명할 수 있습니다.  네트워크 연결의 다른 쪽은 인증서 생성
을 요구받을 수도 있으며, 해당 인증서는 이러한 유효성 검사가 필요한 클라
이언트나 서버를 만족하도록 유효성을 검사할 수 있습니다.  유효성 검증이 실
패하면 연결 시도가 예외를 발생시키도록 설정할 수 있습니다.  유효성 검사
는 하부 OpenSSL 프레임워크에 의해 자동으로 수행됩니다; 응용 프로그램은 그
메커니즘에 관심을 두지 않아도 됩니다.  그러나 응용 프로그램은 일반적으로
이 절차를 수행할 수 있도록 인증서 집합을 제공해야 합니다.

파이썬은 인증서를 포함하기 위해 파일을 사용합니다.  그들은 “PEM”( RFC
1422(1)를 참조하세요)으로 포맷해야 합니다.  머릿줄과 꼬리 줄로 감싼
base-64 로 인코딩된 형식입니다:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----

* Menu:

* 인증서 체인::
* CA 인증서::
* 결합한 키와 인증서::
* 자체 서명 인증서::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html


File: python.info,  Node: 인증서 체인,  Next: CA 인증서,  Up: 인증서

5.19.3.11 인증서 체인
.....................

인증서를 포함하는 파이썬 파일에는 인증서 시퀀스가 포함될 수 있는데, 때로
'인증서 체인(*certificate chain)'이라고 부릅니다.  이 체인은 클라이언트
또는 서버 “당사자” 주체에 대한 특정 인증서로 시작해야 하며, 그다음에 그
인증서의 발행자에 대한 인증서가 오고, 그다음에 '직전' 인증서 발행자에 대
한 인증서가 오는 식으로 이어지다가, 결국에는 '자체 서명(self-signed)' 인
증서를 얻게 되는데, 주체와 발행자가 같은 인증서로 때로 '루트 인증서'라고
도 부릅니다.  인증서는 인증서 파일에 함께 이어붙여야 합니다.  예를 들어,
서버 인증서에서 서버 인증서에 서명한 인증 기관의 인증서를 거쳐 인증 기관
의 인증서를 발행한 기관의 루트 인증서에 이르는 세 개의 인증서 체인이 있
다고 가정합시다:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate for your server)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the certificate for the CA)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: CA 인증서,  Next: 결합한 키와 인증서,  Prev: 인증서 체인,  Up: 인증서

5.19.3.12 CA 인증서
...................

연결의 반대편의 인증서의 유효성 검사가 필요하면, 신뢰할 수 있는 각 발행
자의 인증서 체인으로 채워진 “CA 인증서” 파일을 제공해야 합니다.  다시 말
하지만, 이 파일은 단지 이러한 체인들을 함께 이어붙인 것입니다.  유효성 검
사를 위해, 파이썬은 일치하는 파일에서 찾은 첫 번째 체인을 사용합니다.  플
랫폼의 인증서 파일은 *note SSLContext.load_default_certs(): fa9.를 호출
하여 사용할 수 있습니다, 이는 *note create_default_context(): 155.로 자
동으로 수행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 결합한 키와 인증서,  Next: 자체 서명 인증서,  Prev: CA 인증서,  Up: 인증서

5.19.3.13 결합한 키와 인증서
............................

Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in
this case, only the ‘certfile’ parameter to *note
SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 295. needs to be passed.  If the private
key is stored with the certificate, it should come before the first
certificate in the certificate chain:

     -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     ... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
     -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: 자체 서명 인증서,  Prev: 결합한 키와 인증서,  Up: 인증서

5.19.3.14 자체 서명 인증서
..........................

SSL-암호화된 연결 서비스를 제공하는 서버를 만들려면, 해당 서비스에 대한
인증서를 얻어야 합니다.  인증 기관에서 사는 등 다양한 방법으로 적절한 인
증서를 얻을 수 있습니다.  또 다른 일반적인 관행은 자체 서명 인증서를 생
성하는 것입니다.  이렇게 하는 가장 간단한 방법은 OpenSSL 패키지에서 다음
과 같은 방법을 사용하는 것입니다:

     % openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
     Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
     .......++++++
     .............................++++++
     writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
     -----
     You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
     into your certificate request.
     What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
     There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
     For some fields there will be a default value,
     If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
     -----
     Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
     State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
     Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
     Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
     Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
     Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     %

자체 서명 인증서의 단점은 그 자신이 루트 인증서이고, 아무도 그들의 알려
진(그리고 신뢰할 수 있는) 루트 인증서의 캐시에 이 인증서를 갖고 있지 않
다는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<19>,  Next: 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항,  Prev: 인증서,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.15 예제
..............

* Menu:

* SSL 지원 검사하기::
* 클라이언트 측 연산::
* 서버 측 연산::


File: python.info,  Node: SSL 지원 검사하기,  Next: 클라이언트 측 연산,  Up: 예제<19>

5.19.3.16 SSL 지원 검사하기
...........................

파이썬 설치에 SSL 지원이 있는지를 검사하려면, 사용자 코드는 다음과 같은
관용구를 사용해야 합니다:

     try:
         import ssl
     except ImportError:
         pass
     else:
         ...  # do something that requires SSL support


File: python.info,  Node: 클라이언트 측 연산,  Next: 서버 측 연산,  Prev: SSL 지원 검사하기,  Up: 예제<19>

5.19.3.17 클라이언트 측 연산
............................

이 예제는 자동 인증서 확인을 포함하여 클라이언트 소켓에 대해 권장되는 보
안 설정을 사용하여 SSL 컨텍스트를 만듭니다:

     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()

보안 설정을 직접 조정하려면, 처음부터 컨텍스트를 만들 수 있습니다 (그러
나 올바른 설정을 얻지 못할 수도 있습니다):

     >>> context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")

(이 코드 조각은 운영 체제가 모든 CA 인증서 번들을
‘/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt’에 배치한다고 가정합니다; 그렇지 않으면, 에
러가 발생하고 위치를 조정해야 합니다)

*note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. 프로토콜은 인증서 유효성 검사와 호스트 이
름 확인을 위한 컨텍스트를 구성합니다.  *note verify_mode: 347d.는 *note
CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.로 설정되고 *note check_hostname: 3491.는 ‘True’로 설
정됩니다.  다른 모든 프로토콜은 안전하지 않은 기본값으로 SSL 컨텍스트를
만듭니다.

컨텍스트를 사용하여 서버에 연결할 때, *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.와 *note
check_hostname: 3491.은 서버 인증서의 유효성을 검사합니다: 서버 인증서가
CA 인증서 중 하나를 사용하여 서명되었는지 확인하고, 서명의 정확성을 검사
하고, 호스트 이름의 유효성과 아이덴티티와 같은 다른 속성을 확인합니다:

     >>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
     ...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
     >>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))

그런 다음 인증서를 가져올 수 있습니다:

     >>> cert = conn.getpeercert()

시각적인 검사는 인증서가 원하는 서비스(즉, HTTPS 호스트
‘www.python.org’)를 식별함을 보여줍니다:

     >>> pprint.pprint(cert)
     {'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
      'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
      'crlDistributionPoints': ('http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
                                'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl'),
      'issuer': ((('countryName', 'US'),),
                 (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
                 (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
                 (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),)),
      'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
      'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
      'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
      'subject': ((('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
                  (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
                  (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
                  (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
                  (('countryName', 'US'),),
                  (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
                  (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro'),),
                  (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
                  (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),)),
      'subjectAltName': (('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'id.python.org')),
      'version': 3}

이제 SSL 채널이 설정되고 인증서가 확인되었습니다, 서버와 대화할 수 있습
니다:

     >>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
     >>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
     [b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
      b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
      b'Server: nginx',
      b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
      b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
      b'Content-Length: 45679',
      b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
      b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
      b'Age: 2188',
      b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
      b'X-Cache: HIT',
      b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
      b'Vary: Cookie',
      b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
      b'Connection: close',
      b'',
      b'']

아래의 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.의 논의를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 서버 측 연산,  Prev: 클라이언트 측 연산,  Up: 예제<19>

5.19.3.18 서버 측 연산
......................

서버 연산의 경우, 일반적으로 서버 인증서와 개인 키가 각각 파일에 있어야
합니다.  먼저 클라이언트가 여러분의 신원을 확인할 수 있도록 키와 인증서
가 있는 컨텍스트를 만듭니다.  그런 다음 소켓을 열고, 포트에 바인드 하고,
‘listen()’을 호출한 다음 클라이언트가 연결하기를 기다립니다:

     import socket, ssl

     context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
     context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")

     bindsocket = socket.socket()
     bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.example.com', 10023))
     bindsocket.listen(5)

클라이언트가 연결하면, 소켓에서 ‘accept()’를 호출하여 다른 쪽 끝과 연결
된 새 소켓을 얻고, 컨텍스트의 *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 51e. 메서
드를 사용하여 연결을 위한 서버 측 SSL 소켓을 만듭니다.:

     while True:
         newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
         connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
         try:
             deal_with_client(connstream)
         finally:
             connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
             connstream.close()

그런 다음 ‘connstream’에서 데이터를 읽고 클라이언트와 작업을 마칠 때까지
(또는 클라이언트가 마칠 때까지) 뭔가 합니다:

     def deal_with_client(connstream):
         data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # empty data means the client is finished with us
         while data:
             if not do_something(connstream, data):
                 # we'll assume do_something returns False
                 # when we're finished with client
                 break
             data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # finished with client

그리고는 새로운 클라이언트 연결을 리스닝하는 것으로 돌아갑니다 (물론, 실
제 서버는 별도의 스레드에서 각 클라이언트 연결을 처리하거나 소켓을 *note
비 블로킹 모드: 3483.로 만들고 이벤트 루프를 사용합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항,  Next: 메모리 BIO 지원<2>,  Prev: 예제<19>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.19 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항
.........................................

SSL 소켓은 비 블로킹 모드에서 일반 소켓과 약간 다르게 작동합니다.  비 블
로킹 소켓으로 작업할 때 주의해야 할 몇 가지 사항이 있습니다:

   - 대부분 *note SSLSocket: 8e7. 메서드는 I/O 연산이 블록하려고 할 때
     *note BlockingIOError: 104d. 대신 *note SSLWantWriteError: e62. 나
     *note SSLWantReadError: e61.를 발생시킵니다.  하부 소켓에서의 읽기
     연산이 필요하면 *note SSLWantReadError: e61.가 발생하고, 하부 소켓
     에서의 쓰기 연산이 필요하면 *note SSLWantWriteError: e62.가 발생합
     니다.  SSL 소켓에 대한 '쓰기' 시도는 우선 하부 소켓에서 '읽기'가 필
     요할 수 있으며, SSL 소켓에서 '읽기'를 시도하면 하부 소켓에서 선행
     '쓰기'가 필요할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이전 파이썬 버전에서는, ‘SSLSocket.send()’ 메서
     드가 *note SSLWantWriteError: e62. 나 *note SSLWantReadError: e61.를
     발생시키는 대신 0을 반환했습니다.

   - *note select(): d9c.를 호출하면 OS-수준 소켓을 읽을 수 있음을 (또는
     쓸 수 있음을) 알려줄 수 있습니다만, 이것이 상위 SSL 계층에 충분한 데
     이터가 있음을 의미하지는 않습니다.  예를 들어, SSL 프레임의 일부만
     도착했을 수 있습니다.  따라서, ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ 와
     ‘SSLSocket.send()’ 실패를 처리할 준비가 되어 있어야 하며, *note
     select(): d9c.를 다시 호출한 후 재시도해야 합니다.

   - 반대로, SSL 계층에는 자체 프레임이 있으므로, SSL 소켓에는 *note
     select(): d9c.가 인식하지 못하더라도 읽을 수 있는 데이터가 있을 수
     있습니다.  따라서, 먼저 ‘SSLSocket.recv()’를 호출하여 잠재적으로 사
     용 가능한 모든 데이터를 꺼낸 다음, 여전히 필요할 때만 *note
     select(): d9c. 호출에 블록해야 합니다.

     (물론, *note poll(): 2bc1. 이나 *note selectors: c2. 모듈에 있는 것
     과 같은 다른 프리미티브를 사용할 때도 비슷한 조항이 적용됩니다)

   - SSL 핸드 셰이크 자체는 비 블로킹입니다: *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e65. 메서드는 성공적으로 반환될 때까지 재
     시도해야 합니다.  다음은 *note select(): d9c.를 사용하여 소켓의 준
     비 상태를 기다리는 개요입니다:

          while True:
              try:
                  sock.do_handshake()
                  break
              except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
                  select.select([sock], [], [])
              except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
                  select.select([], [sock], [])

더 보기
.......

The *note asyncio: a. module supports *note non-blocking SSL sockets:
3483. and provides a higher level *note Streams API: 329e.  It polls for
events using the *note selectors: c2. module and handles *note
SSLWantWriteError: e62, *note SSLWantReadError: e61. and *note
BlockingIOError: 104d. exceptions.  It runs the SSL handshake
asynchronously as well.


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 BIO 지원<2>,  Next: SSL 세션,  Prev: 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.20 메모리 BIO 지원
.........................

Added in version 3.5.

SSL 모듈이 파이썬 2.6에서 소개된 이래로, *note SSLSocket: 8e7. 클래스는
관련성이 있지만, 별개의 두 기능 영역을 제공했습니다:

   - SSL 프로토콜 처리

   - 네트워크 IO

네트워크 IO API는 *note socket.socket: d9d.가 제공하는 것과 같으며,
*note SSLSocket: 8e7.는 그 것을 상속합니다.  이렇게해서 SSL 소켓을 일반
소켓의 드롭 인 대체품으로 사용할 수 있으므로, 기존 응용 프로그램에 SSL 지
원을 쉽게 추가 할 수 있습니다.

SSL 프로토콜 처리와 네트워크 IO의 결합은 일반적으로 잘 작동하지만, 그렇
지 않은 경우도 있습니다.  *note socket.socket: d9d. 과 내부 OpenSSL 소켓
IO 루틴이 가정하는 “파일 기술자에 대한 select/poll” (준비 상태 기반) 모
델과 다른 IO 멀티플렉싱 모델을 사용하려는 비동기 IO 프레임워크가 그 예입
니다.  이것은 주로 이 모델이 효율적이지 않은 윈도우와 같은 플랫폼과 관련
이 있습니다.  이를 위해, *note SSLObject: b7e.라는 *note SSLSocket:
8e7.의 축소된 범위 변형이 제공됩니다.

 -- 클래스: ssl.SSLObject

     네트워크 IO 메서드를 포함하지 않는 SSL 프로토콜 인스턴스를 나타내는
     *note SSLSocket: 8e7.의 축소 범위 변형입니다.  이 클래스는 일반적으
     로 메모리 버퍼를 통해 SSL 용 비동기 IO를 구현하려는 프레임워크 작성
     자가 사용합니다.

     이 클래스는 OpenSSL에 의해 구현된 저수준 SSL 객체 위에 인터페이스를
     구현합니다.  이 객체는 SSL 연결의 상태를 캡처하지만, 네트워크 IO 자
     체를 제공하지는 않습니다.  IO는 OpenSSL의 IO 추상화 계층인 별도의
     “BIO” 객체를 통해 수행되어야 합니다.

     이 클래스에는 공개된 생성자가 없습니다.  *note SSLObject: b7e. 인스
     턴스는 *note wrap_bio(): b7f. 메서드를 사용해서 만들어야 합니다.  이
     메서드는 *note SSLObject: b7e. 인스턴스를 생성하고 BIO 쌍에 연결합
     니다.  'incoming' BIO는 파이썬에서 SSL 프로토콜 인스턴스로 데이터를
     전달하는 데 사용되는 반면, 'outgoing' BIO는 반대 방향으로 데이터를
     전달하는 데 사용됩니다.

     다음 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니다:

        - *note context: 34ba.

        - *note server_side: 34bc.

        - *note server_hostname: b7c.

        - *note session: 15b6.

        - *note session_reused: 34bd.

        - *note read(): e66.

        - *note write(): e67.

        - *note getpeercert(): faf.

        - *note get_verified_chain(): 15e4.

        - *note get_unverified_chain(): 15e5.

        - *note selected_alpn_protocol(): e5d.

        - *note selected_npn_protocol(): 86f.

        - *note cipher(): 33b3.

        - *note shared_ciphers(): e64.

        - *note compression(): 1136.

        - *note pending(): 34bb.

        - *note do_handshake(): e65.

        - *note verify_client_post_handshake(): a2e.

        - *note unwrap(): 34b9.

        - *note get_channel_binding(): 1135.

        - *note version(): e60.

     *note SSLSocket: 8e7.와 비교할 때, 이 객체에는 다음과 같은 기능이 없
     습니다:

        - 모든 형태의 네트워크 IO; ‘recv()’ 와 ‘send()’는 하부 *note
          MemoryBIO: e5a. 버퍼만 읽고 씁니다.

        - 'do_handshake_on_connect' 기작이 없습니다.  핸드 셰이크를 시작
          하려면 항상 *note do_handshake(): e65.를 수동으로 호출해야 합
          니다.

        - 'suppress_ragged_eofs'는 처리되지 않습니다.  프로토콜을 위반하
          는 모든 파일 끝(end-of-file) 조건은 *note SSLEOFError: 174e. 예
          외를 통해 보고됩니다.

        - 메서드 *note unwrap(): 34b9. 호출은 하부 소켓을 반환하는 SSL 소
          켓과 달리 아무것도 반환하지 않습니다.

        - *note SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fae.에 전달된
          'server_name_callback' 콜백은 첫 번째 매개 변수로 *note
          SSLSocket: 8e7. 인스턴스 대신 *note SSLObject: b7e. 인스턴스를
          받습니다.

     *note SSLObject: b7e. 사용과 관련된 몇 가지 참고 사항:

        - *note SSLObject: b7e.의 모든 IO는 *note 비 블로킹: 3483.입니다
          .  이것은 예를 들어 *note read(): e66.는 incoming BIO에 있는 것
          보다 많은 데이터가 필요하면 *note SSLWantReadError: e61.를 발
          생시킨다는 것을 의미합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note SSLObject: b7e. instances must be created
     with *note wrap_bio(): b7f.  In earlier versions, it was possible
     to create instances directly.  This was never documented or
     officially supported.

SSLObject는 메모리 버퍼를 사용하여 바깥세상과 통신합니다.  *note
MemoryBIO: e5a. 클래스는 이 목적으로 사용할 수 있는 메모리 버퍼를 제공합
니다.  OpenSSL 메모리 BIO (Basic IO) 객체를 감쌉니다:

 -- 클래스: ssl.MemoryBIO

     파이썬과 SSL 프로토콜 인스턴스 간에 데이터를 전달하는 데 사용할 수
     있는 메모리 버퍼.

      -- 속성: pending

          현재 메모리 버퍼에 있는 바이트의 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 속성: eof

          메모리 BIO가 현재 EOF(end-of-file) 위치에 있는지를 나타내는 논
          릿값입니다.

      -- 메서드: read (n=-1)

          메모리 버퍼에서 최대 'n' 바이트를 읽습니다.  'n'이 지정되지 않
          았거나 음수면, 모든 바이트가 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: write (buf)

          'buf'의 바이트를 메모리 BIO에 씁니다.  'buf' 인자는 버퍼 프로
          토콜을 지원하는 객체여야 합니다.

          반환 값은 기록된 바이트 수인데, 항상 'buf'의 길이와 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: write_eof ()

          EOF 마커를 메모리 BIO에 씁니다.  이 메서드가 호출된 후, *note
          write(): 34d7.를 호출하는 것은 불법입니다.  *note eof: 34d5. 어
          트리뷰트는 현재 버퍼에 있는 모든 데이터를 읽은 후에 참이 됩니
          다.


File: python.info,  Node: SSL 세션,  Next: 보안 고려 사항<3>,  Prev: 메모리 BIO 지원<2>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.21 SSL 세션
..................

Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: ssl.SSLSession

     *note session: 15b6.에서 사용되는 세션 객체.

      -- 속성: id

      -- 속성: time

      -- 속성: timeout

      -- 속성: ticket_lifetime_hint

      -- 속성: has_ticket


File: python.info,  Node: 보안 고려 사항<3>,  Next: TLS 1 3,  Prev: SSL 세션,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.22 보안 고려 사항
........................

* Menu:

* 가장 좋은 기본값::
* 수동 설정::
* 다중 프로세싱::


File: python.info,  Node: 가장 좋은 기본값,  Next: 수동 설정,  Up: 보안 고려 사항<3>

5.19.3.23 가장 좋은 기본값
..........................

'클라이언트'의 경우, 보안 정책에 대한 특별한 요구 사항이 없으면, *note
create_default_context(): 155. 함수를 사용하여 SSL 컨텍스트를 만드는 것
이 좋습니다.  시스템의 신뢰할 수 있는 CA 인증서를 로드하고, 인증서 유효
성 검사와 호스트 이름 검사를 활성화하고, 합리적으로 안전한 프로토콜과 사
이퍼 설정을 선택합니다.

예를 들어, 다음은 *note smtplib.SMTP: 92b. 클래스를 사용하여 SMTP 서버에
대한 신뢰할 수 있고 안전한 연결을 만드는 방법입니다:

     >>> import ssl, smtplib
     >>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
     >>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
     (220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')

연결에 클라이언트 인증서가 필요하면, *note SSLContext.load_cert_chain():
295.으로 추가할 수 있습니다.

대조적으로, *note SSLContext: 294. 생성자를 직접 호출하여 SSL 컨텍스트를
만들면, 기본적으로 인증서 유효성 검사나 호스트 이름 확인이 활성화되지 않
습니다.  그렇게 하면, 아래 단락을 읽고 적절한 보안 수준을 달성하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 수동 설정,  Next: 다중 프로세싱,  Prev: 가장 좋은 기본값,  Up: 보안 고려 사항<3>

5.19.3.24 수동 설정
...................

* Menu:

* 인증서 확인::
* 프로토콜 버전::
* 사이퍼 선택::


File: python.info,  Node: 인증서 확인,  Next: 프로토콜 버전,  Up: 수동 설정

5.19.3.25 인증서 확인
.....................

When calling the *note SSLContext: 294. constructor directly, *note
CERT_NONE: 348f. is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the
other peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of
the time you would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you’re
talking to.  Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to
use *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.  However, it is in itself not sufficient;
you also have to check that the server certificate, which can be
obtained by calling *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): faf, matches the
desired service.  For many protocols and applications, the service can
be identified by the hostname.  This common check is automatically
performed when *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491. is enabled.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 호스트 이름 일치가 OpenSSL에 의해 수행됩니다.  파
이썬은 더는 ‘match_hostname()’을 사용하지 않습니다.

서버 모드에서, (고수준 인증 메커니즘을 사용하는 대신) SSL 계층을 사용하
여 클라이언트를 인증하려면, *note CERT_REQUIRED: 347e.를 지정하고 클라이
언트 인증서도 비슷하게 확인해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로토콜 버전,  Next: 사이퍼 선택,  Prev: 인증서 확인,  Up: 수동 설정

5.19.3.26 프로토콜 버전
.......................

SSL 버전 2와 3은 안전하지 않은 것으로 간주하므로 사용하기에 위험합니다.
클라이언트와 서버 간에 최대한의 호환성을 원하면 프로토콜 버전으로 *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. 나 *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 86e.를 사용하는
것이 좋습니다.  SSLv2 및 SSLv3은 기본적으로 비활성화되어 있습니다.

     >>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
     >>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if
supported by your system) connections to a server.  *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86d. implies certificate validation and hostname
checks by default.  You have to load certificates into the context.


File: python.info,  Node: 사이퍼 선택,  Prev: 프로토콜 버전,  Up: 수동 설정

5.19.3.27 사이퍼 선택
.....................

If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the *note
SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 34c0. method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want to
further restrict the cipher choice.  Be sure to read OpenSSL’s
documentation about the cipher list format(1).  If you want to check
which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use *note
SSLContext.get_ciphers(): cdb. or the ‘openssl ciphers’ command on your
system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format


File: python.info,  Node: 다중 프로세싱,  Prev: 수동 설정,  Up: 보안 고려 사항<3>

5.19.3.28 다중 프로세싱
.......................

If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
for example the *note multiprocessing: 94. or *note concurrent.futures:
21. modules), be aware that OpenSSL’s internal random number generator
does not properly handle forked processes.  Applications must change the
PRNG state of the parent process if they use any SSL feature with *note
os.fork(): 197.  Any successful call of *note RAND_add(): 3489. or *note
RAND_bytes(): 51d. is sufficient.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 1 3,  Prev: 보안 고려 사항<3>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.19.3.29 TLS 1.3
.................

Added in version 3.7.

The TLS 1.3 protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.

   - TLS 1.3은 분리된 사이퍼 스위트 집합을 사용합니다.  모든 AES-GCM과
     ChaCha20 사이퍼 스위트는 기본적으로 활성화되어 있습니다.  *note
     SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 34c0. 메서드는 아직 TLS 1.3 사이퍼를 활성
     화하거나 비활성화할 수 없지만, *note SSLContext.get_ciphers():
     cdb.는 이들을 반환합니다.

   - 세션 티켓은 더는 초기 핸드 셰이크의 일부로 전송되지 않고 다르게 처
     리됩니다.  *note SSLSocket.session: 15b6. 과 *note SSLSession:
     cda.은 TLS 1.3과 호환되지 않습니다.

   - 클라이언트 측 인증서도 더는 초기 핸드 셰이크 중에 검증되지 않습니다
     .  서버는 언제든지 인증서를 요청할 수 있습니다.  클라이언트는 서버
     와 응용 프로그램 데이터를 주고받는 동안 인증서 요청을 처리합니다.

   - 초기 데이터(early data), 지연된 TLS 클라이언트 인증서 요청, 서명 알
     고리즘 구성 및 rekeying과 같은 TLS 1.3 기능은 아직 지원되지 않습니
     다.

더 보기
.......

*note socket.socket: d9d. 클래스

     하부 *note socket: cc. 클래스의 설명서

SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction(1)

     Apache HTTP 서버 설명서의 개요

RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management(2)

     Steve Kent

RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security(3)

     Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller

RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile(4)

     D. Cooper

RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2(5)

     T. Dierks et.  al.

RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions(6)

     D. Eastlake

IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters(7)

     IANA

RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)(8)

     IETF

모질라의 서버 측 TLS 추천(9)

     Mozilla

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4086.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (7) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7525.html

   (9) https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS


File: python.info,  Node: select — I/O 완료 대기,  Next: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화,  Prev: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.4 ‘select’ — I/O 완료 대기
-------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 대부분의 운영 체제에서 사용 가능한 ‘select()’와 ‘poll()’ 함수,
Solaris와 파생 제품에서 사용 가능한 ‘devpoll()’, 리눅스 2.5+ 에서 사용 가
능한 ‘epoll()’ 및 대부분의 BSD에서 사용 가능한 ‘kqueue()’에 대한 액세스
를 제공합니다.  윈도우에서는 소켓에서만 작동함에 유의하십시오; 다른 운영
체제에서는, 다른 파일 유형에서도 작동합니다 (특히, 유닉스에서는 파이프에
서도 작동합니다).  일반 파일에서 파일을 마지막으로 읽은 이후에 파일이 커
졌는지를 판별하기 위해 사용할 수는 없습니다.

     참고: *note selectors: c2. 모듈은 *note select: c1. 모듈 프리미티브
     에 기반한 고수준의 효율적인 I/O 멀티플렉싱을 제공합니다.  사용되는
     OS 수준 프리미티브에 대한 정확한 제어를 원하지 않는 한, 사용자는
     *note selectors: c2. 모듈을 대신 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

모듈은 다음을 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: select.error

     *note OSError: 411.의 폐지된 별칭.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: PEP 3151(1)에 따라, 이 클래스는 *note OSError:
     411.의 별칭이 되었습니다.

 -- 함수: select.devpoll ()

     (Solaris와 파생 제품에서만 지원됩니다.)  ‘/dev/poll’ 폴링(polling)
     객체를 반환합니다; devpoll 객체가 지원하는 메서드에 대해서는 아래의
     *note /dev/poll 폴링 객체: 34e9. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     ‘devpoll()’ 객체는 인스턴스 화 시점에 허용되는 파일 기술자 수에 연
     결됩니다.  프로그램이 이 값을 줄이면, ‘devpoll()’이 실패합니다.  프
     로그램이 이 값을 늘리면, ‘devpoll()’은 불완전한 활성 파일 기술자 리
     스트를 반환할 수 있습니다.

     새 파일 기술자는 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

 -- 함수: select.epoll (sizehint=-1, flags=0)

     (리눅스 2.5.44 이상에서만 지원됩니다.)  I/O 이벤트를 위한 에지
     (Edge)나 레벨(Level) 트리거 되는 인터페이스로 사용할 수 있는 에지 폴
     링 객체를 반환합니다.

     'sizehint'는 epoll에 등록될 예상 이벤트 수를 알려줍니다.  양수이거
     나, 기본값을 사용하려면 ‘-1’이어야 합니다.  ‘epoll_create1()’을 사
     용할 수 없는 구형 시스템에서만 사용됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 효과가 없
     습니다 (값을 여전히 확인하기는 합니다).

     'flags'는 폐지되었고 완전히 무시됩니다.  그러나, 제공되면, 값은
     ‘0’이나 ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’여야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면
     ‘OSError’가 발생합니다.

     epolling 객체가 지원하는 메서드는 아래의 *note 에지와 레벨 트리거
     폴링 (epoll) 객체: 34ea. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     ‘epoll’ 객체는 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜을 지원합니다: *note with:
     5cc. 문에서 사용될 때, 새 파일 기술자는 블록 끝에서 자동으로 닫힙니
     다.

     새 파일 기술자는 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'flags' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .  새로운 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

     버전 3.4부터 폐지됨: 'flags' 매개 변수.  이제 기본적으로
     ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’가 사용됩니다.  파일 기술자를 상속 가능하게 하
     려면 *note os.set_inheritable(): ef3.을 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: select.poll ()

     (모든 운영 체제에서 지원되는 것은 아닙니다.)  파일 기술자 등록과 등
     록 해지를 지원하고 그런 다음 I/O 이벤트에 대해 폴링하는 폴링 객체를
     반환합니다; 폴링 객체가 지원하는 메서드에 대해서는 아래의 *note 폴링
     객체: 34eb. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: select.kqueue ()

     (BSD에서만 지원됩니다.)  커널 큐 객체를 반환합니다; kqueue 객체가 지
     원하는 메서드에 대해서는 아래의 *note Kqueue 객체: 34ec. 섹션을 참
     조하십시오.

     새 파일 기술자는 *note 상속 불가능: ef1.합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 새 파일 기술자는 이제 상속 불가능합니다.

 -- 함수: select.kevent (ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ, flags=KQ_EV_ADD,
          fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)

     (BSD에서만 지원됩니다.)  커널 이벤트 객체를 반환합니다.  kevent 객
     체가 지원하는 메서드에 대해서는 아래의 *note Kevent 객체: 34ee. 섹
     션을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: select.select (rlist, wlist, xlist[, timeout])

     이것은 유닉스 ‘select()’ 시스템 호출에 대한 간단한 인터페이스입니다
     .  처음 세 개의 인자는 ‘대기 가능한 객체(waitable objects)’의 이터
     러블입니다: 대기 가능한 객체는 파일 기술자를 나타내는 정수나 그런 정
     수를 반환하는 *note fileno(): 285e.라는 매개 변수 없는 메서드를 가
     진 객체입니다:

        * 'rlist': 읽을 준비가 될 때까지 기다립니다

        * 'wlist': 쓰기 준비가 될 때까지 기다립니다

        * 'xlist': “예외 조건”을 기다립니다 (시스템에서 어떤 것들을 이러
          한 조건으로 간주하는지는 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오)

     빈 이터러블이 허용되지만, 세 개의 빈 이터러블을 받아들일지는 플랫폼
     에 따라 다릅니다.  (유닉스에서는 작동하지만 윈도우에서는 작동하지 않
     는 것으로 알려져 있습니다.)  선택적 'timeout' 인자는 시간제한을 초
     단위의 부동 소수점 숫자로 지정합니다.  'timeout' 인자가 생략되면 최
     소한 하나의 파일 기술자가 준비될 때까지 함수가 블록 합니다.  시간제
     한 값이 0이면 폴링을 지정하고 절대 블록 하지 않습니다.

     반환 값은 준비된 객체의 리스트 3개입니다: 처음 세 인자의 부분 집합
     입니다.  파일 기술자가 준비되지 않고 시간제한에 도달하면, 세 개의 빈
     리스트가 반환됩니다.

     이터러블에서 허용되는 객체 형에는 파이썬 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. (예
     를 들어 ‘sys.stdin’, 또는 *note open(): 515.이나 *note os.popen():
     a84.에서 반환된 객체), *note socket.socket(): d9d.에서 반환된 소켓
     객체가 있습니다.  적절한 (단지 임의의 정수가 아니라 실제 파일 기술
     자를 반환하는) *note fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있는 한, '래퍼
     (wrapper)' 클래스를 직접 정의할 수도 있습니다.

          참고: 
          윈도우에서 파일 객체는 허용되지 않지만, 소켓은 허용됩니다.  윈
          도우에서, 하부 ‘select()’ 함수는 WinSock 라이브러리에서 제공되
          며, WinSock에서 생성되지 않은 파일 기술자를 처리하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널 처리기가 *note InterruptedError: d84.를 발
     생시키는 대신 예외를 발생시키는 경우(이유는 PEP 475(2)를 참조하십시
     오)를 제외하고, 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 될 때 다시 계산된 시간제한으
     로 함수가 다시 시도됩니다.

 -- 데이터: select.PIPE_BUF

     파이프가 *note select(): d9c, ‘poll()’ 또는 이 모듈의 다른 인터페이
     스에서 쓰기 준비가 된 것으로 보고될 때, 파이프를 블록 하지 않고 쓸
     수 있는 최소 바이트 수.  소켓과 같은 다른 파일류 객체에는 적용되지
     않습니다.

     이 값은 POSIX에서 512 이상이 되도록 보장합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* /dev/poll 폴링 객체::
* 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 (epoll) 객체: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
* 폴링 객체::
* Kqueue 객체::
* Kevent 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: /dev/poll 폴링 객체,  Next: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체,  Up: select — I/O 완료 대기

5.19.4.1 ‘/dev/poll’ 폴링 객체
..............................

Solaris와 파생 제품에는 ‘/dev/poll’이 있습니다.  ‘select()’는 'O'('가장
높은 파일 기술자')이고 ‘poll()’은 'O'('파일 기술자 수')이지만
‘/dev/poll’은 'O'('활성 파일 기술자')입니다.

‘/dev/poll’ 동작은 표준 ‘poll()’ 객체에 매우 가깝습니다.

 -- 메서드: devpoll.close ()

     폴링 객체의 파일 기술자를 닫습니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 속성: devpoll.closed

     폴링 객체가 닫혔으면 ‘True’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: devpoll.fileno ()

     폴링 객체의 파일 기술자 번호를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: devpoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     폴링 객체에 파일 기술자를 등록합니다.  이후 *note poll(): 2bc1. 메
     서드에 대한 호출은 파일 기술자에 계류 중인 I/O 이벤트가 있는지 확인
     합니다.  'fd'는 정수이거나, 정수를 반환하는 *note fileno(): 285e. 메
     서드가 있는 객체일 수 있습니다.  파일 객체는 ‘fileno()’를 구현하므
     로, 인자로도 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'eventmask'는 확인할 이벤트 유형을 설명하는 선택적 비트 마스크입니
     다.  상수는 ‘poll()’ 객체와 같습니다.  기본값은 상수 ‘POLLIN’,
     ‘POLLPRI’ 및 ‘POLLOUT’의 조합입니다.

          경고: 이미 등록된 파일 기술자를 등록하는 것은 에러가 아니지만,
          결과는 정의되지 않습니다.  적절한 액션은 먼저 unregister 하거
          나 modify 하는 것입니다.  이것은 ‘poll()’과 비교하여 중요한 차
          이점입니다.

 -- 메서드: devpoll.modify (fd[, eventmask])

     이 메서드는 *note unregister(): 34f2. 다음에 *note register():
     34f0.를 수행합니다.  명시적으로 같은 작업을 수행하는 것보다 조금 더
     효율적입니다.

 -- 메서드: devpoll.unregister (fd)

     폴링 객체가 추적하는 파일 기술자를 제거합니다.  *note register():
     34f0. 메서드와 마찬가지로, 'fd'는 정수이거나 정수를 반환하는 *note
     fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있는 객체일 수 있습니다.

     등록되지 않은 파일 기술자를 제거하려고 하면 안전하게 무시됩니다.

 -- 메서드: devpoll.poll ([timeout])

     등록된 파일 기술자 집합을 폴링하고, 보고할 이벤트나 에러가 있는 기
     술자에 대한 ‘(fd, event)’ 2-튜플이 포함된 비어있을 수 있는 리스트를
     반환합니다.  'fd'는 파일 기술자이고, 'event'는 해당 기술자에 대해 보
     고된 이벤트에 대해 설정된 비트가 있는 비트 마스크입니다 — 대기 중인
     입력은 ‘POLLIN’, 기술자에 쓸 수 있음을 나타내는 데는 ‘POLLOUT’, 등
     등.  빈 리스트는 시간제한을 초과하였고 보고할 이벤트가 있는 파일 기
     술자가 없음을 나타냅니다.  'timeout'이 제공되면, 시스템이 반환하기
     전에 이벤트를 기다리는 시간을 밀리초로 지정합니다.  'timeout'을 생
     략하거나 -1이거나 *note None: 66f.이면, 이 폴링 객체에 대한 이벤트
     가 있을 때까지 호출이 블록 됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널 처리기가 *note InterruptedError: d84.를 발
     생시키는 대신 예외를 발생시키는 경우(이유는 PEP 475(1)를 참조하십시
     오)를 제외하고, 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 될 때 다시 계산된 시간제한으
     로 함수가 다시 시도됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체,  Next: 폴링 객체,  Prev: /dev/poll 폴링 객체,  Up: select — I/O 완료 대기

5.19.4.2 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 (epoll) 객체
.............................................

     ‘https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll’

     'eventmask'

     상수                          의미
                                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘EPOLLIN’                     읽기 가능
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLOUT’                    쓰기 가능
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLPRI’                    읽을 긴급 데이터
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLERR’                    연관된 fd에서 에러 조건이 발생했습니다
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLHUP’                    연관된 fd에서 끊어짐(hang up)이 발생했습니다
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLET’                     에지 트리거 동작을 설정합니다, 기본값은 레벨 트리
                                   거 동작입니다
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLONESHOT’                원샷(one-shot) 동작을 설정합니다.  하나의 이벤트
                                   를 꺼낸 후에, fd는 내부적으로 비활성화됩니다.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’              연관된 fd에 이벤트가 있을 때 하나의 epoll 객체만
                                   깨웁니다.  기본값(이 플래그가 설정되지 않으면)은
                                   fd를 폴링하는 모든 epoll 객체를 깨우는 것입니다.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDHUP’                  스트림 소켓 반대편이 연결을 닫았거나 연결의 쓰기
                                   절반을 종료했습니다.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDNORM’                 ‘EPOLLIN’과 동등합니다
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDBAND’                 우선순위가 높은 데이터 대역을 읽을 수 있습니다.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRNORM’                 ‘EPOLLOUT’과 동등합니다
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRBAND’                 우선순위가 높은 데이터를 쓸 수 있습니다.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLMSG’                    무시됩니다.
                                   

     Added in version 3.6: ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’가 추가되었습니다.  리눅스 커
     널 4.5 이상에서만 지원됩니다.

 -- 메서드: epoll.close ()

     epoll 객체의 제어 파일 기술자를 닫습니다.

 -- 속성: epoll.closed

     epoll 객체가 닫혔으면 ‘True’.

 -- 메서드: epoll.fileno ()

     제어 fd의 파일 기술자 번호를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: epoll.fromfd (fd)

     주어진 파일 기술자에서 epoll 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: epoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     epoll 객체에 fd 기술자를 등록합니다.

 -- 메서드: epoll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     등록된 파일 기술자를 수정합니다.

 -- 메서드: epoll.unregister (fd)

     epoll 객체에서 등록된 파일 기술자를 제거합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 메서드는 더는 *note EBADF: 959. 에러를 무시하
     지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: epoll.poll (timeout=None, maxevents=-1)

     이벤트를 기다립니다.  시간제한은 초 단위입니다 (float)

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널 처리기가 *note InterruptedError: d84.를 발
     생시키는 대신 예외를 발생시키는 경우(이유는 PEP 475(1)를 참조하십시
     오)를 제외하고, 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 될 때 다시 계산된 시간제한으
     로 함수가 다시 시도됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 폴링 객체,  Next: Kqueue 객체,  Prev: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체,  Up: select — I/O 완료 대기

5.19.4.3 폴링 객체
..................

대부분의 유닉스 시스템에서 지원되는 ‘poll()’ 시스템 호출은 동시에 많은 클
라이언트에게 서비스를 제공하는 네트워크 서버에 더 나은 확장성을 제공합니
다.  ‘select()’는 비트맵을 빌드하고, 관심 있는 fd에 대한 비트를 켠 후, 전
체 비트 맵을 다시 선형으로 스캔해야 하지만, 이 시스템 호출은 관심 있는 파
일 기술자만 나열하면 되기 때문에 ‘poll()’은 더 잘 확장됩니다.
‘select()’는 'O'('가장 높은 파일 기술자')이고 ‘poll()’은 'O'('파일 기술
자 수')입니다.

 -- 메서드: poll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     폴링 객체에 파일 기술자를 등록합니다.  이후 *note poll(): 2bc1. 메
     서드에 대한 호출은 파일 기술자에 계류 중인 I/O 이벤트가 있는지 확인
     합니다.  'fd'는 정수이거나, 정수를 반환하는 *note fileno(): 285e. 메
     서드가 있는 객체일 수 있습니다.  파일 객체는 ‘fileno()’를 구현하므
     로, 인자로도 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'eventmask'는 확인할 이벤트 유형을 설명하는 선택적 비트 마스크이고,
     아래 표에 설명된 상수 ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’ 및 ‘POLLOUT’의 조합일 수
     있습니다.  지정하지 않으면, 사용되는 기본값은 3가지 유형의 이벤트를
     모두 확인합니다.

     상수                    의미
                             
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
     ‘POLLIN’                읽을 데이터가 있습니다
                             
                             
     ‘POLLPRI’               읽을 긴급한 데이터가 있습니다
                             
                             
     ‘POLLOUT’               출력 준비: 쓰기가 블록 되지 않을 것입니다
                             
                             
     ‘POLLERR’               어떤 종류의 에러 조건
                             
                             
     ‘POLLHUP’               끊어졌습니다(Hung up)
                             
                             
     ‘POLLRDHUP’             스트림 소켓 반대편이 연결을 닫았거나, 연결의
                             쓰기 절반을 종료했습니다
                             
                             
     ‘POLLNVAL’              잘못된 요청: 기술자가 열리지 않았습니다
                             

     이미 등록된 파일 기술자를 등록하는 것은 에러가 아니며, 기술자를 정
     확히 한 번 등록하는 것과 같은 효과가 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: poll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     이미 등록된 fd를 수정합니다.  이것은 ‘register(fd, eventmask)’와 같
     은 효과가 있습니다.  등록되지 않은 파일 기술자를 수정하려고 하면
     errno ‘ENOENT’로 *note OSError: 411. 예외가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: poll.unregister (fd)

     폴링 객체가 추적하는 파일 기술자를 제거합니다.  *note register():
     34fa. 메서드와 마찬가지로, 'fd'는 정수이거나 정수를 반환하는 *note
     fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있는 객체일 수 있습니다.

     등록되지 않은 파일 기술자를 제거하려고 하면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예
     외가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: poll.poll ([timeout])

     등록된 파일 기술자 집합을 폴링하고, 보고할 이벤트나 에러가 있는 기
     술자에 대한 ‘(fd, event)’ 2-튜플이 포함된 비어있을 수 있는 리스트를
     반환합니다.  'fd'는 파일 기술자이고, 'event'는 해당 기술자에 대해 보
     고된 이벤트에 대해 설정된 비트가 있는 비트 마스크입니다 — 대기 중인
     입력은 ‘POLLIN’, 기술자에 쓸 수 있음을 나타내는 데는 ‘POLLOUT’, 등
     등.  빈 리스트는 시간제한을 초과하였고 보고할 이벤트가 있는 파일 기
     술자가 없음을 나타냅니다.  'timeout'이 제공되면, 시스템이 반환하기
     전에 이벤트를 기다리는 시간을 밀리초로 지정합니다.  'timeout'을 생
     략하거나 음수이거나 *note None: 66f.이면, 이 폴링 객체에 대한 이벤
     트가 있을 때까지 호출이 블록 됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널 처리기가 *note InterruptedError: d84.를 발
     생시키는 대신 예외를 발생시키는 경우(이유는 PEP 475(1)를 참조하십시
     오)를 제외하고, 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 될 때 다시 계산된 시간제한으
     로 함수가 다시 시도됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kqueue 객체,  Next: Kevent 객체,  Prev: 폴링 객체,  Up: select — I/O 완료 대기

5.19.4.4 Kqueue 객체
....................

 -- 메서드: kqueue.close ()

     kqueue 객체의 제어 파일 기술자를 닫습니다.

 -- 속성: kqueue.closed

     kqueue 객체가 닫혔으면 ‘True’.

 -- 메서드: kqueue.fileno ()

     제어 fd의 파일 기술자 번호를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: kqueue.fromfd (fd)

     주어진 파일 기술자에서 kqueue 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: kqueue.control (changelist, max_events[, timeout]) ->
          eventlist

     kevent에 대한 저수준 인터페이스

        - changelist는 kevent 객체의 이터러블 이거나 ‘None’이어야 합니다

        - max_events는 0이거나 양의 정수여야 합니다.

        - timeout은 초 단위 (float 가능); 기본값은 ‘None’이고 무한히 대
          기합니다

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널 처리기가 *note InterruptedError: d84.를 발
     생시키는 대신 예외를 발생시키는 경우(이유는 PEP 475(1)를 참조하십시
     오)를 제외하고, 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 될 때 다시 계산된 시간제한으
     로 함수가 다시 시도됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kevent 객체,  Prev: Kqueue 객체,  Up: select — I/O 완료 대기

5.19.4.5 Kevent 객체
....................

‘https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2’

 -- 속성: kevent.ident

     이벤트를 식별하는 데 사용되는 값.  해석은 필터에 따라 다르지만, 일
     반적으로 파일 기술자입니다.  생성자에서 ident 는 정수이거나 *note
     fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있는 객체일 수 있습니다.  kevent는 내부적
     으로 정수를 저장합니다.

 -- 속성: kevent.filter

     커널 필터의 이름.

     상수                            의미
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’                기술자를 취하고 읽을 수 있는 데이터가 있을 때마
                                     다 반환합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’               기술자를 취하고 쓸 수 있는 데이터가 있을 때마다
                                     반환합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_AIO’                 AIO 요청
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’               'fflag'에서 감시 중인 요청된 이벤트 중 하나 이
                                     상이 발생할 때 반환합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’                프로세스 id에서 이벤트를 감시합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’              네트워크 장치에서 이벤트를 감시합니다 [맥 OS에
                                     서는 사용할 수 없습니다]
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL’              감시하는 시그널이 프로세스에 전달될 때마다 반환
                                     합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_TIMER’               임의의 타이머를 설정합니다
                                     

 -- 속성: kevent.flags

     필터 액션.

     상수                            의미
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ADD’                     이벤트를 추가하거나 수정합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DELETE’                  큐에서 이벤트를 제거합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ENABLE’                  이벤트를 반환하도록 Permitscontrol() 합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DISABLE’                 이벤트 비활성화
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ONESHOT’                 처음 발생한 후 이벤트를 제거합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_CLEAR’                   이벤트를 꺼낸 후 상태를 재설정합니다
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS’                내부 이벤트
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_FLAG1’                   내부 이벤트
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_EOF’                     필터 특정 EOF 조건
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ERROR’                   반환 값을 봅니다
                                     

 -- 속성: kevent.fflags

     필터 특정 플래그.

     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’와 ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’ 필터 플래그:

     상수                             의미
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LOWAT’                  소켓 버퍼의 낮은 수위(low water mark)
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’ 필터 플래그:

     상수                             의미
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_DELETE’                 'unlink()'가 호출되었습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_WRITE’                  쓰기가 발생했습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXTEND’                 파일이 확장되었습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB’                 속성이 변경되었습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINK’                   링크 수가 변경되었습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_RENAME’                 파일 이름이 변경되었습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_REVOKE’                 파일에 대한 액세스가 취소되었습니다
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ 필터 플래그:

     상수                             의미
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’                   프로세스가 종료되었습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_FORK’                   프로세스가 'fork()'를 호출했습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXEC’                   프로세스가 새로운 프로세스를 실행했습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK’              내부 필터 플래그
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK’              내부 필터 플래그
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACK’                  'fork()'를 가로질러 프로세스를 추적합니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_CHILD’                  'NOTE_TRACK'의 경우 자식 프로세스에서 반환됩니
                                      다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR’               자식에게 연결할 수 없습니다
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’ 필터 플래그 (맥 OS에서는 사용할 수 없습니다):

     상수                             의미
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKUP’                 링크가 올라갔습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN’               링크가 내려갔습니다
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKINV’                링크 상태가 유효하지 않습니다
                                      

 -- 속성: kevent.data

     필터 특정 데이터.

 -- 속성: kevent.udata

     사용자 정의 값.


File: python.info,  Node: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화,  Next: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정,  Prev: select — I/O 완료 대기,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.5 ‘selectors’ — 고수준 I/O 다중화
--------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'소스 코드:' Lib/selectors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<4>.
* 클래스: 클래스<3>.
* 예제: 예제<20>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/selectors.py


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<4>,  Next: 클래스<3>,  Up: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화

5.19.5.1 소개
.............

이 모듈은 *note select: c1. 모듈 프리미티브에 기반하여 고수준의 효율적인
I/O 다중화를 가능하게 합니다.  사용되는 OS 수준 프리미티브를 정확하게 제
어하고 싶지 않으면, 사용자는 이 모듈을 대신 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

여러 파일 객체에 대한 I/O 준비 알림을 기다리는 데 사용할 수 있는 몇 가지
구체적인 구현 (*note KqueueSelector: 33fb, *note EpollSelector: bd1.…)과
함께 *note BaseSelector: 350c. 추상 베이스 클래스를 정의합니다.  다음에
서 “파일 객체”는 *note fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있는 모든 객체나 날 파일
기술자를 가리킵니다.  *note 파일 객체: 11b2.를 참조하십시오.

*note DefaultSelector: 350d.는 현재 플랫폼에서 사용할 수 있는 가장 효율
적인 구현의 별칭입니다: 대부분 사용자는 기본적으로 이것을 선택해야 합니
다.

     참고: 지원되는 파일 객체의 유형은 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다: 윈도우에
     서는 소켓은 지원되지만, 파이프는 지원되지 않습니다.  반면에, 유닉스
     에서는 둘 다 지원됩니다 (fifo나 특수 파일 장치와 같은 다른 유형도 지
     원될 수 있습니다).

더 보기
.......

*note select: c1.

     저수준 I/O 다중화 모듈.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스<3>,  Next: 예제<20>,  Prev: 소개<4>,  Up: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화

5.19.5.2 클래스
...............

클래스 계층 구조:

     BaseSelector
     +-- SelectSelector
     +-- PollSelector
     +-- EpollSelector
     +-- DevpollSelector
     +-- KqueueSelector

다음에서, 'events'는 주어진 파일 객체에서 어떤 I/O 이벤트를 기다려야 하
는지를 나타내는 비트 마스크입니다.  다음 모듈 상수의 조합일 수 있습니다:

     상수                        의미
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
      -- 데이터:                 읽기 가능
               selectors.EVENT_READ

      -- 데이터:                 쓰기 가능
               selectors.EVENT_WRITE

 -- 클래스: selectors.SelectorKey

     *note SelectorKey: 3511.는 파일 객체에 그것의 하부 파일 기술자, 선
     택한 이벤트 마스크 및 첨부된 데이터를 연결하는 데 사용되는 *note
     namedtuple: 1ca.입니다.  여러 *note BaseSelector: 350c. 메서드에 의
     해 반환됩니다.

      -- 속성: fileobj

          등록된 파일 객체.

      -- 속성: fd

          하부 파일 기술자.

      -- 속성: events

          이 파일 객체에서 기다려야 하는 이벤트.

      -- 속성: data

          이 파일 객체에 연결된 선택적인 불투명한 데이터: 예를 들어, 이
          것은 클라이언트별 세션 ID를 저장하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: selectors.BaseSelector

     *note BaseSelector: 350c.는 여러 파일 객체에 대한 I/O 이벤트 준비를
     기다리는 데 사용됩니다.  파일 스트림 등록, 등록 취소 및 선택적 제한
     시간과 함께 해당 스트림에서 I/O 이벤트를 기다리는 메서드를 지원합니
     다.  추상 베이스 클래스이므로, 인스턴스를 만들 수 없습니다.  *note
     DefaultSelector: 350d.를 대신 사용하거나, 특정 구현을 사용하고 싶고
     , 플랫폼에서 지원한다면 *note SelectSelector: 33f8, *note
     KqueueSelector: 33fb. 등을 사용하십시오.  *note BaseSelector:
     350c.와 그것의 구상 구현은 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지
     원합니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod register (fileobj, events, data=None)

          I/O 이벤트를 셀렉트하고 감시하기 위한 파일 객체를 등록합니다.

          'fileobj'는 감시할 파일 객체입니다.  정수 파일 기술자이거나
          ‘fileno()’ 메서드를 가진 객체일 수 있습니다.  'events'는 감시
          할 이벤트의 비트 마스크입니다.  'data'는 불투명한 객체입니다.

          새로운 *note SelectorKey: 3511. 인스턴스를 반환하거나, 유효하
          지 않은 이벤트 마스크나 파일 기술자의 경우 *note ValueError:
          202.를, 파일 객체가 이미 등록된 경우 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발
          생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod unregister (fileobj)

          셀렉트로부터 파일 객체를 등록 해지하고, 감시에서 삭제합니다.  파
          일 객체는 닫히기 전에 등록 해지되어야 합니다.

          'fileobj'는 이전에 등록된 파일 객체여야 합니다.

          연결된 *note SelectorKey: 3511. 인스턴스를 반환하거나,
          'fileobj'가 등록되어 있지 않으면 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시
          킵니다.  'fileobj'가 유효하지 않으면 (예를 들어, ‘fileno()’ 메
          서드가 없거나 ‘fileno()’ 메서드가 유효하지 않은 반환 값을 가지
          면) *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: modify (fileobj, events, data=None)

          등록된 파일 객체의 감시되는 이벤트나 첨부된 데이터를 변경합니
          다.

          이것은 더 효율적으로 구현될 수 있다는 점을 제외하면,
          ‘BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)’ 다음에
          ‘BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data)’하는 것과 동등합
          니다.

          새로운 *note SelectorKey: 3511. 인스턴스를 반환하거나, 유효하
          지 않은 이벤트 마스크나 파일 기술자의 경우 *note ValueError:
          202.를, 파일 객체가 등록되지 않았으면 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발
          생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod select (timeout=None)

          등록된 파일 객체의 일부가 준비될 때까지 기다리거나, 제한 시간
          이 만료됩니다.

          ‘timeout > 0’ 이면, 최대 대기 시간을 초로 지정합니다.
          ‘timeout <= 0’이면, 호출은 블록하지 않고, 현재 준비된 파일 객
          체를 보고합니다.  'timeout'이 ‘None’이면, 감시되는 파일 객체가
          준비될 때까지 호출이 블록 됩니다.

          각 준비된 파일 객체마다 하나씩, ‘(key, events)’ 튜플의 리스트
          를 반환합니다.

          'key'는 준비된 파일 객체에 해당하는 *note SelectorKey: 3511. 인
          스턴스입니다.  'events'는 이 파일 객체에서 준비된 이벤트의 비
          트 마스크입니다.

               참고: 현재 프로세스가 시그널을 받으면, 이 메서드는 파일 객
               체가 준비되거나 제한 시간이 지나기 전에 반환할 수 있습니
               다: 이때는 빈 리스트가 반환됩니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 시그널에 의해 인터럽트 되었을 때, 셀렉터는
          이제 시그널 처리기가 예외를 발생시키지 않으면, 제한 시간 이전
          에 빈 이벤트 리스트를 반환하는 대신, 재계산 된 제한 시간으로 재
          시도됩니다 (근거는 PEP 475(1)를 참조하세요).

      -- 메서드: close ()

          셀렉터를 닫습니다.

          모든 하부 자원을 해제하기 위해 이 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.  일
          단 닫은 후에는 셀렉터를 더는 사용하지 않아야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_key (fileobj)

          등록된 파일 객체에 연결된 키를 반환합니다.

          이 파일 객체에 연결된 *note SelectorKey: 3511. 인스턴스를 반환
          하거나, 파일 객체가 등록되지 않았으면 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발
          생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod get_map ()

          파일 객체에서 셀렉터로의 매핑을 반환합니다.

          등록된 파일 객체를 연결된 *note SelectorKey: 3511. 인스턴스로
          매핑하는 *note Mapping: 8c7. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: selectors.DefaultSelector

     현재의 플랫폼에서 사용할 수 있는 가장 효율적인 구현을 사용하는 기본
     셀렉터 클래스입니다.  대부분 사용자는 기본적으로 이것을 선택해야 합
     니다.

 -- 클래스: selectors.SelectSelector

     *note select.select(): d9c. 기반 셀렉터.

 -- 클래스: selectors.PollSelector

     *note select.poll(): 2bc1. 기반 셀렉터.

 -- 클래스: selectors.EpollSelector

     *note select.epoll(): f8b. 기반 셀렉터.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          하부 *note select.epoll(): f8b. 객체에서 사용하는 파일 기술자
          를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: selectors.DevpollSelector

     *note select.devpoll(): f8d. 기반 셀렉터.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          하부 *note select.devpoll(): f8d. 객체에서 사용하는 파일 기술
          자를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: selectors.KqueueSelector

     *note select.kqueue(): 16d4. 기반 셀렉터.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          하부 *note select.kqueue(): 16d4. 객체에서 사용하는 파일 기술
          자를 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<20>,  Prev: 클래스<3>,  Up: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화

5.19.5.3 예제
.............

다음은 간단한 메아리 서버 구현입니다:

     import selectors
     import socket

     sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()

     def accept(sock, mask):
         conn, addr = sock.accept()  # 준비돼 있어야 합니다
         print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
         conn.setblocking(False)
         sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)

     def read(conn, mask):
         data = conn.recv(1000)  # 준비돼 있어야 합니다
         if data:
             print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
             conn.send(data)  # 블록하지 않기를 바랍니다
         else:
             print('closing', conn)
             sel.unregister(conn)
             conn.close()

     sock = socket.socket()
     sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
     sock.listen(100)
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)

     while True:
         events = sel.select()
         for key, mask in events:
             callback = key.data
             callback(key.fileobj, mask)


File: python.info,  Node: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정,  Next: mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원,  Prev: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.6 ‘signal’ — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정
--------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/signal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬에서 시그널 처리기를 사용하는 메커니즘을 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 일반 규칙::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<5>.
* 예제: 예제<21>.
* SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항::
* 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/signal.py


File: python.info,  Node: 일반 규칙,  Next: 모듈 내용<5>,  Up: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정

5.19.6.1 일반 규칙
..................

*note signal.signal(): 1125. 함수는 시그널이 수신될 때 실행될 사용자 정
의 처리기를 정의하도록 합니다.  소수의 기본 처리기가 설치됩니다: *note
SIGPIPE: 3523.는 무시되고 (그래서 파이프와 소켓에 대한 쓰기 에러는 일반
파이썬 예외로 보고될 수 있습니다) *note SIGINT: 83e.는 부모 프로세스가 변
경하지 않았다면 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 예외로 번역됩니다.

일단 설정되면, 특정 시그널에 대한 처리기는 명시적으로 재설정 될 때까지
(파이썬은 하부 구현과 관계없이 BSD 스타일 인터페이스를 흉내 냅니다) 설치
된 상태로 유지됩니다.  *note SIGCHLD: 2bfc.에 대한 처리기는 예외인데, 하
부 구현을 따릅니다.

On WebAssembly platforms, signals are emulated and therefore behave
differently.  Several functions and signals are not available on these
platforms.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 시그널 처리기의 실행::
* 시그널과 스레드::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 시그널 처리기의 실행,  Next: 시그널과 스레드,  Up: 일반 규칙

5.19.6.2 파이썬 시그널 처리기의 실행
....................................

파이썬 시그널 처리기는 저수준 (C) 시그널 처리기 내에서 실행되지 않습니다
.  대신, 저수준 시그널 처리기는 *note 가상 기계: 3525.에게 나중에 (예를
들어 다음 *note 바이트 코드: 187. 명령에서) 해당 파이썬 시그널 처리기를
실행하도록 지시하는 플래그를 설정합니다.  결과는 다음과 같습니다:

   * C 코드에서의 유효하지 않은 연산으로 인해 발생하는 *note SIGFPE:
     1d52.나 *note SIGSEGV: 1d51.와 같은 동기 에러를 잡는 것은 그리 의미
     가 없습니다.  파이썬은 시그널 처리기에서 C 코드로 돌아오는데, 같은
     시그널을 다시 발생시켜서, 파이썬이 멈출 것입니다.  파이썬 3.3부터는
     , *note faulthandler: 58. 모듈을 사용하여 동기 에러를 보고할 수 있
     습니다.

   * C로만 구현된 오래 실행되는 계산(가령 커다란 텍스트 본문에 대한 정규
     식 일치)은 수신된 시그널에 상관없이 임의의 시간 동안 중단없이 실행
     될 수 있습니다.  계산이 끝나면 파이썬 시그널 처리기가 호출됩니다.

   * If the handler raises an exception, it will be raised “out of thin
     air” in the main thread.  See the *note note below: 2292. for a
     discussion.


File: python.info,  Node: 시그널과 스레드,  Prev: 파이썬 시그널 처리기의 실행,  Up: 일반 규칙

5.19.6.3 시그널과 스레드
........................

파이썬 시그널 처리기는 시그널이 다른 스레드에서 수신될 때도 항상 메인 인
터프리터의 메인 파이썬 스레드에서 실행됩니다.  이는 시그널을 스레드 간 통
신 수단으로 사용할 수 없음을 의미합니다.  대신 *note threading: ed. 모듈
의 동기화 프리미티브를 사용할 수 있습니다.

게다가, 메인 인터프리터의 메인 스레드만 새로운 시그널 처리기를 설정할 수
있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<5>,  Next: 예제<21>,  Prev: 일반 규칙,  Up: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정

5.19.6.4 모듈 내용
..................

버전 3.5에서 변경: 이하에 열거된 시그널 (SIG*), 처리기 (*note SIG_DFL:
1827, *note SIG_IGN: 1826.) 및 sigmask (*note SIG_BLOCK: 3529, *note
SIG_UNBLOCK: 352a, *note SIG_SETMASK: 352b.) 관련 상수는 *note 열거형:
cdc.으로 바뀌었습니다 (각각 *note Signals: 352c, *note Handlers: 352d. 및
*note Sigmasks: 352e.).  *note getsignal(): 16b3, *note
pthread_sigmask(): 1121, *note sigpending(): 1123. 및 *note sigwait():
1124. 함수는 사람이 읽을 수 있는 *note 열거형: cdc.을 *note Signals:
352c. 객체로 반환합니다.

signal 모듈은 세개의 열거형을 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: signal.Signals

     *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. collection of SIG* constants and the
     CTRL_* constants.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: signal.Handlers

     *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. collection the constants *note SIG_DFL:
     1827. and *note SIG_IGN: 1826.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: signal.Sigmasks

     *note enum.IntEnum: cdc. collection the constants *note SIG_BLOCK:
     3529, *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 352a. and *note SIG_SETMASK: 352b.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘sigprocmask(2)(1)’과
     ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(2)’을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

*note signal: c6. 모듈에 정의된 변수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: signal.SIG_DFL

     이것은 두 가지 표준 시그널 처리 옵션 중 하나입니다; 단순히 시그널의
     기본 기능을 수행합니다.  예를 들어, 대부분의 시스템에서 ‘SIGQUIT’의
     기본 동작은 코어를 덤프하고 종료하는 것이지만, *note SIGCHLD:
     2bfc.의 기본 동작은 단순히 무시하는 것입니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIG_IGN

     이것은 주어진 시그널을 무시하는 또 다른 표준 시그널 처리기입니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGABRT

     ‘abort(3)(3)’로 부터의 중단 시그널.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGALRM

     ‘alarm(2)(4)’로 부터의 타이머 시그널.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGBREAK

     키보드 인터럽트 (CTRL + BREAK).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGBUS

     버스 에러 (메모리 액세스 불량).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGCHLD

     자식 프로세스가 중지되었거나 종료되었습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGCLD

     *note SIGCHLD: 2bfc.에 대한 별칭.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: not macOS.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGCONT

     현재 중지되었으면 프로세스를 재개합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGFPE

     부동 소수점 예외.  예를 들어, 0으로 나누기.

     더 보기
     .......

     나누기나 모듈로 연산의 두 번째 인자가 0이면 *note
     ZeroDivisionError: 943.가 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGHUP

     제어 터미널이 끊어졌거나 제어 프로세스가 죽었습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGILL

     잘못된 명령어.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGINT

     키보드 인터럽트 (CTRL + C).

     기본 액션은 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.를 발생시키는 것입니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGKILL

     킬 시그널.

     잡거나, 차단하거나, 무시할 수 없습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGPIPE

     끊어진 파이프: 판독기가 없는 파이프에 쓰기.

     기본 동작은 시그널을 무시하는 것입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGSEGV

     세그먼테이션 오류: 유효하지 않은 메모리 참조.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGSTKFLT

     Stack fault on coprocessor.  The Linux kernel does not raise this
     signal: it can only be raised in user space.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux.

     시그널을 사용할 수 있는 아키텍처에서.  자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지
     ‘signal(7)(5)’를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGTERM

     종료 시그널.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGUSR1

     사용자 정의 시그널 1.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGUSR2

     사용자 정의 시그널 2.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIGWINCH

     창 크기 조정 시그널.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 데이터: SIG*

     모든 시그널 번호는 기호적으로 정의됩니다.  예를 들어, 행업(hangup)
     시그널은 *note signal.SIGHUP: 3532.으로 정의됩니다; 변수 이름은
     ‘<signal.h>’에 있는 C 프로그램에서 사용되는 이름과 동일합니다.
     ‘‘signal()’'에 대한 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지는 존재하는 시그널을 나열합
     니다 (일부 시스템에서는 ‘signal(2)(6)’이고, 다른 시스템에서는
     ‘signal(7)(7)’입니다).  모든 시스템이 같은 시그널 이름 집합을 정의
     하는 것은 아님에 유의하십시오; 시스템에서 정의한 이름만 이 모듈에서
     정의합니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.CTRL_C_EVENT

     ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ 키 입력 이벤트에 해당하는 시그널.  이 시그널은 *note
     os.kill(): 1350.에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT

     ‘Ctrl’+‘Break’ 키 입력 이벤트에 해당하는 시그널.  이 시그널은 *note
     os.kill(): 1350.에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: signal.NSIG

     가장 높은 시그널 번호보다 하나 큰 값.  유효한 시그널 번호를 얻으려
     면 *note valid_signals(): 3536.를 사용하십시오.

 -- 데이터: signal.ITIMER_REAL

     간격 타이머(interval timer)를 실시간으로 감소시키고, 만료 시 *note
     SIGALRM: 352f.을 전달합니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL

     프로세스가 실행 중일 때만 간격 타이머(interval timer)를 감소시키고,
     만료 시 SIGVTALRM을 전달합니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.ITIMER_PROF

     프로세스가 실행될 때와 시스템이 프로세스를 대신하여 실행될 때 간격
     타이머(interval timer)를 감소시킵니다.  ITIMER_VIRTUAL과 함께 사용
     되어, 이 타이머는 일반적으로 사용자와 커널 공간에서 응용 프로그램이
     소비한 시간을 프로파일링하는 데 사용됩니다.  만료 시 SIGPROF를 전달
     합니다.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIG_BLOCK

     *note pthread_sigmask(): 1121.의 'how' 매개 변수에 가능한 값으로 시
     그널이 차단됨을 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIG_UNBLOCK

     *note pthread_sigmask(): 1121.의 'how' 매개 변수에 가능한 값으로 시
     그널이 차단 해제됨을 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: signal.SIG_SETMASK

     *note pthread_sigmask(): 1121.의 'how' 매개 변수에 가능한 값으로 시
     그널 마스크가 교체됨을 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

*note signal: c6. 모듈은 하나의 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: signal.ItimerError

     하부 *note setitimer(): 353b.나 *note getitimer(): 353c. 구현으로부
     터의 에러를 알리기 위해 발생합니다.  유효하지 않은 간격 타이머나 음
     의 시간이 *note setitimer(): 353b.에 전달되면 이 에러가 예상됩니다.
     이 에러는 *note OSError: 411.의 서브 형입니다.

     Added in version 3.3: 이 에러는 *note IOError: 1048.의 서브 형이었
     습니다, 이제는 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

*note signal: c6. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: signal.alarm (time)

     'time'이 0이 아니면, 이 함수는 *note SIGALRM: 352f. 시그널이 'time'
     초 내에 프로세스로 전송되도록 요청합니다.  이전에 예약된 알람은 취
     소됩니다 (임의의 시간에 오직 하나의 알람만 예약될 수 있습니다).  반
     환된 값은 이전에 설정된 알람이 전달되기까지 남은 초(seconds)입니다.
     'time'이 0이면, 알람이 예약되지 않고, 예약된 알람이 취소됩니다.  반
     환 값이 0이면, 현재 예약된 알람이 없습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘alarm(2)(8)’를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: signal.getsignal (signalnum)

     시그널 'signalnum'에 대한 현재 시그널 처리기를 반환합니다.  반환된
     값은 콜러블 파이썬 객체이거나, 특수 값 *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1826,
     *note signal.SIG_DFL: 1827. 중 하나이거나 *note None: 66f.일 수 있
     습니다.  여기서 *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1826.은 시그널이 이전에 무시
     되었음을 의미하고, *note signal.SIG_DFL: 1827.은 시그널을 처리하는
     기본 방법이 이전에 사용 중임을 의미하고, ‘None’은 이전 시그널 처리
     기가 파이썬에서 설치되지 않았음을 의미합니다.

 -- 함수: signal.strsignal (signalnum)

     시그널 'signalnum'의 설명을 반환합니다, 가령 *note SIGINT: 83e.의 경
     우 “Interrupt”.  'signalnum' 에 설명이 없으면 *note None: 66f.을 반
     환합니다.  'signalnum'이 유효하지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
     생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: signal.valid_signals ()

     이 플랫폼에서 유효한 시그널 번호 집합을 반환합니다.  일부 시그널이
     시스템에서 내부 용으로 예약되었으면 ‘range(1, NSIG)’보다 작을 수 있
     습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: signal.pause ()

     시그널이 수신될 때까지 프로세스를 휴면 상태로 만듭니다; 그런 다음 적
     절한 처리기가 호출됩니다.  아무것도 반환하지 않습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘signal(2)(9)’를 참조하십시오.

     *note sigwait(): 1124, *note sigwaitinfo(): da7, *note
     sigtimedwait(): da6. 및 *note sigpending(): 1123.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: signal.raise_signal (signum)

     호출하는 프로세스에 시그널을 보냅니다.  아무것도 반환하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: signal.pidfd_send_signal (pidfd, sig, siginfo=None, flags=0)

     파일 기술자 'pidfd'가 참조하는 프로세스로 시그널 'sig'를 보냅니다.
     파이썬은 현재 'siginfo' 매개 변수를 지원하지 않습니다; ‘None’이어야
     합니다.  'flags' 인자는 향후 확장을 위해 제공됩니다; 현재는 플래그
     값이 정의되어 있지 않습니다.

     자세한 내용은 ‘pidfd_send_signal(2)(10)’ 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시
     오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 5.1, Android >= *note build-time:
     b87. API level 31

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: signal.pthread_kill (thread_id, signalnum)

     시그널 'signalnum'을 호출자와 같은 프로세스의 다른 스레드인 스레드
     'thread_id'로 보냅니다.  대상 스레드는 임의의 (파이썬이거나 아닌) 코
     드를 실행 중일 수 있습니다.  그러나, 대상 스레드가 파이썬 인터프리
     터를 실행 중이면, 파이썬 시그널 처리기는 *note 메인 인터프리터의
     메인 스레드에서 실행: 3527.됩니다.  따라서, 특정 파이썬 스레드에 시
     그널을 보내는 것의 유일한 용도는 실행 중인 시스템 호출이 *note
     InterruptedError: d84.로 실패하도록 하는 것입니다.

     'thread_id'에 적합한 값을 얻으려면 *note threading.get_ident():
     114b. 나 *note threading.Thread: 94a. 객체의 *note ident: 2c52. 어
     트리뷰트를 사용하십시오.

     'signalnum'이 0이면, 시그널이 전송되지 않지만, 여전히 에러 검사가 수
     행됩니다; 대상 스레드가 여전히 실행 중인지 확인하는 데 사용할 수 있
     습니다.

     인자 ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘signal.pthread_kill’을 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘pthread_kill(3)(11)’을 참조하십시오.

     *note os.kill(): 1350.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: signal.pthread_sigmask (how, mask)

     호출하는 스레드의 시그널 마스크를 가져오거나 변경하거나 가져오면서
     변경합니다.  시그널 마스크는 호출자에게 현재 배달이 차단된 시그널 집
     합입니다.  이전 시그널 마스크를 시그널 집합으로 반환합니다.

     호출의 동작은 다음과 같이 'how' 값에 따라 다릅니다.

        * *note SIG_BLOCK: 3529.: 차단된 시그널 집합은 현재 집합과
          'mask' 인자의 합집합입니다.

        * *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 352a.: 'mask'에 있는 시그널이 차단된 시그널
          의 현재 집합에서 제거됩니다.  차단되지 않은 시그널을 차단 해제
          하려고 시도할 수 있습니다.

        * *note SIG_SETMASK: 352b.: 차단된 시그널 집합이 'mask' 인자로 설
          정됩니다.

     'mask'는 시그널 번호 집합입니다 (예를 들어 {*note signal.SIGINT:
     83e, *note signal.SIGTERM: 13a8.}).  모든 시그널을 포함한 전체 마스
     크를 얻으려면 *note valid_signals(): 3536.를 사용하십시오.

     예를 들어, ‘signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])’은 호출하
     는 스레드의 시그널 마스크를 읽습니다.

     *note SIGKILL: 3337.과 ‘SIGSTOP’은 차단할 수 없습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘sigprocmask(2)(12)’과
     ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(13)’을 참조하십시오.

     *note pause(): 353e, *note sigpending(): 1123. 및 *note sigwait():
     1124.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: signal.setitimer (which, seconds, interval=0.0)

     'seconds'(*note alarm(): 353d.과 달리 float가 허용됩니다) 이후에 그
     리고 ('interval'이 0이 아니면) 그 후로 'interval' 초마다 발사
     (fire)하도록 'which'로 지정된 간격 타이머(*note signal.ITIMER_REAL:
     3537, *note signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 3538. 또는 *note
     signal.ITIMER_PROF: 3539. 중 하나)를 설정합니다.  'which'로 지정된
     간격 타이머는 'seconds'를 0으로 설정하여 지울 수 있습니다.

     간격 타이머가 발사(fire)하면, 시그널이 프로세스로 전송됩니다.  전송
     된 시그널은 사용 중인 타이머에 따라 다릅니다; *note
     signal.ITIMER_REAL: 3537.은 *note SIGALRM: 352f.을, *note
     signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 3538.은 ‘SIGVTALRM’을, *note
     signal.ITIMER_PROF: 3539.는 ‘SIGPROF’를 전달합니다.

     이전 값은 튜플로 반환됩니다: (지연, 간격).

     유효하지 않은 간격 타이머를 전달하려고 하면 *note ItimerError:
     353a.가 발생합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: signal.getitimer (which)

     'which'로 지정된 주어진 간격 타이머의 현재 값을 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: signal.set_wakeup_fd (fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)

     웨이크업 파일 기술자를 'fd'로 설정합니다.  프로그램에서 시그널 처리
     기를 등록한 시그널이 수신되면, 시그널 번호는 단일 바이트로 fd에 기
     록됩니다.  관심 있는 시그널에 대한 시그널 처리기를 등록하지 않았으
     면, 웨이크업 fd에 아무 것도 기록되지 않습니다.  라이브러리에서
     poll이나 select 호출을 깨워서, 시그널을 완전히 처리하는 데 사용될 수
     있습니다.

     이전 웨이크업 fd가 반환됩니다 (또는 파일 기술자 웨이크업이 활성화되
     지 않았으면 -1).  'fd'가 -1이면, 파일 기술자 웨이크업이 비활성화됩
     니다.  -1이 아니면, 'fd'는 비 블로킹이어야 합니다.  poll이나
     select를 다시 호출하기 전에 'fd'에서 바이트를 제거하는 것은 라이브
     러리의 책임입니다.

     스레드가 활성화되었을 때, 이 함수는 *note 메인 인터프리터의 메인
     스레드: 3527.에서만 호출할 수 있습니다; 다른 스레드에서 호출하려고
     하면 *note ValueError: 202. 예외가 발생합니다.

     이 함수를 사용하는 일반적인 두 가지 방법이 있습니다.  두 방법 모두,
     시그널이 도착할 때 깨어나기 위해 fd를 사용하지만, '어떤' 시그널이나
     시그널들이 도착했는지 판단하는 방법이 다릅니다.

     첫 번째 방법에서는, fd의 버퍼에서 데이터를 읽고, 바이트 값이 시그널
     번호를 제공합니다.  이것은 간단합니다만, 드물게 문제가 될 수 있습니
     다: 일반적으로 fd에는 제한된 버퍼 공간이 있으며, 너무 많은 시그널이
     너무 빨리 도착하면, 버퍼가 가득 차고, 일부 시그널이 손실될 수 있습
     니다.  이 방법을 사용하면, 시그널이 손실될 때 최소한 stderr에 경고
     가 인쇄되도록 ‘warn_on_full_buffer=True’를 설정해야 합니다.

     두 번째 방법에서는, 오직 웨이크업만을 위해 웨이크업 fd를 사용하고,
     실제 바이트 값은 무시합니다.  이 경우, 우리가 신경 쓰는 것은 fd의 버
     퍼가 비어 있는지 비어 있지 않은지 입니다; 가득 찬 버퍼는 전혀 문제
     를 가리키지 않습니다.  이 방법을 사용하면, 사용자가 가짜 경고 메시
     지로 혼동되지 않도록 ‘warn_on_full_buffer=False’를 설정해야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 이 함수는 이제 소켓 핸들도 지원합니
     다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘warn_on_full_buffer’ 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: signal.siginterrupt (signalnum, flag)

     시스템 호출 재시작 동작을 변경합니다: 'flag'가 *note False: b34.이
     면, 시그널 'signalnum'에 의해 인터럽트 될 때 시스템 호출이 다시 시
     작되고, 그렇지 않으면 시스템 호출이 중단됩니다.  아무것도 반환하지
     않습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘siginterrupt(3)(14)’을 참조하십시오.

     *note signal(): c6.로 시그널 처리기를 설치하면 주어진 시그널에 대해
     'flag' 값을 참으로 ‘siginterrupt()’를 묵시적으로 호출하여 재시작 동
     작을 인터럽트 가능으로 재설정합니다.

 -- 함수: signal.signal (signalnum, handler)

     시그널 'signalnum'의 처리기를 함수 'handler'로 설정합니다.
     'handler'는 두 개의 인자(아래를 참조하십시오)를 취하는 콜러블 파이
     썬 객체, 또는 특수 값 *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1826.이나 *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 1827. 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  이전 시그널 처리기가
     반환됩니다 (위의 *note getsignal(): 16b3. 설명을 참조하십시오).  (자
     세한 내용은 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘signal(2)(15)’를 참조하십시오.)

     스레드가 활성화되었을 때, 이 함수는 *note 메인 인터프리터의 메인
     스레드: 3527.에서만 호출할 수 있습니다; 다른 스레드에서 호출하려고
     하면 *note ValueError: 202. 예외가 발생합니다.

     'handler'는 두 개의 인자로 호출됩니다: 시그널 번호와 현재 스택 프레
     임 (‘None’이나 프레임 객체; 프레임 객체에 대한 설명은, *note 형
     계층에 있는 설명: 6d9.을 참조하거나 *note inspect: 7e. 모듈의 어트
     리뷰트 설명을 참조하십시오).

     윈도우에서, *note signal(): c6.은 *note SIGABRT: 1d53, *note
     SIGFPE: 1d52, *note SIGILL: 1d55, *note SIGINT: 83e, *note SIGSEGV:
     1d51, *note SIGTERM: 13a8. 또는 *note SIGBREAK: 3530.로만 호출 할 수
     있습니다.  다른 경우에는 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  모든
     시스템이 같은 시그널 이름 집합을 정의하는 것은 아님에 유의하십시오;
     시그널 이름이 ‘SIG*’ 모듈 수준 상수로 정의되지 않으면 *note
     AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: signal.sigpending ()

     호출하는 스레드로 전달 계류 중인 시그널 집합을 검사합니다 (즉, 차단
     된 동안 발생한 시그널).  계류 중인 시그널 집합을 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘sigpending(2)(16)’를 참조하십시오.

     *note pause(): 353e, *note pthread_sigmask(): 1121. 및 *note
     sigwait(): 1124.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: signal.sigwait (sigset)

     시그널 집합 'sigset'에 지정된 시그널 중 하나가 전달될 때까지 호출하
     는 스레드의 실행을 일시 중단합니다.  이 함수는 시그널을 받아들이고
     (계류 중인 시그널 목록에서 제거합니다), 시그널 번호를 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘sigwait(3)(17)’을 참조하십시오.

     *note pause(): 353e, *note pthread_sigmask(): 1121, *note
     sigpending(): 1123, *note sigwaitinfo(): da7. 및 *note
     sigtimedwait(): da6.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: signal.sigwaitinfo (sigset)

     시그널 집합 'sigset'에 지정된 시그널 중 하나가 전달될 때까지 호출하
     는 스레드의 실행을 일시 중단합니다.  이 함수는 시그널을 받아들이고
     계류 중인 시그널 목록에서 제거합니다.  'sigset'의 시그널 중 하나가
     이미 호출하는 스레드에 대해 계류 중이면, 함수는 해당 시그널에 대한
     정보와 함께 즉시 반환합니다.  전달된 시그널에 대해 시그널 처리기가
     호출되지 않습니다.  이 함수는 'sigset'에 없는 시그널에 의해 중단되
     면 *note InterruptedError: d84.를 발생시킵니다.

     반환 값은 ‘siginfo_t’ 구조체에 포함된 데이터, 즉 ‘si_signo’,
     ‘si_code’, ‘si_errno’, ‘si_pid’, ‘si_uid’, ‘si_status’, ‘si_band’를
     표현하는 객체입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘sigwaitinfo(2)(18)’를 참조하십시오.

     *note pause(): 353e, *note sigwait(): 1124. 및 *note
     sigtimedwait(): da6.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 'sigset'에 없는 시그널에 의해 중
     단되고 시그널 처리기가 예외를 발생시키지 않으면 재시도됩니다 (이유
     는 PEP 475(19)를 참조하십시오).

 -- 함수: signal.sigtimedwait (sigset, timeout)

     *note sigwaitinfo(): da7.와 유사하지만, 시간제한을 지정하는 추가
     'timeout' 인자를 취합니다.  'timeout'이 ‘0’으로 지정되면, 폴링이 수
     행됩니다.  시간제한 초과가 발생하면 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

     자세한 내용은 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘sigtimedwait(2)(20)’를 참조하십시오.

     *note pause(): 353e, *note sigwait(): 1124. 및 *note sigwaitinfo():
     da7.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 'sigset'에 없는 시그널에 의해 중
     단되고 시그널 처리기가 예외를 발생시키지 않으면 다시 계산된
     'timeout'으로 재시도됩니다 (이유는 PEP 475(21)를 참조하십시오).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/abort(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (8) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_send_signal(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_kill(3)

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (13) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/siginterrupt(3)

   (15) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/sigpending(2)

   (17) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwait(3)

   (18) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwaitinfo(2)

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (20) https://manpages.debian.org/sigtimedwait(2)

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<21>,  Next: SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항,  Prev: 모듈 내용<5>,  Up: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정

5.19.6.5 예제
.............

다음은 최소한의 예제 프로그램입니다.  *note alarm(): 353d. 함수를 사용하
여 파일을 여는 데 대기하는 시간을 제한합니다; 이것은 파일이 켜져 있지 않
을 수 있는 직렬 장치를 위한 파일일 때 유용하며, 일반적으로 *note
os.open(): d8e.이 무기한 정지됩니다.  해결책은 파일을 열기 전에 5초 알람
을 설정하는 것입니다; 작업이 너무 오래 걸리면, 알람 시그널이 전송되고, 처
리기가 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     import signal, os

     def handler(signum, frame):
         signame = signal.Signals(signum).name
         print(f'Signal handler called with signal {signame} ({signum})')
         raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")

     # 시그널 처리기와 5초 알람을 설정합니다
     signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
     signal.alarm(5)

     # 이 open()은 무기한 멈출 수 있습니다
     fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)

     signal.alarm(0)          # 알람을 비활성화합니다


File: python.info,  Node: SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항,  Next: 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항,  Prev: 예제<21>,  Up: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정

5.19.6.6 SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항
.................................

프로그램의 출력을 ‘head(1)(1)’와 같은 도구로 파이핑 하면 표준 출력의 수
신기가 일찍 닫힐 때 여러분의 프로세스로 *note SIGPIPE: 3523. 시그널이 전
송됩니다.  이것은 ‘BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe’와 같은 예외
를 일으킵니다.  이 경우를 처리하려면, 다음과 같이 이 예외를 포착하도록 진
입점을 감싸십시오:

     import os
     import sys

     def main():
         try:
             # 큰 출력을 시뮬레이션합니다 (여러분의 코드가 이 루프를 대체합니다)
             for x in range(10000):
                 print("y")
             # 이 try 블록 내부에 있는 동안 SIGPIPE를 강제로 트리거 하기 위해
             # 여기에서 출력을 플러시 합니다.
             sys.stdout.flush()
         except BrokenPipeError:
             # 파이썬은 종료 시 표준 스트림을 플러시 합니다; 종료 시 또 다른 BrokenPipeError를
             # 피하고자 나머지 출력을 devnull 로 리디렉션 합니다
             devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
             os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
             sys.exit(1)  # EPIPE에 대해 파이썬은 에러 코드 1로 종료합니다

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

*note BrokenPipeError: 1052.를 피하고자 *note SIGPIPE: 3523.의 배치를
*note SIG_DFL: 1827.로 설정하지 마십시오.  그렇게 하면 프로그램이 여전히
쓰고 있는 동안 소켓 연결이 중단될 때마다 프로그램이 예기치 않게 종료되도
록 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/head(1)


File: python.info,  Node: 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항,  Prev: SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항,  Up: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정

5.19.6.7 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항
............................................

If a signal handler raises an exception, the exception will be
propagated to the main thread and may be raised after any *note
bytecode: 187. instruction.  Most notably, a *note KeyboardInterrupt:
9ce. may appear at any point during execution.  Most Python code,
including the standard library, cannot be made robust against this, and
so a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. (or any other exception resulting
from a signal handler) may on rare occasions put the program in an
unexpected state.

To illustrate this issue, consider the following code:

     class SpamContext:
         def __init__(self):
             self.lock = threading.Lock()

         def __enter__(self):
             # 여기에서 KeyboardInterrupt 가 발생하면, 괜찮습니다
             self.lock.acquire()
             # 여기에서 KeyboardInterrupt 가 발생하면, __exit__ 가 호출되지 않습니다
             ...
             # KeyboardInterrupt 는 함수 반환 직전에 발생할 수 있습니다

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
             ...
             self.lock.release()

For many programs, especially those that merely want to exit on *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce, this is not a problem, but applications that are
complex or require high reliability should avoid raising exceptions from
signal handlers.  They should also avoid catching *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. as a means of gracefully shutting down.
Instead, they should install their own *note SIGINT: 83e. handler.
Below is an example of an HTTP server that avoids *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.:

     import signal
     import socket
     from selectors import DefaultSelector, EVENT_READ
     from http.server import HTTPServer, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     interrupt_read, interrupt_write = socket.socketpair()

     def handler(signum, frame):
         print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
         interrupt_write.send(b'\0')
     signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, handler)

     def serve_forever(httpd):
         sel = DefaultSelector()
         sel.register(interrupt_read, EVENT_READ)
         sel.register(httpd, EVENT_READ)

         while True:
             for key, _ in sel.select():
                 if key.fileobj == interrupt_read:
                     interrupt_read.recv(1)
                     return
                 if key.fileobj == httpd:
                     httpd.handle_request()

     print("Serving on port 8000")
     httpd = HTTPServer(('', 8000), SimpleHTTPRequestHandler)
     serve_forever(httpd)
     print("Shutdown...")


File: python.info,  Node: mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원,  Prev: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정,  Up: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신

5.19.7 ‘mmap’ — 메모리 맵 파일 지원
-----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

메모리 맵 파일 객체는 동시에 *note bytearray: 538. 와 *note 파일 객체:
11b2.처럼 작동합니다.  *note bytearray: 538.를 기대하는 대부분 장소에서
mmap 객체를 사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, *note re: b9. 모듈을 사용하
여 메모리 맵 파일을 검색할 수 있습니다.  ‘obj[index] = 97’를 사용해서 한
바이트를 변경하거나, 슬라이스에 대입하여 서브 시퀀스를 변경할 수도 있습
니다: ‘obj[i1:i2] = b'...'’.  또한 현재 파일 위치에서 시작하여 데이터를
읽고 쓸 수 있고, 다른 위치로 파일을 ‘seek()’ 할 수 있습니다.

메모리 맵 파일은 *note mmap: 20b. 생성자로 만드는데, 유닉스와 윈도우에서
다릅니다.  두 경우 모두 갱신을 위해 열린 파일에 대한 파일 기술자를 제공
해야 합니다.  기존 파이썬 파일 객체를 매핑하려면, *note fileno(): 285e.
메서드를 사용하여 'fileno' 매개 변수에 대한 올바른 값을 가져오십시오.  그
렇지 않으면, 파일 기술자를 직접 반환하는 *note os.open(): d8e. 함수를 사
용하여 파일을 열 수 있습니다 (완료되면 파일을 닫아야 합니다).

     참고: 쓰기 가능하고 버퍼링 되는 파일에 대한 메모리 맵을 만들려면, 먼
     저 파일을 *note flush(): 2c2a.해야 합니다.  버퍼에 대한 지역 변경 사
     항이 실제로 매핑에 반영되게 하는 데 필요합니다.

유닉스와 윈도우 버전의 생성자 모두에서, 'access'는 선택적 키워드 매개 변
수로 지정될 수 있습니다.  'access'는 ‘ACCESS_READ’, ‘ACCESS_WRITE’ 또는
‘ACCESS_COPY’ 중 하나의 값을 받아, 읽기 전용, 동시 기록(write-through) 또
는 쓸 때 복사(copy-on-write) 메모리를 각각 지정하거나, ‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’를
사용하여 'prot'로 위임합니다.  'access'는 유닉스와 윈도우에서 모두 사용
할 수 있습니다.  'access'를 지정하지 않으면, 윈도우 mmap은 동시 기록
(write-through) 매핑을 반환합니다.  세 가지 액세스 유형 모두에서 초기 메
모리값은 지정된 파일에서 가져옵니다.  ‘ACCESS_READ’ 메모리 맵에 대입하면
*note TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.  ‘ACCESS_WRITE’ 메모리 맵에 대
입하면 메모리와 하부 파일에 모두 영향을 줍니다.  ‘ACCESS_COPY’ 메모리 맵
에 대입하면 메모리에는 영향을 미치지만, 하부 파일은 변경되지 않습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ 상수가 추가되었습니다.

익명 메모리를 매핑하려면, length와 함께 -1을 fileno로 전달해야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, tagname=None,
          access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0)

     '(윈도우 버전)' 파일 핸들 'fileno'로 지정된 파일의 'length' 바이트
     를 매핑하고, mmap 객체를 만듭니다.  'length'가 파일의 현재 크기보다
     크면, 파일은 'length' 바이트를 포함하도록 확장됩니다.  'length'가
     ‘0’ 이면, 맵의 최대 길이는 파일의 현재 길이입니다.  단, 파일이 비어
     있으면 윈도우에서 예외가 발생합니다 (윈도우에는 빈 매핑을 만들 수 없
     습니다).

     'tagname'가 지정되고 ‘None’이 아니면, 매핑의 태그 이름을 제공하는 문
     자열입니다.  윈도우에서는 같은 파일에 대해 여러 가지 다른 매핑을 사
     용할 수 있게 합니다.  기존 태그의 이름을 지정하면, 해당 태그가 열리
     고, 그렇지 않으면 이 이름의 새 태그가 만들어집니다.  이 매개 변수가
     생략되거나 ‘None’ 이면, 매핑은 이름 없이 만들어집니다.  'tagname' 매
     개 변수의 사용을 피하면 코드를 유닉스와 윈도우 사이에서 이식성 있게
     유지할 수 있습니다.

     'offset'은 음이 아닌 정수 오프셋으로 지정할 수 있습니다.  mmap 참조
     는 파일 시작 부분으로부터의 오프셋에 상대적입니다.  'offset'의 기본
     값은 0입니다.  'offset'은 ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’의 배수여야 합니다
     .

     인자 ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘mmap.__new__’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED, prot=PROT_WRITE
          | PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0, *, trackfd=True)

     '(유닉스 버전)' 파일 기술자 'fileno'로 지정된 파일의 'length' 바이
     트를 매핑하고, mmap 객체를 반환합니다.  'length'가 ‘0’ 이면, 맵의 최
     대 길이는 *note mmap: 20b.가 호출될 때 파일의 현재 길이입니다.

     'flags'는 매핑의 특성을 지정합니다.  *note MAP_PRIVATE: 3545.는 비
     공개 쓸 때 복사 (copy-on-write) 매핑을 생성하므로, mmap 객체의 내용
     에 대한 변경 사항은 이 프로세스에만 적용되고, *note MAP_SHARED:
     3546.는 파일의 같은 영역을 매핑하는 다른 모든 프로세스와 공유되는 매
     핑을 만듭니다.  기본값은 *note MAP_SHARED: 3546.입니다.  일부 시스
     템에는 *note MAP_* 상수: 3547.에 지정된 전체 목록과 함께 추가적으로
     가능한 플래그가 있습니다.

     'prot'가 지정되면 원하는 메모리 보호를 제공합니다; 가장 유용한 두 값
     은 페이지를 읽거나 쓰도록 지정할 수 있는 ‘PROT_READ’와
     ‘PROT_WRITE’입니다.  'prot'의 기본값은 ‘PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE’입니
     다.

     'access'는 선택적 키워드 매개 변수로 'flags' 와 'prot' 대신 지정 될
     수 있습니다.  'flags', 'prot' 와 'access'를 모두 지정하는 것은 에러
     입니다.  이 매개 변수를 사용하는 방법에 대한 정보는 위의 'access' 설
     명을 참조하십시오.

     'offset'은 음이 아닌 정수 오프셋으로 지정할 수 있습니다.  mmap 참조
     는 파일 시작 부분으로부터의 오프셋에 상대적입니다.  'offset'의 기본
     값은 0입니다.  'offset'은 유닉스 시스템에서 ‘PAGESIZE’와 같은
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’의 배수여야 합니다.

     If 'trackfd' is ‘False’, the file descriptor specified by 'fileno'
     will not be duplicated, and the resulting ‘mmap’ object will not be
     associated with the map’s underlying file.  This means that the
     *note size(): 3548. and *note resize(): 3549. methods will fail.
     This mode is useful to limit the number of open file descriptors.

     생성된 메모리 매핑의 유효성을 보장하기 위해, 기술자 'fileno'로 지정
     된 파일은 맥 OS에서 물리적 저장 장치와 내부적으로 자동 동기화됩니다
     .

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'trackfd' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     이 예제는 *note mmap: 20b.을 사용하는 간단한 방법을 보여줍니다:

          import mmap

          # 간단한 예제 파일을 작성합니다
          with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
              f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")

          with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
              # 파일을 메모리 맵 합니다, 크기 0은 전체 파일을 뜻합니다.
              mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
              # 표준 파일 메서드로 내용을 읽습니다
              print(mm.readline())  # b"Hello Python!\n" 를 인쇄합니다
              # 슬라이스 표기법으로 내용을 읽습니다
              print(mm[:5])  # b"Hello" 를 인쇄합니다
              # 슬라이스 표기법을 사용하여 내용을 갱신합니다;
              # 새 내용의 크기가 같아야 합니다
              mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
              # ... 표준 파일 메서드로 다시 읽습니다
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())  # b"Hello  world!\n" 를 인쇄합니다
              # 맵을 닫습니다
              mm.close()

     *note mmap: 20b.은 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할
     수도 있습니다:

          import mmap

          with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
              mm.write(b"Hello world!")

     Added in version 3.2: 컨텍스트 관리자 지원.

     다음 예제는 익명 맵을 만들고 부모와 자식 프로세스 간에 데이터를 교
     환하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

          import mmap
          import os

          mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
          mm.write(b"Hello world!")

          pid = os.fork()

          if pid == 0:  # 자식 프로세스에서
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())

              mm.close()

     인자 ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’로 *note 감사
     이벤트(auditing event): 18c1. ‘mmap.__new__’를 발생시킵니다.

     메모리 맵 파일 객체는 다음 메서드를 지원합니다:

      -- 메서드: close ()

          mmap를 닫습니다.  이후에 객체의 다른 메서드를 호출하면
          ValueError 예외가 발생합니다.  열려있는 파일을 닫지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: closed

          파일이 닫혔으면 ‘True’입니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: find (sub[, start[, end]])

          서브 시퀀스 'sub'가 발견되는 객체에서 가장 낮은 인덱스를 반환
          합니다.  'sub'는 ['start', 'end'] 범위에 포함되어야 합니다.  선
          택적 인자 'start' 와 'end'는 슬라이스 표기법처럼 해석됩니다.  실
          패하면 ‘-1’를 반환합니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체:
          d2a.를 받아들입니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ([offset[, size]])

          파일의 메모리 내 복사본에 대한 변경 사항을 디스크로 플러시 합
          니다.  이 호출을 사용하지 않으면, 객체가 파괴되기 전에 변경 내
          용이 기록된다고 보장할 수 없습니다.  'offset'과 'size'가 지정
          되면, 지정된 바이트 범위의 변경 사항만 디스크로 플러시 됩니다;
          그렇지 않으면, 매핑의 전체 범위가 플러시 됩니다.  'offset'은
          ‘PAGESIZE’ 나 ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’의 배수여야 합니다.

          성공을 나타내기 위해 ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  호출이 실패하면 예
          외가 발생합니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: 이전에는, 성공 시 0이 아닌 값이 반환되었습
          니다; 윈도우에서 에러 시 0이 반환되었습니다.  성공 시 0 값이 반
          환되었습니다; 유닉스에서 에러 시 예외가 발생했습니다.

      -- 메서드: madvise (option[, start[, length]])

          'start'에서 시작하고 'length' 바이트만큼 확장하는 메모리 영역
          에 대해 커널에 조언 'option'을 보냅니다.  'option'은 시스템에
          서 사용할 수 있는 *note MADV_* 상수: 354d. 중 하나여야 합니다.
          'start'와 'length'가 생략되면, 전체 매핑으로 확장됩니다.  일부
          시스템(리눅스 포함)에서, 'start'는 ‘PAGESIZE’의 배수여야 합니
          다.

          가용성: ‘madvise()’ 시스템 호출이 있는 시스템.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: move (dest, src, count)

          오프셋 'src'에서 시작하는 'count' 바이트를 대상 인덱스 'dest'로
          복사합니다.  mmap이 ‘ACCESS_READ’로 만들어졌으면, move를 호출
          하면 *note TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: read ([n])

          현재의 파일 위치로부터 최대 'n' 바이트를 포함하는 *note bytes:
          1c2.를 반환합니다.  인자가 생략되거나 ‘None’ 이거나 음수면, 현
          재 파일 위치에서 매핑의 끝까지 모든 바이트를 반환합니다.  파일
          위치는 반환된 바이트의 뒤를 가리키도록 갱신됩니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 인자는 생략되거나 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: read_byte ()

          현재 파일 위치의 한 바이트를 정수로 반환하고, 파일 위치를 1 증
          가시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: readline ()

          현재 파일 위치에서 시작하여 다음 줄 바꿈까지 한 줄을 반환합니
          다.  반환된 바이트 뒤를 가리키도록 파일 위치가 갱신됩니다.

      -- 메서드: resize (newsize)

          Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any.

          Resizing a map created with 'access' of ‘ACCESS_READ’ or
          ‘ACCESS_COPY’, will raise a *note TypeError: 532. exception.
          Resizing a map created with 'trackfd' set to ‘False’, will
          raise a *note ValueError: 202. exception.

          'On Windows': Resizing the map will raise an *note OSError:
          411. if there are other maps against the same named file.
          Resizing an anonymous map (ie against the pagefile) will
          silently create a new map with the original data copied over
          up to the length of the new size.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: Correctly fails if attempting to resize
          when another map is held Allows resize against an anonymous
          map on Windows

      -- 메서드: rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

          서브 시퀀스 'sub'가 발견되는 객체에서 가장 높은 인덱스를 반환
          합니다.  'sub'는 ['start', 'end'] 범위에 포함되어야 합니다.  선
          택적 인자 'start' 와 'end'는 슬라이스 표기법처럼 해석됩니다.  실
          패하면 ‘-1’를 반환합니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체:
          d2a.를 받아들입니다.

      -- 메서드: seek (pos[, whence])

          파일의 현재 위치를 설정합니다.  'whence' 인자는 선택적이며 기
          본값은 ‘os.SEEK_SET’ 또는 ‘0’ (절대 파일 위치)입니다; 다른 값
          은 ‘os.SEEK_CUR’ 또는 ‘1’ (현재 위치를 기준으로 seek)과
          ‘os.SEEK_END’ 또는 ‘2’ (파일의 끝을 기준으로 seek)입니다.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Return the new absolute position instead
          of ‘None’.

      -- 메서드: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking, and the return value
          is always ‘True’.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: size ()

          파일의 길이를 반환합니다.  메모리 매핑된 영역의 크기보다 클 수
          있습니다.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          파일 포인터의 현재 위치를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: write (bytes)

          'bytes'의 바이트를 파일 포인터의 현재 위치에 있는 메모리에 기
          록하고 기록된 바이트 수를 반환합니다 (쓰기가 실패하면 *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생하기 때문에 결코 ‘len(bytes)’보다 작지
          않습니다).  파일 위치는 기록된 바이트 뒤를 가리 키도록 갱신됩
          니다.  mmap이 ‘ACCESS_READ’로 만들어졌으면, 기록할 때 *note
          TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 쓰기 가능한 *note 바이트열류 객체:
          d2a.를 받아들입니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 이제 기록한 바이트 수가 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: write_byte (byte)

          정수 'byte'를 파일 포인터의 현재 위치에 있는 메모리에 기록합니
          다; 파일 위치가 ‘1’ 증가합니다.  mmap이 ‘ACCESS_READ’로 만들어
          졌으면, 기록할 때 *note TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.

* Menu:

* MADV_* 상수::
* MAP_* 상수::


File: python.info,  Node: MADV_* 상수,  Next: MAP_* 상수,  Up: mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원

5.19.7.1 MADV_* 상수
....................

 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_NORMAL
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_RANDOM
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_WILLNEED
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_DONTNEED
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_REMOVE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_DONTFORK
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_DOFORK
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_HWPOISON
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_MERGEABLE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_UNMERGEABLE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_HUGEPAGE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_NOHUGEPAGE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_DONTDUMP
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_DODUMP
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_FREE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_NOSYNC
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_AUTOSYNC
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_NOCORE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_CORE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_PROTECT
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSABLE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSE

     이 옵션은 *note mmap.madvise(): a04.로 전달될 수 있습니다.  모든 시
     스템에서 모든 옵션이 제공되는 것은 아닙니다.

     가용성: madvise() 시스템 호출이 있는 시스템.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: MAP_* 상수,  Prev: MADV_* 상수,  Up: mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원

5.19.7.2 MAP_* 상수
...................

 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_SHARED
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_PRIVATE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_32BIT
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_ANON
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_ANONYMOUS
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_CONCEAL
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_DENYWRITE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_EXECUTABLE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_JIT
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_NOCACHE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_NORESERVE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_POPULATE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_STACK
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_TPRO
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE
 -- 데이터: mmap.MAP_UNIX03

     These are the various flags that can be passed to *note
     mmap.mmap(): 20b.  *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 175d. is only available
     at FreeBSD and *note MAP_CONCEAL: 175e. is only available at
     OpenBSD. Note that some options might not be present on some
     systems.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note MAP_POPULATE: 194f. 상수가 추가되었습니다
     .

     Added in version 3.11: *note MAP_STACK: 3573. 상수가 추가되었습니다
     .

     Added in version 3.12: *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 175d. 와 *note
     MAP_CONCEAL: 175e. 상수를 추가했습니다.

     Added in version 3.13: *note MAP_32BIT: 16a8, *note
     MAP_HASSEMAPHORE: 16a3, *note MAP_JIT: 16a5, *note MAP_NOCACHE:
     16a4, *note MAP_NOEXTEND: 16a2, *note MAP_NORESERVE: 16a1, *note
     MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN: 16a6, *note MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA: 16a7,
     *note MAP_TPRO: 16ab, *note MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE: 16a9. 및
     *note MAP_UNIX03: 16aa. 상수를 추가했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 인터넷 데이터 처리,  Next: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구,  Prev: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.20 인터넷 데이터 처리
=======================

이 장에서는 인터넷에서 일반적으로 사용되는 데이터 형식 처리를 지원하는 모
듈에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지::
* json — JSON 인코더와 디코더::
* mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기::
* mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑::
* base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 데이터 인코딩: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
* binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환::
* quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩::


File: python.info,  Node: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지,  Next: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.1 ‘email’ — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note email: 3b. 패키지는 전자 메일 메시지를 관리하기 위한 라이브러리입
니다.  특히 SMTP ( RFC 2821(2)), NNTP 또는 다른 서버로 전자 메일 메시지
를 보내도록 설계되지 '않았'습니다; 그런 것들은 *note smtplib: ca. 같은 모
듈의 기능입니다.  *note email: 3b. 패키지는 RFC 5322(3)와 RFC 6532(4)뿐
만 아니라, RFC 2045(5), RFC 2046(6), RFC 2047(7), RFC 2183(8) 및 RFC
2231(9)와 같은 MIME 관련 RFC를 지원하여 가능한 최대로 RFC를 준수하려고 시
도합니다.

email 패키지의 전체 구조는 세 가지 주요 구성 요소와 다른 구성 요소의 동
작을 제어하는 네 번째 구성 요소로 나눌 수 있습니다.

패키지의 중심 구성 요소는 전자 메일 메시지를 나타내는 “객체 모델”입니다.
응용 프로그램은 주로 *note message: 44. 서브 모듈에 정의된 객체 모델 인
터페이스를 통해 패키지와 상호 작용합니다.  응용 프로그램은 이 API를 사용
하여 기존 전자 메일에 대해 질문을 하거나, 새 전자 메일을 작성하거나, 같
은 객체 모델 인터페이스를 사용하는 전자 메일 하위 구성 요소를 추가하거나
제거할 수 있습니다.  즉, 전자 메일 메시지와 MIME 하위 구성 요소의 특성에
따라, 전자 메일 객체 모델은 모두 *note EmailMessage: 27b. API를 제공하는
객체의 트리 구조입니다.

패키지의 다른 두 가지 주요 구성 요소는 *note parser: 4e.와 *note
generator: 40.입니다.  구문 분석기(parser)는 직렬화된 전자 메일 메시지
(바이트 스트림)를 가져와 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체의 트리로 변환합니
다.  생성기(generator)는 *note EmailMessage: 27b.를 받아서 직렬화된 바이
트 스트림으로 다시 변환합니다.  (구문 분석기와 생성기는 텍스트 문자의 스
트림도 처리하지만, 이 사용법은 유효하지 않은 메시지로 끝나기 쉬우므로 사
용하지 않는 것이 좋습니다.)

제어 구성 요소는 *note policy: 4f. 모듈입니다.  모든 *note EmailMessage:
27b, 모든 *note generator: 40. 및 모든 *note parser: 4e.에는 그것의 동작
을 제어하는 연관된 *note policy: 4f. 객체가 있습니다.  일반적으로 응용 프
로그램은 *note EmailMessage: 27b.가 만들어질 때 정책을 지정하기만 하면 되
는데, *note EmailMessage: 27b.를 직접 인스턴스로 만들어서 새 전자 메일을
만들거나, *note parser: 4e.를 사용하여 입력 스트림을 구문 분석할 때입니
다.  그러나 메시지가 *note generator: 40.를 사용하여 직렬화될 때 정책을
변경할 수 있습니다.  이것은, 예를 들어, 범용 전자 메일 메시지를 디스크에
서 구분 분석하지만, 전자 메일 서버로 보낼 때 표준 SMTP 설정을 사용하여 직
렬화할 수 있도록 합니다.

email 패키지는 응용 프로그램으로부터 각종 관리적인 RFC의 세부 사항을 숨
기기 위해 최선을 다합니다.  개념적으로 응용 프로그램은 전자 메일 메시지
를 유니코드 텍스트와 바이너리 첨부 파일의 구조화 된 트리로 처리할 수 있
어야 하며, 직렬화될 때 이것들이 어떻게 표시되는지 걱정할 필요가 없어야 합
니다.  하지만, 실제로는, MIME 메시지와 그 구조, 특히 MIME “콘텐츠 형식
(content type)”의 이름과 특성, 그리고 다중 부분 문서를 식별하는 방법을 관
리하는 규칙 중 적어도 일부를 신경 쓸 필요가 종종 있습니다.  대부분, 이 지
식은 더욱 복잡한 응용 프로그램에만 필요하며, 그럴 때도 그 구조가 어떻게
표현되는지에 대한 세부 사항이 아닌, 문제가 되는 고수준 구조에 관한 것이
어야 합니다.  MIME 콘텐츠 유형은 최신 인터넷 소프트웨어(전자 메일뿐만 아
니라)에서 널리 사용되므로, 많은 프로그래머에게 익숙한 개념입니다.

다음 절에서는 *note email: 3b. 패키지의 기능에 관해 설명합니다.  응용 프
로그램에서 사용할 기본 인터페이스인 *note message: 44. 객체 모델부터 시
작하여, *note parser: 4e.와 *note generator: 40. 구성 요소를 다룹니다.  그
런 다음 *note policy: 4f. 제어를 다뤄서, 라이브러리의 주요 구성 요소를 마
무리합니다.

다음 세 절에서는 패키지에서 발생할 수 있는 예외와 *note parser: 4e.가 감
지할 수 있는 결함(RFC를 준수하지 않는)에 관해 설명합니다.  그런 다음
*note headerregistry: 42.와 *note contentmanager: 3d. 하위 구성 요소를 다
룹니다.  이것들은 각각 헤더와 페이로드를 보다 자세하게 조작할 수 있는 도
구를 제공합니다.  이 두 구성 요소는 모두 단순하지 않은 메시지를 소비하고
생성하는 것과 관련된 기능을 포함하지만, 고급 응용 프로그램이 관심을 가질
확장 API를 설명하기도 합니다.

그다음은 이전 절에서 다룬 API의 기본 부분들을 사용하는 일련의 예제입니다
.

앞의 내용은 email 패키지의 최신(유니코드 친화적인) API를 나타냅니다.
*note Message: 27c. 클래스로 시작하는 나머지 절에서는 전자 메일 메시지가
표현되는 방법에 대한 세부 사항을 훨씬 직접 다루는 레거시 *note compat32:
c96. API를 다룹니다.  *note compat32: c96. API는 응용 프로그램으로부터
RFC 세부 사항을 숨기지 '않습니다'만, 그 수준에서 작동해야 하는 응용 프로
그램에는 유용한 도구가 될 수 있습니다.  이 설명서는 과거 호환성을 위해 여
전히 *note compat32: c96. API를 사용하는 응용 프로그램과도 관련이 있습니
다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: 새로운 *note EmailMessage: 27b./*note EmailPolicy:
10aa. API를 홍보하기 위해 설명서가 재구성되고 다시 작성되었습니다.

*note email: 3b. 패키지 설명서의 목차:

* Menu:

* email.message; 전자 메일 메시지 표현: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
* email.parser; 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석.
* email.generator; MIME 문서 생성: email generator MIME 문서 생성.
* email.policy; 정책 객체: email policy 정책 객체.
* email.errors; 예외와 결함 클래스: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
* email.headerregistry; 사용자 정의 헤더 객체: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
* email.contentmanager; MIME 콘텐츠 관리: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
* email; 예제: email 예제.
* email.message.Message; compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
* email.mime; 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
* email.header; 국제화된 헤더: email header 국제화된 헤더.
* email.charset; 문자 집합 표현: email charset 문자 집합 표현.
* email.encoders; 인코더: email encoders 인코더.
* email.utils; 기타 유틸리티: email utils 기타 유틸리티.
* email.iterators; 이터레이터: email iterators 이터레이터.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/__init__.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현,  Next: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.1 ‘email.message’: 전자 메일 메시지 표현
...............................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/message.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

*note email: 3b. 패키지의 중심 클래스는 *note email.message: 44. 모듈에
서 임포트 되는 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 클래스입니다.  *note email: 3b.
객체 모델의 베이스 클래스입니다.  *note EmailMessage: 27b.는 헤더 필드 설
정과 조회, 메시지 본문 액세스 및 구조화된 메시지 작성이나 수정을 위한 핵
심 기능을 제공합니다.

전자 메일 메시지는 '헤더(headers)'와 '페이 로드(payload)'('내용
(content)'이라고도 합니다)로 구성됩니다.  헤더는 RFC 5322(3)나 RFC
6532(4) 스타일 필드 이름과 값이며, 필드 이름과 값은 콜론으로 구분됩니다.
콜론은 필드 이름이나 필드 값의 일부가 아닙니다.  페이 로드는 간단한 텍스
트 메시지, 바이너리 객체 또는 각각 자신만의 헤더 집합과 자신만의 페이 로
드를 갖는 서브 메시지들의 구조화된 시퀀스일 수 있습니다.  마지막 유형의
페이 로드는 ‘multipart/*’나 ‘message/rfc822’와 같은 MIME 유형을 가진 메
시지로 표시됩니다.

*note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체가 제공하는 개념적 모델은 메시지의 RFC
5322(5) 본문을 나타내는 'payload'와 결합 된 헤더들의 순서 있는 딕셔너리
이며, 본문은 서브-‘EmailMessage’ 객체의 리스트일 수 있습니다.  헤더 이름
과 값에 액세스하기 위한 일반적인 딕셔너리 메서드 외에도, 헤더에서 특수 정
보(예를 들어 MIME 콘텐츠 유형)에 액세스하고, 페이 로드를 다루고, 메시지
의 직렬화된 버전을 생성하고, 객체 트리를 재귀적으로 탐색하는 메서드가 있
습니다.

*note EmailMessage: 27b. 딕셔너리류 인터페이스는 ASCII 값이어야 하는 헤
더 이름으로 인덱싱됩니다.  딕셔너리의 값은 몇 가지 추가 메서드가 있는 문
자열입니다.  헤더는 대소 문자를 유지하면서 저장되고 반환되지만, 필드 이
름은 대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 일치합니다.  키 순서가 있습니다.  하지만
실제 딕셔너리와 달리 중복된 키를 가질 수 있습니다.  중복 키가 있는 헤더
로 작업하기 위한 추가 메서드가 제공됩니다.

'페이 로드'는 간단한 메시지 객체의 경우 문자열이나 바이트열 객체이고,
‘multipart/*’와 ‘message/rfc822’ 메시지 객체와 같은 MIME 컨테이너 문서에
서는 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체의 리스트입니다.

 -- 클래스: email.message.EmailMessage (policy=default)

     'policy'가 지정되면, 그것이 지정하는 규칙을 사용하여 메시지 표현을
     갱신하고 직렬화합니다.  'policy'가 설정되지 않으면, 줄 종료를 제외
     하고는 전자 메일 RFC 규칙을 따르는 *note default: 357c. 정책을 사용
     합니다 (RFC가 요구하는 ‘\r\n’ 대신에, 파이썬 표준 ‘\n’ 줄 종료를 사
     용합니다).  자세한 내용은 *note policy: 4f. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None,
               policy=None)

          전체 메시지를 평평하게 만든 문자열을 반환합니다.  선택적
          'unixfrom'이 참이면, 봉투 헤더(envelope header)가 반환된 문자
          열에 포함됩니다.  'unixfrom'의 기본값은 ‘False’입니다.  베이스
          *note Message: 27c. 클래스와의 과거 호환성을 위해
          'maxheaderlen'이 허용되지만, 기본값은 ‘None’이고, 이는 기본적
          으로 줄 길이가 정책의 *note max_line_length: 357e.에 의해 제어
          됨을 의미합니다.  'policy' 인자는 메시지 인스턴스에서 얻은 기
          본 정책을 대체하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  지정된 'policy'가
          *note Generator: 11bd.로 전달되기 때문에, 메서드가 생성하는 포
          매팅의 일부를 제어하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          문자열로의 변환을 완료하기 위해 기본값을 채워야 하면 메시지를
          평평하게 만들 때 *note EmailMessage: 27b.에 대한 변경이 발생할
          수 있습니다 (예를 들어, MIME 경계(boundaries)가 생성되거나 수
          정될 수 있습니다).

          이 메서드는 편의상 제공되며, 응용 프로그램에서 메시지를 직렬화
          하는 가장 유용한 방법은 아닐 수 있습니다, 특히 여러 메시지를 다
          룬다면 그렇습니다.  메시지 직렬화를 위한 더 유연한 API는 *note
          email.generator.Generator: 11bd.를 참조하십시오.  또한 이 메서
          드는 *note utf8: df4.가 ‘False’(기본값)일 때 “7비트 클린”으로
          직렬화된 메시지를 생성하는 것으로 제한됩니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 'maxheaderlen'이 지정되지 않았을 때의 기본
          동작은 기본값을 0으로 하는 것에서 정책(policy)의
          'max_line_length' 값을 기본값으로 사용하는 것으로 변경되었습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          ‘as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))’와 동등합니다.
          ‘str(msg)’가 직렬화된 메시지를 포함하는 문자열을 읽을 수 있는
          형식으로 생성할 수 있도록 합니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 메서드는 ‘utf8=True’를 사용하도록 변경되
          어, *note as_string(): 357d.의 직접적인 별칭인 대신, RFC
          6531(6)과 유사한 메시지 표현을 생성합니다.

      -- 메서드: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          전체 메시지를 평평하게 만든 바이트열 객체를 반환합니다.  선택
          적 'unixfrom'이 참이면, 봉투 헤더(envelope header)가 반환된 문
          자열에 포함됩니다.  'unixfrom'의 기본값은 ‘False’입니다.
          'policy' 인자는 메시지 인스턴스에서 얻은 기본 정책을 대체하는
          데 사용될 수 있습니다.  지정된 'policy'가 *note
          BytesGenerator: 11be.로 전달되기 때문에, 메서드가 생성하는 포
          매팅의 일부를 제어하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          문자열로의 변환을 완료하기 위해 기본값을 채워야 하면 메시지를
          평평하게 만들 때 *note EmailMessage: 27b.에 대한 변경이 발생할
          수 있습니다 (예를 들어, MIME 경계(boundaries)가 생성되거나 수
          정될 수 있습니다).

          이 메서드는 편의상 제공되며, 응용 프로그램에서 메시지를 직렬화
          하는 가장 유용한 방법은 아닐 수 있습니다, 특히 여러 메시지를 다
          룬다면 그렇습니다.  메시지 직렬화를 위한 더 유연한 API는 *note
          email.generator.BytesGenerator: 11be.를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: __bytes__ ()

          *note as_bytes(): 3580.와 동등합니다.  ‘bytes(msg)’가 직렬화된
          메시지를 포함하는 바이트열 객체를 생성할 수 있도록 합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_multipart ()

          메시지의 페이 로드가 서브-*note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체의 리스
          트면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  *note
          is_multipart(): 3582.가 ‘False’를 반환할 때, 페이 로드는 문자
          열 객체(CTE 인코딩된 바이너리 페이 로드일 수 있습니다)여야 합
          니다.  ‘True’를 반환하는 *note is_multipart(): 3582.가 반드시
          “msg.get_content_maintype() == ‘multipart‘“가 ‘True’를 반환한
          다는 것을 의미하지는 않습니다.  예를 들어, *note EmailMessage:
          27b.가 ‘message/rfc822’ 유형일 때 ‘is_multipart’는 ‘True’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          메시지의 봉투 헤더(envelope header)를 문자열이어야 하는
          'unixfrom'으로 설정합니다.  (이 헤더에 대한 간단한 설명은
          *note mboxMessage: 3584.를 참조하십시오.)

      -- 메서드: get_unixfrom ()

          메시지의 봉투 헤더(envelope header)를 반환합니다.  봉투 헤더가
          설정되지 않았으면 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.

     다음 메서드는 메시지 헤더에 액세스하기 위한 매핑류 인터페이스를 구
     현합니다.  이 메서드들과 일반 매핑(즉, 딕셔너리) 인터페이스 사이에
     는 의미상 차이가 있습니다.  예를 들어, 딕셔너리에는 중복 키가 없지
     만, 여기서는 중복 메시지 헤더가 있을 수 있습니다.  또한 딕셔너리에
     서는 *note keys(): 3586.가 반환한 키의 순서가 보장되지 않지만,
     *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체에서는 헤더가 항상 원래 메시지에 나타
     난 순서대로, 또는 나중에 메시지에 추가된 순서대로 반환됩니다.  삭제
     한 후 다시 추가된 헤더는 항상 헤더 리스트의 끝에 추가됩니다.

     이러한 의미적 차이는 의도적이며 가장 흔한 사용 사례에서의 편의를 추
     구하는 쪽으로 기울어져 있습니다.

     모든 경우에, 메시지에 존재하는 봉투 헤더는 매핑 인터페이스에 포함되
     지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: __len__ ()

          중복을 포함하여, 총 헤더 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: __contains__ (name)

          메시지 객체에 'name'이라는 필드가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
          대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 일치하며, 'name'은 후행 콜론을 포함
          하지 않습니다.  ‘in’ 연산자에 사용됩니다.  예를 들면:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- 메서드: __getitem__ (name)

          이름으로 지정된 헤더 필드의 값을 반환합니다.  'name'은 콜론 필
          드 구분자를 포함하지 않습니다.  헤더가 없으면 ‘None’이 반환됩
          니다; *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생하지 않습니다.

          이름이 지정된 필드가 메시지 헤더에 두 번 이상 나타나면, 해당 필
          드 값 중 정확히 어떤 필드 값이 반환되는지 정의되지 않습니다.
          *note get_all(): 358a. 메서드를 사용하여 'name'으로 이름이 지
          정된 모든 기존 헤더의 값을 가져오십시오.

          표준 (‘compat32’가 아닌) 정책을 사용하여, 반환된 값은 *note
          email.headerregistry.BaseHeader: 358b.의 서브 클래스 인스턴스
          입니다.

      -- 메서드: __setitem__ (name, val)

          필드 이름이 'name'이고 값이 'val'인 헤더를 메시지에 추가합니다
          .  필드는 메시지의 기존 헤더들 끝에 추가됩니다.

          같은 이름을 가진 기존 헤더를 덮어쓰거나 삭제하지 '않습니다'.  새
          헤더가 메시지에서 필드 이름이 'name'인 유일한 것이 되도록 하려
          면, 먼저 필드를 삭제하십시오.  예를 들어:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

          *note 정책: 4f.이 (표준 정책에서처럼) 특정 헤더를 고유한
          (unique) 것으로 정의하면, 이 메서드는 헤더가 이미 존재할 때 해
          당 헤더에 값을 할당하려고 시도하면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
          생시킬 수 있습니다.  이 동작은 일관성을 위해 의도적이지만, 향
          후 이러한 대입이 기존 헤더를 자동으로 삭제하도록 선택할 수 있
          기 때문에, 이것에 의존하지 마십시오.

      -- 메서드: __delitem__ (name)

          메시지 헤더에서 이름이 'name'인 모든 필드를 삭제합니다.  해당
          이름의 필드가 헤더에 없어도 예외가 발생하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          메시지의 모든 헤더 필드 이름의 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: values ()

          메시지의 모든 필드 값의 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          메시지의 모든 필드 헤더와 값을 담은 2-튜플의 리스트를 반환합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: get (name, failobj=None)

          명명된 헤더 필드의 값을 반환합니다.  명명된 헤더가 없을 때 선
          택적 'failobj'가 반환된다는 점을 제외하면 *note __getitem__():
          283.와 같습니다 ('failobj'의 기본값은 ‘None’).

     추가적인 유용한 헤더 관련 메서드는 다음과 같습니다:

      -- 메서드: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          'name'으로 명명된 필드의 모든 값의 리스트를 반환합니다.  메시
          지에 그런 이름의 헤더가 없으면 'failobj'가 반환됩니다 (기본값
          은 ‘None’).

      -- 메서드: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          확장된 헤더 설정.  이 메서드는 추가 헤더 파라미터가 키워드 인
          자로 제공될 수 있다는 점을 제외하고는 *note __setitem__():
          358c.과 유사합니다.  '_name'은 추가할 헤더 필드이고 '_value'는
          헤더의 '기본(primary)'값입니다.

          키워드 인자 딕셔너리 '_params'의 각 항목에 대해, 키는 파라미터
          이름으로 사용되며 밑줄은 대시로 변환됩니다 (대시는 파이썬 식별
          자에서 유효하지 않기 때문입니다).  일반적으로, 값이 ‘None’이 아
          니면 파라미터가 ‘key="value"’로 추가되며, None이면 키만 추가됩
          니다.

          값에 ASCII가 아닌 문자가 포함되면, 값을 ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE,
          VALUE)’ 형식의 3-튜플로 지정하여 문자 집합과 언어를 명시적으로
          제어 할 수 있습니다.  여기서 ‘CHARSET’은 값을 인코딩하는 데 사
          용할 문자 집합의 이름을 지정하는 문자열이고, ‘LANGUAGE’는 보통
          ‘None’이나 빈 문자열(다른 가능성은 RFC 2231(7)을 참조하십시오
          )로 설정되고, ‘VALUE’는 비 ASCII 코드 포인트를 포함하는 문자열
          값입니다.  3-튜플이 전달되지 않고 값에 ASCII가 아닌 문자가 포
          함되면, ‘CHARSET’으로 ‘utf-8’, ‘LANGUAGE’로 ‘None’을 사용하여
          RFC 2231(8) 형식으로 자동 인코딩됩니다.

          예를 들면 다음과 같습니다:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          이것은 다음과 같은 헤더를 추가합니다

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          비 ASCII 문자가 있는 확장 인터페이스의 예:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

      -- 메서드: replace_header (_name, _value)

          헤더를 교체합니다.  메시지에서 발견된 '_name'과 일치하는 첫 번
          째 헤더를 교체하고, 원래 헤더의 헤더 순서와 필드 이름 케이스
          (case)를 유지합니다.  일치하는 헤더가 없으면 *note KeyError:
          33d.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_type ()

          ‘maintype/subtype’ 형식의 소문자로 강제 변환된 메시지의 콘텐츠
          유형을 반환합니다.  메시지에 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없으면
          *note get_default_type(): 3594.이 반환하는 값을 반환합니다.
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 유효하지 않으면 ‘text/plain’을 반환합니
          다.

          ( RFC 2045(9)에 따라, 메시지는 항상 기본 유형을 가지며, *note
          get_content_type(): 3593.은 항상 값을 반환합니다.  RFC
          2045(10)는 ‘multipart/digest’ 컨테이너 내에 등장하면 기본 유형
          이 ‘message/rfc822’이고, 그렇지 않으면 기본 유형을
          ‘text/plain’으로 정의합니다.  ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 유효하지 않
          은 유형 지정이면, RFC 2045(11)는 기본 유형을 ‘text/plain’으로
          강제합니다.)

      -- 메서드: get_content_maintype ()

          메시지의 메인 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note
          get_content_type(): 3593.이 반환한 문자열의 ‘maintype’ 부분입
          니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_subtype ()

          메시지의 서브 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note
          get_content_type(): 3593.이 반환한 문자열의 ‘subtype’ 부분입니
          다.

      -- 메서드: get_default_type ()

          기본 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  ‘multipart/digest’ 컨테이너의
          서브 파트인 메시지를 제외하고 대부분의 메시지는 기본 콘텐츠 유
          형이 ‘text/plain’입니다.  이러한 서브 파트는 기본 콘텐츠 유형
          이 ‘message/rfc822’입니다.

      -- 메서드: set_default_type (ctype)

          기본 콘텐츠 유형을 설정합니다.  'ctype'은 ‘text/plain’이나
          ‘message/rfc822’여야 하지만, 이것을 강제하지는 않습니다.  기본
          콘텐츠 유형은 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 저장되지 않기 때문에, 메시
          지에 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없을 때 ‘get_content_type’ 메서드의
          반환 값에만 영향을 줍니다.

      -- 메서드: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 파라미터를 설정합니다.  파라미터가 이미
          헤더에 존재하면, 해당 값을 'value'로 바꿉니다.  'header'가
          ‘Content-Type’(기본값)이고 헤더가 메시지에 아직 없으면, 헤더를
          추가하고 값을 ‘text/plain’으로 설정한 다음 새 파라미터 값을 추
          가합니다.  선택적 'header'는 ‘Content-Type’의 대체 헤더를 지정
          합니다.

          값에 ASCII가 아닌 문자가 포함되면, 선택적 'charset'과
          'language' 매개 변수를 사용하여 문자 집합과 언어를 명시적으로
          지정할 수 있습니다.  선택적 'language'는 RFC 2231(12) 언어를 지
          정하며, 기본값은 빈 문자열입니다.  'charset'과 'language'는 모
          두 문자열이어야 합니다.  기본값은 ‘utf8’ 'charset'과 ‘None’
          'language'를 사용하는 것입니다.

          'replace'가 ‘False’(기본값)이면 헤더는 헤더 리스트의 끝으로 이
          동합니다.  'replace'가 ‘True’이면, 헤더는 제자리에서 갱신됩니
          다.

          *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체에 'requote' 매개 변수를 사용하는
          것은 폐지되었습니다.

          헤더의 기존 파라미터값은 헤더 값의 *note params: 3599. 어트리
          뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있음에 유의하십시오 (예를 들어,
          ‘msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']’).

          버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘replace’ 키워드가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에서 지정된 파라미터를 완전히 제거합니다.  헤
          더는 해당 파라미터나 그 값 없이 제자리에서 다시 작성됩니다.  선
          택적 'header'는 ‘Content-Type’의 대체 헤더를 지정합니다.

          *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체에 'requote' 매개 변수를 사용하는
          것은 폐지되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_filename (failobj=None)

          메시지의 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더의 ‘filename’ 파라미터값을
          반환합니다.  헤더에 ‘filename’ 파라미터가 없으면, 이 메서드는
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에서 ‘name’ 파라미터를 찾는 것으로 폴백
          (fallback)합니다.  둘 다 없거나 헤더가 없으면, 'failobj'가 반
          환됩니다.  반환된 문자열은 항상 *note email.utils.unquote():
          359c.에 따라 unquote 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          메시지의 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 ‘boundary’ 파라미터값, 또는 헤
          더가 없거나 ‘boundary’ 파라미터가 없으면 'failobj'를 반환합니
          다.  반환된 문자열은 항상 *note email.utils.unquote(): 359c.에
          따라 unquote 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set_boundary (boundary)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 ‘boundary’ 파라미터를 'boundary'로 설정
          합니다.  필요하면 *note set_boundary(): 359e.는 항상
          'boundary'를 quote 합니다.  메시지 객체에 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더
          가 없으면 *note HeaderParseError: 359f.가 발생합니다.

          *note set_boundary(): 359e.가 헤더 리스트에서 ‘Content-Type’ 헤
          더의 순서를 유지하기 때문에, 이 메서드를 사용하는 것은 이전
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더를 삭제하고 *note add_header(): 3591.를 통
          해 새 boundary로 새 헤더를 추가하는 것과는 미묘한 차이가 있음
          에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 ‘charset’ 파라미터를 소문자로 강제 변환
          하여 반환합니다.  ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없거나 헤더에
          ‘charset’ 파라미터가 없으면 'failobj'가 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          메시지 내의 문자 집합 이름들을 포함하는 리스트를 반환합니다.  메
          시지가 ‘multipart’이면, 리스트는 페이 로드의 각 서브 파트마다
          하나의 요소를 포함하며, 그렇지 않으면 길이 1인 리스트가 됩니다
          .

          리스트의 각 항목은 표현된 서브 파트에 대한 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더
          의 ‘charset’ 파라미터의 값인 문자열입니다.  서브 파트에
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없거나, ‘charset’ 파라미터가 없거나,
          ‘text’ 메인 MIME 유형이 아니면, 반환된 리스트의 해당 항목은
          'failobj'입니다.

      -- 메서드: is_attachment ()

          ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더가 있고 (대소 문자를 구분하지 않는)
          값이 ‘attachment’이면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합
          니다.

          버전 3.4.2에서 변경: *note is_multipart(): 35a3.와 일관성을 유
          지하기 위해, is_attachment는 이제 프로퍼티 대신 메서드입니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_disposition ()

          메시지의 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더가 있으면 소문자로 변환된
          (파라미터 없는) 값을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  메시
          지가 RFC 2183(13)을 따르면, 이 메서드의 가능한 값은 'inline',
          'attachment' 또는 ‘None’입니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

     다음 메서드는 메시지의 내용(페이 로드)을 조사하고 조작하는 것과 관
     련이 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: walk ()

          *note walk(): 35a5. 메서드는 메시지 객체 트리의 모든 파트와 서
          브 파트를 깊이 우선 탐색 순서로 이터레이트 하는 데 사용할 수 있
          는 범용 제너레이터입니다.  일반적으로 *note walk(): 35a5.를
          ‘for’ 루프에서 이터레이터로 사용합니다; 각 이터레이션은 다음 서
          브 파트를 반환합니다.

          다음은 멀티 파트 메시지 구조의 모든 파트의 MIME 유형을 인쇄하
          는 예입니다:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’가 ‘False’를 반환하
          더라도, ‘walk’는 *note is_multipart(): 3582.가 ‘True’를 반환하
          는 모든 파트의 서브 파트를 이터레이트 합니다.  ‘_structure’ 디
          버그 도우미 함수를 사용하여 예제에서 이를 확인할 수 있습니다:

               >>> from email.iterators import _structure
               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          여기서 ‘message’ 파트는 ‘multiparts’는 아니지만, 서브 파트를 포
          함합니다.  ‘is_multipart()’는 ‘True’를 반환하고 ‘walk’는 서브
          파트로 내려갑니다.

      -- 메서드: get_body (preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))

          메시지의 “본문”이 될 수 있는 가장 적합한 후보인 MIME 파트를 반
          환합니다.

          'preferencelist'는 ‘related’, ‘html’ 및 ‘plain’ 집합의 문자열
          시퀀스이어야 하며, 반환된 파트의 콘텐츠 유형에 대한 선호 순서
          를 나타냅니다.

          ‘get_body’ 메서드가 호출된 객체와 일치하는 후보를 찾기 시작합
          니다.

          ‘related’가 'preferencelist'에 포함되지 않으면, (서브) 파트가
          선호와 일치하면 후보로 만난 모든 관련(related)의 루트 파트(또
          는 루트 파트의 서브 파트)를 고려합니다.

          ‘multipart/related’와 만날 때, ‘start’ 파라미터를 확인하고 일
          치하는 ‘Content-ID’가 있는 파트를 발견하면, 일치하는 후보를 찾
          을 때만 고려합니다.  그렇지 않으면 ‘multipart/related’의 첫 번
          째 (기본 루트) 파트만 고려합니다.

          파트에 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더가 있으면, 헤더 값이
          ‘inline’일 때만 해당 파트를 후보로 간주합니다.

          'preferencelist'의 선호 어느 것과도 일치하는 후보가 없으면,
          ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          참고: (1) 대부분의 응용 프로그램에서 실제로 의미가 있는
          'preferencelist' 조합은 ‘('plain',)’, ‘('html', 'plain')’ 및 기
          본 ‘('related', 'html', 'plain')’뿐입니다.  (2) ‘get_body’가 호
          출되는 객체에서 일치가 시작되므로, 'preferencelist'가 기본값이
          면 ‘multipart/related’에서 ‘get_body’를 호출하면 객체 자신을 반
          환합니다.  (3) ‘Content-Type’을 지정하지 않거나 ‘Content-Type’
          헤더가 유효하지 않은 메시지(또는 메시지 파트)는 마치
          ‘text/plain’ 유형인 것처럼 처리되어, 간혹 ‘get_body’가 예기치
          않은 결과를 반환하도록 합니다.

      -- 메서드: iter_attachments ()

          “본문” 파트 후보가 아닌 메시지의 모든 직접적인 서브 파트에 대
          한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  즉, ‘text/plain’, ‘text/html’,
          ‘multipart/related’ 또는 ‘multipart/alternative’ 각각의 첫 번
          째 등장을 건너뛰고 (‘Content-Disposition: attachment’를 통해 첨
          부 파일로 명시적으로 표시되지 않은 한), 나머지 모든 파트를 반
          환합니다.  ‘multipart/related’에 직접 적용될 때, 루트 파트(즉:
          ‘start’ 파라미터가 가리키는 파트나 ‘start’ 파라미터가 없거나
          ‘start’ 파라미터가 파트들의 ‘Content-ID’와 일치하지 않으면 첫
          번째 파트)를 제외한 모든 관련 파트에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합
          니다.  ‘multipart/alternative’ 또는 비-‘multipart’에 직접 적용
          되면 빈 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: iter_parts ()

          메시지의 모든 직계 서브 파트에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.
          ‘multipart’가 아니면 비어있게 됩니다.  (*note walk(): 35a5.도
          참조하십시오.)

      -- 메서드: get_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          'content_manager'의 *note get_content(): 35aa. 메서드를 호출합
          니다.  추가 인자로 제공되는 인자나 키워드와 함께 self를 메시지
          객체로 전달합니다.  'content_manager'가 지정되지 않으면, 현재
          *note policy: 4f.가 지정하는 ‘content_manager’를 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          'content_manager'의 *note set_content(): 35ab. 메서드를 호출합
          니다.  추가 인자로 제공되는 인자나 키워드와 함께 self를 메시지
          객체로 전달합니다.  'content_manager'가 지정되지 않으면, 현재
          *note policy: 4f.가 지정하는 ‘content_manager’를 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: make_related (boundary=None)

          비 ‘multipart’ 메시지를 ‘multipart/related’ 메시지로 변환합니
          다.  기존 ‘Content-’ 헤더와 페이 로드를 ‘multipart’의 (새로운)
          첫 파트로 옮깁니다.  'boundary'가 지정되면, multipart에서 경계
          문자열로 사용하고, 그렇지 않으면 필요할 때 (예를 들어, 메시지
          가 직렬화될 때) 경계가 자동으로 만들어지도록 둡니다.

      -- 메서드: make_alternative (boundary=None)

          비 ‘multipart’나 ‘multipart/related’를
          ‘multipart/alternative’로 변환합니다.  기존 ‘Content-’ 헤더와
          페이 로드를 ‘multipart’의 (새로운) 첫 파트로 옮깁니다.
          'boundary'가 지정되면, multipart에서 경계 문자열로 사용하고, 그
          렇지 않으면 필요할 때 (예를 들어, 메시지가 직렬화될 때) 경계가
          자동으로 만들어지도록 둡니다.

      -- 메서드: make_mixed (boundary=None)

          비 ‘multipart’, ‘multipart/related’ 또는
          ‘multipart-alternative’를 ‘multipart/mixed’로 변환합니다.  기
          존 ‘Content-’ 헤더와 페이 로드를 ‘multipart’의 (새로운) 첫 파
          트로 옮깁니다.  'boundary'가 지정되면, multipart에서 경계 문자
          열로 사용하고, 그렇지 않으면 필요할 때 (예를 들어, 메시지가 직
          렬화될 때) 경계가 자동으로 만들어지도록 둡니다.

      -- 메서드: add_related (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          메시지가 ‘multipart/related’이면, 새 메시지 객체를 만들고, 모
          든 인자를 그것의 *note set_content(): 18af. 메서드에 전달하고,
          그것을 ‘multipart’에 *note attach(): 35b0.합니다.  메시지가
          ‘multipart’가 아니면, *note make_related(): 35ac.를 호출한 다
          음 위에서처럼 진행합니다.  메시지가 다른 유형의 ‘multipart’이
          면, *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  'content_manager'가
          지정되지 않으면, 현재 *note policy: 4f.가 지정하는
          ‘content_manager’를 사용합니다.  추가된 파트에
          ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더가 없으면, 값 ‘inline’으로 추가합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: add_alternative (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          메시지가 ‘multipart/alternative’이면, 새 메시지 객체를 만들고,
          모든 인자를 그것의 *note set_content(): 18af. 메서드에 전달하
          고, 그것을 ‘multipart’에 *note attach(): 35b0.합니다.  메시지
          가 ‘multipart’가 아니거나 ‘multipart/related’이면, *note
          make_alternative(): 35ad.를 호출한 다음 위에서처럼 진행합니다.
          메시지가 다른 유형의 ‘multipart’이면, *note TypeError: 532.를
          발생시킵니다.  'content_manager'가 지정되지 않으면, 현재 *note
          policy: 4f.가 지정하는 ‘content_manager’를 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_attachment (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          메시지가 ‘multipart/mixed’이면, 새 메시지 객체를 만들고, 모든
          인자를 그것의 *note set_content(): 18af. 메서드에 전달하고, 그
          것을 ‘multipart’에 *note attach(): 35b0.합니다.  메시지가
          ‘multipart’가 아니거나, ‘multipart/related’나
          ‘multipart/alternative’이면, *note make_mixed(): 35ae.를 호출
          한 다음 위에서처럼 진행합니다.  'content_manager'가 지정되지 않
          으면, 현재 *note policy: 4f.가 지정하는 ‘content_manager’를 사
          용합니다.  추가된 파트에 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더가 없으면,
          값 ‘attachment’로 추가합니다.  이 메서드는 ‘content_manager’에
          적절한 옵션을 전달하여 명시적 첨부(‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’)와 ‘inline’ 첨부(‘Content-Disposition: inline’)에
          모두 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          페이 로드와 모든 헤더를 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear_content ()

          페이 로드와 모든 ‘!Content-’ 헤더를 제거하고, 다른 모든 헤더는
          원래 순서대로 그대로 둡니다.

     *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체에는 다음과 같은 인스턴스 어트리뷰트가
     있습니다:

      -- 속성: preamble

          MIME 문서의 형식은 헤더 다음의 빈 줄과 첫 번째 멀티 파트 경계
          문자열 사이에 어떤 텍스트를 허용합니다.  일반적으로 이 텍스트
          는 표준 MIME 방어구를 벗어나기 때문에 MIME을 인식하는 메일 리
          더에서 보이지 않습니다.  그러나, 메시지의 원시 텍스트를 보거나
          , MIME을 인식하지 않는 리더에서 메시지를 볼 때 이 텍스트가 나
          타날 수 있습니다.

          'preamble' 어트리뷰트는 MIME 문서에 있는 이 선행 방어구 밖 텍
          스트를 포함합니다.  *note Parser: 118d.가 헤더 다음이지만 첫 번
          째 경계 문자열 이전에 있는 어떤 텍스트를 발견하면, 이 텍스트를
          메시지의 'preamble' 어트리뷰트에 대입합니다.  *note Generator:
          11bd.가 MIME 메시지의 일반 텍스트(plain text) 표현을 기록할 때
          , 메시지가 'preamble' 어트리뷰트를 가진 것을 발견하면, 헤더와
          첫 번째 경계 사이의 영역에 이 텍스트를 씁니다.  자세한 내용은
          *note email.parser: 4e.와 *note email.generator: 40.를 참조하
          십시오.

          메시지 객체에 preamble이 없으면, 'preamble' 어트리뷰트는
          ‘None’입니다.

      -- 속성: epilogue

          'epilogue' 어트리뷰트는 메시지의 마지막 경계와 끝 사이에 나타
          나는 텍스트를 포함한다는 점을 제외하고 'preamble' 어트리뷰트와
          같은 방식으로 작동합니다.  *note preamble: 35b5.과 마찬가지로
          epilog 텍스트가 없으면, 이 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’입니다.

      -- 속성: defects

          'defects' 어트리뷰트는 이 메시지를 구문 분석할 때 발견된 모든
          문제점의 리스트를 포함합니다.  가능한 구문 분석 결함에 대한 자
          세한 설명은 *note email.errors: 3f.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: email.message.MIMEPart (policy=default)

     이 클래스는 MIME 메시지의 서브 파트를 나타냅니다.  서브 파트에는 자
     체 ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더가 필요하지 않아서, *note set_content():
     18af.를 호출할 때 ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더가 추가되지 않는다는 점을 제외
     하면 *note EmailMessage: 27b.와 같습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/message.py

   (2) 원래 3.4에서 *note 잠정 모듈: 1037.로 추가되었습니다.  레거시 메
시지 클래스를 위한 설명서는 *note email.message.Message; compat32 API를
사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기: 357b.로 옮겼습니다.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석,  Next: email generator MIME 문서 생성,  Prev: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.2 ‘email.parser’: 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석
...................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

메시지 객체 구조는 두 가지 방법으로 만들 수 있습니다: *note
EmailMessage: 27b. 객체를 만들고, 딕셔너리 인터페이스를 사용하여 헤더를
추가하고, *note set_content(): 18af.와 관련 메서드를 사용하여 페이 로드
를 추가하여 아예 새로 만들 수 있습니다.  또는 전자 메일 메시지의 직렬화
된 표현을 구문 분석해서 만들 수 있습니다.

*note email: 3b. 패키지는 MIME 문서를 포함한 대부분의 전자 우편 문서 구
조를 이해하는 표준 구문 분석기를 제공합니다.  구문 분석기에 바이트열, 문
자열 또는 파일 객체를 전달하면 구문 분석기가 객체 구조의 루트 *note
EmailMessage: 27b. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  MIME이 아닌 간단한 메시지의 경
우 이 루트 객체의 페이 로드는 메시지의 텍스트를 포함하는 문자열일 수 있
습니다.  MIME 메시지의 경우 루트 객체는 *note is_multipart(): 3582. 메서
드가 ‘True’를 반환하고, *note get_body(): 35a6, *note iter_parts():
35a8. 및 *note walk(): 35a5.와 같은 페이 로드 조작 메서드를 통해 서브 파
트에 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

실제로 사용 가능한 두 가지 구문 분석기 인터페이스가 있습니다, *note
Parser: 118d. API와 증분 *note FeedParser: 35ba. API. *note Parser:
118d. API는 메시지의 전체 텍스트가 메모리에 있거나 전체 메시지가 파일 시
스템의 파일에 있을 때 가장 유용합니다.  더 많은 입력을 기다리기 위해 블
록할 수 있는 스트림에서 메시지를 읽을 때는 *note FeedParser: 35ba.가 더
적합합니다 (가령 소켓에서 전자 메일 메시지를 읽을 때).  *note
FeedParser: 35ba.는 메시지를 증분 적으로 소비하고 구문 분석 할 수 있으며
, 구문 분석기를 닫을 때만 루트 객체를 반환합니다.

구문 분석기는 제한적인 방식으로 확장될 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  물론 구
문 분석기는 처음부터 새로 구현할 수 있습니다.  *note email: 3b. 패키지에
포함된 구문 분석기와 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 클래스를 연결하는 모든 로
직은 *note Policy: 10a6. 클래스에 내장되므로, 사용자 정의 구문 분석기는
적절한 ‘Policy’ 메서드의 사용자 정의 버전을 구현하여 필요한 방식으로 메
시지 객체 트리를 만들 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* 추가 사항::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: FeedParser API,  Next: Parser API,  Up: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석

5.20.1.3 FeedParser API
.......................

‘email.feedparser’ 모듈에서 임포트 한 *note BytesFeedParser: 11ba.는 전
자 메일 메시지의 증분 구문 분석에 도움이 되는 API를 제공합니다.  블록할
수 있는 소스(가령 소켓)에서 전자 메일 메시지의 텍스트를 읽을 때 필요합니
다.  물론 *note BytesFeedParser: 11ba.는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a, 문
자열 또는 파일에 완전히 포함된 전자 메일 메시지를 구문 분석하는 데 사용
될 수 있지만, *note BytesParser: 11bb. API가 이러한 사용 사례에서는 더 편
리 할 수 있습니다.  두 구문 분석기 API의 의미와 결과는 같습니다.

*note BytesFeedParser: 11ba.의 API는 간단합니다; 인스턴스를 만들고, 더는
공급할 것이 없을 때까지 바이트열을 공급한 다음 구문 분석기를 닫아 루트 메
시지 객체를 얻습니다.  *note BytesFeedParser: 11ba.는 표준 호환 메시지를
구문 분석할 때 매우 정확하고, 미준수 메시지를 구문 분석하는 데 매우 효과
적이며 메시지를 어떻게 손상되었다고 간주하는지에 대한 정보를 제공합니다.
메시지에서 발견된 문제점 리스트로 메시지 객체의 *note defects: 35b7. 어
트리뷰트를 채웁니다.  찾을 수 있는 결함 목록은 *note email.errors: 3f. 모
듈을 참조하십시오.

*note BytesFeedParser: 11ba. API는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 클래스: email.parser.BytesFeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     *note BytesFeedParser: 11ba. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  선택적
     '_factory'는 인자 없는 콜러블입니다; 지정되지 않으면 'policy'의
     *note message_factory: c95.를 사용합니다.  새로운 메시지 객체가 필
     요할 때마다 '_factory'를 호출합니다.

     'policy'가 지정되면, 그것이 지정하는 규칙을 사용하여 메시지 표시를
     갱신합니다.  'policy'가 설정되지 않으면, *note compat32: 10a7. 정책
     을 사용합니다.  이 정책은 파이썬 3.2 버전의 email 패키지와의 호환성
     을 유지하고 *note Message: 27c.를 기본 팩토리로 제공합니다.  다른 모
     든 정책은 *note EmailMessage: 27b.를 기본 '_factory'로 제공합니다.
     'policy'가 제어하는 다른 기능에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note policy:
     4f. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     참고: 'policy 키워드는 항상 지정해야 합니다'; 이후 버전의 파이썬에
     서는 기본값이 *note email.policy.default: 357c.로 변경됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: '_factory'는 기본적으로 정책 ‘message_factory’입
     니다.

      -- 메서드: feed (data)

          구문 분석기에 데이터를 더 공급합니다.  'data'는 하나 이상의 줄
          을 포함하는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.여야 합니다.  줄은 부분
          적일 수 있고 구문 분석기는 그러한 부분적인 줄을 올바르게 이어
          붙입니다.  줄은 세 가지 일반 줄 종료 중 어느 것이라도 될 수 있
          습니다: 캐리지 리턴(carriage return), 줄 바꿈(newline) 또는 캐
          리지 리턴과 줄 바꿈 (이것들을 혼합할 수도 있습니다).

      -- 메서드: close ()

          이전에 제공된 모든 데이터의 구문 분석을 완료하고 루트 메시지 객
          체를 반환합니다.  이 메서드가 호출된 후 *note feed(): 35bc.가
          호출되면 어떻게 되는지는 정의되지 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.parser.FeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Works like *note BytesFeedParser: 11ba. except that the input to
     the *note feed(): 35bc. method must be a string.  This is of
     limited utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid
     is for it to contain only ASCII text or, if *note utf8: df4. is
     ‘True’, no binary attachments.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드를 추가했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Parser API,  Next: 추가 사항,  Prev: FeedParser API,  Up: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석

5.20.1.4 Parser API
...................

*note email.parser: 4e. 모듈에서 임포트 한 *note BytesParser: 11bb. 클래
스는 메시지의 전체 내용이 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 파일로 있을 때 메
시지를 구문 분석하는 데 사용할 수 있는 API를 제공합니다.  *note
email.parser: 4e. 모듈은 또한 문자열 구문 분석을 위한 *note Parser:
118d.와 메시지 헤더에만 관심이 있을 때 사용할 수 있는 헤더 전용 구문 분
석기인 *note BytesHeaderParser: 10ae.와 *note HeaderParser: 10af.를 제공
합니다.  *note BytesHeaderParser: 10ae.와 *note HeaderParser: 10af.는 메
시지 본문을 구문 분석하지 않고 페이 로드를 원시 본문으로 설정하기 때문에
이러한 상황에서 훨씬 더 빠를 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.parser.BytesParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     *note BytesParser: 11bb. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  '_class'와 'policy'
     인자는 *note BytesFeedParser: 11ba. 의 '_factory'와 'policy' 인자와
     같은 의미입니다.

     참고: 'policy 키워드는 항상 지정해야 합니다'; 이후 버전의 파이썬에
     서는 기본값이 *note email.policy.default: 357c.로 변경됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 2.4에서 폐지된 'strict' 인자를 제거했습니다.
     'policy' 키워드를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: '_class'는 기본적으로 정책 ‘message_factory’입니
     다.

      -- 메서드: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          바이너리 파일류 객체 'fp'에서 모든 데이터를 읽고, 결과 바이트
          열을 구문 분석한 후, 메시지 객체를 반환합니다.  'fp'는 *note
          readline(): 1319.과 ‘read()’ 메서드를 모두 지원해야 합니다.

          The bytes contained in 'fp' must be formatted as a block of
          RFC 5322(1) (or, if *note utf8: df4. is ‘True’, RFC 6532(2))
          style headers and header continuation lines, optionally
          preceded by an envelope header.  The header block is
          terminated either by the end of the data or by a blank line.
          Following the header block is the body of the message (which
          may contain MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts with a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of ‘8bit’).

          선택적 'headersonly'는 헤더를 읽은 후에 구문 분석을 중지할지를
          지정하는 플래그입니다.  기본값은 ‘False’이며 파일의 전체 내용
          을 구문 분석합니다.

      -- 메서드: parsebytes (bytes, headersonly=False)

          파일류 객체 대신 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 취한다는 점을 제
          외하고는 *note parse(): 35bf. 메서드와 유사합니다.  *note
          바이트열류 객체: d2a.로 이 메서드를 호출하는 것은 *note
          BytesIO: e9a. 인스턴스로 'bytes'를 먼저 감싸고 *note parse():
          35bf.를 호출하는 것과 동등합니다.

          선택적 'headersonly'는 *note parse(): 35bf. 메서드와 같습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: email.parser.BytesHeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     'headersonly'의 기본값이 ‘True’라는 점을 제외하고는 *note
     BytesParser: 11bb.와 정확히 같습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 클래스: email.parser.Parser (_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

     이 클래스는 *note BytesParser: 11bb.와 유사하지만, 문자열 입력을 처
     리합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'strict' 인자를 제거했습니다.  'policy' 키워드를
     추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: '_class'는 기본적으로 정책 ‘message_factory’입니
     다.

      -- 메서드: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          텍스트 모드 파일류 객체 'fp'에서 모든 데이터를 읽고, 결과 텍스
          트를 구문 분석한 후, 루트 메시지 객체를 반환합니다.  'fp'는 파
          일류 객체의 *note readline(): 1cc5.과 *note read(): 1c8d. 메서
          드를 모두 지원해야 합니다.

          텍스트 모드 요구 사항 외에, 이 메서드는 *note
          BytesParser.parse(): 35bf.처럼 작동합니다.

      -- 메서드: parsestr (text, headersonly=False)

          파일류 객체 대신 문자열 객체를 취한다는 점을 제외하고는 *note
          parse(): 35c1. 메서드와 유사합니다.  문자열로 이 메서드를 호출
          하는 것은 *note StringIO: f1f. 인스턴스로 'text'를 먼저 감싸고
          *note parse(): 35c1.를 호출하는 것과 동등합니다.

          선택적 'headersonly'는 *note parse(): 35c1. 메서드와 같습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.parser.HeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     'headersonly'의 기본값이 ‘True’라는 점을 제외하고는 *note Parser:
     118d.와 정확히 같습니다.

문자열이나 파일 객체로부터 메시지 객체 구조를 만드는 것이 일반적인 작업
이기 때문에, 편의상 4가지 함수가 제공됩니다.  최상위 *note email: 3b. 패
키지 이름 공간에 있습니다.

 -- 함수: email.message_from_bytes (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.로부터 메시지 객체 구조를 반환합니다.  이
     것은 ‘BytesParser().parsebytes(s)’와 동등합니다.  선택적 '_class'와
     'policy'는 *note BytesParser: 11bb. 클래스 생성자에서처럼 해석됩니
     다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'strict' 인자를 제거했습니다.  'policy' 키워드를
     추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: email.message_from_binary_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     열린 바이너리 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.로부터 메시지 객체 구조 트리를
     반환합니다.  이것은 ‘BytesParser().parse(fp)’와 동등합니다.
     '_class'와 'policy'는 *note BytesParser: 11bb. 클래스 생성자에서처
     럼 해석됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'strict' 인자를 제거했습니다.  'policy' 키워드를
     추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: email.message_from_string (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     문자열로부터 메시지 객체 구조 트리를 반환합니다.  이것은
     ‘Parser().parsestr(s)’와 동등합니다.  '_class'와 'policy'는 *note
     Parser: 118d. 클래스 생성자에서처럼 해석됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'strict' 인자를 제거했습니다.  'policy' 키워드를
     추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: email.message_from_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     열린 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.로부터 메시지 객체 구조 트리를 반환합니
     다.  이것은 ‘Parser().parse(fp)’와 동등합니다.  '_class'와
     'policy'는 *note Parser: 118d. 클래스 생성자에서처럼 해석됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'strict' 인자를 제거했습니다.  'policy' 키워드를
     추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: '_class'는 기본적으로 정책 ‘message_factory’입니
     다.

대화식 파이썬 프롬프트에서 *note message_from_bytes(): 11b8.를 사용하는
방법의 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> import email
     >>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html


File: python.info,  Node: 추가 사항,  Prev: Parser API,  Up: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석

5.20.1.5 추가 사항
..................

구문 분석 의미에 대한 참고 사항은 다음과 같습니다:

   * 대부분의 ‘multipart’가 아닌 유형의 메시지는 문자열 페이 로드가 있는
     단일 메시지 객체로 구문 분석됩니다.  이 객체는 *note
     is_multipart(): 3582.가 ‘False’를 반환하고 *note iter_parts():
     35a8.는 빈 목록을 산출합니다.

   * 모든 ‘multipart’ 유형 메시지는 서브 메시지 객체 리스트 페이 로드가
     있는 컨테이너 메시지 객체로 구문 분석됩니다.  바깥 컨테이너 메시지
     는 *note is_multipart(): 3582.가 ‘True’를 반환하고 *note
     iter_parts(): 35a8.는 서브 파트 목록을 산출합니다.

   * 콘텐츠 유형이 ‘message/*’(가령 ‘message/delivery-status’와
     ‘message/rfc822’)인 대부분의 메시지는 길이가 1인 리스트 페이 로드를
     포함하는 컨테이너 객체로 구문 분석됩니다.  *note is_multipart():
     3582. 메서드는 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  *note iter_parts(): 35a8.가 산
     출하는 단일 요소가 서브 메시지 객체입니다.

   * 일부 표준을 준수하지 않는 메시지는 ‘multipart’ 처리에 대해 내부적으
     로 일관성이 없을 수 있습니다.  이러한 메시지는 ‘multipart’ 유형의
     ‘Content-Type’ 헤더를 가지면서도 *note is_multipart(): 3582. 메서드
     가 ‘False’를 반환할 수 있습니다.  이러한 메시지가 *note FeedParser:
     35ba.로 구문 분석되었다면, 'defects' 어트리뷰트 리스트에 *note
     MultipartInvariantViolationDefect: 35c6. 클래스의 인스턴스가 있습니
     다.  자세한 내용은 *note email.errors: 3f.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: email generator MIME 문서 생성,  Next: email policy 정책 객체,  Prev: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.6 ‘email.generator’: MIME 문서 생성
..........................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/generator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

가장 일반적인 작업 중 하나는 메시지 객체 구조로 표현되는 전자 우편 메시
지의 평평한 (직렬화된) 버전을 생성하는 것입니다.  *note
smtplib.SMTP.sendmail(): e51.을 통해 메시지를 보내거나 콘솔에서 메시지를
인쇄하려면 이 작업을 수행해야 합니다.  메시지 객체 구조를 취하고 직렬화
된 표현을 생성하는 것은 제너레이터 클래스의 작업입니다.

*note email.parser: 4e. 모듈과 마찬가지로 번들 제너레이터의 기능으로 제
한되지 않습니다; 처음부터 직접 작성할 수 있습니다.  그러나 번들 제너레이
터는 표준 호환 방식으로 대부분 전자 우편을 생성하는 방법을 알고 있고,
MIME과 비 MIME 전자 우편 메시지를 잘 처리하며, 변환 없는 같은 *note
policy: 4f.가 사용된다고 가정할 때 바이트열 지향 구문 분석과 생성 연산이
역이 되도록 설계되었습니다.  즉, *note BytesParser: 11bb. 클래스로 직렬
화된 바이트 스트림을 구문 분석한 다음, *note BytesGenerator: 11be.를 사
용하여 직렬화된 바이트 스트림을 재생성하면 입력과 동일한 출력이 생성됩니
다 (2).  (반면에, 프로그램에서 구축한 *note EmailMessage: 27b.에 제너레
이터를 사용하면 기본값이 채워지기 때문에 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체가
변경될 수 있습니다.)

*note Generator: 11bd. 클래스를 사용하면 메시지를 (바이너리가 아닌) 텍스
트 직렬화 표현으로 펼칠 수 있지만, 유니코드는 바이너리 데이터를 직접 표
현할 수 없기 때문에, “8비트 클린”하지 않은 채널을 통한 전송을 위한 전자
우편 메시지를 인코딩하기 위한 표준 전자 우편 RFC 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩
(Content Transfer Encoding) 기술을 사용하여 메시지를 ASCII 문자만 포함된
것으로 변환해야 합니다.

SMIME 서명된 메시지의 재현성 있는 처리를 위해 *note Generator: 11bd.는
‘multipart/signed’ 유형의 메시지 파트와 모든 서브 부분에 대해 헤더 접기
를 비활성화합니다.

 -- 클래스: email.generator.BytesGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     *note flatten(): 35ca. 메서드에 제공된 모든 메시지나 *note write():
     35cb. 메서드에 제공된 모든 서로게이트 이스케이프 인코딩된 텍스트를
     *note 파일류 객체: 2597. 'outfp'에 쓰는 *note BytesGenerator: 11be.
     객체를 반환합니다.  'outfp'는 바이너리 데이터를 받아들이는 ‘write’
     메서드를 지원해야 합니다.

     선택적인 'mangle_from_'이 ‘True’인 경우, 정확한 문자열 ‘"From "’으
     로 시작하는(즉 줄의 시작에 ‘From’이 오고 스페이스가 뒤따르는) 본문
     의 모든 줄 앞에 ‘>’ 문자를 넣습니다.  'mangle_from_'의 기본값은
     'policy'의 *note mangle_from_: df2. 설정값입니다 (*note compat32:
     c96. 정책의 경우 ‘True’, 다른 모든 경우 ‘False’입니다).
     'mangle_from_'은 메시지가 유닉스 mbox 형식으로 저장될 때 사용하기 위
     한 것입니다 (*note mailbox: 8b.와 WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(3)를 참조하십시오).

     'maxheaderlen'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 'maxheaderlen'보다 긴 헤더 줄을 다
     시 접거나, ‘0’이면 헤더를 다시 접지 않습니다.  'manheaderlen'이
     ‘None’(기본값)이면, 'policy' 설정에 따라 헤더와 기타 메시지 줄을 줄
     바꿈 합니다.

     'policy'가 지정되면, 해당 정책을 사용하여 메시지 생성을 제어합니다.
     'policy'가 ‘None’(기본값)이면 ‘flatten’에 전달된 *note Message:
     27c.나 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체와 연관된 정책을 사용하여 메시
     지 생성을 제어합니다.  'policy'가 제어하는 것에 대한 자세한 내용은
     *note email.policy: 4f.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'mangle_from_'과 'maxheaderlen' 매개 변수의 기본
     동작은 정책을 따르는 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          'msg'를 루트로 하는 메시지 객체 구조의 텍스트 표현을 *note
          BytesGenerator: 11be. 인스턴스가 만들어질 때 지정된 출력 파일
          에 인쇄합니다.

          *note policy: 4f. 옵션 *note cte_type: 35cc.이 ‘8bit’(기본값
          )이면, 하이 비트가 설정된 바이트들이 원본에서와같이 재생성되도
          록 출력이 수정되지 않은 원본 구문 분석된 메시지의 헤더를 복사
          하고, 비 ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’을 이것을 갖는 모든
          본문 파트에서 보존합니다.  ‘cte_type’이 ‘7bit’이면, 하이 비트
          가 설정된 바이트들을 ASCII 호환 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’을
          사용하여 필요에 따라 변환합니다.  즉, 비 ASCII
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’(‘Content-Transfer-Encoding:
          8bit’)을 갖는 파트를 ASCII 호환 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’으
          로 변환하고, 헤더에 있는 RFC 유효하지 않은 비 ASCII 바이트를
          MIME ‘unknown-8bit’ 문자 집합을 사용하여 인코딩하여, RFC 호환
          되게 만듭니다.

          'unixfrom'이 ‘True’이면, 루트 메시지 객체의 첫 번째 RFC
          5322(4) 헤더 앞에 유닉스 mailbox 형식(*note mailbox: 8b.를 참
          조하십시오)에서 사용되는 봉투 헤더 구분자를 인쇄합니다.  루트
          객체에 봉투 헤더가 없으면, 표준 헤더를 만듭니다.  기본값은
          ‘False’입니다.  서브 파트의 경우 봉투 헤더가 인쇄되지 않음에 유
          의하십시오.

          'linesep'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 펼쳐진 메시지의 모든 줄 사이의 구
          분자 문자로 사용합니다.  'linesep'이 ‘None’(기본값)이면,
          'policy'에 지정된 값을 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: clone (fp)

          정확히 같은 옵션 설정이고 'fp'를 새 'outfp'로 사용하는, 이
          *note BytesGenerator: 11be. 인스턴스의 독립 클론을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: write (s)

          ‘ASCII’ 코덱과 ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 처리기를 사용하여 's'를
          인코딩하고, *note BytesGenerator: 11be.의 생성자에 전달된
          'outfp'의 'write' 메서드로 전달합니다.

편의상, *note EmailMessage: 27b.는 *note as_bytes(): 3580. 메서드와
‘bytes(aMessage)’(일명 *note __bytes__(): 3581.)를 제공하여 메시지 객체
의 직렬화된 바이너리 표현 생성을 단순화합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
email.message: 44.를 참조하십시오.

문자열은 바이너리 데이터를 나타낼 수 없어서, *note Generator: 11bd. 클래
스는 펼쳐지는 모든 메시지의 바이너리 데이터를 ASCII 호환
‘Content-Transfer_Encoding’으로 변환하여 ASCII 호환 형식으로 변환해야 합
니다.  전자 우편 RFC의 용어를 사용하면, 이를 “8비트 클린”이 아닌 I/O 스
트림으로 직렬화하는 *note Generator: 11bd.로 생각할 수 있습니다.  즉, 대
부분 응용 프로그램은 *note Generator: 11bd.가 아닌 *note BytesGenerator:
11be.를 사용하려고 합니다.

 -- 클래스: email.generator.Generator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     *note flatten(): 35ce. 메서드에 제공된 모든 메시지나 *note write():
     35cf. 메서드에 제공된 텍스트를 *note 파일류 객체: 2597. 'outfp'에 쓰
     는 *note Generator: 11bd. 객체를 반환합니다.  'outfp'는 문자열 데이
     터를 받아들이는 ‘write’ 메서드를 지원해야 합니다.

     선택적인 'mangle_from_'이 ‘True’인 경우, 정확한 문자열 ‘"From "’으
     로 시작하는(즉 줄의 시작에 ‘From’이 오고 스페이스가 뒤따르는) 본문
     의 모든 줄 앞에 ‘>’ 문자를 넣습니다.  'mangle_from_'의 기본값은
     'policy'의 *note mangle_from_: df2. 설정값입니다 (*note compat32:
     c96. 정책의 경우 ‘True’, 다른 모든 경우 ‘False’입니다).
     'mangle_from_'은 메시지가 유닉스 mbox 형식으로 저장될 때 사용하기 위
     한 것입니다 (*note mailbox: 8b.와 WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(5)를 참조하십시오).

     'maxheaderlen'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 'maxheaderlen'보다 긴 헤더 줄을 다
     시 접거나, ‘0’이면 헤더를 다시 접지 않습니다.  'manheaderlen'이
     ‘None’(기본값)이면, 'policy' 설정에 따라 헤더와 기타 메시지 줄을 줄
     바꿈 합니다.

     'policy'가 지정되면, 해당 정책을 사용하여 메시지 생성을 제어합니다.
     'policy'가 ‘None’(기본값)이면 ‘flatten’에 전달된 *note Message:
     27c.나 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체와 연관된 정책을 사용하여 메시
     지 생성을 제어합니다.  'policy'가 제어하는 것에 대한 자세한 내용은
     *note email.policy: 4f.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'mangle_from_'과 'maxheaderlen' 매개 변수의 기본
     동작은 정책을 따르는 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          'msg'를 루트로 하는 메시지 객체 구조의 텍스트 표현을 *note
          Generator: 11bd. 인스턴스가 만들어질 때 지정된 출력 파일에 인
          쇄합니다.

          *note policy: 4f. 옵션 *note cte_type: 35cc.이 ‘8bit’이면, 옵
          션이 ‘7bit’로 설정된 것처럼 메시지를 생성합니다.  (문자열은 비
          ASCII 바이트를 나타낼 수 없기 때문에 필요합니다.)  하이 비트가
          설정된 모든 바이트를 ASCII 호환 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’을
          사용하여 필요에 따라 변환합니다.  즉, 비 ASCII
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’(‘Content-Transfer-Encoding:
          8bit’)을 갖는 파트를 ASCII 호환 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’으
          로 변환하고, 헤더에 있는 RFC 유효하지 않은 비 ASCII 바이트를
          MIME ‘unknown-8bit’ 문자 집합을 사용하여 인코딩하여, RFC 호환
          되게 만듭니다.

          'unixfrom'이 ‘True’이면, 루트 메시지 객체의 첫 번째 RFC
          5322(6) 헤더 앞에 유닉스 mailbox 형식(*note mailbox: 8b.를 참
          조하십시오)에서 사용되는 봉투 헤더 구분자를 인쇄합니다.  루트
          객체에 봉투 헤더가 없으면, 표준 헤더를 만듭니다.  기본값은
          ‘False’입니다.  서브 파트의 경우 봉투 헤더가 인쇄되지 않음에 유
          의하십시오.

          'linesep'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 펼쳐진 메시지의 모든 줄 사이의 구
          분자 문자로 사용합니다.  'linesep'이 ‘None’(기본값)이면,
          'policy'에 지정된 값을 사용합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘8bit’ 메시지 본문을 다시 인코딩하기 위한 지
          원과 'linesep' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: clone (fp)

          정확히 같은 옵션을 갖고 'fp'를 새 'outfp'로 사용하는, 이 *note
          Generator: 11bd. 인스턴스의 독립 클론을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: write (s)

          *note Generator: 11bd.의 생성자에 전달된 'outfp'의 'write' 메
          서드로 's'를 씁니다.  이것은 *note print(): f6d. 함수에서 사용
          될 *note Generator: 11bd. 인스턴스를 위해 딱 필요한 만큼의 파
          일류 API를 제공합니다.

편의상, *note EmailMessage: 27b.는 *note as_string(): 357d. 메서드와
‘str(aMessage)’(일명 *note __str__(): 357f.)를 제공하여 메시지 객체의 포
맷된 문자열 표현 생성을 단순화합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
email.message: 44.를 참조하십시오.

*note email.generator: 40. 모듈은 또한 파생 클래스인 *note
DecodedGenerator: c94.를 제공하는데, *note Generator: 11bd. 베이스 클래
스와 유사하지만, 비 ‘text’ 파트는 직렬화되지 않고, 대신에 파트에 대한 정
보로 채워진 템플릿에서 파생된 문자열로 출력 스트림에 표시됩니다.

 -- 클래스: email.generator.DecodedGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *, policy=None)

     *note Generator: 11bd.와 같이 작동하지만, *note
     Generator.flatten(): 35ce.에 전달된 메시지의 서브 파트에 대해, 서브
     파트가 메인 유형이 ‘text’이면, 서브 파트의 디코딩된 페이 로드를 인
     쇄하고, 메인 유형이 ‘text’가 아니면, 그것을 인쇄하지 않고 파트 정보
     를 사용하여 문자열 'fmt'를 채운 후에 그 문자열을 인쇄합니다.

     'fmt'를 채우기 위해, ‘fmt % part_info’를 실행하는데, 여기서
     ‘part_info’는 다음 키와 값으로 구성된 딕셔너리입니다:

        * ‘type’ – ‘text’가 아닌 파트의 전체 MIME 유형

        * ‘maintype’ – ‘text’가 아닌 파트의 메인 MIME 유형

        * ‘subtype’ – ‘text’가 아닌 파트의 서브 MIME 유형

        * ‘filename’ – ‘text’가 아닌 파트의 파일명

        * ‘description’ – ‘text’가 아닌 파트와 관련된 설명

        * ‘encoding’ – ‘text’가 아닌 파트의 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩(Content
          transfer encoding)

     'fmt'가 ‘None’이면, 다음 기본 'fmt'를 사용합니다:

          “[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename
          %(filename)s]”

     선택적 '_mangle_from_' 및 'maxheaderlen'은 *note Generator: 11bd. 베
     이스 클래스와 같습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/generator.py

   (2) 이 문장은 ‘unixfrom’에 적절한 설정을 사용하고, 자동 조정을 요구하
는 *note email.policy: 4f. 설정이 없다고 가정합니다 (예를 들어, *note
refold_source: 35c9.는 ‘none’이어야 하며, 이는 기본값이 '아닙'니다).  메
시지가 RFC 표준을 준수하지 않으면 때때로 구문 분석 에러 복구 중에 정확한
원본 텍스트에 대한 정보가 손실되므로 100% 사실이 아니기도 합니다.  가능
하다면 이 후자의 경계 사례를 해결하는 것이 목표입니다.

   (3) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email policy 정책 객체,  Next: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스,  Prev: email generator MIME 문서 생성,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.7 ‘email.policy’: 정책 객체
..................................

Added in version 3.3.

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/policy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note email: 3b. 패키지의 주요 초점은 다양한 전자 우편과 MIME RFC에 설명
된 대로 전자 우편 메시지를 처리하는 것입니다.  그러나 전자 우편 메시지의
일반적인 형식(각각 이름, 콜론, 값 순으로 구성된 헤더 필드의 블록, 빈 줄
과 임의의 ‘본문’ 이 뒤따르는 전체 블록)은 전자 우편 영역 밖에서도 용도가
발견되는 형식입니다.  이러한 용도 중 일부는 메인 전자 우편 RFC와 상당히
유사하지만, 일부는 그렇지 않습니다.  전자 우편으로 작업할 때에도, RFC의
엄격한 준수를 위반하는 것이 바람직할 때가 있습니다.  가령 표준을 따르지
않는 전자 우편 서버와 상호 운영되거나 표준을 위반하는 방식으로 사용하기
원하는 확장을 구현하는 전자 우편을 생성하는 경우가 그렇습니다.

정책 객체는 email 패키지에 이러한 개별 사용 사례를 모두 처리 할 수 있는
유연성을 제공합니다.

*note Policy: 10a6. 객체는 사용 중에 email 패키지의 다양한 구성 요소 동
작을 제어하는 일련의 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 캡슐화합니다.  *note Policy:
10a6. 인스턴스는 email 패키지의 다양한 클래스와 메서드로 전달되어 기본 동
작을 변경할 수 있습니다.  설정 가능한 값과 기본값은 아래에 설명되어 있습
니다.

email 패키지의 모든 클래스에서 사용되는 기본 정책이 있습니다.  모든
*note parser: 4e. 클래스와 관련 편의 함수 및 *note Message: 27c. 클래스
의 경우, 이것은 사전 정의된 인스턴스 *note compat32: c96.를 통한 *note
Compat32: 10a7. 정책입니다.  이 정책은 파이썬 3.3 이전 버전의 email 패키
지와 완전한 과거 호환성(어떤 경우에는, 버그 호환성을 포함합니다)을 제공
합니다.

*note EmailMessage: 27b.에 대한 'policy' 키워드의 기본값은 사전 정의된 인
스턴스 *note default: 357c.를 통한 *note EmailPolicy: 10aa. 정책입니다.

*note Message: 27c.나 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체가 만들어질 때, 정책
을 획득합니다.  메시지가 *note parser: 4e.로 만들어지면, 구문 분석기에 전
달된 정책이 만들어지는 메시지가 사용하는 정책이 됩니다.  프로그램이 메시
지를 만들면, 만들 때 정책을 지정할 수 있습니다.  메시지가 *note
generator: 40.에 전달될 때, 제너레이터는 기본적으로 메시지의 정책을 사용
하지만, 특정 정책을 제너레이터에 전달하여 메시지 객체에 저장된 정책을 재
정의할 수도 있습니다.

*note email.parser: 4e. 클래스와 구문 분석기 편의 함수에 대한 'policy' 키
워드의 기본값은 이후 버전의 파이썬에서 '변경될 예정'입니다.  따라서
*note parser: 4e. 모듈에서 설명된 클래스와 함수를 호출할 때는 '항상 사용
할 정책을 명시적으로 지정'해야 합니다.

이 설명서의 첫 부분은 *note compat32: c96.를 포함한 모든 정책 객체에 공
통적인 기능을 정의하는 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5. 인 *note Policy:
10a6.의 기능을 다룹니다.  여기에는 email 패키지에 의해 내부적으로 호출되
는 특정 훅 메서드가 포함되며, 사용자 정의 정책은 다른 동작을 얻기 위해 재
정의할 수 있습니다.  두 번째 부분에서는 표준 동작과 이전 버전과 호환되는
동작과 기능을 각각 제공하는 훅을 구현하는 구상 클래스 *note EmailPolicy:
10aa.와 *note Compat32: 10a7.를 설명합니다.

*note Policy: 10a6. 인스턴스는 불변이지만, 복제할 수 있는데, 클래스 생성
자와 같은 키워드 인자를 받아들이고 원본의 사본이지만 지정된 어트리뷰트 값
이 변경된 새 *note Policy: 10a6. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

예를 들어, 다음 코드를 사용하여 디스크의 파일에서 전자 우편 메시지를 읽
고 유닉스 시스템의 시스템 ‘sendmail’ 프로그램으로 전달할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from email import message_from_binary_file
     >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
     >>> from email import policy
     >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
     ...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
     ...
     >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
     >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
     >>> g.flatten(msg)
     >>> p.stdin.close()
     >>> rc = p.wait()

여기서 우리는 *note BytesGenerator: 11be.에게 ‘sendmail’의 ‘stdin’으로 공
급할 바이너리 문자열을 만들 때 RFC 올바른 줄 구분자 문자를 사용하도록 지
시합니다.  기본 정책은 ‘\n’ 줄 구분자를 사용합니다.

일부 email 패키지 메서드는 'policy' 키워드 인자를 받아들여, 해당 메서드
에 대한 정책을 대체 할 수 있도록 합니다.  예를 들어, 다음 코드는 이전 예
제의 'msg' 객체의 *note as_bytes(): f2f. 메서드를 사용하고 실행 중인 플
랫폼의 기본 줄 구분자를 사용하여 메시지를 파일에 씁니다:

     >>> import os
     >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
     ...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
     17

더하기 연산자를 사용하여 정책 객체를 결합하여, 기본값이 아닌 설정이 합쳐
진 조합으로 설정된 정책 객체를 생성할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
     >>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
     >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict

이 연산은 교환적(commutative)이지 않습니다; 즉, 객체가 더해지는 순서가 중
요합니다.  예시하면 이렇습니다:

     >>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
     >>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
     >>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     80
     >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     100

 -- 클래스: email.policy.Policy (**kw)

     모든 정책 클래스의 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5.입니다.  불변 속
     성, *note clone(): 10a8. 메서드 및 생성자 시맨틱의 구현뿐만 아니라
     몇 가지 간단한 메서드에 대한 기본 구현을 제공합니다.

     정책 클래스의 생성자에는 다양한 키워드 인자가 전달될 수 있습니다.  지
     정할 수 있는 인자는 이 클래스의 메서드 이외의 프로퍼티, 그리고 구상
     클래스의 메서드 이외의 프로퍼티입니다.  생성자에 지정된 값은 해당 어
     트리뷰트의 기본값을 재정의합니다.

     이 클래스는 다음 프로퍼티를 정의합니다.  따라서, 모든 정책 클래스의
     생성자에 다음에 대한 값이 전달될 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: max_line_length

          줄 종료 문자를 포함하지 않고, 직렬화된 출력에서 줄의 최대 길이
          .  RFC 5322(2)에 따라 기본값은 78입니다.  ‘0’이나 *note None:
          66f. 값은 줄 바꿈을 전혀 수행하지 않아야 함을 나타냅니다.

      -- 속성: linesep

          직렬화된 출력에서 줄을 종료하는 데 사용되는 문자열입니다.  RFC는
          ‘\r\n’을 요구하지만, 기본값은 파이썬에서 사용하는 내부 줄 종료
          규칙을 따라 ‘\n’입니다.

      -- 속성: cte_type

          사용해야 하는 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩(Content Transfer Encoding) 유
          형을 제어합니다.  가능한 값은 다음과 같습니다:

          ‘7bit’       모든 데이터는 “7비트 클린”(ASCII 전용)이어야 합니다.  즉, 필요하
                       면 quoted-printable이나 base64 인코딩을 사용하여 데이터를 인코딩
                       합니다.
                       
                       
          ‘8bit’       데이터는 7비트 클린으로 제한되지 않습니다.  헤더의 데이터는 여전
                       히 ASCII 전용이어야 하므로 인코딩되지만 (예외는 아래
                       *note fold_binary(): 35d4.와 *note utf8: df4.을 참조하십시오), 본
                       문 부분은 ‘8bit’ CTE를 사용할 수 있습니다.
                       

          ‘8bit’ ‘cte_type’ 값은 문자열이 바이너리 데이터를 포함할 수 없
          어서 ‘Generator’가 아닌 ‘BytesGenerator’에서만 작동합니다.
          ‘Generator’가 ‘cte_type=8bit’를 지정하는 정책에 따라 작동하면,
          ‘cte_type’이 ‘7bit’인 것처럼 동작합니다.

      -- 속성: raise_on_defect

          *note True: c0a.이면, 만나는 모든 결함을 에러로 발생시킵니다.
          *note False: b34.(기본값)이면, 결함은 *note register_defect():
          35d6. 메서드로 전달됩니다.

      -- 속성: mangle_from_

          *note True: c0a.이면, 본문에서 '“From “'으로 시작하는 줄은
          ‘>’를 앞에 배치하여 이스케이프 됩니다.  이 매개 변수는 제너레
          이터가 메시지를 직렬화할 때 사용됩니다.  기본값: *note False:
          b34.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 속성: message_factory

          새로운 빈 메시지 객체를 생성하기 위한 팩토리 함수.  메시지를 구
          축할 때 구분 분석기가 사용합니다.  기본값은 ‘None’이며, 이때
          *note Message: 27c.가 사용됩니다.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 속성: verify_generated_headers

          If ‘True’ (the default), the generator will raise *note
          HeaderWriteError: 35d7. instead of writing a header that is
          improperly folded or delimited, such that it would be parsed
          as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  Such
          headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs in
          the ‘email’ module.

          As it’s a security feature, this defaults to ‘True’ even in
          the *note Compat32: 10a7. policy.  For backwards compatible,
          but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to ‘False’ explicitly.

          Added in version 3.13.

     다음 *note Policy: 10a6. 메서드는 email 라이브러리를 사용하여 사용
     자 정의 설정으로 정책 인스턴스를 만드는 코드가 호출하기 위한 것입니
     다:

      -- 메서드: clone (**kw)

          키워드 인자로 새로운 값이 부여되는 어트리뷰트를 제외하고, 어트
          리뷰트가 현재 인스턴스와 같은 값을 갖는 새로운 *note Policy:
          10a6. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     나머지 *note Policy: 10a6. 메서드는 email 패키지 코드에 의해 호출되
     며, email 패키지를 사용하는 응용 프로그램에 의해 호출되는 용도가 아
     닙니다.  사용자 정의 정책은 이 모든 메서드를 구현해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: handle_defect (obj, defect)

          'obj'에서 찾은 'defect'를 처리합니다.  email 패키지가 이 메서
          드를 호출할 때, 'defect'는 항상 *note MessageDefect: 35d9.의 서
          브 클래스입니다.

          기본 구현은 *note raise_on_defect: 35d5. 플래그를 확인합니다.
          ‘True’이면, 'defect'가 예외로 발생합니다.  ‘False’(기본값)이면
          'obj'와 'defect'가 *note register_defect(): 35d6.로 전달됩니다
          .

      -- 메서드: register_defect (obj, defect)

          'obj'에 'defect'를 등록합니다.  email 패키지에서, 'defect'는 항
          상 *note MessageDefect: 35d9.의 서브 클래스입니다.

          기본 구현은 'obj'의 ‘defects’ 어트리뷰트의 ‘append’ 메서드를 호
          출합니다.  email 패키지가 *note handle_defect: 35d8.를 호출할
          때, 'obj'는 일반적으로 ‘append’ 메서드가 있는 ‘defects’ 어트리
          뷰트가 있습니다.  email 패키지와 함께 사용되는 사용자 정의 객
          체 형(예를 들어, 사용자 정의 ‘Message’ 객체)도 이러한 어트리뷰
          트를 제공해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 구문 분석된 메시지의 결함
          이 예기치 않은 에러를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: header_max_count (name)

          'name'이라는 헤더의 최대 허용 개수를 반환합니다.

          헤더가 *note EmailMessage: 27b.나 *note Message: 27c. 객체에 추
          가될 때 호출됩니다.  반환 값이 ‘0’이나 ‘None’이 아니고, 반환 값
          보다 크거나 같은 수의 이름이 'name'인 헤더가 이미 있으면 *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          ‘Message.__setitem__’의 기본 동작은 값을 헤더 리스트에 추가하
          는 것이므로, 깨닫지 못하는 사이에 중복 헤더를 만들기 쉽습니다.
          이 메서드는 특정 헤더를 ‘Message’에 프로그래밍 방식으로 추가할
          수 있는 인스턴스의 수를 제한할 수 있도록 합니다.  (이 제약은 구
          문 분석기가 보지 않습니다, 구문 분석기는 구문 분석 중인 메시지
          에 존재하는 수 만큼 헤더를 충실하게 생성합니다.)

          기본 구현은 모든 헤더 이름에 대해 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          email 패키지는 문자열 리스트로 이 메서드를 호출하며, 각 문자열
          은 구문 분석 중인 소스에서 발견된 줄 구분 문자로 끝납니다.  첫
          번째 줄에는 필드 헤더 이름과 구분자가 포함됩니다.  소스의 모든
          공백이 유지됩니다.  이 메서드는 구문 분석된 헤더를 나타내기 위
          해 ‘Message’에 저장될 ‘(name, value)’ 튜플을 반환해야 합니다.

          구현이 기존 email 패키지 정책과의 호환성을 유지하기 원한다면,
          'name'은 대소 문자를 유지한 이름( ‘‘:’’ 구분자까지의 모든 문자
          )이어야 하지만, 'value'는 선행 공백이 제거되고 펼쳐진
          (unfolded) 값(모든 줄 구분자 문자는 제거하지만, 공백은 그대로
          유지한)이어야 합니다.

          'sourcelines'는 서로게이트 이스케이프 된 바이너리 데이터를 포
          함할 수 있습니다.

          기본 구현이 없습니다

      -- 메서드: header_store_parse (name, value)

          email 패키지는 (구문 분석기가 만든 ‘Message’가 아니라) 응용 프
          로그램이 ‘Message’를 프로그래밍 방식으로 수정할 때, 응용 프로
          그램이 제공한 name과 value로 이 메서드를 호출합니다.  이 메서
          드는 헤더를 나타내기 위해 ‘Message’에 저장될 ‘(name, value)’ 튜
          플을 반환해야 합니다.

          구현이 기존 email 패키지 정책과의 호환성을 유지하기 원한다면,
          'name'과 'value'는 전달된 인자의 내용을 변경하지 않는 문자열이
          나 문자열의 서브 클래스여야 합니다.

          기본 구현이 없습니다

      -- 메서드: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          email 패키지는 응용 프로그램이 해당 헤더를 요청할 때
          ‘Message’에 현재 저장된 'name'과 'value'로 이 메서드를 호출하
          며, 메서드가 반환하는 것은 꺼내는 헤더의 값으로 응용 프로그램
          에 다시 전달됩니다.  ‘Message’에 같은 이름을 가진 헤더가 두 개
          이상 있을 수 있음에 유의하십시오; 이 메서드로는 응용 프로그램
          으로 반환될 헤더의 특정 이름과 값이 전달됩니다.

          'value'는 서로게이트 이스케이프 된 바이너리 데이터를 포함할 수
          있습니다.  이 메서드가 반환하는 값에는 서로게이트 이스케이프 된
          바이너리 데이터가 없어야 합니다.

          기본 구현이 없습니다

      -- 메서드: fold (name, value)

          email 패키지는 지정된 헤더에 대해 ‘Message’에 현재 저장된
          'name'과 'value'로 이 메서드를 호출합니다.  이 메서드는
          'name'을 'value'와 합치고 적절한 위치에 *note linesep: 35d3. 문
          자를 삽입하여 (정책 설정에 따라) 올바르게 “접힌(folded)” 헤더
          를 나타내는 문자열을 반환해야 합니다.  전자 우편 헤더 접기 규
          칙에 대한 설명은 RFC 5322(3)를 참조하십시오.

          'value'는 서로게이트 이스케이프 된 바이너리 데이터를 포함할 수
          있습니다.  메서드가 반환한 문자열에는 서로게이트 이스케이프 된
          바이너리 데이터가 없어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: fold_binary (name, value)

          반환 값이 문자열이 아니라 바이트열 객체여야 한다는 점을 제외하
          고는 *note fold(): 35de.와 같습니다.

          'value'는 서로게이트 이스케이프 된 바이너리 데이터를 포함할 수
          있습니다.  이들은 반환된 바이트열 객체에서 바이너리 데이터로 다
          시 변환될 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.policy.EmailPolicy (**kw)

     이 구상 *note Policy: 10a6.는 현재 전자 우편 RFC를 완전히 준수하기
     위한 동작을 제공합니다.  여기에는 RFC 5322(4), RFC 2047(5) 및 현재
     MIME RFC가 포함되지만 이에 국한되지는 않습니다.

     이 정책은 새로운 헤더 구문 분석과 접기(folding) 알고리즘을 추가합니
     다.  단순한 문자열 대신, 헤더는 필드 유형에 따라 달라지는 어트리뷰
     트를 가진 ‘str’ 서브 클래스입니다.  구문 분석과 접기 알고리즘은 RFC
     2047(6)과 RFC 5322(7)를 완전히 구현합니다.

     *note message_factory: c95. 어트리뷰트의 기본값은 *note
     EmailMessage: 27b.입니다.

     모든 정책에 적용되는 위에 나열된 설정 가능 어트리뷰트 외에도, 이 정
     책은 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 추가합니다:

     Added in version 3.6: (8)

      -- 속성: utf8

          ‘False’이면, RFC 5322(9)를 따르고 헤더에서 ASCII가 아닌 문자를
          “인코딩된 단어”로 인코딩하여 지원합니다.  ‘True’이면, RFC
          6532(10)를 따르고 헤더에 ‘utf-8’ 인코딩을 사용합니다.  이러한
          방식으로 포맷된 메시지는 ‘SMTPUTF8’ 확장( RFC 6531(11))을 지원
          하는 SMTP 서버로 전달될 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: refold_source

          ‘Message’ 객체의 헤더 값이 (프로그램이 설정하는 것과 대조적으
          로) *note parser: 4e.에서 온 것이면, 이 어트리뷰트는 메시지를
          직렬화된 형식으로 다시 변환할 때 제너레이터가 그 값을 다시 접
          어야 하는지를 나타냅니다.  가능한 값은 다음과 같습니다:

          ‘none’       모든 소스 값은 원래 접기를 사용합니다
                       
                       
          ‘long’       ‘max_line_length’보다 긴 줄이 있는 소스 값은 다시 접힙니다.
                       
                       
          ‘all’        모든 값이 다시 접힙니다.
                       

          기본값은 ‘long’입니다.

      -- 속성: header_factory

          ‘name’과 ‘value’ 두 개의 인자를 취하는 콜러블.  여기서 ‘name’은
          헤더 필드 이름이고 ‘value’는 펼쳐진 헤더 필드 값이며 해당 헤더
          를 나타내는 문자열 서브 클래스를 반환합니다.  다양한 주소와 날
          짜 RFC 5322(12) 헤더 필드 유형과 주요 MIME 헤더 필드 유형에 대
          한 사용자 정의 구문 분석을 지원하는 기본
          ‘header_factory’(*note headerregistry: 42.를 참조하십시오)가 제
          공됩니다.  향후 추가 사용자 정의 구문 분석에 대한 지원이 추가
          될 것입니다.

      -- 속성: content_manager

          적어도 두 개의 메서드가 있는 객체: get_content와 set_content.
          *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체의 *note get_content(): 35a9.나
          *note set_content(): 18af. 메서드가 호출될 때, 이 객체의 해당
          메서드를 호출하는데, 메시지 객체를 첫 번째 인자로 전달하고 전
          달된 다른 인자와 키워드를 추가 인자로 전달합니다.  기본적으로
          ‘content_manager’는 *note raw_data_manager: 35e0.로 설정됩니다
          .

          Added in version 3.4.

     이 클래스는 다음과 같은 *note Policy: 10a6.의 추상 메서드의 구상 구
     현을 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: header_max_count (name)

          지정된 이름의 헤더를 나타내는 데 사용되는 특수화된 클래스의
          *note max_count: 35e2. 어트리뷰트 값을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          이름은 ‘‘:’'까지의 모든 것으로 구문 분석되고 수정되지 않은 상
          태로 반환됩니다.  값은 첫 번째 줄의 나머지 부분에서 선행 공백
          을 제거한 후에 모든 후속 줄을 이어붙이고 후행 캐리지 리턴이나
          줄 바꿈 문자를 제거하여 결정됩니다.

      -- 메서드: header_store_parse (name, value)

          이름은 변경되지 않고 반환됩니다.  입력값에 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트가
          있고 대소 문자를 무시하고 'name'과 일치하면, 값은 변경되지 않
          고 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 'name'과 'value'는
          ‘header_factory’로 전달되고, 결과 헤더 객체가 값으로 반환됩니
          다.  이 경우 입력값에 CR이나 LF 문자가 포함되어 있으면
          ‘ValueError’가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          값에 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트가 있으면, 수정되지 않은 상태로 반환됩니
          다.  그렇지 않으면 'name'과 CR이나 LF 문자가 제거된 'value'가
          ‘header_factory’로 전달되고, 결과 헤더 객체가 반환됩니다.  서
          로게이트 이스케이프 된 바이트열은 유니코드 알 수 없는 문자 글
          리프(unknown-character glyph)로 바뀝니다.

      -- 메서드: fold (name, value)

          헤더 접기는 *note refold_source: 35c9. 정책 설정에 의해 제어됩
          니다.  값은 ‘name’ 어트리뷰트가 없을 때, 그리고 그때만 ‘소스값
          ’으로 간주합니다 (‘name’ 어트리뷰트가 있다는 것은 헤더 객체나
          그 일종이라는 뜻입니다).  정책에 따라 소스값을 다시 접어야 할
          필요가 있으면, ‘header_factory’에 'name'과 CR과 LF 문자가 제거
          된 'value'를 전달하여 헤더 객체로 변환됩니다.  헤더 객체의 접
          기는 현재 정책으로 ‘fold’ 메서드를 호출하여 수행됩니다.

          소스값은 *note splitlines(): 1247.를 사용하여 줄로 분할됩니다.
          값을 다시 접지 않으면, 정책의 ‘linesep’을 사용하여 줄을 다시 이
          어붙인 후에 반환합니다.  ASCII가 아닌 바이너리 데이터가 포함된
          줄은 예외입니다.  이 경우 ‘refold_source’ 설정과 관계없이 값이
          다시 접히는데, ‘unknown-8bit’ 문자 집합을 사용하여 바이너리 데
          이터가 CTE로 인코딩됩니다.

      -- 메서드: fold_binary (name, value)

          *note cte_type: 35cc.이 ‘7bit’이면, 반환된 값이 바이트열인 것
          을 제외하고 *note fold(): 167c.와 같습니다.

          *note cte_type: 35cc.이 ‘8bit’이면, ASCII가 아닌 바이너리 데이
          터는 다시 바이트열로 변환됩니다.  바이너리 데이터가 단일 바이
          트 문자와 멀티 바이트 문자 중 어는 것으로 구성되어 있는지 알 방
          법이 없어서, ‘refold_header’ 설정과 관계없이 바이너리 데이터가
          있는 헤더는 다시 접히지 않습니다.

다음 *note EmailPolicy: 10aa. 인스턴스는 특정 응용 프로그램 도메인에 적
합한 기본값을 제공합니다.  향후 이러한 인스턴스들(특히 ‘HTTP’ 인스턴스
)의 동작은 그 들의 도메인과 관련된 RFC에 훨씬 더 가깝게 조정될 수 있음에
유의하십시오.

 -- 데이터: email.policy.default

     모든 기본값이 변경되지 않은 ‘EmailPolicy’ 인스턴스.  이 정책은 RFC
     올바른 ‘\r\n’이 아닌 표준 파이썬 ‘\n’ 줄 종료를 사용합니다.

 -- 데이터: email.policy.SMTP

     전자 우편 RFC를 준수하도록 메시지를 직렬화하는 데 적합합니다.
     ‘default’와 유사하지만, ‘linesep’이 ‘\r\n’으로 설정되어 RFC를 준수
     합니다.

 -- 데이터: email.policy.SMTPUTF8

     *note utf8: df4.가 ‘True’라는 점을 제외하고, ‘SMTP’와 같습니다.  헤
     더에 인코딩된 단어를 사용하지 않고 메시지를 메시지 저장소로 직렬화
     하는 데 유용합니다.  SMTP 전송에는 발신자나 수신자 주소에 ASCII가 아
     닌 문자가 있을 때만 사용해야 합니다 (*note
     smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): e52. 메서드는 이를 자동으로 처리합니다
     ).

 -- 데이터: email.policy.HTTP

     HTTP 트래픽에 사용하기 위해 헤더를 직렬화하는 데 적합합니다.
     ‘max_line_length’가 ‘None’(무제한)으로 설정된 것을 제외하고,
     ‘SMTP’와 유사합니다.

 -- 데이터: email.policy.strict

     편의 인스턴스.  ‘raise_on_defect’가 ‘True’로 설정된 것을 제외하고,
     ‘default’와 같습니다.  다음과 같이 작성하여 모든 정책을 엄격하게 만
     들 수 있도록 합니다:

          somepolicy + policy.strict

이러한 모든 *note EmailPolicy: 10aa.를 통해, email 패키지의 효과적인
API가 다음과 같은 방식으로 파이썬 3.2 API에서 변경됩니다:

   * *note Message: 27c.에서 헤더를 설정하면 해당 헤더가 구문 분석되고 헤
     더 객체가 만들어집니다.

   * *note Message: 27c.에서 헤더 값을 가져오면 해당 헤더가 구문 분석되
     고 헤더 객체가 만들어져 반환됩니다.

   * 모든 헤더 객체나 정책 설정으로 인해 다시 접힌 모든 헤더는 인코딩된
     단어가 필요한 위치와 허용되는 위치를 포함하여 RFC 접기 알고리즘을 완
     전히 구현하는 알고리즘을 사용하여 접힙니다.

응용 프로그램의 시각에서, 이것은 *note EmailMessage: 27b.를 통해 얻은 모
든 헤더가 추가 어트리뷰트가 있는 헤더 객체이며, 그것의 문자열 값은 헤더
의 완전히 디코딩된 유니코드 값이 됨을 뜻합니다.  마찬가지로, 유니코드 문
자열을 사용하여 헤더에 새 값이나 새로 만들어진 헤더를 대입할 수 있으며,
정책은 유니코드 문자열을 올바른 RFC 인코딩 형식으로 변환합니다.

헤더 객체와 그들의 어트리뷰트는 *note headerregistry: 42.에 설명되어 있
습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.policy.Compat32 (**kw)

     이 구상 *note Policy: 10a6.는 과거 호환성 정책입니다.  파이썬 3.2에
     있는 email 패키지의 동작을 흉내 냅니다.  *note policy: 4f. 모듈은 이
     클래스의 인스턴스 *note compat32: c96.도 정의하고, 기본 정책으로 사
     용합니다.  따라서 email 패키지의 기본 동작은 파이썬 3.2와의 호환성
     을 유지하는 것입니다.

     다음 어트리뷰트는 *note Policy: 10a6. 기본값과 다른 값을 갖습니다:

      -- 속성: mangle_from_

          기본값은 ‘True’입니다.

     이 클래스는 다음과 같은 *note Policy: 10a6.의 추상 메서드의 구상 구
     현을 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          이름은 ‘‘:’'까지의 모든 것으로 구문 분석되고 수정되지 않은 상
          태로 반환됩니다.  값은 첫 번째 줄의 나머지 부분에서 선행 공백
          을 제거한 후에 모든 후속 줄을 이어붙이고 후행 캐리지 리턴이나
          줄 바꿈 문자를 제거하여 결정됩니다.

      -- 메서드: header_store_parse (name, value)

          이름과 값은 수정되지 않은 상태로 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          값에 바이너리 데이터가 포함되어 있으면, ‘unknown-8bit’ 문자 집
          합을 사용하여 *note Header: 18b0. 객체로 변환됩니다.  그렇지 않
          으면 수정되지 않은 상태로 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: fold (name, value)

          *note Header: 18b0. 접기 알고리즘을 사용하여 헤더를 접습니다.
          이 알고리즘은 값의 기존 줄 바꿈을 유지하고, 각 결과 줄을
          ‘max_line_length’로 줄 넘김 합니다.  ASCII가 아닌 바이너리 데
          이터는 ‘unknown-8bit’ 문자 집합을 사용하여 CTE 인코딩됩니다.

      -- 메서드: fold_binary (name, value)

          *note Header: 18b0. 접기 알고리즘을 사용하여 헤더를 접습니다.
          이 알고리즘은 값의 기존 줄 바꿈을 유지하고, 각 결과 줄을
          ‘max_line_length’로 줄 넘김 합니다.  ‘cte_type’이 ‘7bit’이면,
          ASCII가 아닌 바이너리 데이터는 ‘unknown-8bit’ 문자 집합을 사용
          하여 CTE 인코딩됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 원본 소스 헤더가 사용되
          는데, 기존 줄 바꿈과 임의의 (RFC 유효하지 않은) 바이너리 데이
          터가 포함될 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: email.policy.compat32

     파이썬 3.2 email 패키지 동작과의 호환성을 제공하는 *note Compat32:
     10a7.의 인스턴스.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/policy.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (8) 원래 3.3에 *note 잠정적 기능: 1037.으로 추가되었습니다.

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스,  Next: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체,  Prev: email policy 정책 객체,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.8 ‘email.errors’: 예외와 결함 클래스
...........................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/errors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note email.errors: 3f. 모듈에는 다음과 같은 예외 클래스가 정의되어 있습
니다:

 -- 예외: email.errors.MessageError

     이것은 *note email: 3b. 패키지가 발생시킬 수 있는 모든 예외의 베이
     스 클래스입니다.  표준 *note Exception: 9d6. 클래스에서 파생되며 추
     가 메서드를 정의하지 않습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MessageParseError

     이것은 *note Parser: 118d. 클래스에서 발생하는 예외의 베이스 클래스
     입니다.  *note MessageError: 35f1.에서 파생됩니다.  이 클래스는
     *note headerregistry: 42.에서 사용하는 구문 분석기에서도 내부적으로
     사용됩니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.HeaderParseError

     메시지의 RFC 5322(2) 헤더를 구문 분석할 때 일부 에러 조건에서 발생
     합니다.  이 클래스는 *note MessageParseError: 35f2.에서 파생됩니다.
     메서드가 호출될 때 콘텐츠 유형을 알 수 없으면, *note
     set_boundary(): 359e. 메서드는 이 에러를 발생시킵니다.  *note
     Header: 18b0.는 특정 base64 디코딩 에러와 내장된 헤더를 포함하는 것
     으로 보이는 헤더를 만들려고 할 때 (즉, 연장 줄(continuation line)이
     어야 할 곳에 선행 공백이 없고 헤더처럼 보이는 것이 있을 때) 이 에러
     를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.BoundaryError

     폐지되었고 더는 사용되지 않습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MultipartConversionError

     *note MIMENonMultipart: 35f5.에서 파생된 클래스(가령 *note
     MIMEImage: 35f6.)의 인스턴스에서 *note attach(): 35b0. 메서드를 호
     출할 때 발생합니다.  *note MultipartConversionError: 35f4.는 *note
     MessageError: 35f1.와 내장 *note TypeError: 532.에서 다중 상속됩니
     다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.HeaderWriteError

     Raised when an error occurs when the *note generator: 40. outputs
     headers.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MessageDefect

     이메일 메시지를 구문 분석할 때 발견되는 모든 결함에 대한 베이스 클
     래스입니다.  *note ValueError: 202.에서 파생됩니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.HeaderDefect

     이메일 헤더를 구문 분석할 때 발견되는 모든 결함에 대한 베이스 클래
     스입니다.  *note MessageDefect: 35d9.에서 파생됩니다.

다음은 메시지를 구문 분석하는 동안 *note FeedParser: 35ba.가 찾을 수 있
는 결함 목록입니다.  문제가 발견된 메시지에 결함이 추가됨에 유의하십시오
.  그래서, 예를 들어, ‘multipart/alternative’ 내에 중첩된 메시지에 잘못
된 헤더가 있으면, 해당 중첩 메시지 객체가 결함을 갖게 되지만 포함하는 메
시지는 그렇지 않습니다.

모든 결함 클래스는 *note email.errors.MessageDefect: 35d9.의 서브 클래스
입니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect

     메시지가 멀티 파트라고 주장했지만, ‘boundary’ 파라미터가 없습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에서 주장하는 시작 경계를 찾지 못했습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     시작 경계가 발견되었지만, 해당하는 종료 경계가 발견되지 않았습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: email.errors.FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect

     메시지의 첫 번째 헤더 줄에 연장 줄(continuation line)이 있습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect

     헤더 블록 중간에 “Unix From” 헤더가 있습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect

     헤더를 구문 분석하는 중에 선행 공백이 없지만 ‘:’ 가 포함되지 않은 줄
     이 발견되었습니다.  그 줄이 본문의 첫 번째 줄을 나타내는 것으로 가
     정하여 구문 분석이 계속됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MalformedHeaderDefect

     콜론이 없거나 다른 식으로 잘못된 헤더가 발견되었습니다.

     버전 3.3부터 폐지됨: 이 결함은 여러 파이썬 버전에서 사용되지 않았습
     니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.MultipartInvariantViolationDefect

     메시지가 ‘multipart’라고 주장했지만, 서브 파트가 없습니다.  메시지
     에 이 결함이 있으면, 콘텐츠 유형이 ‘multipart’라고 주장하더라도
     *note is_multipart(): 35a3. 메서드는 ‘False’를 반환할 수 있음에 유
     의하십시오.

 -- 예외: email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect

     base64로 인코딩된 바이트열 블록을 디코딩할 때, 패딩이 올바르지 않습
     니다.  디코딩을 수행하기 위해 충분한 패딩이 추가되지만, 바이트열을
     디코딩한 결과는 유효하지 않을 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect

     base64로 인코딩된 바이트열 블록을 디코딩할 때, base64 알파벳 이외의
     문자가 발견되었습니다.  문자는 무시되지만, 바이트열을 디코딩한 결과
     는 유효하지 않을 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.InvalidBase64LengthDefect

     base64로 인코딩된 바이트열 블록을 디코딩할 때, 비 패딩 base64 문자
     수가 유효하지 않습니다 (4의 배수보다 1이 큽니다).  인코딩된 블록은
     그대로 유지됩니다.

 -- 예외: email.errors.InvalidDateDefect

     When decoding an invalid or unparsable date field.  The original
     value is kept as-is.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/errors.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체,  Next: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리,  Prev: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.9 ‘email.headerregistry’: 사용자 정의 헤더 객체
......................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/headerregistry.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

헤더는 *note str: 445.의 사용자 정의된 서브 클래스로 표현됩니다.  주어진
헤더를 표현하는 데 사용되는 특정 클래스는 헤더가 만들어질 때 *note
policy: 4f.의 *note header_factory: 35df.에 의해 결정됩니다.  이 섹션에
서는 RFC 5322(3) 호환 전자 우편 메시지를 처리하기 위해 email 패키지가 구
현한 특정 ‘header_factory’에 관해 설명합니다.  다양한 헤더 유형에 대해 사
용자 정의된 헤더 객체를 제공할 뿐만 아니라, 응용 프로그램에서 고유한 사
용자 정의 헤더 유형을 추가할 수 있는 확장 메커니즘을 제공합니다.

*note EmailPolicy: 10aa.에서 파생된 정책 객체를 사용할 때, 모든 헤더는
*note HeaderRegistry: 3605.가 생성하며 마지막 베이스 클래스로 *note
BaseHeader: 358b.를 갖습니다.  각 헤더 클래스에는 헤더 유형에 따라 결정
되는 추가 베이스 클래스가 있습니다.  예를 들어, 많은 헤더에는 다른 베이
스 클래스로 *note UnstructuredHeader: 3606. 클래스를 갖습니다.  헤더의 특
수화된 두 번째 클래스는 *note HeaderRegistry: 3605.에 저장된 검색 테이블
을 사용하여 헤더의 이름으로 결정됩니다.  이 모든 것은 일반적인 응용 프로
그램에 대해 투명하게 관리되지만, 더욱 복잡한 응용 프로그램에서 사용할 수
있도록 기본 동작을 수정하기 위한 인터페이스가 제공됩니다.

아래 섹션은 먼저 헤더 베이스 클래스와 그들의 어트리뷰트를, 그다음으로
*note HeaderRegistry: 3605.의 동작을 수정하기 위한 API를, 그리고 마지막
으로 구조화된 헤더에서 구문 분석된 데이터를 나타내는 데 사용되는 지원 클
래스에를 설명합니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.BaseHeader (name, value)

     'name'과 'value'는 *note header_factory: 35df. 호출에서
     ‘BaseHeader’로 전달됩니다.  헤더 객체의 문자열 값은 유니코드로 완전
     히 디코딩된 'value'입니다.

     이 베이스 클래스는 다음과 같은 읽기 전용 프로퍼티를 정의합니다:

      -- 속성: name

          헤더 이름(‘:’ 앞의 필드 부분).  이것은 정확히 *note
          header_factory: 35df. 호출에 전달된 'name'에 대한 값입니다; 즉
          , 대소 문자가 유지됩니다.

      -- 속성: defects

          구문 분석 중 발견된 RFC 준수 문제를 보고하는 *note
          HeaderDefect: 35f7. 인스턴스 튜플.  email 패키지는 규정 준수 문
          제 감지에 대해 완전해지려고 합니다.  보고될 수 있는 결함 유형
          에 대한 설명은 *note errors: 3f. 모듈을 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: max_count

          같은 ‘name’을 가질 수 있는 이 유형의 최대 헤더 수.  ‘None’ 값
          은 무제한을 의미합니다.  이 어트리뷰트의 ‘BaseHeader’ 값은
          ‘None’입니다; 특수화된 헤더 클래스가 필요할 때 이 값을 재정의
          할 것으로 기대됩니다.

     ‘BaseHeader’는 또한 email 라이브러리 코드에 의해 호출되고 일반적으
     로 응용 프로그램이 호출해서는 안 되는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: fold (*, policy)

          'policy'에 따라 헤더를 올바르게 접는 데 필요한 *note linesep:
          35d3. 문자를 포함하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  헤더는 임의의 바이
          너리 데이터를 포함할 수 없어서, ‘8bit’의 *note cte_type:
          35cc.은 마치 ‘7bit’인 것처럼 처리됩니다.  *note utf8: df4.이
          ‘False’이면, 비 ASCII 데이터는 RFC 2047(4)로 인코딩됩니다.

     ‘BaseHeader’ 자체는 헤더 객체를 만드는 데 사용할 수 없습니다.  헤더
     객체를 생성하기 위해 각 특수화된 헤더가 협력하는 프로토콜을 정의합
     니다.  특히 ‘BaseHeader’는 특수화된 클래스가 ‘parse’라는 *note
     classmethod(): 166.를 제공할 것을 요구합니다.  이 메서드는 다음과 같
     이 호출됩니다:

          parse(string, kwds)

     ‘kwds’는 하나의 미리 초기화된 키 ‘defects’를 포함하는 딕셔너리입니
     다.  ‘defects’는 빈 리스트입니다.  parse 메서드는 감지된 결함을 이
     리스트에 추가해야 합니다.  반환될 때, ‘kwds’ 딕셔너리는 '반드시' 적
     어도 키 ‘decoded’와 ‘defects’에 대한 값을 포함해야 합니다.
     ‘decoded’는 헤더의 문자열 값이어야 합니다 (즉, 유니코드로 완전히 디
     코딩된 헤더 값).  parse 메서드는 'string'이 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩된 파
     트를 포함할 수 있다고 가정해야 하지만, 인코딩되지 않은 헤더 값을 구
     문 분석할 수 있도록 모든 유효한 유니코드 문자도 올바르게 처리해야 합
     니다.

     ‘BaseHeader’의 ‘__new__’는 헤더 인스턴스를 만들고, ‘init’ 메서드를
     호출합니다.  특수화된 클래스가 ‘BaseHeader’ 자체에서 제공하는 것 이
     상의 추가 어트리뷰트를 설정하려면 ‘init’ 메서드 만 제공하면 됩니다.
     이러한 ‘init’ 메서드는 다음과 같아야 합니다:

          def init(self, /, *args, **kw):
              self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
              super().init(*args, **kw)

     즉, 특수화된 클래스가 ‘kwds’ 딕셔너리에 추가하는 것은 제거해야 하고
     처리해야 하며, ‘kw’(및 ‘args’)의 나머지 내용은 ‘BaseHeader’ ‘init’
     메서드로 전달됩니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader

     “구조화되지 않은” 헤더는 RFC 5322(5)의 기본 헤더 유형입니다.  지정
     된 문법이 없는 헤더는 구조화되지 않은 것으로 취급됩니다.  구조화되
     지 않은 헤더의 전형적인 예는 ‘Subject’ 헤더입니다.

     RFC 5322(6)에서, 구조화되지 않은 헤더는 ASCII 문자 집합에서 임의의
     텍스트를 나열합니다.  그러나 RFC 2047(7)은 비 ASCII 텍스트를 헤더 값
     내에서 ASCII 문자로 인코딩하기 위한 RFC 5322(8) 호환 메커니즘을 가
     지고 있습니다.  인코딩된 단어를 포함하는 'value'가 생성자에 전달되
     면, ‘UnstructuredHeader’ 구문 분석기는 구조화되지 않은 텍스트의 RFC
     2047(9) 규칙에 따라 인코딩된 단어를 유니코드로 변환합니다.  구문 분
     석기는 휴리스틱을 사용하여 특정 비 호환 인코딩된 단어를 디코딩하려
     고 시도합니다.  인코딩된 단어나 인코딩되지 않는 텍스트 내의 유효하
     지 않은 문자와 같은 문제에 대한 결함뿐만 아니라 이럴 때 결함을 등록
     합니다.

     이 헤더 유형은 추가 어트리뷰트를 제공하지 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.DateHeader

     RFC 5322(10)는 전자 우편 헤더 내의 날짜에 대해 매우 구체적인 형식을
     지정합니다.  ‘DateHeader’ 구문 분석기는 이 날짜 형식을 인식할 뿐만
     아니라, “야생”에서 발견되는 다양한 변종 형식을 인식합니다.

     이 헤더 유형은 다음과 같은 추가 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: datetime

          헤더 값이 한 양식이나 다른 양식의 유효한 날짜로 인식될 수 있으
          면, 이 어트리뷰트는 해당 날짜를 나타내는 *note datetime: 1cc.
          인스턴스가 포함됩니다.  입력 날짜의 시간대가 ‘-0000’으로 지정
          되면 (UTC이지만 소스 시간대에 대한 정보는 포함하지 않음을 나타
          냅니다), *note datetime: 360b.은 나이브 *note datetime: 1cc.이
          됩니다.  특정 시간대 오프셋이 발견되면 (‘+0000’을 포함합니다),
          *note datetime: 360b.에는 *note datetime.timezone: 10b2.을 사
          용하여 시간대 오프셋을 기록하는 어웨어 ‘datetime’이 포함됩니다
          .

     헤더의 ‘decoded’ 값은 RFC 5322(11) 규칙에 따라 ‘datetime’을 포매팅
     해서 결정됩니다; 즉, 다음과 같이 설정됩니다:

          email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)

     ‘DateHeader’를 만들 때, 'value'는 *note datetime: 1cc. 인스턴스일 수
     있습니다.  이것은, 예를 들어, 다음 코드가 유효하고 기대하는 것을 수
     행함을 뜻합니다:

          msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)

     이것은 나이브 ‘datetime’이므로 UTC 타임스탬프로 해석되며 결괏값의 시
     간대는 ‘-0000’입니다.  *note utils: 50. 모듈의 *note localtime():
     2c5. 함수를 사용하는 것이 훨씬 더 유용합니다:

          msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()

     이 예에서는 현재 시간대 오프셋을 사용하여 날짜 헤더를 현재 시간과 날
     짜로 설정합니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.AddressHeader

     주소 헤더는 가장 복잡한 구조화된 헤더 유형 중 하나입니다.
     ‘AddressHeader’ 클래스는 모든 주소 헤더에 대한 범용 인터페이스를 제
     공합니다.

     이 헤더 유형은 다음과 같은 추가 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다:

      -- 속성: groups

          헤더 값에서 찾은 주소와 그룹을 인코딩하는 *note Group: 360e. 객
          체의 튜플.  그룹 일부가 아닌 주소는 이 목록에서 *note
          display_name: 360f.이 ‘None’인 단일 주소 ‘Groups’로 표현됩니다
          .

      -- 속성: addresses

          헤더 값의 모든 개별 주소를 인코딩하는 *note Address: 3611. 객
          체의 튜플.  헤더 값이 그룹을 포함하면, 그룹의 개별 주소가 값에
          서 그룹이 발생하는 지점에서 목록에 포함됩니다 (즉, 주소 목록은
          1차원 목록으로 “평평하게” 만들어집니다).

     헤더의 ‘decoded’ 값에서는 모든 인코딩된 단어가 유니코드로 디코딩됩
     니다.  *note idna: 52.로 인코딩된 도메인 이름도 유니코드로 디코딩됩
     니다.  ‘decoded’ 값은 ‘groups’ 어트리뷰트 요소의 *note str: 445. 값
     을 ‘', '’로 *note 이어 붙여: 21cf. 설정됩니다.

     *note Address: 3611.와 *note Group: 360e. 객체의 목록을 임의 조합한
     목록을 주소 헤더의 값을 설정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.
     ‘display_name’이 ‘None’인 ‘Group’ 객체는 단일 주소로 해석되므로, 소
     스 헤더의 ‘groups’ 어트리뷰트에서 얻은 목록을 사용하여 주소 목록을
     그룹과 함께 그대로 복사할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader

     하나의 추가 어트리뷰트를 추가하는 *note AddressHeader: 360c.의 서브
     클래스:

      -- 속성: address

          헤더 값으로 인코딩된 단일 주소.  헤더 값에 실제로 둘 이상의 주
          소가 포함될 때 (기본 *note policy: 4f.에서 RFC 위반입니다), 이
          어트리뷰트에 액세스하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

위의 많은 클래스에는 ‘Unique’ 변형도 있습니다 (예를 들어,
‘UniqueUnstructuredHeader’).  유일한 차이점은 ‘Unique’ 변형에서 *note
max_count: 35e2.가 1로 설정되어 있다는 것입니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader

     ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더에는 실제로 하나의 유효한 값만 있으며, 이는
     ‘1.0’입니다.  미래에 안전하기 위해, 이 헤더 클래스는 다른 유효한 버
     전 번호를 지원합니다.  버전 번호가 RFC 2045(12)에 따라 유효한 값을
     가지면, 헤더 객체는 다음 어트리뷰트에 ‘None’이 아닌 값을 갖습니다:

      -- 속성: version

          공백 및/또는 주석이 제거된 문자열 버전 번호.

      -- 속성: major

          정수 주 버전 번호

      -- 속성: minor

          정수 부 버전 번호

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader

     MIME 헤더는 모두 접두사 ‘Content-‘로 시작합니다.  각 특정 헤더에는
     해당 헤더의 클래스에 설명된 특정 값이 있습니다.  일부는 공통 형식을
     가진 보조 파라미터 목록을 취할 수도 있습니다.  이 클래스는 파라미터
     를 취하는 모든 MIME 헤더의 베이스로 사용됩니다.

      -- 속성: params

          파라미터 이름을 파라미터값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader

     ‘Content-Type’ 헤더를 처리하는 *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 3618.
     클래스.

      -- 속성: content_type

          ‘maintype/subtype’ 형식의 콘텐츠 유형 문자열.

      -- 속성: maintype

      -- 속성: subtype

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader

     ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더를 처리하는 *note
     ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 3618. 클래스.

      -- 속성: content_disposition

          ‘inline’과 ‘attachment’가 일반적으로 사용되는 유일하게 유효한
          값입니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding

     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 처리합니다.

      -- 속성: cte

          유효한 값은 ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’, ‘base64’ 및 ‘quoted-printable’입니
          다.  자세한 정보는 RFC 2045(13)를 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry (base_class=BaseHeader,
          default_class=UnstructuredHeader, use_default_map=True)

     기본적으로 *note EmailPolicy: 10aa.에서 사용되는 팩토리입니다.
     ‘HeaderRegistry’는 'base_class'와 보유한 등록소에서 꺼낸 특수화된 클
     래스를 사용하여 헤더 인스턴스를 동적으로 만드는 데 사용되는 클래스
     를 구축합니다.  지정된 헤더 이름이 등록소에 나타나지 않으면,
     'default_class'에 의해 지정된 클래스가 특수화된 클래스로 사용됩니다
     .  'use_default_map'이 ‘True’(기본값)이면, 헤더 이름에서 클래스로의
     표준 매핑이 초기화 중에 등록소에 복사됩니다.  'base_class'는 항상 생
     성된 클래스의 *note __bases__: 1472. 목록에서 마지막 클래스입니다.

     기본 매핑은 다음과 같습니다:


          subject: UniqueUnstructuredHeader


          date: UniqueDateHeader


          resent-date: DateHeader


          orig-date: UniqueDateHeader


          sender: UniqueSingleAddressHeader


          resent-sender: SingleAddressHeader


          to: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-to: AddressHeader


          cc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-cc: AddressHeader


          bcc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-bcc: AddressHeader


          from: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-from: AddressHeader


          reply-to: UniqueAddressHeader


          mime-version: MIMEVersionHeader


          content-type: ContentTypeHeader


          content-disposition: ContentDispositionHeader


          content-transfer-encoding: ContentTransferEncodingHeader


          message-id: MessageIDHeader

     ‘HeaderRegistry’에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: map_to_type (self, name, cls)

          'name'은 매핑할 헤더의 이름입니다.  등록소에서 소문자로 변환됩
          니다.  'cls'는 'name'과 일치하는 헤더를 인스턴스 화하는 데 사
          용되는 클래스를 만들기 위해 'base_class'와 함께 사용되는 특수
          클래스입니다.

      -- 메서드: __getitem__ (name)

          'name' 헤더 생성을 처리할 클래스를 구성하고 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: __call__ (name, value)

          등록소에서 'name'과 연관된 특수화된 헤더를 꺼내고 (등록소에
          'name'이 없으면 'default_class'를 사용해서), 'base_class'와 결
          합하여 클래스를 생성하고, 생성된 클래스의 생성자를 같은 인자 목
          록을 전달해서 호출한 후, 마지막으로 이렇게 만들어진 클래스 인
          스턴스를 반환합니다.

다음 클래스는 구조화된 헤더에서 구문 분석된 데이터를 나타내는 데 사용되
는 클래스이며 일반적으로 응용 프로그램에서 특정 헤더에 지정할 구조화된 값
을 대입하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.Address (display_name='', username='',
          domain='', addr_spec=None)

     전자 우편 주소를 나타내는 데 사용되는 클래스.  주소의 일반적인 형식
     은 다음과 같습니다:

          [display_name] <username@domain>

     또는:

          username@domain

     여기서 각 부분은 RFC 5322(14)에 명시된 특정 문법 규칙을 준수해야 합
     니다.

     편의상 'username'과 'domain' 대신 'addr_spec'을 지정할 수 있으며, 이
     경우 'addr_spec'에서 'username'과 'domain'이 구문 분석됩니다.
     'addr_spec'은 올바르게 RFC 인용된 문자열(quoted string)이어야 합니
     다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘Address’는 에러를 발생시킵니다.  유니코드 문자는
     허용되며 직렬화될 때 적절하게 인코딩됩니다.  그러나, RFC에 따라, 주
     소의 사용자 이름 부분에는 유니코드가 허용되지 '않습니다'.

      -- 속성: display_name

          모든 인용(quoting)이 제거된 주소의 표시 이름 부분 (있다면).  주
          소에 표시 이름이 없으면, 이 어트리뷰트는 빈 문자열입니다.

      -- 속성: username

          모든 인용(quoting)이 제거된 주소의 ‘username’ 부분.

      -- 속성: domain

          주소의 ‘domain’ 부분.

      -- 속성: addr_spec

          주소의 ‘username@domain’ 부분, 단순 주소(위의 두 번째 형식)로
          사용하기 위해 올바르게 인용(quoted)됩니다.  이 어트리뷰트는 불
          변입니다.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          객체의 ‘str’ 값은 RFC 5322(15) 규칙에 따라 인용된(quoted) 주소
          이지만, ASCII가 아닌 문자의 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩(Content
          Transfer Encoding)은 없습니다.

     SMTP( RFC 5321(16))를 지원하기 위해, ‘Address’는 한가지 특별한 경우
     를 처리합니다: ‘username’과 ‘domain’이 모두 빈 문자열(또는 ‘None’)이
     면, ‘Address’의 문자열 값은 ‘<>’입니다.

 -- 클래스: email.headerregistry.Group (display_name=None,
          addresses=None)

     주소 그룹을 표현하는 데 사용되는 클래스.  주소 그룹의 일반적인 형식
     은 다음과 같습니다:

          display_name: [address-list];

     그룹과 단일 주소의 혼합으로 구성된 주소 목록 처리의 편의를 위해,
     'display_name'을 ‘None’으로 설정하고 단일 주소 목록을 'addresses'로
     제공하여, ‘Group’을 그룹의 일부가 아닌 단일 주소를 나타내는 데 사용
     할 수도 있습니다.

      -- 속성: display_name

          그룹의 ‘display_name’.  ‘None’이고 ‘addresses’에 정확히 하나의
          ‘Address’가 있으면, ‘Group’은 그룹에 속하지 않은 단일 주소를 나
          타냅니다.

      -- 속성: addresses

          그룹에 있는 주소를 나타내는 *note Address: 3611. 객체의 비어있
          을 수 있는 튜플.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          ‘Group’의 ‘str’ 값은 RFC 5322(17)에 따라 포맷되지만, ASCII가 아
          닌 문자의 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩(Content Transfer Encoding)은 없습
          니다.  ‘display_name’이 None이고 ‘addresses’ 목록에 단일
          ‘Address’가 있으면 ‘str’ 값은 해당 단일 ‘Address’의 ‘str’과 같
          습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/headerregistry.py

   (2) 원래 3.3에서 *note 잠정적 모듈: 1037.로 추가되었습니다.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리,  Next: email 예제,  Prev: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.10 ‘email.contentmanager’: MIME 콘텐츠 관리
..................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/contentmanager.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

 -- 클래스: email.contentmanager.ContentManager

     콘텐츠 관리자를 위한 베이스 클래스.  ‘get_content’와 ‘set_content’
     디스패치 메서드뿐만 아니라 MIME 콘텐츠와 다른 표현 간의 변환기를 등
     록하는 표준 등록소 메커니즘을 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content (msg, *args, **kw)

          'msg'의 ‘mimetype’을 기반으로 처리기 함수를 찾고 (다음 단락을
          참조하십시오), 모든 인자를 전달하여 그것을 호출하고, 이 호출의
          결과를 반환합니다.  처리기가 'msg'에서 페이 로드를 추출하고 추
          출된 데이터에 대한 정보를 인코딩하는 객체를 반환할 것으로 기대
          합니다.

          처리기를 찾으려면, 등록소에서 다음 키를 찾는데, 처음 발견되는
          것에서 멈춥니다:

             * 전체 MIME 유형을 나타내는 문자열 (‘maintype/subtype’)

             * ‘maintype’을 나타내는 문자열

             * 빈 문자열

          이러한 키 중 아무것도 이러한 처리기를 생성하지 않으면, 전체
          MIME 유형에 대해 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: set_content (msg, obj, *args, **kw)

          ‘maintype’이 ‘multipart’이면, *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵
          니다; 그렇지 않으면 'obj'의 형을 기반으로 처리기 함수를 찾고
          (다음 단락을 참조하십시오), 'msg'에서 *note clear_content():
          35b4.를 호출한 다음, 모든 인자를 전달해서 처리기 함수를 호출합
          니다.  처리기가 'obj'를 'msg'로 변환하고 저장할 것으로 기대하
          는데, 저장된 데이터를 해석하는 데 필요한 정보를 인코딩하기 위
          해 다양한 MIME 헤더를 추가하는 등 'msg'에 다른 변경을 가할 수
          있습니다.

          처리기를 찾으려면, 'obj'의 형을 얻고 (‘typ = type(obj)’), 등록
          소에서 다음 키를 찾는데 처음 발견되는 것에서 멈춥니다:

             * 형 자체 (‘typ’)

             * 형의 완전히 정규화된 이름 (‘typ.__module__ + '.' +
               typ.__qualname__’).

             * 형의 *note qualname: 1f2e. (‘typ.__qualname__’)

             * 형의 *note 이름: 1471. (‘typ.__name__’).

          이 중 아무것도 일치하지 않으면, *note MRO: 362e. (*note
          typ.__mro__: 1f31.)의 각 형에 대해 위의 모든 검사를 반복합니다
          .  마지막으로, 다른 키가 처리기를 생성하지 않으면, ‘None’ 키의
          처리기를 확인합니다.  ‘None’에 대한 처리기가 없으면, 형의 완전
          히 정규화된 이름으로 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니다.

          ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더가 없으면 추가합니다 (*note MIMEPart: f32.를
          참조하십시오).

      -- 메서드: add_get_handler (key, handler)

          함수 'handler'를 'key'의 처리기로 기록합니다.  가능한 'key' 값
          은 *note get_content(): 3630.를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: add_set_handler (typekey, handler)

          'typekey'와 일치하는 형의 객체가 *note set_content(): 3632.에
          전달될 때 호출할 함수로 'handler'를 기록합니다.  가능한
          'typekey' 값은 *note set_content(): 3632.를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/contentmanager.py

   (2) 원래 3.4에서 *note 잠정적 모듈: 1037.로 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스,  Up: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리

5.20.1.11 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스
................................

현재 email 패키지는 하나의 구상 콘텐츠 관리자 *note raw_data_manager:
35e0.만 제공하지만, 향후에는 더 추가될 수 있습니다.  *note
raw_data_manager: 35e0.는 *note EmailPolicy: 10aa.와 그 파생물에 의해 제
공되는 *note content_manager: f33.입니다.

 -- 데이터: email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager

     이 콘텐츠 관리자는 *note Message: 27c. 자체에서 제공하는 것 외에는
     최소 인터페이스 만 제공합니다: 텍스트, 날 바이트열 및 *note
     Message: 27c. 객체만 다룹니다.  그런데도 기본 API와 비교할 때 상당
     한 이점을 제공합니다: 텍스트 파트에 대한 ‘get_content’는 응용 프로
     그램이 수동으로 디코딩할 필요 없이 유니코드 문자열을 반환하고,
     ‘set_content’는 파트에 추가된 헤더를 제어하고 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩을
     제어하기 위한 다양한 옵션을 제공하고, 다양한 ‘add_’ 메서드를 사용할
     수 있도록 해서, 멀티 파트 메시지 작성을 단순화합니다.

      -- 메서드: email.contentmanager.get_content (msg,
               errors='replace')

          파트의 페이 로드를 문자열(‘text’ 파트의 경우), *note
          EmailMessage: 27b. 객체 (‘message/rfc822’ 파트의 경우) 또는
          ‘bytes’ 객체 (다른 모든 비 멀티 파트 유형의 경우)로 반환합니다
          .  ‘multipart’에서 호출되면 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니
          다.  파트가 ‘text’ 파트이고 'errors'가 지정되면, 페이 로드를 유
          니코드로 디코딩할 때 에러 처리기로 사용합니다.  기본 에러 처리
          기는 ‘replace’입니다.

      -- 메서드: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'str'>,
               subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', cte=None,
               disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None,
               headers=None)

      -- 메서드: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'bytes'>,
               maintype, subtype, cte="base64", disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

      -- 메서드: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg,
               <'EmailMessage'>, cte=None, disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

          'msg'에 헤더와 페이 로드를 추가합니다:

          ‘maintype/subtype’ 값으로 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더를 추가합니다.

             * ‘str’의 경우, MIME ‘maintype’을 ‘text’로 설정하고, 서브 유
               형은 지정되었으면 'subtype'으로 설정하고, 지정되지 않았으
               면 ‘plain’으로 설정합니다.

             * ‘bytes’의 경우, 지정된 'maintype'과 'subtype'을 사용하거
               나, 지정되지 않았으면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니
               다.

             * *note EmailMessage: 27b. 객체의 경우, 메인 유형을
               ‘message’로 설정하고, 서브 유형은 지정되었으면 'subtype'으
               로 설정하고, 지정되지 않았으면 ‘rfc822’로 설정합니다.
               'subtype'이 ‘partial’이면 에러를 발생시킵니다 (‘bytes’ 객
               체를 사용하여 ‘message/partial’ 파트를 구성해야 합니다).

          'charset'이 제공되면 (‘str’에만 유효합니다), 지정된 문자 집합
          을 사용하여 문자열을 바이트열로 인코딩합니다.  기본값은
          ‘utf-8’입니다.  지정된 'charset'이 표준 MIME 문자 집합 이름의
          알려진 별칭이면, 표준 문자 집합을 대신 사용합니다.

          'cte'가 설정되면, 지정된 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩을 사용하여 페이 로
          드를 인코딩하고, ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 해당 값으
          로 설정합니다.  'cte'의 가능한 값은 ‘quoted-printable’,
          ‘base64’, ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’ 및 ‘binary’입니다.  지정된 인코딩으로
          입력을 인코딩할 수 없으면 (예를 들어, 비 ASCII 값을 포함하는 입
          력에 대해 'cte'를 ‘7bit’로 지정합니다), *note ValueError:
          202.를 발생시킵니다.

             * ‘str’ 객체의 경우, 'cte'가 설정되지 않으면 휴리스틱을 사
               용하여 가장 간결한 인코딩을 결정합니다.  인코딩하기 전에,
               모든 줄 경계를 정규화하기 위해 *note str.splitlines():
               1247.를 사용하여, 페이 로드의 각 줄이 현재 정책의 *note
               linesep: 35d3. 프로퍼티로 끝나도록 합니다 (원래 문자열이
               뭔가로 끝나지 않아도 마찬가지).

             * For ‘bytes’ objects, 'cte' is taken to be base64 if not
               set, and the aforementioned newline translation is not
               performed.

             * *note EmailMessage: 27b.의 경우, RFC 2046(1)에 따라,
               'subtype' ‘rfc822’에 대해 ‘quoted-printable’이나
               ‘base64’의 'cte'가 요청되거나, 'subtype' ‘external-body’에
               대해 ‘7bit’ 이외의 'cte'에 대해 에러를 발생시킵니다.
               ‘message/rfc822’의 경우, 'cte'가 지정되지 않으면 ‘8bit’를
               사용합니다.  'subtype'의 다른 모든 값에는 ‘7bit’를 사용합
               니다.

               참고: ‘binary’의 'cte'는 실제로 아직 제대로 작동하지 않습
               니다.  ‘set_content’에 의해 수정된 ‘EmailMessage’ 객체는
               올바르지만, *note BytesGenerator: 11be.는 이것을 올바르게
               직렬화하지 않습니다.

          'disposition'이 설정되면, 이를 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더의 값
          으로 사용합니다.  지정되지 않고 'filename'이 지정되면, 값이
          ‘attachment’인 헤더를 추가합니다.  'disposition'이 지정되지 않
          고 'filename'도 지정되지 않으면, 헤더를 추가하지 않습니다.
          'disposition'에 유효한 값은 ‘attachment’와 ‘inline’뿐 입니다.

          'filename'이 지정되면, 이를 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더의
          ‘filename’ 파라미터의 값으로 사용합니다.

          'cid'가 지정되면, 'cid'를 값으로 사용하여 ‘Content-ID’ 헤더를
          추가합니다.

          'params'가 지정되면, 그것의 ‘items’ 메서드를 이터레이트하고 결
          과 ‘(key, value)’ 쌍을 사용하여 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 추가 파
          라미터를 설정합니다.

          'headers'가 지정되고 ‘headername: headervalue’ 형식의 문자열 리
          스트나 ‘header’ 객체 (‘name’ 어트리뷰트를 가진 것으로 문자열과
          구별됩니다) 리스트면, 헤더를 'msg'에 추가합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html


File: python.info,  Node: email 예제,  Next: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기,  Prev: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.12 ‘email’: 예제
.......................

다음은 *note email: 3b. 패키지를 사용하여 간단한 전자 우편 메시지뿐만 아
니라 더 복잡한 MIME 메시지를 읽고 쓰고 보내는 방법에 대한 몇 가지 예입니
다.

먼저 간단한 텍스트 메시지를 만들고 보내는 방법을 살펴보겠습니다 (텍스트
내용과 주소에 유니코드 문자가 포함될 수 있습니다):

     # 실제 전송 기능을 위해 smtplib를 임포트 합니다
     import smtplib

     # 필요한 email 모듈을 임포트 합니다
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # textfile에 있는 이름의 텍스트 파일을 읽기 위해 엽니다.
     with open(textfile) as fp:
         # Create a text/plain message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg.set_content(fp.read())

     # me == 발신자의 전자 우편 주소
     # you == 수신자의 전자 우편 주소
     msg['Subject'] = f'The contents of {textfile}'
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = you

     # 자체 SMTP 서버를 통해 메시지를 보냅니다.
     s = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     s.send_message(msg)
     s.quit()

*note parser: 4e. 모듈의 클래스를 사용하여 RFC 822(1) 헤더를 쉽게 구문 분
석할 수 있습니다:

     # 필요한 email 모듈을 임포트 합니다
     #from email.parser import BytesParser
     from email.parser import Parser
     from email.policy import default

     # 전자 우편 헤더가 파일에 있으면, 이 두 줄의 주석 처리를 제거하십시오:
     # with open(messagefile, 'rb') as fp:
     #     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)

     #  또는 문자열에서 헤더를 구문 분석하려면 (이는 드문 작업입니다), 다음을 사용하십시오:
     headers = Parser(policy=default).parsestr(
             'From: Foo Bar <user@example.com>\n'
             'To: <someone_else@example.com>\n'
             'Subject: Test message\n'
             '\n'
             'Body would go here\n')

     #  이제 헤더 항목을 딕셔너리로 액세스 할 수 있습니다:
     print('To: {}'.format(headers['to']))
     print('From: {}'.format(headers['from']))
     print('Subject: {}'.format(headers['subject']))

     # 또한 주소의 일부에 액세스 할 수 있습니다:
     print('Recipient username: {}'.format(headers['to'].addresses[0].username))
     print('Sender name: {}'.format(headers['from'].addresses[0].display_name))

다음은 디렉터리에 있을 수 있는 가족사진을 포함하는 MIME 메시지를 보내는
방법의 예입니다:

     # 실제 전송 기능을 위해 smtplib를 임포트 합니다.
     import smtplib

     # 다음은 필요한 email 패키지입니다.
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # 컨테이너 전자 우편 메시지를 만듭니다.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = 'Our family reunion'
     # me == 발신자의 전자 우편 주소
     # family = 모든 수신자의 전자 우편 주소 목록
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = ', '.join(family)
     msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

     # 바이너리 모드로 파일을 엽니다. MIMEImage 가 추측하길 원하면
     # subtype 을 생략할 수도 있습니다.
     for file in pngfiles:
         with open(file, 'rb') as fp:
             img_data = fp.read()
         msg.add_attachment(img_data, maintype='image',
                                      subtype='png')

     # 자체 SMTP 서버를 통해 전자 우편을 보냅니다.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

다음은 디렉터리의 전체 내용을 전자 우편 메시지로 보내는 방법의 예입니다:
(2)

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """디렉터리의 내용을 MIME 메시지로 보냅니다."""

     import os
     import smtplib
     # 파일 이름 확장자를 기반으로 MIME 유형을 추측하기 위해
     import mimetypes

     from argparse import ArgumentParser

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.policy import SMTP


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.
     Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local
     SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine
     must be running an SMTP server.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory',
                             help="""Mail the contents of the specified directory,
                             otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular
                             files in the directory are sent, and we don't recurse to
                             subdirectories.""")
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output',
                             metavar='FILE',
                             help="""Print the composed message to FILE instead of
                             sending the message to the SMTP server.""")
         parser.add_argument('-s', '--sender', required=True,
                             help='The value of the From: header (required)')
         parser.add_argument('-r', '--recipient', required=True,
                             action='append', metavar='RECIPIENT',
                             default=[], dest='recipients',
                             help='A To: header value (at least one required)')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         directory = args.directory
         if not directory:
             directory = '.'
         # 메시지를 만듭니다
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg['Subject'] = f'Contents of directory {os.path.abspath(directory)}'
         msg['To'] = ', '.join(args.recipients)
         msg['From'] = args.sender
         msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

         for filename in os.listdir(directory):
             path = os.path.join(directory, filename)
             if not os.path.isfile(path):
                 continue
             # 파일 확장자를 기준으로 콘텐츠 유형을 추측합니다.
             # gzip 되었거나 압축된 파일과 같은 간단한 사항을
             # 확인해야 하지만, 인코딩은 무시됩니다.
             ctype, encoding = mimetypes.guess_file_type(path)
             if ctype is None or encoding is not None:
                 # 추측할 수 없거나 파일이 인코딩(압축)되었기 때문에,
                 # 일반적인 비트 덩어리 유형을 사용합니다.
                 ctype = 'application/octet-stream'
             maintype, subtype = ctype.split('/', 1)
             with open(path, 'rb') as fp:
                 msg.add_attachment(fp.read(),
                                    maintype=maintype,
                                    subtype=subtype,
                                    filename=filename)
         # 이제 메시지를 보내거나 저장합니다
         if args.output:
             with open(args.output, 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=SMTP))
         else:
             with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
                 s.send_message(msg)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

다음은 위와 같은 MIME 메시지를 디렉터리로 푸는 방법의 예입니다:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """MIME 메시지를 디렉터리에 풉니다."""

     import os
     import email
     import mimetypes

     from email.policy import default

     from argparse import ArgumentParser


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory', required=True,
                             help="""Unpack the MIME message into the named
                             directory, which will be created if it doesn't already
                             exist.""")
         parser.add_argument('msgfile')
         args = parser.parse_args()

         with open(args.msgfile, 'rb') as fp:
             msg = email.message_from_binary_file(fp, policy=default)

         try:
             os.mkdir(args.directory)
         except FileExistsError:
             pass

         counter = 1
         for part in msg.walk():
             # multipart/* 는 단지 컨테이너입니다
             if part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart':
                 continue
             # 전자 우편 메시지를 사용하여 중요한 파일을 덮어쓸 수 없도록 응용 프로그램은
             # 주어진 파일명을 청소해야 합니다.
             filename = part.get_filename()
             if not filename:
                 ext = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
                 if not ext:
                     # 일반적인 비트 덩어리 확장자를 사용합니다
                     ext = '.bin'
                 filename = f'part-{counter:03d}{ext}'
             counter += 1
             with open(os.path.join(args.directory, filename), 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(part.get_payload(decode=True))


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

다음은 대체 일반 텍스트 버전으로 HTML 메시지를 만드는 방법의 예입니다.  좀
더 흥미롭게 하기 위해, html 부분에 관련 이미지를 포함하고, 보낼 뿐만 아
니라, 보낼 것의 사본을 디스크에 저장합니다.

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     import smtplib

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.headerregistry import Address
     from email.utils import make_msgid

     # 기본 텍스트 메시지를 만듭니다.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = "Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?"
     msg['From'] = Address("Pepé Le Pew", "pepe", "example.com")
     msg['To'] = (Address("Penelope Pussycat", "penelope", "example.com"),
                  Address("Fabrette Pussycat", "fabrette", "example.com"))
     msg.set_content("""\
     Salut!

     Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

     [1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718

     --Pepé
     """)

     # html 버전을 추가합니다. 그러면 메시지가 원본 텍스트 메시지가
     # 첫 번째 부분이고 새 html 메시지가 두 번째 부분인
     # multipart/alternative 컨테이너로 변환됩니다.
     asparagus_cid = make_msgid()
     msg.add_alternative("""\
     <html>
       <head></head>
       <body>
         <p>Salut!</p>
         <p>Cette
             <a href="http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718">
                 recette
             </a> sera sûrement un très bon repas.
         </p>
         <img src="cid:{asparagus_cid}">
       </body>
     </html>
     """.format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
     # html에서 사용하기 위해 msgid에서 <>를 벗겨야 했습니다.

     # 이제 관련 이미지를 html 부분에 추가합니다.
     with open("roasted-asparagus.jpg", 'rb') as img:
         msg.get_payload()[1].add_related(img.read(), 'image', 'jpeg',
                                          cid=asparagus_cid)

     # 보낼 것의 지역 사본을 만듭니다.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(bytes(msg))

     # 지역 SMTP 서버를 통해 메시지를 보냅니다.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

마지막 예에서 메시지를 보냈다면, 다음은 그것을 처리하는 한 가지 방법입니
다:

     import os
     import sys
     import tempfile
     import mimetypes
     import webbrowser

     # 필요한 email 모듈을 임포트 합니다
     from email import policy
     from email.parser import BytesParser


     def magic_html_parser(html_text, partfiles):
         """partfiles 에 링크된 안전 위생 처리된 html 을 반환합니다.

         partfiles의 파일명을 가리키도록 href="cid:...." 어트리뷰트를 다시 씁니다.
         사소하지는 않지만, html.parser 를 사용하면 가능합니다.
         """
         raise NotImplementedError("Add the magic needed")


     # 실제 프로그램에서는 인자에서 파일명을 얻습니다.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'rb') as fp:
         msg = BytesParser(policy=policy.default).parse(fp)

     # 이제 헤더 항목을 딕셔너리로 액세스할 수 있으며, 비 ASCII는
     # 유니코드로 변환됩니다:
     print('To:', msg['to'])
     print('From:', msg['from'])
     print('Subject:', msg['subject'])

     # 메시지 내용의 미리 보기를 인쇄하려면, 가장 덜 포맷된 형식의
     # 페이 로드를 추출하고 처음 세 줄을 인쇄합니다. 물론, 메시지에
     # 일반 텍스트 부분이 없을 때, html의 처음 세 줄을 인쇄하는 것은
     # 쓸모가 없지만, 이것은 단지 개념적인 예일 뿐입니다.
     simplest = msg.get_body(preferencelist=('plain', 'html'))
     print()
     print(''.join(simplest.get_content().splitlines(keepends=True)[:3]))

     ans = input("View full message?")
     if ans.lower()[0] == 'n':
         sys.exit()

     # 표시하기 위해 가장 풍부한 대안을 추출할 수 있습니다:
     richest = msg.get_body()
     partfiles = {}
     if richest['content-type'].maintype == 'text':
         if richest['content-type'].subtype == 'plain':
             for line in richest.get_content().splitlines():
                 print(line)
             sys.exit()
         elif richest['content-type'].subtype == 'html':
             body = richest
         else:
             print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
             sys.exit()
     elif richest['content-type'].content_type == 'multipart/related':
         body = richest.get_body(preferencelist=('html'))
         for part in richest.iter_attachments():
             fn = part.get_filename()
             if fn:
                 extension = os.path.splitext(part.get_filename())[1]
             else:
                 extension = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
             with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=extension, delete=False) as f:
                 f.write(part.get_content())
                 # cid의 전자 우편 형식에서 html 형식으로 가기 위해 <>을 다시 제거합니다.
                 partfiles[part['content-id'][1:-1]] = f.name
     else:
         print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
         sys.exit()
     with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False) as f:
         f.write(magic_html_parser(body.get_content(), partfiles))
     webbrowser.open(f.name)
     os.remove(f.name)
     for fn in partfiles.values():
         os.remove(fn)

     # 물론, 이 간단한 프로그램을 망칠 수 있는 많은 전자 우편
     # 메시지가 있지만, 가장 흔한 것을 처리합니다.

프롬프트까지, 위의 출력은 다음과 같습니다:

     To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
     From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
     Subject: Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?

     Salut!

     Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

레거시 API:

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) 영감과 예를 주신 Matthew Dixon Cowles에게 감사드립니다.


File: python.info,  Node: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기,  Next: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기,  Prev: email 예제,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.13 ‘email.message.Message’: ‘compat32’ API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기
...................................................................................

*note Message: 27c. 클래스는 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 클래스와 매우 유사
지만, 이 클래스에 의해 추가된 메서드가 없고, 다른 특정 메서드의 기본 동
작이 약간 다릅니다.  또한 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 클래스에서 지원하지만
, 레거시 코드를 다루지 않는 한 권장되지 않는 일부 메서드도 여기에서 설명
합니다.

두 클래스의 철학과 구조는 그 외에는 같습니다.

이 문서는 기본 (*note Message: 27c.의 경우) 정책 *note Compat32: 10a7.의
동작을 설명합니다.  다른 정책을 사용하려면, *note EmailMessage: 27b. 클
래스를 대신 사용해야 합니다.

이메일 메시지는 '헤더(headers)'와 '페이 로드(payload)'로 구성됩니다.  헤
더는 RFC 5322(1) 스타일 이름과 값이어야 하며, 필드 이름과 값은 콜론으로
구분됩니다.  콜론은 필드 이름이나 필드 값의 일부가 아닙니다.  페이 로드
는 간단한 텍스트 메시지, 바이너리 객체 또는 각각 자체 헤더 집합과 자체 페
이 로드가 있는 서브 메시지의 구조화된 시퀀스일 수 있습니다.  후자의 페이
로드 유형은 ‘multipart/*’나 ‘message/rfc822’와 같은 MIME 유형을 가진 메
시지로 표시됩니다.

*note Message: 27c. 객체가 제공하는 개념 모델은 헤더의 순서 있는 딕셔너
리이면서, 헤더의 특수 정보에 액세스하고, 페이 로드에 액세스하고, 메시지
의 직렬화된 버전을 생성하고, 객체 트리를 재귀적으로 탐색하기 위한 추가 메
서드가 제공되는 것입니다.  중복 헤더가 지원되지만, 특수한 메서드를 사용
하여 액세스해야 함에 유의하십시오.

*note Message: 27c. 의사 딕셔너리는 헤더 이름으로 인덱싱되며, ASCII 값이
어야 합니다.  딕셔너리의 값은 ASCII 문자만 포함해야 하는 문자열입니다; 비
ASCII 입력에 대한 특수 처리가 있지만, 항상 올바른 결과를 생성하지는 않습
니다.  헤더는 대소 문자를 유지하면서 저장되고 반환되지만, 필드 이름은 대
소 문자를 구분하지 않고 일치합니다.  'Unix-From' 헤더나 ‘From_’ 헤더라고
도 하는 단일 봉투 헤더가 있을 수도 있습니다.  '페이 로드(payload)'는 단
순 메시지 객체의 경우는 문자열이나 바이트열이고, MIME 컨테이너 문서(예를
들어 ‘multipart/*’와 ‘message/rfc822’)의 경우는 *note Message: 27c. 객체
의 리스트입니다.

*note Message: 27c. 클래스의 메서드는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 클래스: email.message.Message (policy=compat32)

     'policy'가 지정되면 (*note policy: 4f. 클래스의 인스턴스여야 합니다
     ) 메시지 표현을 갱신하고 직렬화하기 위해 지정된 규칙을 사용합니다.
     'policy'가 설정되지 않으면, *note compat32: 10a7. 정책을 사용하는데
     , 파이썬 3.2 버전의 email 패키지와의 과거 호환성을 유지합니다.  자
     세한 내용은 *note policy: 4f. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0, policy=None)

          평활화된 전체 메시지를 문자열로 반환합니다.  선택적
          'unixfrom'이 참이면, 봉투 헤더가 반환된 문자열에 포함됩니다.
          'unixfrom'의 기본값은 ‘False’입니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위
          해, 'maxheaderlen'의 기본값이 ‘0’이라서 다른 값을 원하면 명시
          적으로 재정의해야 합니다 (정책에서 'max_line_length'에 지정된
          값은 이 메서드가 무시합니다).  'policy' 인자는 메시지 인스턴스
          에서 얻은 기본 정책을 대체하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  지정된
          'policy'가 ‘Generator’로 전달되므로, 메서드에서 생성된 일부 포
          매팅을 제어하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          문자열로의 변환을 완료하기 위해 기본값을 채워야 하면 메시지 평
          활화는 *note Message: 27c.에 대한 변경을 유발할 수 있습니다 (예
          를 들어, MIME 경계가 생성되거나 수정될 수 있습니다).

          이 메서드는 편의상 제공되며 원하는 방식으로 메시지를 항상 포맷
          하지는 않음에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, 기본적으로 유닉스 mbox
          형식에 필요한 ‘From’으로 시작하는 줄을 맹글링(mangling)하지 않
          습니다.  유연성을 높이려면, *note Generator: 11bd. 인스턴스를
          인스턴스 화하고 그것의 *note flatten(): 35ce. 메서드를 직접 사
          용하십시오.  예를 들면:

               from io import StringIO
               from email.generator import Generator
               fp = StringIO()
               g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          메시지 객체가 RFC 표준에 따라 인코딩되지 않은 바이너리 데이터
          를 포함하면, 비 호환 데이터는 유니코드 “unknown character” 코
          드 포인트로 대체됩니다.  (*note as_bytes(): f2f.와 *note
          BytesGenerator: 11be.도 참조하십시오.)

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 인자가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          *note as_string(): f2e.과 동등합니다.  ‘str(msg)’가 포맷된 메
          시지를 포함하는 문자열을 생성할 수 있도록 합니다.

      -- 메서드: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          평활화된 전체 메시지를 바이트열 객체로 반환합니다.  선택적
          'unixfrom'이 참이면, 봉투 헤더가 반환된 문자열에 포함됩니다.
          'unixfrom'의 기본값은 ‘False’입니다.  'policy' 인자는 메시지 인
          스턴스에서 얻은 기본 정책을 대체하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  지
          정된 'policy'가 ‘BytesGenerator’로 전달되므로, 메서드에서 생성
          된 일부 포매팅을 제어하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          문자열로의 변환을 완료하기 위해 기본값을 채워야 하면 메시지 평
          활화는 *note Message: 27c.에 대한 변경을 유발할 수 있습니다 (예
          를 들어, MIME 경계가 생성되거나 수정될 수 있습니다).

          이 메서드는 편의상 제공되며 원하는 방식으로 메시지를 항상 포맷
          하지는 않음에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, 기본적으로 유닉스 mbox
          형식에 필요한 ‘From’으로 시작하는 줄을 맹글링(mangling)하지 않
          습니다.  유연성을 높이려면, *note BytesGenerator: 11be. 인스턴
          스를 인스턴스 화하고 그것의 *note flatten(): 35ca. 메서드를 직
          접 사용하십시오.  예를 들면:

               from io import BytesIO
               from email.generator import BytesGenerator
               fp = BytesIO()
               g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: __bytes__ ()

          *note as_bytes(): f2f.와 동등합니다.  ‘bytes(msg)’가 포맷된 메
          시지를 포함하는 바이트열 객체를 생성할 수 있도록 합니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: is_multipart ()

          메시지의 페이 로드가 서브-*note Message: 27c. 객체의 리스트이
          면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  *note
          is_multipart(): 35a3.가 ‘False’를 반환할 때, 페이 로드는 문자
          열 객체(CTE로 인코딩된 바이너리 페이 로드일 수 있습니다)여야 합
          니다.  (‘True’를 반환하는 *note is_multipart(): 35a3.가 반드시
          “msg.get_content_maintype() == ‘multipart’” 가 ‘True’를 반환한
          다는 것을 의미하지는 않습니다.  예를 들어, *note Message:
          27c.가 ‘message/rfc822’ 유형일 때, ‘is_multipart’는 ‘True’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          메시지의 봉투 헤더를 (문자열이어야 하는) 'unixfrom'으로 설정합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: get_unixfrom ()

          메시지의 봉투 헤더를 반환합니다.  봉투 헤더가 설정되지 않았으
          면 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.

      -- 메서드: attach (payload)

          지정된 'payload'를 현재 페이 로드에 추가합니다.  호출 전에는 페
          이 로드가 ‘None’이나 *note Message: 27c. 객체의 리스트여야 합
          니다.  호출 후에는 페이 로드가 항상 *note Message: 27c. 객체의
          리스트입니다.  페이 로드를 스칼라 객체(예를 들어 문자열)로 설
          정하려면, *note set_payload(): 363b.를 대신 사용하십시오.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by *note set_content():
          18af. and the related ‘make’ and ‘add’ methods.

      -- 메서드: get_payload (i=None, decode=False)

          현재 페이 로드를 반환합니다.  *note is_multipart(): 35a3.가
          ‘True’이면 *note Message: 27c. 객체의 리스트이고, *note
          is_multipart(): 35a3.가 ‘False’이면 문자열입니다.  페이 로드가
          리스트이고 리스트 객체를 변경하면, 메시지의 페이 로드를 제자리
          에서 수정하는 것입니다.

          선택적 인자 'i'를 사용하면, *note get_payload(): 11bc.는 *note
          is_multipart(): 35a3.가 ‘True’일 때, 페이 로드의 'i' 번째 요소
          를 0부터 세어 반환합니다.  'i'가 0보다 작거나 페이 로드의 항목
          수보다 크거나 같으면 *note IndexError: 14fc.가 발생합니다.  페
          이 로드가 문자열이고 (즉 *note is_multipart(): 35a3.가
          ‘False’) 'i'가 제공되면, *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

          선택적 'decode'는 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더에 따라 페이
          로드를 디코딩해야 하는지를 나타내는 플래그입니다.  ‘True’이고
          메시지가 멀티 파트가 아닐 때, 이 헤더 값이 ‘quoted-printable’이
          나 ‘base64’이면 페이 로드가 디코딩됩니다.  다른 인코딩이 사용
          되거나 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더가 누락되면, 페이 로드
          는 그대로 (디코딩되지 않고) 반환됩니다.  모든 경우에 반환된 값
          은 바이너리 데이터입니다.  메시지가 멀티 파트이고 'decode' 플
          래그가 ‘True’이면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  페이 로드가 base64이
          고 완벽하게 구성되지 않았으면 (패딩 누락, base64 알파벳 이외의
          문자), 메시지의 결함 프로퍼티에 적절한 결함이 추가됩니다 (각각
          *note InvalidBase64PaddingDefect: 35ff.나 *note
          InvalidBase64CharactersDefect: 3600.).

          'decode'가 ‘False’(기본값)일 때 본문은
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’을 디코딩하지 않고 문자열로 반환됩
          니다.  그러나, ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’이 8비트인 경우,
          ‘replace’ 에러 처리기로, ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 지정된
          ‘charset’을 사용하여 원래 바이트를 디코딩하려고 시도합니다.
          ‘charset’이 지정되지 않았거나 email 패키지가 ‘charset’을 인식
          하지 못하면, 본문은 기본 ASCII 문자 집합을 사용하여 디코딩됩니
          다.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by *note get_content():
          35a9. and *note iter_parts(): 35a8.

      -- 메서드: set_payload (payload, charset=None)

          전체 메시지 객체의 페이 로드를 'payload'로 설정합니다.  페이 로
          드 불변량(invariants)을 보장하는 것은 고객의 책임입니다.  선택
          적 'charset'은 메시지의 기본 문자 집합을 설정합니다; 자세한 내
          용은 *note set_charset(): 363c.을 참조하십시오.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by *note set_content():
          18af.

      -- 메서드: set_charset (charset)

          페이 로드의 문자 집합을 'charset'으로 설정합니다.  이는 *note
          Charset: df6. 인스턴스 (*note email.charset: 3c.을 참조하십시
          오), 문자 집합의 이름을 지정하는 문자열 또는 ‘None’일 수 있습
          니다.  문자열이면, *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스로 변환됩니다.
          'charset'이 ‘None’이면, ‘charset’ 매개 변수가 ‘Content-Type’ 헤
          더에서 제거됩니다 (그렇지 않으면 메시지가 수정되지 않습니다).
          그 외의 경우는 *note TypeError: 532.를 생성합니다.

          기존 ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더가 없으면 추가됩니다.  기존
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없으면, ‘text/plain’ 값으로 추가됩니다.
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 존재하는지와 관계없이, ‘charset’ 매개 변
          수는 'charset.output_charset'으로 설정됩니다.
          'charset.input_charset'과 'charset.output_charset'이 다르면, 페
          이 로드가 'output_charset'으로 다시 인코딩됩니다.  기존
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더가 없으면, 필요하면 지정된
          *note Charset: df6.을 사용하여 페이 로드가 전송 인코딩되고
          (transfer-encoded), 적절한 값을 가진 헤더가 추가됩니다.
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더가 이미 존재하면, 페이 로드는
          해당 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’을 사용하여 이미 올바르게 인코
          딩된 것으로 가정하며 수정하지 않습니다.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by the 'charset' parameter
          of the *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content(): 18af.
          method.

      -- 메서드: get_charset ()

          메시지 페이 로드와 연관된 *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스를 반환
          합니다.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class it always returns ‘None’.

     다음 메서드는 메시지의 RFC 2822(2) 헤더에 액세스하기 위한 매핑과 유
     사한 인터페이스를 구현합니다.  이 메서드들과 일반적인 매핑 (즉, 딕
     셔너리) 인터페이스 사이에는 의미상 차이가 있습니다.  예를 들어, 딕
     셔너리에는 중복 키가 없지만, 여기에는 중복 메시지 헤더가 있을 수 있
     습니다.  또한, 딕셔너리에서는 *note keys(): 363e.가 반환하는 키의 순
     서가 보장되지 않지만, *note Message: 27c. 객체에서는 헤더가 항상 원
     래 메시지에 나타나거나 나중에 메시지에 추가된 순서대로 반환됩니다.
     삭제한 후 다시 추가된 헤더는 항상 헤더 리스트의 끝에 추가됩니다.

     이러한 의미상 차이는 의도적이며 최대한의 편의를 위해 편향되어 있습
     니다.

     모든 경우에, 메시지에 존재하는 봉투 헤더는 매핑 인터페이스에 포함되
     지 않습니다.

     바이트열에서 생성된 모델에서, (RFC에 반하여) 비 ASCII 바이트를 포함
     하는 헤더 값은, 이 인터페이스를 통해 꺼낼 때, 문자 집합이
     ‘unknown-8bit’인 *note Header: 18b0. 객체로 표시됩니다.

      -- 메서드: __len__ ()

          중복을 포함하여, 총 헤더 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: __contains__ (name)

          메시지 객체에 'name'이라는 이름의 필드가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환
          합니다.  대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 일치하며 'name'은 후행 콜론
          을 포함하지 않아야 합니다.  ‘in’ 연산자에 사용됩니다, 예를 들
          어:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- 메서드: __getitem__ (name)

          명명된 헤더 필드의 값을 반환합니다.  'name'은 콜론 필드 구분자
          를 포함하지 않아야 합니다.  헤더가 없으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다
          ; *note KeyError: 33d.는 절대 발생하지 않습니다.

          이름이 지정된 필드가 메시지 헤더에 두 번 이상 나타나면, 해당 필
          드 값 중 정확히 어떤 필드 값이 반환되는지 정의되지 않습니다.  기
          존의 모든 명명된 헤더의 값을 가져오려면 *note get_all(): 3641.
          메서드를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: __setitem__ (name, val)

          메시지에 필드 이름이 'name'이고 값이 'val'인 헤더를 추가합니다
          .  필드는 메시지의 기존 필드 끝에 추가됩니다.

          이것이 같은 이름을 가진 기존 헤더를 덮어쓰거나 삭제하지 '않음
          에' 유의하십시오.  새 헤더가 메시지에 필드 이름이 'name'인 유
          일한 헤더가 되도록 하려면, 먼저 필드를 삭제하십시오.  예를 들
          어:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

      -- 메서드: __delitem__ (name)

          메시지 헤더에서 이름이 'name'인 모든 필드를 삭제합니다.  명명
          된 필드가 헤더에 없어도 예외가 발생하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          메시지 헤더의 모든 필드 이름의 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: values ()

          메시지의 모든 필드 값의 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          메시지의 모든 필드 헤더와 값을 포함하는 2-튜플의 리스트를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: get (name, failobj=None)

          명명된 헤더 필드의 값을 반환합니다.  명명된 헤더가 없으면 선택
          적 'failobj'가 반환된다는 점을 제외하고는 *note __getitem__():
          283.과 동일합니다 (기본값은 ‘None’입니다).

     몇 가지 유용한 추가 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          'name'이라는 필드의 모든 값 리스트를 반환합니다.  메시지에 이
          런 이름의 헤더가 없으면, 'failobj'가 반환됩니다 (기본값은
          ‘None’입니다).

      -- 메서드: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          확장된 헤더 설정.  이 메서드는 추가 헤더 매개 변수가 키워드 인
          자로 제공될 수 있다는 점을 제외하고는 *note __setitem__():
          3642.과 유사합니다.  '_name'은 추가할 헤더 필드이고 '_value'는
          헤더의 '기본(primary)'값입니다.

          키워드 인자 딕셔너리 '_params'의 각 항목에 대해, 키는 매개 변
          수 이름으로 사용되며, 밑줄은 대시로 변환됩니다 (대시는 파이썬
          식별자로 유효하지 않기 때문입니다).  일반적으로, 값이 ‘None’이
          아니면 매개 변수가 ‘key="value"’로 추가되며, ‘None’이면 키만 추
          가됩니다.  값에 ASCII가 아닌 문자가 포함되면, ‘(CHARSET,
          LANGUAGE, VALUE)’ 형식으로 3-튜플로 지정할 수 있습니다.  여기
          서 ‘CHARSET’은 값을 인코딩하는 데 사용할 문자 집합의 이름을 지
          정하는 문자열이고, ‘LANGUAGE’는 일반적으로 ‘None’이나 빈 문자
          열(다른 가능성에 대해서는 RFC 2231(3)을 참조하십시오)로 설정될
          수 있고, ‘VALUE’는 비 ASCII 코드 포인트를 포함하는 문자열 값입
          니다.  3-튜플이 전달되지 않고 값에 ASCII가 아닌 문자가 포함되
          면, ‘CHARSET’으로 ‘utf-8’을 ‘LANGUAGE’로 ‘None’을 사용하여 RFC
          2231(4) 형식으로 자동 인코딩됩니다.

          예를 들면 다음과 같습니다:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          이것은 다음과 같은 헤더를 추가합니다

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          비 ASCII 문자의 예:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

          이것은 다음을 생성합니다

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"

      -- 메서드: replace_header (_name, _value)

          헤더를 교체합니다.  헤더 순서와 필드 이름 대소 문자를 유지하면
          서, 메시지에서 '_name'과 일치하는 첫 번째로 발견된 헤더를 교체
          합니다.  일치하는 헤더가 없으면, *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_type ()

          메시지의 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  반환된 문자열은
          ‘maintype/subtype’ 형식의 소문자로 강제 변환됩니다.  메시지에
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없으면 *note get_default_type(): 364a.에
          서 제공하는 기본 유형이 반환됩니다.  RFC 2045(5)에 따르면, 메
          시지는 항상 기본 유형을 가지므로, *note get_content_type():
          3649.은 항상 값을 반환합니다.

          RFC 2045(6)는 메시지가 ‘multipart/digest’ 컨테이너 안에 등장
          (이 경우 기본 유형은 ‘message/rfc822’가 됩니다)하지 않는 한 기
          본 유형을 ‘text/plain’으로 정의합니다.  ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에
          유효하지 않은 유형 명세가 있으면, RFC 2045(7)는 기본 유형이
          ‘text/plain’으로 지정합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_maintype ()

          메시지의 주 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note
          get_content_type(): 3649.이 반환하는 문자열의 ‘maintype’ 부분
          입니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_subtype ()

          메시지의 부 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note
          get_content_type(): 3649.이 반환하는 문자열의 ‘subtype’ 부분입
          니다.

      -- 메서드: get_default_type ()

          기본 콘텐츠 유형을 반환합니다.  ‘multipart/digest’ 컨테이너의
          서브 파트인 메시지를 제외하고, 대부분의 메시지는 기본 콘텐츠 유
          형이 ‘text/plain’입니다.  이러한 서브 파트는 기본 콘텐츠 유형
          이 ‘message/rfc822’입니다.

      -- 메서드: set_default_type (ctype)

          기본 콘텐츠 유형을 설정합니다.  'ctype'은 ‘text/plain’이나
          ‘message/rfc822’여야 하지만 강제하지는 않습니다.  기본 콘텐츠
          유형은 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 저장되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_params (failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          메시지의 ‘Content-Type’ 매개 변수를 리스트로 반환합니다.  반환
          된 리스트의 요소는 ‘'='’ 부호로 분할된 키/값 쌍의 2-튜플입니다
          .  ‘'='’의 왼쪽은 키이고 오른쪽은 값입니다.  매개 변수에 ‘'='’
          부호가 없으면 값은 빈 문자열이고, 그렇지 않으면 값은 *note
          get_param(): 364f.에 설명된대로이며 선택적 'unquote'가
          ‘True’(기본값)이면 인용되지 않습니다.

          선택적 'failobj'는 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없을 때 반환할 객체입
          니다.  선택적 'header'는 ‘Content-Type’ 대신 검색할 헤더입니다
          .

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by the 'params' property
          of the individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- 메서드: get_param (param, failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 매개 변수 'param'의 값을 문자열로 반환합
          니다.  메시지에 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없거나 그러한 매개 변수
          가 없으면, 'failobj'가 반환됩니다 (기본값은 ‘None’입니다).

          선택적 'header'가 제공되면, ‘Content-Type’ 대신 사용할 메시지
          헤더를 지정합니다.

          매개 변수 키는 항상 대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 비교됩니다.  반
          환 값은 문자열이거나, 매개 변수가 RFC 2231(8)로 인코딩되었으면
          3-튜플일 수 있습니다.  3-튜플일 때, 값의 요소는 ‘(CHARSET,
          LANGUAGE, VALUE)’ 형식입니다.  ‘CHARSET’과 ‘LANGUAGE’는 모두
          ‘None’일 수 있으며, 이 경우 ‘VALUE’가 ‘us-ascii’ 문자 집합으로
          인코딩된 것으로 간주해야 함에 유의하십시오.  일반적으로
          ‘LANGUAGE’를 무시할 수 있습니다.

          응용 프로그램이 RFC 2231(9)로 매개 변수가 인코딩되었는지를 신
          경 쓰지 않으면, *note email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value():
          3650.를 호출하면서 *note get_param(): 364f.의 반환 값을 전달하
          여 매개 변숫값을 축소할 수 있습니다.  이것은 값이 튜플이면 적
          절하게 디코딩된 유니코드 문자열을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 원래
          문자열을 인용 없이 반환합니다.  예를 들면:

               rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
               param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)

          모든 경우에, 'unquote'가 ‘False’로 설정되어 있지 않으면, 매개
          변숫값(반환된 문자열이나 3-튜플의 ‘VALUE’ 항목)은 항상 인용되
          지 않습니다.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by the 'params' property
          of the individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- 메서드: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에서 매개 변수를 설정합니다.  매개 변수가 이
          미 헤더에 존재하면, 해당 값은 'value'로 대체됩니다.  이 메시지
          에 대해 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 아직 정의되지 않았으면,
          ‘text/plain’으로 설정되고 RFC 2045(10)에 따라 새 매개 변숫값이
          추가됩니다.

          선택적 'header'는 ‘Content-Type’의 대체 헤더를 지정하며, 선택
          적 'requote'가 ‘False’(기본값은 ‘True’)가 아닌 한 모든 매개 변
          수가 필요에 따라 인용됩니다.

          선택적 'charset'이 지정되면, 매개 변수는 RFC 2231(11)에 따라 인
          코딩됩니다.  선택적 'language'는 RFC 2231 언어를 지정하며, 기
          본값은 빈 문자열입니다.  'charset'과 'language'는 모두 문자열
          이어야 합니다.

          'replace'가 ‘False’(기본값)이면 헤더가 헤더 리스트의 끝으로 이
          동합니다.  'replace'가 ‘True’이면, 헤더는 제자리에서 갱신됩니
          다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘replace’ 키워드가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에서 지정된 매개 변수를 완전히 제거합니다.
          매개 변수나 그 값 없이 헤더가 다시 작성됩니다.  'requote'가
          ‘False’(기본값은 ‘True’)가 아닌 한 모든 값이 필요에 따라 인용
          됩니다.  선택적 'header'는 ‘Content-Type’의 대체 헤더를 지정합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: set_type (type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 주 유형과 부 유형을 설정합니다.  'type'은
          ‘maintype/subtype’ 형식의 문자열이어야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면
          *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          이 메서드는 모든 매개 변수를 그대로 유지하면서 ‘Content-Type’
          헤더를 대체합니다.  'requote'가 ‘False’이면, 기존 헤더의 인용
          을 그대로 두고, 그렇지 않으면 매개 변수가 인용됩니다 (기본값).

          'header' 인자에 대체 헤더를 지정할 수 있습니다.
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 설정될 때 ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더도 추가됩니
          다.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 27b.
          class its functionality is replaced by the ‘make_’ and ‘add_’
          methods.

      -- 메서드: get_filename (failobj=None)

          메시지의 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더의 ‘filename’ 매개 변숫값을
          반환합니다.  헤더에 ‘filename’ 매개 변수가 없으면, 이 메서드는
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에서 ‘name’ 매개 변수를 찾는 것으로 폴 백합
          니다.  둘 다 없거나, 헤더가 없으면, 'failobj'가 반환됩니다.  반
          환된 문자열은 항상 *note email.utils.unquote(): 359c.로 인용 해
          제됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          메시지의 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 ‘boundary’ 매개 변숫값이나, 헤
          더가 없거나 ‘boundary’ 매개 변수가 없으면 'failobj'를 반환합니
          다.  반환된 문자열은 항상 *note email.utils.unquote(): 359c.로
          인용 해제됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set_boundary (boundary)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 ‘boundary’ 매개 변수를 'boundary'로 설정
          합니다.  필요하면 *note set_boundary(): 3655.는 항상
          'boundary'를 인용합니다.  메시지 객체에 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가
          없으면 *note HeaderParseError: 359f. 가 발생합니다.

          *note set_boundary(): 3655.는 헤더 리스트에서 ‘Content-Type’ 헤
          더의 순서를 유지하므로, 이 메서드를 사용하는 것은 이전
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더를 삭제하고 *note add_header(): 3647.를 통
          해 새 경계를 가진 새 헤더를 추가하는 것과 미묘하게 다름에 유의
          하십시오.  그러나 원래 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 있을 수 있는 이어
          지는 줄(continuation lines)을 유지하지 '않습니다'.

      -- 메서드: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더의 ‘charset’ 매개 변수를 소문자로 강제 변환
          하여 반환합니다.  ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없거나, 해당 헤더에
          ‘charset’ 매개 변수가 없으면 'failobj'가 반환됩니다.

          이 메서드는 메시지 본문의 기본 인코딩에 대한 *note Charset:
          df6. 인스턴스를 반환하는 *note get_charset(): 363d.과 다름에 유
          의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          메시지 내의 문자 집합 이름을 포함하는 리스트를 반환합니다.  메
          시지가 ‘multipart’이면, 리스트에 페이 로드의 각 서브 파트마다
          하나의 요소가 포함되며, 그렇지 않으면 길이 1인 리스트가 됩니다
          .

          리스트의 각 항목은 표현된 서브 파트에 대한 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더
          의 ‘charset’ 매개 변숫값인 문자열입니다.  그러나, 서브 파트에
          ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 없거나, ‘charset’ 매개 변수가 없거나,
          ‘text’ 주 MIME 유형이 아니면, 반환된 목록의 해당 항목은
          'failobj'가 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_content_disposition ()

          있다면 메시지의 ‘Content-Disposition’ 헤더의 (매개 변수가 없는
          ) 소문자 값을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  메시지가
          RFC 2183(12)을 따른다면 이 메서드의 가능한 값은 'inline',
          'attachment' 또는 ‘None’입니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: walk ()

          *note walk(): 3658. 메서드는 메시지 객체 트리의 모든 파트와 서
          브 파트를 깊이 우선 탐색 순서로 이터레이트 하는 데 사용할 수 있
          는 범용 제너레이터입니다.  일반적으로 *note walk(): 3658.를
          ‘for’ 루프에서 이터레이터로 사용합니다; 각 이터레이션은 다음 서
          브 파트를 반환합니다.

          다음은 멀티 파트 메시지 구조의 모든 파트에 대한 MIME 유형을 인
          쇄하는 예입니다:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’가 ‘False’를 반환하
          더라도, ‘walk’는 *note is_multipart(): 35a3.가 ‘True’를 반환하
          는 모든 파트의 서브 파트를 이터레이트 합니다.  ‘_structure’ 디
          버그 도우미 함수를 사용하여 예제에서 이를 확인할 수 있습니다:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          여기서 ‘message’ 파트는 ‘multiparts’가 아니지만, 서브 파트를 포
          함합니다.  ‘is_multipart()’는 ‘True’를 반환하고 ‘walk’는 서브
          파트로 내려갑니다.

     *note Message: 27c. 객체는 MIME 메시지의 단순 텍스트를 생성할 때 사
     용할 수 있는 두 개의 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 선택적으로 포함할 수 있
     습니다.

      -- 속성: preamble

          MIME 문서의 형식은 헤더 다음의 빈 줄과 첫 번째 멀티 파트 경계
          문자열 사이에 일부 텍스트를 허용합니다.  일반적으로, 이 텍스트
          는 표준 MIME 장비를 벗어나기 때문에 MIME 인식 메일 리더에서 볼
          수 없습니다.  그러나, 메시지의 원시 텍스트를 보거나, MIME을 인
          식하지 않는 리더에서 메시지를 볼 때, 이 텍스트가 보일 수 있습
          니다.

          'preamble' 어트리뷰트에는 MIME 문서에 대한 이 선행 추가 텍스트
          가 포함됩니다.  *note Parser: 118d.가 헤더 다음이지만 첫 번째
          경계 문자열 이전에 어떤 텍스트를 감지하면, 이 텍스트를 메시지
          의 'preamble' 어트리뷰트에 대입합니다.  *note Generator:
          11bd.가 MIME 메시지의 단순 텍스트 표현을 기록할 때, 메시지에
          'preamble' 어트리뷰트가 있는 것을 발견하면, 헤더와 첫 번째 경
          계 사이의 영역에 이 텍스트를 기록합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
          email.parser: 4e.와 *note email.generator: 40.를 참조하십시오.

          메시지 객체에 프리앰블이 없으면, 'preamble' 어트리뷰트는
          ‘None’이 됨에 유의하십시오.

      -- 속성: epilogue

          'epilogue' 어트리뷰트는 메시지의 마지막 경계와 끝 사이에 나타
          나는 텍스트를 포함한다는 점을 제외하고, 'preamble' 어트리뷰트
          와 같은 방식으로 작동합니다.

          *note Generator: 11bd.가 파일 끝에서 줄 넘김을 인쇄하도록 하기
          위해 에필로그를 빈 문자열로 설정할 필요는 없습니다.

      -- 속성: defects

          'defects' 어트리뷰트는 이 메시지를 구문 분석할 때 발견된 모든
          결함의 리스트를 포함합니다.  가능한 구문 분석 결함에 대한 자세
          한 설명은 *note email.errors: 3f.를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기,  Next: email header 국제화된 헤더,  Prev: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.14 ‘email.mime’: 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기
..........................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/mime/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 레거시 (‘Compat32’) 이메일 API의 일부입니다.  새로운 API에서는
기능이 *note contentmanager: 3d.로 부분적으로 대체되지만, 특정 응용 프로
그램에서는 이 클래스들이 레거시 코드가 아닌 곳에서도 여전히 유용할 수 있
습니다.

일반적으로, 파일이나 일부 텍스트를, 텍스트를 구문 분석하고 루트 메시지 객
체를 반환하는 구문 분석기에 전달하여 메시지 객체 구조를 얻습니다.  그러
나 처음부터 완전한 메시지 구조를 만들거나, 개별 *note Message: 27c. 객체
를 직접 만들 수도 있습니다.  실제로, 기존 구조를 가져와서 새로운 *note
Message: 27c. 객체를 추가하거나 이동시킬 수도 있습니다.  이렇게 하면
MIME 메시지를 잘게 자르고 재배치하는 매우 편리한 인터페이스가 만들어집니
다.

*note Message: 27c. 인스턴스를 만들고 첨부 파일과 모든 적절한 헤더를 수
동으로 추가하여 새 객체 구조를 만들 수 있습니다.  그러나 MIME 메시지의 경
우, *note email: 3b. 패키지는 작업을 쉽게 하기 위해 편리한 서브 클래스를
제공합니다.

클래스는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 클래스: email.mime.base.MIMEBase (_maintype, _subtype, *,
          policy=compat32, **_params)

     모듈: *note email.mime.base: 48.

     이것은 *note Message: 27c.의 모든 MIME 특정 서브 클래스의 베이스 클
     래스입니다.  일반적으로, 할 수는 있지만, *note MIMEBase: 365e.의 인
     스턴스를 만들지는 않습니다.  *note MIMEBase: 365e.는 주로 더 구체적
     인 MIME 인식 서브 클래스를 위한 편리한 베이스 클래스로 제공됩니다.

     '_maintype'은 ‘Content-Type’ 주 유형(예를 들어 ‘text’나 ‘image’)이
     고, '_subtype'은 ‘Content-Type’ 부 유형(예를 들어 ‘plain’이나
     ‘gif’)입니다.  '_params'는 매개 변수 키/값 딕셔너리이며 *note
     Message.add_header: 3647.로 직접 전달됩니다.

     'policy'가 지정되면 (기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7. 정책입니다),
     *note Message: 27c.로 전달됩니다.

     *note MIMEBase: 365e. 클래스는 항상 ('_maintype', '_subtype' 및
     '_params'에 기반하는) ‘Content-Type’ 헤더와 (항상 ‘1.0’으로 설정되
     는) ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더를 추가합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart

     모듈: *note email.mime.nonmultipart: 4c.

     *note MIMEBase: 365e.의 서브 클래스, ‘multipart’ 가 아닌 MIME 메시
     지의 중간 베이스 클래스입니다.  이 클래스의 기본 목적은 ‘multipart’
     메시지에만 적합한 *note attach(): 35b0. 메서드 사용을 방지하는 것입
     니다.  *note attach(): 35b0.가 호출되면 *note
     MultipartConversionError: 35f4. 예외가 발생합니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart (_subtype='mixed',
          boundary=None, _subparts=None, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

     모듈: *note email.mime.multipart: 4b.

     *note MIMEBase: 365e.의 서브 클래스, ‘multipart’ 인 MIME 메시지의 중
     간 베이스 클래스입니다.  선택적 '_subtype'의 기본값은 ‘mixed’이지만
     , 메시지의 부 유형을 지정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.
     ‘multipart/_subtype’의 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 메시지 객체에 추가됩니
     다.  ‘MIME-Version’ 헤더도 추가됩니다.

     선택적 'boundary'는 멀티 파트 경계 문자열입니다.  ‘None’(기본값)이
     면, 경계는 필요할 때 (예를 들어 메시지가 직렬화될 때) 계산됩니다.

     '_subparts'는 페이 로드의 초기 서브 파트 시퀀스입니다.  이 시퀀스를
     리스트로 변환할 수 있어야 합니다.  *note Message.attach: 35b0. 메서
     드를 사용하여 항상 메시지에 새 서브 파트를 첨부할 수 있습니다.

     선택적 'policy' 인자의 기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7.입니다.

     ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 대한 추가 매개 변수는 키워드 인자에서 취하거
     나, 키워드 딕셔너리인 '_params' 인자로 전달됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.application.MIMEApplication (_data,
          _subtype='octet-stream',
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     모듈: *note email.mime.application: 46.

     *note MIMENonMultipart: 35f5. 의 서브 클래스, *note
     MIMEApplication: 3660. 클래스는 주 유형 ‘application’의 MIME 메시지
     객체를 나타내는 데 사용됩니다.  '_data'는 원시 애플리케이션 데이터
     의 바이트 열을 포함합니다.  선택적 '_subtype'은 MIME 부 유형을 지정
     하고 기본값은 ‘octet-stream’입니다.

     선택적 '_encoder'는 전송을 위해 데이터의 실제 인코딩을 수행할 콜러
     블(즉, 함수)입니다.  이 콜러블은 *note MIMEApplication: 3660. 인스
     턴스인 하나의 인자를 취합니다.  페이 로드를 인코딩된 형식으로 변경
     하려면 *note get_payload(): 11bc.와 *note set_payload(): 363b.를 사
     용해야 합니다.  또한, 필요에 따라 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’이나 기
     타 헤더를 메시지 객체에 추가해야 합니다.  기본 인코딩은 base64입니
     다.  내장 인코더의 목록은 *note email.encoders: 3e. 모듈을 참조하십
     시오.

     선택적 'policy' 인자의 기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7.입니다.

     '_params'는 베이스 클래스 생성자로 바로 전달됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio (_audiodata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     모듈: *note email.mime.audio: 47.

     *note MIMENonMultipart: 35f5. 의 서브 클래스, *note MIMEAudio:
     3661. 클래스는 주 유형 ‘audio’의 MIME 메시지 객체를 만드는 데 사용
     됩니다.  '_audiodata'는 원시 오디오 데이터의 바이트 열을 포함합니다
     .  이 데이터를 au, wav, aiff 또는 aifc로 디코딩 할 수 있으면, 부 유
     형이 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 자동으로 포함됩니다.  그렇지 않으면
     '_subtype' 인자를 통해 audio 부 유형을 명시적으로 지정할 수 있습니
     다.  부 유형을 추측할 수 없고 '_subtype'이 제공되지 않으면, *note
     TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     선택적 '_encoder'는 전송을 위해 오디오 데이터의 실제 인코딩을 수행
     할 콜러블(즉, 함수)입니다.  이 콜러블은 *note MIMEAudio: 3661. 인스
     턴스인 하나의 인자를 취합니다.  페이 로드를 인코딩된 형식으로 변경
     하려면 *note get_payload(): 11bc.와 *note set_payload(): 363b.를 사
     용해야 합니다.  또한 필요에 따라 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’이나 기
     타 헤더를 메시지 객체에 추가해야 합니다.  기본 인코딩은 base64입니
     다.  내장 인코더의 목록은 *note email.encoders: 3e. 모듈을 참조하십
     시오.

     선택적 'policy' 인자의 기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7.입니다.

     '_params'는 베이스 클래스 생성자로 바로 전달됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.image.MIMEImage (_imagedata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     모듈: *note email.mime.image: 49.

     *note MIMENonMultipart: 35f5. 의 서브 클래스, *note MIMEImage:
     35f6. 클래스는 주 유형 ‘image’의 MIME 메시지 객체를 만드는 데 사용
     됩니다.  '_imagedata'는 원시 이미지 데이터의 바이트 열을 포함합니다
     .  이 데이터 형이 감지된다면 (jpeg, png, gif, tiff, rgb, pbm, pgm,
     ppm, rast, xbm, bmp, webp 과 exr 을 시도합니다), 부 유형이
     ‘Content-Type’ 헤더에 자동으로 포함됩니다.  그렇지 않으면
     '_subtype' 인자를 통해 image 부 유형을 명시적으로 지정할 수 있습니
     다.  부 유형을 추측할 수 없고 '_subtype'이 제공되지 않으면, *note
     TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     선택적 '_encoder'는 전송을 위해 이미지 데이터의 실제 인코딩을 수행
     할 콜러블(즉, 함수)입니다.  이 콜러블은 *note MIMEImage: 35f6. 인스
     턴스인 하나의 인자를 취합니다.  페이 로드를 인코딩된 형식으로 변경
     하려면 *note get_payload(): 11bc.와 *note set_payload(): 363b.를 사
     용해야 합니다.  또한 필요에 따라 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’이나 기
     타 헤더를 메시지 객체에 추가해야 합니다.  기본 인코딩은 base64입니
     다.  내장 인코더의 목록은 *note email.encoders: 3e. 모듈을 참조하십
     시오.

     선택적 'policy' 인자의 기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7.입니다.

     '_params'는 *note MIMEBase: 365e. 생성자로 바로 전달됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.message.MIMEMessage (_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *,
          policy=compat32)

     모듈: *note email.mime.message: 4a.

     *note MIMENonMultipart: 35f5. 의 서브 클래스, *note MIMEMessage:
     3662. 클래스는 주 유형 ‘message’의 MIME 객체를 만드는 데 사용됩니다
     .  '_msg'는 페이 로드로 사용되며, *note Message: 27c. 클래스(또는 그
     서브 클래스)의 인스턴스여야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 *note TypeError:
     532.가 발생합니다.

     선택적 '_subtype'은 메시지의 부 유형을 설정합니다; 기본값은
     ‘rfc822’입니다.

     선택적 'policy' 인자의 기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7.입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: email.mime.text.MIMEText (_text, _subtype='plain',
          _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)

     모듈: *note email.mime.text: 4d.

     *note MIMENonMultipart: 35f5. 의 서브 클래스, *note MIMEText: df5.
     클래스는 주 유형 ‘text’의 MIME 객체를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.
     '_text'는 페이 로드의 문자열입니다.  '_subtype'은 부 유형이며 기본
     값은 ‘plain’입니다.  '_charset'은 텍스트의 문자 집합이며 *note
     MIMENonMultipart: 35f5. 생성자에 인자로 전달됩니다; 기본값은 문자열
     에 ‘ascii’ 코드 포인트만 포함되어 있으면 ‘us-ascii’이고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘utf-8’입니다.  '_charset' 매개 변수는 문자열이나 *note
     Charset: df6. 인스턴스를 받아들입니다.

     '_charset' 인자가 명시적으로 ‘None’으로 설정되어 있지 않은 한, 만들
     어진 MIMEText 객체에는 ‘charset’ 매개 변수가 있는 ‘Content-Type’ 헤
     더와 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더가 모두 있습니다.  이는
     charset이 ‘set_payload’ 명령으로 전달되더라도, 후속 ‘set_payload’ 호
     출이 인코딩된 페이 로드를 만들지 않음을 의미합니다.
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 삭제하여 이 동작을 “재설정”할 수
     있으며, 그 후에 ‘set_payload’ 호출은 자동으로 새 페이 로드를 인코딩
     합니다 (그리고 새 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 추가합니다).

     선택적 'policy' 인자의 기본값은 *note compat32: 10a7.입니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: '_charset'은 *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스도 받아
     들입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'policy' 키워드 전용 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/mime/


File: python.info,  Node: email header 국제화된 헤더,  Next: email charset 문자 집합 표현,  Prev: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.15 ‘email.header’: 국제화된 헤더
.......................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/header.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 레거시 (‘Compat32’) 이메일 API의 일부입니다.  현재 API에서 헤
더의 인코딩과 디코딩은 *note EmailMessage: 27b. 클래스의 딕셔너리와 유사
한 API에 의해 투명하게 처리됩니다.  레거시 코드에서 사용하는 것 외에도,
이 모듈은 헤더를 인코딩할 때 사용되는 문자 집합을 완전히 제어해야 하는 응
용 프로그램에서 유용할 수 있습니다.

이 섹션의 나머지 텍스트는 모듈의 원본 설명서입니다.

RFC 2822(2)는 이메일 메시지 형식을 기술하는 기본 표준입니다.  대부분의 이
메일이 ASCII 문자로만 구성된 당시에 널리 사용된 이전 RFC 822(3) 표준에서
파생됩니다.  RFC 2822(4)는 이메일에 7비트 ASCII 문자만 포함되어 있다고 가
정한 명세입니다.

물론, 이메일이 전 세계에 배포되면서, 국제화되어 언어별 문자 집합을 이메
일 메시지에 사용할 수 있게 되었습니다.  기본 표준에서는 여전히 7비트
ASCII 문자만 사용하여 이메일 메시지를 전송해야 하므로, ASCII가 아닌 문자
가 포함된 이메일을 RFC 2822(5) 호환 형식으로 인코딩하는 방법을 설명하는
많은 RFC가 작성되었습니다.  이러한 RFC에는 RFC 2045(6), RFC 2046(7), RFC
2047(8) 및 RFC 2231(9)이 포함됩니다.  *note email: 3b. 패키지는 *note
email.header: 41.와 *note email.charset: 3c. 모듈에서 이러한 표준을 지원
합니다.

이메일 헤더에 ASCII가 아닌 문자를 포함 시키려면 (가령 ‘Subject’나 ‘To’ 필
드에), *note Header: 18b0. 클래스를 사용하고 헤더 값에 문자열을 사용하는
대신 *note Message: 27c. 객체의 필드를 *note Header: 18b0. 인스턴스로 대
입해야 합니다.  *note email.header: 41. 모듈에서 *note Header: 18b0. 클
래스를 임포트 합니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> from email.message import Message
     >>> from email.header import Header
     >>> msg = Message()
     >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
     >>> msg['Subject'] = h
     >>> msg.as_string()
     'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'

‘Subject’ 필드에 비 ASCII 문자를 포함하기 위해 어떻게 했는지 아시겠습니
까?  우리는 *note Header: 18b0. 인스턴스를 만들고 바이트 문자열이 인코딩
된 문자 집합을 전달하여 이를 수행했습니다.  뒤에 *note Message: 27c. 인
스턴스가 평탄화될 때, ‘Subject’ 필드는 올바르게 RFC 2047(10) 인코딩되었
습니다.  MIME 인식 메일 리더는 내장된 ISO-8859-1 문자를 사용하여 이 헤더
를 표시하게 됩니다.

*note Header: 18b0. 클래스 설명은 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 클래스: email.header.Header (s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')

     다른 문자 집합의 문자열을 포함할 수 있는 MIME 호환 헤더를 만듭니다.

     선택적 's'는 초기 헤더 값입니다.  ‘None’(기본값)이면, 초기 헤더 값
     이 설정되지 않습니다.  나중에 *note append(): 3665. 메서드 호출로 헤
     더에 추가할 수 있습니다.  's'는 *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note str:
     445.의 인스턴스일 수 있지만, 의미에 대해서는 *note append(): 3665.
     설명서를 참조하십시오.

     선택적 'charset'은 두 가지 용도로 사용됩니다: *note append(): 3665.
     메서드에 대한 'charset' 인자와 같은 의미입니다.  또한, 'charset' 인
     자를 생략하는 모든 후속 *note append(): 3665. 호출에 대한 기본 문자
     집합을 설정합니다.  'charset'이 생성자에 제공되지 않으면 (기본값),
     ‘us-ascii’ 문자 집합이 's'의 초기 문자 집합과 후속 *note append():
     3665. 호출의 기본값으로 사용됩니다.

     최대 줄 길이는 'maxlinelen'을 통해 명시적으로 지정할 수 있습니다.
     ('s'에 포함되지 않은 필드 헤더를 고려하기 위해, 예를 들어
     ‘Subject’) 첫 번째 줄을 더 짧은 값으로 분할하려면 'header_name'에 필
     드 이름을 전달하십시오.  기본 'maxlinelen'은 78이고, 'header_name'의
     기본값은 ‘None’입니다, 이는 긴 분할 헤더의 첫 번째 줄을 고려하지 않
     음을 의미합니다.

     선택적인 'continuation_ws'는 RFC 2822(11) 호환 접는 공백(folding
     whitespace)이어야하며, 일반적으로 스페이스나 하드 탭 문자입니다.  이
     문자는 연속 줄 앞에 추가됩니다.  'continuation_ws'는 기본적으로 단
     일 스페이스 문자입니다.

     선택적 'errors'는 *note append(): 3665. 메서드로 바로 전달됩니다.

      -- 메서드: append (s, charset=None, errors='strict')

          문자열 's'를 MIME 헤더에 추가합니다.

          선택적인 'charset'(제공되면)은 *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스
          (*note email.charset: 3c.을 참조하십시오)나 문자 집합의 이름이
          어야 하며, 이는 *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스로 변환됩니다.
          ‘None’(기본값) 값은 생성자에 지정된 'charset'이 사용됨을 의미
          합니다.

          's'는 *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note str: 445.의 인스턴스일 수 있습
          니다.  *note bytes: 1c2.의 인스턴스이면, 'charset'은 해당 바이
          트 문자열의 인코딩이며, 문자열을 해당 문자 집합으로 디코딩할 수
          없으면 *note UnicodeError: 1293.가 발생합니다.

          's'가 *note str: 445.의 인스턴스이면, 'charset'은 문자열에 있
          는 문자의 문자 집합을 지정하는 힌트입니다.

          두 경우 모두, RFC 2047(12) 규칙을 사용하여 RFC 2822(13) 호환 헤
          더를 생성할 때, 문자열은 charset의 출력 코덱을 사용하여 인코딩
          됩니다.  출력 코덱을 사용하여 문자열을 인코딩할 수 없으면
          UnicodeError가 발생합니다.

          선택적 'errors'는 's'가 바이트 문자열일 때 decode 호출에
          errors 인자로 전달됩니다.

      -- 메서드: encode (splitchars=';, \t', maxlinelen=None,
               linesep='\n')

          메시지 헤더를 RFC 호환 형식으로 인코딩합니다.  긴 줄을 래핑하
          고 비 ASCII 부분을 base64나 quoted-printable 인코딩으로 캡슐화
          할 수 있습니다.

          선택적 'splitchars'는 일반 헤더 래핑 중 분할 알고리즘에 의해 추
          가 가중치를 받아야 하는 문자를 포함하는 문자열입니다.  이것은
          RFC 2822(14)의 ‘높은 수준의 구문 분할’을 아주 거칠게 지원합니
          다: 분할 문자 뒤에 오는 분리 점이 줄 분할 중에 선호되며, 문자
          열에 나타나는 순서대로 문자가 선호됩니다.  스페이스와 탭이 문
          자열에 포함되어 다른 분할 문자가 분할되는 줄에 나타나지 않을 때
          분할 지점으로 어느 것을 선호해야 하는지를 나타낼 수 있습니다.
          Splitchars는 RFC 2047(15) 인코딩 된 줄에 영향을 미치지 않습니
          다.

          주어지면, 'maxlinelen'은 최대 줄 길이에 대한 인스턴스의 값을 대
          체합니다.

          'linesep'은 접힌 헤더의 줄을 구분하는 데 사용되는 문자를 지정
          합니다.  기본적으로 파이썬 응용 프로그램 코드에 가장 유용한 값
          이지만 (‘\n’), RFC 호환 줄 구분자로 헤더를 생성하기 위해
          ‘\r\n’을 지정할 수 있습니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'linesep' 인자를 추가했습니다.

     *note Header: 18b0. 클래스는 표준 연산자와 내장 함수를 지원하기 위
     한 많은 메서드도 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          무제한 줄 길이를 사용하여, *note Header: 18b0.의 근삿값을 문자
          열로 반환합니다.  모든 조각은 지정된 인코딩을 사용하여 유니코
          드로 변환되고 적절하게 결합합니다.  문자 집합이
          ‘'unknown-8bit'’ 인 조각은 ‘'replace'’ 에러 처리기를 사용하여
          ASCII로 디코딩됩니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘'unknown-8bit'’ 문자 집합에 대한 처리가 추
          가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: __eq__ (other)

          이 메서드를 사용하면 두 개의 *note Header: 18b0. 인스턴스가 같
          은지 비교할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: __ne__ (other)

          이 메서드를 사용하면 두 *note Header: 18b0. 인스턴스가 다른지
          비교할 수 있습니다.

*note email.header: 41. 모듈은 다음과 같은 편의 함수도 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: email.header.decode_header (header)

     문자 집합을 변환하지 않고 메시지 헤더 값을 디코딩합니다.  헤더 값은
     'header'에 있습니다.

     For historical reasons, this function may return either:

       1. A list of pairs containing each of the decoded parts of the
          header, ‘(decoded_bytes, charset)’, where 'decoded_bytes' is
          always an instance of *note bytes: 1c2, and 'charset' is
          either:

                  - A lower case string containing the name of the
                    character set specified.

                  - ‘None’ for non-encoded parts of the header.

       2. A list of length 1 containing a pair ‘(string, None)’, where
          'string' is always an instance of *note str: 445.

     An *note email.errors.HeaderParseError: 359f. may be raised when
     certain decoding errors occur (e.g.  a base64 decoding exception).

     Here are examples:

          >>> from email.header import decode_header
          >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
          [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]
          >>> decode_header('unencoded_string')
          [('unencoded_string', None)]
          >>> decode_header('bar =?utf-8?B?ZsOzbw==?=')
          [(b'bar ', None), (b'f\xc3\xb3o', 'utf-8')]

          참고: This function exists for backwards compatibility only.
          For new code, we recommend using *note
          email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry: 3605.

 -- 함수: email.header.make_header (decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')

     *note decode_header(): 10ab.에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 쌍의 시퀀스로
     부터 *note Header: 18b0. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

     *note decode_header(): 10ab.는 헤더 값 문자열을 취하고
     ‘(decoded_string, charset)’ 형식의 쌍의 시퀀스를 반환합니다.  여기
     서 'charset'은 문자 집합의 이름입니다.

     이 함수는 해당 쌍의 시퀀스 중 하나를 취해서 *note Header: 18b0. 인
     스턴스를 반환합니다.  선택적 'maxlinelen', 'header_name' 및
     'continuation_ws'는 *note Header: 18b0. 생성자에서와 같습니다.

          참고: This function exists for backwards compatibility only,
          and is not recommended for use in new code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/header.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html


File: python.info,  Node: email charset 문자 집합 표현,  Next: email encoders 인코더,  Prev: email header 국제화된 헤더,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.16 ‘email.charset’: 문자 집합 표현
.........................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/charset.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 레거시 (‘Compat32’) 이메일 API의 일부입니다.  새 API에서는 별
칭 표만 사용됩니다.

이 섹션의 나머지 텍스트는 모듈의 원본 설명서입니다.

이 모듈은 문자 집합 레지스트리와 이 레지스트리를 조작하기 위한 몇 가지 편
의 메서드뿐만 아니라, 이메일 메시지의 문자 집합과 문자 집합 변환을 나타
내는 *note Charset: df6. 클래스를 제공합니다.  *note Charset: df6. 인스
턴스는 *note email: 3b. 패키지 내의 다른 여러 모듈에서 사용됩니다.

*note email.charset: 3c. 모듈에서 이 클래스를 임포트 하십시오.

 -- 클래스: email.charset.Charset (input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)

     문자 집합을 이메일 속성으로 매핑합니다.

     이 클래스는 특정 문자 집합에 대해 이메일에 요구되는 요구 사항에 대
     한 정보를 제공합니다.  또한 해당 코덱을 사용할 수 있으면, 문자 집합
     간 변환을 위한 편의 루틴을 제공합니다.  문자 집합이 주어지면, RFC 호
     환 방식으로 이메일 메시지에서 해당 문자 집합을 사용하는 방법에 대한
     정보를 제공하는 데 최선을 다합니다.

     이메일 헤더나 본문에 사용될 때 특정 문자 집합은 quoted-printable이
     나 base64로 인코딩해야 합니다.  특정 문자 집합은 완전히 변환해야 하
     며, 이메일에서는 허용되지 않습니다.

     선택적 'input_charset'은 아래에 설명된 것과 같습니다; 항상 소문자로
     강제 변환됩니다.  별칭이 정규화된 후에는 문자 집합 레지스트리에서 조
     회로 사용되어 문자 집합을 위해 사용할 헤더 인코딩, 본문 인코딩 및 출
     력 변환 코덱을 찾습니다.  예를 들어, 'input_charset'이
     ‘iso-8859-1’이면, 헤더와 본문은 quoted-printable을 사용하여 인코딩
     되며 출력 변환 코덱은 필요하지 않습니다.  'input_charset'이
     ‘euc-jp’면, 헤더는 base64로 인코딩되고, 본문은 인코딩되지 않지만, 출
     력 텍스트는 ‘euc-jp’ 문자 집합에서 ‘iso-2022-jp’ 문자 집합으로 변환
     됩니다.

     *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 데이터 어트리뷰트가 있
     습니다:

      -- 속성: input_charset

          지정된 초기 문자 집합.  일반적인 별칭은 '공식' 이메일 이름으로
          변환됩니다 (예를 들어 ‘latin_1’은 ‘iso-8859-1’로 변환됩니다).
          기본값은 7비트 ‘us-ascii’입니다.

      -- 속성: header_encoding

          문자 집합을 이메일 헤더에서 사용하기 전에 인코딩해야 하면, 이
          어트리뷰트는 ‘charset.QP’ (quoted-printable), ‘charset.BASE64’
          (base64 인코딩) 또는 QP나 BASE64 인코딩 중 가장 짧은 것을 뜻하
          는 ‘charset.SHORTEST’로 설정됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, ‘None’이 됩
          니다.

      -- 속성: body_encoding

          'header_encoding'과 같지만, 메일 메시지 본문의 인코딩을 기술합
          니다.  헤더 인코딩과 다를 수 있습니다.  'body_encoding'에는
          ‘charset.SHORTEST’가 허용되지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: output_charset

          일부 문자 집합은 이메일 헤더나 본문에 사용하기 전에 변환해야 합
          니다.  'input_charset'이 그중 하나이면, 이 어트리뷰트에는 출력
          이 변환될 문자 집합의 이름이 포함됩니다.  그렇지 않으면
          ‘None’이 됩니다.

      -- 속성: input_codec

          'input_charset'을 유니코드로 변환하는 데 사용되는 파이썬 코덱
          의 이름.  변환 코덱이 필요하지 않으면, 이 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’입
          니다.

      -- 속성: output_codec

          유니코드를 'output_charset'으로 변환하는 데 사용되는 파이썬 코
          덱의 이름.  변환 코덱이 필요하지 않으면, 이 어트리뷰트의 값은
          'input_codec'과 같습니다.

     *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드도 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: get_body_encoding ()

          본문 인코딩에 사용된 콘텐츠 전송 인코딩(content transfer
          encoding)을 반환합니다.

          사용된 인코딩에 따라 문자열 ‘quoted-printable’이나 ‘base64’입
          니다.  또는 함수일 수 있는데, 이때는 인코딩되는 Message 객체를
          단일 인자로 함수를 호출해야 합니다.  그러면 함수는
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더 자체를 적절한 것으로 설정해야
          합니다.

          'body_encoding'이 ‘QP’이면 문자열 ‘quoted-printable’을 반환하
          고, 'body_encoding'이 ‘BASE64’이면 문자열 ‘base64’를 반환하고,
          그렇지 않으면 문자열 ‘7bit’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_output_charset ()

          출력 문자 집합을 반환합니다.

          ‘None’이 아니라면 'output_charset' 어트리뷰트이고, 그렇지 않으
          면 'input_charset'입니다.

      -- 메서드: header_encode (string)

          문자열 'string'을 헤더 인코딩합니다.

          인코딩 유형(base64나 quoted-printable)은 'header_encoding' 어
          트리뷰트를 기반으로 합니다.

      -- 메서드: header_encode_lines (string, maxlengths)

          'string'을 먼저 바이트열로 변환하여 헤더 인코딩합니다.

          이는 문자열이 인자 'maxlengths'에 의해 주어진 최대 줄 길이에 맞
          춰진다는 점을 제외하고는 *note header_encode(): 3674.와 유사합
          니다.  'maxlengths'는 이터레이터여야 합니다: 이 이터레이터에서
          반환된 각 요소는 다음 최대 줄 길이를 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: body_encode (string)

          문자열 'string'을 본문 인코딩합니다.

          인코딩 유형(base64나 quoted-printable)은 'body_encoding' 어트
          리뷰트를 기반으로 합니다.

     *note Charset: df6. 클래스는 표준 연산과 내장 함수를 지원하는 여러
     가지 메서드도 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: __str__ ()

          'input_charset'을 소문자로 강제 변환된 문자열로 반환합니다.
          ‘__repr__()’은 ‘__str__()’의 별칭입니다.

      -- 메서드: __eq__ (other)

          이 메서드를 사용하면 두 개의 *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스가 같
          은지 비교할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: __ne__ (other)

          이 메서드를 사용하면 두 *note Charset: df6. 인스턴스가 다른지
          비교할 수 있습니다.

*note email.charset: 3c. 모듈은 또한 전역 문자 집합, 별명 및 코덱 레지스
트리에 새 항목을 추가하기 위해 다음 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: email.charset.add_charset (charset, header_enc=None,
          body_enc=None, output_charset=None)

     전역 레지스트리에 문자 속성을 추가합니다.

     'charset'은 입력 문자 집합이며, 문자 집합의 규범적 이름이어야 합니
     다.

     선택적 'header_enc'와 'body_enc'는 quoted-printable의 경우
     ‘charset.QP’, base64 인코딩의 경우 ‘charset.BASE64’,
     quoted-printable이나 base64 인코딩 중 가장 짧은 것의 경우
     ‘charset.SHORTEST’, 또는 인코딩이 없으면 ‘None’입니다.  ‘SHORTEST’는
     'header_enc'에만 유효합니다.  인코딩이 없으면 기본값은 ‘None’입니다
     .

     선택적 'output_charset'은 출력에 적용되어야 하는 문자 집합입니다.
     ‘Charset.convert()’ 메서드가 호출될 때 입력 문자 집합에서 유니코드
     로, 다시 출력 문자 집합으로 변환이 진행됩니다.  기본값은 입력과 같
     은 문자 집합으로 출력하는 것입니다.

     'input_charset'과 'output_charset'은 모두 모듈의 문자 집합에서 코덱
     으로의 매핑에 유니코드 코덱 항목이 있어야 합니다; *note
     add_codec(): 367b.을 사용하여 모듈이 모르는 코덱을 추가하십시오.  자
     세한 내용은 *note codecs: 1b. 모듈 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     전역 문자 집합 레지스트리는 모듈 전역 딕셔너리 ‘CHARSETS’에 유지됩
     니다.

 -- 함수: email.charset.add_alias (alias, canonical)

     문자 집합 별칭을 추가합니다.  'alias'는 별칭 이름입니다, 예를 들어
     ‘latin-1’.  'canonical'은 문자 집합의 규범적 이름입니다, 예를 들어
     ‘iso-8859-1’.

     전역 문자 집합 별칭 레지스트리는 모듈 전역 딕셔너리 ‘ALIASES’에 유
     지됩니다.

 -- 함수: email.charset.add_codec (charset, codecname)

     주어진 문자 집합의 문자를 유니코드와 매핑하는 코덱을 추가합니다.

     'charset'은 문자 집합의 규범적 이름입니다.  'codecname'은 *note
     str: 445.의 *note encode(): 8d2. 메서드의 두 번째 인자에 적합한 파
     이썬 코덱의 이름입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/charset.py


File: python.info,  Node: email encoders 인코더,  Next: email utils 기타 유틸리티,  Prev: email charset 문자 집합 표현,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.17 ‘email.encoders’: 인코더
..................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/encoders.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 레거시(‘Compat32’) 이메일 API의 일부입니다.  새로운 API에서 기
능은 *note set_content(): 18af. 메서드의 'cte' 매개 변수에 의해 제공됩니
다.

이 모듈은 파이썬 3에서 폐지되었습니다.  *note MIMEText: df5. 클래스는 인
스턴스 화 중에 전달된 '_subtype'과 '_charset' 값을 사용하여 콘텐츠 유형
과 CTE 헤더를 설정하므로 여기에 제공된 함수를 명시적으로 호출하면 안 됩
니다.

이 섹션의 나머지 텍스트는 모듈의 원본 설명서입니다.

*note Message: 27c. 객체를 처음부터 만들 때, 종종 호환 메일 서버를 통한
전송을 위해 페이 로드를 인코딩해야 합니다.  바이너리 데이터가 포함된
‘image/*’와 ‘text/*’ 유형 메시지의 경우 특히 그렇습니다.

*note email: 3b. 패키지는 *note encoders: 3e. 모듈에서 편리한 인코더를 제
공합니다.  이 인코더는 실제로 *note MIMEAudio: 3661.와 *note MIMEImage:
35f6. 클래스 생성자가 기본 인코딩을 제공하는 데 사용됩니다.  모든 인코더
함수는 정확히 하나의 인자, 인코딩할 메시지 객체를 취합니다.  일반적으로
페이 로드를 추출하여, 인코딩한 다음, 페이 로드를 새로 인코딩된 값으로 재
설정합니다.  또한 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 적절하게 설정합니다
.

이러한 함수는 멀티 파트 메시지에는 의미가 없음에 유의하십시오.  대신 개
별 서브 파트에 적용해야 하며, 유형이 멀티 파트인 메시지를 전달하면 *note
TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

제공되는 인코딩 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 함수: email.encoders.encode_quopri (msg)

     페이 로드를 인용 quoted-printable 형식으로 인코딩하고
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 ‘quoted-printable’로 설정합니다
     (2).  이것은 대부분의 페이 로드가 인쇄 가능한 일반 데이터이지만, 인
     쇄할 수 없는 문자가 몇 개 있을 때 사용하기에 적합한 인코딩입니다.

 -- 함수: email.encoders.encode_base64 (msg)

     페이 로드를 base64 형식으로 인코딩하고 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
     헤더를 ‘base64’로 설정합니다.  이것은 페이 로드가 대부분 인쇄할 수
     없는 데이터일 때 사용하기에 좋은 인코딩입니다.  quoted-printable보
     다 더 압축된 형식이기 때문입니다.  base64 인코딩의 단점은 텍스트를
     사람이 읽을 수 없도록 만든다는 것입니다.

 -- 함수: email.encoders.encode_7or8bit (msg)

     이것은 실제로 메시지의 페이 로드를 수정하지는 않지만, 페이 로드 데
     이터를 기반으로, ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더를 적절하게
     ‘7bit’나 ‘8bit’로 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: email.encoders.encode_noop (msg)

     이것은 아무것도 하지 않습니다.  심지어 ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
     헤더도 설정하지 않습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/encoders.py

   (2) *note encode_quopri(): 367f.로 인코딩하면 데이터의 모든 탭과 공백
문자도 인코딩됨에 유의하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: email utils 기타 유틸리티,  Next: email iterators 이터레이터,  Prev: email encoders 인코더,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.18 ‘email.utils’: 기타 유틸리티
......................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/utils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note email.utils: 50. 모듈에서 제공되는 몇 가지 유용한 유틸리티가 있습
니다:

 -- 함수: email.utils.localtime (dt=None)

     지역 시간을 어웨어 datetime 객체로 반환합니다.  인자 없이 호출되면,
     현재 시각을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 'dt' 인자가 *note datetime:
     1cc. 인스턴스여야 하며, 시스템 시간대 데이터베이스에 따라 지역 시간
     대로 변환됩니다.  'dt'가 나이브하면 (즉, ‘dt.tzinfo’가 ‘None’이면),
     지역 시간으로 간주합니다.  'isdst' 매개 변수는 무시합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     'isdst' 매개 변수.

 -- 함수: email.utils.make_msgid (idstring=None, domain=None)

     RFC 2822(2)-준수 ‘Message-ID’ 헤더에 적합한 문자열을 반환합니다.  선
     택적인 'idstring'이 주어지면, 메시지 id의 고유성을 강화하는 데 사용
     되는 문자열입니다.  선택적인 'domain'이 주어지면, msgid의 ‘@’ 다음
     부분을 제공합니다.  기본값은 로컬 호스트 명입니다.  일반적으로 이 기
     본값을 재정의할 필요는 없지만, 여러 호스트에 걸쳐 일관된 도메인 이
     름을 사용하는 분산 시스템을 구성하는 경우와 같이 특정 경우에 유용할
     수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'domain' 키워드가 추가되었습니다.

나머지 함수는 레거시 (‘Compat32’) email API의 일부입니다.  이것들이 제공
하는 구문 분석과 포매팅은 새 API의 헤더 구문 분석 장치가 자동으로 수행하
므로, 새 API에서 이것들을 직접 사용할 필요는 없습니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.quote (str)

     'str'에 있는 역 슬래시를 두 개의 역 슬래시로 대체하고, 큰따옴표는 역
     슬래시-큰따옴표로 대체한 새 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.unquote (str)

     'str'의 'unquote 된' 버전인 새 문자열을 반환합니다.  'str'가 큰따옴
     표로 끝나고 시작하면, 큰따옴표가 제거됩니다.  마찬가지로 'str'이 화
     살괄호(angle brackets)로 끝나고 시작하면, 제거됩니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.parseaddr (address, *, strict=True)

     address(‘To’나 ‘Cc’와 같은 주소를 포함하는 필드의 값이어야 합니다
     )를 'realname'과 'email 주소' 구성 요소로 구문 분석합니다.  구문 분
     석에 실패하지 않는 한 해당 정보의 튜플을 반환합니다.  실패하면
     ‘('', '')’의 2-튜플이 반환됩니다.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Add 'strict' optional parameter and reject
     malformed inputs by default.

 -- 함수: email.utils.formataddr (pair, charset='utf-8')

     *note parseaddr(): 1e2.의 역, ‘(realname, email_address)’ 형식의
     2-튜플을 취해 ‘To’나 ‘Cc’ 헤더에 적합한 문자열 값을 반환합니다.
     'pair'의 첫 번째 요소가 거짓이면, 두 번째 요소는 수정되지 않은 채 반
     환됩니다.

     선택적 'charset'은 ‘realname’에 비 ASCII 문자가 포함되어있을 때
     ‘realname’의 RFC 2047(3) 인코딩에 사용될 문자 집합입니다.  *note
     str: 445.이나 *note Charset: df6.의 인스턴스가 될 수 있습니다.  기
     본값은 ‘utf-8’입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'charset' 옵션이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.getaddresses (fieldvalues, *, strict=True)

     이 메서드는 ‘parseaddr()’에 의해 반환된 형식의 2-튜플 리스트를 반환
     합니다.  'fieldvalues'는 *note Message.get_all: 3641.에 의해 반환될
     수 있는 헤더 필드 값의 시퀀스입니다.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Here’s a simple example that gets all the recipients of a message:

          from email.utils import getaddresses

          tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
          ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
          resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
          resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
          all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Add 'strict' optional parameter and reject
     malformed inputs by default.

 -- 함수: email.utils.parsedate (date)

     RFC 2822(4)의 규칙에 따라 날짜를 구문 분석하려고 시도합니다.  그러
     나, 일부 메일러는 지정된 대로 이 형식을 따르지 않으므로 *note
     parsedate(): 3687.는 이러한 경우에 올바르게 추측하려고 합니다.
     'date'는 RFC 2822(5) 날짜를 포함하는 문자열입니다 (가령 ‘"Mon, 20
     Nov 1995 19:12:08 -0500"’).  날짜 구문 분석에 성공하면, *note
     parsedate(): 3687.는 *note time.mktime(): 11d7.에 직접 전달할 수 있
     는 9-튜플을 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면, ‘None’을 반환합니다.  결과 튜
     플의 인덱스 6, 7 및 8은 사용할 수 없음에 유의하십시오.

 -- 함수: email.utils.parsedate_tz (date)

     *note parsedate(): 3687.와 같은 기능을 수행하지만, ‘None’이나 10-튜
     플을 반환합니다; 앞의 9개 요소는 *note time.mktime(): 11d7.에 직접
     전달할 수 있는 튜플을 구성하고, 열 번째 요소는 UTC(그리니치 표준 시
     의 공식 용어)로부터의 날짜의 시간대 오프셋입니다 (6).  입력 문자열
     에 시간대가 없으면, 반환되는 튜플의 마지막 요소는 ‘0’입니다, UTC를
     나타냅니다.  결과 튜플의 인덱스 6, 7 및 8은 사용할 수 없음에 유의하
     십시오.

 -- 함수: email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime (date)

     *note format_datetime(): 10b0.의 역.  *note parsedate(): 3687.와 같
     은 기능을 수행하지만, 성공 시에 *note datetime: 1cc.을 반환합니다;
     그렇지 않으면, 23보다 큰 시간이나 -24 와 24 시간 사이에 있지 않은 시
     간대와 같이 'date' 가 잘못된 값을 가질 때 ‘ValueError’가 발생합니다
     .  입력 date의 시간대가 ‘-0000’이면, ‘datetime’은 나이브
     ‘datetime’이 되고, date가 RFC를 준수하면 UTC로 시간이 표시되지만,
     date가 온 메시지의 실제 소스 시간대는 표시되지 않습니다.  입력
     date에 다른 유효한 시간대 오프셋이 있으면, ‘datetime’은 해당 *note
     timezone: 10b2. *note tzinfo: 5d8.가 있는 어웨어 ‘datetime’이 됩니
     다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: email.utils.mktime_tz (tuple)

     *note parsedate_tz(): 1885.에 의해 반환된 10-튜플을 UTC 타임스탬프
     (Epoch 이후 초)로 바꿉니다.  튜플의 시간대 항목이 ‘None’이면, 지역
     시간으로 간주합니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.formatdate (timeval=None, localtime=False,
          usegmt=False)

     RFC 2822(7)에 따르는 날짜 문자열을 반환합니다, 예를 들어:

          Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000

     선택적 'timeval'이 주어지면 *note time.gmtime(): 11af.과 *note
     time.localtime(): 14c1.이 받아들이는 부동 소수점 시간 값입니다, 그
     렇지 않으면 현재 시각이 사용됩니다.

     선택적 'localtime' 은, ‘True’일 때, 'timeval'을 해석하고, UTC 대신
     일광 절약 시간을 적절히 고려하는 지역 시간대에 상대적인 날짜를 반환
     토록 하는 플래그입니다.  기본값은 UTC가 사용된다는 뜻인 ‘False’입니
     다.

     선택적 'usegmt'는, ‘True’일 때, 날짜 문자열의 시간대를 숫자 ‘-0000’
     대신 ASCII 문자열 ‘GMT’로 출력하도록 하는 플래그입니다.  일부 프로
     토콜(가령 HTTP)에 필요합니다.  이것은 'localtime' 이 ‘False’일 때만
     적용됩니다.  기본값은 ‘False’입니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.format_datetime (dt, usegmt=False)

     ‘formatdate’와 같지만, 입력이 *note datetime: 30. 인스턴스입니다.  나
     이브 datetime이면, “소스 시간대에 대한 정보가 없는 UTC”로 간주하며,
     관습적으로 ‘-0000’이 시간대로 사용됩니다.  어웨어 ‘datetime’이면, 숫
     자 시간대 오프셋이 사용됩니다.  오프셋이 0인 어웨어 시간대면,
     'usegmt'를 ‘True’로 설정해서 ‘GMT’ 문자열을 숫자 시간대 오프셋 대신
     사용할 수 있습니다.  이것은 표준을 준수하는 HTTP date 헤더를 생성하
     는 방법을 제공합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: email.utils.decode_rfc2231 (s)

     RFC 2231(8)에 따라 's' 문자열을 디코드합니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.encode_rfc2231 (s, charset=None, language=None)

     RFC 2231(9)에 따라 's' 문자열을 인코드합니다.  선택적인 'charset'과
     'language'가 주어지면, 사용할 문자 집합 이름과 언어 이름입니다.  둘
     다 지정되지 않으면, 's'가 그대로 반환됩니다.  'charset'이 주어졌지
     만, 'language'가 지정되지 않으면, 문자열은 'language'에 대해 빈 문
     자열을 사용하여 인코딩됩니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value (value, errors='replace',
          fallback_charset='us-ascii')

     header 매개 변수가 RFC 2231(10)로 인코딩되었을 때, *note
     Message.get_param: 364f.은 문자 집합, 언어 및 값이 포함된 3-튜플을
     반환할 수 있습니다.  *note collapse_rfc2231_value(): 3650.는 이것을
     유니코드 문자열로 변환합니다.  선택적 'errors'는 *note str: 445.의
     *note encode(): 8d2. 메서드의 'errors' 인자로 전달됩니다; 기본값은
     ‘'replace'’입니다.  선택적 'fallback_charset'은 RFC 2231(11) 헤더에
     있는 것이 파이썬에 알려지지 않았을 때 사용할 문자 집합을 지정합니다
     ; 기본값은 ‘'us-ascii'’입니다.

     편의상, *note collapse_rfc2231_value(): 3650.에 전달된 'value'가 튜
     플이 아니면, 문자열이어야 하고 unquote 되어 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: email.utils.decode_params (params)

     RFC 2231(12)에 따라 매개 변수 리스트를 디코드합니다.  'params'는
     ‘(content-type, string-value)’ 형식의 요소를 포함하는 2-튜플의 시퀀
     스입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/utils.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) 시간대 오프셋의 부호는 같은 시간대에 대한 ‘time.timezone’ 변수의
부호와 반대임에 유의하십시오; 이 모듈이 RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html)를 따르지만, 후자의
변수는 POSIX 표준을 따릅니다.

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email iterators 이터레이터,  Prev: email utils 기타 유틸리티,  Up: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지

5.20.1.19 ‘email.iterators’: 이터레이터
.......................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/email/iterators.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

메시지 객체 트리를 이터레이트 하는 것은 *note Message.walk: 3658. 메서드
를 사용하면 매우 쉽습니다.  *note email.iterators: 43. 모듈은 메시지 객
체 트리에 대한 유용한 고수준 이터레이션을 제공합니다.

 -- 함수: email.iterators.body_line_iterator (msg, decode=False)

     'msg'의 모든 서브 파트에 있는 모든 페이 로드를 이터레이트 하여, 문
     자열 페이 로드를 한 줄씩 반환합니다.  모든 서브 파트 헤더를 건너뛰
     고, 파이썬 문자열이 아닌 페이 로드가 있는 서브 파트를 건너뜁니다.  이
     는 *note readline(): 1cc5.을 사용하여 파일에서 메시지의 평평한
     (flat) 텍스트 표현을 읽는 것과 다소 유사하며, 모든 중간 헤더를 건너
     뜁니다.

     선택적 'decode'는 *note Message.get_payload: 11bc.로 전달됩니다.

 -- 함수: email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator (msg, maintype='text',
          subtype=None)

     'msg'의 모든 서브 파트를 이터레이트 하여, 'maintype'과 'subtype'으
     로 지정된 MIME 유형과 일치하는 서브 파트만 반환합니다.

     'subtype'은 선택적임에 유의하십시오; 생략하면, 서브 파트 MIME 형식
     일치는 메인 형식으로만 수행됩니다.  'maintype'도 선택적입니다; 기본
     값은 ‘text’입니다.

     따라서, 기본적으로 *note typed_subpart_iterator(): 368e.는 MIME 유
     형이 ‘text/*’ 인 각 서브 파트를 반환합니다.

유용한 디버깅 도구로 다음 함수가 추가되었습니다.  이것은 패키지에서 지원
되는 공용 인터페이스의 일부로 간주하지 '않아야' 합니다.

 -- 함수: email.iterators._structure (msg, fp=None, level=0,
          include_default=False)

     메시지 객체 구조의 콘텐츠 유형을 들여쓰기하여 인쇄합니다.  예를 들
     면:

          >>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
          >>> _structure(msg)
          multipart/mixed
              text/plain
              text/plain
              multipart/digest
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
              text/plain

     선택적 'fp'는 출력을 인쇄할 파일류 객체입니다.  파이썬의 *note
     print(): f6d. 함수에 적합해야 합니다.  'level'은 내부적으로 사용됩
     니다.  'include_default'가 참이면, 기본 유형도 인쇄합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note smtplib: ca.

     SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) 클라이언트

모듈 *note poplib: ac.

     POP (Post Office Protocol) 클라이언트

모듈 *note imaplib: 74.

     IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) 클라이언트

모듈 *note mailbox: 8b.

     다양한 표준 형식을 사용하여 디스크에 메시지 모음을 만들고, 읽고, 관
     리하는 도구.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/email/iterators.py


File: python.info,  Node: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더,  Next: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기,  Prev: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.2 ‘json’ — JSON 인코더와 디코더
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/json/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

RFC 7159(2)( RFC 4627(3)을 대체합니다)와 ECMA-404(4)로 규정되는 JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)(5)은 JavaScript(6) 객체 리터럴 문법에서 영
감을 얻은 경량 데이터 교환 형식입니다 (JavaScript (7)의 엄격한 부분집합
은 아닙니다).

     참고: The term “object” in the context of JSON processing in Python
     can be ambiguous.  All values in Python are objects.  In JSON, an
     object refers to any data wrapped in curly braces, similar to a
     Python dictionary.

     경고: Be cautious when parsing JSON data from untrusted sources.  A
     malicious JSON string may cause the decoder to consume considerable
     CPU and memory resources.  Limiting the size of data to be parsed
     is recommended.

This module exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
*note marshal: 8d. and *note pickle: a6. modules.

기본 파이썬 객체 계층 구조 인코딩:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
     '["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
     >>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
     "\"foo\bar"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
     "\u1234"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
     "\\"
     >>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
     {"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO()
     >>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
     >>> io.getvalue()
     '["streaming API"]'

간결한 인코딩:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
     '[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'

예쁜 인쇄:

     >>> import json
     >>> print(json.dumps({'6': 7, '4': 5}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
     {
         "4": 5,
         "6": 7
     }

Customizing JSON object encoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> def custom_json(obj):
     ...     if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...         return {'__complex__': True, 'real': obj.real, 'imag': obj.imag}
     ...     raise TypeError(f'Cannot serialize object of {type(obj)}')
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(1 + 2j, default=custom_json)
     '{"__complex__": true, "real": 1.0, "imag": 2.0}'

JSON 디코딩:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
     ['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
     >>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
     '"foo\x08ar'
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
     >>> json.load(io)
     ['streaming API']

Customizing JSON object decoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> def as_complex(dct):
     ...     if '__complex__' in dct:
     ...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
     ...     return dct
     ...
     >>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
     ...     object_hook=as_complex)
     (1+2j)
     >>> import decimal
     >>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
     Decimal('1.1')

*note JSONEncoder: d43. 확장하기:

     >>> import json
     >>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
     ...     def default(self, obj):
     ...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
     ...         # 베이스 클래스의 default 메서드가 TypeError를 발생 시키도록 합니다
     ...         return super().default(obj)
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
     ['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']

셸에서 *note json.tool: 83.을 사용하여 유효성을 검사하고 예쁘게 인쇄합니
다:

     $ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

자세한 설명은 *note 명령 줄 인터페이스: 3692.를 참조하십시오.

     참고: JSON은 YAML(8) 1.2의 부분 집합입니다.  이 모듈의 기본 설정(특
     히 기본 'separators' 값)으로 생성된 JSON은 YAML 1.0과 1.1의 부분 집
     합이기도 합니다.  따라서 이 모듈을 YAML 직렬화기로 사용할 수도 있습
     니다.

     참고: 이 모듈의 인코더와 디코더는 기본적으로 입력과 출력 순서를 유
     지합니다.  하부 컨테이너에 순서가 없을 때만 순서가 손실됩니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 사용법::
* 인코더와 디코더::
* 예외: 예외<14>.
* 표준 준수와 상호 운용성::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/json/__init__.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (4) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/

   (5) https://json.org

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

   (7) the errata for RFC 7159
(https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159)에서 언급했듯이,
JSON은 문자열에 U+2028(LINE SEPARATOR)과 U+2029(PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) 문
자를 허용하지만, JavaScript(ECMAScript Edition 5.1 기준)는 허용하지 않습
니다.

   (8) https://yaml.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 사용법,  Next: 인코더와 디코더,  Up: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더

5.20.2.1 기본 사용법
....................

 -- 함수: json.dump (obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     이 *note 파이썬-to-JSON 변환표: 3694.를 사용하여 'obj'를 JSON 형식
     스트림으로 'fp'(‘.write()’를 지원하는 *note 파일류 객체: 2597.)로 직
     렬화합니다.

          참고: *note pickle: a6.과 *note marshal: 8d.과 달리, JSON은 프
          레임 프로토콜이 아니므로 같은 'fp'를 사용하여 *note dump():
          d41.를 반복 호출하여 여러 객체를 직렬화하려고 하면 잘못된 JSON
          파일이 생성됩니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘obj’ (*note object: a89.) – 직렬화될 파이썬 객체.

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 2597.) – 'obj'가 직렬화될 파일류
          객체.  ‘json’ 모듈은 항상 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체가 아니라
          *note str: 445. 객체를 생성합니다, 따라서 ‘fp.write()’는 *note
          str: 445. 입력을 지원해야 합니다.

        * ‘skipkeys’ (*note bool: 461.) – ‘True’면, 기본형(*note str:
          445, *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef, *note bool: 461,
          ‘None’)이 아닌 키는 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시키는 대신 건
          너뜁니다.  기본값 ‘False’.

        * ‘ensure_ascii’ (*note bool: 461.) – ‘True’(기본값)이면, 출력에
          서 모든 비 ASCII 문자가 이스케이프 되도록 보장됩니다.  ‘False’면
          , 그 문자들은 있는 그대로 출력됩니다.

        * ‘check_circular’ (*note bool: 461.) – ‘False’면, 컨테이너형에
          대한 순환 참조 검사를 건너뛰고 순환 참조는 *note
          RecursionError: d68.를 일으키게 됩니다 (또는 더 나빠질 수 있습
          니다).  기본값 ‘True’.

        * ‘allow_nan’ (*note bool: 461.) – ‘False’면, JSON 사양을 엄격히
          준수하여, 범위를 벗어난 *note float: 2ef. 값(‘nan’, ‘inf’,
          ‘-inf’)을 직렬화하면 *note ValueError: 202.를 일으킵니다.
          'allow_nan'이 ‘True’(기본값)면, JavaScript의 대응 물(‘NaN’,
          ‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’)이 사용됩니다.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONEncoder: d43. subclass) – If set, a custom
          JSON encoder with the *note default(): 3695. method
          overridden, for serializing into custom datatypes.  If ‘None’
          (the default), ‘JSONEncoder’ is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 257.‘ | ’*note str: 445.‘ | ’‘None’) – If
          a positive integer or string, JSON array elements and object
          members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  A
          positive integer indents that many spaces per level; a string
          (such as ‘"\t"’) is used to indent each level.  If zero,
          negative, or ‘""’ (the empty string), only newlines are
          inserted.  If ‘None’ (the default), the most compact
          representation is used.

        * ‘separators’ (*note tuple: 369.‘ | ’‘None’) – 2-튜플:
          ‘(item_separator, key_separator)’.  ‘None’ (기본값) 이면,
          'separators'의 기본값은 'indent'가 ‘None’이면 ‘(', ', ': ')’이
          고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘(',', ': ')’입니다.  가장 간결한 JSON 을 얻
          으려면, ‘(',', ':')’를 지정하여 공백을 제거해야 합니다.

        * ‘default’ (*note callable: 2900. | None) – 달리 직렬화할 수 없
          는 객체에 대해 호출되는 함수.  객체의 JSON 인코딩 가능한 버전
          을 반환하거나 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시켜야 합니다.
          ‘None’(기본값)이면, ‘TypeError’가 발생합니다.

        * ‘sort_keys’ (*note bool: 461.) – If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be outputted sorted by key.  Default ‘False’.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'indent'에 정수뿐만 아니라 문자열을 허용합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'indent'가 ‘None’이 아니면, ‘(',', ': ')’를 기본
     값으로 사용합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 모든 선택적 매개 변수는 이제 *note 키워드-전용:
     2a5.입니다.

 -- 함수: json.dumps (obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     이 *note 변환표: 3694.를 사용하여 'obj'를 JSON 형식의 *note str:
     445.로 직렬화합니다.  인자는 *note dump(): d41.에서와 같은 의미입니
     다.

          참고: JSON의 키/값 쌍에 있는 키는 항상 *note str: 445. 형입니
          다.  딕셔너리를 JSON으로 변환하면, 딕셔너리의 모든 키가 문자열
          로 강제 변환됩니다.  이것의 결과로, 딕셔너리를 JSON으로 변환한
          다음 다시 딕셔너리로 변환하면, 딕셔너리가 원래의 것과 같지 않
          을 수 있습니다.  즉, x에 비 문자열 키가 있으면
          ‘loads(dumps(x)) != x’입니다.

 -- 함수: json.load (fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     *note JSON-to-파이썬 변환표: 3696.를 사용하여 'fp'를 파이썬 객체로
     역 직렬화합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 2597.) – 역 직렬화될 JSON 문서를
          포함하는 ‘.read()’를 지원하는 *note 텍스트 파일: 1c8e.이나
          *note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONDecoder: d44. subclass) – If set, a custom
          JSON decoder.  Additional keyword arguments to ‘load()’ will
          be passed to the constructor of 'cls'.  If ‘None’ (the
          default), ‘JSONDecoder’ is used.

        * ‘object_hook’ (*note callable: 2900. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any JSON object
          literal decoded (a *note dict: 256.).  The return value of
          this function will be used instead of the *note dict: 256.
          This feature can be used to implement custom decoders, for
          example JSON-RPC(1) class hinting.  Default ‘None’.

        * ‘object_pairs_hook’ (*note callable: 2900. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any JSON object
          literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The return
          value of this function will be used instead of the *note dict:
          256.  This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
          If 'object_hook' is also set, 'object_pairs_hook' takes
          priority.  Default ‘None’.

        * ‘parse_float’ (*note callable: 2900. | None) – 설정되면, 디코
          딩될 모든 JSON float의 문자열로 호출되는 함수.  ‘None’(기본값
          )이면, 이것은 ‘float(num_str)’와 동등합니다.  JSON float를 사
          용자 정의 데이터형으로 구문 분석하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다, 예
          를 들어 *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.

        * ‘parse_int’ (*note callable: 2900. | None) – 설정되면, 디코딩
          될 모든 JSON int의 문자열로 호출되는 함수.  ‘None’(기본값)이면
          , 이것은 ‘int(num_str)’와 동등합니다.  JSON 정수를 사용자 정의
          데이터형으로 구문 분석하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다, 예를 들어
          *note float: 2ef.

        * ‘parse_constant’ (*note callable: 2900. | None) – 설정되면, 다
          음과 같은 문자열 중 하나로 호출되는 함수: ‘'-Infinity'’,
          ‘'Infinity'’ 또는 ‘'NaN'’.  잘못된 JSON 숫자를 만날 때 예외를
          발생시키는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  기본값 ‘None’.


     예외 발생:

        * *note JSONDecodeError: e1c. – 역 직렬화되는 데이터가 유효한
          JSON 문서가 아닐 때.

        * *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. – When the data being
          deserialized does not contain UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32 encoded
          data.

     버전 3.1에서 변경:

        * 선택적 'object_pairs_hook' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

        * 'parse_constant'는 더는 ‘null’, ‘true’, ‘false’에 대해 호출되
          지 않습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경:

        * 모든 선택적 매개 변수는 이제 *note 키워드-전용: 2a5.입니다.

        * 'fp'는 이제 *note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f.이 될 수 있습니다.  입력
          인코딩은 UTF-8, UTF-16 또는 UTF-32 여야 합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The default 'parse_int' of *note int(): 257.
     now limits the maximum length of the integer string via the
     interpreter’s *note integer string conversion length limitation:
     5ef. to help avoid denial of service attacks.

 -- 함수: json.loads (s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     *note load(): cb1.와 동일하지만, 파일류 객체를 역 질렬화하는 대신,
     이 *note 변환표: 3696.를 사용하여 's'(JSON 문서를 포함하는 *note
     str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 또는 *note bytearray: 538. 인스턴스)를
     파이썬 객체로 역 직렬화합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 's'는 이제 *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note bytearray:
     538. 형일 수 있습니다.  입력 인코딩은 UTF-8, UTF-16 또는 UTF-32 여
     야 합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 키워드 인자 'encoding'이 제거되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: 인코더와 디코더,  Next: 예외<14>,  Prev: 기본 사용법,  Up: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더

5.20.2.2 인코더와 디코더
........................

 -- 클래스: json.JSONDecoder (*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None,
          parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True,
          object_pairs_hook=None)

     간단한 JSON 디코더.

     기본적으로 디코딩할 때 다음과 같은 변환을 수행합니다:

     JSON                파이썬
                         
     --------------------------------------------
                         
     오브젝트(object)    dict
                         
                         
     배열(array)         list
                         
                         
     문자열(string)      str
                         
                         
     숫자 (정수)         int
                         
                         
     숫자 (실수)         float
                         
                         
     true                True
                         
                         
     false               False
                         
                         
     null                None
                         

     또한, ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’ 및 ‘-Infinity’를 해당 ‘float’ 값으로 이해합
     니다.  이 값은 JSON 명세에 속하지 않습니다.

     'object_hook'은 지정되면, 모든 JSON 오브젝트의 디코딩된 결과로 호출
     될 선택적 함수이고, 반환 값을 주어진 *note dict: 256. 대신 사용합니
     다.  사용자 정의 역 직렬화를 제공하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다 (예를 들
     어, JSON-RPC(1) 클래스 힌팅을 지원하기 위해).

     'object_pairs_hook'은 모든 JSON 오브젝트가 쌍의 순서 있는 목록으로
     디코딩된 결과로 호출될 선택적 함수입니다.  *note dict: 256. 대신
     'object_pairs_hook'의 반환 값이 사용됩니다.  이 기능은 사용자 정의
     디코더를 구현하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  'object_hook'도 정의되어
     있으면, 'object_pairs_hook'이 우선순위를 갖습니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'object_pairs_hook'에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     'parse_float'는 디코딩될 모든 JSON float의 문자열로 호출될 선택적 함
     수입니다.  기본적으로, 이것은 ‘float(num_str)’와 동등합니다.  JSON
     float에 대해 다른 데이터형이나 구문 분석기를 사용하고자 할 때 사용
     될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.).

     'parse_int'는 디코딩될 모든 JSON int의 문자열로 호출될 선택적 함수
     입니다.  기본적으로 이것은 ‘int(num_str)’와 동등합니다.  JSON 정수
     에 대해 다른 데이터형이나 구문 분석기를 사용하고자 할 때 사용될 수
     있습니다 (예를 들어 *note float: 2ef.).

     'parse_constant'는 다음과 같은 문자열 중 하나로 호출될 선택적 함수
     입니다: ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, ‘'NaN'’.  잘못된 JSON 숫자를 만
     날 때 예외를 발생시키는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'strict'가 거짓이면 (‘True’가 기본값입니다), 문자열 안에 제어 문자
     가 허용됩니다.  이 문맥에서 제어 문자는 0–31 범위의 문자 코드를 가
     진 것들인데, ‘'\t'’ (탭), ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ 및 ‘'\0'’을 포함합니다.

     역 직렬화되는 데이터가 유효한 JSON 문서가 아니면, *note
     JSONDecodeError: e1c.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 모든 매개 변수가 이제 *note 키워드-전용: 2a5.입
     니다.

      -- 메서드: decode (s)

          's'(JSON 문서가 포함된 *note str: 445. 인스턴스)의 파이썬 표현
          을 반환합니다.

          주어진 JSON 문서가 유효하지 않으면 *note JSONDecodeError:
          e1c.가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: raw_decode (s)

          's'(JSON 문서로 시작하는 *note str: 445.)에서 JSON 문서를 디코
          딩하고, 파이썬 표현과 문서가 끝난 's'에서의 인덱스로 구성된
          2-튜플을 반환합니다.

          끝에 여분의 데이터가 있을 수 있는 문자열에서 JSON 문서를 디코
          딩하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: json.JSONEncoder (*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False,
          indent=None, separators=None, default=None)

     파이썬 데이터 구조를 위한 확장 가능한 JSON 인코더

     기본적으로 다음 객체와 형을 지원합니다.:

     파이썬                                       JSON
                                                  
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     dict                                         오브젝트(object)
                                                  
                                                  
     list, tuple                                  배열(array)
                                                  
                                                  
     str                                          문자열(string)
                                                  
                                                  
     int, float, int와 float에서 파생된 열거형    숫자(number)
                                                  
                                                  
     True                                         true
                                                  
                                                  
     False                                        false
                                                  
                                                  
     None                                         null
                                                  

     버전 3.4에서 변경: int와 float 파생 Enum 클래스에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     다른 객체를 인식하도록 확장하려면, 서브 클래스를 만들고, 가능하면
     ‘o’에 대한 직렬화 가능 객체를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 (*note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시키기 위해) 슈퍼 클래스 구현을 호출하는 다른
     메서드로 *note default(): 3695. 메서드를 구현합니다.

     'skipkeys'가 거짓(기본값)이면, *note str: 445, *note int: 257,
     *note float: 2ef, *note bool: 461. 또는 ‘None’이 아닌 키를 인코딩하
     려고 시도할 때 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.  'skipkeys'가 참
     이면 이러한 항목은 단순히 건너뜁니다.

     'ensure_ascii'가 참(기본값)이면, 출력에서 모든 비 ASCII 문자가 이스
     케이프 되도록 보장됩니다.  'ensure_ascii'가 거짓이면, 그 문자들은 있
     는 그대로 출력됩니다.

     'check_circular'가 참(기본값)이면, 리스트, 딕셔너리 및 사용자 정의
     객체는 무한 재귀 (*note RecursionError: d68.를 유발할 수 있습니다
     )를 방지하기 위해 인코딩 중에 순환 참조를 검사합니다.  그렇지 않으
     면, 그러한 검사가 수행되지 않습니다.

     'allow_nan'이 참(기본값)이면, ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’ 및 ‘-Infinity’는 그
     자체로 인코딩됩니다.  이 동작은 JSON 사양을 따르지 않지만, 대부분의
     JavaScript 기반 인코더 및 디코더와 일치합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 그러
     한 float를 인코딩하는 것은 *note ValueError: 202.가 됩니다.

     'sort_keys'가 참(기본값: ‘False’)이면, 딕셔너리의 출력이 키로 정렬
     됩니다; JSON 직렬화를 이전과 비교할 수 있도록 해서 회귀 테스트에 유
     용합니다.

     'indent'가 음이 아닌 정수나 문자열이면, JSON 배열 요소와 오브젝트 멤
     버가 해당 들여쓰기 수준으로 예쁘게 인쇄됩니다.  0, 음수 또는 ‘""’의
     들여쓰기 수준은 줄 넘김만 삽입합니다.  ‘None’(기본값)은 가장 간결한
     (compact) 표현을 선택합니다.  양의 정수 indent를 사용하면, 수준 당
     그만큼의 스페이스로 들여쓰기합니다.  'indent'가 문자열이면 (가령
     ‘"\t"’), 각 수준을 들려 쓰는 데 그 문자열을 사용합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'indent'에 정수뿐만 아니라 문자열을 허용합니다.

     지정되면, 'separators'는 ‘(item_separator, key_separator)’ 튜플이어
     야 합니다.  기본값은 'indent'가 ‘None’이면 ‘(', ', ': ')’이고, 그렇
     지 않으면 ‘(',', ': ')’입니다.  가장 간결한 JSON 표현을 얻으려면,
     ‘(',', ':')’를 지정하여 공백을 제거해야 합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'indent'가 ‘None’이 아니면, ‘(',', ': ')’를 기본
     값으로 사용합니다.

     지정되면, 'default'는 달리 직렬화할 수 없는 객체에 대해 호출되는 함
     수여야 합니다.  객체의 JSON 인코딩 가능한 버전을 반환하거나 *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시켜야 합니다.  지정하지 않으면, *note
     TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 모든 매개 변수가 이제 *note 키워드-전용: 2a5.입
     니다.

      -- 메서드: default (o)

          'o'의 직렬화 가능 객체를 반환하거나 (*note TypeError: 532.를 발
          생시키기 위해서) 베이스 구현을 호출하도록 서브 클래스에 이 메
          서드를 구현하십시오.

          예를 들어, 임의의 이터레이터를 지원하려면, 다음과 같이 *note
          default(): 3695.를 구현할 수 있습니다:

               def default(self, o):
                  try:
                      iterable = iter(o)
                  except TypeError:
                      pass
                  else:
                      return list(iterable)
                  # 베이스 클래스의 default 메서드가 TypeError를 발생시키도록 합시다
                  return super().default(o)

      -- 메서드: encode (o)

          파이썬 데이터 구조 'o'의 JSON 문자열 표현을 반환합니다.  예를
          들면:

               >>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
               '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

      -- 메서드: iterencode (o)

          주어진 객체 'o'를 인코딩하고, 준비될 때마다 각 문자열 표현을 산
          출(yield)합니다.  예를 들면:

               for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
                   mysocket.write(chunk)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<14>,  Next: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성,  Prev: 인코더와 디코더,  Up: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더

5.20.2.3 예외
.............

 -- 예외: json.JSONDecodeError (msg, doc, pos)

     다음 추가 어트리뷰트가 있는 *note ValueError: 202.의 서브 클래스:

      -- 속성: msg

          형식 없는 에러 메시지.

      -- 속성: doc

          구문 분석 중인 JSON 문서.

      -- 속성: pos

          구문 분석에 실패한 위치의 시작 부분을 나타내는 'doc'의 인덱스.

      -- 속성: lineno

          'pos'에 해당하는 줄.

      -- 속성: colno

          'pos'에 해당하는 열.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<4>,  Prev: 예외<14>,  Up: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더

5.20.2.4 표준 준수와 상호 운용성
................................

JSON 형식은 RFC 7159(1)와 ECMA-404(2)에 의해 지정됩니다.  이 절에서는 이
모듈의 RFC 준수 수준에 대해 자세히 설명합니다.  단순화를 위해, *note
JSONEncoder: d43. 및 *note JSONDecoder: d44. 서브 클래스와 명시적으로 언
급되지 않은 매개 변수는 고려되지 않습니다.

유효한 JavaScript이지만 유효한 JSON이 아닌 확장을 구현함으로써, 이 모듈
은 엄격한 방식으로 RFC를 준수하지는 않습니다.  특히:

   - 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값이 받아들여지고 출력됩니다;

   - 오브젝트 내에서 반복되는 이름이 허용되고, 마지막 이름-값 쌍의 값만
     사용됩니다.

RFC가 RFC를 준수하는 구문 분석기가 RFC를 준수하지 않는 입력 텍스트를 받
아들이도록 허용하기 때문에, 이 모듈의 역 직렬화기는 기본 설정에서 기술적
으로 RFC를 준수합니다.

* Menu:

* 문자 인코딩::
* 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값::
* 오브젝트 내에서 반복된 이름::
* 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값::
* 구현 제약 사항::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (2) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/


File: python.info,  Node: 문자 인코딩,  Next: 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값,  Up: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성

5.20.2.5 문자 인코딩
....................

RFC는 UTF-8, UTF-16 또는 UTF-32를 사용하여 JSON을 표현할 것을 요구하고,
최대 상호 운용성을 위해 권장되는 기본값은 UTF-8입니다.

RFC에 의해 요구되는 것은 아니지만 허용되기 때문에, 이 모듈의 직렬화기는
기본적으로 'ensure_ascii=True'를 설정하므로, 결과 문자열에 ASCII 문자만
포함되도록 출력을 이스케이핑 합니다.

'ensure_ascii' 매개 변수 외에도, 이 모듈은 파이썬 객체와 *note 유니코드
문자열: 445. 사이의 변환으로 엄격하게 정의되어 있으므로, 문자 인코딩 문
제를 직접 다루지 않습니다.

RFC는 JSON 텍스트의 시작 부분에 바이트 순서 표시(BOM)를 추가하는 것을 금
지하고 있으며, 이 모듈의 직렬화기는 BOM을 출력에 추가하지 않습니다.  RFC는
JSON 역 직렬화기가 입력에서 초기 BOM을 무시하는 것을 허용하지만 요구하지
는 않습니다.  이 모듈의 역 직렬화기는 초기 BOM이 있을 때 *note
ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

RFC는 유효한 유니코드 문자에 해당하지 않는 바이트 시퀀스(예를 들어, 쌍을
이루지 않은 UTF-16 대리 코드(unpaired UTF-16 surrogates))가 포함된 JSON
문자열을 명시적으로 금지하지 않지만, 상호 운용성 문제를 일으킬 수 있다고
지적하고 있습니다.  기본적으로, 이 모듈은 이러한 시퀀스의 코드 포인트를
받아들이고 (원래 *note str: 445.에 있을 때) 출력합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값,  Next: 오브젝트 내에서 반복된 이름,  Prev: 문자 인코딩,  Up: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성

5.20.2.6 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값
.............................

RFC는 무한대나 NaN 숫자 값의 표현을 허용하지 않습니다.  그런데도, 기본적
으로, 이 모듈은 유효한 JSON 숫자 리터럴 값인 것처럼 ‘Infinity’,
‘-Infinity’ 및 ‘NaN’을 받아들이고 출력합니다:

     >>> # 이 호출 중 어느 것도 예외를 발생시키지 않지만, 결과는 유효한 JSON이 아닙니다
     >>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
     '-Infinity'
     >>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
     'NaN'
     >>> # 역 직렬화 때도 마찬가지입니다
     >>> json.loads('-Infinity')
     -inf
     >>> json.loads('NaN')
     nan

직렬화기에서, 'allow_nan' 매개 변수를 사용하여 이 동작을 변경할 수 있습
니다.  역 직렬화기에서, 'parse_constant' 매개 변수를 사용하여 이 동작을
변경할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 오브젝트 내에서 반복된 이름,  Next: 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값,  Prev: 무한대와 NaN 숫자 값,  Up: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성

5.20.2.7 오브젝트 내에서 반복된 이름
....................................

RFC는 JSON 오브젝트 내에서 이름이 고유해야 한다고 지정하지만, JSON 오브
젝트 내에서 반복되는 이름을 처리하는 방법을 지정하지는 않습니다.  기본적
으로, 이 모듈은 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다; 대신, 주어진 이름에 대한 마
지막 이름-값 쌍을 제외한 모든 것을 무시합니다:

     >>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
     >>> json.loads(weird_json)
     {'x': 3}

'object_pairs_hook' 매개 변수는 이 동작을 변경하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다
.


File: python.info,  Node: 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값,  Next: 구현 제약 사항,  Prev: 오브젝트 내에서 반복된 이름,  Up: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성

5.20.2.8 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값
........................................

폐지된 RFC 4627(1)에 의해 지정된 이전 버전의 JSON은 JSON 텍스트의 최상윗
값이 JSON 오브젝트나 배열(파이썬 *note dict: 256.나 *note list: 60b.)이
어야 하고, JSON null, 불리언, 숫자 또는 문자열 값이 될 수 없다고 요구합
니다.  RFC 7159(2)는 그 제한을 제거했으며, 이 모듈은 직렬화기와 역 직렬
화기에서 이러한 제한을 구현하지 않으며, 그런 적도 없습니다.

이와 관계없이, 최대한의 상호 운용성을 위해, 여러분은 자발적으로 제한을 준
수하기를 원할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html


File: python.info,  Node: 구현 제약 사항,  Prev: 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값,  Up: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성

5.20.2.9 구현 제약 사항
.......................

일부 JSON 역 직렬화기 구현은 다음과 같은 것들에 대한 제한을 설정할 수 있
습니다:

   * 받아들인 JSON 텍스트의 크기

   * JSON 오브젝트와 배열의 최대 중첩 수준

   * JSON 숫자의 범위와 정밀도

   * JSON 문자열의 내용과 최대 길이

이 모듈은 관련 파이썬 데이터형 자체나 파이썬 인터프리터 자체의 한계 외에
는 어떤 제한도 가하지 않습니다.

JSON으로 직렬화할 때, 여러분의 JSON을 사용할 응용 프로그램에 있는 이러한
제한 사항에 주의하십시오.  특히, JSON 숫자가 IEEE 754 배정도 숫자로 역 직
렬화되는 것이 일반적이고, 그래서 그 표현의 범위와 정밀도 제한이 적용됩니
다.  이것은 매우 큰 규모의 파이썬 *note int: 257. 값을 직렬화하거나,
*note decimal.Decimal: 29d.과 같은 “색다른” 숫자 형의 인스턴스를 직렬화
할 때 특히 중요합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<4>,  Prev: 표준 준수와 상호 운용성,  Up: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더

5.20.2.10 명령 줄 인터페이스
............................

'소스 코드:' Lib/json/tool.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note json.tool: 83. 모듈은 JSON 객체의 유효성을 검사하고 예쁘게 인쇄하
는 간단한 명령 줄 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

선택적 ‘infile’과 ‘outfile’ 인자가 지정되지 않으면, 각각 *note
sys.stdin: 537.과 *note sys.stdout: ad3.이 사용됩니다:

     $ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

버전 3.5에서 변경: 출력은 이제 입력과 같은 순서입니다.  딕셔너리의 출력
을 키에 대해 알파벳 순으로 정렬하려면 *note -sort-keys: 36a9. 옵션을 사
용하십시오.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/json/tool.py


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 옵션<4>,  Up: 명령 줄 인터페이스<4>

5.20.2.11 명령 줄 옵션
......................

 -- Option: infile

     유효성을 검사하거나 예쁘게 인쇄할 JSON 파일:

          $ python -m json.tool mp_films.json
          [
              {
                  "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
                  "year": 1971
              },
              {
                  "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
                  "year": 1975
              }
          ]

     'infile'이 지정되지 않으면, *note sys.stdin: 537.에서 읽습니다.

 -- Option: outfile

     'infile'의 출력을 지정된 'outfile'에 씁니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note
     sys.stdout: ad3.에 씁니다.

 -- Option: --sort-keys

     딕셔너리의 출력을 키에 대해 알파벳 순으로 정렬합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Option: --no-ensure-ascii

     비 ASCII 문자의 이스케이프를 비활성화합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
     json.dumps(): d42.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --json-lines

     모든 입력 행을 별도의 JSON 객체로 구문 분석합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Option: --indent, --tab, --no-indent, --compact

     공백 제어를 위한 상호 배타적 옵션.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     도움말 메시지를 표시합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기,  Next: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑,  Prev: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.3 ‘mailbox’ — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/mailbox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 디스크 상의 사서함과 여기에 포함된 메시지에 액세스하고 조작하
기 위한 *note Mailbox: 123d.와 *note Message: 1241.라는 두 개의 클래스를
정의합니다.  ‘Mailbox’는 키에서 메시지로의 딕셔너리와 유사한 매핑을 제공
합니다.  ‘Message’는 형식별 상태와 동작으로 *note email.message: 44. 모
듈의 *note Message: 27c. 클래스를 확장합니다.  지원되는 사서함 형식은
Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl 및 MMDF입니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note email: 3b.

     메시지를 표현하고 조작합니다.

* Menu:

* Mailbox 객체::
* Message 객체::
* 예외: 예외<15>.
* 예: 예<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/mailbox.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mailbox 객체,  Next: Message 객체,  Up: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기

5.20.3.1 ‘Mailbox’ 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.Mailbox

     검사하고 수정할 수 있는 사서함.

     ‘Mailbox’ 클래스는 인터페이스를 정의하고 인스턴스 화하려는 것은 아
     닙니다.  대신 형식별 서브 클래스는 ‘Mailbox’를 상속해야 하며 코드는
     특정 서브 클래스를 인스턴스 화해야 합니다.

     ‘Mailbox’ 인터페이스는 메시지에 해당하는 작은 키가 있는 딕셔너리와
     유사합니다.  키는 사용되는 ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스에 의해 발급되며 해당
     ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스에만 의미가 있습니다.  키는 메시지를 다른 메시지
     로 바꾸는 등 해당 메시지가 수정되어도 메시지를 계속 식별합니다.

     집합과 유사한 메서드 *note add(): 123c.를 사용하여 ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴
     스에 메시지를 추가하고 ‘del’ 문이나 집합과 유사한 메서드 *note
     remove(): 36b9.와 *note discard(): 36ba.를 사용하여 제거할 수 있습
     니다.

     ‘Mailbox’ 인터페이스의 의미는 몇 가지 주목할만한 면에서 딕셔너리와
     다릅니다.  메시지가 요청될 때마다, 새 표현(보통 *note Message:
     1241. 인스턴스)이 사서함의 현재 상태를 기반으로 생성됩니다.  마찬가
     지로, ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스에 메시지가 추가되면, 제공된 메시지 표현의
     내용이 복사됩니다.  두 경우 모두 메시지 표현의 참조는 ‘Mailbox’ 인
     스턴스가 유지하는 것이 아닙니다.

     기본 ‘Mailbox’ *note 이터레이터: 1ac.는 기본 *note 딕셔너리: 256. 이
     터레이터가 수행하는 것처럼 키가 아니라 메시지 표현을 이터레이트 합
     니다.  또한, 이터레이션 중 사서함 수정은 안전하고 잘 정의되어 있습
     니다.  이터레이터가 만들어진 후 사서함에 추가된 메시지는 이터레이터
     가 볼 수 없습니다.  이터레이터가 산출하기 전에 사서함에서 제거된 메
     시지는 자동으로 건너뛰지만, 이터레이터의 키를 사용하면 해당 메시지
     가 직후에 제거되는 경우 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외가 발생할 수 있습
     니다.

          경고: 다른 프로세스에 의해 동시에 변경될 수 있는 사서함을 수정
          할 때는 매우 주의하십시오.  이러한 작업에 사용할 가장 안전한 사
          서함 형식은 *note Maildir: 416.입니다; 동시 쓰기를 위해서는
          *note mbox: 1686.와 같은 단일 파일 형식을 사용하지 마십시오.  사
          서함을 수정하는 경우, 파일의 메시지를 읽거나 메시지를 추가하거
          나 삭제하여 변경하기 '전에' *note lock(): 36bb.과 *note
          unlock(): 36bc. 메서드를 호출하여 사서함을 '반드시' 잠가야 합
          니다.  사서함을 잠그는 데 실패하면 메시지가 손실되거나 전체 사
          서함이 손상될 위험이 있습니다.

     ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스에는 다음 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: add (message)

          사서함에 'message'를 추가하고 할당된 키를 반환합니다.

          매개 변수 'message'는 *note Message: 1241. 인스턴스, *note
          email.message.Message: 27c. 인스턴스, 문자열, 바이트 문자열 또
          는 파일류 객체(바이너리 모드로 열어야 합니다)일 수 있습니다.
          'message'가 적절한 형식별 *note Message: 1241. 서브 클래스의 인
          스턴스이면 (예를 들어, 이것이 *note mbox: 1686. 인스턴스일 때
          *note mboxMessage: 3584. 인스턴스이면), 형식별 정보가 사용됩니
          다.  그렇지 않으면, 형식별 정보에 대한 적절한 기본값이 사용됩
          니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 바이너리 입력에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: remove (key)
      -- 메서드: __delitem__ (key)
      -- 메서드: discard (key)

          사서함에서 'key'에 해당하는 메시지를 삭제합니다.

          그러한 메시지가 없으면, 메서드가 *note remove(): 36b9.나 *note
          __delitem__(): 36bd.으로 호출되면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외가
          발생하지만, *note discard(): 36ba.로 호출되면 예외가 발생하지
          않습니다.  하부 사서함 형식이 다른 프로세스에 의한 동시 수정을
          지원하면 *note discard(): 36ba.의 동작을 선호할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: __setitem__ (key, message)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지를 'message'로 바꿉니다.  'key'에 해당
          하는 메시지가 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          *note add(): 123c.와 마찬가지로, 'message' 매개 변수는 *note
          Message: 1241. 인스턴스, *note email.message.Message: 27c. 인
          스턴스, 문자열, 바이트 문자열 또는 파일류 객체(바이너리 모드로
          열어야 합니다)일 수 있습니다.  'message'가 적절한 형식별 *note
          Message: 1241. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스이면 (예를 들어, 이것이
          *note mbox: 1686. 인스턴스일 때 *note mboxMessage: 3584. 인스
          턴스이면), 형식별 정보가 사용됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 현재
          'key'에 해당하는 메시지의 형식별 정보가 변경되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: iterkeys ()

          Return an *note iterator: 1ac. over all keys

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          The same as *note iterkeys(): 36bf, except that a *note list:
          60b. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1ac.

      -- 메서드: itervalues ()
      -- 메서드: __iter__ ()

          모든 메시지의 표현에 대한 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 반환합니다.
          ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스가 초기화될 때 사용자 정의 메시지 팩토리가 지
          정되지 않는 한, 메시지는 적절한 형식별 *note Message: 1241. 서
          브 클래스의 인스턴스로 표현됩니다.

               참고: *note __iter__(): 36c2.의 동작은 키를 이터레이트 하
               는 딕셔너리의 동작과 다릅니다.

      -- 메서드: values ()

          The same as *note itervalues(): 36c1, except that a *note
          list: 60b. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1ac.

      -- 메서드: iteritems ()

          ('key', 'message') 쌍에 대한 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 반환합니
          다.  여기서 'key'는 키이고 'message'는 메시지 표현입니다.
          ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스가 초기화될 때 사용자 정의 메시지 팩토리가 지
          정되지 않는 한 메시지는 적절한 형식별 *note Message: 1241. 서
          브 클래스의 인스턴스로 표시됩니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          The same as *note iteritems(): 36c4, except that a *note list:
          60b. of pairs is returned rather than an *note iterator: 1ac.
          of pairs.

      -- 메서드: get (key, default=None)
      -- 메서드: __getitem__ (key)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지 표현을 반환합니다.  이러한 메시지가 없
          으면, 메서드가 *note get(): 36c6.으로 호출되면 'default'가 반
          환되고 메서드가 ‘__getitem__()’으로 호출되면 *note KeyError:
          33d. 예외가 발생합니다.  ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스가 초기화될 때 사용
          자 정의 메시지 팩토리가 지정되지 않는 한 메시지는 적절한 형식
          별 *note Message: 1241. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스로 표시됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_message (key)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지의 표현을 적절한 형식별 *note Message:
          1241. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스로 반환하거나, 그러한 메시지가 없
          으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: get_bytes (key)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지의 바이트 표현을 반환하거나, 그러한 메
          시지가 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: get_string (key)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지의 문자열 표현을 반환하거나 그러한 메시
          지가 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  메시지
          는 *note email.message.Message: 27c.를 통해 처리되어 7비트
          (7bit clean) 표현으로 변환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_file (key)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지의 *note 파일류: 2597. 표현을 반환하거
          나, 그러한 메시지가 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시
          킵니다.  파일류 객체는 바이너리 모드로 열린 것처럼 작동합니다.
          이 파일이 더는 필요하지 않으면 닫아야 합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 파일 객체는 실제로 *note 바이너리 파일:
          1c8f.입니다; 이전에는 텍스트 모드로 잘못 반환되었습니다.  또한
          , *note 파일류 객체: 2597.는 이제 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.
          프로토콜을 지원합니다: *note with: 5cc. 문을 사용하여 자동으로
          닫을 수 있습니다.

               참고: 메시지의 다른 표현과 달리, *note 파일류: 2597. 표현
               은 메시지를 만든 ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스나 하부 사서함과 반드
               시 독립적인 것은 아닙니다.  더욱 자세한 설명서는 각 서브
               클래스에서 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: __contains__ (key)

          'key'가 메시지에 해당하면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: __len__ ()

          사서함에 있는 메시지 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          사서함에서 모든 메시지를 삭제합니다.

      -- 메서드: pop (key, default=None)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지 표현을 반환하고 메시지를 삭제합니다.  이
          러한 메시지가 없으면, 'default'를 반환합니다.  ‘Mailbox’ 인스
          턴스가 초기화될 때 사용자 정의 메시지 팩토리가 지정되지 않는 한
          메시지는 적절한 형식별 *note Message: 1241. 서브 클래스의 인스
          턴스로 표시됩니다.

      -- 메서드: popitem ()

          임의의 ('key', 'message') 쌍을 반환하고, 여기서 'key'는 키이고
          'message'는 메시지 표현입니다, 해당 메시지를 삭제합니다.  사서
          함이 비어 있으면, *note KeyError: 33d. 예외를 발생시킵니다.
          ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스가 초기화될 때 사용자 정의 메시지 팩토리가 지
          정되지 않는 한 메시지는 적절한 형식별 *note Message: 1241. 서
          브 클래스의 인스턴스로 표시됩니다.

      -- 메서드: update (arg)

          매개 변수 'arg'는 'key'에서 'message'로의 매핑이거나 ('key',
          'message') 쌍의 이터러블 이어야 합니다.  주어진 'key'와
          'message'에 대해 *note __setitem__(): 36be.을 사용하는 것처럼
          'key'에 해당하는 메시지가 'message'로 설정되도록 사서함을 갱신
          합니다.  *note __setitem__(): 36be.과 마찬가지로, 각 'key'는 이
          미 사서함의 메시지에 해당해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 *note
          KeyError: 33d. 예외가 발생하므로, 일반적으로 'arg'가 ‘Mailbox’
          인스턴스가 되는 것은 올바르지 않습니다.

               참고: 딕셔너리와 달리 키워드 인자는 지원되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          계류 중인 변경 사항을 파일 시스템에 기록합니다.  일부 *note
          Mailbox: 123d. 서브 클래스의 경우, 변경 사항이 항상 즉시 기록
          되고 ‘flush()’는 아무 작업도 하지 않지만, 이 메서드를 호출하는
          습관을 만들어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: lock ()

          다른 프로세스가 수정하지 않아야 한다는 것을 알 수 있도록 사서
          함에 대한 배타적 권고 잠금(exclusive advisory lock)을 획득합니
          다.  잠금을 사용할 수 없으면 *note ExternalClashError: 36d0. 가
          발생합니다.  사용되는 특정 잠금 메커니즘은 사서함 형식에 따라
          다릅니다.  내용을 수정하기 전에 사서함을 '항상' 잠가야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: unlock ()

          사서함의 잠금을 해제합니다 (있다면).

      -- 메서드: close ()

          사서함을 플러시하고, 필요하면 잠금을 해제한 다음, 열려있는 모
          든 파일을 닫습니다.  일부 ‘Mailbox’ 서브 클래스의 경우, 이 메
          서드는 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* Maildir 객체::
* mbox 객체::
* MH 객체::
* Babyl 객체::
* MMDF 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: Maildir 객체,  Next: mbox 객체,  Up: Mailbox 객체

5.20.3.2 ‘Maildir’ 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.Maildir (dirname, factory=None, create=True)

     Maildir 형식의 사서함에 대한 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 서브 클래스.  매
     개 변수 'factory'는 파일류 메시지 표현(바이너리 모드에서 열린 것처
     럼 동작합니다)을 받아들이고 사용자 정의 표현을 반환하는 콜러블 객체
     입니다.  'factory'가 ‘None’이면, *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 가 기
     본 메시지 표현으로 사용됩니다.  'create'가 ‘True’이면, 사서함이 없
     으면 만들어집니다.

     'create'가 ‘True’이고 'dirname' 경로가 존재하면, 디렉터리 레이아웃
     을 확인하지 않고 기존 maildir로 처리됩니다.

     역사적인 이유로 'path'가 아니라 'dirname'이라고 이름 붙였습니다.

     Maildir은 qmail 메일 전송 에이전트를 위해 고안된 디렉터리 기반 사서
     함 형식이며 현재 다른 프로그램에서 널리 지원됩니다.  Maildir 사서함
     의 메시지는 공통 디렉터리 구조 내에서 별도의 파일에 저장됩니다.  이
     설계를 사용하면 데이터 손상 없이 여러 관련 없는 프로그램에서
     Maildir 사서함에 액세스하고 수정할 수 있어서 파일 잠금이 필요하지 않
     습니다.

     Maildir 사서함에는 세 개의 하위 디렉터리가 있습니다, 이름하여
     ‘tmp’, ‘new’ 및 ‘cur’.  메시지는 일시적으로 ‘tmp’ 하위 디렉터리에 만
     들어진 다음 ‘new’ 하위 디렉터리로 이동하여 전달을 완료합니다.  메일
     사용자 에이전트는 이후에 메시지를 ‘cur’ 하위 디렉터리로 이동하고 파
     일 이름에 추가된 특수 “info” 섹션에 메시지 상태에 대한 정보를 저장
     할 수 있습니다.

     Courier 메일 전송 에이전트가 도입한 스타일의 폴더도 지원됩니다.
     ‘'.'’가 이름의 첫 번째 문자인 경우 주 사서함의 모든 하위 디렉터리는
     폴더로 간주합니다.  폴더 이름은 앞의 ‘'.'’없이 ‘Maildir’로 표시됩니
     다.  각 폴더는 그 자체가 Maildir 사서함이지만 다른 폴더를 포함해서
     는 안 됩니다.  대신, 수준을 구분하기 위해 ‘'.'’을 사용하여 논리적 중
     첩이 표시됩니다, 예를 들어, “Archived.2005.07”.

      -- 속성: colon

          Maildir 명세에서는 특정 메시지 파일 이름에 콜론(‘':'’)을 사용
          하도록 요구합니다.  그러나 일부 운영 체제에서는 파일 이름에 이
          문자를 허용하지 않습니다.  이러한 운영 체제에서 Maildir과 유사
          한 형식을 사용하려면, 대신 사용할 다른 문자를 지정해야 합니다.
          느낌표(‘'!'’)는 인기 있는 선택입니다.  예를 들면:

               import mailbox
               mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'

          ‘colon’ 어트리뷰트는 인스턴스별로 설정할 수도 있습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note Maildir: 416. now ignores files with a
     leading dot.

     ‘Maildir’ 인스턴스에는 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 모든 메서드 외에도 다
     름과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: list_folders ()

          모든 폴더의 이름 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_folder (folder)

          이름이 'folder'인 폴더를 나타내는 ‘Maildir’ 인스턴스를 반환합
          니다.  폴더가 없으면 *note NoSuchMailboxError: 36d8. 예외가 발
          생합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_folder (folder)

          이름이 'folder'인 폴더를 만들고 이를 나타내는 ‘Maildir’ 인스턴
          스를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_folder (folder)

          이름이 'folder'인 폴더를 삭제합니다.  폴더에 메시지가 포함되었
          으면, *note NotEmptyError: 36db. 예외가 발생하고 폴더가 삭제되
          지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: clean ()

          지난 36시간 동안 액세스하지 않은 사서함에서 임시 파일을 삭제합
          니다.  Maildir 명세는 메일을 읽는 프로그램이 이 작업을 가끔 수
          행해야 한다고 말합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_flags (key)

          Return as a string the flags that are set on the message
          corresponding to 'key'.  This is the same as
          ‘get_message(key).get_flags()’ but much faster, because it
          does not open the message file.  Use this method when
          iterating over the keys to determine which messages are
          interesting to get.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. object, use its
          *note get_flags(): 36dd. method instead, because changes made
          by the message’s *note set_flags(): 36de, *note add_flag():
          36df. and *note remove_flag(): 36e0. methods are not reflected
          here until the mailbox’s *note __setitem__(): 36e1. method is
          called.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: set_flags (key, flags)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', set the flags specified
          by 'flags' and unset all others.  Calling
          ‘some_mailbox.set_flags(key, flags)’ is similar to

               one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
               one_message.set_flags(flags)
               some_mailbox[key] = one_message

          but faster, because it does not open the message file.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. object, use its
          *note set_flags(): 36de. method instead, because changes made
          with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message
          object’s method, *note get_flags(): 36dd.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: add_flag (key, flag)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지에 대해, 다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고
          'flag'로 지정된 플래그를 설정합니다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그
          를 추가하기 위해, 'flag'가 둘 이상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수
          있습니다.

          Considerations for using this method versus the message
          object’s *note add_flag(): 36df. method are similar to those
          for *note set_flags(): 16d9.; see the discussion there.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: remove_flag (key, flag)

          'key'에 해당하는 메시지에 대해, 다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고
          'flag'에 의해 지정된 플래그를 설정 해제합니다.  한 번에 둘 이
          상의 플래그를 제거하기 위해, 'flag'는 둘 이상의 문자로 구성된
          문자열일 수 있습니다.

          Considerations for using this method versus the message
          object’s *note remove_flag(): 36e0. method are similar to
          those for *note set_flags(): 16d9.; see the discussion there.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: get_info (key)

          Return a string containing the info for the message
          corresponding to 'key'.  This is the same as
          ‘get_message(key).get_info()’ but much faster, because it does
          not open the message file.  Use this method when iterating
          over the keys to determine which messages are interesting to
          get.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. object, use its
          *note get_info(): 36e2. method instead, because changes made
          by the message’s *note set_info(): 36e3. method are not
          reflected here until the mailbox’s *note __setitem__(): 36e1.
          method is called.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: set_info (key, info)

          Set the info of the message corresponding to 'key' to 'info'.
          Calling ‘some_mailbox.set_info(key, flags)’ is similar to

               one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
               one_message.set_info(info)
               some_mailbox[key] = one_message

          but faster, because it does not open the message file.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. object, use its
          *note set_info(): 36e3. method instead, because changes made
          with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message
          object’s method, *note get_info(): 36e2.

          Added in version 3.13.

     ‘Maildir’에 의해 구현된 일부 *note Mailbox: 123d. 메서드는 특별한 주
     의가 필요합니다:

      -- 메서드: add (message)
      -- 메서드: __setitem__ (key, message)
      -- 메서드: update (arg)

               경고: 이 메서드들은 현재 프로세스 ID를 기반으로 고유한 파
               일 이름을 생성합니다.  다중 스레드를 사용할 때, 이러한 메
               서드를 사용하여 같은 사서함을 동시에 조작하지 않도록 스레
               드를 조정하지 않으면 감지되지 않은 이름 충돌이 발생하여 사
               서함이 손상될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          Maildir 사서함에 대한 모든 변경 사항은 즉시 적용되므로, 이 메
          서드는 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: lock ()
      -- 메서드: unlock ()

          Maildir 사서함은 잠금을 지원(또는 필요로)하지 않아서, 이 메서
          드들은 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          ‘Maildir’ 인스턴스는 아무런 열린 파일도 유지하지 않으며 하부 사
          서함은 잠금을 지원하지 않아서, 이 메서드는 아무 작업도 수행하
          지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_file (key)

          호스트 플랫폼에 따라, 반환된 파일이 열려있는 동안 하부 메시지
          를 수정하거나 제거하지 못할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

Courier의 maildir 매뉴얼 페이지(1)

     형식의 명세.  지원 폴더에 대한 공통 확장을 설명합니다.

Using maildir format(2)

     발명가의 Maildir에 대한 노트.  개정된 이름 생성 체계와 “info” 의미
     론에 대한 세부 정보를 포함합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html

   (2) https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html


File: python.info,  Node: mbox 객체,  Next: MH 객체,  Prev: Maildir 객체,  Up: Mailbox 객체

5.20.3.3 ‘mbox’ 객체
....................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.mbox (path, factory=None, create=True)

     mbox 형식의 사서함에 대한 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 서브 클래스.  매개
     변수 'factory'는 파일류 메시지 표현(바이너리 모드에서 열린 것처럼 동
     작합니다)을 받아들이고 사용자 정의 표현을 반환하는 콜러블 객체입니
     다.  'factory'가 ‘None’이면, *note mboxMessage: 3584.가 기본 메시지
     표현으로 사용됩니다.  'create'가 ‘True’이면, 사서함이 없으면 만들어
     집니다.

     mbox 형식은 유닉스 시스템에서 메일을 저장하기 위한 고전적인 형식입
     니다.  mbox 사서함의 모든 메시지는 처음 5개의 문자가 “From “인 줄로
     표시되는 각 메시지의 시작 부분과 함께 단일 파일에 저장됩니다.

     원래 형식에서 인식된 단점을 해결하기 위해 mbox 형식의 여러 변형이 존
     재합니다.  호환성을 위해, ‘mbox’는 'mboxo'라고도 하는 원래 형식을 구
     현합니다.  즉, ‘Content-Length’ 헤더(있다면)는 무시되고 메시지 본문
     의 줄 시작 부분에 있는 “From “은 메시지를 저장할 때 “>From “으로 변
     환됩니다, 하지만 메시지를 읽을 때 “>From “은 “From “으로 변환되지 않
     습니다.

     ‘mbox’에 의해 구현된 일부 *note Mailbox: 123d. 메서드는 특별한 주의
     가 필요합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- 메서드: get_file (key, from_=False)

          ‘mbox’ 인스턴스에서 *note flush(): 36cf.나 *note close():
          36d1.를 호출한 후 파일을 사용하면 예기치 않은 결과가 발생하거
          나 예외가 발생할 수 있습니다.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- 메서드: get_string (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- 메서드: lock ()
      -- 메서드: unlock ()

          세 가지 잠금 메커니즘이 사용됩니다—점 잠금(dot locking)과, 사
          용할 수 있다면, ‘flock()’과 ‘lockf()’ 시스템 호출.

더 보기
.......

tin의 mbox 매뉴얼 페이지(1)

     형식의 명세, 잠금에 대한 세부 정보가 있습니다.

유닉스에서 Netscape Mail 구성하기: 왜 Content-Length 형식이 나쁜가(2)

     변형이 아닌 원래 mbox 형식을 사용하는 것에 대한 논의.

"mbox"는 서로 호환되지 않는 여러 사서함 형식의 집합입니다(3)

     mbox 변형의 역사.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox

   (2) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (3) 
https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: MH 객체,  Next: Babyl 객체,  Prev: mbox 객체,  Up: Mailbox 객체

5.20.3.4 ‘MH’ 객체
..................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.MH (path, factory=None, create=True)

     MH 형식의 사서함에 대한 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 서브 클래스.  매개 변
     수 'factory'는 파일류 메시지 표현(바이너리 모드에서 열린 것처럼 동
     작합니다)을 받아들이고 사용자 정의 표현을 반환하는 콜러블 객체입니
     다.  'factory'가 ‘None’이면, *note MHMessage: 36f4.가 기본 메시지 표
     현으로 사용됩니다.  'create'가 ‘True’이면, 사서함이 없으면 만들어집
     니다.

     MH는 메일 사용자 에이전트인 MH 메시지 처리 시스템(MH Message
     Handling System)을 위해 개발된 디렉터리 기반 사서함 형식입니다.  MH
     사서함의 각 메시지는 각자의 파일에 있습니다.  MH 사서함에는 메시지
     외에 다른 MH 사서함('폴더(folders)'라고 합니다)이 포함될 수 있습니
     다.  폴더는 무제한 중첩될 수 있습니다.  MH 사서함은 또한 메시지를 서
     브 폴더로 이동하지 않고 논리적으로 그룹화하는 데 사용되는 명명된 목
     록인 '시퀀스(sequences)'를 지원합니다.  시퀀스는 각 폴더의
     ‘.mh_sequences’라는 파일에 정의됩니다.

     ‘MH’ 클래스는 MH 사서함을 조작하지만, ‘mh’의 모든 동작을 모사하려고
     시도하지는 않습니다.  특히, ‘mh’가 상태와 구성을 저장하는 데 사용하
     는 ‘context’나 ‘.mh_profile’ 파일을 수정하지 않고 영향받지 않습니다
     .

     ‘MH’ 인스턴스에는 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 모든 메서드 외에도 다음 메
     서드가 있습니다:

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Supported folders that don’t contain a
     ‘.mh_sequences’ file.

      -- 메서드: list_folders ()

          모든 폴더의 이름 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_folder (folder)

          이름이 'folder'인 폴더를 나타내는 ‘MH’ 인스턴스를 반환합니다.
          폴더가 없으면 *note NoSuchMailboxError: 36d8. 예외가 발생합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: add_folder (folder)

          이름이 'folder'인 폴더를 만들고 이를 나타내는 ‘MH’ 인스턴스를
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_folder (folder)

          이름이 'folder'인 폴더를 삭제합니다.  폴더에 메시지가 포함되었
          으면, *note NotEmptyError: 36db. 예외가 발생하고 폴더가 삭제되
          지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_sequences ()

          키 리스트에 매핑된 시퀀스 이름의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  시퀀
          스가 없으면, 빈 딕셔너리가 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set_sequences (sequences)

          *note get_sequences(): 36f9.에서 반환하는 것과 같이, 키 리스트
          에 매핑된 이름의 딕셔너리인, 'sequences'를 기반으로 사서함에 존
          재하는 시퀀스를 다시 정의합니다.

      -- 메서드: pack ()

          번호 매기기의 간격을 없애기 위해 필요에 따라 사서함의 메시지 이
          름을 변경합니다.  시퀀스 리스트의 항목이 그에 따라 갱신됩니다.

               참고: 이미 발급된 키는 이 작업에 의해 무효가 되며 이후에
               사용해서는 안 됩니다.

     ‘MH’에 의해 구현된 일부 *note Mailbox: 123d. 메서드는 특별한 주의가
     필요합니다:

      -- 메서드: remove (key)
      -- 메서드: __delitem__ (key)
      -- 메서드: discard (key)

          이 메서드들은 메시지를 즉시 삭제합니다.  이름 앞에 쉼표를 추가
          하여 메시지를 삭제하도록 표시하는 MH 규칙은 사용되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: lock ()
      -- 메서드: unlock ()

          세 가지 잠금 메커니즘이 사용됩니다—점 잠금(dot locking)과, 사
          용할 수 있다면, ‘flock()’과 ‘lockf()’ 시스템 호출.  MH 사서함
          의 경우, 사서함을 잠그는 것은 ‘.mh_sequences’ 파일을 잠그는 것
          을 의미하며, 해당 파일에 영향을 주는 작업 기간에만 개별 메시지
          파일을 잠급니다.

      -- 메서드: get_file (key)

          호스트 플랫폼에 따라, 반환된 파일이 열려있는 동안 하부 메시지
          를 제거하지 못할 수도 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          MH 사서함에 대한 모든 변경 사항이 즉시 적용되므로, 이 메서드는
          아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          ‘MH’ 인스턴스는 열린 파일을 유지하지 않아서, 이 메서드는 *note
          unlock(): 3700.과 동등합니다.

더 보기
.......

nmh - 메시지 처리 시스템(1)

     ‘nmh’의 홈페이지, 원래 ‘mh’의 갱신된 버전.

MH & nmh: 사용자와 프로그래머를 위한 이메일(2)

     ‘mh’와 ‘nmh’에 대한 GPL 라이선스 책, 사서함 형식에 대한 정보가 있습
     니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nongnu.org/nmh/

   (2) https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/


File: python.info,  Node: Babyl 객체,  Next: MMDF 객체,  Prev: MH 객체,  Up: Mailbox 객체

5.20.3.5 ‘Babyl’ 객체
.....................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.Babyl (path, factory=None, create=True)

     Babyl 형식의 사서함에 대한 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 서브 클래스.  매
     개 변수 'factory'는 파일류 메시지 표현(바이너리 모드에서 열린 것처
     럼 동작합니다)을 받아들이고 사용자 정의 표현을 반환하는 콜러블 객체
     입니다.  'factory'가 ‘None’이면, *note BabylMessage: 3707.가 기본 메
     시지 표현으로 사용됩니다.  'create'가 ‘True’이면, 사서함이 없으면 만
     들어집니다.

     Babyl은 Emacs에 포함된 Rmail 메일 사용자 에이전트에서 사용하는 단일
     파일 사서함 형식입니다.  메시지의 시작 부분은
     Control-Underscore(‘'\037'’)와 Control-L(‘'\014'’) 두 문자가 포함된
     줄로 표시됩니다.  메시지의 끝은 다음 메시지의 시작이나, 마지막 메시
     지의 경우 Control-Underscore(‘'\037'’) 문자가 포함된 줄로 표시됩니
     다.

     Babyl 사서함의 메시지는 두 집합의 헤더가 있습니다, 원래 헤더와 소위
     가시적(visible) 헤더가 있습니다.  가시적 헤더는 일반적으로 더 매력
     적으로 다시 포맷되거나 요약된 원래 헤더의 부분 집합입니다.  Babyl 사
     서함의 각 메시지에는 '레이블(labels)' 리스트, 또는 메시지에 대한 추
     가 정보를 기록하는 짧은 문자열이 있으며, 사서함에 있는 모든 사용자
     정의 레이블 목록은 Babyl 옵션 섹션에 보관됩니다.

     ‘Babyl’ 인스턴스에는 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 모든 메서드 외에도 다음
     과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: get_labels ()

          사서함에 사용된 모든 사용자 정의 레이블의 이름 리스트를 반환합
          니다.

               참고: Babyl 옵션 섹션의 레이블 목록을 참조하지 않고 사서
               함에 있는 레이블을 확인하기 위해 실제 메시지를 검사하지만
               , 사서함이 수정될 때마다 Babyl 섹션이 갱신됩니다.

     ‘Babyl’에 의해 구현된 일부 *note Mailbox: 123d. 메서드는 특별한 주
     의가 필요합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_file (key)

          Babyl 사서함에서, 메시지 헤더는 메시지 본문과 연속적으로 저장
          되지 않습니다.  파일류 표현을 생성하기 위해, 헤더와 본문이 파
          일과 동일한 API를 가진 *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 인스턴스에 함께
          복사됩니다.  결과적으로, 파일류 객체는 하부 사서함과는 진짜로
          독립적이지만 문자열 표현보다 메모리를 절약하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: lock ()
      -- 메서드: unlock ()

          세 가지 잠금 메커니즘이 사용됩니다—점 잠금(dot locking)과, 사
          용할 수 있다면, ‘flock()’과 ‘lockf()’ 시스템 호출.

더 보기
.......

Format of Version 5 Babyl Files(1)

     Babyl 형식의 명세.

Rmail로 메일 읽기(2)

     Rmail 매뉴얼, Babyl 의미론에 대한 정보가 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html


File: python.info,  Node: MMDF 객체,  Prev: Babyl 객체,  Up: Mailbox 객체

5.20.3.6 ‘MMDF’ 객체
....................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.MMDF (path, factory=None, create=True)

     MMDF 형식의 사서함에 대한 *note Mailbox: 123d.의 서브 클래스.  매개
     변수 'factory'는 파일류 메시지 표현(바이너리 모드에서 열린 것처럼 동
     작합니다)을 받아들이고 사용자 정의 표현을 반환하는 콜러블 객체입니
     다.  'factory'가 ‘None’이면, *note MMDFMessage: 370e.가 기본 메시지
     표현으로 사용됩니다.  'create'가 ‘True’이면, 사서함이 없으면 만들어
     집니다.

     MMDF는 메일 전송 에이전트인 Multichannel Memorandum Distribution
     Facility를 위해 개발된 단일 파일 사서함 형식입니다.  각 메시지는
     mbox 메시지와 같은 형식이지만 4개의 Control-A (‘'\001'’) 문자를 포
     함하는 줄로 앞뒤로 둘러쌉니다.  mbox 형식과 마찬가지로, 각 메시지의
     시작 부분은 처음 5개의 문자가 “From “인 줄로 표시되지만, 메시지를 저
     장할 때 추가로 등장하는 “From “을 “>From “으로 변환하지 않습니다, 메
     시지를 구분하는 추가적인 줄로 인해 후속 메시지의 시작으로 착각할 우
     려가 없기 때문입니다.

     ‘MMDF’에 의해 구현된 일부 *note Mailbox: 123d. 메서드는 특별한 주의
     가 필요합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- 메서드: get_file (key, from_=False)

          ‘MMDF’ 인스턴스에서 *note flush(): 36cf.나 *note close():
          36d1.를 호출한 후 파일을 사용하면 예기치 않은 결과가 발생하거
          나 예외가 발생할 수 있습니다.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- 메서드: lock ()
      -- 메서드: unlock ()

          세 가지 잠금 메커니즘이 사용됩니다—점 잠금(dot locking)과, 사
          용할 수 있다면, ‘flock()’과 ‘lockf()’ 시스템 호출.

더 보기
.......

tin의 mmdf 매뉴얼 페이지(1)

     뉴스 리더인 tin의 설명서에 있는 MMDF 형식의 명세.

MMDF(2)

     Multichannel Memorandum Distribution Facility를 설명하는 위키피디아
     기사.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF


File: python.info,  Node: Message 객체,  Next: 예외<15>,  Prev: Mailbox 객체,  Up: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기

5.20.3.7 ‘Message’ 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.Message (message=None)

     *note email.message: 44. 모듈 *note Message: 27c.의 서브 클래스.
     ‘mailbox.Message’의 서브 클래스는 사서함 형식별 상태와 동작을 추가
     합니다.

     'message'를 생략하면, 새 인스턴스가 기본 빈 상태로 만들어집니다.
     'message'가 *note email.message.Message: 27c. 인스턴스이면, 그 내용
     이 복사됩니다; 또한, 'message'가 ‘Message’ 인스턴스이면 가능한 한 모
     든 형식별 정보가 변환됩니다.  'message'가 문자열, 바이트 문자열 또
     는 파일이면, RFC 2822(1) 호환 메시지를 포함해야 하는데, 읽고 구문 분
     석됩니다.  파일은 바이너리 모드로 열려야 하지만, 이전 버전과의 호환
     성을 위해 텍스트 모드 파일이 허용됩니다.

     서브 클래스에서 제공하는 형식별 상태와 동작은 다양하지만, 일반적으
     로 지원되는 특정 사서함에만 고유하지는 않은 속성입니다 (아마도 속성
     은 특정 사서함 형식에 고유합니다).  예를 들어, 단일 파일 사서함 형
     식에 대한 파일 오프셋과 디렉터리 기반 사서함 형식에 대한 파일 이름
     은 유지되지 않는데, 원래 사서함에만 적용되기 때문입니다.  그러나 사
     용자가 메시지를 읽었는지나 중요하다고 표시되었는지와 같은 상태는 메
     시지 자체에 적용되므로 유지됩니다.

     *note Mailbox: 123d. 인스턴스를 사용하여 꺼낸 메시지를 나타내는 데
     ‘Message’ 인스턴스를 사용할 필요는 없습니다.  때에 따라, ‘Message’
     표현을 생성하는 데 필요한 시간과 메모리가 허용되지 않을 수 있습니다
     .  이러한 상황에서, ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스는 문자열과 파일류 표현도 제
     공하며, ‘Mailbox’ 인스턴스가 초기화될 때 사용자 정의 메시지 팩토리
     를 지정할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* MaildirMessage 객체::
* mboxMessage 객체::
* MHMessage 객체::
* BabylMessage 객체::
* MMDFMessage 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: MaildirMessage 객체,  Next: mboxMessage 객체,  Up: Message 객체

5.20.3.8 ‘MaildirMessage’ 객체
..............................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.MaildirMessage (message=None)

     Maildir 특정 동작을 갖는 메시지.  매개 변수 'message'는 *note
     Message: 1241. 생성자와 같은 의미입니다.

     일반적으로, 메일 사용자 에이전트 응용 프로그램은 사용자가 사서함을
     처음 열고 닫은 후 ‘new’ 하위 디렉터리의 모든 메시지를 ‘cur’ 하위 디
     렉터리로 이동하여, 메시지가 실제로 읽혔는지에 관계없이 오래되었음을
     기록합니다.  ‘cur’의 각 메시지에는 상태에 대한 정보를 저장하기 위해
     파일 이름에 추가된 “info” 섹션이 있습니다.  (일부 메일 리더는
     ‘new’의 메시지에 “info” 섹션을 추가할 수도 있습니다.)  “info” 섹션
     은 두 가지 형식 중 하나를 취할 수 있습니다: “2,”와 그 뒤로 표준화된
     플래그 목록이 오거나 (예를 들어, “2,FR”), “1,”과 그 뒤로 소위 실험
     적 정보를 포함할 수 있습니다.  Maildir 메시지의 표준 플래그는 다음
     과 같습니다:

     플래그     의미          설명
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     D          초안          작성 중
                              
                              
     F          깃발 표시     중요하다고 표시됨
                              
                              
     P          전달됨        전달, 재전송 또는 반송됨
                              
                              
     R          답장함        답장함
                              
                              
     S          보았음        읽었음
                              
                              
     T          휴지통        후에 삭제하기 위해 표시함
                              

     ‘MaildirMessage’ 인스턴스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_subdir ()

          “new”(메시지가 ‘new’ 하위 디렉터리에 저장되어야 하면)나
          “cur”(메시지가 ‘cur’ 하위 디렉터리에 저장되어야 하면)를 반환합
          니다.

               참고: 메시지를 읽었는지에 관계없이, 일반적으로 사서함에 액
               세스한 후 메시지는 ‘new’에서 ‘cur’로 이동됩니다.  ‘"S" in
               msg.get_flags()’가 ‘True’이면 메시지 ‘msg’를 읽은 것입니
               다.

      -- 메서드: set_subdir (subdir)

          메시지를 저장할 하위 디렉터리를 설정합니다.  매개 변수
          'subdir'은 “new”나 “cur”여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_flags ()

          현재 설정된 플래그를 지정하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  메시지가 표
          준 Maildir 형식을 준수하면, 결과는 ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'P'’, ‘'R'’,
          ‘'S'’ 및 ‘'T'’의 각 항목이 알파벳 순서로 0이나 1개 등장하는 이
          어붙이기입니다.  플래그가 설정되지 않았거나 “info”에 실험적 의
          미가 포함되어 있으면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set_flags (flags)

          'flags'로 지정된 플래그를 설정하고 다른 모든 플래그를 설정 해
          제합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_flag (flag)

          다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고 'flag'로 지정된 플래그를 설정합니
          다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그를 추가하기 위해, 'flag'가 둘 이
          상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수 있습니다.  플래그 대신 실험적 정
          보를 포함하는지와 관계없이 현재 “info”를 덮어씁니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_flag (flag)

          다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고 'flag'에 의해 지정된 플래그를 설정
          해제합니다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그를 제거하기 위해, 'flag'는
          둘 이상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수 있습니다.  “info”에 플래그
          대신 실험적 정보가 포함되어 있으면, 현재 “info”가 수정되지 않
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_date ()

          메시지의 배달 날짜를 에포크(Epoch) 이후 초를 나타내는 부동 소
          수점 숫자로 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_date (date)

          메시지의 배달 날짜를 'date'로 설정합니다.  이는 에포크(Epoch)
          이후 초를 나타내는 부동 소수점 숫자입니다.

      -- 메서드: get_info ()

          메시지에 대한 “info”를 포함하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  이것은 실
          험적인 (즉, 플래그 목록이 아닌) “info”를 액세스하고 수정하는 데
          유용합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_info (info)

          “info”를 문자열이어야 하는 'info'로 설정합니다.

*note mboxMessage: 3584.나 *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 인스턴스를 기반으로
‘MaildirMessage’ 인스턴스가 만들어질 때, ‘Status’와 ‘X-Status’ 헤더가 생
략되고 다음 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태                *note mboxMessage: 3584.나
                         *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 상태
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
“cur” 하위 디렉터리      O 플래그
                         
                         
F 플래그                 F 플래그
                         
                         
R 플래그                 A 플래그
                         
                         
S 플래그                 R 플래그
                         
                         
T 플래그                 D 플래그
                         

*note MHMessage: 36f4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MaildirMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, 다음 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태                           *note MHMessage: 36f4. 상태
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
“cur” 하위 디렉터리                 “unseen” 시퀀스
                                    
                                    
“cur” 하위 디렉터리와 S 플래그      “unseen” 시퀀스 없음
                                    
                                    
F 플래그                            “flagged” 시퀀스
                                    
                                    
R 플래그                            “replied” 시퀀스
                                    

*note BabylMessage: 3707. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MaildirMessage’ 인스턴스
가 만들어지면 다음 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태                           *note BabylMessage: 3707. 상태
                                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
“cur” 하위 디렉터리                 “unseen” 레이블
                                    
                                    
“cur” 하위 디렉터리와 S 플래그      “unseen” 레이블 없음
                                    
                                    
P 플래그                            “forwarded”나 “resent” 레이블
                                    
                                    
R 플래그                            “answered” 레이블
                                    
                                    
T 플래그                            “deleted” 레이블
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: mboxMessage 객체,  Next: MHMessage 객체,  Prev: MaildirMessage 객체,  Up: Message 객체

5.20.3.9 ‘mboxMessage’ 객체
...........................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.mboxMessage (message=None)

     mbox 특정 동작을 갖는 메시지.  매개 변수 'message'는 *note Message:
     1241. 생성자와 같은 의미입니다.

     mbox 사서함의 메시지는 단일 파일에 함께 저장됩니다.  보낸 사람의 봉
     투 주소(envelope address)와 배달 시간은 일반적으로 메시지의 시작을
     나타내는 데 사용되는 “From “으로 시작하는 줄에 저장되지만, mbox 구
     현 간에 이 데이터의 정확한 형식에는 상당한 차이가 있습니다.  읽었는
     지나 중요하다고 표시되었는지와 같은 메시지 상태를 나타내는 플래그는
     일반적으로 ‘Status’와 ‘X-Status’ 헤더에 저장됩니다.

     mbox 메시지의 전통적인 플래그는 다음과 같습니다:

     플래그     의미           설명
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          읽었음         읽었음
                               
                               
     O          오래되었음     전에 MUA에서 감지됨
                               
                               
     D          삭제됨         후에 삭제하기 위해 표시함
                               
                               
     F          깃발 표시      중요하다고 표시됨
                               
                               
     A          답변함         답장함
                               

     “R”과 “O” 플래그는 ‘Status’ 헤더에 저장되고, “D”, “F” 및 “A” 플래그
     는 ‘X-Status’ 헤더에 저장됩니다.  플래그와 헤더는 일반적으로 언급된
     순서대로 나타납니다.

     ‘mboxMessage’ 인스턴스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_from ()

          mbox 사서함에서 메시지의 시작을 표시하는 “From “ 줄을 나타내는
          문자열을 반환합니다.  선행 “From “과 후행 줄넘김은 제외됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          “From “ 줄을 'from_'으로 설정합니다.  'from_'은 선행 “From “이
          나 후행 줄넘김 없이 지정되어야 합니다.  편의를 위해, 'time_'을
          지정할 수 있으며 적절하게 포맷해서 'from_'에 추가합니다.
          'time_'이 지정되면, *note time.struct_time: ce7. 인스턴스,
          *note time.strftime(): 11d8.로 전달하기에 적합한 튜플 또는
          ‘True’(*note time.gmtime(): 11af. 사용)여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_flags ()

          현재 설정된 플래그를 지정하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  메시지가 전
          통적인 형식을 준수하면, 결과는 ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’ 및
          ‘'A'’ 각각이 이 순서로 0이나 1회 등장하도록 이어붙인 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: set_flags (flags)

          'flags'에서 지정한 플래그를 설정하고 다른 모든 플래그를 설정 해
          제합니다.  매개 변수 'flags'는 ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’ 및
          ‘'A'’ 각각이 0개 이상 등장하도록 임의의 순서로 이어붙인 것이어
          야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_flag (flag)

          다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고 'flag'로 지정된 플래그를 설정합니
          다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그를 추가하기 위해, 'flag'가 둘 이
          상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_flag (flag)

          다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고 'flag'에 의해 지정된 플래그를 설정
          해제합니다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그를 제거하기 위해, 'flag'는
          둘 이상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수 있습니다.

*note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘mboxMessage’ 인스턴스가
만들어지면, *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 인스턴스의 배달 날짜를 기반으로
“From “ 줄이 생성되고, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태             *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 상태
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R 플래그              S 플래그
                      
                      
O 플래그              “cur” 하위 디렉터리
                      
                      
D 플래그              T 플래그
                      
                      
F 플래그              F 플래그
                      
                      
A 플래그              R 플래그
                      

*note MHMessage: 36f4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘mboxMessage’ 인스턴스가 만들
어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태               *note MHMessage: 36f4. 상태
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R 플래그와 O 플래그     “unseen” 시퀀스 없음
                        
                        
O 플래그                “unseen” 시퀀스
                        
                        
F 플래그                “flagged” 시퀀스
                        
                        
A 플래그                “replied” 시퀀스
                        

*note BabylMessage: 3707. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘mboxMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태               *note BabylMessage: 3707. 상태
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R 플래그와 O 플래그     “unseen” 레이블 없음
                        
                        
O 플래그                “unseen” 레이블
                        
                        
D 플래그                “deleted” 레이블
                        
                        
A 플래그                “answered” 레이블
                        

*note MMDFMessage: 370e. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘mboxMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, “From “ 줄이 복사되고 모든 플래그가 직접 대응됩니다:

결과 상태             *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 상태
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R 플래그              R 플래그
                      
                      
O 플래그              O 플래그
                      
                      
D 플래그              D 플래그
                      
                      
F 플래그              F 플래그
                      
                      
A 플래그              A 플래그
                      


File: python.info,  Node: MHMessage 객체,  Next: BabylMessage 객체,  Prev: mboxMessage 객체,  Up: Message 객체

5.20.3.10 ‘MHMessage’ 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.MHMessage (message=None)

     MH 특정 동작을 갖는 메시지.  매개 변수 'message'는 *note Message:
     1241. 생성자와 같은 의미입니다.

     MH 메시지는 전통적인 의미에서 마크나 플래그를 지원하지 않지만, 임의
     메시지의 논리적 그룹인 시퀀스를 지원합니다.  일부 메일 읽기 프로그
     램(표준 ‘mh’와 ‘nmh’는 아니지만)은 다음과 같이 다른 형식에서 플래그
     를 사용하는 것과 거의 같은 방식으로 시퀀스를 사용합니다:

     시퀀스         설명
                    
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     unseen         읽지 않았지만, 이전에 MUA에서 감지했습니다.
                    
                    
     replied        답장함
                    
                    
     flagged        중요하다고 표시됨
                    

     ‘MHMessage’ 인스턴스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_sequences ()

          이 메시지를 포함하는 시퀀스의 이름 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_sequences (sequences)

          이 메시지를 포함하는 시퀀스의 리스트를 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_sequence (sequence)

          이 메시지를 포함하는 시퀀스의 리스트에 'sequence'를 추가합니다
          .

      -- 메서드: remove_sequence (sequence)

          이 메시지를 포함하는 시퀀스의 리스트에서 'sequence'를 제거합니
          다.

*note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MHMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태                *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 상태
                         
-------------------------------------------------------------
                         
“unseen” 시퀀스          S 플래그 없음
                         
                         
“replied” 시퀀스         R 플래그
                         
                         
“flagged” 시퀀스         F 플래그
                         

*note mboxMessage: 3584.나 *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 인스턴스를 기반으로
‘MHMessage’ 인스턴스가 만들어지면, ‘Status’와 ‘X-Status’ 헤더가 생략되고
다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태                *note mboxMessage: 3584.나
                         *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 상태
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
“unseen” 시퀀스          R 플래그 없음
                         
                         
“replied” 시퀀스         A 플래그
                         
                         
“flagged” 시퀀스         F 플래그
                         

*note BabylMessage: 3707. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MHMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태                *note BabylMessage: 3707. 상태
                         
-----------------------------------------------------------
                         
“unseen” 시퀀스          “unseen” 레이블
                         
                         
“replied” 시퀀스         “answered” 레이블
                         


File: python.info,  Node: BabylMessage 객체,  Next: MMDFMessage 객체,  Prev: MHMessage 객체,  Up: Message 객체

5.20.3.11 ‘BabylMessage’ 객체
.............................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.BabylMessage (message=None)

     Babyl 특정 동작을 갖는 메시지.  매개 변수 'message'는 *note
     Message: 1241. 생성자와 같은 의미입니다.

     '어트리뷰트(attributes)'라고 부르는 특정 메시지 레이블은 관례에 따
     라 특별한 의미를 갖도록 정의됩니다.  어트리뷰트는 다음과 같습니다:

     레이블          설명
                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     unseen          읽지 않았지만, 이전에 MUA에서 감지했습니다.
                     
                     
     deleted         후에 삭제하기 위해 표시함
                     
                     
     filed           다른 파일이나 사서함에 복사됨
                     
                     
     answered        답장함
                     
                     
     forwarded       전달됨
                     
                     
     edited          사용자가 수정했음
                     
                     
     resent          다시 보냈음
                     

     기본적으로, Rmail은 가시적 헤더만 표시합니다.  그러나
     ‘BabylMessage’ 클래스는 더 완전하기 때문에 원래 헤더를 사용합니다.
     원하면 가시적 헤더에 명시적으로 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

     ‘BabylMessage’ 인스턴스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_labels ()

          메시지의 레이블 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_labels (labels)

          메시지의 레이블 리스트를 'labels'로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_label (label)

          메시지의 레이블 리스트에 'label'을 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_label (label)

          메시지의 레이블 리스트에서 'label'을 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_visible ()

          헤더가 메시지의 가시적 헤더이고 본문이 비어있는 *note Message:
          1241. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_visible (visible)

          메시지의 가시적 헤더를 'message'의 헤더와 같게 설정합니다.  매
          개 변수 'visible'은 *note Message: 1241. 인스턴스, *note
          email.message.Message: 27c. 인스턴스, 문자열 또는 파일류 객체
          (텍스트 모드로 열어야 합니다)여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: update_visible ()

          ‘BabylMessage’ 인스턴스의 원래 헤더가 수정될 때, 가시적 헤더는
          일치하도록 자동으로 수정되지 않습니다.  이 메서드는 다음과 같
          이 가시적 헤더를 갱신합니다: 해당 원본 헤더가 있는 각 가시적 헤
          더는 원래 헤더의 값으로 설정되고, 해당 원본 헤더가 없는 각 가
          시적 헤더는 제거되며 원래 헤더에는 있지만, 가시적 헤더에는 없
          는 ‘Date’, ‘From’, ‘Reply-To’, ‘To’, ‘CC’ 및 ‘Subject’는 모두
          가시적 헤더에 추가됩니다.

*note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘BabylMessage’ 인스턴스
가 만들어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태               *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 상태
                        
------------------------------------------------------------
                        
“unseen” 레이블         S 플래그 없음
                        
                        
“deleted” 레이블        T 플래그
                        
                        
“answered” 레이블       R 플래그
                        
                        
“forwarded” 레이블      P 플래그
                        

*note mboxMessage: 3584.나 *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 인스턴스를 기반으로
‘BabylMessage’ 인스턴스가 만들어지면, ‘Status’와 ‘X-Status’ 헤더가 생략
되고 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태              *note mboxMessage: 3584.나
                       *note MMDFMessage: 370e. 상태
                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
“unseen” 레이블        R 플래그 없음
                       
                       
“deleted” 레이블       D 플래그
                       
                       
“answered” 레이블      A 플래그
                       

*note MHMessage: 36f4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘BabylMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태              *note MHMessage: 36f4. 상태
                       
------------------------------------------------------
                       
“unseen” 레이블        “unseen” 시퀀스
                       
                       
“answered” 레이블      “replied” 시퀀스
                       


File: python.info,  Node: MMDFMessage 객체,  Prev: BabylMessage 객체,  Up: Message 객체

5.20.3.12 ‘MMDFMessage’ 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: mailbox.MMDFMessage (message=None)

     MMDF 특정 동작을 갖는 메시지.  매개 변수 'message'는 *note Message:
     1241. 생성자와 같은 의미입니다.

     mbox 사서함의 메시지와 마찬가지로, MMDF 메시지는 보낸 사람의 주소와
     배달 날짜가 “From “으로 시작하는 첫 줄에 저장됩니다.  마찬가지로, 메
     시지의 상태를 나타내는 플래그는 일반적으로 ‘Status’와 ‘X-Status’ 헤
     더에 저장됩니다.

     MMDF 메시지의 전통적인 플래그는 mbox 메시지의 플래그와 동일하며 다
     음과 같습니다:

     플래그     의미           설명
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          읽었음         읽었음
                               
                               
     O          오래되었음     전에 MUA에서 감지됨
                               
                               
     D          삭제됨         후에 삭제하기 위해 표시함
                               
                               
     F          깃발 표시      중요하다고 표시됨
                               
                               
     A          답변함         답장함
                               

     “R”과 “O” 플래그는 ‘Status’ 헤더에 저장되고, “D”, “F” 및 “A” 플래그
     는 ‘X-Status’ 헤더에 저장됩니다.  플래그와 헤더는 일반적으로 언급된
     순서대로 나타납니다.

     ‘MMDFMessage’ 인스턴스는 *note mboxMessage: 3584.에서 제공하는 것과
     동일한 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_from ()

          mbox 사서함에서 메시지의 시작을 표시하는 “From “ 줄을 나타내는
          문자열을 반환합니다.  선행 “From “과 후행 줄넘김은 제외됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          “From “ 줄을 'from_'으로 설정합니다.  'from_'은 선행 “From “이
          나 후행 줄넘김 없이 지정되어야 합니다.  편의를 위해, 'time_'을
          지정할 수 있으며 적절하게 포맷해서 'from_'에 추가합니다.
          'time_'이 지정되면, *note time.struct_time: ce7. 인스턴스,
          *note time.strftime(): 11d8.로 전달하기에 적합한 튜플 또는
          ‘True’(*note time.gmtime(): 11af. 사용)여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_flags ()

          현재 설정된 플래그를 지정하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  메시지가 전
          통적인 형식을 준수하면, 결과는 ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’ 및
          ‘'A'’ 각각이 이 순서로 0이나 1회 등장하도록 이어붙인 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: set_flags (flags)

          'flags'에서 지정한 플래그를 설정하고 다른 모든 플래그를 설정 해
          제합니다.  매개 변수 'flags'는 ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’ 및
          ‘'A'’ 각각이 0개 이상 등장하도록 임의의 순서로 이어붙인 것이어
          야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_flag (flag)

          다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고 'flag'로 지정된 플래그를 설정합니
          다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그를 추가하기 위해, 'flag'가 둘 이
          상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: remove_flag (flag)

          다른 플래그를 변경하지 않고 'flag'에 의해 지정된 플래그를 설정
          해제합니다.  한 번에 둘 이상의 플래그를 제거하기 위해, 'flag'는
          둘 이상의 문자로 구성된 문자열일 수 있습니다.

*note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MMDFMessage’ 인스턴스가
만들어지면, *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 인스턴스의 배달 날짜를 기반으로
“From “ 줄이 생성되고, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태             *note MaildirMessage: 36d4. 상태
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R 플래그              S 플래그
                      
                      
O 플래그              “cur” 하위 디렉터리
                      
                      
D 플래그              T 플래그
                      
                      
F 플래그              F 플래그
                      
                      
A 플래그              R 플래그
                      

*note MHMessage: 36f4. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MMDFMessage’ 인스턴스가 만들
어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태               *note MHMessage: 36f4. 상태
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R 플래그와 O 플래그     “unseen” 시퀀스 없음
                        
                        
O 플래그                “unseen” 시퀀스
                        
                        
F 플래그                “flagged” 시퀀스
                        
                        
A 플래그                “replied” 시퀀스
                        

*note BabylMessage: 3707. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MMDFMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, 다음과 같은 변환이 발생합니다:

결과 상태               *note BabylMessage: 3707. 상태
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R 플래그와 O 플래그     “unseen” 레이블 없음
                        
                        
O 플래그                “unseen” 레이블
                        
                        
D 플래그                “deleted” 레이블
                        
                        
A 플래그                “answered” 레이블
                        

*note mboxMessage: 3584. 인스턴스를 기반으로 ‘MMDFMessage’ 인스턴스가 만
들어지면, “From “ 줄이 복사되고 모든 플래그가 직접 대응됩니다:

결과 상태             *note mboxMessage: 3584. 상태
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R 플래그              R 플래그
                      
                      
O 플래그              O 플래그
                      
                      
D 플래그              D 플래그
                      
                      
F 플래그              F 플래그
                      
                      
A 플래그              A 플래그
                      


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<15>,  Next: 예<7>,  Prev: Message 객체,  Up: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기

5.20.3.13 예외
..............

다음 예외 클래스가 ‘mailbox’ 모듈에 정의되어 있습니다:

 -- 예외: mailbox.Error

     기타 모든 다른 모듈 특정 예외에 대한 베이스 클래스.

 -- 예외: mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError

     사서함이 기대되지만 찾을 수 없을 때 발생합니다, 가령 존재하지 않는
     경로로 (그리고 ‘False’로 설정된 'create' 매개 변수를 사용하여)
     *note Mailbox: 123d. 서브 클래스를 인스턴스 화하거나, 존재하지 않는
     폴더를 열 때.

 -- 예외: mailbox.NotEmptyError

     사서함이 비어 있지 않지만 비어있을 것으로 기대될 때 발생합니다, 가
     령 메시지가 포함된 폴더를 삭제할 때.

 -- 예외: mailbox.ExternalClashError

     프로그램의 제어를 벗어난 일부 사서함 관련 조건으로 인해 진행할 수 없
     을 때 발생합니다, 가령 다른 프로그램이 이미 잠금을 보유하고 있는 잠
     금을 획득하지 못할 때나 고유하게 생성된 파일 이름이 이미 존재할 때.

 -- 예외: mailbox.FormatError

     파일의 데이터를 구문 분석할 수 없을 때 발생합니다, 가령 *note MH:
     16bd. 인스턴스가 손상된 ‘.mh_sequences’ 파일을 읽으려고 할 때.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<7>,  Prev: 예외<15>,  Up: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기

5.20.3.14 예
............

사서함에 있는 모든 흥미롭게 보이는 메시지의 제목을 인쇄하는 간단한 예:

     import mailbox
     for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
         subject = message['subject']       # None일 수 있습니다.
         if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
             print(subject)

변환할 수 있는 모든 형식별 정보를 변환하면서, Babyl 사서함에서 MH 사서함
으로 모든 메일을 복사하려면:

     import mailbox
     destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
     destination.lock()
     for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
         destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
     destination.flush()
     destination.unlock()

이 예에서는 여러 메일링 리스트로부터의 메일을 다른 사서함으로 정렬하여 넣
고, 다른 프로그램에 의한 동시 수정으로 인한 메일 손상, 프로그램 중단으로
인한 메일 손실 또는 사서함에 있는 잘못된 메시지로 인한 조기 종료를 방지
하도록 주의합니다:

     import mailbox
     import email.errors

     list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')

     boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
     inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)

     for key in inbox.iterkeys():
         try:
             message = inbox[key]
         except email.errors.MessageParseError:
             continue                # 메시지가 잘못되었습니다. 그냥 둡니다.

         for name in list_names:
             list_id = message['list-id']
             if list_id and name in list_id:
                 # 사용할 사서함을 얻습니다
                 box = boxes[name]

                 # 원본을 제거하기 전에 사본을 디스크에 기록합니다.
                 # 충돌이 있으면, 메시지가 중복될 수 있지만, 메시지를 완전히 잃어버리는
                 # 것보다는 낫습니다.
                 box.lock()
                 box.add(message)
                 box.flush()
                 box.unlock()

                 # 원본 메시지 제거
                 inbox.lock()
                 inbox.discard(key)
                 inbox.flush()
                 inbox.unlock()
                 break               # 목적지를 찾았으니, 그만 찾습니다.

     for box in boxes.itervalues():
         box.close()


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑,  Next: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩,  Prev: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.4 ‘mimetypes’ — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑
----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/mimetypes.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note mimetypes: 8f. 모듈은 파일명이나 URL과 파일명 확장자와 연관된 MIME
유형 간의 변환을 제공합니다.  변환은 파일명에서 MIME 유형으로, MIME 유형
에서 파일 이름 확장자로 제공됩니다; 후자의 변환에서는 인코딩이 지원되지
않습니다.

이 모듈은 하나의 클래스와 여러 편리 함수를 제공합니다.  함수가 이 모듈에
대한 일반 인터페이스이지만, 일부 응용 프로그램은 클래스에도 관심이 있을
수 있습니다.

아래에 설명된 함수는 이 모듈의 기본 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  모듈이 초
기화되지 않았으면, 함수가 *note init(): 3741.가 설정하는 정보에 의존하면
*note init(): 3741.를 호출합니다.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.guess_type (url, strict=True)

     'url'로 주어진 파일명, 경로 또는 URL에 기반한 파일의 유형을 추측합
     니다.  URL은 문자열이나 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.일 수 있습니다.

     반환 값은 튜플 ‘(type, encoding)’인데, 'type'은 MIME ‘content-type’
     헤더에 사용할 수 있는 ‘'type/subtype'’ 형식의 문자열이거나, 유형을
     추측할 수 없으면 (없거나 알려지지 않은 확장자) ‘None’입니다.

     'encoding'은 인코딩에 사용된 프로그램의 이름(예를 들어, ‘compress’나
     ‘gzip’)이거나, 인코딩이 없으면 ‘None’입니다.  인코딩은
     ‘Content-Encoding’ 헤더로 사용하기에 적합합니다,
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더가 '아닙니다'.  매핑은 테이블 기반
     입니다.  인코딩 접미사는 대소 문자를 구분합니다; 유형 접미사는 먼저
     대소 문자를 구분해서 시도한 후에, 대소 문자를 구분하지 않고 시도합
     니다.

     선택적 'strict' 인자는 알려진 MIME 유형 목록을 IANA에 등록된(2) 공
     식 유형으로만 제한할지를 지정하는 플래그입니다.  'strict'가
     ‘True’(기본값)이면 IANA 유형만 지원됩니다; 'strict'가 ‘False’일 때,
     추가로 표준이 아니지만, 일반적으로 사용되는 MIME 유형도 인식됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0. 'url'에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: Passing a file path instead of URL is *note
     soft deprecated: 209.  Use *note guess_file_type(): 207. for this.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.guess_file_type (path, *, strict=True)

     'path'로 주어진 경로에 기반하여 파일의 유형을 추측합니다.  *note
     guess_type(): 208. 함수와 유사하지만, URL 대신 경로를 받습니다.  경
     로는 문자열, 바이트열 객체 혹은 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.일 수 있습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

     'type'으로 주어진 MIME 유형을 기반으로 파일의 확장자를 추측합니다.
     반환 값은 가능한 모든 파일명 확장자를 제공하는 문자열 리스트인데, 선
     행 점(‘'.'’)을 포함합니다.  확장자는 특정 데이터 스트림과 연관되었
     음이 보장되지는 않지만, *note guess_type(): 208.과 *note
     guess_file_type(): 207.에 의해 MIME 유형 'type'으로 매핑됩니다.

     선택적 'strict' 인자는 *note guess_type(): 208. 함수에서와 같은 의
     미를 가집니다.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.guess_extension (type, strict=True)

     'type'으로 주어진 MIME 유형을 기반으로 파일의 확장자를 추측합니다.
     반환 값은 파일명 확장자를 제공하는 문자열인데, 선행 점(‘'.'’)을 포
     함합니다.  확장자는 특정 데이터 스트림과 연관되었음이 보장되지는 않
     지만, *note guess_type(): 208.과 *note guess_file_type(): 207.에 의
     해 MIME 유형 'type'으로 매핑됩니다.  'type'에 대해 추측할 수 있는 확
     장이 없으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     선택적 'strict' 인자는 *note guess_type(): 208. 함수에서와 같은 의
     미를 가집니다.

일부 추가 함수와 데이터 항목은 모듈의 동작을 제어하는 데 사용할 수 있습
니다.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.init (files=None)

     내부 데이터 구조를 초기화합니다.  주어지면, 'files'는 기본 유형 맵
     을 보강하는 데 사용해야 하는 파일 이름의 시퀀스여야 합니다.  생략하
     면, 사용할 파일 이름은 *note knownfiles: 3743.에서 가져옵니다; 윈도
     우에서는, 현재 레지스트리 설정이 로드됩니다.  'files'나 *note
     knownfiles: 3743.에서 명명된 각 파일은 그 앞에서 명명된 파일보다 우
     선합니다.  반복적으로 *note init(): 3741.를 호출할 수 있습니다.

     'files'에 빈 리스트를 지정하면 시스템 기본값이 적용되지 않습니다: 내
     장 리스트로부터 온 잘 알려진 값만 나타납니다.

     'files'가 ‘None’이면 내부 데이터 구조가 초기 기본값으로 완전히 다시
     만들어집니다.  이것은 안정적인 연산이며 여러 번 호출 될 때 같은 결
     과를 생성합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 이전에는, 윈도우 레지스트리 설정이 무시되었습니
     다.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.read_mime_types (filename)

     'filename' 파일이 있으면, 그 파일에 주어진 유형 맵을 로드합니다.  유
     형 맵은 선행 점(‘'.'’)을 포함하는 파일명 확장자를 ‘'type/subtype'’
     형식의 문자열로 매핑하는 딕셔너리로 반환됩니다.  'filename' 파일이
     없거나 읽을 수 없으면 ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: mimetypes.add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

     MIME 유형 'type'에서 확장자 'ext'로의 매핑을 추가합니다.  확장자가
     이미 알려져 있으면, 새 유형이 이전 유형을 대체합니다.  유형이 이미
     알려져 있으면, 확장이 알려진 확장 리스트에 추가됩니다.

     'strict'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면, 매핑이 공식 MIME 유형에 추가되고, 그
     렇지 않으면 비표준 MIME 유형에 추가됩니다.

 -- 데이터: mimetypes.inited

     전역 데이터 구조가 초기화되었는지를 나타내는 플래그.  이것은 *note
     init(): 3741.에 의해 ‘True’로 설정됩니다.

 -- 데이터: mimetypes.knownfiles

     일반적으로 설치된 유형 맵 파일 이름의 리스트입니다.  이 파일들은 일
     반적으로 ‘mime.types’로 명명되며 패키지별로 다른 위치에 설치됩니다.

 -- 데이터: mimetypes.suffix_map

     접미사를 접미사에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.  인코딩과 유형이 같은 확장자로
     표시되는 인코딩된 파일을 인식하도록 하는 데 사용됩니다.  예를 들어,
     ‘.tgz’ 확장자는 인코딩과 유형을 별도로 인식 할 수 있도록,
     ‘.tar.gz’에 매핑됩니다.

 -- 데이터: mimetypes.encodings_map

     파일명 확장자를 인코딩 유형에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

 -- 데이터: mimetypes.types_map

     파일명 확장자를 MIME 유형에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

 -- 데이터: mimetypes.common_types

     파일명 확장자를 비표준이지만 일반적으로 발견되는 MIME 유형에 매핑하
     는 딕셔너리.

모듈의 사용 예:

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> mimetypes.init()
     >>> mimetypes.knownfiles
     ['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
     >>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
     '.tar.gz'
     >>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
     'gzip'
     >>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
     'application/x-tar-gz'

* Menu:

* MimeTypes 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/mimetypes.py

   (2) https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml


File: python.info,  Node: MimeTypes 객체,  Up: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑

5.20.4.1 MimeTypes 객체
.......................

*note MimeTypes: 14c3. 클래스는 하나 이상의 MIME 유형 데이터베이스가 필
요한 응용 프로그램에 유용 할 수 있습니다.  *note mimetypes: 8f. 모듈과 유
사한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: mimetypes.MimeTypes (filenames=(), strict=True)

     이 클래스는 MIME 유형 데이터베이스를 나타냅니다.  기본적으로, 이 모
     듈의 나머지 부분과 같은 데이터베이스에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  초
     기 데이터베이스는 모듈이 제공하는 것의 사본이며, *note read():
     374c.나 *note readfp(): 374d. 메서드를 사용하여 추가 ‘mime.types’-스
     타일 파일을 데이터베이스에 로드하여 확장할 수 있습니다.  기본 데이
     터가 필요하지 않으면, 추가 데이터를 로드하기 전에 매핑 딕셔너리를 지
     울 수도 있습니다.

     선택적 'filenames' 매개 변수는 기본 데이터베이스의 “위”에 추가 파일
     을 로드하게 하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: suffix_map

          접미사를 접미사에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.  인코딩과 유형이 같은 확
          장자로 표시되는 인코딩된 파일을 인식하도록 하는 데 사용됩니다.
          예를 들어, ‘.tgz’ 확장자는 인코딩과 유형을 별도로 인식 할 수 있
          도록, ‘.tar.gz’에 매핑됩니다.  이것은 초기에는 모듈에 정의된 전
          역 *note suffix_map: 3746.의 사본입니다.

      -- 속성: encodings_map

          파일명 확장자를 인코딩 유형에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.  이것은 초기
          에는 모듈에 정의된 전역 *note encodings_map: 3747.의 사본입니
          다.

      -- 속성: types_map

          파일명 확장자를 MIME 유형으로 매핑하는 두 개의 딕셔너리를 포함
          하는 튜플: 첫 번째 딕셔너리는 비표준 유형 용이고 두 번째는 표
          준 유형 용입니다.  *note common_types: 3749.와 *note
          types_map: 3748.으로 초기화됩니다.

      -- 속성: types_map_inv

          MIME 타입을 파일명 확장자 리스트로 매핑하는 두 개의 딕셔너리를
          포함하는 튜플: 첫 번째 딕셔너리는 비표준 유형 용이고 두 번째는
          표준 유형 용입니다.  *note common_types: 3749.와 *note
          types_map: 3748.으로 초기화됩니다.

      -- 메서드: guess_extension (type, strict=True)

          *note guess_extension(): 3742. 함수와 유사하고, 객체의 일부로
          저장된 테이블을 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: guess_type (url, strict=True)

          *note guess_type(): 208. 함수와 유사하고, 객체의 일부로 저장된
          테이블을 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: guess_file_type (path, *, strict=True)

          *note guess_file_type(): 207. 함수와 유사하고, 객체의 일부로 저
          장된 테이블을 사용합니다.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

          *note guess_all_extensions(): 189c. 함수와 유사하고, 객체의 일
          부로 저장된 테이블을 사용합니다.

      -- 메서드: read (filename, strict=True)

          'filename'이라는 이름의 파일에서 MIME 정보를 로드합니다.
          *note readfp(): 374d.를 사용하여 파일을 구문 분석합니다.

          'strict'가 ‘True’이면, 정보는 표준 유형 리스트에 추가되고, 그
          렇지 않으면 비표준 유형 리스트에 추가됩니다.

      -- 메서드: readfp (fp, strict=True)

          열린 파일 'fp'에서 MIME 유형 정보를 로드합니다.  파일은 표준
          ‘mime.types’ 파일의 형식이어야 합니다.

          'strict'가 ‘True’이면, 정보는 표준 유형 리스트에 추가되고, 그
          렇지 않으면 비표준 유형 리스트에 추가됩니다.

      -- 메서드: read_windows_registry (strict=True)

          윈도우 레지스트리에서 MIME 유형 정보를 로드합니다.

          *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

          'strict'가 ‘True’이면, 정보는 표준 유형 리스트에 추가되고, 그
          렇지 않으면 비표준 유형 리스트에 추가됩니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

          MIME 유형 'type'에서 확장자 'ext'로의 매핑을 추가합니다.  확장
          자가 이미 알려져 있으면, 새 유형이 이전 유형을 대체합니다.  유
          형이 이미 알려져 있으면, 확장이 알려진 확장 리스트에 추가됩니
          다.

          'strict'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면, 매핑이 공식 MIME 유형에 추가되
          고, 그렇지 않으면 비표준 MIME 유형에 추가됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩,  Next: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환,  Prev: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.5 ‘base64’ — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 데이터 인코딩
--------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/base64.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.  This
includes the *note encodings specified in: 3759. RFC 4648(2) (Base64,
Base32 and Base16) and the non-standard *note Base85 encodings: 375a.

이 모듈은 두 개의 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  최신 인터페이스는 *note
바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 ASCII *note bytes: 1c2.로 인코딩하고, *note
바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII를 포함하는 문자열을 *note bytes: 1c2.로 디
코딩하는 것을 지원합니다.  RFC 4648(3)에 정의된 두 가지(일반, 그리고
URL과 파일 시스템에서 안전한) base-64 알파벳이 모두 지원됩니다.

The *note legacy interface: 375b. does not support decoding from
strings, but it does provide functions for encoding and decoding to and
from *note file objects: 11b2.  It only supports the Base64 standard
alphabet, and it adds newlines every 76 characters as per RFC 2045(4).
Note that if you are looking for RFC 2045(5) support you probably want
to be looking at the *note email: 3b. package instead.

버전 3.3에서 변경: ASCII 전용 유니코드 문자열은 이제 최신 인터페이스의 디
코딩 함수가 받아들입니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 모든 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.는 이제 이 모듈의 모
든 인코딩과 디코딩 함수가 받아들입니다.  Ascii85/Base85 지원이 추가되었
습니다.

* Menu:

* RFC 4648 Encodings::
* Base85 Encodings::
* Legacy Interface::
* Security Considerations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/base64.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: RFC 4648 Encodings,  Next: Base85 Encodings,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩

5.20.5.1 RFC 4648 Encodings
...........................

The RFC 4648(1) encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that
it can be safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as
part of an HTTP POST request.

 -- 함수: base64.b64encode (s, altchars=None)

     Base64를 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 's'를 인코딩하고 인코
     딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     선택적 'altchars'는 ‘+’와 ‘/’ 문자의 대체 알파벳을 지정하는 길이 2의
     *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.여야 합니다.  이를 통해 응용 프로그램은
     URL이나 파일 시스템에서 안전한 Base64 문자열을 생성할 수 있습니다.
     기본값은 ‘None’이며, 표준 Base64 알파벳이 사용됩니다.

     May assert or raise a *note ValueError: 202. if the length of
     'altchars' is not 2.  Raises a *note TypeError: 532. if 'altchars'
     is not a *note bytes-like object: d2a.

 -- 함수: base64.b64decode (s, altchars=None, validate=False)

     Base64로 인코딩된 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 's'를
     디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     선택적 'altchars'는 ‘+’와 ‘/’ 문자 대신에 사용되는 대체 알파벳을 지
     정하는 길이 2의 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열이어야 합
     니다.

     's'가 잘못 채워지면(padded) *note binascii.Error: 101c. 예외가 발생
     합니다.

     'validate'가 ‘False’(기본값)면, 일반 base-64 알파벳도 대체 알파벳도
     아닌 문자는 채우기(padding) 검사 전에 버려집니다.  'validate'가
     ‘True’면, 입력에 이 알파벳이 아닌 문자가 있으면 *note
     binascii.Error: 101c.가 발생합니다.

     For more information about the strict base64 check, see *note
     binascii.a2b_base64(): 1634.

     May assert or raise a *note ValueError: 202. if the length of
     'altchars' is not 2.

 -- 함수: base64.standard_b64encode (s)

     표준 Base64 알파벳을 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 's'를 인
     코딩하고 인코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.standard_b64decode (s)

     표준 Base64 알파벳을 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문
     자열 's'를 디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.urlsafe_b64encode (s)

     표준 Base64 알파벳에서 ‘+’ 대신 ‘-’를, ‘/’ 대신 ‘_’를 사용하도록 대
     체한 URL과 파일 시스템에서 안전한 알파벳을 사용하여 *note 바이트열류
     객체: d2a. 's'를 인코딩하고, 인코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니
     다.  결과에는 여전히 ‘=’가 포함될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: base64.urlsafe_b64decode (s)

     표준 Base64 알파벳에서 ‘+’ 대신 ‘-’를, ‘/’ 대신 ‘_’를 사용하도록 대
     체한 URL과 파일 시스템에서 안전한 알파벳을 사용하여 *note 바이트열류
     객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 's'를 디코딩하고, 디코딩된 *note bytes:
     1c2.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.b32encode (s)

     Base32를 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 's'를 인코딩하고 인코
     딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.b32decode (s, casefold=False, map01=None)

     Base32로 인코딩된 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 's'를
     디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     선택적 'casefold'는 소문자 알파벳을 입력으로 사용할 수 있는지를 지
     정하는 플래그입니다.  보안을 위해, 기본값은 ‘False’입니다.

     RFC 4648(2)은 숫자 0(영)을 글자 O(오)로 선택적으로 매핑하고, 숫자
     1(일)을 글자 I(아이)나 글자 L(엘)로 선택적으로 매핑할 수 있게 합니
     다.  선택적 인자 'map01'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 숫자 1이 매핑되어야 하
     는 글자를 지정합니다 ('map01'이 ‘None’이 아닐 때, 숫자 0은 항상 글
     자 O로 매핑됩니다).  보안상의 이유로 기본값은 ‘None’이고, 0과 1은 입
     력에 허용되지 않습니다.

     's'가 잘못 채워졌거나(padded) 입력에 알파벳이 아닌 문자가 있으면
     *note binascii.Error: 101c.가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.b32hexencode (s)

     Similar to *note b32encode(): 3762. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(3).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: base64.b32hexdecode (s, casefold=False)

     Similar to *note b32decode(): 101b. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(4).

     This version does not allow the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O (oh)
     and digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el)
     mappings, all these characters are included in the Extended Hex
     Alphabet and are not interchangeable.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: base64.b16encode (s)

     Base16을 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 's'를 인코딩하고 인코
     딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.b16decode (s, casefold=False)

     Base16으로 인코딩된 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 's'를
     디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     선택적 'casefold'는 소문자 알파벳을 입력으로 사용할 수 있는지를 지
     정하는 플래그입니다.  보안을 위해, 기본값은 ‘False’입니다.

     's'가 잘못 채워졌거나(padded) 입력에 알파벳이 아닌 문자가 있으면
     *note binascii.Error: 101c.가 발생합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: Base85 Encodings,  Next: Legacy Interface,  Prev: RFC 4648 Encodings,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩

5.20.5.2 Base85 Encodings
.........................

Base85 encoding is not formally specified but rather a de facto
standard, thus different systems perform the encoding differently.

The *note a85encode(): f16. and *note b85encode(): f18. functions in
this module are two implementations of the de facto standard.  You
should call the function with the Base85 implementation used by the
software you intend to work with.

The two functions present in this module differ in how they handle the
following:

   * Whether to include enclosing ‘<~’ and ‘~>’ markers

   * Whether to include newline characters

   * The set of ASCII characters used for encoding

   * Handling of null bytes

Refer to the documentation of the individual functions for more
information.

 -- 함수: base64.a85encode (b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0,
          pad=False, adobe=False)

     Ascii85를 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 'b'를 인코딩하고 인
     코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     'foldspaces'는 ‘btoa’ 가 지원하듯이 4개의 연속된 스페이스 (ASCII
     0x20) 대신 특수한 짧은 시퀀스 ‘y’ 를 사용하는 선택적 플래그입니다.
     이 기능은 “표준” Ascii85 인코딩에서 지원되지 않습니다.

     'wrapcol'은 출력에 줄 바꿈 (‘b'\n'’) 문자가 추가되어야 하는지를 제
     어합니다.  이것이 0이 아니면, 각 출력 줄의 길이는 후행 줄 바꿈을 제
     외하고 이 문자 수를 넘지 않습니다.

     'pad'는 인코딩하기 전에 입력이 4의 배수로 채워졌는지를 제어합니다.
     ‘btoa’ 구현은 항상 채운다는 것에 유의하십시오.

     'adobe'는 인코딩된 바이트 시퀀스가 Adobe 구현에서 사용되는 ‘<~’와
     ‘~>’로 프레임화되는지를 제어합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: base64.a85decode (b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False,
          ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\x0b')

     Ascii85로 인코딩된 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 'b'를
     디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     'foldspaces'는 짧은 시퀀스 ‘y’ 를 4개의 연속 된 스페이스(ASCII
     0x20)에 대한 축약으로 받아들여야 하는지를 지정하는 플래그입니다.  이
     기능은 “표준” Ascii85 인코딩에서 지원되지 않습니다.

     'adobe'는 입력 시퀀스가 Adobe Ascii85 형식인지(즉 <~ 와 ~> 로 프레
     임화되었는지)를 제어합니다.

     'ignorechars'는 입력에서 무시할 문자가 포함된 *note 바이트열류
     객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열이어야 합니다.  여기에는 공백 문자만 포함
     되어야 하며, 기본적으로 ASCII의 모든 공백 문자가 포함됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: base64.b85encode (b, pad=False)

     base85를 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 'b'를 인코딩하고 (예
     를 들어 git 스타일 바이너리 diff에서 사용되는 것처럼), 인코딩된
     *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     'pad'가 참이면, 입력은 ‘b'\0'’으로 채워져서 길이는 인코딩 전에 4바
     이트의 배수가 됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: base64.b85decode (b)

     base85로 인코딩된 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 'b'를
     디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.  필요하면, 채우
     기는 묵시적으로 제거됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: base64.z85encode (s)

     (ZeroMQ 에서 사용된) Z85를 사용하여 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.
     's'를 인코딩하고, 인코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.  더 자세
     한 내용은 Z85 명세(1)를 참조하세요.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: base64.z85decode (s)

     Z85로 인코딩된 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.나 ASCII 문자열 's'를 디
     코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.  더 자세한 내용은
     Z85 명세(2)를 참조하세요.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (2) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy Interface,  Next: Security Considerations,  Prev: Base85 Encodings,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩

5.20.5.3 Legacy Interface
.........................

 -- 함수: base64.decode (input, output)

     바이너리 'input' 파일의 내용을 디코딩하고 결과 바이너리 데이터를
     'output' 파일에 씁니다.  'input'과 'output'은 *note 파일 객체:
     11b2.여야 합니다.  'input'은 ‘input.readline()’이 빈 바이트열 객체
     를 반환할 때까지 읽힙니다.

 -- 함수: base64.decodebytes (s)

     하나 이상의 base64 인코딩된 데이터 줄을 포함해야 하는 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a. 's'를 디코딩하고 디코딩된 *note bytes: 1c2.를
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: base64.encode (input, output)

     바이너리 'input' 파일의 내용을 인코딩하고 base64로 인코딩된 결과 데
     이터를 'output' 파일에 씁니다.  'input'과 'output'은 *note 파일
     객체: 11b2.여야 합니다.  'input'은 ‘input.read()’이 빈 바이트열 객
     체를 반환할 때까지 읽힙니다.  *note encode(): 3768.는 RFC
     2045(1)(MIME)에 따라 출력의 76바이트마다 개행 문자(‘b'\n'’)를 삽입
     할 뿐만 아니라, 항상 출력이 개행 문자로 끝나도록 합니다.

 -- 함수: base64.encodebytes (s)

     임의의 바이너리 데이터를 포함할 수 있는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.
     's'를 인코딩하고, RFC 2045(2) (MIME)에 따라 76바이트의 출력마다 개
     행(‘b'\n'’)이 삽입되고, 후행 개행이 붙은 base64 인코딩된 데이터를 포
     함하는 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

모듈 사용 예:

     >>> import base64
     >>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
     >>> encoded
     b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
     >>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
     >>> data
     b'data to be encoded'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations,  Prev: Legacy Interface,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩

5.20.5.4 Security Considerations
................................

A new security considerations section was added to RFC 4648(1) (section
12); it’s recommended to review the security section for any code
deployed to production.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note binascii: 10.

     ASCII에서 바이너리로, 바이너리에서 ASCII로의 변환이 포함된 지원 모
     듈.

RFC 1521(2) - MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies

     5.2 절, “Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding” 은 base64 인코딩의 정의
     를 제공합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html


File: python.info,  Node: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환,  Next: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.6 ‘binascii’ — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note binascii: 10. 모듈에는 바이너리와 다양한 ASCII 인코딩 바이너리 표
현 사이를 변환하는 여러 가지 방법이 포함되어 있습니다.  일반적으로 이러
한 함수는 직접 사용하지 않고, 대신 *note base64: e.와 같은 래퍼 모듈을 사
용합니다.  *note binascii: 10. 모듈에는 고수준 모듈에서 사용하는 보다 빠
른 속도를 위해 C로 작성된 저수준 함수가 들어 있습니다.

     참고: ‘a2b_*’ 함수는 ASCII 문자만 포함하는 유니코드 문자열을 받아들
     입니다.  다른 함수는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.(가령 *note bytes:
     1c2, *note bytearray: 538. 및 버퍼 프로토콜을 지원하는 다른 객체)만
     받아들입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: ASCII로만 이루어진 유니코드 문자열은 이제
     ‘a2b_*’ 함수에서 허용됩니다.

*note binascii: 10. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: binascii.a2b_uu (string)

     한 줄의 UU 인코딩된 데이터 string을 바이너리로 역변환하고 바이너리
     데이터를 반환합니다.  마지막 줄을 제외하고는, 줄은 보통 45 (바이너
     리) 바이트를 포함합니다.  줄 데이터 뒤에는 공백 문자가 올 수 있습니
     다.

 -- 함수: binascii.b2a_uu (data, *, backtick=False)

     바이너리 data를 ASCII 문자의 줄로 변환합니다, 반환 값은 개행 문자를
     포함하는 변환 된 줄입니다.  'data'의 길이는 최대 45이어야 합니다.
     'backtick'가 참이면, 0은 스페이스 대신 ‘'`'’으로 표현됩니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'backtick' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: binascii.a2b_base64 (string, /, *, strict_mode=False)

     base64 데이터 블록을 바이너리로 역변환하고 바이너리 데이터를 반환합
     니다.  한 번에 한 줄 이상을 전달할 수 있습니다.

     If 'strict_mode' is true, only valid base64 data will be converted.
     Invalid base64 data will raise *note binascii.Error: 101c.

     Valid base64:

        * Conforms to RFC 3548(1).

        * Contains only characters from the base64 alphabet.

        * Contains no excess data after padding (including excess
          padding, newlines, etc.).

        * Does not start with a padding.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'strict_mode' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: binascii.b2a_base64 (data, *, newline=True)

     바이너리 data를 base64 코딩으로 ASCII 문자의 줄로 변환합니다.  반환
     값은 변환된 줄인데, 'newline'이 참이면, 개행 문자를 포함합니다.  이
     함수의 출력은 RFC 3548(2)을 따릅니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'newline' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: binascii.a2b_qp (data, header=False)

     quoted-printable data 블록을 바이너리로 역변환하고 바이너리 데이터
     를 반환합니다.  한 번에 한 줄 이상을 전달할 수 있습니다.  선택적 인
     자 'header'가 있고 참이면, 밑줄(underscore)은 스페이스로 디코딩됩니
     다.

 -- 함수: binascii.b2a_qp (data, quotetabs=False, istext=True,
          header=False)

     바이너리 data를 quoted-printable 인코딩으로 ASCII 문자의 줄로 변환
     합니다.  반환 값은 변환된 줄입니다.  선택적 인자 'quotetabs'가 있고
     참이면, 모든 탭과 스페이스가 인코딩됩니다.  선택적 인자 'istext'가
     있고 참이면, 개행 문자는 인코딩되지 않지만, 후행 공백은 인코딩됩니
     다.  선택적 인자 'header'가 있고 참이면, 스페이스는 RFC 1522(3)에 따
     라 밑줄로 인코딩됩니다.  선택적 인자 'header'가 있고 거짓이면, 개행
     문자도 함께 인코딩됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 라인 피드(linefeed) 변환이
     바이너리 데이터 스트림을 손상할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: binascii.crc_hqx (data, value)

     초기 CRC 'value'로 시작하는, 'data'의 16비트 CRC 값을 계산하고 결과
     를 반환합니다.  종종 0x1021로 표시되는, CRC-CCITT 다항식 'x'^16 +
     'x'^12 + 'x'^5 + 1을 사용합니다.  이 CRC는 binhex4 형식에서 사용됩
     니다.

 -- 함수: binascii.crc32 (data[, value])

     초기 CRC 'value'로 시작하는, 'data'의 부호 없는 32비트 체크섬인
     CRC-32를 계산합니다.  기본 초기 CRC는 0입니다.  이 알고리즘은 ZIP 파
     일 체크섬과 일치합니다.  이 알고리즘은 체크섬 알고리즘으로 사용하도
     록 설계되었으므로, 일반 해시 알고리즘으로 사용하기에 적합하지 않습
     니다.  다음과 같이 사용하십시오:

          print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
          # 또는, 두 조각으로:
          crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
          crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
          print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))

     버전 3.0에서 변경: The result is always unsigned.

 -- 함수: binascii.b2a_hex (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])
 -- 함수: binascii.hexlify (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

     바이너리 'data'의 16진수 표현을 반환합니다.  'data'의 모든 바이트는
     해당 2자리 16진수 표현으로 변환됩니다.  따라서 반환된 바이트열 객체
     의 길이는 'data' 의 두 배입니다.

     비슷한 기능(하지만 텍스트 문자열을 반환하는)을 *note bytes.hex():
     d65. 메서드를 사용하여 편리하게 액세스할 수도 있습니다.

     'sep'이 지정되면, 단일 문자 문자열이나 바이트열 객체여야 합니다.
     'bytes_per_sep' 입력 바이트마다 출력에 삽입됩니다.  구분자 배치는 기
     본적으로 출력의 오른쪽 끝에서부터 계산됩니다.  왼쪽부터 계산하려면,
     음수의 'bytes_per_sep' 값을 제공하십시오.

          >>> import binascii
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef')
          b'b901ef'
          >>> binascii.hexlify(b'\xb9\x01\xef', '-')
          b'b9-01-ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b'_', 2)
          b'b9_01ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b' ', -2)
          b'b901 ef'

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'sep'과 'bytes_per_sep' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니
     다.

 -- 함수: binascii.a2b_hex (hexstr)
 -- 함수: binascii.unhexlify (hexstr)

     16진수 문자열 'hexstr'로 표현된 바이너리 데이터를 반환합니다.  이 함
     수는 *note b2a_hex(): 241c.의 역함수입니다.  'hexstr'는 짝수개의
     16진수(대소문자 모두 가능합니다)를 포함해야 하며, 그렇지 않으면
     *note Error: 101c. 예외가 발생합니다.

     비슷한 기능(텍스트 문자열 인자만 받아들이지만, 공백에 대해 더 느슨
     한)을 *note bytes.fromhex(): aec. 클래스 메서드를 사용하여 액세스할
     수도 있습니다.

 -- 예외: binascii.Error

     에러 시 발생하는 예외.  이들은 대개 프로그래밍 에러입니다.

 -- 예외: binascii.Incomplete

     불완전한 데이터에서 발생하는 예외.  이들은 일반적으로 프로그래밍 에
     러가 아니지만, 조금 더 많은 데이터를 읽고 다시 시도하면 처리될 수 있
     습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note base64: e.

     RFC 호환 base64 스타일 인코딩으로, 베이스 16, 32, 64 및 85를 지원합
     니다.

모듈 *note quopri: b7.

     MIME 전자 우편 메시지에 사용되는 quoted-printable 인코딩 지원.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환,  Up: 인터넷 데이터 처리

5.20.7 ‘quopri’ — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩
--------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/quopri.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 RFC 1521(2): “MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) 1부
: 인터넷 메시지 본문의 형식을 지정하고 설명하기 위한 메커니즘”에 정의된
대로, quoted-printable 전송 인코딩과 디코딩을 수행합니다.
quoted-printable 인코딩은 인쇄할 수 없는 문자가 비교적 적은 데이터를 위
해 설계되었습니다; *note base64: e. 모듈을 통해 사용할 수 있는 base64 인
코딩 체계는 그래픽 파일을 보낼 때와 같이 그런 문자가 많은 경우 더 압축적
입니다.

 -- 함수: quopri.decode (input, output, header=False)

     'input' 파일의 내용을 디코딩하고 결과로 디코딩된 바이너리 데이터를
     'output' 파일에 씁니다.  'input' 과 'output'는 *note 바이너리 파일
     객체: 11b2. 여야 합니다.  선택적 인자 'header'가 있고 참이면, 밑줄
     은 스페이스로 디코딩됩니다.  이것은 RFC 1522(3): “MIME
     (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) 2부: 비 ASCII 텍스트를 위한
     메시지 헤더 확장”에서 설명한 대로 “Q”-인코딩된 헤더를 디코딩하는 데
     사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: quopri.encode (input, output, quotetabs, header=False)

     'input' 파일의 내용을 인코딩하고 결과 quoted-printable 데이터를
     'output' 파일에 씁니다.  'input' 과 'output'은 *note 바이너리 파일
     객체: 11b2. 여야 합니다.  'quotetabs'는 포함 된 스페이스와 탭을 인
     코딩할지를 제어하는 비 선택적 플래그입니다; 참이면 그러한 공백 문자
     를 인코드하고, 거짓이면 인코드하지 않고 남겨둡니다.  줄 끝에 나타나
     는 공백과 탭은 RFC 1521(4)에 따라 항상 인코딩됨에 유의하십시오.
     'header'는 스페이스를 RFC 1522(5)에 따라 밑줄로 인코딩할지를 제어하
     는 플래그입니다.

 -- 함수: quopri.decodestring (s, header=False)

     *note decode(): 241f.와 비슷하지만, 소스 *note bytes: 1c2.를 받아들
     이고 해독된 해당 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: quopri.encodestring (s, quotetabs=False, header=False)

     *note encode(): 241e.와 비슷하지만, 소스 *note bytes: 1c2.를 받아들
     이고 인코딩된 해당 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.  기본적으로
     *note encode(): 241e. 함수의 'quotetabs' 매개 변수에 ‘False’ 값을 보
     냅니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note base64: e.

     MIME base64 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/quopri.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구,  Next: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원,  Prev: 인터넷 데이터 처리,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.21 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구
==============================

파이썬은 다양한 형태의 구조화된 데이터 마크업을 다루는 다양한 모듈을 지
원합니다.  여기에는 SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) 및 HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language) 을 다루는 모듈과 XML (Extensible Markup
Language) 작업을 위한 여러 인터페이스가 포함됩니다.

* Menu:

* html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원::
* html.parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기.
* html.entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
* XML 처리 모듈::
* xml.etree.ElementTree — ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API.
* xml.dom — 문서 객체 모델 API: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API.
* xml.dom.minidom — 최소 DOM 구현: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현.
* xml.dom.pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원: xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
* xml.sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원: xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
* xml.sax.handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
* xml.sax.saxutils — SAX 유틸리티: xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
* xml.sax.xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
* xml.parsers.expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.


File: python.info,  Node: html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원,  Next: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.1 ‘html’ — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/html/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 HTML을 조작하는 유틸리티를 정의합니다.

 -- 함수: html.escape (s, quote=True)

     문자열 's'의 문자 ‘&’, ‘<’ 및 ‘>’를 HTML-안전 시퀀스로 변환합니다.
     HTML에 이러한 문자가 포함될 수 있는 텍스트를 표시해야 할 때 사용하
     십시오.  선택적 플래그 'quote'가 참이면, 문자 (‘"’) 와 (‘'’) 도 변
     환됩니다; ‘<a href="...">’ 에서처럼 따옴표로 구분된 HTML 어트리뷰트
     에 포함하는 데 도움이 됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: html.unescape (s)

     문자열 's'의 모든 이름과 숫자 문자 참조(예를 들어, ‘&gt;’, ‘&#62;’,
     ‘&#x3e;’)를 해당 유니코드 문자로 변환합니다.  이 함수는 유효하거나
     유효하지 않은 문자 참조 모두에 대해 HTML 5 표준에 정의된 규칙과
     *note HTML 5 이름 문자 참조 목록: 10c5.을 사용합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

__________________________________________________________________

‘html’ 패키지의 서브 모듈은 다음과 같습니다:

   * *note html.parser: 6d. – 관대한 구문 분석 모드가 있는 HTML/XHTML 구
     문 분석기

   * *note html.entities: 6c. – HTML 엔티티 정의

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기,  Next: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의,  Prev: html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.2 ‘html.parser’ — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기
------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/html/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 HTML(HyperText Mark-up Language)와 XHTML 형식의 텍스트 파일을
구문 분석하기 위한 기초로 사용되는 클래스 *note HTMLParser: 872.를 정의
합니다.

 -- 클래스: html.parser.HTMLParser (*, convert_charrefs=True)

     잘못된 마크업을 구문 분석할 수 있는 구문 분석기 인스턴스를 만듭니다
     .

     'convert_charrefs'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면, (‘script’/‘style’ 요소에 있
     는 것을 제외한) 모든 문자 참조(character references)가 자동으로 해
     당 유니코드 문자로 변환됩니다.

     *note HTMLParser: 872. 인스턴스는 HTML 데이터를 받아서 시작 태그, 종
     료 태그, 텍스트, 주석 및 기타 마크업 요소를 만날 때마다 처리기 메서
     드를 호출합니다.  사용자는 원하는 동작을 구현하기 위해 *note
     HTMLParser: 872.의 서브 클래스를 만들고 해당 메서드를 재정의해야 합
     니다.

     이 구문 분석기는 종료 태그가 시작 태그와 일치하는지 검사하거나, 바
     깥(outer) 요소를 닫음으로써 묵시적으로 닫힌 요소에 대해 종료 태그 처
     리기를 호출하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'convert_charrefs' 키워드 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 인자 'convert_charrefs'의 기본값은 이제 ‘True’입
     니다.

* Menu:

* HTML 구문 분석기 응용 프로그램 예제::
* HTMLParser 메서드::
* 예제: 예제<22>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: HTML 구문 분석기 응용 프로그램 예제,  Next: HTMLParser 메서드,  Up: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기

5.21.2.1 HTML 구문 분석기 응용 프로그램 예제
............................................

As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the *note
HTMLParser: 872. class to print out start tags, end tags, and data as
they are encountered:

     from html.parser import HTMLParser

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Encountered some data  :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()
     parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
                 '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')

출력은 다음과 같습니다:

     Encountered a start tag: html
     Encountered a start tag: head
     Encountered a start tag: title
     Encountered some data  : Test
     Encountered an end tag : title
     Encountered an end tag : head
     Encountered a start tag: body
     Encountered a start tag: h1
     Encountered some data  : Parse me!
     Encountered an end tag : h1
     Encountered an end tag : body
     Encountered an end tag : html


File: python.info,  Node: HTMLParser 메서드,  Next: 예제<22>,  Prev: HTML 구문 분석기 응용 프로그램 예제,  Up: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기

5.21.2.2 ‘HTMLParser’ 메서드
............................

*note HTMLParser: 872. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.feed (data)

     구문 분석기에 텍스트를 입력합니다.  완전한 요소로 구성되어있는 부분
     까지 처리됩니다; 불완전한 데이터는 더 많은 데이터가 공급되거나
     *note close(): 1553.가 호출될 때까지 버퍼링 됩니다.  'data'는 *note
     str: 445.이어야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.close ()

     버퍼링 된 모든 데이터를 마치 파일 끝(end-of-file) 표시가 붙은 것처
     럼 처리합니다.  이 메서드는 파생 클래스에 의해 입력 끝에서의 추가 처
     리를 정의하기 위해 재정의될 수 있지만, 재정의된 버전에서는 항상
     *note HTMLParser: 872. 베이스 클래스 메서드인 *note close(): 1553.를
     호출해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.reset ()

     인스턴스를 재설정합니다.  처리되지 않은 모든 데이터를 잃습니다.  이
     것은 인스턴스 생성 시에 묵시적으로 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.getpos ()

     현재의 줄 번호와 오프셋(offset)을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.get_starttag_text ()

     가장 최근에 열렸던 시작 태그의 텍스트를 반환합니다.  이것은 일반적
     으로 구조화된 처리에 필요하지 않지만, “배치된 대로(as deployed)”
     HTML을 다루거나 최소한의 변경(어트리뷰트 사이의 공백을 보존할 수 있
     음, 등등)으로 입력을 다시 생성하는 데 유용할 수 있습니다.

다음 메서드는 데이터나 마크업 요소를 만날 때 호출되며 서브 클래스에서 재
정의하려는 용도입니다.  베이스 클래스 구현은 아무 일도 하지 않습니다
(*note handle_startendtag(): 3783.는 예외입니다).:

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_starttag (tag, attrs)

     이 메서드는 엘리먼트의 시작 태그(예를 들어, ‘<div id="main">’)를 처
     리하기 위해 호출됩니다.

     'tag' 인자는 소문자로 변환된 태그의 이름입니다.  'attrs' 인자는 태
     그의 ‘<>’ 화살괄호 안에 있는 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 ‘(name, value)’
     쌍의 리스트입니다.  'name'은 소문자로 변환되고, 'value'의 따옴표는
     제거되고, 문자와 엔티티 참조는 치환됩니다.

     예를 들어, 태그 ‘<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">’의 경우, 이 메서드
     는 ‘handle_starttag('a', [('href', 'https://www.cwi.nl/')])’로 호출
     됩니다.

     *note html.entities: 6c.의 모든 엔티티 참조가 어트리뷰트 값에서 치
     환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_endtag (tag)

     이 메서드는 요소의 종료 태그(예를 들어, ‘</div>’)를 처리하기 위해 호
     출됩니다.

     'tag' 인자는 소문자로 변환된 태그의 이름입니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_startendtag (tag, attrs)

     *note handle_starttag(): 3784.와 비슷하지만, 구문 분석기가 XHTML 스
     타일의 빈 태그(‘<img ... />’)를 만날 때 호출됩니다.  이 메서드는 이
     특정의 어휘 정보(lexical information)가 필요한 서브 클래스에 의해 재
     정의될 수 있습니다; 기본 구현은 단순히 *note handle_starttag():
     3784.와 *note handle_endtag(): 3785.를 호출합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_data (data)

     이 메서드는 임의의 데이터(예를 들어, 텍스트 노드와
     ‘<script>...</script>’ 및 ‘<style>...</style>’의 내용)를 처리하기 위
     해 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_entityref (name)

     이 메서드는 ‘&name;’ 형식(예를 들어, ‘&gt;’)의 이름있는 문자 참조를
     처리하기 위해 호출됩니다.  여기서 'name'은 일반 엔티티 참조(예를 들
     어, ‘'gt'’)입니다.  'convert_charrefs'가 ‘True’이면, 이 메서드는 호
     출되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_charref (name)

     이 메서드는 ‘&#NNN;’과 ‘&#xNNN;’ 형식의 10진수 및 16진수 문자 참조
     를 처리하기 위해 호출됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘&gt;’에 해당하는 10진수는
     ‘&#62;’이고, 반면에 16진수는 ‘&#x3E;’입니다; 이때 메서드는 ‘'62'’나
     ‘'x3E'’를 받습니다.  이 메서드는 'convert_charrefs'가 ‘True’이면 호
     출되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_comment (data)

     이 메서드는 주석을 만날 때 호출됩니다 (예를 들어,
     ‘<!--comment-->’).

     예를 들어, 주석 ‘<!-- comment -->’는 이 메서드가 인자 ‘' comment
     '’로 호출되도록 합니다.

     Internet Explorer 조건부 주석(condcoms)의 내용도 이 메서드로 보내지
     므로, ‘<!--[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]-->’의 경우, 이 메
     서드는 ‘'[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]'’를 받습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_decl (decl)

     이 메서드는 HTML doctype 선언(예를 들어, ‘<!DOCTYPE html>’)을 처리
     하기 위해 호출됩니다.

     'decl' 매개 변수는 ‘<!...>’ 마크업 내의 선언 전체 내용입니다 (예를
     들어, ‘'DOCTYPE html'’).

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.handle_pi (data)

     처리 명령(processing instruction)을 만날 때 호출되는 메서드.
     'data' 매개 변수에는 전체 처리 명령이 포함됩니다.  예를 들어, 처리
     명령 ‘<?proc color='red'>’의 경우, 이 메서드는 ‘handle_pi("proc
     color='red'")’로 호출됩니다.  파생 클래스에 의해 재정의되려는 목적
     입니다; 베이스 클래스 구현은 아무것도 수행하지 않습니다.

          참고: *note HTMLParser: 872. 클래스는 처리 명령에 대해 SGML 구
          문 규칙을 사용합니다.  후행 ‘'?'’를 사용하는 XHTML 처리 명령은
          ‘'?'’가 'data'에 포함되도록 합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTMLParser.unknown_decl (data)

     이 메서드는 구문 분석기가 인식할 수 없는 선언을 읽었을 때 호출됩니
     다.

     'data' 매개 변수는 ‘<![...]>’ 마크업 안에 있는 선언의 전체 내용입니
     다.  파생 클래스가 재정의하는 것이 때때로 유용합니다.  베이스 클래
     스 구현은 아무것도 수행하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<22>,  Prev: HTMLParser 메서드,  Up: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기

5.21.2.3 예제
.............

The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate
more examples:

     from html.parser import HTMLParser
     from html.entities import name2codepoint

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Start tag:", tag)
             for attr in attrs:
                 print("     attr:", attr)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("End tag  :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Data     :", data)

         def handle_comment(self, data):
             print("Comment  :", data)

         def handle_entityref(self, name):
             c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
             print("Named ent:", c)

         def handle_charref(self, name):
             if name.startswith('x'):
                 c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
             else:
                 c = chr(int(name))
             print("Num ent  :", c)

         def handle_decl(self, data):
             print("Decl     :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()

Parsing a doctype:

     >>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
     ...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
     Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"

Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title:

     >>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
     Start tag: img
          attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
          attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
     >>>
     >>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
     Start tag: h1
     Data     : Python
     End tag  : h1

The content of ‘script’ and ‘style’ elements is returned as is, without
further parsing:

     >>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
     Start tag: style
          attr: ('type', 'text/css')
     Data     : #python { color: green }
     End tag  : style

     >>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
     ...             'alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");</script>')
     Start tag: script
          attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
     Data     : alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");
     End tag  : script

Parsing comments:

     >>> parser.feed('<!--a comment-->'
     ...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
     Comment  : a comment
     Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]

Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to
the correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ‘'>'’):

     >>> parser = MyHTMLParser()
     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Data     : >>>

     >>> parser = MyHTMLParser(convert_charrefs=False)
     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Named ent: >
     Num ent  : >
     Num ent  : >

Feeding incomplete chunks to *note feed(): 377f. works, but *note
handle_data(): 3786. might be called more than once (unless
'convert_charrefs' is set to ‘True’):

     >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered', ' text</s', 'pan>']:
     ...     parser.feed(chunk)
     ...
     Start tag: span
     Data     : buff
     Data     : ered
     Data     :  text
     End tag  : span

Parsing invalid HTML (e.g.  unquoted attributes) also works:

     >>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
     Start tag: p
     Start tag: a
          attr: ('class', 'link')
          attr: ('href', '#main')
     Data     : tag soup
     End tag  : p
     End tag  : a


File: python.info,  Node: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의,  Next: XML 처리 모듈,  Prev: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.3 ‘html.entities’ — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/html/entities.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 네 가지 딕셔너리 *note html5: 10c5, *note name2codepoint:
3791, *note codepoint2name: 3792. 와 *note entitydefs: 3793.를 정의합니
다.

 -- 데이터: html.entities.html5

     HTML5 이름 문자 참조 (2) 를 해당 유니코드 문자에 매핑하는 딕셔너리,
     예를 들어 ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’.  후미 세미콜론이 이름에 포함됨에 유
     의하십시오 (예를 들어 ‘'gt;'’).  하지만 일부 이름은 세미콜론 없이도
     표준에서 허용됩니다: 이럴 때 이름은 ‘';'’가 있거나 없는 형태가 모두
     포함됩니다.  *note html.unescape(): 955.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: html.entities.entitydefs

     XHTML 1.0 엔티티 정의를 ISO Latin-1의 치환 텍스트에 매핑하는 딕셔너
     리.

 -- 데이터: html.entities.name2codepoint

     HTML4 엔티티 이름을 유니코드 코드 포인트에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

 -- 데이터: html.entities.codepoint2name

     유니코드 코드 포인트를 HTML4 엔티티 이름에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/entities.py

   (2) 
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references’
를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: XML 처리 모듈,  Next: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API,  Prev: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.4 XML 처리 모듈
--------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

XML 처리를 위한 파이썬의 인터페이스는 ‘xml’ 패키지로 묶여있습니다.

     참고: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
     *note XML security: 3797.

*note xml: 120. 패키지의 모듈들은 최소한 하나의 SAX 호환 XML 구문 분석기
가 있도록 요구함에 유의해야 합니다.  Expat 구문 분석기가 파이썬에 포함되
어 있으므로, *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. 모듈을 항상 사용할 수 있습니
다.

*note xml.dom: 121. 과 *note xml.sax: 129. 패키지에 대한 설명서는 DOM과
SAX 인터페이스에 대한 파이썬 바인딩의 정의입니다.

XML 처리 서브 모듈은 다음과 같습니다:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: ElementTree API, 간단하고 가벼운
     XML 프로세서

   * *note xml.dom: 121.: DOM API 정의

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.: 최소 DOM 구현

   * *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123.: 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원

   * *note xml.sax: 129.: SAX2 베이스 클래스와 편리 함수

   * *note xml.parsers.expat: 126.: Expat 구문 분석기 바인딩
* Menu:

* XML security::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/


File: python.info,  Node: XML security,  Up: XML 처리 모듈

5.21.4.1 XML security
.....................

An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service
attacks, access local files, generate network connections to other
machines, or circumvent firewalls.

Expat versions lower that 2.6.0 may be vulnerable to “billion laughs”,
“quadratic blowup” and “large tokens”.  Python may be vulnerable if it
uses such older versions of Expat as a system-provided library.  Check
‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’.

*note xmlrpc: 12d. is 'vulnerable' to the “decompression bomb” attack.

billion laughs(억만 웃음) / exponential entity expansion(지수적 엔티티 확장)

     지수적 엔티티 확장으로도 알려진, Billion Laughs(1) 공격은 여러 수준
     의 중첩된 엔티티를 사용합니다.  각 엔티티는 다른 엔티티를 여러 번 참
     조하며, 최종 엔티티 정의에는 작은 문자열이 포함됩니다.  지수적인 확
     장으로 수 기가바이트의 텍스트가 생성되고 많은 메모리와 CPU 시간이 소
     모됩니다.

quadratic blowup entity expansion(이차 폭발 엔티티 확장)

     이차 폭발 공격은 Billion Laughs(2) 공격과 유사합니다; 이 역시 엔티
     티 확장을 남용합니다.  중첩된 엔티티 대신 2천 개 이상의 문자를 갖는
     커다란 엔티티 하나를 계속 반복합니다.  공격은 지수적인 경우만큼 효
     율적이지 않지만 깊이 중첩된 엔티티를 금지하는 구문 분석기 대응책을
     우회합니다.

decompression bomb(압축해제 폭탄)

     압축 해제 폭탄(일명 ZIP bomb(3))은 gzip 압축된 HTTP 스트림이나 LZMA
     압축 파일과 같은, 압축된 XML 스트림을 구문 분석할 수 있는 모든 XML
     라이브러리에 적용됩니다.  공격자는 전송된 데이터의 양을 3배 이상 줄
     일 수 있습니다.

large tokens(대형 토큰)

     Expat needs to re-parse unfinished tokens; without the protection
     introduced in Expat 2.6.0, this can lead to quadratic runtime that
     can be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing
     XML. The issue is known as CVE 2023-52425(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API,  Next: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API,  Prev: XML 처리 모듈,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.5 ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ — ElementTree XML API
----------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. 모듈은 XML 데이터를 구문 분석하고 만들
기 위한 단순하고 효율적인 API를 구현합니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 모듈은 가능할 때마다 빠른 구현을 사용합니다.

버전 3.3부터 폐지됨: ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ 모듈은 폐지되었습니다.

     참고: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
     *note XML security: 3797.

* Menu:

* 자습서: 자습서<2>.
* XPath 지원::
* 레퍼런스: 레퍼런스<2>.
* XInclude 지원::
* 레퍼런스: 레퍼런스<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py


File: python.info,  Node: 자습서<2>,  Next: XPath 지원,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.1 자습서
...............

이것은 *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.(줄여서 ‘ET’)를 사용하기 위한 간
단한 자습서입니다.  목표는 모듈의 일부 빌딩 블록과 기본 개념을 예시하는
것입니다.

* Menu:

* XML 트리와 엘리먼트::
* XML 구문 분석하기::
* 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀(pull) API: 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀 pull API.
* 흥미로운 엘리먼트 찾기::
* XML 파일 수정하기::
* XML 문서 구축하기::
* 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기::


File: python.info,  Node: XML 트리와 엘리먼트,  Next: XML 구문 분석하기,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.2 XML 트리와 엘리먼트
............................

XML은 본질적으로 위계적(hierarchical) 데이터 형식이며, 이를 나타내는 가
장 자연스러운 방법은 트리를 사용하는 것입니다.  ‘ET’에는 이 목적을 위한
두 가지 클래스가 있습니다 - *note ElementTree: 94c.는 전체 XML 문서를 트
리로 나타내고, *note Element: 308.는 이 트리에 있는 단일 노드를 나타냅니
다.  전체 문서와의 상호 작용(파일 읽기와 쓰기)은 일반적으로 *note
ElementTree: 94c. 수준에서 수행됩니다.  단일 XML 엘리먼트와 해당 서브 엘
리먼트와의 상호 작용은 *note Element: 308. 수준에서 수행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: XML 구문 분석하기,  Next: 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀 pull API,  Prev: XML 트리와 엘리먼트,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.3 XML 구문 분석하기
..........................

이 섹션의 샘플 데이터로 가상의 ‘country_data.xml’ XML 문서를 사용합니다:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank>1</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank>4</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank>68</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

파일을 읽어서 이 데이터를 가져올 수 있습니다:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
     tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
     root = tree.getroot()

또는 문자열에서 직접:

     root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)

*note fromstring(): 37a0.은 문자열에서 *note Element: 308.로 XML을 직접
구문 분석하는데, 구문 분석된 트리의 루트 엘리먼트입니다.  다른 구문 분석
함수는 *note ElementTree: 94c.를 만들 수 있습니다.  설명서를 확인하십시
오.

*note Element: 308.로서, ‘root’에는 태그(tag)와 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리가 있
습니다:

     >>> root.tag
     'data'
     >>> root.attrib
     {}

또한 우리가 이터레이트 할 수 있는 자식 노드가 있습니다:

     >>> for child in root:
     ...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
     ...
     country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
     country {'name': 'Singapore'}
     country {'name': 'Panama'}

자식은 중첩되며, 인덱스로 특정 자식 노드에 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> root[0][1].text
     '2008'

     참고: XML 입력의 모든 엘리먼트가 구문 분석된 트리의 엘리먼트가 되는
     것은 아닙니다.  현재, 이 모듈은 입력에서 XML 주석, 처리 명령
     (processing instructions) 및 문서 형 선언(document type
     declarations)을 건너뜁니다.  그런데도, XML 텍스트를 구문 분석하는 대
     신 이 모듈의 API를 사용하여 만들어진 트리에는 주석과 처리 명령이 있
     을 수 있습니다; 이들은 XML 출력을 생성할 때 포함됩니다.  사용자 정
     의 *note TreeBuilder: a51. 인스턴스를 *note XMLParser: a50. 생성자
     에 전달하여 문서 형 선언에 액세스 할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀 pull API,  Next: 흥미로운 엘리먼트 찾기,  Prev: XML 구문 분석하기,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.4 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀(pull) API
................................................

이 모듈이 제공하는 대부분의 구문 분석 함수는 결과를 반환하기 전에 전체 문
서를 한 번에 읽도록 요구합니다.  *note XMLParser: a50.를 사용하고 점진적
으로 데이터를 공급하는 것이 가능하지만, 콜백 대상에 메서드를 호출하는 푸
시(push) API로, 대부분의 경우 너무 저 수준이고 불편합니다.  때로 사용자
가 실제로 원하는 것은 완전히 구성된 *note Element: 308. 객체의 편리함을
즐기면서 연산을 블로킹하지 않고 XML을 점진적으로 구문 분석할 수 있는 것
입니다.

이를 위한 가장 강력한 도구는 *note XMLPullParser: fe9. 입니다.  XML 데이
터를 얻기 위해 블로킹 읽기가 필요하지 않으며, 대신 *note
XMLPullParser.feed(): 37a2. 호출을 통해 점진적으로 데이터가 제공됩니다.
구문 분석된 XML 엘리먼트를 얻으려면, *note XMLPullParser.read_events():
37a3.를 호출하십시오.  예를 들면 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
     >>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
     >>> list(parser.read_events())
     [('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
     >>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
     >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
     ...     print(event)
     ...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
     ...
     end
     mytag text= sometext more text

명백한 사용 사례는 XML 데이터가 소켓에서 수신되거나 일부 저장 장치에서 점
진적으로 읽히는 비 블로킹 방식으로 작동하는 응용 프로그램입니다.  이럴 때
, 블로킹 읽기는 허용되지 않습니다.

*note XMLPullParser: fe9.는 매우 유연하기 때문에 더 단순한 사용 사례에 사
용하기 불편할 수 있습니다.  응용 프로그램이 XML 데이터 읽기를 블로킹해도
상관없지만, 여전히 점진적인 구문 분석 기능이 필요하면, *note
iterparse(): 273.를 살펴보십시오.  큰 XML 문서를 읽을 때 메모리에 전체를
저장하지 않으려는 경우 유용할 수 있습니다.

Where 'immediate' feedback through events is wanted, calling method
*note XMLPullParser.flush(): 270. can help reduce delay; please make
sure to study the related security notes.


File: python.info,  Node: 흥미로운 엘리먼트 찾기,  Next: XML 파일 수정하기,  Prev: 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀 pull API,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.5 흥미로운 엘리먼트 찾기
...............................

*note Element: 308.에는 그 아래의 모든 서브 트리(자식, 자식의 자식 등)를
재귀적으로 이터레이트 하는 데 도움을 주는 유용한 메서드가 있습니다.  예
를 들어, *note Element.iter(): 133f.:

     >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
     ...     print(neighbor.attrib)
     ...
     {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
     {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
     {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}

*note Element.findall(): 156f.은 현재 엘리먼트의 직접적인 자식인 태그가
있는 엘리먼트만 찾습니다.  *note Element.find(): 156d.는 특정 태그가 있
는 '첫 번째' 자식을 찾고, *note Element.text: 37a5.는 엘리먼트의 텍스트
내용에 액세스합니다.  *note Element.get(): 37a6.은 엘리먼트의 어트리뷰트
에 액세스합니다:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     rank = country.find('rank').text
     ...     name = country.get('name')
     ...     print(name, rank)
     ...
     Liechtenstein 1
     Singapore 4
     Panama 68

*note XPath: baa.를 사용하면 찾을 엘리먼트를 더 정교하게 지정할 수 있습
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: XML 파일 수정하기,  Next: XML 문서 구축하기,  Prev: 흥미로운 엘리먼트 찾기,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.6 XML 파일 수정하기
..........................

*note ElementTree: 94c.는 XML 문서를 구축하고 파일에 쓰는 간단한 방법을
제공합니다.  *note ElementTree.write(): fed. 메서드가 이 용도입니다.

일단 만들어지면, *note Element: 308. 객체는 필드(가령 *note
Element.text: 37a5.)를 직접 변경하고, 어트리뷰트를 추가하고 수정(*note
Element.set(): 37a8. 메서드)하는 것뿐만 아니라 새로운 자식을 추가하여 (예
를 들어 *note Element.append(): 37a9.) 조작 할 수 있습니다.

각각의 국가(country)의 순위(rank)에 1을 더하고, rank 엘리먼트에
‘updated’ 어트리뷰트를 추가하고 싶다고 합시다:

     >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
     ...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
     ...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
     ...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

우리의 XML은 이제 다음과 같습니다:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

*note Element.remove(): 1571.를 사용하여 엘리먼트를 제거할 수 있습니다.
rank가 50보다 큰 모든 국가를 제거하려고 한다고 합시다:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     # root.findall() 를 사용하여 순회 중 제거를 피합니다
     ...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
     ...     if rank > 50:
     ...         root.remove(country)
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

이터레이션 하는 동안 동시 수정은 파이썬 리스트나 딕셔너리를 이터레이션 할
때와 마찬가지로 문제를 유발할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  따라서, 이 예제에
서는 먼저 ‘root.findall()’로 일치하는 모든 엘리먼트를 수집한 다음, 일치
항목 리스트를 이터레이트 합니다.

우리의 XML은 이제 다음과 같습니다:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
     </data>


File: python.info,  Node: XML 문서 구축하기,  Next: 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기,  Prev: XML 파일 수정하기,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.7 XML 문서 구축하기
..........................

*note SubElement(): 37ab. 함수는 주어진 엘리먼트에 대해 새로운 서브 엘리
먼트를 만드는 편리한 방법을 제공합니다:

     >>> a = ET.Element('a')
     >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
     >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
     >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
     >>> ET.dump(a)
     <a><b /><c><d /></c></a>


File: python.info,  Node: 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기,  Prev: XML 문서 구축하기,  Up: 자습서<2>

5.21.5.8 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기
...........................................

XML 입력에 이름 공간(namespaces)(1)이 있으면, ‘prefix:sometag’ 형식의 접
두사가 있는 태그와 어트리뷰트는 ‘{uri}sometag’로 확장되는데, 여기서
'prefix'는 전체 'URI'로 대체됩니다.  또한 기본 이름 공간(default
namespace)(2)이 있으면, 그 전체 URI가 접두사가 없는 모든 태그 앞에 추가
됩니다.

다음은 두 개의 이름 공간을 통합한 XML 예제입니다, 하나는 접두사가
“fictional”이고 다른 하나는 기본 이름 공간으로 사용됩니다:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
             xmlns="http://people.example.com">
         <actor>
             <name>John Cleese</name>
             <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
         </actor>
         <actor>
             <name>Eric Idle</name>
             <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
         </actor>
     </actors>

이 XML 예제를 검색하고 탐색하는 한 가지 방법은 *note find(): 156d.나
*note findall(): 156f.의 xpath에 있는 모든 태그나 어트리뷰트에 URI를 수
동으로 추가하는 것입니다:

     root = fromstring(xml_text)
     for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
         name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

이름 공간이 있는 XML 예제를 검색하는 더 좋은 방법은 여러분 자신의 접두사
가 담긴 딕셔너리를 만들고 검색 함수에서 사용하는 것입니다:

     ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
           'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}

     for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
         name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

이 두 가지 방법 모두 다음과 같이 출력합니다:

     John Cleese
      |--> Lancelot
      |--> Archie Leach
     Eric Idle
      |--> Sir Robin
      |--> Gunther
      |--> Commander Clement

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting


File: python.info,  Node: XPath 지원,  Next: 레퍼런스<2>,  Prev: 자습서<2>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.9 XPath 지원
...................

이 모듈은 트리에서 엘리먼트를 찾기 위해 XPath 표현식(1)을 제한적으로 지
원합니다.  목표는 축약된 문법의 작은 부분 집합을 지원하는 것입니다; 완전
한 XPath 엔진은 이 모듈의 범위를 벗어납니다.

* Menu:

* 예: 예<8>.
* 지원되는 XPath 문법::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath


File: python.info,  Node: 예<8>,  Next: 지원되는 XPath 문법,  Up: XPath 지원

5.21.5.10 예
............

다음은 모듈의 일부 XPath 기능을 보여주는 예입니다.  *note XML 구문
분석하기: 379e. 섹션의 ‘countrydata’ XML 문서를 사용할 것입니다:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET

     root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)

     # 최상위 엘리먼트
     root.findall(".")

     # 최상위 엘리먼트의 모든 'country' 자식의 'neighbor' 손자
     root.findall("./country/neighbor")

     # 'year' 자식이 있고 name='Singapore'인 노드
     root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")

     # name='Singapore'인 노드의 자식인 'year' 노드
     root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")

     # 부모의 두 번째 자식인 모든 'neighbor' 노드
     root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")

이름 공간이 있는 XML의 경우, 일반적인 정규화된 ‘{namespace}tag’ 표기법을
사용하십시오:

     # 문서의 모든 더블린 코어(dublin-core) "title" 태그
     root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")


File: python.info,  Node: 지원되는 XPath 문법,  Prev: 예<8>,  Up: XPath 지원

5.21.5.11 지원되는 XPath 문법
.............................

문법                        의미
                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
‘tag’                       주어진 태그를 가진 모든 자식 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.  예
                            를 들어, ‘spam’은 ‘spam’이라는 모든 자식 엘리먼트를 선택
                            하고, ‘spam/egg’는 ‘spam’이라는 모든 자식의 ‘egg’라는 모
                            든 손자를 선택합니다.  ‘{namespace}*’는 지정된 이름 공간
                            의 모든 태그를 선택하고, ‘{*}spam’은 모든 이름 공간의 (또
                            는 이름 공간이 없는) ‘spam’이라는 태그를 선택하고,
                            ‘{}*’은 이름 공간이 없는 태그만 선택합니다.
                            
                            버전 3.8에서 변경: 애스터리스크 와일드카드 지원이 추가되
                            었습니다.
                            
                            
‘*’                         주석과 처리 명령을 포함한 모든 자식 엘리먼트를 선택합니
                            다.  예를 들어, ‘*/egg’는 ‘egg’라는 모든 손자를 선택합니
                            다.
                            
                            
‘.’                         현재 노드를 선택합니다.  상대 경로임을 나타내기 위해 경
                            로의 시작 부분에서 주로 유용합니다.
                            
                            
‘//’                        현재 엘리먼트 아래의 모든 수준에서 모든 서브 엘리먼트를
                            선택합니다.  예를 들어, ‘.//egg’는 전체 트리에서 모든
                            ‘egg’ 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            
                            
‘..’                        부모 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.  경로가 (엘리먼트 ‘find’가 호
                            출된) 시작 엘리먼트의 조상에 도달하려고 하면 ‘None’을 반
                            환합니다.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib]’                 주어진 어트리뷰트를 가진 모든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib='value']’         주어진 어트리뷰트가 주어진 값을 갖는 모든 엘리먼트를 선
                            택합니다.  값은 따옴표를 포함할 수 없습니다.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib!='value']’        주어진 어트리뷰트가 주어진 값을 갖지 않는 모든 엘리먼트
                            를 선택합니다.  값은 따옴표를 포함할 수 없습니다.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag]’                     ‘tag’라는 자식이 있는 모든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.  직계
                            자식만 지원됩니다.
                            
                            
‘[.='text']’                자손을 포함한 전체 텍스트 내용이 주어진 ‘text’와 같은 모
                            든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            
                            Added in version 3.7.
                            
                            
‘[.!='text']’               자손을 포함한 전체 텍스트 내용이 주어진 ‘text’와 다른 모
                            든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag='text']’              자손을 포함한 전체 텍스트 내용이 지정된 ‘text’와 같은 이
                            름이 ‘tag’인 자식이 있는 모든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            
                            
‘[tag!='text']’             자손을 포함한 전체 텍스트 내용이 지정된 ‘text’와 다른 이
                            름이 ‘tag’인 자식이 있는 모든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[position]’                주어진 위치(position)에 있는 모든 엘리먼트를 선택합니다.
                            위치(position)는 정수(1이 첫 번째 위치입니다), 표현식
                            ‘last()’ (마지막 위치) 또는 마지막 위치에 상대적인 위치
                            (예를 들어 ‘last()-1’)일 수 있습니다.
                            

술어 (대괄호 안에 있는 표현식) 앞에는 태그 이름, 애스터리스크 또는 다른
술어가 와야 합니다.  ‘position’ 술어 앞에는 태그 이름이 와야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 레퍼런스<2>,  Next: XInclude 지원,  Prev: XPath 지원,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.12 레퍼런스
..................

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<8>,  Up: 레퍼런스<2>

5.21.5.13 함수
..............

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize (xml_data=None, *,
          out=None, from_file=None, **options)

     C14N 2.0(1) 변환 함수.

     규범화(canonicalization)는 바이트 단위 비교와 디지털 서명을 허용하
     는 방식으로 XML 출력을 정규화하는 방법입니다.  XML 직렬화기가 갖는
     자유도를 줄이고 대신 더 제한된 XML 표현을 생성합니다.  주요 제한 사
     항은 이름 공간 선언의 배치, 어트리뷰트의 순서 및 무시할 수 있는 공
     백입니다.

     이 함수는 XML 데이터 문자열('xml_data')이나 파일 경로 또는 파일류 객
     체('from_file')를 입력으로 받아서, 규범적 형식으로 변환한 후, 제공
     된다면 'out' 파일(류) 객체를 사용하여 기록하고, 그렇지 않으면 텍스
     트 문자열로 반환합니다.  출력 파일은 바이트열이 아닌 텍스트를 받습
     니다.  따라서 ‘utf-8’ 인코딩을 사용하여 텍스트 모드로 열어야 합니다
     .

     일반적인 사용:

          xml_data = "<root>...</root>"
          print(canonicalize(xml_data))

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file)

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file)

     구성 'options'는 다음과 같습니다:

        - 'with_comments': 주석을 포함하려면 참으로 설정합니다 (기본값:
          거짓).

        - 
          'strip_text': 텍스트 내용 전후의 공백을 제거하려면 참으로 설정합니다

               (기본값: 거짓)

        - 
          'rewrite_prefixes': 이름 공간 접두사를 “n{number}” 로 바꾸려면 참으로 설정합니다

               (기본값: 거짓)

        - 
          'qname_aware_tags': 텍스트 내용에서 접두사를 대체해야 하는 qname 인식 태그 이름 집합

               (기본값: 비어 있음)

        - 
          'qname_aware_attrs': 텍스트 내용에서 접두사를 대체해야 하는 qname 인식 어트리뷰트 이름 집합

               (기본값: 비어 있음)

        - 'exclude_attrs': 직렬화하면 안 되는 어트리뷰트 이름 집합

        - 'exclude_tags': 직렬화하면 안 되는 태그 이름 집합

     위의 옵션 목록에서, “집합”은 문자열의 모든 컬렉션이나 이터러블을 가
     리키며, 순서는 고려하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment (text=None)

     주석 엘리먼트 팩토리.  이 팩토리 함수는 표준 직렬화기가 XML 주석으
     로 직렬화할 특수 엘리먼트를 만듭니다.  주석 문자열은 바이트 문자열
     이나 유니코드 문자열일 수 있습니다.  'text'는 주석 문자열이 포함된
     문자열입니다.  주석을 나타내는 엘리먼트 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     *note XMLParser: a50.는 주석 객체를 만드는 대신 입력에서 주석을 건
     너뜀에 유의하십시오.  *note ElementTree: 94c.는 *note Element: 308.
     메서드 중 하나를 사용하여 트리에 삽입된 주석 노드만 포함합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.dump (elem)

     엘리먼트 트리나 엘리먼트 구조를 sys.stdout에 씁니다.  이 함수는 디
     버깅에만 사용해야 합니다.

     정확한 출력 형식은 구현에 따라 다릅니다.  이 버전에서는, 일반 XML 파
     일로 기록됩니다.

     'elem'은 엘리먼트 트리나 개별 엘리먼트입니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note dump(): 37b5. 함수는 이제 사용자가 지정한
     어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring (text, parser=None)

     문자열 상수에서 XML 섹션을 구문 분석합니다.  *note XML(): 37b6.과 같
     습니다.  'text'는 XML 데이터를 포함하는 문자열입니다.  'parser'는 선
     택적 구문 분석기 인스턴스입니다.  지정하지 않으면, 표준 *note
     XMLParser: a50. 구문 분석기가 사용됩니다.  *note Element: 308. 인스
     턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist (sequence, parser=None)

     문자열 조각의 시퀀스에서 XML 문서를 구문 분석합니다.  'sequence'는
     XML 데이터 조각을 포함하는 리스트나 다른 시퀀스입니다.  'parser'는
     선택적 구문 분석기 인스턴스입니다.  지정하지 않으면 표준 *note
     XMLParser: a50. 구문 분석기가 사용됩니다.  *note Element: 308. 인스
     턴스를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.indent (tree, space=' ', level=0)

     트리를 시각적으로 들여쓰기하기 위해 서브 트리에 공백을 추가합니다.
     이것은 예쁘게 인쇄된 XML 출력을 생성하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.
     'tree'는 Element나 ElementTree 일 수 있습니다.  'space'는 각 들여쓰
     기 수준에 삽입되는 공백 문자열이며 기본적으로 두 개의 스페이스 문자
     입니다.  이미 들여쓰기 된 트리 내부에서 부분 서브 트리를 들여 쓰려
     면, 초기 들여쓰기 수준을 'level'로 전달하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement (element)

     객체가 유효한 엘리먼트 객체로 보이는지 확인합니다.  'element'는 엘
     리먼트 인스턴스입니다.  이것이 엘리먼트 객체이면 ‘True’를 반환합니
     다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse (source, events=None,
          parser=None)

     XML 섹션을 엘리먼트 트리로 점진적으로 구문 분석하고, 사용자에게 진
     행 중인 작업을 보고합니다.  'source'는 파일명이나 XML 데이터를 포함
     하는 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.입니다.  'events'는 보고할 이벤트의 시퀀
     스입니다.  지원되는 이벤트는 문자열 ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’,
     ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ 및 ‘"end-ns"’입니다 (“ns” 이벤트
     는 자세한 이름 공간 정보를 얻는 데 사용됩니다).  'events'를 생략하
     면, ‘"end"’ 이벤트만 보고됩니다.  'parser'는 선택적 구문 분석기 인
     스턴스입니다.  지정하지 않으면 표준 *note XMLParser: a50. 구문 분석
     기가 사용됩니다.  'parser'는 *note XMLParser: a50.의 서브 클래스여
     야 하며 기본 *note TreeBuilder: a51. 만 대상으로 사용할 수 있습니다
     .  ‘(event, elem)’ 쌍을 제공하는 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 반환합니
     다; 'source'가 완전히 읽힌 후 결과 XML 트리의 루트 엘리먼트를 참조
     하는 ‘root’ 어트리뷰트가 있습니다.  이터레이터는 'source'가 파일명
     일 때, 내부 파일 객체를 닫는 ‘close()’ 메서드를 제공합니다.

     *note iterparse(): 273.는 점진적으로 트리를 구축하지만, 'source'(또
     는 그 이름의 파일)에 대한 블로킹 읽기를 유발함에 유의하십시오.  따
     라서, 블로킹 읽기를 할 수 없는 응용 프로그램에는 적합하지 않습니다.
     완전한 비 블로킹 구문 분석에 대해서는 *note XMLPullParser: fe9.를 참
     조하십시오.

          참고: *note iterparse(): 273.는 “start” 이벤트를 방출할 때 시
          작 태그의 “>” 문자를 보았다는 것만 보장해서, 어트리뷰트는 정의
          되지만, 텍스트의 내용과 테일(tail) 어트리뷰트는 그 시점에 정의
          되지 않습니다.  자식 엘리먼트에도 마찬가지로 적용됩니다; 그들
          은 존재할 수도 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다.

          완전히 채워진 엘리먼트가 필요하면, 대신 “end” 이벤트를 찾으십
          시오.

     버전 3.4부터 폐지됨: 'parser' 인자.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘comment’와 ‘pi’ 이벤트가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the ‘close()’ method.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.parse (source, parser=None)

     XML 섹션을 엘리먼트 트리로 구문 분석합니다.  'source'는 XML 데이터
     를 포함하는 파일명이나 파일 객체입니다.  'parser'는 선택적 구문 분
     석기 인스턴스입니다.  지정하지 않으면 표준 *note XMLParser: a50. 구
     문 분석기가 사용됩니다.  *note ElementTree: 94c. 인스턴스를 반환합
     니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction (target,
          text=None)

     PI 엘리먼트 팩토리.  이 팩토리 함수는 XML 처리 명령으로 직렬화될 특
     수 엘리먼트를 만듭니다.  'target'은 PI 대상을 포함하는 문자열입니다
     .  주어지면, 'text'는 PI 내용을 포함하는 문자열입니다.  처리 명령을
     나타내는 엘리먼트 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     *note XMLParser: a50.는 PI 객체를 작성하는 대신 입력에서 처리 명령
     을 건너뜀에 유의하십시오.  *note ElementTree: 94c.는 *note Element:
     308. 메서드 중 하나를 사용하여 트리에 삽입된 처리 명령 노드만 포함
     합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace (prefix, uri)

     이름 공간 접두사를 등록합니다.  레지스트리는 전역적이며, 지정된 접
     두사나 이름 공간 URI에 대한 기존 매핑이 제거됩니다.  'prefix'는 이
     름 공간 접두사입니다.  'uri'는 이름 공간 URI입니다.  이 이름 공간의
     태그와 어트리뷰트는 가능하다면 주어진 접두사로 직렬화됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement (parent, tag, attrib={},
          **extra)

     서브 엘리먼트 팩토리.  이 함수는 엘리먼트 인스턴스를 만들어 기존 엘
     리먼트에 추가합니다.

     엘리먼트 이름, 어트리뷰트 이름 및 어트리뷰트 값은 바이트 문자열이나
     유니코드 문자열일 수 있습니다.  'parent'는 부모 엘리먼트입니다.
     'tag'는 서브 엘리먼트 이름입니다.  'attrib'는 엘리먼트 어트리뷰트를
     포함하는 선택적 딕셔너리입니다.  'extra'에는 키워드 인자로 지정된 추
     가 어트리뷰트가 포함됩니다.  엘리먼트 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring (element, encoding='us-ascii',
          method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None,
          short_empty_elements=True)

     모든 서브 엘리먼트를 포함하는, XML 엘리먼트의 문자열 표현을 생성합
     니다.  'element'는 *note Element: 308. 인스턴스입니다.  'encoding'
     (2) 은 출력 인코딩입니다 (기본값은 US-ASCII입니다).
     ‘encoding="unicode"’를 사용하여 유니코드 문자열을 생성하십시오 (그
     렇지 않으면 바이트 문자열이 생성됩니다).  'method'는 ‘"xml"’,
     ‘"html"’ 또는 ‘"text"’입니다 (기본값은 ‘"xml"’입니다).
     'xml_declaration', 'default_namespace' 및 'short_empty_elements'는
     *note ElementTree.write(): fed.에서와 같은 의미입니다.  XML 데이터
     를 포함하는 (선택적으로) 인코딩된 문자열을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'short_empty_elements' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'xml_declaration'과 'default_namespace' 매개 변
     수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note tostring(): feb. 함수는 이제 사용자가 지정
     한 어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     모든 서브 엘리먼트를 포함하는, XML 엘리먼트의 문자열 표현을 생성합
     니다.  'element'는 *note Element: 308. 인스턴스입니다.  'encoding'
     (3) 은 출력 인코딩입니다 (기본값은 US-ASCII입니다).
     ‘encoding="unicode"’를 사용하여 유니코드 문자열을 생성하십시오 (그
     렇지 않으면 바이트 문자열이 생성됩니다).  'method'는 ‘"xml"’,
     ‘"html"’ 또는 ‘"text"’입니다 (기본값은 ‘"xml"’입니다).
     'xml_declaration', 'default_namespace' 및 'short_empty_elements'는
     *note ElementTree.write(): fed.에서와 같은 의미입니다.  XML 데이터
     가 포함된 (선택적으로) 인코딩된 문자열의 리스트를 반환합니다.
     ‘b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element)’라는 사실을 제
     외하고는, 특정 시퀀스를 보장하지는 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'short_empty_elements' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'xml_declaration'과 'default_namespace' 매개 변
     수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note tostringlist(): fec. 함수는 이제 사용자가
     지정한 어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.XML (text, parser=None)

     문자열 상수에서 XML 섹션을 구문 분석합니다.  이 함수는 “XML 리터럴
     ”을 파이썬 코드에 내장시키는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  'text'는 XML 데
     이터를 포함하는 문자열입니다.  'parser'는 선택적 구문 분석기 인스턴
     스입니다.  지정하지 않으면 표준 *note XMLParser: a50. 구문 분석기가
     사용됩니다.  *note Element: 308. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID (text, parser=None)

     문자열 상수에서 XML 섹션을 구문 분석하고, 엘리먼트 id:s 를 엘리먼트
     로 매핑하는 딕셔너리도 반환합니다.  'text'는 XML 데이터를 포함하는
     문자열입니다.  'parser'는 선택적 구문 분석기 인스턴스입니다.  지정
     하지 않으면 표준 *note XMLParser: a50. 구문 분석기가 사용됩니다.
     *note Element: 308. 인스턴스와 딕셔너리를 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니
     다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/

   (2) XML 출력에 포함된 인코딩 문자열은 적절한 표준을 준수해야 합니다.
예를 들어, “UTF-8”은 유효하지만, “UTF8”은 유효하지 않습니다.
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’ 을
참조하십시오.

   (3) XML 출력에 포함된 인코딩 문자열은 적절한 표준을 준수해야 합니다.
예를 들어, “UTF-8”은 유효하지만, “UTF8”은 유효하지 않습니다.
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’ 을
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: XInclude 지원,  Next: 레퍼런스<3>,  Prev: 레퍼런스<2>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.14 XInclude 지원
.......................

이 모듈은 *note xml.etree.ElementInclude: 124. 도우미 모듈을 통해
XInclude 지시어(1)를 제한적으로 지원합니다.  이 모듈은 트리의 정보를 기
반으로, 서브 트리와 텍스트 문자열을 엘리먼트 트리에 삽입하는 데 사용할 수
있습니다.

* Menu:

* 예: 예<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/


File: python.info,  Node: 예<9>,  Up: XInclude 지원

5.21.5.15 예
............

다음은 XInclude 모듈의 사용법을 보여주는 예입니다.  현재 문서에 XML 문서
를 포함 시키려면, ‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ 엘리먼트를
사용하고 'parse' 어트리뷰트를 ‘"xml"’로 설정하고, 'href' 어트리뷰트를 사
용하여 포함할 문서를 지정하십시오.

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <xi:include href="source.xml" parse="xml" />
     </document>

기본적으로, 'href' 어트리뷰트는 파일 이름으로 취급됩니다.  사용자 정의 로
더를 사용하여 이 동작을 대체 할 수 있습니다.  또한 표준 도우미는
XPointer 문법을 지원하지 않음에 유의하십시오.

이 파일을 처리하려면, 평소와 같이 로드하고, 루트 엘리먼트를 *note
xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. 모듈에 전달하십시오:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude

     tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml")
     root = tree.getroot()

     ElementInclude.include(root)

ElementInclude 모듈은 ‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ 엘리먼
트를 'source.xml' 문서의 루트 엘리먼트로 바꿉니다.  결과는 다음과 같습니
다:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <para>This is a paragraph.</para>
     </document>

'parse' 어트리뷰트가 생략되면, 기본값은 “xml”입니다.  href 어트리뷰트는
필수입니다.

텍스트 문서를 포함 시키려면, ‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’
엘리먼트를 사용하고, 'parse' 어트리뷰트를 “text”로 설정하십시오:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) <xi:include href="year.txt" parse="text" />.
     </document>

결과는 다음과 같습니다:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) 2003.
     </document>


File: python.info,  Node: 레퍼런스<3>,  Prev: XInclude 지원,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API

5.21.5.16 레퍼런스
..................

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<9>.
* Element 객체::
* ElementTree 객체::
* QName 객체::
* TreeBuilder 객체::
* XMLParser 객체::
* XMLPullParser 객체::
* 예외: 예외<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<9>,  Next: Element 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.17 함수
..............

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader (href, parse,
          encoding=None)

     기본 로더.  이 기본 로더는 디스크에서 포함되는 리소스를 읽습니다.
     'href'는 URL입니다.  'parse'는 구문 분석 모드로 “xml” 이나 “text”입
     니다.  'encoding'은 선택적 텍스트 인코딩입니다.  지정하지 않으면, 인
     코딩은 ‘utf-8’입니다.  확장된 리소스를 반환합니다.  구문 분석 모드
     가 ‘"xml"’이면, *note Element: 308. 인스턴스입니다.  구문 분석 모드
     가 ‘"text"’이면, 문자열입니다.  로더가 실패하면, ‘None’을 반환하거
     나 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: xml.etree.ElementInclude.include (elem, loader=None,
          base_url=None, max_depth=6)

     이 함수는 'elem'이 가리키는 트리 내에서 XInclude 지시어를 제자리에
     서(in-place) 확장합니다.  'elem'은 루트 *note Element: 308.이거나 그
     런 엘리먼트를 찾기 위한 *note ElementTree: 94c. 인스턴스입니다.
     'loader'는 선택적 리소스 로더입니다.  생략하면, 기본값은 *note
     default_loader(): 37c2.입니다.  주어지면, *note default_loader():
     37c2.와 같은 인터페이스를 구현하는 콜러블 이어야 합니다.
     'base_url'은 상대적인 포함 파일 참조를 결정하기 위한 원본 파일의 베
     이스 URL입니다.  'max_depth'는 최대 재귀 포함 수입니다.  악의적인 내
     용 폭발의 위험을 줄이도록 제한되었습니다.  제한을 비활성화하려면
     ‘None’을 전달하십시오.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'base_url'과 'max_depth' 매개 변수를 추가했습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: Element 객체,  Next: ElementTree 객체,  Prev: 함수<9>,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.18 Element 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element (tag, attrib={}, **extra)

     Element 클래스.  이 클래스는 Element 인터페이스를 정의하고, 이 인터
     페이스의 참조 구현을 제공합니다.

     엘리먼트 이름, 어트리뷰트 이름 및 어트리뷰트 값은 바이트 문자열이나
     유니코드 문자열일 수 있습니다.  'tag'는 엘리먼트 이름입니다.
     'attrib'는 엘리먼트 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 선택적 딕셔너리입니다.
     'extra'에는 키워드 인자로 지정된 추가 어트리뷰트가 포함되어 있습니
     다.

      -- 속성: tag

          이 엘리먼트가 나타내는 데이터 종류(즉, 엘리먼트 유형)를 식별하
          는 문자열.

      -- 속성: text
      -- 속성: tail

          이 어트리뷰트는 엘리먼트와 연관된 추가 데이터를 담는 데 사용될
          수 있습니다.  해당 값은 일반적으로 문자열이지만 임의의 응용 프
          로그램별 객체일 수 있습니다.  엘리먼트가 XML 파일에서 만들어지
          면, 'text' 어트리뷰트는 엘리먼트의 시작 태그와 첫 번째 자식이
          나 종료 태그 사이의 텍스트를 담거나 ‘None’이고, 'tail' 어트리
          뷰트는 엘리먼트의 종료 태그와 다음 태그 사이의 텍스트를 담거나
          ‘None’입니다.  다음과 같은 XML 데이터의 경우

               <a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>

          'a' 엘리먼트는 'text'와 'tail' 어트리뷰트 모두에 대해 ‘None’을
          갖고, 'b' 엘리먼트는 'text' ‘"1"’과 'tail' ‘"4"’를 갖고, 'c' 엘
          리먼트는 'text' ‘"2"’와 'tail' ‘None’을 갖고, 'd' 엘리먼트는
          'text' ‘None’과 'tail' ‘"3"’을 갖습니다.

          엘리먼트의 내부 텍스트를 수집하려면, *note itertext(): 11c4.를
          참조하십시오, 예를 들어 ‘"".join(element.itertext())’.

          응용 프로그램은 이 어트리뷰트들에 임의의 객체를 저장할 수 있습
          니다.

      -- 속성: attrib

          엘리먼트의 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 딕셔너리.  'attrib' 값은 항상
          진짜 가변 파이썬 딕셔너리이지만, ElementTree 구현은 다른 내부
          표현을 사용하도록 선택하고, 누군가가 요청할 때만 딕셔너리를 만
          들 수 있습니다.  이러한 구현의 이점을 활용하려면, 가능한 한 아
          래의 딕셔너리 메서드를 사용하십시오.

     다음과 같은 딕셔너리와 유사한 메서드가 엘리먼트 어트리뷰트에서 작동
     합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear ()

          엘리먼트를 재설정합니다.  이 함수는 모든 서브 엘리먼트를 제거
          하고, 모든 어트리뷰트를 지우고, text 및 tail 어트리뷰트를
          ‘None’으로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: get (key, default=None)

          'key'라는 이름의 엘리먼트 어트리뷰트를 가져옵니다.

          어트리뷰트 값을 반환하거나, 어트리뷰트를 찾을 수 없으면
          'default'를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: items ()

          엘리먼트 어트리뷰트를 (이름, 값) 쌍의 시퀀스로 반환합니다.  어
          트리뷰트는 임의의 순서로 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: keys ()

          엘리먼트 어트리뷰트 이름을 리스트로 반환합니다.  이름은 임의의
          순서로 반환됩니다.

      -- 메서드: set (key, value)

          엘리먼트의 'key' 어트리뷰트를 'value'로 설정합니다.

     다음 메서드는 엘리먼트의 자식(서브 엘리먼트)에서 작동합니다.

      -- 메서드: append (subelement)

          이 엘리먼트의 내부 서브 엘리먼트 리스트 끝에 엘리먼트
          'subelement'를 추가합니다.  'subelement'가 *note Element:
          308.가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: extend (subelements)

          엘리먼트의 이터러블에서 'subelements'를 추가합니다.  서브 엘리
          먼트가 *note Element: 308.가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발
          생시킵니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: find (match, namespaces=None)

          'match'와 일치하는 첫 번째 서브 엘리먼트를 찾습니다.  'match'는
          태그 이름이나 *note 경로: baa.일 수 있습니다.  엘리먼트 인스턴
          스나 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  'namespaces'는 이름 공간 접두사에서
          전체 이름으로의 선택적 매핑입니다.  표현식에서 접두사가 없는 모
          든 태그 이름을 지정된 이름 공간으로 이동하려면 ‘''’를 접두사로
          전달하십시오.

      -- 메서드: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          태그 이름이나 *note 경로: baa.로 일치하는 모든 서브 엘리먼트를
          찾습니다.  일치하는 모든 엘리먼트가 문서 순서로 포함된 리스트
          를 반환합니다.  'namespaces'는 이름 공간 접두사에서 전체 이름
          으로의 선택적 매핑입니다.  표현식에서 접두사가 없는 모든 태그
          이름을 지정된 이름 공간으로 이동하려면 ‘''’를 접두사로 전달하
          십시오.

      -- 메서드: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          'match'와 일치하는 첫 번째 서브 엘리먼트의 텍스트를 찾습니다.
          'match'는 태그 이름이나 *note 경로: baa.일 수 있습니다.  일치
          하는 첫 번째 엘리먼트의 텍스트 내용을 반환하거나, 엘리먼트가 없
          으면 'default'를 반환합니다.  일치하는 엘리먼트에 텍스트 내용
          이 없으면 빈 문자열이 반환됨에 유의하십시오.  'namespaces'는 이
          름 공간 접두사에서 전체 이름으로의 선택적 매핑입니다.  표현식
          에서 접두사가 없는 모든 태그 이름을 지정된 이름 공간으로 이동
          하려면 ‘''’를 접두사로 전달하십시오.

      -- 메서드: insert (index, subelement)

          이 엘리먼트의 지정된 위치에 'subelement'를 삽입합니다.
          'subelement'가 *note Element: 308.가 아니면 *note TypeError:
          532.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: iter (tag=None)

          현재 엘리먼트를 루트로 하여 트리 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 만듭
          니다.  이터레이터는 이 엘리먼트와 그 아래의 모든 엘리먼트를 문
          서 순서로 (깊이 우선) 이터레이트 합니다.  'tag'가 ‘None’이나
          ‘'*'’가 아니면, 태그가 'tag'와 같은 엘리먼트만 이터레이터에서
          반환됩니다.  이터레이션 중에 트리 구조가 수정되면, 결과는 정의
          되지 않습니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          태그 이름이나 *note 경로: baa.로 일치하는 모든 서브 엘리먼트를
          찾습니다.  일치하는 모든 엘리먼트를 문서 순서로 산출하는 이터
          러블을 반환합니다.  'namespaces'는 이름 공간 접두사에서 전체 이
          름으로의 선택적 매핑입니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: itertext ()

          텍스트 이터레이터를 만듭니다.  이터레이터는 이 엘리먼트와 모든
          서브 엘리먼트를 문서 순서대로 루핑하고, 모든 내부 텍스트를 반
          환합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: makeelement (tag, attrib)

          이 엘리먼트와 같은 유형의 새 엘리먼트 객체를 만듭니다.  이 메
          서드를 호출하지 말고, 대신 *note SubElement(): 37ab. 팩토리 함
          수를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: remove (subelement)

          엘리먼트에서 'subelement'를 제거합니다.  find* 메서드와 달리 이
          메서드는 태그값이나 내용이 아닌 인스턴스 아이덴티티를 기준으로
          엘리먼트를 비교합니다.

     *note Element: 308. 객체는 서브 엘리먼트 작업을 위한 *note
     __delitem__(): 12bc, *note __getitem__(): 283, *note __setitem__():
     12bb, *note __len__(): 1f6b. 시퀀스 형 메서드도 지원합니다.

     주의: 서브 엘리먼트가 없는 엘리먼트는 ‘False’로 테스트 됩니다.  미
     래에 출시되는 파이썬에서, 모든 엘리먼트는 서브 엘리먼트가 존재하든
     안 하든 관계없이 ‘True’로 테스트될 것입니다.  대신, 명시적인
     ‘len(elem)’이나 ‘elem is not None’ 테스트를 사용하십시오.:

          element = root.find('foo')

          if not element:  # 주의!
              print("element not found, or element has no subelements")

          if element is None:
              print("element not found")

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Testing the truth value of an Element emits
     *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.

     파이썬 3.8 이전에는, 어트리뷰트를 이름으로 정렬하여 엘리먼트의 XML
     어트리뷰트의 직렬화 순서를 인위적으로 예측할 수 있도록 했습니다.  이
     제 보장되는 딕셔너리 순서를 기반으로, 이 임의 재정렬은 파이썬 3.8에
     서 제거되어 어트리뷰트가 원래 구문 분석되거나 사용자 코드에 의해 만
     들어진 순서를 유지합니다.

     일반적으로, 사용자 코드는 XML Information Set(1)이 정보 전달에서 어
     트리뷰트 순서를 명시적으로 제외한다는 점에서 구체적인 어트리뷰트 순
     서에 의존하지 않아야 합니다.  입력의 모든 순서를 다룰 수 있도록 코
     드를 준비해야 합니다.  예를 들어 암호화 서명이나 테스트 데이터 집합
     과 같이 결정론적 XML 출력이 필요한 경우, *note canonicalize():
     37b3. 함수로 규범적 직렬화를 사용할 수 있습니다.

     규범적 출력이 적용되지는 않지만, 출력에서 특정 어트리뷰트 순서가 여
     전히 필요하면, 코드는 코드를 읽는 사람의 지각 불일치를 피하고자, 원
     하는 순서로 어트리뷰트를 직접 만드는 것을 목표로 해야 합니다.  이를
     달성하기 어려운 경우, Element 생성과 독립적으로 순서를 강제하기 위
     해 직렬화 전에 다음과 같은 조리법을 적용 할 수 있습니다:

          def reorder_attributes(root):
              for el in root.iter():
                  attrib = el.attrib
                  if len(attrib) > 1:
                      # 어트리뷰트 순서를 조정합니다, 예를 들어 정렬로
                      attribs = sorted(attrib.items())
                      attrib.clear()
                      attrib.update(attribs)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/


File: python.info,  Node: ElementTree 객체,  Next: QName 객체,  Prev: Element 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.19 ElementTree 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree (element=None, file=None)

     ElementTree 래퍼 클래스.  이 클래스는 전체 엘리먼트 위계를 나타내며
     , 표준 XML과의 직렬화에 대한 추가 지원을 추가합니다.

     'element'는 루트 엘리먼트입니다.  주어지면 XML 'file'의 내용으로 트
     리가 초기화됩니다.

      -- 메서드: _setroot (element)

          이 트리의 루트 엘리먼트를 교체합니다.  이것은 트리의 현재 내용
          을 버리고, 주어진 엘리먼트로 대체합니다.  주의해서 사용하십시
          오.  'element'는 엘리먼트 인스턴스입니다.

      -- 메서드: find (match, namespaces=None)

          *note Element.find(): 156d.와 같습니다, 트리의 루트에서 시작합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          *note Element.findall(): 156f.과 같습니다, 트리의 루트에서 시
          작합니다.

      -- 메서드: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          *note Element.findtext(): 156e.와 같습니다, 트리의 루트에서 시
          작합니다.

      -- 메서드: getroot ()

          이 트리의 루트 엘리먼트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: iter (tag=None)

          루트 엘리먼트에 대한 트리 이터레이터를 만들고 반환합니다.  이
          터레이터는 이 트리의 모든 엘리먼트를 섹션 순서대로 루핑합니다.
          'tag'는 찾을 태그입니다 (기본값은 모든 엘리먼트를 반환하는 것
          입니다).

      -- 메서드: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          *note Element.iterfind(): 11c3.와 같습니다, 트리의 루트에서 시
          작합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: parse (source, parser=None)

          이 엘리먼트 트리에 외부 XML 섹션을 로드합니다.  'source'는 파
          일 이름이나 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.입니다.  'parser'는 선택적 구
          문 분석기 인스턴스입니다.  지정하지 않으면 표준 *note
          XMLParser: a50. 구문 분석기가 사용됩니다.  섹션 루트 엘리먼트
          를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: write (file, encoding='us-ascii', xml_declaration=None,
               default_namespace=None, method='xml', *,
               short_empty_elements=True)

          엘리먼트 트리를 XML로 파일에 씁니다.  'file'은 파일 이름이거나
          쓰기 위해 열린 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.입니다.  'encoding' (1) 은
          출력 인코딩입니다 (기본값은 US-ASCII입니다).
          'xml_declaration'은 파일에 XML 선언을 추가해야 하는지를 제어합
          니다.  추가하지 말아야 하면 ‘False’, 항상 추가하면 ‘True’,
          US-ASCII나 UTF-8이나 유니코드가 아닐 때만 추가하면 ‘None’을 사
          용하십시오 (기본값은 ‘None’입니다).  'default_namespace'는 기
          본 XML 이름 공간을 설정합니다 (“xmlns”).  'method'는 ‘"xml"’,
          ‘"html"’ 또는 ‘"text"’입니다 (기본값은 ‘"xml"’입니다).  키워드
          전용 'short_empty_elements' 매개 변수는 내용이 없는 엘리먼트의
          포매팅을 제어합니다.  ‘True’(기본값)이면, 단일 스스로 닫힌 태
          그로 방출되고, 그렇지 않으면 한 쌍의 시작/종료 태그로 방출됩니
          다.

          출력은 문자열(*note str: 445.)이나 바이너리(*note bytes:
          1c2.)입니다.  이것은 'encoding' 인자에 의해 제어됩니다.
          'encoding'이 ‘"unicode"’이면, 출력은 문자열입니다; 그렇지 않으
          면 바이너리입니다.  'file'이 열린 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.이면
          'file'의 유형과 충돌할 수 있음에 유의하십시오; 문자열을 바이너
          리 스트림에 쓰거나 그 반대로 하지 않도록 하십시오.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 'short_empty_elements' 매개 변수를 추가했습
          니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: *note write(): fed. 메서드는 이제 사용자가
          지정한 어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

이것은 조작될 XML 파일입니다:

     <html>
         <head>
             <title>Example page</title>
         </head>
         <body>
             <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
             or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
         </body>
     </html>

첫 번째 문단에 있는 모든 링크의 어트리뷰트 “target”을 변경하는 예:

     >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
     >>> tree = ElementTree()
     >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
     <Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
     >>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # body에서 처음 등장하는 태그 p를 찾습니다
     >>> p
     <Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
     >>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # 모든 링크의 리스트를 반환합니다
     >>> links
     [<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
     >>> for i in links:             # 발견된 모든 링크를 이터레이트 합니다
     ...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
     ...
     >>> tree.write("output.xhtml")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) XML 출력에 포함된 인코딩 문자열은 적절한 표준을 준수해야 합니다.
예를 들어, “UTF-8”은 유효하지만, “UTF8”은 유효하지 않습니다.
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’ 을
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: QName 객체,  Next: TreeBuilder 객체,  Prev: ElementTree 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.20 QName 객체
....................

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.QName (text_or_uri, tag=None)

     QName 래퍼.  출력에서 이름 공간을 올바르게 처리하기 위해, QName 어
     트리뷰트 값을 래핑하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  'text_or_uri'는
     {uri}local 형식으로 QName 값을 포함하는 문자열이거나, tag 인자가 제
     공되면 QName의 URI 부분입니다.  'tag'가 제공되면, 첫 번째 인자는
     URI로 해석되고, 이 인자는 로컬 이름으로 해석됩니다.  *note QName:
     37d9. 인스턴스는 불투명합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: TreeBuilder 객체,  Next: XMLParser 객체,  Prev: QName 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.21 TreeBuilder 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder (element_factory=None, *,
          comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False,
          insert_pis=False)

     일반 엘리먼트 구조 빌더.  이 빌더는 일련의 start, data, end,
     comment 및 pi 메서드 호출을 올바른 형식의 엘리먼트 구조로 변환합니
     다.  이 클래스를 사용하여 사용자 정의 XML 구문 분석기를 사용하거나
     다른 XML 형식의 구문 분석기를 사용하는 엘리먼트 구조를 구축할 수 있
     습니다.

     주어지면 'element_factory'는 두 개의 위치 인자를 받아들이는 콜러블
     이어야 합니다: 태그와 어트리뷰트 딕셔너리.  새로운 엘리먼트 인스턴
     스를 반환할 것으로 기대합니다.

     주어지면, 'comment_factory'와 'pi_factory' 함수는 주석과 처리 명령
     을 만들기 위해 *note Comment(): 37b4.와 *note
     ProcessingInstruction(): 37ba. 함수처럼 동작해야 합니다.  지정하지
     않으면, 기본 팩토리가 사용됩니다.  'insert_comments' 및/또는
     'insert_pis'가 참이면, 주석/처리 명령이 루트 엘리먼트 내에 있으면
     (하지만 외부에 있지 않으면) 트리에 삽입됩니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          빌더 버퍼를 플러시하고, 최상위 문서 엘리먼트를 반환합니다.
          *note Element: 308. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: data (data)

          현재 엘리먼트에 텍스트를 추가합니다.  'data'는 문자열입니다.  바
          이트 문자열이거나 유니코드 문자열이어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: end (tag)

          현재 엘리먼트를 닫습니다.  'tag'는 엘리먼트 이름입니다.  닫힌
          엘리먼트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: start (tag, attrs)

          새로운 엘리먼트를 엽니다.  'tag'는 엘리먼트 이름입니다.
          'attrs'는 엘리먼트 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 딕셔너리입니다.  열린
          엘리먼트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: comment (text)

          주어진 'text'로 주석을 만듭니다.  ‘insert_comments’가 참이면,
          트리에 추가합니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: pi (target, text)

          주어진 'target' 이름과 'text'로 처리 명령을 만듭니다.
          ‘insert_pis’가 참이면, 트리에 추가합니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

     또한, 사용자 정의 *note TreeBuilder: a51. 객체는 다음 메서드를 제공
     할 수 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: doctype (name, pubid, system)

          doctype 선언을 처리합니다.  'name'은 doctype 이름입니다.
          'pubid'는 공개 식별자입니다.  'system'은 시스템 식별자입니다.
          이 메서드는 기본 *note TreeBuilder: a51. 클래스에 없습니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: start_ns (prefix, uri)

          구문 분석기가 새 이름 공간 선언을 발견할 때마다 이를 정의하는
          여는 엘리먼트에 대한 ‘start()’ 콜백 전에 호출됩니다.  'prefix'는
          기본 이름 공간의 경우 ‘''’이고, 그렇지 않으면 선언된 이름 공간
          접두사 이름입니다.  'uri'는 이름 공간 URI입니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: end_ns (prefix)

          이름 공간 접두사 매핑을 선언한 엘리먼트의 ‘end()’ 콜백 후에, 스
          코프를 벗어난 'prefix'의 이름으로 호출됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget (write, *,
          with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False,
          qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None,
          exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None)

     C14N 2.0(1) 기록기.  인자는 *note canonicalize(): 37b3. 함수와 같습
     니다.  이 클래스는 트리를 구축하지 않지만, 'write' 함수를 사용하여
     콜백 이벤트를 직렬화된 형식으로 직접 변환합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser 객체,  Next: XMLPullParser 객체,  Prev: TreeBuilder 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.22 XMLParser 객체
........................

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser (*, target=None,
          encoding=None)

     이 클래스는 모듈의 저수준 빌딩 블록입니다.  효율적인 이벤트 기반
     XML 구문 분석을 위해 *note xml.parsers.expat: 126.을 사용합니다.
     *note feed(): 37e5. 메서드를 사용하여 XML 데이터를 점진적으로 공급
     할 수 있으며, 구문 분석 이벤트는 'target' 객체에서 콜백을 호출하여
     푸시 API로 변환됩니다.  'target'을 생략하면, 표준 *note
     TreeBuilder: a51.가 사용됩니다.  'encoding' (1) 이 제공되면, 값이
     XML 파일에 지정된 인코딩을 대체합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 매개 변수는 이제 *note 키워드-전용: 2a5.입니다.
     'html' 인자는 더는 지원되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          구문 분석기로의 데이터 공급을 완료합니다.  생성 중에 전달된
          'target'의 ‘close()’ 메서드를 호출한 결과를 반환합니다; 기본적
          으로, 최상위 문서 엘리먼트입니다.

      -- 메서드: feed (data)

          구문 분석기에 데이터를 공급합니다.  'data'는 인코딩된 데이터입
          니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush(): 26f.
          temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently
          enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse deferral
          has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 272.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 26f. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 26f. using *note hasattr():
          4cc. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          Added in version 3.13.

     *note XMLParser.feed(): 37e5.는 각 여는 태그마다 'target'의
     ‘start(tag, attrs_dict)’ 메서드를 호출하고, 닫는 태그마다
     ‘end(tag)’ 메서드를 호출하며, 데이터는 메서드 ‘data(data)’로 처리됩
     니다.  추가로 지원되는 콜백 메서드는, *note TreeBuilder: a51. 클래
     스를 참조하십시오.  *note XMLParser.close(): 37e6.는 'target'의 메
     서드 ‘close()’를 호출합니다.  *note XMLParser: a50.는 트리 구조 구
     축에만 사용할 수 있는 것은 아닙니다.  다음은 XML 파일의 최대 깊이를
     계산하는 예입니다:

          >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
          >>> class MaxDepth:                     # 구문 분석기의 대상 객체
          ...     maxDepth = 0
          ...     depth = 0
          ...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # 여는 태그마다 호출됩니다.
          ...         self.depth += 1
          ...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
          ...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
          ...     def end(self, tag):             # 닫는 태그마다 호출됩니다.
          ...         self.depth -= 1
          ...     def data(self, data):
          ...         pass            # 우리는 데이터로 아무것도 할 필요가 없습니다.
          ...     def close(self):    # 모든 데이터가 구문 분석되었을 때 호출됩니다.
          ...         return self.maxDepth
          ...
          >>> target = MaxDepth()
          >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
          >>> exampleXml = """
          ... <a>
          ...   <b>
          ...   </b>
          ...   <b>
          ...     <c>
          ...       <d>
          ...       </d>
          ...     </c>
          ...   </b>
          ... </a>"""
          >>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
          >>> parser.close()
          4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) XML 출력에 포함된 인코딩 문자열은 적절한 표준을 준수해야 합니다.
예를 들어, “UTF-8”은 유효하지만, “UTF8”은 유효하지 않습니다.
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’ 을
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: XMLPullParser 객체,  Next: 예외<16>,  Prev: XMLParser 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.23 XMLPullParser 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser (events=None)

     비 블로킹 응용 프로그램에 적합한 풀 구문 분석기.  입력 측 API는
     *note XMLParser: a50.의 것과 유사하지만, 콜백 대상으로 호출을 푸시
     하는 대신, *note XMLPullParser: fe9.는 내부 구문 분석 이벤트 리스트
     를 수집하여 사용자가 여기서 읽을 수 있도록 합니다.  'events'는 보고
     할 이벤트의 시퀀스입니다.  지원되는 이벤트는 문자열 ‘"start"’,
     ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ 및 ‘"end-ns"’입니다
     (“ns” 이벤트는 자세한 이름 공간 정보를 얻는 데 사용됩니다).
     'events'를 생략하면, ‘"end"’ 이벤트만 보고됩니다.

      -- 메서드: feed (data)

          주어진 바이트열 데이터를 구문 분석기에 공급합니다.

      -- 메서드: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush(): 270.
          temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently
          enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse deferral
          has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 272.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 270. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 270. using *note hasattr():
          4cc. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          구문 분석기에 데이터 스트림이 종료되었음을 알립니다.  *note
          XMLParser.close(): 37e6.와 달리, 이 메서드는 항상 *note None:
          66f.을 반환합니다.  구문 분석기가 닫힐 때 아직 꺼내지 않은 이
          벤트는 *note read_events(): 37a3.로 계속 읽을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: read_events ()

          구문 분석기에 공급된 데이터에서 발생한 이벤트에 대한 이터레이
          터를 반환합니다.  이터레이터는 ‘(event, elem)’ 쌍을 산출합니다
          , 여기서 'event'는 이벤트 유형을 나타내는 문자열(예를 들어
          ‘"end"’)이고 'elem'은 발견된 *note Element: 308. 객체나, 다음
          과 같은 기타 문맥 값입니다.

             * ‘start’, ‘end’: 현재 엘리먼트.

             * ‘comment’, ‘pi’: 현재 주석 / 처리 명령

             * ‘start-ns’: 선언된 이름 공간 매핑을 명명하는 튜플
               ‘(prefix, uri)’

             * ‘end-ns’: *note None: 66f. (향후 버전에서 변경될 수 있습
               니다)

          *note read_events(): 37a3.에 대한 이전 호출에서 제공된 이벤트
          는 다시 산출되지 않습니다.  이벤트는 이터레이터에서 꺼낼 때만
          내부 큐에서 소비되므로, *note read_events(): 37a3.에서 얻은 이
          터레이터에 대해 병렬로 이터레이션 하는 여러 판독기는 예측할 수
          없는 결과를 얻게 됩니다.

          참고: *note XMLPullParser: fe9. 는 “start” 이벤트를 방출할 때
          시작 태그의 “>” 문자를 보았다는 것만 보장해서, 어트리뷰트는 정
          의되지만, 텍스트의 내용과 테일(tail) 어트리뷰트는 그 시점에 정
          의되지 않습니다.  자식 엘리먼트에도 마찬가지로 적용됩니다; 그
          들은 존재할 수도 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다.

          완전히 채워진 엘리먼트가 필요하면, 대신 “end” 이벤트를 찾으십
          시오.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘comment’와 ‘pi’ 이벤트가 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<16>,  Prev: XMLPullParser 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<3>

5.21.5.24 예외
..............

 -- 클래스: xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError

     XML 구문 분석 에러, 이 모듈의 다양한 구문 분석 메서드가 구문 분석이
     실패할 때 발생시킵니다.  이 예외 인스턴스의 문자열 표현에는 사용자
     친화적인 에러 메시지가 포함됩니다.  또한, 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를
     사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: code

          expat 구문 분석기의 숫자 에러 코드.  에러 코드와 의미의 목록은
          *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: position

          에러가 발생한 위치를 지정하는, 'line', 'column' 숫자의 튜플.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API,  Next: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.6 ‘xml.dom’ — 문서 객체 모델 API
-------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

문서 객체 모델(Document Object Model), 또는 “DOM”은 XML 문서를 액세스하
고 수정하기 위한 W3C(World Wide Web Consortium)의 교차 언어 API입니다.
DOM 구현은 XML 문서를 트리 구조로 나타내거나, 클라이언트 코드가 이러한 구
조를 처음부터 구축 할 수 있도록 합니다.  그런 다음 잘 알려진 인터페이스
를 제공하는 객체 집합을 통해 구조에 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

DOM은 무작위 액세스 응용 프로그램에 매우 유용합니다.  SAX에서는 한 번에
한 조각의 문서만 볼 수 있습니다.  하나의 SAX 요소를 보고 있는 동안, 다른
SAX 요소에 액세스할 수 없습니다.  텍스트 노드를 보고 있으면, 이것을 포함
하는 요소에 액세스할 수 없습니다.  SAX 응용 프로그램을 작성할 때는, 문서
에서의 프로그램의 위치를 자신의 코드 어딘가에서 추적해야 합니다.  SAX는
여러분을 위해 대신해주지 않습니다.  또한, XML 문서를 미리 보아야 한다면,
운이 다했다고 보아야 합니다.

트리에 액세스할 수 없는 이벤트 중심 모델에서는 일부 응용 프로그램이 불가
능합니다.  물론 SAX 이벤트에서 트리를 직접 만들 수는 있지만, DOM을 사용
하면 그런 코드를 작성하지 않아도 됩니다.  DOM은 XML 데이터의 표준 트리 표
현입니다.

문서 객체 모델은 W3C에 의해 단계적으로 또는 그들의 용어로는 “수준”으로 정
의됩니다.  API의 파이썬 매핑은 실질적으로 DOM 수준 2 권장 사항을 기반으
로 합니다.

DOM 응용 프로그램은 일반적으로 일부 XML을 DOM으로 구문 분석하는 것으로 시
작합니다.  이것을 달성하는 방법은 DOM 수준 1은 전혀 다루지 않으며, 수준
2는 제한된 개선만을 제공합니다: ‘Document’ 생성 메서드에 대한 액세스를 제
공하는 ‘DOMImplementation’ 객체 클래스가 있습니다만, 구현에 독립적인 방
법으로 XML 판독기(reader)/기록기(writer)/Document 구축기(builder)를 액세
스하는 방법이 없습니다.  기존 ‘Document’ 객체 없이 이러한 메서드에 액세
스할 수 있는 잘 정의된 방법도 없습니다.  파이썬에서, 각 DOM 구현은 *note
getDOMImplementation(): 37ef. 함수를 제공합니다.  DOM 수준 3은 판독기
(reader)에 대한 인터페이스를 정의하는 로드/저장 명세를 추가하지만, 아직
파이썬 표준 라이브러리에서는 사용할 수 없습니다.

일단 DOM 문서 객체가 있으면, 프로퍼티와 메서드를 통해 XML 문서의 일부에
액세스 할 수 있습니다.  이러한 프로퍼티는 DOM 명세에 정의되어 있습니다;
레퍼런스 설명서의 이 부분은 파이썬이 명세를 해석하는 방법을 설명합니다.

W3C에서 제공하는 명세는 Java, ECMAScript 및 OMG IDL 용 DOM API를 정의합
니다.  여기에 정의된 파이썬 매핑은 대부분 명세의 IDL 버전을 기반으로 하
지만, 엄격한 준수는 필요하지 않습니다 (구현은 IDL의 엄격한 매핑을 자유롭
게 지원할 수 있습니다).  매핑 요구 사항에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 규격
준수: 37f0. 절을 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification(2)

     파이썬 DOM API의 기반이 되는 W3C 권장 사항.

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(3)

     *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.이 지원하는 DOM에 대한 W3C 권장 사항.

Python Language Mapping Specification(4)

     OMG IDL에서 파이썬으로의 매핑을 지정합니다.

* Menu:

* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<6>.
* DOM의 객체::
* 규격 준수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/

   (4) https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<6>,  Next: DOM의 객체,  Up: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API

5.21.6.1 모듈 내용
..................

*note xml.dom: 121.에는 다음 함수가 포함되어 있습니다:

 -- 함수: xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation (name, factory)

     'factory' 함수를 'name'이라는 이름으로 등록합니다.  팩토리(factory)
     함수는 ‘DOMImplementation’ 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체를 반환해야 합
     니다.  팩토리 함수는 호출 때마다 같은 객체를 반환하거나 특정 구현에
     적합하다면 새 객체를 반환할 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, 해당 구현이 일
     부 사용자 정의를 지원하는 경우).

 -- 함수: xml.dom.getDOMImplementation (name=None, features=())

     적절한 DOM 구현을 반환합니다.  'name'은 잘 알려진 DOM 구현의 모듈 이
     름이거나, ‘None’입니다.  ‘None’이 아니면, 해당 모듈을 임포트하고 성
     공하면 ‘DOMImplementation’ 객체를 반환합니다.  이름이 지정되지 않고
     , 환경 변수 ‘PYTHON_DOM’이 설정되면, 이 변수를 구현을 찾는 데 사용
     합니다.

     이름을 지정하지 않으면, 사용 가능한 구현을 검사하여 필요한 기능 집
     합이 있는 구현을 찾습니다.  구현을 찾을 수 없으면, *note
     ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.  기능 목록은 사용 가능한
     ‘DOMImplementation’ 객체의 ‘hasFeature()’ 메서드로 전달되는
     ‘(feature, version)’ 쌍의 시퀀스여야 합니다.

몇 가지 편의 상수도 제공됩니다:

 -- 데이터: xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE

     이름 공간이 DOM의 노드와 연결되어 있지 않음을 나타내는 데 사용되는
     값.  이것은 일반적으로 노드의 ‘namespaceURI’에서 발견되거나, 이름 공
     간별 메서드에 대한 'namespaceURI' 매개 변수로 사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE

     예약된 접두어 ‘xml’과 연관된 이름 공간 URI, Namespaces in XML(1)에
     서 정의됩니다 (4절).

 -- 데이터: xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE

     이름 공간 선언의 이름 공간 URI, Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2
     Core Specification(2)에서 정의됩니다 (1.1.8 절).

 -- 데이터: xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE

     XHTML 이름 공간의 URI, XHTML 1.0: The Extensible HyperText Markup
     Language(3)에서 정의됩니다 (3.1.1 절).

또한, *note xml.dom: 121.에는 베이스 ‘Node’ 클래스와 DOM 예외 클래스가 포
함됩니다.  이 모듈에서 제공하는 ‘Node’ 클래스는 DOM 명세에 정의된 메서드
나 어트리뷰트를 구현하지 않습니다; 구상(concrete) DOM 구현이 이를 제공해
야 합니다.  이 모듈의 일부로 제공되는 ‘Node’ 클래스는 구상 ‘Node’ 객체의
‘nodeType’ 어트리뷰트에 사용되는 상수를 제공합니다; 그것들은 DOM 명세를
준수하기 위해 모듈 수준이 아니라 클래스 내에 위치합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/


File: python.info,  Node: DOM의 객체,  Next: 규격 준수,  Prev: 모듈 내용<6>,  Up: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API

5.21.6.2 DOM의 객체
...................

DOM에 대한 결정적인 문서는 W3C의 DOM 명세입니다.

DOM 어트리뷰트는 간단한 문자열 대신 노드로 조작될 수도 있음에 유의하십시
오.  하지만 그렇게 해야만 하는 경우는 매우 드물어서, 이 사용법은 아직 문
서화되지 않았습니다.

인터페이스                           절                                      목적
                                                                             
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
‘DOMImplementation’                  *note DOMImplementation 객체: 37f9.     하부 구현에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Node’                               *note Node 객체: 37fa.                  문서에 있는 대부분 객체에 대한 베이
                                                                             스 인터페이스.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘NodeList’                           *note NodeList 객체: 37fb.              노드의 시퀀스를 위한 인터페이스.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘DocumentType’                       *note DocumentType 객체: 37fc.          문서를 처리하는 데 필요한 선언에 대
                                                                             한 정보.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Document’                           *note Document 객체: 37fd.              전체 문서를 나타내는 객체.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Element’                            *note Element 객체: 37fe.               문서 계층의 엘리먼트 노드.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Attr’                               *note Attr 객체: 37ff.                  엘리먼트 노드의 어트리뷰트 값 노드
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Comment’                            *note Comment 객체: 3800.               소스 문서에 있는 주석의 표현.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Text’                               *note Text와 CDATASection 객체: 3801.   문서의 텍스트 내용을 포함하는 노드.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘ProcessingInstruction’              *note ProcessingInstruction 객체: 3802. 처리 명령어 표현.
                                                                             

추가 절에서 파이썬에서 DOM 작업을 위해 정의된 예외에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* DOMImplementation 객체::
* Node 객체::
* NodeList 객체::
* DocumentType 객체::
* Document 객체::
* Element 객체: Element 객체<2>.
* Attr 객체::
* NamedNodeMap 객체::
* Comment 객체::
* Text와 CDATASection 객체::
* ProcessingInstruction 객체::
* 예외: 예외<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: DOMImplementation 객체,  Next: Node 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.3 DOMImplementation 객체
...............................

‘DOMImplementation’ 인터페이스는 응용 프로그램이 사용 중인 DOM에서 특정
기능의 가용성을 판별할 방법을 제공합니다.  DOM 수준 2는
‘DOMImplementation’을 사용하여 새로운 ‘Document’와 ‘DocumentType’ 객체를
만드는 기능을 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: DOMImplementation.hasFeature (feature, version)

     문자열 'feature'와 'version' 쌍으로 식별되는 기능이 구현되었으면
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: DOMImplementation.createDocument (namespaceUri,
          qualifiedName, doctype)

     지정된 'namespaceUri'와 'qualifiedName'을 가진 자식 ‘Element’ 객체
     를 포함하는 새 ‘Document’ 객체(DOM의 루트)를 반환합니다.  'doctype'은
     *note createDocumentType(): 3806.으로 만든 ‘DocumentType’ 객체거나
     ‘None’이어야 합니다.  파이썬 DOM API에서, ‘Element’ 자식이 만들어지
     지 않음을 표시하기 위해 처음 두 인자는 ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType (qualifiedName,
          publicId, systemId)

     XML 문서 형 선언에 포함된 정보를 나타내는, 지정된 'qualifiedName',
     'publicId' 및 'systemId' 문자열을 캡슐화하는 새 ‘DocumentType’ 객체
     를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Node 객체,  Next: NodeList 객체,  Prev: DOMImplementation 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.4 Node 객체
..................

XML 문서의 모든 구성 요소는 ‘Node’의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.nodeType

     노드 형을 나타내는 정수.  형의 기호 상수는 ‘Node’ 객체에 있습니다:
     ‘ELEMENT_NODE’, ‘ATTRIBUTE_NODE’, ‘TEXT_NODE’,
     ‘CDATA_SECTION_NODE’, ‘ENTITY_NODE’, ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’,
     ‘COMMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE’,
     ‘NOTATION_NODE’.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.parentNode

     현재 노드의 부모, 또는 문서 노드의 경우 ‘None’.  값은 항상 ‘Node’ 객
     체나 ‘None’입니다.  ‘Element’ 노드의 경우, 이것은 부모 엘리먼트가 되
     는데, 루트 엘리먼트는 예외로, 이때는 ‘Document’ 객체가 됩니다.
     ‘Attr’ 노드의 경우, 항상 ‘None’입니다.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트
     입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.attributes

     어트리뷰트 객체의 ‘NamedNodeMap’.  엘리먼트에만 실제 값이 있습니다;
     다른 것은 이 어트리뷰트에서 ‘None’을 제공합니다.  이것은 읽기 전용
     어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.previousSibling

     같은 부모를 갖고 이 노드 바로 앞에 있는 노드.  예를 들어 'self' 엘
     리먼트의 시작 태그 바로 앞에 오는 종료 태그의 엘리먼트.  물론, XML
     문서는 단순히 엘리먼트만으로 구성되지 않기 때문에, 이전 형제
     (previous sibling)는 텍스트, 주석 또는 뭔가 다른 것이 될 수 있습니
     다.  이 노드가 부모의 첫 번째 자식이면, 이 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’입니
     다.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.nextSibling

     같은 부모를 갖고 이 노드 바로 뒤에 나오는 노드.  *note
     previousSibling: 380b.도 참조하십시오.  이것이 부모의 마지막 자식이
     면, 이 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’입니다.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니
     다.

 -- 속성: Node.childNodes

     이 노드에 포함된 노드의 리스트.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.firstChild

     노드의 첫 번째 자식 (있다면), 또는 ‘None’.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리
     뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.lastChild

     노드의 마지막 자식 (있다면), 또는 ‘None’.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리
     뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.localName

     콜론이 있으면 그 뒤에 오는 ‘tagName’의 부분, 그렇지 않으면 전체
     ‘tagName’.  값은 문자열입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.prefix

     콜론이 있으면 그 앞에 오는 ‘tagName’의 부분, 그렇지 않으면 빈 문자
     열.  값은 문자열이나 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.namespaceURI

     엘리먼트 이름과 연관된 이름 공간.  이것은 문자열이나 ‘None’입니다.
     이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.nodeName

     이는 각 노드 형마다 다른 의미입니다; 자세한 내용은 DOM 명세를 참조
     하십시오.  여기서 얻는 정보를 항상 다른 프로퍼티에서 얻을 수 있습니
     다, 가령 엘리먼트의 ‘tagName’ 프로퍼티나 어트리뷰트의 ‘name’ 프로퍼
     티.  모든 노드 형에서, 이 어트리뷰트의 값은 문자열이나 ‘None’입니다
     .  이것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Node.nodeValue

     이는 각 노드 형마다 다른 의미입니다; 자세한 내용은 DOM 명세를 참조
     하십시오.  상황은 *note nodeName: 3813.과 유사합니다.  값은 문자열
     이나 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.hasAttributes ()

     노드에 어트리뷰트가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.hasChildNodes ()

     노드에 자식 노드가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.isSameNode (other)

     'other'가 이 노드와 같은 노드를 가리키면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이것
     은 모든 종류의 프락시 구조를 사용하는 DOM 구현에서 특히 유용합니다
     (여러 객체가 같은 노드를 가리킬 수 있기 때문입니다).

          참고: 이것은 여전히 “작업 초안” 단계에 있는 제안된 DOM 수준 3
          API를 기반으로 하지만, 이 특정 인터페이스는 논란의 여지가 없는
          것으로 보입니다.  W3C의 변경 사항이 파이썬 DOM 인터페이스에서
          이 메서드에 반드시 영향을 미치는 것은 아닙니다 (이를 위한 새
          W3C API도 지원되기는 하겠지만).

 -- 메서드: Node.appendChild (newChild)

     자식 리스트의 끝에 이 노드의 새 자식 노드를 추가하고, 'newChild'를
     반환합니다.  노드가 이미 트리에 있으면, 먼저 제거됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.insertBefore (newChild, refChild)

     기존 자식 앞에 새 자식 노드를 삽입합니다.  'refChild'가 이 노드의 자
     식이어야 합니다; 그렇지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.
     'newChild'가 반환됩니다.  'refChild'가 ‘None’이면, 자식 리스트의 끝
     에 'newChild'를 삽입합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.removeChild (oldChild)

     자식 노드를 제거합니다.  'oldChild'는 이 노드의 자식이어야 합니다;
     그렇지 않으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  성공하면
     'oldChild'가 반환됩니다.  'oldChild'가 더는 사용되지 않으면, 그것의
     ‘unlink()’ 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.replaceChild (newChild, oldChild)

     기존 노드를 새 노드로 교체합니다.  'oldChild'는 이 노드의 자식이어
     야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.normalize ()

     모든 텍스트 스트레치(stretch)가 단일 ‘Text’ 인스턴스로 저장되도록,
     인접한 텍스트 노드를 결합합니다.  이는 많은 응용 프로그램에서 DOM 트
     리의 텍스트 처리를 단순화합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.cloneNode (deep)

     이 노드를 복제합니다.  'deep'을 설정하면 모든 자식 노드도 복제됩니
     다.  복제를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: NodeList 객체,  Next: DocumentType 객체,  Prev: Node 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.5 NodeList 객체
......................

‘NodeList’는 노드의 시퀀스를 나타냅니다.  이러한 객체는 DOM Core 권장 사
항에서 두 가지 방식으로 사용됩니다: ‘Element’ 객체는 자식 노드의 리스트
를 제공하고, ‘Node’의 ‘getElementsByTagName()’과
‘getElementsByTagNameNS()’ 메서드는 이 인터페이스를 사용하여 조회 결과를
나타냅니다.

DOM 수준 2 권장 사항은 이러한 객체에 대해 하나의 메서드와 하나의 어트리
뷰트를 정의합니다:

 -- 메서드: NodeList.item (i)

     시퀀스의 'i' 번째 항목(있다면)이나 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  인덱스
     'i'는 0보다 작거나 시퀀스의 길이보다 크거나 같을 수 없습니다.

 -- 속성: NodeList.length

     시퀀스의 노드 수.

또한, 파이썬 DOM 인터페이스는 ‘NodeList’ 객체를 파이썬 시퀀스로 사용할 수
있도록 몇 가지 추가 지원을 요구합니다.  모든 ‘NodeList’ 구현에는 *note
__len__(): 1f6b.과 *note __getitem__(): 283.에 대한 지원이 포함되어야 합
니다; 이를 통해 *note for: 2ea. 문에서 ‘NodeList’를 이터레이트할 수 있고
, *note len(): 628. 내장 함수를 적절히 지원할 수 있습니다.

DOM 구현이 문서 수정을 지원하면, ‘NodeList’ 구현은 *note __setitem__():
12bb.과 *note __delitem__(): 12bc. 메서드도 지원해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: DocumentType 객체,  Next: Document 객체,  Prev: NodeList 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.6 DocumentType 객체
..........................

문서에 의해 선언된 표기법과 엔티티에 대한 정보(구문 분석기가 사용하고 정
보를 제공할 수 있으면 외부 부분 집합(external subset)을 포함하는)는
‘DocumentType’ 객체에서 사용 가능합니다.  문서의 ‘DocumentType’은
‘Document’ 객체의 ‘doctype’ 어트리뷰트에서 사용 가능합니다; 문서에
‘DOCTYPE’ 선언이 없으면, 문서의 ‘doctype’ 어트리뷰트는 이 인터페이스의 인
스턴스 대신 ‘None’으로 설정됩니다.

‘DocumentType’은 ‘Node’의 특수화(specialization)이고 다음 어트리뷰트를 추
가합니다:

 -- 속성: DocumentType.publicId

     문서 형 정의의 외부 부분 집합(external subset)에 대한 공용 식별자.
     문자열이나 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: DocumentType.systemId

     문서 형 정의의 외부 부분 집합(external subset)에 대한 시스템 식별자
     .  문자열로 표현된 URI이거나 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 속성: DocumentType.internalSubset

     문서에서 완전한 내부 부분 집합(internal subset)을 제공하는 문자열.
     부분 집합을 묶는 대괄호는 포함되지 않습니다.  문서에 내부 부분 집합
     이 없으면 ‘None’이어야 합니다.

 -- 속성: DocumentType.name

     ‘DOCTYPE’ 선언에 제공된 루트 엘리먼트의 이름 (있다면).

 -- 속성: DocumentType.entities

     외부 엔티티의 정의를 제공하는 ‘NamedNodeMap’입니다.  엔티티 이름이
     두 번 이상 정의되면, 첫 번째 정의 만 제공됩니다 (XML 권장 사항에 따
     라 다른 정의는 무시됩니다).  구문 분석기가 정보를 제공하지 않거나 정
     의된 엔티티가 없으면 ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: DocumentType.notations

     표기법의 정의를 제공하는 ‘NamedNodeMap’입니다.  표기법 이름이 두 번
     이상 정의되면, 첫 번째 정의 만 제공됩니다 (XML 권장 사항에 따라 다
     른 정의는 무시됩니다).  구문 분석기가 정보를 제공하지 않거나 정의된
     표기법이 없으면 ‘None’일 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Document 객체,  Next: Element 객체<2>,  Prev: DocumentType 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.7 Document 객체
......................

‘Document’는 구성 엘리먼트, 어트리뷰트, 처리 명령어, 주석 등을 포함한 전
체 XML 문서를 나타냅니다.  ‘Node’의 프로퍼티를 상속한다는 점을 기억하십
시오.

 -- 속성: Document.documentElement

     문서의 유일한 루트 엘리먼트.

 -- 메서드: Document.createElement (tagName)

     새 엘리먼트 노드를 만들고 반환합니다.  엘리먼트는 만들어질 때 문서
     에 삽입되지 않습니다.  ‘insertBefore()’나 ‘appendChild()’와 같은 다
     른 메서드 중 하나를 사용하여 명시적으로 삽입해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.createElementNS (namespaceURI, tagName)

     이름 공간을 사용하여 새 엘리먼트를 만들고 반환합니다.  'tagName'은
     접두사를 가질 수 있습니다.  엘리먼트는 만들어질 때 문서에 삽입되지
     않습니다.  ‘insertBefore()’나 ‘appendChild()’와 같은 다른 메서드 중
     하나를 사용하여 명시적으로 삽입해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.createTextNode (data)

     매개 변수로 전달된 data를 포함하는 텍스트 노드를 만들고 반환합니다.
     다른 생성 메서드와 마찬가지로 이 메서드는 노드를 트리에 삽입하지 않
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.createComment (data)

     매개 변수로 전달된 data를 포함하는 주석 노드를 만들고 반환합니다.  다
     른 생성 메서드와 마찬가지로 이 메서드는 노드를 트리에 삽입하지 않습
     니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.createProcessingInstruction (target, data)

     매개 변수로 전달된 'target'과 'data'를 포함하는 처리 명령어 노드를
     만들고 반환합니다.  다른 생성 메서드와 마찬가지로 이 메서드는 노드
     를 트리에 삽입하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.createAttribute (name)

     어트리뷰트 노드를 만들고 반환합니다.  이 메서드는 어트리뷰틀 노드를
     특정 엘리먼트와 연관시키지 않습니다.  새로 만들어진 어트리뷰트 인스
     턴스를 사용하려면 적절한 ‘Element’ 객체에서 ‘setAttributeNode()’를
     사용해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.createAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qualifiedName)

     이름 공간을 사용하여 어트리뷰트 노드를 만들고 반환합니다.
     'tagName'은 접두사를 가질 수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 어트리뷰트 노드
     를 특정 엘리먼트와 연관시키지 않습니다.  새로 만들어진 어트리뷰트 인
     스턴스를 사용하려면 적절한 ‘Element’ 객체에서 ‘setAttributeNode()’를
     사용해야합니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     특정 엘리먼트 형 이름을 가진 모든 자손(직계 자식, 자식의 자식 등)을
     검색합니다.

 -- 메서드: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     특정 이름 공간 URI와 지역 이름(localname)을 사용하여 모든 자손(직계
     자식, 자식의 자식 등)을 검색합니다.  지역 이름은 접두사 다음에 나오
     는 이름 공간의 일부입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Element 객체<2>,  Next: Attr 객체,  Prev: Document 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.8 Element 객체
.....................

‘Element’는 ‘Node’의 서브 클래스이므로, 모든 어트리뷰트를 상속합니다.

 -- 속성: Element.tagName

     엘리먼트 형 이름.  이름 공간을 사용하는 문서에서는 콜론을 포함할 수
     있습니다.  값은 문자열입니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     ‘Document’ 클래스의 동등한 메서드와 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     ‘Document’ 클래스의 동등한 메서드와 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.hasAttribute (name)

     엘리먼트에 'name'이라는 이름의 어트리뷰트가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.hasAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     엘리먼트에 'namespaceURI'와 'localName'으로 이름이 지정된 어트리뷰
     트가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.getAttribute (name)

     'name'이라는 이름의 어트리뷰트의 값을 문자열로 반환합니다.  그러한
     어트리뷰트가 없으면, 어트리뷰트에 값이 없는 것처럼 빈 문자열이 반환
     됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.getAttributeNode (attrname)

     'attrname'이라는 이름의 어트리뷰트에 대한 ‘Attr’ 노드를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.getAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     'namespaceURI'와 'localName'으로 이름이 지정된 어트리뷰트의 값을 문
     자열로 반환합니다.  그러한 어트리뷰트가 없으면, 어트리뷰트에 값이 없
     는 것처럼 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.getAttributeNodeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     'namespaceURI'와 'localName'으로 주어진 어트리뷰트의 값을 노드로 반
     환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.removeAttribute (name)

     이름(name)으로 어트리뷰트를 제거합니다.  일치하는 어트리뷰트가 없으
     면 *note NotFoundErr: 383e.가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.removeAttributeNode (oldAttr)

     존재하면, 어트리뷰트 목록에서 'oldAttr'를 제거하고 반환합니다.
     'oldAttr'가 없으면 *note NotFoundErr: 383e.가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.removeAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     이름으로 어트리뷰트를 제거합니다.  qname이 아닌 localName을 사용함
     에 유의하십시오.  일치하는 어트리뷰트가 없어도 예외가 발생하지 않습
     니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.setAttribute (name, value)

     문자열로 어트리뷰트 값을 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.setAttributeNode (newAttr)

     엘리먼트에 새 어트리뷰트 노드를 추가합니다.  ‘name’ 어트리뷰트가 일
     치할 때 필요하면 기존 어트리뷰트를 대체합니다.  대체가 발생하면, 이
     전 어트리뷰트 노드가 반환됩니다.  'newAttr'가 이미 사용 중이면
     *note InuseAttributeErr: 3843.가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.setAttributeNodeNS (newAttr)

     엘리먼트에 새 어트리뷰트 노드를 추가합니다.  ‘namespaceURI’와
     ‘localName’ 어트리뷰트가 일치할 때 필요하면 기존 어트리뷰트를 대체
     합니다.  대체가 발생하면 이전 어트리뷰트 노드가 반환됩니다.
     'newAttr'가 이미 사용 중이면 *note InuseAttributeErr: 3843.가 발생
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: Element.setAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qname, value)

     문자열로 'namespaceURI'와 'qname'으로 지정된 어트리뷰트 값을 설정합
     니다.  qname은 전체 어트리뷰트 이름임에 유의하십시오.  이것은 위와
     다릅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Attr 객체,  Next: NamedNodeMap 객체,  Prev: Element 객체<2>,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.9 Attr 객체
..................

‘Attr’은 ‘Node’를 상속하므로, 모든 어트리뷰트를 상속합니다.

 -- 속성: Attr.name

     어트리뷰트 이름.  이름 공간을 사용하는 문서에서는 콜론을 포함할 수
     있습니다.

 -- 속성: Attr.localName

     콜론이 있으면 그 뒤에 오는 이름의 일부, 그렇지 않으면 전체 이름.  이
     것은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: Attr.prefix

     콜론이 있으면 그 앞에 오는 이름의 일부, 그렇지 않으면 빈 문자열.

 -- 속성: Attr.value

     어트리뷰트의 텍스트 값.  이것은 ‘nodeValue’ 어트리뷰트의 동의어입니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: NamedNodeMap 객체,  Next: Comment 객체,  Prev: Attr 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.10 NamedNodeMap 객체
...........................

‘NamedNodeMap’은 ‘Node’를 상속하지 '않습니다'.

 -- 속성: NamedNodeMap.length

     어트리뷰트 목록의 길이입니다.

 -- 메서드: NamedNodeMap.item (index)

     특정 인덱스에 있는 어트리뷰트를 반환합니다.  어트리뷰트를 얻는 순서
     는 임의적이지만 DOM 수명 동안 일관적입니다.  각 항목은 어트리뷰트 노
     드입니다.  ‘value’ 어트리뷰트로 값을 얻으십시오.

이 클래스에 더 많은 매핑 동작을 제공하는 실험적인 메서드도 있습니다.  이
를 사용하거나 ‘Element’ 객체에서 표준화된 ‘getAttribute*()’ 메서드 집합
을 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment 객체,  Next: Text와 CDATASection 객체,  Prev: NamedNodeMap 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.11 Comment 객체
......................

‘Comment’는 XML 문서의 주석을 나타냅니다.  ‘Node’의 서브 클래스이지만, 자
식 노드를 가질 수 없습니다.

 -- 속성: Comment.data

     주석의 내용을 제공하는 문자열.  이 어트리뷰트는 선행 ‘<!-’‘-’와 후
     행 ‘-’‘->’ 사이의 모든 문자를 포함하지만, 이들을 포함하지는 않습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: Text와 CDATASection 객체,  Next: ProcessingInstruction 객체,  Prev: Comment 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.12 Text와 CDATASection 객체
..................................

‘Text’ 인터페이스는 XML 문서의 텍스트를 나타냅니다.  구문 분석기와 DOM 구
현이 DOM의 XML 확장을 지원하면, CDATA로 표시된 섹션으로 묶인 텍스트 부분
은 ‘CDATASection’ 객체에 저장됩니다.  이 두 인터페이스는 같지만,
‘nodeType’ 어트리뷰트에서 다른 값을 제공합니다.

이 인터페이스는 ‘Node’ 인터페이스를 확장합니다.  자식 노드를 가질 수 없
습니다.

 -- 속성: Text.data

     문자열로 표현된 텍스트 노드의 내용.

     참고: ‘CDATASection’ 노드의 사용이 그 노드가 완전한 CDATA 표시 섹션
     을 표현한다고 나타내는 것은 아닙니다, 단지 노드의 내용이 CDATA 섹션
     의 일부임을 나타낼 뿐입니다.  단일 CDATA 섹션은 문서 트리에서 둘 이
     상의 노드로 표현될 수 있습니다.  인접한 두 개의 ‘CDATASection’ 노드
     가 다른 CDATA 표시 섹션을 나타내는지를 확인할 방법은 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessingInstruction 객체,  Next: 예외<17>,  Prev: Text와 CDATASection 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.13 ProcessingInstruction 객체
....................................

XML 문서의 처리 명령어를 나타냅니다; 이것은 ‘Node’ 인터페이스를 상속하며
자식 노드를 가질 수 없습니다.

 -- 속성: ProcessingInstruction.target

     첫 번째 공백 문자까지의 처리 명령어의 내용.  이것은 읽기 전용 어트
     리뷰트입니다.

 -- 속성: ProcessingInstruction.data

     첫 번째 공백 문자 다음에 오는 처리 명령어의 내용.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<17>,  Prev: ProcessingInstruction 객체,  Up: DOM의 객체

5.21.6.14 예외
..............

DOM 수준 2 권장 사항은 단일 예외 *note DOMException: 3858.과 응용 프로그
램이 어떤 종류의 에러가 발생했는지 판별하도록 하는 여러 상수를 정의합니
다.  *note DOMException: 3858. 인스턴스에는 구체적인 예외에 적절한 값을
제공하는 *note code: 1a. 어트리뷰트가 있습니다.

파이썬 DOM 인터페이스는 상수를 제공하지만, 동시에 예외 집합을 확장하여
DOM에 의해 정의된 각 예외 코드마다 구체적인 예외가 존재하도록 합니다.  구
현 시 적절한 구체적인 예외를 발생시켜야 하며, 각 예외는 *note code: 1a.
속성으로 적절한 값을 제공합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.DOMException

     모든 구체적인 DOM 예외에 사용되는 베이스 예외 클래스.  이 예외 클래
     스는 직접 인스턴스 화할 수 없습니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr

     지정된 텍스트 범위가 문자열에 맞지 않을 때 발생합니다.  이것은 파이
     썬 DOM 구현에서 사용되는 것으로 알려지지 않았지만, 파이썬으로 작성
     되지 않은 DOM 구현에서 수신될 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr

     노드 형이 허용하지 않는 곳에 노드를 삽입하려고 할 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.IndexSizeErr

     메서드의 인덱스(index)나 크기(size) 매개 변수가 음수이거나 허용된 값
     을 초과할 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr

     문서의 다른 곳에 이미 존재하는 ‘Attr’ 노드를 삽입하려고 할 때 발생
     합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr

     하부 객체에서 매개 변수나 연산이 지원되지 않으면 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr

     이 예외는 문자열 매개 변수에 XML 1.0 권장 사항에서 사용 중인 컨텍스
     트에서 허용되지 않는 문자가 포함될 때 발생합니다.  예를 들어, 엘리
     먼트 형 이름에 스페이스가 있는 ‘Element’ 노드를 만들려고 하면 이 에
     러가 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr

     노드 형을 수정하려고 할 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.InvalidStateErr

     정의되지 않았거나 더는 사용할 수 없는 객체를 사용하려고 할 때 발생
     합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.NamespaceErr

     Namespaces in XML(1) 권장 사항에서 허용되지 않는 방식으로 객체를 변
     경하려고 시도하면 이 예외가 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.NotFoundErr

     참조된 컨텍스트에 노드가 존재하지 않을 때 발생하는 예외.  예를 들어
     , ‘NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()’은 전달된 노드가 맵에 존재하지 않
     으면 이것을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.NotSupportedErr

     구현이 요청된 형의 객체나 연산을 지원하지 않을 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr

     데이터를 지원하지 않는 노드에 데이터가 지정되면 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr

     수정이 허용되지 않는 객체(가령 읽기 전용 노드)를 수정하려고 하면 발
     생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.SyntaxErr

     유효하지 않거나 잘못된 문자열이 지정될 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr

     노드가 현재 속한 것과 다른 문서에 삽입되고 구현이 한 문서에서 다른
     문서로 노드 이전을 지원하지 않을 때 발생합니다.

DOM 권장 사항에 정의된 예외 코드는 이 테이블에 따라 위에서 설명한 예외에
매핑됩니다:

상수                                       예외
                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                           
‘DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR’                       *note DomstringSizeErr: 3859.
                                           
                                           
‘HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR’                    *note HierarchyRequestErr: 385a.
                                           
                                           
‘INDEX_SIZE_ERR’                           *note IndexSizeErr: 385b.
                                           
                                           
‘INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR’                      *note InuseAttributeErr: 3843.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_ACCESS_ERR’                       *note InvalidAccessErr: 385c.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR’                    *note InvalidCharacterErr: 385d.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR’                 *note InvalidModificationErr: 385e.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_STATE_ERR’                        *note InvalidStateErr: 385f.
                                           
                                           
‘NAMESPACE_ERR’                            *note NamespaceErr: 3860.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_FOUND_ERR’                            *note NotFoundErr: 383e.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR’                        *note NotSupportedErr: 3861.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR’                      *note NoDataAllowedErr: 3862.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR’              *note NoModificationAllowedErr: 3863.
                                           
                                           
‘SYNTAX_ERR’                               *note SyntaxErr: 3864.
                                           
                                           
‘WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR’                       *note WrongDocumentErr: 3865.
                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/


File: python.info,  Node: 규격 준수,  Prev: DOM의 객체,  Up: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API

5.21.6.15 규격 준수
...................

이 섹션에서는 규격 준수 요구 사항과 파이썬 DOM API, W3C DOM 권장 사항 및
파이썬의 OMG IDL 매핑 간의 관계에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 형 매핑::
* 접근자 메서드::


File: python.info,  Node: 형 매핑,  Next: 접근자 메서드,  Up: 규격 준수

5.21.6.16 형 매핑
.................

DOM 명세에 사용된 IDL 형은 다음 표에 따라 파이썬 형에 매핑됩니다.

IDL 형                 파이썬 형
                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘boolean’              ‘bool’ 또는 ‘int’
                       
                       
‘int’                  ‘int’
                       
                       
‘long int’             ‘int’
                       
                       
‘unsigned int’         ‘int’
                       
                       
‘DOMString’            ‘str’ 또는 ‘bytes’
                       
                       
‘null’                 ‘None’
                       


File: python.info,  Node: 접근자 메서드,  Prev: 형 매핑,  Up: 규격 준수

5.21.6.17 접근자 메서드
.......................

OMG IDL에서 파이썬으로의 매핑은 Java 매핑과 거의 같은 방식으로 IDL
‘attribute’ 선언에 대한 접근자 함수를 정의합니다.  다음과 같은 IDL 선언
매핑은:

     readonly attribute string someValue;
              attribute string anotherValue;

세 개의 접근자 함수를 산출합니다: ‘someValue’를 위한 “get” 메서드
(‘_get_someValue()’)와 ‘anotherValue’를 위한 “get”과 “set” 메서드
(‘_get_anotherValue()’와 ‘_set_anotherValue()’).  특히, 매핑은 IDL 어트
리뷰트가 일반 파이썬 어트리뷰트로 액세스할 수 있도록 요구하지 않습니다:
‘object.someValue’는 작동할 필요 '없으며', *note AttributeError: 346.를
발생시킬 수 있습니다.

그러나, 파이썬 DOM API는 일반 어트리뷰트 액세스가 동작하도록 '요구합니다
'.  이것은 파이썬 IDL 컴파일러에 의해 생성된 일반적인 서로게이트가 작동
하지 않을 수 있으며, DOM 객체가 CORBA를 통해 액세스되는 경우 래퍼 객체가
클라이언트에 필요할 수 있음을 의미합니다.  CORBA DOM 클라이언트에 대해 추
가적인 고려가 필요하지만, 파이썬에서 CORBA를 통해 DOM을 사용한 경험이 있
는 구현자들은 이것을 문제라고 보지 않습니다.  ‘readonly’로 선언된 어트리
뷰트는 모든 DOM 구현에서 쓰기 액세스를 제한하지 않을 수 있습니다.

파이썬 DOM API에서는, 접근자 함수가 필요하지 않습니다.  제공되면, 파이썬
IDL 매핑으로 정의된 형식을 취해야 하지만, 어트리뷰트를 파이썬에서 직접 액
세스할 수 있어서 이러한 메서드들은 불필요한 것으로 간주합니다.
‘readonly’ 어트리뷰트에 “set” 접근자를 제공해서는 안 됩니다.

IDL 정의는 W3C DOM API의 요구 사항을 완전히 담지 않습니다.  가령
‘getElementsByTagName()’의 반환 값과 같은 특정 객체가 “살아있다(live)”는
개념과 같은 것을 표현하지 못합니다.  파이썬 DOM API는 구현이 이러한 요구
사항을 강제하도록 요구하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현,  Next: xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원,  Prev: xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.7 ‘xml.dom.minidom’ — 최소 DOM 구현
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.dom.minidom: 122.은 다른 언어와 유사한 API를 갖는 문서 객체 모
델 인터페이스의 최소 구현입니다.  전체(full) DOM보다 단순하고 훨씬 작고
자 합니다.  DOM에 아직 능숙하지 않은 사용자는 XML 처리에 대신 *note
xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. 모듈을 사용하는 것을 고려해야 합니다.

     참고: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
     *note XML security: 3797.

DOM 응용 프로그램은 일반적으로 일부 XML을 DOM으로 구문 분석하는 것으로 시
작합니다.  *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.에서는, 구문 분석 함수를 통해 수행
됩니다:

     from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString

     dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # 파일명으로 XML 파일을 구문 분석합니다

     datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
     dom2 = parse(datasource)  # 열린 파일을 구문 분석합니다

     dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')

*note parse(): 386d. 함수는 파일명이나 열린 파일 객체를 취할 수 있습니다
.

 -- 함수: xml.dom.minidom.parse (filename_or_file, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     주어진 입력에서 ‘Document’를 반환합니다.  'filename_or_file'은 파일
     명이나 파일류 객체일 수 있습니다.  제공되면, 'parser'는 SAX2 구문 분
     석기 객체여야 합니다.  이 함수는 구문 분석기의 문서 처리기를 변경하
     고 이름 공간 지원을 활성화합니다; 다른 구문 분석기 구성(엔티티 해석
     기 설정과 같은)은 미리 수행되어 있어야 합니다.

문자열로 XML을 갖고 있다면, *note parseString(): 386e. 함수를 대신 사용
할 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: xml.dom.minidom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     'string'을 표현하는 ‘Document’를 반환합니다.  이 메서드는 문자열에
     대한 *note io.StringIO: f1f. 객체를 만들고 이를 *note parse():
     386d.에 전달합니다.

두 함수 모두 문서의 내용을 표현하는 ‘Document’ 객체를 반환합니다.

*note parse(): 386d.와 *note parseString(): 386e. 함수가 하는 일은 임의
의 SAX 구문 분석기에서 구문 분석 이벤트를 받아들일 수 있고 이를 DOM 트리
로 변환하는 “DOM 구축기(builder)”를 XML 구문 분석기와 연결하는 것입니다.
함수의 이름은 오해의 소지가 있지만, 인터페이스를 배울 때 이해하기 쉽습니
다.  이 함수가 반환되기 전에 문서 구문 분석이 완료됩니다; 단지 이 함수들
이 구문 분석기 구현 자체를 제공하지는 않을 뿐입니다.

“DOM 구현” 객체의 메서드를 호출하여 ‘Document’를 만들 수도 있습니다.
*note xml.dom: 121. 패키지나 *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. 모듈에 있는
‘getDOMImplementation()’ 함수를 호출하여 이 객체를 얻을 수 있습니다.  일
단 ‘Document’를 얻으면, 자식 노드를 추가하여 DOM을 채울 수 있습니다:

     from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation

     impl = getDOMImplementation()

     newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
     top_element = newdoc.documentElement
     text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
     top_element.appendChild(text)

일단 DOM 문서 객체를 얻으면, 프로퍼티와 메서드를 통해 XML 문서의 일부에
액세스 할 수 있습니다.  이러한 프로퍼티들은 DOM 명세에 정의되어 있습니다
.  문서 객체의 주 프로퍼티는 ‘documentElement’ 프로퍼티입니다.  XML 문서
의 메인 엘리먼트를 제공합니다: 모든 다른 것들을 담는 것.  예제 프로그램
은 다음과 같습니다:

     dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
     assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"

DOM 트리로의 작업이 끝나면, ‘unlink()’ 메서드를 선택적으로 호출하여 필요
없는 객체를 조기에 정리할 수 있습니다.  ‘unlink()’는 DOM API에 대한
*note xml.dom.minidom: 122.만의 확장이며 그 노드와 자손들을 실질적으로 쓸
모없게 만듭니다.  그렇지 않으면, 파이썬의 가비지 수집기가 결국 트리의 객
체를 처리하게 될 것입니다.

더 보기
.......

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(2)

     *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.이 지원하는 DOM에 대한 W3C 권장 사항.

* Menu:

* DOM 객체::
* DOM 예제::
* minidom과 DOM 표준::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/


File: python.info,  Node: DOM 객체,  Next: DOM 예제,  Up: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현

5.21.7.1 DOM 객체
.................

파이썬 용 DOM API의 정의는 *note xml.dom: 121. 모듈 설명서의 일부로 제공
됩니다.  이 절은 그 API와 *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.의 차이점을 나열합
니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.unlink ()

     순환 GC가 없는 파이썬 버전에서 가비지 수집되도록 DOM 내의 내부 참조
     를 끊습니다.  순환 GC를 사용할 수 있더라도, 이를 사용하면 대량의 메
     모리를 더 빨리 사용할 수 있도록 하므로, 더 필요 없게 되는 즉시 DOM
     객체에 대해 이를 호출하는 것이 좋습니다.  ‘Document’ 객체에서만 호
     출하면 되지만, 해당 노드의 자식을 삭제하기 위해 자식 노드에서 호출
     할 수 있습니다.

     *note with: 5cc. 문을 사용하면 이 메서드를 명시적으로 호출하지 않아
     도 됩니다.  다음 코드는 ‘with’ 블록이 종료될 때 'dom'을 자동으로
     unlink 합니다:

          with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
              ... # dom으로 작업합니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.writexml (writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='',
          encoding=None, standalone=None)

     기록기(writer) 객체에 XML을 씁니다.  기록기는 입력으로 텍스트를 받
     지만 바이트열은 받지 않습니다, 파일 객체 인터페이스와 일치하는
     ‘write()’ 메서드를 가져야 합니다.  'indent' 매개 변수는 현재 노드의
     들여쓰기입니다.  'addindent' 매개 변수는 현재 노드의 서브 노드에 사
     용할 증분(incremental) 들여쓰기입니다.  'newl' 매개 변수는 개행을 끝
     내는 데 사용할 문자열을 지정합니다.

     ‘Document’ 노드의 경우, 추가 키워드 인자 'encoding'을 사용하여 XML
     헤더의 인코딩 필드를 지정할 수 있습니다.

     유사하게, 'standalone' 인자를 명시적으로 지정하면 standalone 문서 선
     언이 XML 문서의 프롤로그에 추가됩니다.  값이 ‘True’로 설정되면
     ‘standalone="yes"’가 추가되고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘"no"’로 설정됩니다.  인
     자를 명시하지 않으면 문서에서 선언을 생략합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note writexml(): 3872. 메서드는 이제 사용자가 지
     정한 어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'standalone' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.toxml (encoding=None, standalone=None)

     DOM 노드가 나타내는 XML이 포함된 문자열이나 바이트열을 반환합니다.

     명시적인 'encoding' (1) 인자를 사용하면, 결과는 지정된 인코딩의 바
     이트열 입니다.  'encoding' 인자가 없으면, 결과는 유니코드 문자열이
     며, 결과 문자열의 XML 선언은 인코딩을 지정하지 않습니다.  UTF-8이
     XML의 기본 인코딩이기 때문에, UTF-8 이외의 인코딩으로 이 문자열을 인
     코딩하는 것은 올바르지 않습니다.

     'standalone' 인자는 *note writexml(): 3872.에서와 동일하게 동작합니
     다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note toxml(): 148f. 메서드는 이제 사용자가 지정
     한 어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'standalone' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: Node.toprettyxml (indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None,
          standalone=None)

     문서의 예쁘게 인쇄된 버전을 반환합니다.  'indent'는 들여쓰기 문자열
     을 지정하고 기본값은 탭입니다; 'newl'은 각 줄의 끝에서 방출되는 문
     자열을 지정하고 기본값은 ‘\n’입니다.

     'encoding' 인자는 *note toxml(): 148f.의 해당 인자처럼 동작합니다.

     'standalone' 인자는 *note writexml(): 3872.에서와 동일하게 동작합니
     다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note toprettyxml(): 1490. 메서드는 이제 사용자
     가 지정한 어트리뷰트 순서를 유지합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'standalone' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) XML 출력에 포함된 인코딩 이름은 적절한 표준을 준수해야 합니다.  예
를 들어, XML 문서의 선언에서 “UTF-8”은 유효하지만, “UTF8”은 파이썬이 이
를 인코딩 이름으로 받아들이더라도 유효하지 않습니다.
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ 과
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’ 을
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM 예제,  Next: minidom과 DOM 표준,  Prev: DOM 객체,  Up: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현

5.21.7.2 DOM 예제
.................

이 예제 프로그램은 간단한 프로그램의 상당히 현실적인 예입니다.  이 특별
한 경우에, 우리는 DOM의 유연성을 크게 활용하지 않습니다.

     import xml.dom.minidom

     document = """\
     <slideshow>
     <title>Demo slideshow</title>
     <slide><title>Slide title</title>
     <point>This is a demo</point>
     <point>Of a program for processing slides</point>
     </slide>

     <slide><title>Another demo slide</title>
     <point>It is important</point>
     <point>To have more than</point>
     <point>one slide</point>
     </slide>
     </slideshow>
     """

     dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document)

     def getText(nodelist):
         rc = []
         for node in nodelist:
             if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE:
                 rc.append(node.data)
         return ''.join(rc)

     def handleSlideshow(slideshow):
         print("<html>")
         handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide")
         handleToc(slides)
         handleSlides(slides)
         print("</html>")

     def handleSlides(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             handleSlide(slide)

     def handleSlide(slide):
         handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point"))

     def handleSlideshowTitle(title):
         print(f"<title>{getText(title.childNodes)}</title>")

     def handleSlideTitle(title):
         print(f"<h2>{getText(title.childNodes)}</h2>")

     def handlePoints(points):
         print("<ul>")
         for point in points:
             handlePoint(point)
         print("</ul>")

     def handlePoint(point):
         print(f"<li>{getText(point.childNodes)}</li>")

     def handleToc(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]
             print(f"<p>{getText(title.childNodes)}</p>")

     handleSlideshow(dom)


File: python.info,  Node: minidom과 DOM 표준,  Prev: DOM 예제,  Up: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현

5.21.7.3 minidom과 DOM 표준
...........................

*note xml.dom.minidom: 122. 모듈은 본질적으로 일부 DOM 2 기능(주로 이름
공간 기능)이 있는 DOM 1.0 호환 DOM입니다.

파이썬에서 DOM 인터페이스의 사용법은 간단합니다.  다음과 같은 매핑 규칙
이 적용됩니다:

   * 인터페이스는 인스턴스 객체를 통해 액세스 됩니다.  응용 프로그램은 클
     래스를 직접 인스턴스로 만들어서는 안 됩니다; ‘Document’ 객체에서 제
     공되는 생성자 함수를 사용해야 합니다.  파생 인터페이스는 베이스 인
     터페이스의 모든 연산(및 어트리뷰트)과 새로운 연산을 지원합니다.

   * 연산은 메서드로 사용됩니다.  DOM은 *note in: 2ec. 매개 변수만 사용
     하므로, 인자는 정상적인 순서(왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로)로 전달됩니다.  선
     택적 인자가 없습니다.  ‘void’ 연산은 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

   * IDL 어트리뷰트는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에 매핑됩니다.  파이썬 용 OMG
     IDL 언어 매핑과의 호환성을 위해, 접근자 메서드 ‘_get_foo()’와
     ‘_set_foo()’를 통해 어트리뷰트 ‘foo’에 액세스할 수도 있습니다.
     ‘readonly’ 어트리뷰트는 변경하지 않아야 합니다; 실행 시간에 강제되
     지는 않습니다.

   * ‘short int’, ‘unsigned int’, ‘unsigned long long’ 및 ‘boolean’ 형은
     모두 파이썬 정수 객체에 매핑됩니다.

   * ‘DOMString’ 형은 파이썬 문자열에 매핑됩니다.  *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 122.은 바이트열이나 문자열을 지원하지만, 일반적으
     로 문자열을 생성합니다.  ‘DOMString’ 형의 값은 W3C의 DOM 명세에 의
     해 IDL ‘null’ 값을 가질 수 있을 때 ‘None’일 수도 있습니다.

   * ‘const’ 선언은 해당 스코프에 있는 변수에 매핑됩니다 (예를 들어
     ‘xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’); 변경되지 않아
     야 합니다.

   * ‘DOMException’은 현재 *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.에서 지원되지 않습
     니다.  대신, *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.은 *note TypeError: 532.와
     *note AttributeError: 346.와 같은 표준 파이썬 예외를 사용합니다.

   * ‘NodeList’ 객체는 파이썬의 내장 리스트 형을 사용하여 구현됩니다.  이
     러한 객체는 DOM 명세에 정의된 인터페이스를 제공하지만, 이전 버전의
     파이썬에서는 공식 API를 지원하지 않습니다.  그러나 W3C 권장 사항에
     정의된 인터페이스보다 훨씬 “파이썬답습니다”.

다음 인터페이스는 *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.에서 구현되지 않습니다:

   * ‘DOMTimeStamp’

   * ‘EntityReference’

이들 대부분은 대부분의 DOM 사용자에게 일반적인 쓸모를 제공하지 않는 XML
문서의 정보를 반영합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원,  Next: xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원,  Prev: xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.8 ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원
--------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.dom.pulldom: 123. 모듈은 필요할 때 문서의 DOM 액세스 가능한 조
각을 생성하도록 요청할 수 있는 “풀 구문 분석기 (pull parser)”를 제공합니
다.  기본 개념은 들어오는 XML 스트림에서 “이벤트”를 끌어당겨서(pull) 처
리하는 것입니다.  콜백을 통한 이벤트 구동 처리 모델(event-driven
processing model)을 사용하는 SAX와 달리 풀 구문 분석기 사용자는 스트림에
서 이벤트를 명시적으로 가져와서 처리가 완료되거나 에러 조건이 발생할 때
까지 그 이벤트들을 루핑해야 합니다.

     참고: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
     *note XML security: 3797.

버전 3.7.1에서 변경: SAX 구문 분석기는 보안을 강화하기 위해 더는 일반 외
부 엔티티를 처리하지 않습니다.  외부 엔티티를 처리를 활성화하려면, 사용
자 정의 구문 분석기 인스턴스를 전달하십시오:

     from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
     from xml.sax import make_parser
     from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges

     parser = make_parser()
     parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
     parse(filename, parser=parser)

예:

     from xml.dom import pulldom

     doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
     for event, node in doc:
         if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
             if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
                 doc.expandNode(node)
                 print(node.toxml())

‘event’는 상수이며 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

   * ‘START_ELEMENT’

   * ‘END_ELEMENT’

   * ‘COMMENT’

   * ‘START_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘END_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘CHARACTERS’

   * ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION’

   * ‘IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE’

‘node’는 ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’, ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ 또는
‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ 형의 객체입니다.

문서는 “평평한(flat)” 이벤트 스트림으로 취급되므로, 문서 “트리”는 묵시적
으로 탐색 되며 트리에서의 깊이와 관계없이 원하는 요소를 찾습니다.  다시
말해, 문서 노드의 재귀적 검색과 같은 계층적 문제를 고려할 필요는 없습니
다.  하지만, 엘리먼트의 문맥이 중요하다면, 문맥과 관련된 상태를 유지하거
나 (즉, 주어진 지점에서 문서의 어느 위치에 있는지 기억함으로써), *note
DOMEventStream.expandNode(): 3879. 메서드를 사용하고 DOM 관련 처리로 전
환해야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom (documentFactory=None)

     *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 387b.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 클래스: xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM (documentFactory=None)

     *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 387b.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 함수: xml.dom.pulldom.parse (stream_or_string, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     주어진 입력으로부터 *note DOMEventStream: 72e.을 반환합니다.
     'stream_or_string'은 파일 이름이거나 파일류 객체일 수 있습니다.  주
     어질 때, 'parser'는 *note XMLReader: 387e. 객체여야 합니다.  이 함
     수는 구문 분석기의 문서 처리기를 변경하고 이름 공간 지원을 활성화합
     니다; 다른 구문 분석기 구성(엔티티 해석기 설정과 같은)은 미리 수행
     되어 있어야 합니다.

문자열로 XML을 갖고 있다면, *note parseString(): 387f. 함수를 대신 사용
할 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: xml.dom.pulldom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     (유니코드) 'string'을 표현하는 *note DOMEventStream: 72e.을 반환합
     니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize

     *note parse(): 387d.의 'bufsize' 매개 변수의 기본값.

     이 변수의 값은 *note parse(): 387d.를 호출하기 전에 변경될 수 있으
     며 새 값이 적용됩니다.

* Menu:

* DOMEventStream 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py


File: python.info,  Node: DOMEventStream 객체,  Up: xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원

5.21.8.1 DOMEventStream 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream (stream, parser, bufsize)

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드 지원은 제거했
     습니다.

      -- 메서드: getEvent ()

          'event'와 현재 'node'를 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.  노드는 이
          벤트가 ‘START_DOCUMENT’와 같으면 ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’, 이
          벤트가 ‘START_ELEMENT’나 ‘END_ELEMENT’와 같으면
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’, 이벤트가 ‘CHARACTERS’와 같으면
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ 입니다.  *note expandNode(): 3879.가 호
          출되지 않는 한 현재 노드에는 자식에 대한 정보가 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: expandNode (node)

          'node'의 모든 자식을 'node'로 확장합니다.  예:

               from xml.dom import pulldom

               xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
               doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
               for event, node in doc:
                   if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
                       # 다음 문장은 '<p/>' 만 인쇄합니다
                       print(node.toxml())
                       doc.expandNode(node)
                       # 다음 문장은 노드와 모든 자식을 인쇄합니다 '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
                       print(node.toxml())

      -- 메서드: reset ()


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원,  Next: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스,  Prev: xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.9 ‘xml.sax’ — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.sax: 129. 패키지는 파이썬용 SAX(Simple API for XML) 인터페이스
를 구현하는 여러 모듈을 제공합니다.  패키지 자체는 대부분 SAX API의 사용
자가 사용하게 될 SAX 예외와 편리 함수를 제공합니다.

     참고: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
     *note XML security: 3797.

버전 3.7.1에서 변경: SAX 구문 분석기는 보안을 강화하기 위해 더는 일반 외
부 엔티티를 처리하지 않습니다.  이전에는, 구문 분석기가 DTD와 엔티티에 대
해 네트워크 연결을 만들어 원격 파일을 가져오거나 파일 시스템에서 로컬 파
일을 로드했습니다.  이 기능은 구문 분석기 객체에 대해 인자 *note
feature_external_ges: 3887.로 메서드 *note setFeature(): 3888.를 사용하
여 다시 활성화할 수 있습니다.

편리 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 함수: xml.sax.make_parser (parser_list=[])

     SAX *note XMLReader: 387e. 객체를 만들고 반환합니다.  발견된 첫 번
     째 구문 분석기가 사용됩니다.  'parser_list'가 제공되면,
     ‘create_parser()’라는 함수가 있는 모듈의 이름을 나타내는 문자열의 이
     터러블이어야 합니다.  'parser_list'에 나열된 모듈은 기본 구문 분석
     기 목록에 있는 모듈보다 먼저 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'parser_list' 인자는 리스트뿐만 아니라 임의의 이
     터러블일 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: xml.sax.parse (filename_or_stream, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     SAX 구문 분석기를 만들어 문서 구문 분석에 사용합니다.
     'filename_or_stream'으로 전달된 문서는 파일명이나 파일 객체일 수 있
     습니다.  'handler' 매개 변수는 SAX *note ContentHandler: 387b. 인스
     턴스여야 합니다.  'error_handler'가 주어지면, SAX *note
     ErrorHandler: 3889. 인스턴스여야 합니다; 생략하면, 모든 에러에서
     *note SAXParseException: 388a.이 발생합니다.  반환 값은 없습니다; 모
     든 작업은 전달된 'handler'가 처리해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.sax.parseString (string, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     *note parse(): 1a0b.와 비슷하지만, 매개 변수로 받은 버퍼 'string'에
     서 구문 분석합니다.  'string'은 *note str: 445. 인스턴스나 *note
     바이트열류 객체: d2a.여야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note str: 445. 인스턴스에 대한 지원이 추가되었
     습니다.

전형적인 SAX 응용 프로그램은 입력기(reader), 처리기(handler) 및 입력 소
스(input source)의 세 가지 종류의 객체를 사용합니다: 이 문맥에서 “입력기
(Reader)”는 구문 분석기에 대한 또 다른 용어입니다, 즉, 입력 소스에서 바
이트나 문자를 읽고, 이벤트 시퀀스를 생성하는 코드 조각입니다.  그런 다음
이벤트는 처리기 객체로 배포됩니다, 즉 입력기가 처리기의 메서드를 호출합
니다.  따라서 SAX 응용 프로그램은 입력기 객체를 얻고, 입력 소스를 만들거
나 열고, 처리기를 만들고, 이 객체들을 모두 연결해야 합니다.  준비의 마지
막 단계로, 입력기가 입력을 구문 분석하도록 호출됩니다.  구문 분석하는 동
안, 처리기 객체의 메서드는 입력 데이터로부터 온 구조적 및 구문적 이벤트
를 기반으로 호출됩니다.

이러한 객체들은, 인터페이스만 중요합니다; 그들은 일반적으로 응용 프로그
램 자체에 의해 인스턴스로 만들어지지 않습니다.  파이썬에는 인터페이스에
대한 명시적인 개념이 없으므로, 이것들이 형식적으로는 클래스로 소개되지만
, 응용 프로그램은 제공된 클래스를 상속하지 않는 구현을 사용할 수 있습니
다.  *note InputSource: e91, *note Locator: 388b, ‘Attributes’,
‘AttributesNS’ 및 *note XMLReader: 387e. 인터페이스는 모듈 *note
xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c.에 정의되어 있습니다.  처리기 인터페이스는 *note
xml.sax.handler: 12a.에 정의되어 있습니다.  편의상, *note InputSource:
e91.(종종 직접 인스턴스를 만듭니다)와 처리기 클래스들은 *note xml.sax:
129.에서도 사용할 수 있습니다.  이러한 인터페이스는 아래에 설명되어 있습
니다.

이러한 클래스 외에도, *note xml.sax: 129.는 다음과 같은 예외 클래스를 제
공합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.sax.SAXException (msg, exception=None)

     XML 에러나 경고를 캡슐화합니다.  이 클래스에는 XML 구문 분석기나 응
     용 프로그램의 기본 에러나 경고 정보가 포함될 수 있습니다: 추가 기능
     을 제공하거나 지역화를 추가하기 위해 서브 클래싱 될 수 있습니다.
     *note ErrorHandler: 3889. 인터페이스에 정의된 처리기가 이 예외의 인
     스턴스를 수신하지만, 예외를 실제로 발생시킬 필요는 없음에 유의하십
     시오 — 정보를 담는 컨테이너로도 유용합니다.

     인스턴스로 만들어질 때, 'msg'는 사람이 읽을 수 있는 에러에 관한 설
     명이어야 합니다.  선택적 'exception' 매개 변수를 주면, ‘None’이거나
     구문 분석 코드에 의해 잡힌 예외여야 하고, 정보로 함께 전달됩니다.

     이것은 다른 SAX 예외 클래스의 베이스 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: xml.sax.SAXParseException (msg, exception, locator)

     구문 분석 에러 시 발생하는 *note SAXException: 388c.의 서브 클래스.
     이 클래스의 인스턴스는 SAX *note ErrorHandler: 3889. 인터페이스의 메
     서드에 전달되어 구문 분석 에러에 대한 정보를 제공합니다.  이 클래스
     는 *note SAXException: 388c. 인터페이스뿐만 아니라 SAX *note
     Locator: 388b. 인터페이스를 지원합니다.

 -- 예외: xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException (msg, exception=None)

     SAX *note XMLReader: 387e.가 인식할 수 없는 기능이나 속성을 만날 때
     발생하는 *note SAXException: 388c.의 서브 클래스.  SAX 응용 프로그
     램과 확장은 유사한 목적으로 이 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException (msg, exception=None)

     SAX *note XMLReader: 387e.가 지원되지 않는 기능을 활성화하거나 구현
     에서 지원하지 않는 값으로 속성을 설정하도록 요청될 때 발생하는
     *note SAXException: 388c.의 서브 클래스.  SAX 응용 프로그램과 확장
     은 유사한 목적으로 이 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

SAX: The Simple API for XML(2)

     이 사이트는 SAX API의 정의가 집중되는 곳입니다.  Java 구현과 온라인
     설명서를 제공합니다.  구현과 역사적 정보에 대한 링크도 있습니다.

모듈 *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.

     응용 프로그램이 제공하는 객체에 대한 인터페이스의 정의.

모듈 *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12b.

     SAX 응용 프로그램에서 사용하기 위한 편리 함수.

모듈 *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c.

     구문 분석기가 제공하는 객체에 대한 인터페이스의 정의.

* Menu:

* SAXException 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py

   (2) http://www.saxproject.org/


File: python.info,  Node: SAXException 객체,  Up: xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원

5.21.9.1 SAXException 객체
..........................

*note SAXException: 388c. 예외 클래스는 다음 메서드를 지원합니다:

 -- 메서드: SAXException.getMessage ()

     에러 상태를 설명하는 사람이 읽을 수 있는 메시지를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: SAXException.getException ()

     캡슐화된 예외 객체나 ‘None’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스,  Next: xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티,  Prev: xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.10 ‘xml.sax.handler’ — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스
------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/sax/handler.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

SAX API는 다섯 가지 처리기를 정의합니다: 콘텐츠 처리기, DTD 처리기, 에러
처리기, 엔티티 해석기 및 어휘 처리기.  응용 프로그램은 일반적으로 이벤트
에 관심이 있는 인터페이스 만 구현하면 됩니다; 단일 객체나 여러 객체에서
인터페이스를 구현할 수 있습니다.  처리기 구현은 모든 메서드가 기본 구현
을 갖도록 *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. 모듈에서 제공된 베이스 클래스에서
상속해야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler

     이것은 SAX의 주 콜백 인터페이스이며, 응용 프로그램에 가장 중요한 인
     터페이스입니다.  이 인터페이스의 이벤트 순서는 문서에서의 정보 순서
     를 반영합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler

     DTD 이벤트를 처리합니다.

     이 인터페이스는 기본 구문 분석에 필요한 DTD 이벤트만 지정합니다 (구
     문 분석되지 않은 엔티티와 어트리뷰트).

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver

     엔티티 해석을 위한 기본 인터페이스.  이 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체
     를 만든 후 구문 분석기에 객체를 등록하면, 구문 분석기는 객체의 메서
     드를 호출하여 모든 외부 엔티티를 해석합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler

     응용 프로그램에 에러와 경고 메시지를 표시하기 위해 구문 분석기에서
     사용하는 인터페이스.  이 객체의 메서드는 에러가 즉시 예외로 변환되
     는지 또는 다른 방식으로 처리되는지를 제어합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler

     Interface used by the parser to represent low frequency events
     which may not be of interest to many applications.

이러한 클래스 외에도, *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.는 기능과 속성 이름에 대
한 기호 상수를 제공합니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"’
          참: 이름 공간 처리를 수행합니다.
          거짓: 선택적으로 이름 공간 처리를 수행하지 않습니다 (namespace-prefixes를 암시합니다; 기본값).
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"’
          참: 이름 공간 선언에 사용된 원래 접두사 이름과 어트리뷰트를 보고합니다.
          거짓: 이름 공간 선언에 사용된 어트리뷰트를 보고하지 않고, 선택적으로 원래 접두사 이름을 보고하지 않습니다 (기본값).
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"’
          참: 모든 엘리먼트 이름, 접두사, 어트리뷰트 이름, 이름 공간 URI 및 지역 이름은 내장 intern 함수를 사용하여 인턴 됩니다.
          거짓: 그럴 수 있지만, 이름이 반드시 인턴 될 필요는 없습니다 (기본값).
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.feature_validation

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"’
          참: 모든 유효성 검사 에러를 보고합니다 (external-general-entities와 external-parameter-entities를 암시합니다).
          거짓: 유효성 검사 에러를 보고하지 않습니다.
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"’
          참: 모든 외부 일반 (텍스트) 엔티티를 포함합니다.
          거짓: 외부 일반 엔티티를 포함하지 않습니다.
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"’
          참: 외부 DTD 서브 세트를 포함하여, 모든 외부 파라미터 엔티티를 포함합니다.
          거짓: 외부 DTD 서브 세트를 포함하여, 어떤 외부 파라미터 엔티티도 포함하지 않습니다.
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.all_features

     모든 기능 리스트.

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"’
          데이터형: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (파이썬 2에서는 지원되지 않습니다)
          설명: 주석과 같은 어휘 이벤트에 대한 선택적 확장 처리기.
          액세스: 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"’
          데이터형: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (파이썬 2에서는 지원되지 않습니다)
          설명: 표기법과 구문 분석되지 않은 엔티티 이외의 DTD 관련 이벤트에 대한 선택적 확장 처리기.
          액세스: 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"’
          데이터형: org.w3c.dom.Node (파이썬 2에서는 지원되지 않습니다)
          설명: 구문 분석할 때, 이것이 DOM 이터레이터이면 방문 중인 현재 DOM 노드; 구문 분석하지 않을 때, 이터레이션을 위한 루트 DOM 노드.
          액세스: (구문 분석) 읽기 전용; (구문 분석하지 않음) 읽기/쓰기

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string

          값: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"’
          데이터형: 바이트열
          설명: 현재 이벤트의 소스인 리터럴 문자열.
          액세스: 읽기 전용

 -- 데이터: xml.sax.handler.all_properties

     알려진 모든 속성 이름 리스트

* Menu:

* ContentHandler 객체::
* DTDHandler 객체::
* EntityResolver 객체::
* ErrorHandler 객체::
* LexicalHandler 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py


File: python.info,  Node: ContentHandler 객체,  Next: DTDHandler 객체,  Up: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스

5.21.10.1 ContentHandler 객체
.............................

사용자는 자신의 응용 프로그램을 지원하기 위해 *note ContentHandler:
387b.를 서브 클래싱 할 것으로 기대됩니다.  입력 문서에서 적절한 이벤트에
대해 구문 분석기가 다음 메서드를 호출합니다:

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator (locator)

     응용 프로그램에 문서 이벤트의 출처를 찾기 위한 로케이터(locator)를
     제공하기 위해 구문 분석기가 호출합니다.

     SAX 구문 분석기가 (절대적으로 필요한 것은 아니지만) 로케이터를 제공
     할 것을 강력히 권장합니다: 그렇게 한다면, DocumentHandler 인터페이
     스의 다른 메서드를 호출하기 전에 이 메서드를 호출하여 로케이터를 응
     용 프로그램에 제공해야 합니다.

     로케이터를 사용하면 구문 분석기가 에러를 보고하지 않더라도 응용 프
     로그램이 문서 관련 이벤트의 종료 위치를 판별할 수 있습니다.  일반적
     으로, 응용 프로그램은 이 정보를 사용하여 자체 에러(가령 응용 프로그
     램의 비즈니스 규칙과 일치하지 않는 문자 내용)를 보고합니다.  로케이
     터가 반환한 정보는 아마도 검색 엔진에 사용하기에는 충분하지 않을 것
     입니다.

     로케이터는 이 인터페이스에서 이벤트를 호출하는 동안에만 올바른 정보
     를 반환함에 유의하십시오.  응용 프로그램은 다른 시간에 사용하려고 시
     도해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.startDocument ()

     문서 시작 알림을 받습니다.

     SAX 구문 분석기는 이 인터페이스나 DTDHandler의 다른 모든 메서드
     (*note setDocumentLocator(): 38a4. 제외) 전에 이 메서드를 한 번만 호
     출합니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.endDocument ()

     문서 끝 알림을 받습니다.

     SAX 구문 분석기는 이 메서드를 한 번만 호출하며, 그것이 구문 분석 중
     에 마지막으로 호출된 메서드가 됩니다.  구문 분석기는 (복구할 수 없
     는 에러로 인해) 구문 분석을 포기했거나 입력 끝에 도달할 때까지 이 메
     서드를 호출하지 않아야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping (prefix, uri)

     접두사 URI 이름 공간 매핑의 스코프를 시작합니다.

     이 이벤트의 정보는 일반적인 이름 공간 처리에 필요하지 않습니다: SAX
     XML 판독기는 ‘feature_namespaces’ 기능이 활성화되면 (기본값) 엘리먼
     트와 어트리뷰트 이름의 접두사를 자동으로 대체합니다.

     그러나, 응용 프로그램이 문자 데이터나 어트리뷰트 값에 접두사를 사용
     해야 할 때 자동으로 안전하게 확장할 수 없는 경우가 있습니다; *note
     startPrefixMapping(): 38a7. 과 *note endPrefixMapping(): 38a8. 이벤
     트는 필요한 경우 해당 컨텍스트에서 스스로 접두사를 확장하도록 정보
     를 응용 프로그램에 제공합니다.

     *note startPrefixMapping(): 38a7. 과 *note endPrefixMapping():
     38a8. 이벤트는 서로에 대해 올바르게 중첩된다고 보장되지 않음에 유의
     하십시오: 모든 *note startPrefixMapping(): 38a7. 이벤트는 해당
     *note startElement(): 150a. 이벤트 전에 발생하고, 모든 *note
     endPrefixMapping(): 38a8. 이벤트는 해당 *note endElement(): 150b. 이
     벤트 후에 발생하지만, 그들 간의 순서는 보장되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping (prefix)

     접두사 URI 매핑 스코프를 끝냅니다.

     자세한 내용은 *note startPrefixMapping(): 38a7. 을 참조하십시오.  이
     이벤트는 항상 해당 *note endElement(): 150b. 이벤트 이후에 발생하지
     만, *note endPrefixMapping(): 38a8. 이벤트의 순서는 이 이상으로는 보
     장되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.startElement (name, attrs)

     이름 공간이 아닌 모드에서 엘리먼트의 시작을 알립니다.

     'name' 매개 변수는 엘리먼트 유형의 원시 XML 1.0 이름을 문자열로 포
     함하고 'attrs' 매개 변수는 엘리먼트의 어트리뷰트를 포함하는
     ‘Attributes’ 인터페이스 (*note Attributes 인터페이스: 38a9.를 참조
     하십시오)의 객체를 담습니다.  'attrs'로 전달된 객체는 구문 분석기에
     의해 재사용 될 수 있습니다; 그것에 대한 참조를 유지하는 것은 어트리
     뷰트의 사본을 유지하는 신뢰할 수 있는 방법이 아닙니다.  어트리뷰트
     의 사본을 유지하려면, 'attrs' 객체의 *note copy(): 25. 메서드를 사
     용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.endElement (name)

     이름 공간이 아닌 모드에서 엘리먼트의 끝을 알립니다.

     'name' 매개 변수는 *note startElement(): 150a. 이벤트와 마찬가지로
     엘리먼트 유형의 이름을 포함합니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.startElementNS (name, qname, attrs)

     이름 공간 모드에서 엘리먼트의 시작을 알립니다.

     'name' 매개 변수는 엘리먼트 유형의 이름을 ‘(uri, localname)’ 튜플로
     포함하고, 'qname' 매개 변수는 소스 문서에서 사용된 원시 XML 1.0 이
     름을 포함하며, 'attrs' 매개 변수는 엘리먼트의 어트리뷰트를 포함하는
     ‘AttributesNS’ 인터페이스(*note AttributesNS 인터페이스: 38ab.를 참
     조하십시오)의 인스턴스를 담습니다.  아무런 이름 공간도 엘리먼트와 연
     관되지 않았으면 'name'의 'uri' 구성 요소는 ‘None’입니다.  'attrs'로
     전달된 객체는 구문 분석기에 의해 재사용 될 수 있습니다; 그것에 대한
     참조를 유지하는 것은 어트리뷰트의 사본을 유지하는 신뢰할 수 있는 방
     법이 아닙니다.  어트리뷰트의 사본을 유지하려면 'attrs' 객체의 *note
     copy(): 25. 메서드를 사용하십시오.

     ‘feature_namespace_prefixes’ 기능이 활성화되지 않는 한, 구문 분석기
     는 'qname' 매개 변수를 ‘None’으로 설정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.endElementNS (name, qname)

     이름 공간 모드에서 엘리먼트의 끝을 알립니다.

     'name' 매개 변수는 *note startElementNS(): 38aa. 메서드와 마찬가지
     로 'qname' 매개 변수처럼 엘리먼트 유형의 이름을 포함합니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.characters (content)

     문자 데이터의 알림을 받습니다.

     구문 분석기는 이 메서드를 호출하여 각 문자 데이터 청크를 보고합니다
     .  SAX 구문 분석기는 연속된 모든 문자 데이터를 단일 청크로 반환하거
     나 여러 청크로 분할할 수 있습니다; 그러나, 로케이터가 유용한 정보를
     제공할 수 있도록, 단일 이벤트의 모든 문자는 같은 외부 엔티티에서 온
     것이어야 합니다.

     'content'는 문자열이나 바이트열 인스턴스일 수 있습니다; ‘expat’ 판
     독기 모듈은 항상 문자열을 생성합니다.

          참고: Python XML Special Interest Group에서 제공된 이전 SAX 1
          인터페이스는 이 메서드에 더 Java와 유사한 인터페이스를 사용했
          습니다.  파이썬에서 사용되는 대부분의 구문 분석기가 구식 인터
          페이스의 장점을 취하지 않았기 때문에, 더 간단한 서명으로 변경
          했습니다.  이전 코드를 새 인터페이스로 변환하려면, 이전
          'offset'과 'length' 매개 변수로 콘텐츠를 슬라이싱하는 대신
          'content'를 사용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace (whitespace)

     엘리먼트 내용에서 무시할 수 있는 공백에 대한 알림을 받습니다.

     유효성 검사 구문 분석기는 무시할 수 있는 공백의 각 청크를 보고하기
     위해 이 메서드를 사용해야 합니다 (W3C XML 1.0 권장 사항, 섹션 2.10을
     참조하십시오).

     SAX 구문 분석기는 모든 연속적인 공백을 단일 청크로 반환하거나 여러
     청크로 나눌 수 있습니다; 그러나 로케이터가 유용한 정보를 제공할 수
     있도록, 단일 이벤트의 모든 문자는 같은 외부 엔티티에서 온 것이어야
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.processingInstruction (target, data)

     처리 명령의 알림을 받습니다.

     구문 분석기는 발견된 각 처리 명령에 대해 이 메서드를 한 번 호출합니
     다: 처리 명령은 메인 문서 엘리먼트 전후에 발생할 수 있음에 유의하십
     시오.

     SAX 구문 분석기는 이 메서드를 사용하여 XML 선언(XML 1.0, 섹션 2.8)이
     나 텍스트 선언(XML 1.0, 섹션 4.3.1)을 보고해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: ContentHandler.skippedEntity (name)

     건너뛴 엔티티의 알림을 받습니다.

     구문 분석기는 각 엔티티를 건너뛸 때마다 이 메서드를 한 번 호출합니
     다.  유효성을 검사하지 않는 프로세서는 선언을 보지 않으면 엔티티를
     건너뛸 수 있습니다 (예를 들어 엔티티가 외부 DTD 서브 세트에서 선언
     되었기 때문에).  ‘feature_external_ges’와 ‘feature_external_pes’ 속
     성의 값에 따라, 모든 프로세서가 외부 엔티티를 건너뛸 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: DTDHandler 객체,  Next: EntityResolver 객체,  Prev: ContentHandler 객체,  Up: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스

5.21.10.2 DTDHandler 객체
.........................

*note DTDHandler: 3895. 인스턴스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

 -- 메서드: DTDHandler.notationDecl (name, publicId, systemId)

     표기법 선언 이벤트를 처리합니다.

 -- 메서드: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl (name, publicId, systemId,
          ndata)

     구문 분석되지 않은 엔티티 선언 이벤트를 처리합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: EntityResolver 객체,  Next: ErrorHandler 객체,  Prev: DTDHandler 객체,  Up: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스

5.21.10.3 EntityResolver 객체
.............................

 -- 메서드: EntityResolver.resolveEntity (publicId, systemId)

     엔티티의 시스템 식별자를 해석하고 읽을 시스템 식별자를 문자열로 반
     환하거나, 읽을 InputSource를 반환합니다.  기본 구현은 'systemId'를
     반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ErrorHandler 객체,  Next: LexicalHandler 객체,  Prev: EntityResolver 객체,  Up: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스

5.21.10.4 ErrorHandler 객체
...........................

이 인터페이스를 갖는 객체는 *note XMLReader: 387e.에서 에러와 경고 정보
를 받는 데 사용됩니다.  이 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체를 만든 다음 *note
XMLReader: 387e.에 객체를 등록하면, 구문 분석기는 객체의 메서드를 호출하
여 모든 경고와 에러를 보고합니다.  세 가지 수준의 에러가 있습니다: 경고,
(어쩌면) 복구 가능한 에러 및 복구 불가능한 에러.  모든 메서드는 *note
SAXParseException: 388a.를 유일한 매개 변수로 취합니다.  전달된 예외 객
체를 발생 시켜 에러와 경고를 예외로 변환할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: ErrorHandler.error (exception)

     구문 분석기가 복구 가능한 에러를 만나면 호출됩니다.  이 메서드가 예
     외를 발생시키지 않으면, 구문 분석이 계속될 수 있지만, 응용 프로그램
     에서 추가 문서 정보를 기대하지 않아야 합니다.  구문 분석기가 계속되
     도록 허용하면 입력 문서에서 추가 에러가 발견될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: ErrorHandler.fatalError (exception)

     구문 분석기가 복구 불가능한 에러를 만나면 호출됩니다; 이 메서드가 반
     환될 때 구문 분석이 종료될 것으로 기대합니다.

 -- 메서드: ErrorHandler.warning (exception)

     구문 분석기가 응용 프로그램에 경미한 경고 정보를 제공할 때 호출됩니
     다.  이 메서드가 반환될 때 구문 분석이 계속될 것으로 기대되며, 문서
     정보는 계속 응용 프로그램에 전달됩니다.  이 메서드에서 예외를 발생
     시키면 구문 분석이 종료됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: LexicalHandler 객체,  Prev: ErrorHandler 객체,  Up: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스

5.21.10.5 LexicalHandler 객체
.............................

어휘 이벤트에 대한 선택적 SAX2 처리기.

This handler is used to obtain lexical information about an XML
document.  Lexical information includes information describing the
document encoding used and XML comments embedded in the document, as
well as section boundaries for the DTD and for any CDATA sections.  The
lexical handlers are used in the same manner as content handlers.

Set the LexicalHandler of an XMLReader by using the setProperty method
with the property identifier
‘'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'’.

 -- 메서드: LexicalHandler.comment (content)

     Reports a comment anywhere in the document (including the DTD and
     outside the document element).

 -- 메서드: LexicalHandler.startDTD (name, public_id, system_id)

     Reports the start of the DTD declarations if the document has an
     associated DTD.

 -- 메서드: LexicalHandler.endDTD ()

     Reports the end of DTD declaration.

 -- 메서드: LexicalHandler.startCDATA ()

     Reports the start of a CDATA marked section.

     The contents of the CDATA marked section will be reported through
     the characters handler.

 -- 메서드: LexicalHandler.endCDATA ()

     Reports the end of a CDATA marked section.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티,  Next: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스,  Prev: xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.11 ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ — SAX 유틸리티
-----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. 모듈은 SAX 응용 프로그램을 만들 때 직접 사
용하거나 베이스 클래스로 사용하는 데 모두 유용한 많은 클래스와 함수를 포
함합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.sax.saxutils.escape (data, entities={})

     data 문자열에 있는 ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ 및 ‘'>'’를 이스케이프 합니다.

     딕셔너리를 선택적 'entities' 매개 변수로 전달하여 data의 다른 문자
     열을 이스케이프 할 수 있습니다.  키와 값은 모두 문자열이어야 합니다
     ; 각 키는 해당 값으로 치환되게 됩니다.  문자 ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ 및 ‘'>'’는
     'entities'가 제공되더라도 항상 이스케이프 됩니다.

          참고: This function should only be used to escape characters
          that can’t be used directly in XML. Do not use this function
          as a general string translation function.

 -- 함수: xml.sax.saxutils.unescape (data, entities={})

     data 문자열에 있는 ‘'&amp;'’, ‘'&lt;'’ 및 ‘'&gt;'’를 역 이스케이프
     합니다.

     딕셔너리를 선택적 'entities' 매개 변수로 전달하여 data의 다른 문자
     열을 역 이스케이프 할 수 있습니다.  키와 값은 모두 문자열이어야 합
     니다; 각 키는 해당 값으로 치환되게 됩니다.  ‘'&amp'’, ‘'&lt;'’ 및
     ‘'&gt;'’는 'entities'가 제공되더라도 항상 역 이스케이프 됩니다.

 -- 함수: xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr (data, entities={})

     *note escape(): 38c5.와 비슷하지만, 'data'가 어트리뷰트 값으로 사용
     되도록 준비합니다.  반환 값은 추가로 필요한 치환이 적용된 'data'의
     따옴표 붙은 버전입니다.  *note quoteattr(): 38c7.는 'data'의 내용에
     따라 인용 부호 문자를 선택하여 가능하면 문자열의 인용 부호 문자를 인
     코딩하지 않습니다.  작은따옴표와 큰따옴표가 모두 'data'에 이미 있으
     면, 큰따옴표 문자가 인코딩되고, 'data'는 큰따옴표로 묶입니다.  결과
     문자열은 어트리뷰트 값으로 직접 사용할 수 있습니다:

          >>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
          <element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">

     이 함수는 참조 구상 문법(reference concrete syntax)을 사용하여
     HTML이나 모든 SGML을 위한 어트리뷰트 값을 생성할 때 유용합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator (out=None,
          encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)

     이 클래스는 SAX 이벤트를 다시 XML 문서에 쓰는 방식으로 *note
     ContentHandler: 387b. 인터페이스를 구현합니다.  다시 말해, *note
     XMLGenerator: 38c8.를 내용 처리기로 사용하면 구문 분석 중인 원본 문
     서를 재생산합니다.  'out'은 파일류 객체 여야하고, 기본값은
     'sys.stdout'입니다.  'encoding'은 출력 스트림의 인코딩이고, 기본값
     은 ‘'iso-8859-1'’입니다.  'short_empty_elements'는 내용이 없는 엘리
     먼트의 형식을 제어합니다: ‘False’(기본값)는 시작/끝 태그 쌍으로 출
     력하고, ‘True’로 설정하면 하나의 스스로 닫힌 태그를 출력합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'short_empty_elements' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase (base)

     이 클래스는 *note XMLReader: 387e.와 클라이언트 응용 프로그램의 이
     벤트 처리기 사이에 위치하도록 설계되었습니다.  기본적으로, 이것은 요
     청을 입력기에 전달하고 이벤트를 변경 없이 처리기에 전달할 뿐 아무것
     도 하지 않지만, 서브 클래스는 특정 메서드를 재정의하여 이벤트 스트
     림이나 구성 요청이 지나갈 때 수정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source (source, base='')

     이 함수는 입력 소스와 선택적인 베이스 URL을 받아들이고 완전히 결정
     되고 읽을 준비가 된 *note InputSource: e91. 객체를 반환합니다.  입
     력 소스는 문자열, 파일류 객체 또는 *note InputSource: e91. 객체로 지
     정할 수 있습니다; 구문 분석기는 *note parse(): 38cb. 메서드에 대한
     다형적인 'source' 인자를 구현하는 데 이 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스,  Next: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석,  Prev: xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.12 ‘xml.sax.xmlreader’ — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스
--------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

SAX 구문 분석기는 *note XMLReader: 387e. 인터페이스를 구현합니다.  이들
은 함수 ‘create_parser()’를 제공해야 하는 파이썬 모듈로 구현됩니다.  이
함수는 새로운 구문 분석기 객체를 만들기 위해 인자 없이 *note
xml.sax.make_parser(): 1a42.에 의해 호출됩니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader

     SAX 구문 분석기가 상속할 수 있는 베이스 클래스.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser

     때에 따라 입력 소스를 한 번에 구문 분석하지 않고 문서를 사용 가능할
     때마다 청크로 공급하는 것이 바람직합니다.  입력기(reader)는 일반적
     으로 전체 파일을 읽지 않고 덩어리로 읽습니다; 여전히 전체 문서가 처
     리될 때까지 ‘parse()’는 반환하지 않습니다.  따라서 ‘parse()’의 블로
     킹 동작이 바람직하지 않을 때 이 인터페이스를 사용해야 합니다.

     구문 분석기가 인스턴스화 되면 즉시 feed 메서드에서 데이터를 받아들
     일 수 있습니다.  구문 분석이 close 호출로 완료된 후, 구문 분석기가
     feed나 parse 메서드를 사용하여 새 데이터를 받아들일 준비가 되도록 하
     려면 reset 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.

     이러한 메서드들은 구문 분석 중, 즉 parse가 호출된 후 반환하기 전에
     호출하지 '않아야' 합니다.

     기본적으로, 이 클래스는 SAX 2.0 드라이버 작성자의 편의를 위해
     IncrementalParser 인터페이스의 feed, close 및 reset 메서드를 사용하
     여 XMLReader 인터페이스의 parse 메서드를 구현합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator

     SAX 이벤트를 문서 위치에 관련시키기 위한 인터페이스.  로케이터 객체
     는 DocumentHandler 메서드들을 호출하는 동안에만 유효한 결과를 반환
     합니다; 다른 때에는 결과를 예측할 수 없습니다.  정보가 없으면, 메서
     드는 ‘None’을 반환할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource (system_id=None)

     엔티티를 읽기 위해 *note XMLReader: 387e.에 필요한 정보의 캡슐화.

     이 클래스는 공개 식별자, 시스템 식별자, 바이트 스트림 (문자 인코딩
     정보도 포함할 수 있습니다) 및/또는 엔티티의 문자 스트림에 대한 정보
     를 포함할 수 있습니다.

     응용 프로그램은 *note XMLReader.parse(): 38cb. 메서드에서 사용하고
     EntityResolver.resolveEntity에서 반환하기 위해 이 클래스의 객체를 만
     듭니다.

     *note InputSource: e91.는 응용 프로그램에 속하며, *note XMLReader:
     387e.는 응용 프로그램에서 전달된 *note InputSource: e91. 객체를 수
     정할 수는 없지만, 복사하여 수정할 수는 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl (attrs)

     이것은 ‘Attributes’ 인터페이스의 구현입니다 (*note Attributes
     인터페이스: 38a9. 절을 참조하십시오).  이것은 ‘startElement()’ 호출
     에서 요소 어트리뷰트를 나타내는 딕셔너리류 객체입니다.  가장 유용한
     딕셔너리 연산 외에도, 인터페이스에서 설명하는 여러 가지 메서드를 지
     원합니다.  이 클래스의 객체는 입력기(reader)가 인스턴스화 해야 합니
     다; 'attrs'는 어트리뷰트 이름에서 어트리뷰트 값으로의 매핑을 포함하
     는 딕셔너리류 객체여야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl (attrs, qnames)

     ‘startElementNS()’에 전달될 *note AttributesImpl: 38cf.의 이름 공간
     (namespace) 인식 변형입니다.  *note AttributesImpl: 38cf.에서 파생
     되었지만, 'namespaceURI'와 'localname'의 2-튜플로 구성된 어트리뷰트
     이름을 이해합니다.  또한, 원본 문서에 나타나는 정규화 된 이름을 기
     대하는 여러 가지 메서드를 제공합니다.  이 클래스는 ‘AttributesNS’ 인
     터페이스를 구현합니다 (*note AttributesNS 인터페이스: 38ab. 절을 참
     조하십시오).

* Menu:

* XMLReader 객체::
* IncrementalParser 객체::
* Locator 객체::
* InputSource 객체::
* Attributes 인터페이스::
* AttributesNS 인터페이스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py


File: python.info,  Node: XMLReader 객체,  Next: IncrementalParser 객체,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

5.21.12.1 XMLReader 객체
........................

*note XMLReader: 387e. 인터페이스는 다음과 같은 메서드를 지원합니다:

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.parse (source)

     SAX 이벤트를 생성하면서 입력 소스를 처리합니다.  'source' 객체는 시
     스템 식별자 (입력 소스를 식별하는 문자열 – 보통 파일 이름이나 URL),
     *note pathlib.Path: 229, *note 경로류: 2a0. 객체 또는 *note
     InputSource: e91. 객체일 수 있습니다.  *note parse(): 38cb.가 반환
     되면, 입력이 완전히 처리된 것이고 구문 분석기 객체를 파기하거나 재
     설정(reset)할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 문자 스트림 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 경로류 객체에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.getContentHandler ()

     현재 *note ContentHandler: 387b.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setContentHandler (handler)

     현재 *note ContentHandler: 387b.를 설정합니다.  *note
     ContentHandler: 387b.가 설정되지 않으면, 내용 이벤트가 버려집니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.getDTDHandler ()

     현재 *note DTDHandler: 3895.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setDTDHandler (handler)

     현재 *note DTDHandler: 3895.를 설정합니다.  *note DTDHandler:
     3895.가 설정되지 않으면, DTD 이벤트가 버려집니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.getEntityResolver ()

     현재 *note EntityResolver: 3896.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setEntityResolver (handler)

     현재 *note EntityResolver: 3896.를 설정합니다.  *note
     EntityResolver: 3896.가 설정되지 않으면, 외부 엔티티를 결정하려고 할
     때 엔티티에 대한 시스템 식별자가 열리게 되고, 사용할 수 없으면 실패
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.getErrorHandler ()

     현재 *note ErrorHandler: 3889.를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setErrorHandler (handler)

     현재 에러 처리기를 설정합니다.  *note ErrorHandler: 3889.가 설정되
     지 않으면, 에러는 예외를 발생시키고, 경고는 인쇄됩니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setLocale (locale)

     응용 프로그램이 에러와 경고에 대한 로케일을 설정하도록 합니다.

     SAX 구문 분석기는 에러와 경고에 대한 지역화를 제공하지 않아도 됩니
     다; 그러나, 요청된 로케일을 지원할 수 없으면 SAX 예외를 발생시켜야
     합니다.  응용 프로그램은 구문 분석 중에 로케일 변경을 요청할 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.getFeature (featurename)

     기능 'featurename'의 현재 설정을 반환합니다.  기능이 인식되지 않으
     면, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’이 발생합니다.  잘 알려진 기능 이름
     (featurename)은 모듈 *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.에 나열되어 있습니
     다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setFeature (featurename, value)

     'featurename'을 'value'로 설정합니다.  기능이 인식되지 않으면,
     ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’가 발생합니다.  구문 분석기가 기능이나 해
     당 설정을 지원하지 않으면 'SAXNotSupportedException'이 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.getProperty (propertyname)

     속성 'propertyname'의 현재 설정을 반환합니다.  속성이 인식되지 않으
     면 ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’이 발생합니다.  잘 알려진 속성 이름은
     모듈 *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.에 나열되어 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: XMLReader.setProperty (propertyname, value)

     'propertyname'을 'value'로 설정합니다.  속성이 인식되지 않으면
     ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’이 발생합니다.  구문 분석기가 속성이나 해
     당 설정을 지원하지 않으면 'SAXNotSupportedException'이 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalParser 객체,  Next: Locator 객체,  Prev: XMLReader 객체,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

5.21.12.2 IncrementalParser 객체
................................

*note IncrementalParser: 38ce. 인스턴스는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드를 제공
합니다:

 -- 메서드: IncrementalParser.feed (data)

     'data' 청크를 처리합니다.

 -- 메서드: IncrementalParser.close ()

     문서의 끝을 가정합니다.  끝에서만 확인할 수 있는 올바른 구성
     (well-formedness) 조건을 확인하고, 처리기를 호출하며 구문 분석 중에
     할당된 자원을 정리할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: IncrementalParser.reset ()

     이 메서드는 close가 호출된 후에 호출되어 새 문서를 구문 분석할 수 있
     도록 구문 분석기를 재설정합니다.  reset을 호출하지 않고, close 후에
     parse나 feed를 호출한 결과는 정의되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Locator 객체,  Next: InputSource 객체,  Prev: IncrementalParser 객체,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

5.21.12.3 Locator 객체
......................

*note Locator: 388b. 인스턴스는 다음 메서드를 제공합니다:

 -- 메서드: Locator.getColumnNumber ()

     현재 이벤트가 시작되는 열 번호를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Locator.getLineNumber ()

     현재 이벤트가 시작되는 줄 번호를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Locator.getPublicId ()

     현재 이벤트의 공개 식별자를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Locator.getSystemId ()

     현재 이벤트의 시스템 식별자를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: InputSource 객체,  Next: Attributes 인터페이스,  Prev: Locator 객체,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

5.21.12.4 InputSource 객체
..........................

 -- 메서드: InputSource.setPublicId (id)

     이 *note InputSource: e91.의 공개 식별자를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.getPublicId ()

     이 *note InputSource: e91.의 공개 식별자를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.setSystemId (id)

     이 *note InputSource: e91.의 시스템 식별자를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.getSystemId ()

     이 *note InputSource: e91.의 시스템 식별자를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.setEncoding (encoding)

     이 *note InputSource: e91.의 문자 인코딩을 설정합니다.

     인코딩은 XML 인코딩 선언에 허용되는 문자열이어야 합니다 (XML 권장 사
     항의 4.3.3 절을 참조하십시오).

     *note InputSource: e91.에 문자 스트림도 포함되어 있으면 *note
     InputSource: e91.의 인코딩 어트리뷰트는 무시됩니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.getEncoding ()

     이 InputSource의 문자 인코딩을 가져옵니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.setByteStream (bytefile)

     이 입력 소스의 바이트 스트림(*note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f.)을 설정합니
     다.

     문자 스트림도 지정되어 있으면 SAX 구문 분석기는 이것을 무시하지만,
     URI 연결 자체를 여는 것보다 바이트 스트림을 먼저 사용합니다.

     응용 프로그램이 바이트 스트림의 문자 인코딩을 알고 있으면,
     setEncoding 메서드로 설정해야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.getByteStream ()

     이 입력 소스의 바이트 스트림을 가져옵니다.

     getEncoding 메서드는 이 바이트 스트림의 문자 인코딩을 반환하거나, 알
     수 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.setCharacterStream (charfile)

     이 입력 소스에 대한 문자 스트림(*note 텍스트 파일: 1c8e.)을 설정합
     니다.

     문자 스트림이 지정되면 SAX 구문 분석기는 모든 바이트 스트림을 무시
     하고 시스템 식별자에 대한 URI 연결을 열려고 시도하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: InputSource.getCharacterStream ()

     이 입력 소스의 문자 스트림을 가져옵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes 인터페이스,  Next: AttributesNS 인터페이스,  Prev: InputSource 객체,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

5.21.12.5 ‘Attributes’ 인터페이스
.................................

‘Attributes’ 객체는 메서드 ‘copy()’, ‘get()’, *note __contains__():
1f66, ‘items()’, ‘keys()’ 및 ‘values()’를 포함하는 *note 매핑 프로토콜:
11ab.의 일부를 구현합니다.  다음과 같은 메서드도 제공됩니다:

 -- 메서드: Attributes.getLength ()

     어트리뷰트 수를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Attributes.getNames ()

     어트리뷰트의 이름을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Attributes.getType (name)

     어트리뷰트 'name'의 유형을 반환합니다.  일반적으로 ‘'CDATA'’입니다.

 -- 메서드: Attributes.getValue (name)

     어트리뷰트 'name'의 값을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: AttributesNS 인터페이스,  Prev: Attributes 인터페이스,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스

5.21.12.6 ‘AttributesNS’ 인터페이스
...................................

이 인터페이스는 ‘Attributes’ 인터페이스의 서브 형입니다 (*note
Attributes 인터페이스: 38a9. 절을 참조하십시오).  그 인터페이스에서 지원
하는 모든 메서드는 ‘AttributesNS’ 객체에서도 사용 가능합니다.

다음과 같은 메서드도 제공됩니다:

 -- 메서드: AttributesNS.getValueByQName (name)

     정규화된 이름(qualified name)의 값을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: AttributesNS.getNameByQName (name)

     정규화된 'name'에 대한 ‘(namespace, localname)’ 쌍을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: AttributesNS.getQNameByName (name)

     ‘(namespace, localname)’ 쌍에 대한 정규화된 이름을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: AttributesNS.getQNames ()

     모든 어트리뷰트의 정규화된 이름을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석,  Prev: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스,  Up: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구

5.21.13 ‘xml.parsers.expat’ — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석
---------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

     참고: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
     *note XML security: 3797.

*note xml.parsers.expat: 126. 모듈은 Expat 유효성 검사 없는
(non-validating) XML 구문 분석기에 대한 파이썬 인터페이스입니다.  이 모
듈은 XML 구문 분석기의 현재 상태를 나타내는 단일 확장형 ‘xmlparser’를 제
공합니다.  ‘xmlparser’ 객체가 만들어진 후, 객체의 다양한 어트리뷰트를 처
리기 함수로 설정할 수 있습니다.  그런 다음 XML 문서가 구문 분석기에 공급
되면, XML 문서에 있는 문자 데이터와 마크업에 대해 처리기 함수가 호출됩니
다.

이 모듈은 ‘pyexpat’ 모듈을 사용하여 Expat 구문 분석기에 대한 액세스를 제
공합니다.  ‘pyexpat’ 모듈의 직접적인 사용은 폐지되었습니다.

이 모듈은 하나의 예외와 하나의 형 객체를 제공합니다:

 -- 예외: xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError

     Expat이 에러를 보고할 때 발생하는 예외.  Expat 에러 해석에 대한 자
     세한 정보는 섹션 *note ExpatError 예외: 3902.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 예외: xml.parsers.expat.error

     *note ExpatError: 1269.의 별칭.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType

     *note ParserCreate(): 3905. 함수의 반환 값의 형.

*note xml.parsers.expat: 126. 모듈에는 두 가지 함수가 있습니다:

 -- 함수: xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString (errno)

     주어진 에러 번호 'errno'에 대한 설명 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate (encoding=None,
          namespace_separator=None)

     새로운 ‘xmlparser’ 객체를 만들고 반환합니다.  지정되면, 'encoding'은
     XML 데이터가 사용하는 인코딩의 이름을 지정하는 문자열이어야 합니다.
     Expat은 파이썬만큼 많은 인코딩을 지원하지 않으며, 인코딩 레퍼토리를
     확장할 수 없습니다; UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1) 및 ASCII를 지
     원합니다.  'encoding' (1) 이 제공되면 문서의 묵시적이나 명시적 인코
     딩을 대체합니다.

     Expat은 XML 이름 공간 처리를 선택적으로 수행할 수 있는데,
     'namespace_separator'에 값을 제공하는 것으로 활성화됩니다.  값은 한
     문자 문자열이어야 합니다; 문자열의 길이가 잘못되면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다 (‘None’은 생략과 같은 것으로 간주합니
     다).  이름 공간 처리가 활성화되면, 이름 공간에 속하는 엘리먼트 형 이
     름과 어트리뷰트 이름이 확장됩니다.  엘리먼트 처리기
     ‘StartElementHandler’와 ‘EndElementHandler’ 에 전달된 엘리먼트 이름
     은 이름 공간 URI, 이름 공간 구분 문자 및 이름의 로컬 부분의 이어붙
     이기입니다.  이름 공간 구분자가 0바이트(‘chr(0)’)이면 이름 공간
     URI와 로컬 부분이 구분자 없이 연결됩니다.

     예를 들어, 'namespace_separator'가 스페이스 문자(‘' '’)로 설정되고
     다음 문서가 구문 분석되면:

          <?xml version="1.0"?>
          <root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
                xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
            <py:elem1 />
            <elem2 xmlns="" />
          </root>

     ‘StartElementHandler’는 각 엘리먼트에 대해 다음 문자열을 수신합니다
     :

          http://default-namespace.org/ root
          http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
          elem2

     ‘pyexpat’에서 사용하는 ‘Expat’ 라이브러리의 제한으로 인해, 반환된
     ‘xmlparser’ 인스턴스는 단일 XML 문서를 구문 분석하는 데만 사용할 수
     있습니다.  고유한 구문 분석기 인스턴스를 제공하려면 문서마다
     ‘ParserCreate’를 호출하십시오.

더 보기
.......

Expat XML 구문 분석기(2)

     Expat 프로젝트의 홈페이지.

* Menu:

* XMLParser 객체: XMLParser 객체<2>.
* ExpatError 예외::
* 예: 예<10>.
* 콘텐츠 모델 기술::
* Expat 에러 상수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) XML 출력에 포함된 인코딩 문자열은 적절한 표준을 준수해야 합니다.
예를 들어, “UTF-8”은 유효하지만, “UTF8”은 유효하지 않습니다.
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ 과
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’ 을
참조하십시오.

   (2) http://www.libexpat.org/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser 객체<2>,  Next: ExpatError 예외,  Up: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석

5.21.13.1 XMLParser 객체
........................

‘xmlparser’ 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.Parse (data[, isfinal])

     문자열 'data'의 내용을 구문 분석하고, 구문 분석된 데이터를 처리하기
     위해 적절한 처리기 함수를 호출합니다.  이 메서드에 대한 최종 호출에
     서 'isfinal'은 참이어야 합니다; 여러 파일을 제출하는 것이 아니라, 단
     일 파일을 여러 조각으로 나누어 구문 분석 할 수 있도록 합니다.
     'data'는 언제든지 빈 문자열이 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.ParseFile (file)

     'file' 객체에서 읽은 XML 데이터를 구문 분석합니다.  'file'은 더는 데
     이터가 없을 때 빈 문자열을 반환하는 ‘read(nbytes)’ 메서드만 제공하
     면 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.SetBase (base)

     선언에서 시스템 식별자에 있는 상대 URI를 결정하는 데 사용할 베이스
     를 설정합니다.  상대 식별자 결정은 응용 프로그램에 맡겨집니다: 이 값
     은 'base' 인자로 *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 390c, *note
     NotationDeclHandler(): 390d. 및 *note UnparsedEntityDeclHandler():
     390e. 함수에 전달됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.GetBase ()

     *note SetBase(): 390b.에 대한 이전 호출에 의해 설정된 베이스를 포함
     하는 문자열을 반환하거나, *note SetBase(): 390b.가 호출되지 않았으
     면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.GetInputContext ()

     현재 이벤트를 생성한 입력 데이터를 문자열로 반환합니다.  데이터는 텍
     스트를 포함하는 엔티티의 인코딩을 따릅니다.  이벤트 처리기가 활성화
     되지 않은 상태에서 호출될 때, 반환 값은 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate (context[, encoding])

     부모 구문 분석기가 구문 분석한 내용이 참조하는 외부 구문 분석된 엔
     티티를 구문 분석하는 데 사용할 수 있는 “자식” 구문 분석기를 만듭니
     다.  'context' 매개 변수는 아래 설명된 *note
     ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 390c. 처리기 함수에 전달된 문자열이어야
     합니다.  자식 구문 분석기는 *note ordered_attributes: 3912.와 *note
     specified_attributes: 3913.가 이 구문 분석기의 값으로 설정된 상태로
     만들어집니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing (flag)

     매개 변수 엔티티(외부 DTD 부분 집합을 포함합니다)의 구문 분석을 제
     어합니다.  가능한 'flag' 값은 ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER’,
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE’ 및
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS’입니다.  플래그 설정에 성공하면 참
     을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD ([flag])

     'flag'에 대해 참값(기본값)으로 이를 호출하면 Expat이 대체 DTD를 로
     드할 수 있도록 모든 인자를 *note None: 66f.으로 *note
     ExternalEntityRefHandler: 390c.를 호출하도록 합니다.  문서에 문서 형
     선언이 포함되어 있지 않으면, *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 390c.는
     여전히 호출되지만, *note StartDoctypeDeclHandler: 3916.와 *note
     EndDoctypeDeclHandler: 3917.는 호출되지 않습니다.

     'flag'에 대해 거짓 값을 전달하면 참값을 전달한 이전 호출이 취소되지
     만, 그렇지 않으면 효과가 없습니다.

     이 메서드는 *note Parse(): 3909.나 *note ParseFile(): 390a. 메서드
     가 호출되기 전에만 호출 할 수 있습니다; 이들 중 어느 것이라도 호출
     된 후에 호출하면 *note code: 1a. 어트리뷰트가
     ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]’로
     설정된 *note ExpatError: 1269.가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled (enabled)

          경고: Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ has security
          implications, as detailed below; please make sure to
          understand these consequences prior to using the
          ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled’ method.

     Expat 2.6.0 introduced a security mechanism called “reparse
     deferral” where instead of causing denial of service through
     quadratic runtime from reparsing large tokens, reparsing of
     unfinished tokens is now delayed by default until a sufficient
     amount of input is reached.  Due to this delay, registered handlers
     may — depending of the sizing of input chunks pushed to Expat — no
     longer be called right after pushing new input to the parser.
     Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility of
     protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both
     wanted, calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ disables reparse
     deferral for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or
     altogether.  Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True)’ allows
     re-enabling reparse deferral.

     Note that *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 272. has been
     backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix.
     Check for availability of *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 272.
     using *note hasattr(): 4cc. if used in code running across a
     variety of Python versions.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled ()

     Returns whether reparse deferral is currently enabled for the given
     Expat parser instance.

     Added in version 3.13.

‘xmlparser’ 객체에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: xmlparser.buffer_size

     *note buffer_text: 1488.가 참일 때 사용되는 버퍼의 크기.  이 어트리
     뷰트에 새로운 정숫값을 대입하여 새로운 버퍼 크기를 설정할 수 있습니
     다.  크기가 변경되면 버퍼가 플러시 됩니다.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.buffer_text

     이 값을 참으로 설정하면 ‘xmlparser’ 객체가 Expat에서 반환한 텍스트
     내용을 버퍼링하여 가능할 때마다 *note CharacterDataHandler(): 3919.
     콜백을 여러 번 호출하지 않도록 합니다.  Expat은 일반적으로 모든 줄
     끝에서 문자 데이터를 덩어리로 나누기 때문에 성능을 크게 향상할 수 있
     습니다.  이 어트리뷰트는 기본적으로 거짓이며, 언제든지 변경될 수 있
     습니다.  거짓일 때, 줄 넘김이 없는 데이터도 덩어리노 나뉠 수 있음에
     유의하십시오.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.buffer_used

     *note buffer_text: 1488.가 활성화되면, 버퍼에 저장된 바이트 수.  이
     바이트열은 UTF-8로 인코딩된 텍스트를 나타냅니다.  *note
     buffer_text: 1488.가 거짓이면 이 어트리뷰트는 의미가 없습니다.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.ordered_attributes

     이 어트리뷰트를 0이 아닌 정수로 설정하면 어트리뷰트가 딕셔너리가 아
     닌 리스트로 보고됩니다.  어트리뷰트는 문서 텍스트에서 발견된 순서대
     로 표시됩니다.  각 어트리뷰트에 대해, 두 가지 리스트 항목이 표시됩
     니다: 어트리뷰트 이름과 어트리뷰트 값.  (이 모듈의 이전 버전도 이 형
     식을 사용했습니다.)  기본적으로, 이 어트리뷰트는 거짓입니다; 언제든
     지 변경될 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.specified_attributes

     0이 아닌 정수로 설정되면, 구문 분석기는 문서 인스턴스에 지정된 어트
     리뷰트만 보고하고 어트리뷰트 선언에서 파생된 어트리뷰트는 보고하지
     않습니다.  이를 설정한 응용 프로그램은 XML 프로세서의 동작에 대한 표
     준을 준수하기 위해 선언에서 사용 가능한 추가 정보를 사용할 때 특히
     주의해야 합니다.  기본적으로, 이 어트리뷰트는 거짓입니다; 언제든지
     변경될 수 있습니다.

다음 어트리뷰트는 ‘xmlparser’ 객체가 만난 가장 최근 에러와 관련된 값을 포
함하며, 일단 ‘Parse()’나 ‘ParseFile()’에 대한 호출이 *note
xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 1269. 예외를 발생시켰을 때만 올바른 값을 갖
습니다.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex

     에러가 발생한 바이트 인덱스.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.ErrorCode

     문제를 지정하는 숫자 코드.  이 값은 *note ErrorString(): 3906. 함수
     에 전달되거나, ‘errors’ 객체에 정의된 상수 중 하나와 비교될 수 있습
     니다.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber

     에러가 발생한 열 번호.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber

     에러가 발생한 줄 번호.

다음 어트리뷰트는 ‘xmlparser’ 객체의 현재 구문 분석 위치와 관련된 값을 포
함합니다.  구문 분석 이벤트를 보고하는 콜백 중에, 이들은 이벤트를 생성한
첫 번째 문자 시퀀스의 위치를 나타냅니다.  콜백 외부에서 호출되면, 표시된
위치는 마지막 구문 분석 이벤트 바로 다음입니다 (관련 콜백이 있는지에 관
계없이).

 -- 속성: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex

     구문 분석기 입력의 현재 바이트 인덱스.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber

     구문 분석기 입력의 현재 열 번호.

 -- 속성: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber

     구문 분석기 입력의 현재 줄 번호.

설정할 수 있는 처리기 목록은 다음과 같습니다.  ‘xmlparser’ 객체 'o'에 처
리기를 설정하려면, ‘o.handlername = func’를 사용하십시오.  'handlername'은
다음 목록에서 취해야 하며, 'func'는 올바른 수의 인자를 받아들이는 콜러블
객체여야 합니다.  달리 명시되지 않는 한, 인자는 모두 문자열입니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler (version, encoding, standalone)

     XML 선언이 구문 분석될 때 호출됩니다.  XML 선언은 XML 권장 사항의 해
     당 버전에 대한 (선택적) 선언, 문서 텍스트의 인코딩 및 선택적 “독립
     형(standalone)” 선언입니다.  'version'과 'encoding'은 문자열이며,
     'standalone'은 문서가 독립형으로 선언되면 ‘1’이 되고, 독립형이 아닌
     것으로 선언되면 ‘0’이 됩니다, 또는 독립형 절이 생략되면 ‘-1’입니다.
     Expat 버전 1.95.0 이상에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler (doctypeName, systemId,
          publicId, has_internal_subset)

     Expat이 문서 형 선언(‘<!DOCTYPE ...’) 구문 분석을 시작할 때 호출됩
     니다.  'doctypeName'은 제시된 대로 정확하게 제공됩니다.  'systemId'와
     'publicId' 매개 변수는 지정되면 시스템(system)과 공용(public) 식별
     자를, 생략되면 ‘None’을 제공합니다.  문서에 내부 문서 선언 부분집합
     이 포함되어 있으면 'has_internal_subset'은 참입니다.  Expat 버전
     1.2 이상이 필요합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler ()

     Expat이 문서 형 선언 구문 분석을 완료할 때 호출됩니다.  Expat 버전
     1.2 이상이 필요합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler (name, model)

     각 엘리먼트 형 선언마다 한 번씩 호출됩니다.  'name'은 엘리먼트 형의
     이름이고, 'model'은 콘텐츠 모델의 표현입니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler (elname, attname, type,
          default, required)

     엘리먼트 형에 대해 선언된 어트리뷰트마다 호출됩니다.  어트리뷰트 리
     스트 선언이 세 개의 어트리뷰트를 선언하면 이 처리기는 어트리뷰트마
     다 한 번씩 세 번 호출됩니다.  'elname'은 선언이 적용되는 엘리먼트의
     이름이고 'attname'은 선언된 어트리뷰트의 이름입니다.  어트리뷰트 형
     은 'type'으로 전달된 문자열입니다; 가능한 값은 ‘'CDATA'’, ‘'ID'’,
     ‘'IDREF'’, … 입니다.  'default'는 어트리뷰트가 문서 인스턴스에 의해
     지정되지 않을 때 사용되는 어트리뷰트의 기본값을 제공하거나, 기본값
     이 없으면 ‘None’입니다 (‘#IMPLIED’ 값).  문서 인스턴스에서 어트리뷰
     트가 필수면, 'required'는 참입니다.  Expat 버전 1.95.0 이상이 필요
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.StartElementHandler (name, attributes)

     모든 엘리먼트의 시작에서 호출됩니다.  'name'은 엘리먼트 이름을 포함
     하는 문자열이고, 'attributes'는 엘리먼트 어트리뷰트입니다.  *note
     ordered_attributes: 3912.가 참이면, 이것은 리스트입니다 (자세한 설
     명은 *note ordered_attributes: 3912.를 참조하십시오).  그렇지 않으
     면 이름을 값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리입니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.EndElementHandler (name)

     모든 엘리먼트의 끝에서 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler (target, data)

     모든 처리 명령어(processing instruction)에서 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler (data)

     문자 데이터에 대해 호출됩니다.  일반 문자 데이터, CDATA 표시 내용 및
     무시할 수 있는 공백에 대해 호출됩니다.  이들을 구별해야 하는 응용 프
     로그램은 *note StartCdataSectionHandler: 3928, *note
     EndCdataSectionHandler: 3929. 및 *note ElementDeclHandler: 3923. 콜
     백을 사용하여 필요한 정보를 수집할 수 있습니다.  문자 데이터는 짧더
     라도 덩어리로 묶일 수 있어서 *note CharacterDataHandler(): 3919.에
     대한 호출을 여러 번 받을 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  이를 피하려면
     *note buffer_text: 1488. 인스턴스 어프리뷰트를 ‘True’로 설정하십시
     오.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler (entityName, base,
          systemId, publicId, notationName)

     구문 분석되지 않은 (NDATA) 엔티티 선언에 대해 호출됩니다.  이것은
     Expat 라이브러리 1.2 버전에만 존재합니다; 최신 버전의 경우 *note
     EntityDeclHandler: 392a.를 대신 사용하십시오.  (Expat 라이브러리의
     하부 함수는 더는 사용되지 않는 것으로 선언되었습니다.)

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler (entityName,
          is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId,
          notationName)

     모든 엔티티 선언에 대해 호출됩니다.  파라미터와 내부 엔티티의 경우,
     'value'는 엔티티의 선언된 내용을 제공하는 문자열입니다; 외부 엔티티
     의 경우 ‘None’이 됩니다.  'notationName' 매개 변수는 구문 분석된 엔
     티티의 경우 ‘None’이고, 구문 분석되지 않은 엔티티의 경우는 표기법 이
     름입니다.  엔티티가 파라미터 엔티티인 경우 'is_parameter_entity'는
     참이고, 일반 엔티티의 경우 거짓입니다 (대부분 응용 프로그램은 일반
     엔티티만 고려하면 됩니다).  Expat 라이브러리 버전 1.95.0부터 사용 가
     능합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler (notationName, base, systemId,
          publicId)

     표기법 선언에 대해 호출됩니다.  'notationName', 'base', 'systemId'
     및 'publicId'는 주어지면 문자열입니다.  공용 식별자를 생략하면,
     'publicId'는 ‘None’이 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix, uri)

     엘리먼트에 이름 공간 선언이 포함되어 있으면 호출됩니다.  이름 공간
     선언은 선언이 배치된 엘리먼트에 대한 *note StartElementHandler:
     3925. 가 호출되기 전에 처리됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix)

     이름 공간 선언이 포함된 엘리먼트에 대해 닫기 태그에 도달하면 호출됩
     니다.  이는 각 이름 공간 선언 스코프의 시작을 나타내기 위해 *note
     StartNamespaceDeclHandler: 392b. 가 호출된 순서와 반대로 엘리먼트의
     각 이름 공간 선언에 대해 한 번씩 호출됩니다.  이 처리기에 대한 호출
     은 엘리먼트의 끝을 위한 해당 *note EndElementHandler: 3926. 이후에
     수행됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.CommentHandler (data)

     주석에 대해 호출됩니다.  'data'는 주석의 텍스트이며, 선행
     ‘'<!-’‘-'’와 후행 ‘'-’‘->'’를 제외합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler ()

     CDATA 섹션의 시작에서 호출됩니다.  CDATA 섹션의 구문적 시작과 종료
     를 식별할 수 있으려면 이것과 *note EndCdataSectionHandler: 3929. 가
     필요합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler ()

     CDATA 섹션의 끝에서 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.DefaultHandler (data)

     적용 가능한 처리기가 지정되지 않은 XML 문서의 모든 문자에 대해 호출
     됩니다.  이것은 보고될 수 있지만, 처리기가 제공되지 않은 구성의 일
     부인 문자를 의미합니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand (data)

     이것은 *note DefaultHandler(): 392e.와 같지만, 내부 엔티티의 확장을
     막지 않습니다.  엔티티 참조는 기본 처리기로 전달되지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler ()

     XML 문서가 독립형 문서로 선언되지 않은 경우 호출됩니다.  외부 부분
     집합이나 파라미터 엔티티에 대한 참조가 있지만, XML 선언에서 XML 선
     언이 standalone을 ‘yes’로 설정하지 않은 경우에 발생합니다.  이 처리
     기가 ‘0’을 반환하면, 구문 분석기는 ‘XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE’ 에러
     를 발생시킵니다.  이 처리기가 설정되지 않으면, 이 조건에 대해 구문
     분석기가 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler (context, base, systemId,
          publicId)

     외부 엔티티에 대한 참조에 대해 호출됩니다.  'base'는 *note
     SetBase(): 390b.에 대한 이전 호출에서 설정한 현재 베이스입니다.  공
     용과 시스템 식별자, 'systemId' 및 'publicId'는 지정되면 문자열입니
     다; 공용 식별자가 제공되지 않으면 'publicId'는 ‘None’이 됩니다.
     'context' 값은 불투명하며 아래 설명된 대로만 사용해야 합니다.

     외부 엔티티를 구문 분석하려면, 이 처리기를 구현해야 합니다.
     ‘ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)’를 사용하여 서브 구문 분석기를
     만들고, 적절한 콜백으로 초기화하고, 엔티티를 구문 분석해야 합니다.
     이 처리기는 정수를 반환해야 합니다; ‘0’을 반환하면, 구문 분석기는
     ‘XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING’ 에러를 발생시키고, 그렇지 않으
     면 구문 분석이 계속됩니다.

     이 처리기가 제공되지 않으면, 외부 엔티티는 제공된다면 *note
     DefaultHandler: 392e. 콜백에 의해 보고됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ExpatError 예외,  Next: 예<10>,  Prev: XMLParser 객체<2>,  Up: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석

5.21.13.2 ExpatError 예외
.........................

*note ExpatError: 1269. 예외에는 여러 가지 흥미로운 어트리뷰트가 있습니
다:

 -- 속성: ExpatError.code

     특정 에러에 대한 Expat의 내부 에러 번호.  *note errors.messages:
     3933. 딕셔너리는 이러한 에러 번호를 Expat의 에러 메시지에 매핑합니
     다.  예를 들면:

          from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors

          p = ParserCreate()
          try:
              p.Parse(some_xml_document)
          except ExpatError as err:
              print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])

     *note errors: 127. 모듈은 에러 메시지 상수와 이러한 메시지를 에러 코
     드로 역 매핑하는 딕셔너리 *note codes: 3934.도 제공합니다, 아래를 참
     조하십시오.

 -- 속성: ExpatError.lineno

     에러가 감지된 줄 번호.  첫 번째 줄은 ‘1’로 번호가 매겨집니다.

 -- 속성: ExpatError.offset

     에러가 발생한 줄에서의 문자 오프셋.  첫 번째 열의 번호는 ‘0’입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<10>,  Next: 콘텐츠 모델 기술,  Prev: ExpatError 예외,  Up: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석

5.21.13.3 예
............

다음 프로그램은 인자를 출력하기만 하는 세 개의 처리기를 정의합니다.

     import xml.parsers.expat

     # 3개의 처리기 함수
     def start_element(name, attrs):
         print('Start element:', name, attrs)
     def end_element(name):
         print('End element:', name)
     def char_data(data):
         print('Character data:', repr(data))

     p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()

     p.StartElementHandler = start_element
     p.EndElementHandler = end_element
     p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data

     p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
     <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
     <child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
     </parent>""", 1)

이 프로그램의 출력은 다음과 같습니다:

     Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
     Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
     Character data: 'Text goes here'
     End element: child1
     Character data: '\n'
     Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
     Character data: 'More text'
     End element: child2
     Character data: '\n'
     End element: parent


File: python.info,  Node: 콘텐츠 모델 기술,  Next: Expat 에러 상수,  Prev: 예<10>,  Up: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석

5.21.13.4 콘텐츠 모델 기술
..........................

콘텐츠 모델은 중첩된 튜플을 사용하여 기술됩니다.  각 튜플에는 네 가지 값
이 있습니다: 형, 수량 지정자(quantifier), 이름 및 자식 튜플.  자식은 단
순히 추가의 콘텐츠 모델 기술입니다.

처음 두 필드의 값은 *note xml.parsers.expat.model: 128. 모듈에 정의된 상
수입니다.  이 상수는 두 그룹으로 모을 수 있습니다: 모델 형 그룹과 수량 지
정자 그룹.

모델 형 그룹의 상수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY

     모델 이름으로 명명된 엘리먼트가 콘텐츠 모델 ‘ANY’를 갖도록 선언되었
     습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE

     명명된 엘리먼트가 여러 옵션 중에서 선택할 수 있도록 합니다; 이것은
     ‘(A | B | C)’와 같은 콘텐츠 모델에 사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY

     ‘EMPTY’로 선언된 엘리먼트는 이 모델 형을 갖습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ

     일련의 모델이 차례로 나타나는 모델은 이 모델 형으로 표시됩니다.
     ‘(A, B, C)’와 같은 모델에 사용됩니다.

수량 지정자 그룹의 상수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE

     수정자가 제공되지 않아서, ‘A’와 같이, 정확히 한 번만 나타날 수 있습
     니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT

     모델은 선택적입니다: ‘A?’ 와 같이, 한 번만 나타나거나 전혀 나타나지
     않을 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS

     모델은 한 번 이상 발생해야 합니다 (‘A+’처럼).

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP

     ‘A*’와 같이, 모델은 0번 이상 나타나야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Expat 에러 상수,  Prev: 콘텐츠 모델 기술,  Up: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석

5.21.13.5 Expat 에러 상수
.........................

*note xml.parsers.expat.errors: 127. 모듈에는 다음과 같은 상수가 제공됩
니다.  이 상수는 에러가 발생했을 때 발생하는 ‘ExpatError’ 예외 객체의 일
부 어트리뷰트를 해석하는 데 유용합니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, 상
숫값은 숫자 에러 'code'가 아니라 에러 'message'이므로, *note code: 1a. 어
트리뷰트를 ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME]’와 비교합니다.

‘errors’ 모듈에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes

     문자열 설명을 에러 코드에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages

     숫자 에러 코드를 문자열 설명에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY

 -- 데이터:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF

     어트리뷰트 값의 엔티티 참조가 내부 엔티티 대신 외부 엔티티를 참조합
     니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF

     문자 참조가 XML에서 잘못된 문자를 가리킵니다 (예를 들어, 문자 ‘0’ 또
     는 ‘‘&#0;’’).

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF

     엔티티 참조가 표기법으로 선언된 엔티티를 참조해서, 구문 분석할 수 없
     습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE

     시작 태그에서 어트리뷰트가 두 번 이상 사용되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN

     입력 바이트를 문자에 올바르게 대입할 수 없을 때 발생합니다; 예를 들
     어, UTF-8 입력 스트림의 NUL 바이트(값 ‘0’).

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT

     문서 엘리먼트 다음에 공백 이외의 것이 나타났습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI

     입력 데이터의 시작 이외의 곳에서 XML 선언이 발견되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS

     문서에 엘리먼트가 없습니다 (XML은 모든 문서에 정확히 하나의 최상위
     엘리먼트가 포함되어야 함을 요구합니다).

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY

     Expat이 내부적으로 메모리를 할당하지 못했습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF

     파라미터 엔티티 참조가 허용되지 않는 위치에서 발견되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR

     입력에서 불완전한 문자가 발견되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF

     엔티티 참조가 같은 엔티티에 대한 다른 참조를 포함합니다; 어쩌면 다
     른 이름을 통해서, 그리고 어쩌면 간접적으로.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX

     지정되지 않은 구문 에러를 만났습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH

     종료 태그가 가장 안쪽에 있는 시작 태그와 일치하지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN

     어떤 토큰이 (가령 시작 태그) 스트림이 끝나기 전에 닫히지 않았거나 다
     음 토큰을 만났습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY

     정의되지 않은 엔티티를 참조했습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING

     문서 인코딩을 Expat에서 지원하지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION

     CDATA 표시 섹션이 닫히지 않았습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE

     문서가 XML 선언에서 자신을 “독립형”으로 선언했지만 구문 분석기가 독
     립형이 아니라고 결정했으며 ‘NotStandaloneHandler’ 가 설정되고 ‘0’을
     반환했습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD

     DTD 지원이 컴파일되어 있어야 하는 작업이 요청되었지만, Expat이 DTD
     지원 없이 구성되었습니다.  *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. 모듈의 표
     준 빌드에서 이것이 보고되어서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 데이터:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING

     구문 분석이 시작된 후에 구문 분석이 시작되기 전에만 변경할 수 있는
     동작 변경이 요청되었습니다.  이것은 (현재) ‘UseForeignDTD()’에 의해
     서만 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX

     이름 공간 처리가 활성화되었을 때 선언되지 않은 접두사가 발견되었습
     니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX

     문서가 접두사와 연관된 이름 공간 선언을 제거하려고 했습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE

     파라미터 엔티티에 불완전한 마크업이 포함되어 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL

     문서에 문서 엘리먼트가 전혀 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL

     외부 엔티티에 있는 텍스트 선언을 구문 분석하는 중 에러가 발생했습니
     다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID

     허용되지 않는 문자가 공용 id에서 발견되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED

     일시 중지된 구문 분석기에 작업이 요청되었지만, 허용되지 않습니다.  여
     기에는 추가 입력을 제공하거나 구문 분석기를 중지하려는 시도가 포함
     됩니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED

     구문 분석기가 일시 중지되지 않았을 때 구문 분석기를 재개하려고 했습
     니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED

     이것은 파이썬 응용 프로그램에 보고되어서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED

     입력을 구문 분석하는 것을 종료한 구문 분석기에 작업을 요청했지만, 허
     용되지 않습니다.  여기에는 추가 입력을 제공하거나 구문 분석기를 중
     지하려는 시도가 포함됩니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML

     An attempt was made to undeclare reserved namespace prefix ‘xml’ or
     to bind it to another namespace URI.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS

     An attempt was made to declare or undeclare reserved namespace
     prefix ‘xmlns’.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI

     An attempt was made to bind the URI of one the reserved namespace
     prefixes ‘xml’ and ‘xmlns’ to another namespace prefix.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT

     이것은 파이썬 응용 프로그램에 보고되어서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 데이터: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER

     이것은 파이썬 응용 프로그램에 보고되어서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 데이터:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH

     The limit on input amplification factor (from DTD and entities) has
     been breached.


File: python.info,  Node: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원,  Next: 멀티미디어 서비스,  Prev: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.22 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원
===========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 인터넷 프로토콜을 구현하고 관련 기술을 지원합
니다.  모두 파이썬으로 구현됩니다.  대부분 모듈은 시스템 의존적인 모듈
*note socket: cc.을 요구하는데, 현재 대부분의 대중적인 플랫폼에서 지원됩
니다.  다음은 개요입니다:

* Menu:

* webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기::
* wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현::
* urllib — URL 처리 모듈::
* urllib.request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
* urllib.response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스: urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
* urllib.parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
* urllib.error — urllib.request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스: urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
* urllib.robotparser — robots.txt 구문 분석기: urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
* http — HTTP 모듈::
* http.client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
* ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체::
* socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크::
* http.server — HTTP 서버: http server — HTTP 서버.
* http.cookies — HTTP 상태 관리: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
* http.cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
* xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈::
* xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스.
* xmlrpc.server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버.
* ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리::


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기,  Next: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.1 ‘webbrowser’ — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기
-----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/webbrowser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note webbrowser: 115. 모듈은 웹 기반 문서를 사용자에게 표시할 수 있는 고
수준 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  대부분은, 이 모듈의 *note open(): 396d. 함
수를 호출하면 올바른 작업이 수행됩니다.

유닉스에서, X11에서는 그래픽 브라우저가 선호되지만, 그래픽 브라우저를 사
용할 수 없거나 X11 디스플레이를 사용할 수 없으면 텍스트 모드 브라우저가
사용됩니다.  텍스트 모드 브라우저가 사용되면, 사용자가 브라우저를 종료할
때까지 호출하는 프로세스가 블록 됩니다.

환경 변수 ‘BROWSER’가 있으면, 플랫폼 기본값보다 먼저 시도하기 위해 *note
os.pathsep: 1d4c.으로 구분된 브라우저 목록으로 해석됩니다.  목록 부분의
값에 문자열 ‘%s’가 포함되어 있으면, ‘%s’를 인자 URL로 치환해서 만들어지
는 리터럴 브라우저 명령 줄로 해석됩니다; 부분이 ‘%s’를 포함하지 않으면,
단순히 시작할 브라우저의 이름으로 해석됩니다.  (2)

유닉스가 아닌 플랫폼에서, 또는 유닉스에서 원격 브라우저를 사용할 수 있을
때, 제어하는 프로세스는 사용자가 브라우저를 완료할 때까지 기다리지 않고,
원격 브라우저가 디스플레이에 자체 창을 유지하도록 허용합니다.  유닉스에
서 원격 브라우저를 사용할 수 없으면, 제어하는 프로세스가 새 브라우저를 시
작하고 기다랍니다.

On iOS, the ‘BROWSER’ environment variable, as well as any arguments
controlling autoraise, browser preference, and new tab/window creation
will be ignored.  Web pages will 'always' be opened in the user’s
preferred browser, in a new tab, with the browser being brought to the
foreground.  The use of the *note webbrowser: 115. module on iOS
requires the *note ctypes: 2a. module.  If *note ctypes: 2a. isn’t
available, calls to *note open(): 396d. will fail.

스크립트 ‘webbrowser’는 모듈의 명령 줄 인터페이스로 사용될 수 있습니다.
인자로 URL을 받아들입니다.  다음과 같은 선택적 매개 변수를 받아들입니다:

 -- Option: -n, --new-window

     가능하다면 새 브라우저 창에서 URL을 엽니다.

 -- Option: -t, --new-tab

     새 브라우저 탭에서 URL을 엽니다.

당연히, 이 옵션들은 상호 배타적입니다.  사용 예:

     python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI, not Android.

다음 예외가 정의됩니다:

 -- 예외: webbrowser.Error

     브라우저 제어 에러가 일어날 때 발생하는 예외.

다음 함수가 정의됩니다:

 -- 함수: webbrowser.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     기본 브라우저를 사용하여 'url'을 표시합니다.  'new'가 0이면, 가능하
     다면 같은 브라우저 창에서 'url'이 열립니다.  'new'가 1이면, 가능하
     다면 새 브라우저 창이 열립니다.  'new'가 2이면, 가능하다면 새 브라
     우저 페이지(“탭”)가 열립니다.  'autoraise'가 ‘True’이면, 가능하다면
     창을 올립니다(raise) (이것은 많은 창 관리자에서 이 변수의 설정과 관
     계없이 일어납니다).

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     일부 플랫폼에서, 이 함수를 사용하여 파일명을 여는 것은 동작하고 운
     영 체제의 연결된 프로그램이 시작될 수 있습니다.  하지만, 이것은 지
     원되지도 이식성 있지도 않습니다.

     인자 ‘url’로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘webbrowser.open’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: webbrowser.open_new (url)

     가능하다면, 기본 브라우저의 새 창에서 'url'을 엽니다, 그렇지 않으면
     , 유일한 브라우저 창에서 'url'을 엽니다.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 함수: webbrowser.open_new_tab (url)

     가능하다면, 기본 브라우저의 새 페이지(“탭”)에서 'url'을 엽니다, 그
     렇지 않으면 *note open_new(): 3973.와 동등합니다.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 함수: webbrowser.get (using=None)

     브라우저 유형 'using'에 대한 제어기 객체를 반환합니다.  'using'이
     ‘None’이면, 호출자의 환경에 적합한 기본 브라우저을 위한 제어기 객체
     를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: webbrowser.register (name, constructor, instance=None, *,
          preferred=False)

     브라우저 유형 'name'을 등록합니다.  일단 브라우저 유형이 등록되면,
     *note get(): 3975. 함수는 해당 브라우저 유형에 대한 제어기를 반환할
     수 있습니다.  'instance'가 제공되지 않거나, ‘None’이면, 필요할 때
     'constructor'가 매개 변수 없이 호출되어 인스턴스를 만듭니다.
     'instance'가 제공되면, 'constructor'는 절대로 호출되지 않으며,
     ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

     'preferred'를 ‘True’로 설정하면 이 브라우저를 인자 없이 *note
     get(): 3975.을 호출할 때 선호되는 결과가 되도록 합니다.  그렇지 않
     으면, 이 엔트리 포인트는 ‘BROWSER’ 변수를 설정하거나 선언한 처리기
     의 이름과 일치하는 비어 있지 않은 인자로 *note get(): 3975.을 호출
     하려는 경우에만 유용합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'preferred' 키워드 전용 매개 변수가 추가되었습니
     다.

여러 가지 브라우저 유형이 미리 정의되어 있습니다.  이 표는 *note get():
3975. 함수로 전달될 수 있는 유형 이름과 제어기 클래스의 해당 인스턴스 화
를 제공합니다, 모두 이 모듈에서 정의됩니다.

유형 이름                    클래스 이름                                   노트
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'mozilla'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'firefox'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'epiphany'’                 ‘Epiphany('epiphany')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'kfmclient'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'konqueror'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'kfm'’                      ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'opera'’                    ‘Opera()’
                             
                                                                           
‘'links'’                    ‘GenericBrowser('links')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'elinks'’                   ‘Elinks('elinks')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'lynx'’                     ‘GenericBrowser('lynx')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'w3m'’                      ‘GenericBrowser('w3m')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'windows-default'’          ‘WindowsDefault’                              (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'macosx'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('default')’                  (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'safari'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('safari')’                   (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'google-chrome'’            ‘Chrome('google-chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chrome'’                   ‘Chrome('chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium'’                 ‘Chromium('chromium')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium-browser'’         ‘Chromium('chromium-browser')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'iosbrowser'’               ‘IOSBrowser’                                  (4)
                                                                           

노트:

  1. “Konqueror”는 유닉스용 KDE 데스크톱 환경의 파일 관리자이며, KDE가 실
     행 중일 때만 의미가 있습니다.  신뢰성 있게 KDE를 탐지하는 방법이 있
     다면 좋을 것입니다; ‘KDEDIR’ 변수로는 충분하지 않습니다.  KDE 2에서
     ‘konqueror’ 명령을 사용할 때조차도 “kfm”이라는 이름이 사용됨에 유의
     하십시오 — 구현이 Konqueror를 실행하기 위한 최상의 전략을 선택합니
     다.

  2. 윈도우 플랫폼에서만.

  3. 맥 OS 에서만.

  4. iOS 에서만.

Added in version 3.2: A new ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class has been added and
is used on Mac instead of the previous ‘MacOSX’ class.  This adds
support for opening browsers not currently set as the OS default.

Added in version 3.3: Chrome/Chromium에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Support for several obsolete browsers has been
removed.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

버전 3.13에서 변경: iOS에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

여기 몇 가지 간단한 예제가 있습니다:

     url = 'https://docs.python.org/'

     # 브라우저 창이 이미 열려 있으면, 새 탭에 URL을 엽니다.
     webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

     # 새 창에 URL을 엽니다, 가능하다면 창을 올립니다.
     webbrowser.open_new(url)

* Menu:

* 브라우저 제어기 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/webbrowser.py

   (2) 전체 경로 없이 여기에서 명명된 실행 파일은 ‘PATH’ 환경 변수에 지
정된 디렉터리에서 검색됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 브라우저 제어기 객체,  Up: webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기

5.22.1.1 브라우저 제어기 객체
.............................

Browser controllers provide the *note name: 297. attribute, and the
following three methods which parallel module-level convenience
functions:

 -- 속성: controller.name

     System-dependent name for the browser.

 -- 메서드: controller.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     이 제어기가 처리하는 브라우저를 사용하여 'url'을 표시합니다.  'new'가
     1이면, 가능하다면 새 브라우저 창이 열립니다.  'new'가 2이면, 가능하
     다면 새 브라우저 페이지(“탭”)가 열립니다.

 -- 메서드: controller.open_new (url)

     가능하다면, 이 제어기가 처리하는 브라우저의 새 창에 'url'을 엽니다,
     그렇지 않으면, 유일한 브라우저 창에 'url'을 엽니다.  별칭 *note
     open_new(): 3973.

 -- 메서드: controller.open_new_tab (url)

     가능하다면, 이 제어기가 처리하는 브라우저의 새 페이지(“탭”)에
     'url'을 엽니다, 그렇지 않으면 *note open_new(): 3973.와 동등합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현,  Next: urllib — URL 처리 모듈,  Prev: webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.2 ‘wsgiref’ — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현
--------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/wsgiref(1)

__________________________________________________________________

WSGI(Web Server Gateway Interface)는 웹 서버 소프트웨어와 파이썬으로 작
성된 웹 응용 프로그램 간의 표준 인터페이스입니다.  표준 인터페이스는 여
러 웹 서버에서 WSGI를 지원하는 응용 프로그램을 쉽게 사용할 수 있도록 합
니다.

웹 서버와 프로그래밍 프레임워크의 작성자만 WSGI 설계의 모든 세부 사항과
코너 케이스를 알 필요가 있습니다.  단지 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 설치하거나
기존 프레임워크를 사용하여 웹 응용 프로그램을 작성하기 위해, WSGI의 모든
세부 사항을 이해할 필요는 없습니다.

*note wsgiref: 118.는 웹 서버나 프레임워크에 WSGI 지원을 추가하는 데 사
용할 수 있는, WSGI 명세의 참조 구현입니다.  WSGI 환경 변수와 응답 헤더를
조작하는 유틸리티, WSGI 서버 구현을 위한 베이스 클래스, WSGI 응용 프로그
램을 서비스하는 데모 HTTP 서버, 정적 형 검사를 위한 형 및 WSGI 서버와 응
용 프로그램이 WSGI 명세( PEP 3333(2))에 부합하는지 확인하는 유효성 검사
도구를 제공합니다.

WSGI에 대한 더 자세한 정보 및 자습서와 기타 자원에 대한 링크는
wsgi.readthedocs.io(3)를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* wsgiref.util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
* wsgiref.headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
* wsgiref.simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
* wsgiref.validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
* wsgiref.handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
* wsgiref.types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
* 예제: 예제<23>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/wsgiref

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티,  Next: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.1 ‘wsgiref.util’ – WSGI 환경 유틸리티
............................................

이 모듈은 WSGI 환경으로 작업하기 위한 다양한 유틸리티 함수를 제공합니다.
WSGI 환경은 PEP 3333(1)에서 설명한 대로 HTTP 요청 변수를 포함하는 딕셔너
리입니다.  'environ' 매개 변수를 취하는 모든 함수는 WSGI 호환 딕셔너리가
제공될 것으로 기대합니다; 자세한 명세는 PEP 3333(2)를 형 어노테이션에 사
용할 수 있는 형 에일리어스는 *note WSGIEnvironment: 397f.를 참조하십시오
.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.util.guess_scheme (environ)

     'environ' 딕셔너리에서 ‘HTTPS’ 환경 변수를 검사하여
     ‘wsgi.url_scheme’이 “http”와 “https” 중 어느 것인지 추측합니다.  반
     환 값은 문자열입니다.

     이 함수는 CGI 나 FastCGI와 같은 CGI와 유사한 프로토콜을 감싸는 게이
     트웨이를 만들 때 유용합니다.  일반적으로, 이러한 프로토콜을 제공하
     는 서버는 SSL을 통해 요청이 수신될 때 “1”, “yes” 또는 “on” 값을 갖
     는 ‘HTTPS’ 변수를 포함합니다.  따라서, 이 함수는 그런 값을 발견하면
     “https”를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 “http”를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.util.request_uri (environ, include_query=True)

     PEP 3333(3)의 “URL 재구성” 절에 있는 알고리즘을 사용하여 전체 요청
     URI를 반환합니다.  선택적으로 질의 문자열(query string)을 포함합니
     다.  'include_query'가 거짓이면 질의 문자열은 결과 URI에 포함되지 않
     습니다.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.util.application_uri (environ)

     ‘PATH_INFO’ 와 ‘QUERY_STRING’ 변수가 무시된다는 점을 제외하면 *note
     request_uri(): 3981.와 유사합니다.  결과는 요청이 가리키는 응용 프
     로그램 객체의 기본 URI입니다.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.util.shift_path_info (environ)

     단일 이름을 ‘PATH_INFO’에서 ‘SCRIPT_NAME’로 이동하고 이름을 반환합
     니다.  'environ' 딕셔너리는 그 자리에서 '수정'됩니다; 원본
     ‘PATH_INFO’ 나 ‘SCRIPT_NAME’를 그대로 유지해야 하면 사본을 사용하십
     시오.

     ‘PATH_INFO’에 남아있는 경로 세그먼트가 없으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     일반적으로, 이 루틴은 요청 URI 경로의 각 부분을 처리하는 데 사용됩
     니다, 예를 들어 경로를 일련의 딕셔너리 키로 취급합니다.  이 루틴은
     전달된 환경을 수정하여 대상 URI에 있는 다른 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 호
     출하는 데 적합하게 만듭니다.  예를 들어, ‘/foo’에 WSGI 응용 프로그
     램이 있고, 요청 URI 경로가 ‘/foo/bar/baz’이고, ‘/foo’의 WSGI 응용 프
     로그램이 *note shift_path_info(): 3983.를 호출하면 “bar” 문자열을 수
     신하고 전달할 환경이 ‘/foo/bar’에 있는 WSGI 응용 프로그램에 전달하
     기 적합하도록 갱신됩니다.  즉, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’는 ‘/foo’에서
     ‘/foo/bar’로 변경되고, ‘PATH_INFO’는 ‘/bar/baz’에서 ‘/baz’로 변경됩
     니다.

     ‘PATH_INFO’가 단지 “/”일 때, 이 루틴은 빈 문자열을 반환하고
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’에 후행 슬래시를 추가합니다; 빈 경로 세그먼트는 일반적
     으로 무시되고, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’는 일반적으로 슬래시로 끝나지 않음에도
     그렇게 합니다.  의도적인 동작입니다.  이 루틴을 사용하여 객체를 탐
     색할 때, 응용 프로그램이 ‘/x’로 끝나는 URI와 ‘/x/’로 끝나는 URI의 차
     이를 구별할 수 있도록 하기 위함입니다.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults (environ)

     테스트 목적으로 'environ'를 뻔한 기본값으로 갱신합니다.

     이 루틴은 ‘HTTP_HOST’, ‘SERVER_NAME’, ‘SERVER_PORT’,
     ‘REQUEST_METHOD’, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, ‘PATH_INFO’ 및 모든 PEP 3333(4)에
     서 정의된 ‘wsgi.*’ 변수를 포함하여 WSGI에 필요한 다양한 매개 변수를
     추가합니다.  기본값만 제공하며, 이 변수들에 대한 기존 설정을 대체하
     지 않습니다.

     이 루틴은 WSGI 서버와 응용 프로그램의 단위 테스트가 더미 환경을 쉽
     게 설정하도록 하기 위한 것입니다.  데이터가 가짜이므로, 실제 WSGI 서
     버나 응용 프로그램에서 사용해서는 안 됩니다!

     Example usage (see also *note demo_app(): 3985. for another
     example):

          from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # 상대적으로 간단한 WSGI 응용 프로그램. setup_testing_defaults로 갱신된 후에 환경
          # 딕셔너리를 인쇄할 것입니다.
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              setup_testing_defaults(environ)

              status = '200 OK'
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]

              start_response(status, headers)

              ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
                     for key, value in environ.items()]
              return ret

          with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving on port 8000...")
              httpd.serve_forever()

위의 환경 함수 외에도, *note wsgiref.util: 11d. 모듈은 다음과 같은 기타
유틸리티를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop (header_name)

     ‘header_name’이 RFC 2616(5)가 정의하고 있는 HTTP/1.1 “Hop-by-Hop” 헤
     더면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.util.FileWrapper (filelike, blksize=8192)

     파일류 객체를 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.로 변환하는 데 사용되는 *note
     wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3986. 프로토콜의 구체적 구현.  결과 객체
     는 *note 이터러블: 1217.입니다.  객체가 이터레이트될 때, 선택적인
     'blksize' 매개 변수는 산출할 바이트열을 얻기 위해 'filelike' 객체의
     ‘read()’ 메서드에 반복적으로 전달됩니다.  ‘read()’가 빈 바이트열을
     반환하면 이터레이션이 종료되고 다시 시작할 수 없습니다.

     'filelike'에 ‘close()’ 메서드가 있으면, 반환된 객체에도 ‘close()’ 메
     서드가 있고, 호출될 때 'filelike' 객체의 ‘close()’ 메서드를 호출합
     니다.

     사용 예:

          from io import StringIO
          from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper

          # 파일류 객체로 StringIO 버퍼를 사용하고 있습니다
          filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
          wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)

          for chunk in wrapper:
              print(chunk)

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드 지원은 제거되
     었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구,  Next: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버,  Prev: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.2 ‘wsgiref.headers’ – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구
................................................

이 모듈은 매핑류 인터페이스를 사용하여 WSGI 응답 헤더를 편리하게 조작할
수 있는 클래스 *note Headers: e8e. 하나를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.headers.Headers ([headers])

     PEP 3333(1)에 설명된 것처럼 헤더 이름/값 튜플의 리스트이어야 하는
     'headers'를 감싸는 매핑류 객체를 만듭니다.  'headers'의 기본값은 빈
     리스트입니다.

     *note Headers: e8e. 객체는 *note __getitem__(): 283, *note get():
     224a, *note __setitem__(): 12bb, *note setdefault(): 106f, *note
     __delitem__(): 12bc. 및 *note __contains__(): 1f66.를 포함한 일반적
     인 매핑 연산을 지원합니다.  이러한 각 메서드에 대해, 키는 헤더 이름
     (대소 문자를 구분하지 않습니다)이며, 값은 해당 헤더 이름과 연관된 첫
     번째 값입니다.  헤더를 설정하면 해당 헤더의 기존 값이 삭제된 다음,
     감싸진 헤러 리스트의 끝에 새 값이 추가됩니다.  헤더의 기존 순서는 일
     반적으로 유지되며, 감싸진 리스트의 끝에 새 헤더가 추가됩니다.

     딕셔너리와 달리, *note Headers: e8e. 객체는 감싸진 헤더 리스트에 없
     는 키를 가져오거나 삭제하려고 하면 에러를 발생시키지 않습니다.  존
     재하지 않는 헤더를 가져오려고 하면 ‘None’을 반환하고, 존재하지 않는
     헤더를 삭제하면 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

     *note Headers: e8e. 객체는 ‘keys()’, ‘values()’ 및 ‘items()’ 메서드
     도 지원합니다.  ‘keys()’ 와 ‘items()’에 의해 반환된 리스트에는 다중
     -값 헤더가 있으면 같은 키가 두 번 이상 포함될 수 있습니다.  *note
     Headers: e8e. 객체의 ‘len()’는 ‘items()’의 길이와 같고, 이는 감싸진
     헤더 리스트의 길이와 같습니다.  실제로, ‘items()’ 메서드는 단지 감
     싸진 헤더 리스트의 복사본을 반환합니다.

     *note Headers: e8e. 객체에서 ‘bytes()’를 호출하면 HTTP 응답 헤더로
     전송하기에 적합한 포맷된 바이트열이 반환됩니다.  각 헤더는 콜론과 공
     백으로 구분된 값과 함께 줄에 들어갑니다.  각 줄은 캐리지 리턴과 줄
     넘김으로 끝나며, 바이트열은 빈 줄로 끝납니다.

     *note Headers: e8e. 객체는 매핑 인터페이스와 포매팅 기능 외에도, 다
     중-값 헤더를 조회하거나 추가하고, MIME 파라미터가 있는 헤더를 추가
     하기 위해 다음과 같은 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_all (name)

          주어진 이름의 헤더에 대한 모든 값의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          반환된 리스트는 원래 헤더 리스트에 나타나거나 이 인스턴스에 추
          가된 순서대로 정렬되고, 중복을 포함할 수 있습니다.  삭제되고 다
          시 삽입된 필드는 항상 헤더 리스트의 끝에 추가됩니다.  주어진 이
          름의 필드가 존재하지 않으면, 빈 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_header (name, value, **_params)

          키워드 인자로 지정되는 선택적 MIME 파라미터와 함께 헤더를 추가
          합니다 (다중-값 가능).

          'name'은 추가할 헤더 필드입니다.  키워드 인자는 헤더 필드에 대
          한 MIME 파라미터를 설정하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  각 파라미
          터는 문자열이나 ‘None’ 이어야 합니다.  파라미터 이름의 밑줄은
          대시로 변환됩니다; 파이썬 식별자에서는 대시가 유효하지 않지만
          많은 MIME 파라미터 이름에는 대시가 포함되기 때문입니다.  파라
          미터값이 문자열이면 ‘name="value"’ 형식으로 헤더 값 파라미터에
          추가됩니다.  ‘None’이면 파라미터 이름 만 추가됩니다.  (이것은
          값이 없는 MIME 파라미터에 사용됩니다.)  사용 예:

               h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          위의 코드는 다음과 같은 헤더를 추가합니다:

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'headers' 매개 변수는 선택적입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버,  Next: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기,  Prev: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.3 ‘wsgiref.simple_server’ – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버
........................................................

이 모듈은 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 서빙하는 간단한 HTTP 서버(*note
http.server: 72. 기반)를 구현합니다.  각 서버 인스턴스는 주어진 호스트와
포트에서 단일 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 서빙합니다.  단일 호스트와 포트에서 여
러 응용 프로그램을 서빙하려면, ‘PATH_INFO’를 구문 분석하여 각 요청에 대
해 호출할 응용 프로그램을 선택하는 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 만들어야 합니다.
(예를 들어, *note wsgiref.util: 11d.의 ‘shift_path_info()’ 함수를 사용해
서.)

 -- 함수: wsgiref.simple_server.make_server (host, port, app,
          server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)

     'host' 와 'port'에서 수신을 기다리고, 'app'에 대한 연결을 수락하는
     새 WSGI 서버를 만듭니다.  반환 값은 제공된 'server_class'의 인스턴
     스이며, 지정된 'handler_class'를 사용하여 요청을 처리합니다.  'app'는
     PEP 3333(1)에 정의된 WSGI 응용 프로그램 객체여야 합니다.

     사용 예:

          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app

          with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")

              # 프로세스를 죽일 때까지 요청에 응답합니다
              httpd.serve_forever()

              # 대안: 하나의 요청을 처리한 다음 종료합니다
              httpd.handle_request()

 -- 함수: wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app (environ, start_response)

     이 함수는 작지만 완벽한 WSGI 응용 프로그램인데, “Hello world!” 메시
     지와 'environ' 매개 변수에 제공된 키/값 쌍 목록이 포함된 텍스트 페
     이지를 반환합니다.  WSGI 서버(가령 *note wsgiref.simple_server:
     11b.)가 간단한 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 올바르게 실행할 수 있는지 확인
     하는 데 유용합니다.

     'start_response' 콜러블은 *note StartResponse: 398c. 프로토콜을 따
     라야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     *note WSGIServer: 398d. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  'server_address'는
     ‘(host,port)’ 튜플이어야 하며, 'RequestHandlerClass'는 *note
     http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be.의 서브 클래스여야 하는데,
     요청을 처리하는 데 사용됩니다.

     *note make_server(): 398b. 함수가 모든 세부 사항을 처리할 수 있으므
     로, 일반적으로 이 생성자를 호출할 필요가 없습니다.

     *note WSGIServer: 398d.는 *note http.server.HTTPServer: 398e.의 서
     브 클래스이므로, 모든 메서드(가령 ‘serve_forever()’와
     ‘handle_request()’)를 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note WSGIServer: 398d.는
     또한 다음과 같은 WSGI 전용 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: set_app (application)

          콜러블 'application'을 요청을 수신하는 WSGI 응용 프로그램으로
          설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_app ()

          현재 설정되어있는 응용 프로그램 콜러블을 반환합니다.

     그러나 일반적으로, 이러한 추가 메서드를 사용할 필요가 없는데, *note
     set_app(): 398f.는 일반적으로 *note make_server(): 398b.에서 호출되
     고, *note get_app(): 3990.은 주로 요청 처리기 인스턴스의 필요를 위
     해 존재하기 때문입니다

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server)

     지정된 'request' (즉, 소켓), 'client_address' (‘(host,port)’ 튜플)
     및 'server' (*note WSGIServer: 398d. 인스턴스)를 위한 HTTP 처리기를
     만듭니다.

     이 클래스의 인스턴스를 직접 만들 필요는 없습니다; *note WSGIServer:
     398d. 객체가 필요에 따라 자동으로 만듭니다.  그러나, 이 클래스를 서
     브 클래싱하여 'handler_class'로 *note make_server(): 398b. 함수에 제
     공할 수 있습니다.  서브 클래스에서 재정의하는데 적합한 메서드들은 다
     음과 같습니다:

      -- 메서드: get_environ ()

          요청에 대한 *note WSGIEnvironment: 397f. 딕셔너리를 반환합니다
          .  기본 구현은 *note WSGIServer: 398d. 객체의 ‘base_environ’ 딕
          셔너리 어트리뷰트의 내용을 복사한 다음, HTTP 요청으로부터 온 다
          양한 헤더를 추가합니다.  이 메서드를 호출할 때마다 PEP
          3333(2)에 지정된 CGI 환경 변수를 모두 포함하는 새 딕셔너리를 반
          환해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_stderr ()

          ‘wsgi.errors’ 스트림으로 사용해야 하는 객체를 반환합니다.  기
          본 구현은 단지 ‘sys.stderr’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: handle ()

          HTTP 요청을 처리합니다.  기본 구현은 *note wsgiref.handlers:
          119. 클래스를 사용하여 실제 WSGI 응용 프로그램 인터페이스를 구
          현하는 처리기 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기,  Next: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스,  Prev: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.4 ‘wsgiref.validate’ — WSGI 적합성 검사기
................................................

새로운 WSGI 응용 프로그램 객체, 프레임워크, 서버 또는 미들웨어를 만들 때
, *note wsgiref.validate: 11e.를 사용하여 새 코드의 적합성을 확인하는 것
이 유용할 수 있습니다.  이 모듈은 WSGI 서버나 게이트웨이와 WSGI 응용 프
로그램 객체 사이의 통신을 검증하는 WSGI 응용 프로그램 객체를 만드는 함수
를 제공하여, 양측의 프로토콜 준수 여부를 검사할 수 있도록 합니다.

이 유틸리티는 완전한 PEP 3333(1) 적합성을 보장하지는 않습니다; 이 모듈에
서 에러가 없다고 해서 에러가 존재하지 않는다는 것을 의미하지는 않습니다.
그러나, 이 모듈에서 오류가 발생하면, 서버나 응용 프로그램이 100% 적합하
지 않다는 것은 사실상 확실합니다.

이 모듈은 Ian Bicking의 “Python Paste” 라이브러리의 ‘paste.lint’ 모듈을
기반으로 합니다.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.validate.validator (application)

     'application' 감싸고 새 WSGI 응용 프로그램 객체를 반환합니다.  반환
     된 응용 프로그램은 모든 요청을 원래 'application'으로 전달하고,
     'application'과 이를 호출하는 서버가 모두 WSGI 명세와 RFC 2616(2)를
     준수하는지 확인합니다.

     탐지된 모든 부적합 결과는 *note AssertionError: 6a3.를 일으킵니다;
     그러나 이러한 에러를 처리하는 방법은 서버에 따라 다릅니다.  예를 들
     어, *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11b.와 *note wsgiref.handlers:
     119.를 기반으로 하는 다른 (에러 처리 메서드를 재정의해서 다른 작업
     을 수행하지 않는) 서버는 단순히 에러가 발생했다는 메시지를 출력하고
     ‘sys.stderr’ 나 기타 에러 스트림으로 트레이스백을 덤프합니다.

     이 래퍼는 의심스럽기는 하지만 PEP 3333(3)에서 실제로 금지되지 않을
     수도 있는 동작을 나타내도록 *note warnings: 112. 모듈을 사용하여 출
     력을 생성할 수도 있습니다.  파이썬 명령 줄 옵션이나 *note warnings:
     112. API를 사용해서 억제되지 않는 한, 그러한 경고는 ‘sys.stderr’(같
     은 객체가 아니라면 ‘wsgi.errors’가 '아닙니다')에 기록됩니다.

     사용 예:

          from wsgiref.validate import validator
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # 의도적으로 표준을 준수하지 않는 콜러블 객체이므로,
          # 적합성 검사기가 중단됩니다
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
              start_response(status, headers)

              # 이것은 중단하게 되는데, 목록을 반환해야 하기 때문입니다,
              # 적합성 검사기가 알려줄 것입니다
              return b"Hello World"

          # 이것은 적합성 검사기로 감싼 응용 프로그램입니다
          validator_app = validator(simple_app)

          with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
              print("Listening on port 8000....")
              httpd.serve_forever()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스,  Next: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형,  Prev: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.5 ‘wsgiref.handlers’ – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스
...........................................................

이 모듈은 WSGI 서버와 게이트웨이를 구현하기 위한 베이스 처리기 클래스를
제공합니다.  이러한 베이스 클래스는 입력, 출력 및 에러 스트림과 함께
CGI와 유사한 환경이 제공되는 한, WSGI 응용 프로그램과 통신하는 대부분 작
업을 처리합니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler

     ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, ‘sys.stderr’ 및 ‘os.environ’를 통한 CGI
     기반 호출.  이것은 WSGI 응용 프로그램이 있고 CGI 스크립트로 실행하
     려고 할 때 유용합니다.  ‘CGIHandler().run(app)’을 호출하기만 하면 됩
     니다.  여기서 ‘app’은 호출할 WSGI 응용 프로그램 객체입니다.

     이 클래스는 ‘wsgi.run_once’를 참으로, ‘wsgi.multithread’를 거짓으로
     , ‘wsgi.multiprocess’를 참으로 설정하고, 필요한 CGI 스트림과 환경을
     얻기 위해 항상 *note sys: d9.와 *note os: a1.를 사용하는 *note
     BaseCGIHandler: 3999.의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler

     config allowPathInfo 옵션 (IIS>=7) 나 metabase
     allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7)를 설정하지 않고도, Microsoft
     IIS 웹 서버에 배포할 때 사용할 수 있는 *note CGIHandler: 3998.의 특
     수한 대안.

     기본적으로, IIS는 앞에 ‘SCRIPT_NAME’이 중복된 ‘PATH_INFO’를 제공하
     므로, 라우팅을 구현하려는 WSGI 응용 프로그램에 문제가 발생합니다.  이
     처리기는 중복된 경로를 제거합니다.

     IIS가 올바른 ‘PATH_INFO’를 전달하도록 구성할 수 있지만,
     ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’가 잘못되는 다른 버그가 발생합니다.  다행히도 이 변
     수는 거의 사용되지 않으며 WSGI에서 보장하지 않습니다.  그러나
     IIS<7에서는 설정이 가상 호스트 수준에서만 이루어지므로, 다른 모든 스
     크립트 매핑에 영향을 미치며, 그중 많은 것들이 ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ 버
     그에 노출되면 망가집니다.  이러한 이유로 IIS<7은 거의 수정해서 배포
     되지 않습니다 (아직도 UI가 없어서 IIS7 조차도 거의 사용하지 않습니
     다.).

     CGI 코드가 옵션이 설정되었는지를 알 수 있는 방법이 없으므로, 별도의
     처리기 클래스가 제공됩니다.  *note CGIHandler: 3998.와 같은 방식으
     로 사용됩니다.  즉, ‘IISCGIHandler().run(app)’을 호출합니다.  여기
     서 ‘app’은 호출할 WSGI 응용 프로그램 객체입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     *note CGIHandler: 3998.와 유사하지만, *note sys: d9. 와 *note os:
     a1. 모듈을 사용하는 대신, CGI 환경과 I/O 스트림이 명시적으로 지정됩
     니다.  'multithread' 와 'multiprocess' 값은 처리기 인스턴스가 실행
     하는 모든 응용 프로그램에 대한 ‘wsgi.multithread’ 와
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ 플래그를 설정하는 데 사용됩니다.

     이 클래스는 HTTP “오리진 서버” 이외의 소프트웨어에서 사용하기 위한
     *note SimpleHandler: 399b.의 서브 클래스입니다.  HTTP 상태를 보내기
     위해 ‘Status:’ 헤더를 사용하는 게이트웨이 프로토콜 구현(가령 CGI,
     FastCGI, SCGI 등)을 작성하는 경우 *note SimpleHandler: 399b. 대신 이
     것을 서브 클래싱하고 싶을 겁니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     *note BaseCGIHandler: 3999.와 유사하지만, HTTP 오리진 서버에 사용하
     도록 설계되었습니다.  HTTP 서버 구현을 작성하는 경우 *note
     BaseCGIHandler: 3999. 대신 이것을 서브 클래싱하고 싶을 겁니다.

     이 클래스는 *note BaseHandler: 19f7.의 서브 클래스입니다.
     ‘__init__()’, *note get_stdin(): 399c, *note get_stderr(): 399d,
     *note add_cgi_vars(): 399e, *note _write(): 399f. 및 *note
     _flush(): 39a0. 메서드를 재정의하여 명시적으로 환경과 스트림을 생성
     자를 통해 설정하는 것을 지원합니다.  제공된 환경과 스트림은
     ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’, ‘stderr’ 및 ‘environ’ 어트리뷰트에 저장됩니다.

     'stdout'의 *note write(): cd8. 메서드는 *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     68e.처럼 각 덩어리 전체를 기록해야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler

     이것은 WSGI 응용 프로그램을 실행하기 위한 추상 베이스 클래스입니다.
     원칙적으로 여러 요청에 대해 재사용할 수 있는 서브 클래스를 만들 수
     있지만, 각 인스턴스는 단일 HTTP 요청을 처리합니다.

     *note BaseHandler: 19f7. 인스턴스에는 외부 사용을 위한 하나의 메서
     드 만 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: run (app)

          지정된 WSGI 응용 프로그램인 'app'을 실행합니다.

     다른 모든 *note BaseHandler: 19f7. 메서드는 응용 프로그램을 실행하
     는 과정에서 이 메서드에 의해 호출되므로, 주로 과정을 사용자 정의하
     기 위해 존재합니다.

     다음 메서드는 서브 클래스에서 반드시 재정의되어야 합니다:

      -- 메서드: _write (data)

          클라이언트로의 전송을 위해 바이트열 'data'를 버퍼링합니다.  이
          메서드가 실제로 데이터를 전송해도 상관없습니다; *note
          BaseHandler: 19f7.는 쓰기와 플러시 연산을 분리하여 하부 시스템
          에 실제로 이러한 구분이 있을 때 효율성을 높입니다.

      -- 메서드: _flush ()

          버퍼링 된 데이터를 클라이언트로 전송하도록 강제합니다.  이 메
          서드가 아무 일도 하지 않아도 상관없습니다 (즉, *note _write():
          399f.가 실제로 데이터를 보낸다면).

      -- 메서드: get_stdin ()

          현재 처리 중인 요청의 ‘wsgi.input’으로 사용하기에 적합한 *note
          InputStream: 39a2. 과 호환되는 객체를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_stderr ()

          현재 처리 중인 요청의 ‘wsgi.errors’로 사용하기에 적합한 *note
          ErrorStream: 39a3. 과 호환되는 객체를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_cgi_vars ()

          현재 요청에 대한 CGI 변수를 ‘environ’ 어트리뷰트에 삽입합니다.

     재정의하고 싶을 수 있는 다른 메서드와 어트리뷰트는 다음과 같습니다.
     그러나, 이 목록은 요약에 지나지 않고, 재정의할 수 있는 모든 메서드
     가 포함되어 있지 않습니다.  사용자 정의된 *note BaseHandler: 19f7.
     서브 클래스를 작성하기 전에 독스트링과 소스 코드를 참조하여 추가 정
     보를 얻어야 합니다.

     WSGI 환경을 사용자 정의하기 위한 어트리뷰트와 메서드:

      -- 속성: wsgi_multithread

          ‘wsgi.multithread’ 환경 변수에 사용될 값.  *note BaseHandler:
          19f7.에서는 기본값이 참이지만, 다른 서브 클래스는 다른 기본값
          을 가질 수 있습니다 (또는 생성자에 의해 설정될 수 있습니다).

      -- 속성: wsgi_multiprocess

          ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ 환경 변수에 사용될 값.  *note BaseHandler:
          19f7.에서는 기본값이 참이지만, 다른 서브 클래스는 다른 기본값
          을 가질 수 있습니다 (또는 생성자에 의해 설정될 수 있습니다).

      -- 속성: wsgi_run_once

          ‘wsgi.run_once’ 환경 변수에 사용될 값.  *note BaseHandler:
          19f7.에서는 기본값이 거짓이지만, *note CGIHandler: 3998.는 기
          본적으로 참으로 설정합니다.

      -- 속성: os_environ

          모든 요청의 WSGI 환경에 포함될 기본 환경 변수.  기본적으로,
          *note wsgiref.handlers: 119.를 임포트 한 시점의 ‘os.environ’ 사
          본이지만, 서브 클래스는 클래스나 인스턴스 수준에서 자체적으로
          만들 수 있습니다.  기본값이 여러 클래스와 인스턴스 간에 공유되
          므로, 딕셔너리는 읽기 전용으로 간주해야 합니다.

      -- 속성: server_software

          *note origin_server: 39a9. 어트리뷰트가 설정된 경우, 이 어트리
          뷰트의 값은 기본 ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ WSGI 환경 변수를 설정하는 데
          사용되고, HTTP 응답의 기본 ‘Server:’ 헤더를 설정하는 데도 사용
          됩니다.  HTTP 오리진 서버가 아닌 처리기(가령 *note
          BaseCGIHandler: 3999. 와 *note CGIHandler: 3998.)에서는 무시됩
          니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: “Python”이라는 용어는 “CPython”, “Jython” 등
          과 같은 구현 특정 용어로 대체됩니다.

      -- 메서드: get_scheme ()

          현재의 요청에 사용되고 있는 URL 스킴을 반환합니다.  기본 구현
          은 *note wsgiref.util: 11d.의 ‘guess_scheme()’ 함수를 사용하여
          , 현재 요청의 ‘environ’ 변수를 기반으로, 스킴이 “http”와
          “https” 중 어느 것인지 추측합니다.

      -- 메서드: setup_environ ()

          ‘environ’ 어트리뷰트를 완전히 채워진 WSGI 환경으로 설정합니다.
          기본 구현에서는 위의 모든 메서드와 어트리뷰트에 더해 *note
          get_stdin(): 399c, *note get_stderr(): 399d. 및 *note
          add_cgi_vars(): 399e. 메서드와 *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 39ac.
          어트리뷰트를 모두 사용합니다.  *note origin_server: 39a9. 어트
          리뷰트가 참이고 *note server_software: 39a8. 어트리뷰트가 설정
          된 경우 ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ 키가 없으면 삽입합니다.

     예외 처리를 사용자 정의하기 위한 메서드와 어트리뷰트:

      -- 메서드: log_exception (exc_info)

          'exc_info' 튜플을 서버 로그에 기록합니다.  'exc_info'는
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’ 튜플입니다.  기본 구현은 요청의
          ‘wsgi.errors’ 스트림에 트레이스백을 쓰고 플러시 합니다.  서브
          클래스는 이 메서드를 재정의해서, 형식을 변경하거나 출력의 대상
          을 바꾸거나, 관리자에게 트레이스백을 메일로 보내거나, 적절한 것
          으로 생각되는 다른 액션을 수행할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: traceback_limit

          기본 *note log_exception(): 39ad. 메서드에 의해 출력되는 트레
          이스백에 포함하는 프레임의 최대 수.  ‘None’이면, 모든 프레임이
          포함됩니다.

      -- 메서드: error_output (environ, start_response)

          이 메서드는 사용자를 위한 에러 페이지를 생성하는 WSGI 응용 프
          로그램입니다.  헤더가 클라이언트에 전송되기 전에 오류가 발생할
          때만 호출됩니다.

          이 메서드는 ‘sys.exception()’을 사용하여 현재 에러에 액세스할
          수 있으며, 호출할 때 해당 정보를 'start_response'로 전달해야 합
          니다 ( PEP 3333(1)의 “에러 처리” 절에서 설명하듯이).  특히,
          'start_response' 콜러블은 *note StartResponse: 398c. 프로토콜
          을 따라야 합니다.

          기본 구현은 *note error_status: 39b0, *note error_headers:
          39b1. 및 *note error_body: 39b2. 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 출력 페
          이지를 생성합니다.  서브 클래스는 이것을 재정의하여, 더욱 동적
          인 에러 출력을 생성할 수 있습니다.

          그러나, 보안 관점에서 오래된 사용자에게는 진단을 내보내지 않는
          것이 좋습니다; 이상적으로, 진단 출력을 활성화하기 위해서는 특
          별한 것을 해야 합니다.  이것이 기본 구현이 아무것도 포함하지 않
          는 이유입니다.

      -- 속성: error_status

          에러 응답에 사용되는 HTTP 상태.  PEP 3333(2)에 정의된 상태 문
          자열이어야 합니다; 기본값은 500 코드와 메시지입니다.

      -- 속성: error_headers

          에러 응답에 사용되는 HTTP 헤더.  이것은 PEP 3333(3)에서 설명하
          는 WSGI 응답 헤더 (‘(name, value)’ 튜플)의 리스트여야 합니다.
          기본 리스트는 단지 콘텐츠 형식을 ‘text/plain’으로 설정합니다.

      -- 속성: error_body

          에러 응답 바디.  이것은 HTTP 응답 바디 바이트열이어야 합니다.
          기본적으로 “A server error occurred.  Please contact the
          administrator.” 라는 단순 텍스트입니다.

     PEP 3333(4)의 “선택적 플랫폼 특정 파일 처리” 기능을 위한 메서드와 어
     트리뷰트:

      -- 속성: wsgi_file_wrapper

          *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3986. 와 호환되는
          ‘wsgi.file_wrapper’ 팩토리나 ‘None’.  이 어트리뷰트의 기본값은
          *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 72f. 클래스입니다.

      -- 메서드: sendfile ()

          플랫폼 특정 파일 전송을 구현하기 위해 재정의합니다.  이 메서드
          는 응용 프로그램의 반환 값이 *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 39ac. 어
          트리뷰트로 지정된 클래스의 인스턴스일 때만 호출됩니다.  파일을
          성공적으로 전송할 수 있었으면 참값을 반환해야 합니다.  그러면
          기본 전송 코드가 실행되지 않습니다.  이 메서드의 기본 구현은 단
          지 거짓 값을 반환합니다.

     기타 메서드와 어트리뷰트:

      -- 속성: origin_server

          특별한 ‘Status:’ 헤더를 통해 HTTP 상태를 원하는 CGI와 같은 게
          이트웨이 프로토콜을 통하는 것이 아니라, 처리기의 *note
          _write(): 399f.와 *note _flush(): 39a0.가 클라이언트와 직접 통
          신하는 데 사용되는 경우 이 어트리뷰트를 참으로 설정해야 합니다
          .

          *note BaseHandler: 19f7.에서는 이 어트리뷰트의 기본값이 참이지
          만, *note BaseCGIHandler: 3999.와 *note CGIHandler: 3998.에서
          는 거짓입니다.

      -- 속성: http_version

          *note origin_server: 39a9.가 참이면, 이 문자열 어트리뷰트를 사
          용하여 클라이언트로 보내는 응답 집합의 HTTP 버전을 설정합니다.
          기본값은 ‘"1.0"’입니다.

 -- 함수: wsgiref.handlers.read_environ ()

     CGI 변수를 ‘os.environ’에서 PEP 3333(5) “유니코드에 들어있는 바이트
     열” 문자열로 변환하여, 새 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  이 함수는
     ‘os.environ’을 직접 사용하는 대신 *note CGIHandler: 3998.와 *note
     IISCGIHandler: 399a.에서 사용됩니다.  ‘os.environ’은 파이썬 3을 사
     용하는 모든 플랫폼과 웹 서버에서 WSGI를 준수한다는 보장이 없습니다
     – 구체적으로, OS의 실제 환경이 유니코드인 곳(가령 윈도우)이나 환경
     은 바이트열이지만 파이썬이 디코딩하기 위해 사용하는 시스템 인코딩이
     ISO-8859-1 이외의 것인 곳(예를 들어 UTF-8을 사용하는 유닉스 시스템
     ).

     여러분 자신의 CGI 기반 처리기를 구현한다면, ‘os.environ’에서 직접 값
     을 복사하는 대신 이 루틴을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형,  Next: 예제<23>,  Prev: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.6 ‘wsgiref.types’ — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형
........................................................

This module provides various types for static type checking as described
in PEP 3333(1).

Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.types.StartResponse

     A *note typing.Protocol: 264. describing start_response()(2)
     callables ( PEP 3333(3)).

 -- 데이터: wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment

     A type alias describing a WSGI environment dictionary.

 -- 데이터: wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication

     WSGI 응용 프로그램 콜러블을 기술하는 형 에일리어스.

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.types.InputStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 264. describing a WSGI Input Stream(4).

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.types.ErrorStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 264. describing a WSGI Error Stream(5).

 -- 클래스: wsgiref.types.FileWrapper

     A *note typing.Protocol: 264. describing a file wrapper(6).  See
     *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 72f. for a concrete implementation
     of this protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (6) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<23>,  Prev: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현

5.22.2.7 예제
.............

이것은 작동하는 “Hello World” WSGI 응용 프로그램으로, 'start_response' 콜
러블은 *note StartResponse: 398c. 프로토콜을 따라야 합니다:

     """
     모든 WSGI 응용 프로그램은 응용 프로그램 객체를 가져야
     합니다 - 두 개의 인자를 받아들이는 콜러블. 이를 위해,
     함수를 사용하려고 합니다 (함수로 제한되지는 않습니다,
     예를 들어 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다). 함수에 전달되는
     첫 번째 인자는 CGI 스타일 환경 변수를 포함하는 딕셔너리이고,
     두 번째 변수는 콜러블 객체입니다.
     """
     from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server


     def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
         status = "200 OK"  # HTTP Status
         headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")]  # HTTP 헤더
         start_response(status, headers)

         # 반환된 객체가 인쇄될 것입니다.
         return [b"Hello World"]

     with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
         print("Serving on port 8000...")

         # 프로세스를 죽일 때까지 서빙합니다
         httpd.serve_forever()

현재 디렉터리를 제공하는 WSGI 응용 프로그램의 예, 명령 줄에서 선택적 디
렉터리와 포트 번호(기본값: 8000)를 받아들입니다:

     """
     작은 wsgiref 기반 웹 서버. 서비스할 경로와 선택적
     포트 번호(기본값 8000)를 취한 다음, 파일을 서비스하려고
     시도합니다. 파일 이름에서 MIME 유형을 추측하고, 파일을
     찾을 수 없으면 404 에러를 발생시킵니다.
     """
     import mimetypes
     import os
     import sys
     from wsgiref import simple_server, util


     def app(environ, respond):
         # 파일 이름과 MIME 유형을 가져옵니다
         fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:])
         if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]:
             fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html")
         mime_type = mimetypes.guess_file_type(fn)[0]

         # 파일이 존재하면 200 OK 를, 그렇지 않으면 404 Not Found 를 돌려줍니다
         if os.path.exists(fn):
             respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)])
             return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb"))
         else:
             respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")])
             return [b"not found"]


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # 명령줄 인자에서 경로와 포트를 가져옵니다
         path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd()
         port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000

         # control-c 를 누를 때까지 서버를 만들고 시작합니다
         httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app)
         print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop")
         try:
             httpd.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("Shutting down.")
             httpd.server_close()


File: python.info,  Node: urllib — URL 처리 모듈,  Next: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리,  Prev: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.3 ‘urllib’ — URL 처리 모듈
-------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/urllib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘urllib’는 URL 작업을 위한 여러 모듈을 모은 패키지입니다.:

   * URL을 열고 읽기 위한 *note urllib.request: 10b.

   * *note urllib.request: 10b.에 의해 발생하는 예외를 포함하는 *note
     urllib.error: 109.

   * URL 구문 분석을 위한 *note urllib.parse: 10a.

   * ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 구문 분석하기 위한 *note urllib.robotparser:
     10d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리,  Next: urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스,  Prev: urllib — URL 처리 모듈,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.4 ‘urllib.request’ — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리
----------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/urllib/request.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note urllib.request: 10b. 모듈은 복잡한 세계에서 URL(대부분 HTTP)을 여
는 데 도움이 되는 함수와 클래스를 정의합니다 — 기본(basic)과 다이제스트
인증, 리디렉션, 쿠키 등.

더 보기
.......

더 고수준 HTTP 클라이언트 인터페이스로 Requests 패키지(2)를 권장합니다.

     경고: On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs using
     *note os.fork(): 197. because the *note getproxies(): 39bc.
     implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the
     environment variable ‘no_proxy’ to ‘*’ to avoid this problem (e.g.
     ‘os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*"’).

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

*note urllib.request: 10b. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: urllib.request.urlopen (url, data=None[, timeout], *,
          context=None)

     유효하고, 올바르게 인코딩된 URL을 포함하는 문자열이나 *note
     Request: fd0. 객체일 수 있는, 'url'을 엽니다.

     'data'는 서버로 전송할 추가 데이터를 지정하는 객체이거나, 그러한 데
     이터가 필요하지 않으면 ‘None’이어야 합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
     Request: fd0.를 참조하십시오.

     urllib.request 모듈은 HTTP/1.1을 사용하고 HTTP 요청에
     ‘Connection:close’ 헤더를 포함합니다.

     선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결 시도와 같은 연산을 블로킹하기 위
     한 시간제한을 초 단위로 지정합니다 (지정하지 않으면 전역 기본 시간
     제한 설정이 사용됩니다).  이것은 실제로는 HTTP, HTTPS 및 FTP 연결에
     서만 작동합니다.

     'context'가 지정되면, 다양한 SSL 옵션을 기술하는 *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스이어야 합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note
     HTTPSConnection: b3e.을 참조하십시오.

     이 함수는 항상 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce.로 작동할 수 있고 'url',
     'headers' 및 'status' 프로퍼티를 가진 객체를 반환합니다.  이러한 프
     로퍼티에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note urllib.response.addinfourl:
     39bd.을 참조하십시오.

     HTTP 및 HTTPS URL의 경우, 이 함수는 약간 수정된 *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse: 10c1. 객체를 반환합니다.  위의 세 가지 새
     로운 메서드 외에도, msg 어트리뷰트에는 *note HTTPResponse: 10c1. 설
     명서에 지정된 대로 응답 헤더 대신 *note reason: 39be. 어트리뷰트와
     — 서버가 반환한 이유 문구 — 같은 정보가 포함됩니다.

     FTP, 파일 및 데이터 URL과 레거시 *note URLopener: 306.와 *note
     FancyURLopener: 307. 클래스에서 명시적으로 처리된 요청의 경우, 이 함
     수는 *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 39bd. 객체를 반환합니다.

     프로토콜 에러 시 *note URLError: 39bf.를 발생시킵니다.

     아무런 처리기도 요청을 처리하지 않으면 ‘None’이 반환될 수 있습니다
     (기본 설치된 전역 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.는 *note
     UnknownHandler: 39c1.를 사용하여 이러한 상황이 발생하지 않도록 합니
     다).

     또한, 프락시 설정이 감지되면 (예를 들어, ‘http_proxy’와 같은
     ‘*_proxy’ 환경 변수가 설정될 때), *note ProxyHandler: 19d7.가 기본
     적으로 설치되어 프락시를 통해 요청이 처리되도록 합니다.

     파이썬 2.6 및 이전 버전의 레거시 ‘urllib.urlopen’ 함수는 중단되었습
     니다; *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 293.는 이전
     ‘urllib2.urlopen’에 해당합니다.  딕셔너리 매개 변수를
     ‘urllib.urlopen’에 전달하여 수행되었던 프락시 처리는 *note
     ProxyHandler: 19d7. 객체를 사용하여 얻을 수 있습니다.

     기본 오프너는 요청 객체에서 취한 인자 ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’,
     ‘method’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘urllib.Request’를 발생시킵니다
     .

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'cafile'과 'capath'가 추가되었습니다.

     가능하다면 (즉, *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 34a3.가 참이라면) HTTPS 가상 호
     스트가 지원됩니다.

     'data'는 이터러블 객체일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'cadefault'가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4.3에서 변경: 'context'가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: HTTPS connection now send an ALPN extension
     with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given.
     Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): e5c.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and 'cadefault'
     parameters: use the 'context' parameter instead.

 -- 함수: urllib.request.install_opener (opener)

     *note OpenerDirector: 39c0. 인스턴스를 기본 전역 오프너로 설치합니
     다.  오프너 설치는 urlopen이 해당 오프너를 사용하도록 하려는 경우에
     만 필요합니다; 그렇지 않으면 단순히 *note urlopen(): 293. 대신
     *note OpenerDirector.open(): fd4.을 호출하십시오.  코드는 실제
     *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.를 확인하지 않으며, 적절한 인터페이스를
     가진 클래스면 모두 작동합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.request.build_opener ([handler, ...])

     주어진 순서대로 처리기를 연결하는 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0. 인스
     턴스를 반환합니다.  'handler'는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4.의 인스턴스
     이거나 *note BaseHandler: 39c4.의 서브 클래스(이 경우 매개 변수 없
     이 생성자를 호출할 수 있어야 합니다)일 수 있습니다.  다음과 같은 클
     래스들의 인스턴스는 'handler'에 그들, 그들의 인스턴스 또는 그들의 서
     브 클래스가 포함되지 않는 한 'handler' 앞에 있습니다: *note
     ProxyHandler: 19d7. (프락시 설정이 감지되는 경우), *note
     UnknownHandler: 39c1, *note HTTPHandler: 39c5, *note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 39c6, *note HTTPRedirectHandler: 39c7,
     *note FTPHandler: 39c8, *note FileHandler: 39c9, *note
     HTTPErrorProcessor: 39ca.

     파이썬 설치에 SSL 지원이 있으면 (즉, *note ssl: d0. 모듈을 임포트 할
     수 있으면) *note HTTPSHandler: 1213.도 추가됩니다.

     *note BaseHandler: 39c4. 서브 클래스는 또한 ‘handler_order’ 어트리
     뷰트를 변경하여 처리기 리스트에서 자신의 위치를 수정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.request.pathname2url (path)

     Convert the given local path to a ‘file:’ URL. This function uses
     *note quote(): ba0. function to encode the path.  For historical
     reasons, the return value omits the ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  This
     example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import pathname2url
          >>> path = 'C:\\Program Files'
          >>> 'file:' + pathname2url(path)
          'file:///C:/Program%20Files'

 -- 함수: urllib.request.url2pathname (url)

     Convert the given ‘file:’ URL to a local path.  This function uses
     *note unquote(): 178c. to decode the URL. For historical reasons,
     the given value 'must' omit the ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  This
     example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import url2pathname
          >>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
          >>> url2pathname(url.removeprefix('file:'))
          'C:\\Program Files'

 -- 함수: urllib.request.getproxies ()

     이 도우미 함수는 스킴에서 프락시 서버 URL로 매핑하는 딕셔너리를 반
     환합니다.  먼저 모든 운영 체제에서 대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 방식으
     로 ‘<scheme>_proxy’라는 변수를 환경에서 스캔하고, 찾을 수 없으면
     macOS의 시스템 구성과 윈도우의 윈도우 시스템 레지스트리에서 프락시
     정보를 찾습니다.  소문자와 대문자 환경 변수가 모두 존재하면 (그리고
     다른 값을 가지면), 소문자가 선호됩니다.

          참고: 일반적으로 스크립트가 CGI 환경에서 실행 중임을 나타내는
          환경 변수 ‘REQUEST_METHOD’가 설정되면, 환경 변수
          ‘HTTP_PROXY’(대문자 ‘_PROXY’)는 무시됩니다.  이 변수는
          “Proxy:” HTTP 헤더를 사용하여 클라이언트가 주입할 수 있기 때문
          입니다.  CGI 환경에서 HTTP 프락시를 사용해야 하면,
          ‘ProxyHandler’를 명시적으로 사용하거나 변수 이름이 소문자(또는
          적어도 ‘_proxy’ 접미사)가 되도록 하십시오.

다음과 같은 클래스가 제공됩니다:

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.Request (url, data=None, headers={},
          origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)

     이 클래스는 URL 요청의 추상화입니다.

     'url'은 유효하고 올바르게 인코딩된 URL을 포함하는 문자열이어야 합니
     다.

     'data'는 서버로 전송할 추가 데이터를 지정하는 객체이거나, 그러한 데
     이터가 필요하지 않으면 ‘None’이어야 합니다.  현재 HTTP 요청은
     'data'를 사용하는 유일한 요청입니다.  지원되는 객체 형에는 바이트열
     , 파일류 객체 및 바이트열류 객체의 이터러블이 포함됩니다.
     ‘Content-Length’와 ‘Transfer-Encoding’ 헤더 필드가 모두 제공되지 않
     으면, *note HTTPHandler: 39c5.는 'data'의 형에 따라 이러한 헤더를 설
     정합니다.  ‘Content-Length’는 바이트열 객체를 보내는 데 사용되는 반
     면, RFC 7230(3), 섹션 3.3.1에 지정된 ‘Transfer-Encoding: chunked’는
     파일과 다른 이터러블을 보내는 데 사용됩니다.

     HTTP POST 요청 메서드의 경우, 'data'는 표준
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 형식의 버퍼여야 합니다.  *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b. 함수는 매핑이나 2-튜플의 시퀀스를 취
     하고 이 형식의 ASCII 문자열을 반환합니다.  'data' 매개 변수로 사용
     되기 전에 바이트열로 인코딩되어야 합니다.

     'headers'는 딕셔너리이어야 하며, 각 키와 값을 인자로 사용하여 *note
     add_header(): 39cb.가 호출된 것처럼 처리됩니다.  이것은 종종 브라우
     저가 자신을 식별하는 데 사용하는 ‘User-Agent’ 헤더 값을 “스푸핑” 하
     는 데 사용됩니다 – 일부 HTTP 서버는 스크립트가 아닌 일반 브라우저에
     서 오는 요청만 허용합니다.  예를 들어, Mozilla Firefox는 자신을
     ‘"Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127
     Firefox/2.0.0.11"’로 식별하는 반면, *note urllib: 108.의 기본 사용
     자 에이전트 문자열은 ‘"Python-urllib/2.6"’ (파이썬 2.6에서) 입니다.
     모든 헤더 키는 카멜 표기법(camel case)으로 전송됩니다.

     'data' 인자가 있으면 적절한 ‘Content-Type’ 헤더가 포함되어야 합니다
     .  이 헤더가 제공되지 않고 'data'가 ‘None’이 아니면, ‘Content-Type:
     application/x-www-form-urlencoded’가 기본값으로 추가됩니다.

     다음 두 인자는 제삼자 HTTP 쿠키를 올바르게 처리하는 데에만 관심이 있
     습니다:

     'origin_req_host'는 RFC 2965(4)에 의해 정의된 대로 오리진 트랜잭션
     의 요청 호스트여야 합니다.  기본값은
     ‘http.cookiejar.request_host(self)’입니다.  이것은 사용자가 시작한
     원래 요청의 호스트 이름이나 IP 주소입니다.  예를 들어, HTML 문서의
     이미지에 대한 요청이면, 이미지가 포함된 페이지에 대한 요청의 요청 호
     스트여야 합니다.

     'unverifiable'은 RFC 2965(5)에서 정의한 대로 요청을 확인할 수 없는
     지를 표시해야 합니다.  기본값은 ‘False’입니다.  확인할 수 없는 요청
     은 사용자에게 URL에 대한 승인 옵션이 없는 요청입니다.  예를 들어,
     HTML 문서의 이미지에 대한 요청이고, 사용자에게 이미지의 자동 가져오
     기를 승인할 수 있는 옵션이 없으면, 이것은 참이어야 합니다.

     'method'는 사용될 HTTP 요청 메서드를 나타내는 문자열이어야 합니다
     (예를 들어 ‘'HEAD'’).  제공되면, 해당 값은 *note method: fd1. 어트
     리뷰트에 저장되고 *note get_method(): 115a.에서 사용됩니다.  기본값
     은 'data'가 ‘None’이면 ‘'GET'’이고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘'POST'’입니다.  서
     브 클래스는 클래스 자체에서 *note method: fd1. 어트리뷰트를 설정하
     여 다른 기본 메서드를 나타낼 수 있습니다.

          참고: data 객체가 콘텐츠를 두 번 이상 (예를 들어 콘텐츠를 한 번
          만 생성 할 수 있는 파일이나 이터러블) 전달할 수 없고 요청이
          HTTP 리디렉션이나 인증을 위해 재시도되는 경우, 요청이 예상대로
          작동하지 않습니다.  'data'는 헤더 바로 다음에 HTTP 서버로 전송
          됩니다.  라이브러리에서 100-continue 예상(expectation)을 지원
          하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note Request.method: fd1. 인자가 Request 클래스
     에 추가됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 클래스 수준에서 기본 *note Request.method: fd1.를
     지정할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘Content-Length’가 제공되지 않고 'data'가
     ‘None’이나 바이트열 객체가 아닐 때 에러를 발생시키지 앖습니다.  대
     신 청크 전송 인코딩(chunked transfer encoding)으로 폴백 합니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.OpenerDirector

     *note OpenerDirector: 39c0. 클래스는 서로 연결된 *note BaseHandler:
     39c4.들을 통해 URL을 엽니다.  처리기 연결과 에러 복구를 관리합니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.BaseHandler

     이것은 등록된 모든 처리기의 베이스 클래스이며 — 간단한 등록 메커니
     즘만 처리합니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler

     HTTP 에러 응답에 대한 기본 처리기를 정의하는 클래스; 모든 응답은
     *note HTTPError: fd6. 예외로 바뀝니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler

     리디렉션을 처리하는 클래스.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor (cookiejar=None)

     HTTP 쿠키를 처리하는 클래스.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.ProxyHandler (proxies=None)

     요청이 프락시를 거치게 합니다.  'proxies'가 제공되면, 프로토콜 이름
     을 프락시 URL로 매핑하는 딕셔너리여야 합니다.  기본값은 환경 변수
     ‘<protocol>_proxy’에서 프락시 목록을 읽는 것입니다.  프락시 환경 변
     수가 설정되어 있지 않으면, 윈도우 환경에서는 레지스트리의 인터넷 설
     정 섹션에서 프락시 설정을 가져오고, macOS 환경에서는 프락시 정보를
     시스템 구성 프레임워크에서 가져옵니다.

     자동 감지 프락시를 비활성화하려면 빈 딕셔너리를 전달하십시오.

     ‘no_proxy’ 환경 변수를 사용하여 프락시를 통해 도달해서는 안 되는 호
     스트를 지정할 수 있습니다; 설정되면, 쉼표로 구분된 호스트 이름 접미
     사의 목록이어야 하며, 선택적으로 ‘:port’가 추가됩니다, 예를 들어
     ‘cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080’.

          참고: 변수 ‘REQUEST_METHOD’가 설정되면 ‘HTTP_PROXY’는 무시됩니
          다; *note getproxies(): 39bc.의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr

     ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ 매핑 데이터베이스를 유지합니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm

     ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ 매핑 데이터베이스를 유지합니다.
     ‘None’ realm은 포괄(catch-all) 영역으로 간주하며 다른 영역에 맞지 않
     으면 검색됩니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth

     ‘uri -> is_authenticated’ 매핑 데이터베이스도 포함하는 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ce.의 변형.  BasicAuth 처리기에
     서 ‘401’ 응답을 먼저 기다리는 대신 인증 자격 증명을 언제 보낼 것인
     지 결정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     원격 호스트와 프락시 모두에서 HTTP 인증을 돕는 믹스인 클래스입니다.
     'password_mgr'이 주어지면 *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 호환되는
     것이어야 합니다; 지원해야 하는 인터페이스에 대한 정보는 섹션 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr 객체: 39cf.를 참조하십시오.  'passwd_mgr'이
     ‘is_authenticated’와 ‘update_authenticated’ 메서드도 제공하면
     (*note HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체: 39d0.를 참조하십시오), 처
     리기는 지정된 URI에 대해 ‘is_authenticated’ 결과를 사용하여 요청과
     함께 인증 자격 증명을 보낼지를 판별합니다.  ‘is_authenticated’가
     URI에 대해 ‘True’를 반환하면, 자격 증명이 전송됩니다.
     ‘is_authenticated’가 ‘False’이면, 자격 증명이 전송되지 않으며, 그런
     다음 ‘401’ 응답이 수신되면 요청이 인증 자격 증명과 함께 다시 전송됩
     니다.  인증이 성공하면, 이 URI에 대해 ‘is_authenticated’를 ‘True’로
     설정하기 위해 ‘update_authenticated’가 호출되어서, 이 URI나 모든 슈
     퍼 URI에 대한 후속 요청에 인증 자격 증명이 자동으로 포함됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5: ‘is_authenticated’ 지원이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     원격 호스트와의 인증을 처리합니다.  'password_mgr'이 주어지면 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 호환되는 것이어야 합니다; 지원해야 하는 인
     터페이스에 대한 정보는 섹션 *note HTTPPasswordMgr 객체: 39cf.를 참
     조하십시오.  잘못된 인증 스킴(Authentication scheme)을 제시하면
     HTTPBasicAuthHandler 가 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     프락시와의 인증을 처리합니다.  'password_mgr'이 주어지면 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 호환되는 것이어야 합니다; 지원해야 하는 인
     터페이스에 대한 정보는 섹션 *note HTTPPasswordMgr 객체: 39cf.를 참
     조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     원격 호스트와 프락시 모두에서 HTTP 인증을 돕는 믹스인 클래스입니다.
     'password_mgr'이 주어지면 *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 호환되는
     것이어야 합니다; 지원해야 하는 인터페이스에 대한 정보는 섹션 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr 객체: 39cf.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     원격 호스트와의 인증을 처리합니다.  'password_mgr'이 주어지면 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 호환되는 것이어야 합니다; 지원해야 하는 인
     터페이스에 대한 정보는 섹션 *note HTTPPasswordMgr 객체: 39cf.를 참
     조하십시오.  다이제스트 인증 처리기와 기본 인증 처리기가 모두 추가
     되면, 다이제스트 인증이 항상 먼저 시도됩니다.  다이제스트 인증이 다
     시 40x 응답을 반환하면, 기본 인증 처리기로 보내 처리됩니다.  이 처
     리기 메서드는 Digest나 Basic 이외의 인증 스킴(authentication
     scheme)이 제공될 때 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 지원되지 않는 인증 스킴에 대해 *note ValueError:
     202.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     프락시와의 인증을 처리합니다.  'password_mgr'이 주어지면 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 호환되는 것이어야 합니다; 지원해야 하는 인
     터페이스에 대한 정보는 섹션 *note HTTPPasswordMgr 객체: 39cf.를 참
     조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPHandler

     HTTP URL 열기를 처리하는 클래스.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPSHandler (debuglevel=0, context=None,
          check_hostname=None)

     HTTPS URL 열기를 처리하는 클래스.  'context'와 'check_hostname'은
     *note http.client.HTTPSConnection: b3e.과 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'context'와 'check_hostname'이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.FileHandler

     로컬 파일을 엽니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.DataHandler

     데이터 URL을 엽니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.FTPHandler

     FTP URL을 엽니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler

     지연 시간을 최소화하기 위해 열린 FTP 연결의 캐시를 유지하면서, FTP
     URL을 엽니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.UnknownHandler

     알 수 없는 URL을 처리하기 위한 포괄적인(catch-all) 클래스.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor

     HTTP 에러 응답을 처리합니다.

* Menu:

* Request 객체::
* OpenerDirector 객체::
* BaseHandler 객체::
* HTTPRedirectHandler 객체::
* HTTPCookieProcessor 객체::
* ProxyHandler 객체::
* HTTPPasswordMgr 객체::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체::
* HTTPHandler 객체::
* HTTPSHandler 객체::
* FileHandler 객체::
* DataHandler 객체::
* FTPHandler 객체::
* CacheFTPHandler 객체::
* UnknownHandler 객체::
* HTTPErrorProcessor 객체::
* 예: 예<11>.
* 레거시 인터페이스::
* urllib.request 제약 사항: urllib request 제약 사항.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/request.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Request 객체,  Next: OpenerDirector 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.1 Request 객체
.....................

다음 메서드는 *note Request: fd0.의 공용 인터페이스를 설명하므로, 서브 클
래스에서 모두 재정의될 수 있습니다.  또한 클라이언트가 구문 분석된 요청
을 검사하는 데 사용할 수 있는 몇 가지 공용 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다.

 -- 속성: Request.full_url

     생성자에 전달된 원래 URL.

     버전 3.4에서 변경.

     Request.full_url은 setter, getter 및 deleter가 있는 프로퍼티입니다.
     *note full_url: fd2.을 읽으면 프래그먼트가 있는 원래 요청 URL을 반
     환합니다 (있다면).

 -- 속성: Request.type

     URI 스킴.

 -- 속성: Request.host

     URI 주체(authority), 일반적으로 호스트이지만 콜론으로 구분된 포트를
     포함할 수도 있습니다.

 -- 속성: Request.origin_req_host

     포트가 없는, 요청의 원래 호스트.

 -- 속성: Request.selector

     URI 경로.  *note Request: fd0.가 프락시를 사용하면, selector는 프락
     시로 전달되는 전체 URL이 됩니다.

 -- 속성: Request.data

     요청의 엔티티 바디, 또는 지정되지 않으면 ‘None’.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note Request.data: fd3.의 값을 변경하면 이제
     “Content-Length” 헤더가 이전에 설정되거나 계산되었다면 삭제됩니다.

 -- 속성: Request.unverifiable

     불리언, RFC 2965(1)에서 정의한 대로 요청을 확인할 수 없는지를 나타
     냅니다.

 -- 속성: Request.method

     사용할 HTTP 요청 메서드.  기본적으로 값은 *note None: 66f.입니다.  이
     는 *note get_method(): 115a.가 사용될 메서드의 일반적인 계산을 수행
     함을 뜻합니다.  *note Request: fd0. 서브 클래스의 클래스 수준에서 값
     을 설정해서 기본값을 제공하거나, 'method' 인자를 통해 *note
     Request: fd0. 생성자에 값을 전달하여 값을 설정할 수 있습니다 (그래
     서 *note get_method(): 115a.의 기본 계산을 무시합니다).

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 서브 클래스에서 이제 기본값을 설정할 수 있습니다
     ; 이전에는 생성자 인자를 통해서만 설정할 수 있었습니다.

 -- 메서드: Request.get_method ()

     HTTP 요청 메서드를 나타내는 문자열을 반환합니다.  *note
     Request.method: fd1.가 ‘None’이 아니면, 그 값을 반환하고, 그렇지 않
     으면 *note Request.data: fd3.가 ‘None’이면 ‘'GET'’을 반환하거나 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘'POST'’를 반환합니다.  이것은 HTTP 요청에만 의미가 있
     습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: get_method는 이제 *note Request.method: fd1.의 값
     을 조사합니다.

 -- 메서드: Request.add_header (key, val)

     요청에 다른 헤더를 추가합니다.  헤더는 현재 HTTP 처리기를 제외한 모
     든 처리기에서 무시되며, HTTP 처리기에서는 서버로 전송되는 헤더 리스
     트에 추가됩니다.  같은 이름을 가진 헤더를 두 개 이상 가질 수 없으며
     , 'key'가 충돌하는 경우 후속 호출은 이전 호출을 덮어씁니다.  현재,
     두 번 이상 사용될 때 의미가 있는 모든 헤더는 하나의 헤더만 사용하여
     같은 기능을 얻는 (헤더 별) 방식을 가지므로 HTTP 기능의 손실은 없습
     니다.  이 메서드로 추가된 헤더는 리디렉션 된 요청에도 추가됨에 유의
     하십시오.

 -- 메서드: Request.add_unredirected_header (key, header)

     리디렉션 된 요청에 추가되지 않을 헤더를 추가합니다.

 -- 메서드: Request.has_header (header)

     인스턴스에 명명된 헤더가 있는지를 반환합니다 (일반과 리디렉션되지 않
     는 것을 모두 확인합니다).

 -- 메서드: Request.remove_header (header)

     요청 인스턴스에서 명명된 헤더를 제거합니다 (일반과 리디렉션되지 않
     은 헤더 모두).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: Request.get_full_url ()

     생성자에 제공된 URL을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경.

     *note Request.full_url: fd2.을 반환합니다

 -- 메서드: Request.set_proxy (host, type)

     프락시 서버에 연결하여 요청을 준비합니다.  'host'와 'type'은 인스턴
     스의 것을 대체하고, 인스턴스의 selector는 생성자에 제공된 원래 URL이
     됩니다.

 -- 메서드: Request.get_header (header_name, default=None)

     지정된 헤더의 값을 반환합니다.  헤더가 없으면, default 값을 반환합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: Request.header_items ()

     요청 헤더의 튜플 (header_name, header_value) 리스트를 반환합니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 3.3부터 폐지된 add_data, has_data, get_data,
get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host 및 is_unverifiable
요청 메서드가 제거되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: OpenerDirector 객체,  Next: BaseHandler 객체,  Prev: Request 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.2 OpenerDirector 객체
............................

*note OpenerDirector: 39c0. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: OpenerDirector.add_handler (handler)

     'handler'는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.  다음 메
     서드가 검색되어, 가능한 체인에 추가됩니다 (HTTP 에러는 특별한 경우
     임에 유의하십시오).  다음에서 'protocol'은 처리할 실제 프로토콜로 바
     꿔야 합니다, 예를 들어 ‘http_response()’는 HTTP 프로토콜 응답 처리
     기입니다.  또한 'type'은 실제 HTTP 코드로 대체해야 합니다, 예를 들
     어 ‘http_error_404()’는 HTTP 404 에러를 처리합니다.

        * ‘<protocol>_open()’ — 처리기가 'protocol' URL을 여는 방법을 알
          고 있음을 알립니다.

          자세한 정보는 *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(): 39e5.을 참
          조하십시오.

        * ‘http_error_<type>()’ — 처리기가 HTTP 에러 코드 'type'을 갖는
          HTTP 에러를 처리하는 방법을 알고 있음을 알립니다.

          자세한 정보는 *note BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(): 39e6.을 참
          조하십시오.

        * ‘<protocol>_error()’ — 처리기가 (‘http’가 아닌) 'protocol'의 에
          러를 처리하는 방법을 알고 있음을 알립니다.

        * ‘<protocol>_request()’ — 처리기가 'protocol' 요청을 전처리
          (pre-process)하는 방법을 알고 있음을 알립니다.

          자세한 정보는 *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(): 39e7.를
          참조하십시오.

        * ‘<protocol>_response()’ — 처리기가 'protocol' 응답을 후처리
          (post-process)하는 방법을 알고 있음을 알립니다.

          자세한 정보는 *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(): 39e8.를
          참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: OpenerDirector.open (url, data=None[, timeout])

     주어진 'url'(요청 객체나 문자열일 수 있습니다)을 열고, 선택적으로 주
     어진 'data'를 전달합니다.  인자, 반환 값 및 발생하는 예외는 *note
     urlopen(): 293.과 같습니다 (단순히 현재 설치된 전역 *note
     OpenerDirector: 39c0.의 *note open(): 515. 메서드를 호출합니다).  선
     택적 'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결 시도와 같은 연산을 블로킹하기 위한
     시간제한을 초 단위로 지정합니다 (지정하지 않으면 전역 기본 시간제한
     설정이 사용됩니다).  시간제한 기능은 실제로는 HTTP, HTTPS 및 FTP 연
     결에서만 작동합니다.

 -- 메서드: OpenerDirector.error (proto, *args)

     주어진 프로토콜의 에러를 처리합니다.  이것은 주어진 프로토콜에 대해
     등록된 에러 처리기를 주어진 인자(프로토콜 특정입니다)로 호출합니다.
     HTTP 프로토콜은 HTTP 응답 코드를 사용하여 특정 에러 처리기를 결정하
     는 특수한 경우입니다; 처리기 클래스의 ‘http_error_<type>()’ 메서드
     를 참조하십시오.

     반환 값과 발생하는 예외는 *note urlopen(): 293.과 같습니다.

OpenerDirector 객체는 다음 3단계로 URL을 엽니다:

각 단계에서 이러한 메서드가 호출되는 순서는 처리기 인스턴스를 정렬하여 결
정됩니다.

  1. ‘<protocol>_request()’와 같은 이름의 메서드를 가진 모든 처리기가 요
     청을 전처리하기 위해 해당 메서드가 호출됩니다.

  2. ‘<protocol>_open()’과 같은 이름의 메서드를 가진 처리기가 요청을 처
     리하기 위해 호출됩니다.  이 단계는 처리기가 *note None: 66f.이 아닌
     값(즉, 응답)을 반환하거나, 예외(보통 *note URLError: 39bf.)를 발생
     시킬 때 종료됩니다.  예외 전파가 허용됩니다.

     사실, 위의 알고리즘은 *note default_open(): 39ea.이라는 메서드를 먼
     저 시도됩니다.  이러한 모든 메서드가 *note None: 66f.을 반환하면, 알
     고리즘은 ‘<protocol>_open()’과 같은 이름의 메서드에 대해 반복합니다
     .  이러한 모든 메서드가 *note None: 66f.을 반환하면, 알고리즘은
     *note unknown_open(): 39eb.이라는 메서드에 대해 반복합니다.

     이러한 메서드의 구현은 부모 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0. 인스턴스의
     *note open(): fd4.과 *note error(): 39e9. 메서드의 호출을 수반할 수
     있음에 유의하십시오.

  3. ‘<protocol>_response()’와 같은 이름의 메서드가 있는 모든 처리기는 응
     답을 후처리하기 위해 해당 메서드가 호출됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPRedirectHandler 객체,  Prev: OpenerDirector 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.3 BaseHandler 객체
.........................

*note BaseHandler: 39c4. 객체는 직접적으로 유용한 몇 가지 메서드와 파생
클래스에서 사용하기 위한 다른 메서드를 제공합니다.  다음은 직접 사용하기
위한 것입니다:

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.add_parent (director)

     director를 부모로 추가합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.close ()

     모든 부모를 제거합니다.

다음 어트리뷰트와 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4.에서 파생된 클래스에
서만 사용해야 합니다.

     참고: ‘<protocol>_request()’나 ‘<protocol>_response()’ 메서드를 정
     의하는 서브 클래스는 ‘*Processor’라고 이름 붙이는 규칙이 채택되었습
     니다; 다른 모든 것들의 이름은 ‘*Handler’입니다.

 -- 속성: BaseHandler.parent

     다른 프로토콜을 사용하여 열거나 에러를 처리하는 데 사용할 수 있는 유
     효한 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.default_open (req)

     이 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4.에 정의되지 '않았지만', 서브 클
     래스가 모든 URL을 포착하려면 이를 정의해야 합니다.

     구현되면 이 메서드는 부모 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.에 의해 호출됩
     니다.  *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.의 *note open(): fd4. 메서드의 반
     환 값에 설명된 대로 파일류 객체를 반환하거나 ‘None’을 반환해야 합니
     다.  진짜 예외적인 상황이 발생하지 않는 한 (예를 들어, *note
     MemoryError: 157e.는 *note URLError: 39bf.로 매핑하지 않아야 합니다
     ), *note URLError: 39bf.를 발생해야 합니다.

     이 메서드는 프로토콜별 open 메서드보다 먼저 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)

     이 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4. 에 정의되지 '않았지만', 서브 클
     래스가 주어진 프로토콜로 URL을 처리하려면 이를 정의해야 합니다.

     정의되면, 이 메서드는 부모 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.에 의해 호출
     됩니다.  반환 값은 *note default_open(): 39ea.과 같아야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.unknown_open (req)

     이 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4. 에 정의되지 '않았지만', 서브 클
     래스는 등록된 특정 처리기가 없는 모든 URL을 잡아서 열려면 이를 정의
     해야 합니다.

     구현되면, 이 메서드는 *note parent: 39f0. *note OpenerDirector:
     39c0.에 의해 호출됩니다.  반환 값은 *note default_open(): 39ea.과 같
     아야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.http_error_default (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     이 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4. 에 정의되지 '않았지만', 서브 클
     래스는 달리 처리되지 않은 HTTP 에러에 대해 포괄적인 처리를 제공하려
     면 이를 재정의해야 합니다.  에러가 발생하는 *note OpenerDirector:
     39c0.에 의해 자동으로 호출되며, 다른 상황에서는 일반적으로 호출되지
     않아야 합니다.

     *note OpenerDirector: 39c0. will call this method with five
     positional arguments:

       1. a *note Request: fd0. object,

       2. a file-like object with the HTTP error body,

       3. the three-digit code of the error, as a string,

       4. the user-visible explanation of the code, as a string, and

       5. the headers of the error, as a mapping object.

     반환 값과 발생하는 예외는 *note urlopen(): 293.의 것과 같아야 합니
     다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     'nnn'은 3자리 HTTP 에러 코드여야 합니다.  이 메서드도 *note
     BaseHandler: 39c4. 에 정의되어 있지 않지만, 존재한다면 코드가 'nnn'
     인 HTTP 에러가 발생할 때 서브 클래스의 인스턴스에 대해 호출됩니다.

     특정 HTTP 에러를 처리하려면 서브 클래스가 이 메서드를 재정의해야 합
     니다.

     인자, 반환 값 및 발생하는 예외는 *note http_error_default(): 39f1.와
     같아야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)

     이 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4. 에 정의되지 '않았지만', 서브 클
     래스는 주어진 프로토콜의 요청을 전처리하려면 이를 정의해야 합니다.

     정의되면, 이 메서드는 부모 상위 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.에 의해
     호출됩니다.  'req'는 *note Request: fd0. 객체가 됩니다.  반환 값은
     *note Request: fd0. 객체여야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)

     이 메서드는 *note BaseHandler: 39c4. 에 정의되지 '않았지만', 서브 클
     래스는 주어진 프로토콜의 응답을 후처리하려면 이를 정의해야 합니다.

     정의되면, 이 메서드는 부모 *note OpenerDirector: 39c0.에 의해 호출
     됩니다.  'req'는 *note Request: fd0. 객체가 됩니다.  'response'는
     *note urlopen(): 293.의 반환 값과 같은 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체가
     됩니다.  반환 값은 *note urlopen(): 293.의 반환 값과 같은 인터페이
     스를 구현해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPRedirectHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPCookieProcessor 객체,  Prev: BaseHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.4 HTTPRedirectHandler 객체
.................................

     참고: 일부 HTTP 리디렉션은 이 모듈의 클라이언트 코드로부터의 액션을
     요구합니다.  이 경우, *note HTTPError: fd6.가 발생합니다.  다양한 리
     디렉션 코드의 정확한 의미에 대한 자세한 내용은 RFC 2616(1)을 참조하
     십시오.

     HTTPRedirectHandler 에 HTTP, HTTPS 또는 FTP URL이 아닌 리디렉션 된
     URL이 제공되면 보안을 고려하여 *note HTTPError: fd6. 예외가 발생했
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs, newurl)

     리디렉션에 대한 응답으로 *note Request: fd0.나 ‘None’을 반환합니다.
     이것은 서버로부터 리디렉션이 수신될 때 ‘http_error_30*()’ 메서드의
     기본 구현에 의해 호출됩니다.  리디렉션이 일어나야 하면,
     ‘http_error_30*()’이 'newurl'로 리디렉션을 수행할 수 있도록 새
     *note Request: fd0.를 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 다른 처리기가 이
     URL을 처리하려고 시도하지 않아야 한다면 *note HTTPError: fd6.를 발
     생시키고, 자신은 할 수 없지만 다른 처리기가 처리할 수 있다면
     ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          참고: 이 메서드의 기본 구현은 RFC 2616(2)을 엄격하게 따르지 않
          습니다.  즉, ‘POST’ 요청에 대한 301과 302 응답은 사용자의 확인
          없이 자동으로 리디렉션 되지 않아야 합니다.  실제로는, 브라우저
          들이 POST를 ‘GET’으로 변경하여 이러한 응답의 자동 리디렉션을 허
          용하며, 기본 구현은 이 동작을 재현합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     ‘Location:’이나 ‘URI:’ URL로 리디렉션 합니다.  이 메서드는 HTTP
     ‘moved permanently(영구적으로 이전했음)’ 응답을 받을 때 부모 *note
     OpenerDirector: 39c0.에 의해 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     *note http_error_301(): 39f5.과 같지만, ‘found(발견됨)’ 응답에 대해
     호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     *note http_error_301(): 39f5.과 같지만, ‘see other(다른 곳을 보세요
     )’ 응답에 대해 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     *note http_error_301(): 39f5.과 같지만, ‘temporary redirect(임시 리
     디렉션)’ 응답에 대해 호출됩니다.  요청 메서드를 ‘POST’에서 ‘GET’으
     로 바꾸는 것을 허락하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     *note http_error_301(): 39f5.과 같지만, ‘permanent redirect(영구 리
     디렉션)’ 응답에 대해 호출됩니다.  요청 메서드를 ‘POST’에서 ‘GET’으
     로 바꾸는 것을 허락하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPCookieProcessor 객체,  Next: ProxyHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPRedirectHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.5 HTTPCookieProcessor 객체
.................................

*note HTTPCookieProcessor: 39cc. 인스턴스에는 하나의 어트리뷰트가 있습니
다:

 -- 속성: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar

     쿠키가 저장되는 *note http.cookiejar.CookieJar: 39fd.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgr 객체,  Prev: HTTPCookieProcessor 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.6 ProxyHandler 객체
..........................

 -- 메서드: ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)

     *note ProxyHandler: 19d7.에는 생성자에 지정된 'proxies' 딕셔너리에
     프락시가 있는 모든 'protocol'에 대해 ‘<protocol>_open()’ 메서드가 있
     습니다.  이 메서드는 ‘request.set_proxy()’를 호출하여 요청이 프락시
     를 통과하도록 수정하고, 체인에 있는 다음 처리기를 호출하여 실제로 프
     로토콜을 실행합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgr 객체,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체,  Prev: ProxyHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.7 HTTPPasswordMgr 객체
.............................

이 메서드는 *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39cd. 과 *note
HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ce. 객체에서 사용 가능합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd)

     'uri'는 단일 URI이거나 URI의 시퀀스일 수 있습니다.  'realm', 'user'
     및 'passwd'는 문자열이어야 합니다.  이는 'realm'과 지정된 URI 중 어
     느 하나의 슈퍼 URI에 대한 인증이 주어질 때 ‘(user, passwd)’가 인증
     토큰으로 사용되도록 합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password (realm, authuri)

     주어진 realm과 URI에 대한 사용자/암호를 (있다면) 가져옵니다.  일치
     하는 사용자/암호가 없으면 이 메서드는 ‘(None, None)’을 반환합니다.

     *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ce. 객체의 경우, 주어진
     'realm'에 일치하는 사용자/암호가 없으면 영역 ‘None’이 검색됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체,  Next: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgr 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.8 HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체
..........................................

이 암호 관리자는 *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ce.를 확장하여
인증 자격 증명을 항상 보내야 하는 URI를 추적하는 것을 지원합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password (realm, uri, user,
          passwd, is_authenticated=False)

     'realm', 'uri', 'user', 'passwd'는 *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(): 3a01.와 같습니다.
     'is_authenticated'는 주어진 URI나 URI 리스트에 대한
     ‘is_authenticated’ 플래그의 초깃값을 설정합니다.
     'is_authenticated'가 ‘True’로 지정되면, 'realm'는 무시됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password (realm,
          authuri)

     *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ce. 객체와 같습니다

 -- 메서드: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated (self,
          uri, is_authenticated=False)

     주어진 'uri'나 URI 리스트에 대해 ‘is_authenticated’ 플래그를 갱신합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated (self,
          authuri)

     주어진 URI에 대한 ‘is_authenticated’ 플래그의 현재 상태를 반환합니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.9 AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체
......................................

 -- 메서드: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     사용자/암호 쌍을 가져오고 요청을 다시 시도하여 인증 요청을 처리합니
     다.  'authreq'는 영역(realm)에 대한 정보가 요청에 포함된 헤더의 이
     름이어야 하고, 'host'는 인증할 URL과 경로를 지정하고, 'req'는 (실패
     한) *note Request: fd0. 객체여야 하며, 'headers'는 에러 헤더여야 합
     니다.

     'host'는 주체(예를 들어 ‘"python.org"’)거나 주체 구성 요소를 포함하
     는 URL(예를 들어 ‘"http://python.org/"’)입니다.  어느 경우이든, 주
     체는 userinfo 구성 요소를 포함하지 않아야 합니다 (따라서,
     ‘"python.org"’와 ‘"python.org:80"’은 좋지만,
     ‘"joe:password@python.org"’는 유효하지 않습니다).


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Next: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Prev: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.10 HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체
...................................

 -- 메서드: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     가능하다면 인증 정보로 요청을 재시도합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Next: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.11 ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체
....................................

 -- 메서드: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     가능하다면 인증 정보로 요청을 재시도합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Prev: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.12 AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체
........................................

 -- 메서드: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     'authreq'는 영역(realm)에 대한 정보가 요청에 포함된 헤더의 이름이어
     야 하고, 'host'는 인증할 호스트여야 하고, 'req'는 (실패한) *note
     Request: fd0. 객체여야 하며, 'headers'는 에러 헤더여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Next: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Prev: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.13 HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체
....................................

 -- 메서드: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     가능하다면 인증 정보로 요청을 재시도합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.14 ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체
.....................................

 -- 메서드: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     가능하다면 인증 정보로 요청을 재시도합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPSHandler 객체,  Prev: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.15 HTTPHandler 객체
..........................

 -- 메서드: HTTPHandler.http_open (req)

     Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
     ‘req.data’.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPSHandler 객체,  Next: FileHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.16 HTTPSHandler 객체
...........................

 -- 메서드: HTTPSHandler.https_open (req)

     Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending
     on ‘req.data’.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler 객체,  Next: DataHandler 객체,  Prev: HTTPSHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.17 FileHandler 객체
..........................

 -- 메서드: FileHandler.file_open (req)

     호스트 이름이 없거나, 호스트 이름이 ‘'localhost'’인 경우 파일을 로
     컬에서 엽니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 이 메서드는 로컬 호스트 명에만 적용할 수 있습니
     다.  원격 호스트 이름이 제공되면, *note URLError: 39bf.가 발생합니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: DataHandler 객체,  Next: FTPHandler 객체,  Prev: FileHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.18 DataHandler 객체
..........................

 -- 메서드: DataHandler.data_open (req)

     데이터 URL을 읽습니다.  이러한 종류의 URL에는 URL 자체에 인코딩된 콘
     텐츠가 포함됩니다.  데이터 URL 문법은 RFC 2397(1)에 지정되어 있습니
     다.  이 구현은 base64로 인코딩된 데이터 URL의 공백을 무시하기 때문
     에 URL은 소스 파일과 관계없이 줄 넘김 될 수 있습니다.  그러나 일부
     브라우저가 base64로 인코딩된 데이터 URL 끝에 패딩이 누락된 것에 대
     해 신경 쓰지 않지만, 이 구현은 이 경우 *note ValueError: 202.를 발
     생시킵니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTPHandler 객체,  Next: CacheFTPHandler 객체,  Prev: DataHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.19 FTPHandler 객체
.........................

 -- 메서드: FTPHandler.ftp_open (req)

     'req'로 표시된 FTP 파일을 엽니다.  로그인은 항상 빈 사용자 이름과 암
     호로 수행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: CacheFTPHandler 객체,  Next: UnknownHandler 객체,  Prev: FTPHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.20 CacheFTPHandler 객체
..............................

*note CacheFTPHandler: 172f. 객체는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드가 있는 *note
FTPHandler: 39c8. 객체입니다:

 -- 메서드: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout (t)

     연결 시간제한을 't' 초로 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns (m)

     캐시 된 최대 연결 수를 'm'으로 설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: UnknownHandler 객체,  Next: HTTPErrorProcessor 객체,  Prev: CacheFTPHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.21 UnknownHandler 객체
.............................

 -- 메서드: UnknownHandler.unknown_open ()

     *note URLError: 39bf. 예외를 발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPErrorProcessor 객체,  Next: 예<11>,  Prev: UnknownHandler 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.22 HTTPErrorProcessor 객체
.................................

 -- 메서드: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response (request, response)

     HTTP 에러 응답을 처리합니다.

     200 에러 코드의 경우, 응답 객체가 즉시 반환됩니다.

     200이 아닌 에러 코드의 경우, *note OpenerDirector.error(): 39e9.를
     통해 단순히 작업을 ‘http_error_<type>()’ 처리기 메서드로 전달합니다
     .  결국, 다른 처리기가 에러를 처리하지 않으면 *note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 39c6.는 *note HTTPError: fd6.를 발생시킵니
     다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response (request, response)

     HTTPS 에러 응답을 처리합니다.

     동작은 *note http_response(): 3a30.와 같습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<11>,  Next: 레거시 인터페이스,  Prev: HTTPErrorProcessor 객체,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.23 예
............

아래 예 외에도 *note urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는
방법: 3a34.에는 더 많은 예가 나와 있습니다.

이 예제는 python.org 메인 페이지를 가져와서 첫 300바이트를 표시합니다:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(300))
     ...
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 7]>      <html class="no-js ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">          <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 8]>      <html class="no-js ie8 lt-ie9">

urlopen은 바이트열 객체를 반환함에 유의하십시오.  이는 urlopen이 HTTP 서
버로부터 수신한 바이트 스트림의 인코딩을 자동으로 결정할 방법이 없기 때
문입니다.  일반적으로, 프로그램은 일단 적절한 인코딩을 결정하거나 추측하
면 반환된 바이트열 객체를 문자열로 디코딩합니다.

다음 HTML 명세 문서 ‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#charset’ 은 HTML이나
XML 문서가 인코딩 정보를 지정할 수 있는 다양한 방법을 나열합니다.

For additional information, see the W3C document:
‘https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-html-encoding-declarations’.

python.org 웹 사이트는 메타 태그에 지정된 대로 'utf-8' 인코딩을 사용하므
로, 바이트열 객체를 디코딩할 때도 이를 사용합니다:

     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!-

*note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 방식을 사용하지 않고도 같은 결과를 얻을 수 있
습니다:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
     >>> try:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ... finally:
     ...     f.close()
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!--

다음 예에서는, CGI의 표준 입력으로 데이터 스트림을 전송하고 반환되는 데
이터를 읽습니다.  이 예제는 파이썬 설치가 SSL을 지원할 때만 작동함에 유
의하십시오.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
     ...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"

위 예제에서 사용한 샘플 CGI의 코드는 다음과 같습니다:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import sys
     data = sys.stdin.read()
     print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)

다음은 *note Request: fd0.를 사용하여 ‘PUT’ 요청을 수행하는 예입니다:

     import urllib.request
     DATA = b'some data'
     req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA, method='PUT')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         pass
     print(f.status)
     print(f.reason)

기본 HTTP 인증 사용:

     import urllib.request
     # 기본 HTTP 인증을 지원하는 OpenerDirector를 만듭니다...
     auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
     auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
                               uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
                               user='klem',
                               passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
     # ...그리고 urlopen과 함께 사용할 수 있도록 전역으로 설치합니다.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note build_opener(): 39c3.는 기본적으로 *note ProxyHandler: 19d7.를 포
함하여 많은 처리기를 제공합니다.  기본적으로, *note ProxyHandler: 19d7.는
‘<scheme>_proxy’라는 이름의 환경 변수를 사용합니다, 여기서 ‘<scheme>’은
관련된 URL 스킴입니다.  예를 들어, HTTP 프락시의 URL을 얻기 위해
‘http_proxy’ 환경 변수를 읽습니다.

이 예는 기본 *note ProxyHandler: 19d7.를 프로그래밍 방식으로 제공되는 프
락시 URL을 사용하는 것으로 대체하고, *note ProxyBasicAuthHandler: 39d2.로
프락시 인증 지원을 추가합니다.

     proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
     proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
     proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')

     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
     # 이번에는, OpenerDirector를 설치하지 않고 직접 사용합니다:
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

HTTP 헤더 추가하기:

*note Request: fd0. 생성자에 'headers' 인자를 사용하십시오, 또는:

     import urllib.request
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
     req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
     # Customize the default User-Agent header value:
     req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note OpenerDirector: 39c0.는 모든 *note Request: fd0.에 ‘User-Agent’ 헤
더를 자동으로 추가합니다.  이것을 바꾸려면:

     import urllib.request
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
     opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

또한, *note Request: fd0.가 *note urlopen(): 293.(또는 *note
OpenerDirector.open(): fd4.)으로 전달될 때 몇 가지 표준 헤더
(‘Content-Length’, ‘Content-Type’ 및 ‘Host’)가 추가됨을 기억하십시오.  다
음은 ‘GET’ 메서드를 사용하여 파라미터가 포함된 URL을 가져오는 예제 세션
입니다:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

다음 예제는 대신 ‘POST’ 메서드를 사용합니다.  urlencode의 파라미터 출력
이 데이터로 urlopen에 보내기 전에 바이트열로 인코딩됨에 유의하십시오:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> data = data.encode('ascii')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

다음 예제는 명시적으로 지정된 HTTP 프락시를 사용하여 환경 설정을 대체합
니다:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...

다음 예제는 프락시를 전혀 사용하지 않도록 환경 설정을 대체합니다:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: 레거시 인터페이스,  Next: urllib request 제약 사항,  Prev: 예<11>,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.24 레거시 인터페이스
...........................

다음 함수와 클래스는 파이썬 2 모듈 ‘urllib’(‘urllib2’가 아니라)에서 이식
됩니다.  나중에 언젠가 폐지될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.request.urlretrieve (url, filename=None,
          reporthook=None, data=None)

     URL로 표시된 네트워크 객체를 로컬 파일로 복사합니다.  URL이 로컬 파
     일을 가리키면, 파일 이름을 제공하지 않는 한 객체가 복사되지 않습니
     다.  튜플 ‘(filename, headers)’를 반환합니다.  여기서 'filename'은
     객체를 찾을 수 있는 로컬 파일 이름이며, 'headers'는 (원격 객체에 대
     해) *note urlopen(): 293.이 반환한 객체의 ‘info()’ 메서드가 반환한
     것입니다.  예외는 *note urlopen(): 293.과 같습니다.

     있다면, 두 번째 인자는 복사할 파일 위치를 지정합니다 (없으면, 위치
     는 생성된 이름을 가진 임시 파일이 됩니다).  있다면, 세 번째 인자는
     네트워크 연결이 이루어질 때 한 번 호출되고 그 이후에 각 블록을 읽을
     때마다 한 번씩 호출되는 콜러블입니다.  콜러블에는 세 개의 인자가 전
     달됩니다; 지금까지 전송된 블록 수, 바이트 단위의 블록 크기 및 파일
     의 전체 크기.  세 번째 인자는 가져오기 요청에 대한 응답으로 파일 크
     기를 반환하지 않는 구형 FTP 서버에서 ‘-1’일 수 있습니다.

     다음 예는 가장 일반적인 사용 시나리오를 보여줍니다:

          >>> import urllib.request
          >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
          >>> html = open(local_filename)
          >>> html.close()

     'url'이 ‘http:’ 스킴 식별자를 사용하면, ‘POST’ 요청을 지정하기 위해
     선택적 'data' 인자가 제공될 수 있습니다 (일반적으로 요청형은 ‘GET’입
     니다).  'data' 인자는 표준 ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 형식
     의 바이트열 객체여야 합니다; *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b. 함
     수를 참조하십시오.

     *note urlretrieve(): 3a37.는 사용 가능한 데이터양이 예상 양
     ('Content-Length' 헤더에 의해 보고된 크기)보다 작은 것을 감지하면
     *note ContentTooShortError: 3a38.를 발생시킵니다.  예를 들어, 다운
     로드가 중단된 경우에 발생할 수 있습니다.

     'Content-Length'는 하한값으로 취급됩니다: 읽을 데이터가 더 있으면,
     urlretrieve는 더 많은 데이터를 읽지만, 사용 가능한 데이터가 부족하
     면 예외가 발생합니다.

     이 경우에도 다운로드된 데이터를 여전히 가져올 수 있으며, 예외 인스
     턴스의 ‘content’ 어트리뷰트에 저장됩니다.

     'Content-Length' 헤더가 제공되지 않으면, urlretrieve는 다운로드 한
     데이터의 크기를 확인할 수 없고, 그냥 반환합니다.  이 경우 다운로드
     가 성공했다고 가정해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.request.urlcleanup ()

     *note urlretrieve(): 3a37.에 대한 이전 호출로 남겨졌을 수 있는 임시
     파일을 정리합니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.URLopener (proxies=None, **x509)

     버전 3.3부터 폐지됨.

     URL을 열고 읽는 베이스 클래스.  ‘http:’, ‘ftp:’ 또는 ‘file:’ 이외의
     스킴을 사용하여 객체 열기를 지원할 필요가 있지 않은 한, 아마도
     *note FancyURLopener: 307.를 사용하고 싶을 것입니다.

     기본적으로, *note URLopener: 306. 클래스는 ‘User-Agent’ 헤더로
     ‘urllib/VVV’를 전송합니다.  여기서 'VVV'는 *note urllib: 108. 버전
     번호입니다.  응용 프로그램은 *note URLopener: 306.나 *note
     FancyURLopener: 307.를 서브 클래싱하고 클래스 어트리뷰트 *note
     version: 3a39.을 서브 클래스 정의에서 적절한 문자열 값으로 설정하여
     자체 ‘User-Agent’ 헤더를 정의할 수 있습니다.

     선택적 'proxies' 매개 변수는 스킴 이름을 프락시 URL로 매핑하는 딕셔
     너리여야 합니다.  여기서 빈 딕셔너리는 프락시를 완전히 끕니다.  기
     본값은 ‘None’이며, 이 경우 위의 *note urlopen(): 293. 정의에서 설명
     한 대로 환경 프락시 설정이 있으면 사용됩니다.

     'x509'로 수집된 추가 키워드 매개 변수는 ‘https:’ 스킴을 사용할 때 클
     라이언트의 인증에 사용될 수 있습니다.  키워드 'key_file'과
     'cert_file'은 SSL 키와 인증서를 제공하기 위해 지원됩니다; 클라이언
     트 인증을 지원하려면 둘 다 필요합니다.

     서버가 에러 코드를 반환하면 *note URLopener: 306. 객체는 *note
     OSError: 411. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: open (fullurl, data=None)

          적절한 프로토콜을 사용하여 'fullurl'을 엽니다.  이 메서드는 캐
          시와 프락시 정보를 설정한 다음, 입력 인자로 적절한 open 메서드
          를 호출합니다.  스킴이 인식되지 않으면, *note open_unknown():
          3a3b.이 호출됩니다.  'data' 인자는 *note urlopen(): 293.의
          'data' 인자와 같은 의미입니다.

          이 메서드는 항상 *note quote(): ba0.를 사용하여 'fullurl'을 인
          용합니다.

      -- 메서드: open_unknown (fullurl, data=None)

          알 수 없는 URL 유형을 여는 재정의 가능한 인터페이스.

      -- 메서드: retrieve (url, filename=None, reporthook=None,
               data=None)

          'url'의 내용을 가져와서 'filename'에 배치합니다.  반환 값은 로
          컬 파일명과 응답 헤더를 포함하는 *note email.message.Message:
          27c. 객체 (원격 URL의 경우) 또는 ‘None’(로컬 URL의 경우)으로 구
          성된 튜플입니다.  그러면 호출자는 'filename'의 내용을 열고 읽
          어야 합니다.  'filename'이 제공되지 않고 URL이 로컬 파일을 참
          조하면, 입력 파일명이 반환됩니다.  URL이 로컬이 아니고
          'filename'이 제공되지 않으면, 파일 이름은 입력 URL의 마지막 경
          로 구성 요소의 접미사와 일치하는 접미사로 *note
          tempfile.mktemp(): 1894. 한 출력입니다.  'reporthook'이 제공되
          면, 세 개의 숫자 매개 변수를 받아들이는 함수여야 합니다: 청크
          번호, 청크를 읽을 최대 크기 및 다운로드의 전체 크기 (알 수 없
          으면 -1).  처음에 한 번 호출되고 네트워크에서 각 데이터 청크를
          읽은 후에 한 번씩 호출됩니다.  로컬 URL의 경우 'reporthook'은
          무시됩니다.

          'url'이 ‘http:’ 스킴 식별자를 사용하면, ‘POST’ 요청을 지정하기
          위해 선택적 'data' 인자가 제공될 수 있습니다 (일반적으로 요청
          형은 ‘GET’입니다).  'data' 인자는 표준
          ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 형식이어야 합니다; *note
          urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b. 함수를 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: version

          오프너 객체의 사용자 에이전트를 지정하는 변수.  *note urllib:
          108.가 서버에 특정 사용자 에이전트임을 알리려면, 서브 클래스에
          서 클래스 변수로 설정하거나 생성자에서 베이스 생성자를 호출하
          기 전에 이를 설정하십시오.

 -- 클래스: urllib.request.FancyURLopener (...)

     버전 3.3부터 폐지됨.

     *note FancyURLopener: 307.는 다음 HTTP 응답 코드에 대한 기본 처리를
     제공하는 *note URLopener: 306. 서브 클래스입니다: 301, 302, 303,
     307 및 401.  위에 나열된 30x 응답 코드의 경우, 실제 URL을 가져오는
     데 ‘Location’ 헤더가 사용됩니다.  401 응답 코드(authentication
     required - 인증 필요)의 경우, 기본 HTTP 인증이 수행됩니다.  30x 응
     답 코드의 경우, 재귀는 'maxtries' 어트리뷰트 값에 의해 제한되며, 기
     본값은 10입니다.

     다른 모든 응답 코드의 경우, 에러를 적절하게 처리하기 위해 서브 클래
     스에서 재정의할 수 있는 메서드 *note http_error_default(): 39f1.가
     호출됩니다.

          참고: RFC 2616(1)의 편지(letter)에 따르면, POST 요청에 대한
          301과 302 응답은 사용자의 확인 없이 자동으로 리디렉션 되지 않
          아야 합니다.  실제로는, 브라우저들이 POST를 GET으로 변경하여 이
          러한 응답의 자동 리디렉션을 허용하고, *note urllib: 108.는 이
          동작을 재현합니다.

     생성자의 매개 변수는 *note URLopener: 306.의 매개 변수와 같습니다.

          참고: 기본 인증을 수행할 때, *note FancyURLopener: 307. 인스턴
          스는 *note prompt_user_passwd(): 3a3c. 메서드를 호출합니다.  기
          본 구현은 사용자에게 제어 터미널에서 필요한 정보를 요청합니다.
          필요하면 서브 클래스가 이 메서드를 재정의하여 더 적절한 동작을
          지원할 수 있습니다.

     *note FancyURLopener: 307. 클래스는 적절한 동작을 제공하기 위해 재
     정의되어야 하는 하나의 추가 메서드를 제공합니다:

      -- 메서드: prompt_user_passwd (host, realm)

          지정된 보안 영역(realm)의 지정된 호스트에서 사용자를 인증하는
          데 필요한 정보를 반환합니다.  반환 값은 기본 인증에 사용될 수
          있는 튜플 ‘(user, password)’여야 합니다.

          구현은 터미널에서 이 정보를 요구합니다; 로컬 환경에서 적절한 상
          호 작용 모델을 사용하려면 응용 프로그램이 이 메서드를 재정의해
          야 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request 제약 사항,  Prev: 레거시 인터페이스,  Up: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리

5.22.4.25 ‘urllib.request’ 제약 사항
....................................

   * 현재, 다음과 같은 프로토콜만 지원됩니다: HTTP (버전 0.9와 1.0),
     FTP, 로컬 파일 및 데이터 URL.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 데이터 URL에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

   * *note urlretrieve(): 3a37.의 캐싱 기능은 누군가가 만료 시간 헤더의
     적절한 처리를 해킹할 시간을 찾을 때까지 비활성화되었습니다.

   * 특정 URL이 캐시에 있는지를 조회하는 함수가 있어야 합니다.

   * 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, URL이 로컬 파일을 가리키는 것으로 보이
     지만 파일을 열 수 없으면, FTP 프로토콜을 사용하여 URL을 다시 해석합
     니다.  이로 인해 때때로 혼란스러운 에러 메시지가 발생할 수 있습니다
     .

   * *note urlopen(): 293.과 *note urlretrieve(): 3a37. 함수는 네트워크
     연결이 이루어지기를 기다리는 동안 임의의 긴 지연을 유발할 수 있습니
     다.  이는 스레드를 사용하지 않고 이러한 함수를 사용하여 대화식 웹 클
     라이언트를 구축하기 어렵다는 것을 뜻합니다.

   * *note urlopen(): 293.이나 *note urlretrieve(): 3a37.가 반환한 데이
     터는 서버가 반환한 원시 데이터입니다.  바이너리 데이터 (가령 이미지
     ), 평문 텍스트 또는 (예를 들어) HTML일 수 있습니다.  HTTP 프로토콜
     은 응답 헤더에 유형 정보를 제공하는데, ‘Content-Type’ 헤더를 통해 검
     사할 수 있습니다.  반환된 데이터가 HTML이면, *note html.parser: 6d.
     모듈을 사용하여 구문 분석할 수 있습니다.

   * FTP 프로토콜을 처리하는 코드는 파일과 디렉터리를 구별할 수 없습니다
     .  이는 액세스 할 수 없는 파일을 가리키는 URL을 읽으려고 할 때 예기
     치 않은 동작을 일으킬 수 있습니다.  URL이 ‘/’로 끝나면, 디렉터리를
     참조하는 것으로 간주하고 그에 따라 처리됩니다.  그러나 파일을 읽으
     려는 시도가 550 에러를 일으키면 (URL을 찾을 수 없거나 액세스할 수 없
     다는 뜻인데, 종종 권한 문제입니다), URL이 디렉터리를 지정하지만, 후
     행 ‘/’를 붙이지 않은 경우를 처리하기 위해 경로가 디렉터리로 처리됩
     니다.  이는 읽기 권한이 액세스할 수 없도록 지정된 파일을 가져오려고
     시도할 때 잘못된 결과를 만들 수 있도록 합니다; FTP 코드가 이를 읽으
     려고 시도하고, 550 에러로 실패한 다음, 읽을 수 없는 파일에 대해 디
     렉터리 리스팅을 수행합니다.  세밀한 제어가 필요하면, *note ftplib:
     5e. 모듈 사용, *note FancyURLopener: 307. 서브 클래싱 또는 필요에 맞
     게 '_urlopener'를 변경하는 것을 고려하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스,  Next: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석,  Prev: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.5 ‘urllib.response’ — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스
--------------------------------------------------------

*note urllib.response: 10c. 모듈은 ‘read()’와 ‘readline()’을 포함하여 최
소한의 파일류 인터페이스를 정의하는 함수와 클래스를 정의합니다.  이 모듈
에 의해 정의된 함수는 *note urllib.request: 10b. 모듈에 의해 내부적으로
사용됩니다.  일반적인 응답 객체는 *note urllib.response.addinfourl:
39bd. 인스턴스입니다:

 -- 클래스: urllib.response.addinfourl

      -- 속성: url

          가져온 자원의 URL, 일반적으로 리디렉션을 따라갔는지 판별하는 데
          사용됩니다.

      -- 속성: headers

          *note EmailMessage: 27b. 인스턴스 형식으로 응답의 헤더를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 속성: status

          Added in version 3.9.

          서버가 반환한 상태 코드.

      -- 메서드: geturl ()

          버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note url: 3a3f.로 대체되었습
          니다.

      -- 메서드: info ()

          버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note headers: 3a40.로 대체되
          었습니다.

      -- 속성: code

          버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note status: 3a41.로 대체되었
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: getcode ()

          버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note status: 3a41.로 대체되었
          습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석,  Next: urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스,  Prev: urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.6 ‘urllib.parse’ — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석
---------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/urllib/parse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 URL(Uniform Resource Locator) 문자열을 구성 요소(주소 지정 체
계, 네트워크 위치, 경로 등)로 분리하고, 구성 요소를 다시 URL 문자열로 결
합하고, “상대 URL”을 주어진 “기본 URL”에 따라 절대 URL로 변환하는 표준 인
터페이스를 정의합니다.

이 모듈은 상대 URL(Relative Uniform Resource Locators)의 인터넷 RFC와 일
치하도록 설계되었습니다.  다음과 같은 URL 스킴을 지원합니다: ‘file’,
‘ftp’, ‘gopher’, ‘hdl’, ‘http’, ‘https’, ‘imap’, ‘itms-services’,
‘mailto’, ‘mms’, ‘news’, ‘nntp’, ‘prospero’, ‘rsync’, ‘rtsp’, ‘rtsps’,
‘rtspu’, ‘sftp’, ‘shttp’, ‘sip’, ‘sips’, ‘snews’, ‘svn’, ‘svn+ssh’,
‘telnet’, ‘wais’, ‘ws’, ‘wss’.

'CPython 구현 상세:' The inclusion of the ‘itms-services’ URL scheme can
prevent an app from passing Apple’s App Store review process for the
macOS and iOS App Stores.  Handling for the ‘itms-services’ scheme is
always removed on iOS; on macOS, it 'may' be removed if CPython has been
built with the *note -with-app-store-compliance: 15fb. option.

*note urllib.parse: 10a. 모듈은 두 가지 넓은 범주에 속하는 함수들을 정의
합니다: URL 구문 분석과 URL 인용(quoting).  이에 대해서는 다음 섹션에서
자세히 설명합니다.

This module’s functions use the deprecated term ‘netloc’ (or ‘net_loc’),
which was introduced in RFC 1808(2).  However, this term has been
obsoleted by RFC 3986(3), which introduced the term ‘authority’ as its
replacement.  The use of ‘netloc’ is continued for backward
compatibility.

* Menu:

* URL 구문 분석::
* URL 구문 분석 보안::
* ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석::
* 구조화된 구문 분석 결과::
* URL 인용::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/parse.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL 구문 분석,  Next: URL 구문 분석 보안,  Up: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석

5.22.6.1 URL 구문 분석
......................

URL 구문 분석 함수는 URL 문자열을 구성 요소로 분할하거나 URL 구성 요소를
URL 문자열로 결합하는 데 중점을 둡니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urlparse (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     URL을 6개의 구성 요소로 구문 분석하여, 6개 항목 *note 네임드 튜플:
     648.을 반환합니다.  이는 URL의 일반적인 구조에 해당합니다:
     ‘scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment’.  각 튜플 항목은 문
     자열이며 비어있을 수 있습니다.  구성 요소는 더 작은 부분으로 나뉘지
     않으며 (예를 들어 네트워크 위치는 단일 문자열입니다), % 이스케이프
     는 확장되지 않습니다.  위에 표시된 분리 문자는 'path' 구성 요소의 선
     행 슬래시를 제외하고는 결과의 일부가 아니며 존재하면 유지됩니다.  예
     를 들면:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse("scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment")
          ParseResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path;parameters', params='',
                      query='query', fragment='fragment')
          >>> o = urlparse("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
          ...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
          >>> o
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
                      path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html', params='',
                      query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
          >>> o.scheme
          'http'
          >>> o.netloc
          'docs.python.org:80'
          >>> o.hostname
          'docs.python.org'
          >>> o.port
          80
          >>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
          'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'

     RFC 1808(1)의 문법 명세에 따라, urlparse는 ‘//’ 로 올바르게 도입되
     었을 때만 netloc을 인식합니다.  그렇지 않으면 입력은 상대 URL인 것
     으로 간주하고 path 구성 요소로 시작합니다.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
                      query='', fragment='')

     'scheme' 인자는 URL이 지정하지 않은 경우에만 사용될 기본 주소 지정
     체계를 제공합니다.  기본값 ‘''’가 항상 허용되고 필요하면 자동으로
     ‘b''’로 변환된다는 점을 제외하고, 'urlstring'과 같은 형(텍스트나 바
     이트열)이어야 합니다.

     'allow_fragments' 인자가 거짓이면, 프래그먼트 식별자는 인식되지 않
     습니다.  대신, path, parameters 또는 query 구성 요소의 일부로 구문
     분석되고 ‘fragment’는 반환 값에서 빈 문자열로 설정됩니다.

     반환 값은 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.입니다.  즉, 다음과 같은 인덱스나
     이름있는 어트리뷰트로 해당 항목에 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

     어트리뷰트             인덱스      값                            존재하지 않을 때의 값
                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL 스킴 지정자               'scheme' 매개 변수
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           네트워크 위치 부분            빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           계층적 경로                   빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘params’               3           마지막 경로 요소의 파라미터   빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘query’                4           쿼리 구성 요소                빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             5           프래그먼트 식별자             빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         사용자 이름                   *note None: 66f.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         비밀번호                      *note None: 66f.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         호스트 이름 (소문자)          *note None: 66f.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             존재하면, 정수로 표시되는 포  *note None: 66f.
                                        트 번호                       
                                        

     URL에 잘못된 포트가 지정된 경우 ‘port’ 어트리뷰트를 읽으면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  결과 객체에 대한 자세한 내용은
     *note 구조화된 구문 분석 결과: 3a49. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     ‘netloc’ 어트리뷰트에서 대괄호(square brackets)가 일치하지 않으면
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     (IDNA 인코딩에서 사용되는) NFKC 정규화에서 ‘/’, ‘?’, ‘#’, ‘@’ 또는
     ‘:’ 중 하나로 분해(decompose)되는 ‘netloc’ 어트리뷰트의 문자는
     *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  구문 분석하기 전에 URL이 분
     해(decompose)되면, 에러가 발생하지 않습니다.

     모든 네임드 튜플의 경우와 마찬가지로, 서브 클래스는 특히 유용한 몇
     가지 추가 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다.  그러한 메서드 중 하나는
     ‘_replace()’입니다.  ‘_replace()’ 메서드는 지정된 필드를 새로운 값
     으로 대체한 새로운 ParseResult 객체를 반환합니다.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          >>> u
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')

          경고: *note urlparse(): 305. does not perform validation.  See
          *note URL parsing security: 3a4a. for details.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: IPv6 URL 구문 분석 기능이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: RFC 3986(2)에 따라, 프래그먼트는 이제 모든 URL 스
     킴에 대해 구문 분석됩니다 ('allow_fragments'가 거짓이 아니라면).  이
     전에는, 프래그먼트를 지원하는 스킴의 수락 목록이 있었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 범위를 벗어난 포트 번호는 이제 *note None: 66f.을
     반환하는 대신 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: NFKC 정규화에서 netloc 구문 분석에 영향을 주는 문
     자는 이제 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.parse_qs (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     문자열 인자(‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 유형의 데이터)로 제
     공된 쿼리 문자열을 구문 분석합니다.  데이터는 딕셔너리로 반환됩니다
     .  딕셔너리 키는 고유한 쿼리 변수 이름이고 값은 각 이름의 값 리스트
     입니다.

     선택적 인자 'keep_blank_values'는 퍼센트 인코딩된 쿼리의 빈 값을 빈
     문자열로 처리해야 하는지를 나타내는 플래그입니다.  참값은 빈 값을 빈
     문자열로 유지해야 함을 나타냅니다.  기본 거짓 값은 빈 값이 무시되고
     포함되지 않은 것처럼 처리됨을 나타냅니다.

     선택적 인자 'strict_parsing'은 구문 분석 에러 시 수행할 작업을 나타
     내는 플래그입니다.  거짓(기본값)이면, 에러가 조용히 무시됩니다.  참
     이면, 에러는 *note ValueError: 202. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     선택적 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수는 *note bytes.decode(): 8d3.
     메서드에서 받아들이는 것처럼 퍼센트 인코딩된 시퀀스를 유니코드 문자
     로 디코딩하는 방법을 지정합니다.

     선택적 인자 'max_num_fields'는 읽을 최대 필드 수입니다.  설정되면,
     'max_num_fields' 필드보다 많은 것을 읽을 때 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

     선택적 인자 'separator'는 쿼리 인자를 구분하는 데 사용할 기호입니다
     .  기본값은 ‘&’입니다.

     이러한 딕셔너리를 쿼리 문자열로 변환하려면 *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b. 함수를 (‘doseq’ 매개 변수를 ‘True’로
     설정해서) 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'max_num_fields' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 기본값이 ‘&’ 인 'separator' 매개 변수를 추가했
     습니다.  파이썬 3.10 이전의 파이썬 버전에서는 쿼리 매개 변수 구분 기
     호로 ‘;’와 ‘&’를 모두 사용할 수 있었습니다.  ‘&’를 기본 구분자 기호
     로 사용하여, 단일 구분자 키만 허용하도록 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.parse_qsl (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     문자열 인자(‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ 유형의 데이터)로 제
     공된 쿼리 문자열을 구문 분석합니다.  데이터는 이름, 값 쌍의 리스트
     로 반환됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'keep_blank_values'는 퍼센트 인코딩된 쿼리의 빈 값을 빈
     문자열로 처리해야 하는지를 나타내는 플래그입니다.  참값은 빈 값을 빈
     문자열로 유지해야 함을 나타냅니다.  기본 거짓 값은 빈 값이 무시되고
     포함되지 않은 것처럼 처리됨을 나타냅니다.

     선택적 인자 'strict_parsing'은 구문 분석 에러 시 수행할 작업을 나타
     내는 플래그입니다.  거짓(기본값)이면, 에러가 조용히 무시됩니다.  참
     이면, 에러는 *note ValueError: 202. 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     선택적 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수는 *note bytes.decode(): 8d3.
     메서드에서 받아들이는 것처럼 퍼센트 인코딩된 시퀀스를 유니코드 문자
     로 디코딩하는 방법을 지정합니다.

     선택적 인자 'max_num_fields'는 읽을 최대 필드 수입니다.  설정되면,
     'max_num_fields' 필드보다 많은 것을 읽을 때 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

     선택적 인자 'separator'는 쿼리 인자를 구분하는 데 사용할 기호입니다
     .  기본값은 ‘&’입니다.

     이러한 쌍의 리스트를 쿼리 문자열로 변환하려면 *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b. 함수를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수를 추가합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'max_num_fields' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: 기본값이 ‘&’ 인 'separator' 매개 변수를 추가했
     습니다.  파이썬 3.10 이전의 파이썬 버전에서는 쿼리 매개 변수 구분 기
     호로 ‘;’와 ‘&’를 모두 사용할 수 있었습니다.  ‘&’를 기본 구분자 기호
     로 사용하여, 단일 구분자 키만 허용하도록 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urlunparse (parts)

     ‘urlparse()’에 의해 반환된 튜플에서 URL을 구성합니다.  'parts' 인자
     는 임의의 6개 항목 이터러블일 수 있습니다.  구문 분석된 원래 URL에
     불필요한 구분자가 있는 경우 (예를 들어 비어있는 쿼리가 있는 ‘?’;
     RFC는 이들이 동등하다고 말합니다) 약간 다르지만 동등한 URL이 만들어
     질 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urlsplit (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     이것은 *note urlparse(): 305.와 유사하지만, URL에서 파라미터를 분할
     하지 않습니다.  URL의 'path' 부분의 각 세그먼트에 파라미터를 적용할
     수 있는 최신 URL 문법( RFC 2396(3)을 참조하십시오)이 필요하면 일반
     적으로 *note urlparse(): 305. 대신 사용해야 합니다.  경로 세그먼트
     와 파라미터를 분리하려면 별도의 함수가 필요합니다.  이 함수는 5개 항
     목 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.을 반환합니다:

          (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).

     반환 값은 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.입니다, 항목은 인덱스나 이름 붙은
     어트리뷰트로 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

     어트리뷰트             인덱스      값                            존재하지 않을 때의 값
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL 스킴 지정자               'scheme' 매개 변수
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           네트워크 위치 부분            빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           계층적 경로                   빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘query’                3           쿼리 구성 요소                빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             4           프래그먼트 식별자             빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         사용자 이름                   *note None: 66f.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         비밀번호                      *note None: 66f.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         호스트 이름 (소문자)          *note None: 66f.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             존재하면, 정수로 표시되는 포  *note None: 66f.
                                        트 번호                       
                                        

     URL에 잘못된 포트가 지정된 경우 ‘port’ 어트리뷰트를 읽으면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  결과 객체에 대한 자세한 내용은
     *note 구조화된 구문 분석 결과: 3a49. 섹션을 참조하십시오.

     ‘netloc’ 어트리뷰트에서 대괄호(square brackets)가 일치하지 않으면
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     (IDNA 인코딩에서 사용되는) NFKC 정규화에서 ‘/’, ‘?’, ‘#’, ‘@’ 또는
     ‘:’ 중 하나로 분해(decompose)되는 ‘netloc’ 어트리뷰트의 문자는
     *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  구문 분석하기 전에 URL이 분
     해(decompose)되면, 에러가 발생하지 않습니다.

     Following some of the WHATWG spec(4) that updates RFC 3986, leading
     C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL. ‘\n’,
     ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are removed from the URL at any
     position.

          경고: *note urlsplit(): d3c. does not perform validation.  See
          *note URL parsing security: 3a4a. for details.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 범위를 벗어난 포트 번호는 이제 *note None: 66f.을
     반환하는 대신 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: NFKC 정규화에서 netloc 구문 분석에 영향을 주는 문
     자는 이제 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: ASCII newline and tab characters are stripped
     from the URL.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space characters
     are stripped from the URL.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urlunsplit (parts)

     *note urlsplit(): d3c.에 의해 반환된 튜플 요소를 완전한 URL 문자열
     로 결합합니다.  'parts' 인자는 임의의 5개 항목 이터러블일 수 있습니
     다.  구문 분석된 원래 URL에 불필요한 구분자가 있는 경우 (예를 들어
     비어있는 쿼리가 있는 ?; RFC는 이들이 동등하다고 말합니다) 약간 다르
     지만 동등한 URL이 만들어질 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urljoin (base, url, allow_fragments=True)

     “기본 URL”('base')을 다른 URL('url')과 결합하여 전체 (“절대”) URL을
     구성합니다.  비형식적으로, 이것은 기본 URL의 구성 요소, 특히 주소 지
     정 체계, 네트워크 위치 및 경로(의 일부)를 사용하여 상대 URL에 누락
     된 구성 요소를 제공합니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
          >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
          'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

     'allow_fragments' 인자는 *note urlparse(): 305.와 같은 의미와 기본
     값을 갖습니다.

          참고: 'url'이 절대 URL이면 (즉, ‘//’나 ‘scheme://’로 시작하면
          ), 'url'의 호스트명 및/또는 스킴이 결과에 나타납니다.  예를 들
          면:

               >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
               ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
               'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

          이런 동작을 원하지 않으면, 'url'을 *note urlsplit(): d3c.과
          *note urlunsplit(): 15de.으로 사전 처리하여 가능한 'scheme'과
          'netloc' 부분을 제거하십시오.

          경고: Because an absolute URL may be passed as the ‘url’
          parameter, it is generally 'not secure' to use ‘urljoin’ with
          an attacker-controlled ‘url’.  For example in,
          ‘urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username)’, if
          ‘username’ can contain an absolute URL, the result of
          ‘urljoin’ will be the absolute URL.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: RFC 3986(5)에 정의된 의미론과 일치하도록 동작이
     갱신되었습니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urldefrag (url)

     'url'에 프래그먼트 식별자가 포함되면, 프래그먼트 식별자 없는 'url'의
     수정된 버전과 프래그먼트 식별자를 별도의 문자열로 반환합니다.
     'url'에 프래그먼트 식별자가 없으면, 수정되지 않은 'url'과 빈 문자열
     을 반환합니다.

     반환 값은 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.입니다, 항목은 인덱스나 이름 붙은
     어트리뷰트로 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

     어트리뷰트             인덱스      값                            존재하지 않을 때의 값
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘url’                  0           프래그먼트 없는 URL           빈 문자열
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             1           프래그먼트 식별자             빈 문자열
                                                                      

     결과 객체에 대한 자세한 정보는 섹션 *note 구조화된 구문 분석 결과:
     3a49.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 결과는 단순한 2-튜플이 아닌 구조화된 객체입니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.unwrap (url)

     래핑 된 URL(즉, ‘<URL:scheme://host/path>’, ‘<scheme://host/path>’,
     ‘URL:scheme://host/path’ 또는 ‘scheme://host/path’ 형식의 문자열)에
     서 URL을 추출합니다.  'url'이 래핑 된 URL이 아니면, 변경 없이 반환
     됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (4) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL 구문 분석 보안,  Next: ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석,  Prev: URL 구문 분석,  Up: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석

5.22.6.2 URL 구문 분석 보안
...........................

The *note urlsplit(): d3c. and *note urlparse(): 305. APIs do not
perform 'validation' of inputs.  They may not raise errors on inputs
that other applications consider invalid.  They may also succeed on some
inputs that might not be considered URLs elsewhere.  Their purpose is
for practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead
return some component parts as empty strings.  Or components may contain
more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used
anywhere with security implications code defensively.  Do some
verification within your code before trusting a returned component part.
Does that ‘scheme’ make sense?  Is that a sensible ‘path’?  Is there
anything strange about that ‘hostname’?  etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined.  Different
applications have different needs and desired constraints.  For instance
the living WHATWG spec(1) describes what user facing web clients such as
a web browser require.  While RFC 3986(2) is more general.  These
functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be claimed
compliant with either.  The APIs and existing user code with
expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us to
be very cautious about making API behavior changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석,  Next: 구조화된 구문 분석 결과,  Prev: URL 구문 분석 보안,  Up: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석

5.22.6.3 ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석
............................................

URL 구문 분석 함수는 원래 문자열에서만 작동하도록 설계되었습니다.  실제
로는, 적절히 인용되고 인코딩된 URL을 ASCII 바이트 시퀀스로 조작할 수 있
으면 유용합니다.  따라서, 이 모듈의 URL 구문 분석 함수는 모두 *note str:
445. 객체 외에 *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytearray: 538. 객체에서 작동합
니다.

*note str: 445. 데이터가 전달되면, 결과에는 *note str: 445. 데이터만 포
함됩니다.  *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note bytearray: 538. 데이터가 전달되면,
결과에는 *note bytes: 1c2. 데이터만 포함됩니다.

단일 함수 호출에서 *note str: 445. 데이터를 *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note
bytearray: 538.와 혼합하려고 시도하면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생하는 반
면, 비 ASCII 바이트 값을 전달하면 *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f.가 트리
거 됩니다.

*note str: 445.과 *note bytes: 1c2. 간에 결과 객체를 쉽게 변환 할 수 있
도록, URL 구문 분석 함수의 모든 반환 값은 ‘encode()’ 메서드(결과에 *note
str: 445. 데이터가 포함될 때)나 ‘decode()’ 메서드(결과에 *note bytes:
1c2. 데이터가 포함될 때)를 제공합니다.  이러한 메서드의 서명은 해당
*note str: 445.와 *note bytes: 1c2. 메서드의 서명과 일치합니다 (기본 인
코딩이 ‘'utf-8'’가 아니라 ‘'ascii'’라는 점은 예외입니다).  각각은 *note
bytes: 1c2. 데이터(‘encode()’ 메서드의 경우)나 *note str: 445. 데이터
(‘decode()’ 메서드의 경우)를 포함하는 해당 형의 값을 생성합니다.

ASCII가 아닌 데이터를 포함할 수 있는 잘못 인용된 URL에서 작동할 가능성이
있는 응용 프로그램은 URL 구문 분석 메서드를 호출하기 전에 바이트열에서 문
자로 자체 디코딩을 수행할 필요가 있습니다.

이 섹션에서 설명하는 동작은 URL 구문 분석 함수에만 적용됩니다.  URL 인용
함수는 개별 URL 인용 함수의 설명서에 기술된 대로 바이트 시퀀스를 생성하
거나 소비할 때 자체 규칙을 사용합니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: URL 구문 분석 함수는 이제 ASCII 인코딩된 바이트 시퀀
스를 받아들입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 구조화된 구문 분석 결과,  Next: URL 인용,  Prev: ASCII로 인코딩된 바이트열 구문 분석,  Up: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석

5.22.6.4 구조화된 구문 분석 결과
................................

*note urlparse(): 305, *note urlsplit(): d3c. 및 *note urldefrag():
1238. 함수의 결과 객체는 *note tuple: 369. 형의 서브 클래스입니다.  이 서
브 클래스는 해당 함수에 대한 설명서에 나열된 어트리뷰트, 이전 섹션에서 설
명한 인코딩과 디코딩 지원 및 추가 메서드를 추가합니다:

 -- 메서드: urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl ()

     원래 URL의 재결합된 버전을 문자열로 반환합니다.  스킴이 소문자로 정
     규화되고 빈 구성 요소가 삭제될 수 있다는 점에서 원래 URL과 다를 수
     있습니다.  특히, 빈 파라미터, 쿼리 및 프래그먼트 식별자가 제거됩니
     다.

     *note urldefrag(): 1238. 결과의 경우, 빈 프래그먼트 식별자만 제거됩
     니다.  *note urlsplit(): d3c.과 *note urlparse(): 305. 결과의 경우,
     이 메서드가 반환한 URL에 대해 언급된 모든 변경 사항이 적용됩니다.

     이 메서드의 결과는 원래 구문 분석 함수를 통해 다시 전달될 때 변경되
     지 않은 상태로 유지됩니다:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
          >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
          >>> r1.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
          >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
          >>> r2.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'

다음 클래스는 *note str: 445. 객체에서 작동할 때 구조화된 구문 분석 결과
의 구현을 제공합니다:

 -- 클래스: urllib.parse.DefragResult (url, fragment)

     *note str: 445. 데이터를 포함하는 *note urldefrag(): 1238. 결과의 구
     상 클래스.  ‘encode()’ 메서드는 *note DefragResultBytes: 3a51. 인스
     턴스를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: urllib.parse.ParseResult (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     *note str: 445. 데이터를 포함하는 *note urlparse(): 305. 결과의 구
     상 클래스.  ‘encode()’ 메서드는 *note ParseResultBytes: 3a53. 인스
     턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: urllib.parse.SplitResult (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     *note str: 445. 데이터를 포함하는 *note urlsplit(): d3c. 결과의 구
     상 클래스.  ‘encode()’ 메서드는 *note SplitResultBytes: 3a55. 인스
     턴스를 반환합니다.

다음 클래스는 *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note bytearray: 538. 객체에서 작동할
때 구문 분석 결과의 구현을 제공합니다:

 -- 클래스: urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes (url, fragment)

     *note bytes: 1c2. 데이터를 포함하는 *note urldefrag(): 1238. 결과의
     구상 클래스.  ‘decode()’ 메서드는 *note DefragResult: 3a50. 인스턴
     스를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     *note bytes: 1c2. 데이터를 포함하는 *note urlparse(): 305. 결과의 구
     상 클래스.  ‘decode()’ 메서드는 *note ParseResult: 3a52. 인스턴스를
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     *note bytes: 1c2. 데이터를 포함하는 *note urlsplit(): d3c. 결과의 구
     상 클래스.  ‘decode()’ 메서드는 *note SplitResult: 3a54. 인스턴스를
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: URL 인용,  Prev: 구조화된 구문 분석 결과,  Up: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석

5.22.6.5 URL 인용
.................

URL 인용(quoting) 함수는 특수 문자를 인용하고 비 ASCII 텍스트를 적절히 인
코딩하여 프로그램 데이터를 취해서 URL 구성 요소로 안전하게 사용할 수 있
도록 하는 데 중점을 둡니다.  또한 해당 작업이 위의 URL 구문 분석 함수로
처리되지 않는 경우 URL 구성 요소의 내용에서 원래 데이터를 다시 만들기 위
해 이러한 작업을 뒤집는 것도 지원합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.quote (string, safe='/', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     ‘%XX’ 이스케이프를 사용하여 'string'의 특수 문자를 치환합니다.  글
     자, 숫자 및 문자 ‘'_.-~'’는 절대 인용되지 않습니다.  기본적으로, 이
     함수는 URL의 경로 섹션을 인용하기 위한 것입니다.  선택적 'safe' 매
     개 변수는 인용해서는 안 되는 추가 ASCII 문자를 지정합니다 — 기본값
     은 ‘'/'’입니다.

     'string'은 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체일 수 있습니다
     .

     버전 3.7에서 변경: URL 문자열 인용을 RFC 2396(1)에서 RFC 3986(2)으
     로 옮겼습니다.  “~”는 이제 예약되지 않은 문자 집합에 포함됩니다.

     선택적 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수는 *note str.encode(): 8d2. 메
     서드에서 받아들이는 것처럼 비 ASCII 문자를 처리하는 방법을 지정합니
     다.  'encoding'의 기본값은 ‘'utf-8'’입니다.  'errors'의 기본값은
     ‘'strict'’로, 지원되지 않는 문자는 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671.를
     발생시킴을 의미합니다.  'string'이 *note bytes: 1c2.이면
     'encoding'과 'errors'를 제공해서는 안 됩니다, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     ‘quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)’는
     ‘quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)’와 동등함
     에 유의하십시오.

     예: ‘quote('/El Niño/')’는 ‘'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'’를 산출합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.quote_plus (string, safe='', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     *note quote(): ba0.와 유사하지만, URL로 이동하기 위한 쿼리 문자열을
     만들 때 HTML 폼값을 인용하는 데 필요한 대로 스페이스를 더하기 부호
     로 치환하기도 합니다.  'safe'에 포함되지 않으면 원래 문자열의 더하
     기 부호가 이스케이프 됩니다.  또한 'safe'의 기본값은 ‘'/'’가 아닙니
     다.

     예: ‘quote_plus('/El Niño/')’는 ‘'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'’를 산출합니다
     .

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes (bytes, safe='/')

     *note quote(): ba0.와 유사하지만, *note str: 445. 대신 *note bytes:
     1c2. 객체를 받아들이고, 문자열을 바이트열로 인코딩하지 않습니다.

     예: ‘quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')’는 ‘'a%26%EF'’를 산출합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.unquote (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     ‘%XX’ 이스케이프를 동등한 단일 문자로 대체합니다.  선택적
     'encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수는 *note bytes.decode(): 8d3. 메서드
     에서 받아들이는 것처럼 퍼센트 인코딩된 시퀀스를 유니코드 문자로 디
     코딩하는 방법을 지정합니다.

     'string'은 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체일 수 있습니다
     .

     'encoding'의 기본값은 ‘'utf-8'’입니다.  'errors'의 기본값은
     ‘'replace'’로, 유효하지 않은 시퀀스는 자리 표시자 문자(placeholder
     character)로 대체됩니다.

     예: ‘unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')’는 ‘'/El Niño/'’를 산출합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'string' 매개 변수는 바이트열과 문자열 객체를 지
     원합니다 (이전에는 문자열만 지원했습니다).

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.unquote_plus (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     *note unquote(): 178c.와 유사하지만, HTML 폼값을 인용 해제할 때 요
     구되는 것처럼, 더하기 부호를 스페이스로 치환하기도 합니다.

     'string'은 *note str: 445.이어야 합니다.

     예: ‘unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')’는 ‘'/El Niño/'’를 산출합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes (string)

     ‘%XX’ 이스케이프를 해당 단일 옥텟(octet)으로 대체하고, *note bytes:
     1c2. 객체를 반환합니다.

     'string'은 *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체일 수 있습니다
     .

     *note str: 445.이면, 'string'의 이스케이프 되지 않은 비 ASCII 문자
     는 UTF-8 바이트열로 인코딩됩니다.

     예: ‘unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')’는 ‘b'a&\xef'’를 산출합니다.

 -- 함수: urllib.parse.urlencode (query, doseq=False, safe='',
          encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

     *note str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 포함할 수 있는 매핑 객
     체나 두 요소 튜플의 시퀀스를 퍼센트 인코딩된 ASCII 텍스트 문자열로
     변환합니다.  결과 문자열을 *note urlopen(): 293. 함수를 사용하여
     POST 연산을 위한 'data'로 사용하려면, 바이트열로 인코딩해야 합니다,
     그렇지 않으면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     결과 문자열은 ‘'&'’ 문자로 구분된 일련의 ‘key=value’ 쌍이고, 여기서
     'key'와 'value'는 'quote_via' 함수를 사용하여 인용됩니다.  기본적으
     로, *note quote_plus(): 1239.가 값을 인용하는 데 사용되는데, 스페이
     스는 ‘'+'’ 문자로 인용되고 ‘/’ 문자는 ‘%2F’로 인코딩되어 GET 요청 표
     준(‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’)을 따름을 뜻합니다.
     'quote_via'로 전달될 수 있는 대체 함수는 *note quote(): ba0.이며, 스
     페이스를 ‘%20’로 인코딩하고 ‘/’ 문자를 인코딩하지 않습니다.  무엇을
     인용할지를 최대한 제어하려면, ‘quote’를 사용하고 'safe'의 값을 지정
     하십시오.

     'query' 인자에 두 요소 튜플의 시퀀스가 사용될 때, 각 튜플의 첫 번째
     요소는 키이고 두 번째 요소는 값입니다.  값 요소 자체는 시퀀스일 수
     있으며, 이 경우 선택적 매개 변수 'doseq'가 ‘True’로 평가되면,
     ‘'&'’로 구분된 개별 ‘key=value’ 쌍이 키에 대한 값 시퀀스의 각 요소
     에 대해 생성됩니다.  인코딩된 문자열의 파라미터 순서는 시퀀스의 파
     라미터 튜플 순서와 일치합니다.

     'safe', 'encoding' 및 'errors' 매개 변수는 'quote_via'로 전달됩니다
     ('encoding'과 'errors' 매개 변수는 쿼리 요소가 *note str: 445.일 때
     만 전달됩니다).

     이 인코딩 프로세스를 뒤집기 위해, 쿼리 문자열을 파이썬 데이터 구조
     로 구문 분석하기 위해 이 모듈에서 *note parse_qs(): 27a.와 *note
     parse_qsl(): 279.이 제공됩니다.

     *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8b. 메서드를 사용하여 URL의 쿼리 문
     자열이나 POST 요청의 데이터를 생성하는 방법을 알아보려면 *note
     urllib 예제: 3a35.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'query' 매개 변수는 바이트열과 문자열 객체를 지
     원합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'quote_via' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

더 보기
.......

WHATWG(3) - URL Living standard

     Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP
     addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and their
     API.

RFC 3986(4) - Uniform Resource Identifiers

     이것이 현재 표준입니다 (STD66).  urllib.parse 모듈에 대한 모든 변경
     사항은 이를 준수해야 합니다.  특정 편차가 관찰될 수 있는데, 이는 대
     부분 이전 버전과의 호환성과 주요 브라우저에서 일반적으로 관찰되는 사
     실상의 구문 분석 요구 사항을 위한 것입니다.

RFC 2732(5) - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL’s.

     IPv6 URL의 구문 분석 요구 사항을 지정합니다.

RFC 2396(6) - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax

     URN(Uniform Resource Names)과 URL(Uniform Resource Locator)에 대한
     일반적인 문법 요구 사항을 설명하는 문서.

RFC 2368(7) - The mailto URL scheme.

     mailto URL 스킴에 대한 구문 분석 요구 사항.

RFC 1808(8) - Relative Uniform Resource Locators

     이 RFC는 경계 사례의 처리를 정의하는 꽤 많은 수의 “비정상적인 예”를
     포함하여, 절대와 상대 URL을 결합하는 규칙을 포함합니다.

RFC 1738(9) - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

     절대 URL의 형식 문법과 의미를 지정합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2368.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스,  Next: urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기,  Prev: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.7 ‘urllib.error’ — urllib.request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스
------------------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/urllib/error.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note urllib.error: 109.모듈은 *note urllib.request: 10b.에 의해 발생하
는 예외에 대한 예외 클래스를 정의합니다.  베이스 예외 클래스는 *note
URLError: 39bf.입니다.

*note urllib.error: 109.에 의해 다음과 같은 예외가 적절하게 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: urllib.error.URLError

     처리기가 문제에 봉착하는 경우, 처리기는 해당 예외(또는 파생된 예외
     )를 발생시킵니다.  이 예외는 *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스입니
     다.

      -- 속성: reason

          이 에러가 발생한 원인입니다.  메시지 문자열이거나 다른 예외 인
          스턴스가 될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전에는 *note URLError: 39bf.가 *note IOError:
     1048.의 하위 형이었으나, 이제는 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭이 되었습
     니다.

 -- 예외: urllib.error.HTTPError (url, code, msg, hdrs, fp)

     *note HTTPError: fd6.는 *note URLError: 39bf.의 서브 클래스로 예외
     클래스이긴 하지만, 예외가 아닌 파일류 반환 값(*note urlopen():
     293.의 반환 값과 동일한 값)으로도 작동할 수 있습니다.  이 방법은 인
     증 요청 같은 독특한(exotic) HTTP 에러를 처리할 때 유용합니다.

      -- 속성: url

          Contains the request URL. An alias for 'filename' attribute.

      -- 속성: code

          RFC 2616(2)에 정의된 HTTP 상태 코드입니다.  이 숫자 값은 *note
          http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 3a5d.에서 찾을 수
          있는 상태 코드 딕셔너리에 있는 값에 해당합니다.

      -- 속성: reason

          일반적으로 이 에러의 원인을 설명하는 문자열입니다.  'msg' 어트
          리뷰트의 별칭.

      -- 속성: headers

          *note HTTPError: fd6.를 발생시킨 HTTP 요청의 응답 헤더입니다.
          'hdrs' 어트리뷰트의 별칭.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 속성: fp

          A file-like object where the HTTP error body can be read from.

 -- 예외: urllib.error.ContentTooShortError (msg, content)

     이 예외는 다운로드받은 데이터양이 'Content-Length' 헤더 값을 통해 예
     상한 양보다 적은 것을 *note urlretrieve(): 3a37.함수가 감지했을 때
     발생합니다.

      -- 속성: content

          다운로드받은 (그리고 아마도 잘린) 데이터.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/error.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기,  Next: http — HTTP 모듈,  Prev: urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.8 ‘urllib.robotparser’ — robots.txt 구문 분석기
----------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/urllib/robotparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 클래스 하나 *note RobotFileParser: cfa.를 제공하는데, 특정 사
용자 에이전트가 ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 게시한 웹 사이트에서 URL을 가져올 수
있는지에 대한 질문에 대답합니다.  ‘robots.txt’ 파일의 구조에 대한 자세한
내용은 ‘http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html’ 을 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser (url='')

     이 클래스는 'url'에 있는 ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 읽고, 구문 분석하고, 그
     에 대한 질문에 대답하는 메서드를 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_url (url)

          ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 가리키는 URL을 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: read ()

          ‘robots.txt’ URL을 읽어서 구문 분석기에 넘깁니다.

      -- 메서드: parse (lines)

          lines 인자를 구문 분석합니다.

      -- 메서드: can_fetch (useragent, url)

          구문 분석된 ‘robots.txt’ 파일에 포함된 규칙에 따라,
          'useragent'가 'url'를 가져올 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: mtime ()

          ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 마지막으로 가져온 시간을 반환합니다.  이것
          은 새 ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 주기적으로 확인해야 하는 장기 실행 웹
          스파이더에 유용합니다.

      -- 메서드: modified ()

          ‘robots.txt’ 파일을 마지막으로 가져온 시간을 현재 시각으로 설
          정합니다.

      -- 메서드: crawl_delay (useragent)

          ‘robots.txt’에서 해당 'useragent'에 대한 ‘Crawl-delay’ 파라미
          터의 값을 반환합니다.  해당 파라미터가 없거나, 지정된
          'useragent'에 적용되지 않거나, 이 파라미터에 대한 ‘robots.txt’
          항목이 잘못된 구문이면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: request_rate (useragent)

          ‘robots.txt’에서 ‘Request-rate’ 파라미터의 내용을 *note 네임드
          튜플: 648. ‘RequestRate(requests, seconds)’로 반환합니다.  해
          당 파라미터가 없거나, 지정된 'useragent'에 적용되지 않거나, 이
          파라미터에 대한 ‘robots.txt’ 항목이 잘못된 구문이면 ‘None’을 반
          환합니다.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: site_maps ()

          ‘robots.txt’에서 ‘Sitemap’ 매개 변수의 내용을 *note list():
          60b. 형식으로 반환합니다.  해당 매개 변수가 없거나
          ‘robots.txt’의 이 매개 변수 항목이 잘못된 문법이면 ‘None’을 반
          환합니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

다음 예제는 *note RobotFileParser: cfa. 클래스의 기본 사용을 보여줍니다:

     >>> import urllib.robotparser
     >>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
     >>> rp.set_url("http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt")
     >>> rp.read()
     >>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
     >>> rrate.requests
     3
     >>> rrate.seconds
     20
     >>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
     6
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco")
     False
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/")
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: http — HTTP 모듈,  Next: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Prev: urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.9 ‘http’ — HTTP 모듈
-------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/http/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note http: 6e.는 하이퍼텍스트 전송 프로토콜로 작업 하기 위한 여러 모듈
을 수집하는 패키지입니다:

   * *note http.client: 6f.는 저수준 HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트입니다.  고
     수준의 URL 열기는 *note urllib.request: 10b.를 사용합니다

   * *note http.server: 72.는 *note socketserver: cd.에 기반을 둔 기본적
     인 HTTP 서버 클래스를 포함합니다

   * *note http.cookies: 71.는 쿠키를 사용하여 상태 관리를 구현하는 유틸
     리티가 있습니다

   * *note http.cookiejar: 70.는 쿠키의 지속성을 제공합니다

또한 *note http: 6e. 모듈은 http 관련 코드 작업에 도움이 되는 다음 열거
형을 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: http.HTTPStatus

     Added in version 3.5.

     HTTP 상태 코드, 이유 구문 그리고 긴 영문 설명의 집합을 정의하는
     *note enum.IntEnum: cdc.의 서브 클래스입니다.

     사용법:

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK
          HTTPStatus.OK
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.value
          200
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
          'OK'
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
          'Request fulfilled, document follows'
          >>> list(HTTPStatus)
          [HTTPStatus.CONTINUE, HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS, ...]

* Menu:

* HTTP 상태 코드::
* HTTP 상태 범주::
* HTTP 메서드::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 상태 코드,  Next: HTTP 상태 범주,  Up: http — HTTP 모듈

5.22.9.1 HTTP 상태 코드
.......................

*note http.HTTPStatus: 8fd.에서 지원하는 IANA에 등록된 상태 코드(1)는 다
음과 같습니다:

코드        열거 이름                               세부 사항
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘100’       ‘CONTINUE’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), 섹션 15.2.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘101’       ‘SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), 섹션 15.2.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘102’       ‘PROCESSING’                            WebDAV RFC 2518(4), 섹션 10.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘103’       ‘EARLY_HINTS’                           힌트를 나타내는 HTTP 상태 코드 RFC 8297(5)
                                                    
                                                    
‘200’       ‘OK’                                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(6), 섹션 15.3.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘201’       ‘CREATED’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(7), 섹션 15.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘202’       ‘ACCEPTED’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(8), 섹션 15.3.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘203’       ‘NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION’         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(9), 섹션 15.3.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘204’       ‘NO_CONTENT’                            HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(10), 섹션 15.3.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘205’       ‘RESET_CONTENT’                         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(11), 섹션 15.3.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘206’       ‘PARTIAL_CONTENT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(12), 섹션 15.3.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘207’       ‘MULTI_STATUS’                          WebDAV RFC 4918(13), 섹션 11.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘208’       ‘ALREADY_REPORTED’                      WebDAV 바인딩 확장 RFC 5842(14), 섹션 7.1 (실험적)
                                                    
                                                    
‘226’       ‘IM_USED’                               HTTP의 델타 인코딩 RFC 3229(15), 섹션 10.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘300’       ‘MULTIPLE_CHOICES’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(16), 섹션 15.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘301’       ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’                     HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(17), 섹션 15.4.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘302’       ‘FOUND’                                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(18), 섹션 15.4.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘303’       ‘SEE_OTHER’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(19), 섹션 15.4.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘304’       ‘NOT_MODIFIED’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(20), 섹션 15.4.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘305’       ‘USE_PROXY’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(21), 섹션 15.4.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘307’       ‘TEMPORARY_REDIRECT’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(22), 섹션 15.4.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘308’       ‘PERMANENT_REDIRECT’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(23), 섹션 15.4.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘400’       ‘BAD_REQUEST’                           HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(24), 섹션 15.5.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘401’       ‘UNAUTHORIZED’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(25), 섹션 15.5.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘402’       ‘PAYMENT_REQUIRED’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(26), 섹션 15.5.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘403’       ‘FORBIDDEN’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(27), 섹션 15.5.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘404’       ‘NOT_FOUND’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(28), 섹션 15.5.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘405’       ‘METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(29), 섹션 15.5.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘406’       ‘NOT_ACCEPTABLE’                        HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(30), 섹션 15.5.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘407’       ‘PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(31), 섹션 15.5.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘408’       ‘REQUEST_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(32), 섹션 15.5.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘409’       ‘CONFLICT’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(33), 섹션 15.5.10
                                                    
                                                    
‘410’       ‘GONE’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(34), 섹션 15.5.11
                                                    
                                                    
‘411’       ‘LENGTH_REQUIRED’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(35), 섹션 15.5.12
                                                    
                                                    
‘412’       ‘PRECONDITION_FAILED’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(36), 섹션 15.5.13
                                                    
                                                    
‘413’       ‘CONTENT_TOO_LARGE’                     HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(37), 섹션 15.5.14
                                                    
                                                    
‘414’       ‘URI_TOO_LONG’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(38), 섹션 15.5.15
                                                    
                                                    
‘415’       ‘UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE’                HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(39), 섹션 15.5.16
                                                    
                                                    
‘416’       ‘RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(40), 섹션 15.5.17
                                                    
                                                    
‘417’       ‘EXPECTATION_FAILED’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(41), 섹션 15.5.18
                                                    
                                                    
‘418’       ‘IM_A_TEAPOT’                           HTCPCP/1.0 RFC 2324(42), 섹션 2.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘421’       ‘MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(43), 섹션 15.5.20
                                                    
                                                    
‘422’       ‘UNPROCESSABLE_CONTENT’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(44), 섹션 15.5.21
                                                    
                                                    
‘423’       ‘LOCKED’                                WebDAV RFC 4918(45), 섹션 11.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘424’       ‘FAILED_DEPENDENCY’                     WebDAV RFC 4918(46), 섹션 11.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘425’       ‘TOO_EARLY’                             HTTP에서 초기 데이터(Early Data) 사용 RFC 8470(47)
                                                    
                                                    
‘426’       ‘UPGRADE_REQUIRED’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(48), 섹션 15.5.22
                                                    
                                                    
‘428’       ‘PRECONDITION_REQUIRED’                 추가 HTTP 상태 코드 RFC 6585(49)
                                                    
                                                    
‘429’       ‘TOO_MANY_REQUESTS’                     추가 HTTP 상태 코드 RFC 6585(50)
                                                    
                                                    
‘431’       ‘REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE’       추가 HTTP 상태 코드 RFC 6585(51)
                                                    
                                                    
‘451’       ‘UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’         법적 장애를 보고하는 HTTP 상태 코드 RFC 7725(52)
                                                    
                                                    
‘500’       ‘INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(53), 섹션 15.6.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘501’       ‘NOT_IMPLEMENTED’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(54), 섹션 15.6.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘502’       ‘BAD_GATEWAY’                           HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(55), 섹션 15.6.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘503’       ‘SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(56), 섹션 15.6.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘504’       ‘GATEWAY_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(57), 섹션 15.6.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘505’       ‘HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED’            HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(58), 섹션 15.6.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘506’       ‘VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES’               HTTP의 투명한 콘텐츠 협상 RFC 2295(59), 섹션 8.1 (실험적)
                                                    
                                                    
‘507’       ‘INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE’                  WebDAV RFC 4918(60), 섹션 11.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘508’       ‘LOOP_DETECTED’                         WebDAV 바인딩 확장 RFC 5842(61), 섹션 7.2 (실험적)
                                                    
                                                    
‘510’       ‘NOT_EXTENDED’                          HTTP 확장 프레임워크 RFC 2774(62), 섹션 7 (실험적)
                                                    
                                                    
‘511’       ‘NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’       추가 HTTP 상태 코드 RFC 6585(63), 섹션 6
                                                    

이전 버전과의 호환성을 유지하기 위해 열거값은 *note http.client: 6f. 모
듈에 상수 형태로도 있습니다.  열거명과 상수명은 동일합니다 (즉,
‘http.HTTPStatus.OK’는 ‘http.client.OK’로도 사용 가능합니다).

버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘421 MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’ 상태 코드 추가.

Added in version 3.8: ‘451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’ 상태 코드가 추
가.

Added in version 3.9: ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ 및 ‘425
TOO_EARLY’ 상태 코드가 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Implemented RFC9110 naming for status constants.
Old constant names are preserved for backwards compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2518.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8297.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3229.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (24) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (25) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (26) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (27) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (28) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (30) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (31) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (32) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (33) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (34) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (35) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (37) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (39) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (40) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (41) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (42) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2324.html

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (44) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (45) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (46) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8470.html

   (48) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (49) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (50) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (51) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (52) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7725.html

   (53) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (56) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (57) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (58) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (59) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2295.html

   (60) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (61) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (62) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2774.html

   (63) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 상태 범주,  Next: HTTP 메서드,  Prev: HTTP 상태 코드,  Up: http — HTTP 모듈

5.22.9.2 HTTP 상태 범주
.......................

Added in version 3.12.

The enum values have several properties to indicate the HTTP status
category:

프로퍼티                 나타내는 것                  세부 사항
                                                      
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘is_informational’       ‘100 <= status <= 199’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(1), 섹션 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_success’             ‘200 <= status <= 299’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), 섹션 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_redirection’         ‘300 <= status <= 399’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), 섹션 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_client_error’        ‘400 <= status <= 499’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(4), 섹션 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_server_error’        ‘500 <= status <= 599’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(5), 섹션 15
                                                      

     사용법:

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_success
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_client_error
          False

 -- 클래스: http.HTTPMethod

     Added in version 3.11.

     HTTP 메서드와 영문 설명의 집합을 정의하는 *note enum.StrEnum: 614.의
     서브 클래스입니다.

     사용법:

          >>> from http import HTTPMethod
          >>>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET
          <HTTPMethod.GET>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET == 'GET'
          True
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.value
          'GET'
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.description
          'Retrieve the target.'
          >>> list(HTTPMethod)
          [<HTTPMethod.CONNECT>,
           <HTTPMethod.DELETE>,
           <HTTPMethod.GET>,
           <HTTPMethod.HEAD>,
           <HTTPMethod.OPTIONS>,
           <HTTPMethod.PATCH>,
           <HTTPMethod.POST>,
           <HTTPMethod.PUT>,
           <HTTPMethod.TRACE>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP 메서드,  Prev: HTTP 상태 범주,  Up: http — HTTP 모듈

5.22.9.3 HTTP 메서드
....................

*note http.HTTPMethod: 3a6f.에서 지원하는 IANA에 등록된 메서드(1)는 다음
과 같습니다:

메서드          열거 이름                               세부 사항
                                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘GET’           ‘GET’                                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), 섹션 9.3.1
                                                        
                                                        
‘HEAD’          ‘HEAD’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), 섹션 9.3.2
                                                        
                                                        
‘POST’          ‘POST’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(4), 섹션 9.3.3
                                                        
                                                        
‘PUT’           ‘PUT’                                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(5), 섹션 9.3.4
                                                        
                                                        
‘DELETE’        ‘DELETE’                                HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(6), 섹션 9.3.5
                                                        
                                                        
‘CONNECT’       ‘CONNECT’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(7), 섹션 9.3.6
                                                        
                                                        
‘OPTIONS’       ‘OPTIONS’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(8), 섹션 9.3.7
                                                        
                                                        
‘TRACE’         ‘TRACE’                                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(9), 섹션 9.3.8
                                                        
                                                        
‘PATCH’         ‘PATCH’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 5789(10)
                                                        

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-methods/http-methods.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5789.html


File: python.info,  Node: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Next: ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Prev: http — HTTP 모듈,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.10 ‘http.client’ — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/http/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 HTTP 및 HTTPS 프로토콜의 클라이언트 측을 구현하는 클래스를 정
의합니다.  일반적으로 직접 사용되지 않습니다 — *note urllib.request:
10b. 모듈은 이를 사용하여 HTTP와 HTTPS를 사용하는 URL을 처리합니다.

더 보기
.......

더 고수준 HTTP 클라이언트 인터페이스로 Requests 패키지(2)를 권장합니다.

     참고: HTTPS 지원은 파이썬이 SSL 지원으로 컴파일된 경우에만 사용 가
     능합니다 (*note ssl: d0. 모듈을 통해).

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

이 모듈은 다음과 같은 클래스를 제공합니다:

 -- 클래스: http.client.HTTPConnection (host, port=None[, timeout],
          source_address=None, blocksize=8192)

     *note HTTPConnection: b3d. 인스턴스는 HTTP 서버와의 하나의 트랜잭션
     을 나타냅니다.  호스트와 선택적 포트 번호를 전달하여 인스턴스화해야
     합니다.  포트 번호가 전달되지 않으면, host 문자열이 ‘host:port’ 형
     식이면 여기에서 포트가 추출됩니다, 그렇지 않으면 기본 HTTP 포트
     (80)가 사용됩니다.  선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수가 제공되면, 블로킹 연
     산(연결 시도와 같은)이 지정된 초 후에 시간제한으로 종료됩니다 (제공
     되지 않으면, 전역 기본 시간제한 설정이 사용됩니다).  선택적
     'source_address' 매개 변수는 HTTP 연결의 소스 주소로 사용할 (호스트
     , 포트)의 튜플일 수 있습니다.  선택적 'blocksize' 매개 변수는 파일
     류 메시지 바디를 보내는 데 필요한 버퍼 크기를 바이트 단위로 설정합
     니다.

     예를 들어, 다음 호출은 모두 같은 호스트와 포트에 있는 서버에 연결하
     는 인스턴스를 만듭니다:

          >>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
          >>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
          >>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
          >>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'source_address'가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'strict' 매개 변수가 제거되었습니다.  HTTP 0.9 스
     타일 “간단한 응답”은 더는 지원되지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'blocksize' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: http.client.HTTPSConnection (host, port=None, *[, timeout],
          source_address=None, context=None, blocksize=8192)

     보안 서버와의 통신에 SSL을 사용하는 *note HTTPConnection: b3d.의 서
     브 클래스.  기본 포트는 ‘443’입니다.  'context'가 지정되면, 다양한
     SSL 옵션을 기술하는 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 인스턴스여야 합니다.

     모범 사례에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.을 참조하
     십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'source_address', 'context' 및 'check_hostname'이
     추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 이 클래스는 이제 가능하면 (즉, *note
     ssl.HAS_SNI: 34a3.가 참이면) HTTPS 가상 호스트를 지원합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'strict' 매개 변수가 제거되었습니다.  HTTP 0.9 스
     타일 “간단한 응답”은 더는 지원되지 않습니다.

     버전 3.4.3에서 변경: 이 클래스는 이제 기본적으로 필요한 모든 인증서
     와 호스트 이름 검사를 수행합니다.  이전의 검사하지 않는 동작으로 되
     돌리려면 ‘ssl._create_unverified_context()’를 'context' 매개 변수로
     전달할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 클래스는 이제 기본 'context'나 'cert_file'이
     사용자 정의 'context'와 함께 전달될 때 TLS 1.3 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a2d.를 활성화합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This class now sends an ALPN extension with
     protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given.  Custom
     'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): e5c.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 폐지된 'key_file', 'cert_file' 및
     'check_hostname' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

 -- 클래스: http.client.HTTPResponse (sock, debuglevel=0, method=None,
          url=None)

     성공적으로 연결되면 반환되는 인스턴스의 클래스.  사용자가 직접 인스
     턴스화 하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'strict' 매개 변수가 제거되었습니다.  HTTP 0.9 스
     타일 “간단한 응답”은 더는 지원되지 않습니다.

이 모듈은 다음 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: http.client.parse_headers (fp)

     HTTP 요청/응답을 나타내는 파일 포인터 'fp'에서 헤더를 구문 분석합니
     다.  파일은 *note BufferedIOBase: 68e. 판독기(reader)여야 하며 (즉
     텍스트가 아닙니다) 유효한 RFC 2822(3) 스타일 헤더를 제공해야 합니다
     .

     이 함수는 헤더 필드를 담은 *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a74. 인
     스턴스를 반환하지만, 페이 로드는 반환하지 않습니다 (*note
     HTTPResponse.msg: 3a75.와 *note
     http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers: 3a76.와 같습니다).  반
     환 후, 파일 포인터 'fp'는 HTTP 바디를 읽을 준비가 되었습니다.

          참고: *note parse_headers(): 1a50.는 HTTP 메시지의 시작 줄을 구
          문 분석하지 않습니다; ‘Name: value’ 줄만 구문 분석합니다.  파
          일은 이러한 필드 줄을 읽을 준비가 되어 있어야 해서, 함수를 호
          출하기 전에 첫 번째 줄이 이미 소비되었어야 합니다.

다음과 같은 예외가 적절하게 발생합니다:

 -- 예외: http.client.HTTPException

     이 모듈에 있는 다른 예외의 베이스 클래스입니다.  *note Exception:
     9d6.의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 예외: http.client.NotConnected

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.InvalidURL

     포트가 제공되고 숫자가 아니거나 비어있을 때 발생하는 *note
     HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.UnknownProtocol

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.UnimplementedFileMode

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.IncompleteRead

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.ImproperConnectionState

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.CannotSendRequest

     *note ImproperConnectionState: 3a7e.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.CannotSendHeader

     *note ImproperConnectionState: 3a7e.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.ResponseNotReady

     *note ImproperConnectionState: 3a7e.의 서브 클래스.

 -- 예외: http.client.BadStatusLine

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.  이해하지 못하는 HTTP 상
     태 코드로 서버가 응답하면 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: http.client.LineTooLong

     *note HTTPException: 3a77.의 서브 클래스.  서버에서 HTTP 프로토콜로
     너무 긴 줄이 수신되면 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: http.client.RemoteDisconnected

     *note ConnectionResetError: 1055.와 *note BadStatusLine: 3a82.의 서
     브 클래스.  *note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): e04.가 응답을 읽으
     려고 시도할 때 연결에서 아무런 데이터를 읽지 못하여, 원격 끝이 연결
     을 닫았음을 표시하면 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.5: 이전에는, *note BadStatusLine: 3a82.‘('')’가
     발생했습니다.

이 모듈에 정의된 상수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: http.client.HTTP_PORT

     HTTP 프로토콜의 기본 포트 (항상 ‘80’).

 -- 데이터: http.client.HTTPS_PORT

     HTTPS 프로토콜의 기본 포트 (항상 ‘443’).

 -- 데이터: http.client.responses

     이 딕셔너리는 HTTP 1.1 상태 코드를 W3C 이름으로 매핑합니다.

     예: ‘http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]’는 ‘'Not Found'’입
     니다.

이 모듈에서 상수로 사용 가능한 HTTP 상태 코드 목록은 *note HTTP 상태
코드: 3a6c.를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* HTTPConnection 객체::
* HTTPResponse 객체::
* 예: 예<12>.
* HTTPMessage 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/client.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/latest/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPConnection 객체,  Next: HTTPResponse 객체,  Up: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.10.1 HTTPConnection 객체
.............................

*note HTTPConnection: b3d. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.request (method, url, body=None, headers={},
          *, encode_chunked=False)

     HTTP 요청 메서드 'method'와 요청 URI 'url'을 사용하여 서버로 요청을
     보냅니다.  제공된 'url'은 (HTTP 프록시 서버에 연결하거나 ‘OPTIONS’나
     ‘CONNECT’ 메서드를 사용하지 않는 한) RFC 2616 §5.1.2(1)를 준수하는
     절대 경로여야 합니다.

     'body'가 지정되면, 헤더가 완료된 후 지정된 데이터가 전송됩니다.
     *note str: 445, *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a, 열린 *note 파일 객체:
     11b2. 또는 *note bytes: 1c2.의 이터러블일 수 있습니다.  'body'가 문
     자열이면, HTTP의 기본값인 ISO-8859-1로 인코딩됩니다.  바이트열류 객
     체이면, 바이트열은 그대로 전송됩니다.  *note 파일 객체: 11b2.이면,
     파일의 내용이 전송됩니다; 이 파일 객체는 최소한 ‘read()’ 메서드를 지
     원해야 합니다.  파일 객체가 *note io.TextIOBase: 68f.의 인스턴스이
     면, ‘read()’ 메서드에서 반환된 데이터는 ISO-8859-1로 인코딩되고, 그
     렇지 않으면 ‘read()’에서 반환된 데이터가 그대로 전송됩니다.  'body'가
     이터러블이면, 이터러블이 소진될 때까지 이터러블의 요소가 그대로 전
     송됩니다.

     'headers' 인자는 요청과 함께 보낼 추가 HTTP 헤더의 매핑이어야 합니
     다.  (HTTP 프록시 서버에 연결하거나 ‘OPTIONS’나 ‘CONNECT’ 메서드를
     사용하지 않는 한) Host 헤더(2)는 RFC 2616 §5.1.2(3)를 준수하도록 제
     공되어야 합니다.

     'headers'에 Content-Length도 Transfer-Encoding도 없지만, 요청 바디
     가 있으면, 이 헤더 필드 중 하나가 자동으로 추가됩니다.  'body'가
     ‘None’이면, 바디를 기대하는 메서드(‘PUT’, ‘POST’ 및 ‘PATCH’)의 경우
     Content-Length 헤더가 ‘0’으로 설정됩니다.  'body'가 문자열이거나
     *note 파일: 11b2.이 아닌 바이트열류 객체이면, Content-Length 헤더가
     그것의 길이로 설정됩니다.  다른 모든 형의 'body'(파일과 이터러블 일
     반)는 청크 인코딩되며 Content-Length 대신 Transfer-Encoding 헤더가
     자동으로 설정됩니다.

     'encode_chunked' 인자는 Transfer-Encoding이 'headers'에 지정된 경우
     에만 유효합니다.  'encode_chunked'가 ‘False’이면, HTTPConnection 객
     체는 모든 인코딩이 호출하는 코드에서 처리된다고 가정합니다.  ‘True’이
     면, 바디가 청크 인코딩됩니다.

     For example, to perform a ‘GET’ request to
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> host = "docs.python.org"
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection(host)
          >>> conn.request("GET", "/3/", headers={"Host": host})
          >>> response = conn.getresponse()
          >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
          200 OK

          참고: 청크 전송 인코딩은 HTTP 프로토콜 버전 1.1에 추가되었습니
          다.  HTTP 서버가 HTTP 1.1을 처리하는 것으로 알려지지 않은 한,
          호출자는 Content-Length를 지정하거나, 바디 표현으로 *note str:
          445.이나 파일이 아닌 바이트열류 객체를 전달해야 합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'body'는 이제 이터러블일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: Content-Length도 Transfer-Encoding도 'headers'에
     설정되지 않으면, 파일과 이터러블 'body' 객체는 이제 청크 인코딩됩니
     다.  'encode_chunked' 인자가 추가되었습니다.  파일 객체의
     Content-Length를 결정하려는 시도는 없습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.getresponse ()

     요청을 보낸 후에 서버에서 응답을 받기 위해 호출해야 합니다.  *note
     HTTPResponse: 10c1. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

          참고: 서버에 새 요청을 보내기 전에 전체 응답을 읽어야 함에 유
          의하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note ConnectionError: e06.나 서브 클래스가 발생
     하면, 새 요청이 전송될 때 *note HTTPConnection: b3d. 객체는 다시 연
     결할 준비가 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel (level)

     디버깅 수준을 설정합니다.  기본 디버그 수준은 ‘0’이며, 디버깅 출력
     이 인쇄되지 않음을 의미합니다.  ‘0’보다 큰 값을 지정하면 현재 정의
     된 모든 디버그 출력이 표준 출력으로 인쇄됩니다.  ‘debuglevel’은 만
     들어지는 모든 새로운 *note HTTPResponse: 10c1. 객체로 전달됩니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.set_tunnel (host, port=None, headers=None)

     HTTP Connect 터널링(tunnelling)을 위한 host와 및 port를 설정합니다.
     프락시 서버를 통해 연결을 실행할 수 있도록 합니다.

     'host'와 'port' 인자는 터널링 된 연결의 말단(즉 CONNECT 요청에 포함
     되는 주소, 프락시 서버의 주소가 '아닙니다')을 지정합니다.

     'headers' 인자는 CONNECT 요청과 함께 보낼 추가 HTTP 헤더의 매핑이어
     야 합니다.

     As HTTP/1.1 is used for HTTP CONNECT tunnelling request, as per the
     RFC(4), a HTTP ‘Host:’ header must be provided, matching the
     authority-form of the request target provided as the destination
     for the CONNECT request.  If a HTTP ‘Host:’ header is not provided
     via the headers argument, one is generated and transmitted
     automatically.

     예를 들어, 포트 8080에서 로컬로 실행되는 HTTPS 프락시 서버를 통해 터
     널링 하려면, 프락시 주소를 *note HTTPSConnection: b3e. 생성자에 전
     달하고, 최종적으로 *note set_tunnel(): 1218. 메서드에 도달하려는 호
     스트 주소를 전달합니다:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
          >>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
          >>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: HTTP CONNECT tunnelling requests use protocol
     HTTP/1.1, upgraded from protocol HTTP/1.0.  ‘Host:’ HTTP headers
     are mandatory for HTTP/1.1, so one will be automatically generated
     and transmitted if not provided in the headers argument.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers ()

     Returns a dictionary with the headers of the response received from
     the proxy server to the CONNECT request.

     If the CONNECT request was not sent, the method returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.connect ()

     객체가 만들어질 때 지정된 서버에 연결합니다.  기본적으로, 클라이언
     트가 이미 연결되지 않았다면 요청 시 자동으로 호출됩니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘http.client.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.close ()

     서버로의 연결을 닫습니다.

 -- 속성: HTTPConnection.blocksize

     파일류 메시지 바디를 보내기 위한 바이트 단위의 버퍼 크기.

     Added in version 3.7.

위에서 설명한 *note request(): ca6. 메서드를 사용하는 대신, 아래 네 가지
함수를 사용하여 단계별로 요청을 보낼 수도 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.putrequest (method, url, skip_host=False,
          skip_accept_encoding=False)

     서버에 연결한 후 첫 번째 호출이어야 합니다.  'method' 문자열, 'url'
     문자열 및 HTTP 버전(‘HTTP/1.1’)으로 구성된 줄을 서버로 보냅니다.
     ‘Host:’나 ‘Accept-Encoding:’ 헤더의 자동 전송을 비활성화하려면 (예
     를 들어 추가 콘텐츠 인코딩을 허용하려면), False가 아닌 값으로
     'skip_host'나 'skip_accept_encoding'을 지정하십시오.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.putheader (header, argument[, ...])

     RFC 822(5) 스타일 헤더를 서버에 보냅니다.  header, 콜론과 공백 및 첫
     번째 인자로 구성된 줄을 서버로 보냅니다.  더 많은 인자가 제공되면,
     탭과 인자로 구성된 연속 줄(continuation lines)이 전송됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.endheaders (message_body=None, *,
          encode_chunked=False)

     헤더의 끝을 알리는 빈 줄을 서버에 보냅니다.  선택적 'message_body'
     인자를 사용하여 요청과 연관된 메시지 바디를 전달할 수 있습니다.

     'encode_chunked'가 ‘True’이면, 'message_body'의 각 이터레이션 결과
     는 RFC 7230(6), 섹션 3.3.1에 지정된 대로 청크 인코딩됩니다.  데이터
     의 인코딩 방식은 'message_body'의 형에 따라 다릅니다.
     'message_body'가 *note 버퍼 인터페이스: 391.를 구현하면, 인코딩은 단
     일 청크를 만듭니다.  'message_body'가 *note
     collections.abc.Iterable: 2255.이면, 'message_body'의 각 이터레이션
     이 청크가 됩니다.  'message_body'가 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.이면, 각
     ‘.read()’ 호출마다 청크가 됩니다.  이 메서드는 'message_body' 직후
     에 청크 인코딩된 데이터의 끝을 자동으로 알립니다.

          참고: 청크 인코딩 명세로 인해, 이터레이터 바디에서 산출된 빈 청
          크는 청크 인코더에서 무시됩니다.  이는 형식이 잘못된 인코딩으
          로 인해 대상 서버의 요청 읽기가 조기에 종료되지 않도록 하려는
          것입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 청크 인코딩 지원과 'encode_chunked' 매개 변수가
     추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPConnection.send (data)

     서버로 data를 보냅니다.  이것은 *note endheaders(): ca7. 메서드가 호
     출된 후, 그리고 *note getresponse(): e04.가 호출되기 전에만 직접 사
     용해야 합니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘http.client.send’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘data’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-14.23

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231#section-4.3.6

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPResponse 객체,  Next: 예<12>,  Prev: HTTPConnection 객체,  Up: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.10.2 HTTPResponse 객체
...........................

*note HTTPResponse: 10c1. 인스턴스는 서버의 HTTP 응답을 감쌉니다.  요청
헤더와 엔티티 바디에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  응답은 이터러블 객체이며
with 문에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 인터페이스가 이제 구현
되었으며 이것의 모든 판독기(reader) 연산이 지원됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.read ([amt])

     응답 바디나 다음 최대 'amt' 바이트를 읽고 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.readinto (b)

     응답 바디의 다음 최대 len(b) 바이트를 버퍼 'b'로 읽습니다.  읽은 바
     이트 수를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.getheader (name, default=None)

     헤더 'name'의 값을 반환하거나, 'name'과 일치하는 헤더가 없으면
     'default'를 반환합니다.  이름이 'name'인 헤더가 둘 이상 있으면,
     ‘,’로 연결한 모든 값을 반환합니다.  'default'가 단일 문자열 이외의
     이터러블이면, 해당 요소들도 마찬가지로 쉼표로 연결되어 반환됩니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.getheaders ()

     (헤더, 값) 튜플의 리스트를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.fileno ()

     하부 소켓의 ‘fileno’를 반환합니다.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.msg

     응답 헤더를 포함하는 *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a74. 인스턴스.
     *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a74.는 *note email.message.Message:
     27c.의 서브 클래스입니다.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.version

     서버가 사용하는 HTTP 프로토콜 버전.  HTTP/1.0의 경우 10, HTTP/1.1의
     경우 11.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.url

     가져온 자원의 URL, 일반적으로 리디렉션을 따라갔는지 판별하는 데 사
     용됩니다.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.headers

     *note email.message.EmailMessage: 27b. 인스턴스 형식의 응답 헤더.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.status

     서버가 반환한 상태 코드.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.reason

     서버가 반환한 이유 문구.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.debuglevel

     디버깅 훅.  *note debuglevel: 3a99.이 0보다 크면, 응답을 읽고 구문
     분석할 때 메시지가 표준 출력으로 인쇄됩니다.

 -- 속성: HTTPResponse.closed

     스트림이 닫혔으면 ‘True’입니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.geturl ()

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note url: 3a96.로 대체되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.info ()

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note headers: 3a97.로 대체되었습니
     다.

 -- 메서드: HTTPResponse.getcode ()

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: 폐지되었고 *note status: 3a98.로 대체되었습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<12>,  Next: HTTPMessage 객체,  Prev: HTTPResponse 객체,  Up: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.10.3 예
............

‘GET’ 메서드를 사용하는 예제 세션은 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data1 = r1.read()  # 전체 내용을 반환합니다.
     >>> # 다음 예제는 청크로 데이터를 읽는 방법을 보여줍니다.
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> while chunk := r1.read(200):
     ...     print(repr(chunk))
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
     ...
     >>> # 유효하지 않은 요청의 예
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
     >>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
     404 Not Found
     >>> data2 = r2.read()
     >>> conn.close()

다음은 ‘HEAD’ 메서드를 사용하는 예제 세션입니다.  ‘HEAD’ 메서드는 어떤 데
이터도 반환하지 않음에 유의하십시오.

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
     >>> res = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(res.status, res.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data = res.read()
     >>> print(len(data))
     0
     >>> data == b''
     True

‘POST’ 메서드를 사용하는 예제 세션은 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> import http.client, urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
     >>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
     ...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     302 Found
     >>> data = response.read()
     >>> data
     b'Redirecting to <a href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12524">https://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
     >>> conn.close()

클라이언트 측 HTTP ‘PUT’ 요청은 ‘POST’ 요청과 매우 유사합니다.  차이점은
HTTP 서버가 ‘PUT’ 요청을 통해 리소스를 만들도록 허락하는 서버 측에만 있
습니다.  사용자 정의 HTTP 메서드는 적절한 method 어트리뷰트를 설정함으로
써 *note urllib.request.Request: fd0.에서도 처리된다는 점에 주목해야 합
니다.  다음은 ‘PUT’ 메서드를 사용하는 예제 세션입니다:

     >>> # http://localhost:8080/file 리소스의 동봉된 표현으로
     >>> # BODY의 내용이 포함된
     >>> # HTTP 메시지를 만듭니다
     ...
     >>> import http.client
     >>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
     >>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     200, OK


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPMessage 객체,  Prev: 예<12>,  Up: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.10.4 HTTPMessage 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: http.client.HTTPMessage (email.message.Message)

*note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a74. 인스턴스는 HTTP 응답의 헤더를 보유
합니다.  *note email.message.Message: 27c. 클래스를 사용하여 구현됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Next: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Prev: http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.11 ‘ftplib’ — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/ftplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 *note FTP: 8f7. 클래스와 몇 가지 관련 항목을 정의합니다.
*note FTP: 8f7. 클래스는 FTP 프로토콜의 클라이언트 쪽을 구현합니다.  이
것을 사용하여 다른 FTP 서버 미러링과 같은 다양한 자동화된 FTP 작업을 수
행하는 파이썬 프로그램을 작성할 수 있습니다.  또한 *note urllib.request:
10b. 모듈에서 FTP를 사용하는 URL을 처리하는 데 사용됩니다.  FTP(File
Transfer Protocol)에 대한 자세한 내용은 인터넷 RFC 959(2)를 참조하십시오
.

RFC 2640(3)에 따라, 기본 인코딩은 UTF-8입니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

*note ftplib: 5e. 모듈을 사용한 샘플 세션은 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> ftp = FTP('ftp.us.debian.org')  # 기본 포트로 호스트에 연결합니다
     >>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
     '230 Login successful.'
     >>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # "debian" 디렉터리로 변경합니다
     '250 Directory successfully changed.'
     >>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # 디렉터리 내용의 목록을 얻습니다
     -rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
     ...
     drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
     drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
     drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
     '226 Directory send OK.'
     >>> with open('README', 'wb') as fp:
     >>>     ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', fp.write)
     '226 Transfer complete.'
     >>> ftp.quit()
     '221 Goodbye.'

* Menu:

* 레퍼런스: 레퍼런스<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ftplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: 레퍼런스<4>,  Up: ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.11.1 레퍼런스
..................

* Menu:

* FTP 객체::
* FTP_TLS 객체::
* 모듈 변수::


File: python.info,  Node: FTP 객체,  Next: FTP_TLS 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<4>

5.22.11.2 FTP 객체
..................

 -- 클래스: ftplib.FTP (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='',
          timeout=None, source_address=None, *, encoding='utf-8')

     *note FTP: 8f7. 클래스의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 445.) – 연결할 호스트명.  주어지면, 생성자
          가 ‘connect(host)’를 묵시적으로 호출합니다.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 445.) – The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  주어지면, 생성자가 ‘login(host,
          passwd, acct)’를 묵시적으로 호출합니다.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 445.) – The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 445.) – Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(1) for more details.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ef.‘ | ’‘None’) – *note connect():
          3aa7.와 같은 블로킹 연산에 대한 시간제한을 초로 지정 (기본값:
          전역 기본 시간제한 설정).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 369.‘ | ’‘None’) – A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 445.) – The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     *note FTP: 8f7. 클래스는 *note with: 5cc. 문을 지원합니다, 예를 들
     어:

          >>> from ftplib import FTP
          >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
          ...     ftp.login()
          ...     ftp.dir()
          ...
          '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
          dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
          dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
          >>>

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'source_address' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹
     소켓이 만들어지지 않도록 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.
     'encoding' 매개 변수가 추가되었으며, 기본값은 Latin-1 에서 UTF-8로
     변경되어 RFC 2640(2)을 따릅니다.

     여러 ‘FTP’ 메서드가 두 가지 스타일로 제공됩니다: 텍스트 파일을 처리
     하는 것과 바이너리 파일을 위한 것.  명령 뒤에 텍스트 버전의 경우
     ‘lines’, 바이너리 버전의 경우 ‘binary’를 붙여서 이 메서드들의 이름
     을 지정했습니다.

     *note FTP: 8f7. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: set_debuglevel (level)

          인스턴스의 디버깅 수준을 *note int: 257.로 설정합니다.  인쇄되
          는 디버깅 출력의 양을 제어합니다.  디버깅 수준은 다음과 같습니
          다:

             * ‘0’ (기본값): 디버깅 출력을 생성하지 않습니다.

             * ‘1’: 적당한 양의 디버깅 출력, 일반적으로 요청당 한 줄을 생
               성합니다.

             * ‘2’ 이상: 제어 연결에서 보내고 받는 각 줄을 로깅하여 최대
               량의 디버깅 출력을 생성합니다.

      -- 메서드: connect (host='', port=0, timeout=None,
               source_address=None)

          주어진 host와 port에 연결합니다.  이 함수는 각 인스턴스에 대해
          한 번만 호출해야 합니다; *note FTP: 8f7. 인스턴스를 만들 때
          'host' 인자가 제공되었으면, 호출되지 않아야 합니다.  다른 모든
          ‘FTP’ 메서드는 연결이 성공적으로 이루어진 후에만 호출할 수 있
          습니다.


          매개변수:

             * ‘host’ (*note str: 445.) – 연결할 호스트.

             * ‘port’ (*note int: 257.) – 연결할 TCP 포트 (기본값: ‘21’,
               FTP 프로토콜 명세에 지정된 대로).  다른 포트 번호를 지정
               할 필요는 거의 없습니다.

             * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ef.‘ | ’‘None’) – 연결 시도에 대
               한 시간제한 (기본값: 전역 기본 시간제한 설정).

             * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 369.‘ | ’‘None’) – A
               2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its
               source address before connecting.

          인자 ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
          ‘ftplib.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 'source_address' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
          .

      -- 메서드: getwelcome ()

          초기 연결에 대한 응답으로 서버에서 보낸 환영 메시지를 반환합니
          다.  (이 메시지에는 때때로 사용자와 관련될 수 있는 고지 사항이
          나 도움말 정보가 포함되어 있습니다.)

      -- 메서드: login (user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')

          연결된 FTP 서버로 로그인합니다.  이 함수는 연결이 설정된 후 각
          인스턴스에 마다 한 번만 호출해야 합니다; *note FTP: 8f7. 인스
          턴스가 만들어질 때 'host'와 'user' 인자가 제공되었으면 호출되
          지 않아야 합니다.  대부분의 FTP 명령은 클라이언트가 로그인한 후
          에만 허용됩니다.


          매개변수:

             * ‘user’ (*note str: 445.) – The username to log in with
               (default: ‘'anonymous'’).

             * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 445.) – The password to use when
               logging in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty
               string or ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically
               generated.

             * ‘acct’ (*note str: 445.) – Account information to be used
               for the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.
               See RFC-959(3) for more details.

      -- 메서드: abort ()

          진행 중인 파일 전송을 중단합니다.  이것을 사용하는 것이 항상 동
          작하지는 않지만, 시도해 볼 가치가 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: sendcmd (cmd)

          간단한 명령 문자열을 서버로 보내고 응답 문자열을 반환합니다.

          인자 ‘self’, ‘cmd’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
          ‘ftplib.sendcmd’를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: voidcmd (cmd)

          간단한 명령 문자열을 서버로 보내고 응답을 처리합니다.  응답 코
          드가 성공(200–299 범위의 코드)에 해당하면 응답 문자열을 반환합
          니다.  그렇지 않으면 *note error_reply: 3aae.를 발생시킵니다.

          인자 ‘self’, ‘cmd’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
          ‘ftplib.sendcmd’를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: retrbinary (cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)

          바이너리 전송 모드로 파일을 가져옵니다.


          매개변수:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 445.) – 적절한 ‘RETR’ 명령: ‘"RETR
               FILENAME"’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 2900.) – 수신된 각 데이터 블
               록에 대해 호출되는 단일 매개 변수 콜러블로, 단일 인자는
               *note bytes: 1c2. 형의 데이터입니다.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 257.) – 실제 전송을 수행하기 위해
               만들어진 저수준 *note socket: d9d. 객체에서 읽을 최대 청
               크 크기.  'callback'에 전달되는 데이터의 최대 크기에 해당
               하기도 합니다.  기본값은 ‘8192’.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 257.) – 서버로 전송할 ‘REST’ 명령.
               *note transfercmd(): 3ab0. 메서드의 'rest' 매개 변수에 대
               한 설명서를 참조하세요.

      -- 메서드: retrlines (cmd, callback=None)

          초기화 때 'encoding' 매개 변수로 지정된 인코딩으로 파일이나 디
          렉터리 목록을 가져옵니다.  'cmd'는 적절한 ‘RETR’ 명령(*note
          retrbinary(): 3aaf.를 참조하십시오)이거나 ‘LIST’나 ‘NLST’와 같
          은 명령(보통 단지 문자열 ‘'LIST'’)이어야 합니다.  ‘LIST’는 파
          일 목록과 해당 파일에 대한 정보를 가져옵니다.  ‘NLST’는 파일 이
          름 목록을 가져옵니다.  'callback' 함수는 각 줄에 대해 호출되며
          , 후행 CRLF가 제거된 줄을 포함하는 문자열을 인자로 제공합니다.
          기본 'callback'은 줄을 *note sys.stdout: ad3.으로 인쇄합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_pasv (val)

          'val'이 참이면 “수동(passive)” 모드를 활성화하고, 그렇지 않으
          면 수동 모드를 비활성화합니다.  수동 모드는 기본적으로 켜져 있
          습니다.

      -- 메서드: storbinary (cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None,
               rest=None)

          바이너리 전송 모드로 파일을 저장합니다.


          매개변수:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 445.) – 적절한 ‘STOR’ 명령: ‘"STOR
               FILENAME"’.

             * ‘fp’ (*note file object: 11b2.) – (바이너리 모드로 열린)
               파일 객체이며 저장될 데이터를 제공하기 위해 'blocksize' 크
               기의 블록으로 ‘read()’ 메서드를 사용하여 EOF까지 읽힙니다
               .

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 257.) – 읽기 블록 크기.  기본값은
               ‘8192’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 2900.) – 전송된 각 데이터 블
               록에 대해 호출되는 단일 매개 변수 콜러블로, 단일 인자는
               *note bytes: 1c2. 형의 데이터입니다.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 257.) – 서버로 전송할 ‘REST’ 명령.
               *note transfercmd(): 3ab0. 메서드의 'rest' 매개 변수에 대
               한 설명서를 참조하세요.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 'rest' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: storlines (cmd, fp, callback=None)

          줄 모드로 파일을 저장합니다.  'cmd'는 적절한 ‘STOR’ 명령이어야
          합니다 (*note storbinary(): 12fa.를 참조하십시오).  저장될 데
          이터를 제공하기 위해 *note readline(): 1319. 메서드를 사용하여
          (바이너리 모드로 열린) *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'fp'에서 EOF까지
          줄을 읽어 들입니다.  'callback'은 줄마다 보내진 다음에 호출되
          는 선택적 단일 매개 변수 콜러블입니다.

      -- 메서드: transfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          데이터 연결을 통해 전송을 시작합니다.  전송이 활성화되면,
          ‘EPRT’나 ‘PORT’ 명령과 'cmd'로 지정한 전송 명령을 보내고 연결
          을 받아들입니다.  서버가 수동(passive)이면, ‘EPSV’나 ‘PASV’ 명
          령을 전송하고, 서버에 연결한 다음 전송 명령을 시작합니다.  어
          느 쪽이든, 연결 소켓을 반환합니다.

          선택적 'rest'가 제공되면, ‘REST’ 명령이 서버로 전송되고
          'rest'를 인자로 전달합니다.  'rest'는 일반적으로 요청된 파일에
          대한 바이트 오프셋으로, 요청된 오프셋에서 파일 바이트 전송을 다
          시 시작하고 초기 바이트를 건너뛰도록 서버에 지시합니다.  그러
          나 *note transfercmd(): 3ab0. 메서드는 초기화 때 지정된
          'encoding' 매개 변수를 사용하여 'rest'를 문자열로 변환하지만,
          문자열의 내용은 점검하지 않음에 유의하십시오.  서버가 ‘REST’ 명
          령을 인식하지 못하면, *note error_reply: 3aae. 예외가 발생합니
          다.  이 경우, 단순히 'rest' 인자 없이 *note transfercmd():
          3ab0.를 호출하십시오.

      -- 메서드: ntransfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          *note transfercmd(): 3ab0.와 비슷하지만, 데이터 연결과 데이터
          의 예상 크기의 튜플을 반환합니다.  예상 크기를 계산할 수 없으
          면, ‘None’이 예상 크기로 반환됩니다.  'cmd'와 'rest'는 *note
          transfercmd(): 3ab0.에서와 같은 의미입니다.

      -- 메서드: mlsd (path='', facts=[])

          ‘MLSD’ 명령( RFC 3659(4))을 사용하여 표준화된 형식으로 디렉터
          리를 나열합니다.  'path'가 생략되면 현재 디렉터리를 가정합니다
          .  'facts'는 원하는 정보 유형을 나타내는 문자열의 리스트입니다
          (예를 들어 ‘["type", "size", "perm"]’).  경로에서 발견된 모든
          파일에 대해 두 요소의 튜플을 산출하는 제너레이터 객체를 반환합
          니다.  첫 번째 요소는 파일 이름이고, 두 번째 요소는 파일 이름
          에 대한 사실(facts)을 포함하는 딕셔너리입니다.  이 딕셔너리의
          내용은 'facts' 인자에 의해 제한될 수 있지만, 서버가 요청된 모
          든 사실을 반환한다고 보장하지는 않습니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: nlst (argument[, ...])

          ‘NLST’ 명령이 반환한 파일 이름 리스트를 반환합니다.  선택적
          'argument'는 나열할 디렉터리입니다 (기본값은 현재 서버 디렉터
          리입니다).  비표준 옵션을 ‘NLST’ 명령에 전달하기 위해 여러 인
          자를 사용할 수 있습니다.

               참고: 서버가 명령을 지원한다면, *note mlsd(): 10b5.가 더
               나은 API를 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: dir (argument[, ...])

          ‘LIST’ 명령이 반환한 디렉터리 목록을 생성하여 표준 출력으로 인
          쇄합니다.  선택적 'argument'는 나열할 디렉터리입니다 (기본값은
          현재 서버 디렉터리입니다).  비표준 옵션을 ‘LIST’ 명령에 전달하
          기 위해 여러 인자를 사용할 수 있습니다.  마지막 인자가 함수면,
          *note retrlines(): 3ab1.와 같이 'callback' 함수로 사용됩니다;
          기본값은 *note sys.stdout: ad3.으로 인쇄합니다.  이 메서드는
          ‘None’을 반환합니다.

               참고: 서버가 명령을 지원한다면, *note mlsd(): 10b5.가 더
               나은 API를 제공합니다.

      -- 메서드: rename (fromname, toname)

          서버의 파일 'fromname'을 'toname'으로 이름을 바꿉니다.

      -- 메서드: delete (filename)

          서버에서 'filename'이라는 파일을 제거합니다.  성공하면, 응답 텍
          스트를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 권한 에러면 *note error_perm:
          3ab7.을, 다른 에러면 *note error_reply: 3aae.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: cwd (pathname)

          서버에서 현재 디렉터리를 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: mkd (pathname)

          서버에서 새 디렉터리를 만듭니다.

      -- 메서드: pwd ()

          서버에서 현재 디렉터리의 경로명을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: rmd (dirname)

          서버에서 'dirname'이라는 디렉터리를 제거합니다.

      -- 메서드: size (filename)

          서버에서 'filename'이라는 파일의 크기를 요청합니다.  성공하면,
          파일 크기가 정수로 반환되고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’이 반환됩니다
          .  ‘SIZE’ 명령은 표준화되어 있지 않지만, 많은 일반적인 서버 구
          현에서 지원됨에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: quit ()

          ‘QUIT’ 명령을 서버로 보내고 연결을 닫습니다.  이는 연결을 닫는
          “정중한” 방법이지만, 서버가 ‘QUIT’ 명령에 대해 에러로 응답하면
          예외가 발생할 수 있습니다.  이것은 묵시적인 *note close():
          3abe. 메서드 호출을 수반하며, 이는 후속 호출에 *note FTP: 8f7.
          인스턴스를 쓸모없게 만듭니다 (아래를 참조하십시오).

      -- 메서드: close ()

          일방적으로 연결을 닫습니다.  이것은 이미 닫힌 연결에는 적용되
          지 않아야 합니다, 가령 *note quit(): 3abd.를 성공적으로 호출한
          후에.  이 호출 후 *note FTP: 8f7. 인스턴스를 더는 사용하지 않
          아야 합니다 (*note close(): 3abe.나 *note quit(): 3abd. 호출 후
          다른 *note login(): 3aaa. 메서드를 사용해서 연결을 다시 열 수
          없습니다).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3659.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTP_TLS 객체,  Next: 모듈 변수,  Prev: FTP 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<4>

5.22.11.3 FTP_TLS 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: ftplib.FTP_TLS (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', *,
          context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None,
          encoding='utf-8')

     RFC 4217(1)에 설명된 대로 FTP에 TLS 지원을 추가하는 *note FTP: 8f7.
     서브 클래스.  인증하기 전에 FTP 제어 연결을 묵시적으로 보안을 유지
     하면서 포트 21에 연결합니다.

          참고: 사용자는 *note prot_p(): 3ac0. 메서드를 호출하여 데이터
          연결을 명시적으로 보호해야 합니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 445.) – 연결할 호스트명.  주어지면, 생성자
          가 ‘connect(host)’를 묵시적으로 호출합니다.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 445.) – The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  주어지면, 생성자가 ‘login(host,
          passwd, acct)’를 묵시적으로 호출합니다.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 445.) – The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 445.) – Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(2) for more details.

        * ‘context’ (*note ssl.SSLContext: 294.) – SSL 구성 옵션, 인증서
          및 개인 키를 잠재적으로 오래 유지되는 단일 구조로 묶을 수 있는
          SSL 컨텍스트 객체.  모범 사례를 보려면 *note 보안 고려 사항:
          336d.을 읽으십시오.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 2ef.‘ | ’‘None’) – *note connect():
          3aa7.와 같은 블로킹 연산에 대한 시간제한을 초로 지정 (기본값:
          전역 기본 시간제한 설정)

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 369.‘ | ’‘None’) – A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 445.) – The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'source_address' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 클래스는 이제 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.과 '서버 이름 표시(Server Name
     Indication)'(*note ssl.HAS_SNI: 34a3.를 참조하십시오)으로 호스트명
     확인을 지원합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹
     소켓이 만들어지지 않도록 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.
     'encoding' 매개 변수가 추가되었으며, 기본값은 Latin-1 에서 UTF-8로
     변경되어 RFC 2640(3)을 따릅니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 폐지된 'keyfile'와 'certfile' 매개 변수를 제거
     했습니다.

     *note FTP_TLS: 8f8. 클래스를 사용한 샘플 세션은 다음과 같습니다:

          >>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
          >>> ftps.login()
          '230 Anonymous user logged in'
          >>> ftps.prot_p()
          '200 Data protection level set to "private"'
          >>> ftps.nlst()
          ['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']

     ‘FTP_TLS’ 클래스는 *note FTP: 8f7.를 상속하여, 다음과 같은 추가 메
     서드와 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다:

      -- 속성: ssl_version

          사용할 SSL 버전 (기본값은 *note ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23: 3495.입니
          다).

      -- 메서드: auth ()

          *note ssl_version: 3ac1. 어트리뷰트에 지정된 내용에 따라, TLS나
          SSL을 사용하여 보안 제어 연결을 설정합니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 메서드는 이제 *note
          ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.과 '서버 이름 표시(Server
          Name Indication)'로 호스트명 확인을 지원합니다 (*note
          ssl.HAS_SNI: 34a3.를 참조하십시오).

      -- 메서드: ccc ()

          제어 채널을 일반 텍스트로 되돌립니다.  고정 포트를 열지 않고 비
          보안 FTP로 NAT을 다루는 방법을 알고 있는 방화벽을 활용하는 데
          유용할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: prot_p ()

          보안 데이터 연결을 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: prot_c ()

          일반 텍스트 데이터 연결을 설정합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4217.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 변수,  Prev: FTP_TLS 객체,  Up: 레퍼런스<4>

5.22.11.4 모듈 변수
...................

 -- 예외: ftplib.error_reply

     서버에서 예기치 않은 응답이 수신될 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: ftplib.error_temp

     일시적 에러(400–499 범위의 응답 코드)를 나타내는 에러 코드가 수신될
     때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: ftplib.error_perm

     영구 에러(500–599 범위의 응답 코드)를 나타내는 에러 코드가 수신될 때
     발생하는 예외.

 -- 예외: ftplib.error_proto

     서버로부터 FTP(File Transfer Protocol)의 응답 규격(즉, 1–5 범위의 숫
     자로 시작)에 맞지 않는 응답을 수신할 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 데이터: ftplib.all_errors

     *note FTP: 8f7. 인스턴스의 메서드가 (호출자로 인한 프로그래밍 에러
     가 아니라) FTP 연결 문제로 인해 발생시킬 수 있는 모든 예외의 집합
     (튜플).  이 집합에는 위에 나열된 네 가지 예외뿐만 아니라 *note
     OSError: 411.와 *note EOFError: 12c9.가 포함됩니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note netrc: 9b.

     ‘.netrc’ 파일 형식의 구문 분석기.  ‘.netrc’ 파일은 일반적으로 FTP 클
     라이언트가 사용자에게 프롬프트 하기 전에 사용자 인증 정보를 로드하
     는 데 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Next: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Prev: ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.12 ‘poplib’ — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트
-------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/poplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 POP3 서버에 대한 연결을 캡슐화하고 RFC 1939(2)에 정의된 대로 프
로토콜을 구현하는 클래스 *note POP3: 921.를 정의합니다.  *note POP3:
921. 클래스는 RFC 1939(3)의 최소(minimal)와 선택적인(optional) 명령 집합
을 모두 지원합니다.  *note POP3: 921. 클래스는 이미 맺어진 연결에서 암호
화된 통신을 활성화하기 위해 RFC 2595(4)에서 도입된 ‘STLS’ 명령도 지원합
니다.

또한, 이 모듈은 SSL을 하부 프로토콜 계층으로 사용하는 POP3 서버에 연결하
기 위한 지원을 제공하는 클래스 *note POP3_SSL: 922.을 제공합니다.

POP3는 광범위하게 지원되지만 노후화되었음에 유의하십시오.  POP3 서버의 구
현 품질은 매우 다양하며, 그중 너무 많은 것들이 형편없습니다.  여러분의 메
일 서버가 IMAP을 지원한다면, IMAP 서버가 더 잘 구현되는 경향이 있으므로
*note imaplib.IMAP4: 900. 클래스를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

*note poplib: ac. 모듈은 두 가지 클래스를 제공합니다:

 -- 클래스: poplib.POP3 (host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])

     이 클래스는 실제 POP3 프로토콜을 구현합니다.  인스턴스가 초기화될 때
     연결이 만들어집니다.  'port'를 생략하면, 표준 POP3 포트(110)가 사용
     됩니다.  선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결 시도의 제한 시간을 초로
     지정합니다 (지정하지 않으면, 전역 기본 제한 시간 설정이 사용됩니다
     ).

     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘poplib.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

     모든 명령은 ‘self’와 ‘line’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘poplib.putline’을 발생시킵니다.  여기서 ‘line’은 원
     격 호스트로 보낼 바이트열입니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹
     소켓이 만들어지지 않도록 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: poplib.POP3_SSL (host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, *, timeout=None,
          context=None)

     SSL 암호화된 소켓을 통해 서버에 연결하는 *note POP3: 921.의 서브 클
     래스입니다.  'port'가 지정되지 않으면, 표준 POP3-over-SSL 포트
     (995)가 사용됩니다.  'timeout'은 *note POP3: 921. 생성자에서처럼 동
     작합니다.  'context'는 선택적인 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 객체인데
     , SSL 구성 옵션, 인증서 및 개인 키를 단일 (잠재적으로 수명이 긴) 구
     조로 묶을 수 있도록 합니다.  모범 사례는 *note 보안 고려 사항:
     336d.을 읽으십시오.

     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event):
     18c1. ‘poplib.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

     모든 명령은 ‘self’와 ‘line’을 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing
     event): 18c1. ‘poplib.putline’을 발생시킵니다.  여기서 ‘line’은 원
     격 호스트로 보낼 바이트열입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'context' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 클래스는 이제 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.을 통한 호스트 이름 검사와 '서
     버 이름 표시(Server Name Indication)'를 지원합니다 (*note
     ssl.HAS_SNI: 34a3.를 참조하십시오).

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹
     소켓이 만들어지지 않도록 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 폐지된 'keyfile' 과 'certfile' 매개 변수는 제거
     되었습니다.

한가지 예외가 *note poplib: ac. 모듈의 어트리뷰트로 정의됩니다:

 -- 예외: poplib.error_proto

     이 모듈로부터 비롯된 모든 에러에서 발생하는 예외 (*note socket: cc.
     모듈에서 비롯된 에러는 잡지 않습니다).  예외의 이유는 문자열로 생성
     자에 전달됩니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note imaplib: 74.

     표준 파이썬 IMAP 모듈.

Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail(5)

     ‘fetchmail’ POP/IMAP 클라이언트에 대한 FAQ는 POP 프로토콜에 기반하
     는 응용 프로그램을 작성해야 할 때 유용할 수 있는 POP3 서버 다양성과
     RFC 위반에 대한 정보를 수집합니다.

* Menu:

* POP3 객체::
* POP3 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/poplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html

   (5) http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 객체,  Next: POP3 예제,  Up: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.12.1 POP3 객체
...................

모든 POP3 명령은 소문자로 바뀐 같은 이름의 메서드로 표현됩니다; 대부분 서
버에서 보낸 응답 텍스트를 반환합니다.

*note POP3: 921. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: POP3.set_debuglevel (level)

     인스턴스의 디버깅 수준을 설정합니다.  이것은 인쇄되는 디버깅 출력의
     양을 제어합니다.  기본값인 ‘0’은 디버깅 출력을 생성하지 않습니다.
     ‘1’ 값은 적절한 양의 디버깅 출력을 생성하는데, 일반적으로 요청당 한
     줄입니다.  ‘2’ 이상의 값은 제어 연결에서 보내고 받은 각 줄을 로깅 하
     여 최대량의 디버깅 출력을 생성합니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.getwelcome ()

     POP3 서버가 보낸 인사말 문자열을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.capa ()

     RFC 2449(1)에 지정된 대로 서버의 기능을 조회합니다.  ‘{'name':
     ['param'...]}’ 형식의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 메서드: POP3.user (username)

     user 명령을 보냅니다, 응답은 암호가 필요함을 가리켜야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.pass_ (password)

     암호를 보냅니다, 응답에는 메시지 수와 우편함 크기가 포함됩니다.  참
     고: *note quit(): 118b.가 호출될 때까지 서버의 우편함은 잠깁니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.apop (user, secret)

     POP3 서버에 로그인하기 위해 더 안전한 APOP 인증을 사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.rpop (user)

     POP3 서버에 로그인하기 위해 RPOP 인증(유닉스 r-명령과 유사합니다)을
     사용합니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.stat ()

     우편함 상태를 가져옵니다.  결과는 2개의 정수의 튜플입니다:
     ‘(message count, mailbox size)’.

 -- 메서드: POP3.list ([which])

     메시지 목록을 요청합니다, 결과는 ‘(response, ['mesg_num octets',
     ...], octets)’ 형식입니다.  'which'가 설정되면, 목록에 표시할 메시
     지입니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.retr (which)

     전체 메시지 번호 'which'를 가져오고 읽었음을 알리는 플래그를 설정합
     니다.  결과는 ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’ 형식입니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.dele (which)

     메시지 번호 'which'를 삭제로 표시합니다.  대부분 서버에서 삭제는 실
     제로 QUIT 때까지 수행되지 않습니다 (주된 예외는 Eudora QPOP인데, 모
     든 연결 단절 시 계류 중인 삭제를 수행하여 의도적으로 RFC를 위반합니
     다).

 -- 메서드: POP3.rset ()

     우편함에 대한 모든 삭제 표시를 제거합니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.noop ()

     아무것도 하지 않습니다.  연결 유지로 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.quit ()

     로그아웃: 변경 내용 커밋, 우편함 잠금 해제, 연결 끊기.

 -- 메서드: POP3.top (which, howmuch)

     메시지 번호 'which'의 메시지 헤더와 메시지의 'howmuch' 개 줄을 가져
     옵니다.  결과는 ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’ 형식입니다.

     이 메서드가 사용하는 POP3 TOP 명령은, RETR 명령과 달리, 메시지의 읽
     었음을 알리는 플래그를 설정하지 않습니다; 불행히도, TOP은 RFC에서 부
     실하게 기술되어 있고 종종 유명하지 않은 서버에서 망가져 있습니다.  사
     용할 POP3 서버를 신뢰하기 전에 이 메서드를 수동으로 테스트하십시오.

 -- 메서드: POP3.uidl (which=None)

     메시지 다이제스트 (고유 ID) 목록을 반환합니다.  'which'가 지정되면,
     결과에는 해당 메시지의 고유 ID가 ‘'response mesgnum uid’ 형식으로 포
     함됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 결과는 목록 ‘(response, ['mesgnum uid',
     ...], octets)’입니다.

 -- 메서드: POP3.utf8 ()

     UTF-8 모드로의 전환을 시도합니다.  성공하면 서버 응답을 반환하고, 그
     렇지 않으면 *note error_proto: 118c.를 발생시킵니다.  RFC 6856(2)에
     서 정의되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: POP3.stls (context=None)

     RFC 2595(3)에 지정된 대로 활성 연결에서 TLS 세션을 시작합니다.  사
     용자 인증 전에만 허용됩니다.

     'context' 매개 변수는 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 객체인데, SSL 구성
     옵션, 인증서 및 개인 키를 단일 (잠재적으로 수명이 긴) 구조로 묶을 수
     있도록 합니다.  모범 사례는 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.을 읽으십시
     오.

     이 메서드는 *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.을 통한 호스
     트 이름 검사와 '서버 이름 표시(Server Name Indication)'를 지원합니
     다 (*note ssl.HAS_SNI: 34a3.를 참조하십시오)

     Added in version 3.4.

*note POP3_SSL: 922.의 인스턴스에는 추가 메서드가 없습니다.  이 서브 클
래스의 인터페이스는 그 부모와 같습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2449.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 예제,  Prev: POP3 객체,  Up: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.12.2 POP3 예제
...................

다음은 우편함을 열고 모든 메시지를 가져와서 인쇄하는 (에러 검사 없는) 최
소한의 예입니다:

     import getpass, poplib

     M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
     M.user(getpass.getuser())
     M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
     numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
     for i in range(numMessages):
         for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
             print(j)

모듈의 끝에는, 더욱 광범위한 사용 예제가 포함된 테스트 섹션이 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Next: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Prev: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.13 ‘imaplib’ — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/imaplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 *note IMAP4: 900, *note IMAP4_SSL: 901. 및 *note IMAP4_stream:
903.의 세 가지 클래스를 정의합니다.  이 클래스는 IMAP4 서버에 대한 연결
을 캡슐화하고 RFC 2060(2)에 정의된 대로 IMAP4rev1 클라이언트 프로토콜의
큰 부분 집합을 구현합니다.  IMAP4 ( RFC 1730(3)) 서버와 하위 호환되지만,
IMAP4에서는 ‘STATUS’ 명령이 지원되지 않음에 유의하십시오.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

*note imaplib: 74. 모듈은 세 가지 클래스를 제공하며, *note IMAP4: 900.는
베이스 클래스입니다:

 -- 클래스: imaplib.IMAP4 (host='', port=IMAP4_PORT, timeout=None)

     이 클래스는 실제 IMAP4 프로토콜을 구현합니다.  연결이 만들어지고 인
     스턴스가 초기화될 때 프로토콜 버전(IMAP4 또는 IMAP4rev1)이 결정됩니
     다.  'host'를 지정하지 않으면, ‘''’(로컬 호스트)가 사용됩니다.
     'port'를 생략하면, 표준 IMAP4 포트(143)가 사용됩니다.  선택적
     'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결 시도에 대한 시간제한을 초로 지정합니다.
     timeout이 제공되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 전역 기본 소켓 시간제한이 사
     용됩니다.

     *note IMAP4: 900. 클래스는 *note with: 5cc. 문을 지원합니다.  이처
     럼 사용될 때, ‘with’ 문을 빠져나갈 때 IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ 명령이 자동으
     로 발행됩니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> from imaplib import IMAP4
          >>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
          ...     M.noop()
          ...
          ('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

세 가지 예외가 *note IMAP4: 900. 클래스의 어트리뷰트로 정의됩니다:

 -- 예외: IMAP4.error

     모든 에러에 대해 발생하는 예외.  예외의 이유는 문자열로 생성자에 전
     달됩니다.

 -- 예외: IMAP4.abort

     IMAP4 서버 에러는 이 예외를 발생시킵니다.  이것은 *note
     IMAP4.error: 151d.의 서브 클래스입니다.  인스턴스를 닫고 새 인스턴
     스를 만들면 일반적으로 이 예외에서 복구할 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: IMAP4.readonly

     쓰기 가능한 사서함(mailbox)의 상태가 서버에 의해 변경되면 이 예외가
     발생합니다.  이것은 *note IMAP4.error: 151d.의 서브 클래스입니다.  이
     제 일부 다른 클라이언트에는 쓰기 권한이 있으며, 쓰기 권한을 다시 얻
     으려면 사서함을 다시 열어야 합니다.

보안 연결을 위한 서브 클래스도 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: imaplib.IMAP4_SSL (host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, *,
          ssl_context=None, timeout=None)

     SSL 암호화 소켓을 통해 연결되는 *note IMAP4: 900.에서 파생된 서브 클
     래스입니다 (이 클래스를 사용하려면 SSL 지원과 함께 컴파일된 소켓 모
     듈이 필요합니다).  'host'를 지정하지 않으면, ‘''’(로컬 호스트)가 사
     용됩니다.  'port'를 생략하면, 표준 IMAP4-over-SSL 포트(993)가 사용
     됩니다.  'ssl_context'는 SSL 구성 옵션, 인증서 및 개인 키를 단일 (잠
     재적으로 오래가는) 구조로 번들링 할 수 있는 *note ssl.SSLContext:
     294. 객체입니다.  모범 사례는 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.을 읽으십
     시오.

     선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결 시도에 대한 시간제한을 초로 지정
     합니다.  timeout이 제공되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 전역 기본 소켓 시간
     제한이 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'ssl_context' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 클래스는 이제 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.과 '서버 이름 표시(Server Name
     Indication)'로 호스트명 확인을 지원합니다 (*note ssl.HAS_SNI:
     34a3.를 참조하십시오).

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 폐지된 'keyfile' 과 'certfile' 매개 변수를 제거
     했습니다.

두 번째 서브 클래스는 자식 프로세스가 만든 연결을 허용합니다:

 -- 클래스: imaplib.IMAP4_stream (command)

     이것은 'command'를 ‘subprocess.Popen()’에 전달하여 만들어진
     ‘stdin/stdout’ 파일 기술자에 연결하는 *note IMAP4: 900.에서 파생된
     서브 클래스입니다.

다음과 같은 유틸리티 함수가 정의됩니다:

 -- 함수: imaplib.Internaldate2tuple (datestr)

     IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ 문자열을 구문 분석하고 해당 지역 시간을 반환합
     니다.  반환 값은 *note time.struct_time: ce7. 튜플이거나 문자열의 형
     식이 잘못되면 ‘None’입니다.

 -- 함수: imaplib.Int2AP (num)

     집합 [‘A’ ..  ‘P’]의 문자를 사용하여 정수를 바이트열 표현으로 변환
     합니다.

 -- 함수: imaplib.ParseFlags (flagstr)

     IMAP4 ‘FLAGS’ 응답을 개별 플래그의 튜플로 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: imaplib.Time2Internaldate (date_time)

     'date_time'을 IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ 표현으로 변환합니다.  반환 값은
     다음과 같은 형식의 문자열입니다: ‘"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS +HHMM"’ (큰
     따옴표를 포함합니다).  'date_time' 인자는 에포크 이후의 초(*note
     time.time(): 254.이 반환하는 것과 같습니다)를 나타내는 숫자 (int 또
     는 float), 지역 시간을 나타내는 9-튜플인 *note time.struct_time:
     ce7.의 인스턴스 (*note time.localtime(): 14c1.이 반환하는 것과 같습
     니다), *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.의 어웨어(aware) 인스턴스 또는
     큰따옴표로 인용된(double-quoted) 문자열일 수 있습니다.  마지막 경우
     에는, 이미 올바른 형식으로 되어 있다고 가정합니다.

사서함이 변경됨에 따라 IMAP4 메시지 번호가 변경됨에 유의하십시오.  특히,
‘EXPUNGE’ 명령이 삭제를 수행한 후 나머지 메시지의 번호가 다시 매겨집니다
.  따라서 UID 명령으로 UID를 대신 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

모듈의 끝에는, 더 광범위한 사용 예제가 포함된 테스트 섹션이 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

워싱턴 대학의 IMAP Information Center의 프로토콜을 설명하는 문서와 이를
구현하는 서버의 소스는 모두 ('소스 코드')
‘https://github.com/uw-imap/imap’ 에서 찾을 수 있습니다 ('유지 보수되지
않습니다').

* Menu:

* IMAP4 객체::
* IMAP4 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/imaplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1730.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 객체,  Next: IMAP4 예,  Up: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.13.1 IMAP4 객체
....................

모든 IMAP4rev1 명령은 대문자나 소문자의 같은 이름의 메서드로 표현됩니다.

‘AUTHENTICATE’와 IMAP4 리터럴로 전달되는 ‘APPEND’에 대한 마지막 인자를 제
외하고, 명령에 대한 모든 인자는 문자열로 변환됩니다.  필요하면 (문자열에
IMAP4 프로토콜에 참여하는 문자가 포함되고 괄호나 큰따옴표로 묶이지 않았
으면) 각 문자열이 인용됩니다.  그러나, ‘LOGIN’ 명령에 대한 'password' 인
자는 항상 인용됩니다.  인자 문자열이 인용되지 않도록 하려면 (예를 들어:
‘STORE’에 대한 'flags' 인자) 문자열을 괄호로 묶으십시오 (예를 들어:
‘r'(\Deleted)'’).

각 명령은 튜플을 반환합니다: ‘(type, [data, ...])’ 여기서 'type'은 일반
적으로 ‘'OK'’나 ‘'NO'’이며, 'data'는 명령 응답의 텍스트이거나 명령의 위
임된(mandated) 결과입니다.  각 'data'는 ‘bytes’이거나 튜플입니다.  튜플
이면, 첫 번째 부분은 응답의 헤더이고, 두 번째 부분은 데이터를 포함합니다
(즉: ‘literal’ 값).

아래 명령에 대한 'message_set' 옵션은 수행할 하나 이상의 대상 메시지를 지
정하는 문자열입니다.  단순 메시지 번호 (‘'1'’), 메시지 번호 범위
(‘'2:4'’) 또는 쉼표로 구분된 불연속 범위 그룹(‘'1:3,6:9'’)일 수 있습니다
.  범위에는 별표가 포함되어 무한 상한을 나타낼 수 있습니다 (‘'3:*'’).

*note IMAP4: 900. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.append (mailbox, flags, date_time, message)

     명명된 사서함(mailbox)에 'message'를 추가합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.authenticate (mechanism, authobject)

     인증 명령 — 응답 처리가 필요합니다.

     'mechanism'은 사용할 인증 메커니즘을 지정합니다 - 인스턴스 변수
     ‘capabilities’에 ‘AUTH=mechanism’ 형식으로 나타나야 합니다.

     'authobject'는 콜러블 객체여야 합니다:

          data = authobject(response)

     서버 계속(continuation) 응답을 처리하기 위해 호출됩니다; 전달된
     'response' 인자는 ‘bytes’입니다.  base64로 인코딩되어 서버로 전송되
     는 ‘bytes’ 'data'를 반환해야 합니다.  클라이언트 중단 응답 ‘*’를 대
     신 보내야 하면 ‘None’을 반환해야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 문자열 사용자 이름과 비밀번호는 이제 ASCII로 제
     한되지 않고 ‘utf-8’로 인코딩됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.check ()

     서버의 사서함을 검사합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.close ()

     현재 선택된 사서함을 닫습니다.  삭제된 메시지는 쓰기 가능한 사서함
     에서 제거됩니다.  ‘LOGOUT’ 이전의 권장 명령입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.copy (message_set, new_mailbox)

     'message_set' 메시지를 'new_mailbox' 끝에 복사합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.create (mailbox)

     'mailbox'라는 이름의 새 사서함을 만듭니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.delete (mailbox)

     'mailbox'라는 이름의 기존 사서함을 삭제합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.deleteacl (mailbox, who)

     사서함(mailbox)의 사용자(who)에 대해 설정된 ACL을 삭제합니다 (모든
     권한을 제거합니다).

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.enable (capability)

     'capability'를 활성화합니다 ( RFC 5161(1)을 참조하십시오).  대부분
     의 기능은 활성화할 필요 없습니다.  현재 ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ 기능만 지원됩
     니다 ( RFC 6855(2)를 참조하십시오).

     Added in version 3.5: *note enable(): e09. 메서드 자체와 RFC
     6855(3) 지원.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.expunge ()

     선택한 사서함에서 삭제된 항목을 영구적으로 제거합니다.  삭제된 각 메
     시지에 대해 ‘EXPUNGE’ 응답을 생성합니다.  반환된 데이터에는 수신된
     순서의 ‘EXPUNGE’ 메시지 번호 리스트가 포함됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.fetch (message_set, message_parts)

     메시지(일부)를 가져옵니다.  'message_parts'는 괄호로 묶인 메시지 부
     분 이름의 문자열이어야 합니다, 예를 들어: ‘"(UID BODY[TEXT])"’).  반
     환된 데이터는 메시지 부분 봉투와 데이터의 튜플입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.getacl (mailbox)

     'mailbox'에 대한 ‘ACL’을 가져옵니다.  이 메서드는 비표준이지만,
     ‘Cyrus’ 서버에서 지원됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.getannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute)

     'mailbox'에 대해 지정된 ‘ANNOTATION’을 가져옵니다.  이 메서드는 비
     표준이지만, ‘Cyrus’ 서버에서 지원됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.getquota (root)

     ‘quota’ 'root'의 자원 사용량과 제한을 가져옵니다.  이 메서드는
     rfc2087에 정의된 IMAP4 QUOTA 확장의 일부입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.getquotaroot (mailbox)

     명명된 'mailbox'에 대한 ‘quota’ ‘roots’ 리스트를 가져옵니다.  이 메
     서드는 rfc2087에 정의된 IMAP4 QUOTA 확장의 일부입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.list ([directory[, pattern]])

     'directory'에 있는 'pattern'과 일치하는 사서함 이름을 나열합니다.
     'directory'는 기본적으로 최상위 메일 폴더이며, 'pattern'은 기본적으
     로 모든 것과 일치합니다.  반환된 데이터는 ‘LIST’의 리스트를 포함합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.login (user, password)

     평문 비밀번호를 사용하여 클라이언트를 식별합니다.  'password'는 인
     용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.login_cram_md5 (user, password)

     암호를 보호하기 위해 클라이언트를 식별할 때 ‘CRAM-MD5’ 인증의 사용
     을 강제합니다.  서버 ‘CAPABILITY’ 응답에 문구 ‘AUTH=CRAM-MD5’가 포
     함된 경우에만 작동합니다.

     버전 3.13.7 (unreleased)에서 변경: An *note IMAP4.error: 151d. is
     raised if MD5 support is not available.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.logout ()

     서버에 대한 연결을 종료합니다.  서버 ‘BYE’ 응답을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 메서드는 더는 임의의 예외를 조용히 무시하지 않
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.lsub (directory='""', pattern='*')

     directory에 있는 pattern과 일치하는 구독한(subscribed) 사서함 이름
     을 나열합니다.  'directory'는 기본적으로 최상위 디렉터리이고
     'pattern'은 기본적으로 모든 사서함과 일치합니다.  반환된 데이터는 메
     시지 부분 봉투와 데이터의 튜플입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.myrights (mailbox)

     mailbox에 대한 현재 사용자의 ACL(즉, 사서함에 대해 가진 권한)을 표
     시합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.namespace ()

     RFC 2342(4)에 정의된 대로 IMAP 이름 공간을 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.noop ()

     서버에 ‘NOOP’을 보냅니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.open (host, port, timeout=None)

     'host'의 'port'로 소켓을 엽니다.  선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결
     시도에 대한 시간제한을 초로 지정합니다.  timeout이 제공되지 않거나
     ‘None’이면, 전역 기본 소켓 시간제한이 사용됩니다.  또한 'timeout' 매
     개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹 소켓을 만들지 못하도록 *note
     ValueError: 202.를 발생시킴에 유의하십시오.  이 메서드는 *note
     IMAP4: 900. 생성자에 의해 묵시적으로 호출됩니다.  이 메서드로 맺어
     진 연결 객체는 *note IMAP4.read(): 3afa, *note IMAP4.readline():
     3afb, *note IMAP4.send(): 3afc. 및 *note IMAP4.shutdown(): 3afd. 메
     서드에서 사용됩니다.  이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

     인자 ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘imaplib.open’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.partial (message_num, message_part, start, length)

     메시지의 잘린 부분을 가져옵니다.  반환된 데이터는 메시지 부분 봉투
     와 데이터의 튜플입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.proxyauth (user)

     인증을 'user'로 가정합니다.  권한 있는 관리자가 모든 사용자의 사서
     함으로 프락시 하도록 합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.read (size)

     원격 서버에서 'size' 바이트를 읽습니다.  이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.readline ()

     원격 서버에서 한 줄을 읽습니다.  이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.recent ()

     업데이트를 서버에 요청합니다.  새 메시지가 없으면 반환된 데이터는
     ‘None’이고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘RECENT’ 응답의 값입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.rename (oldmailbox, newmailbox)

     이름이 'oldmailbox'인 사서함의 이름을 'newmailbox'로 바꿉니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.response (code)

     수신되었다면 응답 'code'에 대한 데이터를 반환합니다, 또는 ‘None’을
     반환합니다.  일반적인 유형 대신, 지정된 코드를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.search (charset, criterion[, ...])

     일치하는 메시지가 있는지 사서함을 검색합니다.  'charset'은 ‘None’일
     수 있으며, 이 경우 서버에 대한 요청에 ‘CHARSET’이 지정되지 않습니다
     .  IMAP 프로토콜은 적어도 하나의 기준을 지정하도록 요구합니다; 서버
     가 에러를 반환하면 예외가 발생합니다.  *note enable(): e09. 명령을
     사용하여 ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ 기능이 활성화되면 'charset'은 ‘None’이어야 합
     니다.

     예:

          # M은 연결된 IMAP4 인스턴스입니다...
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')

          # 또는:
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.select (mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)

     사서함을 선택합니다.  반환된 데이터는 'mailbox'에 있는 메시지 수입
     니다 (‘EXISTS’ 응답).  기본 'mailbox'는 ‘'INBOX'’입니다.
     'readonly' 플래그가 설정되면, 사서함을 수정할 수 없습니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.send (data)

     ‘data’를 원격 서버로 보냅니다.  이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

     인자 ‘self’, ‘data’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘imaplib.send’를 발
     생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.setacl (mailbox, who, what)

     'mailbox'에 대한 ‘ACL’을 설정합니다.  이 메서드는 비표준이지만,
     ‘Cyrus’ 서버에서 지원됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.setannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])

     'mailbox'에 대한 ‘ANNOTATION’을 설정합니다.  이 메서드는 비표준이지
     만, ‘Cyrus’ 서버에서 지원됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.setquota (root, limits)

     ‘quota’ 'root'의 자원 '한도(limits)'를 설정합니다.  이 메서드는
     rfc2087에 정의된 IMAP4 QUOTA 확장의 일부입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.shutdown ()

     ‘open’에서 맺은 연결을 닫습니다.  이 메서드는 *note IMAP4.logout():
     3af5.에 의해 묵시적으로 호출됩니다.  이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니
     다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.socket ()

     서버에 연결하는 데 사용된 소켓 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.sort (sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[, ...])

     ‘sort’ 명령은 결과에 대한 정렬이 추가된 ‘search’의 변형입니다.  반
     환된 데이터는 일치하는 메시지 번호의 공백으로 구분된 목록을 포함합
     니다.

     sort에는 'search_criterion' 인자 앞에 두 개의 인자가 있습니다;
     'sort_criteria'의 괄호로 묶은 목록과 검색 'charset'.  ‘search’와 달
     리, 검색 'charset' 인자는 필수임에 유의하십시오.  ‘uid search’가
     ‘search’에 해당하는 방식으로 ‘sort’에 해당하는 ‘uid sort’ 명령도 있
     습니다.  ‘sort’ 명령은 먼저 검색 기준의 문자열 해석을 위해 charset
     인자를 사용하여 주어진 검색 기준과 일치하는 메시지를 사서함에서 검
     색합니다.  그런 다음 일치하는 메시지 수를 반환합니다.

     이것은 ‘IMAP4rev1’ 확장 명령입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.starttls (ssl_context=None)

     ‘STARTTLS’ 명령을 보냅니다.  'ssl_context' 인자는 선택적이며 *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 294. 객체여야 합니다.  IMAP 연결의 암호화를 활성화
     합니다.  모범 사례는 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.을 읽으십시오.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 메서드는 이제 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.과 '서버 이름 표시(Server Name
     Indication)'로 호스트명 확인을 지원합니다 (*note ssl.HAS_SNI:
     34a3.를 참조하십시오).

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.status (mailbox, names)

     'mailbox'에 대한 명명된 상태 조건(status conditions)을 요청합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.store (message_set, command, flag_list)

     사서함의 메시지에 대한 플래그 속성을 변경합니다.  'command'는 RFC
     2060(5)의 섹션 6.4.6에서 “FLAGS”, “+ FLAGS” 또는 “-FLAGS” 중 하나로
     지정되고, 선택적으로 “.SILENT” 접미사를 갖습니다.

     예를 들어, 모든 메시지에 삭제 플래그를 설정하려면 다음을 수행합니다
     :

          typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
          for num in data[0].split():
             M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
          M.expunge()

          참고: ‘]’을 포함하는 플래그를 만드는 것은 (예를 들어:
          “[test]”) RFC 3501(6)(IMAP 프로토콜)을 위반합니다.  그러나,
          imaplib는 역사적으로 이러한 태그를 만들 수 있도록 허락했고,
          Gmail과 같은 널리 사용되는 IMAP 서버는 이러한 플래그를 받아들
          이고 생성합니다.  역시 이러한 태그를 생성하는 비 파이썬 프로그
          램이 있습니다.  RFC 위반이고 IMAP 클라이언트와 서버가 엄격해야
          하기는 하지만, imaplib는 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 이러한 태
          그를 만들도록 계속 허락하며, 파이썬 3.6부터는 실제 호환성을 향
          상하기 때문에 서버에서 보낸다면 처리합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.subscribe (mailbox)

     새 사서함을 구독합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.thread (threading_algorithm, charset,
          search_criterion[, ...])

     ‘thread’ 명령은 결과에 대한 스레딩이 추가된 ‘search’의 변형입니다.
     반환된 데이터는 스레드 구성원의 스페이스로 구분된 목록을 포함합니다
     .

     스레드 구성원은 연속된 부모와 자식을 나타내는 스페이스로 구분된 0개
     이상의 메시지 번호로 구성됩니다.

     thread에는 'search_criterion' 인자 앞에 두 개의 인자가 있습니다;
     'threading_algorithm'과 검색 'charset'.  ‘search’와 달리, 검색
     'charset' 인자는 필수임에 유의하십시오.  ‘uid search’가 ‘search’에
     해당하는 방식으로 ‘thread’에 해당하는 ‘uid thread’ 명령도 있습니다.
     ‘thread’ 명령은 먼저 검색 기준의 문자열 해석을 위해 'charset' 인자
     를 사용하여 주어진 검색 기준과 일치하는 메시지를 사서함에서 검색합
     니다.  그런 다음 지정된 스레딩 알고리즘에 따라 스레드 된 일치 메시
     지들을 반환합니다.

     이것은 ‘IMAP4rev1’ 확장 명령입니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.uid (command, arg[, ...])

     메시지 번호가 아닌 UID로 식별된 메시지들로 명령 인자를 실행합니다.
     명령에 적합한 응답을 반환합니다.  최소한 하나의 인자가 제공되어야 합
     니다; 아무것도 제공하지 않으면, 서버는 에러를 반환하고 예외가 발생
     합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.unsubscribe (mailbox)

     기존 사서함에서 구독 취소합니다.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.unselect ()

     *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 904.는 선택한 사서함과 관련된 서버
     자원을 해제하고 서버를 인증된 상태로 되돌립니다.  이 명령은 현재 선
     택된 사서함에서 메시지가 영구적으로 제거되지 않는다는 점을 제외하고
     , *note imaplib.IMAP4.close(): 905.와 같은 작업을 수행합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 메서드: IMAP4.xatom (name[, ...])

     ‘CAPABILITY’ 응답에서 서버가 통지한 간단한 확장 명령을 허용합니다.

*note IMAP4: 900. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 정의되어 있습니
다:

 -- 속성: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION

     서버의 ‘CAPABILITY’ 응답에서 가장 최근에 지원되는 프로토콜.

 -- 속성: IMAP4.debug

     디버깅 출력을 제어하기 위한 정숫값.  초기화 값은 모듈 변수 ‘Debug’에
     서 취합니다.  3보다 큰 값은 각 명령을 추적합니다.

 -- 속성: IMAP4.utf8_enabled

     일반적으로 ‘False’이지만, ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ 기능에 대해 *note enable():
     e09. 명령이 성공적으로 발행되면 ‘True’로 설정되는 불리언 값.

     Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3501.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 예,  Prev: IMAP4 객체,  Up: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.13.2 IMAP4 예
..................

다음은 사서함을 열고 모든 메시지를 가져오고 인쇄하는 최소한의 예(에러 검
사는 없습니다)입니다:

     import getpass, imaplib

     M = imaplib.IMAP4(host='example.org')
     M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
     M.select()
     typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
     for num in data[0].split():
         typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
         print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
     M.close()
     M.logout()


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Next: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체,  Prev: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.14 ‘smtplib’ — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트
--------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/smtplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note smtplib: ca. 모듈은 SMTP나 ESMTP 리스너 데몬을 사용하여 모든 인터
넷 기계로 메일을 보내는 데 사용할 수 있는 SMTP 클라이언트 세션 객체를 정
의합니다.  SMTP와 ESMTP 연산에 대한 자세한 내용은 RFC 821(2)(Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol)과 RFC 1869(3)(SMTP Service Extensions)를 참조하십시오
.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

 -- 클래스: smtplib.SMTP (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[,
          timeout], source_address=None)

     *note SMTP: 92b. 인스턴스는 SMTP 연결을 캡슐화합니다.  SMTP와 ESMTP
     연산의 전체 레퍼토리를 지원하는 메서드가 있습니다.  선택적 'host'와
     'port' 매개 변수가 제공되면, 초기화 중에 해당 매개 변수로 SMTP
     *note connect(): 19d1. 메서드가 호출됩니다.  지정되면, HELO/EHLO 명
     령에서 'local_hostname'이 로컬 호스트의 FQDN으로 사용됩니다.  그렇
     지 않으면 *note socket.getfqdn(): 1782.을 사용하여 로컬 호스트 이름
     을 찾습니다.  *note connect(): 19d1. 호출이 성공 코드 이외의 것을 반
     환하면 *note SMTPConnectError: 3b17.가 발생합니다.  선택적
     'timeout' 매개 변수는 연결 시도와 같은 블로킹 연산을 위한 시간제한
     을 초로 지정합니다 (지정하지 않으면, 전역 기본 시간제한 설정이 사용
     됩니다).  시간제한이 만료되면 *note TimeoutError: 82f.이 발생합니다
     .  선택적 'source_address' 매개 변수는 여러 네트워크 인터페이스가 있
     는 기계의 특정 소스 주소 그리고/또는 특정 소스 TCP 포트에 바인딩 할
     수 있도록 합니다.  연결 전에 소켓이 소스 주소로 바인드 할 2-튜플
     ‘(host, port)’를 취합니다.  생략되면 (또는 'host'나 'port'가 각각
     ‘''’ 및/또는 ‘0’이면) OS 기본 동작이 사용됩니다.

     일반적인 사용을 위해서는, 초기화/연결, *note sendmail(): e51. 및
     *note SMTP.quit(): 3b18. 메서드 만 필요합니다.  아래에 예가 포함되
     어 있습니다.

     *note SMTP: 92b. 클래스는 *note with: 5cc. 문을 지원합니다.  이처럼
     사용되면, ‘with’ 문이 종료될 때 SMTP ‘QUIT’ 명령이 자동으로 발행됩
     니다.  예를 들어:

          >>> from smtplib import SMTP
          >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
          ...     smtp.noop()
          ...
          (250, b'Ok')
          >>>

     모든 명령은 인자 ‘self’와 ‘data’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘smtplib.SMTP.send’를 발생시킵니다.  여기서 ‘data’는 원격 호스트로
     전송될 바이트열입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note with: 5cc. 문에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'source_address' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.5: SMTPUTF8 확장( RFC 6531(4))이 이제 지원됩니다
     .

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹
     소켓을 만드는 것을 막기 위해 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

 -- 클래스: smtplib.SMTP_SSL (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, *[,
          timeout], context=None, source_address=None)

     *note SMTP_SSL: 92c. 인스턴스는 *note SMTP: 92b. 인스턴스와 정확히
     같게 작동합니다.  연결 시작 시 SSL이 필요하고 ‘starttls()’ 사용이 적
     합하지 않은 상황에서는 *note SMTP_SSL: 92c.을 사용해야 합니다.
     'host'를 지정하지 않으면, 로컬 호스트가 사용됩니다.  'port'가 0이면
     , 표준 SMTP-over-SSL 포트(465)가 사용됩니다.  선택적 인자
     'local_hostname', 'timeout' 및 'source_address'는 *note SMTP: 92b.
     클래스에서와 같은 의미입니다.  역시 선택적인 'context'는 *note
     SSLContext: 294.를 포함할 수 있으며 보안 연결의 다양한 측면을 구성
     하도록 합니다.  모범 사례는 *note 보안 고려 사항: 336d.을 읽으십시
     오.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'context'가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'source_address' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 클래스는 이제 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3491.과 '서버 이름 표시(Server Name
     Indication)'로 호스트 이름 확인을 지원합니다 (*note ssl.HAS_SNI:
     34a3.를 참조하십시오).

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'timeout' 매개 변수가 0으로 설정되면, 비 블로킹
     소켓을 만드는 것을 막기 위해 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 폐지된 'keyfile' 과 'certfile' 매개 변수는 제거
     했습니다.

 -- 클래스: smtplib.LMTP (host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None,
          source_address=None[, timeout])

     ESMTP와 매우 유사한 LMTP 프로토콜은 표준 SMTP 클라이언트를 기반으로
     합니다.  LMTP에 유닉스 소켓을 사용하는 것이 일반적이라서,
     ‘connect()’ 메서드는 일반 host:port 서버뿐만 아니라 이를 지원해야 합
     니다.  선택적 인자 'local_hostname'과 'source_address'는 *note
     SMTP: 92b. 클래스에서와 같은 의미입니다.  유닉스 소켓을 지정하려면,
     'host'에 ‘/’로 시작하는 절대 경로를 사용해야 합니다.

     일반 SMTP 메커니즘을 사용하여 인증이 지원됩니다.  유닉스 소켓을 사
     용할 때, LMTP는 일반적으로 인증을 지원하지 않거나 요구하지 않지만,
     여러분의 상황에서는 다를 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 선택적 'timeout' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

훌륭한 예외 모음도 정의되어 있습니다:

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPException

     이 모듈에서 제공하는 다른 모든 예외에 대한 베이스 예외 클래스인
     *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래스.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: SMTPException이 *note OSError: 411.의 서브 클래
     스가 되었습니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected

     이 예외는 예기치 않게 서버와의 연결이 끊어지거나, 서버에 연결하기 전
     에 *note SMTP: 92b. 인스턴스를 사용하려고 할 때 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPResponseException

     SMTP 에러 코드가 포함된 모든 예외의 베이스 클래스.  이러한 예외는
     SMTP 서버가 에러 코드를 반환하는 일부 경우에 생성됩니다.  에러 코드
     는 에러의 ‘smtp_code’ 어트리뷰트에 저장되며, ‘smtp_error’ 어트리뷰
     트는 에러 메시지로 설정됩니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused

     발신자 주소가 거부되었습니다.  모든 *note SMTPResponseException:
     3b1a. 예외에 의해 설정된 어트리뷰트 외에도, 이것은 ‘sender’를 SMTP
     서버가 거부한 문자열로 설정합니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused

     모든 수신자 주소가 거부되었습니다.  각 수신자의 에러는 *note
     SMTP.sendmail(): e51.이 반환하는 것과 정확히 같은 종류의 딕셔너리인
     ‘recipients’ 어트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPDataError

     SMTP 서버가 메시지 데이터 수락을 거부했습니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPConnectError

     서버와의 연결을 설정하는 동안 에러가 발생했습니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPHeloError

     서버가 ‘HELO’ 메시지를 거부했습니다.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError

     시도한 명령이나 옵션이 서버에서 지원되지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 예외: smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError

     SMTP 인증이 잘못되었습니다.  서버가 제공된 username/password 조합을
     수락하지 않았을 가능성이 높습니다.

더 보기
.......

RFC 821(5) - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

     SMTP의 프로토콜 정의.  이 문서는 SMTP의 모델, 운영 절차 및 프로토콜
     세부 사항을 다룹니다.

RFC 1869(6) - SMTP Service Extensions

     SMTP를 위한 ESMTP 확장의 정의.  이 문서는 새로운 명령으로 SMTP를 확
     장하고 서버에서 제공하는 명령의 동적 발견을 지원하는 프레임워크에 관
     해 설명하고, 몇 가지 추가 명령을 정의합니다.

* Menu:

* SMTP 객체::
* SMTP 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/smtplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP 객체,  Next: SMTP 예,  Up: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.14.1 SMTP 객체
...................

*note SMTP: 92b. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: SMTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     디버그 출력 수준을 설정합니다.  'level'의 값이 1이나 ‘True’이면 연
     결과 서버와 주고받는 모든 메시지에 대한 디버그 메시지가 생성됩니다.
     'level'의 값이 2이면 이러한 메시지에 타임 스탬프가 추가됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 디버그 수준 2를 추가했습니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.docmd (cmd, args='')

     서버에 'cmd' 명령을 전송합니다.  선택적 인자 'args'는 단순히 공백으
     로 구분하여 명령에 이어붙입니다.

     숫자 응답 코드와 실제 응답 줄로 구성된 2-튜플을 반환합니다 (여러 줄
     응답은 하나의 긴 줄로 결합합니다).

     일반적인 작업에서 이 메서드를 명시적으로 호출할 필요는 없습니다.  다
     른 메서드를 구현하는 데 사용되며 개인적인 확장을 테스트하는 데 유용
     할 수 있습니다.

     응답을 기다리는 동안 서버와의 연결이 끊어지면, *note
     SMTPServerDisconnected: 3b19. 가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.connect (host='localhost', port=0)

     지정된 포트(port)의 호스트(host)에 연결합니다.  기본값은 표준 SMTP
     포트(25)로 로컬 호스트에 연결하는 것입니다.  호스트 이름이 콜론
     (‘':'’)으로 끝나고 그 뒤에 숫자가 오면 해당 접미사가 제거되고 숫자
     는 사용할 포트 번호로 해석됩니다.  이 메서드는 인스턴스 화 중에 호
     스트가 지정되면 생성자에 의해 자동으로 호출됩니다.  연결 응답에서 서
     버가 보낸 응답 코드와 메시지의 2-튜플을 반환합니다.

     인자 ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘smtplib.connect’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.helo (name='')

     ‘HELO’ 를 사용하여 SMTP 서버에 자신을 식별합니다.  hostname 인자의
     기본값은 로컬 호스트의 완전히 정규화된 도메인 이름(fully qualified
     domain name)입니다.  서버가 반환한 메시지는 객체의 ‘helo_resp’ 어트
     리뷰트로 저장됩니다.

     정상적인 작업에서는 이 메서드를 명시적으로 호출할 필요가 없습니다.
     필요할 때 *note sendmail(): e51.에 의해 묵시적으로 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.ehlo (name='')

     ‘EHLO’를 사용하여 ESMTP 서버에 자신을 식별합니다.  hostname 인자의
     기본값은 로컬 호스트의 완전히 정규화된 도메인 이름(fully qualified
     domain name)입니다.  ESMTP 옵션에 대한 응답을 검사하고 *note
     has_extn(): 3b25.에서 사용할 수 있도록 저장합니다.  또한 여러 정보
     어트리뷰트를 설정합니다: 서버가 반환한 메시지는 ‘ehlo_resp’ 어트리
     뷰트로 저장되고, 서버가 ESMTP를 지원하는지에 따라 ‘does_esmtp’가
     ‘True’나 ‘False’로 설정되며, ‘esmtp_features’는 이 서버가 지원하는
     SMTP 서비스 확장의 이름과 그 매개 변수(있다면)를 포함하는 딕셔너리
     가 됩니다.

     메일을 보내기 전에 *note has_extn(): 3b25.을 사용하고 싶지 않은 한,
     이 메서드를 명시적으로 호출할 필요는 없습니다.  필요할 때 *note
     sendmail(): e51.에 의해 묵시적으로 호출됩니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed ()

     이 세션에서 앞선 ‘EHLO’나 ‘HELO’ 명령이 없으면, 이 메서드는 *note
     ehlo(): 3b24. 및/또는 *note helo(): 3b23.를 호출합니다.  ESMTP
     ‘EHLO’를 먼저 시도합니다.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3b1e.

          서버가 ‘HELO’ 인사에 올바르게 응답하지 않았습니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.has_extn (name)

     'name'이 서버가 반환한 SMTP 서비스 확장 집합에 있으면 *note True:
     c0a.를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note False: b34.를 반환합니다.  대
     소 문자는 무시됩니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.verify (address)

     SMTP ‘VRFY’를 사용하여 이 서버에서 주소의 유효성을 확인합니다.  사
     용자 주소가 유효하면 코드 250과 전체 RFC 822(1) 주소(사람 이름 포함
     )로 구성된 튜플을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 400 이상의 SMTP 에러 코
     드와 에러 문자열을 반환합니다.

          참고: 많은 사이트에서 스패머를 제거하기 위해 SMTP ‘VRFY’를 비
          활성화합니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.login (user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)

     인증이 필요한 SMTP 서버에 로그인합니다.  인자는 인증할 사용자 이름
     과 비밀번호입니다.  이 세션에 앞선 ‘EHLO’나 ‘HELO’ 명령이 없었으면,
     이 메서드는 ESMTP ‘EHLO’를 먼저 시도합니다.  인증에 성공하면 이 메
     서드는 정상적으로 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 다음 예외를 발생시킬 수 있
     습니다:

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3b1e.

          서버가 ‘HELO’ 인사에 올바르게 응답하지 않았습니다.

     *note SMTPAuthenticationError: 3b1f.

          서버가 사용자 이름/비밀번호 조합을 수락하지 않았습니다.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 19d0.

          서버가 ‘AUTH’ 명령을 지원하지 않습니다.

     *note SMTPException: f98.

          적합한 인증 메서드가 없습니다.

     *note smtplib: ca.가 지원하는 각 인증 메서드는 서버가 지원하는 것으
     로 광고되면 차례로 시도됩니다.  지원되는 인증 메서드 목록은 *note
     auth(): e4f.를 참조하십시오.  'initial_response_ok'는 *note auth():
     e4f.로 전달됩니다.

     선택적 키워드 인자 'initial_response_ok'는, 이를 지원하는 인증 메서
     드의 경우, 챌린지/응답을 요구하지 않고 RFC 4954(2)에 지정된 “초기 응
     답(initial response)”을 ‘AUTH’ 명령과 함께 보낼 수 있는지를 지정합
     니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 19d0. 가 발생할 수
     있고, 'initial_response_ok' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.auth (mechanism, authobject, *,
          initial_response_ok=True)

     지정된 인증 '메커니즘(mechanism)'으로 ‘SMTP’ ‘AUTH’ 명령을 발행하고
     , 'authobject'를 통해 챌린지 응답을 처리합니다.

     'mechanism'은 ‘AUTH’ 명령의 인자로 사용할 인증 메커니즘을 지정합니
     다; 유효한 값은 ‘esmtp_features’의 ‘auth’ 요소에 나열된 값입니다.

     'authobject'는 선택적 단일 인자를 취하는 콜러블 객체여야 합니다:

          data = authobject(challenge=None)

     선택적 키워드 인자 'initial_response_ok'가 참이면, 인자 없이
     ‘authobject()’가 먼저 호출됩니다.  이것은 RFC 4954(3) “초기 응답
     (initial response)” ASCII ‘str’을 반환할 수 있으며, 이는 아래와 같
     이 ‘AUTH’ 명령으로 인코딩되고 전송됩니다.  ‘authobject()’가 초기 응
     답을 지원하지 않으면 (예를 들어 챌린지가 필요하기 때문에),
     ‘challenge=None’으로 호출될 때 ‘None’을 반환해야 합니다.
     'initial_response_ok'가 거짓이면, ‘authobject()’는 ‘None’으로 먼저
     호출되지 않습니다.

     초기 응답 확인이 ‘None’을 반환하거나, 'initial_response_ok'가 거짓
     이면, 서버의 챌린지 응답을 처리하기 위해 ‘authobject()’가 호출됩니
     다; 전달된 'challenge' 인자는 ‘bytes’입니다.  base64로 인코딩되어 서
     버로 전송될 ASCII ‘str’ 'data'를 반환해야 합니다.

     ‘SMTP’ 클래스는 ‘CRAM-MD5’, ‘PLAIN’ 및 ‘LOGIN’ 메커니즘을 위한
     ‘authobjects’를 제공합니다.  그것들은 각각 ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5’,
     ‘SMTP.auth_plain’ 및 ‘SMTP.auth_login’으로 명명됩니다.  모두 ‘SMTP’
     인스턴스의 ‘user’와 ‘password’ 프로퍼티가 적절한 값으로 설정되어 있
     도록 요구합니다.

     사용자 코드는 일반적으로 ‘auth’를 직접 호출할 필요는 없지만, 대신
     *note login(): 3b28. 메서드를 호출할 수는 있는데, 위의 각 메커니즘
     을 나열된 순서대로 시도합니다.  ‘auth’는 *note smtplib: ca.가 직접
     지원하지 않는 (또는 아직 지원하지 않는) 인증 메서드를 쉽게 구현할 수
     있도록 노출되어 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.starttls (*, context=None)

     SMTP 연결을 TLS (Transport Layer Security) 모드로 전환합니다.  뒤따
     르는 모든 SMTP 명령은 암호화됩니다.  그런 다음 *note ehlo(): 3b24.를
     다시 호출해야 합니다.

     'keyfile'과 'certfile'이 제공되면, *note ssl.SSLContext: 294.를 만
     드는 데 사용됩니다.

     선택적 'context' 매개 변수는 *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. 객체입니다;
     이것은 keyfile과 certfile대신 사용할 수 있으며 'keyfile'과
     'certfile'이 모두 지정되면 ‘None’이어야 합니다.

     이 세션에 앞선 ‘EHLO’나 ‘HELO’ 명령이 없었으면, 이 메서드는 ESMTP
     ‘EHLO’를 먼저 시도합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 폐지된 'keyfile' 과 'certfile' 매개 변수는 제거
     했습니다.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3b1e.

          서버가 ‘HELO’ 인사에 올바르게 응답하지 않았습니다.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 19d0.

          서버가 STARTTLS 확장을 지원하지 않습니다.

     *note RuntimeError: 195.

          파이썬 인터프리터가 SSL/TLS를 지원하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'context'가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 메서드는 이제 ‘SSLContext.check_hostname’과
     '서버 이름 표시(Server Name Indicator)'로 호스트 이름 확인을 지원합
     니다 (*note HAS_SNI: 34a3.를 참조하십시오).

     버전 3.5에서 변경: STARTTLS 지원 부족으로 발생한 에러는 이제 베이스
     *note SMTPException: f98. 대신 *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 19d0. 서
     브 클래스입니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.sendmail (from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(),
          rcpt_options=())

     메일을 보냅니다.  필수 인자는 RFC 822(4) from-address 문자열, RFC
     822(5) to-address 문자열의 리스트 (단순 문자열은 주소가 한 개인 리
     스트로 처리됩니다) 및 메시지 문자열입니다.  호출자는 ‘MAIL FROM’ 명
     령에 사용되는 ESMTP 옵션 (가령 ‘8bitmime’) 리스트를 'mail_options'로
     전달할 수 있습니다.  모든 ‘RCPT’ 명령과 함께 사용해야 하는 ESMTP 옵
     션(가령 ‘DSN’ 명령)을 'rcpt_options'로 전달할 수 있습니다.  (다른 수
     신자에게 다른 ESMTP 옵션을 사용해야 하면 메시지를 보내는 데
     ‘mail()’, ‘rcpt()’ 및 ‘data()’와 같은 저수준 메서드를 사용해야 합니
     다.)

          참고: 'from_addr'과 'to_addrs' 매개 변수는 전송 에이전트가 사
          용하는 메시지 봉투(envelope)를 구성하는 데 사용됩니다.
          ‘sendmail’은 어떤 방식으로든 메시지 헤더를 수정하지 않습니다.

     'msg'는 ASCII 범위의 문자를 포함하는 문자열이거나, 바이트 문자열일
     수 있습니다.  문자열은 ascii 코덱을 사용하여 바이트열로 인코딩되며,
     독립된 ‘\r’과 ‘\n’ 문자는 ‘\r\n’ 문자로 변환됩니다.  바이트 문자열
     은 수정되지 않습니다.

     이 세션에 앞선 ‘EHLO’나 ‘HELO’ 명령이 없었으면, 이 메서드는 ESMTP
     ‘EHLO’를 먼저 시도합니다.  서버가 ESMTP를 지원하면, 메시지 크기와 지
     정된 각 옵션이 전달됩니다 (옵션이 서버가 광고한 기능 집합에 있다면
     ).  ‘EHLO’가 실패하면, ‘HELO’가 시도되고 ESMTP 옵션이 억제됩니다.

     이 메서드는 적어도 한 명의 수신자에게 메일이 수락되면 정상적으로 반
     환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 예외가 발생합니다.  즉, 이 메서드로 예외가
     발생하지 않으면 누군가 메일을 받아야 합니다.  이 메서드에서 예외가
     발생하지 않으면, 거부된 각 수신자에 대해 하나의 항목이 있는 딕셔너
     리를 반환합니다.  각 항목에는 서버에서 보낸 SMTP 에러 코드와 해당 에
     러 메시지의 튜플이 포함됩니다.

     ‘SMTPUTF8’이 'mail_options'에 포함되어 있고, 서버가 이를 지원하면,
     'from_addr'과 'to_addrs'는 ASCII가 아닌 문자를 포함할 수 있습니다.

     이 메서드는 다음과 같은 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다:

     *note SMTPRecipientsRefused: 3b1c.

          모든 수신자가 거부되었습니다.  아무도 메일을 받지 못했습니다.
          예외 객체의 ‘recipients’ 어트리뷰트는 거부된 수신자에 대한 정
          보가 있는 딕셔너리입니다 (적어도 한 명의 수신자가 수락되었을 때
          반환되는 것과 같습니다).

     *note SMTPHeloError: 3b1e.

          서버가 ‘HELO’ 인사에 올바르게 응답하지 않았습니다.

     *note SMTPSenderRefused: 3b1b.

          서버가 'from_addr'을 수락하지 않았습니다.

     *note SMTPDataError: 3b1d.

          서버가 예기치 않은 에러 코드(수신자 거부는 제외하고)로 응답했
          습니다.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 19d0.

          ‘SMTPUTF8’이 'mail_options'에 제공되었지만, 서버에서 지원되지
          않습니다.

     달리 명시되지 않는 한, 예외가 발생한 후에도 연결은 열려있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'msg'는 바이트 문자열일 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘SMTPUTF8’ 지원이 추가되었으며, ‘SMTPUTF8’이 지
     정되었지만, 서버가 지원하지 않으면 *note SMTPNotSupportedError:
     19d0. 가 발생할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.send_message (msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None,
          mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

     이는 *note email.message.Message: 27c. 객체로 표현되는 메시지로
     *note sendmail(): e51.을 호출하는 편의 메서드입니다.  인자는 'msg'가
     ‘Message’ 객체라는 점을 제외하고 *note sendmail(): e51.과 같은 의미
     입니다.

     'from_addr'이 ‘None’이거나 'to_addrs'가 ‘None’이면, ‘send_message’는
     RFC 5322(6) 에 지정된 대로 'msg'의 헤더에서 추출된 주소로 해당 인자
     를 채웁니다: 'from_addr'은 ‘Sender’ 필드가 있으면 이것으로 설정되고
     , 그렇지 않으면 ‘From’ 필드로 설정됩니다.  'to_addrs'는 (있다면)
     'msg'의 ‘To’, ‘Cc’ 및 ‘Bcc’ 필드 값을 결합합니다.  정확히 하나의
     ‘Resent-*’ 헤더 집합이 메시지에 등장하면, 일반 헤더는 무시되고
     ‘Resent-*’ 헤더가 대신 사용됩니다.  메시지에 둘 이상의 ‘Resent-*’ 헤
     더 집합이 포함되면, 가장 최근의 ‘Resent-’ 헤더 집합을 모호하지 않게
     감지할 방법이 없어서 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     ‘send_message’는 ‘\r\n’을 'linesep'으로 사용하여 *note
     BytesGenerator: 11be.를 통해 'msg'를 직렬화하고, *note sendmail():
     e51.을 호출하여 결과 메시지를 전송합니다.  'from_addr'과
     'to_addrs'의 값과 관계없이 ‘send_message’는 'msg'에 나타날 수 있는
     ‘Bcc’나 ‘Resent-Bcc’ 헤더를 전송하지 않습니다.  'from_addr'과
     'to_addrs'의 주소 중 하나에 ASCII가 아닌 문자가 포함되어 있고 서버
     가 ‘SMTPUTF8’ 지원을 광고하지 않으면, *note SMTPNotSupportedError:
     19d0.가 발생합니다.  그렇지 않으면 ‘Message’는 *note utf8: df4. 어
     트리뷰트가 ‘True’로 설정된 자신의 *note policy: 4f.의 복제본으로 직
     렬화되고, ‘SMTPUTF8’ 과 ‘BODY=8BITMIME’이 'mail_options'에 추가됩니
     다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Added in version 3.5: 국제화된 주소 (‘SMTPUTF8’) 지원.

 -- 메서드: SMTP.quit ()

     SMTP 세션을 종료하고 연결을 닫습니다.  SMTP ‘QUIT’ 명령의 결과를 반
     환합니다.

표준 SMTP/ESMTP 명령 ‘HELP’, ‘RSET’, ‘NOOP’, ‘MAIL’, ‘RCPT’ 및 ‘DATA’에
해당하는 저수준 메서드도 지원됩니다.  일반적으로 이들은 직접 호출할 필요
가 없어서, 여기에 설명되어 있지 않습니다.  자세한 내용은, 모듈 코드를 참
조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP 예,  Prev: SMTP 객체,  Up: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트

5.22.14.2 SMTP 예
.................

이 예에서는 메시지 봉투(envelope)에 필요한 주소(‘To’와 ‘From’ 주소)와 전
달할 메시지를 사용자에게 요구합니다.  메시지에 포함할 헤더는 입력한 대로
메시지에 포함됨에 유의하십시오; 이 예제는 RFC 822(1) 헤더를 처리하지 않
습니다.  특히, ‘To’와 ‘From’ 주소는 메시지 헤더에 명시적으로 포함되어야
합니다:

     import smtplib

     def prompt(title):
         return input(title).strip()

     from_addr = prompt("From: ")
     to_addrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
     print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")

     # From: 과 To: 헤더를 시작에 넣습니다!
     lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
     while True:
         try:
             line = input()
         except EOFError:
             break
         else:
             lines.append(line)

     msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
     print("Message length is", len(msg))

     server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
     server.set_debuglevel(1)
     server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
     server.quit()

     참고: 일반적으로, *note email: 3b. 패키지의 기능을 사용하여 전자 메
     일 메시지를 만들고자 할 것이고, 그런 다음 *note send_message():
     e52.를 통해 보낼 수 있습니다; *note email; 예제: f34.를 참조하십시
     오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체,  Next: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크,  Prev: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.15 ‘uuid’ —
----------------

'RFC 4122' 에 따른 UUID 객체

'소스 코드:' Lib/uuid.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 RFC 4122(2)에서 명시한 버전 1, 3, 4 및 5의 UUID를 생성하기 위
해 불변 *note UUID: a5d. 객체(*note UUID: a5d. 클래스)와 *note uuid1():
ba5, *note uuid3(): 1567, *note uuid4(): 1568, *note uuid5(): 1569.를 제
공합니다.

고유 ID만을 얻고자 한다면 *note uuid1(): ba5. 또는 *note uuid4(): 1568.를
호출하는 것이 좋습니다.  *note uuid1(): ba5. 함수는 컴퓨터의 네트워크 주
소를 포함하여 UUID를 생성하므로 개인정보가 노출될 수 있음을 명심해야 합
니다.  *note uuid4(): 1568.는 무작위 UUID를 생성합니다.

기본 플랫폼의 지원 여부에 따라, *note uuid1(): ba5.은 “안전한” UUID를 반
환하거나 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다.  안전한 UUID는 두 프로세스가 같은
UUID를 얻지 못하게 하는 동기화 메서드에 의해 생성됩니다.  *note UUID:
a5d.의 모든 인스턴스는 UUID의 안정성에 대한 정보를 중계하는 *note
is_safe: ba3. 어트리뷰트가 있고, 다음의 열거체를 사용합니다.

 -- 클래스: uuid.SafeUUID

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: safe

          플랫폼이 다중 프로세스에 안전한 방식으로 UUID를 생성합니다.

      -- 속성: unsafe

          다중 프로세스에 안전한 방식으로 생성되지 않습니다.

      -- 속성: unknown

          플랫폼이 UUID를 안전하게 생성하였는지에 대한 정보를 제공하지 않
          습니다.

 -- 클래스: uuid.UUID (hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None,
          int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)

     32자리 16진수 문자열, 'bytes' 인자에 빅 엔디안 순서 16바이트열,
     'bytes_le' 인자에 리틀 엔디안 순서 16바이트열, 'fields' 인자에 여섯
     개의 정수로 이루어진 튜플(32-bit 'time_low', 16-bit 'time_mid',
     16-bit 'time_hi_version', 8-bit 'clock_seq_hi_variant', 8-bit
     'clock_seq_low', 48-bit 'node'), 'int' 인자에 단일 128bit 정수 중 하
     나를 이용하여 UUID를 만듭니다.  16진수 문자열로 주어졌을 경우 중괄
     호, 붙임표(hyphen), URN 접두어는 모두 선택사항입니다.  예를 들어, 아
     래 표현들은 모두 같은 UUID를 산출합니다:

          UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
          UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
          UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
          UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
          UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
                        b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
          UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
          UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)

     'hex', 'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields', 'int' 중 하나는 반드시 주어져
     야 합니다.  'version' 인자는 선택사항입니다; 인자로 주어질 경우, 결
     과로 생성된 UUID는 RFC 4122(3)에 따라 변종 및 버전 번호를 설정하고
     주어진 'hex', 'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields', 'int' 비트를 오버라이
     딩 합니다.

     UUID 객체끼리 비교할 때 *note UUID.int: 3b31. 어트리뷰트를 비교하여
     수행합니다.  UUID가 아닌 객체와 비교하면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발
     생합니다.

     ‘str(uuid)’는 ‘12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678’과같이 32자리
     16진수 UUID로 표현합니다.

*note UUID: a5d. 객체는 다음과 같은 읽기 전용 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다.

 -- 속성: UUID.bytes

     16바이트 문자열(여섯 개의 빅 엔디안 순서 정수 필드 포함)인 UUID

 -- 속성: UUID.bytes_le

     16바이트 문자열(리틀 엔디안 순서 'time_low', 'time_mid',
     'time_hi_version')인 UUID

 -- 속성: UUID.fields

     UUID의 여섯 개의 정수 필드로 이루어진 튜플.  여섯 개의 개별 어트리
     뷰트와 두 개의 파생된 어트리뷰트도 사용 가능:

필드                                                   의미
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.time_low                                UUID의 처음 32bit.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.time_mid                                UUID의 다음 16bit.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.time_hi_version                         UUID의 다음 16bit.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.clock_seq_hi_variant                    UUID의 다음 8bit.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.clock_seq_low                           UUID의 다음 8bit.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.node                                    UUID의 마지막 48bit.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.time                                    60bit 타임스탬프.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 속성: UUID.clock_seq                               14bit 시퀀스 번호.
                                                       

 -- 속성: UUID.hex

     32자리 소문자 16진수 문자열 UUID.

 -- 속성: UUID.int

     128bit 정수 UUID

 -- 속성: UUID.urn

     RFC 4122(4)에서 명시한 URN의 UUID

 -- 속성: UUID.variant

     UUID 변종은 UUID의 내부 레이아웃을 결정합니다.  이는 상수 *note
     RESERVED_NCS: 3b40, *note RFC_4122: 3b41, *note RESERVED_MICROSOFT:
     3b42, 및 *note RESERVED_FUTURE: 3b43. 중 하나입니다.

 -- 속성: UUID.version

     UUID 버전 번호 (1부터 5까지이며, 변종이 *note RFC_4122: 3b41.일 때
     만 유효)

 -- 속성: UUID.is_safe

     플랫폼이 UUID를 다중 프로세스에 안전한 방식으로 생성했는지를 나타내
     는 *note SafeUUID: 3b2d.의 열거체입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

*note uuid: 110. 모듈은 다음의 함수들을 정의합니다.

 -- 함수: uuid.getnode ()

     하드웨어 주소를 48bit 양의 정수로 가져옵니다.  최초 실행 시 별도의
     프로그램으로 실행될 수 있고, 매우 느려질 수 있습니다.  하드웨어 주
     소를 얻기 위한 시도가 모두 실패하면, RFC 4122(5)가 권장하는 대로 멀
     티캐스트 비트(첫 옥텟의 최하위 비트)가 1로 설정된 무작위 48bit 숫자
     를 선택합니다.  “하드웨어 주소”는 네트워크 인터페이스의 MAC 주소를
     뜻합니다.  여러 네트워크 인터페이스를 가진 머신에서 보편적으로 관리
     하는 MAC 주소(즉, 첫 번째 옥텟의 두 번째 최하위 비트가 'unset'인 경
     우)는 로컬에서 관리하는 MAC 주소보다 우선하지만, 순서를 보장하지는
     않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 보편적으로 관리하는 MAC 주소는 로컬로 관리하는
     MAC 주소보다 우선합니다.  전자는 주소가 전 세계적으로 고유함을 보장
     하지만, 후자는 그렇지 않기 때문입니다.

 -- 함수: uuid.uuid1 (node=None, clock_seq=None)

     호스트 ID, 시퀀스 번호 및 현재 시각으로 UUID 생성.  'node'가 주어지
     지 않으면, *note getnode(): ba4.를 사용하여 하드웨어 주소를 얻습니
     다.  'clock_seq'가 주어지면 시퀀스 번호로 사용합니다.  그렇지 않을
     경우, 무작위 14bit 시퀀스 번호를 사용합니다.

 -- 함수: uuid.uuid3 (namespace, name)

     이름 공간 식별자(UUID) 및 이름(*note bytes: 1c2. 객체나 UTF-8로 인
     코딩할 문자열)의 MD5 해시를 기반으로 UUID 생성.

 -- 함수: uuid.uuid4 ()

     무작위 UUID 생성.

 -- 함수: uuid.uuid5 (namespace, name)

     이름 공간 식별자(UUID) 및 이름(*note bytes: 1c2. 객체나 UTF-8로 인
     코딩할 문자열)의 SHA-1 해시를 기반으로 UUID 생성.

*note uuid: 110. 모듈은 *note uuid3(): 1567.과 *note uuid5(): 1569.를 위
한 아래의 이름 공간 식별자를 정의합니다.

 -- 데이터: uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS

     이 이름 공간이 지정되면 'name' 문자열은 전체 도메인 이름(FQDN)입니
     다.

 -- 데이터: uuid.NAMESPACE_URL

     이 이름 공간이 지정되면 'name' 문자열은 URL입니다.

 -- 데이터: uuid.NAMESPACE_OID

     이 이름 공간이 지정되면 'name' 문자열은 ISO OID입니다.

 -- 데이터: uuid.NAMESPACE_X500

     이 이름 공간이 지정되면 'name' 문자열은 DER이나 텍스트 출력 형식의
     X.500 DN입니다.

*note uuid: 110. 모듈은 *note variant: 3b3f. 어트리뷰트로 사용할 수 있는
값으로 다음의 상수를 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: uuid.RESERVED_NCS

     NCS 호환성을 위해 예약됨.

 -- 데이터: uuid.RFC_4122

     RFC 4122(6) 의 UUID 레이아웃 명시.

 -- 데이터: uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT

     마이크로소프트 호환성을 위해 예약됨.

 -- 데이터: uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE

     추후 정의를 위해 예약됨.

더 보기
.......

RFC 4122(7) - 범용 고유 식별자(UUID) URN 이름 공간

     이 명세는 UUID를 위한 통합 자원 식별자 이름 공간, UUID의 내부 형식
     및 UUID 생성 방법을 정의합니다.

* Menu:

* 명령줄 사용법::
* 예제: 예제<24>.
* 명령줄 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/uuid.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: 명령줄 사용법,  Next: 예제<24>,  Up: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체

5.22.15.1 명령줄 사용법
.......................

Added in version 3.12.

The *note uuid: 110. module can be executed as a script from the command
line.

     python -m uuid [-h] [-u {uuid1,uuid3,uuid4,uuid5}] [-n NAMESPACE] [-N NAME]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: -u <uuid>
 -- Option: --uuid <uuid>

     Specify the function name to use to generate the uuid.  By default
     *note uuid4(): 1568. is used.

 -- Option: -n <namespace>
 -- Option: --namespace <namespace>

     The namespace is a ‘UUID’, or ‘@ns’ where ‘ns’ is a well-known
     predefined UUID addressed by namespace name.  Such as ‘@dns’,
     ‘@url’, ‘@oid’, and ‘@x500’.  Only required for *note uuid3():
     1567. / *note uuid5(): 1569. functions.

 -- Option: -N <name>
 -- Option: --name <name>

     The name used as part of generating the uuid.  Only required for
     *note uuid3(): 1567. / *note uuid5(): 1569. functions.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<24>,  Next: 명령줄 예제,  Prev: 명령줄 사용법,  Up: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체

5.22.15.2 예제
..............

*note uuid: 110. 모듈을 사용하는 전형적인 몇 가지 예제입니다:

     >>> import uuid

     >>> # 호스트 ID 와 현재 시간에 기반한 UUID 를 만듭니다
     >>> uuid.uuid1()
     UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

     >>> # 이름공간 UUID 와 이름의 MD5 해시를 사용해서 UUID 를 만듭니다
     >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

     >>> # 무작위 UUID 를 만듭니다
     >>> uuid.uuid4()
     UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

     >>> # 이름공간 UUID 와 이름의 SHA-1 해시를 사용해서 UUID 를 만듭니다
     >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     >>> # 16진수 문자열로 UUID 를 만듭니다 (중괄호와 붙임표(hyphen)는 무시됩니다)
     >>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')

     >>> # UUID 를 표준 형식의 16진수 문자열로 변환합니다
     >>> str(x)
     '00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'

     >>> # UUID 의 길이 16인 날 바이트열을 얻습니다
     >>> x.bytes
     b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'

     >>> # 길이 16인 바이트열로 UUID 를 만듭니다
     >>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
     UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')


File: python.info,  Node: 명령줄 예제,  Prev: 예제<24>,  Up: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체

5.22.15.3 명령줄 예제
.....................

*note uuid: 110. 명령줄 인터페이스를 사용하는 전형적인 몇 가지 예제입니
다:

     # 무작위 uuid 를 생성합니다 - 기본적으로 uuid4() 가 사용됩니다
     $ python -m uuid

     # uuid1() 으로 uuid 를 생성합니다
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid1

     # uuid5 로 uuid 를 생성합니다
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid5 -n @url -N example.com


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크,  Next: http server — HTTP 서버,  Prev: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.16 ‘socketserver’ — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크
--------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/socketserver.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note socketserver: cd. 모듈은 네트워크 서버 작성 작업을 단순화합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

다음과 같은 네 가지 기본 구상 서버 클래스가 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: socketserver.TCPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     클라이언트와 서버 간에 연속적인 데이터 스트림을 제공하는 인터넷 TCP
     프로토콜을 사용합니다.  'bind_and_activate'가 참이면, 생성자는 자동
     으로 *note server_bind(): 3b58.와 *note server_activate(): 3b59.를
     호출하려고 시도합니다.  다른 매개 변수는 *note BaseServer: 112e. 베
     이스 클래스로 전달됩니다.

 -- 클래스: socketserver.UDPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     순서가 잘못되거나 전송 중 손실될 수 있는 이산적 정보 패킷인 데이터
     그램을 사용합니다.  매개 변수는 *note TCPServer: 130f.와 같습니다.

 -- 클래스: socketserver.UnixStreamServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
 -- 클래스: socketserver.UnixDatagramServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

     TCP와 UDP 클래스와 비슷하지만, 유닉스 도메인 소켓을 사용하는 자주 사
     용되지 않는 클래스입니다; 유닉스 이외의 플랫폼에서는 사용할 수 없습
     니다.  매개 변수는 *note TCPServer: 130f.와 같습니다.

이 네 가지 클래스는 '동기적으로 (synchronously)' 요청을 처리합니다; 다음
요청을 시작하기 전에 각 요청을 완료해야 합니다.  계산이 많이 필요하거나
클라이언트가 처리하는 속도가 느리도록 데이터를 많이 반환하기 때문에 각 요
청을 완료하는 데 시간이 오래 걸리면 적합하지 않습니다.  해결책은 각 요청
을 처리하기 위해 별도의 프로세스나 스레드를 만드는 것입니다; *note
ForkingMixIn: b74.과 *note ThreadingMixIn: b75. 믹스인 클래스를 사용하여
비동기 동작을 지원할 수 있습니다.

서버를 만들려면 몇 가지 단계가 필요합니다.  먼저, *note
BaseRequestHandler: 3b5d. 클래스를 서브 클래싱하고 *note handle(): 3b5e.
메서드를 재정의하여 요청 처리기 클래스를 만들어야 합니다; 이 메서드는 들
어오는 요청을 처리합니다.  둘째, 서버 주소와 요청 처리기 클래스를 전달하
여 서버 클래스 중 하나를 인스턴스 화해야 합니다.  *note with: 5cc. 문에
서 서버를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  그런 다음 서버 객체의 *note
handle_request(): 1312.나 *note serve_forever(): 1130. 메서드를 호출하여
하나 이상의 요청을 처리합니다.  마지막으로, (‘with’ 문을 사용하지 않았다
면) *note server_close(): 3b5f.를 호출하여 소켓을 닫습니다.

스레드 연결 동작을 위해 *note ThreadingMixIn: b75.에서 상속할 때, 갑작스
러운 종료 시 스레드 작동 방식을 명시적으로 선언해야 합니다.  *note
ThreadingMixIn: b75. 클래스는 서버가 스레드 종료를 기다려야 하는지를 가
리키는 'daemon_threads' 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다.  스레드가 자율적으로 동
작하게 하려면 플래그를 명시적으로 설정해야 합니다; 기본값은 *note False:
b34.인데, *note ThreadingMixIn: b75.으로 만들어진 모든 스레드가 종료될 때
까지 파이썬이 종료되지 않음을 뜻합니다.

서버 클래스는 사용하는 네트워크 프로토콜과 관계없이 같은 외부 메서드와 어
트리뷰트를 갖습니다.

* Menu:

* 서버 생성 노트::
* 서버 객체: 서버 객체<2>.
* 요청 처리기 객체::
* 예: 예<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/socketserver.py


File: python.info,  Node: 서버 생성 노트,  Next: 서버 객체<2>,  Up: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크

5.22.16.1 서버 생성 노트
........................

상속 다이어그램에는 5개의 클래스가 있으며, 그중 4개는 4가지 유형의 동기
서버를 나타냅니다:

     +------------+
     | BaseServer |
     +------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +------------------+
     | TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
     +-----------+        +------------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +--------------------+
     | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
     +-----------+        +--------------------+

*note UnixDatagramServer: 3b5c.는 *note UnixStreamServer: 3b5b.가 아니라
*note UDPServer: 3b5a.에서 파생됨에 유의하십시오 — IP와 유닉스 서버의 유
일한 차이점은 주소 패밀리입니다.

 -- 클래스: socketserver.ForkingMixIn
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn

     이러한 믹스인 클래스를 사용하여 각 서버 유형의 포킹(forking)과 스레
     딩(threading) 버전을 만들 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, *note
     ThreadingUDPServer: 3b61.는 다음과 같이 만듭니다:

          class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
              pass

     *note UDPServer: 3b5a.에 정의된 메서드를 재정의하므로, 믹스인 클래
     스가 먼저 옵니다.  다양한 어트리뷰트를 설정하면 하부 서버 메커니즘
     의 동작도 변경됩니다.

     아래 언급된 *note ForkingMixIn: b74.과 Forking 클래스들은 *note
     fork(): 197.를 지원하는 POSIX 플랫폼에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: block_on_close

          *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3b5f.는 *note block_on_close:
          bfa. 어트리뷰트가 ‘False’인 경우를 제외하고 모든 자식 프로세스
          가 완료될 때까지 대기합니다.

          *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3b5f.는 *note
          block_on_close: bfa. 어트리뷰트가 ‘False’인 경우를 제외하고 모
          든 비 데몬 스레드가 완료될 때까지 대기합니다.

      -- 속성: daemon_threads

          For *note ThreadingMixIn: b75. use daemonic threads by setting
          *note ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads: 3b62. to ‘True’ to not
          wait until threads complete.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3b5f.와 *note
     ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3b5f.는 이제 모든 자식 프로세스와 비 데
     몬 스레드가 완료될 때까지 대기합니다.  3.7 이전의 동작을 옵트인 하
     기 위해 새 *note ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: bfa. 클래스 어트리뷰
     트를 추가합니다.

 -- 클래스: socketserver.ForkingTCPServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ForkingUDPServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer
 -- 클래스: socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer

     이 클래스들이 믹스인 클래스를 사용하여 미리 정의됩니다.

Added in version 3.12: The ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and
‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes were added.

서비스를 구현하려면, *note BaseRequestHandler: 3b5d.에서 클래스를 파생시
키고 *note handle(): 3b5e. 메서드를 재정의해야 합니다.  그런 다음 서버 클
래스 중 하나와 여러분의 요청 처리기 클래스를 결합하여 다양한 버전의 서비
스를 실행할 수 있습니다.  요청 처리기 클래스는 데이터 그램과 스트림 서비
스에서 달라야 합니다.  처리기 서브 클래스 *note StreamRequestHandler:
cd7. 나 *note DatagramRequestHandler: 3b6a.를 사용하여 이 차이를 숨길 수
있습니다.

물론, 여전히 머리를 사용해야 합니다!  예를 들어, 서비스가 다른 요청으로
수정될 수 있는 메모리상의 상태를 포함할 때 포킹 서버를 사용하는 것은 의
미가 없습니다.  자식 프로세스에의 수정은 부모 프로세스에 유지된 초기 상
태에 도달하여 각 자식에 전달되지 못하기 때문입니다.  이 경우, 스레딩 서
버를 사용할 수 있지만, 아마도 공유 데이터의 무결성을 보호하기 위해 록을
사용해야 합니다.

반면, 모든 데이터가 외부(예를 들어, 파일 시스템)에 저장되는 HTTP 서버를
구축한다면, 동기 클래스는 하나의 요청이 처리되는 동안 실질적으로 서비스
가 “듣지 못하게” 만듭니다 – 클라이언트가 요청한 모든 데이터를 받는 속도
가 느리다면 매우 오랜 시간이 걸릴 수 있습니다.  이럴 때는 스레딩이나 포
킹 서버가 적합합니다.

때에 따라, 요청의 일부를 동기적으로 처리하는 것이 좋지만, 요청 데이터에
따라 포크 된 자식에서 처리를 완료하는 것이 적절할 수 있습니다.  이는 동
기 서버를 사용하고 요청 처리기 클래스 *note handle(): 3b5e. 메서드에서 명
시적 포크를 수행하여 구현할 수 있습니다.

스레드도 *note fork(): 197.도 지원하지 않는 (또는 이것들이 서비스에 너무
비싸거나 부적절한) 환경에서 여러 동시 요청을 처리하는 또 다른 방법은 부
분적으로 완료된 요청의 명시적인 테이블을 유지하고 *note selectors: c2.를
사용하여 다음에 작업할 요청을 (또는 새로 들어온 요청을 처리할지를) 결정
하는 것입니다.  이는 (스레드나 서브 프로세스를 사용할 수 없다면) 각 클라
이언트가 오랫동안 연결될 수 있는 스트림 서비스에 특히 중요합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 서버 객체<2>,  Next: 요청 처리기 객체,  Prev: 서버 생성 노트,  Up: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크

5.22.16.2 서버 객체
...................

 -- 클래스: socketserver.BaseServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     이것은 모듈에 있는 모든 서버 객체의 슈퍼 클래스입니다.  아래에 주어
     진 인터페이스를 정의하지만, 대부분의 메서드를 구현하지 않고, 서브 클
     래스에서 구현됩니다.  두 개의 매개 변수는 각각 *note
     server_address: 3b6c.와 *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b6d. 어트리뷰트
     에 저장됩니다.

      -- 메서드: fileno ()

          서버가 리스닝 중인 소켓의 정수 파일 디스크립터를 반환합니다.  이
          함수는 가장 일반적으로 같은 프로세스에서 여러 서버를 모니터링
          할 수 있도록 *note selectors: c2.에 전달됩니다.

      -- 메서드: handle_request ()

          단일 요청을 처리합니다.  이 함수는 다음 메서드들을 차례로 호출
          합니다: *note get_request(): 3b6f, *note verify_request():
          3b70. 및 *note process_request(): 3b71.  처리기 클래스의 사용
          자 제공 *note handle(): 3b5e. 메서드에서 예외가 발생하면, 서버
          의 *note handle_error(): d3e. 메서드가 호출됩니다.  *note
          timeout: 1310. 초 내에 요청이 수신되지 않으면, *note
          handle_timeout(): 1311.이 호출되고 *note handle_request():
          1312.는 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: serve_forever (poll_interval=0.5)

          명시적인 *note shutdown(): 1a3c. 요청이 있을 때까지 요청을 처
          리합니다.  'poll_interval' 초마다 shutdown을 확인합니다.
          *note timeout: 1310. 어트리뷰트를 무시합니다.  또한 *note
          service_actions(): 112f.를 호출하는데, 서브 클래스나 믹스인이
          주어진 서비스에 특정한 동작을 제공하기 위해 사용할 수 있습니다
          .  예를 들어, *note ForkingMixIn: b74. 클래스는 *note
          service_actions(): 112f.를 사용하여 좀비 자식 프로세스를 정리
          합니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘serve_forever’ 메서드에 ‘service_actions’
          호출을 추가했습니다.

      -- 메서드: service_actions ()

          *note serve_forever(): 1130. 루프에서 호출됩니다.  이 메서드는
          서브 클래스나 믹스인 클래스에서 재정의되어 정리 조치와 같은 지
          정된 서비스에 특정한 조치를 수행할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: shutdown ()

          *note serve_forever(): 1130. 루프가 정지하도록 하고 정지할 때
          까지 기다립니다.  *note serve_forever(): 1130.가 다른 스레드에
          서 실행되는 동안 *note shutdown(): 1a3c.을 호출해야 합니다.  그
          렇지 않으면 교착 상태가 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: server_close ()

          서버를 정리합니다.  재정의될 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: address_family

          서버 소켓이 속한 프로토콜 패밀리.  일반적인 예는 *note
          socket.AF_INET: 1823, *note socket.AF_INET6: 1824. 및 *note
          socket.AF_UNIX: 1825.입니다.  IPv6 서버 클래스를 원하면 클래스
          어트리뷰트 ‘address_family = AF_INET6’을 설정하여 이 모듈의
          TCP 나 UDP 서버 클래스의 서브클래스를 만드세요.

      -- 속성: RequestHandlerClass

          사용자 제공 요청 처리기 클래스; 요청마다 이 클래스의 인스턴스
          가 만들어집니다.

      -- 속성: server_address

          서버가 리스닝 중인 주소.  주소 형식은 프로토콜 패밀리에 따라 다
          릅니다; 자세한 내용은 *note socket: cc. 모듈 설명서를 참조하십
          시오.  인터넷 프로토콜의 경우, 주소를 제공하는 문자열과 정수 포
          트 번호를 포함하는 튜플입니다: ‘('127.0.0.1', 80)’, 예를 들어.

      -- 속성: socket

          서버가 들어오는 요청을 리스닝 할 소켓 객체.

     서버 클래스는 다음 클래스 변수를 지원합니다:

      -- 속성: allow_reuse_address

          서버가 주소를 재사용하도록 허락하는지 여부.  기본값은 *note
          False: b34.이며, 정책을 변경하기 위해 서브 클래스에서 설정할 수
          있습니다.

      -- 속성: request_queue_size

          요청 큐의 크기.  단일 요청을 처리하는 데 시간이 오래 걸리면, 서
          버가 바쁠 때 도착한 요청은 최대 *note request_queue_size:
          3b75. 요청까지 큐에 배치됩니다.  큐가 가득 차면, 클라이언트의
          추가 요청은 “연결 거부(Connection denied)” 에러를 받게 됩니다.
          기본값은 일반적으로 5이지만, 서브 클래스가 재정의할 수 있습니
          다.

      -- 속성: socket_type

          서버가 사용하는 소켓의 유형.  *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.과
          *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12e2.은 두 가지 흔한 값입니다.

      -- 속성: timeout

          초 단위의 시간제한 기간, 또는 시간제한이 필요하지 않으면 *note
          None: 66f.  *note handle_request(): 1312.가 timeout 기간 내에
          들어오는 요청을 받지 못하면, *note handle_timeout(): 1311. 메
          서드가 호출됩니다.

     *note TCPServer: 130f.와 같은 베이스 서버 클래스의 서브 클래스가 재
     정의할 수 있는 다양한 서버 메서드가 있습니다; 이러한 메서드는 서버
     객체의 외부 사용자에게는 유용하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: finish_request (request, client_address)

          *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b6d.를 인스턴스화하고 *note
          handle(): 3b5e. 메서드를 호출하여 실제로 요청을 처리합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_request ()

          소켓으로부터의 요청을 받아들이고, 클라이언트와 통신하는 데 사
          용될 '새' 소켓 객체와 클라이언트 주소를 포함하는 2-튜플을 반환
          해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: handle_error (request, client_address)

          *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b6d. 인스턴스의 *note handle():
          3b5e. 메서드에서 예외가 발생하면 이 함수가 호출됩니다.  기본 액
          션은 표준 에러로 트레이스백을 인쇄하고 추가 요청을 계속 처리하
          는 것입니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 이제 *note Exception: 9d6. 클래스에서 파생
          된 예외에 대해서만 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: handle_timeout ()

          이 함수는 *note timeout: 1310. 어트리뷰트가 *note None: 66f. 이
          외의 값으로 설정되고 요청이 수신되지 않은 채로 시간제한 기간이
          지나면 호출됩니다.  포킹 서버에서의 기본 액션은 종료한 모든 자
          식 프로세스의 상태를 수집하는 것이고, 반면에 스레딩 서버에서는
          이 메서드가 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: process_request (request, client_address)

          *note finish_request(): 3b77.를 호출하여 *note
          RequestHandlerClass: 3b6d. 의 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  원한다면,
          이 함수는 요청을 처리하기 위해 새 프로세스나 스레드를 만들 수
          있습니다; *note ForkingMixIn: b74.과 *note ThreadingMixIn:
          b75. 클래스가 그렇게 합니다.

      -- 메서드: server_activate ()

          서버를 활성화하기 위해 서버의 생성자가 호출합니다.  TCP 서버의
          기본 동작은 단지 서버의 소켓에 대해 *note listen(): e56.을 호
          출합니다.  재정의될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: server_bind ()

          소켓을 원하는 주소에 바인딩하기 위해 서버의 생성자가 호출합니
          다.  재정의될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: verify_request (request, client_address)

          불리언 값을 반환해야 합니다; 값이 *note True: c0a.이면, 요청이
          처리되고, *note False: b34.이면, 요청이 거부됩니다.  서버에 대
          한 액세스 제어를 구현하기 위해 이 함수를 재정의할 수 있습니다.
          기본 구현은 항상 *note True: c0a.를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜에 대한 지원
     이 추가되었습니다.  컨텍스트 관리자를 벗어나는 것은 *note
     server_close(): 3b5f.를 호출하는 것과 동등합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 요청 처리기 객체,  Next: 예<13>,  Prev: 서버 객체<2>,  Up: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크

5.22.16.3 요청 처리기 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: socketserver.BaseRequestHandler

     이것은 모든 요청 처리기 객체의 슈퍼 클래스입니다.  아래에 주어진 인
     터페이스를 정의합니다.  구상 요청 처리기 서브 클래스는 새 *note
     handle(): 3b5e. 메서드를 정의해야 하며, 다른 메서드를 재정의할 수 있
     습니다.  각 요청에 대해 서브 클래스의 새 인스턴스가 만들어집니다.

      -- 메서드: setup ()

          필요한 초기화 액션을 수행하기 위해 *note handle(): 3b5e. 메서
          드 전에 호출됩니다.  기본 구현은 아무것도 수행하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: handle ()

          이 함수는 요청을 서비스하는 데 필요한 모든 작업을 수행해야 합
          니다.  기본 구현은 아무것도 수행하지 않습니다.  몇 가지 인스턴
          스 어트리뷰트를 사용할 수 있습니다; 요청은 *note request:
          3b7a.로 제공됩니다; 클라이언트 주소는 *note client_address:
          3b7b.로 제공됩니다; 서버별 정보에 액세스해야 하는 경우를 위해
          서버 인스턴스는 *note server: 3b7c.로 제공됩니다.

          *note request: 3b7a.의 형은 데이터 그램과 스트림 서비스에서 다
          릅니다.  스트림 서비스의 경우, *note request: 3b7a.는 소켓 객
          체입니다; 데이터 그램 서비스의 경우, *note request: 3b7a.는 문
          자열과 소켓 쌍입니다.

      -- 메서드: finish ()

          필요한 정리 액션을 수행하기 위해 *note handle(): 3b5e. 메서드
          이후에 호출됩니다.  기본 구현은 아무것도 수행하지 않습니다.
          *note setup(): 3b79.에서 예외가 발생하면, 이 함수가 호출되지 않
          습니다.

      -- 속성: request

          The 'new' *note socket.socket: d9d. object to be used to
          communicate with the client.

      -- 속성: client_address

          Client address returned by *note BaseServer.get_request():
          3b6f.

      -- 속성: server

          *note BaseServer: 112e. object used for handling the request.

 -- 클래스: socketserver.StreamRequestHandler
 -- 클래스: socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler

     이 *note BaseRequestHandler: 3b5d. 서브 클래스는 *note setup():
     3b79.과 *note finish(): 3b7d. 메서드를 재정의하고, *note rfile:
     3b7e.과 *note wfile: 3b7f. 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다.

      -- 속성: rfile

          읽어서 요청을 수신할 파일 객체.  *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e.
          읽기 가능 인터페이스를 지원합니다.

      -- 속성: wfile

          응답을 기록할 파일 객체.  *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 쓰기 가
          능 인터페이스를 지원합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note wfile: 3b7f. 도 *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     68e. 쓰기 가능 인터페이스를 지원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<13>,  Prev: 요청 처리기 객체,  Up: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크

5.22.16.4 예
............

* Menu:

* socketserver.TCPServer 예: socketserver TCPServer 예.
* socketserver.UDPServer 예: socketserver UDPServer 예.
* 비동기 믹스인::


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver TCPServer 예,  Next: socketserver UDPServer 예,  Up: 예<13>

5.22.16.5 ‘socketserver.TCPServer’ 예
.....................................

이것은 서버 쪽입니다:

     import socketserver

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         서버의 요청 처리기 클래스.

         서버 연결마다 한 번 인스턴스화되며, 클라이언트와의
         통신을 구현하기 위해 handle() 메서드를 재정의해야
         합니다.
         """

         def handle(self):
             # self.request는 클라이언트에 연결된 TCP 소켓입니다
             pieces = [b'']
             total = 0
             while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000:
                 pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000))
                 total += len(pieces[-1])
             self.data = b''.join(pieces)
             print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # 단지 같은 데이터를 다시 보내지만, 대문자로 변환합니다
             self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
             # 반환 후에, 소켓은 닫힙니다.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999

         # 포트 9999에서 localhost에 바인딩하여 서버를 만듭니다
         with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
             # 서버를 활성화합니다; Ctrl-C를 사용하여 프로그램을 중단할 때까지 계속
             # 실행됩니다.
             server.serve_forever()

스트림(표준 파일 인터페이스를 제공하여 통신을 단순화하는 파일류 객체)을
사용하는 대체 요청 처리기 클래스:

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             # self.rfile은 처리기에 의해 만들어진 파일류 객체입니다.
             # 이제 예를 들어 원시 recv() 호출 대신 readline()을 사용할 수 있습니다
             # 발신자의 악용을 방지하기 위해 10000 바이트로 제한합니다.
             self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip()
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # 마찬가지로, self.wfile은 클라이언트로 다시 쓰는 데
             # 사용되는 파일류 객체입니다
             self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())

The difference is that the ‘readline()’ call in the second handler will
call ‘recv()’ multiple times until it encounters a newline character,
while the first handler had to use a ‘recv()’ loop to accumulate data
until a newline itself.  If it had just used a single ‘recv()’ without
the loop it would just have returned what has been received so far from
the client.  TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it was sent,
but there no correlation between client ‘send()’ or ‘sendall()’ calls
and the number of ‘recv()’ calls on the server required to receive it.

이것은 클라이언트 쪽입니다:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # 소켓을 만듭니다 (SOCK_STREAM은 TCP 소켓을 의미합니다)
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
         # 서버에 연결하고 데이터를 전송합니다
         sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
         sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8"))
         sock.sendall(b"\n")

         # 서버에서 데이터를 수신하고 종료합니다
         received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

예제의 결과는 다음과 같아야 합니다:

서버:

     $ python TCPServer.py
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'hello world with TCP'
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'python is nice'

클라이언트:

     $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
     Sent:     hello world with TCP
     Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
     $ python TCPClient.py python is nice
     Sent:     python is nice
     Received: PYTHON IS NICE


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver UDPServer 예,  Next: 비동기 믹스인,  Prev: socketserver TCPServer 예,  Up: 예<13>

5.22.16.6 ‘socketserver.UDPServer’ 예
.....................................

이것은 서버 쪽입니다:

     import socketserver

     class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         self.request가 데이터와 클라이언트 소켓의 쌍으로 구성되고 연결이
         없기 때문에 sendto()를 통해 데이터를 다시 보낼 때 클라이언트 주소를
         명시적으로 제공해야 한다는 점을 제외하면, 이 클래스는 TCP 처리기 클래스와
         유사하게 작동합니다.
         """

         def handle(self):
             data = self.request[0].strip()
             socket = self.request[1]
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(data)
             socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
         with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
             server.serve_forever()

이것은 클라이언트 쪽입니다:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # SOCK_DGRAM은 UDP 소켓으로 사용할 소켓 유형입니다
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     # 보시다시피, connect() 호출은 없습니다; UDP는 연결이 없습니다.
     # 대신, sendto()를 통해 데이터를 수신자에게 직접 보냅니다.
     sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
     received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

예제의 출력은 TCP 서버 예제와 정확히 같아야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 믹스인,  Prev: socketserver UDPServer 예,  Up: 예<13>

5.22.16.7 비동기 믹스인
.......................

비동기 처리기를 구축하려면, *note ThreadingMixIn: b75. 과 *note
ForkingMixIn: b74. 클래스를 사용하십시오.

*note ThreadingMixIn: b75. 클래스의 예:

     import socket
     import threading
     import socketserver

     class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
             response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
             self.request.sendall(response)

     class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
         pass

     def client(ip, port, message):
         with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
             sock.connect((ip, port))
             sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
             response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             print("Received: {}".format(response))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # 포트 0은 임의의 미사용 포트를 선택하는 것을 의미합니다
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0

         server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
         with server:
             ip, port = server.server_address

             # 서버로 스레드를 시작합니다 -- 그런 다음 그 스레드가 요청마다 스레드를 하나씩 더
             # 시작합니다
             server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
             # 메인 스레드가 종료할 때 서버 스레드를 종료합니다
             server_thread.daemon = True
             server_thread.start()
             print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)

             client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")

             server.shutdown()

예제의 결과는 다음과 같아야 합니다:

     $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
     Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
     Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
     Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
     Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3

*note ForkingMixIn: b74. 클래스는 서버가 요청마다 새 프로세스를 생성한다
는 점을 제외하고 같은 방식으로 사용됩니다.  *note fork(): 197.를 지원하
는 POSIX 플랫폼에서만 사용 가능합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: http server — HTTP 서버,  Next: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리,  Prev: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.17 ‘http.server’ — HTTP 서버
---------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/http/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 HTTP 서버를 구현하기 위한 클래스를 정의합니다.

     경고: 프로덕션에는 *note http.server: 72.가 권장되지 않습니다.
     *note 기초적인 보안 검사: 3b86.만 구현합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

*note HTTPServer: 398e. 클래스는 *note socketserver.TCPServer: 130f. 서
브 클래스입니다.  HTTP 소켓을 만들고 리스닝하면서 요청을 처리기로 디스패
치 합니다.  서버를 만들고 실행하는 코드는 다음과 같습니다:

     def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
         server_address = ('', 8000)
         httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
         httpd.serve_forever()

 -- 클래스: http.server.HTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     이 클래스는 *note TCPServer: 130f. 클래스를 기반으로 하고, 서버 주
     소를 ‘server_name’과 ‘server_port’라는 인스턴스 변수로 저장합니다.
     처리기는 일반적으로 처리기의 ‘server’ 인스턴스 변수를 통해 서버에 액
     세스 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     이 클래스는 HTTPServer와 동일하지만 *note ThreadingMixIn: b75.을 사
     용하여 요청을 처리하는 데 스레드를 사용합니다.  *note HTTPServer:
     398e.가 무기한 대기하도록 만드는 소켓을 미리 여는 웹 브라우저를 처
     리하는 데 유용합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

*note HTTPServer: 398e.와 *note ThreadingHTTPServer: b41.는 인스턴스 화
할 때 'RequestHandlerClass'를 제공해야 하며, 이 모듈은 세 가지 변형을 제
공합니다:

 -- 클래스: http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     이 클래스는 서버에 도착하는 HTTP 요청을 처리하는 데 사용됩니다.  그
     자체로는, 실제 HTTP 요청에 응답할 수 없습니다; 각 요청 메서드(예를
     들어 GET이나 POST)를 처리하려면 서브 클래스를 만들어야 합니다.
     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be.는 많은 클래스 및 인스턴스 변수
     와 서브 클래스가 사용할 메서드를 제공합니다.

     처리기는 요청과 헤더를 구문 분석한 다음, 요청 유형에 특정한 메서드
     를 호출합니다.  메서드 이름은 요청으로부터 구성됩니다.  예를 들어,
     요청 메서드 ‘SPAM’의 경우, ‘do_SPAM()’ 메서드가 인자 없이 호출됩니
     다.  모든 관련 정보는 처리기의 인스턴스 변수에 저장됩니다.  서브 클
     래스는 ‘__init__()’ 메서드를 대체하거나 확장할 필요가 없습니다.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be.에는 다음과 같은 인스턴스 변수가
     있습니다:

      -- 속성: client_address

          클라이언트 주소를 나타내는 ‘(host, port)’ 형식의 튜플을 포함합
          니다.

      -- 속성: server

          서버 인스턴스를 포함합니다.

      -- 속성: close_connection

          *note handle_one_request(): 3b8a.가 반환되기 전에 설정해야 하
          는 불리언으로, 다른 요청이 기대되는지, 또는 연결을 종료해야 하
          는지를 나타냅니다.

      -- 속성: requestline

          HTTP 요청 줄의 문자열 표현을 포함합니다.  종료 CRLF가 제거됩니
          다.  이 어트리뷰트는 *note handle_one_request(): 3b8a.에서 설
          정해야 합니다.  유효한 요청 줄이 처리되지 않았으면, 빈 문자열
          로 설정해야 합니다.

      -- 속성: command

          명령(요청 유형)을 포함합니다.  예를 들어, ‘'GET'’.

      -- 속성: path

          Contains the request path.  If query component of the URL is
          present, then ‘path’ includes the query.  Using the
          terminology of RFC 3986(2), ‘path’ here includes ‘hier-part’
          and the ‘query’.

      -- 속성: request_version

          요청의 버전 문자열을 포함합니다.  예를 들어, ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- 속성: headers

          *note MessageClass: 3b8f. 클래스 변수로 지정된 클래스의 인스턴
          스를 보유합니다.  이 인스턴스는 HTTP 요청의 헤더를 구문 분석하
          고 관리합니다.  *note http.client: 6f.의 *note
          parse_headers(): 1a50. 함수가 헤더를 구문 분석하는 데 사용되며
          HTTP 요청이 유효한 RFC 2822(3) 스타일 헤더를 제공할 것을 요구
          합니다.

      -- 속성: rfile

          선택적 입력 데이터의 시작부터 읽을 준비가 된 *note
          io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 입력 스트림.

      -- 속성: wfile

          클라이언트로 돌려줄 응답을 쓰기 위한 출력 스트림을 포함합니다.
          HTTP 클라이언트와의 성공적인 상호 운용을 위해서 이 스트림에 쓸
          때 HTTP 프로토콜을 올바르게 준수해야 합니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 이것은 *note io.BufferedIOBase: 68e. 스트림
          입니다.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be.에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있
     습니다:

      -- 속성: server_version

          서버 소프트웨어 버전을 지정합니다.  이것을 재정의하고 싶을 수
          있습니다.  형식은 여러 공백으로 구분된 문자열이며, 각 문자열은
          name[/version] 형식입니다.  예를 들어, ‘'BaseHTTP/0.2'’.

      -- 속성: sys_version

          *note version_string: 3b94. 메서드와 *note server_version:
          3b92. 클래스 변수에서 사용할 수 있는 형식으로 파이썬 시스템 버
          전을 포함합니다.  예를 들어, ‘'Python/1.4'’.

      -- 속성: error_message_format

          클라이언트에 대한 에러 응답을 빌드하기 위해 *note
          send_error(): f48. 메서드에서 사용해야 하는 포맷 문자열을 지정
          합니다.  문자열은 기본적으로 *note send_error(): f48.에 전달된
          상태 코드에 따라 *note responses: 3a5d.의 변수로 채워집니다.

      -- 속성: error_content_type

          클라이언트로 전송되는 에러 응답의 Content-Type HTTP 헤더를 지
          정합니다.  기본값은 ‘'text/html'’입니다.

      -- 속성: protocol_version

          서버가 준수하는 HTTP 버전을 지정합니다.  향후 요청에 대한 서버
          의 통신 기능을 클라이언트에게 알리기 위해 응답으로 전송됩니다.
          ‘'HTTP/1.1'’로 설정되면, 서버는 HTTP 지속적 연결(persistent
          connections)을 허용합니다; 그러나, 이때 서버는 '반드시' 클라이
          언트에 대한 모든 응답에 (*note send_header(): 3b98.를 사용해서
          ) 정확한 ‘Content-Length’ 헤더를 포함해야 합니다.  이전 버전과
          의 호환성을 위해, 기본 설정은 ‘'HTTP/1.0'’입니다.

      -- 속성: MessageClass

          HTTP 헤더를 구문 분석할 *note email.message.Message: 27c.와 유
          사한 클래스를 지정합니다.  일반적으로, 이는 재정의되지 않으며,
          기본값은 *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a74.입니다.

      -- 속성: responses

          이 어트리뷰트에는 에러 코드 정수에서 짧고 긴 메시지를 포함하는
          두 요소 튜플로의 매핑이 포함됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘{code:
          (shortmessage, longmessage)}’.  'shortmessage'는 일반적으로 에
          러 응답에서 'message' 키로 사용되고, 'longmessage'는 'explain'
          키로 사용됩니다.  *note send_response_only(): 3b99.와 *note
          send_error(): f48. 메서드에서 사용됩니다.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드
     가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: handle ()

          들어오는 HTTP 요청을 처리하기 위해 *note handle_one_request():
          3b8a.를 한 번 (또는, 지속적 연결이 활성화되었으면, 여러 번) 호
          출합니다.  재정의할 필요는 없습니다; 대신 적절한 ‘do_*()’ 메서
          드를 구현하십시오.

      -- 메서드: handle_one_request ()

          이 메서드는 요청을 구문 분석하여 적절한 ‘do_*()’ 메서드로 디스
          패치 합니다.  재정의할 필요는 없습니다.

      -- 메서드: handle_expect_100 ()

          HTTP/1.1 호환 서버가 ‘Expect: 100-continue’ 요청 헤더를 수신하
          면 ‘100 Continue’로 응답한 후 ‘200 OK’ 헤더가 뒤따릅니다.  클
          라이언트가 계속하는 것을 서버가 원하지 않으면 에러를 발생시키
          기 위해 이 메서드를 재정의할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 서버는
          ‘417 Expectation Failed’를 응답 헤더로 보내고 ‘return False’ 할
          수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: send_error (code, message=None, explain=None)

          클라이언트에게 완전한 에러 응답을 보내고 로깅 합니다.  숫자
          'code'는 HTTP 에러 코드를 지정하며, 'message'는 선택적인 사람
          이 읽을 수 있는 에러에 대한 간단한 설명입니다.  'explain' 인자
          는 에러에 대한 자세한 정보를 제공하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다;
          *note error_message_format: 3b95. 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 포맷되
          고 전체 헤더 집합 뒤에 응답 바디로 보냅니다.  *note responses:
          3a5d. 어트리뷰트는 값이 제공되지 않을 때 사용될 'message'와
          'explain'의 기본값을 담고 있습니다; 알 수 없는 코드의 경우 둘
          다 기본값은 문자열 ‘???’입니다.  메서드가 HEAD이거나 응답 코드
          가 ‘1XX’, ‘204 No Content’, ‘205 Reset Content’, ‘304 Not
          Modified’ 중 하나면 바디는 비어 있게 됩니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 에러 응답에는 Content-Length 헤더가 포함됩
          니다.  'explain' 인자를 추가했습니다.

      -- 메서드: send_response (code, message=None)

          헤더 버퍼에 응답 헤더를 추가하고 받아들인 요청을 로깅 합니다.
          HTTP 응답 줄이 내부 버퍼에 기록되고, 'Server'와 'Date' 헤더가
          뒤따릅니다.  이 두 헤더의 값은 각각 *note version_string():
          3b94.과 *note date_time_string(): 3b9d. 메서드에서 취합니다.  서
          버가 *note send_header(): 3b98. 메서드를 사용하여 다른 헤더를
          보내려고 하지 않는다면, *note send_response(): 3b9c. 다음에
          *note end_headers(): 10bf. 호출이 있어야 합니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 헤더는 내부 버퍼에 저장되며 *note
          end_headers(): 10bf.를 명시적으로 호출해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: send_header (keyword, value)

          *note end_headers(): 10bf.나 *note flush_headers(): 10c0.가 호
          출될 때 출력 스트림에 기록될 내부 버퍼에 HTTP 헤더를 추가합니
          다.  'keyword'는 헤더 키워드를 지정하고, 'value'는 값을 지정해
          야 합니다.  send_header 호출이 완료된 후, 작업을 완료하려면 반
          드시 *note end_headers(): 10bf.를 호출해야 함에 유의하십시오.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 헤더는 내부 버퍼에 저장됩니다.

      -- 메서드: send_response_only (code, message=None)

          응답 헤더만 보내는데, 서버가 ‘100 Continue’ 응답을 클라이언트
          로 전송할 목적으로 사용됩니다.  헤더는 버퍼링 되지 않고 출력 스
          트림으로 직접 전송합니다.  'message'를 지정하지 않으면, 응답
          'code'에 해당하는 HTTP 메시지가 전송됩니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: end_headers ()

          (응답에서 HTTP 헤더의 끝을 나타내는) 빈 줄을 헤더 버퍼에 추가
          하고 *note flush_headers(): 10c0.를 호출합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 버퍼링 된 헤더는 출력 스트림에 기록됩니다.

      -- 메서드: flush_headers ()

          마지막으로 헤더를 출력 스트림으로 보내고 내부 헤더 버퍼를 플러
          시 합니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: log_request (code='-', size='-')

          받아들인 (성공적인) 요청을 로깅 합니다.  'code'는 응답과 관련
          된 숫자 HTTP 코드를 지정해야 합니다.  응답의 크기가 있으면,
          'size' 매개 변수로 전달되어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: log_error (...)

          요청을 이행할 수 없을 때 에러를 로깅 합니다.  기본적으로, 메시
          지를 *note log_message(): 3ba0.에 전달하므로, 같은 인자
          ('format'과 추가 값)를 취합니다.

      -- 메서드: log_message (format, ...)

          ‘sys.stderr’에 임의의 메시지를 로깅 합니다.  이것은 일반적으로
          사용자 지정 에러 로깅 메커니즘을 만들기 위해 재정의됩니다.
          'format' 인자는 표준 printf 스타일 포맷 문자열이며, *note
          log_message(): 3ba0.에 대한 추가 인자는 포매팅의 입력으로 적용
          됩니다.  클라이언트 ip 주소와 현재 날짜 및 시간은 로깅 되는 모
          든 메시지 앞에 붙습니다.

      -- 메서드: version_string ()

          서버 소프트웨어의 버전 문자열을 반환합니다.  이것은 *note
          server_version: 3b92.과 *note sys_version: 3b93. 어트리뷰트의
          조합입니다.

      -- 메서드: date_time_string (timestamp=None)

          'timestamp'(‘None’이거나 *note time.time(): 254.이 반환한 형식
          이어야 합니다)로 지정된 날짜와 시간을 메시지 헤더용으로 포맷하
          여 반환합니다.  'timestamp'를 생략하면, 현재 날짜와 시간이 사
          용됩니다.

          결과는 ‘'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'’와 같은 모습입니다.

      -- 메서드: log_date_time_string ()

          로깅용으로 포맷한 현재 날짜와 시간을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: address_string ()

          클라이언트 주소를 반환합니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전에는, 이름 조회가 수행되었습니다.  이름
          결정(name resolution) 지연을 피하고자, 이제 항상 IP 주소를 반
          환합니다.

 -- 클래스: http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server, directory=None)

     이 클래스는 디렉터리 구조를 HTTP 요청에 직접 매핑하여 디렉터리
     'directory'와 그 이하의, 또는 'directory'가 제공되지 않으면 현재 디
     렉터리의 파일을 제공합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Added the 'directory' parameter.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'directory' 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를
     받아들입니다.

     요청 구문 분석과 같은 많은 작업이 베이스 클래스 *note
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be. 에 의해 수행됩니다.  이 클래스는
     *note do_GET(): 3ba3.과 *note do_HEAD(): 3ba4. 함수를 구현합니다.

     다음은 *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. 의 클래스 수준 어트리뷰
     트로 정의됩니다:

      -- 속성: server_version

          이것은 ‘"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__’이며, 여기서
          ‘__version__’은 모듈 수준에서 정의됩니다.

      -- 속성: extensions_map

          접미사를 MIME 형식으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리.  기본 시스템 매핑에
          대한 사용자 정의 재정의를 포함합니다.  매핑은 대소 문자를 구분
          없이 사용되므로, 소문자 키만 포함해야 합니다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 딕셔너리는 더는 기본 시스템 매핑으로 채
          워지지 않고, 재정의 만 포함합니다.

     *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. 클래스는 다음 메서드를 정의합
     니다:

      -- 메서드: do_HEAD ()

          이 메서드는 ‘'HEAD'’ 요청 유형을 제공합니다: 동등한 ‘GET’ 요청
          에 대해 전송할 헤더를 전송합니다.  가능한 헤더에 대한 더 완전
          한 설명은 *note do_GET(): 3ba3. 메서드를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: do_GET ()

          요청을 현재 작업 디렉터리에 상대적인 경로로 해석하여 요청은 로
          컬 파일에 매핑됩니다.

          요청이 디렉터리에 매핑되었으면, 디렉터리는 ‘index.html’이나
          ‘index.htm’ (이 순서대로) 파일을 검사합니다.  발견되면, 파일 내
          용이 반환됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘list_directory()’ 메서드를 호
          출하여 디렉터리 목록이 생성됩니다.  이 메서드는 *note
          os.listdir(): 10eb.을 사용하여 디렉터리를 스캔하고, *note
          listdir(): 10eb.이 실패하면 ‘404’ 에러 응답을 반환합니다.

          요청이 파일에 매핑되었으면, 파일을 엽니다.  요청된 파일을 열 때
          발생하는 *note OSError: 411. 예외는 ‘404’, ‘'File not found'’
          에러로 매핑됩니다.  요청에 ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ 헤더가 있고,
          이 시간 이후 파일이 수정되지 않았으면, ‘304’, ‘'Not Modified'’
          응답이 전송됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 콘텐츠 유형은
          ‘guess_type()’ 메서드를 호출하여 추측되며, 이 메서드는
          'extensions_map' 변수를 사용합니다.  그런 다음 파일 내용이 반
          환됩니다.

          추측된 콘텐츠 유형의 ‘'Content-type:'’ 헤더가 출력되고, 파일 크
          기가 담긴 ‘'Content-Length:'’ 헤더와 파일 수정 시간이 담긴
          ‘'Last-Modified:'’ 헤더가 뒤따릅니다.

          Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers,
          and then the contents of the file are output.

          사용 예로는, Lib/http/server.py(4) 모듈에서 ‘test’ 함수 구현을
          참조하십시오.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ 헤더 지원.

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. 클래스는 현재 디렉터리를 기준으로 파
일을 제공하는 매우 기본적인 웹 서버를 만들기 위해 다음과 같은 방식으로 사
용될 수 있습니다:

     import http.server
     import socketserver

     PORT = 8000

     Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
         print("serving at port", PORT)
         httpd.serve_forever()

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. can also be subclassed to enhance
behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the
class attribute ‘index_pages’.

 -- 클래스: http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     이 클래스는 현재 디렉터리와 그 아래에 있는 파일이나 CGI 스크립트의
     출력을 제공하는 데 사용됩니다.  HTTP 계층 구조를 로컬 디렉터리 구조
     에 매핑하는 것은 *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40.와 정확히 같음
     에 유의하십시오.

          참고: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1. 클래스가 실행하는 CGI
          스크립트는 리디렉션(HTTP 코드 302)을 실행할 수 없습니다, CGI 스
          크립트를 실행하기 전에 코드 200(스크립트 출력이 이어집니다)이
          전송되기 때문입니다.  이것은 상태 코드를 선점합니다.

     클래스는 CGI 스크립트라고 생각되면 파일로 제공하는 대신 CGI 스크립
     트를 실행합니다.  디렉터리 기반 CGI만 사용됩니다 — 다른 일반적인 서
     버 구성은 특수한 확장자를 CGI 스크립트를 나타내는 것으로 취급하는 것
     입니다.

     요청이 ‘cgi_directories’ 경로 아래로 이어지면, 파일을 제공하는 대신
     CGI 스크립트를 실행하고 출력을 제공하도록 ‘do_GET()’과 ‘do_HEAD()’
     함수가 수정되었습니다.

     *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1.는 다음 데이터 멤버를 정의합니다:

      -- 속성: cgi_directories

          기본값은 ‘['/cgi-bin', '/htbin']’이며 CGI 스크립트를 포함하는
          것으로 취급할 디렉터리를 기술합니다.

     *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1.는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: do_POST ()

          이 메서드는 ‘'POST'’ 요청 유형을 제공하며, CGI 스크립트에만 허
          용됩니다.  CGI 이외의 url에 POST를 시도할 때 에러 501, “Can
          only POST to CGI scripts”가 출력됩니다.

     보안상의 이유로, CGI 스크립트는 nobody 사용자의 UID로 실행됨에 유의
     하십시오.  CGI 스크립트 문제는 에러 403으로 변환됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1. is being removed in 3.15.  CGI
     has not been considered a good way to do things for well over a
     decade.  This code has been unmaintained for a while now and sees
     very little practical use.  Retaining it could lead to further
     *note security considerations: 3b86.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.
* Security considerations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/server.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<2>,  Next: Security considerations,  Up: http server — HTTP 서버

5.22.17.1 Command-line interface
................................

*note http.server: 72.는 인터프리터의 *note -m: 5db. 스위치를 사용하여 직
접 호출할 수도 있습니다.  다음 예제는 현재 디렉터리를 기준으로 파일을 제
공하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: port

     The server listens to port 8000 by default.  The default can be
     overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument:

          python -m http.server 9000

 -- Option: -b, --bind <address>

     바인딩할 특정 주소를 지정합니다.  IPv4와 IPv6 주소가 모두 지원됩니
     다.  기본적으로, 서버는 모든 인터페이스에 자신을 바인드 합니다.  예
     를 들어, 다음 명령은 서버가 localhost에만 바인드 하도록 합니다:

          python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Support IPv6 in the ‘--bind’ option.

 -- Option: -d, --directory <dir>

     파일을 제공할 디렉터리를 지정합니다.  기본적으로 서버는 현재 디렉터
     리를 사용합니다.  예를 들어, 다음 명령은 특정 디렉터리를 사용합니다
     :

          python -m http.server --directory /tmp/

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: -p, --protocol <version>

     Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.  By
     default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0.  For example, the
     following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server:

          python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --cgi

     ‘--cgi’ 옵션을 전달하여 명령 줄에서 *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler:
     2a1.를 사용할 수 있습니다:

          python -m http.server --cgi

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note http.server: 72. command line ‘--cgi’ support is being
     removed because *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1. is being removed.

     경고: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1. and the ‘--cgi’
     command-line option are not intended for use by untrusted clients
     and may be vulnerable to exploitation.  Always use within a secure
     environment.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations,  Prev: Command-line interface<2>,  Up: http server — HTTP 서버

5.22.17.2 Security considerations
.................................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b40. will follow symbolic links when
handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the
specified directory to be served.

Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log
messages emitted to stderr from ‘python -m http.server’ or the default
*note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10be. ‘.log_message’ implementation.  This
could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious
control codes to your terminal.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr logs.


File: python.info,  Node: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리,  Next: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리,  Prev: http server — HTTP 서버,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.18 ‘http.cookies’ — HTTP 상태 관리
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/http/cookies.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note http.cookies: 71. 모듈은 HTTP 상태 관리 메커니즘인 쿠키의 개념을 추
상화하는 클래스를 정의합니다.  그것은 단순한 문자열 전용 쿠키를 지원하고
, 동시에 직렬화 가능한 데이터형을 쿠키값으로 갖는 데 필요한 추상화를 제
공합니다.

이 모듈은 예전에는 RFC 2109(2)와 RFC 2068(3) 명세에서 설명된 구문 분석 규
칙을 엄격하게 적용했습니다.  그 이후로 MSIE 3.0x가 이 명세에 명시된 문자
규칙을 따르지 않았으며; 쿠키 처리와 관련하여 오늘날의 많은 브라우저와 서
버 또한 구문 분석 규칙을 완화했다는 사실이 발견되었습니다.  결과적으로,
이제 이 모듈은 이전보다 약간 덜 엄격한 구문 분석 규칙을 사용합니다.

문자 집합, *note string.ascii_letters: 12b3, *note string.digits: 22ca.
및 ‘!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:’는 이 모듈이 쿠키 이름(*note key: bff.)에 허용한 유
효한 문자 집합을 나타냅니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘:’를 유효한 쿠키 이름 문자로 허용합니다.

     참고: 잘못된 쿠키가 발견되면, *note CookieError: 3bb5.가 발생하므로
     , 쿠키 데이터가 브라우저에서 제공되면 항상 잘못된 데이터일 가능성에
     대비하고 구문 분석할 때 *note CookieError: 3bb5.를 잡아야 합니다.

 -- 예외: http.cookies.CookieError

     RFC 2109(4) 위반으로 인해 실패하는 예외: 잘못된 어트리뷰트, 잘못된
     ‘Set-Cookie’ 헤더 등

 -- 클래스: http.cookies.BaseCookie ([input])

     이 클래스는 키가 문자열이고 값이 *note Morsel: bfe. 인스턴스인 딕셔
     너리 형 객체입니다.  키에 값을 설정하면, 값이 먼저 키와 값이 포함된
     *note Morsel: bfe.로 변환됩니다.

     'input'이 주어지면, *note load(): 3bb7. 메서드로 전달됩니다.

 -- 클래스: http.cookies.SimpleCookie ([input])

     이 클래스는 *note BaseCookie: 3bb6.에서 파생되며 *note
     value_decode(): 3bb8.와 *note value_encode(): 3bb9.를 재정의합니다.
     ‘SimpleCookie’는 문자열 쿠키값을 지원합니다.  값을 설정할 때,
     ‘SimpleCookie’는 내장 *note str(): 445.을 호출하여 값을 문자열로 변
     환합니다.  HTTP에서 수신된 값은 문자열로 유지됩니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note http.cookiejar: 70.

     웹 '클라이언트'용 HTTP 쿠키 처리.  *note http.cookiejar: 70.와
     *note http.cookies: 71. 모듈 간의 의존성은 없습니다.

RFC 2109(5) - HTTP State Management Mechanism (HTTP 상태 관리 메커니즘)

     이것은 이 모듈이 구현한 상태 관리 명세입니다.

* Menu:

* 쿠키 객체::
* Morsel 객체::
* 예제: 예제<25>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/cookies.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: 쿠키 객체,  Next: Morsel 객체,  Up: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리

5.22.18.1 쿠키 객체
...................

 -- 메서드: BaseCookie.value_decode (val)

     문자열 표현으로부터 튜플 ‘(real_value, coded_value)’를 반환합니다.
     ‘real_value’는 모든 형이 될 수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 *note
     BaseCookie: 3bb6.에서는 아무런 디코딩을 하지 않습니다 — 재정의할 수
     있도록 존재합니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseCookie.value_encode (val)

     튜플 ‘(real_value, coded_value)’를 반환합니다.  'val'은 모든 형이 될
     수 있지만, ‘coded_value’는 항상 문자열로 변환됩니다.  이 메서드는
     *note BaseCookie: 3bb6.에서는 아무런 인코딩을 하지 않습니다 — 재정
     의할 수 있도록 존재합니다.

     일반적으로, *note value_encode(): 3bb9.와 *note value_decode():
     3bb8.는 'value_decode' 범위에서 역연산입니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseCookie.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:',
          sep='\r\n')

     HTTP 헤더로서 송신하기 적절한 문자열 표현을 반환합니다.  'attrs'와
     'header'는 각 *note Morsel: bfe.의 *note output(): 3bbd. 메서드로 전
     송됩니다.  'sep'는 헤더를 함께 결합하는 데 사용되며, 기본적으로
     ‘'\r\n'’ (CRLF) 조합입니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseCookie.js_output (attrs=None)

     자바스크립트를 지원하는 브라우저에서 실행될 때 HTTP 헤더가 전송된 것
     처럼 작동하는, 삽입 가능한 자바스크립트 코드 조각을 반환합니다.

     'attrs'의 의미는 *note output(): 3bbc.과 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: BaseCookie.load (rawdata)

     'rawdata'가 문자열이면, ‘HTTP_COOKIE’로 구문 분석하고 거기에 있는 값
     을 *note Morsel: bfe.로 추가합니다.  딕셔너리면, 다음과 동등합니다:

          for k, v in rawdata.items():
              cookie[k] = v


File: python.info,  Node: Morsel 객체,  Next: 예제<25>,  Prev: 쿠키 객체,  Up: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리

5.22.18.2 Morsel 객체
.....................

 -- 클래스: http.cookies.Morsel

     RFC 2109(1) 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 키/값 쌍을 추상화합니다.

     Morsel은 딕셔너리류 객체이며, 키의 집합은 상수입니다 — 다음과 같은
     유효한 RFC 2109(2) 어트리뷰트입니다:

           -- 속성: expires
           -- 속성: path
           -- 속성: comment
           -- 속성: domain

           -- 속성: max-age
           -- 속성: secure
           -- 속성: version
           -- 속성: httponly
           -- 속성: samesite

     *note httponly: 1399. 어트리뷰트는 쿠키가 HTTP 요청으로만 전송되고
     자바스크립트를 통해 액세스할 수 없도록 지정합니다.  이것은 교차 사
     이트 스크립팅의 일부 형식을 방지하기 위한 것입니다.

     The attribute *note samesite: 3bc7. controls when the browser sends
     the cookie with cross-site requests.  This helps to mitigate CSRF
     attacks.  Valid values are “Strict” (only sent with same-site
     requests), “Lax” (sent with same-site requests and top-level
     navigations), and “None” (sent with same-site and cross-site
     requests).  When using “None”, the “secure” attribute must also be
     set, as required by modern browsers.

     키는 대소 문자를 구분하지 않으며 기본값은 ‘''’입니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘__eq__()’는 이제 *note key: bff.와 *note value:
     c00.를 고려합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 어트리뷰트 *note key: bff, *note value: c00. 및
     *note coded_value: c01.는 읽기 전용입니다.  설정하려면 *note set():
     c02.을 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note samesite: 3bc7. 어트리뷰트에 대한 지원이 추
     가되었습니다.

 -- 속성: Morsel.value

     쿠키의 값.

 -- 속성: Morsel.coded_value

     쿠키의 인코딩된 값 — 이것을 전송해야 합니다.

 -- 속성: Morsel.key

     쿠키의 이름.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.set (key, value, coded_value)

     'key', 'value' 및 'coded_value' 어트리뷰트를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.isReservedKey (K)

     'K'가 *note Morsel: bfe.의 키 집합의 구성원인지를 판단합니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')

     HTTP 헤더로 보내기에 적합한, Morsel의 문자열 표현을 반환합니다.  기
     본적으로, 'attrs'가 주어지지 않는 한, 모든 어트리뷰트가 포함됩니다.
     주어지면 사용할 어트리뷰트 리스트여야 합니다.  'header'는 기본적으
     로 ‘"Set-Cookie:"’입니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.js_output (attrs=None)

     자바스크립트를 지원하는 브라우저에서 실행될 때, HTTP 헤더가 전송된
     것처럼 작동하는, 삽입 가능한 자바스크립트 코드 조각을 반환합니다.

     'attrs'의 의미는 *note output(): 3bbd.과 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.OutputString (attrs=None)

     둘러싸는 HTTP나 자바스크립트 없이 Morsel을 표현하는 문자열을 반환합
     니다.

     'attrs'의 의미는 *note output(): 3bbd.과 같습니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.update (values)

     Morsel 딕셔너리의 값을 닥셔너리 'values'의 값으로 갱신합니다.
     'values' 딕셔너리의 키 중 하나라도 유효한 RFC 2109(3) 어트리뷰트가
     아니면 에러를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 유효하지 않은 키에 대해서 에러가 발생합니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.copy (value)

     Morsel 객체의 얕은 복사본을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 딕셔너리 대신 Morsel 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Morsel.setdefault (key, value=None)

     key가 유효한 RFC 2109(4) 어트리뷰트가 아니면 에러를 발생시킵니다.  그
     렇지 않으면, *note dict.setdefault(): 106f.와 같이 동작합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<25>,  Prev: Morsel 객체,  Up: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리

5.22.18.3 예제
..............

다음 예제는 *note http.cookies: 71. 모듈을 사용하는 방법을 보여줍니다.

     >>> from http import cookies
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["fig"] = "newton"
     >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
     >>> print(C) # HTTP 헤더를 생성합니다
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> print(C.output()) # 마찬가지입니다
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["rocky"] = "road"
     >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
     >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
     >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # 문자열에서 로드합니다 (HTTP 헤더)
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
     Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";')
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;"
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
     >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
     >>> C["twix"].value
     'none for you'
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["number"] = 7 # C["number"] = str(7) 과 동등합니다
     >>> C["string"] = "seven"
     >>> C["number"].value
     '7'
     >>> C["string"].value
     'seven'
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: number=7
     Set-Cookie: string=seven


File: python.info,  Node: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리,  Next: xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈,  Prev: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.19 ‘http.cookiejar’ — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리
-----------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/http/cookiejar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note http.cookiejar: 70. 모듈은 HTTP 쿠키의 자동 처리를 위한 클래스를 정
의합니다.  웹 서버의 HTTP 응답으로 클라이언트 시스템에 설정된 후, 이후의
HTTP 요청에서 서버로 반환되는 작은 데이터 조각 – '쿠키(cookies)' – 을 요
구하는 웹 사이트에 액세스하는 데 유용합니다.

일반 Netscape 쿠키 프로토콜과 RFC 2965(2)로 정의된 프로토콜이 모두 처리
됩니다.  RFC 2965 처리는 기본적으로 꺼져있습니다.  RFC 2109(3) 쿠키는
Netscape 쿠키로 구문 분석된 후 이후에 적용되는 ‘정책’에 따라 Netscape나
RFC 2965 쿠키로 처리됩니다.  인터넷 쿠키의 대부분은 Netscape 쿠키임에 유
의하십시오.  *note http.cookiejar: 70.는 RFC 2965에 도입된 ‘max-age’와
‘port’ 쿠키 어트리뷰트를 처리하는 것을 포함하여, 시장 표준 Netscape 쿠키
프로토콜(원래 Netscape 명세에서 설정한 것과 꽤 다릅니다)을 따르려고 합니
다.

     참고: ‘Set-Cookie’와 ‘Set-Cookie2’ 헤더에서 발견되는 다양한 이름 붙
     은 파라미터(예를 들어, ‘domain’과 ‘expires’)는 통상적으로 '어트리뷰
     트(attributes)'로 지칭됩니다.  파이썬 어트리뷰트와 구별하기 위해, 이
     모듈의 설명서는 '쿠키 어트리뷰트(cookie-attribute)'라는 용어를 대신
     사용합니다.

모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: http.cookiejar.LoadError

     *note FileCookieJar: 3bd1. 인스턴스는 파일에서 쿠키를 로드하지 못하
     면 이 예외를 발생시킵니다.  *note LoadError: 3bd0.는 *note OSError:
     411.의 서브 클래스입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전에는 *note LoadError: 3bd0.가 *note IOError:
     1048.의 서브 형이었습니다.  이제는 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다
     .

다음과 같은 클래스가 제공됩니다:

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.CookieJar (policy=None)

     'policy'는 *note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체입니
     다.

     *note CookieJar: 39fd. 클래스는 HTTP 쿠키를 저장합니다.  HTTP 요청
     에서 쿠키를 추출하고, HTTP 응답으로 반환합니다.  필요하면 *note
     CookieJar: 39fd. 인스턴스는 포함된 쿠키를 자동으로 만료합니다.  서
     브 클래스는 파일이나 데이터베이스에서 쿠키를 저장하고 검색하는 역할
     도 합니다.

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     'policy'는 *note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체입니
     다.  다른 인자에 대해서는, 해당 어트리뷰트의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     디스크의 파일에서 쿠키를 로드하고 아마도 파일에 쿠키를 저장할 수 있
     는 *note CookieJar: 39fd.  *note load(): 3bd3.나 *note revert():
     3bd4. 메서드가 호출될 때까지 이름이 지정된 파일에서 쿠키가 로드되지
     '않습니다'.  이 클래스의 서브 클래스는 *note FileCookieJar 서브
     클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력: 3bd5. 섹션에 설명되어 있습니다.

     This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below
     instead.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: filename 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 지
     원합니다.

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy

     이 클래스는 각 쿠키가 서버에서 수락되고 서버로 반환되어야 하는지를
     결정하는 역할을 맡습니다.

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy (blocked_domains=None,
          allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False,
          rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False,
          strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True,
          strict_ns_unverifiable=False,
          strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal,
          strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False,
          secure_protocols=('https', 'wss'))

     생성자 인자는 키워드 인자로만 전달해야 합니다.  'blocked_domains'는
     쿠키를 수락하지도 쿠키를 반환하지도 않을 도메인 이름의 시퀀스입니다
     .  'allowed_domains'가 *note None: 66f.이 아니면, 이것이 쿠키를 수
     락하고 반환하는 유일한 도메인의 시퀀스입니다.  'secure_protocols'는
     보안 쿠키를 추가 할 수 있는 프로토콜의 시퀀스입니다.  기본적으로
     'https'와 'wss'(보안 웹 소켓)는 보안 프로토콜로 간주합니다.  다른 모
     든 인자는, *note CookiePolicy: 3bd2.와 *note DefaultCookiePolicy:
     1a18. 객체에 대한 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18.는 Netscape와 RFC 2965(4) 쿠키를 위
     한 표준 수락/거부 규칙을 구현합니다.  기본적으로, RFC 2109(5) 쿠키
     (즉 version 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 1인 ‘Set-Cookie’ 헤더로 수신된 쿠키
     )는 RFC 2965 규칙에 따라 처리됩니다.  그러나, RFC 2965 처리가 꺼져
     있거나 *note rfc2109_as_netscape: 3bd6.가 ‘True’이면, *note Cookie:
     3bd7. 인스턴스의 ‘version’ 어트리뷰트를 0으로 설정하여, *note
     CookieJar: 39fd. 인스턴스에서 RFC 2109 쿠키를 Netscape 쿠키로 ‘다운
     그레이드’ 합니다.  *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18.는 정책을 미세 조
     정할 수 있는 매개 변수도 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.Cookie

     이 클래스는 Netscape, RFC 2109(6) 및 RFC 2965(7) 쿠키를 나타냅니다.
     *note http.cookiejar: 70. 사용자가 스스로 *note Cookie: 3bd7. 인스
     턴스를 만들 것으로 기대하지 않습니다.  대신, 필요하면, *note
     CookieJar: 39fd. 인스턴스에서 ‘make_cookies()’를 호출하십시오.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note urllib.request: 10b.

     자동 쿠키 처리가 지원되는 URL 열기.

모듈 *note http.cookies: 71.

     HTTP 쿠키 클래스, 주로 서버 측 코드에 유용합니다.  *note
     http.cookiejar: 70.와 *note http.cookies: 71. 모듈은 서로 의존하지
     않습니다.

‘https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html’

     원래 Netscape 쿠키 프로토콜의 명세.  이것이 여전히 지배적인 프로토
     콜이지만, 모든 주요 브라우저(및 *note http.cookiejar: 70.)에 의해 구
     현된 ‘Netscape 쿠키 프로토콜’은 사라져가는 ‘cookie_spec.html’에서 스
     케치 된 것과의 유사성을 담고 있을 뿐입니다.

RFC 2109(8) - HTTP 상태 관리 메커니즘

     RFC 2965(9)로 개정되었습니다.  version=1 인 ‘Set-Cookie’를 사용합니
     다.

RFC 2965(10) - HTTP 상태 관리 메커니즘

     버그가 수정된 Netscape 프로토콜.  ‘Set-Cookie’ 대신 ‘Set-Cookie2’를
     사용합니다.  널리 사용되지 않습니다.

‘https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html’

     완료되지 않은 RFC 2965(11)의 정오표.

RFC 2964(12) - HTTP 상태 관리 사용

* Menu:

* CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체::
* FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력::
* CookiePolicy 객체::
* DefaultCookiePolicy 객체::
* Cookie 객체::
* 예: 예<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/cookiejar.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체,  Next: FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력,  Up: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

5.22.19.1 CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체
........................................

*note CookieJar: 39fd. 객체는 포함된 *note Cookie: 3bd7. 객체를 이터레이
트 하기 위한 *note 이터레이터: 1ac. 프로토콜을 지원합니다.

*note CookieJar: 39fd.에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.add_cookie_header (request)

     'request'에 올바른 ‘Cookie’ 헤더를 추가합니다.

     정책이 허용하면 (즉, *note CookieJar: 39fd.의 *note CookiePolicy:
     3bd2. 인스턴스의 ‘rfc2965’와 ‘hide_cookie2’ 어트리뷰트가 각각 참과
     거짓이면), ‘Cookie2’ 헤더도 적절한 경우 추가됩니다.

     'request' 객체(일반적으로 *note urllib.request.Request: fd0. 인스턴
     스)는 *note urllib.request: 10b.에 설명되어 있듯이
     ‘get_full_url()’, ‘has_header()’, ‘get_header()’, ‘header_items()’,
     ‘add_unredirected_header()’ 및 어트리뷰트 ‘host’, ‘type’,
     ‘unverifiable’, ‘origin_req_host’를 지원해야 합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'request' 객체에는 ‘origin_req_host’ 어트리뷰트
     가 필요합니다.  폐지된 메서드 ‘get_origin_req_host()’에 대한 의존성
     이 제거되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.extract_cookies (response, request)

     HTTP 'response'에서 쿠키를 추출하여 정책이 허용하면 *note
     CookieJar: 39fd.에 저장합니다.

     *note CookieJar: 39fd.는 'response' 인자에서 수락할 수 있는
     ‘Set-Cookie’와 ‘Set-Cookie2’ 헤더를 찾고, 쿠키를 적절하게 저장합니
     다 (*note CookiePolicy.set_ok(): 3bdc. 메서드의 승인에 따라).

     'response' 객체(일반적으로 *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 293. 호
     출의 결과, 또는 유사한 것)는 *note email.message.Message: 27c. 인스
     턴스를 반환하는 ‘info()’ 메서드를 지원해야 합니다.

     'request' 객체(일반적으로 *note urllib.request.Request: fd0. 인스턴
     스)는 *note urllib.request: 10b.에 설명되어 있듯이 메서드
     ‘get_full_url()’ 과 어트리뷰트 ‘host’, ‘unverifiable’ 및
     ‘origin_req_host’를 지원해야 합니다.  request는 쿠키를 설정할 수 있
     는지 확인하는 것뿐만 아니라 쿠키 어트리뷰트의 기본값을 설정하는 데
     사용됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'request' 객체에는 ‘origin_req_host’ 어트리뷰트
     가 필요합니다.  폐지된 메서드 ‘get_origin_req_host()’에 대한 의존성
     이 제거되었습니다.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.set_policy (policy)

     사용할 *note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 인스턴스를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.make_cookies (response, request)

     'response' 객체에서 추출한 *note Cookie: 3bd7. 객체의 시퀀스를 반환
     합니다.

     'response'와 'request' 인자에 필요한 인터페이스는 *note
     extract_cookies(): 3bdb. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok (cookie, request)

     정책이 그래도 좋다고 한다면 *note Cookie: 3bd7.를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.set_cookie (cookie)

     설정할 수 있는지 정책을 확인하지 않고, *note Cookie: 3bd7.를 설정합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.clear ([domain[, path[, name]]])

     일부 쿠키를 지웁니다.

     인자 없이 호출되면, 모든 쿠키를 지웁니다.  단일 인자가 제공되면, 해
     당 'domain'에 속하는 쿠키만 제거됩니다.  두 개의 인자가 제공되면, 지
     정된 'domain'과 URL 'path'에 속하는 쿠키가 제거됩니다.  세 개의 인
     자가 제공되면, 지정된 'domain', 'path' 및 'name'을 갖는 쿠키가 제거
     됩니다.

     일치하는 쿠키가 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies ()

     모든 세션 쿠키를 폐기합니다.

     실제 ‘discard’ 어트리뷰트를 갖는 모든 쿠키를 폐기합니다 (보통
     ‘max-age’나 ‘expires’ 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 없기 때문에, 혹은 명시적인
     ‘discard’ 쿠키 어트리뷰트).  대화식 브라우저의 경우, 세션의 끝은 일
     반적으로 브라우저 창을 닫는 것에 해당합니다.

     ‘save()’ 메서드는 참값의 'ignore_discard' 인자를 전달하여 다르게 요
     청하지 않는 한 세션 쿠키를 저장하지 않음에 유의하십시오.

*note FileCookieJar: 3bd1.는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드를 구현합니다:

 -- 메서드: FileCookieJar.save (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     쿠키를 파일에 저장합니다.

     이 베이스 클래스는 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시킵니다.
     서브 클래스는 이 메서드를 구현하지 않은 채로 둘 수 있습니다.

     'filename'은 쿠키를 저장할 파일의 이름입니다.  'filename'을 지정하
     지 않으면, ‘self.filename’이 사용됩니다 (이것의 기본값은 생성자에게
     전달된 값입니다, 있다면); ‘self.filename’이 *note None: 66f.이면
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     'ignore_discard': 폐기되는 것으로 설정된 쿠키도 저장합니다.
     'ignore_expires': 만료된 쿠키도 저장합니다

     파일이 이미 존재하면, 파일을 덮어써서, 파일에 포함된 모든 쿠키를 지
     웁니다.  저장된 쿠키는 나중에 *note load(): 3bd3.나 *note revert():
     3bd4. 메서드를 사용하여 복원할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: FileCookieJar.load (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     파일에서 쿠키를 로드합니다.

     새로 로드한 쿠키가 덮어쓰지 않는 한 오래된 쿠키는 유지됩니다.

     인자는 *note save(): 3be3.와 같습니다.

     명명된 파일은 클래스가 이해하는 형식이어야 하고, 그렇지 않으면
     *note LoadError: 3bd0.가 발생합니다.  또한, 예를 들어 파일이 존재하
     지 않으면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note IOError: 1048.가 발생했었지만, 이제는
     *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

 -- 메서드: FileCookieJar.revert (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     모든 쿠키를 지우고 저장된 파일에서 쿠키를 다시 로드합니다.

     *note revert(): 3bd4.는 *note load(): 3bd3.와 같은 예외를 발생시킬
     수 있습니다.  실패가 일어나면, 객체 상태는 변경되지 않습니다.

*note FileCookieJar: 3bd1. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 공용 어트리뷰트가 있
습니다:

 -- 속성: FileCookieJar.filename

     쿠키를 보관할 기본 파일의 파일명.  이 어트리뷰트는 대입할 수 있습니
     다.

 -- 속성: FileCookieJar.delayload

     참이면, 디스크에서 쿠키를 천천히(lazily) 로드합니다.  이 어트리뷰트
     는 대입하지 않아야 합니다.  (디스크의 쿠키가 변경되지 않는 한) 성능
     에만 영향을 미칠 뿐 동작을 바꾸지는 않기 때문에, 이것은 힌트일 뿐입
     니다.  *note CookieJar: 39fd. 객체는 이를 무시할 수 있습니다.  표준
     라이브러리에 포함된 *note FileCookieJar: 3bd1. 클래스는 아무것도 쿠
     키를 천천히 로드하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력,  Next: CookiePolicy 객체,  Prev: CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체,  Up: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

5.22.19.2 FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력
..........................................................

다음 *note CookieJar: 39fd. 서브 클래스는 읽기와 쓰기를 위해 제공됩니다.

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar (filename=None,
          delayload=None, policy=None)

     Mozilla ‘cookies.txt’ 파일 형식(curl, Lynx 및 Netscape 브라우저에서
     도 사용됩니다)으로 디스크에서 쿠키를 로드하고 저장할 수 있는 *note
     FileCookieJar: 3bd1.

          참고: RFC 2965(1) 쿠키에 대한 정보와, ‘port’ 같은 최신이나 비
          표준 쿠키 어트리뷰트에 대한 정보가 손실됩니다.

          경고: 손실/손상이 불편한 쿠키가 있다면 저장하기 전에 쿠키를 백
          업하십시오 (로드/저장 왕복으로 인해 파일이 약간 변경될 수 있는
          미묘한 부분이 있습니다).

     또한 Mozilla가 실행되는 동안 저장된 쿠키는 Mozilla에 의해 방해를 받
     음에 유의하십시오.

 -- 클래스: http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     libwww-perl 라이브러리의 ‘Set-Cookie3’ 파일 형식과 호환되는 형식으
     로 쿠키를 디스크에서 로드하고 저장할 수 있는 *note FileCookieJar:
     3bd1.  사람이 읽을 수 있는 파일에 쿠키를 저장하려는 경우에 편리합니
     다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: filename 매개 변수는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 지
     원합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookiePolicy 객체,  Next: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체,  Prev: FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력,  Up: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

5.22.19.3 CookiePolicy 객체
...........................

*note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체에는 다음과 같은 메
서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: CookiePolicy.set_ok (cookie, request)

     서버에서 쿠키를 수락해야 하는지를 나타내는 불리언 값을 반환합니다.

     'cookie'는 *note Cookie: 3bd7. 인스턴스입니다.  'request'는 *note
     CookieJar.extract_cookies(): 3bdb. 설명서에서 정의한 인터페이스를 구
     현하는 객체입니다.

 -- 메서드: CookiePolicy.return_ok (cookie, request)

     쿠키를 서버로 반환해야 하는지를 나타내는 불리언 값을 반환합니다.

     'cookie'는 *note Cookie: 3bd7. 인스턴스입니다.  'request'는 *note
     CookieJar.add_cookie_header(): 3bda. 설명서에서 정의한 인터페이스를
     구현하는 객체입니다.

 -- 메서드: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok (domain, request)

     주어진 쿠키 도메인(domain)에서, 쿠키를 반환하지 않아야 하면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     이 메서드는 최적화입니다.  특정 도메인을 가진 모든 쿠키를 검사할 필
     요(많은 파일을 읽는 것을 수반합니다)를 제거합니다.  *note
     domain_return_ok(): 3bec.와 *note path_return_ok(): 3bed.에서 참을
     반환하면 모든 작업이 *note return_ok(): 3beb.로 넘어갑니다.

     쿠키 도메인에 대해 *note domain_return_ok(): 3bec.가 참을 반환하면,
     쿠키 경로에 대해 *note path_return_ok(): 3bed.가 호출됩니다.  그렇
     지 않으면, 해당 쿠키 도메인에 대해 *note path_return_ok(): 3bed.와
     *note return_ok(): 3beb.가 호출되지 않습니다.  *note
     path_return_ok(): 3bed.가 참을 반환하면, *note return_ok(): 3beb.가
     *note Cookie: 3bd7. 객체 자체로 호출되어 전체 검사를 수행합니다.  그
     렇지 않으면, 해당 쿠키 경로에 대해 *note return_ok(): 3beb.가 호출
     되지 않습니다.

     *note domain_return_ok(): 3bec.는 'request' 도메인뿐만 아니라 모든
     'cookie' 도메인에 대해 호출됨에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, 요청 도메
     인이 ‘"www.example.com"’이면 함수는 ‘".example.com"’과
     ‘"www.example.com"’ 모두에 대해 호출될 수 있습니다.  *note
     path_return_ok(): 3bed.도 마찬가지입니다.

     'request' 인자는 *note return_ok(): 3beb.에 대해 설명된 대로입니다.

 -- 메서드: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok (path, request)

     주어진 쿠키 경로에 대해, 쿠키를 반환하지 않아야 하면 ‘False’를 반환
     합니다.

     *note domain_return_ok(): 3bec. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

위의 메서드를 구현하는 것 외에도, *note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 인터페이스의
구현은 어떤 프로토콜을 어떻게 사용해야 하는지를 나타내는 다음 어트리뷰트
도 제공해야 합니다.  이러한 모든 어트리뷰트는 대입할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: CookiePolicy.netscape

     Netscape 프로토콜을 구현합니다.

 -- 속성: CookiePolicy.rfc2965

     RFC 2965(1) 프로토콜을 구현합니다.

 -- 속성: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2

     요청에 ‘Cookie2’ 헤더를 추가하지 않습니다 (이 헤더가 있으면 서버에
     게 우리가 RFC 2965(2) 쿠키를 이해하고 있음을 알립니다).

*note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 클래스를 정의하는 가장 유용한 방법은 *note
DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18. 에서 서브 클래싱하고 위의 메서드 중 일부나 전
부를 재정의하는 것입니다.  *note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 자체는 모든 쿠키를
설정하고 수신하도록 허용하는 ‘널 정책’으로 사용될 수 있습니다 (이 정책이
그리 유용하지는 않을 것입니다).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체,  Next: Cookie 객체,  Prev: CookiePolicy 객체,  Up: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

5.22.19.4 DefaultCookiePolicy 객체
..................................

쿠키 수락과 반환에 대한 표준 규칙을 구현합니다.

RFC 2965(1)와 Netscape 쿠키를 모두 다룹니다.  RFC 2965 처리는 기본적으로
꺼져있습니다.

자체 정책을 제공하는 가장 쉬운 방법은 이 클래스를 재정의하고 자체 검사를
추가하기 전에 재정의된 구현에서 해당 메서드를 호출하는 것입니다:

     import http.cookiejar
     class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
         def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
             if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
                 return False
             if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
                 return False
             return True

*note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 인터페이스를 구현하는 데 필요한 기능 외에도, 이
클래스를 사용하면 도메인이 쿠키를 설정하고 수신하는 것을 차단하고 허락할
수 있도록 합니다.  또한 다소 느슨한 Netscape 프로토콜 규칙을 약간 강화할
수 있는 몇 가지 엄격성 스위치가 있습니다 (일부 양성 쿠키를 차단하는 대가
를 치르면서).

도메인 차단 목록과 수락 목록이 제공됩니다 (둘 다 기본적으로 꺼져있습니다
).  차단 목록에 없고 수락 목록에 있는(수락 목록이 활성화되었다면) 도메인
만 쿠키 설정과 반환에 참여합니다.  'blocked_domains' 생성자 인자와
‘blocked_domains()’ 및 ‘set_blocked_domains()’ 메서드 (그리고
'allowed_domains'를 위한 해당 인자와 메서드)를 사용하십시오.  수락 목록
을 설정하면, *note None: 66f.으로 설정하여 수락 목록을 다시 끌 수 있습니
다.

점으로 시작하지 않는 차단 또는 수락 목록에 있는 도메인은 일치할 쿠키 도
메인과 같아야 합니다.  예를 들어, ‘"example.com"’은 차단 목록 항목
‘"example.com"’과 일치하지만, ‘"www.example.com"’은 일치하지 않습니다.  점
으로 시작하는 도메인은 더 구체적인 도메인과도 일치합니다.  예를 들어,
‘"www.example.com"’과 ‘"www.coyote.example.com"’은 모두
‘".example.com"’과 일치합니다 (하지만 ‘"example.com"’ 자체는 일치하지 않
습니다).  IP 주소는 예외이며, 정확히 일치해야 합니다.  예를 들어,
blocked_domains에 ‘"192.168.1.2"’와 ‘".168.1.2"’가 포함되어 있으면,
192.168.1.2는 차단되지만, 193.168.1.2는 차단되지 않습니다.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18.는 다음과 같은 추가 메서드를 구현합니다:

 -- 메서드: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains ()

     차단된 도메인 시퀀스를 반환합니다 (튜플로).

 -- 메서드: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains (blocked_domains)

     차단된 도메인 시퀀스를 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked (domain)

     'domain'이 쿠키 설정이나 수신에 대한 차단 목록에 있으면 ‘True’를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 메서드: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains ()

     *note None: 66f, 또는 수락 도메인 시퀀스를 반환합니다 (튜플).

 -- 메서드: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains (allowed_domains)

     수락 도메인 시퀀스, 또는 *note None: 66f.을 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed (domain)

     'domain'이 쿠키 설정이나 수신에 대한 수락 목록에 있으면 ‘True’를 반
     환합니다.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있
습니다.  이 어트리뷰트들은 모두 같은 이름의 생성자 인자로 초기화되며, 모
두 대입할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape

     참이면, *note CookieJar: 39fd. 인스턴스가 *note Cookie: 3bd7. 인스
     턴스의 version 쿠키 어트리뷰트를 0으로 설정하여 RFC 2109(2) 쿠키(즉
     , ‘Set-Cookie’ 헤더에서 수신된 version 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 1인 쿠키
     )를 Netscape 쿠키로 다운 그레이드하도록 요청합니다.  기본값은 *note
     None: 66f.입니다, 이 경우 RFC 2965(3) 처리가 꺼졌을 때만 RFC 2109 쿠
     키가 다운 그레이드됩니다.  따라서, RFC 2109 쿠키는 기본적으로 다운
     그레이드됩니다.

일반 엄격성 스위치:

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain

     사이트가 ‘.co.uk’, ‘.gov.uk’, ‘.co.nz’ 등의 국가 코드 최상위 도메인
     으로 2개의 구성 요소 도메인을 설정하는 것을 수락하지 않습니다.  이
     것은 완벽하지는 않으며 작동하지 않을 수도 있습니다!

RFC 2965(4) 프로토콜 엄격성 스위치:

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable

     확인할 수 없는 트랜잭션(unverifiable transactions)에 대한 RFC
     2965(5) 규칙을 따릅니다 (일반적으로 확인할 수 없는 트랜잭션은 다른
     사이트에서 호스팅 되는 이미지에 대한 리디렉션이나 요청으로 인한 결
     과입니다).  이것이 거짓이면, 확인 가능성에 기초하여 쿠키가 차단되지
     '않습니다'.

넷스케이프 프로토콜 엄격성 스위치:

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable

     Netscape 쿠키에도 확인할 수 없는 트랜잭션에 대한 RFC 2965(6) 규칙을
     적용합니다.

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain

     Netscape 쿠키에 대한 도메인 일치 규칙이 얼마나 엄격한지를 나타내는
     플래그.  허용 가능한 값은 아래를 참조하십시오.

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar

     이름이 ‘'$'’로 시작하는 Set-Cookie: 헤더의 쿠키를 무시합니다.

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path

     경로가 요청 URI와 경로 일치하지 않는 쿠키 설정을 수락하지 않습니다.

*note strict_ns_domain: 3bfc. is a collection of flags.  Its value is
constructed by or-ing together (for example,
‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ means both flags are set).

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots

     쿠키를 설정할 때, ‘호스트 접두사’에는 점이 없어야 합니다 (예를 들어
     ‘www.foo’에 점이 있어서, ‘www.foo.bar.com’이 ‘.bar.com’에 대한 쿠키
     를 설정할 수 없습니다).

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain

     ‘domain’ 쿠키 어트리뷰트를 명시적으로 지정하지 않은 쿠키는 쿠키를 설
     정한 도메인과 같은 도메인으로만 반환될 수 있습니다 (예를 들어
     ‘spam.example.com’으로는 ‘domain’ 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 없는
     ‘example.com’의 쿠키를 반환하지 않습니다).

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match

     쿠키를 설정할 때, 전체 RFC 2965(7) 도메인 일치가 필요합니다.

편의를 위해 다음 어트리뷰트가 제공되며, 위 플래그의 가장 유용한 조합입니
다:

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal

     0과 동등합니다 (즉, 위의 모든 Netscape 도메인 엄격성 플래그가 꺼집
     니다).

 -- 속성: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict

     ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ 과 동등합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie 객체,  Next: 예<14>,  Prev: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체,  Up: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

5.22.19.5 Cookie 객체
.....................

*note Cookie: 3bd7. 인스턴스는 다양한 쿠키 표준에 지정된 표준 쿠키 어트
리뷰트에 대략 상응하는 파이썬 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다.  기본값을 지정하기
위한 복잡한 규칙이 있고, ‘max-age’와 ‘expires’ 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 동등한
정보를 포함하고, RFC 2109(1) 쿠키가 버전 1에서 버전 0 (Netscape) 쿠키로
*note http.cookiejar: 70.에 의해 ‘다운 그레이드’ 될 수 있기 때문에 대응
은 일대일이 아닙니다.

*note CookiePolicy: 3bd2. 메서드에서의 드문 경우를 제외하고 이러한 어트
리뷰트에 대입할 필요는 없습니다.  이 클래스는 내부 일관성을 강요하지 않
기 때문에, 그렇게 한다면 무엇을 하고 있는지 알아야 합니다.

 -- 속성: Cookie.version

     정수나 *note None: 66f.  Netscape 쿠키는 *note version: 3c05. 0을 갖
     습니다.  RFC 2965(2)와 RFC 2109(3) 쿠키는 1의 ‘version’ 쿠키 어트리
     뷰트를 갖습니다.  그러나, *note http.cookiejar: 70.는 RFC 2109 쿠키
     를 Netscape 쿠키로 ‘다운 그레이드’할 수 있으며, 이 경우 *note
     version: 3c05.은 0입니다.

 -- 속성: Cookie.name

     쿠키 이름 (문자열).

 -- 속성: Cookie.value

     쿠키값 (문자열), 또는 *note None: 66f.

 -- 속성: Cookie.port

     포트나 포트 집합을 나타내는 문자열 (예를 들어 ‘80’이나 ‘80,8080’),
     또는 *note None: 66f.

 -- 속성: Cookie.domain

     쿠키 도메인 (문자열).

 -- 속성: Cookie.path

     쿠키 경로 (문자열, 예를 들어 ‘'/acme/rocket_launchers'’).

 -- 속성: Cookie.secure

     쿠키가 보안 연결을 통해서만 반환되어야 하면 ‘True’.

 -- 속성: Cookie.expires

     에포크 이후의 초 단위 정수 만료 날짜, 또는 *note None: 66f.  *note
     is_expired(): 3c0d. 메서드도 참조하십시오.

 -- 속성: Cookie.discard

     세션 쿠키이면 ‘True’.

 -- 속성: Cookie.comment

     이 쿠키의 기능을 설명하는 서버의 문자열 주석, 또는 *note None: 66f.

 -- 속성: Cookie.comment_url

     이 쿠키의 기능을 설명하는 서버의 주석에 대한 URL 링크, 또는 *note
     None: 66f.

 -- 속성: Cookie.rfc2109

     이 쿠키가 RFC 2109(4) 쿠키로 수신되었으면 (즉 쿠키가 ‘Set-Cookie’ 헤
     더로 도착하고, 해당 헤더의 Version 쿠키 어트리뷰트 값이 1인 경우)
     ‘True’.  *note http.cookiejar: 70.가 RFC 2109 쿠키를 Netscape 쿠키
     로 ‘다운 그레이드’할 수 있기 때문에 이 어트리뷰트가 제공됩니다.  이
     경우 *note version: 3c05.은 0입니다.

 -- 속성: Cookie.port_specified

     서버가 (‘Set-Cookie’ / ‘Set-Cookie2’ 헤더에서) 포트나 포트 집합을 명
     시적으로 지정했으면 ‘True’.

 -- 속성: Cookie.domain_specified

     서버가 도메인을 명시적으로 지정했으면 ‘True’.

 -- 속성: Cookie.domain_initial_dot

     서버에서 명시적으로 지정한 도메인이 점(‘'.'’)으로 시작하면 ‘True’.

쿠키에는 비표준 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 추가로 있을 수 있습니다.  다음 메서드
를 사용하여 액세스 할 수 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr (name)

     쿠키에 지정된 이름의 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr (name, default=None)

     쿠키에 지정된 이름의 쿠키 어트리뷰트가 있으면, 그 값을 반환합니다.
     그렇지 않으면 'default'를 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr (name, value)

     지정된 이름의 쿠키 어트리뷰트의 값을 설정합니다.

*note Cookie: 3bd7. 클래스는 다음 메서드도 정의합니다:

 -- 메서드: Cookie.is_expired (now=None)

     쿠키에 대해 서버가 만료해야 한다고 요청한 시간이 지났으면 ‘True’.
     'now'가 제공되면 (에포크 이후의 초로), 쿠키가 지정된 시간에 만료되
     는지를 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: 예<14>,  Prev: Cookie 객체,  Up: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리

5.22.19.6 예
............

첫 번째 예는 *note http.cookiejar: 70.의 가장 일반적인 사용법을 보여줍니
다:

     import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

이 예는 Netscape, Mozilla 또는 Lynx 쿠키를 사용하여 URL을 여는 방법을 보
여줍니다 (쿠키 파일의 위치에 대해서는 유닉스/Netscape 규칙을 가정합니다
):

     import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
     cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

다음 예는 *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a18. 의 사용법을 보여줍니다.  RFC
2965(1) 쿠키를 켜고, Netscape 쿠키를 설정하고 반환할 때 도메인에 대해 더
욱 엄격하며, 일부 도메인이 쿠키를 설정하거나 쿠키를 반환하지 못하도록 차
단합니다:

     import urllib.request
     from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
     policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
         rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
         blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
     cj = CookieJar(policy)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈,  Next: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스,  Prev: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.20 ‘xmlrpc’ — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈
------------------------------------------------

XML-RPC는 HTTP를 트랜스포트로 사용해서 전달되는 XML을 사용하는 원격 프로
시저 호출 방법입니다.  이를 통해, 클라이언트는 원격 서버(서버는 URI로 지
정됩니다)의 매개 변수가 있는 메서드를 호출하고 구조화된 데이터를 받을 수
있습니다.

‘xmlrpc’는 XML-RPC를 구현하는 서버와 클라이언트 모듈을 모아둔 패키지입니
다.  모듈은 다음과 같습니다:

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.

   * *note xmlrpc.server: 12f.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스,  Next: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버,  Prev: xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.21 ‘xmlrpc.client’ — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스
---------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xmlrpc/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

XML-RPC는 HTTP(S)를 통해 전달된 XML을 트랜스포트로 사용하는 원격 프로시
저 호출(Remote Procedure Call) 방법입니다.  이를 통해, 클라이언트는 원격
서버에서 매개 변수를 사용하여 메서드를 호출하고 (서버는 URI로 이름이 지
정됩니다) 구조화된 데이터를 돌려받을 수 있습니다.  이 모듈은 XML-RPC 클
라이언트 코드 작성을 지원합니다; 적합한 파이썬 객체와 전송 회선 상의 XML
간 변환의 모든 세부 사항을 처리합니다.

     경고: The *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3797.

버전 3.5에서 변경: HTTPS URI의 경우, *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.는 이제 기
본적으로 필요한 모든 인증서와 호스트명 확인을 수행합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy (uri, transport=None,
          encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False,
          use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(),
          context=None)

     *note ServerProxy: a53. 인스턴스는 원격 XML-RPC 서버와의 통신을 관
     리하는 객체입니다.  필수적인 첫 번째 인자는 URI(Uniform Resource
     Indicator)이며 일반적으로 서버의 URL입니다.  선택적인 두 번째 인자
     는 트랜스포트 팩토리 인스턴스입니다; 기본적으로 https: URL의 경우는
     내부 ‘SafeTransport’ 인스턴스이고 그렇지 않으면 내부 HTTP
     ‘Transport’ 인스턴스입니다.  선택적 세 번째 인자는 인코딩이며, 기본
     적으로 UTF-8입니다.  선택적 네 번째 인자는 디버깅 플래그입니다.

     그 뒤에 오는 매개 변수들은 반환된 프락시 인스턴스 사용을 제어합니다
     .  'allow_none'이 참이면, 파이썬 상수 ‘None’이 XML로 변환됩니다; 기
     본 동작은 ‘None’이 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시키는 것입니다.  이
     것은 XML-RPC 명세에 일반적으로 사용되는 확장이지만, 모든 클라이언트
     와 서버에서 지원되는 것은 아닙니다; 설명은
     http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php(2)를 참조하십시오.
     'use_builtin_types' 플래그를 사용하여 날짜/시간 값을 *note
     datetime.datetime: 1cc. 객체로 표현하고 바이너리 데이터를 *note
     bytes: 1c2. 객체로 표현할 수 있습니다; 이 플래그는 기본적으로 거짓
     입니다.  *note datetime.datetime: 1cc, *note bytes: 1c2. 및 *note
     bytearray: 538. 객체는 호출로 전달될 수 있습니다.  'headers' 매개 변
     수는 각 요청과 함께 보낼 선택적 HTTP 헤더의 시퀀스이며, 헤더 이름과
     값을 나타내는 2-튜플의 시퀀스로 표현됩니다.  (예를 들어
     ‘[('Header-Name', 'value')]’).  HTTPS URL이 제공되면, 'context'는
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 294.일 수 있으며, 하부 HTTPS 연결의 SSL 설정
     을 구성합니다.  사용되지 않는 'use_datetime' 플래그는
     'use_builtin_types'와 유사하지만, 날짜/시간 값에만 적용됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'use_builtin_types' 플래그가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'headers' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     HTTP와 HTTPS 트랜스포트는 모두 HTTP 기본 인증(Basic
     Authentication)을 위한 URL 구문 확장을 지원합니다:
     ‘http://user:pass@host:port/path’.  ‘user:pass’ 부분은 HTTP
     ‘Authorization’ 헤더로 base64 인코딩되고, XML-RPC 메서드를 호출할 때
     연결 프로세스의 일부로 원격 서버로 전송됩니다.  원격 서버가 기본 인
     증 사용자와 비밀번호를 요구할 때만 이를 사용해야 합니다.

     반환된 인스턴스는 원격 서버에서 해당 RPC 호출을 호출하는 데 사용할
     수 있는 메서드가 있는 프락시 객체입니다.  원격 서버가 인트로스펙션
     (introspection) API를 지원하면, 프락시를 사용하여 원격 서버에서 지
     원하는 메서드를 조회하고 (서비스 검색, service discovery) 다른 서버
     관련 메타 데이터를 가져올 수 있습니다.

     적합한 형(예를 들어 XML을 통해 마샬링 할 수 있는 형)에는 다음이 포
     함됩니다 (별도로 표시된 경우를 제외하고는 같은 파이썬 형으로 역마샬
     링 됩니다):

     XML-RPC 형                 파이썬 형
                                
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
     ‘boolean’                  *note bool: 461.
                                
                                
     ‘int’, ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i4’,   -2147483648에서 2147483647 범위의 *note int: 257.  값은
     ‘i8’ 또는 ‘biginteger’     ‘<int>’ 태그를 얻습니다.
                                
                                
     ‘double’이나 ‘float’       *note float: 2ef.  값은 ‘<double>’ 태그를 얻습니다.
                                
                                
     ‘string’                   *note str: 445.
                                
                                
     ‘array’                    적합한 요소를 포함하는 *note list: 60b.나
                                *note tuple: 369.  배열은 *note 리스트: 60b.로 반환됩니다
                                .
                                
                                
     ‘struct’                   *note dict: 256.  키는 문자열이어야 하며, 값은 적합한 형
                                일 수 있습니다.  사용자 정의 클래스의 객체를 전달할 수 있
                                습니다; *note __dict__: 556. 어트리뷰트만 전송됩니다.
                                
                                
     ‘dateTime.iso8601’         *note DateTime: 13ac.이나 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.  반
                                환되는 형은 'use_builtin_types'와 'use_datetime' 플래그 값
                                에 따라 다릅니다.
                                
                                
     ‘base64’                   *note Binary: 3c1d, *note bytes: 1c2. 또는
                                *note bytearray: 538.  반환되는 형은 'use_builtin_types'
                                플래그의 값에 따라 다릅니다.
                                
                                
     ‘nil’                      ‘None’ 상수.  'allow_none'이 참일 때만 전달이 허용됩니다.
                                
                                
     ‘bigdecimal’               *note decimal.Decimal: 29d.  반환되는 형 전용.
                                

     이것이 XML-RPC가 지원하는 데이터형의 전체 집합입니다.  메서드 호출
     은 XML-RPC 서버 에러를 알리는 데 사용되는 특수 *note Fault: 3c1e. 인
     스턴스나 HTTP/HTTPS 전송 계층의 에러를 알리는 데 사용되는 *note
     ProtocolError: 3c1f.를 발생시킬 수도 있습니다.  *note Fault: 3c1e.와
     *note ProtocolError: 3c1f.는 모두 ‘Error’라는 베이스 클래스에서 파
     생됩니다.  xmlrpc 클라이언트 모듈은 현재 내장형의 서브 클래스 인스
     턴스를 마샬링 하지 않음에 유의하십시오.

     문자열을 전달할 때, ‘<’, ‘>’ 및 ‘&’와 같은 XML에 특수한 문자는 자동
     으로 이스케이프 됩니다.  그러나, 0에서 31 사이의 ASCII 값을 가진 제
     어 문자(물론 탭, 줄 넘김 및 캐리지 리턴은 제외하고)와 같이 문자열에
     XML에서 허용되지 않는 문자가 없도록 확인하는 것은 호출자의 책임입니
     다; 이렇게 하지 않으면 XML 형식이 잘못된 XML-RPC 요청이 발생합니다.
     XML-RPC를 통해 임의의 바이트열을 전달해야 하면, *note bytes: 1c2.나
     *note bytearray: 538. 클래스 또는 아래 설명된 *note Binary: 3c1d. 래
     퍼 클래스를 사용하십시오.

     ‘Server’는 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 *note ServerProxy: a53.의 별
     칭으로 유지됩니다.  새 코드는 *note ServerProxy: a53.를 사용해야 합
     니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'context' 인자를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 접두사가 있는 형 태그 지원이 추가되었습니다 (예
     를 들어 ‘ex:nil’).  숫자를 위해 Apache XML-RPC 구현이 사용하는 추가
     형의 역마샬링 지원이 추가되었습니다: ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i8’,
     ‘biginteger’, ‘float’ 및 ‘bigdecimal’.  설명은
     ‘https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html’ 을 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

XML-RPC HOWTO(3)

     여러 언어로 된 XML-RPC 연산과 클라이언트 소프트웨어에 대한 훌륭한 설
     명.  XML-RPC 클라이언트 개발자가 알아야 할 거의 모든 것이 포함되어
     있습니다.

XML-RPC Introspection(4)

     인트로스펙션을 위한 XML-RPC 프로토콜 확장을 설명합니다.

XML-RPC Specification(5)

     공식 명세.

* Menu:

* ServerProxy 객체::
* DateTime 객체::
* Binary 객체::
* Fault 객체::
* ProtocolError 객체::
* MultiCall 객체::
* 편의 함수::
* 클라이언트 사용 예::
* 클라이언트와 서버 사용 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php

   (3) https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html

   (4) https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html

   (5) http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html


File: python.info,  Node: ServerProxy 객체,  Next: DateTime 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.1 ServerProxy 객체
..........................

*note ServerProxy: a53. 인스턴스에는 XML-RPC 서버가 받아들이는 각 원격 프
로시저 호출에 해당하는 메서드가 있습니다.  메서드를 호출하면 RPC를 수행
하는데, 이름과 인자 서명 모두로 디스패치 됩니다 (예를 들어 같은 메서드 이
름이 여러 인자 서명으로 오버로드 될 수 있습니다).  RPC는 값을 반환하여 완
료되는데, 값은 적합한 형으로 반환된 데이터이거나 에러를 나타내는 *note
Fault: 3c1e.나 *note ProtocolError: 3c1f. 객체일 수 있습니다.

XML 인트로스팩션 API를 지원하는 서버는 예약된 ‘system’ 어트리뷰트 밑에 그
룹화된 몇 가지 공통 메서드를 지원합니다:

 -- 메서드: ServerProxy.system.listMethods ()

     이 메서드는 문자열 리스트를 반환하는데, XML-RPC 서버가 지원하는 각
     (system이 아닌) 메서드마다 하나씩 제공됩니다.

 -- 메서드: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature (name)

     이 메서드는 하나의 매개 변수를 취하는데, XML-RPC 서버에 의해 구현된
     메서드의 이름입니다.  이 메서드에 대해 가능한 서명의 배열을 반환합
     니다.  서명은 형의 배열입니다.  이 형 중 첫 번째는 메서드의 반환형
     이고 나머지는 매개 변수입니다.

     다중 서명(즉 오버로딩)이 허용되므로, 이 메서드는 하나가 아닌 서명의
     리스트를 반환합니다.

     서명 자체는 메서드가 기대하는 최상위 매개 변수로 제한됩니다.  예를
     들어, 메서드가 구조체 배열 하나를 매개 변수로 기대하고, 문자열을 반
     환하면, 서명은 단순히 “string, array”입니다.  세 개의 정수를 기대하
     고 문자열을 반환하면, 서명은 “string, int, int, int”입니다.

     메서드에 서명이 정의되지 않으면, 배열이 아닌 값이 반환됩니다.  파이
     썬에서 이것은 반환된 값의 형이 리스트 이외의 어떤 것이 됨을 의미합
     니다.

 -- 메서드: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp (name)

     이 메서드는 하나의 매개 변수를 취하는데, XML-RPC 서버에 의해 구현된
     메서드의 이름입니다.  해당 메서드의 사용법을 기술하는 설명서 문자열
     을 반환합니다.  이러한 문자열이 없으면, 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.  설
     명서 문자열에 HTML 마크업이 포함될 수 있습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: *note ServerProxy: a53. 인스턴스는 하부 트랜스포트를
닫기 위한 *note 컨텍스트 관리자: 5ce. 프로토콜을 지원합니다.

다음은 실제 예입니다.  서버 코드:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def is_even(n):
         return n % 2 == 0

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
     server.serve_forever()

이전 서버에 대한 클라이언트 코드:

     import xmlrpc.client

     with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
         print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
         print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime 객체,  Next: Binary 객체,  Prev: ServerProxy 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.2 DateTime 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.client.DateTime

     이 클래스는 에포크(epoch) 이후의 초, 시간 튜플, ISO 8601 시간/날짜
     문자열 또는 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.으로 초기화될 수 있습니다.
     주로 마샬링/역마샬링 코드 내부에서 사용하기 위해 지원되는, 다음과 같
     은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: decode (string)

          인스턴스의 새 시간 값으로 문자열을 받아들입니다.

      -- 메서드: encode (out)

          이 *note DateTime: 13ac. 항목의 XML-RPC 인코딩을 'out' 스트림
          객체에 씁니다.

     *note 풍부한 비교: 128f.와 *note __repr__(): 616. 메서드를 통해 특
     정 파이썬 내장 연산자도 지원합니다.

다음은 실제 예입니다.  서버 코드:

     import datetime
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def today():
         today = datetime.datetime.today()
         return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(today, "today")
     server.serve_forever()

이전 서버에 대한 클라이언트 코드:

     import xmlrpc.client
     import datetime

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")

     today = proxy.today()
     # ISO8601 문자열을 datetime 객체로 변환합니다
     converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
     print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))


File: python.info,  Node: Binary 객체,  Next: Fault 객체,  Prev: DateTime 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.3 Binary 객체
.....................

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.client.Binary

     이 클래스는 바이트열 데이터(NUL을 포함할 수 있습니다)로 초기화될 수
     있습니다.  *note Binary: 3c1d. 객체의 내용에 대한 기본 액세스는 어
     트리뷰트에 의해 제공됩니다:

      -- 속성: data

          *note Binary: 3c1d. 인스턴스로 캡슐화된 바이너리 데이터.  데이
          터는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 제공됩니다.

     *note Binary: 3c1d. 객체에는 주로 마샬링/역마샬링 코드 내부에서 사
     용하기 위해 지원되는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: decode (bytes)

          base64 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 받아들이고 인스턴스의 새 데이
          터로 디코딩합니다.

      -- 메서드: encode (out)

          이 바이너리 항목의 XML-RPC base64 인코딩을 'out' 스트림 객체에
          씁니다.

          인코딩된 데이터에는 RFC 2045 섹션 6.8(1)에 따라 76문자마다 줄
          바꿈이 있는데, 이는 XML-RPC 명세가 작성될 때 사실상 표준
          base64 명세였습니다.

     *note __eq__(): af7.와 *note __ne__(): 14df. 메서드를 통해 특정 파
     이썬 내장 연산자도 지원합니다.

바이너리 객체의 사용 예.  XMLRPC를 통해 이미지를 전송할 것입니다:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def python_logo():
         with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
             return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')

     server.serve_forever()

클라이언트는 이미지를 가져와서 파일에 저장합니다:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
         handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8


File: python.info,  Node: Fault 객체,  Next: ProtocolError 객체,  Prev: Binary 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.4 Fault 객체
....................

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.client.Fault

     *note Fault: 3c1e. 객체는 XML-RPC 결함 태그의 내용을 캡슐화합니다.
     Fault 객체에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

      -- 속성: faultCode

          결함 형을 나타내는 int.

      -- 속성: faultString

          결함과 연관된 진단 메시지가 포함된 문자열.

다음 예제에서는 복소수 형의 객체를 반환하여 의도적으로 *note Fault:
3c1e.를 발생시킵니다.  서버 코드:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     # 복소수를 반환하기 때문에 마샬링 에러가 발생합니다
     def add(x, y):
         return x+y+0j

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(add, 'add')

     server.serve_forever()

이전 서버에 대한 클라이언트 코드:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     try:
         proxy.add(2, 5)
     except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
         print("A fault occurred")
         print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
         print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)


File: python.info,  Node: ProtocolError 객체,  Next: MultiCall 객체,  Prev: Fault 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.5 ProtocolError 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError

     *note ProtocolError: 3c1f. 객체는 하부 전송 계층에서의 프로토콜 에
     러를 기술합니다 (가령 URI로 명명된 서버가 없을 때 404 ‘not found’ 에
     러).  다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

      -- 속성: url

          에러를 일으킨 URI나 URL.

      -- 속성: errcode

          에러 코드.

      -- 속성: errmsg

          에러 메시지나 진단 문자열.

      -- 속성: headers

          에러를 일으킨 HTTP/HTTPS 요청의 헤더를 포함하는 딕셔너리.

다음 예에서는 잘못된 URI를 제공하여 의도적으로 *note ProtocolError:
3c1f.를 발생시킵니다:

     import xmlrpc.client

     # XMLRPC 요청에 응답하지 않는 URI로 ServerProxy를 만듭니다
     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")

     try:
         proxy.some_method()
     except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
         print("A protocol error occurred")
         print("URL: %s" % err.url)
         print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
         print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
         print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)


File: python.info,  Node: MultiCall 객체,  Next: 편의 함수,  Prev: ProtocolError 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.6 MultiCall 객체
........................

*note MultiCall: 3c39. 객체는 원격 서버에 대한 여러 호출을 단일 요청으로
캡슐화하는 방법을 제공합니다 (1).

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.client.MultiCall (server)

     boxcar 메서드 호출에 사용되는 객체를 만듭니다.  'server'는 최종 호
     출 대상입니다.  결과 객체를 호출할 수 있지만, 즉시 ‘None’을 반환하
     고, 호출 이름과 매개 변수를 *note MultiCall: 3c39. 객체에 저장하기
     만 합니다.  객체 자체를 호출하면 저장된 모든 호출이 단일
     ‘system.multicall’ 요청으로 전송됩니다.  이 호출의 결과는 *note
     제너레이터: 1057.입니다; 이 제너레이터를 이터레이트 하면 개별 결과
     를 산출합니다.

이 클래스의 사용 예는 다음과 같습니다.  서버 코드:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def add(x, y):
         return x + y

     def subtract(x, y):
         return x - y

     def multiply(x, y):
         return x * y

     def divide(x, y):
         return x // y

     # 간단한 산술 함수들이 있는 간단한 서버
     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_multicall_functions()
     server.register_function(add, 'add')
     server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
     server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
     server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
     server.serve_forever()

이전 서버에 대한 클라이언트 코드:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
     multicall.add(7, 3)
     multicall.subtract(7, 3)
     multicall.multiply(7, 3)
     multicall.divide(7, 3)
     result = multicall()

     print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이 접근법은 xmlrpc.com에서의 토론
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic)에
서 처음 제시되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 편의 함수,  Next: 클라이언트 사용 예,  Prev: MultiCall 객체,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.7 편의 함수
...................

 -- 함수: xmlrpc.client.dumps (params, methodname=None,
          methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)

     'params'를 XML-RPC 요청으로, 또는 'methodresponse'가 참이면 응답으
     로 변환합니다.  'params'는 인자의 튜플이거나 *note Fault: 3c1e. 예
     외 클래스의 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.  'methodresponse'가 참이면, 단
     일 값만 반환될 수 있는데, 'params'의 길이가 1이어야 한다는 뜻입니다
     .  제공되면, 'encoding'은 생성된 XML에서 사용할 인코딩입니다; 기본
     값은 UTF-8입니다.  파이썬의 *note None: 66f. 값은 표준 XML-RPC에서
     사용할 수 없습니다; 확장을 통해 이를 사용하려면 'allow_none'에 참값
     을 제공하십시오.

 -- 함수: xmlrpc.client.loads (data, use_datetime=False,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     XML-RPC 요청이나 응답을 파이썬 객체 ‘(params, methodname)’로 변환합
     니다.  'params'는 인자의 튜플입니다; 'methodname'은 문자열이거나 패
     킷에 메서드 이름이 없으면 ‘None’입니다.  XML-RPC 패킷이 결함 조건을
     나타내면, 이 함수는 *note Fault: 3c1e. 예외를 발생시킵니다.
     'use_builtin_types' 플래그를 사용하여 날짜/시간 값을 *note
     datetime.datetime: 1cc. 객체로 표현하고 바이너리 데이터를 *note
     bytes: 1c2. 객체로 표현할 수 있습니다; 이 플래그는 기본적으로 거짓
     입니다.

     사용되지 않는 'use_datetime' 플래그는 'use_builtin_types'와 유사하
     지만, 날짜/시간 값에만 적용됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'use_builtin_types' 플래그가 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클라이언트 사용 예,  Next: 클라이언트와 서버 사용 예,  Prev: 편의 함수,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.8 클라이언트 사용 예
............................

     # 간단한 테스트 프로그램 (XML-RPC 명세에서 인용)
     from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error

     # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # 로컬 서버
     with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:

         print(proxy)

         try:
             print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
         except Error as v:
             print("ERROR", v)

HTTP 프락시를 통해 XML-RPC 서버에 액세스하려면, 사용자 정의 트랜스포트를
정의해야 합니다.  다음 예제는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     import http.client
     import xmlrpc.client

     class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):

         def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
             self.proxy = host, port
             self.proxy_headers = headers

         def make_connection(self, host):
             connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
             connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
             self._connection = host, connection
             return connection

     transport = ProxiedTransport()
     transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
     server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
     print(server.examples.getStateName(41))


File: python.info,  Node: 클라이언트와 서버 사용 예,  Prev: 클라이언트 사용 예,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스

5.22.21.9 클라이언트와 서버 사용 예
...................................

*note SimpleXMLRPCServer 예제: 3c3f.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버,  Next: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리,  Prev: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.22 ‘xmlrpc.server’ — 기본 XML-RPC 서버
-------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/xmlrpc/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xmlrpc.server: 12f. 모듈은 파이썬으로 작성된 XML-RPC 서버를 위한 기
본 서버 프레임워크를 제공합니다.  서버는 *note SimpleXMLRPCServer:
3c42.를 사용하여 독립적이거나, *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c43.를 사
용하여 CGI 환경에 내장될 수 있습니다.

     경고: The *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3797.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     새 서버 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  이 클래스는 XML-RPC 프로토콜에 의해 호
     출될 수 있는 함수를 등록하는 메서드를 제공합니다.  'requestHandler'
     매개 변수는 요청 처리기 인스턴스의 팩토리여야 합니다; 기본값은
     *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 1317. 입니다.  'addr'과
     'requestHandler' 매개 변수는 *note socketserver.TCPServer: 130f. 생
     성자에 전달됩니다.  'logRequests'가 참(기본값)이면, 요청이 로그 됩
     니다; 이 매개 변수를 거짓으로 설정하면 로깅이 해제됩니다.
     'allow_none'과 'encoding' 매개 변수는 *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.로 전
     달되고 서버에서 반환될 XML-RPC 응답을 제어합니다.
     'bind_and_activate' 매개 변수는 생성자가 ‘server_bind()’와
     ‘server_activate()’를 즉시 호출하는지를 제어합니다; 기본값은 참입니
     다.  이를 거짓으로 설정하면 코드가 주소가 바인드되기 전에
     'allow_reuse_address' 클래스 변수를 조작할 수 있습니다.
     'use_builtin_types' 매개 변수는 *note loads(): 13fd. 함수로 전달되
     며 날짜/시간 값이나 바이너리 데이터가 수신될 때 처리되는 형을 제어
     합니다; 기본값은 거짓입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'use_builtin_types' 플래그가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (allow_none=False,
          encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False)

     CGI 환경에서 XML-RPC 요청을 처리할 새 인스턴스를 만듭니다.
     'allow_none'과 'encoding' 매개 변수는 *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.로 전
     달되고 서버에서 반환될 XML-RPC 응답을 제어합니다.
     'use_builtin_types' 매개 변수는 *note loads(): 13fd. 함수로 전달되
     며 날짜/시간 값이나 바이너리 데이터가 수신될 때 처리되는 형을 제어
     합니다; 기본값은 거짓입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'use_builtin_types' 플래그가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     새 요청 처리기 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  이 요청 처리기는 ‘POST’ 요청을
     지원하고 *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c42. 생성자 매개 변수에 대한
     'logRequests' 매개 변수가 적용되도록 로깅을 수정합니다.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* XMLRPC 서버 문서화::
* DocXMLRPCServer 객체::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체,  Next: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버

5.22.22.1 SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체
.................................

*note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c42. 클래스는 *note socketserver.TCPServer:
130f.를 기반으로 하며 간단한 독립형 XML-RPC 서버를 작성하는 수단을 제공
합니다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     XML-RPC 요청에 응답할 수 있는 함수를 등록합니다.  'name'이 제공되면
     , 'function'과 연결되는 메서드 이름이 되고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     function.__name__: 12c4.이 사용됩니다.  'name'은 문자열이며 마침표
     문자를 포함하여 파이썬 식별자에서 유효하지 않은 문자를 포함할 수 있
     습니다.

     이 메서드는 데코레이터로도 사용할 수 있습니다.  데코레이터로 사용될
     때, 'name'은 'function'을 'name'으로 등록하기 위해 키워드 인자로만
     제공될 수 있습니다.  'name'을 제공하지 않으면, *note
     function.__name__: 12c4.이 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note register_function(): 3c46.은 데코레이터로
     사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance (instance,
          allow_dotted_names=False)

     *note register_function(): 3c46.을 사용하여 등록되지 않은 메서드 이
     름을 노출하는데 사용되는 객체를 등록합니다.  'instance'가
     ‘_dispatch()’ 메서드를 포함하면, 요청된 메서드 이름과 요청의 매개 변
     수로 호출됩니다.  API는 ‘def _dispatch(self, method, params)’입니다
     ('params'가 가변 인자 목록을 나타내지 않음에 유의하십시오).  이것이
     작업을 수행하기 위해 하부 함수를 호출하면, 해당 함수를 매개 변수 리
     스트를 확장하여 ‘func(*params)’로 호출합니다.  ‘_dispatch()’의 반환
     값이 클라이언트에 결과로 반환됩니다.  'instance'에 ‘_dispatch()’ 메
     서드가 없으면, 요청된 메서드의 이름과 일치하는 어트리뷰트를 검색합
     니다.

     선택적 'allow_dotted_names' 인자가 참이고 인스턴스에 ‘_dispatch()’
     메서드가 없으면, 요청된 메서드 이름에 마침표가 포함될 때, 메서드 이
     름의 각 구성 요소가 개별적으로 검색되어, 간단한 계층 구조 검색이 수
     행되는 효과를 줍니다.  이 검색에서 찾은 값은 요청의 매개 변수로 호
     출되며 반환 값은 클라이언트로 다시 전달됩니다.

          경고: 'allow_dotted_names' 옵션을 활성화하면 침입자가 모듈의 전
          역 변수에 액세스할 수 있으며 침입자가 여러분의 기계에서 임의의
          코드를 실행할 수 있습니다.  안전한 폐쇄 네트워크에서만 이 옵션
          을 사용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions ()

     XML-RPC 내부 검사 함수 ‘system.listMethods’, ‘system.methodHelp’ 및
     ‘system.methodSignature’를 등록합니다.

 -- 메서드: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions ()

     XML-RPC 다중 호출(multicall) 함수 system.multicall을 등록합니다.

 -- 속성: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths

     XML-RPC 요청을 수신하기 위한 URL의 유효한 경로 부분을 나열하는 튜플
     이어야 하는 어트리뷰트 값.  다른 경로로 들어오는 요청은 404 “no
     such page” HTTP 에러를 발생시킵니다.  이 튜플이 비어 있으면, 모든 경
     로를 유효한 것으로 간주합니다.  기본값은 ‘('/', '/RPC2')’입니다.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer 예제,  Up: SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체

5.22.22.2 SimpleXMLRPCServer 예제
.................................

서버 코드:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     # 특정 경로로 제한합니다.
     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     # 서버를 만듭니다
     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # pow() 함수를 등록합니다; pow.__name__ 값을 이름으로 사용하는데,
         # 그냥 'pow' 입니다.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # 함수를 다른 이름으로 등록합니다
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y
         server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')

         # 인스턴스를 등록합니다; 인스턴스의 모든 메서드가 XML-RPC 메서드로 노출됩니다
         # (이 경우는 'mul' 뿐입니다).
         class MyFuncs:
             def mul(self, x, y):
                 return x * y

         server.register_instance(MyFuncs())

         # 서버의 메인 루프를 실행합니다
         server.serve_forever()

다음 클라이언트 코드는 앞의 서버가 제공하는 메서드를 호출합니다:

     import xmlrpc.client

     s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
     print(s.pow(2,3))  # 2**3 = 8 을 반환합니다
     print(s.add(2,3))  # 5 를 반환합니다
     print(s.mul(5,2))  # 5*2 = 10 을 반환합니다

     # 사용할 수 있는 메서드의 목록을 인쇄합니다
     print(s.system.listMethods())

‘register_function()’은 데코레이터로도 사용할 수 있습니다.  앞의 서버 예
제에서 데코레이터 방식으로 함수를 등록할 수 있습니다:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # pow() 함수를 등록합니다; pow.__name__ 값을 이름으로 사용하는데,
         # 그냥 'pow' 입니다.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # register_function을 데코레이터로 사용해서, 함수를 다른 이름으로 등록합니다.
         # *name* 은 키워드 인자로만 줄 수 있습니다.
         @server.register_function(name='add')
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y

         # 함수를 function.__name__ 으로 등록합니다.
         @server.register_function
         def mul(x, y):
             return x * y

         server.serve_forever()

‘Lib/xmlrpc/server.py’ 모듈에 포함된 다음 예는 점으로 구분된 이름을 허용
하고 다중 호출 함수를 등록하는 서버를 보여줍니다.

     경고: 'allow_dotted_names' 옵션을 활성화하면 침입자가 모듈의 전역 변
     수에 액세스할 수 있으며 침입자가 여러분의 기계에서 임의의 코드를 실
     행할 수 있습니다.  이 예제는 안전한 폐쇄 네트워크 내에서만 사용하십
     시오.

     import datetime

     class ExampleService:
         def getData(self):
             return '42'

         class currentTime:
             @staticmethod
             def getCurrentTime():
                 return datetime.datetime.now()

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
         server.register_function(pow)
         server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
         server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
         server.register_multicall_functions()
         print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
         try:
             server.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
             sys.exit(0)

이 ExampleService 데모는 명령 줄에서 호출할 수 있습니다:

     python -m xmlrpc.server

위 서버와 상호 작용하는 클라이언트는 ‘Lib/xmlrpc/client.py’에 포함되어 있
습니다:

     server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")

     try:
         print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

     multi = MultiCall(server)
     multi.getData()
     multi.pow(2,9)
     multi.add(1,2)
     try:
         for response in multi():
             print(response)
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

데모 XMLRPC 서버와 상호 작용하는 이 클라이언트는 다음과 같이 호출할 수 있
습니다:

     python -m xmlrpc.client


File: python.info,  Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Next: XMLRPC 서버 문서화,  Prev: SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체,  Up: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버

5.22.22.3 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
.................................

*note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c43. 클래스는 파이썬 CGI 스크립트로 전송
된 XML-RPC 요청을 처리하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     XML-RPC 요청에 응답할 수 있는 함수를 등록합니다.  'name'이 제공되면
     , 'function'과 연결되는 메서드 이름이 되고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     function.__name__: 12c4.이 사용됩니다.  'name'은 문자열이며 마침표
     문자를 포함하여 파이썬 식별자에서 유효하지 않은 문자를 포함할 수 있
     습니다.

     이 메서드는 데코레이터로도 사용할 수 있습니다.  데코레이터로 사용될
     때, 'name'은 'function'을 'name'으로 등록하기 위해 키워드 인자로만
     제공될 수 있습니다.  'name'을 제공하지 않으면, *note
     function.__name__: 12c4.이 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: *note register_function(): 3c4d.은 데코레이터로
     사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance (instance)

     *note register_function(): 3c4d.을 사용하여 등록되지 않은 메서드 이
     름을 노출하는데 사용되는 객체를 등록합니다.  instance가
     ‘_dispatch()’ 메서드를 포함하면, 요청된 메서드 이름과 요청의 매개 변
     수로 호출됩니다; 반환 값이 클라이언트에 결과로 반환됩니다.
     instance에 ‘_dispatch()’ 메서드가 없으면, 요청된 메서드의 이름과 일
     치하는 어트리뷰트를 검색합니다; 요청된 메서드 이름에 마침표가 포함
     될 때, 메서드 이름의 각 구성 요소가 개별적으로 검색되어, 간단한 계
     층 구조 검색이 수행되는 효과를 줍니다.  이 검색에서 찾은 값은 요청
     의 매개 변수로 호출되며 반환 값은 클라이언트로 다시 전달됩니다.

 -- 메서드: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions ()

     XML-RPC 내부 검사 함수 ‘system.listMethods’, ‘system.methodHelp’ 및
     ‘system.methodSignature’를 등록합니다.

 -- 메서드: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions ()

     XML-RPC 다중 호출(multicall) 함수 ‘system.multicall’을 등록합니다.

 -- 메서드: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request (request_text=None)

     XML-RPC 요청을 처리합니다.  'request_text'가 제공되면, HTTP 서버가
     제공한 POST 데이터여야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 stdin의 내용이 사용됩
     니다.

예:

     class MyFuncs:
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y


     handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
     handler.register_function(pow)
     handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
     handler.register_introspection_functions()
     handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
     handler.handle_request()


File: python.info,  Node: XMLRPC 서버 문서화,  Next: DocXMLRPCServer 객체,  Prev: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버

5.22.22.4 XMLRPC 서버 문서화
............................

이 클래스들은 HTTP GET 요청에 대한 응답으로 HTML 설명서를 제공하기 위해
위의 클래스를 확장합니다.  서버는 *note DocXMLRPCServer: 19c5.를 사용하
여 독립적이거나, *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c53.를 사용하여 CGI
환경에 내장될 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=True)

     새 서버 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  모든 매개 변수는 *note
     SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c42.와 같은 의미입니다; 'requestHandler'의 기
     본값은 *note DocXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c54. 입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'use_builtin_types' 플래그가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

     CGI 환경에서 XML-RPC 요청을 처리할 새 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

 -- 클래스: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler

     새 요청 처리기 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  이 요청 처리기는 XML-RPC POST
     요청과 설명서 GET 요청을 지원하고, *note DocXMLRPCServer: 19c5. 생
     성자 매개 변수에 대한 'logRequests' 매개 변수가 적용되도록 로깅을 수
     정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: DocXMLRPCServer 객체,  Next: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: XMLRPC 서버 문서화,  Up: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버

5.22.22.5 DocXMLRPCServer 객체
..............................

*note DocXMLRPCServer: 19c5. 클래스는 *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c42. 에
서 파생되며 스스로 설명하는 독립형 XML-RPC 서버를 만드는 수단을 제공합니
다.  HTTP POST 요청은 XML-RPC 메서드 호출로 처리됩니다.  HTTP GET 요청은
pydoc 스타일 HTML 문서를 생성하는 것으로 처리합니다.  이를 통해 서버는 자
체 웹 기반 설명서를 제공할 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title (server_title)

     생성된 HTML 설명서에 사용되는 제목을 설정합니다.  이 제목은 HTML
     “title” 요소 안에서 사용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name (server_name)

     생성된 HTML 설명서에 사용되는 이름을 설정합니다.  이 이름은 설명서
     의 최상단의 “h1” 요소 안에 나타납니다.

 -- 메서드: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     생성된 HTML 설명서에 사용되는 설명을 설정합니다.  이 설명은 설명서
     에서 서버 이름 아래 단락으로 나타납니다.


File: python.info,  Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: DocXMLRPCServer 객체,  Up: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버

5.22.22.6 DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
....................................

*note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c53. 클래스는 *note
CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c43. 에서 파생되며 스스로 설명하는 XML-RPC CGI
스크립트를 만드는 수단을 제공합니다.  HTTP POST 요청은 XML-RPC 메서드 호
출로 처리됩니다.  HTTP GET 요청은 pydoc 스타일 HTML 문서를 생성하는 것으
로 처리합니다.  이를 통해 서버는 자체 웹 기반 설명서를 제공할 수 있습니
다.

 -- 메서드: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title (server_title)

     생성된 HTML 설명서에 사용되는 제목을 설정합니다.  이 제목은 HTML
     “title” 요소 안에서 사용됩니다.

 -- 메서드: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name (server_name)

     생성된 HTML 설명서에 사용되는 이름을 설정합니다.  이 이름은 설명서
     의 최상단의 “h1” 요소 안에 나타납니다.

 -- 메서드: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     생성된 HTML 설명서에 사용되는 설명을 설정합니다.  이 설명은 설명서
     에서 서버 이름 아래 단락으로 나타납니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리,  Prev: xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버,  Up: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원

5.22.23 ‘ipaddress’ — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리
-----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/ipaddress.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ipaddress: 80.는 IPv4와 IPv6 주소와 네트워크를 만들고, 조작하고, 연
산하는 기능을 제공합니다.

이 모듈의 함수와 클래스를 사용하면 두 호스트가 같은 서브 네트에 있는지 확
인하기, 특정 서브 네트의 모든 호스트를 이터레이트 하기, 문자열이 유효한
IP 주소나 네트워크를 나타내는지 검사하기 등 IP 주소와 관련된 다양한 작업
을 간단하게 처리할 수 있습니다.

이것은 전체 모듈 API 레퍼런스입니다 - 개요와 소개는 *note ipaddress
모듈에 대한 소개: 3c60.를 참조하십시오.

Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* 편의 팩토리 함수::
* IP 주소::
* IP 네트워크 정의::
* 인터페이스 객체::
* 다른 모듈 수준 함수::
* 맞춤 예외::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ipaddress.py


File: python.info,  Node: 편의 팩토리 함수,  Next: IP 주소,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

5.22.23.1 편의 팩토리 함수
..........................

*note ipaddress: 80. 모듈은 IP 주소, 네트워크 및 인터페이스를 편리하게 만
드는 팩토리 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: ipaddress.ip_address (address)

     인자로 전달된 IP 주소에 따라 *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 나 *note
     IPv6Address: 1fd. 객체를 반환합니다.  IPv4나 IPv6 주소가 제공될 수
     있습니다; ‘2**32’ 보다 작은 정수는 기본적으로 IPv4로 간주합니다.
     'address'가 유효한 IPv4나 IPv6 주소를 나타내지 않으면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::')

 -- 함수: ipaddress.ip_network (address, strict=True)

     인자로 전달된 IP 주소에 따라 *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 나 *note
     IPv6Network: 1ff. 객체를 반환합니다.  'address'는 IP 네트워크를 나
     타내는 문자열이나 정수입니다.  IPv4나 IPv6 네트워크가 제공될 수 있
     습니다; ‘2**32’ 보다 작은 정수는 기본적으로 IPv4로 간주합니다.
     'strict'는 *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 나 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 생성
     자로 전달됩니다.  'address'가 유효한 IPv4나 IPv6 주소를 나타내지 않
     거나, 네트워크에 호스트 비트가 설정되어있으면 *note ValueError:
     202.가 발생합니다.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
          IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')

 -- 함수: ipaddress.ip_interface (address)

     인자로 전달된 IP 주소에 따라 *note IPv4Interface: 1814. 나 *note
     IPv6Interface: 1815. 객체를 반환합니다.  'address'는 IP 주소를 나타
     내는 문자열이나 정수입니다.  IPv4나 IPv6 주소가 제공될 수 있습니다.
     ‘2**32’ 보다 작은 정수는 기본적으로 IPv4로 간주합니다.  'address'가
     유효한 IPv4나 IPv6 주소를 나타내지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

이러한 편의 함수들의 한 가지 단점은 IPv4와 IPv6 형식을 모두 처리해야 한
다는 것이, 함수가 IPv4나 IPv6 형식 중 어느 것을 의도하는지 알 수 없기 때
문에, 에러 메시지가 정확한 에러에 대한 정보를 최소한으로만 제공한다는 것
을 의미한다는 것입니다.  적절한 버전 별 클래스 생성자를 직접 호출하여 더
자세한 에러 보고를 얻을 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: IP 주소,  Next: IP 네트워크 정의,  Prev: 편의 팩토리 함수,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

5.22.23.2 IP 주소
.................

* Menu:

* 주소 객체::
* 문자열과 정수로의 변환::
* 연산자: 연산자<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 주소 객체,  Next: 문자열과 정수로의 변환,  Up: IP 주소

5.22.23.3 주소 객체
...................

*note IPv4Address: 1fc.와 *note IPv6Address: 1fd. 객체는 많은 공통 어트
리뷰트를 공유합니다.  IPv6 주소에만 의미가 있는 일부 어트리뷰트는 두 IP
버전을 모두 올바르게 처리하는 코드를 더 쉽게 작성할 수 있도록 *note
IPv4Address: 1fc. 객체에 의해 구현됩니다.  주소 객체는 *note 해시 가능:
60a.해서, 딕셔너리에서 키로 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: ipaddress.IPv4Address (address)

     IPv4 주소를 구성합니다.  'address'가 유효한 IPv4 주소가 아니면
     *note AddressValueError: 3c67. 가 발생합니다.

     다음은 유효한 IPv4 주소를 구성합니다:

       1. 점으로 구분된, 0–255 범위의 4개의 십진 정수로 구성되는 십진 점
          표기법의 문자열 (예를 들어 ‘192.168.0.1’).  각 정수는 주소의 옥
          텟(바이트)을 나타냅니다.  8진수 표기법과의 혼동을 방지하기 위
          해 선행 0은 허용되지 않습니다.

       2. 32비트에 맞는 정수.

       3. 길이가 4인 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체에 채워진 정수 (가장 유효한 옥
          텟이 먼저 옵니다).

          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Leading zeros are tolerated, even in ambiguous
     cases that look like octal notation.

     버전 3.9.5에서 변경: Leading zeros are no longer tolerated and are
     treated as an error.  IPv4 address strings are now parsed as strict
     as glibc *note inet_pton(): 960.

      -- 속성: version

          적절한 버전 번호: IPv4의 경우 ‘4’, IPv6의 경우 ‘6’.

      -- 속성: max_prefixlen

          이 버전에 대한 주소 표현의 총 비트 수: IPv4의 경우 ‘32’, IPv6의
          경우 ‘128’.

          접두사는 주소가 네트워크의 일부인지를 판별하기 위해 비교되는 주
          소의 선행 비트 수를 정의합니다.

      -- 속성: compressed

      -- 속성: exploded

          점으로 구분된 십진 표기법의 문자열 표현.  선행 0은 표현에 포함
          되지 않습니다.

          IPv4는 옥텟이 0으로 설정된 주소에 대한 약식 표기법을 정의하지
          않기 때문에, 이 두 어트리뷰트는 IPv4 주소의 경우 항상
          ‘str(addr)’과 같습니다.  이러한 어트리뷰트를 노출하면 IPv4와
          IPv6 주소를 모두 처리할 수 있는 디스플레이 코드를 더 쉽게 작성
          할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: packed

          이 주소의 바이너리 표현 - 적절한 길이의 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체
          (가장 유효한 옥텟이 먼저 옵니다).  IPv4의 경우 4바이트, IPv6의
          경우 16바이트입니다.

      -- 속성: reverse_pointer

          IP 주소에 대한 역 DNS PTR 레코드의 이름, 예를 들어:

               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'

          이 이름은 결정된(resolved) 호스트명 자체가 아니라 PTR 조회를 수
          행하는 데 사용할 수 있는 이름입니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 속성: is_multicast

          주소가 멀티캐스트용으로 예약되었으면 ‘True’.  RFC
          3171(1)(IPv4의 경우)이나 RFC 2373(2)(IPv6의 경우)을 참조하십시
          오.

      -- 속성: is_private

          다음을 제외하고 iana-ipv4-special-registry(3)(IPv4의 경우)나
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(4)(IPv6의 경우)에 의해 주소가 전역
          적으로 도달할 수 없도록 정의되었으면 ‘True’:

             * ‘is_private’ is ‘False’ for the shared address space
               (‘100.64.0.0/10’)

             * For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
               determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4
               addresses and the following condition holds (see *note
               IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3c6f.):

                    address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private

          ‘is_private’ has value opposite to *note is_global: f57,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives.

             * ‘192.0.0.0/24’ is considered private with the exception
               of ‘192.0.0.9/32’ and ‘192.0.0.10/32’ (previously: only
               the ‘192.0.0.0/29’ sub-range was considered private).

             * ‘64:ff9b:1::/48’ is considered private.

             * ‘2002::/16’ is considered private.

             * There are exceptions within ‘2001::/23’ (otherwise
               considered private): ‘2001:1::1/128’, ‘2001:1::2/128’,
               ‘2001:3::/32’, ‘2001:4:112::/48’, ‘2001:20::/28’,
               ‘2001:30::/28’.  The exceptions are not considered
               private.

      -- 속성: is_global

          다음을 제외하고 iana-ipv4-special-registry(5)(IPv4의 경우)나
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(6)(IPv6의 경우)에 의해 주소가 전역
          적으로 도달할 수 있도록 정의되었으면 ‘True’:

          For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
          determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses
          and the following condition holds (see *note
          IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3c6f.):

               address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global

          ‘is_global’ has value opposite to *note is_private: 1650,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.4.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives, see *note is_private: 1650. for details.

      -- 속성: is_unspecified

          주소가 지정되지 않았으면 ‘True’.  RFC 5735(7)(IPv4의 경우)나
          RFC 2373(8)(IPv6의 경우)을 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: is_reserved

          ‘True’ if the address is noted as reserved by the IETF. For
          IPv4, this is only ‘240.0.0.0/4’, the ‘Reserved’ address
          block.  For IPv6, this is all addresses allocated(9) as
          ‘Reserved by IETF’ for future use.

               참고: For IPv4, ‘is_reserved’ is not related to the
               address block value of the ‘Reserved-by-Protocol’ column
               in iana-ipv4-special-registry(10).

               조심: For IPv6, ‘fec0::/10’ a former Site-Local scoped
               address prefix is currently excluded from that list (see
               *note is_site_local: 3c72. & RFC 3879(11)).

      -- 속성: is_loopback

          이것이 루프 백 주소이면 ‘True’.  RFC 3330(12)(IPv4의 경우)이나
          RFC 2373(13)(IPv6의 경우)을 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: is_link_local

          주소가 링크 로컬 사용을 위해 예약되었으면 ‘True’.  RFC
          3927(14)을 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: ipv6_mapped

          *note IPv4Address: 1fc. object representing the IPv4-mapped
          IPv6 address.  See RFC 4291(15).

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- 메서드: IPv4Address.__format__ (fmt)

     명시적 포맷 문자열로 제어되는 IP 주소의 문자열 표현을 반환합니다.
     'fmt'는 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다: *note str(): 445.과 동등한 기본
     옵션인 ‘'s'’, 0으로 채워진 이진수 문자열을 위한 ‘'b'’, 대문자나 소
     문자 16진수 표현을 위한 ‘'X'’나 ‘'x'’, 또는 IPv4 주소의 경우 ‘'b'’와
     IPv6의 경우 ‘'x'’와 동등한 ‘'n'’.  이진수와 16진수 표현의 경우, 형
     식 지정자 ‘'#'’과 그룹화 옵션 ‘'_'’를 사용할 수 있습니다.
     ‘__format__’은 ‘format’, ‘str.format’ 및 f-문자열에서 사용됩니다.

          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '192.168.0.1'
          >>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '0b11000000101010000000000000000001'
          >>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}'
          '2001:db8::1000'
          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X')
          '2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'
          >>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'))
          '0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 클래스: ipaddress.IPv6Address (address)

     IPv6 주소를 구성합니다.  'address'가 유효한 IPv6 주소가 아니면
     *note AddressValueError: 3c67. 가 발생합니다.

     다음은 유효한 IPv6 주소를 구성합니다:

       1. 4개의 16진수로 구성된 그룹 8개로 구성된 문자열, 각 그룹은 16비
          트를 나타냅니다.  그룹은 콜론으로 구분됩니다.  이것은 '펼쳐진
          (exploded)' (longhand) 표기법을 기술합니다.  문자열은 다양한 방
          법으로 '압축될(compressed)' (약식 표기법) 수도 있습니다.  자세
          한 내용은 RFC 4291(16)을 참조하십시오.  예를 들어,
          ‘"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"’는 ‘"::abc:7:def"’로
          압축될 수 있습니다.

          선택적으로, 문자열은 접미사 ‘%scope_id’로 표시되는 스코프 존
          (scope zone) ID를 가질 수도 있습니다.  존재하면, 스코프 ID는 비
          어 있지 않아야 하며, ‘%’를 포함할 수 없습니다.  자세한 내용은
          RFC 4007(17)을 참조하십시오.  예를 들어, ‘fe80::1234%1’는 노드
          의 첫 번째 링크에서 주소 ‘fe80::1234’를 식별할 수 있습니다.

       2. 128비트에 맞는 정수.

       3. 길이가 16인 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체에 채워진 정수, 빅 엔디안.

          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')
          IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')

      -- 속성: compressed

     주소 표현의 짧은 형식, 그룹에서 선행 0을 생략하고 0으로만 구성된 그
     룹의 가장 긴 시퀀스를 하나의 빈 그룹으로 축소됩니다.

     이것은 IPv6 주소에 대해 ‘str(addr)’가 반환하는 값이기도 합니다.

      -- 속성: exploded

     주소 표현의 긴 형식, 모든 선행 0과 완전히 0으로 구성된 그룹이 포함
     됩니다.

     다음 어트리뷰트와 메서드에 대해서는, *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 클래스
     의 해당 설명서를 참조하십시오:

      -- 속성: packed

      -- 속성: reverse_pointer

      -- 속성: version

      -- 속성: max_prefixlen

      -- 속성: is_multicast

      -- 속성: is_private

      -- 속성: is_global

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 속성: is_unspecified

      -- 속성: is_reserved

      -- 속성: is_loopback

      -- 속성: is_link_local

      -- 속성: is_site_local

          주소가 사이트 로컬 사용을 위해 예약되었으면 ‘True’.  사이트 로
          컬 주소 공간은 RFC 3879(18)에서 폐지되었음에 유의하십시오.
          *note is_private: 1650.를 사용하여 이 주소가 RFC 4193(19)에 의
          해 정의된 고유한 로컬 주소 공간에 있는지 검사하십시오.

      -- 속성: ipv4_mapped

          IPv4에 매핑된 주소(‘::FFFF/96’으로 시작합니다)로 표시되는 주소
          의 경우, 이 프로퍼티는 내장 IPv4 주소를 보고합니다.  다른 주소
          의 경우, 이 프로퍼티는 ‘None’이 됩니다.

      -- 속성: scope_id

          RFC 4007(20)에서 정의된 스코프 지정된 주소의 경우, 이 프로퍼티
          는 주소가 속한 주소 스코프의 특정 존(zone)을 문자열로 식별합니
          다.  스코프 존이 지정되지 않았으면, 이 프로퍼티는 ‘None’입니다
          .

      -- 속성: sixtofour

          RFC 3056(21)에서 정의한 6to4 주소(‘2002::/16’으로 시작합니다
          )인 것으로 보이는 주소의 경우, 이 프로퍼티는 내장 IPv4 주소를
          보고합니다.  다른 주소의 경우, 이 프로퍼티는 ‘None’이 됩니다.

      -- 속성: teredo

          RFC 4380(22)에서 정의한 Teredo 주소(‘2001::/32’로 시작합니다
          )인 것으로 보이는 주소의 경우, 이 프로퍼티는 내장 ‘(server,
          client)’ IP 주소 쌍을 보고합니다.  다른 주소의 경우, 이 프로퍼
          티는 ‘None’이 됩니다.

 -- 메서드: IPv6Address.__format__ (fmt)

     *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 의 해당 메서드 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (4) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (6) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (9) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space/ipv6-address-space.xhtml

   (10) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열과 정수로의 변환,  Next: 연산자<3>,  Prev: 주소 객체,  Up: IP 주소

5.22.23.4 문자열과 정수로의 변환
................................

socket 모듈과 같은 네트워킹 인터페이스와 상호 운용하려면, 주소를 문자열
이나 정수로 변환해야 합니다.  이것은 *note str(): 445.과 *note int():
257. 내장 함수를 사용하여 처리됩니다:

     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     '192.168.0.1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     3232235521
     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     '::1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     1

IPv6 스코프 지정된 주소는 스코프 존 ID 없이 정수로 변환됨에 유의하십시오
.


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자<3>,  Prev: 문자열과 정수로의 변환,  Up: IP 주소

5.22.23.5 연산자
................

주소 객체는 일부 연산자를 지원합니다.  달리 명시하지 않는 한, 연산자는 호
환 가능한 객체 간에만 적용할 수 있습니다 (즉 IPv4와 IPv4, IPv6와 IPv6).

* Menu:

* 비교 연산자::
* 산술 연산자::


File: python.info,  Node: 비교 연산자,  Next: 산술 연산자,  Up: 연산자<3>

5.22.23.6 비교 연산자
.....................

주소 객체는 일반적인 비교 연산자 집합으로 비교할 수 있습니다.  다른 스코
프 존(scope zone) ID를 가진 같은 IPv6 주소는 같지 않습니다.  몇 가지 예:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     False
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1')
     False
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2')
     True


File: python.info,  Node: 산술 연산자,  Prev: 비교 연산자,  Up: 연산자<3>

5.22.23.7 산술 연산자
.....................

주소 객체에 정수를 더하거나 뺄 수 있습니다.  몇 가지 예:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
     IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
     IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
     >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address


File: python.info,  Node: IP 네트워크 정의,  Next: 인터페이스 객체,  Prev: IP 주소,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

5.22.23.8 IP 네트워크 정의
..........................

*note IPv4Network: 1fe. 와 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 객체는 IP 네트워크 정
의를 정의하고 검사하기 위한 메커니즘을 제공합니다.  네트워크 정의는 '마
스크(mask)'와 '네트워크 주소(network address)'로 구성되며, 마스크로 마스
크 (바이너리 AND) 될 때 네트워크 주소와 같은 IP 주소 범위를 정의합니다.
예를 들어,, 마스크 ‘255.255.255.0’과 네트워크 주소 ‘192.168.1.0’으로 구
성된 네트워크 정의는 ‘192.168.1.0’에서 ‘192.168.1.255’까지의 IP 주소로 구
성됩니다.

* Menu:

* 접두사, 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크: 접두사 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크.
* 네트워크 객체::
* 연산자: 연산자<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: 접두사 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크,  Next: 네트워크 객체,  Up: IP 네트워크 정의

5.22.23.9 접두사, 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크
..............................................

IP 네트워크 마스크를 지정하는 몇 가지 동등한 방법이 있습니다.  '접두사
(prefix)' ‘/<nbits>’는 네트워크 마스크에 설정된 상위 비트 수를 나타내는
표기법입니다.  '네트 마스크(net mask)'는 몇 개의 상위 비트가 설정된 IP 주
소입니다.  따라서 접두사 ‘/24’는 IPv4에서 네트 마스크 ‘255.255.255.0’, 또
는 IPv6에서 ‘ffff:ff00::’와 동등합니다.  또한 '호스트 마스크(host
mask)'는 '네트 마스크(net mask)'의 논리적 역전이며, 때로 네트워크 마스크
를 나타내기 위해 (예를 들어 Cisco 접근 제어 목록에서) 사용됩니다.  IPv4에
서 ‘/24’에 해당하는 호스트 마스크는 ‘0.0.0.255’입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워크 객체,  Next: 연산자<4>,  Prev: 접두사 네트 마스크 및 호스트 마스크,  Up: IP 네트워크 정의

5.22.23.10 네트워크 객체
........................

주소 객체가 구현하는 모든 어트리뷰트는 네트워크 객체도 구현합니다.  또한
, 네트워크 객체는 추가 어트리뷰트를 구현합니다.  이 모든 것은 *note
IPv4Network: 1fe. 와 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 사이에서 공통이라서, 중복을
피하고자 *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 에 대해서만 설명됩니다.  네트워크 객체
는 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해서 딕셔너리에서 키로 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: ipaddress.IPv4Network (address, strict=True)

     IPv4 네트워크 정의를 구성합니다.  'address'는 다음 중 하나일 수 있
     습니다:

       1. IP 주소와 선택적 마스크로 구성되고, 슬래시(‘/’)로 구분된 문자
          열.  IP 주소는 네트워크 주소이며, 마스크는 '접두사'를 뜻하는 단
          일 숫자이거나 IPv4 주소의 문자열 표현일 수 있습니다.  후자의 경
          우, 마스크는 0이 아닌 필드로 시작하면 '네트 마스크'로, 또는 0으
          로 시작하면 '호스트 마스크'로 해석되는데, '네트 마스크'로 취급
          되는 모든 0인 마스크만 유일한 예외입니다.  마스크가 제공되지 않
          으면, ‘/32’로 간주합니다.

          예를 들어, 다음 'address' 명세는 동등합니다: ‘192.168.1.0/24’,
          ‘192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0’ 및 ‘192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255’.

       2. 32비트에 맞는 정수.  이는 네트워크 주소가 'address'이고 마스크
          가 ‘/32’인 단일 주소 네트워크와 동등합니다.

       3. 길이가 4인 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체에 채워진 정수, 빅 엔디안.  해
          석은 정수 'address'와 유사합니다.

       4. 주소 기술과 네트 마스크의 2-튜플.  주소 기술은 문자열, 32비트
          정수, 길이 4인 바이트열에 채워진 정수 또는 기존 IPv4Address 객
          체입니다; 그리고 네트 마스크는 접두사 길이를 나타내는 정수(예
          를 들어 ‘24’)나 접두사 마스크를 나타내는 문자열(예를 들어
          ‘255.255.255.0’)입니다.

     'address'가 유효한 IPv4 주소가 아니면 *note AddressValueError:
     3c67. 가 발생합니다.  마스크가 IPv4 주소에 유효하지 않으면 *note
     NetmaskValueError: 3c89. 가 발생합니다.

     'strict'가 ‘True’이고 제공된 address에 호스트 비트가 설정되면,
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 적절한 네트워
     크 주소를 결정하기 위해 호스트 비트가 마스크 되어 제거됩니다.

     달리 명시되지 않는 한, 다른 네트워크/주소 객체를 받아들이는 모든 네
     트워크 메서드는 인자의 IP 버전이 ‘self’와 호환되지 않으면 *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'address' 생성자 매개 변수에 대해 2-튜플 형식을
     추가했습니다.

      -- 속성: version

      -- 속성: max_prefixlen

          *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 의 해당 어트리뷰트 설명서를 참조하십시
          오.

      -- 속성: is_multicast

      -- 속성: is_private

      -- 속성: is_unspecified

      -- 속성: is_reserved

      -- 속성: is_loopback

      -- 속성: is_link_local

          이 어트리뷰트들은 네트워크 주소와 브로드 캐스트 주소 모두에 대
          해 참이면 네트워크 전체에 대해 참입니다.

      -- 속성: network_address

          네트워크의 네트워크 주소.  네트워크 주소와 접두사 길이는 네트
          워크를 고유하게 정의합니다.

      -- 속성: broadcast_address

          네트워크의 브로드 캐스트 주소.  브로드 캐스트 주소로 전송된 패
          킷은 네트워크의 모든 호스트가 수신해야 합니다.

      -- 속성: hostmask

          *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 객체로 제공되는 호스트 마스크.

      -- 속성: netmask

          *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 객체로 제공되는 네트 마스크.

      -- 속성: with_prefixlen

      -- 속성: compressed

      -- 속성: exploded

          접두사 표기법의 마스크를 갖는 네트워크의 문자열 표현.

          ‘with_prefixlen’과 ‘compressed’는 항상 ‘str(network)’와 같습니
          다.  ‘exploded’는 펼쳐진 형식의 네트워크 주소를 사용합니다.

      -- 속성: with_netmask

          네트 마스크 표기법의 마스크를 갖는 네트워크의 문자열 표현.

      -- 속성: with_hostmask

          호스트 마스크 표기법의 마스크를 갖는 네트워크의 문자열 표현.

      -- 속성: num_addresses

          네트워크의 총 주소 수.

      -- 속성: prefixlen

          네트워크 접두사 길이, 비트 단위.

      -- 메서드: hosts ()

          네트워크에서 사용 가능한 호스트에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다
          .  사용 가능한 호스트는 네트워크 주소 자체와 네트워크 브로드 캐
          스트 주소를 제외하고, 네트워크에 속하는 IP 주소입니다.  마스크
          길이가 31인 네트워크의 경우, 네트워크 주소와 네트워크 브로드 캐
          스트 주소도 결과에 포함됩니다.  마스크가 32인 네트워크는 단일
          호스트 주소가 포함된 리스트를 반환합니다.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]

      -- 메서드: overlaps (other)

          이 네트워크가 'other'에 부분적으로나 전체적으로 포함되어 있거
          나 'other'가 이 네트워크에 완전히 포함되면 ‘True’.

      -- 메서드: address_exclude (network)

          지정된 'network'를 이 네트워크에서 제거하여 만들어지는 네트워
          크 정의를 계산합니다.  네트워크 객체의 이터레이터를 반환합니다
          .  이 네트워크에 'network'가 완전히 포함되지 않으면 *note
          ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

               >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
               >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
               >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]

      -- 메서드: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          인자 값에 따라, 현재 네트워크 정의를 만들기 위해 참여하는 서브
          네트들.  'prefixlen_diff'는 우리의 접두사 길이를 늘여야 하는 양
          입니다.  'new_prefix'는 서브 네트의 원하는 새 접두사입니다; 우
          리의 접두사보다 커야 합니다.  'prefixlen_diff'와 'new_prefix'
          중 하나만 설정해야 합니다.  네트워크 객체의 이터레이터를 반환
          합니다.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
                   raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
               ValueError: new prefix must be longer
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]

      -- 메서드: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          인자 값에 따라, 이 네트워크 정의를 포함하는 슈퍼 네트.
          'prefixlen_diff'는 우리의 접두사 길이를 줄여야 하는 양입니다.
          'new_prefix'는 슈퍼 네트의 원하는 새 접두사입니다; 우리의 접두
          사보다 작아야 합니다.  'prefixlen_diff'와 'new_prefix' 중 하나
          만 설정해야 합니다.  단일 네트워크 객체를 반환합니다.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')

      -- 메서드: subnet_of (other)

          이 네트워크가 'other'의 서브 네트이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> b.subnet_of(a)
               True

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: supernet_of (other)

          이 네트워크가 'other'의 슈퍼 네트이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> a.supernet_of(b)
               True

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 메서드: compare_networks (other)

          이 네트워크를 'other'와 비교합니다.  이 비교에서는 네트워크 주
          소 만 고려됩니다; 호스트 비트는 고려하지 않습니다.  ‘-1’, ‘0’
          또는 ‘1’을 반환합니다.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
               -1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
               1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
               0

          버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: “<”, “==” 및 “>”와 같은 순서와 비교 알고
          리즘을 사용합니다.

 -- 클래스: ipaddress.IPv6Network (address, strict=True)

     IPv6 네트워크 정의를 구성합니다.  'address'는 다음 중 하나일 수 있
     습니다:

       1. IP 주소와 선택적 접두사 길이로 구성되고 슬래시(‘/’)로 구분된 문
          자열.  IP 주소는 네트워크 주소이며, 접두사 길이는 단일 숫자인
          '접두사'여야 합니다.  접두사 길이가 제공되지 않으면, ‘/128’로
          간주합니다.

          현재 확장된 네트 마스크는 지원되지 않음에 유의하십시오.
          ‘2001:db00::0/24’는 유효한 인자이지만
          ‘2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::’는 아니라는 뜻입니다.

       2. 128비트에 맞는 정수.  이는 네트워크 주소가 'address'이고 마스
          크가 ‘/128’인 단일 주소 네트워크와 동등합니다.

       3. 길이가 16인 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체에 채워진 정수, 빅 엔디안.  해
          석은 정수 'address'와 유사합니다.

       4. 주소 기술과 네트 마스크의 2-튜플.  여기서 주소 기술은 문자열,
          128비트 정수, 길이 16인 바이트열에 채워진 정수 또는 기존
          IPv6Address 객체입니다; 네트 마스크는 접두사 길이를 나타내는 정
          수입니다.

     'address'가 유효한 IPv6 주소가 아니면 *note AddressValueError:
     3c67. 가 발생합니다.  마스크가 IPv6 주소에 유효하지 않으면 *note
     NetmaskValueError: 3c89. 가 발생합니다.

     'strict'가 ‘True’이고 제공된 address에 호스트 비트가 설정되면,
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 적절한 네트워
     크 주소를 결정하기 위해 호스트 비트가 마스크 되어 제거됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'address' 생성자 매개 변수에 대해 2-튜플 형식을
     추가했습니다.

      -- 속성: version

      -- 속성: max_prefixlen

      -- 속성: is_multicast

      -- 속성: is_private

      -- 속성: is_unspecified

      -- 속성: is_reserved

      -- 속성: is_loopback

      -- 속성: is_link_local

      -- 속성: network_address

      -- 속성: broadcast_address

      -- 속성: hostmask

      -- 속성: netmask

      -- 속성: with_prefixlen

      -- 속성: compressed

      -- 속성: exploded

      -- 속성: with_netmask

      -- 속성: with_hostmask

      -- 속성: num_addresses

      -- 속성: prefixlen

      -- 메서드: hosts ()

          네트워크에서 사용 가능한 호스트에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다
          .  사용 가능한 호스트는 서브 네트 라우터 애니 캐스트 주소를 제
          외하고 네트워크에 속하는 모든 IP 주소입니다.  마스크 길이가
          127인 네트워크의 경우, 서브 네트 라우터 애니 캐스트 주소도 결
          과에 포함됩니다.  마스크가 128인 네트워크는 단일 호스트 주소가
          포함된 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: overlaps (other)

      -- 메서드: address_exclude (network)

      -- 메서드: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- 메서드: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- 메서드: subnet_of (other)

      -- 메서드: supernet_of (other)

      -- 메서드: compare_networks (other)

          *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 의 해당 어트리뷰트 설명서를 참조하십시
          오.

      -- 속성: is_site_local

          이 어트리뷰트는 네트워크 주소와 브로드 캐스트 주소 모두에 대해
          참이면 네트워크 전체에 대해 참입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자<4>,  Prev: 네트워크 객체,  Up: IP 네트워크 정의

5.22.23.11 연산자
.................

네트워크 객체는 일부 연산자를 지원합니다.  달리 명시하지 않는 한, 연산자
는 호환 가능한 객체 간에만 적용할 수 있습니다 (즉 IPv4와 IPv4, IPv6와
IPv6).

* Menu:

* 논리 연산자::
* 이터레이션::
* 주소 컨테이너로서의 네트워크::


File: python.info,  Node: 논리 연산자,  Next: 이터레이션,  Up: 연산자<4>

5.22.23.12 논리 연산자
......................

네트워크 객체는 일반적인 논리 연산자 집합으로 비교할 수 있습니다.  네트
워크 객체는 먼저 네트워크 주소로 정렬된 다음, 네트 마스크로 정렬됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이션,  Next: 주소 컨테이너로서의 네트워크,  Prev: 논리 연산자,  Up: 연산자<4>

5.22.23.13 이터레이션
.....................

네트워크에 속하는 모든 주소를 나열하기 위해 네트워크 객체를 이터레이트 할
수 있습니다.  이터레이션의 경우, 사용 불가능한 호스트를 포함하여 '모든'
호스트가 반환됩니다 (사용 가능한 호스트의 경우는 *note hosts(): 3c9d. 메
서드를 사용하십시오).  예:

     >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
     ...     addr
     ...
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')


File: python.info,  Node: 주소 컨테이너로서의 네트워크,  Prev: 이터레이션,  Up: 연산자<4>

5.22.23.14 주소 컨테이너로서의 네트워크
.......................................

네트워크 객체는 주소의 컨테이너 역할을 할 수 있습니다.  몇 가지 예:

     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: 인터페이스 객체,  Next: 다른 모듈 수준 함수,  Prev: IP 네트워크 정의,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

5.22.23.15 인터페이스 객체
..........................

인터페이스 객체는 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해서 딕셔너리에서 키로 사용할 수
있습니다.

 -- 클래스: ipaddress.IPv4Interface (address)

     IPv4 인터페이스를 구성합니다.  'address'의 의미는 임의의 호스트 주
     소가 항상 허용된다는 점을 제외하고는 *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 의 생
     성자와 같습니다.

     *note IPv4Interface: 1814.는 *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 의 서브 클래스
     이기 때문에, 그 클래스의 모든 어트리뷰트를 상속합니다.  또한, 다음
     과 같은 어트리뷰트를 사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: ip

          네트워크 정보가 없는 주소 (*note IPv4Address: 1fc.).

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.ip
               IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')

      -- 속성: network

          이 인터페이스가 속한 네트워크 (*note IPv4Network: 1fe.).

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.network
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

      -- 속성: with_prefixlen

          접두사 표기법의 마스크를 갖는 인터페이스의 문자열 표현.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_prefixlen
               '192.0.2.5/24'

      -- 속성: with_netmask

          네트워크를 네트 마스크로 사용하는 인터페이스의 문자열 표현.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_netmask
               '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'

      -- 속성: with_hostmask

          네트워크를 호스트 마스크로 사용하는 인터페이스의 문자열 표현.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_hostmask
               '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'

 -- 클래스: ipaddress.IPv6Interface (address)

     IPv6 인터페이스를 구성합니다.  'address'의 의미는 임의의 호스트 주
     소가 항상 허용된다는 점을 제외하고는 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 의 생
     성자와 같습니다.

     *note IPv6Interface: 1815.는 *note IPv6Address: 1fd. 의 서브 클래스
     이기 때문에, 그 클래스의 모든 어트리뷰트를 상속합니다.  또한, 다음
     과 같은 어트리뷰트를 사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 속성: ip

      -- 속성: network

      -- 속성: with_prefixlen

      -- 속성: with_netmask

      -- 속성: with_hostmask

          *note IPv4Interface: 1814. 의 해당 어트리뷰트 설명서를 참조하
          십시오.

* Menu:

* 연산자: 연산자<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: 연산자<5>,  Up: 인터페이스 객체

5.22.23.16 연산자
.................

인터페이스 객체는 일부 연산자를 지원합니다.  달리 명시하지 않는 한, 연산
자는 호환 가능한 객체 간에만 적용할 수 있습니다 (즉 IPv4와 IPv4, IPv6와
IPv6).

* Menu:

* 논리 연산자: 논리 연산자<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 논리 연산자<2>,  Up: 연산자<5>

5.22.23.17 논리 연산자
......................

인터페이스 객체는 일반적인 논리 연산자 집합으로 비교할 수 있습니다.

동등 비교(‘==’과 ‘!=’)의 경우, 같다고 비교되려면 IP 주소와 네트워크가 같
아야 합니다.  인터페이스는 주소나 네트워크 객체와 같다고 비교되지 않습니
다.

순서(‘<’, ‘>’ 등)의 경우 규칙이 다릅니다.  같은 IP 버전의 인터페이스와 주
소 객체를 비교할 수 있으며, 주소 객체는 항상 인터페이스 객체보다 앞에 정
렬됩니다.  두 개의 인터페이스 객체는 먼저 네트워크로 비교되고, 같으면 IP
주소로 비교됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 모듈 수준 함수,  Next: 맞춤 예외,  Prev: 인터페이스 객체,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

5.22.23.18 다른 모듈 수준 함수
..............................

이 모듈은 다음과 같은 모듈 수준 함수도 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed (address)

     네트워크 (빅 엔디안) 순서로 채워진 길이 4인 바이트열로 주소를 표현
     합니다.  'address'는 IPv4 IP 주소의 정수 표현입니다.  정수가 음수이
     거나 너무 커서 IPv4 IP 주소가 될 수 없으면 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
          IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
          >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
          b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'

 -- 함수: ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed (address)

     네트워크 (빅 엔디안) 순서로 채워진 길이 16인 바이트열로 주소를 나타
     냅니다.  'address'는 IPv6 IP 주소의 정수 표현입니다.  정수가 음수이
     거나 너무 커서 IPv6 IP 주소가 될 수 없으면 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

 -- 함수: ipaddress.summarize_address_range (first, last)

     첫 번째와 마지막 IP 주소가 주어진 요약된 네트워크 범위의 이터레이터
     를 반환합니다.  'first'는 범위의 첫 번째 *note IPv4Address: 1fc. 나
     *note IPv6Address: 1fd. 이고 'last'는 범위의 마지막 *note
     IPv4Address: 1fc. 나 *note IPv6Address: 1fd.입니다.  'first'나
     'last'가 IP 주소가 아니거나, 같은 버전이 아니면 *note TypeError:
     532.가 발생합니다.  'last'가 'first'보다 크지 않거나 'first' 주소 버
     전이 4나 6이 아니면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]

 -- 함수: ipaddress.collapse_addresses (addresses)

     축약된 *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 나 *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 객체의 이
     터레이터를 반환합니다.  'addresses'는 *note IPv4Network: 1fe. 나
     *note IPv6Network: 1ff. 객체의 *note 이터러블: 1217.입니다.
     'addresses'에 혼합 버전 객체가 포함되어 있으면 *note TypeError:
     532.가 발생합니다.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
          ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
          ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]

 -- 함수: ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key (obj)

     네트워크와 주소를 정렬하기에 적합한 키를 반환합니다.  주소와 네트워
     크 객체는 기본적으로 정렬할 수 없습니다; 이들은 근본적으로 달라서,
     다음과 같은 표현은:

          IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

     의미가 없습니다.  그러나 *note ipaddress: 80.가 어쨌든 정렬하도록 할
     때가 있습니다.  이렇게 해야 하면, 이 함수를 *note sorted(): bcb.의
     'key' 인자로 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'obj'는 네트워크나 주소 객체입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 맞춤 예외,  Prev: 다른 모듈 수준 함수,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리

5.22.23.19 맞춤 예외
....................

클래스 생성자의 더욱 구체적인 에러 보고를 지원하기 위해, 모듈은 다음 예
외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: ipaddress.AddressValueError (ValueError)

     주소와 관련된 모든 값 에러.

 -- 예외: ipaddress.NetmaskValueError (ValueError)

     네트 마스크와 관련된 모든 값 에러.


File: python.info,  Node: 멀티미디어 서비스,  Next: 국제화,  Prev: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.23 멀티미디어 서비스
======================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 주로 멀티미디어 응용 프로그램에 유용한 다양한
알고리즘 또는 인터페이스를 구현합니다.  가용성은 설치에 달려있습니다.  다
음은 개요입니다:

* Menu:

* wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환::


File: python.info,  Node: wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Next: colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환,  Up: 멀티미디어 서비스

5.23.1 ‘wave’ — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기
----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/wave.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note wave: 113. 모듈은 파형 오디오 “WAVE” (또는 “WAV”) 파일 형식에 편리
한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  압축되지 않은 PCM 인코딩 웨이브 파일만 지원
합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Support for ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ headers was
added, provided that the extended format is ‘KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM’.

*note wave: 113. 모듈은 다음 함수와 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: wave.open (file, mode=None)

     'file'이 문자열이면, 그 이름의 파일을 엽니다, 그렇지 않으면 파일류
     객체로 처리합니다.  'mode'는 다음 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

     ‘'rb'’

          읽기 전용 모드.

     ‘'wb'’

          쓰기 전용 모드.

     WAV 파일의 읽기와 쓰기를 동시에 허락하지 않음에 유의하십시오.

     ‘'rb'’ 'mode'는 *note Wave_read: 2b6. 객체를 반환하고, ‘'wb'’
     'mode'는 *note Wave_write: 2b7. 객체를 반환합니다.  'mode'가 생략되
     고, 파일류 객체가 'file'로 전달되면, ‘file.mode’가 'mode'의 기본값
     으로 사용됩니다.

     파일류 객체를 전달하면, ‘close()’ 메서드가 호출될 때 wave 객체는 그
     파일을 닫지 않습니다.  파일 객체를 닫는 것은 호출자의 책임입니다.

     *note open(): 949. 함수는 *note with: 5cc. 문과 함께 사용할 수 있습
     니다.  ‘with’ 블록이 완료될 때, *note Wave_read.close(): 3cda.나
     *note Wave_write.close(): 3cdb. 메서드가 호출됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 위치 변경할 수 없는(unseekable) 파일에 대한 지원
     이 추가되었습니다.

 -- 예외: wave.Error

     WAV 명세를 위반하거나 구현 결함으로 인해 무언가가 불가능할 때 발생
     하는 에러.

* Menu:

* Wave_read 객체::
* Wave_write 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/wave.py


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_read 객체,  Next: Wave_write 객체,  Up: wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기

5.23.1.1 Wave_read 객체
.......................

 -- 클래스: wave.Wave_read

     WAV 파일을 읽습니다.

     *note open(): 949.이 반환하는, Wave_read 객체는 다음과 같은 메서드
     를 가지고 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: close ()

          스트림이 *note wave: 113.에 의해 열렸다면 스트림을 닫고, 인스
          턴스를 사용할 수 없게 만듭니다.  이것은 객체가 가비지 수집될 때
          자동으로 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: getnchannels ()

          오디오 채널 수를 반환합니다 (모노는 ‘1’, 스테레오는 ‘2’).

      -- 메서드: getsampwidth ()

          샘플 폭을 바이트 단위로 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: getframerate ()

          샘플링 빈도를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: getnframes ()

          오디오 프레임의 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: getcomptype ()

          압축 유형을 반환합니다 (지원되는 유형은 ‘'NONE'’ 뿐입니다).

      -- 메서드: getcompname ()

          *note getcomptype(): 3ce3.의 사람이 읽을 수 있는 버전.  보통
          ‘'not compressed'’이 ‘'NONE'’에 해당합니다.

      -- 메서드: getparams ()

          ‘get*()’ 메서드의 결과와 동등한, *note namedtuple(): 1ca.
          ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype,
          compname)’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: readframes (n)

          최대 'n' 프레임의 오디오를 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 읽고 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: rewind ()

          파일 포인터를 오디오 스트림의 시작 부분으로 되감습니다.

     다음의 두 메서드는 이전 ‘aifc’ 모듈과의 호환성을 위해 정의되었으며,
     흥미로운 작업을 수행하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: getmarkers ()

          ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version
          3.15: 이 메서드는 파이썬 3.13에서 게거된 ‘aifc’ 모듈과의 호환
          성을 위해서만 존재했습니다.

      -- 메서드: getmark (id)

          에러를 발생시킵니다.

          Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version
          3.15: 이 메서드는 파이썬 3.13에서 게거된 ‘aifc’ 모듈과의 호환
          성을 위해서만 존재했습니다.

     다음의 두 메서드는 이들 사이에서 호환 가능한 용어 “위치
     (position)”를 정의하며, 그 외에는 구현에 따라 다릅니다.

      -- 메서드: setpos (pos)

          파일 포인터를 지정된 위치로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          현재 파일 포인터 위치를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_write 객체,  Prev: Wave_read 객체,  Up: wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기

5.23.1.2 Wave_write 객체
........................

 -- 클래스: wave.Wave_write

     WAV 파일을 기록합니다.

     *note open(): 949.에 의해 반환된 Wave_write 객체에.

     위치 변경할 수 있는(seekable) 출력 스트림의 경우, 실제로 기록된 프
     레임 수를 반영하도록 ‘wave’ 헤더가 자동으로 갱신됩니다.  위치 변경
     할 수 없는(unseekable) 스트림의 경우, 첫 번째 프레임 데이터를 쓸 때
     , 'nframes' 값이 정확해야 합니다.  정확한 'nframes' 값을 실현하려면
     *note close(): 3cdb.가 호출되기 전에 기록될 프레임 수로 *note
     setnframes(): 3ceb.나 *note setparams(): 3cec.를 호출한 다음, *note
     writeframesraw(): fe2.를 사용하여 프레임 데이터를 쓰거나, 기록할 모
     든 프레임 데이터로 *note writeframes(): fe3.를 호출할 수 있습니다.
     후자의 경우 *note writeframes(): fe3.는 데이터의 프레임 수를 계산하
     고 프레임 데이터를 기록하기 전에 적절한 'nframes'를 설정합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 위치 변경할 수 없는(unseekable) 파일에 대한 지원
     이 추가되었습니다.

     Wave_write 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: close ()

          'nframes'를 올바르게 만들고, 파일이 *note wave: 113.로 열렸으
          면 파일을 닫습니다.  이 메서드는 객체가 가비지 수집될 때 호출
          됩니다.  출력 스트림이 위치 변경할 수 없고 'nframes'가 실제로
          기록된 프레임 수와 일치하지 않으면 예외를 일으킵니다.

      -- 메서드: setnchannels (n)

          채널 수를 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: setsampwidth (n)

          샘플 폭을 'n' 바이트로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: setframerate (n)

          프레임 속도를 'n'으로 설정합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 이 메서드에 대한 비 정수 입력은 가장 가까운
          정수로 자리 올림 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: setnframes (n)

          프레임 수를 'n'으로 설정합니다.  실제로 쓴 프레임 수가 다르면
          나중에 변경됩니다 (이 변경 시도는 출력 스트림이 위치 변경할 수
          없으면 에러를 발생시킵니다).

      -- 메서드: setcomptype (type, name)

          압축 유형과 설명을 설정합니다.  현재, 압축 유형 ‘NONE’ 만 지원
          됩니다.  즉, 압축하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: setparams (tuple)

          'tuple'은 ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes,
          comptype, compname)’이어야 하며, ‘set*()’ 메서드에 유효한 값이
          어야 합니다.  모든 파라미터를 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: tell ()

          파일의 현재 위치를 반환하는데, *note Wave_read.tell(): 3ce9. 과
          *note Wave_read.setpos(): 3ce8. 메서드와 같은 면책 조항이 적용
          됩니다.

      -- 메서드: writeframesraw (data)

          'nframes'를 수정하지 않고 오디오 프레임을 씁니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 이제 모든 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.가 허
          락됩니다.

      -- 메서드: writeframes (data)

          오디오 프레임을 기록하고 'nframes'를 올바르게 만듭니다.  출력
          스트림이 위치 변경할 수 없고 'data'를 기록한 후에 기록된 총 프
          레임 수가 'nframes'에 대해 이전에 설정된 값과 일치하지 않으면
          에러가 발생시킵니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 이제 모든 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.가 허
          락됩니다.

          *note writeframes(): fe3.나 *note writeframesraw(): fe2.를 호
          출한 후 파라미터를 설정하는 것이 유효하지 않고, 이를 시도하면
          *note wave.Error: 3cdc.가 발생함에 유의하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환,  Prev: wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Up: 멀티미디어 서비스

5.23.2 ‘colorsys’ — 색 체계 간의 변환
-------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/colorsys.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note colorsys: 1f. 모듈은 컴퓨터 모니터에서 사용되는 RGB (Red Green
Blue, 적 녹 청) 색 공간과 세 가지 다른 좌표계 YIQ, HLS (Hue Lightness
Saturation, 색상 명도 채도), HSV(Hue Saturation Value, 색상 채도 명도)로
표현된 색 간 양방향 색 변환을 정의합니다.  이러한 모든 색 공간의 좌표는
부동 소수점 값입니다.  YIQ 공간에서, Y 좌표는 0과 1사이지만, I 와 Q 좌표
는 양수나 음수가 될 수 있습니다.  다른 모든 공간에서, 좌표는 모두 0과 1
사이입니다.

더 보기
.......

색 공간에 대한 자세한 내용은 ‘https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html’ 와
‘https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm’ 에서 확인
할 수 있습니다.

*note colorsys: 1f. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: colorsys.rgb_to_yiq (r, g, b)

     RGB 좌표에서 YIQ 좌표로 색을 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: colorsys.yiq_to_rgb (y, i, q)

     YIQ 좌표에서 RGB 좌표로 색을 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: colorsys.rgb_to_hls (r, g, b)

     RGB 좌표에서 HLS 좌표로 색을 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: colorsys.hls_to_rgb (h, l, s)

     HLS 좌표에서 RGB 좌표로 색을 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: colorsys.rgb_to_hsv (r, g, b)

     RGB 좌표에서 HSV 좌표로 색을 변환합니다.

 -- 함수: colorsys.hsv_to_rgb (h, s, v)

     HSV 좌표에서 RGB 좌표로 색을 변환합니다.

예:

     >>> import colorsys
     >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
     (0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     (0.2, 0.4, 0.4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/colorsys.py


File: python.info,  Node: 국제화,  Next: Graphical user interfaces with Tk,  Prev: 멀티미디어 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.24 국제화
===========

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 프로그램 메시지에 사용할 언어를 선택하거나 현
지 규칙에 맞게 출력을 조정할 수 있는 메커니즘을 제공하여 언어 및 로케일
에 종속되지 않는 소프트웨어를 작성하는 데 도움이 됩니다.

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스::
* locale — 국제화 서비스::


File: python.info,  Node: gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스,  Next: locale — 국제화 서비스,  Up: 국제화

5.24.1 ‘gettext’ — 다국어 국제화 서비스
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/gettext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note gettext: 63. 모듈은 파이썬 모듈과 응용 프로그램을 위한 국제화
(I18N)와 현지화(L10N) 서비스를 제공합니다.  GNU ‘gettext’ 메시지 카탈로
그 API와 파이썬 파일에 더 적합한 고수준 클래스 기반 API를 모두 지원합니
다.  아래 설명된 인터페이스를 사용하면 모듈과 응용 프로그램 메시지를 하
나의 자연어로 작성하고, 다른 자연어로 실행하기 위해 번역된 메시지 카탈로
그를 제공할 수 있습니다.

파이썬 모듈과 응용 프로그램을 현지화하는 데 대한 힌트도 제공됩니다.

* Menu:

* GNU gettext API::
* 클래스 기반 API::
* 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화::
* 감사의 말::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/gettext.py


File: python.info,  Node: GNU gettext API,  Next: 클래스 기반 API,  Up: gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스

5.24.1.1 GNU ‘gettext’ API
..........................

*note gettext: 63. 모듈은 GNU ‘gettext’ API와 매우 유사한 다음 API를 정
의합니다.  이 API를 사용하면 전체 응용 프로그램의 번역에 전역적으로 영향
을 미칩니다.  응용 프로그램이 단일 언어라면 사용자의 로케일에 따라 언어
를 선택할 수 있는 것과 함께 종종 이것이 여러분이 원하는 것입니다.  파이
썬 모듈을 현지화하거나, 응용 프로그램에서 언어를 실행 중에 전환해야 한다
면, 아마도 클래스 기반 API를 대신 사용하고 싶을 것입니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.bindtextdomain (domain, localedir=None)

     'domain'을 로케일 디렉터리 'localedir'에 바인드합니다.  보다 구체적
     으로, *note gettext: 63.는 경로 (유닉스에서)
     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’를 사용하여 지정된
     도메인(domain)에 대한 바이너리 ‘.mo’ 파일을 찾습니다.  여기서
     'language'는 환경 변수 ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’, ‘LC_MESSAGES’ 및
     ‘LANG’에서 각각 검색됩니다.

     'localedir'이 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 'domain'에 대한 현재 바인딩이
     반환됩니다.  (1)

 -- 함수: gettext.textdomain (domain=None)

     현재 전역 도메인을 변경하거나 조회합니다.  'domain'이 ‘None’이면, 현
     재 전역 도메인이 반환되고, 그렇지 않으면 전역 도메인이 'domain'으로
     설정되어 반환됩니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.gettext (message)

     현재 전역 도메인, 언어 및 로케일 디렉터리를 기반으로, 'message'의 현
     지화 된 번역을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 일반적으로 지역 이름 공간에서
     ‘_()’로 별칭이 지정됩니다 (아래 예를 참조하십시오).

 -- 함수: gettext.dgettext (domain, message)

     *note gettext(): 142f.와 비슷하지만, 지정된 'domain'에서 메시지를 찾
     습니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.ngettext (singular, plural, n)

     *note gettext(): 142f.와 비슷하지만, 복수형(plural forms)을 고려합
     니다.  번역이 발견되면, 복수 공식을 'n'에 적용하고, 결과 메시지를 반
     환합니다 (일부 언어는 복수형이 두 개 이상입니다).  번역이 없으면,
     'n'이 1이면 'singular'를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으면 'plural'을 반환
     합니다.

     복수 공식은 카탈로그 헤더에서 취합니다.  자유 변수 'n'을 갖는 C나 파
     이썬 표현식입니다.  이 표현식은 카탈로그에서 복수의 인덱스로 평가됩
     니다.  ‘.po’ 파일에 사용되는 정확한 문법과 다양한 언어의 공식은 GNU
     gettext 설명서(2)를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: gettext.dngettext (domain, singular, plural, n)

     *note ngettext(): 3d02.와 비슷하지만, 지정된 'domain'에서 메시지를
     찾습니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.pgettext (context, message)

 -- 함수: gettext.dpgettext (domain, context, message)

 -- 함수: gettext.npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

 -- 함수: gettext.dnpgettext (domain, context, singular, plural, n)

     접두사에 ‘p’가 없는 해당 함수(즉, *note gettext(): 63, *note
     dgettext(): 3d01, *note ngettext(): 3d02, *note dngettext():
     3d03.)와 유사하지만, 번역은 지정된 메시지 'context'로 제한됩니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

GNU ‘gettext’가 ‘dcgettext()’ 메서드도 정의하지만, 이것을 유용하지 않은
것으로 간주해서 현재 구현되지 않았음에 유의하십시오.

이 API의 일반적인 사용 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     import gettext
     gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
     gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
     _ = gettext.gettext
     # ...
     print(_('This is a translatable string.'))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 기본 로케일 디렉터리는 시스템에 따라 다릅니다; 예를 들어 Red Hat
리눅스에서는 ‘/usr/share/locale’이지만, Solaris에서는 ‘/usr/lib/locale’입
니다.  ‘gettext’ 모듈은 이러한 시스템 종속 기본값을 지원하려고 하지 않습
니다; 대신 기본값은 ‘`sys.base_prefix'/share/locale’입니다 (*note
sys.base_prefix: 3e9.를 참조하십시오).  이런 이유로, 항상 응용 프로그램
시작 시 명시적 절대 경로를 사용하여 *note bindtextdomain(): 3cff.을 호출
하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 기반 API,  Next: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화,  Prev: GNU gettext API,  Up: gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스

5.24.1.2 클래스 기반 API
........................

*note gettext: 63. 모듈의 클래스 기반 API는 GNU ‘gettext’ API보다 더 많
은 유연성과 편리성을 제공합니다.  파이썬 응용 프로그램과 모듈을 현지화하
는 권장되는 방법입니다.  ‘gettext’는 GNU ‘.mo’ 형식 파일의 구문 분석을 구
현하고 문자열을 반환하는 메서드가 있는 *note GNUTranslations: 3d08. 클래
스를 정의합니다.  이 클래스의 인스턴스는 내장 이름 공간에 함수 ‘_()’로 자
신을 설치할 수도 있습니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.find (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          all=False)

     이 함수는 표준 ‘.mo’ 파일 검색 알고리즘을 구현합니다.  *note
     textdomain(): 3d00.이 취하는 것과 동일한 'domain'을 취합니다.  선택
     적 'localedir'은 *note bindtextdomain(): 3cff.에서와 같습니다.  선
     택적 'languages'는 문자열 리스트이며, 각 문자열은 언어 코드입니다.

     'localedir'이 제공되지 않으면, 기본 시스템 로케일 디렉터리가 사용됩
     니다.  (1)  'languages'가 제공되지 않으면, 다음과 같은 환경 변수가
     검색됩니다: ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’, ‘LC_MESSAGES’ 및 ‘LANG’.  비어 있
     지 않은 값을 반환하는 첫 번째 것이 'languages' 변수에 사용됩니다.  환
     경 변수는 콜론으로 구분된 언어 목록을 포함해야 하며, 콜론에서 분할
     되어 예상되는 언어 코드 문자열 리스트를 생성합니다.

     그런 다음 *note find(): 3d09.는 언어를 확장하고 정규화한 다음, 다음
     구성 요소로 구성된 기존 파일을 검색하면서, 이들을 이터레이트 합니다
     :

     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’

     존재하는 첫 번째 파일 이름이 *note find(): 3d09.에 의해 반환됩니다.
     그러한 파일이 없으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  'all'이 제공되면, 언어
     리스트나 환경 변수에 나타나는 순서대로 모든 파일 이름의 리스트를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.translation (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          class_=None, fallback=False)

     'domain', 'localedir' 및 'languages'를 기반으로 하는
     ‘*Translations’ 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  이 인스턴스는 연관된 ‘.mo’
     파일 경로 리스트를 얻기 위해 먼저 *note find(): 3d09.로 전달됩니다.
     동일한 ‘.mo’ 파일 이름을 갖는 인스턴스는 캐시 됩니다.  인스턴스화되
     는 실제 클래스는 제공된다면 'class_'이고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     GNUTranslations: 3d08.입니다.  클래스의 생성자는 단일 *note 파일
     객체: 11b2. 인자를 취해야 합니다.

     여러 파일이 발견되면, 이후 파일은 이전 파일에 대한 폴 백으로 사용됩
     니다.  폴 백을 설정하는 것을 허락하기 위해, *note copy.copy():
     52d.를 사용하여 캐시에서 각 번역 객체를 복제합니다; 실제 인스턴스 데
     이터는 여전히 캐시와 공유됩니다.

     ‘.mo’ 파일이 없으면, 이 함수는 'fallback'이 거짓(기본값)이면 *note
     OSError: 411.를 발생시키고, 'fallback'이 참이면 *note
     NullTranslations: 3d0a. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전에는 *note IOError: 1048.가 발생했지만, 이제
     는 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'codeset' 매개 변수를 제거했습니다.

 -- 함수: gettext.install (domain, localedir=None, *, names=None)

     *note translation(): a76.에 전달되는 'domain' 와 'localedir'을 기반
     으로, 파이썬의 내장 이름 공간에 ‘_()’ 함수를 설치합니다.

     'names' 매개 변수에 대해서는, 번역 객체의 *note install(): 3d0b. 메
     서드에 대한 설명을 참조하십시오.

     아래에서 볼 수 있듯이, 일반적으로 다음과 같이 ‘_()’ 함수에 대한 호
     출로 래핑하여, 응용 프로그램에 있는 번역 후보 문자열을 표시합니다:

          print(_('This string will be translated.'))

     편의상, ‘_()’ 함수를 파이썬의 내장 이름 공간에 설치하여, 응용 프로
     그램의 모든 모듈에서 쉽게 액세스할 수 있도록 합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: 'names'는 이제 키워드 전용 매개 변수입니다.

* Menu:

* NullTranslations 클래스::
* GNUTranslations 클래스::
* Solaris 메시지 카탈로그 지원::
* Catalog 생성자::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 위의 *note bindtextdomain(): 3cff.에 대한 각주를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: NullTranslations 클래스,  Next: GNUTranslations 클래스,  Up: 클래스 기반 API

5.24.1.3 ‘NullTranslations’ 클래스
..................................

번역 클래스는 원본 소스 파일 메시지 문자열을 번역된 메시지 문자열로 실제
로 구현합니다.  모든 번역 클래스에서 사용하는 베이스 클래스는 *note
NullTranslations: 3d0a.입니다; 여러분 자신의 특수화된 번역 클래스를 작성
하는 데 사용할 수 있는 기본 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  ‘NullTranslations’의
메서드는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 클래스: gettext.NullTranslations (fp=None)

     베이스 클래스에서 무시되는, 선택적인 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 'fp'를
     취합니다.  파생 클래스에 의해 설정되는 “보호되는” 인스턴스 변수
     '_info'와 '_charset' 뿐만 아니라 *note add_fallback(): 3d0d.을 통해
     설정되는 '_fallback'을 초기화합니다.  그런 다음 'fp'가 ‘None’이 아
     니면 ‘self._parse(fp)’를 호출합니다.

      -- 메서드: _parse (fp)

          베이스 클래스에서 아무런 일도 하지 않는 이 메서드는 파일 객체
          'fp'를 취하고, 이 파일에서 데이터를 읽고, 메시지 카탈로그를 초
          기화합니다.  지원되지 않는 메시지 카탈로그 파일 형식이 있으면,
          이 메서드를 재정의하여 형식을 구문 분석해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: add_fallback (fallback)

          현재 번역 객체의 폴 백 객체로 'fallback'을 추가합니다.  주어진
          메시지에 대한 번역을 제공할 수 없으면 번역 개체는 폴 백을 참조
          해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: gettext (message)

          폴 백이 설정되었으면, ‘gettext()’를 폴 백으로 전달합니다.  그
          렇지 않으면, 'message'를 반환합니다.  파생 클래스에서 재정의됩
          니다.

      -- 메서드: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          폴 백이 설정되었으면, ‘ngettext()’를 폴 백으로 전달합니다.  그
          렇지 않으면, 'n'이 1이면 'singular'를 반환합니다; 그렇지 않으
          면 'plural'을 반환합니다.  파생 클래스에서 재정의됩니다.

      -- 메서드: pgettext (context, message)

          폴 백이 설정되었으면, *note pgettext(): 9f1.를 폴 백으로 전달
          합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 번역된 메시지를 반환합니다.  파생 클래
          스에서 재정의됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          폴 백이 설정되었으면, *note npgettext(): 3d05.를 폴 백으로 전
          달합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 번역된 메시지를 반환합니다.  파생 클
          래스에서 재정의됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: info ()

          메시지 카탈로그 파일에서 발견된 메타 데이터를 포함하는 딕셔너
          리를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: charset ()

          메시지 카탈로그 파일의 인코딩을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: install (names=None)

          이 메서드는 *note gettext(): 3d0f.를 내장 이름 공간에 설치하여
          , ‘_’에 연결합니다.

          'names' 매개 변수가 제공되면, ‘_()’에 더해서 내장 이름 공간에
          설치하려는 함수 이름이 포함된 시퀀스여야 합니다.  지원되는 이
          름은 ‘'gettext'’, ‘'ngettext'’, ‘'pgettext'’ 및 ‘'npgettext'’
          입니다.

          이것은 ‘_()’ 함수를 응용 프로그램에서 사용할 수 있게 하는 가장
          편리한 방법이지만, 한 가지 방법일 뿐입니다.  전체 응용 프로그
          램, 특히 내장 이름 공간에 영향을 주기 때문에, 현지화된 모듈은
          절대 ‘_()’를 설치하지 않아야 합니다.  대신, 다음과 같은 코드를
          사용하여 ‘_()’를 모듈에서 사용할 수 있게 해야 합니다:

               import gettext
               t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
               _ = t.gettext

          이는 ‘_()’를 모듈의 전역 이름 공간에만 넣기 때문에 이 모듈 내
          에서의 호출에만 영향을 줍니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘'pgettext'’와 ‘'npgettext'’를 추가했습니다
          .


File: python.info,  Node: GNUTranslations 클래스,  Next: Solaris 메시지 카탈로그 지원,  Prev: NullTranslations 클래스,  Up: 클래스 기반 API

5.24.1.4 ‘GNUTranslations’ 클래스
.................................

‘gettext’ 모듈은 *note NullTranslations: 3d0a.에서 파생된 클래스를 하나
더 제공합니다: *note GNUTranslations: 3d08.  이 클래스는 ‘_parse()’를 재
정의하여 빅 엔디안과 리틀 엔디안 형식의 GNU ‘gettext’ 형식 ‘.mo’ 파일을
읽을 수 있도록 합니다.

*note GNUTranslations: 3d08.는 번역 카탈로그에서 선택적 메타 데이터를 구
문 분석합니다.  빈 문자열의 번역으로 메타 데이터를 포함하는 것이 GNU
‘gettext’의 관례입니다.  이 메타 데이터는 RFC 822(1) 스타일 ‘key: value’
쌍이며, ‘Project-Id-Version’ 키를 포함해야 합니다.  키 ‘Content-Type’이
발견되면, ‘charset’ 프로퍼티를 사용하여 “보호된” ‘_charset’ 인스턴스 변
수를 초기화하고, 찾을 수 없으면 기본값은 ‘None’입니다.  문자 집합 인코딩
이 지정되면, 카탈로그에서 읽은 모든 메시지 id와 메시지 문자열이 이 인코
딩을 사용하여 유니코드로 변환되고, 그렇지 않으면 ASCII로 가정합니다.

메시지 id도 유니코드 문자열로 읽기 때문에, 모든 ‘*gettext()’ 메서드는 메
시지 id를 바이트 문자열이 아닌 유니코드 문자열로 가정합니다.

키/값 쌍의 전체 집합이 딕셔너리에 배치되고 “보호된” ‘_info’ 인스턴스 변
수로 설정됩니다.

‘.mo’ 파일의 매직 번호가 유효하지 않거나, 주 버전 번호가 예상치 못한 값
이거나, 파일을 읽는 동안 다른 문제가 발생하면 *note GNUTranslations:
3d08. 클래스를 인스턴스 화할 때 *note OSError: 411.가 발생할 수 있습니다
.

 -- 클래스: gettext.GNUTranslations

     베이스 클래스 구현에서 다음 메서드가 재정의되었습니다:

      -- 메서드: gettext (message)

          카탈로그에서 'message' id를 찾아 해당 메시지 문자열을 유니코드
          문자열로 반환합니다.  카탈로그에 'message' id에 대한 항목이 없
          고, 폴 백이 설정되었으면, 조회는 폴 백의 *note gettext():
          3d0f. 메서드로 전달됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 'message' id가 반환
          됩니다.

      -- 메서드: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          메시지 id의 복수형 조회를 수행합니다.  'singular'는 카탈로그에
          서 찾기 위해 메시지 id로 사용되는 반면, 'n'은 사용할 복수형을
          결정하는 데 사용됩니다.  반환된 메시지 문자열은 유니코드 문자
          열입니다.

          카탈로그에서 메시지 id를 찾을 수 없고, 폴 백이 지정되었으면, 요
          청은 폴 백의 *note ngettext(): 3d10. 메서드로 전달됩니다.  그
          렇지 않으면, 'n'이 1이면 'singular'가 반환되고, 다른 모든 경우
          에는 'plural'이 반환됩니다.

          예를 들면 다음과 같습니다:

               n = len(os.listdir('.'))
               cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
               message = cat.ngettext(
                   'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
                   'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
                   n) % {'num': n}

      -- 메서드: pgettext (context, message)

          카탈로그에서 'context'와 'message' id를 찾아 해당 메시지 문자
          열을 유니코드 문자열로 반환합니다.  카탈로그에 'message' id와
          'context'에 대한 항목이 없고, 폴 백이 설정되었으면, 조회는 폴
          백의 *note pgettext(): 9f1. 메서드로 전달됩니다.  그렇지 않으
          면, 'message' id가 반환됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          메시지 ID의 복수형 조회를 수행합니다.  'singular'는 카탈로그에
          서 찾기 위해 메시지 id로 사용되는 반면, 'n'은 사용할 복수형을
          결정하는 데 사용됩니다.

          'context'의 메시지 id가 카탈로그에 없고, 폴 백이 지정되었으면,
          요청은 폴 백의 *note npgettext(): 3d05. 메서드로 전달됩니다.  그
          렇지 않으면, 'n'이 1이면 'singular'가 반환되고, 다른 모든 경우
          에는 'plural'이 반환됩니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Solaris 메시지 카탈로그 지원,  Next: Catalog 생성자,  Prev: GNUTranslations 클래스,  Up: 클래스 기반 API

5.24.1.5 Solaris 메시지 카탈로그 지원
.....................................

Solaris 운영 체제는 자체 바이너리 ‘.mo’ 파일 형식을 정의하지만, 이 형식
에 대한 설명서를 찾을 수 없어서, 현재 지원되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Catalog 생성자,  Prev: Solaris 메시지 카탈로그 지원,  Up: 클래스 기반 API

5.24.1.6 Catalog 생성자
.......................

GNOME은 James Henstridge의 *note gettext: 63. 모듈 버전을 사용하지만, 이
버전은 API가 약간 다릅니다.  설명된 사용법은 다음과 같습니다:

     import gettext
     cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
     _ = cat.gettext
     print(_('hello world'))

이 이전 모듈과의 호환성을 위해, 함수 ‘Catalog()’는 위에서 설명한 *note
translation(): a76. 함수의 별칭입니다.

이 모듈과 Henstridge 버전의 한 가지 차이점: 그의 카탈로그 객체는 매핑
API를 통한 액세스를 지원했지만, 사용되지 않는 것으로 보여서 현재 지원되
지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화,  Next: 감사의 말,  Prev: 클래스 기반 API,  Up: gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스

5.24.1.7 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화
.................................

국제화(I18N)는 프로그램이 여러 언어를 인식하도록 하는 작업을 말합니다.  현
지화(L10N)는 일단 국제화된 프로그램이 현지 언어와 문화적 습관에 적응하는
것을 말합니다.  파이썬 프로그램에 다국어 메시지를 제공하려면, 다음 단계
를 수행해야 합니다:

  1. 번역 가능한 문자열을 특별히 표시하여 프로그램이나 모듈을 준비합니다

  2. 표시된 파일에 대해 도구 모음을 실행하여 원시 메시지 카탈로그를 생성
     합니다

  3. 메시지 카탈로그의 언어별 번역을 만듭니다

  4. 메시지 문자열이 올바르게 번역되도록 *note gettext: 63. 모듈을 사용
     합니다

I18N을 위해 여러분의 코드를 준비하려면, 파일의 모든 문자열을 확인해야 합
니다.  번역해야 할 모든 문자열은 ‘_('...')’로 감싸서 표시해야 합니다 — 즉
, 함수 *note _: 63.에 대한 호출.  예를 들면:

     filename = 'mylog.txt'
     message = _('writing a log message')
     with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
         fp.write(message)

이 예에서, 문자열 ‘'writing a log message'’는 번역 후보로 표시되지만, 문
자열 ‘'mylog.txt'’와 ‘'w'’는 그렇지 않습니다.

번역을 위한 문자열을 추출하는 몇 가지 도구가 있습니다.  원래 GNU
‘gettext’는 C나 C++ 소스 코드만 지원했지만, 확장 버전 ‘xgettext’는 파이
썬을 포함하여 여러 언어로 작성된 코드를 스캔하여 번역 가능으로 표시된 문
자열을 찾습니다.  Babel(1)은 메시지 카탈로그를 추출하고 컴파일하는
‘pybabel’ 스크립트를 포함하는 파이썬 국제화 라이브러리입니다.  ‘xpot’이
라는 François Pinard의 프로그램도 비슷한 작업을 수행하며 그의 po-utils 패
키지(2)의 일부로 제공됩니다.

(파이썬에는 ‘pygettext.py’와 ‘msgfmt.py’라고 하는 이러한 프로그램의 순수
파이썬 버전도 포함되어 있습니다; 일부 파이썬 배포판은 이 프로그램들을 설
치합니다.  ‘pygettext.py’는 ‘xgettext’와 유사하지만, 파이썬 소스 코드만
이해하며 C나 C++ 와 같은 다른 프로그래밍 언어를 처리할 수 없습니다.
‘pygettext.py’는 ‘xgettext’와 유사한 명령 줄 인터페이스를 지원합니다; 사
용에 대한 자세한 내용을 보려면, ‘pygettext.py --help’를 실행하십시오.
‘msgfmt.py’는 GNU ‘msgfmt’와 바이너리 호환됩니다.  이 두 프로그램을 사용
하면, 파이썬 응용 프로그램을 국제화하기 위해 GNU ‘gettext’ 패키지가 필요
하지 않을 수 있습니다.)

‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’ 및 유사한 도구는 메시지 카탈로그인 ‘.po’ 파일을
생성합니다.  이 파일은 소스 코드에 표시된 모든 문자열과 이러한 문자열의
번역된 버전에 대한 자리를 포함하는 사람이 읽을 수 있는 파일입니다.

이 ‘.po’ 파일의 사본은 지원되는 모든 자연어에 대한 번역을 작성하는 개별
인간 번역가에게 전달됩니다.  완성된 언어별 버전을 ‘<language-name>.po’ 파
일로 다시 보내고, 이는 ‘msgfmt’ 프로그램을 사용하여 기계가 읽을 수 있는
‘.mo’ 바이너리 카탈로그 파일로 컴파일됩니다.  ‘.mo’ 파일은 실행 시간에 실
제 번역 처리를 위해 *note gettext: 63. 모듈에서 사용됩니다.

코드에서 *note gettext: 63. 모듈을 사용하는 방법은 단일 모듈을 국제화하
는지 또는 전체 응용 프로그램을 국제화하는지에 따라 다릅니다.  다음 두 섹
션에서는 각 사례에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 모듈 현지화::
* 응용 프로그램 현지화::
* 실행 중 언어 변경::
* 지연된 번역::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/

   (2) https://github.com/pinard/po-utils


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 현지화,  Next: 응용 프로그램 현지화,  Up: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화

5.24.1.8 모듈 현지화
....................

모듈을 현지화한다면, 전역적인 변경을 가하지 않도록 주의해야 합니다, 예를
들어, 내장 이름 공간.  GNU ‘gettext’ API 대신 클래스 기반 API를 사용해야
합니다.

모듈이 “spam”이고 모듈의 다양한 자연어 번역 ‘.mo’ 파일이
‘/usr/share/locale’에 GNU ‘gettext’ 형식으로 존재한다고 가정해 봅시다.  다
음은 모듈 맨 위에 들어갈 내용입니다:

     import gettext
     t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
     _ = t.gettext


File: python.info,  Node: 응용 프로그램 현지화,  Next: 실행 중 언어 변경,  Prev: 모듈 현지화,  Up: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화

5.24.1.9 응용 프로그램 현지화
.............................

응용 프로그램을 현지화한다면, ‘_()’ 함수를 전역적으로 내장 이름 공간에 설
치할 수 있습니다, 일반적으로 응용 프로그램의 메인 드라이버 파일에서.  이
렇게 하면 모든 응용 프로그램별 파일이 각 파일에 명시적으로 설치하지 않고
도 ‘_('...')’를 사용할 수 있습니다.

간단한 경우에는, 응용 프로그램의 메인 드라이버 파일에 다음 코드만 추가하
면 됩니다:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication')

로케일 디렉터리를 설정해야 하면, *note install(): a77. 함수로 전달할 수
있습니다:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')


File: python.info,  Node: 실행 중 언어 변경,  Next: 지연된 번역,  Prev: 응용 프로그램 현지화,  Up: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화

5.24.1.10 실행 중 언어 변경
...........................

프로그램에서 동시에 여러 언어를 지원해야 하면, 다음과 같은 식으로 여러 번
역 인스턴스를 만든 다음 명시적으로 전환할 수 있습니다:

     import gettext

     lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
     lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
     lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])

     # 언어 1을 사용하는 것으로 시작합니다
     lang1.install()

     # ... 시간이 지난 후에, 사용자가 언어 2를 선택합니다
     lang2.install()

     # ... 시간이 더 흐른 후에, 사용자가 언어 3을 선택합니다
     lang3.install()


File: python.info,  Node: 지연된 번역,  Prev: 실행 중 언어 변경,  Up: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화

5.24.1.11 지연된 번역
.....................

대부분의 코딩 상황에서, 문자열은 코딩된 위치에서 번역됩니다.  그러나 때
때로, 번역을 위해 문자열을 표시하지만, 실제 번역을 뒤로 연기할 필요가 있
습니다.  전형적인 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     animals = ['mollusk',
                'albatross',
                'rat',
                'penguin',
                'python', ]
     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(a)

여기서, ‘animals’ 리스트의 문자열을 번역 가능한 것으로 표시하려고 하지만
, 실제로 인쇄될 때까지 번역하고 싶지는 않습니다.

이 상황을 처리 할 수 있는 한 가지 방법은 다음과 같습니다:

     def _(message): return message

     animals = [_('mollusk'),
                _('albatross'),
                _('rat'),
                _('penguin'),
                _('python'), ]

     del _

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

이것이 작동하는 이유는 ‘_()’의 더미 정의가 단순히 문자열을 변경하지 않고
반환하기 때문입니다.  그리고 이 더미 정의는 내장 이름 공간에서 ‘_()’의 정
의를 일시적으로 재정의합니다 (*note del: 17ad. 명령까지).  지역 이름 공
간에 ‘_()’의 이전 정의가 있다면 주의하십시오.

‘_()’의 두 번째 사용은 매개 변수가 문자열 리터럴이 아니기 때문에
‘gettext’ 프로그램이 “a”를 번역 가능하다고 식별하지 않음에 유의하십시오.

이를 처리하는 다른 방법은 다음 예제를 사용하는 것입니다:

     def N_(message): return message

     animals = [N_('mollusk'),
                N_('albatross'),
                N_('rat'),
                N_('penguin'),
                N_('python'), ]

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

이 경우, 번역 가능한 문자열을 ‘N_()’ 함수로 표시하는데, ‘_()’의 정의와 충
돌하지 않습니다.  그러나, ‘N_()’로 표시된 번역 가능한 문자열을 찾도록 메
시지 추출 프로그램을 가르쳐야 할 필요가 있습니다.  ‘xgettext’,
‘pygettext’, ‘pybabel extract’ 및 ‘xpot’은 모두 ‘-k’ 명령 줄 스위치를 사
용하여 이를 지원합니다.  여기서 ‘N_()’의 선택은 완전히 임의적입니다;
‘MarkThisStringForTranslation()’처럼 무엇이든 될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 감사의 말,  Prev: 프로그램과 모듈의 국제화,  Up: gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스

5.24.1.12 감사의 말
...................

다음 분들은 이 모듈을 만드는 데 코드, 피드백, 디자인 제안, 이전 구현 및
귀중한 경험을 제공했습니다:

   * Peter Funk

   * James Henstridge

   * Juan David Ibáñez Palomar

   * Marc-André Lemburg

   * Martin von Löwis

   * François Pinard

   * Barry Warsaw

   * Gustavo Niemeyer


File: python.info,  Node: locale — 국제화 서비스,  Prev: gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스,  Up: 국제화

5.24.2 ‘locale’ — 국제화 서비스
-------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/locale.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note locale: 86. 모듈은 POSIX 로케일 데이터베이스와 기능에 대한 액세스
를 엽니다.  POSIX 로케일 메커니즘은 프로그래머가 소프트웨어가 실행되는 국
가별로 모든 세부 사항을 알 필요 없이 응용 프로그램에서 특정 문화적 문제
를 다룰 수 있도록 합니다.

*note locale: 86. 모듈은 ‘_locale’ 모듈 위에 구현되며, 이는 다시 사용 가
능하다면 ANSI C 로케일 구현을 사용합니다.

*note locale: 86. 모듈은 다음 예외와 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: locale.Error

     *note setlocale(): 2dd.에 전달된 로케일이 인식되지 않을 때 발생하는
     예외.

 -- 함수: locale.setlocale (category, locale=None)

     If 'locale' is given and not ‘None’, *note setlocale(): 2dd.
     modifies the locale setting for the 'category'.  The available
     categories are listed in the data description below.  'locale' may
     be a *note string: 3d25, or a pair, language code and encoding.  An
     empty string specifies the user’s default settings.  If the
     modification of the locale fails, the exception *note Error: 3d24.
     is raised.  If successful, the new locale setting is returned.

     If 'locale' is a pair, it is converted to a locale name using the
     locale aliasing engine.  The language code has the same format as a
     *note locale name: 3d25, but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier.
     The language code and encoding can be ‘None’.

     'locale'이 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 'category'의 현재 설정이 반환됩니
     다.

     *note setlocale(): 2dd.은 대부분의 시스템에서 스레드 안전하지 않습
     니다.  응용 프로그램은 보통 다음과 같은 호출로 시작합니다

          import locale
          locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')

     이는 모든 범주의 로케일을 사용자의 기본 설정(보통 ‘LANG’ 환경 변수
     에서 지정됩니다)으로 설정합니다.  그 후에 로케일을 변경하지 않으면,
     다중 스레딩을 사용해도 문제가 발생하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: locale.localeconv ()

     현지 규칙의 데이터베이스를 딕셔너리로 반환합니다.  이 딕셔너리에는
     키로 다음 문자열이 있습니다:

     범주                       키                                        의미
                                                                          
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d26.    ‘'decimal_point'’                         십진수 소수점 문자.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'grouping'’                              ‘'thousands_sep'’가 예상되는 상대
                                                                          위치를 지정하는 숫자의 시퀀스.  시
                                                                          퀀스가 *note CHAR_MAX: 3d27.로 종
                                                                          료되면, 더 이상의 그룹화가 수행되
                                                                          지 않습니다.  시퀀스가 ‘0’으로 종
                                                                          료되면, 마지막 그룹 크기가 반복적
                                                                          으로 사용됩니다.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'thousands_sep'’                         그룹 간에 사용되는 문자.
                                                                          
                                                                          
     *note LC_MONETARY: 3d28.   ‘'int_curr_symbol'’                       국제 통화 기호.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'currency_symbol'’                       현지 통화 기호.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'’           통화 기호가 값 앞에 오는지 여부 (각
                                                                          각 양과 음의 값).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'’         통화 기호가 스페이스로 값과 구분되
                                                                          는지 여부 (각각 양과 음의 값).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_decimal_point'’                     화폐값에 사용되는 십진수 소수점.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'frac_digits'’                           화폐값의 현지 형식에 사용되는 소수
                                                                          점 이하 자릿수.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'int_frac_digits'’                       화폐값의 국제 형식에 사용되는 소수
                                                                          점 이하 자릿수.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_thousands_sep'’                     화폐값에 사용되는 그룹 구분자.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_grouping'’                          ‘'grouping'’과 동등합니다, 화폐값
                                                                          에 사용됩니다.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'positive_sign'’                         양의 화폐값을 표현하는 데 사용되는
                                                                          기호.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'negative_sign'’                         음의 화폐값을 표현하는 데 사용되는
                                                                          기호.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'’               부호의 위치 (각각 양과 음의 값), 아
                                                                          래를 참조하십시오.
                                                                          

     모든 숫자 값은 이 로케일에서 아무런 값도 지정되지 않았음을 나타내는
     *note CHAR_MAX: 3d27.로 설정할 수 있습니다.

     ‘'p_sign_posn'’과 ‘'n_sign_posn'’에 가능한 값은 다음과 같습니다.

     값                 설명
                        
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     ‘0’                통화와 값을 괄호로 묶습니다.
                        
                        
     ‘1’                부호는 값과 통화 기호 앞에 와야 합니다.
                        
                        
     ‘2’                부호는 값과 통화 기호 뒤에 와야 합니다.
                        
                        
     ‘3’                부호는 값 바로 앞에 와야 합니다.
                        
                        
     ‘4’                부호는 값 바로 뒤에 와야 합니다.
                        
                        
     ‘CHAR_MAX’         이 로케일에 지정된 것이 없습니다.
                        

     로케일이 다르고 숫자나 통화 문자열이 ASCII가 아니면, 함수는 일시적
     으로 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 로케일을 ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 로케일이나 ‘LC_MONETARY’ 로케
     일로 설정합니다.  이 임시 변경은 다른 스레드에 영향을 줍니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 어떤 경우에 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 로케일을
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’ 로케일로 임시 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: locale.nl_langinfo (option)

     로케일 특정 정보를 문자열로 반환합니다.  이 함수를 모든 시스템에서
     사용할 수 있는 것은 아니며, 가능한 옵션 집합은 플랫폼마다 다를 수 있
     습니다.  가능한 인자 값은 숫자이며, locale 모듈에 있는 기호 상수를
     사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note nl_langinfo(): 3d29. 함수는 다음 키 중 하나를 받아들입니다.  대
     부분의 설명은 GNU C 라이브러리의 해당 설명에서 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.CODESET

          선택한 로케일에 사용된 문자 인코딩의 이름으로 문자열을 가져옵
          니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.D_T_FMT

          로케일 특정 방식으로 날짜와 시간을 표시하기 위해 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8.의 포맷 문자열로 사용할 수 있는 문자열을
          가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.D_FMT

          로케일 특정 방식으로 날짜를 표시하기 위해 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8.의 포맷 문자열로 사용할 수 있는 문자열을
          가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.T_FMT

          로케일 특정 방식으로 시간을 표시하기 위해 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8.의 포맷 문자열로 사용할 수 있는 문자열을
          가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.T_FMT_AMPM

          am/pm 형식으로 시간을 나타내는 *note time.strftime(): 11d8.의
          포맷 문자열을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_1
      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_2
      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_3
      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_4
      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_5
      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_6
      -- 데이터: locale.DAY_7

          주의 n 번째 날의 이름을 가져옵니다.

               참고: 이것은 월요일이 주의 첫 번째 요일인 국제관례(ISO
               8601)가 아니라, *note DAY_1: 3d2f.이 일요일인 미국 관례를
               따릅니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_1
      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_2
      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_3
      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_4
      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_5
      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_6
      -- 데이터: locale.ABDAY_7

          주의 n 번째 날의 줄인 이름을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.MON_1
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_2
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_3
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_4
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_5
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_6
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_7
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_8
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_9
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_10
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_11
      -- 데이터: locale.MON_12

          n 번째 달의 이름을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_1
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_2
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_3
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_4
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_5
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_6
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_7
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_8
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_9
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_10
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_11
      -- 데이터: locale.ABMON_12

          n 번째 달의 줄인 이름을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.RADIXCHAR

          기수 문자(십진수 점, 십진수 쉼표, 등)를 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.THOUSEP

          천 단위 (3자리 그룹) 구분자 문자를 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.YESEXPR

          예/아니요 질문에 대한 긍정적인 응답을 인식하기 위해 regex 함수
          에 사용할 수 있는 정규식을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.NOEXPR

          예/아니요 질문에 대한 부정적인 응답을 인식하기 위해 ‘regex(3)’
          함수에 사용할 수 있는 정규식을 가져옵니다.

               참고: *note YESEXPR: 3d57.과 *note NOEXPR: 3d58.를 위한 정
               규식은 C 라이브러리의 ‘regex’ 함수에 적합한 문법을 사용합
               니다, 이는 *note re: b9.에 사용되는 문법과 다를 수 있습니
               다.

      -- 데이터: locale.CRNCYSTR

          통화 기호를 가져옵니다.  기호가 값 앞에 나타나야 하면 “-”, 기
          호가 값 뒤에 나타나야 하면 “+”, 또는 기호가 기수 문자를 대체해
          야 하면 “.”가 앞에 나옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ERA

          로케일의 각 시대에 대해 연도를 계산하고 표시하는 방법을 설명하
          는 문자열을 가져옵니다.

          대부분의 로케일은 이 값을 정의하지 않습니다.  이 값을 정의하는
          로케일의 예는 일본입니다.  일본에서, 전통적인 날짜 표시에는 당
          시 군주의 통치에 해당하는 시대의 이름이 포함됩니다.

          일반적으로 이 값을 직접 사용할 필요는 없습니다.  포맷 문자열에
          ‘E’ 수정자를 지정하면 *note time.strftime(): 11d8. 함수가 이 정
          보를 사용합니다.  반환된 문자열의 형식은 'The Open Group Base
          Specifications Issue 8', 문단 7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language
          Access(2)에서 지정합니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ERA_D_T_FMT

          로케일 특정 시대 기반 방식으로 날짜와 시간을 나타내는 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8.의 포맷 문자열을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ERA_D_FMT

          로케일 특정 시대 기반 방식으로 날짜를 나타내는 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8.의 포맷 문자열을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ERA_T_FMT

          로케일 특정 시대 기반 방식으로 시간을 나타내는 *note
          time.strftime(): 11d8.의 포맷 문자열을 가져옵니다.

      -- 데이터: locale.ALT_DIGITS

          로케일별 방식으로 0에서 99까지의 값을 나타내는 데 사용되는 세
          미콜론으로 구분되된 최대 100개의 기호로 구성된 문자열을 가져옵
          니다.  대부분의 로케일에서 빈 문자열입니다.

 -- 함수: locale.getdefaultlocale ([envvars])

     기본 로케일 설정을 판별하려고 시도하고 ‘(language code, encoding)’
     형식의 튜플로 반환합니다.

     POSIX에 따르면, ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’을 호출하지 않은 프로그램은
     이식성 있는 ‘'C'’ 로케일을 사용하여 실행됩니다.  ‘setlocale(LC_ALL,
     '')’을 호출하면 ‘LANG’ 변수로 정의된 기본 로케일을 사용하도록 합니
     다.  현재 로케일 설정을 방해하고 싶지 않기 때문에 위에서 설명한 방
     식으로 동작을 에뮬레이트 합니다.

     다른 플랫폼과의 호환성을 유지하기 위해, ‘LANG’ 변수뿐만 아니라
     envvars 매개 변수로 제공된 변수 리스트도 검사합니다.  가장 먼저 정
     의된 것으로 발견된 것이 사용됩니다.  'envvars'는 GNU gettext에서 사
     용되는 검색 경로를 기본값으로 합니다; 항상 변수 이름 ‘'LANG'’을 포
     함해야 합니다.  GNU gettext 검색 경로에는 ‘'LC_ALL'’, ‘'LC_CTYPE'’,
     ‘'LANG'’ 및 ‘'LANGUAGE'’가 순서대로 포함됩니다.

     The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 3d25,
     but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier.  The language code and
     encoding may be ‘None’ if their values cannot be determined.  The
     “C” locale is represented as ‘(None, None)’.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- 함수: locale.getlocale (category=LC_CTYPE)

     Returns the current setting for the given locale category as a
     tuple containing the language code and encoding.  'category' may be
     one of the ‘LC_*’ values except *note LC_ALL: 3d5f.  It defaults to
     *note LC_CTYPE: 3d60.

     The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 3d25,
     but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier.  The language code and
     encoding may be ‘None’ if their values cannot be determined.  The
     “C” locale is represented as ‘(None, None)’.

 -- 함수: locale.getpreferredencoding (do_setlocale=True)

     사용자 설정(user preferences)에 따라, 텍스트 데이터에 사용된 *note
     로케일 인코딩: 242.을 반환합니다.  사용자 설정은 시스템마다 다르게
     표현되며, 일부 시스템에서는 프로그래밍 방식으로 제공되지 않을 수 있
     어서, 이 함수는 추측만 반환합니다.

     일부 시스템에서는, 사용자 설정을 얻기 위해 *note setlocale(): 2dd.을
     호출할 필요가 있어서, 이 함수는 스레드 안전하지 않습니다.
     setlocale을 호출할 필요가 없거나 원하지 않으면, 'do_setlocale'을
     ‘False’로 설정해야 합니다.

     안드로이드에서 또는 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.가 활성화되면, 항
     상 ‘'utf-8'’을 반환하고, *note 로케일 인코딩: 242.과 'do_setlocale'
     인자는 무시됩니다.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3d61. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     535.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 안드로이드에서 또는 *note 파이썬
     UTF-8 모드: 650.가 활성화되면 항상 ‘"utf-8"’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: locale.getencoding ()

     Get the current *note locale encoding: 242.:

        * On Android and VxWorks, return ‘"utf-8"’.

        * On Unix, return the encoding of the current *note LC_CTYPE:
          3d60. locale.  Return ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
          returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE
          locale is not supported.

        * On Windows, return the ANSI code page.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3d61. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     535.

     This function is similar to *note getpreferredencoding(False): 534.
     except this function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: locale.normalize (localename)

     주어진 로케일 이름에 대해 정규화된 로케일 코드를 반환합니다.  반환
     된 로케일 코드는 *note setlocale(): 2dd.에서 사용하도록 포맷됩니다.
     정규화에 실패하면, 원래 이름이 변경되지 않은 상태로 반환됩니다.

     주어진 인코딩이 알려지지 않았으면, 함수는 *note setlocale(): 2dd.처
     럼 로케일 코드의 기본 인코딩을 기본값으로 사용합니다.

 -- 함수: locale.strcoll (string1, string2)

     현재 *note LC_COLLATE: 3d64. 설정에 따라 두 문자열을 비교합니다.  다
     른 비교 함수처럼, 'string1'이 'string2' 앞이니 뒤에 오는지 또는 같
     은지에 따라 음수나 양수 값 또는 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: locale.strxfrm (string)

     문자열을 로케일을 고려한 비교에 사용할 수 있는 문자열로 변환합니다.
     예를 들어, ‘strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)’는 ‘strcoll(s1, s2) < 0’과 동
     등합니다.  이 함수는 같은 문자열이 반복적으로 비교될 때, 예를 들어
     문자열 시퀀스를 정렬할 때, 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: locale.format_string (format, val, grouping=False,
          monetary=False)

     현재 *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d26. 설정에 따라 숫자 'val'을 포맷합니다.
     format은 ‘%’ 연산자의 규칙을 따릅니다.  부동 소수점 값의 경우, 적절
     하다면 소수점이 수정됩니다.  'grouping'이 ‘True’이면, 그룹화도 고려
     합니다.

     'monetary'가 참이면, 변환은 화폐 천 단위 구분 기호와 그룹화 문자열
     을 사용합니다.

     ‘format % val’에서처럼 포맷 지정자를 처리하지만, 현재 로케일 설정을
     고려합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'monetary' 키워드 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: locale.currency (val, symbol=True, grouping=False,
          international=False)

     현재 *note LC_MONETARY: 3d28. 설정에 따라 숫자 'val'을 포맷합니다.

     'symbol'이 참이면 반환된 문자열에 통화 기호가 포함됩니다, 이것이 기
     본값입니다.  'grouping'이 ‘True’이면 (기본값이 아닙니다), 값으로 그
     룹화가 수행됩니다.  'international'이 ‘True’이면 (기본값이 아닙니다
     ), 국제 통화 기호가 사용됩니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 ‘C’ 로케일에서 작동하지 않아서, 먼저 *note
          setlocale(): 2dd.을 통해 로케일을 설정해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: locale.str (float)

     내장 함수 ‘str(float)’와 같은 형식을 사용하여 부동 소수점 숫자를 포
     맷하지만, 십진수 소수점을 고려합니다.

 -- 함수: locale.delocalize (string)

     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d26. 설정에 따라, 문자열을 정규화된 숫자 문자열
     로 변환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: locale.localize (string, grouping=False, monetary=False)

     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d26. 설정에 따라 포맷되는 문자열로, 문자열을 정
     규화된 숫자 문자열로 변환합니다.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: locale.atof (string, func=float)

     'string'에 *note delocalize(): e21.를 호출한 결과에 'func'를 호출하
     여, *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d26. 설정에 따라, 문자열을 숫자로 변환합니다
     .

 -- 함수: locale.atoi (string)

     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d26. 규칙에 따라, 문자열을 정수로 변환합니다.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_CTYPE

     Locale category for the character type functions.  Most
     importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e.  how
     bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints.  See PEP 538(3) and
     PEP 540(4) for how this variable might be automatically coerced to
     ‘C.UTF-8’ to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers
     or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections.

     Python doesn’t internally use locale-dependent character
     transformation functions from ‘ctype.h’.  Instead, an internal
     ‘pyctype.h’ provides locale-independent equivalents like
     ‘Py_TOLOWER’.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_COLLATE

     문자열 정렬을 위한 로케일 범주.  *note locale: 86. 모듈의 함수
     *note strcoll(): 3d63.과 *note strxfrm(): 3d65.이 영향을 받습니다.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_TIME

     시간 포매팅을 위한 로케일 범주.  *note time.strftime(): 11d8. 함수
     는 이러한 규칙을 따릅니다.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_MONETARY

     화폐값의 포매팅을 위한 로케일 범주.  사용 가능한 옵션은 *note
     localeconv(): bfb. 함수에서 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_MESSAGES

     메시지 표시를 위한 로케일 범주.  파이썬은 현재 응용 프로그램에 특정
     한 로케일을 고려한 메시지를 지원하지 않습니다.  *note
     os.strerror(): 2b38.에서 반환된 메시지처럼 운영 체제에서 표시되는 메
     시지는 이 범주의 영향을 받을 수 있습니다.

     This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming
     to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_NUMERIC

     숫자 포매팅을 위한 로케일 범주.  *note locale: 86. 모듈의 함수
     *note format_string(): 518, *note atoi(): 3d6a, *note atof(): 3d69.
     및 *note str(): 3d67.은 이 범주의 영향을 받습니다.  다른 모든 숫자
     포매팅 연산은 영향을 받지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: locale.LC_ALL

     모든 로케일 설정의 조합.  로케일을 변경할 때 이 플래그를 사용하면,
     모든 범주에 대한 로케일 설정을 시도합니다.  어떤 범주에서 실패하면,
     아무런 범주도 변경되지 않습니다.  이 플래그를 사용하여 로케일을 가
     져오면, 모든 범주의 설정을 나타내는 문자열이 반환됩니다.  이 문자열
     은 나중에 설정을 복원하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: locale.CHAR_MAX

     이것은 *note localeconv(): bfb.가 반환한 다른 값에 사용되는 기호 상
     수입니다.

예:

     >>> import locale
     >>> loc = locale.getlocale()  # 현재 로케일을 가져옵니다
     # 독일 로케일을 사용합니다; 이름은 플랫폼에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE')
     >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # 움라우트를 포함하는 문자열을 비교합니다
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # 사용자 설정 로케일을 사용합니다
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # 기본 (C) 로케일을 사용합니다
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # 보관된 로케일을 복원합니다

* Menu:

* 배경, 세부 사항, 힌트, 팁 및 경고: 배경 세부 사항 힌트 팁 및 경고.
* Locale names::
* 확장 작성자와 파이썬을 내장하는 프로그램의 경우::
* 메시지 카탈로그에 액세스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/locale.py

   (2) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: 배경 세부 사항 힌트 팁 및 경고,  Next: Locale names,  Up: locale — 국제화 서비스

5.24.2.1 배경, 세부 사항, 힌트, 팁 및 경고
..........................................

C 표준은 로케일을 변경하는 데 상대적으로 비용이 많이 드는 프로그램 전체
속성으로 정의합니다.  이 위에, 로케일을 자주 변경하면 코어 덤프가 발생할
수 있는 방식으로 일부 구현이 망가져 있습니다.  이것은 로케일을 올바르게
사용하는 것을 다소 고통스럽게 만듭니다.

처음에, 프로그램이 시작할 때, 사용자가 선호하는 로케일이 무엇이든 로케일
은 ‘C’ 로케일입니다.  한 가지 예외가 있습니다: *note LC_CTYPE: 3d60. 범
주는 시작 시 현재 로케일 인코딩을 사용자가 선호하는 로케일 인코딩으로 설
정하도록 변경됩니다.  다른 범주에 대해서는 프로그램이 ‘setlocale(LC_ALL,
'')’을 호출하여 사용자가 선호하는 로케일 설정을 원한다고 명시적으로 말해
야 합니다.

일반적으로 어떤 라이브러리 루틴에서 *note setlocale(): 2dd.을 호출하는 것
은 나쁜 생각입니다.  부작용으로 전체 프로그램에 영향을 미치기 때문입니다
.  저장하고 복원하는 것도 거의 비슷하게 나쁩니다: 비용이 많이 들고 설정
이 복원되기 전에 실행되는 다른 스레드에 영향을 줍니다.

일반적인 용도로 모듈을 코딩할 때, 로케일에 영향을 받는 로케일 독립적인 버
전의 연산(가령 *note time.strftime(): 11d8.에 사용되는 특정 포맷)이 필요
하면, 표준 라이브러리 루틴을 사용하지 않고 수행할 수 있는 방법을 찾아야
합니다.  로케일 설정을 사용하는 것이 좋다고 자신을 설득하는 것이 더 좋습
니다.  최후의 수단으로만 모듈이 ‘C’가 아닌 로케일 설정과 호환되지 않는다
는 것을 문서화해야 합니다.

로케일에 따라 숫자 연산을 수행하는 유일한 방법은 이 모듈이 정의한 특수 함
수인 *note atof(): 3d69, *note atoi(): 3d6a, *note format_string(): 518,
*note str(): 3d67.을 사용하는 것입니다.

로케일에 따라 대소 문자 변환과 문자 분류를 수행할 방법이 없습니다.  (유
니코드) 텍스트 문자열의 경우 이것은 문자 값으로만 수행되는 반면, 바이트
문자열의 경우, 바이트의 ASCII 값에 따라 수행되고, 높은 비트가 설정된 바
이트(즉, ASCII가 아닌 바이트)는 절대 변환되거나 글자나 공백과 같은 문자
클래스의 일부로 고려되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Locale names,  Next: 확장 작성자와 파이썬을 내장하는 프로그램의 경우,  Prev: 배경 세부 사항 힌트 팁 및 경고,  Up: locale — 국제화 서비스

5.24.2.2 Locale names
.....................

The format of the locale name is platform dependent, and the set of
supported locales can depend on the system configuration.

On Posix platforms, it usually has the format (1):

          language ["_" territory] ["." charset] ["@" modifier]

where 'language' is a two- or three-letter language code from ISO
639(2), 'territory' is a two-letter country or region code from ISO
3166(3), 'charset' is a locale encoding, and 'modifier' is a script
name, a language subtag, a sort order identifier, or other locale
modifier (for example, “latin”, “valencia”, “stroke” and “euro”).

On Windows, several formats are supported.  (4)  (5)  A subset of IETF
BCP 47(6) tags:

          language ["-" script] ["-" territory] ["." charset]
          language ["-" script] "-" territory "-" modifier

where 'language' and 'territory' have the same meaning as in Posix,
'script' is a four-letter script code from ISO 15924(7), and 'modifier'
is a language subtag, a sort order identifier or custom modifier (for
example, “valencia”, “stroke” or “x-python”).  Both hyphen (‘'-'’) and
underscore (‘'_'’) separators are supported.  Only UTF-8 encoding is
allowed for BCP 47 tags.

Windows also supports locale names in the format:

          language ["_" territory] ["." charset]

where 'language' and 'territory' are full names, such as “English” and
“United States”, and 'charset' is either a code page number (for
example, “1252”) or UTF-8.  Only the underscore separator is supported
in this format.

The “C” locale is supported on all platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) IEEE Std 1003.1-2024; 8.2 Internationalization Variables
(https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap08.html#tag_08_02)

   (2) https://www.iso.org/iso-639-language-code

   (3) https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html

   (4) UCRT Locale names, Languages, and Country/Region strings
(https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/locale-names-languages-and-country-region-strings)

   (5) Locale Names
(https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/intl/locale-names)

   (6) https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/bcp47

   (7) https://www.unicode.org/iso15924/


File: python.info,  Node: 확장 작성자와 파이썬을 내장하는 프로그램의 경우,  Next: 메시지 카탈로그에 액세스,  Prev: Locale names,  Up: locale — 국제화 서비스

5.24.2.3 확장 작성자와 파이썬을 내장하는 프로그램의 경우
........................................................

확장 모듈은 현재 로케일이 무엇인지 찾는 것을 제외하고는 *note
setlocale(): 2dd.을 호출해서는 안 됩니다.  그러나 반환 값은 이식성 있게
복원하는 데만 사용될 수 있기 때문에, 그다지 유용하지 않습니다 (아마도 로
케일이 ‘C’인지 아닌지를 확인하는 것은 예외입니다).

파이썬 코드가 *note locale: 86. 모듈을 사용하여 로케일을 변경할 때, 내장
하는 응용 프로그램에도 영향을 줍니다.  내장하는 응용 프로그램이 이를 원
하지 않으면, ‘config.c’ 파일의 내장 모듈 테이블에서 ‘_locale’ 확장 모듈
(이것이 모든 작업을 수행합니다)을 제거하고, 공유 라이브러리로 ‘_locale’
모듈에 액세스할 수 없도록 확인하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 메시지 카탈로그에 액세스,  Prev: 확장 작성자와 파이썬을 내장하는 프로그램의 경우,  Up: locale — 국제화 서비스

5.24.2.4 메시지 카탈로그에 액세스
.................................

 -- 함수: locale.gettext (msg)

 -- 함수: locale.dgettext (domain, msg)

 -- 함수: locale.dcgettext (domain, msg, category)

 -- 함수: locale.textdomain (domain)

 -- 함수: locale.bindtextdomain (domain, dir)

 -- 함수: locale.bind_textdomain_codeset (domain, codeset)

locale 모듈은 이 인터페이스를 제공하는 시스템에서 C 라이브러리의 gettext
인터페이스를 제공합니다.  *note gettext(): 63, *note dgettext(): 3d74,
*note dcgettext(): 3d75, *note textdomain(): 3d76, *note
bindtextdomain(): 3d77. 및 *note bind_textdomain_codeset(): 3d78. 함수로
구성됩니다.  이는 *note gettext: 63. 모듈의 같은 함수와 유사하지만, 메시
지 카탈로그에 C 라이브러리의 바이너리 형식을 사용하고, 메시지 카탈로그를
찾는 데 C 라이브러리의 검색 알고리즘을 사용합니다.

파이썬 응용 프로그램은 일반적으로 이러한 함수를 호출할 필요가 없으며, 대
신 *note gettext: 63.를 사용해야 합니다.  이 규칙의 알려진 예외는 내부적
으로 C 함수 ‘gettext’나 ‘dcgettext’를 호출하는 추가 C 라이브러리와 링크
되는 응용 프로그램입니다.  이러한 응용 프로그램에서는, 라이브러리가 메시
지 카탈로그를 올바르게 찾을 수 있도록 텍스트 도메인을 바인드해야 할 수도
있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Graphical user interfaces with Tk,  Next: 개발 도구,  Prev: 국제화,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.25 Graphical user interfaces with Tk
======================================

Tk/Tcl은 오랫동안 파이썬의 중요한 부분이었습니다.  견고하고 플랫폼 독립
적인 윈도우 도구상자(파이썬 프로그래머는 *note tkinter: f0. 패키지를 통
해 사용할 수 있습니다)와 그 확장(*note tkinter.ttk: f9. 모듈)을 제공합니
다.

*note tkinter: f0. 패키지는 Tcl/Tk 위에 올라가는 얇은 객체 지향 계층입니
다.  *note tkinter: f0.를 사용하기 위해 Tcl 코드를 작성할 필요는 없지만,
Tk 문서와 때때로 Tcl 문서를 참고해야 합니다.  *note tkinter: f0.는 Tk 위
젯을 파이썬 클래스로 구현하는 래퍼 집합입니다.

*note tkinter: f0.의 가장 큰 장점은 빠르고, 일반적으로 파이썬과 함께 제
공된다는 것입니다.  표준 설명서가 약하긴 하지만 레퍼런스, 자습서, 서적 및
기타 자료와 같은 훌륭한 자료를 구할 수 있습니다.  *note tkinter: f0.는 낡
은 모양과 느낌으로도 유명합니다만, Tk 8.5에서 크게 개선되었습니다.  그렇
지만, 여러분이 관심을 기울일 만한 다른 GUI 라이브러리가 많이 있습니다.  파
이썬 위키는 몇 가지 대체 GUI 프레임워크 및 도구(1)를 나열합니다.

* Menu:

* tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스::
* tkinter.colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자: tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자.
* tkinter.font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼: tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
* Tkinter 대화 상자::
* tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
* tkinter.scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯.
* tkinter.dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
* tkinter.ttk — Tk 테마 위젯: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯.
* IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸::
* turtle — Turtle graphics::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스,  Next: tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.1 ‘tkinter’ — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스
-------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter: f0. 패키지(“Tk 인터페이스”)는 Tcl/Tk GUI 툴킷에 대한 표준
파이썬 인터페이스입니다.  Tk와 *note tkinter: f0.는 macOS를 포함하는 대
부분의 유닉스 플랫폼과 윈도우 시스템에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

명령 줄에서 ‘python -m tkinter’를 실행하면 간단한 Tk 인터페이스를 보여주
는 창을 열어, *note tkinter: f0.가 시스템에 제대로 설치되었는지 알 수 있
도록 하고, 설치된 Tcl/Tk 버전을 보여주기 때문에, 그 버전에 해당하는
Tcl/Tk 설명서를 읽을 수 있습니다.

Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or
without thread support.  The official Python binary release bundles
Tcl/Tk 8.6 threaded.  See the source code for the *note _tkinter: 3.
module for more information about supported versions.

Tkinter is not a thin wrapper, but adds a fair amount of its own logic
to make the experience more pythonic.  This documentation will
concentrate on these additions and changes, and refer to the official
Tcl/Tk documentation for details that are unchanged.

     참고: Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) introduced a modern set of themed user
     interface components along with a new API to use them.  Both old
     and new APIs are still available.  Most documentation you will find
     online still uses the old API and can be woefully outdated.

더 보기
.......

   * 
     TkDocs(2)

          Extensive tutorial on creating user interfaces with Tkinter.
          Explains key concepts, and illustrates recommended approaches
          using the modern API.

   * 
     Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python(3)

          Reference documentation for Tkinter 8.5 detailing available
          classes, methods, and options.

Tcl/Tk Resources:

   * 
     Tk commands(4)

          Comprehensive reference to each of the underlying Tcl/Tk
          commands used by Tkinter.

   * 
     Tcl/Tk 홈 페이지(5)

          Additional documentation, and links to Tcl/Tk core
          development.

Books:

   * 
     Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers(6)

          Mark Roseman 지음.  (ISBN 978-1999149567)

   * 
     Python GUI programming with Tkinter(7)

          Alan D. Moore 지음.  (ISBN 978-1788835886)

   * 
     Programming Python(8)

          Mark Lutz 지음; 탁월하게 Tkinter를 다루고 있습니다.  (ISBN
          978-0596158101)

   * 
     Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)(9)

          By John Ousterhout, inventor of Tcl/Tk, and Ken Jones; does
          not cover Tkinter.  (ISBN 978-0321336330)

* Menu:

* Architecture::
* Tkinter 모듈::
* Tkinter 구명조끼::
* Threading model::
* 간편한 레퍼런스::
* 파일 처리기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py

   (2) https://tkdocs.com/

   (3) https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk

   (6) https://tkdocs.com/book.html

   (7) 
https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886

   (8) https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html

   (9) https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X


File: python.info,  Node: Architecture,  Next: Tkinter 모듈,  Up: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

5.25.1.1 Architecture
.....................

Tcl/Tk is not a single library but rather consists of a few distinct
modules, each with separate functionality and its own official
documentation.  Python’s binary releases also ship an add-on module
together with it.

Tcl

     Tcl is a dynamic interpreted programming language, just like
     Python.  Though it can be used on its own as a general-purpose
     programming language, it is most commonly embedded into C
     applications as a scripting engine or an interface to the Tk
     toolkit.  The Tcl library has a C interface to create and manage
     one or more instances of a Tcl interpreter, run Tcl commands and
     scripts in those instances, and add custom commands implemented in
     either Tcl or C. Each interpreter has an event queue, and there are
     facilities to send events to it and process them.  Unlike Python,
     Tcl’s execution model is designed around cooperative multitasking,
     and Tkinter bridges this difference (see *note Threading model:
     3d7f. for details).

Tk

     Tk is a Tcl package(1) implemented in C that adds custom commands
     to create and manipulate GUI widgets.  Each *note Tk: 163d. object
     embeds its own Tcl interpreter instance with Tk loaded into it.
     Tk’s widgets are very customizable, though at the cost of a dated
     appearance.  Tk uses Tcl’s event queue to generate and process GUI
     events.

Ttk

     Themed Tk (Ttk) is a newer family of Tk widgets that provide a much
     better appearance on different platforms than many of the classic
     Tk widgets.  Ttk is distributed as part of Tk, starting with Tk
     version 8.5.  Python bindings are provided in a separate module,
     *note tkinter.ttk: f9.

Internally, Tk and Ttk use facilities of the underlying operating
system, i.e., Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows.

When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a
widget, the *note tkinter: f0. module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command
string.  It passes that Tcl command string to an internal *note
_tkinter: 3. binary module, which then calls the Tcl interpreter to
evaluate it.  The Tcl interpreter will then call into the Tk and/or Ttk
packages, which will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 모듈,  Next: Tkinter 구명조끼,  Prev: Architecture,  Up: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

5.25.1.2 Tkinter 모듈
.....................

Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules.  Most applications
will need the main *note tkinter: f0. module, as well as the *note
tkinter.ttk: f9. module, which provides the modern themed widget set and
API:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk

 -- 클래스: tkinter.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)

     최상위 Tk 위젯을 만들고 이 위젯에 대한 Tcl 인터프리터를 초기화합니
     다.  이 위젯은 일반적으로 응용 프로그램의 메인 창입니다.  인스턴스
     마다 고유한 Tcl 인터프리터가 연결됩니다.

     The *note Tk: 163d. class is typically instantiated using all
     default values.  However, the following keyword arguments are
     currently recognized:

     'screenName'

          When given (as a string), sets the ‘DISPLAY’ environment
          variable.  (X11 only)

     'baseName'

          Name of the profile file.  By default, 'baseName' is derived
          from the program name (‘sys.argv[0]’).

     'className'

          Name of the widget class.  Used as a profile file and also as
          the name with which Tcl is invoked ('argv0' in 'interp').

     'useTk'

          If ‘True’, initialize the Tk subsystem.  The *note
          tkinter.Tcl(): 3d81. function sets this to ‘False’.

     'sync'

          If ‘True’, execute all X server commands synchronously, so
          that errors are reported immediately.  Can be used for
          debugging.  (X11 only)

     'use'

          Specifies the 'id' of the window in which to embed the
          application, instead of it being created as an independent
          toplevel window.  'id' must be specified in the same way as
          the value for the -use option for toplevel widgets (that is,
          it has a form like that returned by ‘winfo_id()’).

          Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if
          'id' refers to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container
          option enabled.

     *note Tk: 163d. reads and interprets profile files, named
     ‘.`className'.tcl’ and ‘.`baseName'.tcl’, into the Tcl interpreter
     and calls *note exec(): 17f. on the contents of ‘.`className'.py’
     and ‘.`baseName'.py’.  The path for the profile files is the ‘HOME’
     environment variable or, if that isn’t defined, then *note
     os.curdir: 27ec.

      -- 속성: tk

          The Tk application object created by instantiating *note Tk:
          163d.  This provides access to the Tcl interpreter.  Each
          widget that is attached the same instance of *note Tk: 163d.
          has the same value for its *note tk: 3d82. attribute.

      -- 속성: master

          The widget object that contains this widget.  For *note Tk:
          163d, the 'master' is *note None: 66f. because it is the main
          window.  The terms 'master' and 'parent' are similar and
          sometimes used interchangeably as argument names; however,
          calling ‘winfo_parent()’ returns a string of the widget name
          whereas *note master: 3d83. returns the object.
          'parent'/'child' reflects the tree-like relationship while
          'master'/'slave' reflects the container structure.

      -- 속성: children

          The immediate descendants of this widget as a *note dict: 256.
          with the child widget names as the keys and the child instance
          objects as the values.

 -- 함수: tkinter.Tcl (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=False)

     *note Tcl(): 3d81. 함수는 Tk 서브 시스템을 초기화하지 않는다는 것을
     제외하고는, *note Tk: 163d. 클래스에 의해 만들어지는 것과 비슷한 객
     체를 만드는 팩토리 함수입니다.  불필요한 최상위 창을 만들고 싶지 않
     거나 만들 수 없는 (가령 X 서버가 없는 유닉스/리눅스 시스템) 환경에
     서 Tcl 인터프리터를 구동할 때 가장 유용합니다.  *note Tcl(): 3d81.
     객체에 의해 만들어진 객체는 ‘loadtk()’ 메서드를 호출하여 만들어지는
     최상위 창(과 초기화된 Tk 서브 시스템)을 가질 수 있습니다.

Tk 지원을 제공하는 모듈은 다음과 같습니다:

*note tkinter: f0.

     주 Tkinter 모듈.

*note tkinter.colorchooser: f1.

     사용자가 색상을 선택할 수 있게 하는 대화 상자.

*note tkinter.commondialog: f2.

     여기에 나열된 다른 모듈에 정의된 대화 상자의 베이스 기본 클래스.

*note tkinter.filedialog: f4.

     사용자가 열거나 저장할 파일을 지정할 수 있도록 하는 일반 대화 상자
     입니다.

*note tkinter.font: f5.

     글꼴과 관련된 작업에 도움이 되는 유틸리티.

*note tkinter.messagebox: f6.

     표준 Tk 대화 상자에 액세스합니다.

*note tkinter.scrolledtext: f7.

     세로 스크롤 막대가 내장된 Text 위젯.

*note tkinter.simpledialog: f8.

     기본 대화 상자와 편리 함수.

*note tkinter.ttk: f9.

     Themed widget set introduced in Tk 8.5, providing modern
     alternatives for many of the classic widgets in the main *note
     tkinter: f0. module.

추가 모듈:

*note _tkinter: 3.

     Tcl/Tk 에 대한 저수준 인터페이스를 포함하는 바이너리 모듈.  주
     *note tkinter: f0. 모듈에 의해 자동으로 임포트되고, 응용 프로그램 프
     로그래머가 직접 사용해서는 안 됩니다.  일반적으로 공유 라이브러리
     (또는 DLL)이지만, 때에 따라 파이썬 인터프리터에 정적으로 링크될 수
     도 있습니다.

*note idlelib: 73.

     Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE).
     Based on *note tkinter: f0.

‘tkinter.constants’

     Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when
     passing various parameters to Tkinter calls.  Automatically
     imported by the main *note tkinter: f0. module.

*note tkinter.dnd: f3.

     (실험적) *note tkinter: f0.를 위한 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.  Tk DND로
     대체 될 때 폐지될 것입니다.

*note turtle: 101.

     Tk 창에서의 터틀(turtle) 그래픽.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 구명조끼,  Next: Threading model,  Prev: Tkinter 모듈,  Up: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

5.25.1.3 Tkinter 구명조끼
.........................

This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk
or Tkinter.  For that, refer to one of the external resources noted
earlier.  Instead, this section provides a very quick orientation to
what a Tkinter application looks like, identifies foundational Tk
concepts, and explains how the Tkinter wrapper is structured.

The remainder of this section will help you to identify the classes,
methods, and options you’ll need in your Tkinter application, and where
to find more detailed documentation on them, including in the official
Tcl/Tk reference manual.

* Menu:

* Hello World 프로그램::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I…? What option does…?::
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::


File: python.info,  Node: Hello World 프로그램,  Next: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter 구명조끼

5.25.1.4 Hello World 프로그램
.............................

We’ll start by walking through a “Hello World” application in Tkinter.
This isn’t the smallest one we could write, but has enough to illustrate
some key concepts you’ll need to know.

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk
     root = Tk()
     frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10)
     frm.grid()
     ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0)
     ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0)
     root.mainloop()

After the imports, the next line creates an instance of the ‘Tk’ class,
which initializes Tk and creates its associated Tcl interpreter.  It
also creates a toplevel window, known as the root window, which serves
as the main window of the application.

The following line creates a frame widget, which in this case will
contain a label and a button we’ll create next.  The frame is fit inside
the root window.

The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string.  The
‘grid()’ method is used to specify the relative layout (position) of the
label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML
work.

A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label.
When pressed, it will call the ‘destroy()’ method of the root window.

Finally, the ‘mainloop()’ method puts everything on the display, and
responds to user input until the program terminates.


File: python.info,  Node: Important Tk Concepts,  Next: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Prev: Hello World 프로그램,  Up: Tkinter 구명조끼

5.25.1.5 Important Tk Concepts
..............................

Even this simple program illustrates the following key Tk concepts:

위젯

     A Tkinter user interface is made up of individual 'widgets'.  Each
     widget is represented as a Python object, instantiated from classes
     like ‘ttk.Frame’, ‘ttk.Label’, and ‘ttk.Button’.

widget hierarchy

     Widgets are arranged in a 'hierarchy'.  The label and button were
     contained within a frame, which in turn was contained within the
     root window.  When creating each 'child' widget, its 'parent'
     widget is passed as the first argument to the widget constructor.

구성 옵션

     Widgets have 'configuration options', which modify their appearance
     and behavior, such as the text to display in a label or button.
     Different classes of widgets will have different sets of options.

geometry management

     Widgets aren’t automatically added to the user interface when they
     are created.  A 'geometry manager' like ‘grid’ controls where in
     the user interface they are placed.

event loop

     Tkinter reacts to user input, changes from your program, and even
     refreshes the display only when actively running an 'event loop'.
     If your program isn’t running the event loop, your user interface
     won’t update.


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Next: How do I…? What option does…?,  Prev: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter 구명조끼

5.25.1.6 Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk
...............................................

When your application uses Tkinter’s classes and methods, internally
Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and
executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your
application’s ‘Tk’ instance.

Whether it’s trying to navigate reference documentation, trying to find
the right method or option, adapting some existing code, or debugging
your Tkinter application, there are times that it will be useful to
understand what those underlying Tcl/Tk commands look like.

To illustrate, here is the Tcl/Tk equivalent of the main part of the
Tkinter script above.

     ttk::frame .frm -padding 10
     grid .frm
     grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0
     grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0

Tcl’s syntax is similar to many shell languages, where the first word is
the command to be executed, with arguments to that command following it,
separated by spaces.  Without getting into too many details, notice the
following:

   * The commands used to create widgets (like ‘ttk::frame’) correspond
     to widget classes in Tkinter.

   * Tcl widget options (like ‘-text’) correspond to keyword arguments
     in Tkinter.

   * Widgets are referred to by a 'pathname' in Tcl (like ‘.frm.btn’),
     whereas Tkinter doesn’t use names but object references.

   * A widget’s place in the widget hierarchy is encoded in its
     (hierarchical) pathname, which uses a ‘.’ (dot) as a path
     separator.  The pathname for the root window is just ‘.’ (dot).  In
     Tkinter, the hierarchy is defined not by pathname but by specifying
     the parent widget when creating each child widget.

   * Operations which are implemented as separate 'commands' in Tcl
     (like ‘grid’ or ‘destroy’) are represented as 'methods' on Tkinter
     widget objects.  As you’ll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses
     what appear to be method calls on widget objects, which more
     closely mirror what would is used in Tkinter.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I…? What option does…?,  Next: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Up: Tkinter 구명조끼

5.25.1.7 How do I…? What option does…?
......................................

If you’re not sure how to do something in Tkinter, and you can’t
immediately find it in the tutorial or reference documentation you’re
using, there are a few strategies that can be helpful.

First, remember that the details of how individual widgets work may vary
across different versions of both Tkinter and Tcl/Tk.  If you’re
searching documentation, make sure it corresponds to the Python and
Tcl/Tk versions installed on your system.

When searching for how to use an API, it helps to know the exact name of
the class, option, or method that you’re using.  Introspection, either
in an interactive Python shell or with *note print(): f6d, can help you
identify what you need.

To find out what configuration options are available on any widget, call
its ‘configure()’ method, which returns a dictionary containing a
variety of information about each object, including its default and
current values.  Use ‘keys()’ to get just the names of each option.

     btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...)
     print(btn.configure().keys())

As most widgets have many configuration options in common, it can be
useful to find out which are specific to a particular widget class.
Comparing the list of options to that of a simpler widget, like a frame,
is one way to do that.

     print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys()))

Similarly, you can find the available methods for a widget object using
the standard *note dir(): 62c. function.  If you try it, you’ll see
there are over 200 common widget methods, so again identifying those
specific to a widget class is helpful.

     print(dir(btn))
     print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))


File: python.info,  Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: How do I…? What option does…?,  Up: Tkinter 구명조끼

5.25.1.8 Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual
...............................................

As noted, the official Tk commands(1) reference manual (man pages) is
often the most accurate description of what specific operations on
widgets do.  Even when you know the name of the option or method that
you need, you may still have a few places to look.

While all operations in Tkinter are implemented as method calls on
widget objects, you’ve seen that many Tcl/Tk operations appear as
commands that take a widget pathname as its first parameter, followed by
optional parameters, e.g.

     destroy .
     grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0

Others, however, look more like methods called on a widget object (in
fact, when you create a widget in Tcl/Tk, it creates a Tcl command with
the name of the widget pathname, with the first parameter to that
command being the name of a method to call).

     .frm.btn invoke
     .frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye"

In the official Tcl/Tk reference documentation, you’ll find most
operations that look like method calls on the man page for a specific
widget (e.g., you’ll find the ‘invoke()’ method on the ttk::button(2)
man page), while functions that take a widget as a parameter often have
their own man page (e.g., grid(3)).

You’ll find many common options and methods in the options(4) or
ttk::widget(5) man pages, while others are found in the man page for a
specific widget class.

You’ll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, e.g.,
‘winfo_x()’, ‘winfo_height()’, ‘winfo_viewable()’.  You’d find
documentation for all of these in the winfo(6) man page.

     참고: Somewhat confusingly, there are also methods on all Tkinter
     widgets that don’t actually operate on the widget, but operate at a
     global scope, independent of any widget.  Examples are methods for
     accessing the clipboard or the system bell.  (They happen to be
     implemented as methods in the base ‘Widget’ class that all Tkinter
     widgets inherit from).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm

   (3) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm

   (6) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Threading model,  Next: 간편한 레퍼런스,  Prev: Tkinter 구명조끼,  Up: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

5.25.1.9 Threading model
........................

Python and Tcl/Tk have very different threading models, which *note
tkinter: f0. tries to bridge.  If you use threads, you may need to be
aware of this.

A Python interpreter may have many threads associated with it.  In Tcl,
multiple threads can be created, but each thread has a separate Tcl
interpreter instance associated with it.  Threads can also create more
than one interpreter instance, though each interpreter instance can be
used only by the one thread that created it.

Each ‘Tk’ object created by *note tkinter: f0. contains a Tcl
interpreter.  It also keeps track of which thread created that
interpreter.  Calls to *note tkinter: f0. can be made from any Python
thread.  Internally, if a call comes from a thread other than the one
that created the ‘Tk’ object, an event is posted to the interpreter’s
event queue, and when executed, the result is returned to the calling
Python thread.

Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after
initialization, the interpreter runs an event loop (i.e.
‘Tk.mainloop()’) and responds to events.  Because it is single-threaded,
event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise they will block other
events from being processed.  To avoid this, any long-running
computations should not run in an event handler, but are either broken
into smaller pieces using timers, or run in another thread.  This is
different from many GUI toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely
separate thread from all application code including event handlers.

If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing
events, any *note tkinter: f0. calls made from threads other than the
one running the Tcl interpreter will fail.

A number of special cases exist:

   * Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware.  In
     this case, *note tkinter: f0. calls the library from the
     originating Python thread, even if this is different than the
     thread that created the Tcl interpreter.  A global lock ensures
     only one call occurs at a time.

   * While *note tkinter: f0. allows you to create more than one
     instance of a ‘Tk’ object (with its own interpreter), all
     interpreters that are part of the same thread share a common event
     queue, which gets ugly fast.  In practice, don’t create more than
     one instance of ‘Tk’ at a time.  Otherwise, it’s best to create
     them in separate threads and ensure you’re running a thread-aware
     Tcl/Tk build.

   * Blocking event handlers are not the only way to prevent the Tcl
     interpreter from reentering the event loop.  It is even possible to
     run multiple nested event loops or abandon the event loop entirely.
     If you’re doing anything tricky when it comes to events or threads,
     be aware of these possibilities.

   * There are a few select *note tkinter: f0. functions that presently
     work only when called from the thread that created the Tcl
     interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: 간편한 레퍼런스,  Next: 파일 처리기,  Prev: Threading model,  Up: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

5.25.1.10 간편한 레퍼런스
.........................

* Menu:

* 옵션 설정::
* 패커::
* 패커 옵션::
* 위젯 변수 결합하기::
* 창 관리자::
* Tk 옵션 데이터형::
* 바인딩과 이벤트::
* index 매개 변수::
* 이미지::


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 설정,  Next: 패커,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.11 옵션 설정
...................

옵션은 위젯의 색상과 테두리 너비와 같은 것을 제어합니다.  옵션은 세 가지
방법으로 설정할 수 있습니다:

객체 생성 시, 키워드 인자 사용하기

          fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")

객체 생성 후, 딕셔너리 인덱스처럼 옵션 이름을 다루기

          fred["fg"] = "red"
          fred["bg"] = "blue"

config() 메서드를 사용하여 객체 생성 이후 여러 어트리뷰트를 갱신하기.

          fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")

주어진 옵션과 그 동작에 대한 완전한 설명은, 해당 위젯의 Tk 매뉴얼 페이지
를 참조하십시오.

매뉴얼 페이지는 각 위젯에 대해 “표준 옵션(STANDARD OPTIONS)”과 “위젯 특
정 옵션(WIDGET SPECIFIC OPTIONS)”을 나열합니다.  전자는 많은 위젯에 공통
적인 옵션 목록이며, 후자는 그 위젯에만 적용되는 옵션입니다.  표준 옵션은
‘options(3)(1)’ 매뉴얼 페이지에 설명되어 있습니다.

이 문서에서는 표준과 위젯 특정 옵션을 구분하지 않습니다.  일부 옵션은 일
부 위젯에 적용되지 않습니다.  특정 위젯이 특정 옵션에 응답하는지는 위젯
의 클래스에 따라 다릅니다; 버튼에는 ‘command’ 옵션이 있는데, 레이블은 그
렇지 않습니다.

주어진 위젯이 지원하는 옵션은 위젯의 매뉴얼 페이지에 나열되거나, 실행 시
간에 인자 없이 ‘config()’ 메서드를 호출하거나 해당 위젯에서 ‘keys()’ 메
서드를 호출하여 조회할 수 있습니다.  이러한 호출의 반환 값은 키가 옵션의
이름인 문자열(예를 들어, ‘'relief'’)이고 값이 5-튜플인 딕셔너리입니다.

‘bg’와 같은 일부 옵션은 긴 이름을 가진 공통 옵션의 동의어입니다 (‘bg’는
“background”의 줄임말입니다).  ‘config()’ 메서드에 줄인 옵션을 전달하면
5-튜플이 아닌 2-튜플을 반환합니다.  전달된 2-튜플에는 동의어의 이름과 “실
제” 옵션이 담겨있습니다 (가령 ‘('bg', 'background')’).

인덱스      의미                                  예
                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
0           옵션 이름                             ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
1           데이터베이스 조회를 위한 옵션 이름    ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
2           데이터베이스 조회를 위한 옵션 클래    ‘'Relief'’
            스                                    
            
                                                  
3           기본값                                ‘'raised'’
                                                  
                                                  
4           현재 값                               ‘'groove'’
                                                  

예:

     >>> print(fred.config())
     {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}

물론, 인쇄된 딕셔너리에는 사용 가능한 모든 옵션과 해당 값이 포함됩니다.
이것은 예시일뿐입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 패커,  Next: 패커 옵션,  Prev: 옵션 설정,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.12 패커
..............

패커(packer)는 Tk의 지오메트리 관리 메커니즘 중 하나입니다.  지오메트리
관리자는 컨테이너(위젯들의 공동 'master') 내에서의 위젯의 상대 위치를 지
정하는 데 사용됩니다.  더 성가신 'placer'(잘 사용되지 않고, 여기서는 다
루지 않습니다) 와는 달리, 패커는 '위에', '왼쪽에', '채우기' 등의 정성적
(qualitative) 관계 규정을 취하고, 여러분을 위해 정확한 배치 좌표를 결정
하기 위한 모든 작업을 수행합니다.

모든 'master' 위젯의 크기는 안에 있는 “슬레이브(slave) 위젯”의 크기에 의
해 결정됩니다.  패커는 슬레이브 위젯이 패킹 되는 마스터 내부에 나타나는
위치를 제어하는 데 사용됩니다.  원하는 배치를 얻기 위해 프레임에 위젯을
팩하고, 프레임을 다른 프레임에 팩할 수 있습니다.  또한, 일단 팩 되면, 점
진적인 구성의 변경을 수용하기 위해 배치가 동적으로 조정됩니다.

위젯은 지오메트리 관리자로 지오메트리를 지정할 때까지 표시되지 않습니다.
지오메트리 명세를 빠뜨리는 것은 초기에 흔한 실수이고, 위젯을 만들었지만,
아무것도 나타나지 않을 때 놀라게 됩니다.  위젯은 예를 들어 패커의
‘pack()’ 메서드가 적용된 후에만 나타납니다.

pack() 메서드는 컨테이너 내에서 위젯이 표시되는 위치와 메인 응용 프로그
램 윈도우의 크기가 조정될 때 어떻게 동작할지를 제어하는 키워드 옵션/값 쌍
으로 호출할 수 있습니다.  여기 몇 가지 예가 있습니다:

     fred.pack()                     # 기본값은 side = "top"
     fred.pack(side="left")
     fred.pack(expand=1)


File: python.info,  Node: 패커 옵션,  Next: 위젯 변수 결합하기,  Prev: 패커,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.13 패커 옵션
...................

패커와 그것이 받을 수 있는 옵션에 대한 더 자세한 정보는 매뉴얼 페이지와
John Ousterhout의 책의 183쪽을 참조하십시오.

anchor

     앵커(anchor)형.  패커가 각 슬레이브를 컨테이너에 넣을 위치를 나타냅
     니다.

expand

     불리언(boolean), ‘0’ 또는 ‘1’.

fill

     유효한 값: ‘'x'’, ‘'y'’, ‘'both'’, ‘'none'’.

ipadx와 ipady

     거리(distance) - 슬레이브 위젯의 각 변의 내부 패딩을 지정합니다.

padx와 pady

     거리(distance) - 슬레이브 위젯의 각 변의 외부 패딩을 지정합니다.

side

     유효한 값: ‘'left'’, ‘'right'’, ‘'top'’, ‘'bottom'’.


File: python.info,  Node: 위젯 변수 결합하기,  Next: 창 관리자,  Prev: 패커 옵션,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.14 위젯 변수 결합하기
............................

(텍스트 입력 위젯과 같은) 일부 위젯의 현재 값 설정은 특수 옵션을 사용하
여 응용 프로그램 변수에 직접 연결할 수 있습니다.  이 옵션은 ‘variable’,
‘textvariable’, ‘onvalue’, ‘offvalue’ 및 ‘value’입니다.  이 연결은 양방
향으로 작동합니다: 어떤 이유로 든 변수가 변경되면, 연결된 위젯은 새 값을
반영하도록 갱신됩니다.

불행히도, *note tkinter: f0.의 현재 구현에서는 ‘variable’ 또는
‘textvariable’ 옵션을 통해 임의의 파이썬 변수를 위젯으로 넘길 수 없습니
다.  작동하는 유일한 종류의 변수는 *note tkinter: f0.에 정의된 Variable이
라는 클래스에서 서브 클래싱되는 변수입니다.

이미 정의된 Variable의 유용한 서브 클래스가 많이 있습니다: ‘StringVar’,
‘IntVar’, ‘DoubleVar’ 및 ‘BooleanVar’.  이러한 변수의 현재 값을 읽으려면
‘get()’ 메서드를 호출하고, 값을 바꾸려면 ‘set()’ 메서드를 호출합니다.  이
프로토콜을 따르면, 여러분이 더는 개입하지 않더라도 위젯은 변수의 값을 항
상 추적합니다.

예를 들면:

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

             self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
             self.entrythingy.pack()

             # 여기에 응용 프로그램 변수를 만듭니다.
             self.contents = tk.StringVar()
             # 어떤 값으로 설정합니다
             self.contents.set("this is a variable")
             # Entry 위젯에 이 변수를 감시하도록 지시합니다.
             self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents

             # 사용자가 return 키를 눌렀을 때를 위한 콜백을 정의합니다.
             # 변수의 현재값을 인쇄합니다.
             self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
                                  self.print_contents)

         def print_contents(self, event):
             print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
                   self.contents.get())

     root = tk.Tk()
     myapp = App(root)
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: 창 관리자,  Next: Tk 옵션 데이터형,  Prev: 위젯 변수 결합하기,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.15 창 관리자
...................

Tk에는, 창 관리자와 상호 작용하기 위한 유틸리티 명령인 ‘wm’이 있습니다.
‘wm’ 명령 옵션을 사용하여 제목, 배치, 아이콘 비트맵 등과 같은 항목을 제
어할 수 있습니다.  *note tkinter: f0.에서, 이러한 명령은 ‘Wm’ 클래스의 메
서드로 구현되었습니다.  최상위 위젯은 ‘Wm’ 클래스의 서브 클래스이므로,
‘Wm’ 메서드를 직접 호출할 수 있습니다.

주어진 위젯을 포함하는 최상위 창을 가져오려면, 종종 위젯의 마스터를 참조
하는 것만으로도 됩니다.  물론 위젯이 프레임 안에 팩 되어 있다면, 마스터
는 최상위 창을 나타내지 않을 것입니다.  임의의 위젯이 포함된 최상위 창을
가져오려면, ‘_root()’ 메서드를 호출하면 됩니다.  이 메서드는 이 함수가 구
현 일부이며, Tk 기능에 대한 인터페이스가 아니라는 사실을 나타내기 위해 밑
줄로 시작합니다.

다음은 일반적인 사용 예입니다:

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master=None):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

     # 응용 프로그램을 만듭니다
     myapp = App()

     #
     # 이것들은 창 관리자 클래스에 대한 메서드 호출입니다
     #
     myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
     myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)

     # 프로그램을 시작합니다
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Tk 옵션 데이터형,  Next: 바인딩과 이벤트,  Prev: 창 관리자,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.16 Tk 옵션 데이터형
..........................

anchor

     유효한 값은 나침반의 눈금입니다: ‘"n"’, ‘"ne"’, ‘"e"’, ‘"se"’,
     ‘"s"’, ‘"sw"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"nw"’, 그리고 ‘"center"’.

bitmap

     8개의 내장된, 이름있는 비트맵이 있습니다: ‘'error'’, ‘'gray25'’,
     ‘'gray50'’, ‘'hourglass'’, ‘'info'’, ‘'questhead'’, ‘'question'’,
     ‘'warning'’.  X 비트맵 파일명을 지정하려면
     ‘"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"’처럼 ‘@’를 앞에 붙인 파일의 전체
     경로를 지정하십시오.

boolean

     정수 0이나 1 또는 문자열 ‘"yes"’나 ‘"no"’를 전달할 수 있습니다.

callback

     인자를 취하지 않는 파이썬 함수입니다.  예를 들면:

          def print_it():
              print("hi there")
          fred["command"] = print_it

color

     색상은 rgb.txt 파일에 있는 X 색상의 이름이나, RGB 값을 4비트:
     ‘"#RGB"’, 8비트: ‘"#RRGGBB"’, 12비트: ‘"#RRRGGGBBB"’, 또는 16비트:
     ‘"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"’ 범위로 표현하는 문자열로 제공됩니다.  여기서 R,
     G, B는 유효한 임의의 16진수를 나타냅니다.  자세한 내용은
     Ousterhout의 책 160쪽을 참조하십시오.

cursor

     ‘XC_’ 접두사 없이 ‘cursorfont.h’의 표준 X 커서 이름을 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  예를 들어, 손 모양 커서(‘XC_hand2’)를 얻으려면, ‘"hand2"’
     문자열을 사용하십시오.  여러분 자신의 비트맵과 마스크 파일을 지정할
     수도 있습니다.  Ousterhout의 책 179쪽을 보십시오.

distance

     화면 거리는 픽셀이나 절대 거리로 지정할 수 있습니다.  픽셀은 숫자로
     절대 거리는 문자열로 지정되며, 끝에 붙는 문자는 단위를 나타냅니다:
     ‘c’는 센티미터, ‘i’는 인치, ‘m’은 밀리미터, ‘p’는 프린터의 포인트입
     니다.  예를 들어, 3.5 인치는 ‘"3.5i"’로 표현됩니다.

font

     Tk는 ‘{courier 10 bold}’와 같은, 목록 글꼴 이름 형식을 사용합니다.
     양수로 표현된 글꼴 크기는 포인트로 측정됩니다; 음수로 표현된 크기는
     픽셀 단위로 측정됩니다.

geometry

     이것은 ‘너비x높이’ 형식의 문자열로, 대부분의 위젯에서 너비와 높이는
     픽셀 단위로 측정됩니다 (텍스트를 표시하는 위젯에서는 문자 단위).  예
     를 들어: ‘fred["geometry"] = "200x100"’.

justify

     유효한 값은 문자열입니다: ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’, ‘"right"’ 및
     ‘"fill"’.

region

     이것은 스페이스로 구분된 네 개의 요소가 있는 문자열이며, 각 요소는
     유효한 거리(위를 참조하세요)입니다.  예를 들어: ‘"2 3 4 5"’와 ‘"3i
     2i 4.5i 2i"’와 ‘"3c 2c 4c 10.43c"’는 모두 유효한 영역(region)입니다
     .

relief

     위젯의 테두리 스타일을 결정합니다.  유효한 값은 다음과 같습니다:
     ‘"raised"’, ‘"sunken"’, ‘"flat"’, ‘"groove"’ 및 ‘"ridge"’.

scrollcommand

     이것은 거의 항상 어떤 스크롤 막대 위젯의 ‘set()’ 메서드이지만, 단일
     인자를 취하는 어떤 위젯 메서드도 가능합니다.

wrap

     ‘"none"’, ‘"char"’ 또는 ‘"word"’ 중 하나여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 바인딩과 이벤트,  Next: index 매개 변수,  Prev: Tk 옵션 데이터형,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.17 바인딩과 이벤트
.........................

위젯 명령의 bind 메서드를 사용하면 특정 이벤트를 감시하고 해당 이벤트 유
형이 발생할 때 콜백 함수가 트리거 되도록 할 수 있습니다.  bind 메서드의
형식은 다음과 같습니다:

     def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):

여기에서:

sequence

     는 대상 이벤트의 종류를 나타내는 문자열입니다.  (자세한 내용은
     ‘bind(3tk)(1)’ 매뉴얼 페이지와 John Ousterhout의 책 ‘Tcl and the Tk
     Toolkit (2nd edition)’의 201쪽을 참조하십시오).

func

     는 하나의 인자를 취하는 파이썬 함수로, 이벤트가 발생할 때 호출됩니
     다.  이벤트 인스턴스가 인자로 전달됩니다.  (이런 식으로 설치되는 함
     수를 흔히 '콜백(callbacks)'이라고 합니다.)

add

     는 선택적이고, ‘''’나 ‘'+'’입니다.  빈 문자열을 전달하면 이 바인딩
     이 이 이벤트와 연관된 다른 바인딩을 대체 함을 나타냅니다.  ‘'+'’를
     전달하면 이 함수가 이 이벤트 유형에 바인딩 된 함수 목록에 추가됩니
     다.

예를 들면:

     def turn_red(self, event):
         event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"

     self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)

이벤트의 widget 필드가 ‘turn_red()’ 콜백에서 어떻게 액세스 되는지 주목하
십시오.  이 필드는 X 이벤트를 포착한 위젯을 포함합니다.  다음 표에는 사
용자가 액세스할 수 있는 다른 이벤트 필드와 Tk에서 이들을 표시하는 방법이
나열되어 있습니다.  Tk 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조할 때 유용할 수 있습니다.

Tk       Tkinter 이벤트 필드       Tk       Tkinter 이벤트 필드
                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
%f       focus                     %A       char
                                            
                                            
%h       height                    %E       send_event
                                            
                                            
%k       keycode                   %K       keysym
                                            
                                            
%s       state                     %N       keysym_num
                                            
                                            
%t       time                      %T       type
                                            
                                            
%w       width                     %W       widget
                                            
                                            
%x       x                         %X       x_root
                                            
                                            
%y       y                         %Y       y_root
                                            

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)


File: python.info,  Node: index 매개 변수,  Next: 이미지,  Prev: 바인딩과 이벤트,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.18 index 매개 변수
.........................

많은 위젯에는 “index” 매개 변수가 전달되어야 합니다.  이들은 Text 위젯의
특정 위치, Entry 위젯의 특정 문자 또는 Menu 위젯의 특정 메뉴 항목을 가리
키는 데 사용됩니다.

Entry 위젯 인덱스 (인덱스, 뷰 인덱스 등)

     Entry 위젯에는 표시되는 텍스트의 문자 위치를 참조하는 옵션이 있습니
     다.  다음 *note tkinter: f0. 함수를 사용하여 텍스트 위젯에서 이러한
     특수 지점에 액세스할 수 있습니다:

Text 위젯 인덱스

     Text 위젯의 인덱스 표기법은 매우 풍부하며 Tk 매뉴얼 페이지에 자세히
     설명되어 있습니다.

메뉴 인덱스 (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig() 등)

     메뉴에 대한 일부 옵션 및 메서드는 특정 메뉴 항목을 조작합니다.  옵
     션이나 매개 변수에 메뉴 인덱스가 필요한 때는 언제든지 다음과 같이 전
     달할 수 있습니다:

        * 위에서부터 세고, 0에서 시작하는, 위젯에서 항목의 숫자 위치를 나
          타내는 정수.

        * 현재 커서 아래에 있는 메뉴 위치를 나타내는, 문자열 ‘"active"’.

        * 마지막 메뉴 항목을 나타내는, 문자열 ‘"last"’.

        * ‘@6’과 같이, ‘@’이 앞에 오는 정수로, 정수는 메뉴의 좌표계에서
          y 픽셀 좌표로 해석됩니다.

        * 아무런 메뉴 항목을 가리키지 않는, 문자열 ‘"none"’은
          menu.activate()와 함께 사용되어 모든 항목을 비활성화합니다, 마
          지막으로,

        * 메뉴 맨 위에서 아래로 스캔할 때, 메뉴 항목의 레이블과 패턴 일
          치하는 텍스트 문자열.  이 인덱스 유형은 다른 모든 항목 다음에
          고려되므로, ‘last’, ‘active’ 또는 ‘none’ 레이블이 붙은 메뉴 항
          목과의 일치가 대신 위의 리터럴로 해석될 수 있음을 의미합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이미지,  Prev: index 매개 변수,  Up: 간편한 레퍼런스

5.25.1.19 이미지
................

서로 다른 형식의 이미지를 ‘tkinter.Image’의 해당 서브 클래스를 통해 만들
수 있습니다:

   * XBM 형식의 이미지를 위한 ‘BitmapImage’.

   * PGM, PPM, GIF 및 PNG 형식의 이미지를 위한 ‘PhotoImage’.  후자는 Tk
     8.6부터 지원됩니다.

두 가지 유형의 이미지는 ‘file’ 또는 ‘data’ 옵션을 통해 만들어집니다 (다
른 옵션도 사용할 수 있습니다).

버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy_replace()’ to
copy a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming
and/or subsampling.  Add 'from_coords' parameter to ‘PhotoImage’ methods
‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and 'subsample'
parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.

그런 다음 ‘image’ 옵션이 일부 위젯(예를 들어, 레이블, 버튼, 메뉴)에서 지
원되는 곳이면 어디든 이미지 객체를 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 경우, Tk는 이
미지에 대한 참조를 유지하지 않습니다.  이미지 객체에 대한 마지막 파이썬
참조가 삭제되면 이미지 데이터도 삭제되고, Tk는 이미지가 사용된 곳마다 빈
상자를 표시합니다.

더 보기
.......

Pillow(1) 패키지는 BMP, JPEG, TIFF 및 WebP와 같은 형식을 위한 지원을 추
가합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://python-pillow.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 처리기,  Prev: 간편한 레퍼런스,  Up: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스

5.25.1.20 파일 처리기
.....................

Tk는 파일 기술자에서 I/O가 가능할 때 Tk 메인 루프에서 호출할 콜백 함수를
등록하고 등록 취소할 수 있도록 합니다.  파일 기술자당 하나의 처리기 만 등
록 될 수 있습니다.  예제 코드:

     import tkinter
     widget = tkinter.Tk()
     mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
     widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
     ...
     widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

윈도우에서는 이 기능을 사용할 수 없습니다.

얼마나 많은 바이트를 읽을 수 있는지 모르므로, *note BufferedIOBase:
68e.나 *note TextIOBase: 68f. *note read(): 1318.나 *note readline():
1319. 메서드를 사용하고 싶지 않을것입니다, 이것들은 미리 정의 된 바이트
수를 읽으려고하기 때문입니다.  소켓의 경우, *note recv(): da0. 또는
*note recvfrom(): da1. 메서드가 제대로 작동합니다; 다른 파일의 경우, 날
(raw) 읽기나 ‘os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)’를 사용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: Widget.tk.createfilehandler (file, mask, func)

     파일 처리기 콜백 함수 'func'를 등록합니다.  'file' 인자는 *note
     fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있는 객체이거나(가령 파일이나 소켓 객체),
     정수 파일 기술자일 수 있습니다.  'mask' 인자는 아래의 세 가지 상수
     들을 OR로 조합한 것입니다.  콜백은 다음과 같이 호출됩니다:

          callback(file, mask)

 -- 메서드: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler (file)

     파일 처리기를 등록 취소합니다.

 -- 데이터: _tkinter.READABLE
 -- 데이터: _tkinter.WRITABLE
 -- 데이터: _tkinter.EXCEPTION

     'mask' 인자에 사용되는 상수입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자,  Next: tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼,  Prev: tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.2 ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ — 색상 선택 대화 상자
---------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.colorchooser: f1. 모듈은 네이티브 색상 선택기 대화 상자의
인터페이스로 *note Chooser: 3da0. 클래스를 제공합니다.  ‘Chooser’는 모달
(modal) 색상 선택 대화 상자 창을 구현합니다.  ‘Chooser’ 클래스는 *note
Dialog: 3da1. 클래스를 상속합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser (master=None, **options)

 -- 함수: tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor (color=None, **options)

     색상 선택 대화 상자를 만듭니다.  이 메서드를 호출하면 창이 표시되고
     , 사용자가 선택하기를 기다렸다가, 선택한 색상(또는 ‘None’)을 호출자
     에게 반환합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note tkinter.commondialog: f2.

     Tkinter 표준 대화 상자 모듈

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼,  Next: Tkinter 대화 상자,  Prev: tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.3 ‘tkinter.font’ — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼
-----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/font.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.font: f5. 모듈은 명명된 글꼴을 만들고 사용하기 위한 *note
Font: 1911. 클래스를 제공합니다.

구별되는 글꼴 무게와 기울기는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: tkinter.font.NORMAL
 -- 데이터: tkinter.font.BOLD
 -- 데이터: tkinter.font.ITALIC
 -- 데이터: tkinter.font.ROMAN

 -- 클래스: tkinter.font.Font (root=None, font=None, name=None,
          exists=False, **options)

     *note Font: 1911. 클래스는 명명된 글꼴을 나타냅니다.  'Font' 인스턴
     스에는 고유한 이름이 지정되며 패밀리, 크기 및 스타일 구성으로 지정
     할 수 있습니다.  명명된 글꼴은 나타날 때마다 어트리뷰트로 글꼴을 지
     정하지 않고, 글꼴을 단일 객체로 만들고 식별하는 Tk의 방법입니다.

          인자:

                    'font' - 글꼴 지정자 튜플 (패밀리, 크기, 옵션)
                    'name' - 고유한 글꼴 이름
                    'exists' - 참이면 self가 기존의 명명된 글꼴을 가리킵니다

          추가 키워드 옵션 ('font'가 지정되면 무시됩니다):

                    'family' - 글꼴 패밀리, 즉 Courier, Times
                    'size' - 글꼴 크기
                         'size'가 양수이면 포인트 단위의 크기로 해석됩니다.
                         'size'가 음수이면 절댓값을
                         픽셀 단위의 크기로 처리합니다.
                    'weight' - 글꼴 강조 (NORMAL, BOLD)
                    'slant' - ROMAN, ITALIC
                    'underline' - 글꼴 밑줄 (0 - 없음, 1 - 밑줄)
                    'overstrike' - 글꼴 취소선 (0 - 없음, 1 - 취소선)

      -- 메서드: actual (option=None, displayof=None)

          글꼴의 어트리뷰트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: cget (option)

          글꼴의 어트리뷰트를 가져옵니다.

      -- 메서드: config (**options)

          글꼴의 어트리뷰트를 수정합니다.

      -- 메서드: copy ()

          현재 글꼴의 새 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: measure (text, displayof=None)

          현재 글꼴로 포맷할 때 지정된 디스플레이에서 텍스트가 차지할 공
          간의 크기를 반환합니다.  디스플레이가 지정되지 않으면 메인 응
          용 프로그램 창을 가정합니다.

      -- 메서드: metrics (*options, **kw)

          글꼴별 데이터를 반환합니다.  옵션은 다음과 같습니다:

          'ascent' - 기준선(baseline)과 글꼴의 문자가 차지할 수 있는 가장 높은 점 사이의 거리

               .

          'descent' - 기준선과 글꼴의 문자가 차지할 수 있는 가장 낮은 점 사이의 거리

               .

          'linespace' - 줄 사이에 수직 겹침이 없음을 보장하는, 글꼴의 임의의 두 문자 간에 필요한 최소 수직 분리

               .

          'fixed' - 글꼴이 고정 너비이면 1, 그렇지 않으면 0

 -- 함수: tkinter.font.families (root=None, displayof=None)

     구별되는 글꼴 패밀리를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.font.names (root=None)

     정의된 글꼴의 이름을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.font.nametofont (name, root=None)

     tk 명명된 글꼴의 *note Font: 1911. 표현을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'root' parameter was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/font.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 대화 상자,  Next: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트,  Prev: tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.4 Tkinter 대화 상자
------------------------

* Menu:

* tkinter.simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자: tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
* tkinter.filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자.
* tkinter.commondialog — 대화창 템플릿: tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자,  Next: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자,  Up: Tkinter 대화 상자

5.25.4.1 ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자
.............................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.simpledialog: f8. 모듈에는 사용자로부터 값을 얻기 위한 간
단한 모달 대화 상자를 만드는 편의 클래스와 함수가 포함되어 있습니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- 함수: tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- 함수: tkinter.simpledialog.askstring (title, prompt, **kw)

     위의 세 함수는 사용자에게 원하는 형의 값을 입력하도록 요구하는 대화
     상자를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog (parent, title=None)

     사용자 정의 대화 상자의 베이스 클래스.

      -- 메서드: body (master)

          대화 상자의 인터페이스를 구성하고 초기 포커스가 필요한 위젯을
          반환하도록 재정의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: buttonbox ()

          기본 동작은 OK 와 Cancel 버튼을 추가합니다.  사용자 정의 버튼
          레이아웃이 필요하면 재정의하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자,  Next: tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿,  Prev: tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자,  Up: Tkinter 대화 상자

5.25.4.2 ‘tkinter.filedialog’ — 파일 선택 대화 상자
...................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.filedialog: f4. 모듈은 파일/디렉터리 선택 창을 만들기위한
클래스와 팩토리 함수를 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자,  Up: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자

5.25.4.3 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자
.....................................

다음 클래스와 함수는 네이티브 모양과 느낌을 동작을 사용자 정의하는 구성
옵션과 결합하는 파일 대화 상자 창을 제공합니다.  다음 키워드 인자는 아래
나열된 클래스와 함수에 적용할 수 있습니다:

          'parent' - 대화 상자를 그 위에 놓을 창

          'title' - 창의 제목

          'initialdir' - 대화 상자가 시작되는 디렉터리

          'initialfile' - 대화 상자를 열 때 선택된 파일

          'filetypes' - (label, pattern) 튜플의 시퀀스, ‘*’ 와일드카드가 허용됩니다

          'defaultextension' - 파일에 추가할 기본 확장자 (저장 대화 상자)

          'multiple' - 참일 때, 여러 항목을 선택할 수 있습니다

'정적 팩토리 함수'

아래 함수는 호출될 때 모달, 네이티브 모양과 느낌의 대화 상자를 만들고, 사
용자의 선택을 기다린 다음, 선택한 값이나 ‘None’을 호출자에게 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile (mode='r', **options)
 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles (mode='r', **options)

     위의 두 함수는 *note Open: 3dbd. 대화 상자를 만들고 열린 파일 객체
     를 읽기 전용 모드로 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile (mode='w', **options)

     *note SaveAs: 3dbf. 대화 상자를 만들고 쓰기 전용 모드로 열린 파일 객
     체를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename (**options)
 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames (**options)

     위의 두 함수는 *note Open: 3dbd. 대화 상자를 만들고 기존 파일(들)에
     해당하는 선택된 파일명(들)을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename (**options)

     *note SaveAs: 3dbf. 대화 상자를 만들고 선택한 파일명을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory (**options)

          사용자에게 디렉터리를 선택하라는 메시지를 표시합니다.
          추가 키워드 옵션:
               'mustexist' - 선택이 기존 디렉터리여야 하는지를 결정합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.filedialog.Open (master=None, **options)
 -- 클래스: tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs (master=None, **options)

     위의 두 클래스는 파일 저장과 로드를 위한 네이티브 대화 창을 제공합
     니다.

'편의 클래스'

아래 클래스는 파일/디렉터리 창을 처음부터 만드는 데 사용됩니다.  이것들
은 플랫폼의 네이티브 모양과 느낌을 모방하지 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.filedialog.Directory (master=None, **options)

     사용자에게 디렉터리를 선택하라는 대화 상자를 만듭니다.

     참고: 'FileDialog' 클래스는 사용자 정의 이벤트 처리와 동작을 위해 서
     브 클래싱 되어야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog (master, title=None)

     기본 파일 선택 대화 상자를 만듭니다.

      -- 메서드: cancel_command (event=None)

          대화 창의 종료를 트리거 합니다.

      -- 메서드: dirs_double_event (event)

          디렉터리에 대한 더블 클릭 이벤트를 위한 이벤트 처리기.

      -- 메서드: dirs_select_event (event)

          디렉터리에 대한 클릭 이벤트를 위한 이벤트 처리기.

      -- 메서드: files_double_event (event)

          파일에 대한 더블 클릭 이벤트를 위한 이벤트 처리기.

      -- 메서드: files_select_event (event)

          파일에 대한 단일 클릭 이벤트를 위한 이벤트 처리기.

      -- 메서드: filter_command (event=None)

          디렉터리로 파일을 필터링합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_filter ()

          현재 사용 중인 파일 필터를 가져옵니다.

      -- 메서드: get_selection ()

          현재 선택된 항목을 가져옵니다.

      -- 메서드: go (dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='',
               key=None)

          대화 상자를 렌더링하고 이벤트 루프를 시작합니다.

      -- 메서드: ok_event (event)

          현재 선택을 반환하면서 대화 상자를 종료합니다.

      -- 메서드: quit (how=None)

          파일명을 (있다면) 반환하면서 대화 상자를 종료합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_filter (dir, pat)

          파일 필터를 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_selection (file)

          현재 파일 선택을 'file'로 갱신합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog (master, title=None)

     기존 파일을 선택하기 위한 대화 상자 창을 만드는 FileDialog의 서브 클
     래스.

      -- 메서드: ok_command ()

          파일이 제공되고 선택이 이미 존재하는 파일을 가리키는지 테스트
          합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog (master, title=None)

     대상 파일을 선택하기 위한 대화 상자 창을 만드는 FileDialog의 서브 클
     래스.

      -- 메서드: ok_command ()

          선택이 디렉터리가 아닌 유효한 파일을 가리키는지 테스트합니다.
          이미 존재하는 파일을 선택했으면 확인이 필요합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿,  Prev: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자,  Up: Tkinter 대화 상자

5.25.4.4 ‘tkinter.commondialog’ — 대화창 템플릿
...............................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.commondialog: f2. 모듈은 다른 지원 모듈에 정의된 대화 상자
의 베이스 클래스인 *note Dialog: 3da1. 클래스를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.commondialog.Dialog (master=None, **options)

      -- 메서드: show (**options)

          대화창을 렌더링합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note tkinter.messagebox: f6, *note 파일을 읽고 쓰기: 1c87.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트,  Next: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯,  Prev: Tkinter 대화 상자,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.5 ‘tkinter.messagebox’ — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트
-----------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.messagebox: f6. 모듈은 일반적으로 사용되는 구성을 위한 다
양한 편의 메서드 뿐만 아니라 템플릿 베이스 클래스를 제공합니다.  메시지
상자는 모달(modal)이며 사용자 선택에 따라 (‘True’, ‘False’, ‘None’,
*note OK: 3ddb, *note CANCEL: 3ddc, *note YES: 3ddd, *note NO: 3dde.)의
부분 집합을 반환합니다.  일반적인 메시지 상자 스타일과 레이아웃에는 다음
이 포함되지만 이에 국한되지는 않습니다:

[image src="python-figures/tk_msg.png"]


Figure
 -- 클래스: tkinter.messagebox.Message (master=None, **options)

     Create a message window with an application-specified message, an
     icon and a set of buttons.  Each of the buttons in the message
     window is identified by a unique symbolic name (see the 'type'
     options).

     The following options are supported:

          'command'

               Specifies the function to invoke when the user closes the
               dialog.  The name of the button clicked by the user to
               close the dialog is passed as argument.  This is only
               available on macOS.

          'default'

               Gives the *note symbolic name: 3de0. of the default
               button for this message window (*note OK: 3ddb, *note
               CANCEL: 3ddc, and so on).  If this option is not
               specified, the first button in the dialog will be made
               the default.

          'detail'

               Specifies an auxiliary message to the main message given
               by the 'message' option.  The message detail will be
               presented beneath the main message and, where supported
               by the OS, in a less emphasized font than the main
               message.

          'icon'

               Specifies an *note icon: 3de1. to display.  If this
               option is not specified, then the *note INFO: 3de2. icon
               will be displayed.

          'message'

               Specifies the message to display in this message box.
               The default value is an empty string.

          'parent'

               Makes the specified window the logical parent of the
               message box.  The message box is displayed on top of its
               parent window.

          'title'

               Specifies a string to display as the title of the message
               box.  This option is ignored on macOS, where platform
               guidelines forbid the use of a title on this kind of
               dialog.

          'type'

               Arranges for a *note predefined set of buttons: 3de3. to
               be displayed.

      -- 메서드: show (**options)

          Display a message window and wait for the user to select one
          of the buttons.  Then return the symbolic name of the selected
          button.  Keyword arguments can override options specified in
          the constructor.

'정보 메시지 상자'

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.showinfo (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     지정된 제목과 메시지가 포함된 정보 메시지 상자를 만들고 표시합니다.

'경고 메시지 상자'

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.showwarning (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays a warning message box with the specified title
     and message.

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.showerror (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an error message box with the specified title
     and message.

'질문 메시지 상자'

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.askquestion (title=None, message=None, *,
          type=YESNO, **options)

     Ask a question.  By default shows buttons *note YES: 3ddd. and
     *note NO: 3dde.  Returns the symbolic name of the selected button.

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask if operation should proceed.  Shows buttons *note OK: 3ddb. and
     *note CANCEL: 3ddc.  Returns ‘True’ if the answer is ok and ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask if operation should be retried.  Shows buttons *note RETRY:
     3deb. and *note CANCEL: 3ddc.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes
     and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.askyesno (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 3ddd. and *note NO: 3dde.
     Returns ‘True’ if the answer is yes and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- 함수: tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 3ddd, *note NO: 3dde. and
     *note CANCEL: 3ddc.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes, ‘None’ if
     cancelled, and ‘False’ otherwise.
Symbolic names of buttons:

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no'
Predefined sets of buttons:

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note ABORT: 3dee,
     *note RETRY: 3deb. and *note IGNORE: 3def.

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

     Displays one button whose symbolic name is *note OK: 3ddb.

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note OK: 3ddb. and
     *note CANCEL: 3ddc.

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note RETRY: 3deb.
     and *note CANCEL: 3ddc.

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3ddd. and
     *note NO: 3dde.

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3ddd,
     *note NO: 3dde. and *note CANCEL: 3ddc.
Icon images:

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question'

 -- 데이터: tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯,  Next: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원,  Prev: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.6 ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯
-----------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.scrolledtext: f7. 모듈은 “올바로” 동작하도록 구성된 수직 스
크롤 막대가 있는 기본 텍스트 위젯을 구현하는 같은 이름의 클래스를 제공합
니다.  *note ScrolledText: 3dfa. 클래스를 사용하면 텍스트 위젯과 스크롤
막대를 직접 설정하기보다 훨씬 쉽습니다.

텍스트 위젯과 스크롤 막대는 ‘Frame’에 함께 팩 되며, ‘Grid’와 ‘Pack’ 지오
메트리 관리자의 메서드를 ‘Frame’ 객체에서 얻습니다.  이렇게 함으로써, 가
장 일반적인 지오메트리 관리 동작을 달성하는데 *note ScrolledText: 3dfa.
위젯을 직접 사용할 수 있습니다.

더욱 구체적인 제어가 필요하면, 다음 어트리뷰트를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 클래스: tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText (master=None, **kw)

      -- 속성: frame

          텍스트 및 스크롤 막대 위젯을 둘러싼 프레임.

      -- 속성: vbar

          스크롤 막대 위젯.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원,  Next: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯,  Prev: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.7 ‘tkinter.dnd’ — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원
--------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/dnd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     참고: 이것은 실험적이며 Tk DND로 대체될 때 폐지될 예정입니다.

*note tkinter.dnd: f3. 모듈은 단일 응용 프로그램 내에서, 같은 창 내에서
또는 창 간에 객체에 대해 드래그 앤드 드롭(끌어서 놓기) 지원을 제공합니다
.  객체를 드래그할 수 있게 하려면, 드래그 앤드 드롭 프로세스를 시작하는
이벤트 바인딩을 만들어야 합니다.  일반적으로, ButtonPress 이벤트를 여러
분이 작성한 콜백 함수에 바인딩합니다 (*note 바인딩과 이벤트: 3d93.를 참
조하십시오).  이 함수는 *note dnd_start(): 3dff.를 호출해야 합니다, 여기
서 ‘source’는 드래그할 객체이고, ‘event’는 호출을 일으킨 이벤트입니다 (콜
백 함수의 인자입니다).

대상 객체는 다음과 같이 선택됩니다:

  1. 대상 위젯에 대한 마우스 아래 영역의 하향식 검색

        * 대상 위젯에는 콜러블 'dnd_accept' 어트리뷰트가 있어야 합니다

        * 'dnd_accept'가 없거나 ‘None’을 반환하면, 검색은 부모 위젯으로
          이동합니다

        * 대상 위젯이 발견되지 않으면, 대상 객체는 ‘None’입니다.

  2. '<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)'를 호출합니다

  3. '<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)'를 호출합니다

  4. 드롭을 알리기 위해 '<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)'를 호출합니
     다

  5. 드래그 앤드 드롭의 끝을 알리기 위해 '<source>.dnd_end(target,
     event)'를 호출합니다

 -- 클래스: tkinter.dnd.DndHandler (source, event)

     'DndHandler' 클래스는 이벤트 위젯의 루트에서 Motion과 ButtonRelease
     이벤트를 추적하는 드래그 앤드 드롭 이벤트를 처리합니다.

      -- 메서드: cancel (event=None)

          드래그 앤드 드롭 프로세스를 취소합니다.

      -- 메서드: finish (event, commit=0)

          드래그 앤드 드롭 기능의 끝을 실행합니다.

      -- 메서드: on_motion (event)

          드래그가 수행되는 동안 마우스 아래의 대상 객체를 검사합니다.

      -- 메서드: on_release (event)

          릴리즈 패턴이 트리거 될 때 드래그의 끝을 알립니다.

 -- 함수: tkinter.dnd.dnd_start (source, event)

     드래그 앤드 드롭 프로세스를 위한 팩토리 함수.

더 보기
.......

*note 바인딩과 이벤트: 3d93.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯,  Next: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸,  Prev: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.8 ‘tkinter.ttk’ — Tk 테마 위젯
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tkinter/ttk.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tkinter.ttk: f9. 모듈은 Tk 8.5에 도입된 Tk 테마 위젯 집합에 대한 액
세스를 제공합니다.  X11에서 안티 에일리어싱 된 글꼴 렌더링과 창 투명도
(X11에서 컴포지션 창 관리자가 필요합니다)를 포함한 추가 이점을 제공합니
다.

*note tkinter.ttk: f9.의 기본 아이디어는 위젯 동작을 구현하는 코드와 모
양을 구현하는 코드를 가능한 한 분리하는 것입니다.

더 보기
.......

Tk 위젯 스타일링 지원(2)

     Tk의 테마 지원을 소개하는 문서

* Menu:

* Ttk 사용하기::
* Ttk 위젯::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk 스타일링::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py

   (2) https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk 사용하기,  Next: Ttk 위젯,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.1 Ttk 사용하기
.....................

Ttk를 사용하려면, 모듈을 임포트 하십시오:

     from tkinter import ttk

기본 Tk 위젯을 재정의하려면, 임포트는 Tk 임포트 뒤에 와야 합니다:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter.ttk import *

이 코드로 인해 여러 *note tkinter.ttk: f9. 위젯(‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’,
‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’,
‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’ 및 ‘Scrollbar’)이 Tk 위젯을 자동으로 대체합니다.

이것은 여러 플랫폼에서 더 나은 모양과 느낌을 제공하는 새로운 위젯을 사용
하는 직접적인 이점이 있지만, 대체된 위젯은 완전히 호환되지 않습니다.  주
요 차이점은 “fg”, “bg” 및 위젯 스타일과 관련된 다른 위젯 옵션이 더는 Ttk
위젯에 존재하지 않는다는 것입니다.  대신, 스타일링 효과를 개선하려면
‘ttk.Style’ 클래스를 사용하십시오.

더 보기
.......

Tile 위젯을 사용하도록 기존 응용 프로그램을 변환하기(1)

     새 위젯을 사용하도록 응용 프로그램을 바꿀 때 일반적으로 발생하는 차
     이점에 대한 모노그래프 (Tcl 용어로).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk 위젯,  Next: Widget,  Prev: Ttk 사용하기,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.2 Ttk 위젯
.................

Ttk에는 18개의 위젯이 있으며, 그중 12개는 tkinter에 이미 존재합니다:
‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’,
‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’, ‘Scrollbar’ 및
*note Spinbox: b91.  다른 6개는 *note Combobox: 3e09, *note Notebook:
3e0a, *note Progressbar: 3e0b, ‘Separator’, ‘Sizegrip’ 및 *note
Treeview: a90.입니다.  그리고 이들은 모두 *note Widget: 3e0c.의 서브 클
래스입니다.

Ttk 위젯을 사용하면 응용 프로그램의 모양과 느낌이 개선됩니다.  위에서 설
명한 것처럼, 스타일을 코딩하는 방법에는 차이가 있습니다.

Tk 코드:

     l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
     l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")

Ttk 코드:

     style = ttk.Style()
     style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")

     l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
     l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")

*note Ttk 스타일링: 3e0d.에 대한 자세한 정보는, *note Style: 259. 클래스
설명서를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Widget,  Next: Combobox,  Prev: Ttk 위젯,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.3 Widget
...............

‘ttk.Widget’은 Tk 테마 위젯이 지원하는 표준 옵션과 메서드를 정의하며 직
접 인스턴스 화하지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 표준 옵션::
* 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션::
* 레이블 옵션::
* 호환성 옵션::
* 위젯 상태::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.


File: python.info,  Node: 표준 옵션,  Next: 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.4 표준 옵션
..................

모든 ‘ttk’ 위젯은 다음 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션            설명
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
class           윈도우 클래스를 지정합니다.  이 클래스는 창의 다른 옵션에 대한 옵
                션 데이터베이스를 조회하고, 창의 기본 바인딩 태그를 결정하고, 위
                젯의 기본 레이아웃과 스타일을 선택하는 데 사용됩니다.  이 옵션은
                읽기 전용이며, 창을 만들 때만 지정할 수 있습니다.
                
                
cursor          위젯에 사용될 마우스 커서를 지정합니다.  빈 문자열(기본값)로 설
                정하면, 커서가 부모 위젯에서 상속됩니다.
                
                
takefocus       키보드 순회 중 창에서 포커스를 받아들일지를 결정합니다.  0, 1 또
                는 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.  0이 반환되면, 키보드 순회 중에 창을
                완전히 건너뛰어야 한다는 의미입니다.  1이면, 창은 볼 수 있는 한
                입력 포커스를 받아야 함을 의미합니다.  빈 문자열은 순회 스크립트
                가 창에 포커스를 맞출지를 결정함을 의미합니다.
                
                
style           사용자 정의 위젯 스타일을 지정하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.
                


File: python.info,  Node: 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션,  Next: 레이블 옵션,  Prev: 표준 옵션,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.5 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션
................................

다음 옵션은 스크롤 막대로 제어되는 위젯에서 지원됩니다.

옵션                 설명
                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
xscrollcommand       가로 스크롤 막대와 통신하는 데 사용됩니다.
                     
                     위젯 창에 있는 뷰가 변경될 때, 위젯은 scrollcommand를 기반
                     한 Tcl 명령을 생성합니다.
                     
                     일반적으로 이 옵션은 어떤 스크롤 막대의 메서드
                     ‘Scrollbar.set()’으로 구성됩니다.  그러면 창의 뷰가 변경될
                     때마다 스크롤 막대가 갱신됩니다.
                     
                     
yscrollcommand       세로 스크롤 막대와 통신하는 데 사용됩니다.  자세한 내용은 위
                     를 참조하십시오.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: 레이블 옵션,  Next: 호환성 옵션,  Prev: 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.6 레이블 옵션
....................

다음 옵션은 레이블, 버튼 및 기타 버튼류 위젯에서 지원됩니다.

옵션               설명
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
text               위젯 안에 표시할 텍스트 문자열을 지정합니다.
                   
                   
textvariable       text 옵션 자원 대신 그 값이 사용될 이름을 지정합니다.
                   
                   
underline          설정되면, 텍스트 문자열에서 밑줄 그을 문자의 인덱스(0에서 시
                   작)를 지정합니다.  밑줄 있는 문자는 니모닉 활성화(mnemonic
                   activation)에 사용됩니다.
                   
                   
image              표시할 이미지를 지정합니다.  이것은 하나 이상의 요소로 구성된
                   리스트입니다.  첫 번째 요소는 기본 이미지 이름입니다.  리스트
                   의 나머지가 *note Style.map(): 1924.에 의해 정의된 대로
                   statespec/value 쌍의 시퀀스면, 위젯이 특정 상태나 상태의 조합
                   에 있을 때 사용할 다른 이미지를 지정합니다.  리스트의 모든 이
                   미지는 크기가 같아야 합니다.
                   
                   
compound           텍스트와 이미지 옵션이 모두 있을 때, 텍스트를 기준으로 이미지
                   를 표시하는 방법을 지정합니다.  유효한 값은 다음과 같습니다:
                   
                      * text: 텍스트만 표시합니다
                   
                      * image: 이미지만 표시합니다
                   
                      * top, bottom, left, right: 각각 이미지를 텍스트 위, 아래,
                        왼쪽 또는 오른쪽에 표시합니다.
                   
                      * none: 기본값입니다.  있으면 이미지를 표시하고, 그렇지 않
                        으면 텍스트를 표시합니다.
                   
                   
width              0보다 크면, 문자 너비 단위로, 텍스트 레이블에 할당할 공간의 크
                   기를 지정합니다, 0보다 작으면, 최소 너비를 지정합니다.  0으로
                   지정하거나 지정하지 않으면, 텍스트 레이블의 자연 너비가 사용
                   됩니다.
                   


File: python.info,  Node: 호환성 옵션,  Next: 위젯 상태,  Prev: 레이블 옵션,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.7 호환성 옵션
....................

옵션         설명
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
state        “disabled” 상태 비트를 제어하기 위해 “normal”이나 “disabled”로 설
             정될 수 있습니다.  이것은 쓰기 전용 옵션입니다: 이를 설정하면 위젯
             상태가 변경되지만, *note Widget.state(): 3e13. 메서드는 이 옵션에
             영향을 미치지 않습니다.
             


File: python.info,  Node: 위젯 상태,  Next: ttk Widget,  Prev: 호환성 옵션,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.8 위젯 상태
..................

위젯 상태는 독립 상태 플래그의 비트 맵입니다.

플래그           설명
                 
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
active           마우스 커서가 위젯 위에 있으며 마우스 버튼을 누르면 어떤 동작을
                 일으킵니다
                 
                 
disabled         프로그램 제어 하에 위젯이 비활성화되었습니다
                 
                 
focus            위젯에 키보드 포커스가 있습니다
                 
                 
pressed          위젯을 누르고 있습니다
                 
                 
selected         체크 버튼과 라디오 버튼과 같은 항목의 경우 “On”, “true” 또는
                 “current”
                 
                 
background       윈도우와 맥에는 “활성(active)”이나 전경(foreground) 창이라는 개
                 념이 있습니다.  'background' 상태는 배경 창의 위젯에 대해 설정
                 되고, 전경 창의 위젯에서는 지워집니다.
                 
                 
readonly         위젯이 사용자 수정을 허용하지 않습니다
                 
                 
alternate        위젯 별 대체 디스플레이 포맷
                 
                 
invalid          위젯 값이 유효하지 않습니다
                 

상태 명세는 상태 이름의 시퀀스이며, 선택적으로 비트가 꺼져 있음을 나타내
는 느낌표가 접두어로 붙습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Widget,  Prev: 위젯 상태,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.9 ttk.Widget
...................

아래 설명된 메서드 외에도 ‘ttk.Widget’은 메서드 ‘tkinter.Widget.cget()’과
‘tkinter.Widget.configure()’를 지원합니다.

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Widget

      -- 메서드: identify (x, y)

          위치 'x' 'y'에 있는 요소의 이름을 반환하거나, 점이 요소 내에 없
          으면 빈 문자열을 반환합니다.

          'x' 와 'y'는 위젯에 상대적인 픽셀 좌표입니다.

      -- 메서드: instate (statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)

          위젯 상태를 테스트합니다.  콜백을 지정하지 않으면, 위젯 상태가
          'statespec'과 일치하면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환
          합니다.  콜백이 지정되면 위젯 상태가 'statespec'과 일치하면
          args로 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: state (statespec=None)

          위젯 상태를 수정하거나 요청합니다.  'statespec'이 지정되면, 그
          에 따라 위젯 상태를 설정하고 변경된 플래그를 나타내는 새
          'statespec'을 반환합니다.  'statespec'을 지정하지 않으면, 현재
          활성화된 상태 플래그를 반환합니다.

     'statespec'은 일반적으로 리스트나 튜플입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Combobox,  Next: Spinbox,  Prev: Widget,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.10 Combobox
..................

‘ttk.Combobox’ 위젯은 텍스트 필드를 값의 팝-다운(pop-down) 리스트와 결합
합니다.  이 위젯은 ‘Entry’의 서브 클래스입니다.

*note Widget: 3e0c.에서 상속된 메서드 ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3e16, *note
Widget.instate(): 3e17. 및 *note Widget.state(): 3e13.와, ‘Entry’에서 상
속된 메서드 ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’, ‘Entry.icursor()’,
‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.selection()’, ‘Entry.xview()’
외에, ‘ttk.Combobox’에 설명된 다른 메서드가 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션::
* 가상 이벤트::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션,  Next: 가상 이벤트,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.11 옵션
..............

이 위젯은 다음과 같은 특정 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션                  설명
                      
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
exportselection       불리언 값.  설정되면, 위젯 선택은 창 관리자 선택에 연결됩
                      니다 (예를 들어, Misc.selection_get 을 호출하여 반환할 수
                      있습니다).
                      
                      
justify               위젯 내에서 텍스트가 정렬되는 방식을 지정합니다.  “left”,
                      “center” 또는 “right” 중 하나입니다.
                      
                      
height                팝-다운 목록 상자의 높이를 행 단위로 지정합니다.
                      
                      
postcommand           값을 표시하기 직전에 호출되는 (Misc.register로 등록할 수 있
                      는) 스크립트.  표시할 값을 지정할 수 있습니다.
                      
                      
state                 “normal”, “readonly” 또는 “disabled” 중 하나.  “readonly”
                      상태에서는, 값을 직접 편집할 수 없고, 사용자는 드롭다운 목
                      록에서 값을 선택할 수만 있습니다.  “normal” 상태에서는, 텍
                      스트 필드를 직접 편집할 수 있습니다.  “disabled” 상태에서
                      는, 상호 작용이 불가능합니다.
                      
                      
textvariable          값이 위젯 값에 연결된 이름을 지정합니다.  해당 이름과 관련
                      된 값이 변경될 때마다, 위젯 값이 갱신되고, 그 반대도 마찬
                      가지입니다.  ‘tkinter.StringVar’를 참조하십시오.
                      
                      
values                드롭-다운 목록 상자에 표시할 값의 리스트를 지정합니다.
                      
                      
width                 원하는 입력 창의 너비를 나타내는 정숫값을 위젯 글꼴의 평균
                      크기 문자 단위로 지정합니다.
                      


File: python.info,  Node: 가상 이벤트,  Next: ttk Combobox,  Prev: 옵션,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.12 가상 이벤트
.....................

콤보 박스 위젯은 사용자가 값 목록에서 요소를 선택할 때
'<<ComboboxSelected>>' 가상 이벤트를 생성합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Combobox,  Prev: 가상 이벤트,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.13 ttk.Combobox
......................

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Combobox

      -- 메서드: current (newindex=None)

          'newindex'를 지정하면, 콤보 박스 값을 요소 위치 'newindex'로 설
          정합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 현재 값의 인덱스를 반환하거나 현재 값
          이 값 목록에 없으면 -1을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get ()

          콤보 박스의 현재 값을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set (value)

          콤보 박스의 값을 'value'로 설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Spinbox,  Next: Notebook,  Prev: Combobox,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.14 Spinbox
.................

‘ttk.Spinbox’ 위젯은 증가와 감소 화살표로 개선된 ‘ttk.Entry’입니다.  숫
자나 문자열 값의 리스트에 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 위젯은 ‘Entry’의 서브
클래스입니다.

*note Widget: 3e0c.에서 상속된 메서드 ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3e16, *note
Widget.instate(): 3e17. 및 *note Widget.state(): 3e13.와, ‘Entry’에서 상
속된 메서드 ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’, ‘Entry.icursor()’,
‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.xview()’ 외에도,
‘ttk.Spinbox’에 설명된 다른 메서드가 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션: 옵션<2>.
* 가상 이벤트: 가상 이벤트<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션<2>,  Next: 가상 이벤트<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.15 옵션
..............

이 위젯은 다음과 같은 특정 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션                       설명
                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
from                       부동 소수점 값.  설정하면, 감소 버튼이 감소할 최솟값입니
                           다.  ‘from’은 파이썬 키워드이므로, 인자로 사용될 때
                           ‘from_’을 사용해야 합니다.
                           
                           
to                         부동 소수점 값.  설정되면, 증가 버튼이 증가할 최댓값입니
                           다.
                           
                           
increment                  부동 소수점 값.  증가/감소 버튼이 값을 변경할 양을 지정
                           합니다.  기본값은 1.0입니다.
                           
                           
values                     문자열이나 부동 소수점 값의 시퀀스.  지정되면, 증가/감소
                           버튼은 숫자를 늘리거나 줄이는 것이 아니라, 이 시퀀스에서
                           항목을 순환합니다.
                           
                           
wrap                       불리언 값.  ‘True’이면, 증가와 감소 버튼이 각각 ‘to’ 값
                           에서 ‘from’ 값으로, ‘from’ 값에서 ‘to’ 값으로 순환합니다
                           .
                           
                           
format                     문자열 값.  증가/감소 버튼으로 설정된 숫자의 포맷을 지정
                           합니다.  “%W.Pf” 형식이어야 합니다, 여기서 W는 값의 패딩
                           된 너비, P는 정밀도, 그리고 ‘%’와 ‘f’는 리터럴 입니다.
                           
                           
command                    파이썬 콜러블.  증가나 감소 버튼 중 하나를 누를 때마다 인
                           자 없이 호출됩니다.
                           


File: python.info,  Node: 가상 이벤트<2>,  Next: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: 옵션<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.16 가상 이벤트
.....................

스핀 박스 위젯은 사용자가 <Up>을 누를 때 '<<Increment>>' 가상 이벤트를,
사용자가 <Down>을 누를 때 '<<Decrement>>' 가상 이벤트를 생성합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: 가상 이벤트<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.17 ttk.Spinbox
.....................

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Spinbox

      -- 메서드: get ()

          스핀 박스의 현재 값을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set (value)

          스핀 박스의 값을 'value'로 설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Notebook,  Next: Progressbar,  Prev: Spinbox,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.18 Notebook
..................

Ttk Notebook 위젯은 창 모음을 관리하고 한 번에 하나의 창을 표시합니다.  각
자식 창은 사용자가 현재 표시된 창을 변경하도록 선택할 수 있는 탭과 연결
되어 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션: 옵션<3>.
* 탭 옵션::
* 탭 식별자::
* 가상 이벤트: 가상 이벤트<3>.
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션<3>,  Next: 탭 옵션,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.19 옵션
..............

이 위젯은 다음과 같은 특정 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션          설명
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
height        존재하고 0보다 크면, 팬 영역(pane area)의 원하는 높이를 지정합니다
              (내부 패딩이나 탭을 포함하지 않습니다).  그렇지 않으면, 모든 팬의
              최대 높이가 사용됩니다.
              
              
padding       노트북 외부에 추가할 여분의 공간을 지정합니다.  패딩은 좌(left) 상
              (top) 우(right) 하(bottom) 최대 4개의 길이 명세 리스트입니다.  4개
              보다 적은 요소가 지정되면, bottom의 기본값은 top, right의 기본값은
              left, top의 기본값은 left입니다.
              
              
width         존재하고 0보다 크면, 원하는 팬 영역 너비를 지정합니다 (내부 패딩을
              포함하지 않습니다).  그렇지 않으면, 모든 팬의 최대 너비가 사용됩니
              다.
              


File: python.info,  Node: 탭 옵션,  Next: 탭 식별자,  Prev: 옵션<3>,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.20 탭 옵션
.................

탭에 대한 특정 옵션도 있습니다:

옵션            설명
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
state           “normal”, “disabled” 또는 “hidden”.  “disabled” 이면, 탭을 선택
                할 수 없습니다.  “hidden” 이면, 탭이 표시되지 않습니다.
                
                
sticky          자식 창이 창 영역 내에서 배치되는 방법을 지정합니다.  값은 0개 이
                상의 문자 “n”, “s”, “e” 또는 “w”를 포함하는 문자열입니다.  각 문
                자는 ‘grid()’ 지오메트리 관리자에 따라, 자식 창이 붙을 변(북
                (north), 남(south), 동(east) 또는 서(west))을 나타냅니다.
                
                
padding         노트북과 이 팬 사이에 추가할 여분의 공간을 지정합니다.  문법은 이
                위젯에서 사용하는 옵션 padding과 같습니다.
                
                
text            탭에 표시할 텍스트를 지정합니다.
                
                
image           탭에 표시할 이미지를 지정합니다.  *note Widget: 3e0c.에 설명된 옵
                션 image를 참조하십시오.
                
                
compound        옵션 text와 image가 모두 있을 때, 텍스트에 상대적으로 이미지를 표
                시하는 방법을 지정합니다.  유효한 값은 *note 레이블 옵션: 3e11.을
                참조하십시오.
                
                
underline       텍스트 문자열에서 밑줄 그을 문자의 인덱스(0에서 시작)를 지정합니
                다.  *note Notebook.enable_traversal(): 3e28.이 호출되면 밑줄 있
                는 문자는 니모닉 활성화(mnemonic activation)에 사용됩니다.
                


File: python.info,  Node: 탭 식별자,  Next: 가상 이벤트<3>,  Prev: 탭 옵션,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.21 탭 식별자
...................

‘ttk.Notebook’의 여러 가지 메서드에 존재하는 tab_id는 다음 형식 중 하나
를 취할 수 있습니다:

   * 0과 탭 수 사이의 정수

   * 자식 창의 이름

   * 탭을 식별하는 “@x,y” 형식의 위치 명세

   * 현재 선택된 탭을 식별하는 리터럴 문자열 “current”

   * 탭 수를 반환하는 리터럴 문자열 “end” (*note Notebook.index():
     3e2a.에만 유효합니다)


File: python.info,  Node: 가상 이벤트<3>,  Next: ttk Notebook,  Prev: 탭 식별자,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.22 가상 이벤트
.....................

이 위젯은 새 탭을 선택한 후 '<<NotebookTabChanged>>' 가상 이벤트를 생성
합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Notebook,  Prev: 가상 이벤트<3>,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.23 ttk.Notebook
......................

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Notebook

      -- 메서드: add (child, **kw)

          노트북에 새 탭을 추가합니다.

          창이 현재 노트북으로 관리되지만 숨겨져 있으면, 창은 이전 위치
          로 복원됩니다.

          사용 가능한 옵션 목록은 *note 탭 옵션: 3e27.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: forget (tab_id)

          'tab_id'로 지정된 탭을 제거하고, 연관된 창을 매핑 취소하고 관
          리 취소합니다.

      -- 메서드: hide (tab_id)

          'tab_id'로 지정된 탭을 숨깁니다.

          탭은 표시되지 않지만, 관련 창은 노트북에 의해 계속 관리되고 구
          성이 기억됩니다.  숨겨진 탭은 *note add(): 3e2d. 명령으로 복원
          될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: identify (x, y)

          위치 'x', 'y'의 탭 요소 이름을 반환하거나, 없으면 비어있는 문
          자열을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: index (tab_id)

          'tab_id'로 지정된 탭의 숫자 인덱스를 반환하거나, 'tab_id'가 문
          자열 “end”이면 총 탭 수를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: insert (pos, child, **kw)

          지정된 위치에 팬(pane)을 삽입합니다.

          'pos'는 문자열 “end”, 정수 인덱스 또는 관리되는 자식의 이름입
          니다.  노트북에서 'child'를 이미 관리하고 있으면, 지정된 위치
          로 옮깁니다.

          사용 가능한 옵션 목록은 *note 탭 옵션: 3e27.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: select (tab_id=None)

          지정된 'tab_id'를 선택합니다.

          연결된 자식 창이 표시되고, 이전에 선택한 창이 (다르다면) 매핑
          이 취소됩니다.  'tab_id'가 생략되면, 현재 선택된 팬의 위젯 이
          름을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: tab (tab_id, option=None, **kw)

          특정 'tab_id'의 옵션을 조회하거나 수정합니다.

          'kw'가 제공되지 않으면, 탭 옵션값의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.
          'option'이 지정되면, 해당 'option'의 값을 반환합니다.  그렇지
          않으면, 옵션을 해당 값으로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: tabs ()

          노트북에서 관리하는 창의 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: enable_traversal ()

          이 노트북이 포함된 최상위 창의 키보드 순회를 활성화합니다.

          이것은 노트북을 포함하는 최상위 창에 대한 바인딩을 다음과 같이
          확장합니다:

             * ‘Control’-‘Tab’: 현재 선택된 탭 다음에 있는 탭을 선택합니
               다.

             * ‘Shift’-‘Control’-‘Tab’: 현재 선택된 탭 앞에 있는 탭을 선
               택합니다.

             * ‘Alt’-‘K’: 여기서 'K'는 탭의 니모닉 (밑줄이 그어진) 문자
               이며, 해당 탭을 선택합니다.

          중첩된 노트북을 포함하여, 단일 최상위 수준에 있는 여러 노트북
          의 순회를 활성화할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 모든 팬에 마스터로 있
          는 노트북이 있을 때만 노트북 순회가 제대로 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Progressbar,  Next: Separator,  Prev: Notebook,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.24 Progressbar
.....................

‘ttk.Progressbar’ 위젯은 장기 실행 작업의 상태를 보여줍니다.  두 가지 모
드로 동작할 수 있습니다: 1) 수행할 총작업량을 기준으로 완료된 양을 표시
하는 확정적(determinate) 모드와 2) 작업이 진행 중임을 사용자에게 알리는
애니메이션 표시를 제공하는 불확정적(indeterminate) 모드입니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션: 옵션<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션<4>,  Next: ttk Progressbar,  Up: Progressbar

5.25.8.25 옵션
..............

이 위젯은 다음과 같은 특정 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션           설명
               
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
               
orient         “horizontal” 또는 “vertical” 중 하나입니다.  진행 막대의 방향을 지
               정합니다.
               
               
length         진행 막대의 긴 축의 길이를 지정합니다 (가로면 너비, 세로면 높이).
               
               
mode           “determinate” 또는 “indeterminate” 중 하나.
               
               
maximum        최댓값을 지정하는 숫자.  기본값은 100입니다.
               
               
value          진행 막대의 현재 값.  “determinate” (확정적) 모드에서는, 완료된 작
               업량을 나타냅니다.  “indeterminate” (불확정적) 모드에서는, 모듈로
               'maximum'으로 해석됩니다; 즉, 진행 막대의 값이 'maximum' 증가하면
               하나의 “사이클”이 완료됩니다.
               
               
variable       옵션값에 연결된 이름.  지정되면, 진행 막대의 값은 이 이름의 값이
               수정될 때마다 이 이름의 값으로 자동 설정됩니다.
               
               
phase          읽기 전용 옵션.  위젯은 값이 0보다 크고 확정적 모드에서 최댓값보
               다 작을 때마다 이 옵션의 값을 주기적으로 증가시킵니다.  이 옵션은
               현재 테마에서 추가 애니메이션 효과를 제공하는 데 사용할 수 있습니
               다.
               


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Progressbar,  Prev: 옵션<4>,  Up: Progressbar

5.25.8.26 ttk.Progressbar
.........................

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Progressbar

      -- 메서드: start (interval=None)

          자동 증가 모드를 시작합니다: 'interval' 밀리초마다 *note
          Progressbar.step(): 3e39.을 호출하는 반복 타이머 이벤트를 예약
          합니다.  생략하면, 'interval'의 기본값은 50밀리초입니다.

      -- 메서드: step (amount=None)

          진행 막대의 값을 'amount'만큼 증가시킵니다.

          생략하면 'amount'의 기본값은 1.0입니다.

      -- 메서드: stop ()

          자동 증가 모드를 중지합니다: 이 진행 막대에 대한 *note
          Progressbar.start(): 3e38.로 시작된 반복 타이머 이벤트를 취소
          합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Separator,  Next: Sizegrip,  Prev: Progressbar,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.27 Separator
...................

‘ttk.Separator’ 위젯은 가로나 세로 구분 막대를 표시합니다.

‘ttk.Widget’에서 상속된 것 외에 다른 메서드는 없습니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션: 옵션<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션<5>,  Up: Separator

5.25.8.28 옵션
..............

이 위젯은 다음과 같은 특정 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션         설명
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
orient       “horizontal”(가로)이나 “vertical”(세로) 중 하나입니다.  구분 막대
             의 방향을 지정합니다.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Sizegrip,  Next: Treeview,  Prev: Separator,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.29 Sizegrip
..................

‘ttk.Sizegrip’ 위젯(확장 상자(grow box)라고도 합니다)을 사용하면 그립
(grip)을 누르고 드래그하여 포함하는 최상위 창의 크기를 조정할 수 있습니
다.

이 위젯에는 ‘ttk.Widget’에서 상속된 것 외에 특정 옵션이나 메서드가 없습
니다.

* Menu:

* 플랫폼별 노트::
* 버그::


File: python.info,  Node: 플랫폼별 노트,  Next: 버그,  Up: Sizegrip

5.25.8.30 플랫폼별 노트
.......................

   * 맥 OS에서, 최상위 창에는 기본적으로 내장 크기 그립이 자동으로 포함
     됩니다.  내장 그립이 위젯을 가리기 때문에 ‘Sizegrip’을 추가하는 것
     은 무해합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 버그,  Prev: 플랫폼별 노트,  Up: Sizegrip

5.25.8.31 버그
..............

   * 포함하는 최상위 수준의 위치가 화면의 오른쪽이나 아래쪽을 기준으로 지
     정되면 (예를 들어 ….), ‘Sizegrip’ 위젯은 창의 크기를 조정하지 않습
     니다.

   * 이 위젯은 “동남쪽” 크기 조정만 지원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Treeview,  Next: Ttk 스타일링,  Prev: Sizegrip,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.32 Treeview
..................

‘ttk.Treeview’ 위젯은 계층적 항목 컬렉션을 표시합니다.  각 항목에는 텍스
트 레이블, 선택적 이미지 및 선택적 데이터값 목록이 있습니다.  데이터값은
트리 레이블 다음에 연속되는 열에 표시됩니다.

위젯 옵션 ‘displaycolumns’를 설정하여 데이터값이 표시되는 순서를 제어할
수 있습니다.  트리 위젯은 열 제목을 표시할 수도 있습니다.  위젯 옵션 열
에 나열된 숫자나 기호 이름으로 열에 액세스 할 수 있습니다.  *note 열
식별자: 3e41.를 참조하십시오.

각 항목은 고유한 이름으로 식별됩니다.  호출자가 제공하지 않으면 위젯은 항
목 ID를 생성합니다.  ‘{}’라고 이름 붙은, 구별되는 루트 항목이 있습니다.
루트 항목 자체는 표시되지 않습니다; 이것의 자식들이 계층 구조의 최상위 수
준에 나타납니다.

각 항목에는 이벤트 바인딩을 개별 항목과 연관시키고 항목의 모양을 제어하
는 데 사용할 수 있는 태그 목록이 있습니다.

Treeview 위젯은 *note 스크롤 가능한 위젯 옵션: 3e10.에 설명된 옵션과
*note Treeview.xview(): 3e42.와 *note Treeview.yview(): 3e43. 메서드에 따
라 가로와 세로 스크롤을 지원합니다.

* Menu:

* 옵션: 옵션<6>.
* 항목 옵션::
* 태그 옵션::
* 열 식별자::
* 가상 이벤트: 가상 이벤트<4>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션<6>,  Next: 항목 옵션,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.33 옵션
..............

이 위젯은 다음과 같은 특정 옵션을 받아들입니다:

옵션                 설명
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
columns              열 수와 이름을 지정하는, 열 식별자 리스트.
                     
                     
displaycolumns       표시할 데이터 열과 표시되는 순서를 지정하는 열 식별자 (기
                     호나 정수 인덱스) 리스트, 또는 문자열 “#all”.
                     
                     
height               보여야 하는 행 수를 지정합니다.  참고: 요청된 너비는 열 너
                     비의 합계로 결정됩니다.
                     
                     
padding              위젯의 내부 패딩을 지정합니다.  패딩은 최대 4개의 길이 명
                     세 리스트입니다.
                     
                     
selectmode           내장 클래스 바인딩이 선택을 관리하는 방법을 제어합니다.
                     “extended”, “browse” 또는 “none” 중 하나입니다.
                     “extended”(기본값)로 설정하면, 여러 항목을 선택할 수 있습
                     니다.  “browse”이면, 한 번에 하나의 항목 만 선택됩니다.
                     “none”이면 선택이 변경되지 않습니다.
                     
                     이 옵션의 값과 관계없이, 응용 프로그램 코드와 태그 바인딩
                     은 원하는 대로 선택을 설정할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.
                     
                     
show                 표시할 트리의 요소를 지정하는, 다음 값 중 0개 이상을 포함
                     하는 리스트.
                     
                        * tree: 열 #0에 트리 레이블을 표시합니다.
                     
                        * headings: 제목 행을 표시합니다.
                     
                     기본값은 “tree headings” 입니다, 즉, 모든 요소를 표시합니
                     다.
                     
                     '참고': show=”tree” 가 지정되지 않은 경우에도, #0 열은 항
                     상 트리 열을 나타냅니다.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: 항목 옵션,  Next: 태그 옵션,  Prev: 옵션<6>,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.34 항목 옵션
...................

insert와 item 위젯 명령에서 항목에 대해 다음 항목 옵션을 지정할 수 있습
니다.

옵션         설명
             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
text         항목에 표시할 텍스트 레이블.
             
             
image        레이블 왼쪽에 표시되는, Tk 이미지.
             
             
values       항목과 관련된 값의 리스트.
             
             각 항목은 위젯 옵션 열과 같은 수의 값을 가져야 합니다.  열보다 적
             은 값이 있으면, 나머지 값은 비어 있다고 가정합니다.  열보다 많은
             값이 있으면, 추가 값은 무시됩니다.
             
             
open         항목의 자식을 표시할지를 나타내는 ‘True’/‘False’ 값.
             
             
tags         이 항목과 관련된 태그의 리스트.
             


File: python.info,  Node: 태그 옵션,  Next: 열 식별자,  Prev: 항목 옵션,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.35 태그 옵션
...................

태그에 다음 옵션을 지정할 수 있습니다:

옵션             설명
                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
foreground       텍스트 전경색을 지정합니다.
                 
                 
background       셀이나 항목 배경색을 지정합니다.
                 
                 
font             텍스트를 그릴 때 사용할 글꼴을 지정합니다.
                 
                 
image            항목의 image 옵션이 비어있는 경우, 항목 이미지를 지정합니다.
                 


File: python.info,  Node: 열 식별자,  Next: 가상 이벤트<4>,  Prev: 태그 옵션,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.36 열 식별자
...................

열 식별자는 다음 형식 중 하나를 취합니다:

   * 열 옵션 목록에 있는 기호 이름.

   * n번째 데이터 열을 지정하는, 정수 n.

   * #n 형식의 문자열, 여기서 n은 정수이며 n번째 표시 열을 지정합니다.

노트:

   * 항목의 옵션 값은 저장된 순서와 다른 순서로 표시될 수 있습니다.

   * show=”tree”가 지정되지 않은 경우에도, #0 열은 항상 트리 열을 나타냅
     니다.

데이터 열 번호는 항목의 옵션 값 리스트에 대한 인덱스입니다; 표시 열 번호
는 값이 표시되는 트리의 열 번호입니다.  트리 레이블은 열 #0 에 표시됩니
다.  displaycolumns 옵션을 설정하지 않으면, 데이터 열 n이 열 #n+1 에 표
시됩니다.  다시, '#0 열은 항상 트리 열을 나타냅니다'.


File: python.info,  Node: 가상 이벤트<4>,  Next: ttk Treeview,  Prev: 열 식별자,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.37 가상 이벤트
.....................

Treeview 위젯은 다음과 같은 가상 이벤트를 생성합니다.

이벤트                   설명
                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
<<TreeviewSelect>>       선택이 변경될 때마다 생성됩니다.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewOpen>>         포커스 항목을 open=True 로 설정하기 직전에 생성됩니
                         다.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewClose>>        포커스 항목을 open=False 로 설정한 직후 생성됩니다.
                         

*note Treeview.focus(): 3e48.와 *note Treeview.selection(): a91. 메서드
를 사용하여 영향을 받는 항목이나 항목들을 결정할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Treeview,  Prev: 가상 이벤트<4>,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.38 ttk.Treeview
......................

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Treeview

      -- 메서드: bbox (item, column=None)

          지정된 'item'의 경계 상자(트리 뷰 위젯의 창에 상대적인)를 (x,
          y, 너비, 높이) 형식으로 반환합니다.

          'column'을 지정하면, 해당 셀의 경계 상자를 반환합니다.  'item'이
          보이지 않으면 (즉, 닫힌 항목의 자손이거나 화면 밖으로 스크롤 되
          면) 빈 문자열을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_children (item=None)

          'item'에 속하는 자식의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          'item'이 지정되지 않으면, 루트 자식을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_children (item, *newchildren)

          'item'의 자식을 'newchildren'으로 바꿉니다.

          'item'에 있지만 'newchildren'에 없는 자식은 트리에서 분리됩니
          다.  'newchildren'의 어떤 항목도 'item'의 조상이 될 수 없습니
          다.  'newchildren'을 지정하지 않으면 'item'의 자식이 분리됨에
          유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: column (column, option=None, **kw)

          지정된 'column'에 대한 옵션을 조회하거나 수정합니다.

          'kw'가 제공되지 않으면, 열 옵션 값의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.
          'option'이 지정되면 해당 'option'의 값이 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않
          으면, 옵션을 해당 값으로 설정합니다.

          유효한 옵션/값은 다음과 같습니다:

          'id'

               열 이름을 반환합니다.  이것은 읽기 전용 옵션입니다.

          'anchor': 표준 Tk 앵커값 중 하나.

               이 열의 텍스트가 셀을 기준으로 정렬되는 방법을 지정합니다
               .

          'minwidth': 너비

               열의 픽셀 단위의 최소 너비.  위젯의 크기가 조정되거나 사
               용자가 열을 드래그할 때 트리 뷰 위젯은 이 옵션으로 지정된
               것보다 작게 열을 만들지 않습니다.

          'stretch': ‘True’/‘False’

               위젯 크기를 조정할 때 열 너비를 조정할지를 지정합니다.

          'width': 너비

               열의 픽셀 단위 너비.

          트리 열을 구성하려면, column = “#0” 으로 호출하십시오.

      -- 메서드: delete (*items)

          지정된 'items'와 그들의 모든 자손을 삭제합니다.

          루트 항목은 삭제되지 않을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: detach (*items)

          지정된 'items'를 모두 트리에서 연결 해제합니다.

          항목과 그들의 모든 자손은 여전히 존재하며, 트리의 다른 지점에
          다시 삽입될 수 있지만, 표시되지는 않습니다.

          루트 아이템은 분리되지 않을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: exists (item)

          지정된 'item'이 트리에 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: focus (item=None)

          'item'이 지정되면, 포커스 항목을 'item'으로 설정합니다.  그렇
          지 않으면, 현재 포커스 항목을 반환하거나, 없으면 ‘’ 을 반환합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: heading (column, option=None, **kw)

          지정된 'column'에 대한 제목(heading) 옵션을 조회하거나 수정합
          니다.

          'kw'가 제공되지 않으면, 제목 옵션값의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.
          'option'이 지정되면 해당 'option'의 값이 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않
          으면, 옵션을 해당 값으로 설정합니다.

          유효한 옵션/값은 다음과 같습니다:

          'text': 텍스트

               열 제목에 표시할 텍스트.

          'image': 이미지 이름

               열 제목의 오른쪽에 표시할 이미지를 지정합니다.

          'anchor': 앵커

               제목 텍스트를 정렬하는 방법을 지정합니다.  표준 Tk 앵커값
               중 하나입니다.

          'command': 콜백

               제목 레이블을 누를 때 호출되는 콜백.

          트리 열 제목을 구성하려면, column = “#0” 으로 호출하십시오.

      -- 메서드: identify (component, x, y)

          'x' 와 'y'로 주어진 점 밑에 있는 지정된 'component'에 대한 설
          명을 반환하거나, 해당 'component'가 해당 위치에 없으면 빈 문자
          열을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: identify_row (y)

          'y' 위치에 있는 항목의 항목 ID를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: identify_column (x)

          위치 'x'에 있는 셀의 데이터 열 식별자를 반환합니다.

          트리 열의 ID는 #0 입니다.

      -- 메서드: identify_region (x, y)

          다음 중 하나를 반환합니다:

          영역(region)    의미
                          
          -----------------------------------------------------------
                          
          heading         트리 제목 영역.
                          
                          
          separator       두 열 제목 사이의 공간.
                          
                          
          tree            트리 영역.
                          
                          
          cell            데이터 셀.
                          

          가용성: Tk 8.6.

      -- 메서드: identify_element (x, y)

          위치 'x', 'y'에 있는 요소를 반환합니다.

          가용성: Tk 8.6.

      -- 메서드: index (item)

          부모의 자식 리스트에서 'item'의 정수 인덱스를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: insert (parent, index, iid=None, **kw)

          새 항목을 만들고 새로 만들어진 항목의 항목 ID를 반환합니다.

          'parent'는 부모 항목의 항목 ID이거나, 새 최상위 항목을 만들려
          면 빈 문자열입니다.  'index'는 정수이거나, “end” 값으로, 부모
          의 자식 리스트에서 새 항목을 삽입할 위치를 지정합니다.
          'index'가 0보다 작거나 같으면, 새 노드가 처음에 삽입됩니다;
          'index'가 현재 자식 수보다 크거나 같으면, 끝에 삽입됩니다.
          'iid'가 지정되면, 항목 식별자로 사용됩니다; 'iid'는 아직 트리
          에 존재하지 않아야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 새로운 고유 식별자
          가 생성됩니다.

          사용 가능한 옵션 목록은 *note Item Options: 3e45.을 참조하십시
          오.

      -- 메서드: item (item, option=None, **kw)

          지정된 'item'에 대한 옵션을 조회하거나 수정합니다.

          옵션이 제공되지 않으면 항목에 대한 옵션/값이 포함된 딕셔너리가
          반환됩니다.  'option'이 지정되면 해당 옵션의 값이 반환됩니다.
          그렇지 않으면, 옵션을 'kw'에서 제공한 해당 값으로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: move (item, parent, index)

          'item'을 'parent'의 자식 리스트에서 'index' 위치로 이동합니다.

          항목을 그 자신의 자손 항목 중 하나 밑으로 이동하는 것은 불법입
          니다.  'index'가 0보다 작거나 같으면, 'item'이 처음으로 이동합
          니다; 자식 수보다 크거나 같으면, 끝으로 이동합니다.  'item'이
          분리되었으면 다시 연결됩니다.

      -- 메서드: next (item)

          'item'의 다음 형제의 식별자를 반환하거나, 'item'이 부모의 마지
          막 자식이면 ‘’ 을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: parent (item)

          'item'의 부모 ID를 반환하거나, 'item'이 계층의 최상위에 있으면
          ‘’ 을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: prev (item)

          'item'의 이전 형제의 식별자를 반환하거나, 'item'이 부모의 첫 번
          째 자식이면 ‘’ 을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: reattach (item, parent, index)

          *note Treeview.move(): 3e5a.의 별칭.

      -- 메서드: see (item)

          'item'이 보이도록 합니다.

          'item'의 모든 조상의 open 옵션을 ‘True’로 설정하고, 필요하면 위
          젯을 스크롤 하여 'item'이 트리의 보이는 부분 내에 있도록 합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: selection ()

          선택한 항목의 튜플을 반환합니다.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘selection()’은 더는 인자를 취하지 않습니다
          .  선택 상태를 변경하려면 다음 선택 메서드를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: selection_set (*items)

          'items'가 새로운 선택이 됩니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 'items'는 단일 튜플이 아닌 별도의 인자로 전
          달될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: selection_add (*items)

          선택에 'items'를 추가합니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 'items'는 단일 튜플이 아닌 별도의 인자로 전
          달될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: selection_remove (*items)

          선택에서 'items'를 제거합니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 'items'는 단일 튜플이 아닌 별도의 인자로 전
          달될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: selection_toggle (*items)

          'items'에 있는 각 항목의 선택 상태를 토글 합니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 'items'는 단일 튜플이 아닌 별도의 인자로 전
          달될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: set (item, column=None, value=None)

          하나의 인자로는, 지정된 'item'에 대한 열/값 쌍 딕셔너리를 반환
          합니다.  두 개의 인자를 사용하면, 지정된 'column'의 현재 값을
          반환합니다.  세 개의 인자를 사용하면, 지정된 'item'의 지정된
          'column'의 값을, 지정된 'value'로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: tag_bind (tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)

          주어진 이벤트 'sequence'에 대한 콜백을 태그 'tagname'에 바인딩
          합니다.  이벤트가 항목에 전달되면, 각 항목의 태그 옵션에 대한
          콜백이 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: tag_configure (tagname, option=None, **kw)

          지정된 'tagname'에 대한 옵션을 조회하거나 수정합니다.

          'kw'가 제공되지 않으면, 'tagname'에 대한 옵션 설정의 딕셔너리
          를 반환합니다.  'option'이 지정되면, 지정된 'tagname'에 대한 해
          당 'option'의 값을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 옵션을 주어진
          'tagname'에 대해 해당하는 값으로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: tag_has (tagname, item=None)

          'item'이 지정되면, 지정된 'item'에 지정된 'tagname'이 있는지에
          따라 1이나 0을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 지정된 태그가 있는
          모든 항목의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          가용성: Tk 8.6

      -- 메서드: xview (*args)

          트리 뷰의 가로 위치를 조회하거나 수정합니다.

      -- 메서드: yview (*args)

          트리 뷰의 수직 위치를 조회하거나 수정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk 스타일링,  Prev: Treeview,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯

5.25.8.39 Ttk 스타일링
......................

‘ttk’의 각 위젯에는 스타일이 지정되는데, 이 스타일은 요소 옵션의 동적 및
기본 설정과 함께 위젯을 구성하는 요소 집합과 배열 방식을 지정합니다.  기
본적으로 스타일 이름은 위젯의 클래스 이름과 같지만, 위젯의 스타일 옵션으
로 재정의될 수 있습니다.  위젯의 클래스 이름을 모르면,
‘Misc.winfo_class()’ 메서드(somewidget.winfo_class())를 사용하십시오.

더 보기
.......

Tcl'2004 conference presentation(1)

     이 문서는 테마 엔진의 작동 방식을 설명합니다

 -- 클래스: tkinter.ttk.Style

     이 클래스는 스타일 데이터베이스를 조작하는 데 사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: configure (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          'style'에서 지정된 옵션의 기본값을 조회하거나 설정합니다.

          'kw'의 각 키는 옵션이며 각 값은 해당 옵션의 값을 식별하는 문자
          열입니다.

          예를 들어, 모든 기본 버튼을 패딩이 있고 배경색이 다른 평평한 버
          튼으로 바꾸려면:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
                  background="#ccc")

               btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
               btn.pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- 메서드: map (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          'style'에서 지정된 옵션의 동적 값을 조회하거나 설정합니다.

          'kw'의 각 키는 옵션이며 각 값은 (일반적으로) 튜플, 리스트 또는
          다른 선호하는 것에 그룹화된 상태 명세(statespecs)를 포함하는 리
          스트나 튜플이어야 합니다.  상태 명세(statespec)는 하나 이상의
          상태와 그다음에 값이 오는 복합체입니다.

          예를 들면 더 이해하기 쉽습니다:

               import tkinter
               from tkinter import ttk

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.map("C.TButton",
                   foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
                   background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
                   )

               colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()

               root.mainloop()

          옵션의 (상태들, 값) 시퀀스의 순서는 중요함에 유의하십시오.  예
          를 들어, foreground 옵션에서 순서가 ‘[('active', 'blue'),
          ('pressed', 'red')]’로 변경되면, 예를 들어, 위젯이 active 나
          pressed 상태일 때 결과는 파란색 전경이 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: lookup (style, option, state=None, default=None)

          'style'에서 'option'에 지정된 값을 반환합니다.

          'state'가 지정되면, 하나 이상의 상태 시퀀스일 것으로 기대됩니
          다.  'default' 인자가 설정되면, 옵션에 대한 명세가 없을 때 폴
          백값으로 사용됩니다.

          Button이 기본적으로 사용하는 글꼴을 확인하려면:

               from tkinter import ttk

               print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))

      -- 메서드: layout (style, layoutspec=None)

          주어진 'style'에 대한 위젯 레이아웃을 정의합니다.
          'layoutspec'이 생략되면, 지정된 스타일의 레이아웃 명세를 반환
          합니다.

          지정되면, 'layoutspec'은 리스트나 다른 시퀀스 형(문자열 제외
          )이어야 합니다.  여기서 각 항목은 튜플이어야 하고 첫 번째 항목
          은 레이아웃 이름이고 두 번째 항목은 *note 레이아웃: 3e6b.에 설
          명된 형식이어야 합니다.

          형식을 이해하려면, 다음 예제를 참조하십시오 (유용한 것은 아닙
          니다):

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.layout("TMenubutton", [
                  ("Menubutton.background", None),
                  ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
                      [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
                          [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
                              [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
                          })]
                      })]
                  }),
               ])

               mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
               mbtn.pack()
               root.mainloop()

      -- 메서드: element_create (elementname, etype, *args, **kw)

          현재 테마에서 주어진 'etype'의 새 요소를 만듭니다.  'etype'은
          “image”, “from” 또는 “vsapi”일 것으로 기대됩니다.  마지막 것은
          윈도우 용 Tk 8.6에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

          “image”를 사용하면, 'args'는 기본 이미지 이름과 그 뒤에 오는
          statespec/value 쌍 (이것이 이미지 명세(imagespec)입니다)을 포
          함해야 하며, 'kw'에는 다음 옵션이 올 수 있습니다:

          border=padding

               패딩은 각각 좌(left), 상(top), 우(right), 하(bottom) 테두
               리를 지정하는 최대 4개의 정수 리스트입니다.

          height=height

               요소의 최소 높이를 지정합니다.  0보다 작으면, 기본 이미지
               의 높이가 기본값으로 사용됩니다.

          padding=padding

               요소의 내부 패딩을 지정합니다.  지정하지 않으면 기본값은
               border의 값입니다.

          sticky=spec

               최종 파슬(parcel) 내에 이미지를 배치하는 방법을 지정합니
               다.  명세에는 0개 이상의 문자 “n”, “s”, “w” 또는 “e” 가 포
               함됩니다.

          width=width

               요소의 최소 너비를 지정합니다.  0보다 작으면, 기본 이미지
               의 너비가 기본값으로 사용됩니다.

          예제:

               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png')
               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('Button.button', 'image',
                                    img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3),
                                    border=(2, 4), sticky='we')

          “from”이 'etype'의 값으로 사용되면, *note element_create():
          258.는 기존 요소를 복제합니다.  'args'는 요소를 복제할 테마 이
          름(themename)과, 선택적으로 요소를 복제할 요소를 포함할 것으로
          기대됩니다.  복제할 요소를 지정하지 않으면, 빈 요소가 사용됩니
          다.  'kw'는 폐기됩니다.

          예제:

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default')

          If “vsapi” is used as the value of 'etype', *note
          element_create(): 258. will create a new element in the
          current theme whose visual appearance is drawn using the
          Microsoft Visual Styles API which is responsible for the
          themed styles on Windows XP and Vista.  'args' is expected to
          contain the Visual Styles class and part as given in the
          Microsoft documentation followed by an optional sequence of
          tuples of ttk states and the corresponding Visual Styles API
          state value.  'kw' may have the following options:

          padding=padding

               Specify the element’s interior padding.  'padding' is a
               list of up to four integers specifying the left, top,
               right and bottom padding quantities respectively.  If
               fewer than four elements are specified, bottom defaults
               to top, right defaults to left, and top defaults to left.
               In other words, a list of three numbers specify the left,
               vertical, and right padding; a list of two numbers
               specify the horizontal and the vertical padding; a single
               number specifies the same padding all the way around the
               widget.  This option may not be mixed with any other
               options.

          margins=padding

               요소 외부 패딩을 지정합니다.  'padding'은 각각 좌(left),
               상(top), 우(right), 하(bottom) 패딩량을 지정하는 최대 4개
               의 정수 리스트입니다.  이 옵션은 다른 옵션과 함께 사용할
               수 없습니다.

          width=width

               Specifies the width for the element.  If this option is
               set then the Visual Styles API will not be queried for
               the recommended size or the part.  If this option is set
               then 'height' should also be set.  The 'width' and
               'height' options cannot be mixed with the 'padding' or
               'margins' options.

          height=height

               Specifies the height of the element.  See the comments
               for 'width'.

          예제:

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('pin', 'vsapi', 'EXPLORERBAR', 3, [
                                    ('pressed', '!selected', 3),
                                    ('active', '!selected', 2),
                                    ('pressed', 'selected', 6),
                                    ('active', 'selected', 5),
                                    ('selected', 4),
                                    ('', 1)])
               style.layout('Explorer.Pin',
                            [('Explorer.Pin.pin', {'sticky': 'news'})])
               pin = ttk.Checkbutton(style='Explorer.Pin')
               pin.pack(expand=True, fill='both')

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Added support of the “vsapi” element
          factory.

      -- 메서드: element_names ()

          현재 테마에 정의된 요소 목록을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: element_options (elementname)

          'elementname'의 옵션 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: theme_create (themename, parent=None, settings=None)

          새로운 테마를 만듭니다.

          'themename'이 이미 존재하면 에러입니다.  'parent'가 지정되면,
          새 테마는 부모 테마에서 스타일, 요소 및 레이아웃을 상속합니다.
          'settings'가 있으면, *note theme_settings(): 3e6f.에 사용되는
          것과 같은 문법일 것으로 기대됩니다.

      -- 메서드: theme_settings (themename, settings)

          현재 테마를 'themename'으로 임시 설정하고, 지정된 'settings'를
          적용한 다음 이전 테마를 복원합니다.

          'settings'의 각 키는 스타일이며 각 값에는 ‘configure’, ‘map’,
          ‘layout’ 및 ‘element create’ 키가 포함될 수 있으며 각각 *note
          Style.configure(): 3e68, *note Style.map(): 1924, *note
          Style.layout(): 3e6a. 및 *note Style.element_create(): 258.가
          지정한 것과 같은 형식을 갖습니다.

          예를 들어, 기본 테마의 Combobox를 약간 변경해 봅시다:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.theme_settings("default", {
                  "TCombobox": {
                      "configure": {"padding": 5},
                      "map": {
                          "background": [("active", "green2"),
                                         ("!disabled", "green4")],
                          "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
                          "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
                                         ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
                      }
                  }
               })

               combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- 메서드: theme_names ()

          알려진 모든 테마의 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: theme_use (themename=None)

          'themename'이 제공되지 않으면, 사용 중인 테마를 반환합니다.  그
          렇지 않으면, 현재 테마를 'themename'으로 설정하고, 모든 위젯을
          새로 고치고 <<ThemeChanged>> 이벤트를 방출합니다.

* Menu:

* 레이아웃::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: 레이아웃,  Up: Ttk 스타일링

5.25.8.40 레이아웃
..................

레이아웃은 옵션을 취하지 않으면 ‘None’일 수 있습니다, 또는 요소를 정렬하
는 방법을 지정하는 옵션의 딕셔너리입니다.  레이아웃 메커니즘은 pack 지오
메트리 관리자의 단순화 된 버전을 사용합니다: 초기 캐비티(cavity)가 주어
지면, 각 요소에는 파슬(parcel)이 할당됩니다.

유효한 옵션/값은 다음과 같습니다:

'side': whichside

     요소를 배치할 캐비티(cavity)의 변을 지정합니다; 상(top), 우(right),
     하(bottom) 또는 좌(left) 중 하나입니다.  생략하면, 요소가 전체 캐비
     티를 차지합니다.

'sticky': nswe

     할당된 파슬(parcel)에서 요소가 배치되는 위치를 지정합니다.

'unit': 0 또는 1

     1로 설정하면, *note Widget.identify(): 3e16. 등의 목적으로 요소와 그
     것의 모든 자손이 단일 요소로 처리됩니다.  그립이 있는 스크롤 막대 썸
     (thumbs)과 같은 것들에 사용됩니다.

'children': [sublayout… ]

     요소 안에 배치할 요소 리스트를 지정합니다.  각 요소는 첫 번째 항목
     이 레이아웃 이름이고, 다른 하나는 *note 레이아웃: 3e6b.인 튜플(또는
     다른 시퀀스 형)입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸,  Next: turtle — Turtle graphics,  Prev: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.9 IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸
--------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/idlelib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

IDLE은 파이썬의 통합 개발 및 학습 환경입니다.

IDLE에는 다음과 같은 기능이 있습니다:

   * 크로스 플랫폼: 윈도우, 유닉스 및 macOS에서 거의 같게 작동합니다

   * 코드 입력, 출력 및 에러 메시지를 채색하는 파이썬 셸 창 (대화식 인터
     프리터)

   * 다중 실행 취소, 파이썬 색상 지정, 스마트 들여쓰기, 호출 팁, 자동 완
     성 및 기타 기능이 있는 다중 창 텍스트 편집기

   * 모든 창 내에서 검색, 편집기 창 내에서 교체 및 여러 파일을 통한 검색
     (grep)

   * 지속적인 중단점(breakpoints), 스테핑(stepping) 및 전역과 지역 이름
     공간 보기가 있는 디버거

   * 구성, 브라우저 및 기타 대화 상자

* Menu:

* 메뉴::
* 편집과 탐색::
* 시작과 코드 실행::
* 도움말과 환경 설정::
* idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/idlelib/


File: python.info,  Node: 메뉴,  Next: 편집과 탐색,  Up: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸

5.25.9.1 메뉴
.............

IDLE에는 두 가지 메인 창 유형이 있습니다, 셸 창과 편집기 창.  여러 개의
편집기 창을 동시에 가질 수 있습니다.  윈도우와 리눅스에서는, 각각 자신의
최상위 메뉴가 있습니다.  아래에 설명된 각 메뉴는 어떤 창 유형과 관련되는
지를 나타냅니다.

가령 Edit => Find in Files 에서 사용되는 것과 같은 출력 창은 편집기 창의
하위 유형입니다.  현재 같은 최상위 메뉴가 있지만, 기본 제목과 문맥 메뉴
가 다릅니다.

macOS에는, 하나의 응용 프로그램 메뉴가 있습니다.  현재 선택된 창에 따라
동적으로 변경됩니다.  IDLE 메뉴가 있으며, 아래 설명된 일부 항목은 Apple
지침에 따라 이동됩니다.

* Menu:

* File 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): File 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Edit 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Edit 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Format 메뉴 (편집기 창 전용): Format 메뉴 편집기 창 전용.
* Run 메뉴 (편집기 창 전용): Run 메뉴 편집기 창 전용.
* Shell 메뉴 (셸 창 전용): Shell 메뉴 셸 창 전용.
* Debug 메뉴 (셸 창 전용): Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용.
* Options 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Options 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Window 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Window 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Help 메뉴 (셸과 편집기): Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
* Context 메뉴::


File: python.info,  Node: File 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Next: Edit 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.2 File 메뉴 (셸과 편집기)
................................

New File

     새 파일 편집 창을 만듭니다.

Open…

     열기 대화 상자로 기존 파일을 엽니다.

Open Module…

     기존 모듈을 엽니다 (sys.path를 검색합니다).

Recent Files

     최근 파일의 목록을 엽니다.  하나를 클릭하여 엽니다.

Module Browser

     현재 편집기 파일의 함수, 클래스 및 메서드를 트리 구조로 표시합니다.
     셸에서, 모듈을 먼저 여십시오.

Path Browser

     sys.path 디렉터리, 모듈, 함수, 클래스 및 메서드를 트리 구조로 표시
     합니다.

Save

     현재 창을 (있다면) 연관된 파일에 저장합니다.  열거나 마지막으로 저
     장한 이후에 변경된 창에는 창 제목 앞뒤에 * 가 있습니다.  연결된 파
     일이 없으면, 대신 Save As 를 수행합니다.

Save As…

     다른 이름으로 저장(Save As) 대화 상자를 사용하여 현재 창을 저장합니
     다.  저장된 파일이 창의 새 연관된 파일이 됩니다.  (파일 관리자가 확
     장자를 숨기도록 설정되어 있으면, 파일명 상자에서 현재 확장자가 생략
     됩니다.  새 파일명에 ‘.’이 없으면, 파이썬과 텍스트 파일에 ‘.py’ 와
     ‘.txt’ 가 추가됩니다.  맥 OS Aqua 에서는 예외인데, 모든 파일에 대해
     ‘.py’ 가 추가됩니다.)

Save Copy As…

     연관된 파일을 변경하지 않고 현재 창을 다른 파일에 저장합니다.  (파
     일명 확장자에 대해서는 위의 Save As 참고 사항을 참조하십시오.)

Print Window

     현재 창을 기본 프린터로 인쇄합니다.

Close Window

     현재 창을 닫습니다 (저장하지 않은 편집기면, 저장하도록 요청합니다;
     저장하지 않은 셸이면, 실행을 중단하도록 요청합니다.  셸 창에서
     ‘exit()’나 ‘close()’를 호출하면 셸을 닫습니다.  만약 이 것이 유일한
     창이면, IDLE 도 종료합니다.).

Exit IDLE

     모든 창을 닫고 IDLE을 종료합니다 (저장되지 않은 편집 창을 저장하도
     록 요청합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: Edit 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Next: Format 메뉴 편집기 창 전용,  Prev: File 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.3 Edit 메뉴 (셸과 편집기)
................................

Undo

     현재 창에 대한 마지막 변경을 되돌립니다.  최대 1000개의 변경을 되돌
     릴 수 있습니다.

Redo

     마지막으로 되돌린 변경을 현재 창에 다시 실행합니다.

Select All

     현재 창의 전체 내용을 선택합니다.

Cut

     선택 사항을 시스템 전체 클립 보드에 복사합니다; 그런 다음 선택을 삭
     제합니다.

Copy

     선택 사항을 시스템 전체 클립 보드에 복사합니다.

Paste

     시스템 전체 클립 보드의 내용을 현재 창에 삽입합니다.

클립 보드 기능은 문맥 메뉴에서도 사용할 수 있습니다.

Find…

     많은 옵션이 제공되는 검색 대화 상자를 엽니다

Find Again

     마지막 검색이 있으면 반복합니다.

Find Selection

     현재 선택된 문자열이 있으면 검색합니다.

Find in Files…

     파일 검색 대화 상자를 엽니다.  새로운 출력 창에 결과를 넣습니다.

Replace…

     검색과 치환 대화 상자를 엽니다.

Go to Line

     요청한 줄의 시작 부분으로 커서를 이동하고 해당 줄을 표시합니다.  파
     일 끝을 지나는 요청은 파일의 끝으로 갑니다.  모든 선택을 취소하고 줄
     과 열 상태를 갱신합니다.

Show Completions

     기존 이름을 선택할 수 있는 스크롤 할 수 있는 목록을 엽니다.  아래의
     편집 및 탐색 섹션에서 *note 완성: 3e78.을 참조하십시오.

Expand Word

     같은 창에서 전체 단어와 일치하도록 입력한 접두사를 확장합니다; 다른
     확장을 얻으려면 반복하십시오.

Show Call Tip

     함수에 대해 닫히지 않은 괄호 뒤에서, 함수 매개 변수 힌트가 있는 작
     은 창을 엽니다.  아래의 편집과 탐색 섹션에서 *note 콜팁: 3e79.을 참
     조하십시오.

Show Surrounding Parens

     주변 괄호를 강조 표시합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Format 메뉴 편집기 창 전용,  Next: Run 메뉴 편집기 창 전용,  Prev: Edit 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.4 Format 메뉴 (편집기 창 전용)
.....................................

Format Paragraph

     주석 블록이나 여러 줄 문자열의 빈 줄로 구분되는 현재 단락이나 문자
     열에서 선택한 줄을 다시 포맷합니다.  단락의 모든 줄은 N 열 미만으로
     포맷되며, 여기서 N은 기본적으로 72입니다.

Indent Region

     선택한 줄을 들여쓰기 너비(기본값은 4개의 스페이스)만큼 오른쪽으로 이
     동합니다.

Dedent Region

     선택한 줄을 들여쓰기 너비(기본값은 4개의 스페이스)만큼 왼쪽으로 이
     동합니다.

Comment Out Region

     선택한 줄 앞에 ## 을 삽입합니다.

Uncomment Region

     선택한 줄에서 선행 # 이나 ## 을 제거합니다.

Tabify Region

     연속된 '선행' 스페이스를 탭으로 바꿉니다.  (참고: 4개의 스페이스 블
     록을 사용하여 파이썬 코드를 들여 쓰는 것이 좋습니다.)

Untabify Region

     '모든' 탭을 올바른 수의 스페이스로 바꿉니다.

Toggle Tabs

     스페이스와 탭 들여쓰기 간을 전환하는 대화 상자를 엽니다.

New Indent Width

     들여쓰기 너비를 변경하는 대화 상자를 엽니다.  파이썬 커뮤니티에서 받
     아들여지는 기본값은 4개의 스페이스입니다.

Strip Trailing Chitespace

     여러 줄 문자열 내의 줄을 포함하여, 각 줄에 str.rstrip을 적용하여 줄
     의 마지막 비 공백 문자 뒤의 후행 스페이스와 기타 공백 문자를 제거합
     니다.  셸 창을 제외하고, 파일 끝에서 추가 줄 바꿈을 제거합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Run 메뉴 편집기 창 전용,  Next: Shell 메뉴 셸 창 전용,  Prev: Format 메뉴 편집기 창 전용,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.5 Run 메뉴 (편집기 창 전용)
..................................

Run Module

     *note Check Module: 3e7e.을 수행합니다.  에러가 없으면, 셸을 다시 시
     작하여 환경을 정리한 다음, 모듈을 실행합니다.  출력은 셸 창에 표시
     됩니다.  출력에는 ‘print’나 ‘write’를 사용해야 함에 유의하십시오.  실
     행이 완료되면, 셸은 포커스를 유지하고 프롬프트를 표시합니다.  이 시
     점에서, 실행 결과를 대화식으로 탐색할 수 있습니다.  이것은 명령 줄
     에서 ‘python -i file’로 파일을 실행하는 것과 유사합니다.

Run… Customized

     *note Run Module: 3e7d.과 같지만, 사용자 정의 설정으로 모듈을 실행
     합니다.  '명령 줄 인자(Command Line Arguments)'는 명령 줄에 전달된
     것처럼 *note sys.argv: 1255.를 확장합니다.  다시 시작하지 않고 모듈
     을 셸에서 실행할 수 있습니다.

Check Module

     편집기 창에 현재 열려 있는 모듈의 문법을 검사합니다.  모듈이 저장되
     지 않았으면 IDLE은 설정 대화 상자의 General 탭에서 선택한 대로 사용
     자에게 저장을 요구하거나 자동 저장합니다.  문법 에러가 있으면, 대략
     적인 위치가 편집기 창에 표시됩니다.

Python Shell

     파이썬 셸 창을 열거나 깨웁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell 메뉴 셸 창 전용,  Next: Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용,  Prev: Run 메뉴 편집기 창 전용,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.6 Shell 메뉴 (셸 창 전용)
................................

View Last Restart

     셸 창을 마지막 셸 재시작으로 스크롤 합니다.

Restart Shell

     셸을 다시 시작하여 환경을 정리하고 디스플레이와 예외 처리를 재설정
     합니다.

Previous History

     히스토리에서 현재 항목과 일치하는 이전 명령을 순환합니다.

Next History

     히스토리에서 현재 항목과 일치하는 다음 명령을 순환합니다.

Interrupt Execution

     실행 중인 프로그램을 중지합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용,  Next: Options 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Prev: Shell 메뉴 셸 창 전용,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.7 Debug 메뉴 (셸 창 전용)
................................

Go to File/Line

     커서가 놓인 현재 줄과 줄 위에서 파일명과 줄 번호는 찾습니다.  발견
     되면, (파일이 아직 열려 있지 않으면 파일을 열고) 줄을 보여줍니다.  이
     를 사용하여 예외 트레이스백에서 참조된 소스 줄과 Find in Files에서
     찾은 줄을 볼 수 있습니다.  셸 창과 출력 창의 문맥 메뉴에서도 사용할
     수 있습니다.

Debugger (toggle)

     활성화되면, 셸에 입력되거나 편집기에서 실행된 코드가 디버거에서 실
     행됩니다.  편집기에서, 문맥 메뉴를 사용하여 중단점을 설정할 수 있습
     니다.  이 기능은 아직 불완전하고 다소 실험적입니다.

Stack Viewer

     locals와 globals에 대한 액세스와 함께, 트리 위젯에 마지막 예외의 스
     택 트레이스백을 표시합니다.

Auto-open Stack Viewer

     처리되지 않은 예외에서 스택 뷰어를 자동으로 여는 것을 전환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Options 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Next: Window 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Prev: Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.8 Options 메뉴 (셸과 편집기)
...................................

Configure IDLE

     구성 대화 상자를 열고 다음과 같은 것들에 대한 설정을 변경합니다: 글
     꼴, 들여쓰기, 키 바인딩, 텍스트 색상 테마, 시작 창과 크기, 추가 도
     움말 소스 및 확장.  macOS의 경우, 응용 프로그램 메뉴에서
     Preferences를 선택하여 구성 대화 상자를 여십시오.  자세한 내용은, 도
     움말과 환경 설정에서 *note 환경 설정: 3e84.을 참조하십시오.

대부분의 구성 옵션은 모든 창이나 모든 미래 창에 적용됩니다.  아래의 옵션
항목은 활성 창에만 적용됩니다.

Show/Hide Code Context (편집기 창 전용)

     편집 창의 상단에 창의 상단 위로 스크롤 된 코드의 블록 컨텍스트를 표
     시하는 팬을 엽니다.  아래의 편집과 탐색 섹션에서 *note 코드
     컨텍스트: 3e85.를 참조하십시오.

Show/Hide Line Numbers (편집기 창 전용)

     편집 창 왼쪽에 텍스트의 줄 번호를 표시하는 열을 엽니다.  기본 설정
     은 꺼져 있으며, 환경 설정에서 변경될 수 있습니다 (*note 환경 설정:
     3e84.을 참조하십시오).

Zoom/Restore Height

     창을 보통 크기와 최대 높이 사이에서 전환합니다.  IDLE 구성 대화 상
     자의 General 탭에서 변경하지 않는 한 초기 크기의 기본값은 40줄 80문
     자입니다.  화면의 최대 높이는 화면에서 처음 확대할 때 창을 일시적으
     로 최대화하여 결정됩니다.  화면 설정을 변경하면 저장된 높이가 무효
     가 될 수 있습니다.  이 전환은 창이 최대화되었을 때 적용되지 않습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: Window 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Next: Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Prev: Options 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.9 Window 메뉴 (셸과 편집기)
..................................

열려있는 모든 창의 이름을 나열합니다; 하나를 선택하여 전경으로 가져옵니
다 (필요한 경우 아이콘화를 해제합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Next: Context 메뉴,  Prev: Window 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.10 Help 메뉴 (셸과 편집기)
.................................

About IDLE

     버전, 저작권, 라이선스, 크레딧 등을 표시합니다.

IDLE Help

     메뉴 옵션, 기본 편집과 탐색 및 기타 팁을 자세히 설명하는 이 IDLE 설
     명서를 표시합니다.

Python Docs

     설치되었으면, 로컬 파이썬 문서에 액세스하거나, 웹 브라우저를 시작하
     여 최신 파이썬 설명서를 보여주는 docs.python.org 를 엽니다.

Turtle Demo

     예제 파이썬 코드와 터틀 그래픽을 제공하는 turtledemo 모듈을 실행합
     니다.

IDLE 구성 대화 상자의 General 탭으로 여기에 도움말 소스를 추가할 수 있습
니다.  Help 메뉴 선택에 대한 자세한 내용은 아래의 *note 도움말 소스:
3e88. 하위 섹션을 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Context 메뉴,  Prev: Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기,  Up: 메뉴

5.25.9.11 Context 메뉴
......................

윈도우에서 마우스 오른쪽 버튼을 클릭하여 문맥 메뉴를 엽니다 (macOS에서는
Control-클릭).  문맥 메뉴에는 Edit 메뉴에도 있는 표준 클립 보드 기능이 있
습니다.

Cut

     선택 사항을 시스템 전체 클립 보드에 복사합니다; 그런 다음 선택을 삭
     제합니다.

Copy

     선택 사항을 시스템 전체 클립 보드에 복사합니다.

Paste

     시스템 전체 클립 보드의 내용을 현재 창에 삽입합니다.

편집기 창에는 중단점 기능도 있습니다.  중단점이 설정된 줄은 특별히 표시
됩니다.  중단점은 디버거에서 실행할 때만 영향을 미칩니다.  파일의 중단점
은 사용자의 ‘.idlerc’ 디렉터리에 저장됩니다.

Set Breakpoint

     현재 줄에 중단점을 설정합니다.

Clear Breakpoint

     해당 줄에서 중단점을 지웁니다.

셸과 출력 창에서는 다음과 같은 것도 있습니다.

Go to file/line

     Debug 메뉴와 같습니다.

셸 창에는 아래 '파이썬 셸 창' 하위 섹션에 설명된 출력 압착 기능도 있습니
다.

Squeeze

     커서가 출력 줄 위에 있으면, 위 코드와 아래 프롬프트 사이의 모든 출
     력을 ‘Squeezed text’ 레이블로 압착합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 편집과 탐색,  Next: 시작과 코드 실행,  Prev: 메뉴,  Up: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸

5.25.9.12 편집과 탐색
.....................

* Menu:

* 편집기 창::
* 키 바인딩::
* 자동 들여쓰기::
* 검색과 치환::
* 완성: 완성<2>.
* 콜팁::
* 코드 컨텍스트::
* 셸 창::
* 텍스트 색상::


File: python.info,  Node: 편집기 창,  Next: 키 바인딩,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.13 편집기 창
...................

설정과 IDLE 시작 방법에 따라, IDLE이 시작될 때 편집기 창을 열 수 있습니
다.  그런 다음, File 메뉴를 사용하십시오.  주어진 파일에 대해 열린 편집
기 창이 하나만 있을 수 있습니다.

제목 표시 줄에는 파일 이름, 전체 경로 및 창을 실행하는 파이썬과 IDLE 버
전이 포함됩니다.  상태 표시 줄에는 줄 번호(‘Ln’)와 열 번호(‘Col’)가 있습
니다.  줄 번호는 1로 시작합니다; 열 번호는 0으로 시작합니다.

IDLE은 알려진 .py* 확장자를 가진 파일에 파이썬 코드가 포함되어 있고 다른
파일은 그렇지 않다고 가정합니다.  Run 메뉴를 사용하여 파이썬 코드를 실행
하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 키 바인딩,  Next: 자동 들여쓰기,  Prev: 편집기 창,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.14 키 바인딩
...................

The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character
positions.  When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and
everything to its right moves right one character and the new character
is entered in the new space.

Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete
characters.  Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has
an undo list.  Wherever this doc discusses keys, ‘C’ refers to the
‘Control’ key on Windows and Unix and the ‘Command’ key on macOS. (And
all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to
something else.)

   * Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.

   * ‘C’-‘LeftArrow’와 ‘C’-‘RightArrow’는 한 단어 좌/우로 이동합니다.

   * ‘Home’과 ‘End’는 줄의 시작/끝으로 이동합니다.

   * ‘Page Up’과 ‘Page Down’은 한 화면 위/아래로 이동합니다.

   * ‘C’-‘Home’과 ‘C’-‘End’는 파일의 시작/끝으로 이동합니다

   * ‘Backspace’와 ‘Del’(또는 ‘C’-‘d’)은 이전/다음 문자를 삭제합니다.

   * ‘C’-‘Backspace’와 ‘C’-‘Del’은 좌/우 의 한 단어를 삭제합니다.

   * ‘C’-‘k’ deletes (‘kills’) everything to the right.

(복사하는 ‘C’-‘c’와 붙여넣기 하는 ‘C’-‘v’와 같은) 표준 키 바인딩이 작동
할 수 있습니다.  키 바인딩은 IDLE 구성 대화 상자에서 선택됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 자동 들여쓰기,  Next: 검색과 치환,  Prev: 키 바인딩,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.15 자동 들여쓰기
.......................

블록을 여는 문장 다음에, 다음 줄은 4개의 스페이스로 들여쓰기 됩니다 (파
이썬 셸 창에서는 한 탭씩).  특정 키워드(break, return 등)가 다음에 다음
줄이 내어 쓰기 됩니다.  앞선 들여쓰기에서, ‘Backspace’는 최대 4개의 스페
이스가 있으면 삭제합니다.  ‘Tab’은 스페이스를 삽입합니다 (파이썬 셸 창에
서는 하나의 탭), 개수는 들여쓰기 너비에 따라 다릅니다.  현재 Tcl/Tk 제한
으로 인해 탭은 4개의 스페이스로 제한됩니다.

*note Format 메뉴: 3e7a.의 Indent/Dedent Region 명령도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 검색과 치환,  Next: 완성<2>,  Prev: 자동 들여쓰기,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.16 검색과 치환
.....................

Any selection becomes a search target.  However, only selections within
a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the
terminal newline removed.  If ‘[x] Regular expression’ is checked, the
target is interpreted according to the Python re module.


File: python.info,  Node: 완성<2>,  Next: 콜팁,  Prev: 검색과 치환,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.17 완성
..............

요청되고 사용할 수 있을 때, 모듈 이름, 클래스나 함수의 어트리뷰트 또는 파
일명에 대한 완성(completions)이 제공됩니다.  각 요청 방법은 기존 이름을
가진 완성 상자가 표시됩니다.  (예외는 아래의 탭 완성을 참조하십시오.)  모
든 상자는, 문자를 입력하고 삭제해서; ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘PageUp’, ‘PageDown’,
‘Home’ 및 ‘End’ 키를 쳐서; 상자 안에서 한 번의 클릭으로 완성 중인 이름과
상자에서 강조 표시된 항목을 변경합니다.  ‘Escape’, ‘Enter’ 및 이중 ‘Tab’
키나 상자 외부를 클릭하여 상자를 닫으십시오.  상자 안에서 더블 클릭하면
선택하고 닫습니다.

상자를 여는 한 가지 방법은 키 문자를 입력하고 미리 정의된 간격만큼 기다
리는 것입니다.  기본값은 2초입니다; 설정 대화 상자에서 사용자 정의하십시
오.  (자동 팝업을 방지하려면, 지연을 100000000과 같은 큰 밀리초로 설정하
십시오.)  임포트한 모듈 이름이나 클래스나 함수 어트리뷰트의 경우, ‘.’를
입력하십시오.  루트 디렉터리의 파일명은 여는 인용 부호 바로 뒤에 *note
os.sep: 664.이나 *note os.altsep: 665.을 입력하십시오.  (윈도우에서는, 먼
저 드라이브를 지정할 수 있습니다.)  디렉터리 이름과 구분자를 입력하여 서
브 디렉터리로 이동하십시오.

기다리는 대신, 또는 상자를 닫은 후, Edit 메뉴에서 Show Completions를 사
용하여 즉시 완성 상자를 여십시오.  기본 단축키는 ‘C’-‘space’입니다.  상
자를 열기 전에 원하는 이름의 접두사를 입력하면, 첫 번째 일치나 근거리 불
일치가 표시됩니다.  결과는 상자가 표시된 후 접두사를 입력하는 것과 같습
니다.  따옴표 뒤에서의 Show Completions는 루트 디렉터리 대신 현재 디렉터
리에서 파일명을 완성합니다.

접두사 다음에 ‘Tab’을 누르면 일반적으로 Show Completions와 같은 효과가 있
습니다.  (접두사가 없으면 들여쓰기합니다.)  그러나, 접두사와 일치하는 항
목이 하나뿐이면, 상자를 열지 않고 해당 일치가 편집기 텍스트에 즉시 추가
됩니다.

문자열 밖에서 선행 ‘.’ 없이 접두어 뒤에서 ‘Show Completions’를 실행하거
나 ‘Tab’을 누르면 키워드, 내장 이름 및 사용 가능한 모듈 수준 이름이 포함
된 상자를 엽니다.

(셸과 달리) 편집기에서 코드를 편집할 때는, 셸을 다시 시작하지 않고 코드
를 실행해서 사용 가능한 모듈 수준 이름을 늘리십시오.  파일 맨 위에 임포
트를 추가한 후에 특히 유용합니다.  이것은 또한 가능한 어트리뷰트 완성을
늘립니다.

완성 상자는 ‘_’로 시작하거나, 모듈의 경우 ‘__all__’에 포함되지 않은 이름
을 처음에는 제외합니다.  숨겨진 이름은 상자를 열기 전이나 후에 ‘.’ 뒤에
‘_’를 입력하여 액세스 할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콜팁,  Next: 코드 컨텍스트,  Prev: 완성<2>,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.18 콜팁
..............

'액세스할 수 있는' 함수 이름 다음에 ‘(’를 입력하면 콜팁이 자동으로 표시
됩니다.  함수 이름 표현식에는 점과 서브스크립트가 포함될 수 있습니다.  콜
팁은 클릭하거나, 커서가 인자 영역 밖으로 이동하거나, ‘)’를 입력할 때까지
남아 있습니다.  커서가 정의의 인자 부분에 있을 때마다, 콜팁을 표시하려면
메뉴에서 Edit와 “Show Call Tip”을 선택하거나 바로 가기를 입력하십시오.

콜팁은 함수 서명과 독스트링의 첫 번째 빈 줄이나 다섯 번째 비어 있지 않은
줄에 이르는 줄로 구성됩니다.  (일부 내장 함수에는 액세스할 수 있는 서명
이 없습니다.)  서명의 ‘/’나 ‘*’는 앞서거나 뒤따르는 인자가 위치나 이름
(키워드) 전용으로 전달됨을 가리킵니다.  세부 사항은 변경될 수 있습니다.

셸에서, 액세스할 수 있는 함수는 Idle 스스로 임포트 한 모듈을 포함하여, 사
용자 프로세스로 임포트 한 모듈과 마지막 재시작 이후에 어떤 정의가 실행되
었는지에 따라 다릅니다.

예를 들어, 셸을 다시 시작하고 ‘itertools.count(’를 입력하십시오.  Idle이
자신의 목적으로 itertools를 사용자 프로세스로 임포트 하기 때문에 콜팁이
표시됩니다.  (이것은 변경될 수 있습니다.)  ‘turtle.write(’를 입력하면 아
무것도 나타나지 않습니다.  Idle은 직접 turtle을 임포트 하지 않습니다.  메
뉴 항목과 바로 가기도 아무것도 하지 않습니다.  ‘import turtle’을 입력하
십시오.  그다음부터, ‘turtle.write(’가 콜팁을 표시합니다.

편집기에서, import 문은 파일을 실행할 때까지 효과가 없습니다.  import 문
을 작성한 후, 함수 정의를 추가한 후 또는 기존 파일을 연 후 파일을 실행하
고 싶을 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 코드 컨텍스트,  Next: 셸 창,  Prev: 콜팁,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.19 코드 컨텍스트
.......................

파이썬 코드가 포함된 편집기 창 내에서, 창의 상단에 팬을 표시하거나 숨기
기 위해 코드 컨텍스트를 토글 할 수 있습니다.  표시될 때, 이 분할 창은
‘class’, ‘def’ 또는 ‘if’ 키워드로 시작하는 것과 같이 블록 코드를 여는 줄
들을 고정합니다, 그렇지 않다면 뷰에서 스크롤 되어 빠져나갈 줄들입니다.  팬
의 크기는 모든 현재 컨텍스트 수준을 표시하기 위해 필요에 따라 확장과 축
소되며, IDLE 구성 대화 상자에 정의된 최대 줄 수가지 입니다 (기본값은
15).  현재 컨텍스트 줄이 없고 기능이 켜지면, 빈 줄 하나가 표시됩니다.  컨
텍스트 팬에서 줄을 클릭하면 해당 줄을 편집기 맨 위로 이동합니다.

컨텍스트 팬의 텍스트와 배경색은 IDLE 구성 대화 상자의 Highlights 탭에서
구성할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 셸 창,  Next: 텍스트 색상,  Prev: 코드 컨텍스트,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.20 셸 창
...............

IDLE의 셸에서, 문장을 입력, 편집하고 완성된 문장을 다시 불러올 수 있습니
다.  (대부분의 콘솔과 터미널에서는 한 번에 하나의 물리적인 줄만 작업할 수
있습니다).

Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting ‘Return’ with
the cursor anywhere on the line.  If a line is extended with Backslash
(‘\’), the cursor must be on the last physical line.  Submit a
multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the
statement.

셸에 코드를 붙여넣을 때, 위에서 지정한 대로, ‘Return’을 누를 때까지 컴파
일되지도 실행되지도 않습니다.  붙여넣은 코드를 먼저 편집할 수 있습니다.
여러 문장을 셸에 붙여넣으면, 여러 문장이 마치 하나인 것처럼 컴파일되어 결
과는 *note SyntaxError: 18d.가 됩니다.

Lines containing ‘RESTART’ mean that the user execution process has been
re-started.  This occurs when the user execution process has crashed,
when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in
an editor window.

이전 서브 섹션에서 설명한 편집 기능은 대화식으로 코드를 입력할 때 작동합
니다.  IDLE의 셸 창은 다음에도 반응합니다:

   * ‘C’-‘c’ 문장 실행을 중단하려고 시도합니다 (하지만 실패할 수 있습니
     다).

   * ‘C’-‘d’ ‘>>>’ 프롬프트에서 입력하면 셸을 닫습니다.

   * ‘Alt’-‘p’ and ‘Alt’-‘n’ (‘C’-‘p’ and ‘C’-‘n’ on macOS) retrieve to
     the current prompt the previous or next previously entered
     statement that matches anything already typed.

   * ‘Return’ while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the
     latter to anything already typed at the prompt.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 색상,  Prev: 셸 창,  Up: 편집과 탐색

5.25.9.21 텍스트 색상
.....................

Idle은 기본적으로 흰색 위의 검은색 텍스트지만, 특수한 의미로 텍스트를 채
색합니다.  셸의 경우, 셸 출력, 셸 에러, 사용자 출력 및 사용자 에러입니다
.  파이썬 코드의 경우, 셸 프롬프트나 편집기에서, 키워드, 내장 클래스와 함
수 이름, ‘class’와 ‘def’ 뒤에 오는 이름, 문자열 및 주석입니다.  모든 텍
스트 창에서, 커서 (있다면), 찾은 텍스트 (가능하다면) 및 선택한 텍스트입
니다.

IDLE also highlights the *note soft keywords: 806. *note match: 807,
*note case: 807, and *note _: 808. in pattern-matching statements.
However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some
rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.

텍스트 채색은 백그라운드에서 수행되므로, 채색되지 않은 텍스트가 때때로 표
시됩니다.  색 구성표를 변경하려면, IDLE 구성 대화 상자 Highlighting 탭을
사용하십시오.  편집기의 디버거 중단점 표시와 팝업과 대화 상자의 텍스트는
사용자가 구성할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시작과 코드 실행,  Next: 도움말과 환경 설정,  Prev: 편집과 탐색,  Up: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸

5.25.9.22 시작과 코드 실행
..........................

‘-s’ 옵션으로 시작할 때, IDLE은 환경 변수 ‘IDLESTARTUP’이나 *note
PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0.가 참조하는 파일을 실행합니다.  IDLE은 먼저
‘IDLESTARTUP’을 확인합니다; ‘IDLESTARTUP’이 있으면 참조된 파일이 실행됩
니다.  ‘IDLESTARTUP’이 없으면, IDLE은 ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’을 확인합니다.  이
러한 환경 변수가 참조하는 파일은 IDLE 셸에서 자주 사용되는 함수를 저장하
거나 공통 모듈을 임포트 하기 위해 import 문을 실행하기에 편리한 장소입니
다.

또한, ‘Tk’도 시작 파일이 있으면 로드합니다.  Tk 파일은 무조건 로드됨에 유
의하십시오.  이 추가 파일은 ‘.Idle.py’이며 사용자의 홈 디렉터리에서 찾습
니다.  이 파일의 문장은 Tk 이름 공간에서 실행되므로, 이 파일은 IDLE의 파
이썬 셸에서 사용할 함수를 임포트 하는 데 유용하지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 사용법::
* 시작 실패::
* 사용자 코드 실행하기::
* 셸의 사용자 출력::
* tkinter 응용 프로그램 개발하기::
* 서브 프로세스 없이 실행하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 사용법,  Next: 시작 실패,  Up: 시작과 코드 실행

5.25.9.23 명령 줄 사용법
........................

IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options.  The
general syntax is:

     python -m idlelib [options] [file ...]

The following options are available:

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Run the specified Python command in the shell window.  For example,
     pass ‘-c "print('Hello, World!')"’.  On Windows, the outer quotes
     must be double quotes as shown.

 -- Option: -d

     Enable the debugger and open the shell window.

 -- Option: -e

     편집기 창을 엽니다.

 -- Option: -h

     Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit.

 -- Option: -i

     셸 창을 엽니다.

 -- Option: -r <file>

     Run the specified file in the shell window.

 -- Option: -s

     Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables
     ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0.) before opening the
     shell window.

 -- Option: -t <title>

     셸 창의 제목을 설정합니다.

 -- Option: -

     Read and execute standard input in the shell window.  This option
     must be the last one before any arguments.

If arguments are provided:

   - ‘-’, ‘-c’ 또는 ‘-r’이 사용되면, 모든 인자는 ‘sys.argv[1:]’에 배치되
     고 ‘sys.argv[0]’은 ‘''’, ‘'-c'’ 또는 ‘'-r'’로 각각 설정됩니다.
     'Options' 대화 상자에서 기본값이 설정되어 있어도, 편집기 창이 열리
     지 않습니다.

   - 그렇지 않으면, 인자는 편집을 위해 열리는 파일로 취급되고,
     ‘sys.argv’는 IDLE 자체에 전달된 인자를 반영합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시작 실패,  Next: 사용자 코드 실행하기,  Prev: 명령 줄 사용법,  Up: 시작과 코드 실행

5.25.9.24 시작 실패
...................

IDLE은 소켓을 사용하여 IDLE GUI 프로세스와 사용자 코드 실행 프로세스 간
에 통신합니다.  셸을 시작하거나 다시 시작할 때마다 연결을 만들어야 합니
다.  (후자는 ‘RESTART’라고 표시된 구분 선으로 표시됩니다).  사용자 프로
세스가 GUI 프로세스에 연결하지 못하면, 보통 사용자에게 알리는 ‘cannot
connect’ 메시지가 담긴 ‘Tk’ 에러 상자가 표시됩니다.  그런 다음 종료합니
다.

유닉스 시스템의 한가지 특정한 연결 실패는 시스템 네트워크 설정의 어딘가
에서 잘못 구성된 마스쿼레이딩 규칙으로 인해 발생합니다.  IDLE이 터미널에
서 시작될 때, ‘** Invalid host:’로 시작하는 메시지를 보게 됩니다.  유효
한 값은 ‘127.0.0.1 (idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST)’입니다.  한 터미널 창에서
‘tcpconnect -irv 127.0.0.1 6543’로, 다른 창에서 ‘tcplisten <same args>’로
진단할 수 있습니다.

일반적인 실패 원인은 'random.py'와 'tkinter.py'처럼, 표준 라이브러리 모
듈과 이름이 같은 사용자가 작성한 파일입니다.  이러한 파일이 실행하려는 파
일과 같은 디렉터리에 있을 때, IDLE은 표준 라이브러리 파일을 임포트 할 수
없습니다.  현재 수선법은 사용자 파일의 이름을 바꾸는 것입니다.

앞엣것보다 덜 흔하지만, 바이러스 백신이나 방화벽 프로그램이 연결을 중지
할 수 있습니다.  프로그램이 연결을 허용하도록 지시할 수 없으면, IDLE이 작
동하도록 프로그램을 꺼야 합니다.  외부 포트에 데이터가 노출되지 않기 때
문에 이 내부 연결을 허용하는 것은 안전합니다.  비슷한 문제는 연결을 차단
하는 네트워크 구성 에러입니다.

파이썬 설치 문제로 인해 IDLE이 중지되는 경우가 있습니다: 여러 버전이 충
돌하거나 단일 설치에 관리자 액세스가 필요할 수 있습니다.  충돌을 제거하
거나, 관리자 권한으로 실행할 수 없거나 그러고 싶지 않으면 파이썬을 완전
히 제거하고 다시 시작하기가 가장 쉽습니다.

좀비 pythonw.exe 프로세스가 문제일 수 있습니다.  윈도우에서는, 작업 관리
자를 사용하여 확인하고 있다면 중지하십시오.  때때로 프로그램 충돌이나 키
보드 인터럽트(control-C)에 의해 시작된 재시작이 연결에 실패할 수 있습니
다.  에러 상자를 닫거나 Shell 메뉴에서 Restart Shell을 사용하면 일시적인
문제를 해결할 수 있습니다.

IDLE이 처음 시작되면, ‘~/.idlerc/’에서 사용자 구성 파일을 읽으려고 시도
합니다 (~는 사용자의 홈 디렉터리입니다).  문제가 있으면, 에러 메시지가 표
시되어야 합니다.  임의의 디스크 결함은 예외로 할 때, 파일을 절대 직접 편
집하지 않으면 이를 방지할 수 있습니다.  대신, Options의 구성 대화 상자를
사용하십시오.  일단 사용자 구성 파일에 에러가 발생하면, 이를 삭제하고 설
정 대화 상자에서 다시 시작하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.

IDLE이 메시지 없이 종료되고, 콘솔에서 시작되지 않았으면, 콘솔이나 터미널
에서 시작하고 (‘python -m idlelib’) 에러 메시지가 나타나는지 확인하십시
오.

Tcl/tk가 ‘8.6.11’(‘About IDLE’을 보십시오)보다 오래된 유닉스 기반 시스템
에서 특정 글꼴의 특정 문자는 터미널에 보내는 메시지와 함께 tk 실패를 일
으킬 수 있습니다.  이러한 문자가 있는 파일을 편집하기 위해 IDLE을 시작하
거나 나중에 이러한 문자를 입력할 때 발생할 수 있습니다.  tcl/tk를 업그레
이드할 수 없으면, 더 잘 작동하는 글꼴을 사용하도록 IDLE을 다시 구성하십
시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 코드 실행하기,  Next: 셸의 사용자 출력,  Prev: 시작 실패,  Up: 시작과 코드 실행

5.25.9.25 사용자 코드 실행하기
..............................

드문 경우를 제외하고, IDLE을 사용하여 파이썬 코드를 실행한 결과는 텍스트
모드 시스템 콘솔이나 터미널 창에서 파이썬을 사용하여 기본 방법으로 같은
코드를 실행하는 것과 같아야 합니다.  그러나, 다른 인터페이스와 연산은 때
때로 시각적인 결과에 영향을 줍니다.  예를 들어, ‘sys.modules’는 더 많은
항목으로 시작하고, ‘threading.active_count()’는 1 대신 2를 반환합니다.

기본적으로, IDLE은 셸과 편집기를 실행하는 사용자 인터페이스 프로세스가 아
닌 별도의 OS 프로세스에서 사용자 코드를 실행합니다.  실행 프로세스에서,
‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ 및 ‘sys.stderr’를 셸 창에서 입력을 받고 셸 창
으로 출력을 보내는 객체로 바꿉니다.  ‘sys.__stdin__’, ‘sys.__stdout__’ 및
‘sys.__stderr__’에 저장된 원래 값은 건드리지 않지만, ‘None’일 수 있습니
다.

한 프로세스에서 다른 프로세스의 텍스트 위젯으로 인쇄 출력을 보내는 것은
같은 프로세스에서 시스템 터미널로 인쇄하는 것보다 느립니다.  이것은 여러
인자를 인쇄할 때 특히 그렇습니다.  각 인자의 문자열, 각 구분자, 줄 바꿈
은 개별적으로 전송되기 때문입니다.  개발할 때는 일반적으로 문제가 되지 않
지만, IDLE로 더 빨리 인쇄하려면 표시하려는 모든 항목을 포맷하고 결합한 다
음 단일 문자열을 인쇄하십시오.  포맷 문자열과 *note str.join(): 21b3. 모
두 필드와 줄을 결합하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

IDLE의 표준 스트림 대체는 (사용자 코드 직접 하거나 multiprocessing과 같
은 모듈로) 실행 프로세스에서 만들어진 서브 프로세스에 의해 상속되지 않습
니다.  이러한 서브 프로세스가 sys.stdin에서 ‘input’을 사용하거나
sys.stdout이나 sys.stderr로 ‘print’나 ‘write’를 사용하면, 명령 줄 창에서
IDLE을 시작해야 합니다.  (윈도우에서는, ‘pythonw’나 ‘pyw’ 대신 ‘python’이
나 ‘py’를 사용하세요.)  그러면 이차 서브 프로세스가 입력과 출력을 위해 해
당 창에 연결될 겁니다.

‘importlib.reload(sys)’와 같은 사용자 코드에 의해 ‘sys’가 재설정되면,
IDLE의 변경 사항이 손실되고 키보드로부터의 입력과 화면으로의 출력이 올바
르게 동작하지 않게 됩니다.

셸에 포커스가 있으면, 키보드와 화면을 제어합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 투
명하지만, 키보드와 화면에 직접 액세스하는 함수는 작동하지 않습니다.  여
기에는 키를 눌렀는지를 판단하는 시스템 특정 함수가 포함됩니다.

실행 프로세스에서 실행 중인 IDLE 코드는 그렇지 않다면 없을 프레임을 호출
스택에 추가합니다.  IDLE은 ‘sys.getrecursionlimit’와
‘sys.setrecursionlimit’를 래핑하여 추가 스택 프레임의 영향을 줄입니다.

사용자 코드가 직접 또는 sys.exit를 호출하여 SystemExit를 발생시키면,
IDLE은 종료하는 대신 셸 프롬프트로 돌아갑니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 셸의 사용자 출력,  Next: tkinter 응용 프로그램 개발하기,  Prev: 사용자 코드 실행하기,  Up: 시작과 코드 실행

5.25.9.26 셸의 사용자 출력
..........................

프로그램이 텍스트를 출력할 때, 결과는 해당 출력 장치에 의해 결정됩니다.
IDLE이 사용자 코드를 실행할 때, ‘sys.stdout’과 ‘sys.stderr’이 IDLE 셸의
표시 영역에 연결됩니다.  그 기능 중 일부는 하부 Tk Text 위젯에서 상속됩
니다.  다른 것은 프로그래밍한 추가 사항입니다.  (중요하다면) 셸은 상용 실
행보다는 개발용으로 설계되었습니다.

예를 들어, 셸은 절대로 출력을 버리지 않습니다.  셸에 무제한 출력을 보내
는 프로그램은 결국 메모리를 채워서, 메모리 에러를 일으킵니다.  반대로, 일
부 시스템 텍스트 창은 마지막 n 줄의 출력만 유지합니다.  예를 들어, 윈도
우 콘솔은 사용자가 설정하면 최대 9999줄을 유지할 수 있으며, 기본값은
300입니다.

Tk Text 위젯, 따라서 IDLE의 셸은 유니코드의 BMP (Basic Multilingual
Plane) 부분 집합에서 문자(코드 포인트)를 표시합니다.  어떤 문자가 적절한
글리프로 표시될지와 어떤 문자가 대체 상자로 표시될지는 운영 체제와 설치
된 글꼴에 따라 다릅니다.  탭 문자는 뒤따르는 문자가 다음 탭 정지 뒤에서
시작되도록 합니다.  (탭 정지는 8 ‘문자’마다 나타납니다).  줄 바꿈 문자는
뒤따르는 텍스트가 새 줄에 나타나게 합니다.  다른 제어 문자는 운영 체제와
글꼴에 따라 무시되거나 스페이스, 상자 또는 그 밖의 것으로 표시됩니다.  (화
살표 키를 사용하여 이러한 출력에서 텍스트 커서를 움직이면 예상치 못한 간
격 동작이 나타날 수 있습니다.)

     >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # 22문자를 입력합니다.
     >>> len(s)
     14
     >>> s  # repr(s)를 표시합니다
     'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
     >>> print(s, end='')  # s를 그대로 표시합니다.
     # 결과는 OS와 글꼴에 따라 다릅니다. 해보세요.

‘repr’ 함수는 표현식 값의 대화 형 에코에 사용됩니다.  입력 문자열의 변경
된 버전을 반환하는데, 제어 코드, 일부 BMP 코드 포인트 및 모든 BMP 이외의
코드 포인트가 이스케이프 코드로 대체됩니다.  위에서 예시했듯이, 어떻게 표
시되는지와 관계없이 문자열의 문자를 식별할 수 있도록 합니다.

정상과 에러 출력은 일반적으로 코드 입력 및 서로와 분리되어 별도의 줄에 유
지됩니다.  그들은 각각 다른 강조 색상을 얻습니다.

SyntaxError 트레이스백의 경우, 에러가 감지된 곳의 일반적인 ‘^’ 표시는 에
러 강조로 텍스트를 색칠하는 것으로 대체됩니다.  파일에서 실행한 코드가 다
른 예외를 발생시킬 때, 트레이스백 줄을 마우스 오른쪽 단추로 클릭하여
IDLE 편집기의 해당 줄로 이동할 수 있습니다.  필요하면 파일이 열립니다.

셸에는 출력 라인을 ‘Squeezed text’ 레이블로 압착하는 특수 기능이 있습니
다.  이것은 N 줄을 넘어가는 출력에 대해 자동으로 수행됩니다 (기본적으로
N = 50).  Settings 대화 상자의 General 페이지의 PyShell 섹션에서 N을 변
경할 수 있습니다.  출력을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하면 더 적은 줄의 출
력을 압착할 수 있습니다.  이것은 스크롤 속도를 늦출 수 있을 정도로 긴 줄
에 유용할 수 있습니다.

압착된 출력은 레이블을 더블 클릭하여 제자리에서 펼쳐집니다.  레이블을 마
우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하여 클립 보드나 별도의 보기 창으로 보낼 수도 있
습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter 응용 프로그램 개발하기,  Next: 서브 프로세스 없이 실행하기,  Prev: 셸의 사용자 출력,  Up: 시작과 코드 실행

5.25.9.27 tkinter 응용 프로그램 개발하기
........................................

IDLE은 tkinter 프로그램 개발을 용이하게 하기 위해 표준 파이썬과 의도적으
로 다릅니다.  표준 파이썬에서 ‘import tkinter as tk; root = tk.Tk()’를 입
력하면 아무것도 나타나지 않습니다.  IDLE에 동일하게 입력하면 tk 창이 나
타납니다.  표준 파이썬에서는, 창을 보려면 ‘root.update()’도 입력해야 합
니다.  IDLE은 초당 약 20회, 대략 50밀리초마다, 백그라운드에서 동등한 일
을 합니다.  그런 다음 ‘b = tk.Button(root, text='button'); b.pack()’을 입
력하십시오.  마찬가지로, 표준 파이썬에서는 ‘root.update()’를 입력할 때까
지 아무것도 시각적으로 변경되지 않습니다.

대부분의 tkinter 프로그램은 ‘root.mainloop()’를 실행하는데, 일반적으로
tk 앱이 파괴될 때까지 반환되지 않습니다.  프로그램이 ‘python -i’이나
IDLE 편집기에서 실행되면, ‘mainloop()’가 반환할 때까지 (상호 작용할 것이
남아있지 않을 때까지) ‘>>>’ 셸 프롬프트가 나타나지 않습니다.

IDLE 편집기에서 tkinter 프로그램을 실행할 때, mainloop 호출을 주석 처리
할 수 있습니다.  그러면 즉시 셸 프롬프트를 얻고 라이브 응용 프로그램과 상
호 작용할 수 있습니다.  표준 파이썬에서 실행할 때 mainloop 호출을 다시 활
성화해야 한다는 것을 기억해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 프로세스 없이 실행하기,  Prev: tkinter 응용 프로그램 개발하기,  Up: 시작과 코드 실행

5.25.9.28 서브 프로세스 없이 실행하기
.....................................

기본적으로, IDLE은 내부 루프 백 인터페이스를 사용하는 소켓을 통해 별도의
서브 프로세스에서 사용자 코드를 실행합니다.  이 연결은 외부에서 볼 수 없
으며 인터넷으로 데이터를 보내거나 받지 않습니다.  방화벽 소프트웨어가 어
쨌든 불평하면, 무시할 수 있습니다.

소켓 연결 시도가 실패하면, Idle은 여러분에게 알립니다.  이러한 장애는 때
때로 일시적이지만, 지속한다면, 문제는 방화벽이 연결을 차단하거나 특정 시
스템의 구성이 잘못되었을 수 있습니다.  문제가 해결될 때까지, -n 명령 줄
스위치를 사용하여 Idle을 실행할 수 있습니다.

IDLE이 -n 명령 줄 스위치로 시작되면 단일 프로세스에서 실행되며 RPC 파이
썬 실행 서버를 실행하는 서브 프로세스를 만들지 않습니다.  파이썬이 플랫
폼에서 서브 프로세스나 RPC 소켓 인터페이스를 만들 수 없을 때 유용할 수 있
습니다.  그러나, 이 모드에서 사용자 코드는 IDLE 자체와 분리되지 않습니다
.  또한, Run/Run Module (F5) 가 선택될 때 환경이 다시 시작되지 않습니다.
코드가 수정되면, 변경 사항을 적용하려면 영향을 받는 모듈을 reload()하고
특정 항목을 다시 임포트 해야 합니다 (예를 들어 from foo import baz).  이
러한 이유로, 가능하다면 기본 서브 프로세스로 IDLE을 실행하는 것이 좋습니
다.

버전 3.4부터 폐지됨.


File: python.info,  Node: 도움말과 환경 설정,  Next: idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현,  Prev: 시작과 코드 실행,  Up: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸

5.25.9.29 도움말과 환경 설정
............................

* Menu:

* 도움말 소스::
* 환경 설정::
* macOS의 IDLE::
* 확장::


File: python.info,  Node: 도움말 소스,  Next: 환경 설정,  Up: 도움말과 환경 설정

5.25.9.30 도움말 소스
.....................

Help 메뉴 항목 “IDLE Help”는 라이브러리 레퍼런스의 IDLE 장의 포맷된 html
버전을 표시합니다.  읽기 전용 tkinter 텍스트 창에 표시되는 결과는 웹 브
라우저에서 보는 것과 비슷합니다.  마우스 휠, 스크롤 바 또는 위/아래 화살
표 키를 누른 상태로 텍스트를 탐색하십시오.  또는 TOC(목차) 단추를 클릭하
고 열린 상자에서 섹션 머리글을 선택하십시오.

Help 메뉴 항목 “Python Docs”는 ‘docs.python.org/x.y’에 있는 자습서를 포
함하여 광범위한 도움말 소스를 엽니다, 여기서 ‘x.y’는 현재 실행 중인 파이
썬 버전입니다.  시스템에 문서의 오프라인 사본이 있으면 (설치 옵션일 수 있
습니다), 대신 열립니다.

IDLE 구성 대화 상자의 General 탭을 사용하여 언제든지 도움말 메뉴에서 선
택한 URL을 추가하거나 제거할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 환경 설정,  Next: macOS의 IDLE,  Prev: 도움말 소스,  Up: 도움말과 환경 설정

5.25.9.31 환경 설정
...................

글꼴 설정, 강조 표시, 키 및 일반 설정은 Option 메뉴의 IDLE 구성을 통해 변
경할 수 있습니다.  기본이 아닌 사용자 설정은 사용자 홈 디렉터리의
‘.idlerc’ 디렉터리에 저장됩니다.  잘못된 사용자 구성 파일로 인한 문제점
은 ‘.idlerc’에서 하나 이상의 파일을 편집하거나 삭제하여 해결됩니다.

Font 탭에서, 여러 언어로 된 여러 문자의 서체와 크기 효과에 대한 텍스트 샘
플을 참조하십시오.  개인적으로 관심 있는 다른 문자를 추가하려면 샘플을 편
집하십시오.  샘플을 사용하여 고정 폭 글꼴을 선택하십시오.  셸이나 편집기
에서 특정 문자에 문제가 있으면, 샘플 상단에 해당 문자를 추가하고 먼저 크
기를 변경한 다음 글꼴을 변경해보십시오.

Highlights와 Keys 탭에서, 내장이나 사용자 정의 색상 테마와 키 집합을 선
택하십시오.  이전 IDLE로 최신 내장 색상 테마나 키 집합을 사용하려면, 새
사용자 정의 색상 테마나 키 집합으로 저장하십시오, 그러면 이전 IDLE에서 쉽
게 액세스 할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS의 IDLE,  Next: 확장,  Prev: 환경 설정,  Up: 도움말과 환경 설정

5.25.9.32 macOS의 IDLE
......................

시스템 환경설정: Dock에서, “문서를 열 때 탭 사용”을 “항상”으로 설정할 수
있습니다.  이 설정은 IDLE에서 사용하는 tk/tkinter GUI 프레임 워크와 호환
되지 않으며, 몇 가지 IDLE 기능을 훼손합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장,  Prev: macOS의 IDLE,  Up: 도움말과 환경 설정

5.25.9.33 확장
..............

IDLE에는 확장 기능이 포함되어 있습니다.  설정 대화 상자의 Extensions 탭
에서 확장에 대한 설정을 변경할 수 있습니다.  자세한 정보는 idlelib 디렉
터리에 있는 config-extensions.def의 시작 부분을 참조하십시오.  현재 기본
확장은 zzdummy 뿐이며, 테스트에도 사용되는 예입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현,  Prev: 도움말과 환경 설정,  Up: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸

5.25.9.34 idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현
.............................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/idlelib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application.  See the rest
of this page for how to use IDLE.

The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt.  Access it
either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu.  This
file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item.
Except for files listed under ‘Startup’, the idlelib code is ‘private’
in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/idlelib

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: turtle — Turtle graphics,  Prev: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸,  Up: Graphical user interfaces with Tk

5.25.10 ‘turtle’ — Turtle graphics
----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/turtle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<5>.
* 시작하기: 시작하기<2>.
* Tutorial: Tutorial<2>.
* How to…::
* Turtle graphics reference::
* RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수::
* TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수::
* 공개 클래스::
* Explanation: Explanation<2>.
* 도움말과 구성::
* turtledemo — 데모 스크립트::
* 파이썬 2.6 이후의 변화: 파이썬 2 6 이후의 변화.
* 파이썬 3.0 이후의 변화: 파이썬 3 0 이후의 변화.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/turtle.py


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<5>,  Next: 시작하기<2>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.1 소개
..............

터틀(거북이) 그래픽은 1967년 Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert 및 Cynthia
Solomon이 개발한 로고(Logo)에서 소개된 대중적인 기하학적 그리기 도구
(1)의 구현체입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)


File: python.info,  Node: 시작하기<2>,  Next: Tutorial<2>,  Prev: 소개<5>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.2 시작하기
..................

x-y 평면의 (0, 0)에서 출발하는 로봇 거북이를 상상해보십시오.  ‘import
turtle’ 후에, ‘turtle.forward(15)’ 명령을 내리면, 그것이 향한 방향으로
15픽셀 움직이고 (화면에서!), 움직이면서 선을 그립니다.
‘turtle.right(25)’ 명령을 내려보십시오, 그러면 제자리에서 시계 방향으로
25도 회전합니다.

Turtle star
...........

turtle은 간단한 움직임을 반복하는 프로그램을 사용하여 복잡한 모양을 그릴
수 있습니다.

[image src="python-figures/turtle-star.png"]


In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical
“turtle” (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on
the floor.

It’s an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter
programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides
instant, visible feedback.  It also provides convenient access to
graphical output in general.

Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used
by teachers in the classroom.  For the programmer who needs to produce
some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of
introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<2>,  Next: How to…,  Prev: 시작하기<2>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.3 Tutorial
..................

New users should start here.  In this tutorial we’ll explore some of the
basics of turtle drawing.

* Menu:

* 거북이 환경 시작하기::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: 거북이 환경 시작하기,  Next: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.25.10.4 거북이 환경 시작하기
..............................

In a Python shell, import all the objects of the ‘turtle’ module:

     from turtle import *

If you run into a ‘No module named '_tkinter'’ error, you’ll have to
install the *note Tk interface package: f0. on your system.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic drawing,  Next: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: 거북이 환경 시작하기,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.25.10.5 Basic drawing
.......................

Send the turtle forward 100 steps:

     forward(100)

You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line
drawn by the turtle, heading East.  Change the direction of the turtle,
so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise):

     left(120)

Let’s continue by drawing a triangle:

     forward(100)
     left(120)
     forward(100)

Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different
directions as you steer it.

Experiment with those commands, and also with ‘backward()’ and
‘right()’.

* Menu:

* 펜 제어::
* 거북이의 위치::


File: python.info,  Node: 펜 제어,  Next: 거북이의 위치,  Up: Basic drawing

5.25.10.6 펜 제어
.................

Try changing the color - for example, ‘color('blue')’ - and width of the
line - for example, ‘width(3)’ - and then drawing again.

You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the
pen: ‘up()’ before moving.  To start drawing again, use ‘down()’.


File: python.info,  Node: 거북이의 위치,  Prev: 펜 제어,  Up: Basic drawing

5.25.10.7 거북이의 위치
.......................

Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has
disappeared off-screen):

     home()

The home position is at the center of the turtle’s screen.  If you ever
need to know them, get the turtle’s x-y coordinates with:

     pos()

Home is at ‘(0, 0)’.

And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can
start anew:

     clearscreen()


File: python.info,  Node: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.25.10.8 Making algorithmic patterns
.....................................

Using loops, it’s possible to build up geometric patterns:

     for steps in range(100):
         for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'):
             color(c)
             forward(steps)
             right(30)

- which of course, are limited only by the imagination!

Let’s draw the star shape at the top of this page.  We want red lines,
filled in with yellow:

     color('red')
     fillcolor('yellow')

Just as ‘up()’ and ‘down()’ determine whether lines will be drawn,
filling can be turned on and off:

     begin_fill()

Next we’ll create a loop:

     while True:
         forward(200)
         left(170)
         if abs(pos()) < 1:
             break

‘abs(pos()) < 1’ is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
home position.

Finally, complete the filling:

     end_fill()

(Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the
‘end_fill()’ command.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to…,  Next: Turtle graphics reference,  Prev: Tutorial<2>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.9 How to…
.................

This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches.

* Menu:

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* 스크립트에서 거북이 그래픽 사용하기::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::


File: python.info,  Node: Get started as quickly as possible,  Next: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to…

5.25.10.10 Get started as quickly as possible
.............................................

One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback
that’s available from simple commands - it’s an excellent way to
introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not
just children, of course).

The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic
functionality as functions, available with ‘from turtle import *’.  The
*note turtle graphics tutorial: 3eaf. covers this approach.

It’s worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more
terse equivalents, such as ‘fd()’ for *note forward(): 311c.  These are
especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a
skill.

     You’ll need to have the *note Tk interface package: f0. installed
     on your system for turtle graphics to work.  Be warned that this is
     not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you’re
     planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.


File: python.info,  Node: Use the turtle module namespace,  Next: 스크립트에서 거북이 그래픽 사용하기,  Prev: Get started as quickly as possible,  Up: How to…

5.25.10.11 Use the ‘turtle’ module namespace
............................................

Using ‘from turtle import *’ is convenient - but be warned that it
imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you’re doing
anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this
becomes even more an issue if you’re using turtle graphics in a script
where other modules might be imported).

The solution is to use ‘import turtle’ - ‘fd()’ becomes ‘turtle.fd()’,
‘width()’ becomes ‘turtle.width()’ and so on.  (If typing “turtle” over
and over again becomes tedious, use for example ‘import turtle as t’
instead.)


File: python.info,  Node: 스크립트에서 거북이 그래픽 사용하기,  Next: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to…

5.25.10.12 스크립트에서 거북이 그래픽 사용하기
..............................................

It’s recommended to use the ‘turtle’ module namespace as described
immediately above, for example:

     import turtle as t
     from random import random

     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends,
Python will also close the turtle’s window.  Add:

     t.mainloop()

to the end of the script.  The script will now wait to be dismissed and
will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle
graphics window.


File: python.info,  Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: 스크립트에서 거북이 그래픽 사용하기,  Up: How to…

5.25.10.13 Use object-oriented turtle graphics
..............................................

더 보기
.......

*note Explanation of the object-oriented interface: 3ebd.

Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things
out as quickly as possible, it’s more usual and much more powerful to
use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics.  For example, this
allows multiple turtles on screen at once.

In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects
(mostly of ‘Turtle’ objects).  You 'can' use the object-oriented
approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script.

The example above then becomes:

     from turtle import Turtle
     from random import random

     t = Turtle()
     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

     t.screen.mainloop()

Note the last line.  ‘t.screen’ is an instance of the *note Screen:
3ebe. that a Turtle instance exists on; it’s created automatically along
with the turtle.

The turtle’s screen can be customised, for example:

     t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo')
     t.screen.bgcolor("orange")


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle graphics reference,  Next: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수,  Prev: How to…,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.14 Turtle graphics reference
....................................

     참고: 다음 설명서에서 함수의 인자 목록이 제공됩니다.  물론 메서드에
     는 추가의 첫 번째 인자 'self'가 있으며 여기서는 생략합니다.

* Menu:

* Turtle 메서드::
* TurtleScreen/Screen의 메서드::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle 메서드,  Next: TurtleScreen/Screen의 메서드,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.25.10.15 Turtle 메서드
........................

거북이 움직임

     이동과 그리기

               *note forward(): 311c. | *note fd(): 3ec1.
               *note backward(): 3ec2. | *note bk(): 3ec3. | *note back(): 3ec4.
               *note right(): 3ec5. | *note rt(): 3ec6.
               *note left(): 3ec7. | *note lt(): 3ec8.
               *note goto(): 3ec9. | *note setpos(): 3eca. | *note setposition(): 3ecb.
               *note teleport(): 172d.
               *note setx(): 3ecc.
               *note sety(): 3ecd.
               *note setheading(): 3ece. | *note seth(): 3ecf.
               *note home(): 3ed0.
               *note circle(): 3ed1.
               *note dot(): 3ed2.
               *note stamp(): 3ed3.
               *note clearstamp(): 3ed4.
               *note clearstamps(): 3ed5.
               *note undo(): 3ed6.
               *note speed(): 3ed7.

     거북이의 상태 보고

               *note position(): 3ed8. | *note pos(): 3ed9.
               *note towards(): 3eda.
               *note xcor(): 3edb.
               *note ycor(): 3edc.
               *note heading(): 3edd.
               *note distance(): 3ede.

     설정과 측정

               *note degrees(): 3edf.
               *note radians(): 3ee0.

펜 제어

     그리기 상태

               *note pendown(): 3ee1. | *note pd(): 3ee2. | *note down(): 3ee3.
               *note penup(): 3ee4. | *note pu(): 3ee5. | *note up(): 3ee6.
               *note pensize(): 3ee7. | *note width(): 3ee8.
               *note pen(): 3ee9.
               *note isdown(): 3eea.

     색상 제어

               *note color(): 3eeb.
               *note pencolor(): 3eec.
               *note fillcolor(): 3eed.

     채우기

               *note filling(): 3eee.
               *note begin_fill(): 3eef.
               *note end_fill(): 3ef0.

     더 많은 그리기 제어

               *note reset(): 3ef1.
               *note clear(): 3ef2.
               *note write(): 3ef3.

거북이 상태

     가시성

               *note showturtle(): 3ef4. | *note st(): 3ef5.
               *note hideturtle(): 3ef6. | *note ht(): 3ef7.
               *note isvisible(): 3ef8.

     외관

               *note shape(): 3ef9.
               *note resizemode(): 3efa.
               *note shapesize(): 3efb. | *note turtlesize(): 3efc.
               *note shearfactor(): 3efd.
               *note tiltangle(): 71e.
               *note tilt(): 3efe.
               *note shapetransform(): 3eff.
               *note get_shapepoly(): 3f00.

이벤트 사용하기

          *note onclick(): 3f01.
          *note onrelease(): 3f02.
          *note ondrag(): 3f03.

특수 Turtle 메서드

          *note begin_poly(): 3f04.
          *note end_poly(): 3f05.
          *note get_poly(): 3f06.
          *note clone(): 3f07.
          *note getturtle(): 3f08. | *note getpen(): 3f09.
          *note getscreen(): 3f0a.
          *note setundobuffer(): 3f0b.
          *note undobufferentries(): 3f0c.


File: python.info,  Node: TurtleScreen/Screen의 메서드,  Prev: Turtle 메서드,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.25.10.16 TurtleScreen/Screen의 메서드
.......................................

창 제어

          *note bgcolor(): 3f0e.
          *note bgpic(): 3f0f.
          *note clearscreen(): 3f10.
          *note resetscreen(): 3f11.
          *note screensize(): 3f12.
          *note setworldcoordinates(): 3f13.

애니메이션 제어

          *note delay(): 3f14.
          *note tracer(): 3f15.
          *note update(): 3f16.

화면 이벤트 사용하기

          *note listen(): 3f17.
          *note onkey(): 3f18. | *note onkeyrelease(): 3f19.
          *note onkeypress(): 3f1a.
          *note onclick(): 3f01. | *note onscreenclick(): 3f1b.
          *note ontimer(): 3f1c.
          *note mainloop(): 3f1d. | *note done(): 3f1e.

설정과 특수 메서드

          *note mode(): 3f1f.
          *note colormode(): 3f20.
          *note getcanvas(): 3f21.
          *note getshapes(): 3f22.
          *note register_shape(): 3f23. | *note addshape(): 3f24.
          *note turtles(): 3f25.
          *note window_height(): 3f26.
          *note window_width(): 3f27.

입력 메서드

          *note textinput(): 18c9.
          *note numinput(): 18ca.

Screen 특정 메서드

          *note bye(): 3f28.
          *note exitonclick(): 3f29.
          *note setup(): 3f2a.
          *note title(): 3f2b.


File: python.info,  Node: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수,  Next: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수,  Prev: Turtle graphics reference,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.17 RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수
...............................................

이 섹션의 대부분의 예제는 ‘turtle’이라는 Turtle 인스턴스를 참조합니다.

* Menu:

* 거북이 움직임::
* 거북이의 상태 보고::
* 측정 설정::
* 펜 제어: 펜 제어<2>.
* 거북이 상태::
* 이벤트 사용하기::
* 특수 Turtle 메서드::
* 복합 모양::


File: python.info,  Node: 거북이 움직임,  Next: 거북이의 상태 보고,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.18 거북이 움직임
........................

 -- 함수: turtle.forward (distance)
 -- 함수: turtle.fd (distance)


     매개변수: ‘distance’ – 숫자 (정수나 실수)

     거북이가 향한 방향으로, 지정된 'distance'만큼 거북이를 앞으로 움직
     입니다.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(25)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (25.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(-75)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-50.00,0.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.back (distance)
 -- 함수: turtle.bk (distance)
 -- 함수: turtle.backward (distance)


     매개변수: ‘distance’ – 숫자

     거북이가 향한 반대 방향으로, 'distance'만큼 거북이를 뒤로 움직입니
     다.  거북이의 방향을 바꾸지 않습니다.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.backward(30)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-30.00,0.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.right (angle)
 -- 함수: turtle.rt (angle)


     매개변수: ‘angle’ – 숫자 (정수나 실수)

     'angle' 단위만큼 거북이를 오른쪽으로 회전합니다.  (단위는 기본적으
     로 도(degree)이지만, *note degrees(): 3edf.와 *note radians():
     3ee0. 함수를 통해 설정할 수 있습니다.)  각도 방향은 거북이 모드에 따
     라 다릅니다, *note mode(): 3f1f.를 참조하십시오.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.right(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          337.0

 -- 함수: turtle.left (angle)
 -- 함수: turtle.lt (angle)


     매개변수: ‘angle’ – 숫자 (정수나 실수)

     'angle' 단위만큼 거북이를 왼쪽으로 회전합니다.  (단위는 기본적으로
     도(degree)이지만, *note degrees(): 3edf.와 *note radians(): 3ee0. 함
     수를 통해 설정할 수 있습니다.)  각도 방향은 거북이 모드에 따라 다릅
     니다, *note mode(): 3f1f.를 참조하십시오.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.left(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- 함수: turtle.goto (x, y=None)
 -- 함수: turtle.setpos (x, y=None)
 -- 함수: turtle.setposition (x, y=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘x’ – 숫자나 숫자의 쌍/벡터

        * ‘y’ – 숫자나 ‘None’

     'y'가 ‘None’이면, 'x'는 좌표 쌍이거나 *note Vec2D: 3f2e.여야 합니다
     (예를 들어 *note pos(): 3ed9.에서 반환된 것과 같은).

     거북이를 절대 위치로 움직입니다.  펜이 내려져 있으면, 선을 그립니다
     .  거북이의 방향을 바꾸지 않습니다.

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,30.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,80.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(tp)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (0.00,0.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.teleport (x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False)


     매개변수:

        * ‘x’ – 숫자나 ‘None’

        * ‘y’ – 숫자나 ‘None’

        * ‘fill_gap’ – a boolean

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  Unlike goto(x, y), a line
     will not be drawn.  The turtle’s orientation does not change.  If
     currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled
     after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting.
     This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary
     line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in
     goto(x, y).

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(60)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(y=10)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,10.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(20, 30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,30.00)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: turtle.setx (x)


     매개변수: ‘x’ – 숫자 (정수나 실수)

     거북이의 첫 번째 좌표를 'x'로 설정하고, 두 번째 좌표는 변경하지 않
     습니다.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.setx(10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (10.00,240.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.sety (y)


     매개변수: ‘y’ – 숫자 (정수나 실수)

     거북이의 두 번째 좌표를 'y'로 설정하고, 첫 번째 좌표는 변경하지 않
     습니다.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,40.00)
          >>> turtle.sety(-10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.setheading (to_angle)
 -- 함수: turtle.seth (to_angle)


     매개변수: ‘to_angle’ – 숫자 (정수나 실수)

     거북이의 방향을 'to_angle'로 설정합니다.  다음은 몇 가지 일반적인 도
     (degree)로 나타낸 방향입니다:

     표준 모드               로고 모드
                             
     -------------------------------------------------
                             
     0 - 동                  0 - 북
                             
                             
     90 - 북                 90 - 동
                             
                             
     180 - 서                180 - 남
                             
                             
     270 - 남                270 - 서
                             

          >>> turtle.setheading(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- 함수: turtle.home ()

     거북이를 원점 – 좌표 (0,0) – 으로 이동하고 방향을 시작 방향으로 설
     정합니다 (모드에 따라 다릅니다, *note mode(): 3f1f.를 참조하십시오
     ).

          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)
          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- 함수: turtle.circle (radius, extent=None, steps=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘radius’ – 숫자

        * ‘extent’ – 숫자 (또는 ‘None’)

        * ‘steps’ – 정수 (또는 ‘None’)

     주어진 반지름('radius')으로 원을 그립니다.  중심은 거북이 왼쪽으로
     'radius' 단위입니다; 'extent' – 각도 – 는 원의 어느 부분이 그려지는
     지를 결정합니다.  'extent'가 주어지지 않으면, 전체 원을 그립니다.
     'extent'가 완전한 원이 아니면, 호의 한 끝점이 현재 펜 위치입니다.
     'radius'가 양수면 시계 반대 방향으로, 그렇지 않으면 시계 방향으로 호
     를 그립니다.  마지막으로 거북이의 방향이 'extent'만큼 변경됩니다.

     원은 내접하는 정다각형으로 근사되므로, 'steps'가 사용할 단계 수를 결
     정합니다.  제공하지 않으면, 자동으로 계산됩니다.  정다각형을 그리는
     데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # 반원을 그립니다
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          180.0

 -- 함수: turtle.dot (size=None, *color)


     매개변수:

        * ‘size’ – 정수 >= 1 (주어지면)

        * ‘color’ – 색상 문자열이나 숫자 색상 튜플

     'color'를 사용하여 지름이 'size'인 원형 점을 그립니다.  'size'가 제
     공되지 않으면, pensize+4와 2*pensize 중 큰 값이 사용됩니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.dot()
          >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (100.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- 함수: turtle.stamp ()

     거북이 모양의 사본을 현재 거북이 위치에서 캔버스에 찍습니다.  해당
     스탬프에 대한 stamp_id를 반환하는데, ‘clearstamp(stamp_id)’를 호출
     하여 스탬프를 삭제하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- 함수: turtle.clearstamp (stampid)


     매개변수: ‘stampid’ – 정수, 이전 *note stamp(): 3ed3. 호출의 반환 값
     이어야 합니다

     지정된 'stampid'의 스탬프를 삭제합니다.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (150.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.clearstamps (n=None)


     매개변수: ‘n’ – 정수 (또는 ‘None’)

     거북이 스탬프의 전부나 처음/마지막 'n' 개를 삭제합니다.  'n'이
     ‘None’이면, 모든 스탬프를 삭제합니다, 'n' > 0 이면 처음 'n' 스탬프
     를 삭제하고, 'n' < 0 이면 마지막 'n' 스탬프를 삭제합니다.

          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          ...     turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps()

 -- 함수: turtle.undo ()

     마지막 거북이의 행동을 (반복적으로) 되돌립니다.  되돌릴 수 있는 행
     동의 수는 언두버퍼(undobuffer)의 크기에 따라 결정됩니다.

          >>> for i in range(4):
          ...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
          ...
          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     turtle.undo()

 -- 함수: turtle.speed (speed=None)


     매개변수: ‘speed’ – 0..10 범위의 정수나 속도 문자열 (아래를 참조하
     십시오)

     거북이의 속도를 0..10 범위의 정숫값으로 설정합니다.  인자가 없으면,
     현재 속도를 반환합니다.

     입력이 10보다 크거나 0.5보다 작은 숫자면, 속도는 0으로 설정됩니다.
     속도 문자열은 다음과 같이 속도 값에 매핑됩니다:

        * “fastest”: 0

        * “fast”: 10

        * “normal”: 6

        * “slow”: 3

        * “slowest”: 1

     1에서 10까지의 속도는 선 그리기와 거북이 회전의 애니메이션이 점점 더
     빨라집니다.

     주의: 'speed' = 0 은 애니메이션이 발생하지 '않음을' 의미합니다.
     forward/back은 거북이가 점프하게 만들고 마찬가지로 left/right는 거
     북이가 순간적으로 방향을 바꾸게 만듭니다.

          >>> turtle.speed()
          3
          >>> turtle.speed('normal')
          >>> turtle.speed()
          6
          >>> turtle.speed(9)
          >>> turtle.speed()
          9


File: python.info,  Node: 거북이의 상태 보고,  Next: 측정 설정,  Prev: 거북이 움직임,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.19 거북이의 상태 보고
.............................

 -- 함수: turtle.position ()
 -- 함수: turtle.pos ()

     거북이의 현재 위치 (x, y)를 (*note Vec2D: 3f2e. 벡터로) 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.pos()
          (440.00,-0.00)

 -- 함수: turtle.towards (x, y=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘x’ – 숫자 또는 숫자 쌍/벡터 또는 거북이 인스턴스

        * ‘y’ – 'x'가 숫자면 숫자, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’

     거북이 위치에서 (x, y), 벡터 또는 다른 거북이로 지정된 위치로의 선
     과의 각도를 반환합니다.  이것은 거북이의 시작 방향에 따라 다른데, 이
     는 모드에 따라 다릅니다 - “standard”/”world” 또는 “logo”.

          >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
          >>> turtle.towards(0,0)
          225.0

 -- 함수: turtle.xcor ()

     거북이의 x 좌표를 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(50)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (64.28,76.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
          64.27876

 -- 함수: turtle.ycor ()

     거북이의 y 좌표를 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> print(turtle.pos())
          (50.00,86.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
          86.60254

 -- 함수: turtle.heading ()

     거북이의 현재 방향을 반환합니다 (값은 거북이 모드에 따라 다릅니다.
     *note mode(): 3f1f.를 참조하십시오).

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(67)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- 함수: turtle.distance (x, y=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘x’ – 숫자 또는 숫자 쌍/벡터 또는 거북이 인스턴스

        * ‘y’ – 'x'가 숫자면 숫자, 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’

     거북이에서 (x, y), 주어진 벡터 또는 주어진 다른 거북이까지의 거리를
     거북이 단계 단위로 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.distance(30,40)
          50.0
          >>> turtle.distance((30,40))
          50.0
          >>> joe = Turtle()
          >>> joe.forward(77)
          >>> turtle.distance(joe)
          77.0


File: python.info,  Node: 측정 설정,  Next: 펜 제어<2>,  Prev: 거북이의 상태 보고,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.20 측정 설정
....................

 -- 함수: turtle.degrees (fullcircle=360.0)


     매개변수: ‘fullcircle’ – 숫자

     각도 측정 단위를 설정합니다, 즉 전체 원에 대한 “도(degrees)”의 수를
     설정합니다.  기본값은 360도입니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

          >>> # 각도 측정 단위를 그레이드(grad)로 변경합니다 (곤(gon),
          >>> # grade, 그라디안(gradian)이라고도 하며 직각의 1/100 에 해당합니다.)
          >>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.degrees(360)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- 함수: turtle.radians ()

     각도 측정 단위를 라디안으로 설정합니다.  ‘degrees(2*math.pi)’와 동
     등합니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.radians()
          >>> turtle.heading()
          1.5707963267948966


File: python.info,  Node: 펜 제어<2>,  Next: 거북이 상태,  Prev: 측정 설정,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.21 펜 제어
..................

* Menu:

* 그리기 상태::
* 색상 제어::
* 채우기::
* 더 많은 그리기 제어::


File: python.info,  Node: 그리기 상태,  Next: 색상 제어,  Up: 펜 제어<2>

5.25.10.22 그리기 상태
......................

 -- 함수: turtle.pendown ()
 -- 함수: turtle.pd ()
 -- 함수: turtle.down ()

     펜을 내립니다 – 움직일 때 그립니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.penup ()
 -- 함수: turtle.pu ()
 -- 함수: turtle.up ()

     펜을 올립니다 – 움직일 때 그리지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.pensize (width=None)
 -- 함수: turtle.width (width=None)


     매개변수: ‘width’ – 양수

     선 두께를 'width'로 설정하거나 반환합니다.  크기 조정 모드
     (resizemode)가 “auto”로 설정되고 거북이 모양(shape)이 다각형이면, 해
     당 다각형은 같은 선 두께로 그려집니다.  인자가 없으면, 현재 펜 크기
     가 반환됩니다.

          >>> turtle.pensize()
          1
          >>> turtle.pensize(10)   # 여기서부터 두께가 10인 선이 그려집니다

 -- 함수: turtle.pen (pen=None, **pendict)


     매개변수:

        * ‘pen’ – 아래 나열된 키 중 일부나 전부가 포함된 딕셔너리

        * ‘pendict’ – 아래에 나열된 키를 키워드로 사용하는 하나 이상의 키
          워드 인자

     다음 키/값 쌍으로 “펜 딕셔너리”에 있는 펜의 속성을 반환하거나 설정
     합니다:

        * “shown”: True/False

        * “pendown”: True/False

        * “pencolor”: 색상 문자열이나 색상 튜플

        * “fillcolor”: 색상 문자열이나 색상 튜플

        * “pensize”: 양수

        * “speed”: 0..10 범위의 숫자

        * “resizemode”: “auto” 또는 “user” 또는 “noresize”

        * “stretchfactor”: (양수, 양수)

        * “outline”: 양수

        * “tilt”: 숫자

     이 딕셔너리는 이전 펜 상태를 복원하기 위해 *note pen(): 3ee9.의 후
     속 호출에 대한 인자로 사용될 수 있습니다.  또한 이러한 속성 중 하나
     이상을 키워드 인자로 제공할 수 있습니다.  하나의 문장에서 여러 펜 속
     성을 설정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
          [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
           ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
           ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
           ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
          >>> penstate=turtle.pen()
          >>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
          >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]

 -- 함수: turtle.isdown ()

     펜이 내려가 있으면 ‘True’를, 올라가 있으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          False
          >>> turtle.pendown()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: 색상 제어,  Next: 채우기,  Prev: 그리기 상태,  Up: 펜 제어<2>

5.25.10.23 색상 제어
....................

 -- 함수: turtle.pencolor (*args)

     펜 색상(pencolor)을 반환하거나 설정합니다.

     네 가지 입력 형식이 허용됩니다:

     ‘pencolor()’

          현재 펜 색상을 색상 지정 문자열이나 튜플로 반환합니다 (예를 참
          조하십시오).  다른 color/pencolor/fillcolor 호출에 대한 입력으
          로 사용될 수 있습니다.

     ‘pencolor(colorstring)’

          펜 색상을 ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’ 또는 ‘"#33cc8c"’와 같은 Tk 색상
          지정 문자열인 'colorstring'으로 설정합니다.

     ‘pencolor((r, g, b))’

          펜 색상을 'r', 'g' 및 'b'의 튜플로 표현되는 RGB 색상으로 설정
          합니다.  'r', 'g' 및 'b' 각각은 0..colormode 범위에 있어야 합
          니다.  여기서 colormode는 1.0이나 255입니다 (*note
          colormode(): 3f20.를 참조하십시오).

     ‘pencolor(r, g, b)’

          펜 색상을 'r', 'g' 및 'b'로 표현되는 RGB 색상으로 설정합니다.
          'r', 'g' 및 'b'는 각각 0..colormode 범위에 있어야 합니다.

     거북이 모양이 다각형이면, 해당 다각형의 외곽선은 새로 설정된 펜 색
     상으로 그려집니다.

          >>> colormode()
          1.0
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'red'
          >>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'brown'
          >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
          >>> colormode(255)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
          >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)

 -- 함수: turtle.fillcolor (*args)

     채우기 색상(fillcolor)을 반환하거나 설정합니다.

     네 가지 입력 형식이 허용됩니다:

     ‘fillcolor()’

          현재 채우기 색상을 색상 지정 문자열로 (튜플 형식으로도 가능합
          니다) 반환합니다 (예를 참조하십시오).  다른
          color/pencolor/fillcolor 호출에 대한 입력으로 사용될 수 있습니
          다.

     ‘fillcolor(colorstring)’

          채우기 색상을 ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’ 또는 ‘"#33cc8c"’와 같은 Tk 색
          상 지정 문자열인 'colorstring'으로 설정합니다.

     ‘fillcolor((r, g, b))’

          채우기 색상을 'r', 'g' 및 'b'의 튜플로 표현되는 RGB 색상으로 설
          정합니다.  'r', 'g' 및 'b' 각각은 0..colormode 범위에 있어야 합
          니다.  여기서 colormode는 1.0이나 255입니다 (*note
          colormode(): 3f20.를 참조하십시오).

     ‘fillcolor(r, g, b)’

          채우기 색상을 'r', 'g' 및 'b'로 표현되는 RGB 색상으로 설정합니
          다.  'r', 'g' 및 'b'는 각각 0..colormode 범위에 있어야 합니다.

     거북이 모양이 다각형이면, 해당 다각형의 내부는 새로 설정된 채우기 색
     상으로 그려집니다.

          >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          'violet'
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # 정수입니다, 실수가 아닙니다
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (255.0, 255.0, 255.0)

 -- 함수: turtle.color (*args)

     펜 색상과 채우기 색상을 반환하거나 설정합니다.

     몇 가지 입력 형식이 허용됩니다.  다음과 같이 0에서 3개의 인자를 사
     용합니다:

     ‘color()’

          *note pencolor(): 3eec.와 *note fillcolor(): 3eed.에 의해 반환
          된 현재 펜 색상과 현재 채우기 색상을 한 쌍의 색 지정 문자열이
          나 튜플로 반환합니다.

     ‘color(colorstring)’, ‘color((r,g,b))’, ‘color(r,g,b)’

          *note pencolor(): 3eec.에서와 같은 입력, 채우기 색상과 펜 색상
          을 모두 주어진 값으로 설정합니다.

     ‘color(colorstring1, colorstring2)’, ‘color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))’

          ‘pencolor(colorstring1)’과 ‘fillcolor(colorstring2)’와 동등하
          며 다른 입력 형식을 사용하는 경우도 유사합니다.

     거북이 모양이 다각형이면, 해당 다각형의 외곽선과 내부가 새로 설정된
     색상으로 그려집니다.

          >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
          >>> turtle.color()
          ('red', 'green')
          >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
          >>> color()
          ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))

참조: Screen 메서드 *note colormode(): 3f20.


File: python.info,  Node: 채우기,  Next: 더 많은 그리기 제어,  Prev: 색상 제어,  Up: 펜 제어<2>

5.25.10.24 채우기
.................

 -- 함수: turtle.filling ()

     채우기 상태(fillstate)를 반환합니다 (채우면 ‘True’, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’).

          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> if turtle.filling():
          ...    turtle.pensize(5)
          ... else:
          ...    turtle.pensize(3)

 -- 함수: turtle.begin_fill ()

     채울 모양을 그리기 직전에 호출됩니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.end_fill ()

     *note begin_fill(): 3eef.을 마지막으로 호출한 후 그린 모양을 채웁니
     다.

     스스로 교차하는 다각형이나 여러 도형의 겹치는 영역이 채워지는지는 운
     영 체제 그래픽, 겹침의 유형 및 겹침의 수에 따라 다릅니다.  예를 들
     어, 위의 거북이 별은 모두 노란색이거나 일부 흰색 영역이 있을 수 있
     습니다.

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> turtle.circle(80)
          >>> turtle.end_fill()


File: python.info,  Node: 더 많은 그리기 제어,  Prev: 채우기,  Up: 펜 제어<2>

5.25.10.25 더 많은 그리기 제어
..............................

 -- 함수: turtle.reset ()

     화면에서 거북이의 그림을 삭제하고, 거북이를 다시 중심으로 옮기고, 변
     수를 기본값으로 설정합니다.

          >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
          >>> turtle.left(100)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-22.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- 함수: turtle.clear ()

     화면에서 거북이 그림을 삭제합니다.  거북이를 움직이지 않습니다.  다
     른 거북이의 그림뿐만 아니라 거북이의 상태와 위치는 영향을 받지 않습
     니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.write (arg, move=False, align='left', font=('Arial', 8,
          'normal'))


     매개변수:

        * ‘arg’ – TurtleScreen에 기록될 객체

        * ‘move’ – True/False

        * ‘align’ – “left”, “center” 또는 “right” 문자열 중 하나

        * ‘font’ – 3-튜플 (fontname, fontsize, fonttype)

     'align'(“left”, “center” 또는 “right”)에 따라 현재 거북이 위치에서
     주어진 글꼴(font)로 텍스트 - 'arg'의 문자열 표현 - 를 기록합니다.
     'move'가 참이면, 펜이 텍스트의 오른쪽 아래 모서리로 이동합니다.  기
     본적으로, 'move'는 ‘False’입니다.

          >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
          >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)


File: python.info,  Node: 거북이 상태,  Next: 이벤트 사용하기,  Prev: 펜 제어<2>,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.26 거북이 상태
......................

* Menu:

* 가시성::
* 외관::


File: python.info,  Node: 가시성,  Next: 외관,  Up: 거북이 상태

5.25.10.27 가시성
.................

 -- 함수: turtle.hideturtle ()
 -- 함수: turtle.ht ()

     거북이를 보이지 않게 합니다.  거북이를 숨기면 그리기 속도가 눈에 띄
     게 빨라지므로, 복잡한 그리기를 하는 동안 이렇게 하는 것이 좋습니다.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()

 -- 함수: turtle.showturtle ()
 -- 함수: turtle.st ()

     거북이가 보이게 합니다.

          >>> turtle.showturtle()

 -- 함수: turtle.isvisible ()

     거북이가 보이면 ‘True’를, 숨겨져 있으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          False
          >>> turtle.showturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: 외관,  Prev: 가시성,  Up: 거북이 상태

5.25.10.28 외관
...............

 -- 함수: turtle.shape (name=None)


     매개변수: ‘name’ – 유효한 모양 이름(shapename)인 문자열

     주어진 'name'의 모양으로 거북이 모양을 설정하거나, 이름이 없으면 현
     재 모양의 이름을 반환합니다.  'name'의 모양은 TurtleScreen의 모양 딕
     셔너리에 있어야 합니다.  처음에는 다음과 같은 다각형 모양이 있습니
     다: “arrow”, “turtle”, “circle”, “square”, “triangle”, “classic”.  모
     양을 다루는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 Screen 메서드 *note
     register_shape(): 3f23.을 참조하십시오.

          >>> turtle.shape()
          'classic'
          >>> turtle.shape("turtle")
          >>> turtle.shape()
          'turtle'

 -- 함수: turtle.resizemode (rmode=None)


     매개변수: ‘rmode’ – 문자열 “auto”, “user”, “noresize” 중 하나

     크기 조정 모드(resizemode)를 다음 값 중 하나로 설정합니다: “auto”,
     “user”, “noresize”.  'rmode'가 제공되지 않으면, 현재 크기 조정 모드
     를 반환합니다.  각 크기 조정 모드는 다음과 같은 효과가 있습니다:

        - “auto”: 펜 크기(pensize)의 값에 맞춰 거북이의 외관을 조정합니
          다.

        - “user”: *note shapesize(): 3efb.로 설정된 stretchfactor와
          outlinewidth (outline) 값에 따라 거북이의 외관을 조정합니다.

        - “noresize”: 거북이의 외관 조정이 일어나지 않습니다.

     *note shapesize(): 3efb.에 인자를 사용하면 ‘resizemode("user")’ 를
     호출합니다.

          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'noresize'
          >>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'auto'

 -- 함수: turtle.shapesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)
 -- 함수: turtle.turtlesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘stretch_wid’ – 양수

        * ‘stretch_len’ – 양수

        * ‘outline’ – 양수

     펜의 속성 x/y-stretchfactor 및/또는 outline을 반환하거나 설정합니다
     .  크기 조정 모드(resizemode)를 “user”로 설정합니다.  크기 조정 모
     드(resizemode)가 “user”로 설정될 때만, 거북이가 신축 계수
     (stretchfactor)에 따라 늘려서 표시됩니다: 'stretch_wid'는 방향에 수
     직인 신축 계수, 'stretch_len'은 방향 쪽의 신축 계수이고, 'outline'은
     모양의 윤곽의 너비를 결정합니다.

          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (1.0, 1.0, 1)
          >>> turtle.resizemode("user")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 8)

 -- 함수: turtle.shearfactor (shear=None)


     매개변수: ‘shear’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

     기울기 계수(shearfactor)를 설정하거나 반환합니다.  주어진 기울기 계
     수 shear(기울기 각의 탄젠트입니다)에 따라 거북이 모양을 기울입니다.
     거북이의 방향(이동 방향)을 변경하지 '않습니다'.  shear가 제공되지 않
     으면: 현재 기울기 계수(shearfactor)를, 즉 기울기 각도의 탄젠트를 반
     환합니다.  기울기 각도는 거북이의 방향에 평행한 직선이 기울어진 각
     도입니다.

          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor()
          0.5

 -- 함수: turtle.tilt (angle)


     매개변수: ‘angle’ – 숫자

     현재 틸트 각도(tilt-angle)에서 거북이 모양을 'angle'만큼 회전합니다
     .  그러나 거북이의 방향(이동 방향)을 변경하지 '않습니다'.

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- 함수: turtle.tiltangle (angle=None)


     매개변수: ‘angle’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

     현재 틸트 각도(tilt-angle)를 설정하거나 반환합니다.  angle이 주어지
     면, 현재 틸트 각도(tilt-angle)와 관계없이 거북이 모양을 angle이 지
     정하는 방향을 가리키도록 회전합니다.  거북이의 방향(이동 방향)을 변
     경하지 '않습니다'.  angle이 주어지지 않으면: 현재 틸트 각도, 즉 거
     북이 모양의 방향과 거북이 방향(이동 방향) 사이의 각도를 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(45)
          >>> turtle.tiltangle()
          45.0

 -- 함수: turtle.shapetransform (t11=None, t12=None, t21=None, t22=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘t11’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

        * ‘t12’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

        * ‘t21’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

        * ‘t12’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

     거북이 모양의 현재 변환 행렬을 설정하거나 반환합니다.

     행렬 요소가 아무것도 제공되지 않으면, 변환 행렬을 4개 요소의 튜플로
     반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 주어진 요소를 설정하고 첫 번째 행 t11,
     t12와 두 번째 행 t21, t22로 구성된 행렬에 따라 거북이 모양을 변환합
     니다.  행렬식(determinant) t11 * t22 - t12 * t21은 0이 아니어야 합
     니다, 그렇지 않으면 에러가 발생합니다.  주어진 행렬에 따라 신축 계
     수(stretchfactor), 기울기 계수(shearfactor) 및 틸트 각도
     (tiltangle)를 수정합니다.

          >>> turtle = Turtle()
          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
          >>> turtle.shapetransform()
          (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)

 -- 함수: turtle.get_shapepoly ()

     현재 모양 다각형을 좌표 쌍의 튜플로 반환합니다.  이것은 새로운 모양
     이나 복합 모양의 구성 요소를 정의하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
          >>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
          ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))


File: python.info,  Node: 이벤트 사용하기,  Next: 특수 Turtle 메서드,  Prev: 거북이 상태,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.29 이벤트 사용하기
..........................

 -- 함수: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 캔버스에서 클릭한 점의 좌표로 호출되는 두 개의 인자가
          있는 함수

        * ‘btn’ – 마우스 버튼 수, 기본값은 1 (마우스 왼쪽 버튼)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ 또는 ‘False’ – ‘True’이면, 새 연결이 추가되고,
          그렇지 않으면 이전 연결을 대체합니다

     이 거북이의 마우스 클릭 이벤트에 'fun'을 연결합니다.  'fun'이
     ‘None’이면 기존 연결이 제거됩니다.  익명의 거북이, 즉 절차적 방법의
     예:

          >>> def turn(x, y):
          ...     left(180)
          ...
          >>> onclick(turn)  # 이제 거북이를 클릭하면 회전합니다.
          >>> onclick(None)  # 이벤트 연결을 제거합니다

 -- 함수: turtle.onrelease (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 캔버스에서 클릭한 점의 좌표로 호출되는 두 개의 인자가
          있는 함수

        * ‘btn’ – 마우스 버튼 수, 기본값은 1 (마우스 왼쪽 버튼)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ 또는 ‘False’ – ‘True’이면, 새 연결이 추가되고,
          그렇지 않으면 이전 연결을 대체합니다

     이 거북이의 마우스 버튼 해제 이벤트에 'fun'을 연결합니다.  'fun'이
     ‘None’이면 기존 연결이 제거됩니다.

          >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
          ...     def glow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("red")
          ...     def unglow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("")
          ...
          >>> turtle = MyTurtle()
          >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # 거북이를 클릭하면 붉은색으로 채웁니다,
          >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # 버튼 해제하면 투명하게 만듭니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.ondrag (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 캔버스에서 클릭한 점의 좌표로 호출되는 두 개의 인자가
          있는 함수

        * ‘btn’ – 마우스 버튼 수, 기본값은 1 (마우스 왼쪽 버튼)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ 또는 ‘False’ – ‘True’이면, 새 연결이 추가되고,
          그렇지 않으면 이전 연결을 대체합니다

     이 거북이의 마우스 이동 이벤트에 'fun'을 연결합니다.  'fun'이
     ‘None’이면 기존 연결이 제거됩니다.

     참고: 거북이의 모든 마우스 이동 이벤트에 앞서 해당 거북이의 마우스
     클릭 이벤트가 선행합니다.

          >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)

     그 후, 거북이를 클릭하고 드래그하면 화면을 가로질러 거북이가 움직여
     손 그림을 생성합니다 (펜이 내려가 있다면).


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 Turtle 메서드,  Next: 복합 모양,  Prev: 이벤트 사용하기,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.30 특수 Turtle 메서드
.............................

 -- 함수: turtle.begin_poly ()

     다각형의 꼭짓점 기록을 시작합니다.  현재 거북이 위치가 다각형의 첫
     번째 꼭짓점입니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.end_poly ()

     다각형의 꼭짓점 기록을 중지합니다.  현재 거북이 위치가 다각형의 마
     지막 꼭짓점입니다.  첫 번째 꼭짓점과 연결됩니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.get_poly ()

     마지막으로 기록된 다각형을 반환합니다.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.begin_poly()
          >>> turtle.fd(100)
          >>> turtle.left(20)
          >>> turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.end_poly()
          >>> p = turtle.get_poly()
          >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)

 -- 함수: turtle.clone ()

     같은 위치, 방향 및 거북이 속성을 가진 거북이 복제본을 만들고 반환합
     니다.

          >>> mick = Turtle()
          >>> joe = mick.clone()

 -- 함수: turtle.getturtle ()
 -- 함수: turtle.getpen ()

     거북이 객체 자체를 반환합니다.  합리적인 용도로만 사용하십시오: “익
     명 거북이”를 반환하는 함수로:

          >>> pet = getturtle()
          >>> pet.fd(50)
          >>> pet
          <turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>

 -- 함수: turtle.getscreen ()

     거북이가 그리는 *note TurtleScreen: 3f3b. 객체를 반환합니다.  그런
     다음 해당 객체에 대해 TurtleScreen 메서드를 호출할 수 있습니다.

          >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
          >>> ts
          <turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
          >>> ts.bgcolor("pink")

 -- 함수: turtle.setundobuffer (size)


     매개변수: ‘size’ – 정수나 ‘None’

     언두버퍼(undobuffer)를 설정하거나 비활성화합니다.  'size'가 정수이
     면, 지정된 크기의 빈 언두버퍼가 설치됩니다.  'size'는 *note undo():
     3ed6. 메서드/함수로 취소할 수 있는 최대 거북이 액션 수를 제공합니다
     .  'size'가 ‘None’이면, 언두버퍼가 비활성화됩니다.

          >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)

 -- 함수: turtle.undobufferentries ()

     언두버퍼에 있는 항목 수를 반환합니다.

          >>> while undobufferentries():
          ...     undo()


File: python.info,  Node: 복합 모양,  Prev: 특수 Turtle 메서드,  Up: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.31 복합 모양
....................

다른 색상의 여러 다각형으로 구성된 복합 거북이 모양을 사용하려면, 아래 설
명된 대로 도우미 클래스 *note Shape: 3f3e.을 명시적으로 사용해야 합니다:

  1. “compound” 유형의 빈 Shape 객체를 만듭니다.

  2. *note addcomponent(): 3f3f. 메서드를 사용하여, 원하는 만큼 이 객체
     에 구성 요소를 추가합니다.

     예를 들면:

          >>> s = Shape("compound")
          >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
          >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")

  3. 이제 Shape을 Screen의 모양 리스트(shapelist)에 추가하고 사용합니다:

          >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
          >>> shape("myshape")

     참고: *note Shape: 3f3e. 클래스는 *note register_shape(): 3f23. 메
     서드에 의해 내부적으로 다른 방식으로 사용됩니다.  응용 프로그램 프
     로그래머는 위와 같이 복합 모양을 사용할 때 '만' Shape 클래스를 다뤄
     야 합니다!


File: python.info,  Node: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수,  Next: 공개 클래스,  Prev: RawTurtle/Turtl의 메서드와 해당 함수,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.32 TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수
.................................................

이 섹션의 대부분의 예제는 ‘screen’이라는 TurtleScreen 인스턴스를 참조합
니다.

* Menu:

* 창 제어::
* 애니메이션 제어::
* 화면 이벤트 사용하기::
* 입력 메서드::
* 설정과 특수 메서드::
* TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은, Screen만의 메서드: TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드.


File: python.info,  Node: 창 제어,  Next: 애니메이션 제어,  Up: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.33 창 제어
..................

 -- 함수: turtle.bgcolor (*args)


     매개변수: ‘args’ – 색상 문자열이나 0..colormode 범위의 3개의 숫자 또
     는 이러한 숫자의 3-튜플

     TurtleScreen의 배경색을 설정하거나 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          'orange'
          >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          (128.0, 0.0, 128.0)

 -- 함수: turtle.bgpic (picname=None)


     매개변수: ‘picname’ – 문자열, gif 파일의 이름 또는 ‘"nopic"’, 또는
     ‘None’

     배경 이미지를 설정하거나 현재 배경 이미지(backgroundimage)의 이름을
     반환합니다.  'picname'이 파일명이면, 해당 이미지를 배경으로 설정합
     니다.  'picname'이 ‘"nopic"’이면, 배경 이미지가 있다면 삭제합니다.
     'picname'이 ‘None’이면, 현재 배경 이미지(backgroundimage)의 파일명
     을 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.bgpic()
          'nopic'
          >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
          >>> screen.bgpic()
          "landscape.gif"

 -- 함수: turtle.clear ()

          참고: 이 TurtleScreen 메서드는 ‘clearscreen’이라는 이름으로만
          전역 함수로 사용할 수 있습니다.  전역 함수 ‘clear’는 Turtle 메
          서드 ‘clear’에서 파생된 다른 것입니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.clearscreen ()

     TurtleScreen에서 모든 그림과 모든 거북이를 삭제합니다.  이제 비어있
     는 TurtleScreen을 초기 상태로 재설정합니다: 흰색 배경, 배경 이미지
     없음, 이벤트 연결과 추적 없음.

 -- 함수: turtle.reset ()

          참고: 이 TurtleScreen 메서드는 ‘resetscreen’이라는 이름으로만
          전역 함수로 사용할 수 있습니다.  전역 함수 ‘reset’은 Turtle 메
          서드 ‘reset’에서 파생된 또 다른 함수입니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.resetscreen ()

     Screen의 모든 거북이를 초기 상태로 재설정합니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.screensize (canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘canvwidth’ – 양의 정수, 픽셀 단위의 새 캔버스 너비

        * ‘canvheight’ – 양의 정수, 픽셀 단위의 새 캔버스 높이

        * ‘bg’ – 색상 문자열(colorstring)이나 색상 튜플, 새 배경색

     인자가 제공되지 않으면, 현재 (canvaswidth, canvasheight)를 반환합니
     다.  그렇지 않으면 거북이가 그리는 캔버스의 크기를 조정합니다.  그
     리는 창을 변경하지 마십시오.  캔버스의 숨겨진 부분을 보려면, 스크롤
     막대를 사용하십시오.  이 메서드를 사용하면, 이전에 캔버스 외부에 있
     던 그림의 부분을 볼 수 있습니다.

          >>> screen.screensize()
          (400, 300)
          >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
          >>> screen.screensize()
          (2000, 1500)

     예를 들어 잘못 탈출한 거북이를 찾기 위해 ;-)

 -- 함수: turtle.setworldcoordinates (llx, lly, urx, ury)


     매개변수:

        * ‘llx’ – 숫자, 캔버스의 왼쪽 아래 모서리의 x-좌표

        * ‘lly’ – 숫자, 캔버스의 왼쪽 아래 모서리의 y-좌표

        * ‘urx’ – 숫자, 캔버스의 오른쪽 상단 모서리의 x-좌표

        * ‘ury’ – 숫자, 캔버스의 오른쪽 상단 모서리의 y-좌표

     사용자 정의 좌표계를 설정하고 필요하면 “world” 모드로 전환합니다.  이
     것은 ‘screen.reset()’을 수행합니다.  “world” 모드가 이미 활성화되었
     으면, 모든 그림은 새 좌표에 따라 다시 그려집니다.

     '주의': 사용자 정의 좌표계에서 각도가 왜곡되어 나타날 수 있습니다.

          >>> screen.reset()
          >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
          >>> for _ in range(72):
          ...     left(10)
          ...
          >>> for _ in range(8):
          ...     left(45); fd(2)   # 정 팔각형


File: python.info,  Node: 애니메이션 제어,  Next: 화면 이벤트 사용하기,  Prev: 창 제어,  Up: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.34 애니메이션 제어
..........................

 -- 함수: turtle.delay (delay=None)


     매개변수: ‘delay’ – 양의 정수

     그리기 '지연(delay)'을 밀리초 단위로 설정하거나 반환합니다.  (이는
     대략 두 개의 연속 캔버스 갱신 사이의 시간 간격입니다.)  그리기 지연
     이 길수록, 애니메이션이 느려집니다.

     선택적 인자:

          >>> screen.delay()
          10
          >>> screen.delay(5)
          >>> screen.delay()
          5

 -- 함수: turtle.tracer (n=None, delay=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘n’ – 음이 아닌 정수

        * ‘delay’ – 음이 아닌 정수

     거북이 애니메이션을 켜거나 끄고 그림 갱신 지연을 설정합니다.  'n'이
     제공되면, n 번째 정기 화면 갱신만 실제로 수행됩니다.  (복잡한 그래
     픽의 그리기를 가속하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.)  인자 없이 호출되면,
     현재 저장된 n 값을 반환합니다.  두 번째 인자는 지연(delay) 값을 설
     정합니다 (*note delay(): 3f14.를 참조하십시오).

          >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
          >>> dist = 2
          >>> for i in range(200):
          ...     fd(dist)
          ...     rt(90)
          ...     dist += 2

 -- 함수: turtle.update ()

     TurtleScreen 갱신을 수행합니다.  tracer가 꺼져있을 때 사용됩니다.

RawTurtle/Turtle 메서드 *note speed(): 3ed7.도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 화면 이벤트 사용하기,  Next: 입력 메서드,  Prev: 애니메이션 제어,  Up: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.35 화면 이벤트 사용하기
...............................

 -- 함수: turtle.listen (xdummy=None, ydummy=None)

     (키 이벤트를 수집하기 위해) TurtleScreen에 포커스를 설정합니다.
     *note listen(): 3f17.을 onclick 메서드에 전달할 수 있도록 더미 인자
     가 제공됩니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.onkey (fun, key)
 -- 함수: turtle.onkeyrelease (fun, key)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 인자가 없는 함수나 ‘None’

        * ‘key’ – 문자열: 키 (예를 들어 “a”) 또는 키-기호 (예를 들어
          “space”)

     key의 키-릴리스 이벤트에 'fun'을 연결합니다.  'fun'이 ‘None’이면, 이
     벤트 연결이 제거됩니다.  비고: 키 이벤트를 등록하려면,
     TurtleScreen에 포커스가 있어야 합니다.  (메서드 *note listen():
     3f17.을 참조하십시오.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...     lt(60)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- 함수: turtle.onkeypress (fun, key=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 인자가 없는 함수나 ‘None’

        * ‘key’ – 문자열: 키 (예를 들어 “a”) 또는 키-기호 (예를 들어
          “space”)

     key가 제공되면 key의 키-누르기 이벤트에 또는 key를 제공하지 않으면
     임의의 키 누르기 이벤트에 'fun'을 연결합니다.  비고: 키 이벤트를 등
     록하려면, TurtleScreen에 포커스가 있어야 합니다.  (메서드 *note
     listen(): 3f17.을 참조하십시오.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- 함수: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)
 -- 함수: turtle.onscreenclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 캔버스에서 클릭한 점의 좌표로 호출되는 두 개의 인자가
          있는 함수

        * ‘btn’ – 마우스 버튼 수, 기본값은 1 (마우스 왼쪽 버튼)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ 또는 ‘False’ – ‘True’이면, 새 연결이 추가되고,
          그렇지 않으면 이전 연결을 대체합니다

     이 화면의 마우스-클릭 이벤트에 'fun'을 연결합니다.  'fun'이 ‘None’이
     면, 기존 연결이 제거됩니다.

     이름이 ‘screen’인 TurtleScreen 인스턴스와 이름이 ‘turtle’인 거북이
     인스턴스의 예:

          >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # 이후 TurtleScreen을 클릭하면 거북이가 클릭한 지점으로
          >>>                             # 이동합니다.
          >>> screen.onclick(None)        # 이벤트 연결을 다시 제거합니다

          참고: 이 TurtleScreen 메서드는 ‘onscreenclick’이라는 이름으로
          만 전역 함수로 사용할 수 있습니다.  전역 함수 ‘onclick’은
          Turtle 메서드 ‘onclick’에서 파생된 또 다른 함수입니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.ontimer (fun, t=0)


     매개변수:

        * ‘fun’ – 인자가 없는 함수

        * ‘t’ – 숫자 >= 0

     't' 밀리초 후에 'fun'을 호출하는 타이머를 설치합니다.

          >>> running = True
          >>> def f():
          ...     if running:
          ...         fd(50)
          ...         lt(60)
          ...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
          >>> f()   ### 거북이가 주위를 행진하게 만듭니다
          >>> running = False

 -- 함수: turtle.mainloop ()
 -- 함수: turtle.done ()

     이벤트 루프를 시작합니다 - Tkinter의 mainloop 함수를 호출합니다.  터
     틀 그래픽 프로그램의 마지막 문장이어야 합니다.  터틀 그래픽을 대화
     식으로 사용하기 위해 -n 모드(서브 프로세스 없음)로 IDLE에서 스크립
     트를 실행할 때는 사용되지 '않아야' 합니다.

          >>> screen.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: 입력 메서드,  Next: 설정과 특수 메서드,  Prev: 화면 이벤트 사용하기,  Up: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.36 입력 메서드
......................

 -- 함수: turtle.textinput (title, prompt)


     매개변수:

        * ‘title’ – 문자열

        * ‘prompt’ – 문자열

     문자열 입력을 위한 대화 상자 창을 띄웁니다.  매개변수 title은 대화
     상자 창의 제목이고, prompt는 주로 어떤 정보를 입력해야 하는지 설명
     하는 텍스트입니다.  문자열 입력을 반환합니다.  대화 상자가 취소되면
     , ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")

 -- 함수: turtle.numinput (title, prompt, default=None, minval=None,
          maxval=None)


     매개변수:

        * ‘title’ – 문자열

        * ‘prompt’ – 문자열

        * ‘default’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

        * ‘minval’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

        * ‘maxval’ – 숫자 (선택 사항)

     숫자 입력을 위한 대화 상자 창을 띄웁니다.  title은 대화 창의 제목이
     고, prompt는 주로 어떤 숫자 정보를 입력해야 하는지 설명하는 텍스트
     입니다.  default: 기본값, minval: 입력의 최솟값, maxval: 입력의 최
     댓값.  이것들이 주어지면 숫자 입력은 minval ..  maxval 범위에 있어
     야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 힌트가 발행되고 수정을 위해 대화 상자가
     열려 있습니다.  숫자 입력을 반환합니다.  대화 상자가 취소되면,
     ‘None’을 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)


File: python.info,  Node: 설정과 특수 메서드,  Next: TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드,  Prev: 입력 메서드,  Up: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.37 설정과 특수 메서드
.............................

 -- 함수: turtle.mode (mode=None)


     매개변수: ‘mode’ – 문자열 “standard”, “logo” 또는 “world” 중 하나

     거북이 모드(“standard”, “logo” 또는 “world”)를 설정하고 재설정을 수
     행합니다.  mode가 제공되지 않으면, 현재 모드가 반환됩니다.

     “standard” 모드는 이전 *note turtle: 101.과 호환됩니다.  “logo” 모
     드는 대부분의 로고 터틀 그래픽과 호환됩니다.  “world” 모드는 사용자
     정의 “세계 좌표”를 사용합니다.  '주의': 이 모드에서는 ‘x/y’ 단위 비
     율이 1이 아니면 각도가 왜곡되어 나타납니다.

     모드             초기 거북이 방향              양의 각도
                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
     “standard”       오른쪽 (동)                   시계 반대 방향
                                                    
                                                    
     “logo”           위쪽 (북)                     시계 방향
                                                    

          >>> mode("logo")   # 거북이 방향을 북쪽으로 재설정합니다
          >>> mode()
          'logo'

 -- 함수: turtle.colormode (cmode=None)


     매개변수: ‘cmode’ – 값 1.0이나 255중 하나

     색상 모드(colormode)를 반환하거나 1.0이나 255로 설정합니다.  이후 색
     상 트리플의 'r', 'g', 'b' 값은 0..*cmode* 범위에 있어야 합니다.

          >>> screen.colormode(1)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
          TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          1.0
          >>> screen.colormode(255)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          255
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)

 -- 함수: turtle.getcanvas ()

     이 TurtleScreen의 캔버스를 반환합니다.  Tkinter Canvas로 작업하는 법
     을 알고 있는 내부자에게 유용합니다.

          >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
          >>> cv
          <turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>

 -- 함수: turtle.getshapes ()

     현재 사용 가능한 모든 거북이 모양의 이름 리스트를 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.getshapes()
          ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']

 -- 함수: turtle.register_shape (name, shape=None)
 -- 함수: turtle.addshape (name, shape=None)

     이 함수를 호출하는 방법에는 세 가지가 있습니다:

       1. 'name'은 gif 파일의 이름이고 'shape'은 ‘None’입니다: 해당 이미
          지 모양을 설치합니다.

               >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")

               참고: 거북이를 회전할 때 이미지 모양은 회전하지 '않아서',
               거북이 방향을 표시하지 않습니다!

       2. 'name'은 임의의 문자열이고 'shape'은 좌표 쌍의 튜플입니다: 해
          당 다각형 모양을 설치합니다.

               >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))

       3. 'name'은 임의의 문자열이고 'shape'은 (복합) *note Shape: 3f3e.
          객체입니다: 해당 복합 모양을 설치합니다.

     TurtleScreen의 모양 리스트(shapelist)에 거북이 모양을 추가합니다.
     ‘shape(shapename)’ 명령을 실행하면 이처럼 등록된 모양만 사용할 수 있
     습니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.turtles ()

     화면에 있는 거북이의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
          ...     turtle.color("red")

 -- 함수: turtle.window_height ()

     거북이 창의 높이를 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.window_height()
          480

 -- 함수: turtle.window_width ()

     거북이 창의 너비를 반환합니다.

          >>> screen.window_width()
          640


File: python.info,  Node: TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드,  Prev: 설정과 특수 메서드,  Up: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수

5.25.10.38 TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은, Screen만의 메서드
............................................................

 -- 함수: turtle.bye ()

     터틀 그래픽 창을 닫습니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.exitonclick ()

     ‘bye()’ 메서드를 Screen에서의 마우스 클릭에 연결합니다.

     구성 딕셔너리의 “using_IDLE” 값이 ‘False’(기본값)면, 에인 루프에 진
     입하기도 합니다.  비고: ‘-n’ 스위치로 IDLE(서브 프로세스 없음)을 사
     용하면, 이 값은 ‘turtle.cfg’에서 ‘True’로 설정되어야 합니다.  이 경
     우 IDLE의 자체 메인 루프는 클라이언트 스크립트에서도 활성화됩니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.setup (width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'],
          startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom'])

     메인 창의 크기와 위치를 설정합니다.  인자의 기본값은 구성 딕셔너리
     에 저장되며 ‘turtle.cfg’ 파일을 통해 변경할 수 있습니다.


     매개변수:

        * ‘width’ – 정수면 픽셀 단위의 크기, 실수면 화면의 비율; 기본값
          은 화면의 50%입니다

        * ‘height’ – 정수면 픽셀 단위의 높이, 실수면 화면의 비율; 기본값
          은 화면의 75%입니다

        * ‘startx’ – 양수이면 화면의 왼쪽 가장자리에서부터의 픽셀 단위의
          시작 위치, 음수이면 오른쪽 가장자리에서부터, ‘None’이면 창을 가
          로로 가운데 정렬합니다

        * ‘starty’ – 양수이면 화면 위쪽 가장자리에서부터의 픽셀 단위의 시
          작 위치, 음수이면 아래쪽 가장자리에서부터, ‘None’이면 창을 세
          로로 가운데 정렬합니다

          >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
          >>>              # 창을 200x200 픽셀 크기로 화면 왼쪽 상단에 설정합니다
          >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
          >>>              # 창을 화면 너비의 75%, 화면 높이의 50% 크기로 가운데에 설정합니다

 -- 함수: turtle.title (titlestring)


     매개변수: ‘titlestring’ – 터틀 그래픽 창의 제목 표시 줄에 표시되는
     문자열

     거북이 창의 제목을 'titlestring'으로 설정합니다.

          >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")


File: python.info,  Node: 공개 클래스,  Next: Explanation<2>,  Prev: TurtleScreen/Screen 메서드와 해당 함수,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.39 공개 클래스
......................

 -- 클래스: turtle.RawTurtle (canvas)
 -- 클래스: turtle.RawPen (canvas)


     매개변수: ‘canvas’ – ‘tkinter.Canvas’, *note ScrolledCanvas: 3f4b.나
     *note TurtleScreen: 3f3b.

     거북이를 만듭니다.  거북이는 위에서 “Turtle/RawTurtle의 메서드”라고
     언급한 모든 메서드를 갖습니다.

 -- 클래스: turtle.Turtle

     RawTurtle의 서브 클래스.  인터페이스는 같지만 처음 필요할 때 자동으
     로 생성된 기본 *note Screen: 3ebe. 객체에 그립니다.

 -- 클래스: turtle.TurtleScreen (cv)


     매개변수: ‘cv’ – ‘tkinter.Canvas’

     위에서 설명한 *note bgcolor(): 3f0e. 등과 같은 화면 지향 메서드를 제
     공합니다.

 -- 클래스: turtle.Screen

     TurtleScreen의 서브 클래스.  *note 4개의 메서드가 추가되었습니다:
     3f47.

 -- 클래스: turtle.ScrolledCanvas (master)


     매개변수: ‘master’ – ScrolledCanvas, 즉 스크롤 막대가 추가된
     Tkinter-Canvas를 담을 어떤 Tkinter 위젯

     클래스 Screen에서 사용되며, 거북 놀이터로 ScrolledCanvas를 자동으로
     제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: turtle.Shape (type_, data)


     매개변수: ‘type_’ – 문자열 “polygon”, “image”, “compound” 중 하나

     모양을 모델링하는 데이터 구조.  쌍 ‘(type_, data)’는 다음 명세를 따
     라야 합니다:

     'type_'         'data'
                     
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     “polygon”       다각형 튜플, 즉 좌표 쌍의 튜플
                     
                     
     “image”         이미지 (이 형식은 내부적으로만 사용됩니다!)
                     
                     
     “compound”      ‘None’ (복합 모양을 *note addcomponent(): 3f3f. 메서드를 사
                     용하여 구성해야 합니다)
                     

      -- 메서드: addcomponent (poly, fill, outline=None)


          매개변수:

             * ‘poly’ – 다각형, 즉 숫자 쌍의 튜플

             * ‘fill’ – 'poly'가 채워질 색상

             * ‘outline’ – poly 외곽선의 색상 (제공되면)

          예:

               >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
               >>> s = Shape("compound")
               >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
               >>> # ... 더 많은 구성 요소를 추가한 다음 register_shape()을 사용합니다

          *note 복합 모양: 3f3d.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: turtle.Vec2D (x, y)

     2차원 벡터 클래스.  터틀 그래픽을 구현하기 위한 도우미 클래스로 사
     용됩니다.  터틀 그래픽 프로그램에도 유용할 수 있습니다.  튜플에서 파
     생되기 때문에, 벡터는 튜플입니다!

     다음을 제공합니다 ('a', 'b'는 벡터, 'k'는 번호):

        * ‘a + b’ 벡터 덧셈

        * ‘a - b’ 벡터 뺄셈

        * ‘a * b’ 내적(inner product)

        * ‘k * a’와 ‘a * k’ 스칼라를 사용한 곱셈

        * ‘abs(a)’ a의 절댓값

        * ‘a.rotate(angle)’ 회전


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation<2>,  Next: 도움말과 구성,  Prev: 공개 클래스,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.40 Explanation
......................

A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key
classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to
create them and relate them to each other.

A *note Turtle: 3f4c. instance will automatically create a *note Screen:
3ebe. instance if one is not already present.

‘Turtle’ is a subclass of *note RawTurtle: 3f49, which 'doesn’t'
automatically create a drawing surface - a 'canvas' will need to be
provided or created for it.  The 'canvas' can be a ‘tkinter.Canvas’,
*note ScrolledCanvas: 3f4b. or *note TurtleScreen: 3f3b.

*note TurtleScreen: 3f3b. is the basic drawing surface for a turtle.
*note Screen: 3ebe. is a subclass of ‘TurtleScreen’, and includes *note
some additional methods: 3f47. for managing its appearance (including
size and title) and behaviour.  ‘TurtleScreen’’s constructor needs a
‘tkinter.Canvas’ or a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3f4b. as an argument.

거북이 그래픽의 함수적 인터페이스는 ‘Turtle’과 ‘TurtleScreen’/‘Screen’의
다양한 메서드를 사용합니다.  내부적으로, Screen 객체는 Screen 메서드에서
파생된 함수가 호출될 때마다 자동으로 만들어집니다.  마찬가지로, Turtle 메
서드에서 파생된 함수가 호출될 때마다 Turtle 객체가 자동으로 생성됩니다.

화면에 여러 거북을 사용하려면, 객체 지향 인터페이스를 사용해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 도움말과 구성,  Next: turtledemo — 데모 스크립트,  Prev: Explanation<2>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.41 도움말과 구성
........................

* Menu:

* 도움말 사용법::
* 독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역::
* Screen과 Turtle을 구성하는 방법::


File: python.info,  Node: 도움말 사용법,  Next: 독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역,  Up: 도움말과 구성

5.25.10.42 도움말 사용법
........................

Screen과 Turtle 클래스의 공개 메서드는 독스트링을 통해 광범위하게 설명됩
니다.  파이썬 도움말 기능을 통해 온라인 도움말로 사용할 수 있습니다:

   - IDLE을 사용할 때, 툴팁은 입력된 함수/메서드 호출의 서명과 독스트링
     의 첫 줄을 보여줍니다.

   - 메서드나 함수에 대해 *note help(): 8d4.를 호출하면 독스트링을 표시
     합니다:

          >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
          Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.


              >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "orange"
              >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "#800080"

          >>> help(Turtle.penup)
          Help on method penup in module turtle:

          penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              >>> turtle.penup()

   - 메서드에서 파생된 함수의 독스트링은 다음과 같이 수정된 형식을 갖습
     니다:

          >>> help(bgcolor)
          Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(*args)
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

              Example::

                >>> bgcolor("orange")
                >>> bgcolor()
                "orange"
                >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
                >>> bgcolor()
                "#800080"

          >>> help(penup)
          Help on function penup in module turtle:

          penup()
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              Example:
              >>> penup()

이러한 수정된 독스트링은 임포트 시점에 메서드에서 파생된 함수 정의와 함
께 자동으로 만들어집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역,  Next: Screen과 Turtle을 구성하는 방법,  Prev: 도움말 사용법,  Up: 도움말과 구성

5.25.10.43 독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역
......................................

키가 메서드 이름이고 값이 Screen과 Turtle 클래스의 공개 메서드의 독스트
링인 딕셔너리를 만드는 유틸리티가 있습니다.

 -- 함수: turtle.write_docstringdict (filename='turtle_docstringdict')


     매개변수: ‘filename’ – 파일명으로 사용되는 문자열

     주어진 파일명의 파이썬 스크립트에 독스트링-딕셔너리를 만들고 씁니다
     .  이 함수는 명시적으로 호출해야 합니다 (터틀 그래픽 클래스에서는 사
     용되지 않습니다).  독스트링 딕셔너리는 파이썬 스크립트
     ‘`filename'.py’에 기록됩니다.  독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역하기 위한
     템플릿으로 사용하려는 목적입니다.

여러분(또는 여러분의 학생)이 모국어로 된 온라인 도움말과 함께 *note
turtle: 101.을 사용하려면, 독스트링을 번역하고 결과 파일을 예를 들어
‘turtle_docstringdict_german.py’와 같은 파일로 저장해야 합니다.

여러분의 ‘turtle.cfg’ 파일에 적절한 항목이 있으면 임포트 시점에 이 딕셔
너리를 읽고 원래 영어 독스트링을 대체합니다.

이 글을 쓰는 시점에는 독일어와 이탈리아어로 된 독스트링 딕셔너리가 있습
니다.  (<glingl@aon.at> 에 요청하십시오.)


File: python.info,  Node: Screen과 Turtle을 구성하는 방법,  Prev: 독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역,  Up: 도움말과 구성

5.25.10.44 Screen과 Turtle을 구성하는 방법
..........................................

내장된 기본 구성은 최상의 호환성을 유지하기 위해 기존 turtle 모듈의 외관
과 동작을 모방합니다.

이 모듈의 기능을 더 잘 반영하거나 예를 들어 교실에서 사용하기 위해 필요
에 더 잘 맞는 다른 구성을 사용하려면, 임포트 시점에 읽는 구성 파일
‘turtle.cfg’를 준비하고 구성을 그 설정에 따라 수정할 수 있습니다.

내장 구성은 다음 ‘turtle.cfg’에 해당합니다:

     width = 0.5
     height = 0.75
     leftright = None
     topbottom = None
     canvwidth = 400
     canvheight = 300
     mode = standard
     colormode = 1.0
     delay = 10
     undobuffersize = 1000
     shape = classic
     pencolor = black
     fillcolor = black
     resizemode = noresize
     visible = True
     language = english
     exampleturtle = turtle
     examplescreen = screen
     title = Python Turtle Graphics
     using_IDLE = False

선택된 항목에 대한 간단한 설명:

   - 처음 네 줄은 *note Screen.setup: 3f2a. 메서드의 인자에 해당합니다.

   - 줄 5와 6은 *note Screen.screensize: 3f12. 메서드의 인자에 해당합니
     다.

   - 'shape'은 내장 도형 중 하나일 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 arrow, turtle
     등.  자세한 정보는 ‘help(shape)’을 시도해 보십시오.

   - 아무런 채우기 색상(fill color)도 사용하지 않으려면 (즉, 거북이를 투
     명하게 만들려면), ‘fillcolor = ""’라고 작성해야 합니다 (그러나 비어
     있지 않은 모든 문자열은 cfg 파일에서 따옴표가 없어야 합니다).

   - 거북이의 상태를 반영하려면, ‘resizemode = auto’를 사용해야 합니다.

   - 예를 들어 ‘language = italian’을 설정하면 임포트 시점에 독스트링 딕
     셔너리 ‘turtle_docstringdict_italian.py’가 로드됩니다 (임포트 경로
     에 있다면, 예를 들어 *note turtle: 101.과 같은 디렉터리에).

   - 'exampleturtle'과 'examplescreen' 항목은 독스트링에서 등장하는 이러
     한 객체들의 이름을 정의합니다.  메서드 독스트링을 함수 독스트링으로
     변환하면 이러한 이름이 독스트링에서 삭제됩니다.

   - 'using_IDLE': IDLE과 그것의 ‘-n’ 스위치( “서브 프로세스 없음”)를 정
     기적으로 사용하면 이 값을 ‘True’로 설정하십시오.  이것은 *note
     exitonclick(): 3f29.이 메인 루프에 들어가지 못하게 합니다.

*note turtle: 101.이 저장된 디렉터리에 ‘turtle.cfg’ 파일이 있고 현재 작
업 디렉터리에도 추가 파일이 있을 수 있습니다.  후자가 첫 번째 설정을 재
정의합니다.

‘Lib/turtledemo’ 디렉터리는 ‘turtle.cfg’ 파일을 포함합니다.  예제로 공부
하고 데모를 실행할 때 그 효과를 볼 수 있습니다 (바람직하게는 데모 뷰어 내
에서는 아닙니다).


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo — 데모 스크립트,  Next: 파이썬 2 6 이후의 변화,  Prev: 도움말과 구성,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.45 ‘turtledemo’ — 데모 스크립트
.......................................

*note turtledemo: 102. 패키지에는 데모 스크립트 집합이 포함되어 있습니다
.  이 스크립트는 다음과 같이 제공된 데모 뷰어를 사용하여 실행하고 볼 수
있습니다:

     python -m turtledemo

또는, 데모 스크립트를 개별적으로 실행할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면,

     python -m turtledemo.bytedesign

*note turtledemo: 102. 패키지 디렉터리는 다음과 같은 것들을 포함합니다:

   - 스크립트의 소스 코드를 보고 동시에 실행하는 데 사용할 수 있는 데모
     뷰어 ‘__main__.py’.

   - *note turtle: 101. 모듈의 다른 기능을 보여주는 여러 스크립트.  예제
     는 Examples 메뉴를 통해 액세스할 수 있습니다.  독립형으로 실행할 수
     도 있습니다.

   - 구성 파일을 작성하고 사용하는 방법의 예인 ‘turtle.cfg’ 파일.

데모 스크립트는 다음과 같습니다:

이름                 설명                               기능
                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
bytedesign           복잡한 클래식 터틀 그래픽 패턴     *note tracer(): 3f15,
                                                        delay,
                                                        *note update(): 3f16.
                                                        
                                                        
chaos                베르홀스트(Verhulst) 동역학의 그   세계 좌표
                     래프를 그립니다, 컴퓨터의 계산이   
                     때때로 상식적인 기대에 반하는 결
                     과를 생 할 수 있음을 보여줍니다
                     
                                                        
clock                컴퓨터의 시간을 보여주는 아날로    시곗바늘 거북이, ontimer
                     그 시계                            
                     
                                                        
colormixer           r, g, b 실험                       *note ondrag(): 3f03.
                                                        
                                                        
forest               3개의 너비 우선 나무               무작위화
                                                        
                                                        
fractalcurves        힐버트(Hilbert)와 코흐(Koch) 곡    재귀
                     선                                 
                     
                                                        
lindenmayer          민족 수학 (인도 콜람)              L-System
                                                        
                                                        
minimal_hanoi        하노이의 탑                        하노이 디스크로 쓰는 직사
                                                        각형 거북 (모양, 모양 크
                                                        기)
                                                        
                                                        
nim                  3개의 막대 더미로 컴퓨터와 고전    님 막대로 쓰는 거북, 이벤
                     적인 님 게임을 합니다.             트 구동 (마우스, 키보드)
                                                        
                                                        
paint                극도로 단순한 그리기 프로그램      *note onclick(): 3f01.
                                                        
                                                        
peace                기초                               거북이: 외관과 애니메이션
                                                        
                                                        
penrose              연과 다트가 있는 비주기적 타일링   *note stamp(): 3ed3.
                                                        
                                                        
planet_and_moon      중력 시스템 시뮬레이션             복합 모양,
                                                        *note Vec2D: 3f2e.
                                                        
                                                        
rosette              터틀 그래픽에 관한 위키피디아 기   *note clone(): 3f07,
                     사의 패턴                          *note undo(): 3ed6.
                                                        
                                                        
round_dance          반대 방향으로 쌍으로 회전하는 춤   복합 모양, 모양 크기 복제
                     추는 거북이                        , tilt, get_shapepoly,
                                                        update
                                                        
                                                        
sorting_animate      여러 정렬 방법의 시각적 데모       간단한 정렬, 무작위화
                                                        
                                                        
tree                 (그래픽) 너비 우선 나무 (제너레    *note clone(): 3f07.
                     이터 사용)                         
                     
                                                        
two_canvases         간단한 디자인                      두 캔버스의 거북이
                                                        
                                                        
yinyang              또 하나의 기초 예제                *note circle(): 3ed1.
                                                        

즐기세요!


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 2 6 이후의 변화,  Next: 파이썬 3 0 이후의 변화,  Prev: turtledemo — 데모 스크립트,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.46 파이썬 2.6 이후의 변화
.................................

   - 메서드 *note Turtle.tracer: 3f15, *note Turtle.window_width: 3f27.
     및 *note Turtle.window_height: 3f26.가 제거되었습니다.  이러한 이름
     과 기능을 가진 메서드는 이제 *note Screen: 3ebe.의 메서드로만 사용
     가능합니다.  이들에서 파생된 함수는 계속 사용할 수 있습니다.  (실제
     로 파이썬 2.6에서 이 메서드는 해당 *note TurtleScreen: 3f3b./*note
     Screen: 3ebe. 메서드의 복제일 뿐입니다.)

   - 메서드 ‘Turtle.fill()’이 제거되었습니다.  *note begin_fill():
     3eef.과 *note end_fill(): 3ef0.의 동작이 약간 변경되었습니다: 이제
     모든 채우기 프로세스를 ‘end_fill()’ 호출로 완료해야 합니다.

   - 메서드 *note Turtle.filling: 3eee.이 추가되었습니다.  불리언 값을 반
     환합니다: 채우기 프로세스가 진행 중이면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.  이 동작은 파이썬 2.6에서 인자가 없는
     ‘fill()’ 호출에 해당합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 3 0 이후의 변화,  Prev: 파이썬 2 6 이후의 변화,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.25.10.47 파이썬 3.0 이후의 변화
.................................

   - *note Turtle: 3f4c. 메서드 *note shearfactor(): 3efd, *note
     shapetransform(): 3eff. 및 *note get_shapepoly(): 3f00.가 추가되었
     습니다.  따라서 이제 거북이 모양을 변환하기 위해 전체 범위의 일반 선
     형 변환을 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note tiltangle(): 71e.의 기능이 향
     상되었습니다: 이제 틸트 각도를 가져오거나 설정하는 데 사용할 수 있
     습니다.

   - *note Screen: 3ebe. 메서드 *note onkeypress(): 3f1a.는 *note
     onkey(): 3f18.의 보완으로 추가되었습니다.  후자는 키 릴리스 이벤트
     에 액션을 연결하므로, 이를 위한 별칭 *note onkeyrelease(): 3f19.도
     추가되었습니다.

   - The method *note Screen.mainloop: 3f1d. has been added, so there is
     no longer a need to use the standalone *note mainloop(): 3f1d.
     function when working with *note Screen: 3ebe. and *note Turtle:
     3f4c. objects.

   - 두 가지 입력 메서드가 추가되었습니다: *note Screen.textinput:
     18c9.과 *note Screen.numinput: 18ca.  입력 대화 상자를 띄우고 각각
     문자열과 숫자를 반환합니다.

   - ‘tdemo_nim.py’와 ‘tdemo_round_dance.py’의 두 가지 예제 스크립트가
     ‘Lib/turtledemo’ 디렉터리에 추가되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 개발 도구,  Next: 디버깅과 프로파일링,  Prev: Graphical user interfaces with Tk,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.26 개발 도구
==============

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 소프트웨어를 작성하는 것을 돕습니다.  예를 들
어, *note pydoc: b5. 모듈은 모듈을 가져와서 모듈의 내용을 기반으로 설명
서를 만듭니다.  *note doctest: 3a. 와 *note unittest: 106. 모듈에는 예상
출력이 만들어지는지 코드를 자동으로 실행하고 확인하는 단위 테스트를 작성
하기 위한 프레임워크가 포함되어 있습니다.

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* typing — Support for type hints::
* pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템::
* 파이썬 개발 모드::
* doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트::
* unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크::
* unittest.mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리.
* unittest.mock — 시작하기: unittest mock — 시작하기.
* test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지::
* test.support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티: test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티: test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구: test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
* test.support.threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티: test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
* test.support.warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티: test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.


File: python.info,  Node: typing — Support for type hints,  Next: pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.1 ‘typing’ — Support for type hints
----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

'소스 코드:' Lib/typing.py(1)

     참고: The Python runtime does not enforce function and variable
     type annotations.  They can be used by third party tools such as
     *note type checkers: 26d, IDEs, linters, etc.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides runtime support for type hints.

Consider the function below:

     def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
         return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

The function ‘surface_area_of_cube’ takes an argument expected to be an
instance of *note float: 2ef, as indicated by the *note type hint: 1f89.
‘edge_length: float’.  The function is expected to return an instance of
*note str: 445, as indicated by the ‘-> str’ hint.

While type hints can be simple classes like *note float: 2ef. or *note
str: 445, they can also be more complex.  The *note typing: 104. module
provides a vocabulary of more advanced type hints.

New features are frequently added to the ‘typing’ module.  The
typing_extensions(2) package provides backports of these new features to
older versions of Python.

더 보기
.......

Typing cheat sheet(3)

     A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs)

Type System Reference section of the mypy docs(4)

     The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this
     reference should broadly apply to most Python type checkers.  (Some
     parts may still be specific to mypy.)

Static Typing with Python(5)

     Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community
     detailing type system features, useful typing related tools and
     typing best practices.

* Menu:

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* 형 에일리어스::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* 제네릭::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* 사용자 정의 제네릭 형::
* Any 형::
* 명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<7>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/typing.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/

   (3) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html

   (4) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html

   (5) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Specification for the Python Type System,  Next: 형 에일리어스,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.1 Specification for the Python Type System
.................................................

The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be
found at Specification for the Python type system(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html


File: python.info,  Node: 형 에일리어스,  Next: NewType,  Prev: Specification for the Python Type System,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.2 형 에일리어스
......................

A type alias is defined using the *note type: 431. statement, which
creates an instance of *note TypeAliasType: 44e.  In this example,
‘Vector’ and ‘list[float]’ will be treated equivalently by static type
checkers:

     type Vector = list[float]

     def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
         return [scalar * num for num in vector]

     # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
     new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

형 에일리어스는 복잡한 형 서명을 단순화하는 데 유용합니다.  예를 들면:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
     type Address = tuple[str, int]
     type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

     def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
         ...

     # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
     # being exactly equivalent to this one.
     def broadcast_message(
         message: str,
         servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
     ) -> None:
         ...

The *note type: 431. statement is new in Python 3.12.  For backwards
compatibility, type aliases can also be created through simple
assignment:

     Vector = list[float]

Or marked with *note TypeAlias: 7c2. to make it explicit that this is a
type alias, not a normal variable assignment:

     from typing import TypeAlias

     Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]


File: python.info,  Node: NewType,  Next: Annotating callable objects,  Prev: 형 에일리어스,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.3 NewType
................

Use the *note NewType: cf2. helper to create distinct types:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

정적 형 검사기는 새 형을 원래 형의 서브 클래스인 것처럼 다룹니다.  논리
에러를 잡는 데 유용합니다:

     def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
         ...

     # passes type checking
     user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

     # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
     user_b = get_user_name(-1)

‘UserId’ 형의 변수에 대해 모든 ‘int’ 연산을 여전히 수행할 수 있지만, 결
과는 항상 ‘int’ 형이 됩니다.  이것은 ‘int’가 기대되는 모든 곳에
‘UserId’를 전달할 수 있지만, 잘못된 방식으로 의도하지 않게 ‘UserId’를 만
들지 않도록 합니다:

     # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
     output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

Note that these checks are enforced only by the static type checker.  At
runtime, the statement ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)’ will make
‘Derived’ a callable that immediately returns whatever parameter you
pass it.  That means the expression ‘Derived(some_value)’ does not
create a new class or introduce much overhead beyond that of a regular
function call.

더욱 정확하게, 표현식 ‘some_value is Derived(some_value)’는 실행 시간에
항상 참입니다.

It is invalid to create a subtype of ‘Derived’:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
     class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

However, it is possible to create a *note NewType: cf2. based on a
‘derived’ ‘NewType’:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

그리고 ‘ProUserId’에 대한 형 검사는 예상대로 작동합니다.

자세한 내용은 PEP 484(1)를 참조하십시오.

     참고: Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be
     'equivalent' to one another.  Doing ‘type Alias = Original’ will
     make the static type checker treat ‘Alias’ as being 'exactly
     equivalent' to ‘Original’ in all cases.  This is useful when you
     want to simplify complex type signatures.

     반면에, ‘NewType’은 한 형을 다른 형의 '서브 형'으로 선언합니다.
     ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)’은 정적 형 검사기가
     ‘Derived’를 ‘Original’의 '서브 클래스'로 취급하게 합니다.  이는
     ‘Original’ 형의 값이 ‘Derived’ 형의 값이 예상되는 위치에서 사용될 수
     없음을 의미합니다.  실행 시간 비용을 최소화하면서 논리 에러를 방지
     하려는 경우에 유용합니다.

Added in version 3.5.2.

버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a function.  As
a result, there is some additional runtime cost when calling ‘NewType’
over a regular function.

버전 3.11에서 변경: The performance of calling ‘NewType’ has been
restored to its level in Python 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating callable objects,  Next: 제네릭,  Prev: NewType,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.4 Annotating callable objects
....................................

Functions – or other *note callable: 2900. objects – can be annotated
using *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. or deprecated *note
typing.Callable: 7be.  ‘Callable[[int], str]’ signifies a function that
takes a single parameter of type *note int: 257. and returns a *note
str: 445.

For example:

     from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

     def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                     on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the
argument list and the return type.  The argument list must be a list of
types, a *note ParamSpec: 15e, *note Concatenate: 7bd, or an ellipsis.
The return type must be a single type.

If a literal ellipsis ‘...’ is given as the argument list, it indicates
that a callable with any arbitrary parameter list would be acceptable:

     def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
         return x + y

     x: Callable[..., str]
     x = str     # OK
     x = concat  # Also OK

‘Callable’ cannot express complex signatures such as functions that take
a variadic number of arguments, *note overloaded functions: 3f61, or
functions that have keyword-only parameters.  However, these signatures
can be expressed by defining a *note Protocol: 264. class with a *note
__call__(): 553. method:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import Protocol

     class Combiner(Protocol):
         def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

     def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
         for item in data:
             ...

     def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...
     def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...

     batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
     batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                              # different name and kind in the callback

Callables which take other callables as arguments may indicate that
their parameter types are dependent on each other using *note ParamSpec:
15e.  Additionally, if that callable adds or removes arguments from
other callables, the *note Concatenate: 7bd. operator may be used.  They
take the form ‘Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]’ and
‘Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable],
ReturnType]’ respectively.

버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec: 15e. and
*note Concatenate: 7bd.  See PEP 612(1) for more details.

더 보기
.......

The documentation for *note ParamSpec: 15e. and *note Concatenate: 7bd.
provides examples of usage in ‘Callable’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: 제네릭,  Next: Annotating tuples,  Prev: Annotating callable objects,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.5 제네릭
...............

Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be
statically inferred in a generic way, many container classes in the
standard library support subscription to denote the expected types of
container elements.

     from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

     class Employee: ...

     # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
     # must be instances of "Employee".
     # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
     # must be strings.
     def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                         overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

Generic functions and classes can be parameterized by using *note type
parameter syntax: 2b3.:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
         return l[0]

Or by using the *note TypeVar: 15d. factory directly:

     from collections.abc import Sequence
     from typing import TypeVar

     U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

     def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
         return l[1]

버전 3.12에서 변경: Syntactic support for generics is new in Python
3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating tuples,  Next: The type of class objects,  Prev: 제네릭,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.6 Annotating tuples
..........................

For most containers in Python, the typing system assumes that all
elements in the container will be of the same type.  For example:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
     x: list[int] = []

     # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
     y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

     # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
     # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
     z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

*note list: 60b. only accepts one type argument, so a type checker would
emit an error on the ‘y’ assignment above.  Similarly, *note Mapping:
8c7. only accepts two type arguments: the first indicates the type of
the keys, and the second indicates the type of the values.

Unlike most other Python containers, however, it is common in idiomatic
Python code for tuples to have elements which are not all of the same
type.  For this reason, tuples are special-cased in Python’s typing
system.  *note tuple: 369. accepts 'any number' of type arguments:

     # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
     x: tuple[int] = (5,)

     # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
     # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
     y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

     # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
     # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
     z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

To denote a tuple which could be of 'any' length, and in which all
elements are of the same type ‘T’, use ‘tuple[T, ...]’.  To denote an
empty tuple, use ‘tuple[()]’.  Using plain ‘tuple’ as an annotation is
equivalent to using ‘tuple[Any, ...]’:

     x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
     # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
     x = (1, 2, 3)
     x = ()
     # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
     x = ("foo", "bar")

     # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
     y: tuple[()] = ()

     z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
     # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
     z = (1, 2, 3)
     z = ()


File: python.info,  Node: The type of class objects,  Next: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Prev: Annotating tuples,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.7 The type of class objects
..................................

A variable annotated with ‘C’ may accept a value of type ‘C’.  In
contrast, a variable annotated with ‘type[C]’ (or deprecated *note
typing.Type[C]: 3f67.) may accept values that are classes themselves –
specifically, it will accept the 'class object' of ‘C’.  For example:

     a = 3         # Has type ``int``
     b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
     c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

Note that ‘type[C]’ is covariant:

     class User: ...
     class ProUser(User): ...
     class TeamUser(User): ...

     def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
         # ...
         return user_class()

     make_new_user(User)      # OK
     make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
     make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
     make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
     make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

The only legal parameters for *note type: d45. are classes, *note Any:
6a6, *note type variables: 1f87, and unions of any of these types.  For
example:

     def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

     new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
     new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
     new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                                   # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
     new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

‘type[Any]’ is equivalent to *note type: d45, which is the root of
Python’s *note metaclass hierarchy: 1f7b.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Next: 사용자 정의 제네릭 형,  Prev: The type of class objects,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.8 Annotating generators and coroutines
.............................................

A generator can be annotated using the generic type *note
Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: dd7.  For example:

     def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
         sent = yield 0
         while sent >= 0:
             sent = yield round(sent)
         return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the
‘SendType’ of *note Generator: dd7. behaves contravariantly, not
covariantly or invariantly.

The ‘SendType’ and ‘ReturnType’ parameters default to ‘None’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

It is also possible to set these types explicitly:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Simple generators that only ever yield values can also be annotated as
having a return type of either *note Iterable[YieldType]: 2255. or *note
Iterator[YieldType]: 2256.:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don’t expect a
‘ReturnType’ type argument (*note AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]:
c87.).  The ‘SendType’ argument defaults to ‘None’, so the following
definitions are equivalent:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, *note AsyncIterable[YieldType]: ddb. and
*note AsyncIterator[YieldType]: dda. are available as well:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using *note Coroutine[YieldType, SendType,
ReturnType]: dd9.  Generic arguments correspond to those of *note
Generator: dd7, for example:

     from collections.abc import Coroutine
     c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
     x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
     async def bar() -> None:
         y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 제네릭 형,  Next: Any 형,  Prev: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.9 사용자 정의 제네릭 형
..............................

사용자 정의 클래스는 제네릭 클래스로 정의 할 수 있습니다.

     from logging import Logger

     class LoggedVar[T]:
         def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
             self.name = name
             self.logger = logger
             self.value = value

         def set(self, new: T) -> None:
             self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
             self.value = new

         def get(self) -> T:
             self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
             return self.value

         def log(self, message: str) -> None:
             self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

This syntax indicates that the class ‘LoggedVar’ is parameterised around
a single *note type variable: 3f6a. ‘T’ .  This also makes ‘T’ valid as
a type within the class body.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note Generic: 1620.  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and lower, it is also possible to inherit
explicitly from *note Generic: 1620. to indicate a generic class:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
         ...

Generic classes have *note __class_getitem__(): 734. methods, meaning
they can be parameterised at runtime (e.g.  ‘LoggedVar[int]’ below):

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
         for var in vars:
             var.set(0)

A generic type can have any number of type variables.  All varieties of
*note TypeVar: 15d. are permissible as parameters for a generic type:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

     class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
         ...

     OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
     OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
     OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

     class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
         ...

*note Generic: 1620.에 대한 각 형 변수 인자는 달라야 합니다.  그래서 이
것은 잘못되었습니다:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic
     ...

     class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
         ...

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
         ...

Generic classes can also inherit from other classes:

     from collections.abc import Sized

     class LinkedList[T](Sized):
         ...

When inheriting from generic classes, some type parameters could be
fixed:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
         ...

이 경우 ‘MyDict’는 단일 매개 변수 ‘T’를 갖습니다.

Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes *note
Any: 6a6. for each position.  In the following example, ‘MyIterable’ is
not generic but implicitly inherits from ‘Iterable[Any]’:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
         ...

User-defined generic type aliases are also supported.  Examples:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

     # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
     def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
         ...

     type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

     def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
         return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

For backward compatibility, generic type aliases can also be created
through a simple assignment:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import TypeVar

     S = TypeVar("S")
     Response = Iterable[S] | int

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note Generic: 1620.에는 더는 사용자 정의 메타 클래스
가 없습니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Syntactic support for generics and type aliases is
new in version 3.12.  Previously, generic classes had to explicitly
inherit from *note Generic: 1620. or contain a type variable in one of
their bases.

User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via
parameter specification variables in the form ‘[**P]’.  The behavior is
consistent with type variables’ described above as parameter
specification variables are treated by the ‘typing’ module as a
specialized type variable.  The one exception to this is that a list of
types can be used to substitute a *note ParamSpec: 15e.:

     >>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
     ...
     >>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
     __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

Classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15e. can also be created using
explicit inheritance from *note Generic: 1620.  In this case, ‘**’ is
not used:

     from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

     P = ParamSpec('P')

     class Z(Generic[P]):
         ...

Another difference between *note TypeVar: 15d. and *note ParamSpec: 15e.
is that a generic with only one parameter specification variable will
accept parameter lists in the forms ‘X[[Type1, Type2, ...]]’ and also
‘X[Type1, Type2, ...]’ for aesthetic reasons.  Internally, the latter is
converted to the former, so the following are equivalent:

     >>> class X[**P]: ...
     ...
     >>> X[int, str]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]
     >>> X[[int, str]]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]

Note that generics with *note ParamSpec: 15e. may not have correct
‘__parameters__’ after substitution in some cases because they are
intended primarily for static type checking.

버전 3.10에서 변경: *note Generic: 1620. can now be parameterized over
parameter expressions.  See *note ParamSpec: 15e. and PEP 612(1) for
more details.

A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a
metaclass conflict.  Generic metaclasses are not supported.  The outcome
of parameterizing generics is cached, and most types in the ‘typing’
module are *note hashable: 60a. and comparable for equality.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Any 형,  Next: 명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑,  Prev: 사용자 정의 제네릭 형,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.10 ‘Any’ 형
..................

특수한 종류의 형은 *note Any: 6a6.입니다.  정적 형 검사기는 모든 형을
*note Any: 6a6.와 호환되는 것으로, *note Any: 6a6.를 모든 형과 호환되는
것으로 취급합니다.

이것은 *note Any: 6a6. 형의 값에 대해 어떤 연산이나 메서드 호출을 수행하
고, 그것을 임의의 변수에 대입할 수 있다는 것을 의미합니다:

     from typing import Any

     a: Any = None
     a = []          # OK
     a = 2           # OK

     s: str = ''
     s = a           # OK

     def foo(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
         # and that type might have a 'bar' method
         item.bar()
         ...

Notice that no type checking is performed when assigning a value of type
*note Any: 6a6. to a more precise type.  For example, the static type
checker did not report an error when assigning ‘a’ to ‘s’ even though
‘s’ was declared to be of type *note str: 445. and receives an *note
int: 257. value at runtime!

또한, 반환형이나 매개 변수 형이 없는 모든 함수는 묵시적으로 *note Any:
6a6. 기본값을 사용합니다:

     def legacy_parser(text):
         ...
         return data

     # A static type checker will treat the above
     # as having the same signature as:
     def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
         ...
         return data

이 동작은 여러분이 동적으로 형이 지정되는 코드와 정적으로 형이 지정되는
코드를 혼합해야 할 때 *note Any: 6a6.를 '탈출구'로 사용할 수 있도록 합니
다.

*note Any: 6a6.의 동작과 *note object: a89.의 동작을 대조하십시오.
*note Any: 6a6.와 유사하게, 모든 형은 *note object: a89.의 서브 형입니다
.  그러나, *note Any: 6a6.와는 달리, 그 반대는 사실이 아닙니다: *note
object: a89.는 다른 모든 형의 서브 형이 '아닙'니다.

이것은 값의 형이 *note object: a89.일 때, 형 검사기가 그것에 대한 거의 모
든 연산을 거부하고, 그것을 더 특수한 형의 변수에 대입(또는 그것을 반환 값
으로 사용)하는 것이 형 에러임을 의미합니다.  예를 들면:

     def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
         # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
         item.magic()
         ...

     def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking
         item.magic()
         ...

     # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
     hash_a(42)
     hash_a("foo")

     # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
     hash_b(42)
     hash_b("foo")

값이 형 안전한 방식으로 모든 형이 될 수 있음을 표시하려면 *note object:
a89.를 사용하십시오.  값이 동적으로 형이 지정됨을 표시하려면 *note Any:
6a6.를 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑,  Next: 모듈 내용<7>,  Prev: Any 형,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.11 명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑
......................................

Initially PEP 484(1) defined the Python static type system as using
'nominal subtyping'.  This means that a class ‘A’ is allowed where a
class ‘B’ is expected if and only if ‘A’ is a subclass of ‘B’.

이 요구 사항은 이전에 *note Iterable: 2255.과 같은 추상 베이스 클래스에
도 적용되었습니다.  이 접근 방식의 문제점은 이것을 지원하려면 클래스를 명
시적으로 표시해야만 한다는 점입니다.  이는 파이썬답지 않고 관용적인 동적
으로 형이 지정된 파이썬 코드에서 일반적으로 수행하는 것과는 다릅니다.  예
를 들어, 이것은 PEP 484(2)를 만족합니다:

     from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

     class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

PEP 544(3)는 사용자가 클래스 정의에서 명시적인 베이스 클래스 없이 위의 코
드를 작성할 수 있게 함으로써 이 문제를 풀도록 합니다.  정적 형 검사기가
‘Bucket’을 ‘Sized’와 ‘Iterable[int]’의 서브 형으로 묵시적으로 취급하도록
합니다.  이것은 '구조적 서브 타이핑(structural subtyping)'(또는 정적 덕
타이핑)으로 알려져 있습니다:

     from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

     class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

     def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
     result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

또한, 특별한 클래스 *note Protocol: 264.을 서브 클래싱 함으로써, 사용자
는 새로운 사용자 정의 프로토콜을 정의하여 구조적 서브 타이핑을 완전히 누
릴 수 있습니다 (아래 예를 참조하십시오).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<7>,  Next: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: 명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.12 모듈 내용
...................

The ‘typing’ module defines the following classes, functions and
decorators.

* Menu:

* 특수 타이핑 프리미티브::
* 프로토콜: 프로토콜<3>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* 함수와 데코레이터::
* 인트로스펙션 도우미::
* 상수: 상수<10>.
* Deprecated aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 타이핑 프리미티브,  Next: 프로토콜<3>,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.13 특수 타이핑 프리미티브
................................

* Menu:

* 특수형::
* 특수 형태::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* 기타 특수 지시자::


File: python.info,  Node: 특수형,  Next: 특수 형태,  Up: 특수 타이핑 프리미티브

5.26.1.14 특수형
................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They do not support
subscription using ‘[]’.

 -- 데이터: typing.Any

     제한되지 않는 형을 나타내는 특수형.

        * 모든 형은 *note Any: 6a6.와 호환됩니다.

        * *note Any: 6a6.는 모든 형과 호환됩니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note Any: 6a6. can now be used as a base
     class.  This can be useful for avoiding type checker errors with
     classes that can duck type anywhere or are highly dynamic.

 -- 데이터: typing.AnyStr

     A *note constrained type variable: 3f70.

     Definition:

          AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

     ‘AnyStr’ is meant to be used for functions that may accept *note
     str: 445. or *note bytes: 1c2. arguments but cannot allow the two
     to mix.

     예를 들면:

          def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
              return a + b

          concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
          concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
          concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

     Note that, despite its name, ‘AnyStr’ has nothing to do with the
     *note Any: 6a6. type, nor does it mean “any string”.  In
     particular, ‘AnyStr’ and ‘str | bytes’ are different from each
     other and have different use cases:

          # Invalid use of AnyStr:
          # The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
          # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
          def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

          # The better way of annotating this function:
          def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.18:
     Deprecated in favor of the new *note type parameter syntax: 2b3.
     Use ‘class A[T: (str, bytes)]: ...’ instead of importing ‘AnyStr’.
     See PEP 695(1) for more details.

     In Python 3.16, ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and
     deprecation warnings will be emitted at runtime when it is accessed
     or imported from ‘typing’.  ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing’
     in Python 3.18.

 -- 데이터: typing.LiteralString

     Special type that includes only literal strings.

     Any string literal is compatible with ‘LiteralString’, as is
     another ‘LiteralString’.  However, an object typed as just ‘str’ is
     not.  A string created by composing ‘LiteralString’-typed objects
     is also acceptable as a ‘LiteralString’.

     Example:

          def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
              ...

          def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
              run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
              run_query(literal_string)  # OK
              run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
              run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
              run_query(  # type checker error
                  f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
              )

     ‘LiteralString’ is useful for sensitive APIs where arbitrary
     user-generated strings could generate problems.  For example, the
     two cases above that generate type checker errors could be
     vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

     See PEP 675(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: typing.Never
 -- 데이터: typing.NoReturn

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ represent the bottom type(3), a type that
     has no members.

     They can be used to indicate that a function never returns, such as
     *note sys.exit(): 1339.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def stop() -> Never:
              raise RuntimeError('no way')

     Or to define a function that should never be called, as there are
     no valid arguments, such as *note assert_never(): 6a1.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
              pass

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _:
                      never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ have the same meaning in the type system and
     static type checkers treat both equivalently.

     Added in version 3.6.2: Added *note NoReturn: 3f71.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Never: 6a2.

 -- 데이터: typing.Self

     Special type to represent the current enclosed class.

     예를 들면:

          from typing import Self, reveal_type

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

          class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

          reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
          reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

     This annotation is semantically equivalent to the following, albeit
     in a more succinct fashion:

          from typing import TypeVar

          Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

     In general, if something returns ‘self’, as in the above examples,
     you should use ‘Self’ as the return annotation.  If
     ‘Foo.return_self’ was annotated as returning ‘"Foo"’, then the type
     checker would infer the object returned from
     ‘SubclassOfFoo.return_self’ as being of type ‘Foo’ rather than
     ‘SubclassOfFoo’.

     Other common use cases include:

        - *note classmethod: 166.s that are used as alternative
          constructors and return instances of the ‘cls’ parameter.

        - Annotating an *note __enter__(): 5c2. method which returns
          self.

     You should not use ‘Self’ as the return annotation if the method is
     not guaranteed to return an instance of a subclass when the class
     is subclassed:

          class Eggs:
              # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
              # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
              # even in subclasses
              def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
                  return Eggs()

     See PEP 673(4) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: typing.TypeAlias

     Special annotation for explicitly declaring a *note type alias:
     44d.

     예를 들면:

          from typing import TypeAlias

          Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

     ‘TypeAlias’ is particularly useful on older Python versions for
     annotating aliases that make use of forward references, as it can
     be hard for type checkers to distinguish these from normal variable
     assignments:

          from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

          T = TypeVar("T")

          # "Box" does not exist yet,
          # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
          # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
          # not a variable assignment to a string.
          BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

          class Box(Generic[T]):
              @classmethod
              def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

     See PEP 613(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: *note TypeAlias: 7c2. is deprecated in favor
     of the *note type: 431. statement, which creates instances of *note
     TypeAliasType: 44e. and which natively supports forward references.
     Note that while *note TypeAlias: 7c2. and *note TypeAliasType: 44e.
     serve similar purposes and have similar names, they are distinct
     and the latter is not the type of the former.  Removal of *note
     TypeAlias: 7c2. is not currently planned, but users are encouraged
     to migrate to *note type: 431. statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/


File: python.info,  Node: 특수 형태,  Next: Building generic types and type aliases,  Prev: 특수형,  Up: 특수 타이핑 프리미티브

5.26.1.15 특수 형태
...................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They all support
subscription using ‘[]’, but each has a unique syntax.

 -- 데이터: typing.Union

     Union type; ‘Union[X, Y]’ is equivalent to ‘X | Y’ and means either
     X or Y.

     To define a union, use e.g.  ‘Union[int, str]’ or the shorthand
     ‘int | str’.  Using that shorthand is recommended.  Details:

        * 인자는 형이어야 하며 적어도 하나 있어야 합니다.

        * 공용체의 공용체는 펼쳐집니다, 예를 들어:

               Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

          However, this does not apply to unions referenced through a
          type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying
          *note TypeAliasType: 44e.:

               type A = Union[int, str]
               Union[A, float] != Union[int, str, float]

        * 단일 인자의 공용체는 사라집니다.  예를 들어:

               Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

        * 중복 인자는 건너뜁니다.  예를 들어:

               Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

        * 공용체를 비교할 때, 인자 순서가 무시됩니다, 예를 들어:

               Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

        * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Union’.

        * ‘Union[X][Y]’라고 쓸 수 없습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 실행 시간에 공용체의 명시적 서브 클래스를 제거하
     지 않습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Unions can now be written as ‘X | Y’.  See
     *note union type expressions: 7bb.

 -- 데이터: typing.Optional

     ‘Optional[X]’ is equivalent to ‘X | None’ (or ‘Union[X, None]’).

     이는 기본값을 갖는 선택적 인자와 같은 개념이 아님에 유의하십시오.  단
     지 선택적이기 때문에 기본값을 갖는 선택적 인자가 형 어노테이션에
     ‘Optional’ 한정자가 필요하지는 않습니다.  예를 들면:

          def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
              ...

     한편, 명시적인 ‘None’ 값이 허용되면, 인자가 선택적인지와 관계없이
     ‘Optional’을 사용하는 것이 적합합니다.  예를 들면:

          def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
              ...

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Optional can now be written as ‘X | None’.  See
     *note union type expressions: 7bb.

 -- 데이터: typing.Concatenate

     Special form for annotating higher-order functions.

     ‘Concatenate’ can be used in conjunction with *note Callable: 253b.
     and *note ParamSpec: 15e. to annotate a higher-order callable which
     adds, removes, or transforms parameters of another callable.  Usage
     is in the form ‘Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ...,
     ParamSpecVariable]’.  ‘Concatenate’ is currently only valid when
     used as the first argument to a *note Callable: 253b.  The last
     parameter to ‘Concatenate’ must be a *note ParamSpec: 15e. or
     ellipsis (‘...’).

     For example, to annotate a decorator ‘with_lock’ which provides a
     *note threading.Lock: 167e. to the decorated function,
     ‘Concatenate’ can be used to indicate that ‘with_lock’ expects a
     callable which takes in a ‘Lock’ as the first argument, and returns
     a callable with a different type signature.  In this case, the
     *note ParamSpec: 15e. indicates that the returned callable’s
     parameter types are dependent on the parameter types of the
     callable being passed in:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          from threading import Lock
          from typing import Concatenate

          # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
          # at any time.
          my_lock = Lock()

          def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
              '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
                  # Provide the lock as the first argument.
                  return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @with_lock
          def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
              '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
              with lock:
                  return sum(numbers)

          # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
          sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

     Added in version 3.10.

     더 보기
     .......

        * PEP 612(1) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note ParamSpec: 15e.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 253b.

 -- 데이터: typing.Literal

     Special typing form to define “literal types”.

     ‘Literal’ can be used to indicate to type checkers that the
     annotated object has a value equivalent to one of the provided
     literals.

     예를 들면:

          def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
              ...

          type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
          def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
              ...

          open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
          open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

     ‘Literal[...]’은 서브 클래싱 될 수 없습니다.  실행 시간에는, 임의의
     값이 ‘Literal[...]’에 대한 형 인자로 허용되지만, 형 검사기는 제한을
     부과할 수 있습니다.  리터럴 형에 대한 자세한 내용은 PEP 586(2)을 참
     조하십시오.

     Additional details:

        * The arguments must be literal values and there must be at
          least one.

        * Nested ‘Literal’ types are flattened, e.g.:

               assert Literal[Literal[1, 2], 3] == Literal[1, 2, 3]

          However, this does not apply to ‘Literal’ types referenced
          through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the
          underlying *note TypeAliasType: 44e.:

               type A = Literal[1, 2]
               assert Literal[A, 3] != Literal[1, 2, 3]

        * 중복 인자는 건너뜁니다.  예를 들어:

               assert Literal[1, 2, 1] == Literal[1, 2]

        * When comparing literals, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:

               assert Literal[1, 2] == Literal[2, 1]

        * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Literal’.

        * You cannot write ‘Literal[X][Y]’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.9.1에서 변경: ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.
     Equality comparisons of ‘Literal’ objects are no longer order
     dependent.  ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError:
     532. exception during equality comparisons if one of their
     parameters are not *note hashable: 60a.

 -- 데이터: typing.ClassVar

     클래스 변수를 표시하기 위한 특수 형 구조물.

     PEP 526(3)에서 소개된 것처럼, ClassVar로 감싼 변수 어노테이션은 주
     어진 어트리뷰트가 클래스 변수로 사용되도록 의도되었으며 해당 클래스
     의 인스턴스에 설정되어서는 안 됨을 나타냅니다.  용법:

          class Starship:
              stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
              damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

     *note ClassVar: 266.는 형만 받아들이며 더는 서브 스크립트 할 수 없
     습니다.

     *note ClassVar: 266.는 클래스 자체가 아니므로, *note isinstance():
     43b.나 *note issubclass(): 7ba.와 함께 사용하면 안 됩니다.  *note
     ClassVar: 266.는 파이썬 실행 시간 동작을 변경하지 않지만, 제삼자 형
     검사기에서 사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 형 검사기는 다음 코드를
     에러로 표시 할 수 있습니다:

          enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
          enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
          Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note ClassVar: 266. can now be nested in *note
     Final: 267. and vice versa.

 -- 데이터: typing.Final

     Special typing construct to indicate final names to type checkers.

     Final names cannot be reassigned in any scope.  Final names
     declared in class scopes cannot be overridden in subclasses.

     예를 들면:

          MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
          MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

          class Connection:
              TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

          class FastConnector(Connection):
              TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

     이러한 속성에 대한 실행 시간 검사는 없습니다.  자세한 내용은 PEP
     591(4)을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note Final: 267. can now be nested in *note
     ClassVar: 266. and vice versa.

 -- 데이터: typing.Required

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 162. key as
     required.

     This is mainly useful for ‘total=False’ TypedDicts.  See *note
     TypedDict: 162. and PEP 655(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: typing.NotRequired

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 162. key as
     potentially missing.

     See *note TypedDict: 162. and PEP 655(6) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: typing.ReadOnly

     A special typing construct to mark an item of a *note TypedDict:
     162. as read-only.

     예를 들면:

          class Movie(TypedDict):
             title: ReadOnly[str]
             year: int

          def mutate_movie(m: Movie) -> None:
             m["year"] = 1999  # allowed
             m["title"] = "The Matrix"  # typechecker error

     There is no runtime checking for this property.

     See *note TypedDict: 162. and PEP 705(7) for more details.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: typing.Annotated

     Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an
     annotation.

     Add metadata ‘x’ to a given type ‘T’ by using the annotation
     ‘Annotated[T, x]’.  Metadata added using ‘Annotated’ can be used by
     static analysis tools or at runtime.  At runtime, the metadata is
     stored in a ‘__metadata__’ attribute.

     If a library or tool encounters an annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’ and
     has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the
     metadata and simply treat the annotation as ‘T’.  As such,
     ‘Annotated’ can be useful for code that wants to use annotations
     for purposes outside Python’s static typing system.

     Using ‘Annotated[T, x]’ as an annotation still allows for static
     typechecking of ‘T’, as type checkers will simply ignore the
     metadata ‘x’.  In this way, ‘Annotated’ differs from the *note
     @no_type_check: 6ae. decorator, which can also be used for adding
     annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely
     disables typechecking for a function or class.

     The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the
     tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ annotation.  A tool or
     library encountering an ‘Annotated’ type can scan through the
     metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using
     *note isinstance(): 43b.).

      -- Describe: Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

     Here is an example of how you might use ‘Annotated’ to add metadata
     to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

          @dataclass
          class ValueRange:
              lo: int
              hi: int

          T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
          T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

     The first argument to ‘Annotated’ must be a valid type.  Multiple
     metadata elements can be supplied as ‘Annotated’ supports variadic
     arguments.  The order of the metadata elements is preserved and
     matters for equality checks:

          @dataclass
          class ctype:
               kind: str

          a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
          a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]

          assert a1 != a2  # Order matters

     It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether
     the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one
     annotation and how to merge those annotations.

     Nested ‘Annotated’ types are flattened.  The order of the metadata
     elements starts with the innermost annotation:

          assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
          ]

     However, this does not apply to ‘Annotated’ types referenced
     through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying
     *note TypeAliasType: 44e.:

          type From3To10[T] = Annotated[T, ValueRange(3, 10)]
          assert Annotated[From3To10[int], ctype("char")] != Annotated[
             int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
          ]

     Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

          assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
          ]

     ‘Annotated’ can be used with nested and generic aliases:

               @dataclass
               class MaxLen:
                   value: int

               type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

               # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
               # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
               type V = Vec[int]

     ‘Annotated’ cannot be used with an unpacked *note TypeVarTuple:
     15f.:

          type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]  # NOT valid

     where ‘T1’, ‘T2’, … are *note TypeVars: 15d.  This is invalid as
     only one type should be passed to Annotated.

     By default, *note get_type_hints(): 6ab. strips the metadata from
     annotations.  Pass ‘include_extras=True’ to have the metadata
     preserved:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
               >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
               ...
               >>> get_type_hints(func)
               {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
               >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
               {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

     At runtime, the metadata associated with an ‘Annotated’ type can be
     retrieved via the ‘__metadata__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated
               >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
               >>> X
               typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
               >>> X.__metadata__
               ('very', 'important', 'metadata')

     If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by ‘Annotated’,
     use the ‘__origin__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
               >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
               >>> Password.__origin__
               <class 'str'>

     Note that using *note get_origin(): a43. will return ‘Annotated’
     itself:

               >>> get_origin(Password)
               typing.Annotated

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 593(8) - Flexible function and variable annotations

          The PEP introducing ‘Annotated’ to the standard library.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: typing.TypeIs

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate
     functions.

     ‘TypeIs’ can be used to annotate the return type of a user-defined
     type predicate function.  ‘TypeIs’ only accepts a single type
     argument.  At runtime, functions marked this way should return a
     boolean and take at least one positional argument.

     ‘TypeIs’ aims to benefit 'type narrowing' – a technique used by
     static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an
     expression within a program’s code flow.  Usually type narrowing is
     done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing
     to a block of code.  The conditional expression here is sometimes
     referred to as a “type predicate”:

          def is_str(val: str | float):
              # "isinstance" type predicate
              if isinstance(val, str):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
                  ...
              else:
                  # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
                  ...

     Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean
     function as a type predicate.  Such a function should use
     ‘TypeIs[...]’ or *note TypeGuard: 164. as its return type to alert
     static type checkers to this intention.  ‘TypeIs’ usually has more
     intuitive behavior than ‘TypeGuard’, but it cannot be used when the
     input and output types are incompatible (e.g., ‘list[object]’ to
     ‘list[int]’) or when the function does not return ‘True’ for all
     instances of the narrowed type.

     Using ‘-> TypeIs[NarrowedType]’ tells the static type checker that
     for a given function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          intersection of the argument’s original type and
          ‘NarrowedType’.

       3. If the return value is ‘False’, the type of its argument is
          narrowed to exclude ‘NarrowedType’.

     예를 들면:

          from typing import assert_type, final, TypeIs

          class Parent: pass
          class Child(Parent): pass
          @final
          class Unrelated: pass

          def is_parent(val: object) -> TypeIs[Parent]:
              return isinstance(val, Parent)

          def run(arg: Child | Unrelated):
              if is_parent(arg):
                  # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to the intersection
                  # of ``Parent`` and ``Child``, which is equivalent to
                  # ``Child``.
                  assert_type(arg, Child)
              else:
                  # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to exclude ``Parent``,
                  # so only ``Unrelated`` is left.
                  assert_type(arg, Unrelated)

     The type inside ‘TypeIs’ must be consistent with the type of the
     function’s argument; if it is not, static type checkers will raise
     an error.  An incorrectly written ‘TypeIs’ function can lead to
     unsound behavior in the type system; it is the user’s
     responsibility to write such functions in a type-safe manner.

     If a ‘TypeIs’ function is a class or instance method, then the type
     in ‘TypeIs’ maps to the type of the second parameter (after ‘cls’
     or ‘self’).

     In short, the form ‘def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeIs[TypeB]: ...’,
     means that if ‘foo(arg)’ returns ‘True’, then ‘arg’ is an instance
     of ‘TypeB’, and if it returns ‘False’, it is not an instance of
     ‘TypeB’.

     ‘TypeIs’ also works with type variables.  For more information, see
     PEP 742(9) (Narrowing types with ‘TypeIs’).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: typing.TypeGuard

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate
     functions.

     Type predicate functions are user-defined functions that return
     whether their argument is an instance of a particular type.
     ‘TypeGuard’ works similarly to *note TypeIs: 163, but has subtly
     different effects on type checking behavior (see below).

     Using ‘-> TypeGuard’ tells the static type checker that for a given
     function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          type inside ‘TypeGuard’.

     ‘TypeGuard’ also works with type variables.  See PEP 647(10) for
     more details.

     예를 들면:

          def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
              '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
              return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

          def func1(val: list[object]):
              if is_str_list(val):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
                  print(" ".join(val))
              else:
                  # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
                  print("Not a list of strings!")

     ‘TypeIs’ and ‘TypeGuard’ differ in the following ways:

        * ‘TypeIs’ requires the narrowed type to be a subtype of the
          input type, while ‘TypeGuard’ does not.  The main reason is to
          allow for things like narrowing ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[str]’
          even though the latter is not a subtype of the former, since
          ‘list’ is invariant.

        * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers
          narrow the type of the variable to exactly the ‘TypeGuard’
          type.  When a ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers
          can infer a more precise type combining the previously known
          type of the variable with the ‘TypeIs’ type.  (Technically,
          this is known as an intersection type.)

        * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers
          cannot narrow the type of the variable at all.  When a
          ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers can narrow
          the type of the variable to exclude the ‘TypeIs’ type.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: typing.Unpack

     Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been
     unpacked.

     For example, using the unpack operator ‘*’ on a *note type variable
     tuple: 3f73. is equivalent to using ‘Unpack’ to mark the type
     variable tuple as having been unpacked:

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]
          # Effectively does:
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

     In fact, ‘Unpack’ can be used interchangeably with ‘*’ in the
     context of *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f. and *note
     builtins.tuple: 369. types.  You might see ‘Unpack’ being used
     explicitly in older versions of Python, where ‘*’ couldn’t be used
     in certain places:

          # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
          # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
          from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

     ‘Unpack’ can also be used along with *note typing.TypedDict: 162.
     for typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature:

          from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

          class Movie(TypedDict):
              name: str
              year: int

          # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
          # and `year` of type `int`.
          def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

     See PEP 692(11) for more details on using ‘Unpack’ for ‘**kwargs’
     typing.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/


File: python.info,  Node: Building generic types and type aliases,  Next: 기타 특수 지시자,  Prev: 특수 형태,  Up: 특수 타이핑 프리미티브

5.26.1.16 Building generic types and type aliases
.................................................

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations.  Their
intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and
type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (*note type
parameter lists: 2b3. and the *note type: 431. statement).  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created
without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.

 -- 클래스: typing.Generic

     제네릭 형을 위한 추상 베이스 클래스.

     A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type
     parameters after the class name:

          class Mapping[KT, VT]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

     Such a class implicitly inherits from ‘Generic’.  The runtime
     semantics of this syntax are discussed in the *note Language
     Reference: 44b.

     이 클래스는 다음과 같이 사용할 수 있습니다:

          def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
              try:
                  return mapping[key]
              except KeyError:
                  return default

     Here the brackets after the function name indicate a *note generic
     function: 44c.

     For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared
     by explicitly inheriting from ‘Generic’.  In this case, the type
     parameters must be declared separately:

          KT = TypeVar('KT')
          VT = TypeVar('VT')

          class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

 -- 클래스: typing.TypeVar (name, *constraints, bound=None,
          covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False,
          default=typing.NoDefault)

     형 변수.

     The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated
     syntax for *note generic functions: 44c, *note generic classes:
     44b, and *note generic type aliases: 44f.:

          class Sequence[T]:  # T is a TypeVar
              ...

     This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type
     variables:

          class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
              ...                     # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"


          class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
              ...

     However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be
     constructed manually, like so:

          T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
          S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
          A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

     Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
     checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
     as for generic function and type alias definitions.  See *note
     Generic: 1620. for more information on generic types.  Generic
     functions work as follows:

          def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
              """Return a list containing n references to x."""
              return [x]*n


          def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
              """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
              print(x.capitalize())
              return x


          def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
              """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
              return x + y

     Note that type variables can be 'bounded', 'constrained', or
     neither, but cannot be both bounded 'and' constrained.

     The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when
     they are created through the *note type parameter syntax: 2b3. or
     when ‘infer_variance=True’ is passed.  Manually created type
     variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by
     passing ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’.  By default,
     manually created type variables are invariant.  See PEP 484(1) and
     PEP 695(2) for more details.

     Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have
     different semantics in several important ways.  Using a 'bounded'
     type variable means that the ‘TypeVar’ will be solved using the
     most specific type possible:

          x = print_capitalized('a string')
          reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

          class StringSubclass(str):
              pass

          y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
          reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

          z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

     The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract
     type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types:

          # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
          def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
              print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

          U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
          V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
     Using a 'constrained' type variable, however, means that the
     ‘TypeVar’ can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the
     constraints given:

          a = concatenate('one', 'two')
          reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

          b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
          reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

          c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

     At runtime, ‘isinstance(x, T)’ will raise *note TypeError: 532.

      -- 속성: __name__

          The name of the type variable.

      -- 속성: __covariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

      -- 속성: __contravariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as
          contravariant.

      -- 속성: __infer_variance__

          Whether the type variable’s variance should be inferred by
          type checkers.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 속성: __bound__

          The upper bound of the type variable, if any.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: For type variables created through *note
          type parameter syntax: 2b3, the bound is evaluated only when
          the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is
          created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 450.).

      -- 속성: __constraints__

          A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if
          any.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: For type variables created through *note
          type parameter syntax: 2b3, the constraints are evaluated only
          when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is
          created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 450.).

      -- 속성: __default__

          The default value of the type variable, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 262. if it has no default.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the type variable has a default value.
          This is equivalent to checking whether *note __default__:
          3f7b. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 262. singleton,
          except that it does not force evaluation of the *note lazily
          evaluated: 450. default value.

          Added in version 3.13.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Type variables can now be declared using the
     *note type parameter: 2b3. syntax introduced by PEP 695(3).  The
     ‘infer_variance’ parameter was added.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Support for default values was added.

 -- 클래스: typing.TypeVarTuple (name, *, default=typing.NoDefault)

     Type variable tuple.  A specialized form of *note type variable:
     3f6a. that enables 'variadic' generics.

     Type variable tuples can be declared in *note type parameter lists:
     2b3. using a single asterisk (‘*’) before the name:

          def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     Or by explicitly invoking the ‘TypeVarTuple’ constructor:

          T = TypeVar("T")
          Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

          def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type.
     A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an
     'arbitrary' number of types by acting like an 'arbitrary' number of
     type variables wrapped in a tuple.  For example:

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
          # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
          # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
          # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

          # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
          # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
          # (at least one element is required)
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

     Note the use of the unpacking operator ‘*’ in ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’.
     Conceptually, you can think of ‘Ts’ as a tuple of type variables
     ‘(T1, T2, ...)’.  ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’ would then become ‘tuple[T, *(T1,
     T2, ...)]’, which is equivalent to ‘tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]’.  (Note
     that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using
     *note Unpack: 1636. instead, as ‘Unpack[Ts]’.)

     Type variable tuples must 'always' be unpacked.  This helps
     distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

          x: Ts          # Not valid
          x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
          x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

     Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal
     type variables.  For example, in class definitions, arguments, and
     return types:

          class Array[*Shape]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
              def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
              def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

     Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type
     variables:

          class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
              pass

          class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
              pass

          class Height: ...
          class Width: ...

          float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
          int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

     However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a
     single list of type arguments or type parameters:

          x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
          class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
              pass

     Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type
     annotation of ‘*args’:

          def call_soon[*Ts](
              callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
              *args: *Ts
          ) -> None:
              ...
              callback(*args)

     In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of ‘*args’ - e.g.  ‘*args:
     int’, which would specify that 'all' arguments are ‘int’ - ‘*args:
     *Ts’ enables reference to the types of the 'individual' arguments
     in ‘*args’.  Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the
     ‘*args’ passed to ‘call_soon’ match the types of the (positional)
     arguments of ‘callback’.

     See PEP 646(4) for more details on type variable tuples.

      -- 속성: __name__

          The name of the type variable tuple.

      -- 속성: __default__

          The default value of the type variable tuple, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 262. if it has no default.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the type variable tuple has a default
          value.  This is equivalent to checking whether *note
          __default__: 3f7e. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 262.
          singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the
          *note lazily evaluated: 450. default value.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Type variable tuples can now be declared using
     the *note type parameter: 2b3. syntax introduced by PEP 695(5).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Support for default values was added.

 -- 클래스: typing.ParamSpec (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False,
          contravariant=False, default=typing.NoDefault)

     Parameter specification variable.  A specialized version of *note
     type variables: 3f6a.

     In *note type parameter lists: 2b3, parameter specifications can be
     declared with two asterisks (‘**’):

          type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

     For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ‘ParamSpec’ objects
     can also be created as follows:

          P = ParamSpec('P')

     Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit
     of static type checkers.  They are used to forward the parameter
     types of one callable to another callable – a pattern commonly
     found in higher order functions and decorators.  They are only
     valid when used in ‘Concatenate’, or as the first argument to
     ‘Callable’, or as parameters for user-defined Generics.  See *note
     Generic: 1620. for more information on generic types.

     For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a
     decorator ‘add_logging’ to log function calls.  The parameter
     specification variable tells the type checker that the callable
     passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have
     inter-dependent type parameters:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          import logging

          def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
              '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
                  logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
                  return f(*args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @add_logging
          def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
              '''Add two numbers together.'''
              return x + y

     Without ‘ParamSpec’, the simplest way to annotate this previously
     was to use a *note TypeVar: 15d. with upper bound ‘Callable[...,
     Any]’.  However this causes two problems:

       1. The type checker can’t type check the ‘inner’ function because
          ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ have to be typed *note Any: 6a6.

       2. *note cast(): 3f80. may be required in the body of the
          ‘add_logging’ decorator when returning the ‘inner’ function,
          or the static type checker must be told to ignore the ‘return
          inner’.

      -- 속성: args

      -- 속성: kwargs

          Since ‘ParamSpec’ captures both positional and keyword
          parameters, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ can be used to split a
          ‘ParamSpec’ into its components.  ‘P.args’ represents the
          tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only
          be used to annotate ‘*args’.  ‘P.kwargs’ represents the
          mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call,
          and should be only be used to annotate ‘**kwargs’.  Both
          attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope.  At
          runtime, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ are instances respectively of
          *note ParamSpecArgs: 7bf. and *note ParamSpecKwargs: 7c0.

      -- 속성: __name__

          The name of the parameter specification.

      -- 속성: __default__

          The default value of the parameter specification, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 262. if it has no default.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the parameter specification has a
          default value.  This is equivalent to checking whether *note
          __default__: 3f84. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 262.
          singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the
          *note lazily evaluated: 450. default value.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Parameter specification variables created with ‘covariant=True’ or
     ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or
     contravariant generic types.  The ‘bound’ argument is also
     accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 15d.  However the actual
     semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Parameter specifications can now be declared
     using the *note type parameter: 2b3. syntax introduced by PEP
     695(6).

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Support for default values was added.

          참고: Only parameter specification variables defined in global
          scope can be pickled.

     더 보기
     .......

        * PEP 612(7) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note Concatenate: 7bd.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 253b.

 -- 데이터: typing.ParamSpecArgs
 -- 데이터: typing.ParamSpecKwargs

     Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a *note ParamSpec:
     15e.  The ‘P.args’ attribute of a ‘ParamSpec’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecArgs’, and ‘P.kwargs’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecKwargs’.  They are intended for runtime introspection and
     have no special meaning to static type checkers.

     Calling *note get_origin(): a43. on either of these objects will
     return the original ‘ParamSpec’:

          >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
          >>> P = ParamSpec("P")
          >>> get_origin(P.args) is P
          True
          >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
          True

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: typing.TypeAliasType (name, value, *, type_params=())

     The type of type aliases created through the *note type: 431.
     statement.

     Example:

          >>> type Alias = int
          >>> type(Alias)
          <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

     Added in version 3.12.

      -- 속성: __name__

          The name of the type alias:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__name__
               'Alias'

      -- 속성: __module__

          The module in which the type alias was defined:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__module__
               '__main__'

      -- 속성: __type_params__

          The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if
          the alias is not generic:

               >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
               >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
               (T,)
               >>> type NotGeneric = int
               >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
               ()

      -- 속성: __value__

          The type alias’s value.  This is *note lazily evaluated: 450,
          so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved
          until the ‘__value__’ attribute is accessed:

               >>> type Mutually = Recursive
               >>> type Recursive = Mutually
               >>> Mutually
               Mutually
               >>> Recursive
               Recursive
               >>> Mutually.__value__
               Recursive
               >>> Recursive.__value__
               Mutually

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 특수 지시자,  Prev: Building generic types and type aliases,  Up: 특수 타이핑 프리미티브

5.26.1.17 기타 특수 지시자
..........................

These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations.
Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and
declaring types.

 -- 클래스: typing.NamedTuple

     형 지정된(typed) *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. 버전.

     용법:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int

     이것은 다음과 동등합니다:

          Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

     필드에 기본값을 부여하려면, 클래스 바디에서 그 값을 대입할 수 있습
     니다:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int = 3

          employee = Employee('Guido')
          assert employee.id == 3

     기본값이 있는 필드는 기본값이 없는 모든 필드 뒤에 와야 합니다.

     The resulting class has an extra attribute ‘__annotations__’ giving
     a dict that maps the field names to the field types.  (The field
     names are in the ‘_fields’ attribute and the default values are in
     the ‘_field_defaults’ attribute, both of which are part of the
     *note namedtuple(): 1ca. API.)

     ‘NamedTuple’ 서브 클래스는 독스트링과 메서드도 가질 수 있습니다:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              """Represents an employee."""
              name: str
              id: int = 3

              def __repr__(self) -> str:
                  return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can be generic:

          class Group[T](NamedTuple):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     이전 버전과 호환되는 사용법:

          # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

          # A functional syntax is also supported
          Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

     버전 3.6에서 변경: PEP 526(1) 변수 어노테이션 문법 지원을 추가했습
     니다.

     버전 3.6.1에서 변경: 기본값, 메서드 및 독스트링에 대한 지원을 추가
     했습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘_field_types’와 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트는
     이제 ‘OrderedDict’ 인스턴스가 아닌 일반 딕셔너리입니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘_field_types’ 어트리뷰트를 제거하고, 같은 정보
     를 가지는 더 표준적인 ‘__annotations__’ 어트리뷰트로 대체했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for generic namedtuples.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The
     undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple
     classes (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) is deprecated, and will be
     disallowed in 3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional
     syntax instead.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     When using the functional syntax to create a NamedTuple class,
     failing to pass a value to the ‘fields’ parameter (‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’ to the ‘fields’
     parameter (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’) is also deprecated.  Both
     will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a NamedTuple class
     with 0 fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

 -- 클래스: typing.NewType (name, tp)

     Helper class to create low-overhead *note distinct types: 3f5e.

     A ‘NewType’ is considered a distinct type by a typechecker.  At
     runtime, however, calling a ‘NewType’ returns its argument
     unchanged.

     용법:

          UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
          first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

      -- 속성: __module__

          The module in which the new type is defined.

      -- 속성: __name__

          The name of the new type.

      -- 속성: __supertype__

          The type that the new type is based on.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a
     function.

 -- 클래스: typing.Protocol (Generic)

     Base class for protocol classes.

     Protocol classes are defined like this:

          class Proto(Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  ...

     이러한 클래스는 주로 구조적 서브 타이핑(정적 덕 타이핑)을 인식하는
     정적 형 검사기와 함께 사용됩니다, 예를 들어:

          class C:
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  return 0

          def func(x: Proto) -> int:
              return x.meth()

          func(C())  # Passes static type check

     See PEP 544(2) for more details.  Protocol classes decorated with
     *note runtime_checkable(): 43c. (described later) act as
     simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of
     given attributes, ignoring their type signatures.  Protocol classes
     without this decorator cannot be used as the second argument to
     *note isinstance(): 43b. or *note issubclass(): 7ba.

     프로토콜 클래스는 제네릭일 수 있습니다, 예를 들어:

          class GenProto[T](Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older,
     generic Protocols can be written as follows:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: @typing.runtime_checkable

     프로토콜 클래스를 실행 시간 프로토콜로 표시합니다.

     Such a protocol can be used with *note isinstance(): 43b. and *note
     issubclass(): 7ba.  This allows a simple-minded structural check,
     very similar to “one trick ponies” in *note collections.abc: 1e.
     such as *note Iterable: 2255.  For example:

          @runtime_checkable
          class Closable(Protocol):
              def close(self): ...

          assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

          @runtime_checkable
          class Named(Protocol):
              name: str

          import threading
          assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

     This decorator raises *note TypeError: 532. when applied to a
     non-protocol class.

          참고: ‘runtime_checkable()’ will check only the presence of
          the required methods or attributes, not their type signatures
          or types.  For example, *note ssl.SSLObject: b7e. is a class,
          therefore it passes an *note issubclass(): 7ba. check against
          *note Callable: 253b.  However, the ‘ssl.SSLObject.__init__’
          method exists only to raise a *note TypeError: 532. with a
          more informative message, therefore making it impossible to
          call (instantiate) *note ssl.SSLObject: b7e.

          참고: An *note isinstance(): 43b. check against a
          runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared
          to an ‘isinstance()’ check against a non-protocol class.
          Consider using alternative idioms such as *note hasattr():
          4cc. calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive
          code.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The internal implementation of *note
     isinstance(): 43b. checks against runtime-checkable protocols now
     uses *note inspect.getattr_static(): 48e. to look up attributes
     (previously, *note hasattr(): 4cc. was used).  As a result, some
     objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are
     now considered “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable
     protocol will still work, but will have no impact on *note
     isinstance(): 43b. checks comparing objects to the protocol.  See
     *note What’s new in Python 3.12: 4cb. for more details.

 -- 클래스: typing.TypedDict (dict)

     딕셔너리에 형 힌트를 추가하는 특수 구조.  실행 시간에 일반 *note
     dict: 256.입니다.

     ‘TypedDict’는 모든 인스턴스가 각 키가 일관된 형의 값에 연관되는, 특
     정한 키 집합을 갖도록 기대되는 딕셔너리 형을 선언합니다.  이 기대는
     실행 시간에는 검사되지 않고, 형 검사기에서만 강제됩니다.  사용법:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: str

          a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
          b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

          assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

     An alternative way to create a ‘TypedDict’ is by using
     function-call syntax.  The second argument must be a literal *note
     dict: 256.:

          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

     This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid
     *note identifiers: 1e9c, for example because they are keywords or
     contain hyphens, or when key names must not be *note mangled: 1cc2.
     like regular private names:

          # raises SyntaxError
          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
              x-y: int  # name with hyphens

          class Definition(TypedDict):
              __schema: str  # mangled to `_Definition__schema`

          # OK, functional syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
          Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str})  # not mangled

     By default, all keys must be present in a ‘TypedDict’.  It is
     possible to mark individual keys as non-required using *note
     NotRequired: 5bf.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: NotRequired[str]

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have the ‘label’ key
     omitted.

     It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by
     specifying a totality of ‘False’:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: int
              y: int

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have any of the keys
     omitted.  A type checker is only expected to support a literal
     ‘False’ or ‘True’ as the value of the ‘total’ argument.  ‘True’ is
     the default, and makes all items defined in the class body
     required.

     Individual keys of a ‘total=False’ ‘TypedDict’ can be marked as
     required using *note Required: 5be.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: Required[int]
              y: Required[int]
              label: str

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
              'x': Required[int],
              'y': Required[int],
              'label': str
          }, total=False)

     It is possible for a ‘TypedDict’ type to inherit from one or more
     other ‘TypedDict’ types using the class-based syntax.  Usage:

          class Point3D(Point2D):
              z: int

     ‘Point3D’ has three items: ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’.  It is equivalent to
     this definition:

          class Point3D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              z: int

     A ‘TypedDict’ cannot inherit from a non-‘TypedDict’ class, except
     for *note Generic: 1620.  For example:

          class X(TypedDict):
              x: int

          class Y(TypedDict):
              y: int

          class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

          class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

          class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be generic:

          class Group[T](TypedDict):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     To create a generic ‘TypedDict’ that is compatible with Python 3.11
     or lower, inherit from *note Generic: 1620. explicitly:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be introspected via annotations dicts (see *note
     Annotations Best Practices: 7d2. for more information on
     annotations best practices), *note __total__: 3f8e, *note
     __required_keys__: 3f8f, and *note __optional_keys__: 3f90.

      -- 속성: __total__

          ‘Point2D.__total__’ gives the value of the ‘total’ argument.
          Example:

               >>> from typing import TypedDict
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               True
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               False
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
               >>> Point3D.__total__
               True

          This attribute reflects 'only' the value of the ‘total’
          argument to the current ‘TypedDict’ class, not whether the
          class is semantically total.  For example, a ‘TypedDict’ with
          ‘__total__’ set to ‘True’ may have keys marked with *note
          NotRequired: 5bf, or it may inherit from another ‘TypedDict’
          with ‘total=False’.  Therefore, it is generally better to use
          *note __required_keys__: 3f8f. and *note __optional_keys__:
          3f90. for introspection.

      -- 속성: __required_keys__

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- 속성: __optional_keys__

          ‘Point2D.__required_keys__’ and ‘Point2D.__optional_keys__’
          return *note frozenset: 5d4. objects containing required and
          non-required keys, respectively.

          Keys marked with *note Required: 5be. will always appear in
          ‘__required_keys__’ and keys marked with *note NotRequired:
          5bf. will always appear in ‘__optional_keys__’.

          For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is
          also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
          non-required keys in the same ‘TypedDict’ .  This is done by
          declaring a ‘TypedDict’ with one value for the ‘total’
          argument and then inheriting from it in another ‘TypedDict’
          with a different value for ‘total’:

               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
               ...     x: int
               ...     y: int
               ...
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D):
               ...     z: int
               ...
               >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
               True
               >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
               True

          Added in version 3.9.

               참고: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used or
               if annotations are given as strings, annotations are not
               evaluated when the ‘TypedDict’ is defined.  Therefore,
               the runtime introspection that ‘__required_keys__’ and
               ‘__optional_keys__’ rely on may not work properly, and
               the values of the attributes may be incorrect.

     Support for *note ReadOnly: 161. is reflected in the following
     attributes:

      -- 속성: __readonly_keys__

          A *note frozenset: 5d4. containing the names of all read-only
          keys.  Keys are read-only if they carry the *note ReadOnly:
          161. qualifier.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 속성: __mutable_keys__

          A *note frozenset: 5d4. containing the names of all mutable
          keys.  Keys are mutable if they do not carry the *note
          ReadOnly: 161. qualifier.

          Added in version 3.13.

     추가 예제와 ‘TypedDict’를 사용하는 자세한 규칙은 PEP 589(3)를 참조
     하십시오.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for marking individual keys as
     *note Required: 5be. or *note NotRequired: 5bf.  See PEP 655(4).

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added support for generic ‘TypedDict’s.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Removed support for the keyword-argument method
     of creating ‘TypedDict’s.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Support for the *note ReadOnly: 161. qualifier
     was added.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     When using the functional syntax to create a TypedDict class,
     failing to pass a value to the ‘fields’ parameter (‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’ to the ‘fields’
     parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) is also deprecated.  Both
     will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a TypedDict class
     with 0 fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/


File: python.info,  Node: 프로토콜<3>,  Next: ABCs for working with IO,  Prev: 특수 타이핑 프리미티브,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.18 프로토콜
..................

The following protocols are provided by the ‘typing’ module.  All are
decorated with *note @runtime_checkable: 43c.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsAbs

     반환형이 공변적(covariant)인 하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__abs__’를 가진
     ABC.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsBytes

     하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__bytes__’를 가진 ABC.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsComplex

     하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__complex__’를 가진 ABC.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsFloat

     하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__float__’를 가진 ABC.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsIndex

     하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__index__’를 가진 ABC.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsInt

     하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__int__’를 가진 ABC.

 -- 클래스: typing.SupportsRound

     반환형이 공변적(covariant)인 하나의 추상 메서드 ‘__round__’를 가진
     ABC.


File: python.info,  Node: ABCs for working with IO,  Next: 함수와 데코레이터,  Prev: 프로토콜<3>,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.19 ABCs for working with IO
..................................

 -- 클래스: typing.IO
 -- 클래스: typing.TextIO
 -- 클래스: typing.BinaryIO

     Generic type ‘IO[AnyStr]’ and its subclasses ‘TextIO(IO[str])’ and
     ‘BinaryIO(IO[bytes])’ represent the types of I/O streams such as
     returned by *note open(): 515.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수와 데코레이터,  Next: 인트로스펙션 도우미,  Prev: ABCs for working with IO,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.20 함수와 데코레이터
...........................

 -- 함수: typing.cast (typ, val)

     값을 형으로 변환합니다.

     값을 변경하지 않고 반환합니다.  형 검사기에서는 반환 값이 지정된 형
     임을 나타내지만, 실행 시간에는 의도적으로 아무것도 확인하지 않습니
     다 (우리는 이것이 가능한 한 빠르기를 원합니다).

 -- 함수: typing.assert_type (val, typ, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that 'val' has an inferred
     type of 'typ'.

     At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument
     unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type
     of the argument.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to ‘assert_type()’, it
     emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

          def greet(name: str) -> None:
              assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
              assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

     This function is useful for ensuring the type checker’s
     understanding of a script is in line with the developer’s
     intentions:

          def complex_function(arg: object):
              # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
              # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
              ...
              # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
              assert_type(arg, int)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: typing.assert_never (arg, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that a line of code is
     unreachable.

     Example:

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _ as unreachable:
                      assert_never(unreachable)

     Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last
     case can never execute, because ‘arg’ is either an *note int: 257.
     or a *note str: 445, and both options are covered by earlier cases.

     If a type checker finds that a call to ‘assert_never()’ is
     reachable, it will emit an error.  For example, if the type
     annotation for ‘arg’ was instead ‘int | str | float’, the type
     checker would emit an error pointing out that ‘unreachable’ is of
     type *note float: 2ef.  For a call to ‘assert_never’ to pass type
     checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the
     bottom type, *note Never: 6a2, and nothing else.

     At runtime, this throws an exception when called.

     더 보기
     .......

     Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking(1) has more
     information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: typing.reveal_type (obj, /)

     Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an
     expression.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it
     emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument.  For
     example:

          x: int = 1
          reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

     This can be useful when you want to debug how your type checker
     handles a particular piece of code.

     At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument
     to *note sys.stderr: 937. and returns the argument unchanged
     (allowing the call to be used within an expression):

          x = reveal_type(1)  # prints "Runtime type is int"
          print(x)  # prints "1"

     Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less
     specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

     Most type checkers support ‘reveal_type()’ anywhere, even if the
     name is not imported from ‘typing’.  Importing the name from
     ‘typing’, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors
     and communicates intent more clearly.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @typing.dataclass_transform (*, eq_default=True,
          order_default=False, kw_only_default=False,
          frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

     Decorator to mark an object as providing *note dataclass: 1cb.-like
     behavior.

     ‘dataclass_transform’ may be used to decorate a class, metaclass,
     or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
     ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the
     decorated object performs runtime “magic” that transforms a class
     in a similar way to *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb.

     Example usage with a decorator function:

          @dataclass_transform()
          def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
              ...
              return cls

          @create_model
          class CustomerModel:
              id: int
              name: str

     On a base class:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelBase: ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     On a metaclass:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelMeta(type): ...

          class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     The ‘CustomerModel’ classes defined above will be treated by type
     checkers similarly to classes created with *note
     @dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb.  For example, type checkers will
     assume these classes have ‘__init__’ methods that accept ‘id’ and
     ‘name’.

     The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the
     following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the
     same effect as they would have on the *note @dataclasses.dataclass:
     1cb. decorator: ‘init’, ‘eq’, ‘order’, ‘unsafe_hash’, ‘frozen’,
     ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, and ‘slots’.  It must be possible for the
     value of these arguments (‘True’ or ‘False’) to be statically
     evaluated.

     The arguments to the ‘dataclass_transform’ decorator can be used to
     customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass,
     or function:


     매개변수:

        * ‘eq_default’ (*note bool: 461.) – Indicates whether the ‘eq’
          parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted
          by the caller.  Defaults to ‘True’.

        * ‘order_default’ (*note bool: 461.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘order’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘kw_only_default’ (*note bool: 461.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘kw_only’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it
          is omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘frozen_default’ (*note bool: 461.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘frozen’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.12.

        * ‘field_specifiers’ (*note tuple: 369.‘[’*note Callable:
          7e3.‘[’‘...’‘, ’‘Any’‘]’‘, ’‘...’‘]’) – Specifies a static
          list of supported classes or functions that describe fields,
          similar to *note dataclasses.field(): 1a27.  Defaults to ‘()’.

        * ‘**kwargs’ (‘Any’) – Arbitrary other keyword arguments are
          accepted in order to allow for possible future extensions.

     Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field
     specifiers: 'Recognised parameters for field specifiers'

     Parameter name           Description
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     ‘init’                   Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized ‘__init__’
                              method.  If unspecified, ‘init’ defaults to ‘True’.
                              
                              
     ‘default’                Provides the default value for the field.
                              
                              
     ‘default_factory’        Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field.  If
                              neither ‘default’ nor ‘default_factory’ are specified, the field is assumed to
                              have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated.
                              
                              
     ‘factory’                An alias for the ‘default_factory’ parameter on field specifiers.
                              
                              
     ‘kw_only’                Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only.  If ‘True’, the
                              field will be keyword-only.  If ‘False’, it will not be keyword-only.  If
                              unspecified, the value of the ‘kw_only’ parameter on the object decorated with
                              ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of
                              ‘kw_only_default’ on ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used.
                              
                              
     ‘alias’                  Provides an alternative name for the field.  This alternative name is used in the
                              synthesized ‘__init__’ method.
                              

     At runtime, this decorator records its arguments in the
     ‘__dataclass_transform__’ attribute on the decorated object.  It
     has no other runtime effect.

     See PEP 681(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @typing.overload

     Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

     The ‘@overload’ decorator allows describing functions and methods
     that support multiple different combinations of argument types.  A
     series of ‘@overload’-decorated definitions must be followed by
     exactly one non-‘@overload’-decorated definition (for the same
     function/method).

     ‘@overload’-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type
     checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition.  The
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at
     runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime,
     calling an ‘@overload’-decorated function directly will raise *note
     NotImplementedError: 228.

     An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be
     expressed using a union or a type variable:

          @overload
          def process(response: None) -> None:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: bytes) -> str:
              ...
          def process(response):
              ...  # actual implementation goes here

     See PEP 484(3) for more details and comparison with other typing
     semantics.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Overloaded functions can now be introspected at
     runtime using *note get_overloads(): 6a8.

 -- 함수: typing.get_overloads (func)

     Return a sequence of *note @overload: 3f9b.-decorated definitions
     for 'func'.

     'func' is the function object for the implementation of the
     overloaded function.  For example, given the definition of
     ‘process’ in the documentation for *note @overload: 3f9b,
     ‘get_overloads(process)’ will return a sequence of three function
     objects for the three defined overloads.  If called on a function
     with no overloads, ‘get_overloads()’ returns an empty sequence.

     ‘get_overloads()’ can be used for introspecting an overloaded
     function at runtime.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: typing.clear_overloads ()

     Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

     This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: @typing.final

     Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

     Decorating a method with ‘@final’ indicates to a type checker that
     the method cannot be overridden in a subclass.  Decorating a class
     with ‘@final’ indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

     예를 들면:

          class Base:
              @final
              def done(self) -> None:
                  ...
          class Sub(Base):
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

          @final
          class Leaf:
              ...
          class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

     이러한 속성에 대한 실행 시간 검사는 없습니다.  자세한 내용은 PEP
     591(4)을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The decorator will now attempt to set a
     ‘__final__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a
     check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)’ can be used at
     runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as
     final.  If the decorated object does not support setting
     attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without
     raising an exception.

 -- 함수: @typing.no_type_check

     어노테이션이 형 힌트가 아님을 나타내는 데코레이터.

     This works as a class or function *note decorator: 72a.  With a
     class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in
     that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or
     subclasses).  Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a
     function or class with this decorator.

     ‘@no_type_check’ mutates the decorated object in place.

 -- 함수: @typing.no_type_check_decorator

     다른 데코레이터에 *note no_type_check(): 6ae. 효과를 주는 데코레이
     터.

     이것은 데코레이트 된 함수를 *note no_type_check(): 6ae.로 감싸는 무
     언가로 데코레이터를 감쌉니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: No
     type checker ever added support for ‘@no_type_check_decorator’.  It
     is therefore deprecated, and will be removed in Python 3.15.

 -- 함수: @typing.override

     Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to
     override a method or attribute in a superclass.

     Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with
     ‘@override’ does not, in fact, override anything.  This helps
     prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an
     equivalent change to a child class.

     For example:

          class Base:
              def log_status(self) -> None:
                  ...

          class Sub(Base):
              @override
              def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
                  ...

              @override
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

     There is no runtime checking of this property.

     The decorator will attempt to set an ‘__override__’ attribute to
     ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a check like ‘if
     getattr(obj, "__override__", False)’ can be used at runtime to
     determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as an override.
     If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the
     decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an
     exception.

     See PEP 698(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: @typing.type_check_only

     Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

     이 데코레이터 자체는 실행 시간에 사용할 수 없습니다.  주로, 구현이
     비공개 클래스의 인스턴스를 반환할 때, 형 스텁 파일에 정의된 클래스
     를 표시하기 위한 용도입니다:

          @type_check_only
          class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
              code: int
              def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

          def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

     비공개 클래스의 인스턴스를 반환하는 것은 좋지 않음에 유의하십시오.
     일반적으로 그러한 클래스를 공개로 만드는 것이 바람직합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/


File: python.info,  Node: 인트로스펙션 도우미,  Next: 상수<10>,  Prev: 함수와 데코레이터,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.21 인트로스펙션 도우미
.............................

 -- 함수: typing.get_type_hints (obj, globalns=None, localns=None,
          include_extras=False)

     함수, 메서드, 모듈 또는 클래스 객체에 대한 형 힌트가 포함된 딕셔너
     리를 반환합니다.

     This is often the same as ‘obj.__annotations__’, but this function
     makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary:

        * Forward references encoded as string literals or *note
          ForwardRef: 184a. objects are handled by evaluating them in
          'globalns', 'localns', and (where applicable) 'obj'’s *note
          type parameter: 2b3. namespace.  If 'globalns' or 'localns' is
          not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred
          from 'obj'.

        * ‘None’ is replaced with *note types.NoneType: 84c.

        * If *note @no_type_check: 6ae. has been applied to 'obj', an
          empty dictionary is returned.

        * If 'obj' is a class ‘C’, the function returns a dictionary
          that merges annotations from ‘C’’s base classes with those on
          ‘C’ directly.  This is done by traversing *note C.__mro__:
          1f31. and iteratively combining ‘__annotations__’
          dictionaries.  Annotations on classes appearing earlier in the
          *note method resolution order: 2188. always take precedence
          over annotations on classes appearing later in the method
          resolution order.

        * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
          ‘Annotated[T, ...]’ with ‘T’, unless 'include_extras' is set
          to ‘True’ (see *note Annotated: 93b. for more information).

     See also *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d, a lower-level
     function that returns annotations more directly.

          참고: If any forward references in the annotations of 'obj'
          are not resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function
          will raise an exception such as *note NameError: 438.  For
          example, this can happen with imported *note type aliases:
          44d. that include forward references, or with names imported
          under *note if TYPE_CHECKING: cf1.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: Added ‘include_extras’ parameter as part of PEP
     593(1).  See the documentation on *note Annotated: 93b. for more
     information.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, ‘Optional[t]’ was added for
     function and method annotations if a default value equal to ‘None’
     was set.  Now the annotation is returned unchanged.

 -- 함수: typing.get_origin (tp)

     Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the
     form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘X’.

     If ‘X’ is a typing-module alias for a builtin or *note collections:
     1d. class, it will be normalized to the original class.  If ‘X’ is
     an instance of *note ParamSpecArgs: 7bf. or *note ParamSpecKwargs:
     7c0, return the underlying *note ParamSpec: 15e.  Return ‘None’ for
     unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_origin(str) is None
          assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
          assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
          assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
          P = ParamSpec('P')
          assert get_origin(P.args) is P
          assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: typing.get_args (tp)

     Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing
     object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘(Y, Z, ...)’.

     If ‘X’ is a union or *note Literal: 84f. contained in another
     generic type, the order of ‘(Y, Z, ...)’ may be different from the
     order of the original arguments ‘[Y, Z, ...]’ due to type caching.
     Return ‘()’ for unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_args(int) == ()
          assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
          assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: typing.get_protocol_members (tp)

     Return the set of members defined in a *note Protocol: 264.

          >>> from typing import Protocol, get_protocol_members
          >>> class P(Protocol):
          ...     def a(self) -> str: ...
          ...     b: int
          >>> get_protocol_members(P) == frozenset({'a', 'b'})
          True

     Raise *note TypeError: 532. for arguments that are not Protocols.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: typing.is_protocol (tp)

     Determine if a type is a *note Protocol: 264.

     예를 들면:

          class P(Protocol):
              def a(self) -> str: ...
              b: int

          is_protocol(P)    # => True
          is_protocol(int)  # => False

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: typing.is_typeddict (tp)

     Check if a type is a *note TypedDict: 162.

     For example:

          class Film(TypedDict):
              title: str
              year: int

          assert is_typeddict(Film)
          assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

          # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
          # not a typed dict itself
          assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: typing.ForwardRef

     Class used for internal typing representation of string forward
     references.

     For example, ‘List["SomeClass"]’ is implicitly transformed into
     ‘List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’.  ‘ForwardRef’ should not be
     instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

          참고: PEP 585(2) generic types such as ‘list["SomeClass"]’
          will not be implicitly transformed into
          ‘list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’ and thus will not
          automatically resolve to ‘list[SomeClass]’.

     Added in version 3.7.4.

 -- 데이터: typing.NoDefault

     A sentinel object used to indicate that a type parameter has no
     default value.  For example:

          >>> T = TypeVar("T")
          >>> T.__default__ is typing.NoDefault
          True
          >>> S = TypeVar("S", default=None)
          >>> S.__default__ is None
          True

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<10>,  Next: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: 인트로스펙션 도우미,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.22 상수
..............

 -- 데이터: typing.TYPE_CHECKING

     A special constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by 3rd party static
     type checkers.  It is ‘False’ at runtime.

     용법:

          if TYPE_CHECKING:
              import expensive_mod

          def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None:
              local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

     첫 번째 어노테이션은 따옴표로 묶여야 합니다, “전방 참조”로 만들어서
     인터프리터 실행 시간에 ‘expensive_mod’ 참조를 숨깁니다.  지역 변수
     에 대한 형 어노테이션은 평가되지 않기 때문에, 두 번째 어노테이션을
     따옴표로 묶을 필요는 없습니다.

          참고: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used,
          annotations are not evaluated at function definition time.
          Instead, they are stored as strings in ‘__annotations__’.
          This makes it unnecessary to use quotes around the annotation
          (see PEP 563(1)).

     Added in version 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: 상수<10>,  Up: 모듈 내용<7>

5.26.1.23 Deprecated aliases
............................

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard
library classes.  These were originally included in the ‘typing’ module
in order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ‘[]’.
However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ‘[]’ (see
PEP 585(1)).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9.  However, while the
aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not
currently planned.  As such, no deprecation warnings are currently
issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two
releases prior to removal.  The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the
‘typing’ module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the
program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or
newer.

* Menu:

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to built-in types,  Next: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.24 Aliases to built-in types
...................................

 -- 클래스: typing.Dict (dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note dict: 256.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Mapping: 8c7. rather than to use
     *note dict: 256. or ‘typing.Dict’.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note builtins.dict: 256. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.List (list, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note list: 60b.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Sequence: 11b3. or *note Iterable:
     2255. rather than to use *note list: 60b. or ‘typing.List’.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note builtins.list: 60b. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Set (set, MutableSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.set: 5d3.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note collections.abc.Set: 224d. rather
     than to use *note set: 5d3. or *note typing.Set: 3fa6.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note builtins.set: 5d3. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.FrozenSet (frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.frozenset: 5d4.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note builtins.frozenset: 5d4. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 데이터: typing.Tuple

     Deprecated alias for *note tuple: 369.

     *note tuple: 369. and ‘Tuple’ are special-cased in the type system;
     see *note Annotating tuples: 3f63. for more details.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note builtins.tuple: 369. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Type (Generic[CT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note type: d45.

     See *note The type of class objects: 3f66. for details on using
     *note type: d45. or ‘typing.Type’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note builtins.type: d45. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to types in collections,  Next: Aliases to other concrete types,  Prev: Aliases to built-in types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.25 Aliases to types in ‘collections’
...........................................

 -- 클래스: typing.DefaultDict (collections.defaultdict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.OrderedDict (collections.OrderedDict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5.

     Added in version 3.7.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.ChainMap (collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT,
          VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.ChainMap: c19.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.ChainMap: c19. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Counter (collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.Counter: 1088.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.Counter: 1088. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Deque (deque, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.deque: 5d6.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.deque: 5d6. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other concrete types,  Next: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.26 Aliases to other concrete types
.........................................

 -- 클래스: typing.Pattern
 -- 클래스: typing.Match

     Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from *note
     re.compile(): bd0. and *note re.match(): 121d.

     These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over
     *note AnyStr: 2b2.  ‘Pattern’ can be specialised as ‘Pattern[str]’
     or ‘Pattern[bytes]’; ‘Match’ can be specialised as ‘Match[str]’ or
     ‘Match[bytes]’.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note re: b9.의 클래스 ‘Pattern’과 ‘Match’는 이
     제 ‘[]’를 지원합니다.  PEP 585(1)와 *note 제네릭 에일리어스 형:
     6ac.을 참조하십시오.

 -- 클래스: typing.Text

     Deprecated alias for *note str: 445.

     ‘Text’ is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2
     code: in Python 2, ‘Text’ is an alias for ‘unicode’.

     ‘Text’를 사용하여 값이 파이썬 2와 파이썬 3 모두와 호환되는 방식으로
     유니코드 문자열을 포함해야 함을 나타내십시오:

          def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
              return text + u' \u2713'

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.11부터 폐지됨: Python 2 is no longer supported, and most
     type checkers also no longer support type checking Python 2 code.
     Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 445. instead of ‘Text’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to other concrete types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.27 Aliases to container ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
........................................................

 -- 클래스: typing.AbstractSet (Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Set: 224d.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Set: 224d. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 제네릭 에일리어스
     형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.ByteString (Sequence[int])

     이 형은 *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 538. 및 바이트 시퀀스의
     *note memoryview: 462. 형을 나타냅니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Prefer *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c4, or a union like ‘bytes |
     bytearray | memoryview’.

 -- 클래스: typing.Collection (Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Collection: c85.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Collection: c85. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Container (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Container: 2257.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Container: 2257. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.ItemsView (MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co,
          VT_co]])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 225b.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 225b. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.KeysView (MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.KeysView: 225a.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.KeysView: 225a. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Mapping (Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.MappingView (Sized)

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2259.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2259. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(7) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.MutableMapping (Mapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 109f.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 109f.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(8) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.MutableSequence (Sequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(9) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.MutableSet (AbstractSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2258.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2258. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(10) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Sequence (Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(11) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.ValuesView (MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 225c.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 225c. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(12) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.28 Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
...........................................................

 -- 클래스: typing.Coroutine (Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dd9.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 253c. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dd9. and
     ‘typing.Coroutine’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Coroutine: dd9. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.AsyncGenerator (AsyncIterator[YieldType],
          Generic[YieldType, SendType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c87.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 253c. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c87. and
     ‘typing.AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c87. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The ‘SendType’ parameter now has a default.

 -- 클래스: typing.AsyncIterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: ddb.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: ddb. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.AsyncIterator (AsyncIterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dda.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: dda. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Awaitable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Awaitable: dd8.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Awaitable: dd8. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.29 Aliases to other ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
....................................................

 -- 클래스: typing.Iterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterable: 2255.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Iterable: 2255. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Iterator (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterator: 2256.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Iterator: 2256. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 데이터: typing.Callable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 253b. for details on how to
     use *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. and ‘typing.Callable’ in
     type annotations.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e3. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec: 15e.
     and *note Concatenate: 7bd.  See PEP 612(4) for more details.

 -- 클래스: typing.Generator (Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Generator: dd7.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 253c. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Generator: dd7. and
     ‘typing.Generator’ in type annotations.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Generator: dd7. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Default values for the send and return types
     were added.

 -- 클래스: typing.Hashable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4ef.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4ef.
     directly instead.

 -- 클래스: typing.Reversible (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Reversible: c86.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note collections.abc.Reversible: c86. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

 -- 클래스: typing.Sized

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sized: 4f0.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note collections.abc.Sized: 4f0.
     directly instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.30 Aliases to ‘contextlib’ ABCs
......................................

 -- 클래스: typing.ContextManager (Generic[T_co, ExitT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8a.

     The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by
     the *note __enter__(): 5c2. method.  The optional second type
     parameter, ‘ExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents
     the type returned by the *note __exit__(): 12f0. method.

     Added in version 3.5.4.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8a.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note 제네릭
     에일리어스 형: 6ac.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the optional second type parameter,
     ‘ExitT_co’.

 -- 클래스: typing.AsyncContextManager (Generic[T_co, AExitT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     b28.

     The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by
     the *note __aenter__(): 1fd8. method.  The optional second type
     parameter, ‘AExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents
     the type returned by the *note __aexit__(): 1631. method.

     Added in version 3.6.2.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     b28. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     제네릭 에일리어스 형: 6ac.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the optional second type parameter,
     ‘AExitT_co’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: 모듈 내용<7>,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.31 Deprecation Timeline of Major Features
................................................

Certain features in ‘typing’ are deprecated and may be removed in a
future version of Python.  The following table summarizes major
deprecations for your convenience.  This is subject to change, and not
all deprecations are listed.

Feature                       Deprecated in                 Projected removal             PEP/issue
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘typing’ versions of          3.9                           Undecided (see                PEP 585(1)
standard collections                                        *note Deprecated aliases: 3fa0.
                                                            for more information)
                                                            
                                                                                          
*note typing.ByteString: 2d5. 3.9                           3.14                          gh-91896(2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Text: 303.       3.11                          Undecided                     gh-92332(3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Hashable: 4ed.   3.12                          Undecided                     gh-94309(4)
and                                                                                       
*note typing.Sized: 4ee.

*note typing.TypeAlias: 7c2.  3.12                          Undecided                     PEP 695(5)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note @typing.no_type_check_decorator: 2b1.3.13             3.15                          gh-106309(6)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.AnyStr: 2b2.     3.13                          3.18                          gh-105578(7)
                                                                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템,  Next: 파이썬 개발 모드,  Prev: typing — Support for type hints,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.2 ‘pydoc’ — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템
---------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pydoc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘pydoc’ 모듈은 파이썬 모듈로부터 자동으로 설명서를 생성합니다.  설명서는
콘솔에 텍스트 페이지로 표시하거나, 웹 브라우저로 제공하거나, HTML 파일에
저장할 수 있습니다.

모듈, 클래스, 함수 및 메서드의 경우, 표시된 설명서는 객체와 재귀적으로 그
것의 설명 가능한 멤버들의 독스트링(즉, *note __doc__: 925. 어트리뷰트)에
서 파생됩니다.  독스트링이 없으면, ‘pydoc’은 소스 파일의 클래스, 함수 또
는 메서드의 정의 바로 위나 모듈의 맨 위에 있는 주석 줄 블록에서 설명을 얻
으려고 합니다 (*note inspect.getcomments(): 15ce.를 참조하십시오).

내장 함수 *note help(): 8d4.는 대화형 인터프리터에서 온라인 도움말 시스
템을 호출합니다.  이 시스템은 ‘pydoc’을 사용하여 설명서를 콘솔에 텍스트
로 생성합니다.  같은 텍스트 설명서는 운영 체제의 명령 프롬프트에서
‘pydoc’을 스크립트로 실행하여 파이썬 인터프리터 외부에서도 볼 수 있습니
다.  예를 들어,

     python -m pydoc sys

를 셸 프롬프트에서 실행하면, *note sys: d9. 모듈의 설명서를 유닉스 ‘man’
명령으로 표시되는 매뉴얼 페이지와 비슷한 스타일로 표시합니다.  ‘pydoc’의
인자는 함수, 모듈 또는 패키지의 이름이거나 모듈이나 패키지의 모듈 내의 클
래스, 메서드 또는 함수에 대한 점으로 구분된 참조일 수 있습니다.  ‘pydoc’에
대한 인자가 경로처럼 보이고 (즉, 유닉스의 슬래시와 같이 운영 체제의 경로
구분 기호가 포함되어 있으면), 기존 파이썬 소스 파일을 가리키면, 해당 파
일에 대한 설명서가 생성됩니다.

     참고: 객체와 그들의 설명을 찾기 위해, ‘pydoc’은 설명할 모듈을 임포
     트 합니다.  따라서, 모듈 수준의 모든 코드는 이때 실행됩니다.  파일
     이 임포트될 때가 아니라 스크립트로 호출할 때만 실행되도록 코드를 보
     호하려면 ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’를 사용하십시오.

출력을 콘솔에 인쇄할 때, ‘pydoc’은 읽기 쉽도록 출력을 페이지로 나누려고
합니다.  ‘MANPAGER’나 ‘PAGER’ 환경 변수가 설정되면, ‘pydoc’은 그 값을 페
이지 매김 프로그램으로 사용합니다.  둘 다 설정되면 ‘MANPAGER’가 사용됩니
다.

인자 앞에 ‘-w’ 플래그를 지정하면 콘솔에 텍스트를 표시하는 대신, HTML 설
명서가 현재 디렉터리에 파일로 기록됩니다.

인자 앞에 ‘-k’ 플래그를 지정하면 인자로 주어진 키워드에 대해 사용 가능한
모든 모듈의 개요 행을 검색할 수 있습니다.  역시 유닉스 ‘man’ 명령과 유사
한 방식입니다.  모듈의 개요 행은 설명서 문자열의 첫 행입니다.

‘pydoc’을 사용하여 방문하는 웹 브라우저에 설명서를 제공하는 HTTP 서버를
로컬 시스템에서 시작할 수도 있습니다.  ‘python -m pydoc -p 1234’는 포트
1234에서 HTTP 서버를 시작해서, 여러분이 선호하는 웹 브라우저에서
‘http://localhost:1234/’의 설명서를 볼 수 있도록 합니다.  포트 번호로
‘0’을 지정하면 사용되지 않는 임의의 포트가 선택됩니다.

‘python -m pydoc -n <hostname>’은 주어진 호스트 이름에서 리스닝하는 서버
를 시작합니다.  기본적으로 호스트 이름은 ‘localhost’ 이지만 다른 컴퓨터
에서 서버에 도달하도록 하고 싶으면 서버가 응답하는 호스트 이름을 변경해
야 할 수 있습니다.  개발 중에 컨테이너 내에서 pydoc을 실행하려는 경우 특
히 유용합니다.

‘python -m pydoc -b’는 서버를 시작하고 모듈 색인 페이지로 웹 브라우저를
추가로 엽니다.  제공되는 각 페이지에는 상단에 탐색 바가 있어, 개별 항목
에 대한 도움말을 '조회(Get)'하고, 개요 행에 키워드가 있는 모든 모듈을 '검
색(Search)'하고, '모듈 색인(Module index)', '주제(Topics)' 및 '키워드
(Keywords)' 페이지로 이동할 수 있습니다.

‘pydoc’이 설명서를 생성할 때, 현재 환경과 경로를 사용하여 모듈을 찾습니
다.  따라서, ‘pydoc spam’을 호출하면 정확히 파이썬 인터프리터를 시작하고
‘import spam’을 입력할 때 얻는 모듈의 버전을 설명합니다.

코어 모듈에 대한 모듈 설명은 ‘https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/’에 있
다고 가정합니다.  여기서 ‘X’와 ‘Y’는 파이썬 인터프리터의 주 버전 번호와
부 버전 번호입니다.  이는 ‘PYTHONDOCS’ 환경 변수를 다른 URL로 설정하거나
라이브러리 레퍼런스 매뉴얼 페이지가 있는 로컬 디렉터리로 설정하여 재정의
할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘-b’ 옵션이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘-g’ 명령 줄 옵션이 제거되었습니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 이제 ‘pydoc’은 *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 732. 대
신 *note inspect.signature(): 731.를 사용하여 콜러블에서 서명 정보를 추
출합니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘-n’ 옵션이 추가되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pydoc.py


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 개발 모드,  Next: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트,  Prev: pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.3 파이썬 개발 모드
-----------------------

Added in version 3.7.

파이썬 개발 모드에는 기본적으로 활성화하기에 너무 비싼 추가 실행 시간 검
사를 도입합니다.  코드가 올바르면 기본값보다 더 상세하지(verbose) 않아야
합니다; 새로운 경고는 문제가 감지될 때만 발생합니다.

*note -X dev: 176. 명령 줄 옵션을 사용하거나 *note PYTHONDEVMODE: aea. 환
경 변수를 ‘1’로 설정하여 활성화할 수 있습니다.

See also *note Python debug build: 1f9.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 개발 모드의 효과::
* ResourceWarning 예::
* 잘못된 파일 기술자 에러 예::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 개발 모드의 효과,  Next: ResourceWarning 예,  Up: 파이썬 개발 모드

5.26.3.1 파이썬 개발 모드의 효과
................................

파이썬 개발 모드를 활성화하는 것은 다음 명령과 유사하지만, 아래에 설명된
추가 효과가 있습니다:

     PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler

파이썬 개발 모드의 효과:

   * ‘default’ *note 경고 필터: 1d41.를 추가합니다.  다음과 같은 경고가
     표시됩니다:

        * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.

        * *note ImportWarning: 4f4.

        * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5.

        * *note ResourceWarning: 244.

     일반적으로, 위의 경고는 기본 *note 경고 필터: 1d41.가 필터링합니다.

     *note -W default: 8c4. 명령 줄 옵션이 사용된 것처럼 작동합니다.

     경고를 에러로 처리하려면 *note -W error: 8c4. 명령 줄 옵션을 사용하
     거나 *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7. 환경 변수를 ‘error’로 설정하십시오.

   * 메모리 할당자에 디버그 훅을 설치하여 다음을 확인합니다:

        * 버퍼 언더플로

        * 버퍼 오버플로

        * 메모리 할당자 API 위반

        * GIL의 안전하지 않은 사용

     *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. C 함수를 참조하십시오.

     *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수가 ‘debug’로 설정된 것처럼 동작합
     니다.

     메모리 할당자에 디버그 훅을 설치하지 않고 파이썬 개발 모드를 사용하
     려면, *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수를 ‘default’로 설정하십시오
     .

   * 파이썬 시작 시 *note faulthandler.enable(): c9b.을 호출하여 *note
     SIGSEGV: 1d51, *note SIGFPE: 1d52, *note SIGABRT: 1d53, *note
     SIGBUS: 1d54. 및 *note SIGILL: 1d55. 시그널에 대한 처리기를 설치하
     여 충돌 시 파이썬 트레이스백을 덤프합니다.

     *note -X faulthandler: 176. 명령 줄 옵션이 사용되거나 *note
     PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1076. 환경 변수가 ‘1’로 설정된 것처럼 작동합니
     다.

   * *note asyncio 디버그 모드: 1d57.를 활성화합니다.  예를 들어, *note
     asyncio: a.는 어웨이트 하지 않은 코루틴을 확인하고 이를 로그 합니다
     .

     *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1d56. 환경 변수가 ‘1’로 설정된 것처럼 동
     작합니다.

   * 문자열 인코딩과 디코딩 연산에 대해 'encoding'과 'errors' 인자를 확
     인합니다.  예: *note open(): 515, *note str.encode(): 8d2. 및 *note
     bytes.decode(): 8d3.

     기본적으로, 최상의 성능을 위해, 'errors' 인자는 첫 번째 인코딩/디코
     딩 에러에서만 검사되며 빈 문자열에 대해서는 'encoding' 인자가 무시
     되는 경우가 있습니다.

   * *note io.IOBase: 1f5. 파괴자는 ‘close()’ 예외를 로그 합니다.

   * *note sys.flags: 686.의 *note dev_mode: 1aa8. 어트리뷰트를 ‘True’로
     설정합니다.

파이썬 개발 모드는 (성능과 메모리에 대한) 오버헤드 비용이 너무 비싸서, 기
본적으로 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈을 활성화하지 않습니다.  *note
tracemalloc: ff. 모듈을 활성화하면 일부 에러의 원인에 대한 추가 정보가 제
공됩니다.  예를 들어, *note ResourceWarning: 244.은 자원이 할당된 곳의 트
레이스백을 로그하고, 버퍼 오버플로 에러는 메모리 블록이 할당된 곳의 트레
이스백을 로그 합니다.

파이썬 개발 모드는 *note -O: db1. 명령 줄 옵션이 *note assert: 965. 문을
제거하거나 *note __debug__: 7d3.를 ‘False’로 설정하는 것을 막지 않습니다
.

The Python Development Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.
Its value can be read from *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 686.

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note io.IOBase: 1f5. 파괴자는 이제 ‘close()’ 예외를
로그 합니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: 'encoding'과 'errors' 인자는 이제 문자열 인코딩과 디
코딩 연산을 검사합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ResourceWarning 예,  Next: 잘못된 파일 기술자 에러 예,  Prev: 파이썬 개발 모드의 효과,  Up: 파이썬 개발 모드

5.26.3.2 ResourceWarning 예
...........................

명령 줄에 지정된 텍스트 파일의 줄 수를 세는 스크립트의 예:

     import sys

     def main():
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])
         nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)
         # 파일이 묵시적으로 닫힙니다

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

스크립트는 파일을 명시적으로 닫지 않습니다.  기본적으로, 파이썬은 아무런
경고도 하지 않습니다.  269 줄이 있는 README.txt를 사용하는 예:

     $ python script.py README.txt
     269

파이썬 개발 모드를 사용하면 *note ResourceWarning: 244. 경고가 표시됩니
다:

     $ python -X dev script.py README.txt
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback

또한, *note tracemalloc: ff.을 활성화하면 파일이 열린 줄이 표시됩니다:

     $ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     Object allocated at (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", lineno 10
         main()
       File "script.py", lineno 4
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])

수선은 파일을 명시적으로 닫는 것입니다.  컨텍스트 관리자를 사용하는 예:

     def main():
         # 블록에서 빠져나갈 때 파일을 명시적으로 닫습니다
         with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp:
             nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)

자원을 명시적으로 닫지 않으면 예상보다 오래 자원을 열어둘 수 있습니다; 파
이썬을 종료할 때 심각한 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다.  CPython에서도 나쁘지
만, PyPy에서는 더 나쁩니다.  리소스를 명시적으로 닫으면 응용 프로그램을
더 결정적이고 안정적으로 만들 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 잘못된 파일 기술자 에러 예,  Prev: ResourceWarning 예,  Up: 파이썬 개발 모드

5.26.3.3 잘못된 파일 기술자 에러 예
...................................

자신의 첫 줄을 표시하는 스크립트:

     import os

     def main():
         fp = open(__file__)
         firstline = fp.readline()
         print(firstline.rstrip())
         os.close(fp.fileno())
         # 파일이 묵시적으로 닫힙니다

     main()

기본적으로, 파이썬은 아무런 경고도 하지 않습니다:

     $ python script.py
     import os

파이썬 개발 모드는 *note ResourceWarning: 244.을 표시하고 파일 객체를 파
이널라이즈 할 때 “잘못된 파일 기술자(Bad file descriptor)” 에러를 로그 합
니다:

     $ python -X dev script.py
     import os
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback
     Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", line 10, in <module>
         main()
     OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor

‘os.close(fp.fileno())’는 파일 기술자를 닫습니다.  파일 객체 파이널라이
저가 파일 기술자를 다시 닫으려고 하면, ‘Bad file descriptor’ 에러로 실패
합니다.  파일 기술자는 한 번만 닫아야 합니다.  최악의 시나리오에서는, 두
번 닫을 때 충돌이 발생할 수 있습니다 (예는 bpo-18748(1)을 참조하십시오).

수선은 ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ 줄을 제거하거나, ‘closefd=False’로 파일을
여는 것입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트,  Next: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크,  Prev: 파이썬 개발 모드,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.4 ‘doctest’ — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트
--------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/doctest.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note doctest: 3a. 모듈은 대화형 파이썬 세션처럼 보이는 텍스트를 검색한
다음, 해당 세션을 실행하여 표시된 대로 정확하게 작동하는지 검증합니다.
doctest를 사용하는 몇 가지 일반적인 방법이 있습니다:

   * 모든 대화식 예제가 설명된 대로 작동하는지 확인하여 모듈의 독스트링
     이 최신인지 확인합니다.

   * 테스트 파일이나 테스트 객체의 대화형 예제가 예상대로 작동하는지 확
     인하여 회귀 테스트를 수행합니다.

   * 입/출력 예제를 그대로 보여줌으로써 패키지에 대한 자습서를 작성합니
     다.  예제나 설명문 중 어느 것이 강조되는지에 따라, “문학적 테스트
     (literate testing)”나 “실행 가능한 설명서(executable
     documentation)”의 느낌을 줍니다.

여기에 완전하지만 작은 예제 모듈이 있습니다:

     """
     이것은 "예제" 모듈입니다.

     예제 모듈은 factorial() 함수 하나를 제공합니다. 예를 들어,

     >>> factorial(5)
     120
     """

     def factorial(n):
         """n의 계승을 반환합니다, 정확한 정수 >= 0.

         >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
         >>> factorial(30)
         265252859812191058636308480000000
         >>> factorial(-1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be >= 0

         float의 계승도 좋습니다만, float는 정확한 정수여야 합니다:
         >>> factorial(30.1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be exact integer
         >>> factorial(30.0)
         265252859812191058636308480000000

         또한 터무니없이 크지 않아야 합니다:
         >>> factorial(1e100)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
         """

         import math
         if not n >= 0:
             raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
         if math.floor(n) != n:
             raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
         if n+1 == n:  # 1e300과 같은 값을 잡아냅니다
             raise OverflowError("n too large")
         result = 1
         factor = 2
         while factor <= n:
             result *= factor
             factor += 1
         return result


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

‘example.py’를 명령 줄에서 직접 실행하면, *note doctest: 3a.가 마술을 부
리기 시작합니다:

     $ python example.py
     $

출력이 없습니다!  이것이 정상이며, 모든 예제가 작동했다는 것을 뜻합니다.
‘-v’를 스크립트에 전달하면, *note doctest: 3a.는 시도하고 있는 내용에 대
한 자세한 로그를 출력하고 끝에 요약을 인쇄합니다.:

     $ python example.py -v
     Trying:
         factorial(5)
     Expecting:
         120
     ok
     Trying:
         [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     Expecting:
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     ok

결국, 다음과 같이 끝납니다:

     Trying:
         factorial(1e100)
     Expecting:
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
     ok
     2 items passed all tests:
        1 test in __main__
        6 tests in __main__.factorial
     7 tests in 2 items.
     7 passed.
     Test passed.
     $

이것이 *note doctest: 3a.를 생산적으로 사용하기 위해서 알아야 할 모든 것
입니다!  시도해 보세요.  다음 절에서는 자세한 내용을 제공합니다.  표준 파
이썬 테스트 스위트와 라이브러리에는 doctest 예제가 많습니다.  특히 유용
한 예제는 표준 테스트 파일 ‘Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py’에서 찾
을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 간단한 사용법; 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기: 간단한 사용법 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기.
* 간단한 사용법; 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기: 간단한 사용법 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기.
* 명령줄 사용법: 명령줄 사용법<2>.
* 작동 방법::
* 기본 API::
* Unittest API::
* 고급 API::
* 디버깅::
* 맺음말: 맺음말<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/doctest.py


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 사용법 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기,  Next: 간단한 사용법 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.1 간단한 사용법: 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기
.....................................................

doctest를 사용하는 가장 간단한 방법은 (하지만 계속 이렇게 할 필요는 없습
니다) 각 모듈 ‘M’을 다음과 같이 끝내는 것입니다:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

그러면 ‘doctest’는 모듈 ‘M’의 독스트링을 검사합니다.

모듈을 스크립트로 실행하면 독스트링의 예제가 실행되고 검증됩니다:

     python M.py

예제가 실패하지 않는 한 아무것도 표시되지 않습니다, 실패하면 실패한 예제
와 실패 원인이 stdout으로 출력되고, 마지막 출력 줄은 ‘***Test Failed***
N failures.’입니다.  여기서 'N'은 실패한 예제의 수입니다.

대신 ‘-v’ 스위치로 실행해 보십시오:

     python M.py -v

그러면 시도한 모든 예제에 대한 자세한 보고서가 표준 출력으로 출력되고, 끝
에 정돈된 요약이 붙습니다.

You can force verbose mode by passing ‘verbose=True’ to *note testmod():
1433, or prohibit it by passing ‘verbose=False’.  In either of those
cases, *note sys.argv: 1255. is not examined by *note testmod(): 1433.
(so passing ‘-v’ or not has no effect).

*note testmod(): 1433.를 실행하는 명령줄 바로 가기도 있습니다, *note
명령줄 사용법: 3fd9. 절을 참조하십시오.

*note testmod(): 1433.에 대한 자세한 내용은, *note 기본 API: 3fda. 절을
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 사용법 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기,  Next: 명령줄 사용법<2>,  Prev: 간단한 사용법 독스트링에 있는 예제 확인하기,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.2 간단한 사용법: 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기
........................................................

doctest의 또 다른 간단한 활용은 텍스트 파일에 있는 대화형 예제를 테스트
하는 것입니다.  이것은 *note testfile(): 3fdd. 함수로 수행할 수 있습니다
:

     import doctest
     doctest.testfile("example.txt")

이 짧은 스크립트는 ‘example.txt’ 파일에 들어있는 대화형 파이썬 예제를 실
행하고 검증합니다.  파일 내용은 하나의 거대한 독스트링인 것처럼 취급됩니
다; 파일이 파이썬 프로그램일 필요가 없습니다!  예를 들어, ‘example.txt’에
다음과 같은 것이 들어있습니다:

     The ``example`` module
     ======================

     Using ``factorial``
     -------------------

     This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
     ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:

         >>> from example import factorial

     Now use it:

         >>> factorial(6)
         120

‘doctest.testfile("example.txt")’를 실행하면 이 문서에 있는 에러를 찾습
니다:

     File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
     Failed example:
         factorial(6)
     Expected:
         120
     Got:
         720

As with *note testmod(): 1433, *note testfile(): 3fdd. won’t display
anything unless an example fails.  If an example does fail, then the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, using the same format as ‘testmod()’.

기본적으로, *note testfile(): 3fdd.은 호출하는 모듈의 디렉터리에서 파일
을 찾습니다.  다른 위치에서 파일을 찾도록 지시하는 데 사용할 수 있는 선
택적 인자에 대한 설명은 *note 기본 API: 3fda. 절을 참조하십시오.

*note testmod(): 1433.와 마찬가지로, *note testfile(): 3fdd.의 상세도는
‘-v’ 명령 줄 스위치나 선택적 키워드 인자 'verbose'를 사용하여 설정할 수
있습니다.

*note testfile(): 3fdd.을 실행하는 명령줄 바로 가기도 있습니다, *note
명령줄 사용법: 3fd9. 절을 참조하십시오.

*note testfile(): 3fdd.에 대한 자세한 내용은, *note 기본 API: 3fda. 절을
참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령줄 사용법<2>,  Next: 작동 방법,  Prev: 간단한 사용법 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.3 명령줄 사용법
......................

The *note doctest: 3a. module can be invoked as a script from the
command line:

     python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...]

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     시도한 모든 예제에 대한 자세한 보고서가 표준 출력으로 출력되고, 끝
     에 정돈된 요약이 붙습니다:

          python -m doctest -v example.py

     이렇게 하면 ‘example.py’를 독립 실행형 모듈로 임포트하고, *note
     testmod(): 1433.를 실행합니다.  파일이 패키지 일부이고 그 패키지에
     서 다른 서브 모듈을 임포트하면, 올바르게 작동하지 않을 수 있음에 유
     의하십시오.

     파일 이름이 ‘.py’로 끝나지 않으면, ‘doctest’는 대신 *note
     testfile(): 3fdd.로 실행되어야 한다고 추론합니다:

          python -m doctest -v example.txt

 -- Option: -o, --option <option>

     Option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior, see
     section *note 옵션 플래그: f2b.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Option: -f, --fail-fast

     ‘-o FAIL_FAST’의 축약입니다.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: 작동 방법,  Next: 기본 API,  Prev: 명령줄 사용법<2>,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.4 작동 방법
..................

이 절에서는 doctest가 어떻게 작동하는지 자세히 설명합니다: 어떤 독스트링
을 살피는지, 대화형 예제를 어떻게 찾는지, 사용하는 실행 컨텍스트는 무엇
인지, 예외를 어떻게 처리하는지, 어떻게 옵션 플래그를 사용하여 동작을 제
어하는지.  이것은 doctest 예제를 작성하기 위해 알아야 할 정보입니다; 이
러한 예제에 대해 실제로 doctest를 실행하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 다
음 절을 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?::
* 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?::
* 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?::
* 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?::
* 옵션 플래그::
* 지시자::
* 경고: 경고<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?,  Next: 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.5 어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?
....................................

모듈 독스트링과 모든 함수, 클래스 및 메서드 독스트링이 검색됩니다.  모듈
로 임포트 된 객체는 검색되지 않습니다.

또한, 테스트를 모듈의 일부로 포함시키고 싶지만 도움말 텍스트에는 포함시
키고 싶지 않은 경우가 있습니다.  이 경우 테스트가 독스트링에 포함되지 않
도록 해야 합니다.  Doctest는 모듈 수준 변수인 ‘__test__’를 보고 이를 통
해 다른 테스트를 찾아냅니다.  ‘M.__test__’가 존재하면, 딕셔너리이어야 하
고 각 항목은 (문자열) 이름을 함수 객체, 클래스 객체 또는 문자열에 매핑합
니다.  ‘M.__test__’에서 발견된 함수와 클래스 객체 독스트링이 검색되고, 문
자열은 독스트링인 것처럼 처리됩니다.  출력에서, ‘M.__test__’의 키 ‘K’가
이름 ‘M.__test__.K’로 나타납니다.

For example, place this block of code at the top of ‘example.py’:

     __test__ = {
         'numbers': """
     >>> factorial(6)
     720

     >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     """
     }

The value of ‘example.__test__["numbers"]’ will be treated as a
docstring and all the tests inside it will be run.  It is important to
note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or
module; if so, ‘doctest’ searches them recursively for docstrings, which
are then scanned for tests.

발견된 모든 클래스는 포함된 메서드와 중첩된 클래스의 독스트링을 테스트하
기 위해 유사하게 재귀적으로 검색됩니다.

     참고: ‘doctest’ can only automatically discover classes and
     functions that are defined at the module level or inside other
     classes.

     Since nested classes and functions only exist when an outer
     function is called, they cannot be discovered.  Define them outside
     to make them visible.


File: python.info,  Node: 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?,  Next: 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.6 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?
...........................................

대부분 대화형 콘솔 세션의 복사하여 붙여넣기가 잘 작동하지만, doctest는 특
정 파이썬 셸의 정확한 에뮬레이션을 시도하지 않습니다.

     >>> # 주석은 무시됩니다
     >>> x = 12
     >>> x
     12
     >>> if x == 13:
     ...     print("yes")
     ... else:
     ...     print("no")
     ...     print("NO")
     ...     print("NO!!!")
     ...
     no
     NO
     NO!!!
     >>>

모든 예상 출력은 코드가 포함된 마지막 ‘'>>> '’ 또는 ‘'... '’ 줄 바로 다
음에 나와야 하며, (있다면) 예상 출력은 다음 ‘'>>> '’ 나 전체 공백 줄까지
확장됩니다.

세부 사항:

   * 예상 출력은 전체 공백 줄을 포함할 수 없습니다.  그러한 줄은 예상 출
     력의 끝으로 인식되기 때문입니다.  예상 출력이 빈 줄을 포함하면,
     doctest 예제에서 빈 줄이 나타나는 곳에 ‘<BLANKLINE>’을 넣으십시오.

   * 모든 하드 탭 문자는 8열 탭 정지를 사용하여 스페이스로 확장됩니다.  테
     스트 된 코드에 의해 생성된 출력의 탭은 수정되지 않습니다.  샘플 출
     력의 모든 하드 탭이 '확장되므로', 이것은 코드 출력에 하드 탭이 포함
     될 때 doctest가 통과할 수 있는 유일한 방법은, *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3fec. 옵션이나 *note 지시자: 3fed.가 유효한 경
     우뿐임을 의미합니다.  또는, 출력을 캡처하여 테스트 일부로 예상값과
     비교하도록 테스트를 다시 작성할 수 있습니다.  이러한 소스의 탭 처리
     는 시행착오를 거쳐 얻어진 것이며, 가장 에러가 발생하지 않는 방법으
     로 입증되었습니다.  사용자 정의 *note DocTestParser: 3fee. 클래스를
     작성하여 탭 처리에 다른 알고리즘을 사용하는 것도 가능합니다.

   * stdout으로의 출력은 캡처되지만, stderr로의 출력은 그렇지 않습니다
     (예외 트레이스백은 다른 수단을 통해 캡처됩니다).

   * 대화식 세션에서 역 슬래시를 통해 줄을 계속하거나, 다른 이유로 백 슬
     래시를 사용하면, 날 독스트링(raw docstring)을 사용해서 역 슬래시를
     입력한 그대로 유지해야 합니다:

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

     그렇지 않으면, 백 슬래시가 문자열 일부로 해석됩니다.  예를 들어, 위
     의 ‘\n’은 개행 문자로 해석됩니다.  또는, doctest 버전에서 각 백 슬
     래시를 중복시킬 수 있습니다 (그리고 날 문자열은 사용하지 않습니다):

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

   * 시작 열은 중요하지 않습니다:

          >>> assert "Easy!"
                >>> import math
                    >>> math.floor(1.9)
                    1

     그리고 예제를 시작한 초기 ‘'>>> '’ 줄에 나타나는 것만큼의 선행 공백
     을 예상 출력에서 제거합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?,  Next: 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?,  Prev: 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.7 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?
....................................

기본적으로, *note doctest: 3a.가 테스트할 독스트링을 찾을 때마다, ‘M’의
전역 이름 공간(globals)의 '앝은 복사'를 사용하므로, 실행 중인 테스트는 모
듈의 실제 전역을 변경하지 않고, ‘M’의 한 테스트가 실수로 다른 테스트가 작
동하도록 만드는 부스러기를 남기지 않습니다.  이는 예제가 ‘M’에서 최상위
수준에 정의된 이름과 실행 중인 독스트링에서 앞서 정의한 이름을 자유롭게
사용할 수 있음을 의미합니다.  예제는 다른 독스트링에 정의된 이름을 볼 수
없습니다.

대신 ‘globs=your_dict’를 *note testmod(): 1433.나 *note testfile():
3fdd.로 전달하여 실행 컨텍스트로 여러분 자신의 딕셔너리를 사용하도록 할
수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?,  Next: 옵션 플래그,  Prev: 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.8 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?
..............................

문제없습니다, 트레이스백이 예제에 의해 생성된 유일한 출력이기만 하면 됩
니다: 그냥 트레이스백을 붙여넣으십시오.  (1)  트레이스백에는 빠르게 변할
가능성이 있는 세부 사항(예를 들어, 정확한 파일 경로와 줄 번호)이 포함되
어 있으므로, 이것은 doctest가 수락할 내용에 유연하도록 신경 써야 하는 한
가지 사례입니다.

간단한 예:

     >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

이 doctest는 ‘list.remove(x): x not in list’ 세부 정보를 포함하는 *note
ValueError: 202.가 발생하면 성공합니다.

예외의 예상 출력은 다음 두 줄 중 한 가지가 예제의 첫 번째 줄과 같게 들여
쓰기 된 트레이스백 헤더로 시작해야 합니다:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
     Traceback (innermost last):

트레이스백 헤더 다음에는 선택적인 트레이스백 스택이 오며, 그 내용은
doctest가 무시합니다.  보통 트레이스백 스택은 생략되거나, 대화형 세션에
서 그대로 복사됩니다.

트레이스백 스택 다음에는 가장 흥미로운 부분이 옵니다: 예외 형과 세부 사
항이 있는 줄.  대개 이것은 트레이스백의 마지막 줄이지만, 예외에 여러 줄
로 구성된 세부 사항이 있으면 여러 줄로 확장될 수 있습니다:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

(*note ValueError: 202.로 시작하는) 마지막 세 줄이 예외의 형 및 세부 사
항과 비교되고, 나머지는 무시됩니다.

모범 사례는 예제에 중요한 설명으로서의 가치를 추가하지 않는 한 트레이스
백 스택을 생략하는 것입니다.  따라서 마지막 예제는 이렇게 하는 것이 더 좋
습니다:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

트레이스백이 매우 특별하게 취급된다는 점에 유의하십시오.  특히, 다시 작
성된 예제에서, ‘...’의 사용은 doctest의 *note ELLIPSIS: 1434. 옵션과 무
관합니다.  이 예제의 줄임표는 생략하거나, 3개(혹은 300개)의 쉼표나 숫자
또는 몬티 파이썬 쇼의 들여쓰기 된 대본이어도 똑같이 잘 동작합니다.

한 번쯤 읽어야 할 세부 정보이지만, 기억할 필요는 없습니다:

   * Doctest는 예상 출력이 예외 트레이스백에서 온 것인지 일반 인쇄에서 온
     것인지 추측할 수 없습니다.  그래서, 예를 들어, ‘ValueError: 42 is
     prime’을 예상하는 예제는 *note ValueError: 202.가 실제로 발생해도 통
     과하지만, 예제가 단지 그 트레이스백 텍스트를 출력해도 통과합니다.  실
     제로는, 일반 출력은 거의 트레이스백 헤더 줄로 시작하지 않으므로, 실
     제 문제가 되지는 않습니다.

   * (있다면) 트레이스백 스택의 각 줄은 예제의 첫 번째 줄보다 더 들여쓰
     기 되거나, '또는' 영숫자(alphanumeric)가 아닌 문자로 시작해야 합니
     다.  트레이스백 헤더 뒤에 같은 정도로 들여쓰기 되고, 영숫자로 시작
     하는 첫 번째 줄은 예외 세부 사항의 시작으로 간주합니다.  물론 이것
     은 진짜 트레이스백에 잘 들어맞습니다.

   * *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12f9. doctest 옵션을 지정하면, 가장
     왼쪽 콜론 다음에 오는 모든 것과 예외 이름의 모듈 정보가 무시됩니다.

   * The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
     *note SyntaxError: 18d.s.  But doctest uses the traceback header
     line to distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions.  So in the rare
     case where you need to test a ‘SyntaxError’ that omits the
     traceback header, you will need to manually add the traceback
     header line to your test example.

   * 일부 예외의 경우, 파이썬은 ‘^’ 마커와 물결표를 사용하여 에러의 위치
     를 표시합니다:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ~~^~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

     에러의 위치를 나타내는 줄은 예외 형과 세부 사항 앞에 오므로,
     doctest가 점검하지 않습니다.  예를 들어, ‘^’ 마커를 잘못된 위치에 넣
     어도, 다음 테스트가 통과합니다:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ^~~~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 예상 출력과 예외를 모두 포함하는 예제는 지원되지 않습니다.  어디
에서 하나가 끝나고 다른 하나가 시작되는지 추측하는 것은 너무 에러가 발생
하기 쉽고, 이것은 또한 혼란스러운 테스트를 만들게 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵션 플래그,  Next: 지시자,  Prev: 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.9 옵션 플래그
....................

많은 옵션 플래그가 doctest의 다양한 동작을 제어합니다.  플래그의 기호 이
름은 모듈 상수로 제공되며, 함께 *note 비트별 OR: 2079.되어 다양한 함수로
전달될 수 있습니다.  이 이름은 *note doctest 지시자: 3fed.에서도 사용될
수 있으며, ‘-o’ 옵션을 통해 doctest 명령 줄 인터페이스로 전달될 수 있습
니다.

첫 번째 옵션 그룹은 테스트의 의미를 정의하는데, doctest가 실제 출력이 예
제의 예상 출력과 일치하는지를 결정하는 측면을 제어합니다:

 -- 데이터: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1

     기본적으로, 예상 출력 블록에 ‘1’ 만 있으면, 단지 ‘1’이나 ‘True’ 만
     포함된 실제 출력 블록을 일치하는 것으로 간주하며, ‘0’과 ‘False’도 유
     사하게 다룹니다.  *note DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1: 3ff5.이 지정되면, 두
     치환 모두 허용되지 않습니다.  기본 동작은 파이썬이 많은 함수의 반환
     형을 정수에서 논릿값으로 변경했다는 것을 반영합니다; “작은 정수” 출
     력을 예상하는 doctest가 이러한 경우에 여전히 작동합니다.  아마도 이
     옵션은 사라지게 되겠지만, 몇 년 동안은 남아있을 겁니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE

     기본적으로, 예상 출력 블록에 ‘<BLANKLINE>’ 문자열만 포함된 줄이 있
     으면, 해당하는 줄은 실제 출력의 빈 줄과 일치합니다.  진짜 빈 줄은 예
     상 출력을 끝내므로, 이것이 빈 줄을 예상하는 유일한 방법입니다.
     *note DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE: 3ff6.이 지정되면, 이 치환은 허용되지 않
     습니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE

     지정되면, 모든 공백(빈칸과 개행) 시퀀스는 같게 취급됩니다.  예상 출
     력 내의 모든 공백 시퀀스는 실제 출력 내의 모든 공백 시퀀스와 일치합
     니다.  기본적으로, 공백은 정확히 일치해야 합니다.  *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3fec.는 예상 출력 줄이 매우 길고 소스의 여러
     줄에 걸쳐 줄넘김하려는 경우에 특히 유용합니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.ELLIPSIS

     지정되면, 예상 출력의 줄임표(‘...’)가 실제 출력의 모든 부분 문자열
     과 일치 할 수 있습니다.  여기에는 줄 경계를 넘는 부분 문자열과 빈 부
     분 문자열이 포함되므로, 사용을 간단하게 유지하는 것이 가장 좋습니다
     .  복잡한 사용은 정규식에서 ‘.*’를 쓸 때처럼 “이런, 너무 많이 일치
     하는군!” 과 같은 상황을 만들 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL

     When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an
     exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details
     (message and fully qualified exception name) don’t match.

     For example, an example expecting ‘ValueError: 42’ will pass if the
     actual exception raised is ‘ValueError: 3*14’, but will fail if,
     say, a *note TypeError: 532. is raised instead.  It will also
     ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception
     class, which can vary between implementations and versions of
     Python and the code/libraries in use.  Hence, all three of these
     variations will work with the flag specified:

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          builtins.Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          __main__.Exception: message

     Note that *note ELLIPSIS: 1434. can also be used to ignore the
     details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail
     based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12f9.은 이제 테스
     트 중인 예외를 포함하는 모듈과 관련된 정보도 무시합니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.SKIP

     지정되면, 예제를 전혀 실행하지 않습니다.  이것은 doctest 예제가 설
     명서와 테스트 케이스의 두 가지 역할을 하는 문맥에서, 설명을 위해 예
     제를 포함해야 하지만 검사하지는 않아야 할 때 유용할 수 있습니다.  예
     를 들어, 예제의 출력이 임의적일 수 있습니다; 또는 예제가 테스트 구
     동기에서 사용할 수 없는 자원에 의존할 수 있습니다.

     SKIP 플래그는 임시로 “주석 처리한” 예제를 위해 사용될 수도 있습니다
     .

 -- 데이터: doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS

     위의 모든 비교 플래그를 함께 OR 한 비트 마스크.

두 번째 옵션 그룹은 테스트 실패가 보고되는 방식을 제어합니다:

 -- 데이터: doctest.REPORT_UDIFF

     지정되면, 여러 줄의 예상 및 실제 출력을 수반하는 실패가 통합
     (unified) diff를 사용하여 표시됩니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.REPORT_CDIFF

     지정되면, 여러 줄의 예상 및 실제 출력을 수반하는 실패가 문맥
     (context) diff를 사용하여 표시됩니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.REPORT_NDIFF

     지정되면, 차이점은 널리 사용되는 ‘ndiff.py’ 유틸리티와 같은 알고리
     즘을 사용하여, ‘difflib.Differ’로 계산됩니다.  이 방법은 줄 간의 차
     이뿐만 아니라 줄 안에서의 차이점을 표시하는 유일한 방법입니다.  예
     를 들어, 예상 출력 줄에 숫자 ‘1’이 포함된 줄에 실제 출력이 문자
     ‘l’을 포함하고 있으면, 일치하지 않는 열 위치를 나타내는 캐럿
     (caret)이 들어간 줄이 삽입됩니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE

     지정되면, 각 doctest에서 실패한 첫 번째 예제를 표시하지만, 나머지 모
     든 예제에 대해서는 출력을 억제합니다.  이렇게 하면 doctest가 이전의
     실패로 인해 망가진 올바른 예제를 보고하지 않게 되지만, 첫 번째 실패
     와 무관하게 실패한 잘못된 예제를 숨길 수도 있습니다.  *note
     REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE: 3ff9.가 지정될 때, 나머지 예제는 여전히
     실행되며, 보고된 총실패 수에 포함됩니다; 출력만 억제됩니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.FAIL_FAST

     지정되면, 첫 번째 실패 예제 후에 종료하고, 나머지 예제를 실행하지 않
     습니다.  따라서, 보고되는 실패 횟수는 최대 1입니다.  이 플래그는 디
     버깅 중에 유용할 수 있습니다, 첫 번째 실패 이후의 예제는 디버깅 출
     력조차 생성하지 않기 때문입니다.

 -- 데이터: doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS

     위의 모든 보고(reporting) 플래그를 함께 OR 한 비트 마스크.

새로운 옵션 플래그 이름을 등록하는 방법도 있습니다만, 서브 클래스를 통해
*note doctest: 3a. 내부를 확장하려고 하지 않는 한 유용하지는 않습니다:

 -- 함수: doctest.register_optionflag (name)

     지정된 이름으로 새로운 옵션 플래그를 만들고, 새로운 플래그의 정숫값
     을 반환합니다.  *note register_optionflag(): 3ffb.은 *note
     OutputChecker: 3ffc.나 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.를 서브 클래싱할 때
     서브 클래스가 지원하는 새 옵션을 만들 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note
     register_optionflag(): 3ffb.는 항상 다음의 관용구를 사용하여 호출해
     야 합니다:

          MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')


File: python.info,  Node: 지시자,  Next: 경고<2>,  Prev: 옵션 플래그,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.10 지시자
................

Doctest 지시자를 사용하면 개별 예제의 *note 옵션 플래그: f2b.를 수정할 수
있습니다.  Doctest 지시자는 예제의 소스 코드 뒤에 오는 특수한 파이썬 주
석입니다:

     directive             ::= "#" "doctest:" *note directive_options: 4000.
     directive_options     ::= *note directive_option: 4001. ("," *note directive_option: 4001.)*
     directive_option      ::= *note on_or_off: 4002. *note directive_option_name: 4003.
     on_or_off             ::= "+" | "-"
     directive_option_name ::= "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ...

‘+’나 ‘-’와 지시자 옵션 이름 사이의 공백은 허용되지 않습니다.  지시자 옵
션 이름은 위에 설명된 옵션 플래그 이름 중 하나일 수 있습니다.

예제의 doctest 지시자는 그 단일 예제에 대한 doctest의 동작을 수정합니다.
이름 붙인 동작을 활성화하려면 ‘+’를 사용하고, 비활성화하려면 ‘-’를 사용
하십시오.

예를 들어, 이 테스트는 통과합니다:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
     10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]

지시자가 없으면 실패하는데, 실제 출력에는 한 자리 숫자 리스트 요소 앞에
두 개의 공백이 없기도 하고, 실제 출력은 한 줄이기 때문입니다.  이 테스트
도 통과하는데, 그러기 위해서 역시 지시자가 필요합니다:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, 1, ..., 18, 19]

하나의 물리적 줄에 여러 개의 지시자를 쉼표로 구분하여 사용할 수 있습니다
:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

하나의 예제에 여러 개의 지시자 주석이 사용되면, 모두 결합합니다:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     ...                         # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

앞의 예가 보여주듯이, 여러분의 예제에 지시자만 포함된 ‘...’ 줄을 추가할
수 있습니다.  예가 너무 길어서 지시자가 같은 줄에 편안하게 들어갈 수 없
을 때 유용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
     ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]

모든 옵션은 기본적으로 비활성화되고, 지시자가 표시된 예제에만 적용되므로
, (지시자에 ‘+’를 통해) 옵션을 활성화하는 것이 일반적으로 유일한 의미 있
는 선택입니다.  하지만, doctest를 실행하는 함수에 옵션 플래그를 전달하여
다른 기본값을 설정할 수도 있습니다.  이럴 때, 지시자에서 ‘-’를 통해 옵션
을 비활성화하는 것이 유용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 경고<2>,  Prev: 지시자,  Up: 작동 방법

5.26.4.11 경고
..............

*note doctest: 3a.는 예상 출력에서 정확한 일치를 요구하는 것에 심각합니
다.  단일 문자가 일치하지 않아도 테스트가 실패합니다.  여러분이 출력에 있
어서 파이썬이 정확히 무엇을 보장하고 무엇을 보장하지 않는지 배워감에 따
라, 이것은 아마도 여러분을 몇 번 놀라게 할 것입니다.  예를 들어, 집합을
인쇄할 때, 파이썬은 원소가 특정 순서로 인쇄되는 것을 보장하지 않으므로,
다음과 같은 테스트는

     >>> foo()
     {"spam", "eggs"}

취약합니다!  한 가지 해결 방법은 다음과 같습니다

     >>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"}
     True

대신에.  또 다른 방법은

     >>> d = sorted(foo())
     >>> d
     ['eggs', 'spam']

다른 것들도 있지만, 아마 아이디어를 얻었을 겁니다.

또 다른 나쁜 생각은 객체 주소를 포함하는 것들을 출력하는 것입니다

     >>> id(1.0)  # 때로 실패할 것이 확실합니다
     7948648
     >>> class C: pass
     >>> C()  # 인스턴스에 대한 기본 repr()은 주소를 포함합니다
     <C object at 0x00AC18F0>

*note ELLIPSIS: 1434. 지시자는 마지막 예제를 다루는 좋은 접근법을 제공합
니다:

     >>> C()  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     <C object at 0x...>

Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations
across platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for
some floating-point calculations, and C libraries vary widely in quality
here.

     >>> 1000**0.1  # risky
     1.9952623149688797
     >>> round(1000**0.1, 9) # safer
     1.995262315
     >>> print(f'{1000**0.1:.4f}') # much safer
     1.9953

‘I/2.**J’ 형식의 숫자는 모든 플랫폼에서 안전하며, 저는 종종 이런 형식의
숫자를 만들도록 doctest 예제를 꾸밉니다:

     >>> 3./4  # 완전히 안전합니다
     0.75

간단한 분수는 또한 사람들이 이해하기가 더 쉬우므로, 더 좋은 설명서가 되
도록 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 API,  Next: Unittest API,  Prev: 작동 방법,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.12 기본 API
..................

*note testmod(): 1433.와 *note testfile(): 3fdd. 함수는 대부분 기본 사용
에 충분한 doctest에 대한 간단한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  이 두 함수에 대
한 덜 형식적인 소개는 섹션 *note 간단한 사용법; 독스트링에 있는 예제
확인하기: 3fd7.와 *note 간단한 사용법; 텍스트 파일에 있는 예제 확인하기:
3fdb.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: doctest.testfile (filename, module_relative=True, name=None,
          package=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True,
          optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False,
          parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     'filename'를 제외한 모든 인자는 선택적이며 키워드 형식으로 지정해야
     합니다.

     'filename' 파일에 있는 예제를 테스트합니다.  ‘(failure_count,
     test_count)’를 반환합니다.

     선택적 인자 'module_relative'는 filename을 해석하는 방법을 지정합니
     다:

        * 'module_relative'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면, 'filename'는 OS 독립적
          모듈 상대 경로를 지정합니다.  기본적으로, 이 경로는 호출하는 모
          듈의 디렉터리에 상대적입니다; 그러나 'package' 인자가 지정되면
          , 해당 패키지에 상대적입니다.  OS 독립성을 보장하기 위해,
          'filename'은 ‘/’ 문자를 사용하여 경로 세그먼트를 분리해야 하며
          , 절대 경로일 수 없습니다 (즉, ‘/’로 시작할 수 없습니다).

        * 'module_relative'가 ‘False’이면, 'filename'은 OS 특정 경로를 지
          정합니다.  경로는 절대나 상대일 수 있습니다; 상대 경로는 현재
          작업 디렉터리를 기준으로 해석됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'name'은 테스트의 이름을 제공합니다; 기본적으로, 또는
     ‘None’이면, ‘os.path.basename(filename)’이 사용됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'package'는 디렉터리가 모듈 상대 filename의 기본 디렉터
     리로 사용될 파이썬 패키지나 파이썬 패키지의 이름입니다.  패키지를 지
     정하지 않으면, 호출하는 모듈의 디렉터리가 모듈 상대 filename의 기본
     디렉터리로 사용됩니다.  'module_relative'가 ‘False’일 때 'package'를
     지정하는 것은 에러입니다.

     선택적 인자 'globs'는 예제를 실행할 때 전역으로 사용될 딕셔너리를 제
     공합니다.  doctest를 위해 이 딕셔너리의 새 얕은 사본이 만들어지므로
     , 예제는 깨끗한 서판으로 시작합니다.  기본적으로, 또는 ‘None’이면,
     새 빈 딕셔너리가 사용됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'extraglobs'는 예제를 실행하는 데 사용되는 전역에 병합
     될 딕셔너리를 제공합니다.  이것은 *note dict.update(): 142b.처럼 작
     동합니다: 'globs'와 'extraglobs'에 공통 키가 있으면, 'extraglobs'의
     연관된 값이 병합된 딕셔너리에 나타납니다.  기본적으로, 또는 ‘None’이
     면, 추가 전역은 사용되지 않습니다.  doctest의 매개 변수화를 허용하
     는 고급 기능입니다.  예를 들어, doctest는 클래스의 일반 이름을 사용
     하여 베이스 클래스용으로 작성할 수 있습니다, 그런 다음 일반 이름을
     테스트할 서브 클래스에 매핑하는 'extraglobs' 딕셔너리를 전달하여 임
     의의 수의 서브 클래스를 테스트하는데 재사용할 수 있습니다.

     Optional argument 'verbose' prints lots of stuff if true, and
     prints only failures if false; by default, or if ‘None’, it’s true
     if and only if ‘'-v'’ is in *note sys.argv: 1255.

     선택적 인자 'report'가 참이면 끝에 요약을 인쇄하고, 그렇지 않으면 끝
     에 아무것도 인쇄하지 않습니다.  verbose 모드에서는 요약 정보가 상세
     히 표시되며, 그렇지 않으면 요약 정보는 매우 간단합니다 (사실, 모든
     테스트가 통과되면 비어 있습니다).

     Optional argument 'optionflags' (default value ‘0’) takes the *note
     bitwise OR: 2079. of option flags.  See section *note 옵션 플래그:
     f2b.

     선택적 인자 'raise_on_error'의 기본값은 거짓입니다.  참이면, 예제에
     서 첫 번째 실패나 예기치 않은 예외가 발생할 때 예외가 발생합니다.  이
     것은 실패를 사후(post-mortem) 디버깅할 수 있도록 합니다.  기본 동작
     은 예제를 계속 실행하는 것입니다.

     선택적 인자 'parser'는 파일에서 테스트를 추출하는 데 사용할 *note
     DocTestParser: 3fee.(또는 서브 클래스)를 지정합니다.  기본값은 일반
     파서(즉, ‘DocTestParser()’)입니다.

     선택적 인자 'encoding'은 파일을 유니코드로 변환하는 데 사용할 인코
     딩을 지정합니다.

 -- 함수: doctest.testmod (m=None, name=None, globs=None, verbose=None,
          report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)

     모든 인자는 선택적이며, 'm'을 제외한 모든 인자는 키워드 형식으로 지
     정해야 합니다.

     모듈 'm'(또는 'm'가 제공되지 않았거나 ‘None’이면 모듈 *note
     __main__: 1.)에서 도달할 수 있는 함수와 클래스의 독스트링에 있는 예
     제를 테스트합니다.  ‘m.__doc__’으로 시작합니다.

     딕셔너리 ‘m.__test__’이 존재하면, 여기에서 도달할 수 있는 예제도 테
     스트합니다.  ‘m.__test__’는 이름(문자열)을 함수, 클래스 및 문자열에
     매핑합니다; 함수와 클래스 독스트링에서 예제를 검색합니다; 문자열은
     그것이 독스트링인 것처럼 직접 검색합니다.

     모듈 'm'에 속하는 객체에 연결된 독스트링 만 검색합니다.

     ‘(failure_count, test_count)’를 반환합니다.

     선택적 인자 'name'은 모듈의 이름을 제공합니다; 기본적으로, 또는
     ‘None’이면, ‘m.__name__’이 사용됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'exclude_empty'의 기본값은 거짓입니다.  참이면,
     doctest가 발견되지 않은 객체는 고려 대상에서 제외됩니다.  기본값은
     이전 버전과의 호환성을 위한 해킹입니다, 여전히 *note testmod():
     1433.와 함께 *note doctest.master.summarize: 4007.를 사용하는 코드
     는 테스트가 없는 객체에 대해 계속 출력합니다.  새로운 *note
     DocTestFinder: 1639. 생성자에 대한 'exclude_empty' 인자의 기본값은
     참입니다.

     선택적 인자 'extraglobs', 'verbose', 'report', 'optionflags',
     'raise_on_error' 및 'globs'는 위의 함수 *note testfile(): 3fdd.와 같
     습니다만, 'globs'의 기본값이 ‘m.__dict__’인 점이 다릅니다.

 -- 함수: doctest.run_docstring_examples (f, globs, verbose=False,
          name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0)

     객체 'f'와 관련된 예제를 테스트합니다.  여기서, 'f'는 문자열, 모듈,
     함수 또는 클래스 객체일 수 있습니다.

     딕셔너리 인자 'globs'의 얕은 사본이 실행 컨텍스트에 사용됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'name'은 실패 메시지에서 사용되며, 기본값은 ‘"NoName"’입
     니다.

     선택적 인자 'verbose'가 참이면, 실패가 없어도 출력이 생성됩니다.  기
     본적으로, 출력은 예제가 실패할 때만 생성됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'compileflags'는 예제를 실행할 때 파이썬 컴파일러에서 사
     용해야 하는 플래그 집합을 제공합니다.  기본적으로, 또는 ‘None’이면,
     'globs'에서 발견되는 퓨처 기능 집합에 해당하는 플래그가 추론됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'optionflags'는 위의 함수 *note testfile(): 3fdd.에서 처
     럼 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Unittest API,  Next: 고급 API,  Prev: 기본 API,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.13 Unittest API
......................

doctest된 모듈 모음이 늘어남에 따라, 모든 doctest를 체계적으로 실행하는
방법이 필요합니다.  *note doctest: 3a.는 doctest가 포함된 모듈과 텍스트
파일로부터 *note unittest: 106. 테스트 스위트를 만드는 데 사용할 수 있는
두 가지 함수를 제공합니다.  *note unittest: 106. 테스트 탐색과 통합하려
면, 테스트 모듈에 *note load_tests: 400b. 함수를 포함하십시오:

     import unittest
     import doctest
     import my_module_with_doctests

     def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
         tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
         return tests

Doctest가 있는 텍스트 파일과 모듈로부터 *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. 인
스턴스를 만드는 두 가지 주요 함수가 있습니다:

 -- 함수: doctest.DocFileSuite (*paths, module_relative=True,
          package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None,
          optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     하나 이상의 텍스트 파일로부터 doctest 테스트를 *note
     unittest.TestSuite: df0.로 변환합니다.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file.
     If an example in any file fails, then the synthesized unit test
     fails, and a *note failureException: 400d. exception is raised
     showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes
     approximate) line number.  If all the examples in a file are
     skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped.

     검사할 텍스트 파일을 하나 이상의 paths(문자열)로 전달합니다.

     옵션은 키워드 인자로 제공될 수 있습니다:

     선택적 인자 'module_relative'는 'paths'에 있는 파일명을 해석하는 방
     법을 지정합니다:

        * 'module_relative'가 ‘True’(기본값)이면, 'paths'의 각 파일명은
          OS 독립적 모듈 상대 경로를 지정합니다.  기본적으로, 이 경로는
          호출하는 모듈의 디렉터리에 상대적입니다; 그러나 'package' 인자
          가 지정되면, 해당 패키지에 상대적입니다.  OS 독립성을 보장하기
          위해, 각 파일명은 ‘/’ 문자를 사용하여 경로 세그먼트를 분리해야
          하며, 절대 경로일 수 없습니다 (즉, ‘/’로 시작할 수 없습니다).

        * 'module_relative'가 ‘False’이면, 'paths'의 각 파일명은 OS 특정
          경로를 지정합니다.  경로는 절대나 상대일 수 있습니다; 상대 경
          로는 현재 작업 디렉터리를 기준으로 해석됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'package'는 디렉터리가 'paths'의 모듈 상대 파일명의 기
     본 디렉터리로 사용될 파이썬 패키지나 파이썬 패키지의 이름입니다.  패
     키지를 지정하지 않으면, 호출하는 모듈의 디렉터리가 모듈 상대 파일명
     의 기본 디렉터리로 사용됩니다.  'module_relative'가 ‘False’일 때
     'package'를 지정하는 것은 에러입니다.

     Optional argument 'setUp' specifies a set-up function for the test
     suite.  This is called before running the tests in each file.  The
     'setUp' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 16b9. object.  The
     'setUp' function can access the test globals as the *note globs:
     400e. attribute of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'tearDown' specifies a tear-down function for the
     test suite.  This is called after running the tests in each file.
     The 'tearDown' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 16b9.
     object.  The 'tearDown' function can access the test globals as the
     *note globs: 400e. attribute of the test passed.

     선택적 인자 'globs'는 테스트의 초기 전역 변수를 포함하는 딕셔너리입
     니다.  이 딕셔너리의 새 사본이 테스트마다 만들어집니다.  기본적으로
     , 'globs'는 새로운 빈 딕셔너리입니다.

     선택적 인자 'optionflags'는 테스트에 대한 기본 doctest 옵션을 지정
     하는데, 개별 옵션 플래그를 함께 OR 해서 만들어집니다.  *note 옵션
     플래그: f2b. 절을 참조하십시오.  보고(reporting) 옵션을 설정하는 더
     좋은 방법은 아래 함수 *note set_unittest_reportflags(): 400f.를 참
     조하십시오.

     선택적 인자 'parser'는 파일에서 테스트를 추출하는 데 사용할 *note
     DocTestParser: 3fee.(또는 서브 클래스)를 지정합니다.  기본값은 일반
     파서(즉, ‘DocTestParser()’)입니다.

     선택적 인자 'encoding'은 파일을 유니코드로 변환하는 데 사용할 인코
     딩을 지정합니다.

     전역 ‘__file__’이 *note DocFileSuite(): 400c.를 사용하여 텍스트 파
     일에서 로드된 doctest에 제공된 전역에 추가됩니다.

 -- 함수: doctest.DocTestSuite (module=None, globs=None,
          extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None,
          optionflags=0, checker=None)

     모듈에 대한 doctest 테스트를 *note unittest.TestSuite: df0.로 변환
     합니다.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module.  Each
     docstring is run as a separate unit test.  If any of the doctests
     fail, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a *note
     unittest.TestCase.failureException: 400d. exception is raised
     showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes
     approximate) line number.  If all the examples in a docstring are
     skipped, then the

     선택적 인자 'module'은 테스트할 모듈을 제공합니다.  모듈 객체나 (점
     으로 구분될 수 있는) 모듈 이름일 수 있습니다.  지정하지 않으면, 이
     함수를 호출하는 모듈이 사용됩니다.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is the module’s *note
     __dict__: 1f2a.

     선택적 인자 'extraglobs'는 'globs'에 병합되는 전역 변수의 추가 집합
     을 지정합니다.  기본적으로, 추가 전역 변수는 사용되지 않습니다.

     선택적 인자 'test_finder'는 모듈에서 doctest를 추출하는 데 사용되는
     *note DocTestFinder: 1639. 객체(또는 드롭 인 대체)입니다.

     Optional arguments 'setUp', 'tearDown', and 'optionflags' are the
     same as for function *note DocFileSuite(): 400c. above, but they
     are called for each docstring.

     이 함수는 *note testmod(): 1433.와 같은 검색 기법을 사용합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'module'에 독스트링이 없으면 *note
     DocTestSuite(): def.는 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시키는 대신 빈
     *note unittest.TestSuite: df0.를 반환합니다.

수면 아래에서, *note DocTestSuite(): def.는 ‘doctest.DocTestCase’ 인스턴
스에서 *note unittest.TestSuite: df0.를 만들고, ‘DocTestCase’는 *note
unittest.TestCase: 447.의 서브 클래스입니다.  ‘DocTestCase’는 여기에서 설
명되지는 않지만 (내부 세부 사항입니다), 그것의 코드를 살펴보면 *note
unittest: 106. 통합의 정확한 세부 사항에 대한 질문에 대한 답을 얻을 수 있
습니다.

마찬가지로, *note DocFileSuite(): 400c.는 ‘doctest.DocFileCase’ 인스턴스
에서 *note unittest.TestSuite: df0.를 만들고, ‘DocFileCase’는
‘DocTestCase’의 서브 클래스입니다.

So both ways of creating a *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. run instances
of ‘DocTestCase’.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
*note doctest: 3a. functions yourself, you can control the ‘doctest’
options in use directly, by passing option flags to ‘doctest’ functions.
However, if you’re writing a *note unittest: 106. framework, ‘unittest’
ultimately controls when and how tests get run.  The framework author
typically wants to control ‘doctest’ reporting options (perhaps, e.g.,
specified by command line options), but there’s no way to pass options
through ‘unittest’ to ‘doctest’ test runners.

For this reason, *note doctest: 3a. also supports a notion of ‘doctest’
reporting flags specific to *note unittest: 106. support, via this
function:

 -- 함수: doctest.set_unittest_reportflags (flags)

     사용할 *note doctest: 3a. 보고 플래그를 설정합니다.

     인자 'flags'는 옵션 플래그의 *note 비트별 OR: 2079.를 취합니다.
     *note 옵션 플래그: f2b. 절을 참조하십시오.  “보고 플래그”만 사용할
     수 있습니다.

     This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests
     run by module *note unittest: 106.: the ‘runTest()’ method of
     ‘DocTestCase’ looks at the option flags specified for the test case
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed.  If no reporting
     flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case),
     ‘doctest’’s ‘unittest’ reporting flags are *note bitwise ORed:
     2079. into the option flags, and the option flags so augmented are
     passed to the *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd. instance created to run
     the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified when the
     ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed, ‘doctest’’s ‘unittest’
     reporting flags are ignored.

     함수가 호출되기 전에 유효했던 *note unittest: 106. 보고 플래그의 값
     이 함수에 의해 반환됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 고급 API,  Next: 디버깅,  Prev: Unittest API,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.14 고급 API
..................

기본 API는 doctest를 사용하기 쉽게 하기 위한 간단한 래퍼입니다.  그것은
매우 유연하며, 대부분 사용자의 요구를 충족시켜야 합니다; 그러나, 테스팅
에 대한 세밀한 제어가 필요하거나, doctest의 기능을 확장하려면, 고급 API를
사용해야 합니다.

고급 API는 doctest 케이스에서 추출한 대화식 예제를 저장하는 데 사용되는
두 개의 컨테이너 클래스를 중심으로 돌아갑니다:

   * *note Example: 4012.: 예상 출력과 쌍을 이루는 단일 파이썬 *note
     문장: 2793.

   * *note DocTest: 16b9.: 일반적으로 단일 독스트링이나 텍스트 파일에서
     추출된 *note Example: 4012.의 모음.

doctest 예제를 찾고, 구문 분석하고, 실행하고, 검사하기 위해 추가 처리 클
래스가 정의됩니다:

   * *note DocTestFinder: 1639.: 주어진 모듈에서 모든 독스트링을 찾고,
     *note DocTestParser: 3fee.를 사용하여 대화식 예제가 들어있는 모든 독
     스트링에서 *note DocTest: 16b9.를 만듭니다.

   * *note DocTestParser: 3fee.: 문자열(가령 객체의 독스트링)에서 *note
     DocTest: 16b9. 객체를 만듭니다.

   * *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.: *note DocTest: 16b9.에 있는 예제를 실행
     하고, *note OutputChecker: 3ffc.를 사용하여 출력을 확인합니다.

   * *note OutputChecker: 3ffc.: doctest 예제의 실제 출력을 예상 출력과
     비교하고, 그들이 일치하는지 결정합니다.

이러한 처리 클래스 간의 관계는 다음 도표에 요약되어 있습니다:

     list of:
     +------+                   +---------+
     |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
     +------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
                 |        |     | Example |     |       |
                 v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
                DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
                                +---------+

* Menu:

* DocTest 객체::
* Example 객체::
* DocTestFinder 객체::
* DocTestParser 객체::
* TestResults 객체::
* DocTestRunner 객체::
* OutputChecker 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: DocTest 객체,  Next: Example 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.15 DocTest 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: doctest.DocTest (examples, globs, name, filename, lineno,
          docstring)

     단일 이름 공간에서 실행되어야 하는 doctest 예제의 모음.  생성자 인
     자는 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트를 초기화하는 데 사용됩니다.

     *note DocTest: 16b9.는 다음 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다.  이들은 생성자
     에 의해 초기화되며, 직접 수정하면 안 됩니다.

      -- 속성: examples

          이 테스트가 실행해야 하는 개별 대화형 파이썬 예제를 인코딩하는
          *note Example: 4012. 객체의 리스트.

      -- 속성: globs

          예제가 실행되어야 하는 이름 공간 (일명 전역).  이름을 값에 매
          핑하는 딕셔너리입니다.  예제가 만든 이름 공간의 모든 변경 사항
          (가령 새 변수 바인딩)은 테스트가 실행된 후 *note globs: 400e.에
          반영됩니다.

      -- 속성: name

          *note DocTest: 16b9.를 식별하는 문자열 이름.  일반적으로, 테스
          트가 추출된 객체나 파일의 이름입니다.

      -- 속성: filename

          The name of the file that this *note DocTest: 16b9. was
          extracted from; or ‘None’ if the filename is unknown, or if
          the ‘DocTest’ was not extracted from a file.

      -- 속성: lineno

          이 *note DocTest: 16b9.가 시작되는 *note filename: 4017. 내의
          줄 번호, 또는 줄 번호가 없으면 ‘None’.  이 줄 번호는 파일의 시
          작 부분을 기준으로 0에서 시작합니다.

      -- 속성: docstring

          테스트가 추출된 문자열, 또는 문자열이 없거나 테스트가 문자열에
          서 추출되지 않았으면 ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Example 객체,  Next: DocTestFinder 객체,  Prev: DocTest 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.16 Example 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: doctest.Example (source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0,
          indent=0, options=None)

     파이썬 문장과 예상 출력으로 구성된 단일 대화형 예제.  생성자 인자는
     같은 이름의 어트리뷰트를 초기화하는 데 사용됩니다.

     *note Example: 4012.는 다음 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다.  이들은 생성자
     에 의해 초기화되며, 직접 수정하면 안 됩니다.

      -- 속성: source

          예제의 소스 코드가 포함된 문자열.  이 소스 코드는 단일 파이썬
          문으로 구성되며 항상 개행으로 끝납니다; 생성자는 필요하면 개행
          문자를 추가합니다.

      -- 속성: want

          예제의 소스 코드를 실행할 때 (stdout이나 예외 발생 시 트레이스
          백으로부터) 예상되는 출력.  *note want: 401c.는 출력이 예상되
          지 않으면 빈 문자열이고, 그렇지 않으면 개행으로 끝납니다.  생
          성자는 필요하면 개행을 추가합니다.

      -- 속성: exc_msg

          예제가 예외를 생성할 것으로 예상되면, 예제에서 생성된 예외 메
          시지; 또는 예외를 생성할 것으로 예상되지 않으면 ‘None’.  이 예
          외 메시지는 *note traceback.format_exception_only(): 848.의 반
          환 값과 비교됩니다.  *note exc_msg: 401d.는 ‘None’이 아니면 개
          행으로 끝납니다.  생성자는 필요하면 개행을 추가합니다.

      -- 속성: lineno

          이 예제가 시작하는 이 예제를 포함하는 문자열 내의 줄 번호.  이
          줄 번호는 포함하는 문자열의 시작 부분을 기준으로 0에서 시작합
          니다.

      -- 속성: indent

          포함하는 문자열 내에서의 이 예제의 들여쓰기, 즉 예제의 첫 번째
          프롬프트 앞에 오는 스페이스 문자의 수.

      -- 속성: options

          옵션 플래그에서 ‘True’나 ‘False’ 로 매핑하는 딕셔너리, 이 예제
          의 기본 옵션을 재정의하는 데 사용됩니다.  이 딕셔너리에 포함되
          지 않은 옵션 플래그는 (*note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 *note
          optionflags: f2b.에 지정된 대로) 기본값으로 남습니다.  기본적
          으로, 아무런 옵션도 설정되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestFinder 객체,  Next: DocTestParser 객체,  Prev: Example 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.17 DocTestFinder 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: doctest.DocTestFinder (verbose=False,
          parser=DocTestParser(), recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)

     주어진 객체에 관련된 *note DocTest: 16b9.를 그것의 독스트링과 그것
     이 포함하는 객체의 독스트링으로부터 추출하기 위해서 사용되는 처리 클
     래스.  *note DocTest: 16b9.는 모듈, 클래스, 함수, 메서드, 정적 메서
     드, 클래스 메서드 및 프로퍼티에서 추출할 수 있습니다.

     선택적 인자 'verbose'는 파인더가 검색한 객체를 표시하는 데 사용될 수
     있습니다.  기본값은 ‘False’ (출력 없음)입니다.

     선택적 인자 'parser'는 독스트링에서 doctest를 추출하는 데 사용되는
     *note DocTestParser: 3fee. 객체 (또는 드롭 인 대체)를 지정합니다.

     선택적 인자 'recurse'가 거짓이면, *note DocTestFinder.find():
     1705.는 오직 주어진 객체만을 검사 할 뿐, 포함된 객체는 검사하지 않
     습니다.

     선택적 인자 'exclude_empty'가 거짓이면, *note DocTestFinder.find():
     1705.는 빈 독스트링을 가진 객체에 대한 테스트를 포함합니다.

     *note DocTestFinder: 1639.는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: find (obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])

          'obj'의 독스트링이나 포함된 객체의 독스트링으로 정의된 *note
          DocTest: 16b9.의 리스트를 반환합니다.

          선택적 인자 'name'은 객체의 이름을 지정합니다.  이 이름은 반환
          된 *note DocTest: 16b9.의 이름을 구성하는 데 사용됩니다.
          'name'이 지정되지 않으면, ‘obj.__name__’이 사용됩니다.

          선택적 매개 변수 'module'은 주어진 객체를 포함하는 모듈입니다.
          모듈이 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 테스트 파인더는 자동으로 올
          바른 모듈을 판별하려고 시도합니다.  객체의 모듈은 다음과 같이
          사용됩니다:

             * 'globs'가 지정되지 않으면, 기본 이름 공간으로.

             * DocTestFinder가 다른 모듈에서 임포트 된 객체에서 DocTest를
               추출하지 못하도록 하려고.  ('module'이 아닌 다른 모듈을 가
               진 포함 된 객체는 무시됩니다.)

             * 객체를 포함하는 파일의 이름을 찾으려고.

             * 해당 파일 내에서 객체의 줄 번호를 찾는 데 도움이 됩니다.

          'module'이 ‘False’면, 모듈을 찾으려고 시도하지 않습니다.  이것
          은 눈에 띄지 않는데, 대부분 doctest 자체를 테스트할 때 사용합
          니다: 'module'이 ‘False’이거나, ‘None’이지만 자동으로 찾을 수
          없으면, 모든 객체는 (존재하지 않는) 모듈에 속한 것으로 간주하
          므로, 포함된 모든 객체에서 (재귀적으로) doctest를 검색합니다.

          The globals for each *note DocTest: 16b9. is formed by
          combining 'globs' and 'extraglobs' (bindings in 'extraglobs'
          override bindings in 'globs').  A new shallow copy of the
          globals dictionary is created for each ‘DocTest’.  If 'globs'
          is not specified, then it defaults to the module’s *note
          __dict__: 1f2a, if specified, or ‘{}’ otherwise.  If
          'extraglobs' is not specified, then it defaults to ‘{}’.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestParser 객체,  Next: TestResults 객체,  Prev: DocTestFinder 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.18 DocTestParser 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: doctest.DocTestParser

     문자열에서 대화형 예제를 추출하고, 이를 사용하여 *note DocTest:
     16b9. 객체를 만드는 데 사용되는 처리 클래스.

     *note DocTestParser: 3fee.는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: get_doctest (string, globs, name, filename, lineno)

          주어진 문자열에서 모든 doctest 예제를 추출하고, 이를 *note
          DocTest: 16b9. 객체로 모읍니다.

          'globs', 'name', 'filename', and 'lineno' are attributes for
          the new ‘DocTest’ object.  See the documentation for *note
          DocTest: 16b9. for more information.

      -- 메서드: get_examples (string, name='<string>')

          주어진 문자열에서 모든 doctest 예제를 추출하고, 이를 *note
          Example: 4012. 객체의 리스트로 반환합니다.  줄 번호는 0부터 시
          작합니다.  선택적 인자 'name'은, 이 문자열을 식별하는 이름이며
          , 에러 메시지에만 사용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: parse (string, name='<string>')

          Divide the given string into examples and intervening text,
          and return them as a list of alternating *note Example: 4012.s
          and strings.  Line numbers for the ‘Example’s are 0-based.
          The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying this
          string, and is only used for error messages.


File: python.info,  Node: TestResults 객체,  Next: DocTestRunner 객체,  Prev: DocTestParser 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.19 TestResults 객체
..........................

 -- 클래스: doctest.TestResults (failed, attempted)

      -- 속성: failed

          Number of failed tests.

      -- 속성: attempted

          Number of attempted tests.

      -- 속성: skipped

          Number of skipped tests.

          Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestRunner 객체,  Next: OutputChecker 객체,  Prev: TestResults 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.20 DocTestRunner 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: doctest.DocTestRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     *note DocTest: 16b9.에 있는 대화형 예제를 실행하고 검증하는 데 사용
     되는 처리 클래스.

     The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done
     by an *note OutputChecker: 3ffc.  This comparison may be customized
     with a number of option flags; see section *note 옵션 플래그: f2b.
     for more information.  If the option flags are insufficient, then
     the comparison may also be customized by passing a subclass of
     ‘OutputChecker’ to the constructor.

     테스트 실행기의 디스플레이 출력은 두 가지 방법으로 제어할 수 있습니
     다.  첫째, 출력 함수를 *note run(): 1dc.로 전달할 수 있습니다; 이 함
     수는 표시되어야 하는 문자열로 호출됩니다.  기본값은
     ‘sys.stdout.write’입니다.  출력을 캡처하는 것으로 충분하지 않으면,
     DocTestRunner를 서브 클래싱하고 *note report_start(): 402e, *note
     report_success(): 402f, *note report_unexpected_exception(): 4030.
     및 *note report_failure(): 4031. 메서드를 재정의하여 디스플레이 출
     력을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다.

     선택적 키워드 인자 'checker'는 예상 출력을 doctest 예제의 실제 출력
     과 비교하는 데 사용되는 *note OutputChecker: 3ffc. 객체(또는 드롭 인
     대체)를 지정합니다.

     선택적 키워드 인자 'verbose'는 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 상세도
     를 제어합니다.  'verbose'가 ‘True’이면, 실행될 때 각 예제에 대한 정
     보가 인쇄됩니다.  'verbose'가 ‘False’이면, 실패만 인쇄됩니다.
     'verbose'가 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 명령 줄 스위치 ‘-v’가 사용
     될 때만 상세 출력이 사용됩니다.

     선택적 키워드 인자 'optionflags'는 테스트 실행기가 예상 출력을 실제
     출력과 비교하는 방법과 실패를 표시하는 방법을 제어하는 데 사용할 수
     있습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 옵션 플래그: f2b. 절을 참조하십시오.

     The test runner accumulates statistics.  The aggregated number of
     attempted, failed and skipped examples is also available via the
     *note tries: 4032, *note failures: 4033. and *note skips: 1dd.
     attributes.  The *note run(): 1dc. and *note summarize(): 4007.
     methods return a *note TestResults: 4029. instance.

     *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: report_start (out, test, example)

          테스트 러너가 주어진 예제를 처리하려고 한다고 보고합니다.  이
          메서드는 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 서브 클래스가 출력을 사
          용자 정의할 수 있도록 제공됩니다; 직접 호출해서는 안 됩니다.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1dc.

      -- 메서드: report_success (out, test, example, got)

          주어진 예제가 성공적으로 실행되었음을 보고합니다.  이 메서드는
          *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 서브 클래스가 출력을 사용자 정의
          할 수 있도록 제공됩니다; 직접 호출해서는 안 됩니다.

          'example'은 처리될 예제입니다.  'got'은 예제의 실제 출력입니다
          .  'test'는 'example'을 포함하는 테스트입니다.  'out'은 *note
          DocTestRunner.run(): 1dc.에 전달된 출력 함수입니다.

      -- 메서드: report_failure (out, test, example, got)

          주어진 예제가 실패했음을 보고합니다.  이 메서드는 *note
          DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 서브 클래스가 출력을 사용자 정의할 수 있
          도록 제공됩니다; 직접 호출해서는 안 됩니다.

          'example'은 처리될 예제입니다.  'got'은 예제의 실제 출력입니다
          .  'test'는 'example'을 포함하는 테스트입니다.  'out'은 *note
          DocTestRunner.run(): 1dc.에 전달된 출력 함수입니다.

      -- 메서드: report_unexpected_exception (out, test, example,
               exc_info)

          주어진 예제가 예기치 않은 예외를 발생시켰다고 보고합니다.  이
          메서드는 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 서브 클래스가 출력을 사
          용자 정의할 수 있도록 제공됩니다; 직접 호출해서는 안 됩니다.

          'example'은 처리될 예제입니다.  'exc_info'는 예기치 않은 예외
          에 대한 정보를 포함하는 튜플입니다 (*note sys.exc_info():
          684.에 의해 반환되는 것).  'test'는 'example'을 포함하는 테스
          트입니다.  'out'은 *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1dc.에 전달된 출
          력 함수입니다.

      -- 메서드: run (test, compileflags=None, out=None,
               clear_globs=True)

          'test'(*note DocTest: 16b9. 객체)에 있는 예제를 실행하고, 출력
          함수 'out'을 사용하여 결과를 표시합니다.  *note TestResults:
          4029. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

          예제는 이름 공간 ‘test.globs’에서 실행됩니다.  'clear_globs'가
          참(기본값)이면, 가비지 수집을 돕기 위해 테스트가 실행된 후 이
          이름 공간이 지워집니다.  테스트가 완료된 후에 이름 공간을 검사
          하려면 'clear_globs=False'를 사용하십시오.

          'compileflags'는 예제를 실행할 때 파이썬 컴파일러에서 사용해야
          하는 플래그 집합을 제공합니다.  지정되지 않으면, 'globs'에 적
          용되는 퓨처-임포트 플래그 집합이 기본값이 됩니다.

          각 예제의 출력은 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 출력 검사기를 사
          용하여 검사되며, 결과는 ‘DocTestRunner.report_*()’ 메서드로 포
          맷됩니다.

      -- 메서드: summarize (verbose=None)

          이 DocTestRunner가 실행 한 모든 테스트 케이스의 요약을 인쇄하
          고, *note TestResults: 4029. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

          선택적 'verbose' 인자는 요약이 얼마나 상세할지를 제어합니다.  상
          세도가 지정되지 않으면, *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 상세도가
          사용됩니다.

     *note DocTestParser: 3fee.는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다:

      -- 속성: tries

          Number of attempted examples.

      -- 속성: failures

          Number of failed examples.

      -- 속성: skips

          Number of skipped examples.

          Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: OutputChecker 객체,  Prev: DocTestRunner 객체,  Up: 고급 API

5.26.4.21 OutputChecker 객체
............................

 -- 클래스: doctest.OutputChecker

     doctest 예제의 실제 출력이 예상 출력과 일치하는지를 확인하는 데 사
     용되는 클래스.  *note OutputChecker: 3ffc.는 두 가지 메서드를 정의
     합니다: *note check_output(): 4036.은 주어진 출력 쌍을 비교하고 일
     치하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다; *note output_difference(): 4037.는 두 출
     력 간의 차이를 설명하는 문자열을 반환합니다.

     *note OutputChecker: 3ffc.는 다음 메서드를 정의합니다:

      -- 메서드: check_output (want, got, optionflags)

          예제의 실제 출력('got')이 예상 출력('want')과 일치할 때만
          ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이 문자열은 같으면 항상 일치하는 것으로
          간주합니다; 그러나 테스트 실행기가 사용하는 옵션 플래그에 따라
          몇 가지 정확하지 않은 일치 유형도 가능합니다.  옵션 플래그에 대
          한 자세한 정보는 *note 옵션 플래그: f2b. 절을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: output_difference (example, got, optionflags)

          주어진 예제('example')에 대한 예상 출력과 실제 출력('got')의 차
          이를 설명하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  'optionflags'는 'want'와
          'got'을 비교하는 데 사용되는 옵션 플래그 집합입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 디버깅,  Next: 맺음말<2>,  Prev: 고급 API,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.22 디버깅
................

Doctest는 doctest 예제를 디버깅하기 위한 몇 가지 메커니즘을 제공합니다:

   * 몇몇 함수는 doctest를 파이썬 디버거 *note pdb: a5.에서 실행할 수 있
     는 실행 가능한 파이썬 프로그램으로 변환합니다.

   * *note DebugRunner: 403a. 클래스는 첫 번째 실패한 예제에 대한 예외를
     발생시키는 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 서브 클래스이며 해당 예제에
     대한 정보가 들어 있습니다.  이 정보는 예제에서 사후 디버깅을 수행하
     는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

   * *note DocTestSuite(): def.에 의해 생성된 *note unittest: 106. 케이
     스는 *note unittest.TestCase: 447.에 의해 정의된 *note debug():
     403b. 메서드를 지원합니다.

   * doctest 예제에 *note pdb.set_trace(): 235.에 대한 호출을 추가 할 수
     있습니다.  그러면 해당하는 줄이 실행될 때 파이썬 디버거로 들어갑니
     다.  그런 다음 변수의 현재 값을 검사하는 등의 일을 할 수 있습니다.
     예를 들어, ‘a.py’가 다음과 같은 모듈 독스트링을 포함한다고 가정합시
     다:

          """
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     g(x*2)
          >>> def g(x):
          ...     print(x+3)
          ...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          >>> f(3)
          9
          """

     그러면 대화형 파이썬 세션은 이런 식이 됩니다:

          >>> import a, doctest
          >>> doctest.testmod(a)
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
          -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          (Pdb) list
            1     def g(x):
            2         print(x+3)
            3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          6
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
          -> g(x*2)
          (Pdb) list
            1     def f(x):
            2  ->     g(x*2)
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          3
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
          -> f(3)
          (Pdb) cont
          (0, 3)
          >>>

Doctest를 파이썬 코드로 변환하고, 디버거에서 합성 코드를 실행할 수 있는
함수들:

 -- 함수: doctest.script_from_examples (s)

     예제가 있는 텍스트를 스크립트로 변환합니다.

     인자 's'는 doctest 예제를 포함하는 문자열입니다.  문자열은 파이썬 스
     크립트로 변환됩니다.  여기서 's'의 doctest 예제는 일반 코드로 변환
     되고, 나머지는 파이썬 주석으로 변환됩니다.  생성된 스크립트는 문자
     열로 반환됩니다.  예를 들어,

          import doctest
          print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
              Set x and y to 1 and 2.
              >>> x, y = 1, 2

              Print their sum:
              >>> print(x+y)
              3
          """))

     는 다음과 같이 출력합니다:

          # Set x and y to 1 and 2.
          x, y = 1, 2
          #
          # Print their sum:
          print(x+y)
          # Expected:
          ## 3

     이 함수는 다른 함수(아래 참조)에서 내부적으로 사용되지만, 대화형 파
     이썬 세션을 파이썬 스크립트로 변환하려고 할 때도 유용합니다.

 -- 함수: doctest.testsource (module, name)

     객체에 대한 doctest를 스크립트로 변환합니다.

     인자 'module'은 doctest가 관심 대상인 객체를 포함하는 모듈 객체나 모
     듈의 점으로 구분된 이름입니다.  인자 'name'은 doctest가 관심 대상인
     객체의 (모듈 내에서의) 이름입니다.  결과는 위의 *note
     script_from_examples(): 403c.에서 설명한 대로 파이썬 스크립트로 변
     환된 객체의 독스트링을 포함하는 문자열입니다.  예를 들어, 모듈
     ‘a.py’에 최상위 함수 ‘f()’가 포함되었다면,

          import a, doctest
          print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))

     는 doctest가 코드로 변환되고 나머지는 주석으로 배치된, 함수 ‘f()’의
     독스트링의 스크립트 버전을 인쇄합니다.

 -- 함수: doctest.debug (module, name, pm=False)

     객체의 doctest를 디버그합니다.

     'module'과 'name' 인자는 위의 함수 *note testsource(): 403d.와 같습
     니다.  명명된 객체의 독스트링에 대한 합성된 파이썬 스크립트가 임시
     파일에 기록되고, 그 파일을 파이썬 디버거 *note pdb: a5.의 제어하에
     실행합니다.

     ‘module.__dict__’의 얕은 사본이 지역과 전역 실행 컨텍스트 모두에 사
     용됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'pm'은 사후 디버깅이 사용되는지를 제어합니다.  'pm'이 참
     값이면, 스크립트 파일은 직접 실행되고, 처리되지 않은 예외를 발생시
     켜 스크립트가 종료될 때만 디버거가 개입합니다.  그럴 때, 사후 디버
     깅이 *note pdb.post_mortem(): 13a3.를 통해 호출되어, 처리되지 않은
     예외로부터 온 트레이스백 객체를 전달합니다.  'pm'이 지정되지 않았거
     나 거짓이면, 스크립트는 적절한 *note exec(): 17f. 호출을 *note
     pdb.run(): 403e.에 전달하여 시작부터 디버거에서 실행됩니다.

 -- 함수: doctest.debug_src (src, pm=False, globs=None)

     문자열에 있는 doctest를 디버그합니다.

     doctest 예제를 포함하는 문자열이 'src' 인자를 통해 직접 지정된다는
     점을 제외하면, 위의 함수 *note debug(): 403b.과 같습니다.

     선택적 인자 'pm'은 위의 함수 *note debug(): 403b.에서와 같은 의미를
     가집니다.

     선택적 인자 'globs'는 지역과 전역 실행 컨텍스트 모두에 사용할 딕셔
     너리를 제공합니다.  지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이면, 빈 딕셔너리가 사용
     됩니다.  지정되면, 딕셔너리의 얕은 사본이 사용됩니다.

*note DebugRunner: 403a. 클래스와 이 클래스가 발생시킬 수 있는 특별한 예
외는 주로 테스트 프레임워크 작성자가 관심을 가지며, 여기에서는 대략적으
로만 다룰 예정입니다.  자세한 내용은 소스 코드, 특히 *note DebugRunner:
403a.의 독스트링(doctest입니다!)을 참조하십시오:

 -- 클래스: doctest.DebugRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     실패를 만나자마자 예외를 발생시키는 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.의 서
     브 클래스.  예기치 않은 예외가 발생하면, 테스트, 예제 및 원래 예외
     가 포함된 *note UnexpectedException: 4040. 예외가 발생합니다.  출력
     이 일치하지 않으면, 테스트, 예제 및 실제 출력을 포함하는 *note
     DocTestFailure: 4041. 예외가 발생합니다.

     생성자 매개 변수와 메서드에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 고급 API:
     4011. 절의 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

*note DebugRunner: 403a. 인스턴스가 발생시킬 수 있는 두 가지 예외가 있습
니다:

 -- 예외: doctest.DocTestFailure (test, example, got)

     doctest 예제의 실제 출력이 예상 출력과 일치하지 않는다는 것을 알리
     기 위해 *note DocTestRunner: 3ffd.가 발생시키는 예외.  생성자 인자
     는 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트를 초기화하는 데 사용됩니다.

*note DocTestFailure: 4041.는 다음 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다:

 -- 속성: DocTestFailure.test

     예제가 실패했을 때 실행 중이던 *note DocTest: 16b9. 객체.

 -- 속성: DocTestFailure.example

     실패한 *note Example: 4012.

 -- 속성: DocTestFailure.got

     예제의 실제 출력.

 -- 예외: doctest.UnexpectedException (test, example, exc_info)

     doctest 예제가 예기치 않은 예외를 발생시켰음을 알리기 위해 *note
     DocTestRunner: 3ffd.가 발생시키는 예외.  생성자 인자는 같은 이름의
     어트리뷰트를 초기화하는 데 사용됩니다.

*note UnexpectedException: 4040.는 다음 어트리뷰트를 정의합니다:

 -- 속성: UnexpectedException.test

     예제가 실패했을 때 실행 중이던 *note DocTest: 16b9. 객체.

 -- 속성: UnexpectedException.example

     실패한 *note Example: 4012.

 -- 속성: UnexpectedException.exc_info

     *note sys.exc_info(): 684.에 의해 반환되는 것과 같은, 예기치 않은 예
     외에 대한 정보가 포함된 튜플.


File: python.info,  Node: 맺음말<2>,  Prev: 디버깅,  Up: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트

5.26.4.23 맺음말
................

소개에서 언급했듯이, *note doctest: 3a.는 다음 세 가지 주요 용도로 성장
했습니다:

  1. 독스트링에 있는 예제 검사.

  2. 회귀 테스트.

  3. 실행 가능한 문서/문학적(literate) 테스트.

이러한 용도들은 다른 요구 사항을 가지며, 이를 구별하는 것이 중요합니다.
특히, 모호한 테스트 케이스로 독스트링을 채우는 것은 나쁜 설명서를 만듭니
다.

독스트링을 작성할 때, 독스트링 예제를 주의해서 선택하십시오.  여기에는 배
울 필요가 있는 기술이 있습니다—처음에는 자연스럽지 않을 수도 있습니다.  예
제는 설명서에 진짜 가치를 부여해야 합니다.  좋은 예제는 종종 많은 단어의
가치가 있습니다.  주의 깊게 작업 된다면, 예제는 사용자에게 매우 가치 있
을 것이며, 몇 년이 지나고 변함에 따라 여러 번 수집하는 데 드는 시간을 갚
을 것입니다.  제 *note doctest: 3a. 예제 중 하나가 “해가 없는” 변경 후에
얼마나 자주 작동을 멈추는지 지금도 놀라울 뿐입니다.

Doctest는 회귀 테스트를 위한 훌륭한 도구도 제공합니다.  특히 설명 텍스트
를 생략하지 않는다면 더욱더 그렇습니다.  설명과 예제를 번갈아 보여줌으로
써, 실제로 무엇이 왜 테스트 되는지를 추적하기가 훨씬 쉬워집니다.  테스트
가 실패할 때, 좋은 설명은 문제가 무엇인지, 어떻게 고쳐야 하는지를 쉽게 파
악할 수 있게 해줍니다.  코드 기반 테스트에 광범위한 주석을 쓸 수는 있는
것은 사실이지만, 그렇게 하는 프로그래머는 거의 없습니다.  많은 사람이
doctest 접근법을 사용하는 것이 훨씬 더 명확한 테스트를 유도한다는 것을 발
견했습니다.  어쩌면 단순히 doctest가 설명을 작성하는 것을 코드를 작성하
는 것보다 조금 더 쉽게 만들고, 코드에 주석을 쓰는 것이 조금 더 어렵기 때
문일 것입니다.  저는 단지 그것보다는 더 깊이 들어간다고 생각합니다:
doctest 기반 테스트를 작성할 때의 자연스러운 태도는 소프트웨어의 미세한
포인트를 설명하고 그것을 예제로 보여주는 것입니다.  이것은 자연스럽게 가
장 간단한 기능으로 시작하고, 복잡하고 지엽적인 경우까지 논리적으로 진행
되는 테스트 파일로 이어집니다.  무작위로 보이는 격리된 기능 조각을 테스
트하는 격리된 함수들의 모음 대신에, 일관된 내러티브가 얻어집니다.  이것
은 다른 태도이며, 테스트와 설명의 구별을 모호하게 하면서 다른 결과를 낳
습니다.

회귀 테스트는 전용 객체나 파일로 제한하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.  테스트 구
성을 위한 몇 가지 옵션이 있습니다.:

   * 대화형 예제로 테스트 케이스가 들어있는 텍스트 파일을 작성하고,
     *note testfile(): 3fdd.이나 *note DocFileSuite(): 400c.를 사용하여
     파일을 테스트하십시오.  doctest를 처음부터 사용하도록 고안된 새로운
     프로젝트에서 가장 쉬운 방법이지만, 이 방법을 권장합니다.

   * 명명된 주제에 대한 테스트 케이스를 포함하는 단일 독스트링으로 구성
     된 ‘_regrtest_topic’이라는 함수를 정의하십시오.  이 함수들은 모듈과
     같은 파일에 포함되거나 별도의 테스트 파일로 분리될 수 있습니다.

   * Define a *note __test__: 3fe9. dictionary mapping from regression
     test topics to docstrings containing test cases.

테스트를 모듈에 배치할 때, 모듈 자체가 테스트 실행기가 될 수 있습니다.  테
스트가 실패할 때, 문제를 디버깅하는 동안 실패한 doctest 만 다시 실행하도
록 테스트 실행기를 조정할 수 있습니다.  다음은 그러한 테스트 실행기의 최
소 예입니다:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import doctest
         flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
         if len(sys.argv) > 1:
             name = sys.argv[1]
             if name in globals():
                 obj = globals()[name]
             else:
                 obj = __test__[name]
             doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
                                            optionflags=flags)
         else:
             fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
             print(f"{fail} failures out of {total} tests")


File: python.info,  Node: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크,  Next: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리,  Prev: doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.5 ‘unittest’ — 단위 테스트 프레임워크
------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/unittest/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

(당신이 이미 테스트 기본 개념에 친숙하다면, *note assert 메서드 목록:
404c.으로 건너뛰어도 좋습니다.)

*note unittest: 106. 단위 테스트 프레임워크는 본래 JUnit으로부터 영감을
받고 다른 언어의 주요 단위 테스트 프레임워크와 비슷한 특징을 가지고 있습
니다.  이것은 테스트 자동화, 테스트를 위한 사전 설정(setup)과 종료
(shutdown) 코드 공유, 테스트를 컬렉션에 종합하기, 테스트와 리포트 프레임
워크의 분리 등을 지원합니다.

이를 달성하기 위해 *note unittest: 106.는 객체 지향적인 방법으로 몇 가지
중요한 개념을 지원합니다.

테스트 픽스쳐

     '테스트 픽스쳐 (test fixture)'는 1개 또는 그 이상의 테스트를 수행할
     때 필요한 준비와 그와 관련된 정리 동작에 해당합니다.  예를 들어 이
     것은 임시 또는 프락시 데이터베이스, 디렉터리를 생성하거나 서버 프로
     세스를 시작하는 것 등을 포함합니다.

테스트 케이스

     '테스트 케이스(test case)'는 테스트의 개별 단위입니다.  이것은 특정
     한 입력 모음에 대해서 특정한 결과를 확인합니다.  *note unittest:
     106.는 베이스 클래스인 *note TestCase: 447.를 지원합니다.  이 클래
     스는 새로운 테스트 케이스를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

테스트 묶음

     '테스트 묶음(test suite)'은 여러 테스트 케이스, 테스트 묶음, 또는 둘
     다의 모임입니다.  이것은 서로 같이 실행되어야 할 테스트들을 종합하
     는 데 사용됩니다.

테스트 실행자

     '테스트 실행자(test runner)'는 테스트 실행을 조율하고 테스트 결과를
     사용자에게 제공하는 역할을 하는 컴포넌트입니다.  실행자는 테스트 실
     행 결과를 보여주기 위해 그래픽 인터페이스, 텍스트 인터페이스를 사용
     하거나 특별한 값을 반환할 수도 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

*note doctest: 3a. 모듈

     매우 다른 특징을 가지고 있는 또 다른 테스트 지원 모듈

Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns(2)

     *note unittest: 106.에 영향을 준 Kent Beck의 패턴을 사용한 테스트 프
     레임워크 원본 논문

pytest(3)

     테스트를 작성하기에 간편한 문법을 가지고 있는 제삼자의 단위 테스트
     프레임워크.  예시, ‘assert func(10) == 42’.

파이썬 테스트 도구 분류(4)

     함수형 테스트 프레임워크와 모의 객체 라이브러리를 포함한 광범위한 파
     이썬 테스트 도구 목록

Testing in Python 메일링 리스트(5)

     파이썬에서 테스트하기와 테스트 도구에 대해 논의하는 특정-주제-그룹
     (special-interest-group)

파이썬 소스 배포판에 있는 ‘Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py’ 스크립트는
테스트 탐색 및 실행을 위한 GUI 도구입니다.  이것은 단위 테스트가 처음인
사람들이 쉽게 사용할 수 있도록 만들어졌습니다.  라이브 환경에서는
Buildbot(6), Jenkins(7), GitHub Actions(8) 또는 AppVeyor(9)와 같은 지속
적인 통합 시스템을 이용하여 테스트가 이루어지길 추천합니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 예시::
* 명령행 인터페이스::
* 테스트 탐색(Discovery): 테스트 탐색 Discovery.
* 테스트 코드 구조 잡기::
* 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기::
* 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패::
* 부분 테스트(subtest)를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기: 부분 테스트 subtest 를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기.
* 클래스와 함수::
* 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐::
* 시그널 처리하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/unittest/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm

   (3) https://docs.pytest.org/

   (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy

   (5) http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python

   (6) https://buildbot.net/

   (7) https://www.jenkins.io/

   (8) https://github.com/features/actions

   (9) https://www.appveyor.com/


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 예시,  Next: 명령행 인터페이스,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.1 기본 예시
..................

*note unittest: 106. 모듈은 테스트를 구성하고 실행하는 데 풍부한 도구 모
음을 제공하고 있습니다.  이 절에서는 대부분 사용자의 요구를 충족시키기 위
해 일부 도구 모음만으로도 충분하다는 것을 보여줍니다.

문자열 관련된 3개의 메서드를 테스트하기 위한 짧은 스크립트가 여기에 있습
니다:

     import unittest

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_upper(self):
             self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

         def test_isupper(self):
             self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
             self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
             # 구분 기호가 문자열이 아닐 때 s.split이 실패하는지 검사합니다
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 s.split(2)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

A test case is created by subclassing *note unittest.TestCase: 447.  The
three individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with
the letters ‘test’.  This naming convention informs the test runner
about which methods represent tests.

각 테스트의 핵심은 기대되는 결과를 확인하기 위해 *note assertEqual():
522.를 호출, 조건을 검증하기 위해 *note assertTrue(): 520. 또는 *note
assertFalse(): 521.를 호출, 특정 예외가 발생했는지 검증하기 위해 *note
assertRaises(): 526.를 호출하는 것입니다.  *note assert: 965. 문장을 대
신하여 이 메서드들을 사용하면 테스트 실행자가 모든 테스트 결과를 취합하
여 리포트를 생성할 수 있습니다.

*note setUp(): 1329.과 *note tearDown(): 132a. 메서드로 각각의 테스트 메
서드 전과 후에 실행될 명령어를 정의할 수 있습니다.  *note 테스트 코드
구조 잡기: 404f.에서 이것을 더 자세히 다루겠습니다.

마지막 블록은 테스트를 실행하는 간단한 방법을 보여줍니다.  *note
unittest.main(): fdb.은 테스트 스크립트에 명령행 인터페이스를 제공합니다
.  명령행에서 위 스크립트를 실행하면, 다음과 같은 출력이 나옵니다:

     ...
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.000s

     OK

‘-v’ 옵션을 테스트 스크립트에 넘겨주게 되면 *note unittest.main(): fdb.은
높은 상세도(verbosity)를 설정하여 그에 따른 출력이 나옵니다:

     test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok
     test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok
     test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.001s

     OK

위의 예시는 *note unittest: 106.에서 가장 자주 사용되는 기능을 보여주며
이것은 많은 일상적인 테스트 요구 사항을 충족시키기에 충분합니다.  문서의
나머지 부분은 기초부터 시작해서 모든 기능을 살펴봅니다.

버전 3.11에서 변경: The behavior of returning a value from a test method
(other than the default ‘None’ value), is now deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령행 인터페이스,  Next: 테스트 탐색 Discovery,  Prev: 기본 예시,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.2 명령행 인터페이스
..........................

unittest 모듈은 명령행을 사용하여 모듈, 클래스, 심지어 각 테스트 메서드
의 테스트들을 실행할 수 있습니다:

     python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method

모듈 이름이나 완전히 정규화된 클래스나 메서드 이름이 포함된 목록을 전달
할 수 있습니다.

테스트 모듈은 파일 경로로도 지정할 수 있습니다:

     python -m unittest tests/test_something.py

이것으로 테스트 모듈을 지정할 때 셸(shell)의 파일 이름 완성 기능을 사용
할 수 있습니다.  지정된 파일은 반드시 모듈로 임포트 가능해야 합니다.  파
일 경로는 ‘.py’ 가 빠지면서 모듈 이름으로 변경되고 경로 구분자도 ‘.’로 변
경됩니다.  만약 당신이 임포트 가능하지 않은 테스트 파일을 모듈로 사용하
고 싶으시다면 이 방법 대신에 그 파일을 직접 실행해야 합니다.

-v 옵션을 사용하여 더 자세한 정보(높은 상세도)로 테스트를 실행할 수 있습
니다:

     python -m unittest -v test_module

아무 인자 없이 실행하면 *note 테스트 탐색(Discovery): 4052.이 실행됩니다
:

     python -m unittest

모든 명령행 옵션 목록을 보기:

     python -m unittest -h

버전 3.2에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는 개별 테스트 메서드만 실행이 가능했고,
모듈과 클래스는 불가능했습니다.

* Menu:

* 명령행 옵션::


File: python.info,  Node: 명령행 옵션,  Up: 명령행 인터페이스

5.26.5.3 명령행 옵션
....................

‘unittest’는 다음과 같은 명령행 옵션을 제공합니다:

 -- Option: -b, --buffer

     테스트가 실행될 동안 표준 출력과 표준 에러 스트림이 버퍼링 됩니다.
     통과한 테스트 중에 나온 출력은 버려집니다.  보통 테스트 실패나 에러
     에서 나온 출력은 표시되고 실패 메시지에 추가됩니다.

 -- Option: -c, --catch

     테스트 실행 중에 ‘Control’-‘C’를 누르면 현재 테스트가 끝날 때까지 기
     다린 다음 지금까지의 모든 결과를 보고합니다.  ‘Control’-‘C’를 다시
     누르면 일반적인 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 예외를 발생합니다.

     이 기능과 관련된 함수는 *note 시그널 처리하기: 4056.를 참고하십시오
     .

 -- Option: -f, --failfast

     첫 번째 에러나 실패가 발생하면 테스트 실행을 중단합니다.

 -- Option: -k

     패턴이나 부분 문자열과 일치하는 테스트 메서드나 클래스만 실행합니다
     .  이 옵션은 여러 번 사용될 수 있습니다.  이 경우 주어진 패턴 중 하
     나라도 일치하는 모든 테스트 케이스가 포함됩니다.

     와일드카드 문자(‘*’)를 포함한 패턴은 *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase():
     18a7.를 사용하여 그에 일치하는 테스트 이름을 찾고; 그렇지 않은 경우
     단순히 대소문자를 구별하는 부분 문자열 일치가 사용됩니다.

     패턴을 테스트 로더가 임포트한 완전히 정규화된 테스트 메서드 이름과
     대조합니다.

     예를 들어 ‘-k foo’는 ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
     ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’에 일치하지만,
     ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’에는 일치하지 않습니다.

 -- Option: --locals

     트레이스백(traceback)에서 지역 변수를 표시합니다.

 -- Option: --durations N

     Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all).

Added in version 3.2: 명령행 옵션인 ‘-b’, ‘-c’, ‘-f’가 추가되었습니다.

Added in version 3.5: 명령행 옵션 ‘--locals’.

Added in version 3.7: 명령행 옵션 ‘-k’.

Added in version 3.12: 명령행 옵션 ‘--durations’.

명령행은 프로젝트의 모든 테스트 또는 일부분의 테스트 탐색을 위해서도 사
용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 테스트 탐색 Discovery,  Next: 테스트 코드 구조 잡기,  Prev: 명령행 인터페이스,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.4 테스트 탐색(Discovery)
...............................

Added in version 3.2.

unittest는 간단한 테스트 탐색을 지원합니다.  테스트 탐색에 호환되기 위해
서는 모든 테스트 파일은 반드시 프로젝트의 가장 상위 디렉터리로부터 *note
모듈: 1c5e. 또는 *note 패키지: 1c6f.로 임포트 가능해야 합니다(이 말은 파
일 이름이 반드시 유효한 *note 식별자: 1e9c.이어야 한다는 뜻입니다).

테스트 탐색은 *note TestLoader.discover(): fdd.로 구현되어 있습니다, 그
러나 명령행으로 사용할 수도 있습니다.  기본적인 명령행 사용법은 다음과 같
습니다:

     cd project_directory
     python -m unittest discover

     참고: 단축형인 ‘python -m unittest’는 ‘python -m unittest
     discover’와 같습니다.  테스트 탐색에 인자를 전달하고 싶을 때는
     ‘discover’ 부속 명령어(sub-command)를 명시적으로 사용해야 합니다.

‘discover’ 부-명령어는 다음과 같은 옵션을 가지고 있습니다:

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     상세한 출력

 -- Option: -s, --start-directory directory

     탐색을 시작할 디렉터리(기본값 ‘.’)

 -- Option: -p, --pattern pattern

     테스트 파일을 검색할 패턴(기본값 ‘test*.py’)

 -- Option: -t, --top-level-directory directory

     프로젝트의 최상위 디렉터리(기본값 시작 디렉터리)

*note -s: 405e, *note -p: 4060, *note -t: 4062. 옵션은 이 순서대로 위치
인자로서 사용할 수 있습니다.  다음 2개의 명령행은 같습니다:

     python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
     python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"

경로가 사용되는 곳에 패키지 이름을 전달하는 것도 가능합니다, 예를 들어
‘myproject.subpackage.test’를 시작 디렉터리로 사용할 수 있습니다.  주어
진 패키지 이름은 임포트되어 그것의 파일 시스템상의 위치를 시작 디렉터리
로 사용하게 됩니다.

     조심: 테스트 탐색은 테스트를 임포트하여 로드합니다.  테스트 탐색이
     당신이 지정한 시작 디렉터리로부터 모든 테스트 파일을 찾았다면 임포
     트하기 위해 그 파일 경로를 패키지 이름으로 바꿉니다.  예를 들어
     ‘foo/bar/baz.py’는 ‘foo.bar.baz’로 임포트될 것입니다.

     만약 당신이 전역적으로 설치된 패키지가 있고 테스트 탐색을 다른 패키
     지 복사본에 하려고 시도한다면 임포트가 잘못된 위치에서 발생할 '수도
     있습니다'.  만약 이런 일이 발생한다면 테스트 탐색은 경고하고 종료될
     것입니다.

     만약 당신이 시작 디렉터리로 경로가 아닌 패키지 이름을 전달했다면 테
     스트 탐색은 임포트가 어느 경로로부터 되었든 간에 당신이 의도한 경로
     라고 간주하여 경고를 발생하지 않을 것입니다.

테스트 모듈과 패키지는 *note load_tests 프로토콜: 4064.을 통하여 테스트
로드와 탐색을 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 테스트 탐색은 시작 디렉터리로 *note 이름 공간 패키지:
1c70.를 지원합니다.  최상위 디렉터도 지정해야 함에 유의하십시오 (예를 들
어 ‘python -m unittest discover -s root/namespace -t root’).

버전 3.11에서 변경: *note unittest: 106. dropped the *note namespace
packages: 1c70. support in Python 3.11.  It has been broken since Python
3.7.  Start directory and subdirectories containing tests must be
regular package that have ‘__init__.py’ file.

Directories containing start directory still can be a namespace package.
In this case, you need to specify start directory as dotted package
name, and target directory explicitly.  For example:

     # proj/  <-- 현재 디렉터리
     #   namespace/
     #     mypkg/
     #       __init__.py
     #       test_mypkg.py

     python -m unittest discover -s namespace.mypkg -t .


File: python.info,  Node: 테스트 코드 구조 잡기,  Next: 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기,  Prev: 테스트 탐색 Discovery,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.5 테스트 코드 구조 잡기
..............................

단위 테스트의 기본 구성 블록은 '테스트 케이스(test cases)' — 정확성을 위
해 설정되고 확인될 하나의 시나리오입니다.  *note unittest: 106.에서 테스
트 케이스는 *note unittest.TestCase: 447. 인스턴스에 해당합니다.  당신만
의 테스트 케이스를 만들기 위해서는 *note TestCase: 447.의 서브 클래스를
작성하거나 *note FunctionTestCase: 170f.를 사용해야 합니다.

*note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스의 테스트 코드는 완전히 독립적으로 되어 있
어야 합니다, 그래야지 이것을 각각 단독으로 실행하거나 다른 여러 테스트 케
이스와 함께 임의의 조합으로 실행할 수 있습니다.

가장 간단한 *note TestCase: 447.의 서브 클래스는 특정 테스트 코드를 수행
하도록 단순히 테스트 메서드(즉 ‘test’로 이름이 시작하는 함수)를 구현하는
것입니다:

     import unittest

     class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             widget = Widget('The widget')
             self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))

어떤 것을 테스트하기 위해서는 *note TestCase: 447. 베이스 클래스에서 제
공하는 *note assert* 메서드: 404c. 중 한 개를 사용합니다.  테스트가 실패
한다면 그 이유를 설명한 메시지가 포함된 예외가 발생합니다, 그리고 *note
unittest: 106.는 해당 테스트 케이스를 '실패(failure)'로 취급합니다.  다
른 모든 예외는 '에러(errors)'로 취급합니다.

테스트는 매우 많지만, 그것을 위한 사전 설정은 계속 반복될 수 있습니다.  다
행히, *note setUp(): 1329.이란 메서드를 작성하여 사전 설정 코드를 밖으로
분리해낼 수 있습니다.  테스트 프레임워크가 1개의 테스트마다 매번 자동으
로 이것을 호출할 것입니다:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
                              'incorrect default size')

         def test_widget_resize(self):
             self.widget.resize(100,150)
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
                              'wrong size after resize')

     참고: 다양한 테스트가 실행될 순서는 테스트 메서드의 이름을 가지고 내
     장된 문자열 정렬 순서에 의하여 결정될 것입니다.

만약 *note setUp(): 1329. 메서드가 테스트 실행 중에 예외를 발생시킨다면
프레임워크는 테스트에 오류가 있는 것으로 간주하여 테스트 메서드를 실행하
지 않을 것입니다.

마찬가지로 테스트 메서드가 실행되고 나서 정리하기 위해 *note tearDown():
132a. 메서드를 제공합니다:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def tearDown(self):
             self.widget.dispose()

만약 *note setUp(): 1329.이 성공했다면, 테스트가 성공했든 실패했든 상관
없이 *note tearDown(): 132a.이 실행될 것입니다.

이와 같은 테스트를 위한 실행 환경을 '테스트 픽스쳐(test fixture)'라고 부
릅니다.  개별 테스트 메서드를 실행하기 위해 고유한 테스트 픽스쳐에 해당
하는 새로운 테스트 케이스 인스턴스가 생성됩니다.  따라서 *note setUp():
1329, *note tearDown(): 132a, ‘__init__()’는 테스트 당 1번씩 실행됩니다.

테스트하려는 기능에 따라 테스트들을 같이 모아서 테스트 케이스 구현을 사
용하는 것을 추천합니다.  이것을 위해 *note unittest: 106.는 메커니즘을 제
공합니다: '테스트 묶음(test suite)', 이것은 *note unittest: 106.의 *note
TestSuite: df0. 클래스에 해당합니다.  대부분의 경우 *note
unittest.main(): fdb.이 테스트를 실행하기 위해 모듈의 모든 테스트 케이스
를 수집하여 적절한 행동을 취할 것입니다.

그러나 당신이 테스트 묶음을 사용자 정의하고 싶다면 그것을 직접 만들어야
합니다:

     def suite():
         suite = unittest.TestSuite()
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
         return suite

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
         runner.run(suite())

당신은 테스트 케이스와 테스트 묶음의 정의를 테스트하려는 코드와 같은 모
듈(예를 들어 ‘widget.py’)에 넣을 수 있습니다, 그러나 테스트 코드를 분리
된 모듈(예를 들어 ‘test_widget.py’)에 넣으면 몇 가지 이점이 있습니다:

   * 테스트 모듈이 명령행에서 독립적으로 작동할 수 있습니다.

   * 테스트 코드가 배포될 코드와 쉽게 분리될 수 있습니다.

   * 충분한 이유 없이 테스트하려는 코드에 맞춰서 테스트 코드를 바꾸려는
     유혹이 덜 합니다.

   * 테스트 코드가 테스트하려는 코드에 비해 훨씬 덜 빈번하게 수정되어야
     합니다.

   * 테스트하려는 코드는 더 쉽게 리팩토링할 수 있습니다.

   * C 언어로 작성된 모듈의 테스트 코드는 반드시 분리된 모듈에 위치해야
     합니다, 따라서 일관성을 지키는 것이 어떨까요?

   * 만약 테스트 전략이 바뀌더라도 소스 코드를 바꿀 필요가 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기,  Next: 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패,  Prev: 테스트 코드 구조 잡기,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.6 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기
...........................................

어떤 사용자들은 이전의 모든 테스트 함수를 *note TestCase: 447. 서브 클래
스로 변경하는 작업 없이 기존의 테스트 코드를 *note unittest: 106.로 실행
하고 싶어 할 것입니다.

이러한 이유로 *note unittest: 106.는 *note FunctionTestCase: 170f. 클래
스를 제공합니다.  이 *note TestCase: 447.의 서브 클래스는 기존 테스트 함
수를 감싸는데 사용할 수 있습니다.  사전 설정과 정리 함수 또한 같이 사용
할 수 있습니다.

다음과 같은 테스트 함수가 있을 때:

     def testSomething():
         something = makeSomething()
         assert something.name is not None
         # ...

다음과 같이 동등한 테스트 케이스 인스턴스를 생성할 수 있습니다, 추가로 사
전 설정과 정리 메서드를 함께 설정합니다:

     testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
                                          setUp=makeSomethingDB,
                                          tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)

     참고: *note FunctionTestCase: 170f.를 사용하여 기존 테스트를 *note
     unittest: 106.-기반 시스템으로 빠르게 변경할 수 있을지라도 이 방법
     을 추천하지는 않습니다.  시간을 들여서 적절한 *note TestCase: 447.
     서브 클래스를 설정하는 것이 미래에 있을 테스트 리팩토링을 대단히 쉽
     게 만들어줄 것입니다.

어떤 경우에는 *note doctest: 3a. 모듈을 사용하여 기존 테스트가 작성되었
을 수도 있습니다.  만약 그렇다면 *note doctest: 3a.가 제공하는
‘DocTestSuite’ 클래스를 사용하여 기존의 *note doctest: 3a.-기반 테스트로
부터 *note unittest.TestSuite: df0. 인스턴스를 자동으로 만들 수 있습니다
.


File: python.info,  Node: 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패,  Next: 부분 테스트 subtest 를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기,  Prev: 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.7 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패
......................................

Added in version 3.1.

unittest는 테스트 중에서 개별 테스트 메서드나 심지어 전체 클래스를 건너
뛸 수 있는 기능을 제공합니다.  게다가 테스트를 “예상된 실패”로 표시하는
기능도 지원합니다, 테스트가 망가져서 실패하더라도 그것을 *note
TestResult: 1158.에 실패라고 기록하지 않습니다.

테스트 건너뛰기는 단순히 *note skip(): 19e0. *note 데코레이터: 72a.나 그
것의 조건 변형 중 하나를 사용하거나, *note setUp(): 1329.이나 테스트 메
서드 안에서 *note TestCase.skipTest(): 406a.를 호출하거나, *note
SkipTest: fdc.를 직접 발생시키면 됩니다.

기본적인 건너뛰기는 다음과 같습니다:

     class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):

         @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
         def test_nothing(self):
             self.fail("shouldn't happen")

         @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
                          "not supported in this library version")
         def test_format(self):
             # 특정 버전의 라이브러리에서만 작동하는 테스트.
             pass

         @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
         def test_windows_support(self):
             # 윈도우 특정 테스트 코드
             pass

         def test_maybe_skipped(self):
             if not external_resource_available():
                 self.skipTest("external resource not available")
             # 외부 리소스에 의존하는 테스트 코드
             pass

아래는 위의 예를 상세 모드로 실행했을 때의 출력입니다:

     test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
     test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
     test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
     test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows'

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 4 tests in 0.005s

     OK (skipped=4)

클래스도 메서드처럼 건너뛰기가 가능합니다:

     @unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
     class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_not_run(self):
             pass

*note TestCase.setUp(): 1329. 또한 테스트를 건너뛸 수 있습니다.  이것은
사전 설정해야 할 자원을 사용할 수 없을 때 유용합니다.

예상된 실패는 *note expectedFailure(): 406b. 데코레이터를 사용합니다.

     class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         @unittest.expectedFailure
         def test_fail(self):
             self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")

자신만의 건너뛰기 데코레이터를 만들기는 쉽습니다.  테스트를 건너뛰고 싶
을 때 *note skip(): 19e0.를 호출하도록 데코레이터를 만들면 됩니다.  다음
의 데코레이터는 특정 어트리뷰트가 있는 객체가 전달되지 않으면 테스트를 건
너뜁니다:

     def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
         if hasattr(obj, attr):
             return lambda func: func
         return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))

다음 데코레이터들과 예외는 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패를 구현합니다:

 -- 함수: @unittest.skip (reason)

     조건 없이 데코레이트된 테스트를 건너뜁니다.  'reason'은 왜 이 테스
     트가 건너뛰어 졌는지를 설명해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: @unittest.skipIf (condition, reason)

     'condition'이 참이면 데코레이트된 테스트를 건너뜁니다.

 -- 함수: @unittest.skipUnless (condition, reason)

     'condition'이 참이 아니면 데코레이트된 테스트를 건너뜁니다.

 -- 함수: @unittest.expectedFailure

     테스트가 예상된 실패나 에러라는 표시를 합니다.  테스트가 ('테스트 픽
     스쳐(test fixture)' 메서드 중 하나가 아니라) 테스트 함수 자체에서 실
     패하거나 에러이면 성공으로 간주합니다.  테스트에 통과하면 실패로 간
     주합니다.

 -- 예외: unittest.SkipTest (reason)

     이 예외는 테스트를 건너뛰기 위해서 발생합니다.

     보통은 이 예외를 직접 발생시키기보다는 *note TestCase.skipTest():
     406a.나 건너뛰기 데코레이터를 사용할 수 있습니다.

건너뛰는 테스트는 테스트 전후로 *note setUp(): 1329.이나 *note
tearDown(): 132a.를 실행하지 않을 것입니다.  건너뛰는 클래스는 *note
setUpClass(): a49.나 *note tearDownClass(): 1327.를 실행하지 않을 것입니
다.  건너뛰는 모듈은 ‘setUpModule()’이나 ‘tearDownModule()’을 실행하지 않
을 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 부분 테스트 subtest 를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기,  Next: 클래스와 함수,  Prev: 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.8 부분 테스트(subtest)를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기
..............................................................

Added in version 3.4.

여러분의 테스트들이 아주 작은 부분에서만 다를 때, 예를 들어 몇몇 매개변
수, unittest는 *note subTest(): fd9. 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용하여 테스트 메
서드의 바디 안에서 그것들은 구별 짓게 해줍니다.

예를 들어, 다음 테스트는:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_even(self):
             """
             0과 5 사이의 숫자가 모두 짝수인지 테스트합니다.
             """
             for i in range(0, 6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

다음의 출력을 만듭니다:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

부분 테스트를 사용하지 않는다면 테스트 실행은 첫 번째 실패 후에 중단될 것
이고 ‘i’ 값이 표시되지 않기 때문에 에러를 진단하는 데 쉽지 않을 것입니다
:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
     AssertionError: 1 != 0


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스와 함수,  Next: 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐,  Prev: 부분 테스트 subtest 를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.9 클래스와 함수
......................

이 절은 *note unittest: 106.의 API를 심도 있게 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 테스트 케이스::
* 테스트 분류::
* 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 테스트 케이스,  Next: 테스트 분류,  Up: 클래스와 함수

5.26.5.10 테스트 케이스
.......................

 -- 클래스: unittest.TestCase (methodName='runTest')

     *note TestCase: 447. 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note unittest: 106. 세계
     에서 논리적인 테스트 단위에 해당합니다.  이 클래스는 베이스 클래스
     로 사용되며, 특정 테스트는 구상 클래스로 구현됩니다.  이 클래스는 테
     스트 실행자가 테스트를 실행할 수 있는 인터페이스를 구현하고 테스트
     코드가 검사하고 다양한 실패를 보고할 수 있는 메서드를 구현합니다.

     *note TestCase: 447.의 각 인스턴스는 하나의 베이스 메서드:
     'methodName'이 지정하는 이름의 메서드를 실행할 것입니다.  대부분의
     *note TestCase: 447. 사용에서, 당신은 'methodName'을 바꾸거나 기본
     ‘runTest()’ 메서드를 재구현하지 않을 것입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'methodName' 제공 없이도 *note TestCase: 447.를
     성공적으로 인스턴스화할 수 있습니다.  이것은 대화형 인터프리터에서
     *note TestCase: 447.로 쉽게 실험을 할 수 있게 합니다.

     *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스는 3가지 메서드 그룹을 제공합니다: 한
     그룹은 테스트를 실행하는 데 사용되고, 다른 한 그룹은 조건을 확인하
     고 실패를 보고하는 테스트 구현으로 사용되고, 몇몇 조회 메서드는 테
     스트 자체에 관한 정보를 수집할 수 있게 해줍니다.

     첫 번째 그룹(테스트 실행) 안에 메서드는:

      -- 메서드: setUp ()

          테스트 픽스쳐를 준비하기 위해 호출되는 메서드입니다.  이 메서
          드는 테스트 메서드를 호출하기 바로 직전에 호출됩니다; *note
          AssertionError: 6a3. 또는 *note SkipTest: fdc.이외의 이 메서드
          에서 발생한 모든 예외는 테스트 실패가 아닌 오류로 간주합니다.
          기본 구현은 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: tearDown ()

          테스트 메서드가 불리고 결과가 기록되고 나서 바로 다음에 호출되
          는 메서드입니다.  테스트 메서드가 예외를 발생했더라도 이 메서
          드는 불립니다, 따라서 서브 클래스의 구현은 내부 상태를 확인하
          는 데 특별히 주의를 기울여야 합니다.  *note AssertionError:
          6a3. 또는 *note SkipTest: fdc.이외의 이 메서드에서 발생하는 모
          든 예외는 테스트 실패가 아닌 오류로 간주합니다(따라서 보고된 오
          류의 총 숫자가 증가합니다).  이 메서드는 테스트 메서드의 결과
          물에 영향받지 않고 *note setUp(): 1329.이 성공했을 때만 불립니
          다.  기본 구현은 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: setUpClass ()

          개별 클래스의 테스트들이 실행되기 전에 불리는 클래스 메서드입
          니다.  ‘setUpClass’는 클래스만 인자로 받아 호출되고 *note
          classmethod(): 166.로 데코레이트해야 합니다:

               @classmethod
               def setUpClass(cls):
                   ...

          더 자세한 것은 *note 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐: 4073.를 보십시오.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: tearDownClass ()

          개별 클래스의 테스트들이 실행되고 난 뒤에 불리는 클래스 메서드
          입니다.  ‘tearDownClass’는 클래스만 인자로 받아 호출되고 *note
          classmethod(): 166.로 데코레이트해야 합니다:

               @classmethod
               def tearDownClass(cls):
                   ...

          더 자세한 것은 *note 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐: 4073.를 보십시오.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: run (result=None)

          테스트를 실행하고, 'result' 인자로 전달된 *note TestResult:
          1158.에 결과를 수집합니다.  만약 'result' 인자가 전달 안 되거
          나 ‘None’이라면 임시 결과 객체를 (*note defaultTestResult():
          4074. 메서드를 불러서) 생성하여 사용합니다.  *note run():
          1157. 호출자에게 결과 객체를 반환합니다.

          단순히 *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스를 호출하는 것으로 같은 효
          과를 볼 수 있습니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 기존 버전의 ‘run’은 결과를 반환하지 않았습
          니다.  인스턴스 호출 또한 그렇지 않았습니다.

      -- 메서드: skipTest (reason)

          테스트 메서드나 *note setUp(): 1329.에서 이것을 호출하면 현재
          테스트를 건너뜁니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 테스트 건너뛰기와
          예상된 실패: 4069.를 보십시오.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: subTest (msg=None, **params)

          둘러싼 코드 블록을 부분 테스트로서 실행하는 컨텍스트 관리자를
          반환합니다.  'msg' 및 'params'는 선택 사항이며 부분 테스트가 실
          패 할 때마다 표시되는 임의의 값으로 당신이 명확하게 알아보게 해
          줍니다.

          테스트 케이스는 여러 개의 부분 테스트 선언을 포함할 수 있고, 그
          것들은 자유롭게 중첩될 수 있습니다.

          자세한 정보는 *note 부분 테스트(subtest)를 사용하여 테스트 반복
          구별 짓기: fda.를 보십시오.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: debug ()

          결과를 수집하지 않고 테스트를 실행합니다.  이것은 테스트에서 발
          생한 예외가 호출자로 전파될 수 있게 해서, 디버거 환경에서 테스
          트를 실행할 때 사용될 수 있습니다.
     *note TestCase: 447. 클래스는 값을 검사하고 실패를 보고하기 위해 몇
     개의 assert 메서드를 제공합니다.  다음 표는 보통 많이 사용되는 메서
     드들입니다(더 많은 assert 메서드는 표 아래를 보십시오):

     메서드                                        검사하는 내용                     추가된 버전
                                                                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertEqual(a, b): 522.                 ‘a == b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 523.              ‘a != b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertTrue(x): 520.                     ‘bool(x) is True’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertFalse(x): 521.                    ‘bool(x) is False’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertIs(a, b): 132b.                   ‘a is b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNot(a, b): 132c.                ‘a is not b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNone(x): 127a.                  ‘x is None’                       3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNotNone(x): 127b.               ‘x is not None’                   3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIn(a, b): 1334.                   ‘a in b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIn(a, b): 1335.                ‘a not in b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsInstance(a, b): 132d.           ‘isinstance(a, b)’                3.2
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIsInstance(a, b): 132e.        ‘not isinstance(a, b)’            3.2
                                                                                     

     모든 assert 메서드는 'msg' 인자를 받을 수 있습니다, 만약 그것이 전
     달된다면 실패 시 에러 메시지로 사용됩니다(*note longMessage: 1326.
     도 참고하십시오).  *note assertRaises(): 526, *note
     assertRaisesRegex(): 528, *note assertWarns(): 1155, *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): 1156.는 컨텍스트 관리자로서 사용될 때만 그들에
     게 'msg' 키워드 인자를 전달할 수 있다는 점을 주의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: assertEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          'first'와 'second'가 같은지 테스트합니다.  비교한 값이 같지 않
          으면 테스트는 실패할 것입니다.

          추가로, 만약 'first'와 'second'가 정확히 같은 형(type)이고
          list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset, str 이거나 *note
          addTypeEqualityFunc(): 1338.에 등록된 서브 클래스 형 중 하나일
          경우 더 유용한 기본 에러 메시지를 생성하기 위해 형-특화
          (type-specific) 동등성 함수가 불릴 것입니다(*note 형-특화
          메서드 목록: 4075.을 참고하십시오).

          버전 3.1에서 변경: 형-특화 동등성 함수가 자동으로 불리도록 추
          가

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 문자열 비교를 위해서 *note
          assertMultiLineEqual(): 1333.를 기본 형-특화 동등성 함수에 추
          가

      -- 메서드: assertNotEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          'first'와 'second'가 같지 않은지 테스트합니다, 비교한 값이 같
          으면 테스트는 실패할 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: assertTrue (expr, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertFalse (expr, msg=None)

          'expr'이 참(또는 거짓)인지 테스트합니다.

          이것은 ‘bool(expr) is True’와 동등하고 ‘expr is True’와 동등하
          지 않다는 것에 주의하십시오(후자를 위해선 ‘assertIs(expr,
          True)’를 사용하십시오).  더 구체적인 메서드를 사용할 수 있을 때
          는 이 메서드를 지양해야 합니다(예, ‘assertTrue(a == b)’ 대신에
          ‘assertEqual(a, b)’), 왜냐하면 실패의 경우에 구체적인 메서드가
          더 나은 에러 메시지를 제공하기 때문입니다.

      -- 메서드: assertIs (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertIsNot (first, second, msg=None)

          'first'와 'second'가 같은 객체인지 (혹은 아닌지) 테스트합니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertIsNone (expr, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertIsNotNone (expr, msg=None)

          'expr'이 ‘None’ 인지(아닌지) 테스트합니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertIn (member, container, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertNotIn (member, container, msg=None)

          'member'가 'container' 안에 있는지(아닌지) 테스트합니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertNotIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)

          'obj'가 'cls'(*note isinstance(): 43b.가 지원하는 것처럼 클래
          스 또는 클래스의 튜플)의 인스턴스인지(아닌지) 테스트합니다.  정
          확한 형 검사를 위해서는 *note assertIs(type(obj), cls): 132b.를
          사용하십시오.

          Added in version 3.2.

     다음의 메서드를 사용하여 예외, 경고, 로그 메시지의 발생을 검사할 수
     있습니다:

     메서드                                                        검사하는 내용                              추가된 버전
                                                                                                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds): 526.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’가 'exc'를 발생
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 528.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’가 'exc'를 발생하고    3.1
                                                                   메시지가 정규식 'r'에 일치                 
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds): 1155.            ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’가 'warn'을 발생       3.2
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 1156.    ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’가 'warn'을 발생하고   3.2
                                                                   메시지가 정규식 'r'에 일치                 
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertLogs(logger, level): 853.                         ‘with’ 블록이 최소 'level'로 'logger'에    3.4
                                                                   로그를 남김                                
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertNoLogs(logger, level): 852.                       ‘with’ 블록이                              3.10
                                                                                                              
                                                                        최소 'level'로 'logger'에 로그를 남
                                                                        기지 않음
                                                                   

      -- 메서드: assertRaises (exception, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- 메서드: assertRaises (exception, *, msg=None)

          *note assertRaises(): 526.에 전달된 어떤 위치 또는 키워드 인자
          와 함께 'callable'이 호출되었을 때 예외가 발생하는지 테스트합
          니다.  'exception'이 발생하면 테스트를 통과하고, 다른 예외가 발
          생하면 에러이고, 아무 예외도 발생하지 않으면 실패입니다.  여러
          예외 모음을 잡기 위해서 예외 클래스를 포함한 튜플을
          'exception'으로 전달해도 좋습니다.

          만약 선택적인 'msg'와 함께 오직 'exception' 인자만 전달된다면,
          테스트할 코드를 함수가 아닌 인라인으로 작성할 수 있도록 컨텍스
          트 관리자를 반환합니다:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
                   do_something()

          컨텍스트 관리자로 사용되면, *note assertRaises(): 526.는 추가
          적인 키워드 인자인 'msg'를 받을 수 있습니다.

          컨텍스트 관리자는 잡은 예외 객체를 ‘exception’ 어트리뷰트에 저
          장할 것입니다.  이것은 발생한 예외에 대해서 추가적인 검사를 수
          행하려는 경우에 유용할 수 있습니다:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
                   do_something()

               the_exception = cm.exception
               self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)

          버전 3.1에서 변경: *note assertRaises(): 526.를 컨텍스트 관리
          자로 사용할 수 있도록 기능 추가.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘exception’ 어트리뷰트 추가.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 때 'msg' 키워드 인
          자 추가.

      -- 메서드: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- 메서드: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, *, msg=None)

          *note assertRaises(): 526.와 비슷하지만 발생한 예외의 문자열 표
          현이 'regex'에 일치하는지 테스트합니다.  'regex'는 정규식 객체
          나 *note re.search(): 121c.에 사용되기 적합한 정규식 문자열이
          될 수 있습니다.  예:

               self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
                                      int, 'XYZ')

          또는:

               with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
                  int('XYZ')

          Added in version 3.1: ‘assertRaisesRegexp’ 라는 이름으로 추가
          되었습니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: *note assertRaisesRegex(): 528.으로 이름 변
          경.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 때 'msg' 키워드 인
          자 추가.

      -- 메서드: assertWarns (warning, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- 메서드: assertWarns (warning, *, msg=None)

          *note assertWarns(): 1155.에 전달된 어떤 위치 또는 키워드 인자
          와 함께 'callable'이 호출되었을 때 경고(warning)가 발생하는지
          테스트합니다.  'warning'이 발생하면 테스트를 통과하고, 그렇지
          않으면 실패입니다.  예외가 발생하면 에러입니다.  여러 경고 모
          음을 잡기 위해서 경고 클래스를 포함한 튜플을 'warnings'로 전달
          해도 좋습니다.

          만약 선택적인 'msg'와 함께 오직 'warning' 인자만 전달된다면, 테
          스트할 코드를 함수가 아닌 인라인으로 작성할 수 있도록 컨텍스트
          관리자를 반환합니다:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
                   do_something()

          컨텍스트 관리자로 사용되면, *note assertWarns(): 1155.는 추가
          적인 키워드 인자인 'msg'를 받을 수 있습니다.

          컨텍스트 관리자는 잡은 경고 객체를 ‘warning’ 어트리뷰트에 저장
          하고, 경고를 발생한 소스코드 줄을 ‘filename’과 ‘lineno’에 저장
          할 것입니다.  이것은 발생한 경고에 대해서 추가적인 검사를 수행
          하려는 경우에 유용할 수 있습니다:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
                   do_something()

               self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
               self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)

          이 메서드는 호출될 때 적용될 경고 필터와 관계없이 작동합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 때 'msg' 키워드 인
          자 추가.

      -- 메서드: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- 메서드: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, *, msg=None)

          *note assertWarns(): 1155.와 비슷하지만 발생한 경고의 메시지가
          'regex'에 일치하는지 테스트합니다.  'regex'는 정규식 객체나
          *note re.search(): 121c.에 사용되기 적합한 정규식 문자열이 될
          수 있습니다.  예:

               self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
                                     r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
                                     legacy_function, 'XYZ')

          또는:

               with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
                   frobnicate('/etc/passwd')

          Added in version 3.2.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 때 'msg' 키워드 인
          자 추가.

      -- 메서드: assertLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          최소한 'level'로 'logger'나 그 자식들에 최소한 1개의 메시지가
          기록되는지 테스트하는 컨텍스트 관리자입니다.

          'logger'가 주어졌다면, *note logging.Logger: b4c. 객체이거나 로
          거의 이름인 *note str: 445.이어야 합니다.  기본값은 전파하지 않
          는 하위 로거에 의해 차단되지 않은 모든 메시지를 잡을 루트 로거
          입니다.

          'level'이 주어졌다면, 로그 수준의 숫자 값이거나 그에 대응하는
          문자열이어야 합니다(예를 들어 ‘"ERROR"’이거나 *note
          logging.ERROR: 1cfd.).  기본값은 *note logging.INFO: 1cfb.입니
          다.

          만약 ‘with’ 블록 안에서 'logger'와 'level' 조건을 만족하는 최
          소한 1개의 메시지가 나왔다면 테스트는 성공하고, 그렇지 않으면
          실패합니다.

          컨텍스트 관리자에 의해 반환되는 객체는 조건에 일치하는 로그 메
          시지를 추적하기 위한 기록 도우미입니다.  이것은 2개의 어트리뷰
          트를 가지고 있습니다:

           -- 속성: records

               조건에 일치하는 메시지의 *note logging.LogRecord: fde. 객
               체 목록.

           -- 속성: output

               조건에 일치하는 메시지의 포맷 출력인 *note str: 445. 객체
               목록.

          예:

               with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
                   logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
                   logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
               self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
                                            'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: assertNoLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          'logger'나 그 자식들에 주어진 'level' 이상으로 메시지가 기록되
          지 않았음을 테스트하는 컨텍스트 관리자입니다.

          'logger'가 주어졌다면, *note logging.Logger: b4c. 객체이거나 로
          거의 이름인 *note str: 445.이어야 합니다.  기본값은 모든 메시
          지를 잡을 루트 로거입니다.

          'level'이 주어졌다면, 로그 수준의 숫자 값이거나 그에 대응하는
          문자열이어야 합니다(예를 들어 ‘"ERROR"’이거나 *note
          logging.ERROR: 1cfd.).  기본값은 *note logging.INFO: 1cfb.입니
          다.

          Unlike *note assertLogs(): 853, nothing will be returned by
          the context manager.

          Added in version 3.10.

     더 구체적인 검사를 수행하기 위한 또 다른 메서드가 있습니다, 아래와
     같이:

     메서드                                      검사하는 내용                        추가된 버전
                                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 524.         ‘round(a-b, 7) == 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 525.      ‘round(a-b, 7) != 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreater(a, b): 132f.            ‘a > b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreaterEqual(a, b): 1330.       ‘a >= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLess(a, b): 1331.               ‘a < b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLessEqual(a, b): 1332.          ‘a <= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertRegex(s, r): 527.               ‘r.search(s)’                        3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotRegex(s, r): 529.            ‘not r.search(s)’                    3.2
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertCountEqual(a, b): 121a.         순서와 상관없이 'a'와 'b'가 같은 개  3.2
                                                 수의 같은 요소를 가졌는지.           
                                                 

      -- 메서드: assertAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None,
               delta=None)
      -- 메서드: assertNotAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7,
               msg=None, delta=None)

          'first'와 'second'가 근사하게 같은지(또는 근사하게 같지 않은지
          ) 테스트합니다.  이는 값 차이를 계산하고, 주어진 소수 '자릿
          (places)'수(기본값 7)로 반올림한 뒤, 0과 비교하는 것으로 이루
          어집니다.  이 메서드는 값을 '유효 숫자 자릿수(significant
          digits)'가 아닌 주어진 '소수 자릿수(decimal places)'(즉, *note
          round(): 12ca. 함수와 같이)로 반올림합니다.

          만약 'places' 대신에 'delta'가 주어진다면 'first'와 'second'의
          값 차이는 반드시 'delta'보다 작거나 같아야(또는 커야) 합니다.

          'delta'와 'places'가 동시에 주어지면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발
          생합니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: *note assertAlmostEqual(): 524.은 같다고 비
          교되는 거의 동등한 객체를 자동으로 고려합니다.  *note
          assertNotAlmostEqual(): 525.은 객체가 같다고 비교되면 자동으로
          실패합니다.  'delta' 키워드 인자를 추가.

      -- 메서드: assertGreater (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertGreaterEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertLess (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertLessEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          'first'를 'second'와 비교해서 각각 메서드 이름에 해당하는 >,
          >=, <, <= 인지 테스트합니다.  그렇지 않으면 테스트는 실패합니
          다:

               >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
               AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertRegex (text, regex, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertNotRegex (text, regex, msg=None)

          'regex' 검색이 'text'에 일치하는지(아닌지) 테스트합니다.  실패
          의 경우, 에러 메시지는 패턴과 'text'(또는 패턴과 예상과 달리 일
          치한 'text'의 부분)를 포함할 것입니다.  'regex'는 정규식 객체
          나 *note re.search(): 121c.에 사용되기 적합한 정규식 문자열이
          될 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.1: ‘assertRegexpMatches’ 라는 이름으로 추가
          되었습니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ 메서드가 *note
          assertRegex(): 527.로 이름 변경되었습니다.

          Added in version 3.2: *note assertNotRegex(): 529.

      -- 메서드: assertCountEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          'first' 시퀀스가 순서에 상관없이 'second'와 같은 요소를 포함하
          는지 테스트합니다.  그렇지 않은 경우, 시퀀스들의 차이를 나열한
          에러 메시지가 생성됩니다.

          'first'와 'second'를 비교할 때 중복된 요소는 무시하지 '않습니
          다'.  두 개의 시퀀스에 각 요소가 같은 수 만큼 있는 것을 확인합
          니다.  ‘assertEqual(Counter(list(first)),
          Counter(list(second)))’와 같지만 해시 불가능한(unhashable) 시
          퀀스에도 작동합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

     *note assertEqual(): 522. 메서드는 같은 형의 객체의 동등성 검사를 다
     른 형-특화 메서드에게로 보냅니다.  이러한 메서드들은 대부분의 내장
     형에 대해서 이미 구현되어 있지만, *note addTypeEqualityFunc():
     1338.을 사용하여 새로운 메서드를 등록하는 것도 가능합니다:

      -- 메서드: addTypeEqualityFunc (typeobj, function)

          정확히 같은 (서브 클래스가 아닌) 'typeobj' 형의 두 객체가 같은
          지 비교 검사하기 위해 *note assertEqual(): 522.한테 불리는 형
          -특화 메서드를 등록합니다.  'function'은 반드시 2개의 위치 인
          자를 받아야 하고 *note assertEqual(): 522.이 그러한 것처럼
          msg=None 키워드 인자를 세 번째로 받아야 합니다.  이것은 처음
          2개의 매개변수가 같지 않은 것이 확인될 경우 *note
          self.failureException(msg): 400d.을 반드시 발생시켜야 합니다 –
          에러 메시지에 유용한 정보를 제공하고 비동등성을 자세히 설명할
          수 있을 것입니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

     *note assertEqual(): 522.에서 자동으로 사용하는 형-특화 메서드 목록
     은 다음 표에 정리되어 있습니다.  보통은 이 메서드를 직접 부를 필요
     가 없다는 것을 기억하십시오.

     메서드                                        을 비교하기 위해                  추가된 버전
                                                                                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertMultiLineEqual(a, b): 1333.       문자열                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSequenceEqual(a, b): 1279.        시퀀스                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertListEqual(a, b): 1277.            리스트                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertTupleEqual(a, b): 1278.           튜플                              3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSetEqual(a, b): 1275.             집합 또는 불변 집합               3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertDictEqual(a, b): 1276.            딕셔너리                          3.1
                                                                                     

      -- 메서드: assertMultiLineEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          여러 줄 문자열인 'first'와 'second'가 같은지 테스트합니다.  같
          지 않을 경우 에러 메시지에 다른 부분이 강조된 두 문자열의 차이
          가 포함됩니다.  이 메서드는 *note assertEqual(): 522.에서 문자
          열을 비교할 때 기본적으로 사용됩니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertSequenceEqual (first, second, msg=None,
               seq_type=None)

          2개의 시퀀스가 같은지 테스트합니다.  'seq_type'이 전달된 경우,
          'first'와 'second' 둘 다 'seq_type'의 인스턴스이어야 하고 그렇
          지 않은 경우 실패가 발생합니다.  시퀀스가 다른 경우, 에러 메시
          지는 2개 사이의 차이점을 보여주게 됩니다.

          이 메서드는 *note assertEqual(): 522.에서 직접 호출되진 않지만
          , *note assertListEqual(): 1277.와 *note assertTupleEqual():
          1278.을 구현할 때 사용됩니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertListEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- 메서드: assertTupleEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          2개의 리스트나 튜플이 같은지 테스트합니다.  만약 같지 않다면 에
          러 메시지는 2개 사이의 차이점만 보여주게 됩니다.  매개변수 중
          하나가 잘못된 형인 경우 에러가 발생합니다.  이 메서드는 *note
          assertEqual(): 522.에서 리스트와 튜플을 비교할 때 기본적으로 사
          용됩니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertSetEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          2개의 집합이 같은지 테스트합니다.  같지 않은 경우 에러 메시지
          는 집합 사이의 차이를 나열하게 됩니다.  이 메서드는 *note
          assertEqual(): 522.에서 집합이나 불변 집합을 비교할 때 기본적
          으로 사용됩니다.

          'first'와 'second' 중 하나가 ‘set.difference()’ 메서드를 가지
          고 있지 않으면 실패합니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: assertDictEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          2개의 딕셔너리가 같은지 테스트합니다.  같지 않은 경우 에러 메
          시지는 딕셔너리 사이의 차이를 보여주게 됩니다.  이 메서드는
          *note assertEqual(): 522.에서 딕셔너리를 비교할 때 기본적으로
          사용될 것입니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

     마지막으로 *note TestCase: 447.가 다음의 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 제공
     합니다:

      -- 메서드: fail (msg=None)

          무조건 테스트 실패 신호를 보냅니다, 에러 메시지를 위해 'msg'나
          ‘None’을 전달합니다.

      -- 속성: failureException

          이 클래스 어트리뷰트는 테스트 메서드에서 발생한 예외를 줍니다.
          만약 테스트 프레임워크가 추가 정보를 전달하기 위해 특수한 예외
          를 사용할 필요가 있다면, 프레임워크와 “공정하게 행동하기” 위해
          서 이 예외를 서브 클래스해야 합니다.  이 어트리뷰트의 초깃값은
          *note AssertionError: 6a3. 입니다.

      -- 속성: longMessage

          이 클래스 어트리뷰트는 실패한 assertXYY 호출에 msg 인자로 전달
          된 사용자 정의 실패 메시지가 어떻게 동작하는지를 결정합니다.
          ‘True’가 기본값입니다.  이 경우, 사용자 정의 메시지가 표준 실
          패 메시지 끝에 추가됩니다.  ‘False’로 설정할 경우 사용자 정의
          메시지가 표준 메시지를 대체합니다.

          이 클래스 설정은 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 설정하여 개별 테스트 메
          서드에 의해 재정의될 수 있습니다, assert 메서드를 호출하기 전
          에 self.longMessage를 ‘True’ 또는 ‘False’로 설정하는 것입니다.

          이 클래스 설정은 각 테스트 호출 전에 재설정됩니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 속성: maxDiff

          이 어트리뷰트는 실패 시 diff를 보고하는 assert 메서드의 최대
          diff 출력 길이를 설정합니다.  기본값은 80*8 문자입니다.  이 어
          트리뷰트에 영향을 받는 assert 메서드는 *note
          assertSequenceEqual(): 1279.(이것에 위임하는 모든 시퀀스 비교
          메서드를 포함), *note assertDictEqual(): 1276, *note
          assertMultiLineEqual(): 1333. 입니다.

          ‘maxDiff’를 ‘None’으로 설정하면 diff의 최대 길이 제한이 없어지
          는 것을 뜻합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

     테스트 프레임워크는 테스트에 관한 정보를 수집하기 위해 다음의 메서
     드를 사용할 수 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: countTestCases ()

          이 테스트 객체에 해당하는 테스트 개수를 반환합니다.  *note
          TestCase: 447. 인스턴스에 대해서는 이것은 항상 ‘1’입니다.

      -- 메서드: defaultTestResult ()

          이 테스트 케이스 클래스를 위해서 사용되는 테스트 결과 클래스의
          인스턴스를 반환합니다(*note run(): 1157. 메서드에 다른 결과 인
          스턴스가 전달되지 않은 경우에).

          *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스에 대해서는 이것은 항상 *note
          TestResult: 1158.의 인스턴스입니다; *note TestCase: 447.의 서
          브 클래스는 이것을 필요에 따라 재정의해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: id ()

          특정 테스트 케이스를 식별하는 문자열을 반환합니다.  이것은 보
          통 모듈과 클래스 이름을 포함한 테스트 메서드의 완전한 이름
          (full name)입니다.

      -- 메서드: shortDescription ()

          테스트의 설명을 반환하거나 설명이 제공되지 않았으면 ‘None’을 반
          환합니다.  이 메서드의 기본 구현은 가능하다면 테스트 메서드의
          독스트링의 첫 번째 줄을 반환하고 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’을 반환합
          니다.

          버전 3.1에서 변경: 3.1 버전에서 docstring이 있는 경우에도 짧은
          설명에 테스트 이름을 추가하도록 변경되었습니다.  이것은
          unittest 확장과 호환성 문제를 일으켰고 테스트 이름 추가는 파이
          썬 3.2에서 *note TextTestResult: 52a.로 옮겨졌습니다.

      -- 메서드: addCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          테스트 중에 사용된 자원을 정리하기 위해 *note tearDown():
          132a. 이후에 불리는 함수를 추가합니다.  함수들은 추가된 순서의
          반대 순서대로 불리게 됩니다(LIFO).  함수가 추가될 때 *note
          addCleanup(): a7e.에 같이 전달된 위치 인자나 키워드 인자와 함
          께 호출됩니다.

          만약 *note setUp(): 1329.이 실패한다면, 즉 *note tearDown():
          132a.이 불리지 않더라도, 정리 함수들은 여전히 불리게 될 것입니
          다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: enterContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5ce.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 12f0. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addCleanup(): a7e. and return the result of
          the *note __enter__(): 5c2. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: doCleanups ()

          이 메서드는 *note tearDown(): 132a. 이후나, *note setUp():
          1329.이 예외를 발생시키면 *note setUp(): 1329.이후에 조건 없이
          호출됩니다.

          *note addCleanup(): a7e.에서 추가된 모든 정리 함수들을 호출하
          는 책임이 있습니다.  만약 정리 함수를 *note tearDown(): 132a.
          '이전에' 불러야 할 필요가 있다면 *note doCleanups(): 1328.를 직
          접 부를 수 있습니다.

          *note doCleanups(): 1328.는 한 번에 하나씩 정리 함수 스택에서
          메서드를 꺼내기 때문에 언제든지 호출될 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: classmethod addClassCleanup (function, /, *args,
               **kwargs)

          테스트 클래스 중에 사용된 자원을 정리하기 위해 *note
          tearDownClass(): 1327. 이후에 불리는 함수를 추가합니다.  함수
          들은 추가된 순서의 반대 순서대로 불리게 됩니다(LIFO).  함수가
          추가될 때 *note addClassCleanup(): a4b.에 같이 전달된 위치 인
          자나 키워드 인자와 함께 호출됩니다.

          만약 *note setUpClass(): a49.가 실패한다면, 즉 *note
          tearDownClass(): 1327.가 불리지 않더라도, 정리 함수들은 여전히
          불리게 될 것입니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: classmethod enterClassContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5ce.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 12f0. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addClassCleanup(): a4b. and return the
          result of the *note __enter__(): 5c2. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: classmethod doClassCleanups ()

          이 메서드는 *note tearDownClass(): 1327. 이후나, *note
          setUpClass(): a49.이 예외를 발생시키면 *note setUpClass():
          a49.이후에 조건 없이 호출됩니다.

          *note addClassCleanup(): a4b.에서 추가된 모든 정리 함수들을 호
          출하는 책임이 있습니다.  만약 정리 함수를 *note
          tearDownClass(): 1327. '이전에' 호출해야 할 필요가 있다면
          *note doClassCleanups(): 407d.를 직접 호출할 수 있습니다.

          *note doClassCleanups(): 407d.는 한 번에 하나씩 정리 함수 스택
          에서 메서드를 꺼내기 때문에 언제든지 호출될 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

 -- 클래스: unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (methodName='runTest')

     이 클래스는 *note TestCase: 447.와 유사한 API를 제공하며 코루틴을 테
     스트 함수로 받아들입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- 속성: loop_factory

          The 'loop_factory' passed to *note asyncio.Runner: 5fa.
          Override in subclasses with *note asyncio.EventLoop: 16fd. to
          avoid using the asyncio policy system.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: async asyncSetUp ()

          테스트 픽스쳐를 준비하기 위해 호출되는 메서드입니다.  이 메서
          드는 ‘setUp()’이후에 호출됩니다.  이 메서드는 테스트 메서드를
          호출하기 바로 직전에 호출됩니다; *note AssertionError: 6a3. 또
          는 *note SkipTest: fdc.이외의 이 메서드에서 발생한 모든 예외는
          테스트 실패가 아닌 오류로 간주합니다.  기본 구현은 아무것도 하
          지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: async asyncTearDown ()

          테스트 메서드가 불리고 결과가 기록되고 나서 바로 다음에 호출되
          는 메서드입니다.  이 메서드는 ‘tearDown()’전에 호출됩니다.  테
          스트 메서드가 예외를 발생했더라도 이 메서드는 불립니다, 따라서
          서브 클래스의 구현은 내부 상태를 확인하는 데 특별히 주의를 기
          울여야 합니다.  *note AssertionError: 6a3. 또는 *note
          SkipTest: fdc.이외의 이 메서드에서 발생하는 모든 예외는 테스트
          실패가 아닌 오류로 간주합니다(따라서 보고된 오류의 총 숫자가 증
          가합니다).  이 메서드는 테스트 메서드의 결과물에 영향받지 않고
          *note asyncSetUp(): 407f.이 성공했을 때만 불립니다.  기본 구현
          은 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: addAsyncCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          이 메서드는 정리 함수로 사용할 수 있는 코루틴을 받아들입니다.

      -- 메서드: async enterAsyncContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note asynchronous context manager: 5d1.
          If successful, also add its *note __aexit__(): 1631. method as
          a cleanup function by *note addAsyncCleanup(): 4081. and
          return the result of the *note __aenter__(): 1fd8. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: run (result=None)

          테스트를 실행하기 위한 새 이벤트 루프를 설정하고, 'result' 인
          자로 전달된 *note TestResult: 1158.에 결과를 수집합니다.  만약
          'result' 인자가 전달 안 되거나 ‘None’이라면 임시 결과 객체를
          (‘defaultTestResult()’ 메서드를 불러서) 생성하여 사용합니다.
          *note run(): 4082. 호출자에게 결과 객체를 반환합니다.  테스트
          의 끝에서 이벤트 루프의 모든 태스크는 취소됩니다.

     순서를 보여주는 예:

          from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

          events = []


          class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):


              def setUp(self):
                  events.append("setUp")

              async def asyncSetUp(self):
                  self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection()
                  events.append("asyncSetUp")

              async def test_response(self):
                  events.append("test_response")
                  response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com")
                  self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
                  self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup)

              def tearDown(self):
                  events.append("tearDown")

              async def asyncTearDown(self):
                  await self._async_connection.close()
                  events.append("asyncTearDown")

              async def on_cleanup(self):
                  events.append("cleanup")

          if __name__ == "__main__":
              unittest.main()

     테스트를 실행한 후, ‘events’에는 ‘["setUp", "asyncSetUp",
     "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown", "cleanup"]’가 포함됩
     니다.

 -- 클래스: unittest.FunctionTestCase (testFunc, setUp=None,
          tearDown=None, description=None)

     이 클래스는 테스트 실행자가 테스트를 수행할 수 있게 *note TestCase:
     447. 인터페이스 일부를 구현합니다, 하지만 테스트 코드가 검사하거나
     에러를 보고하는 데 사용하는 메서드를 제공하지는 않습니다.  이것은 레
     거시 테스트 코드를 사용하여 테스트 케이스를 생성할 때 사용할 수 있
     습니다, 이것은 레거시 테스트 코드가 *note unittest: 106.-기반 테스
     트 프레임워크에 통합될 수 있게 해줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 테스트 분류,  Next: 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기,  Prev: 테스트 케이스,  Up: 클래스와 함수

5.26.5.11 테스트 분류
.....................

 -- 클래스: unittest.TestSuite (tests=())

     이 클래스는 개별 테스트 케이스와 테스트 묶음의 집합체를 나타냅니다.
     이 클래스는 테스트 실행자가 이것을 다른 테스트 케이스처럼 실행할 수
     있기 위해 필요한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  *note TestSuite: df0. 인
     스턴스를 실행하는 것은 테스트 묶음을 이터레이션하면서 각 테스트를 개
     별적으로 실행하는 것과 같습니다.

     'tests'가 주어졌다면, 그것은 초기에 이 테스트 묶음을 만들 때 사용될
     개별 테스트 케이스이거나 다른 테스트 묶음의 이터러블이어야 합니다.
     나중에 컬렉션에 테스트 케이스나 테스트 묶음을 추가할 수 있는 추가 메
     서드가 제공됩니다.

     *note TestSuite: df0. 객체는 *note TestCase: 447. 객체와 흡사하게 행
     동합니다만, 테스트를 실제로 구현하지 않는 것이 다릅니다.  대신에, 이
     것은 다 같이 실행되어야 하는 테스트 그룹에 테스트들을 모으는 데 사
     용됩니다.  *note TestSuite: df0. 인스턴스에 테스트를 추가하기 위해
     몇몇 추가적인 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: addTest (test)

          테스트 묶음에 *note TestCase: 447.나 *note TestSuite: df0. 추
          가하기.

      -- 메서드: addTests (tests)

          이 테스트 묶음에 *note TestCase: 447.와 *note TestSuite: df0.
          인스턴스의 이터러블에서 나온 모든 테스트를 추가하기.

          이것은 'tests'를 이터레이션하면서 각 요소에 대해 *note
          addTest(): 4085.를 호출하는 것과 같습니다.

     *note TestSuite: df0.는 다음 메서드를 *note TestCase: 447.와 공유합
     니다:

      -- 메서드: run (result)

          이 테스트 묶음과 연관된 테스트를 실행하고, 'result'로 전달된 테
          스트 결과 객체에 결과를 수집합니다.  *note TestCase.run():
          1157.과 달리 *note TestSuite.run(): 4087.은 결과 객체가 반드시
          전달되어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: debug ()

          결과를 수집하지 않고 이 테스트 묶음과 연관된 테스트를 실행합니
          다.  이것은 테스트에서 발생한 예외가 호출자로 전파될 수 있게 해
          서 디버거 환경에서 테스트를 실행할 때 사용될 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: countTestCases ()

          이 테스트 객체에 해당하는 테스트 개수를 반환합니다, 모든 개별
          테스트와 서브-테스트 묶음을 포함합니다.

      -- 메서드: __iter__ ()

          *note TestSuite: df0.로 묶인 테스트들은 항상 이터레이션으로 접
          근합니다.  서브 클래스는 ‘__iter__()’를 재정의하여 테스트를 지
          연해서 제공할 수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 한 개의 테스트 묶음에
          서 여러 번 불릴 수 있다는 것을 기억하십시오(예를 들어 테스트 개
          수를 세거나 동등성을 위해 비교할 때), 그러므로 *note
          TestSuite.run(): 4087. 전에 수 번의 이터레이션이 반환한 테스트
          들은 매 이터레이션 호출마다 반드시 같아야 합니다.  *note
          TestSuite.run(): 4087. 후에는 호출자가 테스트 참조를 보존하기
          위해 ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’를 재정의한 서브 클래스를
          사용하는 경우가 아니라면 이 메서드에 의해 반환된 테스트에 의존
          하면 안 됩니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는 *note TestSuite: df0.가 이
          터레이션을 사용하기보다는 직접 테스트에 접근했습니다, 따라서
          ‘__iter__()’를 재정의하는 것은 테스트를 제공하기에 충분하지 않
          았습니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는 *note TestSuite: df0.가
          *note TestSuite.run(): 4087. 후에 각 *note TestCase: 447. 의 참
          조를 유지했습니다.  서브 클래스는
          ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’를 재정의해서 이 동작을 복구할
          수 있습니다.

     *note TestSuite: df0. 객체의 전형적인 사용법은 최종 사용자 테스트 장
     치(harness)보다는 ‘TestRunner’에 의해 *note run(): 4087. 메서드가 호
     출되는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기,  Prev: 테스트 분류,  Up: 클래스와 함수

5.26.5.12 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기
....................................

 -- 클래스: unittest.TestLoader

     *note TestLoader: 28e. 클래스는 클래스와 모듈로부터 테스트 묶음을 생
     성하는 데 사용됩니다.  보통, 이 클래스의 인스턴스를 생성할 필요는 없
     습니다; *note unittest: 106. 모듈은 공유 가능한 *note
     unittest.defaultTestLoader: 408b. 인스턴스를 제공합니다.  그러나 서
     브 클래스나 인스턴스를 사용함으로 몇몇 변경 가능한 속성을 사용자 정
     의할 수 있습니다.

     *note TestLoader: 28e. 객체는 다음 어트리뷰트를 가집니다:

      -- 속성: errors

          테스트를 로드하는 동안 발생한 치명적이지 않은(non-fatal) 에러
          목록입니다.  어떤 시점에도 로더에 의해 재설정되지 않습니다.  치
          명적인 에러는 예외를 발생시키는 관련 메서드에 의해 신호가 발생
          하여 호출자에게 전달됩니다.  치명적이지 않은 에러는 실행 시에
          원래 에러를 발생시킬 합성(synthetic) 테스트가 표시하기도 합니
          다.

          Added in version 3.5.

     *note TestLoader: 28e. 객체는 다음 메서드를 가집니다:

      -- 메서드: loadTestsFromTestCase (testCaseClass)

          *note TestCase: 447.에서 파생된 ‘testCaseClass’에 포함된 모든
          테스트 케이스의 묶음을 반환합니다.

          테스트 케이스 인스턴스는 *note getTestCaseNames(): 291.에 의해
          이름 지어진 각 메서드를 위해 생성됩니다.  기본값은 ‘test’로 시
          작되는 메서드 이름입니다.  만약 *note getTestCaseNames():
          291.가 아무 메서드도 반환하지 않지만, ‘runTest()’ 메서드가 구
          현되었다면 이 메서드를 위해서 1개의 테스트 케이스가 대신 생성
          됩니다.

      -- 메서드: loadTestsFromModule (module, *, pattern=None)

          주어진 모듈에 포함된 모든 테스트 케이스 묶음을 반환합니다.  이
          메서드는 *note TestCase: 447.에서 파생된 클래스를 찾기 위해
          'module'을 검색하고 클래스에 정의된 각 테스트 메서드를 위해 클
          래스의 인스턴스를 생성합니다.

               참고: *note TestCase: 447.에서 파생된 클래스의 계층 사용
               이 픽스쳐와 도우미 함수를 공유하는 데 편리할 수 있지만 직
               접 인스턴스화를 하도록 의도되지 않은 베이스 클래스에 테스
               트 메서드를 정의하는 것은 이 메서드와 잘 작동하지 않습니
               다.  그러나 그렇게 하는 것이 픽스처들이 다르고 서브 클래
               스에서 정의될 경우에는 유용할 수 있습니다.

          만약 모듈이 ‘load_tests’ 함수를 제공한다면 테스트 로드를 위해
          이것을 호출할 것입니다.  이것은 모듈이 테스트 로드를 사용자 정
          의할 수 있도록 해줍니다.  이것은 *note load_tests 프로토콜:
          4064.입니다.  'pattern' 인자는 ‘load_tests’에 세 번째 인자로 전
          달됩니다.

          버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘load_tests’ 지원이 추가됨.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: Support for a keyword-only argument
          'pattern' has been added.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: The undocumented and unofficial
          'use_load_tests' parameter has been removed.

      -- 메서드: loadTestsFromName (name, module=None)

          문자열 지정자에 맞는 모든 테스트 케이스 묶음을 반환합니다.

          지정자 'name'은 모듈, 테스트 케이스 클래스, 테스트 케이스 클래
          스에 있는 테스트 메서드, *note TestSuite: df0. 인스턴스, *note
          TestCase: 447.나 *note TestSuite: df0. 인스턴스를 반환하는 콜
          러블 객체로 해석될 수 있는 “점으로 구분된 이름(dotted name)”입
          니다.  이 검사는 여기에 나열된 순서대로 적용됩니다; 즉, 테스트
          케이스 클래스에 있는 메서드는 “콜러블 객체”보다는 “테스트 케이
          스 클래스에 있는 테스트 메서드”로 선택될 것입니다.

          예를 들어, 만약 당신이 *note TestCase: 447.에서 파생된 클래스
          인 ‘SampleTestCase’를 포함한 ‘SampleTests’ 모듈을 가지고 있고
          그 클래스는 3개의 테스트 메서드(‘test_one()’, ‘test_two()’,
          ‘test_three()’)를 가지고 있다면, 지정자
          ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'’ 에 대해서 이 메서드는 모든 3개
          의 테스트 메서드를 실행할 테스트 묶음으로 반환할 것입니다.  지
          정자가 ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'’ 라면 이 메서드
          는 오직 ‘test_two()’ 테스트 메서드를 실행할 테스트 묶음을 반환
          할 것입니다.  지정자는 아직 임포트되지 않은 모듈이나 패키지를
          가리킬 수 있습니다; 부작용(side-effect)으로써 그것들이 임포트
          될 것입니다.

          이 메서드는 주어진 'module'에 상대적인 'name'을 선택적으로 해
          석할 수 있습니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 만약 'name' 순회 중에 *note ImportError:
          413.나 *note AttributeError: 346.가 발생한다면 실행할 때 그 에
          러를 일으키는 합성 테스트가 반환될 것입니다.  이 에러는
          self.errors 에러 모임에 포함될 것입니다.

      -- 메서드: loadTestsFromNames (names, module=None)

          *note loadTestsFromName(): 1336.와 비슷하지만, 1개의 이름이 아
          닌 이름의 시퀀스를 받습니다.  반환 값은 각 이름에 정의된 모든
          테스트를 지원하는 테스트 묶음입니다.

      -- 메서드: getTestCaseNames (testCaseClass)

          'testCaseClass' 안에서 찾은 메서드 이름을 정렬된 시퀀스로 반환
          합니다; 이 클래스는 *note TestCase: 447.의 서브 클래스이어야 합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: discover (start_dir, pattern='test*.py',
               top_level_dir=None)

          지정된 시작 디렉터리부터 하위 디렉터리를 재귀적으로 순회하여 모
          든 테스트 모듈을 찾아, 이를 포함하는 TestSuite 객체를 반환합니
          다.  'pattern'에 일치하는 테스트 파일만 로드될 것입니다.  (셸
          방식의 패턴 일치를 사용합니다.)  임포트 가능한(즉, 유효한 파이
          썬 식별자인) 모듈 이름만 로드될 것입니다.

          모든 테스트 모듈은 반드시 프로젝트의 최상위 수준에서 임포트 가
          능해야 합니다.  만약 시작 디렉터리가 최상위 디렉터리가 아니라
          면 'top_level_dir'을 따로 지정해야 합니다.

          만약 모듈 임포트가 실패한다면, 예를 들어 문법 에러로 인해, 이
          것은 1개의 에러로 기록되고 탐색이 계속 진행될 것입니다.  만약
          *note SkipTest: fdc.가 발생해서 임포트가 실패했다면, 이것은 에
          러가 아닌 건너뛰기로 기록될 것입니다.

          만약 패키지(‘__init__.py’ 라는 이름의 파일을 포함한 디렉터리
          )를 찾으면, ‘load_tests’ 함수가 있는지 패키지를 검사할 것입니
          다.  만약 존재한다면 그 패키지에 대해서
          ‘package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)’가 불릴 것입니다.
          만약 load_tests 함수 자체가 ‘loader.discover’를 호출할지라도,
          테스트 탐색은 실행 중에 패키지에 대한 테스트 검사를 한 번만 실
          행하도록 보장합니다.

          만약 ‘load_tests’가 존재한다면 탐색은 패키지 안을 재귀 탐색하
          지 '않습니다'.  ‘load_tests’가 패키지 안의 모든 테스트를 로드
          할 책임이 있습니다.

          패턴은 의도적으로 로더 어트리뷰트로 저장되지 않아 패키지가 자
          신에 대한 탐색을 계속할 수 있습니다.

          'top_level_dir'은 내부적으로 저장되어, ‘discover()’의 중첩된 호
          출 시 기본값으로 사용됩니다.  즉, 패키지의 ‘load_tests’가
          ‘loader.discover()’를 호출할 경우, 이 인자를 전달할 필요가 없
          습니다.

          'start_dir'는 디렉터리뿐만 아니라 점으로 구분된 모듈 이름이 될
          수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 임포트 할 때 *note SkipTest: fdc.를 발생시
          키는 모듈은 에러가 아니라 건너뛰기로 기록됩니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 'start_dir'은 *note 이름 공간 패키지:
          1c70.일 수 있습니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 임포트되기 전에 경로들이 정렬되어 하부 파일
          시스템의 정렬 순서가 파일 이름에 의존하지 않더라도 실행 순서가
          같아지도록 합니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 발견된 패키지는 그것의 경로가
          'pattern'과 일치하는지 여부와 상관없이 ‘load_tests’를 검사합니
          다, 왜냐하면 패키지 이름이 기본 패턴과 일치하는 것이 불가능하
          기 때문입니다.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: 'start_dir'은 *note 이름 공간 패키지:
          1c70.일 수 없습니다.  파이썬 3.7부터 깨졌고, 파이썬 3.11에서 공
          식적으로 제거되었습니다.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: 'top_level_dir' is only stored for the
          duration of 'discover' call.

     *note TestLoader: 28e.의 다음 어트리뷰트들은 서브 클래스나 인스턴스
     에 대입을 통해 구성할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: testMethodPrefix

          테스트 메서드로 해석할 메서드 이름의 접두사에 해당하는 문자열
          입니다.  기본값은 ‘'test'’ 입니다.

          이것은 *note getTestCaseNames(): 291. 과 모든 ‘loadTestsFrom*’
          메서드에 영향을 미칩니다.

      -- 속성: sortTestMethodsUsing

          *note getTestCaseNames(): 291.와 모든 ‘loadTestsFrom*’ 메서드
          에서 메서드 이름 정렬 시에 이름 비교하는 데 사용될 함수입니다.

      -- 속성: suiteClass

          테스트 목록에서 테스트 묶음을 생성하는 콜러블 객체입니다.  결
          과 객체에 어떤 메서드도 필요하지 않습니다.  기본값은 *note
          TestSuite: df0. 클래스입니다.

          이것은 모든 ‘loadTestsFrom*’ 메서드에 영향을 미칩니다.

      -- 속성: testNamePatterns

          테스트 묶음에 포함되기 위해서 테스트 메서드가 일치해야 할 유닉
          스 셸-방식의 와일드카드 테스트 이름 패턴 목록입니다(‘-k’ 옵션
          을 보십시오).

          만약 이 어트리뷰트가 ‘None’(기본값)이 아니라면, 테스트 묶음에
          포함될 모든 테스트 메서드는 이 목록의 패턴 중 1개와 반드시 일
          치해야 합니다.  이 패턴 일치는 항상 *note
          fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 18a7.를 사용하여 수행된다는 것을 기억하
          십시오, 그래서 ‘-k’ 옵션에 패턴을 건네주는 것과 달리, 간단한 부
          분 문자열 패턴은 ‘*’ 와일드카드를 사용하도록 변경되어야 할 것
          입니다.

          이것은 모든 ‘loadTestsFrom*’ 메서드에 영향을 미칩니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

 -- 클래스: unittest.TestResult

     어떤 테스트가 성공했고 어떤 테스트가 실패했는지에 관한 정보를 엮는
     데 사용되는 클래스입니다.

     *note TestResult: 1158. 객체는 여러 테스트의 결과들을 저장합니다.
     *note TestCase: 447.와 *note TestSuite: df0. 클래스는 결과가 올바르
     게 기록되는 것을 보장합니다; 테스트 작성자가 테스트 결과를 기록하는
     것에 대해서 걱정할 필요가 없습니다.

     *note unittest: 106. 위에 만들어진 테스트 프레임워크는 보고 목적으
     로 여러 테스트가 실행하면서 만들어낸 *note TestResult: 1158. 객체에
     접근하고 싶을 수도 있습니다; ‘TestRunner.run()’ 메서드는 이 목적을
     위해 *note TestResult: 1158. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     *note TestResult: 1158. 인스턴스는 테스트 실행 결과를 조사할 때 관
     심이 생길만한 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 가지고 있습니다.

      -- 속성: errors

          *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스와 포맷된(formatted) 트레이스백 문
          자열로 구성된 2-튜플을 포함하는 목록입니다.  각 튜플은 예기치
          못한 예외가 발생한 테스트에 해당합니다.

      -- 속성: failures

          *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스와 포맷된(formatted) 트레이스백 문
          자열로 구성된 2-튜플을 포함하는 목록입니다.  각 튜플은 *note
          assert* 메서드: 404c.를 사용하여 명시적으로 실패가 발생한 테스
          트에 해당합니다.

      -- 속성: skipped

          *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스와 테스트 건너뛰기한 이유 문자열
          로 구성된 2-튜플을 포함하는 목록입니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 속성: expectedFailures

          *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스와 포맷된(formatted) 트레이스백 문
          자열로 구성된 2-튜플을 포함하는 목록입니다.  각 튜플은 테스트
          케이스의 예상된 실패니 에러에 해당합니다.

      -- 속성: unexpectedSuccesses

          예상된 실패로 표시되었지만 성공한 *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴
          스를 포함하는 목록입니다.

      -- 속성: collectedDurations

          테스트 케이스 이름과 실행된 각 테스트의 소요 시간을 나타내는 실
          수로 구성된 2-튜플을 포함하는 목록입니다.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- 속성: shouldStop

          테스트 실행이 *note stop(): 4096.에 의해 정지되어야 할 때
          ‘True’로 설정합니다.

      -- 속성: testsRun

          이제까지 실행된 테스트 총 개수입니다.

      -- 속성: buffer

          참으로 설정하면 ‘sys.stdout’와 ‘sys.stderr’가 *note
          startTest(): 4099.와 *note stopTest(): 409a. 호출 사이에서 버
          퍼링될 것입니다.  수집된 출력은 테스트가 실패하거나 에러가 발
          생한 경우에만 실제 ‘sys.stdout’와 ‘sys.stderr’에 출력될 것입니
          다.  모든 출력은 실패 / 에러 메시지에도 첨부됩니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 속성: failfast

          참으로 설정하면 첫 번째 실패 또는 에러에서 *note stop():
          4096.이 호출될 것입니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 속성: tb_locals

          참으로 설정하면 지역 변수가 트레이스백에 보일 것입니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: wasSuccessful ()

          이제까지 실행한 모든 테스트가 성공했다면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그
          렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: *note expectedFailure(): 406b. 데코레이터로
          표시된 테스트에서 *note unexpectedSuccesses: 4094.가 있다면
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: stop ()

          *note shouldStop: 4095. 어트리뷰트를 ‘True’로 설정하여 현재 실
          행 중인 테스트 모음을 중단해야 함을 알리기 위한 용도로 이 메서
          드를 부를 수 있습니다.  ‘TestRunner’ 객체는 이 신호를 존중하여
          어떠한 추가 테스트 없이 반환해야 합니다.

          예를 들어, 사용자가 키보드로 중단 신호를 보낼 때 테스트 프레임
          워크를 중단하기 위해 *note TextTestRunner: 174c.가 이 기능을 사
          용합니다.  ‘TestRunner’ 구현을 제공하는 대화형 도구는 비슷한 방
          법으로 이것을 사용할 수 있습니다.

     *note TestResult: 1158. 클래스의 다음 메서드는 내부 자료 구조를 관
     리하려고 사용되고, 추가적인 보고 요구사항을 지원하기 위해 서브 클래
     스에서 확장할 수도 있습니다.  이것은 테스트가 실행 중에 대화형 보고
     를 지원하는 도구를 만들 때 특별히 유용합니다.

      -- 메서드: startTest (test)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 막 실행되려 할 때 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: stopTest (test)

          결과에 상관없이 테스트 케이스 'test'가 실행되고 나서 호출됩니
          다.

      -- 메서드: startTestRun ()

          모든 테스트가 실행되기 전에 1번 호출됩니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: stopTestRun ()

          모든 테스트가 실행되고 나서 1번 호출됩니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: addError (test, err)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 예기치 못한 예외를 발생한 경우 호출됩니
          다.  'err'는 *note sys.exc_info(): 684.가 반환한 형식의 튜플입
          니다: ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          기본 구현은 ‘(test, formatted_err)’ 튜플을 인스턴스의 *note
          errors: 4090. 어트리뷰트에 추가합니다, 여기서 'formatted_err'는
          'err'에서 파생된 포맷한 트레이스백입니다.

      -- 메서드: addFailure (test, err)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 실패 신호를 보낸 경우 호출됩니다.
          'err'는 *note sys.exc_info(): 684.가 반환한 형식의 튜플입니다:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          기본 구현은 ‘(test, formatted_err)’ 튜플을 인스턴스의 *note
          failures: 4091. 어트리뷰트에 추가합니다, 여기서
          'formatted_err'는 'err'에서 파생된 포맷한 트레이스백입니다.

      -- 메서드: addSuccess (test)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 성공하면 호출됩니다.

          기본 구현은 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: addSkip (test, reason)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 건너뛰어지면 호출됩니다.  'reason'은 테
          스트가 준 건너뛰는 이유입니다.

          기본 구현은 ‘(test, reason)’ 튜플을 인스턴스의 *note skipped:
          4092. 어트리뷰트에 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: addExpectedFailure (test, err)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 실패하거나 에러지만, *note
          expectedFailure(): 406b. 데코레이터로 표시된 경우 호출됩니다

          기본 구현은 ‘(test, formatted_err)’ 튜플을 인스턴스의 *note
          expectedFailures: 4093. 어트리뷰트에 추가합니다, 여기서
          'formatted_err'는 'err'에서 파생된 포맷한 트레이스백입니다.

      -- 메서드: addUnexpectedSuccess (test)

          테스트 케이스 'test'가 *note expectedFailure(): 406b. 데코레이
          터로 표시되었지만, 성공한 경우 호출됩니다.

          기본 구현은 테스트를 인스턴스의 *note unexpectedSuccesses:
          4094. 어트리뷰트에 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: addSubTest (test, subtest, outcome)

          부분 테스트가 완료되었을 때 호출됩니다.  'test'는 테스트 메서
          드에 대응하는 테스트 케이스입니다.  'subtest'는 부분 테스트를
          설명하는 사용자 지정 *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스입니다.

          'outcome'이 *note None: 66f.이면, 부분 테스트가 성공한 것입니
          다.  그렇지 않으면 예외와 함께 실패한 것인데 'outcome'은 *note
          sys.exc_info(): 684.가 반환한 형식의 튜플입니다: ‘(type,
          value, traceback)’.

          기본 구현은 결과가 성공인 경우 아무것도 하지 않고 부분 테스트
          의 실패를 일반적인 실패로 기록합니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: addDuration (test, elapsed)

          Called when the test case finishes.  'elapsed' is the time
          represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of
          cleanup functions.

          Added in version 3.12.

 -- 클래스: unittest.TextTestResult (stream, descriptions, verbosity, *,
          durations=None)

     *note TextTestRunner: 174c.에서 사용하는 *note TestResult: 1158.의
     구체적인 구현입니다.  서브 클래스는 인터페이스가 변경될 때 호환성을
     보장하기 위해 ‘**kwargs’를 받아야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'durations' 키워드 매개변수 추가.

 -- 데이터: unittest.defaultTestLoader

     공유 목적의 *note TestLoader: 28e. 클래스의 인스턴스입니다.  만약
     *note TestLoader: 28e.를 사용자 정의할 필요가 없다면, 계속 새로운 인
     스턴스를 생성하는 것 대신 이 인스턴스를 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: unittest.TextTestRunner (stream=None, descriptions=True,
          verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None,
          warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None)

     결과를 스트림으로 출력하는 기본 테스트 실행자 구현입니다.  만약
     'stream'이 기본값인 ‘None’이라면, *note sys.stderr: 937.가 출력 스
     트림으로 사용됩니다.  이 클래스는 몇 가지 설정 가능한 매개변수를 가
     지고 있지만, 본질적으로 매우 간단합니다.  테스트 묶음을 실행하는 그
     래픽 애플리케이션은 대안 구현을 제공해야 합니다.  이러한 구현은
     unittest에 기능이 추가될 때 실행자를 만드는 인터페이스가 변하기 때
     문에 ‘**kwargs’를 받아들여야 합니다.

     기본적으로 이 실행자는 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5, *note ResourceWarning: 244, *note
     ImportWarning: 4f4.이 *note 기본적으로 무시: 40a1. 설정이 되어 있더
     라도 이것들을 보여줍니다.  파이썬의 ‘-Wd’이나 ‘-Wa’ 옵션(*note 경고
     제어: 1d40.를 보십시오)을 사용하고 'warnings'를 ‘None’으로 설정하여
     이 동작을 오버라이드 할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'warnings' 매개변수 추가.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 임포트 시간이 아닌 인스턴스화 시간에 기본 스트림
     이 *note sys.stderr: 937.으로 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'tb_locals' 매개변수 추가.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'durations' 매개변수 추가.

      -- 메서드: _makeResult ()

          이 메서드는 *note run(): 40a3.가 사용하는 ‘TestResult’ 인스턴
          스를 반환합니다.  직접 호출하게 의도되지 않았지만, 사용자 정의
          ‘TestResult’를 제공하기 위해 서브 클래스에서 오버라이드할 수 있
          습니다.

          ‘_makeResult()’는 ‘TextTestRunner’ 생성자에 ‘resultclass’ 인자
          로 전달된 클래스나 콜러블을 인스턴스화합니다.  만약
          ‘resultclass’가 제공되지 않았다면 기본값은 *note
          TextTestResult: 52a. 입니다.  결과 클래스는 다음 인자와 함께 인
          스턴스화됩니다:

               stream, descriptions, verbosity

      -- 메서드: run (test)

          이 메서드는 ‘TextTestRunner’의 주된 공개 인터페이스입니다.  이
          메서드는 *note TestSuite: df0.나 *note TestCase: 447. 인스턴스
          를 받습니다.  *note TestResult: 1158.는 *note _makeResult():
          40a2.를 호출하여 생성하고 테스트가 실행되며 결과가 stdout에 출
          력됩니다.

 -- 함수: unittest.main (module='__main__', defaultTest=None, argv=None,
          testRunner=None, testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader,
          exit=True, verbosity=1, failfast=None, catchbreak=None,
          buffer=None, warnings=None)

     'module'에서 테스트 모음을 로드하고 실행하는 명령행 프로그램입니다;
     이것은 주로 편리하게 실행 가능한 테스트 모듈을 만들기 위한 것입니다
     .  이 함수의 가장 간단한 사용은 테스트 스크립트 마지막에 다음과 같
     은 줄을 포함하는 것입니다:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main()

     당신은 상세도 인자를 전달하여 좀 더 자세한 정보와 함께 테스트를 실
     행할 수 있습니다:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main(verbosity=2)

     'defaultTest' 인자는 'argv'로 테스트 이름이 지정되지 않은 경우 실행
     될 1개의 테스트 이름이거나 테스트 이름의 이터러블입니다.  만약 이 인
     자가 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이면서 'argv'로 테스트 이름이 지정되지 않
     으면 'module' 안에서 찾은 모든 테스트가 실행됩니다.

     'argv' 인자는 프로그램에 전달된 옵션 목록이 될 수 있습니다, 첫 번째
     요소는 프로그램 이름입니다.  만약 이 인자가 지정되지 않거나 ‘None’이
     면, *note sys.argv: 1255. 값이 사용됩니다.

     'testRunner' 인자는 테스트 실행자 클래스나 이미 생성된 테스트 실행
     자 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.  기본적으로 ‘main’은 실행한 테스트가 성
     공(0)인지 실패(1)인지를 나타내는 종료 코드와 함께 *note sys.exit():
     1339.을 호출합니다.  종료 코드 5는 테스트가 실행되지 않았거나 건너
     뛴 경우를 나타냅니다.

     'testLoader' 인자는 *note TestLoader: 28e. 인스턴스이어야 하고 기본
     값은 *note defaultTestLoader: 408b. 입니다.

     ‘main’은 ‘exit=False’ 인자를 전달하여 대화형 인터프리터에서 사용하
     는 것을 지원합니다.  이것은 *note sys.exit(): 1339. 호출 없이 결과
     가 표준 출력에 표시됩니다:

          >>> from unittest import main
          >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)

     'failfast', 'catchbreak', 'buffer' 매개변수는 *note 명령행 옵션:
     4053.의 같은 이름과 같은 효과를 가지고 있습니다.

     'warnings' 인자는 테스트 실행 중에 사용되어야 할 *note 경고 필터:
     8c6.를 지정합니다.  만약 아무 값도 지정되지 않았다면, ‘-W’ 옵션이
     ‘python’으로 전달된 경우(*note 경고 제어: 1d40.를 보십시오)에는
     ‘None’으로 남아 있고, 그렇지 않은 경우에는 ‘'default'’로 설정됩니다
     .

     ‘main’을 호출하면 ‘result’ 어트리뷰트를 가진 객체를 반환합니다.  이
     어트리뷰트는 테스트 실행 결과를 포함하는 *note unittest.TestResult:
     1158.입니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'exit' 매개변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'verbosity', 'failfast', 'catchbreak', 'buffer',
     'warnings' 매개변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'defaultTest' 매개변수가 테스트 이름의 이터러블
     도 받을 수 있게 바뀌었습니다.

* Menu:

* load_tests 프로토콜::


File: python.info,  Node: load_tests 프로토콜,  Up: 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기

5.26.5.13 load_tests 프로토콜
.............................

Added in version 3.2.

‘load_tests’ 라 불리는 함수를 구현함으로써 모듈이나 패키지는 일반 테스트
실행이나 테스트 탐색 중에 그것들로부터 테스트가 어떻게 로드될지를 사용자
정의할 수 있습니다.

만약 테스트 모듈이 ‘load_tests’를 정의했다면 그것은 다음 인자와 함께
*note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 28f.의해 호출될 것입니다:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

여기서 'pattern'은 ‘loadTestsFromModule’에서 바로 전달된 것입니다.  기본
값은 ‘None’입니다.

이것은 *note TestSuite: df0.를 반환해야 합니다.

'loader'는 로딩을 실행할 *note TestLoader: 28e. 인스턴스입니다.
'standard_tests'는 모듈에서 기본적으로 로드될 테스트입니다.  테스트 모듈
이 테스트 기본 모음에서 오직 테스트를 추가하거나 빼기를 원하는 것은 흔한
일입니다.  세 번째 인자는 테스트 탐색의 일부로서 패키지를 로드할 때 사용
됩니다.

특정 *note TestCase: 447. 클래스 모음에서 테스트를 로드하는 전형적인
‘load_tests’ 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

     test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)

     def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
         suite = TestSuite()
         for test_class in test_cases:
             tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
             suite.addTests(tests)
         return suite

만약 탐색이 명령행 또는 *note TestLoader.discover(): fdd.로부터, 패키지
가 포함된 디렉터리에서 시작된다면, ‘load_tests’를 위해 패키지
‘__init__.py’를 검사합니다.  만약 함수가 존재하지 않으면, 탐색은 그저 다
른 디렉터리인 것처럼 패키지 안을 재귀 순회할 것입니다.  그렇지 않다면, 패
키지의 테스트를 위한 탐색은 다음 인자와 함께 불리는 ‘load_tests’에게 맡
겨질 것입니다:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

이것은 패키지의 모든 테스트에 해당하는 *note TestSuite: df0.를 반환해야
합니다.  (‘standard_tests’는 오직 ‘__init__.py’로부터 수집된 테스트만 포
함할 것입니다.

패턴이 load_tests로 전달되기 때문에 패키지는 테스트 검색을 계속 진행(그
리고 잠재적으로 수정)할 수 있습니다.  테스트 패키지를 위해서 ‘아무것도 하
지 않는’ ‘load_tests’ 함수는 다음과 같을 것입니다:

     def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
         # 로더 인스턴스에 캐시 된 최상위 디렉터리
         this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
         package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
         standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
         return standard_tests

버전 3.5에서 변경: 패키지 이름이 기본 패턴과 일치하는 것이 불가능하기 때
문에 탐색이 더는 'pattern' 일치를 위해서 패키지 이름을 검사하지 않습니다
.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐,  Next: 시그널 처리하기,  Prev: 클래스와 함수,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.14 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐
..............................

클래스와 모듈 단계의 픽스쳐는 *note TestSuite: df0.에 구현되어 있습니다.
테스트 묶음이 새로운 클래스의 테스트를 만나면(만약 존재한다면) 이전 클래
스의 ‘tearDownClass()’ 가 호출되고, 이어 새로운 클래스의 ‘setUpClass()’가
호출됩니다.

마찬가지로 만약 테스트가 이전 테스트와 다른 모듈의 것이라면 이전 모듈의
‘tearDownModule’이 실행되고, 이어 새로운 모듈의 ‘setUpModule’이 호출됩니
다.

모든 테스트가 실행된 뒤에 마지막으로 ‘tearDownClass’와 ‘tearDownModule’이
실행됩니다.

공유하는 픽스쳐의 경우 테스트 병렬화와 같은 [잠재적인] 기능과 잘 동작하
지 않고 이것은 테스트 분리를 망가트립니다.  이것을 주의 깊게 사용해야 합
니다.

unittest의 테스트 로더에 의해 생성된 테스트들의 기본 정렬 순서는 같은 모
듈과 클래스의 모든 테스트를 그룹화하는 것입니다.  이것은 ‘setUpClass’ /
‘setUpModule’(등) 이 클래스와 모듈별로 정확하게 1번씩 호출되게 할 것입니
다.  만약 당신이 무작위로 순서를 정하여, 그래서 다른 모듈과 클래스의 테
스트가 서로 인접한다면, 이 공유 픽스처 함수는 1번의 테스트 실행에서 여러
번 호출될 수 있습니다.

공유 픽스처는 비표준 정렬 순서를 사용하는 테스트 묶음과 같이 작동하는 것
을 의도하지 않습니다.  공유 픽스처를 지원하길 원치 않는 프레임워크를 위
해서 ‘BaseTestSuite’가 여전히 존재합니다.

공유 픽스처 함수 중 1개에서 발생한 예외가 있다면, 테스트를 에러로 보고합
니다.  해당 테스트 인스턴스가 없기 때문에 에러를 나타내기 위해
‘_ErrorHolder’ 객체(*note TestCase: 447.와 같은 인터페이스를 가진)가 생
성됩니다.  당신이 그저 표준 unittest의 테스트 실행자를 사용한다면 이 세
부 항목은 중요하지 않습니다, 그러나 당신이 프레임워크의 저자라면 이것은
관련이 있을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* setUpClass 와 tearDownClass::
* setUpModule 과 tearDownModule::


File: python.info,  Node: setUpClass 와 tearDownClass,  Next: setUpModule 과 tearDownModule,  Up: 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐

5.26.5.15 setUpClass 와 tearDownClass
.....................................

이것들은 반드시 클래스 메서드로 구현되어야 합니다:

     import unittest

     class Test(unittest.TestCase):
         @classmethod
         def setUpClass(cls):
             cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()

         @classmethod
         def tearDownClass(cls):
             cls._connection.destroy()

만약 당신이 베이스 클래스의 ‘setUpClass’와 ‘tearDownClass’를 호출하고 싶
다면 당신이 그것을 직접 호출해야만 합니다.  *note TestCase: 447.의 구현
은 비어있습니다.

만약 ‘setUpClass’ 중에 예외가 발생한다면 클래스의 테스트는 실행되지 않고
‘tearDownClass’ 는 실행되지 않습니다.  건너뛴 클래스는 ‘setUpClass’ 또는
‘tearDownClass’가 실행되지 않을 것입니다.  만약 예외가 *note SkipTest:
fdc. 예외라면 클래스는 에러 대신 건너뛰어졌다고 보고될 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: setUpModule 과 tearDownModule,  Prev: setUpClass 와 tearDownClass,  Up: 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐

5.26.5.16 setUpModule 과 tearDownModule
.......................................

이것들은 함수로 구현되어야 합니다:

     def setUpModule():
         createConnection()

     def tearDownModule():
         closeConnection()

만약 ‘setUpModule’ 중에 예외가 발생한다면 모듈의 테스트는 실행되지 않고
‘tearDownModule’ 는 실행되지 않습니다.  만약 예외가 *note SkipTest: fdc.
예외라면 모듈은 에러 대신 건너뛰어졌다고 보고될 것입니다.

예외가 발생하는 경우에도 실행해야 하는 정리 코드를 추가하려면,
‘addModuleCleanup’을 사용하십시오:

 -- 함수: unittest.addModuleCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

     테스트 클래스 중에 사용된 자원을 정리하기 위해 ‘tearDownModule()’ 이
     후에 불리는 함수를 추가합니다.  함수들은 추가된 순서의 반대 순서대
     로 불리게 됩니다(LIFO).  함수가 추가될 때 *note addModuleCleanup():
     a4a.에 같이 전달된 위치 인자나 키워드 인자와 함께 호출됩니다.

     만약 ‘setUpModule()’이 실패한다면, 즉 ‘tearDownModule()’이 불리지 않
     더라도, 정리 함수들은 여전히 불리게 될 것입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: unittest.enterModuleContext (cm)

     Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5ce.  If successful, also
     add its *note __exit__(): 12f0. method as a cleanup function by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): a4a. and return the result of the *note
     __enter__(): 5c2. method.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: unittest.doModuleCleanups ()

     이 함수는 ‘tearDownModule()’ 이후나, ‘setUpModule()’이 예외를 발생
     시키면 ‘setUpModule()’이후에 조건 없이 호출됩니다.

     *note addModuleCleanup(): a4a.에서 추가된 모든 정리 함수들을 호출하
     는 책임이 있습니다.  만약 정리 함수를 ‘tearDownModule()’ '이전에' 불
     러야 할 필요가 있다면 *note doModuleCleanups(): 1843.를 직접 부를 수
     있습니다.

     *note doModuleCleanups(): 1843.는 한 번에 하나씩 정리 함수 스택에서
     메서드를 꺼내기 때문에 언제든지 호출될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: 시그널 처리하기,  Prev: 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐,  Up: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크

5.26.5.17 시그널 처리하기
.........................

Added in version 3.2.

unittest의 *note -c/-catch: 1323. 명령행 옵션은, *note unittest.main():
fdb.의 ‘catchbreak’ 매개 변수와 함께, 테스트 실행 중에 control-C를 사용
하기 편하게 처리하도록 합니다.  중단 시그널 잡기를 활성화 하면
control-C는 현재 실행 중인 테스트를 완료하고, 그러면 테스트 실행이 끝나
고 이제까지의 모든 결과를 보고할 것입니다.  두 번째 control-c는 평소와 같
이 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.를 발생할 것입니다.

control-c 시그널 처리기는 자체 *note signal.SIGINT: 83e. 처리기를 설치하
는 코드 또는 테스트와의 호환성을 유지하려고 노력합니다.  만약 ‘unittest’
처리기가 불리지만 그것이 설치된 *note signal.SIGINT: 83e. 처리기가 '아니
면', 즉 그것이 테스트 중에 시스템에 의해 대체되고 위임된다면, 그것은 기
본 처리기를 호출합니다.  이것은 설치된 처리기를 대체하고 위임하는 코드에
의해 일반적으로 기대되는 동작입니다.  ‘unittest’ control-c 처리를 개별 테
스트 별로 비활성화하고 싶을 때는 *note removeHandler(): 1324. 데코레이터
를 사용할 수 있습니다.

프레임워크 작성자가 테스트 프레임워크에서 control-c 처리 기능을 활성화하
기 위해 몇 가지 유틸리티 함수가 있습니다.

 -- 함수: unittest.installHandler ()

     control-c 처리기를 설치합니다.  *note signal.SIGINT: 83e.를 받았을
     때(보통 사용자가 control-c를 눌렀을 때의 응답으로써) 모든 등록된 결
     과에 *note stop(): 4096.이 호출됩니다.

 -- 함수: unittest.registerResult (result)

     control-c 처리를 위해서 *note TestResult: 1158. 객체를 등록합니다.
     결과 등록은 그것의 약한 참조를 저장합니다, 그래서 결과가 가비지 수
     거되는 것을 막지 않습니다.

     만약 control-c 처리가 활성화되지 않았다면 *note TestResult: 1158. 객
     체 등록은 부작용이 없습니다, 그래서 테스트 프레임워크는 처리가 가능
     한지 여부와 관계없이 자신이 만든 모든 결과를 무조건 등록할 수 있습
     니다.

 -- 함수: unittest.removeResult (result)

     등록한 결과를 제거합니다.  결과가 제거되고 나면 control-c에 대한 응
     답으로 결과 객체의 *note stop(): 4096.을 더는 호출하지 않게 됩니다.

 -- 함수: unittest.removeHandler (function=None)

     인자 없이 호출된 경우 이 함수는 만약 control-c 처리기가 설치되었다
     면 그것을 제거합니다.  또한 이 함수는 테스트 실행 중에 임시로 처리
     기를 제거하기 위해 테스트 데코레이터로써 사용될 수도 있습니다:

          @unittest.removeHandler
          def test_signal_handling(self):
              ...


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리,  Next: unittest mock — 시작하기,  Prev: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.6 ‘unittest.mock’ — 모의 객체 라이브러리
---------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'소스 코드:' Lib/unittest/mock.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note unittest.mock: 107.은 파이썬에서 테스트하기 위한 라이브러리입니다.
테스트 대상 시스템의 일부를 모의 객체로 교체하고 그들이 사용된 방식에 대
해 어서션(assertion)을 할 수 있습니다.

*note unittest.mock: 107.은 핵심 *note Mock: a47. 클래스를 제공하여 테스
트 스위트 전체에 걸쳐 많은 스텁을 만들 필요가 없도록 합니다.  작업을 수
행한 후, 사용된 메서드 / 어트리뷰트와 호출에 제공된 인자에 대한 어서션을
할 수 있습니다.  일반적인 방법으로 반환 값을 지정하고 필요한 어트리뷰트
를 설정할 수도 있습니다.

또한, mock은 테스트 스코프 내에서 모듈과 클래스 수준 어트리뷰트의 패치를
처리하는 *note patch(): e88. 데코레이터를 고유한 객체 생성을 위한 *note
sentinel: b9d.과 함께 제공합니다.  *note Mock: a47, *note MagicMock:
e87. 및 *note patch(): e88. 사용 방법에 대한 몇 가지 예는 *note 간략
지침: 40ab.을 참조하십시오.

Mock은 *note unittest: 106.와 함께 사용하도록 설계되었고 많은 모킹
(mocking) 프레임워크에서 사용하는 ‘기록(record) -> 재생(replay)’ 대신 ‘액
션(action) -> 어서션(assertion)’ 패턴을 기반으로 합니다.

이전 버전의 파이썬을 위한 *note unittest.mock: 107.의 역 이식이 있습니다
, PyPI의 mock(2)에서 제공됩니다.

* Menu:

* 간략 지침::
* Mock 클래스::
* 패처::
* MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원::
* 도우미::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/unittest/mock.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/mock/


File: python.info,  Node: 간략 지침,  Next: Mock 클래스,  Up: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

5.26.6.1 간략 지침
..................

*note Mock: a47.과 *note MagicMock: e87. 객체는 그것들을 액세스함에 따라
모든 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 작성하고 사용 방식에 대한 세부 사항을 저장합
니다.  반환 값을 지정하거나 사용 가능한 어트리뷰트를 제한하도록 구성한 다
음, 사용된 방식에 대한 어서션을 만들 수 있습니다:

     >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
     >>> thing = ProductionClass()
     >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
     >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     3
     >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')

*note side_effect: 40ac.를 사용하면 모의 객체(mock)가 호출될 때 예외를 발
생시키는 것을 포함하여 부작용(side effect)을 수행 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     KeyError: 'foo'

     >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def side_effect(arg):
     ...     return values[arg]
     ...
     >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
     >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
     (5, 4, 3)

Mock은 여러 가지 방법으로 구성하고 동작을 제어 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들
어 'spec' 인자는 다른 객체에서 사양을 가져오도록 모의 객체를 구성합니다.
spec에 존재하지 않는 모의 객체의 어트리뷰트나 메서드에 액세스하려고 시도
하면 *note AttributeError: 346.로 실패합니다.

*note patch(): e88. 데코레이터 / 컨텍스트 관리자는 테스트 대상 모듈에서
클래스나 객체를 쉽게 모킹할 수 있도록 합니다.  지정한 객체는 테스트 중에
모의 객체(또는 다른 객체)로 치환되고 테스트가 끝나면 복원됩니다:

     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
     ... @patch('module.ClassName1')
     ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
     ...     module.ClassName1()
     ...     module.ClassName2()
     ...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
     ...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
     ...     assert MockClass1.called
     ...     assert MockClass2.called
     ...
     >>> test()

     참고: patch 데코레이터를 중첩할 때 모의 객체는 적용한 순서와 같은 순
     서로 데코레이트 되는 함수로 전달됩니다 (데코레이터가 적용되는 일반
     적인 '파이썬' 순서).  이것은 아래에서 위로 감을 뜻하므로, 위의 예에
     서 ‘module.ClassName1’에 대한 모의 객체가 먼저 전달됩니다.

     *note patch(): e88.를 사용할 때 조회되는 이름 공간에서 객체를 패치
     하는 것이 중요합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 간단하지만, 간략 지침은
     *note 패치할 곳: 40ad.을 읽으십시오.

데코레이터 *note patch(): e88.는 with 문에서 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수
도 있습니다:

     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
     ...     thing = ProductionClass()
     ...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

스코프 도중 딕셔너리에 값을 설정하고 테스트가 종료될 때 딕셔너리를 원래
상태로 복원하기 위한 *note patch.dict(): 19fa.도 있습니다:

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

Mock은 파이썬 *note 매직 메서드: 40ae.의 모킹을 지원합니다.  매직 메서드
를 사용하는 가장 쉬운 방법은 *note MagicMock: e87. 클래스를 사용하는 것
입니다.  다음과 같은 것을 할 수 있도록 합니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
     >>> str(mock)
     'foobarbaz'
     >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()

Mock을 사용하면 함수(또는 다른 Mock 인스턴스)를 매직 메서드에 대입할 수
있고 적절하게 호출될 것입니다.  *note MagicMock: e87. 클래스는 모든 매직
메서드(아마도, 모든 유용한 메서드)가 미리 만들어져 있는 Mock 변형일 뿐입
니다.

다음은 평범한 Mock 클래스로 매직 메서드를 사용하는 예입니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
     >>> str(mock)
     'wheeeeee'

테스트의 모의 객체가 대체하는 객체와 같은 api를 갖도록, *note 자동 사양:
40af.를 사용할 수 있습니다.  자동 사양은 패치 할 'autospec' 인자를
patch에 전달하거나 *note create_autospec(): 160f. 함수를 통해 수행할 수
있습니다.  자동 사양은 대체하는 객체와 같은 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 갖는 모
의 객체를 만들고, 모든 함수와 (생성자를 포함한) 메서드는 실제 객체와 같
은 호출 서명을 갖습니다.

이것은 모의 객체가 잘못 사용될 경우 프로덕션 코드와 같은 방식으로 실패하
도록 합니다:

     >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
     >>> def function(a, b, c):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
     >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
     'fishy'
     >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: missing a required argument: 'b'

*note create_autospec(): 160f.이 클래스에 사용되면 ‘__init__’ 메서드의 서
명을 복사하고, 콜러블 객체에 사용되면 ‘__call__’ 메서드의 서명을 복사합
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 클래스,  Next: 패처,  Prev: 간략 지침,  Up: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

5.26.6.2 Mock 클래스
....................

*note Mock: a47.은 코드 전체에서 스텁과 테스트 이중화의 사용을 대체하기
위한 유연한 모의 객체입니다.  모의 객체는 콜러블이고 어트리뷰트에 액세스
할 때 새 모의 객체로 어트리뷰트를 만듭니다 (1).  같은 어트리뷰트에 액세
스하면 항상 같은 모의 객체를 반환합니다.  모의 객체는 사용 방법을 기록하
여, 코드가 모의 객체에 대해 수행한 작업에 대한 어서션을 만들 수 있도록 합
니다.

*note MagicMock: e87.은 *note Mock: a47.의 서브 클래스이며, 모든 매직 메
서드가 미리 만들어져 사용할 준비가 되어있습니다.  콜러블이 아닌 변형도 있
어서, 콜러블이 아닌 객체를 모킹할 때 유용합니다: *note NonCallableMock:
40b1.과 *note NonCallableMagicMock: 40b2.

*note patch(): e88. 데코레이터를 사용하면 특정 모듈의 클래스를 *note
Mock: a47. 객체로 쉽게 대체 할 수 있습니다.  기본적으로 *note patch():
e88.는 *note MagicMock: e87.을 생성합니다.  *note patch(): e88.에
'new_callable' 인자를 사용하여 대체 *note Mock: a47. 클래스를 지정할 수
있습니다.

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.Mock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     새로운 *note Mock: a47. 객체를 만듭니다.  *note Mock: a47.은 Mock 객
     체의 동작을 지정하는 몇 가지 선택적 인자를 취합니다:

        * 'spec': 문자열 리스트이거나 모의 객체의 사양으로 작동하는 기존
          객체 (클래스나 인스턴스)일 수 있습니다.  객체를 전달하면 객체
          에 dir을 호출하여 문자열 리스트가 형성됩니다 (지원되지 않는 매
          직 어트리뷰트와 메서드는 제외합니다).  이 리스트에 없는 어트리
          뷰트에 액세스하면 *note AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다.

          'spec'이 (문자열 리스트 대신에) 객체이면, *note __class__:
          1473.는 spec 객체의 클래스를 반환합니다.  이것은 모의 객체가
          *note isinstance(): 43b. 검사를 통과할 수 있도록 합니다.

        * 'spec_set': 'spec'의 더 엄격한 변형.  사용되면, 'spec_set'으로
          전달된 객체에 없는 모의 객체의 어트리뷰트를 '설정'하거나 얻으
          려고 시도하면 *note AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다.

        * 'side_effect': Mock이 호출될 때마다 호출되는 함수.  *note
          side_effect: 40ac. 어트리뷰트를 참조하십시오.  예외를 발생시키
          거나 반환 값을 동적으로 변경하는 데 유용합니다.  함수는 모의 객
          체와 같은 인자로 호출되며, *note DEFAULT: 40b3.를 반환하지 않
          는 한, 이 함수의 반환 값이 반환 값으로 사용됩니다.

          또는 'side_effect'는 예외 클래스나 인스턴스일 수 있습니다.  이
          경우 모의 객체가 호출될 때 그 예외가 발생합니다.

          'side_effect'가 이터러블이면 모의 객체에 대한 각 호출은 이터러
          블의 다음 값을 반환합니다.

          'side_effect'는 ‘None’으로 설정하여 지울 수 있습니다.

        * 'return_value': 모의 객체가 호출될 때 반환되는 값.  기본적으로
          이것은 새로운 Mock입니다 (처음 액세스할 때 만들어집니다).
          *note return_value: 40b4. 어트리뷰트를 참조하십시오.

        * 'unsafe': 기본적으로, 이름이 'assert', 'assret', 'asert',
          'aseert' 또는 'assrt'로 시작하는 어트리뷰트를 액세스하면 *note
          AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다.  ‘unsafe=True’를 전달하면 이
          러한 어트리뷰트에 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

        * 'wraps': 모의 객체가 감쌀 항목.  'wraps'가 ‘None’이 아니면
          Mock을 호출할 때 래핑 된 객체로 호출이 전달됩니다 (실제 결과를
          반환합니다).  모의 객체에 대한 어트리뷰트 액세스는 래핑 된 객
          체의 해당 어트리뷰트를 래핑하는 Mock 객체를 반환합니다 (따라서
          존재하지 않는 어트리뷰트에 액세스하려고 시도하면 *note
          AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다).

          모의 객체에 명시적으로 'return_value'가 설정되면 호출은 래핑 된
          객체로 전달되지 않고 대신 'return_value'가 반환됩니다.

        * 'name': 모의 객체에 이름이 있으면 모의 객체의 repr에 사용됩니
          다.  디버깅에 유용할 수 있습니다.  이름은 자식 모의 객체로 전
          파됩니다.

     임의의 키워드 인자로 모의 객체를 호출할 수도 있습니다.  이것들은 모
     의 객체가 만들어진 후에 어트리뷰트를 설정하는 데 사용됩니다.  자세
     한 내용은 *note configure_mock(): 40b5. 메서드를 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: assert_called ()

          모의 객체가 적어도 한 번 호출되었다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called()

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: assert_called_once ()

          모의 객체가 정확히 한 번 호출되었다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.
               Calls: [call(), call()].

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: assert_called_with (*args, **kwargs)

          이 메서드는 마지막 호출이 특정 방식으로 이루어졌음을 어서트하
          는 편리한 방법입니다:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')

      -- 메서드: assert_called_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          모의 객체가 정확히 한 번 호출되었고 해당 호출이 지정된 인자로
          이루어졌다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock('other', bar='values')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
               Calls: [call('foo', bar='baz'), call('other', bar='values')].

      -- 메서드: assert_any_call (*args, **kwargs)

          지정된 인자로 모의 객체가 호출되었다고 어서트 합니다.

          호출이 가장 최근 호출일 때만 통과하는 *note
          assert_called_with(): 1a28.와 *note assert_called_once_with():
          40b6, 그리고 *note assert_called_once_with(): 40b6.의 경우 유
          일한 호출이어야 하는 것과 달리 모의 객체가 호출된 적이 '있으면
          ' 어서트가 통과합니다.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
               >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
               >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')

      -- 메서드: assert_has_calls (calls, any_order=False)

          지정된 호출로 모의 객체가 호출되었다고 어서트 합니다.  calls에
          대해 *note mock_calls: 40b8. 리스트를 검사합니다.

          'any_order'가 거짓이면 호출은 순차적이어야 합니다.  지정된 호
          출 전후에 추가 호출이 있을 수 있습니다.

          'any_order'가 참이면 호출 순서는 상관없지만, 모두 *note
          mock_calls: 40b8.에 나타나야 합니다.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1)
               >>> mock(2)
               >>> mock(3)
               >>> mock(4)
               >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
               >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

      -- 메서드: assert_not_called ()

          모의 객체가 호출되지 않았다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> m = Mock()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               >>> obj = m.hello()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.
               Calls: [call()].

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: reset_mock (*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)

          reset_mock 메서드는 모의 객체의 모든 호출 어트리뷰트를 재설정
          합니다:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('hello')
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.reset_mock()
               >>> mock.called
               False

          This can be useful where you want to make a series of
          assertions that reuse the same object.

          'return_value' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          return_value: 40b4.:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
               >>> mock('hello')
               5
               >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          'side_effect' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          side_effect: 40ac.:

               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
               >>> mock('hello')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError
               >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          Note that *note reset_mock(): cf7. 'doesn’t' clear the *note
          return_value: 40b4, *note side_effect: 40ac. or any child
          attributes you have set using normal assignment by default.

          Child mocks are reset as well.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: reset_mock 함수에 두 개의 키워드 전용 인자
          를 추가했습니다.

      -- 메서드: mock_add_spec (spec, spec_set=False)

          모의 객체에 사양을 추가합니다.  'spec'은 객체이거나 문자열 리
          스트일 수 있습니다.  'spec'의 어트리뷰트 만 모의 객체에서 어트
          리뷰트로 꺼낼 수 있습니다.

          'spec_set'이 참이면 스펙에 있는 어트리뷰트 만 설정할 수 있습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: attach_mock (mock, attribute)

          이름과 부모를 치환해서, 이것의 어트리뷰트(attribute)로 모의 객
          체(mock)를 연결합니다.  연결된 모의 객체에 대한 호출은 이것의
          *note method_calls: 40ba.와 *note mock_calls: 40b8. 어트리뷰트
          에 기록됩니다.

      -- 메서드: configure_mock (**kwargs)

          키워드 인자를 통해 모의 객체의 어트리뷰트를 설정합니다.

          표준 점 표기법과 메서드 호출에서 딕셔너리 언 패킹을 사용해서 자
          식 모의 객체에 어트리뷰트와 반환 값 및 부작용을 설정할 수 있습
          니다:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          모의 객체에 대한 생성자 호출에서 같은 것을 할 수 있습니다:

               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
               >>> mock.some_attribute
               'eggs'
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          *note configure_mock(): 40b5.은 모의 객체를 만든 후에 구성을 더
          쉽게 할 수 있도록 하기 위해 존재합니다.

      -- 메서드: __dir__ ()

          *note Mock: a47. 객체는 ‘dir(some_mock)’의 결과를 유용한 결과
          로 제한합니다.  'spec'이 있는 모의 객체에서 이것은 모의 객체에
          허용되는 모든 어트리뷰트를 포함합니다.

          이 필터링이 하는 일과 해제 방법에 대해서는 *note FILTER_DIR:
          40bc.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: _get_child_mock (**kw)

          어트리뷰트와 반환 값에 대한 자식 모의 객체를 만듭니다.  기본적
          으로 자식 모의 객체는 부모와 같은 형입니다.  Mock의 서브 클래
          스는 자식 모의 객체가 만들어지는 방법을 사용자 정의하기 위해 이
          를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

          콜러블이 아닌 모의 객체의 경우 (사용자 정의 서브 클래스 대신)
          콜러블 변형이 사용됩니다.

      -- 속성: called

          모의 객체가 호출되었는지를 나타내는 불리언:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.called
               False
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True

      -- 속성: call_count

          모의 객체가 몇 번이나 호출되었는지를 알려주는 정수:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.call_count
               0
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_count
               2

      -- 속성: return_value

          모의 객체를 호출할 때 반환되는 값을 구성하려면 이것을 설정하십
          시오:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
               >>> mock()
               'fish'

          기본 반환 값은 모의 객체이며 일반적인 방식으로 구성할 수 있습
          니다:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
               >>> mock.return_value()
               <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()

          생성자에서 *note return_value: 40b4.를 설정할 수도 있습니다:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> mock.return_value
               3
               >>> mock()
               3

      -- 속성: side_effect

          이것은 모의 객체가 호출될 때 호출되는 함수, 이터러블 또는 발생
          시킬 예외(클래스나 인스턴스)일 수 있습니다.

          함수를 전달하면 모의 객체와 같은 인자로 호출되며 함수가 *note
          DEFAULT: 40b3. 싱글톤을 반환하지 않는 한 모의 객체에 대한 호출
          은 함수가 반환하는 것을 반환합니다.  함수가 *note DEFAULT:
          40b3.를 반환하면 모의 객체는 (*note return_value: 40b4.에서) 정
          상값을 반환합니다.

          이터러블을 전달하면, 모든 호출에서 값을 산출해야 하는 이터레이
          터를 얻는 데 사용됩니다.  이 값은 발생시킬 예외 인스턴스나 모
          의 객체 호출에서 반환될 값일 수 있습니다 (*note DEFAULT: 40b3.
          처리는 함수 경우와 같습니다).

          (API의 예외 처리를 테스트하기 위해) 예외를 발생시키는 모의 객
          체 예:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
               >>> mock()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               Exception: Boom!

          *note side_effect: 40ac.를 사용하여 일련의 값을 반환하기:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
               >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
               (3, 2, 1)

          콜러블 사용하기:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     return DEFAULT
               ...
               >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
               >>> mock()
               3

          생성자에서 *note side_effect: 40ac.를 설정할 수 있습니다.  다
          음은 모의 객체가 호출된 값에 1을 더해서 반환하는 예입니다:

               >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
               >>> mock(3)
               4
               >>> mock(-8)
               -7

          *note side_effect: 40ac.를 ‘None’으로 설정하면 지워집니다:

               >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
               >>> m()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                ...
               KeyError
               >>> m.side_effect = None
               >>> m()
               3

      -- 속성: call_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been called), or the
          arguments that the mock was last called with.  This will be in
          the form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be
          accessed through the ‘args’ property, is any positional
          arguments the mock was called with (or an empty tuple) and the
          second member, which can also be accessed through the ‘kwargs’
          property, is any keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> print(mock.call_args)
               None
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_args
               call()
               >>> mock.call_args == ()
               True
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
               True
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {}
               >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4, 5)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'}

          *note call_args_list: 40c0, *note method_calls: 40ba. 및 *note
          mock_calls: 40b8. 리스트의 멤버와 함께 *note call_args: 1986.는
          *note call: 19d5. 객체입니다.  이들은 튜플이므로, 개별 인자를
          얻고 더 복잡한 어서션을 하기 위해 언팩할 수 있습니다.  *note
          call 튜플: 40c1.을 참조하십시오.

          버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘args’와 ‘kwargs’ 프로퍼티를 추가했습니다.

      -- 속성: call_args_list

          이것은 모의 객체에 대한 모든 호출을 순서대로 나열한 리스트입니
          다 (따라서 리스트의 길이는 호출된 횟수입니다).  호출이 있기 전
          에는 빈 리스트입니다.  *note call: 19d5. 객체는 *note
          call_args_list: 40c0.와 비교할 호출 리스트를 편리하게 구성하는
          데 사용할 수 있습니다.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args_list
               [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
               >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
               >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
               True

          *note call_args_list: 40c0.의 멤버는 *note call: 19d5. 객체입
          니다.  이들은 개별 인자를 얻기 위해 튜플로서 언팩될 수 있습니
          다.  *note call 튜플: 40c1.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: method_calls

          자신에 대한 호출 추적뿐만 아니라, 모의 객체는 메서드와 어트리
          뷰트, 그리고 '그들의' 메서드와 어트리뷰트에 대한 호출도 추적합
          니다:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.property.method.attribute()
               <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method_calls
               [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]

          *note method_calls: 40ba.의 멤버는 *note call: 19d5. 객체입니
          다.  이들은 개별 인자를 얻기 위해 튜플로서 언팩될 수 있습니다.
          *note call 튜플: 40c1.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: mock_calls

          *note mock_calls: 40b8.는 모의 객체, 그것의 메서드, 매직 메서
          드 '및' 반환 값 모의 객체에 대한 '모든' 호출을 기록합니다.

               >>> mock = MagicMock()
               >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
               >>> mock.first(a=3)
               <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.second()
               <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
               >>> int(mock)
               1
               >>> result(1)
               <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
               ... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
               >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
               True

          *note mock_calls: 40b8.의 멤버는 *note call: 19d5. 객체입니다.
          이들은 개별 인자를 얻기 위해 튜플로서 언팩될 수 있습니다.
          *note call 튜플: 40c1.을 참조하십시오.

               참고: *note mock_calls: 40b8.가 기록되는 방식은 중첩된 호
               출이 수행될 때 상위 호출의 매개 변수가 기록되지 않아서 항
               상 같다고 비교됨을 뜻합니다.:

                    >>> mock = MagicMock()
                    >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
                    <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
                    >>> mock.mock_calls
                    [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
                    >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
                    True

      -- 속성: __class__

          일반적으로 객체의 ‘__class__’ 어트리뷰트는 해당 형을 반환합니
          다.  ‘spec’이 있는 모의 객체의 경우, ‘__class__’는 대신 spec 클
          래스를 반환합니다.  이를 통해 모의 객체는 다음과 같이 대체 / 가
          장하는 객체에 대한 *note isinstance(): 43b. 테스트를 통과할 수
          있습니다:

               >>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
               >>> isinstance(mock, int)
               True

          ‘__class__’는 대입할 수 있습니다.  이를 통해 spec을 사용하지 않
          고도 모의 객체가 *note isinstance(): 43b. 검사를 통과할 수 있
          습니다.:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.__class__ = dict
               >>> isinstance(mock, dict)
               True

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.NonCallableMock (spec=None, wraps=None,
          name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)

     콜러블이 아닌 *note Mock: a47. 버전.  생성자 매개 변수는 *note
     Mock: a47.과 같은 의미를 가지며, 콜러블이 아닌 모의 객체에서 의미가
     없는 'return_value'와 'side_effect'는 예외입니다.

클래스 나 인스턴스를 ‘spec’이나 ‘spec_set’으로 사용하는 모의 객체는
*note isinstance(): 43b. 테스트를 통과할 수 있습니다:

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True
     >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True

*note Mock: a47. 클래스는 매직 메서드 모킹을 지원합니다.  자세한 내용은
*note 매직 메서드: 40ae.를 참조하십시오.

모의 객체 클래스와 *note patch(): e88. 데코레이터는 모두 구성을 위해 임
의의 키워드 인자를 취합니다.  *note patch(): e88. 데코레이터의 경우 키워
드는 만들어지는 모의 객체의 생성자로 전달됩니다.  키워드 인자는 모의 객
체의 어트리뷰트를 구성하기 위한 것입니다.:

     >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
     >>> m.attribute
     3
     >>> m.other
     'fish'

자식 모의 객체의 반환 값과 부작용은 점 표기법을 사용하여 같은 방식으로 설
정할 수 있습니다.  호출에서 점으로 구분된 이름을 직접 사용할 수 없어서 딕
셔너리를 만들고 ‘**’를 사용하여 언팩해야 합니다:

     >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
     >>> mock.some_attribute
     'eggs'
     >>> mock.method()
     3
     >>> mock.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

'spec'(또는 'spec_set')으로 만들어진 콜러블 모의 객체는 호출을 모의 객체
와 일치시킬 때 사양 객체의 서명을 검사합니다.  따라서, 위치나 이름으로 전
달되었는지와 관계없이 실제 호출의 인자와 일치할 수 있습니다:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

이것은 *note assert_called_with(): 1a28, *note
assert_called_once_with(): 40b6, *note assert_has_calls(): 16af. 및
*note assert_any_call(): 40b7.에 적용됩니다.  *note 자동 사양: 40af.할 때
, 모의 객체의 메서드 호출에도 적용됩니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: spec 되거나 자동 사양된 모의 객체에 대한 서명 검사를
추가했습니다.

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.PropertyMock (*args, **kwargs)

     클래스에서 *note property: 194.나 다른 *note 디스크립터: 157a.로 사
     용하기 위한 모의 객체.  *note PropertyMock: 40c3.은 *note
     __get__(): 14af.과 *note __set__(): 1f72. 메서드를 제공하므로 꺼낼
     때 반환 값을 지정할 수 있습니다.

     객체에서 *note PropertyMock: 40c3. 인스턴스를 가져오면 인자 없이 모
     의 객체를 호출합니다.  설정하면 설정되는 값으로 모의 객체를 호출합
     니다.

          >>> class Foo:
          ...     @property
          ...     def foo(self):
          ...         return 'something'
          ...     @foo.setter
          ...     def foo(self, value):
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
          ...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
          ...     this_foo = Foo()
          ...     print(this_foo.foo)
          ...     this_foo.foo = 6
          ...
          mockity-mock
          >>> mock_foo.mock_calls
          [call(), call(6)]

모의 객체 어트리뷰트가 저장되는 방식으로 인해 *note PropertyMock: 40c3.을
모의 객체에 직접 연결할 수 없습니다.  대신 모의 객체의 형 객체에 연결할
수 있습니다:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
     >>> type(m).foo = p
     >>> m.foo
     3
     >>> p.assert_called_once_with()

     조심: If an *note AttributeError: 346. is raised by *note
     PropertyMock: 40c3, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor
     and *note __getattr__(): 4cd. will be called on the parent mock:

          >>> m = MagicMock()
          >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
          >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
          >>> m.my_property
          <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>

     See *note __getattr__(): 4cd. for details.

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.AsyncMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     *note MagicMock: e87.의 비동기 버전.  *note AsyncMock: a48. 객체는
     객체가 비동기 함수로 인식되도록 동작하고, 호출 결과는 어웨이터블 입
     니다.

          >>> mock = AsyncMock()
          >>> asyncio.iscoroutinefunction(mock)
          True
          >>> inspect.isawaitable(mock())
          True

     ‘mock()’의 결과는 어웨이트 한 후 ‘side_effect’나 ‘return_value’를 제
     공하는 비동기 함수입니다:

        - ‘side_effect’가 함수이면, 비동기 함수는 해당 함수의 결과를 반
          환합니다,

        - ‘side_effect’가 예외이면, 비동기 함수는 예외를 발생시킵니다,

        - ‘side_effect’가 이터러블이면, 비동기 함수는 이터러블의 다음 값
          을 반환하지만, 결과 시퀀스가 소진되면 ‘StopAsyncIteration’이 즉
          시 발생합니다,

        - ‘side_effect’가 정의되지 않으면, 비동기 함수는 ‘return_value’에
          의해 정의된 값을 반환하므로, 기본적으로 비동기 함수는 새 *note
          AsyncMock: a48. 객체를 반환합니다.

     *note Mock: a47.이나 *note MagicMock: e87.의 'spec'을 비동기 함수로
     설정하면 호출 후에 코루틴 객체가 반환됩니다.

          >>> async def async_func(): pass
          ...
          >>> mock = MagicMock(async_func)
          >>> mock
          <MagicMock spec='function' id='...'>
          >>> mock()
          <coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...>

     *note Mock: a47, *note MagicMock: e87. 또는 *note AsyncMock: a48.의
     'spec'을 비동기와 동기 함수가 있는 클래스로 설정하면 동기 함수를 자
     동으로 감지하고 그들을 *note MagicMock: e87.(부모 모의 객체가 *note
     AsyncMock: a48.이나 *note MagicMock: e87.일 때)이나 *note Mock:
     a47.(부모 모의 객체가 *note Mock: a47.일 때)으로 설정합니다.  모든
     비동기 함수는 *note AsyncMock: a48.이 됩니다.

          >>> class ExampleClass:
          ...     def sync_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...     async def async_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass)
          >>> a_mock.sync_foo
          <MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> a_mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass)
          >>> mock.sync_foo
          <Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- 메서드: assert_awaited ()

          모의 객체가 적어도 한 번 어웨이트 되었다고 어서트 합니다.  이
          것은 호출된 객체와 별개임에 유의하십시오, ‘await’ 키워드를 반
          드시 사용해야 합니다:

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(coroutine_mock):
               ...     await coroutine_mock
               ...
               >>> coroutine_mock = mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited.
               >>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()

      -- 메서드: assert_awaited_once ()

          모의 객체가 정확히 한 번 어웨이트 되었다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- 메서드: assert_awaited_with (*args, **kwargs)

          마지막 어웨이트가 지정된 인자로 이루어졌다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: expected await not found.
               Expected: mock('other')
               Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar')

      -- 메서드: assert_awaited_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          모의 객체가 정확히 한 번, 지정된 인자로 어웨이트 되었다고 어서
          트 합니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- 메서드: assert_any_await (*args, **kwargs)

          지정된 인자로 모의 객체가 어웨이트된 적이 있다고 어서트 합니다
          .

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('hello'))
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: mock('other') await not found

      -- 메서드: assert_has_awaits (calls, any_order=False)

          지정된 호출로 모의 객체가 어웨이트 되었다고 어서트 합니다.  어
          웨이트에 대해 *note await_args_list: 1985. 리스트가 검사됩니다
          .

          'any_order'가 거짓이면 어웨이트는 순차적이어야 합니다.  지정된
          어웨이트 전이나 후에 추가 호출이 있을 수 있습니다.

          'any_order'가 참이면 어웨이트 순서와 관계없이 모두 *note
          await_args_list: 1985.에 나타나야 합니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")]
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Awaits not found.
               Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')]
               Actual: []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)

      -- 메서드: assert_not_awaited ()

          모의 객체가 어웨이트 된 적이 없다고 어서트 합니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> mock.assert_not_awaited()

      -- 메서드: reset_mock (*args, **kwargs)

          *note Mock.reset_mock(): cf7.을 참조하십시오.  또한 *note
          await_count: 40cc.를 0으로, *note await_args: 40cd.를 None으로
          설정하고, *note await_args_list: 1985.를 지웁니다.

      -- 속성: await_count

          모의 객체가 몇 번 어웨이트 되었는지 추적하는 정수.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               1
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               2

      -- 속성: await_args

          이것은 ‘None’(모의 객체가 어웨이트 되지 않았을 때)이거나 모의
          객체가 마지막으로 어웨이트 된 인자입니다.  *note
          Mock.call_args: 1986.와 같게 기능합니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('foo')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('bar')

      -- 속성: await_args_list

          이것은 모의 객체에 대한 모든 어웨이트를 순서대로 나열한 리스트
          입니다 (따라서 리스트의 길이는 어웨이트 한 횟수입니다).  어웨
          이트 전에는 빈 리스트입니다.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo')]
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo'), call('bar')]

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.ThreadingMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, *, timeout=UNSET, **kwargs)

     A version of *note MagicMock: e87. for multithreading tests.  The
     *note ThreadingMock: 40ce. object provides extra methods to wait
     for a call to be invoked, rather than assert on it immediately.

     The default timeout is specified by the ‘timeout’ argument, or if
     unset by the *note ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 40cf. attribute,
     which defaults to blocking (‘None’).

     You can configure the global default timeout by setting *note
     ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 40cf.

      -- 메서드: wait_until_called (*, timeout=UNSET)

          모의 객체가 호출될 때까지 기다립니다.

          If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock or if a
          timeout argument is passed to this function, the function
          raises an *note AssertionError: 6a3. if the call is not
          performed in time.

               >>> mock = ThreadingMock()
               >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock)
               >>> thread.start()
               >>> mock.wait_until_called(timeout=1)
               >>> thread.join()

      -- 메서드: wait_until_any_call_with (*args, **kwargs)

          지정된 인자로 모의 객체가 호출될 때까지 기다립니다.

          If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock the
          function raises an *note AssertionError: 6a3. if the call is
          not performed in time.

               >>> mock = ThreadingMock()
               >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock, args=("arg1", "arg2",), kwargs={"arg": "thing"})
               >>> thread.start()
               >>> mock.wait_until_any_call_with("arg1", "arg2", arg="thing")
               >>> thread.join()

      -- 속성: DEFAULT_TIMEOUT

          Global default timeout in seconds to create instances of *note
          ThreadingMock: 40ce.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* 호출: 호출<2>.
* 어트리뷰트 삭제::
* 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트::
* 모의 객체를 어트리뷰트로 연결하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 유일한 예외는 매직 메서드와 어트리뷰트(앞뒤에 이중 밑줄을 가진 것
)입니다.  Mock은 이것을 만들지 않고 대신 *note AttributeError: 346.를 발
생시킵니다.  이는 인터프리터가 종종 묵시적으로 이러한 메서드를 요청하고,
매직 메서드를 기대할 때 새 Mock 객체를 얻으면 '매우' 혼동되기 때문입니다
.  매직 메서드 지원이 필요하면 *note 매직 메서드: 40ae.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 호출<2>,  Next: 어트리뷰트 삭제,  Up: Mock 클래스

5.26.6.3 호출
.............

모의 객체는 콜러블입니다.  호출은 *note return_value: 40b4. 어트리뷰트로
설정된 값을 반환합니다.  기본 반환 값은 새로운 Mock 객체입니다; (명시적
으로나 Mock을 호출하여) 반환 값에 처음으로 액세스할 때 만들어지지만 - 저
장되고 매번 같은 값이 반환됩니다.

객체에 대한 호출은 *note call_args: 1986.와 *note call_args_list: 40c0.
같은 어트리뷰트로 기록됩니다.

*note side_effect: 40ac.가 설정되면 호출이 기록된 후에 호출되므로,
‘side_effect’에서 예외가 발생해도 호출은 여전히 기록됩니다.

호출될 때 모의 객체가 예외를 발생시키는 가장 간단한 방법은 *note
side_effect: 40ac.를 예외 클래스나 인스턴스로 만드는 것입니다:

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     IndexError
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3)]
     >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
     >>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'Bang!'
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]

*note side_effect: 40ac.가 함수면 해당 함수가 반환하는 것이 모의 객체에
대한 호출이 반환하는 것입니다.  ‘side_effect’ 함수는 모의 객체와 같은 인
자로 호출됩니다.  이를 통해 입력에 따라 호출의 반환 값을 동적으로 변경할
수 있습니다:

     >>> def side_effect(value):
     ...     return value + 1
     ...
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> m(1)
     2
     >>> m(2)
     3
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1), call(2)]

모의 객체가 여전히 기본 반환 값(새로운 모의 객체)을, 또는 설정된 반환 값
을, 반환하도록 하려면 두 가지 방법이 있습니다.  *note side_effect: 40ac.
내부에서 *note return_value: 40b4.를 반환하거나 *note DEFAULT: 40b3.를 반
환하십시오:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return m.return_value
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m.return_value = 3
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return DEFAULT
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3

*note side_effect: 40ac.를 제거하고 기본 동작으로 돌아가려면,
‘side_effect’를 ‘None’으로 설정하십시오:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return 3
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m.side_effect = None
     >>> m()
     6

*note side_effect: 40ac.는 이터러블 객체일 수도 있습니다.  모의 객체에 대
한 반복 호출은 이터러블에서 값을 반환합니다 (이터러블이 소진되고 *note
StopIteration: bf7.이 발생할 때까지):

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
     >>> m()
     1
     >>> m()
     2
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     StopIteration

이터러블의 멤버가 예외이면 반환되는 대신 예외를 발생시킵니다:

     >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
     >>> m()
     33
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     ValueError
     >>> m()
     66


File: python.info,  Node: 어트리뷰트 삭제,  Next: 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 호출<2>,  Up: Mock 클래스

5.26.6.4 어트리뷰트 삭제
........................

모의 객체는 요청 시 어트리뷰트를 만듭니다.  이를 통해 모든 형의 객체인 것
처럼 가장할 수 있습니다.

모의 객체가 *note hasattr(): 4cc. 호출에 대해 ‘False’를 반환하거나, 어트
리뷰트를 가져올 때 *note AttributeError: 346.를 발생시키길 원할 수 있습
니다.  모의 객체에 ‘spec’으로 객체를 제공하여 그렇게 할 수 있지만, 항상
편리하지는 않습니다.

어트리뷰트를 삭제하여 어트리뷰트를 “차단”합니다.  일단 삭제되면, 어트리
뷰트에 액세스할 때 *note AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니다.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     True
     >>> del mock.m
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     False
     >>> del mock.f
     >>> mock.f
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: f


File: python.info,  Node: 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트,  Next: 모의 객체를 어트리뷰트로 연결하기,  Prev: 어트리뷰트 삭제,  Up: Mock 클래스

5.26.6.5 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트
.........................................

“name”은 *note Mock: a47. 생성자에 대한 인자이므로, 모의 객체가 “name” 어
트리뷰트를 가지려면 생성 시 전달할 수 없습니다.  두 가지 대안이 있습니다
.  한가지 옵션은 *note configure_mock(): 40b5.을 사용하는 것입니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
     >>> mock.name
     'my_name'

더 간단한 옵션은 모의 객체를 만든 후 단순히 “name” 어트리뷰트를 설정하는
것입니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.name = "foo"


File: python.info,  Node: 모의 객체를 어트리뷰트로 연결하기,  Prev: 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트,  Up: Mock 클래스

5.26.6.6 모의 객체를 어트리뷰트로 연결하기
..........................................

모의 객체를 다른 모의 객체의 어트리뷰트로 (또는 반환 값으로) 연결하면 그
모의 객체의 “자식”이 됩니다.  자식에 대한 호출은 부모의 *note
method_calls: 40ba.와 *note mock_calls: 40b8. 어트리뷰트에 기록됩니다.  이
는 자식 모의 객체를 구성한 다음 부모에 연결하는 데 유용합니다.  또는 자
식들에 대한 모든 호출을 기록하는 부모에 여러 모의 객체를 연결하고 모의 객
체 간의 호출 순서에 대한 어서션을 하는 데 유용합니다:

     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> parent.child1 = child1
     >>> parent.child2 = child2
     >>> child1(1)
     >>> child2(2)
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]

이에 대한 예외는 모의 객체에 이름이 있는 경우입니다.  어떤 이유로든 원하
지 않을 때 “부모가 되는 것(parenting)”을 방지 할 수 있습니다.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
     >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
     >>> mock.attribute()
     <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     []

*note patch(): e88.가 만든 모의 객체에는 자동으로 이름이 지정됩니다.  부
모에게 이름을 가진 모의 객체를 연결하려면 *note attach_mock(): 1616. 메
서드를 사용하십시오:

     >>> thing1 = object()
     >>> thing2 = object()
     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
     ...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
     ...         child1('one')
     ...         child2('two')
     ...
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]


File: python.info,  Node: 패처,  Next: MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원,  Prev: Mock 클래스,  Up: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

5.26.6.7 패처
.............

patch 데코레이터는 데코레이트 하는 함수의 스코프 내에서만 객체를 패치하
는 데 사용됩니다.  예외가 발생하더라도 자동으로 패치 해제를 처리합니다.
이러한 함수는 모두 with 문에서 사용될 수 있고, 클래스 데코레이터로도 사
용할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* 패처 메서드; start와 stop: 패처 메서드 start와 stop.
* 내장 패치::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기::
* 패치할 곳::
* 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기::


File: python.info,  Node: patch,  Next: patch object,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.8 patch
..............

     참고: 중요한 것은 올바른 이름 공간에서 패치를 수행하는 것입니다.
     *note 패치할 곳: 40d9. 절을 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: unittest.mock.patch (target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     *note patch(): e88.는 함수 데코레이터, 클래스 데코레이터 또는 컨텍
     스트 관리자 역할을 합니다.  함수 본문이나 with 문 내부에서,
     'target'은 'new' 객체로 패치됩니다.  함수/with 문이 종료될 때 패치
     가 복구됩니다.

     'new'가 생략되면, 대상(target)은 패치된 객체가 비동기 함수이면
     *note AsyncMock: a48.으로, 그렇지 않으면 *note MagicMock: e87.으로
     치환됩니다.  *note patch(): e88.가 데코레이터로 사용되고 'new'가 생
     략되면, 만들어진 모의 객체는 데코레이트 되는 함수에 대한 추가 인자
     로 전달됩니다.  *note patch(): e88.가 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용되면 만
     들어진 모의 객체는 컨텍스트 관리자에 의해 반환됩니다.

     'target'은 ‘'package.module.ClassName'’ 형식의 문자열이어야 합니다.
     'target'이 임포트되고 지정된 객체를 'new' 객체로 치환하므로, *note
     patch(): e88.를 호출하는 환경에서 'target'을 임포트 할 수 있어야 합
     니다.  데코레이트 하는 시간이 아니라 데코레이트 된 함수가 실행될 때
     대상(target)을 임포트 합니다.

     patch가 여러분을 위해 만든다면 'spec'과 'spec_set' 키워드 인자는
     *note MagicMock: e87.으로 전달됩니다.

     또한 ‘spec=True’나 ‘spec_set=True’를 전달하면, patch는 모킹되는 객
     체를 spec/spec_set 객체로 전달합니다.

     'new_callable'을 사용하면 'new' 객체를 만들기 위해 호출될 다른 클래
     스나 콜러블 객체를 지정할 수 있습니다.  기본적으로 *note AsyncMock:
     a48.이 비동기 함수에 사용되고 *note MagicMock: e87.이 나머지에 사용
     됩니다.

     'spec'의 더 강력한 형태는 'autospec'입니다.  ‘autospec=True’를 설정
     하면 치환될 객체의 사양으로 모의 객체가 만들어집니다.  모의 객체의
     모든 어트리뷰트는 또한 치환되는 객체의 해당 어트리뷰트의 사양을 갖
     습니다.  모킹되는 메서드와 함수는 인자를 검사하고 잘못된 서명으로 호
     출되면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  클래스를 치환하는 모
     의 객체의 경우, 반환 값(‘인스턴스’)은 클래스와 같은 사양을 갖습니다
     .  *note create_autospec(): 160f. 함수와 *note 자동 사양: 40af.을 참
     조하십시오.

     ‘autospec=True’ 대신 ‘autospec=some_object’를 전달하여 치환되는 것
     대신 임의의 객체를 사양으로 사용할 수 있습니다.

     기본적으로 *note patch(): e88.는 존재하지 않는 어트리뷰트를 치환하
     지 못합니다.  ‘create=True’를 전달하고, 어트리뷰트가 존재하지 않으
     면, 패치된 함수가 호출될 때 patch가 어트리뷰트를 만들고 패치된 함수
     가 종료된 후 다시 삭제합니다.  이는 프로덕션 코드가 실행 시간에 만
     드는 어트리뷰트에 대해 테스트를 작성하는 데 유용합니다.  위험할 수
     있어서 기본적으로 꺼져있습니다.  이 기능을 켜면 실제로 존재하지 않
     는 API에 대해 통과하는 테스트를 작성할 수 있습니다!

          참고: 
          버전 3.5에서 변경: 모듈에 있는 내장(builtins)을 패치하는 경우
          ‘create=True’를 전달할 필요가 없습니다, 기본적으로 추가됩니다.

     패치는 *note TestCase: 447. 클래스 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다.
     클래스의 각 테스트 메서드를 데코레이트 하여 작동합니다.  테스트 메
     서드가 공통 패치 집합을 공유할 때 관리용 코드가 줄어듭니다.  *note
     patch(): e88.는 ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’로 시작하는 메서드 이름을 조회하
     는 것으로 테스트를 찾습니다.  기본적으로 이것은 ‘'test'’인데, *note
     unittest: 106.가 테스트를 찾는 방식과 일치합니다.
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’를 설정하여 대체 접두사를 지정할 수 있습니다.

     with 문에서 patch를 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니다.  여기서 패
     치는 with 문 다음에 들여쓰기 된 블록에 적용됩니다.  “as”를 사용하면
     패치된 객체는 “as” 뒤에 오는 이름으로 연결됩니다; *note patch():
     e88.가 모의 객체를 만들 때 매우 유용합니다.

     *note patch(): e88.는 임의의 키워드 인자를 취합니다.  이들은 만들어
     질 때 패치되는 객체가 비동기이면 *note AsyncMock: a48.으로, 그렇지
     않으면 *note Mock: a47.으로, 또는 지정되면 'new_callable'로 전달됩
     니다.

     ‘patch.dict(...)’, ‘patch.multiple(...)’ 및 ‘patch.object(...)’는 대
     체 사용 사례에 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note patch(): e88.를 함수 데코레이터로 사용하여, 모의 객체를 만들고 데
코레이트 된 함수에 전달합니다:

     >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
     ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
     ...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
     ...
     >>> function(None)
     True

클래스를 패치하면 클래스를 *note MagicMock: e87. '인스턴스'로 치환합니다
.  테스트 대상 코드에서 클래스가 인스턴스 화 되면 사용될 모의 객체의
*note return_value: 40b4.가 됩니다.

클래스가 여러 번 인스턴스 화 되면 *note side_effect: 40ac.를 사용하여 매
번 새 모의 객체를 반환할 수 있습니다.  또는 'return_value'를 원하는 것으
로 설정할 수 있습니다.

패치된 클래스에서 '인스턴스'의 메서드에 대한 반환 값을 구성하려면 *note
return_value: 40b4.에서 이를 수행해야 합니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> class Class:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
     ...     instance = MockClass.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
     ...     assert Class() is instance
     ...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
     ...

'spec'이나 'spec_set'을 사용하고 *note patch(): e88.가 '클래스'를 대체하
고 있다면, 만들어진 모의 객체의 반환 값은 같은 사양을 갖습니다.

     >>> Original = Class
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
     >>> MockClass = patcher.start()
     >>> instance = MockClass()
     >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
     >>> patcher.stop()

'new_callable' 인자는 생성된 모의 객체의 기본 *note MagicMock: e87.에 대
한 대체 클래스를 사용하려고 할 때 유용합니다.  예를 들어, *note
NonCallableMock: 40b1.을 사용하려면:

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
     ...     assert thing is mock_thing
     ...     thing()
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable

또 다른 사용 사례는 객체를 *note io.StringIO: f1f. 인스턴스로 교체하는 것
입니다:

     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print('Something')
     ...
     >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     foo()
     ...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
     ...
     >>> test()

*note patch(): e88.가 여러분 대신 모의 객체를 만들 때, 보통 가장 먼저 해
야 할 일은 모의 객체를 구성하는 것입니다.  이 구성 중 일부는 patch 호출
에서 수행 할 수 있습니다.  호출에 전달하는 임의의 키워드는 만들어진 모의
객체의 어트리뷰트를 설정하는 데 사용됩니다:

     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.first
     'one'
     >>> mock_thing.second
     'two'

만들어진 모의 객체 어트리뷰트뿐만 아니라 자식 모의 객체의 *note
return_value: 40b4.와 *note side_effect: 40ac.와 같은 어트리뷰트도 구성
할 수 있습니다.  키워드 인자로 직접 전달하는 것은 문법적으로 유효하지 않
지만, 이것들을 키로 갖는 딕셔너리는 여전히 ‘**’를 사용하여 *note
patch(): e88. 호출로 확장될 수 있습니다:

     >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.method()
     3
     >>> mock_thing.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

기본적으로, 존재하지 않는 모듈의 함수(또는 클래스의 메서드나 어트리뷰트
)를 패치하려고 시도하면 *note AttributeError: 346.로 실패합니다:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute'

그러나 *note patch(): e88. 호출에 ‘create=True’를 추가하면 이전 예제가 기
대한 대로 작동합니다:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note patch(): e88.는 이제 target이 비동기 함수면
*note AsyncMock: a48.을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: patch object,  Next: patch dict,  Prev: patch,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.9 patch.object
.....................

 -- 함수: patch.object (target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     모의 객체로 객체('target')의 이름 있는 멤버('attribute')를 패치합니
     다.

     *note patch.object(): 15a0.는 데코레이터, 클래스 데코레이터 또는 컨
     텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니다.  인자 'new', 'spec', 'create',
     'spec_set', 'autospec' 및 'new_callable'은 *note patch(): e88.와 같
     은 의미입니다.  *note patch(): e88.와 마찬가지로, *note
     patch.object(): 15a0.는 만드는 모의 객체를 구성하기 위해 임의의 키
     워드 인자를 취합니다.

     클래스 데코레이터로 사용될 때, *note patch.object(): 15a0.는 감쌀 메
     서드를 선택하는 데 ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’를 사용합니다.

세 개의 인자나 두 개의 인자로 *note patch.object(): 15a0.를 호출 할 수 있
습니다.  세 개의 인자 형식은 패치 할 객체, 어트리뷰트 이름 및 어트리뷰트
를 대체 할 객체를 취합니다.

두 개의 인자 형식으로 호출하면 대체 객체를 생략하고, 모의 객체가 만들어
져 데코레이트 된 함수에 대한 추가 인자로 전달됩니다:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... def test(mock_method):
     ...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
     ...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
     ...
     >>> test()

'spec', 'create' 및 *note patch.object(): 15a0.에 대한 다른 인자는 *note
patch(): e88.와 같은 의미입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: patch dict,  Next: patch multiple,  Prev: patch object,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.10 patch.dict
....................

 -- 함수: patch.dict (in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)

     딕셔너리나 딕셔너리류 객체를 패치하고, 테스트 후에 딕셔너리를 원래
     상태로 복원합니다.

     'in_dict'는 딕셔너리나 컨테이너와 같은 매핑일 수 있습니다.  매핑이
     면 적어도 가져오기(get), 설정(set) 및 삭제(delete)와 키 이터레이션
     을 지원해야 합니다.

     'in_dict'는 딕셔너리 이름을 지정하는 문자열일 수도 있으며, 이때는 임
     포트 해서 가져옵니다.

     'values'는 딕셔너리에 설정할 값의 딕셔너리일 수 있습니다.  'values'는
     ‘(key, value)’ 쌍의 이터러블일 수도 있습니다.

     'clear'가 참이면 새 값이 설정되기 전에 딕셔너리가 지워집니다.

     딕셔너리에 값을 설정하기 위해 임의의 키워드 인자로 *note
     patch.dict(): 19fa.를 호출할 수도 있습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note patch.dict(): 19fa.는 이제 컨텍스트 관리자
     로 사용될 때 패치된 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

*note patch.dict(): 19fa.는 컨텍스트 관리자, 데코레이터 또는 클래스 데코
레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... def test():
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert foo == {}

클래스 데코레이터로 사용될 때 *note patch.dict(): 19fa.는 감쌀 메서드를
선택하는 데 ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’(기본값은 ‘'test'’)를 따릅니다:

     >>> import os
     >>> import unittest
     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def test_sample(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue')

테스트에 다른 접두사를 사용하려면, ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’를 설정하여 패처에
다른 접두사를 알릴 수 있습니다.  값을 변경하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은
*note TEST_PREFIX: 40dc.를 참조하십시오.

*note patch.dict(): 19fa.를 사용하여 멤버를 딕셔너리에 추가하고 (또는 단
순히 테스트에서 딕셔너리를 변경하고) 테스트가 끝나면 딕셔너리가 복원되도
록 할 수 있습니다.

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo:
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict)
     ...     patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs'
     ...
     >>> assert foo == {}
     >>> assert patched_foo == {}

     >>> import os
     >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
     ...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
     ...
     newvalue
     >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ

*note patch.dict(): 19fa. 호출에서 키워드를 사용하여 딕셔너리에 값을 설
정할 수 있습니다:

     >>> mymodule = MagicMock()
     >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
     ...     import mymodule
     ...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
     ...
     'fish'

*note patch.dict(): 19fa.는 실제로 딕셔너리가 아닌 딕셔너리류 객체와 함
께 사용할 수 있습니다.  최소한 아이템 가져오기, 설정하기, 삭제하기 및 이
터레이션이나 멤버십 검사를 지원해야 합니다.  이것은 매직 메서드 *note
__getitem__(): 283, *note __setitem__(): 12bb, *note __delitem__():
12bc. 및 *note __iter__(): 1cc9.나 *note __contains__(): 1f66.에 해당합
니다.

     >>> class Container:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.values = {}
     ...     def __getitem__(self, name):
     ...         return self.values[name]
     ...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
     ...         self.values[name] = value
     ...     def __delitem__(self, name):
     ...         del self.values[name]
     ...     def __iter__(self):
     ...         return iter(self.values)
     ...
     >>> thing = Container()
     >>> thing['one'] = 1
     >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
     ...     assert thing['one'] == 2
     ...     assert thing['two'] == 3
     ...
     >>> assert thing['one'] == 1
     >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']


File: python.info,  Node: patch multiple,  Next: 패처 메서드 start와 stop,  Prev: patch dict,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.11 patch.multiple
........................

 -- 함수: patch.multiple (target, spec=None, create=False,
          spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

     한 번의 호출로 여러 패치를 수행합니다.  패치할 객체(객체나 임포트로
     객체를 가져올 문자열로)와 패치에 대한 키워드 인자를 취합니다:

          with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
              ...

     *note patch.multiple(): 40de.가 모의 객체를 만들기를 원하면 *note
     DEFAULT: 40b3.를 값으로 사용하십시오.  이 경우 만들어진 모의 객체는
     키워드로 데코레이트 된 함수로 전달되며, *note patch.multiple():
     40de.이 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용될 때는 딕셔너리가 반환됩니다.

     *note patch.multiple(): 40de.은 데코레이터, 클래스 데코레이터 또는
     컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니다.  'spec', 'spec_set',
     'create', 'autospec' 및 'new_callable' 인자는 *note patch(): e88.와
     같은 의미입니다.  이 인자는 *note patch.multiple(): 40de.이 수행한
     '모든' 패치에 적용됩니다.

     클래스 데코레이터로 사용될 때 *note patch.multiple(): 40de.은 감쌀
     메서드를 선택하는 데 ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’를 사용합니다.

*note patch.multiple(): 40de.가 모의 객체를 만들기를 원하면 *note
DEFAULT: 40b3.를 값으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  *note patch.multiple():
40de.을 데코레이터로 사용하면 만들어진 모의 객체가 키워드로 데코레이트 된
함수에 전달됩니다.

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> other = object()

     >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(thing, other):
     ...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
     ...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

*note patch.multiple(): 40de.은 다른 ‘patch’ 데코레이터와 중첩될 수 있지
만, 키워드로 전달된 인자를 *note patch(): e88.가 만든 모든 표준 인자들
'뒤'에 넣습니다:

     >>> @patch('sys.exit')
     ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
     ...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

*note patch.multiple(): 40de.가 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용되면, 컨텍스트 관
리자가 반환한 값은 만들어진 모의 객체 이름을 키로 갖는 딕셔너리입니다:

     >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
     ...     assert values['thing'] is thing
     ...     assert values['other'] is other
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: 패처 메서드 start와 stop,  Next: 내장 패치,  Prev: patch multiple,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.12 패처 메서드: start와 stop
...................................

모든 패처에는 ‘start()’와 ‘stop()’ 메서드가 있습니다.  이를 통해 ‘setUp’
메서드나 데코레이터를 중첩하거나 with 문을 사용하지 않고 여러 패치를 수
행하려는 곳에서 패치를 수행하는 것이 더 간단해집니다.

이것들을 사용하려면 *note patch(): e88, *note patch.object(): 15a0. 또는
*note patch.dict(): 19fa.를 정상적으로 호출하고 반환된 ‘patcher’ 객체에
대한 참조를 유지하십시오.  그런 다음 ‘start()’를 호출하여 패치를 제자리
에 놓고 ‘stop()’을 사용하여 패치를 취소할 수 있습니다.

*note patch(): e88.를 사용하여 모의 객체를 만들면 ‘patcher.start’ 호출로
반환됩니다.

     >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
     >>> from package import module
     >>> original = module.ClassName
     >>> new_mock = patcher.start()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
     >>> patcher.stop()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock

일반적인 사용 사례는 *note TestCase: 447.의 ‘setUp’ 메서드에서 여러 패치
를 수행하는 것입니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
     ...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
     ...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
     ...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher1.stop()
     ...         self.patcher2.stop()
     ...
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
     ...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').run()

     조심: 이 기법을 사용하는 경우 ‘stop’을 호출하여 패치가 “실행 취소”
     되도록 해야 합니다.  ‘setUp’에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘tearDown’이 호출
     되지 않기 때문에, 이것은 생각보다 까다로울 수 있습니다.  *note
     unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a7e.은 이것을 더 쉽게 만듭니다:

          >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
          ...     def setUp(self):
          ...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
          ...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
          ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
          ...
          ...     def test_something(self):
          ...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
          ...

     추가 보너스로 더는 ‘patcher’ 객체에 대한 참조를 유지할 필요가 없습
     니다.

*note patch.stopall(): 40e1.을 사용하여 시작된 모든 패치를 중지할 수도 있
습니다.

 -- 함수: patch.stopall ()

     모든 활성 패치를 중지합니다.  ‘start’로 시작한 패치만 중지합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 패치,  Next: TEST_PREFIX,  Prev: 패처 메서드 start와 stop,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.13 내장 패치
...................

모듈 내의 어떤 내장(builtins)도 패치 할 수 있습니다.  다음 예제는 내장
*note ord(): 1efa.를 패치합니다:

     >>> @patch('__main__.ord')
     ... def test(mock_ord):
     ...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
     ...     print(ord('c'))
     ...
     >>> test()
     101


File: python.info,  Node: TEST_PREFIX,  Next: 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기,  Prev: 내장 패치,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.14 TEST_PREFIX
.....................

모든 패처를 클래스 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다.  이런 식으로 사용하
면 클래스의 모든 테스트 메서드를 감쌉니다.  패처는 ‘'test'’로 시작하는 메
서드를 테스트 메서드로 인식합니다.  이것은 *note unittest.TestLoader:
28e.가 기본적으로 테스트 메서드를 찾는 것과 같은 방법입니다.

테스트에 다른 접두사를 사용하고 싶을 수도 있습니다.  ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’를
설정하여 다른 접두사를 패처에 알릴 수 있습니다:

     >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
     >>> value = 3
     >>>
     >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
     ... class Thing:
     ...     def foo_one(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...     def foo_two(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...
     >>>
     >>> Thing().foo_one()
     not three
     >>> Thing().foo_two()
     not three
     >>> value
     3


File: python.info,  Node: 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기,  Next: 패치할 곳,  Prev: TEST_PREFIX,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.15 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기
..................................

여러 패치를 수행하려면 단순히 데코레이터를 쌓으면 됩니다.

이 패턴을 사용하여 여러 패치 데코레이터를 쌓을 수 있습니다:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ... def test(mock1, mock2):
     ...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
     ...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
     ...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
     ...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
     ...     return mock1, mock2
     ...
     >>> mock1, mock2 = test()
     >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')

데코레이터는 아래에서 위쪽으로 적용됨에 유의하십시오.  이것은 파이썬이 데
코레이터를 적용하는 표준 방식입니다.  생성된 모의 객체가 테스트 함수에 전
달되는 순서는 이 순서와 일치합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 패치할 곳,  Next: 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기,  Prev: 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.16 패치할 곳
...................

*note patch(): e88.는 'name'이 가리키는 객체를 다른 객체로 (임시로) 변경
하여 작동합니다.  개별 객체를 가리키는 많은 이름이 있을 수 있어서, 패치
가 작동하려면 테스트 대상 시스템에서 사용하는 이름을 패치해야 합니다.

기본 원칙은 객체가 '조회되는' 곳을 패치하는 것입니다.  이것은 정의된 곳
과 반드시 같은 곳일 필요는 없습니다.  몇 가지 예가 이를 명확히 하는 데 도
움이 됩니다.

테스트하려는 프로젝트가 다음 구조로 되어 있다고 가정하십시오:

     a.py
         -> SomeClass를 정의합니다

     b.py
         -> from a import SomeClass
         -> some_function이 SomeClass의 인스턴스를 만듭니다

이제 ‘some_function’을 테스트하고 싶지만, *note patch(): e88.를 사용하여
‘SomeClass’를 모킹하고 싶습니다.  문제는 모듈 b를 임포트 할 때, 모듈 a에
서 ‘SomeClass’를 임포트해야 한다는 것입니다.  *note patch(): e88.를 사용
하여 ‘a.SomeClass’를 모킹하면 테스트에 영향을 미치지 않습니다; 모듈 b는
이미 '실제' ‘SomeClass’에 대한 참조를 가지고 있으며 패치가 효과가 없는 것
처럼 보입니다.

핵심은 ‘SomeClass’가 사용되는 곳(또는 그것을 조회하는 곳)을 패치하는 것
입니다.  이 경우 ‘some_function’은 우리가 임포트 한 모듈 b에서
‘SomeClass’를 조회합니다.  패치는 다음과 같아야 합니다:

     @patch('b.SomeClass')

하지만, ‘from a import SomeClass’ 대신 모듈 b가 ‘import a’를 수행하고
‘some_function’이 ‘a.SomeClass’를 사용하는 대체 시나리오를 생각해보십시
오.  이 두 가지 임포트 형식은 모두 일반적입니다.  이 경우 패치하려는 클
래스가 모듈에서 조회되므로 대신 ‘a.SomeClass’를 패치해야 합니다:

     @patch('a.SomeClass')


File: python.info,  Node: 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기,  Prev: 패치할 곳,  Up: 패처

5.26.6.17 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기
...........................................

*note patch: 40d8. 와 *note patch.object: 40da. 모두 디스크립터를 올바르
게 패치하고 복원합니다: 클래스 메서드, 정적 메서드 및 프로퍼티.  이것들
을 인스턴스가 아닌 '클래스'에서 패치해야 합니다.  이들은 또한 장고
settings 객체(1)와 같이 어트리뷰트 액세스를 프락시 하는 '일부' 객체에서
도 작동합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198


File: python.info,  Node: MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원,  Next: 도우미,  Prev: 패처,  Up: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

5.26.6.18 MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원
......................................

* Menu:

* 매직 메서드 모킹하기::
* 매직 모의 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 매직 메서드 모킹하기,  Next: 매직 모의 객체,  Up: MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원

5.26.6.19 매직 메서드 모킹하기
..............................

*note Mock: a47.은 *note “매직 메서드”: 40e9.라고도 하는 파이썬 프로토콜
메서드 모킹을 지원합니다.  이를 통해 모의 객체가 컨테이너나 파이썬 프로
토콜을 구현하는 다른 객체를 대체할 수 있습니다.

매직 메서드는 일반 메서드와는 다르게 조회되므로 (1), 이 지원은 특별히 구
현되었습니다.  즉, 특정 매직 메서드만 지원됩니다.  지원되는 목록에 이들
이 '거의' 모두 포함됩니다.  누락된 것이 있으면 알려주십시오.

관심 있는 메서드를 함수나 모의 객체 인스턴스로 설정하여 매직 메서드를 모
킹합니다.  함수를 사용하면 '반드시' ‘self’를 첫 번째 인자로 취해야 합니
다 (2).

     >>> def __str__(self):
     ...     return 'fooble'
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = __str__
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
     >>> list(mock)
     []

이것의 한 가지 사용 사례는 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 컨텍스트 관리자로 사
용되는 객체를 모킹하는 것입니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
     >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
     >>> with mock as m:
     ...     assert m == 'foo'
     ...
     >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
     >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)

매직 메서드 호출은 *note method_calls: 40ba.에는 나타나지 않지만, *note
mock_calls: 40b8.에 기록됩니다.

     참고: 'spec' 키워드 인자를 사용하여 모의 객체를 만들면 spec에 없는
     매직 메서드를 설정하려고 시도할 때 *note AttributeError: 346.가 발
     생합니다.

지원되는 매직 메서드의 전체 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

   * ‘__hash__’, ‘__sizeof__’, ‘__repr__’ 및 ‘__str__’

   * ‘__dir__’, ‘__format__’ 및 ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__round__’, ‘__floor__’, ‘__trunc__’ 및 ‘__ceil__’

   * 비교: ‘__lt__’, ‘__gt__’, ‘__le__’, ‘__ge__’, ‘__eq__’ 및 ‘__ne__’

   * 컨테이너 메서드: ‘__getitem__’, ‘__setitem__’, ‘__delitem__’,
     ‘__contains__’, ‘__len__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’ 및
     ‘__missing__’

   * 컨텍스트 관리자: ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘__aenter__’ 및
     ‘__aexit__’

   * 단항 숫자 메서드: ‘__neg__’, ‘__pos__’ 및 ‘__invert__’

   * 숫자 메서드 (뒤집히거나 제자리 변형 포함) : ‘__add__’, ‘__sub__’,
     ‘__mul__’, ‘__matmul__’, ‘__truediv__’, ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’,
     ‘__divmod__’, ‘__lshift__’, ‘__rshift__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__xor__’,
     ‘__or__’ 및 ‘__pow__’

   * 숫자 변환 메서드: ‘__complex__’, ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’ 및
     ‘__index__’

   * 디스크립터 메서드: ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ 및 ‘__delete__’

   * 피클링: ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’,
     ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__getstate__’ 및 ‘__setstate__’

   * 파일 시스템 경로 표현: ‘__fspath__’

   * 비동기 이터레이션 메서드: ‘__aiter__’와 ‘__anext__’

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note os.PathLike.__fspath__(): c4f.에 대한 지원이 추
가되었습니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘__aenter__’, ‘__aexit__’, ‘__aiter__’ 및
‘__anext__’에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

다음과 같은 메서드가 존재하지만, 모의 객체가 사용 중이거나, 동적으로 설
정할 수 없거나, 문제를 일으킬 수 있어서 지원되지 '않습니다':

   * ‘__getattr__’, ‘__setattr__’, ‘__init__’ 및 ‘__new__’

   * ‘__prepare__’, ‘__instancecheck__’, ‘__subclasscheck__’, ‘__del__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 매직 메서드는 인스턴스가 아닌 클래스에서 조회되어야 합니다.  다른
버전의 파이썬은 이 규칙을 적용하는 데 일관적이지 않습니다.  지원되는 프
로토콜 메서드는 지원되는 모든 버전의 파이썬에서 작동해야 합니다.

   (2) 이 함수는 기본적으로 클래스에 연결되어 있지만, 각 ‘Mock’ 인스턴스
는 다른 것들과 격리되어 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 매직 모의 객체,  Prev: 매직 메서드 모킹하기,  Up: MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원

5.26.6.20 매직 모의 객체
........................

두 가지 ‘MagicMock’ 변형이 있습니다: *note MagicMock: e87.과 *note
NonCallableMagicMock: 40b2.

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.MagicMock (*args, **kw)

     ‘MagicMock’은 대부분의 *note 매직 메서드: 40e9.의 기본 구현이 있는
     *note Mock: a47.의 서브 클래스입니다.  매직 메서드를 직접 구성하지
     않고도 ‘MagicMock’을 사용할 수 있습니다.

     생성자 매개 변수는 *note Mock: a47.과 같은 의미입니다.

     'spec'이나 'spec_set' 인자를 사용하면 '오직' 사양에 존재하는 매직 메
     서드만 만들어집니다.

 -- 클래스: unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock (*args, **kw)

     콜러블이 아닌 *note MagicMock: e87. 버전.

     생성자 매개 변수는 콜러블이 아닌 모의 객체에 의미가 없는
     'return_value'와 'side_effect'를 제외하고 *note MagicMock: e87.과 같
     은 의미입니다.

매직 메서드는 *note MagicMock: e87. 객체로 설정되므로, 일반적인 방법으로
구성하고 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock[3] = 'fish'
     >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
     >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
     >>> mock[2]
     'result'

기본적으로 많은 프로토콜 메서드는 특정 형의 객체를 반환하도록 요구합니다
.  이러한 메서드는 기본 반환 값으로 사전 구성되어 있어서, 반환 값에 관심
이 없을 때 아무 조처를 하지 않아도 사용할 수 있습니다.  기본값을 변경하
고 싶으면, 여전히 반환 값을 수동으로 '설정'할 수 있습니다.

메서드와 기본값:

   * ‘__lt__’: *note NotImplemented: 7cb.

   * ‘__gt__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__le__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__ge__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__int__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__contains__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__len__’: ‘0’

   * ‘__iter__’: ‘iter([])’

   * ‘__exit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__aexit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__complex__’: ‘1j’

   * ‘__float__’: ‘1.0’

   * ‘__bool__’: ‘True’

   * ‘__index__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__hash__’: 모의 객체의 기본 hash

   * ‘__str__’: 모의 객체의 기본 str

   * ‘__sizeof__’: 모의 객체의 기본 sizeof

예를 들면:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> int(mock)
     1
     >>> len(mock)
     0
     >>> list(mock)
     []
     >>> object() in mock
     False

두 동등 비교 메서드 ‘__eq__()’와 ‘__ne__()’는 특별합니다.  이들의 반환 값
을 변경하여 다른 것을 반환하지 않는 한, *note side_effect: 40ac. 어트리
뷰트를 사용하여 아이덴티티에 대한 기본 동등 비교를 수행합니다:

     >>> MagicMock() == 3
     False
     >>> MagicMock() != 3
     True
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
     >>> mock == 3
     True

‘MagicMock.__iter__()’의 반환 값은 임의의 이터러블 객체일 수 있으며 이터
레이터일 필요는 없습니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']

반환 값이 이터레이터면, 일단 이터레이트 하면 이를 소진하고 후속 이터레이
션은 빈 목록을 줍니다:

     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     []

‘MagicMock’에는 불분명하고 쓸모없는 일부를 제외하고 지원되는 모든 매직 메
서드가 구성되어 있습니다.  원한다면 여전히 설정할 수 있습니다.

‘MagicMock’에서 지원되지만, 기본적으로 설정되지 않는 매직 메서드는 다음
과 같습니다:

   * ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__dir__’

   * ‘__format__’

   * ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ 및 ‘__delete__’

   * ‘__reversed__’와 ‘__missing__’

   * ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’, ‘__getnewargs__’,
     ‘__getstate__’ 및 ‘__setstate__’

   * ‘__getformat__’


File: python.info,  Node: 도우미,  Next: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원,  Up: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

5.26.6.21 도우미
................

* Menu:

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* 자동 사양::
* 실링 모의 객체 봉인하기::


File: python.info,  Node: sentinel,  Next: DEFAULT,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.22 sentinel
..................

 -- 데이터: unittest.mock.sentinel

     ‘sentinel’ 객체는 테스트에 고유한(unique) 객체를 제공하는 편리한 방
     법을 제공합니다.

     어트리뷰트는 이름으로 어트리뷰트에 액세스할 때 요청에 따라 만들어집
     니다.  같은 어트리뷰트에 액세스하면 항상 같은 객체가 반환됩니다.  반
     환된 객체는 테스트 실패 메시지를 읽을 수 있도록 적절한 repr을 갖습
     니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘sentinel’ 어트리뷰트는 이제 *note 복사: 25.되거
     나 *note 피클: a6.될 때 아이덴티티를 유지합니다.

때로 테스트할 때 특정 객체가 다른 메서드에 대한 인자로 전달되거나 반환되
는지 테스트해야 할 때가 있습니다.  이것을 테스트하기 위해 이름 붙은
sentinel 객체를 만드는 것이 일반적일 수 있습니다.  *note sentinel: b9d.은
이와 같은 객체의 아이덴티티를 만들고 테스트하는 편리한 방법을 제공합니다
.

이 예에서는 ‘method’를 ‘sentinel.some_object’를 반환하도록 몽키 패치합니
다:

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
     >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
     >>> result = real.method()
     >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
     >>> result
     sentinel.some_object


File: python.info,  Node: DEFAULT,  Next: call,  Prev: sentinel,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.23 DEFAULT
.................

 -- 데이터: unittest.mock.DEFAULT

     *note DEFAULT: 40b3. 객체는 미리 만들어진 sentinel(실제로
     ‘sentinel.DEFAULT’)입니다.  *note side_effect: 40ac. 함수에서 일반
     반환 값을 사용해야 함을 나타내는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: call,  Next: create_autospec,  Prev: DEFAULT,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.24 call
..............

 -- 함수: unittest.mock.call (*args, **kwargs)

     *note call(): 19d5.은 *note call_args: 1986, *note call_args_list:
     40c0, *note mock_calls: 40b8. 및 *note method_calls: 40ba.와 비교할
     때, 더 간단한 어서션을 만들기 위한 도우미 객체입니다.  *note
     call(): 19d5.은 *note assert_has_calls(): 16af.와 함께 사용할 수도
     있습니다.

          >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
          >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
          >>> m()
          >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
          True

 -- 메서드: call.call_list ()

     여러 호출을 나타내는 호출 객체의 경우, *note call_list(): 40ef.는 마
     지막 호출뿐만 아니라 모든 중간 호출의 목록을 반환합니다.

‘call_list’는 “연쇄 호출(chained calls)”에 대한 어서션을 만드는 데 특히
유용합니다.  연쇄 호출은 한 줄의 코드에 있는 여러 번의 호출입니다.  이로
인해 모의 객체의 *note mock_calls: 40b8.에 여러 항목이 생성됩니다.  호출
시퀀스를 수동으로 구성하는 것은 지루할 수 있습니다.

*note call_list(): 40ef.는 같은 연쇄 호출에서 호출 시퀀스를 구성 할 수 있
습니다.:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     >>> kall.call_list()
     [call(1),
      call().method(arg='foo'),
      call().method().other('bar'),
      call().method().other()(2.0)]
     >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
     True
‘call’ 객체는 구성 방식에 따라 (위치 인자, 키워드 인자)나 (이름, 위치 인
자, 키워드 인자)의 튜플입니다.  이것들을 직접 만들 때 특별히 흥미롭지는
않지만, *note Mock.call_args: 1986, *note Mock.call_args_list: 40c0. 및
*note Mock.mock_calls: 40b8. 어트리뷰트에 있는 ‘call’ 객체는 포함된 개별
인자를 얻기 위해 검사될 수 있습니다.

*note Mock.call_args: 1986.와 *note Mock.call_args_list: 40c0.에 있는
‘call’ 객체는 (위치 인자, 키워드 인자)의 2-튜플이지만, *note
Mock.mock_calls: 40b8.에 있는 ‘call’ 객체는, 여러분이 직접 생성하는 객체
와 함께, (이름, 위치 인자, 키워드 인자)의 3-튜플입니다.

이들의 “튜플성(tupleness)”을 사용하여 더 복잡한 검사와 어서션을 위해 개
별 인자를 가져올 수 있습니다.  위치 인자는 튜플(위치 인자가 없으면 비어
있는 튜플)이고 키워드 인자는 딕셔너리입니다:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
     >>> kall = m.call_args
     >>> kall.args
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> kall.kwargs
     {'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'}
     >>> kall.args is kall[0]
     True
     >>> kall.kwargs is kall[1]
     True

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
     >>> name, args, kwargs = kall
     >>> name
     'foo'
     >>> args
     (4, 5, 6)
     >>> kwargs
     {'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'}
     >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
     True


File: python.info,  Node: create_autospec,  Next: ANY,  Prev: call,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.25 create_autospec
.........................

 -- 함수: unittest.mock.create_autospec (spec, spec_set=False,
          instance=False, **kwargs)

     다른 객체를 사양으로 사용하여 모의 객체를 만듭니다.  모의 객체 어트
     리뷰트는 'spec' 객체의 해당 어트리뷰트를 사양으로 사용합니다.

     모킹되는 함수나 메서드는 올바른 서명으로 호출되도록 인자를 점검합니
     다.

     'spec_set'이 ‘True’이면 사양 객체에 존재하지 않는 어트리뷰트를 설정
     하려는 시도는 *note AttributeError: 346.를 발생시킵니다.

     클래스가 사양으로 사용되면 모의 객체의 반환 값(클래스의 인스턴스)은
     같은 사양을 갖습니다.  ‘instance=True’를 전달하여 클래스를 인스턴스
     객체의 사양으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  반환된 모의 객체는 모의 객체의
     인스턴스가 콜러블일 때만 콜러블입니다.

     *note create_autospec(): 160f.은 또한 만들어진 모의 객체의 생성자에
     전달되는 임의의 키워드 인자를 취합니다.

*note create_autospec(): 160f.과 *note patch(): e88.에 대한 'autospec' 인
자로 자동 사양을 사용하는 방법에 대한 예는 *note 자동 사양: 40af.을 참조
하십시오.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 대상이 비동기 함수이면 *note create_autospec():
160f.은 이제 *note AsyncMock: a48.을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ANY,  Next: FILTER_DIR,  Prev: create_autospec,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.26 ANY
.............

 -- 데이터: unittest.mock.ANY

때로는 모의 객체 호출에서 인자의 '일부'에 대한 어서션을 만들 필요가 있지
만, 일부 인자에는 신경 쓰지 않거나 *note call_args: 1986.에서 개별적으로
꺼내어 더 복잡한 어서션을 만들고 싶을 수도 있습니다.

특정 인자를 무시하려면 '모든 것'과 같다고 비교되는 객체를 전달할 수 있습
니다.  *note assert_called_with(): 1a28.와 *note
assert_called_once_with(): 40b6.에 대한 호출은 전달된 내용과 관계없이 성
공합니다.

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock('foo', bar=object())
     >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)

*note ANY: 19d3.는 *note mock_calls: 40b8.와 같은 호출 리스트와 비교할 때
도 사용할 수 있습니다.:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1)
     >>> m(1, 2)
     >>> m(object())
     >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
     True

*note ANY: 19d3. is not limited to comparisons with call objects and so
can also be used in test assertions:

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])


File: python.info,  Node: FILTER_DIR,  Next: mock_open,  Prev: ANY,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.27 FILTER_DIR
....................

 -- 데이터: unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR

*note FILTER_DIR: 40bc.은 모의 객체가 *note dir(): 62c.에 응답하는 방식
을 제어하는 모듈 수준 변수입니다.  기본값은 ‘True’이며, 아래 설명된 필터
링을 사용하여 유용한 멤버만 표시합니다.  이 필터링이 마음에 들지 않거나
진단 목적으로 필터를 꺼야 하면, ‘mock.FILTER_DIR = False’를 설정하십시오
.

필터링을 켜면, ‘dir(some_mock)’는 유용한 어트리뷰트만 표시하고 일반적으
로 표시되지 않는 동적으로 만들어진 어트리뷰트를 포함합니다.  'spec'(또는
물론 'autospec')으로 모의 객체를 만들었으면, 아직 액세스하지 않았다 할지
라도 원본의 모든 어트리뷰트가 표시됩니다:

     >>> dir(Mock())
     ['assert_any_call',
      'assert_called',
      'assert_called_once',
      'assert_called_once_with',
      'assert_called_with',
      'assert_has_calls',
      'assert_not_called',
      'attach_mock',
      ...
     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
     ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
      'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
      'AbstractHTTPHandler',
      'BaseHandler',
      ...

*note Mock: a47.에 대해 *note dir(): 62c.을 호출한 결과에서 그다지 유용
하지 않은 (모킹되는 대상이 아닌 *note Mock: a47. 전용) 밑줄과 이중 밑줄
접두어 어트리뷰트가 필터링 되었습니다.  이 동작이 마음에 들지 않으면 모
듈 수준 스위치 *note FILTER_DIR: 40bc.를 설정하여 끌 수 있습니다.:

     >>> from unittest import mock
     >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
     >>> dir(mock.Mock())
     ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
      '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
      '__call__',
      '__class__',
      ...

또는 ‘vars(my_mock)’(인스턴스 멤버)과 ‘dir(type(my_mock))’(형 멤버)을 사
용하여 *note FILTER_DIR: 40bc.에 관계없이 필터링을 무시할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: mock_open,  Next: 자동 사양,  Prev: FILTER_DIR,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.28 mock_open
...................

 -- 함수: unittest.mock.mock_open (mock=None, read_data=None)

     *note open(): 515.의 사용을 대체하기 위한 모의 객체를 만드는 도우미
     함수.  직접 호출되거나 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용되는 *note open():
     515.에 대해 작동합니다.

     'mock' 인자는 구성할 모의 객체입니다.  ‘None’(기본값)이면 표준 파일
     핸들에서 사용 가능한 메서드나 어트리뷰트로 API가 제한된 *note
     MagicMock: e87.이 만들어집니다.

     'read_data'는 파일 핸들의 *note read(): e17, *note readline():
     1319. 및 *note readlines(): 233b. 메서드가 반환할 문자열입니다.  이
     러한 메서드를 호출하면 'read_data'에서 데이터가 고갈될 때까지 데이
     터를 가져옵니다.  이러한 메서드의 모의 객체는 매우 단순합니다:
     'mock'이 호출될 때마다 'read_data'는 처음으로 되감깁니다.  테스트 되
     는 코드에 공급하는 데이터를 더 세밀하게 제어하려면 이 모의 객체를 스
     스로 사용자 정의해야 합니다.  이것으로 불충분하면, PyPI(1)의 메모리
     내 파일 시스템 패키지 중 하나가 테스트를 위한 진짜 같은 파일 시스템
     을 제공할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note readline(): 1319.과 *note readlines():
     233b. 지원이 추가되었습니다.  *note read(): e17.의 모의 객체는 호출
     마다 'read_data'를 반환하는 대신 소비하도록 변경되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'read_data'는 이제 'mock'을 호출할 때마다 재설정
     됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이터레이션(가령 for 루프)에서 'read_data'를 올바
     르게 소비하도록 구현에 *note __iter__(): 1cc9.를 추가했습니다.

*note open(): 515.을 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용하는 것은 파일 핸들이 올바르
게 닫히도록 보장하는 좋은 방법이고 점차 일반화되고 있습니다:

     with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
         f.write('something')

문제는 *note open(): 515.에 대한 호출을 모킹하더라도 컨텍스트 관리자로 사
용되는 것은 '반환된 객체'라는 것입니다 (그리고 *note __enter__(): 5c2.와
*note __exit__(): 12f0.가 호출됩니다).

*note MagicMock: e87.으로 컨텍스트 관리자를 모킹하는 것은 도우미 함수가
유용할 만큼 충분히 일반적입니다.

     >>> m = mock_open()
     >>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
     ...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
     ...         h.write('some stuff')
     ...
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call('foo', 'w'),
      call().__enter__(),
      call().write('some stuff'),
      call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
     >>> handle = m()
     >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')

그리고 파일을 읽기 위해서는:

     >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
     ...     with open('foo') as h:
     ...         result = h.read()
     ...
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> assert result == 'bibble'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: 자동 사양,  Next: 실링 모의 객체 봉인하기,  Prev: mock_open,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.29 자동 사양
...................

자동 사양은 기존의 ‘spec’ 기능을 기반으로 합니다.  모의 객체 api를 원본
객체(사양)의 api로 제한하지만, 재귀적(게으르게(lazily) 구현되었습니다)이
라서 모의 객체의 어트리뷰트는 사양의 어트리뷰트와 같은 api만 갖습니다.  또
한 모킹된 함수 / 메서드는 원본과 같은 호출 서명을 가지므로 잘못 호출되면
*note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

자동 사양이 작동하는 방식을 설명하기 전에, 이것이 필요한 이유는 이렇습니
다.

*note Mock: a47.은 매우 강력하고 유연한 객체이지만, 모킹에 일반적으로 존
재하는 결함을 지니고 있습니다.  멤버 이름 등을 변경하는 등 일부 코드를 리
팩토링하면, 여전히 '예전 api'를 사용하는 코드에 대한 테스트는 실제 객체
대신 모의 객체를 사용하면 모두 통과합니다.  이것은 코드가 손상되어도 테
스트를 모두 통과 할 수 있다는 뜻입니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word assert
would silently pass when they should raise an error.  You can still
achieve this behavior by passing ‘unsafe=True’ to Mock.

이것이 단위 테스트뿐만 아니라 통합 테스트가 필요한 또 다른 이유입니다.  모
든 것을 분리해서 테스트하는 것은 괜찮고 멋지지만, 단위들이 어떻게 “서로
연결되어” 있는지 테스트하지 않으면 테스트가 발견할 수도 있을 버그에 대한
여지가 여전히 많습니다.

*note unittest.mock: 107.은 이미 이에 도움이 되는 기능인 사양
(speccing)을 제공합니다.  모의 객체에 클래스나 인스턴스를 ‘spec’으로 사
용하면, 실제 클래스에 존재하는 모의 객체 어트리뷰트에만 액세스 할 수 있
습니다:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
     >>> mock.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'

사양은 모의 객체 자체에만 적용되므로, 모의 객체의 메서드와 관계된 문제는
여전히 있습니다:

     >>> mock.header_items()
     <mock.Mock object at 0x...>
     >>> mock.header_items.assret_called_with()  # Intentional typo!

자동 사양은 이 문제를 해결합니다.  ‘autospec=True’를 *note patch(): e88.
/ *note patch.object(): 15a0.로 전달하거나 *note create_autospec():
160f. 함수를 사용하여 사양이 있는 모의 객체를 만들 수 있습니다.
‘autospec=True’ 인자를 *note patch(): e88.에 사용하면 대체 중인 객체가 사
양 객체로 사용됩니다.  사양화(speccing)는 “게으르게(lazily)” 수행되므로
(모의 객체의 어트리뷰트에 액세스할 때 사양이 만들어집니다) 성능이 크게 저
하되지 않고도 매우 복잡하거나 깊이 중첩된 객체(가령 모듈을 임포트 하는 모
듈을 임포트 하는 모듈)와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.

사용 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
     >>> mock_request = patcher.start()
     >>> request is mock_request
     True
     >>> mock_request.Request
     <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>

‘request.Request’에 spec이 있음을 알 수 있습니다.  ‘request.Request’는 생
성자에서 두 개의 인자를 취합니다 (하나는 'self'입니다).  잘못 호출하면 이
렇게 됩니다:

     >>> req = request.Request()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

사양은 인스턴스 화 된 클래스(즉, 사양화된 모의 객체의 반환 값)에도 적용
됩니다:

     >>> req = request.Request('foo')
     >>> req
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

‘Request’ 객체는 콜러블이 아니므로, 모킹된 ‘request.Request’의 인스턴스
화의 반환 값은 콜러블이 아닌 모의 객체입니다.  사양이 적용되면 어서션에
오타가 있을 때 올바른 에러를 발생시킵니다:

     >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
     <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
     >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
     >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')

많은 경우 단지 기존 *note patch(): e88. 호출에 ‘autospec=True’를 추가하
면 오타와 api 변경으로 인한 버그로부터 보호할 수 있습니다.

*note patch(): e88.를 통해 'autospec'을 사용하는 것뿐만 아니라 자동 사양
모의 객체를 직접 만들기 위한 *note create_autospec(): 160f.도 있습니다:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
     >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

그러나 경고와 제한이 없는 것은 아니기 때문에 기본 동작이 아닙니다.  사양
객체에서 사용 가능한 어트리뷰트를 알기 위해 autospec은 사양을 검사(어트
리뷰트를 액세스합니다)해야 합니다.  모의 객체 어트리뷰트를 탐색할 때 원
본 객체의 대응하는 탐색이 수면 아래에서 발생합니다.  사양 객체 중 어느 하
나가 코드 실행을 트리거 할 수 있는 프로퍼티나 디스크립터를 갖는 경우 자
동 사양을 사용하지 못할 수 있습니다.  반면에, 내부 검사가 안전하도록 객
체를 설계하는 것이 훨씬 좋습니다 (1).

더 심각한 문제는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트가 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드에서
만들어지고 클래스에 전혀 존재하지 않는 것이 일반적이라는 것입니다.
'autospec'은 동적으로 만들어진 어트리뷰트를 알 수 없으며 api를 가시적 어
트리뷰트로 제한합니다.

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

이 문제를 해결하는 방법에는 몇 가지가 있습니다.  가장 쉬운, 하지만 가장
덜 성가시다고 할 수는 없는, 방법은 단순히 생성 후에 모의 객체에 필요한 어
트리뷰트를 설정하는 것입니다.  'autospec'은 사양에 존재하지 않는 어트리
뷰트를 꺼내는 것을 허락하지 않기 때문에 그것을 설정하는 것을 막지는 않습
니다:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...

존재하지 않는 어트리뷰트를 설정하지 '못하게 하는' 'spec'과 'autospec'의
더 적극적인 버전이 있습니다.  이것은 코드가 '오직' 유효한 어트리뷰트만 설
정하도록 보장하려는 경우 유용하지만, 명백히 이 특정 시나리오를 막습니다:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

아마도 문제를 해결하는 가장 좋은 방법은 *note __init__(): 6aa.에서 초기
화되는 인스턴스 멤버의 기본값으로 클래스 어트리뷰트를 추가하는 것입니다.
‘__init__()’에서 기본 어트리뷰트만 설정하고 있다면 클래스 어트리뷰트(물
론 인스턴스 간에 공유됩니다)를 통해 제공하는 것이 더 빠르기도 합니다.  예
를 들어

     class Something:
         a = 33

이것은 또 다른 문제를 일으킵니다.  나중에 다른 형의 객체가 될 멤버에 대
해 기본값 ‘None’을 제공하는 것이 일반적입니다.  '아무런' 어트리뷰트나 메
서드에도 액세스할 수 없도록 하므로 ‘None’은 사양으로 쓸모가 없습니다.
‘None’은 '결코' 스펙으로 유용하지 않고, 일반적으로 다른 형의 멤버를 나타
낼 것이기 때문에, autospec은 ‘None’으로 설정된 멤버의 사양을 사용하지 않
습니다.  이것들은 평범한 모의 객체일 것입니다 (아마도 - MagicMock):

     >>> class Something:
     ...     member = None
     ...
     >>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
     >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>

프로덕션 클래스를 수정하여 기본값을 추가하는 것이 마음에 들지 않으면 더
많은 선택지가 있습니다.  이 중 하나는 단순히 클래스가 아닌 인스턴스를 사
양으로 사용하는 것입니다.  다른 하나는 프로덕션 클래스의 서브 클래스를 만
들고 프로덕션 클래스에 영향을 주지 않으면서 기본값을 서브 클래스에 추가
하는 것입니다.  이 두 가지 모두 사양으로 대체 객체를 사용해야 합니다.  고
맙게도 *note patch(): e88.는 이것을 지원합니다 - 단순히 대체 객체를
'autospec' 인자로 전달할 수 있습니다:

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
     ...   a = 33
     ...
     >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
     >>> mock = p.start()
     >>> mock.a
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이것은 클래스나 이미 인스턴스 화 된 객체에만 적용됩니다.  모킹된
클래스를 호출하여 모의 객체 인스턴스를 만드는 것은 실제 인스턴스를 만들
지 '않습니다'.  (*note dir(): 62c. 호출과 함께) 어트리뷰트 조회만 수행됩
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 실링 모의 객체 봉인하기,  Prev: 자동 사양,  Up: 도우미

5.26.6.30 실링 모의 객체 봉인하기
.................................

 -- 함수: unittest.mock.seal (mock)

     Seal은 봉인되는 모의 객체나 이것의 재귀적으로 이미 모의 객체인 어트
     리뷰트의 어트리뷰트를 액세스할 때 자동 모의 객체 생성을 비활성화합
     니다.

     이름이나 사양을 가진 모의 객체 인스턴스가 어트리뷰트에 대입되면 봉
     인 체인에서 고려되지 않습니다.  이것은 seal이 모의 객체의 일부를 고
     정하는 것을 방지할 수 있게 합니다.

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
          >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
          >>> seal(mock)
          >>> mock.new_attribute  # AttributeError를 발생시킵니다.
          >>> mock.submock.attribute2  # AttributeError를 발생시킵니다.
          >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: 도우미,  Up: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리

5.26.6.31 Order of precedence of ‘side_effect’, ‘return_value’ and 'wraps'
..........................................................................

The order of their precedence is:

  1. *note side_effect: 40ac.

  2. *note return_value: 40b4.

  3. 'wraps'

If all three are set, mock will return the value from *note side_effect:
40ac, ignoring *note return_value: 40b4. and the wrapped object
altogether.  If any two are set, the one with the higher precedence will
return the value.  Regardless of the order of which was set first, the
order of precedence remains unchanged.

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> class Order:
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def get_value():
     ...         return "third"
     ...
     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'

As ‘None’ is the default value of *note side_effect: 40ac, if you
reassign its value back to ‘None’, the order of precedence will be
checked between *note return_value: 40b4. and the wrapped object,
ignoring *note side_effect: 40ac.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

If the value being returned by *note side_effect: 40ac. is *note
DEFAULT: 40b3, it is ignored and the order of precedence moves to the
successor to obtain the value to return.

     >>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT]
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

When *note Mock: a47. wraps an object, the default value of *note
return_value: 40b4. will be *note DEFAULT: 40b3.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT

The order of precedence will ignore this value and it will move to the
last successor which is the wrapped object.

As the real call is being made to the wrapped object, creating an
instance of this mock will return the real instance of the class.  The
positional arguments, if any, required by the wrapped object must be
passed.

     >>> order_mock_instance = order_mock()
     >>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order)
     True
     >>> order_mock_instance.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

But if you assign ‘None’ to it, this will not be ignored as it is an
explicit assignment.  So, the order of precedence will not move to the
wrapped object.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value() is None
     True

Even if you set all three at once when initializing the mock, the order
of precedence remains the same:

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order,
     ...                   **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"],
     ...                      "get_value.return_value": "second"}
     ...                   )
     ...
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

If *note side_effect: 40ac. is exhausted, the order of precedence will
not cause a value to be obtained from the successors.  Instead,
‘StopIteration’ exception is raised.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value",
     ...                                     "another side effect value"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first side effect value'
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'another side effect value'

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     StopIteration


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — 시작하기,  Next: test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지,  Prev: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.7 ‘unittest.mock’ — 시작하기
---------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* 모의 객체 사용하기::
* 패치 데코레이터::
* 추가 예::


File: python.info,  Node: 모의 객체 사용하기,  Next: 패치 데코레이터,  Up: unittest mock — 시작하기

5.26.7.1 모의 객체 사용하기
...........................

* Menu:

* 메서드를 패치하는 모의 객체::
* 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체::
* 클래스 모킹하기::
* 모의 객체 이름 붙이기::
* 모든 호출 추적하기::
* 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기::
* 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기::
* 부작용 함수와 이터러블::
* 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기::
* 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기::
* 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기::
* Using side_effect to return per file content::


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드를 패치하는 모의 객체,  Next: 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.2 메서드를 패치하는 모의 객체
....................................

*note Mock: a47. 객체의 일반적인 용도는 다음과 같습니다:

   * 메서드 패치하기

   * 객체에 대한 메서드 호출 기록하기

객체의 메서드를 대체하여 시스템의 다른 부분에서 올바른 인자로 호출되었는
지 확인할 수 있습니다:

     >>> real = SomeClass()
     >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
     >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>

일단 모의 객체가 사용되면 (이 예제에서는 ‘real.method’) 사용 방법에 대한
어서션을 만들 수 있도록 하는 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 제공합니다.

     참고: 이 예의 대부분에서 *note Mock: a47.과 *note MagicMock: e87. 클
     래스는 교환할 수 있습니다.  ‘MagicMock’이 더 유능한 클래스이기 때문
     에 기본 사용하기에 적합합니다.

일단 모의 객체가 호출되면 그것의 *note called: 40be. 어트리뷰트가
‘True’로 설정됩니다.  더 중요하게 *note assert_called_with(): 1a28.나
*note assert_called_once_with(): 40b6. 메서드를 사용하여 올바른 인자로 호
출되었는지 확인할 수 있습니다.

이 예제는 ‘ProductionClass().method’를 호출하면 ‘something’ 메서드가 호
출되는지 테스트합니다:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
     ...     def something(self, a, b, c):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.something = MagicMock()
     >>> real.method()
     >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)


File: python.info,  Node: 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체,  Next: 클래스 모킹하기,  Prev: 메서드를 패치하는 모의 객체,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.3 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체
............................................

마지막 예제에서 우리는 객체에 메서드를 직접 패치하여 올바르게 호출되었는
지 확인했습니다.  또 다른 일반적인 사용 사례는 객체를 메서드(또는 테스트
중인 시스템의 일부)에 전달한 다음 올바른 방식으로 사용되는지 확인하는 것
입니다.

아래의 간단한 ‘ProductionClass’에는 ‘closer’ 메서드가 있습니다.  객체로
호출되면 그것의 ‘close’를 호출합니다.

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def closer(self, something):
     ...         something.close()
     ...

따라서 테스트하려면 ‘close’ 메서드를 가진 객체를 전달하고 올바르게 호출
되었는지 확인해야 합니다.

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> real.closer(mock)
     >>> mock.close.assert_called_with()

모의 객체에 ‘close’ 메서드를 제공하기 위해 어떤 작업도 수행할 필요가 없
습니다.  close에 액세스하면 만들어집니다.  따라서, ‘close’가 아직 호출되
지 않았다면 테스트에서 액세스할 때 만들어지지만, *note
assert_called_with(): 1a28.는 실패 예외를 발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 모킹하기,  Next: 모의 객체 이름 붙이기,  Prev: 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.4 클래스 모킹하기
........................

일반적인 사용 사례는 테스트 중인 코드가 인스턴스 화하는 클래스를 모킹하
는 것입니다.  클래스를 패치하면, 해당 클래스가 모의 객체로 바뀝니다.  인
스턴스는 '클래스를 호출해서' 만들어집니다.  이는 모킹된 클래스의 반환 값
을 확인하여 “모의 인스턴스”에 액세스한다는 것을 뜻합니다.

아래 예제에는 ‘Foo’를 인스턴스 화하고 그것의 메서드를 호출하는
‘some_function’ 함수가 있습니다.  *note patch(): e88.에 대한 호출은 클래
스 ‘Foo’를 모의 객체로 대체합니다.  ‘Foo’ 인스턴스는 모의 객체를 호출한
결과라서, 모의 객체 *note return_value: 40b4.를 수정하여 구성됩니다.

     >>> def some_function():
     ...     instance = module.Foo()
     ...     return instance.method()
     ...
     >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
     ...     instance = mock.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
     ...     result = some_function()
     ...     assert result == 'the result'


File: python.info,  Node: 모의 객체 이름 붙이기,  Next: 모든 호출 추적하기,  Prev: 클래스 모킹하기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.5 모의 객체 이름 붙이기
..............................

모의 객체에 이름을 지정하는 것이 유용할 수 있습니다.  이름은 모의 객체의
repr에 표시되며 모의 객체가 테스트 실패 메시지에 나타날 때 유용할 수 있
습니다.  이 이름은 모의 객체의 어트리뷰트나 메서드에도 전파됩니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
     >>> mock
     <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
     >>> mock.method
     <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 호출 추적하기,  Next: 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기,  Prev: 모의 객체 이름 붙이기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.6 모든 호출 추적하기
...........................

메서드에 대한 단일 호출 이상을 추적하려는 경우가 종종 있습니다.  *note
mock_calls: 40b8. 어트리뷰트는 모의 객체의 자식 어트리뷰트에 대한 모든 호
출을 기록합니다 - 그리고 그들의 자식에 대해서도 마찬가지입니다.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.method()
     <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
     <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]

‘mock_calls’에 대한 어서션을 만들고 예기치 않은 메서드가 호출되면, 어서
션이 실패합니다.  이 기능은 예상한 호출이 이루어졌음을 어서트 할 뿐만 아
니라, 추가 호출 없이 올바른 순서로 호출되었는지 확인하기 때문에 유용합니
다:

*note call: 19d5. 객체를 사용하여 ‘mock_calls’와 비교할 리스트를 구성합
니다:

     >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

그러나, 모의 객체를 반환하는 호출에 대한 매개 변수는 기록되지 않아서, 조
상을 만드는 데 사용되는 매개 변수가 중요한 중첩된 호출을 추적할 수 없습
니다:

     >>> m = Mock()
     >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
     <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
     >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
     True


File: python.info,  Node: 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기,  Next: 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기,  Prev: 모든 호출 추적하기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.7 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기
......................................

모의 객체에서 반환 값을 설정하는 것은 아주 간단합니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.return_value = 3
     >>> mock()
     3

물론 모의 객체의 메서드에 대해서도 마찬가지입니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.method.return_value = 3
     >>> mock.method()
     3

생성자에서 반환 값을 설정할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
     >>> mock()
     3

모의 객체에 어트리뷰트 설정이 필요하면, 그냥 하면 됩니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.x = 3
     >>> mock.x
     3

때로는 예를 들어 ‘mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")’와 같은 더
복잡한 상황을 모킹하고 싶을 수도 있습니다.  이 호출이 리스트를 반환하도
록 하려면, 중첩 호출의 결과를 구성해야 합니다.

*note call: 19d5.을 사용하여 다음과 같이 “연쇄 호출(chained call)”로 일
련의 호출 집합을 구성할 수 있습니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
     >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
     >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
     ['foo']
     >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

‘.call_list()’ 호출이 호출 객체를 연쇄 호출을 나타내는 호출 리스트로 변
환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기,  Next: 부작용 함수와 이터러블,  Prev: 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.8 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기
....................................

유용한 어트리뷰트는 *note side_effect: 40ac.입니다.  이것을 예외 클래스
나 인스턴스로 설정하면 모의 객체가 호출될 때 예외가 발생합니다.

     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     Exception: Boom!


File: python.info,  Node: 부작용 함수와 이터러블,  Next: 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기,  Prev: 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.9 부작용 함수와 이터러블
...............................

‘side_effect’는 함수나 이터러블로 설정할 수도 있습니다.  ‘side_effect’의
이터러블로서의 사용 사례는 모의 객체가 여러 번 호출되고, 각 호출이 다른
값을 반환하기를 원하는 곳입니다.  ‘side_effect’를 이터러블로 설정하면 모
의 객체에 대한 모든 호출은 이터러블에서 다음 값을 반환합니다:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
     >>> mock()
     4
     >>> mock()
     5
     >>> mock()
     6

모의 객체 호출에 전달되는 것에 따라 반환 값을 동적으로 변경하는 것과 같
은 고급 사용 사례의 경우, ‘side_effect’는 함수가 될 수 있습니다.  함수는
모의 객 체와 같은 인자로 호출됩니다.  함수가 반환하는 것을 호출이 반환합
니다:

     >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
     >>> def side_effect(*args):
     ...     return vals[args]
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> mock(1, 2)
     1
     >>> mock(2, 3)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기,  Next: 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기,  Prev: 부작용 함수와 이터러블,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.10 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기
....................................

파이썬 3.8부터, ‘AsyncMock’과 ‘MagicMock’은 ‘__aiter__’를 통해 *note
비동기 이터레이터(Asynchronous Iterators): d76.를 모킹하는 것을 지원합니
다.  ‘__aiter__’의 *note return_value: 40b4. 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 이터
레이션에 사용될 반환 값을 설정할 수 있습니다.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> async def main():
     ...     return [i async for i in mock]
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     [1, 2, 3]


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기,  Next: 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기,  Prev: 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.11 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기
.........................................

파이썬 3.8부터, ‘AsyncMock’과 ‘MagicMock’은 ‘__aenter__’와 ‘__aexit__’를
통해 *note 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자: 5f6.를 모킹하는 것을 지원합니다.  기
본적으로, ‘__aenter__’와 ‘__aexit__’는 비동기 함수를 반환하는
‘AsyncMock’ 인스턴스입니다.

     >>> class AsyncContextManager:
     ...     async def __aenter__(self):
     ...         return self
     ...     async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager())  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> async def main():
     ...     async with mock_instance as result:
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     >>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once()
     >>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()


File: python.info,  Node: 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기,  Next: Using side_effect to return per file content,  Prev: 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.12 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기
........................................

모킹을 과도하게 사용하는 한 가지 문제는 테스트를 실제 코드가 아닌 모킹의
구현에 연결한다는 것입니다.  ‘some_method’를 구현하는 클래스가 있다고 가
정해봅시다.  다른 클래스에 대한 테스트에서, ‘some_method’*도* 제공하는 이
객체의 모의 객체를 제공합니다.  나중에 첫 번째 클래스를 리팩토링하여, 더
는 ‘some_method’를 갖지 않습니다 - 그러면 이제 코드가 망가졌음에도 테스
트는 계속 통과합니다!

*note Mock: a47.은 'spec' 키워드 인자를 사용하여, 모의 객체를 위한 사양
으로 객체를 제공할 수 있도록 합니다.  사양 객체에 존재하지 않는 모의 객
체의 메서드/어트리뷰트에 액세스하면 어트리뷰트 에러가 즉시 발생합니다.  사
양의 구현을 변경하면, 해당 클래스를 사용하는 테스트는 해당 테스트에서 클
래스를 인스턴스 화하지 않고도 즉시 실패하기 시작합니다.

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> mock.old_method()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'old_method'. Did you mean: 'class_method'?

또한 사양을 사용하면 일부 매개 변수가 위치 인자나 이름 붙인 인자 중 어느
것으로 전달되는지와 관계없이 모의 객체에 대한 호출을 더 스마트하게 일치
시킬 수 있도록 합니다:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

이 더 스마트한 인치가 모의 객체에 대한 메서드 호출에서도 작동하게 하려면
, *note 자동 사양: 40af.을 사용할 수 있습니다.

임의의 어트리뷰트를 읽는 것뿐만 아니라 설정하지 못하게 하는 더 강력한 사
양 형식을 원하면 'spec' 대신 'spec_set'을 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Using side_effect to return per file content,  Prev: 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기,  Up: 모의 객체 사용하기

5.26.7.13 Using side_effect to return per file content
......................................................

*note mock_open(): 1710. is used to patch *note open(): 515. method.
*note side_effect: 40ac. can be used to return a new Mock object per
call.  This can be used to return different contents per file stored in
a dictionary:

     DEFAULT = "default"
     data_dict = {"file1": "data1",
                  "file2": "data2"}

     def open_side_effect(name):
         return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))()

     with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect):
         with open("file1") as file1:
             assert file1.read() == "data1"

         with open("file2") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "data2"

         with open("file3") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "default"


File: python.info,  Node: 패치 데코레이터,  Next: 추가 예,  Prev: 모의 객체 사용하기,  Up: unittest mock — 시작하기

5.26.7.14 패치 데코레이터
.........................

     참고: *note patch(): e88.를 사용할 때는 그것이 조회되는 이름 공간에
     서 객체를 패치하는 것이 중요합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 간단하지만,
     빠른 안내를 위해 *note 패치할 곳: 40ad.을 읽으십시오.

테스트에서 흔히 필요한 것은 클래스 어트리뷰트나 모듈 어트리뷰트를 패치하
는 것입니다, 예를 들어 내장(builtin)을 패치하거나 모듈에 있는 인스턴스 화
되는 클래스를 패치하는 것.  모듈과 클래스는 사실상 전역이라서, 테스트 후
에 패치를 실행 취소해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 패치가 다른 테스트로 지속
하여, 진단하기 어려운 문제를 일으킵니다.

mock은 세 가지 편리한 데코레이터를 제공합니다: *note patch(): e88, *note
patch.object(): 15a0. 및 *note patch.dict(): 19fa.  ‘patch’는 패치 할 어
트리뷰트를 지정하기 위해 ‘package.module.Class.attribute’ 형식의 단일 문
자열을 취합니다.  또한 선택적으로 어트리뷰트(또는 클래스나 무엇이건)를 바
꾸려는 값을 취합니다.  ‘patch.object’는 객체와 패치하려는 어트리뷰트의 이
름 및 선택적으로 패치 할 값을 취합니다.

‘patch.object’:

     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

     >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import attribute
     ...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

모듈(*note builtins: 12.를 포함하는)을 패치하려면 *note patch.object():
15a0. 대신 *note patch(): e88.를 사용하십시오:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
     >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
     ...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
     ...
     >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
     >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"

필요하면 ‘package.module’ 형식으로 모듈 이름을 ‘점으로 표시’할 수 있습니
다:

     >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import ClassName
     ...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

좋은 패턴은 실제로 테스트 메서드 자체를 데코레이트 하는 것입니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
     ...
     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

Mock으로 패치하려면, 하나의 인자만으로 *note patch(): e88.를 사용할 수 있
습니다 (또는 두 개의 인자로 *note patch.object(): 15a0.).  모의 객체가 여
러분을 위해 만들어지고 테스트 함수 / 메서드로 전달됩니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
     ...         SomeClass.static_method()
     ...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

이 패턴을 사용하여 여러 패치 데코레이터를 쌓을 수 있습니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
     ...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

패치 데코레이터를 중첩할 때 모의 객체는 적용한 순서와 같은 순서(데코레이
터가 적용되는 일반적인 '파이썬' 순서)로 데코레이트 된 함수로 전달됩니다.
이것은 밑에서 위로 올라가는 순서를 뜻해서, 위의 예에서
‘test_module.ClassName2’의 모의 객체가 먼저 전달됩니다.

스코프 도중 딕셔너리에 값을 설정하고 테스트가 끝날 때 딕셔너리를 원래 상
태로 복원하기 위한 *note patch.dict(): 19fa.도 있습니다:

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ 및 ‘patch.dict’는 모두 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할
수 있습니다.

*note patch(): e88.를 사용하여 모의 객체를 만드는 곳에서, with 문의 “as”
형식을 사용하여 모의 객체에 대한 참조를 얻을 수 있습니다:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
     ...     mock_method.return_value = None
     ...     real = ProductionClass()
     ...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)

대안으로 ‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ 및 ‘patch.dict’는 클래스 데코레이터로 사
용될 수 있습니다.  이런 식으로 사용될 때 이름이 “test”로 시작하는 모든 메
서드에 데코레이터를 개별적으로 적용하는 것과 같습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 추가 예,  Prev: 패치 데코레이터,  Up: unittest mock — 시작하기

5.26.7.15 추가 예
.................

다음은 약간 더 고급 시나리오에 대한 몇 가지 예입니다.

* Menu:

* 연쇄 호출 모킹하기::
* 부분 모킹::
* 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기::
* 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기::
* 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기::
* 모의 객체로 여러 호출 확인하기::
* 가변 인자에 대처하기::
* 중첩 패치::
* MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기::
* Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트::
* patch.dict로 임포트를 모킹하기: patch dict로 임포트를 모킹하기.
* 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션::
* 더 복잡한 인자 일치::


File: python.info,  Node: 연쇄 호출 모킹하기,  Next: 부분 모킹,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.16 연쇄 호출 모킹하기
............................

일단 *note return_value: 40b4. 어트리뷰트를 이해하면 연쇄 호출 모킹은 모
의 객체를 사용하면 실제로 간단합니다.  모의 객체가 처음 호출되거나 호출
되기 전에 ‘return_value’를 가져오면, 새 *note Mock: a47.이 만들어집니다.

이것은 ‘return_value’ 모의 객체를 조사하여 모킹 된 객체에 대한 호출에서
반환된 객체가 어떻게 사용되었는지 확인할 수 있음을 뜻합니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
     <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)

여기서부터는 구성하고 연쇄 호출에 대한 어서션을 만드는 간단한 단계입니다
.  물론 또 다른 대안은 처음부터 더 테스트하기 쉬운 방식으로 코드를 작성
하는 것입니다…

그래서, 다음과 같은 코드가 있다고 가정합시다:

     >>> class Something:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     ...         # more code

‘BackendProvider’ 가 이미 잘 테스트 되었다고 가정하면, ‘method()’를 어떻
게 테스트해야 할까요?  특히, 코드 섹션 ‘# more code’가 response 객체를 올
바른 방식으로 사용하는지 테스트하고 싶습니다.

이 호출의 연쇄는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에서 이루어지기 때문에 ‘Something’ 인
스턴스에서 ‘backend’ 어트리뷰트를 몽키 패치 할 수 있습니다.  이 특별한 경
우에는 ‘start_call’에 대한 최종 호출의 반환 값에만 관심이 있어서 해야 할
구성이 많지 않습니다.  반환하는 객체가 ‘파일류(file-like)’라고 가정하고,
response 객체가 ‘spec’으로 내장 *note open(): 515.을 사용하도록 할 것입
니다.

이를 위해 모의 백 엔드로 모의 인스턴스를 만들고 모의 response 객체를 만
듭니다.  응답을 최종 ‘start_call’의 반환 값으로 설정하기 위해 다음을 수
행할 수 있습니다:

     mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response

*note configure_mock(): 40b5. 메서드를 사용하여 약간 더 좋은 방법으로 반
환 값을 직접 설정할 수 있습니다:

     >>> something = Something()
     >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
     >>> mock_backend = Mock()
     >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
     >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)

이것들로 우리는 “모의 백 엔드”를 몽키 패치하고 실제 호출을 할 수 있습니
다:

     >>> something.backend = mock_backend
     >>> something.method()

*note mock_calls: 40b8.를 사용하면 단일 어서션으로 연쇄 호출을 확인할 수
있습니다.  연쇄 호출은 한 줄의 코드에 있는 여러 번의 호출이라서,
‘mock_calls’에는 여러 항목이 있게 됩니다.  *note call.call_list():
40ef.를 사용하여 이 호출의 리스트를 만들 수 있습니다:

     >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     >>> call_list = chained.call_list()
     >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list


File: python.info,  Node: 부분 모킹,  Next: 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기,  Prev: 연쇄 호출 모킹하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.17 부분 모킹
...................

어떤 테스트에서 *note datetime.date.today(): 1492.에 대한 호출이 알려진
날짜를 반환하도록 모킹하려고 했지만, 테스트 중인 코드가 새로운 date 객체
를 만들지 못하도록 막고 싶지 않았습니다.  불행히도 *note datetime.date:
1cd.는 C로 작성되었고, 그래서 정적 *note datetime.date.today(): 1492. 메
서드를 그저 몽키 패치 할 수 없었습니다.

date 클래스를 모의 객체로 효과적으로 래핑하지만, 생성자 호출은 실제 클래
스로 전달하는 (그리고 진짜 인스턴스를 반환하는) 간단한 방법을 찾았습니다
.

*note patch 데코레이터: e88.는 여기서 테스트 중인 모듈에서 ‘date’ 클래스
를 모킹하는 데 사용됩니다.  그런 다음 모의 date 클래스의 *note
side_effect: 40ac. 어트리뷰트는 실제 날짜를 반환하는 람다 함수로 설정됩
니다.  모의 date 클래스가 호출되면 진짜 date가 생성되어 ‘side_effect’에
의해 반환됩니다.

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
     ...     mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw)
     ...
     ...     assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8)

*note datetime.date: 1cd.를 전역적으로 패치하지 않았음에 유의하십시오.
‘date’를 '사용하는' 모듈에서 패치했습니다.  *note 패치할 곳: 40ad.을 참
조하십시오.

‘date.today()’가 호출되면 알려진 날짜가 반환되지만, ‘date(...)’ 생성자에
대한 호출은 여전히 일반 date를 반환합니다.  이렇게 하지 않으면 테스트 중
인 코드와 정확히 같은 알고리즘을 사용하여 예상 결과를 계산해야 할 수 있
습니다, 이는 고전적인 테스트 안티 패턴입니다.

date 생성자에 대한 호출은 ‘mock_date’ 어트리뷰트(‘call_count’와 그 친구
들)에 기록되며 테스트에 유용할 수 있습니다.

date나 기타 내장 클래스 모킹을 처리하는 다른 방법은 이 블로그 페이지
(1)에서 다루고 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기,  Next: 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기,  Prev: 부분 모킹,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.18 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기
....................................

파이썬 제너레이터는 *note yield: 9ca. 문을 사용하는 함수나 메서드로, 이
터레이트 할 때 일련의 값을 반환합니다 (1).

제너레이터 메서드 / 함수가 호출되면 제너레이터 객체를 반환합니다.  이터
레이트 하는 대상은 제너레이터 객체입니다.  이터레이션을 위한 프로토콜 메
서드는 *note __iter__(): 1cc9.이고, *note MagicMock: e87.을 사용하여 이
를 모킹 할 수 있습니다.

다음은 제너레이터로 구현된 “iter” 메서드를 갖는 예제 클래스입니다:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def iter(self):
     ...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
     ...             yield i
     ...
     >>> foo = Foo()
     >>> list(foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

이 클래스, 특히 “iter” 메서드를 어떻게 모킹할까요?

이터레이션(*note list: 60b. 호출로 인해 묵시적으로 이루어집니다)에서 반
환된 값을 구성하려면, ‘foo.iter()’ 호출에 의해 반환된 객체를 구성해야 합
니다.

     >>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
     >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
     >>> list(mock_foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 제너레이터 표현식과 제너레이터의 더 고급 사용
(http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html)도 있지만, 여기서는 다루지
않습니다.  제너레이터와 이것이 얼마나 강력한지에 대한 아주 좋은 소개:
Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers
(http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/).


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기,  Next: 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기,  Prev: 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.19 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기
.................................................

여러 테스트 메서드에 대해 여러 패치를 적용하려면 모든 메서드에 패치 데코
레이터를 적용하는 것이 가장 확실한 방법입니다.  이것은 불필요한 반복처럼
느낄 수 있습니다.  대신, *note patch(): e88.(이것의 모든 다양한 형태)를
클래스 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다.  이것은 클래스의 모든 테스트 메
서드에 패치를 적용합니다.  테스트 메서드는 이름이 ‘test’로 시작하는 메서
드로 식별됩니다:

     >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
     ... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def not_a_test(self):
     ...         return 'something'
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
     'something'

패치를 관리하는 다른 방법은 *note 패처 메서드; start와 stop: 40e0.을 사
용하는 것입니다.  이를 통해 패치를 ‘setUp’과 ‘tearDown’ 메서드로 옮길 수
있습니다.

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher.stop()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

이 기법을 사용하면 ‘stop’을 호출하여 패치가 “실행 취소”되도록 해야 합니
다.  setUp에서 예외가 발생하면 tearDown이 호출되지 않기 때문에, 생각보다
복잡할 수 있습니다.  *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a7e.은 이것을
더 쉽게 만듭니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()


File: python.info,  Node: 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기,  Next: 모의 객체로 여러 호출 확인하기,  Prev: 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.20 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기
.......................................

오늘 테스트를 작성하는 동안 '연결되지 않은 메서드(unbound method)'를 패
치해야 했습니다 (인스턴스가 아닌 클래스의 메서드를 패치하는 것입니다).  어
떤 객체가 이 특정 메서드를 호출했는지에 대한 어서션을 하고 싶기 때문에 첫
번째 인자로 self가 전달되는 것이 필요했습니다.  문제는 이것을 위해 모의
객체로 패치 할 수 없다는 것인데, 연결되지 않은 메서드를 모의 객체로 바꾸
면 인스턴스에서 가져올 때 연결된 메서드가 되지 않아서, self가 전달되지 않
기 때문입니다.  해결 방법은 연결되지 않은 메서드를 실제 함수로 대신 패치
하는 것입니다.  *note patch(): e88. 데코레이터는 메서드를 모의 객체로 패
치하기 너무 쉽게 만들어서 실제 함수를 만들어야 하는 것이 성가십니다.

‘autospec=True’를 패치로 전달하면 '실제' 함수 객체로 패치가 수행됩니다.
이 함수 객체는 그것이 교체하는 것과 같은 서명을 갖지만, 수면 아래에서 모
의 객체로 위임합니다.  전과 똑같은 방식으로 여전히 자동 생성된 모의 객체
를 얻습니다.  그것이 의미하는 것은, 클래스에서 연결되지 않은 메서드를 패
치하는데 사용하면 모킹 된 함수가 인스턴스에서 꺼낼 때 연결된 메서드로 바
뀐다는 것입니다.  ‘self’가 첫 번째 인자로 전달되고, 정확히 제가 원하는 것
입니다:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...   def foo(self):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
     ...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
     ...   foo = Foo()
     ...   foo.foo()
     ...
     'foo'
     >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)

‘autospec=True’를 사용하지 않으면 연결되지 않은 메서드가 대신 Mock 인스
턴스로 패치되고, ‘self’로 호출되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모의 객체로 여러 호출 확인하기,  Next: 가변 인자에 대처하기,  Prev: 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.21 모의 객체로 여러 호출 확인하기
........................................

mock에는 모의 객체가 어떻게 사용되는지에 대한 어서션을 만드는 데 유용한
API가 있습니다.

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
     >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')

모의 객체가 한 번만 호출되면 *note call_count: 40bf.가 1이라는 것도 어서
트하는 *note assert_called_once_with(): 40b6. 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니
다.

     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected 'foo_bar' to be called once. Called 2 times.
     Calls: [call('baz', spam='eggs'), call()].

‘assert_called_with’와 ‘assert_called_once_with’는 모두 '가장 최근' 호출
에 대한 어서션을 합니다.  모의 객체가 여러 번 호출될 것이고, 이 호출 '모
두'에 대해 어서션을 하고 싶다면 *note call_args_list: 40c0.를 사용할 수
있습니다:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock(4, 5, 6)
     >>> mock()
     >>> mock.call_args_list
     [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]

*note call: 19d5. 도우미를 사용하면 이러한 호출에 대한 어서션을 쉽게 할
수 있습니다.  예상 호출 리스트를 만들어서 ‘call_args_list’와 비교할 수 있
습니다.  이것은 ‘call_args_list’의 repr과 매우 유사합니다:

     >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
     >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
     True


File: python.info,  Node: 가변 인자에 대처하기,  Next: 중첩 패치,  Prev: 모의 객체로 여러 호출 확인하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.22 가변 인자에 대처하기
..............................

드물지만 여러분을 괴롭힐 수 있는 또 다른 상황은 모의 객체가 가변 인자로
호출되는 경우입니다.  ‘call_args’와 ‘call_args_list’는 인자에 대한 '참조
'를 저장합니다.  테스트 중인 코드에 의해 인자가 변경되면 모의 객체가 호
출되었을 때의 값에 대해 더는 어서션 할 수 없습니다.

다음은 문제를 보여주는 예제 코드입니다.  ‘mymodule’에 정의된 다음 함수를
상상해보십시오:

     def frob(val):
         pass

     def grob(val):
         "먼저 frob 한 다음 val을 clear 합니다"
         frob(val)
         val.clear()

‘grob’이 올바른 인자로 ‘frob’을 호출하는지 테스트하려고 할 때 어떤 일이
발생하는지 보십시오:

     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> val
     set()
     >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
     Called with: ((set(),), {})

한가지 가능성은 모의 객체가 전달한 인자를 복사하는 것일 수 있습니다.  그
러면 동일성(equality)을 위해 객체 아이덴티티에 의존하는 어서션을 수행하
면 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다.

여기에 *note side_effect: 40ac. 함수를 사용하는 한 가지 해결책이 있습니
다.  모의 객체에 ‘side_effect’ 함수를 제공하면 모의 객체와 같은 인자로
‘side_effect’가 호출됩니다.  이는 인자를 복사하여 나중에 어서션을 위해 저
장할 기회를 제공합니다.  이 예제에서는 '다른' 모의 객체를 사용하여 인자
를 저장해서 어서션을 수행하기 위해 모의 객체 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니다
.  다시 한번 도우미 함수가 이것을 설정합니다.

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
     >>> def copy_call_args(mock):
     ...     new_mock = Mock()
     ...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
     ...         return DEFAULT
     ...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
     ...     return new_mock
     ...
     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
     >>> new_mock.call_args
     call({6})

‘copy_call_args’는 호출될 모의로 호출됩니다.  어서션을 수행할 새로운 모
의 객체를 반환합니다.  ‘side_effect’ 함수는 인자의 사본을 만들고 사본으
로 ‘new_mock’을 호출합니다.

     참고: 모의 객체를 한 번만 사용하려는 경우 호출 시점에서 인자를 확인
     하는 쉬운 방법이 있습니다.  단순히 ‘side_effect’ 함수 내에서 확인할
     수 있습니다.

          >>> def side_effect(arg):
          ...     assert arg == {6}
          ...
          >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
          >>> mock({6})
          >>> mock(set())
          Traceback (most recent call last):
              ...
          AssertionError

다른 접근법은 인자를 복사(*note copy.deepcopy(): b6b.를 사용해서)하는
*note Mock: a47.이나 *note MagicMock: e87.의 서브 클래스를 만드는 것입니
다.  구현 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
     ...
     >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
     >>> arg = set()
     >>> c(arg)
     >>> arg.add(1)
     >>> c.assert_called_with(set())
     >>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: expected call not found.
     Expected: mock({1})
     Actual: mock(set())
     >>> c.foo
     <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>

‘Mock’이나 ‘MagicMock’을 서브 클래싱할 때 모든 동적으로 만들어진 어트리
뷰트와 ‘return_value’는 자동으로 서브 클래스를 사용합니다.  즉,
‘CopyingMock’의 모든 자식도 ‘CopyingMock’ 형이 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 중첩 패치,  Next: MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기,  Prev: 가변 인자에 대처하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.23 중첩 패치
...................

patch를 컨텍스트 관리자로 것이 멋지기는 하지만, 여러 패치를 수행하면 오
른쪽으로 점점 더 들여쓰기 되는 문장으로 중첩될 수 있습니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
     ...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
     ...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
     ...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

unittest ‘cleanup’ 함수와 *note 패처 메서드; start와 stop: 40e0.을 사용
하면 중첩된 들여쓰기 없이 같은 효과를 얻을 수 있습니다.  간단한 도우미 메
서드인 ‘create_patch’는 제 자리에서 패치를 설치하고 만들어진 모의 객체를
반환합니다:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def create_patch(self, name):
     ...         patcher = patch(name)
     ...         thing = patcher.start()
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         return thing
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
     ...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
     ...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
     ...
     ...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original


File: python.info,  Node: MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기,  Next: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 중첩 패치,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.24 MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기
.........................................

딕셔너리나 다른 컨테이너 객체를 모킹하여, 여전히 딕셔너리처럼 동작하면서
이에 대한 모든 액세스를 기록하고 싶을 수 있습니다.

딕셔너리처럼 동작하는 *note MagicMock: e87.을 사용하고 *note
side_effect: 40ac.가 딕셔너리 액세스를 우리의 제어하에 있는 실제 하부 딕
셔너리로 위임하게 해서 목적을 달성할 수 있습니다.

‘MagicMock’의 *note __getitem__(): 283.과 *note __setitem__(): 12bb. 메
서드가 호출될 때 (일반 딕셔너리 액세스), ‘side_effect’는 키로 호출됩니다
(그리고 ‘__setitem__’의 경우는 값도).  반환되는 것을 제어 할 수도 있습니
다.

‘MagicMock’이 사용된 후에 *note call_args_list: 40c0.와 같은 어트리뷰트
를 사용하여 딕셔너리가 어떻게 사용되었는지를 어서트할 수 있습니다:

     >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def getitem(name):
     ...      return my_dict[name]
     ...
     >>> def setitem(name, val):
     ...     my_dict[name] = val
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
     >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

     참고: ‘MagicMock’을 사용하는 대신 ‘Mock’을 사용하고 '오직' 원하는 매
     직 메서드만 제공할 수 있습니다:

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
          >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)

     '세 번째' 옵션은 ‘MagicMock’을 사용하지만, ‘dict’를 'spec' (또는
     'spec_set') 인자로 전달하여 만들어진 ‘MagicMock’이 딕셔너리 매직 메
     서드 만 갖도록 하는 것입니다:

          >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
          >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
          >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

이러한 부작용 함수가 제자리에 들어가면, ‘mock’은 일반 딕셔너리처럼 작동
하지만, 액세스를 기록합니다.  존재하지 않는 키에 액세스하려고 하면 *note
KeyError: 33d.를 발생시키기조차 합니다.

     >>> mock['a']
     1
     >>> mock['c']
     3
     >>> mock['d']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     KeyError: 'd'
     >>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
     >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
     >>> mock['b']
     'fish'
     >>> mock['d']
     'eggs'

사용된 후에 일반적인 모의 객체 메서드와 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 액세스에 대
한 어서션을 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
     [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
     >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
     [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
     >>> my_dict
     {'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}


File: python.info,  Node: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트,  Next: patch dict로 임포트를 모킹하기,  Prev: MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.25 Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트
..........................................

*note Mock: a47.을 서브 클래싱하려는 여러 가지 이유가 있습니다.  한 가지
이유는 도우미 메서드를 추가하는 것입니다.  다음은 시시한 예입니다:

     >>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def has_been_called(self):
     ...         return self.called
     ...
     >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
     >>> mymock
     <MyMock id='...'>
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock()
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     True

‘Mock’ 인스턴스의 표준 동작은 어트리뷰트와 반환 값 모의 객체가 액세스 되
는 모의 객체의 형과 같은 형이라는 것입니다.  이를 통해 ‘Mock’ 어트리뷰트
는 ‘Mock’이고 ‘MagicMock’ 어트리뷰트는 ‘MagicMock’이 됩니다 (1).  따라서
도우미 메서드를 추가하기 위해 서브 클래싱하면 이 메서드는 서브 클래스 인
스턴스의 어트리뷰트와 반환 값 모의 객체에서도 사용할 수 있습니다.

     >>> mymock.foo
     <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock.foo()
     <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     True

때때로 이것은 불편합니다.  예를 들어, 한 사용자(2)가 Twisted adaptor(3)
를 만들기 위해 Mock을 서브 클래싱했습니다.  이것을 어트리뷰트에도 적용하
면 실제로 에러가 발생합니다.

‘Mock’(이것의 모든 종류에서)은 ‘_get_child_mock’이라는 메서드를 사용하여
어트리뷰트와 반환 값을 위한 이러한 “서브 모의 객체”를 만듭니다.  이 메서
드를 재정의하여 서브 클래스가 어트리뷰트에 사용되지 않도록 할 수 있습니
다.  서명은 모의 객체 생성자에 전달되는 임의의 키워드 인자(‘**kwargs’)를
취하는 것입니다:

     >>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
     ...     def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs):
     ...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
     ...
     >>> mymock = Subclass()
     >>> mymock.foo
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이 규칙의 예외는 콜러블이 아닌 모의 객체입니다.  어트리뷰트는 콜
러블 변형을 사용하는데, 그렇지 않으면 콜러블이 아닌 모의 객체가 콜러블 메
서드를 가질 수 없기 때문입니다.

   (2) https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105

   (3) 
https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html


File: python.info,  Node: patch dict로 임포트를 모킹하기,  Next: 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션,  Prev: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.26 patch.dict로 임포트를 모킹하기
........................................

모킹이 어려울 수 있는 한 가지 상황은 함수 내부에 지역 임포트가 있는 경우
입니다.  이것들은 모킹하기가 더 어려운데, 우리가 패치 할 수 있는 모듈 이
름 공간의 객체를 사용하지 않기 때문입니다.

일반적으로 지역 임포트는 피해야 합니다.  그것들은 때때로 순환 의존성을 막
기 위해 수행되는데, '보통' 문제를 해결하는 더 좋은 방법(코드를 리팩터 하
십시오)이 있습니다.  또는 임포트를 지연시켜서 “선불 비용”을 방지하기 위
해 수행합니다.  이 또한 무조건적인 지역 임포트보다 더 나은 방법으로 해결
할 수 있습니다 (모듈을 클래스나 모듈 어트리뷰트로 저장하고 처음 사용할 때
만 임포트 합니다).

그 외에도 ‘mock’을 사용하여 임포트 결과에 영향을 주는 방법이 있습니다.  임
포트는 *note sys.modules: 1558. 딕셔너리에서 '객체'를 가져옵니다.  '객체
'를 가져온다는 것에 유의하십시오, 이것이 모듈일 필요는 없습니다.  처음으
로 모듈을 임포트 하면 ‘sys.modules’에 모듈 객체가 배치되어서, 일반적으로
무언가를 임포트 할 때 모듈을 다시 받습니다.  그러나 반드시 그런 것은 아
닙니다.

즉, *note patch.dict(): 19fa.를 사용하여 '임시로' *note sys.modules:
1558.에 모의 객체를 넣을 수 있습니다.  이 패치가 활성화되어있는 동안 모
든 임포트는 모의 객체를 가져옵니다.  패치가 완료되면 (데코레이트 된 함수
가 종료되거나, with 문 본문이 완료되거나 ‘patcher.stop()’이 호출되면) 이
전에 있던 모든 것이 안전하게 복원됩니다.

다음은 ‘fooble’ 모듈을 모킹하는 예입니다.

     >>> import sys
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    import fooble
     ...    fooble.blob()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
     >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
     >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()

보시다시피 ‘import fooble’은 성공하지만, 끝났을 때 *note sys.modules:
1558.에는 ‘fooble’이 남아 있지 않습니다.

이것은 ‘from module import name’ 형식에서도 작동합니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    from fooble import blob
     ...    blob.blip()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()

약간의 추가 작업으로 패키지 임포트를 모킹 할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
     ...    from package.module import fooble
     ...    fooble()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()


File: python.info,  Node: 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션,  Next: 더 복잡한 인자 일치,  Prev: patch dict로 임포트를 모킹하기,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.27 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션
................................................

*note Mock: a47. 클래스를 사용하면 *note method_calls: 40ba. 어트리뷰트
를 통해 모의 객체에서 메서드 호출의 '순서'를 추적할 수 있습니다.  개별 모
의 객체 간의 호출 순서를 추적할 수는 없지만, *note mock_calls: 40b8.를 사
용하여 같은 효과를 얻을 수 있습니다.

모의 객체들은 ‘mock_calls’에서 자식 모의 객체에 대한 호출을 추적하고, 모
의 객체의 임의 어트리뷰트에 액세스하면 자식 모의 객체를 만들기 때문에, 부
모 모의 객체로부터 개별 모의 객체를 만들 수 있습니다.  그러면 해당 자식
모의 객체에 대한 호출은 부모의 ‘mock_calls’에 순서대로 기록됩니다:

     >>> manager = Mock()
     >>> mock_foo = manager.foo
     >>> mock_bar = manager.bar

     >>> mock_foo.something()
     <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
     >>> mock_bar.other.thing()
     <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>

     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]

그런 다음 관리자 모의 객체의 ‘mock_calls’ 어트리뷰트와 비교하여 순서를 포
함하여 호출에 대해 어서션 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
     >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
     True

‘patch’가 모의 객체를 만들고 제자리에 배치하는 경우, *note
attach_mock(): 1616. 메서드를 사용하여 모의 객체를 관리자 모의 객체에 연
결할 수 있습니다.  연결 후 호출은 관리자의 ‘mock_calls’에 기록됩니다.

     >>> manager = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
     ...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
     ...         MockClass1().foo()
     ...         MockClass2().bar()
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.MockClass1(),
     call.MockClass1().foo(),
     call.MockClass2(),
     call.MockClass2().bar()]

많은 호출이 이루어졌지만, 특정 시퀀스에만 관심이 있다면 대안은 *note
assert_has_calls(): 16af. 메서드를 사용하는 것입니다.  이것은 호출 리스
트를 취합니다 (*note call: 19d5. 객체로 구성됩니다).  해당 호출 시퀀스가
*note mock_calls: 40b8.에 있으면 어서션이 성공합니다.

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m().foo().bar().baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
     >>> m.one().two().three()
     <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
     >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)

연쇄 호출 ‘m.one().two().three()’가 모의 객체에 대한 호출의 전부는 아니
지만, 어서션이 여전히 성공합니다.

때로는 모의 객체에 여러 번의 호출이 있을 수 있고, 그 호출들의 '일부'에 대
만 어서션에만 관심이 있을 수 있습니다.  순서에 신경 쓰지 않을 수도 있습
니다.  이 경우 ‘any_order=True’를 ‘assert_has_calls’로 전달할 수 있습니
다:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
     (...)
     >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)


File: python.info,  Node: 더 복잡한 인자 일치,  Prev: 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션,  Up: 추가 예

5.26.7.28 더 복잡한 인자 일치
.............................

*note ANY: 19d3.와 같은 기본 개념을 사용하여 모의 객체에 인자로 사용되는
객체에 대해 더 복잡한 어서션을 수행하도록 매처(matchers)를 구현할 수 있
습니다.

기본적으로 객체 아이덴티티에 기반하여 를 기준으로 같다고 비교되는 (이것
이 사용자 정의 클래스의 파이썬 기본 동작입니다) 어떤 객체가 모의 객체로
전달되기를 기대한다고 가정합시다.  *note assert_called_with(): 1a28.를 사
용하려면 정확히 같은 객체를 전달해야 합니다.  이 객체의 일부 어트리뷰트
에만 관심이 있다면 이러한 어트리뷰트를 확인하는 매처를 만들 수 있습니다.

이 예에서 ‘assert_called_with’에 대한 ‘표준’ 호출이 충분하지 않다는 것을
볼 수 있습니다:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def __init__(self, a, b):
     ...         self.a, self.b = a, b
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: expected call not found.
     Expected: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
     Actual: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)

‘Foo’ 클래스를 위한 비교 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> def compare(self, other):
     ...     if not type(self) == type(other):
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.a != other.a:
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.b != other.b:
     ...         return False
     ...     return True
     ...

그리고 동등 비교 연산에 이와 같은 비교 함수를 사용할 수 있는 매처 객체는
다음과 같습니다:

     >>> class Matcher:
     ...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
     ...         self.compare = compare
     ...         self.some_obj = some_obj
     ...     def __eq__(self, other):
     ...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
     ...

이 모든 것을 종합하면:

     >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)

‘Matcher’는 compare 함수와 비교하려는 ‘Foo’ 객체로 인스턴스 화 됩니다.
‘assert_called_with’에서는 ‘Matcher’ 동등 비교 메서드가 호출되는데, 이 메
서드는 모의 객체가 호출된 객체와 우리가 매처를 만들 때 제공한 객체를 비
교합니다.  일치하면 ‘assert_called_with’가 통과하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
AssertionError: 6a3.가 발생합니다:

     >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
     Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})

약간의 조정만으로 비교 함수가 *note AssertionError: 6a3.를 직접 발생시키
고 더 유용한 실패 메시지를 제공할 수 있습니다.

버전 1.5부터, 파이썬 테스트 라이브러리 PyHamcrest(1)는 여기에서 유용할 수
있는 유사한 기능을 동등 비교 매처의 형태로 제공합니다
(hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/

   (2) 
https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality


File: python.info,  Node: test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지,  Next: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티,  Prev: unittest mock — 시작하기,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.8 ‘test’ — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지
--------------------------------------------

     참고: *note test: e2. 패키지는 파이썬 내부 용으로만 사용됩니다.  파
     이썬의 핵심 개발자를 위해 설명됩니다.  여기에 언급된 코드는 파이썬
     릴리스 사이에 예고 없이 변경되거나 제거될 수 있어서, 파이썬의 표준
     라이브러리 외부에서 이 패키지를 사용하는 것은 권장되지 않습니다.

__________________________________________________________________

*note test: e2. 패키지에는 *note test.support: e4.와 *note
test.regrtest: e3.뿐만 아니라 파이썬에 대한 모든 회귀 테스트가 포함되어
있습니다.  *note test.support: e4.는 테스트를 향상하는 데 사용되며 *note
test.regrtest: e3.는 테스트 스위트를 구동합니다.

이름이 ‘test_’로 시작하는 *note test: e2. 패키지의 각 모듈은 특정 모듈이
나 기능에 대한 테스트 스위트입니다.  모든 새로운 테스트는 *note
unittest: 106.나 *note doctest: 3a. 모듈을 사용하여 작성해야 합니다.  일
부 오래된 테스트는 ‘sys.stdout’으로 인쇄된 출력을 비교하는 “전통적인” 테
스트 스타일을 사용하여 작성되었습니다; 이 테스트 스타일은 폐지된 것으로
간주합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note unittest: 106.

     PyUnit 회귀 테스트 작성.

모듈 *note doctest: 3a.

     독스트링에 포함된 테스트.

* Menu:

* test 패키지를 위한 단위 테스트 작성하기::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기::


File: python.info,  Node: test 패키지를 위한 단위 테스트 작성하기,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기,  Up: test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지

5.26.8.1 ‘test’ 패키지를 위한 단위 테스트 작성하기
..................................................

*note unittest: 106. 모듈을 사용하는 테스트는 몇 가지 지침을 따르는 것이
좋습니다.  하나는 테스트 모듈의 이름을 ‘test_’로 시작하고 테스트 중인 모
듈의 이름으로 끝나도록 짓는 것입니다.  테스트 모듈의 테스트 메서드는
‘test_’로 시작하고 메서드가 테스트하는 내용에 대한 설명으로 끝나야 합니
다.  이는 테스트 드라이버가 메서드를 테스트 메서드로 인식하기 위해 필요
합니다.  또한, 메서드에 대한 독스트링이 포함되어서는 안 됩니다.  주석(가
령 ‘# Tests function returns only True or False’)을 사용하여 테스트 메서
드에 대한 설명을 제공해야 합니다.  이는 독스트링이 존재하면 이것이 인쇄
되어 실행되는 테스트가 인쇄되지 않기 때문입니다.

기본 상용구가 자주 사용됩니다:

     import unittest
     from test import support

     class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):

         # setUp()과 tearDown()은 필요할 때만 사용합니다

         def setUp(self):
             ... 테스트 준비를 위해 실행할 코드 ...

         def tearDown(self):
             ... 테스트 후 정리를 위해 실행할 코드 ...

         def test_feature_one(self):
             # feature one을 테스트합니다.
             ... 테스트 코드 ...

         def test_feature_two(self):
             # feature two를 테스트합니다.
             ... 테스트 코드 ...

         ... 더 많은 테스트 메서드 ...

     class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
         ... MyTestCase1 과 같은 구조 ...

     ... 더 많은 테스트 클래스 ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

이 코드 패턴을 사용하면 *note test.regrtest: e3.에서 자체적으로 *note
unittest: 106. CLI를 지원하는 스크립트로나 ‘python -m unittest’ CLI를 통
해 테스트 스위트를 실행할 수 있습니다.

회귀 테스트의 목표는 코드를 깨려고 시도하는 것입니다.  이는 따라야 할 몇
가지 지침으로 이어집니다:

   * 테스트 스위트는 모든 클래스, 함수 및 상수를 괴롭혀야 합니다.  여기
     에는 외부 세계에 제공되는 외부 API뿐만 아니라 “내부(private)” 코드
     도 포함됩니다.

   * 화이트 박스 테스트 (테스트 작성 시 테스트 중인 코드 검사)가 선호됩
     니다.  블랙박스 테스트(게시된 사용자 인터페이스 만 테스트)는 모든 경
     계와 에지 케이스가 테스트 되었는지 확인하기에 충분하지 않습니다.

   * 유효하지 않은 값을 포함하여 가능한 모든 값이 테스트 되었는지 확인하
     십시오.  이렇게 하면 모든 유효한 값이 받아들여질 뿐만 아니라 부적절
     한 값이 올바르게 처리되었는지 확인하게 됩니다.

   * 가능한 한 많은 코드 경로를 소진하십시오.  분기가 발생하는 위치를 테
     스트하고 입력을 조정하여 코드에서 여러 경로가 사용되는지 확인합니다
     .

   * 테스트 된 코드에 대해 발견된 버그에 대한 명시적 테스트를 추가합니다
     .  이렇게 하면 나중에 코드가 변경되어도 에러가 다시 발생하는지 확인
     합니다.

   * 테스트 후에 정리해야 합니다 (가령 모든 임시 파일 닫고 제거하기).

   * 테스트가 운영 체제의 특정 조건에 의존하면 테스트를 시도하기 전에 조
     건이 이미 존재하는지 확인하십시오.

   * 가능한 한 적은 수의 모듈을 임포트 하고 가능한 한 빨리 수행하십시오.
     이렇게 하면 테스트의 외부 종속성이 최소화되고 모듈 임포트의 부작용
     에 따른 비정상적인 동작이 최소화됩니다.

   * 코드 재사용을 극대화하십시오.  때에 따라, 테스트는 사용되는 입력 유
     형에 따라 조금씩 달라집니다.  입력을 지정하는 클래스로 기본 테스트
     클래스를 서브 클래싱하여 코드 중복을 최소화합니다:

          class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:

              func = mySuperWhammyFunction

              def test_func(self):
                  self.func(self.arg)

          class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = [1, 2, 3]

          class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = 'abc'

          class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = (1, 2, 3)

     이 패턴을 사용할 때, *note unittest.TestCase: 447.를 상속한 모든 클
     래스가 테스트로 실행된다는 점을 기억하십시오.  위 예제의
     ‘TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin’ 클래스는 데이터가 없어서 자체적으로
     실행할 수 없기 때문에, *note unittest.TestCase: 447.를 상속하지 않
     습니다.

더 보기
.......

테스트 주도 개발(Test Driven Development)

     코드 전에 테스트를 작성하는 것에 관한 Kent Beck의 책.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기,  Prev: test 패키지를 위한 단위 테스트 작성하기,  Up: test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지

5.26.8.2 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기
......................................................

*note -m: 5db. 옵션 덕분에 *note test: e2. 패키지를 스크립트로 실행하여
파이썬의 회귀 테스트 스위트를 구동 할 수 있습니다: ‘python -m test’.  내
부적으로는 *note test.regrtest: e3.를 사용합니다; 이전 파이썬 버전에서 사
용된 호출 ‘python -m test.regrtest’는 여전히 작동합니다.  스크립트를 단
독으로 실행하면 *note test: e2. 패키지의 모든 회귀 테스트 실행이 자동으
로 시작됩니다.  패키지에서 이름이 ‘test_’로 시작하는 모든 모듈을 찾아서,
임포트 하고, ‘test_main()’ 함수가 있으면 실행하고, ‘test_main’이 없으면
unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule 을 통해 테스트를 로드하여 이를 수
행합니다.  실행할 테스트 이름도 스크립트에 전달할 수 있습니다.  단일 회
귀 테스트를 지정하면 (‘python -m test test_spam’) 출력이 최소화되고 테스
트의 통과나 실패 여부만 인쇄됩니다.

*note test: e2.를 직접 실행하면 테스트에 사용할 수 있는 리소스를 설정할
수 있습니다.  ‘-u’ 명령 줄 옵션을 사용하여 이 작업을 수행합니다.  ‘-u’ 옵
션의 값으로 ‘all’을 지정하면 가능한 모든 자원을 사용할 수 있습니다:
‘python -m test -uall’.  하나를 제외한 모든 리소스가 필요한 경우 (더 흔
한 경우입니다), 원하지 않는 리소스의 쉼표로 구분된 목록이 ‘all’ 뒤에 나
열될 수 있습니다.  ‘python -m test -uall,-audio,-largefile’ 명령은
‘audio’와 ‘largefile’ 리소스를 제외한 모든 리소스로 *note test: e2.를 실
행합니다.  모든 리소스와 추가 명령 줄 옵션 목록을 보려면, ‘python -m
test -h’를 실행하십시오.

회귀 테스트를 실행하는 다른 방법은 테스트가 실행되는 플랫폼에 따라 다릅
니다.  유닉스에서는, 파이썬이 빌드된 최상위 디렉터리에서 ‘make test’를 실
행할 수 있습니다.  윈도우에서는, ‘PCbuild’ 디렉터리에서 ‘rt.bat’을 실행
하면 모든 회귀 테스트가 실행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티,  Next: test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.9 ‘test.support’ — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티
-------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support: e4. 모듈은 파이썬의 회귀 테스트 스위트를 지원합니다.

     참고: *note test.support: e4.는 공용 모듈이 아닙니다.  파이썬 개발
     자가 테스트를 작성하는 데 도움이 되도록 여기에 설명하고 있습니다.  이
     모듈의 API는 릴리스 간에 하위 호환성에 대한 고려 없이 변경될 수 있
     습니다.

이 모듈은 다음 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: test.support.TestFailed

     테스트가 실패할 때 발생하는 예외.  이것은 폐지되었고 *note
     unittest: 106. 기반 테스트와 *note unittest.TestCase: 447.의 어서션
     메서드로 대체합니다.

 -- 예외: test.support.ResourceDenied

     *note unittest.SkipTest: fdc.의 서브 클래스.  리소스(가령 네트워크
     연결)를 사용할 수 없을 때 발생합니다.  *note requires(): 411f. 함수
     에 의해 발생합니다.

*note test.support: e4. 모듈은 다음 상수를 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: test.support.verbose

     상세 출력이 활성화될 때 ‘True’.  실행 중인 테스트에 대한 자세한 정
     보가 필요할 때 확인해야 합니다.  'verbose'는 *note test.regrtest:
     e3.에 의해 설정됩니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.is_jython

     실행 중인 인터프리터가 Jython이면 ‘True’.

 -- 데이터: test.support.is_android

     시스템이 안드로이드이면 ‘True’.

 -- 데이터: test.support.unix_shell

     윈도우가 아니면 셸 경로; 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’.

 -- 데이터: test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT

     ‘127.0.0.1’과 같은 네트워크 로컬 루프 백 인터페이스에서 리스닝하는
     네트워크 서버를 사용하는 테스트의 초 단위 제한 시간.

     제한 시간은 테스트 실패를 방지 할 수 있을 만큼 깁니다: 클라이언트와
     서버가 다른 스레드나 다른 프로세스에서 실행될 수 있다는 점을 고려합
     니다.

     제한 시간은 *note socket.socket: d9d.의 *note connect(): d9f, *note
     recv(): da0. 및 *note send(): da3. 메서드를 위해 충분히 길어야 합니
     다.

     기본값은 5초입니다.

     *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19bc.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT

     인터넷으로 가는 네트워크 요청에 대한 초 단위 제한 시간.

     어떤 이유로 든 인터넷 요청이 블록 되면 테스트가 너무 오래 기다리지
     않을 만큼 제한 시간이 적당히 짧습니다.

     일반적으로, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19bc.을 사용하는 시간 초과는 테
     스트를 실패로 표시해서는 안 되며, 대신 테스트를 건너뜁니다: *note
     transient_internet(): 4124.을 참조하십시오.

     기본값은 1분입니다.

     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 19bb.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT

     테스트가 “너무 오래” 걸리면 테스트를 실패로 표시하는 초 단위 제한 시
     간.

     제한 시간 값은 regrtest ‘--timeout’ 명령 줄 옵션에 따라 다릅니다.

     *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18b5.을 사용하는 테스트가 느린 빌드 봇에서 무
     작위로 실패하기 시작하면, 대신 *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 19bd.을 사용합니
     다.

     기본값은 30초입니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT

     테스트 멈춤을 감지하기 위한 초 단위 제한 시간.

     가장 느린 파이썬 빌드 봇에서 테스트 실패의 위험을 줄이기에 충분히 깁
     니다.  테스트가 “너무 오래” 걸리면 테스트를 실패로 표시하는 데 사용
     해서는 안 됩니다.  제한 시간 값은 regrtest ‘--timeout’ 명령 줄 옵션
     에 따라 다릅니다.

     기본값은 5분입니다.

     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 19bb, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19bc. 및
     *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18b5.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: test.support.PGO

     PGO에 유용하지 않은 테스트를 건너뛸 수 있을 때 설정합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE

     쓰기 블로킹을 일으키기 위해, 하부 OS 파이프 버퍼 크기보다 클 가능성
     이 높은 상수.

 -- 데이터: test.support.Py_DEBUG

     ‘True’ if Python was built with the *note Py_DEBUG: 4128. macro
     defined, that is, if Python was *note built in debug mode: 1f9.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE

     쓰기 블로킹을 일으키기 위해, 하부 OS 소켓 버퍼 크기보다 클 가능성이
     높은 상수.

 -- 데이터: test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR

     *note test.support: e4.를 포함하는 최상위 디렉터리로 설정합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR

     테스트 패키지의 최상위 디렉터리로 설정합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR

     테스트 패키지 내의 ‘data’ 디렉터리로 설정합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t

     대용량 메모리 테스트를 위해 *note sys.maxsize: 11b4.로 설정합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.max_memuse

     대용량 메모리 테스트를 위한 메모리 제한으로 *note set_memlimit():
     412f.에 의해 설정됩니다.  *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 412d.에 의해 제한됩
     니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.real_max_memuse

     대용량 메모리 테스트를 위한 메모리 제한으로 *note set_memlimit():
     412f.에 의해 설정됩니다.  *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 412d.에 의해 제한되
     지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if Python is built without docstrings (the
     ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro is not defined).  See the *note configure
     -without-doc-strings: 1db9. option.

     See also the *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 4132. variable.

 -- 데이터: test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if function docstrings are available.  See the *note
     python -OO: db1. option, which strips docstrings of functions
     implemented in Python.

     See also the *note MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS: 4131. variable.

 -- 데이터: test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL

     네트워크 테스트를 위한 전용 HTTP 서버의 URL을 정의합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.ALWAYS_EQ

     모든 것과 같은 객체.  혼합형 비교를 테스트하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.NEVER_EQ

     어떤 것과도 같지 않은 객체 (*note ALWAYS_EQ: 4134.에도 해당합니다).
     혼합형 비교를 테스트하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.LARGEST

     모든 것보다 큰 객체 (자신은 제외하고).  혼합형 비교를 테스트하는 데
     사용됩니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.SMALLEST

     모든 것보다 작은 객체 (자신은 제외하고).  혼합형 비교를 테스트하는
     데 사용됩니다.

*note test.support: e4. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: test.support.busy_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          error=True)

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.

     After 'timeout' seconds, raise an *note AssertionError: 6a3. if
     'error' is true, or just stop the loop if 'error' is false.

     예제:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     error=False 사용 예:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- 함수: test.support.sleeping_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True)

     Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff.

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.  Sleep at each loop
     iteration, but not at the first iteration.  The sleep delay is
     doubled at each iteration (up to 'max_delay' seconds).

     See *note busy_retry(): 4138. documentation for the parameters
     usage.

     Example raising an exception after SHORT_TIMEOUT seconds:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     error=False 사용 예:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- 함수: test.support.is_resource_enabled (resource)

     'resource'가 활성화되고 사용할 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  사용
     가능한 리소스 목록은 *note test.regrtest: e3.가 테스트를 실행할 때
     만 설정됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.python_is_optimized ()

     파이썬이 ‘-O0’이나 ‘-Og’로 빌드되지 않았으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.with_pymalloc ()

     ‘_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.requires (resource, msg=None)

     'resource'를 사용할 수 없으면 *note ResourceDenied: 411e.를 발생시
     킵니다.  'msg'는 *note ResourceDenied: 411e.가 발생한다면 이에 대한
     인자입니다.  ‘__name__’이 ‘'__main__'’인 함수에 의해 호출되면 항상
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.  *note test.regrtest: e3.에서 테스트를 실행할
     때 사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.sortdict (dict)

     정렬된 키로 'dict'의 repr을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.findfile (filename, subdir=None)

     'filename'이라는 파일의 경로를 반환합니다.  일치하는 것이 없으면
     'filename'이 반환됩니다.  이것은 파일의 경로일 수 있어서 실패와 같
     지 않습니다.

     'subdir' 설정은 경로 디렉터리를 직접 찾는 대신 파일을 찾는 데 사용
     할 상대 경로를 나타냅니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.get_pagesize ()

     Get size of a page in bytes.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: test.support.setswitchinterval (interval)

     *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 948.을 주어진 'interval'로 설정합니
     다.  시스템이 멈추는 것을 방지하기 위해 안드로이드 시스템을 위한 최
     소 간격을 정의합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.check_impl_detail (**guards)

     이 검사를 사용하여 CPython의 구현 별 테스트를 보호하거나 인자로 보
     호되는 구현에서만 실행합니다.  이 함수는 호스트 플랫폼에 따라
     ‘True’나 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  사용 예:

          check_impl_detail()               # CPython에서만 (기본값).
          check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Jython에서만.
          check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # CPython을 제외한 모든 곳.

 -- 함수: test.support.set_memlimit (limit)

     대용량 메모리 테스트를 위해 *note max_memuse: 412e.와 *note
     real_max_memuse: 4130. 값을 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.record_original_stdout (stdout)

     'stdout'의 값을 저장합니다.  regrtest가 시작될 때 stdout을 잡기 위
     한 것입니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.get_original_stdout ()

     *note record_original_stdout(): 4142.에 의해 설정된 원래 stdout이나
     설정되지 않았으면 ‘sys.stdout’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     ‘sys.flags’와 ‘sys.warnoptions’의 현재 설정을 재현하는 명령 줄 인자
     리스트를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     ‘sys.flags’의 현재 최적화 설정을 재현하는 명령 줄 인자 리스트를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.captured_stdin ()
 -- 함수: test.support.captured_stdout ()
 -- 함수: test.support.captured_stderr ()

     명명된 스트림을 *note io.StringIO: f1f. 객체로 일시적으로 대체하는
     컨텍스트 관리자.

     출력 스트림 사용 예:

          with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
              print("hello")
              print("error", file=sys.stderr)
          assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
          assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"

     입력 스트림 사용 예:

          with captured_stdin() as stdin:
              stdin.write('hello\n')
              stdin.seek(0)
              # sys.stdin에서 소비하는 테스트 코드를 호출합니다
              captured = input()
          self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")

 -- 함수: test.support.disable_faulthandler ()

     *note faulthandler: 58.를 일시적으로 비활성화하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

 -- 함수: test.support.gc_collect ()

     가능한 한 많은 객체를 수거하도록 강제합니다.  이는 가비지 수거기가
     적시에 할당 해제를 보장하지 않기 때문에 필요합니다.  이는 ‘__del__’
     메서드가 예상보다 늦게 호출될 수 있고 약한 참조(weakrefs)가 예상보
     다 오래 살아있을 수 있음을 의미합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.disable_gc ()

     진입할 때 가비지 수거기를 비활성화하는 컨텍스트 관리자.  탈출할 때,
     가비지 수거기는 이전 상태로 복원됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.swap_attr (obj, attr, new_val)

     어트리뷰트를 새 객체로 스와프하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     용법:

          with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
              ...

     이렇게 하면 ‘with’ 블록의 기간 중 ‘obj.attr’이 5로 설정되고, 블록 끝
     에서 이전 값이 복원됩니다.  ‘obj’에 ‘attr’이 없으면, 만들어지고 블
     록의 끝에서 삭제됩니다.

     이전 값(또는 존재하지 않으면 ‘None’)이 “as” 절의 대상(있다면)에 대
     입됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.swap_item (obj, attr, new_val)

     항목을 새 객체로 스와프하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     용법:

          with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
              ...

     이렇게 하면 ‘with’ 블록의 기간 중 ‘obj["item"]’이 5로 설정되고, 블
     록 끝에서 이전 값이 복원됩니다.  ‘obj’에 ‘item’이 없으면, 만들어지
     고 블록의 끝에서 삭제됩니다.

     이전 값(또는 존재하지 않으면 ‘None’)이 “as” 절의 대상(있다면)에 대
     입됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.flush_std_streams ()

     Call the ‘flush()’ method on *note sys.stdout: ad3. and then on
     *note sys.stderr: 937.  It can be used to make sure that the logs
     order is consistent before writing into stderr.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: test.support.print_warning (msg)

     *note sys.__stderr__: 414f.에 경고를 인쇄합니다.  메시지를 다음처럼
     포맷합니다: ‘f"Warning -- {msg}"’.  'msg'가 여러 줄로 구성되면, 각
     줄에 ‘"Warning -- "’ 접두사를 추가합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: test.support.wait_process (pid, *, exitcode, timeout=None)

     프로세스 'pid'가 완료될 때까지 기다렸다가 프로세스 종료 코드가
     'exitcode'인지 확인합니다.

     프로세스 종료 코드가 'exitcode'와 같지 않으면 *note AssertionError:
     6a3.를 발생시킵니다.

     프로세스가 'timeout'(기본적으로 *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18b5.) 초보다
     오래 실행되면, 프로세스를 죽이고 *note AssertionError: 6a3.를 발생
     시킵니다.  제한 시간 기능은 윈도우에서 사용할 수 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: test.support.calcobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyObject: 332. whose structure members
     are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size of the
     Python object header and alignment.

 -- 함수: test.support.calcvobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyVarObject: 4152. whose structure
     members are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size
     of the Python object header and alignment.

 -- 함수: test.support.checksizeof (test, o, size)

     테스트 케이스 'test'에 대해, 'o'의 ‘sys.getsizeof’에 GC 헤더 크기를
     더한 값이 'size'와 같다고 어서션 합니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.anticipate_failure (condition)

     *note unittest.expectedFailure(): 406b.로 테스트를 조건부로 표시하
     는 데코레이터.  이 데코레이터를 사용하려면 관련 추적기(tracker) 이
     슈를 식별하는 관련 주석이 있어야 합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.system_must_validate_cert (f)

     TLS 인증서 유효성 검사 실패 시 데코레이트된 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코
     레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.run_with_locale (catstr, *locales)

     다른 로케일에서 함수를 실행하기 위한 데코레이터로, 완료된 후 올바르
     게 재설정합니다.  'catstr'은 문자열로 된 로케일 범주입니다 (예를 들
     어 ‘"LC_ALL"’).  전달된 'locales'는 순차적으로 시도되며, 첫 번째 유
     효한 로케일이 사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.run_with_tz (tz)

     특정 시간대에서 함수를 실행하기 위한 데코레이터로, 완료된 후 올바르
     게 재설정합니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_freebsd_version (*min_version)

     FreeBSD에서 테스트를 실행할 때 최소 버전을 위한 데코레이터.
     FreeBSD 버전이 최소 버전보다 낮으면, 테스트를 건너뜁니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_linux_version (*min_version)

     리눅스에서 테스트를 실행할 때 최소 버전을 위한 데코레이터.  리눅스
     버전이 최소 버전보다 낮으면, 테스트를 건너뜁니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_mac_version (*min_version)

     macOS에서 테스트를 실행할 때 최소 버전을 위한 데코레이터.  macOS 버
     전이 최소 버전보다 낮으면, 테스트를 건너뜁니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_gil_enabled

     Decorator for skipping tests on the free-threaded build.  If the
     *note GIL: 159. is disabled, the test is skipped.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_IEEE_754

     비 IEEE 754 플랫폼에서 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_zlib

     *note zlib: 133.가 없으면 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_gzip

     *note gzip: 67.이 없으면 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_bz2

     *note bz2: 13.가 없으면 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_lzma

     *note lzma: 8a.가 없으면 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_resource (resource)

     'resource'를 사용할 수 없으면 테스트를 건너뛰는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_docstrings

     *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 4132.일 때만 테스트를 실행하는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.requires_limited_api

     *note 제한된 C API: 38f.를 사용할 수 있을 때만 테스트를 실행하는 데
     코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.cpython_only

     CPython에만 적용되는 테스트용 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.impl_detail (msg=None, **guards)

     'guards'에 *note check_impl_detail(): 4141.을 호출하는 데코레이터.
     ‘False’가 반환되면, 테스트를 건너뛰는 이유로 'msg'를 사용합니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.no_tracing

     테스트 기간 중 일시적으로 추적을 해제하는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.refcount_test

     참조 횟수를 수반하는 테스트를 위한 데코레이터.  데코레이터는
     CPython에 의해 실행되지 않으면 테스트를 실행하지 않습니다.  추적 함
     수로 인한 예기치 않은 참조 횟수를 방지하기 위해 테스트 기간 중 모든
     추적 함수가 설정 해제됩니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.bigmemtest (size, memuse, dry_run=True)

     bigmem 테스트를 위한 데코레이터.

     'size'는 테스트를 위해 요청된 크기입니다 (임의의 테스트가 해석하는
     단위.)  'memuse'는 테스트 단위당 바이트 수, 또는 이의 적절한 추정치
     입니다.  예를 들어, 각각 4GiB인 두 개의 바이트 버퍼가 필요한 테스트
     는 ‘@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)’로 데코레이트 될 수 있습니다.

     'size' 인자는 일반적으로 데코레이트 된 테스트 메서드에 추가 인자로
     전달됩니다.  'dry_run'이 ‘True’이면, 테스트 메서드에 전달된 값이 요
     청된 값보다 작을 수 있습니다.  'dry_run'이 ‘False’이면, ‘-M’가 지정
     되지 않은 경우 테스트가 더미 실행을 지원하지 않음을 의미합니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.bigaddrspacetest

     주소 공간을 채우는 테스트용 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: test.support.check_syntax_error (testcase, statement,
          errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)

     'statement' 컴파일을 시도하여 'statement'의 구문 에러를 테스트합니
     다.  'testcase'는 테스트를 위한 *note unittest: 106. 인스턴스입니다
     .  'errtext'는 발생한 *note SyntaxError: 18d.의 문자열 표현과 일치
     해야 하는 정규식입니다.  'lineno'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 예외 줄과 비교
     합니다.  'offset'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 예외의 오프셋과 비교합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.open_urlresource (url, *args, **kw)

     'url'을 엽니다.  열기에 실패하면, *note TestFailed: 411d.를 발생시
     킵니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.reap_children ()

     서브 프로세스가 시작될 때마다 ‘test_main’ 끝에 이것을 사용하십시오.
     이렇게 하면 여분의 자식(좀비)이 남아서 리소스를 탐하지 않도록 하고
     참조 누수를 찾을 때 문제가 발생하지 않도록 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.get_attribute (obj, name)

     어트리뷰트를 가져옵니다, *note AttributeError: 346.가 발생하면
     *note unittest.SkipTest: fdc.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.catch_unraisable_exception ()

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.를 사용하여 발생시킬 수 없는
     (unraisable) 예외를 포착하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     예외 값(‘cm.unraisable.exc_value’)을 저장하면 참조 순환을 만듭니다.
     컨텍스트 관리자가 탈출할 때 참조 순환이 명시적으로 끊어집니다.

     객체(‘cm.unraisable.object’)를 저장하면 파이널라이즈 중인 객체로 설
     정되어 있으면 되살릴 수 있습니다.  컨텍스트 관리자를 탈출하면 저장
     된 객체가 지워집니다.

     용법:

          with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm:
              # "발생시킬 수 없는 예외"를 만드는 코드
              ...

              # 발생시킬 수 없는 예외를 확인합니다: cm.unraisable 을 사용하십시오
              ...

          # 이 지점에서 cm.unraisable 어프리뷰트는 더는 존재하지 않습니다
          # (참조 순환을 끊고자)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: test.support.load_package_tests (pkg_dir, loader,
          standard_tests, pattern)

     테스트 패키지에서 사용하기 위한 *note unittest: 106. ‘load_tests’ 프
     로토콜의 일반 구현.  'pkg_dir'는 패키지의 루트 디렉터리입니다;
     'loader', 'standard_tests' 및 'pattern'은 ‘load_tests’가 기대하는 인
     자입니다.  간단한 경우, 테스트 패키지의 ‘__init__.py’는 다음과 같을
     수 있습니다:

          import os
          from test.support import load_package_tests

          def load_tests(*args):
              return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)

 -- 함수: test.support.detect_api_mismatch (ref_api, other_api, *,
          ignore=())

     'ignore'에 지정된 이 검사에서 무시할 정의된 항목 리스트를 제외하고,
     'other_api'에서 찾을 수 없는 'ref_api'의 어트리뷰트, 함수 또는 메서
     드 집합을 반환합니다.

     기본적으로 이것은 ‘_’로 시작하는 내부(private) 어트리뷰트를 건너뛰
     지만, 모든 매직 메서드, 즉 ‘__’로 시작하고 끝나는 것들을 포함합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: test.support.patch (test_instance, object_to_patch, attr_name,
          new_value)

     'object_to_patch.attr_name'을 'new_value'로 대체합니다.  또한
     'test_instance'에 대한 정리 절차를 추가하여 'object_to_patch'의
     'attr_name'을 복원합니다.  'attr_name'은 'object_to_patch'의 유효한
     어트리뷰트여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.run_in_subinterp (code)

     서브 인터프리터에서 'code'를 실행합니다.  *note tracemalloc: ff.이
     활성화되면 *note unittest.SkipTest: fdc.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.check_free_after_iterating (test, iter, cls,
          args=())

     이터레이션 후 'cls'의 인스턴스가 할당 해제되었음을 어서션 합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.missing_compiler_executable (cmd_names=[])

     'cmd_names'에 이름이 나열된 컴파일러 실행 파일이나 'cmd_names'가 비
     어있을 때 모든 컴파일러 실행 파일이 있는지 확인하고 누락된 첫 번째
     실행 파일을 반환하거나 누락된 것이 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.check__all__ (test_case, module,
          name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=())

     'module'의 ‘__all__’ 변수에 모든 공용 이름이 포함되어 있는지 어서션
     합니다.

     모듈의 공용 이름(그것의 API)은 공용 이름 규칙과 일치하고 'module'에
     정의되었는지에 따라 자동으로 감지됩니다.

     'name_of_module' 인자는 공용 API로 감지하기 위해 API를 정의 할 수 있
     는 모듈을 (문자열이나 튜플로) 지정할 수 있습니다.  이에 대한 한 가
     지 사례는 'module'이 다른 모듈에서 공용 API의 일부를 임포트 할 때입
     니다, C 백 엔드도 가능합니다 (‘csv’와 그것의 ‘_csv’ 처럼).

     'extra' 인자는 적절한 *note __module__: 227e. 어트리뷰트가 없는 객
     체처럼, “공용”으로 자동 감지되지 않는 이름 집합일 수 있습니다.  제
     공되면, 자동 감지된 항목에 추가됩니다.

     'not_exported' 인자는 이름이 공용처럼 보이더라도 공용 API의 일부로
     취급해서는 안 되는 이름 집합일 수 있습니다.

     사용 예:

          import bar
          import foo
          import unittest
          from test import support

          class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  support.check__all__(self, foo)

          class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
                  not_exported = {'baz'}  # 문서화되지 않은 이름.
                  # bar는 _bar에서 API의 일부를 임포트 합니다.
                  support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
                                       extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported)

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 함수: test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize ()

     Skip tests if the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module is missing,
     if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a
     lock raises an *note OSError: 411.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: test.support.check_disallow_instantiation (test_case, tp,
          *args, **kwds)

     Assert that type 'tp' cannot be instantiated using 'args' and
     'kwds'.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits (max_digits)

     This function returns a context manager that will change the global
     *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 17c5. setting for the duration
     of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a
     different limit on the number of digits when converting between an
     integer and string.

     Added in version 3.11.

*note test.support: e4. 모듈은 다음 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: test.support.SuppressCrashReport

     서브 프로세스를 충돌시킬 것으로 예상되는 테스트에서 충돌 대화 상자
     팝업을 방지하는 데 사용되는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     윈도우에서는, SetErrorMode(1)를 사용하여 윈도우 에러 보고 대화 상자
     를 비활성화합니다.

     유닉스에서는, *note resource.setrlimit(): 1525.를 사용하여 *note
     resource.RLIMIT_CORE: 4177.의 소프트 제한을 0으로 설정하여 코어 덤
     프 파일 생성을 방지하는 데 사용됩니다.

     두 플랫폼 모두에서, 이전 값은 *note __exit__(): 12f0.에 의해 복원됩
     니다.

 -- 클래스: test.support.SaveSignals

     파이썬 시그널 처리기가 등록한 시그널 처리기를 저장하고 복원하는 클
     래스.

      -- 메서드: save (self)

          Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal
          numbers to the current signal handler.

      -- 메서드: restore (self)

          Set the signal numbers from the *note save(): 4179. dictionary
          to the saved handler.

 -- 클래스: test.support.Matcher

      -- 메서드: matches (self, d, **kwargs)

          단일 딕셔너리를 제공된 인자와 일치시키려고 합니다.

      -- 메서드: match_value (self, k, dv, v)

          단일 저장된 값('dv')을 제공된 값('v')과 일치시키려고 합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티,  Next: test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.10 ‘test.support.socket_helper’ — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티
-------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.socket_helper: e9. 모듈은 소켓 테스트를 지원합니다.

Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED

     이 호스트에서 IPv6가 활성화되어 있으면 ‘True’로 설정하고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘False’로 설정합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port
          (family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)

     바인딩에 적합해야 하는 미사용 포트를 반환합니다.  이는 ‘sock’ 매개
     변수와 같은 패밀리와 유형으로 (기본값은 *note AF_INET: 1823, *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.) 임시 소켓을 만들고, 포트를 0으로 설정하여 지정
     된 호스트 주소(기본값은 ‘0.0.0.0’)에 바인딩하여, OS에서 사용되지 않
     은 임시 포트를 도출하여 수행됩니다.  그런 다음 임시 소켓이 닫히고 삭
     제되고, 임시 포트가 반환됩니다.

     이 메서드나 *note bind_port(): 4181.는 테스트 기간 중 서버 소켓을 특
     정 포트에 바인딩해야 하는 모든 테스트에 사용해야 합니다.  어떤 것을
     사용할 것인지는 호출하는 코드가 파이썬 소켓을 만드는지, 또는 사용되
     지 않은 포트가 생성자에서 제공되어야 하는지 또는 외부 프로그램에 전
     달되어야 하는지 (즉 openssl의 s_server 모드에 대한 ‘-accept’ 인자
     )에 따라 다릅니다.  가능하면 항상 *note find_unused_port(): 4180.보
     다 *note bind_port(): 4181.를 선호하십시오.  하드 코딩된 포트를 사
     용하면 여러 테스트 인스턴스를 동시에 실행할 수 없게 되어 빌드 봇에
     문제가 될 수 있어서 피하는 것이 좋습니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.socket_helper.bind_port (sock, host=HOST)

     소켓을 사용 가능한 포트에 바인딩하고 포트 번호를 반환합니다.  바인
     딩 되지 않은 포트를 사용하기 위해 임시 포트에 의존합니다.  이는 특
     히 빌드 봇 환경에서, 많은 테스트가 동시에 실행될 수 있어서 중요합니
     다.  이 메서드는 ‘sock.family’가 *note AF_INET: 1823.이고
     ‘sock.type’이 *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e3.이고, 소켓에 ‘SO_REUSEADDR’이
     나 ‘SO_REUSEPORT’가 설정되면 예외가 발생합니다.  테스트는 TCP/IP 소
     켓에 대해 이러한 소켓 옵션을 설정해서는 안 됩니다.  이러한 옵션을 설
     정하는 유일한 경우는 여러 UDP 소켓을 통해 멀티캐스팅을 테스트하는 것
     입니다.

     또한, ‘SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE’ 소켓 옵션을 사용할 수 있으면 (즉 윈도우
     에서), 소켓에 설정됩니다.  이렇게 하면 다른 사람이 테스트 기간 중 우
     리의 호스트/포트에 바인딩하는 것을 방지할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket (sock, addr)

     유닉스 소켓을 바인드 합니다, *note PermissionError: d3f.가 발생하면
     *note unittest.SkipTest: fdc.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket

     유닉스 소켓용 ‘bind()’ 기능이 필요한 테스트를 실행하기 위한 데코레
     이터.

 -- 함수: test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet (resource_name,
          *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())

     인터넷 연결과 관련된 다양한 문제가 예외로 나타날 때 *note
     ResourceDenied: 411e.를 발생시키는 컨텍스트 관리자.


File: python.info,  Node: test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티,  Next: test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구,  Prev: test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.11 ‘test.support.script_helper’ — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티
--------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.script_helper: e8. 모듈은 파이썬의 스크립트 실행 테스
트를 지원합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment ()

     ‘sys.executable 인터프리터’를 실행하기 위해 환경 변수가 필요하면
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     ‘assert_python*()’ 함수를 사용하여 격리 모드(‘-I’)를 시작하거나 환
     경 없음 모드(‘-E’) 서브 인터프리터 프로세스를 시작해야 하는 테스트
     를 어노테이트 하는 ‘@unittest.skipIf()’와 함께 사용하도록 설계되었
     습니다.

     정상적인 빌드와 테스트는 이러한 상황을 만나지 않지만, 파이썬의 현재
     홈 찾기 논리로 명확한 홈이 없는 인터프리터에서 표준 라이브러리 테스
     트 스위트를 실행하려고 할 때 발생할 수 있습니다.

     *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 설정은 이러한 상황에서 대부분의 테스트 스위
     트를 실행하는 한 가지 방법입니다.  *note PYTHONPATH: 1013.나
     ‘PYTHONUSERSITE’는 인터프리터가 시작될 수 있는지에 영향을 줄 수 있
     는 다른 공통 환경 변수입니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end (*args,
          **env_vars)

     서브 프로세스에서 인터프리터를 실행하기 위해 'env_vars' 기반 환경을
     설정합니다.  값에는 ‘__isolated’, ‘__cleanenv’, ‘__cwd’ 및 ‘TERM’이
     포함될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 더는 'stderr'에서 공백을 제거하지 않습
     니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok (*args,
          **env_vars)

     'args'와 선택적 환경 변수 'env_vars'를 사용하여 인터프리터를 실행하
     면 성공(‘rc == 0’)하고 ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ 튜플을 반환
     함을 어서션 합니다.

     '__cleanenv' 키워드 전용 매개변수가 설정되면, 'env_vars'가 새로운 환
     경으로 사용됩니다.

     파이썬은 '__isolated' 키워드 전용 매개변수가 ‘False’로 설정된 경우
     를 제외하고, 격리 모드(명령 줄 옵션 ‘-I’)에서 시작됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 더는 'stderr'에서 공백을 제거하지 않습
     니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure (*args,
          **env_vars)

     'args'와 선택적 환경 변수 'env_vars'를 사용하여 인터프리터 실행하면
     실패(‘rc != 0’)하고 ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ 튜플을 반환함을
     어서션 합니다.

     추가 옵션은 *note assert_python_ok(): 4187.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 더는 'stderr'에서 공백을 제거하지 않습
     니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.spawn_python (*args,
          stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)

     주어진 인자로 파이썬 서브 프로세스를 실행합니다.

     'kw'는 *note subprocess.Popen(): 199.에 전달할 추가 키워드 인자입니
     다.  *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.kill_python (p)

     완료될 때까지 주어진 *note subprocess.Popen: 199. 프로세스를 실행하
     고 stdout을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.make_script (script_dir,
          script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)

     'script_dir'과 'script_basename' 경로에 'source'를 포함하는 스크립
     트를 만듭니다.  'omit_suffix'가 ‘False’이면, 이름에 ‘.py’를 추가합
     니다.  전체 스크립트 경로를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)

     'script_name'의 파일을 포함하는 확장자가 ‘zip’인 zip 파일을
     'zip_dir'과 'zip_basename'에 만듭니다.  'name_in_zip'은 아카이브 이
     름입니다.  ‘(full path, full path of archive name)’을 포함하는 튜플
     을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.make_pkg (pkg_dir, init_source='')

     'init_source'를 내용으로 하는 ‘__init__’ 파일을 포함하는 'pkg_dir'이
     라는 디렉터리를 만듭니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1,
          compiled=False)

     빈 ‘__init__’ 파일과 'source'를 포함하는 파일 'script_basename'을 포
     함하는 zip 패키지 디렉터리를 'zip_dir'과 'zip_basename' 경로로 만듭
     니다.  'compiled'가 ‘True’이면, 두 소스 파일이 모두 컴파일되어 zip
     패키지에 추가됩니다.  전체 zip 경로와 zip 파일의 아카이브 이름의 튜
     플을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구,  Next: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.12 ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.bytecode_helper: e5. 모듈은 바이트 코드 생성 테스트와
검사를 지원합니다.

Added in version 3.9.

모듈은 다음 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase
          (unittest.TestCase)

     이 클래스에는 바이트 코드를 검사하기 위한 사용자 정의 어서션 메서드
     가 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string (co)

     'co'의 역 어셈블리를 문자열로 반환합니다.

 -- 메서드: BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     'opname'이 발견되면 명령어를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     AssertionError: 6a3.를 던집니다.

 -- 메서드: BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     'opname'이 발견되면 *note AssertionError: 6a3.를 던집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티,  Next: test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.13 ‘test.support.threading_helper’ — threading 테스트용 유틸리티
---------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.threading_helper: ea. 모듈은 threading 테스트를 지원
합니다.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: test.support.threading_helper.join_thread (thread,
          timeout=None)

     'timeout' 내에 'thread'에 조인(join)합니다.  스레드가 'timeout' 초
     후에도 여전히 살아 있으면 *note AssertionError: 6a3.를 발생시킵니다
     .

 -- 함수: @test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads

     테스트가 실패하더라도 스레드를 정리하는 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: test.support.threading_helper.start_threads (threads,
          unlock=None)

     Context manager to start 'threads', which is a sequence of threads.
     'unlock' is a function called after the threads are started, even
     if an exception was raised; an example would be *note
     threading.Event.set(): 3140.  ‘start_threads’ will attempt to join
     the started threads upon exit.

 -- 함수: test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup
          (*original_values)

     'original_values'에 지정되지 않은 스레드를 정리합니다.  테스트가 백
     그라운드에서 실행 중인 스레드를 남겨두면 경고를 내도록 설계되었습니
     다.

 -- 함수: test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup ()

     현재 스레드 수와 매달린(dangling) 스레드의 복사본을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit (timeout=None)

     ‘with’ 문에서 만들어진 모든 스레드가 종료할 때까지 대기하는 컨텍스
     트 관리자.

 -- 함수: test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception ()

     *note threading.excepthook(): 845.을 사용하여 *note
     threading.Thread: 94a. 예외를 포착하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     예외가 포착될 때 설정되는 어트리뷰트:

        * ‘exc_type’

        * ‘exc_value’

        * ‘exc_traceback’

        * ‘thread’

     *note threading.excepthook(): 845. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

     이러한 어트리뷰트들은 컨텍스트 관리자 탈출 시에 삭제됩니다.

     용법:

          with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm:
              # 예외를 발생시키는 스레드를 생성하는 코드
              ...

              # 스레드 예외를 확인합니다, cm 어트리뷰트를 사용하십시오:
              # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread
              ...

          # 이 지점에서 cm 의 exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread 어트리뷰트는
          # 더는 존재하지 않습니다
          # (참조 순환을 피하고자)

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티,  Next: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.14 ‘test.support.os_helper’ — os 테스트용 유틸리티
-------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.os_helper: e7. 모듈은 os 테스트를 지원합니다.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII

     *note os.fsencode(): c52.로 인코딩 할 수 있는 비 ASCII 문자.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD

     *note os.getcwd(): 15a3.로 설정합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN

     임시 파일의 이름으로 사용하기에 안전한 이름으로 설정합니다.  만들어
     진 모든 임시 파일은 닫히고 언 링크(제거) 되어야 합니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII

     Set to a filename containing the *note FS_NONASCII: 419d.
     character, if it exists.  This guarantees that if the filename
     exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem
     encoding.  This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to
     be easily skipped on platforms where they can’t work.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE

     엄격(strict) 모드에서 파일 시스템 인코딩으로 인코딩할 수 없는 파일
     명(str 형)으로 설정합니다.  이러한 파일명을 생성할 수 없으면
     ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE

     엄격(strict) 모드에서 파일 시스템 인코딩으로 디코딩할 수 없는 파일
     명(bytes 형)으로 설정합니다.  이러한 파일명을 생성할 수 없으면
     ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE

     임시 파일을 위한 비 ASCII 이름으로 설정합니다.

 -- 클래스: test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard

     환경 변수를 임시로 설정하거나 설정 해제하는 데 사용되는 클래스.  인
     스턴스는 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있으며 하부 ‘os.environ’을 조
     회/수정하기 위한 완전한 딕셔너리 인터페이스를 가질 수 있습니다.  컨
     텍스트 관리자를 탈출하면 이 인스턴스를 통해 수행된 환경 변수에 대한
     모든 변경 사항이 되돌려집니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 딕셔너리 인터페이스가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: test.support.os_helper.FakePath (path)

     단순 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.  단지 'path' 인자를 반환하는 *note
     __fspath__(): c4f. 메서드를 구현합니다.  'path'가 예외이면,
     ‘__fspath__()’에서 발생시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: EnvironmentVarGuard.set (envvar, value)

     일시적으로 환경 변수 ‘envvar’를 ‘value’ 값으로 설정합니다.

 -- 메서드: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset (envvar)

     일시적으로 환경 변수 ‘envvar’를 설정 해제합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.can_symlink ()

     OS가 심볼릭 링크를 지원하면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환
     합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.can_xattr ()

     OS가 xattr을 지원하면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.change_cwd (path, quiet=False)

     현재 작업 디렉터리를 'path'로 일시적으로 변경하고 그 디렉터리를 산
     출하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     'quiet'가 ‘False’이면, 컨텍스트 관리자는 에러 시 예외를 발생시킵니
     다.  그렇지 않으면, 경고만 발행하고 현재 작업 디렉터리를 같게 유지
     합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file (filename)

     'filename'으로 빈 파일을 만듭니다.  이미 있으면, 자릅니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.fd_count ()

     열린 파일 기술자의 수를 셉니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive (directory)

     'directory'의 파일 시스템이 대소 문자를 구분하지 않으면 ‘True’를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd ()

     임시 파일을 여닫아서 잘못된 파일 기술자를 만든 다음, 그 기술자를 반
     환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.rmdir (filename)

     'filename'에 대해 *note os.rmdir(): 10e5.을 호출합니다.  윈도우 플
     랫폼에서는, 파일의 존재를 확인하는 대기 루프로 래핑 됩니다.  이는 파
     일을 열려있는 상태로 유지하고 삭제를 막을 수 있는 안티바이러스 프로
     그램 때문에 필요합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.rmtree (path)

     'path'에 대해 *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.를 호출하거나 *note
     os.lstat(): 49b.과 *note os.rmdir(): 10e5.을 호출하여 경로와 해당 내
     용을 제거합니다.  *note rmdir(): 41ae.과 마찬가지로, 윈도우 플랫폼
     에서, 이것은 파일의 존재를 확인하는 대기 루프로 래핑 됩니다.

 -- 함수: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink

     심볼릭 링크 지원이 필요한 테스트를 실행하기 위한 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr

     xattr 지원이 필요한 테스트를 실행하기 위한 데코레이터.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd (name='tempcwd', quiet=False)

     임시로 새 디렉터리를 만들고 현재 작업 디렉터리(CWD)를 변경하는 컨텍
     스트 관리자.

     컨텍스트 관리자는 현재 작업 디렉터리를 임시로 변경하기 전에 이름이
     'name'인 임시 디렉터리를 현재 디렉터리에 만듭니다.  'name'이
     ‘None’이면, 임시 디렉터리는 *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 21f.를 사용하
     여 만들어집니다.

     'quiet'가 ‘False’이고 만들 수 없거나 CWD를 변경할 수 없으면, 에러가
     발생합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 경고만 발생하고 원래 CWD가 사용됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.temp_dir (path=None, quiet=False)

     'path'에 임시 디렉터리를 만들고 그 디렉터리를 산출하는 컨텍스트 관
     리자.

     'path'가 ‘None’이면, 임시 디렉터리는 *note tempfile.mkdtemp():
     21f.를 사용하여 만들어집니다.  'quiet'가 ‘False’이면, 컨텍스트 관리
     자는 에러 시 예외를 발생시킵니다.  그렇지 않으면, 'path'가 지정되고
     만들 수 없으면, 경고만 발행됩니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.temp_umask (umask)

     프로세스 umask를 임시로 설정하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

 -- 함수: test.support.os_helper.unlink (filename)

     'filename'에 대해 *note os.unlink(): 10e7.를 호출합니다.  *note
     rmdir(): 41ae.과 마친가지로, 윈도우 플랫폼에서는, 파일의 존재를 확
     인하는 대기 루프로 래핑 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티,  Next: test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.15 ‘test.support.import_helper’ — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티
---------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.import_helper: e6. 모듈은 임포트 테스트를 지원합니다.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.forget (module_name)

     ‘sys.modules’에서 'module_name'이라는 모듈을 제거하고 모듈의 바이트
     컴파일된 파일을 삭제합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module (name,
          fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)

     이 함수는 임포트 전에 ‘sys.modules’에서 명명된 모듈을 제거하여 명명
     된 파이썬 모듈의 새 복사본을 임포트하고 반환합니다.  ‘reload()’와 달
     리, 원래 모듈은 이 연산의 영향을 받지 않습니다.

     'fresh'는 임포트를 수행하기 전에 ‘sys.modules’ 캐시에서 함께 제거되
     는 추가 모듈 이름의 이터러블입니다.

     'blocked'는 임포트 하는 동안 모듈 캐시에서 ‘None’으로 대체되는 모듈
     이름의 이터러블로, 임포트 하려고 시도하면 *note ImportError: 413.가
     발생하도록 합니다.

     명명된 모듈과 'fresh'와 'blocked' 매개 변수에 명명된 모든 모듈은 임
     포트를 시작하기 전에 보관되고 새 임포트가 완료되면 ‘sys.modules’에
     다시 삽입됩니다.

     'deprecated'가 ‘True’이면 이 임포트 중에 모듈과 패키지 폐지 메시지
     가 억제됩니다.

     이 함수는 명명된 모듈을 임포트 할 수 없으면 *note ImportError:
     413.를 발생시킵니다.

     사용 예:

          # 나머지 테스트 스위트에서 사용 중인 버전에 영향을 주지 않고 테스트용 경고 모듈의 사본을
          # 얻습니다. 한 사본은 C 구현을 사용하고, 다른 사본은 순수한 파이썬 대체 구현을 사용하도록
          # 강요됩니다.
          py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
          c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.import_module (name,
          deprecated=False, *, required_on=())

     이 함수는 명명된 모듈을 임포트하고 반환합니다.  일반 임포트와 달리,
     이 함수는 모듈을 임포트할 수 없으면 *note unittest.SkipTest: fdc.를
     발생시킵니다.

     'deprecated'가 ‘True’이면 이 임포트 중에 모듈과 패키지 폐지 메시지
     가 억제됩니다.  모듈이 한 플랫폼에서는 필수지만, 다른 곳에서는 선택
     적이면, 'required_on'을 *note sys.platform: a8a.과 비교할 플랫폼 접
     두사의 이터러블로 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.modules_setup ()

     *note sys.modules: 1558.의 복사본을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup (oldmodules)

     내부 캐시를 보존하기 위해 'oldmodules'와 ‘encodings’를 제외한 모듈
     들을 제거합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.unload (name)

     ‘sys.modules’에서 'name'을 삭제합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc (source)

     PEP 3147(1)/ PEP 488(2) pyc 파일을 레거시 pyc 위치로 옮기고 레거시
     pyc 파일에 대한 파일 시스템 경로를 반환합니다.  'source' 값은 소스
     파일에 대한 파일 시스템 경로입니다.  반드시 존재할 필요는 없지만,
     PEP 3147/488 pyc 파일이 있어야 합니다.

 -- 클래스: test.support.import_helper.CleanImport (*module_names)

     새 모듈 참조를 반환하도록 임포트를 강제하는 컨텍스트 관리자.  이는
     임포트 시 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.의 방출과 같은 모듈 수준 동
     작을 테스트하는 데 유용합니다.  사용 예:

          with CleanImport('foo'):
              importlib.import_module('foo')  # 새 참조.

 -- 클래스: test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath (*paths)

     *note sys.path: 3ae.에 디렉터리를 임시로 추가하는 컨텍스트 관리자.

     이렇게 하면 *note sys.path: 3ae.의 복사본이 만들어지고, 위치 인자로
     지정된 모든 디렉터리를 추가한 다음, 컨텍스트가 끝나면 *note
     sys.path: 3ae.를 복사된 설정으로 되돌립니다.

     객체 교체를 포함하여, 컨텍스트 관리자 본문의 '모든' *note sys.path:
     3ae. 수정 사항은 블록 끝에서 되돌려짐에 유의하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티,  Prev: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티,  Up: 개발 도구

5.26.16 ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티
-------------------------------------------------------------------

*note test.support.warnings_helper: eb. 모듈은 warnings 테스트를 지원합
니다.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings (*, category)

     Suppress warnings that are instances of 'category', which must be
     *note Warning: 22bb. or a subclass.  Roughly equivalent to *note
     warnings.catch_warnings(): 57f. with *note
     warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category): 6bb.  For
     example:

          @warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning)
          def test_suppress_warning():
              # 뭔가 합니다

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning
          (testcase)

     *note ResourceWarning: 244.이 발생하지 않았는지 확인하는 컨텍스트 관
     리자.  컨텍스트 관리자가 끝나기 전에 *note ResourceWarning: 244.을
     방출할 수 있는 객체를 제거해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning (testcase,
          statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None)

     'statement' 컴파일을 시도하여 'statement'에서 구문 경고를 테스트합
     니다.  *note SyntaxWarning: 45f.이 한 번만 방출되고, 에러로 바꿀 때
     *note SyntaxError: 18d.로 변환되는지도 테스트합니다.  'testcase'는
     테스트를 위한 *note unittest: 106. 인스턴스입니다.  'errtext'는 방
     출된 *note SyntaxWarning: 45f.과 발생한 *note SyntaxError: 18d.의 문
     자열 표현과 일치해야 하는 정규식입니다.  'lineno'가 ‘None’이 아니면
     경고와 예외 줄과 비교합니다.  'offset'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 예외 오프
     셋과 비교합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings (*filters,
          quiet=True)

     경고가 올바르게 발생했는지 테스트하기 쉽게 하는 *note
     warnings.catch_warnings(): 57f. 용 편의 래퍼.  *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 6bb.를 ‘always’로 설정하고 기록된 결과를 자
     동으로 검증하는 옵션을 사용하여
     ‘warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)’를 호출하는 것과 거의 동등합
     니다.

     ‘check_warnings’는 위치 인자로 ‘("message regexp",
     WarningCategory)’ 형식의 2-튜플을 받습니다.  하나 이상의 'filters'가
     제공되거나, 선택적 키워드 인자 'quiet'가 ‘False’이면, 경고가 예상대
     로인지 확인합니다: 지정된 각 필터는 둘러싸인 코드에서 발생한 경고 중
     적어도 하나와 일치해야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 테스트가 실패합니다.
     지정된 필터와 일치하지 않는 경고가 발생하면 테스트가 실패합니다.  첫
     번째 검사를 비활성화하려면, 'quiet'를 ‘True’로 설정합니다.

     인자가 지정되지 않으면, 기본값은 다음과 같습니다:

          check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)

     이 경우 모든 경고가 포착되고 에러가 발생하지 않습니다.

     컨텍스트 관리자에 진입하면, ‘WarningRecorder’ 인스턴스가 반환됩니다
     .  *note catch_warnings(): 57f.의 하부 경고 리스트는 레코더 객체의
     *note warnings: 112. 어트리뷰트를 통해 사용할 수 있습니다.  편의상,
     가장 최근의 경고를 나타내는 객체의 어트리뷰트는 레코더 객체를 통해
     직접 액세스 할 수도 있습니다 (아래 예를 참조하십시오).  경고가 발생
     하지 않으면, 객체에서 예상되는 경고를 나타내는 어트리뷰트는 ‘None’을
     반환합니다.

     레코더 객체에는 경고 리스트를 지우는 ‘reset()’ 메서드도 있습니다.

     컨텍스트 관리자는 다음과 같이 사용되도록 설계되었습니다:

          with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
                              ("", UserWarning)):
              exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
              warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))

     이 경우 경고가 발생하지 않았거나, 다른 경고가 발생하면, *note
     check_warnings(): 41c3.는 에러를 발생시킵니다.

     테스트에서 경고가 발생했는지를 확인하는 것만이 아니라, 경고를 더 깊
     이 조사해야 할 때, 다음과 같은 코드를 사용할 수 있습니다:

          with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
              warnings.warn("foo")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
              warnings.warn("bar")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
              assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
              assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
              w.reset()
              assert len(w.warnings) == 0

     여기에서 모든 경고가 포착되고, 테스트 코드는 포착된 경고를 직접 테
     스트합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 새로운 선택적 인자 'filters'와 'quiet'.

 -- 클래스: test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder

     단위 테스트에 대한 경고를 기록하는 데 사용되는 클래스.  자세한 내용
     은 위의 *note check_warnings(): 41c3. 설명서를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 디버깅과 프로파일링,  Next: 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포,  Prev: 개발 도구,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.27 디버깅과 프로파일링
========================

이 라이브러리들은 파이썬 개발을 돕습니다: 디버거를 사용하면 코드를 단계
별로 실행하고, 스택 프레임을 분석하고, 중단 점을 설정할 수 있으며, 프로
파일러는 코드를 실행하고, 프로그램의 병목 지점을 식별할 수 있도록 실행 시
간을 자세하게 분석합니다.  감사 이벤트는 이것이 없다면 침입적인 디버깅이
나 패치가 필요한 실행 시간 동작에 대한 가시성을 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 감사 이벤트 표::
* bdb — 디버거 프레임워크::
* faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프::
* pdb — 파이썬 디버거::
* 파이썬 프로파일러::
* timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정::
* trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적::
* tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적::


File: python.info,  Node: 감사 이벤트 표,  Next: bdb — 디버거 프레임워크,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.1 감사 이벤트 표
---------------------

이 표는 CPython 런타임과 표준 라이브러리에서 *note sys.audit(): 15c1.나
*note PySys_Audit(): 368. 호출에 의해 발생하는 모든 이벤트를 포함합니다.
이 호출은 3.8 이상에서 추가되었습니다 ( PEP 578(1)을 참조하십시오).

이 이벤트 처리에 대한 정보는 *note sys.addaudithook(): 41c9.과 *note
PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41ca.을 참조하십시오.

이 표는 CPython 설명서로부터 생성되며, 다른 구현에서 발생하는 이벤트를 나
타내지 않을 수 있습니다.  실제 발생한 이벤트에 대해서는 여러분의 런타임
관련 설명서를 참조하십시오.

Audit event                        Arguments                                                   References
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
_thread.start_new_thread           ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’                                *note [1]: 41cb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
array.__new__                      ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’                                   *note [1]: 1a0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.breakpoint                ‘breakpointhook’                                            *note [1]: 234.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.id                        ‘id’                                                        *note [1]: 13eb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input                     ‘prompt’                                                    *note [1]: 12c8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input/result              ‘result’                                                    *note [1]: 12c8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
code.__new__                       ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’,                     *note [1]: 2e1.
                                   ‘posonlyargcount’, ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’,             
                                   ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’
                                   
                                                                                               
compile                            ‘source’, ‘filename’                                        *note [1]: 192.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear                                                               *note [1]: 41cc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_New                                                                 *note [1]: 41cd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks                                                                 *note [1]: d12.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_command                ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 5da.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_file                   ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: 41ce.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_interactivehook        ‘hook’                                                      *note [1]: fbf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_module                 ‘module-name’                                               *note [1]: 5db.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_startup                ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: fc0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_stdin                                                                              *note [1]: 41cf.*note [2]: 41d0.*note [3]: 41d1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.addressof                   ‘obj’                                                       *note [1]: 2e50.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.call_function               ‘func_pointer’, ‘arguments’                                 *note [1]: 2e48.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata                       ‘address’                                                   *note [1]: 2e62.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata/buffer                ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’                                 *note [1]: 2e60.*note [2]: 2e61.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_string_buffer        ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 2e05.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_unicode_buffer       ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 19d6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlopen                      ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 2e46.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym                       ‘library’, ‘name’                                           *note [1]: 2e46.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym/handle                ‘handle’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 2e46.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_errno                                                                               *note [1]: 2e40.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_last_error                                                                          *note [1]: 2e42.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_errno                   ‘errno’                                                     *note [1]: 2e41.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_exception               ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 2e48.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_last_error              ‘error’                                                     *note [1]: 2e43.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.string_at                   ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2e59.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.wstring_at                  ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2e5b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ensurepip.bootstrap                ‘root’                                                      *note [1]: 41d2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
exec                               ‘code_object’                                               *note [1]: 180.*note [2]: 17f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.fcntl                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’                                          *note [1]: 346e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.flock                        ‘fd’, ‘operation’                                           *note [1]: 41d3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.ioctl                        ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’                                      *note [1]: 1440.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.lockf                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’                       *note [1]: 13b5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3aa7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.sendcmd                     ‘self’, ‘cmd’                                               *note [1]: 3aac.*note [2]: 3aad.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
function.__new__                   ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 87f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_objects                     ‘generation’                                                *note [1]: 7fd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referents                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 7ff.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referrers                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 7fe.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob                          ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’                                     *note [1]: 29f.*note [2]: 801.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob/2                        ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’               *note [1]: 29f.*note [2]: 801.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.connect                ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3a8a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.send                   ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 3a8f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.open                       ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 902.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 3afc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
import                             ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’,          *note [1]: 5dc.
                                   ‘sys.path_hooks’                                            
                                   
                                                                                               
marshal.dumps                      ‘value’, ‘version’                                          *note [1]: 28c9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.load                                                                                   *note [1]: 1a1a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.loads                      ‘bytes’                                                     *note [1]: 1a1a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
mmap.__new__                       ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’                      *note [1]: 20b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.get_osfhandle               ‘fd’                                                        *note [1]: 41d4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.locking                     ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’                                      *note [1]: 41d5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.open_osfhandle              ‘handle’, ‘flags’                                           *note [1]: 41d6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__delattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: 1f36.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__getattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: bcf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__setattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’                                      *note [1]: 1f35.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
open                               ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’                                     *note [1]: 515.*note [2]: 516.*note [3]: d8e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.add_dll_directory               ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 9e6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chdir                           ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 607.*note [2]: d85.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chflags                         ‘path’, ‘flags’                                             *note [1]: 10df.*note [2]: 2b8f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chmod                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 21b.*note [2]: 21c.*note [3]: 21a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chown                           ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’                              *note [1]: 10e0.*note [2]: d86.*note [3]: 2b90.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.exec                            ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 2bcc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fork                                                                                        *note [1]: 197.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.forkpty                                                                                     *note [1]: 198.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fwalk                           ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’    *note [1]: b58.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.getxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: 10f5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.kill                            ‘pid’, ‘sig’                                                *note [1]: 1350.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.killpg                          ‘pgid’, ‘sig’                                               *note [1]: 19dd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.link                            ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: 10e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 10eb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdrives                                                                                  *note [1]: 497.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listmounts                      ‘volume’                                                    *note [1]: 499.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listvolumes                                                                                 *note [1]: 498.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listxattr                       ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 10f6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.lockf                           ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’                                          *note [1]: 1104.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.mkdir                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 21e.*note [2]: 21d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.posix_spawn                     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 220.*note [2]: 1a36.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.putenv                          ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 919.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.remove                          ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 10e2.*note [2]: 2b94.*note [3]: 10e7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.removexattr                     ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: 10f7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rename                          ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: 10e3.*note [2]: 2b95.*note [3]: 10e4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rmdir                           ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 10e5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.scandir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: a5b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.setxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’                       *note [1]: 10f8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.spawn                           ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                               *note [1]: 1738.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile                       ‘path’, ‘operation’                                         *note [1]: 18d2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile/2                     ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’         *note [1]: 18d2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.symlink                         ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’                                      *note [1]: 10e6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.system                          ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 1423.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.truncate                        ‘fd’, ‘length’                                              *note [1]: d8b.*note [2]: e38.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.unsetenv                        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 918.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.utime                           ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’                             *note [1]: 10e8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.walk                            ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’                  *note [1]: 4a3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.glob                  ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 22d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.rglob                 ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 22e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pdb.Pdb                                                                                        *note [1]: 91f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pickle.find_class                  ‘module’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 28a7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 921.*note [2]: 922.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.putline                     ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: 921.*note [2]: 922.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pty.spawn                          ‘argv’                                                      *note [1]: f7a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.prlimit                   ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                 *note [1]: f81.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.setrlimit                 ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                        *note [1]: 1525.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
setopencodehook                                                                                *note [1]: 1730.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.chown                       ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’                                     *note [1]: 240.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copyfile                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a56.*note [2]: a57.*note [3]: a55.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copymode                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a56.*note [2]: 16b2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copystat                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a57.*note [2]: 111f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copytree                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a25.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.make_archive                ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’               *note [1]: 4ad.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.move                        ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: a58.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.rmtree                      ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 2f9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.unpack_archive              ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’                         *note [1]: 465.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
signal.pthread_kill                ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’                                    *note [1]: 1122.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 19d1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 92b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.__new__                     ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                        *note [1]: d9d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.bind                        ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 1501.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.connect                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: d9f.*note [2]: 1500.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getaddrinfo                 ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                *note [1]: 1759.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyaddr               ‘ip_address’                                                *note [1]: 18d3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyname               ‘hostname’                                                  *note [1]: 3463.*note [2]: 18d4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostname                                                                             *note [1]: 2b3a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getnameinfo                 ‘sockaddr’                                                  *note [1]: 16ca.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyname               ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’                               *note [1]: 3465.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyport               ‘port’, ‘protocolname’                                      *note [1]: 3466.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendmsg                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 470.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendto                      ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: da5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sethostname                 ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 112c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect                    ‘database’                                                  *note [1]: 2a8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect/handle             ‘connection_handle’                                         *note [1]: 2a8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.enable_load_extension      ‘connection’, ‘enabled’                                     *note [1]: 838.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.load_extension             ‘connection’, ‘path’                                        *note [1]: 4b2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
subprocess.Popen                   ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, ‘env’                          *note [1]: 199.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_exceptions                                                                        *note [1]: 4bc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_frames                                                                            *note [1]: 13fb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframe                      ‘frame’                                                     *note [1]: 6da.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframemodulename            ‘depth’                                                     *note [1]: 1775.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.addaudithook                                                                               *note [1]: 41ca.*note [2]: 41c9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.excepthook                     ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’                        *note [1]: 805.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.monitoring.register_callback   ‘func’                                                      *note [1]: 41d7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer                                                               *note [1]: 162d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter                                                               *note [1]: 162d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.setprofile                                                                                 *note [1]: 14c6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.settrace                                                                                   *note [1]: 14c7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.unraisablehook                 ‘hook’, ‘unraisable’                                        *note [1]: 1f7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.closelog                                                                                *note [1]: 53a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.openlog                     ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’                            *note [1]: 539.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.setlogmask                  ‘maskpri’                                                   *note [1]: 41d8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.syslog                      ‘priority’, ‘message’                                       *note [1]: 53b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkdtemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 1224.*note [2]: 21f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkstemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 4c0.*note [2]: 285b.*note [3]: 285c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
time.sleep                         ‘secs’                                                      *note [1]: 41d9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
urllib.Request                     ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’                      *note [1]: 293.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
webbrowser.open                    ‘url’                                                       *note [1]: 396d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ConnectRegistry             ‘computer_name’, ‘key’                                      *note [1]: 41da.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.CreateKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 41db.*note [2]: 134b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 41dc.*note [2]: 134c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteValue                 ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 41dd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DisableReflectionKey        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 134d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnableReflectionKey         ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 134e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumKey                     ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 41de.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumValue                   ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 41df.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings    ‘str’                                                       *note [1]: 13c1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.LoadKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’                               *note [1]: 41e0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 41e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey/result              ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 41db.*note [2]: 134b.*note [3]: 41e1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.PyHKEY.Detach               ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 41e2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryInfoKey                ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 41e3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryReflectionKey          ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 134f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryValue                  ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’                              *note [1]: 41e4.*note [2]: 41e5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SaveKey                     ‘key’, ‘file_name’                                          *note [1]: 41e6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SetValue                    ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’                           *note [1]: 41e7.*note [2]: 1794.
                                                                                               

다음 이벤트는 내부적으로 발생하며 어떤 CPython의 공개 API에도 해당하지 않
습니다:

감사 이벤트                    인자
                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                               
_winapi.CreateFile             ‘file_name’, ‘desired_access’, ‘share_mode’,
                               ‘creation_disposition’,
                               ‘flags_and_attributes’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateJunction         ‘src_path’, ‘dst_path’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateNamedPipe        ‘name’, ‘open_mode’, ‘pipe_mode’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreatePipe

_winapi.CreateProcess          ‘application_name’, ‘command_line’,
                               ‘current_directory’
                               
                               
_winapi.OpenProcess            ‘process_id’, ‘desired_access’
                               
                               
_winapi.TerminateProcess       ‘handle’, ‘exit_code’
                               
                               
ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr           ‘obj’
                               

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: bdb — 디버거 프레임워크,  Next: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프,  Prev: 감사 이벤트 표,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.2 ‘bdb’ — 디버거 프레임워크
--------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/bdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note bdb: f. 모듈은 중단점 설정이나 디버거를 통한 실행 관리와 같은 기본
디버거 기능을 처리합니다.

다음 예외가 정의됩니다:

 -- 예외: bdb.BdbQuit

     디버거를 종료하기 위해 *note Bdb: 12f2. 클래스가 발생시키는 예외.

*note bdb: f. 모듈은 또한 두 가지 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: bdb.Breakpoint (self, file, line, temporary=False,
          cond=None, funcname=None)

     이 클래스는 임시 중단점, 무시 카운트, 비활성화와 (재) 활성화 및 조
     건을 구현합니다.

     중단점은 *note bpbynumber: 41ec.라는 리스트를 통해 번호로, *note
     bplist: 41ed.를 통해 ‘(file, line)’ 쌍으로 인덱싱됩니다.  전자는
     *note Breakpoint: 41eb. 클래스의 단일 인스턴스를 가리킵니다.  후자
     는 줄당 하나 이상의 중단점이 있을 수 있어서 이러한 인스턴스의 리스
     트를 가리킵니다.

     중단점을 만들 때, 연관된 *note 파일명: 41ee.은 규범적 형식
     (canonical form)이어야 합니다.  *note funcname: 41ef.이 정의되면, 해
     당 함수의 첫 번째 줄이 실행될 때 중단점 *note 적중: 41f0.이 카운트
     됩니다.  *note 조건부: 41f1. 중단점은 항상 *note 적중: 41f0.을 카운
     트합니다.

     *note Breakpoint: 41eb. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: deleteMe ()

          file/line과 관련된 리스트에서 중단점을 삭제합니다.  해당 위치
          의 마지막 중단점이면, file/line의 항목도 삭제합니다.

      -- 메서드: enable ()

          중단점을 활성화된 것으로 표시합니다.

      -- 메서드: disable ()

          중단점을 비활성화된 것으로 표시합니다.

      -- 메서드: bpformat ()

          멋지게 포맷된, 중단점에 대한 모든 정보가 포함된 문자열을 반환
          합니다:

             * 중단점 번호.

             * Temporary status (del or keep).

             * File/line 위치.

             * Break condition.

             * Number of times to ignore.

             * Number of times hit.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: bpprint (out=None)

          *note bpformat(): 41f5.의 출력을 파일 'out', 또는 ‘None’이면 표
          준 출력으로 인쇄합니다.

     *note Breakpoint: 41eb. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습
     니다:

      -- 속성: file

          File name of the *note Breakpoint: 41eb.

      -- 속성: line

          Line number of the *note Breakpoint: 41eb. within *note file:
          41ee.

      -- 속성: temporary

          ‘True’ if a *note Breakpoint: 41eb. at (file, line) is
          temporary.

      -- 속성: cond

          Condition for evaluating a *note Breakpoint: 41eb. at (file,
          line).

      -- 속성: funcname

          Function name that defines whether a *note Breakpoint: 41eb.
          is hit upon entering the function.

      -- 속성: enabled

          ‘True’ if *note Breakpoint: 41eb. is enabled.

      -- 속성: bpbynumber

          Numeric index for a single instance of a *note Breakpoint:
          41eb.

      -- 속성: bplist

          Dictionary of *note Breakpoint: 41eb. instances indexed by
          (*note file: 41ee, *note line: 41f7.) tuples.

      -- 속성: ignore

          Number of times to ignore a *note Breakpoint: 41eb.

      -- 속성: hits

          Count of the number of times a *note Breakpoint: 41eb. has
          been hit.

 -- 클래스: bdb.Bdb (skip=None)

     *note Bdb: 12f2. 클래스는 범용 파이썬 디버거 베이스 클래스 역할을 합
     니다.

     이 클래스는 추적 기능의 세부 사항을 처리합니다; 파생 클래스는 사용
     자 상호 작용을 구현해야 합니다.  표준 디버거 클래스 (*note pdb.Pdb:
     91f.)가 예입니다.

     'skip' 인자는, 주어지면, glob 스타일 모듈 이름 패턴의 이터러블 이어
     야 합니다.  디버거는 이러한 패턴 중 하나와 일치하는 모듈에서 시작되
     는 프레임으로 들어가지 않습니다.  프레임을 특정 모듈에서 시작된 것
     으로 간주하는지는 프레임 전역의 ‘__name__’에 의해 결정됩니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'skip' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     *note Bdb: 12f2.의 다음 메서드는 일반적으로 재정의할 필요가 없습니
     다.

      -- 메서드: canonic (filename)

          'filename'의 규범적 형식을 반환합니다.

          For real file names, the canonical form is an
          operating-system-dependent, *note case-normalized: 27eb. *note
          absolute path: 130b.  A 'filename' with angle brackets, such
          as ‘"<stdin>"’ generated in interactive mode, is returned
          unchanged.

      -- 메서드: reset ()

          디버깅을 시작할 준비가 된 값으로 ‘botframe’, ‘stopframe’,
          ‘returnframe’ 및 *note quitting: 41fd. 어트리뷰트를 설정합니다
          .

      -- 메서드: trace_dispatch (frame, event, arg)

          이 함수는 디버그되는 프레임의 추적 함수(trace function)로 설치
          됩니다.  반환 값은 새로운 추적 함수(대부분 자체)입니다.

          기본 구현은 실행되려고 하는 (문자열로 전달된) 이벤트의 유형에
          따라 프레임을 디스패치 하는 방법을 결정합니다.  'event'는 다음
          중 하나일 수 있습니다:

             * ‘"line"’: 새로운 코드 줄이 실행되려고 합니다.

             * ‘"call"’: 함수가 호출되거나, 다른 코드 블록에 진입하려고
               합니다.

             * ‘"return"’: 함수나 다른 코드 블록이 반환하려고 합니다.

             * ‘"exception"’: 예외가 발생했습니다.

             * ‘"c_call"’: C 함수가 호출되려고 합니다.

             * ‘"c_return"’: C 함수가 반환했습니다.

             * ‘"c_exception"’: C 함수가 예외를 발생시켰습니다.

          파이썬 이벤트의 경우, 특수 함수(아래를 참조하세요)가 호출됩니
          다.  C 이벤트의 경우, 아무런 액션도 취하지 않습니다.

          'arg' 매개 변수는 앞의 이벤트에 따라 다릅니다.

          추적 함수에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note sys.settrace(): 14c7. 설
          명서를 참조하십시오.  코드와 프레임 객체에 대한 자세한 내용은
          *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.을 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: dispatch_line (frame)

          디버거가 현재 행에서 중지해야 하면, *note user_line(): 4200. 메
          서드를 호출하십시오 (서브 클래스에서 재정의되어야 합니다).
          *note quitting: 41fd. 플래그가 설정되면 (*note user_line():
          4200.에서 설정할 수 있습니다) *note BdbQuit: 41ea. 예외를 발생
          시킵니다.  해당 스코프에서 추가 추적을 위해 *note
          trace_dispatch(): 41fe. 메서드에 대한 참조를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: dispatch_call (frame, arg)

          디버거가 이 함수 호출에서 중지해야 하면, *note user_call():
          4202. 메서드를 호출하십시오 (서브 클래스에서 재정의되어야 합니
          다).  *note quitting: 41fd. 플래그가 설정되면 (*note
          user_call(): 4202.에서 설정할 수 있습니다) *note BdbQuit:
          41ea. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  해당 스코프에서 추가 추적을 위해
          *note trace_dispatch(): 41fe. 메서드에 대한 참조를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: dispatch_return (frame, arg)

          디버거가 이 함수 반환에서 중지해야 하면, *note user_return():
          4204. 메서드를 호출하십시오 (서브 클래스에서 재정의되어야 합니
          다).  *note quitting: 41fd. 플래그가 설정되면 (*note
          user_return(): 4204.에서 설정할 수 있습니다) *note BdbQuit:
          41ea. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  해당 스코프에서 추가 추적을 위해
          *note trace_dispatch(): 41fe. 메서드에 대한 참조를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: dispatch_exception (frame, arg)

          디버거가 이 예외에서 중지해야 하면, *note user_exception():
          4206. 메서드를 호출하십시오 (서브 클래스에서 재정의되어야 합니
          다).  *note quitting: 41fd. 플래그가 설정되면 (*note
          user_exception(): 4206.에서 설정할 수 있습니다) *note BdbQuit:
          41ea. 예외를 발생시킵니다.  해당 스코프에서 추가 추적을 위해
          *note trace_dispatch(): 41fe. 메서드에 대한 참조를 반환합니다.

     일반적으로 파생된 클래스는 다음 메서드를 재정의하지 않지만, 중지와
     중단점의 정의를 재정의하려고 하면 그럴 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: is_skipped_line (module_name)

          Return ‘True’ if 'module_name' matches any skip pattern.

      -- 메서드: stop_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if 'frame' is below the starting frame in the
          stack.

      -- 메서드: break_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if there is an effective breakpoint for this
          line.

          Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in
          effect.  Delete temporary breakpoints based on information
          from *note effective(): 420a.

      -- 메서드: break_anywhere (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if any breakpoint exists for 'frame'’s filename.

     파생 클래스는 디버거 연산을 제어하기 위해 이 메서드를 재정의해야 합
     니다.

      -- 메서드: user_call (frame, argument_list)

          호출된 함수 내부에서 중단이 발생할 수 있으면 *note
          dispatch_call(): 4201.에서 호출됩니다.

          'argument_list' is not used anymore and will always be ‘None’.
          The argument is kept for backwards compatibility.

      -- 메서드: user_line (frame)

          *note stop_here(): 4208.나 *note break_here(): 4209.가 ‘True’를
          반환할 때 *note dispatch_line(): 41ff.에서 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: user_return (frame, return_value)

          *note stop_here(): 4208.가 ‘True’를 반환할 때 *note
          dispatch_return(): 4203.에서 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: user_exception (frame, exc_info)

          *note stop_here(): 4208.가 ‘True’를 반환할 때 *note
          dispatch_exception(): 4205.에서 호출됩니다.

      -- 메서드: do_clear (arg)

          중단점이 일시적일 때 중단점을 제거하는 방법을 처리합니다.

          이 메서드는 파생 클래스에서 구현해야 합니다.

     파생 클래스와 클라이언트는 다음 메서드를 호출하여 스테핑(stepping)
     상태에 영향을 줄 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: set_step ()

          한 줄의 코드 후에 멈춥니다.

      -- 메서드: set_next (frame)

          주어진 프레임 내 또는 아래의 다음 줄에서 멈춥니다.

      -- 메서드: set_return (frame)

          주어진 프레임에서 반환할 때 멈춥니다.

      -- 메서드: set_until (frame, lineno=None)

          현재 줄보다 큰 'lineno'를 갖는 줄에 도달하거나 현재 프레임에서
          반환할 때 멈춥니다.

      -- 메서드: set_trace ([frame])

          'frame'에서 디버깅을 시작합니다.  'frame'을 지정하지 않으면 호
          출자의 프레임에서 디버깅을 시작합니다.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: *note set_trace(): 4212. will enter the
          debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code to
          be executed.

      -- 메서드: set_continue ()

          중단점에서나 완료 시에만 멈춥니다.  중단점이 없으면, 시스템 추
          적 함수를 ‘None’으로 설정합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_quit ()

          ‘quitting’ 어트리뷰트를 ‘True’로 설정합니다.  다음에
          ‘dispatch_*()’ 메서드 중 하나를 호출할 때 *note BdbQuit:
          41ea.가 발생합니다.

     파생 클래스와 클라이언트는 다음 메서드를 호출하여 중단점을 조작할 수
     있습니다.  이 메서드는 문제가 발생하면 에러 메시지가 포함된 문자열
     을 반환하고, 모두 정상이면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: set_break (filename, lineno, temporary=False,
               cond=None, funcname=None)

          새로운 중단점을 설정합니다.  인자로 전달된 'filename'에
          'lineno' 줄이 없으면 에러 메시지를 반환합니다.  *note
          canonic(): 41fb. 메서드에 설명된 대로 'filename'은 규범적 형식
          이어야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear_break (filename, lineno)

          'filename'과 'lineno'에서 중단점을 삭제합니다.  설정되지 않았
          으면, 에러 메시지를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear_bpbynumber (arg)

          *note Breakpoint.bpbynumber: 41ec.에서 인덱스 'arg'인 중단점을
          삭제합니다.  'arg'가 숫자가 아니거나 범위를 벗어나면, 에러 메
          시지를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear_all_file_breaks (filename)

          'filename'에서 모든 중단점을 삭제합니다.  설정되지 않았으면, 에
          러 메시지를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: clear_all_breaks ()

          모든 기존 중단점을 삭제합니다.  설정되지 않았으면, 에러 메시지
          를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_bpbynumber (arg)

          주어진 숫자로 지정된 중단점을 반환합니다.  'arg'가 문자열이면,
          숫자로 변환됩니다.  'arg'가 숫자가 아닌 문자열이면, 지정된 중
          단점이 존재하지 않거나 삭제되었으면, *note ValueError: 202.가
          발생합니다.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- 메서드: get_break (filename, lineno)

          'filename'의 'lineno'에 중단점이 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_breaks (filename, lineno)

          'filename'의 'lineno'에 있는 모든 중단점을 반환하거나, 없으면
          빈 리스트를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_file_breaks (filename)

          'filename'의 모든 중단점을 반환하거나, 없으면 빈 리스트를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_all_breaks ()

          설정된 모든 중단점을 반환합니다.

     파생 클래스와 클라이언트는 다음 메서드를 호출하여 스택 추적을 나타
     내는 데이터 구조를 얻을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_stack (f, t)

          Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and
          a size.

          The most recently called frame is last in the list.  The size
          is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was
          invoked.

      -- 메서드: format_stack_entry (frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')

          ‘(frame, lineno)’ 튜플인 스택 항목에 대한 정보가 포함된 문자열
          을 반환합니다.  반환 문자열은 다음을 포함합니다:

             * 프레임을 포함하는 규범적 파일명.

             * 함수 이름이나 ‘"<lambda>"’.

             * 입력 인자.

             * 반환 값.

             * 코드 줄 (있으면).

     클라이언트가 문자열로 지정된 *note statement: 2793.를 디버깅하기 위
     해 디버거를 사용하려면 다음 두 가지 메서드를 호출할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: run (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          *note exec(): 17f. 함수를 통해 실행된 문장을 디버그합니다.
          'globals'의 기본값은 ‘__main__.__dict__’이고, 'locals'의 기본
          값은 'globals'입니다.

      -- 메서드: runeval (expr, globals=None, locals=None)

          *note eval(): 180. 함수를 통해 실행된 표현식을 디버그합니다.
          'globals'와 'locals'는 *note run(): 4220.과 같은 의미입니다.

      -- 메서드: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해.  *note run(): 4220. 메서드를 호출
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          단일 함수 호출을 디버그하고, 결과를 반환합니다.

마지막으로, 모듈은 다음과 같은 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: bdb.checkfuncname (b, frame)

     *note Breakpoint: 41eb. 'b'가 설정된 방식에 따라, 여기서 중단해야 하
     면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     줄 번호를 통해 설정되었으면, *note b.line: 41f7.이 'frame'의 것과 같
     은지 확인합니다.  *note 함수 이름: 41ef.을 통해 중단점이 설정되었으
     면, 우리는 올바른 'frame'(올바른 함수)에 있는지와 그것의 첫 번째 실
     행 가능한 줄에 있는지 확인해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: bdb.effective (file, line, frame)

     Return ‘(active breakpoint, delete temporary flag)’ or ‘(None,
     None)’ as the breakpoint to act upon.

     The 'active breakpoint' is the first entry in *note bplist: 41ed.
     for the (*note file: 41ee, *note line: 41f7.) (which must exist)
     that is *note enabled: 41f9, for which *note checkfuncname(): 4223.
     is true, and that has neither a false *note condition: 41f1. nor
     positive *note ignore: 41fa. count.  The 'flag', meaning that a
     temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ‘False’ only when the
     *note cond: 41f1. cannot be evaluated (in which case, *note ignore:
     41fa. count is ignored).

     If no such entry exists, then ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

 -- 함수: bdb.set_trace ()

     호출자의 프레임에서 *note Bdb: 12f2. 인스턴스로 디버깅을 시작합니다
     .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bdb.py


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프,  Next: pdb — 파이썬 디버거,  Prev: bdb — 디버거 프레임워크,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.3 ‘faulthandler’ — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프
----------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 결함(fault) 시, 시간 초과 후 또는 사용자 시그널에 파이썬 트레
이스백을 명시적으로 덤프하는 함수를 포함합니다.  *note SIGSEGV: 1d51,
*note SIGFPE: 1d52, *note SIGABRT: 1d53, *note SIGBUS: 1d54. 및 *note
SIGILL: 1d55. 시그널에 대한 결함 처리기를 설치하려면 *note
faulthandler.enable(): c9b.를 호출하십시오.  *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:
1076. 환경 변수를 설정하거나 *note -X: 176. ‘faulthandler’ 명령 줄 옵션
을 사용하여 시작할 때 활성화할 수도 있습니다.

결함 처리기는 Apport나 윈도우 결함 처리기(Windows fault handler)와 같은
시스템 결함 처리기와 호환됩니다.  이 모듈은 ‘sigaltstack()’ 함수를 사용
할 수 있으면 시그널 처리기에 대체 스택을 사용합니다.  이것은 스택 오버플
로에서조차 트레이스백을 덤프할 수 있도록 합니다.

결함 처리기는 치명적일 때 호출되므로 시그널 안전한 함수만 사용할 수 있습
니다 (예를 들어, 힙에 메모리를 할당할 수 없습니다).  이 제한 때문에 일반
적인 파이썬 트레이스백에 비해 트레이스백 덤프는 최소화됩니다:

   * ASCII만 지원됩니다.  인코딩 시 ‘backslashreplace’ 에러 처리기가 사
     용됩니다.

   * 각 문자열은 500자로 제한됩니다.

   * 파일명, 함수 이름 및 줄 번호만 표시됩니다.  (소스 코드 없음)

   * 100프레임과 100스레드로 제한됩니다.

   * 순서가 뒤집힙니다: 가장 최근의 호출이 먼저 표시됩니다.

기본적으로, 파이썬 트레이스백은 *note sys.stderr: 937.에 기록됩니다.  트
레이스백을 보려면, 응용 프로그램이 터미널에서 실행되어야 합니다.  로그 파
일을 *note faulthandler.enable(): c9b.로 전달할 수도 있습니다.

모듈은 C로 구현되어 있으므로, 충돌 시나 파이썬이 교착 상태에 빠질 때 트
레이스백을 덤프할 수 있습니다.

*note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.는 파이썬 시작 시 *note
faulthandler.enable(): c9b.을 호출합니다.

더 보기
.......

Module *note pdb: a5.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

Module *note traceback: fe.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

* Menu:

* 트레이스백 덤프하기::
* 결함 처리기 상태::
* 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기::
* 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기::
* 파일 기술자 관련 문제::
* 예제: 예제<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Next: 결함 처리기 상태,  Up: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

5.27.3.1 트레이스백 덤프하기
............................

 -- 함수: faulthandler.dump_traceback (file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True)

     모든 스레드의 트레이스백을 'file'로 덤프합니다.  'all_threads'가
     ‘False’면, 현재 스레드만 덤프합니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note traceback.print_tb(): e7d, which can be used to print a
     traceback object.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수에 파일 기술자를 전달하는 지원이 추가되었
     습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 결함 처리기 상태,  Next: 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Prev: 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Up: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

5.27.3.2 결함 처리기 상태
.........................

 -- 함수: faulthandler.enable (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)

     결함 처리기를 활성화합니다: *note SIGSEGV: 1d51, *note SIGFPE:
     1d52, *note SIGABRT: 1d53, *note SIGBUS: 1d54. 및 *note SIGILL:
     1d55. 시그널에 대한 처리기를 설치하여 파이썬 트레이스백을 덤프합니
     다.  'all_threads'가 ‘True’면 실행 중인 모든 스레드에 대한 트레이스
     백을 생성합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 현재 스레드만 덤프합니다.

     'file'은 결함 처리기가 비활성화될 때까지 열려 있어야 합니다: *note
     파일 기술자 관련 문제: 4228.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수에 파일 기술자를 전달하는 지원이 추가되었
     습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 윈도우에서는, 윈도우 예외(Windows exception) 처
     리기도 설치됩니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The dump now mentions if a garbage collector
     collection is running if 'all_threads' is true.

 -- 함수: faulthandler.disable ()

     결함 처리기를 비활성화합니다: *note enable(): c9b.로 설치된 시그널
     처리기를 제거합니다.

 -- 함수: faulthandler.is_enabled ()

     결함 처리기가 활성화되었는지 검사합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Next: 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Prev: 결함 처리기 상태,  Up: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

5.27.3.3 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기
...........................................

 -- 함수: faulthandler.dump_traceback_later (timeout, repeat=False,
          file=sys.stderr, exit=False)

     'timeout' 초의 시간제한 후, 또는 'repeat'가 ‘True’면 매 'timeout' 초
     마다, 모든 스레드의 트레이스백을 덤프합니다.  'exit'가 ‘True’면, 트
     레이스백을 덤프한 후 status=1 로 ‘_exit()’를 호출합니다.
     (‘_exit()’가 프로세스를 즉시 종료함에 유의하십시오.  파일 버퍼를 플
     러시 하는 것과 같은 정리 작업을 수행하지 않습니다.)  함수가 두 번 호
     출되면, 새 호출은 이전 매개 변수를 대체하고 시간제한을 다시 설정합
     니다.  타이머는 1초 미만의 해상도를 갖습니다.

     'file'은 트레이스백이 덤프 되거나 *note
     cancel_dump_traceback_later(): 422c.가 호출될 때까지 열려 있어야 합
     니다: *note 파일 기술자 관련 문제: 4228.를 참조하십시오.

     이 함수는 워치독(watchdog) 스레드를 사용하여 구현됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수에 파일 기술자를 전달하는 지원이 추가되었
     습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 항상 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later ()

     마지막 *note dump_traceback_later(): dfb. 호출을 취소합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Next: 파일 기술자 관련 문제,  Prev: 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Up: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

5.27.3.4 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기
............................................

 -- 함수: faulthandler.register (signum, file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True, chain=False)

     사용자 시그널을 등록합니다: 'signum' 시그널에 대한 처리기를 설치해
     서, 모든 스레드, 또는 'all_threads'가 ‘False’면 현재 스레드의, 트레
     이스백을 'file'로 덤프합니다.  chain이 ‘True’면 이전 처리기를 호출
     합니다.

     'file'은 시그널이 *note unregister(): 422e.로 등록 해지 될 때까지 열
     려 있어야 합니다: *note 파일 기술자 관련 문제: 4228.를 참조하십시오
     .

     윈도우에서는 사용할 수 없습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 함수에 파일 기술자를 전달하는 지원이 추가되었
     습니다.

 -- 함수: faulthandler.unregister (signum)

     사용자 시그널을 등록 해지합니다: *note register(): df9.로 설치된
     'signum' 시그널 처리기를 제거합니다.  시그널이 등록되었으면 ‘True’를
     반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     윈도우에서는 사용할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 기술자 관련 문제,  Next: 예제<26>,  Prev: 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기,  Up: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

5.27.3.5 파일 기술자 관련 문제
..............................

*note enable(): c9b, *note dump_traceback_later(): dfb. 및 *note
register(): df9.는 'file' 인자의 파일 기술자를 유지합니다.  파일이 닫히
고 파일 기술자가 새 파일에 의해 다시 사용되거나, *note os.dup2(): b60.가
파일 기술자를 바꾸는 데 사용되면, 트레이스백이 다른 파일에 기록됩니다.  파
일을 바꿀 때마다 이 함수들을 다시 호출하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<26>,  Prev: 파일 기술자 관련 문제,  Up: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프

5.27.3.6 예제
.............

리눅스에서 결함 처리기를 활성화하거나 그렇지 않았을 때의 세그멘테이션 결
함 예제:

     $ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
     Segmentation fault

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: pdb — 파이썬 디버거,  Next: 파이썬 프로파일러,  Prev: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.4 ‘pdb’ — 파이썬 디버거
----------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note pdb: a5. 모듈은 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 대화형 소스 코드 디버거를 정
의합니다.  소스 라인 단계의 중단점(breakpoint) 및 단계 실행(single
stepping) 설정, 스택 프레임 검사, 소스 코드 목록, 그리고 모든 스택 프레
임의 컨텍스트에서 임의의 파이썬 코드 평가를 지원합니다.  또한 포스트-모
템(post-mortem) 디버깅을 지원하며, 프로그램 제어 하에서도 호출될 수 있습
니다.

이 디버거는 확장이 가능합니다 – 디버거는 실제로 *note Pdb: 91f. 클래스로
정의됩니다.  현재 문서화되어 있진 않지만, 소스를 읽어보시면 쉽게 이해하
실 수 있습니다.  확장 인터페이스는 *note bdb: f. 와 *note cmd: 19. 모듈
을 활용합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note faulthandler: 58.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

모듈 *note traceback: fe.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

디버거로 진입하는 일반적인 사용법은:

     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()

또는:

     breakpoint()

위 코드를 디버거로 진입하고 싶은 구간에 추가한 다음, 프로그램을 실행하면
됩니다.  그런 다음 이 문장 뒤에 오는 코드를 단계별로 실행하고, *note
continue: 4234. 명령을 사용하여 디버거 없이 프로그램을 계속 실행할 수 있
습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 내장 *note breakpoint(): 234.가, 기본값으로 호출될 때
는, ‘import pdb; pdb.set_trace()’를 대신해서 사용할 수 있습니다.

     def double(x):
        breakpoint()
        return x * 2
     val = 3
     print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}")

The debugger’s prompt is ‘(Pdb)’, which is the indicator that you are in
debug mode:

     > ...(2)double()
     -> breakpoint()
     (Pdb) p x
     3
     (Pdb) continue
     3 * 2 is 6

버전 3.3에서 변경: *note readline: ba. 모듈을 통한 탭-완성은 명령과 명령
인자에 사용할 수 있습니다, 예를 들면, 현재 전역 및 지역 이름들은 ‘p’ 명
령의 인자로 제공됩니다.

다른 스크립트를 디버그하기 위해 명령 줄에서 *note pdb: a5.를 호출할 수도
있습니다.  예를 들면:

     python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | pyfile) [args ...]

모듈로 호출하는 경우, 디버깅 중인 프로그램이 비정상적으로 종료되면 pdb는
자동으로 포스트-모템(post-mortem) 디버깅을 시작합니다.  포스트-모템 디버
깅이 끝나면 (또는 프로그램이 정상적으로 종료되면), pdb는 프로그램을 재시
작합니다.  자동 재시작은 중단점과 같은 pdb의 상태를 유지하고 대부분의 경
우 프로그램 종료 시 디버거를 종료하는 것보다 유용합니다.

 -- Option: -c, --command <command>

     ‘.pdbrc’ 파일에 주어진 것처럼 명령을 실행하기; *note 디버거 명령들:
     4237. 을 확인해보세요.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘-c’ 옵션을 추가했습니다.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     ‘python -m’과 비슷한 방식으로 모듈을 실행하기.  스크립트와 마찬가지
     로, 디버거는 모듈의 첫 번째 줄 바로 전에 실행을 일시정지합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘-m’ 옵션을 추가했습니다.

디버거 제어하에 문장을 실행하는 일반적인 사용법은 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     >>> pdb.run("f(2)")
     > <string>(1)<module>()
     (Pdb) continue
     0.5
     >>>

에러가 발생하는 프로그램을 검사하는 일반적인 사용법은 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     ...
     >>> f(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> pdb.pm()
     > <stdin>(2)f()
     (Pdb) p x
     0
     (Pdb)

버전 3.13에서 변경: The implementation of PEP 667(2) means that name
assignments made via ‘pdb’ will immediately affect the active scope,
even when running inside an *note optimized scope: 17e.

이 모듈은 다음과 같은 함수를 정의합니다; 각 함수는 조금 다른 방식으로 디
버거로 진입합니다:

 -- 함수: pdb.run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)

     디버거 제어하에 'statement' (주어진 문자열 또는 코드 객체)를 실행합
     니다.  코드가 실행하기 전에 디버거 프롬프트가 나타납니다; 중단점을
     지정하고 *note continue: 4234.를 입력하거나, *note step: 4239. 또는
     *note next: 423a.를 통해 문장을 단계별로 살펴볼 수 있습니다.  (이 모
     든 명령은 아래에 설명되어 있습니다.)  선택적 인자 'globals' 와
     'locals'는 코드가 실행되는 환경을 구체적으로 명시합니다; 기본적으로
     는 이 모듈의 딕셔너리 *note __main__: 1. 이 사용됩니다.  (내장 함수
     *note exec(): 17f. 또는 *note eval(): 180. 에 대한 설명 참조.)

 -- 함수: pdb.runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)

     디버거 제어하에 문자열 또는 코드 객체로 주어진 'expression'을 평가
     합니다.  *note runeval(): 423b. 이 반환될 때, 'expression'의 값을 반
     환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 이 함수는 *note run(): 403e.과 유사한 함수
     입니다.

 -- 함수: pdb.runcall (function, *args, **kwds)

     주어진 인자와 함께 'function' (문자열이 아닌, 함수 또는 메서드 객체
     )를 호출합니다.  *note runcall(): 423c. 이 반환될 때, 함수 호출로 반
     환된 값을 반환합니다.  디버거 프롬프트는 함수에 진입하자마자 나타납
     니다.

 -- 함수: pdb.set_trace (*, header=None)

     호출하는 스택 프레임에서 디버거에 진입합니다.  코드가 디버그 되지 않
     는 경우 일지라도 (예를 들면, assertion이 실패하는 경우), 프로그램의
     특정 지점에 중단점을 하드 코딩할 때 유용하게 사용됩니다.  'header'
     값을 주면, 디버깅이 시작되기 바로 전에 그 값이 콘솔에 출력됩니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 키워드 전용 인자 'header'.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note set_trace(): 235. will enter the debugger
     immediately, rather than on the next line of code to be executed.

 -- 함수: pdb.post_mortem (t=None)

     주어진 예외나 *note 트레이스백 객체: af0.의 포스트-모템
     (post-mortem) 디버깅으로 진입합니다.  만약 값이 주어지지 않았다면,
     현재 처리되고 있는 예외를 사용거나, 없다면 ‘ValueError’를 발생시킵
     니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Support for exception objects was added.

 -- 함수: pdb.pm ()

     *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. 에서 찾은 예외의 포스트-모템(post-mortem)
     디버깅으로 진입합니다.

‘run*’ 함수와 *note set_trace(): 235.는 *note Pdb: 91f. 클래스를 인스턴
스 화하고 같은 이름의 메서드를 호출하는 에일리어스(alias) 입니다.  더 많
은 기능에 액세스하려면, 아래를 참고하여 직접 하셔야 합니다:

 -- 클래스: pdb.Pdb (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None,
          skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True)

     *note Pdb: 91f. 는 디버거 클래스입니다.

     'completekey', 'stdin' 그리고 'stdout' 인자는 내부 *note cmd.Cmd:
     16cc. 클래스로 전달됩니다; 자세한 설명은 해당 클래스에서 확인할 수
     있습니다.

     'skip' 인자가 주어진다면, 반드시 글로브-스타일(glob-style) 모듈 이
     름 패턴의 이터러블(iterable) 이어야 합니다.  디버거는 이 패턴 중 하
     나와 일치하는 모듈에서 시작되는 프레임 단계로 들어가지 않습니다.
     (3)

     기본적으로, Pdb는 사용자가 *note continue: 4234. 명령을 내릴 때,
     SIGINT 신호(사용자가 콘솔에서 ‘Ctrl’-‘C’를 누를 때 전송되는 신호) 에
     대한 핸들러를 설정합니다.  사용자는 ‘Ctrl’-‘C’를 눌러서 디버거를 벗
     어날 수 있습니다.  만약 Pdb가 SIGINT 핸들러를 건드리지 않길 원한다
     면 'nosigint' 설정을 참으로 변경하면 됩니다.

     'readrc' 인자는 기본적으로 참이고 Pdb가 파일 시스템으로부터 .pdbrc를
     불러올지 여부를 제어합니다.

     'skip'으로 추적하기 위한 호출 예시:

          import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘pdb.Pdb’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 'skip' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'nosigint' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.  이전에는,
     Pdb가 SIGINT 핸들러를 설정하지 않았습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'readrc' 인자.

      -- 메서드: run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- 메서드: runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- 메서드: runcall (function, *args, **kwds)
      -- 메서드: set_trace ()

          위에 설명된 함수에 대한 설명서를 참조하시면 됩니다.

* Menu:

* 디버거 명령들::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pdb.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) 프레임이 특정 모듈에서 시작되는 것으로 간주하는지 여부는 프레임 전
역에 있는 ‘__name__’에 의해 결정됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 디버거 명령들,  Up: pdb — 파이썬 디버거

5.27.4.1 디버거 명령들
......................

디버거가 인식할 수 있는 명령이 아래 나열되어 있습니다.  대부분의 명령은
한두 문자로 단축될 수 있습니다; 예를 들면, ‘h(elp)’ 는 ‘h’ 또는 ‘help’로
help 명령을 입력할 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  (하지만 ‘he’, ‘hel’, ‘H’,
‘Help’ 또는 ‘HELP’는 사용할 수 없습니다.)  인자는 반드시 명령과 공백(스
페이스나 탭)으로 분리되어야 합니다.  선택적 인자는 명령 문법에서 대괄호
(‘[]’)로 묶여있습니다; 대괄호는 입력하지 않습니다.  명령 문법에서 대체 가
능한 인자는 세로 바(‘|’)로 분리되어 있습니다.

빈 줄을 입력하면 마지막으로 입력된 명령이 반복됩니다.  예외: 만약 마지막
명령이 *note list: 4242. 명령이면, 다음 11줄이 나열됩니다.

디버거가 인식하지 못하는 명령은 파이썬 문장으로 가정하고 디버깅 중인 프
로그램의 컨텍스트에서 실행됩니다.  파이썬 문장 앞에 느낌표(‘!’)를 붙여 사
용할 수도 있습니다.  이 방법은 디버깅 중인 프로그램을 검사하는 강력한 방
법입니다.  변수를 변경하거나 함수를 호출하는 것도 가능합니다.  이 문장에
서 예외가 발생하면, 예외 명은 출력되지만 디버거의 상태는 변경되지 않습니
다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Expressions/Statements whose prefix is a pdb command
are now correctly identified and executed.

디버거는 *note 에일리어스: 4243.을 지원합니다.  에일리어스는 검사 중인 컨
텍스트에서 특정 수준의 적응성을 허용하는 매개변수를 가질 수 있습니다.

한 줄에 여러 명령은 ‘;;’ 로 구분하여 입력할 수 있습니다.  (단일 ‘;’ 는 파
이썬 파서로 전달되는 한 줄에서, 여러 명령을 구분하기 위한 분리 기호이므
로 사용되지 않습니다.)  명령을 똑똑하게 분리하진 못합니다; 입력의 맨 처
음 ‘;;’ 에서 나뉘며, 따옴표로 묶인 문자열 중간에 있더라도 나눠집니다.  이
중 세미콜론이 있는 문자열의 해결 방법은 묵시적 문자열 이어붙이기
‘';'';'’ 나 ‘";"";"’를 사용하는 것입니다.

To set a temporary global variable, use a 'convenience variable'.  A
'convenience variable' is a variable whose name starts with ‘$’.  For
example, ‘$foo = 1’ sets a global variable ‘$foo’ which you can use in
the debugger session.  The 'convenience variables' are cleared when the
program resumes execution so it’s less likely to interfere with your
program compared to using normal variables like ‘foo = 1’.

There are three preset 'convenience variables':

   * ‘$_frame’: the current frame you are debugging

   * ‘$_retval’: 프레임이 반환 중이면 반환 값

   * ‘$_exception’: the exception if the frame is raising an exception

Added in version 3.12: Added the 'convenience variable' feature.

만약 파일 ‘.pdbrc’ 가 사용자의 홈 디렉터리 또는 현재 디렉터리에 있으면,
디버거 프롬프트에서 입력된 것처럼 ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩으로 읽히고 실행됩니다
.  빈 줄과 ‘#’로 시작하는 줄은 무시됩니다.  이것은 특히 에일리어스에 유
용합니다.  만약 두 파일이 모두 존재하면, 홈 디렉터리에 있는 파일이 먼저
읽히고 거기에 정의된 에일리어스는 로컬 파일에 의해 무시될 수 있습니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘.pdbrc’ 는 *note continue: 4234.와 *note next:
423a.같이 디버깅을 계속하는 명령을 포함할 수 있습니다.  이전에는, 이런 명
령이 효과가 없었습니다.

버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘.pdbrc’ is now read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.
Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding.

 -- Pdbcommand: h(elp) [command]

     인자가 없는 경우에는, 사용 가능한 명령 리스트를 출력합니다.
     'command' 인자가 주어진 경우에는, 해당 명령의 도움말을 출력합니다.
     ‘help pdb’ 는 전체 문서(*note pdb: a5. 모듈의 독스트링)를 표시합니
     다.  'command' 인자는 반드시 식별자이어야 하므로, ‘!’ 명령의 도움말
     을 얻기 위해서 ‘help exec’ 가 꼭 입력되어야 합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: w(here)

     가장 최근 프레임을 맨 아래로 하는 스택 트레이스를 출력합니다.  화살
     표(‘>’)는 현재 프레임을 나타내며, 대부분의 명령의 컨텍스트를 명확히
     합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: d(own) [count]

     스택 트레이스에서 현재 프레임을 'count' (기본 1) 단계 아래로 (새로
     운 프레임으로) 이동합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: u(p) [count]

     스택 트레이스에서 현재 프레임을 'count' (기본 1) 단계 위로 (이전 프
     레임으로) 이동합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     'lineno' 인자가 주어진 경우, 현재 파일의 줄 'lineno'에 브레이크를 설
     정합니다.  줄 번호는 다른 파일 (어쩌면 아직 로드되지 않은 파일)에 중
     단점을 지정하기 위해, 'filename'과 콜론을 접두사로 사용할 수 있습니
     다.  파일은 *note sys.path: 3ae. 에서 검색합니다.  허용되는
     'filename'의 형식은 ‘/abspath/to/file.py’, ‘relpath/file.py’,
     ‘module’ 및 ‘package.module’ 입니다.

     'function' 인자가 주어진 경우, 함수 내에서 첫 번째 실행 가능한 문장
     에서 브레이크를 설정합니다.  'function'은 현재 이름 공간에서 함수로
     평가되는 모든 표현식이 될 수 있습니다.

     두 번째 인자가 있는 경우, 중단점을 적용하기 전에 표현식이 반드시 참
     이어야 합니다.

     인자가 없다면, 각 중단점, 중단점에 도달한 횟수, 현재까지 무시 횟수,
     그리고 관련 조건(있는 경우)을 포함한 모든 중단지점을 나열합니다.

     Each breakpoint is assigned a number to which all the other
     breakpoint commands refer.

 -- Pdbcommand: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     한번 도달하면 제거되는 임시중단점입니다.  인자는 *note break:
     4248.과 동일합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...]

     'filename:lineno' 인자가 주어진 경우, 해당 줄에 있는 모든 중단점을
     제거합니다.  공백으로 구분된 중단점 번호 배열이 주어진 경우, 해당 중
     단점을 제거합니다.  인자가 없는 경우, 모든 중단지점을 재차 확인 후
     제거합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     공백으로 구분된 중단점 번호로 해당 중단점을 비활성화합니다.  중단점
     을 비활성화하는 것은 프로그램이 실행을 중단할 수 없다는 것입니다, 하
     지만 중단점을 제거하는 것과는 달리, 중단점 목록에 남아있으며 (재
     -)활성화할 수 있습니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     지정된 중단점을 활성화합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: ignore bpnumber [count]

     해당 중단점 번호를 무시할 횟수를 설정합니다.  만약 'count'가 생략되
     면, 무시 횟수는 0으로 설정됩니다.  무시 횟수가 0일 때 중단점이 활성
     화됩니다.  0이 아닐 때는, 중단점에 도달하고 중단점이 비활성화되지 않
     고 연관 조건이 참일 때마다 'count'가 차감됩니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: condition bpnumber [condition]

     중단점에 새로운 'condition'을 설정합니다, 표현식이 참일 때만 중단점
     이 적용됩니다.  만약 'condition'이 없다면, 설정되어있던 모든 조건이
     제거됩니다; 즉, 중단점에 적용되어있던 조건이 없어집니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: commands [bpnumber]

     중단점 번호 'bpnumber' 에 대한 명령을 지정합니다.  명령 목록은 다음
     줄에 나타나게 됩니다.  명령을 종료하려면 ‘end’만 입력하면 됩니다.  예
     를 들면:

          (Pdb) commands 1
          (com) p some_variable
          (com) end
          (Pdb)

     중단점에 지정된 모든 명령을 제거하려면, ‘commands’ 입력 후에 바로
     ‘end’를 입력하면 됩니다; 즉, 아무 명령을 설정하지 않는 것입니다.

     'bpnumber' 인자가 주어지지 않으면, ‘commands’는 마지막 중단점 묶음
     을 참조하게 됩니다.

     중단점 명령을 활용해서 프로그램을 다시 시작할 수도 있습니다.  *note
     continue: 4234. 명령이나, *note step: 4239. 또는 실행을 재개하는 다
     른 명령을 사용하기만 하면 됩니다.

     실행을 재개하는 아무 명령 (*note continue: 4234, *note step: 4239,
     *note next: 423a, *note return: 4250, *note jump: 4251, *note quit:
     4252. 및 해당 명령의 약어들)을 지정하는 것은 (‘end’ 명령을 붙인 것
     처럼) 해당 명령 목록을 끝내는 것입니다.  왜냐하면 실행을 재개할 때
     마다, 명령 목록을 가진 다른 중단점을 맞이할 수 있고, 어떤 목록을 실
     행해야 할지 모르는 상황이 생기기 때문입니다.

     만약 ‘silent’ 명령을 사용하면, 중단점에서 멈출 때 나오는 메시지는 출
     력되지 않습니다.  특정 메시지를 출력하고 진행되는 중단점에 바람직할
     수 있습니다.  다만 그 어떤 명령도 출력하지 않는다면, 그 중단점에 도
     달했다는 것은 알 수 없습니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: s(tep)

     현재 줄을 실행하고, 멈출 수 있는 가장 첫 번째 줄(호출되는 함수 또는
     현재 함수의 다음 줄) 에서 멈춥니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: n(ext)

     현재 함수의 다음 줄에 도달하거나, 반환할 때까지 계속 실행합니다.
     *note next: 423a.와 *note step: 4239.의 차이점은 *note step: 4239.은
     호출된 함수 안에서 멈추고, *note next: 423a.는 호출된 함수를 재빠르
     게 실행하고 현재 함수의 바로 다음 줄에서만 멈춥니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: unt(il) [lineno]

     인자가 없는 경우에는, 현재 줄 번호보다 높은 줄 번호에 도달할 때까지
     계속 실행합니다.

     'lineno'가 주어진 경우에는, 'lineno'보다 크거나 같은 줄에 도달할 때
     까지 계속 실행합니다.  두 경우 모두 현재 프레임이 반환될 때 멈춥니
     다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 줄 번호를 명시적으로 줄 수 있도록 허용합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: r(eturn)

     현재 함수가 반환될 때까지 계속 실행합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: c(ont(inue))

     중단점을 마주칠 때까지 계속 실행합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: j(ump) lineno

     다음으로 실행될 줄을 설정할 수 있습니다.  프레임의 맨 마지막에서만
     실행이 가능합니다.  이전 줄로 돌아가 코드를 재실행하거나, 실행을 원
     치 않는 코드를 건너뛸 수 있습니다.

     중요한 점은 이 명령은 언제나 실행할 수 있진 않습니다 – *note for:
     2ea. 루프 내부로 들어가거나 *note finally: 9c7. 절을 건너뛰는 것은
     불가능합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: l(ist) [first[, last]]

     현재 파일의 소스 코드를 나열합니다.  인자가 없는 경우, 현재 줄 주위
     로 11줄을 나열하거나 이전 줄을 이어서 나열합니다.  인자로 ‘.’을 입
     력한 경우, 현재 줄 주위로 11줄을 나열합니다.  한 인자만 주어진 경우
     , 해당 줄 주위로 11줄을 나열합니다.  두 인자가 주어진 경우, 두 인자
     사이의 모든 줄을 나열합니다; 만약 두 번째 인자가 첫 번째 인자보다 작
     은 경우, 첫 번째 인자로부터 나열하는 줄 수로 인식합니다.

     현재 프레임에서 현재 위치는 ‘->’로 표시됩니다.  예외를 디버깅할 때,
     예외가 최초로 발생하거나 전파된 줄이 현재 줄과 다른 경우에는 ‘>>’로
     표시됩니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘>>’표시를 추가했습니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: ll | longlist

     현재 함수나 프레임의 소스 코드 전체를 나열합니다.  참고할만한 줄은
     *note list: 4242.처럼 표시됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: a(rgs)

     현재 함수의 인자와 그들의 현재 값을 출력합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: p expression

     현재 컨텍스트에서 'expression'을 평가하고 값을 출력합니다.

          참고: 디버거 명령은 아니지만, ‘print()’도 사용될 수 있습니다 —
          이때는 파이썬의 *note print(): f6d. 함수를 실행하게 됩니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: pp expression

     *note p: f6e. 명령과 비슷하지만, 'expression'의 값을 *note pprint:
     ae. 모듈을 활용하여 보기 좋은 형태로 출력합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: whatis expression

     'expression'의 형(type)을 출력합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: source expression

     'expression'의 소스 코드를 가져와서 보여줍니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: display [expression]

     현재 프레임에서 실행이 중지될 때마다, 'expression'의 값이 변경된 경
     우 표시합니다.

     'expression'이 주어지지 않은 경우, 현재 프레임에서 표시되는 모든 표
     현식을 나열합니다.

          참고: Display evaluates 'expression' and compares to the
          result of the previous evaluation of 'expression', so when the
          result is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the
          changes.

     예제:

          lst = []
          breakpoint()
          pass
          lst.append(1)
          print(lst)

     Display won’t realize ‘lst’ has been changed because the result of
     evaluation is modified in place by ‘lst.append(1)’ before being
     compared:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst
          display lst: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          (Pdb)

     You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst[:]
          display lst[:]: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          display lst[:]: [1]  [old: []]
          (Pdb)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: undisplay [expression]

     현재 프레임에서 'expression'을 더는 표시하지 않습니다.
     'expression'이 주어지지 않은 경우, 현재 프레임에서 표시되는 모든 표
     현식을 제거합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: interact

     현재 스코프에 대한 지역 및 전역 이름 공간에서 초기화된 새 전역 이름
     공간에서 (*note code: 1a. 모듈을 활용하는) 대화형 인터프리터를 시작
     합니다.  인터프리터를 종료하고 디버거로 돌아가려면 ‘exit()’나
     ‘quit()’를 사용하세요.

          참고: As ‘interact’ creates a new dedicated namespace for code
          execution, assignments to variables will not affect the
          original namespaces.  However, modifications to any referenced
          mutable objects will be reflected in the original namespaces
          as usual.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ can be used to exit the
     *note interact: 425b. command.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note interact: 425b. directs its output to the
     debugger’s output channel rather than *note sys.stderr: 937.

 -- Pdbcommand: alias [name [command]]

     'command'를 실행하는 'name'이라 불리는 에일리어스를 생성합니다.
     'command'는 따옴표로 감싸지 '않아야' 합니다.  대체할 수 있는 파라미
     터는 ‘%1’, ‘%2’, … 및 ‘%9’ 로 표시되지만, ‘%*’ 는 모든 파라미터로 대
     체됩니다.  만약 'command'가 생략되면, 현재 'name'의 에일리어스가 표
     시됩니다.  만약 아무 인자가 주어지지 않으면, 모든 에일리어스가 나열
     됩니다.

     에일리어스는 중첩될 수 있고 pdb 프롬프트 내에서 정당하게 입력할 수
     있는 모든 것을 담을 수 있습니다.  주의할 점은 pdb 내부 명령들이 에
     일리어스에 의해 오버라이드 '될 수 있습니다'.  그 명령은 에일리어스
     가 없어질 때까지 사용할 수 없게 됩니다.  에일리어싱은 명령 줄의 첫
     번째 단어에 회귀적으로 적용됩니다; 나머지 단어들은 적용되지 않습니
     다.

     ‘.pdbrc’파일에 추가되면 특히 유용한 두 에일리어스 예시:

          # 인스턴스 변수를 인쇄합니다 (사용법 "pi classInst")
          alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}")
          # self 의 인스턴스 변수를 인쇄합니다
          alias ps pi self

 -- Pdbcommand: unalias name

     지정된 에일리어스 'name'을 제거합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: ! statement

     현재 스택 프레임의 컨텍스트에서 단일 'statement'를 실행합니다.  문
     장의 첫 단어가 디버거 명령이 아닌 경우, 느낌표는 제외해도 됩니다, 예
     를 들면:

          (Pdb) ! n=42
          (Pdb)

     전역 변수를 설정하려면 실행하려는 명령과 동일한 줄 맨 앞에 *note
     global: 18a.문장을 붙이면 됩니다, 예를 들면:

          (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
          (Pdb)

 -- Pdbcommand: run [args ...]
 -- Pdbcommand: restart [args ...]

     디버그 된 파이썬 프로그램을 재시작합니다.  만약 'args'가 주어지면,
     *note shlex: c4.으로 나뉘게 되고 결과는 새 *note sys.argv: 1255.로
     사용됩니다.  이전 기록, 중단점, 행동 그리고 디버거 옵션은 유지됩니
     다.  *note restart: 4260.는 *note run: 425f.의 에일리어스입니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: q(uit)

     디버거를 종료합니다.  실행되고 있는 프로그램이 종료됩니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: debug code

     'code'(현재 환경에서 실행될 임의의 표현식이나 문장)를 단계별로 수행
     하는 재귀적 디버거에 진입합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: retval

     현재 함수의 마지막 반환에 대한 반환 값을 인쇄합니다.

 -- Pdbcommand: exceptions [excnumber]

     List or jump between chained exceptions.

     When using ‘pdb.pm()’ or ‘Pdb.post_mortem(...)’ with a chained
     exception instead of a traceback, it allows the user to move
     between the chained exceptions using ‘exceptions’ command to list
     exceptions, and ‘exceptions <number>’ to switch to that exception.

     예제:

          def out():
              try:
                  middle()
              except Exception as e:
                  raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

          def middle():
              try:
                  return inner(0)
              except Exception as e:
                  raise ValueError("Middle fail")

          def inner(x):
              1 / x

           out()

     calling ‘pdb.pm()’ will allow to move between exceptions:

          > example.py(5)out()
          -> raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

          (Pdb) exceptions
            0 ZeroDivisionError('division by zero')
            1 ValueError('Middle fail')
          > 2 ValueError('reraise middle() error')

          (Pdb) exceptions 0
          > example.py(16)inner()
          -> 1 / x

          (Pdb) up
          > example.py(10)middle()
          -> return inner(0)

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 프로파일러,  Next: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정,  Prev: pdb — 파이썬 디버거,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.5 파이썬 프로파일러
------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/profile.py(1) 및 Lib/pstats.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 프로파일러 소개::
* 즉석 사용자 설명서::
* profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스::
* Stats 클래스::
* 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?::
* 한계::
* 보정::
* 사용자 정의 타이머 사용하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/profile.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pstats.py


File: python.info,  Node: 프로파일러 소개,  Next: 즉석 사용자 설명서,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.1 프로파일러 소개
........................

*note cProfile: 27.과 *note profile: af.은 파이썬 프로그램의 '결정론적 프
로파일링 (deterministic profiling)'을 제공합니다.  '프로파일 (profile)'은
프로그램의 여러 부분이 얼마나 자주 그리고 얼마나 오랫동안 실행되었는지를
기술하는 통계 집합입니다.  이러한 통계는 *note pstats: b0. 모듈을 통해 보
고서로 포매팅 할 수 있습니다.

파이썬 표준 라이브러리는 같은 프로파일링 인터페이스의 두 가지 구현을 제
공합니다:

  1. *note cProfile: 27.이 대부분 사용자에게 권장됩니다; 오래 실행되는 프
     로그램을 프로파일링하는 데 적합한 합리적인 부하를 주는 C 확장입니다
     .  Brett Rosen과 Ted Czotter가 제공한 ‘lsprof’를 기반으로 합니다.

  2. *note profile: af.은 순수 파이썬 모듈이고 이 인터페이스를 *note
     cProfile: 27.이 모방했습니다.  하지만, 프로파일링 되는 프로그램에 상
     당한 부하를 추가합니다.  어떤 방식으로 프로파일러를 확장하려고 한다
     면, 이 모듈을 사용하면 작업이 더 쉬울 수 있습니다.  Jim Roskind가 원
     래 설계하고 작성했습니다.

     참고: 프로파일러 모듈은 벤치마킹 목적(이를 위해서는 합리적으로 정확
     한 결과를 주는 *note timeit: ef.이 있습니다)이 아니라 주어진 프로그
     램에 대한 실행 프로파일을 제공하도록 설계되었습니다.  이것은 특히 C
     코드에 대한 파이썬 코드 벤치마킹에 적용됩니다: 프로파일러는 파이썬
     코드에 부하를 가하지만, C 수준 함수에는 그렇지 않아서 C 코드는 모든
     파이썬 코드보다 빨라 보입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 즉석 사용자 설명서,  Next: profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스,  Prev: 프로파일러 소개,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.2 즉석 사용자 설명서
...........................

이 섹션은 “설명서를 읽고 싶지 않은” 사용자를 위해 제공됩니다.  매우 간단
한 개요를 제공하며, 사용자가 기존 응용 프로그램에서 프로파일링을 빠르게
수행할 수 있도록 합니다.

단일 인자를 취하는 함수를 프로파일링하려면, 이렇게 할 수 있습니다:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")')

(시스템에서 *note cProfile: 27.을 사용할 수 없으면 대신 *note profile:
af.을 사용하십시오.)

위의 작업은 *note re.compile(): bd0.을 실행하고 다음과 같은 프로파일 결
과를 인쇄합니다:

     214 function calls (207 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds

     Ordered by: cumulative time

     ncalls  tottime  percall  cumtime  percall filename:lineno(function)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.002    0.002 {built-in method builtins.exec}
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 <string>:1(<module>)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:250(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:289(_compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:759(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:937(parse)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:598(_code)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:435(_parse_sub)

첫 번째 줄은 214개의 호출이 관찰되었음을 나타냅니다.  이 호출 중 207개는
'프리미티브(primitive)'였으며, 이는 호출이 재귀를 통해 유발되지 않았음을
의미합니다.  다음 줄: ‘Ordered by: cumulative time’, 은 출력이 ‘cumtime’
값으로 정렬되었음을 나타냅니다.  열 제목은 다음과 같습니다:

ncalls

     호출 수.

tottime

     주어진 함수에서 소비된 총 시간 (서브 함수 호출에 든 시간은 제외합니
     다)

percall

     ‘tottime’을 ‘ncalls’로 나눈 몫

cumtime

     이 함수와 모든 서브 함수에서 소요된 누적 시간 (호출에서 종료까지).
     이 수치는 재귀 함수에서도 '정확'합니다.

percall

     ‘cumtime’을 프리미티브 호출로 나눈 몫

filename:lineno(function)

     각 함수의 해당 데이터를 제공합니다 – 파일명:줄 번호(함수)

첫 번째 열에 두 개의 숫자가 있으면 (예를 들어 ‘3/1’), 함수가 재귀 되었음
을 의미합니다.  두 번째 값은 프리미티브 호출 수이고 앞엣것은 총 호출 수
입니다.  함수가 재귀 되지 않으면, 이 두 값은 같으며, 한 숫자만 인쇄됩니
다.

프로파일 실행의 끝에 출력을 인쇄하는 대신, ‘run()’ 함수에 파일명을 지정
하여 결과를 파일에 저장할 수 있습니다:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats')

*note pstats.Stats: 426a. 클래스는 파일에서 프로파일 결과를 읽고 다양한
방식으로 포맷합니다.  *note cProfile: 27.과 *note profile: af.을 스크립
트로 호출하여 다른 스크립트를 프로파일링 할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)

 -- Option: -o <output_file>

     stdout 대신 파일에 프로파일 결과를 씁니다.

 -- Option: -s <sort_order>

     출력을 정렬할 *note sort_stats(): 426e. 정렬 값 중 하나를 지정합니
     다.  이는 *note -o: 426c.가 제공되지 않은 경우에만 적용됩니다.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     스크립트 대신 모듈이 프로파일링 되도록 지정합니다.

     Added in version 3.7: ‘-m’ 옵션을 *note cProfile: 27.에 추가했습니
     다.

     Added in version 3.8: ‘-m’ 옵션을 *note profile: af.에 추가했습니다
     .

*note pstats: b0. 모듈의 *note Stats: 426a. 클래스에는 프로파일 결과 파
일에 저장된 데이터를 조작하고 인쇄하기 위한 다양한 메서드가 있습니다:

     import pstats
     from pstats import SortKey
     p = pstats.Stats('restats')
     p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()

*note strip_dirs(): 4270. 메서드는 모든 모듈 이름에서 외부 경로를 제거했
습니다.  *note sort_stats(): 426e. 메서드는 인쇄되는 표준 모듈/줄/이름 문
자열에 따라 모든 항목을 정렬했습니다.  *note print_stats(): 4271. 메서드
는 모든 통계를 인쇄했습니다.  다음과 같은 정렬 호출을 시도할 수 있습니다
:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME)
     p.print_stats()

첫 번째 호출은 실제로 함수 이름으로 목록을 정렬하고, 두 번째 호출은 통계
를 인쇄합니다.  다음은 몇 가지 흥미로운 실험 호출입니다:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

이것은 함수에서의 누적 시간을 기준으로 프로파일을 정렬한 다음, 가장 중요
한 10개의 줄만 인쇄합니다.  시간이 걸리는 알고리즘을 이해하려면, 위의 줄
을 사용하십시오.

어떤 함수가 많이 반복되고 많은 시간이 걸리는지 알고 싶다면, 다음을 수행
하여:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)

각 함수 내에서 소비한 시간에 따라 정렬한 다음, 상위 10개 함수에 대한 통
계를 인쇄하십시오.

다음과 같은 것도 시도해 볼 수 있습니다:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__')

이렇게 하면 모든 통계가 파일 이름으로 정렬된 다음, 클래스 초기화(init) 메
서드에 대한 통계만 인쇄됩니다 (이들의 철자가 ‘__init__’이기 때문입니다).
마지막 예로, 다음을 시도해 볼 수 있습니다:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init')

이 줄은 주 시간 키와 누적 시간 보조 키로 통계를 정렬한 다음, 일부 통계를
인쇄합니다.  구체적으로, 목록을 먼저 원래 크기의 50%(‘.5’)로 줄인 다음,
‘init’를 포함하는 줄만 유지되고, 그 서브 서브 목록이 인쇄됩니다.

어떤 함수가 위의 함수를 호출했는지 궁금하다면, 이제 다음과 같이 할 수 있
습니다 (‘p’는 여전히 마지막 기준에 따라 정렬됩니다):

     p.print_callers(.5, 'init')

그러면 나열된 각 함수에 대한 호출자 목록을 얻습니다.

더 많은 기능을 원하면, 매뉴얼을 읽거나, 다음 함수가 무엇인지 추측하십시
오:

     p.print_callees()
     p.add('restats')

스크립트로 호출될 때, *note pstats: b0. 모듈은 프로파일 덤프를 읽고 검사
하기 위한 통계 브라우저입니다.  간단한 줄 지향 인터페이스(*note cmd:
19.를 사용하여 구현되었습니다)와 대화식 도움말이 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스,  Next: Stats 클래스,  Prev: 즉석 사용자 설명서,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.3 ‘profile’과 ‘cProfile’ 모듈 레퍼런스
.............................................

*note profile: af.과 *note cProfile: 27. 모듈은 모두 다음 함수를 제공합
니다:

 -- 함수: profile.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1)

     이 함수는 *note exec(): 17f. 함수에 전달할 수 있는 단일 인자와 선택
     적 파일 이름을 취합니다.  모든 경우에 이 루틴은 다음을 실행합니다:

          exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

     그리고 실행으로부터 프로파일링 통계를 수집합니다.  파일 이름이 없으
     면, 이 함수는 자동으로 *note Stats: 426a. 인스턴스를 만들고 간단한
     프로파일링 보고서를 인쇄합니다.  정렬 값이 지정되면, 이 *note
     Stats: 426a. 인스턴스로 전달되어 결과 정렬 방법을 제어합니다.

 -- 함수: profile.runctx (command, globals, locals, filename=None,
          sort=-1)

     이 함수는 *note run(): 4273.과 유사하며, 'command' 문자열에 대한 전
     역(globals)과 지역(locals) 매핑 제공하기 위한 인자가 추가되었습니다
     .  이 루틴은 다음을 실행합니다:

          exec(command, globals, locals)

     그리고 위의 *note run(): 4273. 함수에서와같이 프로파일링 통계를 수
     집합니다.

 -- 클래스: profile.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True,
          builtins=True)

     이 클래스는 일반적으로 ‘cProfile.run()’ 함수가 제공하는 것보다 프로
     파일링에 대한 더 세밀한 제어가 필요할 때만 사용됩니다.

     'timer' 인자를 통해 코드를 실행하는 데 걸리는 시간을 측정하기 위한
     사용자 정의 타이머를 제공할 수 있습니다.  현재 시각을 나타내는 단일
     숫자를 반환하는 함수여야 합니다.  숫자가 정수이면, 'timeunit'는 각
     시간 단위의 지속 시간을 지정하는 승수를 지정합니다.  예를 들어, 타
     이머가 밀리초 단위로 측정된 시간을 반환하면 시간 단위는 ‘.001’입니
     다.

     *note Profile: 9df. 클래스를 직접 사용하면 프로파일 데이터를 파일에
     쓰지 않고도 프로파일 결과를 포맷할 수 있습니다:

          import cProfile, pstats, io
          from pstats import SortKey
          pr = cProfile.Profile()
          pr.enable()
          # ... 뭔가 합니다 ...
          pr.disable()
          s = io.StringIO()
          sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
          ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
          ps.print_stats()
          print(s.getvalue())

     *note Profile: 9df. 클래스는 컨텍스트 관리자로도 사용될 수 있습니다
     (*note cProfile: 27. 모듈에서만 지원됩니다.  *note 컨텍스트 관리자
     형: 1fc7.을 참조하십시오):

          import cProfile

          with cProfile.Profile() as pr:
              # ... 뭔가 합니다 ...

              pr.print_stats()

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 컨텍스트 관리자 지원이 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: enable ()

          프로파일링 데이터 수집을 시작합니다.  *note cProfile: 27.에만
          있습니다.

      -- 메서드: disable ()

          프로파일링 데이터 수집을 중지합니다.  *note cProfile: 27.에만
          있습니다.

      -- 메서드: create_stats ()

          프로파일링 데이터 수집을 중지하고 결과를 내부적으로 현재 프로
          파일로 기록합니다.

      -- 메서드: print_stats (sort=-1)

          현재 프로파일을 기반으로 *note Stats: 426a. 객체를 만들고 결과
          를 stdout에 인쇄합니다.

          The 'sort' parameter specifies the sorting order of the
          displayed statistics.  It accepts a single key or a tuple of
          keys to enable multi-level sorting, as in *note
          Stats.sort_stats: 426e.

          Added in version 3.13: *note print_stats(): 4278. now accepts
          a tuple of keys.

      -- 메서드: dump_stats (filename)

          현재 프로파일의 결과를 'filename'에 씁니다.

      -- 메서드: run (cmd)

          *note exec(): 17f.를 통해 cmd를 프로파일 합니다.

      -- 메서드: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          지정된 전역과 지역 환경으로 *note exec(): 17f.를 통해 cmd를 프
          로파일 합니다.

      -- 메서드: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

          ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’를 프로파일 합니다

프로파일링은 호출된 명령/함수가 실제로 반환하는 경우에만 작동함에 유의하
십시오.  인터프리터가 종료되면 (예를 들어 호출된 명령/함수 실행 중 *note
sys.exit(): 1339. 호출을 통해) 아무런 프로파일링 결과도 인쇄되지 않습니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: Stats 클래스,  Next: 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?,  Prev: profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.4 ‘Stats’ 클래스
.......................

프로파일러 데이터의 분석은 *note Stats: 426a. 클래스를 사용하여 수행됩니
다.

 -- 클래스: pstats.Stats (*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout)

     이 클래스 생성자는 'filename'(또는 파일명의 리스트)이나 ‘Profile’ 인
     스턴스에서 “통계 객체”의 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  출력은 'stream'에 의
     해 지정된 스트림으로 인쇄됩니다.

     위의 생성자에 의해 선택된 파일은 해당 버전의 *note profile: af.이나
     *note cProfile: 27.에 의해 만들어졌어야 합니다.  구체적으로, 이 프
     로파일러의 향후 버전에서 보장되는 파일 호환성은 '없으며', 다른 프로
     파일러에서 생성된 파일이나 다른 운영 체제에서 실행되는 같은 프로파
     일러의 실행과 호환되지 않습니다.  여러 파일이 제공되면, 동일한 함수
     에 대한 모든 통계가 통합되므로, 여러 프로세스에 대한 전체 뷰를 단일
     보고서에서 고려할 수 있습니다.  추가 파일을 기존 *note Stats: 426a.
     객체의 데이터와 결합해야 하면, *note add(): 427e. 메서드를 사용할 수
     있습니다.

     파일에서 프로파일 데이터를 읽는 대신, ‘cProfile.Profile’이나 *note
     profile.Profile: 9df. 객체를 프로파일 데이터 소스로 사용할 수 있습
     니다.

     *note Stats: 426a. 객체에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: strip_dirs ()

          *note Stats: 426a. 클래스에 대한 이 메서드는 파일 이름에서 모
          든 선행 경로 정보를 제거합니다.  80열 이내에 (가깝게) 맞게 출
          력물의 크기를 줄이는 데 매우 유용합니다.  이 메서드는 객체를 수
          정하고, 제거된 정보는 손실됩니다.  제거 조작을 수행한 후, 객체
          는 객체 초기화와 로드 직후와 마찬가지로 “임의의” 순서로 항목을
          가진 것으로 간주합니다.  *note strip_dirs(): 4270.로 인해 두 함
          수 이름이 구별할 수 없게 되면 (같은 파일 이름의 같은 줄에 있고
          , 함수 이름도 같습니다), 이 두 항목에 대한 통계는 단일 항목으
          로 누적됩니다.

      -- 메서드: add (*filenames)

          *note Stats: 426a. 클래스의 이 메서드는 추가 프로파일링 정보를
          현재 프로파일링 객체에 누적합니다.  인자는 해당 버전의 *note
          profile.run(): 4273.이나 ‘cProfile.run()’으로 만들어진 파일명
          을 참조해야 합니다.  동일한 이름을 가진 (파일, 줄, 이름) 함수
          에 대한 통계는 자동으로 단일 함수 통계에 축적됩니다.

      -- 메서드: dump_stats (filename)

          *note Stats: 426a. 객체에 로드된 데이터를 'filename'이라는 파
          일에 저장합니다.  파일이 없으면 만들어지고, 이미 존재하면 덮어
          씁니다.  이것은 *note profile.Profile: 9df.과
          ‘cProfile.Profile’ 클래스에 있는 같은 이름의 메서드와 동등합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: sort_stats (*keys)

          이 메서드는 제공된 기준에 따라 *note Stats: 426a. 객체를 정렬
          하여 수정합니다.  인자는 정렬 기준을 식별하는 문자열이나
          SortKey 열거형일 수 있습니다 (예: ‘'time'’, ‘'name'’,
          ‘SortKey.TIME’ 또는 ‘SortKey.NAME’).  SortKey 열거형 인자는 문
          자열 인자보다 안정적이고 에러가 적다는 점에서 문자열 인자보다
          유리합니다.

          둘 이상의 키가 제공되면, 그 앞에 선택된 모든 키가 같을 때 추가
          키가 보조 기준으로 사용됩니다.  예를 들어,
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILE)’은 함수 이름에 따라 모
          든 항목을 정렬하고, 함수 이름이 같으면 파일 이름으로 정렬합니
          다.

          문자열 인자의 경우, 약어가 모호하지 않은 한, 모든 키 이름에 약
          어를 사용할 수 있습니다.

          유효한 문자열과 SortKey는 다음과 같습니다:

          유효한 문자열 인자     유효한 열거형 인자        의미
                                                           
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
          ‘'calls'’              SortKey.CALLS             호출 수
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumulative'’         SortKey.CUMULATIVE        누적 시간
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumtime'’            해당 없음                 누적 시간
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'file'’               해당 없음                 파일 이름
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'filename'’           SortKey.FILENAME          파일 이름
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'module'’             해당 없음                 파일 이름
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'ncalls'’             해당 없음                 호출 수
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'pcalls'’             SortKey.PCALLS            프리미티브 호출 수
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'line'’               SortKey.LINE              줄 번호
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'name'’               SortKey.NAME              함수 이름
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'nfl'’                SortKey.NFL               이름/파일/줄
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'stdname'’            SortKey.STDNAME           표준 이름
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'time'’               SortKey.TIME              내부 시간
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'tottime'’            해당 없음                 내부 시간
                                                           

          통계의 모든 정렬은 내림차순이고 (가장 시간이 오래 걸리는 항목
          을 앞에 놓습니다), 이름, 파일 및 줄 번호 검색은 오름차순(알파
          벳 순서)임에 유의하십시오.  ‘SortKey.NFL’과 ‘SortKey.STDNAME’
          간의 미묘한 차이점은 표준 이름이 인쇄된 이름의 일종이라는 것입
          니다.  즉, 포함된 줄 번호가 이상한 방식으로 비교됩니다.  예를
          들어, 줄 3, 20 및 40은 (파일 이름이 같으면) 문자열 순서 20, 3
          및 40으로 나타납니다.  반면에 ‘SortKey.NFL’은 줄 번호를 숫자로
          비교합니다.  실제로, ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)’은
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)’과 같
          습니다.

          이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, 숫자 인자 ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ 및 ‘2’가
          허용됩니다.  이들은 각각 ‘'stdname'’, ‘'calls'’, ‘'time'’ 및
          ‘'cumulative'’로 해석됩니다.  이 이전 스타일 형식(숫자)을 사용
          하면, 오직 하나의 정렬 키(숫자키)만 사용되며, 추가 인자는 조용
          히 무시됩니다.

          Added in version 3.7: SortKey 열거형을 추가했습니다.

      -- 메서드: reverse_order ()

          *note Stats: 426a. 클래스에 대한 이 메서드는 객체 내 기본 리스
          트의 순서를 뒤집습니다.  기본적으로 오름차순 대 내림차순은 선
          택한 정렬 키에 따라 올바르게 선택됨에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: print_stats (*restrictions)

          *note Stats: 426a. 클래스에 대한 이 메서드는 *note
          profile.run(): 4273. 정의에 설명된 대로 보고서를 인쇄합니다.

          인쇄 순서는 객체에서 수행된 마지막 *note sort_stats(): 426e. 연
          산을 기반으로 합니다 (*note add(): 427e.와 *note strip_dirs():
          4270.의 경고가 적용됩니다).

          The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list
          down to the significant entries.  Initially, the list is taken
          to be the complete set of profiled functions.  Each
          restriction is either an integer (to select a count of lines),
          or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to select
          a percentage of lines), or a string that will be interpreted
          as a regular expression (to pattern match the standard name
          that is printed).  If several restrictions are provided, then
          they are applied sequentially.  For example:

               print_stats(.1, 'foo:')

          는 먼저 인쇄를 목록의 처음 10%로 제한한 다음, 파일 이름
          ‘.*foo:’의 일부인 함수만 인쇄합니다.  대조적으로, 명령:

               print_stats('foo:', .1)

          은 파일 이름이 ‘.*foo:’ 인 모든 함수로 목록을 제한한 다음, 그
          중 처음 10%만 인쇄합니다.

      -- 메서드: print_callers (*restrictions)

          *note Stats: 426a. 클래스에 대한 이 메서드는 프로파일 된 데이
          터베이스에 있는 각 함수를 호출한 모든 함수의 목록을 인쇄합니다
          .  순서는 *note print_stats(): 4271.에서 제공한 순서와 동일하
          며, 제한 인자의 정의도 동일합니다.  각 호출자는 개별 줄로 보고
          됩니다.  통계를 생성한 프로파일러에 따라 형식이 약간 다릅니다:

             * *note profile: af.을 사용하면, 각 호출자 뒤에 숫자가 괄호
               안에 표시되어 이 특정 호출이 몇 번이나 되었는지 표시됩니
               다.  편의를 위해, 두 번째 괄호로 묶지 않은 숫자는 오른쪽
               에 나오는 함수에서 소비한 누적 시간을 반복합니다.

             * *note cProfile: 27.을 사용하면, 각 호출자 앞에 세 숫자가
               나옵니다: 이 특정 호출이 발생한 횟수, 이 특정 호출자가 호
               출한 동안 현재 함수에서 소비 한 총 및 누적 시간.

      -- 메서드: print_callees (*restrictions)

          *note Stats: 426a. 클래스에 대한 이 메서드는 표시된 함수에 의
          해 호출된 모든 함수의 목록을 인쇄합니다.  이러한 호출 방향 반
          전(호출한 대 호출된)을 제외하고, 인자와 순서는 *note
          print_callers(): 4281. 메서드와 같습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_stats_profile ()

          이 메서드는 함수 이름을 FunctionProfile 인스턴스로 매핑하는
          StatsProfile 인스턴스를 반환합니다.  각 FunctionProfile 인스턴
          스에는 함수 실행 시간, 호출 횟수 등의 함수의 프로파일 관련 정
          보가 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.9: 다음과 같은 데이터 클래스(dataclasses)를
          추가했습니다: StatsProfile, FunctionProfile.  다음과 같은 함수
          를 추가했습니다: get_stats_profile.


File: python.info,  Node: 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?,  Next: 한계,  Prev: Stats 클래스,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.5 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?
............................................

'결정론적 프로파일링(Deterministic profiling)'이라는 용어는 모든 '함수 호
출', '함수 반환' 및 '예외' 이벤트가 모니터링되고, (사용자 코드가 실행되
는 시간 동안) 이러한 이벤트 사이의 간격에 대한 정확한 시간 측정이 이루어
진다는 사실을 반영하기 위한 것입니다.  반면에, '통계적 프로파일링
(statistical profiling)'(이 모듈에서는 수행하지 않습니다)은 유효 명령어
포인터를 무작위로 샘플링하여 시간이 소비되는 위치를 추론합니다.  후자의
기술은 전통적으로 (코드를 계측할 필요가 없기 때문에) 오버헤드가 적지만,
시간이 어디에서 소비되는지에 대한 상대적 표시만 제공합니다.

파이썬에서는, 실행 중에 인터프리터가 활성화되어있어서, 결정론적 프로파일
링을 수행하기 위해 인스트루먼트 된 코드(instrumented code)가 필요하지 않
습니다.  파이썬은 각 이벤트에 대해 자동으로 '훅(hook)'(선택적 콜백)을 제
공합니다.  또한, 파이썬의 인터프리터 적인 성격은 실행에 이미 많은 오버헤
드를 추가하는 경향이 있어서, 결정론적 프로파일링은 일반적인 응용 프로그
램에서 작은 처리 오버헤드만 추가하는 경향이 있습니다.  결과적으로 결정론
적 프로파일링은 그다지 비싸지 않으면서도, 파이썬 프로그램의 실행에 대한
광범위한 실행 시간 통계를 제공합니다.

호출 수 통계를 사용하여 코드의 버그(놀랄만한 횟수)를 식별하고, 가능한 인
라인 확장 지점(높은 호출 횟수)을 식별할 수 있습니다.  내부 시간 통계를 사
용하여 신중하게 최적화해야 하는 “핫 루프(hot loops)”를 식별할 수 있습니
다.  누적 시간 통계를 사용하여 알고리즘 선택에서의 고수준 에러를 식별할
수 있습니다.  이 프로파일러에서의 누적 시간의 특이한 처리는 알고리즘의 재
귀 구현에 대한 통계를 반복 구현과 직접 비교할 수 있도록 함에 유의하십시
오.


File: python.info,  Node: 한계,  Next: 보정,  Prev: 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.6 한계
.............

타이밍 정보의 정확성과 관련하여 한 가지 제약이 있습니다.  정확성과 관련
해서는 결정론적 프로파일러에 근본적인 문제가 있습니다.  가장 명백한 제약
은 하부 “시계”가 (일반적으로) 약 .001 초의 속도로만 눈금이 변하는 것입니
다.  따라서 하부 시계보다 더 정확한 측정은 없습니다.  충분한 측정을 수행
하면, “에러”가 평균이 되어 사라지는 경향이 있습니다.  불행히도, 이 첫 번
째 에러를 제거하면 두 번째 에러 원인이 발생합니다.

두 번째 문제는 이벤트가 디스패치 된 시점부터 프로파일러가 시간을 얻기 위
해 호출하는 것이 실제로 시계의 상태를 '얻기'까지 “시간이 걸린다”는 것입
니다.  마찬가지로, 프로파일러 이벤트 핸들러를 빠져나갈 때 시계값이 획득
된 (그런 다음 저장됩니다) 시간부터, 사용자의 코드가 다시 실행될 때까지 어
떤 지연이 발생합니다.  결과적으로, 여러 번 호출되거나, 많은 함수를 호출
하는 함수는 일반적으로 이 에러를 누적합니다.  이러한 방식으로 누적되는 에
러는 일반적으로 시계 정확도(1 눈금 미만)보다 작지만, 누적될 '수' 있어서
매우 중요해집니다.

오버헤드가 낮은 *note cProfile: 27.보다 *note profile: af.에서 이 문제가
더 중요합니다.  이러한 이유로, *note profile: af.은 특정 플랫폼에 대해 자
신을 보정하는 방법을 제공하여 이 에러를 확률적으로 (평균적으로) 제거할 수
있습니다.  프로파일러가 보정된 후에는, 더 정확하지만 (최소한 최소 자승의
의미에서), 때로는 음수를 생성합니다 (호출 횟수가 예외적으로 낮고, 확률의
신들이 당신에게 등을 돌리면 :-).  )  프로파일에서 음수를 보아도 너무 놀
라지 '마십시오'.  프로파일러를 보정한 경우에*만* 나타나야 하며, 결과는 실
제로 보정하지 않은 것보다 낫습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 보정,  Next: 사용자 정의 타이머 사용하기,  Prev: 한계,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.7 보정
.............

*note profile: af. 모듈의 프로파일러는 각 이벤트 처리 시간에서 상수를 빼
서 시간 함수 호출의 오버헤드를 보상하고, 결과를 잘 보관합니다.  기본적으
로, 상수는 0입니다.  다음 절차는 주어진 플랫폼에 대해 더 나은 상수를 얻
는 데 사용될 수 있습니다 (*note 한계: 4287.를 참조하십시오).

     import profile
     pr = profile.Profile()
     for i in range(5):
         print(pr.calibrate(10000))

이 메서드는 인자가 제공한 횟수의 파이썬 호출을, 직접하고 프로파일러하에
서 다시 하면서, 두 두 시간을 측정합니다.  그런 다음 프로파일러 이벤트 당
숨겨진 오버헤드를 계산하여 부동 소수점으로 반환합니다.  예를 들어, 맥
OS를 실행하는 1.8Ghz 인텔 코어 i5에서, 그리고 파이썬의
time.process_time()을 타이머로 사용할 때, 매직 넘버는 약 4.04e-6입니다.

이 반복의 목적은 상당히 일관된 결과를 얻는 것입니다.  컴퓨터가 '매우' 빠
르거나, 타이머 함수의 해상도가 좋지 않으면, 일관된 결과를 얻기 위해
100000이나 심지어 1000000을 전달해야 할 수 있습니다.

일관된 대답을 얻었을 때, 세 가지 방법으로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     import profile

     # 1. 이후에 만들어지는 모든 Profile 인스턴스에 계산된 바이어스를 적용합니다.
     profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 2. 특정 Profile 인스턴스에 계산된 바이어스를 적용합니다.
     pr = profile.Profile()
     pr.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 3. 인스턴스 생성자에 계산된 바이어스를 지정합니다.
     pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)

선택해야 한다면, 더 작은 상수를 선택하는 것이 좋습니다, 그러면 결과가 프
로파일 통계에서 결과가 “덜 자주” 음수로 표시됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 타이머 사용하기,  Prev: 보정,  Up: 파이썬 프로파일러

5.27.5.8 사용자 정의 타이머 사용하기
....................................

현재 시각을 결정하는 방법을 변경하려면 (예를 들어, 벽시계 시간이나 소요
된 프로세스 시간을 사용하도록 만들려면), ‘Profile’ 클래스 생성자에게 원
하는 타이밍 함수를 전달합니다:

     pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)

결과 프로파일러는 ‘your_time_func’를 호출합니다.  *note profile.Profile:
9df.이나 ‘cProfile.Profile’ 중 어느 것을 사용하느냐에 따라,
‘your_time_func’의 반환 값은 다르게 해석됩니다:

*note profile.Profile: 9df.

     ‘your_time_func’는 단일 숫자를 반환하거나, 또는 (*note os.times():
     1106.가 반환하는 것과 같이) 합계가 현재 시각인 숫자 리스트를 반환해
     야 합니다.  함수가 단일 시간 숫자를 반환하거나, 반환된 숫자의 리스
     트 길이가 2이면, 특히 빠른 버전의 디스패치 루틴을 얻게 됩니다.

     여러분이 선택한 타이머 함수에 대해 프로파일러 클래스를 보정해야 합
     니다 (*note 보정: 4289.을 참조하십시오).  대부분의 기계에서, 단일 정
     숫값을 반환하는 타이머는 프로파일링 중 낮은 오버헤드 측면에서 최상
     의 결과를 제공합니다.  (*note os.times(): 1106.는 부동 소수점 값의
     튜플을 반환하므로 '꽤' 나쁩니다).  더 좋은 타이머를 가장 깨끗한 방
     식으로 대체하려면, 클래스를 파생하고 적절한 보정 상수와 함께 타이머
     호출을 가장 잘 처리하는 대체 디스패치 메서드를 배선하십시오.

‘cProfile.Profile’

     ‘your_time_func’는 단일 숫자를 반환해야 합니다.  정수를 반환하면, 시
     간 단위의 실제 지속 시간을 지정하는 두 번째 인자로 클래스 생성자를
     호출할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘your_integer_time_func’가 밀리초
     단위로 측정된 시간을 반환하면, 다음과 같이 ‘Profile’ 인스턴스를 구
     성합니다:

          pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)

     ‘cProfile.Profile’ 클래스를 보정할 수 없어서, 사용자 정의 타이머 함
     수는 주의해서 사용해야 하고 가능한 한 빨라야 합니다.  사용자 정의 타
     이머로 최상의 결과를 얻으려면, 내부 ‘_lsprof’ 모듈의 C 소스에 하드
     코딩해야 할 수도 있습니다.

파이썬 3.3은 *note time: ee.에 프로세스나 벽시계 시간을 정확하게 측정하
는 데 사용할 수 있는 몇 가지 새로운 함수를 추가합니다.  예를 들어, *note
time.perf_counter(): a85.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정,  Next: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적,  Prev: 파이썬 프로파일러,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.6 ‘timeit’ — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정
-------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/timeit.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬 코드의 작은 조각의 시간을 측정하는 간단한 방법을 제공합
니다.  *note 명령 줄 인터페이스: 428e.뿐만 아니라 *note 콜러블: 428f.도
있습니다.  실행 시간을 측정에 따르는 흔한 함정들을 피할 수 있습니다.
O’Reilly가 출판한 'Python Cookbook' 2판에 있는 Tim Peters의 “Algorithms”
장의 개요도 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 기본 예제::
* 파이썬 인터페이스::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
* 예제: 예제<27>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/timeit.py


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 예제,  Next: 파이썬 인터페이스,  Up: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정

5.27.6.1 기본 예제
..................

다음 예제에서는 *note 명령 줄 인터페이스: 428e.를 사용하여 세 가지 다른
표현식을 비교하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop

이것은 *note 파이썬 인터페이스: 428f.로는 다음과 같이 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
     0.3018611848820001
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
     0.2727368790656328
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
     0.23702679807320237

콜러블을 *note 파이썬 인터페이스: 428f.로 전달할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
     0.19665591977536678

그러나 *note timeit(): e76.은 명령 줄 인터페이스가 사용될 때만 반복 횟수
를 자동으로 결정합니다.  *note 예제: 4291. 절에서 고급 예제를 찾을 수 있
습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 인터페이스,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<5>,  Prev: 기본 예제,  Up: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정

5.27.6.2 파이썬 인터페이스
..........................

이 모듈은 세 개의 편리 함수와 하나의 공용 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: timeit.timeit (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)

     지정된 문장, 'setup' 코드 및 'timer' 함수로 *note Timer: 148e. 인스
     턴스를 만들고, 'number' 실행으로 *note timeit(): ce9. 메서드를 실행
     합니다.  선택적 'globals' 인자는 코드를 실행할 이름 공간을 지정합니
     다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 선택적 'globals' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: timeit.repeat (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)

     주어진 문장, 'setup' 코드 및 'timer' 함수로 *note Timer: 148e. 인스
     턴스를 생성하고, 주어진 'repeat' 카운트와 'number' 실행으로 *note
     repeat(): 4294. 메서드를 실행합니다.  선택적 'globals' 인자는 코드
     를 실행할 이름 공간을 지정합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 선택적 'globals' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'repeat'의 기본값이 3에서 5로 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: timeit.default_timer ()

     기본 타이머, 항상 time.perf_counter() 이고, 초 단위의 float를 반환
     합니다.  대안인 time.perf_counter_ns 는 나노초 단위의 정수를 반환합
     니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이제 *note time.perf_counter(): a85.가 기본 타이
     머입니다.

 -- 클래스: timeit.Timer (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer
          function>, globals=None)

     작은 코드 조각의 실행 속도를 측정하기 위한 클래스.

     생성자는 시간 측정될 문장, 설정에 사용되는 추가 문장 및 타이머 함수
     를 받아들입니다.  두 문장의 기본값은 ‘'pass'’입니다; 타이머 함수는
     플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다 (모듈 독스트링을 참조하십시오).  'stmt'와
     'setup'은 여러 줄에 걸친 문자열 리터럴을 포함하지 않는 한 ‘;’나 줄
     바꿈으로 구분된 여러 개의 문장을 포함 할 수도 있습니다.  문장은 기
     본적으로 timeit의 이름 공간 내에서 실행됩니다; 이 동작은 'globals'에
     이름 공간을 전달하여 제어 할 수 있습니다.

     첫 번째 문장의 실행 시간을 측정하려면, *note timeit(): ce9. 메서드
     를 사용하십시오.  *note repeat(): 4294.와 *note autorange(): cea. 메
     서드는 *note timeit(): ce9.을 여러 번 호출하는 편리 메서드입니다.

     'setup'의 실행 시간은 전체 측정 실행 시간에서 제외됩니다.

     'stmt'와 'setup' 매개 변수는 인자 없이 호출 할 수 있는 객체를 받아
     들일 수도 있습니다.  이렇게 하면 *note timeit(): ce9.에 의해 실행될
     타이머 함수에 그들에 대한 호출을 포함시킵니다.  이때는 여분의 함수
     호출로 인해 타이밍 오버헤드가 약간 더 커집니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 선택적 'globals' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: timeit (number=1000000)

          주 문장의 'number' 실행의 시간을 측정합니다.  setup 문장을 한
          번 실행한 다음, 주 문장을 여러 번 실행하는 데 걸리는 시간을 반
          환합니다.  기본 타이머는 초 단위의 float를 반환합니다.  인자는
          루프를 통과하는 횟수이며, 기본값은 백만입니다.  주 문장, setup
          문장 및 사용할 타이머 함수는 생성자에 전달됩니다.

               참고: 기본적으로, *note timeit(): ce9.은 시간 측정 중에
               *note 가비지 수거: 1920.를 일시적으로 끕니다.  이 방법의
               장점은 독립적인 시간 측정이 더 잘 비교될 수 있다는 것입니
               다.  단점은 GC가 측정되는 함수의 성능에서 중요한 요소가 될
               수 있다는 것입니다.  그렇다면, GC를 'setup' 문자열의 첫 번
               째 문장에서 다시 활성화할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

                    timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()

      -- 메서드: autorange (callback=None)

          *note timeit(): ce9.를 호출하는 횟수를 자동으로 결정합니다.

          이 함수는 총 시간이 0.2초 이상이 될 때까지 *note timeit():
          ce9.을 반복적으로 호출하고, 최종 (루프 수, 해당 루프 수에 소요
          된 시간)을 반환하는 편리 함수입니다.  실행 시간이 적어도 0.2초
          가 될 때까지 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 … 로 루프 수를 증가시키면서
          *note timeit(): ce9.을 호출합니다.

          'callback'이 주어지고 ‘None’이 아니면, 각 시도 다음에 두 개의
          인자로 호출합니다: ‘callback(number, time_taken)’.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: repeat (repeat=5, number=1000000)

          *note timeit(): ce9.을 몇 번 호출합니다.

          이것은 반복적으로 *note timeit(): ce9.을 호출하여 결과 리스트
          를 반환하는 편리 함수입니다.  첫 번째 인자는 *note timeit():
          ce9.을 호출할 횟수를 지정합니다.  두 번째 인자는 *note
          timeit(): ce9.에 대한 'number' 인자를 지정합니다.

               참고: 결과 벡터로부터 평균과 표준 편차를 계산하고 이를 보
               고하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  하지만, 이것은 별로 유용하지 않
               습니다.  일반적으로, 가장 낮은 값이 여러분의 기계가 주어
               진 코드 조각을 얼마나 빨리 실행할 수 있는지에 대한 하한값
               을 제공합니다; 결과 벡터의 더 높은 값은 일반적으로 파이썬
               의 속도 변동성 때문이 아니라, 시간 측정의 정확성을 방해하
               는 다른 프로세스에 의해 발생합니다.  따라서 결과의 *note
               min(): f00.이 여러분이 관심을 기울여야 할 유일한 숫자일 것
               입니다.  그 후에, 전체 벡터를 살펴보고 통계보다는 상식을
               적용해야 합니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 'repeat'의 기본값이 3에서 5로 변경되었습니
          다.

      -- 메서드: print_exc (file=None)

          측정되는 코드로부터의 트레이스백을 인쇄하는 도우미.

          일반적인 사용:

               t = Timer(...)       # try/except 바깥
               try:
                   t.timeit(...)    # 또는 t.repeat(...)
               except Exception:
                   t.print_exc()

          표준 트레이스백에 비해 장점은 컴파일된 템플릿의 소스 행이 표시
          된다는 것입니다.  선택적 'file' 인자는 트레이스백을 보내야 할
          곳을 지시합니다; 기본값은 *note sys.stderr: 937.입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<5>,  Next: 예제<27>,  Prev: 파이썬 인터페이스,  Up: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정

5.27.6.3 명령 줄 인터페이스
...........................

명령 줄에서 프로그램으로 호출할 때, 다음 형식이 사용됩니다:

     python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...]

이때 다음 옵션을 지원합니다:

 -- Option: -n N, --number=N

     ‘statement’를 실행하는 횟수

 -- Option: -r N, --repeat=N

     타이머 반복 횟수 (기본값 5)

 -- Option: -s S, --setup=S

     초기에 한 번 실행될 문장 (기본값 ‘pass’)

 -- Option: -p, --process

     벽시계 시간이 아니라 프로세스 시간을 측정합니다, 기본값인 *note
     time.perf_counter(): a85. 대신 *note time.process_time(): a86.을 사
     용합니다

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Option: -u, --unit=U

     타이머 출력의 시간 단위를 지정합니다; ‘nsec’, ‘usec’, ‘msec’ 또는
     ‘sec’ 중에서 선택할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     날 시간 측정 결과를 인쇄합니다; 더 많은 자릿수 정밀도를 위해서는 반
     복하십시오

 -- Option: -h, --help

     짧은 사용법 메시지를 출력하고 종료합니다

여러 줄의 문장은 각 줄을 별도의 statement 인자로 지정하여 제공할 수 있습
니다; 들여쓰기 된 줄은 인자를 따옴표로 묶고 선행 공백을 사용하면 됩니다.
여러 개의 *note -s: 429c. 옵션도 비슷하게 취급됩니다.

*note -n: 4298.이 주어지지 않으면, 총 시간이 최소 0.2초가 될 때까지 시퀀
스 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, … 에서 증가하는 숫자를 시도하여 적절한 루프 수가
계산됩니다.

*note default_timer(): 4295. 측정은 같은 기계에서 실행되는 다른 프로그램
의 영향을 받을 수 있으므로, 정확한 시간 측정이 필요할 때 가장 좋은 방법
은 시간 측정을 몇 번 반복하고 가장 좋은 시간을 사용하는 것입니다.  이 작
업에는 *note -r: 429a. 옵션이 좋습니다; 대부분의 경우 기본값인 5번 반복
으로 충분할 것입니다.  *note time.process_time(): a86.을 사용하여 CPU 시
간을 측정 할 수 있습니다.

     참고: pass 문을 실행하는 것과 관련된 어떤 기준 오버헤드가 있습니다.
     여기에 있는 코드는 그것을 숨기려고 시도하지는 않지만, 여러분은 신경
     써야 합니다.  기준 오버헤드는 인자 없이 프로그램을 호출하여 측정 할
     수 있으며, 파이썬 버전마다 다를 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<27>,  Prev: 명령 줄 인터페이스<5>,  Up: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정

5.27.6.4 예제
.............

처음에 한 번만 실행되는 setup 문을 제공 할 수 있습니다:

     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text"
     5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)"
     1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop

In the output, there are three fields.  The loop count, which tells you
how many times the statement body was run per timing loop repetition.
The repetition count (‘best of 5’) which tells you how many times the
timing loop was repeated, and finally the time the statement body took
on average within the best repetition of the timing loop.  That is, the
time the fastest repetition took divided by the loop count.

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     0.41440500499993504
     >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     1.7246671520006203

*note Timer: 148e. 클래스와 그 메서드를 사용하여 같은 작업을 수행 할 수
있습니다:

     >>> import timeit
     >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     >>> t.timeit()
     0.3955516149999312
     >>> t.repeat()
     [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]

다음 예제는 여러 줄을 포함하는 표현식의 시간을 측정하는 방법을 보여줍니
다.  여기서 우리는 누락되었거나 존재하는 객체 어트리뷰트를 검사하는데
*note hasattr(): 4cc.과 *note try: 6e2./*note except: 18b.를 사용하는 비
용을 비교합니다:

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop

     >>> import timeit
     >>> # 어트리뷰트가 없습니다
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     str.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.9138244460009446
     >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.5829014980008651
     >>>
     >>> # 어트리뷰트가 있습니다
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     int.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.04215312199994514
     >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.08588060699912603

*note timeit: ef. 모듈이 여러분이 정의한 함수에 액세스하도록 하려면,
import 문이 포함된 'setup' 매개 변수를 전달하면 됩니다:

     def test():
         """멍청한 테스트 함수"""
         L = [i for i in range(100)]

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import timeit
         print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))

또 다른 옵션은 *note globals(): 186e.를 'globals' 매개 변수로 전달해서,
여러분의 현재 전역 이름 공간에서 코드가 실행되도록 하는 것입니다.  임포
트를 개별적으로 지정하는 것보다 편리 할 수 있습니다:

     def f(x):
         return x**2
     def g(x):
         return x**4
     def h(x):
         return x**8

     import timeit
     print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))


File: python.info,  Node: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적,  Next: tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적,  Prev: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.7 ‘trace’ — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적
--------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/trace.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note trace: fd. 모듈을 사용하면 프로그램 실행을 추적하고, 주석 처리된 문
장 커버리지 리스트를 생성하고, 호출자/피호출자 관계를 인쇄하고, 프로그램
실행 중 호출되는 함수를 나열할 수 있습니다.  다른 프로그램이나 명령 줄에
서 사용할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

Coverage.py(2)

     브랜치 커버리지와 같은 고급 기능과 함께 HTML 출력을 제공하는 널리 사
     용되는 제삼자 커버리지 도구.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<2>.
* 프로그래밍 인터페이스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/trace.py

   (2) https://coverage.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 사용법<2>,  Next: 프로그래밍 인터페이스,  Up: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적

5.27.7.1 명령 줄 사용법
.......................

*note trace: fd. 모듈은 명령 줄에서 호출할 수 있습니다.  다음과 같이 간
단할 수도 있습니다

     python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...

이것은 ‘somefile.py’를 실행하고 실행 중에 임포트 한 모든 파이썬 모듈들의
주석이 달린 리스트를 현재 디렉터리에 생성합니다.

 -- Option: --help

     사용법을 표시하고 종료합니다.

 -- Option: --version

     모듈의 버전을 표시하고 종료합니다.

Added in version 3.8: 실행 가능한 모듈을 실행할 수 있는 ‘--module’ 옵션
이 추가되었습니다.

* Menu:

* 주요 옵션::
* 수정자::
* 필터::


File: python.info,  Node: 주요 옵션,  Next: 수정자,  Up: 명령 줄 사용법<2>

5.27.7.2 주요 옵션
..................

*note trace: fd.를 호출할 때 다음 옵션 중 적어도 하나를 지정해야 합니다.
*note -listfuncs: 42ae. 옵션은 *note -trace: 42af. 나 *note -count:
42b0. 옵션과 함께 사용할 수 없습니다.  *note -listfuncs: 42ae.이 제공되
면, *note -count: 42b0. 나 *note -trace: 42af.는 허용되지 않으며, 반대의
경우도 마찬가지입니다.

 -- Option: -c, --count

     프로그램 완료 시 각 문장이 실행된 횟수를 보여주는 주석이 달린 리스
     팅 파일 집합을 생성합니다.  아래의 *note -coverdir: 42b2, *note
     -file: 42b3. 및 *note -no-report: 42b4.도 참조하십시오.

 -- Option: -t, --trace

     줄이 실행될 때마다 표시합니다.

 -- Option: -l, --listfuncs

     프로그램을 실행하여 실행되는 함수들을 표시합니다.

 -- Option: -r, --report

     *note -count: 42b0. 와 *note -file: 42b3. 옵션을 사용한 이전 프로그
     램 실행에서 주석이 달린 목록을 생성합니다.  이것은 어떤 코드도 실행
     하지 않습니다.

 -- Option: -T, --trackcalls

     프로그램을 실행하여 노출된 호출 관계를 표시합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 수정자,  Next: 필터,  Prev: 주요 옵션,  Up: 명령 줄 사용법<2>

5.27.7.3 수정자
...............

 -- Option: -f, --file=<file>

     여러 추적 실행에서 실행 횟수를 누적할 파일의 이름.  *note -count:
     42b0. 옵션과 함께 사용해야 합니다.

 -- Option: -C, --coverdir=<dir>

     보고서 파일이 저장되는 디렉터리.  ‘package.module’에 대한 커버리지
     보고서는 ‘`dir'/`package'/`module'.cover’ 파일에 기록됩니다.

 -- Option: -m, --missing

     주석이 달린 리스팅을 작성할 때, ‘>>>>>>’로 실행되지 않은 줄을 표시
     합니다.

 -- Option: -s, --summary

     *note -count: 42b0. 나 *note -report: 42b7.를 사용할 때, 처리된 각
     파일에 대한 요약을 표준출력으로 기록합니다.

 -- Option: -R, --no-report

     주석이 달린 리스팅을 생성하지 않습니다.  이것은 *note -count:
     42b0.를 사용하여 여러 번 실행한 다음, 마지막에 주석이 달린 리스팅의
     단일 집합을 생성하려고 할 때 유용합니다.

 -- Option: -g, --timing

     프로그램이 시작된 이후의 시간을 각 줄 앞에 붙입니다.  추적하는 동안
     에만 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 필터,  Prev: 수정자,  Up: 명령 줄 사용법<2>

5.27.7.4 필터
.............

이 옵션들은 여러 번 반복 될 수 있습니다.

 -- Option: --ignore-module=<mod>

     주어진 각 모듈 이름과 (패키지라면) 그 서브 모듈을 무시합니다.  인자
     는 쉼표로 구분된 이름 목록일 수 있습니다.

 -- Option: --ignore-dir=<dir>

     명명된 디렉터리와 하위 디렉터리의 모든 모듈과 패키지를 무시합니다.
     인자는 *note os.pathsep: 1d4c.으로 구분된 디렉터리 목록일 수 있습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그래밍 인터페이스,  Prev: 명령 줄 사용법<2>,  Up: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적

5.27.7.5 프로그래밍 인터페이스
..............................

 -- 클래스: trace.Trace (count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0,
          ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None,
          timing=False)

     단일 문장이나 표현식의 실행을 추적할 객체를 만듭니다.  모든 매개 변
     수는 선택 사항입니다.  'count'는 줄 번호의 카운팅을 활성화합니다.
     'trace'는 줄 실행 추적을 활성화합니다.  'countfuncs'는 실행 중에 호
     출된 함수들의 리스팅을 활성화합니다.  'countcallers'는 호출 관계 추
     적을 활성화합니다.  'ignoremods'는 무시할 모듈이나 패키지의 리스트
     입니다.  'ignoredirs'는 들어있는 모듈이나 패키지를 무시해야 하는 디
     렉터리의 리스트입니다.  'infile'은 저장된 카운트 정보를 읽을 파일 이
     름입니다.  'outfile'는 갱신된 카운트 정보를 쓰는 파일의 이름입니다.
     'timing'는 추적이 시작될 때에 상대적인 타임스탬프 표시를 활성화합니
     다.

      -- 메서드: run (cmd)

          명령을 실행하고 현재 추적 매개 변수를 사용하여 실행에서 통계를
          수집합니다.  'cmd'는 *note exec(): 17f.로 전달하는데 적합한 문
          자열이나 코드 객체여야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: runctx (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          정의된 전역과 지역 환경에서, 명령을 실행하고 현재 추적 매개 변
          수를 사용하여 실행에서 통계를 수집합니다.  정의되지 않으면,
          'globals' 와 'locals'의 기본값은 빈 딕셔너리입니다.

      -- 메서드: runfunc (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          현재 추적 매개 변수를 갖는 *note Trace: 42ca. 객체의 제어하에
          주어진 인자로 'func'를 호출합니다.

      -- 메서드: results ()

          주어진 *note Trace: 42ca. 인스턴스에 대한 모든 이전 ‘run’,
          ‘runctx’ 및 ‘runfunc’ 호출의 누적 결과를 포함하는 *note
          CoverageResults: 42ce. 객체를 반환합니다.  누적된 추적 결과를
          재설정하지 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: trace.CoverageResults

     *note Trace.results(): 42cd.에 의해 만들어진 커버리지 결과를 위한 컨
     테이너.  사용자가 직접 만들어서는 안 됩니다.

      -- 메서드: update (other)

          다른 *note CoverageResults: 42ce. 객체의 데이터를 병합합니다.

      -- 메서드: write_results (show_missing=True, summary=False,
               coverdir=None, *, ignore_missing_files=False)

          커버리지 결과를 기록합니다.  실행 카운트가 없는 줄을 표시하려
          면 'show_missing'을 설정하십시오.  모듈당 커버리지 요약을 출력
          에 포함 시키려면 'summary'를 설정하십시오.  'coverdir'은 커버
          리지 결과 파일이 출력될 디렉터리를 지정합니다.  ‘None’이면, 각
          소스 파일의 결과가 해당 디렉터리에 위치합니다.

          If 'ignore_missing_files' is ‘True’, coverage counts for files
          that no longer exist are silently ignored.  Otherwise, a
          missing file will raise a *note FileNotFoundError: 425.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Added 'ignore_missing_files' parameter.

프로그래밍 인터페이스의 사용을 보여주는 간단한 예제:

     import sys
     import trace

     # Trace 객체를 만들고, 무시할 대상과, 추적할지, 줄을 셀지 또는 둘 다 수행할지를 지정합니다.
     tracer = trace.Trace(
         ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
         trace=0,
         count=1)

     # 주어진 tracer를 사용해서 새 명령을 실행합니다
     tracer.run('main()')

     # 보고서를 만들어, 현재 디렉터리에 출력을 넣습니다
     r = tracer.results()
     r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적,  Prev: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적,  Up: 디버깅과 프로파일링

5.27.8 ‘tracemalloc’ — 메모리 할당 추적
---------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'소스 코드:' Lib/tracemalloc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

tracemalloc 모듈은 파이썬이 할당한 메모리 블록을 추적하는 디버그 도구입
니다.  다음 정보를 제공합니다:

   * 객체가 할당된 곳의 트레이스백

   * 파일명과 줄 번호별로 할당된 메모리 블록에 대한 통계: 할당된 메모리
     블록의 총 크기, 수 및 평균 크기

   * 메모리 누수를 탐지하기 위해 두 스냅샷의 차이점 계산

파이썬이 할당한 대부분의 메모리 블록을 추적하려면, *note
PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d44. 환경 변수를 ‘1’로 설정하거나, *note -X: 176.
‘tracemalloc’ 명령 줄 옵션을 사용하여 모듈을 가능한 한 빨리 시작해야 합
니다.  *note tracemalloc.start(): 1d43. 함수는 실행 시간에 호출되어 파이
썬 메모리 할당 추적을 시작할 수 있습니다.

기본적으로, 할당된 메모리 블록의 트레이스는 가장 최근의 프레임 만 저장합
니다 (1프레임).  시작 시 25프레임을 저장하려면: *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:
1d44. 환경 변수를 ‘25’로 설정하거나, *note -X: 176. ‘tracemalloc=25’ 명
령 줄 옵션을 사용하십시오.

* Menu:

* 예: 예<15>.
* API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tracemalloc.py


File: python.info,  Node: 예<15>,  Next: API,  Up: tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적

5.27.8.1 예
...........

* Menu:

* 상위 10개 표시::
* 차이 계산::
* 메모리 블록의 트레이스백 얻기::
* 예쁜 탑(top): 예쁜 탑 top.


File: python.info,  Node: 상위 10개 표시,  Next: 차이 계산,  Up: 예<15>

5.27.8.2 상위 10개 표시
.......................

가장 많은 메모리를 할당하는 10개의 파일을 표시합니다:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... 여러분의 응용 프로그램을 실행합니다 ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

파이썬 테스트 스위트의 출력 예:

     [ Top 10 ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
     <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB

파이썬이 모듈에서 ‘4855 KiB’ 데이터 (바이트 코드와 상수)를 로드했으며
*note collections: 1d. 모듈이 *note namedtuple: 1ca. 형을 빌드하기 위해
‘244 KiB’를 할당했음을 알 수 있습니다.

추가 옵션은 *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42d5.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 차이 계산,  Next: 메모리 블록의 트레이스백 얻기,  Prev: 상위 10개 표시,  Up: 예<15>

5.27.8.3 차이 계산
..................

두 개의 스냅샷을 취하고 차이점을 표시합니다:

     import tracemalloc
     tracemalloc.start()
     # ... 여러분의 응용 프로그램을 시작합니다  ...

     snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     # ... 메모리 누수를 일으키는 함수를 호출합니다 ...
     snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

     top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

파이썬 테스트 스위트의 일부 테스트를 실행하기 전/후의 출력 예:

     [ Top 10 differences ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
     /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B

우리는 파이썬이 ‘8173 KiB’의 모듈 데이터(바이트 코드와 상수)를 로드했으
며, 이전 스냅샷을 취할 때인 테스트 전에 로드된 것보다 ‘4428 KiB’ 더 많은
것을 볼 수 있습니다.  마찬가지로, *note linecache: 85. 모듈은 트레이스백
을 포맷하기 위해 ‘940 KiB’의 파이썬 소스 코드를 캐시 했는데, 이전 스냅샷
이후의 모든 것입니다.

시스템에 사용 가능한 메모리가 거의 없으면, 스냅샷을 오프라인으로 분석하
기 위해 *note Snapshot.dump(): 42d7. 메서드로 디스크에 스냅샷을 기록할 수
있습니다.  그런 다음 *note Snapshot.load(): 42d8. 메서드를 사용하여 스냅
샷을 다시 로드하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 블록의 트레이스백 얻기,  Next: 예쁜 탑 top,  Prev: 차이 계산,  Up: 예<15>

5.27.8.4 메모리 블록의 트레이스백 얻기
......................................

가장 큰 메모리 블록의 트레이스백을 표시하는 코드:

     import tracemalloc

     # 25프레임을 저장합니다
     tracemalloc.start(25)

     # ... 여러분의 응용 프로그램을 실행합니다 ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')

     # 가장 큰 메모리 블록을 꺼냅니다
     stat = top_stats[0]
     print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
     for line in stat.traceback.format():
         print(line)

파이썬 테스트 스위트의 출력 예 (트레이스백은 25프레임으로 제한되었습니다
):

     903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
         import pdb
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
         import doctest
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
         support.run_doctest(pickletools)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
         test_runner()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
         display_failure=not verbose)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
         match_tests=ns.match_tests)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
         main()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
         regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
         exec(code, run_globals)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
         "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)

대부분의 메모리가 모듈에서 데이터(바이트 코드와 상수)를 로드하기 위해
*note importlib: 77. 모듈에 할당되었음을 알 수 있습니다: ‘870.1 KiB’.  트
레이스백은 *note importlib: 77.가 가장 최근에 데이터를 로드한 위치입니다
: *note doctest: 3a. 모듈의 ‘import pdb’ 줄.  새 모듈이 로드되면 트레이
스백이 변경될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예쁜 탑 top,  Prev: 메모리 블록의 트레이스백 얻기,  Up: 예<15>

5.27.8.5 예쁜 탑(top)
.....................

‘<frozen importlib._bootstrap>’과 ‘<unknown>’ 파일을 무시하고, 예쁜 출력
으로 가장 많은 메모리를 할당하는 10개의 줄을 표시하는 코드:

     import linecache
     import os
     import tracemalloc

     def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
         snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
         ))
         top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)

         print("Top %s lines" % limit)
         for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
             frame = stat.traceback[0]
             print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
                   % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
             line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
             if line:
                 print('    %s' % line)

         other = top_stats[limit:]
         if other:
             size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
             print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
         total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
         print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... 여러분의 응용 프로그램을 실행합니다 ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     display_top(snapshot)

파이썬 테스트 스위트의 출력 예:

     Top 10 lines
     #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
         _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
     #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
         _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
     #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
         exec(class_definition, namespace)
     #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
         cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
     #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
         testMethod()
     #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
         lines = fp.readlines()
     #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
         for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
     #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
     #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
         self.data = set()
     #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
         _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
     6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
     Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB

추가 옵션은 *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42d5.를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 모든 추적한 메모리 블록의 현재 및 최대 크기를 기록::


File: python.info,  Node: 모든 추적한 메모리 블록의 현재 및 최대 크기를 기록,  Up: 예쁜 탑 top

5.27.8.6 모든 추적한 메모리 블록의 현재 및 최대 크기를 기록
...........................................................

다음 코드는 ‘0 + 1 + 2 + ...’와 같은 두 개의 합계를 비효율적으로 계산하
는데, 이 숫자들의 리스트를 만듭니다.  이 리스트는 일시적으로 많은 메모리
를 소비합니다.  *note get_traced_memory(): 42dc.와 *note reset_peak():
939.를 사용하여 계산 중 최대 메모리 사용량뿐만 아니라 합이 계산된 후의 작
은 메모리 사용량도 관찰할 수 있습니다:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # 예제 코드: 커다란 임시 리스트로 합계를 계산합니다
     large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))

     first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     tracemalloc.reset_peak()

     # 예제 코드: 작은 임시 리스트로 합계를 계산합니다
     small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))

     second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
     print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")

출력:

     first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
     second_size=804, second_peak=29704

*note reset_peak(): 939.를 사용하면 ‘small_sum’을 계산하는 동안의 최대 사
용량을 *note start(): 1d43. 호출 이후 메모리 블록의 전체 최대 크기보다 훨
씬 작더라도 정확하게 기록 할 수 있습니다.  *note reset_peak(): 939.를 호
출하지 않으면, ‘second_peak’는 여전히 ‘large_sum’ 계산의 최대가 됩니다
(즉, ‘first_peak’와 같습니다).  이 경우, 두 최댓값은 모두 최종 메모리 사
용량보다 훨씬 높아서, 최적화할 수 있음을 제안합니다 (*note list: 60b.에
대한 불필요한 호출을 제거하고, ‘sum(range(...))’이라고 작성하여).


File: python.info,  Node: API,  Prev: 예<15>,  Up: tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적

5.27.8.7 API
............

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<10>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<10>,  Next: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.27.8.8 함수
.............

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.clear_traces ()

     파이썬이 할당한 메모리 블록의 트레이스를 지웁니다.

     *note stop(): 158a.도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.get_object_traceback (obj)

     파이썬 객체 'obj'가 할당된 위치의 트레이스백을 가져옵니다.  *note
     Traceback: b93. 인스턴스를 반환하거나, *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈
     이 메모리 할당을 추적하지 않고 있거나 객체 할당을 추적하지 않았으면
     ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     *note gc.get_referrers(): 7fe.와 *note sys.getsizeof(): 1771. 함수
     도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit ()

     트레이스의 트레이스백에 저장된 최대 프레임 수를 가져옵니다.

     한계를 얻으려면 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 메모리 할당을 추적하
     고 있어야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 예외가 발생합니다.

     한계는 *note start(): 1d43. 함수에 의해 설정됩니다.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.get_traced_memory ()

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 추적하는 메모리 블록의 현재 크기와 최
     대 크기를 튜플로 가져옵니다: ‘(current: int, peak: int)’.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.reset_peak ()

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 추적하는 메모리 블록의 최대 크기를 현
     재 크기로 설정합니다.

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 파이썬 메모리 할당을 추적하고 있지 않
     으면 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

     이 함수는 기록된 최대 크기만 수정하며, *note clear_traces(): 42df.와
     달리 어떤 추적도 수정하거나 지우지 않습니다.  *note reset_peak():
     939.를 호출하기 전에 *note take_snapshot(): 42e1.로 찍은 스냅숏은 호
     출 후 찍은 스냅숏과 의미 있게 비교할 수 있습니다.

     *note get_traced_memory(): 42dc.도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory ()

     메모리 블록의 트레이스를 저장하는 데 사용된 *note tracemalloc: ff.
     모듈의 메모리 사용량을 바이트 단위로 가져옵니다.  *note int: 257.를
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.is_tracing ()

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 파이썬 메모리 할당을 추적하고 있으면
     ‘True’, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’.

     *note start(): 1d43.와 *note stop(): 158a. 함수도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.start (nframe: int = 1)

     파이썬 메모리 할당 추적을 시작합니다: 파이썬 메모리 할당자
     (allocator)에 훅을 설치합니다.  수집된 트레이스의 트레이스백은
     'nframe' 개의 프레임으로 제한됩니다.  기본적으로, 메모리 블록의 트
     레이스는 가장 최근의 프레임 만 저장합니다: 제한은 ‘1’입니다.
     'nframe'은 ‘1’보다 크거나 같아야 합니다.

     *note Traceback.total_nframe: 42e4. 어트리뷰트를 보면 트레이스백을
     구성한 원래의 총 프레임 수를 계속 읽을 수 있습니다.

     ‘1’개보다 더 많은 프레임을 저장하는 것은 ‘'traceback'’으로 그룹화된
     통계를 계산하거나 누적 통계를 계산할 때만 유용합니다: *note
     Snapshot.compare_to(): 42e5.와 *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42d5. 메
     서드를 참조하십시오.

     더 많은 프레임을 저장하면 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈의 메모리와
     CPU 오버헤드가 증가합니다.  *note get_tracemalloc_memory(): 42e2. 함
     수를 사용하여 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 사용하는 메모리양을 측
     정하십시오.

     *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d44. 환경 변수
     (‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME’)와 *note -X: 176. ‘tracemalloc=NFRAME’
     명령 줄 옵션을 사용하여 시작 시 추적을 시작할 수 있습니다.

     *note stop(): 158a, *note is_tracing(): 42e3. 및 *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 42e0. 함수도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.stop ()

     파이썬 메모리 할당 추적을 중지합니다: 파이썬 메모리 할당자에서 훅을
     제거합니다.  또한 파이썬이 할당한 메모리 블록의 이전에 수집된 모든
     트레이스를 지웁니다.

     트레이스를 지우기 전에 *note take_snapshot(): 42e1. 함수를 호출하여
     트레이스의 스냅샷을 취하십시오.

     *note start(): 1d43, *note is_tracing(): 42e3. 및 *note
     clear_traces(): 42df. 함수도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: tracemalloc.take_snapshot ()

     파이썬이 할당한 메모리 블록의 트레이스의 스냅샷을 취합니다.  새로운
     *note Snapshot: 42e6. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 메모리 할당 추적을 시작하기 전에 할당
     된 메모리 블록은 스냅샷에 포함되지 않습니다.

     트레이스의 트레이스백은 *note get_traceback_limit(): 42e0. 개의 프
     레임으로 제한됩니다.  더 많은 프레임을 저장하려면 *note start():
     1d43. 함수의 'nframe' 매개 변수를 사용하십시오.

     스냅샷을 취하기 위해서는 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈이 메모리 할당
     을 추적하고 있어야 합니다, *note start(): 1d43. 함수를 참조하십시오
     .

     *note get_object_traceback(): 1b5f. 함수도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: DomainFilter,  Next: Filter,  Prev: 함수<10>,  Up: API

5.27.8.9 DomainFilter
.....................

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.DomainFilter (inclusive: bool, domain: int)

     주소 공간(도메인)별로 메모리 블록의 트레이스를 필터링합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- 속성: inclusive

          'inclusive'가 ‘True’이면 (포함), 주소 공간 *note domain:
          42e9.에 할당된 메모리 블록을 일치시킵니다.

          'inclusive'가 ‘False’이면 (제외), 주소 공간 *note domain:
          42e9.에 할당되지 않은 메모리 블록을 일치시킵니다.

      -- 속성: domain

          메모리 블록의 주소 공간 (‘int’).  읽기 전용 프로퍼티.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter,  Next: Frame,  Prev: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.27.8.10 Filter
................

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.Filter (inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str,
          lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int =
          None)

     메모리 블록의 트레이스를 필터링합니다.

     'filename_pattern'의 문법은 *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 18a6. 함수를 참
     조하십시오.  ‘'.pyc'’ 파일 확장자가 ‘'.py'’로 대체됩니다.

     예:

        * ‘Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)’은 *note subprocess: d6. 모
          듈의 트레이스만 포함합니다

        * ‘Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)’은 *note tracemalloc: ff.
          모듈의 트레이스를 제외합니다

        * ‘Filter(False, "<unknown>")’은 빈 트레이스백을 제외합니다

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘'.pyo'’ 파일 확장자는 더는 ‘'.py'’로 대체되지 않
     습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note domain: 42ec. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다.

      -- 속성: domain

          메모리 블록의 주소 공간 (‘int’나 ‘None’).

          tracemalloc은 도메인 ‘0’을 사용하여 파이썬의 메모리 할당을 추
          적합니다.  C 확장은 다른 도메인을 사용하여 다른 리소스를 추적
          할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: inclusive

          'inclusive'가 ‘True’(포함)이면, 줄 번호 *note lineno: 42ee.에
          서 이름이 *note filename_pattern: 42ef.과 일치하는 파일에서 할
          당된 메모리 블록만 일치시킵니다.

          'inclusive'가 ‘False’(제외)이면, 줄 번호 *note lineno: 42ee.에
          서 이름이 *note filename_pattern: 42ef.과 일치하는 파일에 할당
          된 메모리 블록을 무시합니다.

      -- 속성: lineno

          필터의 줄 번호 (‘int’).  'lineno'가 ‘None’이면, 필터는 모든 줄
          번호와 일치합니다.

      -- 속성: filename_pattern

          필터의 파일명 패턴 (‘str’).  읽기 전용 프로퍼티.

      -- 속성: all_frames

          'all_frames'가 ‘True’이면, 트레이스백의 모든 프레임이 검사됩니
          다.  'all_frames'가 ‘False’이면, 가장 최근 프레임 만 검사됩니
          다.

          트레이스백 한계가 ‘1’이면 이 어트리뷰트가 적용되지 않습니다.
          *note get_traceback_limit(): 42e0. 함수와 *note
          Snapshot.traceback_limit: 42f1. 어트리뷰트를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame,  Next: Snapshot,  Prev: Filter,  Up: API

5.27.8.11 Frame
...............

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.Frame

     트레이스백의 프레임.

     *note Traceback: b93. 클래스는 *note Frame: 42f3. 인스턴스의 시퀀스
     입니다.

      -- 속성: filename

          파일명 (‘str’).

      -- 속성: lineno

          줄 번호 (‘int’).


File: python.info,  Node: Snapshot,  Next: Statistic,  Prev: Frame,  Up: API

5.27.8.12 Snapshot
..................

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.Snapshot

     파이썬이 할당한 메모리 블록의 트레이스의 스냅샷.

     *note take_snapshot(): 42e1. 함수는 스냅샷 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

      -- 메서드: compare_to (old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str,
               cumulative: bool = False)

          이전 스냅샷과의 차이점을 계산합니다.  'key_type' 별로 그룹화된
          *note StatisticDiff: 42f7. 인스턴스의 정렬된 리스트로 통계를 가
          져옵니다.

          'key_type'과 'cumulative' 매개 변수에 대해서는 *note
          Snapshot.statistics(): 42d5. 메서드를 참조하십시오.

          결과는 다음 값에 따라 내림차순으로 정렬됩니다: *note
          StatisticDiff.size_diff: 42f8.의 절댓값, *note
          StatisticDiff.size: 42f9, *note StatisticDiff.count_diff:
          42fa.의 절댓값, *note Statistic.count: 42fb. 그런 다음 *note
          StatisticDiff.traceback: 42fc.

      -- 메서드: dump (filename)

          스냅샷을 파일에 씁니다.

          스냅샷을 다시 로드하려면 *note load(): 42d8.를 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: filter_traces (filters)

          필터링 된 *note traces: 42fe. 시퀀스로 새 *note Snapshot:
          42e6. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  'filters'는 *note DomainFilter:
          cee.와 *note Filter: 42eb. 인스턴스의 리스트입니다.  'filters'가
          빈 리스트면, traces의 사본으로 새 *note Snapshot: 42e6. 인스턴
          스를 반환합니다.

          모든 포함 필터가 한 번에 적용되며, 아무런 포함 필터도 일치하지
          않으면 트레이스는 무시됩니다.  하나 이상의 제외 필터가 일치하
          면 트레이스는 무시됩니다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: *note DomainFilter: cee. 인스턴스도 이제
          'filters'에서 허용됩니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod load (filename)

          파일에서 스냅샷을 로드합니다.

          *note dump(): 42d7.도 참조하십시오.

      -- 메서드: statistics (key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

          'key_type' 별로 그룹화된 *note Statistic: 42ff. 인스턴스의 정
          렬된 리스트로 통계를 가져옵니다:

          key_type                  설명
                                    
          -------------------------------------------------------
                                    
          ‘'filename'’              파일명
                                    
                                    
          ‘'lineno'’                파일명과 줄 번호
                                    
                                    
          ‘'traceback'’             트레이스백
                                    

          'cumulative'가 ‘True’이면, 가장 최근의 프레임뿐만 아니라, 트레
          이스의 트레이스백의 모든 프레임에 대한 메모리 블록의 크기와 개
          수를 누적합니다.  누적 모드는 'key_type'이 ‘'filename'’과
          ‘'lineno'’와 같을 때만 사용할 수 있습니다.

          결과는 다음 값에 따라 내림차순으로 정렬됩니다: *note
          Statistic.size: 4300, *note Statistic.count: 42fb. 그런 다음
          *note Statistic.traceback: 4301.

      -- 속성: traceback_limit

          *note traces: 42fe.의 트레이스백에 저장된 최대 프레임 수: 스냅
          샷을 취할 때 *note get_traceback_limit(): 42e0.의 결과.

      -- 속성: traces

          파이썬이 할당한 모든 메모리 블록의 트레이스: *note Trace:
          4302. 인스턴스의 시퀀스.

          시퀀스의 순서는 정의되지 않았습니다.  정렬된 통계 리스트를 얻
          으려면 *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42d5. 메서드를 사용하십시
          오.


File: python.info,  Node: Statistic,  Next: StatisticDiff,  Prev: Snapshot,  Up: API

5.27.8.13 Statistic
...................

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.Statistic

     메모리 할당 통계.

     *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42d5.는 *note Statistic: 42ff. 인스턴
     스의 리스트를 반환합니다.

     *note StatisticDiff: 42f7. 클래스도 참조하십시오.

      -- 속성: count

          메모리 블록 수 (‘int’).

      -- 속성: size

          총 메모리 블록의 바이트 단위 크기 (‘int’).

      -- 속성: traceback

          메모리 블록이 할당된 곳의 트레이스백, *note Traceback: b93. 인
          스턴스.


File: python.info,  Node: StatisticDiff,  Next: Trace,  Prev: Statistic,  Up: API

5.27.8.14 StatisticDiff
.......................

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.StatisticDiff

     기존 *note Snapshot: 42e6. 인스턴스와 새 인스턴스 간의 메모리 할당
     에 대한 통계적 차이.

     *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 42e5.는 *note StatisticDiff: 42f7. 인
     스턴스의 리스트를 반환합니다.  *note Statistic: 42ff. 클래스도 참조
     하십시오.

      -- 속성: count

          새 스냅샷의 메모리 블록 수 (‘int’): 새 스냅샷에서 메모리 블록
          이 해제되었으면 ‘0’.

      -- 속성: count_diff

          이전 스냅샷과 새 스냅샷 간의 메모리 블록 수의 차이 (‘int’): 메
          모리 블록이 새 스냅샷에 할당되었으면 ‘0’.

      -- 속성: size

          새 스냅샷에서 총 메모리 블록의 바이트 단위 크기 (‘int’): 새 스
          냅샷에서 메모리 블록이 해제되었으면 ‘0’.

      -- 속성: size_diff

          이전 스냅샷과 새 스냅샷 사이의 총 메모리 블록 크기의 바이트 단
          위 차이 (‘int’): 메모리 블록이 새 스냅샷에 할당되었으면 ‘0’.

      -- 속성: traceback

          메모리 블록이 할당된 곳의 트레이스백, *note Traceback: b93. 인
          스턴스.


File: python.info,  Node: Trace,  Next: Traceback,  Prev: StatisticDiff,  Up: API

5.27.8.15 Trace
...............

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.Trace

     메모리 블록의 트레이스.

     *note Snapshot.traces: 42fe. 어트리뷰트는 *note Trace: 4302. 인스턴
     스의 시퀀스입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note domain: 4307. 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다.

      -- 속성: domain

          메모리 블록의 주소 공간 (‘int’).  읽기 전용 프로퍼티.

          tracemalloc은 도메인 ‘0’을 사용하여 파이썬의 메모리 할당을 추
          적합니다.  C 확장은 다른 도메인을 사용하여 다른 리소스를 추적
          할 수 있습니다.

      -- 속성: size

          메모리 블록의 바이트 단위 크기 (‘int’).

      -- 속성: traceback

          메모리 블록이 할당된 곳의 트레이스백, *note Traceback: b93. 인
          스턴스.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback,  Prev: Trace,  Up: API

5.27.8.16 Traceback
...................

 -- 클래스: tracemalloc.Traceback

     가장 오래된 프레임에서 가장 최근 프레임 순으로 정렬된 *note Frame:
     42f3. 인스턴스의 시퀀스.

     트레이스백은 적어도 ‘1’프레임을 포함합니다.  ‘tracemalloc’ 모듈이 프
     레임을 가져오지 못하면, 줄 번호 ‘0’의 파일명 ‘"<unknown>"’이 사용됩
     니다.

     스냅샷을 취할 때, 트레이스의 트레이스백은 *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 42e0. 프레임으로 제한됩니다.  *note
     take_snapshot(): 42e1. 함수를 참조하십시오.  트레이스백의 원래 프레
     임 수는 *note Traceback.total_nframe: 42e4. 어트리뷰트에 저장됩니다
     .  이를 통해 트레이스백 제한으로 인해 트레이스백이 잘렸는지 알 수 있
     습니다.

     *note Trace.traceback: 4309. 어트리뷰트는 *note Traceback: b93. 인
     스턴스의 인스턴스입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 프레임은 이제 가장 최근에서 가장 오래된 것 대신,
     가장 오래된 것에서 가장 최근으로 정렬됩니다.

      -- 속성: total_nframe

          자르기 전에 트레이스백을 구성한 총 프레임 수.  정보가 없으면 이
          어트리뷰트를 ‘None’으로 설정할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: *note Traceback.total_nframe: 42e4. 어트리뷰트가
     추가되었습니다.

      -- 메서드: format (limit=None, most_recent_first=False)

          줄의 리스트로 트레이스백을 포맷합니다.  소스 코드에서 줄을 꺼
          내는데 *note linecache: 85. 모듈을 사용합니다.  'limit'가 설정
          되면, 'limit'가 양수일 때 가장 최신 'limit' 개의 프레임을 포맷
          합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 가장 오래된 ‘abs(limit)’ 개의 프레임을
          포맷합니다.  'most_recent_first'가 ‘True’이면, 포맷된 프레임의
          순서가 반대로 되어, 가장 최근의 프레임을 마지막이 아니라 처음
          에 반환합니다.

          *note format(): b94.에 줄 넘김 문자가 포함되지 않는다는 점을 제
          외하고, *note traceback.format_tb(): 430b. 함수와 유사합니다.

          예:

               print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
               for line in traceback:
                   print(line)

          출력:

               Traceback (most recent call first):
                 File "test.py", line 9
                   obj = Object()
                 File "test.py", line 12
                   tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())


File: python.info,  Node: 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포,  Next: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스,  Prev: 디버깅과 프로파일링,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.28 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포
==============================

이 라이브러리는 파이썬 소프트웨어를 게시하고 설치하는 데 도움을 줍니다.
이 모듈은 파이썬 패키지 색인(1)과 함께 작동하도록 설계되었지만, 로컬 색
인 서버와 함께 사용할 수도, 색인 서버 없이 사용할 수도 있습니다.

* Menu:

* ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩::
* venv — 가상 환경 생성::
* zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩,  Next: venv — 가상 환경 생성,  Up: 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포

5.28.1 ‘ensurepip’ — ‘pip’ 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩
---------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'소스 코드:' Lib/ensurepip(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ensurepip: 55. 패키지는 ‘pip’ 설치 프로그램을 기존의 파이썬 설치나
가상 환경으로 부트스트랩 하는데 필요한 지원을 제공합니다.  이 부트스트랩
접근 방식은 ‘pip’가 자체 배포 주기가 있는 독립적인 프로젝트이며, 최신 사
용 가능한 안정 버전이 CPython 참조 인터프리터의 유지 보수와 기능 배포에
번들로 제공된다는 사실을 반영합니다.

대부분, 파이썬의 최종 사용자는 이 모듈을 직접 호출할 필요가 없습니다
(‘pip’는 기본적으로 부트스트랩 되어있어야 하기 때문입니다).  하지만, 파
이썬을 설치할 때 (또는 가상 환경을 만들 때) ‘pip’를 건너뛰었거나 그 후에
명시적으로 ‘pip’를 제거했다면 필요할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 이 모듈은 인터넷에 접속하지 '않습니다'.  ‘pip’를 부트스트랩 하
     는 데 필요한 모든 구성 요소는 패키지의 내부 부품으로 포함됩니다.

더 보기
.......

*note 파이썬 모듈 설치하기: eed.

     파이썬 패키지를 설치하기 위한 최종 사용자 지침서

PEP 453(2): 파이썬 설치에서 pip의 명시적 부트스트랩

     이 모듈의 원래 근거와 사양.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<6>.
* 모듈 API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ensurepip

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<6>,  Next: 모듈 API,  Up: ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩

5.28.1.1 명령 줄 인터페이스
...........................

명령 줄 인터페이스는 인터프리터의 ‘-m’ 스위치를 사용하여 호출됩니다.

가장 간단한 호출은 이렇습니다:

     python -m ensurepip

이 호출은 아직 설치되지 않았으면 ‘pip’를 설치하지만, 그렇지 않으면 아무
것도 하지 않습니다.  ‘pip’의 설치 버전이 적어도 ‘ensurepip’에서 제공하는
것 만큼 최신 버전이 되도록 하려면, ‘--upgrade’ 옵션을 전달하십시오:

     python -m ensurepip --upgrade

기본적으로, ‘pip’는 현재 가상 환경(활성화되었다면)이나 시스템 사이트 패
키지(활성 가상 환경이 없으면)에 설치됩니다.  설치 위치는 두 개의 추가 명
령 줄 옵션을 통해 제어할 수 있습니다:

 -- Option: --root <dir>

     현재 활성화된 가상 환경의 루트(있다면)나 현재 파이썬 설치의 기본 루
     트 대신, 지정된 루트 디렉터리에 상대적으로 ‘pip’를 설치합니다.

 -- Option: --user

     ‘pip’를 현재 파이썬 설치에 전역적으로 설치하지 않고 사용자 사이트 패
     키지 디렉터리에 설치합니다 (이 옵션은 활성 가상 환경에서는 허용되지
     않습니다).

기본적으로, ‘pipX’ 와 ‘pipX.Y’ 스크립트가 설치됩니다 (여기서 X.Y는
‘ensurepip’를 호출하는 데 사용된 파이썬 버전을 나타냅니다).  설치된 스크
립트는 두 개의 추가 명령 줄 옵션을 통해 제어할 수 있습니다:

 -- Option: --altinstall

     대안 설치가 요청되면, ‘pipX’ 스크립트가 설치되지 '않습니다'.

 -- Option: --default-pip

     “기본 pip” 설치가 요청되면, 두 개의 일반 스크립트에 더해 ‘pip’ 스크
     립트가 설치됩니다.

두 스크립트 선택 옵션을 모두 제공하면 예외가 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 API,  Prev: 명령 줄 인터페이스<6>,  Up: ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩

5.28.1.2 모듈 API
.................

*note ensurepip: 55.는 프로그래밍 방식으로 사용하기 위해 두 가지 함수를
제공합니다:

 -- 함수: ensurepip.version ()

     환경을 부트스트랩 할 때 설치될 pip의 버전을 지정하는 문자열을 반환
     합니다.

 -- 함수: ensurepip.bootstrap (root=None, upgrade=False, user=False,
          altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0)

     ‘pip’를 현재나 지정된 환경으로 부트스트랩 합니다.

     'root'는 상대 경로로 설치할 대안 루트 디렉터리를 지정합니다.
     'root'가 ‘None’이면, 설치는 현재 환경의 기본 설치 위치를 사용합니다
     .

     'upgrade'는 이미 설치된 이전 버전의 ‘pip’를 제공되는 버전으로 업그
     레이드할지를 나타냅니다.

     'user'는 전역으로 설치하는 대신 사용자 구성을 사용할지를 나타냅니다
     .

     기본적으로, ‘pipX’ 및 ‘pipX.Y’ 스크립트가 설치됩니다 (여기서 X.Y는
     현재 버전의 파이썬을 나타냅니다).

     'altinstall'가 설정되면, ‘pipX’가 설치되지 '않습니다'.

     'default_pip'가 설정되면, 두 개의 일반 스크립트에 더해 ‘pip’가 설치
     됩니다.

     'altinstall' 과 'default_pip'를 모두 설정하면 *note ValueError:
     202.가 발생합니다.

     'verbosity'는 부트스트랩 연산에서 *note sys.stdout: ad3.로 출력하는
     수준을 제어합니다.

     인자 ‘root’로 *note 감사 이벤트(auditing event): 18c1.
     ‘ensurepip.bootstrap’을 발생시킵니다.

          참고: 부트스트랩 프로세스에는 ‘sys.path’ 와 ‘os.environ’ 모두
          에 부작용이 있습니다.  대신 자식 프로세스에서 명령 줄 인터페이
          스를 호출하면 이러한 부작용을 피할 수 있습니다.

          참고: 부트스트랩 프로세스는 ‘pip’에 필요한 추가 모듈을 설치할
          수 있지만, 다른 소프트웨어는 이러한 종속성이 기본적으로 항상 존
          재한다고 가정해서는 안 됩니다 (‘pip’의 차후 버전에서 제거될 수
          있기 때문입니다).


File: python.info,  Node: venv — 가상 환경 생성,  Next: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리,  Prev: ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩,  Up: 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포

5.28.2 ‘venv’ — 가상 환경 생성
------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'소스 코드:' Lib/venv/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘venv’ module supports creating lightweight “virtual environments”,
each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in
their *note site: c7. directories.  A virtual environment is created on
top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual
environment’s “base” Python, and by default is isolated from the
packages in the base environment, so that only those explicitly
installed in the virtual environment are available.

가상 환경 내에서 사용될 때, pip(2)와 같은 일반적인 설치 도구는 명시적으
로 지정하지 않아도 파이썬 패키지를 가상 환경에 설치합니다.

A virtual environment is (amongst other things):

   * Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software
     libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project
     (library or application).  These are by default isolated from
     software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and
     libraries installed in the operating system.

   * Contained in a directory, conventionally named ‘.venv’ or ‘venv’ in
     the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of
     virtual environments, such as ‘~/.virtualenvs’.

   * Not checked into source control systems such as Git.

   * Considered as disposable – it should be simple to delete and
     recreate it from scratch.  You don’t place any project code in the
     environment.

   * Not considered as movable or copyable – you just recreate the same
     environment in the target location.

파이썬 가상 환경에 대한 자세한 배경 정보는 PEP 405(3)를 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4)

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

이 모듈은 *note 모바일 플랫폼: 1e5d.이나 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.에
서 지원되지 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 가상 환경 만들기: 가상 환경 만들기<2>.
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* EnvBuilder 확장 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/venv/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: 가상 환경 만들기<2>,  Next: How venvs work,  Up: venv — 가상 환경 생성

5.28.2.1 가상 환경 만들기
.........................

*note 가상 환경: 4319.은 ‘venv’ 모듈을 실행해서 만들어집니다:

     python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment

이 명령은 대상 디렉터리를 (필요하면 부모 디렉터리도) 만들고, 명령이 실행
된 파이썬 설치를 가리키는 ‘home’ 키가 있는 ‘pyvenv.cfg’ 파일을 그 곳에 배
치합니다.  또한 파이썬 실행 파일의 사본이나 심볼릭 링크를 포함하는 ‘bin’
(또는 윈도우의 경우 ‘Scripts’) 서브 디렉터리를 만듭니다 (플랫폼이나 환경
생성 시에 사용된 인자에 적절하게).  또한 ‘lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages’
(윈도우에서는, ‘Libsite-packages’) 서브 디렉터리를 만듭니다.  기존 디렉
터리가 지정되면 재사용됩니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 가상 환경을 만들 때 ‘venv’를 사용하는 것이 좋습
니다.

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.8: ‘pyvenv’는 파이썬
3.3 및 3.4 용 가상 환경을 만드는 데 권장되는 도구였으며, 파이썬 3.5 에서
‘venv’를 직접 실행하는 방식으로 대체되었습니다.

윈도우에서는, 다음과 같이 ‘venv’ 명령을 호출하십시오:

     PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment

명령에 ‘-h’를 사용하면 사용 가능한 옵션이 표시됩니다:

     usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
                 [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
                 [--without-scm-ignore-files]
                 ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]

     Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.

     Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
     sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.

 -- Option: ENV_DIR

     A required argument specifying the directory to create the
     environment in.

 -- Option: --system-site-packages

     Give the virtual environment access to the system site-packages
     directory.

 -- Option: --symlinks

     Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks are not the
     default for the platform.

 -- Option: --copies

     Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when symlinks are the
     default for the platform.

 -- Option: --clear

     Delete the contents of the environment directory if it already
     exists, before environment creation.

 -- Option: --upgrade

     Upgrade the environment directory to use this version of Python,
     assuming Python has been upgraded in-place.

 -- Option: --without-pip

     Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual environment (pip
     is bootstrapped by default).

 -- Option: --prompt <PROMPT>

     Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this environment.

 -- Option: --upgrade-deps

     Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest version in PyPI.

 -- Option: --without-scm-ignore-files

     Skips adding SCM ignore files to the environment directory (Git is
     supported by default).

버전 3.4에서 변경: 기본적으로 pip을 설치합니다.  ‘--without-pip’ 와
‘--copies’ 옵션을 추가했습니다.

버전 3.4에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는, ‘--clear’ 나 ‘--upgrade’ 옵션이 제공
되지 않았을 때, 대상 디렉터리가 이미 존재하면 에러가 발생했습니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: PyPI에 있는 최신으로 pip + setuptools를 업그레이드하
는 ‘--upgrade-deps’ 옵션을 추가했습니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘setuptools’ is no longer a core venv dependency.

버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’ option.

버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘venv’ now creates a ‘.gitignore’ file for Git by
default.

     참고: 심볼릭 링크가 윈도우에서 지원되지만, 추천하지는 않습니다.  특
     히 파일 탐색기에서 ‘python.exe’를 더블 클릭하면 심볼릭 링크를 열심
     히 따라가고(resolve) 가상 환경은 무시됩니다.

     참고: 마이크로소프트 윈도우에서는 사용자에 대한 실행 정책을 설정하
     여 ‘Activate.ps1’ 스크립트를 활성화해야 할 수도 있습니다.  다음
     PowerShell 명령을 실행하여 이를 수행할 수 있습니다:

          PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser

     자세한 정보는 About Execution Policies(1)를 참조하십시오.

만들어진 ‘pyvenv.cfg’ 파일에는 ‘include-system-site-packages’ 키도 포함
되어 있으며, ‘venv’가 ‘--system-site-packages’ 옵션으로 실행되면 ‘true’로
설정되고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘false’로 설정됩니다.

‘--without-pip’ 옵션을 주지 않는 한, 가상 환경으로 ‘pip’을 부트스트랩 하
기 위해 *note ensurepip: 55.가 호출됩니다.

‘venv’에 여러 경로를 지정할 수 있습니다.  이때 지정된 옵션에 따라 제공된
각 경로에서 같은 가상 환경이 만들어집니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170


File: python.info,  Node: How venvs work,  Next: API<2>,  Prev: 가상 환경 만들기<2>,  Up: venv — 가상 환경 생성

5.28.2.2 How venvs work
.......................

When a Python interpreter is running from a virtual environment, *note
sys.prefix: 3b0. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ac. point to the
directories of the virtual environment, whereas *note sys.base_prefix:
3e9. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e8. point to those of the base
Python used to create the environment.  It is sufficient to check
‘sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix’ to determine if the current interpreter
is running from a virtual environment.

A virtual environment may be “activated” using a script in its binary
directory (‘bin’ on POSIX; ‘Scripts’ on Windows).  This will prepend
that directory to your ‘PATH’, so that running ‘python’ will invoke the
environment’s Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts
without having to use their full path.  The invocation of the activation
script is platform-specific (‘<VENV>’ must be replaced by the path to
the directory containing the virtual environment):

플랫폼            셸               가상 환경을 활성화하는 명령
                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
POSIX             bash/zsh         ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate’
                                   
                  
fish              ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.fish’
                  
                  
csh/tcsh          ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.csh’
                  
                  
pwsh              ‘$
                  <VENV>/bin/Activate.ps1’
                  
                                   
윈도우            cmd.exe          ‘C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\activate.bat’
                                   
                  
PowerShell        ‘PS C:\>
                  <VENV>\Scripts\Activate.ps1’
                  

Added in version 3.4: ‘fish’ 와 ‘csh’ 활성화 스크립트.

Added in version 3.8: PowerShell Core 지원을 위해 POSIX에 설치된
PowerShell 활성화 스크립트.

가상 환경을 구체적으로 활성화할 '필요'는 없습니다, 파이썬을 호출할 때 그
환경의 파이썬 인터프리터를 가리키는 전체 경로를 지정하기만 하면 되기 때
문입니다.  또한, 환경에 설치된 모든 스크립트는 활성화하지 않고도 실행 가
능해야 합니다.

In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments
have a “shebang” line which points to the environment’s Python
interpreter, ‘#!/<PATH-TO-VENV>/bin/python’.  This means that the script
will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of ‘PATH’.  On
Windows, “shebang” line processing is supported if you have the *note
윈도우 용 파이썬 런처: 5b8. installed.  Thus, double-clicking an
installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the
correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or
on the ‘PATH’.

가상 환경이 활성화되면, ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ 환경 변수가 환경의 경로로 설정됩니
다.  가상 환경을 사용하기 위해 명시적으로 활성화할 필요가 없기 때문에,
‘VIRTUAL_ENV’로 가상 환경이 사용 중인지를 판단할 수 없습니다.

     경고: Because scripts installed in environments should not expect
     the environment to be activated, their shebang lines contain the
     absolute paths to their environment’s interpreters.  Because of
     this, environments are inherently non-portable, in the general
     case.  You should always have a simple means of recreating an
     environment (for example, if you have a requirements file
     ‘requirements.txt’, you can invoke ‘pip install -r
     requirements.txt’ using the environment’s ‘pip’ to install all of
     the packages needed by the environment).  If for any reason you
     need to move the environment to a new location, you should recreate
     it at the desired location and delete the one at the old location.
     If you move an environment because you moved a parent directory of
     it, you should recreate the environment in its new location.
     Otherwise, software installed into the environment may not work as
     expected.

셸에서 ‘deactivate’를 입력하여 가상 환경을 비활성화할 수 있습니다.  정확
한 메커니즘은 플랫폼에 따라 다르고 내부 구현 상세입니다 (보통, 스크립트
나 셸 함수가 사용됩니다).


File: python.info,  Node: API<2>,  Next: EnvBuilder 확장 예제,  Prev: How venvs work,  Up: venv — 가상 환경 생성

5.28.2.3 API
............

위에서 설명한 고수준 메서드는 제삼자 가상 환경 작성자가 필요에 따라 환경
을 사용자 정의할 수 있는 메커니즘을 제공하는 간단한 API를 사용합니다:
*note EnvBuilder: 26a. 클래스.

 -- 클래스: venv.EnvBuilder (system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

     *note EnvBuilder: 26a. 클래스는 인스턴스를 만들 때 다음 키워드 인자
     를 받아들입니다:

        * 'system_site_packages' – 시스템 파이썬 site-packages가 환경에
          서 사용 가능해야 함을 나타내는 논릿값입니다 (기본값은
          ‘False’).

        * 'clear' – 참이면, 환경을 만들기 전에, 대상 디렉터리에 존재하는
          내용을 지우도록 하는 논릿값.

        * 'symlinks' – 파이썬 바이너리를 복사하는 대신 심볼릭 링크하려고
          시도할지를 나타내는 논릿값입니다.

        * 'upgrade' – 참이면 실행 중인 파이썬으로 기존 환경을 업그레이드
          하도록 하는 논릿값 - 파이썬이 그 자리에서 업그레이드되었을 때
          사용됩니다 (기본값은 ‘False’).

        * 'with_pip' – 참이면 가상 환경에 pip이 설치되도록 하는 논릿값입
          니다.  ‘--default-pip’ 옵션과 함께 *note ensurepip: 55.를 사용
          합니다.

        * 'prompt' – 가상 환경이 활성화된 후 사용할 문자열입니다 (기본값
          은 환경의 디렉터리 이름이 사용됨을 뜻하는 ‘None’입니다).  특수
          한 문자열 ‘"."’이 제공되면, 현재 디렉터리의 기본 이름
          (basename)이 프롬프트로 사용됩니다.

        * 'upgrade_deps' – PyPI에서 기반 venv 모듈을 최신으로 갱신합니다

        * 'scm_ignore_files' – Create ignore files based for the
          specified source control managers (SCM) in the iterable.
          Support is defined by having a method named
          ‘create_{scm}_ignore_file’.  The only value supported by
          default is ‘"git"’ via *note create_git_ignore_file(): 4329.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘with_pip’ 매개 변수 추가

     버전 3.6에서 변경: ‘prompt’ 매개 변수 추가

     버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘upgrade_deps’ 매개 변수 추가

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘scm_ignore_files’ 매개 변수 추가

     *note EnvBuilder: 26a. may be used as a base class.

      -- 메서드: create (env_dir)

          가상 환경을 담을 대상 디렉터리(절대 또는 현재 디렉터리에 대한
          상대)를 지정해서 가상 환경을 만듭니다.  ‘create’ 메서드는 지정
          된 디렉터리에 환경을 만들거나 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          *note EnvBuilder: 26a. 클래스의 ‘create’ 메서드는 서브 클래스
          가 사용자 정의할 수 있는 훅을 보여줍니다:

               def create(self, env_dir):
                   """
                   디렉터리에 가상화된 파이썬 환경을 만듭니다.
                   env_dir은 안에 환경을 만들 대상 디렉터리입니다.
                   """
                   env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
                   context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
                   self.create_configuration(context)
                   self.setup_python(context)
                   self.setup_scripts(context)
                   self.post_setup(context)

          메서드 *note ensure_directories(): 432b, *note
          create_configuration(): 432c, *note setup_python(): 432d,
          *note setup_scripts(): 432e. 및 *note post_setup(): 432f. 각각
          을 재정의할 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: ensure_directories (env_dir)

          환경 디렉터리와 이미 존재하지 않는 필요한 모든 서브 디렉터리를
          만들고, 문맥 객체를 돌려줍니다.  문맥 객체는 다른 메서드에서 사
          용하기 위한 어트리뷰트(가령 경로)를 담고 있을 뿐입니다.  *note
          EnvBuilder: 26a.가 ‘clear=True’ 인자로 만들어지면, 환경 디렉터
          리의 내용이 지워진 후 모든 필요한 서브 디렉터리가 재생성됩니다
          .

          The returned context object is a *note types.SimpleNamespace:
          1d1. with the following attributes:

             * ‘env_dir’ - The location of the virtual environment.
               Used for ‘__VENV_DIR__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4330.).

             * ‘env_name’ - The name of the virtual environment.  Used
               for ‘__VENV_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4330.).

             * ‘prompt’ - The prompt to be used by the activation
               scripts.  Used for ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ in activation
               scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4330.).

             * ‘executable’ - The underlying Python executable used by
               the virtual environment.  This takes into account the
               case where a virtual environment is created from another
               virtual environment.

             * ‘inc_path’ - The include path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘lib_path’ - The purelib path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘bin_path’ - 가상 환경의 스크립트 경로.

             * ‘bin_name’ - The name of the script path relative to the
               virtual environment location.  Used for
               ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4330.).

             * ‘env_exe’ - The name of the Python interpreter in the
               virtual environment.  Used for ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ in
               activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4330.).

             * ‘env_exec_cmd’ - The name of the Python interpreter,
               taking into account filesystem redirections.  This can be
               used to run Python in the virtual environment.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: The 'venv' *note sysconfig installation
          scheme: 689. is used to construct the paths of the created
          directories.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: The attribute ‘lib_path’ was added to the
          context, and the context object was documented.

      -- 메서드: create_configuration (context)

          환경에 ‘pyvenv.cfg’ 구성 파일을 만듭니다.

      -- 메서드: setup_python (context)

          환경에 파이썬 실행 파일의 복사본이나 심볼릭 링크를 만듭니다.
          POSIX 시스템에서, 특정 실행 파일 ‘python3.x’가 사용되면, 해당
          이름의 파일이 이미 존재하지 않는 한 ‘python’ 과 ‘python3’ 심볼
          릭 링크가 해당 실행 파일을 가리키도록 만들어집니다.

      -- 메서드: setup_scripts (context)

          플랫폼에 적합한 활성화 스크립트를 가상 환경에 설치합니다.

      -- 메서드: upgrade_dependencies (context)

          환경에서 핵심 venv 종속성 패키지 (현재 pip(1))를 업그레이드합
          니다.  이것은 환경에서 셸로 ‘pip’ 실행 파일을 실행하여 수행됩
          니다.

          Added in version 3.9.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: setuptools(2) is no longer a core venv
          dependency.

      -- 메서드: post_setup (context)

          제삼자 구현에서 재정의하여 가상 환경에 패키지를 사전 설치하거
          나 다른 생성 후 단계를 수행할 수 있는 메서드입니다.

      -- 메서드: install_scripts (context, path)

          이 메서드는 가상 환경에 사용자 정의 스크립트를 설치하는 데 도
          움을 주는데, 서브 클래스의 *note setup_scripts(): 432e. 나
          *note post_setup(): 432f.에서 호출할 수 있습니다.

          'path'는 ‘common’, ‘posix’, ‘nt’ 서브 디렉터리를 포함해야 하는
          디렉터리 경로입니다.  각 디렉터리에는 환경의 ‘bin’ 디렉터리로
          들어갈 스크립트가 들어 있습니다.  ‘common’과 *note os.name:
          2b17.에 해당하는 디렉터리의 내용은 자리 표시자의 일부 텍스트 치
          환 후 복사됩니다:

             * ‘__VENV_DIR__’은 환경 디렉터리의 절대 경로로 치환됩니다.

             * ‘__VENV_NAME__’은 환경 이름(환경 디렉터리의 최종 경로 세
               그먼트)으로 치환됩니다.

             * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’는 프롬프트(괄호로 묶인 환경 이름과 그 뒤
               의 스페이스)로 치환됩니다

             * ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’은 bin 디렉터리의 이름(‘bin’ 이나
               ‘Scripts’)으로 치환됩니다.

             * ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’은 환경의 실행 파일의 절대 경로로 치환됩
               니다.

          디렉터리는 존재하는 것이 허용됩니다 (기존 환경이 업그레이드될
          때).

      -- 메서드: create_git_ignore_file (context)

          Creates a ‘.gitignore’ file within the virtual environment
          that causes the entire directory to be ignored by the Git
          source control manager.

          Added in version 3.13.

     버전 3.7.2에서 변경: 윈도우는 이제 실제 바이너리를 복사하는 대신
     ‘python[w].exe’를 위한 리디렉터 스크립트를 사용합니다.  3.7.2 에서
     만, 소스 트리의 빌드에서 실행하지 않는 한 *note setup_python():
     432d.아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7.3에서 변경: 윈도우는 *note setup_scripts(): 432e. 대신
     *note setup_python(): 432d.의 일부로 리디렉터 스크립트를 복사합니다
     .  이것은 3.7.2는 해당하지 않습니다.  심볼릭 링크를 사용하면, 원래
     실행 파일이 링크됩니다.

모듈 수준의 편리 함수도 있습니다:

 -- 함수: venv.create (env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

     주어진 키워드 인자로 *note EnvBuilder: 26a.를 만들고, 'env_dir' 인
     자로 *note create(): 432a. 메서드를 호출합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'with_pip' 매개 변수 추가

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'prompt' 매개 변수 추가

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'upgrade_deps' 매개 변수 추가

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'scm_ignore_files' 매개 변수 추가

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/


File: python.info,  Node: EnvBuilder 확장 예제,  Prev: API<2>,  Up: venv — 가상 환경 생성

5.28.2.4 ‘EnvBuilder’ 확장 예제
...............................

다음 스크립트는 생성된 가상 환경에 setuptools 와 pip을 설치하는 서브 클
래스를 구현하여 *note EnvBuilder: 26a.를 확장하는 방법을 보여줍니다:

     import os
     import os.path
     from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     import sys
     from threading import Thread
     from urllib.parse import urlparse
     from urllib.request import urlretrieve
     import venv

     class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
         """
         이 빌더는 setuptools 와 pip을 설치하여 만들어진 가상 환경에 다른 패키지를 pip이나
         easy_install 할 수 있도록 합니다.

         :param nodist: 참이면, 만들어진 가상 환경에 setuptools와 pip을
                        설치하지 않습니다.
         :param nopip: 참이면, 만들어진 가상 환경에 pip을 설치하지
                       않습니다.
         :param progress: setuptools 나 pip이 설치되면, progress 콜러블을 전달하여 설치 진행
                          상황을 감시할 수 있습니다. 지정하면, 두 개의 인자로 호출됩니다: 진행률을
                          나타내는 문자열과 문자열의 출처를 나타내는 context. context 인자는
                          세 가지 값 중 하나를 가질 수 있습니다: virtualize() 자체에서
                          호출되었음을 나타내는 'main'과, 앱 설치에 사용된 자식 프로세스의 출력
                          스트림에서 줄을 읽어서 얻었음을 나타내는 'stdout'과 'stderr'.

                          콜러블을 지정하지 않으면, sys.stderr에 기본 진행 정보가 출력됩니다.
         """

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
             self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
             self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
             self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def post_setup(self, context):
             """
             만들어지는 가상 환경에 미리 설치될 필요가 있는 것들을 설정합니다.

             :param context: 처리 중인 가상 환경 생성 요청에 대한 정보.
             """
             os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
             if not self.nodist:
                 self.install_setuptools(context)
             # setuptools 없이 pip을 설치할 수 없습니다
             if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
                 self.install_pip(context)

         def reader(self, stream, context):
             """
             자식 프로세스의 출력 스트림에서 줄을 읽고 (지정되었으면) progress 콜러블로 전달하거나 진행
             정보를 sys.stderr에 씁니다.
             """
             progress = self.progress
             while True:
                 s = stream.readline()
                 if not s:
                     break
                 if progress is not None:
                     progress(s, context)
                 else:
                     if not self.verbose:
                         sys.stderr.write('.')
                     else:
                         sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
                     sys.stderr.flush()
             stream.close()

         def install_script(self, context, name, url):
             _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url)
             fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
             binpath = context.bin_path
             distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
             # 가상 환경의 바이너리 폴더에 스크립트를 내려받습니다
             urlretrieve(url, distpath)
             progress = self.progress
             if self.verbose:
                 term = '\n'
             else:
                 term = ''
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
                 sys.stderr.flush()
             # 가상 환경에 설치합니다
             args = [context.env_exe, fn]
             p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
             t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
             t1.start()
             t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
             t2.start()
             p.wait()
             t1.join()
             t2.join()
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('done.', 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
             # 정리 - 더는 필요 없습니다
             os.unlink(distpath)

         def install_setuptools(self, context):
             """
             가상 환경에 setuptools를 설치합니다.

             :param context: 처리 중인 가상 환경 생성 요청에 대한 정보.
             """
             url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py"
             self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
             # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
             pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
             files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
             for f in files:
                 f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
                 os.unlink(f)

         def install_pip(self, context):
             """
             Install pip in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py'
             self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)


     def main(args=None):
         import argparse

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
                                          description='Creates virtual Python '
                                                      'environments in one or '
                                                      'more target '
                                                      'directories.')
         parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
                             help='A directory in which to create the '
                                  'virtual environment.')
         parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nodist',
                             help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
                                  "virtual environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nopip',
                             help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
                                  "environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='system_site',
                             help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
                                  'system site-packages dir.')
         if os.name == 'nt':
             use_symlinks = False
         else:
             use_symlinks = True
         parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
                             action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
                             help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
                                  'when symlinks are not the default for '
                                  'the platform.')
         parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
                                                'virtual environment '
                                                'directory if it already '
                                                'exists, before virtual '
                                                'environment creation.')
         parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
                                                  'environment directory to '
                                                  'use this version of '
                                                  'Python, assuming Python '
                                                  'has been upgraded '
                                                  'in-place.')
         parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
                                                  'from the scripts which '
                                                  'install setuptools and pip.')
         options = parser.parse_args(args)
         if options.upgrade and options.clear:
             raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
         builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
                                        clear=options.clear,
                                        symlinks=options.symlinks,
                                        upgrade=options.upgrade,
                                        nodist=options.nodist,
                                        nopip=options.nopip,
                                        verbose=options.verbose)
         for d in options.dirs:
             builder.create(d)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         rc = 1
         try:
             main()
             rc = 0
         except Exception as e:
             print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
         sys.exit(rc)

이 스크립트는 온라인(1)에서 내려받을 수도 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리,  Prev: venv — 가상 환경 생성,  Up: 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포

5.28.3 ‘zipapp’ — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

'소스 코드:' Lib/zipapp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 *note 파이썬 인터프리터가 직접 실행할: 1d31. 수 있는 파이썬 코
드를 포함하는 zip 파일 생성을 관리하는 도구를 제공합니다.  이 모듈은
*note 명령 줄 인터페이스: 4335.와 *note 파이썬 API: 4336.를 모두 제공합
니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 예: 기본 예<2>.
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
* 파이썬 API::
* 예: 예<16>.
* 인터프리터 지정하기::
* zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기::
* 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램 아카이브 형식::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipapp.py


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 예<2>,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<7>,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.1 기본 예
................

다음 예제는 *note 명령 줄 인터페이스: 4335.를 사용하여 파이썬 코드가 포
함된 디렉터리에서 실행 가능 아카이브를 만드는 방법을 보여줍니다.  실행하
면, 아카이브가 아카이브의 모듈 ‘myapp’에서 ‘main’ 함수를 실행합니다.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<7>,  Next: 파이썬 API,  Prev: 기본 예<2>,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.2 명령 줄 인터페이스
...........................

명령 줄에서 프로그램으로 호출될 때, 다음 형식이 사용됩니다:

     $ python -m zipapp source [options]

'source'가 디렉터리면, 'source'의 내용으로부터 아카이브를 만듭니다.
'source'가 파일이면, 아카이브여야 하며, 대상 아카이브로 복사됩니다 (또는
–info 옵션이 지정되면 셔뱅(shebang) 줄의 내용이 표시됩니다).

다음과 같은 옵션이 이해됩니다:

 -- Option: -o <output>, --output=<output>

     출력을 'output'이라는 이름의 파일에 씁니다.  이 옵션을 지정하지 않
     으면, 출력 파일명은 입력 'source'와 같고, 확장자 ‘.pyz’가 추가됩니
     다.  명시적인 파일명이 제공되면, 그대로 사용됩니다 (그래서 필요하면
     ‘.pyz’ 확장자를 포함해야 합니다).

     'source'가 아카이브이면 반드시 출력 파일명을 지정해야 합니다 (그리
     고 이 경우, 'output'은 'source'와 달라야 합니다).

 -- Option: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>

     실행할 명령으로 'interpreter'를 지정하여 ‘#!’ 줄을 아카이브에 추가
     합니다.  또한, POSIX에서, 아카이브를 실행 파일로 만듭니다.  기본값
     은 ‘#!’ 줄을 쓰지 않고, 파일을 실행 파일로 만들지 않는 것입니다.

 -- Option: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>

     아카이브에 'mainfn'을 실행하는 ‘__main__.py’ 파일을 씁니다.
     'mainfn' 인자는 “pkg.mod:fn” 형식이어야 합니다.  여기서 “pkg.mod”는
     아카이브의 패키지/모듈이며, “fn”은 주어진 모듈에 있는 콜러블입니다.
     ‘__main__.py’ 파일은 그 콜러블을 실행합니다.

     아카이브를 복사할 때 *note -main: 433d.을 지정할 수 없습니다.

 -- Option: -c, --compress

     디플레이트(deflate) 메서드로 파일을 압축하여, 출력 파일의 크기를 줄
     입니다.  기본적으로, 파일은 아카이브에 압축되지 않은 상태로 저장됩
     니다.

     아카이브를 복사할 때 *note -compress: 433f.는 효과가 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: --info

     진단 목적으로, 아카이브에 내장된 인터프리터를 표시합니다.  이 경우,
     다른 옵션은 무시되고 SOURCE는 디렉터리가 아닌 아카이브여야 합니다.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     간단한 사용법 메시지를 인쇄하고 종료합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 API,  Next: 예<16>,  Prev: 명령 줄 인터페이스<7>,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.3 파이썬 API
...................

이 모듈은 두 개의 편의 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: zipapp.create_archive (source, target=None, interpreter=None,
          main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)

     'source'로 응용 프로그램 아카이브를 만듭니다.  소스는 다음 중 하나
     일 수 있습니다:

        * 디렉터리 이름, 또는 디렉터리를 참조하는 *note 경로류 객체:
          2a0.  이 경우 해당 디렉터리의 내용으로 새 응용 프로그램 아카이
          브가 만들어집니다.

        * 기존 응용 프로그램 아카이브 파일의 이름, 또는 이러한 파일을 참
          조하는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.  이 경우 파일이 대상(target)으
          로 복사됩니다 ('interpreter' 인자에 제공된 값을 반영하도록 수
          정하면서).  필요하면, 파일 이름에 ‘.pyz’ 확장자가 포함되어야 합
          니다.

        * 바이너리 모드에서 읽기로 열린 파일 객체.  파일의 내용은 응용 프
          로그램 아카이브여야 하며, 파일 객체는 아카이브의 시작 부분에 위
          치한 것으로 가정합니다.

     'target' 인자는 결과 아카이브가 기록될 위치를 결정합니다:

        * 파일 이름이거나 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.이면, 아카이브가 그 파
          일에 기록됩니다.

        * 열린 파일 객체면, 그 파일 객체에 아카이브가 기록되며, 파일은 바
          이너리 모드로 쓰기로 열려 있어야 합니다.

        * target이 생략되면 (또는 ‘None’이면), 소스(source)는 디렉터리여
          야 하며 대상은 ‘.pyz’ 확장자가 추가된 소스와 이름이 같은 파일
          이 됩니다.

     'interpreter' 인자는 아카이브가 실행될 파이썬 인터프리터의 이름을 지
     정합니다.  아카이브 시작 부분에 “셔뱅(shebang)” 줄로 기록됩니다.
     POSIX에서는 이를 OS가 해석하고, 윈도우에서는 파이썬 런처가 이를 처
     리합니다.  'interpreter'를 생략하면 셔뱅 줄이 기록되지 않습니다.
     interpreter가 지정되고 target이 파일명이면, target 파일의 실행 가능
     비트가 설정됩니다.

     'main' 인자는 아카이브의 메인 프로그램으로 사용될 콜러블의 이름을 지
     정합니다.  소스가 디렉터리이고 소스에 아직 ‘__main__.py’ 파일이 없
     을 때만 지정할 수 있습니다.  'main' 인자는 “pkg.module:callable” 형
     식이어야 하며 아카이브는 “pkg.module”을 임포트 하고 인자 없이 지정
     된 콜러블을 실행해서 실행됩니다.  소스가 디렉터리이고 ‘__main__.py’
     파일을 포함하지 않을 때 'main'을 생략하는 것은 에러입니다, 그렇지 않
     으면 결과 아카이브가 실행 가능하지 않기 때문입니다.

     선택적 'filter' 인자는 추가되는 파일의 (소스 디렉터리에 상대적인) 경
     로를 나타내는 Path 객체가 전달되는 콜백 함수를 지정합니다.  파일을
     추가하려면 ‘True’를 반환해야 합니다.

     선택적 'compressed' 인자는 파일을 압축할지를 결정합니다.  ‘True’로
     설정하면, 아카이브의 파일이 디플레이트(deflate) 메서드로 압축됩니다
     ; 그렇지 않으면 파일이 압축되지 않은 상태로 저장됩니다.  기존 아카
     이브를 복사할 때는 이 인자가 효과가 없습니다.

     'source'나 'target'에 파일 객체가 지정되면, create_archive를 호출한
     후 파일 객체를 닫는 것은 호출자의 책임입니다.

     기존 아카이브를 복사할 때, 제공된 파일 객체에는 ‘read’와 ‘readline’
     또는 ‘write’ 메서드만 필요합니다.  디렉터리에서 아카이브를 만들 때,
     대상이 파일 객체면 ‘zipfile.ZipFile’ 클래스로 전달되며, 해당 클래스
     에 필요한 메서드를 제공해야 합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'filter'와 'compressed' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다
     .

 -- 함수: zipapp.get_interpreter (archive)

     아카이브 시작 부분에서 ‘#!’ 줄에 지정된 인터프리터를 반환합니다.
     ‘#!’ 줄이 없으면, *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.  'archive' 인자는
     파일명이나 바이너리 모드로 읽기로 열린 파일류 객체일 수 있습니다.  아
     카이브가 시작 부분에 위치한 것으로 가정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<16>,  Next: 인터프리터 지정하기,  Prev: 파이썬 API,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.4 예
...........

디렉터리를 아카이브로 패킹하고, 실행합니다.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

*note create_archive(): bad. 함수를 사용하여 같은 작업을 수행할 수 있습
니다:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz')

POSIX에서 응용 프로그램을 직접 실행할 수 있게 만들려면, 사용할 인터프리
터를 지정하십시오.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
     $ ./myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

기존 아카이브에서 셔뱅 줄을 바꾸려면, *note create_archive(): bad. 함수
를 사용하여 수정된 아카이브를 만드십시오:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')

파일을 제자리에서 갱신하려면, *note BytesIO: e9a. 객체를 사용하여 메모리
에서 치환을 수행한 다음, 나중에 소스를 덮어씁니다.  파일을 제자리에서 덮
어쓰면 에러로 인해 원본 파일을 손실할 위험이 있음에 유의하십시오.  이 코
드는 이러한 에러에 대한 보호는 없지만, 프로덕션 코드는 이를 방지해야 합
니다.  또한, 이 방법은 아카이브가 메모리에 올라올 수 있을 때만 작동합니
다:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> import io
     >>> temp = io.BytesIO()
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
     >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
     >>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())


File: python.info,  Node: 인터프리터 지정하기,  Next: zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기,  Prev: 예<16>,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.5 인터프리터 지정하기
............................

인터프리터를 지정한 다음 응용 프로그램 아카이브를 배포한다면, 사용된 인
터프리터가 이식성 있는지 확인할 필요가 있음에 유의하십시오.  윈도우 용 파
이썬 런처는 가장 일반적인 POSIX ‘#!’ 줄 형식을 지원하지만, 고려해야 할 다
른 문제가 있습니다:

   * “/usr/bin/env python”(또는 “/usr/bin/python”과 같은 “python” 명령의
     다른 형식)을 사용한다면, 사용자에게 기본적으로 파이썬 2나 파이썬 3이
     있을 수 있음을 고려해야 하고, 두 버전에서 작동하도록 코드를 작성하
     십시오.

   * “/usr/bin/env python3”과 같이 명시적인 버전을 사용하면 해당 버전이
     없는 사용자에게는 응용 프로그램이 작동하지 않습니다.  (여러분의 코
     드를 파이썬 2 호환으로 만들지 않았다면 이것이 여러분이 원하는 것일
     수 있습니다).

   * “파이썬 X.Y 이상”이라고 말할 방법이 없어서, “/usr/bin/env
     python3.4”처럼 정확한 버전을 사용할 때는 주의하십시오.  예를 들어 파
     이썬 3.5 사용자를 위해서는 셔뱅 줄을 변경해야 합니다.

일반적으로, 여러분의 코드가 파이썬 2나 3중 어느 것으로 작성되었는지에 따
라 “/usr/bin/env python2”나 “/usr/bin/env python3”을 사용해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기,  Next: 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램 아카이브 형식,  Prev: 인터프리터 지정하기,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.6 zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기
...............................................

*note zipapp: 130. 모듈을 사용하면, 시스템에 적합한 버전의 파이썬만 설치
되어있는 최종 사용자에게 배포 할 수 있는 필요한 모든 것이 담긴 파이썬 프
로그램을 만들 수 있습니다.  이 작업의 핵심은 응용 프로그램 코드와 함께 모
든 응용 프로그램의 종속성을 아카이브에 묶는 것입니다.

독립형 아카이브를 만드는 단계는 다음과 같습니다:

  1. 정상적으로 디렉터리에 응용 프로그램을 만드십시오, 그러면
     ‘__main__.py’ 파일과 모든 지원 응용 프로그램 코드를 포함하는
     ‘myapp’ 디렉터리를 얻게 됩니다.

  2. pip을 사용하여 모든 응용 프로그램의 종속성을 ‘myapp’ 디렉터리에 설
     치하십시오:

          $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp

     (이것은 ‘requirements.txt’ 파일에 프로젝트 요구 사항이 있다고 가정
     합니다 - 그렇지 않으면, pip 명령 줄에 종속성을 수동으로 나열할 수 있
     습니다).

  3. 다음과 같이 응용 프로그램을 패키징하십시오:

          $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp

그러면 독립형 실행 파일이 생성되며, 사용 가능한 적절한 인터프리터가 있는
모든 시스템에서 실행할 수 있습니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 인터프리터
지정하기: 4349.를 참조하십시오.  단일 파일로 사용자에게 제공될 수 있습니
다.

유닉스에서, ‘myapp.pyz’ 파일은 그대로 실행 파일입니다.  “평범한” 명령 이
름을 선호하면, 파일 이름을 변경하여 ‘.pyz’ 확장자를 제거할 수 있습니다.
윈도우에서, 파이썬 인터프리터가 설치될 때 ‘.pyz’와 ‘.pyzw’ 파일 확장자를
등록한다는 점에서 ‘myapp.pyz[w]’ 파일은 실행 파일입니다.

* Menu:

* 경고: 경고<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 경고<3>,  Up: zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기

5.28.3.7 경고
.............

응용 프로그램이 C 확장을 포함하는 패키지에 의존하면, 해당 패키지는 zip 파
일에서 실행할 수 없습니다 (이것은 OS 제한 사항인데, OS 로더가 로드 할 수
있으려면 실행 코드는 파일 시스템에 있어야만 합니다).  이 경우, zip 파일
에서 해당 종속성을 제외하고, 사용자가 파일을 설치하도록 요구하거나, zip
파일과 함께 제공하고 ‘__main__.py’에 코드를 추가하여 ‘sys.path’에 압축 해
제된 모듈을 포함하는 디렉터리를 포함할 수 있습니다.  이 경우, 대상 아키
텍처에 적합한 바이너리를 제공해야 합니다 (그리고 아마도 사용자 컴퓨터를
기반으로 실행 시간에 ‘sys.path’에 추가할 올바른 버전을 선택해야 합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램 아카이브 형식,  Prev: zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기,  Up: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리

5.28.3.8 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램 아카이브 형식
...............................................

파이썬은 버전 2.6부터 ‘__main__.py’ 파일이 포함된 zip 파일을 실행할 수 있
었습니다.  파이썬에서 실행되려면, 응용 프로그램 아카이브는 응용 프로그램
의 진입점으로 실행될 ‘__main__.py’ 파일이 포함된 표준 zip 파일이어야 합
니다.  모든 파이썬 스크립트와 마찬가지로, 스크립트의 부모(이 경우 zip 파
일)가 *note sys.path: 3ae.에 배치되므로 zip 파일에서 추가 모듈을 임포트
할 수 있습니다.

zip 파일 형식은 임의의 데이터를 zip 파일 앞에 추가할 수 있도록 합니다.
zip 응용 프로그램 형식은 이 기능을 사용하여 표준 POSIX “셔뱅(shebang)” 줄
을 파일 앞에 추가합니다 (‘#!/path/to/interpreter’).

따라서 공식적으로 파이썬 zip 응용 프로그램 형식은 다음과 같습니다:

  1. 문자 ‘b'#!'’, 인터프리터 이름, 개행 (‘b'\n'’) 문자를 포함하는 선택
     적 셔뱅(shebang) 줄.  인터프리터 이름은 OS “셔뱅” 처리가 허용하는 모
     든 것, 또는 윈도우의 파이썬 런처일 수 있습니다.  인터프리터는 윈도
     우에서는 UTF-8로, POSIX에서는 *note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     c56.으로 인코딩되어야 합니다.

  2. *note zipfile: 131. 모듈에 의해 생성된 표준 zip 파일 데이터.
     zipfile 내용은 '반드시' ‘__main__.py’라는 파일을 포함해야 합니다
     (zip 파일의 “루트”에 있어야 합니다 - 즉, 서브 디렉터리에 있을 수 없
     습니다).  zip 파일 데이터는 압축되거나 그렇지 않을 수 있습니다.

응용 프로그램 아카이브에 셔뱅 줄이 있으면, POSIX 시스템에서 직접 실행될
수 있도록 실행 파일 비트를 설정할 수 있습니다.

이 모듈의 도구를 사용하여 응용 프로그램 아카이브를 만들 필요는 없습니다
- 모듈은 편의를 위한 것입니다.  하지만 어떤 방법으로 만들었든 위 형식의
아카이브는 파이썬에서 허용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스,  Next: 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터,  Prev: 소프트웨어 패키징 및 배포,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.29 파이썬 실행시간 서비스
===========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈들은 파이썬 인터프리터와 그 환경과의 상호 작용과
관련된 다양한 서비스를 제공합니다.  다음은 개요입니다:

* Menu:

* sys — System-specific parameters and functions::
* sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
* sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기::
* builtins — 내장 객체::
* __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경::
* warnings — 경고 제어::
* dataclasses — 데이터 클래스::
* contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티::
* abc — 추상 베이스 클래스::
* atexit — 종료 처리기::
* traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회::
* __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의::
* gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스::
* inspect — 라이브 객체 검사::
* site — 사이트별 구성 훅::


File: python.info,  Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions,  Next: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.1 ‘sys’ — System-specific parameters and functions
-------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the
interpreter.  It is always available.  Unless explicitly noted
otherwise, all variables are read-only.

 -- 데이터: sys.abiflags

     표준 ‘configure’ 스크립트를 사용하여 파이썬을 빌드한 POSIX 시스템에
     서, 이것은 PEP 3149(1)에 지정된 ABI 플래그를 포함합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 기본 플래그는 빈 문자열이 되었습니다 (pymalloc을
     위한 ‘m’ 플래그가 제거되었습니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: sys.addaudithook (hook)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks for
     the current (sub)interpreter.

     When an auditing event is raised through the *note sys.audit():
     15c1. function, each hook will be called in the order it was added
     with the event name and the tuple of arguments.  Native hooks added
     by *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41ca. are called first, followed by
     hooks added in the current (sub)interpreter.  Hooks can then log
     the event, raise an exception to abort the operation, or terminate
     the process entirely.

     Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information
     about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python
     or libraries written in Python.  They are not suitable for
     implementing a “sandbox”.  In particular, malicious code can
     trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function.  At a
     minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API
     *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41ca. before initialising the runtime,
     and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as
     *note ctypes: 2a.) should be completely removed or closely
     monitored.

     *note sys.addaudithook(): 41c9.을 호출하면 스스로 인자 없이
     ‘sys.addaudithook’이라는 이름의 감사 이벤트를 발생시킵니다.  기존 훅
     에서 *note RuntimeError: 195.에서 파생된 예외가 발생하면, 새 훅이 추
     가되지 않고 예외가 억제됩니다.  결과적으로, 호출자는 기존의 모든 훅
     을 제어하지 않는 한 훅이 추가되었다고 가정할 수 없습니다.

     CPython이 발생시키는 모든 이벤트에 대해서는 *note 감사 이벤트 표:
     1877.를, 원래 디자인 논의는 PEP 578(2)을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.8.1에서 변경: *note Exception: 9d6.에서 파생되었지만 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 아닌 예외는 더는 억제되지 않습니다.

     추적(tracing)이 활성화되었을 때 (*note settrace(): 14c7.를 참조하십
     시오), 파이썬 훅은 콜러블에 참값으로 설정된 ‘__cantrace__’ 멤버가 있
     을 때만 추적합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 추적 함수는 훅을 건너뜁니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.argv

     파이썬 스크립트에 전달된 명령 줄 인자 리스트.  ‘argv[0]’은 스크립트
     이름입니다 (전체 경로명인지는 운영 체제에 따라 다릅니다).  인터프리
     터에 *note -c: 5da. 명령 줄 옵션을 사용하여 명령이 실행되었으면,
     ‘argv[0]’은 문자열 ‘'-c'’로 설정됩니다.  파이썬 인터프리터에 스크립
     트 이름이 전달되지 않으면, ‘argv[0]’은 빈 문자열입니다.

     표준 입력이나 명령 줄에 제공된 파일 목록을 루핑 하려면, *note
     fileinput: 5b. 모듈을 참조하십시오.

     See also *note sys.orig_argv: 83a.

          참고: 유닉스에서, 명령 줄 인자는 OS에서 바이트열로 전달됩니다.
          파이썬은 이것들을 파일 시스템 인코딩과 “surrogateescape” 에러
          처리기로 디코딩합니다.  원본 바이트열이 필요할 때,
          ‘[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in sys.argv]’로 얻을 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: sys.audit (event, *args)

     활성 감사 훅으로 감사 이벤트를 발생시킵니다.  'event'는 이벤트를 식
     별하는 문자열이고, 'args'는 이벤트에 대한 추가 정보를 갖는 선택적 인
     자를 포함할 수 있습니다.  주어진 이벤트에 대한 인자의 수와 형은 공
     개된 안정 API로 간주하며 배포 간에 수정되지 않아야 합니다.

     예를 들어, 한 감사 이벤트의 이름은 ‘os.chdir’입니다.  이 이벤트에는
     요청된 새 작업 디렉터리를 포함하는 'path'라는 인자가 하나 있습니다.

     *note sys.audit(): 15c1.는 이벤트 이름과 인자들을 전달하여 기존 감
     사 훅들을 호출하고, 어떤 훅에서건 발생한 첫 번째 예외를 발생시킵니
     다.  일반적으로, 예외가 발생하면, 처리되지 않아야 하며 가능한 한 빨
     리 프로세스를 종료해야 합니다.  이렇게 하면 훅 구현이 특정 이벤트에
     반응하는 방법을 결정할 수 있습니다: 단순히 이벤트를 로그 하거나 예
     외를 발생 시켜 연산을 중단 할 수 있습니다.

     훅은 *note sys.addaudithook(): 41c9.이나 *note
     PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41ca. 함수를 사용하여 추가됩니다.

     이 함수의 네이티브 동등 물은 *note PySys_Audit(): 368.입니다.  가능
     하면 네이티브 함수를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     CPython이 발생시키는 모든 이벤트에 대해서는 *note 감사 이벤트 표:
     1877.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: sys.base_exec_prefix

     파이썬 시작 중에, ‘site.py’가 실행되기 전에, *note exec_prefix:
     3ac.와 같은 값으로 설정됩니다.  *note 가상 환경: 4319.에서 실행되지
     않으면, 값은 같게 유지됩니다; ‘site.py’가 가상 환경이 사용 중임을 발
     견하면, *note prefix: 3b0.와 *note exec_prefix: 3ac.의 값은 가상 환
     경을 가리키도록 변경되지만, *note base_prefix: 3e9.와 *note
     base_exec_prefix: 3e8.는 기본 파이썬 설치(가상 환경을 만든 것)를 계
     속 가리킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: sys.base_prefix

     파이썬 시작 중에, ‘site.py’가 실행되기 전에, *note prefix: 3b0.와 같
     은 값으로 설정됩니다.  *note 가상 환경: 4319.에서 실행되지 않으면,
     값은 같게 유지됩니다; ‘site.py’가 가상 환경이 사용 중임을 발견하면,
     *note prefix: 3b0.와 *note exec_prefix: 3ac.의 값은 가상 환경을 가
     리키도록 변경되지만, *note base_prefix: 3e9.와 *note
     base_exec_prefix: 3e8.는 기본 파이썬 설치(가상 환경을 만든 것)를 계
     속 가리킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: sys.byteorder

     네이티브 바이트 순서의 표시기.  이는 빅 엔디안(최상위 바이트 먼저)
     플랫폼에서 ‘'big'’ 값을, 리틀 엔디안(최하위 바이트 먼저) 플랫폼에서
     ‘'little'’을 갖습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.builtin_module_names

     A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are
     compiled into this Python interpreter.  (This information is not
     available in any other way — ‘modules.keys()’ only lists the
     imported modules.)

     See also the *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83b. list.

 -- 함수: sys.call_tracing (func, args)

     Call ‘func(*args)’, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is
     saved, and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from
     a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some
     other code.

     Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by *note
     settrace(): 14c7. or *note setprofile(): 14c6. to avoid infinite
     recursion.  ‘call_tracing()’ enables explicit recursion of the
     tracing function.

 -- 데이터: sys.copyright

     파이썬 인터프리터와 관련된 저작권이 포함된 문자열.

 -- 함수: sys._clear_type_cache ()

     내부 형 캐시를 지웁니다.  형 캐시는 어트리뷰트와 메서드 조회 속도를
     높이는 데 사용됩니다.  참조 누수 디버깅 중에 불필요한 참조를 제거하
     기 위해서 '만' 이 함수를 사용하십시오.

     이 함수는 내부와 특수 목적으로만 사용해야 합니다.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: Use the more general *note
     _clear_internal_caches(): 1677. function instead.

 -- 함수: sys._clear_internal_caches ()

     Clear all internal performance-related caches.  Use this function
     'only' to release unnecessary references and memory blocks when
     hunting for leaks.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 함수: sys._current_frames ()

     함수가 호출될 때 각 스레드의 식별자를 해당 스레드에서 현재 활성화된
     최상위 스택 프레임에 매핑하는 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  *note
     traceback: fe. 모듈의 함수는 이러한 프레임을 주면 호출 스택을 빌드
     할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.

     이것은 교착 상태 디버깅에 가장 유용합니다: 이 함수는 교착 상태에 빠
     진 스레드의 협력을 필요로하지 않으며, 이러한 스레드의 호출 스택은 교
     착 상태를 유지하는 한 고정됩니다.  교착 상태가 아닌 스레드에 대해 반
     환된 프레임은 호출하는 코드가 프레임을 검사할 때까지 해당 스레드의
     현재 활동과 관련이 없을 수 있습니다.

     이 함수는 내부와 특수 목적으로만 사용해야 합니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘sys._current_frames’를 발생시킵
     니다.

 -- 함수: sys._current_exceptions ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.  If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it
     is not included in the result dictionary.

     This is most useful for statistical profiling.

     이 함수는 내부와 특수 목적으로만 사용해야 합니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘sys._current_exceptions’
     with no arguments.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Each value in the dictionary is now a single
     exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from
     ‘sys.exc_info()’.

 -- 함수: sys.breakpointhook ()

     이 훅 함수는 내장 *note breakpoint(): 234.에 의해 호출됩니다.  기본
     적으로, *note pdb: a5. 디버거로 떨어뜨리지만, 다른 함수로 설정하여
     사용할 디버거를 선택할 수 있습니다.

     이 함수의 서명은 그것이 호출하는 것에 의존합니다.  예를 들어, 기본
     바인딩(예를 들어 ‘pdb.set_trace()’)에는 인자가 필요하지 않지만, 추
     가 인자(위치 및/또는 키워드)를 기대하는 함수에 바인딩할 수 있습니다
     .  내장 ‘breakpoint()’ 함수는 ‘*args’와 ‘**kws’를 그대로 전달합니다
     .  ‘breakpointhooks()’가 반환하는 것이 ‘breakpoint()’에서 반환됩니
     다.

     기본 구현은 먼저 환경 변수 *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ad8.를 참조합니
     다.  이것이 ‘"0"’으로 설정되면, 이 함수는 즉시 반환합니다; 즉, 아무
     런 일도 하지 않습니다.  환경 변수가 설정되지 않거나 빈 문자열로 설
     정되면, ‘pdb.set_trace()’가 호출됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 이 변수는 파
     이썬의 점으로 표현한 임포트 표기법(예를 들어
     ‘package.subpackage.module.function’)을 사용하여 실행할 함수의 이름
     을 지정해야 합니다.  이 경우, ‘package.subpackage.module’이 임포트
     되고 결과 모듈에는 ‘function()’이라는 이름의 콜러블이 있어야 합니다
     .  이것이 ‘*args’ 및 ‘**kws’를 전달하여 실행되며, ‘function()’이 반
     환하는 것을 ‘sys.breakpointhook()’이 내장 *note breakpoint(): 234.
     함수로 반환합니다.

     *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ad8.로 이름이 지정된 콜러블을 임포트 하는 도
     중에 문제가 발생하면, *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.이 보고되고 중단점
     은 무시됨에 유의하십시오.

     또한 ‘sys.breakpointhook()’이 프로그래밍 방식으로 재정의되면, *note
     PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ad8.는 참조되지 '않음'에 유의하십시오.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: sys._debugmallocstats ()

     CPython의 메모리 할당자 상태에 대한 저수준 정보를 stderr에 인쇄합니
     다.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 1f9. (*note configure
     -with-pydebug option: 41e.), it also performs some expensive
     internal consistency checks.

     Added in version 3.3.

     이 함수는 CPython 전용입니다.  정확한 출력 형식은 여기에 정의되어 있
     지 않으며, 변경될 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.dllhandle

     파이썬 DLL의 핸들을 지정하는 정수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- 함수: sys.displayhook (value)

     'value'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 이 함수는 ‘repr(value)’를 ‘sys.stdout’으
     로 인쇄하고, 'value'를 ‘builtins._’에 저장합니다.  ‘repr(value)’를
     ‘sys.stdout.errors’ 에러 처리기(아마도 ‘'strict'’)로
     ‘sys.stdout.encoding’으로 인코딩할 수 없으면, ‘'backslashreplace'’
     에러 처리기를 사용하여 ‘sys.stdout.encoding’으로 인코딩합니다.

     ‘sys.displayhook’은 대화형 파이썬 세션에서 입력한 *note 표현식:
     1f8d.을 평가한 결과에 대해 호출됩니다.  ‘sys.displayhook’에 다른
     1-인자 함수를 대입하여 이러한 값의 표시를 사용자 정의할 수 있습니다
     .

     의사 코드:

          def displayhook(value):
              if value is None:
                  return
              # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
              builtins._ = None
              text = repr(value)
              try:
                  sys.stdout.write(text)
              except UnicodeEncodeError:
                  bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
                  if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
                      sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
                  else:
                      text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
                      sys.stdout.write(text)
              sys.stdout.write("\n")
              builtins._ = value

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671. 에
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ 에러 처리기를 사용합니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.dont_write_bytecode

     이것이 참이면, 파이썬은 소스 모듈을 임포트 할 때 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 쓰려
     고 하지 않습니다.  이 값은 *note -B: 1396. 명령 줄 옵션과 *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. 환경 변수에 따라 초기에 ‘True’나
     ‘False’로 설정되지만, 바이트 코드 파일 생성을 제어하기 위해 직접 설
     정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys._emscripten_info

     A *note named tuple: 648. holding information about the environment
     on the 'wasm32-emscripten' platform.  The named tuple is
     provisional and may change in the future.

      -- 속성: _emscripten_info.emscripten_version

          Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro),
          e.g.  ‘(3, 1, 8)’.

      -- 속성: _emscripten_info.runtime

          Runtime string, e.g.  browser user agent, ‘'Node.js
          v14.18.2'’, or ‘'UNKNOWN'’.

      -- 속성: _emscripten_info.pthreads

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support.

      -- 속성: _emscripten_info.shared_memory

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with shared memory support.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Emscripten.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 데이터: sys.pycache_prefix

     If this is set (not ‘None’), Python will write bytecode-cache
     ‘.pyc’ files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree
     rooted at this directory, rather than from ‘__pycache__’
     directories in the source code tree.  Any ‘__pycache__’ directories
     in the source code tree will be ignored and new ‘.pyc’ files
     written within the pycache prefix.  Thus if you use *note
     compileall: 20. as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it
     with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime.

     상대 경로는 현재 작업 디렉터리를 기준으로 해석됩니다.

     이 값은 초기에 *note -X: 176. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ 명령 줄 옵션이
     나 *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a0. 환경 변수(명령 줄이 우선합니다
     )의 값을 기반으로 설정됩니다.  둘 다 설정되지 않으면, ‘None’입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: sys.excepthook (type, value, traceback)

     이 함수는 주어진 트레이스백(traceback)과 예외를 ‘sys.stderr’에 인쇄
     합니다.

     When an exception other than *note SystemExit: d3d. is raised and
     uncaught, the interpreter calls ‘sys.excepthook’ with three
     arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback
     object.  In an interactive session this happens just before control
     is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
     before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level
     exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument
     function to ‘sys.excepthook’.

     잡히지 않은 예외가 발생할 때 인자 ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’,
     ‘traceback’로 감사 이벤트 ‘sys.excepthook’을 발생시킵니다.  아무런
     훅도 설정되지 않았으면, ‘hook’은 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.  훅이 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.에서 파생된 예외를 발생시키면 훅 호출이 억제됩니
     다.  그렇지 않으면, 감사 훅 예외는 발생시킬 수 없는 것
     (unraisable)으로 보고되고 ‘sys.excepthook’이 호출됩니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. 함수는 발생시킬 수 없는 예외
     (unraisable exception)를 다루고 *note threading.excepthook(): 845.
     함수는 *note threading.Thread.run(): a39.이 발생시킨 예외를 다룹니
     다.

 -- 데이터: sys.__breakpointhook__
 -- 데이터: sys.__displayhook__
 -- 데이터: sys.__excepthook__
 -- 데이터: sys.__unraisablehook__

     이러한 객체는 프로그램 시작 시 ‘breakpointhook’, ‘displayhook’,
     ‘excepthook’ 및 ‘unraisablehook’ 의 원래 값을 포함합니다.
     ‘breakpointhook’, ‘displayhook’ 및 ‘excepthook’, ‘unraisablehook’ 이
     파손되거나 대체 객체로 교체될 때 복원 할 수 있도록 저장됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7: __breakpointhook__

     Added in version 3.8: __unraisablehook__

 -- 함수: sys.exception ()

     This function, when called while an exception handler is executing
     (such as an ‘except’ or ‘except*’ clause), returns the exception
     instance that was caught by this handler.  When exception handlers
     are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the
     innermost handler is accessible.

     If no exception handler is executing, this function returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: sys.exc_info ()

     This function returns the old-style representation of the handled
     exception.  If an exception ‘e’ is currently handled (so *note
     exception(): 685. would return ‘e’), *note exc_info(): 684. returns
     the tuple ‘(type(e), e, e.__traceback__)’.  That is, a tuple
     containing the type of the exception (a subclass of *note
     BaseException: 5b5.), the exception itself, and a *note traceback
     object: af0. which typically encapsulates the call stack at the
     point where the exception last occurred.

     If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this
     function return a tuple containing three ‘None’ values.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields are now
     derived from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to *note exc_info():
     684.

 -- 데이터: sys.exec_prefix

     플랫폼 특정 파이썬 파일이 설치되는 사이트 특정 디렉터리 접두사를 제
     공하는 문자열; 기본적으로, 이것은 ‘'/usr/local'’이기도 합니다.
     ‘configure’ 스크립트에 ‘--exec-prefix’ 인자를 사용하여 빌드 시 설정
     할 수 있습니다.  구체적으로, 모든 구성 파일(예를 들어 ‘pyconfig.h’
     헤더 파일)은 디렉터리 ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/config’에 설치
     되고, 공유 라이브러리 모듈은
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/lib-dynload’에 설치됩니다.  여기서
     'X.Y'는 파이썬의 버전 번호입니다, 예를 들어 ‘3.2’.

          참고: *note 가상 환경: 4319.이 유효하면, 이 값은 ‘site.py’에서
          가상 환경을 가리키도록 변경됩니다.  파이썬 설치 값은 *note
          base_exec_prefix: 3e8.를 통해 계속 제공됩니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.executable

     의미가 있는 시스템에서, 파이썬 인터프리터를 위한 실행 바이너리의 절
     대 경로를 제공하는 문자열.  파이썬이 실행 파일의 실제 경로를 검색할
     수 없으면, *note sys.executable: 3b2.은 빈 문자열이거나 ‘None’입니
     다.

 -- 함수: sys.exit ([arg])

     Raise a *note SystemExit: d3d. exception, signaling an intention to
     exit the interpreter.

     선택적 인자 'arg'는 종료 상태(기본값은 0)를 나타내는 정수나 다른 형
     의 객체일 수 있습니다.  정수면, 0은 “성공적인 종료”로 간주하고, 0이
     아닌 값은 셸 등이 “비정상 종료”로 간주합니다.  대부분 시스템은
     0–127 범위를 요구하고, 그렇지 않으면 정의되지 않은 결과를 생성합니
     다.  일부 시스템에는 특정 종료 코드에 특정 의미를 지정하는 규칙이 있
     지만, 일반적으로 잘 개발되지 않은 상태입니다; 유닉스 프로그램은 일
     반적으로 명령 줄 구문 에러에 2를, 다른 모든 종류의 에러에 1을 사용
     합니다.  다른 형의 객체가 전달되면, ‘None’은 0을 전달하는 것과 동등
     하며, 다른 모든 객체는 *note stderr: 937.로 인쇄되고 종료 코드 1을
     만듭니다.  특히, ‘sys.exit("some error message")’는 에러가 발생할 때
     프로그램을 종료하는 빠른 방법입니다.

     Since *note exit(): 2191. ultimately “only” raises an exception, it
     will only exit the process when called from the main thread, and
     the exception is not intercepted.  Cleanup actions specified by
     finally clauses of *note try: 6e2. statements are honored, and it
     is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 파이썬 인터프리터가 *note SystemExit: d3d.를 잡
     은 후 정리할 때 에러가 발생하면 (가령 표준 스트림에 버퍼링 된 데이
     터를 플러시할 때의 에러), 종료 상태가 120으로 변경됩니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.flags

     *note 네임드 튜플: 648. 'flags'는 명령 줄 플래그의 상태를 노출합니
     다.  어트리뷰트는 읽기 전용입니다.

      -- 속성: flags.debug                                  *note -d: 1d39.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.inspect                                *note -i: 14a3.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.interactive                            *note -i: 14a3.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.isolated                               *note -I: 95b.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.optimize                               *note -O: db1. 또는 *note -OO: db2.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.dont_write_bytecode                    *note -B: 1396.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.no_user_site                           *note -s: 1374.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.no_site                                *note -S: 1198.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.ignore_environment                     *note -E: 95a.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.verbose                                *note -v: 13ed.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.bytes_warning                          *note -b: 5dd.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.quiet                                  *note -q: 1d3c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.hash_randomization                     *note -R: 1a9e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.dev_mode                               *note -X dev: 176. (*note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.utf8_mode                              *note -X utf8: 176.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.safe_path                              *note -P: 59e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.int_max_str_digits                     *note -X int_max_str_digits: 176.
                                                            (*note integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- 속성: flags.warn_default_encoding                  *note -X warn_default_encoding: 176.
                                                            

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 새로운 *note -q: 1d3c. 플래그에 대한 ‘quiet’ 어
     트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.3: ‘hash_randomization’ 어트리뷰트.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 사용되지 않는 ‘division_warning’ 어트리뷰트를 제
     거했습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note -I: 95b. ‘isolated’ 플래그에 대한
     ‘isolated’ 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 새로운 *note 파이썬 개발자 모드: 1f8.에 대한
     ‘dev_mode’ 어트리뷰트와 새로운 *note -X: 176. ‘utf8’ 플래그에 대한
     ‘utf8_mode’ 어트리뷰트가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added ‘warn_default_encoding’ attribute for
     *note -X: 176. ‘warn_default_encoding’ flag.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the ‘safe_path’ attribute for *note -P:
     59e. option.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the ‘int_max_str_digits’ attribute.

 -- 데이터: sys.float_info

     float 형에 대한 정보를 담은 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.  정밀도와 내부
     표현에 대한 저수준 정보를 포함합니다.  값은 ‘C’ 프로그래밍 언어의 표
     준 헤더 파일 ‘float.h’에 정의된 다양한 부동 소수점 상수에 해당합니
     다; 자세한 내용은 1999 ISO/IEC C 표준 *note [C99]: 436d. 의 섹션
     5.2.4.2.2 ‘Characteristics of floating types’를 참조하십시오.
     Attributes of the ‘float_info’ named tuple

     어트리뷰트                            float.h 매크로                        설명
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.epsilon          ‘DBL_EPSILON’                         difference between 1.0 and the
                                                                                 least value greater than 1.0 that
                                                                                 is representable as a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 *note math.ulp(): 90f.도 참조하십시
                                                                                 오.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.dig              ‘DBL_DIG’                             The maximum number of decimal
                                                                                 digits that can be faithfully
                                                                                 represented in a float; see below.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.mant_dig         ‘DBL_MANT_DIG’                        Float precision: the number of
                                                                                 base-‘radix’ digits in the
                                                                                 significand of a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.max              ‘DBL_MAX’                             The maximum representable positive
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.max_exp          ‘DBL_MAX_EXP’                         The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a representable
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.max_10_exp       ‘DBL_MAX_10_EXP’                      The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is in the range of
                                                                                 representable finite floats.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.min              ‘DBL_MIN’                             The minimum representable positive
                                                                                 'normalized' float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 *note math.ulp(0.0): 90f.를 사용하
                                                                                 여 가장 작은 양의 '정규화되지 않은
                                                                                 (denormalized)' 표현 가능한 float를
                                                                                 얻습니다.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.min_exp          ‘DBL_MIN_EXP’                         The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a normalized
                                                                                 float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.min_10_exp       ‘DBL_MIN_10_EXP’                      The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is a normalized float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.radix            ‘FLT_RADIX’                           The radix of exponent
                                                                                 representation.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- 속성: float_info.rounds           ‘FLT_ROUNDS’                          An integer representing the
                                                                                 rounding mode for floating-point
                                                                                 arithmetic.  This reflects the
                                                                                 value of the system ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 macro at interpreter startup time:
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘-1’: indeterminable
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘0’: toward zero
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘1’: to nearest
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘2’: toward positive infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘3’: toward negative infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                 All other values for ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 characterize implementation-defined
                                                                                 rounding behavior.
                                                                                 

     The attribute *note sys.float_info.dig: 436f. needs further
     explanation.  If ‘s’ is any string representing a decimal number
     with at most ‘sys.float_info.dig’ significant digits, then
     converting ‘s’ to a float and back again will recover a string
     representing the same decimal value:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.float_info.dig
          15
          >>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
          >>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
          '3.14159265358979'

     그러나 유효 숫자가 *note sys.float_info.dig: 436f.보다 많은 문자열
     의 경우, 항상 그렇지는 않습니다:

          >>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
          >>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
          '9876543211234568'

 -- 데이터: sys.float_repr_style

     *note repr(): 7f7. 함수가 float에 대해 작동하는 방식을 나타내는 문
     자열.  문자열이 ‘'short'’ 값을 가지면, 유한 float ‘x’의 경우,
     ‘repr(x)’는 ‘float(repr(x)) == x’ 속성을 유지하는 짧은 문자열을 생
     성하는 것을 목표로 합니다.  이것은 파이썬 3.1 이상에서 일반적인 동
     작입니다.  그렇지 않으면, ‘float_repr_style’은 ‘'legacy'’ 값을 가지
     며 ‘repr(x)’는 3.1 이전의 파이썬 버전에서와 같은 방식으로 작동합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: sys.getallocatedblocks ()

     Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the
     interpreter, regardless of their size.  This function is mainly
     useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the
     interpreter’s internal caches, the result can vary from call to
     call; you may have to call *note _clear_internal_caches(): 1677.
     and *note gc.collect(): a36. to get more predictable results.

     If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
     information, *note getallocatedblocks(): fbd. is allowed to return
     0 instead.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: sys.getunicodeinternedsize ()

     Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: sys.getandroidapilevel ()

     Return the build-time API level of Android as an integer.  This
     represents the minimum version of Android this build of Python can
     run on.  For runtime version information, see *note
     platform.android_ver(): 1653.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Android.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: sys.getdefaultencoding ()

     Return ‘'utf-8'’.  This is the name of the default string encoding,
     used in methods like *note str.encode(): 8d2.

 -- 함수: sys.getdlopenflags ()

     Return the current value of the flags that are used for ‘dlopen()’
     calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the
     *note os: a1. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g.  *note
     os.RTLD_LAZY: 1109.).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: sys.getfilesystemencoding ()

     Get the *note filesystem encoding: 535.: the encoding used with the
     *note filesystem error handler: 535. to convert between Unicode
     filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem error handler is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce3.

     For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all
     cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported.
     Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either
     str or bytes and internally convert to the system’s preferred
     representation.

     올바른 인코딩과 에러 모드를 사용하려면 *note os.fsencode(): c52.와
     *note os.fsdecode(): c51.를 사용해야 합니다.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e2. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 3e3. members of *note PyConfig: 3a0.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note getfilesystemencoding(): c56. 결과는 더는
     ‘None’일 수 없습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 윈도우는 더는 ‘'mbcs'’를 반환한다고 보장하지 않
     습니다.  자세한 정보는 PEP 529(3)와 *note
     _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ae.를 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: Return ‘'utf-8'’ if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode:
     650. is enabled.

 -- 함수: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors ()

     Get the *note filesystem error handler: 535.: the error handler
     used with the *note filesystem encoding: 535. to convert between
     Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem encoding is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencoding(): c56.

     올바른 인코딩과 에러 모드를 사용하려면 *note os.fsencode(): c52.와
     *note os.fsdecode(): c51.를 사용해야 합니다.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e2. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 3e3. members of *note PyConfig: 3a0.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 함수: sys.get_int_max_str_digits ()

     Returns the current value for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 5ef.  See also *note set_int_max_str_digits():
     17c5.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: sys.getrefcount (object)

     'object'의 참조 횟수를 반환합니다.  반환된 수는 일반적으로 예상보다
     1이 높습니다.  *note getrefcount(): 437b.에 대한 인자로서의 (임시)
     참조를 포함하기 때문입니다.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are *note immortal: 437c. and have a very high refcount
     that does not reflect the actual number of references.
     Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate,
     other than a value of 0 or 1.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Immortal objects have very large refcounts that
     do not match the actual number of references to the object.

 -- 함수: sys.getrecursionlimit ()

     파이썬 인터프리터 스택의 최대 깊이인, 재귀 한계의 현재 값을 반환합
     니다.  이 제한은 무한 재귀로 인해 C 스택의 오버플로가 발생하고 파이
     썬이 충돌하는 것을 방지합니다.  *note setrecursionlimit(): 4bd.로 설
     정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: sys.getsizeof (object[, default])

     객체의 크기를 바이트 단위로 반환합니다.  객체는 모든 형의 객체일 수
     있습니다.  모든 내장 객체는 올바른 결과를 반환하지만, 구현 특정이기
     때문에 제삼자 확장에서도 그렇다고 보장할 수는 없습니다.

     객체에 직접 기여한 메모리 소비만 포함하며, 이 객체가 참조하는 객체
     의 메모리 소비는 따지지 않습니다.

     주어진 경우, 객체가 크기를 조회하는 수단을 제공하지 않으면
     'default'가 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생
     합니다.

     *note getsizeof(): 1771.는 객체의 ‘__sizeof__’ 메서드를 호출하고 객
     체가 가비지 수거기에 의해 관리되면 추가 가비지 수거기 오버헤드를 추
     가합니다.

     See recursive sizeof recipe(4) for an example of using *note
     getsizeof(): 1771. recursively to find the size of containers and
     all their contents.

 -- 함수: sys.getswitchinterval ()

     Return the interpreter’s “thread switch interval” in seconds; see
     *note setswitchinterval(): 948.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: sys._getframe ([depth])

     호출 스택에서 프레임 객체를 반환합니다.  선택적 정수 'depth'가 제공
     되면, 스택 맨 위에서 지정한 수 만큼 아래에 있는 호출의 프레임 객체
     를 반환합니다.  호출 스택보다 깊으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생
     합니다.  'depth'의 기본값은 0이며, 호출 스택의 맨 위에 있는 프레임
     을 반환합니다.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘sys._getframe’ with argument
     ‘frame’.

     이 함수는 내부와 특수 목적으로만 사용해야 합니다.  모든 파이썬 구현
     에 존재한다고 보장되는 것은 아닙니다.

 -- 함수: sys._getframemodulename ([depth])

     Return the name of a module from the call stack.  If optional
     integer 'depth' is given, return the module that many calls below
     the top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, or if
     the module is unidentifiable, ‘None’ is returned.  The default for
     'depth' is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1. ‘sys._getframemodulename’
     with argument ‘depth’.

     이 함수는 내부와 특수 목적으로만 사용해야 합니다.  모든 파이썬 구현
     에 존재한다고 보장되는 것은 아닙니다.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: sys.getobjects (limit[, type])

     This function only exists if CPython was built using the
     specialized configure option *note -with-trace-refs: 38e.  It is
     intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues.

     Return a list of up to 'limit' dynamically allocated Python
     objects.  If 'type' is given, only objects of that exact type (not
     subtypes) are included.

     Objects from the list are not safe to use.  Specifically, the
     result will include objects from all interpreters that share their
     object allocator state (that is, ones created with *note
     PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 437d. set to 1 or using
     *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17bd, and the *note main interpreter:
     582.).  Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to
     crashes or other unexpected behavior.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' This function should be used for specialized
     purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

     버전 3.13.1에서 변경: The result may include objects from other
     interpreters.

 -- 함수: sys.getprofile ()

     *note setprofile(): 14c6.에 의해 설정된 프로파일러 함수를 얻습니다.

 -- 함수: sys.gettrace ()

     *note settrace(): 14c7.에 의해 설정된 추적 함수를 얻습니다.

     *note gettrace(): 13aa. 함수는 디버거, 프로파일러, 커버리지 도구 등
     을 구현하기 위한 것입니다.  그 동작은 언어 정의의 일부라기보다는 구
     현 플랫폼의 일부이기 때문에, 모든 파이썬 구현에서 사용 가능한 것은
     아닙니다.

 -- 함수: sys.getwindowsversion ()

     현재 실행 중인 윈도우 버전을 설명하는 네임드 튜플을 반환합니다.  명
     명된 요소는 'major', 'minor', 'build', 'platform', 'service_pack',
     'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask',
     'product_type' 및 'platform_version'입니다.  'service_pack'은 문자
     열을 포함하고 'platform_version'은 3-튜플이며 다른 모든 값은 정수입
     니다.  구성 요소는 이름으로도 액세스할 수 있어서,
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion()[0]’ 은 ‘sys.getwindowsversion().major’와 동
     등합니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, 처음 5개 요소 만 인덱싱을 통
     해 꺼낼 수 있습니다.

     'platform' will be ‘2’ (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT).

     'product_type'은 다음 값 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

     상수                                        의미
                                                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘1’ (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)                    시스템은 워크 스테이션입니다.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘2’ (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)              시스템은 도메인 컨트롤러입니다.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘3’ (VER_NT_SERVER)                         시스템은 서버이지만, 도메인 컨트롤
                                                 러는 아닙니다.
                                                 

     This function wraps the Win32 ‘GetVersionEx()’ function; see the
     Microsoft documentation on ‘OSVERSIONINFOEX()’ for more information
     about these fields.

     'platform_version' returns the major version, minor version and
     build number of the current operating system, rather than the
     version that is being emulated for the process.  It is intended for
     use in logging rather than for feature detection.

          참고: 'platform_version' derives the version from kernel32.dll
          which can be of a different version than the OS version.
          Please use *note platform: aa. module for achieving accurate
          OS version.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 네임드 튜플로 변경되어 'service_pack_minor',
     'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask' 및 'product_type'이 추가되었습니
     다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'platform_version'을 추가했습니다

 -- 함수: sys.get_asyncgen_hooks ()

     Returns an 'asyncgen_hooks' object, which is similar to a *note
     namedtuple: 1ca. of the form ‘(firstiter, finalizer)’, where
     'firstiter' and 'finalizer' are expected to be either ‘None’ or
     functions which take an *note asynchronous generator iterator:
     437e. as an argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an
     asynchronous generator by an event loop.

     Added in version 3.6: 자세한 내용은 PEP 525(5)를 참조하십시오.

          참고: 이 함수는 잠정적(provisional)으로 추가되었습니다 (자세한
          내용은 PEP 411(6)을 참조하십시오).

 -- 함수: sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth ()

     *note set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b89.로 설정된 현재 코
     루틴 원점 추적 깊이를 가져옵니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

          참고: 이 함수는 잠정적(provisional)으로 추가되었습니다 (자세한
          내용은 PEP 411(7)을 참조하십시오).  디버깅 목적으로만 사용하십
          시오.

 -- 데이터: sys.hash_info

     숫자 해시 구현의 매개 변수를 제공하는 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.  숫자
     형의 해싱에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 숫자 형의 해싱: 21a8.을 참조하
     십시오.

      -- 속성: hash_info.width

          The width in bits used for hash values

      -- 속성: hash_info.modulus

          The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme

      -- 속성: hash_info.inf

          The hash value returned for a positive infinity

      -- 속성: hash_info.nan

          (This attribute is no longer used)

      -- 속성: hash_info.imag

          The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number

      -- 속성: hash_info.algorithm

          The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and
          memoryview

      -- 속성: hash_info.hash_bits

          The internal output size of the hash algorithm

      -- 속성: hash_info.seed_bits

          The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'algorithm', 'hash_bits' 및 'seed_bits'를 추가했
     습니다

 -- 데이터: sys.hexversion

     단일 정수로 인코딩된 버전 번호.  이것은 비 프로덕션 릴리스에 대한 적
     절한 지원을 포함하여, 버전마다 증가함이 보장됩니다.  예를 들어, 파
     이썬 인터프리터가 버전 1.5.2 이상인지 검사하려면, 다음을 사용하십시
     오:

          if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
              # use some advanced feature
              ...
          else:
              # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
              ...

     내장 *note hex(): 12bf. 함수에 전달한 결과로 볼 때만 실제로 의미가
     있기 때문에 이것을 ‘hexversion’이라고 합니다.  *note 네임드 튜플:
     648. *note sys.version_info: 69a.는 같은 정보의 더 인간 친화적인 인
     코딩으로 사용될 수 있습니다.

     ‘hexversion’에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note API와 ABI 버전 붙이기:
     4387. 에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.implementation

     현재 실행 중인 파이썬 인터프리터의 구현에 대한 정보가 포함된 객체.
     모든 파이썬 구현에서 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있어야 합니다.

     'name'은 구현 식별자입니다, 예를 들어 ‘'cpython'’.  실제 문자열은 파
     이썬 구현에 의해 정의되지만, 소문자임이 보장됩니다.

     'version'은 *note sys.version_info: 69a.와 같은 형식의 네임드 튜플
     입니다.  파이썬 '구현'의 버전을 나타냅니다.  이것은 현재 실행 중인
     인터프리터가 준수하는, ‘sys.version_info’가 나타내는, 특정 버전의 파
     이썬 '언어'와는 다른 의미입니다.  예를 들어, PyPy 1.8의 경우
     ‘sys.implementation.version’은 ‘sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final',
     0)’일 수 있지만, ‘sys.version_info’는 ‘sys.version_info(2, 7, 2,
     'final', 0)’입니다.  CPython의 경우 참조 구현이기 때문에 같은 값입
     니다.

     'hexversion'은 *note sys.hexversion: 4386.과 같은 16진수 형식의 구
     현 버전입니다.

     'cache_tag'는 임포트 절차에서 캐시 된 모듈의 파일명에 사용되는 태그
     입니다.  관습상, ‘'cpython-33'’과 같이 구현 이름과 버전을 합성한 것
     입니다.  그러나, 파이썬 구현은 적절하다면 다른 값을 사용할 수 있습
     니다.  ‘cache_tag’가 ‘None’으로 설정되면, 모듈 캐싱을 사용하지 않아
     야 함을 나타냅니다.

     *note sys.implementation: 510.은 파이썬 구현에 고유한 추가 어트리뷰
     트를 포함할 수 있습니다.  이러한 비표준 어트리뷰트는 밑줄로 시작해
     야 하며, 여기에서는 설명하지 않습니다.  내용과 관계없이, *note
     sys.implementation: 510.은 인터프리터 실행 중이나 구현 버전 간에 변
     경되지 않습니다.  (그러나, 파이썬 언어 버전 간에는 변경될 수 있습니
     다.)  자세한 정보는 PEP 421(8)을 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

          참고: 새로운 필수 어트리뷰트를 추가하려면 일반 PEP 프로세스를
          거쳐야 합니다.  자세한 정보는 PEP 421(9)을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: sys.int_info

     파이썬의 정수 내부 표현에 대한 정보를 담고 있는 *note 네임드 튜플:
     648.  어트리뷰트는 읽기 전용입니다.

      -- 속성: int_info.bits_per_digit

          The number of bits held in each digit.  Python integers are
          stored internally in base ‘2**int_info.bits_per_digit’.

      -- 속성: int_info.sizeof_digit

          The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit.

      -- 속성: int_info.default_max_str_digits

          The default value for *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits():
          1535. when it is not otherwise explicitly configured.

      -- 속성: int_info.str_digits_check_threshold

          The minimum non-zero value for *note
          sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 17c5, *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17c4, or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
          176.

     Added in version 3.1.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added *note default_max_str_digits: 2283. and
     *note str_digits_check_threshold: 438a.

 -- 데이터: sys.__interactivehook__

     이 어트리뷰트가 존재하면, *note 대화형 모드: fbe.로 인터프리터가 시
     작될 때 해당 값이 (인자 없이) 자동으로 호출됩니다.  이것은 *note
     PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. 파일을 읽은 후에 수행되므로, 그곳에서 이 훅을 설
     정할 수 있습니다.  *note site: c7. 모듈은 *note 이것을 설정합니다:
     fc1.

     시작 시 훅이 호출될 때 훅 객체를 인자로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘cpython.run_interactivehook’을 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: sys.intern (string)

     “인턴 된(interned)” 문자열 테이블에 'string'을 넣고, 'string' 자신
     이거나 사본인 인턴 된 문자열을 반환합니다.  문자열을 인턴 하는 것은
     딕셔너리 조회에서 약간의 성능 개선을 얻는 데 유용합니다 – 딕셔너리
     의 키가 인턴 되고.  조회 키가 인턴 되면, (해싱 후의) 키 비교는 문자
     열 비교 대신 포인터 비교를 수행 할 수 있습니다.  일반적으로, 파이썬
     프로그램에서 사용되는 이름은 자동으로 인턴 되며, 모듈, 클래스 또는
     인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 담는 데 사용되는 딕셔너리는 인턴 된 키를 갖습
     니다.

     Interned strings are not *note immortal: 437c.; you must keep a
     reference to the return value of *note intern(): 12cb. around to
     benefit from it.

 -- 함수: sys._is_gil_enabled ()

     Return *note True: c0a. if the *note GIL: 159. is enabled and *note
     False: b34. if it is disabled.

     Added in version 3.13.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

 -- 함수: sys.is_finalizing ()

     Return *note True: c0a. if the main Python interpreter is *note
     shutting down: 14e.  Return *note False: b34. otherwise.

     See also the *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d. exception.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: sys.last_exc

     This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception
     instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter
     prints an error message and a stack traceback.  Its intended use is
     to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage
     in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
     that caused the error.  (Typical use is ‘import pdb; pdb.pm()’ to
     enter the post-mortem debugger; see *note pdb: a5. module for more
     information.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: sys._is_interned (string)

     Return *note True: c0a. if the given string is “interned”, *note
     False: b34. otherwise.

     Added in version 3.13.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

 -- 데이터: sys.last_type
 -- 데이터: sys.last_value
 -- 데이터: sys.last_traceback

     These three variables are deprecated; use *note sys.last_exc: 4b8.
     instead.  They hold the legacy representation of ‘sys.last_exc’, as
     returned from *note exc_info(): 684. above.

 -- 데이터: sys.maxsize

     *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 형의 변수가 취할 수 있는 최댓값을 제공하는 정
     수.  일반적으로 32비트 플랫폼에서는 ‘2**31 - 1’이고 64비트 플랫폼에
     서는 ‘2**63 - 1’입니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.maxunicode

     가장 큰 유니코드 코드 포인트의 값을 제공하는 정수, 즉 ‘1114111’
     (16진수로 ‘0x10FFFF’).

     버전 3.3에서 변경: PEP 393(10) 이전에는, 유니코드 문자가 UCS-2와
     UCS-4 중 어는 것으로 저장되었는지를 지정하는 구성 옵션에 따라,
     ‘sys.maxunicode’는 ‘0xFFFF’나 ‘0x10FFFF’이었습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.meta_path

     A list of *note meta path finder: 1066. objects that have their
     *note find_spec(): 863. methods called to see if one of the objects
     can find the module to be imported.  By default, it holds entries
     that implement Python’s default import semantics.  The *note
     find_spec(): 863. method is called with at least the absolute name
     of the module being imported.  If the module to be imported is
     contained in a package, then the parent package’s *note __path__:
     1c76. attribute is passed in as a second argument.  The method
     returns a *note module spec: 1f1e, or ‘None’ if the module cannot
     be found.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869.

          *note meta_path: d28.에 있는 파인더 객체의 인터페이스를 정의하
          는 추상 베이스 클래스.

     *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e6c.

          *note find_spec(): 863.이 이 구상 클래스의 인스턴스를 반환해야
          합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note Module specs: 1f1e. were introduced in
     Python 3.4, by PEP 451(11).

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Removed the fallback that looked for a
     ‘find_module()’ method if a *note meta_path: d28. entry didn’t have
     a *note find_spec(): 863. method.

 -- 데이터: sys.modules

     This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have
     already been loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of
     modules and other tricks.  However, replacing the dictionary will
     not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from
     the dictionary may cause Python to fail.  If you want to iterate
     over this global dictionary always use ‘sys.modules.copy()’ or
     ‘tuple(sys.modules)’ to avoid exceptions as its size may change
     during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other
     threads.

 -- 데이터: sys.orig_argv

     The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
     Python executable.

     The elements of *note sys.orig_argv: 83a. are the arguments to the
     Python interpreter, while the elements of *note sys.argv: 1255. are
     the arguments to the user’s program.  Arguments consumed by the
     interpreter itself will be present in *note sys.orig_argv: 83a. and
     missing from *note sys.argv: 1255.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: sys.path

     모듈의 검색 경로를 지정하는 문자열 리스트.  환경 변수 *note
     PYTHONPATH: 1013.와 설치 종속 기본값으로 초기화되었습니다.

     By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially
     unsafe path is prepended to *note sys.path: 3ae. ('before' the
     entries inserted as a result of *note PYTHONPATH: 1013.):

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: prepend the current working
          directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: prepend the script’s
          directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: prepend an
          empty string, which means the current working directory.

     To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the *note -P: 59e.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 59f. environment
     variable.

     A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only
     strings should be added to *note sys.path: 3ae.; all other data
     types are ignored during import.

     더 보기
     .......

        * 모듈 *note site: c7.  이것은 .pth 파일을 사용하여 *note
          sys.path: 3ae.를 확장하는 방법에 관해 설명합니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.path_hooks

     경로 인자를 취해서 경로를 위한 *note 파인더: 1f26.를 만들려고 시도
     하는 콜러블의 리스트.  파인더를 만들 수 있으면, 콜러블이 반환하고,
     그렇지 않으면 *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.

     원래 PEP 302(12)에서 지정되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.path_importer_cache

     *note 파인더: 1f26. 객체의 캐시 역할을 하는 딕셔너리.  키는 *note
     sys.path_hooks: 101a.에 전달된 경로이며 값은 찾은 파인더입니다.  경
     로가 유효한 파일 시스템 경로이지만 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.에 파
     인더가 없으면 ‘None’이 저장됩니다.

     원래 PEP 302(13)에서 지정되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.platform

     A string containing a platform identifier.  Known values are:

     시스템               ‘platform’ 값
                          
     -----------------------------------------------------
                          
     AIX                  ‘'aix'’
                          
                          
     Android              ‘'android'’
                          
                          
     Emscripten           ‘'emscripten'’
                          
                          
     iOS                  ‘'ios'’
                          
                          
     리눅스               ‘'linux'’
                          
                          
     맥 OS                ‘'darwin'’
                          
                          
     윈도우               ‘'win32'’
                          
                          
     윈도우/Cygwin        ‘'cygwin'’
                          
                          
     WASI                 ‘'wasi'’
                          

     On Unix systems not listed in the table, the value is the
     lowercased OS name as returned by ‘uname -s’, with the first part
     of the version as returned by ‘uname -r’ appended, e.g.  ‘'sunos5'’
     or ‘'freebsd8'’, 'at the time when Python was built'.  Unless you
     want to test for a specific system version, it is therefore
     recommended to use the following idiom:

          if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'):
              # FreeBSD-specific code here...

     버전 3.3에서 변경: On Linux, *note sys.platform: a8a. doesn’t
     contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'linux'’, instead
     of ‘'linux2'’ or ‘'linux3'’.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: On AIX, *note sys.platform: a8a. doesn’t contain
     the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of
     ‘'aix5'’ or ‘'aix7'’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: On Android, *note sys.platform: a8a. now
     returns ‘'android'’ rather than ‘'linux'’.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note os.name: 2b17. has a coarser granularity.  *note os.uname():
     1107. gives system-dependent version information.

     *note platform: aa. 모듈은 시스템 식별자에 대한 상세한 검사를 제공
     합니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.platlibdir

     플랫폼별 라이브러리 디렉터리의 이름.  표준 라이브러리의 경로와 설치
     된 확장 모듈들의 경로를 빌드하는 데 사용됩니다.

     대부분의 플랫폼에서 ‘"lib"’와 같습니다.  Fedora와 SuSE에서는, 64비
     트 플랫폼에서 ‘"lib64"’와 같으며 다음과 같은 ‘sys.path’ 경로를 제공
     합니다 (‘X.Y’는 파이썬 ‘major.minor’ 버전):

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/’: 표준 라이브러리 (*note os: a1. 모듈의
          ‘os.py’와 같은)

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/’: 표준 라이브러리의 C 확장
          모듈 (*note errno: 57. 모듈과 같은, 정확한 파일 이름은 플랫폼
          에 따라 다릅니다)

        * ‘/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ (항상 ‘lib’를 사용합니다,
          *note sys.platlibdir: 936.이 아닙니다): 제삼자 모듈

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’: 제삼자 패키지의 C 확장
          모듈

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: sys.prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the
     default is ‘/usr/local’.  This can be set at build time with the
     *note -prefix: 1d6a. argument to the ‘configure’ script.  See *note
     설치 경로: 689. for derived paths.

          참고: *note 가상 환경: 4319.이 유효하면, 이 값은 ‘site.py’에서
          가상 환경을 가리키도록 변경됩니다.  파이썬 설치 값은 *note
          base_prefix: 3e9.를 통해 계속 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.ps1
 -- 데이터: sys.ps2

     인터프리터의 기본과 보조 프롬프트를 지정하는 문자열.  인터프리터가
     대화형 모드일 때만 정의됩니다.  이 경우 초깃값은 ‘'>>> '’과 ‘'...
     '’입니다.  문자열이 아닌 객체가 어느 변수에라도 지정되면, 인터프리
     터가 새 대화식 명령을 읽을 준비를 할 때마다 그 객체의 *note str():
     445.이 재평가됩니다; 동적 프롬프트를 구현하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다
     .

 -- 함수: sys.setdlopenflags (n)

     Set the flags used by the interpreter for ‘dlopen()’ calls, such as
     when the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things,
     this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a
     module, if called as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(0)’.  To share symbols
     across extension modules, call as
     ‘sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)’.  Symbolic names for the flag
     values can be found in the *note os: a1. module (‘RTLD_XXX’
     constants, e.g.  *note os.RTLD_LAZY: 1109.).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

 -- 함수: sys.set_int_max_str_digits (maxdigits)

     Set the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5ef.
     used by this interpreter.  See also *note get_int_max_str_digits():
     1535.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: sys.setprofile (profilefunc)

     시스템의 프로파일 함수를 설정합니다.  파이썬에서 파이썬 소스 코드 프
     로파일러를 구현할 수 있도록 합니다.  파이썬 프로파일러에 대한 자세
     한 내용은 *note 파이썬 프로파일러: 4264. 장을 참조하십시오.  시스템
     의 프로파일 함수는 시스템의 추적 함수(*note settrace(): 14c7.를 참
     조하십시오)와 유사하게 호출되지만, 다른 이벤트로 호출됩니다, 예를 들
     어 이 함수는 실행되는 줄마다 호출되지 않습니다 (오직 호출과 반환에
     서만 호출됩니다만, 예외가 설정되었을 때도 반환 이벤트가 보고됩니다
     ).  이 함수는 스레드로 한정되지만, 프로파일러가 스레드 간의 컨텍스
     트 전환에 대해 알 방법이 없어서, 여러 스레드가 있을 때 이를 사용하
     는 것은 의미가 없습니다.  또한, 반환 값이 사용되지 않아서, 단순히
     ‘None’을 반환할 수 있습니다.  프로파일 함수에서 에러가 발생하면 설
     정이 해제됩니다.

          참고: The same tracing mechanism is used for ‘setprofile()’ as
          *note settrace(): 14c7.  To trace calls with ‘setprofile()’
          inside a tracing function (e.g.  in a debugger breakpoint),
          see *note call_tracing(): 1839.

     프로파일 함수에는 세 가지 인자가 있습니다: 'frame', 'event' 및
     'arg'.  'frame'은 현재 스택 프레임입니다.  'event'는 문자열입니다:
     ‘'call'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'c_call'’, ‘'c_return'’ 또는
     ‘'c_exception'’.  'arg'는 이벤트 유형에 따라 다릅니다.

     이벤트의 의미는 다음과 같습니다:

     ‘'call'’

          함수가 호출되었습니다 (또는 다른 코드 블록에 진입했습니다).  프
          로파일 함수가 호출됩니다; 'arg'는 ‘None’입니다.

     ‘'return'’

          함수(또는 다른 코드 블록)가 반환하려고 합니다.  프로파일 함수
          가 호출됩니다; 'arg'는 반환될 값이거나, 예외가 발생하여 이벤트
          가 발생한 경우는 ‘None’입니다.

     ‘'c_call'’

          C 함수를 호출하려고 합니다.  확장 함수나 내장일 수 있습니다.
          'arg'는 C 함수 객체입니다.

     ‘'c_return'’

          C 함수가 반환했습니다.  'arg'는 C 함수 객체입니다.

     ‘'c_exception'’

          C 함수에서 예외가 발생했습니다.  'arg'는 C 함수 객체입니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘sys.setprofile’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: sys.setrecursionlimit (limit)

     파이썬 인터프리터 스택의 최대 깊이를 'limit'로 설정합니다.  이 제한
     은 무한 재귀로 인해 C 스택의 오버플로가 발생하고 파이썬이 충돌하는
     것을 방지합니다.

     가능한 최대 제한은 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.  사용자는 깊은 재귀가 필
     요한 프로그램과 더 높은 제한을 지원하는 플랫폼이 있을 때 제한을 더
     높게 설정해야 할 수 있습니다.  제한이 너무 높으면 충돌이 발생할 수
     있기 때문에, 주의해서 사용해야 합니다.

     현재 재귀 깊이에서 새 제한이 너무 낮으면 *note RecursionError: d68.
     예외가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.5.1에서 변경: 현재 재귀 깊이에서 새 한계가 너무 낮으면 이제
     *note RecursionError: d68. 예외가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: sys.setswitchinterval (interval)

     인터프리터의 스레드 전환 간격을 (초 단위로) 설정합니다.  이 부동 소
     수점 값은 동시에 실행 중인 파이썬 스레드에 할당된 “시 분할
     (timeslices)”의 이상적인 지속 시간을 결정합니다.  특히 오래 실행되
     는 내부 함수나 메서드가 사용된다면, 실제 값은 더 클 수 있음에 유의
     하십시오.  또한, 간격이 끝날 때 어떤 스레드가 예약되는지는 운영 체
     제의 결정입니다.  인터프리터에는 자체 스케줄러가 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: sys.settrace (tracefunc)

     시스템의 추적 함수를 설정합니다.  파이썬에서 파이썬 소스 코드 디버
     거를 구현할 수 있도록 합니다.  이 함수는 스레드로 한정됩니다; 디버
     거가 여러 스레드를 지원하려면, 디버깅 중인 각 스레드에 대해 *note
     settrace(): 14c7.를 사용하여 추적 함수를 등록하거나, *note
     threading.settrace(): 842.를 사용해야 합니다.

     Trace functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event', and
     'arg'.  'frame' is the *note current stack frame: 6d9.  'event' is
     a string: ‘'call'’, ‘'line'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'exception'’ or
     ‘'opcode'’.  'arg' depends on the event type.

     추적 함수는 새로운 로컬 스코프에 진입할 때마다 호출됩니다 ('event'가
     ‘'call'’로 설정됩니다); 새 스코프에서 사용될 지역 추적 함수(local
     trace function)에 대한 참조를 반환하거나, 스코프를 추적하지 않아야
     하면 ‘None’을 반환해야 합니다.

     The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to
     another function which would then be used as the local trace
     function for the scope.

     추적 함수에서 에러가 발생하면, ‘settrace(None)’이 호출되는 것처럼 설
     정이 해제됩니다.

          참고: Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function
          (e.g.  a function set by ‘settrace()’).  For recursive tracing
          see *note call_tracing(): 1839.

     이벤트의 의미는 다음과 같습니다:

     ‘'call'’

          함수가 호출되었습니다 (또는 다른 코드 블록에 진입했습니다).  전
          역 추적 함수가 호출됩니다; 'arg'는 ‘None’입니다; 반환 값은 지
          역 추적 함수를 지정합니다.

     ‘'line'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or
          re-execute the condition of a loop.  The local trace function
          is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for a
          detailed explanation of how this works.  Per-line events may
          be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: bd8.
          to *note False: b34. on that *note frame: 6d9.

     ‘'return'’

          함수(또는 다른 코드 블록)가 반환하려고 합니다.  지역 추적 함수
          가 호출됩니다; 'arg'는 반환될 값이거나, 예외가 발생하여 이벤트
          가 발생한 경우는 ‘None’입니다.  추적 함수의 반환 값은 무시됩니
          다.

     ‘'exception'’

          예외가 발생했습니다.  지역 추적 함수가 호출됩니다; 'arg'는 튜
          플 ‘(exception, value, traceback)’입니다; 반환 값은 새로운 지
          역 추적 함수를 지정합니다.

     ‘'opcode'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see *note
          dis: 38. for opcode details).  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  Per-opcode events are not emitted by
          default: they must be explicitly requested by setting *note
          f_trace_opcodes: bd9. to *note True: c0a. on the *note frame:
          6d9.

     호출자 체인을 따라 예외가 전파됨에 따라, 각 수준에서 ‘'exception'’
     이벤트가 생성됨에 유의하십시오.

     더 세분된 사용을 위해, 이미 설치된 추적 함수의 반환 값을 통해 간접
     적으로 설정되는 것에 의존하는 대신, ‘frame.f_trace = tracefunc’를 명
     시적으로 대입하여 추적 함수를 설정할 수 있습니다.  이것은 현재 프레
     임에서 추적 함수를 활성화하는 데에도 필요한데, *note settrace():
     14c7.가 하지 않는 일입니다.  이것이 작동하려면 실행 시간 추적 장치
     를 활성화하기 위해 전역 추적 함수가 *note settrace(): 14c7.로 설치
     되어 있어야 하지만, 같은 추적 함수 일 필요는 없음에 유의하십시오 (예
     를 들어, 각 프레임에서 즉시 비활성화되도록 단순히 ‘None’을 반환하는
     오버헤드가 낮은 추적 함수일 수 있습니다).

     코드와 프레임 객체에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 표준형 계층: 1eef.를
     참조하십시오.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘sys.settrace’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note settrace(): 14c7. 함수는 오직 디버거, 프로파일러, 커버리지
     (coverage) 도구 등을 구현하기 위한 것입니다.  그 동작은 언어 정의의
     일부라기보다는 구현 플랫폼의 일부라서, 모든 파이썬 구현에서 사용 가
     능한 것은 아닙니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘'opcode'’ event type added; *note
     f_trace_lines: bd8. and *note f_trace_opcodes: bd9. attributes
     added to frames

 -- 함수: sys.set_asyncgen_hooks ([firstiter] [, finalizer])

     두 개의 선택적 키워드 인자를 받아들이는데, 모두 *note 비동기
     제너레이터 이터레이터: 437e.를 인자로 받아들이는 콜러블입니다.  비
     동기 제너레이터가 처음으로 이터레이트 될 때 'firstiter' 콜러블이 호
     출됩니다.  비동기 제너레이터가 가비지 수거될 때 'finalizer'가 호출
     됩니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter’를 발생시킵니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer’를 발생시킵니다.

     하부 API는 두 개의 호출로 구성되기 때문에, 두 개의 감사 이벤트가 발
     생합니다, 각각은 자체 이벤트를 발생시켜야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.6: 자세한 내용은 PEP 525(14)를 참조하고,
     'finalizer' 메서드의 참조 예제는 Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(15)의
     ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ 구현을 참조하십시오.

          참고: 이 함수는 잠정적(provisional)으로 추가되었습니다 (자세한
          내용은 PEP 411(16)을 참조하십시오).

 -- 함수: sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth (depth)

     Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking.  When
     enabled, the ‘cr_origin’ attribute on coroutine objects will
     contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
     describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
     with the most recent call first.  When disabled, ‘cr_origin’ will
     be ‘None’.

     활성화하려면, 0보다 큰 'depth' 값을 전달하십시오; 정보를 캡처할 프
     레임 수를 설정합니다.  비활성화하려면, 'depth'를 0으로 전달하십시오
     .

     이 설정은 스레드에 한정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

          참고: 이 함수는 잠정적(provisional)으로 추가되었습니다 (자세한
          내용은 PEP 411(17)을 참조하십시오).  디버깅 목적으로만 사용하
          십시오.

 -- 함수: sys.activate_stack_trampoline (backend, /)

     Activate the stack profiler trampoline 'backend'.  The only
     supported backend is ‘"perf"’.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

     더 보기
     .......

        * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18f.

        * ‘https://perf.wiki.kernel.org’

 -- 함수: sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline ()

     Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend.

     If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: sys.is_stack_trampoline_active ()

     Return ‘True’ if a stack profiler trampoline is active.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding ()

     Changes the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. to
     ‘mbcs’ and ‘replace’ respectively, for consistency with versions of
     Python prior to 3.6.

     이것은 파이썬을 시작하기 전에 *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING:
     2af. 환경 변수를 정의하는 것과 동등합니다.

     See also *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce3.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

          참고: Changing the filesystem encoding after Python startup is
          risky because the old fsencoding or paths encoded by the old
          fsencoding may be cached somewhere.  Use *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. instead.

     Added in version 3.6: 자세한 내용은 PEP 529(18)를 참조하십시오.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.16: Use
     *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. instead.

 -- 데이터: sys.stdin
 -- 데이터: sys.stdout
 -- 데이터: sys.stderr

     인터프리터가 표준 입력, 출력 및 에러에 사용하는 *note 파일 객체:
     11b2.:

        * ‘stdin’는 모든 대화식 입력에 사용됩니다 (*note input(): 12c8.
          호출을 포함합니다);

        * ‘stdout’은 *note print(): f6d.와 *note 표현식: 1f8d. 문장의 출
          력과 *note input(): 12c8.의 프롬프트에 사용됩니다;

        * 인터프리터 자신의 프롬프트와 에러 메시지는 ‘stderr’로 갑니다.

     이 스트림은 *note open(): 515. 함수에 의해 반환되는 것과 같은 일반
     적인 *note 텍스트 파일: 1c8e.입니다.  매개 변수는 다음과 같이 선택
     됩니다:

        * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 39d. and *note PyConfig.stdio_errors:
          438c.

          On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.
          Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the
          system locale encoding (i.e.  the ANSI codepage).  Non-console
          character devices such as NUL (i.e.  where ‘isatty()’ returns
          ‘True’) use the value of the console input and output
          codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and
          stdout/stderr.  This defaults to the system *note locale
          encoding: 242. if the process is not initially attached to a
          console.

          파이썬을 시작하기 전에 환경 변수 PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO를 설
          정하여 콘솔의 특수 동작을 재정의할 수 있습니다.  이 경우, 콘솔
          코드 페이지는 다른 모든 문자 장치에서처럼 사용됩니다.

          모든 플랫폼에서, 파이썬을 시작하기 전에 *note
          PYTHONIOENCODING: 1000. 환경 변수를 설정하거나 새로운 *note
          -X: 176. ‘utf8’ 명령 줄 옵션과 *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5. 환경 변
          수를 사용하여 문자 인코딩을 재정의할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 윈
          도우 콘솔의 경우, *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c58. 도 설정
          했을 때만 적용됩니다.

        * 대화형일 때, ‘stdout’ 스트림은 줄 버퍼링 됩니다.  그렇지 않으
          면, 일반 텍스트 파일처럼 블록 버퍼링 됩니다.  ‘stderr’ 스트림
          은 두 경우 모두 줄 버퍼링 됩니다.  *note -u: 19ab. 명령 줄 옵
          션을 전달하거나 *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19ac. 환경 변수를 설정
          하여 두 스트림을 모두 버퍼링하지 않을 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 비 대화형 ‘stderr’은 이제 완전히 버퍼링 되는 대
     신 줄 버퍼링 됩니다.

          참고: 표준 스트림에서 바이너리 데이터를 읽거나 표준 스트림으로
          바이너리 데이터를 쓰려면, 하부 바이너리 *note buffer: 1292. 객
          체를 사용하십시오.  예를 들어, 바이트열을 *note stdout: ad3.에
          쓰려면, ‘sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')’를 사용하십시오.

          However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in
          which context its code will be executed), be aware that the
          standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like
          *note io.StringIO: f1f. which do not support the ‘buffer’
          attribute.

 -- 데이터: sys.__stdin__
 -- 데이터: sys.__stdout__
 -- 데이터: sys.__stderr__

     이 객체는 프로그램 시작 시 ‘stdin’, ‘stderr’ 및 ‘stdout’의 원래 값
     을 포함합니다.  이들은 파이널리제이션 중에 사용되며, ‘sys.std*’ 객
     체가 리디렉션 되었는지에 관계없이 실제 표준 스트림으로 인쇄하는 데
     유용할 수 있습니다.

     또한 잘못된 객체로 덮어쓴 경우 실제 파일을 알려진 작동하는 파일 객
     체로 복원하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 이를 수행하기 위해 선
     호되는 방법은 이전 스트림을 교체하기 전에 명시적으로 저장하고, 저장
     된 객체를 복원하는 것입니다.

          참고: 일부 조건에서, ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ 및 ‘stderr’ 뿐만 아니라
          원래 값 ‘__stdin__’, ‘__stdout__’ 및 ‘__stderr__’은 ‘None’일 수
          있습니다.  보통 콘솔에 연결되지 않은 윈도우 GUI 앱과
          ‘pythonw’로 시작된 파이썬 앱이 이런 경우입니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.stdlib_module_names

     A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library
     modules.

     It is the same on all platforms.  Modules which are not available
     on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also
     listed.  All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen
     and extension modules.  Test modules are excluded.

     For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and
     sub-modules are not listed.  For example, the ‘email’ package is
     listed, but the ‘email.mime’ sub-package and the ‘email.message’
     sub-module are not listed.

     See also the *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1c67. list.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 데이터: sys.thread_info

     스레드 구현에 대한 정보를 담은 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.

      -- 속성: thread_info.name

          The name of the thread implementation:

             * ‘"nt"’: Windows threads

             * ‘"pthread"’: POSIX threads

             * ‘"pthread-stubs"’: stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly
               platforms without threading support)

             * ‘"solaris"’: Solaris threads

      -- 속성: thread_info.lock

          The name of the lock implementation:

             * ‘"semaphore"’: a lock uses a semaphore

             * ‘"mutex+cond"’: a lock uses a mutex and a condition
               variable

             * 이 정보를 알 수 없으면 ‘None’

      -- 속성: thread_info.version

          The name and version of the thread library.  It is a string,
          or ‘None’ if this information is unknown.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: sys.tracebacklimit

     이 변수가 정숫값으로 설정되면, 처리되지 않은 예외가 발생할 때 인쇄
     되는 트레이스백 정보의 최대 수준 수를 결정합니다.  기본값은 ‘1000’입
     니다.  ‘0’ 이하로 설정하면, 모든 트레이스백 정보가 억제되고 예외 형
     과 값만 인쇄됩니다.

 -- 함수: sys.unraisablehook (unraisable, /)

     발생시킬 수 없는 예외(unraisable exception)를 처리합니다.

     예외가 발생했지만, 파이썬이 예외를 처리할 방법이 없을 때 호출됩니다
     .  예를 들어, 파괴자가 예외를 발생시키거나 가비지 수거 (*note
     gc.collect(): a36.) 중에.

     'unraisable' 인자에는 다음과 같은 어트리뷰트가 있습니다:

        * ‘exc_type’: Exception type.

        * ‘exc_value’: Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘exc_traceback’: Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘err_msg’: Error message, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘object’: Object causing the exception, can be ‘None’.

     The default hook formats ‘err_msg’ and ‘object’ as: ‘f'{err_msg}:
     {object!r}'’; use “Exception ignored in” error message if ‘err_msg’
     is ‘None’.

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. 은 발생시킬 수 없는 예외 처리 방법
     을 제어하기 위해 재정의될 수 있습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note excepthook(): 805. which handles uncaught exceptions.

          경고: Storing ‘exc_value’ using a custom hook can create a
          reference cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to break the
          reference cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

          Storing ‘object’ using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is
          set to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing
          ‘object’ after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting
          objects.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.unraisablehook’ with arguments 'hook',
     'unraisable' when an exception that cannot be handled occurs.  The
     'unraisable' object is the same as what will be passed to the hook.
     If no hook has been set, 'hook' may be ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: sys.version

     파이썬 인터프리터의 버전 번호와 빌드 번호 및 사용된 컴파일러에 대한
     추가 정보가 포함된 문자열.  이 문자열은 대화식 인터프리터가 시작될
     때 표시됩니다.  여기서 버전 정보를 추출하지 말고, *note
     version_info: 69a.와 *note platform: aa. 모듈이 제공하는 함수를 사
     용하십시오.

 -- 데이터: sys.api_version

     이 인터프리터의 C API 버전.  프로그래머는 파이썬과 확장 모듈 간의 버
     전 충돌을 디버깅할 때 이것이 유용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.version_info

     버전 번호의 5가지 구성 요소를 포함하는 튜플: 'major', 'minor',
     'micro', 'releaselevel' 및 'serial'.  'releaselevel'을 제외한 모든
     값은 정수입니다; 릴리스 수준은 ‘'alpha'’, ‘'beta'’, ‘'candidate'’ 또
     는 ‘'final'’입니다.  파이썬 버전 2.0에 해당하는 ‘version_info’ 값은
     ‘(2, 0, 0, 'final', 0)’입니다.  구성 요소는 이름으로도 액세스 할 수
     있어서, ‘sys.version_info[0]’는 ‘sys.version_info.major’와 동등합니
     다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 이름있는 구성 요소 어트리뷰트를 추가했습니다.

 -- 데이터: sys.warnoptions

     이것은 경고 프레임워크의 구현 세부 사항입니다; 이 값을 수정하지 마
     십시오.  경고 프레임워크에 대한 자세한 정보는 *note warnings: 112.
     모듈을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: sys.winver

     The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms.
     This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value
     is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python
     interpreter.  It is provided in the *note sys: d9. module for
     informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the
     registry keys used by Python.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- 데이터: sys.monitoring

     Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks
     and controlling monitoring events.  See *note sys.monitoring: da.
     for details.

 -- 데이터: sys._xoptions

     *note -X: 176. 명령 줄 옵션을 통해 전달된 다양한 구현 특정 플래그의
     딕셔너리.  옵션 이름은 명시적으로 지정되면 그들의 값으로, 그렇지 않
     으면 *note True: c0a.로 매핑됩니다.  예:

          $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
          Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
          [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
          Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
          >>> import sys
          >>> sys._xoptions
          {'a': 'b', 'c': True}

     이는 *note -X: 176.를 통해 전달된 옵션에 액세스하는 CPython 특정 방
     법입니다.  다른 구현은 다른 수단을 통해, 또는 전혀 노출하지 않을 수
     있습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

인용
....

(C99) ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  “Programming languages – C.” A public draft of
this standard is available at
‘https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (15) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Next: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기,  Prev: sys — System-specific parameters and functions,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.2 ‘sys.monitoring’ — Execution event monitoring
----------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

__________________________________________________________________

     참고: *note sys.monitoring: da. is a namespace within the *note
     sys: d9. module, not an independent module, so there is no need to
     ‘import sys.monitoring’, simply ‘import sys’ and then use
     ‘sys.monitoring’.

This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary
to activate and control event monitoring.

As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools
that monitor execution.  The *note sys.monitoring: da. namespace
provides means to receive callbacks when events of interest occur.

The monitoring API consists of three components:

   * *note Tool identifiers: 4395.

   * *note Events: 4396.

   * *note Callbacks: 4397.

* Menu:

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Tool identifiers,  Next: Events,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.1 Tool identifiers
.........................

A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name.  Tool
identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each
other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time.
Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor
each other.  This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an
identifier.  Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

* Menu:

* Registering and using tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Registering and using tools,  Up: Tool identifiers

5.29.2.2 Registering and using tools
....................................

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.use_tool_id (tool_id: int, name: str, /) ->
          None

     Must be called before 'tool_id' can be used.  'tool_id' must be in
     the range 0 to 5 inclusive.  Raises a *note ValueError: 202. if
     'tool_id' is in use.

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.free_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None

     Should be called once a tool no longer requires 'tool_id'.

     참고: *note free_tool_id(): 439a. will not disable global or local
     events associated with 'tool_id', nor will it unregister any
     callback functions.  This function is only intended to be used to
     notify the VM that the particular 'tool_id' is no longer in use.

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.get_tool (tool_id: int, /) -> str | None

     Returns the name of the tool if 'tool_id' is in use, otherwise it
     returns ‘None’.  'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the
following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier:

     sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0
     sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1
     sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2
     sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5


File: python.info,  Node: Events,  Next: Turning events on and off,  Prev: Tool identifiers,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.3 Events
...............

The following events are supported:

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH

     A conditional branch is taken (or not).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.CALL

     A call in Python code (event occurs before the call).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE

     An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions
     (event occurs after the exit).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN

     Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs
     after the return).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED

     An exception is handled.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION

     A VM instruction is about to be executed.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.JUMP

     An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.LINE

     An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line
     number from the preceding instruction.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME

     Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine
     functions), except for ‘throw()’ calls.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN

     Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the
     return, the callee’s frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_START

     Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the
     callee’s frame will be on the stack)

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW

     A Python function is resumed by a ‘throw()’ call.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND

     Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD

     Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield,
     the callee’s frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RAISE

     An exception is raised, except those that cause a *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 43a9. event.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE

     An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a *note
     finally: 9c7. block.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION

     An artificial *note StopIteration: bf7. is raised; see *note the
     STOP_ITERATION event: 43ab.

More events may be added in the future.

These events are attributes of the ‘sys.monitoring.events’ namespace.
Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant.  To define a
set of events, simply bitwise OR the individual events together.  For
example, to specify both *note PY_RETURN: 43a4. and *note PY_START:
43a5. events, use the expression ‘PY_RETURN | PY_START’.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS

     An alias for ‘0’ so users can do explicit comparisons like:

          if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
              ...

Events are divided into three groups:

* Menu:

* Local events::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::


File: python.info,  Node: Local events,  Next: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.4 Local events
.....................

Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and
happen at clearly defined locations.  All local events can be disabled.
The local events are:

   * *note PY_START: 43a5.

   * *note PY_RESUME: 43a3.

   * *note PY_RETURN: 43a4.

   * *note PY_YIELD: 43a8.

   * *note CALL: 164d.

   * *note LINE: 43a2.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 43a0.

   * *note JUMP: 43a1.

   * *note BRANCH: 439c.

   * *note STOP_ITERATION: 43a9.


File: python.info,  Node: Ancillary events,  Next: Other events,  Prev: Local events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.5 Ancillary events
.........................

Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled
by another event:

   * *note C_RAISE: 439d.

   * *note C_RETURN: 439e.

The *note C_RETURN: 439e. and *note C_RAISE: 439d. events are controlled
by the *note CALL: 164d. event.  *note C_RETURN: 439e. and *note
C_RAISE: 439d. events will only be seen if the corresponding *note CALL:
164d. event is being monitored.


File: python.info,  Node: Other events,  Next: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.6 Other events
.....................

Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the
program and cannot be individually disabled.

The other events that can be monitored are:

   * *note PY_THROW: 43a6.

   * *note PY_UNWIND: 43a7.

   * *note RAISE: 15f7.

   * *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 439f.


File: python.info,  Node: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Other events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.7 The STOP_ITERATION event
.................................

PEP 380(1) specifies that a *note StopIteration: bf7. exception is
raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine.  However,
this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python
implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless
it would be visible to other code.

To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down
generators and coroutines, the *note STOP_ITERATION: 43a9. event is
provided.  *note STOP_ITERATION: 43a9. can be locally disabled, unlike
*note RAISE: 15f7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values


File: python.info,  Node: Turning events on and off,  Next: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Events,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.8 Turning events on and off
..................................

In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding
callback must be registered.  Events can be turned on or off by setting
the events either globally or for a particular code object.

* Menu:

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting events globally,  Next: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.9 Setting events globally
................................

Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being
monitored.

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.get_events (tool_id: int, /) -> int

     Returns the ‘int’ representing all the active events.

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.set_events (tool_id: int, event_set: int, /) ->
          None

     Activates all events which are set in 'event_set'.  Raises a *note
     ValueError: 202. if 'tool_id' is not in use.

No events are active by default.


File: python.info,  Node: Per code object events,  Next: Disabling events,  Prev: Setting events globally,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.10 Per code object events
................................

Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis.  The functions
defined below which accept a *note types.CodeType: 2e1. should be
prepared to accept a look-alike object from functions which are not
defined in Python (see *note Monitoring C API: 15c.).

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.get_local_events (tool_id: int, code: CodeType,
          /) -> int

     Returns all the local events for 'code'

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.set_local_events (tool_id: int, code: CodeType,
          event_set: int, /) -> None

     Activates all the local events for 'code' which are set in
     'event_set'.  Raises a *note ValueError: 202. if 'tool_id' is not
     in use.

Local events add to global events, but do not mask them.  In other
words, all global events will trigger for a code object, regardless of
the local events.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling events,  Prev: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.11 Disabling events
..........................

 -- 데이터: sys.monitoring.DISABLE

     A special value that can be returned from a callback function to
     disable events for the current code location.

Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning
*note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 43b9. from a callback function.  This does
not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the
same event.

Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high
performance monitoring.  For example, a program can be run under a
debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except
for a few breakpoints.

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.restart_events () -> None

     Enable all the events that were disabled by *note
     sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 43b9. for all tools.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Turning events on and off,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.12 Registering callback functions
........................................

To register a callable for events call

 -- 함수: sys.monitoring.register_callback (tool_id: int, event: int,
          func: Callable | None, /) -> Callable | None

     Registers the callable 'func' for the 'event' with the given
     'tool_id'

     If another callback was registered for the given 'tool_id' and
     'event', it is unregistered and returned.  Otherwise *note
     register_callback(): 41d7. returns ‘None’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 18c1.
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ with argument ‘func’.

Functions can be unregistered by calling
‘sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)’.

Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.

* Menu:

* Callback function arguments::


File: python.info,  Node: Callback function arguments,  Up: Registering callback functions

5.29.2.13 Callback function arguments
.....................................

 -- 데이터: sys.monitoring.MISSING

     A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate
     that there are no arguments to the call.

When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called.
Different events will provide the callback function with different
arguments, as follows:

   * *note PY_START: 43a5. and *note PY_RESUME: 43a3.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note PY_RETURN: 43a4. and *note PY_YIELD: 43a8.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note CALL: 164d, *note C_RAISE: 439d. and *note C_RETURN: 439e.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object | MISSING) -> DISABLE | Any

     If there are no arguments, 'arg0' is set to *note
     sys.monitoring.MISSING: 43bd.

   * *note RAISE: 15f7, *note RERAISE: 43aa, *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED:
     439f, *note PY_UNWIND: 43a7, *note PY_THROW: 43a6. and *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 43a9.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note LINE: 43a2.:

          func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note BRANCH: 439c. and *note JUMP: 43a1.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

     Note that the 'destination_offset' is where the code will next
     execute.  For an untaken branch this will be the offset of the
     instruction following the branch.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 43a0.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기,  Next: builtins — 내장 객체,  Prev: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.3 ‘sysconfig’ — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기
--------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'소스 코드:' Lib/sysconfig(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note sysconfig: db. 모듈은 설치 경로 목록과 현재 플랫폼과 관련된 구성 변
수와 같은 파이썬 구성 정보에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 구성 변수::
* 설치 경로::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* 설치 경로 함수::
* 기타 함수: 기타 함수<3>.
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sysconfig


File: python.info,  Node: 구성 변수,  Next: 설치 경로,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.1 구성 변수
..................

Python 배포판에는 ‘Makefile’ 과 ‘pyconfig.h’ 헤더 파일이 들어 있습니다.
이 파일은 파이썬 바이너리 자체와 ‘setuptools’ 를 사용하여 컴파일된 타사
C 확장을 빌드하는 데 필요합니다.

*note sysconfig: db. 는 *note get_config_vars(): 1022. 또는 *note
get_config_var(): 1021.를 사용하여 액세스 할 수 있는 딕셔너리에 이들 파
일에 있는 모든 변수를 넣습니다.

윈도우에서는 훨씬 작은 세트입니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_config_vars (*args)

     인자가 없으면, 현재 플랫폼과 관련된 모든 구성 변수의 딕셔너리를 반
     환합니다.

     인자가 있으면, 인자를 사용하여 구성 변수 딕셔너리에서 각 인자를 조
     회한 결괏값 리스트를 돌려줍니다.

     인자별로, 값이 없으면 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_config_var (name)

     하나의 변수 'name' 의 값을 반환합니다.
     ‘get_config_vars().get(name)’ 과 같습니다.

     'name' 을 찾지 못하면 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

사용 예:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
     0
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
     '/usr/local/lib'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
     ['ar', 'g++']


File: python.info,  Node: 설치 경로,  Next: User scheme,  Prev: 구성 변수,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.2 설치 경로
..................

파이썬은 플랫폼과 설치 옵션에 따라 다른 설치 스킴을 사용합니다.  이 스킴
은 *note os.name: 2b17. 에 의해 반환된 값을 기반으로 하는 고유한 식별자
로 *note sysconfig: db. 에 저장됩니다.  이 스킴은 패키지 설치기가 파일을
복사할 위치를 결정하는 데 사용됩니다.

파이썬은 현재 9가지 스킴을 지원합니다:

   - 'posix_prefix': 리눅스나 맥 OS 같은 포직스(POSIX) 플랫폼용 스킴.  이
     것은 파이썬이나 컴포넌트가 설치될 때 사용되는 기본 스킴입니다.

   - 'posix_home': 'home' 옵션이 사용될 때, 포직스 플랫폼용 스킴.  이 스
     킴은 특정 홈 접두어 아래에 있는 경로를 정의합니다.

   - 'posix_user': 'user' 옵션이 사용될 때, 포직스 플랫폼용 스킴.  이 스
     킴은 사용자 홈 디렉터리 아래에 있는 경로를 정의합니다 (*note
     site.USER_BASE: 130c.).

   - 'posix_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 111. on
     POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as 'posix_prefix'.

   - 'nt': 윈도우용 스킴.  이것은 파이썬이나 컴포넌트가 설치될 때 사용되
     는 기본 스킴입니다.

   - 'nt_user': 'user' 옵션이 사용될 때, 윈도우용 스킴.

   - 'nt_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 111. on
     Windows; by default it is the same as 'nt'.

   - 'venv': a scheme with values from either 'posix_venv' or 'nt_venv'
     depending on the platform Python runs on.

   - 'osx_framework_user': 'user' 옵션이 사용될, 맥 OS용 스킴.

각 스킴은 일련의 경로로 구성되며 각 경로는 고유한 식별자를 가집니다.  파
이썬은 현재 8개의 경로를 사용합니다:

   - 'stdlib': 플랫폼마다 다르지 않은 표준 파이썬 라이브러리 파일이 들어
     있는 디렉터리.

   - 'platstdlib': 플랫폼마다 다른 표준 파이썬 라이브러리 파일이 들어있
     는 디렉터리.

   - 'platlib': 사이트마다, 플랫폼마다 다른 파일용 디렉터리.

   - 'purelib': 사이트마다 다르지만, 플랫폼마다 다르지 않은 파일이 들어
     있는 디렉터리 (‘순수한’ 파이썬’).

   - 'include': 파이썬 C-API 를 위한 플랫폼마다 다르지 않은 헤더 파일용
     디렉터리.

   - 'platinclude': 파이썬 C-API 를 위한 플랫폼마다 다른 헤더 파일용 디
     렉터리.

   - 'scripts': 스크립트 파일용 디렉터리.

   - 'data': 데이터 파일용 디렉터리.


File: python.info,  Node: User scheme,  Next: Home scheme,  Prev: 설치 경로,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.3 User scheme
....................

This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users
that don’t have write permission to the global site-packages directory
or don’t want to install into it.

Files will be installed into subdirectories of *note site.USER_BASE:
130c. (written as ‘`userbase'’ hereafter).  This scheme installs pure
Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as
*note site.USER_SITE: 1d3d.).

* Menu:

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_user,  Next: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.4 ‘posix_user’
.....................

경로               설치 디렉터리
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt_user,  Next: osx_framework_user,  Prev: posix_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.5 ‘nt_user’
..................

경로               설치 디렉터리
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: osx_framework_user,  Prev: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.6 ‘osx_framework_user’
.............................

경로               설치 디렉터리
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Home scheme,  Next: Prefix scheme,  Prev: User scheme,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.7 Home scheme
....................

The idea behind the “home scheme” is that you build and maintain a
personal stash of Python modules.  This scheme’s name is derived from
the idea of a “home” directory on Unix, since it’s not unusual for a
Unix user to make their home directory have a layout similar to ‘/usr/’
or ‘/usr/local/’.  This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the
operating system they are installing for.

* Menu:

* posix_home::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_home,  Up: Home scheme

5.29.3.8 ‘posix_home’
.....................

경로               설치 디렉터리
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`home'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`home'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix scheme,  Next: 설치 경로 함수,  Prev: Home scheme,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.9 Prefix scheme
......................

The “prefix scheme” is useful when you wish to use one Python
installation to perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup
script), but install modules into the third-party module directory of a
different Python installation (or something that looks like a different
Python installation).  If this sounds a trifle unusual, it is—that’s why
the user and home schemes come before.  However, there are at least two
known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful.

First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in ‘/usr’,
rather than the more traditional ‘/usr/local’.  This is entirely
appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of “the system” rather
than a local add-on.  However, if you are installing Python modules from
source, you probably want them to go in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’
rather than ‘/usr/lib/python2.`X'’.

Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write
to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for
example, the Python interpreter accessed as ‘/usr/local/bin/python’
might search for modules in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’, but those
modules would have to be installed to, say,
‘/mnt/`@server'/export/lib/python2.`X'’.

* Menu:

* posix_prefix::
* nt::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_prefix,  Next: nt,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.29.3.10 ‘posix_prefix’
........................

경로               설치 디렉터리
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt,  Prev: posix_prefix,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.29.3.11 ‘nt’
..............

경로               설치 디렉터리
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: 설치 경로 함수,  Next: 기타 함수<3>,  Prev: Prefix scheme,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.12 설치 경로 함수
........................

*note sysconfig: db. 는 이러한 설치 경로를 결정하는 몇 가지 함수를 제공
합니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_scheme_names ()

     현재 *note sysconfig: db. 에서 지원되는 모든 스킴을 포함하는 튜플을
     돌려줍니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_default_scheme ()

     현재 플랫폼에 대한 기본 스킴 이름을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.10: This function was previously named
     ‘_get_default_scheme()’ and considered an implementation detail.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: When Python runs from a virtual environment,
     the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme (key)

     Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified
     by 'key'.

     'key' must be either ‘"prefix"’, ‘"home"’, or ‘"user"’.

     The return value is a scheme name listed in *note
     get_scheme_names(): 43ce.  It can be passed to *note sysconfig: db.
     functions that take a 'scheme' argument, such as *note get_paths():
     1234.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: When Python runs from a virtual environment and
     ‘key="prefix"’, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- 함수: sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes ()

     Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current
     platform.  Python implementers and redistributors may add their
     preferred schemes to the ‘_INSTALL_SCHEMES’ module-level global
     value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to
     e.g.  provide different schemes for system and language package
     managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with
     those by the other.

     End users should not use this function, but *note
     get_default_scheme(): 182a. and *note get_preferred_scheme(): 68a.
     instead.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_path_names ()

     현재 *note sysconfig: db. 에서 지원되는 모든 경로명을 포함하는 튜플
     을 돌려줍니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_path (name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     'scheme' 이라는 설치 스킴에서, 경로 'name' 에 해당하는 설치 경로를
     돌려줍니다.

     'name' 은 *note get_path_names(): 43d0. 가 돌려주는 리스트에 있는 값
     이어야 합니다.

     *note sysconfig: db. 는 각 경로명에 해당하는 설치 경로를 플랫폼별로
     확장할 변수와 함께 저장합니다.  예를 들어, 'nt' 스킴의 'stdlib' 경
     로는 ‘{base}/Lib’ 입니다.

     *note get_path(): 131e. 는 *note get_config_vars(): 1022. 에 의해 반
     환된 변수를 사용하여 경로를 확장합니다.  모든 변수는 각 플랫폼에 대
     한 기본값을 가지므로 이 함수를 호출하고 기본값을 가져올 수 있습니다
     .

     'scheme' 이 제공되면, 그것은 *note get_scheme_names(): 43ce. 에 의
     해 반환된 리스트에 있는 값이어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 현재 플랫
     폼의 기본 스킴이 사용됩니다.

     'vars' 가 제공되면, *note get_config_vars(): 1022. 에 의해 반환된 딕
     셔너리를 갱신할 변수의 딕셔너리여야 합니다.

     'expand' 가 ‘False’ 로 설정되면, 경로는 변수를 사용하여 확장되지 않
     습니다.

     'name' 을 찾지 못하면, *note KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_paths ([scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     설치 스킴에 해당하는 모든 설치 경로를 포함하는 딕셔너리를 돌려줍니
     다.  자세한 정보는 *note get_path(): 131e. 를 보십시오.

     'scheme' 을 제공하지 않으면, 현재 플랫폼에 대한 기본 스킴을 사용합
     니다.

     'vars' 가 제공되면, 경로를 확장하는 데 사용되는 딕셔너리를 갱신하는
     변수의 딕셔너리여야 합니다.

     'expand' 를 거짓으로 설정하면 경로가 확장되지 않습니다.

     'scheme' 이 존재하는 스킴이 아니면, *note get_paths(): 1234. 는
     *note KeyError: 33d. 를 발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 함수<3>,  Next: Command-line usage<3>,  Prev: 설치 경로 함수,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.13 기타 함수
...................

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_python_version ()

     ‘MAJOR.MINOR’ 파이썬 버전 번호를 문자열로 반환합니다.  ‘'%d.%d' %
     sys.version_info[:2]’ 와 유사합니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_platform ()

     현재의 플랫폼을 식별하는 문자열을 돌려줍니다.

     이는 주로 플랫폼별 빌드 디렉터리와 플랫폼별로 빌드 된 배포판을 구별
     하기 위해 사용됩니다.  포함된 정확한 정보는 OS에 따라 다르지만, 일
     반적으로 OS 이름과 버전 및 아키텍처를 포함합니다 (*note os.uname():
     1107. 에서 제공됩니다); 예를 들어, 리눅스에서 커널 버전은 특별히 중
     요하지 않습니다.

     반환 값의 예:

        - linux-i586

        - linux-alpha (?)

        - solaris-2.6-sun4u

     윈도우는 다음 중 하나를 반환합니다:

        - win-amd64 (AMD64의 64비트 윈도우, 일명 x86_64, Intel64, EM64T
          등)

        - win-arm64 (ARM64의 64비트 윈도우, 일명 AArch64)

        - win32 (기타 모든 것 - 구체적으로, sys.platform이 반환됩니다)

     맥 OS는 다음을 반환 할 수 있습니다:

        - macosx-10.6-ppc

        - macosx-10.4-ppc64

        - macosx-10.3-i386

        - macosx-10.4-fat

     다른 포직스 이외의 플랫폼의 경우, 현재는 *note sys.platform: a8a. 만
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.is_python_build ()

     실행 중인 파이썬 인터프리터가 소스에서 빌드되어 빌드 된 위치에서 실
     행되고, ‘make install’ 을 실행하거나 바이너리 설치 프로그램을 통해
     설치 한 결과가 아닌 위치에서 실행되는 것이 아니라면 ‘True’ 를 반환
     합니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.parse_config_h (fp[, vars])

     ‘config.h’-스타일 파일을 해석합니다.

     'fp' 는 ‘config.h’-류 파일을 가리키는 파일류 객체입니다.

     이름/값 쌍을 포함하는 딕셔너리가 반환됩니다.  선택적 딕셔너리가 두
     번째 인자로 전달되면, 새 사전 대신 사용되며 파일에서 읽은 값으로 갱
     신됩니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_config_h_filename ()

     ‘pyconfig.h’ 의 경로를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: sysconfig.get_makefile_filename ()

     ‘Makefile’ 의 경로를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<3>,  Prev: 기타 함수<3>,  Up: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기

5.29.3.14 Command-line usage
............................

*note sysconfig: db. 를 파이썬의 '-m' 옵션으로 스크립트로 사용할 수 있습
니다:

     $ python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"

     Paths:
             data = "/usr/local"
             include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
             platinclude = "."
             platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
             purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
             stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"

     Variables:
             AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
             AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
             AR = "ar"
             ARFLAGS = "rc"
             ...

이 호출은 *note get_platform(): 1232, *note get_python_version(): 1233,
*note get_path(): 131e. 및 *note get_config_vars(): 1022. 에 의해 반환된
정보를 표준 출력에 인쇄합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: builtins — 내장 객체,  Next: __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경,  Prev: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.4 ‘builtins’ — 내장 객체
-----------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬의 모든 ‘내장’ 식별자에 대한 직접 액세스를 제공합니다.  예
를 들어, ‘builtins.open’ 은 내장 함수 *note open(): 515. 의 완전한 이름
입니다.

이 모듈은 일반적으로 대부분의 응용 프로그램에서 명시적으로 액세스하지 않
지만, 내장된 값과 이름이 같은 객체를 제공하면서도 그 이름의 내장 객체가
필요한 모듈에서 유용 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 내장 *note open(): 515.
을 감싸는 *note open(): 515. 함수를 구현하고자 하는 모듈에서 이 모듈을 직
접 사용할 수 있습니다:

     import builtins

     def open(path):
         f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
         return UpperCaser(f)

     class UpperCaser:
         '''출력을 대문자로 변환하도록 파일을 감싸는 래퍼.'''

         def __init__(self, f):
             self._f = f

         def read(self, count=-1):
             return self._f.read(count).upper()

         # ...

구현 세부 사항으로, 대부분 모듈은 전역 변수로 ‘__builtins__’ 라는 이름을
가지고 있습니다.  ‘__builtins__’ 의 값은, 보통 이 모듈이거나 모듈의
*note __dict__: 556. 어트리뷰트의 값입니다.  이것은 구현 세부 사항이므로
, 파이썬의 대안 구현에서는 사용되지 않을 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

   * *note 내장 상수: 218c.

   * *note 내장 예외: 188a.

   * *note 내장 함수: 124d.

   * *note 내장형: 2196.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경,  Next: warnings — 경고 제어,  Prev: builtins — 내장 객체,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.5 ‘__main__’ — 최상위 코드 환경
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

In Python, the special name ‘__main__’ is used for two important
constructs:

  1. the name of the top-level environment of the program, which can be
     checked using the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ expression; and

  2. the ‘__main__.py’ file in Python packages.

Both of these mechanisms are related to Python modules; how users
interact with them and how they interact with each other.  They are
explained in detail below.  If you’re new to Python modules, see the
tutorial section *note 모듈: 1c5e. for an introduction.

* Menu:

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages.
* import __main__::


File: python.info,  Node: __name__ == '__main__',  Next: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Up: __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경

5.29.5.1 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
.................................

When a Python module or package is imported, ‘__name__’ is set to the
module’s name.  Usually, this is the name of the Python file itself
without the ‘.py’ extension:

     >>> import configparser
     >>> configparser.__name__
     'configparser'

If the file is part of a package, ‘__name__’ will also include the
parent package’s path:

     >>> from concurrent.futures import process
     >>> process.__name__
     'concurrent.futures.process'

However, if the module is executed in the top-level code environment,
its ‘__name__’ is set to the string ‘'__main__'’.

* Menu:

* “최상위 코드 환경” 이란 무엇인가요?::
* Idiomatic Usage::
* Packaging Considerations::


File: python.info,  Node: “최상위 코드 환경” 이란 무엇인가요?,  Next: Idiomatic Usage,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.2 “최상위 코드 환경” 이란 무엇인가요?
............................................

‘__main__’ is the name of the environment where top-level code is run.
“Top-level code” is the first user-specified Python module that starts
running.  It’s “top-level” because it imports all other modules that the
program needs.  Sometimes “top-level code” is called an 'entry point' to
the application.

The top-level code environment can be:

   * the scope of an interactive prompt:

          >>> __name__
          '__main__'

   * the Python module passed to the Python interpreter as a file
     argument:

          $ python helloworld.py
          Hello, world!

   * the Python module or package passed to the Python interpreter with
     the *note -m: 5db. argument:

          $ python -m tarfile
          usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...)

   * Python code read by the Python interpreter from standard input:

          $ echo "import this" | python
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

   * Python code passed to the Python interpreter with the *note -c:
     5da. argument:

          $ python -c "import this"
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

In each of these situations, the top-level module’s ‘__name__’ is set to
‘'__main__'’.

결과적으로, 모듈은 자신의 ‘__name__’ 을 검사하여 최상위 환경에서 실행 중
인지를 확인할 수 있습니다.  이 때문에 모듈이 임포트 문에서 초기화되지 않
을 때 조건부로 코드를 실행하는 공통 관용구를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # 모듈이 임포트 문에서 초기화되지 않을 때 실행합니다.
         ...

더 보기
.......

For a more detailed look at how ‘__name__’ is set in all situations, see
the tutorial section *note 모듈: 1c5e.


File: python.info,  Node: Idiomatic Usage,  Next: Packaging Considerations,  Prev: “최상위 코드 환경” 이란 무엇인가요?,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.3 Idiomatic Usage
........................

Some modules contain code that is intended for script use only, like
parsing command-line arguments or fetching data from standard input.  If
a module like this was imported from a different module, for example to
unit test it, the script code would unintentionally execute as well.

This is where using the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ code block comes in
handy.  Code within this block won’t run unless the module is executed
in the top-level environment.

Putting as few statements as possible in the block below ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ can improve code clarity and correctness.  Most often, a
function named ‘main’ encapsulates the program’s primary behavior:

     # echo.py

     import shlex
     import sys

     def echo(phrase: str) -> None:
        """print 를 둘러싼 더미 래퍼."""
        # 시연의 목적으로, 이 함수 안에 쓸모있고 재사용할 수 있는
        #  로직이 있다고 상상할 수 있습니다
        print(phrase)

     def main() -> int:
         """입력 인자를 표준 출력으로 에코합니다"""
         phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv)
         echo(phrase)
         return 0

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())  # 다음 절에서 sys.exit 의 사용에 대해 설명합니다

Note that if the module didn’t encapsulate code inside the ‘main’
function but instead put it directly within the ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ block, the ‘phrase’ variable would be global to the entire
module.  This is error-prone as other functions within the module could
be unintentionally using the global variable instead of a local name.  A
‘main’ function solves this problem.

Using a ‘main’ function has the added benefit of the ‘echo’ function
itself being isolated and importable elsewhere.  When ‘echo.py’ is
imported, the ‘echo’ and ‘main’ functions will be defined, but neither
of them will be called, because ‘__name__ != '__main__'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Packaging Considerations,  Prev: Idiomatic Usage,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.4 Packaging Considerations
.................................

‘main’ functions are often used to create command-line tools by
specifying them as entry points for console scripts.  When this is done,
pip(1) inserts the function call into a template script, where the
return value of ‘main’ is passed into *note sys.exit(): 1339.  For
example:

     sys.exit(main())

Since the call to ‘main’ is wrapped in *note sys.exit(): 1339, the
expectation is that your function will return some value acceptable as
an input to *note sys.exit(): 1339.; typically, an integer or ‘None’
(which is implicitly returned if your function does not have a return
statement).

By proactively following this convention ourselves, our module will have
the same behavior when run directly (i.e.  ‘python echo.py’) as it will
have if we later package it as a console script entry-point in a
pip-installable package.

In particular, be careful about returning strings from your ‘main’
function.  *note sys.exit(): 1339. will interpret a string argument as a
failure message, so your program will have an exit code of ‘1’,
indicating failure, and the string will be written to *note sys.stderr:
937.  The ‘echo.py’ example from earlier exemplifies using the
‘sys.exit(main())’ convention.

더 보기
.......

Python Packaging User Guide(2) contains a collection of tutorials and
references on how to distribute and install Python packages with modern
tools.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pip.pypa.io/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Next: import __main__,  Prev: __name__ == '__main__',  Up: __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경

5.29.5.5 ‘__main__.py’ in Python Packages
.........................................

If you are not familiar with Python packages, see section *note 패키지:
1c6f. of the tutorial.  Most commonly, the ‘__main__.py’ file is used to
provide a command-line interface for a package.  Consider the following
hypothetical package, “bandclass”:

     bandclass
       ├── __init__.py
       ├── __main__.py
       └── student.py

‘__main__.py’ will be executed when the package itself is invoked
directly from the command line using the *note -m: 5db. flag.  For
example:

     $ python -m bandclass

This command will cause ‘__main__.py’ to run.  How you utilize this
mechanism will depend on the nature of the package you are writing, but
in this hypothetical case, it might make sense to allow the teacher to
search for students:

     # bandclass/__main__.py

     import sys
     from .student import search_students

     student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else ''
     print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}')

Note that ‘from .student import search_students’ is an example of a
relative import.  This import style can be used when referencing modules
within a package.  For more details, see *note 패키지 내부 간의 참조:
1c74. in the *note 모듈: 1c5e. section of the tutorial.

* Menu:

* Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>,  Up: __main__ py in Python Packages

5.29.5.6 Idiomatic Usage
........................

The content of ‘__main__.py’ typically isn’t fenced with an ‘if __name__
== '__main__'’ block.  Instead, those files are kept short and import
functions to execute from other modules.  Those other modules can then
be easily unit-tested and are properly reusable.

If used, an ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block will still work as
expected for a ‘__main__.py’ file within a package, because its
‘__name__’ attribute will include the package’s path if imported:

     >>> import asyncio.__main__
     >>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
     'asyncio.__main__'

This won’t work for ‘__main__.py’ files in the root directory of a
‘.zip’ file though.  Hence, for consistency, a minimal ‘__main__.py’
without a ‘__name__’ check is preferred.

더 보기
.......

See *note venv: 111. for an example of a package with a minimal
‘__main__.py’ in the standard library.  It doesn’t contain a ‘if
__name__ == '__main__'’ block.  You can invoke it with ‘python -m venv
[directory]’.

See *note runpy: be. for more details on the *note -m: 5db. flag to the
interpreter executable.

See *note zipapp: 130. for how to run applications packaged as '.zip'
files.  In this case Python looks for a ‘__main__.py’ file in the root
directory of the archive.


File: python.info,  Node: import __main__,  Prev: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Up: __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경

5.29.5.7 ‘import __main__’
..........................

Regardless of which module a Python program was started with, other
modules running within that same program can import the top-level
environment’s scope (*note namespace: 1c5f.) by importing the ‘__main__’
module.  This doesn’t import a ‘__main__.py’ file but rather whichever
module that received the special name ‘'__main__'’.

Here is an example module that consumes the ‘__main__’ namespace:

     # namely.py

     import __main__

     def did_user_define_their_name():
         return 'my_name' in dir(__main__)

     def print_user_name():
         if not did_user_define_their_name():
             raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!')

         if '__file__' in dir(__main__):
             print(__main__.my_name, "found in file", __main__.__file__)
         else:
             print(__main__.my_name)

Example usage of this module could be as follows:

     # start.py

     import sys

     from namely import print_user_name

     # my_name = "Dinsdale"

     def main():
         try:
             print_user_name()
         except ValueError as ve:
             return str(ve)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         sys.exit(main())

Now, if we started our program, the result would look like this:

     $ python start.py
     Define the variable `my_name`!

The exit code of the program would be 1, indicating an error.
Uncommenting the line with ‘my_name = "Dinsdale"’ fixes the program and
now it exits with status code 0, indicating success:

     $ python start.py
     Dinsdale found in file /path/to/start.py

Note that importing ‘__main__’ doesn’t cause any issues with
unintentionally running top-level code meant for script use which is put
in the ‘if __name__ == "__main__"’ block of the ‘start’ module.  Why
does this work?

Python inserts an empty ‘__main__’ module in *note sys.modules: 1558. at
interpreter startup, and populates it by running top-level code.  In our
example this is the ‘start’ module which runs line by line and imports
‘namely’.  In turn, ‘namely’ imports ‘__main__’ (which is really
‘start’).  That’s an import cycle!  Fortunately, since the partially
populated ‘__main__’ module is present in *note sys.modules: 1558,
Python passes that to ‘namely’.  See *note Special considerations for
__main__: 2013. in the import system’s reference for details on how this
works.

The Python REPL is another example of a “top-level environment”, so
anything defined in the REPL becomes part of the ‘__main__’ scope:

     >>> import namely
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     False
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`!
     >>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky'
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     True
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Jabberwocky

Note that in this case the ‘__main__’ scope doesn’t contain a ‘__file__’
attribute as it’s interactive.

The ‘__main__’ scope is used in the implementation of *note pdb: a5. and
*note rlcompleter: bd.


File: python.info,  Node: warnings — 경고 제어,  Next: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스,  Prev: __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.6 ‘warnings’ — 경고 제어
-----------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/warnings.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

경고 메시지는 일반적으로 프로그램에서 사용자에게 (일반적으로) 예외를 발
생시키거나 프로그램을 종료하는 것을 보증하지 않는 특정 조건에 대해 경고
하는 것이 유용한 상황 상황에서 발행됩니다.  예를 들어, 프로그램이 더는 사
용되지 않는 모듈을 사용할 때 경고를 발행하려고 할 수 있습니다.

파이썬 프로그래머는 이 모듈에 정의된 *note warn(): 14e1. 함수를 호출하여
경고를 발행합니다.  (C 프로그래머는 *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1413.를 사용합
니다; 자세한 내용은 *note 예외 처리: 43e6.를 참조하십시오).

경고 메시지는 일반적으로 *note sys.stderr: 937.에 기록되지만, 모든 경고
를 무시하는 것에서 예외로 변경하는 것에 이르기까지 배치를 유연하게 변경
할 수 있습니다.  경고의 처리는 *note 경고 범주: 22ba, 경고 메시지의 텍스
트 및 발행된 소스 위치에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다.  같은 소스 위치에 대한
특정 경고의 반복은 일반적으로 억제됩니다.

경고 제어에는 두 가지 단계가 있습니다; 첫째, 경고가 발행될 때마다, 메시
지를 발행할지를 결정합니다; 다음으로, 메시지가 발행된다면, 사용자 설정 가
능한 훅을 사용하여 포맷되고 인쇄됩니다.

경고 메시지를 발행할지는 *note 경고 필터: 8c6.에 의해 제어되며, 이는 일
치 규칙과 조치의 시퀀스입니다.  *note filterwarnings(): 146f.를 호출하여
규칙을 필터에 추가하고 *note resetwarnings(): 43e7.를 호출하여 기본 상태
로 재설정할 수 있습니다.

경고 메시지의 인쇄는 *note showwarning(): 43e8.을 호출하여 수행되며, 이
는 재정의될 수 있습니다; 이 함수의 기본 구현은 *note formatwarning():
1a1c.을 호출하여 메시지를 포맷하며, 사용자 정의 구현에서도 사용할 수 있
습니다.

더 보기
.......

*note logging.captureWarnings(): 2cbf.를 사용하면 표준 로깅 인프라로 모
든 경고를 처리할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 경고 범주::
* 경고 필터::
* 일시적인 경고 억제::
* 경고 테스트::
* 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신::
* 사용 가능한 함수::
* 사용 가능한 컨텍스트 관리자::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/warnings.py


File: python.info,  Node: 경고 범주,  Next: 경고 필터,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.1 경고 범주
..................

경고 범주를 나타내는 여러 가지 내장 예외가 있습니다.  이 범주화는 경고 그
룹을 필터링하는 데 유용합니다.

이들은 기술적으로 *note 내장 예외: 22b8.이지만, 개념적으로 경고 메커니즘
에 속하기 때문에 여기에서 설명합니다.

사용자 코드는 표준 경고 범주 중 하나를 서브 클래싱 하여 추가 경고 범주를
정의할 수 있습니다.  경고 범주는 항상 *note Warning: 22bb. 클래스의 서브
클래스여야 합니다.

다음과 같은 경고 범주 클래스가 현재 정의되어 있습니다:

클래스                                 설명
                                       
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
*note Warning: 22bb.                   이것은 모든 경고 범주 클래스의 베이스 클래스입니
                                       다.  *note Exception: 9d6.의 서브 클래스입니다.
                                       
                                       
*note UserWarning: 22bc.               *note warn(): 14e1.의 기본 범주.
                                       
                                       
*note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.         폐지된 기능에 대한 경고의 베이스 범주, 경고가 다
                                       른 파이썬 개발자를 대상으로 할 때 (‘__main__’에 있
                                       는 코드로 트리거 되지 않는 한 기본적으로 무시됩니
                                       다).
                                       
                                       
*note SyntaxWarning: 45f.              Base category for warnings about dubious
                                       syntactic features (typically emitted when
                                       compiling Python source code, and hence may not
                                       be suppressed by runtime filters)
                                       
                                       
*note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.             모호한 런타임 기능에 대한 경고의 베이스 범주.
                                       
                                       
*note FutureWarning: 40f.              폐지된 기능에 대한 경고의 베이스 범주, 경고가 파
                                       이썬으로 작성된 응용 프로그램의 최종 사용자를 대
                                       상으로 할 때.
                                       
                                       
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5.  향후 폐지될 기능에 대한 경고의 베이스 범주 (기본
                                       적으로 무시됩니다).
                                       
                                       
*note ImportWarning: 4f4.              모듈을 임포트 하는 과정에서 트리거 되는 경고의 베
                                       이스 범주 (기본적으로 무시됩니다).
                                       
                                       
*note UnicodeWarning: 13ec.            유니코드와 관련된 경고의 베이스 범주.
                                       
                                       
*note BytesWarning: c20.               *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytearray: 538.와 관련
                                       된 경고의 베이스 범주.
                                       
                                       
*note ResourceWarning: 244.            자원 사용과 관련된 경고의 베이스 범주 (기본적으로
                                       무시됩니다).
                                       

버전 3.7에서 변경: 이전에는 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.과 *note
FutureWarning: 40f.은 기능이 완전히 제거되었는지 또는 동작을 변경하는지
에 따라 구별되었습니다.  이제 의도한 대상과 기본 경고 필터에서 처리하는
방식에 따라 구별됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 경고 필터,  Next: 일시적인 경고 억제,  Prev: 경고 범주,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.2 경고 필터
..................

경고 필터는 경고를 무시, 표시 또는 에러로 전환(예외 발생)할지를 제어합니
다.

개념적으로, 경고 필터는 필터 명세의 순서 있는 목록을 유지합니다; 일치가
발견될 때까지 목록의 각 필터 명세에 대해 특정 경고를 일치시킵니다; 필터
는 일치의 처리를 결정합니다.  각 항목은 ('action', 'message',
'category', 'module', 'lineno') 형식의 튜플입니다, 여기서:

   * 'action'은 다음 문자열 중 하나입니다:

     값                  처리
                         
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
     ‘"default"’         경고가 발행된 각 위치(모듈 + 줄 번호)에 대해 일
                         치하는 경고의 첫 번째 발생을 인쇄합니다
                         
                         
     ‘"error"’           일치하는 경고를 예외로 바꿉니다
                         
                         
     ‘"ignore"’          일치하는 경고를 인쇄하지 않습니다
                         
                         
     ‘"always"’          일치하는 경고를 항상 인쇄합니다
                         
                         
     ‘"module"’          경고가 발행된 모듈마다 (줄 번호와 관계없이) 일치
                         하는 경고의 첫 번째 발생을 인쇄합니다
                         
                         
     ‘"once"’            위치와 관계없이 일치하는 경고의 첫 번째 발생만 인
                         쇄합니다
                         

   * 'message'는 경고 메시지의 시작 부분이 대소문자를 구분 없이 일치해야
     하는 정규식을 포함하는 문자열입니다.  *note -W: 8c4.와 *note
     PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7.에서, 'message'는 경고 메시지의 시작 부분에 (대
     소문자 구분 없이) 포함되어야 하는 리터럴 문자열로, 'message'의 시작
     이나 끝에 있는 공백은 무시합니다.

   * 'category'는 클래스(*note Warning: 22bb.의 서브 클래스)이며, 일치하
     는 경고 범주는 이것의 서브 클래스여야 합니다.

   * 'module'은 완전히 정규화된 모듈 이름의 시작 부분이 대소문자를 구분
     하여 일치해야 하는 정규식을 포함하는 문자열입니다.  *note -W: 8c4.와
     *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7.에서, 'module'은 완전히 정규화된 모듈 이
     름과 (대소문자 구분하여) 같아야 하는 리터럴 문자열로, 'module'의 시
     작이나 끝에 있는 공백은 무시합니다.

   * 'lineno'는 경고가 발생한 줄 번호가 일치해야 하는 정수이거나, 모든 줄
     번호와 일치하려면 ‘0’입니다.

*note Warning: 22bb. 클래스는 내장 *note Exception: 9d6. 클래스에서 파생
되므로, 경고를 에러로 바꾸려면 단순히 ‘category(message)’를 raise 합니다
.

경고가 보고되고 등록된 필터와 일치하지 않으면 “default” 조치가 적용됩니
다 (그래서 그런 이름을 갖고 있습니다).

* Menu:

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* 경고 필터 설명::
* 기본 경고 필터::
* 기본 필터 재정의::


File: python.info,  Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Next: 경고 필터 설명,  Up: 경고 필터

5.29.6.3 Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria
..............................................

The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria
to determine if a warning is considered a repeat:

   - ‘"default"’: A warning is considered a repeat only if the
     ('message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno') are all the same.

   - ‘"module"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category', 'module') are the same, ignoring the line number.

   - ‘"once"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category') are the same, ignoring the module and line number.


File: python.info,  Node: 경고 필터 설명,  Next: 기본 경고 필터,  Prev: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Up: 경고 필터

5.29.6.4 경고 필터 설명
.......................

경고 필터는 파이썬 인터프리터 명령 줄로 전달된 *note -W: 8c4. 옵션과
*note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7. 환경 변수로 초기화됩니다.  인터프리터는 *note
sys.warnoptions: 3aa.에서 제공된 모든 항목에 대한 인자를 해석하지 않고 저
장합니다; *note warnings: 112. 모듈은 처음 임포트 될 때 이를 구문 분석합
니다 (유효하지 않은 옵션은 메시지를 *note sys.stderr: 937.에 인쇄한 후 무
시됩니다).

개별 경고 필터는 콜론으로 구분된 필드의 시퀀스로 지정됩니다:

     action:message:category:module:line

이러한 각 필드의 의미는 *note 경고 필터: 8c6.에 설명된 대로입니다.  한 줄
에 여러 필터를 나열할 때 ( *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7.와 같이), 개별 필터
는 쉼표로 구분되고 나중에 나열된 필터가 그 앞에 나열된 필터보다 우선합니
다 (왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 적용되고, 가장 최근에 적용된 필터가 앞서 나온 필
터에 우선하기 때문입니다).

일반적으로 사용되는 경고 필터는 모든 경고, 특정 범주의 경고 또는 특정 모
듈이나 패키지에서 발생하는 경고에 적용됩니다.  몇 가지 예:

     default                      # 모든 경고를 표시합니다 (설사 기본적으로 무시되더라도)
     ignore                       # 모든 경고를 무시합니다
     error                        # 모든 경고를 에러로 변환합니다
     error::ResourceWarning       # ResourceWarning 메시지를 에러로 취급합니다
     default::DeprecationWarning  # DeprecationWarning 메시지를 표시합니다
     ignore,default:::mymodule    # "mymodule"이 트리거 한 경고만 보고합니다
     error:::mymodule             # "mymodule"에서 경고를 에러로 변환합니다


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 경고 필터,  Next: 기본 필터 재정의,  Prev: 경고 필터 설명,  Up: 경고 필터

5.29.6.5 기본 경고 필터
.......................

기본적으로, 파이썬은 *note -W: 8c4. 명령 줄 옵션, *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
ba7. 환경 변수 및 *note filterwarnings(): 146f. 호출로 재정의할 수 있는
몇 가지 경고 필터를 설치합니다.

정규 릴리스 빌드에서, 기본 경고 필터에는 다음과 같은 항목이 있습니다 (우
선순위 순서로):

     default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
     ignore::DeprecationWarning
     ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
     ignore::ImportWarning
     ignore::ResourceWarning

*note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.에서, 기본 경고 필터 목록은 비어 있습니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.은 이제 *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5. 에 더해 기본적으로 무시됩니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.은 ‘__main__’의 코드에
의해 직접 트리거 될 때 기본적으로 다시 한번 표시됩니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note BytesWarning: c20.은 더는 기본 필터 목록에 나타
나지 않으며 대신 *note -b: 5dd.가 두 번 지정되면 *note sys.warnoptions:
3aa.를 통해 구성됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 필터 재정의,  Prev: 기본 경고 필터,  Up: 경고 필터

5.29.6.6 기본 필터 재정의
.........................

파이썬으로 작성된 응용 프로그램 개발자는 기본적으로 사용자에게 '모든' 파
이썬 수준 경고를 숨기고, 테스트를 실행하거나 달리 응용 프로그램에 대해 작
업할 때만 표시하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  필터 구성을 인터프리터에 전달하는
데 사용되는 *note sys.warnoptions: 3aa. 어트리뷰트는 경고를 비활성화해야
하는지를 나타내는 마커로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")

파이썬 코드용 테스트 실행기 개발자는 대신 다음과 같은 코드를 사용하여 테
스트 대상 코드에 대해 기본적으로 '모든' 경고가 표시되도록 하는 것이 좋습
니다:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import os, warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("default") # 이 프로세스의 필터를 변경합니다
         os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # 서브 프로세스에도 영향을 줍니다

마지막으로, ‘__main__’ 이외의 이름 공간에서 사용자 코드를 실행하는 대화
식 셸 개발자는 다음과 같은 코드를 사용하여 *note DeprecationWarning:
1a5. 메시지가 기본적으로 표시되도록 하는 것이 좋습니다 (여기서
‘user_ns’는 대화식으로 입력된 코드를 실행하는 데 사용되는 모듈입니다):

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
                                        module=user_ns.get("__name__"))


File: python.info,  Node: 일시적인 경고 억제,  Next: 경고 테스트,  Prev: 경고 필터,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.7 일시적인 경고 억제
...........................

폐지된 함수처럼, 경고를 발생시킬 것을 알고 있는 코드를 사용하고 있지만,
경고를 보고 싶지 않으면 (명령 줄을 통해 경고가 명시적으로 구성된 경우조
차), *note catch_warnings: 57f. 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용하여 경고를 억제할
수 있습니다:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings():
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
         fxn()

컨텍스트 관리자 내에서 모든 경고는 무시됩니다.  이를 통해 폐지된 코드 사
용을 인식하지 못하는 다른 코드에 대한 경고를 억제하지 않으면서도 경고를
보는 일 없이 알려진 폐지된 코드를 사용할 수 있습니다.  참고: 이것은 단일
스레드 응용 프로그램에서만 보장될 수 있습니다.  둘 이상의 스레드가 *note
catch_warnings: 57f. 컨텍스트 관리자를 동시에 사용하면, 동작이 정의되지
않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 경고 테스트,  Next: 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신,  Prev: 일시적인 경고 억제,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.8 경고 테스트
....................

코드가 발생시키는 경고를 테스트하려면, *note catch_warnings: 57f. 컨텍스
트 관리자를 사용하십시오.  이를 통해 쉽게 테스트할 수 있도록 경고 필터를
일시적으로 변경할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 검사할 모든 경고를 캡처하려면
다음을 수행하십시오:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
         # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
         warnings.simplefilter("always")
         # Trigger a warning.
         fxn()
         # Verify some things
         assert len(w) == 1
         assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
         assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)

‘always’ 대신 ‘error’를 사용하여 모든 경고를 예외로 만들 수도 있습니다.
한 가지 알아야 할 것은 ‘once’ / ‘default’ 규칙으로 인해 경고가 이미 발생
했으면, 어떤 필터가 설정되어 있더라도 경고와 관련된 경고 레지스트리가 지
워지지 않으면 경고가 다시 표시되지 않는다는 것입니다.

일단 컨텍스트 관리자가 종료되면, 경고 필터가 컨텍스트에 진입했을 때의 상
태로 복원됩니다.  이것은 테스트 간에 경고 필터가 예기치 않은 방식으로 변
경되어 테스트 결과가 불확실해지는 것을 방지합니다.  모듈의 *note
showwarning(): 43e8. 함수도 원래 값으로 복원됩니다.  참고: 이것은 단일 스
레드 응용 프로그램에서만 보장될 수 있습니다.  둘 이상의 스레드가 *note
catch_warnings: 57f. 컨텍스트 관리자를 동시에 사용하면, 동작이 정의되지
않습니다.

같은 종류의 경고를 발생시키는 여러 작업을 테스트할 때, 각 작업이 새로운
경고를 발생시키는지 확인하는 방식으로 테스트하는 것이 중요합니다 (예를 들
어 경고가 예외를 발생시키도록 설정하고 작업이 예외를 일으키는지 확인합니
다, 각 작업 후에 경고 목록의 길이가 계속 증가하는지 확인합니다, 또는 각
새 작업 전에 경고 목록에서 이전 항목을 삭제합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신,  Next: 사용 가능한 함수,  Prev: 경고 테스트,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.9 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신
..........................................

(파이썬으로 작성된 응용 프로그램의 최종 사용자가 아닌) 파이썬 개발자가 주
로 관심을 두는 경고 범주는 기본적으로 무시됩니다.

특히, 이 “기본적으로 무시됨” 목록에는 *note DeprecationWarning:
1a5.(‘__main__’을 제외한 모든 모듈에서)가 포함되어 있습니다.  이는 개발
자가 (표준 라이브러리와 제삼자 패키지 모두에서) 호환성을 깨는 향후 API 변
경에 대한 시기적절한 알림을 받기 위해 일반적으로 무시되는 경고를 가시화
해서 코드를 테스트해야 한다는 것을 의미합니다.

이상적인 경우, 코드에 적절한 테스트 스위트가 있고, 테스트 실행기는 테스
트를 실행할 때 모든 경고를 묵시적으로 활성화합니다 (*note unittest: 106.
모듈에서 제공하는 테스트 실행기가 이렇게 합니다).

덜 이상적인 경우, *note -Wd: 8c4. 를 파이썬 인터프리터에 전달하거나 (‘-W
default’의 줄임 표현입니다), 환경에 ‘PYTHONWARNINGS=default’를 설정하여
응용프로그램이 폐지된 인터페이스를 사용하는지를 확인할 수 있습니다.  이
를 통해 기본적으로 무시되는 경고를 포함한 모든 경고에 대한 default 처리
가 가능합니다.  발생한 경고에 대해 수행할 조치를 변경하려면 *note -W:
8c4.로 전달되는 인자를 변경할 수 있습니다 (예를 들어 ‘-W error’).  어떤
것이 가능한지에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note -W: 8c4. 플래그를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 가능한 함수,  Next: 사용 가능한 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.10 사용 가능한 함수
..........................

 -- 함수: warnings.warn (message, category=None, stacklevel=1,
          source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())

     경고를 발행하거나, 무시하거나 예외를 발생시킵니다.  주어지면
     'category' 인자는 *note 경고 범주 클래스: 22ba.여야 합니다; 기본값
     은 *note UserWarning: 22bc.입니다.  또는, 'message'가 *note
     Warning: 22bb. 인스턴스일 수 있으며, 이 경우 'category'는 무시되고
     ‘message.__class__’가 사용됩니다.  이 경우, 메시지 텍스트는
     ‘str(message)’입니다.  이 함수는 발행된 특정 경고가 *note 경고
     필터: 8c6.에 의해 에러로 변경되면 예외를 발생시킵니다.
     'stacklevel' 인자는 다음과 같이 파이썬으로 작성된 래퍼 함수에서 사
     용할 수 있습니다:

          def deprecated_api(message):
              warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)

     이것은 경고가 ‘deprecated_api’ 자체의 소스가 아닌 ‘deprecated_api’의
     호출자를 참조하게 합니다 (전자는 경고 메시지의 목적을 무효로 하기 때
     문입니다).

     The 'skip_file_prefixes' keyword argument can be used to indicate
     which stack frames are ignored when counting stack levels.  This
     can be useful when you want the warning to always appear at call
     sites outside of a package when a constant 'stacklevel' does not
     fit all call paths or is otherwise challenging to maintain.  If
     supplied, it must be a tuple of strings.  When prefixes are
     supplied, stacklevel is implicitly overridden to be ‘max(2,
     stacklevel)’.  To cause a warning to be attributed to the caller
     from outside of the current package you might write:

          # example/lower.py
          _warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),)

          def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None):
              if r_luxury_yacht:
                  warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.",
                                skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips)

          # example/higher.py
          from . import lower

          def another_way(**kw):
              lower.one_way(**kw)

     This makes the warning refer to both the ‘example.lower.one_way()’
     and ‘example.higher.another_way()’ call sites only from calling
     code living outside of ‘example’ package.

     제공되면, 'source'는 *note ResourceWarning: 244.을 방출한 파괴된 객
     체입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'source' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added 'skip_file_prefixes'.

 -- 함수: warnings.warn_explicit (message, category, filename, lineno,
          module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None)

     이것은 *note warn(): 14e1.의 기능에 대한 저수준 인터페이스로서, 메
     시지, 범주, 파일명 및 줄 번호, 그리고 선택적으로 모듈 이름과 레지스
     트리(모듈의 ‘__warningregistry__’ 딕셔너리이어야 합니다)를 명시적으
     로 전달합니다.  모듈 이름의 기본값은 ‘.py’가 제거된 파일명입니다; 레
     지스트리가 전달되지 않으면, 경고는 억제되지 않습니다.  'message'는
     문자열이고 'category'는 *note Warning: 22bb.의 서브 클래스여야 하고
     , 또는 'message'가 *note Warning: 22bb. 인스턴스일 수 있는데, 이 경
     우 'category'는 무시됩니다.

     제공되면, 'module_globals'는 경고가 발행되는 코드에서 사용 중인 전
     역 이름 공간이어야 합니다.  (이 인자는 zip 파일이나 다른 파일 시스
     템이 아닌 임포트 소스에서 찾은 모듈의 소스 표시를 지원하는 데 사용
     됩니다).

     제공되면, 'source'는 *note ResourceWarning: 244.을 방출한 파괴된 객
     체입니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'source' 매개 변수를 추가합니다.

 -- 함수: warnings.showwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          file=None, line=None)

     파일에 경고를 기록합니다.  기본 구현은 ‘formatwarning(message,
     category, filename, lineno, line)’를 호출하고 결과 문자열을 'file'에
     씁니다, 'file'의 기본값은 *note sys.stderr: 937.입니다.
     ‘warnings.showwarning’에 대입하여 이 함수를 임의의 콜러블로 대체할
     수 있습니다.  'line'은 경고 메시지에 포함될 소스 코드 줄입니다;
     'line'이 제공되지 않으면, *note showwarning(): 43e8.은 'filename'과
     'lineno'로 지정된 줄을 읽으려고 시도합니다.

 -- 함수: warnings.formatwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          line=None)

     표준 방식으로 경고를 포맷합니다.  내장된 개행 문자를 포함하고 개행
     문자로 끝날 수 있는 문자열을 반환합니다.  'line'은 경고 메시지에 포
     함될 소스 코드 줄입니다; 'line'이 제공되지 않으면, *note
     formatwarning(): 1a1c.은 'filename'과 'lineno'로 지정된 줄을 읽으려
     고 시도합니다.

 -- 함수: warnings.filterwarnings (action, message='', category=Warning,
          module='', lineno=0, append=False)

     *note 경고 필터 명세: 8c6. 목록에 항목을 삽입합니다.  항목은 기본적
     으로 앞에 삽입됩니다; 'append'가 참이면, 끝에 삽입됩니다.  인자의 형
     을 확인하고, 'message'와 'module' 정규식을 컴파일한 후 경고 필터 목
     록에 튜플로 삽입합니다.  둘 다 특정 경고와 일치하면, 목록 앞쪽에 더
     가까운 항목이 목록의 뒷부분에 있는 항목보다 우선합니다.  생략된 인
     자의 기본값은 모든 것과 일치하는 값입니다.

 -- 함수: warnings.simplefilter (action, category=Warning, lineno=0,
          append=False)

     *note 경고 필터 명세: 8c6. 목록에 간단한 항목을 삽입합니다.  함수 매
     개 변수의 의미는 *note filterwarnings(): 146f.와 같지만, 범주와 줄
     번호가 일치하는 한 삽입 된 필터가 항상 모든 모듈의 메시지와 일치하
     기 때문에 정규식이 필요하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: warnings.resetwarnings ()

     경고 필터를 재설정합니다.  이는 *note -W: 8c4. 명령 줄 옵션과 *note
     simplefilter(): 6bb.에 대한 호출을 포함하여 *note filterwarnings():
     146f.에 대한 모든 이전 호출의 영향을 되돌립니다.

 -- 함수: @warnings.deprecated (msg, *, category=DeprecationWarning,
          stacklevel=1)

     Decorator to indicate that a class, function or overload is
     deprecated.

     When this decorator is applied to an object, deprecation warnings
     may be emitted at runtime when the object is used.  *note static
     type checkers: 26d. will also generate a diagnostic on usage of the
     deprecated object.

     사용법:

          from warnings import deprecated
          from typing import overload

          @deprecated("Use B instead")
          class A:
              pass

          @deprecated("Use g instead")
          def f():
              pass

          @overload
          @deprecated("int support is deprecated")
          def g(x: int) -> int: ...
          @overload
          def g(x: str) -> int: ...

     The warning specified by 'category' will be emitted at runtime on
     use of deprecated objects.  For functions, that happens on calls;
     for classes, on instantiation and on creation of subclasses.  If
     the 'category' is ‘None’, no warning is emitted at runtime.  The
     'stacklevel' determines where the warning is emitted.  If it is ‘1’
     (the default), the warning is emitted at the direct caller of the
     deprecated object; if it is higher, it is emitted further up the
     stack.  Static type checker behavior is not affected by the
     'category' and 'stacklevel' arguments.

     The deprecation message passed to the decorator is saved in the
     ‘__deprecated__’ attribute on the decorated object.  If applied to
     an overload, the decorator must be after the *note @overload: 3f9b.
     decorator for the attribute to exist on the overload as returned by
     *note typing.get_overloads(): 6a8.

     Added in version 3.13: See PEP 702(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 가능한 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 사용 가능한 함수,  Up: warnings — 경고 제어

5.29.6.11 사용 가능한 컨텍스트 관리자
.....................................

 -- 클래스: warnings.catch_warnings (*, record=False, module=None,
          action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

     경고 필터와 *note showwarning(): 43e8. 함수를 복사하고 종료 시 복원
     하는 컨텍스트 관리자.  'record' 인자가 *note False: b34.(기본값)이
     면 컨텍스트 관리자는 진입할 때 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.
     'record'가 *note True: c0a.이면, 재정의된 *note showwarning():
     43e8. 함수에 보이는 객체로 점진적으로 채워지는 리스트가 반환됩니다
     (‘sys.stdout’ 으로의 출력도 억제합니다).  리스트의 각 객체에는
     *note showwarning(): 43e8.에 대한 인자와 이름이 같은 어트리뷰트가 있
     습니다.

     'module' 인자는 필터가 보호되는 *note warnings: 112.를 임포트 할 때
     반환되는 모듈 대신 사용되는 모듈을 취합니다.  이 인자는 주로 *note
     warnings: 112. 모듈 자체를 테스트하기 위해 존재합니다.

     If the 'action' argument is not ‘None’, the remaining arguments are
     passed to *note simplefilter(): 6bb. as if it were called
     immediately on entering the context.

     See *note 경고 필터: 8c6. for the meaning of the 'category' and
     'lineno' parameters.

          참고: *note catch_warnings: 57f. 관리자는 모듈의 *note
          showwarning(): 43e8. 함수와 내부 필터 명세 목록을 교체한 다음
          나중에 복원하는 방식으로 작동합니다.  이는 컨텍스트 관리자가 전
          역 상태를 수정한다는 의미이고, 따라서 스레드 안전하지 않습니다
          .

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'action', 'category', 'lineno', and
     'append' parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스,  Next: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티,  Prev: warnings — 경고 제어,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.7 ‘dataclasses’ — 데이터 클래스
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/dataclasses.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 *note __init__(): 6aa. 나 *note __repr__(): 616. 과 같은 생성
된 *note 특수 메서드: 18b2. 를 사용자 정의 클래스에 자동으로 추가하는 데
코레이터와 함수를 제공합니다.  원래 PEP 557(2) 에 설명되어 있습니다.

생성된 메서드에서 사용할 멤버 변수는 PEP 526(3) 형 어노테이션을 사용하여
정의됩니다.  예를 들어, 이 코드는:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         """인벤토리에 있는 항목을 추적하는 클래스."""
         name: str
         unit_price: float
         quantity_on_hand: int = 0

         def total_cost(self) -> float:
             return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

다른 것 중에서도, 다음과 같은 ‘__init__()’ 를 추가합니다:

     def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
         self.name = name
         self.unit_price = unit_price
         self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

이 메서드는 클래스에 자동으로 추가됩니다: 위의 ‘InventoryItem’ 정의에서
직접 지정되지는 않았습니다.

Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Module contents::
* 초기화 후처리::
* 클래스 변수::
* 초기화 전용 변수::
* 고정 인스턴스::
* 계승::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* 기본 팩토리 함수::
* 가변 기본값::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dataclasses.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents,  Next: 초기화 후처리,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.1 Module contents
........................

 -- 함수: @dataclasses.dataclass (*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True,
          order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

     이 함수는 (아래에서 설명하는) 생성된 *note 특수 메서드: 18b2.를 클
     래스에 추가하는데 사용되는 *note 데코레이터: 72a. 입니다.

     ‘@dataclass’ 데코레이터는 클래스를 검사하여 필드를 찾습니다.  필드
     는 *note 형 어노테이션: d51.을 가진 클래스 변수로 정의됩니다.  아래
     에 설명된 두 가지 예외를 제외하고는, ‘@dataclass’ 는 변수 어노테이
     션에 지정된 형을 검사하지 않습니다.

     생성된 모든 메서드의 필드 순서는 클래스 정의에 나타나는 순서입니다.

     ‘@dataclass’ 데코레이터는 여러 “던더(dunder)” 메서드들을 클래스에 추
     가하는데, 아래에서 설명합니다.  추가할 메서드가 클래스에 이미 존재
     하면, 동작은 아래에 설명된 대로 매개변수에 따라 다릅니다.  데코레이
     터는 호출된 클래스와 같은 클래스를 반환합니다; 새 클래스가 만들어지
     지 않습니다.

     ‘@dataclass’ 가 매개변수 없는 단순한 데코레이터로 사용되면, 이 서명
     에 문서화 된 기본값들이 제공된 것처럼 행동합니다.  즉, 다음
     ‘@dataclass’ 의 세 가지 용법은 동등합니다:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass()
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
                     match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
          class C:
              ...

     ‘@dataclass’ 의 매개변수는 다음과 같습니다:

        - 'init': 참(기본값)이면, *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드가 생성됩
          니다.

          클래스가 이미 ‘__init__()’ 를 정의했으면, 이 매개변수는 무시됩
          니다.

        - 'repr': 참(기본값)이면, *note __repr__(): 616. 메서드가 생성됩
          니다.  생성된 repr 문자열은 클래스 이름과 각 필드의 이름과
          repr 을 갖습니다.  각 필드는 클래스에 정의된 순서대로 표시됩니
          다.  repr에서 제외하도록 표시된 필드는 포함되지 않습니다.  예
          를 들어: 예 :‘InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0,
          quantity_on_hand=10)’.

          클래스가 이미 ‘__repr__()’ 을 정의했으면, 이 매개변수는 무시됩
          니다.

        - 'eq': 참(기본값)이면, *note __eq__(): af7. 메서드가 생성됩니다
          .  이 메서드는 클래스를 필드의 튜플인 것처럼 순서대로 비교합니
          다.  비교되는 두 인스턴스는 같은 형이어야 합니다.

          클래스가 이미 ‘__eq__()’ 를 정의했으면, 이 매개변수는 무시됩니
          다.

        - 'order': 참이면 (기본값은 ‘False’), *note __lt__(): 128f,
          *note __le__(): 12fb, *note __gt__(): 12fc, *note __ge__():
          12fd. 메서드가 생성됩니다.  이것들은 클래스를 필드의 튜플인 것
          처럼 순서대로 비교합니다.  비교되는 두 인스턴스는 같은 형이어
          야 합니다.  'order' 가 참이고 'eq' 가 거짓이면 *note
          ValueError: 202. 가 발생합니다.

          클래스가 이미 ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’, ‘__gt__()’, ‘__ge__()’ 중
          하나를 정의하고 있다면 *note TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다.

        - 'unsafe_hash': If true, force ‘dataclasses’ to create a *note
          __hash__(): af8. method, even though it may not be safe to do
          so.  Otherwise, generate a *note __hash__(): af8. method
          according to how 'eq' and 'frozen' are set.  The default value
          is ‘False’.

          ‘__hash__()’ 는 내장 *note hash(): 5e5. 에 의해 사용되며, 딕셔
          너리와 집합 같은 해시 컬렉션에 객체가 추가될 때 사용됩니다.
          ‘__hash__()’ 를 갖는다는 것은 클래스의 인스턴스가 불변이라는 것
          을 의미합니다.  가변성은 프로그래머의 의도, ‘__eq__()’ 의 존재
          와 행동, ‘@dataclass’ 데코레이터의 'eq' 와 'frozen' 플래그의 값
          에 의존하는 복잡한 성질입니다.

          기본적으로, ‘@dataclass’ 는 안전하지 않다면 *note __hash__():
          af8. 메서드를 묵시적으로 추가하지 않습니다.  기존에 명시적으로
          정의된 ‘__hash__()’ 메서드를 추가하거나 변경하지도 않습니다.
          ‘__hash__()’ 문서에서 설명된 대로, 클래스 어트리뷰트를
          ‘__hash__ = None’ 로 설정하는 것은 파이썬에 특별한 의미가 있습
          니다.

          ‘__hash__()’ 가 명시적으로 정의되어 있지 않거나 ‘None’ 으로 설
          정된 경우, ‘@dataclass’ 는 묵시적 ‘__hash__()’ 메서드를 '추가
          할 수 있습니다'.  권장하지는 않지만, ‘unsafe_hash=True’ 로
          ‘@dataclass’ 가 ‘__hash__()’ 메서드를 만들도록 강제할 수 있습
          니다.  이것은 당신의 클래스가 논리적으로 불변이지만, 여전히 변
          경될 수 있는 경우 일 수 있습니다.  이는 특수한 사용 사례이므로
          신중하게 고려해야 합니다.

          다음은 ‘__hash__()’ 메서드의 묵시적 생성을 관장하는 규칙입니다
          .  데이터 클래스에 명시적 ‘__hash__()’ 메서드를 가지면서
          ‘unsafe_hash=True’ 를 설정할 수는 없습니다; 그러면 *note
          TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다.

          'eq' 와 'frozen' 이 모두 참이면, 기본적으로 ‘@dataclass’ 는
          ‘__hash__()’ 메서드를 만듭니다.  'eq' 가 참이고 'frozen' 이 거
          짓이면, ‘__hash__()’ 가 ‘None’ 으로 설정되어 해시 불가능하다고
          표시됩니다(가변이기 때문입니다).  만약 'eq' 가 거짓이면,
          ‘__hash__()’ 를 건드리지 않는데, 슈퍼 클래스의 ‘__hash__()’ 가
          사용된다는 뜻이 됩니다 (슈퍼 클래스가 *note object: a89. 라면,
          id 기반 해싱으로 돌아간다는 뜻입니다).

        - 'frozen': If true (the default is ‘False’), assigning to
          fields will generate an exception.  This emulates read-only
          frozen instances.  See the *note discussion: 43fd. below.

          If *note __setattr__(): 1f35. or *note __delattr__(): 1f36. is
          defined in the class and 'frozen' is true, then *note
          TypeError: 532. is raised.

        - 'match_args': If true (the default is ‘True’), the *note
          __match_args__: 18c6. tuple will be created from the list of
          non keyword-only parameters to the generated *note __init__():
          6aa. method (even if ‘__init__()’ is not generated, see
          above).  If false, or if ‘__match_args__’ is already defined
          in the class, then ‘__match_args__’ will not be generated.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'kw_only': If true (the default value is ‘False’), then all
          fields will be marked as keyword-only.  If a field is marked
          as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the *note
          __init__(): 6aa. parameter generated from a keyword-only field
          must be specified with a keyword when ‘__init__()’ is called.
          See the *note parameter: 1f07. glossary entry for details.
          Also see the *note KW_ONLY: 43fe. section.

          Keyword-only fields are not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'slots': 참이면 (기본값은 ‘False’), *note __slots__: 14b2. 어
          트리뷰트가 만들어지고 원래 클래스 대신 새 클래스가 반환됩니다.
          ‘__slots__’ 이 클래스에 이미 정의되어 있다면 *note TypeError:
          532. 가 발생합니다.

               경고: Calling no-arg *note super(): 4d5. in dataclasses
               using ‘slots=True’ will result in the following exception
               being raised: ‘TypeError: super(type, obj): obj must be
               an instance or subtype of type’.  The two-arg *note
               super(): 4d5. is a valid workaround.  See gh-90562(1) for
               full details.

               경고: Passing parameters to a base class *note
               __init_subclass__(): 62b. when using ‘slots=True’ will
               result in a *note TypeError: 532.  Either use
               ‘__init_subclass__’ with no parameters or use default
               values as a workaround.  See gh-91126(2) for full
               details.

          Added in version 3.10.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: If a field name is already included in the
          ‘__slots__’ of a base class, it will not be included in the
          generated ‘__slots__’ to prevent *note overriding them: 1f77.
          Therefore, do not use ‘__slots__’ to retrieve the field names
          of a dataclass.  Use *note fields(): 1749. instead.  To be
          able to determine inherited slots, base class ‘__slots__’ may
          be any iterable, but 'not' an iterator.

        - 'weakref_slot': If true (the default is ‘False’), add a slot
          named “__weakref__”, which is required to make an instance
          *note weakref-able: fe6.  It is an error to specify
          ‘weakref_slot=True’ without also specifying ‘slots=True’.

          Added in version 3.11.

     필드는 선택적으로 일반적인 파이썬 문법을 사용하여 기본값을 지정할 수
     있습니다:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: int       # 'a' 에는 기본값이 없습니다
              b: int = 0   # 'b' 에 기본값을 대입합니다

     이 예제에서, ‘a’ 와 ‘b’ 모두 추가된 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드에
     포함되는데, 이런 식으로 정의됩니다:

          def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

     기본값이 없는 필드가 기본값이 있는 필드 뒤에 오는 경우 *note
     TypeError: 532. 가 발생합니다.  이것은 단일 클래스 내에서 발생하든,
     클래스 상속의 결과로 발생하든 마찬가지입니다.

 -- 함수: dataclasses.field (*, default=MISSING,
          default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None,
          compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING)

     일반적이고 간단한 사용 사례의 경우 다른 기능은 필요하지 않습니다.  그
     러나 필드별로 추가 정보가 필요한 일부 데이터 클래스 기능이 있습니다
     .  추가 정보에 대한 필요성을 충족시키기 위해, 기본 필드 값을 제공된
     ‘field()’ 함수 호출로 바꿀 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

          c = C()
          c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

     위에서 보인 것처럼, *note MISSING: 43ff. 값은 사용자가 일부 매개변
     수를 제공했는지를 탐지하는데 사용되는 표지 객체입니다.  일부 매개변
     수에 대해서는 ‘None’ 이 별개의 의미를 갖는 유효한 값이기 때문에 이
     표지가 사용됩니다.  어떤 코드도 *note MISSING: 43ff. 값을 직접 사용
     해서는 안 됩니다.

     ‘field()’ 의 매개변수는 다음과 같습니다:

        - 'default': 제공되면, 이 필드의 기본값이 됩니다.  이것은
          ‘field()’ 호출 자체가 기본값의 정상 위치를 대체하기 때문에 필
          요합니다.

        - 'default_factory': 제공되면, 이 필드의 기본값이 필요할 때 호출
          되는 인자가 없는 콜러블이어야 합니다.  여러 용도 중에서도, 이
          것은 아래에서 논의되는 것처럼 가변 기본값을 가진 필드를 지정하
          는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.  'default' 와 'default_factory' 를 모
          두 지정하는 것은 에러입니다.

        - 'init': 참(기본값)이면, 이 필드는 생성된 *note __init__():
          6aa. 메서드의 매개변수로 포함됩니다.

        - 'repr': 참(기본값)이면, 이 필드는 생성된 *note __repr__():
          616. 메서드가 돌려주는 문자열에 포함됩니다.

        - 'hash': 이것은 bool 또는 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.  참이면, 이 필
          드는 생성된 *note __hash__(): af8. 메서드에 포함됩니다.  거짓
          이면, 이 필드는 생성된 *note __hash__(): af8.에서 제외됩니다.
          ‘None’ (기본값) 이면, 'compare' 의 값을 사용합니다: 필드가 비
          교에 사용되면 해시에 포함되어야 하기 때문에, 이것은 일반적으로
          기대되는 행동입니다.  이 값을 ‘None’ 이외의 값으로 설정하는 것
          은 권장하지 않습니다.

          ‘hash=False’ 이지만 ‘compare=True’ 로 설정하는 한 가지 가능한
          이유는, 동등 비교에 포함되는 필드가 해시값을 계산하는 데 비용
          이 많이 들고, 형의 해시값에 이바지하는 다른 필드가 있는 경우입
          니다.  필드가 해시에서 제외된 경우에도 비교에는 계속 사용됩니
          다.

        - 'compare': 참(기본값)이면, 이 필드는 생성된 같음 및 비교 메서
          드(*note __eq__(): af7, *note __gt__(): 12fc. 등)에 포함됩니다
          .

        - 'metadata': 매핑이나 ‘None’이 될 수 있습니다.  ‘None’은 빈 딕
          셔너리로 취급됩니다.  이 값은 *note MappingProxyType(): 467. 로
          감싸져서 읽기 전용으로 만들어지고, *note Field: 225d. 객체에 노
          출됩니다.  데이터 클래스에서는 전혀 사용되지 않으며, 제삼자 확
          장 메커니즘으로 제공됩니다.  여러 제삼자는 이름 공간으로 사용
          할 자신만의 키를 가질 수 있습니다.

        - 'kw_only': If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only.
          This is used when the generated *note __init__(): 6aa.
          method’s parameters are computed.

          Keyword-only fields are also not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Added in version 3.10.

     필드의 기본값이 ‘field()’ 호출로 지정되면, 이 필드의 클래스 어트리
     뷰트는 지정한 'default' 값으로 대체됩니다.  'default' 가 제공되지 않
     으면 클래스 어트리뷰트는 삭제됩니다.  그 의도는, *note @dataclass:
     1cb. 데코레이터 실행 후에, 기본값 자체가 지정된 것처럼 클래스 어트
     리뷰트가 모드 필드의 기본값을 갖도록 만드는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 이
     렇게 한 후에는:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: int = field(repr=False)
              z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
              t: int = 20

     클래스 어트리뷰트 ‘C.z’ 는 ‘10’ 이 되고, 클래스 어트리뷰트 ‘C.t’ 는
     ‘20’ 이 되고, 클래스 어트리뷰트 ‘C.x’ 와 ‘C.y’ 는 설정되지 않게 됩
     니다.

 -- 클래스: dataclasses.Field

     ‘Field’ 객체는 정의된 각 필드를 설명합니다.  이 객체는 내부적으로 생
     성되며 *note fields(): 1749. 모듈 수준 메서드(아래 참조)가 돌려줍니
     다.  사용자는 직접 ‘Field’ 인스턴스 객체를 만들어서는 안 됩니다.  문
     서화 된 어트리뷰트는 다음과 같습니다:

        - ‘name’: 필드의 이름.

        - ‘type’: 필드의 형.

        - ‘default’, ‘default_factory’, ‘init’, ‘repr’, ‘hash’,
          ‘compare’, ‘metadata’ 및 ‘kw_only’ 는 *note field(): 1a27. 함
          수에서와 같은 의미와 값을 가지고 있습니다.

     다른 어트리뷰트도 있을 수 있지만, 내부적인 것이므로 검사하거나 의존
     해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- 클래스: dataclasses.InitVar

     ‘InitVar[T]’ type annotations describe variables that are *note
     init-only: 4400.  Fields annotated with ‘InitVar’ are considered
     pseudo-fields, and thus are neither returned by the *note fields():
     1749. function nor used in any way except adding them as parameters
     to *note __init__(): 6aa. and an optional *note __post_init__():
     4401.

 -- 함수: dataclasses.fields (class_or_instance)

     데이터 클래스의 필드들을 정의하는 *note Field: 225d. 객체들의 튜플
     을 돌려줍니다.  데이터 클래스나 데이터 클래스의 인스턴스를 받아들입
     니다.  데이터 클래스 나 데이터 클래스의 인스턴스를 전달하지 않으면
     *note TypeError: 532. 를 돌려줍니다.  ‘ClassVar’ 또는 ‘InitVar’ 인
     의사 필드는 반환하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: dataclasses.asdict (obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

     데이터 클래스 'obj' 를 딕셔너리로 변환합니다 (팩토리 함수
     'dict_factory' 를 사용합니다).  각 데이터 클래스는 각 필드를 ‘name:
     value’ 쌍으로 갖는 딕셔너리로 변환됩니다.  데이터 클래스, 딕셔너리,
     리스트 및 튜플은 재귀적으로 변환됩니다.  다른 객체들은 *note
     copy.deepcopy(): b6b.로 복사됩니다.

     Example of using ‘asdict()’ on nested dataclasses:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
               x: int
               y: int

          @dataclass
          class C:
               mylist: list[Point]

          p = Point(10, 20)
          assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

          c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
          assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

     ‘asdict()’는 'obj' 가 데이터 클래스 인스턴스가 아닌 경우 *note
     TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 함수: dataclasses.astuple (obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

     데이터 클래스 'obj' 를 튜플로 변환합니다 (팩토리 함수
     'tuple_factory' 를 사용합니다).  각 데이터 클래스는 각 필드 값들의
     튜플로 변환됩니다.  데이터 클래스, 딕셔너리, 리스트 및 튜플은 재귀
     적으로 변환됩니다.  다른 객체들은 *note copy.deepcopy(): b6b.로 복
     사됩니다.

     이전 예에서 계속하면:

          assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
          assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

     ‘astuple()’은 'obj' 가 데이터 클래스 인스턴스가 아닌 경우 *note
     TypeError: 532. 를 일으킵니다.

 -- 함수: dataclasses.make_dataclass (cls_name, fields, *, bases=(),
          namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False,
          unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None)

     새로운 데이터 클래스를 만드는데, 이름은 'cls_name' 이고, 'fields' 에
     정의된 필드들을 갖고, 'bases' 에 주어진 베이스 클래스들을 갖고,
     'namespace' 로 주어진 이름 공간으로 초기화됩니다.  'fields' 는 요소
     가 ‘name’, ‘(name, type)’ 또는 ‘(name, type, Field)’ 인 이터러블입
     니다.  ‘name’ 만 제공되면 *note typing.Any: 6a6. 가 ‘type’ 으로 사
     용됩니다.  'init', 'repr', 'eq', 'order', 'unsafe_hash', 'frozen',
     'match_args', 'kw_only', 'slots' 및 'weakref_slot' 의 값은 *note
     @dataclass: 1cb. 에서와 같은 의미가 있습니다.

     If 'module' is defined, the ‘__module__’ attribute of the dataclass
     is set to that value.  By default, it is set to the module name of
     the caller.

     이 함수가 꼭 필요하지는 않습니다.  임의의 파이썬 메커니즘으로
     ‘__annotations__’ 을 갖는 새 클래스를 만든 후에 *note @dataclass:
     1cb. 함수를 적용하면 데이터 클래스로 변환되기 때문입니다.  이 함수
     는 편의상 제공됩니다.  예를 들어:

          C = make_dataclass('C',
                             [('x', int),
                               'y',
                              ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                             namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

     는 다음과 동등합니다:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: 'typing.Any'
              z: int = 5

              def add_one(self):
                  return self.x + 1

 -- 함수: dataclasses.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     'obj' 와 같은 형의 새 객체를 만드는데, 필드를 'changes' 의 값들로 대
     체합니다.  'obj' 가 데이터 클래스가 아니라면 *note TypeError: 532.
     를 발생시킵니다.  'changes' 의 키가 주어진 데이터 클래스의 필드 이
     름이 아니면, *note TypeError: 532. 를 발생시킵니다.

     새로 반환된 객체는 데이터 클래스의 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드를
     호출하여 생성됩니다.  이렇게 함으로써 (있는 경우) *note
     __post_init__(): 4401. 의 호출을 보장합니다.

     기본값을 가지지 않는 초기화 전용 변수가 존재한다면, ‘replace()’ 호
     출에 반드시 지정해서 ‘__init__()’ 와 *note __post_init__(): 4401. 에
     전달 될 수 있도록 해야 합니다.

     'changes' 가 ‘init=False’ 를 갖는 것으로 정의된 필드를 포함하는 것
     은 에러입니다.  이 경우 *note ValueError: 202. 가 발생합니다.

     ‘replace()’를 호출하는 동안 ‘init=False’ 필드가 어떻게 작동하는지 미
     리 경고합니다.  그것들은 소스 객체로부터 복사되는 것이 아니라, (초
     기화되기는 한다면) *note __post_init__(): 4401. 에서 초기화됩니다.
     ‘init=False’ 필드는 거의 사용되지 않으리라고 예상합니다.  사용된다
     면, 대체 클래스 생성자를 사용하거나, 인스턴스 복사를 처리하는 사용
     자 정의 ‘replace()’ (또는 비슷하게 이름 지어진) 메서드를 사용하는 것
     이 좋을 것입니다.

     Dataclass instances are also supported by generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 151.

 -- 함수: dataclasses.is_dataclass (obj)

     매개변수가 데이터 클래스(데이터 클래스의 서브클래스 포함)나 그의 인
     스턴스면 ‘True’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

     (데이터 클래스 자체가 아니라) 데이터 클래스의 인스턴스인지 알아야 한
     다면 ‘not isinstance(obj, type)’ 검사를 추가하십시오:

          def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
              return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

 -- 데이터: dataclasses.MISSING

     A sentinel value signifying a missing default or default_factory.

 -- 데이터: dataclasses.KW_ONLY

     A sentinel value used as a type annotation.  Any fields after a
     pseudo-field with the type of ‘KW_ONLY’ are marked as keyword-only
     fields.  Note that a pseudo-field of type ‘KW_ONLY’ is otherwise
     completely ignored.  This includes the name of such a field.  By
     convention, a name of ‘_’ is used for a ‘KW_ONLY’ field.
     Keyword-only fields signify *note __init__(): 6aa. parameters that
     must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated.

     In this example, the fields ‘y’ and ‘z’ will be marked as
     keyword-only fields:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
              x: float
              _: KW_ONLY
              y: float
              z: float

          p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

     In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one
     field whose type is ‘KW_ONLY’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 예외: dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

     ‘frozen=True’ 로 정의된 데이터 클래스에서 묵시적으로 정의된 *note
     __setattr__(): 1f35. 또는 *note __delattr__(): 1f36. 이 호출 될 때
     발생합니다.  *note AttributeError: 346.의 서브 클래스입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90562

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126


File: python.info,  Node: 초기화 후처리,  Next: 클래스 변수,  Prev: Module contents,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.2 초기화 후처리
......................

 -- 함수: dataclasses.__post_init__ ()

     클래스에 정의된 경우, 생성된 *note __init__(): 6aa.에 의해 호출되며
     , 일반적으로 ‘self.__post_init__()’ 형태로 호출됩니다.  그러나,
     ‘InitVar’ 필드가 정의되어 있으면, 클래스에 정의된 순서대로
     ‘__post_init__()’ 로 전달됩니다.  ‘__init__()’ 메서드가 생성되지 않
     으면, ‘__post_init__()’ 가 자동으로 호출되지 않습니다.

     다른 용도 중에서도, 하나나 그 이상의 다른 필드에 의존하는 필드 값을
     초기화하는데 사용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: float
              b: float
              c: float = field(init=False)

              def __post_init__(self):
                  self.c = self.a + self.b

The *note __init__(): 6aa. method generated by *note @dataclass: 1cb.
does not call base class ‘__init__()’ methods.  If the base class has an
‘__init__()’ method that has to be called, it is common to call this
method in a *note __post_init__(): 4401. method:

     class Rectangle:
         def __init__(self, height, width):
             self.height = height
             self.width = width

     @dataclass
     class Square(Rectangle):
         side: float

         def __post_init__(self):
             super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated ‘__init__()’
methods don’t need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take
care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass
itself.

매개변수를 ‘__post_init__()’ 에 전달하는 방법은 초기화 전용 변수에 대한
아래 섹션을 참조하십시오.  또한 *note replace(): 1700. 가 ‘init=False’ 필
드를 처리하는 방식에 관한 경고를 보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 변수,  Next: 초기화 전용 변수,  Prev: 초기화 후처리,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.3 클래스 변수
....................

*note @dataclass: 1cb. 가 실제로 필드의 형을 검사하는 몇 안 되는 곳 중 하
나는 필드가 PEP 526(1) 에 정의된 클래스 변수인지를 확인하는 것입니다.  필
드의 형이 *note typing.ClassVar: 266. 인지 검사합니다.  필드가
‘ClassVar’ 인 경우, 필드로 취급되지 않고 데이터 클래스 메커니즘에서 무시
됩니다.  이런 ‘ClassVar’ 의사 필드는 모듈 수준 *note fields(): 1749. 함
수에 의해 반환되지 않습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


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5.29.7.4 초기화 전용 변수
.........................

*note @dataclass: 1cb. 가 형 어노테이션을 검사하는 다른 곳은 필드가 초기
화 전용 변수인지 확인하는 것입니다.  필드의 형이 *note InitVar: 1829. 인
지 검사합니다.  필드가 *note InitVar: 1829. 인 경우, 초기화 전용 변수라
고 불리는 의사 필드로 간주합니다.  실제 필드가 아니므로, 모듈 수준 *note
fields(): 1749. 함수에 의해 반환되지 않습니다.  초기화 전용 필드는 생성
된 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드의 매개변수로 추가되며, 선택적인 *note
__post_init__(): 4401. 메서드로 전달됩니다.  이 외에 데이터 클래스에서 사
용되는 곳은 없습니다.

예를 들어, 클래스를 만들 때 값이 제공되지 않으면, 필드가 데이터베이스로
부터 초기화된다고 가정합시다:

     @dataclass
     class C:
         i: int
         j: int | None = None
         database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

         def __post_init__(self, database):
             if self.j is None and database is not None:
                 self.j = database.lookup('j')

     c = C(10, database=my_database)

이 경우, *note fields(): 1749. 는 ‘i’ 와 ‘j’ 를 위한 *note Field: 225d.
객체를 반환하지만, ‘database’ 는 반환하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 고정 인스턴스,  Next: 계승,  Prev: 초기화 전용 변수,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.5 고정 인스턴스
......................

정말로 불변인 파이썬 객체를 만드는 것은 불가능합니다.  그러나,
‘frozen=True’ 를 *note @dataclass: 1cb. 데코레이터에 전달함으로써 불변성
을 흉내 낼 수 있습니다.  이 경우, 데이터 클래스는 *note __setattr__():
1f35. 과 *note __delattr__(): 1f36. 메서드를 클래스에 추가합니다.  이 메
서드는 호출될 때 *note FrozenInstanceError: 4402. 를 발생시킵니다.

‘frozen=True’ 를 사용할 때 약간의 성능 저하가 있습니다: *note
__init__(): 6aa. 는 필드를 초기화하는데 간단한 대입을 사용할 수 없고,
‘object.__setattr__()’ 을 사용해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 계승,  Next: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Prev: 고정 인스턴스,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.6 계승
.............

데이터 클래스가 *note @dataclass: 1cb. 데코레이터에 의해 생성될 때, 클래
스의 모든 베이스 클래스들을 MRO 역순(즉, *note object: a89. 에서 시작해
서)으로 조사하고, 발견되는 데이터 클래스마다 그 베이스 클래스의 필드들을
순서 있는 필드 매핑에 추가합니다.  모든 생성된 메서드들은 이 합쳐지고 계
산된 순서 있는 필드 매핑을 사용합니다.  필드들이 삽입 순서이기 때문에, 파
생 클래스는 베이스 클래스를 재정의합니다.  예:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         y: int = 0

     @dataclass
     class C(Base):
         z: int = 10
         x: int = 15

필드의 최종 목록은 순서대로 ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’ 입니다.  ‘x’ 의 최종 형은 클래
스 ‘C’ 에서 지정된 *note int: 257. 입니다.

생성된 ‘C’ 의 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드는 이렇게 됩니다:

     def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):


File: python.info,  Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Next: 기본 팩토리 함수,  Prev: 계승,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.7 Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in ‘__init__()’
...............................................................

After the parameters needed for *note __init__(): 6aa. are computed, any
keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular
(non-keyword-only) parameters.  This is a requirement of how
keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after
non-keyword-only parameters.

In this example, ‘Base.y’, ‘Base.w’, and ‘D.t’ are keyword-only fields,
and ‘Base.x’ and ‘D.z’ are regular fields:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         _: KW_ONLY
         y: int = 0
         w: int = 1

     @dataclass
     class D(Base):
         z: int = 10
         t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

생성된 ‘D’ 의 ‘__init__()’ 메서드는 이렇게 됩니다:

     def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

Note that the parameters have been re-ordered from how they appear in
the list of fields: parameters derived from regular fields are followed
by parameters derived from keyword-only fields.

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the
re-ordered ‘__init__()’ parameter list.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 팩토리 함수,  Next: 가변 기본값,  Prev: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.8 기본 팩토리 함수
.........................

*note field(): 1a27. 가 'default_factory' 를 지정하면, 필드의 기본값이 필
요할 때 인자 없이 호출됩니다.  예를 들어, 리스트의 새 인스턴스를 만들려
면, 이렇게 하세요:

     mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

필드가 (‘init=False’ 를 사용해서) *note __init__(): 6aa. 에서 제외되고,
그 필드가 'default_factory' 를 지정하면, 생성된 ‘__init__()’ 함수는 항상
기본 팩토리 함수를 호출합니다.  이는 필드에 초기화 값을 제공할 수 있는 다
른 방법이 없기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 가변 기본값,  Next: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: 기본 팩토리 함수,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.9 가변 기본값
....................

파이썬은 기본 멤버 변숫값을 클래스 어트리뷰트에 저장합니다.  데이터 클래
스를 사용하지 않는 이 예제를 생각해보세요:

     class C:
         x = []
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     o1 = C()
     o2 = C()
     o1.add(1)
     o2.add(2)
     assert o1.x == [1, 2]
     assert o1.x is o2.x

클래스 ‘C’ 의 두 인스턴스는 예상대로 같은 클래스 변수 ‘x’ 를 공유합니다.

데이터 클래스를 사용해서, '만약' 이 코드가 올바르다면:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = []      # 이 코드는 ValueError 를 발생시킵니다
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

비슷한 코드를 생성합니다:

     class D:
         x = []
         def __init__(self, x=x):
             self.x = x
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     assert D().x is D().x

이것은 클래스 ‘C’ 를 사용한 원래 예제와 같은 문제를 가지고 있습니다.  즉
, 클래스 인스턴스를 만들 때 ‘x’ 에 대한 값을 지정하지 않는 클래스 ‘D’ 의
두 인스턴스는 ‘x’의 같은 사본을 공유합니다.  데이터 클래스는 일반적인 파
이썬 클래스 생성을 사용하기 때문에, 이 동작 역시 공유합니다.  데이터 클
래스가 이 조건을 감지하는 일반적인 방법은 없습니다.  대신, *note
@dataclass: 1cb. 데코레이터는 해시 불가능한 기본 매개변수를 탐지하면
*note ValueError: 202. 를 발생시킵니다.  값이 해시 불가능하면, 가변이라
는 가정입니다.  이것은 부분적인 해결책이지만, 흔한 오류로부터 보호합니다
.

기본 팩토리 함수를 사용하면 필드의 기본값으로 가변형의 새 인스턴스를 만
들 수 있습니다:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = field(default_factory=list)

     assert D().x is not D().x

버전 3.11에서 변경: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects of
type *note list: 60b, *note dict: 256, or *note set: 5d3, unhashable
objects are now not allowed as default values.  Unhashability is used to
approximate mutability.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: 가변 기본값,  Up: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스

5.29.7.10 Descriptor-typed fields
.................................

Fields that are assigned *note descriptor objects: c4c. as their default
value have the following special behaviors:

   * The value for the field passed to the dataclass’s *note __init__():
     6aa. method is passed to the descriptor’s *note __set__(): 1f72.
     method rather than overwriting the descriptor object.

   * Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor’s
     *note __get__(): 14af. or ‘__set__()’ method is called rather than
     returning or overwriting the descriptor object.

   * To determine whether a field contains a default value, *note
     @dataclass: 1cb. will call the descriptor’s ‘__get__()’ method
     using its class access form: ‘descriptor.__get__(obj=None,
     type=cls)’.  If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it
     will be used as the field’s default.  On the other hand, if the
     descriptor raises *note AttributeError: 346. in this situation, no
     default value will be provided for the field.

     class IntConversionDescriptor:
         def __init__(self, *, default):
             self._default = default

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = "_" + name

         def __get__(self, obj, type):
             if obj is None:
                 return self._default

             return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

     i = InventoryItem()
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
     i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # __set__ 을 2.5 로 호출합니다
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not
assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act
like a normal field.


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티,  Next: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스,  Prev: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.8 ‘contextlib’ — ‘with’ 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티
--------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/contextlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 *note with: 5cc. 문이 수반되는 일반적인 작업을 위한 유틸리티를
제공합니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형: 1fc7. 과 *note with
문 컨텍스트 관리자: 1fc5.도 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 유틸리티::
* 예제와 조리법: 예제와 조리법<3>.
* 일회용, 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자: 일회용 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/contextlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: 유틸리티,  Next: 예제와 조리법<3>,  Up: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티

5.29.8.1 유틸리티
.................

제공되는 함수와 클래스:

 -- 클래스: contextlib.AbstractContextManager

     *note object.__enter__(): 5c2.와 *note object.__exit__(): 12f0.를 구
     현하는 클래스의 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5.  ‘self’를 반환하는
     *note object.__enter__(): 5c2.의 기본 구현이 제공되지만 *note
     object.__exit__(): 12f0.는 기본적으로 ‘None’을 반환하는 추상 메서드
     입니다.  *note 컨텍스트 관리자 형: 1fc7. 의 정의도 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 클래스: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

     *note object.__aenter__(): 1fd8.와 *note object.__aexit__(): 1631.를
     구현하는 클래스의 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5.  ‘self’를 반환하
     는 *note object.__aenter__(): 1fd8.의 기본 구현이 제공되지만 *note
     object.__aexit__(): 1631.는 기본적으로 ‘None’을 반환하는 추상 메서
     드입니다.  *note 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자: 5f6.의 정의도 참조하십시오
     .

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: @contextlib.contextmanager

     이 함수는 클래스나 별도의 *note __enter__(): 5c2.와 *note
     __exit__(): 12f0. 메서드를 작성할 필요 없이, *note with: 5cc. 문 컨
     텍스트 관리자를 위한 팩토리 함수를 정의하는 데 사용할 수 있는 *note
     데코레이터: 72a.입니다.

     많은 객체가 자체적으로 with 문에서의 사용을 지원하지만, 스스로는 컨
     텍스트 관리자가 아니고 ‘contextlib.closing’과 함께 사용할 ‘close()’
     메서드를 구현하지 않는 자원을 관리해야 하는 경우가 있습니다.

     올바른 자원 관리를 보장하기 위한 추상적인 예는 다음과 같습니다:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
              # 자원을 얻는 코드, 예를 들어:
              resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
              try:
                  yield resource
              finally:
                  # 자원을 해제하는 코드, 예를 들어:
                  release_resource(resource)

     The function can then be used like this:

          >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
          ...     # 블록의 코드에서 예외가 발생하더라도,
          ...     # 이 블록의 끝에서 자원이 해제됩니다

     데코레이트 되는 함수는 호출될 때 *note 제너레이터: 1057. 이터레이터
     를 반환해야 합니다.  이 이터레이터는 정확히 하나의 값을 산출해야 하
     며, 이는 *note with: 5cc. 문의 ‘as’ 절에 있는 대상에 연결됩니다 (있
     다면).

     제너레이터가 산출하는 지점에서, *note with: 5cc. 문에 중첩된 블록이
     실행됩니다.  그런 다음 블록이 종료된 후 제너레이터가 재개합니다.  블
     록에서 처리되지 않은 예외가 발생하면, 제너레이터 내부의 yield가 등
     장한 지점에서 다시 발생합니다.  따라서, *note try: 6e2.…*note
     except: 18b.…*note finally: 9c7. 문을 사용하여 에러(있다면)를 잡거
     나, 어떤 정리가 수행되도록 할 수 있습니다.  예외를 단지 로그 하기 위
     해 또는 (예외를 완전히 억제하는 대신) 어떤 작업을 수행하기 위해 예
     외를 잡았다면 제너레이터는 해당 예외를 다시 발생시켜야 합니다.  그
     렇지 않으면 제너레이터 컨텍스트 관리자가 ‘with’ 문에 예외가 처리되
     었음을 표시하고, ‘with’ 문 바로 다음에 오는 문장으로 실행이 재개됩
     니다.

     *note contextmanager(): 11f1.는 *note ContextDecorator: 11f0.를 사
     용해서, 만들어진 컨텍스트 관리자를 *note with: 5cc. 문뿐만 아니라 데
     코레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다.  데코레이터로 사용될 때, 새로운 제너
     레이터 인스턴스는 각 함수 호출마다 묵시적으로 만들어집니다 (이는 그
     렇지 않을 경우 *note contextmanager(): 11f1.에 의해 만들어진 “일회
     성” 컨텍스트 관리자가 데코레이터로 사용하기 위해 컨텍스트 관리자가
     여러 번의 호출을 지원해야 한다는 요구 사항을 충족시킬 수 있도록 합
     니다) .

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note ContextDecorator: 11f0. 사용.

 -- 함수: @contextlib.asynccontextmanager

     *note contextmanager(): 11f1.와 유사하지만, *note 비동기 컨텍스트
     관리자: 5f6.를 만듭니다.

     이 함수는 클래스나 별도의 *note __aenter__(): 1fd8.와 *note
     __aexit__(): 1631. 메서드를 작성할 필요 없이, *note async with:
     5cf. 문 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자를 위한 팩토리 함수를 정의하는 데 사
     용할 수 있는 *note 데코레이터: 72a.입니다.  *note 비동기
     제너레이터: 2046. 함수에 적용해야 합니다.

     간단한 예:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def get_connection():
              conn = await acquire_db_connection()
              try:
                  yield conn
              finally:
                  await release_db_connection(conn)

          async def get_all_users():
              async with get_connection() as conn:
                  return conn.query('SELECT ...')

     Added in version 3.7.

     Context managers defined with *note asynccontextmanager(): b27. can
     be used either as decorators or with *note async with: 5cf.
     statements:

          import time
          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def timeit():
              now = time.monotonic()
              try:
                  yield
              finally:
                  print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')

          @timeit()
          async def main():
              # ... 비동기 코드 ...

     데코레이터로 사용될 때, 새로운 제너레이터 인스턴스는 각 함수 호출마
     다 묵시적으로 만들어집니다.  이는 그렇지 않을 경우 *note
     contextmanager(): 11f1.에 의해 만들어진 “일회성” 컨텍스트 관리자가
     데코레이터로 사용하기 위해 컨텍스트 관리자가 여러 번의 호출을 지원
     해야 한다는 요구 사항을 충족시킬 수 있도록 합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Async context managers created with *note
     asynccontextmanager(): b27. can be used as decorators.

 -- 함수: contextlib.closing (thing)

     블록이 완료될 때 'thing'을 닫는 컨텍스트 관리자를 반환합니다.  이것
     은 기본적으로 다음과 동등합니다:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def closing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  thing.close()

     그리고 다음과 같은 코드를 작성할 수 있도록 합니다:

          from contextlib import closing
          from urllib.request import urlopen

          with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
              for line in page:
                  print(line)

     ‘page’를 명시적으로 닫을 필요가 없습니다.  에러가 발생하더라도,
     *note with: 5cc. 블록이 종료될 때 ‘page.close()’가 호출됩니다.

          참고: Most types managing resources support the *note context
          manager: 5ce. protocol, which closes 'thing' on leaving the
          *note with: 5cc. statement.  As such, ‘closing()’ is most
          useful for third party types that don’t support context
          managers.  This example is purely for illustration purposes,
          as *note urlopen(): 293. would normally be used in a context
          manager.

 -- 함수: contextlib.aclosing (thing)

     블록이 완료될 때 'thing'의 ‘aclose()’ 메서드를 호출하는 비동기 컨텍
     스트 관리자를 반환합니다.  이것은 기본적으로 다음과 동등합니다:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def aclosing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  await thing.aclose()

     Significantly, ‘aclosing()’ supports deterministic cleanup of async
     generators when they happen to exit early by *note break: aa6. or
     an exception.  For example:

          from contextlib import aclosing

          async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
              async for value in values:
                  if value == 42:
                      break

     This pattern ensures that the generator’s async exit code is
     executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions
     and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn’t run
     after the lifetime of some task it depends on).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 함수: contextlib.nullcontext (enter_result=None)

     ‘__enter__’에서 'enter_result'를 반환하지만, 그 외에는 아무것도 하
     지 않는 컨텍스트 관리자를 반환합니다.  선택적 컨텍스트 관리자를 위
     한 대체로 사용하기 위한 것입니다, 예를 들어:

          def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
              if ignore_exceptions:
                  # 모든 예외를 무시하기 위해 suppress를 사용합니다.
                  cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
              else:
                  # 아무런 예외도 무시하지 않습니다, cm은 아무 효과도 없습니다.
                  cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
              with cm:
                  # 뭔가 합니다

     'enter_result'를 사용하는 예:

          def process_file(file_or_path):
              if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
                  # 문자열이면, 파일을 엽니다
                  cm = open(file_or_path)
              else:
                  # 파일을 닫는 책임은 호출자에게 있습니다
                  cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)

              with cm as file:
                  # 파일에 대한 처리를 수행합니다

     또한 *note 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자: 5f6.의 대체로 사용할 수 있습니다
     :

          async def send_http(session=None):
              if not session:
                  # http 세션이 없으면, aiohttp 로 만듭니다
                  cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
              else:
                  # 세션을 닫는 책임은 호출자에게 있습니다
                  cm = nullcontext(session)

              async with cm as session:
                  # 세션으로 http 요청을 보냅니다

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note asynchronous context manager: 5d1.
     support was added.

 -- 함수: contextlib.suppress (*exceptions)

     ‘with’ 문의 본문에서 발생하는 지정된 예외를 모두 억제한 후 ‘with’ 문
     의 끝 다음에 오는 첫 번째 문장에서 실행을 재개하는 컨텍스트 관리자
     를 반환합니다.

     예외를 완전히 억제하는 다른 메커니즘과 마찬가지로, 이 컨텍스트 관리
     자는 프로그램 실행을 조용히 계속하는 것이 옳은 것으로 알려진 매우 특
     정한 에러를 다루기 위해서만 사용해야 합니다.

     예를 들면:

          from contextlib import suppress

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')

     이 코드는 다음과 동등합니다:

          try:
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

          try:
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

     이 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note 재진입 가능: 4413.합니다.

     If the code within the ‘with’ block raises a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 25f, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
     group.  Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are
     re-raised in a new group which is created using the original
     group’s *note derive(): 16c7. method.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘suppress’ now supports suppressing exceptions
     raised as part of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.

 -- 함수: contextlib.redirect_stdout (new_target)

     *note sys.stdout: ad3.을 다른 파일이나 파일류 객체로 일시적으로 리
     디렉션 하기 위한 컨텍스트 관리자.

     이 도구는 출력이 stdout에 배선된 기존 함수나 클래스에 유연성을 추가
     합니다.

     예를 들어, *note help(): 8d4.의 출력은 일반적으로 'sys.stdout'으로
     전송됩니다.  출력을 *note io.StringIO: f1f. 객체로 리디렉션 하여 해
     당 출력을 문자열로 캡처 할 수 있습니다.  대체 스트림이 ‘__enter__’
     메서드에서 반환되어 *note with: 5cc. 문의 대상으로 사용할 수 있습니
     다:

          with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
              help(pow)
          s = f.getvalue()

     *note help(): 8d4.의 출력을 디스크의 파일로 보내려면, 출력을 일반 파
     일로 리디렉션 하십시오:

          with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
              with redirect_stdout(f):
                  help(pow)

     *note help(): 8d4.의 출력을 'sys.stderr'로 보내려면:

          with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
              help(pow)

     *note sys.stdout: ad3.에 대한 전역 부작용은 이 컨텍스트 관리자가 라
     이브러리 코드와 대부분의 스레드 응용 프로그램에 사용하기에 적합하지
     않음을 의미합니다.  또한 서브 프로세스의 출력에는 영향을 미치지 않
     습니다.  그러나, 여전히 많은 유틸리티 스크립트에 유용한 접근법입니
     다.

     이 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note 재진입 가능: 4413.합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: contextlib.redirect_stderr (new_target)

     *note redirect_stdout(): de4.과 유사하지만, *note sys.stderr: 937.를
     다른 파일이나 파일류 객체로 리디렉션 합니다.

     이 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note 재진입 가능: 4413.합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: contextlib.chdir (path)

     Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working
     directory.  As this changes a global state, the working directory,
     it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts.  It
     is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like
     generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished
     – unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context
     manager is active.

     This is a simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 607, it changes the
     current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on
     exit.

     이 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note 재진입 가능: 4413.합니다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: contextlib.ContextDecorator

     컨텍스트 관리자를 데코레이터로도 사용할 수 있도록 하는 베이스 클래
     스.

     ‘ContextDecorator’를 상속하는 컨텍스트 관리자는 일반적인 방식으로
     ‘__enter__’와 ‘__exit__’를 구현해야 합니다.  ‘__exit__’는 데코레이
     터로 사용될 때도 선택적 예외 처리를 유지합니다.

     ‘ContextDecorator’는 *note contextmanager(): 11f1.에서 사용되므로,
     이 기능을 자동으로 얻게 됩니다.

     ‘ContextDecorator’의 예:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> function()
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> with mycontext():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     이 변경은 단지 다음 형식의 구성에 대한 편의 문법일 뿐입니다:

          def f():
              with cm():
                  # 뭔가 합니다

     ‘ContextDecorator’는 대신 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있도록 합니다:

          @cm()
          def f():
              # 뭔가 합니다

     ‘cm’이 단지 함수의 일부가 아니라 전체 함수에 적용된다는 것을 분명히
     합니다 (그리고 들여쓰기 수준을 절약하는 것도 좋습니다).

     베이스 클래스가 이미 있는 기존 컨텍스트 관리자는
     ‘ContextDecorator’를 믹스인 클래스로 사용하여 확장할 수 있습니다:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  return False

          참고: 데코레이트 된 함수는 여러 번 호출될 수 있어야 해서, 하부
          컨텍스트 관리자는 여러 *note with: 5cc. 문에서의 사용을 지원해
          야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 함수 내에 명시적인 ‘with’ 문이 있는
          원래 구문을 사용해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 클래스: contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator

     *note ContextDecorator: 11f0.와 유사하지만, 비동기 함수 전용입니다.

     ‘AsyncContextDecorator’의 예:

          from asyncio import run
          from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator

          class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
              async def __aenter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... async def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> async def function():
          ...    async with mycontext():
          ...         print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: contextlib.ExitStack

     다른 컨텍스트 관리자와 정리 함수, 특히 입력 데이터에 의해 선택적이
     거나 다른 방식으로 구동되는 것들을 프로그래밍 방식으로 쉽게 결합할
     수 있도록 설계된 컨텍스트 관리자.

     예를 들어, 일련의 파일을 다음과 같이 단일 with 문으로 쉽게 처리할 수
     있습니다:

          with ExitStack() as stack:
              files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
              # 목록의 뒤에 나오는 파일을 열려는 시도가
              # 예외를 발생시키더라도, with 문의 끝에서
              # 열린 모든 파일이 자동으로 닫힙니다.

     The *note __enter__(): 5c2. method returns the *note ExitStack:
     b26. instance, and performs no additional operations.

     각 인스턴스는 인스턴스가 닫힐 때 (명시적으로 혹은 *note with: 5cc.
     문의 끝에서 묵시적으로) 역순으로 호출되는 등록된 콜백의 스택을 유지
     합니다.  컨텍스트 스택 인스턴스가 가비지 수집될 때 콜백이 묵시적으
     로 호출되지 '않음'에 유의하십시오.

     이 스택 모델은 ‘__init__’ 메서드에서 자원을 확보하는 컨텍스트 관리
     자(가령 파일 객체)가 올바르게 처리될 수 있도록 사용됩니다.

     등록된 콜백이 등록 순서의 역순으로 호출되므로, 여러 개의 중첩된
     *note with: 5cc. 문이 등록된 콜백 집합과 함께 사용된 것처럼 작동합
     니다.  이것은 예외 처리로도 확장됩니다 - 내부 콜백이 예외를 억제하
     거나 바꾸면, 외부 콜백에는 갱신된 상태에 따른 인자가 전달됩니다.

     탈출 콜백의 스택을 올바르게 되감는 세부 사항을 다루는 비교적 저수준
     의 API입니다.  응용 프로그램 특정 방식으로 탈출 스택을 조작하는 고
     수준 컨텍스트 관리자에게 적절한 기반을 제공합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- 메서드: enter_context (cm)

          새로운 컨텍스트 관리자에 진입하고 *note __exit__(): 12f0. 메서
          드를 콜백 스택에 추가합니다.  반환 값은 컨텍스트 관리자 고유의
          *note __enter__(): 5c2. 메서드의 결과입니다.

          이러한 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note with: 5cc. 문의 일부로 직접 사
          용되었다면 일반적으로 했을 것과 마찬가지로 예외를 억제할 수 있
          습니다.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: Raises *note TypeError: 532. instead of
          *note AttributeError: 346. if 'cm' is not a context manager.

      -- 메서드: push (exit)

          컨텍스트 관리자의 *note __exit__(): 12f0. 메서드를 콜백 스택에
          추가합니다.

          ‘__enter__’가 호출되지 '않기' 때문에, 이 메서드를 사용하여 컨
          텍스트 관리자 고유의 *note __exit__(): 12f0. 메서드로 *note
          __enter__(): 5c2. 구현의 일부를 보호(cover)하는 데 사용할 수 있
          습니다.

          컨텍스트 관리자가 아닌 객체를 전달하면, 이 메서드는 해당 객체
          가 컨텍스트 관리자의 *note __exit__(): 12f0. 메서드와 같은 서
          명을 가진 콜백인 것으로 가정하여 콜백 스택에 직접 추가합니다.

          참값을 반환함으로써, 이 콜백은 컨텍스트 관리자 *note
          __exit__(): 12f0. 메서드와 같은 방식으로 예외를 억제할 수 있습
          니다.

          전달된 객체는 함수에서 반환되어, 이 메서드를 함수 데코레이터로
          사용할 수 있도록 합니다.

      -- 메서드: callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          임의의 콜백 함수와 인자를 받아서 콜백 스택에 추가합니다.

          다른 메서드와 달리, 이 방법으로 추가된 콜백은 예외를 무시할 수
          없습니다 (예외 세부 정보가 전달되지 않기 때문입니다).

          전달된 콜백은 함수에서 반환되어, 이 메서드를 함수 데코레이터로
          사용할 수 있도록 합니다.

      -- 메서드: pop_all ()

          콜백 스택을 새로운 *note ExitStack: b26. 인스턴스로 옮기고 그
          것을 반환합니다.  이 작업으로 아무런 콜백도 호출되지 않습니다
          - 대신, 이제 새 스택이 닫힐 때 (명시적으로나 *note with: 5cc.
          문의 끝에서 묵시적으로) 호출됩니다.

          예를 들어, 파일 그룹을 다음과 같이 “전부 아니면 아무것도” 방식
          으로 열 수 있습니다:

               with ExitStack() as stack:
                   files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
                   # close 메서드를 잡고 있지만, 아직 호출하지 않습니다.
                   close_files = stack.pop_all().close
                   # 어떤 파일을 여는 데 실패하면, 이전에 열었던 모든 파일이
                   # 자동으로 닫힙니다. 모든 파일이 성공적으로 열리면,
                   # with 문이 끝난 후에도 열린 상태로 유지됩니다. 그런 다음
                   # close_files()를 명시적으로 호출하여 모두 닫을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: close ()

          콜백 스택을 즉시 되감고, 등록 역순으로 콜백을 호출합니다.  등
          록된 모든 컨텍스트 관리자와 탈출 콜백에 전달되는 인자는 예외가
          발생하지 않았음을 나타냅니다.

 -- 클래스: contextlib.AsyncExitStack

     *note ExitStack: b26.과 유사한 *note 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자: 5f6, 코
     루틴 정리 로직을 가질 뿐만 아니라 동기와 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자의 결
     합을 지원합니다.

     *note close(): 4416. 메서드는 구현되지 않았습니다; 대신 *note
     aclose(): 4417.를 사용해야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: async enter_async_context (cm)

          *note ExitStack.enter_context(): 5cd.와 유사하지만, 비동기 컨
          텍스트 관리자를 기대합니다.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: Raises *note TypeError: 532. instead of
          *note AttributeError: 346. if 'cm' is not an asynchronous
          context manager.

      -- 메서드: push_async_exit (exit)

          *note ExitStack.push(): 4414.와 유사하지만, 비동기 컨텍스트 관
          리자나 코루틴 함수를 기대합니다.

      -- 메서드: push_async_callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          *note ExitStack.callback(): a80.과 유사하지만 코루틴 함수를 기
          대합니다.

      -- 메서드: async aclose ()

          *note ExitStack.close(): 4416.와 유사하지만 어웨이터블을 올바
          르게 처리합니다.

     *note asynccontextmanager(): b27. 에 대한 예제를 계속합니다:

          async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
              connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
                  for i in range(5)]
              # 목록의 뒤에서 연결을 열려는 시도가 예외를
              # 발생시키더라도, async with 문의 끝에서
              # 열린 모든 연결이 자동으로 해제됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제와 조리법<3>,  Next: 일회용 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 유틸리티,  Up: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티

5.29.8.2 예제와 조리법
......................

이 섹션에서는 *note contextlib: 23.가 제공하는 도구를 효과적으로 사용하
기 위한 몇 가지 예와 조리법에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 일정하지 않은 수의 컨텍스트 관리자 지원::
* __enter__ 메서드에서 발생하는 예외 잡기::
* __enter__ 구현에서 정리하기::
* try-finally와 플래그 변수 사용 교체하기::
* 함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 일정하지 않은 수의 컨텍스트 관리자 지원,  Next: __enter__ 메서드에서 발생하는 예외 잡기,  Up: 예제와 조리법<3>

5.29.8.3 일정하지 않은 수의 컨텍스트 관리자 지원
................................................

*note ExitStack: b26.의 주요 사용 사례는 클래스 설명서에 제공된 것입니다
: 일정하지 않은 수의 컨텍스트 관리자와 기타 정리 연산을 단일 *note with:
5cc. 문에서 지원합니다.  가변성은 사용자 입력(가령 사용자 지정한 파일 모
음을 여는 것)에 의해 구동되는 필요한 컨텍스트 관리자의 수나, 일부 선택적
인 컨텍스트 관리자의 존재에서 비롯될 수 있습니다:

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         for resource in resources:
             stack.enter_context(resource)
         if need_special_resource():
             special = acquire_special_resource()
             stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
         # 획득한 자원들을 사용하는 작업을 수행합니다

볼 수 있듯이, *note ExitStack: b26.을 사용하면 *note with: 5cc. 문을 사
용하여 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜을 스스로 지원하지 않는 임의의 자원을 쉽
게 관리할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: __enter__ 메서드에서 발생하는 예외 잡기,  Next: __enter__ 구현에서 정리하기,  Prev: 일정하지 않은 수의 컨텍스트 관리자 지원,  Up: 예제와 조리법<3>

5.29.8.4 ‘__enter__’ 메서드에서 발생하는 예외 잡기
..................................................

때때로 *note with: 5cc. 문 본문이나 컨텍스트 관리자의 ‘__exit__’ 메서드
에서 발생한 예외를 실수로 포착하지 '않으면서', ‘__enter__’ 메서드 구현에
서 발생하는 예외를 포착하는 것이 바람직합니다.  *note ExitStack: b26.을
사용하면 이를 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 프로토콜의 단계를 약간 분리할 수 있습
니다:

     stack = ExitStack()
     try:
         x = stack.enter_context(cm)
     except Exception:
         # __enter__ 예외를 처리합니다
     else:
         with stack:
             # 정상적인 경우를 처리합니다

실제로 이렇게 할 필요가 있다는 것은 하부 API가 *note try: 6e2./*note
except: 18b./*note finally: 9c7. 문과 함께 사용하기 위한 직접 자원 관리
인터페이스를 제공해야 함을 나타내지만, 모든 API가 이런 측면에서 잘 설계
된 것은 아닙니다.  컨텍스트 관리자가 유일하게 제공되는 자원 관리 API일 때
, *note ExitStack: b26.을 사용하면 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 직접 처리할 수
없는 다양한 상황을 더 쉽게 처리할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: __enter__ 구현에서 정리하기,  Next: try-finally와 플래그 변수 사용 교체하기,  Prev: __enter__ 메서드에서 발생하는 예외 잡기,  Up: 예제와 조리법<3>

5.29.8.5 ‘__enter__’ 구현에서 정리하기
......................................

*note ExitStack.push(): 4414. 설명서에서 언급했듯이, 이 메서드는 *note
__enter__(): 5c2. 구현의 후반 단계가 실패하면 이미 할당된 자원을 정리하
는 데 유용할 수 있습니다.

다음은 선택적 유효성 검증 함수와 함께 자원 확보와 해제 함수를 받아들이고
이를 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜에 매핑하는 컨텍스트 관리자를 위해 이를 수행
하는 예제입니다:

     from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack

     class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):

         def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
             self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
             self.release_resource = release_resource
             if check_resource_ok is None:
                 def check_resource_ok(resource):
                     return True
             self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok

         @contextmanager
         def _cleanup_on_error(self):
             with ExitStack() as stack:
                 stack.push(self)
                 yield
                 # 유효성 검사가 통과되어 예외가 발생하지 않았습니다
                 # 따라서, 자원을 유지하고 호출자에게 다시
                 # 전달하려고 합니다
                 stack.pop_all()

         def __enter__(self):
             resource = self.acquire_resource()
             with self._cleanup_on_error():
                 if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
                     msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
                     raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
             return resource

         def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
             # 자원 해제 로직을 중복할 필요가 없습니다
             self.release_resource()


File: python.info,  Node: try-finally와 플래그 변수 사용 교체하기,  Next: 함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기,  Prev: __enter__ 구현에서 정리하기,  Up: 예제와 조리법<3>

5.29.8.6 ‘try-finally’와 플래그 변수 사용 교체하기
..................................................

때때로 보이는 패턴은 ‘finally’ 절의 본문을 실행할지를 나타내는 플래그 변
수가 있는 ‘try-finally’ 문입니다.  가장 간단한 형태(단지 대신 ‘except’ 절
을 사용하는 것만으로 이미 처리되었을 수 없는)는 다음과 같습니다:

     cleanup_needed = True
     try:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cleanup_needed = False
     finally:
         if cleanup_needed:
             cleanup_resources()

다른 ‘try’ 문 기반 코드와 마찬가지로, 설정 코드와 정리 코드가 임의로 긴
코드 섹션으로 분리될 수 있어서 개발과 검토에 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다.

*note ExitStack: b26.을 사용하면 대신 ‘with’ 문의 끝에서 실행할 콜백을 등
록한 다음 나중에 해당 콜백 실행을 건너뛰기로 할 수 있습니다:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

이를 통해 별도의 플래그 변수를 요구하지 않고, 의도하는 정리 동작을 사전
에 명시적으로 만들 수 있습니다.

특정 응용 프로그램에서 이 패턴을 많이 사용한다면, 작은 도우미 클래스를 사
용하여 훨씬 더 단순화할 수 있습니다:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     class Callback(ExitStack):
         def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
             super().__init__()
             self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)

         def cancel(self):
             self.pop_all()

     with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cb.cancel()

자원 정리가 아직 독립 함수로 깔끔하게 번들 되어 있지 않으면, *note
ExitStack.callback(): a80.의 데코레이터 형식을 사용하여 자원 정리를 미리
선언할 수 있습니다:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         @stack.callback
         def cleanup_resources():
             ...
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

데코레이터 프로토콜의 작동 방식으로 인해, 이 방법으로 선언된 콜백 함수는
아무런 매개 변수도 취할 수 없습니다.  대신 해제할 모든 자원은 클로저
(closure) 변수로 액세스해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기,  Prev: try-finally와 플래그 변수 사용 교체하기,  Up: 예제와 조리법<3>

5.29.8.7 함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기
...................................................

*note ContextDecorator: 11f0.를 사용하면 일반적인 ‘with’ 문과 함수 데코
레이터 모두로 컨텍스트 관리자를 사용할 수 있습니다.

예를 들어, 진입 시간과 탈출 시간을 추적할 수 있는 로거(logger)로 함수나
문장 그룹을 감싸는 것이 유용할 때가 있습니다.  작업에 대한 함수 데코레이
터와 컨텍스트 관리자를 모두 작성하는 대신, *note ContextDecorator:
11f0.를 상속하면 두 가지 기능을 하나의 정의로 제공합니다:

     from contextlib import ContextDecorator
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def __enter__(self):
             logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
             logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)

이 클래스의 인스턴스는 컨텍스트 관리자로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

또한 함수 데코레이터로도 사용할 수 있습니다:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

컨텍스트 관리자를 함수 데코레이터로 사용할 때 한 가지 추가 제한 사항이 있
음에 유의하십시오: *note __enter__(): 5c2.의 반환 값에 액세스 할 수 있는
방법이 없습니다.  이 값이 필요하면, 여전히 명시적인 ‘with’ 문을 사용할 필
요가 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 343(1)- “with” 문

     파이썬 *note with: 5cc. 문의 명세, 배경 및 예

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: 일회용 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 예제와 조리법<3>,  Up: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티

5.29.8.8 일회용, 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자
...........................................................

대부분의 컨텍스트 관리자는 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 한 번만 효과적으로 사
용할 수 있다는 것을 의미하는 방식으로 작성됩니다.  이러한 일회용 컨텍스
트 관리자는 사용될 때마다 새로 만들어야 합니다 - 두 번째로 사용하려고 하
면 예외가 발생하거나 올바르게 작동하지 않습니다.

이 흔한 제한 사항은 일반적으로 컨텍스트 관리자가 사용되는 *note with:
5cc. 문의 헤더에서 컨텍스트 관리자를 직접 만들도록 권고하게 합니다 (위의
모든 사용 예제에서 보이듯이).

파일은 효과적인 일회용 컨텍스트 관리자의 예입니다, 첫 번째 *note with:
5cc. 문이 파일을 닫아서, 해당 파일 객체를 사용하는 추가 IO 연산을 막기 때
문입니다.

*note contextmanager(): 11f1.를 사용하여 만들어진 컨텍스트 관리자도 일회
용 컨텍스트 관리자이며, 두 번째로 사용하려는 경우 하부 제너레이터가 산출
에 실패하는 것에 대해 불평합니다:

     >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
     >>> @contextmanager
     ... def singleuse():
     ...     print("Before")
     ...     yield
     ...     print("After")
     ...
     >>> cm = singleuse()
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Before
     After
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     RuntimeError: generator didn't yield

* Menu:

* 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자::
* 재사용 가능 컨텍스트 관리자::


File: python.info,  Node: 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자,  Next: 재사용 가능 컨텍스트 관리자,  Up: 일회용 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자

5.29.8.9 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자
....................................

더욱 정교한 컨텍스트 관리자는 “재진입”할 수 있습니다.  이러한 컨텍스트 관
리자는 여러 *note with: 5cc. 문에서 사용될 수 있을 뿐만 아니라 이미 같은
컨텍스트 관리자를 사용하는 ‘with’ 문 '내부에서' 사용될 수도 있습니다.

*note threading.RLock: 2e0.은 *note suppress(): f1e, *note
redirect_stdout(): de4. 및 *note chdir(): 606.과 같이 재진입 가능 컨텍스
트 관리자의 예입니다.  재진입 사용의 매우 간단한 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> stream = StringIO()
     >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
     >>> with write_to_stream:
     ...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
     ...     with write_to_stream:
     ...         print("This is also written to the stream")
     ...
     >>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
     This is written directly to stdout
     >>> print(stream.getvalue())
     This is written to the stream rather than stdout
     This is also written to the stream

재진입의 실제 예는 서로를 호출하는 여러 함수를 포함할 가능성이 높아서 이
예보다 훨씬 더 복잡합니다.

재진입 가능하다는 것이 스레드 안전하다는 것과 같지 '않음'에도 유의하십시
오.  예를 들어, *note redirect_stdout(): de4.은 *note sys.stdout: ad3.을
다른 스트림으로 연결하여 시스템 상태를 전역적으로 수정하므로 명백히 스레
드 안전하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 재사용 가능 컨텍스트 관리자,  Prev: 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자,  Up: 일회용 재사용 가능 및 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자

5.29.8.10 재사용 가능 컨텍스트 관리자
.....................................

일회용과 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자와 구별되는 “재사용할 수 있는” 컨텍
스트 관리자입니다 (또는 재진입 가능 컨텍스트 관리자도 재사용 가능하므로,
완전히 명시적이려면 “재사용할 수 있지만 재진입할 수 없는” 컨텍스트 관리
자입니다).  이러한 컨텍스트 관리자는 여러 번 사용되는 것을 지원하지만, 같
은 컨텍스트 관리자 인스턴스가 포함하는 with 문에서 이미 사용되었으면 실
패합니다 (또는 올바르게 작동하지 않습니다).

*note threading.Lock: 167e.은 재사용할 수 있지만 재진입할 수 없는 컨텍스
트 관리자의 예입니다 (재진입 가능 록을 위해서는 *note threading.RLock:
2e0.을 대신 사용해야 합니다).

재사용할 수 있지만 재진입할 수 없는 컨텍스트 관리자의 또 다른 예는 *note
ExitStack: b26.인 데, 콜백이 추가된 위치와 관계없이 with 문을 떠날 때 현
재 등록된 콜백을 '모두' 호출하기 때문입니다:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> stack = ExitStack()
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
     ...     print("Leaving first context")
     ...
     Leaving first context
     Callback: from first context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
     ...     print("Leaving second context")
     ...
     Leaving second context
     Callback: from second context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with stack:
     ...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Callback: from outer context
     Leaving outer context

예제의 결과가 보여주듯이, 여러 with 문에서 단일 스택 객체를 재사용하는 것
은 올바르게 작동하지만, 중첩을 시도하면 가장 안쪽 with 문 끝에서 스택이
지워지기 때문에 바람직한 동작이 아닙니다.

단일 인스턴스를 재사용하는 대신 별도의 *note ExitStack: b26. 인스턴스를
사용하면 이 문제를 피할 수 있습니다:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
     ...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
     ...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Leaving outer context
     Callback: from outer context


File: python.info,  Node: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스,  Next: atexit — 종료 처리기,  Prev: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.9 ‘abc’ — 추상 베이스 클래스
---------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은, PEP 3119(2)에서 설명된 대로, 파이썬에서 *note 추상 베이스
클래스: 11a5. (ABC) 를 정의하기 위한 기반 구조를 제공합니다; 이것이 왜 파
이썬에 추가되었는지는 PEP를 참조하십시오.  (ABC를 기반으로 하는 숫자의 형
계층 구조에 관해서는 PEP 3141(3)과 *note numbers: 9e. 모듈을 참고하십시
오.)

*note collections: 1d. 모듈은 ABC로부터 파생된 몇 가지 구상(concrete) 클
래스를 가지고 있습니다; 이것은 물론 더 파생될 수 있습니다.  또한, *note
collections.abc: 1e. 서브 모듈에는 클래스나 인스턴스가 특정 인터페이스를
(예를 들어, *note 해시 가능: 60a.이거나 *note 매핑: 11ab.이면) 제공하는
지 검사하는 데 사용할 수 있는 ABC가 있습니다.

이 모듈은 ABC를 정의하기 위한 메타 클래스 *note ABCMeta: f10.와 상속을 통
해 ABC를 정의하는 대안적 방법을 제공하는 도우미 클래스 *note ABC: f0f.를
제공합니다:

 -- 클래스: abc.ABC

     *note ABCMeta: f10.를 메타 클래스로 가지는 도우미 클래스.  이 클래
     스를 사용하면, 때로 혼란스러운 메타 클래스를 사용하지 않고, 추상 베
     이스 클래스를 간단히 ‘ABC’에서 파생시켜서 만들 수 있습니다.  예를 들
     어:

          from abc import ABC

          class MyABC(ABC):
              pass

     ‘ABC’ 의 형은 여전히 *note ABCMeta: f10. 이므로, ‘ABC’를 상속할 때
     는 메타 클래스 사용에 관한 일반적인 주의가 필요한데, 다중 상속이 메
     타 클래스 충돌을 일으킬 수 있기 때문입니다.  metaclass 키워드를 전
     달하고 ‘ABCMeta’를 직접 사용해서 추상 베이스 클래스를 정의할 수도 있
     습니다, 예를 들어:

          from abc import ABCMeta

          class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
              pass

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 클래스: abc.ABCMeta

     추상 베이스 클래스 (ABC)를 정의하기 위한 메타 클래스.

     이 메타 클래스를 사용하여 ABC를 만듭니다.  ABC는 직접 서브 클래싱 될
     수 있으며 믹스인 클래스의 역할을 합니다.  관련 없는 구상 클래스(심
     지어 내장 클래스도)와 관련 없는 ABC를 “가상 서브 클래스”로 등록 할
     수 있습니다 – 이들과 이들의 서브 클래스는 내장 *note issubclass():
     7ba. 함수에 의해 등록하는 ABC의 서브 클래스로 간주합니다.  하지만 등
     록하는 ABC는 그들의 MRO (메서드 결정 순서)에 나타나지 않을 것이고,
     등록하는 ABC가 정의한 메서드 구현도 호출할 수 없을 것입니다 (*note
     super(): 4d5.를 통해서도 가능하지 않습니다).  (4)

     ‘ABCMeta’를 메타 클래스로 생성된 클래스는 다음과 같은 메서드를 가집
     니다:

      -- 메서드: register (subclass)

          이 ABC의 “가상 서브 클래스”로 'subclass' 를 등록합니다.  예를
          들면:

               from abc import ABC

               class MyABC(ABC):
                   pass

               MyABC.register(tuple)

               assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
               assert isinstance((), MyABC)

          버전 3.3에서 변경: 클래스 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있도록, 등록
          된 subclass 돌려줍니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘register()’ 호출을 감지하려면, *note
          get_cache_token(): f0e. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.

     추상 베이스 클래스에서 다음 메서드를 재정의할 수도 있습니다:

      -- 메서드: __subclasshook__ (subclass)

          (반드시 클래스 메서드로 정의되어야 합니다.)

          'subclass' 를 이 ABC의 서브 클래스로 간주할지를 검사합니다.  이
          것은, ABC의 서브 클래스로 취급하고 싶은 클래스마다 *note
          register(): 107f.를 호출할 필요 없이, *note issubclass(): 7ba.
          의 행동을 더 사용자 정의할 수 있음을 의미합니다.  (이 클래스 메
          서드는 ABC의 *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f85. 메서드에서 호출
          됩니다.)

          이 메서드는 ‘True’, ‘False’ 또는 *note NotImplemented: 7cb. 를
          반환해야 합니다.  ‘True’ 를 반환하면, 'subclass' 를 이 ABC의 서
          브 클래스로 간주합니다.  ‘False’ 를 반환하면, 'subclass' 를
          ABC의 서브 클래스로 간주하지 않습니다.  ‘NotImplemented’ 를 반
          환하면, 서브 클래스 검사가 일반적인 메커니즘으로 계속됩니다.

     이러한 개념들의 시연으로, 이 예제 ABC 정의를 보십시오:

          class Foo:
              def __getitem__(self, index):
                  ...
              def __len__(self):
                  ...
              def get_iterator(self):
                  return iter(self)

          class MyIterable(ABC):

              @abstractmethod
              def __iter__(self):
                  while False:
                      yield None

              def get_iterator(self):
                  return self.__iter__()

              @classmethod
              def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
                  if cls is MyIterable:
                      if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
                          return True
                  return NotImplemented

          MyIterable.register(Foo)

     ABC ‘MyIterable’ 은 추상 메서드로 *note __iter__(): 1f64. 라는 표준
     이터러블 메서드를 정의합니다.  여기에 제공된 구현은 여전히 서브 클
     래스에서 호출 할 수 있습니다.  ‘get_iterator()’ 메서드 또한
     ‘MyIterable’ 추상 베이스 클래스의 일부이지만, 추상이 아닌 파생 클래
     스에서 재정의될 필요는 없습니다.

     여기에 정의된 *note __subclasshook__(): 2539. 클래스 메서드는 자신
     의 (또는 그것의 *note __mro__: 1f31. 리스트를 통해 액세스 되는 베이
     스 클래스 중 하나의) *note __dict__: 556. 에 *note __iter__():
     1f64. 메서드를 가진 모든 클래스도 ‘MyIterable’ 로 간주한다고 말합니
     다.

     마지막으로, 마지막 줄은, ‘Foo’ 가 *note __iter__(): 1f64. 메서드를
     정의하지는 않았음에도 불구하고 (이것은 *note __len__(): 1f6b. 과
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 로 정의되는 이전 스타일의 이터러블 프로토
     콜을 사용합니다), ‘MyIterable’ 의 가상 서브 클래스로 만듭니다.  이
     렇게 하면 ‘get_iterator’ 가 ‘Foo’ 의 메서드로 사용할 수 있지 않으므
     로, 별도로 제공됩니다.

‘abc’ 모듈은 다음 데코레이터도 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: @abc.abstractmethod

     추상 메서드를 나타내는 데코레이터.

     이 데코레이터를 사용하려면 클래스의 메타 클래스가 *note ABCMeta:
     f10. 이거나 여기에서 파생된 것이어야 합니다.  ‘ABCMeta’ 에서 파생된
     메타 클래스를 가진 클래스는 모든 추상 메서드와 프로퍼티가 재정의되
     지 않는 한 인스턴스로 만들 수 없습니다.  추상 메서드는 일반적인
     ‘super’ 호출 메커니즘을 사용하여 호출 할 수 있습니다.
     ‘abstractmethod()’ 는 프로퍼티와 디스크립터에 대한 추상 메서드를 선
     언하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     클래스에 추상 메서드를 동적으로 추가하거나, 메서드나 클래스가 작성
     된 후에 추상화 상태를 수정하려고 시도하는 것은 *note
     update_abstractmethods(): 4425. 함수를 통해서만 지원됩니다.
     ‘abstractmethod()’ 는 정규 상속을 사용하여 파생된 서브 클래스에만 영
     향을 줍니다; ABC의 *note register(): 107f. 메서드로 등록된 “가상 서
     브 클래스” 는 영향을 받지 않습니다.

     ‘abstractmethod()’ 가 다른 메서드 디스크립터와 함께 적용될 때, 다음
     사용 예제와 같이 가장 안쪽의 데코레이터로 적용되어야 합니다:

          class C(ABC):
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_method(self, arg1):
                  ...
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2):
                  ...
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3):
                  ...

              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...
              @my_abstract_property.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self, val):
                  ...

              @abstractmethod
              def _get_x(self):
                  ...
              @abstractmethod
              def _set_x(self, val):
                  ...
              x = property(_get_x, _set_x)

     추상 베이스 클래스 장치와 정확하게 상호 작용하기 위해서, 디스크립터
     는 ‘__isabstractmethod__’ 를 사용하여 자신을 추상으로 식별해야 합니
     다.  일반적으로 이 어트리뷰트는 디스크립터를 구성하는 데 사용된 메
     서드 중 어느 하나라도 추상이면 ‘True’ 여야 합니다.  예를 들어, 파이
     썬의 내장 *note property: 194.는 다음과 동등한 일을 합니다:

          class Descriptor:
              ...
              @property
              def __isabstractmethod__(self):
                  return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
                             f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))

          참고: 자바 추상 메서드와 달리, 이 추상 메서드는 구현을 가질 수
          있습니다.  이 구현은 그것을 재정의하는 클래스에서 *note
          super(): 4d5. 메커니즘을 통해 호출 할 수 있습니다.  이는 협업
          적 다중 상속을 사용하는 프레임워크에서 super-호출의 종점으로 유
          용 할 수 있습니다.

‘abc’ 모듈은 다음 레거시 데코레이터도 지원합니다:

 -- 함수: @abc.abstractclassmethod

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3부터 폐지됨: 이제 *note classmethod: 166. 와 *note
     abstractmethod(): 107c. 를 함께 사용할 수 있어서, 이 데코레이터는 필
     요 없습니다.

     내장 *note classmethod(): 166. 의 서브 클래스로, 추상 classmethod를
     나타냅니다.  그 외에는 *note abstractmethod(): 107c. 와 유사합니다.

     *note classmethod(): 166. 데코레이터가 이제 추상 메서드에 적용될 때
     추상으로 정확하게 식별되기 때문에, 이 특별한 경우는 폐지되었습니다
     .:

          class C(ABC):
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg):
                  ...

 -- 함수: @abc.abstractstaticmethod

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3부터 폐지됨: 이제 *note staticmethod: 410. 와 *note
     abstractmethod(): 107c. 를 함께 사용할 수 있어서, 이 데코레이터는 필
     요 없습니다.

     내장 *note staticmethod(): 410. 의 서브 클래스로, 추상
     staticmethod를 나타냅니다.  그 외에는 *note abstractmethod(): 107c.
     와 유사합니다.

     *note staticmethod(): 410. 데코레이터가 이제 추상 메서드에 적용될 때
     추상으로 정확하게 식별되기 때문에, 이 특별한 경우는 폐지되었습니다
     .:

          class C(ABC):
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg):
                  ...

 -- 함수: @abc.abstractproperty

     버전 3.3부터 폐지됨: 이제 *note property: 194, *note
     property.getter(): 1661, *note property.setter(): 1662, *note
     property.deleter(): 1663. 와 *note abstractmethod(): 107c. 를 함께
     사용할 수 있어서, 이 데코레이터는 필요 없습니다.

     내장 *note property(): 194. 의 서브 클래스로, 추상 property를 나타
     냅니다.

     *note property(): 194. 데코레이터가 이제 추상 메서드에 적용될 때 추
     상으로 정확하게 식별되기 때문에, 이 특별한 경우는 폐지되었습니다.:

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...

     위의 예제는 읽기 전용 프로퍼티를 정의합니다; 하나나 그 이상의 하부
     메서드를 추상으로 적절하게 표시하여 읽기-쓰기 추상 프로퍼티를 정의
     할 수도 있습니다:

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  ...

              @x.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

     일부 구성 요소만 추상인 경우, 서브 클래스에서 구상 프로퍼티를 만들
     기 위해서는 해당 구성 요소만 갱신하면 됩니다:

          class D(C):
              @C.x.setter
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

‘abc’ 모듈은 또한 다음과 같은 기능을 제공합니다 :

 -- 함수: abc.get_cache_token ()

     현재의 추상 베이스 클래스 캐시 토큰을 반환합니다.

     토큰은 가상 서브 클래스를 위한 추상 베이스 클래스 캐시의 현재 버전
     을 식별하는 (동등성 검사를 지원하는) 불투명 객체입니다.  임의의
     ABC에서 *note ABCMeta.register(): 107f. 가 호출될 때마다 토큰이 변
     경됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: abc.update_abstractmethods (cls)

     A function to recalculate an abstract class’s abstraction status.
     This function should be called if a class’s abstract methods have
     been implemented or changed after it was created.  Usually, this
     function should be called from within a class decorator.

     클래스 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있도록, 'cls'를 돌려줍니다.

     If 'cls' is not an instance of *note ABCMeta: f10, does nothing.

          참고: This function assumes that 'cls'’s superclasses are
          already updated.  It does not update any subclasses.

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (4) C++ 프로그래머는 파이썬의 가상 베이스 클래스 개념이 C++과 다르다
는 것을 알아야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: atexit — 종료 처리기,  Next: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회,  Prev: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.10 ‘atexit’ — 종료 처리기
------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note atexit: c. 모듈은 정리 함수를 등록하고 해제하는 함수를 정의합니다.
이렇게 등록된 함수는 정상적인 인터프리터 종료 시 자동으로 실행됩니다.
*note atexit: c.는 이 함수들을 등록된 '역순' 으로 실행합니다; ‘A’, ‘B’,
‘C’ 를 등록하면, 인터프리터 종료 시각에 ‘C’, ‘B’, ‘A’ 순서로 실행됩니다.

'참고:' 이 모듈을 통해 등록된 함수는 다음과 같은 경우 호출되지 않습니다.
프로그램이 파이썬이 처리하지 않는 시그널에 의해 종료될 때.  파이썬의 치
명적인 내부 에러가 감지되었을 때.  *note os._exit(): 22a0. 가 호출될 때.

'Note:' The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within
a cleanup function is undefined.

버전 3.7에서 변경: C-API 서브 인터프리터와 함께 사용될 때, 등록된 함수는
등록된 인터프리터에 국지적입니다.

 -- 함수: atexit.register (func, *args, **kwargs)

     'func' 를 종료 시에 실행할 함수로 등록합니다.  'func' 에 전달되어야
     하는 선택적 인자는 *note register(): 879. 에 인자로 전달되어야 합니
     다.  같은 함수와 인자를 두 번 이상 등록 할 수 있습니다.

     정상적인 프로그램 종료 시에 (예를 들어, *note sys.exit(): 1339. 가
     호출되거나 주 모듈의 실행이 완료된 경우에), 등록된 모든 함수는 후입
     선출 순서로 호출됩니다.  낮은 수준의 모듈은 일반적으로 상위 수준 모
     듈보다 먼저 임포트 되기 때문에 나중에 정리해야 한다는 가정입니다.

     종료 처리기의 실행 중에 예외가 발생하면 (*note SystemExit: d3d.가 발
     생하지 않는다면) 트레이스백이 인쇄되고 예외 정보가 저장됩니다.  모
     든 종료 처리기가 실행될 기회를 얻은 후에, 발생한 마지막 예외를 다시
     일으킵니다.

     이 함수는 'func' 을 반환하므로 데코레이터로 사용할 수 있습니다.

          경고: Starting new threads or calling *note os.fork(): 197.
          from a registered function can lead to race condition between
          the main Python runtime thread freeing thread states while
          internal *note threading: ed. routines or the new process try
          to use that state.  This can lead to crashes rather than clean
          shutdown.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Attempts to start a new thread or *note
     os.fork(): 197. a new process in a registered function now leads to
     *note RuntimeError: 195.

 -- 함수: atexit.unregister (func)

     인터프리터 종료 시 실행할 함수 목록에서 'func' 를 제거합니다.
     *note unregister(): 4428. 는 'func' 가 이전에 등록되지 않았다면 아
     무것도 하지 않습니다.  'func'가 두 번 이상 등록되었으면, *note
     atexit: c. 호출 스택에서 해당 함수를 모두 제거합니다.  등록을 해제
     하는 동안 내부적으로 동등 비교(‘==’)가 사용되므로, 함수 참조는 대응
     하는 아이덴티티가 필요 없습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note readline: ba.

     *note readline: ba. 히스토리 파일을 읽고 쓰는 *note atexit: c. 의 유
     용한 예.

* Menu:

* atexit 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: atexit 예제,  Up: atexit — 종료 처리기

5.29.10.1 ‘atexit’ 예제
.......................

다음의 간단한 예제는, 모듈이 임포트 될 때 파일에서 카운터를 읽고 프로그
램이 종료할 때 프로그램의 명시적인 호출에 의존하지 않고 카운터의 변경된
값을 자동으로 저장하는 방법을 보여줍니다.:

     try:
         with open('counterfile') as infile:
             _count = int(infile.read())
     except FileNotFoundError:
         _count = 0

     def incrcounter(n):
         global _count
         _count = _count + n

     def savecounter():
         with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile:
             outfile.write('%d' % _count)

     import atexit

     atexit.register(savecounter)

위치 및 키워드 인자가 등록된 함수가 호출될 때 전달되도록 *note
register(): 879. 에 전달할 수 있습니다:

     def goodbye(name, adjective):
         print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))

     import atexit

     atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
     # or:
     atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')

*note 데코레이터: 72a. 로 사용하기:

     import atexit

     @atexit.register
     def goodbye():
         print('You are now leaving the Python sector.')

이 방법은 인자 없이 호출할 수 있는 함수에서만 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회,  Next: __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의,  Prev: atexit — 종료 처리기,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.11 ‘traceback’ — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회
-------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/traceback.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print
stack traces of Python programs.  It is more flexible than the
interpreter’s default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible
to configure certain aspects of the output.  Finally, it contains a
utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it
later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception.
Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility
can significantly improve memory management.

The module uses *note traceback objects: af0. — these are objects of
type *note types.TracebackType: aef, which are assigned to the *note
__traceback__: 12b6. field of *note BaseException: 5b5. instances.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note faulthandler: 58.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

모듈 *note pdb: a5.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

The module’s API can be divided into two parts:

   * Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are
     useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.

   * *note TracebackException: 25c. class and its helper classes *note
     StackSummary: e7b. and *note FrameSummary: e7c.  These offer both
     more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store
     the information necessary for later formatting without holding
     references to actual exception and traceback objects.

* Menu:

* 모듈 수준 함수: 모듈 수준 함수<2>.
* TracebackException 객체::
* StackSummary 객체::
* FrameSummary 객체::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* TracebackException을 사용하는 예제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/traceback.py


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 수준 함수<2>,  Next: TracebackException 객체,  Up: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

5.29.11.1 모듈 수준 함수
........................

 -- 함수: traceback.print_tb (tb, limit=None, file=None)

     'limit'가 양수면 (호출자 프레임에서 시작하여) *note 트레이스백
     객체: af0. 'tb'의 최대 'limit' 개의 스택 트레이스 항목을 인쇄합니다
     .  그렇지 않으면, 마지막 ‘abs(limit)’ 항목을 인쇄합니다.  'limit'가
     생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 모든 항목이 인쇄됩니다.  'file'이 생략되거나
     ‘None’이면, 출력은 *note sys.stderr: 937.로 갑니다; 그렇지 않으면 출
     력을 받을 열린 *note 파일: 11b2.이나 *note 파일류 객체: 2597.여야 합
     니다.

          참고: The meaning of the 'limit' parameter is different than
          the meaning of *note sys.tracebacklimit: 15e2.  A negative
          'limit' value corresponds to a positive value of
          ‘sys.tracebacklimit’, whereas the behaviour of a positive
          'limit' value cannot be achieved with ‘sys.tracebacklimit’.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 음수 'limit' 지원을 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.print_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None,
          file=None, chain=True)

     예외 정보와 *note 트레이스백 객체: af0. 'tb'의 스택 트레이스 항목을
     'file'로 인쇄합니다.  이것은 다음과 같은 점에서 *note print_tb():
     e7d.와 다릅니다:

        * 'tb'가 ‘None’이 아니면, 헤더 ‘Traceback (most recent call
          last):’를 인쇄합니다.

        * 스택 트레이스 다음에 예외 형과 'value'를 인쇄합니다

        * 'type(value)'가 *note SyntaxError: 18d.고 'value'가 적절한 형
          식을 가지면, 에러의 대략적인 위치를 나타내는 캐럿(caret)과 함
          께 문법 에러가 발생한 줄을 인쇄합니다.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value' and 'tb', an
     exception object can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value'
     and 'tb' are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to
     provide backwards compatibility.

     선택적 'limit' 인자는 *note print_tb(): e7d.와 같은 의미입니다.
     'chain'이 참(기본값)이면, 처리되지 않은 예외를 인쇄할 때 인터프리터
     자체가 하는 것과 마찬가지로, 연결된 예외(예외의 *note __cause__:
     12b8.나 *note __context__: 12b7. 어트리뷰트)도 인쇄됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'etype' 인자는 무시되고 'value' 형에서 유추됩니
     다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to 'exc'
     and is now positional-only.

 -- 함수: traceback.print_exc (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     이것은 ‘print_exception(sys.exception(), limit=limit, file=file,
     chain=chain)’의 줄임 표현입니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.print_last (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     이것은 ‘print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit, file=file,
     chain=chain)’의 줄임 표현입니다.  일반적으로 예외가 대화식 프롬프트
     에 도달한 후에만 작동합니다 (*note sys.last_exc: 4b8.을 참조하십시
     오).

 -- 함수: traceback.print_stack (f=None, limit=None, file=None)

     'limit'가 양수면 (호출 지점에서 시작하여) 최대 'limit' 개의 스택 트
     레이스 항목을 인쇄합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 마지막 ‘abs(limit)’ 항목
     을 인쇄합니다.  'limit'가 생략되거나 ‘None’이면, 모든 항목이 인쇄됩
     니다.  선택적 'f' 인자를 사용하여 시작할 대체 *note 스택 프레임:
     6d9.을 지정할 수 있습니다.  선택적 'file' 인자는 *note print_tb():
     e7d.와 같은 의미입니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 음수 'limit' 지원을 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.extract_tb (tb, limit=None)

     *note 트레이스백 객체: af0. 'tb'에서 추출된 “전 처리된” 스택 트레이
     스 항목의 리스트를 나타내는 *note StackSummary: e7b. 객체를 반환합
     니다.  스택 트레이스의 대체 포매팅으로 유용합니다.  선택적 'limit'
     인자는 *note print_tb(): e7d.와 같은 의미입니다.  “전 처리된” 스택
     트레이스 항목은 일반적으로 스택 트레이스를 위해 인쇄되는 정보를 나
     타내는 어트리뷰트 *note filename: 4430, *note lineno: 4431, *note
     name: 4432. 및 *note line: 4433.을 포함하는 *note FrameSummary:
     e7c. 객체입니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.extract_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     현재 *note 스택 프레임: 6d9.에서 날 트레이스백을 추출합니다.  반환
     값은 *note extract_tb(): 442f.와 같은 형식입니다.  선택적 'f'와
     'limit' 인자는 *note print_stack(): e7e.과 같은 의미입니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.print_list (extracted_list, file=None)

     Print the list of tuples as returned by *note extract_tb(): 442f.
     or *note extract_stack(): 4434. as a formatted stack trace to the
     given file.  If 'file' is ‘None’, the output is written to *note
     sys.stderr: 937.

 -- 함수: traceback.format_list (extracted_list)

     *note extract_tb(): 442f.나 *note extract_stack(): 4434.이 반환한 튜
     플이나 *note FrameSummary: e7c. 객체의 리스트가 제공되면, 인쇄할 준
     비가 된 문자열의 리스트를 반환합니다.  결과 리스트의 각 문자열은 인
     자 리스트에서 같은 인덱스를 가진 항목에 해당합니다.  각 문자열은 줄
     바꿈으로 끝납니다; 소스 텍스트 줄이 ‘None’이 아닌 항목의 경우, 문자
     열에 내부 줄 바꿈도 포함될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.format_exception_only (exc, /[, value], *,
          show_group=False)

     트레이스백의 예외 부분을 *note sys.last_value: 4ba.로 주어진 것과 같
     은 예외 값을 사용하여 포맷합니다.  반환 값은 각각 줄 바꿈으로 끝나
     는 문자열의 리스트입니다.  리스트는 예외 메시지를 포함하는데, 일반
     적으로 단일 문자열입니다; 그러나, *note SyntaxError: 18d. 예외의 경
     우, 문법 에러가 발생한 위치에 대한 자세한 정보를 (인쇄될 때) 표시하
     는 여러 줄을 포함합니다.  어떤 예외가 발생했는지를 나타내는 메시지
     는 리스트에서 항상 마지막 문자열입니다.  메시지 다음으로, 리스트는
     예외의 *note notes: 228a.를 포함합니다.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value', an exception object
     can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value' is provided, the
     first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards
     compatibility.

     When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance of
     *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f, the nested exceptions are included
     as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting
     depth.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to 'exc'
     and is now positional-only.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The returned list now includes any *note notes:
     228a. attached to the exception.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'show_group' parameter was added.

 -- 함수: traceback.format_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None,
          chain=True)

     스택 트레이스와 예외 정보를 포맷합니다.  인자는 *note
     print_exception(): 849.의 해당하는 인자와 같은 의미입니다.  반환 값
     은 각각 줄 바꿈으로 끝나고 일부는 내부 줄 바꿈을 포함하는 문자열의
     리스트입니다.  이 줄들을 이어붙여서 인쇄하면, *note
     print_exception(): 849.과 정확히 같은 텍스트가 인쇄됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'etype' 인자는 무시되고 'value' 형에서 유추됩니
     다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function’s behavior and signature were
     modified to match *note print_exception(): 849.

 -- 함수: traceback.format_exc (limit=None, chain=True)

     이것은 ‘print_exc(limit)’와 비슷하지만, 파일로 인쇄하는 대신 문자열
     을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.format_tb (tb, limit=None)

     ‘format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))’의 줄임 표현입니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.format_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     ‘format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))’의 줄임 표현입니다.

 -- 함수: traceback.clear_frames (tb)

     각 *note 프레임 객체: 6d9.의 *note clear(): 280. 메서드를 호출하여
     *note 트레이스백: af0. 'tb'에 있는 모든 스택 프레임의 지역 변수를 지
     웁니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: traceback.walk_stack (f)

     주어진 프레임에서 *note f.f_back: 785.을 따라 스택을 걸어가며 각 프
     레임의 프레임과 줄 번호를 산출(yield)합니다.  'f'가 ‘None’이면, 현
     재 스택이 사용됩니다.  이 도우미는 *note StackSummary.extract():
     4439.와 함께 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: traceback.walk_tb (tb)

     *note tb_next: af1.를 따라 트레이스백을 걸으면서 각 프레임의 프레임
     과 줄 번호를 산출(yield)합니다.  이 도우미는 *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 4439.와 함께 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: TracebackException 객체,  Next: StackSummary 객체,  Prev: 모듈 수준 함수<2>,  Up: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

5.29.11.2 ‘TracebackException’ 객체
...................................

Added in version 3.5.

‘TracebackException’ objects are created from actual exceptions to
capture data for later printing.  They offer a more lightweight method
of storing this information by avoiding holding references to *note
traceback: af0. and *note frame: 6d9. objects.  In addition, they expose
more options to configure the output compared to the module-level
functions described above.

 -- 클래스: traceback.TracebackException (exc_type, exc_value,
          exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True,
          capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15,
          max_group_depth=10)

     나중에 렌더링하기 위해 예외를 포착합니다.  'limit', 'lookup_lines'
     및 'capture_locals'의 의미는 *note StackSummary: e7b. 클래스와 같습
     니다.

     If 'compact' is true, only data that is required by
     ‘TracebackException’’s *note format(): 619. method is saved in the
     class attributes.  In particular, the *note __context__: 443b.
     field is calculated only if *note __cause__: 443c. is ‘None’ and
     *note __suppress_context__: 443d. is false.

     locals가 포착되면, 트레이스백에도 표시됨에 유의하십시오.

     'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' control the formatting of
     exception groups (see *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.).  The depth
     refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to
     the size of a single exception group’s exceptions array.  The
     formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Added the 'compact' parameter.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'max_group_width' and
     'max_group_depth' parameters.

      -- 속성: __cause__

          원래 *note __cause__: 12b8.의 ‘TracebackException’.

      -- 속성: __context__

          원래 *note __context__: 12b7.의 ‘TracebackException’.

      -- 속성: exceptions

          If ‘self’ represents an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, this field
          holds a list of ‘TracebackException’ instances representing
          the nested exceptions.  Otherwise it is ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 속성: __suppress_context__

          원래 예외의 *note __suppress_context__: 20c0. 값.

      -- 속성: __notes__

          The *note __notes__: 228a. value from the original exception,
          or ‘None’ if the exception does not have any notes.  If it is
          not ‘None’ is it formatted in the traceback after the
          exception string.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 속성: stack

          트레이스백을 나타내는 *note StackSummary: e7b.

      -- 속성: exc_type

          원래 트레이스백의 클래스.

          버전 3.13부터 폐지됨.

      -- 속성: exc_type_str

          원래 예외 클래스의 문자열 표시.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 속성: filename

          문법 에러일 때 - 에러가 발생한 파일 이름.

      -- 속성: lineno

          문법 에러일 때 - 에러가 발생한 줄 번호.

      -- 속성: end_lineno

          문법 에러일 때 - 에러가 발생한 끝 줄 번호.  존재하지 않으면
          ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- 속성: text

          문법 에러일 때 - 에러가 발생한 텍스트.

      -- 속성: offset

          문법 에러일 때 - 에러가 발생한 텍스트에서의 오프셋.

      -- 속성: end_offset

          문법 에러일 때 - 에러가 발생한 텍스트에서의 끝 오프셋.  존재하
          지 않으면 ‘None’일 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- 속성: msg

          문법 에러일 때 - 컴파일러 에러 메시지.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_exception (exc, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          나중에 렌더링하기 위해 예외를 포착합니다.  'limit',
          'lookup_lines' 및 'capture_locals'는 *note StackSummary: e7b.
          클래스와 같습니다.

          locals가 포착되면, 트레이스백에도 표시됨에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: print (*, file=None, chain=True)

          Print to 'file' (default ‘sys.stderr’) the exception
          information returned by *note format(): 619.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- 메서드: format (*, chain=True)

          예외를 포맷합니다.

          'chain'이 ‘True’가 아니면, *note __cause__: 443c.와 *note
          __context__: 443b.는 포맷되지 않습니다.

          반환 값은 각각 줄 바꿈으로 끝나고 일부는 내부 줄 바꿈을 포함하
          는 문자열의 제너레이터입니다.  *note print_exception(): 849.은
          단지 파일에 줄을 인쇄하는 이 메서드를 둘러싸는 래퍼입니다.

      -- 메서드: format_exception_only (*, show_group=False)

          트레이스백의 예외 부분을 포맷합니다.

          반환 값은 각각 줄 바꿈으로 끝나는 문자열의 제너레이터입니다.

          'show_group'이 ‘False’일 때, 제너레이터는 예외 메시지와 (노트
          가 있다면) 그 뒤를 따르는 노트를 방출합니다.  예외 메시지는 일
          반적으로 단일 문자열입니다; 그러나 *note SyntaxError: 18d. 예
          외의 경우, 문법 에러가 발생한 위치에 대한 자세한 정보를 (인쇄
          할 때) 표시하는 여러 줄로 구성됩니다.

          When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance
          of *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f, the nested exceptions are
          included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to
          their nesting depth.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: The exception’s *note notes: 228a. are now
          included in the output.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'show_group' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: StackSummary 객체,  Next: FrameSummary 객체,  Prev: TracebackException 객체,  Up: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

5.29.11.3 ‘StackSummary’ 객체
.............................

Added in version 3.5.

‘StackSummary’ 객체는 포맷 준비가 된 호출 스택을 나타냅니다.

 -- 클래스: traceback.StackSummary

      -- 메서드: classmethod extract (frame_gen, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          (*note walk_stack(): e79.이나 *note walk_tb(): e7a.에서 반환된
          것과 같은) 프레임 제너레이터로 ‘StackSummary’ 객체를 생성합니
          다.

          'limit'가 제공되면, 'frame_gen'에서 이 수 만큼의 프레임만 취합
          니다.  'lookup_lines'가 ‘False’이면, 반환된 *note
          FrameSummary: e7c. 객체는 아직 해당 줄을 읽지 않아서
          ‘StackSummary’를 만드는 비용을 줄입니다 (실제로 포맷되지 않을
          수 있다면 유용 할 수 있습니다).  'capture_locals'가 ‘True’이면
          , 각 ‘FrameSummary’의 지역 변수는 객체 표현(representation)으
          로 포착됩니다.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: Exceptions raised from *note repr(): 7f7.
          on a local variable (when 'capture_locals' is ‘True’) are no
          longer propagated to the caller.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_list (a_list)

          제공된 *note FrameSummary: e7c. 객체의 리스트나 이전 스타일의
          튜플 리스트로 ‘StackSummary’ 객체를 생성합니다.  각 튜플은
          'filename', 'lineno', 'name', 'line'을 요소로 하는 4-튜플이어
          야 합니다.

      -- 메서드: format ()

          인쇄 준비가 된 문자열의 리스트를 반환합니다.  결과 리스트의 각
          문자열은 스택의 단일 *note 프레임: 6d9.에 해당합니다.  각 문자
          열은 줄 바꿈으로 끝납니다; 소스 텍스트 줄이 있는 항목의 경우,
          문자열에 내부 줄 바꿈도 포함될 수 있습니다.

          같은 프레임과 줄의 긴 시퀀스의 경우, 처음 몇 번의 반복이 표시
          된 다음, 정확한 추가의 반복 횟수를 나타내는 요약 줄이 표시됩니
          다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 반복되는 프레임의 긴 시퀀스가 이제 축약됩니
          다.

      -- 메서드: format_frame_summary (frame_summary)

          Returns a string for printing one of the *note frames: 6d9.
          involved in the stack.  This method is called for each *note
          FrameSummary: e7c. object to be printed by *note
          StackSummary.format(): 444c.  If it returns ‘None’, the frame
          is omitted from the output.

          Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: FrameSummary 객체,  Next: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Prev: StackSummary 객체,  Up: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

5.29.11.4 ‘FrameSummary’ 객체
.............................

Added in version 3.5.

‘FrameSummary’ 객체는 *note 트레이스백: af0.에서 단일 *note 프레임:
6d9.을 나타냅니다.

 -- 클래스: traceback.FrameSummary (filename, lineno, name, *,
          lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None, end_lineno=None,
          colno=None, end_colno=None)

     포맷되거나 인쇄 중인 *note 트레이스백: af0.이나 스택의 단일 *note
     프레임: 6d9.을 나타냅니다.  선택적으로 문자열로 변환된 버전의 프레
     임 지역 변수를 포함할 수 있습니다.  'lookup_line'이 ‘False’이면,
     ‘FrameSummary’의 *note line: 4433. 어트리뷰트에 액세스할 때까지
     (*note tuple: 369.로 캐스트 할 때도 발생합니다) 소스 코드를 찾지 않
     습니다.  *note line: 4433.은 직접 제공될 수 있으며, 줄 조회가 전혀
     발생하지 않도록 합니다.  'locals'는 선택적 지역 변수 매핑이며, 제공
     되면 변수 표현(representation)은 나중에 표시할 수 있도록 요약에 저
     장됩니다.

     ‘FrameSummary’ instances have the following attributes:

      -- 속성: filename

          The filename of the source code for this frame.  Equivalent to
          accessing *note f.f_code.co_filename: 1356. on a *note frame
          object: 6d9. 'f'.

      -- 속성: lineno

          The line number of the source code for this frame.

      -- 속성: name

          Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_name: 1f3e. on a
          *note frame object: 6d9. 'f'.

      -- 속성: line

          A string representing the source code for this frame, with
          leading and trailing whitespace stripped.  If the source is
          not available, it is ‘None’.

      -- 속성: end_lineno

          The last line number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is set to ‘lineno’ and indexation starts from 1.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: The default value changed from ‘None’ to
          ‘lineno’.

      -- 속성: colno

          The column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.

      -- 속성: end_colno

          The last column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Next: TracebackException을 사용하는 예제,  Prev: FrameSummary 객체,  Up: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

5.29.11.5 Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions
......................................................

이 간단한 예제는 표준 파이썬 대화식 인터프리터 루프와 비슷하지만 (하지만
덜 유용한) 기본적인 읽기-평가-인쇄 루프를 구현합니다.  인터프리터 루프의
더욱 완전한 구현은 *note code: 1a. 모듈을 참조하십시오.

     import sys, traceback

     def run_user_code(envdir):
         source = input(">>> ")
         try:
             exec(source, envdir)
         except Exception:
             print("Exception in user code:")
             print("-"*60)
             traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
             print("-"*60)

     envdir = {}
     while True:
         run_user_code(envdir)

다음 예제는 예외와 추적을 인쇄하고 포맷하는 다양한 방법을 보여줍니다:

     import sys, traceback

     def lumberjack():
         bright_side_of_life()

     def bright_side_of_life():
         return tuple()[0]

     try:
         lumberjack()
     except IndexError as exc:
         print("*** print_tb:")
         traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exception:")
         traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exc:")
         traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
         formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
         print(formatted_lines[0])
         print(formatted_lines[-1])
         print("*** format_exception:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc)))
         print("*** extract_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** format_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno)

예제의 출력은 다음과 유사합니다:

     *** print_tb:
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
     *** print_exception:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** print_exc:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exc, first and last line:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exception:
     ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n',
      'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
     *** extract_tb:
     [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>]
     *** format_tb:
     ['  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n']
     *** tb_lineno: 10

다음 예제는 스택을 인쇄하고 포맷하는 다양한 방법을 보여줍니다:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> def another_function():
     ...     lumberstack()
     ...
     >>> def lumberstack():
     ...     traceback.print_stack()
     ...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
     ...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
     ...
     >>> another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
         another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
         lumberstack()
       File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
         traceback.print_stack()
     [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
      ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
      ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
     ['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']

이 마지막 예제는 마지막 몇 가지 포매팅 함수를 예시합니다:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
     ...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
     ['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
      '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
     >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
     >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
     ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']


File: python.info,  Node: TracebackException을 사용하는 예제,  Prev: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Up: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회

5.29.11.6 ‘TracebackException’을 사용하는 예제
..............................................

With the helper class, we have more options:

     >>> import sys
     >>> from traceback import TracebackException
     >>>
     >>> def lumberjack():
     ...     bright_side_of_life()
     ...
     >>> def bright_side_of_life():
     ...     t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
     ...     return t[5]
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     lumberjack()
     ... except IndexError as e:
     ...     exc = e
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     try:
     ...         lumberjack()
     ...     except:
     ...         1/0
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     chained_exc = e
     ...
     >>> # limit 는 모듈 수준 함수처럼 작동합니다
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # capture_locals 는 프레임에 지역 변수를 추가합니다
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
         t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # print() 의 *chain* 키워드 인자는 연결된 예외를
     >>> # 표시할지를 제어합니다
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의,  Next: gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스,  Prev: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.12 ‘__future__’ — 퓨처 문 정의
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/__future__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Imports of the form ‘from __future__ import feature’ are called *note
future statements: 189.  These are special-cased by the Python compiler
to allow the use of new Python features in modules containing the future
statement before the release in which the feature becomes standard.

While these future statements are given additional special meaning by
the Python compiler, they are still executed like any other import
statement and the *note __future__: 0. exists and is handled by the
import system the same way any other Python module would be.  This
design serves three purposes:

   * 임포트 문을 분석하고 임포트하는 모듈을 발견하리라고 기대하는 기존 도
     구가 혼동하지 않게 하려고.

   * 호환되지 않는 변경 사항이 도입된 시점과 그것이 필수적일 때를 — 또는
     이미 필수적으로 된 때를 — 문서로 만들기 위해.  이것은 실행 가능한 문
     서 형식이며, *note __future__: 0. 를 임포트 해서 내용을 들여다봄으
     로써 프로그래밍 방식으로 검사 할 수 있습니다.

   * 파이썬 2.1 이전의 배포에서 *note 퓨처 문: 189. 을 실행하면 최소한 실
     행시간 예외를 일으키도록 보장하기 위해 (2.1 이전에는 그런 이름의 모
     듈이 없으므로 *note __future__: 0. 임포트는 실패합니다).

* Menu:

* Module Contents::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/__future__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents,  Up: __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의

5.29.12.1 Module Contents
.........................

어떤 기능 설명도 *note __future__: 0. 에서 삭제되지 않습니다.  파이썬
2.1에서 소개된 이후로 이 메커니즘을 사용하여 다음과 같은 기능이 언어에 도
입되었습니다:

기능                          선택적 버전                   필수적 버전                   효과
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.1.0b1                       2.2                           PEP 227(1): '정적으로 중첩
          __future__.nested_scopes                                                        된 스코프'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.2.0a1                       2.3                           PEP 255(2): '단순 제너레이
          __future__.generators                                                           터'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.2.0a2                       3.0                           PEP 238(3): '나누기 연산자
          __future__.division                                                             변경'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.5.0a1                       3.0                           PEP 328(4): '임포트: 복수 줄
          __future__.absolute_import                                                      및 절대/상대'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.5.0a1                       2.6                           PEP 343(5): 'The “with”
          __future__.with_statement                                                       Statement'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.6.0a2                       3.0                           PEP 3105(6): 'print를 함수
          __future__.print_function                                                       로 만들기'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   2.6.0a2                       3.0                           PEP 3112(7): '파이썬 3000의
          __future__.unicode_literals                                                     바이트열 리터럴'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   3.5.0b1                       3.7                           PEP 479(8): '제너레이터 내
          __future__.generator_stop                                                       부의 StopIteration 처리'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- 데이터:                   3.7.0b1                       Never (9)                     PEP 563(10): '어노테이션의
          __future__.annotations                                                          지연된 평가'
                                                                                          

 -- 클래스: __future__._Feature

     ‘__future__.py’ 의 각 문장은 다음과 같은 형식입니다:

          FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
                                 CompilerFlag)

     보통, 'OptionalRelease' 는 'MandatoryRelease' 보다 작으며, 둘 다
     *note sys.version_info: 69a.와 같은 형태의 5-튜플입니다:

          (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
           PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
           PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
           PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
           PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
          )

 -- 메서드: _Feature.getOptionalRelease ()

     'OptionalRelease' 는 해당 기능이 승인된 첫 번째 배포를 기록합니다.

 -- 메서드: _Feature.getMandatoryRelease ()

     'MandatoryRelease' 가 아직 배포되지 않은 경우, 'MandatoryRelease' 는
     해당 기능이 언어 일부가 될 배포를 예측합니다.

     그렇지 않으면 'MandatoryRelease' 는 기능이 언어 일부가 된 때를 기록
     합니다; 그 배포와 그 이후의 배포에서, 모듈이 해당 기능을 사용하기 위
     해 더 퓨처 문을 요구하지 않지만, 그러한 임포트는 계속 사용할 수 있
     습니다.

     'MandatoryRelease' 는 ‘None’ 일 수도 있습니다.  이는 계획된 기능이
     삭제되었거나 아직 결정되지 않았음을 의미합니다.

 -- 속성: _Feature.compiler_flag

     'CompilerFlag' 은 동적으로 컴파일되는 코드에서 해당 기능을 활성화하
     기 위해, 내장 함수 *note compile(): 192. 의 네 번째 인자로 전달되어
     야 하는 (비트 필드) 플래그입니다.  이 플래그는 *note _Feature:
     216d. 인스턴스의 *note _Feature.compiler_flag: 1f4e. 어트리뷰트에 저
     장됩니다.

더 보기
.......

*note 퓨처 문: 189.

     컴파일러가 퓨처 임포트를 처리하는 방법.

PEP 236(11) - Back to the __future__

     The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (9) ‘from __future__ import annotations’ was previously scheduled to
become mandatory in Python 3.10, but the Python Steering Council twice
decided to delay the change (announcement for Python 3.10
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/);
announcement for Python 3.11
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/)).
No final decision has been made yet.  See also PEP 563
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/) and PEP 649
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/).

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스,  Next: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사,  Prev: __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.13 ‘gc’ — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스
---------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 선택적인 가비지 수거기에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  수거기
를 비활성화하고, 수거 빈도를 조정하며, 디버깅 옵션을 설정하는 기능을 제
공합니다.  또한 수거기가 발견했지만 해제할 수 없는 도달 불가능한 객체에
대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  수거기는 파이썬에서 이미 사용된 참조 횟수 추
적을 보충하므로, 프로그램이 참조 순환을 만들지 않는다고 확신한다면 수거
기를 비활성화 할 수 있습니다.  ‘gc.disable()’을 호출하여 자동 수거를 비
활성화 할 수 있습니다.  누수가 발생하는 프로그램을 디버그하려면,
‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)’을 호출하십시오.  이것은
‘gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL’을 포함하므로, 가비지 수거된 객체가 검사를 위해
gc.garbage에 저장되도록 함에 유의하십시오.

*note gc: 60. 모듈은 다음 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: gc.enable ()

     자동 가비지 수거를 활성화합니다.

 -- 함수: gc.disable ()

     자동 가비지 수거를 비활성화합니다.

 -- 함수: gc.isenabled ()

     자동 수거가 활성화되었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: gc.collect (generation=2)

     인자가 없으면, 전체 수거를 실행합니다.  선택적 인자 'generation'은
     어떤 세대를 수거할지 지정하는 정수(0에서 2)일 수 있습니다.  세대 번
     호가 유효하지 않으면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  수거된 객
     체와 수거할 수 없는 객체의 합을 반환합니다.

     여러 내장형을 위해 유지되는 자유 목록(free list)은 전체 수거나 최고
     세대(2)의 수거가 실행될 때마다 지워집니다.  특정 구현(특히 *note
     float: 2ef.)으로 인해, 일부 자유 목록에서 모든 항목이 해제되지는 않
     을 수 있습니다.

     The effect of calling ‘gc.collect()’ while the interpreter is
     already performing a collection is undefined.

 -- 함수: gc.set_debug (flags)

     가비지 수거 디버깅 플래그를 설정합니다.  디버깅 정보가
     ‘sys.stderr’에 기록됩니다.  디버깅을 제어하기 위해 비트 연산을 사용
     하여 결합할 수 있는 디버깅 플래그 목록은 아래를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: gc.get_debug ()

     현재 설정된 디버깅 플래그를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: gc.get_objects (generation=None)

     반환된 리스트를 제외하고, 수거기에서 추적한 모든 객체의 리스트를 반
     환합니다.  'generation'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 수거기가 추적한 해당 세
     대에 있는 객체만 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 새로운 'generation' 매개 변수.

     인자 ‘generation’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘gc.get_objects’를 발
     생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: gc.get_stats ()

     인터프리터가 시작된 이후의 수거 통계를 포함하는 세 개의 세대별 딕셔
     너리의 리스트를 반환합니다.  향후 키 수는 변경될 수 있지만, 현재 각
     딕셔너리에는 다음과 같은 항목이 포함됩니다:

        * ‘collections’는 이 세대가 수거된 횟수입니다.

        * ‘collected’는 이 세대 내에서 수거된 총 객체 수입니다.

        * ‘uncollectable’은 이 세대 내에서 수거할 수 없는 (따라서 *note
          garbage: 11b0. 리스트로 이동된) 것으로 확인된 총 객체 수입니다
          .

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: gc.set_threshold (threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])

     가비지 수거 임곗값(수거 빈도)을 설정합니다.  'threshold0'을 0으로 설
     정하면 수거가 비활성화됩니다.

     GC는 얼마나 많은 수거 스위프(sweep)에서 살아남았는지에 따라 객체를
     세 가지 세대로 분류합니다.  새로운 객체는 가장 어린 세대(‘0’세대)에
     배치됩니다.  객체가 수거에서 살아남으면 다음 세대로 이동합니다.
     ‘2’ 가 가장 나이 든 세대이므로, 이 세대의 객체는 수거 후에도 여기에
     남아 있습니다.  언제 실행할지를 결정하기 위해, 수거기는 마지막 수거
     이후의 객체 할당과 할당 해제 수를 추적합니다.  할당 횟수에서 할당 해
     제 횟수를 뺀 값이 'threshold0'를 초과하면 수거가 시작됩니다.  처음
     에는 ‘0’세대만 검사합니다.  ‘1’ 세대를 검사한 후로, ‘0’세대를
     'threshold1' 회를 초과하여 검사했으면, ‘1’ 세대도 검사됩니다.  3세
     대에서는 상황이 좀 더 복잡해졌습니다.  자세한 내용은 Collecting the
     oldest generation(1)을 참조하세요.

 -- 함수: gc.get_count ()

     현재 수거 횟수를 ‘(count0, count1, count2)’의 튜플로 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: gc.get_threshold ()

     현재 수거 임곗값을 ‘(threshold0, threshold1, threshold2)’의 튜플로
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: gc.get_referrers (*objs)

     objs에 있는 것을 직접 참조하는 객체의 리스트를 반환합니다.  이 함수
     는 가비지 수거를 지원하는 컨테이너만 찾습니다; 다른 객체를 참조하지
     만, 가비지 수거를 지원하지 않는 확장형은 찾을 수 없습니다.

     이미 참조 해제되었지만, 순환에 참여해서 가비지 수거기에 의해 아직 수
     거되지 않은 객체는 결과 참조자(referrer)에 나열될 수 있음에 유의하
     십시오.  현재 살아있는 객체만 가져오려면, *note get_referrers():
     7fe.를 호출하기 전에 *note collect(): a36.를 호출하십시오.

          경고: *note get_referrers(): 7fe.에서 반환된 객체를 사용할 때
          는, 그중 일부는 아직 생성 중이라서 일시적으로 유효하지 않은 상
          태일 수 있기 때문에 주의해야 합니다.  디버깅 이외의 목적으로
          *note get_referrers(): 7fe.를 사용하지 마십시오.

     인자 ‘objs’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘gc.get_referrers’를 발생시
     킵니다.

 -- 함수: gc.get_referents (*objs)

     인자로 제공된 객체가 직접 참조하는 객체의 리스트를 반환합니다.  반
     환된 피 참조자(referent)는 인자의 C 수준 *note tp_traverse: 777. 메
     서드(있다면)가 방문한 객체이며, 실제로 직접 도달할 수 있는 모든 객
     체는 아닐 수 있습니다.  *note tp_traverse: 777. 메서드는 가비지 수
     거를 지원하는 객체에서만 지원되며, 순환에 참여하는 객체만 방문하면
     됩니다.  그래서, 예를 들어, 인자에서 정수에 직접 도달 할 수 있으면,
     해당 정수 객체가 결과 목록에 나타날 수도 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다.

     인자 ‘objs’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘gc.get_referents’를 발생시
     킵니다.

 -- 함수: gc.is_tracked (obj)

     가비지 수거기가 객체를 현재 추적하고 있으면 ‘True’를, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘False’를 반환합니다.  일반적인 규칙으로, 원자 형(atomic type)의 인
     스턴스는 추적하지 않고, 원자 형이 아닌 인스턴스(컨테이너, 사용자 정
     의 객체…)는 추적합니다.  그러나 간단한 인스턴스의 가비지 수거기 크
     기를 줄이기 위해 일부 형별 최적화가 존재할 수 있습니다 (예를 들어,
     원자적 키와 값만 포함하는 딕셔너리):

          >>> gc.is_tracked(0)
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked("a")
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked([])
          True
          >>> gc.is_tracked({})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": []})
          True

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- 함수: gc.is_finalized (obj)

     주어진 객체가 가비지 수거기에 의해 파이널라이즈 되었으면 ‘True’를,
     그렇지 않으면 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

          >>> x = None
          >>> class Lazarus:
          ...     def __del__(self):
          ...         global x
          ...         x = self
          ...
          >>> lazarus = Lazarus()
          >>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus)
          False
          >>> del lazarus
          >>> gc.is_finalized(x)
          True

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: gc.freeze ()

     가비지 수거기가 추적한 모든 객체를 고정합니다; 그들을 영구 세대
     (permanent generation)로 이동하고 향후 모든 수거에서 그들을 무시합
     니다.

     If a process will ‘fork()’ without ‘exec()’, avoiding unnecessary
     copy-on-write in child processes will maximize memory sharing and
     reduce overall memory usage.  This requires both avoiding creation
     of freed “holes” in memory pages in the parent process and ensuring
     that GC collections in child processes won’t touch the ‘gc_refs’
     counter of long-lived objects originating in the parent process.
     To accomplish both, call ‘gc.disable()’ early in the parent
     process, ‘gc.freeze()’ right before ‘fork()’, and ‘gc.enable()’
     early in child processes.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: gc.unfreeze ()

     영구 세대(permanent generation)의 객체를 고정 해제하고, 가장 나이 든
     세대로 되돌립니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: gc.get_freeze_count ()

     영구 세대(permanent generation)에 있는 객체 수를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

다음 변수가 전용 액세스로 제공됩니다 (값을 변경할 수는 있지만, 다시 연결
해서는 안 됩니다):

 -- 데이터: gc.garbage

     수거기가 발견했지만 해제할 수 없는 도달 불가능한 객체의 리스트 (수
     거할 수 없는 객체).  파이썬 3.4부터, ‘NULL’이 아닌 ‘tp_del’ 슬롯이
     있는 C 확장형의 인스턴스를 사용할 때를 제외하고, 이 리스트는 대체로
     비어 있어야 합니다.

     *note DEBUG_SAVEALL: 446d.이 설정되면, 도달할 수 없는 모든 객체가 해
     제되지 않고 이 목록에 추가됩니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note 인터프리터 종료: 14e. 시 이 목록이 비어 있
     지 않으면, *note ResourceWarning: 244.이 발생하는데, 기본적으로 조
     용(silent)합니다.  *note DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 11b1.이 설정되면, 추
     가로 모든 수거 할 수 없는 객체가 인쇄됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: PEP 442(2)에 따라, *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드
     를 가진 객체는 더는 *note gc.garbage: 11b0.에 들어가지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: gc.callbacks

     수거 전후에 가비지 수거기가 호출할 콜백의 리스트입니다.  콜백은 두
     인자로 호출됩니다, 'phase'와 'info'.

     'phase'는 다음 두 값 중 하나일 수 있습니다:

          “start”: 가비지 수거를 시작하려고 합니다.

          “stop”: 가비지 수거가 완료되었습니다.

     'info'는 콜백에 추가 정보를 제공하는 딕셔너리입니다.  현재 다음 키
     가 정의되어 있습니다:

          “generation”: 수거되는 가장 나이 든 세대.

          “collected”: 'phase'가 “stop”일 때, 성공적으로 수거된 객체 수.

          “uncollectable”: 'phase'가 “stop”일 때, 수거할 수 없어서 *note
          garbage: 11b0.에 들어간 객체 수.

     응용 프로그램은 이 리스트에 자체 콜백을 추가 할 수 있습니다.  주요
     사용 사례는 다음과 같습니다:

          다양한 세대가 수거되는 빈도와 수거에 걸린 시간과 같은 가비지 수
          거에 대한 통계 수집.

          응용 프로그램이 자신의 수거할 수 없는 형이 *note garbage:
          11b0.에 나타날 때 식별하고 지울 수 있도록 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

*note set_debug(): 4468.와 함께 사용하기 위해 다음 상수가 제공됩니다:

 -- 데이터: gc.DEBUG_STATS

     수거 중 통계를 인쇄합니다.  이 정보는 수거 빈도를 조정할 때 유용 할
     수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE

     발견된 수거 가능한 객체에 대한 정보를 인쇄합니다.

 -- 데이터: gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE

     발견된 수거 할 수 없는 객체에 대한 정보를 인쇄합니다 (도달 할 수 있
     지만, 수거기가 해제할 수 없는 객체).  이 객체는 ‘garbage’ 리스트에
     추가됩니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: *note 인터프리터 종료: 14e. 시에 *note garbage:
     11b0. 리스트가 비어있지 않으면 내용을 인쇄하기도 합니다.

 -- 데이터: gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL

     설정하면, 발견된 모든 도달할 수 없는 객체를 해제하는 대신
     'garbage'에 추가합니다.  누수가 있는 프로그램을 디버깅하는 데 유용
     할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: gc.DEBUG_LEAK

     수거기가 누수가 있는 프로그램에 대한 정보를 인쇄하도록 하는 데 필요
     한 디버깅 플래그 (‘DEBUG_COLLECTABLE | DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE |
     DEBUG_SAVEALL’과 같습니다).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://devguide.python.org/garbage_collector/#collecting-the-oldest-generation

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사,  Next: site — 사이트별 구성 훅,  Prev: gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.14 ‘inspect’ — 라이브 객체 검사
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/inspect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note inspect: 7e. 모듈은 모듈, 클래스, 메서드, 함수, 트레이스백, 프레임
객체 및 코드 객체와 같은 라이브 객체에 대한 정보를 얻는 데 도움이 되는 몇
가지 유용한 함수를 제공합니다.  예를 들어, 클래스의 내용을 검사하거나, 메
서드의 소스 코드를 꺼내오거나, 함수의 인자 리스트를 추출하고 포맷하거나,
자세한 트레이스백을 표시하는 데 필요한 모든 정보를 얻는 데 도움이 될 수
있습니다.

이 모듈은 4가지 종류의 주요 서비스를 제공합니다: 형 검사, 소스 코드 가져
오기, 클래스와 함수 검사, 인터프리터 스택 검사.

* Menu:

* 형과 멤버::
* 소스 코드 가져오기::
* Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기::
* 클래스와 함수: 클래스와 함수<2>.
* 인터프리터 스택::
* 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기::
* 제너레이터, 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태: 제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
* 코드 객체 비트 플래그::
* Buffer flags::
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/inspect.py


File: python.info,  Node: 형과 멤버,  Next: 소스 코드 가져오기,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.1 형과 멤버
...................

*note getmembers(): 185b. 함수는 클래스나 모듈과 같은 객체의 멤버를 검색
합니다.  이름이 “is”로 시작하는 함수는 주로 *note getmembers(): 185b.의
두 번째 인자로 쓰기에 편리하도록 제공됩니다.  또한 다음과 같은 특수 어트
리뷰트를 언제 찾을 수 있는지 결정하는 데 도움이 됩니다 (모듈 어트리뷰트
에 관해서는 *note Import-related attributes on module objects: 1f1c.를 참
조하세요):

형                    어트리뷰트              설명
                                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
클래스                __doc__                 도큐멘테이션 문자열
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                이 클래스가 정의된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              이 클래스가 정의된 모듈의 이
                                              름
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 2b3.
                                              of a generic class
                                              
                                              
메서드                __doc__                 도큐멘테이션 문자열
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                이 메서드가 정의된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __func__                메서드의 구현을 포함하는 함수
                                              객체
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                이 메서드가 연결된 인스턴스,
                                              또는 ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              이 메서드가 정의된 모듈의 이
                                              름
                                              
                                              
함수                  __doc__                 도큐멘테이션 문자열
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                이 함수가 정의된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __code__                컴파일된 함수
                                              *note 바이트 코드: 187.를 포
                                              함하는 코드 객체
                                              
                                              
                      __defaults__            위치나 키워드 매개 변수에 대
                                              한 기본값의 튜플
                                              
                                              
                      __kwdefaults__          키워드 전용 매개 변수의 기본
                                              값 매핑
                                              
                                              
                      __globals__             이 함수가 정의된 전역 이름 공
                                              간
                                              
                                              
                      __builtins__            내장 이름 공간
                                              
                                              
                      __annotations__         매개 변수 이름에서 어노테이션
                                              으로의 매핑; ‘"return"’ 키는
                                              반환 값 어노테이션을 위해 예
                                              약되어 있습니다.
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 2b3.
                                              of a generic function
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              이 함수가 정의된 모듈의 이름
                                              
                                              
트레이스백            tb_frame                이 수준의 프레임 객체
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lasti                바이트 코드에서 마지막으로 시
                                              도한 명령의 인덱스
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lineno               파이썬 소스 코드의 현재 줄 번
                                              호
                                              
                                              
                      tb_next                 (이 수준에서 호출된) 다음 내
                                              부(inner) 트레이스백 객체
                                              
                                              
프레임                f_back                  다음 외부(outer) 프레임 객체
                                              (이 프레임의 호출자)
                                              
                                              
                      f_builtins              이 프레임이 보는 내장 이름 공
                                              간
                                              
                                              
                      f_code                  이 프레임에서 실행되는 코드 객
                                              체
                                              
                                              
                      f_globals               이 프레임이 보는 전역 이름 공
                                              간
                                              
                                              
                      f_lasti                 바이트 코드에서 마지막으로 시
                                              도한 명령의 인덱스
                                              
                                              
                      f_lineno                파이썬 소스 코드의 현재 줄 번
                                              호
                                              
                                              
                      f_locals                이 프레임이 보는 지역 이름 공
                                              간
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace                 이 프레임의 추적 함수(tracing
                                              function), 또는 ‘None’
                                              
                                              
코드                  co_argcount             인자 개수 (키워드 전용 인자,
                                              * 또는 ** 인자는 포함하지 않
                                              습니다)
                                              
                                              
                      co_code                 컴파일된 날 바이트 코드의 문
                                              자열
                                              
                                              
                      co_cellvars             (포함하는 스코프가 참조하는)
                                              셀 변수 이름의 튜플
                                              
                                              
                      co_consts               바이트 코드에서 사용되는 상수
                                              의 튜플
                                              
                                              
                      co_filename             이 코드 객체가 만들어진 파일
                                              의 이름
                                              
                                              
                      co_firstlineno          파이썬 소스 코드의 첫 줄 번호
                                              
                                              
                      co_flags                ‘CO_*’ 플래그의 비트맵,
                                              *note 여기: 1f4d.를 더 읽어보
                                              십시오
                                              
                                              
                      co_lnotab               줄 번호에서 바이트 코드 인덱
                                              스로의 인코딩된 매핑
                                              
                                              
                      co_freevars             (함수의 클로저를 통해 참조되
                                              는) 자유 변수(free variables)
                                              이름의 튜플
                                              
                                              
                      co_posonlyargcount      위치 전용 인자의 개수
                                              
                                              
                      co_kwonlyargcount       키워드 전용 인자의 개수 (** 인
                                              자는 제외합니다)
                                              
                                              
                      co_name                 이 코드 객체가 정의된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      co_qualname             이 코드 객체가 정의된 완전히
                                              정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      co_names                인자와 함수 지역이 아닌 이름
                                              의 튜플
                                              
                                              
                      co_nlocals              지역 변수의 개수
                                              
                                              
                      co_stacksize            필요한 가상 기계 스택 공간
                                              
                                              
                      co_varnames             인자와 지역 변수 이름의 튜플
                                              
                                              
제너레이터            __name__                이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      gi_frame                프레임
                                              
                                              
                      gi_running              제너레이터가 실행 중입니까?
                                              
                                              
                      gi_code                 코드
                                              
                                              
                      gi_yieldfrom            ‘yield from’에 의해 이터레이
                                              트 중인 객체, 또는 ‘None’
                                              
                                              
비동기 제너레이터     __name__                이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      ag_await                어웨이트 중인 객체, 또는
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      ag_frame                프레임
                                              
                                              
                      ag_running              제너레이터가 실행 중입니까?
                                              
                                              
                      ag_code                 코드
                                              
                                              
코루틴                __name__                이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      cr_await                어웨이트 중인 객체, 또는
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      cr_frame                프레임
                                              
                                              
                      cr_running              코루틴이 실행 중입니까?
                                              
                                              
                      cr_code                 코드
                                              
                                              
                      cr_origin               코루틴이 생성된 곳, 또는
                                              ‘None’.
                                              *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b89.를
                                              참조하세요
                                              
                                              
내장                  __doc__                 도큐멘테이션 문자열
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                이 함수나 메서드의 원래 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            정규화된 이름
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                메서드가 연결된 인스턴스, 또
                                              는 ‘None’
                                              

버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘__qualname__’과 ‘gi_yieldfrom’ 어트리뷰트를 제너레이
터에 추가합니다.

제너레이터의 ‘__name__’ 어트리뷰트는 이제 코드 이름 대신 함수 이름에서 설
정되며, 이제 수정할 수 있습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: 코루틴에 ‘cr_origin’ 어트리뷰트를 추가합니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: 함수에 ‘__builtins__’ 어트리뷰트를 추가합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getmembers (object[, predicate])

     이름으로 정렬된 ‘(name, value)’ 쌍의 리스트로 객체(object)의 모든 멤
     버를 반환합니다.  각 멤버의 ‘value’ 객체로 호출될 선택적
     'predicate' 인자가 제공되면, predicate가 참값을 반환하는 멤버만 포
     함됩니다.

          참고: *note getmembers(): 185b.는 인자가 클래스이고 해당 클래
          스 어트리뷰트가 메타 클래스의 사용자 정의 *note __dir__():
          1f6f.에서 나열될 때만 메타 클래스에 정의된 클래스 어트리뷰트를
          반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getmembers_static (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__.  Optionally,
     only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

          참고: *note getmembers_static(): 643.은 getmembers 가 가져올 수
          있는 모든 멤버를 조회하지 못할 수 있으며 (가령 동적으로 만들어
          진 어트리뷰트), getmembers 가 가져올 수 없는 멤버를 찾을 수 있
          습니다 (가령 AttributeError를 발생시키는 디스크립터).  어떤 경
          우에는 인스턴스 멤버 대신 디스크립터 객체를 반환할 수도 있습니
          다.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: inspect.getmodulename (path)

     감싸고 있는 패키지 이름 없이, 파일 경로('path')가 가리키는 모듈의 이
     름을 반환합니다.  파일 확장자는 *note
     importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(): 4474.의 모든 항목에 대해 점검됩
     니다.  일치하면, 확장명이 제거된 최종 경로 구성 요소가 반환됩니다.
     그렇지 않으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     이 함수는 '오직' 실제 파이썬 모듈로 의미 있는 이름만 반환합니다.  잠
     재적으로 파이썬 패키지를 가리키는 경로는 여전히 ‘None’을 반환합니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 함수는 *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반합니다
     .

 -- 함수: inspect.ismodule (object)

     객체가 모듈이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isclass (object)

     객체가 (내장이거나 파이썬 코드로 만든) 클래스이면 ‘True’를 반환합니
     다.

 -- 함수: inspect.ismethod (object)

     객체가 파이썬으로 작성된 연결된(bound) 메서드면 ‘True’를 반환합니다
     .

 -- 함수: inspect.isfunction (object)

     객체가 파이썬 함수이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  *note 람다: 274b. 표현
     식으로 만든 함수를 포함합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isgeneratorfunction (object)

     객체가 파이썬 제너레이터 함수이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 래핑 된 함수가 파이썬 제너레이터 함수일 때 *note
     functools.partial(): 40e.로 래핑 된 함수는 이제 ‘True’를 반환합니다
     .

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 래핑 된 함수가 파이썬 제너레이터 함수일 때
     *note functools.partialmethod(): a78.로 래핑 된 함수는 이제 ‘True’를
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isgenerator (object)

     객체가 제너레이터이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.iscoroutinefunction (object)

     객체가 *note 코루틴 함수: d73. (*note async def: 5cb. 문법으로 정의
     된 함수), *note 코루틴 함수: d73.를 감싸는 *note
     functools.partial(): 40e. 또는 *note markcoroutinefunction(): 48a.으
     로 표시된 동기 함수이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 래핑 된 함수가 *note 코루틴 함수: d73.일 때
     *note functools.partial(): 40e.로 래핑 된 함수는 이제 ‘True’를 반환
     합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Sync functions marked with *note
     markcoroutinefunction(): 48a. now return ‘True’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 래핑 된 함수가 *note 코루틴 함수: d73.일 때
     *note functools.partialmethod(): a78.로 래핑 된 함수는 이제 ‘True’를
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.markcoroutinefunction (func)

     Decorator to mark a callable as a *note coroutine function: d73. if
     it would not otherwise be detected by *note iscoroutinefunction():
     2e6.

     This may be of use for sync functions that return a *note
     coroutine: 48b, if the function is passed to an API that requires
     *note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6.

     When possible, using an *note async def: 5cb. function is
     preferred.  Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the
     return with *note iscoroutine(): e12.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: inspect.iscoroutine (object)

     객체가 *note async def: 5cb. 함수가 만든 *note 코루틴: 48b.이면
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: inspect.isawaitable (object)

     *note await: 1b9. 표현식에서 객체를 사용할 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환
     합니다.

     제너레이터 기반 코루틴을 일반 제너레이터와 구별하는 데 사용할 수도
     있습니다:

          import types

          def gen():
              yield
          @types.coroutine
          def gen_coro():
              yield

          assert not isawaitable(gen())
          assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: inspect.isasyncgenfunction (object)

     객체가 *note 비동기 제너레이터: 2046. 함수이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다,
     예를 들면:

          >>> async def agen():
          ...     yield 1
          ...
          >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
          True

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 래핑 된 함수가 *note 비동기 제너레이터: 2046. 함
     수일 때 *note functools.partial(): 40e.로 래핑 된 함수는 이제
     ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 래핑 된 함수가 *note 코루틴 함수: d73.일 때
     *note functools.partialmethod(): a78.로 래핑 된 함수는 이제 ‘True’를
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isasyncgen (object)

     객체가 *note asynchronous generator: 2046. 함수가 만든 *note 비동기
     제너레이터 이터레이터: 437e.이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 함수: inspect.istraceback (object)

     객체가 트레이스백이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isframe (object)

     객체가 프레임이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.iscode (object)

     객체가 코드이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isbuiltin (object)

     객체가 내장 함수나 연결된(bound) 내장 메서드이면 ‘True’를 반환합니
     다.

 -- 함수: inspect.ismethodwrapper (object)

     객체의 형이 *note MethodWrapperType: 645.이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     These are instances of *note MethodWrapperType: 645, such as *note
     __str__(): 617, *note __eq__(): af7. and *note __repr__(): 616.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: inspect.isroutine (object)

     객체가 사용자 정의이거나 내장 함수나 메서드이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다
     .

 -- 함수: inspect.isabstract (object)

     객체가 추상 베이스 클래스이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.ismethoddescriptor (object)

     객체가 메서드 디스크립터이면 ‘True’를 반환하지만, *note ismethod():
     4477, *note isclass(): 4476, *note isfunction(): 4478. 또는 *note
     isbuiltin(): 447e.이 참일 때는 그렇지 않습니다.

     예를 들어, 이것은 ‘int.__add__’에 대해서 참입니다.  이 테스트를 통
     과한 객체에는 *note __get__(): 14af. 메서드가 있지만 *note
     __set__(): 1f72. 메서드나 *note __delete__(): 1610. 메서드는 없습니
     다.  하지만 그 외의 어트리뷰트 집합은 달라집니다.  *note __name__:
     105c. 어트리뷰트는 보통 존재하고, *note __doc__: 925.도 종종 그렇습
     니다.

     다른 테스트 중 하나를 통과하는 디스크립터로 구현된 메서드는 *note
     ismethoddescriptor(): 15f2. 테스트에서 ‘False’를 반환합니다.  단순
     히 다른 테스트가 더 많은 것을 약속하기 때문입니다 – 예를 들어, 객체
     가 *note ismethod(): 4477.를 통과할 때 *note __func__: 12ec. 어트리
     뷰트(등)가 있다고 기대할 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This function no longer incorrectly reports
     objects with *note __get__(): 14af. and *note __delete__(): 1610,
     but not *note __set__(): 1f72, as being method descriptors (such
     objects are data descriptors, not method descriptors).

 -- 함수: inspect.isdatadescriptor (object)

     객체가 데이터 디스크립터이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     데이터 디스크립터에는 *note __set__: 1f72.이나 *note __delete__:
     1610. 메서드가 있습니다.  예는 (파이썬으로 정의한) 프로퍼티, getset
     및 멤버입니다.  뒤의 두 가지는 C로 정의되며 해당 형에 대해 더 구체
     적인 테스트가 있으며, 이는 다른 파이썬 구현에서도 지원됩니다.  일반
     적으로 데이터 디스크립터는 *note __name__: 105c.과 ‘__doc__’ 어트리
     뷰트를 갖지만 (프로퍼티, getet 및 멤버는 이 두 어트리뷰트를 모두 갖
     습니다), 이것이 보장되지는 않습니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.isgetsetdescriptor (object)

     객체가 getset 디스크립터이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     getset은 *note PyGetSetDef: bb5. 구조체를 통해 확장 모듈에서 정의된
     어트리뷰트입니다.  이러한 형이 없는 파이썬 구현에서, 이 메서드는 항
     상 ‘False’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.ismemberdescriptor (object)

     객체가 멤버 디스크립터이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     멤버 디스크립터는 *note PyMemberDef: 54a. 구조체를 통해 확장 모듈에
     서 정의된 어트리뷰트입니다.  이러한 형이 없는 파이썬 구현에서, 이 메
     서드는 항상 ‘False’를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 소스 코드 가져오기,  Next: Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기,  Prev: 형과 멤버,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.2 소스 코드 가져오기
............................

 -- 함수: inspect.getdoc (object)

     *note cleandoc(): 16bc.으로 정리된 객체의 독스트링을 가져옵니다.  객
     체가 독스트링을 제공하지 않고 객체가 클래스, 메서드, 프로퍼티 또는
     디스크립터이면, 상속 계층 구조에서 독스트링을 가져옵니다.  독스트링
     이 유효하지 않거나 누락되었으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 재정의되지 않으면 독스트링이 상속됩니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getcomments (object)

     객체의 소스 코드 바로 앞(클래스, 함수 또는 메서드일 때)이나 파이썬
     소스 파일의 최상단 (객체가 모듈일 때) 주석 줄들을 단일 문자열로 반
     환합니다.  객체의 소스 코드를 사용할 수 없으면, ‘None’을 반환합니다
     .  객체가 C나 대화식 셸에서 정의될 때 이런 일이 일어날 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getfile (object)

     객체가 정의된 (텍스트나 바이너리) 파일의 이름을 반환합니다.  객체가
     내장 모듈, 클래스 또는 함수이면 *note TypeError: 532.로 실패합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getmodule (object)

     객체가 정의된 모듈을 추측합니다.  모듈이 결정될 수 없으면 ‘None’을
     반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getsourcefile (object)

     객체가 정의된 파이썬 소스 파일의 이름을 반환합니다.  또는 소스를 얻
     을 수 있는 방법이 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  객체가 내장 모듈, 클
     래스 또는 함수이면 *note TypeError: 532.로 실패합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getsourcelines (object)

     객체의 소스 줄의 리스트와 시작 줄 번호를 반환합니다.  인자는 모듈,
     클래스, 메서드, 함수, 트레이스백, 프레임 또는 코드 객체일 수 있습니
     다.  소스 코드는 객체에 해당하는 줄 리스트로 반환되며 줄 번호는 원
     본 소스 파일에서 첫 번째 코드 줄이 발견되는 위치를 나타냅니다.  소
     스 코드를 가져올 수 없으면 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.  객체
     가 내장 모듈, 클래스 또는 함수면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note IOError: 1048. 대신 *note OSError: 411.가
     발생합니다.  이제 IOError는 OSError의 별칭입니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getsource (object)

     객체의 소스 코드 텍스트를 반환합니다.  인자는 모듈, 클래스, 메서드,
     함수, 트레이스백, 프레임 또는 코드 객체일 수 있습니다.  소스 코드는
     단일 문자열로 반환됩니다.  소스 코드를 가져올 수 없으면 *note
     OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.  객체가 내장 모듈, 클래스 또는 함수면
     *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note IOError: 1048. 대신 *note OSError: 411.가
     발생합니다.  이제 IOError는 OSError의 별칭입니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.cleandoc (doc)

     코드 블록과 일치하도록 들여쓰기 된 독스트링에서 들여쓰기를 정리합니
     다.

     모든 선행 공백이 첫 번째 줄에서 제거됩니다.  두 번째 줄부터 균일하
     게 제거할 수 있는 선행 공백이 제거됩니다.  시작과 끝의 빈 줄은 그다
     음에 제거됩니다.  또한, 모든 탭이 스페이스로 확장됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기,  Next: 클래스와 함수<2>,  Prev: 소스 코드 가져오기,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.3 Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기
..........................................

Added in version 3.3.

*note Signature: 1cf. 객체는 콜러블 객체의 호출 서명과 반환 값 어노테이
션을 나타냅니다.  ‘Signature’ 객체를 가져오려면, ‘signature()’ 함수를 사
용하십시오.

 -- 함수: inspect.signature (callable, *, follow_wrapped=True,
          globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

     주어진 'callable'에 대한 *note Signature: 1cf. 객체를 반환합니다:

          >>> from inspect import signature
          >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
          ...     pass

          >>> sig = signature(foo)

          >>> str(sig)
          '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

          >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
          'b: int'

          >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
          <class 'int'>

     일반 함수와 클래스에서 *note functools.partial(): 40e. 객체에 이르
     기까지 광범위한 파이썬 콜러블을 받아들입니다.

     For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations (‘from
     __future__ import annotations’), *note signature(): 731. will
     attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using *note
     get_annotations(): 80d.  The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters are passed into *note get_annotations(): 80d. when
     resolving the annotations; see the documentation for *note
     get_annotations(): 80d. for instructions on how to use these
     parameters.

     Raises *note ValueError: 202. if no signature can be provided, and
     *note TypeError: 532. if that type of object is not supported.
     Also, if the annotations are stringized, and 'eval_str' is not
     false, the ‘eval()’ call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in
     *note get_annotations(): 80d. could potentially raise any kind of
     exception.

     함수 서명에서 슬래시(/)는 그 앞의 매개 변수가 위치 전용임을 나타냅
     니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 위치 전용 인자에 관한 FAQ 항목: 217c.을
     참조하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'follow_wrapped' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.  구체
     적으로 'callable'의 서명을 가져오려면 ‘False’를 전달하십시오 (데코
     레이트 된 콜러블의 래핑을 풀기 위해 ‘callable.__wrapped__’를 사용하
     지 않게 됩니다).

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters were added.

          참고: 특정 파이썬 구현에서 일부 콜러블은 검사할 수 없습니다.  예
          를 들어, CPython에서, C로 정의된 일부 내장 함수는 인자에 대한
          메타 데이터를 제공하지 않습니다.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' If the passed object has a ‘__signature__’
     attribute, we may use it to create the signature.  The exact
     semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to
     unannounced changes.  Consult the source code for current
     semantics.

 -- 클래스: inspect.Signature (parameters=None, *,
          return_annotation=Signature.empty)

     ‘Signature’ 객체는 함수의 호출 서명과 반환 값 어노테이션을 나타냅니
     다.  함수가 받아들이는 각 매개 변수에 대해 *note parameters: 4487.
     컬렉션에 *note Parameter: 1d0. 객체를 저장합니다.

     선택적 'parameters' 인자는 *note Parameter: 1d0. 객체의 시퀀스이며,
     중복된 이름을 가진 매개 변수가 없는지, 매개 변수가 올바른 순서인지
     (즉, 위치 전용이 먼저 온 후, 위치-키워드가 그다음에 오는지), 기본값
     이 있는 매개 변수가 그렇지 않은 매개 변수 뒤에 오는지 검사합니다.

     선택적 'return_annotation' 인자는 임의의 파이썬 객체일 수 있습니다.
     콜러블의 “반환 값” 어노테이션을 나타냅니다.

     ‘Signature’ 객체는 '불변(immutable)'입니다.  수정된 사본을 만들려면
     *note Signature.replace(): 4488.나 *note copy.replace(): 151.를 사
     용하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘Signature’ 객체는 이제 피클 가능하고 *note 해시
     가능: 60a.합니다.

      -- 속성: empty

          반환 값 어노테이션이 없음을 지정하는 특수 클래스 수준 마커입니
          다.

      -- 속성: parameters

          매개 변수 이름에서 해당 *note Parameter: 1d0. 객체로의 순서 있
          는 매핑.  키워드 전용 매개 변수를 포함하여, 매개 변수는 엄격한
          정의 순서대로 나타납니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: 실제로 파이썬 3에서 항상 유지되었습니다만,
          파이썬은 버전 3.7부터 키워드 전용 매개 변수의 선언 순서를 유지
          한다는 것을 명시적으로 보장합니다.

      -- 속성: return_annotation

          콜러블의 “반환 값” 어노테이션.  콜러블에 “반환 값” 어노테이션
          이 없으면, 이 어트리뷰트는 *note Signature.empty: 4489.로 설정
          됩니다.

      -- 메서드: bind (*args, **kwargs)

          위치와 키워드 인자에서 매개 변수로의 매핑을 만듭니다.  ‘*args’와
          ‘**kwargs’가 서명과 일치하면 *note BoundArguments: 105f.를 반
          환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: bind_partial (*args, **kwargs)

          *note Signature.bind(): 156a.와 같은 방식으로 작동하지만, 일부
          필수 인자를 생략 할 수 있습니다 (*note functools.partial():
          40e. 동작을 흉내 냅니다).  *note BoundArguments: 105f.를 반환
          하거나, 전달된 인자가 서명과 일치하지 않으면 *note TypeError:
          532.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: replace (*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

          *note replace(): 4488.가 호출된 인스턴스를 기반으로 새 *note
          Signature: 1cf. 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  다른 'parameters'나
          'return_annotation' 또는 둘 모두를 전달하여 기반 서명의 해당 속
          성을 재정의할 수 있습니다.  복사된 ‘Signature’에서
          ‘return_annotation’을 제거하려면, *note Signature.empty:
          4489.를 전달하십시오.

               >>> def test(a, b):
               ...     pass
               ...
               >>> sig = signature(test)
               >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
               >>> str(new_sig)
               "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

          *note Signature: 1cf. objects are also supported by the
          generic function *note copy.replace(): 151.

      -- 메서드: format (*, max_width=None)

          *note Signature: 1cf. 객체의 문자열 표현을 만듭니다.

          If 'max_width' is passed, the method will attempt to fit the
          signature into lines of at most 'max_width' characters.  If
          the signature is longer than 'max_width', all parameters will
          be on separate lines.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_callable (obj, *, follow_wrapped=True,
               globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

          주어진 콜러블 'obj'에 대한 *note Signature: 1cf. (또는 그 서브
          클래스) 객체를 반환합니다:

          이 메서드는 *note Signature: 1cf.의 서브 클래싱을 단순화합니다
          :

               class MySignature(Signature):
                   pass
               sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
               assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

          Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of *note
          signature(): 731.

          Added in version 3.5.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
          parameters were added.

 -- 클래스: inspect.Parameter (name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty,
          annotation=Parameter.empty)

     ‘Parameter’ 객체는 '불변(immutable)'입니다.  ‘Parameter’ 객체를 수
     정하는 대신, 수정된 사본을 만들려면 *note Parameter.replace():
     448d.나 *note copy.replace(): 151.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: Parameter 객체는 이제 피클 가능하고 *note 해시
     가능: 60a.합니다.

      -- 속성: empty

          기본값과 어노테이션이 없음을 지정하는 특수 클래스 수준 마커.

      -- 속성: name

          문자열로 표현한 매개 변수의 이름.  이름은 유효한 파이썬 식별자
          여야 합니다.

          CPython은 컴프리헨션과 제너레이터 표현식을 구현하는 데 사용되
          는 코드 객체에서 ‘.0’ 형식의 묵시적 매개 변수 이름을 생성합니
          다.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: 이 매개 변수 이름은 이제 이 모듈에서
          ‘implicit0’과 같은 이름으로 노출됩니다.

      -- 속성: default

          매개 변수의 기본값.  매개 변수에 기본값이 없으면, 이 어트리뷰
          트는 *note Parameter.empty: 448e.로 설정됩니다.

      -- 속성: annotation

          매개 변수의 어노테이션.  매개 변수에 어노테이션이 없으면, 이 어
          트리뷰트는 *note Parameter.empty: 448e.로 설정됩니다.

      -- 속성: kind

          인자 값이 매개 변수에 연결되는 방법을 설명합니다.  가능한 값은
          (‘Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY’처럼) *note Parameter: 1d0.를 통해 액
          세스할 수 있고, 다음과 같은 순서로 비교와 순서를 지원합니다:

          이름                         의미
                                       
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_ONLY'            위치 인자로만 값을 제공해야 합니다.  위치 전용 매
                                       개 변수는 파이썬 함수 정의에서 ‘/’ 항목 (있다면)
                                       앞에 나오는 매개 변수입니다.
                                       
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD'      값은 키워드나 위치 인자로 제공될 수 있습니다 (이
                                       것이 파이썬으로 구현된 함수의 표준 연결 동작입니
                                       다).
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_POSITIONAL'             다른 매개 변수에 연결되지 않은 위치 인자의 튜플.
                                       이것은 파이썬 함수 정의의 ‘*args’ 매개 변수에 해
                                       당합니다.
                                       
                                       
          'KEYWORD_ONLY'               키워드 인자로만 값을 제공해야 합니다.  키워드 전
                                       용 매개 변수는 파이썬 함수 정의에서 ‘*’나
                                       ‘*args’ 항목 다음에 나오는 매개 변수입니다.
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_KEYWORD'                다른 매개 변수에 연결되지 않은 키워드 인자의 딕
                                       셔너리.  이것은 파이썬 함수 정의의 ‘**kwargs’ 매
                                       개 변수에 해당합니다.
                                       

          예: 기본값이 없는 모든 키워드 전용 인자를 인쇄합니다:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
               ...                        param.default is param.empty):
               ...         print('Parameter:', param)
               Parameter: c

      -- 속성: kind.description

          *note Parameter.kind: 4492.의 열거형 값을 설명합니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

          예: 모든 인자의 설명을 인쇄합니다:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     print(param.kind.description)
               positional or keyword
               positional or keyword
               keyword-only
               keyword-only

      -- 메서드: replace (*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

          replace가 호출된 인스턴스를 기반으로 새 *note Parameter: 1d0.
          인스턴스를 만듭니다.  ‘Parameter’ 어트리뷰트를 재정의하려면, 해
          당 인자를 전달하십시오.  ‘Parameter’에서 기본값이나 어노테이션
          , 또는 둘 다 제거하려면 *note Parameter.empty: 448e.를 전달하
          십시오.

               >>> from inspect import Parameter
               >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
               >>> str(param)
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace()) # 'param'의 얕은 사본을 만듭니다
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
               "foo: 'spam'"

          *note Parameter: 1d0. objects are also supported by the
          generic function *note copy.replace(): 151.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 파이썬 3.3에서, ‘kind’가 ‘POSITIONAL_ONLY’로 설
     정되었을 때 *note Parameter: 1d0. 객체의 ‘name’을 ‘None’으로 설정할
     수 있었습니다.  이는 더는 허용되지 않습니다.

 -- 클래스: inspect.BoundArguments

     *note Signature.bind(): 156a.나 *note Signature.bind_partial():
     448b. 호출의 결과.  인자에서 함수의 매개 변수로의 매핑을 보관합니다
     .

      -- 속성: arguments

          매개 변수 이름에서 인자 값으로의 가변 매핑.  명시적으로 연결된
          인자만 포함합니다.  *note arguments: 909.의 변경 사항은 *note
          args: 4494.와 *note kwargs: 4495.에 반영됩니다.

          인자 처리 목적으로 *note Signature.parameters: 4487.와 함께 사
          용해야 합니다.

               참고: *note Signature.bind(): 156a.나 *note
               Signature.bind_partial(): 448b.이 기본값에 의존하는 인자
               는 건너뜁니다.  그러나, 필요하다면 *note
               BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): e11.를 사용하여 추가하십
               시오.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: *note arguments: 909.는 이제 *note dict:
          256. 형입니다.  이전에는, *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d5.
          형이었습니다.

      -- 속성: args

          위치 인자 값의 튜플.  *note arguments: 909. 어트리뷰트에서 동
          적으로 계산됩니다.

      -- 속성: kwargs

          키워드 인자 값의 딕셔너리.  *note arguments: 909. 어트리뷰트에
          서 동적으로 계산됩니다.  위치적으로 전달될 수 있는 인자는 대신
          *note args: 4494.에 포함됩니다.

      -- 속성: signature

          부모 *note Signature: 1cf. 객체에 대한 참조.

      -- 메서드: apply_defaults ()

          누락된 인자에 대한 기본값을 설정합니다.

          가변 위치 인자(‘*args’)의 기본값은 빈 튜플입니다.

          가변 변수 키워드 인자(‘**kwargs’)의 기본값은 빈 딕셔너리입니다
          .

               >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
               >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
               >>> ba.apply_defaults()
               >>> ba.arguments
               {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

          Added in version 3.5.

     *note args: 4494.와 *note kwargs: 4495. 프로퍼티를 사용하여 함수를
     호출할 수 있습니다:

          def test(a, *, b):
              ...

          sig = signature(test)
          ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
          test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

더 보기
.......

PEP 362(1) - 함수 Signature 객체.

     자세한 명세, 구현 세부 사항 및 예

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스와 함수<2>,  Next: 인터프리터 스택,  Prev: Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.4 클래스와 함수
.......................

 -- 함수: inspect.getclasstree (classes, unique=False)

     주어진 클래스 리스트를 중첩된 리스트의 계층 구조로 배치합니다.  중
     첩된 리스트가 나타나면, 리스트 바로 앞에 나오는 항목의 클래스에서 파
     생된 클래스를 포함합니다.  각 항목은 클래스와 베이스 클래스의 튜플
     을 포함하는 2-튜플입니다.  'unique' 인자가 참이면, 주어진 리스트의
     각 클래스가 반환된 구조에 정확히 하나의 항목으로 나타납니다.  그렇
     지 않으면, 다중 상속을 사용하는 클래스와 그 자식들이 여러 번 나타납
     니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getfullargspec (func)

     파이썬 함수 매개 변수의 이름과 기본값을 가져옵니다.  *note 네임드
     튜플: 648.이 반환됩니다:

     ‘FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs,
     kwonlydefaults, annotations)’

     'args'는 위치 매개 변수 이름의 리스트입니다.  'varargs'는 ‘*’ 매개
     변수의 이름이거나 임의의 위치 인자가 허용되지 않으면 ‘None’입니다.
     'varkw'는 ‘**’ 매개 변수의 이름이거나 임의의 키워드 인자가 허용되지
     않으면 ‘None’입니다.  'defaults'는 마지막 'n' 개의 위치 매개 변수에
     해당하는 기본 인자 값의 'n'-튜플이거나, 이러한 기본값이 정의되지 않
     으면 ‘None’입니다.  'kwonlyargs'는 선언 순서를 따르는 키워드 전용 매
     개 변수 이름 리스트입니다.  'kwonlydefaults'는 'kwonlyargs'의 매개
     변수 이름에서 인자가 제공되지 않을 때 사용되는 기본값으로의 딕셔너
     리 매핑입니다.  'annotations'는 매개 변수 이름에서 어노테이션으로의
     딕셔너리 매핑입니다.  특수키 ‘"return"’은 함수 반환 값 어노테이션
     (있다면)을 보고하는 데 사용됩니다.

     *note signature(): 731.와 *note Signature 객체: 4485.가 콜러블 내부
     검사에 권장되는 API를 제공하고, 확장 모듈 API에서 종종 등장하는 추
     가 동작(위치 전용 인자와 같은)을 지원함에 유의하십시오.  이 함수는
     주로 파이썬 2 ‘inspect’ 모듈 API와의 호환성을 유지해야 하는 코드에
     서 사용하기 위해 유지됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note signature(): 731.를 기반으
     로 하지만, 여전히 ‘__wrapped__’ 어트리뷰트를 무시하고 연결된(bound)
     메서드의 서명 출력에 이미 연결된 첫 번째 매개 변수를 포함합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이 메서드는 이전에 파이썬 3.5에서 *note
     signature(): 731.로 대신하면서 폐지된 것으로 문서화되었지만, 레거시
     ‘getargspec()’ API에서 마이그레이션 하는 단일 소스 파이썬 2/3 코드
     를 위한 명확하게 지원되는 표준 인터페이스를 복원하기 위해 이 결정을
     번복했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 실제로 파이썬 3에서 항상 유지되었습니다만, 파이
     썬은 버전 3.7부터 키워드 전용 매개 변수의 선언 순서를 유지한다는 것
     을 명시적으로 보장합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getargvalues (frame)

     특정 프레임으로 전달된 인자에 대한 정보를 얻습니다.  *note 네임드
     튜플: 648. ‘ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)’가 반환됩니다.
     'args'는 인자 이름의 리스트입니다.  'varargs'와 'keywords'는 ‘*’와
     ‘**’ 인자의 이름이거나 ‘None’입니다.  'locals'는 주어진 프레임의 지
     역 딕셔너리입니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 실수로 파이썬 3.5에서 폐지된 것으로 표시되었습
          니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.formatargvalues (args[, varargs, varkw, locals,
          formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

     *note getargvalues(): eb5.가 반환한 4개의 값으로 예쁜 인자 명세를 포
     맷합니다.  format* 인자는 해당 이름과 값을 문자열로 변환하기 위해 호
     출되는 선택적 포매팅 함수입니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 실수로 파이썬 3.5에서 폐지된 것으로 표시되었습
          니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getmro (cls)

     클래스 cls의 베이스 클래스의 튜플(cls를 포함합니다)을 메서드 결정 순
     서로 반환합니다.  이 튜플에는 클래스가 두 번 이상 나타나지 않습니다
     .  메서드 결정 순서는 cls의 형에 따라 다릅니다.  매우 독특한 사용자
     정의 메타 형을 사용하지 않는 한, cls는 튜플의 첫 번째 요소가 됩니다
     .

 -- 함수: inspect.getcallargs (func, /, *args, **kwds)

     'args'와 'kwds'를 마치 이들로 호출된 것처럼 파이썬 함수나 메서드
     'func'의 인자 이름에 연결합니다.  연결된 메서드의 경우, 첫 번째 인
     자(일반적으로 ‘self’라고 합니다)도 해당 인스턴스에 연결합니다.  인
     자 이름(있다면, ‘*’와 ‘**’ 인자의 이름도 포함합니다)을 'args'와
     'kwds'의 값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리가 반환됩니다.  'func'를 잘못 호출
     하는 경우, 즉 호환되지 않는 서명으로 인해 ‘func(*args, **kwds)’가 예
     외를 발생시키게 될 때마다, 같은 형의 예외가 같거나 유사한 메시지로
     발생합니다.  예를 들면:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.5부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note Signature.bind(): 156a.와 *note
     Signature.bind_partial(): 448b.을 사용하십시오.

 -- 함수: inspect.getclosurevars (func)

     파이썬 함수나 메서드 'func'에 있는 외부 이름 참조에서 현재 값으로의
     매핑을 얻습니다.  *note 네임드 튜플: 648. ‘ClosureVars(nonlocals,
     globals, builtins, unbound)’가 반환됩니다.  'nonlocals'는 참조된 이
     름을 어휘 클로저(closure) 변수로, 'globals'는 함수의 모듈 전역으로,
     'builtins'는 함수 바디에서 볼 수 있는 내장으로 매핑합니다.
     'unbound'는 현재 모듈 전역과 내장에서 전혀 결정할 수 없는 함수에서
     참조된 이름 집합입니다.

     'func'가 파이썬 함수나 메서드가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생
     합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: inspect.unwrap (func, *, stop=None)

     'func'로 래핑 된 객체를 가져옵니다.  체인의 마지막 객체를 반환하는
     ‘__wrapped__’ 어트리뷰트의 체인을 따라갑니다.

     'stop'은 래퍼 체인의 객체를 유일한 인자로 받아들이는 선택적 콜백으
     로, 콜백이 참값을 반환할 때 언 래핑을 조기에 종료 할 수 있도록 합니
     다.  콜백이 참값을 반환하지 않으면, 체인의 마지막 객체가 평소처럼 반
     환됩니다.  예를 들어, *note signature(): 731.는 이것을 사용하여 체
     인에 있는 객체에 ‘__signature__’ 어트리뷰트가 정의되면 언 래핑을 중
     지합니다.

     순환이 발견되면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: inspect.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None, locals=None,
          eval_str=False)

     Compute the annotations dict for an object.

     ‘obj’ may be a callable, class, or module.  Passing in an object of
     any other type raises *note TypeError: 532.

     Returns a dict.  ‘get_annotations()’ returns a new dict every time
     it’s called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
     different but equivalent dicts.

     This function handles several details for you:

        * If ‘eval_str’ is true, values of type ‘str’ will be
          un-stringized using *note eval(): 180.  This is intended for
          use with stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import
          annotations’).

        * If ‘obj’ doesn’t have an annotations dict, returns an empty
          dict.  (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict;
          classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.)

        * Ignores inherited annotations on classes.  If a class doesn’t
          have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

        * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using
          ‘getattr()’ and ‘dict.get()’ for safety.

        * Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.

     ‘eval_str’ controls whether or not values of type ‘str’ are
     replaced with the result of calling *note eval(): 180. on those
     values:

        * If eval_str is true, *note eval(): 180. is called on values of
          type ‘str’.  (Note that ‘get_annotations’ doesn’t catch
          exceptions; if *note eval(): 180. raises an exception, it will
          unwind the stack past the ‘get_annotations’ call.)

        * If eval_str is false (the default), values of type ‘str’ are
          unchanged.

     ‘globals’ and ‘locals’ are passed in to *note eval(): 180.; see the
     documentation for *note eval(): 180. for more information.  If
     ‘globals’ or ‘locals’ is ‘None’, this function may replace that
     value with a context-specific default, contingent on ‘type(obj)’:

        * If ‘obj’ is a module, ‘globals’ defaults to ‘obj.__dict__’.

        * If ‘obj’ is a class, ‘globals’ defaults to
          ‘sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__’ and ‘locals’ defaults
          to the ‘obj’ class namespace.

        * If ‘obj’ is a callable, ‘globals’ defaults to *note
          obj.__globals__: 12c3, although if ‘obj’ is a wrapped function
          (using *note functools.update_wrapper(): 1018.) it is first
          unwrapped.

     Calling ‘get_annotations’ is best practice for accessing the
     annotations dict of any object.  See *note Annotations Best
     Practices: 7d2. for more information on annotations best practices.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: 인터프리터 스택,  Next: 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기,  Prev: 클래스와 함수<2>,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.5 인터프리터 스택
.........................

Some of the following functions return *note FrameInfo: 646. objects.
For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on
all attributes except ‘positions’.  This behavior is considered
deprecated and may be removed in the future.

 -- 클래스: inspect.FrameInfo

      -- 속성: frame

          The *note frame object: 6d9. that the record corresponds to.

      -- 속성: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

      -- 속성: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- 속성: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          record corresponds to.

      -- 속성: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
          executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- 속성: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 44a1. list.

      -- 속성: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 44a4. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note tuple: 369. 대신 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.을
     반환합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘FrameInfo’ is now a class instance (that is
     backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 648.).

 -- 클래스: inspect.Traceback

      -- 속성: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- 속성: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- 속성: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          traceback corresponds to.

      -- 속성: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
          executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- 속성: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 44a8. list.

      -- 속성: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 44a4. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘Traceback’ is now a class instance (that is
     backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 648.).

     참고: 이러한 함수가 반환하는 프레임 레코드의 첫 번째 요소에서 발견
     되는 것처럼, 프레임 객체에 대한 참조를 유지하면 프로그램이 참조 순
     환을 만들 수 있습니다.  일단 참조 순환이 생성되면, 파이썬의 선택적
     순환 검출기가 활성화되어 있어도, 순환을 형성하는 객체에서 액세스 할
     수 있는 모든 객체의 수명이 훨씬 더 길어질 수 있습니다.  이러한 순환
     을 만들어야만 하면, 명시적으로 끊어서 객체의 지연된 파괴와 메모리 소
     비 증가를 피하는 것이 중요합니다.

     순환 감지기가 이를 잡기는 하겠지만, *note finally: 9c7. 절에서 순환
     을 제거하여 프레임(과 지역 변수)의 파괴를 결정적(deterministic)으로
     만들 수 있습니다.  파이썬을 컴파일할 때나 *note gc.disable():
     4466.을 사용해서 순환 감지기를 비활성화했을 때도 중요합니다.  예를
     들면:

          def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
              frame = inspect.currentframe()
              try:
                  # frame으로 뭔가 합니다
              finally:
                  del frame

     프레임을 계속 유지하려면 (예를 들어 나중에 트레이스백을 인쇄하려고)
     *note frame.clear(): 280. 메서드를 사용하여 참조 순환을 끊을 수도 있
     습니다.

이 함수들 대부분이 지원하는 선택적 'context' 인자는 반환할 문맥(context)
줄 수를 지정합니다.  이 줄들은 현재 줄을 중심으로 합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getframeinfo (frame, context=1)

     프레임이나 트레이스백 객체에 대한 정보를 얻습니다.  *note
     Traceback: 647. 객체가 반환됩니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: A *note Traceback: 647. object is returned
     instead of a named tuple.

 -- 함수: inspect.getouterframes (frame, context=1)

     frame과 모든 외부(outer) 프레임에 대한 *note FrameInfo: 646. 객체 리
     스트를 얻습니다.  이 프레임들은 'frame'을 만들도록 한 호출을 나타냅
     니다.  반환된 리스트의 첫 번째 항목은 'frame'을 나타냅니다; 마지막
     항목은 'frame'의 스택에서 가장 바깥쪽 호출을 나타냅니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note 네임드 튜플: 648. ‘FrameInfo(frame,
     filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’의 리스트가 반환됩
     니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: A list of *note FrameInfo: 646. objects is
     returned.

 -- 함수: inspect.getinnerframes (traceback, context=1)

     traceback의 프레임과 모든 내부(inner) 프레임에 대한 *note
     FrameInfo: 646. 객체 리스트를 얻습니다.  이 프레임들은 'frame'의 결
     과로 만들어진 호출을 나타냅니다.  리스트의 첫 번째 항목은
     'traceback'을 나타냅니다; 마지막 항목은 예외가 발생한 위치를 나타냅
     니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note 네임드 튜플: 648. ‘FrameInfo(frame,
     filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’의 리스트가 반환됩
     니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: A list of *note FrameInfo: 646. objects is
     returned.

 -- 함수: inspect.currentframe ()

     호출자의 스택 프레임에 대한 프레임 객체를 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 인터프리터의 파이썬 스택 프레임 지원에 의존하며, 모든 파
     이썬 구현에서 제공된다고 보장되는 것은 아닙니다.  파이썬 스택 프레
     임 지원이 없는 구현에서 실행하면, 이 함수는 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.stack (context=1)

     호출자의 스택에 대한 *note FrameInfo: 646. 객체 리스트를 반환합니다
     .  반환된 리스트의 첫 번째 항목은 호출자를 나타냅니다; 마지막 항목
     은 스택에서 가장 바깥쪽 호출을 나타냅니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note 네임드 튜플: 648. ‘FrameInfo(frame,
     filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’의 리스트가 반환됩
     니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: A list of *note FrameInfo: 646. objects is
     returned.

 -- 함수: inspect.trace (context=1)

     현재 프레임과 현재 처리 중인 예외가 발생한 프레임 사이의 스택에 대
     한 *note FrameInfo: 646. 객체 리스트를 반환합니다.  리스트의 첫 번
     째 항목은 호출자를 나타냅니다; 마지막 항목은 예외가 발생한 위치를 나
     타냅니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note 네임드 튜플: 648. ‘FrameInfo(frame,
     filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’의 리스트가 반환됩
     니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: A list of *note FrameInfo: 646. objects is
     returned.


File: python.info,  Node: 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기,  Next: 제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태,  Prev: 인터프리터 스택,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.6 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기
......................................

*note getattr(): bce.과 *note hasattr(): 4cc.은 모두 어트리뷰트를 가져오
거나 존재하는지 확인할 때 코드 실행을 유발할 수 있습니다.  프로퍼티와 같
은 디스크립터가 호출되고 *note __getattr__(): 4cd.과 *note
__getattribute__(): bcf.가 호출될 수 있습니다.

문서화 도구처럼 수동적인(passive) 검사를 원할 때는 불편할 수 있습니다.
*note getattr_static(): 48e.은 *note getattr(): bce.과 같은 서명을 갖지
만 어트리뷰트를 가져올 때 코드 실행을 피합니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getattr_static (obj, attr, default=None)

     디스크립터 프로토콜, *note __getattr__(): 4cd. 또는 *note
     __getattribute__(): bcf.를 통한 동적 조회를 일으키지 않고 어트리뷰
     트를 조회합니다.

     참고: 이 함수는 getattr이 가져올 수 있는 모든 어트리뷰트를 조회하지
     못할 수 있으며 (가령 동적으로 만들어진 어트리뷰트), getattr이 가져
     올 수 없는 어트리뷰트를 찾을 수 있습니다 (가령 AttributeError를 발
     생시키는 디스크립터).  또한 인스턴스 멤버 대신 디스크립터 객체를 반
     환할 수도 있습니다.

     인스턴스 *note __dict__: 556.가 다른 멤버(예를 들어 프로퍼티)에 의
     해 가려지면 이 함수는 인스턴스 멤버를 찾을 수 없습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

*note getattr_static(): 48e.은 디스크립터를 해석하지 않습니다, 예를 들어
C로 구현된 객체의 슬롯 디스크립터나 getset 디스크립터.  하부 어트리뷰트
대신 디스크립터 객체가 반환됩니다.

다음과 같은 코드로 이를 처리할 수 있습니다.  임의의 getset 디스크립터에
대해 이를 호출하면 코드 실행이 유발될 수 있음에 유의하십시오:

     # 내장 디스크립터 형을 해석하기 위한 예제 코드
     class _foo:
         __slots__ = ['foo']

     slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
     getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
     wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
     descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

     result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
     if type(result) in descriptor_types:
         try:
             result = result.__get__()
         except AttributeError:
             # 디스크립터는 AttributeError를 발생 시켜
             # 하부 값이 없음을 나타냅니다.
             # 이 경우 디스크립터 자체가
             # 수행해야 합니다.
             pass


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태,  Next: 코드 객체 비트 플래그,  Prev: 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.7 제너레이터, 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태
.............................................................

코루틴 스케줄러를 구현할 때와 기타 제너레이터의 고급 사용을 위해, 제너레
이터가 현재 실행 중인지, 시작, 재개 또는 실행을 대기하는 중인지, 또는 이
미 종료되었는지를 판별하는 것이 유용합니다.  *note getgeneratorstate():
1226.를 사용하면 제너레이터의 현재 상태를 쉽게 확인할 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: inspect.getgeneratorstate (generator)

     제너레이터-이터레이터의 현재 상태를 가져옵니다.

     가능한 상태는 다음과 같습니다:

        * GEN_CREATED: 실행 시작을 기다리는 중입니다.

        * GEN_RUNNING: 현재 인터프리터에서 실행 중입니다.

        * GEN_SUSPENDED: 현재 일드(yield) 표현식에서 일시 중지되었습니다
          .

        * GEN_CLOSED: 실행이 완료되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: inspect.getcoroutinestate (coroutine)

     코루틴 객체의 현재 상태를 가져옵니다.  이 함수는 *note async def:
     5cb. 함수가 만든 코루틴 객체와 함께 사용하기 위한 것이지만,
     ‘cr_running’과 ‘cr_frame’ 어트리뷰트가 있는 임의의 코루틴류 객체를
     허용합니다.

     가능한 상태는 다음과 같습니다:

        * CORO_CREATED: 실행 시작을 기다리는 중입니다.

        * CORO_RUNNING: 현재 인터프리터에서 실행 중입니다.

        * CORO_SUSPENDED: 현재 어웨이트(await) 표현식에서 일시 중지되었
          습니다.

        * CORO_CLOSED: 실행이 완료되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: inspect.getasyncgenstate (agen)

     비동기 제너레이터 객체의 현재 상태를 가져옵니다.  이 함수는 *note
     yield: 9ca. 문을 사용하는 *note async def: 5cb. 함수가 만든 비동기
     이터레이터 객체와 함께 사용하기 위한 것이지만, ‘ag_running’과
     ‘ag_frame’ 어트리뷰트가 있는 임의의 비동기 제너레이터류 객체를 허용
     합니다.

     가능한 상태는 다음과 같습니다:

        * AGEN_CREATED: 실행 시작을 기다리는 중입니다.

        * AGEN_RUNNING: 현재 인터프리터에서 실행 중입니다.

        * AGEN_SUSPENDED: 현재 일드(yield) 표현식에서 일시 중지되었습니
          다.

        * AGEN_CLOSED: 실행이 완료되었습니다.

     Added in version 3.12.

제너레이터의 현재 내부 상태도 조회할 수 있습니다.  이는 주로 내부 상태가
예상대로 갱신되었는지 확인하는 테스트 목적으로 유용합니다:

 -- 함수: inspect.getgeneratorlocals (generator)

     'generator'의 라이브 로컬 변수에서 그것의 현재 값으로의 매핑을 얻습
     니다.  변수 이름을 값으로 매핑하는 딕셔너리가 반환됩니다.  이것은 제
     너레이터 바디에서 *note locals(): 141.를 호출하는 것과 동등하며, 같
     은 경고가 모두 적용됩니다.

     'generator'가 현재 연결된 프레임이 없는 *note 제너레이터: 1057.이면
     , 빈 딕셔너리가 반환됩니다.  'generator'가 파이썬 제너레이터 객체가
     아니면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     이 함수는 내부 검사를 위해 파이썬 스택 프레임을 노출하는 제너레이터
     에 의존하며, 모든 파이썬 구현에서 보장되는 것은 아닙니다.  그럴 경
     우, 이 함수는 항상 빈 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: inspect.getcoroutinelocals (coroutine)

     이 함수는 *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10c9.와 유사하지만, *note
     async def: 5cb. 함수가 만든 코루틴 객체에 작동합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: inspect.getasyncgenlocals (agen)

     이 함수는 *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10c9.와 유사하지만, *note
     yield: 9ca. 문을 사용하는 *note async def: 5cb. 함수가 만든 비동기
     제너레이터 객체에 작동합니다.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 코드 객체 비트 플래그,  Next: Buffer flags,  Prev: 제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.8 코드 객체 비트 플래그
...............................

파이썬 코드 객체에는 *note co_flags: 1f4c. 어트리뷰트가 있으며, 이는 다
음 플래그의 비트맵입니다:

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

     코드 객체는 빠른 locals(fast locals)를 사용하여 최적화되었습니다.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

     설정되면, 코드 객체가 실행될 때 프레임의 *note f_locals: 182.에 대
     한 새 딕셔너리가 만들어집니다.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_VARARGS

     코드 객체에는 (‘*args’ 같은) 가변 위치 매개 변수가 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

     코드 객체에는 (‘**kwargs’ 같은) 가변 키워드 매개 변수가 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_NESTED

     코드 객체가 중첩 함수일 때 이 플래그가 설정됩니다.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_GENERATOR

     코드 객체가 제너레이터 함수일 때, 즉 코드 객체가 실행될 때 제너레이
     터 객체를 반환할 때 이 플래그가 설정됩니다.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_COROUTINE

     코드 객체가 코루틴 함수일 때 이 플래그가 설정됩니다.  코드 객체가 실
     행될 때 코루틴 객체를 반환합니다.  자세한 내용은 PEP 492(1)를 참조
     하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

     이 플래그는 제너레이터를 제너레이터 기반 코루틴으로 변환하는 데 사
     용됩니다.  이 플래그가 있는 제너레이터 객체는 ‘await’ 표현식에 사용
     될 수 있으며, 코루틴 객체를 ‘yield from’ 할 수 있습니다.  자세한 내
     용은 PEP 492(2)를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 데이터: inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

     코드 객체가 비동기 제너레이터 함수일 때 이 플래그가 설정됩니다.  코
     드 객체가 실행될 때 비동기 제너레이터 객체가 반환됩니다.  자세한 내
     용은 PEP 525(3)를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.6.

     참고: 이 플래그들은 CPython에만 해당하며, 다른 파이썬 구현에서는 정
     의되지 않을 수 있습니다.  또한 플래그는 구현 세부 사항이며, 향후 파
     이썬 배포에서 제거되거나 폐지될 수 있습니다.  모든 내부 검사에는
     *note inspect: 7e. 모듈의 공개 API를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer flags,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<8>,  Prev: 코드 객체 비트 플래그,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.9 Buffer flags
......................

 -- 클래스: inspect.BufferFlags

     This is an *note enum.IntFlag: 2302. that represents the flags that
     can be passed to the *note __buffer__(): 458. method of objects
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 391.

     The meaning of the flags is explained at *note 버퍼 요청 유형:
     44b8.

      -- 속성: SIMPLE

      -- 속성: WRITABLE

      -- 속성: FORMAT

      -- 속성: ND

      -- 속성: STRIDES

      -- 속성: C_CONTIGUOUS

      -- 속성: F_CONTIGUOUS

      -- 속성: ANY_CONTIGUOUS

      -- 속성: INDIRECT

      -- 속성: CONTIG

      -- 속성: CONTIG_RO

      -- 속성: STRIDED

      -- 속성: STRIDED_RO

      -- 속성: RECORDS

      -- 속성: RECORDS_RO

      -- 속성: FULL

      -- 속성: FULL_RO

      -- 속성: READ

      -- 속성: WRITE

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<8>,  Prev: Buffer flags,  Up: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사

5.29.14.10 명령 줄 인터페이스
.............................

*note inspect: 7e. 모듈은 명령 줄에서 기본 내부 검사 기능을 제공하기도 합
니다.

기본적으로, 모듈의 이름을 받아들이고 해당 모듈의 소스를 인쇄합니다.  콜
론과 대상 객체의 정규화된 이름을 덧붙여, 대신 모듈 내의 클래스나 함수를
인쇄 할 수 있습니다.

 -- Option: --details

     소스 코드 대신에 지정된 객체에 대한 정보를 인쇄합니다


File: python.info,  Node: site — 사이트별 구성 훅,  Prev: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사,  Up: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스

5.29.15 ‘site’ — 사이트별 구성 훅
---------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/site.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'이 모듈은 초기화 중에 자동으로 임포트 됩니다.'  인터프리터의 *note -S:
1198. 옵션을 사용하여 자동 임포트를 억제할 수 있습니다.

이 모듈을 임포트하면 일반적으로 사이트별 경로를 모듈 검색 경로에 추가하
고 *note help(): 8d4.를 포함한 *note 콜러블들: 218f.을 내장 이름 공간에
추가합니다.  그러나 시작 옵션 *note -S: 1198.는 이를 막고 모듈 검색 경로
의 자동 수정이나 내장의 추가 없이 이 모듈을 안전하게 임포트할 수 있습니
다.  일반적인 사이트별 추가를 명시적으로 트리거 하려면, *note main():
1d3e. 함수를 호출하십시오.

버전 3.3에서 변경: *note -S: 1198.를 사용하는 경우에도 모듈을 임포트 하
면 경로 조작을 트리거 했습니다.

머리와 꼬리 부분에서 최대 4개의 디렉터리를 구성하는 것으로 시작합니다.  머
리 부분에는, ‘sys.prefix’와 ‘sys.exec_prefix’를 사용합니다; 빈 머리는 건
너뜁니다.  꼬리 부분에는, 빈 문자열을 사용하고 ‘lib/site-packages’(윈도
우에서)나 ‘lib/python`X.Y[t]'/site-packages’(유닉스와 맥 OS에서)를 사용
합니다.  (선택적 접미사 “t” 는 *note 자유 스레딩: 152a. 빌드를 나타내며,
‘"t"’가 *note sys.abiflags: a60. 상수에 있으면 추가됩니다.)  각 머리-꼬
리 조합마다, 존재하는 디렉터리를 참조하는지 확인하고, 그렇다면 디렉터리
를 ‘sys.path’에 추가하고 새로 추가된 경로에서 구성 파일을 검사합니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: “site-python” 디렉터리에 대한 지원이 제거되었습니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: On Unix, *note Free threading: 152a. Python
installations are identified by the “t” suffix in the version-specific
directory name, such as ‘lib/python3.13t/’.

“pyvenv.cfg”라는 파일이 sys.executable의 한 디렉터리 위에 있으면,
sys.prefix와 sys.exec_prefix가 그 디렉터리로 설정되고, site-packages도 검
사됩니다 (sys.base_prefix와 sys.base_exec_prefix는 항상 파이썬 설치의 “실
제” 접두사가 됩니다).  “pyvenv.cfg”(부트스트랩 구성 파일)에 “true”(대소
문자 구분하지 않습니다) 이외의 다른 값으로 설정된
“include-system-site-packages” 키가 있으면, 시스템 수준 접두사에서는
site-packages를 검색하지 않습니다; 그렇지 않으면 검사합니다.

경로 구성 파일은 이름이 ‘`name'.pth’ 인 파일이며, 위에서 언급한 4개의 디
렉터리 중 하나에 존재합니다; 내용은 ‘sys.path’에 추가될 추가 항목(한 줄
에 하나씩)입니다.  존재하지 않는 항목은 ‘sys.path’에 추가되지 않으며, 항
목이 파일이 아닌 디렉터리를 참조하는지 확인하지 않습니다.  어떤 항목도
‘sys.path’에 두 번 추가되지 않습니다.  빈 줄과 ‘#’으로 시작하는 줄은 건
너뜁니다.  ‘import’로 시작하는 (공백이나 탭이 뒤따르는) 줄은 실행됩니다.

     참고: ‘.pth’ 파일의 실행 줄은 특정 모듈이 실제 사용될지에 관계없이
     모든 파이썬 시작 시에 실행됩니다.  따라서 영향을 최소화해야 합니다.
     실행 줄의 주요 목적은 해당 모듈을 임포트 가능하게 만드는 것입니다
     (제삼자 임포트 훅 로드, ‘PATH’ 조정 등).  다른 초기화는 모듈의 실제
     임포트에서 수행된다고 간주합니다, (임포트 한다면 그리고 임포트 할 때
     ).  코드 청크를 한 줄로 제한하는 것은 여기에 더 복잡한 것을 넣지 않
     도록 하려는 의도입니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: The ‘.pth’ files are now decoded by UTF-8 at first
and then by the *note locale encoding: 242. if it fails.

예를 들어, ‘sys.prefix’와 ‘sys.exec_prefix’가 ‘/usr/local’로 설정되었다
고 가정하십시오.  그러면 파이썬 X.Y 라이브러리는
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’에 설치되어 있습니다.  여기에 ‘foo’, ‘bar’ 및
‘spam’이라는 세 개의 서브 디렉터리와, ‘foo.pth’와 ‘bar.pth’라는 두 개의
경로 구성 파일이 있는 서브 디렉터리
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’가 있다고 가정하십시오.
‘foo.pth’에 다음이 포함되어 있고:

     # foo package configuration

     foo
     bar
     bletch

‘bar.pth’는 다음을 포함한다고 가정하십시오:

     # bar package configuration

     bar

그러면 다음과 같은 버전 별 디렉터리가 이 순서대로 ‘sys.path’에 추가됩니
다:

     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo

‘bletch’가 존재하지 않기 때문에 생략되었음에 유의하십시오; ‘bar.pth’가 알
파벳순으로 ‘foo.pth’ 앞에 오기 때문에 ‘bar’ 디렉터리가 ‘foo’ 디렉터리보
다 앞에 옵니다; ‘spam’은 경로 구성 파일에 언급되어 있지 않기 때문에 생략
되었습니다.

* Menu:

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline 구성::
* 모듈 내용: 모듈 내용<8>.
* 명령 줄 인터페이스: 명령 줄 인터페이스<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/site.py


File: python.info,  Node: sitecustomize,  Next: usercustomize,  Up: site — 사이트별 구성 훅

5.29.15.1 ‘sitecustomize’
.........................

이러한 경로 조작 후, 임의의 사이트별 사용자 정의를 수행할 수 있는 *note
sitecustomize: c8.라는 모듈을 임포트 하려고 시도합니다.  일반적으로 시스
템 관리자가 site-packages 디렉터리에 만듭니다.  이 임포트가 *note
ImportError: 413.나 이것의 서브 클래스 예외로 실패하고, 예외의 *note
name: 2290. 어트리뷰트가 ‘'sitecustomize'’와 같으면, 조용히 무시됩니다.
윈도우에서 ‘pythonw.exe’(IDLE을 시작하는 데 기본적으로 사용됩니다)처럼,
사용 가능한 출력 스트림 없이 파이썬을 시작하면, *note sitecustomize:
c8.의 출력 시도는 무시됩니다.  다른 예외는 절차의 조용한 그리고 아마도 정
체불명의 실패로 이어집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: usercustomize,  Next: Readline 구성,  Prev: sitecustomize,  Up: site — 사이트별 구성 훅

5.29.15.2 ‘usercustomize’
.........................

그런 다음, *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 44d0.가 참이면, 임의의 사용자별 사용
자 정의를 수행할 수 있는 *note usercustomize: 10e.라는 모듈을 임포트 하
려고 시도합니다.  이 파일은 사용자 site-packages 디렉터리(아래를 보십시
오)에 만들어지는 것이 관례입니다, *note -s: 1374.에 의해 비활성화되지 않
는 한 ‘sys.path’의 일부입니다.  이 임포트가 *note ImportError: 413.나 이
것의 서브 클래스 예외로 실패하고, 예외의 *note name: 2290. 어트리뷰트가
‘'usercustomize'’와 같으면, 조용히 무시됩니다.

유닉스가 아닌 일부 시스템에서는, ‘sys.prefix’와 ‘sys.exec_prefix’가 비어
있고, 경로 조작을 건너뜀에 유의하십시오; 하지만 *note sitecustomize:
c8.와 *note usercustomize: 10e. 임포트는 여전히 시도됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Readline 구성,  Next: 모듈 내용<8>,  Prev: usercustomize,  Up: site — 사이트별 구성 훅

5.29.15.3 Readline 구성
.......................

*note readline: ba.을 지원하는 시스템에서, 파이썬이 *note 대화형 모드:
fbe.로 *note -S: 1198. 옵션 없이 시작되면, 이 모듈은 *note rlcompleter:
bd. 모듈을 임포트하고 구성합니다.  기본 동작은 탭 완성을 활성화하고
‘~/.python_history’를 히스토리 저장 파일로 사용하는 것입니다.  이를 비활
성화하려면, *note sitecustomize: c8.나 *note usercustomize: 10e. 모듈 또
는 *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc0. 파일에서 *note sys.__interactivehook__:
fbf. 어트리뷰트를 삭제(또는 재정의)하십시오.

버전 3.4에서 변경: rlcompleter와 히스토리 활성화가 자동으로 이루어졌습니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 내용<8>,  Next: 명령 줄 인터페이스<9>,  Prev: Readline 구성,  Up: site — 사이트별 구성 훅

5.29.15.4 모듈 내용
...................

 -- 데이터: site.PREFIXES

     site-packages 디렉터리의 접두사 리스트.

 -- 데이터: site.ENABLE_USER_SITE

     사용자 site-packages 디렉터리의 상태를 나타내는 플래그.  ‘True’는 활
     성화되어 ‘sys.path’에 추가되었음을 의미합니다.  ‘False’는 사용자 요
     청(*note -s: 1374.나 *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1375.로)에 의해 비활성
     화되었음을 의미합니다.  ‘None’은 보안상의 이유(사용자나 그룹 id와 유
     효(effective) id가 일치하지 않음)로 또는 관리자에 의해 비활성화되었
     음을 의미합니다.

 -- 데이터: site.USER_SITE

     실행 중인 파이썬의 사용자 site-packages 경로.  *note
     getusersitepackages(): 1230.가 아직 호출되지 않았으면 ‘None’일 수 있
     습니다.  기본값은 유닉스와 비 프레임워크 맥 OS 빌드의 경우
     ‘~/.local/lib/python`X.Y'[t]/site-packages’, 맥 OS 프레임워크 빌드
     의 경우 ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'/lib/python/site-packages’, 윈도우의
     경우 ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python\Python`XY'\site-packages’입니다.  선택적
     “t” 는 자유 스레딩 빌드를 나타냅니다.  이 디렉터리는 사이트 디렉터
     리이며, 이는 그 안에 있는 ‘.pth’ 파일이 처리됨을 의미합니다.

 -- 데이터: site.USER_BASE

     사용자 site-packages의 베이스 디렉터리에 대한 경로.  *note
     getuserbase(): 122f.가 아직 호출되지 않았으면 ‘None’일 수 있습니다.
     기본값은 유닉스와 맥 OS 비 프레임워크 빌드의 경우 ‘~/.local’, 맥 OS
     프레임워크 빌드의 경우 ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'’, 윈도우의 경우
     ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python’입니다.  이 값은 *note 사용자 설치 스킴: 1d4f.의
     스크립트, 데이터 파일, 파이썬 모듈 등의 설치 디렉터리를 계산하는 데
     사용됩니다.  *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1373. 도 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: site.main ()

     모든 표준 사이트별 디렉터리를 모듈 검색 경로에 추가합니다.  파이썬
     인터프리터가 *note -S: 1198. 플래그로 시작되지 않았으면, 이 모듈이
     임포트 될 때 이 함수가 자동으로 호출됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 함수는 무조건 호출되었습니다.

 -- 함수: site.addsitedir (sitedir, known_paths=None)

     sys.path에 디렉터리를 추가하고 ‘.pth’ 파일을 처리합니다.  일반적으
     로 *note sitecustomize: c8.나 *note usercustomize: 10e.에서 사용됩
     니다 (위를 참조하십시오).

 -- 함수: site.getsitepackages ()

     모든 전역 site-packages 디렉터리를 포함하는 리스트를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: site.getuserbase ()

     사용자 베이스 디렉터리 *note USER_BASE: 130c.의 경로를 반환합니다.
     아직 초기화되지 않았으면, 이 함수는 *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1373.를 따
     라 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 함수: site.getusersitepackages ()

     사용자별 site-packages 디렉터리 *note USER_SITE: 1d3d.의 경로를 반
     환합니다.  아직 초기화되지 않았으면, 이 함수는 *note USER_BASE:
     130c.를 따라 설정합니다.  사용자별 site-packages가 ‘sys.path’에 추
     가되었는지 확인하려면 *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 44d0.를 사용해야 합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<9>,  Prev: 모듈 내용<8>,  Up: site — 사이트별 구성 훅

5.29.15.5 명령 줄 인터페이스
............................

*note site: c7. 모듈은 명령 줄에서 사용자 디렉터리를 얻는 방법도 제공합
니다:

     $ python -m site --user-site
     /home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages

인자 없이 호출되면, 표준 출력에 *note sys.path: 3ae.의 내용을 인쇄한 다
음, *note USER_BASE: 130c.의 값과 디렉터리가 존재하는지를 인쇄하고,
*note USER_SITE: 1d3d.에 대해 같은 것을 인쇄하고, 마지막으로 *note
ENABLE_USER_SITE: 44d0.의 값을 인쇄합니다.

 -- Option: --user-base

     사용자 베이스 디렉터리의 경로를 인쇄합니다.

 -- Option: --user-site

     사용자 site-packages 디렉터리의 경로를 인쇄합니다.

두 옵션이 모두 제공되면, *note os.pathsep: 1d4c.으로 구분하여, 사용자 베
이스와 사용자 사이트를 (항상 이 순서대로) 인쇄합니다.

어떤 옵션이건 제공되면, 스크립트는 다음 값 중 하나로 종료됩니다: 사용자
site-packages 디렉터리가 활성화되었으면 ‘0’, 사용자에 의해 비활성화되었
으면 ‘1’, 보안상의 이유나 관리자에 의해 비활성화되었으면 ‘2’, 그리고 에
러가 있으면 2보다 큰 값.

더 보기
.......

   * PEP 370(1) – 사용자별 site-packages 디렉터리

   * *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1c68.
     – The initialization of *note sys.path: 3ae.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터,  Next: 모듈 임포트 하기,  Prev: 파이썬 실행시간 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.30 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터
==================================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 파이썬의 대화형 인터프리터와 비슷한 인터페이스
를 작성할 수 있도록 합니다.  파이썬 언어 외에도 몇 가지 특별한 기능을 지
원하는 파이썬 인터프리터를 원한다면, *note code: 1a. 모듈을 살펴보아야 합
니다.  (*note codeop: 1c. 모듈은 더 저수준이며, 불완전할 수도 있는 파이
썬 코드 조각의 컴파일을 지원하는 데 사용됩니다.)

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈의 전체 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스::
* codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일::


File: python.info,  Node: code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스,  Next: codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일,  Up: 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터

5.30.1 ‘code’ — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/code.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘code’ 모듈은 파이썬에서 REPL(read-eval-print loop)을 구현하는 기능을 제
공합니다.  대화형 인터프리터 프롬프트를 제공하는 응용 프로그램을 만드는
데 사용할 수 있는 두 개의 클래스와 편리 함수들이 포함되어 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: code.InteractiveInterpreter (locals=None)

     이 클래스는 구문 분석과 인터프리터 상태(사용자의 이름 공간)를 처리
     합니다; 입력 버퍼링이나 프롬프트 또는 입력 파일 이름 지정을 처리하
     지 않습니다 (파일명은 항상 명시적으로 전달됩니다).  선택적 'locals'
     인자는 코드가 실행될 이름 공간으로 사용될 매핑을 지정합니다; 기본값
     은 키 ‘'__name__'’이 ‘'__console__'’로 설정되고 키 ‘'__doc__'’이
     ‘None’으로 설정된 새로 만들어진 딕셔너리입니다.

     Note that functions and classes objects created under an
     ‘InteractiveInterpreter’ instance will belong to the namespace
     specified by 'locals'.  They are only pickleable if 'locals' is the
     namespace of an existing module.

 -- 클래스: code.InteractiveConsole (locals=None, filename='<console>',
          local_exit=False)

     대화형 파이썬 인터프리터의 동작을 가깝게 흉내 냅니다.  이 클래스는
     *note InteractiveInterpreter: 15e1.를 기반으로 하며 친숙한
     ‘sys.ps1’과 ‘sys.ps2’를 사용하는 프롬프트와 입력 버퍼링을 추가합니
     다.  'local_exit'가 참이면, 콘솔에서의 ‘exit()’와 ‘quit()’는 *note
     SystemExit: d3d.를 발생시키지 않고, 대신 호출 코드로 돌아갑니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'local_exit' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: code.interact (banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None,
          exitmsg=None, local_exit=False)

     REPL(read-eval-print loop)를 실행하는 편리 함수.  이것은 *note
     InteractiveConsole: 23a4.의 새 인스턴스를 만들고, 제공된다면
     'readfunc'가 *note InteractiveConsole.raw_input(): 44dd. 메서드로 사
     용되도록 설정합니다.  'local'이 제공되면 인터프리터 루프의 기본 이
     름 공간으로 사용하기 위해 *note InteractiveConsole: 23a4. 생성자로
     전달됩니다.  'local_exit'가 제공되면 *note InteractiveConsole:
     23a4. 생성자로 전달됩니다.  그런 다음 인스턴스의 *note interact():
     44de. 메서드를 실행하는데, 제공된다면 'banner'와 'exitmsg'를 각각 배
     너와 종료 메시지로 사용하도록 전달합니다.  콘솔 객체는 사용 후에 폐
     기됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'exitmsg' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 'local_exit' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: code.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     이 함수는 파이썬의 인터프리터 메인 루프(소위 REPL)를 흉내 내고 싶은
     프로그램에 유용합니다.  까다로운 부분은 사용자가 후에 추가의 텍스트
     를 입력해서 완성할 수 있는 불완전한 명령을 입력했는지를 결정하는 것
     입니다 (완전한 명령이나 문법 에러가 아니라).  이 함수는 '거의' 항상
     실제 인터프리터 메인 루프와 같은 결정을 내립니다.

     'source'는 소스 문자열입니다; 'filename'은 소스를 읽어 들인 선택적
     파일명이며, 기본값은 ‘'<input>'’입니다; 그리고 'symbol'은 선택적 문
     법 시작 기호이며 ‘'single'’ (기본값), ‘'eval'’ 또는 ‘'exec'’ 중 하
     나여야 합니다.

     명령이 완전하고 유효하면 코드 객체(‘compile(source, filename,
     symbol)’와 같습니다)를 반환합니다; 명령이 불완전하면 ‘None’을 반환
     합니다; 명령이 완전하고 문법 에러가 있으면 *note SyntaxError: 18d.를
     발생시키고, 명령에 유효하지 않은 리터럴이 포함되었으면 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.나 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 대화형 인터프리터 객체::
* 대화형 콘솔 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/code.py


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 인터프리터 객체,  Next: 대화형 콘솔 객체,  Up: code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스

5.30.1.1 대화형 인터프리터 객체
...............................

 -- 메서드: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource (source,
          filename='<input>', symbol='single')

     인터프리터에서 소스를 컴파일하고 실행합니다.  인자는 *note
     compile_command(): 44df.와 같습니다; 'filename'의 기본값은
     ‘'<input>'’이고, 'symbol'의 기본값은 ‘'single'’입니다.  여러 가지 중
     하나가 발생할 수 있습니다:

        * 입력이 잘못되었습니다; *note compile_command(): 44df.가 예외
          (*note SyntaxError: 18d.나 *note OverflowError: 87d.)를 발생시
          켰습니다.  문법 트레이스백이 *note showsyntaxerror(): 44e3. 메
          서드를 호출하여 인쇄됩니다.  *note runsource(): 44e2.는
          ‘False’를 반환합니다.

        * 입력이 불완전하고, 더 많은 입력이 필요합니다; *note
          compile_command(): 44df.가 ‘None’을 반환했습니다.  *note
          runsource(): 44e2.는 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

        * 입력이 완전합니다; *note compile_command(): 44df.가 코드 객체
          를 반환했습니다.  코드는 *note runcode(): 44e4.(*note
          SystemExit: d3d.를 제외한 실행 시간 예외도 처리합니다)를 호출
          하여 실행됩니다.  *note runsource(): 44e2.는 ‘False’를 반환합
          니다.

     반환 값은 다음 줄의 프롬프트에 ‘sys.ps1’과 ‘sys.ps2’ 중 어느 것을 사
     용할지 결정하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode (code)

     코드 객체를 실행합니다.  예외가 발생하면, *note showtraceback():
     dcc.가 호출되어 트레이스백을 표시합니다.  전파가 허락된 *note
     SystemExit: d3d.를 제외한 모든 예외를 잡습니다.

     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.에 대한 노트: 이 예외는 이 코드의 어딘
     가에서 발생할 수 있으며, 항상 잡히지는 않습니다.  호출자는 이것을 처
     리할 준비가 되어 있어야 합니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror (filename=None)

     방금 발생한 문법 에러를 표시합니다.  스택 트레이스는 표시하지 않습
     니다, 문법 에러에는 그런 것이 없기 때문입니다.  'filename'이 주어지
     면, 파이썬 구문 분석기가 제공하는 기본 파일명 대신에 예외에 채워집
     니다, 문자열에서 읽을 때는 항상 ‘'<string>'’을 사용하기 때문입니다.
     출력은 *note write(): 44e5. 메서드로 기록됩니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback ()

     방금 발생한 예외를 표시합니다.  첫 번째 스택 항목을 제거합니다, 그
     것은 인터프리터 객체 구현에 속하기 때문입니다.  출력은 *note
     write(): 44e5. 메서드로 기록됩니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 단지 기본(primary) 트레이스백이 아니라 전체 연결
     된(chained) 트레이스백이 표시됩니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveInterpreter.write (data)

     문자열을 표준 에러 스트림(‘sys.stderr’)에 기록합니다.  파생 클래스
     는 필요에 따라 적절한 출력 처리를 제공하기 위해 이것을 재정의해야 합
     니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대화형 콘솔 객체,  Prev: 대화형 인터프리터 객체,  Up: code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스

5.30.1.2 대화형 콘솔 객체
.........................

*note InteractiveConsole: 23a4. 클래스는 *note InteractiveInterpreter:
15e1.의 서브 클래스이므로, 인터프리터 객체의 모든 메서드와 다음과 같은 추
가 메서드를 제공합니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveConsole.interact (banner=None, exitmsg=None)

     대화형 파이썬 콘솔을 가깝게 흉내 냅니다.  선택적 'banner' 인자는 첫
     번째 상호 작용 전에 인쇄할 배너를 지정합니다; 기본적으로 표준 파이
     썬 인터프리터가 출력하는 것과 비슷한 배너를 출력한 다음 괄호 안에 콘
     솔 객체의 클래스 이름을 출력합니다 (실제 인터프리터와 혼동하지 않도
     록 하기 위함입니다 – 너무 비슷합니다!).

     선택적 'exitmsg' 인자는 종료할 때 인쇄되는 종료 메시지를 지정합니다
     .  종료 메시지를 표시하지 않으려면 빈 문자열을 전달하십시오.
     'exitmsg'가 주어지지 않았거나 ‘None’이면, 기본 메시지가 인쇄됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 배너 인쇄를 억제하려면, 빈 문자열을 전달하십시오
     .

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 종료할 때 종료 메시지를 인쇄합니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveConsole.push (line)

     소스 텍스트 줄을 인터프리터로 밀어 넣습니다.  line에는 후행 줄 바꿈
     이 없어야 합니다; 내부 줄 바꿈은 있을 수 있습니다.  줄은 버퍼에 추
     가되고 인터프리터의 *note runsource(): 44e2. 메서드가 이어붙인 버퍼
     의 내용을 소스로 하여 호출됩니다.  이것이 명령이 실행되었거나 유효
     하지 않았다고 알리면 버퍼는 재설정됩니다; 그렇지 않고 명령이 불완전
     하다면, 버퍼는 줄을 추가한 상태로 유지됩니다.  반환 값은 추가 입력
     이 필요하면 ‘True’이고, 어떤 식으로든 줄이 처리되었으면 ‘False’입니
     다 (‘runsource()’와 같습니다).

 -- 메서드: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer ()

     처리되지 않은 소스 텍스트를 입력 버퍼에서 제거합니다.

 -- 메서드: InteractiveConsole.raw_input (prompt='')

     프롬프트를 기록하고 줄을 읽습니다.  반환된 줄에는 후행 줄 바꿈이 포
     함되지 않습니다.  사용자가 EOF 키 시퀀스를 입력하면, *note
     EOFError: 12c9.가 발생합니다.  기본 구현은 ‘sys.stdin’에서 읽습니다
     ; 서브 클래스는 이것을 다른 구현으로 바꿀 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일,  Prev: code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스,  Up: 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터

5.30.2 ‘codeop’ — 파이썬 코드 컴파일
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/codeop.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note codeop: 1c. 모듈은 *note code: 1a. 모듈에서와같이 파이썬 읽기-평가
-인쇄 루프를 에뮬레이트 할 수 있는 유틸리티를 제공합니다.  결과적으로, 모
듈을 직접 사용하고 싶지 않을 것입니다; 여러분의 프로그램에 이러한 루프를
포함 시키려면 대신 *note code: 1a. 모듈을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

이 작업에는 두 가지 부분이 있습니다:

  1. 입력 줄이 파이썬 문장을 완성하는지 알려주는 것: 간단히 말해서,
     ‘‘>>>’’ 나 ‘‘...’’ 를 다음에 인쇄할지 알려주기.

  2. 사용자가 입력한 퓨처 문을 기억해서, 후속 입력을 컴파일할 때 이것들
     이 효과가 있도록 하기.

*note codeop: 1c. 모듈은 이들을 각각 수행하는 방법과 이들을 모두 수행하
는 방법을 제공합니다.

단지 전자를 수행하려면:

 -- 함수: codeop.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     'source'를 컴파일하려고 시도합니다.  'source'는 파이썬 코드의 문자
     열이어야 하며, 'source'가 유효한 파이썬 코드면 코드 객체를 반환합니
     다.  이 경우, 코드 객체의 filename 어트리뷰트는 'filename'가 되는데
     , 기본값은 ‘'<input>'’입니다.  'source'가 '유효한 파이썬 코드가 *아
     니지만' 유효한 파이썬 코드의 앞부분이면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

     'source'에 문제가 있으면, 예외가 발생합니다.  유효하지 않은 파이썬
     구문이 있으면 *note SyntaxError: 18d.가 발생하고, 유효하지 않은 리
     터럴이 있으면 *note OverflowError: 87d. 나 *note ValueError: 202.가
     발생합니다.

     'symbol' 인자는 'source'가 문장(‘'single'’, 기본값)으로 컴파일되는
     지, *note 문장: 2793.의 시퀀스(‘'exec'’)로 컴파일되는지 또는 *note
     표현식: 1f8d.(‘'eval'’)으로 컴파일되는지 결정합니다.  다른 값을 지
     정하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          참고: 구문 분석기가 source의 끝에 도달하기 전에 성공적인 결과
          로 구문 분석을 중지하는 것이 가능합니다 (하지만 대체로 그렇지
          않습니다); 이 경우, 뒤따르는 기호는 에러를 유발하는 대신 무시
          될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 백 슬래시 뒤에 두 개의 개행이 오면
          그 뒤에 임의의 가비지가 올 수 있습니다.  구문 분석기를 위한
          API가 개선되면 이 문제가 해결될 것입니다.

 -- 클래스: codeop.Compile

     이 클래스의 인스턴스는 내장 함수 *note compile(): 192.와 같은 서명
     의 *note __call__(): 553. 메서드를 갖지만, 인스턴스가 *note
     __future__: 0. 문을 포함하는 프로그램 텍스트를 컴파일하면 인스턴스
     가 이를 ‘기억’하고 모든 후속 프로그램 텍스트를 이 문장의 효과 아래
     에서 컴파일한다는 차이점이 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: codeop.CommandCompiler

     이 클래스의 인스턴스는 *note compile_command(): 17cf.와 같은 서명의
     *note __call__(): 553. 메서드를 갖습니다; 차이점은, 인스턴스가
     *note __future__: 0. 문을 포함하는 프로그램 텍스트를 컴파일하면 인
     스턴스가 이를 ‘기억’하고 모든 후속 프로그램 텍스트를 이 문장의 효과
     아래에서 컴파일한다는 것입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/codeop.py


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 임포트 하기,  Next: 파이썬 언어 서비스,  Prev: 사용자 정의 파이썬 인터프리터,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.31 모듈 임포트 하기
=====================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 다른 파이썬 모듈을 임포트하는 새로운 방법과 임
포트 절차를 사용자 정의하기 위한 훅을 제공합니다.

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈의 전체 목록은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트::
* pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티::
* modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기::
* runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행::
* importlib — import의 구현::
* importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
* importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
* importlib.metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스: importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스.
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트,  Next: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.1 ‘zipimport’ — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트
-----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/zipimport.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬 모듈(‘*.py’, ‘*.pyc’)과 패키지를 ZIP-형식 저장소에서 임
포트하는 기능을 추가합니다.  일반적으로 *note zipimport: 132. 모듈을 명
시적으로 사용할 필요는 없습니다; ZIP 저장소 경로가 *note sys.path: 3ae.
항목에 있으면 내장 *note import: 5dc. 메커니즘에 의해 자동으로 사용됩니
다.

일반적으로, *note sys.path: 3ae.는 문자열 디렉터리 이름의 리스트입니다.
이 모듈은 또한 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목이 ZIP 파일 저장소를 명명하는 문
자열이 될 수 있도록 합니다.  ZIP 저장소에는 패키지 임포트를 지원하는 하
위 디렉터리 구조가 포함될 수 있으며, 저장소 내의 경로를 지정하여 하위 디
렉터리에서만 임포트 되도록 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 경로
‘example.zip/lib/’는 저장소 내의 ‘lib/’ 서브 디렉터리에서만 임포트하도록
합니다.

어떤 파일이든 ZIP 저장소에 있을 수 있지만, 임포터는 ‘.py’ 와 ‘.pyc’ 파일
에 대해서만 호출됩니다.  동적 모듈(‘.pyd’, ‘.so’)의 ZIP 임포트는 허용되
지 않습니다.  저장소에 ‘.py’ 파일만 포함되어있으면, 파이썬은 해당 ‘.pyc’
파일을 추가하여 저장소를 수정하지 않습니다.  즉, ZIP 저장소에 ‘.pyc’ 파
일이 포함되어 있지 않으면, 임포트가 다소 느릴 수 있습니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: ZIP64 를 지원합니다

버전 3.8에서 변경: 전에는, 저장소 주석이 포함된 ZIP 저장소는 지원되지 않
았습니다.

더 보기
.......

PKZIP Application Note(2)

     사용된 형식과 알고리즘 저자인 Phil Katz의 ZIP 파일 형식에 관한 설명
     서.

PEP 273(3) - Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트

     구현도 제공한 James C. Ahlstrom이 작성했습니다.  파이썬 2.3은 PEP
     273(4)의 명세를 따르지만, Just van Rossum이 작성한 구현을 사용하는
     데 PEP 302(5)에 설명된 임포트 훅을 사용합니다.

*note importlib: 77. - The implementation of the import machinery

     Package providing the relevant protocols for all importers to
     implement.

이 모듈은 예외를 정의합니다:

 -- 예외: zipimport.ZipImportError

     zipimporter 객체가 발생시키는 예외.  *note ImportError: 413.의 서브
     클래스이므로, *note ImportError: 413.로도 잡힐 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* zipimporter 객체::
* 예제: 예제<28>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipimport.py

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: zipimporter 객체,  Next: 예제<28>,  Up: zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트

5.31.1.1 zipimporter 객체
.........................

*note zipimporter: 44f6.는 ZIP 파일을 임포트하는 클래스입니다.

 -- 클래스: zipimport.zipimporter (archivepath)

     새로운 zipimporter 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  'archivepath'는 ZIP 파일의
     경로이거나, ZIP 파일 내의 특정 경로여야 합니다.  예를 들어,
     'archivepath' ‘foo/bar.zip/lib’는 ZIP 파일 ‘foo/bar.zip’ 내의 ‘lib’
     디렉터리에 있는 모듈을 찾습니다 (존재한다면).

     'archivepath'가 유효한 ZIP 저장소를 가리키지 않으면 *note
     ZipImportError: 44f3.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Methods ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’,
     deprecated in 3.10 are now removed.  Use *note find_spec(): 858.
     instead.

      -- 메서드: create_module (spec)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module():
          cab. that returns *note None: 66f. to explicitly request the
          default semantics.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- 메서드: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
          865.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- 메서드: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 867.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- 메서드: get_code (fullname)

          지정된 모듈의 코드 객체를 반환합니다.  모듈을 임포트할 수 없으
          면 *note ZipImportError: 44f3.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: get_data (pathname)

          'pathname'와 관련된 데이터를 반환합니다.  파일을 찾을 수 없으
          면 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

          버전 3.3에서 변경: *note IOError: 1048. 를 발생시켜왔습니다, 이
          제 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

      -- 메서드: get_filename (fullname)

          지정한 모듈이 임포트될 때 설정될 ‘__file__’의 값을 반환합니다.
          모듈을 임포트할 수 없으면 *note ZipImportError: 44f3.를 발생시
          킵니다.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- 메서드: get_source (fullname)

          지정된 모듈의 소스 코드를 반환합니다.  모듈을 찾을 수 없으면
          *note ZipImportError: 44f3.를 발생시키고, 저장소에 모듈이 있지
          만, 소스가 없으면 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_package (fullname)

          'fullname'으로 지정된 모듈이 패키지면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  모
          듈을 찾을 수 없으면 *note ZipImportError: 44f3.를 발생시킵니다
          .

      -- 메서드: load_module (fullname)

          'fullname'으로 지정된 모듈을 로드 합니다.  'fullname'은 완전히
          정규화된 (점으로 구분된) 모듈 이름이어야 합니다.  성공하면 임
          포트 된 모듈을 반환하고, 실패하면 *note ZipImportError: 44f3.를
          발생시킵니다.

          버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: Use *note exec_module(): 30a. instead.

      -- 메서드: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache of information about files found
          within the ZIP archive.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- 속성: archive

          있을 수도 있는 하위 경로를 제외한, 임포터와 연결된 ZIP 파일의
          파일 이름.

      -- 속성: prefix

          모듈이 검색되는 ZIP 파일 내의 하위 경로.  ZIP 파일의 루트를 가
          리키는 zipimporter 객체에서는 빈 문자열입니다.

     *note archive: 44fc.와 *note prefix: 44fd. 어트리뷰트는, 슬래시로 결
     합 될 때, *note zipimporter: 44f6. 생성자에 지정된 원래
     'archivepath' 인자와 같습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<28>,  Prev: zipimporter 객체,  Up: zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트

5.31.1.2 예제
.............

다음은 ZIP 저장소에서 모듈을 임포트하는 예제입니다 - *note zipimport:
132. 모듈이 명시적으로 사용되지 않음에 유의하십시오.

     $ unzip -l example_archive.zip
     Archive:  example_archive.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  01-01-00 12:30   example.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file

     >>> import sys
     >>> # Add the archive to the front of the module search path
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example_archive.zip')
     >>> import example
     >>> example.__file__
     'example_archive.zip/example.py'


File: python.info,  Node: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티,  Next: modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기,  Prev: zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.2 ‘pkgutil’ — 패키지 확장 유틸리티
---------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pkgutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 임포트 시스템, 특히 패키지 지원을 위한 유틸리티를 제공합니다.

 -- 클래스: pkgutil.ModuleInfo (module_finder, name, ispkg)

     모듈 정보에 대한 간략한 요약을 담고 있는 네임드 튜플.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.extend_path (path, name)

     패키지를 구성하는 모듈의 검색 경로를 확장합니다.  의도된 사용법은 패
     키지의 ‘__init__.py’에 다음 코드를 삽입하는 것입니다:

          from pkgutil import extend_path
          __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)

     *note sys.path: 3ae.에 있는 디렉터리들의 모든 서브 디렉터리 중, 패
     키지의 이름과 일치하는 것들을 패키지의 *note __path__: 1c76.에 추가
     합니다.  이것은 하나의 논리적 패키지의 부분들을 여러 디렉터리로 분
     배하려고 할 때 유용합니다.

     ‘*’가 'name' 인자와 일치하는 ‘*.pkg’ 파일도 찾습니다.  이 기능은
     ‘import’로 시작하는 줄을 특수하게 다루지 않는다는 점을 제외하면,
     ‘*.pth’ 파일과 유사합니다 (자세한 내용은 *note site: c7. 모듈을 참
     조하십시오).  ‘*.pkg’ 파일을 액면 그대로 신뢰합니다: 빈 줄을 건너뛰
     고 주석을 무시하지만, ‘*.pkg’ 파일에 있는 모든 항목은 파일 시스템에
     있는지에 관계없이 경로에 추가됩니다.  (이것은 기능입니다.)

     입력 경로가 리스트가 아니면 (프로즌 패키지의 경우처럼) 변경되지 않
     은 상태로 반환됩니다.  입력 경로는 수정되지 않습니다; 확장한 사본이
     반환됩니다.  항목은 사본의 끝에 추가되기만 합니다.

     *note sys.path: 3ae.기 시퀀스라고 가정합니다.  존재하는 디렉터리를
     참조하는 문자열이 아닌 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목은 무시됩니다.  파
     일명으로 사용될 때 에러를 일으키는 *note sys.path: 3ae.의 유니코드
     항목은 이 함수가 예외를 발생시키도록 할 수 있습니다 (*note
     os.path.isdir(): a0c. 동작과 일치합니다).

 -- 함수: pkgutil.find_loader (fullname)

     주어진 'fullname'에 대한 모듈 *note 로더: 16b7.를 가져옵니다.

     이것은 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.을 감싸는 하위 호환성
     래퍼인데, 대부분의 실패를 *note ImportError: 413.로 변환하고 전체
     *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e6c.이 아닌 로더만 반환합니
     다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 패키지 내부 PEP 302(2) 임포트 에뮬레이션에 의존
     하는 대신, *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: PEP 451(3)에 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 대
     신 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.을 사용하세요.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.get_importer (path_item)

     주어진 'path_item'에 대한 *note 파인더: 1f26.를 가져옵니다.

     반환된 파인더는 경로 훅 때문에 새로 만들어지면 *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에 캐시 됩니다.

     *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.의 재검색이 필요하면, 캐시(또는 그 일부
     )를 수동으로 지울 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 패키지 내부 PEP 302(4) 임포트 에뮬레이션에 의존
     하는 대신, *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.get_loader (module_or_name)

     'module_or_name'에 대한 *note 로더: 16b7. 객체를 가져옵니다.

     모듈이나 패키지가 일반 임포트 메커니즘을 통해 액세스할 수 있으면, 그
     장치의 관련 부분을 감싸는 래퍼가 반환됩니다.  모듈을 찾거나 임포트
     할 수 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  명명된 모듈이 아직 임포트 되지 않
     았다면, 패키지 ‘__path__’를 구성하기 위해 포함하는 패키지(있다면
     ))를 임포트 합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 패키지 내부 PEP 302(5) 임포트 에뮬레이션에 의존
     하는 대신, *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: PEP 451(6)에 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 대
     신 *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.을 사용하세요.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.iter_importers (fullname='')

     주어진 모듈 이름에 대해 *note 파인더: 1f26. 객체를 산출(yield)합니
     다.

     If 'fullname' contains a ‘'.'’, the finders will be for the package
     containing 'fullname', otherwise they will be all registered top
     level finders (i.e.  those on both *note sys.meta_path: d28. and
     *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.).

     명명된 모듈이 패키지에 있으면, 이 함수를 호출하는 부작용으로 그 패
     키지를 임포트 합니다.

     모듈 이름을 지정하지 않으면, 모든 최상위 수준 파인더가 생성됩니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 패키지 내부 PEP 302(7) 임포트 에뮬레이션에 의존
     하는 대신, *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.iter_modules (path=None, prefix='')

     'path'의 모든 서브 모듈에 대한 *note ModuleInfo: d48.를, 또는
     'path'가 ‘None’이면, *note sys.path: 3ae.에 있는 모든 최상위 모듈을
     산출(yield)합니다.

     'path'는 ‘None’이거나 모듈을 찾을 경로의 리스트이어야 합니다.

     'prefix'는 출력 시 모든 모듈 이름 앞에 출력할 문자열입니다.

          참고: ‘iter_modules()’ 메서드를 정의하는 *note 파인더: 1f26.에
          서만 작동합니다.  이 인터페이스는 비표준이므로, 모듈은 *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 1068.와 *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 44f6.에 대한 구현도 제공합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 패키지 내부 PEP 302(8) 임포트 에뮬레이션에 의존
     하는 대신, *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.walk_packages (path=None, prefix='', onerror=None)

     'path'에 재귀적으로 포함된 모든 모듈이나, 'path'가 ‘None’이면 모든
     액세스할 수 있는 모듈에 대한 *note ModuleInfo: d48.를 산출(yield)합
     니다.

     'path'는 ‘None’이거나 모듈을 찾을 경로의 리스트이어야 합니다.

     'prefix'는 출력 시 모든 모듈 이름 앞에 출력할 문자열입니다.

     서브 모듈 검색을 위한 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트에 액세스하기 위해, 이 함
     수는 주어진 'path'에 있는 모든 '패키지'(모든 모듈이 '아닙니다'!)를
     임포트 해야 함에 유의하십시오.

     'onerror'는 패키지 임포트를 시도하는 동안 예외가 발생하면 하나의 인
     자(임포트 하려는 패키지의 이름)로 호출되는 함수입니다.  'onerror' 함
     수가 제공되지 않으면, *note ImportError: 413.는 잡아서 무시하고, 다
     른 모든 예외는 전파되어 검색이 종료됩니다.

     예제:

          # 파이썬이 액세스할 수 있는 모든 모듈을 나열합니다
          walk_packages()

          # ctypes의 모든 서브 모듈을 나열합니다
          walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')

          참고: ‘iter_modules()’ 메서드를 정의하는 *note 파인더: 1f26.에
          서만 작동합니다.  이 인터페이스는 비표준이므로, 모듈은 *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 1068.와 *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 44f6.에 대한 구현도 제공합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 패키지 내부 PEP 302(9) 임포트 에뮬레이션에 의존
     하는 대신, *note importlib: 77.에 직접 기반하도록 갱신되었습니다.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.get_data (package, resource)

     패키지에서 리소스를 가져옵니다.

     이것은 *note 로더: 16b7. *note get_data: 4504. API에 대한 래퍼입니
     다.  'package' 인자는 표준 모듈 형식(‘foo.bar’)의 패키지 이름이어야
     합니다.  'resource' 인자는 ‘/’를 경로 분리자로 사용하는 상대 파일명
     의 형식이어야 합니다.  상위 디렉터리 이름 ‘..’는 허용되지 않으며, 루
     트에서 시작하는(‘/’로 시작하는) 이름도 허용되지 않습니다.

     이 함수는 지정된 리소스의 내용인 바이트열을 반환합니다.

     파일시스템에 있는 패키지(이미 임포트 되었습니다)의 경우, 이것은 대
     략 다음과 동등합니다:

          d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
          data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()

     패키지를 찾거나 로드 할 수 없거나, 패키지가 *note get_data: 4504.를
     지원하지 않는 *note 로더: 16b7.를 사용하면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  특
     히, *note 이름 공간 패키지: 1c70.를 위한 *note 로더: 16b7.는 *note
     get_data: 4504.를 지원하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: pkgutil.resolve_name (name)

     이름을 객체로 해석합니다.

     이 기능은 표준 라이브러리의 여러 곳에서 사용됩니다 (bpo-12915(10)를
     참조하십시오) - 그리고 동등한 기능이 setuptools, Django 및 Pyramid와
     같은 널리 사용되는 제삼자 패키지에도 있습니다.

     'name'은 다음 형식 중 하나의 문자열 일 것으로 기대됩니다, 여기서 W는
     유효한 파이썬 식별자를 나타내는 줄임 표현이며 점은 이러한 의사 정규
     식에서 리터럴 마침표를 나타냅니다:

        * ‘W(.W)*’

        * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?’

     첫 번째 형식은 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해서만 사용됩니다.  점으로
     구분된 이름의 일부는 패키지이고, 나머지는 패키지 내의 어딘가에 있는
     객체이며, 다른 객체 안에 중첩되었을 수 있습니다.  패키지가 멈추고 객
     체 계층 구조가 시작되는 위치는 보는 것 만으로는 유추할 수 없습니다,
     이 형식으로는 임포트 시도를 반복해서 수행해야합니다.

     두 번째 형식에서, 호출자는 단일 콜론을 제공하여 구분 지점을 명확하
     게 만듭니다: 콜론 왼쪽의 점으로 구분된 이름은 임포트할 패키지이고,
     오른쪽의 점으로 구분된 이름은 해당 패키지 내의 객체 계층 구조입니다
     .  이 형식에서는 한 번의 임포트만 필요합니다.  콜론으로 끝나면, 모
     듈 객체가 반환됩니다.

     이 함수는 객체(모듈일 수 있습니다)를 반환하거나, 다음 예외 중 하나
     를 발생시킵니다:

     *note ValueError: 202. – 'name'이 인식되는 형식이 아니면.

     *note ImportError: 413. – 그러지 말아야할 때 임포트가 실패하면.

     *note AttributeError: 346. – 임포트한 패키지 내에서 객체 계층 구조
     를 탐색하여 원하는 객체에 도달하는 도중 실패가 발생할 때.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pkgutil.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915


File: python.info,  Node: modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기,  Next: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행,  Prev: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.3 ‘modulefinder’ — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기
-------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/modulefinder.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 스크립트가 임포트 한 모듈 집합을 판단하는 데 사용할 수 있는
*note ModuleFinder: 1a0a. 클래스를 제공합니다.  ‘modulefinder.py’는 스크
립트로 실행될 수도 있습니다, 인자로 파이썬 스크립트의 파일 이름을 지정하
면, 임포트 된 모듈의 보고서가 인쇄됩니다.

 -- 함수: modulefinder.AddPackagePath (pkg_name, path)

     지정된 'path'에서 'pkg_name' 패키지를 찾을 수 있음을 기록합니다.

 -- 함수: modulefinder.ReplacePackage (oldname, newname)

     'oldname' 라는 이름의 모듈이 실제로는 'newname'라는 이름의 패키지라
     는 것을 지정할 수 있도록 합니다.

 -- 클래스: modulefinder.ModuleFinder (path=None, debug=0, excludes=[],
          replace_paths=[])

     이 클래스는 스크립트가 임포트하는 모듈 집합을 판단하는 *note
     run_script(): 450a. 와 *note report(): 450b. 메서드를 제공합니다.
     'path'는 모듈을 검색할 디렉터리 리스트일 수 있습니다; 지정되지 않으
     면, ‘sys.path’가 사용됩니다.  'debug'는 디버깅 수준을 설정합니다; 값
     이 크면 클래스가 수행 중인 작업에 대한 디버깅 메시지를 인쇄합니다.
     'excludes'는 분석에서 제외할 모듈 이름 리스트입니다.
     'replace_paths'는 모듈 경로에서 교체될 ‘(oldpath, newpath)’ 튜플의
     리스트입니다.

      -- 메서드: report ()

          빠지거나 빠진 것으로 보이는 모듈뿐 아니라, 스크립트가 임포트하
          는 모듈과 그들의 경로의 목록에 관한 보고서를 표준 출력으로 인
          쇄합니다.

      -- 메서드: run_script (pathname)

          파이썬 코드를 포함하는, 'pathname' 파일의 내용을 분석합니다.

      -- 속성: modules

          모듈 이름을 모듈에 매핑하는 딕셔너리.  *note ModuleFinder의
          사용 예: 450d.를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* ModuleFinder의 사용 예::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/modulefinder.py


File: python.info,  Node: ModuleFinder의 사용 예,  Up: modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기

5.31.3.1 ‘ModuleFinder’의 사용 예
.................................

나중에 분석할 스크립트 (bacon.py):

     import re, itertools

     try:
         import baconhameggs
     except ImportError:
         pass

     try:
         import guido.python.ham
     except ImportError:
         pass

bacon.py의 보고서를 출력하는 스크립트:

     from modulefinder import ModuleFinder

     finder = ModuleFinder()
     finder.run_script('bacon.py')

     print('Loaded modules:')
     for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
         print('%s: ' % name, end='')
         print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))

     print('-'*50)
     print('Modules not imported:')
     print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))

표본 출력(아키텍처에 따라 다를 수 있습니다):

     Loaded modules:
     _types:
     copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
     re._compiler:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
     _sre:
     re._constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
     sys:
     re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
     itertools:
     __main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
     re._parser:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
     array:
     types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
     ---------------------------------------------------
     Modules not imported:
     guido.python.ham
     baconhameggs


File: python.info,  Node: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행,  Next: importlib — import의 구현,  Prev: modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.4 ‘runpy’ — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/runpy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note runpy: be. 모듈은 파이썬 모듈을 먼저 임포트 하지 않고 찾아서 실행
하는 데 사용합니다.  주요 용도는 파일 시스템이 아닌 파이썬 모듈 이름 공
간을 사용하여 스크립트를 찾을 수 있는 *note -m: 5db. 명령 줄 스위치를 구
현하는 것입니다.

이것은 샌드박스 모듈이 '아닙니다' - 모든 코드가 현재 프로세스에서 실행되
고, 모든 부작용(가령 다른 모듈의 캐시된 임포트)은 함수가 반환된 후에도 그
대로 유지됩니다.

또한, 실행된 코드에서 정의된 모든 함수와 클래스는 *note runpy: be. 함수
가 반환된 후 올바르게 작동하지 않을 수 있습니다.  이러한 제한이 주어진 사
용 사례에 적합하지 않으면, 이 모듈보다 *note importlib: 77.가 더 적합한
선택일 수 있습니다.

*note runpy: be. 모듈은 두 가지 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: runpy.run_module (mod_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None,
          alter_sys=False)

     지정된 모듈의 코드를 실행하고 결과 모듈의 전역 딕셔너리를 반환합니
     다.  모듈의 코드는 먼저 표준 임포트 메커니즘(자세한 내용은 PEP
     302(2)를 참조하십시오)을 사용하여 찾은 다음 새로운 모듈 이름 공간에
     서 실행됩니다.

     'mod_name' 인자는 절대 모듈 이름이어야 합니다.  모듈 이름이 일반 모
     듈이 아닌 패키지를 참조하면, 해당 패키지를 임포트하고 그 패키지 내
     의 *note __main__: 1. 서브 모듈을 실행하고 결과 모듈 전역 딕셔너리
     를 반환합니다.

     선택적 딕셔너리 인자 'init_globals'는 코드가 실행되기 전에 모듈의 전
     역 딕셔너리를 미리 채우기 위해 사용될 수 있습니다.  'init_globals'는
     수정되지 않습니다.  아래의 특수 전역 변수가 'init_globals'에 정의되
     어 있으면, 해당 정의가 *note run_module(): 1812.에 의해 대체됩니다.

     특수 전역 변수 ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’,
     ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’는 모듈 코드가 실행되기 전에 전역 딕셔
     너리에 설정됩니다.  (이 변수는 최소한의 변수 집합임에 유의하십시오
     - 인터프리터 구현 세부 사항에 따라 다른 변수가 묵시적으로 설정될 수
     있습니다.)

     ‘__name__’은 (이 선택적 인자가 *note None: 66f.이 아니면)
     'run_name'으로, 명명된 모듈이 패키지면 ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’으로
     , 그렇지 않으면 'mod_name' 인자로 설정됩니다.

     ‘__spec__’은 '실제로' 임포트 된 모듈에 맞게 설정됩니다 (즉,
     ‘__spec__.name’은 항상 'mod_name'이나 ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’이 됩
     니다, 절대 'run_name'은 아닙니다).

     ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’는 모듈 스펙
     에 따라 *note 표준적으로 설정됩니다: 1f1c.

     인자 'alter_sys'가 제공되고 *note True: c0a.로 평가되면,
     ‘sys.argv[0]’은 ‘__file__’ 값으로 갱신되고 ‘sys.modules[__name__]’은
     실행 중인 모듈에 대한 임시 모듈 객체로 갱신됩니다.  ‘sys.argv[0]’과
     ‘sys.modules[__name__]’은 함수가 반환되기 전에 원래 값으로 복원됩니
     다.

     이 *note sys: d9. 조작은 스레드-안전하지 않습니다.  다른 스레드가 부
     분적으로 초기화된 모듈과 변경된 인자 목록을 볼 수 있습니다.  스레드
     를 사용하는 코드에서 이 함수를 호출할 때 ‘sys’ 모듈을 단독으로 두는
     것이 좋습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     명령 줄에서 동등한 기능을 제공하는 *note -m: 5db. 옵션.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: *note __main__: 1. 서브 모듈을 찾아 패키지를 실
     행할 수 있는 기능 추가.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘__cached__’ 전역 변수 추가 ( PEP 3147(3)을 참조
     하십시오).

     버전 3.4에서 변경: PEP 451(4)이 추가한 모듈 스펙 기능을 활용하도록
     갱신되었습니다.  이것은 실제 모듈 이름을 항상 ‘__spec__.name’으로 액
     세스할 수 있으면서, ‘__cached__’가 이 방법으로 실행되는 모듈에 대해
     올바르게 설정되도록 합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’의 설
     정은 폐지되었습니다.  대안은 *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c.을 참조하세요.

 -- 함수: runpy.run_path (path_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None)

     명명된 파일 시스템 위치에 있는 코드를 실행하고 결과 모듈의 전역 딕
     셔너리를 반환합니다.  CPython 명령 줄에 제공된 스크립트 이름과 마찬
     가지로, 'file_path'는 파이썬 소스 파일, 컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일 또
     는 *note __main__: 1. 모듈이 포함된 유효한 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항
     목(예를 들어, 최상위 수준 ‘__main__.py’ 파일을 포함하는 zip 파일)을
     가리킬 수 있습니다.

     간단한 스크립트의 경우, 지정된 코드는 단순히 새로운 모듈 이름 공간
     에서 실행됩니다.  유효한 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목(보통 zip 파일이
     나 디렉터리)의 경우, 항목이 먼저 ‘sys.path’의 시작 부분에 추가됩니
     다.  그런 다음 함수는 갱신된 경로를 사용하여 *note __main__: 1. 모
     듈을 찾아 실행합니다.  지정된 위치에 해당 모듈이 없을 때
     ‘sys.path’의 다른 위치에 있는 기존 ‘__main__’ 항목을 호출하는 것을
     막는 특별한 보호 장치가 없다는 점에 유의하십시오.

     선택적 딕셔너리 인자 'init_globals'는 코드가 실행되기 전에 모듈의 전
     역 딕셔너리를 미리 채우기 위해 사용될 수 있습니다.  'init_globals'는
     수정되지 않습니다.  아래의 특수 전역 변수가 'init_globals'에 정의되
     어 있으면, 해당 정의가 *note run_path(): 181.에 의해 대체됩니다.

     특수 전역 변수 ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’,
     ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’는 모듈 코드가 실행되기 전에 전역 딕셔
     너리에 설정됩니다.  (이 변수는 최소한의 변수 집합임에 유의하십시오
     - 인터프리터 구현 세부 사항에 따라 다른 변수가 묵시적으로 설정될 수
     있습니다.)

     ‘__name__’은 (이 선택적 인자가 *note None: 66f.이 아니면)
     'run_name'으로, 그렇지 않으면 ‘'<run_path>'’로 설정됩니다.

     'file_path'가 스크립트 파일(소스나 사전 컴파일된 바이트 코드)을 직
     접 참조하면, ‘__file__’은 'file_path'로 설정되고 ‘__spec__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’는 모두 *note None:
     66f.으로 설정됩니다.

     'file_path'가 유효한 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목에 대한 참조면,
     ‘__spec__’은 임포트 된 *note __main__: 1. 모듈에 대해 적절하게 설정
     됩니다 (즉, ‘__spec__.name’은 항상 ‘__main__’이 됩니다).
     ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’는 모듈 스펙
     에 따라 *note 표준적으로 설정됩니다: 1f1c.

     *note sys: d9. 모듈에도 여러 가지 변경이 적용됩니다.  첫째, *note
     sys.path: 3ae.는 위에서 설명한 것처럼 변경될 수 있습니다.
     ‘sys.argv[0]’은 'file_path' 값으로 갱신되고
     ‘sys.modules[__name__]’은 실행 중인 모듈에 대한 임시 모듈 객체로 갱
     신됩니다.  함수가 반환되기 전에 *note sys: d9.의 항목에 대한 모든 수
     정 내용이 되돌려집니다.

     *note run_module(): 1812.과 달리, *note sys: d9.에 대한 변경은 이 함
     수에서는 선택 사항이 아닌데, 이 조정이 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목의
     실행을 허용하는 데 필수적이기 때문입니다.  스레드-안전 제약 사항이
     계속 적용되므로, 스레드를 사용하는 코드에서 이 함수를 사용하려면 임
     포트 잠금을 사용하여 직렬화하거나 별도의 프로세스에 위임해야 합니다
     .

     더 보기
     .......

     명령 줄에서의 동등한 기능에 대한 *note 인터페이스 옵션: 1d31.
     (‘python path/to/script’).

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: PEP 451(5)이 추가한 모듈 스펙 기능을 활용하도록
     갱신되었습니다.  이것은 ‘__main__’이 직접 실행되는 대신 유효한
     *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목에서 임포트 될 때 ‘__cached__’가 올바르게
     설정되도록 합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ 및 ‘__package__’의 설
     정은 폐지되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 338(6) – 모듈을 스크립트로 실행하기

     Nick Coghlan이 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

PEP 366(7) – 메인 모듈 명시적 상대 임포트

     Nick Coghlan이 작성하고 구현한 PEP.

PEP 451(8) – 임포트 시스템의 ModuleSpec 형

     Eric Snow가 작성하고 구현한 PEP

*note 명령 줄과 환경: 19c6. - CPython 명령 줄 세부 사항

*note importlib.import_module(): 511. 함수

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/runpy.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib — import의 구현,  Next: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access,  Prev: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.5 ‘importlib’ — ‘import’의 구현
------------------------------------

Added in version 3.1.

'소스 코드:' Lib/importlib/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<6>.
* 함수: 함수<11>.
* importlib.abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
* importlib.machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
* importlib.util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
* 예: 예<17>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<6>,  Next: 함수<11>,  Up: importlib — import의 구현

5.31.5.1 소개
.............

*note importlib: 77. 패키지의 목적은 세 가지입니다.

하나는 파이썬 소스 코드에서 *note import: 5dc. 문(그리고, 확장하면 *note
__import__(): 8d1. 함수)의 구현을 제공하는 것입니다.  이것은 모든 파이썬
인터프리터에 이식할 수 있는 ‘import’의 구현을 제공합니다.  또한 파이썬 이
외의 프로그래밍 언어로 구현된 것보다 이해하기 쉬운 구현을 제공합니다.

둘째, *note import: 5dc.를 구현하는 구성 요소가 이 패키지에서 노출되어,
사용자가 임포트 프로세스에 참여하기 위해 자신의 사용자 지정 객체(일반적
으로 *note 임포터: 1ffd.라고 합니다)를 쉽게 만들 수 있도록 합니다.

Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality
for managing aspects of Python packages:

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7a. presents access to metadata from
     third-party distributions.

   * *note importlib.resources: 7b. provides routines for accessing
     non-code “resources” from Python packages.

더 보기
.......

*note 임포트(import) 문: 5dc.

     *note import: 5dc. 문의 언어 레퍼런스.

패키지 명세(1)

     패키지의 원래 명세.  이 문서를 작성한 이후로 일부 의미가 변경되었습
     니다 (예를 들어 *note sys.modules: 1558.의 ‘None’을 기반으로 하는 리
     디렉션).

*note __import__(): 1063. 함수

     *note import: 5dc. 문은 이 함수의 편의 문법입니다.

*note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1c68.

     The initialization of *note sys.path: 3ae.

PEP 235(2)

     대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 플랫폼에서의 임포트

PEP 263(3)

     파이썬 소스 코드 인코딩 정의

PEP 302(4)

     새로운 임포트 훅

PEP 328(5)

     임포트: 다중 줄과 절대/상대

PEP 366(6)

     메인 모듈 명시적 상대 임포트

PEP 420(7)

     묵시적 이름 공간 패키지

PEP 451(8)

     임포트 시스템을 위한 ModuleSpec 형

PEP 488(9)

     PYO 파일 제거

PEP 489(10)

     다단계 확장 모듈 초기화

PEP 552(11)

     결정론적 pyc

PEP 3120(12)

     UTF-8을 기본 소스 인코딩으로 사용하기

PEP 3147(13)

     PYC 저장소 디렉터리

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<11>,  Next: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스,  Prev: 소개<6>,  Up: importlib — import의 구현

5.31.5.2 함수
.............

 -- 함수: importlib.__import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None,
          fromlist=(), level=0)

     내장 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함수의 구현.

          참고: 프로그래밍 방식으로 모듈을 임포트 하려면 이 함수 대신
          *note import_module(): 511.을 사용해야 합니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.import_module (name, package=None)

     모듈을 임포트 합니다.  'name' 인자는 절대나 상대적인 항으로 임포트
     할 모듈을 지정합니다 (예를 들어 ‘pkg.mod’나 ‘..mod’).  이름이 상대
     적인 항으로 지정되면, 'package' 인자는 패키지 이름을 결정하기 위한
     앵커 역할을 하는 패키지 이름으로 설정해야 합니다 (예를 들어
     ‘import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')’는 ‘pkg.mod’를 임포트 합니다
     ).

     *note import_module(): 511. 함수는 *note importlib.__import__():
     1063. 주위를 감싸는 단순화 래퍼 역할을 합니다.  이는 함수의 모든 의
     미가 *note importlib.__import__(): 1063.에서 파생됨을 뜻합니다.  이
     두 함수의 가장 중요한 차이점은 *note import_module(): 511.이 지정된
     패키지나 모듈(예를 들어 ‘pkg.mod’)을 반환하는 반면, *note
     __import__(): 8d1.는 최상위 패키지나 모듈(예를 들어 ‘pkg’)을 반환한
     다는 것입니다.

     인터프리터가 실행을 시작한 이후 만들어진 모듈(예를 들어, 파이썬 소
     스 파일을 만들면)을 동적으로 임포트 하는 경우, 임포트 시스템에서 새
     모듈을 알 수 있도록 *note invalidate_caches(): c0d.를 호출해야 할 수
     있습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 부모 패키지는 자동으로 임포트 됩니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.invalidate_caches ()

     *note sys.meta_path: d28.에 저장된 파인더의 내부 캐시를 무효로 합니
     다.  파인더가 ‘invalidate_caches()’를 구현하면 무효화를 수행하기 위
     해 호출됩니다.  모든 파인더가 새로운 모듈의 존재를 알 수 있도록 프
     로그램이 실행되는 동안 모듈이 만들어진/설치된 경우 이 함수를 호출해
     야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Namespace packages created/installed in a
     different *note sys.path: 3ae. location after the same namespace
     was already imported are noticed.

 -- 함수: importlib.reload (module)

     이전에 임포트 한 'module'을 다시 로드합니다.  인자는 모듈 객체여야
     해서, 이전에 성공적으로 임포트 됐어야 합니다.  외부 편집기를 사용하
     여 모듈 소스 파일을 편집했고 파이썬 인터프리터를 떠나지 않고 새 버
     전을 시험해보고 싶을 때 유용합니다.  반환 값은 모듈 객체입니다 (재
     임포트로 인해 다른 객체가 *note sys.modules: 1558.에 배치되면 다를
     수 있습니다).

     *note reload(): 512.가 실행될 때:

        * 파이썬 모듈의 코드가 다시 컴파일되고 모듈 수준 코드가 다시 실
          행되어, 원래 모듈을 로드한 *note 로더: 16b7.를 재사용하여 모듈
          딕셔너리에 있는 이름에 연결되는 새로운 객체 집합을 정의합니다.
          확장 모듈의 ‘init’ 함수는 두 번째에는 호출되지 않습니다.

        * 파이썬의 다른 모든 객체와 마찬가지로 이전 객체는 참조 횟수가
          0으로 떨어진 후에만 자원이 회수됩니다.

        * 모듈 이름 공간의 이름은 새로운 객체나 변경된 객체를 가리키도록
          갱신됩니다.

        * 이전 객체에 대한 다른 참조(가령 모듈 외부의 이름)는 새 객체를
          참조하기 위해 다시 연결되지 않으며 필요하다면 그들이 등장하는
          각 이름 공간에서 갱신되어야 합니다.

     다른 여러 가지 경고가 있습니다:

     모듈을 다시 로드할 때, 그것의 (모듈의 전역 변수를 포함하는) 딕셔너
     리가 유지됩니다.  이름을 재정의하면 이전 정의를 대체해서, 일반적으
     로 문제가 되지 않습니다.  새 버전의 모듈이 이전 버전이 정의한 이름
     을 정의하지 않으면, 이전 정의가 그대로 남습니다.  이 기능은 객체의
     전역 테이블이나 캐시를 유지한다면 모듈의 이점으로 사용될 수 있습니
     다 — *note try: 6e2. 문으로 테이블의 존재를 검사하고 필요하다면 초
     기화를 건너뛸 수 있습니다:

          try:
              cache
          except NameError:
              cache = {}

     일반적으로 내장이나 동적으로 로드된 모듈을 다시 로드하는 것은 그리
     유용하지 않습니다.  *note sys: d9, *note __main__: 1, *note
     builtins: 12. 및 기타 주요 모듈을 다시 로드하지 않는 것이 좋습니다.
     많은 경우 확장 모듈은 두 번 이상 초기화되도록 설계되지 않았으며, 다
     시 로드할 때 임의의 방식으로 실패할 수 있습니다.

     모듈이 *note from: 129b. … *note import: 5dc. …를 사용하여 다른 모
     듈에서 객체를 임포트 하면, 다른 모듈에 대해 *note reload(): 512.를
     호출해도 그것에서 임포트 한 객체를 재정의하지 않습니다 — 이것을 피
     하는 한 가지 방법은 ‘from’ 문을 다시 실행하는 것입니다, 다른 방법은
     대신 ‘import’와 정규화된 이름('module.name')을 사용하는 것입니다.

     모듈이 클래스의 인스턴스를 인스턴스 화하면, 클래스를 정의하는 모듈
     을 다시 로드해도 인스턴스의 메서드 정의에는 영향을 미치지 않습니다
     — 이전 클래스 정의를 계속 사용합니다.  파생 클래스의 경우도 마찬가
     지입니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 다시 로드되는 모듈에 *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c.이 없
     으면 *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. 가 발생합니다.

          경고: This function is not thread-safe.  Calling it from
          multiple threads can result in unexpected behavior.  It’s
          recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 167e. or other
          synchronization primitives for thread-safe module reloading.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스,  Next: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅,  Prev: 함수<11>,  Up: importlib — import의 구현

5.31.5.3 ‘importlib.abc’ – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스
.............................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/importlib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note importlib.abc: 78. 모듈에는 *note import: 5dc.에서 사용하는 모든 핵
심 추상 베이스 클래스가 포함되어 있습니다.  핵심 ABC 구현에 도움이 되도
록 핵심 추상 베이스 클래스의 일부 서브 클래스도 제공됩니다.

ABC 계층:

     object
      +-- MetaPathFinder
      +-- PathEntryFinder
      +-- Loader
           +-- ResourceLoader --------+
           +-- InspectLoader          |
                +-- ExecutionLoader --+
                                      +-- FileLoader
                                      +-- SourceLoader

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

     *note 메타 경로 파인더: 1066.를 나타내는 추상 베이스 클래스.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- 메서드: find_spec (fullname, path, target=None)

          지정된 모듈의 *note 스펙: 1f1e.을 찾는 추상 메서드.  최상위 임
          포트 인 경우, 'path'는 ‘None’입니다.  그렇지 않으면, 이것은 서
          브 패키지나 모듈의 검색이 되고, 'path'는 부모 패키지의 *note
          __path__: 1c76. 값입니다.  스펙을 찾을 수 없으면, ‘None’이 반
          환됩니다.  전달될 때, ‘target’은 파인더가 반환할 스펙에 대해 더
          정교하게 추측하기 위해 사용할 수 있는 모듈 객체입니다.  *note
          importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 868.는 구상
          ‘MetaPathFinders’를 구현하는 데 유용할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: invalidate_caches ()

          호출될 때, 파인더가 사용하는 내부 캐시를 무효로 해야 하는 선택
          적 메서드.  *note sys.meta_path: d28.에서 모든 파인더의 캐시를
          무효로 할 때 *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d.에서 사
          용합니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 호출될 때 *note NotImplemented: 7cb. 대신
          ‘None’을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder

     *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067.를 나타내는 추상 베이스 클래스.
     *note MetaPathFinder: 869.와 일부 유사하지만, ‘PathEntryFinder’는
     *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: 1019.가 제공하는 경로 기반 임
     포트 서브 시스템 내에서만 사용하려는 것입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- 메서드: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          지정된 모듈의 *note 스펙: 1f1e.을 찾는 추상 메서드.  파인더는
          할당된 *note 경로 엔트리: 200c. 내에서만 모듈을 검색합니다.  스
          펙을 찾을 수 없으면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.  전달될 때,
          ‘target’은 파인더가 반환할 스펙에 대해 더 정교하게 추측하기 위
          해 사용할 수 있는 모듈 객체입니다.  *note
          importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 868.는 구상
          ‘PathEntryFinders’를 구현하는 데 유용할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: invalidate_caches ()

          호출될 때, 파인더가 사용하는 내부 캐시를 무효로 해야 하는 선택
          적 메서드.  모든 캐시 된 파인더의 캐시를 무효화 할 때 *note
          importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): c0c.에서 사
          용합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.Loader

     *note 로더: 16b7.의 추상 베이스 클래스.  로더에 대한 정확한 정의는
     PEP 302(2)를 참조하십시오.

     리소스 읽기를 지원하려는 로더는 *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4518.에 지정된 대로
     ‘get_resource_reader()’ 메서드를 구현해야 합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 선택적 ‘get_resource_reader()’ 메서드를 도입했습
     니다.

      -- 메서드: create_module (spec)

          모듈을 임포트 할 때 사용할 모듈 객체를 반환하는 메서드.  이 메
          서드는 ‘None’을 반환해서 기본 모듈 생성 시맨틱이 적용되어야 함
          을 나타낼 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: *note exec_module(): 865.이 정의될 때 이 메
          서드는 더는 선택 사항이 아닙니다.

      -- 메서드: exec_module (module)

          모듈을 임포트 하거나 다시 로드할 때 자체 이름 공간에서 모듈을
          실행하는 추상 메서드.  *note exec_module(): 865.이 호출될 때 모
          듈이 이미 초기화되어 있어야 합니다.  이 메서드가 존재하면,
          *note create_module(): cab.을 정의해야 합니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

          버전 3.6에서 변경: *note create_module(): cab.도 정의해야 합니
          다.

      -- 메서드: load_module (fullname)

          모듈을 로드하는 레거시 메서드.  모듈을 로드할 수 없으면, *note
          ImportError: 413.가 발생하고, 그렇지 않으면 로드된 모듈이 반환
          됩니다.

          요청된 모듈이 *note sys.modules: 1558.에 이미 존재하면, 해당 모
          듈이 사용되고 다시 로드되어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 로더는 임
          포트에서 재귀를 방지하기 위해 로드를 시작하기 전에 새 모듈을 만
          들어 *note sys.modules: 1558.에 삽입해야 합니다.  로더가 모듈
          을 삽입했는데 로드에 실패하면, 로더가 *note sys.modules:
          1558.에서 모듈을 제거해야 합니다; 로더가 실행을 시작하기 전에
          이미 *note sys.modules: 1558.에 있었던 모듈은 그대로 두어야 합
          니다.

          로더는 모듈에서 여러 어트리뷰트를 설정해야 합니다 (이러한 어트
          리뷰트 중 일부는 모듈을 다시 로드할 때 변경될 수 있습니다):

             - *note module.__name__: 1371.

             - *note module.__file__: 1f25.

             - *note module.__cached__: 2d7. '(폐지됨)'

             - *note module.__path__: 1c76.

             - *note module.__package__: 2d9. '(폐지됨)'

             - *note module.__loader__: 2e4. '(폐지됨)'

          *note exec_module(): 865.을 사용할 수 있으면 이전 버전과 호환
          되는 기능이 제공됩니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 호출될 때 *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대
          신 *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.  *note
          exec_module(): 865.을 사용할 수 있을 때 제공되는 기능.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          모듈 로드에 권장되는 API는 *note exec_module(): 865.(및 *note
          create_module(): cab.)입니다.  로더는 *note load_module():
          864. 대신 이것을 구현해야 합니다.  임포트 절차는 *note
          exec_module(): 865.이 구현될 때 *note load_module(): 864.의 다
          른 모든 책임을 처리합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.ResourceLoader

     'TraversableResources 로 대체되었습니다'

          스토리지 백 엔드에서 임의의 리소스를 로드하기 위한 선택적 PEP
          302(3) 프로토콜을 구현하는 *note 로더: 16b7.의 추상 베이스 클
          래스.

          버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: 이 ABC는 폐지되었고 *note
          importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.를 통한 리소
          스 로드 지원으로 대체되었습니다.

           -- 메서드: abstractmethod get_data (path)

                    'path'에 있는 데이터를 바이트열로 반환하는 추상 메서
                    드.  임의의 데이터를 저장할 수 있는 파일류 스토리지
                    백 엔드가 있는 로더는 이 추상 메서드를 구현하여 저장
                    된 데이터에 직접 액세스하도록 할 수 있습니다.
                    'path'를 찾을 수 없으면 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합
                    니다.  'path'는 모듈의 *note __file__: 1f25. 어트리
                    뷰트나 패키지의 *note __path__: 1c76.에서 온 항목을
                    사용하여 구성될 것으로 기대됩니다.

                    버전 3.4에서 변경: *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대
                    신 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.InspectLoader

     모듈을 검사(inspect)하는 로더를 위한 선택적 PEP 302(4) 프로토콜을 구
     현하는 *note 로더: 16b7.의 추상 베이스 클래스.

      -- 메서드: get_code (fullname)

          모듈에 대한 코드 객체나, 모듈에 코드 객체가 없으면 (예를 들어,
          내장 모듈이 이런 경우입니다) ‘None’을 반환합니다.  로더가 요청
          한 모듈을 찾을 수 없으면 *note ImportError: 413.가 발생합니다.

               참고: 이 메서드에는 기본 구현이 있지만, 가능하다면 성능을
               위해 재정의하는 것이 좋습니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 더는 추상적이지 않고 구상 구현이 제공됩니다
          .

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod get_source (fullname)

               모듈의 소스를 반환하는 추상 메서드.  인식된 모든 줄 구분
               자를 ‘'\n'’ 문자로 변환하는 *note 유니버설 줄 넘김: d37.을
               사용하여 텍스트 문자열로 반환됩니다.  사용 가능한 소스가
               없으면 (예를 들어, 내장 모듈) ‘None’을 반환합니다.  로더
               가 지정된 모듈을 찾을 수 없으면 *note ImportError: 413.를
               발생시킵니다.

               버전 3.4에서 변경: *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대신
               *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: is_package (fullname)

          모듈이 패키지이면 참값을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓 값을 반
          환하는 선택적 메서드.  *note 로더: 16b7.가 모듈을 찾을 수 없으
          면 *note ImportError: 413.가 발생합니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대신 *note
          ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: static source_to_code (data, path='<string>')

          파이썬 소스에서 코드 객체를 만듭니다.

          'data' 인자는 *note compile(): 192. 함수가 지원하는 것은 무엇
          이든 될 수 있습니다 (즉 문자열이나 바이트열).  'path' 인자는 소
          스 코드가 온 곳의 “경로”여야 하며, 추상 개념(예를 들어 zip 파
          일에서의 위치)일 수 있습니다.

          후속 코드 객체를 사용하면 ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’를 실행
          하여 그 코드를 모듈에서 실행할 수 있습니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 메서드를 정적(static)으로 만들었습니다.

      -- 메서드: exec_module (module)

          *note Loader.exec_module(): 865.의 구현.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: load_module (fullname)

          *note Loader.load_module(): 864.의 구현.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          대신 *note exec_module(): 1008.을 사용하십시오.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader

     구현될 때, 모듈이 스크립트로 실행되도록 돕는 *note InspectLoader:
     f4c.에서 상속되는 추상 베이스 클래스.  ABC는 선택적 PEP 302(5) 프로
     토콜을 표현합니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

               지정된 모듈의 *note __file__: 1f25. 값을 반환하는 추상 메
               서드.  사용 가능한 경로가 없으면 *note ImportError: 413.가
               발생합니다.

               소스 코드를 사용할 수 있으면, 메서드는 모듈을 로드하는 데
               바이트 코드를 사용했는지와 관계없이 소스 파일의 경로를 반
               환해야 합니다.

               버전 3.4에서 변경: *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대신
               *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.FileLoader (fullname, path)

     *note ResourceLoader: be4.와 *note ExecutionLoader: 451b.를 상속하
     고 *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 4504.와 *note
     ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 451c.의 구상 구현을 제공하는 추상 베
     이스 클래스.

     'fullname' 인자는 로더가 처리해야 하는 모듈의 완전히 결정된
     (resolved) 이름입니다.  'path' 인자는 모듈의 파일 경로입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: name

          로더가 처리할 수 있는 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: path

          모듈 파일의 경로.

      -- 메서드: load_module (fullname)

          super의 ‘load_module()’을 호출합니다.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          대신 *note Loader.exec_module(): 865.을 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

          *note path: 451e.를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod get_data (path)

          'path'를 바이너리 파일로 읽고 그것의 바이트열을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.SourceLoader

     소스 (및 선택적으로 바이트 코드) 파일 로드를 구현하기 위한 추상 베
     이스 클래스.  이 클래스는 *note ResourceLoader: be4.와 *note
     ExecutionLoader: 451b.를 모두 상속하며, 다음을 구현해야 합니다:

        * *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 4504.

        * 
          *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 451c.

               소스 파일의 경로만 반환해야 합니다; 소스 없는 로딩은 지원
               되지 않습니다.

     이 클래스에 의해 정의된 추상 메서드는 선택적 바이트 코드 파일 지원
     을 추가하는 것입니다.  이러한 선택적 메서드를 구현하지 않으면 (또는
     그들이 *note NotImplementedError: 228.를 발생시키도록 하면) 로더가
     소스 코드에 대해서만 작동하도록 만듭니다.  메서드를 구현하면 로더가
     소스*와* 바이트 코드 파일 모두에 대해 작동하게 할 수 있습니다; 바이
     트 코드만 제공되는 '소스 없는' 로드는 허용하지 않습니다.  바이트 코
     드 파일은 파이썬 컴파일러의 구문 분석 단계를 제거하여 로딩 속도를 높
     이기 위한 최적화라서, 바이트 코드 전용 API는 노출되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: path_stats (path)

          지정된 경로에 대한 메타 데이터를 포함하는 *note dict: 256.를 반
          환하는 선택적 추상 메서드.  지원되는 딕셔너리 키는 다음과 같습
          니다:

             - ‘'mtime'’ (필수): 소스 코드의 수정 시간을 나타내는 정수나
               부동 소수점 숫자;

             - ‘'size'’ (선택): 바이트 단위의 소스 코드의 크기.

          향후 확장을 위해, 딕셔너리의 다른 키는 무시됩니다.  경로를 처
          리할 수 없으면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

          Added in version 3.3.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대신 *note
          OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: path_mtime (path)

          지정된 경로의 수정 시간을 반환하는 선택적 추상 메서드.

          버전 3.3부터 폐지됨: 이 메서드는 폐지되었고 *note
          path_stats(): 117b.로 대체되었습니다.  구현할 필요는 없지만, 호
          환성을 위해 여전히 제공됩니다.  경로를 처리할 수 없으면 *note
          OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: *note NotImplementedError: 228. 대신 *note
          OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

      -- 메서드: set_data (path, data)

          지정된 바이트열을 파일 경로에 쓰는 선택적 추상 메서드.  존재하
          지 않는 중간 디렉터리는 자동으로 만들어집니다.

          경로가 읽기 전용(*note errno.EACCES: 22b5./*note
          PermissionError: d3f.)이라서 경로에 쓰지 못할 때 예외를 전파하
          지 않습니다.

          버전 3.4에서 변경: 호출할 때 더는 *note NotImplementedError:
          228.를 발생시키지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_code (fullname)

          *note InspectLoader.get_code(): f4d.의 구상 구현.

      -- 메서드: exec_module (module)

          *note Loader.exec_module(): 865.의 구상 구현.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: load_module (fullname)

          *note Loader.load_module(): 864.의 구상 구현.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          대신 *note exec_module(): 1009.을 사용하십시오.

      -- 메서드: get_source (fullname)

          *note InspectLoader.get_source(): f50.의 구상 구현.

      -- 메서드: is_package (fullname)

          *note InspectLoader.is_package(): 4519.의 구상 구현.  (*note
          ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 451c.에서 제공되는) 파일 경로
          가 파일 확장자를 제거했을 때 ‘__init__’라는 이름의 파일이고 '동
          시에' 모듈 이름 자체가 ‘__init__’로 끝나지 않으면 모듈은 패키
          지로 결정됩니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.ResourceReader

     'TraversableResources 로 대체되었습니다'

     '리소스(resources)'를 읽을 수 있는 기능을 제공하는 *note 추상 베이스
     클래스: 11a5.

     이 ABC의 관점에서, '리소스(resource)'는 패키지 내에 제공되는 바이너
     리 아티팩트(artifact)입니다.  일반적으로 이것은 패키지의
     ‘__init__.py’ 파일 옆에 있는 데이터 파일 같은 것입니다.  이 클래스
     의 목적은 이러한 데이터 파일에 대한 액세스를 추상화하여 패키지와 해
     당 데이터 파일이 예를 들어 zip 파일에 있는지 파일 시스템에 저장되어
     있는지가 중요하지 않도록 만드는 것입니다.

     이 클래스의 모든 메서드에서, 'resource' 인자는 개념적으로 단지 파일
     이름을 나타내는 *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.가 될 것으로 기대됩니다.  이
     는 'resource' 인자에 서브 디렉터리 경로가 포함되지 않아야 함을 의미
     합니다.  판독기(reader)가 읽으려는 패키지의 위치가 “디렉터리”의 역
     할을 하기 때문입니다.  따라서 디렉터리와 파일 이름에 대한 은유는 각
     각 패키지와 리소스입니다.  이것은 또한 이 클래스의 인스턴스가 (잠재
     적으로 여러 패키지나 모듈을 나타내는 대신) 특정 패키지와 직접적으로
     연관될 것으로 기대되는 이유입니다.

     리소스 읽기를 지원하려는 로더는 이 ABC의 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체
     를 반환하는 ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’이라는 메서드를 제공해야
     합니다.  fullname으로 지정된 모듈이 패키지가 아니면, 이 메서드는
     *note None: 66f.을 반환해야 합니다.  이 ABC와 호환되는 객체는 지정
     된 모듈이 패키지일 때만 반환해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 대
     신 *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.을 사용
     하십시오.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

               'resource'의 바이너리 읽기를 위해 열린 *note 파일류 객체:
               2597.를 반환합니다.

               리소스를 찾을 수 없으면, *note FileNotFoundError: 425. 가
               발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

               'resource'에 대한 파일 시스템 경로를 반환합니다.

               리소스가 파일 시스템에 구체적으로 존재하지 않으면, *note
               FileNotFoundError: 425. 가 발생합니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

               명명된 'name'을 리소스로 간주하면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.
               'name'이 없으면, *note FileNotFoundError: 425. 가 발생합
               니다.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod contents ()

               패키지 내용에 대한 문자열의 *note 이터러블: 1217.을 반환
               합니다.  이터레이터가 반환한 모든 이름이 실제 리소스일 필
               요는 없음에 유의하십시오, 예를 들어 *note is_resource():
               4529.가 거짓인 이름을 반환하는 것이 허용됩니다.

               리소스가 아닌 이름이 반환되도록 하는 것은 패키지와 그것의
               리소스가 저장되는 방법이 사전에 알려졌고 리소스가 아닌 이
               름이 유용한 상황을 허용하기 위함입니다.  예를 들어, 패키
               지와 리소스가 파일 시스템에 저장되어있는 것으로 알려졌을
               때 해당 서브 디렉터리 이름을 직접 사용할 수 있도록 서브 디
               렉터리 이름 반환이 허용됩니다.

               추상 메서드는 항목이 없는 이터러블을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.Traversable

     디렉터리를 탐색하고 파일을 여는 데 적합한 *note pathlib.Path: 229.
     메서드의 부분집합이 있는 객체.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 487.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 대
     신 *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.을 사용하십시오.

      -- 속성: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield ‘Traversable’ objects in ‘self’.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a directory.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a file.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod joinpath (child)

          Return Traversable child in ‘self’.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return ‘Traversable’ child in ‘self’.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be ‘r’ or ‘rb’ to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          27d3.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.

      -- 메서드: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of ‘self’ as bytes.

      -- 메서드: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of ‘self’ as text.

 -- 클래스: importlib.abc.TraversableResources

     *note importlib.resources.files(): 488. 인터페이스를 제공할 수 있는
     리소스 리더를 위한 추상 베이스 클래스.  *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4518.를 서브 클래싱하고
     *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4518.의 추상 메서드의
     구상 구현을 제공합니다.  따라서, *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 1889.를 제공하는 모든 로더는
     ResourceReader도 제공합니다.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: 대
     신 *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.을 사용
     하십시오.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅,  Next: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드,  Prev: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스,  Up: importlib — import의 구현

5.31.5.4 ‘importlib.machinery’ – 임포터와 경로 훅
.................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/importlib/machinery.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈에는 *note import: 5dc.가 모듈을 찾고 로드하는 데 도움이 되는 다
양한 객체가 포함되어 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES

     소스 모듈로 인식되는 파일 접미사를 나타내는 문자열 리스트.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 데이터: importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     최적화되지 않은 바이트 코드 모듈의 파일 접미사를 나타내는 문자열 리
     스트.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 50f.를 사용하십
     시오.

 -- 데이터: importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     최적화된 바이트 코드 모듈의 파일 접미사를 나타내는 문자열 리스트.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 50f.를 사용하십
     시오.

 -- 데이터: importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     바이트 코드 모듈로 인식되는 파일 접미사를 나타내는 문자열 리스트 (앞
     의 점을 포함합니다).

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이 값은 더는 ‘__debug__’에 의존하지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES

     확장 모듈로 인식되는 파일 접미사를 나타내는 문자열 리스트.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 함수: importlib.machinery.all_suffixes ()

     표준 임포트 절차가 인식하는 모듈의 모든 파일 접미사를 나타내는 문자
     열의 결합한 리스트를 반환합니다.  이것은 모듈 종류에 대한 세부 정보
     없이 파일 시스템 경로가 잠재적으로 모듈을 참조하는지를 알아야 하는
     코드(예를 들어, *note inspect.getmodulename(): d36.)를 위한 도우미
     입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter

     내장 모듈용 *note 임포터: 1ffd.  알려진 모든 내장 모듈은 *note
     sys.builtin_module_names: 1c67.에 나열되어 있습니다.  이 클래스는
     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869.와 *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f4c. ABC를 구현합니다.

     이 클래스는 인스턴스 화의 필요성을 완화하기 위해 클래스 메서드만 정
     의합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: PEP 489(2)의 일부로, 내장 임포터는 이제
     ‘Loader.create_module()’과 ‘Loader.exec_module()’을 구현합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter

     프로즌(frozen) 모듈용 *note 임포터: 1ffd.  이 클래스는 *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869.와 *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f4c. ABC를 구현합니다.

     이 클래스는 인스턴스 화의 필요성을 완화하기 위해 클래스 메서드만 정
     의합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘Loader.create_module()’과
     ‘Loader.exec_module()’ 메서드를 얻었습니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder

     윈도우 레지스트리에 선언된 모듈용 *note 파인더: 1f26.  이 클래스는
     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869. ABC를 구현합니다.

     이 클래스는 인스턴스 화의 필요성을 완화하기 위해 클래스 메서드만 정
     의합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.6부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note site: c7. 구성을 사용하십시오.  이
     후 버전의 파이썬은 기본적으로 이 파인더를 활성화하지 않을 수 있습니
     다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.PathFinder

     *note sys.path: 3ae.와 패키지 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트용 *note 파인더:
     1f26.  이 클래스는 *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869. ABC를 구
     현합니다.

     이 클래스는 인스턴스 화의 필요성을 완화하기 위해 클래스 메서드만 정
     의합니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod find_spec (fullname, path=None,
               target=None)

          *note sys.path: 3ae. 또는, 정의되었다면, 'path'에서
          'fullname'에 의해 지정된 모듈에 대한 *note 스펙: 1f1e.을 찾으
          려고 시도하는 클래스 메서드.  검색된 각 경로 엔트리에 대해,
          *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.가 확인됩니다.  거짓이 아닌
          객체를 찾으면 검색 중인 모듈을 찾기 위한 *note 경로 엔트리
          파인더: 1067.로 사용됩니다.  *note sys.path_importer_cache:
          5de.에 엔트리가 없으면, *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.에서 경로 엔
          트리를 위한 파인더를 검색하고, 발견되면, 모듈에 대해 조회되는
          것과 동시에 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에 저장됩니다.
          파인더가 아예 발견되지 않으면 ‘None’이 캐시에 저장되고 반환됩
          니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 현재 작업 디렉터리 – 빈 문자열로 표현됩니다
          – 가 더는 유효하지 않으면 ‘None’이 반환되지만 *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에 값이 캐시 되지는 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod invalidate_caches ()

          메서드를 정의하는 *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에 저장된
          모든 파인더에 대해 *note
          importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches(): 4517.를 호
          출합니다.  *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에 ‘None’으로 설
          정된 엔트리가 삭제됩니다.

          버전 3.7에서 변경: *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에서
          ‘None’의 엔트리가 삭제됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘''’(즉 빈 문자열)에 대해서는 현재 작업 디렉터리
     로 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.의 객체를 호출합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.FileFinder (path, *loader_details)

     파일 시스템에서의 결과를 캐시 하는 *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86a. 의 구상 구현.

     'path' 인자는 파인더가 검색을 담당하는 디렉터리입니다.

     'loader_details' 인자는 각각 로더와 로더가 인식하는 파일 접미사의 시
     퀀스를 포함하는 가변 개수의 2개 항목 튜플입니다.  로더는 모듈 이름
     과 찾은 파일의 경로로 구성되는 두 인자를 받아들이는 콜러블일 것으로
     기대됩니다.

     파인더는 필요에 따라 디렉터리 내용을 캐시 하여, 각 모듈 검색에서
     stat 호출을 수행하여 캐시가 시효가 지나지 않았는지 확인합니다.  캐
     시 만료는 파일 시스템의 운영 체제 상태 정보의 세분성에 의존하기 때
     문에, 모듈 검색, 새 파일 생성 및 새 파일이 나타내는 모듈 검색의 잠
     재적 경쟁 조건이 있습니다.  stat 호출의 세분성 이하로 연산이 아주 빠
     르게 수행되면, 모듈 검색이 실패합니다.  이를 방지하려면, 모듈을 동
     적으로 만들 때, *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c0d.를 호출해
     야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: path

          파인더가 검색할 경로.

      -- 메서드: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          *note path: 4537. 내에서 'fullname'을 처리할 스펙을 찾으려고 합
          니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- 메서드: invalidate_caches ()

          내부 캐시를 지웁니다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod path_hook (*loader_details)

          *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.에 사용할 클로저를 반환하는 클래스
          메서드.  *note FileFinder: 1068.의 인스턴스는 클로저에 직접 제
          공된 경로 인자와 'loader_details'를 간접적으로 사용하여 클로저
          에 의해 반환됩니다.

          클로저에 대한 인자가 기존 디렉터리가 아니면, *note
          ImportError: 413.가 발생합니다.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader (fullname, path)

     *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 1069.를 서브 클래싱하고 다른 메서드
     의 구상 구현을 제공하는 *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 4522.의 구
     상 구현.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: name

          이 로더가 처리할 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: path

          소스 파일의 경로.

      -- 메서드: is_package (fullname)

          *note path: 453b.가 패키지에 대한 것으로 드러나면 ‘True’를 반
          환합니다.

      -- 메서드: path_stats (path)

          *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 117b.의 구상 구
          현.

      -- 메서드: set_data (path, data)

          *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data(): 4523.의 구상 구현
          .

      -- 메서드: load_module (name=None)

          로드할 모듈 이름을 지정하는 것이 선택적인 *note
          importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 864.의 구상 구현.

          Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15:
          대신 *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 865.을 사용하십
          시오.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader (fullname, path)

     바이트 코드 파일을 (즉, 소스 코드 파일 없이) 임포트 할 수 있는
     *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 1069.의 구상 구현.

     바이트 코드 파일(그래서 소스 코드 파일이 아닌)을 직접 사용하면 모든
     파이썬 구현이나 바이트 코드 형식을 변경하는 새 버전의 파이썬에서 모
     듈을 사용할 수 없게 됨에 유의하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- 속성: name

          로더가 처리할 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: path

          바이트 코드 파일의 경로.

      -- 메서드: is_package (fullname)

          *note path: 4540.를 기반으로 모듈이 패키지인지 판단합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_code (fullname)

          *note path: 4540.에서 만들어진 *note name: 453f.의 코드 객체를
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_source (fullname)

          이 로더가 사용될 때는 바이트 코드 파일에 소스가 없어서 ‘None’을
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: load_module (name=None)

     로드할 모듈 이름을 지정하는 것이 선택적인 *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 864.의 구상 구현.

     Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: 대신
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 865.을 사용하십시오.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader (fullname, path)

     확장 모듈을 위한 *note importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader: 451b.의 구상
     구현.

     'fullname' 인자는 로더가 지원할 모듈의 이름을 지정합니다.  'path' 인
     자는 확장 모듈 파일의 경로입니다.

     Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in
     subinterpreters if it doesn’t implement multi-phase init (see PEP
     489(3)), even if it would otherwise import successfully.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Multi-phase init is now required for use in
     subinterpreters.

      -- 속성: name

          로더가 지원하는 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: path

          확장 모듈의 경로.

      -- 메서드: create_module (spec)

          PEP 489(4)에 따라 지정된 명세에서 모듈 객체를 만듭니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: exec_module (module)

          PEP 489(5)에 따라 주어진 모듈 객체를 초기화합니다.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- 메서드: is_package (fullname)

          *note EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 50e.에 기반해서 파일 경로가 패키지의
          ‘__init__’ 모듈을 가리키면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_code (fullname)

          확장 모듈에는 코드 객체가 없어서 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_source (fullname)

          확장 모듈에는 소스 코드가 없어서 ‘None’을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_filename (fullname)

          *note path: 4545.를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader (name, path,
          path_finder)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader:
     f4c. for namespace packages.  This is an alias for a private class
     and is only made public for introspecting the ‘__loader__’
     attribute on namespace packages:

          >>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader
          >>> import my_namespace
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader)
          True
          >>> import importlib.abc
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader)
          True

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec (name, loader, *,
          origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)

     모듈의 임포트 시스템 관련 상태에 대한 명세.  이것은 일반적으로 모듈
     의 *note __spec__: 1f1f. 어트리뷰트로 노출됩니다.  이 중 많은 어트
     리뷰트는 모듈에서도 직접 제공됩니다: 예를 들어,
     ‘module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__’.  그러나 'values'는 일
     반적으로 동등하지만, 두 객체 간에 동기화가 없기 때문에 다를 수 있음
     에 유의하십시오.  예를 들어, 실행 시간에 모듈의 *note __file__:
     1f25.을 갱신할 수 있으며, 이는 모듈의 *note __spec__.origin: 454b.에
     자동으로 반영되지 않고, 그 반대도 마찬가지 입니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

      -- 속성: name

          The module’s fully qualified name (see *note module.__name__:
          1371.).  The *note finder: 1f26. should always set this
          attribute to a non-empty string.

      -- 속성: loader

          모듈을 로드하는 데 사용되는 *note 로더: 16b7. (*note
          module.__loader__: 2e4.를 참조하세요).  *note 파인더: 1f26.는
          항상 이 어트리뷰트를 설정해야 합니다.

      -- 속성: origin

          The location the *note loader: 16b7. should use to load the
          module (see *note module.__file__: 1f25.).  For example, for
          modules loaded from a ‘.py’ file this is the filename.  The
          *note finder: 1f26. should always set this attribute to a
          meaningful value for the *note loader: 16b7. to use.  In the
          uncommon case that there is not one (like for namespace
          packages), it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- 속성: submodule_search_locations

          A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 4eb. of strings enumerating
          the locations in which a package’s submodules will be found
          (see *note module.__path__: 1c76.).  Most of the time there
          will only be a single directory in this list.

          The *note finder: 1f26. should set this attribute to a
          sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system
          that the module is a package.  It should be set to ‘None’ for
          non-package modules.  It is set automatically later to a
          special object for namespace packages.

      -- 속성: loader_state

          The *note finder: 1f26. may set this attribute to an object
          containing additional, module-specific data to use when
          loading the module.  Otherwise it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- 속성: cached

          The filename of a compiled version of the module’s code (see
          *note module.__cached__: 2d7.).  The *note finder: 1f26.
          should always set this attribute but it may be ‘None’ for
          modules that do not need compiled code stored.

      -- 속성: parent

          (읽기 전용) 모듈이 속한 패키지의 패키지의 완전히 정규화된 이름
          (또는 최상위 수준 모듈의 경우 빈 문자열).  *note
          module.__package__: 2d9.를 참조하세요.  모듈이 패키지면, *note
          name: 1f20.과 같습니다.

      -- 속성: has_location

          ‘True’ if the spec’s *note origin: 454b. refers to a loadable
          location, ‘False’ otherwise.  This value impacts how ‘origin’
          is interpreted and how the module’s *note __file__: 1f25. is
          populated.

 -- 클래스: importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader (name, path)

     프레임워크 형식의 확장 모듈을 로드할 수 있는 *note
     importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cad.의 특수화.

     For compatibility with the iOS App Store, 'all' binary modules in
     an iOS app must be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with
     appropriate metadata, stored in the ‘Frameworks’ folder of the
     packaged app.  There can be only a single binary per framework, and
     there can be no executable binary material outside the Frameworks
     folder.

     To accommodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension
     module binaries are 'not' packaged as ‘.so’ files on ‘sys.path’,
     but as individual standalone frameworks.  To discover those
     frameworks, this loader is be registered against the ‘.fwork’ file
     extension, with a ‘.fwork’ file acting as a placeholder in the
     original location of the binary on ‘sys.path’.  The ‘.fwork’ file
     contains the path of the actual binary in the ‘Frameworks’ folder,
     relative to the app bundle.  To allow for resolving a
     framework-packaged binary back to the original location, the
     framework is expected to contain a ‘.origin’ file that contains the
     location of the ‘.fwork’ file, relative to the app bundle.

     For example, consider the case of an import ‘from foo.bar import
     _whiz’, where ‘_whiz’ is implemented with the binary module
     ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, with ‘sources’ being the location
     registered on ‘sys.path’, relative to the application bundle.  This
     module 'must' be distributed as
     ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (creating the
     framework name from the full import path of the module), with an
     ‘Info.plist’ file in the ‘.framework’ directory identifying the
     binary as a framework.  The ‘foo.bar._whiz’ module would be
     represented in the original location with a
     ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’ marker file, containing the path
     ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’.  The framework would also
     contain ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’,
     containing the path to the ‘.fwork’ file.

     When a module is loaded with this loader, the ‘__file__’ for the
     module will report as the location of the ‘.fwork’ file.  This
     allows code to use the ‘__file__’ of a module as an anchor for file
     system traveral.  However, the spec origin will reference the
     location of the 'actual' binary in the ‘.framework’ folder.

     The Xcode project building the app is responsible for converting
     any ‘.so’ files from wherever they exist in the ‘PYTHONPATH’ into
     frameworks in the ‘Frameworks’ folder (including stripping
     extensions from the module file, the addition of framework
     metadata, and signing the resulting framework), and creating the
     ‘.fwork’ and ‘.origin’ files.  This will usually be done with a
     build step in the Xcode project; see the iOS documentation for
     details on how to construct this build step.

     Added in version 3.13.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: iOS.

      -- 속성: name

          로더가 지원하는 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: path

          확장 모듈의 ‘.fwork’ 파일 경로.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/machinery.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드,  Next: 예<17>,  Prev: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅,  Up: importlib — import의 구현

5.31.5.5 ‘importlib.util’ – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드
.......................................................

'소스 코드:' Lib/importlib/util.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈에는 *note 임포터: 1ffd. 구성에 도움이 되는 다양한 객체가 포함되
어 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

     바이트 코드 버전 번호를 나타내는 바이트열.  바이트 코드의 로드/쓰기
     에 도움이 필요하면 *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 4522.를 고려하
     십시오.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.cache_from_source (path, debug_override=None,
          *, optimization=None)

     소스 'path'와 연관된 바이트 컴파일된 파일의 PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3)
     경로를 반환합니다.  예를 들어, 'path'가 ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’이면 반환
     값은 파이썬 3.2의 경우 ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’입
     니다.  ‘cpython-32’ 문자열은 현재 매직 태그에서 온 것입니다
     (‘get_tag()’를 참조하십시오; ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’가 정의
     되지 않으면 *note NotImplementedError: 228. 가 발생합니다).

     'optimization' 매개 변수는 바이트 코드 파일의 최적화 수준을 지정하
     는 데 사용됩니다.  빈 문자열은 최적화하지 않음을 나타내므로,
     'optimization'이 ‘''’ 인 ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’는 바이트 코드 경로가
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’가 됩니다.  ‘None’은 인터
     프리터의 최적화 수준이 사용되도록 합니다.  다른 값의 문자열 표현은
     사용되므로, 'optimization'이 ‘2’인 ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’는 바이트 코드
     경로가 ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc’가 됩니다.
     'optimization'의 문자열 표현은 영숫자만 가능하며, 그렇지 않으면
     *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     'debug_override' 매개 변수는 폐지되었고 ‘__debug__’의 시스템값을 대
     체하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  ‘True’ 값은 'optimization'을 빈 문자
     열로 설정하는 것과 등등합니다.  ‘False’ 값은 'optimization'을 ‘1’로
     설정하는 것과 같습니다.  'debug_override'와 'optimization'이 모두
     ‘None’이 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'optimization' 매개 변수가 추가되었고
     'debug_override' 매개 변수는 폐지되었습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.source_from_cache (path)

     'path'에 PEP 3147(4) 파일 이름이 주어지면, 연관된 소스 코드 파일 경
     로를 반환합니다.  예를 들어, 'path'가
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’이면 반환된 경로는
     ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’입니다.  'path'는 존재할 필요는 없지만, PEP
     3147(5)이나 PEP 488(6) 형식을 준수하지 않으면, *note ValueError:
     202.가 발생합니다.  ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’가 정의되지 않으
     면, *note NotImplementedError: 228. 가 발생합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.decode_source (source_bytes)

     소스 코드를 나타내는 주어진 바이트열을 디코딩하고 유니버설 줄 넘김
     이 적용된 문자열로 반환합니다 (*note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source(): f50.에 필요한 대로).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.resolve_name (name, package)

     상대 모듈 이름을 절대 이름으로 결정합니다.

     'name' 선두에 점이 없으면, 'name'이 단순히 반환됩니다.  이를 통해
     'package' 인자가 필요한지 확인하지 않고
     ‘importlib.util.resolve_name('sys', __spec__.parent)’와 같은 사용이
     가능합니다.

     'name'이 상대 모듈 이름이지만 'package'가 거짓 값(예를 들어 ‘None’이
     나 빈 문자열)이면 *note ImportError: 413.가 발생합니다.  *note
     ImportError: 413.는 또한 상대 이름이 그것을 포함하는 패키지를 벗어
     날 것 같으면 발생합니다 (예를 들어 ‘spam’ 패키지 내에서 ‘..bacon’을
     요청하는 것).

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: import 문과의 일관성을 개선하기 위해, 잘못된 상
     대 임포트 시도에 대해 *note ValueError: 202. 대신 *note
     ImportError: 413.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.find_spec (name, package=None)

     선택적으로 지정된 'package' 이름에 상대적으로, 모듈의 *note 스펙:
     1f1e.을 찾습니다.  모듈이 *note sys.modules: 1558.에 있으면,
     ‘sys.modules[name].__spec__’이 반환됩니다 (스펙이 ‘None’이 되거나 설
     정되지 않지 않은 한, 그럴 경우는 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니
     다).  그렇지 않으면 *note sys.meta_path: d28.를 사용한 검색이 수행
     됩니다.  스펙을 찾지 못하면 ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     'name'이 서브 모듈에 관한 것이면 (점을 포함하면), 부모 모듈은 자동
     으로 임포트 됩니다.

     'name'과 'package'는 ‘import_module()’과 같게 작동합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'package'가 실제로 패키지가 아니면 (즉 *note
     __path__: 1c76. 어트리뷰트가 없으면) *note AttributeError: 346. 대
     신 *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.module_from_spec (spec)

     'spec'과 *note spec.loader.create_module: cab.을 기반으로 새 모듈을
     만듭니다.

     *note spec.loader.create_module: cab.이 ‘None’을 반환하지 않으면, 어
     떤 기존 어트리뷰트도 재설정되지 않습니다.  또한 'spec'에 액세스하거
     나 모듈에서 어트리뷰트를 설정하는 동안 트리거 되면 *note
     AttributeError: 346.가 발생하지 않습니다.

     'spec'은 모듈에서 가능한 많은 임포트 제어 어트리뷰트를 설정하는 데
     사용되므로 새 모듈을 작성하는 데 *note types.ModuleType: e0f.을 사
     용하는 것보다 이 함수가 선호됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.spec_from_loader (name, loader, *, origin=None,
          is_package=None)

     로더(loader)를 기반으로 *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c. 인스턴스를 만들기 위
     한 팩토리 함수.  매개 변수는 ModuleSpec에서와 같은 의미입니다.  이
     함수는 ‘InspectLoader.is_package()’와 같은 사용 가능한 *note 로더:
     16b7. API를 사용하여 스펙에 빠진 정보를 채웁니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.spec_from_file_location (name, location, *,
          loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)

     파일 경로를 기반으로 *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c. 인스턴스를 만드는 팩토
     리 함수.  로더 API를 사용하고 모듈이 파일 기반일 것이라는 것이 뜻하
     는 것으로 누락된 정보가 스펙에 채워집니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- 함수: importlib.util.source_hash (source_bytes)

     'source_bytes'의 해시를 바이트열로 반환합니다.  해시 기반 ‘.pyc’ 파
     일은 해당 소스 파일 내용의 *note source_hash(): 4551.를 헤더에 포함
     합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- 함수: importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions (*,
          disable_check)

     A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check
     for extension modules.  By default the check is enabled and will
     fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a
     subinterpreter.  It will also fail for a multi-phase init module
     that doesn’t explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when
     imported in an interpreter with its own GIL.

     Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case;
     one which is likely to eventually go away.  There’s is a pretty
     good chance this is not what you were looking for.

     You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the
     basic interface of multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)) and lying about
     support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL).

          경고: Using this function to disable the check can lead to
          unexpected behavior and even crashes.  It should only be used
          during extension module development.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 클래스: importlib.util.LazyLoader (loader)

     모듈이 어트리뷰트에 액세스할 때까지 모듈 로더의 실행을 연기하는 클
     래스.

     이 클래스는 필요한 모듈 형에 대한 제어로 *note exec_module(): 865.을
     정의하는 로더**에서만** 작동합니다.  같은 이유로, 로더의 *note
     create_module(): cab. 메서드는 ‘None’을 반환하거나, *note 슬롯:
     5d9.을 사용하지 않고 ‘__class__’ 어트리뷰트가 변경될 수 있는 형을 반
     환해야 합니다.  마지막으로, *note sys.modules: 1558.에 배치된 객체
     를 치환하는 모듈은 인터프리터 전체에서 모듈 참조를 안전하게 대체할
     방법이 없어서 작동하지 않습니다; 이러한 치환이 감지되면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

          참고: 시작 시간이 중요한 프로젝트의 경우, 이 클래스를 사용하면
          사용하지 않을 모듈을 로드하는 데 드는 비용을 최소화할 수 있습
          니다.  시작 시간이 핵심이 아닌 프로젝트의 경우 로딩이 지연되는
          동안 만들어진, 따라서 문맥을 벗어난 에러 메시지 때문에, 이 클
          래스를 사용하지 말 것을 '강하게' 권고합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: cac.와
     *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cad. 에 대한 호환성
     경고를 제거하고, *note create_module(): cab.을 호출하기 시작했습니
     다.

      -- 메서드: classmethod factory (loader)

          지연된 로더(lazy loader)를 만드는 콜러블을 반환하는 클래스 메
          서드.  이것은 로더가 인스턴스가 아닌 클래스로 전달되는 상황에
          서 사용하려는 것입니다.

               suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
               loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
               lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
               finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/util.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: 예<17>,  Prev: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드,  Up: importlib — import의 구현

5.31.5.6 예
...........

* Menu:

* 프로그래밍 방식으로 임포트 하기::
* 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기::
* 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* 임포터 설정하기::
* importlib.import_module() 근사하기: importlib import_module 근사하기.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그래밍 방식으로 임포트 하기,  Next: 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기,  Up: 예<17>

5.31.5.7 프로그래밍 방식으로 임포트 하기
........................................

프로그래밍 방식으로 모듈을 임포트 하려면, *note
importlib.import_module(): 511.을 사용하십시오.

     import importlib

     itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기,  Next: 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기,  Prev: 프로그래밍 방식으로 임포트 하기,  Up: 예<17>

5.31.5.8 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기
............................................

실제로 임포트를 수행하지 않고 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인해야 하면,
*note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce.을 사용해야 합니다.

Note that if ‘name’ is a submodule (contains a dot), *note
importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce. will import the parent module.

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     # 설명을 위해.
     name = 'itertools'

     if name in sys.modules:
         print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules")
     elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None:
         # 실제 임포트를 수행하기로 선택하면 ...
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         print(f"{name!r} has been imported")
     else:
         print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")


File: python.info,  Node: 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기,  Next: Implementing lazy imports,  Prev: 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기,  Up: 예<17>

5.31.5.9 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기
.....................................

This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an
import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than
*note sys.path: 3ae. being searched.  Alternatives should first be
considered first, such as modifying *note sys.path: 3ae. when a proper
module is required, or using *note runpy.run_path(): 181. when the
global namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate.

파이썬 소스 파일을 경로에서 직접 임포트 하려면, 다음 조리법을 사용하십시
오:

     import importlib.util
     import sys


     def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
         spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[module_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         return module


     # 오직 설명을 위해 (`json` 의 사용은 임의적입니다).
     import json
     file_path = json.__file__
     module_name = json.__name__

     # `import json` 과 유사한 결과.
     json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing lazy imports,  Next: 임포터 설정하기,  Prev: 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기,  Up: 예<17>

5.31.5.10 Implementing lazy imports
...................................

The example below shows how to implement lazy imports:

     >>> import importlib.util
     >>> import sys
     >>> def lazy_import(name):
     ...     spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
     ...     loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader)
     ...     spec.loader = loader
     ...     module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
     ...     sys.modules[name] = module
     ...     loader.exec_module(module)
     ...     return module
     ...
     >>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing")
     >>> #lazy_typing 은 실제 모듈 객체입니다,
     >>> #하지만 아직 메모리에 로드되지 않았습니다.
     >>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING
     False


File: python.info,  Node: 임포터 설정하기,  Next: importlib import_module 근사하기,  Prev: Implementing lazy imports,  Up: 예<17>

5.31.5.11 임포터 설정하기
.........................

임포트의 심층 사용자 정의를 위해서는, 일반적으로 *note 임포터: 1ffd.를 구
현하려고 합니다.  이는 *note 파인더: 1f26.와 *note 로더: 16b7. 측면을 모
두 관리한다는 의미입니다.  파인더에는 필요에 따라 두 가지 종류가 있습니
다: *note 메타 경로 파인더: 1066.나 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067.  전
자는 *note sys.meta_path: d28.에 배치하는 것이고 후자는 *note
sys.path_hooks: 101a.에서 *note 경로 엔트리 훅: 200e.을 사용하여 만드는
것으로 *note sys.path: 3ae. 항목과 함께 작동하여 파인더를 만듭니다.  이
예제는 임포트가 임포터를 사용할 수 있도록 임포터를 등록하는 방법을 보여
줍니다 (임포터를 직접 만들려면, 이 패키지에 정의된 적절한 클래스의 설명
서를 읽으십시오):

     import importlib.machinery
     import sys

     # 오직 설명을 위해.
     SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
     SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
     loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
                       importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)

     # 메타 경로 파인더 설정하기.
     # 파인더를 우선순위 측면에서 리스트의 올바른 위치에
     # 넣으십시오.
     sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)

     # 경로 엔트리 파인더 설정하기.
     # 경로 훅을 우선순위 측면에서 리스트의 올바른 위치에
     # 넣으십시오.
     sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))


File: python.info,  Node: importlib import_module 근사하기,  Prev: 임포터 설정하기,  Up: 예<17>

5.31.5.12 ‘importlib.import_module()’ 근사하기
..............................................

임포트 자체는 파이썬 코드로 구현되므로, importlib를 통해 대부분의 임포트
절차를 노출할 수 있습니다.  다음은 *note importlib.import_module():
511.의 근사적인(approximate) 구현을 제공하여 importlib가 노출하는 다양한
API를 설명하는 데 도움을 줍니다:

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     def import_module(name, package=None):
         """import의 대략적인 구현."""
         absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
         try:
             return sys.modules[absolute_name]
         except KeyError:
             pass

         path = None
         if '.' in absolute_name:
             parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
             parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
             path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
         for finder in sys.meta_path:
             spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
             if spec is not None:
                 break
         else:
             msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
             raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         if path is not None:
             setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
         return module


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access,  Next: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Prev: importlib — import의 구현,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.6 ‘importlib.resources’ – Package resource reading, opening and access
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.7.

This module leverages Python’s import system to provide access to
'resources' within 'packages'.

“Resources” are file-like resources associated with a module or package
in Python.  The resources may be contained directly in a package, within
a subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside
a package.  Resources may be text or binary.  As a result, a package’s
Python module sources (.py), compilation artifacts (pycache), and
installation artifacts (like *note reserved filenames: 223. in
directories) are technically de-facto resources of that package.  In
practice, however, resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts
exposed specifically by the package author.

Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode.

Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it’s
important to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor.  Resources and
packages 'do not' have to exist as physical files and directories on the
file system: for example, a package and its resources can be imported
from a zip file using *note zipimport: 132.

     참고: This module provides functionality similar to
     pkg_resources(2) Basic Resource Access(3) without the performance
     overhead of that package.  This makes reading resources included in
     packages easier, with more stable and consistent semantics.

     The standalone backport of this module provides more information on
     using importlib.resources(4) and migrating from pkg_resources to
     importlib.resources(5).

*note Loaders: ebd. that wish to support resource reading should
implement a ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ method as specified by *note
importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4518.

 -- 클래스: importlib.resources.Anchor

     Represents an anchor for resources, either a *note module object:
     e0f. or a module name as a string.  Defined as ‘Union[str,
     ModuleType]’.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.files (anchor: Anchor | None = None)

     Returns a *note Traversable: 1f3. object representing the resource
     container (think directory) and its resources (think files).  A
     Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories).

     'anchor' is an optional *note Anchor: 455e.  If the anchor is a
     package, resources are resolved from that package.  If a module,
     resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package
     or the package root).  If the anchor is omitted, the caller’s
     module is used.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'package' parameter was renamed to 'anchor'.
     'anchor' can now be a non-package module and if omitted will
     default to the caller’s module.  'package' is still accepted for
     compatibility but will raise a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.
     Consider passing the anchor positionally or using
     ‘importlib_resources >= 5.10’ for a compatible interface on older
     Pythons.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.as_file (traversable)

     Given a *note Traversable: 1f3. object representing a file or
     directory, typically from *note importlib.resources.files(): 488,
     return a context manager for use in a *note with: 5cc. statement.
     The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path: 229. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file or
     directory created when the resource was extracted from e.g.  a zip
     file.

     Use ‘as_file’ when the Traversable methods (‘read_text’, etc) are
     insufficient and an actual file or directory on the file system is
     required.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added support for 'traversable' representing a
     directory.

* Menu:

* Functional API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py

   (2) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html

   (3) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access

   (4) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html

   (5) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API,  Up: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access

5.31.6.1 Functional API
.......................

A set of simplified, backwards-compatible helpers is available.  These
allow common operations in a single function call.

For all the following functions:

   - 'anchor' is an *note Anchor: 455e, as in *note files(): 488.
     Unlike in ‘files’, it may not be omitted.

   - 'path_names' are components of a resource’s path name, relative to
     the anchor.  For example, to get the text of resource named
     ‘info.txt’, use:

          importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info.txt")

     Like *note Traversable.joinpath: 1f3, The individual components
     should use forward slashes (‘/’) as path separators.  For example,
     the following are equivalent:

          importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics/painting.png")
          importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics", "painting.png")

     For backward compatibility reasons, functions that read text
     require an explicit 'encoding' argument if multiple 'path_names'
     are given.  For example, to get the text of ‘info/chapter1.txt’,
     use:

          importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info", "chapter1.txt",
                                        encoding='utf-8')

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.open_binary (anchor, *path_names)

     Open the named resource for binary reading.

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function returns a *note BinaryIO: 3f99. object, that is, a
     binary stream open for reading.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('rb')

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.open_text (anchor, *path_names,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Open the named resource for text reading.  By default, the contents
     are read as strict UTF-8.

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as in
     built-in *note open(): 515.

     For backward compatibility reasons, the 'encoding' argument must be
     given explicitly if there are multiple 'path_names'.  This
     limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15.

     This function returns a *note TextIO: 3f98. object, that is, a text
     stream open for reading.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('r', encoding=encoding)

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.  'encoding'
     and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.read_binary (anchor, *path_names)

     Read and return the contents of the named resource as *note bytes:
     1c2.

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_bytes()

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.read_text (anchor, *path_names,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Read and return the contents of the named resource as *note str:
     445.  By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as in
     built-in *note open(): 515.

     For backward compatibility reasons, the 'encoding' argument must be
     given explicitly if there are multiple 'path_names'.  This
     limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_text(encoding=encoding)

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.  'encoding'
     and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.path (anchor, *path_names)

     Provides the path to the 'resource' as an actual file system path.
     This function returns a context manager for use in a *note with:
     5cc. statement.  The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path:
     229. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary files created,
     e.g.  when the resource needs to be extracted from a zip file.

     For example, the *note stat(): 81d. method requires an actual file
     system path; it can be used like this:

          with importlib.resources.path(anchor, "resource.txt") as fspath:
              result = fspath.stat()

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          as_file(files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names))

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.  'encoding'
     and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.is_resource (anchor, *path_names)

     Return ‘True’ if the named resource exists, otherwise ‘False’.
     This function does not consider directories to be resources.

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).is_file()

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted.

 -- 함수: importlib.resources.contents (anchor, *path_names)

     Return an iterable over the named items within the package or path.
     The iterable returns names of resources (e.g.  files) and
     non-resources (e.g.  directories) as *note str: 445.  The iterable
     does not recurse into subdirectories.

     See *note the introduction: 4560. for details on 'anchor' and
     'path_names'.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          for resource in files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).iterdir():
              yield resource.name

     버전 3.11부터 폐지됨: Prefer ‘iterdir()’ as above, which offers
     more control over the results and richer functionality.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Next: importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스,  Prev: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.7 ‘importlib.resources.abc’ – Abstract base classes for resources
----------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 11a5. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 2a0. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the “directory”.  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 66f.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note
     importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6. instead.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

          Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2597. for binary
          reading of the 'resource'.

          If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError: 425.
          is raised.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

          Returns the file system path to the 'resource'.

          If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
          raise *note FileNotFoundError: 425.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

          Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a resource.
          *note FileNotFoundError: 425. is raised if 'name' does not
          exist.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod contents ()

          Returns an *note iterable: 1217. of strings over the contents
          of the package.  Do note that it is not required that all
          names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g.  it
          is acceptable to return names for which *note is_resource():
          4565. would be false.

          Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
          situations where how a package and its resources are stored
          are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
          For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
          when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
          the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
          directly.

          The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- 클래스: importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 229. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 487.

      -- 속성: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield Traversable objects in self.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a directory.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a file.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod joinpath (*pathsegments)

          Traverse directories according to 'pathsegments' and return
          the result as ‘Traversable’.

          Each 'pathsegments' argument may contain multiple names
          separated by forward slashes (‘/’, ‘posixpath.sep’ ).  For
          example, the following are equivalent:

               files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt')
               files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt')

          Note that some ‘Traversable’ implementations might not be
          updated to the latest version of the protocol.  For
          compatibility with such implementations, provide a single
          argument without path separators to each call to ‘joinpath’.
          For example:

               files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt')

          버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘joinpath’ accepts multiple
          'pathsegments', and these segments may contain forward slashes
          as path separators.  Previously, only a single 'child'
          argument was accepted.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return Traversable child in self.  Equivalent to
          ‘joinpath(child)’.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be ‘r’ or ‘rb’ to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          27d3.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4.

      -- 메서드: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of self as bytes.

      -- 메서드: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of self as text.

 -- 클래스: importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 488. interface.  Subclasses
     *note ResourceReader: 4518. and provides concrete implementations
     of the ‘ResourceReader’’s abstract methods.  Therefore, any loader
     supplying ‘TraversableResources’ also supplies ‘ResourceReader’.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

      -- 메서드: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스,  Next: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Up: 모듈 임포트 하기

5.31.8 ‘importlib.metadata’ – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.8.

버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘importlib.metadata’는 더는 잠정적이지 않습니다.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py(1)

‘importlib.metadata’는 설치된 배포 패키지(2)의 메타 데이터에 대한 액세스
를 제공하는 라이브러리입니다.  에를 들어 진입 지점이나 최상위 이름(임포
트 패키지(3), 모듈 등).  파이썬의 임포트 시스템에 내장된 이 라이브러리는
‘pkg_resources’의 진입 지점 API(4)와 메타데이터 API(5)에서 유사한 기능을
대체하려고 합니다.  *note importlib.resources: 7b.와 함께, 이 패키지는 오
래되고 덜 효율적인 ‘pkg_resources’ 패키지를 사용할 필요를 제거합니다.

‘importlib.metadata’ operates on third-party 'distribution packages'
installed into Python’s ‘site-packages’ directory via tools such as
pip(6).  Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable
‘dist-info’ or ‘egg-info’ directories, and metadata defined by the Core
metadata specifications(7).

     중요: These are 'not' necessarily equivalent to or correspond 1:1
     with the top-level 'import package' names that can be imported
     inside Python code.  One 'distribution package' can contain
     multiple 'import packages' (and single modules), and one top-level
     'import package' may map to multiple 'distribution packages' if it
     is a namespace package.  You can use *note
     packages_distributions(): 80a. to get a mapping between them.

By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip
archives on *note sys.path: 3ae.  Through an extension mechanism, the
metadata can live almost anywhere.

더 보기
.......

‘https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/’

     The documentation for ‘importlib_metadata’, which supplies a
     backport of ‘importlib.metadata’.  This includes an API
     reference(8) for this module’s classes and functions, as well as a
     migration guide(9) for existing users of ‘pkg_resources’.

* Menu:

* 개요: 개요<3>.
* 기능적 API::
* 배포::
* 배포 발견::
* 검색 알고리즘 확장하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (4) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points

   (5) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (7) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata

   (8) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html

   (9) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: 개요<3>,  Next: 기능적 API,  Up: importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스

5.31.8.1 개요
.............

‘pip’를 사용하여 설치한 배포 패키지(1)의 버전 문자열을 얻고 싶다고 가정
해 봅시다.  우선 가상 환경을 만들고 그 안에 뭔가 설치합니다:

     $ python -m venv example
     $ source example/bin/activate
     (example) $ python -m pip install wheel

다음을 실행하여 ‘wheel’에 대한 버전 문자열을 얻을 수 있습니다:

     (example) $ python
     >>> from importlib.metadata import version
     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

‘console_scripts’, ‘distutils.commands’나 그 외의 것들과 같은,
EntryPoint 의 속성(보통 ‘group’ 이나 ‘name’)으로 선택할 수 있는 진입 지
점의 컬렉션을 얻을 수도 있습니다.  각 그룹은 *note EntryPoint: 284. 객체
의 컬랙션을 포함합니다.

여러분은 *note 배포 메타데이터: 4575.를 얻을 수 있습니다:

     >>> list(metadata('wheel'))
     ['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']

또한 *note 배포의 버전 번호: 4576.를 가져오고, *note 구성 파일: 4577.을
나열하고, 배포의 *note 요구사항: 4578. 리스트를 얻을 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError

     Subclass of *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44. raised by several
     functions in this module when queried for a distribution package
     which is not installed in the current Python environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: 기능적 API,  Next: 배포,  Prev: 개요<3>,  Up: importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스

5.31.8.2 기능적 API
...................

이 패키지는 공용 API를 통해 다음과 같은 기능을 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 진입 지점::
* 배포 메타데이터::
* 배포 버전::
* 배포 파일::
* 배포 요구 사항::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::


File: python.info,  Node: 진입 지점,  Next: 배포 메타데이터,  Up: 기능적 API

5.31.8.3 진입 지점
..................

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.entry_points (**select_params)

     Returns a *note EntryPoints: 457d. instance describing entry points
     for the current environment.  Any given keyword parameters are
     passed to the ‘select()’ method for comparison to the attributes of
     the individual entry point definitions.

     Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based
     on their ‘EntryPoint.dist’ attribute (as different ‘Distribution’
     instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the
     same attributes)

 -- 클래스: importlib.metadata.EntryPoints

     Details of a collection of installed entry points.

     Also provides a ‘.groups’ attribute that reports all identified
     entry point groups, and a ‘.names’ attribute that reports all
     identified entry point names.

 -- 클래스: importlib.metadata.EntryPoint

     Details of an installed entry point.

     각 ‘EntryPoint’ 인스턴스에는 ‘.name’, ‘.group’ 및 ‘.value’ 어트리뷰
     트가 있고 값을 결정하는 ‘.load()’ 메서드가 있습니다.  ‘.value’ 어트
     리뷰트의 구성 요소를 가져오기 위한 ‘.module’, ‘.attr’ 및 ‘.extras’
     어트리뷰트도 있으며, ‘.dist’는 진입 지점을 제공하는 배포 패키지에 대
     한 정보를 얻는데 사용됩니다.

모든 진입 지점을 조회합니다:

     >>> eps = entry_points()

The ‘entry_points()’ function returns a ‘EntryPoints’ object, a
collection of all ‘EntryPoint’ objects with ‘names’ and ‘groups’
attributes for convenience:

     >>> sorted(eps.groups)
     ['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']

‘EntryPoints’ has a ‘select()’ method to select entry points matching
specific properties.  Select entry points in the ‘console_scripts’
group:

     >>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts')

Equivalently, since ‘entry_points()’ passes keyword arguments through to
select:

     >>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts')

Pick out a specific script named “wheel” (found in the wheel project):

     >>> 'wheel' in scripts.names
     True
     >>> wheel = scripts['wheel']

Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection:

     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')
     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')

Inspect the resolved entry point:

     >>> wheel
     EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts')
     >>> wheel.module
     'wheel.cli'
     >>> wheel.attr
     'main'
     >>> wheel.extras
     []
     >>> main = wheel.load()
     >>> main
     <function main at 0x103528488>

‘group’과 ‘name’은 패키지 저자가 정의한 임의의 값이며 일반적으로 클라이
언트는 특정 그룹에 대한 모든 진입 지점을 찾으려고 합니다.  진입 지점의 정
의와 사용법에 대한 자세한 정보는 the setuptools docs(1)를 읽으십시오.

버전 3.12에서 변경: The “selectable” entry points were introduced in
‘importlib_metadata’ 3.6 and Python 3.10.  Prior to those changes,
‘entry_points’ accepted no parameters and always returned a dictionary
of entry points, keyed by group.  With ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.0 and
Python 3.12, ‘entry_points’ always returns an ‘EntryPoints’ object.  See
backports.entry_points_selectable(2) for compatibility options.

버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘EntryPoint’ objects no longer present a tuple-like
interface (*note __getitem__(): 283.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/


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5.31.8.4 배포 메타데이터
........................

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.metadata (distribution_name)

     Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named
     distribution package as a *note PackageMetadata: 4581. instance.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4579. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- 클래스: importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata

     A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol(1).

     In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and
     attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the
     ‘get()’ method.

모든 배포 패키지(2)는 ‘metadata()’ 함수를 사용하여 추출할 수 있는 몇 가
지 메타 데이터가 포함되어 있습니다:

     >>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel')

반환된 데이터 구조의 키는 메타데이터 키워드의 이름을 지정하고, 값은 배포
메타데이터에서 구문 분석하지 않은 채로 반환됩니다:

     >>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

*note PackageMetadata: 4581. also presents a ‘json’ attribute that
returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566(3):

     >>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(4) for additional details.

버전 3.10에서 변경: The ‘Description’ is now included in the metadata
when presented through the payload.  Line continuation characters have
been removed.

The ‘json’ attribute was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


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5.31.8.5 배포 버전
..................

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.version (distribution_name)

     Return the installed distribution package version(1) for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4579. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

‘version()’ 함수는 배포 패키지(2)의 버전 번호를 문자열로 가져오는 가장 빠
른 방법입니다:

     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: 배포 파일,  Next: 배포 요구 사항,  Prev: 배포 버전,  Up: 기능적 API

5.31.8.6 배포 파일
..................

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.files (distribution_name)

     Return the full set of files contained within the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4579. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

     Returns *note None: 66f. if the distribution is found but the
     installation database records reporting the files associated with
     the distribuion package are missing.

 -- 클래스: importlib.metadata.PackagePath

     A *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a0. derived object with additional
     ‘dist’, ‘size’, and ‘hash’ properties corresponding to the
     distribution package’s installation metadata for that file.

The ‘files()’ function takes a Distribution Package(1) name and returns
all of the files installed by this distribution.  Each file is reported
as a *note PackagePath: 4585. instance.  For example:

     >>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0]
     >>> util
     PackagePath('wheel/util.py')
     >>> util.size
     859
     >>> util.dist
     <importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0>
     >>> util.hash
     <FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI>

일단 파일을 얻으면, 내용을 읽을 수도 있습니다:

     >>> print(util.read_text())
     import base64
     import sys
     ...
     def as_bytes(s):
         if isinstance(s, text_type):
             return s.encode('utf-8')
         return s

You can also use the ‘locate()’ method to get the absolute path to the
file:

     >>> util.locate()
     PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')

메타 데이터 파일 목록 파일(‘RECORD’나 ‘SOURCES.txt’)이 누락된 경우,
‘files()’는 *note None: 66f.을 반환합니다.  대상 배포에 메타 데이터가 있
음이 알려지지 않았을 때, 이 조건에 대한 보호로 호출자는 ‘files()’에 대한
호출을 always_iterable(2)이나 다른 것으로 감쌀 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable


File: python.info,  Node: 배포 요구 사항,  Next: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: 배포 파일,  Up: 기능적 API

5.31.8.7 배포 요구 사항
.......................

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.requires (distribution_name)

     Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4579. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

배포 패키지(1)의 전체 요구 사항을 얻으려면, ‘requires()’ 함수를 사용하십
시오:

     >>> requires('wheel')
     ["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: 배포 요구 사항,  Up: 기능적 API

5.31.8.8 Mapping import to distribution packages
................................................

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.packages_distributions ()

     Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names
     found via *note sys.meta_path: d28. to the names of the
     distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding
     files.

     To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by
     multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to
     a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a
     single name.

A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package(1) name (or
names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable
top-level Python module or Import Package(2):

     >>> packages_distributions()
     {'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...}

Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names(3), and thus this
function is not reliable with such installs.

Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (3) https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609


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5.31.8.9 배포
.............

 -- 함수: importlib.metadata.distribution (distribution_name)

     Return a *note Distribution: 458d. instance describing the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4579. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- 클래스: importlib.metadata.Distribution

     Details of an installed distribution package.

     Note: different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare
     equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and
     accordingly have the same attributes.

위에 기술된 모듈 수준 API가 가장 일반적이며 편리한 사용법이지만,
‘Distribution’ 클래스에서 모든 정보를 얻을 수 있습니다.  ‘Distribution’은
파이썬 배포 패키지(1)의 메타 데이터를 나타내는 추상 객체입니다.  *note
distribution(): 458c. 함수를 호출해서, 설치된 배포 패키지의 구상
‘Distribution’ 서브클래스 인스턴스를 얻을 수 있습니다:

     >>> from importlib.metadata import distribution
     >>> dist = distribution('wheel')
     >>> type(dist)
     <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>

따라서, 버전 번호를 얻는 다른 방법은 ‘Distribution’ 인스턴스를 사용하는
것입니다:

     >>> dist.version
     '0.32.3'

‘Distribution’ 인스턴스에서 사용할 수 있는 모든 종류의 추가 메타 데이터
가 있습니다:

     >>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
     >>> dist.metadata['License']
     'MIT'

For editable packages, an ‘origin’ property may present PEP 610(2)
metadata:

     >>> dist.origin.url
     'file:///path/to/wheel-0.32.3.editable-py3-none-any.whl'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(3) for additional details.

Added in version 3.13: The ‘.origin’ property was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0610/

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


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5.31.8.10 배포 발견
...................

By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of
metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package(1)s.  This
metadata finder search defaults to ‘sys.path’, but varies slightly in
how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does.  In
particular:

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ does not honor *note bytes: 1c2. objects on
     ‘sys.path’.

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ will incidentally honor *note pathlib.Path:
     229. objects on ‘sys.path’ even though such values will be ignored
     for imports.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


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5.31.8.11 검색 알고리즘 확장하기
................................

배포 패키지(1) 메타 데이터는 *note sys.path: 3ae. 검색이나 패키지 로더를
통해 직접 사용할 수 없으므로, 배포의 메타 데이터는 임포트 시스템 *note
파인더: 1ffb.를 통해 찾습니다.  배포 패키지의 메타 데이터를 찾기 위해,
‘importlib.metadata’는 *note sys.meta_path: d28.의 *note 메타 경로
파인더: 1066.의 리스트를 조회합니다.

By default ‘importlib.metadata’ installs a finder for distribution
packages found on the file system.  This finder doesn’t actually find
any 'distributions', but it can find their metadata.

추상 클래스 *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869.는 파이썬의 임포트 시
스템에 의해 파인더가 기대하는 인터페이스를 정의합니다.
‘importlib.metadata’는 *note sys.meta_path: d28.의 파인더에서 선택적인
‘find_distributions’ 콜러블을 조회함으로써 이 프로토콜을 확장하고 이 확
장된 인터페이스를 다음과 같은 추상 메서드를 정의하는
‘DistributionFinder’ 추상 베이스 클래스로 제공합니다:

     @abc.abstractmethod
     def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
         """지정한 ``context`` 에 대응하는 패키지에 대한 메타 데이터를 로드할 수 있는
         모든 Distribution 인스턴스의 이터러블을 반환합니다.
         """

‘DistributionFinder.Context’ 객체는 검색할 경로와 일치할 이름을 가리키는
‘.path’와 ‘.name’ 프로퍼티를 제공하고 다른 관련 문맥을 제공할 수 있습니
다.

이것이 실제로 의미하는 것은, 파일 시스템이 아닌 위치에서 배포 패키지 메
타 데이터를 찾는 것을 지원하려면, ‘Distribution’을 서브 클래싱하고 추상
메서드를 구현해야 한다는 것입니다.  그런 다음 사용자 정의 파인더의
‘find_distributions()’ 메서드에서, 이 파생된 ‘Distribution’의 인스턴스를
반환하십시오.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<29>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<29>,  Up: 검색 알고리즘 확장하기

5.31.8.12 예제
..............

Consider for example a custom finder that loads Python modules from a
database:

     class DatabaseImporter(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder):
         def __init__(self, db):
             self.db = db

         def find_spec(self, fullname, target=None) -> ModuleSpec:
             return self.db.spec_from_name(fullname)

     sys.meta_path.append(DatabaseImporter(connect_db(...)))

That importer now presumably provides importable modules from a
database, but it provides no metadata or entry points.  For this custom
importer to provide metadata, it would also need to implement
‘DistributionFinder’:

     from importlib.metadata import DistributionFinder

     class DatabaseImporter(DistributionFinder):
         ...

         def find_distributions(self, context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
             query = dict(name=context.name) if context.name else {}
             for dist_record in self.db.query_distributions(query):
                 yield DatabaseDistribution(dist_record)

In this way, ‘query_distributions’ would return records for each
distribution served by the database matching the query.  For example, if
‘requests-1.0’ is in the database, ‘find_distributions’ would yield a
‘DatabaseDistribution’ for ‘Context(name='requests')’ or
‘Context(name=None)’.

For the sake of simplicity, this example ignores ‘context.path’.  The
‘path’ attribute defaults to ‘sys.path’ and is the set of import paths
to be considered in the search.  A ‘DatabaseImporter’ could potentially
function without any concern for a search path.  Assuming the importer
does no partitioning, the “path” would be irrelevant.  In order to
illustrate the purpose of ‘path’, the example would need to illustrate a
more complex ‘DatabaseImporter’ whose behavior varied depending on
‘sys.path’/‘PYTHONPATH’.  In that case, the ‘find_distributions’ should
honor the ‘context.path’ and only yield ‘Distribution’s pertinent to
that path.

‘DatabaseDistribution’, then, would look something like:

     class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distribution):
         def __init__(self, record):
             self.record = record

         def read_text(self, filename):
             """
             Read a file like "METADATA" for the current distribution.
             """
             if filename == "METADATA":
                 return f"""Name: {self.record.name}
     Version: {self.record.version}
     """
             if filename == "entry_points.txt":
                 return "\n".join(
                   f"""[{ep.group}]\n{ep.name}={ep.value}"""
                   for ep in self.record.entry_points)

         def locate_file(self, path):
             raise RuntimeError("This distribution has no file system")

This basic implementation should provide metadata and entry points for
packages served by the ‘DatabaseImporter’, assuming that the ‘record’
supplies suitable ‘.name’, ‘.version’, and ‘.entry_points’ attributes.

The ‘DatabaseDistribution’ may also provide other metadata files, like
‘RECORD’ (required for ‘Distribution.files’) or override the
implementation of ‘Distribution.files’.  See the source for more
inspiration.


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5.31.9 The initialization of the ‘sys.path’ module search path
--------------------------------------------------------------

A module search path is initialized when Python starts.  This module
search path may be accessed at *note sys.path: 3ae.

The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains
the input script, if there is one.  Otherwise, the first entry is the
current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive
shell, a *note -c: 5da. command, or *note -m: 5db. module.

The *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. environment variable is often used to add
directories to the search path.  If this environment variable is found
then the contents are added to the module search path.

     참고: *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. will affect all installed Python
     versions/environments.  Be wary of setting this in your shell
     profile or global environment variables.  The *note site: c7.
     module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below.

The next items added are the directories containing standard Python
modules as well as any *note extension module: 4593.s that these modules
depend on.  Extension modules are ‘.pyd’ files on Windows and ‘.so’
files on other platforms.  The directory with the platform-independent
Python modules is called ‘prefix’.  The directory with the extension
modules is called ‘exec_prefix’.

The *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable may be used to set the
‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ locations.  Otherwise these directories are
found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then
looking for various ‘landmark’ files and directories.  Note that any
symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is
used as the search starting point.  The Python executable location is
called ‘home’.

Once ‘home’ is determined, the ‘prefix’ directory is found by first
looking for ‘python`majorversion'`minorversion'.zip’ (‘python311.zip’).
On Windows the zip archive is searched for in ‘home’ and on Unix the
archive is expected to be in ‘lib’.  Note that the expected zip archive
location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not
exist.  If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the
search for ‘prefix’ by looking for ‘Lib\os.py’.  Python on Unix will
look for ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/os.py’
(‘lib/python3.11/os.py’).  On Windows ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are the
same, however on other platforms
‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/lib-dynload’
(‘lib/python3.11/lib-dynload’) is searched for and used as an anchor for
‘exec_prefix’.  On some platforms ‘lib’ may be ‘lib64’ or another value,
see *note sys.platlibdir: 936. and *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1947.

Once found, ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are available at *note
sys.prefix: 3b0. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ac. respectively.

Finally, the *note site: c7. module is processed and ‘site-packages’
directories are added to the module search path.  A common way to
customize the search path is to create *note sitecustomize: c8. or *note
usercustomize: 10e. modules as described in the *note site: c7. module
documentation.

     참고: Certain command line options may further affect path
     calculations.  See *note -E: 95a, *note -I: 95b, *note -s: 1374.
     and *note -S: 1198. for further details.

* Menu:

* Virtual environments::
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::


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5.31.9.1 Virtual environments
.............................

If Python is run in a virtual environment (as described at *note 가상
환경 및 패키지: 1d06.) then ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are specific to
the virtual environment.

If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable, or in the
directory one level above the executable, the following variations
apply:

   * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. is not
     set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable
     when deducing ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’.


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5.31.9.2 _pth files
...................

To completely override *note sys.path: 3ae. create a ‘._pth’ file with
the same name as the shared library or executable (‘python._pth’ or
‘python311._pth’).  The shared library path is always known on Windows,
however it may not be available on other platforms.  In the ‘._pth’ file
specify one line for each path to add to *note sys.path: 3ae.  The file
based on the shared library name overrides the one based on the
executable, which allows paths to be restricted for any program loading
the runtime if desired.

When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are
ignored, isolated mode is enabled, and *note site: c7. is not imported
unless one line in the file specifies ‘import site’.  Blank paths and
lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  Each path may be absolute or
relative to the location of the file.  Import statements other than to
‘site’ are not permitted, and arbitrary code cannot be specified.

Note that ‘.pth’ files (without leading underscore) will be processed
normally by the *note site: c7. module when ‘import site’ has been
specified.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedded Python,  Prev: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.3 Embedded Python
........................

If Python is embedded within another application *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. and the *note PyConfig: 3a0. structure
can be used to initialize Python.  The path specific details are
described at *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa.

더 보기
.......

   * *note 모듈 찾기: c1e. for detailed Windows notes.

   * *note 유닉스 플랫폼에서 파이썬 사용하기: 1d60. for Unix details.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 언어 서비스,  Next: MS 윈도우 특정 서비스,  Prev: 모듈 임포트 하기,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.32 파이썬 언어 서비스
=======================

파이썬은 파이썬 언어로 작업하는 데 도움이 되는 여러 모듈을 제공합니다.  이
모듈들은 토큰화, 구문 분석, 문법 분석, 바이트 코드 역 어셈블리 및 기타 다
양한 기능을 지원합니다.

이 모듈들은 다음과 같습니다:

* Menu:

* ast — Abstract Syntax Trees::
* symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스::
* token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수::
* keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사::
* tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저::
* tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지::
* pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원::
* py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일::
* compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기::
* dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode::
* pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구::


File: python.info,  Node: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees,  Next: symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.1 ‘ast’ — Abstract Syntax Trees
------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/ast.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ast: 8. 모듈은 파이썬 응용 프로그램이 파이썬 추상 구문 문법의 트리
를 처리하는 데 도움을 줍니다.  추상 구문 자체는 각 파이썬 릴리스마다 바
뀔 수 있습니다; 이 모듈은 프로그래밍 방식으로 현재 문법의 모양을 찾는 데
도움이 됩니다.

*note ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST: 459c.를 플래그로 *note compile(): 192. 내장 함
수에 전달하거나, 이 모듈에서 제공된 *note parse(): 1a8. 도우미를 사용하
여 추상 구문 트리를 생성할 수 있습니다.  결과는 클래스가 모두 *note
ast.AST: 1a6.에서 상속되는 객체들의 트리가 됩니다.  내장 *note
compile(): 192. 함수를 사용하여 추상 구문 트리를 파이썬 코드 객체로 컴파
일할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 추상 문법::
* 노드 클래스::
* ast 도우미::
* 컴파일러 플래그::
* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ast.py


File: python.info,  Node: 추상 문법,  Next: 노드 클래스,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.1 추상 문법
..................

추상 문법은 현재 다음과 같이 정의됩니다:

     -- ASDL's 4 builtin types are:
     -- identifier, int, string, constant

     module Python
     {
         mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores)
             | Interactive(stmt* body)
             | Expression(expr body)
             | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns)

         stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                            stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                            string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)
               | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                                  stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                                  string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)

               | ClassDef(identifier name,
                  expr* bases,
                  keyword* keywords,
                  stmt* body,
                  expr* decorator_list,
                  type_param* type_params)
               | Return(expr? value)

               | Delete(expr* targets)
               | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment)
               | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value)
               | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
               -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
               | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)

               -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages
               | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)

               | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases)

               | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
               | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)

               | Import(alias* names)
               | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level)

               | Global(identifier* names)
               | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
               | Expr(expr value)
               | Pass | Break | Continue

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

               -- BoolOp() can use left & right?
         expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
              | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value)
              | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
              | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
              | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
              | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
              | Dict(expr* keys, expr* values)
              | Set(expr* elts)
              | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators)
              | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
              | Await(expr value)
              | Yield(expr? value)
              | YieldFrom(expr value)
              -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
              -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3
              | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
              | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
              | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
              | JoinedStr(expr* values)
              | Constant(constant value, string? kind)

              -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
              | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
              | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx)
              | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
              | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
              | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
              | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)

              -- can appear only in Subscript
              | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         expr_context = Load | Store | Del

         boolop = And | Or

         operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
                      | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv

         unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub

         cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn

         comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)

         excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
                         attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs,
                      expr* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)

         arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment)
                attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
         keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- import name with optional 'as' alias.
         alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)

         match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body)

         pattern = MatchValue(expr value)
                 | MatchSingleton(constant value)
                 | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns)
                 | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest)
                 | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns)

                 | MatchStar(identifier? name)
                 -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys

                 | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name)
                 | MatchOr(pattern* patterns)

                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

         type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag)

         type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound, expr? default_value)
                    | ParamSpec(identifier name, expr? default_value)
                    | TypeVarTuple(identifier name, expr? default_value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 노드 클래스,  Next: ast 도우미,  Prev: 추상 문법,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.2 노드 클래스
....................

 -- 클래스: ast.AST

     This is the base of all AST node classes.  The actual node classes
     are derived from the ‘Parser/Python.asdl’ file, which is reproduced
     *note above: 459d.  They are defined in the ‘_ast’ C module and
     re-exported in *note ast: 8.

     추상 문법의 각 좌변 심볼마다 하나의 클래스가 정의되어 있습니다 (예
     를 들어, ‘ast.stmt’나 ‘ast.expr’).  또한, 우변의 생성자마다 하나의
     클래스가 정의되어 있습니다; 이 클래스는 좌변 트리의 클래스에서 상속
     됩니다.  예를 들어, *note ast.BinOp: 19d4.는 ‘ast.expr’에서 상속됩
     니다.  대안을 갖는 생성 규칙(일명 “합”)의 경우, 좌변 클래스는 추상
     입니다: 특정 생성자 노드의 인스턴스만 만들어집니다.

      -- 속성: _fields

          Each concrete class has an attribute ‘_fields’ which gives the
          names of all child nodes.

          구상 클래스의 각 인스턴스에는 각 자식 노드마다 문법에 정의된 형
          의 어트리뷰트가 하나씩 있습니다.  예를 들어, *note ast.BinOp:
          19d4. 인스턴스는 ‘ast.expr’ 형의 어트리뷰트 ‘left’를 갖습니다.

          문법에서 이러한 어트리뷰트가 선택적으로 표시되면 (물음표를 사
          용해서), 값은 ‘None’일 수 있습니다.  어트리뷰트가 0개 이상의 값
          을 가질 수 있으면 (애스터리스크로 표시됩니다), 값은 파이썬 리
          스트로 표현됩니다.  *note compile(): 192.로 AST를 컴파일할 때
          가능한 모든 어트리뷰트가 존재하고 유효한 값을 가져야 합니다.

      -- 속성: _field_types

          The ‘_field_types’ attribute on each concrete class is a
          dictionary mapping field names (as also listed in *note
          _fields: 15ac.) to their types.

               >>> ast.TypeVar._field_types
               {'name': <class 'str'>, 'bound': ast.expr | None, 'default_value': ast.expr | None}

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- 속성: lineno
      -- 속성: col_offset
      -- 속성: end_lineno
      -- 속성: end_col_offset

          Instances of ‘ast.expr’ and ‘ast.stmt’ subclasses have *note
          lineno: 45a0, *note col_offset: 45a1, *note end_lineno: 45a2,
          and *note end_col_offset: 45a3. attributes.  The *note lineno:
          45a0. and *note end_lineno: 45a2. are the first and last line
          numbers of source text span (1-indexed so the first line is
          line 1) and the *note col_offset: 45a1. and *note
          end_col_offset: 45a3. are the corresponding UTF-8 byte offsets
          of the first and last tokens that generated the node.  The
          UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses UTF-8
          internally.

          종료 위치는 컴파일러에 필요하지 않아서 선택 사항입니다.  종료
          오프셋은 마지막 심볼 '뒤'입니다.  예를 들어
          ‘source_line[node.col_offset : node.end_col_offset]’를 사용하
          여 한 줄 표현식 노드의 소스 세그먼트를 가져올 수 있습니다.

     ‘ast.T’ 클래스의 생성자는 다음과 같이 인자를 구문 분석합니다:

        * 위치 인자가 있으면, ‘T._fields’에 있는 항목 수만큼 있어야 합니
          다; 이러한 이름의 어트리뷰트로 대입될 것입니다.

        * 키워드 인자가 있으면, 같은 이름의 어트리뷰트를 지정된 값으로 설
          정합니다.

     예를 들어, *note ast.UnaryOp: 45a4. 노드를 만들고 채우려면, 다음과
     같이 할 수 있습니다

          node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
                             lineno=0, col_offset=0)

     If a field that is optional in the grammar is omitted from the
     constructor, it defaults to ‘None’.  If a list field is omitted, it
     defaults to the empty list.  If a field of type ‘ast.expr_context’
     is omitted, it defaults to *note Load(): 1a4.  If any other field
     is omitted, a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is raised and the AST
     node will not have this field.  In Python 3.15, this condition will
     raise an error.

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note ast.Constant: 2b9. 클래스는 이제 모든 상수에 사
용됩니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: 단순 인덱스는 값으로 표현되고, 확장 슬라이스는 튜플로
표현됩니다.

버전 3.8부터 폐지됨: Old classes ‘ast.Num’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.Bytes’,
‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’ are still available, but they will
be removed in future Python releases.  In the meantime, instantiating
them will return an instance of a different class.

버전 3.9부터 폐지됨: Old classes ‘ast.Index’ and ‘ast.ExtSlice’ are
still available, but they will be removed in future Python releases.  In
the meantime, instantiating them will return an instance of a different
class.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Previous
versions of Python allowed the creation of AST nodes that were missing
required fields.  Similarly, AST node constructors allowed arbitrary
keyword arguments that were set as attributes of the AST node, even if
they did not match any of the fields of the AST node.  This behavior is
deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.15.

     참고: 여기에 표시된 특정 노드 클래스에 대한 설명은 처음에는 환상적
     인 Green Tree Snakes(1) 프로젝트와 모든 기여자로부터 차용했습니다.

* Menu:

* Root nodes::
* 리터럴: 리터럴<2>.
* 변수::
* 표현식: 표현식<2>.
* 문장::
* 제어 흐름::
* Pattern matching::
* Type annotations::
* Type parameters::
* 함수와 클래스 정의::
* Async와 await::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Root nodes,  Next: 리터럴<2>,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.3 Root nodes
...................

 -- 클래스: ast.Module (body, type_ignores)

     A Python module, as with *note file input: 2146.  Node type
     generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. in the default ‘"exec"’
     'mode'.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 60b. of the module’s *note 문장: 45a8.

     ‘type_ignores’ is a *note list: 60b. of the module’s type ignore
     comments; see *note ast.parse(): 1a8. for more details.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Expression (body)

     A single Python *note expression input: 214c.  Node type generated
     by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. when 'mode' is ‘"eval"’.

     ‘body’ is a single node, one of the *note expression types: 45aa.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- 클래스: ast.Interactive (body)

     A single *note interactive input: 2149, like in *note 대화형 모드:
     16f.  Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. when 'mode' is
     ‘"single"’.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 60b. of *note statement nodes: 45a8.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4))
          Interactive(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1)),
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- 클래스: ast.FunctionType (argtypes, returns)

     A representation of an old-style type comments for functions, as
     Python versions prior to 3.5 didn’t support PEP 484(1) annotations.
     Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. when 'mode' is
     ‘"func_type"’.

     Such type comments would look like this:

          def sum_two_number(a, b):
              # type: (int, int) -> int
              return a + b

     ‘argtypes’ is a *note list: 60b. of *note expression nodes: 45aa.

     ‘returns’ is a single *note expression node: 45aa.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4))
          FunctionType(
              argtypes=[
                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
              returns=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='List', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 리터럴<2>,  Next: 변수,  Prev: Root nodes,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.4 리터럴
...............

 -- 클래스: ast.Constant (value)

     A constant value.  The ‘value’ attribute of the ‘Constant’ literal
     contains the Python object it represents.  The values represented
     can be instances of *note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2, *note int:
     257, *note float: 2ef, *note complex: 2f0, and *note bool: 461, and
     the constants *note None: 66f. and *note Ellipsis: 218d.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- 클래스: ast.FormattedValue (value, conversion, format_spec)

     f-문자열에서 단일 포매팅 필드를 나타내는 노드.  문자열에 단일 포매
     팅 필드가 포함되어 있고 다른 것이 없으면 노드를 분리 할 수 있습니다
     , 그렇지 않으면 *note JoinedStr: 16f1.에 나타납니다.

        * ‘value’는 모든 표현식 노드(가령 리터럴, 변수 또는 함수 호출)입
          니다.

        * ‘conversion’은 정수입니다:

             * -1: 포매팅 없음

             * 115: ‘!s’ 문자열 포매팅

             * 114: ‘!r’ repr 포매팅

             * 97: ‘!a’ ascii 포매팅

        * ‘format_spec’은 값의 포매팅을 나타내는 *note JoinedStr: 16f1.
          노드이거나, 표맷이 지정되지 않았으면 ‘None’입니다.
          ‘conversion’과 ‘format_spec’을 동시에 설정할 수 있습니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.JoinedStr (values)

     일련의 *note FormattedValue: 45ae.와 *note Constant: 2b9. 노드로 구
     성된 f-문자열.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=JoinedStr(
                  values=[
                      Constant(value='sin('),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          conversion=-1),
                      Constant(value=') is '),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Call(
                              func=Name(id='sin', ctx=Load()),
                              args=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Load())]),
                          conversion=-1,
                          format_spec=JoinedStr(
                              values=[
                                  Constant(value='.3')]))]))

 -- 클래스: ast.List (elts, ctx)
 -- 클래스: ast.Tuple (elts, ctx)

     리스트나 튜플.  ‘elts’는 요소를 나타내는 노드의 리스트를 보유합니다
     .  ‘ctx’는 컨테이너가 대입 대상이면 (가령 ‘(x,y)=something’) *note
     Store: 45b1.이고, 그렇지 않으면 *note Load: 1a4.입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=List(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Tuple(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- 클래스: ast.Set (elts)

     집합.  ‘elts’는 집합의 요소를 나타내는 노드의 리스트를 보유합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Set(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))

 -- 클래스: ast.Dict (keys, values)

     딕셔너리.  ‘keys’와 ‘values’는 각각 키와 값을 나타내는 노드의 리스
     트를 일치하는 순서대로 (‘dictionary.keys()’와
     ‘dictionary.values()’를 호출할 때 반환되는 순서) 보유합니다.

     딕셔너리 리터럴을 사용하여 딕셔너리 언 패킹을 수행할 때 확장될 표현
     식은 ‘values’ 리스트로 가고, ‘keys’의 해당 위치에는 ‘None’이 갑니다
     .

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Dict(
                  keys=[
                      Constant(value='a'),
                      None],
                  values=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))


File: python.info,  Node: 변수,  Next: 표현식<2>,  Prev: 리터럴<2>,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.5 변수
.............

 -- 클래스: ast.Name (id, ctx)

     변수 이름.  ‘id’는 이름을 문자열로 보유하며, ‘ctx’는 다음 형 중 하
     나입니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.Load
 -- 클래스: ast.Store
 -- 클래스: ast.Del

     변수 참조는 변숫값을 로드하거나, 그것에 새 값을 대입하거나, 그것을
     삭제하는데 사용될 수 있습니다.  변수 참조에는 이러한 경우를 구별하
     기 위한 컨텍스트가 제공됩니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])])

 -- 클래스: ast.Starred (value, ctx)

     ‘*var’ 변수 참조.  ‘value’는 변수(일반적으로 *note Name: 1946. 노드
     )를 보유합니다.  이 형은 ‘*args’로 *note Call: 45b6. 노드를 빌드할
     때 사용해야 합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()),
                                      ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()))])


File: python.info,  Node: 표현식<2>,  Next: 문장,  Prev: 변수,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.6 표현식
...............

 -- 클래스: ast.Expr (value)

     표현식(가령 함수 호출)이 반환 값이 사용되거나 저장되지 않은 자신만
     의 문장으로 나타나면, 이 컨테이너에 래핑 됩니다.  ‘value’는 이 섹션
     의 다른 노드인 *note Constant: 2b9, *note Name: 1946, *note Lambda:
     45b9, *note Yield: 45ba. 또는 *note YieldFrom: 45bb. 노드 중 하나를
     보유합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=UnaryOp(
                          op=USub(),
                          operand=Name(id='a', ctx=Load())))])

 -- 클래스: ast.UnaryOp (op, operand)

     단항 연산.  ‘op’는 연산자이고, ‘operand’는 임의의 표현식 노드입니다
     .

 -- 클래스: ast.UAdd
 -- 클래스: ast.USub
 -- 클래스: ast.Not
 -- 클래스: ast.Invert

     단항 연산자 토큰.  *note Not: 45be.은 ‘not’ 키워드이고, *note
     Invert: 45bf.는 ‘~’ 연산자입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=UnaryOp(
                  op=Not(),
                  operand=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))

 -- 클래스: ast.BinOp (left, op, right)

     이항 연산 (더하기나 나누기 같은).  ‘op’는 연산자이고, ‘left’와
     ‘right’는 임의의 표현식 노드입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BinOp(
                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='y', ctx=Load())))

 -- 클래스: ast.Add
 -- 클래스: ast.Sub
 -- 클래스: ast.Mult
 -- 클래스: ast.Div
 -- 클래스: ast.FloorDiv
 -- 클래스: ast.Mod
 -- 클래스: ast.Pow
 -- 클래스: ast.LShift
 -- 클래스: ast.RShift
 -- 클래스: ast.BitOr
 -- 클래스: ast.BitXor
 -- 클래스: ast.BitAnd
 -- 클래스: ast.MatMult

     이항 연산자 토큰.

 -- 클래스: ast.BoolOp (op, values)

     불리언 연산, ‘or’ 나 ‘and’.  ‘op’는 *note Or: 45ce.나 *note And:
     45cf.입니다.  ‘values’는 관련된 값입니다.  같은 연산자를 사용하는 연
     속 연산(가령 ‘a or b or c’)은 여러 값을 가진 하나의 노드로 축소됩니
     다.

     여기에는 *note UnaryOp: 45a4.인 ‘not’이 포함되지 않습니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BoolOp(
                  op=Or(),
                  values=[
                      Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      Name(id='y', ctx=Load())]))

 -- 클래스: ast.And
 -- 클래스: ast.Or

     불리언 연산자 토큰.

 -- 클래스: ast.Compare (left, ops, comparators)

     둘 이상의 값의 비교.  ‘left’는 비교의 첫 번째 값이고, ‘ops’는 연산
     자의 리스트이며, ‘comparators’는 비교의 첫 번째 요소 다음의 값 리스
     트입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Compare(
                  left=Constant(value=1),
                  ops=[
                      LtE(),
                      Lt()],
                  comparators=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Constant(value=10)]))

 -- 클래스: ast.Eq
 -- 클래스: ast.NotEq
 -- 클래스: ast.Lt
 -- 클래스: ast.LtE
 -- 클래스: ast.Gt
 -- 클래스: ast.GtE
 -- 클래스: ast.Is
 -- 클래스: ast.IsNot
 -- 클래스: ast.In
 -- 클래스: ast.NotIn

     비교 연산자 토큰.

 -- 클래스: ast.Call (func, args, keywords)

     함수 호출.  ‘func’는 함수이며, 종종 *note Name: 1946.이나 *note
     Attribute: 45db. 객체입니다.  인자 중:

        * ‘args’는 위치로 전달된 인자의 리스트를 보유합니다.

        * ‘keywords’ holds a list of *note keyword: 45dc. objects
          representing arguments passed by keyword.

     The ‘args’ and ‘keywords’ arguments are optional and default to
     empty lists.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='func', ctx=Load()),
                  args=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Starred(
                          value=Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load())],
                  keywords=[
                      keyword(
                          arg='b',
                          value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())),
                      keyword(
                          value=Name(id='e', ctx=Load()))]))

 -- 클래스: ast.keyword (arg, value)

     함수 호출이나 클래스 정의에 대한 키워드 인자.  ‘arg’는 매개 변수 이
     름의 원시 문자열이고, ‘value’는 전달할 노드입니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.IfExp (test, body, orelse)

     ‘a if b else c’와 같은 표현식.  각 필드는 단일 노드를 보유해서, 다
     음 예에서, 세 개 모두 *note Name: 1946. 노드입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=IfExp(
                  test=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                  body=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                  orelse=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())))

 -- 클래스: ast.Attribute (value, attr, ctx)

     어트리뷰트 액세스, 예를 들어 ‘d.keys’.  ‘value’는 노드(보통 *note
     Name: 1946.)입니다.  ‘attr’은 어트리뷰트의 이름을 제공하는 문자열이
     며, ‘ctx’는 어트리뷰트에 적용되는 방식에 따라 *note Load: 1a4,
     *note Store: 45b1. 또는 *note Del: 45b4.입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Attribute(
                  value=Name(id='snake', ctx=Load()),
                  attr='colour',
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- 클래스: ast.NamedExpr (target, value)

     명명된 표현식.  이 AST 노드는 대입 표현식 연산자(바다코끼리(walrus)
     연산자라고도 합니다)에 의해 생성됩니다.  첫 번째 인자가 여러 노드일
     수 있는 *note Assign: 45df. 노드와 달리, 이 경우에는 ‘target’과
     ‘value’는 모두 단일 노드여야 합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=NamedExpr(
                  target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                  value=Constant(value=4)))

     Added in version 3.8.

* Menu:

* 서브스크립팅::
* 컴프리헨션::


File: python.info,  Node: 서브스크립팅,  Next: 컴프리헨션,  Up: 표현식<2>

5.32.1.7 서브스크립팅
.....................

 -- 클래스: ast.Subscript (value, slice, ctx)

     서브스크립트, 가령 ‘l[1]’.  ‘value’는 서브스크립트되는 객체입니다
     (보통 시퀀스나 매핑).  ‘slice’는 인덱스, 슬라이스 또는 키입니다.
     *note Tuple: 45b0.일 수 있으며 *note Slice: 45e2.를 포함합니다.
     ‘ctx’는 서브스크립트로 수행되는 동작에 따라 *note Load: 1a4, *note
     Store: 45b1. 또는 *note Del: 45b4.입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Tuple(
                      elts=[
                          Slice(
                              lower=Constant(value=1),
                              upper=Constant(value=2)),
                          Constant(value=3)],
                      ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- 클래스: ast.Slice (lower, upper, step)

     일반 슬라이싱 (‘lower:upper’나 ‘lower:upper:step’ 형식).  *note
     Subscript: 45e1.의 'slice' 필드 내에서만 직접 또는 *note Tuple:
     45b0.의 요소로 등장할 수 있습니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Slice(
                      lower=Constant(value=1),
                      upper=Constant(value=2)),
                  ctx=Load()))


File: python.info,  Node: 컴프리헨션,  Prev: 서브스크립팅,  Up: 표현식<2>

5.32.1.8 컴프리헨션
...................

 -- 클래스: ast.ListComp (elt, generators)
 -- 클래스: ast.SetComp (elt, generators)
 -- 클래스: ast.GeneratorExp (elt, generators)
 -- 클래스: ast.DictComp (key, value, generators)

     리스트와 집합 컴프리헨션, 제너레이터 표현식 및 딕셔너리 컴프리헨션.
     ‘elt’(또는 ‘key’와 ‘value’)는 항목마다 평가될 부분을 나타내는 단일
     노드입니다.

     ‘generators’는 *note comprehension: 45e8. 노드의 리스트입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=DictComp(
                  key=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  value=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=SetComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))

 -- 클래스: ast.comprehension (target, iter, ifs, is_async)

     컴프리헨션에서 하나의 ‘for’ 절.  ‘target’은 각 요소(보통 *note
     Name: 1946.이나 *note Tuple: 45b0. 노드)에 사용할 참조입니다.
     ‘iter’는 이터레이트 할 객체입니다.  ‘ifs’는 테스트 표현식의 리스트
     입니다: 각 ‘for’ 절은 여러 ‘ifs’를 가질 수 있습니다.

     ‘is_async’는 컴프리헨션이 비동기임을 나타냅니다 (‘for’ 대신 ‘async
     for’를 사용합니다).  값은 정수(0이나 1)입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one.
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Call(
                      func=Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()),
                      args=[
                          Name(id='c', ctx=Load())]),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='file', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0),
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='line', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # generator comprehension
          Expression(
              body=GeneratorExp(
                  elt=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Lt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=10)])],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Async comprehension
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='soc', ctx=Load()),
                          is_async=1)]))


File: python.info,  Node: 문장,  Next: 제어 흐름,  Prev: 표현식<2>,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.9 문장
.............

 -- 클래스: ast.Assign (targets, value, type_comment)

     대입.  ‘targets’는 노드의 리스트이고, ‘value’는 단일 노드입니다.

     ‘targets’의 여러 노드는 각각 같은 값을 할당하는 것을 나타냅니다.  언
     패킹은 ‘targets’ 내에 *note Tuple: 45b0.이나 *note List: 45af.를 넣
     어 표현됩니다.

      -- 속성: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’는 형 어노테이션이 주석으로 포함된 선택적 문자열
          입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                          Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))])

 -- 클래스: ast.AnnAssign (target, annotation, value, simple)

     An assignment with a type annotation.  ‘target’ is a single node
     and can be a *note Name: 1946, an *note Attribute: 45db. or a *note
     Subscript: 45e1.  ‘annotation’ is the annotation, such as a *note
     Constant: 2b9. or *note Name: 1946. node.  ‘value’ is a single
     optional node.

     ‘simple’ is always either 0 (indicating a “complex” target) or 1
     (indicating a “simple” target).  A “simple” target consists solely
     of a *note Name: 1946. node that does not appear between
     parentheses; all other targets are considered complex.  Only simple
     targets appear in the ‘__annotations__’ dictionary of modules and
     classes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=1)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=0)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Attribute(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          attr='b',
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Constant(value=1),
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)])

 -- 클래스: ast.AugAssign (target, op, value)

     증분 대입, 가령 ‘a += 1’.  다음 예에서, ‘target’은 ‘x’(*note Store:
     45b1. 컨텍스트로)를 위한 *note Name: 1946. 노드이고, ‘op’는 *note
     Add: 45c0.이며, ‘value’는 값이 1인 *note Constant: 2b9.입니다.

     The ‘target’ attribute cannot be of class *note Tuple: 45b0. or
     *note List: 45af, unlike the targets of *note Assign: 45df.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AugAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      op=Add(),
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Raise (exc, cause)

     ‘raise’ 문.  ‘exc’는 발생시킬 예외 객체로 일반적으로 *note Call:
     45b6.이나 *note Name: 1946.이거나, 독립 ‘raise’의 경우 ‘None’입니다
     .  ‘cause’는 ‘raise x from y’에서 ‘y’에 해당하는 선택적 부분입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Raise(
                      exc=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cause=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Assert (test, msg)

     어서션.  ‘test’는 (*note Compare: 45d0. 노드와 같은) 조건을 보유합
     니다.  ‘msg’는 실패 메시지를 보유합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assert(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      msg=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Delete (targets)

     ‘del’ 문을 나타냅니다.  ‘targets’는 *note Name: 1946, *note
     Attribute: 45db. 또는 *note Subscript: 45e1. 같은 노드들의 리스트입
     니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])])

 -- 클래스: ast.Pass

     ‘pass’ 문.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Pass()])

 -- 클래스: ast.TypeAlias (name, type_params, value)

     A *note type alias: 44d. created through the *note type: 431.
     statement.  ‘name’ is the name of the alias, ‘type_params’ is a
     list of *note type parameters: 45f1, and ‘value’ is the value of
     the type alias.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      value=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))])

     Added in version 3.12.

함수나 루프 내부에만 적용할 수 있는 다른 문장들은 다른 섹션에 설명되어 있
습니다.

* Menu:

* 임포트::


File: python.info,  Node: 임포트,  Up: 문장

5.32.1.10 임포트
................

 -- 클래스: ast.Import (names)

     import 문.  ‘names’는 *note alias: 18c5. 노드의 리스트입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Import(
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')])])

 -- 클래스: ast.ImportFrom (module, names, level)

     ‘from x import y’를 나타냅니다.  ‘module’은 선행 점이 없는 ‘from’ 이
     름의 원시 문자열이며, ‘from . import foo’와 같은 문장의 경우
     ‘None’입니다.  ‘level’은 상대 임포트 수준을 보유하는 정수입니다 (0은
     절대 임포트를 의미합니다).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='y',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')],
                      level=0)])

 -- 클래스: ast.alias (name, asname)

     두 매개 변수 모두 이름의 원시 문자열입니다.  정규 이름을 사용하면
     ‘asname’은 ‘None’이 될 수 있습니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='foo.bar',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='a', asname='b'),
                          alias(name='c')],
                      level=2)])


File: python.info,  Node: 제어 흐름,  Next: Pattern matching,  Prev: 문장,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.11 제어 흐름
...................

     참고: ‘else’와 같은 선택적 절은 존재하지 않으면 빈 목록으로 저장됩
     니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.If (test, body, orelse)

     ‘if’ 문.  ‘test’는 (*note Compare: 45d0. 노드와 같은) 단일 노드를 보
     유합니다.  ‘body’와 ‘orelse’는 각각 노드 리스트를 보유합니다.

     ‘elif’ 절은 AST에서 특별한 표현이 없지만, 앞의 ‘orelse’ 섹션 안에서
     추가 *note If: 45f6. 노드로 나타납니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... if x:
          ...    ...
          ... elif y:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  If(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          If(
                              test=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                              orelse=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

 -- 클래스: ast.For (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

     A ‘for’ loop.  ‘target’ holds the variable(s) the loop assigns to,
     as a single *note Name: 1946, *note Tuple: 45b0, *note List: 45af,
     *note Attribute: 45db. or *note Subscript: 45e1. node.  ‘iter’
     holds the item to be looped over, again as a single node.  ‘body’
     and ‘orelse’ contain lists of nodes to execute.  Those in ‘orelse’
     are executed if the loop finishes normally, rather than via a
     ‘break’ statement.

      -- 속성: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’는 형 어노테이션이 주석으로 포함된 선택적 문자열
          입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... for x in y:
          ...     ...
          ... else:
          ...     ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- 클래스: ast.While (test, body, orelse)

     ‘while’ 루프.  ‘test’는 (*note Compare: 45d0. 노드와 같은) 조건을 보
     유합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... while x:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  While(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- 클래스: ast.Break
 -- 클래스: ast.Continue

     ‘break’와 ‘continue’ 문.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... for a in b:
          ...     if a > 5:
          ...         break
          ...     else:
          ...         continue
          ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          If(
                              test=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              body=[
                                  Break()],
                              orelse=[
                                  Continue()])])])

 -- 클래스: ast.Try (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ 블록.  *note ExceptHandler: 45fd. 노드의 리스트인 ‘handlers’를
     제외한, 모든 어트리뷰트는 실행할 노드의 리스트입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... except OtherException as e:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... finally:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='OtherException', ctx=Load()),
                              name='e',
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      finalbody=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- 클래스: ast.TryStar (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ blocks which are followed by ‘except*’ clauses.  The
     attributes are the same as for *note Try: 45fc. but the *note
     ExceptHandler: 45fd. nodes in ‘handlers’ are interpreted as
     ‘except*’ blocks rather then ‘except’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except* Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TryStar(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 클래스: ast.ExceptHandler (type, name, body)

     단일 ‘except’ 절.  ‘type’은 일치할 예외 형이며, 일반적으로 *note
     Name: 1946. 노드(또는 모두 잡는 ‘except:’ 절의 경우는 ‘None’)입니다
     .  ‘name’은 예외를 담을 이름을 위한 원시 문자열이거나, 절에 ‘as
     foo’가 없으면 ‘None’입니다.  ‘body’는 노드의 리스트입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... try:
          ...     a + 1
          ... except TypeError:
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=BinOp(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  op=Add(),
                                  right=Constant(value=1)))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='TypeError', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Pass()])])])

 -- 클래스: ast.With (items, body, type_comment)

     ‘with’ 블록.  ‘items’는 컨텍스트 관리자를 나타내는 *note withitem:
     4600. 노드의 리스트이며, ‘body’는 컨텍스트 내에서 들여쓰기 된 블록
     입니다.

      -- 속성: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’는 형 어노테이션이 주석으로 포함된 선택적 문자열
          입니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.withitem (context_expr, optional_vars)

     ‘with’ 블록의 단일 컨텍스트 관리자.  ‘context_expr’은 컨텍스트 관리
     자이며, 종종 *note Call: 45b6. 노드입니다.  ‘optional_vars’는 ‘as
     foo’ 부분의 경우 *note Name: 1946, *note Tuple: 45b0. 또는 *note
     List: 45af.이거나, 사용하지 않으면 ‘None’입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... with a as b, c as d:
          ...    something(b, d)
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  With(
                      items=[
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())),
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))],
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Call(
                                  func=Name(id='something', ctx=Load()),
                                  args=[
                                      Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))])])


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern matching,  Next: Type annotations,  Prev: 제어 흐름,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.12 Pattern matching
..........................

 -- 클래스: ast.Match (subject, cases)

     A ‘match’ statement.  ‘subject’ holds the subject of the match (the
     object that is being matched against the cases) and ‘cases’
     contains an iterable of *note match_case: 4604. nodes with the
     different cases.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.match_case (pattern, guard, body)

     A single case pattern in a ‘match’ statement.  ‘pattern’ contains
     the match pattern that the subject will be matched against.  Note
     that the *note AST: 1a6. nodes produced for patterns differ from
     those produced for expressions, even when they share the same
     syntax.

     The ‘guard’ attribute contains an expression that will be evaluated
     if the pattern matches the subject.

     ‘body’ contains a list of nodes to execute if the pattern matches
     and the result of evaluating the guard expression is true.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] if x>0:
          ...         ...
          ...     case tuple():
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(name='x')]),
                              guard=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=0)]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load())),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchValue (value)

     A match literal or value pattern that compares by equality.
     ‘value’ is an expression node.  Permitted value nodes are
     restricted as described in the match statement documentation.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is equal to the evaluated
     value.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case "Relevant":
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchValue(
                                  value=Constant(value='Relevant')),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchSingleton (value)

     A match literal pattern that compares by identity.  ‘value’ is the
     singleton to be compared against: ‘None’, ‘True’, or ‘False’.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is the given constant.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case None:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchSequence (patterns)

     A match sequence pattern.  ‘patterns’ contains the patterns to be
     matched against the subject elements if the subject is a sequence.
     Matches a variable length sequence if one of the subpatterns is a
     ‘MatchStar’ node, otherwise matches a fixed length sequence.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchStar (name)

     Matches the rest of the sequence in a variable length match
     sequence pattern.  If ‘name’ is not ‘None’, a list containing the
     remaining sequence elements is bound to that name if the overall
     sequence pattern is successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2, *rest]:
          ...         ...
          ...     case [*_]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2)),
                                      MatchStar(name='rest')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchStar()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchMapping (keys, patterns, rest)

     A match mapping pattern.  ‘keys’ is a sequence of expression nodes.
     ‘patterns’ is a corresponding sequence of pattern nodes.  ‘rest’ is
     an optional name that can be specified to capture the remaining
     mapping elements.  Permitted key expressions are restricted as
     described in the match statement documentation.

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is a mapping, all evaluated
     key expressions are present in the mapping, and the value
     corresponding to each key matches the corresponding subpattern.  If
     ‘rest’ is not ‘None’, a dict containing the remaining mapping
     elements is bound to that name if the overall mapping pattern is
     successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case {1: _, 2: _}:
          ...         ...
          ...     case {**rest}:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(
                                  keys=[
                                      Constant(value=1),
                                      Constant(value=2)],
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(),
                                      MatchAs()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(rest='rest'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchClass (cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns)

     A match class pattern.  ‘cls’ is an expression giving the nominal
     class to be matched.  ‘patterns’ is a sequence of pattern nodes to
     be matched against the class defined sequence of pattern matching
     attributes.  ‘kwd_attrs’ is a sequence of additional attributes to
     be matched (specified as keyword arguments in the class pattern),
     ‘kwd_patterns’ are the corresponding patterns (specified as keyword
     values in the class pattern).

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is an instance of the
     nominated class, all positional patterns match the corresponding
     class-defined attributes, and any specified keyword attributes
     match their corresponding pattern.

     Note: classes may define a property that returns self in order to
     match a pattern node against the instance being matched.  Several
     builtin types are also matched that way, as described in the match
     statement documentation.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case Point2D(0, 0):
          ...         ...
          ...     case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point2D', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point3D', ctx=Load()),
                                  kwd_attrs=[
                                      'x',
                                      'y',
                                      'z'],
                                  kwd_patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchAs (pattern, name)

     A match “as-pattern”, capture pattern or wildcard pattern.
     ‘pattern’ contains the match pattern that the subject will be
     matched against.  If the pattern is ‘None’, the node represents a
     capture pattern (i.e a bare name) and will always succeed.

     The ‘name’ attribute contains the name that will be bound if the
     pattern is successful.  If ‘name’ is ‘None’, ‘pattern’ must also be
     ‘None’ and the node represents the wildcard pattern.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] as y:
          ...         ...
          ...     case _:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(
                                  pattern=MatchSequence(
                                      patterns=[
                                          MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                  name='y'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- 클래스: ast.MatchOr (patterns)

     A match “or-pattern”.  An or-pattern matches each of its
     subpatterns in turn to the subject, until one succeeds.  The
     or-pattern is then deemed to succeed.  If none of the subpatterns
     succeed the or-pattern fails.  The ‘patterns’ attribute contains a
     list of match pattern nodes that will be matched against the
     subject.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] | (y):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchOr(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchSequence(
                                          patterns=[
                                              MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                      MatchAs(name='y')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Type annotations,  Next: Type parameters,  Prev: Pattern matching,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.13 Type annotations
..........................

 -- 클래스: ast.TypeIgnore (lineno, tag)

     A ‘# type: ignore’ comment located at 'lineno'.  'tag' is the
     optional tag specified by the form ‘# type: ignore <tag>’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1 # type: ignore', type_comments=True), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[
                  TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='')])
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x: bool = 1 # type: ignore[assignment]', type_comments=True), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=1)],
              type_ignores=[
                  TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='[assignment]')])

          참고: ‘TypeIgnore’ nodes are not generated when the
          'type_comments' parameter is set to ‘False’ (default).  See
          *note ast.parse(): 1a8. for more details.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameters,  Next: 함수와 클래스 정의,  Prev: Type annotations,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.14 Type parameters
.........................

*note Type parameters: 2b3. can exist on classes, functions, and type
aliases.

 -- 클래스: ast.TypeVar (name, bound, default_value)

     A *note typing.TypeVar: 15d.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable.  ‘bound’ is the bound or constraints, if any.  If ‘bound’
     is a *note Tuple: 45b0, it represents constraints; otherwise it
     represents the bound.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘TypeVar’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int = bool] = list[T]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVar(
                              name='T',
                              bound=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                              default_value=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='list', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Name(id='T', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))])

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'default_value' parameter.

 -- 클래스: ast.ParamSpec (name, default_value)

     A *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e.  ‘name’ is the name of the parameter
     specification.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = [int, str]] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          ParamSpec(
                              name='P',
                              default_value=List(
                                  elts=[
                                      Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                                      Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
                                  ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='Callable', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='P', ctx=Load()),
                                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))])

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'default_value' parameter.

 -- 클래스: ast.TypeVarTuple (name, default_value)

     A *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable tuple.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘TypeVarTuple’ has no default, this attribute will be set to
     ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts = ()] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVarTuple(
                              name='Ts',
                              default_value=Tuple(ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='Ts', ctx=Load()),
                                      ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))])

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'default_value' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수와 클래스 정의,  Next: Async와 await,  Prev: Type parameters,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.15 함수와 클래스 정의
............................

 -- 클래스: ast.FunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns,
          type_comment, type_params)

     함수 정의.

        * ‘name’은 함수 이름의 원시 문자열입니다.

        * ‘args’ is an *note arguments: 4613. node.

        * ‘body’는 함수 내부의 노드 리스트입니다.

        * ‘decorator_list’는 적용할 데코레이터 리스트이며, 가장 바깥쪽에
          먼저 저장됩니다 (즉, 리스트의 첫 번째가 마지막에 적용됩니다).

        * ‘returns’는 반환 어노테이션입니다.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 45f1.

      -- 속성: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’는 형 어노테이션이 주석으로 포함된 선택적 문자열
          입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- 클래스: ast.Lambda (args, body)

     ‘lambda’는 표현식 내에서 사용할 수 있는 최소 함수 정의입니다.
     *note FunctionDef: 170e.와 달리, ‘body’는 단일 노드를 보유합니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Lambda(
                          args=arguments(
                              args=[
                                  arg(arg='x'),
                                  arg(arg='y')]),
                          body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))])

 -- 클래스: ast.arguments (posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs,
          kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults)

     함수의 인자.

        * ‘posonlyargs’, ‘args’ 및 ‘kwonlyargs’는 *note arg: 4615. 노드
          의 리스트입니다.

        * ‘vararg’와 ‘kwarg’는 ‘*args, **kwargs’ 매개 변수를 참조하는 단
          일 *note arg: 4615. 노드입니다.

        * ‘kw_defaults’는 키워드 전용 인자의 기본값 리스트입니다.  어떤
          것이 ‘None’이면, 해당 인자는 필수입니다.

        * ‘defaults’는 위치적으로 전달될 수 있는 인자의 기본값 리스트입
          니다.  기본값 수가 더 적으면, 마지막 n개의 인자에 해당합니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.arg (arg, annotation, type_comment)

     A single argument in a list.  ‘arg’ is a raw string of the argument
     name; ‘annotation’ is its annotation, such as a *note Name: 1946.
     node.

      -- 속성: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’는 주석으로 제공된 형 어노테이션이 있는 선택적 문
          자열입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation':
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  FunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          args=[
                              arg(
                                  arg='a',
                                  annotation=Constant(value='annotation')),
                              arg(arg='b'),
                              arg(arg='c')],
                          vararg=arg(arg='d'),
                          kwonlyargs=[
                              arg(arg='e'),
                              arg(arg='f')],
                          kw_defaults=[
                              None,
                              Constant(value=3)],
                          kwarg=arg(arg='g'),
                          defaults=[
                              Constant(value=1),
                              Constant(value=2)]),
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
                      returns=Constant(value='return annotation'))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Return (value)

     ‘return’ 문.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Return(
                      value=Constant(value=4))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Yield (value)
 -- 클래스: ast.YieldFrom (value)

     A ‘yield’ or ‘yield from’ expression.  Because these are
     expressions, they must be wrapped in an *note Expr: 45b8. node if
     the value sent back is not used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Yield(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=YieldFrom(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))])

 -- 클래스: ast.Global (names)
 -- 클래스: ast.Nonlocal (names)

     ‘global’과 ‘nonlocal’ 문.  ‘names’는 원시 문자열 리스트입니다.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Global(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Nonlocal(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])])

 -- 클래스: ast.ClassDef (name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list,
          type_params)

     클래스 정의.

        * ‘name’은 클래스 이름의 원시 문자열입니다.

        * ‘bases’는 명시적으로 지정된 베이스 클래스의 노드 리스트입니다.

        * ‘keywords’ is a list of *note keyword: 45dc. nodes,
          principally for ‘metaclass’.  Other keywords will be passed to
          the metaclass, as per PEP 3115(1).

        * ‘body’는 클래스 정의 내에서 코드를 나타내는 노드 리스트입니다.

        * ‘decorator_list’는 *note FunctionDef: 170e.에서와 같이 노드 리
          스트입니다.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 45f1.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta):
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ClassDef(
                      name='Foo',
                      bases=[
                          Name(id='base1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='base2', ctx=Load())],
                      keywords=[
                          keyword(
                              arg='metaclass',
                              value=Name(id='meta', ctx=Load()))],
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())])])

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added ‘type_params’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Async와 await,  Prev: 함수와 클래스 정의,  Up: 노드 클래스

5.32.1.16 Async와 await
.......................

 -- 클래스: ast.AsyncFunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list,
          returns, type_comment, type_params)

     ‘async def’ 함수 정의.  *note FunctionDef: 170e.와 같은 필드를 갖습
     니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- 클래스: ast.Await (value)

     ‘await’ 표현식.  ‘value’는 기다릴 대상입니다.  *note
     AsyncFunctionDef: 170d.의 본문에서만 유효합니다.

     >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
     ... async def f():
     ...     await other_func()
     ... """), indent=4))
     Module(
         body=[
             AsyncFunctionDef(
                 name='f',
                 args=arguments(),
                 body=[
                     Expr(
                         value=Await(
                             value=Call(
                                 func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()))))])])

 -- 클래스: ast.AsyncFor (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)
 -- 클래스: ast.AsyncWith (items, body, type_comment)

     ‘async for’ 루프와 ‘async with’ 컨텍스트 관리자.  이들은 각각 *note
     For: 45f7.와 *note With: 45ff.와 같은 필드를 갖습니다.  *note
     AsyncFunctionDef: 170d.의 본문에서만 유효합니다.

     참고: 문자열이 *note ast.parse(): 1a8.로 구문 분석될 때, 반환된 트
     리의 연산자 노드(‘ast.operator’, ‘ast.unaryop’, ‘ast.cmpop’,
     ‘ast.boolop’ 및 ‘ast.expr_context’의 서브 클래스)는 싱글톤이 됩니다
     .  어느 하나의 변경 사항은 같은 값으로 등장하는 다른 모든 곳에 반영
     됩니다 (예를 들어 *note ast.Add: 45c0.).


File: python.info,  Node: ast 도우미,  Next: 컴파일러 플래그,  Prev: 노드 클래스,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.17 ‘ast’ 도우미
......................

노드 클래스 외에도, *note ast: 8. 모듈은 추상 구문 트리를 탐색하기 위해
다음 유틸리티 함수와 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: ast.parse (source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *,
          type_comments=False, feature_version=None, optimize=-1)

     Parse the source into an AST node.  Equivalent to ‘compile(source,
     filename, mode, flags=FLAGS_VALUE, optimize=optimize)’, where
     ‘FLAGS_VALUE’ is ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ if ‘optimize <= 0’ and
     ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’ otherwise.

     If ‘type_comments=True’ is given, the parser is modified to check
     and return type comments as specified by PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2).
     This is equivalent to adding *note ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 461f. to
     the flags passed to *note compile(): 192.  This will report syntax
     errors for misplaced type comments.  Without this flag, type
     comments will be ignored, and the ‘type_comment’ field on selected
     AST nodes will always be ‘None’.  In addition, the locations of ‘#
     type: ignore’ comments will be returned as the ‘type_ignores’
     attribute of *note Module: 45a7. (otherwise it is always an empty
     list).

     또한, ‘mode’가 ‘'func_type'’이면, 입력 문법은 PEP 484(3) “서명 형 주
     석”에 따라 수정됩니다, 예를 들어 ‘(str, int) -> List[str]’.

     Setting ‘feature_version’ to a tuple ‘(major, minor)’ will result
     in a “best-effort” attempt to parse using that Python version’s
     grammar.  For example, setting ‘feature_version=(3, 9)’ will
     attempt to disallow parsing of *note match: 807. statements.
     Currently ‘major’ must equal to ‘3’.  The lowest supported version
     is ‘(3, 7)’ (and this may increase in future Python versions); the
     highest is ‘sys.version_info[0:2]’.  “Best-effort” attempt means
     there is no guarantee that the parse (or success of the parse) is
     the same as when run on the Python version corresponding to
     ‘feature_version’.

     If source contains a null character (‘\0’), *note ValueError: 202.
     is raised.

          경고: Note that successfully parsing source code into an AST
          object doesn’t guarantee that the source code provided is
          valid Python code that can be executed as the compilation step
          can raise further *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions.  For
          instance, the source ‘return 42’ generates a valid AST node
          for a return statement, but it cannot be compiled alone (it
          needs to be inside a function node).

          In particular, *note ast.parse(): 1a8. won’t do any scoping
          checks, which the compilation step does.

          경고: 파이썬 AST 컴파일러의 스택 깊이 제한으로 인해 충분히 크
          고/복잡한 문자열로 파이썬 인터프리터가 충돌하도록 만들 수 있습
          니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘type_comments’, ‘mode='func_type'’ 및
     ‘feature_version’추가했습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The minimum supported version for
     ‘feature_version’ is now ‘(3, 7)’.  The ‘optimize’ argument was
     added.

 -- 함수: ast.unparse (ast_obj)

     *note ast.AST: 1a6. 객체를 역 구문 분석하고 *note ast.parse():
     1a8.로 다시 구문 분석할 경우 동등한 *note ast.AST: 1a6. 객체를 생성
     하는 코드가 포함된 문자열을 생성합니다.

          경고: 생성된 코드 문자열은 *note ast.AST: 1a6. 객체를 생성한 원
          래 코드와 반드시 같을 필요는 없습니다 (상수 튜플/frozenset과 같
          은 컴파일러 최적화 없이).

          경고: 매우 복잡한 표현식을 역 구분 분석하려고 하면 *note
          RecursionError: d68.가 발생할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 함수: ast.literal_eval (node_or_string)

     Evaluate an expression node or a string containing only a Python
     literal or container display.  The string or node provided may only
     consist of the following Python literal structures: strings, bytes,
     numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’.

     This can be used for evaluating strings containing Python values
     without the need to parse the values oneself.  It is not capable of
     evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving
     operators or indexing.

     This function had been documented as “safe” in the past without
     defining what that meant.  That was misleading.  This is
     specifically designed not to execute Python code, unlike the more
     general *note eval(): 180.  There is no namespace, no name lookups,
     or ability to call out.  But it is not free from attack: A
     relatively small input can lead to memory exhaustion or to C stack
     exhaustion, crashing the process.  There is also the possibility
     for excessive CPU consumption denial of service on some inputs.
     Calling it on untrusted data is thus not recommended.

          경고: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter due to
          stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

          It can raise *note ValueError: 202, *note TypeError: 532,
          *note SyntaxError: 18d, *note MemoryError: 157e. and *note
          RecursionError: d68. depending on the malformed input.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 이제 바이트열과 집합 리터럴을 허용합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이제 ‘'set()'’으로 빈 집합을 만드는 것을 지원합
     니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: For string inputs, leading spaces and tabs are
     now stripped.

 -- 함수: ast.get_docstring (node, clean=True)

     주어진 'node'(*note FunctionDef: 170e, *note AsyncFunctionDef:
     170d, *note ClassDef: 170c. 또는 *note Module: 45a7. 노드이어야 합
     니다)의 독스트링이나, 독스트링이 없으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다.
     'clean'이 참이면, *note inspect.cleandoc(): 16bc.으로 독스트링의 들
     여쓰기를 정리합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: *note AsyncFunctionDef: 170d. 가 이제 지원됩니다
     .

 -- 함수: ast.get_source_segment (source, node, *, padded=False)

     Get source code segment of the 'source' that generated 'node'.  If
     some location information (*note lineno: 45a0, *note end_lineno:
     45a2, *note col_offset: 45a1, or *note end_col_offset: 45a3.) is
     missing, return ‘None’.

     'padded'가 ‘True’이면, 여러 줄 문장의 첫 번째 줄은 원래 위치와 일치
     하도록 스페이스로 채워집니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: ast.fix_missing_locations (node)

     When you compile a node tree with *note compile(): 192, the
     compiler expects *note lineno: 45a0. and *note col_offset: 45a1.
     attributes for every node that supports them.  This is rather
     tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper adds these
     attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to
     the values of the parent node.  It works recursively starting at
     'node'.

 -- 함수: ast.increment_lineno (node, n=1)

     'node'에서 시작하는 트리에서 각 노드의 줄 번호와 끝 줄 번호를 'n'만
     큼 증가시킵니다.  파일의 다른 위치로 “코드를 이동”하는 데 유용합니
     다.

 -- 함수: ast.copy_location (new_node, old_node)

     Copy source location (*note lineno: 45a0, *note col_offset: 45a1,
     *note end_lineno: 45a2, and *note end_col_offset: 45a3.) from
     'old_node' to 'new_node' if possible, and return 'new_node'.

 -- 함수: ast.iter_fields (node)

     'node'에 존재하는 ‘node._fields’의 각 필드에 대해 ‘(fieldname,
     value)’ 튜플을 산출합니다.

 -- 함수: ast.iter_child_nodes (node)

     'node'의 모든 직접 자식 노드, 즉 노드인 모든 필드와 노드 리스트인 필
     드의 모든 항목을 산출합니다.

 -- 함수: ast.walk (node)

     'node'로 시작하는 트리('node' 자체를 포함합니다)의 모든 자손 노드를
     지정된 순서 없이 재귀적으로 산출합니다.  이는 노드를 제자리에서 수
     정하고 문맥을 신경 쓰지 않을 때 유용합니다.

 -- 클래스: ast.NodeVisitor

     추상 구문 트리를 걷고 발견된 모든 노드에 대해 방문자 함수를 호출하
     는 노드 방문자 베이스 클래스.  이 함수는 *note visit(): 4625. 메서
     드에 의해 전달되는 값을 반환할 수 있습니다.

     이 클래스는 서브 클래싱하고자 하는 것이며, 서브 클래스는 방문자 메
     서드를 추가합니다.

      -- 메서드: visit (node)

          노드를 방문합니다.  기본 구현은 ‘self.visit_CLASSNAME’이라는 메
          서드를 호출하는데, 여기서 'classname' 은 노드 클래스의 이름입
          니다.  또는 이 메서드가 없으면 *note generic_visit(): 4626.를
          호출합니다.

      -- 메서드: generic_visit (node)

          이 방문자는 노드의 자식에 대해 *note visit(): 4625.를 호출합니
          다.

          방문자가 *note generic_visit(): 4626.를 호출하거나 직접 방문하
          지 않는 한, 사용자 정의 방문자 메서드가 있는 노드의 자식 노드
          는 방문 되지 않음에 유의하십시오.

      -- 메서드: visit_Constant (node)

          Handles all constant nodes.

     탐색 중에 노드에 변경 사항을 적용하려면 *note NodeVisitor: a6a.를 사
     용하지 마십시오.  이를 위해 수정을 허락하는 특수한 방문자(*note
     NodeTransformer: 4627.)가 있습니다.

     버전 3.8부터 폐지됨: Methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’,
     ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are
     deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions.
     Add the *note visit_Constant(): a6b. method to handle all constant
     nodes.

 -- 클래스: ast.NodeTransformer

     추상 구문 트리를 걷고 노드 수정을 허락하는 *note NodeVisitor: a6a.
     서브 클래스.

     *note NodeTransformer: 4627.는 AST를 걷고 방문자 메서드의 반환 값을
     사용하여 이전 노드를 바꾸거나 제거합니다.  방문자 메서드의 반환 값
     이 ‘None’이면, 노드가 그 위치에서 제거되고, 그렇지 않으면 반환 값으
     로 치환됩니다.  반환 값은 원래 노드일 수 있으며, 이때는 치환이 일어
     나지 않습니다.

     다음은 모든 이름 조회(‘foo’)를 ‘data['foo']’로 다시 쓰는 변환기 예
     제입니다:

          class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):

              def visit_Name(self, node):
                  return Subscript(
                      value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()),
                      slice=Constant(value=node.id),
                      ctx=node.ctx
                  )

     Keep in mind that if the node you’re operating on has child nodes
     you must either transform the child nodes yourself or call the
     *note generic_visit(): 4626. method for the node first.

     문장의 컬렉션의 일부인 노드의 경우 (모든 문장 노드에 적용됩니다), 방
     문자는 단일 노드가 아닌 노드 리스트를 반환 할 수도 있습니다.

     If *note NodeTransformer: 4627. introduces new nodes (that weren’t
     part of original tree) without giving them location information
     (such as *note lineno: 45a0.), *note fix_missing_locations(): 4620.
     should be called with the new sub-tree to recalculate the location
     information:

          tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval')
          new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree))

     일반적으로 다음과 같이 변환기를 사용합니다:

          node = YourTransformer().visit(node)

 -- 함수: ast.dump (node, annotate_fields=True,
          include_attributes=False, *, indent=None, show_empty=False)

     'node'에서 포맷된 트리 덤프를 반환합니다.  이것은 주로 디버깅 목적
     으로 유용합니다.  'annotate_fields'가 참이면 (기본값), 반환된 문자
     열에 필드의 이름과 값이 표시됩니다.  'annotate_fields'가 거짓이면,
     모호하지 않은 필드 이름을 생략하여 결과 문자열이 더 간결해집니다.  줄
     번호와 열 오프셋과 같은 어트리뷰트는 기본적으로 덤프 되지 않습니다.
     원한다면, 'include_attributes'를 참으로 설정할 수 있습니다.

     'indent'가 음이 아닌 정수나 문자열이면, 트리는 그 들여쓰기 수준으로
     예쁘게 인쇄됩니다.  들여쓰기 수준 0, 음수 또는 ‘""’는 줄 넘김 만 삽
     입합니다.  ‘None’(기본값)은 단일 줄 표현을 선택합니다.  양의 정수
     indent를 사용하면 수준마다 그만큼 들여쓰기 됩니다.  'indent'가 문자
     열(가령 ‘"\t"’)이면, 해당 문자열은 각 수준을 들여 쓰는 데 사용됩니
     다.

     If 'show_empty' is false (the default), optional empty lists will
     be omitted from the output.  Optional ‘None’ values are always
     omitted.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'indent' 옵션을 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'show_empty' option.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... async def f():
          ...     await other_func()
          ... """), indent=4, show_empty=True))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AsyncFunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          posonlyargs=[],
                          args=[],
                          kwonlyargs=[],
                          kw_defaults=[],
                          defaults=[]),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Await(
                                  value=Call(
                                      func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()),
                                      args=[],
                                      keywords=[])))],
                      decorator_list=[],
                      type_params=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: 컴파일러 플래그,  Next: 명령 줄 사용법<3>,  Prev: ast 도우미,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.18 컴파일러 플래그
.........................

프로그램 컴파일에 대한 효과를 변경하기 위해 다음 플래그를 *note
compile(): 192.에 전달할 수 있습니다:

 -- 데이터: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

     최상위 수준 ‘await’, ‘async for’, ‘async with’ 및 비동기 컴프리헨션
     에 대한 지원을 활성화합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 데이터: ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST

     컴파일된 코드 객체를 반환하는 대신 추상 구문 트리를 생성하고 반환합
     니다.

 -- 데이터: ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST

     The returned AST is optimized according to the 'optimize' argument
     in *note compile(): 192. or *note ast.parse(): 1a8.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

     PEP 484(1)와 PEP 526(2) 스타일 형 주석(‘# type: <type>’, ‘# type:
     ignore <stuff>’)에 대한 지원을 활성화합니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 사용법<3>,  Prev: 컴파일러 플래그,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.19 명령 줄 사용법
........................

Added in version 3.9.

*note ast: 8. 모듈은 명령 줄에서 스크립트로 실행될 수 있습니다.  다음과
같이 간단합니다:

     python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile]

다음과 같은 옵션이 허용됩니다:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     도움말 메시지를 표시하고 종료합니다.

 -- Option: -m <mode>
 -- Option: --mode <mode>

     *note parse(): 1a8.의 'mode' 인자와 같이, 컴파일해야 하는 코드 종류
     를 지정합니다.

 -- Option: --no-type-comments

     형 주석을 구문 분석하지 않습니다.

 -- Option: -a, --include-attributes

     줄 번호와 열 오프셋과 같은 어트리뷰트를 포함합니다.

 -- Option: -i <indent>
 -- Option: --indent <indent>

     AST에서 노드 들여쓰기(스페이스 수).

‘infile’이 지정되면 그 내용이 AST로 구문 분석되고 stdout에 덤프 됩니다.
그렇지 않으면, stdin에서 내용을 읽습니다.

더 보기
.......

Green Tree Snakes(1), 파이썬 AST로 작업하는 것에 대한 자세한 내용이 있는
외부 문서 자원.

ASTTokens(2)는 토큰의 위치와 토큰을 생성한 소스 코드의 텍스트로 파이썬
AST에 주석을 추가합니다.  이는 소스 코드 변환을 수행하는 도구에 유용합니
다.

leoAst.py(3) unifies the token-based and parse-tree-based views of
python programs by inserting two-way links between tokens and ast nodes.

LibCST(4)는 코드를 ast 트리처럼 보이고 모든 포매팅 세부 정보를 유지하는
구상 구문 트리(Concrete Syntax Tree)로 구문 분석합니다.  자동화된 리팩토
링 (codemod) 응용 프로그램과 린터(linter)를 구축하는 데 유용합니다.

Parso(5) is a Python parser that supports error recovery and round-trip
parsing for different Python versions (in multiple Python versions).
Parso is also able to list multiple syntax errors in your Python file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html

   (3) https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io


File: python.info,  Node: symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스,  Next: token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수,  Prev: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.2 ‘symtable’ — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스
-----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/symtable.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

심볼 테이블은 바이트 코드가 생성되기 바로 전에 AST에서 컴파일러에 의해 생
성됩니다.  심볼 테이블은 코드에서 모든 식별자의 스코프를 계산합니다.
*note symtable: d8.은 이러한 테이블을 검사하는 인터페이스를 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 심볼 테이블 생성하기::
* 심볼 테이블 검사하기::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/symtable.py


File: python.info,  Node: 심볼 테이블 생성하기,  Next: 심볼 테이블 검사하기,  Up: symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스

5.32.2.1 심볼 테이블 생성하기
.............................

 -- 함수: symtable.symtable (code, filename, compile_type)

     파이썬 소스 'code'에 대한 최상위 *note SymbolTable: 4639.을 반환합
     니다.  'filename'은 코드가 들어있는 파일의 이름입니다.
     'compile_type'은 *note compile(): 192.에 대한 'mode' 인자와 같습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 심볼 테이블 검사하기,  Next: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Prev: 심볼 테이블 생성하기,  Up: symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스

5.32.2.2 심볼 테이블 검사하기
.............................

 -- 클래스: symtable.SymbolTableType

     An enumeration indicating the type of a *note SymbolTable: 4639.
     object.

      -- 속성: MODULE = "module"

          Used for the symbol table of a module.

      -- 속성: FUNCTION = "function"

          Used for the symbol table of a function.

      -- 속성: CLASS = "class"

          Used for the symbol table of a class.

     The following members refer to different flavors of *note
     annotation scopes: 188.

      -- 속성: ANNOTATION = "annotation"

          Used for annotations if ‘from __future__ import annotations’
          is active.

      -- 속성: TYPE_ALIAS = "type alias"

          Used for the symbol table of *note type: 431. constructions.

      -- 속성: TYPE_PARAMETERS = "type parameters"

          Used for the symbol table of *note generic functions: 44c. or
          *note generic classes: 44b.

      -- 속성: TYPE_VARIABLE = "type variable"

          Used for the symbol table of the bound, the constraint tuple
          or the default value of a single type variable in the formal
          sense, i.e., a TypeVar, a TypeVarTuple or a ParamSpec object
          (the latter two do not support a bound or a constraint tuple).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 클래스: symtable.SymbolTable

     블록에 대한 이름 공간 테이블.  생성자는 공개되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_type ()

          심볼 테이블의 형을 돌려줍니다.  가능한 값은 *note
          SymbolTableType: 1614. 열거형의 멤버들입니다.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: Added ‘'annotation'’, ‘'TypeVar bound'’,
          ‘'type alias'’, and ‘'type parameter'’ as possible return
          values.

          버전 3.13에서 변경: Return values are members of the *note
          SymbolTableType: 1614. enumeration.

          The exact values of the returned string may change in the
          future, and thus, it is recommended to use *note
          SymbolTableType: 1614. members instead of hard-coded strings.

      -- 메서드: get_id ()

          테이블의 식별자를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: get_name ()

          Return the table’s name.  This is the name of the class if the
          table is for a class, the name of the function if the table is
          for a function, or ‘'top'’ if the table is global (*note
          get_type(): 1615. returns ‘'module'’).  For type parameter
          scopes (which are used for generic classes, functions, and
          type aliases), it is the name of the underlying class,
          function, or type alias.  For type alias scopes, it is the
          name of the type alias.  For *note TypeVar: 15d. bound scopes,
          it is the name of the ‘TypeVar’.

      -- 메서드: get_lineno ()

          이 테이블이 나타내는 블록의 첫 번째 줄 번호를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_optimized ()

          이 테이블의 지역(locals)을 최적화할 수 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합
          니다.

      -- 메서드: is_nested ()

          블록이 중첩된 클래스나 함수면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: has_children ()

          블록에 중첩된 이름 공간이 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이것들
          은 *note get_children(): 4648.으로 얻을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_identifiers ()

          Return a view object containing the names of symbols in the
          table.  See the *note documentation of view objects: 224b.

      -- 메서드: lookup (name)

          테이블에서 'name'을 찾아서 *note Symbol: 16d5. 인스턴스를 반환
          합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_symbols ()

          테이블에 있는 이름에 대한 *note Symbol: 16d5. 인스턴스 리스트
          를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_children ()

          중첩된 심볼 테이블의 리스트를 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: symtable.Function

     함수나 메서드의 이름 공간.  이 클래스는 *note SymbolTable: 4639.을
     상속합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_parameters ()

          이 함수의 매개 변수 이름을 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_locals ()

          이 함수의 지역 이름을 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_globals ()

          이 함수의 전역 이름을 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_nonlocals ()

          이 함수에서 명시적으로 선언된 nonlocal 이름을 포함하는 튜플을
          반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: get_frees ()

          이 함수의 *note 자유 (클로저) 변수: 1f47. 이름을 포함하는 튜플
          을 반환합니다.

 -- 클래스: symtable.Class

     클래스의 이름 공간.  이 클래스는 *note SymbolTable: 4639.을 상속합
     니다.

      -- 메서드: get_methods ()

          클래스에서 선언된 메서드 같은 함수의 이름을 포함하는 튜플을 반
          환합니다.

          Here, the term ‘method’ designates 'any' function defined in
          the class body via *note def: 1420. or *note async def: 5cb.

          Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class)
          are not picked up by *note get_methods(): 2e7.

          예를 들면:

               >>> import symtable
               >>> st = symtable.symtable('''
               ... def outer(): pass
               ...
               ... class A:
               ...    def f():
               ...        def w(): pass
               ...
               ...    def g(self): pass
               ...
               ...    @classmethod
               ...    async def h(cls): pass
               ...
               ...    global outer
               ...    def outer(self): pass
               ... ''', 'test', 'exec')
               >>> class_A = st.get_children()[1]
               >>> class_A.get_methods()
               ('f', 'g', 'h')

          Although ‘A().f()’ raises *note TypeError: 532. at runtime,
          ‘A.f’ is still considered as a method-like function.

 -- 클래스: symtable.Symbol

     소스의 식별자에 해당하는 *note SymbolTable: 4639.의 항목.  생성자는
     공개되지 않습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_name ()

          심볼의 이름을 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: is_referenced ()

          심볼이 블록에서 사용되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_imported ()

          심볼이 import 문에서 만들어지면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_parameter ()

          심볼이 매개 변수면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_global ()

          심볼이 전역이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_nonlocal ()

          심볼이 nonlocal이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_declared_global ()

          심볼이 global 문으로 전역으로 선언되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_local ()

          심볼이 블록의 지역이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_annotated ()

          심볼이 어노테이트 되었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- 메서드: is_free ()

          심볼이 블록에서 참조되지만 대입되지 않으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다
          .

      -- 메서드: is_assigned ()

          심볼이 블록에 대입되면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

      -- 메서드: is_namespace ()

          이름 연결(name binding)이 새로운 이름 공간을 도입하면 ‘True’를
          반환합니다.

          이름이 함수나 클래스 문의 대상으로 사용되면 참입니다.

          예를 들면:

               >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
               >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
               True

          하나의 이름을 여러 객체에 연결할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  결과
          가 ‘True’ 이면, 이름은 새 이름 공간을 도입하지 않는 int 나
          list와 같은 다른 객체에도 연결되어있을 수 있습니다.

      -- 메서드: get_namespaces ()

          이 이름에 연결된 이름 공간의 리스트를 돌려줍니다.

      -- 메서드: get_namespace ()

          이 이름에 연결된 이름 공간을 돌려줍니다.  이 이름에 연결된 이
          름 공간이 둘 이상이거나 없으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생
          합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Prev: 심볼 테이블 검사하기,  Up: symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스

5.32.2.3 Command-Line Usage
...........................

Added in version 3.13.

The *note symtable: d8. module can be executed as a script from the
command line.

     python -m symtable [infile...]

Symbol tables are generated for the specified Python source files and
dumped to stdout.  If no input file is specified, the content is read
from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수,  Next: keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사,  Prev: symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.3 ‘token’ — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수
------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/token.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 구문 분석 트리의 말단 노드의 숫자 값을 나타내는 상수를 제공합
니다 (터미널 토큰).  언어 문법의 문맥에서 이름의 정의는 파이썬 배포판의
‘Grammar/Tokens’ 파일을 참조하십시오.  이름이 매핑되는 특정 숫자 값은 파
이썬 버전 간에 변경될 수 있습니다.

이 모듈은 숫자 코드에서 이름으로의 매핑과 몇몇 함수도 제공합니다.  이 함
수는 파이썬 C 헤더 파일의 정의를 반영합니다.

Note that a token’s value may depend on tokenizer options.  For example,
a ‘"+"’ token may be reported as either *note PLUS: 4663. or *note OP:
4664, or a ‘"match"’ token may be either *note NAME: 4665. or *note
SOFT_KEYWORD: 4666.

 -- 데이터: token.tok_name

     이 모듈에 정의된 상수의 숫자 값을 다시 이름 문자열로 매핑하여 사람
     이 읽을 수 있는 구문 분석 트리 표현을 생성할 수 있도록 하는 딕셔너
     리.

 -- 함수: token.ISTERMINAL (x)

     터미널 토큰값이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: token.ISNONTERMINAL (x)

     비 터미널 토큰값이면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: token.ISEOF (x)

     'x'가 입력의 마지막을 나타내는 표시면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

토큰 상수는 다음과 같습니다:

 -- 데이터: token.NAME

     Token value that indicates an *note identifier: 1e9c.  Note that
     keywords are also initially tokenized as ‘NAME’ tokens.

 -- 데이터: token.NUMBER

     Token value that indicates a *note numeric literal: 1ecd.

 -- 데이터: token.STRING

     Token value that indicates a *note string or byte literal: 1eac,
     excluding *note formatted string literals: 9a6.  The token string
     is not interpreted: it includes the surrounding quotation marks and
     the prefix (if given); backslashes are included literally, without
     processing escape sequences.

 -- 데이터: token.OP

     A generic token value that indicates an *note operator: 1ee7. or
     *note delimiter: 1ee8.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' This value is only reported by the *note
     tokenize: fb. module.  Internally, the tokenizer uses *note exact
     token types: 466d. instead.

 -- 데이터: token.COMMENT

     주석을 나타내는 데 사용되는 토큰값.  구문 분석기는 ‘COMMENT’ 토큰을
     무시합니다.

 -- 데이터: token.NEWLINE

     Token value that indicates the end of a *note logical line: 1e89.

 -- 데이터: token.NL

     비종결 줄넘김을 나타내는데 사용되는 토큰값.  ‘NL’ 토큰은 코드의 논
     리적 줄이 여러 물리적 줄로 이어질 때 생성됩니다.  구문 분석기는
     ‘NL’ 토큰을 무시합니다.

 -- 데이터: token.INDENT

     Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 1e89. to
     indicate the start of an *note indented block: 1e97.

 -- 데이터: token.DEDENT

     Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 1e89. to
     indicate the end of an *note indented block: 1e97.

 -- 데이터: token.FSTRING_START

     Token value used to indicate the beginning of an *note f-string
     literal: 9a6.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' The token string includes the prefix and the
     opening quote(s), but none of the contents of the literal.

 -- 데이터: token.FSTRING_MIDDLE

     Token value used for literal text inside an *note f-string literal:
     9a6, including format specifications.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' Replacement fields (that is, the non-literal
     parts of f-strings) use the same tokens as other expressions, and
     are delimited by *note LBRACE: 4674, *note RBRACE: 4675, *note
     EXCLAMATION: 4676. and *note COLON: 4677. tokens.

 -- 데이터: token.FSTRING_END

     *note f-string: 9a6.의 끝을 나타내는 데 사용되는 토큰값.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' The token string contains the closing
     quote(s).

 -- 데이터: token.ENDMARKER

     입력의 끝을 나타내는 데 사용되는 토큰값.

 -- 데이터: token.ENCODING

     소스 바이트열을 텍스트로 디코딩하는 데 사용되는 인코딩을 나타내는 토
     큰값.  *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d3.에 의해 반환되는 첫 번째 토큰
     은 항상 ‘ENCODING’ 토큰입니다.

     이 토큰 유형은 C 토크나이저가 사용하지 않지만 *note tokenize: fb. 모
     듈에 필요합니다.

The following token types are not produced by the *note tokenize: fb.
module, and are defined for special uses in the tokenizer or parser:

 -- 데이터: token.TYPE_IGNORE

     ‘type: ignore’ 주석이 인식되었음을 나타내는 토큰값.  이러한 토큰은
     *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 461f. 플래그가 있는 경우에만 일반 *note
     COMMENT: 466e. 토큰 대신 생성됩니다.

 -- 데이터: token.TYPE_COMMENT

     형 주석이 인식되었음을 나타내는 토큰값.  이러한 토큰은 *note
     PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 461f. 플래그가 있는 경우에만 일반 *note
     COMMENT: 466e. 토큰 대신 생성됩니다.

 -- 데이터: token.SOFT_KEYWORD

     Token value indicating a *note soft keyword: 806.

     The tokenizer never produces this value.  To check for a soft
     keyword, pass a *note NAME: 4665. token’s string to *note
     keyword.issoftkeyword(): 467d.

 -- 데이터: token.ERRORTOKEN

     잘못된 입력을 나타내는 데 사용되는 토큰값.

     The *note tokenize: fb. module generally indicates errors by
     raising exceptions instead of emitting this token.  It can also
     emit tokens such as *note OP: 4664. or *note NAME: 4665. with
     strings that are later rejected by the parser.
The remaining tokens represent specific *note operators: 1ee7. and *note
delimiters: 1ee8.  (The *note tokenize: fb. module reports these as
*note OP: 4664.; see ‘exact_type’ in the *note tokenize: fb.
documentation for details.)

토큰                                                   값
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LPAR                                 ‘"("’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.RPAR                                 ‘")"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LSQB                                 ‘"["’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.RSQB                                 ‘"]"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.COLON                                ‘":"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.COMMA                                ‘","’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.SEMI                                 ‘";"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.PLUS                                 ‘"+"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.MINUS                                ‘"-"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.STAR                                 ‘"*"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.SLASH                                ‘"/"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.VBAR                                 ‘"|"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.AMPER                                ‘"&"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LESS                                 ‘"<"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.GREATER                              ‘">"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.EQUAL                                ‘"="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.DOT                                  ‘"."’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.PERCENT                              ‘"%"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LBRACE                               ‘"{"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.RBRACE                               ‘"}"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.EQEQUAL                              ‘"=="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.NOTEQUAL                             ‘"!="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LESSEQUAL                            ‘"<="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.GREATEREQUAL                         ‘">="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.TILDE                                ‘"~"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.CIRCUMFLEX                           ‘"^"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LEFTSHIFT                            ‘"<<"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.RIGHTSHIFT                           ‘">>"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.DOUBLESTAR                           ‘"**"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.PLUSEQUAL                            ‘"+="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.MINEQUAL                             ‘"-="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.STAREQUAL                            ‘"*="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.SLASHEQUAL                           ‘"/="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.PERCENTEQUAL                         ‘"%="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.AMPEREQUAL                           ‘"&="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.VBAREQUAL                            ‘"|="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL                      ‘"^="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL                       ‘"<<="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL                      ‘">>="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL                      ‘"**="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.DOUBLESLASH                          ‘"//"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL                     ‘"//="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.AT                                   ‘"@"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.ATEQUAL                              ‘"@="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.RARROW                               ‘"->"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.ELLIPSIS                             ‘"..."’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.COLONEQUAL                           ‘":="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- 데이터: token.EXCLAMATION                          ‘"!"’
                                                       

다음과 같은 토큰이 아닌 상수가 제공됩니다:

 -- 데이터: token.N_TOKENS

     The number of token types defined in this module.

 -- 데이터: token.EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES

     A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its
     numeric code.

     Added in version 3.8.

버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘AWAIT’ 와 ‘ASYNC’ 토큰이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note COMMENT: 466e, *note NL: 4670. 및 *note
ENCODING: 467a. 토큰이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘AWAIT’ 와 ‘ASYNC’ 토큰이 제거되었습니다.  “async”와
“await”는 이제 *note NAME: 4665. 토큰으로 토큰화됩니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: *note TYPE_COMMENT: 467c, *note TYPE_IGNORE: 467b,
*note COLONEQUAL: 46a9.이 추가되었습니다.  ‘AWAIT’와 ‘ASYNC’ 토큰을 다시
추가했습니다 (‘feature_version’을 6 이하로 설정하여 *note ast.parse():
1a8.로 구형 파이썬 버전의 구문 분석을 지원하는 데 필요합니다).

버전 3.12에서 변경: *note EXCLAMATION: 4676.을 추가했습니다.

버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘AWAIT’ 와 ‘ASYNC’ 토큰을 다시 제거했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/token.py


File: python.info,  Node: keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사,  Next: tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저,  Prev: token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.4 ‘keyword’ — 파이썬 키워드 검사
-------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/keyword.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬 프로그램이 문자열이 *note 키워드: 1ea4. 나 *note 소프트
키워드: 806.인지 판단하게 합니다.

 -- 함수: keyword.iskeyword (s)

     's'가 파이썬 *note 키워드: 1ea4.면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

 -- 데이터: keyword.kwlist

     인터프리터에 대해 정의된 모든 *note 키워드: 1ea4.를 포함하는 시퀀스
     .  특정 *note __future__: 0. 문이 적용될 때만 활성화되도록 키워드가
     정의되어 있으면, 이러한 키워드도 함께 포함됩니다.

 -- 함수: keyword.issoftkeyword (s)

     's'가 파이썬 *note 소프트 키워드: 806.면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- 데이터: keyword.softkwlist

     인터프리터에 대해 정의된 모든 *note 소프트 키워드: 806.를 포함하는
     시퀀스.  특정 *note __future__: 0. 문이 적용될 때만 활성화되도록 소
     프트(soft) 키워드가 정의되어 있으면, 이러한 키워드도 함께 포함됩니
     다.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/keyword.py


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저,  Next: tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지,  Prev: keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.5 ‘tokenize’ — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저
-------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tokenize.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tokenize: fb. 모듈은 파이썬으로 구현된 파이썬 소스 코드를 위한 어
휘 스캐너를 제공합니다.  이 모듈의 스캐너는 주석도 토큰으로 반환하므로,
화면 디스플레이용 색상 표시기를 포함하여 “예쁜 인쇄기”를 구현하는 데 유
용합니다.

토큰 스트림 처리를 단순화하기 위해, 모든 *note 연산자: 1ee7.와 *note
구분자: 1ee8. 토큰과 *note Ellipsis: 218d.는 범용 *note OP: 4664. 토큰 유
형을 사용하여 반환됩니다.  정확한 유형은 *note tokenize.tokenize():
4d3.에서 반환된 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.의 ‘exact_type’ 프로퍼티를 확인하
여 파악할 수 있습니다.

     경고: Note that the functions in this module are only designed to
     parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does not raise
     when parsed using *note ast.parse(): 1a8.).  The behavior of the
     functions in this module is 'undefined' when providing invalid
     Python code and it can change at any point.

* Menu:

* 입력 토큰화하기::
* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<4>.
* 예제: 예제<30>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tokenize.py


File: python.info,  Node: 입력 토큰화하기,  Next: 명령 줄 사용법<4>,  Up: tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저

5.32.5.1 입력 토큰화하기
........................

기본 진입점은 *note 제너레이터: 1057.입니다:

 -- 함수: tokenize.tokenize (readline)

     *note tokenize(): 4d3. 제너레이터는 하나의 인자 'readline'을 요구합
     니다.  이 인자는 파일 객체의 *note io.IOBase.readline(): 1319. 메서
     드와 같은 인터페이스를 제공하는 콜러블 객체여야 합니다.  함수를 호
     출할 때마다 한 줄의 입력을 바이트열로 반환해야 합니다.

     제너레이터는 다음 멤버를 갖는 5-튜플을 생성합니다: 토큰 유형; 토큰
     문자열; 토큰이 소스에서 시작하는 줄과 열을 지정하는 정수의 2-튜플
     ‘(srow, scol)’; 토큰이 소스에서 끝나는 줄과 열을 지정하는 정수의
     2-튜플 ‘(erow, ecol)’과 토큰이 발견된 줄.  전달된 줄(마지막 튜플 항
     목)은 '물리적' 줄입니다.  5-튜플은 필드 이름이 ‘type string start
     end line’ 인 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.로 반환됩니다.

     반환된 *note 네임드 튜플: 648.에는 *note OP: 4664. 토큰에 대한 정확
     한 연산자 유형이 포함된 ‘exact_type’이라는 추가 프로퍼티가 있습니다
     .  다른 모든 토큰 유형에서 ‘exact_type’은 네임드 튜플 ‘type’ 필드와
     같습니다.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 네임드 튜플에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘exact_type’에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     *note tokenize(): 4d3.는 PEP 263(1)에 따라 UTF-8 BOM이나 인코딩 쿠
     키를 찾아 파일의 소스 인코딩을 결정합니다.

 -- 함수: tokenize.generate_tokens (readline)

     바이트열 대신에 유니코드 문자열을 읽는 소스를 토큰화합니다.

     *note tokenize(): 4d3.와 마찬가지로, 'readline' 인자는 한 줄의 입력
     을 반환하는 콜러블입니다.  그러나, *note generate_tokens(): 4d4.는
     'readline'이 바이트열이 아닌 문자열 객체를 반환할 것으로 기대합니다
     .

     결과는 정확히 *note tokenize(): 4d3.처럼 네임드 튜플을 산출하는 이
     터레이터입니다.  *note ENCODING: 467a. 토큰을 산출하지 않습니다.

*note token: fa. 모듈의 모든 상수도 *note tokenize: fb.에서 내보냅니다.

토큰화 프로세스를 역전시키는 또 다른 함수가 제공됩니다.  이것은 스크립트
를 토큰화하고, 토큰 스트림을 수정한 후, 수정된 스크립트를 다시 쓰는 도구
를 만드는 데 유용합니다.

 -- 함수: tokenize.untokenize (iterable)

     토큰을 파이썬 소스 코드로 역 변환합니다.  'iterable'은 최소한 토큰
     유형과 토큰 문자열의 두 요소가 있는 시퀀스를 반환해야 합니다.  추가
     시퀀스 요소는 무시됩니다.

     결과는 다시 토큰화하면 입력과 일치함이 보장되어, 변환은 무손실이고
     왕복이 보장됩니다.  보증은 토큰 유형과 토큰 문자열에만 적용되어, 토
     큰 간의 간격(열 위치)은 변경될 수 있습니다.

     *note tokenize(): 4d3. 에 의해 출력되는 첫 번째 토큰 시퀀스인 *note
     ENCODING: 467a. 토큰을 사용하여 인코딩된 바이트열을 반환합니다.  입
     력에 인코딩 토큰이 없으면, 대신 str을 반환합니다.

*note tokenize(): 4d3.는 토큰화하는 소스 파일의 인코딩을 감지해야 합니다
.  이 작업을 수행하는 데 사용되는 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: tokenize.detect_encoding (readline)

     *note detect_encoding(): 2870. 함수는 파이썬 소스 파일을 디코딩할 때
     사용해야 하는 인코딩을 감지하는 데 사용됩니다.  *note tokenize():
     4d3. 제너레이터와 같은 방식으로, 하나의 인자 readline을 요구합니다.

     readline을 최대 두 번 호출하고, 사용된 인코딩(문자열로)과 읽은 줄들
     (바이트열에서 디코드 되지 않습니다)의 리스트를 반환합니다.

     PEP 263(2)에 지정된 대로 UTF-8 BOM이나 인코딩 쿠키의 존재로부터 인
     코딩을 검색합니다.  BOM과 쿠키가 모두 있지만 서로 일치하지 않으면
     *note SyntaxError: 18d.가 발생합니다.  BOM이 발견되면,
     ‘'utf-8-sig'’가 인코딩으로 반환됩니다.

     인코딩이 지정되지 않으면, 기본값인 ‘'utf-8'’이 반환됩니다.

     *note open(): 286f.을 사용하여 파이썬 소스 파일을 여십시오: *note
     detect_encoding(): 2870.을 사용하여 파일 인코딩을 감지합니다.

 -- 함수: tokenize.open (filename)

     *note detect_encoding(): 2870.에 의해 감지된 인코딩을 사용하여 읽기
     전용 모드로 파일을 엽니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- 예외: tokenize.TokenError

     여러 줄로 나눌 수 있는 독스트링이나 표현식이 파일의 어디에서도 완료
     되지 않을 때 발생합니다, 예를 들어:

          """Beginning of
          docstring

     또는:

          [1,
           2,
           3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 사용법<4>,  Next: 예제<30>,  Prev: 입력 토큰화하기,  Up: tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저

5.32.5.2 명령 줄 사용법
.......................

Added in version 3.3.

*note tokenize: fb. 모듈은 명령 줄에서 스크립트로 실행될 수 있습니다.  이
렇게 간단합니다:

     python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]

허용되는 옵션은 다음과 같습니다:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     이 도움말 메시지를 표시하고 종료합니다

 -- Option: -e, --exact

     정확한 유형(exact_type)을 사용하여 토큰 이름을 표시합니다

‘filename.py’가 지정되면 그 내용은 표준출력(stdout)으로 토큰화됩니다.  그
렇지 않으면, 표준입력(stdin)에 대해 토큰화가 수행됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<30>,  Prev: 명령 줄 사용법<4>,  Up: tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저

5.32.5.3 예제
.............

float 리터럴을 Decimal 객체로 변환하는 스크립트 재 작성기의 예제:

     from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
     from io import BytesIO

     def decistmt(s):
         """문장 문자열에 있는 float를 Decimal로 치환합니다.

         >>> from decimal import Decimal
         >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
         >>> decistmt(s)
         "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"

         지수 형식은 플랫폼 C 라이브러리에서 상속됩니다. 알려진 경우는 "e-007" (윈도우) 와 "e-07"
         (윈도우 외) 입니다. 우리는 단지 12자리 숫자를 보여주고 있고, 13번째 숫자는 5에 가깝지
         않으므로, 출력의 나머지 부분은 플랫폼 독립적이어야 합니다.

         >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         -3.21716034272e-0...7

         Decimal을 사용한 계산의 결과는 모든 플랫폼에서 같아야 합니다.

         >>> exec(decistmt(s))
         -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
         """
         result = []
         g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # 문자열을 토큰화합니다
         for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
             if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # NUMBER 토큰을 바꿔치기합니다
                 result.extend([
                     (NAME, 'Decimal'),
                     (OP, '('),
                     (STRING, repr(tokval)),
                     (OP, ')')
                 ])
             else:
                 result.append((toknum, tokval))
         return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')

명령 줄에서 토큰화하는 예제.  스크립트:

     def say_hello():
         print("Hello, World!")

     say_hello()

는 다음 출력으로 토큰화됩니다.  여기서 첫 번째 열은 토큰이 발견된 줄/열
좌표의 범위이고, 두 번째 열은 토큰의 이름이며, 마지막 열은 토큰의 값입니
다 (있다면)

     $ python -m tokenize hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
     1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
     1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
     4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

정확한 토큰 유형 이름은 *note -e: 46b6. 옵션을 사용하여 표시할 수 있습니
다:

     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
     1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
     1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
     4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

*note generate_tokens(): 4d4.로 바이트열 대신 유니코드 문자열을 읽는, 프
로그래밍 방식으로 파일을 토큰화하는 예:

     import tokenize

     with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)

또는 *note tokenize(): 4d3.로 직접 바이트열을 읽는 예:

     import tokenize

     with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)


File: python.info,  Node: tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지,  Next: pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원,  Prev: tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.6 ‘tabnanny’ — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지
----------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tabnanny.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 당장은 스크립트로 호출하기 위한 것입니다.  하지만 IDE로 임포트
해서 아래에 설명된 *note check(): 46bb. 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 이 모듈에서 제공하는 API는 향후 배포에서 변경될 수 있습니다;
     그러한 변경은 이전 버전과 호환되지 않을 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: tabnanny.check (file_or_dir)

     'file_or_dir'가 디렉터리이고 심볼릭 링크가 아니면, 'file_or_dir'라
     는 이름의 디렉터리 트리를 재귀적으로 내려가면서, 모든 ‘.py’ 파일을
     검사합니다.  'file_or_dir'가 일반 파이썬 소스 파일이면, 공백과 관련
     된 문제가 있는지 확인합니다.  진단 메시지는 *note print(): f6d. 함
     수를 사용하여 표준 출력에 기록됩니다.

 -- 데이터: tabnanny.verbose

     상세 메시지를 인쇄할지를 나타내는 플래그.  이것은 스크립트로 호출되
     면 ‘-v’ 옵션에 의해 증가합니다.

 -- 데이터: tabnanny.filename_only

     공백 관련 문제가 있는 파일의 파일명만 인쇄할지를 나타내는 플래그.  이
     것은 스크립트로 호출되면 ‘-q’ 옵션에 의해 참으로 설정됩니다.

 -- 예외: tabnanny.NannyNag

     모호한 들여쓰기를 감지하면 *note process_tokens(): 46bf.에 의해 발
     생합니다.  *note check(): 46bb.에서 잡아서 처리됩니다.

 -- 함수: tabnanny.process_tokens (tokens)

     이 함수는 *note tokenize: fb. 모듈에서 생성된 토큰을 처리하기 위해
     *note check(): 46bb.에서 사용됩니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note tokenize: fb.

     파이썬 소스 코드를 위한 어휘 스캐너.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tabnanny.py


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원,  Next: py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일,  Prev: tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.7 ‘pyclbr’ — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원
-------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pyclbr.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note pyclbr: b4. 모듈은 파이썬 코드 모듈에 정의된 함수, 클래스 및 메서
드에 대한 제한된 정보를 제공합니다.  이 정보는 모듈 브라우저를 구현하기
에 충분합니다.  정보는 모듈을 임포트 하기보다는 파이썬 소스 코드에서 추
출되므로 이 모듈은 신뢰할 수 없는 코드와 함께 사용하는 것이 안전합니다.
이 제한으로 인해 이 모듈을 모든 표준 및 선택 확장 모듈을 포함하여 파이썬
으로 구현되지 않은 모듈에 사용할 수 없습니다.

 -- 함수: pyclbr.readmodule (module, path=None)

     모듈 수준의 클래스 이름을 클래스 설명자에 매핑하는 딕셔너리를 돌려
     줍니다.  가능하면, 임포트 된 베이스 클래스에 관한 설명자가 포함됩니
     다.  매개 변수 'module'은 읽을 모듈 이름이 들어있는 문자열입니다; 패
     키지 내의 모듈 이름일 수 있습니다.  주어지면, 'path'는 ‘sys.path’ 앞
     에 추가된 디렉터리 경로 시퀀스인데, 모듈 소스 코드의 위치를 찾는 데
     사용됩니다.

     이 함수는 원래 인터페이스이며 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해서만 유지
     됩니다.  다음 함수의 필터링 된 버전을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: pyclbr.readmodule_ex (module, path=None)

     ‘def’ 나 ‘class’ 문을 사용하여 모듈에 정의된 각 함수 및 클래스에 대
     한 함수나 클래스 설명자를 포함하는 딕셔너리 기반 트리를 반환합니다.
     반환된 딕셔너리는 모듈 수준의 함수와 클래스 이름을 해당 설명자에 대
     응합니다.  중첩된 객체는 그들의 parent의 children 딕셔너리에 들어갑
     니다.  readmodule과 마찬가지로, 'module'은 읽을 모듈의 이름을 지정
     하고 'path'는 sys.path의 앞에 추가됩니다.  읽히는 모듈이 패키지면,
     반환된 딕셔너리는 키 ‘'__path__'’를 가지는데, 값은 패키지 검색 경로
     를 포함하는 리스트입니다.

Added in version 3.7: 중첩된 정의에 대한 설명자.  새로운 children 어트리
뷰트를 통해 액세스할 수 있습니다.  각에는 새로운 parent 어트리뷰트가 있
습니다.

이러한 함수에 의해 반환되는 설명자는 Function과 Class 클래스의 인스턴스
입니다.  사용자가 이러한 클래스의 인스턴스를 만들 것으로 기대하지 않습니
다.

* Menu:

* Function 객체::
* Class 객체::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pyclbr.py


File: python.info,  Node: Function 객체,  Next: Class 객체,  Up: pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원

5.32.7.1 Function 객체
......................

 -- 클래스: pyclbr.Function

     클래스 ‘Function’ 인스턴스는 def 문으로 정의된 함수를 설명합니다.  다
     음과 같은 어트리뷰트를 가지고 있습니다 :

      -- 속성: file

          함수가 정의된 파일의 이름.

      -- 속성: module

          설명된 함수를 정의하는 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: name

          함수의 이름.

      -- 속성: lineno

          정의가 시작되는 파일의 줄 번호.

      -- 속성: parent

          최상위 함수면, ‘None’.  중첩된 함수면, 부모.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: children

          이름을 중첩된 함수와 클래스에 관한 설명자로 매핑하는 *note
          딕셔너리: 256.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: is_async

          ‘True’ for functions that are defined with the *note async:
          5cb. prefix, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Class 객체,  Prev: Function 객체,  Up: pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원

5.32.7.2 Class 객체
...................

 -- 클래스: pyclbr.Class

     클래스 ‘Class’ 인스턴스는 class 문으로 정의된 클래스를 설명합니다.
     *note Function: 46c4.과 같은 어트리뷰트에 더해 두 개의 어트리뷰트가
     더 있습니다.

      -- 속성: file

          클래스가 정의된 파일의 이름.

      -- 속성: module

          설명된 클래스를 정의하는 모듈의 이름.

      -- 속성: name

          클래스의 이름.

      -- 속성: lineno

          정의가 시작되는 파일의 줄 번호.

      -- 속성: parent

          최상위 클래스면, ‘None’.  중첩된 클래스면, 부모.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: children

          이름을 중첩된 함수와 클래스에 관한 설명자로 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: super

          설명되는 클래스의 직접적인 베이스 클래스를 설명하는 ‘Class’ 객
          체의 리스트.  슈퍼 클래스로 명명되었지만 *note
          readmodule_ex(): 826.가 찾을 수 없는 클래스는 ‘Class’ 객체가 아
          니라 클래스 이름을 담은 문자열로 나열됩니다.

      -- 속성: methods

          메서드 이름을 줄 번호에 매핑하는 *note 딕셔너리: 256.  최신
          *note children: 46d4. 딕셔너리에서 파생될 수 있지만, 이전 버전
          과의 호환성을 위해 남아있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일,  Next: compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기,  Prev: pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.8 ‘py_compile’ — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일
---------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/py_compile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note py_compile: b3. 모듈은 소스 파일에서 바이트 코드 파일을 생성하는 함
수와 모듈 소스 파일이 스크립트로 호출될 때 사용되는 또 다른 함수를 제공
합니다.

자주 사용되지는 않지만, 특히 일부 사용자가 소스 코드가 들어있는 디렉터리
에 바이트 코드 캐시 파일을 쓸 수 있는 권한이 없을 때, 이 함수는 공유 사
용을 위해 모듈을 설치할 때 유용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 예외: py_compile.PyCompileError

     파일을 컴파일하는 도중 에러가 일어날 때 발생하는 예외.

 -- 함수: py_compile.compile (file, cfile=None, dfile=None,
          doraise=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0)

     바이트 코드로 소스 파일을 컴파일하고 바이트 코드 캐시 파일을 기록합
     니다.  소스 코드는 'file'이 지정하는 이름의 파일에서 로드됩니다.  바
     이트 코드는 'cfile'에 기록되며, 기본값은 ‘.pyc’로 끝나는 PEP
     3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) 경로입니다.  예를 들어, 'file'이
     ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’이면 'cfile'은 파이썬 3.2의 경우
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’로 기본 설정됩니다.
     'dfile'이 지정되면, 예외 트레이스백에 표시하기 위해 소스 줄을 얻은
     소스 파일 이름으로 'file' 대신 사용됩니다.  'doraise'가 참이면,
     'file'을 컴파일하는 동안 에러를 만나면 *note PyCompileError: 46d9.가
     발생합니다.  'doraise'가 거짓(기본값)이면, ‘sys.stderr’에 에러 문자
     열이 기록되지만, 예외는 발생하지 않습니다.  이 함수는 바이트 컴파일
     된 파일의 경로, 즉 사용된 'cfile' 값을 반환합니다.

     'doraise'와 'quiet' 인자는 파일을 컴파일하는 동안 에러를 처리하는 방
     법을 결정합니다.  'quiet'가 0이나 1이고, 'doraise'가 거짓이면, 기본
     동작이 활성화됩니다: 에러 문자열이 ‘sys.stderr’에 기록되고, 함수는
     경로 대신 ‘None’을 반환합니다.  'doraise'가 참이면, 대신 *note
     PyCompileError: 46d9.가 발생합니다.  그러나 'quiet'가 2이면, 아무런
     메시지도 기록되지 않고, 'doraise'는 효과가 없습니다.

     'cfile'이 되는 경로(명시적으로 지정되거나 계산된 경로)가 심볼릭 링
     크나 비정규 파일이면, *note FileExistsError: 1016.가 발생합니다.  이
     것은 바이트 컴파일된 파일을 해당 경로에 쓸 수 있을 때 임포트가 해당
     경로를 일반 파일로 바꾼다는 경고로 작용합니다.  이는 동시 파일 기록
     문제를 방지하기 위해 최종 바이트 컴파일된 파일을 위치시키는데 파일
     이름 바꾸기를 사용하는 임포트의 부작용입니다.

     'optimize'는 최적화 수준을 제어하고 내장 *note compile(): 192. 함수
     로 전달됩니다.  기본값 ‘-1’은 현재 인터프리터의 최적화 수준을 선택
     합니다.

     'invalidation_mode'는 *note PycInvalidationMode: 46da. enum의 멤버
     여야 하며 실행 시간에 생성된 바이트 코드 캐시를 무효로 하는 방법을
     제어합니다.  ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ 환경 변수가 설정되면 기본값은
     *note PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 46db.이고, 그렇지 않으면 기
     본값은 *note PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP: 46dc.입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'cfile'의 기본값을 PEP 3147(4)과 호환되도록 변경
     했습니다.  이전 기본값은 'file' + ‘'c'’(최적화가 활성화되었으면
     ‘'o'’)입니다.  또한 'optimize' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 바이트 코드 캐시 파일 쓰기에 *note importlib:
     77.를 사용하도록 코드를 변경했습니다.  이것은 파일 생성/기록 의미가
     이제 *note importlib: 77.가 하는 것과 일치한다는 것을 의미합니다, 예
     를 들어 권한, 쓰기-와-이동 의미 등.  또한, 'cfile'이 심볼릭 링크나
     비정규 파일이면 *note FileExistsError: 1016.가 발생시키는 경고를 추
     가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수가 PEP 552(5)에 지
     정된 대로 추가되었습니다.  ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ 환경 변수가 설정되면
     , 'invalidation_mode'는 *note PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH:
     46db.로 강제 설정됩니다.

     버전 3.7.2에서 변경: ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ 환경 변수는 더는
     'invalidation_mode' 인자의 값을 재정의하지 않으며, 대신 기본값을 결
     정합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'quiet' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 클래스: py_compile.PycInvalidationMode

     인터프리터가 바이트 코드 파일이 소스 파일에 대해 최신 버전인지를 결
     정하는 데 사용할 수 있는 가능한 방법의 열거형입니다.  ‘.pyc’ 파일은
     헤더에서 원하는 무효화 모드를 가리킵니다.  파이썬이 실행 시간에
     ‘.pyc’ 파일을 무효로 하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 캐시된
     바이트 코드 무효화: 5e6.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- 속성: TIMESTAMP

          ‘.pyc’ 파일은 파이썬이 실행 시간에 소스 파일의 메타 데이터와 비
          교하여 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 재생성해야 하는지를 결정할 소스 파일의 타
          임스탬프와 크기를 포함합니다.

      -- 속성: CHECKED_HASH

          ‘.pyc’ 파일은 파이썬이 실행 시간에 소스와 비교하여 ‘.pyc’ 파일
          을 다시 생성해야 하는지를 결정할 소스 파일 내용의 해시를 포함
          합니다.

      -- 속성: UNCHECKED_HASH

          *note CHECKED_HASH: 46db.와 마찬가지로, ‘.pyc’ 파일에는 소스 파
          일 내용의 해시가 포함됩니다.  하지만, 파이썬은 실행 시간에
          ‘.pyc’ 파일이 최신 버전이라고 가정하고, 소스 파일에 대해
          ‘.pyc’를 전혀 검증하지 않습니다.

          이 옵션은 ‘.pycs’가 빌드 시스템처럼 파이썬 외부 시스템에 의해
          최신 상태로 유지될 때 유용합니다.

* Menu:

* 명령줄 인터페이스::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/py_compile.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: 명령줄 인터페이스,  Up: py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일

5.32.8.1 명령줄 인터페이스
..........................

이 모듈은 스크립트로 호출하여 여러 소스 파일을 컴파일할 수 있습니다.
'filenames'로 이름이 지정된 파일이 컴파일되고 결과 바이트 코드가 일반적
인 방식으로 캐시 됩니다.  이 프로그램은 소스 파일을 찾기 위해 디렉터리 구
조를 검색하지 않습니다; 명시적으로 이름이 지정된 파일 만 컴파일합니다.  컴
파일할 수 없는 파일이 있으면 종료 상태가 0이 아닙니다.

 -- Option: <file> ... <fileN>
 -- Option: -

     위치 인자는 컴파일할 파일입니다.  ‘-’가 유일한 매개 변수면, 파일 목
     록을 표준 입력에서 가져옵니다.

 -- Option: -q, --quiet

     에러 출력을 억제합니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘-’에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: *note -q: 46e2.에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note compileall: 20.

     디렉터리 트리에 있는 모든 파이썬 소스 파일을 컴파일하는 유틸리티.


File: python.info,  Node: compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기,  Next: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Prev: py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.9 ‘compileall’ — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기
---------------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/compileall.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파이썬 라이브러리 설치를 지원하는 몇 가지 유틸리티 함수를 제공
합니다.  이 함수는 디렉터리 트리에서 파이썬 소스 파일을 컴파일합니다.  이
모듈을 사용하면 라이브러리 설치 시 캐시 된 바이트 코드 파일을 만들 수 있
으므로, 라이브러리 디렉터리에 쓰기 권한이 없는 사용자도 사용할 수 있도록
합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: not WASI.

이 모듈은 웹어셈블리에서 작동하지 않거나 제공되지 않습니다.  자세한 내용
은 *note 웹어셈블리 플랫폼: 17e7.을 참조하세요.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 사용::
* 공용 함수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/compileall.py


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 사용,  Next: 공용 함수,  Up: compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기

5.32.9.1 명령 줄 사용
.....................

이 모듈은 파이썬 소스를 컴파일하는 스크립트로 작동할 수 있습니다
(‘python -m compileall’을 사용합니다).

 -- Option: directory ...
 -- Option: file ...

     위치 인자는 컴파일할 파일이나 소스 파일을 포함하는 디렉터리이며 재
     귀적으로 탐색 됩니다.  인자가 주어지지 않으면, 명령 줄이 ‘-l
     <DIRECTORIES FROM SYS.PATH>’ 인 것처럼 행동합니다.

 -- Option: -l

     서브 디렉터리를 재귀적으로 탐색하지 않고, 이름이 지정되었거나 암시
     된 디렉터리에 직접 포함된 소스 코드 파일 만 컴파일합니다.

 -- Option: -f

     타임스탬프가 최신일 때도 강제로 다시 빌드합니다.

 -- Option: -q

     컴파일된 파일 목록을 인쇄하지 않습니다.  한 번 전달하면, 에러 메시
     지는 여전히 인쇄됩니다.  두 번 전달하면 (‘-qq’), 모든 출력이 억제됩
     니다.

 -- Option: -d destdir

     디렉터리가 컴파일되는 각 파일의 경로 앞에 추가됩니다.  이것은 컴파
     일 시간 트레이스백에 나타나며, 바이트 코드 파일에 컴파일되어 들어가
     서, 바이트 코드 파일이 실행되는 시점에 소스 파일이 존재하지 않으면
     트레이스백과 기타 메시지에 사용됩니다.

 -- Option: -s strip_prefix

     Remove the given prefix from paths recorded in the ‘.pyc’ files.
     Paths are made relative to the prefix.

     This option can be used with ‘-p’ but not with ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -p prepend_prefix

     Prepend the given prefix to paths recorded in the ‘.pyc’ files.
     Use ‘-p /’ to make the paths absolute.

     This option can be used with ‘-s’ but not with ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -x regex

     regex는 컴파일 대상으로 고려되는 각 파일의 전체 경로를 검색
     (search)하는 데 사용되며, 정규식이 일치를 생성하면 그 파일을 건너뜁
     니다.

 -- Option: -i list

     파일 ‘list’를 읽고 포함된 각 줄을 컴파일할 파일과 디렉터리 목록에 추
     가합니다.  ‘list’가 ‘-’이면, ‘stdin’에서 줄을 읽습니다.

 -- Option: -b

     바이트 코드 파일을 레거시 위치 및 이름에 써서, 다른 버전의 파이썬이
     만든 바이트 코드 파일을 덮어쓸 수 있습니다.  기본값은 여러 버전의 파
     이썬의 바이트 코드 파일이 공존할 수 있는 PEP 3147(1) 위치와 이름에
     파일을 쓰는 것입니다.

 -- Option: -r

     서브 디렉터리의 최대 재귀 수준을 제어합니다.  이것이 주어지면, ‘-l’
     옵션은 고려되지 않습니다.  ‘python -m compileall <directory> -r 0’은
     ‘python -m compileall <directory> -l’과 동등합니다.

 -- Option: -j N

     주어진 디렉터리 내의 파일을 컴파일하는 데 'N' 작업자를 사용합니다.
     ‘0’이 사용되면, *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4.의 결과가 사용됩
     니다.

 -- Option: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]

     생성된 바이트 코드 파일이 실행 시간에 무효가 되는 방식을 제어합니다
     .  ‘timestamp’ 값은 소스 타임스탬프와 크기가 포함된 ‘.pyc’ 파일이 생
     성됨을 의미합니다.  ‘checked-hash’와 ‘unchecked-hash’ 값은 해시 기
     반 pyc를 생성합니다.  해시 기반 pyc는 타임스탬프 대신 소스 파일 내
     용의 해시를 포함합니다.  파이썬이 실행 시간에 바이트 코드 캐시 파일
     의 유효성을 검사하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 캐시된 바이트
     코드 무효화: 5e6.를 참조하십시오.  기본값은 ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ 환
     경 변수가 설정되지 않으면 ‘timestamp’이고, ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ 환경
     변수가 설정되면 ‘checked-hash’입니다.

 -- Option: -o level

     주어진 최적화 수준으로 컴파일합니다.  한 번에 여러 수준으로 컴파일
     하기 위해 여러 번 사용할 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, ‘compileall -o 1
     -o 2’).

 -- Option: -e dir

     지정된 디렉터리 외부를 가리키는 심볼릭 링크를 무시합니다.

 -- Option: --hardlink-dupes

     최적화 수준이 다른 두 개의 ‘.pyc’ 파일의 내용이 같으면, 하드 링크를
     사용하여 중복 파일을 통합합니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘-i’, ‘-b’ 및 ‘-h’ 옵션이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘-j’, ‘-r’ 및 ‘-qq’ 옵션이 추가되었습니다.  ‘-q’ 옵션
이 다중 수준 값으로 변경되었습니다.  ‘-b’는 항상 ‘.pyc’로 끝나는 바이트
코드 파일을 생성하며, 결코 ‘.pyo’를 생성하지 않습니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘--invalidation-mode’ 옵션이 추가되었습니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’ 및 ‘--hardlink-dupes’ 옵션을 추가했
습니다.  기본 재귀 제한을 10에서 *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4be.로 올
렸습니다.  ‘-o’ 옵션을 여러 번 지정할 수 있는 가능성이 추가되었습니다.

*note compile(): 192. 함수가 사용하는 최적화 수준을 제어하는 명령 줄 옵
션은 없습니다.  파이썬 인터프리터 자신이 그 옵션을 제공하고 있기 때문입
니다: ‘python -O -m compileall’.

마찬가지로, *note compile(): 192. 함수는 *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a1.
설정을 따릅니다.  생성된 바이트 코드 캐시는 *note compile(): 192.이 실행
시간에 사용될 것과 같은 *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a1.(있다면)로 실행될
때만 유용합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 공용 함수,  Prev: 명령 줄 사용,  Up: compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기

5.32.9.2 공용 함수
..................

 -- 함수: compileall.compile_dir (dir,
          maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     'dir'로 명명된 디렉터리 트리를 재귀적으로 탐색해 내려가면서, 발견되
     는 모든 ‘.py’ 파일을 컴파일합니다.  모든 파일이 성공적으로 컴파일되
     면 참값을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓값을 반환합니다.

     'maxlevels' 매개 변수는 재귀의 깊이를 제한하는 데 사용됩니다; 기본
     값은 ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’입니다.

     'ddir'이 주어지면, 컴파일 시간 트레이스백에서 사용하기 위해 컴파일
     되는 각 파일의 경로 앞에 추가되며, 바이트 코드 파일에 컴파일되어 들
     어가서, 바이트 코드 파일이 실행되는 시점에 소스 파일이 존재하지 않
     으면 트레이스백과 기타 메시지에 사용됩니다.

     'force'가 참이면, 타임스탬프가 최신일 때도 모듈이 다시 컴파일됩니다
     .

     'rx'가 주어지면, 컴파일 대상으로 고려되는 각 파일의 전체 경로로 그
     것의 ‘search’ 메서드를 호출하고, 참값을 반환하면 그 파일을 건너뜁니
     다.  이는 *note re.Pattern: f7e. 객체로 주어지는 정규식과 일치하는
     파일을 제외하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'quiet'가 ‘False’나 ‘0’(기본값)이면, 파일명과 기타 정보가 표준 출력
     에 인쇄됩니다.  ‘1’로 설정하면, 에러만 인쇄됩니다.  ‘2’로 설정하면,
     모든 출력이 억제됩니다.

     'legacy'가 참이면, 바이트 코드 파일을 레거시 위치 및 이름에 써서, 다
     른 버전의 파이썬이 만든 바이트 코드 파일을 덮어쓸 수 있습니다.  기
     본값은 여러 버전의 파이썬의 바이트 코드 파일이 공존할 수 있는 PEP
     3147(1) 위치와 이름에 파일을 쓰는 것입니다.

     'optimize'는 컴파일러의 최적화 수준을 지정합니다.  내장 *note
     compile(): 192. 함수로 전달됩니다.  한 번의 호출로 하나의 ‘.py’ 파
     일을 여러 번 컴파일하도록 하는 최적화 수준의 시퀀스도 허용합니다.

     인자 'workers'는 파일을 컴파일하는 데 병렬로 사용되는 작업자 수를 지
     정합니다.  기본값은 다중 작업자를 사용하지 않는 것입니다.  플랫폼이
     다중 작업자를 사용할 수 없고 'workers' 인자가 주어지면, 순차 컴파일
     로 대체합니다.  'workers'가 0이면 시스템의 코어 수가 사용됩니다.
     'workers'가 ‘0’보다 작으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     'invalidation_mode'는 *note py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 46da. 열
     거형의 멤버여야 하며 실행 시간에 생성된 pyc가 무효가 되는 방식을 제
     어합니다.

     'stripdir', 'prependdir' 및 'limit_sl_dest' 인자는 위에서 설명한
     ‘-s’, ‘-p’ 및 ‘-e’ 옵션에 해당합니다.  ‘str’ 이나 *note
     os.PathLike: c4e.으로 지정할 수 있습니다.

     'hardlink_dupes'가 참이고 최적화 수준이 다른 두 개의 ‘.pyc’ 파일의
     내용이 같으면, 하드 링크를 사용하여 중복 파일을 통합합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'legacy'와 'optimize' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'workers' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'quiet' 매개 변수가 다중 수준 값으로 변경되었습
     니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'legacy' 매개 변수는 'optimize' 값과 상관없이
     ‘.pyo’ 파일이 아니라 ‘.pyc’ 파일 만 기록합니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7.2에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수의 기본값이
     ‘None’으로 변경되었습니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'workers'를 0으로 설정하면 최적의 코어 수가 선택
     됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' 및
     'hardlink_dupes' 인자가 추가되었습니다.  'maxlevels'의 기본값이
     ‘10’에서 ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’으로 변경되었습니다.

 -- 함수: compileall.compile_file (fullname, ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     경로 'fullname'의 파일을 컴파일합니다.  파일이 성공적으로 컴파일되
     면 참값을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓값을 반환합니다.

     'ddir'이 주어지면, 컴파일 시간 트레이스백에서 사용하기 위해 컴파일
     되는 파일의 경로 앞에 추가되며, 바이트 코드 파일에 컴파일되어 들어
     가서, 바이트 코드 파일이 실행되는 시점에 소스 파일이 존재하지 않으
     면 트레이스백과 기타 메시지에 사용됩니다.

     'rx'가 주어지면, 컴파일 중인 파일의 전체 경로가 그것의 ‘search’ 메
     서드로 전달되고, 참값을 반환하면, 파일이 컴파일되지 않고 ‘True’가 반
     환됩니다.  이는 *note re.Pattern: f7e. 객체로 주어지는 정규식과 일
     치하는 파일을 제외하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'quiet'가 ‘False’나 ‘0’(기본값)이면, 파일명과 기타 정보가 표준 출력
     에 인쇄됩니다.  ‘1’로 설정하면, 에러만 인쇄됩니다.  ‘2’로 설정하면,
     모든 출력이 억제됩니다.

     'legacy'가 참이면, 바이트 코드 파일을 레거시 위치 및 이름에 써서, 다
     른 버전의 파이썬이 만든 바이트 코드 파일을 덮어쓸 수 있습니다.  기
     본값은 여러 버전의 파이썬의 바이트 코드 파일이 공존할 수 있는 PEP
     3147(2) 위치와 이름에 파일을 쓰는 것입니다.

     'optimize'는 컴파일러의 최적화 수준을 지정합니다.  내장 *note
     compile(): 192. 함수로 전달됩니다.  한 번의 호출로 하나의 ‘.py’ 파
     일을 여러 번 컴파일하도록 하는 최적화 수준의 시퀀스도 허용합니다.

     'invalidation_mode'는 *note py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 46da. 열
     거형의 멤버여야 하며 실행 시간에 생성된 pyc가 무효가 되는 방식을 제
     어합니다.

     'stripdir', 'prependdir' 및 'limit_sl_dest' 인자는 위에서 설명한
     ‘-s’, ‘-p’ 및 ‘-e’ 옵션에 해당합니다.  ‘str’ 이나 *note
     os.PathLike: c4e.으로 지정할 수 있습니다.

     'hardlink_dupes'가 참이고 최적화 수준이 다른 두 개의 ‘.pyc’ 파일의
     내용이 같으면, 하드 링크를 사용하여 중복 파일을 통합합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'quiet' 매개 변수가 다중 수준 값으로 변경되었습
     니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'legacy' 매개 변수는 'optimize' 값과 상관없이
     ‘.pyo’ 파일이 아니라 ‘.pyc’ 파일 만 기록합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7.2에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수의 기본값이
     ‘None’으로 변경되었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' 및
     'hardlink_dupes' 인자가 추가되었습니다.

 -- 함수: compileall.compile_path (skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0,
          force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None)

     ‘sys.path’에서 발견된 모든 ‘.py’ 파일을 바이트 컴파일합니다.  모든
     파일이 성공적으로 컴파일되면 참값을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓값
     을 반환합니다.

     'skip_curdir'가 참(기본값)이면, 현재 디렉터리가 검색에 포함되지 않
     습니다.  다른 모든 매개 변수는 *note compile_dir(): b23. 함수에 전
     달됩니다.  다른 컴파일 함수와 달리, ‘maxlevels’의 기본값은 ‘0’임에
     유의하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'legacy'와 'optimize' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'quiet' 매개 변수가 다중 수준 값으로 변경되었습
     니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 'legacy' 매개 변수는 'optimize' 값과 상관없이
     ‘.pyo’ 파일이 아니라 ‘.pyc’ 파일 만 기록합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.7.2에서 변경: 'invalidation_mode' 매개 변수의 기본값이
     ‘None’으로 변경되었습니다.

‘Lib/’ 서브 디렉터리와 그것의 모든 서브 디렉터리에 있는 모든 ‘.py’ 파일
을 강제로 다시 컴파일하려면 다음과 같이 합니다:

     import compileall

     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)

     # .svn 디렉터리의 파일을 제외하고, 같은 컴파일을 수행합니다.
     import re
     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)

     # pathlib.Path 객체도 사용할 수 있습니다.
     import pathlib
     compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note py_compile: b3.

     단일 소스 파일을 바이트 컴파일합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Next: pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구,  Prev: compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.10 ‘dis’ — Disassembler for Python bytecode
------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/dis.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dis: 38. 모듈은 CPython *note 바이트 코드: 187.를 역 어셈블 하여 분
석을 지원합니다.  이 모듈이 입력으로 취하는 CPython 바이트 코드는 파일
‘Include/opcode.h’에 정의되어 있으며 컴파일러와 인터프리터에서 사용됩니
다.

바이트 코드는 CPython 인터프리터의 구현 세부 사항입니다.  파이썬 버전 간
에 바이트 코드가 추가, 제거 또는 변경되지 않을 것이라는 보장은 없습니다.
이 모듈을 사용하는 것이 파이썬 VM이나 파이썬 릴리스에 걸쳐 작동할 것으로
생각하지 말아야 합니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: 명령어마다 2바이트를 사용합니다.  이전에는 바이트 수
가 명령어에 따라 달랐습니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: The argument of jump, exception handling and loop
instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte offset.

버전 3.11에서 변경: Some instructions are accompanied by one or more
inline cache entries, which take the form of *note CACHE: 6f2.
instructions.  These instructions are hidden by default, but can be
shown by passing ‘show_caches=True’ to any *note dis: 38. utility.
Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it
for different runtime conditions.  The adaptive bytecode can be shown by
passing ‘adaptive=True’.

버전 3.12에서 변경: The argument of a jump is the offset of the target
instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately after
the jump instruction’s *note CACHE: 6f2. entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the *note CACHE: 6f2. instructions is
transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when
reasoning about backward jumps.

버전 3.13에서 변경: The output shows logical labels rather than
instruction offsets for jump targets and exception handlers.  The ‘-O’
command line option and the ‘show_offsets’ argument were added.

Example: Given the function ‘myfunc()’:

     def myfunc(alist):
         return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
‘myfunc()’:

     >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
       2           RESUME                   0

       3           LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (len + NULL)
                   LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                   CALL                     1
                   RETURN_VALUE

(“2”는 줄 번호입니다).

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* 바이트 코드 분석::
* 분석 함수::
* 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어::
* 옵코드 모음::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dis.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<3>,  Next: 바이트 코드 분석,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.1 Command-line interface
................................

The *note dis: 38. module can be invoked as a script from the command
line:

     python -m dis [-h] [-C] [-O] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Display usage and exit.

 -- Option: -C, --show-caches

     Show inline caches.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: -O, --show-offsets

     Show offsets of instructions.

     Added in version 3.13.

If ‘infile’ is specified, its disassembled code will be written to
stdout.  Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code
received from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트 코드 분석,  Next: 분석 함수,  Prev: Command-line interface<3>,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.2 바이트 코드 분석
..........................

Added in version 3.4.

바이트 코드 분석 API는 컴파일된 코드의 세부 사항에 쉽게 액세스 할 수 있
도록 하는 *note Bytecode: f26. 객체로 파이썬 코드 조각을 감쌀 수 있도록
합니다.

 -- 클래스: dis.Bytecode (x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False)

     함수, 제너레이터, 비동기 제너레이터, 코루틴, 메서드, 소스 코드 문자
     열 또는 (*note compile(): 192.에서 반환된) 코드 객체에 해당하는 바
     이트 코드를 분석합니다.

     이것은 아래에 나열된 많은 함수, 특히 *note get_instructions():
     1d9.를 둘러싼 편리한 래퍼입니다, *note Bytecode: f26. 인스턴스를 이
     터레이트 하면 바이트 코드 연산이 *note Instruction: 1da. 인스턴스로
     산출되기 때문입니다.

     'first_line'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 역 어셈블 된 코드에서 첫 번째 소스
     줄에 대해 보고해야 하는 줄 번호를 나타냅니다.  그렇지 않으면, 소스
     줄 정보(있다면)를 역 어셈블 된 코드 객체에서 직접 취합니다.

     'current_offset'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 역 어셈블 된 코드의 명령어 오프
     셋을 나타냅니다.  이를 설정하면, *note dis(): f27.가 지정된 옵코드
     (opcode)에 대해 “현재 명령어” 마커를 표시합니다.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f27. will display inline
     cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f27. will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     If 'show_offsets' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f27. will include
     instruction offsets in the output.

      -- 메서드: classmethod from_traceback (tb, *, show_caches=False)

          주어진 트레이스백에서 *note Bytecode: f26. 인스턴스를 구성하고
          , 'current_offset'을 예외를 일으킨 명령어로 설정합니다.

      -- 데이터: codeobj

          컴파일된 코드 객체.

      -- 데이터: first_line

          코드 객체의 첫 번째 소스 줄 (사용 가능하다면)

      -- 메서드: dis ()

          바이트 코드 연산의 포맷된 보기를 반환합니다 (*note dis.dis():
          b31.가 인쇄하는 것과 같지만, 여러 줄 문자열로 반환됩니다).

      -- 메서드: info ()

          *note code_info(): 1229.처럼, 코드 객체에 대한 자세한 정보가 포
          함된 포맷된 여러 줄 문자열을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 코루틴과 비동기 제너레이터 객체를 처리할 수
     있습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

Example:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     ...
     RESUME
     LOAD_GLOBAL
     LOAD_FAST
     CALL
     RETURN_VALUE


File: python.info,  Node: 분석 함수,  Next: 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어,  Prev: 바이트 코드 분석,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.3 분석 함수
...................

*note dis: 38. 모듈은 또한 입력을 원하는 출력으로 직접 변환하는 다음 분
석 함수를 정의합니다.  단일 작업만 수행해서, 중간 분석 객체가 유용하지 않
을 때 유용할 수 있습니다:

 -- 함수: dis.code_info (x)

     제공된 함수, 제너레이터, 비동기 제너레이터, 코루틴, 메서드, 소스 코
     드 문자열 또는 코드 객체에 대한 자세한 코드 객체 정보가 포함된 포맷
     된 여러 줄 문자열을 반환합니다.

     코드 정보 문자열의 정확한 내용은 구현에 따라 달라지며 파이썬 VM이나
     파이썬 릴리스에 걸쳐 임의로 변경될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 코루틴과 비동기 제너레이터 객체를 처리할 수
     있습니다.

 -- 함수: dis.show_code (x, *, file=None)

     제공된 함수, 메서드, 소스 코드 문자열 또는 코드 객체에 대한 자세한
     코드 객체 정보를 'file'(또는 'file'이 지정되지 않으면
     ‘sys.stdout’)로 인쇄합니다.

     이것은 ‘print(code_info(x), file=file)’의 편리한 축약 형으로, 인터
     프리터 프롬프트에서의 대화식 탐색을 위한 것입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'file' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: dis.dis (x=None, *, file=None, depth=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False)

     Disassemble the 'x' object.  'x' can denote either a module, a
     class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous
     generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a
     byte sequence of raw bytecode.  For a module, it disassembles all
     functions.  For a class, it disassembles all methods (including
     class and static methods).  For a code object or sequence of raw
     bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.  It also
     recursively disassembles nested code objects.  These can include
     generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested
     classes, and the code objects used for *note annotation scopes:
     188.  Strings are first compiled to code objects with the *note
     compile(): 192. built-in function before being disassembled.  If no
     object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

     역 어셈블리는 제공된다면 제공된 'file' 인자에, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘sys.stdout’에 텍스트로 기록됩니다.

     재귀의 최대 깊이는 ‘None’이 아닌 한 'depth'에 의해 제한됩니다.
     ‘depth=0’은 재귀가 없음을 의미합니다.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, this function will display inline cache
     entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, this function will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'file' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 재귀 역 어셈블을 구현하고 'depth' 매개 변수를 추
     가했습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이제 코루틴과 비동기 제너레이터 객체를 처리할 수
     있습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

 -- 함수: distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False,

 -- 함수: show_offset=False)

     트레이스백의 최상단 함수를 역 어셈블 합니다.  전달되지 않으면 마지
     막 트레이스백을 사용합니다.  예외를 일으키는 명령어가 표시됩니다.

     역 어셈블리는 제공된다면 제공된 'file' 인자에, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘sys.stdout’에 텍스트로 기록됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'file' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

 -- 함수: dis.disassemble (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

 -- 함수: disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False,

 -- 함수: show_offsets=False)

     코드 객체를 역 어셈블 하고, 'lasti'가 제공되면 마지막 명령어를 표시
     합니다.  출력은 다음 열로 나뉩니다:

       1. 줄 번호, 각 줄의 첫 번째 명령어에 표시됩니다

       2. 현재 명령어, ‘-->’로 표시됩니다,

       3. 레이블이 있는 명령어, ‘>>’로 표시됩니다,

       4. 명령어의 주소,

       5. 연산 코드 이름,

       6. 연산 매개 변수, 그리고

       7. 괄호 안에 있는 매개 변수의 해석.

     매개 변수 해석은 지역과 전역 변수 이름, 상숫값, 분기 대상 및 비교 연
     산자를 인식합니다.

     역 어셈블리는 제공된다면 제공된 'file' 인자에, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘sys.stdout’에 텍스트로 기록됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'file' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

 -- 함수: dis.get_instructions (x, *, first_line=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     제공된 함수, 메서드, 소스 코드 문자열 또는 코드 객체의 명령어들에 대
     한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

     이터레이터는 제공된 코드의 각 연산에 대한 세부 정보를 제공하는
     *note Instruction: 1da. 네임드 튜플의 연속을 생성합니다.

     'first_line'이 ‘None’이 아니면, 역 어셈블 된 코드에서 첫 번째 소스
     줄에 대해 보고해야 하는 줄 번호를 나타냅니다.  그렇지 않으면, 소스
     줄 정보(있다면)를 역 어셈블 된 코드 객체에서 직접 취합니다.

     The 'adaptive' parameter works as it does in *note dis(): 38.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'show_caches' parameter is deprecated and
     has no effect.  The iterator generates the *note Instruction: 1da.
     instances with the 'cache_info' field populated (regardless of the
     value of 'show_caches') and it no longer generates separate items
     for the cache entries.

 -- 함수: dis.findlinestarts (code)

     This generator function uses the *note co_lines(): 2f3. method of
     the *note code object: 1d2. 'code' to find the offsets which are
     starts of lines in the source code.  They are generated as
     ‘(offset, lineno)’ pairs.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 줄 번호가 줄어들 수 있습니다.  전에는, 언제나 증
     가했습니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The PEP 626(1) *note co_lines(): 2f3. method is
     used instead of the *note co_firstlineno: 1f4a. and *note
     co_lnotab: 2e2. attributes of the *note code object: 1d2.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Line numbers can be ‘None’ for bytecode that
     does not map to source lines.

 -- 함수: dis.findlabels (code)

     원시 컴파일된 바이트 코드 문자열 'code'에서 점프 대상인 모든 오프셋
     을 감지하고, 이러한 오프셋의 리스트를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: dis.stack_effect (opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

     인자 'oparg'를 갖는 'opcode'의 스택 효과를 계산합니다.

     코드에 점프 대상이 있고 'jump'가 ‘True’이면, *note stack_effect():
     f29.는 점프의 스택 효과를 반환합니다.  'jump'가 ‘False’이면, 점프하
     지 않는 스택 효과를 반환합니다.  'jump'가 ‘None’(기본값)이면, 두 경
     우의 최대 스택 효과를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'jump' 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: If ‘oparg’ is omitted (or ‘None’), the stack
     effect is now returned for ‘oparg=0’.  Previously this was an error
     for opcodes that use their arg.  It is also no longer an error to
     pass an integer ‘oparg’ when the ‘opcode’ does not use it; the
     ‘oparg’ in this case is ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어,  Next: 옵코드 모음,  Prev: 분석 함수,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.4 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어
...................................

*note get_instructions(): 1d9. 함수와 *note Bytecode: f26. 클래스는 바이
트 코드 명령어의 세부 사항을 *note Instruction: 1da. 인스턴스로 제공합니
다:

 -- 클래스: dis.Instruction

     바이트 코드 연산에 대한 세부 사항

      -- 데이터: opcode

          연산의 숫자 코드, 아래 나열된 옵코드 값과 *note 옵코드 모음:
          470c.에 있는 바이트 코드 값에 해당합니다.

      -- 데이터: opname

          연산의 사람이 읽을 수 있는 이름

      -- 데이터: baseopcode

          numeric code for the base operation if operation is
          specialized; otherwise equal to *note opcode: 470b.

      -- 데이터: baseopname

          human readable name for the base operation if operation is
          specialized; otherwise equal to *note opname: 4710.

      -- 데이터: arg

          연산에 대한 숫자 인자 (있다면), 그렇지 않으면 ‘None’

      -- 데이터: oparg

          alias for *note arg: 4711.

      -- 데이터: argval

          resolved arg value (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- 데이터: argrepr

          human readable description of operation argument (if any),
          otherwise an empty string.

      -- 데이터: offset

          바이트 코드 시퀀스 내에서 연산의 시작 인덱스

      -- 데이터: start_offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence, including
          prefixed ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ operations if present; otherwise equal
          to *note offset: 4715.

      -- 데이터: cache_offset

          start index of the cache entries following the operation

      -- 데이터: end_offset

          end index of the cache entries following the operation

      -- 데이터: starts_line

          ‘True’ if this opcode starts a source line, otherwise ‘False’

      -- 데이터: line_number

          source line number associated with this opcode (if any),
          otherwise ‘None’

      -- 데이터: is_jump_target

          다른 코드가 여기로 점프하면 ‘True’, 그렇지 않으면 ‘False’

      -- 데이터: jump_target

          bytecode index of the jump target if this is a jump operation,
          otherwise ‘None’

      -- 데이터: positions

          *note dis.Positions: 44a4. object holding the start and end
          locations that are covered by this instruction.

      -- 데이터: cache_info

          Information about the cache entries of this instruction, as
          triplets of the form ‘(name, size, data)’, where the ‘name’
          and ‘size’ describe the cache format and data is the contents
          of the cache.  ‘cache_info’ is ‘None’ if the instruction does
          not have caches.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Field ‘positions’ is added.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Changed field ‘starts_line’.

     Added fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’, ‘end_offset’,
     ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’, ‘oparg’, ‘line_number’
     and ‘cache_info’.

 -- 클래스: dis.Positions

     In case the information is not available, some fields might be
     ‘None’.

      -- 데이터: lineno

      -- 데이터: end_lineno

      -- 데이터: col_offset

      -- 데이터: end_col_offset

     Added in version 3.11.

파이썬 컴파일러는 현재 다음 바이트 코드 명령어를 생성합니다.

'일반 명령어'

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as ‘STACK’ and
describe operations on it as if it was a Python list.  The top of the
stack corresponds to ‘STACK[-1]’ in this language.

 -- Opcode: NOP

     Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer,
     and to generate line tracing events.

 -- Opcode: POP_TOP

     Removes the top-of-stack item:

          STACK.pop()

 -- Opcode: END_FOR

     Removes the top-of-stack item.  Equivalent to ‘POP_TOP’.  Used to
     clean up at the end of loops, hence the name.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: END_SEND

     Implements ‘del STACK[-2]’.  Used to clean up when a generator
     exits.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COPY (i)

     Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from
     its original location:

          assert i > 0
          STACK.append(STACK[-i])

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SWAP (i)

     Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

          STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CACHE

     Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to
     mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly
     in the bytecode itself.  It is automatically hidden by all ‘dis’
     utilities, but can be viewed with ‘show_caches=True’.

     Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction.  Many
     opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and
     will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

     Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great
     care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive
     bytecode containing quickened data.

     Added in version 3.11.

'단항 연산'

단항 연산은 스택의 최상단을 취하고, 연산을 적용한 다음, 결과를 스택에 다
시 푸시합니다.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NEGATIVE

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NOT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This instruction now requires an exact *note
     bool: 461. operand.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_INVERT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: GET_ITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

 -- Opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is a *note generator iterator: bdb. or *note
     coroutine: 48b. object it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements
     ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: TO_BOOL

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = bool(STACK[-1])’.

     Added in version 3.13.

'Binary and in-place operations'

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (‘STACK[-1]’
and ‘STACK[-2]’).  They perform the operation, then put the result back
on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is
done in-place when ‘STACK[-2]’ supports it, and the resulting
‘STACK[-1]’ may be (but does not have to be) the original ‘STACK[-2]’.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_OP (op)

     Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the
     value of 'op'):

          rhs = STACK.pop()
          lhs = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[key])

 -- Opcode: STORE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          container[key] = value

 -- Opcode: DELETE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          del container[key]

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[start:end])

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          values = STACK.pop()
          container[start:end] = value

     Added in version 3.12.

'코루틴 옵코드'

 -- Opcode: GET_AWAITABLE (where)

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])’, where
     ‘get_awaitable(o)’ returns ‘o’ if ‘o’ is a coroutine object or a
     generator object with the *note CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 44b5. flag,
     or resolves ‘o.__await__’.

          If the ‘where’ operand is nonzero, it indicates where the
          instruction occurs:

             * ‘1’: After a call to ‘__aenter__’

             * ‘2’: After a call to ‘__aexit__’

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this instruction did not have an
     oparg.

 -- Opcode: GET_AITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()’.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: ‘__aiter__’로부터 어웨이터블 객체를 반환하는 것
     은 더는 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- Opcode: GET_ANEXT

     Implement ‘STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))’ to
     the stack.  See ‘GET_AWAITABLE’ for details about ‘get_awaitable’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: END_ASYNC_FOR

     Terminates an *note async for: aa7. loop.  Handles an exception
     raised when awaiting a next item.  The stack contains the async
     iterable in ‘STACK[-2]’ and the raised exception in ‘STACK[-1]’.
     Both are popped.  If the exception is not *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1a34, it is re-raised.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: CLEANUP_THROW

     Handles an exception raised during a *note throw(): 4f2. or *note
     close(): 16fb. call through the current frame.  If ‘STACK[-1]’ is
     an instance of *note StopIteration: bf7, pop three values from the
     stack and push its ‘value’ member.  Otherwise, re-raise
     ‘STACK[-1]’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH

     Resolves ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ from ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pushes
     ‘__aexit__’ and result of ‘__aenter__()’ to the stack:

          STACK.extend((__aexit__, __aenter__())

     Added in version 3.5.

'기타 옵코드'

 -- Opcode: SET_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          set.add(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement set comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: LIST_APPEND (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          list.append(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement list comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: MAP_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          value = STACK.pop()
          key = STACK.pop()
          dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

     Used to implement dict comprehensions.

     Added in version 3.1.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Map value is ‘STACK[-1]’ and map key is
     ‘STACK[-2]’.  Before, those were reversed.

모든 *note SET_ADD: 472f, *note LIST_APPEND: 4730. 및 *note MAP_ADD:
aa9. 명령어에 대해, 추가된 값이나 키/값 쌍이 팝 되지만, 컨테이너 객체는
스택에 남아 있어서 루프의 추가 이터레이션에 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_VALUE

     Returns with ‘STACK[-1]’ to the caller of the function.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_CONST (consti)

     Returns with ‘co_consts[consti]’ to the caller of the function.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: YIELD_VALUE

     Yields ‘STACK.pop()’ from a *note generator: 1057.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: oparg set to be the stack depth.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: oparg set to be the exception block depth, for
     efficient closing of generators.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: oparg is ‘1’ if this instruction is part of a
     yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

     ‘locals()’에 ‘__annotations__’가 정의되어 있는지 확인합니다, 그렇지
     않으면 비어있는 ‘dict’로 설정됩니다.  이 옵코드는 클래스나 모듈 본
     문에 *note 변수 어노테이션: d51.이 정적으로 포함될 때만 생성됩니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: POP_EXCEPT

     Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception
     state.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: RERAISE

     Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack.  If oparg is
     non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to
     set *note f_lasti: 884. of the current frame.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_EXC_INFO

     Pops a value from the stack.  Pushes the current exception to the
     top of the stack.  Pushes the value originally popped back to the
     stack.  Used in exception handlers.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EXC_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except’.  Tests whether the
     ‘STACK[-2]’ is an exception matching ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pops ‘STACK[-1]’
     and pushes the boolean result of the test.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EG_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except*’.  Applies
     ‘split(STACK[-1])’ on the exception group representing ‘STACK[-2]’.

     In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the
     non-matching subgroup (‘None’ in case of full match) followed by
     the matching subgroup.  When there is no match, pops one item (the
     match type) and pushes ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: WITH_EXCEPT_START

     Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type,
     val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack.  Used
     to implement the call ‘context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())’ when
     an exception has occurred in a *note with: 5cc. statement.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘__exit__’ function is in position 4 of the
     stack rather than 7.  Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR

     *note AssertionError: 6a3.를 스택으로 푸시합니다.  *note assert:
     965. 문에서 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

     Pushes ‘builtins.__build_class__()’ onto the stack.  It is later
     called to construct a class.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_WITH

     This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.
     First, it loads *note __exit__(): 12f0. from the context manager
     and pushes it onto the stack for later use by *note
     WITH_EXCEPT_START: 4733.  Then, *note __enter__(): 5c2. is called.
     Finally, the result of calling the ‘__enter__()’ method is pushed
     onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: GET_LEN

     Perform ‘STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))’.  Used in *note match: 807.
     statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_MAPPING

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     8c7. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     18aa. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 18c4.), push ‘True’ onto the
     stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_SEQUENCE

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     11b3. and is 'not' an instance of *note str: 445./*note bytes:
     1c2./*note bytearray: 538. (or, more technically: if it has the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18ab. flag set in its *note tp_flags:
     18c4.), push ‘True’ onto the stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_KEYS

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of mapping keys, and ‘STACK[-2]’ is the
     match subject.  If ‘STACK[-2]’ contains all of the keys in
     ‘STACK[-1]’, push a *note tuple: 369. containing the corresponding
     values.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: STORE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘name = STACK.pop()’.  'namei' is the index of 'name' in
     the attribute *note co_names: 1f49. of the *note code object: 1d2.
     The compiler tries to use *note STORE_FAST: 16f8. or *note
     STORE_GLOBAL: 4739. if possible.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘del name’, where 'namei' is the index into *note
     co_names: 1f49. attribute of the *note code object: 1d2.

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)

     Unpacks ‘STACK[-1]’ into 'count' individual values, which are put
     onto the stack right-to-left.  Require there to be exactly 'count'
     values.:

          assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
          STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_EX (counts)

     Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in
     ‘STACK[-1]’ into individual values, where the total number of
     values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one
     of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

     The number of values before and after the list value is limited to
     255.

     The number of values before the list value is encoded in the
     argument of the opcode.  The number of values after the list if any
     is encoded using an ‘EXTENDED_ARG’.  As a consequence, the argument
     can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of 'counts' is
     the number of values before the list value, the high byte of
     'counts' the number of values after it.

     The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e.
     ‘a, *b, c = d’ will be stored after execution as ‘STACK.extend((a,
     b, c))’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          obj.name = value

     where 'namei' is the index of name in *note co_names: 1f49. of the
     *note code object: 1d2.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          del obj.name

     where 'namei' is the index of name into *note co_names: 1f49. of
     the *note code object: 1d2.

 -- Opcode: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)

     *note STORE_NAME: 4738.처럼 작동하지만, 이름을 전역으로 저장합니다.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)

     *note DELETE_NAME: 473a.처럼 작동하지만, 전역 이름을 삭제합니다.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CONST (consti)

     ‘co_consts[consti]’를 스택으로 푸시합니다.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_NAME (namei)

     Pushes the value associated with ‘co_names[namei]’ onto the stack.
     The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the
     builtins.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_LOCALS

     Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack.  This
     is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4e0. and *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS:
     4e1.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for
     ‘co_names[namei]’.  If the name is not found there, looks it up in
     the globals and then the builtins, similar to *note LOAD_GLOBAL:
     16f0.  This is used for loading global variables in *note
     annotation scopes: 188. within class bodies.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_TUPLE (count)

     Creates a tuple consuming 'count' items from the stack, and pushes
     the resulting tuple onto the stack:

          if count == 0:
              value = ()
          else:
              value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
              STACK = STACK[:-count]

          STACK.append(value)

 -- Opcode: BUILD_LIST (count)

     *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4740.처럼 작동하지만, 리스트를 만듭니다.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SET (count)

     *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4740.처럼 작동하지만, 집합을 만듭니다.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_MAP (count)

     Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops ‘2 * count’
     items so that the dictionary holds 'count' entries: ‘{...,
     STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}’.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 딕셔너리는 'count' 항목을 갖도록 미리 크기가 조
     정된 빈 딕셔너리를 만드는 대신 스택 항목에서 만들어집니다.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count)

     The version of *note BUILD_MAP: 16e9. specialized for constant
     keys.  Pops the top element on the stack which contains a tuple of
     keys, then starting from ‘STACK[-2]’, pops 'count' values to form
     values in the built dictionary.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_STRING (count)

     스택에서 'count' 문자열을 이어붙이고 결과 문자열을 스택으로 푸시합
     니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: LIST_EXTEND (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build lists.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: SET_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build sets.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          map = STACK.pop()
          dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

     Used to build dicts.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_MERGE (i)

     *note DICT_UPDATE: 4745.와 유사하지만, 중복 키에 대해 예외를 발생시
     킵니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ATTR (namei)

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is not set, this replaces ‘STACK[-1]’
     with ‘getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])’.

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, this will attempt to load a
     method named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ from the ‘STACK[-1]’ object.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.  This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if
     ‘STACK[-1]’ has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes
     the unbound method and ‘STACK[-1]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ will be used as
     the first argument (‘self’) by *note CALL: 700. or *note CALL_KW:
     16ea. when calling the unbound method.  Otherwise, ‘NULL’ and the
     object returned by the attribute lookup are pushed.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a ‘NULL’
     or ‘self’ is pushed to the stack before the attribute or unbound
     method respectively.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (namei)

     This opcode implements *note super(): 4d5, both in its
     zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g.  ‘super().method()’,
     ‘super().attr’ and ‘super(cls, self).method()’, ‘super(cls,
     self).attr’).

     It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down):

        * ‘self’: the first argument to the current method

        * ‘cls’: the class within which the current method was defined

        * the global ‘super’

     With respect to its argument, it works similarly to *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 4d8, except that ‘namei’ is shifted left by 2 bits
     instead of 1.

     The low bit of ‘namei’ signals to attempt a method load, as with
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 4d8, which results in pushing ‘NULL’ and the
     loaded method.  When it is unset a single value is pushed to the
     stack.

     The second-low bit of ‘namei’, if set, means that this was a
     two-argument call to *note super(): 4d5. (unset means
     zero-argument).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COMPARE_OP (opname)

     Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
     ‘cmp_op[opname >> 5]’.  If the fifth-lowest bit of ‘opname’ is set
     (‘opname & 16’), the result should be coerced to ‘bool’.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The fifth-lowest bit of the oparg now indicates
     a forced conversion to *note bool: 461.

 -- Opcode: IS_OP (invert)

     ‘is’ 비교를 수행하거나, ‘invert’가 1이면 ‘is not’을 수행합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: CONTAINS_OP (invert)

     ‘in’ 비교를 수행하거나, ‘invert’가 1이면 ‘not in’을 수행합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_NAME (namei)

     Imports the module ‘co_names[namei]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’
     are popped and provide the 'fromlist' and 'level' arguments of
     *note __import__(): 8d1.  The module object is pushed onto the
     stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import
     statement, a subsequent *note STORE_FAST: 16f8. instruction
     modifies the namespace.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_FROM (namei)

     Loads the attribute ‘co_names[namei]’ from the module found in
     ‘STACK[-1]’.  The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be
     subsequently stored by a *note STORE_FAST: 16f8. instruction.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)

     바이트 코드 카운터를 'delta'만큼 증가시킵니다.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Checks for interrupts.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Does not check for
     interrupts.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is true, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than
     an absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced
     in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This instruction now requires an exact *note
     bool: 461. operand.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is false, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than
     an absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced
     in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This instruction now requires an exact *note
     bool: 461. operand.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is not ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: FOR_ITER (delta)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is an *note iterator: 1ac.  Call its *note __next__():
     12bd. method.  If this yields a new value, push it on the stack
     (leaving the iterator below it).  If the iterator indicates it is
     exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by 'delta'.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when it
     was exhausted.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)

     Loads the global named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ onto the stack.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a ‘NULL’
     is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST (var_num)

     지역 ‘co_varnames[var_num]’에 대한 참조를 스택으로 푸시합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This opcode is now only used in situations
     where the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized.  It
     cannot raise *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)

     Pushes references to ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’ onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack, raising an *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. if the local
     variable has not been initialized.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack (or pushes ‘NULL’ onto the stack if the local variable has
     not been initialized) and sets ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST (var_num)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (var_nums)

     Stores ‘STACK[-1]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘STACK[-2]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’
     and pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’
     onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_FAST (var_num)

     지역 ‘co_varnames[var_num]’을 삭제합니다.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_CELL (i)

     Creates a new cell in slot ‘i’.  If that slot is nonempty then that
     value is stored into the new cell.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_DEREF (i)

     Loads the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage.
     Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note
     co_varnames: 1f44.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with
     slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage in this mapping.  If the name
     is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot ‘i’,
     similar to *note LOAD_DEREF: 4750.  This is used for loading *note
     closure variables: 1f47. in class bodies (which previously used
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’) and in *note annotation scopes: 188. within
     class bodies.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_DEREF (i)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the
     “fast locals” storage.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note
     co_varnames: 1f44.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_DEREF (i)

     Empties the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals”
     storage.  Used by the *note del: 17ad. statement.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note
     co_varnames: 1f44.

 -- Opcode: COPY_FREE_VARS (n)

     Copies the ‘n’ *note free (closure) variables: 1f47. from the
     closure into the frame.  Removes the need for special code on the
     caller’s side when calling closures.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)

     'argc'의 값에 따라, ‘raise’ 문의 3가지 형식 중 하나를 사용하여 예외
     를 발생시킵니다:

        * 0: ‘raise’ (이전 예외를 다시 발생시킵니다)

        * 1: ‘raise STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at
          ‘STACK[-1]’)

        * 2: ‘raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance
          or type at ‘STACK[-2]’ with ‘__cause__’ set to ‘STACK[-1]’)

 -- Opcode: CALL (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’.  On the stack are (in ascending order):

        * The callable

        * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’

        * The remaining positional arguments

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional arguments, excluding ‘self’.

     ‘CALL’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
     calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the
     return value returned by the callable object.

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The callable now always appears at the same
     position on the stack.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Calls with keyword arguments are now handled by
     *note CALL_KW: 16ea.

 -- Opcode: CALL_KW (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’, including one or more named arguments.  On the stack are
     (in ascending order):

        * The callable

        * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’

        * The remaining positional arguments

        * The named arguments

        * A *note tuple: 369. of keyword argument names

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional and named arguments,
     excluding ‘self’.  The length of the tuple of keyword argument
     names is the number of named arguments.

     ‘CALL_KW’ pops all arguments, the keyword names, and the callable
     object off the stack, calls the callable object with those
     arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable
     object.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)

     위치와 키워드 인자의 변수 집합으로 콜러블 객체를 호출합니다.
     'flags'의 최하위 비트가 설정되면, 스택의 맨 위에 추가 키워드 인자가
     포함된 매핑 객체가 포함됩니다.  콜러블이 호출되기 전에, 매핑 객체와
     이터러블 객체는 각각 “언팩” 되고 그 내용이 각각 키워드와 위치 인자
     로 전달됩니다.  ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’는 모든 인자와 콜러블 객체를 스택
     에서 팝하고, 해당 인자로 콜러블 객체를 호출한 다음, 콜러블 객체가 반
     환한 반환 값을 푸시합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_NULL

     Pushes a ‘NULL’ to the stack.  Used in the call sequence to match
     the ‘NULL’ pushed by *note LOAD_METHOD: c1c. for non-method calls.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_FUNCTION

     Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code
     object at ‘STACK[-1]’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Flag value ‘0x04’ is a tuple of strings instead
     of dictionary

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Qualified name at ‘STACK[-1]’ was removed.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Extra function attributes on the stack,
     signaled by oparg flags, were removed.  They now use *note
     SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE: 4754.

 -- Opcode: SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (flag)

     Sets an attribute on a function object.  Expects the function at
     ‘STACK[-1]’ and the attribute value to set at ‘STACK[-2]’; consumes
     both and leaves the function at ‘STACK[-1]’.  The flag determines
     which attribute to set:

        * ‘0x01’ 위치 전용과 위치-키워드 매개 변수를 위한 기본값의 위치
          순서 튜플

        * ‘0x02’ 키워드 전용 매개 변수의 기본값 딕셔너리

        * ‘0x04’ a tuple of strings containing parameters’ annotations

        * ‘0x08’ 자유 변수를 위한 셀을 포함하는 튜플, 클로저를 만듭니다

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SLICE (argc)

     Pushes a slice object on the stack.  'argc' must be 2 or 3.  If it
     is 2, implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end))

     if it is 3, implements:

          step = STACK.pop()
          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

     See the *note slice(): 463. built-in function for more information.

 -- Opcode: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)

     너무 커서 기본 1바이트에 맞지 않는 인자를 가진 옵코드에 접두어로 붙
     입니다.  'ext'는 인자에서 더 높은 비트로 작동하는 추가 바이트를 보
     유합니다.  각 옵코드마다, 최대 3개의 접두사 ‘EXTENDED_ARG’가 허용되
     며, 2바이트에서 4바이트 사이의 인자를 형성합니다.

 -- Opcode: CONVERT_VALUE (oparg)

     Convert value to a string, depending on ‘oparg’:

          value = STACK.pop()
          result = func(value)
          STACK.append(result)

        * ‘oparg == 1’: call *note str(): 445. on 'value'

        * ‘oparg == 2’: call *note repr(): 7f7. on 'value'

        * ‘oparg == 3’: call *note ascii(): 13af. on 'value'

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_SIMPLE

     Formats the value on top of stack:

          value = STACK.pop()
          result = value.__format__("")
          STACK.append(result)

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_WITH_SPEC

     Formats the given value with the given format spec:

          spec = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          result = value.__format__(spec)
          STACK.append(result)

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_CLASS (count)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of keyword attribute names, ‘STACK[-2]’ is
     the class being matched against, and ‘STACK[-3]’ is the match
     subject.  'count' is the number of positional sub-patterns.

     Pop ‘STACK[-1]’, ‘STACK[-2]’, and ‘STACK[-3]’.  If ‘STACK[-3]’ is
     an instance of ‘STACK[-2]’ and has the positional and keyword
     attributes required by 'count' and ‘STACK[-1]’, push a tuple of
     extracted attributes.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.10.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: RESUME (context)

     A no-op.  Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization
     checks.

     The ‘context’ oparand consists of two parts.  The lowest two bits
     indicate where the ‘RESUME’ occurs:

        * ‘0’ The start of a function, which is neither a generator,
          coroutine nor an async generator

        * ‘1’ After a ‘yield’ expression

        * ‘2’ After a ‘yield from’ expression

        * ‘3’ After an ‘await’ expression

     The next bit is ‘1’ if the RESUME is at except-depth ‘1’, and ‘0’
     otherwise.

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The oparg value changed to include information
     about except-depth

 -- Opcode: RETURN_GENERATOR

     Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current
     frame.  Used as first opcode of in code object for the above
     mentioned callables.  Clear the current frame and return the newly
     created generator.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SEND (delta)

     Equivalent to ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])’.  Used in
     ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ statements.

     If the call raises *note StopIteration: bf7, pop the top value from
     the stack, push the exception’s ‘value’ attribute, and increment
     the bytecode counter by 'delta'.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: HAVE_ARGUMENT

     This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line
     between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don’t use their argument
     and those that do (‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ and ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’,
     respectively).

     If your application uses pseudo instructions or specialized
     instructions, use the *note hasarg: 29e. collection instead.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 이제 모든 명령어에는 인자가 있지만, ‘<
     HAVE_ARGUMENT’인 옵코드는 이를 무시합니다.  이전에는, ‘>=
     HAVE_ARGUMENT’인 옵코드에만 인자가 있었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Pseudo instructions were added to the *note
     dis: 38. module, and for them it is not true that comparison with
     ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ indicates whether they use their arg.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: Use *note hasarg: 29e. instead.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_1

     Calls an intrinsic function with one argument.  Passes ‘STACK[-1]’
     as the argument and sets ‘STACK[-1]’ to the result.  Used to
     implement functionality that is not performance critical.

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                 Description
                                             
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_1_INVALID’                   Not valid
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PRINT’                       Prints the argument to standard out.
                                             Used in the REPL.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR’                 Performs ‘import *’ for the named
                                             module.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR’         Extracts the return value from a
                                             ‘StopIteration’ exception.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’              Wraps an async generator value
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE’              Performs the unary ‘+’ operation
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE’               Converts a list to a tuple
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR’                     Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15d.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE’                Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC’           Returns *note typing.Generic: 1620.
                                             subscripted with the argument
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeAliasType: 44e.;
                                             used in the *note type: 431.
                                             statement.  The argument is a tuple
                                             of the type alias’s name, type
                                             parameters, and value.
                                             

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_2

     Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments.  Used to implement
     functionality that is not performance critical:

          arg2 = STACK.pop()
          arg1 = STACK.pop()
          result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
          STACK.append(result)

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                      Description
                                                  
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_2_INVALID’                        Not valid
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR’                Calculates the
                                                  *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. to raise
                                                  from a ‘try-except*’.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND’               Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15d.
                                                  with a bound.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS’         Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15d.
                                                  with constraints.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS’         Sets the ‘__type_params__’ attribute
                                                  of a function.
                                                  

     Added in version 3.12.

'Pseudo-instructions'

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode.  They are used by the
compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is
generated.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_FINALLY (target)

     Set up an exception handler for the following code block.  If an
     exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current
     state and control is transferred to the exception handler at
     ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_CLEANUP (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, but in case of an exception also pushes the
     last instruction (‘lasti’) to the stack so that ‘RERAISE’ can
     restore it.  If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the
     last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state,
     and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_WITH (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’, but in case of an exception one more item is
     popped from the stack before control is transferred to the
     exception handler at ‘target’.

     This variant is used in *note with: 5cc. and *note async with: 5cf.
     constructs, which push the return value of the context manager’s
     *note __enter__(): 5c2. or *note __aenter__(): 1fd8. to the stack.

 -- Opcode: POP_BLOCK

     Marks the end of the code block associated with the last
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’ or ‘SETUP_WITH’.

 -- Opcode: JUMP

 -- Opcode: JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

     Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their
     directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)

     Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast
     locals” storage.

     Note that ‘LOAD_CLOSURE’ is replaced with ‘LOAD_FAST’ in the
     assembler.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: This opcode is now a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_METHOD

     Optimized unbound method lookup.  Emitted as a ‘LOAD_ATTR’ opcode
     with a flag set in the arg.


File: python.info,  Node: 옵코드 모음,  Prev: 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.5 옵코드 모음
.....................

이 모음은 바이트 코드 명령어의 자동 검사를 위해 제공됩니다:

버전 3.12에서 변경: The collections now contain pseudo instructions and
instrumented instructions as well.  These are opcodes with values ‘>=
MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE’.

 -- 데이터: dis.opname

     연산 이름의 시퀀스, 바이트 코드를 사용하여 인덱싱할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: dis.opmap

     연산 이름을 바이트 코드로 매핑하는 딕셔너리.

 -- 데이터: dis.cmp_op

     모든 비교 연산 이름의 시퀀스.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasarg

     Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasconst

     상수에 액세스하는 바이트 코드의 시퀀스.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasfree

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a *note free (closure) variable:
     1f47.  ‘free’ in this context refers to names in the current scope
     that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that
     are referenced from this scope.  It does 'not' include references
     to global or builtin scopes.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasname

     어트리뷰트를 이름으로 액세스하는 바이트 코드의 시퀀스.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasjump

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a jump target.  All jumps are
     relative.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- 데이터: dis.haslocal

     지역 변수에 액세스하는 바이트 코드의 시퀀스.

 -- 데이터: dis.hascompare

     불리언 연산의 바이트 코드의 시퀀스.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasexc

     Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasjrel

     상대 점프 대상이 있는 바이트 코드의 시퀀스.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: All jumps are now relative.  Use *note
     hasjump: 4764.

 -- 데이터: dis.hasjabs

     절대 점프 대상이 있는 바이트 코드의 시퀀스.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: All jumps are now relative.  This list is
     empty.


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구,  Prev: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Up: 파이썬 언어 서비스

5.32.11 ‘pickletools’ — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구
-----------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pickletools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 *note pickle: a6. 모듈의 깊은 세부 사항과 관련된 다양한 상수,
구현에 대한 긴 주석, 그리고 피클 된 데이터를 분석하기 위한 몇 가지 유용
한 함수를 포함합니다.  이 모듈의 내용은 *note pickle: a6.에서 작업하는 파
이썬 코어 개발자에게 유용합니다; 아마도 *note pickle: a6. 모듈의 일반 사
용자는 *note pickletools: a7. 모듈을 적절한 용도를 찾지 못할 것입니다.

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 사용법: 명령 줄 사용법<5>.
* 프로그래밍 인터페이스: 프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pickletools.py


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 사용법<5>,  Next: 프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>,  Up: pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구

5.32.11.1 명령 줄 사용법
........................

Added in version 3.2.

명령 줄에서 호출될 때, ‘python -m pickletools’는 하나 이상의 피클 파일의
내용을 역 어셈블합니다.  피클 형식의 세부 사항이 아닌 피클에 저장된 파이
썬 객체를 보려면, 대신 ‘-m pickle’을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  그러나, 검
사하려는 피클 파일이 신뢰할 수 없는 소스에서 왔을 때, 피클 바이트 코드를
실행하지 않으므로 ‘-m pickletools’가 더 안전한 옵션입니다.

예를 들어, 튜플 ‘(1, 2)’가 파일 ‘x.pickle’에 피클 된 경우:

     $ python -m pickle x.pickle
     (1, 2)

     $ python -m pickletools x.pickle
         0: \x80 PROTO      3
         2: K    BININT1    1
         4: K    BININT1    2
         6: \x86 TUPLE2
         7: q    BINPUT     0
         9: .    STOP
     highest protocol among opcodes = 2

* Menu:

* 명령 줄 옵션: 명령 줄 옵션<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: 명령 줄 옵션<5>,  Up: 명령 줄 사용법<5>

5.32.11.2 명령 줄 옵션
......................

 -- Option: -a, --annotate

     각 줄에 짧은 opcode 설명으로 주석을 답니다.

 -- Option: -o, --output=<file>

     출력이 기록되어야 하는 파일의 이름.

 -- Option: -l, --indentlevel=<num>

     새 MARK 수준을 들여쓰기하는 공백의 수.

 -- Option: -m, --memo

     여러 객체가 역 어셈블될 때, 역 어셈블리 간에 메모를 보존합니다.

 -- Option: -p, --preamble=<preamble>

     하나 이상의 피클 파일이 지정될 때, 각 역 어셈블리 전에 주어진 프리
     앰블을 인쇄합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>,  Prev: 명령 줄 사용법<5>,  Up: pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구

5.32.11.3 프로그래밍 인터페이스
...............................

 -- 함수: pickletools.dis (pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4,
          annotate=0)

     피클의 기호적인 역 어셈블리를 기본값이 ‘sys.stdout’인 파일류 객체
     'out'으로 출력합니다.  'pickle'는 문자열이나 파일류 객체가 될 수 있
     습니다.  'memo'는 피클의 메모로 사용될 파이썬 딕셔너리일 수 있습니
     다; 같은 피클러로 만들어진 여러 피클에 걸쳐 역 어셈블리를 수행하는
     데 사용할 수 있습니다.  스트림의 ‘MARK’ 옵코드로 표시된 연속 수준은
     'indentlevel'개의 스페이스로 들여쓰기 됩니다.  0이 아닌 값이
     'annotate'에 주어지면, 출력의 각 옵코드에 짧은 설명이 주석으로 표시
     됩니다.  'annotate' 값은 주석을 시작해야 하는 열의 힌트로 사용됩니
     다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'annotate' 인자를 추가했습니다.

 -- 함수: pickletools.genops (pickle)

     피클의 모든 옵코드에 대해 ‘(opcode, arg, pos)’ 트리플을 반환하는
     *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 제공합니다.  'opcode'는 ‘OpcodeInfo’ 클래
     스의 인스턴스입니다; 'arg'는 옵코드 인자의 파이썬 객체로 디코딩된 값
     입니다; 'pos'는 이 옵코드의 위치입니다.  'pickle'은 문자열이나 파일
     류 객체가 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: pickletools.optimize (picklestring)

     사용되지 않는 ‘PUT’ 옵코드를 제거한 후 새로운 동등한 피클 문자열을
     반환합니다.  최적화된 피클은 더 짧고, 전송 시간이 덜 걸리며, 저장 공
     간이 덜 필요하고, 역 피클이 더 효율적입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: MS 윈도우 특정 서비스,  Next: Unix-specific services,  Prev: 파이썬 언어 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.33 MS 윈도우 특정 서비스
==========================

이 장에서는 MS 윈도우 플랫폼에서만 사용 가능한 모듈에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴::
* winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스::
* winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스::


File: python.info,  Node: msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴,  Next: winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스,  Up: MS 윈도우 특정 서비스

5.33.1 ‘msvcrt’ — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 함수들은 윈도우 플랫폼에서 유용한 기능에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  일
부 고수준 모듈은 이러한 함수를 사용하여 해당 서비스의 윈도우 구현을 구축
합니다.  예를 들어, *note getpass: 62. 모듈은 *note getpass(): 62. 함수
를 구현할 때 이를 사용합니다.

이 함수에 대한 자세한 설명은 플랫폼 API 설명서에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

이 모듈은 콘솔 I/O api의 일반과 광폭(wide) 문자 변형을 모두 구현합니다.
일반 API는 ASCII 문자만 다루며 국제화된 응용 프로그램에서는 제한적으로 사
용됩니다.  가능하면 광폭 문자 API를 사용해야 합니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 모듈의 연산은 이제 *note IOError: 1048.를 발생시키
던 곳에서 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 파일 연산::
* 콘솔 I/O::
* 기타 함수: 기타 함수<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 연산,  Next: 콘솔 I/O,  Up: msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴

5.33.1.1 파일 연산
..................

 -- 함수: msvcrt.locking (fd, mode, nbytes)

     C 런타임의 파일 기술자 'fd'를 기반으로 파일 일부를 잠급니다.  실패
     하면 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.  파일의 잠긴 영역은 현재 파
     일 위치에서부터 'nbytes' 바이트까지며, 파일 끝을 넘어 계속될 수 있
     습니다.  'mode'는 아래에 나열된 ‘LK_*’ 상수 중 하나여야 합니다.  파
     일의 여러 영역이 동시에 잠길 수 있지만 겹칠 수는 없습니다.  인접한
     영역은 병합되지 않습니다; 개별적으로 잠금을 해제해야 합니다.

     인자 ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘msvcrt.locking’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.LK_LOCK
 -- 데이터: msvcrt.LK_RLCK

     지정된 바이트를 잠급니다.  바이트를 잠글 수 없으면, 프로그램은 1초
     후에 즉시 다시 시도합니다.  10 번 시도한 후에도 바이트를 잠글 수 없
     으면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.LK_NBLCK
 -- 데이터: msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK

     지정된 바이트를 잠급니다.  바이트를 잠글 수 없으면, *note OSError:
     411.가 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.LK_UNLCK

     이전에 잠겨 있어야 하는 지정된 바이트의 잠금을 해제합니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.setmode (fd, flags)

     파일 기술자 'fd'의 줄 종료 변환 모드를 설정합니다.  텍스트 모드로 설
     정하려면, 'flags'가 *note os.O_TEXT: 2b69. 여야 합니다; 바이너리는,
     *note os.O_BINARY: 2b5a. 여야 합니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.open_osfhandle (handle, flags)

     파일 핸들 'handle'에서 C 런타임 파일 기술자를 만듭니다.  'flags' 매
     개 변수는 *note os.O_APPEND: 2b5c, *note os.O_RDONLY: 2b58, *note
     os.O_TEXT: 2b69. 및 *note os.O_NOINHERIT: 2b64.의 비트별 OR 여야 합
     니다.  반환된 파일 기술자는 *note os.fdopen(): 1f3a.에 대한 매개 변
     수로 사용되어 파일 객체를 만들 수 있습니다.

     The file descriptor is inheritable by default.  Pass *note
     os.O_NOINHERIT: 2b64. flag to make it non inheritable.

     인자 ‘handle’, ‘flags’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘msvcrt.open_osfhandle’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.get_osfhandle (fd)

     파일 기술자 'fd'의 파일 핸들을 돌려줍니다.  'fd'가 인식되지 않으면
     *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

     인자 ‘fd’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘msvcrt.get_osfhandle’을 발생
     시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 콘솔 I/O,  Next: 기타 함수<4>,  Prev: 파일 연산,  Up: msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴

5.33.1.2 콘솔 I/O
.................

 -- 함수: msvcrt.kbhit ()

     읽을 수 있는 키 누르기가 대기 중이면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  그
     렇지 않으면, 0을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.getch ()

     키 누르기를 읽고 결과 문자를 바이트열로 반환합니다.  콘솔에 아무것
     도 에코 되지 않습니다.  이 호출은 키 누르기를 아직 사용할 수 없으면
     블록하지만, ‘Enter’가 눌러지기를 기다리지는 않습니다.  누른 키가 특
     수 기능 키면, ‘'\000'’ 이나 ‘'\xe0'’를 반환합니다; 다음 호출은 키코
     드를 반환합니다.  이 함수로 ‘Control’-‘C’ 키 누르기를 읽을 수 없습
     니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.getwch ()

     유니코드 값을 반환하는 *note getch(): 4789.의 광폭 문자 변형.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.getche ()

     *note getch(): 4789.와 비슷하지만, 인쇄 가능한 문자를 나타내는 경우
     키 누르기가 에코 됩니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.getwche ()

     유니코드 값을 반환하는 *note getche(): 478a.의 광폭 문자 변형.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.putch (char)

     버퍼링하지 않고 바이트열 'char'을 콘솔에 인쇄합니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.putwch (unicode_char)

     유니코드 값을 받아들이는 *note putch(): 478b.의 광폭 문자 변형.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.ungetch (char)

     바이트열 'char'이 콘솔 버퍼로 “푸시백” 되도록 합니다; *note
     getch(): 4789. 나 *note getche(): 478a.가 읽는 다음 문자가 됩니다.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.ungetwch (unicode_char)

     유니코드 값을 받아들이는 *note ungetch(): 478c.의 광폭 문자 변형.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 함수<4>,  Prev: 콘솔 I/O,  Up: msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴

5.33.1.3 기타 함수
..................

 -- 함수: msvcrt.heapmin ()

     강제로 ‘malloc()’ 힙이 자신을 정리하고, 사용하지 않는 블록을 운영 체
     제로 반환하도록 합니다.  실패하면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다
     .

 -- 함수: msvcrt.set_error_mode (mode)

     Changes the location where the C runtime writes an error message
     for an error that might end the program.  'mode' must be one of the
     ‘OUT_*’ constants listed below or *note REPORT_ERRMODE: 4792.
     Returns the old setting or -1 if an error occurs.  Only available
     in *note debug build of Python: 1f9.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.OUT_TO_DEFAULT

     Error sink is determined by the app’s type.  Only available in
     *note debug build of Python: 1f9.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.OUT_TO_STDERR

     Error sink is a standard error.  Only available in *note debug
     build of Python: 1f9.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.OUT_TO_MSGBOX

     Error sink is a message box.  Only available in *note debug build
     of Python: 1f9.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.REPORT_ERRMODE

     Report the current error mode value.  Only available in *note debug
     build of Python: 1f9.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.CrtSetReportMode (type, mode)

     Specifies the destination or destinations for a specific report
     type generated by ‘_CrtDbgReport()’ in the MS VC++ runtime.  'type'
     must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants listed below.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘CRTDBG_*’ constants listed below.  Only available in
     *note debug build of Python: 1f9.

 -- 함수: msvcrt.CrtSetReportFile (type, file)

     After you use *note CrtSetReportMode(): 4796. to specify *note
     CRTDBG_MODE_FILE: 4798, you can specify the file handle to receive
     the message text.  'type' must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants
     listed below.  'file' should be the file handle your want
     specified.  Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1f9.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRT_WARN

     Warnings, messages, and information that doesn’t need immediate
     attention.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRT_ERROR

     Errors, unrecoverable problems, and issues that require immediate
     attention.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRT_ASSERT

     Assertion failures.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG

     Writes the message to the debugger’s output window.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_FILE

     Writes the message to a user-supplied file handle.  *note
     CrtSetReportFile(): 4797. should be called to define the specific
     file or stream to use as the destination.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW

     Creates a message box to display the message along with the
     ‘Abort’, ‘Retry’, and ‘Ignore’ buttons.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE

     Returns current 'mode' for the specified 'type'.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION

     The CRT Assembly version, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN

     The VC Assembly public key token, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.

 -- 데이터: msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX

     The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.


File: python.info,  Node: winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스,  Next: winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스,  Prev: msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴,  Up: MS 윈도우 특정 서비스

5.33.2 ‘winreg’ — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 함수들은 윈도우 레지스트리 API를 파이썬에 노출합니다.  프로그래머가 명
시적으로 닫는 것을 무시하더라도 핸들이 올바르게 닫히도록 하기 위해, 레지
스트리 핸들로 정수를 사용하는 대신 *note 핸들 객체: 47a1.가 사용됩니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 모듈의 여러 함수는 *note WindowsError: 104a.를 발
생시켜왔는데, 이제는 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭입니다.

* Menu:

* 함수: 함수<12>.
* 상수: 상수<11>.
* 레지스트리 핸들 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 함수<12>,  Next: 상수<11>,  Up: winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스

5.33.2.1 함수
.............

이 모듈은 다음 함수를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: winreg.CloseKey (hkey)

     이전에 열린 레지스트리 키를 닫습니다.  'hkey' 인자는 이전에 열린 키
     를 지정합니다.

          참고: 이 메서드를 사용하여 (또는 *note hkey.Close(): 47a6.를 통
          해) 'hkey'가 닫히지 않으면, 'hkey' 객체가 파이썬에 의해 파괴될
          때 닫힙니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.ConnectRegistry (computer_name, key)

     다른 컴퓨터에 있는 사전 정의된 레지스트리 핸들에 연결하고, *note
     핸들 객체: 47a1.를 반환합니다.

     'computer_name'은 ‘r"\\computername"’ 형식의 원격 컴퓨터 이름입니다
     .  ‘None’이면, 로컬 컴퓨터가 사용됩니다.

     'key'는 연결할 사전 정의된 핸들입니다.

     반환 값은 열린 키의 핸들입니다.  함수가 실패하면, *note OSError:
     411. 예외가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘computer_name’, ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.ConnectRegistry’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.CreateKey (key, sub_key)

     지정된 키를 만들거나 열어, *note 핸들 객체: 47a1.를 반환합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 이 메서드가 열거나 만드는 키의 이름을 지정하는 문자열입
     니다.

     'key'가 사전 정의된 키 중 하나이면, 'sub_key'는 ‘None’일 수 있습니
     다.  이 경우, 반환된 핸들은 함수에 전달된 것과 같은 키 핸들입니다.

     키가 이미 존재하면, 이 함수는 기존 키를 엽니다.

     반환 값은 열린 키의 핸들입니다.  함수가 실패하면, *note OSError:
     411. 예외가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.CreateKey’를 발생시킵니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.CreateKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_WRITE)

     지정된 키를 만들거나 열어, *note 핸들 객체: 47a1.를 반환합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 이 메서드가 열거나 만드는 키의 이름을 지정하는 문자열입
     니다.

     'reserved'는 예약된 정수이며, 0이어야 합니다.  기본값은 0입니다.

     'access'는 키에 대한 원하는 보안 액세스를 기술하는 액세스 마스크를
     지정하는 정수입니다.  기본값은 *note KEY_WRITE: 47a8.입니다.  허용
     되는 다른 값은 *note 액세스 권한: 47a9.을 참조하십시오.

     'key'가 사전 정의된 키 중 하나이면, 'sub_key'는 ‘None’일 수 있습니
     다.  이 경우, 반환된 핸들은 함수에 전달된 것과 같은 키 핸들입니다.

     키가 이미 존재하면, 이 함수는 기존 키를 엽니다.

     반환 값은 열린 키의 핸들입니다.  함수가 실패하면, *note OSError:
     411. 예외가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.CreateKey’를 발생시킵니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.DeleteKey (key, sub_key)

     지정된 키를 삭제합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 'key' 매개 변수로 식별된 키의 서브 키여야 하는 문자열입
     니다.  이 값은 ‘None’이 아니어야 하며, 키에 서브 키가 없을 수 있습
     니다.

     '이 메서드는 서브 키가 있는 키를 삭제할 수 없습니다.'

     메서드가 성공하면, 모든 값을 포함하여 전체 키가 제거됩니다.  메서드
     가 실패하면, *note OSError: 411. 예외가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.DeleteKey’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.DeleteKeyEx (key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY,
          reserved=0)

     지정된 키를 삭제합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 'key' 매개 변수로 식별된 키의 서브 키여야 하는 문자열입
     니다.  이 값은 ‘None’이 아니어야 하며, 키에 서브 키가 없을 수 있습
     니다.

     'reserved'는 예약된 정수이며, 0이어야 합니다.  기본값은 0입니다.

     'access'는 키에 대한 원하는 보안 액세스를 기술하는 액세스 마스크를
     지정하는 정수입니다.  기본값은 *note KEY_WOW64_64KEY: 47aa.입니다.
     32비트 윈도우에서는, WOW64 상수가 무시됩니다.  허용되는 다른 값은
     *note 액세스 권한: 47a9.을 참조하십시오.

     '이 메서드는 서브 키가 있는 키를 삭제할 수 없습니다.'

     메서드가 성공하면, 모든 값을 포함하여 전체 키가 제거됩니다.  메서드
     가 실패하면, *note OSError: 411. 예외가 발생합니다.

     지원되지 않는 윈도우 버전에서는, *note NotImplementedError: 228. 가
     발생합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.DeleteKey’를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.DeleteValue (key, value)

     레지스트리 키에서 명명된 값을 제거합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'value'는 제거할 값을 식별하는 문자열입니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘value’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.DeleteValue’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.EnumKey (key, index)

     열린 레지스트리 키의 서브 키를 열거하고, 문자열을 반환합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'index'는 꺼낼 키의 인덱스를 식별하는 정수입니다.

     이 함수는 호출될 때마다 하나의 서브 키 이름을 꺼냅니다.  일반적으로
     더 이상 사용할 수 있는 값이 없음을 나타내는 *note OSError: 411. 예
     외가 발생할 때까지 반복적으로 호출됩니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘index’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.EnumKey’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.EnumValue (key, index)

     열린 레지스트리 키의 값을 열거하고, 튜플을 반환합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'index'는 꺼낼 값의 인덱스를 식별하는 정수입니다.

     이 함수는 호출될 때마다 하나의 서브 키 이름을 꺼냅니다.  일반적으로
     더는 값이 없음을 표시하는 *note OSError: 411. 예외가 발생할 때까지
     반복적으로 호출됩니다.

     결과는 3개의 항목으로 구성된 튜플입니다:

     인덱스      의미
                 
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         값 이름을 식별하는 문자열
                 
                 
     ‘1’         값 데이터를 담은 객체, 형이 하부 레지스트리 유
                 형에 따라 달라집니다
                 
                 
     ‘2’         값 데이터의 형을 식별하는 정수
                 (*note SetValueEx(): 1794.에 대한 설명서에 있
                 는 표를 참조하십시오)
                 

     인자 ‘key’, ‘index’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.EnumValue’를
     발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings (str)

     *note REG_EXPAND_SZ: 47ab.와 같은 문자열에서 환경 변수 자리 표시자
     ‘%NAME%’을 확장합니다:

          >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
          'C:\\Windows'

     인자 ‘str’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.FlushKey (key)

     키의 모든 어트리뷰트를 레지스트리에 씁니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     키를 변경하기 위해 *note FlushKey(): 47ac.를 호출할 필요는 없습니다
     .  레지스트리 변경은 지연 플러셔를 사용하여 레지스트리에 의해 디스
     크로 플러시 됩니다.  레지스트리 변경은 시스템 종료 시에도 디스크로
     플러시 됩니다.  *note CloseKey(): 47a5.와 달리, *note FlushKey():
     47ac. 메서드는 모든 데이터가 레지스트리에 기록될 때만 반환합니다.  응
     용 프로그램은 레지스트리 변경이 디스크에 있다는 절대적인 확신이 필
     요할 때만 *note FlushKey(): 47ac.를 호출해야 합니다.

          참고: *note FlushKey(): 47ac. 호출이 필요한지 모른다면, 아마도
          필요하지 않습니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.LoadKey (key, sub_key, file_name)

     지정된 키 아래에 서브 키를 만들고 지정된 파일에 있는 등록 정보를 그
     서브 키에 저장합니다.

     'key'는 *note ConnectRegistry(): 41da.가 반환한 핸들이거나 상수
     *note HKEY_USERS: 47ad.나 *note HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE: 47ae. 중 하나입
     니다.

     'sub_key'는 로드할 서브 키를 식별하는 문자열입니다.

     'file_name'은 레지스트리 데이터를 로드할 파일의 이름입니다.  이 파
     일은 *note SaveKey(): 41e6. 함수로 만들어졌어야 합니다.  FAT(file
     allocation table) 파일 시스템에서, 파일명은 확장자가 없을 수 있습니
     다.

     호출하는 프로세스에 ‘SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE’ 권한(privilege)이 없으면
     *note LoadKey(): 41e0.에 대한 호출이 실패합니다.  권한(privilege)은
     허가(permissions)와 다름에 유의하십시오 – 자세한 내용은 RegLoadKey
     설명서(1)를 참조하십시오.

     'key'가 *note ConnectRegistry(): 41da.가 반환한 핸들이면,
     'file_name'에 지정된 경로는 원격 컴퓨터에 상대적입니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.LoadKey’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.OpenKey (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)
 -- 함수: winreg.OpenKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)

     지정된 키를 열고, *note 핸들 객체: 47a1.를 반환합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 열 서브 키를 식별하는 문자열입니다.

     'reserved'는 예약된 정수이며, 0이어야 합니다.  기본값은 0입니다.

     'access'는 키에 대한 원하는 보안 액세스를 기술하는 액세스 마스크를
     지정하는 정수입니다.  기본값은 *note KEY_READ: 47b0.입니다.  허용되
     는 다른 값은 *note 액세스 권한: 47a9.을 참조하십시오.

     결과는 지정된 키에 대한 새로운 핸들입니다.

     함수가 실패하면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.OpenKey’를 발생시킵니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’를 발
     생시킵니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 명명된 인자 사용을 허용합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note 위: 47a2.를 참조하십시오.

 -- 함수: winreg.QueryInfoKey (key)

     키에 대한 정보를 튜플로 반환합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     결과는 3개의 항목으로 구성된 튜플입니다:

     인덱스      의미
                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         이 키가 가진 서브 키의 수를 제공하는 정수.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         이 키가 가진 값의 수를 제공하는 정수.
                 
                 
     ‘2’         키가 마지막으로 수정된 때(있다면)를 1601년 1월
                 1일 이후로 지난 100나노초로 제공하는 정수.
                 

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.QueryInfoKey’를 발생
     시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.QueryValue (key, sub_key)

     키의 이름이 없는 값을 문자열로 가져옵니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 값이 연관된 서브 키의 이름을 담은 문자열입니다.  이 매
     개 변수가 ‘None’이거나 비어있으면, 함수는 'key'로 식별된 키에 대해
     *note SetValue(): 41e7. 메서드로 설정된 값을 가져옵니다.

     레지스트리의 값에는 이름, 형 및 데이터 구성 요소가 있습니다.  이 메
     서드는 ‘NULL’ 이름을 가진 키의 첫 번째 값에 대한 데이터를 가져옵니
     다.  그러나 하부 API 호출은 형을 반환하지 않아서, 가능하다면 항상
     *note QueryValueEx(): 41e5.를 사용하십시오.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.QueryValue’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.QueryValueEx (key, value_name)

     열린 레지스트리 키와 연관된 지정된 값 이름의 형과 데이터를 가져옵니
     다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'value_name'은 조회할 값을 나타내는 문자열입니다.

     결과는 2개의 항목으로 구성된 튜플입니다:

     인덱스      의미
                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         레지스트리 항목의 값.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         이 값에 대한 레지스트리 유형을 제공하는 정
                 수 (*note SetValueEx(): 1794.의 설명서에 있
                 는 표를 참조하십시오)
                 

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.QueryValue’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.SaveKey (key, file_name)

     지정된 키와 그것의 모든 서브 키를 지정된 파일에 저장합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'file_name'은 레지스트리 데이터를 저장할 파일 이름입니다.  이 파일
     은 이미 존재할 수 없습니다.  이 파일명에 확장자가 포함되어 있으면,
     *note LoadKey(): 41e0. 메서드로 FAT(file allocation table) 파일 시
     스템에서 사용할 수 없습니다.

     'key'가 원격 컴퓨터의 키를 나타내면, 'file_name'이 기술하는 경로는
     원격 컴퓨터에 상대적입니다.  이 메서드의 호출자는
     'SeBackupPrivilege' 보안 권한(privilege)을 가지고 있어야 합니다.  권
     한(privilege)은 허가(permissions)와 다름에 유의하십시오 – 자세한 내
     용은 사용자 권한과 허가 간의 충돌 설명서(2)를 참조하십시오.

     이 함수는 'security_attributes'로 ‘NULL’을 API로 전달합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘file_name’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.SaveKey’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.SetValue (key, sub_key, type, value)

     값을 지정된 키와 연관시킵니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'sub_key'는 값이 연관된 서브 키의 이름을 지정하는 문자열입니다.

     'type'은 데이터의 형을 지정하는 정수입니다.  현재 이것은 *note
     REG_SZ: 47b1. 여야 하는데, 문자열만 지원된다는 뜻입니다.  다른 데이
     터형을 지원하려면 *note SetValueEx(): 1794. 함수를 사용하십시오.

     'value'는 새 값을 지정하는 문자열입니다.

     'sub_key' 매개 변수로 지정된 키가 존재하지 않으면, SetValue 함수가
     이를 만듭니다.

     값 길이는 사용 가능한 메모리에 따라 제한됩니다.  긴 값(2048바이트보
     다 긴)은 구성 레지스트리에 저장된 파일명을 가진 파일로 저장해야 합
     니다.  이렇게 하면 레지스트리가 효율적으로 수행하는 데 도움을 줍니
     다.

     'key' 매개 변수로 식별된 키는 *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47b2. 액세스로 열
     렸어야 합니다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.SetValue’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.SetValueEx (key, value_name, reserved, type, value)

     열린 레지스트리 키의 값 필드에 데이터를 저장합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     'value_name'은 값이 연관된 서브 키의 이름을 지정하는 문자열입니다.

     'reserved'는 무엇이든 가능합니다 – 0이 항상 API로 전달됩니다.

     'type'은 데이터의 형을 지정하는 정수입니다.  사용 가능한 형은 *note
     값 형: 47b3.을 참조하십시오.

     'value'는 새 값을 지정하는 문자열입니다.

     이 메서드는 지정된 키에 대한 추가 값과 형 정보를 설정할 수도 있습니
     다.  key 매개 변수로 식별된 키는 *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47b2. 액세스
     로 열렸어야 합니다.

     키를 열려면, *note CreateKey(): 41db.나 *note OpenKey(): 41e1. 메서
     드를 사용하십시오.

     값 길이는 사용 가능한 메모리에 따라 제한됩니다.  긴 값(2048바이트보
     다 긴)은 구성 레지스트리에 저장된 파일명을 가진 파일로 저장해야 합
     니다.  이렇게 하면 레지스트리가 효율적으로 수행하는 데 도움을 줍니
     다.

     인자 ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.SetValue’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.DisableReflectionKey (key)

     64비트 운영 체제에서 실행 중인 32비트 프로세스에 대한 레지스트리 리
     플렉션(reflection)을 비활성화합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     32비트 운영 체제에서 실행하면 일반적으로 *note NotImplementedError:
     228. 가 발생합니다.

     키가 리플렉션 목록에 없으면, 함수는 성공하지만 아무런 효과가 없습니
     다.  키에 대한 리플렉션을 비활성화해도 서브 키의 리플렉션에는 영향
     을 미치지 않습니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘winreg.DisableReflectionKey’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.EnableReflectionKey (key)

     지정된 비활성화 된 키에 대한 레지스트리 리플렉션(reflection)을 복원
     합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     32비트 운영 체제에서 실행하면 일반적으로 *note NotImplementedError:
     228. 가 발생합니다.

     키에 대한 리플렉션을 복원해도 서브 키의 리플렉션에 영향을 미치지 않
     습니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.EnableReflectionKey’를
     발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: winreg.QueryReflectionKey (key)

     지정된 키의 리플렉션(reflection) 상태를 판단합니다.

     'key'는 이미 열린 키이거나, 사전 정의된 *note HKEY_* 상수: 47a7. 중
     하나입니다.

     리플렉션이 비활성화되었으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.

     32비트 운영 체제에서 실행하면 일반적으로 *note NotImplementedError:
     228. 가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.QueryReflectionKey’를
     발생시킵니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 상수<11>,  Next: 레지스트리 핸들 객체,  Prev: 함수<12>,  Up: winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스

5.33.2.2 상수
.............

많은 *note winreg: 116. 함수에 사용하기 위해 다음 상수가 정의되어 있습니
다.

* Menu:

* HKEY_* 상수::
* 액세스 권한::
* 값 형::


File: python.info,  Node: HKEY_* 상수,  Next: 액세스 권한,  Up: 상수<11>

5.33.2.3 HKEY_* 상수
....................

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

     이 키에 종속된 레지스트리 항목은 문서의 형(또는 클래스)과 해당 형과
     연관된 속성을 정의합니다.  셸과 COM 응용 프로그램은 이 키에 저장된
     정보를 사용합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER

     이 키에 종속된 레지스트리 항목은 현재 사용자의 환경 설정
     (preferences)을 정의합니다.  이러한 환경 설정에는 환경 변수 설정, 프
     로그램 그룹, 색상, 프린터, 네트워크 연결 및 응용 프로그램 환경 설정
     에 대한 데이터가 포함됩니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

     이 키에 종속된 레지스트리 항목은 버스 유형, 시스템 메모리 및 설치된
     하드웨어와 소프트웨어에 대한 데이터를 포함하는 컴퓨터의 물리적 상태
     를 정의합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_USERS

     이 키에 종속된 레지스트리 항목은 로컬 컴퓨터의 새 사용자를 위한 기
     본 사용자 구성과 현재 사용자의 사용자 구성을 정의합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA

     이 키에 종속된 레지스트리 항목을 사용하면 성능 데이터에 액세스 할 수
     있습니다.  데이터는 실제로 레지스트리에 저장되지 않습니다; 레지스트
     리 함수는 시스템이 소스에서 데이터를 수집하도록 합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

     로컬 컴퓨터 시스템의 현재 하드웨어 프로필에 대한 정보가 들어 있습니
     다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA

     이 키는 98 이후의 윈도우 버전에서는 사용되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 액세스 권한,  Next: 값 형,  Prev: HKEY_* 상수,  Up: 상수<11>

5.33.2.4 액세스 권한
....................

자세한 내용은 레지스트리 키 보안과 액세스(1)를 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS

     STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 47be, *note
     KEY_SET_VALUE: 47b2, *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 47bf, *note
     KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 47c0, *note KEY_NOTIFY: 47c1. 및 *note
     KEY_CREATE_LINK: 47c2. 액세스 권한을 결합합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_WRITE

     STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47b2. 및 *note
     KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 47bf. 액세스 권한을 결합합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_READ

     STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 47be, *note
     KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 47c0. 및 *note KEY_NOTIFY: 47c1. 값을 결합
     합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_EXECUTE

     *note KEY_READ: 47b0.와 동등합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE

     레지스트리 키의 값을 조회하는 데 필요합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE

     레지스트리 값을 생성, 삭제 또는 설정하는 데 필요합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY

     레지스트리 키의 서브 키를 만드는 데 필요합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS

     레지스트리 키의 서브 키를 열거하는 데 필요합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_NOTIFY

     레지스트리 키나 레지스트리 키의 서브 키에 대한 변경 알림을 요청하는
     데 필요합니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK

     시스템 사용을 위해 예약되어 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 64비트 특정::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 64비트 특정,  Up: 액세스 권한

5.33.2.5 64비트 특정
....................

자세한 내용은 대체 레지스트리 뷰에 액세스하기(1)를 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY

     64비트 윈도우의 응용 프로그램이 64비트 레지스트리 뷰에서 작동해야 함
     을 나타냅니다.  32비트 윈도우에서, 이 상수는 무시됩니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY

     64비트 윈도우의 응용 프로그램이 32비트 레지스트리 뷰에서 작동해야 함
     을 나타냅니다.  32비트 윈도우에서, 이 상수는 무시됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 값 형,  Prev: 액세스 권한,  Up: 상수<11>

5.33.2.6 값 형
..............

자세한 내용은 레지스트리 값 형(1)을 참조하십시오.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_BINARY

     모든 형태의 바이너리 데이터.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_DWORD

     32비트 숫자.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     리틀 엔디안 형식의 32비트 숫자.  *note REG_DWORD: 47c9.와 동등합니
     다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN

     빅 엔디안 형식의 32비트 숫자.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ

     환경 변수(‘%PATH%’)에 대한 참조를 포함하는 널 종료 문자열.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_LINK

     유니코드 심볼릭 링크.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ

     두 개의 널 문자로 끝나는 널 종료 문자열의 시퀀스.  (파이썬은 이 종
     료를 자동으로 처리합니다.)

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_NONE

     정의된 값 형이 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_QWORD

     64비트 숫자.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     리틀 엔디안 형식의 64비트 숫자.  *note REG_QWORD: cff.와 동등합니다
     .

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST

     장치 드라이버 리소스 목록.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR

     하드웨어 설정.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST

     하드웨어 리소스 목록.

 -- 데이터: winreg.REG_SZ

     널 종료 문자열.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 레지스트리 핸들 객체,  Prev: 상수<11>,  Up: winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스

5.33.2.7 레지스트리 핸들 객체
.............................

이 객체는 윈도우 HKEY 객체를 감싸서, 객체가 파괴될 때 자동으로 닫습니다.
정리를 보장하기 위해, 객체의 *note Close(): 47a6. 메서드나 *note
CloseKey(): 47a5. 함수를 호출할 수 있습니다.

이 모듈의 모든 레지스트리 함수는 이러한 객체 중 하나를 반환합니다.

핸들 객체를 받아들이는 이 모듈의 모든 레지스트리 함수는 정수도 받아들이
지만, 핸들 객체의 사용을 권장합니다.

핸들 객체는 *note __bool__(): 12c5.에 대한 의미를 제공합니다 – 그래서

     if handle:
         print("Yes")

는 핸들이 현재 유효하면 (닫혔거나 분리되지(detached) 않았으면) ‘Yes’를 인
쇄합니다.

객체는 또한 비교 개념을 지원하므로, 핸들 객체가 모두 같은 하부 윈도우 핸
들값을 참조하면 참으로 비교됩니다.

핸들 객체는 정수로 변환될 수 있으며 (예를 들어, 내장 *note int(): 257. 함
수 사용해서), 이 경우 하부 윈도우 핸들값이 반환됩니다.  *note Detach():
41e2. 메서드를 사용하여 정수 핸들을 반환하고 핸들 객체에서 윈도우 핸들을
분리할 수도 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: PyHKEY.Close ()

     하부 윈도우 핸들을 닫습니다.

     핸들이 이미 닫혀 있으면, 에러가 발생하지 않습니다.

 -- 메서드: PyHKEY.Detach ()

     핸들 객체에서 윈도우 핸들을 분리합니다.

     결과는 핸들이 분리되기 전의 핸들 값을 담고 있는 정수입니다.  핸들이
     이미 분리되었거나 닫혔으면 0이 반환됩니다.

     이 함수를 호출한 후에는, 핸들이 효과적으로 무효가 되지만, 핸들이 닫
     히지는 않습니다.  하부 Win32 핸들이 핸들 객체의 수명을 넘어 존재해
     야 할 때 이 함수를 호출합니다.

     인자 ‘key’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘winreg.PyHKEY.Detach’를 발생
     시킵니다.

 -- 메서드: PyHKEY.__enter__ ()
 -- 메서드: PyHKEY.__exit__ (*exc_info)

     HKEY 객체는 *note __enter__(): 5c2.와 *note __exit__(): 12f0.를 구
     현하므로 *note with: 5cc. 문의 컨텍스트 프로토콜을 지원합니다:

          with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
              ...  # key로 작업합니다

     는 제어가 *note with: 5cc. 블록을 벗어날 때 'key'를 자동으로 닫습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스,  Prev: winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스,  Up: MS 윈도우 특정 서비스

5.33.3 ‘winsound’ — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스
-------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note winsound: 117. 모듈은 윈도우 플랫폼에서 제공하는 기본 소리 재생 장
치에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  함수와 여러 상수를 포함합니다.

 -- 함수: winsound.Beep (frequency, duration)

     PC 스피커로 신호음을 울립니다.  'frequency' 매개 변수는 소리의 주파
     수를 헤르츠 단위로 지정하며 37에서 32,767 범위에 있어야 합니다.
     'duration' 매개 변수는 소리의 지속 시간을 밀리 초로 지정합니다.  시
     스템이 스피커에서 신호음을 울리지 못하면, *note RuntimeError: 195.가
     발생합니다.

 -- 함수: winsound.PlaySound (sound, flags)

     플랫폼 API에서 하부 ‘PlaySound()’ 함수를 호출합니다.  'sound' 매개
     변수는 파일명, 시스템 소리 별칭, *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.의 오디
     오 데이터 또는 ‘None’ 일 수 있습니다.  해석은 'flags'의 값에 따라 달
     라지는데, 아래에 설명된 상수의 비트별 OR 결합이 될 수 있습니다.
     'sound' 매개 변수가 ‘None’이면, 현재 재생 중인 파형 소리가 중지됩니
     다.  시스템이 에러를 표시하면 *note RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다
     .

 -- 함수: winsound.MessageBeep (type=MB_OK)

     플랫폼 API에서 하부 ‘MessageBeep()’ 함수를 호출합니다.  레지스트리
     에 지정된 소리를 재생합니다.  'type' 인자는 재생할 소리를 지정합니
     다; 가능한 값은 아래에 설명된 ‘-1’, ‘MB_ICONASTERISK’,
     ‘MB_ICONEXCLAMATION’, ‘MB_ICONHAND’, ‘MB_ICONQUESTION’ 및 ‘MB_OK’입
     니다.  ‘-1’ 값은 “간단한 신호음”을 생성합니다; 이것은 소리를 재생할
     수 없을 때 최종 대체가 됩니다.  시스템이 에러를 표시하면 *note
     RuntimeError: 195.가 발생합니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_FILENAME

     'sound' 매개 변수는 WAV 파일의 이름입니다.  *note SND_ALIAS: 47d8.와
     함께 사용하지 마십시오.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_ALIAS

     'sound' 매개 변수는 레지스트리의 소리 연결 이름입니다.  레지스트리
     에 그러한 이름이 없으면, *note SND_NODEFAULT: 47d9.도 함께 지정하지
     않는 한 시스템 기본 소리를 재생합니다.  기본 소리가 등록되어 있지 않
     으면, *note RuntimeError: 195.를 일으킵니다.  *note SND_FILENAME:
     47d7.과 함께 사용하지 마십시오.

     모든 Win32 시스템은 적어도 다음을 지원합니다; 대부분 시스템은 더 많
     은 것을 지원합니다:

     *note PlaySound(): d03. '이    해당 제어판 소리 이름
     름'                            

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
     ‘'SystemAsterisk'’             Asterisk
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExclamation'’          Exclamation
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExit'’                 Exit Windows
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemHand'’                 Critical Stop
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemQuestion'’             Question
                                    

     예를 들면:

          import winsound
          # 윈도우 종료 소리를 재생합니다.
          winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

          # 아마도 (등록되어 있다면) 윈도우 기본 소리를 재생합니다 (아마도 "*" 는 등록 된 소리
          # 이름이 아닐 것이기 때문입니다).
          winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_LOOP

     소리를 반복해서 재생합니다.  블로킹을 피하고자 *note SND_ASYNC:
     47db. 플래그도 사용해야 합니다.  *note SND_MEMORY: 47dc.와 함께 사
     용할 수 없습니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_MEMORY

     *note PlaySound(): d03.에 대한 'sound' 매개 변수는 *note 바이트열류
     객체: d2a.의 WAV 파일의 메모리 이미지입니다.

          참고: 이 모듈은 메모리 이미지를 비동기적으로 재생하는 것을 지
          원하지 않으므로, 이 플래그와 *note SND_ASYNC: 47db.의 조합은
          *note RuntimeError: 195.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_PURGE

     지정된 소리의 모든 인스턴스 재생을 중지합니다.

          참고: 이 플래그는 최신 윈도우 플랫폼에서 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_ASYNC

     소리를 비동기적으로 재생할 수 있도록, 즉시 반환합니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_NODEFAULT

     지정된 소리를 찾을 수 없을 때, 시스템 기본 소리를 재생하지 않습니다
     .

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_NOSTOP

     현재 재생 중인 소리를 중단하지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_NOWAIT

     사운드 드라이버가 바쁘면 즉시 반환합니다.

          참고: 이 플래그는 최신 윈도우 플랫폼에서 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.SND_APPLICATION

     The 'sound' parameter is an application-specific alias in the
     registry.  This flag can be combined with the *note SND_ALIAS:
     47d8. flag to specify an application-defined sound alias.

 -- 데이터: winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK

     ‘SystemDefault’ 소리를 재생합니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION

     ‘SystemExclamation’ 소리를 재생합니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.MB_ICONHAND

     ‘SystemHand’ 소리를 재생합니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION

     ‘SystemQuestion’ 소리를 재생합니다.

 -- 데이터: winsound.MB_OK

     ‘SystemDefault’ 소리를 재생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix-specific services,  Next: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Prev: MS 윈도우 특정 서비스,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.34 Unix-specific services
===========================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 유닉스 운영 체제(혹은 때에 따라 일부 혹은 많은
변종)에 고유한 기능에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.  다음은 개요입니다:

* Menu:

* shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석::
* posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출::
* pwd — 암호 데이터베이스::
* grp — 그룹 데이터베이스::
* termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어::
* tty — 터미널 제어 함수::
* pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티::
* fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출::
* resource — 자원 사용 정보::
* syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴::


File: python.info,  Node: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석,  Next: posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.1 ‘shlex’ — 간단한 어휘 분석
---------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/shlex.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note shlex: cca. 클래스를 사용하면 유닉스 셸과 유사한 간단한 구문에 대
한 어휘 분석기를 쉽게 작성할 수 있습니다.  이것은 미니 언어를 작성하거나
(예를 들어 파이썬 응용 프로그램을 위한 실행 제어 파일에서), 인용된 문자
열을 구문 분석할 때 유용합니다.

*note shlex: c4. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: shlex.split (s, comments=False, posix=True)

     셸과 비슷한 문법을 사용하여 문자열 's'를 분할합니다.  'comments'가
     *note False: b34.(기본값)이면, 지정된 문자열의 주석 구문 분석이 비
     활성화됩니다 (*note shlex: cca. 인스턴스의 *note commenters: 47eb.
     어트리뷰트를 빈 문자열로 설정합니다).  이 함수는 기본적으로 POSIX 모
     드로 작동하지만, 'posix' 인자가 거짓이면 비 POSIX 모드를 사용합니다
     .

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 's' 인자에 ‘None’을 전달하면 이제 *note
     sys.stdin: 537.을 읽는 대신 예외를 일으킵니다.

 -- 함수: shlex.join (split_command)

     리스트 'split_command'의 토큰을 이어붙이고 문자열을 반환합니다.  이
     함수는 *note split(): 536.의 역함수입니다.

          >>> from shlex import join
          >>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words']))
          echo -n 'Multiple words'

     반환된 값은 주입 취약점(injection vulnerabilities)으로부터 보호하기
     위해 셸 이스케이프 처리됩니다 (*note quote(): 27d.를 참조하십시오).

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- 함수: shlex.quote (s)

     셸 이스케이프 된 문자열 's'를 반환합니다.  반환된 값은 (리스트를 사
     용할 수 없는 경우) 셸 명령 줄에서 하나의 토큰으로 안전하게 사용할 수
     있는 문자열입니다.
          경고: The ‘shlex’ module is 'only designed for Unix shells'.

          The *note quote(): 27d. function is not guaranteed to be
          correct on non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other
          operating systems such as Windows.  Executing commands quoted
          by this module on such shells can open up the possibility of a
          command injection vulnerability.

          Consider using functions that pass command arguments with
          lists such as *note subprocess.run(): b83. with ‘shell=False’.

     이 관용구는 안전하지 않습니다:

          >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
          >>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
          ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~

     *note quote(): 27d.를 사용하면 보안 허점을 메꿀 수 있습니다:

          >>> from shlex import quote
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
          >>> print(command)
          ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
          >>> print(remote_command)
          ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''

     인용(quoting)은 유닉스 셸과 *note split(): 536.과 호환됩니다:

          >>> from shlex import split
          >>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
          >>> remote_command
          ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
          >>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
          >>> command
          ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']

     Added in version 3.3.

*note shlex: c4. 모듈은 다음 클래스를 정의합니다:

 -- 클래스: shlex.shlex (instream=None, infile=None, posix=False,
          punctuation_chars=False)

     *note shlex: cca. 인스턴스나 서브 클래스 인스턴스는 어휘 분석기 객
     체입니다.  존재할 때 초기화 인자는 문자를 어디에서 읽을지를 지정합
     니다.  *note read(): 1c8d.와 *note readline(): 1cc5. 메서드가 있는
     파일/스트림류 객체이거나 문자열이어야 합니다.  인자가 없으면
     ‘sys.stdin’에서 입력을 받습니다.  두 번째 선택적 인자는 파일명 문자
     열이며, *note infile: 47ec. 어트리뷰트의 초깃값을 설정합니다.
     'instream' 인자가 생략되거나 ‘sys.stdin’과 같으면, 이 두 번째 인자
     의 기본값은 “stdin”입니다.  'posix' 인자는 작동 모드를 정의합니다:
     'posix'가 참이 아닐 때 (기본값), *note shlex: cca. 인스턴스는 호환
     모드에서 작동합니다.  POSIX 모드에서 작동할 때, *note shlex: cca.는
     가능한 한 POSIX 셸 구문 분석 규칙에 가깝도록 시도합니다.
     'punctuation_chars' 인자는 동작을 실제 셸이 구문 분석하는 방식에 더
     가깝게 만드는 방법을 제공합니다.  이것은 여러 종류의 값을 취할 수 있
     습니다: 기본값 ‘False’는 파이썬 3.5와 이전 버전에서의 동작을 유지합
     니다.  ‘True’로 설정되면, 문자 ‘();<>|&’의 구문 분석이 변경됩니다:
     이러한 문자(구두(punctuation) 문자로 간주합니다)의 모든 연속은 단일
     토큰으로 반환됩니다.  비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설정하면, 해당 문자는
     구두(punctuation) 문자로 사용됩니다.  'punctuation_chars'에 나타나
     는 *note wordchars: 47ed. 어트리뷰트의 문자는 *note wordchars:
     47ed.에서 제거됩니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 셸과의 호환성 향상:
     ccb.을 참조하십시오.  'punctuation_chars'는 *note shlex: cca. 인스
     턴스 생성 시에만 설정할 수 있으며 나중에 수정할 수 없습니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 'punctuation_chars' 매개 변수가 추가되었습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note configparser: 22.

     윈도우 ‘.ini’ 파일과 유사한 구성 파일 구문 분석기.

* Menu:

* shlex 객체::
* 구문 분석 규칙::
* 셸과의 호환성 향상::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shlex.py


File: python.info,  Node: shlex 객체,  Next: 구문 분석 규칙,  Up: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석

5.34.1.1 shlex 객체
...................

*note shlex: cca. 인스턴스에는 다음과 같은 메서드가 있습니다:

 -- 메서드: shlex.get_token ()

     토큰을 반환합니다.  *note push_token(): 47f1.을 사용하여 토큰이 스
     택(stack) 되었으면, 스택에서 토큰을 팝(pop) 합니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     입력 스트림에서 하나를 읽습니다.  읽기가 즉시 파일 끝을 만나면,
     *note eof: 47f2.가 반환됩니다 (POSIX 모드가 아니면 빈 문자열
     (‘''’), POSIX 모드이면 ‘None’).

 -- 메서드: shlex.push_token (str)

     인자를 토큰 스택으로 푸시(push)합니다.

 -- 메서드: shlex.read_token ()

     원시 토큰을 읽습니다.  푸시백 스택을 무시하고, 소스 요청(source
     requests)을 해석하지 않습니다.  (이것은 일반적으로 유용한 진입점이
     아니며, 단지 완전성을 위해 여기에서 설명합니다.)

 -- 메서드: shlex.sourcehook (filename)

     *note shlex: cca.가 소스 요청(아래 *note source: 47f5.를 참조하십시
     오)을 감지할 때 이 메서드에는 다음 토큰이 인자로 제공되고 파일명과
     열린 파일류 객체로 구성된 튜플을 반환해야 합니다.

     일반적으로, 이 메서드는 먼저 인자에서 인용(quotes)을 제거합니다.  결
     과가 절대 경로명이거나 유효한 이전 소스 요청이 없거나 이전 소스가 스
     트림(가령 ‘sys.stdin’)이면 결과는 그대로 유지됩니다.  그렇지 않으면
     , 결과가 상대 경로명이면 소스 포함 스택에서 파일 바로 앞에 있는 파
     일의 이름의 디렉터리 부분을 앞에 붙입니다 (이 동작은 C 전처리기가
     ‘#include "file.h"’를 처리하는 방식과 유사합니다).

     조작 결과는 파일명으로 취급되고, 튜플의 첫 번째 구성 요소로 반환되
     며, 이것에 *note open(): 515.이 호출되어 두 번째 구성 요소를 산출합
     니다.  (참고: 이것은 인스턴스 초기화의 인자 순서와 반대입니다!)

     이 훅은 디렉터리 검색 경로, 파일 확장자 추가 및 기타 네임 스페이스
     해킹을 구현하는 데 사용할 수 있도록 노출됩니다.  해당 ‘닫기’ 훅은 없
     지만, shlex 인스턴스는 소스 입력 스트림이 EOF를 반환할 때 그것의
     *note close(): 1f6. 메서드를 호출합니다.

     소스 스태킹을 더 명시적으로 제어하려면, *note push_source(): 47f6.와
     *note pop_source(): 47f7. 메서드를 사용하십시오.

 -- 메서드: shlex.push_source (newstream, newfile=None)

     입력 소스 스트림을 입력 스택으로 푸시합니다.  filename 인자가 지정
     되면 나중에 에러 메시지에 사용할 수 있습니다.  이것은 *note
     sourcehook(): 47f4. 메서드에 의해 내부적으로 사용되는 것과 같은 메
     서드입니다.

 -- 메서드: shlex.pop_source ()

     마지막으로 푸시 된 입력 소스를 입력 스택에서 팝 합니다.  이는 어휘
     분석기가 스택 된 입력 스트림에서 EOF에 도달할 때 내부적으로 사용되
     는 것과 같은 메서드입니다.

 -- 메서드: shlex.error_leader (infile=None, lineno=None)

     이 메서드는 유닉스 C 컴파일러 에러 레이블 형식으로 에러 메시지 리더
     를 생성합니다; 형식은 ‘'"%s", line %d: '’이며, 여기서 ‘%s’는 현재 소
     스 파일의 이름으로 치환되고 ‘%d’는 현재 입력 줄 번호로 치환됩니다
     (선택적 인자를 사용하여 이를 재정의할 수 있습니다).

     이 편리 메서드는 *note shlex: c4. 사용자가 Emacs와 기타 유닉스 도구
     가 이해할 수 있는 표준의 구문 분석 가능한 형식으로 에러 메시지를 생
     성하도록 권장하기 위해 제공됩니다.

*note shlex: cca. 서브 클래스의 인스턴스에는 어휘 분석을 제어하거나 디버
깅에 사용할 수 있는 일부 공용 인스턴스 변수가 있습니다:

 -- 속성: shlex.commenters

     주석을 시작하는 것으로 인식되는 문자열.  주석 시작부터 줄 끝까지의
     모든 문자는 무시됩니다.  기본적으로 ‘'#'’ 만 포함합니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.wordchars

     다중 문자 토큰에 누적될 문자들의 문자열.  기본적으로, 모든 ASCII 영
     숫자와 밑줄이 포함됩니다.  POSIX 모드에서는, 라틴-1 집합의 악센트 부
     호 문자도 포함됩니다.  *note punctuation_chars: 19d8.가 비어 있지 않
     으면, 파일명 명세와 명령 줄 매개 변수에 나타날 수 있는 문자
     ‘~-./*?=’도 이 어트리뷰트에 포함되며, ‘punctuation_chars’에 있는 문
     자는 ‘wordchars’에 있으면 제거됩니다.  *note whitespace_split:
     47f9.이 ‘True’로 설정되면, 이것은 효과가 없습니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.whitespace

     공백으로 간주하여 건너뛸 문자들.  공백은 토큰의 경계를 만듭니다.  기
     본적으로, 스페이스, 탭, 줄 바꿈 및 캐리지 리턴이 포함됩니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.escape

     이스케이프로 간주하는 문자들.  POSIX 모드에서만 사용되며, 기본적으
     로 ‘'\'’ 만 포함합니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.quotes

     문자열 인용으로 간주하는 문자들.  같은 인용을 다시 만날 때까지 토큰
     이 누적됩니다 (따라서, 다른 인용 유형은 셸에서와같이 서로를 보호합
     니다).  기본적으로, ASCII 작은따옴표와 큰따옴표가 포함됩니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.escapedquotes

     *note escape: 47fb.에 정의된 이스케이프 문자를 해석하는 *note
     quotes: 47fc.의 문자들.  이것은 POSIX 모드에서만 사용되며, 기본적으
     로 ‘'"'’ 만 포함합니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.whitespace_split

     ‘True’이면, 토큰은 공백으로만 분할됩니다.  예를 들어, *note shlex:
     cca.로 명령 줄을 구문 분석하고 셸 인자와 유사한 방식으로 토큰을 가
     져오는 데 유용합니다.  *note punctuation_chars: 19d8.와 함께 사용하
     면, 토큰은 그 문자들 외에도 공백으로 분할됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note punctuation_chars: 19d8. 어트리뷰트가
     *note whitespace_split: 47f9. 어트리뷰트와 호환되었습니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.infile

     클래스 인스턴스화 시점에 처음 설정되거나 이후 소스 요청으로 스택 된
     현재 입력 파일의 이름.  에러 메시지를 구성할 때 이를 조사하는 것이
     유용할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.instream

     이 *note shlex: cca. 인스턴스가 문자를 읽고 있는 입력 스트림.

 -- 속성: shlex.source

     이 어트리뷰트는 기본적으로 ‘None’입니다.  문자열을 대입하면, 해당 문
     자열은 여러 셸의 ‘source’ 키워드와 유사한 어휘 수준 포함 요청으로 인
     식됩니다.  즉, 바로 다음 토큰이 파일명으로 열리고 그 스트림에서 입
     력을 EOF까지 취합니다, 이 시점에서 해당 스트림의 *note close():
     1f6. 메서드가 호출되고 입력 소스는 다시 원래 입력 스트림이 됩니다.
     소스 요청은 임의의 수준 깊이로 스택 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.debug

     이 어트리뷰트가 숫자이고 ‘1’ 이상이면, *note shlex: cca. 인스턴스는
     자신의 동작에 대한 자세한 진행 출력을 인쇄합니다.  이것을 사용해야
     하면, 세부 사항을 배우기 위해 모듈 소스 코드를 읽을 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.lineno

     소스 줄 번호 (지금까지 본 줄 넘김 개수에 1을 더한 것).

 -- 속성: shlex.token

     토큰 버퍼.  예외를 잡을 때 이를 조사하는 것이 유용 할 수 있습니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.eof

     파일 끝을 판단하는 데 사용되는 토큰.  POSIX 모드가 아닐 때 빈 문자
     열 (‘''’), POSIX 모드일 때 ‘None’으로 설정됩니다.

 -- 속성: shlex.punctuation_chars

     읽기 전용 프로퍼티.  구두 부호로 간주할 문자들.  구두 부호 문자들은
     단일 토큰으로 반환됩니다.  그러나, 아무런 의미 유효성 검사도 수행되
     지 않음에 유의하십시오: 예를 들어 ‘>>>’는 셸에서 인식되지 않더라도
     토큰으로 반환될 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: 구문 분석 규칙,  Next: 셸과의 호환성 향상,  Prev: shlex 객체,  Up: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석

5.34.1.2 구문 분석 규칙
.......................

비 POSIX 모드에서 작동할 때, *note shlex: cca.는 다음 규칙을 따르려고 합
니다.

   * 인용 문자는 단어 내에서 인식되지 않습니다 (‘Do"Not"Separate’는 단일
     단어 ‘Do"Not"Separate’로 구문 분석됩니다);

   * 이스케이프 문자는 인식되지 않습니다;

   * 인용으로 묶인 문자들은 인용 안에 있는 모든 문자의 리터럴 값을 유지
     합니다;

   * 인용을 닫는 것은 단어를 분리합니다 (‘"Do"Separate’는 ‘"Do"’와
     ‘Separate’로 구문 분석됩니다);

   * *note whitespace_split: 47f9.가 ‘False’이면, 단어 문자, 공백 또는 인
     용으로 선언되지 않은 모든 문자는 단일 문자 토큰으로 반환됩니다.
     ‘True’이면, *note shlex: cca.는 공백으로 만 단어를 분리합니다;

   * EOF는 빈 문자열(‘''’)로 알립니다;

   * 인용된 경우에도 빈 문자열을 구문 분석할 수 없습니다.

POSIX 모드에서 작동할 때, *note shlex: cca.는 다음 구문 분석 규칙을 따르
려고 합니다.

   * 인용은 제거되고, 단어를 분리하지 않습니다 (‘"Do"Not"Separate"’는 단
     일 단어 ‘DoNotSeparate’로 구문 분석됩니다);

   * 인용되지 않은 이스케이프 문자(예를 들어 ‘'\'’)는 다음에 오는 문자의
     리터럴 값을 유지합니다;

   * *note escapedquotes: 47fd.의 일부가 아닌 인용으로 묶인 문자(예를 들
     어 ‘"'"’)는 인용 안에 있는 모든 문자의 리터럴 값을 유지합니다;

   * *note escapedquotes: 47fd.의 일부인 인용으로 묶인 문자(예를 들어
     ‘'"'’)는 *note escape: 47fb.에서 언급된 문자를 제외하고 인용 안에 있
     는 모든 문자의 리터럴 값을 유지합니다.  이스케이프 문자는 사용 중인
     인용이나 이스케이프 문자 자체가 뒤에 오는 경우에만 특별한 의미를 유
     지합니다.  그렇지 않으면 이스케이프 문자는 일반 문자로 간주합니다.

   * EOF는 *note None: 66f. 값으로 알립니다;

   * 인용된 빈 문자열(‘''’)이 허용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 셸과의 호환성 향상,  Prev: 구문 분석 규칙,  Up: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석

5.34.1.3 셸과의 호환성 향상
...........................

Added in version 3.6.

*note shlex: c4. 클래스는 ‘bash’, ‘dash’ 및 ‘sh’와 같은 일반적인 유닉스
셸에서 수행하는 구문 분석과 호환됩니다.  이 호환성을 이용하려면, 생성자
에서 ‘punctuation_chars’ 인자를 지정하십시오.  기본값은 ‘False’이며, 3.6
이전 동작을 유지합니다.  그러나, ‘True’로 설정되면, 문자 ‘();<>|&’의 구
문 분석이 변경됩니다: 이러한 문자의 연속은 단일 토큰으로 반환됩니다.  이
것은 셸에 대한 전체 파서로는 부족하지만 (여러 종류의 셀이 있음을 고려할
때, 표준 라이브러리의 범위를 벗어납니다), 이것이 없을 때보다 명령 줄 처
리를 더 쉽게 수행할 수 있도록 합니다.  예시하기 위해, 다음 코드 조각에서
차이점을 볼 수 있습니다:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)']
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';',
     '(', 'def', 'ghi', ')']

물론, 셸에 유효하지 않은 토큰이 반환되며, 반환된 토큰에 대해 여러분 자신
의 에러 검사를 구현해야 합니다.

punctuation_chars 매개 변수의 값으로 ‘True’를 전달하는 대신, 특정 문자가
포함된 문자열을 전달하면 구두 부호를 구성하는 문자를 판별하는 데 사용됩
니다.  예를 들면:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']

     참고: ‘punctuation_chars’가 지정되면, *note wordchars: 47ed. 어트리
     뷰트는 문자 ‘~-./*?=’로 보강됩니다.  이러한 문자는 파일 이름(와일드
     카드를 포함해서)과 명령 줄 인자(예를 들어 ‘--color=auto’)에 나타날
     수 있기 때문입니다.  그래서:

          >>> import shlex
          >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
          ...                 punctuation_chars=True)
          >>> list(s)
          ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']

     그러나, 가능한 한 가깝게 셸과 일치하려면, *note punctuation_chars:
     19d8.를 사용할 때 항상 ‘posix’와 *note whitespace_split: 47f9.를 사
     용하는 것이 좋습니다, 이는 *note wordchars: 47ed.를 완전히 무효로 합
     니다.

최상의 효과를 얻으려면, ‘punctuation_chars’를 ‘posix=True’와 함께 설정해
야 합니다.  (‘posix=False’가 *note shlex: cca.의 기본값임에 유의하십시오
.)


File: python.info,  Node: posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출,  Next: pwd — 암호 데이터베이스,  Prev: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.2 ‘posix’ — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출
------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 C 표준과 POSIX 표준(얇게 위장한 유닉스 인터페이스)에 의해 표준
화된 운영 체제 기능에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

'이 모듈을 직접 임포트 하지 마십시오.'  대신, 이 인터페이스의 '이식성 있
는' 버전을 제공하는 모듈 *note os: a1.를 임포트 하십시오.  유닉스에서,
*note os: a1. 모듈은 *note posix: ad. 인터페이스의 상위집합을 제공합니다
.  비 유닉스 운영 체제에서는 *note posix: ad. 모듈을 사용할 수 없지만,
*note os: a1. 인터페이스를 통해 항상 부분집합을 사용할 수 있습니다.  일
단 *note os: a1.를 임포트하면, *note posix: ad. 대신 사용해도 성능 저하
가 '없습니다'.  또한, *note os: a1.는 ‘os.environ’의 항목이 변경될 때 자
동으로 *note putenv(): 919.를 호출하는 등의 몇 가지 추가 기능을 제공합니
다.

에러는 예외로 보고됩니다; 보통 예외는 형 에러로 인한 것입니다만, 시스템
호출 때문에 보고되는 에러는 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 대용량 파일 지원::
* 주목할만한 모듈 내용::


File: python.info,  Node: 대용량 파일 지원,  Next: 주목할만한 모듈 내용,  Up: posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출

5.34.2.1 대용량 파일 지원
.........................

여러 운영 체제(AIX 와 Solaris 포함)는 int와 long이 32비트 값인 C 프로그
래밍 모델로 인한 2 GiB보다 큰 파일에 대한 지원을 제공합니다.  이것은 일
반적으로 관련 크기 및 오프셋 형을 64비트 값으로 정의하여 수행됩니다.  이
러한 파일을 때로 '대용량 파일 (large files)'이라고 합니다.

‘off_t’의 크기가 long보다 크고 long long이 적어도 ‘off_t’만큼 크면 파이
썬에서 대용량 파일 지원이 활성화됩니다.  이 모드를 활성화하려면 특정 컴
파일러 플래그로 파이썬을 구성하고 컴파일해야 할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들
어, Solaris 2.6과 2.7에서는 다음과 같은 작업이 필요합니다:

     CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure

대용량 파일을 사용할 수 있는 리눅스 시스템에서, 이렇게 할 수 있습니다:

     CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure


File: python.info,  Node: 주목할만한 모듈 내용,  Prev: 대용량 파일 지원,  Up: posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출

5.34.2.2 주목할만한 모듈 내용
.............................

*note os: a1. 모듈 설명서에서 설명된 많은 함수 외에도, *note posix: ad.는
다음 데이터 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: posix.environ

     인터프리터가 시작될 때 문자열 환경을 나타내는 딕셔너리.  키와 값은
     유닉스에서는 바이트열이고 윈도우에서는 str입니다.  예를 들어,
     ‘environ[b'HOME']’(윈도우에서는 ‘environ['HOME']’)은 홈 디렉터리의
     경로명이며, C의 ‘getenv("HOME")’와 동등합니다.

     이 딕셔너리를 수정해도 *note execv(): 2b2d, *note popen(): a84. 또
     는 *note system(): 1423.에 전달되는 문자열 환경에는 영향을 주지 않
     습니다; 환경을 변경해야 하는 경우 ‘environ’을 *note execve():
     10ea.로 전달하거나, *note system(): 1423. 이나 *note popen(): a84.의
     명령 문자열에 변수 대입과 export 문장을 추가하십시오.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 유닉스에서, 키와 값은 바이트열입니다.

          참고: *note os: a1. 모듈은 수정 시 환경을 갱신하는 ‘environ’의
          대체 구현을 제공합니다.  *note os.environ: 11a9.를 갱신하면 이
          딕셔너리를 쓸모없게 만드는 것에 유의하십시오.  *note os: a1. 모
          듈 버전을 사용하는 것이 *note posix: ad. 모듈에 직접 액세스하
          는 것보다 권장됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: pwd — 암호 데이터베이스,  Next: grp — 그룹 데이터베이스,  Prev: posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.3 ‘pwd’ — 암호 데이터베이스
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 유닉스 사용자 계정과 암호 데이터베이스에 대한 액세스를 제공합
니다.  모든 유닉스 버전에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

암호 데이터베이스 항목은 ‘passwd’ 구조체(아래의 어트리뷰트 필드,
‘<pwd.h>’를 보세요)의 멤버에 해당하는 어트리뷰트를 가진 튜플류 객체로 보
고됩니다.:

인덱스      어트리뷰트          의미
                                
------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘pw_name’           로그인 이름
                                
                                
1           ‘pw_passwd’         선택적 암호화된 암호
                                
                                
2           ‘pw_uid’            숫자 사용자 ID
                                
                                
3           ‘pw_gid’            숫자 그룹 ID
                                
                                
4           ‘pw_gecos’          사용자 이름이나 주석 필드
                                
                                
5           ‘pw_dir’            사용자 홈 디렉터리
                                
                                
6           ‘pw_shell’          사용자 명령 인터프리터
                                

uid 및 gid 항목은 정수이고, 다른 모든 항목은 문자열입니다.  요청된 항목
을 찾을 수 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.

     참고: 전통적인 유닉스에서 필드 ‘pw_passwd’는 대개 DES 파생 알고리즘
     으로 암호화된 암호를 포함합니다.  그러나 대부분의 현대 유닉스는 소
     위 '섀도 암호' 시스템을 사용합니다.  이러한 유닉스에서 'pw_passwd'
     필드는 별표 (‘'*'’) 또는 문자 ‘'x'’ 만 포함하고, 암호화된 암호는 세
     계(world)가 읽을 수 없는 파일 ‘/etc/shadow’에 저장됩니다.
     'pw_passwd' 필드에 유용한 것이 포함되어 있는지는 시스템에 따라 다릅
     니다.

다음 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: pwd.getpwuid (uid)

     주어진 숫자 사용자 ID에 대한 암호 데이터베이스 항목을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: pwd.getpwnam (name)

     주어진 사용자 이름에 대한 암호 데이터베이스 항목을 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: pwd.getpwall ()

     사용 가능한 모든 암호 데이터베이스 항목의 리스트를 임의의 순서로 반
     환합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note grp: 66.

     그룹 데이터베이스에 대한 인터페이스, 이것과 유사합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: grp — 그룹 데이터베이스,  Next: termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어,  Prev: pwd — 암호 데이터베이스,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.4 ‘grp’ — 그룹 데이터베이스
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 유닉스 그룹 데이터베이스에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.  모든 유
닉스 버전에서 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

그룹 데이터베이스 항목은 ‘group’ 구조체(아래의 어트리뷰트 필드,
‘<grp.h>’를 보세요)의 멤버에 해당하는 어트리뷰트를 가진 튜플류 객체로 보
고됩니다.:

인덱스      어트리뷰트      의미
                            
------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
0           gr_name         그룹의 이름
                            
                            
1           gr_passwd       (암호화된) 그룹 암호; 종종 비어있습
                            니다
                            
                            
2           gr_gid          숫자 그룹 ID
                            
                            
3           gr_mem          모든 그룹 구성원의 사용자 이름
                            

gid는 정수고, 이름과 암호는 문자열이며, 구성원 목록은 문자열 리스트입니
다.  (대부분 사용자는 암호 데이터베이스에 따라 속한 그룹의 구성원으로 명
시적으로 나열되지 않습니다.  완전한 멤버십 정보를 얻으려면 두 데이터베이
스를 모두 확인하십시오.  ‘+’ 나 ‘-’로 시작하는 ‘gr_name’은 YP/NIS 참조일
수 있고 *note getgrnam(): 3229. 이나 *note getgrgid(): d23.로 액세스하지
못할 수 있습니다.)

다음 항목을 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: grp.getgrgid (id)

     주어진 숫자 그룹 ID에 대한 그룹 데이터베이스 항목을 반환합니다.  요
     청된 항목을 찾을 수 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: float나 문자열과 같은 정수가 아닌 인자에 대해
     *note TypeError: 532.를 일으킵니다.

 -- 함수: grp.getgrnam (name)

     지정된 그룹 이름에 대한 그룹 데이터베이스의 항목을 반환합니다.  요
     청된 항목을 찾을 수 없으면 *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.

 -- 함수: grp.getgrall ()

     사용 가능한 모든 그룹 항목의 리스트를 임의의 순서로 반환합니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note pwd: b2.

     사용자 데이터베이스와의 인터페이스, 이것과 유사합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어,  Next: tty — 터미널 제어 함수,  Prev: grp — 그룹 데이터베이스,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.5 ‘termios’ — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어
----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 tty I/O 제어를 위한 POSIX 호출에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.
이 호출에 대한 자세한 설명은 ‘termios(3)(1)’ 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조
하십시오.  설치 중에 구성된 POSIX 'termios' 스타일 tty I/O 제어를 지원하
는 유닉스 버전에서만 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

이 모듈의 모든 함수는 첫 번째 인자로 파일 기술자 'fd'를 받아들입니다.
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 정수 파일 기술자이거나,
‘sys.stdin’ 자체와 같은 *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 일 수 있습니다.

이 모듈은 여기에 제공된 함수로 작업하는 데 필요한 모든 상수도 정의합니다
; 이것들은 C에 있는 것들과 같은 이름을 가집니다.  이 터미널 제어 인터페
이스의 사용에 대한 자세한 내용은 시스템 설명서를 참조하십시오.

모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: termios.tcgetattr (fd)

     다음과 같이 파일 기술자 'fd'에 대한 tty 어트리뷰트를 포함하는 리스
     트를 반환합니다: ‘[iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed,
     cc]’.  여기서 'cc'는 tty 특수 문자 리스트입니다 (각기 길이 1인 문자
     열인데, 인덱스가 ‘VMIN’ 과 ‘VTIME’ 인 항목은 예외인데, 이 필드가 정
     의될 때 정수입니다).  'cc' 배열의 인덱싱뿐만 아니라 플래그와 속도의
     해석은 *note termios: e1. 모듈에 정의된 기호 상수를 사용해서 이루어
     져야 합니다.

 -- 함수: termios.tcsetattr (fd, when, attributes)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에 대한 tty 어트리뷰트를 'attributes'로 설정합니다.
     'attributes'는 *note tcgetattr(): 167d.에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 리
     스트입니다.  'when' 인자는 언제 어트리뷰트가 변경되는지를 결정합니
     다:

      -- 데이터: termios.TCSANOW

          어트리뷰트를 즉시 변경합니다.

      -- 데이터: termios.TCSADRAIN

          계류 중인 모든 출력을 전송한 후에 어트리뷰트를 변경합니다.

      -- 데이터: termios.TCSAFLUSH

          계류 중인 모든 출력을 전송하고 계류 중인 모든 입력을 버린 후에
          어트리뷰트를 변경합니다.

 -- 함수: termios.tcsendbreak (fd, duration)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에 브레이크(break)를 보냅니다.  0 'duration'은
     0.25–0.5 초 동안 브레이크를 보냅니다; 0이 아닌 'duration'은 시스템
     종속적인 의미가 있습니다.

 -- 함수: termios.tcdrain (fd)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에 기록된 모든 출력이 전송될 때까지 기다립니다.

 -- 함수: termios.tcflush (fd, queue)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에 계류 중인 데이터를 버립니다.  'queue' 선택기는 어
     떤 큐인지를 지정합니다: 입력 큐는 ‘TCIFLUSH’, 출력 큐는 ‘TCOFLUSH’
     또는 두 큐 모두는 ‘TCIOFLUSH’.

 -- 함수: termios.tcflow (fd, action)

     파일 기술자 'fd'에서 입력 또는 출력을 일시 중단하거나 다시 시작합니
     다.  'action' 인자는 출력을 일시 중단하는 ‘TCOOFF’, 출력을 다시 시
     작하는 ‘TCOON’, 입력을 일시 중단하는 ‘TCIOFF’ 또는 입력을 다시 시작
     하는 ‘TCION’이 될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: termios.tcgetwinsize (fd)

     Return a tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ containing the tty window size
     for file descriptor 'fd'.  Requires ‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’ or
     ‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- 함수: termios.tcsetwinsize (fd, winsize)

     Set the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd' from 'winsize',
     which is a two-item tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ like the one returned
     by *note tcgetwinsize(): 481a.  Requires at least one of the pairs
     (‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’, ‘termios.TIOCSWINSZ’); (‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’,
     ‘termios.TIOCSSIZE’) to be defined.

     Added in version 3.11.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note tty: 100.

     공통 터미널 제어 연산을 위한 편리 함수.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<31>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<31>,  Up: termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어

5.34.5.1 예제
.............

이것은 에코가 꺼진 상태에서 암호를 묻는 함수입니다.  별도의 *note
tcgetattr(): 167d. 호출과 *note try: 6e2. … *note finally: 9c7. 문을 사
용하여 이전 tty 어트리뷰트가 어떤 일이 발생하든 정확하게 복원되도록 하는
것에 유의하십시오:

     def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
         import termios, sys
         fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
         old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
         try:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
             passwd = input(prompt)
         finally:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
         return passwd


File: python.info,  Node: tty — 터미널 제어 함수,  Next: pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티,  Prev: termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.6 ‘tty’ — 터미널 제어 함수
-------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/tty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note tty: 100. 모듈은 tty를 cbreak 및 raw 모드로 설정하는 함수를 정의합
니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

*note termios: e1. 모듈이 필요하기 때문에 유닉스에서만 작동합니다.

*note tty: 100. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다.:

 -- 함수: tty.cfmakeraw (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 167d, to that of a tty in
     raw mode.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- 함수: tty.cfmakecbreak (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 167d, to that of a tty in
     cbreak mode.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags in 'mode' as
     well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     Added in version 3.12.

     버전 3.12.2에서 변경: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.  This
     matches Linux and macOS ‘stty cbreak’ behavior and what *note
     setcbreak(): 167f. historically did.

 -- 함수: tty.setraw (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     파일 기술자 'fd'의 모드를 raw로 변경합니다.  'when'이 생략되면, 기
     본값은 *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 4815.이며 *note
     termios.tcsetattr(): 16ff.로 전달됩니다.  'fd'를 raw 모드로 설정하
     기 전에 *note termios.tcgetattr(): 167d.의 반환값을 보관합니다; 이
     값을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The return value is now the original tty
     attributes, instead of ‘None’.

 -- 함수: tty.setcbreak (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     파일 기술자 'fd'의 모드를 cbreak로 변경합니다.  'when'이 생략되면,
     기본값은 *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 4815.이며 *note
     termios.tcsetattr(): 16ff.로 전달됩니다.  'fd'를 cbreak 모드로 설정
     하기 전에 *note termios.tcgetattr(): 167d.의 반환값을 보관합니다; 이
     값을 반환합니다.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags as well as
     setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The return value is now the original tty
     attributes, instead of ‘None’.

     버전 3.12.2에서 변경: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.  This
     restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as well as
     matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their ‘stty(1)’ man
     pages regarding cbreak mode.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note termios: e1.

     저수준 터미널 제어 인터페이스.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tty.py


File: python.info,  Node: pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티,  Next: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출,  Prev: tty — 터미널 제어 함수,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.7 ‘pty’ — 의사 터미널 유틸리티
-----------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/pty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note pty: b1. 모듈은 의사 터미널 개념을 처리하기 위한 연산을 정의합니다
: 다른 프로세스를 시작하고, 그것의 제어 터미널에 프로그래밍 방식으로 쓰
고 읽습니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix.

의사 터미널 처리는 플랫폼에 따라 매우 다릅니다.  이 코드는 주로 리눅스,
FreeBSD, macOS 에서 테스트 되었습니다 (다른 POSIX 플랫폼에서도 작동하리
라고 기대되지만, 충분히 테스트 되지는 않았습니다).

*note pty: b1. 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: pty.fork ()

     포크.  자식의 제어 터미널을 의사 터미널에 연결합니다.  반환 값은
     ‘(pid, fd)’입니다.  자식은 'pid' 0을 받고, 'fd'는 '유효하지 않음'에
     유의하십시오.  부모의 반환 값은 자식의 'pid'이고, 'fd'는 자식의 제
     어 터미널(또한, 자식의 표준 입력과 출력)에 연결된 파일 기술자입니다
     .

          경고: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 10b.

 -- 함수: pty.openpty ()

     가능하면 *note os.openpty(): 2b6f.를 사용하고, 그렇지 않으면 일반 유
     닉스 시스템을 위한 에뮬레이션 코드를 사용해서 새로운 의사 터미널 쌍
     을 엽니다.  각각 마스터와 슬레이브인 파일 기술자 쌍 ‘(master,
     slave)’를 반환합니다.

 -- 함수: pty.spawn (argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])

     프로세스를 스폰하고, 그것의 제어 터미널을 현재 프로세스의 표준 입출
     력과 연결합니다.  이것은 종종 제어 터미널에서 읽으려고 하는 프로그
     램을 조절하는 데 사용됩니다.  pty 뒤에 스폰된 프로세스가 결국 종료
     할 것으로 기대하고, 그 때 'spawn'이 반환됩니다.

     A loop copies STDIN of the current process to the child and data
     received from the child to STDOUT of the current process.  It is
     not signaled to the child if STDIN of the current process closes
     down.

     함수 'master_read'와 'stdin_read'는 그들이 읽어야 할 파일 기술자를
     전달받고, 항상 바이트열을 반환해야 합니다.  자식 프로세스가 종료하
     기 전에 spawn이 강제로 반환되게 하려면 파일의 끝을 알리기 위해 빈 바
     이트열을 반환해야 합니다.

     두 함수의 기본 구현은 함수가 호출될 때마다 최대 1024바이트를 읽고 반
     환합니다.  'master_read' 콜백으로 의사 터미널의 마스터 파일 기술자
     가 전달되어 자식 프로세스의 출력을 읽으며, 'stdin_read'는 파일 기술
     자 0을 전달받아, 부모 프로세스의 표준 입력을 읽습니다.

     두 콜백 중 하나가 빈 바이트열을 반환하는 것은 파일 끝(EOF) 조건으로
     해석되며, 그 이후로 해당 콜백은 호출되지 않습니다.  'stdin_read'가
     EOF 신호를 보내면 제어 터미널은 더는 부모 프로세스나 자식 프로세스
     와 통신할 수 없습니다.  자식 프로세스가 입력 없이 종료하지 않는 한,
     'spawn'은 영원히 반복됩니다.  'master_read'가 EOF 신호를 보내면 같
     은 동작으로 이어집니다 (적어도 리눅스에서는).

     자식 프로세스에 대한 *note os.waitpid(): d96.로부터 온 종료 상태 값
     을 반환합니다.

     *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91a.를 사용하여 종료 상태를 종료
     코드로 변환할 수 있습니다.

     인자 ‘argv’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘pty.spawn’을 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이제 *note spawn(): f7a.은 자식 프로세스에 대한
     *note os.waitpid(): d96.로부터 온 상태 값을 반환합니다.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<32>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pty.py


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<32>,  Up: pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티

5.34.7.1 예제
.............

다음 프로그램은 유닉스 명령 ‘script(1)(1)’과 유사하게 동작하며, 의사 터
미널을 사용하여 터미널 세션의 모든 입력과 출력을 “typescript”에 기록합니
다.

     import argparse
     import os
     import pty
     import sys
     import time

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
     options = parser.parse_args()

     shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
     filename = options.filename
     mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'

     with open(filename, mode) as script:
         def read(fd):
             data = os.read(fd, 1024)
             script.write(data)
             return data

         print('Script started, file is', filename)
         script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())

         pty.spawn(shell, read)

         script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
         print('Script done, file is', filename)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출,  Next: resource — 자원 사용 정보,  Prev: pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.8 ‘fcntl’ — ‘fcntl’과 ‘ioctl’ 시스템 호출
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 파일 기술자에 대한 파일과 I/O 제어를 수행합니다.  ‘fcntl()’과
‘ioctl()’ 유닉스 루틴에 대한 인터페이스입니다.  자세한 설명은
‘fcntl(2)(1)’과 ‘ioctl(2)(2)’ 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

이 모듈의 모든 함수는 첫 번째 인자로 파일 기술자 'fd'를 받아들입니다.  이
것은 ‘sys.stdin.fileno()’에 의해 반환된 것과 같은 정수 파일 기술자이거나
‘sys.stdin’ 자체와 같은 *note io.IOBase: 1f5. 객체일 수 있습니다.  이 객
체는 실제 파일 기술자를 반환하는 *note fileno(): 285e.를 제공합니다.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 모듈의 연산은 *note IOError: 1048.를 발생시켰는데,
이제는 *note OSError: 411.를 발생시킵니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘fcntl’ 모듈에는 이제 *note os.memfd_create(): a07. 파
일 기술자를 봉인(seal)하기 위한 ‘F_ADD_SEALS’, ‘F_GET_SEALS’ 및
‘F_SEAL_*’ 상수가 포함됩니다.

버전 3.9에서 변경: macOS에서, ‘fcntl’ 모듈은 파일 기술자에서 파일의 경로
를 얻는 ‘F_GETPATH’ 상수를 노출합니다.  리눅스(>=3.15)에서, ‘fcntl’ 모듈
은 열린 파일 기술 록(open file description locks)으로 작업할 때 사용되는
‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ 및 ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ 상수를 노출합니다.

버전 3.10에서 변경: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_GETPIPE_SZ’ and ‘F_SETPIPE_SZ’ constants, which allow to check and
modify a pipe’s size respectively.

버전 3.11에서 변경: On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants, which allow to duplicate a
file descriptor, the latter setting ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.

버전 3.12에서 변경: On Linux >= 4.5, the *note fcntl: 59. module exposes
the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants, which allow to share some
data of one file with another file by reflinking on some filesystems
(e.g., btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly referred to as
“copy-on-write”.

버전 3.13에서 변경: On Linux >= 2.6.32, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_GETOWN_EX’, ‘F_SETOWN_EX’, ‘F_OWNER_TID’, ‘F_OWNER_PID’,
‘F_OWNER_PGRP’ constants, which allow to direct I/O availability signals
to a specific thread, process, or process group.  On Linux >= 4.13, the
‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GET_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_RW_HINT’,
‘F_GET_FILE_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_FILE_RW_HINT’, and ‘RWH_WRITE_LIFE_*’
constants, which allow to inform the kernel about the relative expected
lifetime of writes on a given inode or via a particular open file
description.  On Linux >= 5.1 and NetBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_SEAL_FUTURE_WRITE’ constant for use with ‘F_ADD_SEALS’ and
‘F_GET_SEALS’ operations.  On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_READAHEAD’, ‘F_ISUNIONSTACK’, and ‘F_KINFO’ constants.  On macOS and
FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_RDAHEAD’ constant.  On NetBSD
and AIX, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_CLOSEM’ constant.  On NetBSD,
the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_MAXFD’ constant.  On macOS and NetBSD,
the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETNOSIGPIPE’ and ‘F_SETNOSIGPIPE’
constant.

이 모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: fcntl.fcntl (fd, cmd, arg=0, /)

     Perform the operation 'cmd' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects
     providing a *note fileno(): 285e. method are accepted as well).
     The values used for 'cmd' are operating system dependent, and are
     available as constants in the *note fcntl: 59. module, using the
     same names as used in the relevant C header files.  The argument
     'arg' can either be an integer value, a *note bytes: 1c2. object,
     or a string.  The type and size of 'arg' must match the type and
     size of the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant
     C documentation.

     When 'arg' is an integer, the function returns the integer return
     value of the C ‘fcntl()’ call.

     When the argument is bytes, it represents a binary structure, for
     example, created by *note struct.pack(): 1267.  A string value is
     encoded to binary using the UTF-8 encoding.  The binary data is
     copied to a buffer whose address is passed to the C ‘fcntl()’ call.
     The return value after a successful call is the contents of the
     buffer, converted to a *note bytes: 1c2. object.  The length of the
     returned object will be the same as the length of the 'arg'
     argument.  This is limited to 1024 bytes.

     ‘fcntl()’ 호출이 실패하면, *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

          참고: If the type or the size of 'arg' does not match the type
          or size of the argument of the operation (for example, if an
          integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the
          information returned in the buffer by the operating system is
          larger than 1024 bytes), this is most likely to result in a
          segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption.

     인자 ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘fcntl.fcntl’을
     발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: fcntl.ioctl (fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True, /)

     이 함수는 인자 처리가 훨씬 더 복잡하다는 점을 제외하면, *note
     fcntl(): 346e. 함수와 같습니다.

     The 'request' parameter is limited to values that can fit in
     32-bits or 64-bits, depending on the platform.  Additional
     constants of interest for use as the 'request' argument can be
     found in the *note termios: e1. module, under the same names as
     used in the relevant C header files.

     The parameter 'arg' can be an integer, a *note bytes-like object:
     d2a, or a string.  The type and size of 'arg' must match the type
     and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the
     relevant C documentation.

     If 'arg' does not support the read-write buffer interface or the
     'mutate_flag' is false, behavior is as for the *note fcntl(): 346e.
     function.

     If 'arg' supports the read-write buffer interface (like *note
     bytearray: 538.) and 'mutate_flag' is true (the default), then the
     buffer is (in effect) passed to the underlying ‘ioctl()’ system
     call, the latter’s return code is passed back to the calling
     Python, and the buffer’s new contents reflect the action of the
     ‘ioctl()’.  This is a slight simplification, because if the
     supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied
     into a static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to *note
     ioctl(): 1440. and copied back into the supplied buffer.

     ‘ioctl()’ 호출이 실패하면, *note OSError: 411. 예외가 발생합니다.

          참고: If the type or size of 'arg' does not match the type or
          size of the operation’s argument (for example, if an integer
          is passed when a pointer is expected, or the information
          returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than
          1024 bytes, or the size of the mutable bytes-like object is
          too small), this is most likely to result in a segmentation
          violation or a more subtle data corruption.

     예제:

          >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
          >>> os.getpgrp()
          13341
          >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
          13341
          >>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
          >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
          0
          >>> buf
          array('h', [13341])

     인자 ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘fcntl.ioctl’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: fcntl.flock (fd, operation, /)

     파일 기술자 'fd'(*note fileno(): 285e. 메서드를 제공하는 파일 객체
     도 허용됩니다)에 대한 잠금 연산 'operation'을 수행합니다.  자세한 내
     용은 유닉스 매뉴얼 ‘flock(2)(3)’를 참조하십시오.  (일부 시스템에서
     는, 이 함수가 ‘fcntl()’를 사용하여 에뮬레이트됩니다.)

     ‘flock()’ 호출이 실패하면, *note OSError: 411. 예외가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘fd’, ‘operation’으로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘fcntl.flock’을
     발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: fcntl.lockf (fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0, /)

     이것은 본질에서 *note fcntl(): 346e. 잠금 호출에 대한 래퍼입니다.
     'fd'는 잠그거나 잠금 해제할 파일의 파일 기술자이고 (*note fileno():
     285e. 메서드를 제공하는 파일 객체도 허용됩니다), 'cmd'는 다음 값 중
     하나입니다:

      -- 데이터: fcntl.LOCK_UN

          기존 잠금 해제.

      -- 데이터: fcntl.LOCK_SH

          공유 잠금 획득.

      -- 데이터: fcntl.LOCK_EX

          배타적 잠금 획득.

      -- 데이터: fcntl.LOCK_NB

          다른 세 개의 ‘LOCK_*’ 상수와 비트별 OR 하여 요청을 비 블로킹으
          로 만듭니다.

     ‘LOCK_NB’가 사용되고 잠금을 얻을 수 없을 때, *note OSError: 411.가
     발생하고 'errno' 어트리뷰트가 *note EACCES: 22b5.나 *note EAGAIN:
     22a6.으로 설정됩니다 (운영 체제에 따라 다릅니다; 이식성을 위해서 두
     값을 모두 확인하십시오).  적어도 일부 시스템에서, ‘LOCK_EX’는 파일
     기술자가 쓰기 위해 열린 파일을 참조할 때만 사용할 수 있습니다.

     'len'은 잠글 바이트 수, 'start'는 'whence'가 정의하는 기준으로 잠금
     이 시작되는 바이트 오프셋이며 'whence'는 *note io.IOBase.seek():
     127c.에서와 같은데, 구체적으로 다음과 같습니다:

        * ‘0’ – 파일의 시작에 상대적 (*note os.SEEK_SET: 127d.)

        * ‘1’ – 현재 버퍼 위치에 상대적 (*note os.SEEK_CUR: 127e.)

        * ‘2’ – 파일의 끝에 상대적 (*note os.SEEK_END: 127f.)

     'start'의 기본값은 파일 시작 부분에서 시작한다는 의미인 0입니다.
     'len'의 기본값은 파일 끝까지 잠그는 것을 의미하는 0입니다.
     'whence'의 기본값도 0입니다.

     인자 ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’로 *note 감사 이벤트:
     18c1. ‘fcntl.lockf’를 발생시킵니다.

예제 (모두 SVR4 호환 시스템에서):

     import struct, fcntl, os

     f = open(...)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)

     lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)

첫 번째 예제에서 반환 값 변수 'rv'는 정숫값을 저장합니다; 두 번째 예제에
서는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 저장합니다.  'lockdata' 변수에 대한 구조체
배치는 시스템 종속적입니다 — 그래서 *note flock(): 41d3. 호출을 사용하는
것이 더 좋을 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note os: a1.

     잠금 플래그 *note O_SHLOCK: 13f7.과 *note O_EXLOCK: 13f8.이 *note
     os: a1. 모듈에 있으면 (BSD에만 해당합니다), *note os.open(): d8e. 함
     수는 *note lockf(): 13b5.와 *note flock(): 41d3. 함수의 대안을 제공
     합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)


File: python.info,  Node: resource — 자원 사용 정보,  Next: syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴,  Prev: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.9 ‘resource’ — 자원 사용 정보
----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 프로그램에서 사용하는 시스템 자원을 측정하고 제어하기 위한 기
본 메커니즘을 제공합니다.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI.

기호 상수는 특정 시스템 자원을 지정하고 현재 프로세스나 그 자식들에 대한
사용 정보를 요청하는 데 사용됩니다.

시스템 호출(syscall) 실패 시 *note OSError: 411.가 발생합니다.

 -- 예외: resource.error

     폐지된 *note OSError: 411.의 별칭.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: PEP 3151(1)에 따라, 이 클래스는 *note OSError:
     411.의 별칭이 되었습니다.

* Menu:

* 자원 제한: 자원 제한<2>.
* 자원 사용량::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: 자원 제한<2>,  Next: 자원 사용량,  Up: resource — 자원 사용 정보

5.34.9.1 자원 제한
..................

아래 설명된 *note setrlimit(): 1525. 함수를 사용하여 자원 사용량을 제한
할 수 있습니다.  각 자원은 제한의 쌍으로 제어됩니다: 소프트 제한과 하드
제한.  소프트 제한은 현재 제한이며, 시간이 지남에 따라 프로세스에 의해 낮
아지거나 높아질 수 있습니다.  소프트 제한은 하드 제한을 초과할 수 없습니
다.  하드 제한은 소프트 제한보다 큰 값으로 낮출 수 있지만, 높일 수는 없
습니다.  (슈퍼 유저의 유효 UID를 갖는 프로세스만 하드 제한을 높일 수 있
습니다.)

제한될 수 있는 구체적인 자원은 시스템에 따라 다릅니다.
‘getrlimit(2)(1)’ 매뉴얼 페이지에 설명되어 있습니다.  아래에 나열된 자원
은 하부 운영 체제에서 지원할 때 지원됩니다; 운영 체제에서 검사하거나 제
어할 수 없는 자원은 해당 플랫폼에서는 이 모듈에서 정의되지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIM_INFINITY

     무제한 자원의 제한을 나타내는 데 사용되는 상수.

 -- 함수: resource.getrlimit (resource)

     'resource'의 현재 소프트와 하드 제한인 튜플 ‘(soft, hard)’를 반환합
     니다.  유효하지 않은 resource가 지정되면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발
     생하고, 하부 시스템 호출이 예기치 않게 실패하면 *note error: 482b.가
     발생합니다.

 -- 함수: resource.setrlimit (resource, limits)

     'resource'의 새로운 소비 제한을 설정합니다.  'limits' 인자는 새로운
     제한을 설명하는 두 정수의 튜플 ‘(soft, hard)’이어야 합니다.  *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 1524. 값을 사용하여 무제한 제한을 요청할 수 있습니다
     .

     유효하지 않은 resource가 지정되거나, 새 소프트 제한이 하드 제한을 초
     과하거나, 프로세스가 하드 제한을 높이려고 시도하면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  해당 자원의 하드나 시스템 제한이 무
     제한이 아닐 때 *note RLIM_INFINITY: 1524. 제한을 지정하면 *note
     ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  슈퍼 유저의 유효 UID를 갖는 프로세
     스는 무제한을 포함하여 임의의 유효한 제한 값을 요청할 수 있지만, 요
     청된 제한이 시스템이 부과한 제한을 초과하면 *note ValueError: 202.가
     여전히 발생합니다.

     하부 시스템 호출이 실패하면 ‘setrlimit’도 *note error: 482b.를 발생
     시킬 수 있습니다.

     VxWorks는 *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 482d. 설정만 지원합니다.

     인자 ‘resource’, ‘limits’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘resource.setrlimit’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- 함수: resource.prlimit (pid, resource[, limits])

     하나의 함수에서 *note setrlimit(): 1525.와 *note getrlimit():
     1523.를 결합하고 임의 프로세스의 자원 제한을 가져오고 설정하도록 지
     원합니다.  'pid'가 0이면, 호출은 현재 프로세스에 적용됩니다.
     'resource'와 'limits'는 'limits'가 선택적이라는 점을 제외하고 *note
     setrlimit(): 1525.와 같은 의미입니다.

     'limits'가 제공되지 않으면 함수는 프로세스 'pid'의 'resource' 제한
     을 반환합니다.  'limits'가 제공되면 프로세스의 'resource' 제한이 설
     정되고 이전 자원 제한이 반환됩니다.

     'pid'를 찾을 수 없으면 *note ProcessLookupError: 1051.가 발생하고 사
     용자가 프로세스에 대해 ‘CAP_SYS_RESOURCE’가 없으면 *note
     PermissionError: d3f.가 발생합니다.

     인자 ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘resource.prlimit’를 발생시킵니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13.

     Added in version 3.4.

이 기호들은 *note setrlimit(): 1525.와 *note getrlimit(): 1523. 함수를 사
용하여 소비를 제어할 수 있는 아래 설명된 자원을 정의합니다.  이 기호의 값
은 정확히 C 프로그램에서 사용하는 상수입니다.

‘getrlimit(2)(2)’에 관한 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지는 사용 가능한 자원을 나열
합니다.  모든 시스템이 같은 자원을 나타내는 데 같은 기호나 같은 값을 사
용하는 것은 아닙니다.  이 모듈은 플랫폼 차이를 감추려고 시도하지 않습니
다 — 플랫폼에서 정의되지 않은 기호는 해당 플랫폼에서 이 모듈에서 제공되
지 않습니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_CORE

     현재 프로세스가 만들 수 있는 코어(core) 파일의 최대 크기 (바이트).
     전체 프로세스 이미지를 담기 위해 더 큰 코어가 필요할 때 부분 코어 파
     일이 생성될 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_CPU

     프로세스가 사용할 수 있는 최대 프로세서 시간 (초).  이 제한을 초과
     하면, ‘SIGXCPU’ 시그널이 프로세스로 전송됩니다.  (이 시그널을 포착
     하고, 열려있는 파일을 디스크로 플러시 하는 등 유용한 작업을 수행하
     는 방법에 대한 정보는 *note signal: c6. 모듈 설명서를 참조하십시오
     .)

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE

     프로세스가 만들 수 있는 파일의 최대 크기.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_DATA

     프로세스 힙(heap)의 최대 크기 (바이트).

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_STACK

     현재 프로세스에 대한 호출 스택의 최대 크기 (바이트).  이것은 다중 스
     레드 프로세스에서 메인 스레드의 스택에만 영향을 줍니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_RSS

     프로세스에서 사용할 수 있는 최대 상주 집합(resident set) 크기.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_NPROC

     현재 프로세스가 만들 수 있는 최대 프로세스 수.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE

     현재 프로세스에 대한 열린 파일 기술자의 최대 수.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_OFILE

     *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 482d.의 BSD 이름.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK

     메모리에 잠겨 있을 수 있는 최대 주소 공간.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_VMEM

     프로세스가 차지할 수 있는 가장 큰 매핑된 메모리(mapped memory) 영역
     .

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD >= 11.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_AS

     프로세스에서 사용할 수 있는 주소 공간의 최대 영역 (바이트).

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE

     POSIX 메시지 큐에 할당할 수 있는 바이트 수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_NICE

     프로세스의 나이스(nice) 수준의 상한 (20 - rlim_cur로 계산됩니다).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO

     실시간 우선순위의 상한.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME

     프로세스가 블로킹 시스템 호출 없이 실시간 스케줄링 하에서 소비할 수
     있는 CPU 시간의 시간제한 (마이크로초).

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING

     프로세스가 큐에 넣을 수 있는 시그널 수입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE

     이 사용자의 소켓 버퍼 사용량의 최대 크기 (바이트).  이것은 이 사용
     자가 모든 시점에 보유할 수 있는 네트워크 메모리양과 mbuf들의 양을 제
     한합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_SWAP

     이 사용자 ID의 모든 프로세스에서 예약하거나 사용할 수 있는 스와프 공
     간의 최대 크기 (바이트).  이 제한은 vm.overcommit sysctl의 비트 1이
     설정되었을 때만 적용됩니다.  이 sysctl에 대한 자세한 설명은
     tuning(7)(3)를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_NPTS

     이 사용자 ID로 만들어지는 최대 의사 터미널(pseudo-terminal) 수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- 데이터: resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES

     이 사용자 ID로 만들 수 있는 최대 kqueue 수.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: FreeBSD >= 11.

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (3) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7


File: python.info,  Node: 자원 사용량,  Prev: 자원 제한<2>,  Up: resource — 자원 사용 정보

5.34.9.2 자원 사용량
....................

이 함수는 자원 사용량 정보를 조회하는 데 사용됩니다:

 -- 함수: resource.getrusage (who)

     이 함수는 'who' 매개 변수에 지정된 대로 현재 프로세스나 그 자식이 소
     비한 자원을 설명하는 객체를 반환합니다.  'who' 매개 변수는 아래에 설
     명된 ‘RUSAGE_*’ 상수 중 하나를 사용하여 지정해야 합니다.

     간단한 예:

          from resource import *
          import time

          # CPU 병목이 아닌 작업
          time.sleep(3)
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

          # CPU 병목 작업
          for i in range(10 ** 8):
             _ = 1 + 1
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

     반환 값의 필드는 각각 특정 시스템 자원이 어떻게 사용되었는지를 설명
     합니다.  예를 들어, 사용자 모드로 실행에 든 시간이나 프로세스가 주
     메모리에서 스와프된 횟수.  일부 값은 클록 틱(clock tick) 내부에 의
     존합니다, 예를 들어, 프로세스에서 사용 중인 메모리양.

     이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해, 반환 값은 16개 요소의 튜플로 액세스 할
     수도 있습니다.

     반환 값의 필드 ‘ru_utime’과 ‘ru_stime’은 각각 사용자 모드에서 실행
     된 시간과 시스템 모드에서 실행된 시간을 나타내는 부동 소수점 값입니
     다.  나머지 값은 정수입니다.  이러한 값에 대한 자세한 내용은
     ‘getrusage(2)(1)’ 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.  간략한 요약은 다음
     과 같습니다:

     인덱스       필드                      자원
                                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
     ‘0’          ‘ru_utime’                사용자 모드의 시간 (float 초)
                                            
                                            
     ‘1’          ‘ru_stime’                시스템 모드의 시간 (float 초)
                                            
                                            
     ‘2’          ‘ru_maxrss’               최대 상주 집합(resident set) 크기
                                            
                                            
     ‘3’          ‘ru_ixrss’                공유 메모리 크기
                                            
                                            
     ‘4’          ‘ru_idrss’                비공유 메모리 크기
                                            
                                            
     ‘5’          ‘ru_isrss’                비공유 스택 크기
                                            
                                            
     ‘6’          ‘ru_minflt’               I/O가 필요 없는 페이지 폴트(page fault)
                                            
                                            
     ‘7’          ‘ru_majflt’               I/O가 필요한 페이지 폴트(page fault)
                                            
                                            
     ‘8’          ‘ru_nswap’                스와프(swap out) 수
                                            
                                            
     ‘9’          ‘ru_inblock’              블록 입력 연산(block input operations)
                                            
                                            
     ‘10’         ‘ru_oublock’              블록 출력 연산(block output operations)
                                            
                                            
     ‘11’         ‘ru_msgsnd’               보낸 메시지
                                            
                                            
     ‘12’         ‘ru_msgrcv’               받은 메시지
                                            
                                            
     ‘13’         ‘ru_nsignals’             받은 시그널
                                            
                                            
     ‘14’         ‘ru_nvcsw’                자발적 컨텍스트 전환(voluntary context
                                            switches)
                                            
                                            
     ‘15’         ‘ru_nivcsw’               비자발적 컨텍스트 전환(involuntary
                                            context switches)
                                            

     유효하지 않은 'who' 매개 변수가 지정되면 이 함수는 *note
     ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.  비정상적인 상황에서 *note error:
     482b. 예외가 발생할 수도 있습니다.

 -- 함수: resource.getpagesize ()

     시스템 페이지의 바이트 수를 반환합니다.  (하드웨어 페이지 크기와 같
     을 필요는 없습니다.)

다음 ‘RUSAGE_*’ 기호는 *note getrusage(): 13f9. 함수에 전달되어 제공할 프
로세스 정보를 지정합니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RUSAGE_SELF

     호출하는 프로세스가 소비한 자원을 요청하기 위해 *note getrusage():
     13f9.로 전달합니다.  이는 프로세스의 모든 스레드가 사용하는 자원의
     합계입니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN

     호출하는 프로세스의 종료되어 기다리고 있는 자식 프로세스에서 소비한
     자원을 요청하기 위해 *note getrusage(): 13f9.로 전달합니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RUSAGE_BOTH

     현재 프로세스와 자식 프로세스 모두에서 소비한 자원을 요청하기 위해
     *note getrusage(): 13f9.로 전달합니다.  모든 시스템에서 사용 가능한
     것은 아닙니다.

 -- 데이터: resource.RUSAGE_THREAD

     현재 스레드가 소비한 자원을 요청하기 위해 *note getrusage(): 13f9.에
     전달합니다.  모든 시스템에서 사용 가능한 것은 아닙니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)


File: python.info,  Node: syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴,  Prev: resource — 자원 사용 정보,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.34.10 ‘syslog’ — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴
------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 유닉스 ‘syslog’ 라이브러리 루틴에 대한 인터페이스를 제공합니다
.  ‘syslog’ 기능에 대한 자세한 설명은 유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시
오.

*note 가용성: 1d5c.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

이 모듈은 시스템 ‘syslog’ 계열의 루틴을 감쌉니다.  syslog 서버와 통신할
수 있는 순수한 파이썬 라이브러리는 *note logging.handlers: 89. 모듈에서
*note SysLogHandler: 656.로 제공됩니다.

모듈은 다음 함수를 정의합니다:

 -- 함수: syslog.syslog (message)

 -- 함수: syslog.syslog (priority, message)

     'message' 문자열을 시스템 로거로 보냅니다.  필요하면 끝에 줄 넘김이
     추가됩니다.  각 메시지에는 '시설(facility)' 과 '수준(level)'으로 구
     성된 우선순위(priority)로 꼬리표가 붙습니다.  선택적 'priority' 인
     자(기본값은 *note LOG_INFO: 4840.)는 메시지 우선순위를 결정합니다.
     시설이 논리합(‘LOG_INFO | LOG_USER’)을 사용하여 'priority'로 인코딩
     되지 않으면, *note openlog(): 539. 호출에 지정된 값이 사용됩니다.

     *note syslog(): dc. 호출 이전에 *note openlog(): 539.가 호출되지 않
     았으면, 인자 없이 *note openlog(): 539.가 호출됩니다.

     인자 ‘priority’, ‘message’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘syslog.syslog’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: In previous versions, *note openlog(): 539.
     would not be called automatically if it wasn’t called prior to the
     call to *note syslog(): dc, deferring to the syslog implementation
     to call ‘openlog()’.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This function is restricted in subinterpreters.
     (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the
     restriction is not relevant for most users.)  *note openlog(): 539.
     must be called in the main interpreter before *note syslog(): dc.
     may be used in a subinterpreter.  Otherwise it will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 195.

 -- 함수: syslog.openlog ([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])

     후속 *note syslog(): dc. 호출의 로깅 옵션은 *note openlog(): 539.를
     호출하여 설정할 수 있습니다.  로그가 현재 열려 있지 않으면 *note
     syslog(): dc.는 인자 없이 *note openlog(): 539.를 호출합니다.

     선택적 'ident' 키워드 인자는 모든 메시지 앞에 추가되는 문자열이며,
     기본값은 선행 경로 구성 요소가 제거된 ‘sys.argv[0]’입니다.  선택적
     'logoption' 키워드 인자(기본값은 0)는 비트 필드입니다 – 결합할 수 있
     는 가능한 값은 아래를 보십시오.  선택적 'facility' 키워드 인자(기본
     값은 *note LOG_USER: 4841.)는 명시적으로 인코드 된 시설이 없는 메시
     지에 대한 기본 시설을 설정합니다.

     인자 ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘syslog.openlog’를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 이전 버전에서는, 키워드 인자가 허용되지 않았고,
     'ident'가 필수였습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This function is restricted in subinterpreters.
     (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the
     restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This may only be
     called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note RuntimeError:
     195. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- 함수: syslog.closelog ()

     syslog 모듈값을 재설정하고 시스템 라이브러리 ‘closelog()’를 호출합
     니다.

     이것은 모듈이 처음 임포트될 때처럼 작동하도록 합니다.  예를 들어,
     *note openlog(): 539.는 첫 번째 *note syslog(): dc. 호출에서 호출되
     며(*note openlog(): 539.가 아직 호출되지 않았다면), 'ident' 와 기타
     *note openlog(): 539. 매개 변수가 기본값으로 재설정됩니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘syslog.closelog’를 발생시킵니다
     .

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This function is restricted in subinterpreters.
     (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the
     restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This may only be
     called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note RuntimeError:
     195. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- 함수: syslog.setlogmask (maskpri)

     우선순위 마스크를 'maskpri'로 설정하고 이전 마스크값을 반환합니다.
     'maskpri'에 설정되지 않은 우선순위 수준으로 *note syslog(): dc.를 호
     출하면 무시됩니다.  기본값은 모든 우선순위를 로그 하는 것입니다.  함
     수 ‘LOG_MASK(pri)’는 개별 우선순위 'pri'에 대한 마스크를 계산합니다
     .  함수 ‘LOG_UPTO(pri)’는 'pri'까지의 모든 우선순위에 대한 마스크를
     계산합니다.

     인자 ‘maskpri’로 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘syslog.setlogmask’를 발
     생시킵니다.

모듈은 다음 상수를 정의합니다:

 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_EMERG
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_ALERT
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_CRIT
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_ERR
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_WARNING
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_NOTICE
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_INFO
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_DEBUG

     우선순위 수준 (높음에서 낮음 순서).

 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_AUTH
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_AUTHPRIV
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_CRON
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_DAEMON
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_FTP
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_INSTALL
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_KERN
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LAUNCHD
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LPR
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_MAIL
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_NETINFO
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_NEWS
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_RAS
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_REMOTEAUTH
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_SYSLOG
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_USER
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_UUCP
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL0
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL1
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL2
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL3
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL4
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL5
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL6
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_LOCAL7

     시설, *note LOG_AUTHPRIV: 484a, *note LOG_FTP: 484d, *note
     LOG_NETINFO: 4853, *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 4856, *note LOG_INSTALL:
     484e. 및 *note LOG_RAS: 4855.는 ‘<syslog.h>’에 정의되었을 때만 제공
     됩니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: *note LOG_FTP: 484d, *note LOG_NETINFO: 4853,
     *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 4856, *note LOG_INSTALL: 484e, *note LOG_RAS:
     4855. 및 *note LOG_LAUNCHD: 4850.를 추가했습니다.

 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_PID
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_CONS
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_NDELAY
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_ODELAY
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_NOWAIT
 -- 데이터: syslog.LOG_PERROR

     로그 옵션, *note LOG_ODELAY: 4864, *note LOG_NOWAIT: 4865. 및 *note
     LOG_PERROR: 4866.는 ‘<syslog.h>’에 정의되었을 때만 제공됩니다.

* Menu:

* 예제: 예제<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<33>,  Up: syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴

5.34.10.1 예제
..............

* Menu:

* 간단한 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 예제,  Up: 예제<33>

5.34.10.2 간단한 예제
.....................

간단한 예제 집합:

     import syslog

     syslog.syslog('Processing started')
     if error:
         syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')

일부 로그 옵션 설정의 예, 이것은 로그 메시지에 프로세스 ID를 포함하며, 메
일 로깅에 사용되는 대상 시설로 메시지를 기록합니다:

     syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
     syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')


File: python.info,  Node: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Next: 대체된 모듈,  Prev: Unix-specific services,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.35 Modules command-line interface (CLI)
=========================================

The following modules have a command-line interface.

   * *note ast: 462b.

   * *note asyncio: 32a7.

   * *note base64: e.

   * *note calendar: 24f9.

   * *note code: 1a.

   * *note compileall: 46e7.

   * *note cProfile: 27.: see *note profile: 426b.

   * *note difflib: 233d.

   * *note dis: 46fd.

   * *note doctest: 3fd9.

   * ‘encodings.rot_13’

   * *note ensurepip: 55.

   * *note filecmp: 5a.

   * *note fileinput: 5b.

   * *note ftplib: 5e.

   * *note gzip: 297a.

   * *note http.server: f49.

   * ‘idlelib’

   * *note inspect: f53.

   * *note json.tool: 3692.

   * *note mimetypes: 8f.

   * *note pdb: a5.

   * *note pickle: a6.

   * *note pickletools: 476c.

   * *note platform: 2d5d.

   * *note poplib: ac.

   * *note profile: 426b.

   * *note pstats: b0.

   * *note py_compile: 46df.

   * *note pyclbr: b4.

   * *note pydoc: b5.

   * *note quopri: b7.

   * *note random: 154.

   * *note runpy: be.

   * *note site: 44d5.

   * *note sqlite3: 43a.

   * *note symtable: 4660.

   * *note sysconfig: 43d5.

   * *note tabnanny: dd.

   * *note tarfile: fc3.

   * ‘this’

   * *note timeit: 428e.

   * *note tokenize: 46b3.

   * *note trace: 42aa.

   * *note turtledemo: 102.

   * *note unittest: 4051.

   * *note uuid: 43d.

   * *note venv: 111.

   * *note webbrowser: 115.

   * *note zipapp: 4335.

   * *note zipfile: 29e8.

See also the *note Python command-line interface: 19c6.


File: python.info,  Node: 대체된 모듈,  Next: Removed Modules,  Prev: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.36 대체된 모듈
================

이 장에서 설명하는 모듈은 대부분의 사용 사례에서 다른 모듈로 대체되었으
며, 주로 하위 호환성을 유지하기 위해 유지됩니다.

Modules may appear in this chapter because they only cover a limited
subset of a problem space, and a more generally applicable solution is
available elsewhere in the standard library (for example, *note getopt:
61. covers the very specific task of “mimic the C ‘getopt()’ API in
Python”, rather than the broader command line option parsing and
argument parsing capabilities offered by *note optparse: a0. and *note
argparse: 6.).

Alternatively, modules may appear in this chapter because they are
deprecated outright, and awaiting removal in a future release, or they
are *note soft deprecated: 209. and their use is actively discouraged in
new projects.  With the removal of various obsolete modules through PEP
594(1), there are currently no modules in this latter category.

* Menu:

* getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기,  Up: 대체된 모듈

5.36.1 ‘getopt’ — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기
-----------------------------------------------------

'소스 코드:' Lib/getopt.py(1)

     참고: This module is considered feature complete.  A more
     declarative and extensible alternative to this API is provided in
     the *note optparse: a0. module.  Further functional enhancements
     for command line parameter processing are provided either as third
     party modules on PyPI, or else as features in the *note argparse:
     6. module.

__________________________________________________________________

이 모듈은 스크립트가 ‘sys.argv’에 있는 명령 줄 인자를 구문 분석하는 데 도
움이 됩니다.  유닉스 ‘getopt()’ 함수와 같은 규칙을 지원합니다 (’‘-’’ 와
‘‘--’’ 형식의 인자의 특수한 의미를 포함합니다).  선택적인 세 번째 인자를
통해 GNU 소프트웨어가 지원하는 것과 유사한 긴 옵션을 사용할 수 있습니다.

Users who are unfamiliar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function should
consider using the *note argparse: 6. module instead.  Users who are
familiar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function, but would like to get
equivalent behavior while writing less code and getting better help and
error messages should consider using the *note optparse: a0. module.
See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e76. for additional
details.

이 모듈은 두 가지 함수와 예외를 제공합니다:

 -- 함수: getopt.getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     명령 줄 옵션과 매개 변수 목록을 구문 분석합니다.  'args'는 실행 중
     인 프로그램에 대한 앞머리 참조를 포함하지 않는, 구문 분석할 인자 리
     스트입니다.  일반적으로, 이는 ‘sys.argv[1:]’를 의미합니다.
     'shortopts'는 스크립트가 인식하고자 하는 옵션 문자의 문자열이며, 인
     자를 요구하는 옵션은 뒤에 콜론(‘':'’; 즉, 유닉스 ‘getopt()’가 사용
     하는 것과 같은 형식)이 필요합니다.

          참고: GNU ‘getopt()’와는 달리, 옵션이 아닌 인자 다음에 오는 모
          든 인자는 옵션이 아닌 것으로 간주합니다.  이는 비 GNU 유닉스 시
          스템이 작동하는 방식과 비슷합니다.

     지정되면, 'longopts'는 지원되어야 하는 긴 옵션의 이름을 가진 문자열
     리스트여야 합니다.  선행 ‘'--'’ 문자는 옵션 이름에 포함되지 않아야
     합니다.  인자가 필요한 긴 옵션 뒤에는 등호(‘'='’)가 와야 합니다.  선
     택적 인자는 지원되지 않습니다.  긴 옵션만 허용하려면, 'shortopts'는
     빈 문자열이어야 합니다.  명령 줄에서 긴 옵션은 허용된 옵션 중 하나
     와 정확히 일치하는 옵션 이름의 접두사를 제공하는 한 인식 할 수 있습
     니다.  예를 들어, 'longopts'가 ‘['foo', 'frob']’ 면 ‘--fo’ 옵션은
     ‘--foo’로 일치하지만, ‘--f’는 유일하게 일치하지 않으므로 *note
     GetoptError: 4870.가 발생합니다.

     반환 값은 두 요소로 구성됩니다: 첫 번째는 ‘(option, value)’ 쌍의 리
     스트입니다; 두 번째는 옵션 리스트가 제거된 후 남겨진 프로그램 인자
     리스트입니다 (이것은 'args'의 후행 슬라이스입니다).  반환된 각 옵션
     -값 쌍은 첫 번째 요소로 옵션을 가지며, 짧은 옵션(예를 들어,
     ‘'-x'’)은 하이픈이, 긴 옵션(예를 들어, ‘'--long-option'’)은 두 개의
     하이픈이 접두사로 붙고, 두 번째 요소는 옵션 인자나 옵션에 인자가 없
     으면 빈 문자열입니다.  옵션은 발견된 순서와 같은 순서로 리스트에 나
     타나므로, 여러 번 나오는 것을 허용합니다.  긴 옵션과 짧은 옵션은 혼
     합될 수 있습니다.

 -- 함수: getopt.gnu_getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     이 함수는 기본적으로 GNU 스타일 스캔 모드가 사용된다는 점을 제외하
     고는 *note getopt(): 61.처럼 작동합니다.  이것은 옵션과 옵션이 아닌
     인자가 섞일 수 있음을 뜻합니다.  *note getopt(): 61. 함수는 옵션이
     아닌 인자가 발견되자마자 옵션 처리를 중지합니다.

     옵션 문자열의 첫 번째 문자가 ‘'+'’ 이거나, 환경 변수
     ‘POSIXLY_CORRECT’가 설정되면, 옵션이 아닌 인자를 만나자마자 옵션 처
     리가 중지됩니다.

 -- 예외: getopt.GetoptError

     인자 목록에 인식할 수 없는 옵션이 있거나 인자가 필요한 옵션에 아무
     것도 주어지지 않으면 발생합니다.  예외에 대한 인자는 에러의 원인을
     나타내는 문자열입니다.  긴 옵션의 경우, 인자를 요구하지 않는 옵션에
     인자가 주어질 때도 이 예외를 발생시킵니다.  어트리뷰트 ‘msg’ 와
     ‘opt’는 에러 메시지와 관련 옵션을 제공합니다; 예외와 관련된 특정 옵
     션이 없으면 ‘opt’는 빈 문자열입니다.

 -- 예외: getopt.error

     *note GetoptError: 4870.의 별칭; 과거 호환성을 위한 것입니다.

유닉스 스타일 옵션만 사용하는 예제:

     >>> import getopt
     >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
     >>> args
     ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
     >>> optlist
     [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

긴 옵션 이름을 사용하는 것도 똑같이 간단합니다:

     >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
     ...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
     >>> optlist
     [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

스크립트에서, 일반적인 사용법은 다음과 같습니다:

     import getopt, sys

     def main():
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
         except getopt.GetoptError as err:
             # 도움말 정보를 출력하고 종료합니다:
             print(err)  # "option -a not recognized" 같은 것을 출력합니다
             usage()
             sys.exit(2)
         output = None
         verbose = False
         for o, a in opts:
             if o == "-v":
                 verbose = True
             elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
                 usage()
                 sys.exit()
             elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
                 output = a
             else:
                 assert False, "unhandled option"
         process(args, output=output, verbose=verbose)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

*note optparse: a0. 모듈을 사용하면 더 적은 코드로, 더욱 유용한 도움말과
에러 메시지를 제공하는 동등한 명령 줄 인터페이스를 만들 수 있습니다:

     import optparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = optparse.OptionParser()
         parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         opts, args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

이 경우와 거의 동등한 명령 줄 인터페이스를 *note argparse: 6. 모듈을 사
용해서도 만들 수 있습니다:

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e76. for details on how
the ‘argparse’ version of this code differs in behaviour from the
‘optparse’ (and ‘getopt’) version.

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note optparse: a0.

     선언적 명령 줄 옵션 구문 분석.

모듈 *note argparse: 6.

     더 견해가 강한 명령 줄 옵션과 인자 구문 분석 라이브러리.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/getopt.py


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules,  Next: Security Considerations<2>,  Prev: 대체된 모듈,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.37 Removed Modules
====================

The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python
standard library.  They are documented here to help people find
replacements.

* Menu:

* aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기::
* asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기::
* audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작::
* cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원::
* cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자::
* chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기::
* crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수::
* distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치::
* imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단::
* imp — 임포트 내부 액세스::
* mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리::
* msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* nis — Sun의 NIS(옐로 페이지)에 대한 인터페이스: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스.
* nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트::
* ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스::
* pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스::
* smtpd — SMTP 서버::
* sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단::
* spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스::
* sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기::
* telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트::
* uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩::
* xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Next: asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.1 ‘aifc’ — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기
------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘aifc’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/aifc.html


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기,  Next: asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기,  Prev: aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.2 ‘asynchat’ — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기
------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.6 에
서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.12 에서 제거: 4fb.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

응용은 대신 *note asyncio: a. 모듈을 사용해야 합니다.

‘asynchat’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.11(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.11/library/asynchat.html


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기,  Next: audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작,  Prev: asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.3 ‘asyncore’ — 비동기 소켓 처리기
--------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.6 에
서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.12 에서 제거: 4fb.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

응용은 대신 *note asyncio: a. 모듈을 사용해야 합니다.

‘asyncore’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.11(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.11/library/asyncore.html


File: python.info,  Node: audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작,  Next: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원,  Prev: asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.4 ‘audioop’ — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작
------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘audioop’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/audioop.html


File: python.info,  Node: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원,  Next: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자,  Prev: audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.5 ‘cgi’ — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원
----------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

PyPI의 모듈 포크를 대신 사용할 수 있습니다: legacy-cgi(2).  이것은 cgi 모
듈의 복사본인데, 더 이상 파이썬 코어 팀에서 유지 관리하거나 지원하지 않
습니다.

‘cgi’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(3) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/cgi.html


File: python.info,  Node: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자,  Next: chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기,  Prev: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.6 ‘cgitb’ — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자
------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

PyPI의 모듈 포크를 대신 사용할 수 있습니다: legacy-cgi(2).  이것은 cgi 모
듈의 복사본인데, 더 이상 파이썬 코어 팀에서 유지 관리하거나 지원하지 않
습니다.

‘cgitb’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(3) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/cgitb.html


File: python.info,  Node: chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기,  Next: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수,  Prev: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.7 ‘chunk’ — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기
---------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘chunk’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/chunk.html


File: python.info,  Node: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수,  Next: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치,  Prev: chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.8 ‘crypt’ — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수
------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

응용은 표준 라이브러리의 *note hashlib: 68. 모듈을 사용할 수 있습니다.  다
른 가능한 대체품은 PyPI 에 있는 타사 라이브러리들입니다: legacycrypt(2),
bcrypt(3), argon2-cffi(4) 또는 passlib(5).  이것들은 파이썬 코어 팀에서
지원하거나 유지 관리하지 않습니다.

‘crypt’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(6) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/

   (6) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/crypt.html


File: python.info,  Node: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치,  Next: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단,  Prev: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.9 ‘distutils’ — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치
--------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.10, removed in version 3.12.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.10
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.12 에서 제거: 501.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
632(1) 에서 결정되었고, 마이그레이션 지침(2)이 있습니다.

‘distutils’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.11(3) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (3) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.11/library/distutils.html


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단,  Next: imp — 임포트 내부 액세스,  Prev: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.10 ‘imghdr’ — 이미지 유형 판단
-----------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

가능한 대체품은 PyPI 에 있는 타사 라이브러리들입니다: filetype(2),
puremagic(3) 또는 python-magic(4).  이 라이브러리는 파이썬 코어 팀에서 지
원하거나 유지 관리하지 않습니다.

‘imghdr’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(5) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/imghdr.html


File: python.info,  Node: imp — 임포트 내부 액세스,  Next: mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리,  Prev: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.11 ‘imp’ — 임포트 내부 액세스
----------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.4, removed in version 3.12.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.4 에
서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.12 에서 제거: 50b.되었습니다.

*note 제거 공지: 50b.에는 코드를 ‘imp’ 에서 *note importlib: 77. 로 마이
그레이션하는 방법에 대한 지침이 포함되어 있습니다.

‘imp’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.11(1) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.11/library/imp.html


File: python.info,  Node: mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리,  Next: msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Prev: imp — 임포트 내부 액세스,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.12 ‘mailcap’ — Mailcap 파일 처리
-------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘mailcap’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/mailcap.html


File: python.info,  Node: msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Next: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스,  Prev: mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.13 ‘msilib’ — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기
-----------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘msilib’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/msilib.html


File: python.info,  Node: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스,  Next: nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Prev: msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.14 ‘nis’ — Sun의 NIS(옐로 페이지)에 대한 인터페이스
--------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘nis’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/nis.html


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Next: ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스,  Prev: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.15 ‘nntplib’ — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트
--------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘nntplib’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/nntplib.html


File: python.info,  Node: ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스,  Next: pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스,  Prev: nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.16 ‘ossaudiodev’ — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스
---------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘ossaudiodev’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/ossaudiodev.html


File: python.info,  Node: pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스,  Next: smtpd — SMTP 서버,  Prev: ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.17 ‘pipes’ — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스
-------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

응용은 대신 *note subprocess: d6. 모듈을 사용해야 합니다.

‘pipes’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/pipes.html


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd — SMTP 서버,  Next: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단,  Prev: pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.18 ‘smtpd’ — SMTP 서버
---------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.6 에
서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.12 에서 제거: 4fb.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

가능한 대체품은 타사 aiosmtpd(2) 라이브러리입니다.  이 라이브러리는 파이
썬 코어 팀에서 유지 관리하거나 지원하지 않습니다.

‘smtpd’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.11(3) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.11/library/smtpd.html


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단,  Next: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스,  Prev: smtpd — SMTP 서버,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.19 ‘sndhdr’ — 음향 파일 유형 판단
--------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

가능한 대체품은 PyPI 에 있는 타사 라이브러리들입니다: filetype(2),
puremagic(3) 또는 python-magic(4).  이 라이브러리는 파이썬 코어 팀에서 지
원하거나 유지 관리하지 않습니다.

‘sndhdr’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(5) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/sndhdr.html


File: python.info,  Node: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스,  Next: sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Prev: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.20 ‘spwd’ — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스
---------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

가능한 대체품은 타사 python-pam(2) 라이브러리입니다.  이 라이브러리는 파
이썬 코어 팀에서 지원하거나 유지 관리하지 않습니다.

‘spwd’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(3) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/spwd.html


File: python.info,  Node: sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Next: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트,  Prev: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.21 ‘sunau’ — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기
---------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘sunau’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/sunau.html


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트,  Next: uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.22 ‘telnetlib’ — 텔넷 클라이언트
-------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

가능한 대체품은 PyPI 에 있는 타사 라이브러리들입니다: telnetlib3(2) 이나
Exscript(3).  이 라이브러리는 파이썬 코어 팀에서 지원하거나 유지 관리하
지 않습니다.

‘telnetlib’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(4) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/telnetlib.html


File: python.info,  Node: uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩,  Next: xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.23 ‘uu’ — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩
--------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘uu’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/uu.html


File: python.info,  Node: xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩,  Prev: uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.24 ‘xdrlib’ — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩
---------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

이 모듈은 더는 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 포함되지 않습니다.  파이썬 3.11
에서 폐지된 후 *note 파이썬 3.13 에서 제거: 143.되었습니다.  제거는 PEP
594(1) 에서 결정되었습니다.

‘xdrlib’ 모듈을 제공한 마지막 파이썬 버전은 파이썬 3.12(2) 입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ko/3.12/library/xdrlib.html


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations<2>,  Prev: Removed Modules,  Up: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리

5.38 Security Considerations
============================

The following modules have specific security considerations:

   * *note base64: e.: *note base64 security considerations: 3769. in
     RFC 4648(1)

   * *note hashlib: 68.: *note all constructors take a “usedforsecurity”
     keyword-only argument disabling known insecure and blocked
     algorithms: 2ae0.

   * *note http.server: 72. is not suitable for production use, only
     implementing basic security checks.  See the *note security
     considerations: 3b86.

   * *note logging: 87.: *note Logging configuration uses eval(): 2cc7.

   * *note multiprocessing: 94.: *note Connection.recv() uses pickle:
     3194.

   * *note pickle: a6.: *note Restricting globals in pickle: 28a8.

   * *note random: b8. shouldn’t be used for security purposes, use
     *note secrets: c0. instead

   * *note shelve: c3.: *note shelve is based on pickle and thus
     unsuitable for dealing with untrusted sources: 28c4.

   * *note ssl: d0.: *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 336d.

   * *note subprocess: d6.: *note Subprocess security considerations:
     3239.

   * *note tempfile: e0.: *note mktemp is deprecated due to
     vulnerability to race conditions: 2867.

   * *note xml: 120.: *note XML security: 3797.

   * *note zipfile: 131.: *note maliciously prepared .zip files can
     cause disk volume exhaustion: 29f7.

The *note -I: 95b. command line option can be used to run Python in
isolated mode.  When it cannot be used, the *note -P: 59e. option or the
*note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 59f. environment variable can be used to not
prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ae. such as the
current directory, the script’s directory or an empty string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장,  Next: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서,  Prev: 파이썬 표준 라이브러리,  Up: Top

6 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장
********************************

이 문서는 새로운 모듈로 파이썬 인터프리터를 확장하기 위해 C 나 C++로 모
듈을 작성하는 방법을 설명합니다.  이러한 모듈은 새로운 함수뿐만 아니라 새
로운 객체 형과 메서드를 정의할 수 있습니다.  또한, 확장 언어로 사용하기
위해, 파이썬 인터프리터를 다른 응용 프로그램에 내장시키는 방법에 관해서
도 설명합니다.  마지막으로, 하부 운영 체제에서 이 기능을 지원하는 경우,
동적으로 (실행시간에) 인터프리터에 로드될 수 있도록 확장 모듈을 컴파일하
고 링크하는 방법을 보여줍니다.

이 문서는 파이썬에 대한 기본 지식을 전제로 합니다.  언어에 대한 형식적이
지 않은 소개는 *note 파이썬 자습서: 1be1. 를 보십시오.  *note 파이썬 언어
레퍼런스: 145. 는 보다 형식적인 언어 정의를 제공합니다.  *note 파이썬
표준 라이브러리: 144. 는 존재하는 객체 형, 함수 및 모듈(내장된 것과 파이
썬으로 작성된 것 모두)을 설명하는데, 이것들이 언어의 응용 범위를 넓힙니
다.

전체 파이썬/C API에 대한 자세한 설명은 별도의 *note 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스
설명서: 1be3. 를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 권장 제삼자 도구::
* 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기::
* 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 CPython 런타임을 내장하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 권장 제삼자 도구,  Next: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기,  Up: 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장

6.1 권장 제삼자 도구
====================

This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided
as part of this version of CPython.  Some *note third party tools: 48ab.
offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and
C++ extensions for Python.


File: python.info,  Node: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기,  Next: 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 CPython 런타임을 내장하기,  Prev: 권장 제삼자 도구,  Up: 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장

6.2 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기
================================

지침서의 이 부문에서는 제삼자 도구의 도움 없이 C와 C++ 확장을 만드는 방
법에 관해 설명합니다.  여러분 자신의 C 확장을 만드는 데 권장되는 방법이
라기보다는, 주로 도구를 제작하는 사람들을 대상으로 합니다.

더 보기
.......

PEP 489(1) – Multi-phase extension module initialization

* Menu:

* C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기::
* 확장형 정의하기; 자습서: 확장형 정의하기 자습서.
* 확장형 정의하기; 여러 가지 주제: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제.
* C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기::
* 윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기,  Next: 확장형 정의하기 자습서,  Up: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기

6.2.1 C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기
-------------------------------

C로 프로그래밍하는 방법을 알고 있다면, 파이썬에 새로운 내장 모듈을 추가
하기는 매우 쉽습니다.  그러한 '확장 모듈(extension modules)'은 파이썬에
서 직접 할 수 없는 두 가지 일을 할 수 있습니다: 새로운 내장 객체 형을 구
현할 수 있고, C 라이브러리 함수와 시스템 호출을 호출할 수 있습니다.

확장을 지원하기 위해, 파이썬 API(Application Programmers Interface)는 파
이썬 런타임 시스템의 대부분 측면에 액세스 할 수 있는 함수, 매크로 및 변
수 집합을 정의합니다.  파이썬 API는 헤더 ‘"Python.h"’를 포함해 C 소스 파
일에 통합됩니다.

확장 모듈의 컴파일은 시스템 설정뿐만 아니라 의도하는 용도에 따라 다릅니
다; 자세한 내용은 다음 장에서 설명합니다.

     참고: C 확장 인터페이스는 CPython에만 해당하며, 확장 모듈은 다른 파
     이썬 구현에서는 작동하지 않습니다.  많은 경우에, C 확장을 작성하지
     않고 다른 구현으로의 이식성을 유지하는 것이 가능합니다.  예를 들어,
     사용 사례가 C 라이브러리 함수나 시스템 호출을 호출하는 것이라면, 사
     용자 정의 C 코드를 작성하는 대신 *note ctypes: 2a. 모듈이나 cffi(1)
     라이브러리 사용을 고려해야 합니다.  이 모듈을 사용하면 C 코드와 인
     터페이스 하기 위한 파이썬 코드를 작성할 수 있으며 C 확장 모듈을 작
     성하고 컴파일하는 것보다 파이썬 구현 간에 이식성이 더 좋습니다.

* Menu:

* 간단한 예::
* 막간극; 에러와 예외: 막간극 에러와 예외.
* 예제로 돌아가기::
* 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수::
* 컴파일과 링크::
* C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기::
* 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기::
* 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수::
* 임의의 값을 구축하기::
* 참조 횟수::
* C++로 확장 작성하기::
* 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 예,  Next: 막간극 에러와 예외,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.1 간단한 예
.................

‘spam’(몬티 파이썬 팬들이 가장 좋아하는 음식…)이라는 확장 모듈을 만듭시
다, 그리고 C 라이브러리 함수 ‘system()’에 대한 파이썬 인터페이스를 만들
고 싶다고 합시다 (1).  이 함수는 널 종료 문자열을 인자로 취하고 정수를 반
환합니다.  우리는 이 함수를 다음과 같이 파이썬에서 호출할 수 있기를 원합
니다:

     >>> import spam
     >>> status = spam.system("ls -l")

‘spammodule.c’ 파일을 만드는 것으로 시작하십시오.  (역사적으로, 모듈을
‘spam’이라고 하면, 해당 구현을 포함하는 C 파일은 ‘spammodule.c’라고 합니
다; 모듈 이름이 ‘spammify’처럼 매우 길면, 모듈 이름은 그냥 ‘spammify.c’일
수 있습니다.)

파일의 처음 두 줄은 다음과 같습니다:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

이것은 파이썬 API를 가져옵니다 (원한다면 모듈의 목적과 저작권 표시를 설
명하는 주석을 추가할 수 있습니다).

     참고: 파이썬이 일부 시스템의 표준 헤더에 영향을 미치는 일부 전처리
     기 정의를 정의할 수 있어서, 표준 헤더가 포함되기 전에 '반드시'
     ‘Python.h’를 포함해야 합니다.

     ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that ‘Py_ssize_t’
     should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’.  It is not necessary
     since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward compatibility.
     See *note 문자열과 버퍼: 384. for a description of this macro.

All user-visible symbols defined by ‘Python.h’ have a prefix of ‘Py’ or
‘PY’, except those defined in standard header files.

     팁: For backward compatibility, ‘Python.h’ includes several
     standard header files.  C extensions should include the standard
     headers that they use, and should not rely on these implicit
     includes.  If using the limited C API version 3.13 or newer, the
     implicit includes are:

        * ‘<assert.h>’

        * ‘<intrin.h>’ (on Windows)

        * ‘<inttypes.h>’

        * ‘<limits.h>’

        * ‘<math.h>’

        * ‘<stdarg.h>’

        * ‘<wchar.h>’

        * ‘<sys/types.h>’ (if present)

     If *note Py_LIMITED_API: 418. is not defined, or is set to version
     3.12 or older, the headers below are also included:

        * ‘<ctype.h>’

        * ‘<unistd.h>’ (on POSIX)

     If *note Py_LIMITED_API: 418. is not defined, or is set to version
     3.10 or older, the headers below are also included:

        * ‘<errno.h>’

        * ‘<stdio.h>’

        * ‘<stdlib.h>’

        * ‘<string.h>’

다음으로 모듈 파일에 추가하는 것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘spam.system(string)’이
평가될 때 호출될 C 함수입니다 (이것이 어떻게 호출되는지 곧 보게 될 것입
니다):

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

파이썬의 인자 목록(예를 들어, 단일 표현식 ‘"ls -l"’)에서 C 함수로 전달되
는 인자로의 간단한 변환이 있습니다.  C 함수에는 항상 'self'와 'args'라는
두 개의 인자가 있습니다.

'self' 인자는 모듈 수준 함수에서 모듈 객체를 가리킵니다; 메서드의 경우 객
체 인스턴스를 가리킵니다.

'args' 인자는 인자를 포함하는 파이썬 튜플 객체에 대한 포인터입니다.  튜
플의 각 항목은 호출의 인자 목록에 있는 인자에 해당합니다.  인자는 파이썬
객체입니다 — C 함수에서 무언가를 수행하려면 이들을 C 값으로 변환해야 합
니다.  파이썬 API의 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. 함수는 인자 형을 확인
하고 C 값으로 변환합니다.  템플릿 문자열을 사용하여 필요한 인자 형과 변
환된 값을 저장할 C 변수 형을 결정합니다.  나중에 이것에 대해 자세히 알아
보겠습니다.

모든 인자의 형이 올바르고 해당 구성 요소가 주소가 전달된 변수에 저장되면
, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.은 참(0이 아닙니다)을 반환합니다.  유효
하지 않은 인자 목록이 전달되면 거짓(0)을 반환합니다.  후자의 경우 호출 함
수가 (예에서 보듯이) ‘NULL’을 즉시 반환할 수 있도록 적절한 예외를 발생시
킵니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이 함수에 대한 인터페이스는 표준 모듈 *note os: a1.에 이미 존재합
니다 — 간단하고 단순한 예제로 선택되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 막간극 에러와 예외,  Next: 예제로 돌아가기,  Prev: 간단한 예,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.2 막간극: 에러와 예외
...........................

파이썬 인터프리터 전체에서 중요한 규칙은 다음과 같습니다: 함수가 실패하
면 예외 조건을 설정하고 에러값(보통 ‘-1’이나 ‘NULL’ 포인터)을 반환해야 합
니다.  예외 정보는 인터프리터의 스레드 상태의 세 멤버에 저장됩니다.  예
외가 발생하지 않았으면 이들은 ‘NULL’입니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note
sys.exc_info(): 684.가 반환하는 파이썬 튜플 멤버의 C 동등 물입니다.  이
들은 예외 형, 예외 인스턴스, 트레이스백 객체입니다.  에러가 어떻게 전달
되는지 이해하기 위해서는 이들에 대해 아는 것이 중요합니다.

파이썬 API는 다양한 형의 예외를 설정하기 위한 여러 함수를 정의합니다.

가장 일반적인 것은 *note PyErr_SetString(): 577.입니다.  인자는 예외 객
체와 C 문자열입니다.  예외 객체는 보통 *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError:
48b4.와 같은 미리 정의된 객체입니다.  C 문자열은 에러의 원인을 나타내며
파이썬 문자열 객체로 변환되어 예외의 “연관된 값”으로 저장됩니다.

또 다른 유용한 함수는 *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 48b5.입니다.  이 함수
는 예외 인자만 취하고 전역 변수 ‘errno’를 검사하여 관련 값을 구성합니다.
가장 일반적인 함수는 *note PyErr_SetObject(): 576.이며, 예외와 관련 값인
두 개의 객체 인자를 취합니다.  이러한 함수들에 전달되는 객체를 *note
Py_INCREF(): 569. 할 필요는 없습니다.

*note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.로 예외가 설정되어 있는지 비 파괴적으로 검
사할 수 있습니다.  현재 예외 객체나 예외가 발생하지 않았으면 ‘NULL’을 반
환합니다.  반환 값에서 알 수 있어야 해서 일반적으로 함수 호출에서 에러가
발생했는지 확인하기 위해 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 호출할 필요는 없
습니다.

다른 함수 'g'를 호출하는 함수 'f'가 'g'의 실패를 감지할 때, 'f' 자체가 에
러값(보통 ‘NULL’이나 ‘-1’)을 반환해야 합니다.  ‘PyErr_*’ 함수 중 하나를
호출하지 '않아야' 합니다 — 'g'에 의해 이미 호출되었습니다.  그러면 'f'의
호출자도 역시 ‘PyErr_*’ 호출 '없이', '자신의' 호출자에게 에러 표시를 반
환하고, 이런 식으로 계속된다고 가정합니다 — 에러를 가장 먼저 감지한 함수
에 의해 에러의 가장 자세한 원인이 이미 보고되었습니다.  일단 에러가 파이
썬 인터프리터의 메인 루프에 도달하면, 현재 실행 중인 파이썬 코드를 중단
하고 파이썬 프로그래머가 지정한 예외 처리기를 찾으려고 시도합니다.

(모듈이 실제로 다른 ‘PyErr_*’ 함수를 호출하여 더 자세한 에러 메시지를 표
시할 수 있는 상황이 있습니다.  그럴 때는 그렇게 하는 것이 좋습니다.  그
러나, 일반적인 규칙으로 이는 필요하지 않고, 에러가 발생하는 원인에 관한
정보를 잃어버리게 합니다: 대부분의 연산은 다양한 이유로 실패할 수 있습니
다.)

실패한 함수 호출로 설정된 예외를 무시하려면, *note PyErr_Clear(): 1027.를
호출하여 예외 조건을 명시적으로 지워야 합니다.  C 코드가 *note
PyErr_Clear(): 1027.를 호출해야 하는 유일한 때는 에러를 인터프리터에 전
달하지 않고 스스로 완전히 처리하려고 하는 경우입니다 (아마 다른 것을 시
도하거나, 아무것도 잘못되지 않은 척해서).

모든 실패한 ‘malloc()’ 호출은 예외로 전환되어야 합니다 — ‘malloc()’(또는
‘realloc()’)의 직접 호출자는 스스로 *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 48b6.를 호출
하고 실패 표시기를 반환해야 합니다.  모든 객체 생성 함수(예를 들어,
*note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840.)는 이미 이 작업을 수행하므로, 이 주의는
‘malloc()’을 직접 호출하는 호출자에게만 해당합니다.

또한 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.과 그 친구들의 중요한 예외를 제외하고
, 정수 상태를 반환하는 함수는 유닉스 시스템 호출처럼 일반적으로 성공 시
양수 값이나 0을 반환하고, 실패 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

마지막으로, 에러 표시기를 반환할 때 (이미 만든 객체를 *note
Py_XDECREF(): 788.나 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.를 호출하여) 가비지를 정리하
십시오!

어떤 예외를 발생시킬지는 전적으로 여러분의 것입니다.  모든 내장 파이썬 예
외에 해당하는 사전 선언된 C 객체(가령 *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError:
48b4.)가 있는데, 직접 사용할 수 있습니다.  물론, 예외를 현명하게 선택해
야 합니다 — 파일을 열 수 없음을 뜻하는 데 *note PyExc_TypeError: 48b7.를
사용하지 마십시오 (아마도 *note PyExc_OSError: 48b8.여야 합니다).  인자
목록에 문제가 있으면, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. 함수는 일반적으로
*note PyExc_TypeError: 48b7.를 발생시킵니다.  값이 특정 범위 내에 있어야
하거나 다른 조건을 만족해야 하는 인자가 있으면, *note PyExc_ValueError:
48b9.가 적합합니다.

You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module.  The
simplest way to do this is to declare a static global object variable at
the beginning of the file:

     static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;

and initialize it by calling *note PyErr_NewException(): 125a. in the
module’s *note Py_mod_exec: 97c. function (‘spam_module_exec()’):

     SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);

Since ‘SpamError’ is a global variable, it will be overwritten every
time the module is reinitialized, when the *note Py_mod_exec: 97c.
function is called.

For now, let’s avoid the issue: we will block repeated initialization by
raising an *note ImportError: 413.:

     static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;

     static int
     spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (SpamError != NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot initialize spam module more than once");
             return -1;
         }
         SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SpamError", SpamError) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot spam_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, spam_module_exec},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "spam",
         .m_size = 0,  // non-negative
         .m_slots = spam_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
     }

예외 객체의 파이썬 이름은 ‘spam.error’임에 유의하십시오.  *note
PyErr_NewException(): 125a. 함수는 (‘NULL’ 대신 다른 클래스가 전달되지 않
는 한) 베이스 클래스가 (*note 내장 예외: 188a.에서 설명된) *note
Exception: 9d6.인 클래스를 만들 수 있습니다.

‘SpamError’ 변수는 새로 만들어진 예외 클래스에 대한 참조를 보유함에도 유
의하십시오; 이것은 의도적입니다!  외부 코드에 의해 예외가 모듈에서 제거
될 수 있기 때문에, 클래스가 버려져서 ‘SpamError’가 매달린(dangling) 포인
터가 되지 않도록 하려면, 클래스에 대한 참조를 소유할 필요가 있습니다.  매
달린 포인터가 되면, 예외를 발생시키는 C 코드가 코어 덤프나 다른 의도하지
않은 부작용을 일으킬 수 있습니다.

For now, the *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. call to remove this reference is
missing.  Even when the Python interpreter shuts down, the global
‘SpamError’ variable will not be garbage-collected.  It will “leak”.  We
did, however, ensure that this will happen at most once per process.

이 샘플의 뒷부분에서 *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149b.를 함수 반환형으로 사용
하는 것에 관해 설명합니다.

다음과 같이 *note PyErr_SetString(): 577.을 호출하여 확장 모듈에서
‘spam.error’ 예외를 발생시킬 수 있습니다:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         if (sts < 0) {
             PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 예제로 돌아가기,  Next: 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수,  Prev: 막간극 에러와 예외,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.3 예제로 돌아가기
.......................

예제 함수로 돌아가서, 이제 여러분은 이 문장을 이해할 수 있어야 합니다:

     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
         return NULL;

인자 목록에서 에러가 발견되면 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.에 의해 설정
된 예외에 의존하면서 ‘NULL’(객체 포인터를 반환하는 함수의 에러 표시기)을
반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 인자의 문자열 값이 지역 변수 ‘command’에 복사
되었습니다.  이것은 포인터 대입이며 가리키는 문자열을 수정해서는 안 됩니
다 (따라서 표준 C에서, 변수 ‘command’는 ‘const char *command’로 올바르게
선언되어야 합니다).

다음 문장은 유닉스 함수 ‘system()’을 호출인데, *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
56c.에서 얻은 문자열을 전달합니다:

     sts = system(command);

우리의 ‘spam.system()’ 함수는 ‘sts’의 값을 파이썬 객체로 반환해야 합니다
.  이것은 *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840. 함수를 사용하여 이루어집니다.

     return PyLong_FromLong(sts);

이 경우, 정수 객체를 반환합니다.  (예, 정수조차도 파이썬에서는 힙 상의 객
체입니다!)

유용한 인자를 반환하지 않는 C 함수(void를 반환하는 함수)가 있으면, 해당
파이썬 함수는 ‘None’을 반환해야 합니다.  그렇게 하려면 이 관용구가 필요
합니다 (*note Py_RETURN_NONE: 1439. 매크로로 구현됩니다):

     Py_INCREF(Py_None);
     return Py_None;

*note Py_None: 48bc.은 특수 파이썬 객체 ‘None’의 C 이름입니다.  앞에서 보
았듯이, 대부분의 상황에서 “에러”를 뜻하는 ‘NULL’ 포인터가 아니라 진짜 파
이썬 객체입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수,  Next: 컴파일과 링크,  Prev: 예제로 돌아가기,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.4 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수
..........................................

파이썬 프로그램에서 ‘spam_system()’이 어떻게 호출되는지 보여 주겠다고 약
속했습니다.  먼저, “메서드 테이블”에 이름과 주소를 나열해야 합니다:

     static PyMethodDef spam_methods[] = {
         ...
         {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
          "Execute a shell command."},
         ...
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
     };

세 번째 항목 (‘METH_VARARGS’)에 유의하십시오.  이것은 인터프리터에게 C 함
수에 사용될 호출 규칙을 알려주는 플래그입니다.  일반적으로 항상
‘METH_VARARGS’나 ‘METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS’여야 합니다; ‘0’ 값은 더
는 사용되지 않는 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. 변형이 사용됨을 의미합니
다.

‘METH_VARARGS’ 만 사용할 때, 함수는 파이썬 수준 매개 변수가 *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.을 통한 구문 분석에 허용되는 튜플로 전달될 것으
로 기대해야 합니다; 이 함수에 대한 자세한 정보는 아래에 제공됩니다.

키워드 인자를 함수에 전달해야 하면, 세 번째 필드에서 *note
METH_KEYWORDS: 48bf. 비트를 설정할 수 있습니다.  이 경우, C 함수는 키워
드 딕셔너리가 될 세 번째 ‘PyObject *’ 매개 변수를 받아들여야 합니다.  이
러한 함수에는 *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c.를 사용하여 인자
를 구문 분석하십시오.

메서드 테이블은 모듈 정의 구조체에서 참조되어야 합니다:

     static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
         ...
         .m_methods = spam_methods,
         ...
     };

다시, 이 구조체는 모듈의 초기화 함수에서 인터프리터로 전달되어야 합니다.
초기화 함수의 이름은 ‘PyInit_name()’이어야 합니다, 여기서 'name'은 모듈
의 이름이며, 모듈 파일에 정의된 유일한 비 ‘static’ 항목이어야 합니다:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
     }

*note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149b.는 함수를 ‘PyObject *’ 반환형으로 선언하고, 플
랫폼에 필요한 특수 링크 선언을 선언하며, C++의 경우 함수를 ‘extern "C"’로
선언함에 유의하십시오.

‘PyInit_spam()’ is called when each interpreter imports its module
‘spam’ for the first time.  (See below for comments about embedding
Python.)  A pointer to the module definition must be returned via *note
PyModuleDef_Init(): 48c0, so that the import machinery can create the
module and store it in ‘sys.modules’.

파이썬을 내장할 때, ‘PyImport_Inittab’ 테이블에 항목이 없으면
‘PyInit_spam()’ 함수가 자동으로 호출되지 않습니다.  모듈을 초기화 테이블
에 추가하려면, *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa.을 사용하고, 선택적
으로 그다음에 모듈을 임포트 합니다:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyStatus status;
         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Py_Initialize 앞에 내장 모듈을 추가합니다 */
         if (PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam) == -1) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not extend in-built modules table\n");
             exit(1);
         }

         /* 파이썬 인터프리터로 argv[0] 을 전달합니다 */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         /* 파이썬 인터프리터를 초기화합니다. 필수.
            이 단계가 실패하면, 치명적인 에러가 됩니다. */
         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         /* 선택적으로 모듈을 임포트 합니다; 또는,
            내장된 스크립트가 임포트할 때까지 임포트를
            지연시킬 수 있습니다. */
         PyObject *pmodule = PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
         if (!pmodule) {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not import module 'spam'\n");
         }

         // ... 여기서 파이썬 C API 를 사용합니다 ...

         return 0;

       exception:
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);
          Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     참고: If you declare a global variable or a local static one, the
     module may experience unintended side-effects on re-initialisation,
     for example when removing entries from ‘sys.modules’ or importing
     compiled modules into multiple interpreters within a process (or
     following a ‘fork()’ without an intervening ‘exec()’).  If module
     state is not yet fully *note isolated: 48c1, authors should
     consider marking the module as having no support for
     subinterpreters (via *note
     Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED: 48c2.).

A more substantial example module is included in the Python source
distribution as ‘Modules/xxlimited.c’.  This file may be used as a
template or simply read as an example.


File: python.info,  Node: 컴파일과 링크,  Next: C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기,  Prev: 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.5 컴파일과 링크
.....................

새로운 확장을 사용하기 전에 해야 할 두 가지 작업이 더 있습니다: 컴파일과
파이썬 시스템과의 링크.  동적 로딩을 사용하면, 세부 사항은 시스템이 사용
하는 동적 로딩 스타일에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다; 확장 모듈을 빌드하는 것
에 관한 장(*note C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기: 48c5. 장)과 윈도우 빌드에 대한 자
세한 정보는 이에만 관련된 추가 정보(*note 윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장
빌드하기: 1e40. 장)를 참조하십시오.

동적 로딩을 사용할 수 없거나, 모듈을 파이썬 인터프리터의 영구적인 부분으
로 만들려면, 구성 설정을 변경하고 인터프리터를 다시 빌드해야 합니다.  운
좋게도, 이것은 유닉스에서 매우 간단합니다: 압축을 푼 소스 배포의
‘Modules/’ 디렉터리에 파일(예를 들어 ‘spammodule.c’)을 놓고,
‘Modules/Setup.local’ 파일에 여러분의 파일을 기술하는 한 줄을 추가하십시
오:

     spam spammodule.o

그리고 최상위 디렉터리에서 ‘make’를 실행하여 인터프리터를 다시 빌드하십
시오.  ‘Modules/’ 서브 디렉터리에서 ‘make’를 실행할 수도 있지만, 먼저
‘‘make’ Makefile’을 실행하여 ‘Makefile’을 다시 빌드해야 합니다.  (이것은
‘Setup’ 파일을 변경할 때마다 필요합니다.)

모듈에 링크할 추가 라이브러리가 필요하면, 이것도 구성 파일의 줄에 나열될
수 있습니다, 예를 들어:

     spam spammodule.o -lX11


File: python.info,  Node: C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기,  Next: 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기,  Prev: 컴파일과 링크,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.6 C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기
..................................

지금까지 파이썬에서 C 함수를 호출할 수 있도록 하는 데 집중했습니다.  그
반대도 유용합니다: C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기.  이것은 특히 “콜백” 함수
를 지원하는 라이브러리의 경우에 해당합니다.  C 인터페이스가 콜백을 사용
하면, 동등한 파이썬은 종종 파이썬 프로그래머에게 콜백 메커니즘을 제공해
야 할 필요가 있습니다; 구현은 C 콜백에서 파이썬 콜백 함수를 호출해야 합
니다.  다른 용도도 상상할 수 있습니다.

다행히, 파이썬 인터프리터는 재귀적으로 쉽게 호출되며, 파이썬 함수를 호출
하는 표준 인터페이스가 있습니다.  (특정 문자열을 입력으로 파이썬 파서를
호출하는 방법에 대해서는 다루지 않겠습니다 — 관심이 있다면, 파이썬 소스
코드에서 ‘Modules/main.c’의 *note -c: 5da. 명령 줄 옵션 구현을 살펴보십
시오.)

파이썬 함수를 호출하기는 쉽습니다.  먼저, 파이썬 프로그램은 어떻게 든 여
러분에게 파이썬 함수 객체를 전달해야 합니다.  이를 위해 함수(또는 다른 인
터페이스)를 제공해야 합니다.  이 함수가 호출될 때, 전역 변수(또는 여러분
이 보기에 적절한 곳 어디에나)에 파이썬 함수 객체에 대한 포인터를 저장하
십시오 (*note Py_INCREF(): 569.해야 하는 것에 주의하십시오!).  예를 들어
, 다음 함수는 모듈 정의의 일부일 수 있습니다:

     static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;

     static PyObject *
     my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
     {
         PyObject *result = NULL;
         PyObject *temp;

         if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
             if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
                 PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
                 return NULL;
             }
             Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* 새 콜백에 대한 참조를 추가합니다 */
             Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* 이전 콜백을 제거합니다 */
             my_callback = temp;       /* 새 콜백을 기억합니다 */
             /* "None" 을 반환하는 보일러 플레이트 */
             Py_INCREF(Py_None);
             result = Py_None;
         }
         return result;
     }

이 함수는 *note METH_VARARGS: 14d1. 플래그를 사용하여 인터프리터에 등록
해야 합니다; 이것은 섹션 *note 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수:
48bd.에 설명되어 있습니다.  *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. 함수와 그것의
인자는 *note 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기: 48c8. 섹션에 설명되어 있
습니다.

매크로 *note Py_XINCREF(): a61.와 *note Py_XDECREF(): 788.는 객체의 참조
횟수를 증가/감소시키며 ‘NULL’ 포인터가 있을 때 안전합니다 (그러나 이 문
맥에서 'temp'는 ‘NULL’이 아님에 유의하십시오).  섹션 *note 참조 횟수:
48c9.에 이에 대한 자세한 정보가 있습니다.

나중에, 함수를 호출할 때, C 함수 *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.를 호
출합니다.  이 함수에는 두 개의 인자가 있는데, 모두 임의의 파이썬 객체에
대한 포인터입니다: 파이썬 함수와 인자 목록.  인자 목록은 항상 길이가 인
자의 수인 튜플 객체여야 합니다.  인자 없이 파이썬 함수를 호출하려면,
‘NULL’이나 빈 튜플을 전달하십시오; 하나의 인자로 호출하려면, 단 항목 튜
플을 전달하십시오.  *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.는 포맷 문자열이 괄호 사
이에 0개 이상의 포맷 코드로 구성되었을 때 튜플을 반환합니다.  예를 들면:

     int arg;
     PyObject *arglist;
     PyObject *result;
     ...
     arg = 123;
     ...
     /* 콜백을 호출할 시간입니다 */
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.는 파이썬 객체 포인터를 반환합니다: 이
것은 파이썬 함수의 반환 값입니다.  *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.는
인자와 관련하여 “참조 횟수 중립적”입니다.  이 예에서는 *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca. 호출 직후 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.되는 인자
목록으로 사용할 새 튜플이 만들어졌습니다.

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.의 반환 값은 “새것”입니다: 완전히 새로
운 객체이거나 참조 횟수가 증가한 기존 객체입니다.  따라서, 전역 변수에 저
장하려는 것이 아닌 한, 설사 (특히!)  그 값에 관심이 없더라도 결과를
*note Py_DECREF(): 56a.해야 합니다.

그러나, 이 작업을 수행하기 전에 반환 값이 ‘NULL’이 아닌지 확인해야 합니
다.  그렇다면, 파이썬 함수는 예외를 발생 시켜 종료한 것입니다.  *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.라는 C 코드가 파이썬에서 호출되었다면 이제 파
이썬 호출자에게 에러 표시를 반환하여, 인터프리터가 스택 트레이스를 인쇄
하거나 호출하는 파이썬 코드가 예외를 처리할 수 있도록 합니다.  이것이 불
가능하거나 바람직하지 않으면, *note PyErr_Clear(): 1027.를 호출하여 예외
를 지워야 합니다.  예를 들면:

     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* 에러를 돌려줍니다 */
     ...use result...
     Py_DECREF(result);

파이썬 콜백 함수에 대해 원하는 인터페이스에 따라, *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.에 인자 목록을 제공해야 할 수도 있습니다.  때
에 따라 인자 목록은 콜백 함수를 지정한 같은 인터페이스를 통해 파이썬 프
로그램에서 제공됩니다.  그런 다음 함수 객체와 같은 방식으로 저장하고 사
용할 수 있습니다.  다른 경우에는, 인자 목록으로 전달할 새 튜플을 구성해
야 할 수도 있습니다.  이렇게 하는 가장 간단한 방법은 *note
Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.를 호출하는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 정수 이벤트 코드
를 전달하려면, 다음 코드를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     PyObject *arglist;
     ...
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* 에러를 돌려줍니다 */
     /* 여기서 아마도 result를 사용합니다 */
     Py_DECREF(result);

호출 직후, 에러 점검 전에 ‘Py_DECREF(arglist)’의 배치에 유의하십시오!  또
한 엄격하게 말하면 이 코드가 완전하지 않음에도 유의하십시오: *note
Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.에 메모리가 부족할 수 있어서 확인해야 합니다.

인자와 키워드 인자를 지원하는 *note PyObject_Call(): 396.을 사용하여 키
워드 인자가 있는 함수를 호출할 수도 있습니다.  위의 예에서와같이, *note
Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.를 사용하여 딕셔너리를 구성합니다.

     PyObject *dict;
     ...
     dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
     result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
     Py_DECREF(dict);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* 에러를 돌려줍니다 */
     /* 여기서 아마도 result를 사용합니다 */
     Py_DECREF(result);


File: python.info,  Node: 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기,  Next: 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수,  Prev: C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.7 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기
........................................

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. 함수는 다음과 같이 선언됩니다:

     int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);

'arg' 인자는 파이썬에서 C 함수로 전달되는 인자 목록이 포함된 튜플 객체여
야 합니다.  'format' 인자는 포맷 문자열이어야 하며, 문법은 파이썬/C API
레퍼런스 매뉴얼의 *note 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축: 8a5.에 설명되어 있습니
다.  나머지 인자는 포맷 문자열에 의해 형이 결정되는 변수의 주소여야 합니
다.

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.은 파이썬 인자가 요구되는 형인지 확인하지
만, 호출에 전달된 C 변수 주소의 유효성을 확인할 수는 없습니다: 실수를 하
면, 코드가 충돌하거나 적어도 메모리의 임의 비트를 덮어씁니다.  그러니 조
심하십시오!

호출자에게 제공되는 모든 파이썬 객체 참조는 '빌려온(borrowed)' 참조임에
유의하십시오; 참조 횟수를 줄이지 마십시오!

몇 가지 예제 호출:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int ok;
     int i, j;
     long k, l;
     const char *s;
     Py_ssize_t size;

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* 인자가 없습니다 */
         /* 파이썬 호출: f() */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* 문자열 */
         /* 가능한 파이썬 호출: f('whoops!') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* 두 개의 long과 문자열 */
         /* 가능한 파이썬 호출: f(1, 2, 'three') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
         /* int 쌍과 문자열, 문자열의 크기도 반환됩니다 */
         /* 가능한 파이썬 호출: f((1, 2), 'three') */

     {
         const char *file;
         const char *mode = "r";
         int bufsize = 0;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
         /* 문자열, 그리고 선택적으로 또 다른 문자열과 정수 */
         /* 가능한 파이썬 호출:
            f('spam')
            f('spam', 'w')
            f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
     }

     {
         int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
                  &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
         /* 직사각형과 점 */
         /* 가능한 파이썬 호출:
            f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
     }

     {
         Py_complex c;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
         /* 복소수, 에러를 위한 함수 이름도 제공합니다 */
         /* 가능한 파이썬 호출: myfunction(1+2j) */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수,  Next: 임의의 값을 구축하기,  Prev: 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.8 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수
.........................................

*note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. 함수는 다음과 같이 선언됩니다:

     int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
                                     const char *format, char * const *kwlist, ...);

'arg'와 'format' 매개 변수는 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c. 함수와 동일
합니다.  'kwdict' 매개 변수는 파이썬 런타임에서 세 번째 매개 변수로 수신
된 키워드 딕셔너리입니다.  'kwlist' 매개 변수는 매개 변수를 식별하는 문
자열의 ‘NULL’ 종료 목록입니다; 이름은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 'format'의 형
정보와 일치합니다.  성공하면, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c.는
참을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓을 반환하고 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     참고: 키워드 인자를 사용할 때 중첩된 튜플을 구문분석할 수 없습니다!
     'kwlist'에 없는 키워드 매개 변수가 전달되면 *note TypeError: 532.를
     발생시킵니다.

다음은 Geoff Philbrick (<philbrick@hks.com>) 의 예제를 기반으로 한, 키워
드를 사용하는 예제 모듈입니다:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     static PyObject *
     keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
     {
         int voltage;
         const char *state = "a stiff";
         const char *action = "voom";
         const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";

         static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
                                          &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
             return NULL;

         printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
                action, voltage);
         printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);

         Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

     static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
         /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
          * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
          * three.
          */
         {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
          "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef keywdarg_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "keywdarg",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_methods = keywdarg_methods,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_keywdarg(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&keywdarg_module);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 임의의 값을 구축하기,  Next: 참조 횟수,  Prev: 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.9 임의의 값을 구축하기
............................

이 함수는 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.의 반대입니다.  다음과 같이 선언
됩니다:

     PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.에서 인식되는 것과 유사한 포맷 단위 집합을
인식하지만, 인자(함수의 출력이 아니라 입력입니다)는 포인터가 아니라 그냥
값이어야 합니다.  파이썬에서 호출한 C 함수에서 반환하기에 적합한 새 파이
썬 객체를 반환합니다.

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.과의 한 가지 차이점: 후자는 첫 번째 인자가
튜플이어야 하지만 (파이썬 인자 목록은 항상 내부적으로 튜플로 표현되기 때
문입니다), *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.는 항상 튜플을 빌드하지는 않습니다
.  포맷 문자열에 둘 이상의 포맷 단위가 포함된 경우에만 튜플을 빌드합니다
.  포맷 문자열이 비어 있으면 ‘None’을 반환합니다; 정확히 하나의 포맷 단
위를 포함하면, 그것이 무엇이건 해당 포맷 단위가 기술하는 객체를 반환합니
다.  크기가 0이나 1인 튜플을 강제로 반환하도록 하려면, 포맷 문자열을 괄
호로 묶으십시오.

예제 (왼쪽은 호출이고, 오른쪽은 결과 파이썬 값입니다):

     Py_BuildValue("")                        None
     Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
     Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
     Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
     Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
     Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
     Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
     Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
                   "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
     Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
                   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))


File: python.info,  Node: 참조 횟수,  Next: C++로 확장 작성하기,  Prev: 임의의 값을 구축하기,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.10 참조 횟수
..................

C나 C++ 와 같은 언어에서, 힙에서 메모리의 동적 할당과 할당 해제하는 것은
프로그래머가 담당합니다.  C에서는, ‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’ 함수를 사용하여
이 작업을 수행합니다.  C++에서는, 연산자 ‘new’와 ‘delete’는 본질적으로 같
은 의미로 사용되며 우리는 뒤따르는 논의를 C의 경우로 제한하겠습니다.

‘malloc()’으로 할당된 모든 메모리 블록은 ‘free()’를 정확히 한 번 호출하
여 사용 가능한 메모리 풀로 반환되어야 합니다.  적시에 ‘free()’를 호출하
는 것이 중요합니다.  블록의 주소를 잊어버렸지만, ‘free()’를 호출하지 않
으면 프로그램이 종료될 때까지 블록을 차지하는 메모리를 재사용할 수 없습
니다.  이것을 '메모리 누수(memory leak)'라고 합니다.  반면에, 프로그램이
블록에 대해 ‘free()’를 호출한 다음 블록을 계속 사용하면, 다른 ‘malloc()’
호출을 통해 블록을 재사용할 때 충돌이 발생합니다.  이것을 '해제된 메모리
사용하기(using freed memory)'라고 합니다.  초기화되지 않은 데이터를 참조
하는 것과 같은 나쁜 결과를 초래합니다 — 코어 덤프, 잘못된 결과, 미스테리
한 충돌.

메모리 누수의 일반적인 원인은 코드를 통한 비정상적인 경로입니다.  예를 들
어, 함수는 메모리 블록을 할당하고, 어떤 계산을 한 다음, 블록을 다시 해제
할 수 있습니다.  이제 함수에 대한 요구 사항이 변경되어 에러 조건을 감지
하는 계산에 대한 검사를 추가하고 함수가 조기에 반환할 수 있도록 합니다.
이 조기 탈출을 수행할 때, 특히 나중에 코드에 추가될 때, 할당된 메모리 블
록을 해제하는 것을 잊어버리기 쉽습니다.  이러한 누수는 일단 만들어지면 종
종 오랫동안 탐지되지 않습니다: 에러 탈출은 전체 호출의 작은 부분에서만 이
루어지며, 대부분의 최신 시스템에는 많은 가상 메모리가 있어서, 누수 하는
함수를 자주 사용하는 오래 실행되는 프로세스에서만 누수가 나타납니다.  따
라서, 이런 종류의 에러를 코딩 규칙이나 전략을 통해 누수가 발생하지 않도
록 하는 것이 중요합니다.

파이썬은 ‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’를 많이 사용하기 때문에, 메모리 누수와 해
제된 메모리 사용을 피하는 전략이 필요합니다.  선택된 방법을 '참조 횟수 세
기(reference counting)'라고 합니다.  원리는 간단합니다: 모든 객체에는 카
운터를 포함합니다, 카운터는 객체에 대한 참조가 어딘가에 저장될 때 증가하
고, 참조가 삭제될 때 감소합니다.  카운터가 0에 도달하면, 객체에 대한 마
지막 참조가 삭제된 것이고 객체가 해제됩니다.

대체 전략을 '자동 가비지 수집(automatic garbage collection)'이라고 합니
다.  (때로는, 참조 횟수 세기도 가비지 수집 전략이라고 해서, 두 가지를 구
별하기 위해 “자동”을 붙였습니다.)  자동 가비지 수집의 가장 큰 장점은 사
용자가 ‘free()’를 명시적으로 호출할 필요가 없다는 것입니다.  (또 다른 주
장된 이점은 속도나 메모리 사용량의 개선이지만 — 이것은 견고한 사실이 아
닙니다.)  단점은 C의 경우 참조 횟수 세기는 이식성 있게 구현할 수 있지만
(함수 ‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’를 사용할 수 있는 한 — 이는 C 표준이 보장합니
다), 실제로 이식성 있는 자동 가비지 수집기가 없다는 것입니다.  언젠가 C를
위해 충분히 이식성 있는 자동 가비지 수집기를 사용할 수 있을 것입니다.  그
때까지, 우리는 참조 횟수와 함께 살아야 할 것입니다.

파이썬은 전통적인 참조 횟수 세기 구현을 사용하지만, 참조 순환을 감지하는
순환 감지기도 제공합니다.  이를 통해 응용 프로그램은 직접적이거나 간접적
인 순환 참조를 만드는 것(이것이 참조 횟수만 사용하여 구현된 가비지 수집
의 약점입니다)에 대해 걱정하지 않아도 됩니다.  참조 순환은 (어쩌면 간접
적으로) 자신에 대한 참조를 포함하는 객체로 구성되어서, 순환의 각 객체는
0이 아닌 참조 횟수를 갖습니다.  일반적인 참조 횟수 세기 구현에서는 순환
자체에 대한 추가 참조가 없더라도 참조 순환의 객체에 속하는 메모리나 순환
에 속한 객체에서 참조된 메모리를 회수할 수 없습니다.

The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim
them.  The *note gc: 60. module exposes a way to run the detector (the
*note collect(): a36. function), as well as configuration interfaces and
the ability to disable the detector at runtime.

* Menu:

* 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기::
* 소유권 규칙::
* 살얼음::
* NULL 포인터::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기,  Next: 소유권 규칙,  Up: 참조 횟수

6.2.1.11 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기
..................................

참조 횟수의 증가와 감소를 처리하는 두 개의 매크로 ‘Py_INCREF(x)’와
‘Py_DECREF(x)’가 있습니다.  *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.는 횟수가 0에 도달하
면 객체를 해제하기도 합니다.  유연성을 위해, ‘free()’를 직접 호출하지 않
습니다 — 대신, 객체의 '형 객체(type object)'에 있는 함수 포인터를 통해 호
출합니다.  이 목적(및 기타)을 위해 모든 객체에는 해당 형 객체에 대한 포
인터도 포함됩니다.

이제 큰 질문이 남습니다: 언제 ‘Py_INCREF(x)’와 ‘Py_DECREF(x)’를 사용합니
까?  먼저 몇 가지 용어를 소개하겠습니다.  아무도 객체를 “소유(owns)”하지
않습니다ㅣ 그러나, 객체에 대한 '참조를 소유(own a reference)'할 수 있습
니다.  객체의 참조 횟수는 이제 이 객체에 대한 참조를 소유한 수로 정의됩
니다.  참조 소유자는 더는 참조가 필요하지 않을 때 *note Py_DECREF():
56a.를 호출해야 합니다.  참조의 소유권을 양도할 수 있습니다.  소유한 참
조를 처분하는 세 가지 방법이 있습니다: 전달, 저장 및 *note Py_DECREF():
56a. 호출.  소유한 참조를 처분하지 않으면 메모리 누수가 발생합니다.

객체에 대한 참조를 '빌리는(borrow)' (1) 것도 가능합니다.  참조의 대여자
(borrower)는 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.를 호출해서는 안 됩니다.  대여자는 빌
린 소유자보다 더 오래 객체를 붙잡아서는 안 됩니다.  소유자가 처분한 후 빌
린 참조를 사용하면 해제된 메모리를 사용할 위험이 있어서 절대 피해야 합니
다 (2).

참조 소유에 비교할 때 빌리기의 이점은 코드를 통한 가능한 모든 경로에서 참
조를 처리할 필요가 없다는 것입니다 — 즉, 빌려온 참조를 사용하면 조기 종
료 시에 누수의 위험이 없습니다.  소유하는 것에 비해 빌리는 것의 단점은,
겉보기에는 올바른 코드지만, 빌려준 소유자가 실제로는 참조를 처분한 후에
빌린 참조가 사용될 수 있는 미묘한 상황이 있다는 것입니다.

빌린 참조는 *note Py_INCREF(): 569.를 호출하여 소유한 참조로 변경할 수 있
습니다.  이는 참조를 빌려온 소유자의 상태에 영향을 미치지 않습니다 — 새
로운 소유된 참조를 만들고, 완전한 소유자 책임을 부여합니다 (이전 소유자
뿐만 아니라, 새 소유자는 참조를 올바르게 처분해야 합니다).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 참조 “빌리기(borrowing)” 은유는 완전히 올바르지 않습니다: 소유자
는 여전히 참조 사본을 가지고 있습니다.

   (2) 참조 횟수가 1 이상인지 확인하는 것은 '작동하지 않습니다' — 참조 횟
수 자체가 해제된 메모리에 있을 수 있어서 다른 객체에 재사용될 수 있습니
다!


File: python.info,  Node: 소유권 규칙,  Next: 살얼음,  Prev: 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기,  Up: 참조 횟수

6.2.1.12 소유권 규칙
....................

객체 참조가 함수 안팎으로 전달될 때마다, 소유권이 참조와 함께 전달되는지
그렇지 않은지는 함수 인터페이스 명세의 일부입니다.

객체에 대한 참조를 반환하는 대부분의 함수는 참조와 함께 소유권을 전달합
니다.  특히, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840.이나 *note Py_BuildValue():
8a4.와 같은 새 객체를 만드는 기능을 가진 모든 함수는 소유권을 수신자에게
전달합니다.  객체가 실제로 새 객체가 아니더라도, 여전히 해당 객체에 대한
새 참조의 소유권을 받습니다.  예를 들어, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840.은
흔히 사용되는 값의 캐시를 유지하고 캐시 된 항목에 대한 참조를 반환할 수
있습니다.

다른 객체에서 객체를 추출하는 많은 함수도 참조와 함께 소유권을 전달합니
다, 예를 들어 *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 345.  그러나 몇 가지 일반
적인 루틴이 예외이기 때문에 그림이 명확하지 않습니다: *note
PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d5, *note PyList_GetItem(): 355, *note
PyDict_GetItem(): 380. 및 *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 381.은 모두 튜플
, 리스트 또는 딕셔너리에서 빌린 참조를 반환합니다.

*note PyImport_AddModule(): 352. 함수도 실제는 반환하는 객체를 만들 수 있
지만 빌린 참조를 반환합니다: 객체에 대한 소유한 참조가 ‘sys.modules’에 저
장되어 있기 때문에 가능합니다.

객체 참조를 다른 함수에 전달할 때, 일반적으로, 함수는 여러분으로부터 참
조를 빌립니다 — 참조를 저장해야 하면, *note Py_INCREF(): 569.를 사용하여
독립 소유자가 됩니다.  이 규칙에는 두 가지 중요한 예외가 있습니다: *note
PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6.과 *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f.  이 함수들은 전
달된 항목에 대한 소유권을 취합니다 — 설사 실패하더라도!  (*note
PyDict_SetItem(): 48d7.과 그 친구들은 소유권을 취하지 않습니다 — 이들은
“정상” 입니다.)

C 함수가 파이썬에서 호출될 때, 호출자로부터 온 인자에 대한 참조를 빌립니
다.  호출자는 객체에 대한 참조를 소유하기 때문에, 빌린 참조의 수명은 함
수가 반환될 때까지 보장됩니다.  이러한 빌린 참조를 저장하거나 전달해야 할
때만, *note Py_INCREF(): 569.를 호출하여 소유한 참조로 만들어야 합니다.

파이썬에서 호출된 C 함수에서 반환된 객체 참조는 소유한 참조여야 합니다 —
소유권은 함수에서 호출자로 전달됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 살얼음,  Next: NULL 포인터,  Prev: 소유권 규칙,  Up: 참조 횟수

6.2.1.13 살얼음
...............

겉보기에 무해한 빌린 참조의 사용이 문제를 일으킬 수 있는 몇 가지 상황이
있습니다.  이것들은 모두 참조의 소유자가 참조를 처분하도록 할 수 있는 인
터프리터의 묵시적 호출과 관련이 있습니다.

가장 먼저 알아야 할 가장 중요한 경우는 리스트 항목에 대한 참조를 빌리는
동안 관련이 없는 객체에서 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.를 사용하는 것입니다.  예
를 들어:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }

이 함수는 먼저 ‘list[0]’에 대한 참조를 빌린 다음, ‘list[1]’을 값 ‘0’으로
바꾸고, 마지막으로 빌린 참조를 인쇄합니다.  무해해 보이지요?  하지만 그
렇지 않습니다!

Let’s follow the control flow into *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f.  The
list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it
has to dispose of the original item 1.  Now let’s suppose the original
item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let’s further
suppose that the class defined a ‘__del__()’ method.  If this class
instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its
‘__del__()’ method.  Internally, *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f. calls
*note Py_DECREF(): 56a. on the replaced item, which invokes replaced
item’s corresponding *note tp_dealloc: 48da. function.  During
deallocation, *note tp_dealloc: 48da. calls *note tp_finalize: aa3,
which is mapped to the ‘__del__()’ method for class instances (see PEP
442(1)).  This entire sequence happens synchronously within the *note
PyList_SetItem(): 157f. call.

파이썬으로 작성되었기 때문에, ‘__del__()’ 메서드는 임의의 파이썬 코드를
실행할 수 있습니다.  그것이 ‘bug()’에서 ‘item’에 대한 참조를 무효로 하는
작업을 수행할 수 있을까요?  물론입니다!  ‘bug()’에 전달된 리스트가
‘__del__()’ 메서드에서 액세스 가능하다고 가정하면, ‘del list[0]’의 효과
를 주는 문장을 실행할 수 있으며, 이것이 해당 객체에 대한 마지막 참조라고
가정하면, 그것과 연관된 메모리를 해제하고, 그래서 ‘item’을 무효로 합니다
.

문제의 원인을 알고 나면, 해결 방법은 쉽습니다: 일시적으로 참조 횟수를 늘
리십시오.  올바른 버전의 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

     void
     no_bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         Py_INCREF(item);
         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

이것은 실제 이야기입니다.  이전 버전의 파이썬에는 이 버그의 변형이 포함
되어 있으며 누군가 ‘__del__()’ 메서드가 실패하는 이유를 알아내기 위해 C
디버거에서 상당한 시간을 보냈습니다…

The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant
involving threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter
can’t get in each other’s way, because there is a *note global lock:
148. protecting Python’s entire object space.  However, it is possible
to temporarily release this lock using the macro *note
Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db, and to re-acquire it using *note
Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8b.  This is common around blocking I/O calls, to
let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to
complete.  Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the
previous one:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
         Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
         ...some blocking I/O call...
         Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* 버그! */
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: NULL 포인터,  Prev: 살얼음,  Up: 참조 횟수

6.2.1.14 NULL 포인터
....................

일반적으로, 객체 참조를 인자로 취하는 함수는 ‘NULL’ 포인터를 전달할 것으
로 기대하지 않으며, 그렇게 하면 코어를 덤프합니다 (또는 이후의 코어 덤프
를 유발합니다).  객체 참조를 반환하는 함수는 일반적으로 예외가 발생했음
을 나타내기 위해서만 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  ‘NULL’ 인자를 검사하지 않는 이
유는 함수들이 종종 자신이 받은 객체를 다른 함수에 전달하기 때문입니다 —
각 함수가 ‘NULL’을 검사한다면, 중복 검사가 많이 발생하고 코드가 더 느리
게 실행됩니다.

‘NULL’일 수 있는 포인터가 수신될 때 “소스”에서만 ‘NULL’을 검사하는 것이
좋습니다, 예를 들어, ‘malloc()’이나 예외를 발생시킬 수 있는 함수에서.

매크로 *note Py_INCREF(): 569.와 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.는 ‘NULL’ 포인터
를 검사하지 않습니다 — 하지만, 그들의 변형 *note Py_XINCREF(): a61.와
*note Py_XDECREF(): 788.는 확인합니다.

특정 객체 형을 확인하기 위한 매크로(‘Pytype_Check()’)는 ‘NULL’ 포인터를
확인하지 않습니다 — 다시, 여러 기대하는 형에 대해 객체를 검사하기 위해 연
속해서 이들을 여러 번 호출하는 코드가 많아서, 중복 검사가 생성됩니다.
‘NULL’ 검사를 하는 변형은 없습니다.

C 함수 호출 메커니즘은 C 함수에 전달된 인자 목록(예에서는 ‘args’)이 절대
‘NULL’이 아님을 보장합니다 — 실제로는 항상 튜플임을 보장합니다 (1).

‘NULL’ 포인터를 파이썬 사용자에게 “빠져나가게” 만드는 것은 심각한 에러입
니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) “오래된” 스타일 호출 규칙을 사용할 때 이러한 보장은 유지되지 않습
니다 — 이것은 여전히 기존 코드에서 많이 발견됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: C++로 확장 작성하기,  Next: 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기,  Prev: 참조 횟수,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.15 C++로 확장 작성하기
............................

C++로 확장 모듈을 작성할 수 있습니다.  일부 제한 사항이 적용됩니다.  메
인 프로그램(파이썬 인터프리터)이 C 컴파일러로 컴파일되고 링크되면, 생성
자가 있는 전역이나 정적(static) 객체를 사용할 수 없습니다.  메인 프로그
램이 C++ 컴파일러로 링크된 경우에는 문제가 되지 않습니다.  파이썬 인터프
리터가 호출할 함수(특히, 모듈 초기화 함수)는 ‘extern "C"’를 사용하여 선
언해야 합니다.  ‘extern "C" {...}’로 파이썬 헤더 파일을 묶을 필요는 없습
니다 — ‘__cplusplus’ 기호가 정의되면 (모든 최신 C++ 컴파일러가 이 기호를
정의합니다) 이미 이 형식을 사용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기,  Prev: C++로 확장 작성하기,  Up: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기

6.2.1.16 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기
........................................

많은 확장 모듈은 단지 파이썬에서 사용할 새로운 함수와 형을 제공하지만, 때
로 확장 모듈의 코드가 다른 확장 모듈에 유용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 확
장 모듈은 순서 없는 리스트처럼 작동하는 “컬렉션” 형을 구현할 수 있습니다
.  표준 파이썬 리스트 형에 확장 모듈이 리스트를 만들고 조작할 수 있게 하
는 C API가 있는 것처럼, 이 새로운 컬렉션 형에는 다른 확장 모듈에서 직접
조작할 수 있는 C 함수 집합이 있어야 합니다.

첫눈에 이것은 쉬운 것처럼 보입니다; 단지 함수를 작성하고 (물론 ‘static’을
선언하지 않고), 적절한 헤더 파일을 제공하고, C API를 설명합니다.  사실 이
것은 모든 확장 모듈이 항상 파이썬 인터프리터와 정적으로 링크되어 있다면
작동합니다.  그러나 모듈을 공유 라이브러리로 사용하면, 한 모듈에 정의된
기호가 다른 모듈에서 보이지 않을 수 있습니다.  가시성의 세부 사항은 운영
체제에 따라 다릅니다; 어떤 시스템은 파이썬 인터프리터와 모든 확장 모듈에
하나의 전역 이름 공간을 사용하는 반면 (예를 들어 윈도우), 다른 시스템은
모듈 링크 시점에 임포트 되는 기호의 목록을 명시적으로 요구하거나 (AIX가
하나의 예입니다), 여러 전략 중 선택할 수 있도록 합니다 (대부분의 유닉스
).  또한 기호가 전역적으로 보이더라도, 호출하려는 함수를 가진 모듈이 아
직 로드되지 않았을 수 있습니다!

따라서 이식성에는 기호 가시성에 대해 가정하지 않을 것이 요구됩니다.  이
것은 다른 확장 모듈과의 이름 충돌을 피하고자, 모듈의 초기화 함수를 제외
한 확장 모듈의 모든 기호를 ‘static’으로 선언해야 함을 의미합니다 (섹션
*note 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수: 48bd.에서 설명되듯이).  그리고
이는 다른 확장 모듈에서 액세스 '해야만' 하는 기호를 다른 방식으로 노출해
야 함을 의미합니다.

파이썬은 한 확장 모듈에서 다른 확장 모듈로 C 수준 정보(포인터)를 전달하
는 특별한 메커니즘을 제공합니다: 캡슐(Capsule).  캡슐은 포인터(void*)를
저장하는 파이썬 데이터형입니다.  캡슐은 C API를 통해서만 만들고 액세스할
수 있지만, 다른 파이썬 객체처럼 전달할 수 있습니다.  특히, 확장 모듈의 이
름 공간에서 이름에 대입할 수 있습니다.  다른 확장 모듈은 이 모듈을 임포
트 해서, 이 이름의 값을 가져온 다음, 캡슐에서 포인터를 가져올 수 있습니
다.

확장 모듈의 C API를 노출하는 데 캡슐을 사용하는 방법에는 여러 가지가 있
습니다.  각 함수가 자신만의 캡슐을 얻거나, 모든 C API 포인터가 저장된 배
열의 주소를 캡슐로 게시할 수 있습니다.  그리고 포인터를 저장하고 꺼내는
다양한 작업은 코드를 제공하는 모듈과 클라이언트 모듈 간에 여러 방식으로
분산될 수 있습니다.

어떤 방법을 선택하든, 캡슐 이름을 올바르게 지정하는 것이 중요합니다.
*note PyCapsule_New(): 48e1. 함수는 name 매개 변수(const char*)를 취합니
다; ‘NULL’ name을 전달할 수는 있지만, 이름을 지정하도록 강력히 권고합니
다.  적절하게 이름 붙인 캡슐은 어느 정도의 실행 시간 형 안전성을 제공합
니다; 하나의 이름 없는 캡슐을 다른 캡슐과 구별할 수 있는 적절한 방법은 없
습니다.

특히, C API를 공개하는 데 사용되는 캡슐에는 다음 규칙에 따라 이름을 지정
해야 합니다:

     modulename.attributename

편의 함수 *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1874.를 사용하면 캡슐을 통해 제공된
C API를 쉽게 로드 할 수 있지만, 캡슐 이름이 이 규칙과 일치할 때만 그렇습
니다.  이 동작은 C API 사용자에게 자신이 로드 한 캡슐에 올바른 C API가 포
함되어 있다는 확신을 줍니다.

다음 예제는 대부분의 부담을 내보내는 모듈의 작성자에게 주는 방식을 보여
주는데, 일반적으로 사용되는 라이브러리 모듈에 적합합니다.  캡슐의 값이 되
는 void 포인터의 배열에 모든 C API 포인터(이 예에서는 하나뿐입니다!)를 저
장합니다.  모듈에 해당하는 헤더 파일은 모듈을 임포트 하고 C API 포인터를
가져오는 매크로를 제공합니다; 클라이언트 모듈은 C API에 액세스하기 전에
이 매크로를 호출하기만 하면 됩니다.

내보내는 모듈은 섹션 *note 간단한 예: 48b1.의 ‘spam’ 모듈을 수정한 것입
니다.  ‘spam.system()’ 함수는 C 라이브러리 함수 ‘system()’을 직접 호출하
지는 않고, 실제로는 더 복잡한 작업을 수행하는 (가령 모든 명령에 “spam”을
추가하는 것과 같은) ‘PySpam_System()’ 함수를 호출합니다.  이 함수
‘PySpam_System()’도 다른 확장 모듈로 내보냅니다.

함수 ‘PySpam_System()’은 평범한 C 함수이며, 다른 모든 것과 같이
‘static’으로 선언되었습니다:

     static int
     PySpam_System(const char *command)
     {
         return system(command);
     }

‘spam_system()’ 함수는 사소하게 수정됩니다:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = PySpam_System(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

모듈의 시작 부분에서, 다음 줄 바로 다음에

     #include <Python.h>

다음 두 줄을 더 추가해야 합니다:

     #define SPAM_MODULE
     #include "spammodule.h"

The ‘#define’ is used to tell the header file that it is being included
in the exporting module, not a client module.  Finally, the module’s
*note mod_exec: 97c. function must take care of initializing the C API
pointer array:

     static int
     spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
         PyObject *c_api_object;

         /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
         PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;

         /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
         c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);

         if (PyModule_Add(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

‘PySpam_API’는 ‘static’으로 선언됩니다; 그렇지 않으면 ‘PyInit_spam()’이
종료할 때 포인터 배열이 사라집니다!

작업 대부분은 헤더 파일 ‘spammodule.h’에 있으며, 다음과 같습니다:

     #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #ifdef __cplusplus
     extern "C" {
     #endif

     /* spammodule 의 헤더 파일 */

     /* C API functions */
     #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
     #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
     #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)

     /* C API 포인터의 총수 */
     #define PySpam_API_pointers 1


     #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
     /* 이 섹션은 spammodule.c를 컴파일할 때 사용됩니다 */

     static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;

     #else
     /* 이 섹션은 spammodule의 API를 사용하는 모듈에서 사용됩니다 */

     static void **PySpam_API;

     #define PySpam_System \
      (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])

     /* 에러 시 -1, 성공 시 0을 반환합니다.
      * PyCapsule_Import는 에러가 있으면 예외를 설정합니다.
      */
     static int
     import_spam(void)
     {
         PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
         return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
     }

     #endif

     #ifdef __cplusplus
     }
     #endif

     #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */

All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
‘PySpam_System()’ is to call the function (or rather macro)
‘import_spam()’ in its *note mod_exec: 97c. function:

     static int
     client_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (import_spam() < 0) {
             return -1;
         }
         /* additional initialization can happen here */
         return 0;
     }

이 방법의 주요 단점은 파일 ‘spammodule.h’가 다소 복잡하다는 것입니다.  그
러나, 기본 구조는 내보내는 함수마다 같아서, 한 번만 학습하면 됩니다.

마지막으로 캡슐은 추가 기능을 제공하며, 특히 캡슐에 저장된 포인터의 메모
리 할당과 할당 해제에 유용합니다.  세부 사항은 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 매
뉴얼의 *note 캡슐: 258c. 섹션과 캡슐 구현(파이썬 소스 코드 배포의
‘Include/pycapsule.h’와 ‘Objects/pycapsule.c’ 파일)에 설명되어 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장형 정의하기 자습서,  Next: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제,  Prev: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기,  Up: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기

6.2.2 확장형 정의하기: 자습서
-----------------------------

파이썬은 C 확장 모듈 작성자가 내장 *note str: 445.과 *note list: 60b. 형
과 마찬가지로 파이썬 코드에서 조작할 수 있는 새로운 형을 정의할 수 있도
록 합니다.  모든 확장형의 코드는 패턴을 따르지만, 시작하기 전에 이해해야
할 세부 사항이 있습니다.  이 설명서는 주제에 대한 간단한 소개입니다.

* Menu:

* 기초::
* 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기::
* 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기::
* 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기::
* 다른 형의 서브 클래싱::


File: python.info,  Node: 기초,  Next: 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 자습서

6.2.2.1 기초
............

The *note CPython: 6ef. runtime sees all Python objects as variables of
type *note PyObject: 332.*, which serves as a “base type” for all Python
objects.  The *note PyObject: 332. structure itself only contains the
object’s *note reference count: 48e6. and a pointer to the object’s
“type object”.  This is where the action is; the type object determines
which (C) functions get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an
attribute gets looked up on an object, a method called, or it is
multiplied by another object.  These C functions are called “type
methods”.

따라서, 새 확장형을 정의하려면, 새 형 객체를 만들어야 합니다.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here’s a
minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named ‘Custom’
inside a C extension module ‘custom’:

     참고: 여기에 표시하는 것은 '정적인(static)' 확장형을 정의하는 전통
     적인 방법입니다.  대부분의 용도에 적합해야 합니다.  C API는 또한
     *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578. 함수를 사용하여 힙 할당 확장형을 정의
     할 수 있습니다만, 이 자습서에서는 다루지 않습니다.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         /* Type-specific fields go here. */
     } CustomObject;

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         // Just use this while using static types
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

이제는 한 번에 배워야 할 것이 많지만, 이전 장과 비슷해 보이기를 바랍니다
.  이 파일은 세 가지를 정의합니다:

  1. What a ‘Custom’ 'object' contains: this is the ‘CustomObject’
     struct, which is allocated once for each ‘Custom’ instance.

  2. How the ‘Custom’ 'type' behaves: this is the ‘CustomType’ struct,
     which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the
     interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested.

  3. How to define and execute the ‘custom’ module: this is the
     ‘PyInit_custom’ function and the associated ‘custom_module’ struct
     for defining the module, and the ‘custom_module_exec’ function to
     set up a fresh module object.

첫 번째 것은:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } CustomObject;

This is what a Custom object will contain.  ‘PyObject_HEAD’ is mandatory
at the start of each object struct and defines a field called ‘ob_base’
of type *note PyObject: 332, containing a pointer to a type object and a
reference count (these can be accessed using the macros *note Py_TYPE:
779. and *note Py_REFCNT: 8a6. respectively).  The reason for the macro
is to abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in *note
debug builds: 1f9.

     참고: *note PyObject_HEAD: 12ce. 매크로 뒤에는 세미콜론이 없습니다.
     실수로 추가하는 것에 주의하십시오: 일부 컴파일러는 불평할 것입니다.

물론, 객체는 일반적으로 표준 ‘PyObject_HEAD’ 관용구 외에 추가 데이터를 저
장합니다; 예를 들어, 표준 파이썬 floats에 대한 정의는 다음과 같습니다:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         double ob_fval;
     } PyFloatObject;

두 번째 것은 형 객체의 정의입니다.

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     참고: 신경 쓰지 않는 모든 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 필드를 나열하지
     않고 필드의 선언 순서를 신경 쓰지 않으려면, 위와 같이 C99 스타일의
     지명(designated) 초기화자를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

‘object.h’에 있는 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.의 실제 정의는 위의 정의보다 더
많은 *note 필드: 98a.를 갖습니다.  나머지 필드는 C 컴파일러에 의해 0으로
채워지며, 필요하지 않으면 명시적으로 지정하지 않는 것이 일반적입니다.

한 번에 한 필드씩 따로 다루려고 합니다:

     .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

이 줄은 위에서 언급한 ‘ob_base’ 필드를 초기화하기 위한 필수 상용구입니다
.

     .tp_name = "custom.Custom",

우리 형의 이름.  이것은 객체의 기본 텍스트 표현과 일부 에러 메시지에 나
타납니다, 예를 들어:

     >>> "" + custom.Custom()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name
and the name of the type within the module.  The module in this case is
‘custom’ and the type is ‘Custom’, so we set the type name to
‘custom.Custom’.  Using the real dotted import path is important to make
your type compatible with the *note pydoc: b5. and *note pickle: a6.
modules.

     .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
     .tp_itemsize = 0,

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
new ‘Custom’ instances.  *note tp_itemsize: 1f78. is only used for
variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.

     참고: If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and
     your type has the same *note tp_basicsize: 984. as its base type,
     you may have problems with multiple inheritance.  A Python subclass
     of your type will have to list your type first in its *note
     __bases__: 1472, or else it will not be able to call your type’s
     *note __new__(): 57b. method without getting an error.  You can
     avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value
     for *note tp_basicsize: 984. than its base type does.  Most of the
     time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type will
     be *note object: a89, or else you will be adding data members to
     your base type, and therefore increasing its size.

We set the class flags to *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT: 48e7.

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

모든 형은 이 상수를 플래그에 포함해야 합니다.  적어도 파이썬 3.3까지 정
의된 모든 멤버를 활성화합니다.  추가 멤버가 필요하면, 해당 플래그를 OR 해
야 합니다.

*note tp_doc: 48e8.에 형의 독스트링을 제공합니다.

     .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

To enable object creation, we have to provide a *note tp_new: 57a.
handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method *note __new__():
57b, but has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use
the default implementation provided by the API function *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 48e9.

     .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
‘custom_module_exec()’:

     if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
         return -1;
     }

This initializes the ‘Custom’ type, filling in a number of members to
the appropriate default values, including *note ob_type: 48ea. that we
initially set to ‘NULL’.

     if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
         return -1;
     }

This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
‘Custom’ instances by calling the ‘Custom’ class:

     >>> import custom
     >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That’s it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called ‘custom.c’,

     [build-system]
     requires = ["setuptools"]
     build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"

     [project]
     name = "custom"
     version = "1"

in a file called ‘pyproject.toml’, and

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

를 ‘setup.py’라는 파일에 넣은 다음; 다음을

     $ python -m pip install .

in a shell should produce a file ‘custom.so’ in a subdirectory and
install it; now fire up Python — you should be able to ‘import custom’
and play around with ‘Custom’ objects.

그렇게 어렵지 않습니다, 그렇지 않나요?

물론, 현재 Custom 형은 그리 흥미롭지 않습니다.  데이터가 없고 아무것도 하
지 않습니다.  서브 클래싱조차 할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기,  Next: 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기,  Prev: 기초,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 자습서

6.2.2.2 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기
............................................

Let’s extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let’s also
make the type usable as a base class.  We’ll create a new module,
‘custom2’ that adds these capabilities:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom2",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom2(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

이 버전의 모듈에는 여러 가지 변경 사항이 있습니다.

The ‘Custom’ type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
'first', 'last', and 'number'.  The 'first' and 'last' variables are
Python strings containing first and last names.  The 'number' attribute
is a C integer.

객체 구조체는 다음과 같이 갱신됩니다:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

이제 관리할 데이터가 있기 때문에, 객체 할당과 할당 해제에 관해 더욱 신중
해야 합니다.  최소한, 할당 해제 메서드가 필요합니다:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

이는 *note tp_dealloc: 48da. 멤버에 대입됩니다:

     .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python
attributes.  *note Py_XDECREF(): 788. correctly handles the case where
its argument is ‘NULL’ (which might happen here if ‘tp_new’ failed
midway).  It then calls the *note tp_free: 48ec. member of the object’s
type (computed by ‘Py_TYPE(self)’) to free the object’s memory.  Note
that the object’s type might not be ‘CustomType’, because the object may
be an instance of a subclass.

     참고: ‘CustomObject *’ 인자를 취하도록 ‘Custom_dealloc’을 정의했지
     만, ‘tp_dealloc’ 함수 포인터는 ‘PyObject *’ 인자를 받을 것으로 기대
     하기 때문에 위의 ‘destructor’로의 명시적 캐스트가 필요합니다.  그렇
     지 않으면, 컴파일러에서 경고가 발생합니다.  이것이 C로 하는 객체 지
     향 다형성입니다!

우리는 성과 이름이 빈 문자열로 초기화되도록 하고 싶어서, ‘tp_new’ 구현을
제공합니다:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

그리고 그것을 *note tp_new: 57a. 멤버에 설치합니다:

     .tp_new = Custom_new,

The ‘tp_new’ handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to
initializing) objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the *note
__new__(): 57b. method.  It is not required to define a ‘tp_new’ member,
and indeed many extension types will simply reuse *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 48e9. as done in the first version of the ‘Custom’
type above.  In this case, we use the ‘tp_new’ handler to initialize the
‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes to non-‘NULL’ default values.

‘tp_new’는 인스턴스 화 되는 형(서브 클래스가 인스턴스 화 되면, 반드시
‘CustomType’일 필요는 없습니다)과 형이 호출될 때 전달된 모든 인자가 전달
되며, 만들어진 인스턴스를 반환할 것으로 기대됩니다.  ‘tp_new’ 처리기는 항
상 위치와 키워드 인자를 받아들이지만, 종종 인자를 무시하고 인자 처리를 초
기화 (C의 ‘tp_init’나 파이썬의 ‘__init__’) 메서드에게 남겨둡니다.

     참고: 인터프리터가 직접 할 것이라서, ‘tp_new’는 명시적으로
     ‘tp_init’를 호출하면 안 됩니다.

‘tp_new’ 구현은 *note tp_alloc: 48ed. 슬롯을 호출하여 메모리를 할당합니
다:

     self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

메모리 할당이 실패할 수 있어서, 진행하기 전에 *note tp_alloc: 48ed. 결과
가 ‘NULL’이 아닌지 확인해야 합니다.

     참고: 우리는 *note tp_alloc: 48ed. 슬롯을 직접 채우지 않았습니다.  대
     신 *note PyType_Ready(): 775.가 베이스 클래스(기본적으로 *note
     object: a89.입니다)에서 상속하여 이를 채웁니다.  대부분의 형은 기본
     할당 전략을 사용합니다.

     참고: If you are creating a co-operative *note tp_new: 57a. (one
     that calls a base type’s *note tp_new: 57a. or *note __new__():
     57b.), you must 'not' try to determine what method to call using
     method resolution order at runtime.  Always statically determine
     what type you are going to call, and call its *note tp_new: 57a.
     directly, or via ‘type->tp_base->tp_new’.  If you do not do this,
     Python subclasses of your type that also inherit from other
     Python-defined classes may not work correctly.  (Specifically, you
     may not be able to create instances of such subclasses without
     getting a *note TypeError: 532.)

인스턴스의 초깃값을 제공하는 인자를 받아들이는 초기화 함수도 정의합니다:

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

이것으로 *note tp_init: 57c. 슬롯을 채웁니다:

     .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,

The *note tp_init: 57c. slot is exposed in Python as the *note
__init__(): 6aa. method.  It is used to initialize an object after it’s
created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
and they should return either ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

Unlike the ‘tp_new’ handler, there is no guarantee that ‘tp_init’ is
called at all (for example, the *note pickle: a6. module by default
doesn’t call *note __init__(): 6aa. on unpickled instances).  It can
also be called multiple times.  Anyone can call the ‘__init__()’ method
on our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when
assigning the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to
assign the ‘first’ member like this:

     if (first) {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_INCREF(first);
         self->first = first;
     }

하지만 이것은 위험합니다.  우리 형은 ‘first’ 멤버의 형을 제한하지 않아서
, 모든 종류의 객체가 될 수 있습니다.  ‘first’ 멤버에 액세스하려고 시도하
는 코드가 실행되도록 하는 파괴자가 있을 수 있습니다; 또는 파괴자가 *note
전역 인터프리터 록: 159.을 해제하고 다른 스레드에서 객체에 액세스하고 수
정하는 임의의 코드가 실행되도록 할 수 있습니다.

편집증적이 되고 이 가능성으로부터 우리 자신을 보호하기 위해, 우리는 거의
항상 참조 횟수를 줄이기 전에 멤버를 다시 대입합니다.  언제 이렇게 하지 않
아도 될까요?

   * 참조 횟수가 1보다 크다는 것을 확실히 알고 있을 때;

   * 객체의 할당 해제가 *note GIL: 159.을 해제하지도 않고 형의 코드를 다
     시 호출하지도 않음을 알고 있을 때 (1);

   * 순환 가비지 수거를 지원하지 않는 형의 *note tp_dealloc: 48da. 처리
     기에서 참조 횟수를 감소시킬 때 (2).

인스턴스 변수를 어트리뷰트로 노출하려고 합니다.  이를 수행하는 방법에는
여러 가지가 있습니다.  가장 간단한 방법은 멤버 정의를 정의하는 것입니다:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

그리고 *note tp_members: 48ee. 슬롯에 정의를 넣습니다:

     .tp_members = Custom_members,

각 멤버 정의에는 멤버 이름, 형, 오프셋, 액세스 플래그 및 독스트링이 있습
니다.  자세한 내용은 아래 *note 범용 어트리뷰트 관리: 48ef. 섹션을 참조
하십시오.

이 접근법의 단점은 파이썬 어트리뷰트에 대입할 수 있는 객체의 형을 제한할
방법을 제공하지 않는다는 것입니다.  이름과 성은 문자열일 것으로 기대하지
만, 모든 파이썬 객체를 할당할 수 있습니다.  또한 어트리뷰트를 삭제할 수
있습니다, C 포인터를 ‘NULL’로 설정합니다.  ‘NULL’이 아닌 값으로 멤버를 초
기화 할 수 있지만, 어트리뷰트를 삭제하면 멤버를 ‘NULL’로 설정할 수 있습
니다.

We define a single method, ‘Custom.name()’, that outputs the objects
name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a ‘Custom’ (or
‘Custom’ subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take
an instance as the first argument.  Methods often take positional and
keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don’t take any and don’t
need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument
dictionary.  This method is equivalent to the Python method:

     def name(self):
         return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our ‘first’ and
‘last’ members are ‘NULL’.  This is because they can be deleted, in
which case they are set to ‘NULL’.  It would be better to prevent
deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be
strings.  We’ll see how to do that in the next section.

이제 메서드를 정의했습니다, 메서드 정의 배열을 만들어야 합니다:

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

(note that we used the *note METH_NOARGS: 149c. flag to indicate that
the method is expecting no arguments other than 'self')

그리고 *note tp_methods: 48f0. 슬롯에 대입합니다:

     .tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Finally, we’ll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.
We’ve written our methods carefully so far so that they don’t make any
assumptions about the type of the object being created or used, so all
we need to do is to add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 48f1. to our
class flag definition:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename ‘PyInit_custom()’ to ‘PyInit_custom2()’, update the module
name in the *note PyModuleDef: 978. struct, and update the full class
name in the *note PyTypeObject: aa2. struct.

Finally, we update our ‘setup.py’ file to include the new module,

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[
         Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
         Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
     ])

and then we re-install so that we can ‘import custom2’:

     $ python -m pip install .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 이것은 객체가 문자열이나 부동 소수점과 같은 기본형이라는 것을 알
고 있을 때 참입니다.

   (2) 우리의 형이 가비지 수거를 지원하지 않기 때문에, 이 예제에서는
*note tp_dealloc: 48da. 처리기에서 이것을 사용했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기,  Next: 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기,  Prev: 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 자습서

6.2.2.3 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기
................................................

In this section, we’ll provide finer control over how the ‘first’ and
‘last’ attributes are set in the ‘Custom’ example.  In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables ‘first’ and ‘last’ could
be set to non-string values or even deleted.  We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom3",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom3(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

To provide greater control, over the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes,
we’ll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions
for getting and setting the ‘first’ attribute:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         Py_INCREF(self->first);
         return self->first;
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         PyObject *tmp;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         tmp = self->first;
         Py_INCREF(value);
         self->first = value;
         Py_DECREF(tmp);
         return 0;
     }

The getter function is passed a ‘Custom’ object and a “closure”, which
is a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure
supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the
getter and setter.  This could, for example, be used to allow a single
set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or
set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the ‘Custom’ object, the new value, and
the closure.  The new value may be ‘NULL’, in which case the attribute
is being deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is
deleted or if its new value is not a string.

*note PyGetSetDef: bb5. 구조체의 배열을 만듭니다:

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

그리고 *note tp_getset: 48f3. 슬롯에 등록합니다:

     .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

*note PyGetSetDef: bb5. 구조체의 마지막 항목은 위에서 언급한 “클로저”입
니다.  이 경우, 클로저를 사용하지 않아서, ‘NULL’만 전달합니다.

또한 이러한 어트리뷰트에 대한 멤버 정의를 제거합니다:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

또한 문자열만 전달되도록 (1) *note tp_init: 57c. 처리기를 갱신해야 합니
다:

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

이러한 변경을 통해, ‘first’와 ‘last’ 멤버가 절대 ‘NULL’이 아니라고 확신
할 수 있어서, 거의 모든 경우에 ‘NULL’ 값 검사를 제거할 수 있습니다.  이
것은 대부분의 *note Py_XDECREF(): 788. 호출이 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. 호
출로 변환될 수 있음을 의미합니다.  이러한 호출을 변경할 수 없는 유일한 장
소는 ‘tp_dealloc’ 구현에서인데, ‘tp_new’에서 이 멤버의 초기화가 실패했을
가능성이 있습니다.

또한 이전과 마찬가지로, 초기화 함수에서 모듈 초기화 함수와 모듈 이름을 바
꾸고, ‘setup.py’ 파일에 추가 정의를 추가합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 우리는 이제 first와 last 멤버가 문자열이라는 것을 알고 있어서, 참
조 횟수를 줄이는 데 덜 주의할 수 있지만, 우리는 문자열 서브 클래스의 인
스턴스를 받아들입니다.  일반 문자열을 할당 해제하는 것이 우리 객체로 다
시 호출되지는 않더라도, 문자열 서브 클래스의 인스턴스를 할당 해제하는 것
이 객체로 다시 호출되지 않는다고 보장할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기,  Next: 다른 형의 서브 클래싱,  Prev: 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 자습서

6.2.2.4 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기
.................................

파이썬에는 참조 횟수가 0이 아닐 때도 불필요한 객체를 식별할 수 있는
*note 순환 가비지 수거기 (GC): 1920.가 있습니다.  이것은 객체가 순환에 참
여할 때 일어날 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음을 고려하십시오:

     >>> l = []
     >>> l.append(l)
     >>> del l

이 예에서, 자신을 포함하는 리스트를 만듭니다.  삭제해도 여전히 자체 참조
가 있습니다.  참조 횟수가 0으로 떨어지지 않습니다.  다행스럽게도, 파이썬
의 순환 가비지 수거기는 결국 리스트가 가비지임을 확인하고 해제합니다.

In the second version of the ‘Custom’ example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the ‘first’ or ‘last’ attributes (1).  Besides,
in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing ‘Custom’, and
subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of those two reasons,
‘Custom’ objects can participate in cycles:

     >>> import custom3
     >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
     ...
     >>> n = Derived()
     >>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a ‘Custom’ instance participating in a reference cycle to be
properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our ‘Custom’ type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables
these slots:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc) Custom_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry) Custom_clear,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom4",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom4(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

첫째, 탐색(traversal) 메서드는 순환 GC가 순환에 참여할 수 있는 서브 객체
에 대해 알 수 있도록 합니다:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         int vret;
         if (self->first) {
             vret = visit(self->first, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         if (self->last) {
             vret = visit(self->last, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         return 0;
     }

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
‘visit()’ function, which is passed to the traversal method.  The
‘visit()’ function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra
argument 'arg' passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer
value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

파이썬은 visit 함수 호출을 자동화하는 *note Py_VISIT(): 48f5. 매크로를 제
공합니다.  *note Py_VISIT(): 48f5.를 사용하면, ‘Custom_traverse’에서 관
용구 양을 최소화할 수 있습니다:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     참고: *note Py_VISIT(): 48f5.를 사용하려면 *note tp_traverse: 777.
     구현에서 인자 이름을 'visit'과 'arg'로 정확하게 지정해야 합니다.

둘째, 순환에 참여할 수 있는 서브 객체를 지우는 메서드를 제공해야 합니다:

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

*note Py_CLEAR(): 573. 매크로 사용에 주목하십시오.  참조 횟수를 줄이면서
임의 형의 데이터 어트리뷰트를 지우는 권장되고 안전한 방법입니다.  ‘NULL’로
설정하기 전에 어트리뷰트에서 *note Py_XDECREF(): 788.를 대신 호출했으면,
어트리뷰트의 파괴자가 어트리뷰트를 다시 읽는 코드('특히' 참조 순환이 있
으면 )를 다시 호출할 가능성이 있습니다.

     참고: 다음과 같이 작성하여 *note Py_CLEAR(): 573.를 에뮬레이션할 수
     있습니다:

          PyObject *tmp;
          tmp = self->first;
          self->first = NULL;
          Py_XDECREF(tmp);

     그런데도, 어트리뷰트를 삭제할 때 항상 *note Py_CLEAR(): 573.를 사용
     하기가 훨씬 쉽고 에러가 적습니다.  견고성을 희생하면서 세밀한 최적
     화를 시도하지 마십시오!

할당 해제기 ‘Custom_dealloc’은 어트리뷰트를 지울 때 임의의 코드를 호출할
수 있습니다.  이는 함수 내에서 순환 GC가 트리거 될 수 있음을 의미합니다.
GC는 참조 횟수가 0이 아니라고 가정하기 때문에, 멤버를 지우기 전에 *note
PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce.을 호출하여 GC에서 객체를 추적 해제해야 합니
다.  다음은 *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce.과 ‘Custom_clear’를 사용하
여 다시 구현된 할당 해제기입니다:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

Finally, we add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag to the class
flags:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

거의 다 됐습니다.  사용자 정의 *note tp_alloc: 48ed.이나 *note tp_free:
48ec. 처리기를 작성했으면, 순환 가비지 수거를 위해 이를 수정해야 합니다.
대부분의 확장은 자동으로 제공된 버전을 사용합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 또한, 어트리뷰트가 문자열 인스턴스로 제한된 경우에도, 사용자는 임
의의 *note str: 445. 서브 클래스를 전달할 수 있어서 여전히 참조 순환을 만
들 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 형의 서브 클래싱,  Prev: 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 자습서

6.2.2.5 다른 형의 서브 클래싱
.............................

기존 형에서 파생된 새 확장형을 만들 수 있습니다.  확장이 필요한 *note
PyTypeObject: aa2.를 쉽게 사용할 수 있어서, 내장형에서 상속하기가 가장 쉽
습니다.  확장 모듈 간에 이러한 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 구조체를 공유하
기 어려울 수 있습니다.

In this example we will create a ‘SubList’ type that inherits from the
built-in *note list: 60b. type.  The new type will be completely
compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional ‘increment()’
method that increases an internal counter:

     >>> import sublist
     >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
     >>> s.extend(s)
     >>> print(len(s))
     6
     >>> print(s.increment())
     1
     >>> print(s.increment())
     2

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

     static PyObject *
     SubList_increment(SubListObject *self, PyObject *unused)
     {
         self->state++;
         return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
     }

     static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
         {"increment", (PyCFunction) SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
          PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
         {NULL},
     };

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

     static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_init = (initproc) SubList_init,
         .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
     };

     static int
     sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot sublist_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, sublist_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef sublist_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "sublist",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = sublist_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&sublist_module);
     }

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the ‘Custom’ examples
in previous sections.  We will break down the main differences between
them.

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

파생형 객체의 주요 차이점은 베이스형의 객체 구조체가 첫 번째 값이어야 한
다는 것입니다.  베이스형은 이미 구조체의 시작 부분에 *note
PyObject_HEAD(): 12ce.를 포함합니다.

When a Python object is a ‘SubList’ instance, its ‘PyObject *’ pointer
can be safely cast to both ‘PyListObject *’ and ‘SubListObject *’:

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

We see above how to call through to the *note __init__(): 6aa. method of
the base type.

이 패턴은 사용자 정의 *note tp_new: 57a.와 *note tp_dealloc: 48da. 멤버
를 갖는 형을 작성할 때 중요합니다.  *note tp_new: 57a. 처리기는 실제로
*note tp_alloc: 48ed.을 사용하여 객체의 메모리를 만들지 말고, 베이스 클
래스가 자체 *note tp_new: 57a.를 호출하여 처리하도록 해야 합니다.

The *note PyTypeObject: aa2. struct supports a *note tp_base: 48f7.
specifying the type’s concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform
compiler issues, you can’t fill that field directly with a reference to
*note PyList_Type: 48f8.; it should be done in the *note Py_mod_exec:
97c. function:

     static int
     sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

*note PyType_Ready(): 775.를 호출하기 전에, 형 구조체에 *note tp_base:
48f7. 슬롯이 채워져 있어야 합니다.  기존 형을 파생할 때, *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 48e9.로 *note tp_alloc: 48ed. 슬롯을 채울 필요는 없
습니다 – 베이스형의 할당 함수가 상속됩니다.

After that, calling *note PyType_Ready(): 775. and adding the type
object to the module is the same as with the basic ‘Custom’ examples.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제,  Next: C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기,  Prev: 확장형 정의하기 자습서,  Up: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기

6.2.3 확장형 정의하기: 여러 가지 주제
-------------------------------------

이 섹션은 구현할 수 있는 다양한 형 메서드와 그것이 하는 일에 대해 훑어보
기를 제공하기 위한 것입니다.

다음은 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.에서만 사용되는 일부 필드가 생략된 *note
PyTypeObject: aa2.의 정의입니다:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* 인쇄용, "<module>.<name>" 형식
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* 할당(allocation)용 */

         /* 표준 연산을 구현하는 메서드 */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* 이전에는 tp_compare (파이썬 2)나
                                         tp_reserved (파이썬 3) 로 알려졌습니다 */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* 표준 클래스를 위한 메서드 스위트 */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* 더 많은 표준 연산 (바이너리 호환성을 위해 여기에) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* 입/출력 버퍼로 객체를 액세스하는 함수 */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* 선택/확장 기능의 존재를 정의하는 플래그 */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* 설명서 문자열 */

         /* 릴리스 2.0에서 할당된 의미 */
         /* 모든 액세스 가능한 객체에 대한 호출 함수 */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* 포함된 객체에 대한 참조 삭제 */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* 릴리스 2.1에서 할당된 의미 */
         /* 풍부한 비교 */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* 약한 참조 활성화기 */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* 이터레이터 */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* 어트리뷰트 디스크립터와 서브 클래싱 */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // 힙 형에는 강한 참조, 정적 형에는 빌려온 참조
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* 저수준의 메모리 해제 루틴 */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* PyObject_IS_GC 용 */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* 메서드 결정 순서 */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* 형 어트리뷰트 캐시 버전 태그. 버전 2.6에서 추가되었습니다 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* 이 형을 신경 쓰는 형 감시자의 비트 세트 */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;

이제 메서드가 아주 '많습니다'.  너무 걱정하지 마십시오 – 정의하려는 형이
있으면, 이 중 일부만 구현할 가능성이 매우 높습니다.

아마 지금까지 예상했듯이, 이것에 대해 살펴보고 다양한 처리기에 대한 자세
한 정보를 제공할 것입니다.  필드의 순서에 영향을 미치는 많은 과거의 짐이
있어서, 구조체에 정의된 순서대로 진행하지 않을 것입니다.  필요한 필드가
포함된 예제를 찾은 다음 새 형에 맞게 값을 변경하기가 종종 가장 쉽습니다.

     const char *tp_name; /* 인쇄 용 */

형의 이름 – 이전 장에서 언급했듯이, 이것은 여러 곳에서 나타나는데, 거의
진단 목적입니다.  그러한 상황에서 도움이 될만한 것을 선택하십시오!

     Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* 할당(allocation)용 */

이 필드는 이 형의 새 객체가 만들어질 때 할당할 메모리양을 런타임에 알려
줍니다.  파이썬은 가변 길이 구조(생각하세요: 문자열, 튜플)에 대한 지원을
내장하고 있는데, 이때 *note tp_itemsize: 1f78. 필드가 참여합니다.  이것
은 나중에 다룰 것입니다.

     const char *tp_doc;

여기에 파이썬 스크립트가 ‘obj.__doc__’을 참조하여 독스트링을 꺼낼 때 반
환할 문자열(또는 문자열의 주소)을 넣을 수 있습니다.

이제 기본 형 메서드에 대해 살펴보겠습니다 – 대부분의 확장형이 구현할 것
들입니다.

* Menu:

* 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제::
* 객체 표현::
* 어트리뷰트 관리::
* 객체 비교::
* 추상 프로토콜 지원::
* 약한 참조 지원::
* 추가 제안::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제,  Next: 객체 표현,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.1 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제
..................................

     destructor tp_dealloc;

이 함수는 형의 인스턴스의 참조 횟수가 0으로 줄어들고 파이썬 인터프리터가
그것을 재활용하고자 할 때 호출됩니다.  여러분의 형에 해제할 메모리가 있
거나 수행할 기타 정리 작업이 있으면, 여기에 넣을 수 있습니다.  객체 자체
도 여기서 해제해야 합니다.  이 함수의 예는 다음과 같습니다:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

형이 가비지 수거를 지원하면, 파괴자는 멤버 필드를 지우기 전에 *note
PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce.을 호출해야 합니다:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(obj);
         Py_CLEAR(obj->other_obj);
         ...
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

할당 해제 함수의 중요한 요구 사항 중 하나는 계류 중인 예외를 그대로 남겨
두어야 한다는 것입니다.  인터프리터가 파이썬 스택을 되감을 때 할당 해제
기가 자주 호출되기 때문에 중요합니다; 스택이 (정상적인 반환이 아닌) 예외
로 인해 되감길 때, 할당 해제기가 예외가 이미 설정되어 있음을 알 수 없도
록 하는 것은 아무것도 수행되지 않습니다.  할당 해제기가 수행하는 추가 파
이썬 코드가 실행될 수 있도록 하는 추가 조치는 예외가 설정되었음을 감지할
수 있습니다.  이는 인터프리터가 혼동하도록 할 수 있습니다.  이를 방지하
는 올바른 방법은 안전하지 않은 조치를 수행하기 전에 계류 중인 예외를 저
장하고 완료되면 복원하는 것입니다.  *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.와 *note
PyErr_Restore(): 3f0. 함수를 사용하여 수행할 수 있습니다:

     static void
     my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
     {
         MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
         PyObject *cbresult;

         if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
             PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;

             /* 현재 예외 상태를 저장합니다 */
             PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

             cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback);
             if (cbresult == NULL)
                 PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
             else
                 Py_DECREF(cbresult);

             /* 저장된 예외 상태를 복원합니다 */
             PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

             Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
         }
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
     }

     참고: 할당 해제 함수에서 안전하게 수행할 수 있는 작업에는 제한이 있
     습니다.  먼저, 형이 가비지 수거를 지원하면 (*note tp_traverse: 777.
     및/또는 *note tp_clear: 48fe.를 사용해서), *note tp_dealloc: 48da.이
     호출될 때 객체의 일부 멤버가 지워지거나 파이널라이즈 될 수 있습니다
     .  둘째, *note tp_dealloc: 48da.에서, 객체는 불안정한 상태에 있습니
     다: 참조 횟수가 0입니다.  (위의 예에서와같이) 사소하지 않은 객체나
     API를 호출하면 *note tp_dealloc: 48da.을 다시 호출하게 되어, 이중 해
     제와 충돌이 발생할 수 있습니다.

     파이썬 3.4부터는, *note tp_dealloc: 48da.에 복잡한 파이널리제이션 코
     드를 넣지 말고, 대신 새로운 *note tp_finalize: aa3. 형 메서드를 사
     용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 442(1)는 새로운 파이널리제이션 체계를 설명합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 표현,  Next: 어트리뷰트 관리,  Prev: 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.2 객체 표현
.................

파이썬에서, 객체의 텍스트 표현을 생성하는 두 가지 방법이 있습니다: *note
repr(): 7f7. 함수와 *note str(): 445. 함수.  (*note print(): f6d. 함수는
단지 *note str(): 445.을 호출합니다.)  이 처리기들은 모두 선택적입니다.

     reprfunc tp_repr;
     reprfunc tp_str;

*note tp_repr: 4900. 처리기는 호출된 인스턴스의 표현을 포함하는 문자열 객
체를 반환해야 합니다.  다음은 간단한 예입니다:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }

*note tp_repr: 4900. 처리기가 지정되지 않으면, 인터프리터는 형의 *note
tp_name: 18f9.과 객체의 고유 식별 값을 사용하는 표현을 제공합니다.

*note tp_str: 4901. 처리기는 *note str(): 445.에 대한 것이고, 위에서 설
명한 *note tp_repr: 4900. 처리기와 *note repr(): 7f7. 간의 관계와 같은 관
계입니다; 즉, 파이썬 코드가 객체의 인스턴스에서 *note str(): 445.을 호출
할 때 호출됩니다.  구현은 *note tp_repr: 4900. 함수와 매우 유사하지만, 결
과 문자열은 사람이 사용하기 위한 것입니다.  *note tp_str: 4901.을 지정하
지 않으면, *note tp_repr: 4900. 처리기가 대신 사용됩니다.

다음은 간단한 예입니다:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 어트리뷰트 관리,  Next: 객체 비교,  Prev: 객체 표현,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.3 어트리뷰트 관리
.......................

어트리뷰트를 지원할 수 있는 모든 객체에 대해, 해당 형은 어트리뷰트가 결
정되는(resolved) 방법을 제어하는 함수를 제공해야 합니다.  어트리뷰트를 꺼
낼 수 있는 함수와 (뭔가 정의되어 있다면), 어트리뷰트를 설정하는 다른 함
수(어트리뷰트 설정이 허용된다면)가 있어야 합니다.  어트리뷰트 제거는 특
별한 경우이며, 처리기에 전달된 새 값이 ‘NULL’입니다.

파이썬은 두 쌍의 어트리뷰트 처리기를 지원합니다; 어트리뷰트를 지원하는 형
은 한 쌍의 함수만 구현하면 됩니다.  차이점은 한 쌍은 어트리뷰트 이름을
char*로 취하고, 다른 쌍은 *note PyObject: 332.*를 받아들인다는 것입니다.
각 형은 구현의 편의에 더 적합한 쌍을 사용할 수 있습니다.

     getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * 버전 */
     setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
     /* ... */
     getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * 버전 */
     setattrofunc tp_setattro;

객체의 어트리뷰트에 액세스하는 것이 항상 간단한 연산이면 (짧게 설명할 것
입니다), 어트리뷰트 관리 함수의 *note PyObject: 332.* 버전을 제공하는 데
사용할 수 있는 일반적인 구현이 있습니다.  파이썬 2.2부터 형별 어트리뷰트
처리기에 대한 실제 필요성은 거의 완전히 사라졌지만, 사용 가능한 새로운 일
반 메커니즘을 사용하도록 갱신되지 않은 예제가 많이 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 범용 어트리뷰트 관리::
* 형별 어트리뷰트 관리::


File: python.info,  Node: 범용 어트리뷰트 관리,  Next: 형별 어트리뷰트 관리,  Up: 어트리뷰트 관리

6.2.3.4 범용 어트리뷰트 관리
............................

대부분의 확장형은 '간단한' 어트리뷰트만 사용합니다.  그렇다면, 어트리뷰
트를 간단하게 만드는 것은 무엇입니까?  충족해야 하는 몇 가지 조건만 있습
니다:

  1. *note PyType_Ready(): 775.가 호출될 때 어트리뷰트의 이름을 알아야 합
     니다.

  2. 어트리뷰트를 찾거나 설정했음을 기록하는 데 특별한 처리가 필요하지 않
     으며 값을 기반으로 조처를 하지 않아도 됩니다.

이 목록은 어트리뷰트 값, 값을 계산하는 시점 또는 관련 데이터가 저장되는
방법에 제한을 두지 않음에 유의하십시오.

*note PyType_Ready(): 775.가 호출될 때, 형 객체가 참조하는 3개의 테이블
을 사용하여 형 객체의 딕셔너리에 배치되는 *note 디스크립터: 157a.를 만듭
니다.  각 디스크립터는 인스턴스 객체의 한 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스를 제
어합니다.  각 테이블은 선택적입니다; 세 개 모두가 ‘NULL’이면, 형의 인스
턴스는 베이스형에서 상속된 어트리뷰트만 갖게 되며, *note tp_getattro:
16f9.와 *note tp_setattro: 4904. 필드도 ‘NULL’로 남겨두어야 베이스형이 어
트리뷰트를 처리할 수 있습니다.

테이블은 형 객체의 세 필드로 선언됩니다:

     struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
     struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
     struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;

*note tp_methods: 48f0.가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, *note PyMethodDef: 149f. 구조
체의 배열을 참조해야 합니다.  테이블의 각 항목은 다음 구조체의 인스턴스
입니다:

     typedef struct PyMethodDef {
         const char  *ml_name;       /* 메서드 이름 */
         PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* 구현 함수 */
         int          ml_flags;      /* 플래그 */
         const char  *ml_doc;        /* 독스트링 */
     } PyMethodDef;

형에서 제공되는 각 메서드에 대해 하나의 항목을 정의해야 합니다; 베이스형
에서 상속된 메서드에는 항목이 필요하지 않습니다.  마지막에 하나의 추가 항
목이 필요합니다; 배열의 끝을 나타내는 센티넬(sentinel)입니다.  센티넬의
*note ml_name: 4905. 필드는 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다.

두 번째 테이블은 인스턴스에 저장된 데이터에 직접 매핑되는 어트리뷰트를 정
의하는 데 사용됩니다.  다양한 기본 C형이 지원되며, 액세스는 읽기 전용이
거나 읽고 쓰기일 수 있습니다.  테이블의 구조체는 다음과 같이 정의됩니다:

     typedef struct PyMemberDef {
         const char *name;
         int         type;
         int         offset;
         int         flags;
         const char *doc;
     } PyMemberDef;

테이블의 각 항목에 대해, *note 디스크립터: 157a.가 구성되고 형에 추가되
어 인스턴스 구조체에서 값을 추출할 수 있게 됩니다.  *note type: 4906. 필
드는 *note Py_T_INT: 58a. 나 *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 58b.와 같은 형 코드를 포
함해야 합니다; 이 값은 파이썬 값과 C값 간에 변환하는 방법을 결정하는 데
사용됩니다.  *note flags: 4907. 필드는 어트리뷰트에 액세스하는 방법을 제
어하는 플래그를 저장하는 데 사용됩니다: 이를 *note Py_READONLY: 58c.로 설
정하면 파이썬 코드가 이를 설정하지 못하도록 방지할 수 있습니다.

*note tp_members: 48ee. 테이블을 사용하여 실행 시간에 사용되는 디스크립
터를 구축하는 것의 흥미로운 이점은 이 방법으로 정의된 모든 어트리뷰트가
단순히 테이블에 텍스트를 제공하는 것으로 연관된 독스트링을 가질 수 있다
는 것입니다.  응용 프로그램은 내부 검사(introspection) API를 사용하여 클
래스 객체에서 디스크립터를 꺼내고, 그것의 *note __doc__: 1cb4. 어트리뷰
트를 사용하여 독스트링을 얻을 수 있습니다.

*note tp_methods: 48f0. 테이블과 마찬가지로, *note ml_name: 4905. 값이
‘NULL’인 센티넬 항목이 필요합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 형별 어트리뷰트 관리,  Prev: 범용 어트리뷰트 관리,  Up: 어트리뷰트 관리

6.2.3.5 형별 어트리뷰트 관리
............................

간단히 하기 위해, char* 버전 만 여기에서 예시합니다; name 매개 변수의 형
이 인터페이스의 char*와 *note PyObject: 332.* 버전 간의 유일한 차이점입
니다.  이 예제는 위의 범용 예제와 효과적으로 같은 것을 수행하지만, 파이
썬 2.2에 추가된 범용 지원은 사용하지 않습니다.  처리기 함수가 호출되는 방
식을 설명하므로, 기능을 확장해야 한다면, 무엇을 해야 할지 이해할 수 있을
겁니다.

*note tp_getattr: 4909. 처리기는 객체에 어트리뷰트 조회가 필요할 때 호출
됩니다.  클래스의 *note __getattr__(): 4cd. 메서드가 호출되는 것과 같은
상황에서 호출됩니다.

예는 다음과 같습니다:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
     {
         if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0)
         {
             return PyLong_FromLong(obj->data);
         }

         PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
                      "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
                      Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name, name);
         return NULL;
     }

*note tp_setattr: 490a. 처리기는 클래스 인스턴스의 *note __setattr__():
1f35.이나 *note __delattr__(): 1f36. 메서드가 호출될 때 호출됩니다.  어
트리뷰트를 삭제해야 하면, 세 번째 매개 변수는 ‘NULL’이 됩니다.  다음은 단
순히 예외를 발생시키는 예입니다; 이것이 정말로 여러분이 원하는 전부라면,
*note tp_setattr: 490a. 처리기는 ‘NULL’로 설정되어야 합니다.

     static int
     newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
     {
         PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
         return -1;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 비교,  Next: 추상 프로토콜 지원,  Prev: 어트리뷰트 관리,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.6 객체 비교
.................

     richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

*note tp_richcompare: 490c. 처리기는 비교가 필요할 때 호출됩니다.
‘__lt__()’와 같은 *note 풍부한 비교 메서드: 1f6a.에 해당하며, *note
PyObject_RichCompare(): 490d.와 *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19aa.에
의해서도 호출됩니다.

이 함수는 두 개의 파이썬 객체와 연산자를 인자로 사용하여 호출됩니다, 여
기서 연산자는 ‘Py_EQ’, ‘Py_NE’, ‘Py_LE’, ‘Py_GE’, ‘Py_LT’ 또는 ‘Py_GT’ 중
하나입니다.  지정된 연산자로 두 객체를 비교하고 비교에 성공하면
‘Py_True’나 ‘Py_False’를, 비교가 구현되지 않았으며 다른 객체의 비교 메서
드를 시도해야 한다는 것을 나타내려면 ‘Py_NotImplemented’를, 예외가 설정
되면 ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.

내부 포인터의 크기가 같으면 같다고 간주하는 데이터형에 대한 샘플 구현은
다음과 같습니다:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_richcmp(newdatatypeobject *obj1, newdatatypeobject *obj2, int op)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         int c, size1, size2;

         /* 두 인자가 모두 newdatatype 형인지 확인하는 코드는
             생략했습니다 */

         size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
         size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;

         switch (op) {
         case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
         case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
         case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
         case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
         case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
         case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
         }
         result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
         Py_INCREF(result);
         return result;
      }


File: python.info,  Node: 추상 프로토콜 지원,  Next: 약한 참조 지원,  Prev: 객체 비교,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.7 추상 프로토콜 지원
..........................

파이썬은 다양한 '추상' ‘프로토콜’을 지원합니다; 이러한 인터페이스를 사용
하기 위해 제공되는 구체적인 인터페이스는 *note 추상 객체 계층: 490f.에 설
명되어 있습니다.

이러한 추상 인터페이스 중 다수는 파이썬 구현 개발 초기에 정의되었습니다.
특히, 숫자, 매핑 및 시퀀스 프로토콜은 처음부터 파이썬의 일부였습니다.  다
른 프로토콜은 시간이 지남에 따라 추가되었습니다.  형 구현의 여러 처리기
루틴에 의존하는 프로토콜의 경우, 이전 프로토콜은 형 객체가 참조하는 선택
적 처리기 블록으로 정의되었습니다.  최신 프로토콜의 경우 메인 형 객체에
추가 슬롯이 있으며, 슬롯이 존재하고 인터프리터가 확인해야 함을 나타내는
플래그 비트가 설정됩니다.  (플래그 비트는 슬롯 값이 ‘NULL’이 아님을 나타
내지 않습니다.  플래그는 슬롯의 존재를 나타내도록 설정될 수 있지만, 슬롯
은 여전히 채워지지 않을 수 있습니다.)

     PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
     PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
     PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;

여러분의 객체가 숫자, 시퀀스 또는 매핑 객체처럼 작동하도록 하려면, C형
*note PyNumberMethods: 13e6, *note PySequenceMethods: 4910. 또는 *note
PyMappingMethods: 4911.를 각각 구현하는 구조체의 주소를 배치합니다.  이
구조체를 적절한 값으로 채우는 것은 여러분의 책임입니다.  파이썬 소스 배
포의 ‘Objects’ 디렉터리에서 이들 각각의 사용 예를 찾을 수 있습니다.

     hashfunc tp_hash;

여러분이 제공하기로 선택했다면, 이 함수는 데이터형의 인스턴스에 대한 해
시 숫자를 반환해야 합니다.  다음은 간단한 예입니다:

     static Py_hash_t
     newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         Py_hash_t result;
         result = obj->some_size + 32767 * obj->some_number;
         if (result == -1)
            result = -2;
         return result;
     }

*note Py_hash_t: 1254.는 플랫폼에 따라 변하는 너비의 부호 있는 정수 형입
니다.  *note tp_hash: 4912.에서 ‘-1’을 반환하면 에러를 표시해서, 위와 같
이 해시 계산에 성공했을 때 반환하지 않도록 주의해야 합니다.

     ternaryfunc tp_call;

이 함수는 데이터형의 인스턴스가 “호출”될 때 호출됩니다, 예를 들어,
‘obj1’이 데이터형의 인스턴스이고 파이썬 스크립트에 ‘obj1('hello')’가 포
함되어 있으면 *note tp_call: 554. 처리기가 호출됩니다.

이 함수는 세 개의 인자를 취합니다:

  1. 'self'는 호출의 대상인 데이터형의 인스턴스입니다.  호출이
     ‘obj1('hello')’이면, 'self'는 ‘obj1’입니다.

  2. 'args'는 호출에 대한 인자를 포함하는 튜플입니다.  *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.을 사용하여 인자를 추출할 수 있습니다.

  3. 'kwds'는 전달된 키워드 인자의 딕셔너리입니다.  이것이 ‘NULL’이 아니
     고 키워드 인자를 지원하면 *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords():
     37c.를 사용하여 인자를 추출하십시오.  키워드 인자를 지원하지 않고 이
     것이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 키워드 인자가 지원되지 않는다는 메시지와 함께
     *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시키십시오.

장난감 ‘tp_call’ 구현은 다음과 같습니다:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         const char *arg1;
         const char *arg2;
         const char *arg3;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
             return NULL;
         }
         result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
             "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
             obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
             arg1, arg2, arg3);
         return result;
     }

     /* 이터레이터 */
     getiterfunc tp_iter;
     iternextfunc tp_iternext;

이 함수는 이터레이터 프로토콜 지원을 제공합니다.  두 처리기 모두 정확히
하나의 매개 변수, 호출되는 인스턴스를 취하고 새 참조를 반환합니다.  에러
가 발생하면, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.  *note tp_iter:
14b6.는 파이썬 *note __iter__(): 1f64. 메서드에 해당하고, *note
tp_iternext: 14b7.는 파이썬 *note __next__(): 12bd. 메서드에 해당합니다.

모든 *note 이터러블: 1217. 객체는 *note 이터레이터: 1ac. 객체를 반환해야
하는 *note tp_iter: 14b6. 처리기를 구현해야 합니다.  다음은 파이썬 클래
스에도 적용되는 공통 지침입니다:

   * 여러 개의 독립 이터레이터를 지원할 수 있는 컬렉션(가령 리스트와 튜
     플)의 경우, *note tp_iter: 14b6.를 호출할 때마다 새 이터레이터가 만
     들어지고 반환되어야 합니다.

   * 한 번만 이터레이트 될 수 있는 (보통 파일 객체처럼 이터레이션의 부작
     용으로 인해) 객체는 스스로에 대한 새로운 참조를 반환하여 *note
     tp_iter: 14b6.를 구현할 수 있습니다 – 따라서 *note tp_iternext:
     14b7. 처리기도 구현해야 합니다.

모든 *note 이터레이터: 1ac. 객체는 *note tp_iter: 14b6.와 *note
tp_iternext: 14b7.를 모두 구현해야 합니다.  이터레이터의 *note tp_iter:
14b6. 처리기는 이터레이터에 대한 새로운 참조를 반환해야 합니다.  *note
tp_iternext: 14b7. 처리기는 이터레이션의 다음 객체(있다면)에 대한 새 참
조를 반환해야 합니다.  이터레이션이 끝에 도달하면, *note tp_iternext:
14b7.는 예외를 설정하지 않고 ‘NULL’을 반환하거나, ‘NULL’을 반환하는 것에
'더해' *note StopIteration: bf7.을 설정할 수 있습니다; 예외를 피하면 성
능이 약간 향상될 수 있습니다.  실제 에러가 발생하면, *note tp_iternext:
14b7.는 항상 예외를 설정하고, ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 약한 참조 지원,  Next: 추가 제안,  Prev: 추상 프로토콜 지원,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.8 약한 참조 지원
......................

파이썬의 약한 참조 구현의 목표 중 하나는 성능에 중요한 객체(가령 숫자)에
대한 부하를 발생시키지 않고 모든 형이 약한 참조 메커니즘에 참여할 수 있
도록 하는 것입니다.

더 보기
.......

*note weakref: 114. 모듈에 대한 설명서.

객체가 약하게 참조될 수 있으려면, 확장형이 *note tp_flags: 18c4. 필드의
‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF’ 비트를 설정해야 합니다.  레거시 *note
tp_weaklistoffset: 985. 필드는 0으로 유지되어야 합니다.

구체적으로, 정적으로 선언된 형 객체는 이런 식입니다:

     static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         /* ... 간결성을 위해 생략된 다른 멤버들 ... */
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ...,
     };

유일한 추가 사항은 ‘tp_dealloc’이 (*note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 571.를
호출하여) 모든 약한 참조를 지울 필요가 있다는 것입니다:

     static void
     Trivial_dealloc(TrivialObject *self)
     {
         /* 파괴자를 호출하기 전에 먼저 약한 참조를 지웁니다 */
         PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) self);
         /* ... 간결성을 위해 생략된 나머지 파괴 코드 ... */
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 추가 제안,  Prev: 약한 참조 지원,  Up: 확장형 정의하기 여러 가지 주제

6.2.3.9 추가 제안
.................

새 데이터형에 특정 메서드를 구현하는 방법을 배우려면, *note CPython:
6ef. 소스 코드를 구하십시오.  ‘Objects’ 디렉터리로 이동한 다음, C 소스 파
일에서 ‘tp_’에 원하는 기능을 더한 것(예를 들어, ‘tp_richcompare’)을 검색
하십시오.  구현하려는 함수의 예를 찾을 수 있을 겁니다.

객체가 구현 중인 형의 구상 인스턴스인지 확인해야 하면, *note
PyObject_TypeCheck(): 18fe. 함수를 사용하십시오.  사용 예는 다음과 같습
니다:

     if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
         return NULL;
     }

더 보기
.......

CPython 소스 릴리스를 다운로드하십시오.

     ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/source/’

GitHub의 CPython 프로젝트, CPython 소스 코드가 개발되는 곳.

     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython’


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6.2.4 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기
---------------------------

CPython의 C 확장은 '초기화 함수'를 내보내는 공유 라이브러리입니다 (예를
들어, 리눅스는 ‘.so’, 윈도우는 ‘.pyd’).

임포트 할 수 있으려면, 공유 라이브러리가 *note PYTHONPATH: 1013.에 있어
야 하며, 모듈 이름을 따라 적절한 확장자를 붙여서 이름 지어야 합니다.
setuptools를 사용하면, 올바른 파일 이름이 자동으로 생성됩니다.

초기화 함수는 다음과 같은 서명을 갖습니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyInit_modulename (void)

완전히 초기화된 모듈이나 *note PyModuleDef: 978. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.
자세한 내용은 *note C 모듈 초기화: 4918.을 참조하십시오.

For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named
‘PyInit_<NAME>’, with ‘<name>’ replaced by the name of the module.  When
using *note 다단계 초기화: 4919, non-ASCII module names are allowed.  In
this case, the initialization function name is ‘PyInitU_<NAME>’, with
‘<name>’ encoded using Python’s 'punycode' encoding with hyphens
replaced by underscores.  In Python:

     def initfunc_name(name):
         try:
             suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
         return b'PyInit' + suffix

여러 초기화 함수를 정의하여 단일 공유 라이브러리에서 여러 모듈을 내보낼
수 있습니다.  그러나, 이들을 임포트 하려면 심볼릭 링크나 사용자 정의 임
포터를 사용해야 합니다.  기본적으로 파일 이름에 해당하는 함수만 발견되기
때문입니다.  자세한 내용은 PEP 489(1)의 '“한 라이브러리에 여러 모듈”' 절
을 참조하십시오.
* Menu:

* setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기,  Up: C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기

6.2.4.1 setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기
..........................................

Python 3.12 and newer no longer come with distutils.  Please refer to
the ‘setuptools’ documentation at
‘https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’ to learn
more about how build and distribute C/C++ extensions with setuptools.


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6.2.5 윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기
--------------------------------------

이 장에서는 Microsoft Visual C++를 사용하여 파이썬 용 윈도우 확장 모듈을
만드는 방법을 간략히 설명하고, 이 확장 모듈의 작동 방식에 대한 보다 자세
한 배경 정보를 제공합니다.  설명 자료는 파이썬 확장을 빌드하는 법을 배우
는 윈도우 프로그래머와 유닉스와 윈도우 모두에서 성공적으로 빌드 할 수 있
는 소프트웨어 제작에 관심이 있는 유닉스 프로그래머 모두에게 유용합니다.

모듈 저자는 확장 모듈을 빌드하는데 이 섹션에서 설명하는 것 대신
distutils 접근 방식을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  파이썬을 빌드하는 데 사용
된 C 컴파일러가 여전히 필요합니다; 보통 Microsoft Visual C++입니다.

     참고: 이 장에서는 인코딩된 파이썬 버전 번호를 포함하는 여러 파일 이
     름을 언급합니다.  이 파일 이름은 ‘XY’로 나타낸 버전 번호로 표시됩니
     다; 실제로, ‘'X'’는 주(major) 버전 번호이고 ‘'Y'’는 여러분이 작업 중
     인 파이썬 배포의 부(minor) 버전 번호입니다.  예를 들어, 파이썬
     2.2.1을 사용하면, ‘XY’는 실제로는 ‘22’가 됩니다.

* Menu:

* 요리책 접근법::
* 유닉스와 윈도우의 차이점::
* DLL을 실제로 사용하기::


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6.2.5.1 요리책 접근법
.....................

유닉스에서처럼, 윈도우에서 확장 모듈을 빌드하는 두 가지 접근법이 있습니
다: ‘setuptools’ 패키지를 사용하여 빌드 프로세스를 제어하거나 수동으로 작
업합니다.  setuptools 접근법은 대부분 확장에서 잘 작동합니다;
‘setuptools’를 사용하여 확장 모듈을 빌드하고 패키징하는 방법에 대한 설명
은 *note setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기: eef.에 있습니다.  수동으로
작업할 수밖에 없다면, winsound(1) 표준 라이브러리 모듈의 프로젝트 파일을
연구하는 것이 도움이 될 겁니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj


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6.2.5.2 유닉스와 윈도우의 차이점
................................

유닉스와 윈도우는 코드의 실행시간 로딩에 완전히 다른 패러다임을 사용합니
다.  동적으로 로드 할 수 있는 모듈을 빌드하려고 시도하기 전에, 시스템 작
동 방식을 알고 있어야 합니다.

유닉스에서, 공유 오브젝트 (‘.so’) 파일은 프로그램에서 사용할 코드와 프로
그램에서 찾을 것으로 예상되는 함수와 데이터의 이름을 포함합니다.  파일이
프로그램에 결합할 때, 파일의 코드에 있는 함수와 데이터의 모든 참조가 함
수와 데이터가 메모리에 놓이게 되는 프로그램에서의 실제 위치를 가리키도록
변경됩니다.  이것은 기본적으로 링크 작업입니다.

윈도우에서, 동적 연결 라이브러리 (‘.dll’) 파일에는 매달린(dangling) 참조
가 없습니다.  대신, 함수나 데이터에 대한 액세스는 참조 테이블(lookup
table)을 통해 이루어집니다.  따라서 DLL 코드는 프로그램의 메모리를 참조
하도록 실행 시간에 수정될 필요가 없습니다; 대신, 코드는 이미 DLL의 참조
테이블을 사용하고 있고, 실행 시간에 참조 테이블이 함수와 데이터를 가리 키
도록 수정됩니다.

유닉스에는, 한가지 유형의 라이브러리 파일(‘.a’) 만 있는데, 여러 오브젝트
파일(‘.o’)의 코드가 포함됩니다.  공유 오브젝트 파일(‘.so’)을 만들기 위한
링크 단계에서, 링커는 식별자가 정의된 위치를 알 수 없음을 발견할 수 있습
니다.  링커는 라이브러리의 오브젝트 파일에서 그것들을 찾습니다.  발견하
면, 그 오브젝트 파일의 모든 코드를 포함합니다.

윈도우에는, 두 가지 유형의 라이브러리, 정적 라이브러리와 임포트 라이브러
리가 있습니다 (둘 다 ‘.lib’라고 합니다).  정적 라이브러리는 유닉스 ‘.a’
파일과 같습니다; 필요할 때 포함될 코드가 들어 있습니다.  임포트 라이브러
리는 기본적으로 특정 식별자가 합법적이고 DLL이 로드될 때 프로그램에 존재
하게 된다고 링커를 안심시키기 위해서만 사용됩니다.  따라서 링커는 임포트
라이브러리의 정보를 사용하여 DLL에 포함되지 않은 식별자를 사용하는 참조
테이블을 작성합니다.  응용 프로그램이나 DLL이 링크될 때, 임포트 라이브러
리가 만들어질 수 있습니다.  이것은 응용 프로그램이나 DLL의 심볼을 사용하
는, 이후의 모든 DLL에 사용해야 합니다.

다른 코드 블록 A를 공유해야 하는, 두 개의 동적 로드 모듈 B와 C를 빌드한
다고 가정합니다.  유닉스에서는, ‘B.so’와 ‘C.so’에 대해 링커로 ‘A.a’를 전
달하지 '않습니다'; 전달하면 B와 C가 각각 자신의 복사본을 갖게 되어 두 번
포함하게 됩니다.  윈도우에서는, ‘A.dll’를 빌드하면 ‘A.lib’도 빌드됩니다.
여러분은 B와 C에 대헤 링커로 ‘A.lib’를 전달 '합니다'.  ‘A.lib’는 코드를
포함하지 않습니다; 실행 시간에 A의 코드에 액세스하는 데 사용될 정보만 포
함합니다.

윈도우에서, 임포트 라이브러리를 사용하는 것은 ‘import spam’을 사용하는 것
과 비슷합니다; 이것은 스팸의 이름에 액세스할 수 있도록 하지만, 별도의 복
사본을 만들지는 않습니다.  유닉스에서, 라이브러리와 링크하는 것은 ‘from
spam import *’와 더 비슷합니다; 별도의 복사본을 만듭니다.


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6.2.5.3 DLL을 실제로 사용하기
.............................

윈도우 파이썬은 Microsoft Visual C++로 빌드되었습니다; 다른 컴파일러를 사
용하는 것은 동작할 수도 있고 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다.  이 섹션의 나머
지 부분은 MSVC++에만 해당합니다.

윈도우에서 DLL을 만들 때, ‘pythonXY.lib’를 링커에 전달해야 합니다.  두 개
의 DLL, spam과 (spam에 있는 C 함수를 사용하는) ni를 빌드하려면, 다음 명
령을 사용할 수 있습니다:

     cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
     cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib

첫 번째 명령은 세 개의 파일을 만들었습니다: ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ 및
‘spam.lib’.  ‘Spam.dll’은 파이썬 함수(가령 *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
56c.)를 포함하지 않지만, ‘pythonXY.lib’ 덕분에 파이썬 코드를 찾는 방법을
알고 있습니다.

두 번째 명령은 ‘ni.dll’(그리고 ‘.obj’와 ‘.lib’)을 만들었습니다.  spam과
파이썬 실행 파일에서 필요한 함수를 찾는 방법을 알고 있습니다.

모든 식별자를 참조 테이블로 내보내지는 않습니다.  다른 모듈(파이썬 포함
)이 식별자를 볼 수 있게 하려면, ‘void _declspec(dllexport)
initspam(void)’나 ‘PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)’처
럼 ‘_declspec(dllexport)’라고 선언해야 합니다.

Developer Studio는 실제로 필요하지 않은 많은 임포트 라이브러리를 던져넣
어서 실행 파일에 약 100K를 추가합니다.  이것들을 제거하려면, 프로젝트 설
정 대화 상자를 통해 'ignore default libraries'를 지정하십시오.  올바른
‘msvcrt`xx'.lib’를 라이브러리 목록에 추가하십시오.


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6.3 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 CPython 런타임을 내장하기
===================================================

때로는, 파이썬 인터프리터를 메인 응용 프로그램으로 사용하고 그 안에서 실
행되는 확장을 만드는 대신, CPython 런타임을 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 내장하
는 것이 바람직합니다.  이 절에서는 이를 성공적으로 수행하는 데 관련된 몇
가지 세부 사항에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기::


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6.3.1 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기
------------------------------------------

이전 장에서는 파이썬을 확장하는 방법, 즉 C 함수의 라이브러리를 파이썬에
연결하여 파이썬의 기능을 확장하는 방법에 관해 설명했습니다.  다른 방법도
가능합니다: 파이썬을 내장시켜 C/C++ 응용 프로그램을 풍부하게 만들 수 있
습니다.  내장은 C 나 C++가 아닌 파이썬으로 응용 프로그램의 일부 기능을 구
현하는 능력을 응용 프로그램에 제공합니다.  이것은 여러 목적으로 사용될 수
있습니다; 한 가지 예는 사용자가 파이썬으로 스크립트를 작성하여 응용 프로
그램을 필요에 맞게 조정할 수 있게 하는 것입니다.  일부 기능을 파이썬으로
작성하기가 더 쉽다면 직접 사용할 수도 있습니다.

파이썬을 내장하는 것은 파이썬을 확장하는 것과 유사합니다만, 아주 같지는
않습니다.  차이점은, 파이썬을 확장할 때 응용 프로그램의 주 프로그램은 여
전히 파이썬 인터프리터입니다.  반면에 파이썬을 내장하면 주 프로그램은 파
이썬과 아무 관련이 없습니다 — 대신 응용 프로그램 일부에서 간혹 파이썬 코
드를 실행하기 위해 파이썬 인터프리터를 호출합니다.

그래서 파이썬을 내장한다면, 여러분은 자신의 메인 프로그램을 제공하게 됩
니다.  이 메인 프로그램이해야 할 일 중 하나는 파이썬 인터프리터를 초기화
하는 것입니다.  최소한, *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 함수를 호출해야 합니
다.  파이썬에 명령 줄 인자를 전달하는 선택적 호출이 있습니다.  그런 다음
나중에 응용 프로그램의 어느 부분에서나 인터프리터를 호출할 수 있습니다.

인터프리터를 호출하는 방법에는 여러 가지가 있습니다: 파이썬 문장을 포함
하는 문자열을 *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4926.에 전달하거나, stdio 파일
포인터와 파일명(에러 메시지에서의 식별만을 위해)을 *note
PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4927.에 전달할 수 있습니다.  또한, 이전 장에서 설명
한 저수준의 연산을 호출하여 파이썬 객체를 만들고 사용할 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

*note 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서: 1be3.

     파이썬의 C 인터페이스에 대한 자세한 내용은 이 매뉴얼에 있습니다.  필
     요한 정보가 많이 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 매우 고수준의 내장::
* 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서; 개요: 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서 개요.
* 순수한 내장::
* 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기::
* C++로 파이썬 내장하기::
* 유닉스 계열 시스템에서 컴파일과 링크하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 매우 고수준의 내장,  Next: 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서 개요,  Up: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

6.3.1.1 매우 고수준의 내장
..........................

파이썬을 내장하는 가장 간단한 형태는 매우 고수준의 인터페이스를 사용하는
것입니다.  이 인터페이스는 응용 프로그램과 직접 상호 작용할 필요 없이 파
이썬 스크립트를 실행하기 위한 것입니다.  이것은 예를 들어 파일에 대해 어
떤 연산을 수행하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyStatus status;
         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* 선택적이지만 권장됩니다 */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
                            "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             exit(120);
         }
         return 0;

       exception:
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);
          Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     참고: ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that
     ‘Py_ssize_t’ should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’.  It is
     not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward
     compatibility.  See *note 문자열과 버퍼: 384. for a description of
     this macro.

*note PyConfig.program_name: 3be. 설정은 파이썬 런타임 라이브러리에 대한
경로를 인터프리터에게 알리기 위해 *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf.보
다 먼저 호출되어야 합니다.  다음으로, 파이썬 인터프리터는 *note
Py_Initialize(): 8a9.로 초기화되고, 날짜와 시간을 인쇄하는 하드 코딩된 파
이썬 스크립트가 실행됩니다.  그런 다음, *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. 호출
이 인터프리터를 종료하고 프로그램이 끝납니다.  실제 프로그램에서는 파이
썬 스크립트를 다른 소스(아마도 텍스트 편집기 루틴, 파일 또는 데이터베이
스)에서 가져올 수 있습니다.  파일에서 파이썬 코드를 얻는 것은 *note
PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4927. 함수를 사용하면 더 잘할 수 있는데, 메모리 공간
을 할당하고 파일 내용을 로드하는 번거로움을 덜어줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서 개요,  Next: 순수한 내장,  Prev: 매우 고수준의 내장,  Up: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

6.3.1.2 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서: 개요
.......................................

고수준 인터페이스는 응용 프로그램에서 임의의 파이썬 코드를 실행할 수 있
는 능력을 제공하지만, 최소한 데이터 값을 교환하는 것이 꽤 번거롭습니다.
그러길 원한다면 저수준의 호출을 사용해야 합니다.  더 많은 C 코드를 작성
해야 하는 대신, 거의 모든 것을 달성할 수 있습니다.

파이썬을 확장하는 것과 파이썬을 내장하는 것은 다른 의도에도 불구하고 꽤
똑같은 활동이라는 점에 유의해야 합니다.  이전 장에서 논의된 대부분 주제
는 여전히 유효합니다.  이것을 보시려면, 파이썬에서 C로의 확장 코드가 실
제로 하는 일을 생각해보십시오:

  1. 데이터값을 파이썬에서 C로 변환하고,

  2. 변환된 값을 사용하여 C 루틴으로 함수 호출을 수행하고,

  3. 그 호출에서 얻은 데이터값을 C에서 파이썬으로 변환합니다.

파이썬을 내장할 때, 인터페이스 코드는 다음을 수행합니다:

  1. 데이터값을 C에서 파이썬으로 변환하고,

  2. 변환된 값을 사용하여 파이썬 인터페이스 루틴으로 함수 호출을 수행하
     고,

  3. 그 호출에서 얻은 데이터 값을 파이썬에서 C로 변환합니다.

보시다시피, 데이터 변환 단계가 언어 간 전송의 다른 방향을 수용하기 위해
단순히 교환됩니다.  유일한 차이점은 두 데이터 변환 간에 호출하는 루틴입
니다.  확장할 때는 C 루틴을 호출하고, 내장할 때는 파이썬 루틴을 호출합니
다.

이 장에서는 파이썬에서 C로 데이터를 변환하는 방법과 그 반대로 데이터를 변
환하는 방법에 관해서는 설명하지 않습니다.  또한, 참조의 올바른 사용과 에
러를 다루는 것을 이해하고 있다고 가정합니다.  이러한 측면은 인터프리터를
확장하는 것과 다르지 않으므로, 이전 장에서 필요한 정보를 참조할 수 있습
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 순수한 내장,  Next: 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기,  Prev: 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서 개요,  Up: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

6.3.1.3 순수한 내장
...................

첫 번째 프로그램은 파이썬 스크립트에 있는 함수를 실행하는 것을 목표로 합
니다.  매우 고수준의 인터페이스에 관한 절에서와같이, 파이썬 인터프리터는
애플리케이션과 직접 상호 작용하지 않습니다 (하지만 다음 절에서 바뀔 것입
니다).

파이썬 스크립트에서 정의된 함수를 실행하는 코드는 다음과 같습니다:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc;
         PyObject *pArgs, *pValue;
         int i;

         if (argc < 3) {
             fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n");
             return 1;
         }

         Py_Initialize();
         pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
         /* pName의 에러 검사가 생략되었습니다 */

         pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
         Py_DECREF(pName);

         if (pModule != NULL) {
             pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
             /* pFunc는 새로운 참조입니다 */

             if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
                 pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3);
                 for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) {
                     pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3]));
                     if (!pValue) {
                         Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                         Py_DECREF(pModule);
                         fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n");
                         return 1;
                     }
                     /* 여기에서 pValue 참조를 훔칩니다: */
                     PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue);
                 }
                 pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
                 Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                 if (pValue != NULL) {
                     printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue));
                     Py_DECREF(pValue);
                 }
                 else {
                     Py_DECREF(pFunc);
                     Py_DECREF(pModule);
                     PyErr_Print();
                     fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n");
                     return 1;
                 }
             }
             else {
                 if (PyErr_Occurred())
                     PyErr_Print();
                 fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]);
             }
             Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
             Py_DECREF(pModule);
         }
         else {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]);
             return 1;
         }
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             return 120;
         }
         return 0;
     }

이 코드는 ‘argv[1]’를 사용하여 파이썬 스크립트를 로드하고, ‘argv[2]’에서
명명된 함수를 호출합니다.  정수 인자는 ‘argv’ 배열의 남은 값들입니다.  이
프로그램을 *note 컴파일하고 링크하면: 492e. (완성된 실행 파일을 ‘call’이
라고 부릅시다), 다음과 같은 파이썬 스크립트를 실행하는 데 사용합니다:

     def multiply(a,b):
         print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
         c = 0
         for i in range(0, a):
             c = c + b
         return c

그러면 결과는 다음과 같아야 합니다:

     $ call multiply multiply 3 2
     Will compute 3 times 2
     Result of call: 6

프로그램이 기능보다 상당히 큰 편이지만, 대부분 코드는 파이썬과 C 사이의
데이터 변환과 에러 보고를 위한 것입니다.  파이썬 내장과 관련된 흥미로운
부분은 다음처럼 시작합니다

     Py_Initialize();
     pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
     /* Error checking of pName left out */
     pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);

인터프리터를 초기화한 후, 스크립트는 *note PyImport_Import(): 13c5.를 사
용하여 로드됩니다.  이 루틴은 인자로 파이썬 문자열을 요구하는데, *note
PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 1721. 데이터 변환 루틴을 사용하여 구성됩니
다.

     pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
     /* pFunc는 새로운 참조입니다 */

     if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_XDECREF(pFunc);

일단 스크립트가 로드되면, 우리가 찾고 있는 이름이 *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 345.를 사용하여 검색됩니다.  이름이 존재하고,
반환된 객체가 콜러블이면, 그것이 함수라고 안전하게 가정할 수 있습니다.  그
런 다음 프로그램은 인자의 튜플을 일반적인 방법으로 구성하여 진행합니다.
그런 다음 파이썬 함수 호출은 이렇게 이루어집니다:

     pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);

함수가 반환되면, ‘pValue’는 ‘NULL’이거나 함수의 반환 값에 대한 참조를 포
함합니다.  값을 검토한 후 참조를 해제해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기,  Next: C++로 파이썬 내장하기,  Prev: 순수한 내장,  Up: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

6.3.1.4 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기
................................

지금까지 내장된 파이썬 인터프리터는 애플리케이션 자체의 기능에 액세스할
수 없었습니다.  파이썬 API는 내장된 인터프리터를 확장함으로써 이것을 허
용합니다.  즉, 내장된 인터프리터는 응용 프로그램에서 제공하는 루틴으로 확
장됩니다.  복잡하게 들리지만, 그렇게 나쁘지는 않습니다.  잠시 응용 프로
그램이 파이썬 인터프리터를 시작한다는 것을 잊어버리십시오.  대신, 응용 프
로그램을 서브 루틴의 집합으로 간주하고, 일반 파이썬 확장을 작성하는 것처
럼 파이썬에서 해당 루틴에 액세스할 수 있도록 연결 코드를 작성하십시오.  예
를 들면:

     static int numargs=0;

     /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
     static PyObject*
     emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
             return NULL;
         return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
     }

     static PyMethodDef emb_module_methods[] = {
         {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
          "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef emb_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "emb",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_methods = emb_module_methods,
     };

     static PyObject*
     PyInit_emb(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&emb_module);
     }

위의 코드를 ‘main()’ 함수 바로 위에 삽입하십시오.  또한, *note
Py_Initialize(): 8a9.에 대한 호출 전에 다음 두 문장을 삽입하십시오:

     numargs = argc;
     PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);

이 두 줄은 ‘numargs’ 변수를 초기화하고, ‘emb.numargs()’ 함수를 내장된 파
이썬 인터프리터가 액세스할 수 있도록 만듭니다.  이러한 확장을 통해, 파이
썬 스크립트는 다음과 같은 작업을 수행할 수 있습니다

     import emb
     print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())

실제 응용 프로그램에서, 이 방법은 응용 프로그램의 API를 파이썬에 노출합
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: C++로 파이썬 내장하기,  Next: 유닉스 계열 시스템에서 컴파일과 링크하기,  Prev: 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기,  Up: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

6.3.1.5 C++로 파이썬 내장하기
.............................

파이썬을 C++ 프로그램에 내장하는 것도 가능합니다; 이것이 어떻게 수행되는
지는 사용된 C++ 시스템의 세부 사항에 달려 있습니다; 일반적으로 C++로 메
인 프로그램을 작성하고, C++ 컴파일러를 사용하여 프로그램을 컴파일하고 링
크해야 합니다.  C++을 사용하여 파이썬 자체를 다시 컴파일할 필요는 없습니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유닉스 계열 시스템에서 컴파일과 링크하기,  Prev: C++로 파이썬 내장하기,  Up: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기

6.3.1.6 유닉스 계열 시스템에서 컴파일과 링크하기
................................................

파이썬 인터프리터를 응용 프로그램에 내장하기 위해 컴파일러(와 링커)에 적
절한 플래그를 찾는 것이 늘 간단하지는 않습니다.  특히, 특히 파이썬이 자
신에게 링크된 C 동적 확장(‘.so’ 파일)으로 구현된 라이브러리 모듈을 로드
해야 하기 때문입니다.

필요한 컴파일러와 링커 플래그를 찾으려면, 설치 절차의 일부로 생성된
‘python`X.Y'-config’ 스크립트를 실행할 수 있습니다 (‘python3-config’ 스
크립트도 사용 가능할 수 있습니다).  이 스크립트에는 여러 옵션이 있으며,
다음과 같은 것들은 여러분에 직접 유용할 것입니다:

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --cflags’는 컴파일 할 때의 권장 플래그를 제공합니
     다:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags
          -I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare  -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed’는 링크 할 때의 권장 플래그를 제
     공합니다:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed
          -L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl  -lutil -lm

     참고: 여러 파이썬 설치 간의 (특히 시스템 파이썬과 여러분이 직접 컴
     파일한 파이썬 간의) 혼란을 피하려면, 위의 예와 같이
     ‘python`X.Y'-config’의 절대 경로를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

이 절차가 여러분을 위해 작동하지 않는다면 (모든 유닉스 계열 플랫폼에서 작
동하는 것은 보장되지 않습니다; 하지만, *note 버그 보고: 4934.를 환영합니
다), 동적 링크에 관한 시스템의 설명서를 읽는 것과/이나 파이썬의
‘Makefile’과 (그 위치를 찾으려면 *note
sysconfig.get_makefile_filename(): 43d4.를 사용하십시오) 컴파일 옵션을 검
사해야 합니다.  이때, *note sysconfig: db. 모듈은 여러분이 결합하려는 구
성 값을 프로그래밍 방식으로 추출하는 데 유용한 도구입니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
     '-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
     '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서,  Next: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기,  Prev: 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장,  Up: Top

7 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서
******************************

이 설명서는 확장 모듈을 작성하거나 파이썬을 내장하고자 하는 C와 C++ 프로
그래머가 사용하는 API에 관해 설명합니다.  이 설명서와 쌍을 이루는 *note
파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장: 1be2. 는 확장 제작의 일반 원칙을 설명하
지만, API 함수를 자세하게 설명하지는 않습니다.

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<7>.
* C API Stability::
* 매우 고수준 계층::
* 참조 횟수: 참조 횟수<3>.
* 예외 처리::
* 유틸리티: 유틸리티<2>.
* 추상 객체 계층::
* 구상 객체 계층::
* 초기화, 파이널리제이션 및 스레드: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드.
* 파이썬 초기화 구성::
* 메모리 관리::
* 객체 구현 지원::
* API와 ABI 버전 붙이기::
* Monitoring C API::
* Generating Execution Events::


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<7>,  Next: C API Stability,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.1 소개
========

파이썬의 애플리케이션 프로그래머용 인터페이스는 다양한 수준에서 C/C++ 프
로그래머에게 파이썬 인터프리터에 대한 접근 방법을 제공합니다.  이 API는
C++에서도 동일하게 사용 가능하지만 간결함을 위해 보통 파이썬/C API 로 불
립니다.  파이썬/C API를 사용하는 데에는 근본적으로 다른 두 가지 이유가 있
습니다.  첫번째 이유는 특정한 목적을 위해 '확장 모듈'을 작성하기 위해서
입니다; 이 확장 모듈들은 파이썬 인터프리터를 확장하는 C 모듈들입니다.  이
것이 아마도 가장 흔한 용도일 것입니다.  두번째 이유는 파이썬을 더 큰 애
플리케이션의 컴포넌트로 사용하기 위함입니다.  이 기술은 일반적으로 파이
썬을 애플리케이션에 '임베딩(embedding)' 하는 것을 말합니다.

확장 모듈을 작성하는 것은 비교적 잘 다듬어진 과정으로, “쿡북” 접근법이 잘
통하며 프로세스를 다소 자동화하는 툴들도 존재합니다.  사람들은 파이썬이
존재한 초기부터 다른 애플리케이션에 파이썬을 임베드 해왔으나 파이썬을 임
베딩 하는 과정은 확장 모듈을 작성하는 것보다 복잡합니다.

많은 API 함수들은 파이썬을 임베딩하거나 확장하는 것에 무관하게 유용합니
다.  더욱이 파이썬을 임베드하는 대부분의 애플리케이션은 커스텀 확장을 제
공할 필요성이 있기 때문에 파이썬을 임베드하려고 시도하기 전에 확장을 작
성하는 것에 친숙해지는 것이 좋습니다.

* Menu:

* 코딩 표준::
* 인클루드 파일::
* 유용한 매크로들::
* 객체, 형 그리고 참조 횟수: 객체 형 그리고 참조 횟수.
* 예외: 예외<18>.
* 파이썬 임베딩하기::
* 디버깅 빌드::
* Recommended third party tools::


File: python.info,  Node: 코딩 표준,  Next: 인클루드 파일,  Up: 소개<7>

7.1.1 코딩 표준
---------------

CPython 에 포함하기 위해 C 코드를 작성하는 경우에는 PEP 7(1) 에 정의된 지
침과 표준을 따라야 합니다.  이 지침은 기여하고 있는 파이썬 버전과 상관없
이 적용됩니다.  최종적으로 파이썬에 기여하는 것을 기대하지 않는 이상 이
규칙을 따르는 것은 제삼자 확장 모듈에는 필수가 아닙니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


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7.1.2 인클루드 파일
-------------------

파이썬/C API를 사용하기 위한 모든 함수, 타입 그리고 매크로 정의는 다음 행
에 의해 인클루드됩니다.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

이는 다음과 같은 표준 헤더를 인클루드하는것을 의미합니다: ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, ‘<limits.h>’, ‘<assert.h>’ 그리고
‘<stdlib.h>’ (사용 가능한 경우).

     참고: 파이썬은 일부 시스템의 표준 헤더에 영향을 미치는 전처리기 정
     의를 정의할 수 있으므로 표준 헤더를 인클루드하기 전에 ‘Python.h’ 를
     인클루드해야 합니다.

     ‘Python.h’ 를 인클루드하기 전에 항상 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ 를 정의하는
     것을 권장합니다.  이 매크로에 대한 자세한 사항은 *note 인자 구문
     분석과 값 구축: 8a5. 을 참조하십시오.

Python.h로 정의된 사용자에게 공개되는 모든 이름들은 (포함된 표준 헤더로
정의된 것은 제외) ‘Py’ 또는 ‘_Py’ 로 시작하는 이름을 가지고 있습니다.
‘_Py’ 로 시작하는 이름들은 파이썬 구현에 의해 내부적으로 사용되며 확장 개
발자들에 의해 사용돠어서는 안됩니다.  구조체 멤버들은 이름에 접두사가 붙
지 않습니다.

     참고: 사용자 코드는 ‘Py’ 또는 ‘_Py’ 로 시작하는 이름들을 정의해서는
     안됩니다.  이것은 읽는 사람을 혼란스럽게 하며이러한 접두사가 붙는 추
     가적인 이름을 정의할수도 있는 향후의 파이썬 버전에 대한 사용자 코드
     의 이식성을 위태롭게 합니다.

헤더 파일들은 일반적으로 파이썬과 함께 설치됩니다.  유닉스에서는 헤더 파
일들은 ‘`prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ 와
‘`exec_prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ 안에 들어있습니다.  *note prefix:
1d6a. 와 *note exec_prefix: 1d6b. 는 파이썬의 ‘configure’ 스크립트에 해
당하는 파라미터로 정의되며 '버전' 은 ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’ 입
니다.  윈도우에서는 헤더 파일들은 ‘`prefix'/include’ 안에 설치되어 있습
니다.  ‘prefix’ 는 인스톨러에 의해 지정된 설치 디렉터리 입니다.

헤더를 인클루드 하기 위해선 두 디렉터리 모두 (두 디렉터리가 다를 경우) 컴
파일러의 검색 패스에 추가하십시오.  부모 디렉터리를 검색 패스에 추가해서
‘#include <pythonX.Y/Python.h>’ 처럼 사용해서는 '안됩니다.'  *note
prefix: 1d6a. 아래의 플랫폼 독립적인 헤더들이 *note exec_prefix: 1d6b. 에
서 플랫폼 종속적인 헤더를 인클루드 하기 때문에 멀티플랫폼 빌드가 고장날
것입니다.

C++ 사용자들은 파이썬/C API 가 C 만을 사용하여 정의되었어도 헤더 파일들
이 ‘extern "C"’ 로 진입점을 제대로 선언한다는 점에 유의해야 합니다.  C++
에서 파이썬/C API 를 사용하기 위해 특별한 조치를 취할 필요는 없습니다.


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7.1.3 유용한 매크로들
---------------------

파이썬 헤더 파일에는 몇 가지 유용한 매크로가 정의되어 있습니다.  대부분
은 필요한 곳에 가깝게 정의되어 있습니다.  (예를 들어 *note
Py_RETURN_NONE: 1439.) 나머지 더 일반적인 유틸리티들은 여기에 정의되어 있
습니다.  아래 목록이 전체 목록은 아닙니다.

 -- C 매크로: PyMODINIT_FUNC

     Declare an extension module ‘PyInit’ initialization function.  The
     function return type is *note PyObject: 332.*.  The macro declares
     any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for
     C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

     The initialization function must be named ‘PyInit_NAME’, where
     'name' is the name of the module, and should be the only
     non-‘static’ item defined in the module file.  Example:

          static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
              .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
              .m_name = "spam",
              ...
          };

          PyMODINIT_FUNC
          PyInit_spam(void)
          {
              return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
          }

 -- C 매크로: Py_ABS (x)

     ‘x’ 의 절댓값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 매크로: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE

     Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decide to not inline the function.

     It can be used to inline performance critical static inline
     functions when building Python in debug mode with function inlining
     disabled.  For example, MSC disables function inlining when
     building in debug mode.

     Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can
     result in worse performances (due to increased code size for
     example).  The compiler is usually smarter than the developer for
     the cost/benefit analysis.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 1f9. (if the *note
     Py_DEBUG: 4128. macro is defined), the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE:
     18bd. macro does nothing.

     It must be specified before the function return type.  Usage:

          static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 매크로: Py_CHARMASK (c)

     인자는 문자 또는 [-128, 127] 나 [0, 255] 사이의 정수여야 합니다.  이
     매크로는 ‘unsigned char’ 로 캐스팅된 ‘c’ 를 반환합니다

 -- C 매크로: Py_DEPRECATED (version)

     폐지(deprecated) 선언에 사용하십시오.  이 매크로는 심볼 이름 앞에 위
     치해야 합니다

     예제:

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     버전 3.8에서 변경: MSVC 지원을 추가했습니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_GETENV (s)

     ‘getenv(s)’ 와 유사하지만 *note -E: 95a. 가 커맨드라인으로 전달된 경
     우 ‘NULL’ 을 반환합니다 (*note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3.를 참
     조하세요)

 -- C 매크로: Py_MAX (x, y)

     ‘x’ 와 ‘y’ 사이의 최댓값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 매크로: Py_MEMBER_SIZE (type, member)

     (‘type’) 구조체의 ‘member’ 의 크기를 바이트로 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 매크로: Py_MIN (x, y)

     ‘x’ 와 ‘y’ 사이의 최솟값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 매크로: Py_NO_INLINE

     Disable inlining on a function.  For example, it reduces the C
     stack consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline
     code (see bpo-33720(1)).

     사용법:

          Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 매크로: Py_STRINGIFY (x)

     ‘x’ 를 C 문자열로 변환합니다.  예를 들어 ‘Py_STRINGIFY(123)’ 은
     ‘"123"’ 을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 매크로: Py_UNREACHABLE ()

     의도적으로 도달할 수 없는 코드 경로가 있을 경우에 이 매크로를 사용
     하십시오.  예를 들어, ‘switch’ 문에서 가능한 모든 값이 ‘case’ 절에
     서 다뤄지는 경우에 ‘default:’ 절에서 사용할 수 있습니다.
     ‘assert(0)’ 또는 ‘abort()’ 대신 사용하십시오.

     릴리즈 모드에서 이 매크로는 컴파일러가 코드를 최적화하는데 도움이 되
     며 도달할 수 없는 코드에 대한 경고를 방지합니다.  예를 들어, 이 매
     크로는 릴리즈 모드에서 GCC의 ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ 로 구현됩니
     다.

     ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ 의 용도는 반환하지 않지만 ‘_Py_NO_RETURN’ 을 선
     언하지 않은 함수를 호출하는 것입니다

     코드 경로가 매우 가능성이 낮지만 예외적인 경우에 도달할 수 있는 경
     우, 이 매크로를 사용해서는 안됩니다.  예를 들어, 메모리가 부족하거
     나 시스템 콜이 예상 범위를 벗어나는 값을 반환했을 경우에는 호출자에
     게 에러를 보고하는 것이 좋습니다.  호출자에게 에러를 보고할 수 없는
     경우 *note Py_FatalError(): 980. 를 사용할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 매크로: Py_UNUSED (arg)

     함수의 미사용 인자에 사용하여 컴파일러 경고를 무시합니다.  예시:
     ‘int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) { return a; }’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 매크로: PyDoc_STRVAR (name, str)

     독스트링에서 사용 가능한 ‘name’ 이란 이름의 변수를 생성합니다.  파
     이썬이 독스트링 없이 빌드되었다면 변수의 값은 비어있을 것입니다.

     PEP 7(2) 에 명시된 것처럼 파이썬을 독스트링 없이 빌드하기 위해
     *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1978. 를 독스트링에 사용하십시오

     예제:

          PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

          static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {
              // ...
              {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},
              // ...
          }

 -- C 매크로: PyDoc_STR (str)

     주어진 문자열에 대한 독스트링을 생성합니다.  독스트링이 비활성화 되
     어있을 경우엔 빈 문자열을 생성합니다.

     PEP 7(3) 에 명시된 것처럼 독스트링 없이 파이썬을 빌드할 수 있도록 독
     스트링을 명시할 때 *note PyDoc_STR: 1811. 을 사용하십시오.

     예제:

          static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {
              {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,
                  PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},
              {NULL, NULL}
          };

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


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7.1.4 객체, 형 그리고 참조 횟수
-------------------------------

대부분의 파이썬/C API 함수는 하나 이상의 인자와 *note PyObject: 332.* 형
의 반환 값을 가집니다.  해당 형은 임의의 파이썬 객체를 나타내는 오파크
(Opaque) 데이터 형에 대한 포인터입니다.  할당, 스코프 규칙, 인자 전달 등
대부분의 상황에서 파이썬 언어가 모든 파이썬 객체 형을 동일한 방식으로 취
급하기 때문에 단일한 C 형으로 표현하는 것이 적절합니다.  대부분의 객체는
힙에 존재합니다.  *note PyObject: 332. 형의 자동 변수나 정적 변수를 선언
해서는 안되며 *note PyObject: 332.* 형의 포인터 변수만을 선언할 수 있습
니다.  유일한 예외는 형 객체입니다.  형 객체들은 절대 할당이 해제돼서는
안되기 때문에 형 객체들은 보통 정적 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 객체들입니
다.

모든 파이썬 객체는 (파이썬 정수조차도) '형(type)' 과 '참조 횟수
(reference count)' 를 가지고 있습니다.  객체의 형은 객체의 종류를 결정합
니다.  (예를 들어 정수, 리스트, 또는 사용자 정의 함수 등.  *note 표준형
계층: 1eef. 에 추가적인 형들에 대해 설명되어 있습니다.)  잘 알려진 형에
는 객체가 해당 형인지를 확인하는 매크로가 있습니다.  예를 들어
‘PyList_Check(a)’ 는 'a' 가 가리키는 객체가 파이썬 리스트일 경우에만 참
입니다.

* Menu:

* 참조 횟수: 참조 횟수<2>.
* 형::


File: python.info,  Node: 참조 횟수<2>,  Next: 형,  Up: 객체 형 그리고 참조 횟수

7.1.4.1 참조 횟수
.................

오늘날의 컴퓨터는 유한한(그리고 자주 제한되는) 양의 메모리를 가지고 있기
때문에 참조 횟수는 매우 중요합니다; 참조 횟수는 객체에 대해 *note 강한
참조: 336.를 갖는 위치의 갯수를 셉니다.  객체를 참조하는 위치는 다른 객
체일 수도 있고, C 전역 변수이거나 C 함수 안의 지역 변수일 수도 있습니다.
객체에 대한 마지막 *note 강한 참조: 336.가 해제될 때 (즉, 객체의 참조 횟
수가 0이 되면), 객체는 할당이 해제됩니다.  객체가 다른 객체에 대한 참조
를 가지고 있을 경우, 그 참조들도 해제됩니다.  이들에 대한 참조가 더는 없
으면, 다른 객체들이 차례로 할당이 해제될 수 있습니다.  (서로를 참조하는
객체에 대해 분명한 문제점이 있으나 현재 해결책은 “그러지 마세요” 입니다
.)

참조 횟수는 항상 명시적으로 조작됩니다.  일반적인 방법은 매크로 *note
Py_INCREF(): 569. 를 사용하여 객체에 대한 새로운 참조를 취하고(즉, 객체
의 참조 횟수를 하나 증가시키고), *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. 를 사용하여 참
조를 해제하는 (즉, 참조 횟수를 하나 감소시키는) 것입니다.  *note
Py_DECREF(): 56a. 매크로는 참조 횟수가 0이 되는지를 확인하고 객체의 할당
해제자(deallocator) 를 호출해야 하므로 참조 횟수를 증가시키는 매크로보다
상당히 복잡합니다.  할당 해제자는 객체의 형 구조체에 포함된 함수 포인터
입니다.  형별 할당 해제자는 리스트와 같은 복합 객체 형에 대해서 객체에 포
함된 객체에 포함 된 다른 객체에 대한 참조를 해제하고 필요한 추가 마무리
작업을 수행합니다.  참조 횟수가 오버플로우 될 가능성은 없습니다.  참조 횟
수를 저장하기 위해서 가상 메모리 안에서 구별되는 메모리 위치 만큼
(‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)’ 라고 가정할 경우) 많은 비트가 사
용됩니다.  따라서 참조 횟수 증가는 간단한 연산입니다

객체에 대한 포인터를 포함하는 모든 지역 변수에 대해 객체에 대한 *note
강한 참조: 336.를 잡을 (즉, 참조 횟수를 증가시킬) 필요는 없습니다.  이론
적으로는 객체의 참조 횟수는 변수가 객체를 가리킬 때 증가하고 변수가 스코
프를 벗어날 때 감소합니다.  하지만 이 두 동작은 서로를 상쇄시키기 때문에
결과적으로 참조 횟수는 변하지 않습니다.  참조 횟수를 사용해야만 하는 이
유는 우리의 변수가 객체를 참조하는 한 객체가 할당 해제되지 않도록 하기 위
함입니다.  만약 객체에 대한 적어도 하나 이상의 다른 참조가 우리의 변수만
큼 오래 살아있을 것을 안다면 일시적으로 새로운 *note strong reference:
336.를 취할 (즉, 참조 횟수를 증가시킬) 필요가 없습니다.  이런 현상이 발
생하는 중요한 상황은 파이썬이 호출하는 확장 모듈의 C 함수에 인자로 넘겨
지는 객체에서 발생합니다.  호출 메커니즘은 호출하는동안 모든 인자에 대한
참조를 보유하도록 보장합니다.

그러나 흔히 하기 쉬운 실수는 리스트에서 객체를 가져와 새 참조를 취하지 않
고 유지하는 것입니다.  다른 연산이 리스트에서 객체를 제거해 그 참조를 해
제하면 객체가 할당 해제될수도 있습니다.  진짜 위험은 무해해 보이는 연산
이 이를 실행할 수도 있는 임의의 파이썬 코드를 실행할수도 있다는 것입니다
.  *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. 에서 사용자로 컨트롤을 돌아가게 하는 코드 경
로가 있기 때문에 사실 거의 모든 연산이 잠재적으로 위험합니다.

안전한 접근방식은 제네릭 연산들 (‘PyObject_’, ‘PyNumber_’, ‘PySequence_’
또는 ‘PyMapping_’ 로 시작하는 이름을 가진 함수들) 을 사용하는 것입니다.
이러한 연산들은 항상 반환하는 모든 객체에 대해 새로운 *note 강한 참조:
336.를 만듭니다 (즉, 참조 횟수를 증가시킵니다).  이는 함수 호출자에게 연
산이 반환된 객체와의 작업이 끝났을 경우 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. 를 호출
할 책임을 지웁니다.  이건 곧 습관화 될 것입니다.

* Menu:

* 참조 횟수 상세::


File: python.info,  Node: 참조 횟수 상세,  Up: 참조 횟수<2>

7.1.4.2 참조 횟수 상세
......................

파이썬/C API 에서 함수의 참조 횟수 동작은 '참조의 소유권' 으로 가장 잘 설
명됩니다.  소유권은 객체가 아닌 참조에 관련되어 있습니다.  (객체는 소유
되지 않습니다: 객체는 항상 공유됩니다.)  “참조를 소유하는 것” 은 더 이상
참조가 필요하지 않을 때 Py_DECREF 를 호출할 책임이 있다는 것을 의미합니
다.  소유권은 양도될 수도 있습니다.  즉, 참조의 소유권을 받은 코드가 소
유권이 더 이상 필요하지 않을 때 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. 또는 *note
Py_XDECREF(): 788. 를 호출하거나 책임을 (대게 자신의 호출자에게) 넘김으
로써 결국 참조를 해제할 책임이 생긴다는 것을 의미합니다.  함수가 참조의
소유권을 호출자에게 넘길때 호출자는 '새로운' 참조를 받는다고 합니다.  소
유권이 옮겨지지 않을 때 호출자는 참조를 '빌린다' 라고 합니다.  *note 빌린
참조: 337.를 위해서는 아무것도 할 필요가 없습니다.

반대로 호출 함수에게 객체에 대한 참조를 넘길 때는 두가지 가능성이 있습니
다: 함수는 객체에 대한 참조를 '훔칠' 수도, 그러지 않을 수도 있습니다.  참
조를 훔치는 것은 함수에 참조를 전달할 때 해당 함수가 전달된 참조를 소유
한다고 가정하고 더 이상 책임을 지지 않는다는 것을 의미합니다.

참조를 훔치는 함수는 거의 없습니다.  주목할만한 두가지 예외는 *note
PyList_SetItem(): 157f. 과 *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6. 입니다.  이 두
가지 함수는 요소에 대한 참조를 훔칩니다(단, 요소를 넣을 튜플이나 리스트
에 대한 참조는 훔치지 않습니다.).  이 함수들은 새로 만들어진 객체들로 튜
플이나 리스트를 채우는 일반적인 관행 때문에 참조를 훔치도록 설계되었습니
다.  예를 들어, 튜플을 만드는 코드 ‘(1, 2, "three")’ 는 다음과 같을 수 있
습니다.  (잠시 에러 처리는 잊어버리십시오.  더 좋은 방법으로 코딩하는 방
법은 아래에 나와 있습니다.):

     PyObject *t;

     t = PyTuple_New(3);
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

여기서 *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6. 는 *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840.
가 반환한 참조를 곧바로 훔칩니다.  객체에 대한 참조가 훔쳐져도 계속 객체
를 사용하려면 참조를 훔치는 함수를 호출하기 전에 *note Py_INCREF(): 569.
를 다른 참조를 가져오는데 사용하십시오.

덧붙이자면, *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6. 은 튜플에 요소를 넣는 '유일한
' 방법입니다.  튜플은 불변 자료형이기 때문에 *note PySequence_SetItem():
1a5b. 과 *note PyObject_SetItem(): 494a. 는 튜플에 요소를 넣는 것을 거부
합니다.  *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6. 은 직접 만들고 있는 튜플에만 사
용되어야 합니다.

리스트를 채우는 동일한 의미의 코드는 *note PyList_New(): 494b. 와 *note
PyList_SetItem(): 157f. 을 사용해 만들 수 있습니다.

하지만 실제로는 이렇게 튜플 또는 리스트를 만들고 채우는 경우는 드뭅니다.
일반적인 객체들을 '형식 문자열(format string)'로 지시되는 C 값으로부터 만
들어낼 수 있는 제네릭 함수 *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4. 가 있습니다.  예
룰 들어, 위의 두 블록의 코드를 다음 코드로 대체할 수 있습니다.  (에러 검
사도 처리합니다.):

     PyObject *tuple, *list;

     tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
     list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

*note PyObject_SetItem(): 494a. 과 그 친구들은 함수에 전달되는 인자처럼
참조만 빌리고 있는 요소와 함께 사용하는 것이 일반적입니다.  이 경우 새로
운 참조를 취하지 않고 참조를 제공할 수 있으므로 참조에 대한 함수들의 동
작이 훨씬 멀쩡합니다:

     int
     set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;

         n = PyObject_Length(target);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1;
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
             if (!index)
                 return -1;
             if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
                 Py_DECREF(index);
                 return -1;
             }
             Py_DECREF(index);
         }
         return 0;
     }

함수 반환 값에 대해서는 상황이 약간 다릅니다.  대부분의 함수에 참조를 전
달해도 해당 참조에 대한 소유권 책임이 바뀌진 않지만 객체에 대한 참조를 제
공하는 많은 함수는 참조의 소유권을 제공합니다.  이유는 간단합니다.  대부
분의 경우에서 반환된 객체는 즉석에서 생성되고 반환된 참조는 객체에 대한
유일한 참조입니다.  따라서 *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340. 과 *note
PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a. 처럼 객체에 대한 참조를 반환하는 제네릭 함수
들은 언제나 새로운 참조를 반환합니다 (호출자가 객체의 소유자가 됩니다).

함수의 의해 반환된 함수를 소유하고 있는지는 어떤 함수를 호출하느냐에 따
라 달라진다는 것을 아는 것이 중요합니다.  — '깃털' (함수에 인자로 전달된
객체의 형) '은 해당되지 않습니다!'  따라서 *note PyList_GetItem(): 355.
를 사용하여 리스트에서 항목을 가져오면 참조를 소유하지 않습니다.  — 하지
만 동일한 인자를 받는 *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a. 를 사용하여 리스
트에서 항목을 가져온다면 반환된 객체에 대한 참조를 소유하게 됩니다.

다음은 정수 리스트에 있는 항목의 합계를 구하는 함수를 작성하는 방법의 예
시입니다.  한 번은 *note PyList_GetItem(): 355. 를 사용하고, 한 번은
*note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a. 을 사용합니다.

     long
     sum_list(PyObject *list)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;

         n = PyList_Size(list);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Not a list */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
             if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
             value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
             if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                 /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                 return -1;
             total += value;
         }
         return total;
     }

     long
     sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;
         n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Has no length */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
             if (item == NULL)
                 return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
             if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
                 value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
                 Py_DECREF(item);
                 if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                     /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                     return -1;
                 total += value;
             }
             else {
                 Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
             }
         }
         return total;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 형,  Prev: 참조 횟수<2>,  Up: 객체 형 그리고 참조 횟수

7.1.4.3 형
..........

파이썬/C API에서 중요한 역할을 하는 다른 데이터 형은 거의 없습니다.  대
부분은 int, long, double 그리고 char* 같은 평범한 C 형입니다.  모듈에서
내보내는 함수나 새 객체 형의 데이터 속성들을 나열하는데 사용되는 정적 테
이블을 표현하는데 사용되는 구조체 형이 몇가지 있으며, 복소수를 표현하기
위해 사용되는 구조체 형도 있습니다.  이러한 형들은 해당 형들을 사용하는
함수와 함께 다뤄질 것입니다.

 -- C 자료형: type Py_ssize_t
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  A signed integral type such
     that ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t)’.  C99 doesn’t define
     such a thing directly (size_t is an unsigned integral type).  See
     PEP 353(1) for details.  ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ is the largest positive
     value of type *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: 예외<18>,  Next: 파이썬 임베딩하기,  Prev: 객체 형 그리고 참조 횟수,  Up: 소개<7>

7.1.5 예외
----------

파이썬 프로그래머는 특정한 에러 처리가 필요할 경우에만 에러를 처리하면 됩
니다.  처리되지 않은 예외는 사용자에게 전달되는 최상위 인터프리터까지 스
택 트레이스백과 함께 자동으로 호출자, 호출자의 호출자 등으로 전파됩니다.

그러나 C 프로그래머들에게 에러 검사는 항상 명시적이어야만 합니다.  파이
썬/C API의 모든 함수는 해당 함수의 문서에서 명시하지 않는 한 예외를 발생
시킬 수 있습니다.  일반적으로 함수에 에러가 발생하면 함수는 예외를 설정
하고 소유하고 있는 모든 객체에 대한 참조를 취소하고 에러 표시기를 반환합
니다.  달리 문서화되지 않은 경우 표시기는 함수의 반환 형에 따라 ‘NULL’ 또
는 ‘-1’ 입니다.  일부 함수는 에러를 의미하는 거짓과 함께 참/거짓의 불리
언 결과를 반환합니다.  아주 일부의 함수는 명시적인 에러 표시기가 없거나
모호한 반환값을 가지며 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8. 를 사용하여 명시적
인 점검을 요구합니다.  이런 예외는 항상 명시적으로 문서화됩니다.

예외 상태는 스레드 별 공간에서 관리됩니다.  (스레드를 사용하지 않는 프로
그램에서는 전역 공간을 사용한다는 말과 같습니다.)  스레드는 예외가 발생
했거나, 발생하지 않았거나의 두가지 상태 중 하나일 수 있습니다.  함수
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8. 는 이 상태를 확인하기 위해 사용할 수 있습
니다.  해당 함수는 예외가 발생했을 경우 예외 형 객체에 대한 빌린 참조를
반환합니다.  예외가 발생하지 않았을 경우엔 ‘NULL’ 을 반환합니다.  예외 상
태를 설정하기 위한 여러가지 함수들이 있습니다: *note PyErr_SetString():
577. 는 예외 상태를 설정하기 위해 가장 보편적인 (가장 일반적인 것은 아니
지만) 함수입니다.  *note PyErr_Clear(): 1027. 는 예외 상태를 지웁니다.

전체 예외 상태는 예외 형, 해당 예외 값, 트레이스백이라는 세가지 객체로 구
성됩니다.  (셋 모두 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.)  이 세가지 객체는 파이썬의
‘sys.exc_info()’ 의 결과와 같은 의미를 가지고 있지만 동일하지는 않습니다
.  파이썬 객체는 *note try: 6e2. … *note except: 18b. 문으로 처리되는 마
지막 예외를 표현하는 반면 C 수준 예외는 ‘sys.exc_info()’ 와 그 친구들로
예외를 전송하는 파이썬 바이트코드 인터프리터의 메인 루프에 도달할 때까지
C 함수들 간에 전달되는 동안에만 존재합니다.

파이썬 1.5부터 선호되어 온 파이썬 코드에서의 스레드 안전한 예외 상태 접
근 방법은 파이썬 코드를 위해 스레드 별 예외 상태를 반환하는 *note
sys.exc_info(): 684. 함수를 호출하는 것입니다.  또한 예외 상태에 접근하
는 양쪽 방법의 의미도 바뀌어 에러를 포착하는 함수가 호출자의 예외 상태를
보존하기 위해 스레드의 예외를 저장하고 복원합니다.  이는 평범해 보이는 함
수가 처리중인 예외를 덮어씌우는 것으로 인한 예외 처리 코드의 흔한 버그를
방지합니다.  또한 트레이스백의 스택 프레임에 의하여 참조되는 객체들에 대
해 종종 원하지 않은 수명 증가가 일어나는 것을 방지합니다

일반적으로 어떤 작업을 수행하기 위해 다른 함수를 호출하는 함수는 호출된
함수가 예외를 일으켰는지 확인해야만 하며 만약 예외가 일어났다면 호출자에
게 예외 상태를 전달해야 합니다.  소유하고 있는 모든 객체에 대한 참조를 버
리고 에러 표시기를 반환해야 하지만 다른 예외를 설정해서는 '안됩니다.'  —
방금 일어난 예외를 덮어씌우고 정확한 에러 원인에 대한 중요한 정보를 잃어
버리게 됩니다.

예외를 감지하고 전달하는 간단한 예가 아래 ‘sum_sequence()’ 예시에 나와 있
습니다.  우연히 이 예시에선 에러를 감지했을 때 소유하고 있는 참조를 정리
할 필요가 없습니다.  그 다음 예시 함수에서는 몇가지 에러 정리작업을 보여
줍니다.  먼저 파이썬을 좋아하는 이유를 상기시키기 위해 같은 의미의 파이
썬 코드를 제공합니다:

     def incr_item(dict, key):
         try:
             item = dict[key]
         except KeyError:
             item = 0
         dict[key] = item + 1

다음은 같은 의미의 웅장한 C 코드입니다:

     int
     incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
     {
         /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
         PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
         int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */

         item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
         if (item == NULL) {
             /* Handle KeyError only: */
             if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
                 goto error;

             /* Clear the error and use zero: */
             PyErr_Clear();
             item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
             if (item == NULL)
                 goto error;
         }
         const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
         if (const_one == NULL)
             goto error;

         incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
         if (incremented_item == NULL)
             goto error;

         if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
             goto error;
         rv = 0; /* Success */
         /* Continue with cleanup code */

      error:
         /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */

         /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
         Py_XDECREF(item);
         Py_XDECREF(const_one);
         Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);

         return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
     }

이 예시는 C ‘goto’ 문의 허용된 사용방법을 보여줍니다!  이 예시는 특정한
예외를 처리하기 위한 *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 4950. 와 *note
PyErr_Clear(): 1027. 의 사용 방법과 *note Py_XDECREF(): 788. 를 사용하여
소유하고 있는 ‘NULL’ 일 수도 있는 참조를 삭제하는 방법을 표현합니다.  (이
름에 있는 ‘'X'’ 를 주목하십시오.  *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. 는 ‘NULL’ 참조
와 마주치면 충돌을 일으킵니다.)  이 예시를 수행하려면 소유하고 있는 참조
를 보유하는데 사용하는 변수를 ‘NULL’ 로 초기화하는 것이 중요합니다.  마
찬가지로 반환 값은 ‘-1’ (실패) 로 설정되고 마지만 호출이 성공한 뒤에야 성
공으로 설정됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 임베딩하기,  Next: 디버깅 빌드,  Prev: 예외<18>,  Up: 소개<7>

7.1.6 파이썬 임베딩하기
-----------------------

확장 작성자들과는 달리 파이썬 인터프리터를 임베딩 하는 사람들만이 걱정해
야 하는 한가지 중요한 문제는 파이썬 인터프리터의 초기화, 그리고 아마도 마
무리일 것입니다.  인터프리터의 대부분의 기능은 인터프리터가 초기화 된 이
후에 사용할 수 있습니다.

기본적인 초기화 함수는 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 입니다.  이 함수는 로
드된 모듈 테이블을 초기화 하고 기본 모듈인 *note builtins: 12, *note
__main__: 1, 그리고 *note sys: d9. 를 생성합니다.  또한 모듈 검색 경로
(‘sys.path’) 를 초기화합니다

*note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 는 “스크립트 인자 리스트” (‘sys.argv’) 를 설
정하지 않습니다.  만약 후에 실행될 파이썬 코드가 이 변수를 필요로 한다면
, 설정 *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd.와 *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f.는 반
드시 설정되어야 합니다: *note 파이썬 초기화 구성: 3a1.을 참조하세요.

대부분의 시스템에서 (특별히 유닉스와 윈도우는 세부적인 부분이 조금 다르
긴 하지만) *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 는 파이썬 인터프리터를 기준으로 고
정된 위치에 파이썬 라이브러리가 있다고 가정하여 표준 파이썬 인터프리터 실
행 파일에 대한 최선의 추측을 바탕으로 바탕으로 모듈 검색 경로를 계산합니
다.  특히 셸 명령어 검색 경로 (환경 변수 ‘PATH’) 에서 ‘python’ 이라는 이
름의 실행 파일이 발견되는 부모 디렉터리를 기준으로 ‘lib/python`X.Y'’ 같
은 이름을 가진 디렉터리를 찾습니다.

예를 들어 파이썬 실행 파일이 ‘/usr/local/bin/python’ 에서 발견된다면 라
이브러리는 ‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’ 에 있는 것으로 가정합니다.  (실
제로 이 특정 경로는 ‘PATH’ 를 따라 ‘python’ 이라는 이름의 실행 파일이 발
견되지 않을 때 사용되는 “fallback” 경로이기도 합니다.)  유저는 환경 변수
*note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 를 설정하여 이 동작을 재정의하거나 *note
PYTHONPATH: 1013. 를 설정하여 표준 경로 앞에 추가적인 디렉터리를 추가할
수 있습니다.

파이썬을 임베딩하는 애플리케이션은 *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf.
를 호출하기 '전에' *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be. 을 설정하여 검색을
제어할 수 있습니다.  *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 는 여전히 이 값을 재정의하며
*note PYTHONPATH: 1013. 는 여전히 표준 경로 앞에 추가된다는 점에 유의하
십시오.  완전한 제어가 필요한 애플리케이션은 *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad,
*note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af, *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab, 그리고 *note
Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1. 의 자체적인 구현을 제공할 필요가 있습니다.
(모두 ‘Modules/getpath.c’ 에 정의되어 있습니다.)

가끔은 파이썬을 “uninitialize” 하는 것이 바람직합니다.  예를 들어 애플리
케이션이 다시 시작하거나 (*note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 다시 호출하기) 애
플리케이션에서 파이썬의 사용이 끝나 파이썬이 할당한 메모리를 해제하려고
할 수 있습니다.  *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. 를 호출하여 이를 달성할 수
있습니다.  함수 *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4953. 는 파이썬이 현재 초기화
된 상태에 있을 경우 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수들에 대한 자세한 내용은 다
른 장에서 제공됩니다.  *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. 가 파이썬 인터프리터
가 할당한 모든 메모리를 해제하지는 않는다는 점에 유의해야 합니다.  예를
들어, 현재 확장 모듈에서 할당한 메모리는 해제할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 디버깅 빌드,  Next: Recommended third party tools,  Prev: 파이썬 임베딩하기,  Up: 소개<7>

7.1.7 디버깅 빌드
-----------------

파이썬은 인터프리터와 확장 모듈들에 대한 추가적인 검사를 가능하게 하는 여
러 매크로를 사용하여 빌드될 수 있습니다.  이러한 검사는 런타임에 많은 오
버헤드를 추가하는 경향이 있으므로 기본적으로 실행되지 않습니다.

다양한 유형의 디버깅 빌드의 전체 목록은 파이썬 소스 배포판 안의
‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ 파일에 있습니다.  참조 횟수 추적, 메모리 할당자
디버깅, 메인 인터프리터 루프의 저수준 프로파일링을 지원하는 빌드들을 사
용할 수 있습니다.  이 섹션에서는 가장 자주 사용되는 빌드만 설명합니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_DEBUG

‘Py_DEBUG’ 매크로가 정의된 인터프리터를 컴파일하면 일반적으로 *note
파이썬의 디버그 빌드: 1f9.가 일반적으로 의미하는 빌드가 생성됩니다.
‘Py_DEBUG’ 는 ‘./configure’ 명령에 *note -with-pydebug: 41e. 를 추가하여
유닉스 빌드에서 활성화됩니다.  또한 파이썬 전용이 아닌 ‘_DEBUG’ 매크로의
존재를 암시합니다.  유닉스 빌드에서 ‘Py_DEBUG’ 가 활성화 되어있으면 컴파
일러 최적화가 비활성화됩니다.

아래에 설명된 참조 횟수 디버깅 외에도 추가적인 검사가 수행됩니다, *note
파이썬 디버그 빌드: 1f9.를 찹조하세요.

‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ 를 정의하면 참조 추적이 활성화됩니다 (*note configure
-with-trace-refs option: 38e.를 참조하세요).  정의된 경우 모든 *note
PyObject: 332. 에 두 개의 추가 필드를 추가함으로써 활성 객체에 대한 이중
원형 연결 리스트가 유지됩니다.  또한 모든 할당이 추적됩니다.  인터프리터
종료시에는 현재 사용되고 있는 모든 참조가 출력됩니다.  (대화식 모드에서
는 인터프리터가 명령문을 실행할 때마다 이후에 출력됩니다.)

자세한 내용은 파이썬 소스 배포판 안의 ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ 를 참조하
십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Recommended third party tools,  Prev: 디버깅 빌드,  Up: 소개<7>

7.1.8 Recommended third party tools
-----------------------------------

The following third party tools offer both simpler and more
sophisticated approaches to creating C, C++ and Rust extensions for
Python:

   * Cython(1)

   * cffi(2)

   * HPy(3)

   * nanobind(4) (C++)

   * Numba(5)

   * pybind11(6) (C++)

   * PyO3(7) (Rust)

   * SWIG(8)

Using tools such as these can help avoid writing code that is tightly
bound to a particular version of CPython, avoid reference counting
errors, and focus more on your own code than on using the CPython API.
In general, new versions of Python can be supported by updating the
tool, and your code will often use newer and more efficient APIs
automatically.  Some tools also support compiling for other
implementations of Python from a single set of sources.

These projects are not supported by the same people who maintain Python,
and issues need to be raised with the projects directly.  Remember to
check that the project is still maintained and supported, as the list
above may become outdated.

더 보기
.......

Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions(9)

     The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
     tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
     discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may
     be desirable in the first place.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://cffi.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://hpyproject.org/

   (4) https://github.com/wjakob/nanobind

   (5) https://numba.pydata.org/

   (6) https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/

   (7) https://pyo3.rs/

   (8) https://www.swig.org

   (9) https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: C API Stability,  Next: 매우 고수준 계층,  Prev: 소개<7>,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.2 C API Stability
===================

Unless documented otherwise, Python’s C API is covered by the Backwards
Compatibility Policy, PEP 387(1).  Most changes to it are
source-compatible (typically by only adding new API). Changing existing
API or removing API is only done after a deprecation period or to fix
serious issues.

CPython’s Application Binary Interface (ABI) is forward- and
backwards-compatible across a minor release (if these are compiled the
same way; see *note Platform Considerations: 4959. below).  So, code
compiled for Python 3.10.0 will work on 3.10.8 and vice versa, but will
need to be compiled separately for 3.9.x and 3.11.x.

There are two tiers of C API with different stability expectations:

   - *note Unstable API: 542, may change in minor versions without a
     deprecation period.  It is marked by the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix in
     names.

   - *note Limited API: 38f, is compatible across several minor
     releases.  When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 418. is defined, only this
     subset is exposed from ‘Python.h’.

These are discussed in more detail below.

Names prefixed by an underscore, such as ‘_Py_InternalState’, are
private API that can change without notice even in patch releases.  If
you need to use this API, consider reaching out to CPython developers(2)
to discuss adding public API for your use case.

* Menu:

* Unstable C API::
* 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스::
* Platform Considerations::
* Contents of Limited API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: Unstable C API,  Next: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.1 Unstable C API
--------------------

Any API named with the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix exposes CPython
implementation details, and may change in every minor release (e.g.
from 3.9 to 3.10) without any deprecation warnings.  However, it will
not change in a bugfix release (e.g.  from 3.10.0 to 3.10.1).

It is generally intended for specialized, low-level tools like
debuggers.

Projects that use this API are expected to follow CPython development
and spend extra effort adjusting to changes.


File: python.info,  Node: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스,  Next: Platform Considerations,  Prev: Unstable C API,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.2 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스
------------------------------------------------

For simplicity, this document talks about 'extensions', but the Limited
API and Stable ABI work the same way for all uses of the API – for
example, embedding Python.

* Menu:

* Limited C API::
* Stable ABI::
* Limited API Scope and Performance::
* Limited API Caveats::


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API,  Next: Stable ABI,  Up: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스

7.2.2.1 Limited C API
.....................

Python 3.2 introduced the 'Limited API', a subset of Python’s C API.
Extensions that only use the Limited API can be compiled once and be
loaded on multiple versions of Python.  Contents of the Limited API are
*note listed below: 793.

 -- C 매크로: Py_LIMITED_API

     Define this macro before including ‘Python.h’ to opt in to only use
     the Limited API, and to select the Limited API version.

     Define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to the value of *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 750.
     corresponding to the lowest Python version your extension supports.
     The extension will be ABI-compatible with all Python 3 releases
     from the specified one onward, and can use Limited API introduced
     up to that version.

     Rather than using the ‘PY_VERSION_HEX’ macro directly, hardcode a
     minimum minor version (e.g.  ‘0x030A0000’ for Python 3.10) for
     stability when compiling with future Python versions.

     You can also define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to ‘3’.  This works the same
     as ‘0x03020000’ (Python 3.2, the version that introduced Limited
     API).


File: python.info,  Node: Stable ABI,  Next: Limited API Scope and Performance,  Prev: Limited C API,  Up: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스

7.2.2.2 Stable ABI
..................

To enable this, Python provides a 'Stable ABI': a set of symbols that
will remain ABI-compatible across Python 3.x versions.

     참고: The Stable ABI prevents ABI issues, like linker errors due to
     missing symbols or data corruption due to changes in structure
     layouts or function signatures.  However, other changes in Python
     can change the 'behavior' of extensions.  See Python’s Backwards
     Compatibility Policy ( PEP 387(1)) for details.

The Stable ABI contains symbols exposed in the *note Limited API: 38f,
but also other ones – for example, functions necessary to support older
versions of the Limited API.

On Windows, extensions that use the Stable ABI should be linked against
‘python3.dll’ rather than a version-specific library such as
‘python39.dll’.

On some platforms, Python will look for and load shared library files
named with the ‘abi3’ tag (e.g.  ‘mymodule.abi3.so’).  It does not check
if such extensions conform to a Stable ABI. The user (or their packaging
tools) need to ensure that, for example, extensions built with the 3.10+
Limited API are not installed for lower versions of Python.

All functions in the Stable ABI are present as functions in Python’s
shared library, not solely as macros.  This makes them usable from
languages that don’t use the C preprocessor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: Limited API Scope and Performance,  Next: Limited API Caveats,  Prev: Stable ABI,  Up: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스

7.2.2.3 Limited API Scope and Performance
.........................................

The goal for the Limited API is to allow everything that is possible
with the full C API, but possibly with a performance penalty.

For example, while *note PyList_GetItem(): 355. is available, its
“unsafe” macro variant *note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 4960. is not.  The macro
can be faster because it can rely on version-specific implementation
details of the list object.

Without ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ defined, some C API functions are inlined or
replaced by macros.  Defining ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ disables this inlining,
allowing stability as Python’s data structures are improved, but
possibly reducing performance.

By leaving out the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ definition, it is possible to
compile a Limited API extension with a version-specific ABI. This can
improve performance for that Python version, but will limit
compatibility.  Compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ will then yield an
extension that can be distributed where a version-specific one is not
available – for example, for prereleases of an upcoming Python version.


File: python.info,  Node: Limited API Caveats,  Prev: Limited API Scope and Performance,  Up: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스

7.2.2.4 Limited API Caveats
...........................

Note that compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is 'not' a complete guarantee
that code conforms to the *note Limited API: 38f. or the *note Stable
ABI: 495e.  ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ only covers definitions, but an API also
includes other issues, such as expected semantics.

One issue that ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ does not guard against is calling a
function with arguments that are invalid in a lower Python version.  For
example, consider a function that starts accepting ‘NULL’ for an
argument.  In Python 3.9, ‘NULL’ now selects a default behavior, but in
Python 3.8, the argument will be used directly, causing a ‘NULL’
dereference and crash.  A similar argument works for fields of structs.

Another issue is that some struct fields are currently not hidden when
‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined, even though they’re part of the Limited
API.

For these reasons, we recommend testing an extension with 'all' minor
Python versions it supports, and preferably to build with the 'lowest'
such version.

We also recommend reviewing documentation of all used API to check if it
is explicitly part of the Limited API. Even with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
defined, a few private declarations are exposed for technical reasons
(or even unintentionally, as bugs).

Also note that the Limited API is not necessarily stable: compiling with
‘Py_LIMITED_API’ with Python 3.8 means that the extension will run with
Python 3.12, but it will not necessarily 'compile' with Python 3.12.  In
particular, parts of the Limited API may be deprecated and removed,
provided that the Stable ABI stays stable.


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Considerations,  Next: Contents of Limited API,  Prev: 안정적인 응용 프로그램 바이너리 인터페이스,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.3 Platform Considerations
-----------------------------

ABI stability depends not only on Python, but also on the compiler used,
lower-level libraries and compiler options.  For the purposes of the
*note Stable ABI: 495e, these details define a “platform”.  They usually
depend on the OS type and processor architecture

It is the responsibility of each particular distributor of Python to
ensure that all Python versions on a particular platform are built in a
way that does not break the Stable ABI. This is the case with Windows
and macOS releases from ‘python.org’ and many third-party distributors.


File: python.info,  Node: Contents of Limited API,  Prev: Platform Considerations,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.4 Contents of Limited API
-----------------------------

Currently, the *note Limited API: 38f. includes the following items:

   * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 559.

   * *note PyAIter_Check(): 4964.

   * *note PyArg_Parse(): 19eb.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c.

   * *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14cf.

   * *note PyArg_VaParse(): 4965.

   * *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37d.

   * *note PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(): 4966.

   * *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967.

   * *note PyBool_FromLong(): 4968.

   * *note PyBool_Type: 4969.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 758.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 759.

   * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 755.

   * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 752.

   * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 757.

   * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.

   * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 753.

   * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 754.

   * ‘PyByteArrayIter_Type’

   * *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 496a.

   * *note PyByteArray_Concat(): 496b.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 137f.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1380.

   * *note PyByteArray_Resize(): 496c.

   * *note PyByteArray_Size(): 496d.

   * *note PyByteArray_Type: 496e.

   * ‘PyBytesIter_Type’

   * *note PyBytes_AsString(): 883.

   * *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 496f.

   * *note PyBytes_Concat(): 4970.

   * *note PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(): 4971.

   * ‘PyBytes_DecodeEscape()’

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1a30.

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormatV(): 4972.

   * *note PyBytes_FromObject(): 4973.

   * *note PyBytes_FromString(): 4974.

   * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 137e.

   * ‘PyBytes_Repr()’

   * *note PyBytes_Size(): 4975.

   * *note PyBytes_Type: 4976.

   * *note PyCFunction: 143d.

   * *note PyCFunctionFast: 4977.

   * *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords: 4978.

   * *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 4979.

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFlags()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFunction()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetSelf()’

   * *note PyCFunction_New(): 18fa.

   * *note PyCFunction_NewEx(): 1993.

   * ‘PyCFunction_Type’

   * *note PyCMethod_New(): 18f4.

   * *note PyCallIter_New(): 497a.

   * *note PyCallIter_Type: 497b.

   * *note PyCallable_Check(): 497c.

   * *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 497d.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetContext(): 497e.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetDestructor(): 497f.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetName(): 4980.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 4981.

   * *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1874.

   * *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1345.

   * *note PyCapsule_New(): 48e1.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetContext(): 4982.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetDestructor(): 4983.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetName(): 4984.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetPointer(): 4985.

   * ‘PyCapsule_Type’

   * ‘PyClassMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(): 4986.

   * *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.

   * *note PyCodec_Decoder(): 4987.

   * *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.

   * *note PyCodec_Encoder(): 4988.

   * *note PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(): 4989.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(): 498a.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(): 498b.

   * *note PyCodec_KnownEncoding(): 498c.

   * *note PyCodec_LookupError(): 498d.

   * *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): ea5.

   * *note PyCodec_Register(): 498e.

   * *note PyCodec_RegisterError(): 498f.

   * *note PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(): 4990.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamReader(): 4991.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamWriter(): 4992.

   * *note PyCodec_StrictErrors(): 4993.

   * *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 893.

   * *note PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(): 4994.

   * *note PyComplex_FromDoubles(): 4995.

   * *note PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 169f.

   * *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 169e.

   * *note PyComplex_Type: 4996.

   * *note PyDescr_NewClassMethod(): 4997.

   * *note PyDescr_NewGetSet(): 4998.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMember(): 4999.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 1992.

   * ‘PyDictItems_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictKeys_Type’

   * *note PyDictProxy_New(): 499a.

   * ‘PyDictProxy_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictValues_Type’

   * *note PyDict_Clear(): 499b.

   * *note PyDict_Contains(): 331.

   * *note PyDict_Copy(): 41a.

   * *note PyDict_DelItem(): 499c.

   * *note PyDict_DelItemString(): 499d.

   * *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 381.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 334.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 335.

   * *note PyDict_Items(): 499e.

   * *note PyDict_Keys(): 499f.

   * *note PyDict_Merge(): 49a0.

   * *note PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(): 49a1.

   * *note PyDict_New(): 49a2.

   * *note PyDict_Next(): 1619.

   * *note PyDict_SetItem(): 48d7.

   * *note PyDict_SetItemString(): 1608.

   * *note PyDict_Size(): 49a3.

   * *note PyDict_Type: 49a4.

   * *note PyDict_Update(): 49a5.

   * *note PyDict_Values(): 49a6.

   * *note PyEllipsis_Type: 49a7.

   * ‘PyEnum_Type’

   * *note PyErr_BadArgument(): 49a8.

   * *note PyErr_BadInternalCall(): 49a9.

   * *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 460.

   * *note PyErr_Clear(): 1027.

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’

   * *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc.

   * *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 4950.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.

   * *note PyErr_Format(): ea6.

   * *note PyErr_FormatV(): ea7.

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76b.

   * *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 768.

   * *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.

   * *note PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(): 49aa.

   * *note PyErr_NewException(): 125a.

   * *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1259.

   * *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 48b6.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3ef.

   * *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.

   * *note PyErr_Print(): 194c.

   * *note PyErr_PrintEx(): 49ab.

   * ‘PyErr_ProgramText()’

   * *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): d14.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f0.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 49ac.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 171f.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 49ad.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(): 49ae.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76a.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 48b5.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 171e.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 49af.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(): 49b0.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 49b1.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1720.

   * *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 769.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3b.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): d13.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterrupt(): 49b2.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 89a.

   * *note PyErr_SetNone(): 49b3.

   * *note PyErr_SetObject(): 576.

   * *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f1.

   * *note PyErr_SetString(): 577.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocation(): 49b4.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 49b5.

   * *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1413.

   * *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1726.

   * *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 49b6.

   * *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a4.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 882.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1770.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrame(): 49b7.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1024.

   * *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 34a.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17c3.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 349.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 34b.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34d.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncDesc(): 49b8.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 49b9.

   * *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 34c.

   * *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 34e.

   * *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1648.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 49ba.

   * *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2.

   * *note PyExc_ArithmeticError: 49bb.

   * *note PyExc_AssertionError: 49bc.

   * *note PyExc_AttributeError: 49bd.

   * *note PyExc_BaseException: 49be.

   * *note PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup: 49bf.

   * *note PyExc_BlockingIOError: 49c0.

   * *note PyExc_BrokenPipeError: 49c1.

   * *note PyExc_BufferError: 49c2.

   * *note PyExc_BytesWarning: 49c3.

   * *note PyExc_ChildProcessError: 49c4.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError: 49c5.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionError: 49c6.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError: 49c7.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionResetError: 49c8.

   * *note PyExc_DeprecationWarning: 49c9.

   * *note PyExc_EOFError: 49ca.

   * *note PyExc_EncodingWarning: 49cb.

   * *note PyExc_EnvironmentError: 49cc.

   * *note PyExc_Exception: 49cd.

   * *note PyExc_FileExistsError: 49ce.

   * *note PyExc_FileNotFoundError: 49cf.

   * *note PyExc_FloatingPointError: 49d0.

   * *note PyExc_FutureWarning: 49d1.

   * *note PyExc_GeneratorExit: 49d2.

   * *note PyExc_IOError: 49d3.

   * *note PyExc_ImportError: 49d4.

   * *note PyExc_ImportWarning: 49d5.

   * *note PyExc_IndentationError: 49d6.

   * *note PyExc_IndexError: 49d7.

   * *note PyExc_InterruptedError: 49d8.

   * *note PyExc_IsADirectoryError: 49d9.

   * *note PyExc_KeyError: 49da.

   * *note PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt: 49db.

   * *note PyExc_LookupError: 49dc.

   * *note PyExc_MemoryError: 49dd.

   * *note PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError: 49de.

   * *note PyExc_NameError: 49df.

   * *note PyExc_NotADirectoryError: 49e0.

   * *note PyExc_NotImplementedError: 49e1.

   * *note PyExc_OSError: 48b8.

   * *note PyExc_OverflowError: 49e2.

   * *note PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning: 49e3.

   * *note PyExc_PermissionError: 49e4.

   * *note PyExc_ProcessLookupError: 49e5.

   * *note PyExc_RecursionError: ea8.

   * *note PyExc_ReferenceError: 49e6.

   * *note PyExc_ResourceWarning: 49e7.

   * *note PyExc_RuntimeError: 49e8.

   * *note PyExc_RuntimeWarning: 49e9.

   * *note PyExc_StopAsyncIteration: 49ea.

   * *note PyExc_StopIteration: 49eb.

   * *note PyExc_SyntaxError: 49ec.

   * *note PyExc_SyntaxWarning: 49ed.

   * *note PyExc_SystemError: 49ee.

   * *note PyExc_SystemExit: 49ef.

   * *note PyExc_TabError: 49f0.

   * *note PyExc_TimeoutError: 49f1.

   * *note PyExc_TypeError: 48b7.

   * *note PyExc_UnboundLocalError: 49f2.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError: 49f3.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError: 49f4.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeError: 49f5.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError: 49f6.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeWarning: 49f7.

   * *note PyExc_UserWarning: 49f8.

   * *note PyExc_ValueError: 48b9.

   * *note PyExc_Warning: 49f9.

   * *note PyExc_WindowsError: 49fa.

   * *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 48b4.

   * *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a62.

   * *note PyException_GetArgs(): 565.

   * *note PyException_GetCause(): 49fb.

   * *note PyException_GetContext(): 49fc.

   * *note PyException_GetTraceback(): 49fd.

   * *note PyException_SetArgs(): 566.

   * *note PyException_SetCause(): 49fe.

   * *note PyException_SetContext(): 49ff.

   * *note PyException_SetTraceback(): 19f1.

   * *note PyFile_FromFd(): 4a00.

   * *note PyFile_GetLine(): 4a01.

   * *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 4a02.

   * *note PyFile_WriteString(): 4a03.

   * ‘PyFilter_Type’

   * *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a66.

   * *note PyFloat_FromDouble(): 4a04.

   * *note PyFloat_FromString(): 4a05.

   * *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 13b9.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 13b7.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 13b8.

   * *note PyFloat_Type: 4a06.

   * *note PyFrameObject: 782.

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 783.

   * *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 140e.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_Type: 4a07.

   * *note PyGC_Collect(): 98b.

   * *note PyGC_Disable(): 8a1.

   * *note PyGC_Enable(): 8a0.

   * *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 8a2.

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.

   * *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 4a08.

   * *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a6.

   * ‘PyGILState_STATE’

   * *note PyGetSetDef: bb5.

   * ‘PyGetSetDescr_Type’

   * *note PyImport_AddModule(): 352.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 4a09.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 351.

   * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4a0a.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4a0b.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 4a0c.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4a0d.

   * *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 171d.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1193.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicTag(): 4a0e.

   * *note PyImport_GetModule(): bb0.

   * *note PyImport_GetModuleDict(): 4a0f.

   * *note PyImport_Import(): 13c5.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(): 4a10.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 4a11.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1194.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 4a12.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7.

   * *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 4a13.

   * *note PyIndex_Check(): 987.

   * *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 41cc.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Delete(): 4a14.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a7.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetDict(): 4a15.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): bc3.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_New(): 41cd.

   * *note PyIter_Check(): 18fb.

   * *note PyIter_Next(): 4a16.

   * *note PyIter_Send(): 894.

   * ‘PyListIter_Type’

   * ‘PyListRevIter_Type’

   * *note PyList_Append(): 4a17.

   * *note PyList_AsTuple(): 4a18.

   * *note PyList_GetItem(): 355.

   * *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 354.

   * *note PyList_GetSlice(): 4a19.

   * *note PyList_Insert(): 157d.

   * *note PyList_New(): 494b.

   * *note PyList_Reverse(): 4a1a.

   * *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f.

   * *note PyList_SetSlice(): 4a1b.

   * *note PyList_Size(): 13e2.

   * *note PyList_Sort(): 4a1c.

   * *note PyList_Type: 48f8.

   * *note PyLongObject: 583.

   * ‘PyLongRangeIter_Type’

   * *note PyLong_AsDouble(): 4a1d.

   * *note PyLong_AsInt(): 358.

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 359.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 1257.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLong(): 4a1e.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1256.

   * *note PyLong_AsSize_t(): 4a1f.

   * *note PyLong_AsSsize_t(): 4a20.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(): 4a21.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1284.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 19ed.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(): 4a22.

   * *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4a23.

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 940.

   * *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1840.

   * *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 1841.

   * *note PyLong_FromSize_t(): 19ca.

   * *note PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 4a24.

   * *note PyLong_FromString(): 4a25.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 19c8.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 19c9.

   * *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4a26.

   * *note PyLong_GetInfo(): 4a27.

   * *note PyLong_Type: 4a28.

   * ‘PyMap_Type’

   * *note PyMapping_Check(): 4a29.

   * *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 341.

   * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33e.

   * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 33f.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 378.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37a.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 379.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 377.

   * *note PyMapping_Items(): bbb.

   * *note PyMapping_Keys(): bb9.

   * *note PyMapping_Length(): 4a2a.

   * *note PyMapping_SetItemString(): 4a2b.

   * *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a5d.

   * *note PyMapping_Values(): bba.

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea3.

   * *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a.

   * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38c.

   * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.

   * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.

   * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 1028.

   * *note PyMemberDef: 54a.

   * ‘PyMemberDescr_Type’

   * *note PyMember_GetOne(): 588.

   * *note PyMember_SetOne(): 589.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75a.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1161.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromObject(): 4a2c.

   * *note PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(): 4a2d.

   * ‘PyMemoryView_Type’

   * *note PyMethodDef: 149f.

   * ‘PyMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyModuleDef: 978.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Base’

   * *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 48c0.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Type’

   * *note PyModule_Add(): 35d.

   * *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 4a2e.

   * *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 1503.

   * *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35f.

   * *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e.

   * *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 1504.

   * *note PyModule_AddType(): 973.

   * *note PyModule_Create2(): 4a2f.

   * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): eab.

   * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): eaa.

   * *note PyModule_GetDef(): 4a30.

   * *note PyModule_GetDict(): 4a31.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f2.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f3.

   * *note PyModule_GetName(): 4a32.

   * *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4a33.

   * *note PyModule_GetState(): 97d.

   * *note PyModule_New(): 4a34.

   * *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4a35.

   * *note PyModule_SetDocString(): 4a36.

   * *note PyModule_Type: 4a37.

   * *note PyNumber_Absolute(): 4a38.

   * *note PyNumber_Add(): 4a39.

   * *note PyNumber_And(): 4a3a.

   * *note PyNumber_AsSsize_t(): 4a3b.

   * *note PyNumber_Check(): a63.

   * *note PyNumber_Divmod(): 4a3c.

   * *note PyNumber_Float(): a65.

   * *note PyNumber_FloorDivide(): 4a3d.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(): 4a3e.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4a3f.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(): 4a40.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(): 4a41.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): ead.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(): 4a42.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4a43.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlacePower(): 4a44.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(): 4a45.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(): 4a46.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4a47.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(): 4a48.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 4a49.

   * *note PyNumber_Index(): 88f.

   * *note PyNumber_Invert(): 4a4a.

   * *note PyNumber_Long(): a64.

   * *note PyNumber_Lshift(): 4a4b.

   * *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): eac.

   * *note PyNumber_Multiply(): 4a4c.

   * *note PyNumber_Negative(): 4a4d.

   * *note PyNumber_Or(): 4a4e.

   * *note PyNumber_Positive(): 4a4f.

   * *note PyNumber_Power(): 4a50.

   * *note PyNumber_Remainder(): 4a51.

   * *note PyNumber_Rshift(): 4a52.

   * *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4a53.

   * *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17f0.

   * *note PyNumber_TrueDivide(): 4a54.

   * *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4a55.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f4.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bbd.

   * *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbc.

   * *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 181c.

   * *note PyOS_FSPath(): d15.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 580.

   * ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’

   * *note PyOS_double_to_string(): 4a56.

   * *note PyOS_getsig(): 1505.

   * ‘PyOS_mystricmp()’

   * ‘PyOS_mystrnicmp()’

   * *note PyOS_setsig(): 1506.

   * *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4a57.

   * *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d2.

   * *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1285.

   * *note PyOS_strtol(): 4a58.

   * *note PyOS_strtoul(): 4a59.

   * *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14d3.

   * *note PyObject: 332.

   * *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 89b.

   * *note PyObject.ob_type: 48ea.

   * *note PyObject_ASCII(): 4a5a.

   * *note PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(): 4a5b.

   * *note PyObject_Bytes(): 4a5c.

   * *note PyObject_Call(): 396.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 398.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4a5d.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1a04.

   * *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 395.

   * *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea4.

   * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 392.

   * *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 571.

   * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 756.

   * *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1540.

   * *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1541.

   * *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e.

   * *note PyObject_DelItemString(): 4a5f.

   * *note PyObject_Dir(): 4a60.

   * *note PyObject_Format(): 4a61.

   * *note PyObject_Free(): c63.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 975.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 974.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14cd.

   * *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a62.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1941.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4a63.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetDict(): 4a64.

   * *note PyObject_GetAIter(): 4a65.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 345.

   * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.

   * *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340.

   * *note PyObject_GetIter(): 4a66.

   * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 342.

   * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 343.

   * *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 544.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 374.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 376.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 375.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 373.

   * *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd.

   * *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 138f.

   * *note PyObject_Init(): a68.

   * *note PyObject_InitVar(): 195c.

   * *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e9c.

   * *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): e9d.

   * *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 4a67.

   * *note PyObject_Length(): 4a68.

   * *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.

   * *note PyObject_Not(): 4a69.

   * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140c.

   * *note PyObject_Repr(): 1025.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490d.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19aa.

   * *note PyObject_SelfIter(): 4a6a.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a6b.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1609.

   * *note PyObject_SetItem(): 494a.

   * *note PyObject_Size(): 4a6c.

   * *note PyObject_Str(): 1026.

   * *note PyObject_Type(): 4a6d.

   * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557.

   * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 558.

   * *note PyProperty_Type: 4a6e.

   * ‘PyRangeIter_Type’

   * ‘PyRange_Type’

   * ‘PyReversed_Type’

   * *note PySeqIter_New(): 4a6f.

   * *note PySeqIter_Type: 4a70.

   * *note PySequence_Check(): 4a71.

   * *note PySequence_Concat(): 4a72.

   * *note PySequence_Contains(): 4a73.

   * *note PySequence_Count(): 4a74.

   * *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a5c.

   * *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 4a75.

   * *note PySequence_Fast(): 4a76.

   * *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a.

   * *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 4a77.

   * ‘PySequence_In()’

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 4a78.

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 4a79.

   * *note PySequence_Index(): 4a7a.

   * *note PySequence_Length(): 4a7b.

   * *note PySequence_List(): 4a7c.

   * *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4a7d.

   * *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a5b.

   * *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 4a7e.

   * *note PySequence_Size(): 1a59.

   * *note PySequence_Tuple(): 4a7f.

   * ‘PySetIter_Type’

   * *note PySet_Add(): 140f.

   * *note PySet_Clear(): 4a80.

   * *note PySet_Contains(): 1411.

   * *note PySet_Discard(): 1410.

   * *note PySet_New(): 140d.

   * *note PySet_Pop(): 4a81.

   * *note PySet_Size(): 1412.

   * *note PySet_Type: 4a82.

   * *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 4a83.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f6.

   * *note PySlice_New(): 4a84.

   * *note PySlice_Type: 4a85.

   * *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f7.

   * *note PyState_AddModule(): 4a86.

   * *note PyState_FindModule(): 4a87.

   * *note PyState_RemoveModule(): 4a88.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Desc: bb7.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Field: bb6.

   * *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 4a89.

   * *note PyStructSequence_New(): 4a8a.

   * *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 4a8b.

   * *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4a8c.

   * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 97f.

   * ‘PySuper_Type’

   * *note PySys_Audit(): 368.

   * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 367.

   * *note PySys_FormatStderr(): 4a8d.

   * *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 4a8e.

   * *note PySys_GetObject(): 382.

   * *note PySys_GetXOptions(): 4a8f.

   * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.

   * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1647.

   * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 1646.

   * *note PySys_SetObject(): 4a90.

   * *note PySys_WriteStderr(): 4a91.

   * *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 4a92.

   * *note PyThreadState: 786.

   * *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1628.

   * *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 19a7.

   * *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36b.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetDict(): 4a93.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 787.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 970.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 96f.

   * *note PyThreadState_New(): 4a94.

   * *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): bc1.

   * *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 4a95.

   * ‘PyThread_GetInfo()’

   * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 408.

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock()’

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()’

   * ‘PyThread_allocate_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fe.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 400.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 406.

   * ‘PyThread_exit_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_free_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 404.

   * ‘PyThread_get_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’

   * ‘PyThread_init_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_release_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 402.

   * ‘PyThread_set_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’

   * *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3ff.

   * *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a96.

   * *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 407.

   * *note PyThread_tss_free(): 401.

   * *note PyThread_tss_get(): 405.

   * *note PyThread_tss_is_created(): 4a97.

   * *note PyThread_tss_set(): 403.

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Here()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Print()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Type’

   * ‘PyTupleIter_Type’

   * *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d5.

   * *note PyTuple_GetSlice(): 4a98.

   * *note PyTuple_New(): 397.

   * *note PyTuple_Pack(): 4a99.

   * *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6.

   * *note PyTuple_Size(): 4a9a.

   * *note PyTuple_Type: 4a9b.

   * *note PyTypeObject: aa2.

   * *note PyType_ClearCache(): 4a9c.

   * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b.

   * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c.

   * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578.

   * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579.

   * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a67.

   * *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e9.

   * *note PyType_GetFlags(): 195b.

   * *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36c.

   * *note PyType_GetModule(): 96c.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 36e.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96d.

   * *note PyType_GetName(): 74b.

   * *note PyType_GetQualName(): 74c.

   * *note PyType_GetSlot(): 898.

   * *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 545.

   * *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 4a9d.

   * *note PyType_Modified(): 17f8.

   * *note PyType_Ready(): 775.

   * *note PyType_Slot: 4a9e.

   * *note PyType_Spec: 1722.

   * *note PyType_Type: 548.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(): 4a9f.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(): 4aa0.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(): 4aa1.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(): 4aa2.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(): 4aa3.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(): 4aa4.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(): 4aa5.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(): 4aa6.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(): 4aa7.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(): 4aa8.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 4aa9.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(): 4aaa.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(): 4aab.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 4aac.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(): 4aad.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(): 4aae.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(): 4aaf.

   * *note PyUnicodeIter_Type: 4ab0.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(): 4ab1.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(): 4ab2.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(): 4ab3.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(): 4ab4.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(): 4ab5.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(): 4ab6.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(): 4ab7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Append()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AppendAndDel()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 1183.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(): 4ab8.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(): 4ab9.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 1182.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1184.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1181.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 1169.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8b8.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(): 4aba.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(): 4abb.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 895.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 117f.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1180.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1a5e.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8b9.

   * *note PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(): 16f7.

   * *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8b4.

   * *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 1258.

   * *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1191.

   * *note PyUnicode_Contains(): 4abc.

   * *note PyUnicode_Count(): 4abd.

   * *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 19e9.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(): 4abe.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(): 4abf.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(): 4ac0.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 1721.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4ac1.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(): 4ac2.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(): 4ac3.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc6.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4ac4.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4ac5.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(): 4ac6.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 4ac7.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 4ac8.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 4ac9.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 4aca.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 4acb.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(): 4acc.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4acd.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 17a6.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(): 4ace.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1185.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a58.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bc7.

   * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 370.

   * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36f.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d16.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 572.

   * *note PyUnicode_Find(): 4acf.

   * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b6.

   * *note PyUnicode_Format(): 4ad0.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(): 4ad1.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 56f.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 4ad2.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(): 4ad3.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(): 4ad5.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 117d.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(): 4ad6.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b0.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1607.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8ae.

   * *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 19a4.

   * *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1192.

   * *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 1577.

   * *note PyUnicode_RPartition(): 1578.

   * *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 1576.

   * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1162.

   * *note PyUnicode_Replace(): 4ad7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Resize()’

   * *note PyUnicode_RichCompare(): 4ad8.

   * *note PyUnicode_Split(): 4ad9.

   * *note PyUnicode_Splitlines(): 4ada.

   * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b3.

   * *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b5.

   * *note PyUnicode_Translate(): 4adb.

   * *note PyUnicode_Type: 4adc.

   * *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1163.

   * *note PyVarObject: 4152.

   * ‘PyVarObject.ob_base’

   * *note PyVarObject.ob_size: 4add.

   * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 551.

   * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 550.

   * ‘PyWeakReference’

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewProxy(): 4ade.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1855.

   * ‘PyWrapperDescr_Type’

   * *note PyWrapper_New(): 4adf.

   * ‘PyZip_Type’

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 97e.

   * *note Py_AtExit(): 4ae0.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db.

   * *note Py_BLOCK_THREADS: 4ae1.

   * *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9be.

   * *note Py_CompileString(): 881.

   * *note Py_DecRef(): 4ae2.

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4.

   * *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8b.

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5.

   * *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1866.

   * *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 971.

   * *note Py_Exit(): d4b.

   * *note Py_FatalError(): 980.

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_Finalize(): 1342.

   * *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.

   * *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4ae3.

   * *note Py_GenericAliasType: 4ae4.

   * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fa.

   * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4ae5.

   * *note Py_GetConstant(): 34f.

   * *note Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 350.

   * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4ae6.

   * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab.

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.

   * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4ae7.

   * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af.

   * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.

   * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.

   * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4.

   * ‘Py_GetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4ae8.

   * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_IncRef(): 4ae9.

   * *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

   * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4aea.

   * *note Py_Is(): 89c.

   * *note Py_IsFalse(): 89f.

   * *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 353.

   * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4953.

   * *note Py_IsNone(): 89d.

   * *note Py_IsTrue(): 89e.

   * *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 972.

   * *note Py_Main(): c22.

   * ‘Py_MakePendingCalls()’

   * *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17bd.

   * *note Py_NewRef(): 896.

   * *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4aeb.

   * *note Py_ReprLeave(): 4aec.

   * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 1645.

   * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 1644.

   * ‘Py_SetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_UCS4: 29b.

   * *note Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS: 4aed.

   * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’

   * *note Py_VaBuildValue(): 4aee.

   * *note Py_Version: 74f.

   * *note Py_XNewRef(): 897.

   * *note Py_buffer: 751.

   * ‘Py_intptr_t’

   * *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.

   * ‘Py_uintptr_t’

   * *note allocfunc: 4aef.

   * *note binaryfunc: 4af0.

   * *note descrgetfunc: 4af1.

   * *note descrsetfunc: 4af2.

   * *note destructor: 4af3.

   * *note getattrfunc: 4af4.

   * *note getattrofunc: 4af5.

   * *note getbufferproc: 4af6.

   * *note getiterfunc: 4af7.

   * *note getter: 4af8.

   * *note hashfunc: 4af9.

   * *note initproc: 4afa.

   * *note inquiry: 4afb.

   * *note iternextfunc: 4afc.

   * *note lenfunc: 4afd.

   * *note newfunc: 4afe.

   * *note objobjargproc: 4aff.

   * *note objobjproc: 4b00.

   * *note releasebufferproc: 4b01.

   * *note reprfunc: 4b02.

   * *note richcmpfunc: 4b03.

   * *note setattrfunc: 4b04.

   * *note setattrofunc: 4b05.

   * *note setter: 4b06.

   * *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07.

   * *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b08.

   * ‘ssizessizeargfunc’

   * ‘ssizessizeobjargproc’

   * ‘symtable’

   * *note ternaryfunc: 4b09.

   * *note traverseproc: 4b0a.

   * *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.

   * *note vectorcallfunc: 552.

   * *note visitproc: 4b0c.


File: python.info,  Node: 매우 고수준 계층,  Next: 참조 횟수<3>,  Prev: C API Stability,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.3 매우 고수준 계층
====================

이 장의 함수들은 파일이나 버퍼에 제공된 파이썬 소스 코드를 실행할 수 있
도록 하지만, 인터프리터와 더 세밀한 방식으로 상호 작용하도록 하지는 않습
니다.

이러한 함수 중 일부는 문법의 시작 기호를 매개 변수로 받아들입니다.  사용
가능한 시작 기호는 *note Py_eval_input: 4b10, *note Py_file_input: 4b11.
및 *note Py_single_input: 4b12.입니다.  이것들은 이들을 매개 변수로 받아
들이는 함수 뒤에 설명됩니다.

또한 이 함수 중 일부는 FILE* 매개 변수를 취합니다.  주의해서 다루어야 할
한 가지 문제는 다른 C 라이브러리의 ‘FILE’ 구조체가 다르고, 호환되지 않을
수 있다는 것입니다.  (적어도) 윈도우에서는, 동적으로 링크된 확장에서 실
제로 다른 라이브러리를 사용할 수 있어서, FILE* 매개 변수가 파이썬 런타임
이 사용하고 있는 것과 같은 라이브러리에서 만들어진 것이 확실할 때만 이러
한 함수에 전달되도록 주의해야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_AnyFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     아래 *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(): 4b14. 의 단순화된 인터페이스입니
     다.  'closeit'은 ‘0’으로 'flags'는 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니
     다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     아래 *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(): 4b14. 의 단순화된 인터페이스입니
     다.  이것은 'closeit' 인자를 ‘0’으로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_AnyFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int
          closeit)

     아래 *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(): 4b14. 의 단순화된 인터페이스입니
     다.  이것은 'flags' 인자를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     'fp'가 대화식 장치(콘솔이나 터미널 입력이나 유닉스 의사 터미널)와 연
     결된 파일을 가리키면, *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4b17.의 값을 반
     환하고, 그렇지 않으면 *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4927.의 결과를 반환
     합니다.  'filename'은 파일 시스템 인코딩(*note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56.)으로 디코딩됩니다.  'filename'이
     ‘NULL’이면, 이 함수는 파일명으로 ‘"???"’를 사용합니다.  'closeit'이
     참이면, ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’이 반환하기 전에 파일이 닫힙니다
     .

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_SimpleString (const char *command)

     아래 *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4b18. 의 단순화된 인터페이스
     입니다.  *note PyCompilerFlags: a9e.* 인자를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로
     남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (const char *command,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     'flags' 인자에 따라 *note __main__: 1. 모듈에서 'command'에 있는 파
     이썬 소스 코드를 실행합니다.  *note __main__: 1.이 존재하지 않으면
     만듭니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 예외가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  에러
     가 있으면, 예외 정보를 얻을 방법이 없습니다.  'flags'의 의미는 아래
     를 참조하십시오.

     처리되지 않은 *note SystemExit: d3d.가 발생하면, 이 함수는 *note
     PyConfig.inspect: 3c9.가 0인 한 ‘-1’을 반환하지 않고 프로세스를 종
     료함에 유의하십시오.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_SimpleFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     아래 *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 190f. 의 단순화된 인터페이스
     입니다.  'closeit'을 ‘0’으로, 'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨
     둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int
          closeit)

     아래 *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 190f. 의 단순화된 인터페이스
     입니다.  'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4b18. 와 비슷하지만, 메모리에 있는
     문자열 대신 'fp'에서 파이썬 소스 코드를 읽습니다.  'filename'은 파
     일의 이름이어야 하며, *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로
     디코딩됩니다.  'closeit'이 참이면 ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ 가 반
     환하기 전에 파일이 닫힙니다.

          참고: 윈도우에서, 'fp'는 바이너리 모드로 열어야 합니다 (예를 들
          어 ‘fopen(filename, "rb")’).  그렇지 않으면, 파이썬은 LF 줄 종
          료가 있는 스크립트 파일을 올바르게 처리하지 못할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_InteractiveOne (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     아래 *note PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(): 4b1b. 의 단순화된 인터페이
     스입니다.  'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     'flags' 인자에 따라 대화식 장치와 연관된 파일에서 단일 문장을 읽고
     실행합니다.  ‘sys.ps1’과 ‘sys.ps2’를 사용하여 사용자에게 프롬프트 합
     니다.  'filename'은 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 디
     코딩됩니다.

     입력이 성공적으로 실행될 때 ‘0’을, 예외가 있으면 ‘-1’을, 또는 구문
     분석 에러가 있으면 파이썬의 일부로 배포된 ‘errcode.h’ 인클루드 파일
     에 있는 에러 코드를 반환합니다.  (‘errcode.h’는 ‘Python.h’에서 인클
     루드하지 않기 때문에 필요하면 특별히 인클루드해야 함에 유의하십시오
     .)

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     아래 *note PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(): 4b1c. 의 단순화된 인터페이
     스입니다.  'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     EOF에 도달할 때까지 대화식 장치와 연관된 파일에서 문장을 읽고 실행
     합니다.  ‘sys.ps1’과 ‘sys.ps2’를 사용하여 사용자에게 프롬프트 합니
     다.  'filename'은 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 디
     코딩됩니다.  EOF에서 ‘0’을 반환하거나, 실패하면 음수를 반환합니다.

 -- C 변수: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  프로토타입 ‘int func(void)’인
     함수를 가리키도록 설정할 수 있습니다.  이 함수는 파이썬의 인터프리
     터 프롬프트가 유휴 상태가 되고 터미널에서 사용자 입력을 기다리려고
     할 때 호출됩니다.  반환 값은 무시됩니다.  이 훅을 재정의하는 것은 파
     이썬 소스 코드의 ‘Modules/_tkinter.c’에서 한 것처럼 인터프리터의 프
     롬프트를 다른 이벤트 루프와 통합하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This function is only called from the *note
     main interpreter: 582.

 -- C 변수: char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*, const
          char*)

     프로토타입 ‘char *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)’인
     함수를 가리키도록 설정하여, 인터프리터의 프롬프트에서 단일 입력 줄
     을 읽는 데 사용되는 기본 함수를 재정의할 수 있습니다.  이 함수는
     ‘NULL’이 아니면 문자열 'prompt'를 출력한 다음 제공된 표준 입력 파일
     에서 입력 줄을 읽고 결과 문자열을 반환할 것이라고 기대됩니다.  예를
     들어, *note readline: ba. 모듈은 이 훅을 설정하여 줄 편집과 탭 완성
     기능을 제공합니다.

     결과는 *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.이나 *note PyMem_RawRealloc():
     38b.으로 할당된 문자열 이거나, 에러가 발생했으면 ‘NULL’이어야 합니
     다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 결과는 *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.이나 *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 1028.으로 할당하는 대신, *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
     389.이나 *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.으로 할당해야 합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: This function is only called from the *note
     main interpreter: 582.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyRun_String (const char *str, int
          start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  아래 *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 4b1d.의 단순화
     된 인터페이스입니다.  이것은 'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨
     둡니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyRun_StringFlags (const char *str,
          int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'flags'로 지정된 컴파일러 플래그를 사용하여
     'globals'과 'locals' 객체로 지정된 컨텍스트에서 'str'에서 파이썬 소
     스 코드를 실행합니다.  'globals'는 딕셔너리이어야 합니다.  'locals'는
     매핑 프로토콜을 구현하는 모든 객체가 될 수 있습니다.  매개 변수
     'start'는 소스 코드를 구문 분석하는 데 사용해야 하는 시작 토큰을 지
     정합니다.

     코드를 실행한 결과를 파이썬 객체로 반환하거나, 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyRun_File (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  아래 *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1f.의 단순화
     된 인터페이스입니다.  'closeit'을 ‘0’으로, 'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정
     된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyRun_FileEx (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int
          closeit)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  아래 *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1f.의 단순화
     된 인터페이스입니다.  'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyRun_FileFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  아래 *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1f.의 단순화
     된 인터페이스입니다.  'closeit'을 ‘0’으로 설정된 상태로 남겨둡니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyRun_FileExFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 4b1d.와 유사하지만,
     파이썬 소스 코드는 메모리에 있는 문자열 대신 'fp'에서 읽습니다.
     'filename'은 파일명이어야 하며 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러
     처리기: 535.로 디코딩됩니다.  'closeit'이 참이면 *note
     PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1f.가 반환되기 전에 파일이 닫힙니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_CompileString (const char *str,
          const char *filename, int start)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  아래 *note
     Py_CompileStringFlags(): 4b22. 의 단순화된 인터페이스입니다.
     'flags'를 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태로 유지합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_CompileStringFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  아래 *note Py_CompileStringExFlags(): 4b23. 의
     단순화된 인터페이스입니다.  'optimize'를 ‘-1’로 설정된 상태로 유지
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_CompileStringObject (const char
          *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'str'에 있는 파이썬 소스 코드를 구문 분석하고 컴
     파일하여 결과 코드 객체를 반환합니다.  시작 토큰은 'start'로 주어집
     니다; 이것은 컴파일될 수 있는 코드를 제한하는 데 사용될 수 있으며
     *note Py_eval_input: 4b10, *note Py_file_input: 4b11. 또는 *note
     Py_single_input: 4b12.이어야 합니다.  'filename'으로 지정된 파일명
     은 코드 객체를 구성하는 데 사용되며 트레이스백이나 *note
     SyntaxError: 18d. 예외 메시지에 나타날 수 있습니다.  코드를 구문 분
     석할 수 없거나 컴파일할 수 없으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     정수 'optimize'는 컴파일러의 최적화 수준을 지정합니다.  ‘-1’ 값은
     *note -O: db1. 옵션으로 주어진 것처럼 인터프리터의 최적화 수준을 선
     택합니다.  명시적 수준은 ‘0’ (최적화 없음; ‘__debug__’가 참), ‘1’
     (어서션이 제거되고 ‘__debug__’가 거짓) 또는 ‘2’ (독스트링도 제거됩
     니다)입니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_CompileStringExFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  *note Py_CompileStringObject(): 4b24.와 유사하
     지만, 'filename'은 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 디
     코딩된 바이트 문자열입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_EvalCode (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 코드
     객체와 전역 변수 및 지역 변수만 있는, *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx():
     1770.의 단순화된 인터페이스입니다.  다른 인자는 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다
     .

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_EvalCodeEx (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args,
          int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject
          *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject
          *closure)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 평가
     를 위한 특정 환경에서, 미리 컴파일된 코드 객체를 평가합니다.  이 환
     경은 전역 변수의 딕셔너리, 지역 변수의 매핑 객체, 인자의 배열, 키워
     드와 기본값, *note 키워드 전용: 2a5. 인자의 기본값 딕셔너리 및 셀의
     클로저 튜플로 구성됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_EvalFrame (PyFrameObject *f)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  실행 프레임
     을 평가합니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위한, *note
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1024.의 단순화된 인터페이스입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_EvalFrameEx (PyFrameObject *f,
          int throwflag)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 파이
     썬 인터프리트의 메인, 꾸미지 않은 함수입니다.  실행 프레임 'f'와 연
     관된 코드 객체가 실행됩니다.  필요에 따라 바이트 코드를 해석하고 호
     출을 실행합니다.  추가 'throwflag' 매개 변수는 대체로 무시할 수 있
     습니다 - 참이면, 예외가 즉시 발생하도록 합니다; 제너레이터 객체의
     *note throw(): 4f2. 메서드에 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 활성 예외를 조용히 버리지 않았는
     지 확인하도록 도우려고 디버그 어서션을 포함합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (PyCompilerFlags *cf)

     이 함수는 현재 평가 프레임의 플래그를 변경하고, 성공하면 참을, 실패
     하면 거짓을 반환합니다.

 -- C 변수: int Py_eval_input

     격리된 표현식을 위한 파이썬 문법의 시작 기호; *note
     Py_CompileString(): 881.과 함께 사용합니다.

 -- C 변수: int Py_file_input

     파일이나 다른 소스에서 읽은 문장의 시퀀스를 위한 파이썬 문법의 시작
     기호; *note Py_CompileString(): 881.과 함께 사용합니다.  임의로 긴
     파이썬 소스 코드를 컴파일할 때 사용하는 기호입니다.

 -- C 변수: int Py_single_input

     단일 문장을 위한 파이썬 문법의 시작 기호; *note Py_CompileString():
     881.과 함께 사용합니다.  대화식 인터프리터 루프에 사용되는 기호입니
     다.

 -- C 구조체: struct PyCompilerFlags

     이것은 컴파일러 플래그를 담는 데 사용되는 구조체입니다.  코드가 컴
     파일되기만 하는 경우 ‘int flags’로 전달되고, 코드가 실행되는 경우
     ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’로 전달됩니다.  이 경우, ‘from __future__
     import’는 'flags'를 수정할 수 있습니다.

     ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’가 ‘NULL’일 때마다, *note cf_flags: 4b26.는
     ‘0’과 같다고 취급되며, ‘from __future__ import’로 인한 수정은 버립
     니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int cf_flags

          컴파일러 플래그.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int cf_feature_version

          'cf_feature_version'은 부 파이썬 버전입니다.
          ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’으로 초기화되어야 합니다.

          이 필드는 기본적으로 무시되며, ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ 플래그가 *note
          cf_flags: 4b26.에 설정된 경우에만 사용됩니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'cf_feature_version' 필드를 추가했습니다.

     The available compiler flags are accessible as macros:

      -- C 매크로: PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT
      -- C 매크로: PyCF_ONLY_AST
      -- C 매크로: PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST
      -- C 매크로: PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

          See *note compiler flags: 216c. in documentation of the ‘ast’
          Python module, which exports these constants under the same
          names.

     The “‘PyCF’” flags above can be combined with “‘CO_FUTURE’” flags
     such as *note CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS: 4b2c. to enable features
     normally selectable using *note future statements: 189.  See *note
     Code Object Flags: 4b2d. for a complete list.


File: python.info,  Node: 참조 횟수<3>,  Next: 예외 처리,  Prev: 매우 고수준 계층,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.4 참조 횟수
=============

이 섹션의 함수와 매크로는 파이썬 객체의 참조 횟수를 관리하는 데 사용됩니
다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. Py_REFCNT (PyObject *o)

     Get the reference count of the Python object 'o'.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are *note immortal: 437c. and have a very high refcount
     that does not reflect the actual number of references.
     Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate,
     other than a value of 0 or 1.

     Use the *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a7. function to set an object
     reference count.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a6. is changed to the
     inline static function.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The parameter type is no longer const *note
     PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: void Py_SET_REFCNT (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt)

     Set the object 'o' reference counter to 'refcnt'.

     On *note Python build with Free Threading: 1d82, if 'refcnt' is
     larger than ‘UINT32_MAX’, the object is made *note immortal: 437c.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 437c. objects.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C 함수: void Py_INCREF (PyObject *o)

     Indicate taking a new *note strong reference: 336. to object 'o',
     indicating it is in use and should not be destroyed.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 437c. objects.

     This function is usually used to convert a *note borrowed
     reference: 337. to a *note strong reference: 336. in-place.  The
     *note Py_NewRef(): 896. function can be used to create a new *note
     strong reference: 336.

     When done using the object, release is by calling *note
     Py_DECREF(): 56a.

     객체는 ‘NULL’ 일 수 없습니다; ‘NULL’이 아닌지 확실하지 않으면,
     *note Py_XINCREF(): a61.를 사용하십시오.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(1), this function has no effect.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C 함수: void Py_XINCREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_INCREF(): 569, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.

     See also *note Py_XNewRef(): 897.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_NewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Create a new
     *note strong reference: 336. to an object: call *note Py_INCREF():
     569. on 'o' and return the object 'o'.

     When the *note strong reference: 336. is no longer needed, *note
     Py_DECREF(): 56a. should be called on it to release the reference.

     The object 'o' must not be ‘NULL’; use *note Py_XNewRef(): 897. if
     'o' can be ‘NULL’.

     예를 들어:

          Py_INCREF(obj);
          self->attr = obj;

     can be written as:

          self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj);

     See also *note Py_INCREF(): 569.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_XNewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Similar to
     *note Py_NewRef(): 896, but the object 'o' can be NULL.

     If the object 'o' is ‘NULL’, the function just returns ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: void Py_DECREF (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 336. to object 'o', indicating
     the reference is no longer used.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 437c. objects.

     마지막 *note 강한 참조: 336.가 해제되면 (즉 객체의 참조 횟수가 0이
     되면), 객체 형의 할당 해제 함수 (반드시 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다)가
     호출됩니다.

     This function is usually used to delete a *note strong reference:
     336. before exiting its scope.

     객체는 ‘NULL’ 일 수 없습니다; ‘NULL’이 아닌지 확실하지 않으면,
     *note Py_XDECREF(): 788.를 사용하십시오.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(2), this function has no effect.

          경고: 할당 해제 함수는 임의의 파이썬 코드가 호출되도록 할 수 있
          습니다 (예를 들어, *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드가 있는 클래스
          인스턴스가 할당 해제될 때).  이러한 코드에서의 예외는 전파되지
          않지만, 실행된 코드는 모든 파이썬 전역 변수에 자유롭게 액세스
          할 수 있습니다.  이것은 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.가 호출되기 전
          에 전역 변수에서 도달할 수 있는 모든 객체가 일관성 있는 상태에
          있어야 함을 뜻합니다.  예를 들어, 리스트에서 객체를 삭제하는 코
          드는 삭제된 객체에 대한 참조를 임시 변수에 복사하고, 리스트 데
          이터 구조를 갱신한 다음, 임시 변수에 대해 *note Py_DECREF():
          56a.를 호출해야 합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C 함수: void Py_XDECREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_DECREF(): 56a, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.  The same warning from
     *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. applies here as well.

 -- C 함수: void Py_CLEAR (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'에 대한 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 해제합니다.  객체는 ‘NULL’
     일 수 있습니다, 이때 매크로는 효과가 없습니다; 그렇지 않으면 인자도
     ‘NULL’로 설정된다는 점을 제외하고는, 효과가 *note Py_DECREF():
     56a.와 같습니다.  매크로가 임시 변수를 신중하게 사용하고, 참조를 해
     제하기 전에 인자를 ‘NULL’로 설정하기 때문에, *note Py_DECREF():
     56a.에 대한 경고는 전달된 객체와 관련하여 적용되지 않습니다.

     가비지 수집 중에 탐색 될 수 있는 객체에 대한 참조를 해제할 때마다 이
     매크로를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The macro argument is now only evaluated once.
     If the argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated.

 -- C 함수: void Py_IncRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Indicate taking a new *note
     strong reference: 336. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XINCREF(): a61.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C 함수: void Py_DecRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Release a *note strong
     reference: 336. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 788.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C 매크로: Py_SETREF (dst, src)

     Macro safely releasing a *note strong reference: 336. to object
     'dst' and setting 'dst' to 'src'.

     As in case of *note Py_CLEAR(): 573, “the obvious” code can be
     deadly:

          Py_DECREF(dst);
          dst = src;

     The safe way is:

          Py_SETREF(dst, src);

     That arranges to set 'dst' to 'src' 'before' releasing the
     reference to the old value of 'dst', so that any code triggered as
     a side-effect of 'dst' getting torn down no longer believes 'dst'
     points to a valid object.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The macro arguments are now only evaluated
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

 -- C 매크로: Py_XSETREF (dst, src)

     Variant of *note Py_SETREF: 574. macro that uses *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 788. instead of *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.

     Added in version 3.6.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The macro arguments are now only evaluated
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 처리,  Next: 유틸리티<2>,  Prev: 참조 횟수<3>,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.5 예외 처리
=============

이 장에서 설명하는 함수를 사용하면 파이썬 예외를 처리하고 발생시킬 수 있
습니다.  파이썬 예외 처리의 기본 사항을 이해하는 것이 중요합니다.  POSIX
‘errno’ 변수와 비슷하게 작동합니다: 발생한 마지막 에러에 대한 전역 표시
기(스레드 당)가 있습니다.  대부분 C API 함수는 성공 시 이를 지우지 않지
만, 실패 시 에러의 원인을 나타내도록 설정합니다.  대부분 C API 함수는 에
러 표시기도 반환합니다, 일반적으로 포인터를 반환해야 하면 ‘NULL’, 정수를
반환하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다 (예외: ‘PyArg_*’ 함수는 성공하면 ‘1’을, 실패
하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다).

구체적으로, 에러 표시기는 세 가지 객체 포인터로 구성됩니다: 예외 형, 예
외 값 및 트레이스백 객체.  이러한 포인터들은 설정되지 않으면 ‘NULL’이 될
수 있습니다 (하지만 일부 조합은 금지되어 있습니다, 예를 들어 예외 형이
‘NULL’이면 ‘NULL’이 아닌 트레이스백을 가질 수 없습니다).

호출한 일부 함수가 실패하여 함수가 실패해야 할 때, 일반적으로 에러 표시
기를 설정하지 않습니다; 호출된 함수가 이미 설정했습니다.  에러를 처리하
고 예외를 지우거나 보유한 모든 리소스(가령 객체 참조나 메모리 할당)를 정
리한 후 반환해야 할 책임이 있습니다; 에러를 처리할 준비가 되지 않았을 때
정상적으로 계속되지 '않아야' 합니다.  에러로 인해 반환하면, 호출자에게 에
러가 설정되었음을 알리는 것이 중요합니다.  에러를 처리하지 않거나 신중하
게 전파하지 않으면, 파이썬/C API에 대한 추가 호출이 의도한 대로 작동하지
않을 수 있으며 알 수 없는 방식으로 실패할 수 있습니다.

     참고: 에러 표시기는 *note sys.exc_info(): 684.의 결과가 '아닙니다'.
     전자는 아직 포착되지 않은 (따라서 여전히 전파 중인) 예외에 해당하는
     반면, 후자는 포착된 후 (따라서 전파가 중단된) 예외를 반환합니다.

* Menu:

* 인쇄와 지우기::
* 예외 발생시키기::
* 경고 발행하기::
* 에러 표시기 조회하기::
* 시그널 처리하기: 시그널 처리하기<2>.
* 예외 클래스: 예외 클래스<2>.
* 예외 객체::
* 유니코드 예외 객체::
* 재귀 제어::
* Exception and warning types::


File: python.info,  Node: 인쇄와 지우기,  Next: 예외 발생시키기,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.1 인쇄와 지우기
-------------------

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_Clear ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  에러 표시기를 지웁니다.  에러
     표시기가 설정되어 있지 않으면 효과가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_PrintEx (int set_sys_last_vars)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  표준 트레이스백을
     ‘sys.stderr’로 인쇄하고 에러 표시기를 지웁니다.  에러가
     ‘SystemExit’가 '아닌 한', 이 경우에는 트레이스백이 인쇄되지 않고 파
     이썬 프로세스는 ‘SystemExit’ 인스턴스에 의해 지정된 에러 코드로 종
     료됩니다.

     에러 표시기가 설정된 경우**에만** 이 함수를 호출하십시오.  그렇지 않
     으면 치명적인 에러가 발생합니다!

     'set_sys_last_vars'가 0이 아니면, 변수 *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. 는
     인쇄되는 예외로 설정됩니다.  하위 호환성을 위해, 폐지된 변수 *note
     sys.last_type: 4b9, *note sys.last_value: 4ba. 및 *note
     sys.last_traceback: 4bb. 도 각각 이 예외의 형, 값 및 트레이스백으로
     설정됩니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The setting of *note sys.last_exc: 4b8. was
     added.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_Print ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘PyErr_PrintEx(1)’의 별칭.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 예외와 'obj' 인자를 사용
     하여 *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7. 을 호출합니다.

     이 유틸리티 함수는 예외가 설정되었지만, 인터프리터가 실제로 예외를
     발생시킬 수 없을 때 ‘sys.stderr’에 경고 메시지를 인쇄합니다.  예를
     들어, *note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드에서 예외가 발생할 때 사용됩니다
     .

     이 함수는 발생시킬 수 없는 예외가 발생한 문맥을 식별하는 단일 인자
     'obj'로 호출됩니다.  가능하면, 'obj'의 repr이 경고 메시지에 인쇄됩
     니다.  'obj'가 ‘NULL’이면, 트래이스백만 인쇄됩니다.

     이 함수를 호출할 때 예외를 설정되어 있어야 합니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: Print a traceback.  Print only traceback if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Use *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_FormatUnraisable (const char *format, ...)

     Similar to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348, but the 'format' and
     subsequent parameters help format the warning message; they have
     the same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     383.  ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable(obj)’ is roughly equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_FormatUnraisable("Exception ignored in: %R", obj)’.  If
     'format' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_DisplayException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  Print the
     standard traceback display of ‘exc’ to ‘sys.stderr’, including
     chained exceptions and notes.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 발생시키기,  Next: 경고 발행하기,  Prev: 인쇄와 지우기,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.2 예외 발생시키기
---------------------

이 함수들은 현재 스레드의 에러 표시기를 설정하는 데 도움이 됩니다.  편의
를 위해, 이러한 함수 중 일부는 항상 ‘return’ 문에서 사용할 ‘NULL’ 포인터
를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetString (PyObject *type, const char *message)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 에러 표시기를 설정하는
     가장 일반적인 방법입니다.  첫 번째 인자는 예외 형을 지정합니다; 일
     반적으로 표준 예외 중 하나입니다, 예를 들어 *note
     PyExc_RuntimeError: 49e8.  새로운 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 만들 필요
     가 없습니다 (예를 들어, *note Py_INCREF(): 569.로).  두 번째 인자는
     에러 메시지입니다; ‘'utf-8'’ 에서 디코딩됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 함수는 *note
     PyErr_SetString(): 577.과 유사하지만, 예외의 “값”에 대해 임의의 파
     이썬 객체를 지정할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_Format (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, ...)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 함수는
     에러 표시기를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  'exception'은 파이썬 예
     외 클래스여야 합니다.  'format'과 후속 매개 변수는 에러 메시지를 포
     맷하는 데 도움이 됩니다; *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.에서와 같
     은 의미와 값을 갖습니다.  'format'은 ASCII 인코딩된 문자열입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_FormatV (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, va_list vargs)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.5 이
     후로.'  *note PyErr_Format(): ea6.과 같지만, 가변 개수의 인자 대신
     ‘va_list’ 인자를 취합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetNone (PyObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 ‘PyErr_SetObject(type,
     Py_None)’의 줄임 표현입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_BadArgument ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)’의 줄임 표현입니다, 여기
     서 'message'는 잘못된 인자로 내장 연산이 호출되었음을 나타냅니다.  대
     부분 내부 용입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_NoMemory ()
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은
     ‘PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)’의 줄임 표현입니다; ‘NULL’을 반환
     해서 객체 할당 함수는 메모리가 부족할 때 ‘return PyErr_NoMemory();’
     라고 쓸 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetFromErrno (PyObject *type)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     C 라이브러리 함수가 에러를 반환하고 C 변수 ‘errno’를 설정했을 때 예
     외를 발생시키는 편의 함수입니다.  첫 번째 항목이 정수 ‘errno’ 값이
     고 두 번째 항목이 (‘strerror()’에서 얻은) 해당 에러 메시지인 튜플 객
     체를 만든 다음, ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, object)’를 호출합니다.  유닉
     스에서, ‘errno’ 값이 시스템 호출이 중단되었음을 나타내는 ‘EINTR’이
     면, *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 460.를 호출하고 이것이 에러 표시기
     를 설정하면, 설정된 그대로 둡니다.  이 함수는 항상 ‘NULL’을 반환해
     서, 시스템 호출에 대한 래퍼 함수는 시스템 호출이 에러를 반환할 때
     ‘return PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);’ 이라고 쓸 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject
          (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 48b5.와 유사하지만, 'filenameObject'가
     ‘NULL’이 아니면, 'type'의 생성자에 세 번째 매개 변수로 전달된다는 추
     가 동작이 있습니다.  *note OSError: 411. 예외의 경우, 예외 인스턴스
     의 ‘filename’ 어트리뷰트를 정의하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects
          (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject
          *filenameObject2)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'  *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 49af.와 유사
     하지만, 두 개의 파일명을 취하는 함수가 실패할 때 에러를 발생시키기
     위해 두 번째 파일명 객체를 취합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, const char *filename)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 49af.와 유사하지만, 파일명
     이 C 문자열로 제공됩니다.  'filename'은 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과
     에러 처리기: 535.로 디코딩됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (int ierr)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  *note OSError: 411.를 발생시키는 편의 함수입니다.
     ‘0’의 'ierr'로 호출하면, ‘GetLastError()’ 호출에서 반환된 에러 코드
     가 대신 사용됩니다.  Win32 함수 ‘FormatMessage()’를 호출하여
     'ierr'이나 ‘GetLastError()’가 제공하는 에러 코드의 윈도우 설명을 얻
     은 다음, *note winerror: 2296. 어트리뷰트가 에러 코드로 설정되고,
     *note strerror: 2297. 어트리뷰트가 (‘FormatMessage()’에서 얻은) 해
     당 에러 메시지로 설정된 *note OSError: 411. 객체를 생성한 다음,
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError, object)’를 호출합니다.  이 함수는 항
     상 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (PyObject
          *type, int ierr)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 49b1. 와 유사하며
     , 발생시킬 예외 형을 지정하는 추가 매개 변수가 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename
          (int ierr, const char *filename)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 49b1.과 유사하지
     만, 'filename'이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 파일 시스템 인코딩으로 디코딩되고
     (*note os.fsdecode(): c51.) *note OSError: 411.의 생성자에 세 번째
     매개 변수로 전달되어 예외 인스턴스의 ‘filename’ 어트리뷰트를 정의하
     는 데 사용되도록 하는 추가 동작이 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          int ierr, PyObject *filename)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 49ac.과 유사하
     지만, 'filename'이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, *note OSError: 411.의 생성자에
     세 번째 매개 변수로 전달되어 예외 인스턴스의 ‘filename’ 어트리뷰트
     를 정의하는 데 사용되도록 하는 추가 동작이 있습니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (PyObject
          *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 49ad.와 유사하지만,
     두 번째 파일명 객체를 받아들입니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, int ierr, const char *filename)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename():
     1720.와 유사하며, 발생시킬 예외 형을 지정하는 추가 매개 변수가 있습
     니다.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetImportError (PyObject *msg,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'  *note ImportError: 413.를 발생시키는 편의 함수입니다.
     'msg'는 예외의 메시지 문자열로 설정됩니다.  둘 다 ‘NULL’이 될 수 있
     는, 'name'과 'path'는 각각 *note ImportError: 413.의 ‘name’과
     ‘path’ 어트리뷰트로 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (PyObject
          *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.6 이
     후로.'  *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3b. 와 매우 비슷하지만, 이 함
     수는 발생시킬 *note ImportError: 413.의 서브 클래스를 지정할 수 있
     습니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (PyObject *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)

     현재 예외에 대한 파일(file), 줄(line) 및 오프셋(offset) 정보를 설정
     합니다.  현재 예외가 *note SyntaxError: 18d.가 아니면, 추가 어트리
     뷰트를 설정하여, 예외 인쇄 하위 시스템이 예외가 *note SyntaxError:
     18d.라고 생각하게 합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (const char *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 4b35. 와 비슷하지만, 'filename'은
     *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 디코딩되는 바이트 문
     자열입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation (const char *filename, int lineno)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 49b5. 와 비슷하지만, 'col_offset' 매개 변
     수는 생략됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_BadInternalCall ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)’의 줄임 표현입니다.  여
     기서 'message'는 내부 연산(예를 들어 파이썬/C API 함수)이 잘못된 인
     자로 호출되었음을 나타냅니다.  대부분 내부 용입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 경고 발행하기,  Next: 에러 표시기 조회하기,  Prev: 예외 발생시키기,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.3 경고 발행하기
-------------------

이 함수를 사용하여 C 코드에서 경고를 발행하십시오.  파이썬 *note
warnings: 112. 모듈에서 내보낸 유사한 함수를 미러링합니다.  일반적으로
'sys.stderr'에 경고 메시지를 인쇄합니다; 그러나, 사용자가 경고를 에러로
전환하도록 지정했을 수도 있으며, 이 경우 예외가 발생합니다.  경고 장치의
문제로 인해 이 함수가 예외를 발생시키는 것도 가능합니다.  예외가 발생하
지 않으면 반환 값은 ‘0’이고, 예외가 발생하면 ‘-1’입니다.  (경고 메시지가
실제로 인쇄되는지나 예외의 이유를 확인할 수 없습니다; 이것은 의도적입니
다.)  예외가 발생하면, 호출자는 정상적인 예외 처리를 수행해야 합니다 (예
를 들어, 소유한 참조를 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.하고 에러값을 반환합니다).

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_WarnEx (PyObject *category, const char *message,
          Py_ssize_t stack_level)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  경고 메시지를 발행합니다.
     'category' 인자는 경고 범주(아래를 참조하십시오)나 ‘NULL’입니다;
     'message' 인자는 UTF-8로 인코딩된 문자열입니다.  'stack_level'은 스
     택 프레임 수를 제공하는 양수입니다; 해당 스택 프레임에서 현재 실행
     중인 코드 줄에서 경고가 발생합니다.  'stack_level'이 1이면 *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 1413.를 호출하는 함수, 2는 그 위의 함수, 등등.

     경고 범주는 *note PyExc_Warning: 49f9.의 서브 클래스여야 합니다.
     *note PyExc_Warning: 49f9.은 *note PyExc_Exception: 49cd.의 서브 클
     래스입니다; 기본 경고 범주는 *note PyExc_RuntimeWarning: 49e9.입니
     다.  표준 파이썬 경고 범주는 이름이 *note Warning types: 4b37. 에 열
     거된 전역 변수로 제공됩니다.

     경고 제어에 대한 자세한 내용은, *note warnings: 112. 모듈 설명서와
     명령 줄 설명서에서 *note -W: 8c4. 옵션을 참조하십시오.  경고 제어를
     위한 C API는 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (PyObject *category, PyObject
          *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject *module,
          PyObject *registry)

     모든 경고 어트리뷰트를 명시적으로 제어하면서 경고 메시지를 발행합니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 함수 *note warnings.warn_explicit(): cfd.에 대한
     간단한 래퍼입니다; 자세한 내용은 거기를 참조하십시오.  그곳에 설명
     된 기본 효과를 얻으려면 'module'과 'registry' 인자를 ‘NULL’로 설정
     해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_WarnExplicit (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char
          *module, PyObject *registry)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'message'와 'module'이 UTF-8 인
     코딩된 문자열이고, 'filename'은 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러
     처리기: 535.로 디코딩된다는 점을 제외하면 *note
     PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(): 4b38. 와 유사합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_WarnFormat (PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1413.와
     유사한 함수지만, *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 383.을 사용하여 경고
     메시지를 포맷합니다.  'format'은 ASCII 인코딩된 문자열입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_ResourceWarning (PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.6 이후로.'  *note
     PyErr_WarnFormat(): 49b6.과 유사한 함수지만, 'category'는 *note
     ResourceWarning: 244.이고 'source'를 ‘warnings.WarningMessage’로 전
     달합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: 에러 표시기 조회하기,  Next: 시그널 처리하기<2>,  Prev: 경고 발행하기,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.4 에러 표시기 조회하기
--------------------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_Occurred ()
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  에러 표시
     기가 설정되었는지 테스트합니다.  설정되었으면, 예외
     'type'(‘PyErr_Set*’ 함수나 *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f0.에 대한 마지
     막 호출의 첫 번째 인자)을 반환합니다.  설정되지 않았으면, ‘NULL’을
     반환합니다.  여러분이 반환 값에 대한 참조를 소유하지 않아서, *note
     Py_DECREF(): 56a. 할 필요가 없습니다.

     호출자는 GIL을 보유해야 합니다.

          참고: 반환 값을 특정 예외와 비교하지 마십시오; 대신 *note
          PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 4950.를 사용하십시오, 아래를 참조하
          십시오.  (클래스 예외의 경우 예외가 클래스 대신 인스턴스이거나
          , 예상하는 예외의 서브 클래스일 수 있어서 비교는 실패하기 쉽습
          니다.)

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'
     ‘PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)’와 동등합니다.
     예외가 실제로 설정되었을 때만 호출해야 합니다; 예외가 발생하지 않았
     으면 메모리 액세스 위반이 발생합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (PyObject *given, PyObject
          *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'given' 예외가 'exc'의 예외 형
     과 일치하면 참을 반환합니다.  'exc'가 클래스 객체이면, 'given'이 서
     브 클래스의 인스턴스일 때도 참을 반환합니다.  'exc'가 튜플이면, 튜
     플에 있는 모든 예외 형(그리고 서브 튜플도 재귀적으로)을 일치를 위해
     검색합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_GetRaisedException (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이
     후로.'  Return the exception currently being raised, clearing the
     error indicator at the same time.  Return ‘NULL’ if the error
     indicator is not set.

     이 함수는 예외를 포착해야 하는 코드나 에러 표시기를 일시적으로 저장
     하고 복원해야 하는 코드에서 사용됩니다.

     예를 들어:

          {
             PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

             /* ... 다른 에러를 생성할 수 있는 코드 ... */

             PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     더 보기
     .......

     *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 768, to save the exception
     currently being handled.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetRaisedException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  Set 'exc' as
     the exception currently being raised, clearing the existing
     exception if one is set.

          경고: This call steals a reference to 'exc', which must be a
          valid exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_Fetch (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.
     instead.

     주소가 전달된 세 개의 변수로 에러 표시기를 꺼냅니다.  에러 표시기가
     설정되지 않았으면, 세 변수를 모두 ‘NULL’로 설정합니다.  설정되었으
     면, 지워지고 꺼낸 각 객체에 대한 참조를 여러분이 소유합니다.  값과
     트레이스백 객체는 형 객체가 그렇지 않을 때도 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 일반적으로 예외를 포착해야 하거나 에러 표시기
          를 일시적으로 저장하고 복원해야 하는 레거시 코드에서만 사용됩
          니다.

          예를 들어:

               {
                  PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
                  PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);

                  /* ... 다른 에러를 생성할 수 있는 코드 ... */

                  PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
               }

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_Restore (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f1.
     instead.

     세 객체, 'type', 'value' 및 'traceback'으로 에러 표시기를 설정합니
     다.  이미 설정되어 있으면, 기존 예외를 지웁니다.  객체가 ‘NULL’이면
     , 에러 표시기가 지워집니다.  ‘NULL’ type과 함께 ‘NULL’이 아닌
     value나 traceback 을 전달하지 마십시오.  예외 형은 클래스여야 합니
     다.  잘못된 예외 형이나 값을 전달하지 마십시오.  (이러한 규칙을 위
     반하면 나중에 미묘한 문제가 발생합니다.)  이 호출은 각 객체에 대한
     참조를 제거합니다: 호출 전에 각 객체에 대한 참조를 소유해야 하며 호
     출 후에는 더는 이러한 참조를 소유하지 않습니다.  (이것을 이해할 수
     없다면, 이 함수를 사용하지 마십시오.  경고했습니다.)

          참고: 이 함수는 일반적으로 에러 표시기를 일시적으로 저장하고 복
          원해야 하는 레거시 코드에서만 사용됩니다.  현재 에러 표시기를
          저장하려면 *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_NormalizeException (PyObject **exc, PyObject
          **val, PyObject **tb)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     버전 3.12부터 폐지됨: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.
     instead, to avoid any possible de-normalization.

     특정 상황에서, 아래의 *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.가 반환하는 값은 “비
     정규화”되었을 수 있습니다.  즉, ‘*exc’는 클래스 객체이지만 ‘*val’은
     같은 클래스의 인스턴스가 아닙니다.  이 함수는 이 경우 클래스를 인스
     턴스 화하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  값이 이미 정규화되어 있으면, 아
     무 일도 일어나지 않습니다.  지연된 정규화는 성능 향상을 위해 구현됩
     니다.

          참고: 이 함수 예외 값에 *note __traceback__: 12b6. 어트리뷰트
          를 묵시적으로 설정하지 '않습니다'.  트레이스백을 적절하게 설정
          해야 하면, 다음과 같은 추가 스니펫이 필요합니다:

               if (tb != NULL) {
                 PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
               }

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_GetHandledException (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  *note
     sys.exception(): 685.이 반환하는 것과 같은, 활성 예외 인스턴스를 꺼
     냅니다.  이것은 새로 발생한 예외가 아니라, '이미 포착된' 예외를 가
     리킵니다.  예외에 대한 새 참조나 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  인터프리터의
     예외 상태를 수정하지 않습니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 일반적으로 예외를 처리하려는 코드에서 사용되지
          않습니다.  오히려, 코드가 예외 상태를 임시로 저장하고 복원해야
          할 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  예외 상태를 복원하거나 지우려면
          *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 769.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetHandledException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'
     ‘sys.exception()’으로 알려진 것과 같은, 활성 예외를 설정합니다.  이
     것은 새로 발생한 예외가 아니라, '이미 포착된' 예외를 가리킵니다.  예
     외 상태를 지우려면, ‘NULL’을 전달하십시오.

          참고: 이 함수는 일반적으로 예외를 처리하려는 코드에서 사용되지
          않습니다.  오히려, 코드가 예외 상태를 임시로 저장하고 복원해야
          할 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  예외 상태를 얻으려면 *note
          PyErr_GetHandledException(): 768.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_GetExcInfo (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  *note
     sys.exc_info(): 684.로 알려진 것과 같은, 예외 정보의 구식 표현을 꺼
     냅니다.  이것은 새로 발생한 예외가 아니라, '이미 포착된' 예외를 가
     리킵니다.  세 객체에 대한 새 참조를 반환합니다.  이 중 어느 것이든
     ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.  예외 정보 상태를 수정하지 않습니다.  이 함수
     는 하위 호환성을 위해 유지됩니다.  대신 *note
     PyErr_GetHandledException(): 768.을 사용하세요.

          참고: 이 함수는 일반적으로 예외를 처리하려는 코드에서 사용되지
          않습니다.  오히려, 코드가 예외 상태를 임시로 저장하고 복원해야
          할 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  예외 상태를 복원하거나 지우려면
          *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76a.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetExcInfo (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'
     ‘sys.exc_info()’로 알려진 것과 같은, 예외 정보를 설정합니다.  이것
     은 새로 발생한 예외가 아니라, '이미 포착된' 예외를 가리킵니다.  이
     함수는 인자의 참조를 훔칩니다.  예외 상태를 지우려면, 세 인자 모두
     에 ‘NULL’을 전달하십시오.  이 함수는 하위 호환성을 위해 유지됩니다.
     대신 *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 769.을 사용하십시오.

          참고: 이 함수는 일반적으로 예외를 처리하려는 코드에서 사용되지
          않습니다.  오히려, 코드가 예외 상태를 임시로 저장하고 복원해야
          할 때 사용할 수 있습니다.  예외 상태를 읽으려면 *note
          PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76b.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments are no
     longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them from
     the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function still
     steals references of all three arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: 시그널 처리하기<2>,  Next: 예외 클래스<2>,  Prev: 에러 표시기 조회하기,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.5 시그널 처리하기
---------------------

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_CheckSignals ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     This function interacts with Python’s signal handling.

     If the function is called from the main thread and under the main
     Python interpreter, it checks whether a signal has been sent to the
     processes and if so, invokes the corresponding signal handler.  If
     the *note signal: c6. module is supported, this can invoke a signal
     handler written in Python.

     The function attempts to handle all pending signals, and then
     returns ‘0’.  However, if a Python signal handler raises an
     exception, the error indicator is set and the function returns ‘-1’
     immediately (such that other pending signals may not have been
     handled yet: they will be on the next *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     460. invocation).

     If the function is called from a non-main thread, or under a
     non-main Python interpreter, it does nothing and returns ‘0’.

     This function can be called by long-running C code that wants to be
     interruptible by user requests (such as by pressing Ctrl-C).

          참고: The default Python signal handler for ‘SIGINT’ raises
          the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. exception.

 -- C 함수: void PyErr_SetInterrupt ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     Simulate the effect of a ‘SIGINT’ signal arriving.  This is
     equivalent to ‘PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT)’.

          참고: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 159. and from a C signal handler.

 -- C 함수: int PyErr_SetInterruptEx (int signum)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'

     시그널 도착의 효과를 시뮬레이션합니다.  다음에 *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 460.가 호출되면, 주어진 시그널 번호에 대한 파
     이썬 시그널 처리기가 호출됩니다.

     This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal
     handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected
     when an interruption is requested (for example when the user
     presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation).

     주어진 시그널이 파이썬에서 처리되지 않으면 (*note signal.SIG_DFL:
     1827.이나 *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1826.으로 설정되어서), 무시됩니다.

     If 'signum' is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, ‘-1’
     is returned.  Otherwise, ‘0’ is returned.  The error indicator is
     never changed by this function.

          참고: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 159. and from a C signal handler.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd (int fd)

     이 유틸리티 함수는 시그널이 수신될 때마다 시그널 번호가 단일 바이트
     로 기록되는 파일 기술자를 지정합니다.  'fd'는 비 블로킹이어야 합니
     다.  이전의 파일 기술자를 반환합니다.

     값 ‘-1’은 기능을 비활성화합니다; 이것이 초기 상태입니다.  이것은 파
     이썬의 *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): b6d.와 동등하지만, 에러 검사는
     없습니다.  'fd'는 유효한 파일 기술자여야 합니다.  함수는 메인 스레
     드에서만 호출되어야 합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 윈도우에서, 함수는 이제 소켓 핸들도 지원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 클래스<2>,  Next: 예외 객체,  Prev: 시그널 처리하기<2>,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.6 예외 클래스
-----------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_NewException (const char *name,
          PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 유틸리티
     함수는 새 예외 클래스를 만들고 반환합니다.  'name' 인자는 새 예외의
     이름, ‘module.classname’ 형식의 C 문자열이어야 합니다.  'base'와
     'dict' 인자는 일반적으로 ‘NULL’입니다.  이렇게 하면 *note
     Exception: 9d6.(C에서 *note PyExc_Exception: 49cd.으로 액세스할 수
     있습니다)에서 파생된 클래스 객체가 만들어집니다.

     새 클래스의 *note __module__: 36d. 어트리뷰트는 'name' 인자의 첫 번
     째 부분(마지막 점까지)으로 설정되고, 클래스 이름은 마지막 부분(마지
     막 점 뒤)으로 설정됩니다.  'base' 인자는 대체 베이스 클래스를 지정
     하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다; 하나의 클래스나 클래스의 튜플일 수 있습
     니다.  'dict' 인자는 클래스 변수와 메서드의 딕셔너리를 지정하는 데
     사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (const char
          *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  새로운 예외
     클래스에 독스트링을 쉽게 부여할 수 있다는 점을 제외하면 *note
     PyErr_NewException(): 125a.과 같습니다: 'doc'이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 예
     외 클래스에 대한 독스트링으로 사용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: int PyExceptionClass_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is an exception class, zero otherwise.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyExceptionClass_Name (PyObject *ob)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.8 이후로.'  Return *note
     tp_name: 18f9. of the exception class 'ob'.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 객체,  Next: 유니코드 예외 객체,  Prev: 예외 클래스<2>,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.7 예외 객체
---------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyException_GetTraceback (PyObject
          *ex)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬에서
     *note __traceback__: 12b6. 어트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있는 새로
     운 참조로 예외와 관련된 트레이스백을 반환합니다.  관련된 트레이스백
     이 없으면, ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyException_SetTraceback (PyObject *ex, PyObject *tb)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  예외와 관련된 트레이스백을
     'tb'로 설정합니다.  지우려면 ‘Py_None’을 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyException_GetContext (PyObject *ex)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬에서
     *note __context__: 12b7. 어트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있는 새 참
     조로 예외와 연관된 컨텍스트(다른 예외 인스턴스, 이것을 처리하는 도
     중 'ex'가 발생했습니다)를 반환합니다.  연결된 컨텍스트가 없으면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyException_SetContext (PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  예외와 연관된 컨텍스트를
     'ctx'로 설정합니다.  지우려면 ‘NULL’을 사용하십시오.  'ctx'가 예외
     인스턴스인지 확인하는 형 검사는 없습니다.  이것은 'ctx'에 대한 참조
     를 훔칩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyException_GetCause (PyObject *ex)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬에서
     *note __cause__: 12b8. 어트리뷰트를 통해 액세스 할 수 있는 새 참조
     로 예외와 관련된 원인(예외 인스턴스나 ‘None’, ‘raise ... from ...’으
     로 설정됩니다)을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyException_SetCause (PyObject *ex, PyObject *cause)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  예외와 관련된 원인을 'cause'로
     설정합니다.  지우려면 ‘NULL’을 사용하십시오.  'cause'가 예외 인스턴
     스나 ‘None’인지 확인하는 형 검사는 없습니다.  이것은 'cause'에 대한
     참조를 훔칩니다.

     *note __suppress_context__: 20c0. 어트리뷰트는 이 함수에 의해 묵시
     적으로 ‘True’로 설정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyException_GetArgs (PyObject *ex)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이
     후로.'  Return *note args: 567. of exception 'ex'.

 -- C 함수: void PyException_SetArgs (PyObject *ex, PyObject *args)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  Set *note
     args: 567. of exception 'ex' to 'args'.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar
          (PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Implement part of the interpreter’s implementation of ‘except*’.
     'orig' is the original exception that was caught, and 'excs' is the
     list of the exceptions that need to be raised.  This list contains
     the unhandled part of 'orig', if any, as well as the exceptions
     that were raised from the ‘except*’ clauses (so they have a
     different traceback from 'orig') and those that were reraised (and
     have the same traceback as 'orig').  Return the *note
     ExceptionGroup: 1b6. that needs to be reraised in the end, or
     ‘None’ if there is nothing to reraise.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 예외 객체,  Next: 재귀 제어,  Prev: 예외 객체,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.8 유니코드 예외 객체
------------------------

다음 함수는 C에서 유니코드 예외를 만들고 수정하는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (const
          char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'encoding',
     'object', 'length', 'start', 'end' 및 'reason' 어트리뷰트를 사용하
     여 *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. 객체를 만듭니다.  'encoding'과
     'reason'은 UTF-8로 인코딩된 문자열입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외
     객체의 'encoding' 어트리뷰트를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외
     객체의 'object' 어트리뷰트를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *start)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *start)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외 객체의 'start' 어
     트리뷰트를 가져와서 '*start'에 배치합니다.  'start'는 ‘NULL’이 아니
     어야 합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          start)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          start)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외 객체의 'start' 어
     트리뷰트를 'start'로 설정합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반
     환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *end)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *end)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외 객체의 'end' 어트
     리뷰트를 가져와서 '*end'에 배치합니다.  'end'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합
     니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          end)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          end)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외 객체의 'end' 어트
     리뷰트를 'end'로 설정합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외
     객체의 'reason' 어트리뷰트를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C 함수: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 예외 객체의 'reason' 어
     트리뷰트를 'reason'으로 설정합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을
     반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 재귀 제어,  Next: Exception and warning types,  Prev: 유니코드 예외 객체,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.9 재귀 제어
---------------

이 두 함수는 코어와 확장 모듈 모두에서 C 수준에서 안전한 재귀 호출을 수
행하는 방법을 제공합니다.  재귀 코드가 반드시 파이썬 코드를 호출하지 않
는 경우 필요합니다 (파이썬 코드는 재귀 깊이를 자동으로 추적합니다).
*note 호출 프로토콜: 57e.이 재귀 처리를 처리하기 때문에 'tp_call' 구현에
도 필요하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall (const char *where)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  재귀적 C 수준
     호출이 막 수행되려고 하는 지점을 표시합니다.

     ‘USE_STACKCHECK’가 정의되었으면, 이 함수는 *note PyOS_CheckStack():
     181c.을 사용하여 OS 스택이 오버플로 되었는지 확인합니다.  이 경우,
     *note MemoryError: 157e.를 설정하고 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

     그런 다음 함수는 재귀 제한에 도달했는지 확인합니다.  이 경우, *note
     RecursionError: d68.가 설정되고 0이 아닌 값이 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않
     으면, 0이 반환됩니다.

     'where'는 재귀 깊이 제한으로 인한 *note RecursionError: d68. 메시지
     에 이어붙일 ‘" in instance check"’와 같은 UTF-8 인코딩된 문자열이어
     야 합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note 제한된 API: 38f.에서도 사용
     할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  *note
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 971. 을 종료합니다.  *note
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 971. 의 각 '성공적인' 호출마다 한 번씩 호
     출되어야 합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note 제한된 API: 38f.에서도 사용
     할 수 있습니다.

컨테이너형에 대해 *note tp_repr: 4900.을 올바르게 구현하려면 특별한 재귀
처리가 필요합니다.  스택을 보호하는 것 외에도, *note tp_repr: 4900.은 순
환을 방지하기 위해 객체를 추적해야 합니다.  다음 두 함수는 이 기능을 쉽
게 만듭니다.  사실상, 이들은 *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11e2.에 대
한 C 동등물입니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_ReprEnter (PyObject *object)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  순환을 감지하기 위해 *note
     tp_repr: 4900. 구현 시작 시 호출됩니다.

     객체가 이미 처리되었으면, 함수는 양의 정수를 반환합니다.  이 경우
     *note tp_repr: 4900. 구현은 순환을 나타내는 문자열 객체를 반환해야
     합니다.  예를 들어, *note dict: 256. 객체는 ‘{...}’를 반환하고
     *note list: 60b. 객체는 ‘[...]’를 반환합니다.

     재귀 제한에 도달하면 함수는 음의 정수를 반환합니다.  이 경우 *note
     tp_repr: 4900. 구현은 일반적으로 ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.

     그렇지 않으면, 함수는 0을 반환하고 *note tp_repr: 4900. 구현은 정상
     적으로 계속될 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: void Py_ReprLeave (PyObject *object)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4aeb.를
     종료합니다.  0을 반환하는 *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4aeb. 호출마다 한 번
     씩 호출해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception and warning types,  Prev: 재귀 제어,  Up: 예외 처리

7.5.10 Exception and warning types
----------------------------------

All standard Python exceptions and warning categories are available as
global variables whose names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python
exception name.  These have the type *note PyObject: 332.*; they are all
class objects.

For completeness, here are all the variables:

* Menu:

* Exception types::
* OSError aliases::
* Warning types::


File: python.info,  Node: Exception types,  Next: OSError aliases,  Up: Exception and warning types

7.5.10.1 Exception types
........................

C name                                                 Python name
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note BaseException: 5b5.
          *PyExc_BaseException                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note BaseExceptionGroup: 25f.
          *PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_Exception      *note Exception: 9d6.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ArithmeticError: 228b.
          *PyExc_ArithmeticError                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note AssertionError: 6a3.
          *PyExc_AssertionError                        
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note AttributeError: 346.
          *PyExc_AttributeError                        
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note BlockingIOError: 104d.
          *PyExc_BlockingIOError                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note BrokenPipeError: 1052.
          *PyExc_BrokenPipeError                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_BufferError    *note BufferError: 182b.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ChildProcessError: 104e.
          *PyExc_ChildProcessError                     
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1053.
          *PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError                
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ConnectionError: e06.
          *PyExc_ConnectionError                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1054.
          *PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError                
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ConnectionResetError: 1055.
          *PyExc_ConnectionResetError                  
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_EOFError       *note EOFError: 12c9.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note FileExistsError: 1016.
          *PyExc_FileExistsError                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note FileNotFoundError: 425.
          *PyExc_FileNotFoundError                     
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note FloatingPointError: 228c.
          *PyExc_FloatingPointError                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note GeneratorExit: 1390.
          *PyExc_GeneratorExit                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_ImportError    *note ImportError: 413.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note IndentationError: 7a1.
          *PyExc_IndentationError                      
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_IndexError     *note IndexError: 14fc.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note InterruptedError: d84.
          *PyExc_InterruptedError                      
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note IsADirectoryError: 104f.
          *PyExc_IsADirectoryError                     
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_KeyError       *note KeyError: 33d.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.
          *PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt                     
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_LookupError    *note LookupError: 21d4.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_MemoryError    *note MemoryError: 157e.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ModuleNotFoundError: b44.
          *PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError                   
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.6 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_NameError      *note NameError: 438.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note NotADirectoryError: 1050.
          *PyExc_NotADirectoryError                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note NotImplementedError: 228.
          *PyExc_NotImplementedError                   
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_OSError        *note OSError: 411.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note OverflowError: 87d.
          *PyExc_OverflowError                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note PermissionError: d3f.
          *PyExc_PermissionError                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ProcessLookupError: 1051.
          *PyExc_ProcessLookupError                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d.
          *PyExc_PythonFinalizationError               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note RecursionError: d68.
          *PyExc_RecursionError                        
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ReferenceError: 14d6.
          *PyExc_ReferenceError                        
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_RuntimeError   *note RuntimeError: 195.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a34.
          *PyExc_StopAsyncIteration                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note StopIteration: bf7.
          *PyExc_StopIteration                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_SyntaxError    *note SyntaxError: 18d.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_SystemError    *note SystemError: 570.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_SystemExit     *note SystemExit: d3d.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_TabError       *note TabError: 53e.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_TimeoutError   *note TimeoutError: 82f.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이    
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_TypeError      *note TypeError: 532.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd.
          *PyExc_UnboundLocalError                     
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note UnicodeDecodeError: a0f.
          *PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671.
          *PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_UnicodeError   *note UnicodeError: 1293.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note UnicodeTranslateError: 22a5.
          *PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError                 
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_ValueError     *note ValueError: 202.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ZeroDivisionError: 943.
          *PyExc_ZeroDivisionError                     
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

Added in version 3.3: *note PyExc_BlockingIOError: 49c0, *note
PyExc_BrokenPipeError: 49c1, *note PyExc_ChildProcessError: 49c4, *note
PyExc_ConnectionError: 49c6, *note PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError: 49c5,
*note PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError: 49c7, *note
PyExc_ConnectionResetError: 49c8, *note PyExc_FileExistsError: 49ce,
*note PyExc_FileNotFoundError: 49cf, *note PyExc_InterruptedError: 49d8,
*note PyExc_IsADirectoryError: 49d9, *note PyExc_NotADirectoryError:
49e0, *note PyExc_PermissionError: 49e4, *note PyExc_ProcessLookupError:
49e5. 및 *note PyExc_TimeoutError: 49f1.는 PEP 3151(1)을 따라 도입되었습
니다.

Added in version 3.5: *note PyExc_StopAsyncIteration: 49ea. 과 *note
PyExc_RecursionError: ea8.

Added in version 3.6: *note PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError: 49de.

Added in version 3.11: *note PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup: 49bf.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: OSError aliases,  Next: Warning types,  Prev: Exception types,  Up: Exception and warning types

7.5.10.2 OSError aliases
........................

The following are a compatibility aliases to *note PyExc_OSError: 48b8.

버전 3.3에서 변경: 이러한 별칭은 별도의 예외 형이었습니다.

C name                                Python name                           노트
                                                                            
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.      *note OSError: 411.
          *PyExc_EnvironmentError     
     ' Part of the
     *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.      *note OSError: 411.
          *PyExc_IOError              
     ' Part of the
     *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.      *note OSError: 411.                   *note [win]: 4b48.
          *PyExc_WindowsError                                               
     ' Part of the
     *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on
     Windows 버전 3.7 이후로.'

노트:

(win) ‘PyExc_WindowsError’ is only defined on Windows; protect code that
uses this by testing that the preprocessor macro ‘MS_WINDOWS’ is
defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Warning types,  Prev: OSError aliases,  Up: Exception and warning types

7.5.10.3 Warning types
......................

C name                                                 Python name
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_Warning        *note Warning: 22bb.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_BytesWarning   *note BytesWarning: c20.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.
          *PyExc_DeprecationWarning                    
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note EncodingWarning: 1d45.
          *PyExc_EncodingWarning                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note FutureWarning: 40f.
          *PyExc_FutureWarning                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ImportWarning: 4f4.
          *PyExc_ImportWarning                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c5.
          *PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning             
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note ResourceWarning: 244.
          *PyExc_ResourceWarning                       
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.
          *PyExc_RuntimeWarning                        
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note SyntaxWarning: 45f.
          *PyExc_SyntaxWarning                         
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332.                       *note UnicodeWarning: 13ec.
          *PyExc_UnicodeWarning                        
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyExc_UserWarning    *note UserWarning: 22bc.
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'               

Added in version 3.2: *note PyExc_ResourceWarning: 49e7.

Added in version 3.10: *note PyExc_EncodingWarning: 49cb.


File: python.info,  Node: 유틸리티<2>,  Next: 추상 객체 계층,  Prev: 예외 처리,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.6 유틸리티
============

이 장의 함수들은 C 코드의 플랫폼 간 호환성 개선, C에서 파이썬 모듈 사용,
함수 인자의 구문 분석 및 C값으로부터 파이썬 값을 구성하는 것에 이르기까
지 다양한 유틸리티 작업을 수행합니다.

* Menu:

* 운영 체제 유틸리티::
* 시스템 함수::
* 프로세스 제어::
* 모듈 임포트 하기: 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
* 데이터 마샬링 지원::
* 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축::
* 문자열 변환과 포매팅::
* PyHash API::
* 리플렉션::
* 코덱 등록소와 지원 함수::
* PyTime C API::
* Support for Perf Maps::


File: python.info,  Node: 운영 체제 유틸리티,  Next: 시스템 함수,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.1 운영 체제 유틸리티
------------------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyOS_FSPath (PyObject *path)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.6 이후
     로.'  'path'에 대한 파일 시스템 표현을 반환합니다.  객체가 *note
     str: 445.이나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체이면, 새 *note 강한 참조: 336.를
     반환합니다.  객체가 *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 구현하면,
     *note __fspath__(): c4f.가 *note str: 445.나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체
     일 때 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note TypeError: 532.가 발생하고
     ‘NULL’이 반환됩니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: int Py_FdIsInteractive (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     이름이 'filename'인 표준 I/O 파일 'fp'를 대화식으로 간주하면 참(0이
     아닙니다)을 반환합니다.  ‘isatty(fileno(fp))’가 참인 파일의 경우입
     니다.  *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c7.가 0이 아니면, 이 함수는
     'filename' 포인터가 ‘NULL’이거나 이름이 문자열 ‘'<stdin>'’이나
     ‘'???'’ 중 하나와 같을 때도 참을 반환합니다.

     This function must not be called before Python is initialized.

 -- C 함수: void PyOS_BeforeFork ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on platforms with fork() 버전
     3.7 이후로.'  프로세스 포크 전에 내부 상태를 준비하는 함수.
     ‘fork()’나 현재 프로세스를 복제하는 유사한 함수를 호출하기 전에 호
     출해야 합니다.  ‘fork()’가 정의된 시스템에서만 사용 가능합니다.

          경고: C ‘fork()’ 호출은 (*note “메인” 인터프리터: 582.의)
          *note “메인” 스레드: 4b51.에서만 이루어져야 합니다.
          ‘PyOS_BeforeFork()’도 마찬가지입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 함수: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on platforms with fork() 버전
     3.7 이후로.'  프로세스 포크 후 일부 내부 상태를 갱신하는 함수.  프
     로세스 복제가 성공했는지와 관계없이, ‘fork()’나 현재 프로세스를 복
     제하는 유사한 함수를 호출한 후 부모 프로세스에서 호출해야 합니다.
     ‘fork()’가 정의된 시스템에서만 사용 가능합니다.

          경고: C ‘fork()’ 호출은 (*note “메인” 인터프리터: 582.의)
          *note “메인” 스레드: 4b51.에서만 이루어져야 합니다.
          ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()’도 마찬가지입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 함수: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on platforms with fork() 버전
     3.7 이후로.'  프로세스 포크 후 내부 인터프리터 상태를 갱신하는 함수
     .  ‘fork()’나 현재 프로세스를 복제하는 유사한 함수를 호출한 후, 프
     로세스가 파이썬 인터프리터를 다시 호출할 가능성이 있으면 자식 프로
     세스에서 호출해야 합니다.  ‘fork()’가 정의된 시스템에서만 사용 가능
     합니다.

          경고: C ‘fork()’ 호출은 (*note “메인” 인터프리터: 582.의)
          *note “메인” 스레드: 4b51.에서만 이루어져야 합니다.
          ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Child()’도 마찬가지입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f8.를 사용하면 *note
     PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbc, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bbd. 및
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5.에서 호출될 사용자 정의 파이썬 함
     수를 등록 할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyOS_AfterFork ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on platforms with fork().'  프로
     세스 포크 후 일부 내부 상태를 갱신하는 함수; 파이썬 인터프리터가 계
     속 사용된다면 새로운 프로세스에서 호출되어야 합니다.  새 실행 파일
     이 새 프로세스에 로드되면, 이 함수를 호출할 필요가 없습니다.

     버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: 이 함수는 *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5.로
     대체되었습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyOS_CheckStack ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on platforms with USE_STACKCHECK
     버전 3.7 이후로.'

     인터프리터에 스택 공간이 부족하면 참을 반환합니다.  이것은 신뢰성 있
     는 확인이지만, ‘USE_STACKCHECK’이 정의되어 있을 때만 사용할 수 있습
     니다 (현재 마이크로소프트 Visual C++ 컴파일러를 사용하는 특정 버전
     의 윈도우에서).  ‘USE_STACKCHECK’은 자동으로 정의됩니다; 여러분 자
     신의 코드에서 정의를 변경해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4a57. PyOS_getsig (int i)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시그널 'i'에 대한 현재 시그널
     처리기를 반환합니다.  이것은 ‘sigaction()’이나 ‘signal()’을 감싸는
     얇은 래퍼입니다.  그 함수들을 직접 호출하지 마십시오!

 -- C 함수: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4a57. PyOS_setsig (int i,
          PyOS_sighandler_t h)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시그널 'i'의 시그널 처리기를
     'h'로 설정합니다; 이전 시그널 처리기를 반환합니다.  이것은
     ‘sigaction()’이나 ‘signal()’을 감싸는 얇은 래퍼입니다.  그 함수들을
     직접 호출하지 마십시오!

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale (const char *arg, size_t *size)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'
          경고: This function should not be called directly: use the
          *note PyConfig: 3a0. API with the *note
          PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 9b1. function which ensures that
          *note Python is preinitialized: 3d61.

          This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3d61. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.
          function.

     *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 바이트열을 디코딩합니
     다.  에러 처리기가 *note surrogateescape 에러 처리기: 23ee.면, 디코
     딩할 수 없는 바이트열은 U+DC80..U+DCFF 범위의 문자로 디코딩됩니다;
     그리고, 바이트 시퀀스를 서로게이트 문자로 디코딩 할 수 있으면, 이들
     을 디코딩하는 대신 surrogateescape 에러 처리기를 사용하여 바이트열
     를 이스케이프 합니다.

     새로 할당된 와이드 문자(wide character) 문자열에 대한 포인터를 반환
     합니다, 메모리를 해제하려면 *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38c.를 사용하십
     시오.  size가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 널 문자를 제외한 와이드 문자 수를
     ‘*size’에 기록합니다.

     디코딩 에러나 메모리 할당 에러 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  'size'가
     ‘NULL’이 아니면, 메모리 에러 시 ‘*size’가 ‘(size_t)-1’로 설정되고,
     디코딩 에러 시 ‘(size_t)-2’로 설정됩니다.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e2.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 3e3. members of *note PyConfig: 3a0.

     C 라이브러리에 버그가 없으면, 디코딩 에러가 발생하지 않아야 합니다.

     문자열을 바이트열로 다시 인코딩하려면 *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5.
     함수를 사용하십시오.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4ac1.와 *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc6. 함수.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.에서
     UTF-8 인코딩을 사용합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 윈도우에서 *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0.가 0이면 UTF-8 인코딩을
     사용합니다;

 -- C 함수: char *Py_EncodeLocale (const wchar_t *text, size_t
          *error_pos)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  와이드 문자
     (wide character) 문자열을 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기:
     535.로 인코딩합니다.  에러 처리기가 *note surrogateescape 에러
     처리기: 23ee.면 U+DC80..U+DCFF 범위의 서로게이트 문자는 바이트
     0x80..0xFF로 변환됩니다.

     새로 할당된 바이트열에 대한 포인터를 반환합니다, 메모리를 해제하려
     면 *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.를 사용하십시오.  인코딩 에러나 메모리
     할당 에러 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     error_pos가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, ‘*error_pos’는 성공 시 ‘(size_t)-1’로
     설정되고, 인코딩 에러 시 유효하지 않은 문자의 인덱스로 설정됩니다.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e2.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 3e3. members of *note PyConfig: 3a0.

     바이트열을 와이드 문자 문자열로 다시 디코딩하려면 *note
     Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. 함수를 사용하십시오.

          경고: This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3d61. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.
          function.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a58.와 *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bc7. 함수.

     Added in version 3.5.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.에서
     UTF-8 인코딩을 사용합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 윈도우에서 *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0.이 0이면 UTF-8 인코딩을
     사용합니다.


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7.6.2 시스템 함수
-----------------

*note sys: d9. 모듈의 기능을 C 코드에서 액세스 할 수 있게 하는 유틸리티
함수입니다.  모두 내부 스레드 상태 구조체에 포함된 현재 인터프리터 스레
드의 *note sys: d9. 모듈의 딕셔너리에 작동합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySys_GetObject (const char *name)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     sys: d9. 모듈에서 객체 'name'을 반환하거나, 존재하지 않으면 예외를
     설정하지 않고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySys_SetObject (const char *name, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'v'가 'NULL'이 아닌 한 *note
     sys: d9. 모듈의 'name'을 'v'로 설정합니다.  ‘NULL’이면 'name'은 sys
     모듈에서 삭제됩니다.  성공하면 ‘0’, 에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_ResetWarnOptions ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note sys.warnoptions: 3aa.를
     빈 리스트로 재설정합니다.  이 함수는 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 이
     전에 호출할 수 있습니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3aa. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_WriteStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'format'으로 기술되는 출력 문
     자열을 *note sys.stdout: ad3.에 기록합니다.  잘림이 발생하더라도 예
     외는 발생하지 않습니다 (아래를 참조하십시오).

     'format'은 포맷된 출력 문자열의 총 크기를 1000바이트 이하로 제한해
     야 합니다 – 1000바이트 이후에는, 출력 문자열이 잘립니다.  특히, 이
     것은 무제한 “%s” 포맷이 있어서는 안 됨을 의미합니다; “%.<N>s”를 사
     용하여 제한해야 합니다, 여기서 <N>은 <N>에 다른 포맷된 텍스트의 최
     대 크기를 더할 때 1000바이트를 초과하지 않도록 계산된 십진수입니다.
     또한 “%f”도 주의하십시오, 아주 큰 숫자는 수백 자리를 인쇄할 수 있습
     니다.

     문제가 발생하거나, *note sys.stdout: ad3.가 설정되어 있지 않으면, 포
     맷된 메시지는 실제(C 수준) 'stdout'에 기록됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_WriteStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PySys_WriteStdout():
     4a92.과 같지만, 대신 *note sys.stderr: 937.이나 'stderr'에 씁니다.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_FormatStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  PySys_WriteStdout()과 유사한 함
     수이지만, 메시지를 *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 56f.를 사용하여 포
     맷하고 메시지를 임의의 길이로 자르지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_FormatStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PySys_FormatStdout():
     4a8e.과 같지만, 대신 *note sys.stderr: 937.이나 'stderr'에 씁니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySys_GetXOptions ()
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'  *note sys._xoptions: 1d47.와 유사하게, *note -X: 176. 옵션
     의 현재 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  에러가 발생하면, ‘NULL’이 반환되고
     예외가 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: int PySys_Audit (const char *event, const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  모든 활성 훅
     으로 감사 이벤트를 발생시킵니다.  성공 시 0을 반환하고 실패 시 예외
     를 설정하여 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

     The 'event' string argument must not be 'NULL'.

     훅이 추가되었으면, 'format'과 기타 인자를 사용하여 전달할 튜플을 구
     성합니다.  ‘N’ 외에도, *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.에서 사용된 것과
     같은 포맷 문자를 사용할 수 있습니다.  빌드된 값이 튜플이 아니면, 단
     일 요소 튜플에 추가됩니다.

     ‘N’ 포맷 옵션은 사용하지 않아야 합니다.  참조를 소비하지만, 이 함수
     에 대한 인자가 소비될지를 알 방법이 없기 때문에, 사용하면 참조 누수
     가 발생할 수 있습니다.

     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’이 정의되었는지와 관계없이, ‘#’ 포맷 문자는 항상
     *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.로 처리되어야 합니다.

     *note sys.audit(): 15c1.은 파이썬 코드와 동일한 기능을 수행합니다.

     See also *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 367.

     Added in version 3.8.

     버전 3.8.2에서 변경: ‘#’ 포맷 문자에 대해 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.를
     요구합니다.  이전에는, 피할 수 없는 폐지 경고가 발생했습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySys_AuditTuple (const char *event, PyObject *args)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Similar to
     *note PySys_Audit(): 368, but pass arguments as a Python object.
     'args' must be a *note tuple: 369.  To pass no arguments, 'args'
     can be 'NULL'.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PySys_AddAuditHook (Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void
          *userData)

     활성 감사 훅 리스트에 콜러블 'hook'을 추가합니다.  성공하면 0을, 실
     패하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  런타임이 초기화되었으면, 실패 시
     에러도 설정합니다.  이 API를 통해 추가된 훅은 런타임이 만든 모든 인
     터프리터에 대해 호출됩니다.

     'userData' 포인터는 훅 함수로 전달됩니다.  훅 함수는 다른 런타임에
     서 호출될 수 있어서, 이 포인터는 파이썬 상태를 직접 참조하면 안 됩
     니다.

     이 함수는 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 이전에 호출해도 안전합니다.  런
     타임 초기화 후 호출되면, 기존 감사 훅에 알리고 *note Exception:
     9d6.에서 서브 클래싱 된 에러를 발생 시켜 조용히 연산을 중단할 수 있
     습니다 (다른 에러는 억제되지(silenced) 않습니다).

     The hook function is always called with the GIL held by the Python
     interpreter that raised the event.

     감사에 대한 자세한 설명은 PEP 578(1)을 참조하십시오.  이벤트를 발생
     시키는 런타임과 표준 라이브러리의 함수는 *note 감사 이벤트 표:
     1877.에 나열되어 있습니다.  자세한 내용은 각 함수 설명서에 있습니다
     .

     인터프리터가 초기화되면, 이 함수는 인자 없이 감사 이벤트
     ‘sys.addaudithook’을 발생시킵니다.  기존 훅이 *note Exception:
     9d6.에서 파생된 예외를 발생시키면, 새 훅이 추가되지 않고 예외가 지
     워집니다.  결과적으로, 호출자가 기존의 모든 훅을 제어하지 않는 한 훅
     이 추가되었다고 가정할 수 없습니다.

      -- C 자료형: typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char
               *event, *note PyObject: 332. *args, void *userData)

          The type of the hook function.  'event' is the C string event
          argument passed to *note PySys_Audit(): 368. or *note
          PySys_AuditTuple(): 367.  'args' is guaranteed to be a *note
          PyTupleObject: 4b55.  'userData' is the argument passed to
          PySys_AddAuditHook().

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


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7.6.3 프로세스 제어
-------------------

 -- C 함수: void Py_FatalError (const char *message)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     치명적인 에러 메시지를 인쇄하고 프로세스를 죽입니다.  아무런 정리도
     수행되지 않습니다.  이 함수는 파이썬 인터프리터를 계속 사용하는 것
     이 위험한 조건이 감지되었을 때만 호출해야 합니다; 예를 들어, 객체 관
     리가 손상된 것으로 보일 때.  유닉스에서는, 표준 C 라이브러리 함수
     ‘abort()’가 호출되어 ‘core’ 파일을 생성하려고 시도합니다.

     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 매크로가 정의되어 있지 않은 한, ‘Py_FatalError()’
     함수는 현재 함수의 이름을 자동으로 로그 하는 매크로로 대체됩니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 함수 이름을 자동으로 로그 합니다.

 -- C 함수: void Py_Exit (int status)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     현재 프로세스를 종료합니다.  이것은 *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.를 호
     출한 다음 표준 C 라이브러리 함수 ‘exit(status)’를 호출합니다.
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.가 에러를 표시하면, 종료 상태는 120으로
     설정됩니다.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: 파이널리제이션에서의 에러가 더는 무시되지 않습니
     다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_AtExit (void (*func)())
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.가 호출할 정리 함수를 등록합니다.  정리
     함수는 인자 없이 호출되며 값을 반환하지 않아야 합니다.  최대 32개의
     정리 함수를 등록할 수 있습니다.  등록이 성공하면, *note
     Py_AtExit(): 4ae0.는 ‘0’을 반환합니다; 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.
     마지막에 등록된 정리 함수가 먼저 호출됩니다.  각 정리 함수는 최대 한
     번 호출됩니다.  정리 함수 전에 파이썬의 내부 파이널리제이션이 완료
     되기 때문에, 'func'에서 파이썬 API를 호출하면 안 됩니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 1593. for passing a ‘void *data’
     argument.


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7.6.4 모듈 임포트 하기
----------------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ImportModule (const char
          *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     This is a wrapper around *note PyImport_Import(): 13c5. which takes
     a const char* as an argument instead of a *note PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (const
          char *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 함수는
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.의 폐지된 별칭입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이 기능은 다른 스레드가 임포트 잠금을 보유한 경
     우 즉시 실패했었습니다.  그러나 파이썬 3.3에서는, 잠금 방식이 대부
     분의 목적에서 모듈 단위 잠금으로 전환되었기 때문에, 이 함수의 특수
     한 동작은 더는 필요하지 않습니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15:
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.을 대신 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ImportModuleEx (const char
          *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'

     모듈을 임포트 합니다.  내장 파이썬 함수 *note __import__(): 8d1.를
     통해 가장 잘 설명할 수 있습니다.

     반환 값은 임포트 된 모듈이나 최상위 패키지에 대한 새로운 참조, 또는
     실패 시 예외가 설정된 ‘NULL’입니다.  *note __import__(): 8d1.와 마
     찬가지로, 비어 있지 않은 'fromlist'가 제공되지 않는 한, 패키지의 서
     브 모듈이 요청되었을 때의 반환 값은 최상위 패키지입니다.

     임포트 실패는 *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.처럼 불완전한 모듈
     객체를 제거합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  모듈을 임포트 합니다.  표준 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함수가 이
     함수를 직접 호출하기 때문에, 내장 파이썬 함수 *note __import__():
     8d1.를 통해 가장 잘 설명할 수 있습니다.

     반환 값은 임포트 된 모듈이나 최상위 패키지에 대한 새로운 참조, 또는
     실패 시 예외가 설정된 ‘NULL’입니다.  *note __import__(): 8d1.와 마
     찬가지로, 비어 있지 않은 'fromlist'가 제공되지 않는 한, 패키지의 서
     브 모듈이 요청되었을 때의 반환 값은 최상위 패키지입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (const char
          *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 4a12.와 비슷하지만, name은 유니
     코드 객체 대신 UTF-8로 인코딩된 문자열입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'level'의 음수 값은 더는 허용되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_Import (PyObject *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 현재
     “임포트 훅 함수”를 호출하는 고수준 인터페이스입니다 (명시적인
     'level' 0을 사용하는데, 절대 임포트를 뜻합니다).  현재 전역의
     ‘__builtins__’에 있는 *note __import__(): 8d1. 함수를 호출합니다.  이
     는 현재 환경에 설치된 임포트 훅을 사용하여 임포트가 수행됨을 의미합
     니다.

     이 함수는 항상 절대 임포트를 사용합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ReloadModule (PyObject *m)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  모듈을 다시
     로드(reload)합니다.  다시 로드된 모듈에 대한 참조를 반환하거나, 실
     패 시 예외가 설정된 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다 (이때 모듈은 여전히 존재합
     니다).

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_AddModuleRef (const char
          *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이
     후로.'  모듈 이름에 해당하는 모듈 객체를 반환합니다.

     'name' 인자는 ‘package.module’ 형식일 수 있습니다.  먼저 모듈 딕셔
     너리에 있는지 확인하고, 없으면 새로 만들어 모듈 딕셔너리에 삽입합니
     다.

     성공하면 모듈에 대한 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 반환합니다.  실패 시 예
     외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     The module name 'name' is decoded from UTF-8.

     이 함수는 모듈을 로드하거나 임포트 하지 않습니다; 모듈이 아직 로드
     되지 않았으면, 빈 모듈 객체를 얻게 됩니다.  모듈을 임포트 하려면
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.이나 그 변형 중 하나를 사용하십
     시오.  'name'에서 점으로 구분된 이름으로 암시된 패키지 구조는 이미
     존재하지 않는다면 만들어지지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_AddModuleObject (PyObject
          *name)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이
     후로.'  *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 351.와 비슷하지만, *note 빌린
     참조: 337.를 반환하고 'name'은 *note str: 445. 객체입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_AddModule (const char *name)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Similar
     to *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 351, but return a *note borrowed
     reference: 337.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ExecCodeModule (const char
          *name, PyObject *co)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     주어진 모듈 이름(name)(‘package.module’ 형식일 수 있습니다)과 파이
     썬 바이트 코드 파일에서 읽거나 내장 함수 *note compile(): 192.로 얻
     은 코드 객체로, 모듈을 로드합니다.  모듈 객체에 대한 새로운 참조를
     반환하거나, 또는 에러가 발생하면 예외가 설정된 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.
     에러가 발생하면 *note sys.modules: 1558.에서 'name'이 제거됩니다,
     *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4a0a. 에 진입할 때 'name'이 *note
     sys.modules: 1558.에 이미 있어도 그렇습니다.  *note sys.modules:
     1558.에 불완전하게 초기화된 모듈을 남겨 두는 것은 위험합니다, 그러
     한 모듈을 임포트 할 때 모듈 객체가 알 수 없는 (그리고 아마도 모듈 작
     성자의 의도에 비추어볼 때 손상된) 상태에 있음을 알 방법이 없기 때문
     입니다.

     모듈의 *note __spec__: 1f1f.과 *note __loader__: 2e4.는 아직 설정되
     지 않았다면 적절한 값으로 설정됩니다.  스펙의 로더는 모듈의
     ‘__loader__’(설정되었다면)로 설정되고, 그렇지 않으면 *note
     SourceFileLoader: 106a. 의 인스턴스로 설정됩니다.

     모듈의 *note __file__: 1f25. 어트리뷰트는 코드 객체의 *note
     co_filename: 1356.으로 설정됩니다.  해당한다면, *note __cached__:
     2d7.도 설정됩니다.

     이 함수는 이미 임포트 되었다면 모듈을 다시 로드합니다.  모듈을 다시
     로드하는 의도된 방법은 *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 4a13.을 참조
     하십시오.

     'name'이 ‘package.module’ 형식의 점으로 구분된 이름을 가리키면, 이
     미 만들어지지 않은 패키지 구조는 여전히 만들어지지 않습니다.

     *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4a0b.와 *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4a0d.도 참조하십시오.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The setting of *note __cached__: 2d7. and *note
     __loader__: 2e4. is deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c. for
     alternatives.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (const char
          *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4a0a.과 유사하지만, 모듈 객체의 *note
     __file__: 1f25. 어트리뷰트는 ‘NULL’이 아니라면 'pathname'으로 설정
     됩니다.

     *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4a0d.도 참조하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject
          *cpathname)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4a0b.와 유사하지만, 모듈 객
     체의 *note __cached__: 2d7. 어트리뷰트는 ‘NULL’이 아니라면
     'cpathname'으로 설정됩니다.  세 가지 함수 중 이것이 선호되는 것입니
     다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Setting *note __cached__: 2d7. is deprecated.
     See *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c. for alternatives.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames
          (const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const
          char *cpathname)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 4a0c.와 유사하지만, 'name',
     'pathname' 및 'cpathname'은 UTF-8로 인코딩된 문자열입니다.
     'pathname'의 값이 ‘NULL’로 설정된 경우 어떤 값이 'cpathname'에서 와
     야하는지 알아내려고 합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 바이트 코드 경로만 제공되면 소스 경로를 계산할 때
     ‘imp.source_from_cache()’를 사용합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: No longer uses the removed ‘imp’ module.

 -- C 함수: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬 바이트 코드 파일(일명
     ‘.pyc’ 파일)의 매직 번호(magic number)를 반환합니다.  매직 번호는 바
     이트 코드 파일의 처음 4바이트에 리틀 엔디안 바이트 순서로 존재해야
     합니다.  에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 실패 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  PEP 3147(1) 형식 파이썬 바이트
     코드 파일 이름의 매직 태그 문자열을 반환합니다.
     ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’의 값은 신뢰할 수 있고 이 함수 대신 사
     용해야 함에 유의하십시오.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_GetModuleDict ()
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  모듈 관리
     에 사용되는 딕셔너리(일명 ‘sys.modules’)를 반환합니다.  이것은 인터
     프리터마다 존재하는 변수임에 유의하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_GetModule (PyObject *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.8 이후
     로.'  주어진 이름으로 이미 임포트 된 모듈을 반환합니다.  모듈이 아
     직 임포트 되지 않았다면 ‘NULL’을 반환하지만 에러는 설정하지 않습니
     다.  조회에 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환하고 에러를 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyImport_GetImporter (PyObject *path)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     sys.path: 3ae./‘pkg.__path__’ 항목 'path'를 위한 파인더 객체를 반환
     합니다, *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de. 딕셔너리에서 꺼낼 수도
     있습니다.  아직 캐시 되지 않았으면, 경로 항목을 처리할 수 있는 훅이
     발견될 때까지 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a.를 탐색합니다.  훅이 없으
     면 ‘None’을 반환합니다; 이것은 호출자에게 *note 경로 기반 파인더:
     2001.가 이 경로 항목에 대한 파인더를 찾을 수 없음을 알려줍니다.
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5de.에 결과를 캐시 합니다.  파인더 객
     체에 대한 새로운 참조를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (PyObject *name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  'name'이라는
     이름의 프로즌 모듈(frozen module)을 로드합니다.  성공하면 ‘1’을, 모
     듈을 찾지 못하면 ‘0’을, 초기화에 실패하면 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반
     환합니다.  로드가 성공할 때 임포트 된 모듈에 액세스하려면 *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.을 사용하십시오.  (잘못된 이름에 주의
     하십시오 — 이 함수는 모듈이 이미 임포트 되었을 때 다시 로드합니다.)

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘__file__’ 어트리뷰트는 더는 모듈에 설정되지 않
     습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (const char *name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 4a11.와 비슷하지만, name은 유
     니코드 객체 대신 UTF-8로 인코딩된 문자열입니다.

 -- C 구조체: struct _frozen

     이것은 ‘freeze’ 유틸리티(파이썬 소스 배포의 ‘Tools/freeze/’를 참조
     하십시오)가 생성한 프로즌 모듈 디스크립터를 위한 구조체 형 정의입니
     다.  ‘Include/import.h’에 있는 정의는 다음과 같습니다:

          struct _frozen {
              const char *name;
              const unsigned char *code;
              int size;
              bool is_package;
          };

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The new ‘is_package’ field indicates whether
     the module is a package or not.  This replaces setting the ‘size’
     field to a negative value.

 -- C 변수: const struct *note _frozen: 76e. *PyImport_FrozenModules

     이 포인터는 *note _frozen: 76e. 레코드의 배열을 가리키도록 초기화되
     는데, 멤버가 모두 ‘NULL’이나 0인 레코드로 끝납니다.  프로즌 모듈이
     임포트 될 때, 이 테이블에서 검색됩니다.  제삼자 코드는 이것을 사용
     하여 동적으로 생성된 프로즌 모듈 컬렉션을 제공할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyImport_AppendInittab (const char *name, PyObject
          *(*initfunc)(void))
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  기존의 내장 모듈 테이블에 단일
     모듈을 추가합니다.  이것은 *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17ab.을
     감싸는 편리한 래퍼인데, 테이블을 확장할 수 없으면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다
     .  새 모듈은 'name'이라는 이름으로 임포트 될 수 있으며, 'initfunc'
     함수를 처음 시도한 임포트에서 호출되는 초기화 함수로 사용합니다.
     *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 전에 호출해야 합니다.

 -- C 구조체: struct _inittab

     내장 모듈 목록에 있는 단일 항목을 기술하는 구조체.  파이썬을 내장하
     는 프로그램은 *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17ab.과 함께 이러한 구
     조체의 배열을 사용하여 추가 내장 모듈을 제공 할 수 있습니다.  구조
     체는 두 개의 멤버로 구성됩니다:

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          모듈 이름, ASCII로 인코딩된 문자열.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *(*initfunc)(void)

          인터프리터에 내장된 모듈을 위한 초기화 함수.

 -- C 함수: int PyImport_ExtendInittab (struct _inittab *newtab)

     내장 모듈 테이블에 모듈 컬렉션을 추가합니다.  'newtab' 배열은 *note
     name: 4b5c. 필드에 ‘NULL’을 포함하는 센티넬(sentinel) 항목으로 끝나
     야 합니다; 센티넬 값을 제공하지 않으면 메모리 오류가 발생할 수 있습
     니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 내부 테이블을 확장하기 위한 메모리가 충분하
     지 않으면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  실패하면, 내부 테이블에 모듈이 추가되
     지 않습니다.  *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 전에 호출해야 합니다.

     If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     17ab. must be called before each Python initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터 마샬링 지원,  Next: 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축,  Prev: 모듈 임포트 하기<2>,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.5 데이터 마샬링 지원
------------------------

이러한 루틴은 C 코드가 *note marshal: 8d. 모듈과 같은 데이터 형식을 사용
하여 직렬화된 객체로 작업 할 수 있도록 합니다.  직렬화 형식으로 데이터를
쓰는 함수와 데이터를 다시 읽는 데 사용할 수 있는 추가 함수가 있습니다.  마
샬링 된 데이터를 저장하는 데 사용되는 파일은 바이너리 모드로 열어야 합니
다.

숫자 값은 최하위 바이트가 먼저 저장됩니다.

이 모듈은 두 가지 버전의 데이터 형식을 지원합니다: 버전 0은 역사적인 버
전이고, 버전 1은 파일에서와 역 마샬링할 때 인턴(intern) 된 문자열을 공유
합니다.  버전 2는 부동 소수점 숫자에 대해 바이너리 형식을 사용합니다.
‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’은 현재 파일 형식을 나타냅니다 (현재 2).

 -- C 함수: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (long value, FILE *file, int
          version)

     long 정수 'value'를 'file'로 마샬합니다.  'value'의 최하위 32비트 만
     기록합니다; 기본 long 형의 크기와 관계없이.  'version'은 파일 형식
     을 나타냅니다.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8. to check for that.

 -- C 함수: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (PyObject *value, FILE
          *file, int version)

     파이썬 객체 'value'를 'file'로 마샬합니다.  'version'은 파일 형식을
     나타냅니다.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8. to check for that.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString
          (PyObject *value, int version)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  마샬된 'value' 표현을 포함한 바이트열 객체를 반
     환합니다.  'version'은 파일 형식을 나타냅니다.

다음 함수를 사용하면 마샬된 값을 다시 읽을 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (FILE *file)

     읽기 위해 열린 FILE*의 데이터 스트림에서 C long을 반환합니다.  이 함
     수를 사용하면 long의 기본 크기와 관계없이 32비트 값만 읽을 수 있습
     니다.

     에러 시, 적절한 예외(*note EOFError: 12c9.)를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (FILE *file)

     읽기 위해 열린 FILE*의 데이터 스트림에서 C short를 반환합니다.  이
     함수를 사용하면 short의 기본 크기와 관계없이 16비트 값만 읽을 수 있
     습니다.

     에러 시, 적절한 예외(*note EOFError: 12c9.)를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (FILE
          *file)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  읽기 위해 열린 FILE*의 데이터 스트림에서 파이썬
     객체를 반환합니다.

     에러 시, 적절한 예외(*note EOFError: 12c9, *note ValueError: 202. 또
     는 *note TypeError: 532.)를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (FILE
          *file)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  읽기 위해 열린 FILE*의 데이터 스트림에서 파이썬
     객체를 반환합니다.  *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(): 4b63.와 달
     리, 이 함수는 더는 파일에서 객체를 읽지 않을 것이라고 가정함으로써,
     파일 데이터를 메모리에 적극적으로 로드 할 수 있고, 파일에서 한 바이
     트씩 읽는 대신 메모리에 있는 데이터에서 역 직렬화가 작동할 수 있습
     니다.  파일에서 어떤 것도 읽지 않을 것이라는 확신이 들 경우에만 이
     변형을 사용하십시오.

     에러 시, 적절한 예외(*note EOFError: 12c9, *note ValueError: 202. 또
     는 *note TypeError: 532.)를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (const
          char *data, Py_ssize_t len)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'data'가 가리키는 'len' 바이트를 포함하는 바이
     트 버퍼의 데이터 스트림에서 파이썬 객체를 반환합니다.

     에러 시, 적절한 예외(*note EOFError: 12c9, *note ValueError: 202. 또
     는 *note TypeError: 532.)를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축,  Next: 문자열 변환과 포매팅,  Prev: 데이터 마샬링 지원,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.6 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축
------------------------------

이 함수들은 자체 확장 함수와 메서드를 만들 때 유용합니다.  추가 정보와 예
제는 *note 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장: 1be2.에 있습니다.

설명된 이러한 함수 중 처음 세 개인 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c, *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. 및 *note PyArg_Parse(): 19eb.는 모두
예상 인자에 관한 사항을 함수에 알리는 데 사용되는 '포맷 문자열(format
strings)'을 사용합니다.  포맷 문자열은 이러한 각 함수에 대해 같은 문법을
사용합니다.

* Menu:

* 인자 구문 분석::
* 값 구축::


File: python.info,  Node: 인자 구문 분석,  Next: 값 구축,  Up: 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축

7.6.6.1 인자 구문 분석
......................

포맷 문자열은 0개 이상의 “포맷 단위(format units)”로 구성됩니다.  포맷 단
위는 하나의 파이썬 객체를 설명합니다; 일반적으로 단일 문자나 괄호로 묶인
포맷 단위 시퀀스입니다.  몇 가지 예외를 제외하고, 괄호로 묶인 시퀀스가 아
닌 포맷 단위는 일반적으로 이러한 함수에 대한 단일 주소 인자에 대응합니다
.  다음 설명에서, 인용된(quoted) 형식은 포맷 단위입니다; (둥근) 괄호 안
의 항목은 포맷 단위와 일치하는 파이썬 객체 형입니다; [대괄호] 안의 항목
은 주소를 전달해야 하는 C 변수의 형입니다.

* Menu:

* 문자열과 버퍼::
* 숫자: 숫자<2>.
* 기타 객체::
* API 함수::


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열과 버퍼,  Next: 숫자<2>,  Up: 인자 구문 분석

7.6.6.2 문자열과 버퍼
.....................

     참고: On Python 3.12 and older, the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ must
     be defined before including ‘Python.h’ to use all ‘#’ variants of
     formats (‘s#’, ‘y#’, etc.)  explained below.  This is not necessary
     on Python 3.13 and later.

이러한 포맷을 사용하면 연속적인 메모리 청크로 객체에 액세스 할 수 있습니
다.  반환된 유니코드나 바이트열 영역에 대한 원시 저장소를 제공할 필요가
없습니다.

달리 명시되지 않는 한, 버퍼는 NUL로 종료되지 않습니다.

There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C:

   * ‘y*’ 와 ‘s*’ 같은 포맷은 *note Py_buffer: 751. 구조체를 채웁니다.  이
     는 하부 버퍼를 잠가서, 호출자가 *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db.
     블록 내에서도 가변 데이터의 크기가 조정되거나 파괴될 위험 없이 이후
     에 버퍼를 사용할 수 있습니다.  결과적으로, 데이터 처리를 마친 후 (또
     는 모든 조기 중단의 경우) *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.를 '호출해
     야 합니다'.

   * The ‘es’, ‘es#’, ‘et’ and ‘et#’ formats allocate the result buffer.
     'You have to call' *note PyMem_Free(): 140b. after you have
     finished processing the data (or in any early abort case).

   * Other formats take a *note str: 445. or a read-only *note
     bytes-like object: d2a, such as *note bytes: 1c2, and provide a
     ‘const char *’ pointer to its buffer.  In this case the buffer is
     “borrowed”: it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and
     shares the lifetime of this object.  You won’t have to release any
     memory yourself.

     To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the
     object’s *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 75c. field must be
     ‘NULL’.  This disallows common mutable objects such as *note
     bytearray: 538, but also some read-only objects such as *note
     memoryview: 462. of *note bytes: 1c2.

     Besides this ‘bf_releasebuffer’ requirement, there is no check to
     verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g.  whether it
     would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another
     thread can mutate the data).

‘s’ (*note str: 445.) [const char *]

     유니코드 객체를 문자열에 대한 C 포인터로 변환합니다.  기존 문자열에
     대한 포인터는 여러분이 주소를 전달한 문자 포인터 변수에 저장됩니다.
     C 문자열은 NUL로 종료됩니다.  파이썬 문자열은 내장된 널 코드 포인트
     를 포함하지 않아야 합니다; 그렇다면 *note ValueError: 202. 예외가 발
     생합니다.  유니코드 객체는 ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩을 사용하여 C 문자열로 변
     환됩니다.  이 변환이 실패하면, *note UnicodeError: 1293.가 발생합니
     다.

          참고: 이 포맷은 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.를 받아들이지 않습
          니다.  파일 시스템 경로를 받아들이고 이를 C 문자열로 변환하려
          면, *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d16.를 'converter'로 ‘O&’ 포
          맷을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이전에는, 파이썬 문자열에서 내장된 널 코드 포인
     트가 발견되면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생했습니다.

‘s*’ (*note str: 445. 또는 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.) [Py_buffer]

     이 포맷은 바이트열류 객체뿐만 아니라 유니코드 객체를 받아들입니다.
     호출자가 제공한 *note Py_buffer: 751. 구조체를 채웁니다.  이 경우 결
     과 C 문자열은 내장된 NUL 바이트를 포함할 수 있습니다.  유니코드 객
     체는 ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩을 사용하여 C 문자열로 변환됩니다.

‘s#’ (*note str: 445, 읽기 전용 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

     *note 빌린 버퍼: 4b69.를 제공한다는 점을 제외하면, ‘s*’와 같습니다.
     결과는 두 개의 C 변수에 저장됩니다.  첫 번째 변수는 C 문자열에 대한
     포인터이고, 두 번째 변수는 길이입니다.  문자열은 내장 널 바이트를 포
     함할 수 있습니다.  유니코드 객체는 ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩을 사용하여 C 문
     자열로 변환됩니다.

‘z’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *]

     ‘s’와 비슷하지만, 파이썬 객체가 ‘None’일 수도 있는데, 이 경우 C 포
     인터가 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다.

‘z*’ (*note str: 445, *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 또는 ‘None’) [Py_buffer]

     ‘s*’와 비슷하지만, 파이썬 객체는 ‘None’일 수도 있습니다, 이 경우
     *note Py_buffer: 751. 구조체의 ‘buf’ 멤버가 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다.

‘z#’ (*note str: 445, 읽기 전용 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

     ‘s#’와 비슷하지만, 파이썬 객체는 ‘None’일 수도 있습니다, 이 경우 C
     포인터가 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다.

‘y’ (읽기 전용 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.) [const char *]

     이 포맷은 바이트열류 객체를 *note 빌린: 4b69. 문자열에 대한 C 포인
     터로 변환합니다; 유니코드 객체를 받아들이지 않습니다.  바이트열 버
     퍼는 내장 널 바이트를 포함하지 않아야 합니다; 만약 그렇다면, *note
     ValueError: 202. 예외가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이전에는, 바이트열 버퍼에서 내장 널 바이트가 발
     견되면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생했습니다.

‘y*’ (*note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.) [Py_buffer]

     ‘s*’의 이 변형은 유니코드 객체가 아니라 바이트열류 객체만 받아들입
     니다.  '바이너리 데이터를 받아들이는 권장 방법입니다.'

‘y#’ (읽기 전용 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

     ‘s#’의 이 변형은 유니코드 객체가 아니라 바이트열류 객체만 받아들입
     니다.

‘S’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) [PyBytesObject *]

     변환을 시도하지 않고, 파이썬 객체가 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체일 것을 요
     구합니다.  객체가 바이트열 객체가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발
     생시킵니다.  C 변수는 *note PyObject: 332.*로 선언될 수도 있습니다.

‘Y’ (*note bytearray: 538.) [PyByteArrayObject *]

     변환을 시도하지 않고, 파이썬 객체가 *note bytearray: 538. 객체일 것
     을 요구합니다.  객체가 *note bytearray: 538. 객체가 아니면 *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  C 변수는 *note PyObject: 332.*로 선
     언될 수도 있습니다.

‘U’ (*note str: 445.) [PyObject *]

     변환을 시도하지 않고, 파이썬 객체가 유니코드 객체일 것을 요구합니다
     .  객체가 유니코드 객체가 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니
     다.  C 변수는 *note PyObject: 332.*로 선언될 수도 있습니다.

‘w*’ (읽기-쓰기 *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a.) [Py_buffer]

     이 포맷은 읽기-쓰기 버퍼 인터페이스를 구현하는 모든 객체를 허용합니
     다.  호출자가 제공한 *note Py_buffer: 751. 구조체를 채웁니다.  버퍼
     에는 내장 널 바이트가 포함될 수 있습니다.  호출자는 버퍼로 할 일을
     마치면 *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.를 호출해야 합니다.

‘es’ (*note str: 445.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     ‘s’의 이 변형은 유니코드를 문자 버퍼로 인코딩하는 데 사용됩니다.  내
     장 NUL 바이트가 포함되지 않은 인코딩된 데이터에 대해서만 작동합니다
     .

     이 포맷에는 두 개의 인자가 필요합니다.  첫 번째는 입력으로만 사용되
     며, 인코딩 이름을 가리키는 NUL 종료 문자열로 const char*이거나,
     ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩이 사용되도록 하는 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다.  명명된 인
     코딩이 파이썬에 알려지지 않았으면 예외가 발생합니다.  두 번째 인자
     는 char**여야 합니다; 참조하는 포인터의 값은 인자 텍스트의 내용이 있
     는 버퍼로 설정됩니다.  텍스트는 첫 번째 인자에 지정된 인코딩으로 인
     코딩됩니다.

     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.은 필요한 크기의 버퍼를 할당하고, 인
     코딩된 데이터를 이 버퍼에 복사하고 새로 할당된 스토리지를 참조하도
     록 '*buffer'를 조정합니다.  호출자는 사용 후에 할당된 버퍼를 해제하
     기 위해 *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.를 호출해야 합니다.

‘et’ (*note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 또는 *note bytearray: 538.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     바이트 문자열 객체를 다시 코딩하지 않고 통과시킨다는 점을 제외하면
     ‘es’와 같습니다.  대신, 구현은 바이트 문자열 객체가 매개 변수로 전
     달된 인코딩을 사용한다고 가정합니다.

‘es#’ (*note str: 445.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *buffer_length]

     ‘s#’의 이 변형은 유니코드를 문자 버퍼로 인코딩하는 데 사용됩니다.
     ‘es’ 포맷과 달리, 이 변형은 NUL 문자를 포함하는 입력 데이터를 허용
     합니다.

     세 가지 인자가 필요합니다.  첫 번째는 입력으로만 사용되며, 인코딩 이
     름을 가리키는 NUL 종료 문자열로 const char*이거나, ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩
     이 사용되도록 하는 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다.  명명된 인코딩이 파이썬에 알
     려지지 않았으면 예외가 발생합니다.  두 번째 인자는 char**여야 합니
     다; 참조하는 포인터의 값은 인자 텍스트의 내용이 있는 버퍼로 설정됩
     니다.  텍스트는 첫 번째 인자에 지정된 인코딩으로 인코딩됩니다.  세
     번째 인자는 정수에 대한 포인터여야 합니다; 참조된 정수는 출력 버퍼
     의 바이트 수로 설정됩니다.

     두 가지 작동 모드가 있습니다:

     '*buffer'가 ‘NULL’ 포인터를 가리키면, 함수는 필요한 크기의 버퍼를 할
     당하고, 이 버퍼로 인코딩된 데이터를 복사하고 '*buffer'를 새로 할당
     된 스토리지를 참조하도록 설정합니다.  호출자는 사용 후 할당된 버퍼
     를 해제하기 위해 *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.를 호출해야 합니다.

     '*buffer'가 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 가리키면 (이미 할당된 버퍼),
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.은 이 위치를 버퍼로 사용하고
     '*buffer_length'의 초깃값을 버퍼 크기로 해석합니다.  그런 다음 인코
     딩된 데이터를 버퍼에 복사하고 NUL 종료합니다.  버퍼가 충분히 크지 않
     으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 설정됩니다.

     두 경우 모두, '*buffer_length'는 후행 NUL 바이트를 제외한 인코딩된
     데이터의 길이로 설정됩니다.

‘et#’ (*note str: 445, *note bytes: 1c2. 또는 *note bytearray: 538.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *buffer_length]

     바이트 문자열 객체를 다시 코딩하지 않고 통과시킨다는 점을 제외하면
     ‘es#’와 같습니다.  대신, 구현은 바이트 문자열 객체가 매개 변수로 전
     달된 인코딩을 사용한다고 가정합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘u’, ‘u#’, ‘Z’, and ‘Z#’ are removed because they
used a legacy ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자<2>,  Next: 기타 객체,  Prev: 문자열과 버퍼,  Up: 인자 구문 분석

7.6.6.3 숫자
............

These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as
C numbers.  Formats that require *note int: 257, *note float: 2ef. or
*note complex: 2f0. can also use the corresponding special methods *note
__index__(): 716, *note __float__(): 9c9. or *note __complex__(): 5e1.
to convert the Python object to the required type.

For signed integer formats, *note OverflowError: 87d. is raised if the
value is out of range for the C type.  For unsigned integer formats, no
range checking is done — the most significant bits are silently
truncated when the receiving field is too small to receive the value.

‘b’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned char]

     음이 아닌 파이썬 정수를 부호 없는 작은 정수로 변환하고, C unsigned
     char에 저장합니다.

‘B’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned char]

     오버플로 검사 없이 파이썬 정수를 작은 정수로 변환하고, C unsigned
     char에 저장합니다.

‘h’ (*note int: 257.) [short int]

     파이썬 정수를 C short int로 변환합니다.

‘H’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned short int]

     오버플로 검사 없이, 파이썬 정수를 C unsigned short int로 변환합니다
     .

‘i’ (*note int: 257.) [int]

     파이썬 정수를 일반 C int로 변환합니다.

‘I’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned int]

     오버플로 검사 없이, 파이썬 정수를 C unsigned int로 변환합니다.

‘l’ (*note int: 257.) [long int]

     파이썬 정수를 C long int로 변환합니다.

‘k’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned long]

     오버플로 검사 없이 파이썬 정수를 C unsigned long으로 변환합니다.

‘L’ (*note int: 257.) [long long]

     파이썬 정수를 C long long으로 변환합니다.

‘K’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned long long]

     오버플로 검사 없이 파이썬 정수를 C unsigned long long으로 변환합니
     다.

‘n’ (*note int: 257.) [*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

     파이썬 정수를 C *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.로 변환합니다.

‘c’ (길이 1의 *note bytes: 1c2. 또는 *note bytearray: 538.) [char]

     길이가 1인 *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note bytearray: 538. 객체로 표시된,
     파이썬 바이트를 C char로 변환합니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: *note bytearray: 538. 객체를 허용합니다.

‘C’ (길이 1의 *note str: 445.) [int]

     길이가 1인 *note str: 445. 객체로 표시된, 파이썬 문자를 C int로 변
     환합니다.

‘f’ (*note float: 2ef.) [float]

     파이썬 부동 소수점 숫자를 C float로 변환합니다.

‘d’ (*note float: 2ef.) [double]

     파이썬 부동 소수점 숫자를 C double로 변환합니다.

‘D’ (*note complex: 2f0.) [Py_complex]

     파이썬 복소수를 C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 구조체로 변환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 객체,  Next: API 함수,  Prev: 숫자<2>,  Up: 인자 구문 분석

7.6.6.4 기타 객체
.................

‘O’ (object) [PyObject *]

     C 객체 포인터에 파이썬 객체를 (변환 없이) 저장합니다.  따라서 C 프
     로그램은 전달된 실제 객체를 받습니다.  객체에 대한 새로운 *note 강한
     참조: 336.는 생성되지 않습니다 (즉, 객체의 참조 횟수는 증가하지 않
     습니다).  저장된 포인터는 ‘NULL’이 아닙니다.

‘O!’ (object) ['typeobject', PyObject *]

     C 객체 포인터에 파이썬 객체를 저장합니다.  이것은 ‘O’와 유사하지만,
     두 개의 C 인자를 취합니다: 첫 번째는 파이썬 형 객체의 주소이고, 두
     번째는 객체 포인터가 저장되는 (*note PyObject: 332.* 형의) C 변수의
     주소입니다.  파이썬 객체가 필요한 형이 아니면, *note TypeError:
     532.가 발생합니다.

‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'address']

     'converter' 함수를 통해 파이썬 객체를 C 변수로 변환합니다.  두 개의
     인자를 취합니다: 첫 번째는 함수이고, 두 번째는 void*로 변환된, (임
     의의 형의) C 변수의 주소입니다.  'converter' 함수는 다음과 같이 호
     출됩니다:

          status = converter(object, address);

     여기서 'object'는 변환할 파이썬 객체이고 'address'는 ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     함수에 전달된 void* 인자입니다.  반환된 'status'는 성공적인 변환의
     경우 ‘1’이고 변환에 실패한 경우 ‘0’이어야 합니다.  변환이 실패하면,
     'converter' 함수는 예외를 발생시키고 'address'의 내용을 수정하지 않
     은 상태로 두어야 합니다.

     'converter'가 ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’를 반환하면, 인자 구문 분석이 결
     국 실패하면 두 번째로 호출되어 변환기에 이미 할당된 메모리를 해제할
     기회를 제공할 수 있습니다.  이 두 번째 호출에서, 'object' 매개 변수
     는 ‘NULL’이 됩니다; 'address'는 원래 호출과 같은 값을 갖습니다.

     Examples of converters: *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d16. and
     *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 572.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’가 추가되었습니다.

‘p’ (*note bool: 461.) [int]

     전달된 값의 논리값을 테스트(불리언 'p'redicate)하고 결과를 동등한 C
     참/거짓 정숫값으로 변환합니다.  표현식이 참이면 int를 ‘1’로, 거짓이
     면 ‘0’으로 설정합니다.  모든 유효한 파이썬 값을 허용합니다.  파이썬
     이 논리값을 테스트하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 논리값 검사:
     1550.를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 369.) ['matching-items']

     객체는 길이가 'items'에 있는 포맷 단위의 수인 파이썬 시퀀스여야 합
     니다.  C 인자들은 'items'의 개별 포맷 단위에 대응해야 합니다.  시퀀
     스의 포맷 단위는 중첩될 수 있습니다.

몇 가지 다른 문자는 포맷 문자열에서 의미가 있습니다.  중첩된 괄호 안에서
는 나타날 수 없습니다.  그들은:

‘|’

     파이썬 인자 리스트의 나머지 인자가 선택 사항임을 나타냅니다.  선택
     적 인자에 해당하는 C 변수는 기본값으로 초기화되어야 합니다 — 선택적
     인자가 지정되지 않을 때, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.은 해당 C 변
     수의 내용을 건드리지 않습니다.

‘$’

     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. 전용: 파이썬 인자 리스트
     의 나머지 인자가 키워드 전용임을 나타냅니다.  현재, 모든 키워드 전
     용 인자는 선택적 인자여야 하므로, ‘|’는 항상 포맷 문자열에서 ‘$’ 앞
     에 지정되어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

‘:’

     포맷 단위 리스트는 여기에서 끝납니다; 콜론 뒤의 문자열은 에러 메시
     지에서 함수 이름으로 사용됩니다 (*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.이 발
     생시키는 예외의 “연관된 값”).

‘;’

     포맷 단위 리스트는 여기에서 끝납니다; 세미콜론 뒤의 문자열은 기본 에
     러 메시지의 에러 메시지 '대신' 에러 메시지로 사용됩니다.  ‘:’와
     ‘;’는 서로를 배제합니다.

호출자에게 제공되는 모든 파이썬 객체 참조는 '빌려온(borrowed)' 참조임에
유의하십시오; 해제하지 마십시오 (즉, 참조 횟수를 줄이지 마십시오)!

이러한 함수에 전달되는 추가 인자는 포맷 문자열에 의해 형이 결정되는 변수
의 주소여야 합니다; 이들은 입력 튜플의 값을 저장하는 데 사용됩니다.  위
의 포맷 단위 리스트에서 설명된 대로, 이러한 매개 변수가 입력값으로 사용
되는 몇 가지 경우가 있습니다; 이 경우 해당 포맷 단위에 대해 지정된 것과
일치해야 합니다.

변환이 성공하려면, 'arg' 객체가 포맷과 일치해야 하며 포맷이 소진되어야 합
니다.  성공하면, ‘PyArg_Parse*’ 함수는 참을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓
을 반환하고 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.  포맷 단위 중 하나의 변환 실패로
인해 ‘PyArg_Parse*’ 함수가 실패하면, 해당 주소의 변수와 그 뒤에 오는 포
맷 단위는 건드리지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: API 함수,  Prev: 기타 객체,  Up: 인자 구문 분석

7.6.6.5 API 함수
................

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_ParseTuple (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  위치 매개 변수만 지역 변수로 취
     하는 함수의 매개 변수를 구문 분석합니다.  성공하면 참을 반환합니다;
     실패하면, 거짓을 반환하고 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_VaParse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  가변 개수의 인자가 아닌
     va_list를 받아들인다는 점을 제외하면, *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     56c.과 동일합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject
          *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  위치와 키워드 매개 변수를 모두
     지역 변수로 취하는 함수의 매개 변수를 구문 분석합니다.  'keywords'
     인자는 널-종료된 ASCII 나 UTF-8 인코딩된 C 문자열로 지정된 키워드 매
     개 변수 이름의 ‘NULL’-종료 배열입니다.  빈 이름은 *note 위치-전용
     매개 변수: a82.를 나타냅니다.  성공하면 참을 반환합니다; 실패하면,
     거짓을 반환하고 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.

          참고: The 'keywords' parameter declaration is char *const* in
          C and const char *const* in C++.  This can be overridden with
          the *note PY_CXX_CONST: 37e. macro.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 위치-전용 매개 변수: a82.에 대한 지원이 추
     가되었습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The 'keywords' parameter has now type char
     *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**.
     Added support for non-ASCII keyword parameter names.

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject
          *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, va_list vargs)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  가변 개수의 인자가 아닌
     va_list를 받아들인다는 점을 제외하면, *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. 와 동일합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (PyObject*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  키워드 인자 딕셔너리의 키가 문
     자열인지 확인합니다.  *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. 가
     사용되지 않는 경우에만 필요합니다, 여기서는 이미 이 검사를 수행하기
     때문입니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_Parse (PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  단일 위치 매개 변수를 취하는 함
     수의 매개 변수를 지역 변수로 구문 분석합니다.  성공하면 참을 반환합
     니다; 실패하면, 거짓을 반환하고 적절한 예외를 발생시킵니다.

     예제:

          // METH_O 호출 규칙을 사용하는 함수
          static PyObject*
          my_function(PyObject *module, PyObject *arg)
          {
              int value;
              if (!PyArg_Parse(arg, "i:my_function", &value)) {
                  return NULL;
              }
              // ... value 를 사용합니다 ...
          }

 -- C 함수: int PyArg_UnpackTuple (PyObject *args, const char *name,
          Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  인자 형을 지정하기 위해 포맷 문
     자열을 사용하지 않는 더 간단한 형식의 매개 변수 조회.  이 방법으로
     매개 변수를 꺼내는 함수는 함수나 메서드 테이블에서 *note
     METH_VARARGS: 14d1.로 선언되어야 합니다.  실제 매개 변수를 포함하는
     튜플은 'args'로 전달되어야 합니다; 이것은 실제로 튜플이어야 합니다.
     튜플의 길이는 'min' 이상 'max' 이하이어야 합니다; 'min'과 'max'는 같
     을 수 있습니다.  추가 인자는 함수에 전달되어야 하며, 각 인자는
     *note PyObject: 332.* 변수에 대한 포인터여야 합니다; 이들은 'args'의
     값으로 채워집니다; *note 빌린 참조: 337.가 포함됩니다.  'args'에서
     제공하지 않는 선택적 매개 변수에 해당하는 변수는 채워지지 않습니다;
     이것들은 호출자에 의해 초기화되어야 합니다.  이 함수는 성공하면 참
     을 반환하고 'args'가 튜플이 아니거나, 잘못된 수의 요소를 포함하면 거
     짓을 반환합니다; 실패하면 예외가 설정됩니다.

     다음은 이 함수 사용의 예입니다, 약한 참조를 위한 ‘_weakref’ 도우미
     모듈의 소스에서 가져왔습니다:

          static PyObject *
          weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
          {
              PyObject *object;
              PyObject *callback = NULL;
              PyObject *result = NULL;

              if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
                  result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
              }
              return result;
          }

     이 예제에서 *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14cf.에 대한 호출은 *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.에 대한 다음 호출과 전적으로 동등합니다:

          PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)

 -- C 매크로: PY_CXX_CONST

     The value to be inserted, if any, before char *const* in the
     'keywords' parameter declaration of *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c. and *note
     PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37d.  Default empty for C and
     ‘const’ for C++ (const char *const*).  To override, define it to
     the desired value before including ‘Python.h’.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 값 구축,  Prev: 인자 구문 분석,  Up: 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축

7.6.6.6 값 구축
...............

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_BuildValue (const char *format,
          ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'
     ‘PyArg_Parse*’ 함수 계열에서 받아들이는 것과 유사한 포맷 문자열과 값
     시퀀스를 기반으로 새 값을 만듭니다.  값을 반환하거나 에러가 발생하
     면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다; ‘NULL’이 반환되면 예외가 발생합니다.

     *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.는 항상 튜플을 구축하지는 않습니다.  포
     맷 문자열에 둘 이상의 포맷 단위가 포함되었을 때만 튜플을 구축합니다
     .  포맷 문자열이 비어 있으면, ‘None’을 반환합니다; 정확히 하나의 포
     맷 단위를 포함하면, 해당 포맷 단위가 기술하는 객체가 무엇이건 반환
     합니다.  크기가 0이나 1인 튜플을 반환하도록 하려면, 포맷 문자열을 괄
     호로 묶으십시오.

     ‘s’와 ‘s#’ 포맷의 경우처럼, 메모리 버퍼가 데이터를 빌드 객체에 제공
     하기 위해 매개 변수로 전달될 때, 필요한 데이터가 복사됩니다.  호출
     자가 제공하는 버퍼는 *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.가 만든 객체에 의해
     참조되지 않습니다.  즉, 여러분의 코드가 ‘malloc()’을 호출하고 할당
     된 메모리를 *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.에 전달하면, 인단 *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.가 반환되면 여러분이 코드가 해당 메모리에 대해
     ‘free()’를 호출해야 합니다.

     다음 설명에서, 인용된 형식은 포맷 단위입니다; (둥근) 괄호 안의 항목
     은 포맷 단위가 반환할 파이썬 객체 형입니다; [대괄호] 안의 항목은 전
     달할 C 값의 형입니다.

     문자 스페이스, 탭, 콜론 및 쉼표는 포맷 문자열에서 무시됩니다 (하지
     만 ‘s#’와 같은 포맷 단위 내에서는 아닙니다).  이것은 긴 포맷 문자열
     을 좀 더 읽기 쉽게 만드는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

     ‘s’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *]

          ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩을 사용하여 널-종료 C 문자열을 파이썬 *note
          str: 445. 객체로 변환합니다.  C 문자열 포인터가 ‘NULL’이면,
          ‘None’이 사용됩니다.

     ‘s#’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

          ‘'utf-8'’ 인코딩을 사용하여 C 문자열과 그 길이를 파이썬 *note
          str: 445. 객체로 변환합니다.  C 문자열 포인터가 ‘NULL’이면, 길
          이가 무시되고 ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     ‘y’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) [const char *]

          이것은 C 문자열을 파이썬 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체로 변환합니다.
          C 문자열 포인터가 ‘NULL’이면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     ‘y#’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

          이것은 C 문자열과 그 길이를 파이썬 객체로 변환합니다.  C 문자
          열 포인터가 ‘NULL’이면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     ‘z’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *]

          ‘s’와 같습니다.

     ‘z#’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

          ‘s#’과 같습니다.

     ‘u’ (*note str: 445.) [const wchar_t *]

          유니코드 (UTF-16 또는 UCS-4) 데이터의 널-종료 ‘wchar_t’ 버퍼를
          파이썬 유니코드 객체로 변환합니다.  유니코드 버퍼 포인터가
          ‘NULL’이면, ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     ‘u#’ (*note str: 445.) [const wchar_t *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

          유니코드 (UTF-16 또는 UCS-4) 데이터 버퍼와 그 길이를 파이썬 유
          니코드 객체로 변환합니다.  유니코드 버퍼 포인터가 ‘NULL’이면,
          길이가 무시되고 ‘None’이 반환됩니다.

     ‘U’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *]

          ‘s’와 같습니다.

     ‘U#’ (*note str: 445. 또는 ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

          ‘s#’과 같습니다.

     ‘i’ (*note int: 257.) [int]

          일반 C int를 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘b’ (*note int: 257.) [char]

          일반 C char을 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘h’ (*note int: 257.) [short int]

          일반 C short int를 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘l’ (*note int: 257.) [long int]

          C long int를 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘B’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned char]

          C unsigned char을 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘H’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned short int]

          C unsigned short int를 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘I’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned int]

          C unsigned int를 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘k’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned long]

          C unsigned long을 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘L’ (*note int: 257.) [long long]

          C long long을 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘K’ (*note int: 257.) [unsigned long long]

          C unsigned long long을 파이썬 정수 객체로 변환합니다.

     ‘n’ (*note int: 257.) [*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.]

          C *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.를 파이썬 정수로 변환합니다.

     ‘c’ (길이 1의 *note bytes: 1c2.) [char]

          바이트를 나타내는 C int를 길이 1의 파이썬 *note bytes: 1c2. 객
          체로 변환합니다.

     ‘C’ (길이 1의 *note str: 445.) [int]

          문자를 나타내는 C int를 길이 1의 파이썬 *note str: 445. 객체로
          변환합니다.

     ‘d’ (*note float: 2ef.) [double]

          C double을 파이썬 부동 소수점 숫자로 변환합니다.

     ‘f’ (*note float: 2ef.) [float]

          C float를 파이썬 부동 소수점 숫자로 변환합니다.

     ‘D’ (*note complex: 2f0.) [Py_complex *]

          C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 구조체를 파이썬 복소수로 변환합니다.

     ‘O’ (object) [PyObject *]

          파이썬 객체를 그대로 전달하지만, 그 객체에 새로운 *note 강한
          참조: 336.를 만듭니다 (즉, 참조 횟수가 1 증가합니다).  전달된
          객체가 ‘NULL’ 포인터면, 인자를 생성하는 호출이 에러를 발견하고
          예외를 설정했기 때문으로 간주합니다.  따라서, *note
          Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.는 ‘NULL’을 반환하지만, 예외를 발생시키지
          않습니다.  아직 예외가 발생하지 않았으면, *note SystemError:
          570.가 설정됩니다.

     ‘S’ (object) [PyObject *]

          ‘O’와 같습니다.

     ‘N’ (object) [PyObject *]

          ‘O’와 같지만, 새로운 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 만들지 않습니다.
          인자 리스트에서 객체 생성자를 호출하여 객체를 만들 때 유용합니
          다.

     ‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'anything']

          'converter' 함수를 통해 'anything'을 파이썬 객체로 변환합니다.
          함수는 인자로 'anything'(void*와 호환되어야 합니다)을 사용하여
          호출되며 “새” 파이썬 객체를 반환하거나, 에러가 발생하면
          ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.

     ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 369.) ['matching-items']

          C값의 시퀀스를 항목 수가 같은 파이썬 튜플로 변환합니다.

     ‘[items]’ (*note list: 60b.) ['matching-items']

          C값의 시퀀스를 항목 수가 같은 파이썬 리스트로 변환합니다.

     ‘{items}’ (*note dict: 256.) ['matching-items']

          C값의 시퀀스를 파이썬 딕셔너리로 변환합니다.  연속된 C 값의 각
          쌍은 딕셔너리에 하나의 항목을 추가하여, 각각 키와 값으로 사용
          됩니다.

     포맷 문자열에 에러가 있으면, *note SystemError: 570. 예외가 설정되
     고 ‘NULL’이 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_VaBuildValue (const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  가변 개수의
     인자가 아닌 va_list를 받아들인다는 점을 제외하면, *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.와 동일합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 변환과 포매팅,  Next: PyHash API,  Prev: 인자 구문 분석과 값 구축,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.7 문자열 변환과 포매팅
--------------------------

숫자 변환과 포맷된 문자열 출력을 위한 함수.

 -- C 함수: int PyOS_snprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  포맷 문자열 'format' 과 추가 인
     자에 따라 'size' 바이트를 넘지 않도록 'str'로 출력합니다.  유닉스 매
     뉴얼 페이지 ‘snprintf(3)(1)’를 보십시오.

 -- C 함수: int PyOS_vsnprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, va_list va)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  포맷 문자열 'format' 과 가변 인
     자 목록 'va'에 따라 'size' 바이트를 넘지 않도록 'str'로 출력합니다.
     유닉스 매뉴얼 페이지 ‘vsnprintf(3)(2)’를 보십시오.

*note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d2.와 *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14d3.는 표준 C 라
이브러리 함수 ‘snprintf()’와 ‘vsnprintf()’를 감쌉니다.  그들의 목적은 경
계 조건에서 표준 C 함수가 제공하지 않는 수준의 일관된 동작을 보장하는 것
입니다.

래퍼는 반환 시 ‘str[size-1]’이 항상 ‘'\0'’이 되도록 합니다.  str에
'size' 바이트(후행 ‘'\0'’ 포함)를 초과해서 쓰지 않습니다.  두 함수 모두
‘str != NULL’, ‘size > 0’, ‘format != NULL’ 및 ‘size < INT_MAX’를 요구합
니다.  이는 필요한 버퍼 크기를 결정하는 C99 ‘n = snprintf(NULL, 0,
...)’에 해당하는 것이 없다는 뜻임에 유의하십시오.

이 함수들의 반환 값('rv')은 다음과 같이 해석되어야 합니다:

   * ‘0 <= rv < size’ 일 때, 출력 변환에 성공했으며 'rv' 문자가 'str'에
     기록되었습니다 (‘str[rv]’의 후행 ‘'\0'’ 바이트 제외).

   * ‘rv >= size’ 일 때, 출력 변환이 잘렸고 성공하려면 ‘rv + 1’ 바이트의
     버퍼가 필요합니다.  ‘str[size-1]’은 이때 ‘'\0'’입니다.

   * ‘rv < 0’ 일 때, “뭔가 나쁜 일이 일어났습니다.” 이때도
     ‘str[size-1]’은 ‘'\0'’이지만, 'str'의 나머지는 정의되지 않습니다.  에
     러의 정확한 원인은 하부 플랫폼에 따라 다릅니다.

다음 함수는 로케일 독립적인 문자열에서 숫자로의 변환을 제공합니다.

 -- C 함수: unsigned long PyOS_strtoul (const char *str, char **ptr, int
          base)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an unsigned long value according to the
     given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be
     the special value ‘0’.

     Leading white space and case of characters are ignored.  If ‘base’
     is zero it looks for a leading ‘0b’, ‘0o’ or ‘0x’ to tell which
     base.  If these are absent it defaults to ‘10’.  Base must be 0 or
     between 2 and 36 (inclusive).  If ‘ptr’ is non-‘NULL’ it will
     contain a pointer to the end of the scan.

     If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return
     type, range error occurs (‘errno’ is set to ‘ERANGE’) and
     ‘ULONG_MAX’ is returned.  If no conversion can be performed, ‘0’ is
     returned.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtoul(3)(3)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: long PyOS_strtol (const char *str, char **ptr, int base)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an long value according to the given ‘base’,
     which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special
     value ‘0’.

     Same as *note PyOS_strtoul(): 4a59, but return a long value instead
     and ‘LONG_MAX’ on overflows.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtol(3)(4)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: double PyOS_string_to_double (const char *s, char **endptr,
          PyObject *overflow_exception)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  문자열 ‘s’를 double로 변환하고
     , 실패 시 파이썬 예외를 발생시킵니다.  허용되는 문자열 집합은 ‘s’가
     선행이나 후행 공백을 가질 수 없다는 점을 제외하고는 파이썬의 *note
     float(): 2ef. 생성자가 허용하는 문자열 집합에 대응합니다.  변환은 현
     재 로케일과 독립적입니다.

     ‘endptr’이 ‘NULL’이면, 전체 문자열을 변환합니다.  문자열이 부동 소
     수점 숫자의 유효한 표현이 아니면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시키
     고 ‘-1.0’을 반환합니다.

     endptr이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 가능한 한 많은 문자열을 변환하고
     ‘*endptr’이 변환되지 않은 첫 번째 문자를 가리키도록 설정합니다.  문
     자열의 초기 세그먼트가 부동 소수점 숫자의 유효한 표현이 아니면,
     ‘*endptr’이 문자열의 시작을 가리키도록 설정하고, ValueError를 발생
     시키고 ‘-1.0’을 반환합니다.

     ‘s’가 float에 저장하기에 너무 큰 값을 나타낼 때 (예를 들어, 여러 플
     랫폼에서 ‘"1e500"’가 그런 문자열입니다), ‘overflow_exception’가
     ‘NULL’이면 (적절한 부호와 함께) ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’을 반환하고, 어떤 예외
     도 설정하지 않습니다.  그렇지 않으면, ‘overflow_exception’은 파이썬
     예외 객체를 가리켜야 합니다; 그 예외를 발생시키고 ‘-1.0’를 반환합니
     다.  두 경우 모두, 변환된 값 다음의 첫 번째 문자를 가리키도록
     ‘*endptr’을 설정합니다.

     변환 중 다른 에러가 발생하면 (예를 들어 메모리 부족 에러), 적절한 파
     이썬 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1.0’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C 함수: char *PyOS_double_to_string (double val, char format_code,
          int precision, int flags, int *ptype)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  제공된 'format_code',
     'precision' 및 'flags'를 사용하여 double 'val'을 문자열로 변환합니
     다.

     'format_code'는 ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’, ‘'G'’ 또는 ‘'r'’
     중 하나여야 합니다.  ‘'r'’의 경우, 제공된 'precision'은 0이어야 하
     며 무시됩니다.  ‘'r'’ 포맷 코드는 표준 *note repr(): 7f7. 형식을 지
     정합니다.

     'flags'는 ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’, ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’ 또는 ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’ 값
     을 0개 이상 함께 or 할 수 있습니다:

        * ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’은 'val'가 음수가 아닐 때도 항상 반환된 문자열 앞
          에 부호 문자가 오는 것을 뜻합니다.

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’은 반환된 문자열이 정수처럼 보이지 않도록 하
          는 것을 뜻합니다.

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’는 “대체” 포매팅 규칙을 적용하는 것을 뜻합니다.  자
          세한 내용은 *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d2. ‘'#'’ 지정자에 대한 설
          명서를 참조하십시오.

     'ptype'이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 포인터가 가리키는 값은 ‘Py_DTST_FINITE’,
     ‘Py_DTST_INFINITE’ 또는 ‘Py_DTST_NAN’ 중 하나로 설정되어, 'val'가 각
     각 유한 수, 무한 수 또는 NaN임을 나타냅니다.

     반환 값은 변환된 문자열이 있는 'buffer'에 대한 포인터이거나, 변환에
     실패하면 ‘NULL’입니다.  호출자는 *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.를 호출하
     여 반환된 문자열을 해제해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C 함수: int PyOS_stricmp (const char *s1, const char *s2)

     대소 문자 구분 없는 문자열 비교.  이 함수는 대소 문자를 무시한다는
     점만 제외하면 ‘strcmp()’와 거의 같게 작동합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyOS_strnicmp (const char *s1, const char *s2,
          Py_ssize_t size)

     대소 문자 구분 없는 문자열 비교.  이 함수는 대소 문자를 무시한다는
     점만 제외하면 ‘strncmp()’와 거의 같게 작동합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)


File: python.info,  Node: PyHash API,  Next: 리플렉션,  Prev: 문자열 변환과 포매팅,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.8 PyHash API
----------------

See also the *note PyTypeObject.tp_hash: 4912. member and *note 숫자 형의
해싱: 21a8.

 -- C 자료형: type Py_hash_t

     Hash value type: signed integer.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 자료형: type Py_uhash_t

     Hash value type: unsigned integer.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 매크로: PyHASH_MODULUS

     The Mersenne prime(1) ‘P = 2**n -1’, used for numeric hash scheme.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: PyHASH_BITS

     The exponent ‘n’ of ‘P’ in *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1670.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

     Prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: PyHASH_INF

     The hash value returned for a positive infinity.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: PyHASH_IMAG

     The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 자료형: type PyHash_FuncDef

     Hash function definition used by *note PyHash_GetFuncDef(): 4b7a.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_hash_t: 1254. (*const hash)(const void*,
               *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.)

          Hash function.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string).

      -- C 멤버 변수: const int hash_bits

          Internal size of the hash value in bits.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const int seed_bits

          Size of seed input in bits.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: *note PyHash_FuncDef: 4b79. *PyHash_GetFuncDef (void)

     Get the hash function definition.

     더 보기
     .......

     PEP 456(2) “Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm”.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_hash_t: 1254. Py_HashPointer (const void *ptr)

     Hash a pointer value: process the pointer value as an integer (cast
     it to ‘uintptr_t’ internally).  The pointer is not dereferenced.

     The function cannot fail: it cannot return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_hash_t: 1254. PyObject_GenericHash (PyObject *obj)

     Generic hashing function that is meant to be put into a type
     object’s ‘tp_hash’ slot.  Its result only depends on the object’s
     identity.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' In CPython, it is equivalent to *note
     Py_HashPointer(): 361.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/


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7.6.9 리플렉션
--------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_GetBuiltins (void)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 349.를
     사용하십시오.

     현재 실행 프레임이나 현재 실행 중인 프레임이 없으면 스레드 상태의 인
     터프리터의 builtins의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_GetLocals (void)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: Use either *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals():
     34d. to obtain the same behaviour as calling *note locals(): 141.
     in Python code, or else call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419. on the
     result of *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17c3. to access the *note
     f_locals: 182. attribute of the currently executing frame.

     현재 실행 프레임의 지역 변수로의 접근을 제공하는 매핑을 반환하거나,
     현재 실행 중인 프레임이 없으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Refer to *note locals(): 141. for details of the mapping returned
     at different scopes.

     As this function returns a *note borrowed reference: 337, the
     dictionary returned for *note optimized scopes: 17e. is cached on
     the frame object and will remain alive as long as the frame object
     does.  Unlike *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34d. and *note
     locals(): 141, subsequent calls to this function in the same frame
     will update the contents of the cached dictionary to reflect
     changes in the state of the local variables rather than returning a
     new snapshot.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: As part of PEP 667(1), *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419, *note locals(): 141, and *note
     FrameType.f_locals: 182. no longer make use of the shared cache
     dictionary.  Refer to the *note What’s New entry: 142. for
     additional details.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_GetGlobals (void)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: 대신 *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 34b.를 사
     용하십시오.

     현재 실행 프레임의 전역 변수 딕셔너리를 반환하거나, 현재 실행 중인
     프레임이 없으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyFrameObject: 782. *PyEval_GetFrame (void)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재의 스
     레드 상태의 프레임을 반환합니다.  현재 실행 중의 프레임이 없으면
     ‘NULL’입니다.

     *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 787.도 참조하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이
     후로.'  현재 실행 프레임이나 현재 실행 중인 프레임이 없으면 스레드
     상태의 인터프리터의 builtins의 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_GetFrameLocals (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이
     후로.'  현재 실행 프레임의 지역 변수 딕셔너리를 반환하거나, 현재 실
     행 중인 프레임이 없으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  파이썬 코드에서 *note
     locals(): 141.를 호출하는 것과 동등합니다.

     To access *note f_locals: 182. on the current frame without making
     an independent snapshot in *note optimized scopes: 17e, call *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 419. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     17c3.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이
     후로.'  현재 실행 프레임의 전역 변수 딕셔너리를 반환하거나, 현재 실
     행 중인 프레임이 없으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  파이썬 코드에서 *note
     globals(): 186e.를 호출하는 것과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyEval_GetFuncName (PyObject *func)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'func'가 함수, 클래스 또는 인
     스턴스 객체면 'func'의 이름을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 'func'의 형의
     이름을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc (PyObject *func)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'func'의 형에 따라 설명 문자열
     을 반환합니다.  반환 값에는 함수 및 메서드의 “()”, “ constructor”,
     “ instance” 및 “ object” 가 포함됩니다.  *note
     PyEval_GetFuncName(): 49b9.의 결과와 이어붙이면 'func'의 설명이 됩
     니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


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7.6.10 코덱 등록소와 지원 함수
------------------------------

 -- C 함수: int PyCodec_Register (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  새로운 코덱 검색 함수를 등록합
     니다.

     부작용으로, 아직 로드되지 않았다면, ‘encodings’ 패키지를 로드하여 항
     상 검색 함수 목록의 첫 번째 항목이 되도록 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCodec_Unregister (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Unregister a
     codec search function and clear the registry’s cache.  If the
     search function is not registered, do nothing.  Return 0 on
     success.  Raise an exception and return -1 on error.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding (const char *encoding)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된 'encoding'에 대해 등록
     된 코덱이 있는지에 따라 ‘1’ 이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상
     성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_Encode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  일반 코덱 기
     반 인코딩 API.

     'object'는 'errors'로 정의된 에러 처리 방법을 사용하여 지정된
     'encoding'에 대해 발견된 인코더 함수로 전달됩니다.  코덱에 정의된 기
     본 방법을 사용하기 위해 'errors'가 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.  인코더를
     찾을 수 없으면 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_Decode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  일반 코덱 기
     반 디코딩 API.

     'object'는 'errors'로 정의된 에러 처리 방법을 사용하여 지정된
     'encoding'에 대해 발견된 디코더 함수로 전달됩니다.  코덱에 정의된 기
     본 방법을 사용하기 위해 'errors'가 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.  인코더를
     찾을 수 없으면 *note LookupError: 21d4.를 발생시킵니다.

* Menu:

* 코덱 조회 API::
* 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API::


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7.6.10.1 코덱 조회 API
......................

다음 함수에서, 'encoding' 문자열은 모두 소문자로 변환되어 조회되므로, 이
메커니즘을 통한 인코딩 조회는 대소문자를 구분하지 않게 됩니다.  코덱이 없
으면, *note KeyError: 33d.가 설정되고 ‘NULL’이 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_Encoder (const char *encoding)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진
     'encoding'에 대한 인코더 함수를 가져옵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_Decoder (const char *encoding)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진
     'encoding'에 대한 디코더 함수를 가져옵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (const char
          *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된
     'encoding'에 대한 *note IncrementalEncoder: 23d1. 객체를 가져옵니다
     .

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (const char
          *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된
     'encoding'에 대한 *note IncrementalDecoder: 23d2. 객체를 가져옵니다
     .

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_StreamReader (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된
     'encoding'에 대한 *note StreamReader: 23d6. 팩토리 함수를 가져옵니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_StreamWriter (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된
     'encoding'에 대한 *note StreamWriter: 23d5. 팩토리 함수를 가져옵니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API,  Prev: 코덱 조회 API,  Up: 코덱 등록소와 지원 함수

7.6.10.2 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API
.................................................

 -- C 함수: int PyCodec_RegisterError (const char *name, PyObject
          *error)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된 'name' 으로 에러 처리 콜
     백 함수 'error'를 등록합니다.  코덱이 인코딩할 수 없는 문자/디코딩
     할 수 없는 바이트열을 발견하고, 인코드/디코드 함수를 호출할 때
     'name'이 error 매개 변수로 지정되었을 때 이 콜백 함수를 호출합니다.

     콜백은 하나의 인자로 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671, *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. 또는 *note UnicodeTranslateError: 22a5.의
     인스턴스를 받아들이는데, 문제가 되는 문자나 바이트의 시퀀스와 이들
     의 원본 문자열에서의 오프셋에 대한 정보를 담고 있습니다 (이 정보를
     추출하는 함수는 *note 유니코드 예외 객체: 4b40.를 참조하세요).  콜
     백은 주어진 예외를 발생시키거나, 문제가 있는 시퀀스의 대체와 원래 문
     자열에서 인코딩/디코딩을 다시 시작해야 하는 오프셋을 제공하는 정수
     를 포함하는 두 항목 튜플을 반환해야 합니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을, 에러면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_LookupError (const char *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'name' 으로
     등록된 에러 처리 콜백 함수를 찾습니다.  특수한 경우로 ‘NULL’이 전달
     될 수 있는데, 이때는 “strict” 에 대한 에러 처리 콜백이 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_StrictErrors (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 항상 NULL.'' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'exc'를 예
     외로 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  잘못된 입력
     을 건너뛰고, 유니코드 에러를 무시합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 인
     코딩 에러를 ‘?’ 나 ‘U+FFFD’로 치환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 인
     코딩 에러를 XML 문자 참조로 치환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 인
     코딩 에러를 백 슬래시 이스케이프(‘\x’, ‘\u’ 및 ‘\U’)로 치환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  유니코드 인코딩 에러를 ‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프로 치환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTime C API,  Next: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: 코덱 등록소와 지원 함수,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.11 PyTime C API
-------------------

Added in version 3.13.

The clock C API provides access to system clocks.  It is similar to the
Python *note time: ee. module.

For C API related to the *note datetime: 30. module, see *note DateTime
객체: 4b87.

* Menu:

* Types::
* Clock Functions::
* Raw Clock Functions::
* Conversion functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Types,  Next: Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.1 Types
..............

 -- C 자료형: type PyTime_t

     A timestamp or duration in nanoseconds, represented as a signed
     64-bit integer.

     The reference point for timestamps depends on the clock used.  For
     example, *note PyTime_Time(): 32e. returns timestamps relative to
     the UNIX epoch.

     The supported range is around [-292.3 years; +292.3 years].  Using
     the Unix epoch (January 1st, 1970) as reference, the supported date
     range is around [1677-09-21; 2262-04-11].  The exact limits are
     exposed as constants:

 -- C 변수: *note PyTime_t: 326. PyTime_MIN

     Minimum value of *note PyTime_t: 326.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTime_t: 326. PyTime_MAX

     Maximum value of *note PyTime_t: 326.


File: python.info,  Node: Clock Functions,  Next: Raw Clock Functions,  Prev: Types,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.2 Clock Functions
........................

The following functions take a pointer to a *note PyTime_t: 326. that
they set to the value of a particular clock.  Details of each clock are
given in the documentation of the corresponding Python function.

The functions return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ (with an exception set) on
failure.

On integer overflow, they set the *note PyExc_OverflowError: 49e2.
exception and set ‘*result’ to the value clamped to the ‘[PyTime_MIN;
PyTime_MAX]’ range.  (On current systems, integer overflows are likely
caused by misconfigured system time.)

As any other C API (unless otherwise specified), the functions must be
called with the *note GIL: 159. held.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_Monotonic (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the monotonic clock.  See *note time.monotonic(): 253. for
     important details on this clock.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_PerfCounter (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the performance counter.  See *note time.perf_counter(): a85.
     for important details on this clock.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_Time (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the “wall clock” time.  See *note time.time(): 254. for
     details important on this clock.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Clock Functions,  Next: Conversion functions,  Prev: Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.3 Raw Clock Functions
............................

Similar to clock functions, but don’t set an exception on error and
don’t require the caller to hold the GIL.

On success, the functions return ‘0’.

On failure, they set ‘*result’ to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’, 'without' setting
an exception.  To get the cause of the error, acquire the GIL and call
the regular (non-‘Raw’) function.  Note that the regular function may
succeed after the ‘Raw’ one failed.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_MonotonicRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 32a, but don’t set an
     exception on error and don’t require holding the GIL.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32c, but don’t set an
     exception on error and don’t require holding the GIL.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_TimeRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_Time(): 32e, but don’t set an exception on
     error and don’t require holding the GIL.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion functions,  Prev: Raw Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.6.11.4 Conversion functions
.............................

 -- C 함수: double PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (PyTime_t t)

     Convert a timestamp to a number of seconds as a C double.

     The function cannot fail, but note that double has limited accuracy
     for large values.


File: python.info,  Node: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: PyTime C API,  Up: 유틸리티<2>

7.6.12 Support for Perf Maps
----------------------------

On supported platforms (as of this writing, only Linux), the runtime can
take advantage of 'perf map files' to make Python functions visible to
an external profiling tool (such as perf(1)).  A running process may
create a file in the ‘/tmp’ directory, which contains entries that can
map a section of executable code to a name.  This interface is described
in the documentation of the Linux Perf tool(2).

In Python, these helper APIs can be used by libraries and features that
rely on generating machine code on the fly.

Note that holding the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is not required for
these APIs.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (void)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Open the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file, unless it’s already opened, and
     create a lock to ensure thread-safe writes to the file (provided
     the writes are done through *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     1740.).  Normally, there’s no need to call this explicitly; just
     use *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 1740. and it will
     initialize the state on first call.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure to create/open the perf map
     file, or ‘-2’ on failure to create a lock.  Check ‘errno’ for more
     information about the cause of a failure.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (const void *code_addr,
          unsigned int code_size, const char *entry_name)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Write one single entry to the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file.  This
     function is thread safe.  Here is what an example entry looks like:

          # address      size  name
          7f3529fcf759 b     py::bar:/run/t.py

     Will call *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1741. before
     writing the entry, if the perf map file is not already opened.
     Returns ‘0’ on success, or the same error codes as *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1741. on failure.

 -- C 함수: void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (void)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Close the perf map file opened by *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1741.  This is called by the
     runtime itself during interpreter shut-down.  In general, there
     shouldn’t be a reason to explicitly call this, except to handle
     specific scenarios such as forking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page

   (2) 
https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt


File: python.info,  Node: 추상 객체 계층,  Next: 구상 객체 계층,  Prev: 유틸리티<2>,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.7 추상 객체 계층
==================

이 장의 함수는 객체의 형과 무관하게, 혹은 광범위한 종류의 객체 형의 (예
를 들어, 모든 숫자 형 또는 모든 시퀀스 형) 파이썬 객체와 상호 작용합니다
.  적용되지 않는 객체 형에 사용되면, 파이썬 예외가 발생합니다.

*note PyList_New(): 494b.로 만들었지만, 항목이 아직 ‘NULL’이 아닌 값으로
설정되지 않은 리스트 객체와 같이, 제대로 초기화되지 않은 객체에 대해서는
이 함수를 사용할 수 없습니다.

* Menu:

* 객체 프로토콜::
* 호출 프로토콜::
* 숫자 프로토콜::
* 시퀀스 프로토콜::
* 매핑 프로토콜::
* 이터레이터 프로토콜::
* 버퍼 프로토콜::


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 프로토콜,  Next: 호출 프로토콜,  Up: 추상 객체 계층

7.7.1 객체 프로토콜
-------------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_GetConstant (unsigned int
          constant_id)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Get a *note
     strong reference: 336. to a constant.

     Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ if 'constant_id' is invalid.

     'constant_id' must be one of these constant identifiers:

     Constant Identifier                          Value     Returned object
                                                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_NONE               ‘0’       *note None: 66f.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_FALSE              ‘1’       *note False: b34.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_TRUE               ‘2’       *note True: c0a.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS           ‘3’       *note Ellipsis: 218d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED    ‘4’       *note NotImplemented: 7cb.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_ZERO               ‘5’       ‘0’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_ONE                ‘6’       ‘1’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR          ‘7’       ‘''’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES        ‘8’       ‘b''’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE        ‘9’       ‘()’
                                                            

     Numeric values are only given for projects which cannot use the
     constant identifiers.

     Added in version 3.13.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' In CPython, all of these constants are *note
     immortal: 437c.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_GetConstantBorrowed (unsigned int
          constant_id)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Similar to
     *note Py_GetConstant(): 34f, but return a *note borrowed reference:
     337.

     This function is primarily intended for backwards compatibility:
     using *note Py_GetConstant(): 34f. is recommended for new code.

     The reference is borrowed from the interpreter, and is valid until
     the interpreter finalization.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_NotImplemented

     지정된 형 조합에 대해 연산이 구현되지 않았음을 알리는 데 사용되는
     ‘NotImplemented’ 싱글톤.

 -- C 매크로: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED

     C 함수 내에서 *note Py_NotImplemented: 4b9e. 반환을 올바르게 처리합
     니다 (즉, *note NotImplemented: 7cb.에 대한 새로운 *note 강한 참조:
     336.를 만들고 반환합니다).

 -- C 매크로: Py_PRINT_RAW

     Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like
     *note PyObject_Print(): 15f9. and *note PyFile_WriteObject():
     4a02.).  If passed, these function would use the *note str(): 445.
     of the object instead of the *note repr(): 7f7.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_Print (PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)

     파일 'fp'에 객체 'o'를 인쇄합니다.  에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.
     flags 인자는 특정 인쇄 옵션을 활성화하는 데 사용됩니다.  현재 지원
     되는 유일한 옵션은 *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4ba0.입니다; 주어지면, *note
     repr(): 7f7. 대신 객체의 *note str(): 445.이 기록됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_HasAttrWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  'o'에
     'attr_name' 어트리뷰트가 있으면 ‘1’을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘hasattr(o, attr_name)’과 동등합니다.  실
     패하면, ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  This is the
     same as *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 373, but 'attr_name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 332.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_HasAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o'에 'attr_name' 어트리뷰트가
     있으면 ‘1’을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공
     합니다.

          참고: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 4cd. and *note __getattribute__(): bcf. methods
          aren’t propagated, but instead given to *note
          sys.unraisablehook(): 1f7.  For proper error handling, use
          *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 373, *note
          PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 342. or *note PyObject_GetAttr():
          344. instead.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_HasAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_HasAttr(): 374, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     332.*.

          참고: *note __getattr__(): 4cd.과 *note __getattribute__():
          bcf. 메서드를 호출할 때나 임시 *note str: 445. 객체를 만드는 중
          에 발생하는 예외는 조용히 무시됩니다.  적절한 에러 처리를 위해
          서는, 대신 *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 375, *note
          PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 343. 또는 *note
          PyObject_GetAttrString(): 345.을 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *attr_name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'에
     서 'attr_name'이라는 이름의 어트리뷰트를 가져옵니다.  성공하면 어트
     리뷰트 값을, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식
     ‘o.attr_name’과 동등합니다.

     If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 342. instead.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GetAttrString (PyObject *o,
          const char *attr_name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the
     same as *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344, but 'attr_name' is specified
     as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 332.*.

     If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 343. instead.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (PyObject *obj, PyObject
          *attr_name, PyObject **result);
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Variant of
     *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344. which doesn’t raise *note
     AttributeError: 346. if the attribute is not found.

     If the attribute is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new
     *note strong reference: 336. to the attribute.  If the attribute is
     not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note
     AttributeError: 346. is silenced.  If an error other than *note
     AttributeError: 346. is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to
     ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (PyObject *obj, const
          char *attr_name, PyObject **result);
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  This is the
     same as *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 342, but 'attr_name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 332.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GenericGetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  형 객체의
     ‘tp_getattro’ 슬롯에 배치되는 일반 어트리뷰트 게터(getter) 함수.  객
     체의 (있다면) *note __dict__: 556.에 있는 어트리뷰트뿐만 아니라 객
     체의 MRO에 있는 클래스의 딕셔너리에 있는 디스크립터를 찾습니다.
     *note 디스크립터 구현하기: c4c.에 요약된 것처럼, 데이터 디스크립터
     는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트보다 우선하지만, 비 데이터 디스크립터는 그렇
     지 않습니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note AttributeError: 346.가 발생합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_SetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'에 대해, 'attr_name'이
     라는 이름의 어트리뷰트 값을 'v' 값으로 설정합니다.  실패 시 예외를
     발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파
     이썬 문장 ‘o.attr_name = v’와 동등합니다.

     'v'가 ‘NULL’이면, 어트리뷰트가 삭제됩니다.  이 동작은 폐지되었고
     *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1540.로 대체되었습니다만, 현재 제거할 계
     획이 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_SetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a6b, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     332.*.

     'v'가 ‘NULL’이면, 어트리뷰트가 삭제되지만, 이 기능은 폐지되었고
     *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1541.으로 대체되었습니다.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren’t known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4.
     and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a6b. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1607, which may be used
     internally to create a key object.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  형 객체의 *note tp_setattro:
     4904. 슬롯에 배치되는 일반 어트리뷰트 세터(setter)와 딜리터
     (deleter) 함수.  객체의 MRO에 있는 클래스의 딕셔너리에서 데이터 디
     스크립터를 찾고, 발견되면 인스턴스 딕셔너리에 있는 어트리뷰트를 설
     정하거나 삭제하는 것보다 우선합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 객체의 (있다면
     ) *note __dict__: 556.에서 어트리뷰트가 설정되거나 삭제됩니다.  성
     공하면 ‘0’이 반환되고, 그렇지 않으면 *note AttributeError: 346.가 발
     생하고 ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_DelAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  객체 'o'에 대
     해, 'attr_name'이라는 이름의 어트리뷰트를 삭제합니다.  실패 시
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘del o.attr_name’과 동등합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_DelAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  This is the
     same as *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1540, but 'attr_name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 332.*.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren’t known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4.
     and *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1540. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1607, which may be used
     internally to create a key object for lookup.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GenericGetDict (PyObject *o,
          void *context)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이
     후로.'  ‘__dict__’ 디스크립터의 게터(getter)를 위한 일반적인 구현.
     필요하면 딕셔너리를 만듭니다.

     This function may also be called to get the *note __dict__: 556. of
     the object 'o'.  Pass ‘NULL’ for 'context' when calling it.  Since
     this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

     On failure, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GenericSetDict (PyObject *o, PyObject *value,
          void *context)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  ‘__dict__’ 디
     스크립터의 세터(setter)를 위한 일반적인 구현.  이 구현은 딕셔너리 삭
     제를 허락하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. **_PyObject_GetDictPtr (PyObject *obj)

     Return a pointer to *note __dict__: 556. of the object 'obj'.  If
     there is no ‘__dict__’, return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_RichCompare (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, int opid)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'opid'에 의
     해 지정된 연산을 사용하여 'o1'과 'o2'의 값을 비교합니다.  'opid'는
     *note Py_LT: 4ba2, *note Py_LE: 4ba3, *note Py_EQ: 4ba4, *note
     Py_NE: 4ba5, *note Py_GT: 4ba6. 또는 *note Py_GE: 4ba7. 중 하나여야
     하고 각각 ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘>’ 또는 ‘>=’에 해당합니다.  이는
     파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 op o2’와 동등합니다.  여기서 ‘op’는 'opid'에 해당
     하는 연산자입니다.  성공 시 비교 값을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_RichCompareBool (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2,
          int opid)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Compare the values of 'o1' and
     'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', like *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 490d, but returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ if the
     result is false, ‘1’ otherwise.

     참고: 'o1'과 'o2'가 같은 객체이면, *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19aa. 은 항상 *note Py_EQ: 4ba4.의 경우
     는 ‘1’을, *note Py_NE: 4ba5.의 경우는 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Format (PyObject *obj,
          PyObject *format_spec)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Format 'obj' using
     'format_spec'.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘format(obj, format_spec)’.

     'format_spec' may be ‘NULL’.  In this case the call is equivalent
     to ‘format(obj)’.  Returns the formatted string on success, ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Repr (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     객체 'o'의 문자열 표현을 계산합니다.  성공하면 문자열 표현을, 실패
     하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘repr(o)’와 동등합
     니다.  *note repr(): 7f7. 내장 함수에 의해 호출됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 함수에는 이제 디버그 어서션이 포함되어 있어 활
     성 예외를 조용히 버리지 않도록 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_ASCII (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     *note PyObject_Repr(): 1025.처럼, 객체 'o'의 문자열 표현을 계산하지
     만, ‘\x’, ‘\u’ 또는 ‘\U’ 이스케이프를 사용하여 *note
     PyObject_Repr(): 1025.이 반환한 문자열에서 비 ASCII 문자를 이스케이
     프 합니다.  이것은 파이썬 2에서 *note PyObject_Repr(): 1025.에 의해
     반환된 것과 유사한 문자열을 생성합니다.  *note ascii(): 13af. 내장
     함수에 의해 호출됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Str (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'의
     문자열 표현을 계산합니다.  성공 시 문자열 표현을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을
     반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘str(o)’와 동등합니다.  *note
     str(): 445. 내장 함수에 의해, 따라서 *note print(): f6d. 함수에 의
     해서도 호출됩니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 이 함수에는 이제 디버그 어서션이 포함되어 있어 활
     성 예외를 조용히 버리지 않도록 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Bytes (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     객체 'o'의 바이트열 표현을 계산합니다.  실패하면 ‘NULL’을, 성공하면
     바이트열 객체를 반환됩니다.  이는 'o'가 정수가 아닐 때 파이썬 표현
     식 ‘bytes(o)’와 동등합니다.  ‘bytes(o)’와 달리, 'o'가 정수이면 0으
     로 초기화된 바이트열 객체 대신 TypeError가 발생합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_IsSubclass (PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  클래스 'derived'가 클래스
     'cls'와 동일하거나 'cls'에서 파생되었으면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않
     으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  에러가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     'cls'가 튜플이면, 'cls'의 모든 항목에 대해 검사가 수행됩니다.  적어
     도 하나의 검사에서 ‘1’을 반환하면 결과는 ‘1’이 되고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘0’이 됩니다.

     'cls'에 *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f85. 메서드가 있으면, PEP
     3119(1)에 설명된 대로 서브 클래스 상태를 판별하기 위해 호출됩니다.
     그렇지 않으면, 'derived'가 직접 또는 간접 서브 클래스일 때 'cls'의
     서브 클래스입니다, 즉 *note cls.__mro__: 1f31.에 포함되어 있습니다.

     일반적으로 클래스 객체(즉 *note type: d45.이나 파생 클래스의 인스턴
     스)만 클래스로 간주합니다.  그러나, 객체는 *note __bases__: 1472. 어
     트리뷰트(베이스 클래스의 튜플이어야 합니다)를 가짐으로써 이를 재정
     의할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_IsInstance (PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'inst'가 'cls' 클래스나 'cls'의
     서브 클래스의 인스턴스이면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환
     합니다.  에러가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.

     'cls'가 튜플이면, 'cls'의 모든 항목에 대해 검사가 수행됩니다.  적어
     도 하나의 검사에서 ‘1’을 반환하면 결과는 ‘1’이 되고, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘0’이 됩니다.

     'cls'에 *note __instancecheck__(): 1f84. 메서드가 있으면, PEP
     3119(2)에 설명된 대로 서브 클래스 상태를 판별하기 위해 호출됩니다.
     그렇지 않으면, 'inst'는 해당 클래스가 'cls'의 서브 클래스일 때
     'cls'의 인스턴스입니다.

     인스턴스 'inst'는 *note __class__: 1473. 어트리뷰트를 가짐으로써 클
     래스로 간주하는 것을 재정의할 수 있습니다.

     객체 'cls'는 *note __bases__: 1472. 어트리뷰트(베이스 클래스의 튜플
     이어야 합니다)를 가짐으로써, 클래스로 간주하는지와 베이스 클래스가
     무엇인지를 재정의할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_hash_t: 1254. PyObject_Hash (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     객체 'o'의 해시값을 계산하고 반환합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘hash(o)’와 동등합니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 반환형은 이제 Py_hash_t입니다.  이것은 *note
     Py_ssize_t: a5c.와 같은 크기의 부호 있는 정수입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_hash_t: 1254. PyObject_HashNotImplemented (PyObject
          *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘type(o)’가 *note 해시 가능:
     60a.하지 않음을 나타내는 *note TypeError: 532.를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반
     환합니다.  이 함수는 ‘tp_hash’ 슬롯에 저장될 때 특수한 처방을 받아
     서, 인터프리터에 형이 해시 가능하지 않음을 명시적으로 알립니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_IsTrue (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'를 참으로 간주하면
     ‘1’을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘not
     not o’와 동등합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_Not (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'를 참으로 간주하면
     ‘0’을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘not
     o’와 동등합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Type (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'o'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 객체 'o'의 객체 형에 해당하는 형 객체를 반환
     합니다.  실패하면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시키고 ‘NULL’을 반
     환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘type(o)’와 동등합니다.  이 함수는
     반환 값에 대한 새로운 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 만듭니다.  새로운
     *note 강한 참조: 336.가 필요할 때를 제외하고, *note PyTypeObject:
     aa2.* 형의 포인터를 반환하는 *note Py_TYPE(): 779. 함수 대신 이 함
     수를 사용할 이유가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_TypeCheck (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     객체 'o'가 'type' 형이거나 'type'의 서브 형이면 0이 아닌 값을 반환
     하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  두 매개 변수 모두 ‘NULL’이 아
     니어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyObject_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyObject_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     객체 'o'의 길이를 반환합니다.  객체 'o'가 시퀀스와 매핑 프로토콜을
     제공하면, 시퀀스 길이가 반환됩니다.  에러가 발생하면 ‘-1’이 반환됩
     니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘len(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyObject_LengthHint (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t defaultvalue)

     'o' 객체의 추정된 길이를 반환합니다.  먼저 실제 길이를 반환하려고 시
     도한 다음, *note __length_hint__(): f03.를 사용하여 추정값을 반환하
     고, 마지막으로 기본값을 반환합니다.  에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue)’와 동등합
     니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *key)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'key'에
     해당하는 'o'의 요소를 반환하거나 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것
     은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o[key]’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_SetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'key'를 값 'v'에 매핑합니
     다.  실패 시 예외를 발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다; 성공하면 ‘0’을 반
     환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o[key] = v’와 동등합니다.  이 함수는
     'v'에 대한 참조를 훔치지 '않습니다'.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'에서 객체 'key'에 대한
     매핑을 제거합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장
     ‘del o[key]’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Dir (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 파이
     썬 표현식 ‘dir(o)’와 동등하며, 객체 인자에 적합한 문자열의 (비어있
     을 수 있는) 리스트를 반환하거나, 에러가 있으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.
     인자가 ‘NULL’이면, 파이썬 ‘dir()’과 비슷하며, 현재 지역(locals)의 이
     름들을 반환합니다; 이 경우, 실행 프레임이 활성화되어 있지 않으면
     ‘NULL’이 반환되지만 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.는 거짓을 반환합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GetIter (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 파이
     썬 표현식 ‘iter(o)’와 동등합니다.  객체 인자에 대한 새로운 이터레이
     터를 반환하거나, 객체가 이미 이터레이터이면 객체 자체를 반환합니다.
     객체를 이터레이트 할 수 없으면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시키고
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_SelfIter (PyObject *obj)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is
     equivalent to the Python ‘__iter__(self): return self’ method.  It
     is intended for *note iterator: 1ac. types, to be used in the *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_iter: 14b6. slot.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_GetAIter (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이
     후로.'  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘aiter(o)’와 동등합니다.
     ‘AsyncIterable’을 받아서 그 것의 ‘AsyncIterator’를 반환합니다.  보
     통 새 이터레이터이지만, 인자가 ‘AsyncIterator’면 그 자신을 반환합니
     다.  객체를 이터레이트 할 수 없으면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시
     키고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: void *PyObject_GetTypeData (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *cls)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  Get a
     pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for 'cls'.

     The object 'o' must be an instance of 'cls', and 'cls' must have
     been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543.
     Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyType_GetTypeDataSize (PyTypeObject
          *cls)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  Return the
     size of the instance memory space reserved for 'cls', i.e.  the
     size of the memory *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 544. returns.

     This may be larger than requested using *note
     -PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543.; it is safe to use this larger size
     (e.g.  with ‘memset()’).

     The type 'cls' 'must' have been created using negative *note
     PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543.  Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return a negative value.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: void *PyObject_GetItemData (PyObject *o)

     Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 546.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note TypeError:
     532. is raised if 'o' does not have *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END:
     546. set.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_VisitManagedDict (PyObject *obj, visitproc
          visit, void *arg)

     Visit the managed dictionary of 'obj'.

     This function must only be called in a traverse function of the
     type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. flag set.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_ClearManagedDict (PyObject *obj)

     Clear the managed dictionary of 'obj'.

     This function must only be called in a traverse function of the
     type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. flag set.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


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7.7.2 호출 프로토콜
-------------------

CPython은 두 가지 호출 프로토콜을 지원합니다: 'tp_call'과 벡터콜
(vectorcall).

* Menu:

* tp_call 프로토콜::
* 벡터콜(Vectorcall) 프로토콜: 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜.
* 객체 호출 API::
* 호출 지원 API::


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7.7.2.1 'tp_call' 프로토콜
..........................

*note tp_call: 554.을 설정하는 클래스의 인스턴스는 콜러블입니다.  슬롯의
서명은 다음과 같습니다:

     PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

파이썬 코드의 ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ 와 유사하게, 위치 인자를 위한
튜플과 키워드 인자를 위한 딕셔너리를 사용하여 호출합니다.  'args'는
NULL이 아니어야 합니다 (인자가 없으면 빈 튜플을 사용하십시오).  하지만 키
워드 인자가 없으면 'kwargs'는 'NULL'일 수 있습니다.

이 규칙은 'tp_call'에서만 사용되는 것이 아닙니다: *note tp_new: 57a.와
*note tp_init: 57c.도 인자를 이런 식으로 전달합니다.

객체를 호출하려면, *note PyObject_Call(): 396.이나 다른 *note 호출 API:
4bab.를 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜,  Next: 객체 호출 API,  Prev: tp_call 프로토콜,  Up: 호출 프로토콜

7.7.2.2 벡터콜(Vectorcall) 프로토콜
...................................

Added in version 3.9.

벡터콜 프로토콜은 PEP 590(1)에서 호출 효율을 높이기 위한 추가 프로토콜로
도입되었습니다.

경험 규칙으로, CPython은 콜러블이 지원하면 내부 호출에 대해 벡터콜을 선
호합니다.  그러나 이것은 엄격한 규칙이 아닙니다.  또한, 일부 제삼자 확장
은 (‘PyObject_call()’을 사용하지 않고) 'tp_call'을 직접 사용합니다.  따
라서, 벡터콜을 지원하는 클래스도 *note tp_call: 554.을 구현해야 합니다.
또한, 어떤 프로토콜을 사용하는지와 관계없이 콜러블은 동일하게 작동해야 합
니다.  이를 위해 권장되는 방법은 *note tp_call: 554.을 *note
PyVectorcall_Call(): 551.로 설정하는 것입니다.  이것이 반복을 처리합니다
:

     경고: 벡터콜을 지원하는 클래스도 같은 의미가 있도록 *note tp_call:
     554.을 '반드시' 구현해야 합니다.

버전 3.12에서 변경: The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. flag is
now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 553. method
is reassigned.  (This internally sets *note tp_call: 554. only, and thus
may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.)  In
earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with *note
immutable: 3bc. or static types.

'tp_call'보다 느려진다면 클래스는 벡터콜을 구현해서는 안 됩니다.  예를 들
어, 피호출자가 어차피 인자를 인자 튜플과 kwargs 딕셔너리로 변환해야 하면
, 벡터콜을 구현할 이유가 없습니다.

클래스는 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. 플래그를 활성화하고
*note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4bad.을 'vectorcallfunc' 가 등장하는 객체 구
조체 내부의 오프셋으로 설정하여 벡터콜 프로토콜을 구현할 수 있습니다.  이
것은 다음과 같은 서명을 갖는 함수를 가리키는 포인터입니다:

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*vectorcallfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332. *callable, *note PyObject: 332. *const *args,
          size_t nargsf, *note PyObject: 332. *kwnames)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'

   - 'callable'은 호출되는 객체입니다.

   - 
     'args'는 위치 인자와 그 뒤를 따르는 키워드 인자의 값으로 구성된 C 배열입니다.

          인자가 없으면 'NULL'일 수 있습니다.

   - 
     'nargsf'는 위치 인자의 수에

          *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 559. 플래그를 더한 것입
          니다.  'nargsf'에서 실제 위치 인자 수를 얻으려면, *note
          PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 550.를 사용하십시오.

   - 
     'kwnames'는 키워드 인자의 이름을 포함하는 튜플입니다;

          다시 말해, kwargs 딕셔너리의 키.  이 이름들은 문자열(‘str’이나
          서브 클래스의 인스턴스)이어야하며 고유해야 합니다.  키워드 인
          자가 없으면, 'kwnames'는 대신 'NULL'일 수 있습니다.

 -- C 매크로: PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  이 플래그가
     벡터콜 'nargsf' 인자에 설정되면, 피호출자는 일시적으로 ‘args[-1]’을
     변경할 수 있습니다.  즉, 'args'는 할당된 벡터에서 인자 1(0이 아닙니
     다)을 가리킵니다.  피호출자는 반환하기 전에 ‘args[-1]’ 값을 복원해
     야 합니다.

     *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 558. 의 경우, 이 플래그는 대신
     ‘args[0]’이 변경될 수 있음을 의미합니다.

     (추가 할당 없이) 저렴하게 할 수 있을 때마다, 호출자는 *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 559.을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  이
     렇게 하면 연결된 메서드와 같은 콜러블이 후속 호출(앞에 'self' 인자
     를 포함하는)을 매우 효율적으로 만들 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

벡터콜을 구현하는 객체를 호출하려면, 다른 콜러블과 마찬가지로 *note 호출
API: 4bab. 함수를 사용하십시오.  *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557.은 일
반적으로 가장 효율적입니다.

* Menu:

* 재귀 제어: 재귀 제어<2>.
* 벡터콜 지원 API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: 재귀 제어<2>,  Next: 벡터콜 지원 API,  Up: 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜

7.7.2.3 재귀 제어
.................

'tp_call'을 사용할 때, 피호출자는 *note 재귀: 4b41.에 대해 걱정할 필요가
없습니다: CPython은 'tp_call'을 사용하여 호출한 경우 *note
Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 971. 과 *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 972. 을
사용합니다.

효율성을 위해, 벡터콜을 사용하여 호출한 경우에는 그렇지 않습니다: 피호출
자는 필요하면 'Py_EnterRecursiveCall' 과 'Py_LeaveRecursiveCall' 을 사용
해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 벡터콜 지원 API,  Prev: 재귀 제어<2>,  Up: 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜

7.7.2.4 벡터콜 지원 API
.......................

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyVectorcall_NARGS (size_t nargsf)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  벡터콜
     'nargsf' 인자가 주어지면, 실제 인자 수를 반환합니다.  현재 다음과 동
     등합니다:

          (Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET)

     그러나, 향후 확장을 위해 ‘PyVectorcall_NARGS’ 함수를 사용해야 합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C 함수: *note vectorcallfunc: 552. PyVectorcall_Function (PyObject
          *op)

     'op'가 벡터콜 프로토콜을 지원하지 않으면 (형이 지원하지 않거나 인스
     턴스가 지원하지 않기 때문에), 'NULL'을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면,
     'op'에 저장된 벡터콜 함수 포인터를 반환합니다.  이 함수는 예외를 발
     생시키지 않습니다.

     이것은 'op'가 벡터콜을 지원하는지를 확인하는 데 주로 유용하며,
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL’을 확인하여 수행 할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyVectorcall_Call (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  튜플과 딕셔
     너리에 각각 주어진 위치와 키워드 인자로 'callable'의 *note
     vectorcallfunc: 552. 를 호출합니다.

     이것은 *note tp_call: 554. 슬롯에 넣거나 ‘tp_call’ 구현에 사용하기
     위한 특수 함수입니다.  *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. 플래
     그를 확인하지 않고 ‘tp_call’로 폴 백하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 호출 API,  Next: 호출 지원 API,  Prev: 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜,  Up: 호출 프로토콜

7.7.2.5 객체 호출 API
.....................

파이썬 객체를 호출하기 위해 다양한 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다.  각각은 인
자를 호출된 객체가 지원하는 규칙으로 변환합니다 - 'tp_call' 또는 벡터콜.
가능한 한 적은 변환을 수행하려면, 사용 가능한 데이터 형식에 가장 적합한
것을 선택하십시오.

다음 표는 사용 가능한 함수를 요약한 것입니다; 자세한 내용은 개별 설명서
를 참조하십시오.

함수                                           콜러블                 args                     kwargs
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Call(): 396.                    ‘PyObject *’           튜플                     딕셔너리/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 395.              ‘PyObject *’           —                        —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 976.              ‘PyObject *’           1 객체                   —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.             ‘PyObject *’           튜플/‘NULL’              —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunction(): 398.            ‘PyObject *’           포맷(format)             —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399.              obj + ‘char*’          포맷(format)             —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4a5d.    ‘PyObject *’           가변(variadic)           —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1a04.      obj + name             가변(variadic)           —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): 4bb2.       obj + name             —                        —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): 4bb3.       obj + name             1 객체                   —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557.              ‘PyObject *’           벡터콜                   벡터콜
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallDict(): 4bb4.         ‘PyObject *’           벡터콜                   딕셔너리/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 558.        arg + name             벡터콜                   벡터콜
                                                                                               

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Call (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  튜플
     'args'로 주어진 인자와 딕셔너리 'kwargs'로 주어진 이름있는 인자로 콜
     러블 파이썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합니다.

     'args'는 'NULL'이 아니어야 합니다ㅣ 인자가 필요 없으면 빈 튜플을 사
     용하십시오.  이름있는 인자가 필요하지 않으면, 'kwargs'는 'NULL'일 수
     있습니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     이것은 다음 파이썬 표현식과 동등합니다: ‘callable(*args,
     **kwargs)’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallNoArgs (PyObject
          *callable)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이
     후로.'  인자 없이 콜러블 파이썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합니다.  인자
     없이 콜러블 파이썬 객체를 호출하는 가장 효율적인 방법입니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallOneArg (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  정확히 1개의 위치 인자 'arg'로 키워드 인자 없이
     콜러블 파이썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallObject (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *args)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  튜플
     'args'에 의해 주어진 인자로 콜러블 파이썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합
     니다.  인자가 필요하지 않으면 'args'는 'NULL'일 수 있습니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     이것은 다음 파이썬 표현식과 동등합니다: ‘callable(*args)’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallFunction (PyObject
          *callable, const char *format, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  가변 개수의
     C 인자로 콜러블 파이썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합니다.  C 인자는
     *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4. 스타일 포맷 문자열을 사용하여 기술됩니
     다.  format은 'NULL'일 수 있으며, 인자가 제공되지 않음을 나타냅니다
     .

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     이것은 다음 파이썬 표현식과 동등합니다: ‘callable(*args)’.

     *note PyObject: 332.* 인자만 전달한다면 *note
     PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4a5d. 가 더 빠른 대안임에 유의하십
     시오.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'format'의 형이 ‘char *’에서 변경되었습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallMethod (PyObject *obj,
          const char *name, const char *format, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  가변 개수의
     C 인자를 사용하여 객체 'obj'의 'name'이라는 이름의 메서드를 호출합
     니다.  C 인자는 튜플을 생성해야 하는 *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a4. 포
     맷 문자열로 기술됩니다.

     format은 'NULL'일 수 있으며, 인자가 제공되지 않음을 나타냅니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     이것은 다음 파이썬 표현식과 동등합니다: ‘obj.name(arg1, arg2,
     ...)’.

     *note PyObject: 332.* 인자만 전달한다면 *note
     PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1a04. 가 더 빠른 대안임에 유의하십시
     오.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'name'과 'format'의 형이 ‘char *’에서 변경되었습
     니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (PyObject
          *callable, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  가변 개수의
     *note PyObject: 332.* 인자로 콜러블 파이썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합
     니다.  인자는 'NULL'로 끝나는 가변 개수의 매개 변수로 제공됩니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     이것은 다음 파이썬 표현식과 동등합니다: ‘callable(arg1, arg2,
     ...)’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬 객체
     'obj'의 메서드를 호출합니다.  여기서 메서드 이름은 'name'에서 파이
     썬 문자열 객체로 제공됩니다.  가변 개수의 *note PyObject: 332.* 인
     자로 호출됩니다.  인자는 'NULL'로 끝나는 가변 개수의 매개 변수로 제
     공됩니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name)

     인자 없이 파이썬 객체 'obj'의 메서드를 호출합니다.  여기서 메서드 이
     름은 'name'에서 파이썬 문자열 객체로 제공됩니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg)

     단일 위치 인자 'arg'로 파이썬 객체 'obj'의 메서드를 호출합니다.  여
     기서 메서드 이름은 'name'에서 파이썬 문자열 객체로 제공됩니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Vectorcall (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  콜러블 파이
     썬 객체 'callable'을 호출합니다.  인자는 *note vectorcallfunc: 552.
     와 같습니다.  'callable'이 *note 벡터콜: 54d.을 지원하면,
     'callable'에 저장된 벡터콜 함수를 직접 호출합니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_VectorcallDict (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwdict)

     위치 인자가 *note 벡터콜: 54d. 프로토콜과 정확히 일치하지만 딕셔너
     리 'kwdict'로 전달된 키워드 인자로 'callable'을 호출합니다.  'args'
     배열은 위치 인자만 포함합니다.

     내부적으로 사용되는 프로토콜과 관계없이, 인자를 변환해야 합니다.  따
     라서, 이 함수는 호출자에게 이미 키워드 인자로 사용할 준비가 된 딕셔
     너리가 있지만, 위치 인자에 대한 튜플이 없을 때만 사용해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_VectorcallMethod (PyObject
          *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  벡터콜 호출
     규칙을 사용하여 메서드를 호출합니다.  메서드 이름은 파이썬 문자열
     'name'으로 제공됩니다.  메서드가 호출되는 객체는 'args[0]'이며,
     'args[1]'에서 시작하는 'args' 배열은 호출의 인자를 나타냅니다.  하
     나 이상의 위치 인자가 있어야 합니다.  'nargsf'는 'args[0]'을 포함한
     위치 인자의 수이며, ‘args[0]’ 값이 일시적으로 변경될 수 있으면
     *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 559.이 더해집니다.  키워드 인
     자는 *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 557.에서처럼 전달될 수 있습니다.

     객체에 *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 4bb5. 기능이 있으면, 전
     체 'args' 벡터를 인자로 연결되지 않은 메서드 객체를 호출합니다.

     성공하면 호출 결과를 반환하고, 실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 'NULL'을
     반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: 호출 지원 API,  Prev: 객체 호출 API,  Up: 호출 프로토콜

7.7.2.6 호출 지원 API
.....................

 -- C 함수: int PyCallable_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'가 콜러블 인지 판별합
     니다.  객체가 콜러블 이면 ‘1’을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이
     함수는 항상 성공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 프로토콜,  Next: 시퀀스 프로토콜,  Prev: 호출 프로토콜,  Up: 추상 객체 계층

7.7.3 숫자 프로토콜
-------------------

 -- C 함수: int PyNumber_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'o'가 숫자 프로토콜을 제
     공하면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓을 반환합니다.  이 함수는
     항상 성공합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 'o'가 인덱스 정수면 ‘1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Add (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'과
     'o2'를 더한 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표
     현식 ‘o1 + o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Subtract (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'에서
     'o2'를 뺀 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현
     식 ‘o1 - o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Multiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'과
     'o2'를 곱한 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표
     현식 ‘o1 * o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  'o1'과 'o2'를 행렬 곱셈한 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다
     .  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 @ o2’와 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_FloorDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'을
     'o2'로 정수 나눗셈한 몫을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파
     이썬 표현식 ‘o1 // o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_TrueDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'을
     'o2'로 나눈 수학적 값의 적절한 근삿값이나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  반환 값은 “근사치” 인데, 이진 부동 소수점 수가 근사치이기 때
     문입니다; 이진수로 모든 실수를 표현할 수는 없습니다.  이 함수는 두
     개의 정수를 전달할 때 부동 소수점 수를 반환할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Remainder (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'을
     'o2'로 나눈 나머지나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표
     현식 ‘o1 % o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Divmod (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     내장 함수 *note divmod(): 99e.를 참조하십시오.  실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반
     환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘divmod(o1, o2)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Power (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2, PyObject *o3)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     내장 함수 *note pow(): 9cf.를 참조하십시오.  실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’와 동등합니다, 여기
     서 'o3'는 선택적입니다.  'o3'를 무시하려면, 그 자리에 *note
     Py_None: 48bc.을 전달하십시오 ('o3'에 ‘NULL’을 전달하면 잘못된 메모
     리 액세스가 발생합니다).

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Negative (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o'의 음의 값(negation)을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파
     이썬 표현식 ‘-o’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Positive (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o'를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘+o’와 동
     등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Absolute (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'o'의 절댓값이나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현
     식 ‘abs(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Invert (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o'의 비트 반전(bitwise negation)을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘~o’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Lshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'을 'o2'만큼 왼쪽으로 시프트 한 결과를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 << o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Rshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'을 'o2'만큼 오른쪽으로 시프트 한 결과를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 >> o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_And (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'과 'o2'의 “비트별 논리곱(bitwise and)”을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 & o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Xor (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'과 'o2'의 “비트별 배타적 논리합(bitwise exclusive or)”을, 실패
     시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 ^ o2’와 동등합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Or (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'과 'o2'의 “비트별 논리합(bitwise or)”을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 | o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'과
     'o2'를 더한 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이
     지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1
     += o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'에서
     'o2'를 뺀 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지
     원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1
     -= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'과
     'o2'를 곱한 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이
     지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1
     *= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  'o1'과 'o2'를 행렬 곱셈한 결과나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다
     .  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 @= o2’와 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'을
     'o2'로 나눈 수학적 플로어(floor)나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이
     연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파
     이썬 문장 ‘o1 //= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'을
     'o2'로 나눈 수학적 값의 적절한 근삿값이나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  반환 값은 “근사치” 인데, 이진 부동 소수점 수가 근사치이기 때
     문입니다; 이진수로 모든 실수를 표현할 수는 없습니다.  이 함수는 두
     개의 정수를 전달할 때 부동 소수점 수를 반환할 수 있습니다.  이 연산
     은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파이
     썬 문장 ‘o1 /= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o1'을
     'o2'로 나눈 나머지나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이
     지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1
     %= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlacePower (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     내장 함수 *note pow(): 9cf.를 참조하십시오.  실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니
     다.  이것은 o3가 *note Py_None: 48bc.일 때 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 **= o2’와
     , 그렇지 않으면 ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’의 제자리 변형과 동등합니다.  'o3'를
     무시하려면, 그 자리에 *note Py_None: 48bc.을 전달하십시오 ('o3'에
     ‘NULL’을 전달하면 잘못된 메모리 액세스가 발생합니다).

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'을 'o2'만큼 왼쪽으로 시프트 한 결과를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.
     이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 <<= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'을 'o2'만큼 오른쪽으로 시프트 한 결과를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 >>= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'과 'o2'의 “비트별 논리곱(bitwise and)”을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 &= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceXor (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'과 'o2'의 “비트별 배타적 논리합(bitwise exclusive or)”을, 실패
     시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서
     (in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 ^= o2’와 동등합니다
     .

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_InPlaceOr (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'과 'o2'의 “비트별 논리합(bitwise or)”을, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  이 연산은 'o1'이 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o1 |= o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Long (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     성공 시 정수 객체로 변환된 'o'를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘int(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Float (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     성공 시 float 객체로 변환된 'o'를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘float(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_Index (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시 파
     이썬 int로 변환된 'o'를, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  실패 시
     *note TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The result always has exact type *note int:
     257.  Previously, the result could have been an instance of a
     subclass of ‘int’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyNumber_ToBase (PyObject *n, int
          base)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  정수 'n'을
     진수 'base'를 사용해서 변환한 문자열을 반환합니다.  'base' 인자는
     2, 8, 10 또는 16중 하나여야 합니다.  진수 2, 8 또는 16의 경우, 반환
     된 문자열은 ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’ 또는 ‘'0x'’의 진수 표시자가 각각 앞에 붙
     습니다.  'n'이 파이썬 int가 아니면, 먼저 *note PyNumber_Index():
     88f.로 변환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyNumber_AsSsize_t (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o'가 정수로 해석될 수 있으면,
     'o'를 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 값으로 변환하여 반환합니다.  호출이 실
     패하면, 예외가 발생하고 ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.

     'o'가 파이썬 int로 변환될 수 있지만 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 값으로 변
     환하려는 시도가 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시키면, 'exc' 인자
     는 발생할 예외의 형(일반적으로 *note IndexError: 14fc.나 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.)입니다.  'exc'가 ‘NULL’이면, 예외가 지워지고 값
     은 음의 정수는 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’으로, 양의 정수는 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’로
     잘립니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyIndex_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.8 이후로.'  'o'가 인덱스
     정수(‘tp_as_number’ 구조의 ‘nb_index’ 슬롯이 채워져 있습니다)면
     ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성
     공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스 프로토콜,  Next: 매핑 프로토콜,  Prev: 숫자 프로토콜,  Up: 추상 객체 계층

7.7.4 시퀀스 프로토콜
---------------------

 -- C 함수: int PySequence_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체가 시퀀스 프로토콜을 제공
     하면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  *note
     __getitem__(): 283. 메서드가 있는 파이썬 클래스의 경우 *note dict:
     256. 서브 클래스가 아닌 한 ‘1’을 반환하는 것에 유의하십시오.  일반
     적으로 클래스가 어떤 형의 키를 지원하는지 판단할 수 없기 때문입니다
     .  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySequence_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySequence_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     성공 시 시퀀스 'o'의 객체 수를 반환하고, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다
     .  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘len(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_Concat (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'와 'o2'의 이어붙이기를 반환하고, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.
     이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 + o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_Repeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀸스 객체
     'o'를 'count' 번 반복한 결과를 반환하거나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o * count’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_InPlaceConcat (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공 시
     'o1'와 'o2'의 이어붙이기를 반환하고, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.
     이 연산은 'o1'가 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.  이것
     은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o1 += o2’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀸스 객체
     'o'를 'count' 번 반복한 결과를 반환하거나, 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  이 연산은 'o'가 지원하면 '제자리에서(in-place)' 수행됩니다.
     이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o *= count’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o'의 'i' 번
     째 요소를 반환하거나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬
     표현식 ‘o[i]’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_GetSlice (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀀스 객체
     'o'의 'i1'와 'i2' 사이의 슬라이스를 반환하거나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반
     환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o[i1:i2]’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySequence_SetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject
          *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체 'v'를 'o'의 'i' 번째 요소
     에 대입합니다.  실패하면 예외를 발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다; 성공
     하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘o[i] = v’와 동등합니다.
     이 함수는 'v'에 대한 참조를 훔치지 '않습니다'.

     'v'가 ‘NULL’이면, 요소가 삭제되지만, 이 기능은 *note
     PySequence_DelItem(): 1a5c. 사용을 위해 폐지되었습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySequence_DelItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o' 객체의 'i' 번째 요소를 삭
     제합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 문장 ‘del
     o[i]’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySequence_SetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀀스 객체 'v'를 시퀀스 객체
     'o'의 'i1'에서 'i2' 사이의 슬라이스에 대입합니다.  이것은 파이썬 문
     장 ‘o[i1:i2] = v’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySequence_DelSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀀스 객체 'o'의 'i1'에서
     'i2' 사이의 슬라이스를 삭제합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 문장 ‘del o[i1:i2]’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySequence_Count (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o'에 있는 'value'의 수를 반환
     합니다.  즉, ‘o[key] == value’를 만족하는 key의 수를 반환합니다.  실
     패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘o.count(value)’와
     동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySequence_Contains (PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o'에 'value'가 있는지 확인합
     니다.  'o'의 항목 중 하나가 'value'와 같으면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지
     않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이는 파이썬 표
     현식 ‘value in o’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySequence_Index (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘o[i] == value’을 만족하는 첫
     번째 인덱스 'i'를 반환합니다.  에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 파
     이썬 표현식 ‘o.index(value)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_List (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀀스나 이
     터러블 'o'와 같은 내용을 가진 리스트 객체를 반환하거나, 실패하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  반환된 리스트는 새로운 것으로 보장됩니다.  이
     것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘list(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_Tuple (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     시퀀스나 이터러블 'o'와 같은 내용을 가진 튜플 객체를 반환하거나, 실
     패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  'o'가 튜플이면, 새로운 참조가 반환되고
     , 그렇지 않으면 튜플이 적절한 내용으로 만들어집니다.  이것은 파이썬
     표현식 ‘tuple(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_Fast (PyObject *o, const
          char *m)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  시퀀스나 이
     터러블 'o'를 다른 ‘PySequence_Fast*’ 계열 함수에서 사용할 수 있는 객
     체로 반환합니다.  객체가 시퀀스나 이터러블이 아니면 'm'을 메시지 텍
     스트로 사용하여 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  실패 시
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     ‘PySequence_Fast*’ 함수는 'o'가 *note PyTupleObject: 4b55.나 *note
     PyListObject: 4bbd.라고 가정하고 'o'의 데이터 필드에 직접 액세스하
     기 때문에 이렇게 이름 붙였습니다.

     CPython 구현 세부 사항으로, 'o'가 이미 시퀀스나 리스트면, 반환됩니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *o)

     'o'의 길이를 반환하는데, 'o'가 *note PySequence_Fast(): 4a76.에 의
     해 반환되었고, 'o'가 ‘NULL’이 아니라고 가정합니다.  크기는 'o'에 대
     해 *note PySequence_Size(): 1a59.를 호출하여 얻을 수도 있지만,
     *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(): 4bbe.는 'o'가 리스트나 튜플이라고
     가정할 수 있으므로 더 빠릅니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  'o'의 'i' 번째 요소를 반환하는데, 'o'가 *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 4a76.에 의해 반환되었고, 'o'가 ‘NULL’이 아니며,
     'i'가 경계 내에 있다고 가정합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (PyObject *o)

     PyObject 포인터의 하부 배열을 반환합니다.  'o'가 *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 4a76.에 의해 반환되었고, 'o'가 ‘NULL’이 아니라고
     가정합니다.

     리스트의 크기가 변경되면, 재할당이 항목 배열을 재배치할 수 있음에 유
     의하십시오.  따라서, 시퀀스가 변경될 수 없는 문맥에서만 하부 배열 포
     인터를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySequence_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'o'의 'i' 번째 요소를 반환하거나, 실패하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a.의 빠른 형식
     이지만, 'o'에 대해 *note PySequence_Check(): 4a71.가 참인지 검사하
     지 않고, 음수 인덱스를 조정하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 매핑 프로토콜,  Next: 이터레이터 프로토콜,  Prev: 시퀀스 프로토콜,  Up: 추상 객체 계층

7.7.5 매핑 프로토콜
-------------------

*note PyObject_GetItem(): 340, *note PyObject_SetItem(): 494a. 및 *note
PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e.도 참조하십시오.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체가 매핑 프로토콜을 제공하
     거나 슬라이싱을 지원하면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합
     니다.  *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드가 있는 파이썬 클래스의 경우
     ‘1’을 반환한다는 점에 유의하십시오; 일반적으로 클래스가 지원하는 키
     형을 판단할 수 없기 때문입니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyMapping_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyMapping_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     성공 시 객체 'o'의 키 수를 반환하고, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이
     는 파이썬 표현식 ‘len(o)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMapping_GetItemString (PyObject *o,
          const char *key)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the
     same as *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340, but 'key' is specified as a
     const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (PyObject *obj, PyObject *key,
          PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Variant of
     *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340. which doesn’t raise *note KeyError:
     33d. if the key is not found.

     If the key is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new *note
     strong reference: 336. to the corresponding value.  If the key is
     not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note
     KeyError: 33d. is silenced.  If an error other than *note KeyError:
     33d. is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (PyObject *obj, const
          char *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  This is the
     same as *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33e, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 332.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_SetItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetItem(): 494a, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

     이것은 *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e.의 별칭입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key)

     This is the same as *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  매핑 객체에
     'key' 키가 있으면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이
     는 파이썬 표현식 ‘key in o’와 동등합니다.  실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  This is the
     same as *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 377, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 332.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_HasKey (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  매핑 객체에 'key' 키가 있으면
     ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이는 파이썬 표현식
     ‘key in o’와 동등합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

          참고: 이 함수가 *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드를 호출하는 동
          안 발생하는 예외는 조용히 억제됩니다.  적절한 에러 처리가 필요
          하면 대신 *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 377, *note
          PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 33e. 또는 *note
          PyObject_GetItem(): 340.을 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: int PyMapping_HasKeyString (PyObject *o, const char *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the same as *note
     PyMapping_HasKey(): 378, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 332.*.

          참고: 이 함수가 *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드를 호출하거나
          임시 *note str: 445. 객체를 만드는 동안 발생하는 예외는 조용히
          억제됩니다.  적절한 에러 처리가 필요하면 대신 *note
          PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 379, *note
          PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 33f. 또는 *note
          PyMapping_GetItemString(): 341.을 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMapping_Keys (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공하면, 객
     체 'o'의 키 리스트를 반환합니다.  실패하면, ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이전에는 함수가 리스트나 튜플을 반환했습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMapping_Values (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공하면, 객
     체 'o'의 값 리스트를 반환합니다.  실패하면, ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이전에는 함수가 리스트나 튜플을 반환했습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMapping_Items (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공하면, 객
     체 'o'에 있는 항목 리스트를 반환합니다.  여기서 각 항목은 키-값 쌍
     을 포함하는 튜플입니다.  실패하면, ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이전에는 함수가 리스트나 튜플을 반환했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이터 프로토콜,  Next: 버퍼 프로토콜,  Prev: 매핑 프로토콜,  Up: 추상 객체 계층

7.7.6 이터레이터 프로토콜
-------------------------

특히 이터레이터를 사용하기 위한 두 함수가 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.8 이후로.'  객체 'o'가
     *note PyIter_Next(): 4a16.에 안전하게 전달될 수 있으면 ‘0’이 아닌 값
     을, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 돌려줍니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyAIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  객체 'o'가
     ‘AsyncIterator’ 프로토콜을 지원하면 ‘0’이 아닌 값을, 그렇지 않으면
     ‘0’을 돌려줍니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyIter_Next (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이터레이터
     'o'에서 다음 값을 반환합니다.  객체는 *note PyIter_Check(): 18fb.에
     따르는 이터레이터 여야 합니다 (이것을 확인하는 것은 호출자 책임입니
     다).  남은 값이 없으면, 예외가 설정되지 않은 상태로 ‘NULL’을 반환합
     니다.  항목을 꺼내는 동안 에러가 발생하면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를
     전달합니다.

이터레이터를 이터레이트하는 루프를 작성하려면, C 코드는 이런 식으로 되어
야 합니다:

     PyObject *iterator = PyObject_GetIter(obj);
     PyObject *item;

     if (iterator == NULL) {
         /* 에러를 전파합니다 */
     }

     while ((item = PyIter_Next(iterator))) {
         /* item으로 뭔가 합니다 */
         ...
         /* 끝나면 참조를 반환합니다 */
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

     Py_DECREF(iterator);

     if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
         /* 에러를 전파합니다 */
     }
     else {
         /* 쓸모있는 일을 계속합니다 */
     }

 -- C 자료형: type PySendResult

     The enum value used to represent different results of *note
     PyIter_Send(): 894.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: *note PySendResult: 4bca. PyIter_Send (PyObject *iter,
          PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Sends the
     'arg' value into the iterator 'iter'.  Returns:

        - ‘PYGEN_RETURN’ if iterator returns.  Return value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_NEXT’ if iterator yields.  Yielded value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_ERROR’ if iterator has raised and exception.  'presult'
          is set to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼 프로토콜,  Prev: 이터레이터 프로토콜,  Up: 추상 객체 계층

7.7.7 버퍼 프로토콜
-------------------

파이썬에서 사용할 수 있는 어떤 객체는 하부 메모리 배열 또는 '버퍼'에 대
한 액세스를 감쌉니다.  이러한 객체에는 내장 *note bytes: 1c2. 와 *note
bytearray: 538, 그리고 *note array.array: 1a0.와 같은 일부 확장형이 포함
됩니다.  제삼자 라이브러리도 이미지 처리나 수치 해석과 같은 특수한 용도
로 자체 형을 정의할 수 있습니다.

이러한 형은 각각 고유의 의미가 있지만, (아마도) 큰 메모리 버퍼에 의해 뒷
받침되는 공통된 특징을 공유합니다.  어떤 상황에서는 중간 복사 없이 직접
버퍼에 액세스하는 것이 바람직합니다.

Python provides such a facility at the C and Python level in the form of
the *note buffer protocol: 391.  This protocol has two sides:

   - on the producer side, a type can export a “buffer interface” which
     allows objects of that type to expose information about their
     underlying buffer.  This interface is described in the section
     *note 버퍼 객체 구조체: 4bcd.; for Python see *note Emulating
     buffer types: 1fcb.

   - on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a
     pointer to the raw underlying data of an object (for example a
     method parameter).  For Python see *note memoryview: 462.

*note bytes: 1c2. 와 *note bytearray: 538.와 같은 간단한 객체는 하부 버
퍼를 바이트 지향 형식으로 노출합니다.  다른 형태도 가능합니다; 예를 들어
, *note array.array: 1a0.에 의해 노출되는 요소는 멀티 바이트 값이 될 수
있습니다.

버퍼 인터페이스의 소비자 예는 파일 객체의 *note write(): cd8. 메서드입니
다: 버퍼 인터페이스를 통해 일련의 바이트를 내보낼 수 있는 모든 객체는 파
일에 기록될 수 있습니다.  ‘write()’가 전달된 객체의 내부 내용에 대한 읽
기 전용 액세스만 필요하지만, *note readinto(): 2c30.와 같은 다른 메서드
는 인자의 내용에 쓰기 액세스가 필요합니다.  버퍼 인터페이스는 객체가 읽
기-쓰기와 읽기 전용 버퍼를 선택적으로 허용하거나 거부할 수 있도록 합니다
.

버퍼 인터페이스의 소비자가 대상 객체에 대해 버퍼를 얻는 방법에는 두 가지
가 있습니다:

   * 올바른 매개 변수로 *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.를 호출합니다;

   * ‘y*’, ‘w*’ 또는 ‘s*’ *note 형식 코드: 8a5. 중 하나를 사용하여 *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.(또는 그 형제 중 하나)을 호출합니다.

두 경우 모두, 버퍼가 더는 필요하지 않으면 *note PyBuffer_Release():
394.를 호출해야 합니다.  그렇게 하지 않으면 자원 누수와 같은 다양한 문제
가 발생할 수 있습니다.

Added in version 3.12: The buffer protocol is now accessible in Python,
see *note Emulating buffer types: 1fcb. and *note memoryview: 462.

* Menu:

* 버퍼 구조체::
* 버퍼 요청 유형::
* 복잡한 배열::
* 버퍼 관련 함수::


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼 구조체,  Next: 버퍼 요청 유형,  Up: 버퍼 프로토콜

7.7.7.1 버퍼 구조체
...................

버퍼 구조체(또는 단순히 “버퍼”)는 다른 객체의 바이너리 데이터를 파이썬 프
로그래머에게 노출하는 방법으로 유용합니다.  또한, 복사 없는(zero-copy) 슬
라이싱 메커니즘으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  메모리 블록을 참조하는 능력을 사
용해서, 임의의 데이터를 파이썬 프로그래머에게 아주 쉽게 노출할 수 있습니
다.  메모리는 C 확장의 큰 상수 배열일 수 있으며, 운영 체제 라이브러리로
전달되기 전에 조작하기 위한 원시 메모리 블록일 수도 있고, 네이티브 인 메
모리(in-memory) 형식으로 구조화된 데이터를 전달하는 데 사용될 수도 있습
니다.

파이썬 인터프리터가 노출하는 대부분의 데이터형과 달리, 버퍼는 *note
PyObject: 332. 포인터가 아니라 단순한 C 구조체입니다.  이를 통해 매우 간
단하게 만들고 복사할 수 있습니다.  버퍼를 감싸는 일반 래퍼가 필요할 때는
, *note 메모리 뷰: 4bd0. 객체를 만들 수 있습니다.

제공하는(exporting) 객체를 작성하는 간단한 지침은 *note 버퍼 객체
구조체: 4bcd.를 참조하십시오.  버퍼를 얻으려면, *note
PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: type Py_buffer
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members) 버전
     3.11 이후로.'
      -- C 멤버 변수: void *buf

          버퍼 필드에 의해 기술된 논리적 구조의 시작을 가리키는 포인터.
          이것은 제공자(exporter)의 하부 물리적 메모리 블록 내의 모든 위
          치일 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 음의 *note strides: 4bd2.를 사용
          하면 값이 메모리 블록의 끝을 가리킬 수 있습니다.

          *note 연속: 222f. 배열의 경우, 값은 메모리 블록의 시작을 가리
          킵니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *obj

          제공하는(exporting) 객체에 대한 새 참조.  참조는 소비자가 소유
          하고, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.에 의해 자동으로 해제되고
          (즉 참조 횟수가 감소합니다) ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다.  이 필드는 표
          준 C-API 함수의 반환 값과 동등합니다.

          특수한 경우로, *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75a. 나 *note
          PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 759.로 감싸진 '임시(temporary)' 버퍼의 경
          우, 이 필드는 ‘NULL’입니다.  일반적으로, 제공하는(exporting) 객
          체는 이 체계를 사용하지 않아야 합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. len

          ‘product(shape) * itemsize’.  연속 배열의 경우, 하부 메모리 블
          록의 길이입니다.  불연속 배열의 경우, 연속 표현으로 복사된다면
          논리적 구조체가 갖게 될 길이입니다.

          ‘((char *)buf)[0] 에서 ((char *)buf)[len-1]’ 범위의 액세스는 연
          속성을 보장하는 요청으로 버퍼가 확보된 경우에만 유효합니다.  대
          부분 이러한 요청은 *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd5. 또는 *note
          PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383.입니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int readonly

          버퍼가 읽기 전용인지를 나타내는 표시기입니다.  이 필드는 *note
          PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383. 플래그로 제어됩니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. itemsize

          단일 요소의 항목 크기(바이트)입니다.  ‘NULL’이 아닌 *note
          format: 4bd8. 값에 호출된 *note struct.calcsize(): 19cb. 값과
          같습니다.

          중요한 예외: 소비자가 *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4bd9. 플래그 없이 버
          퍼를 요청하면, *note format: 4bd8.은 ‘NULL’로 설정되지만,
          *note itemsize: 4bd7.는 여전히 원래 형식의 값을 갖습니다.

          *note shape: 4bda.이 있으면, ‘product(shape) * itemsize ==
          len’ 동치가 계속 성립하고 소비자는 *note itemsize: 4bd7.를 사
          용하여 버퍼를 탐색할 수 있습니다.

          *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd5. 이나 *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383. 요
          청의 결과로 *note shape: 4bda.이 ‘NULL’이면, 소비자는 *note
          itemsize: 4bd7.를 무시하고 ‘itemsize == 1’로 가정해야 합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: char *format

          단일 항목의 내용을 설명하는 *note struct: d5. 모듈 스타일 문법
          의 'NULL' 종료 문자열.  이것이 ‘NULL’이면, ‘"B"’(부호 없는 바
          이트)를 가정합니다.

          이 필드는 *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4bd9. 플래그로 제어됩니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int ndim

          메모리가 n 차원 배열로 나타내는 차원 수.  ‘0’이면, *note buf:
          4bd1.는 스칼라를 나타내는 단일 항목을 가리 킵니다.  이 경우,
          *note shape: 4bda, *note strides: 4bd2. 및 *note suboffsets:
          4bdc.는 반드시 ‘NULL’ 이어야 합니다.  최대 차원 수는 *note
          PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 4bdd.으로 지정됩니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *shape

          n-차원 배열로 메모리의 모양을 나타내는 길이 *note ndim: 4bdb.의
          *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 배열.  ‘shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1]
          * itemsize’는 *note len: 4bd4.과 같아야 합니다.

          모양 값은 ‘shape[n] >= 0’로 제한됩니다.  ‘shape[n] == 0’인 경
          우는 특별한 주의가 필요합니다.  자세한 정보는 *note 복잡한
          배열: 4bde.을 참조하십시오.

          shape 배열은 소비자에게 읽기 전용입니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *strides

          각 차원에서 새 요소를 가져오기 위해 건너뛸 바이트 수를 제공하
          는 길이 *note ndim: 4bdb.의 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 배열.

          스트라이드 값은 임의의 정수일 수 있습니다.  일반 배열의 경우,
          스트라이드는 보통 양수이지만, 소비자는 ‘strides[n] <= 0’인 경
          우를 처리할 수 있어야 합니다.  자세한 내용은 *note 복잡한
          배열: 4bde.을 참조하십시오.

          strides 배열은 소비자에게 읽기 전용입니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *suboffsets

          길이 *note ndim: 4bdb.의 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 배열.
          ‘suboffsets[n] >= 0’ 면, n 번째 차원을 따라 저장된 값은 포인터
          이고 서브 오프셋 값은 역참조(de-referencing) 후 각 포인터에 더
          할 바이트 수를 나타냅니다.  음의 서브 오프셋 값은 역참조
          (de-referencing)가 발생하지 않아야 함을 나타냅니다 (연속 메모
          리 블록에서의 스트라이드).

          모든 서브 오프셋이 음수면 (즉, 역참조가 필요하지 않으면), 이 필
          드는 ‘NULL’(기본값) 이어야 합니다.

          이 유형의 배열 표현은 파이썬 이미징 라이브러리(PIL)에서 사용됩
          니다.  이러한 배열 요소에 액세스하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은
          *note 복잡한 배열: 4bde.을 참조하십시오.

          suboffsets 배열은 소비자에게 읽기 전용입니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: void *internal

          이것은 제공하는(exporting) 객체에 의해 내부적으로 사용됩니다.
          예를 들어, 이것은 제공자(exporter)가 정수로 다시 캐스팅할 수 있
          으며, 버퍼가 해제될 때 shape, strides 및 suboffsets 배열을 해
          제해야 하는지에 대한 플래그를 저장하는 데 사용됩니다.  소비자
          가 이 값을 변경해서는 안 됩니다.

상수:

 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_MAX_NDIM

     메모리가 나타내는 최대 차원 수 입니다.  제공자는 이 제한을 존중해야
     하며, 다차원 버퍼의 소비자는 ‘PyBUF_MAX_NDIM’ 차원까지 처리할 수 있
     어야 합니다.  현재 64로 설정되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼 요청 유형,  Next: 복잡한 배열,  Prev: 버퍼 구조체,  Up: 버퍼 프로토콜

7.7.7.2 버퍼 요청 유형
......................

버퍼는 대개 *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.를 통해 제공하는(exporting)
객체로 버퍼 요청을 보내서 얻습니다.  메모리의 논리적 구조의 복잡성이 크
게 다를 수 있으므로, 소비자는 처리할 수 있는 정확한 버퍼 유형을 지정하기
위해 'flags' 인자를 사용합니다.

모든 *note Py_buffer: 751. 필드는 요청 유형에 의해 모호하지 않게 정의됩
니다.

* Menu:

* 요청 독립적 필드::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* 연속성 요청::
* 복합 요청::


File: python.info,  Node: 요청 독립적 필드,  Next: readonly format,  Up: 버퍼 요청 유형

7.7.7.3 요청 독립적 필드
........................

다음 필드는 'flags'의 영향을 받지 않고 항상 올바른 값으로 채워져야 합니
다: *note obj: 4bd3, *note buf: 4bd1, *note len: 4bd4, *note itemsize:
4bd7, *note ndim: 4bdb.


File: python.info,  Node: readonly format,  Next: shape strides suboffsets,  Prev: 요청 독립적 필드,  Up: 버퍼 요청 유형

7.7.7.4 readonly, format
........................

      -- C 매크로: PyBUF_WRITABLE

          *note readonly: 4bd6. 필드를 제어합니다.  설정되면, 제공자는 반
          드시 쓰기 가능한 버퍼를 제공하거나 실패를 보고해야 합니다.  그
          렇지 않으면, 제공자는 읽기 전용 버퍼나 쓰기 가능 버퍼를 제공할
          수 있지만, 모든 소비자에 대해 일관성을 유지해야 합니다.  예를
          들어, 간단한 쓰기 가능 버퍼를 요청하려면 *note PyBUF_SIMPLE:
          4bd5. | *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383.을 사용할 수 있습니다.

      -- C 매크로: PyBUF_FORMAT

          *note format: 4bd8. 필드를 제어합니다.  설정되면, 이 필드를 올
          바르게 채워야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, 이 필드는 반드시 ‘NULL’
          이어야 합니다.

*note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383.은 다음 섹션의 모든 플래그와 | 될 수 있습니다
.  *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd5.이 0으로 정의되므로, *note PyBUF_WRITABLE:
1383.은 독립형 플래그로 사용되어 간단한 쓰기 가능한 버퍼를 요청할 수 있
습니다.

*note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4bd9.은 *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd5.을 제외한 임의의 플
래그와 | 되어야 합니다.  PyBUF_SIMPLE 은 이미 형식 ‘B’(부호 없는 바이트
)를 의미하기 때문입니다.  ‘PyBUF_FORMAT’은 단독으로 사용할 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: shape strides suboffsets,  Next: 연속성 요청,  Prev: readonly format,  Up: 버퍼 요청 유형

7.7.7.5 shape, strides, suboffsets
..................................

메모리의 논리 구조를 제어하는 플래그는 복잡도가 감소하는 순서로 나열됩니
다.  각 플래그는 그 아래에 있는 플래그의 모든 비트를 포함합니다.

요청                              shape       strides       suboffsets
                                                            
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_INDIRECT      yes         yes           필요하면
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_STRIDES       yes         yes           NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_ND            yes         NULL          NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_SIMPLE        NULL        NULL          NULL
                                                            


File: python.info,  Node: 연속성 요청,  Next: 복합 요청,  Prev: shape strides suboffsets,  Up: 버퍼 요청 유형

7.7.7.6 연속성 요청
...................

C 나 포트란 *note 연속성: 222f.을 명시적으로 요청할 수 있는데, 스트라이
드 정보를 포함하기도 그렇지 않기도 합니다.  스트라이드 정보가 없으면, 버
퍼는 C-연속이어야 합니다.

요청                                    shape       strides       suboffsets       연속성
                                                                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                   
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS        yes         yes           NULL             C
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS        yes         yes           NULL             F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS      yes         yes           NULL             C 또는 F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
*note PyBUF_ND: 4be6.                   yes         NULL          NULL             C
                                                                                   


File: python.info,  Node: 복합 요청,  Prev: 연속성 요청,  Up: 버퍼 요청 유형

7.7.7.7 복합 요청
.................

모든 가능한 요청은 앞 절의 플래그 조합에 의해 완전히 정의됩니다.  편의상
, 버퍼 프로토콜은 자주 사용되는 조합을 단일 플래그로 제공합니다.

다음 표에서 'U'는 정의되지 않은 연속성을 나타냅니다.  소비자는 연속성을
판단하기 위해 *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 757.를 호출해야 합니다.

요청                                shape       strides       suboffsets       연속성       readonly       format
                                                                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_FULL            yes         yes           필요하면         U            0              yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_FULL_RO         yes         yes           필요하면         U            1 또는 0       yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_RECORDS         yes         yes           NULL             U            0              yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO      yes         yes           NULL             U            1 또는 0       yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_STRIDED         yes         yes           NULL             U            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO      yes         yes           NULL             U            1 또는 0       NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_CONTIG          yes         NULL          NULL             C            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO       yes         NULL          NULL             C            1 또는 0       NULL
                                                                                                           


File: python.info,  Node: 복잡한 배열,  Next: 버퍼 관련 함수,  Prev: 버퍼 요청 유형,  Up: 버퍼 프로토콜

7.7.7.8 복잡한 배열
...................

* Menu:

* NumPy-스타일; shape과 strides: NumPy-스타일 shape과 strides.
* PIL-스타일; shape, strides 및 suboffsets: PIL-스타일 shape strides 및 suboffsets.


File: python.info,  Node: NumPy-스타일 shape과 strides,  Next: PIL-스타일 shape strides 및 suboffsets,  Up: 복잡한 배열

7.7.7.9 NumPy-스타일: shape과 strides
.....................................

NumPy 스타일 배열의 논리적 구조는 *note itemsize: 4bd7, *note ndim:
4bdb, *note shape: 4bda. 및 *note strides: 4bd2.로 정의됩니다.

‘ndim == 0’이면, *note buf: 4bd1.가 가리키는 메모리 위치가 *note
itemsize: 4bd7. 크기의 스칼라로 해석됩니다.  이 경우, *note shape: 4bda.
과 *note strides: 4bd2.는 모두 ‘NULL’입니다.

*note strides: 4bd2.가 ‘NULL’이면, 배열은 표준 n-차원 C 배열로 해석됩니
다.  그렇지 않으면, 소비자는 다음과 같이 n-차원 배열에 액세스해야 합니다
:

     ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1];
     item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);

위에서 언급했듯이, *note buf: 4bd1.는 실제 메모리 블록 내의 모든 위치를
가리킬 수 있습니다.  제공자(exporter)는 이 함수로 버퍼의 유효성을 검사 할
수 있습니다:

     def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
         """매개 변수가 할당된 메모리 범위 내에서 유효한 배열을 나타내는지 확인합니다:
                char *mem: 물리적 메모리 블록의 시작
                memlen: 물리적 메모리 블록의 길이
                offset: (char *)buf - mem
         """
         if offset % itemsize:
             return False
         if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
             return False
         if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
             return False

         if ndim <= 0:
             return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
         if 0 in shape:
             return True

         imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] <= 0)
         imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] > 0)

         return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen


File: python.info,  Node: PIL-스타일 shape strides 및 suboffsets,  Prev: NumPy-스타일 shape과 strides,  Up: 복잡한 배열

7.7.7.10 PIL-스타일: shape, strides 및 suboffsets
.................................................

일반 항목 외에도, PIL 스타일 배열에는 차원의 다음 요소를 가져오기 위해 따
라야 하는 포인터가 포함될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 일반 3-차원 C 배열
‘char v[2][2][3]’는 2개의 2-차원 배열을 가리키는 2개의 포인터 배열로 볼
수도 있습니다: ‘char (*v[2])[2][3]’.  suboffsets 표현에서, 이 두 포인터
는 *note buf: 4bd1.의 시작 부분에 임베드 될 수 있는데, 메모리의 어느 위
치 에나 배치될 수 있는 두 개의 ‘char x[2][3]’ 배열을 가리킵니다.

다음은 ‘NULL’이 아닌 strides와 suboffsets가 있을 때, N-차원 인덱스가 가
리키는 N-차원 배열의 요소에 대한 포인터를 반환하는 함수입니다:

     void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
                            Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
         char *pointer = (char*)buf;
         int i;
         for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
             pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
             if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
                 pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
             }
         }
         return (void*)pointer;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼 관련 함수,  Prev: 복잡한 배열,  Up: 버퍼 프로토콜

7.7.7.11 버퍼 관련 함수
.......................

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_CheckBuffer (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'obj'가 버퍼
     인터페이스를 지원하면 ‘1’을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니
     다.  ‘1’이 반환될 때, *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.가 성공할 것
     이라고 보장하지는 않습니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GetBuffer (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view,
          int flags)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'flags'에 지
     정된 대로 'view'를 채우도록 'exporter'에게 요청을 보냅니다.  제공자
     (exporter)가 정확한 유형의 버퍼를 제공할 수 없다면, *note
     BufferError: 182b.를 일으키고, ‘view->obj’를 ‘NULL’로 설정하고,
     ‘-1’를 반환해야 합니다.

     성공하면, 'view'를 채우고, ‘view->obj’를 'exporter'에 대한 새 참조
     로 설정하고, 0을 반환합니다.  요청을 단일 객체로 리디렉션하는 연결
     된(chained) 버퍼 공급자의 경우, ‘view->obj’는 'exporter' 대신 이 객
     체를 참조할 수 있습니다 (*note 버퍼 객체 구조체: 4bcd.를 보세요).

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.에 대한 성공적인 호출은 *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 394.에 대한 호출과 쌍을 이루어야 합니다,
     ‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’와 유사합니다.  따라서, 소비자가 버퍼로 작업한
     후에는, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.를 정확히 한 번 호출해야 합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: void PyBuffer_Release (Py_buffer *view)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  버퍼 'view'를
     해제하고 뷰의 지원 객체인 ‘view->obj’에 대한 *note 강한 참조: 336.를
     해제합니다 (즉 참조 횟수를 감소시킵니다).  버퍼가 더는 사용되지 않
     을 때, 이 함수를 반드시 호출해야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 참조 누수가
     발생할 수 있습니다.

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.를 통해 얻지 않은 버퍼에 이 함수를
     호출하는 것은 에러입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (const char
          *format)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  *note
     format: 4bd8.이 암시하는 *note itemsize: 4bd7.를 반환합니다.  에러
     가 발생하면, 예외를 발생시키고 -1을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, char
          order)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'view'로 정
     의된 메모리가 C 스타일('order'가 ‘'C'’)이나 포트란 스타일('order'가
     ‘'F'’) *note 연속: 222f.이거나 둘 중 하나('order'가 ‘'A'’)면 ‘1’을
     반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합
     니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyBuffer_GetPointer (const Py_buffer *view, const
          Py_ssize_t *indices)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  주어진
     'view' 내부의 'indices'가 가리키는 메모리 영역을 가져옵니다.
     'indices'는 ‘view->ndim’ 인덱스의 배열을 가리켜야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyBuffer_FromContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, const
          void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char fort)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'buf'에 있는
     연속된 'len' 바이트를 'view'로 복사합니다.  'fort'는 ‘'C'’ 또는
     ‘'F'’(C 스타일 또는 포트란 스타일 순서)일 수 있습니다.  성공하면
     ‘0’이 반환되고, 에러가 있으면 ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous (void *buf, const Py_buffer *src,
          Py_ssize_t len, char order)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'src'에 있는
     'len' 바이트를 'buf'에 연속 표현으로 복사합니다.  'order'는 ‘'C'’ 또
     는 ‘'F'’ 또는 ‘'A'’(C 스타일 또는 포트란 스타일 순서 또는 둘 중 하
     나)일 수 있습니다.  성공하면 ‘0’이 반환되고, 에러가 있으면 ‘-1’이 반
     환됩니다.

     이 함수는 'len' != 'src->len'이면 실패합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_CopyData (PyObject *dest, PyObject *src)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  Copy data
     from 'src' to 'dest' buffer.  Can convert between C-style and or
     Fortran-style buffers.

     ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C 함수: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (int ndims, Py_ssize_t
          *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char order)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'strides' 배
     열을 주어진 요소당 바이트 수와 주어진 shape 으로 *note 연속: 222f.
     ('order'가 ‘'C'’면 C 스타일, 'order'가 ‘'F'’면 포트란 스타일) 배열
     의 바이트 스트라이드로 채웁니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyBuffer_FillInfo (Py_buffer *view, PyObject *exporter,
          void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  'readonly'에
     따라 쓰기 가능성이 설정된 'len' 크기의 'buf'를 노출하려는 제공자
     (exporter)에 대한 버퍼 요청을 처리합니다.  'buf'는 부호 없는 바이트
     의 시퀀스로 해석됩니다.

     'flags' 인자는 요청 유형을 나타냅니다.  이 함수는 'buf'가 읽기 전용
     으로 지정되고 *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1383.이 'flags'에 설정되어 있지
     않으면, 항상 플래그가 지정하는 대로 'view'를 채웁니다.

     성공하면, ‘view->obj’를 'exporter'에 대한 새 참조로 설정하고, 0을 반
     환합니다.  그렇지 않으면, *note BufferError: 182b.를 일으키고,
     ‘view->obj’를 ‘NULL’로 설정한 다음 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     이 함수가 *note getbufferproc: 4bcd.의 일부로 사용되면, 'exporter'가
     제공하는(exporting) 객체로 설정되어야 하고, 'flags'는 수정되지 않은
     채로 전달되어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면 'exporter'가 ‘NULL’이어야 합
     니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 구상 객체 계층,  Next: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드,  Prev: 추상 객체 계층,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.8 구상 객체 계층
==================

이 장의 함수는 특정 파이썬 객체 형에게만 적용됩니다.  그들에게 잘못된 형
의 객체를 전달하는 것은 좋은 생각이 아닙니다; 파이썬 프로그램에서 객체를
받았는데 올바른 형을 가졌는지 확실하지 않다면, 먼저 형 검사를 수행해야 합
니다; 예를 들어, 객체가 딕셔너리인지 확인하려면, *note PyDict_Check():
4bf8.를 사용하십시오.  이 장은 파이썬 객체 형의 “족보”처럼 구성되어 있습
니다.

     경고: 이 장에서 설명하는 함수는 전달되는 객체의 형을 주의 깊게 검사
     하지만, 많은 함수는 유효한 객체 대신 전달되는 ‘NULL’을 확인하지 않
     습니다.  ‘NULL’을 전달하면 메모리 액세스 위반이 발생하고 인터프리터
     가 즉시 종료될 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 객체::
* 숫자 객체::
* 시퀀스 객체::
* 컨테이너 객체::
* 함수 객체::
* 기타 객체: 기타 객체<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 객체,  Next: 숫자 객체,  Up: 구상 객체 계층

7.8.1 기본 객체
---------------

이 절에서는 파이썬 형 객체와 싱글톤 객체 ‘None’에 대해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 형 객체: 형 객체<2>.
* None 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 형 객체<2>,  Next: None 객체,  Up: 기본 객체

7.8.1.1 형 객체
...............

 -- C 자료형: type PyTypeObject
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e. (as an opaque struct).'  내장
     형을 기술하는 데 사용되는 객체의 C 구조체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyType_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 형 객체의 형 객체입니다
     ; 파이썬 계층의 *note type: d45.과 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_Check (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'가 표준형 객체에서 파생된 형의 인스턴스를 포함하여 형 객체
     면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  다른 모든 경우 0을 반환합니다.  이 함
     수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'가 형 객체이지만, 표준형 객체의 서브 형이 아니면 0이 아닌 값
     을 반환합니다.  다른 모든 경우 0을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  내부 조회 캐시를 지웁니다.  현
     재의 버전 태그를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'type'의 *note tp_flags: 18c4.
     멤버를 반환합니다.  이 함수는 주로 ‘Py_LIMITED_API’와 함께 사용하기
     위한 것입니다; 개별 플래그 비트는 파이썬 배포 간에 안정적인 것으로
     보장되지만, *note tp_flags: 18c4. 자체에 대한 액세스는 *note 제한된
     API: 38f. 일부가 아닙니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 반환형은 이제 ‘long’이 아니라 ‘unsigned long’입
     니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetDict (PyTypeObject *type)

     Return the type object’s internal namespace, which is otherwise
     only exposed via a read-only proxy (*note cls.__dict__: c5a.).
     This is a replacement for accessing *note tp_dict: 1725. directly.
     The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.

     This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding
     cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect
     access (e.g.  via the proxy or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344.)
     isn’t adequate.

     Extension modules should continue to use ‘tp_dict’, directly or
     indirectly, when setting up their own types.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: void PyType_Modified (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  형과 그것의 모든 서브 형에 대
     한 내부 검색 캐시를 무효로 합니다.  형의 어트리뷰트나 베이스 클래스
     를 수동으로 수정한 후에는 이 함수를 호출해야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_AddWatcher (PyType_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a type watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer ID which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyType_Watch(): 560.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     In free-threaded builds, *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 55f. is not
     thread-safe, so it must be called at start up (before spawning the
     first thread).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' (previously returned from
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 55f.).  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_ClearWatcher’ with a
     'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 55f.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

     Mark 'type' as watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 55f. will be called whenever *note
     PyType_Modified(): 17f8. reports a change to 'type'.  (The callback
     may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications
     to 'type', if ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ is not called on 'type' between
     the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to
     change.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_Watch’ with a 'watcher_id'
     that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 55f.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(*note PyObject: 332.
          *type)

     Type of a type-watcher callback function.

     The callback must not modify 'type' or cause *note
     PyType_Modified(): 17f8. to be called on 'type' or any type in its
     MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_HasFeature (PyTypeObject *o, int feature)

     형 객체 'o'가 기능 'feature'를 설정하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  형
     기능은 단일 비트 플래그로 표시됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_IS_GC (PyTypeObject *o)

     형 객체가 순환 검출기에 대한 지원을 포함하고 있으면 참을 반환합니다
     .  이것은 형 플래그 *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776.를 검사합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_IsSubtype (PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'a'가 'b'의 서브 형이면 참을 반
     환합니다.

     이 함수는 실제 서브 형만 검사합니다.  즉, *note
     __subclasscheck__(): 1f85.가 'b'에 대해 호출되지 않습니다.  *note
     issubclass(): 7ba.가 수행하는 것과 같은 검사를 하려면 *note
     PyObject_IsSubclass(): e9d.를 호출하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GenericAlloc (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  형 객체의
     *note tp_alloc: 48ed. 슬롯을 위한 일반 처리기.  파이썬의 기본 메모
     리 할당 메커니즘을 사용하여 새 인스턴스를 할당하고 모든 내용을
     ‘NULL’로 초기화합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GenericNew (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  형 객체의
     *note tp_new: 57a. 슬롯을 위한 일반 처리기.  형의 *note tp_alloc:
     48ed. 슬롯을 사용하여 새 인스턴스를 만듭니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyType_Ready (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  형 개체를 마무리합니다.  초기
     화를 완료하려면 모든 형 객체에 대해 이 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.  이
     함수는 형의 베이스 클래스에서 상속된 슬롯을 추가합니다.  성공 시
     ‘0’을 반환하고, 오류 시 ‘-1’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.

          참고: If some of the base classes implements the GC protocol
          and the provided type does not include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. in its flags, then the GC protocol
          will be automatically implemented from its parents.  On the
          contrary, if the type being created does include *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. in its flags then it 'must' implement
          the GC protocol itself by at least implementing the *note
          tp_traverse: 777. handle.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetName (PyTypeObject *type)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이
     후로.'  Return the type’s name.  Equivalent to getting the type’s
     *note __name__: 1471. attribute.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetQualName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이
     후로.'  Return the type’s qualified name.  Equivalent to getting
     the type’s *note __qualname__: 1f2e. attribute.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName
          (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Return the
     type’s fully qualified name.  Equivalent to
     ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or *note
     type.__qualname__: 1f2e. if *note type.__module__: 36d. is not a
     string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetModuleName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Return the
     type’s module name.  Equivalent to getting the *note
     type.__module__: 36d. attribute.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: void *PyType_GetSlot (PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.4 이후로.'  지정된 슬롯에
     저장된 함수 포인터를 반환합니다.  결과가 ‘NULL’이면, 슬롯이 ‘NULL’이
     거나 함수가 유효하지 않은 매개 변수로 호출되었음을 나타냅니다.  호
     출자는 일반적으로 결과 포인터를 적절한 함수 형으로 캐스팅합니다.

     'slot' 인자의 가능한 값은 *note PyType_Slot.slot: 4c01.을 참조하십
     시오.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: *note PyType_GetSlot(): 898. can now accept all
     types.  Previously, it was limited to *note heap types: 963.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetModule (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c.를 사용하여 형을 만들 때 지정된 형
     과 관련된 모듈 객체를 반환합니다.

     주어진 형과 연관된 모듈이 없으면, *note TypeError: 532.를 설정하고
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 일반적으로 메서드가 정의된 모듈을 가져오는 데 사용됩니다.
     이러한 메서드에서, ‘PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self))’는 의도한 결과
     를 반환하지 않을 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  ‘Py_TYPE(self)’는 의도한
     클래스의 '서브 클래스'일 수 있으며, 서브 클래스가 반드시 슈퍼 클래
     스와 같은 모듈에 정의된 것은 아닙니다.  메서드를 정의하는 클래스를
     얻으려면 *note PyCMethod: 75d.를 참조하십시오.  ‘PyCMethod’를 사용
     할 수 없는 경우는 *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d.를 참조하세요.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: void *PyType_GetModuleState (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  주어진 형과
     관련된 모듈 객체의 상태를 반환합니다.  *note PyType_GetModule():
     96c. 결과에 *note PyModule_GetState(): 97d.를 호출하는 바로 가기입
     니다.

     주어진 형과 연관된 모듈이 없으면, *note TypeError: 532.를 설정하고
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     'type'에 연관된 모듈이 있지만, 상태가 ‘NULL’이면, 예외를 설정하지 않
     고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_GetModuleByDef (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이
     후로.'  Find the first superclass whose module was created from the
     given *note PyModuleDef: 978. 'def', and return that module.

     모듈을 찾을 수 없으면, *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시키고 ‘NULL’을
     반환합니다.

     This function is intended to be used together with *note
     PyModule_GetState(): 97d. to get module state from slot methods
     (such as *note tp_init: 57c. or *note nb_add: 4c02.) and other
     places where a method’s defining class cannot be passed using the
     *note PyCMethod: 75d. calling convention.

     The returned reference is *note borrowed: 337. from 'type', and
     will be valid as long as you hold a reference to 'type'.  Do not
     release it with *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. or similar.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (PyTypeObject *type)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.

     Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one
     was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned.

     Added in version 3.12.

* Menu:

* 힙에 할당된 형 만들기::


File: python.info,  Node: 힙에 할당된 형 만들기,  Up: 형 객체<2>

7.8.1.2 힙에 할당된 형 만들기
.............................

다음 함수와 구조체는 *note 힙 형: 963.을 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_FromMetaclass (PyTypeObject
          *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject
          *bases)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'  'spec'으로
     *note 힙 형: 963.을 만들고 반환합니다 (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     8ac.을 찹고하세요).

     The metaclass 'metaclass' is used to construct the resulting type
     object.  When 'metaclass' is ‘NULL’, the metaclass is derived from
     'bases' (or 'Py_tp_base[s]' slots if 'bases' is ‘NULL’, see below).

     Metaclasses that override *note tp_new: 57a. are not supported,
     except if ‘tp_new’ is ‘NULL’.  (For backwards compatibility, other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions allow such metaclasses.  They ignore
     ‘tp_new’, which may result in incomplete initialization.  This is
     deprecated and in Python 3.14+ such metaclasses will not be
     supported.)

     베이스 클래스를 지정하는 데 'bases' 인자를 사용할 수 있습니다; 하나
     의 클래스 또는 클래스의 튜플일 수 있습니다.  'bases'가 ‘NULL’이면,
     'Py_tp_bases' 슬롯이 대신 사용됩니다.  그 또한 ‘NULL’이면,
     'Py_tp_base' 슬롯이 대신 사용됩니다.  그 또한 ‘NULL’이면, 새 형은
     *note object: a89.에서 파생됩니다.

     'module' 인자는 새 클래스가 정의된 모듈을 기록하는 데 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  모듈 객체나 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다.  ‘NULL’이 아니면, 모듈은
     새 형과 연관되며 나중에 *note PyType_GetModule(): 96c.로 가져올 수
     있습니다.  연관된 모듈은 서브 클래스에 상속되지 않습니다; 각 클래스
     에 대해 개별적으로 지정해야 합니다.

     이 함수는 새로운 형에 *note PyType_Ready(): 775.를 호출합니다.

     Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of
     calling *note type(): d45. or using the *note class: 12c7.
     statement.  With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer
     *note calling: 4bab. *note type: d45. (or the metaclass) over
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions.  Specifically:

        * *note __new__(): 57b. is not called on the new class (and it
          must be set to ‘type.__new__’).

        * *note __init__(): 6aa. is not called on the new class.

        * *note __init_subclass__(): 62b. is not called on any bases.

        * *note __set_name__(): c4b. is not called on new descriptors.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (PyObject
          *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이
     후로.'  ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)’와 동등합
     니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: The function now accepts a single class as the
     'bases' argument and ‘NULL’ as the ‘tp_doc’ slot.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously, only *note
     type: d45. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 57a. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57a. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_FromSpecWithBases (PyType_Spec
          *spec, PyObject *bases)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.3 이후
     로.'  ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)’와 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously, only *note
     type: d45. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 57a. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57a. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyType_FromSpec (PyType_Spec *spec)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, NULL)’와 동등합니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the base classes provided in 'Py_tp_base[s]'
     slots.  Previously, only *note type: d45. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 57a. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57a. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C 자료형: type PyType_Spec
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  형의
     행동을 정의하는 구조체.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          형의 이름, *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 18f9.을 설정하는 데 사
          용됩니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int basicsize

          양수면, 인스턴스의 바이트 수 크기를 지정합니다.  *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 984.를 설정하는 데 사용됩니다.

          If zero, specifies that *note tp_basicsize: 984. should be
          inherited.

          If negative, the absolute value specifies how much space
          instances of the class need 'in addition' to the superclass.
          Use *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 544. to get a pointer to
          subclass-specific memory reserved this way.  For negative
          ‘basicsize’, Python will insert padding when needed to meet
          *note tp_basicsize: 984.’s alignment requirements.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: Previously, this field could not be
          negative.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int itemsize

          가변 크기 형의 한 요소의 바이트 수 크기.  *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize: 1f78.를 설정하는 데 사용됩니다.  주
          의 사항은 ‘tp_itemsize’ 설명서를 참조하세요.

          If zero, *note tp_itemsize: 1f78. is inherited.  Extending
          arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some
          types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can
          then overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass.  To help
          prevent mistakes, inheriting ‘itemsize’ is only possible in
          the following situations:

             - 베이스는 가변 크기가 아닙니다 (*note tp_itemsize: 1f78. 입
               니다).

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543. is
               positive, suggesting that the memory layout of the base
               class is known.

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543. is zero,
               suggesting that the subclass does not access the
               instance’s memory directly.

             - With the *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 546. flag.

      -- C 멤버 변수: unsigned int flags

          형 플래그, *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 18c4.를 설정하는 데 사
          용됩니다.

          ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE’ 플래그가 설정되어 있지 않으면, *note
          PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. 가 자동으로 플래그를 설정합니
          다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyType_Slot: 4a9e. *slots

          *note PyType_Slot: 4a9e. 구조체의 배열.  특수 슬롯값 ‘{0,
          NULL}’에 의해 종료됩니다.

          Each slot ID should be specified at most once.

 -- C 자료형: type PyType_Slot
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  형의
     선택적 기능을 정의하는 구조체, 슬롯 ID와 값 포인터를 포함합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int slot

          슬롯 ID.

          슬롯 ID는 구조체 *note PyTypeObject: aa2, *note
          PyNumberMethods: 13e6, *note PySequenceMethods: 4910, *note
          PyMappingMethods: 4911. 및 *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c09. 의 필드
          이름에 ‘Py_’ 접두사를 붙인 이름을 사용합니다.  예를 들어, :

             * *note PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc: 48da.을 설정하는
               ‘Py_tp_dealloc’

             * *note PyNumberMethods.nb_add: 4c02.를 설정하는
               ‘Py_nb_add’

             * *note PySequenceMethods.sq_length: 4c0a.를 설정하는
               ‘Py_sq_length’

          다음 “offset” 필드는 *note PyType_Slot: 4a9e.을 사용하여 설정
          할 수 없습니다:

             * *note tp_weaklistoffset: 985. (가능하면 대신 *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 555.를 사용하세요)

             * *note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b. (가능하면 대신 *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364.를 사용하세요)

             * *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4bad. (*note PyMemberDef:
               4c0c.에서 ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’를 사용하세요)

          If it is not possible to switch to a ‘MANAGED’ flag (for
          example, for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12),
          specify the offset in *note Py_tp_members: 48ee.  See *note
          PyMemberDef documentation: 4c0c. for details.

          다음 필드는 힙 형을 만들 때 전혀 설정할 수 없습니다:

             * *note tp_vectorcall: 4c0d. (*note tp_new: 57a. 와/또는
               *note tp_init: 57c.를 사용하세요)

             * 내부 필드: *note tp_dict: 1725, *note tp_mro: 4c0e, *note
               tp_cache: 4c0f, *note tp_subclasses: 56d. 및 *note
               tp_weaklist: 4c10.

          일부 플랫폼에서는 ‘Py_tp_bases’나 ‘Py_tp_base’를 설정하는 것이
          문제가 될 수 있습니다.  문제를 피하려면, 대신 *note
          PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579. 의 'bases' 인자를 사용하십시
          오.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: *note PyBufferProcs: 4c11.의 슬롯은 제한 없
          는 API에서 설정할 수 있습니다.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: *note bf_getbuffer: 75b. and *note
          bf_releasebuffer: 75c. are now available under the *note
          limited API: 38f.

      -- C 멤버 변수: void *pfunc

          슬롯의 원하는 값입니다.  대부분 이것은 함수에 대한 포인터입니
          다.

          Slots other than ‘Py_tp_doc’ may not be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: None 객체,  Prev: 형 객체<2>,  Up: 기본 객체

7.8.1.3 ‘None’ 객체
...................

‘None’에 대한 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.는 파이썬/C API에서 직접 노출되지
않습니다.  ‘None’은 싱글톤이기 때문에 (C에서 ‘==’를 사용해서) 객체 아이
덴티티를 검사하는 것으로 충분합니다.  같은 이유로 ‘PyNone_Check()’ 함수
가 없습니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_None

     값의 부재를 나타내는 파이썬 ‘None’ 객체입니다.  이 객체는 메서드가
     없고 *note 불멸: 437c.입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: *note Py_None: 48bc.은 *note 불멸: 437c.입니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_RETURN_NONE

     함수에서 *note Py_None: 48bc.을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 객체,  Next: 시퀀스 객체,  Prev: 기본 객체,  Up: 구상 객체 계층

7.8.2 숫자 객체
---------------

* Menu:

* 정수 객체::
* 불리언 객체::
* 부동 소수점 객체::
* 복소수 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 정수 객체,  Next: 불리언 객체,  Up: 숫자 객체

7.8.2.1 정수 객체
.................

모든 정수는 임의의 크기의 “long” 정수 객체로 구현됩니다.

에러 시, 대부분의 ‘PyLong_As*’ API는 숫자와 구별할 수 없는 ‘(return
type)-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note PyErr_Occurred():
18f8.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: type PyLongObject
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e. (as an opaque struct).'  이
     *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 정수 객체를 나타냅니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyLong_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 정수 형을 나타냅니다.  이것은 파이썬 계층의 *note
     int: 257.와 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyLong_Check (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyLongObject: 583.이나 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 서브
     형이면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyLong_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyLongObject: 583. 이지만 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 서
     브 형이 아니면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromLong (long v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'v'로부터 새
     *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.

     현재 구현은 ‘-5’와 ‘256’ 사이의 모든 정수에 대해 정수 객체의 배열을
     유지합니다.  이 범위에 있는 정수를 만들면 실제로는 기존 객체에 대한
     참조만 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (unsigned long
          v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C unsigned
     long으로부터 새 *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거나, 실패하
     면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromSsize_t (Py_ssize_t v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C *note
     Py_ssize_t: a5c.로부터 새 *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거
     나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromSize_t (size_t v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C ‘size_t’로
     부터 새 *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거나, 실패하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromLongLong (long long v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C long
     long으로부터 새 *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거나, 실패하
     면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (unsigned
          long long v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C unsigned
     long long으로부터 새 *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거나, 실
     패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromDouble (double v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'v'의 정수
     부분으로부터 새 *note PyLongObject: 583. 객체를 반환하거나, 실패하
     면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromString (const char *str,
          char **pend, int base)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'str'의 문
     자열 값을 기반으로 한 새 *note PyLongObject: 583.를 반환하거나, 실
     패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  문자열 값은 'base'의 진수(기수)에 따라
     해석됩니다.  'pend'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, '*pend'는 성공 시에 'str'의
     끝을 가리키고, 에러 시에 처리할 수 없었던 첫 번째 문자를 가리킵니다
     .  'base'가 ‘0’이면, 'str'은 *note 정수 리터럴: 1ed0. 정의를 사용해
     서 해석됩니다; 이때, 0이 아닌 십진수의 선행 0은 *note ValueError:
     202.를 발생시킵니다.  'base'가 ‘0’이 아니면, ‘2’와 ‘36’ 사이에 있어
     야 하며, 경계를 포함합니다.  선행과 후행 공백과 진수 지정자 뒤나 숫
     자 사이의 단일 밑줄은 무시됩니다.  숫자가 없거나 'str'이 숫자와 후
     행 공백 뒤에 NULL-종료하지 않으면, *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합
     니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     Python methods *note int.to_bytes(): 1896. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1856. to convert a *note PyLongObject: 583.
     to/from an array of bytes in base ‘256’.  You can call those from C
     using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (PyObject *u,
          int base)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  문자열 'u'에 있는 유니코드 숫자의 시퀀스를 파이
     썬 정숫값으로 변환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromVoidPtr (void *p)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  포인터 'p'로
     부터 파이썬 정수를 만듭니다.  포인터 값은 *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr():
     4a23.를 사용하여 결괏값에서 조회할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromNativeBytes (const void
          *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)

     Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first
     'n_bytes' of 'buffer', interpreted as a two’s-complement signed
     number.

     'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35a.  Passing ‘-1’
     will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and
     assume that the most-significant bit is a sign bit.  Passing
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ will produce the same result as
     calling *note PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 35c.  Other flags
     are ignored.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes (const
          void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)

     Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first
     'n_bytes' of 'buffer', interpreted as an unsigned number.

     'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35a.  Passing ‘-1’
     will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and
     assume that the most-significant bit is not a sign bit.  Flags
     other than endian are ignored.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: long PyLong_AsLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'obj'의 C long 표현을 반환합니다.  'obj'가 *note PyLongObject:
     583.의 인스턴스가 아니면, (있다면) 먼저 *note __index__(): 716. 메
     서드를 호출하여 *note PyLongObject: 583.로 변환합니다.

     'obj'의 값이 long의 범위를 벗어나면 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발
     생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 715.

      -- C 함수: long PyLong_AS_LONG (PyObject *obj)

          A *note soft deprecated: 209. alias.  Exactly equivalent to
          the preferred ‘PyLong_AsLong’.  In particular, it can fail
          with *note OverflowError: 87d. or another exception.

          버전 3.14부터 폐지됨: The function is soft deprecated.

 -- C 함수: int PyLong_AsInt (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Similar to
     *note PyLong_AsLong(): 359, but store the result in a C int instead
     of a C long.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int *overflow)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'obj'의 C long 표현을 반환합니
     다.  'obj'가 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스가 아니면, (있다면)
     먼저 *note __index__(): 716. 메서드를 호출하여 *note PyLongObject:
     583.로 변환합니다.

     'obj'의 값이 ‘LONG_MAX’보다 크거나 ‘LONG_MIN’보다 작으면,
     '*overflow'를 각각 ‘1’이나 ‘-1’로 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다; 그렇
     지 않으면, '*overflow'를 ‘0’으로 설정합니다.  다른 예외가 발생하면
     '*overflow'를 ‘0’으로 설정하고 ‘-1’을 평소와 같이 반환합니다.

     에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 715.

 -- C 함수: long long PyLong_AsLongLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'obj'의 C long long 표현을 반환합니다.  'obj'가 *note PyLongObject:
     583.의 인스턴스가 아니면, (있다면) 먼저 *note __index__(): 716. 메
     서드를 호출하여 *note PyLongObject: 583.로 변환합니다.

     'obj'의 값이 long long의 범위를 벗어나면 *note OverflowError: 87d.를
     발생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 715.

 -- C 함수: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int
          *overflow)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'obj'의 C long long 표현을 반
     환합니다.  'obj'가 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스가 아니면, (있
     다면) 먼저 *note __index__(): 716. 메서드를 호출하여 *note
     PyLongObject: 583.로 변환합니다.

     'obj'의 값이 ‘LLONG_MAX’보다 크거나 ‘LLONG_MIN’보다 작으면,
     '*overflow'를 각각 ‘1’이나 ‘-1’로 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다; 그렇
     지 않으면, '*overflow'를 ‘0’으로 설정합니다.  다른 예외가 발생하면
     '*overflow'를 ‘0’으로 설정하고 ‘-1’을 평소와 같이 반환합니다.

     에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 715.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyLong_AsSsize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'pylong'의 C *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. 표현을 반환합니다.  'pylong'은
     *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.

     'pylong'의 값이 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.의 범위를 벗어나면 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'pylong'의 C unsigned long 표현을 반환합니다.  'pylong'은 *note
     PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.

     'pylong'의 값이 unsigned long의 범위를 벗어나면 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘(unsigned long)-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면
     *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'pylong'의 C ‘size_t’ 표현을 반환합니다.  'pylong'은 *note
     PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.

     'pylong'의 값이 ‘size_t’의 범위를 벗어나면 *note OverflowError:
     87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘(size_t)-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'pylong'의 C unsigned long long 표현을 반환합니다.  'pylong'은
     *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.

     'pylong'의 값이 unsigned long long의 범위를 벗어나면 *note
     OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘(unsigned long long)-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면
     *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.1에서 변경: 음의 'pylong'는 이제 *note TypeError: 532.가 아
     니라 *note OverflowError: 87d.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (PyObject *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'obj'의 C unsigned long 표현을
     반환합니다.  'obj'가 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스가 아니면,
     (있다면) 먼저 *note __index__(): 716. 메서드를 호출하여 *note
     PyLongObject: 583.로 변환합니다.

     'obj'의 값이 unsigned long의 범위를 벗어나면, 그 값의 모듈로
     ‘ULONG_MAX + 1’ 환원을 반환합니다.

     에러 시 ‘(unsigned long)-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면
     *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 715.

 -- C 함수: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (PyObject
          *obj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'obj'의 C unsigned long long 표
     현을 반환합니다.  'obj'가 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스가 아
     니면, (있다면) 먼저 *note __index__(): 716. 메서드를 호출하여 *note
     PyLongObject: 583.로 변환합니다.

     'obj'의 값이 unsigned long long의 범위를 벗어나면, 그 값의 모듈로
     ‘ULLONG_MAX + 1’ 환원을 반환합니다.

     에러 시 ‘(unsigned long long)-1’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면
     *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 715.

 -- C 함수: double PyLong_AsDouble (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'pylong'의 C double 표현을 반
     환합니다.  'pylong'은 *note PyLongObject: 583.의 인스턴스여야 합니
     다.

     'pylong'의 값이 double의 범위를 벗어나면 *note OverflowError: 87d.를
     발생시킵니다.

     에러 시 ‘-1.0’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬 정수 'pylong'을 C void
     포인터로 변환합니다.  'pylong'을 변환할 수 없으면, *note
     OverflowError: 87d.가 발생합니다.  이것은 *note
     PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4a26.로 만들어진 값에 대해서만 사용할 수 있는
     void 포인터를 생성하는 것이 보장됩니다.

     에러 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  모호성을 제거하려면 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyLong_AsNativeBytes (PyObject
          *pylong, void *buffer, Py_ssize_t n_bytes, int flags)

     Copy the Python integer value 'pylong' to a native 'buffer' of size
     'n_bytes'.  The 'flags' can be set to ‘-1’ to behave similarly to a
     C cast, or to values documented below to control the behavior.

     Returns ‘-1’ with an exception raised on error.  This may happen if
     'pylong' cannot be interpreted as an integer, or if 'pylong' was
     negative and the ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ flag was set.

     Otherwise, returns the number of bytes required to store the value.
     If this is equal to or less than 'n_bytes', the entire value was
     copied.  All 'n_bytes' of the buffer are written: large buffers are
     padded with zeroes.

     If the returned value is greater than 'n_bytes', the value was
     truncated: as many of the lowest bits of the value as could fit are
     written, and the higher bits are ignored.  This matches the typical
     behavior of a C-style downcast.

          참고: Overflow is not considered an error.  If the returned
          value is larger than 'n_bytes', most significant bits were
          discarded.

     ‘0’ will never be returned.

     Values are always copied as two’s-complement.

     Usage example:

          int32_t value;
          Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, &value, sizeof(value), -1);
          if (bytes < 0) {
              // 실패. 이유와 함께 파이썬 예외가 설정됩니다.
              return NULL;
          }
          else if (bytes <= (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(value)) {
              // 성공!
          }
          else {
              // 오버플로우가 발생했지만, 'value' 에 pylong 의 잘린
              // 하위 비트들이 담깁니다.
          }

     Passing zero to 'n_bytes' will return the size of a buffer that
     would be large enough to hold the value.  This may be larger than
     technically necessary, but not unreasonably so.  If 'n_bytes=0',
     'buffer' may be ‘NULL’.

          참고: Passing 'n_bytes=0' to this function is not an accurate
          way to determine the bit length of the value.

     To get at the entire Python value of an unknown size, the function
     can be called twice: first to determine the buffer size, then to
     fill it:

          // 필요한 공간의 크기를 물어봅니다.
          Py_ssize_t expected = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, NULL, 0, -1);
          if (expected < 0) {
              // 실패. 이유와 함께 파이썬 예외가 설정됩니다.
              return NULL;
          }
          assert(expected != 0);  // API 정의에 따라 불가능합니다.
          uint8_t *bignum = malloc(expected);
          if (!bignum) {
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_MemoryError, "bignum malloc failed.");
              return NULL;
          }
          // 안전하게 전체 값을 얻습니다.
          Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, bignum, expected, -1);
          if (bytes < 0) {  // 예외가 설정되었습니다.
              free(bignum);
              return NULL;
          }
          else if (bytes > expected) {  // 이는 불가능해야 합니다.
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                  "Unexpected bignum truncation after a size check.");
              free(bignum);
              return NULL;
          }
          // 위의 사전 점검을 고려할 때 예상되는 성공.
          // ... bignum 을 사용합니다 ...
          free(bignum);

     'flags' is either ‘-1’ (‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS’) to select
     defaults that behave most like a C cast, or a combination of the
     other flags in the table below.  Note that ‘-1’ cannot be combined
     with other flags.

     Currently, ‘-1’ corresponds to ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN |
     Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’.

     플래그                                            값
                                                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS           ‘-1’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN         ‘0’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN      ‘1’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN      ‘3’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER    ‘4’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE    ‘8’
                                                       
                                                       
      -- C 매크로: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX        ‘16’
                                                       

     Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN’ will override any other
     endian flags.  Passing ‘2’ is reserved.

     By default, sufficient buffer will be requested to include a sign
     bit.  For example, when converting 128 with 'n_bytes=1', the
     function will return 2 (or more) in order to store a zero sign bit.

     If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ is specified, a zero sign bit
     will be omitted from size calculations.  This allows, for example,
     128 to fit in a single-byte buffer.  If the destination buffer is
     later treated as signed, a positive input value may become
     negative.  Note that the flag does not affect handling of negative
     values: for those, space for a sign bit is always requested.

     Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ causes an exception
     to be set if 'pylong' is negative.  Without this flag, negative
     values will be copied provided there is enough space for at least
     one sign bit, regardless of whether
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ was specified.

     If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ is specified and a non-integer
     value is passed, its *note __index__(): 716. method will be called
     first.  This may result in Python code executing and other threads
     being allowed to run, which could cause changes to other objects or
     values in use.  When 'flags' is ‘-1’, this option is not set, and
     non-integer values will raise *note TypeError: 532.

          참고: With the default 'flags' (‘-1’, or 'UNSIGNED_BUFFER'
          without 'REJECT_NEGATIVE'), multiple Python integers can map
          to a single value without overflow.  For example, both ‘255’
          and ‘-1’ fit a single-byte buffer and set all its bits.  This
          matches typical C cast behavior.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyLong_GetInfo (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  On success, return a read only
     *note named tuple: 648, that holds information about Python’s
     internal representation of integers.  See *note sys.int_info: 1283.
     for description of individual fields.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (const PyLongObject *op)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return 1 if 'op' is compact, 0 otherwise.

     This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to
     implement a “fast path” for small integers.  For compact values use
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 585.; for others fall back to
     a *note PyLong_As*: 4a1f. function or *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes():
     35a.

     The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users.

     Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation
     detail and is subject to change.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (const
          PyLongObject *op)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     If 'op' is compact, as determined by *note
     PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 584, return its value.

     Otherwise, the return value is undefined.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 불리언 객체,  Next: 부동 소수점 객체,  Prev: 정수 객체,  Up: 숫자 객체

7.8.2.2 불리언 객체
...................

파이썬에서 불리언은 정수의 서브 클래스로 구현됩니다.  *note Py_False:
4c28.와 *note Py_True: 4c29.라는 두 개의 부울만 있습니다.  따라서 일반적
인 생성 및 삭제 함수는 부울에 적용되지 않습니다.  그러나 다음 매크로를 사
용할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyBool_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python boolean type; it is the
     same object as *note bool: 461. in the Python layer.

 -- C 함수: int PyBool_Check (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 *note PyBool_Type: 4969. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  이 함수는 항
     상 성공합니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_False

     파이썬 ‘False’ 객체.  이 객체는 메서드가 없고 *note 불멸: 437c.입니
     다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: *note Py_False: 4c28.는 *note 불멸: 437c.입니다
     .

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_True

     파이썬 ‘True’ 객체.  이 객체는 메서드가 없고 *note 불멸: 437c.입니
     다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: *note Py_True: 4c29.는 *note 불멸: 437c.입니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_RETURN_FALSE

     함수에서 *note Py_False: 4c28.를 반환합니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_RETURN_TRUE

     함수에서 *note Py_True: 4c29.를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyBool_FromLong (long v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'v'의 논리
     값에 따라 *note Py_True: 4c29. 나 *note Py_False: 4c28.를 반환합니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 부동 소수점 객체,  Next: 복소수 객체,  Prev: 불리언 객체,  Up: 숫자 객체

7.8.2.3 부동 소수점 객체
........................

 -- C 자료형: type PyFloatObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 부동 소수점 객체를 나타
     냅니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyFloat_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 부동 소수점 형을 나타냅니다.  이것은 파이썬 계층에
     서 *note float: 2ef.와 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFloat_Check (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyFloatObject: 4c2e. 나 *note PyFloatObject: 4c2e.의 서
     브 형이면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFloat_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyFloatObject: 4c2e.이지만 *note PyFloatObject: 4c2e.의
     서브 형은 아니면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFloat_FromString (PyObject *str)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'str'의 문
     자열 값을 기반으로 *note PyFloatObject: 4c2e. 객체를 만들거나, 실패
     하면 ‘NULL’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFloat_FromDouble (double v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'v'로부터
     *note PyFloatObject: 4c2e. 객체를 만들거나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_AsDouble (PyObject *pyfloat)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'pyfloat' 의 내용의 C double 표
     현을 반환합니다.  'pyfloat'가 파이썬 부동 소수점 객체가 아니지만
     *note __float__(): 9c9. 메서드가 있으면, 'pyfloat'를 float로 변환하
     기 위해 이 메서드가 먼저 호출됩니다.  ‘__float__()’가 정의되지 않았
     으면 *note __index__(): 716.로 대체합니다.  이 메서드는 실패하면
     ‘-1.0’을 반환하므로, *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 호출하여 에러
     를 확인해야 합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있으면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (PyObject *pyfloat)

     에러 검사 없이 'pyfloat' 의 내용의 C double 표현을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFloat_GetInfo (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  float의 정
     밀도, 최솟값, 최댓값에 관한 정보를 포함한 structseq 인스턴스를 돌려
     줍니다.  헤더 파일 ‘float.h’를 감싸는 얇은 래퍼입니다.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_GetMax ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  최대 표현 가능한 유한 float
     'DBL_MAX'를 C double로 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_GetMin ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  최소 정규화된(normalized) 양의
     float 'DBL_MIN'를 C double로 반환합니다.

* Menu:

* Pack and Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack and Unpack functions,  Up: 부동 소수점 객체

7.8.2.4 Pack and Unpack functions
.................................

The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent
way to store floating-point values as byte strings.  The Pack routines
produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce
a C double from such a bytes string.  The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies
the number of bytes in the bytes string.

On platforms that appear to use IEEE 754 formats these functions work by
copying bits.  On other platforms, the 2-byte format is identical to the
IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format, the 4-byte format (32-bit) is
identical to the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format, and the
8-byte format to the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format, although
the packing of INFs and NaNs (if such things exist on the platform)
isn’t handled correctly, and attempting to unpack a bytes string
containing an IEEE INF or NaN will raise an exception.

On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic range, than
IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE platforms
with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values can be
unpacked.  What happens in such cases is partly accidental (alas).

Added in version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack functions,  Next: Unpack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.5 Pack functions
......................

The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian
format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’, or ‘p+6’ ‘p+7’), zero if you
want big-endian format (exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’
constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big
endian processor, or ‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: ‘0’ if all is OK, ‘-1’ if error (and an exception is set,
most likely *note OverflowError: 87d.).

There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms:

   * What this does is undefined if 'x' is a NaN or infinity.

   * ‘-0.0’ and ‘+0.0’ produce the same bytes string.

 -- C 함수: int PyFloat_Pack2 (double x, char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

 -- C 함수: int PyFloat_Pack4 (double x, char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.

 -- C 함수: int PyFloat_Pack8 (double x, char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpack functions,  Prev: Pack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.6 Unpack functions
........................

The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format
(exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’ or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if big-endian
(exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’ constant can be used to
use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big endian processor, or
‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: The unpacked double.  On error, this is ‘-1.0’ and *note
PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8. is true (and an exception is set, most likely
*note OverflowError: 87d.).

Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes
string that represents a NaN or infinity.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_Unpack2 (const char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_Unpack4 (const char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.

 -- C 함수: double PyFloat_Unpack8 (const char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.


File: python.info,  Node: 복소수 객체,  Prev: 부동 소수점 객체,  Up: 숫자 객체

7.8.2.7 복소수 객체
...................

파이썬의 복소수 객체는 C API에서 볼 때 두 개의 다른 형으로 구현됩니다: 하
나는 파이썬 프로그램에 노출된 파이썬 객체이고, 다른 하나는 실제 복소수 값
을 나타내는 C 구조체입니다.  API는 두 가지 모두도 작업할 수 있는 함수를
제공합니다.

* Menu:

* C 구조체로서의 복소수::
* 파이썬 객체로서의 복소수::


File: python.info,  Node: C 구조체로서의 복소수,  Next: 파이썬 객체로서의 복소수,  Up: 복소수 객체

7.8.2.8 C 구조체로서의 복소수
.............................

매개 변수로 이러한 구조체를 받아들이고 결과로 반환하는 함수는 포인터를 통
해 역참조하기보다는 '값으로' 다룹니다.  이는 API 전체에서 일관됩니다.

 -- C 자료형: type Py_complex

     파이썬 복소수 객체의 값 부분에 해당하는 C 구조체.  복소수 객체를 다
     루는 대부분 함수는 이 형의 구조체를 입력 또는 출력값으로 적절하게 사
     용합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: double real
      -- C 멤버 변수: double imag

     구조체는 다음과 같이 정의됩니다:

          typedef struct {
              double real;
              double imag;
          } Py_complex;

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. _Py_c_sum (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 표현을 사용하여 두 복소수의 합을 반환합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. _Py_c_diff (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 표현을 사용하여 두 복소수의 차이를 반환합
     니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. _Py_c_neg (Py_complex num)

     C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 표현을 사용하여 복소수 'num'의 음의 값을
     반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. _Py_c_prod (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 표현을 사용하여 두 복소수의 곱을 반환합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. _Py_c_quot (Py_complex dividend,
          Py_complex divisor)

     C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 표현을 사용하여 두 복소수의 몫을 반환합니
     다.

     'divisor'가 null이면, 이 메서드는 0을 반환하고, ‘errno’를 ‘EDOM’으
     로 설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. _Py_c_pow (Py_complex num,
          Py_complex exp)

     C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 표현을 사용하여 'num'의 'exp' 거듭제곱을
     반환합니다.

     'num'이 null이고 'exp'가 양의 실수가 아니면, 이 메서드는 0을 반환하
     고 ‘errno’를 ‘EDOM’으로 설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 객체로서의 복소수,  Prev: C 구조체로서의 복소수,  Up: 복소수 객체

7.8.2.9 파이썬 객체로서의 복소수
................................

 -- C 자료형: type PyComplexObject

     파이썬 복소수 객체를 나타내는 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyComplex_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 복소수 형을 나타냅니다.  파이썬 계층의 *note
     complex: 2f0.와 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyComplex_Check (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyComplexObject: 4c41. 나 *note PyComplexObject:
     4c41.의 서브 형이면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyComplex_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyComplexObject: 4c41.이지만, *note PyComplexObject:
     4c41.의 서브 유형이 아니면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합
     니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyComplex_FromCComplex (Py_complex v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  C *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 값으로 새로운 파이썬
     복소수 객체를 만듭니다.  에러면 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다
     .

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyComplex_FromDoubles (double real,
          double imag)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'real' 및
     'imag'로 새로운 *note PyComplexObject: 4c41. 객체를 반환합니다.  에
     러면 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'op'의 실수부를 C double로 반
     환합니다.

     'op'가 파이썬 복소수 객체가 아니지만 *note __complex__(): 5e1. 메서
     드가 있으면, 이 메서드는 먼저 'op'를 파이썬 복소수 객체로 변환하도
     록 그 메서드를 호출합니다.  ‘__complex__()’가 정의되지 않았으면
     *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a66.을 호출하는 것으로 대체하고 그 결과를
     반환합니다.

     실패하면, 이 메서드는 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1.0’을 반환합니다.  *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 호출하여 에러를 확인해야 합니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 사용할 수 있다면 *note __complex__(): 5e1.를 사
     용합니다.

 -- C 함수: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'op'의 허수부를 C double로 반
     환합니다.

     'op'가 파이썬 복소수 객체가 아니지만 *note __complex__(): 5e1. 메서
     드가 있으면, 이 메서드는 먼저 'op'를 파이썬 복소수 객체로 변환하도
     록 그 메서드를 호출합니다.  ‘__complex__()’가 정의되지 않았으면
     *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a66.을 호출하는 것으로 대체하고 성공할 때
     ‘0.0’을 반환합니다.

     실패하면, 이 메서드는 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1.0’을 반환합니다.  *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 호출하여 에러를 확인해야 합니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 사용할 수 있다면 *note __complex__(): 5e1.를 사
     용합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_complex: 4b6b. PyComplex_AsCComplex (PyObject *op)

     복소수 'op'의 *note Py_complex: 4b6b. 값을 반환합니다.

     'op'가 파이썬 복소수 객체가 아니지만 *note __complex__(): 5e1. 메서
     드가 있으면, 이 메서드는 먼저 'op'를 파이썬 복소수 객체로 변환하도
     록 그 메서드를 호출합니다.  ‘__complex__()’가 정의되지 않았으면
     *note __float__(): 9c9.로 대체합니다.  ‘__float__()’가 정의되지 않
     았으면 *note __index__(): 716.로 대체합니다.

     실패하면, 이 메서드는 예외를 설정하고 *note real: 4c39.을 ‘-1.0’으
     로 설정한 *note Py_complex: 4b6b.를 반환합니다.  *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 호출하여 에러를 확인해야 합니다.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 사용할 수 있다면 *note __index__(): 716.를 사용
     합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스 객체,  Next: 컨테이너 객체,  Prev: 숫자 객체,  Up: 구상 객체 계층

7.8.3 시퀀스 객체
-----------------

시퀀스 객체에 대한 일반적인 연산은 이전 장에서 논의했습니다; 이 절에서는
파이썬 언어에 고유한 특정 종류의 시퀀스 객체를 다룹니다.

* Menu:

* 바이트열 객체: 바이트열 객체<2>.
* 바이트 배열 객체: 바이트 배열 객체<2>.
* 유니코드 객체와 코덱::
* 튜플 객체::
* 구조체 시퀀스 객체::
* 리스트 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트열 객체<2>,  Next: 바이트 배열 객체<2>,  Up: 시퀀스 객체

7.8.3.1 바이트열 객체
.....................

이 함수들은 바이트열 매개 변수가 필요할 때 바이트열이 아닌 매개 변수로 호
출하면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyBytesObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 바이트열 객체를 나타냅니
     다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyBytes_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.의
     인스턴스는 파이썬 바이트열 형을 나타냅니다; 파이썬 계층의 *note
     bytes: 1c2.와 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyBytes_Check (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'가 바이트열 객체이거나 바이트열 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스면 참
     을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyBytes_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'가 바이트열 객체이지만, 바이트열 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스는
     아니면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyBytes_FromString (const char *v)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공하면 값
     으로 'v' 문자열의 복사본을 갖는 새 바이트열 객체를 반환하고, 실패하
     면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  매개 변수 'v'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다;
     검사하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (const char
          *v, Py_ssize_t len)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공하면 값
     이 'v' 문자열의 복사본이고 길이가 'len'인 새 바이트열 객체를 반환하
     고, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  'v'가 ‘NULL’이면, 바이트열 객체
     의 내용은 초기화되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyBytes_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C
     ‘printf()’-스타일 'format' 문자열과 가변 개수의 인자를 받아서, 결과
     파이썬 바이트열 객체의 크기를 계산하고 그 안에 값이 포맷된 바이트열
     객체를 반환합니다.  가변 인자는 C 형이어야 하며 'format' 문자열에 있
     는 포맷 문자들과 정확히 대응해야 합니다.  허용되는 포맷 문자는 다음
     과 같습니다:

     포맷 문자               형                  주석
                                                 
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘%%’                    'n/a'               리터럴 % 문자.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%c’                    int                 단일 바이트, C int로 표현됩니다.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%d’                    int                 ‘printf("%d")’와 동등합니다.  (1)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%u’                    unsigned int        ‘printf("%u")’와 동등합니다.  (2)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%ld’                   long                ‘printf("%ld")’와 동등합니다.  (3)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%lu’                   unsigned long       ‘printf("%lu")’와 동등합니다.  (4)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zd’                   *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.‘printf("%zd")’와 동등합니다.  (5)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zu’                   size_t              ‘printf("%zu")’와 동등합니다.  (6)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%i’                    int                 ‘printf("%i")’와 동등합니다.  (7)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%x’                    int                 ‘printf("%x")’와 동등합니다.  (8)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%s’                    const char*         널-종료 C 문자 배열.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%p’                    const void*         C 포인터의 16진수 표현.  플랫폼의
                                                 ‘printf’가 어떤 결과를 내는지에 상
                                                 관없이 리터럴 ‘0x’로 시작함이 보장
                                                 된다는 점을 제외하고는 거의
                                                 ‘printf("%p")’와 동등합니다.
                                                 

     인식할 수 없는 포맷 문자는 포맷 문자열의 나머지 부분이 모두 결과 객
     체에 그대로 복사되게 만들고, 추가 인자는 무시됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyBytes_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  정확히 두 개
     의 인자를 취한다는 것을 제외하고는 *note PyBytes_FromFormat():
     1a30.과 같습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyBytes_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  버퍼 프로토
     콜을 구현하는 객체 'o'의 바이트열 표현을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyBytes_Size (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  바이트열 객체 'o'의 길이를 반
     환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyBytes_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o)

     *note PyBytes_Size(): 4975.와 유사하지만, 에러 검사가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: char *PyBytes_AsString (PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'o'의 내용에 대한 포인터를 반
     환합니다.  포인터는 ‘len(o) + 1’ 바이트로 구성된 'o'의 내부 버퍼를
     가리킵니다.  버퍼의 마지막 바이트는 다른 널(null) 바이트가 있는지에
     관계없이 항상 널입니다.  객체가 ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL,
     size)’를 사용하여 방금 만들어진 경우가 아니면 데이터를 수정해서는 안
     됩니다.  할당을 해제해서는 안 됩니다.  'o'가 바이트열 객체가 아니면
     , *note PyBytes_AsString(): 883.은 ‘NULL’을 반환하고 *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: char *PyBytes_AS_STRING (PyObject *string)

     *note PyBytes_AsString(): 883.와 유사하지만, 에러 검사가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (PyObject *obj, char **buffer,
          Py_ssize_t *length)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  출력 변수 'buffer'와 'length'로
     객체 'obj'의 널-종료 내용을 반환합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     'length'가 ‘NULL’이면, 바이트열 객체는 내장된 널 바이트를 포함할 수
     없습니다; 만약 그렇다면 함수는 ‘-1’을 반환하고 *note ValueError:
     202.를 발생시킵니다.

     buffer는 'obj'의 내부 버퍼를 가리키게 되는데, 끝에 추가 널 바이트가
     포함됩니다 ('length'에는 포함되지 않습니다).  객체가
     ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’를 사용하여 방금 만들어진 경
     우가 아니면 데이터를 수정해서는 안 됩니다.  할당을 해제해서는 안 됩
     니다.  'obj'가 바이트열 객체가 아니면 *note
     PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 496f.는 ‘-1’을 반환하고 *note TypeError:
     532.를 발생시킵니다.

     버전 3.5에서 변경: 이전에는, 바이트열 객체에 널 바이트가 포함되어 있
     으면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생했습니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyBytes_Concat (PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'bytes'에 'newpart'의 내용을 덧
     붙인 새 바이트열 객체를 '*bytes'에 만듭니다; 호출자가 새 참조를 소
     유합니다.  'bytes'의 예전 값에 대한 참조를 훔칩니다.  새 객체가 만
     들어질 수 없으면, 'bytes'에 대한 예전 참조는 여전히 버려지고
     '*bytes'의 값은 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다; 적절한 예외가 설정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'bytes'에 'newpart'의 내용을 덧
     붙인 새 바이트열 객체를 '*bytes'에 만듭니다.  이 버전은 'newpart'로
     의 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 해제합니다 (즉 참조 횟수를 감소시킵니다
     ).

 -- C 함수: int _PyBytes_Resize (PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     바이트열 객체의 크기를 변경합니다.  'newsize'는 바이트열 객체의 새
     길이가 됩니다.  새 바이트열 객체를 생성하고 이전 객체를 파괴한다고
     생각할 수 있습니다.  단지 더 효율적으로 수행합니다.  기존 바이트열
     객체의 주소를 lvalue(내용을 기록할 수 있습니다)로 전달하고, 원하는
     새 크기를 전달합니다.  성공하면, '*bytes'는 크기가 변경된 바이트열
     객체를 갖게 되고 ‘0’이 반환됩니다; '*bytes'의 주소는 입력값과 다를
     수 있습니다.  재할당이 실패하면, '*bytes'에 있는 원래 바이트열 객체
     는 할당 해제되고, '*bytes'가 ‘NULL’로 설정되고, *note MemoryError:
     157e.가 설정되며 ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (2) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (3) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (4) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (5) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (6) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (7) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.

   (8) 정수 지정자 (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x)에서: 0-변환 플래그는 정
밀도를 지정해도 영향을 미칩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트 배열 객체<2>,  Next: 유니코드 객체와 코덱,  Prev: 바이트열 객체<2>,  Up: 시퀀스 객체

7.8.3.2 바이트 배열 객체
........................

 -- C 자료형: type PyByteArrayObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 bytearray 객체를 나타냅
     니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyByteArray_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 bytearray 형을 나타냅니다; 파이썬 계층의 *note
     bytearray: 538.와 같은 객체입니다.

* Menu:

* 형 검사 매크로::
* 직접 API 함수::
* 매크로::


File: python.info,  Node: 형 검사 매크로,  Next: 직접 API 함수,  Up: 바이트 배열 객체<2>

7.8.3.3 형 검사 매크로
......................

 -- C 함수: int PyByteArray_Check (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'가 bytearray 객체이거나 bytearray 형의 서브 형 인스턴스면 참
     을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyByteArray_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     객체 'o'가 bytearray 객체이지만, bytearray 형의 서브 형 인스턴스는
     아니면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 직접 API 함수,  Next: 매크로,  Prev: 형 검사 매크로,  Up: 바이트 배열 객체<2>

7.8.3.4 직접 API 함수
.....................

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyByteArray_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note 버퍼
     프로토콜: 391.을 구현하는 임의의 객체('o')로부터 써서 새로운
     bytearray 객체를 돌려줍니다.

     실패하면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'string'과
     그 길이('len')로 새로운 bytearray 객체를 만듭니다.

     실패하면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyByteArray_Concat (PyObject *a,
          PyObject *b)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  바이트 배열
     'a' 와 'b'를 이어붙여 새로운 bytearray로 반환합니다.

     실패하면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyByteArray_Size (PyObject
          *bytearray)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘NULL’ 포인터를 확인한 후
     'bytearray'의 크기를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: char *PyByteArray_AsString (PyObject *bytearray)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘NULL’ 포인터를 확인한 후
     'bytearray'의 내용을 char 배열로 반환합니다.  반환되는 배열에는 항
     상 여분의 널 바이트가 추가됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyByteArray_Resize (PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t len)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'bytearray'의 내부 버퍼의 크기
     를 'len'으로 조정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 매크로,  Prev: 직접 API 함수,  Up: 바이트 배열 객체<2>

7.8.3.5 매크로
..............

이 매크로는 속도를 위해 안전을 희생하며 포인터를 확인하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING (PyObject *bytearray)

     *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 496a.과 유사하지만 에러를 검사하지 않
     습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *bytearray)

     *note PyByteArray_Size(): 496d.와 유사하지만 에러를 검사하지 않습니
     다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 객체와 코덱,  Next: 튜플 객체,  Prev: 바이트 배열 객체<2>,  Up: 시퀀스 객체

7.8.3.6 유니코드 객체와 코덱
............................

* Menu:

* 유니코드 객체::
* 내장 코덱::
* 메서드와 슬롯 함수::


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 객체,  Next: 내장 코덱,  Up: 유니코드 객체와 코덱

7.8.3.7 유니코드 객체
.....................

파이썬 3.3에서 PEP 393(1)을 구현한 이후, 유니코드 객체는 내부적으로 다양
한 표현을 사용하여 전체 유니코드 문자 범위를 처리하면서 메모리 효율성을
유지합니다.  모든 코드 포인트가 128, 256 또는 65536 미만인 문자열에 대한
특별한 경우가 있습니다; 그렇지 않으면, 코드 포인트는 1114112 (전체 유니
코드 범위) 미만이어야 합니다.

UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode
object.

     참고: *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. 표현은 폐지된 API와 함께 파이썬 3.12에
     서 제거되었습니다.  자세한 정보는 PEP 623(2)을 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 유니코드 형::
* 유니코드 문자 속성::
* 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스::
* 로케일 인코딩::
* 파일 시스템 인코딩::
* wchar_t 지원::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 형,  Next: 유니코드 문자 속성,  Up: 유니코드 객체

7.8.3.8 유니코드 형
...................

다음은 파이썬에서 유니코드 구현에 사용되는 기본 유니코드 객체 형입니다:

 -- C 자료형: type Py_UCS4
 -- C 자료형: type Py_UCS2
 -- C 자료형: type Py_UCS1
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 형들은 각각 32비트, 16비트
     및 8비트의 문자를 포함하기에 충분한 부호 없는 정수 형을 위한
     typedef 입니다.  단일 유니코드 문자를 처리할 때는, *note Py_UCS4:
     29b.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 자료형: type Py_UNICODE

     이것은 플랫폼에 따라 16비트 형이나 32비트 형인 ‘wchar_t’의 typedef
     입니다.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 이전 버전에서, 이것은 빌드 시 파이썬의 “내로우
     (narrow)”나 “와이드(wide)” 유니코드 버전 중 어느 것을 선택했는지에
     따라 16비트 형이나 32비트 형이었습니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- C 자료형: type PyASCIIObject
 -- C 자료형: type PyCompactUnicodeObject
 -- C 자료형: type PyUnicodeObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332. 서브 형들은 파이썬 유니코드 객체를 나타냅니
     다.  거의 모든 경우에, 유니코드 객체를 처리하는 모든 API 함수가
     *note PyObject: 332. 포인터를 취하고 반환하므로 직접 사용해서는 안
     됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyUnicode_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python Unicode type.  It is
     exposed to Python code as ‘str’.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyUnicodeIter_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python Unicode iterator type.  It
     is used to iterate over Unicode string objects.

다음 API는 빠른 검사를 수행하고 유니코드 객체의 내부 읽기 전용 데이터에
액세스하는 데 사용할 수 있는 C 매크로와 정적 인라인 함수입니다:

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_Check (PyObject *obj)

     객체 'obj'가 유니코드 객체이거나 유니코드 서브 형의 인스턴스이면 참
     을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_CheckExact (PyObject *obj)

     객체 'obj'가 유니코드 객체이지만, 서브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 참을
     반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_READY (PyObject *unicode)

     Returns ‘0’.  This API is kept only for backward compatibility.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.10부터 폐지됨: 이 API는 파이썬 3.12부터 아무 작업도 수행하지
     않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (PyObject
          *unicode)

     유니코드 문자열의 길이를 코드 포인트로 반환합니다.  'unicode'는 “규
     범적(canonical)” 표현의 유니코드 객체여야 합니다 (검사하지 않습니다
     ).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS1: 1164. *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS2: 1165. *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)

     직접 문자 액세스를 위해 UCS1, UCS2 또는 UCS4 정수 형으로 캐스트 된
     규범적(canonical) 표현에 대한 포인터를 반환합니다.  규범적
     (canonical) 표현이 올바른 문자 크기인지 검사하지 않습니다; *note
     PyUnicode_KIND(): 116e.를 사용하여 올바른 함수를 선택하십시오.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 매크로: PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
 -- C 매크로: PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
 -- C 매크로: PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

     *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 116e. 매크로의 값을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’는 제거되었습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_KIND (PyObject *unicode)

     이 유니코드 객체가 데이터를 저장하는 데 사용하는 문자 당 바이트 수
     를 나타내는 PyUnicode 종류 상수 (위를 참조하십시오) 중 하나를 반환
     합니다.  'unicode'는 “규범적(canonical)” 표현의 유니코드 객체여야 합
     니다 (검사하지 않습니다).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: void *PyUnicode_DATA (PyObject *unicode)

     원시 유니코드 버퍼에 대한 void 포인터를 반환합니다.  'unicode'는 “규
     범적(canonical)” 표현의 유니코드 객체여야 합니다 (검사하지 않습니다
     ).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: void PyUnicode_WRITE (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 value)

     규범적(canonical) 표현 'data'(*note PyUnicode_DATA(): 116a.로 얻은
     대로)에 씁니다.  이 함수는 온전성 검사(sanity checks)를 수행하지 않
     으며, 루프에서 사용하기 위한 것입니다.  호출자는 다른 호출에서 얻은
     대로 'kind' 값과 'data' 포인터를 캐시 해야 합니다.  'index'는 문자
     열의 인덱스(0에서 시작합니다)이고 'value'는 해당 위치에 기록되어야
     하는 새 코드 포인트 값입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. PyUnicode_READ (int kind, void *data,
          Py_ssize_t index)

     규범적(canonical) 표현 'data'(*note PyUnicode_DATA(): 116a.로 얻은
     대로)에서 코드 포인트를 읽습니다.  검사나 준비(ready) 호출이 수행되
     지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t index)

     “규범적(canonical)” 표현이어야 하는, 유니코드 객체 'unicode'에서 문
     자를 읽습니다.  여러 연속 읽기를 수행한다면 *note PyUnicode_READ():
     1172.보다 효율성이 떨어집니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (PyObject
          *unicode)

     “규범적(canonical)” 표현이어야 하는, 'unicode'를 기반으로 다른 문자
     열을 만드는 데 적합한 최대 코드 포인트를 반환합니다.  이것은 항상 근
     사치이지만 문자열을 이터레이트 하는 것보다 효율적입니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (PyObject *unicode)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  언어 정의에 따라 문자열이 유효
     한 식별자이면 ‘1’을 반환합니다, 섹션 *note 식별자와 키워드: 1e9c.  그
     렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 문자열이 준비(ready)되지 않았을 때, 이 함수는 더
     는 *note Py_FatalError(): 980.를 호출하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 문자 속성,  Next: 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스,  Prev: 유니코드 형,  Up: 유니코드 객체

7.8.3.9 유니코드 문자 속성
..........................

유니코드는 다양한 문자 속성을 제공합니다.  가장 자주 필요한 것은 파이썬
구성에 따라 C 함수에 매핑되는 이러한 매크로를 통해 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 공백 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 소문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 대문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 제목 케이스 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 줄 바꿈 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 10진수 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 디짓(digit) 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 숫자(numeric) 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 알파벳 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 영숫자 문자인지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 *note str.isprintable(): dd4.의 의미에서 인쇄 가능한 문자인
     지에 따라 ‘1’이나 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

다음 API는 빠른 직접 문자 변환에 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     소문자로 변환된 문자 'ch'를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     대문자로 변환된 문자 'ch'를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     제목 케이스로 변환된 문자 'ch'를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     10진 양의 정수로 변환된 문자 'ch'를 반환합니다.  이것이 불가능하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     한 자리 정수로 변환된 문자 'ch'를 반환합니다.  이것이 불가능하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     double로 변환된 문자 'ch'를 반환합니다.  이것이 불가능하면 ‘-1.0’을
     반환합니다.  이 함수는 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

다음 API를 사용하여 서로게이트를 다룰 수 있습니다:

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 서로게이트인지 확인합니다 (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 상위 서로게이트인지 확인합니다 (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF’).

 -- C 함수: int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     'ch'가 하위 서로게이트인지 확인합니다 (‘0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (Py_UCS4
          high, Py_UCS4 low)

     두 서로게이트 코드 포인트를 결합하고 단일 *note Py_UCS4: 29b. 값을
     반환합니다.  'high'와 'low'는 각각 서로게이트 쌍의 선행과 후행 서로
     게이트입니다.  'high'는 [0xD800; 0xDBFF] 범위 내에 있어야 하며,
     'low'는 [0xDC00; 0xDFFF] 범위 내에 있어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스,  Next: 로케일 인코딩,  Prev: 유니코드 문자 속성,  Up: 유니코드 객체

7.8.3.10 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스
......................................

유니코드 객체를 만들고 기본 시퀀스 속성에 액세스하려면 다음 API를 사용하
십시오:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_New (Py_ssize_t size,
          Py_UCS4 maxchar)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  새 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  'maxchar'은 문자
     열에 배치할 실제 최대 코드 포인트여야 합니다.  근삿값으로, 127,
     255, 65535, 1114111 시퀀스에서 가장 가까운 값으로 올림 할 수 있습니
     다.

     이것은 새 유니코드 객체를 할당하는 데 권장되는 방법입니다.  이 함수
     를 사용하여 만든 객체는 크기를 조정할 수 없습니다.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (int kind,
          const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  주어진 'kind'(가능한 값은 *note
     PyUnicode_KIND(): 116e.에 의해 반환된 *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND:
     116f. 등입니다)로 새로운 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  'buffer'는
     kind에 따라 문자 당 1, 2 또는 4바이트의 'size' 단위의 배열을 가리켜
     야 합니다.

     If necessary, the input 'buffer' is copied and transformed into the
     canonical representation.  For example, if the 'buffer' is a UCS4
     string (*note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1171.) and it consists only of
     codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1
     (*note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 116f.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  char 버퍼
     'str'에서 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  바이트는 UTF-8로 인코딩된 것으
     로 해석됩니다.  버퍼는 새 객체에 복사됩니다.  반환 값은 공유 객체일
     수 있습니다, 즉, 데이터 수정이 허용되지 않습니다.

     이 함수는 다음과 같은 경우에 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시킵니다
     :

        * 'size' < 0,

        * 'str' is ‘NULL’ and 'size' > 0

     버전 3.12에서 변경: 'str' == ‘NULL’ with 'size' > 0 is not allowed
     anymore.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromString (const char *str)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  UTF-8로 인
     코딩된 널-종료 char 버퍼 'str'에서 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  C
     ‘printf()’-스타일 'format' 문자열과 가변 개수의 인자를 취해서, 결과
     파이썬 유니코드 문자열의 크기를 계산하고 포맷된 값이 들어간 문자열
     을 반환합니다.  변수 인자는 C형이어야 하며 'format' ASCII 인코딩된
     문자열의 포맷 문자와 정확히 일치해야 합니다.

     A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
     following components, which must occur in this order:

       1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

       2. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
          conversion types.

       3. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
          (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument,
          which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes
          after the minimum field width and optional precision.

       4. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
          precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
          precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type
          int, and the value to convert comes after the precision.

       5. Length modifier (optional).

       6. Conversion type.

     The conversion flag characters are:

     Flag        Meaning
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
                 
                 
     ‘-’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘0’ flag if
                 both are given).
                 

     The length modifiers for following integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’,
     ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘x’, or ‘X’) specify the type of the argument (int by
     default):

     Modifier       형
                    
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘l’            long 또는 unsigned long
                    
                    
     ‘ll’           long long 또는 unsigned long long
                    
                    
     ‘j’            ‘intmax_t’ 또는 ‘uintmax_t’
                    
                    
     ‘z’            ‘size_t’ 또는 ‘ssize_t’
                    
                    
     ‘t’            ‘ptrdiff_t’
                    

     The length modifier ‘l’ for following conversions ‘s’ or ‘V’
     specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*.

     The conversion specifiers are:

     Conversion Specifier                  형                                    주석
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
     ‘%’                                   'n/a'                                 리터럴 ‘%’ 문자.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘d’, ‘i’                              Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of a
                                                                                 signed C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘u’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘o’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The octal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘x’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (lowercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘X’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (uppercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘c’                                   int                                   단일 문자.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘s’                                   const char* 또는 const wchar_t*       널-종료 C 문자 배열.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘p’                                   const void*                           C 포인터의 16진수 표현.  플랫폼의
                                                                                 ‘printf’가 산출하는 내용과 관계없이
                                                                                 리터럴 ‘0x’로 시작하는 것이 보장된
                                                                                 다는 점을 제외하면 거의
                                                                                 ‘printf("%p")’와 동등합니다.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘A’                                   *note PyObject: 332.*                 *note ascii(): 13af.를 호출한 결과.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘U’                                   *note PyObject: 332.*                 유니코드 객체.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘V’                                   *note PyObject: 332.*, const char*    유니코드 객체(‘NULL’일 수 있습니다
                                           또는 const wchar_t*                   )와 두 번째 매개 변수로서 널-종료 C
                                                                                 문자 배열 (첫 번째 매개 변수가
                                                                                 ‘NULL’이면 사용됩니다).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘S’                                   *note PyObject: 332.*                 *note PyObject_Str(): 1026.을 호출
                                                                                 한 결과.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘R’                                   *note PyObject: 332.*                 *note PyObject_Repr(): 1025.을 호출
                                                                                 한 결과.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘T’                                   *note PyObject: 332.*                 Get the fully qualified name of an
                                                                                 object type; call
                                                                                 *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36c.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘#T’                                  *note PyObject: 332.*                 Similar to ‘T’ format, but use a
                                                                                 colon (‘:’) as separator between
                                                                                 the module name and the qualified
                                                                                 name.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘N’                                   *note PyTypeObject: aa2.*             Get the fully qualified name of a
                                                                                 type; call
                                                                                 *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36c.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘#N’                                  *note PyTypeObject: aa2.*             Similar to ‘N’ format, but use a
                                                                                 colon (‘:’) as separator between
                                                                                 the module name and the qualified
                                                                                 name.
                                                                                 

          참고: 너비 포매터 단위는 바이트가 아닌 문자 수입니다.  정밀도
          포매터 단위는 ‘"%s"’와 ‘"%V"’의 경우는 바이트 수나 (길이 수정
          자 ‘l’이 사용되면) ‘wchar_t’ 항목이고 (‘PyObject*’ 인자가
          ‘NULL’이면), ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ 및 ‘"%V"’의 경우 문
          자 수입니다 (‘PyObject*’ 인자가 ‘NULL’이 아니면).

          참고: Unlike to C ‘printf()’ the ‘0’ flag has effect even when
          a precision is given for integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’, ‘u’,
          ‘o’, ‘x’, or ‘X’).

     버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘"%lld"’와 ‘"%llu"’에 대한 지원이 추가되었습니다
     .

     버전 3.3에서 변경: ‘"%li"’, ‘"%lli"’ 및 ‘"%zi"’에 대한 지원이 추가
     되었습니다.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: ‘"%s"’, ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%V"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’에
     대한 너비와 정밀도 포매터 지원이 추가되었습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Support for conversion specifiers ‘o’ and ‘X’.
     Support for length modifiers ‘j’ and ‘t’.  Length modifiers are now
     applied to all integer conversions.  Length modifier ‘l’ is now
     applied to conversion specifiers ‘s’ and ‘V’.  Support for variable
     width and precision ‘*’.  Support for flag ‘-’.

     인식할 수 없는 포맷 문자는 이제 *note SystemError: 570.를 설정합니
     다.  이전 버전에서는 나머지 포맷 문자열이 모두 결과 문자열에 그대로
     복사되고, 추가 인자는 버려지도록 했습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ 및 ‘%#N’에 대한 지원이 추가되
     었습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  정확히 두 개
     의 인자를 취한다는 점을 제외하면 *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     383.과 동일합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromObject (PyObject *obj)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  필요하면 유
     니코드 서브 형의 인스턴스를 새로운 진짜 유니코드 객체에 복사합니다.
     'obj'가 이미 (서브 형이 아닌) 진짜 유니코드 객체이면, 객체에 대한 새
     로운 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 반환합니다.

     유니코드나 이의 서브 형 이외의 객체는 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생
     시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (int ordinal)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 유니
     코드 코드 포인트 'ordinal'로 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.

     The ordinal must be in ‘range(0x110000)’.  A *note ValueError: 202.
     is raised in the case it is not.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (PyObject
          *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  인코딩된 객
     체 'obj'를 유니코드 객체로 디코딩합니다.

     *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 538. 및 기타 *note 바이트열류
     객체: d2a.는 주어진 'encoding'에 따라 'errors'로 정의한 에러 처리를
     사용하여 디코딩됩니다.  둘 다 ‘NULL’이 될 수 있고, 이 경우 인터페이
     스는 기본값을 사용합니다 (자세한 내용은 *note 내장 코덱: 4c74.를 참
     조하십시오).

     유니코드 객체를 포함한 다른 모든 객체는 *note TypeError: 532.가 설
     정되도록 합니다.

     API는 에러가 있으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  호출자는 반환된 객체의 참
     조 횟수를 감소시킬 책임이 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap (PyObject
          *string)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Return a
     mapping suitable for decoding a custom single-byte encoding.  Given
     a Unicode string 'string' of up to 256 characters representing an
     encoding table, returns either a compact internal mapping object or
     a dictionary mapping character ordinals to byte values.  Raises a
     *note TypeError: 532. and return ‘NULL’ on invalid input.  ..
     versionadded:: 3.2

 -- C 함수: const char *PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Return the name of the default
     string encoding, ‘"utf-8"’.  See *note sys.getdefaultencoding():
     437a.

     The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid until
     interpreter shutdown.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_GetLength (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  유니코드 객체
     의 길이를 코드 포인트로 반환합니다.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (PyObject
          *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t
          from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)

     한 유니코드 객체에서 다른 객체로 문자를 복사합니다.  이 함수는 필요
     하면 문자 변환을 수행하고 가능하면 ‘memcpy()’로 폴백합니다.  에러 시
     ‘-1’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다, 그렇지 않으면 복사된 문자 수를 반
     환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_Fill (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char)

     문자로 문자열을 채웁니다: 'fill_char'을
     ‘unicode[start:start+length]’에 씁니다.

     'fill_char'이 문자열 최대 문자보다 크거나, 문자열에 둘 이상의 참조
     가 있으면 실패합니다.

     기록된 문자 수를 반환하거나, 에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환하고 예외를 발생시
     킵니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_WriteChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 character)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  문자열에 문자
     를 씁니다.  문자열은 *note PyUnicode_New(): 8a8.를 통해 만들었어야
     합니다.  유니코드 문자열은 불변이므로, 문자열을 공유하거나 아직 해
     시 하지 않아야 합니다.

     이 함수는 'unicode'가 유니코드 객체인지, 인덱스가 범위를 벗어났는지
     , 객체가 안전하게 수정될 수 있는지 (즉, 참조 횟수가 1인지) 확인합니
     다.

     성공 시 ‘0’을, 에러 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. PyUnicode_ReadChar (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  문자열에서 문
     자를 읽습니다.  이 함수는 에러를 검사하지 않는 *note
     PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(): 1173.와 달리 'unicode'가 유니코드 객체이고 인
     덱스가 범위를 벗어났는지 확인합니다.

     성공 시 문자를, 에러 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Substring (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  문자 인덱스 'start'(포함합니다)에서 문자 인덱스 'end'(제외합
     니다)까지 'unicode'의 하위 문자열을 반환합니다.  음수 인덱스는 지원
     되지 않습니다.  에러 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  'copy_null'이
     설정되면, 널 문자를 포함하여 문자열 'unicode'를 UCS4 버퍼에 복사합
     니다.  에러 시 ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다 (특히, 'buflen'이
     'unicode'의 길이보다 작으면 *note SystemError: 570.).  성공하면
     'buffer'가 반환됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_UCS4: 29b. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  문자열
     'unicode'를 *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.을 사용하여 할당된 새 UCS4 버
     퍼에 복사합니다.  이것이 실패하면, ‘NULL’이 반환되고 *note
     MemoryError: 157e.가 설정됩니다.  반환된 버퍼에는 항상 추가 널 코드
     포인트가 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: 로케일 인코딩,  Next: 파일 시스템 인코딩,  Prev: 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스,  Up: 유니코드 객체

7.8.3.11 로케일 인코딩
......................

현재 로케일 인코딩을 사용하여 운영 체제에서 온 텍스트를 디코딩 할 수 있
습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  안드로이드와 VxWorks의 UTF-8이나 다른 플랫폼의 현재 로케일 인
     코딩의 문자열을 디코딩합니다.  지원되는 에러 처리기는 ‘"strict"’와
     ‘"surrogateescape"’( PEP 383(1))입니다.  디코더는 'errors'가
     ‘NULL’이면 ‘"strict"’ 에러 처리기를 사용합니다.  'str'은 널 문자로
     끝나야 하지만 널 문자를 포함할 수 없습니다.

     *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 문자열을 디코딩하려면
     *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4ac1.를 사용하십시오.

     이 함수는 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 무시합니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. 함수.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 안드로이드를 제외하고
     ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 처리기에 현재 로케일 인코딩도 사용합니다.  이
     전에는, *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4.이 ‘surrogateescape’에 사용되
     었고, 현재 로케일 인코딩은 ‘strict’에 사용되었습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (const char
          *str, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc6.와 유사하지만,
     ‘strlen()’을 사용하여 문자열 길이를 계산합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  유니코드 객체를 안드로이드와 VxWorks에서 UTF-8로 인코딩하거나
     , 다른 플랫폼에서 현재 로케일 인코딩으로 인코딩합니다.  지원되는 에
     러 처리기는 ‘"strict"’와 ‘"surrogateescape"’( PEP 383(2))입니다.  인
     코더는 'errors'가 ‘NULL’이면 ‘"strict"’ 에러 처리기를 사용합니다.
     *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 반환합니다.  'unicode'는 내장된 널 문자를
     포함할 수 없습니다.

     *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 문자열을 인코딩하려면
     *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a58.를 사용하십시오.

     이 함수는 *note 파이썬 UTF-8 모드: 650.를 무시합니다.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5. 함수.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 안드로이드를 제외하고
     ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 처리기에 현재 로케일 인코딩도 사용합니다.  이
     전에는 *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5.이 ‘surrogateescape’에 사용되었
     고, 현재 로케일 인코딩은 ‘strict’에 사용되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 시스템 인코딩,  Next: wchar_t 지원,  Prev: 로케일 인코딩,  Up: 유니코드 객체

7.8.3.12 파일 시스템 인코딩
...........................

Functions encoding to and decoding from the *note filesystem encoding
and error handler: 535. ( PEP 383(1) and PEP 529(2)).

인자 구문 분석 중에 파일 이름을 *note bytes: 1c2.로 인코딩하려면, ‘"O&"’
변환기를 사용하고 ‘PyUnicode_FSConverter()’를 변환 함수로 전달해야 합니
다:

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_FSConverter (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PyArg_Parse* 변환기:
     8a5.: (직접 또는 *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 통해 얻은)
     *note str: 445. 객체를 *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a58.를 사
     용하여 *note bytes: 1c2.로 인코딩합니다; *note bytes: 1c2. 객체는 있
     는 그대로의 출력입니다.  'result'는 형이 *note PyObject: 332.* (또
     는 *note PyBytesObject: 78b.*) 인 C 변수의 주소여야 합니다.  성공 시
     , 더는 사용되지 않을 때 해제해야 하는 *note 바이트열 객체: 4c49.에
     대한 *note 강한 참조: 336.로 변수를 설정하고 0이 아닌 값(*note
     Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4b6e.)을 반환합니다.  결과에 내장된 널 바이트
     는 허용되지 않습니다.  실패 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, the function releases a strong reference stored
     in the variable referred by 'result' and returns ‘1’.

     Added in version 3.1.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

인자 구문 분석 중에 파일 이름을 *note str: 445.로 디코딩하려면, ‘"O&"’ 변
환기를 사용하고 ‘PyUnicode_FSDecoder()’를 변환 함수로 전달해야 합니다:

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PyArg_Parse* 변환기:
     8a5.: (직접 또는 *note os.PathLike: c4e. 인터페이스를 통해 간접적으
     로 얻은) *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4ac1.를 사용하여 *note str:
     445.로 디코딩합니다; *note str: 445. 객체는 있는 그대로의 출력입니
     다.  'result'는 형이 *note PyObject: 332.* (또는 *note
     PyUnicodeObject: 78d.*) 인 C 변수의 주소여야 합니다.  성공 시, 더는
     사용되지 않을 때 해제해야 하는 *note 유니코드 객체: 4c59.에 대한
     *note 강한 참조: 336.로 변수를 설정하고 0이 아닌 값(*note
     Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4b6e.)을 반환합니다.  결과에 내장된 널 바이트
     는 허용되지 않습니다.  실패 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, release the strong reference to the object
     referred to by 'result' and return ‘1’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: *note 경로류 객체: 2a0.를 받아들입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Decode a
     string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535.

     현재 로케일 인코딩에서 문자열을 디코딩해야 하면, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc6.를 사용하십시오.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. 함수.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: The *note filesystem error handler: 535. is now
     used.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (const char
          *str)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 널 종료 문자열을 디코딩합니
     다.

     문자열 길이가 알려져 있으면, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4ac1.를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: The *note filesystem error handler: 535. is now
     used.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 객
     체를 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기: 535.로 인코딩하고,
     *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환합니다.  결과 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체에는 널
     바이트가 포함될 수 있음에 유의하십시오.

     현재 로케일 인코딩으로 문자열을 인코딩해야 하면, *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bc7.을 사용하십시오.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5. 함수.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.6에서 변경: The *note filesystem error handler: 535. is now
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: wchar_t 지원,  Prev: 파일 시스템 인코딩,  Up: 유니코드 객체

7.8.3.13 wchar_t 지원
.....................

지원하는 플랫폼에 대한 ‘wchar_t’ 지원:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_FromWideChar (const wchar_t
          *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진
     'size'의 ‘wchar_t’ 버퍼 'wstr'에서 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  ‘-1’을
     'size'로 전달하면 함수가 ‘wcslen()’을 사용하여 길이를 스스로 계산해
     야 함을 나타냅니다.  실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_AsWideChar (PyObject
          *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 객체 내용을 ‘wchar_t’
     버퍼 'wstr'에 복사합니다.  최대 'size' ‘wchar_t’ 문자가 복사됩니다
     (후행 널 종료 문자가 제외될 수 있습니다).  복사된 ‘wchar_t’ 문자 수
     나 에러가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     When 'wstr' is ‘NULL’, instead return the 'size' that would be
     required to store all of 'unicode' including a terminating null.

     결과 wchar_t* 문자열은 널로 종료될 수도 있고 아닐 수도 있음에 유의
     하십시오.  응용 프로그램에 필요하면 wchar_t* 문자열이 널로 끝나는지
     확인하는 것은 호출자의 책임입니다.  또한, wchar_t* 문자열에는 널 문
     자가 포함될 수 있으며, 이로 인해 대부분의 C 함수와 함께 사용될 때 문
     자열이 잘리게 됨에 유의하십시오.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  유니코드 객체
     를 와이드 문자 문자열로 변환합니다.  출력 문자열은 항상 널 문자로 끝
     납니다.  'size'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, (후행 널 종료 문자를 제외한) 와
     이드 문자의 수를 '*size'에 씁니다.  결과 ‘wchar_t’ 문자열이 널 문자
     를 포함할 수 있고, 이로 인해 대부분의 C 함수와 함께 사용될 때 문자
     열이 잘리게 됨에 유의하십시오.  'size'가 ‘NULL’이고 wchar_t* 문자열
     이 널 문자를 포함하면 *note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.

     성공 시 *note PyMem_New: 14ec.에 의해 할당된 버퍼를 반환합니다
     (*note PyMem_Free(): 140b.를 사용하여 해제하십시오).  에러 시,
     ‘NULL’을 반환하고 '*size'는 정의되지 않습니다.  메모리 할당이 실패
     하면 *note MemoryError: 157e.를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'size'가 ‘NULL’이고 wchar_t* 문자열이 널 문자를
     포함하면 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 코덱,  Next: 메서드와 슬롯 함수,  Prev: 유니코드 객체,  Up: 유니코드 객체와 코덱

7.8.3.14 내장 코덱
..................

파이썬은 속도를 위해 C로 작성된 내장 코덱 집합을 제공합니다.  이러한 코
덱들은 모두 다음 함수들을 통해 직접 사용할 수 있습니다.

다음 API의 대부분은 두 개의 인자 encoding과 errors를 취하며, 내장 *note
str(): 445. 문자열 객체 생성자의 것들과 같은 의미입니다.

encoding을 ‘NULL’로 설정하면 기본 인코딩인 UTF-8이 사용됩니다.  파일 시
스템 호출은 파일 이름 인코딩에 *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d16.를 사
용해야 합니다.  이것은 내부적으로 *note 파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기:
535.를 사용합니다.

에러 처리는 errors로 설정되는데, 코덱에 대해 정의된 기본 처리를 사용함을
의미하는 ‘NULL’로 설정될 수도 있습니다.  모든 내장 코덱에 대한 기본 에러
처리는 “strict” 입니다 (*note ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다).

코덱은 모두 유사한 인터페이스를 사용합니다.  단순성을 위해 다음에 나오는
일반 코덱과의 차이만 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 일반 코덱::
* UTF-8 코덱::
* UTF-32 코덱::
* UTF-16 코덱::
* UTF-7 코덱::
* 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱::
* 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱::
* Latin-1 코덱::
* ASCII 코덱::
* 문자 맵 코덱::
* 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱::


File: python.info,  Node: 일반 코덱,  Next: UTF-8 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.15 일반 코덱
..................

다음은 일반 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Decode (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  인코딩된 문
     자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.
     'encoding'과 'errors'는 *note str(): 445. 내장 함수의 같은 이름의 매
     개 변수와 같은 의미입니다.  사용할 코덱은 파이썬 코덱 레지스트리를
     사용하여 조회됩니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 객
     체를 인코딩하고 결과를 파이썬 bytes 객체로 반환합니다.  'encoding'과
     'errors'는 유니코드 *note encode(): 8d2. 메서드의 같은 이름의 매개
     변수와 같은 의미입니다.  사용할 코덱은 파이썬 코덱 레지스트리를 사
     용하여 조회됩니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 코덱,  Next: UTF-32 코덱,  Prev: 일반 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.16 UTF-8 코덱
...................

다음은 UTF-8 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  UTF-8로 인
     코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만
     듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'consumed'가
     ‘NULL’이면, *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4acd.처럼 동작합니다.
     'consumed'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 후행 불완전한 UTF-8 바이트 시퀀스는 에
     러로 처리되지 않습니다.  이러한 바이트는 디코딩되지 않으며 디코딩된
     바이트 수는 'consumed'에 저장됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  UTF-8을 사
     용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를 파이썬 bytes 객체로 반환합
     니다.  에러 처리는 “strict” 입니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
     (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’).

 -- C 함수: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  유니코드 객
     체의 UTF-8 인코딩에 대한 포인터를 반환하고, 인코딩된 표현의 크기를
     (바이트 단위로) 'size'에 저장합니다.  'size' 인자는 ‘NULL’일 수 있
     습니다; 이 경우 크기가 저장되지 않습니다.  반환된 버퍼에는 다른 널
     코드 포인트가 있는지에 관계없이, 항상 추가 널 바이트가 추가됩니다
     ('size'에 포함되지 않습니다).

     On error, set an exception, set 'size' to ‘-1’ (if it’s not NULL)
     and return ‘NULL’.

     The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
     (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’).

     이것은 유니코드 객체에서 문자열의 UTF-8 표현을 캐시하고, 후속 호출
     은 같은 버퍼에 대한 포인터를 반환합니다.  호출자는 버퍼 할당 해제에
     대한 책임이 없습니다.  유니코드 객체가 가비지 수거될 때 버퍼는 할당
     해제되고 버퍼를 가리키는 포인터는 유효하지 않게 됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 반환형은 이제 ‘char *’가 아니라 ‘const char *’입
     니다.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: This function is a part of the *note limited
     API: 38f.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (PyObject *unicode)

     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 895.와 같지만, 크기를 저장하지 않
     습니다.

          경고: This function does not have any special behavior for
          null characters(1) embedded within 'unicode'.  As a result,
          strings containing null characters will remain in the returned
          string, which some C functions might interpret as the end of
          the string, leading to truncation.  If truncation is an issue,
          it is recommended to use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 895.
          instead.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 반환형은 이제 ‘char *’가 아니라 ‘const char *’입
     니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-32 코덱,  Next: UTF-16 코덱,  Prev: UTF-8 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.17 UTF-32 코덱
....................

다음은 UTF-32 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  UTF-32로 인
     코딩된 버퍼 문자열에서 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하고 해당 유니코드 객
     체를 반환합니다.  'errors'(‘NULL’이 아니면)는 에러 처리를 정의합니
     다.  기본값은 “strict”입니다.

     'byteorder'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 디코더는 지정된 바이트 순서를 사용하
     여 디코딩을 시작합니다:

          *byteorder == -1: 리틀 엔디안
          *byteorder == 0:  네이티브 엔디안
          *byteorder == 1:  빅 엔디안

     ‘*byteorder’가 0이고, 입력 데이터의 처음 4바이트가 바이트 순서 표시
     (BOM)이면, 디코더가 이 바이트 순서로 전환되고 BOM은 결과 유니코드 문
     자열에 복사되지 않습니다.  ‘*byteorder’가 ‘-1’이나 ‘1’이면, 모든 바
     이트 순서 표시가 출력에 복사됩니다.

     완료 후, '*byteorder'는 입력 데이터의 끝에서 현재 바이트 순서로 설
     정됩니다.

     'byteorder'가 ‘NULL’이면, 코덱은 네이티브 순서 모드로 시작합니다.

     코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'consumed'가
     ‘NULL’이면, *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 4ac9.처럼 동작합니다.
     'consumed'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 4aca. 은 후행 불완전 UTF-32 바이트
     시퀀스(가령 4로 나누어떨어지지 않는 바이트 수)를 에러로 처리하지 않
     습니다.  이러한 바이트는 디코딩되지 않으며 디코딩된 바이트 수는
     'consumed'에 저장됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  네이티브 바
     이트 순서로 UTF-32 인코딩을 사용하여 파이썬 바이트 문자열을 반환합
     니다.  문자열은 항상 BOM 마크로 시작합니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입
     니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-16 코덱,  Next: UTF-7 코덱,  Prev: UTF-32 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.18 UTF-16 코덱
....................

다음은 UTF-16 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  UTF-16으로
     인코딩된 버퍼 문자열에서 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하고 해당 유니코드 객
     체를 반환합니다.  'errors'(‘NULL’이 아니면)는 에러 처리를 정의합니
     다.  기본값은 “strict”입니다.

     'byteorder'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 디코더는 지정된 바이트 순서를 사용하
     여 디코딩을 시작합니다:

          *byteorder == -1: 리틀 엔디안
          *byteorder == 0:  네이티브 엔디안
          *byteorder == 1:  빅 엔디안

     ‘*byteorder’가 0이고, 입력 데이터의 처음 2바이트가 바이트 순서 표시
     (BOM)이면, 디코더는 이 바이트 순서로 전환되고 BOM은 결과 유니코드 문
     자열에 복사되지 않습니다.  ‘*byteorder’가 ‘-1’이나 ‘1’이면 모든 바
     이트 순서 표시가 출력에 복사됩니다 (‘\ufeff’나 ‘\ufffe’ 문자가 됩니
     다).

     완료 후, ‘*byteorder’는 입력 데이터의 끝에서 현재 바이트 순서로 설
     정됩니다.

     'byteorder'가 ‘NULL’이면, 코덱은 네이티브 순서 모드로 시작합니다.

     코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'consumed'가
     ‘NULL’이면, *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 4ac7.처럼 동작합니다.
     'consumed'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 4ac8. 은 후행 불완전 UTF-16 바이트
     시퀀스(가령 홀수 바이트 수나 분할 서로게이트 쌍)를 에러로 처리하지
     않습니다.  이러한 바이트는 디코딩되지 않으며 디코딩된 바이트 수는
     'consumed'에 저장됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  네이티브 바
     이트 순서로 UTF-16 인코딩을 사용하여 파이썬 바이트 문자열을 반환합
     니다.  문자열은 항상 BOM 마크로 시작합니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입
     니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-7 코덱,  Next: 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱,  Prev: UTF-16 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.19 UTF-7 코덱
...................

다음은 UTF-7 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  UTF-7로 인
     코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만
     듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'consumed'가
     ‘NULL’이면, *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 4acb.처럼 동작합니다.
     'consumed'가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 후행 불완전한 UTF-7 base-64 섹션은 에
     러로 처리되지 않습니다.  이러한 바이트는 디코딩되지 않으며 디코딩된
     바이트 수는 'consumed'에 저장됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱,  Next: 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱,  Prev: UTF-7 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.20 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱
.................................

다음은 “유니코드 이스케이프(Unicode Escape)” 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 이
     스케이프 인코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유니코
     드 객체를 만듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 이
     스케이프를 사용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를 bytes 객체로
     반환합니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱,  Next: Latin-1 코덱,  Prev: 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.21 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱
......................................

다음은 “원시 유니코드 이스케이프(Raw Unicode Escape)” 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  원시 유니코
     드 이스케이프 인코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유
     니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  원시 유니코
     드 이스케이프를 사용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를 bytes 객
     체로 반환합니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생
     하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Latin-1 코덱,  Next: ASCII 코덱,  Prev: 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.22 Latin-1 코덱
.....................

다음은 Latin-1 코덱 API입니다: Latin-1은 처음 256개의 유니코드 서수에 해
당하며 인코딩 중에 코덱에서 이들만 허용됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Latin-1 인
     코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만
     듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Latin-1을 사
     용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를 파이썬 bytes 객체로 반환합
     니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ASCII 코덱,  Next: 문자 맵 코덱,  Prev: Latin-1 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.23 ASCII 코덱
...................

다음은 ASCII 코덱 API입니다.  7비트 ASCII 데이터만 허용됩니다.  다른 모
든 코드는 에러를 생성합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ASCII 인코
     딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만듭
     니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ASCII를 사
     용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를 파이썬 bytes 객체로 반환합
     니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 문자 맵 코덱,  Next: 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱,  Prev: ASCII 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.24 문자 맵 코덱
.....................

이 코덱은 다양한 코덱을 구현하는 데 사용할 수 있다는 점에서 특별합니다
(실제로 ‘encodings’ 패키지에 포함된 대부분의 표준 코덱을 얻기 위해 수행
되었습니다).  코덱은 매핑을 사용하여 문자를 인코딩하고 디코딩합니다.  제
공된 매핑 객체는 *note __getitem__(): 283. 매핑 인터페이스를 지원해야 합
니다; 딕셔너리와 시퀀스가 잘 작동합니다.

다음은 매핑 코덱 API입니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char
          *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진
     'mapping' 객체를 사용하여 인코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디
     코딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     'mapping'이 ‘NULL’이면, Latin-1 디코딩이 적용됩니다.  그렇지 않으면
     'mapping'은 바이트 서수(0에서 255 사이의 정수)를 유니코드 문자열, 정
     수(유니코드 서수로 해석됩니다) 또는 ‘None’으로 매핑해야합니다.  매
     핑되지 않은 데이터 바이트(‘None’, ‘0xFFFE’ 또는 ‘'\ufffe'’로 매핑되
     는 것뿐만 아니라, *note LookupError: 21d4.를 유발하는 것)은 정의되
     지 않은 매핑으로 처리되어 에러를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진
     'mapping' 객체를 사용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를 bytes 객
     체로 반환합니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생
     하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     'mapping' 객체는 유니코드 서수 정수를 bytes 객체, 0에서 255 사이의
     정수 또는 ‘None’으로 매핑해야 합니다.  ‘None’에 매핑되는 것뿐만 아
     니라 매핑되지 않은 문자 서수(*note LookupError: 21d4.를 유발하는 것
     )는 “정의되지 않은 매핑”으로 처리되어 에러가 발생합니다.

다음 코덱 API는 유니코드를 유니코드로 매핑한다는 점에서 특별합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Translate (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  문자 매핑 테
     이블을 적용하여 문자열을 변환하고 결과 유니코드 객체를 반환합니다.
     코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     매핑 테이블은 유니코드 서수 정수를 유니코드 서수 정수나 ‘None’(문자
     가 삭제되도록 합니다)에 매핑해야 합니다.

     매핑 테이블은 *note __getitem__(): 283. 인터페이스 만 제공하면 됩니
     다; 딕셔너리와 시퀀스가 잘 작동합니다.  매핑되지 않은 문자 서수
     (*note LookupError: 21d4.를 유발하는 것)는 건드리지 않고 그대로 복
     사됩니다.

     'errors'는 코덱에서의 일반적인 의미입니다.  기본 에러 처리를 사용함
     을 나타내는 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱,  Prev: 문자 맵 코덱,  Up: 내장 코덱

7.8.3.25 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱
............................

다음은 MBCS 코덱 API입니다.  현재 윈도우에서만 사용할 수 있으며 Win32
MBCS 변환기를 사용하여 변환을 구현합니다.  MBCS(또는 DBCS)는 단지 하나가
아니라 인코딩 클래스임에 유의하십시오.  대상 인코딩은 코덱을 실행하는 기
계의 사용자 설정에 의해 정의됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  MBCS 인코딩된 문자열 'str'의 'size' 바이트를 디코
     딩하여 유니코드 객체를 만듭니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을
     반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  'consumed'가 ‘NULL’이면, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4ac4.처럼 동작합니다.  'consumed'가 ‘NULL’이
     아니면, *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4ac5. 은 후행 선행
     (lead) 바이트를 디코딩하지 않고 디코딩된 바이트 수가 'consumed'에 저
     장됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (int
          code_page, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char
          *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful():
     4ac5, except uses the code page specified by 'code_page'.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  MBCS를 사용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코딩하고 결과를
     파이썬 bytes 객체로 반환합니다.  에러 처리는 “strict”입니다.  코덱
     에서 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (int
          code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. on Windows 버
     전 3.7 이후로.'  지정된 코드 페이지를 사용하여 유니코드 객체를 인코
     딩하고 파이썬 bytes 객체를 반환합니다.  코덱에서 예외가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  ‘CP_ACP’ 코드 페이지를 사용하여 MBCS 인코더를
     얻습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드와 슬롯 함수,  Prev: 내장 코덱,  Up: 유니코드 객체와 코덱

7.8.3.26 메서드와 슬롯 함수
...........................

다음 API는 입력의 유니코드 객체와 문자열을 (설명에서 문자열이라고 하겠습
니다) 처리할 수 있으며 적절하게 유니코드 객체나 정수를 반환합니다.

예외가 발생하면 모두 ‘NULL’이나 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Concat (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  두 문자열을
     이어붙여 하나의 새로운 유니코드 문자열을 제공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Split (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  문자열을 분
     할하여 유니코드 문자열 리스트를 제공합니다.  'sep'이 ‘NULL’이면, 모
     든 공백 부분 문자열에서 분할이 수행됩니다.  그렇지 않으면, 주어진 구
     분자에서 분할이 일어납니다.  최대 'maxsplit' 분할이 수행됩니다.  음
     수이면, 제한이 설정되지 않습니다.  구분자는 결과 리스트에 포함되지
     않습니다.

     에러 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Equivalent to *note str.split(): ea0.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_RSplit (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Similar to
     *note PyUnicode_Split(): 4ad9, but splitting will be done beginning
     at the end of the string.

     에러 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Equivalent to *note str.rsplit(): 1246.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Splitlines (PyObject
          *unicode, int keepends)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  줄 바꿈에서
     유니코드 문자열을 분할하여, 유니코드 문자열 리스트를 반환합니다.
     CRLF는 하나의 줄 바꿈으로 간주합니다.  'keepends'가 ‘0’이면, 결과 문
     자열에 줄 바꿈 문자가 포함되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Partition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Split a
     Unicode string at the first occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself, and the part after the separator.  If the separator is not
     found, return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by
     two empty strings.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     에러 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Equivalent to *note str.partition(): ea1.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_RPartition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Similar to
     *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 1577, but split a Unicode string at
     the last occurrence of 'sep'.  If the separator is not found,
     return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings, followed by the
     string itself.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     에러 시, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     Equivalent to *note str.rpartition(): 1249.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Join (PyObject *separator,
          PyObject *seq)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진
     'separator'를 사용하여 문자열 시퀀스를 연결하고 결과 유니코드 문자
     열을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_Tailmatch (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'substr'이 주어진 꼬리 끝에서
     ('direction' == ‘-1’은 접두사 일치를 수행함을 의미하고, 'direction'
     == ‘1’은 접미사 일치를 의미합니다) ‘unicode[start:end]’와 일치하면
     ‘1’을 반환합니다, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  에러가 발생하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_Find (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 'direction'을 사용하여
     ('direction' == ‘1’은 정방향 검색을 의미하고, 'direction' == ‘-1’은
     역방향 검색을 의미합니다) ‘unicode[start:end]’에서 'substr'의 첫 번
     째 위치를 반환합니다.  반환 값은 첫 번째 일치의 인덱스입니다; ‘-1’
     값은 일치하는 항목이 없음을 나타내고, ‘-2’는 에러가 발생했고 예외가
     설정되었음을 나타냅니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_FindChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  주어진
     'direction'을 사용하여 ('direction' == ‘1’은 정방향 검색을 의미하고
     , 'direction' == ‘-1’은 역방향 검색을 의미합니다)
     ‘unicode[start:end]’에서 문자 'ch'의 첫 번째 위치를 반환합니다.  반
     환 값은 첫 번째 일치의 인덱스입니다; ‘-1’ 값은 일치하는 항목이 없음
     을 나타내고, ‘-2’는 에러가 발생했고 예외가 설정되었음을 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 'start'와 'end'는 이제 ‘unicode[start:end]’처럼
     작동하도록 조정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnicode_Count (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘unicode[start:end]’에서
     'substr'이 겹치지 않게 등장하는 횟수를 반환합니다.  에러가 발생하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Replace (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'unicode'에
     서 'substr'의 최대 'maxcount' 등장을 'replstr'로 바꾸고 결과 유니코
     드 객체를 반환합니다.  'maxcount' == ‘-1’은 모든 등장을 교체함을 의
     미합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_Compare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  두 문자열을 비교하고 각각 작음
     , 같음, 큼에 대해 ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’을 반환합니다.

     이 함수는 실패 시 ‘-1’을 반환하므로, 에러를 확인하기 위해 *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 호출해야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode, const
          char *string, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Compare a
     Unicode object with a char buffer which is interpreted as being
     UTF-8 or ASCII encoded and return true (‘1’) if they are equal, or
     false (‘0’) otherwise.  If the Unicode object contains surrogate
     code points (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) or the C string is not valid
     UTF-8, false (‘0’) is returned.

     이 함수는 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (PyObject *unicode, const char
          *string)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  *note
     PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 36f.와 유사하지만, ‘strlen()’을 사
     용하여 'string' 길이를 계산합니다.  유니코드 객체가 널 문자를 포함
     하면, 거짓(‘0’)을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (PyObject *unicode,
          const char *string)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  유니코드 객체 'unicode'를
     'string'과 비교하고 각각 작음, 같음, 큼에 대해 ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’을 반
     환합니다.  ASCII로 인코딩된 문자열만 전달하는 것이 가장 좋지만, 비
     ASCII 문자가 포함되면 함수는 입력 문자열을 ISO-8859-1로 해석합니다.

     이 함수는 예외를 발생시키지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_RichCompare (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right, int op)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  두 유니코드
     문자열을 풍부한 비교(rich comparison) 하고 다음 중 하나를 반환합니
     다:

        * 예외가 발생하면 ‘NULL’

        * 성공적인 비교는 *note Py_True: 4c29.나 *note Py_False: 4c28.

        * 형 조합을 알 수 없으면 *note Py_NotImplemented: 4b9e.

     'op'에 가능한 값은 *note Py_GT: 4ba6, *note Py_GE: 4ba7, *note
     Py_EQ: 4ba4, *note Py_NE: 4ba5, *note Py_LT: 4ba2. 및 *note Py_LE:
     4ba3.입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_Format (PyObject *format,
          PyObject *args)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'format'과
     'args'에서 새 문자열 객체를 반환합니다; 이것은 ‘format % args’와 유
     사합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnicode_Contains (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'substr'가 'unicode'에 포함되
     어 있는지 확인하고 그에 따라 참이나 거짓을 반환합니다.

     'substr'는 단일 요소 유니코드 문자열로 강제 변환해야 합니다.  에러
     가 있으면 ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace (PyObject **p_unicode)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  인자 **note p_unicode: 8ae.를
     제자리에서 인턴(intern) 합니다.  인자는 파이썬 유니코드 문자열을 가
     리키는 포인터 변수의 주소여야 합니다.  **note p_unicode: 8ae.와 같
     은 기존 인턴 문자열이 있으면, **note p_unicode: 8ae.를 그것으로 설
     정합니다 (이전 문자열 객체에 대한 참조를 해제하고 인턴 된 문자열 객
     체에 대한 새로운 *note 강한 참조: 336.를 만듭니다), 그렇지 않으면
     **note p_unicode: 8ae.만 홀로 두고 인턴 합니다.

     (설명: 참조에 대해 많은 이야기가 있지만, 이 함수를 참조 중립이라고
     생각하십시오.  전달하는 객체의 소유권을 반드시 가져야 합니다; 호출
     후 더는 전달된 참조를 소유하지 않지만, 결과를 새로 소유하게 됩니다
     .)

     This function never raises an exception.  On error, it leaves its
     argument unchanged without interning it.

     Instances of subclasses of *note str: 445. may not be interned,
     that is, *note PyUnicode_CheckExact: 4c5d.(**note p_unicode: 8ae.)
     must be true.  If it is not, then – as with any other error – the
     argument is left unchanged.

     Note that interned strings are not “immortal”.  You must keep a
     reference to the result to benefit from interning.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnicode_InternFromString (const char
          *str)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4.과 *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace():
     8ae.의 조합, 정적 할당된 문자열을 위한 것입니다.

     인턴(intern) 된 새 유니코드 문자열 객체나, 같은 값을 가진 이전에 인
     턴 된 문자열 객체에 대한 새 (“소유된”) 참조를 반환합니다.

     Python may keep a reference to the result, or make it *note
     immortal: 437c, preventing it from being garbage-collected
     promptly.  For interning an unbounded number of different strings,
     such as ones coming from user input, prefer calling *note
     PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4. and *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace():
     8ae. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: 튜플 객체,  Next: 구조체 시퀀스 객체,  Prev: 유니코드 객체와 코덱,  Up: 시퀀스 객체

7.8.3.27 튜플 객체
..................

 -- C 자료형: type PyTupleObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 튜플 객체를 나타냅니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyTuple_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 튜플 형을 나타냅니다.  파이썬 계층의 *note tuple:
     369.과 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTuple_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 튜플 객체이거나 튜플 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스면 참을 돌려줍니
     다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTuple_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 튜플 객체이지만, 튜플 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스는 아니면 참을 돌
     려줍니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTuple_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  크기 'len'
     인 튜플 객체나, 실패 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTuple_Pack (Py_ssize_t n, ...)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  크기 'n' 인
     새 튜플 객체나, 실패 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  튜플
     값은 파이썬 객체를 가리키는 후속 'n' 개의 C 인자로 초기화됩니다.
     ‘PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)’는 ‘Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)’와 동등합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyTuple_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  튜플 객체에 대한 포인터를 받아
     서, 해당 튜플의 크기를 반환합니다.  에러가 발생하면, 예외를 설정하
     고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyTuple_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p)

     *note PyTuple_Size(): 4a9a.와 비슷하지만, 에러 검사를 생략합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTuple_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가
     리키는 튜플의 'pos' 위치에 있는 객체를 반환합니다.  'pos'가 음수이
     거나 범위를 벗어나면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고 *note IndexError: 14fc. 예
     외를 설정합니다.

     The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple 'p' (that is: it
     is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p').  To get a
     *note strong reference: 336, use *note
     Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)): 896. or *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTuple_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d5.와 비슷하지만,
     인자를 확인하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTuple_GetSlice (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가리
     키는 튜플의 'low'와 'high' 사이의 슬라이스를 반환하거나, 실패하면 예
     외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     이것은 파이썬 표현식 ‘p[low:high]’와 동등합니다.  튜플 끝으로부터의
     인덱싱은 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTuple_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject
          *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가리키는 튜플의 'pos' 위
     치에 객체 'o'에 대한 참조를 삽입합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.
     'pos'가 범위를 벗어나면, ‘-1’을 반환하고 *note IndexError: 14fc. 예
     외를 설정합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 'o'에 대한 참조를 “훔치고” 영향을 받는 위치에
          서 튜플에 이미 있는 항목에 대한 참조를 버립니다(discard).

 -- C 함수: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject
          *o)

     *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6.과 비슷하지만, 에러 검사는 하지 않으
     며 새로운 튜플을 채울 때*만* 사용해야 합니다.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f9. or *note with assertions: 385.

          참고: 이 함수는 'o'에 대한 참조를 “훔치고”, *note
          PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6.와 달리, 교체 중인 항목에 대한 참조를
          버리지 '않습니다'; 'pos' 위치에서 튜플의 모든 참조는 누수됩니
          다.

 -- C 함수: int _PyTuple_Resize (PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     튜플 크기를 조정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  'newsize'는 튜플의 새
     로운 길이가 됩니다.  튜플은 불변이라고 '여겨지므로', 객체에 대해 참
     조가 하나만 있을 때만 사용해야 합니다.  튜플이 코드의 다른 부분에 이
     미 알려졌으면 이것을 사용하지 '마십시오'.  튜플은 항상 끝에서 커지
     거나 줄어듭니다.  이것을 오래된 튜플을 파괴하고 새 튜플을 만드는 것
     으로 생각하십시오, 단지 더 효율적일 뿐입니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환
     합니다.  클라이언트 코드는, ‘*p’의 결괏값이 이 함수를 호출하기 전과
     같다고 가정해서는 안 됩니다.  ‘*p’가 참조하는 객체가 바뀌면 원래
     ‘*p’는 파괴됩니다.  실패하면, ‘-1’을 반환하고, ‘*p’를 ‘NULL’로 설정
     하고, *note MemoryError: 157e. 나 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시
     킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 구조체 시퀀스 객체,  Next: 리스트 객체,  Prev: 튜플 객체,  Up: 시퀀스 객체

7.8.3.28 구조체 시퀀스 객체
...........................

구조체 시퀀스(struct sequence) 객체는 *note namedtuple(): 1ca. 객체의 C
등가물입니다, 즉 어트리뷰트를 통해 항목에 액세스할 수 있는 시퀀스입니다.
구조체 시퀀스를 만들려면, 먼저 특정 구조체 시퀀스 형을 만들어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. *PyStructSequence_NewType
          (PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  아래에 설명
     된 'desc'의 데이터로 새로운 구조체 시퀀스 형을 만듭니다.  결과 형의
     인스턴스는 *note PyStructSequence_New(): 4a8a.로 만들 수 있습니다.

     실패 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyStructSequence_InitType (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     'desc'로 구조체 시퀀스 형 'type'을 재자리에서 초기화합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyStructSequence_InitType2 (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): ff9.와 비슷하지만, 성공하면 ‘0’을
     , 실패하면 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 자료형: type PyStructSequence_Desc
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  만들
     구조체 시퀀스 형의 메타 정보를 포함합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8
          encoded.  The name must contain the module name.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *doc

          해당 형에 대한 독스트링에 대한 포인터나 생략하려면 ‘NULL’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyStructSequence_Field: bb6. *fields

          새로운 형의 필드 이름을 가진 ‘NULL’로 끝나는 배열에 대한 포인
          터.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int n_in_sequence

          파이썬 측에서 볼 수 있는 필드 수 (튜플로 사용된 경우).

 -- C 자료형: type PyStructSequence_Field
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  구조
     체 시퀀스의 필드를 기술합니다.  구조체 시퀀스는 튜플로 모형화되므로
     , 모든 필드는 *note PyObject: 332.* 형을 취합니다.  *note
     PyStructSequence_Desc: bb7.의 *note fields: 4c90. 배열의 인덱스는 구
     조체 시퀀스의 어떤 필드가 기술되는지를 결정합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          필드의 이름.  또는 이름있는 필드의 목록을 끝내려면 ‘NULL’, 이
          름이 없는 상태로 두려면 *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField:
          97f.로 설정합니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *doc

          필드 독스트링이나 생략하려면 ‘NULL’.

 -- C 변수: const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  이름 없는 상
     태로 남겨두기 위한 필드 이름의 특수 값.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 형이 ‘char *’에서 변경되었습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyStructSequence_New (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyStructSequence_NewType(): 4a8b.으로 만든 'type'의 인스턴스를 만듭
     니다.

     실패 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyStructSequence_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가
     리키는 구조체 시퀀스의 위치 'pos'에 있는 객체를 돌려줍니다.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f9. or *note with assertions: 385.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (PyObject
          *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 4a89.의 별
     칭.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 이제 *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 4a89.의
     별칭으로 구현됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyStructSequence_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  구조체 시퀀스 'p'의 인덱스
     'pos'에 있는 필드를 값 'o'로 설정합니다.  *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM():
     386.과 마찬가지로, 이것은 새로운 인스턴스를 채울 때만 사용해야 합니
     다.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f9. or *note with assertions: 385.

          참고: 이 함수는 'o'에 대한 참조를 “훔칩니다”.

 -- C 함수: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          *pos, PyObject *o)

     *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4a8c.의 별칭.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: 이제 *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4a8c.의
     별칭으로 구현됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 객체,  Prev: 구조체 시퀀스 객체,  Up: 시퀀스 객체

7.8.3.29 리스트 객체
....................

 -- C 자료형: type PyListObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 리스트 객체를 나타냅니다
     .

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyList_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 리스트 형을 나타냅니다.  이것은 파이썬 계층의 *note
     list: 60b.와 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 리스트 객체나 리스트 형의 서브 형 인스턴스면 참을 반환합니다.
     이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 리스트 객체이지만 리스트 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 참
     을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyList_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  성공하면 길
     이 'len' 인 새 리스트를, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

          참고: 'len'이 0보다 크면, 반환된 리스트 객체의 항목은 ‘NULL’로
          설정됩니다.  따라서 모든 항목을 *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f.이
          나 *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 387.으로 실제 객체로 설정하기 전에
          *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a5b.와 같은 추상 API 함수를 사용
          하거나 파이썬 코드에 객체를 노출할 수 없습니다.  다음 API는 리
          스트가 완전히 초기화되기 전의 안전한 API 입니다: *note
          PyList_SetItem(): 157f. 과 *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 387.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyList_Size (PyObject *list)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'list'에서 리스트 객체의 길이를 반환합니다; 이는 리스트 객체에 대한
     ‘len(list)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyList_GET_SIZE (PyObject *list)

     *note PyList_Size(): 13e2.와 유사하지만, 에러 검사가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyList_GetItemRef (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이
     후로.'  'list'가 가리키는 리스트에서 'index' 위치의 객체를 반환합니
     다.  위치는 음수가 아니어야 합니다; 리스트의 끝에서부터의 인덱싱은
     지원되지 않습니다.  'index'가 범위를 벗어나면 (‘<0 or
     >=len(list)’), ‘NULL’을 반환하고 *note IndexError: 14fc. 예외를 설
     정합니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyList_GetItem (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Like
     *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 354, but returns a *note borrowed
     reference: 337. instead of a *note strong reference: 336.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyList_GET_ITEM (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  *note PyList_GetItem(): 355.와 유사하지만, 에
     러 검사가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_SetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  리스트의 인덱스 'index'에 있는
     항목을 'item'으로 설정합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  'index'가
     범위를 벗어나면, ‘-1’을 반환하고 *note IndexError: 14fc. 예외를 설
     정합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 'item'에 대한 참조를 “훔치고” 영향을 받는 위치
          의 리스트에 이미 있는 항목에 대한 참조를 버립니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyList_SET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject
          *o)

     에러 검사 없는 *note PyList_SetItem(): 157f.의 매크로 형식.  일반적
     으로 이전 내용이 없는 새 리스트를 채우는 데 사용됩니다.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 1f9. or *note with assertions: 385.

          참고: 이 매크로는 'item'에 대한 참조를 “훔치고”, *note
          PyList_SetItem(): 157f.과는 달리 대체되는 항목에 대한 참조를 버
          리지 '않습니다'; 'list' 의 'i' 위치에 있는 참조는 누수를 일으
          킵니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Insert (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  항목 'item'을 리스트 'list'의
     인덱스 'index' 앞에 삽입합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다; 실패하
     면 ‘-1’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.  ‘list.insert(index, item)’에
     해당합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Append (PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  리스트 'list'의 끝에 객체
     'item'을 추가합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다; 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반
     환하고 예외를 설정합니다.  ‘list.append(item)’에 해당합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyList_GetSlice (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'list'에서
     'low' 와 'high' '사이에'있는 객체들을 포함하는 리스트를 반환합니다.
     실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합니다.  ‘list[low:high]’에 해
     당합니다.  리스트 끝에서부터의 인덱싱은 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_SetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low,
          Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'low'와 'high' 사이의 'list'슬
     라이스를 'itemlist'의 내용으로 설정합니다.  ‘list[low:high] =
     itemlist’에 해당합니다.  'itemlist'는 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있는데, 빈 리스
     트의 대입을 나타냅니다 (슬라이스 삭제).  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  리스트 끝에서부터의 인덱싱은 지원되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Extend (PyObject *list, PyObject *iterable)

     Extend 'list' with the contents of 'iterable'.  This is the same as
     ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, iterable)’
     and analogous to ‘list.extend(iterable)’ or ‘list += iterable’.

     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list:
     60b. object.  Return 0 on success.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Clear (PyObject *list)

     Remove all items from 'list'.  This is the same as
     ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, 0, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, NULL)’ and analogous to
     ‘list.clear()’ or ‘del list[:]’.

     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list:
     60b. object.  Return 0 on success.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Sort (PyObject *list)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'list' 항목을 제자리에서 정렬
     합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은
     ‘list.sort()’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyList_Reverse (PyObject *list)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'list'의 항목을 제자리에서 뒤
     집습니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이것은
     ‘list.reverse()’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyList_AsTuple (PyObject *list)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'list'의 내용을 포함하는 새 튜플 객체를 반환합니다; ‘tuple(list)’와
     동등합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 컨테이너 객체,  Next: 함수 객체,  Prev: 시퀀스 객체,  Up: 구상 객체 계층

7.8.4 컨테이너 객체
-------------------

* Menu:

* 딕셔너리 객체::
* 집합 객체::


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 객체,  Next: 집합 객체,  Up: 컨테이너 객체

7.8.4.1 딕셔너리 객체
.....................

 -- C 자료형: type PyDictObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 파이썬 딕셔너리 객체를 나타냅니
     다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyDict_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인
     스턴스는 파이썬 딕셔너리 형을 나타냅니다.  이것은 파이썬 계층의
     *note dict: 256.와 같은 객체입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 dict 객체이거나 dict 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스면 참을 반환합니
     다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 dict 객체이지만, dict 형의 서브 형의 인스턴스는 아니면 참을 반
     환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_New ()
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  새로운 빈 딕
     셔너리를 반환하거나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDictProxy_New (PyObject *mapping)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  읽기 전용 동
     작을 강제하는 매핑을 위한 *note types.MappingProxyType: 467. 객체를
     반환합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 비 동적 클래스 형을 위한 딕셔너리의
     수정을 방지하기 위해 뷰를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyDict_Clear (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  기존 딕셔너리의 모든 키-값 쌍
     을 비웁니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Contains (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리 'p'에 'key'가 포함되
     어 있는지 확인합니다.  'p'의 항목이 'key'와 일치하면 ‘1’을 반환하고
     , 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  에러면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이는
     파이썬 표현식 ‘key in p’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_ContainsString (PyObject *p, const char *key)

     이것은 *note PyDict_Contains(): 331.와 같지만, 'key'가 *note
     PyObject: 332.*가 아닌 const char* UTF-8 인코딩된 바이트 문자열로 지
     정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_Copy (PyObject *p)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'와 같은
     키-값 쌍을 포함하는 새 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_SetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *val)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리 'p'에 'val'을 'key' 키
     로 삽입합니다.  'key'는 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해야 합니다.  그렇지 않
     으면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 'val'에 대한 참조를 훔치지 '않습니다
     '.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_SetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject *val)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 *note PyDict_SetItem():
     48d7.와 같지만, 'key'가 *note PyObject: 332.*가 아닌 const char*
     UTF-8 인코딩된 바이트 문자열로 지정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_DelItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리 'p'에서 키가 'key'인
     항목을 제거합니다.  'key'는 *note 해시 가능: 60a.해야 합니다.  그렇
     지 않으면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.  'key'가 딕셔너리에 없
     으면, *note KeyError: 33d.가 발생합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_DelItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 *note PyDict_DelItem():
     499c.와 같지만, 'key'가 *note PyObject: 332.*가 아닌 const char*
     UTF-8 인코딩된 바이트 문자열로 지정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_GetItemRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          **result)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Return a new
     *note strong reference: 336. to the object from dictionary 'p'
     which has a key 'key':

        * If the key is present, set '*result' to a new *note strong
          reference: 336. to the value and return ‘1’.

        * If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’.

        * On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.13.

     See also the *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340. function.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_GetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject
          *key)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리
     'p'에서 키가 'key'인 객체에 대한 *note 빌린 참조: 337.를 반환합니다
     .  'key' 키가 없으면 예외를 설정하지 '않고' ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

          참고: *note __hash__(): af8.와 *note __eq__(): af7. 메서드를 호
          출하는 동안 발생하는 예외는 조용히 무시됩니다.  대신 *note
          PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 335. 함수를 사용하십시오.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: Calling this API without *note GIL: 159. held
     had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer allowed.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_GetItemWithError (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  예외를 억
     제하지 않는 *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380.의 변형입니다.  예외가 발생
     하면 예외를 '설정하고' ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  키가 없으면 예외를 설
     정하지 '않고' ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_GetItemString (PyObject *p,
          const char *key)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은
     *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380.와 같지만, 'key'가 *note PyObject:
     332.*가 아닌 const char* UTF-8로 인코딩된 바이트 문자열로 지정됩니
     다.

          참고: *note __hash__(): af8.와 *note __eq__(): af7. 메서드를 호
          출하는 동안이나 임시 *note str: 445. 객체를 만드는 동안 발생하
          는 예외는 조용히 무시됩니다.  대신 자체 *note
          PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4. 'key'와 함께 *note
          PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 335. 함수를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_GetItemStringRef (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject **result)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  이것은 *note
     PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333.와 유시하지만, 'key'가 *note PyObject:
     332.*가 아닌 const char* UTF-8로 인코딩된 바이트 문자열로 지정됩니
     다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_SetDefault (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  이것은 파이썬 수준의 *note dict.setdefault():
     106f.와 같습니다.  존재하면, 딕셔너리 'p'에서 'key'에 해당하는 값을
     반환합니다.  키가 dict에 없으면, 값 'defaultobj'로 삽입되고,
     'defaultobj'가 반환됩니다.  이 함수는 'key'의 해시 함수를 조회 및 삽
     입을 위해 독립적으로 평가하는 대신 한 번만 평가합니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_SetDefaultRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *default_value, PyObject **result)

     Inserts 'default_value' into the dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'
     if the key is not already present in the dictionary.  If 'result'
     is not ‘NULL’, then '*result' is set to a *note strong reference:
     336. to either 'default_value', if the key was not present, or the
     existing value, if 'key' was already present in the dictionary.
     Returns ‘1’ if the key was present and 'default_value' was not
     inserted, or ‘0’ if the key was not present and 'default_value' was
     inserted.  On failure, returns ‘-1’, sets an exception, and sets
     ‘*result’ to ‘NULL’.

     For clarity: if you have a strong reference to 'default_value'
     before calling this function, then after it returns, you hold a
     strong reference to both 'default_value' and '*result' (if it’s not
     ‘NULL’).  These may refer to the same object: in that case you hold
     two separate references to it.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Pop (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          **result)

     Remove 'key' from dictionary 'p' and optionally return the removed
     value.  Do not raise *note KeyError: 33d. if the key missing.

        - If the key is present, set '*result' to a new reference to the
          removed value if 'result' is not ‘NULL’, and return ‘1’.

        - If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ if 'result' is
          not ‘NULL’, and return ‘0’.

        - On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Similar to *note dict.pop(): 33c, but without the default value and
     not raising *note KeyError: 33d. if the key missing.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_PopString (PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject
          **result)

     이것은 *note PyDict_Pop(): 33a.와 유사하지만, 'key'가 *note
     PyObject: 332.*가 아닌 const char* UTF-8로 인코딩된 바이트 문자열로
     지정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_Items (PyObject *p)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리의
     모든 항목을 포함하는 *note PyListObject: 4bbd.를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_Keys (PyObject *p)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리의
     모든 키를 포함하는 *note PyListObject: 4bbd.를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDict_Values (PyObject *p)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리
     'p'의 모든 값을 포함하는 *note PyListObject: 4bbd.를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyDict_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     딕셔너리에 있는 항목의 수를 반환합니다.  이는 딕셔너리에 대한
     ‘len(p)’와 동등합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Next (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject
          **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  딕셔너리 'p'의 모든 키-값 쌍을
     이터레이트 합니다.  'ppos'에 의해 참조된 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.는,
     이터레이션을 시작하기 위해 이 함수를 처음 호출하기 전에 ‘0’으로 초
     기화되어야 합니다; 이 함수는 딕셔너리의 각 쌍에 대해 참을 반환하고,
     모든 쌍이 보고되었으면 거짓을 반환합니다.  매개 변수 'pkey'와
     'pvalue'는 각각 키와 값으로 채울 *note PyObject: 332.* 변수를 가리
     키거나, ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.  이들을 통해 반환된 참조는 모두 빌린
     (borrowed) 것입니다.  이터레이션 중에 'ppos'를 변경하면 안 됩니다.
     이 값은 내부 딕셔너리 구조 내의 오프셋을 나타내며, 구조가 희박하므
     로 오프셋이 연속되지 않습니다.

     예를 들면:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              /* 값으로 흥미로운 작업을 수행합니다... */
              ...
          }

     딕셔너리 'p'는 이터레이션 중에 변경해서는 안 됩니다.  딕셔너리를 이
     터레이트 할 때 값을 변경하는 것은 안전하지만, 키 집합이 변경되지 않
     는 한만 그렇습니다.  예를 들면:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
              if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  return -1;
              }
              PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
              if (o == NULL)
                  return -1;
              if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(o);
                  return -1;
              }
              Py_DECREF(o);
          }

     The function is not thread-safe in the *note free-threaded: 152a.
     build without external synchronization.  You can use *note
     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 4ca2. to lock the dictionary while
     iterating over it:

          Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self->dict);
          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              ...
          }
          Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Merge (PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  매핑 객체 'b'를 이터레이트 하
     면서, 키-값 쌍을 딕셔너리 'a'에 추가합니다.  'b'는 딕셔너리거나
     *note PyMapping_Keys(): bb9.와 *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340.를 지
     원하는 모든 객체일 수 있습니다.  'override'가 참이면, 'a'에 있는 기
     존 쌍이 'b'에서 일치하는 키가 있으면 교체되고, 그렇지 않으면 'a'와
     일치하는 키가 없을 때만 쌍이 추가됩니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고,
     예외가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Update (PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이는 C에서 ‘PyDict_Merge(a, b,
     1)’와 같고, 두 번째 인자에 “keys” 어트리뷰트가 없을 때 *note
     PyDict_Update(): 49a5.가 키-값 쌍의 시퀀스에 대해 이터레이트 하지 않
     는다는 점만 제외하면, 파이썬에서 ‘a.update(b)’와 유사합니다.  성공
     하면 ‘0’을 반환하고, 예외가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int
          override)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'seq2'의 키-값 쌍으로 딕셔너리
     'a'를 갱신하거나 병합합니다.  'seq2'는 키-값 쌍으로 간주하는 길이
     2의 이터러블 객체를 생성하는 이터러블 객체여야 합니다.  중복 키가 있
     으면, 'override'가 참이면 마지막이 승리하고, 그렇지 않으면 첫 번째
     가 승리합니다.  성공 시 ‘0’을 반환하고, 예외가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환
     합니다.  동등한 파이썬은 이렇습니다(반환 값 제외)

          def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
              for key, value in seq2:
                  if override or key not in a:
                      a[key] = value

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_AddWatcher (PyDict_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a dictionary watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer id which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 55e.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55d.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55d. will be called when
     'dict' is modified or deallocated.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     on error.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyDict_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as no longer watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55d. will no longer be
     called when 'dict' is modified or deallocated.  The dict must
     previously have been watched by this watcher.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on error.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: type PyDict_WatchEvent

     Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events:
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’, or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyDict_WatchEvent: 4ca5. event, *note PyObject: 332. *dict,
          *note PyObject: 332. *key, *note PyObject: 332. *new_value)

     Type of a dict watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’,
     both 'key' and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.  If 'event' is
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, 'new_value' will
     be the new value for 'key'.  If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’,
     'key' is being deleted from the dictionary and 'new_value' will be
     ‘NULL’.

     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ occurs when 'dict' was previously empty and
     another dict is merged into it.  To maintain efficiency of this
     operation, per-key ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ events are not issued in
     this case; instead a single ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ is issued, and
     'key' will be the source dictionary.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'dict'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.  Do not
     trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify
     the dict as a side effect.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, taking a new reference in
     the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect
     it and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the
     resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active
     at that time will be called again.

     Callbacks occur before the notified modification to 'dict' takes
     place, so the prior state of 'dict' can be inspected.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 집합 객체,  Prev: 딕셔너리 객체,  Up: 컨테이너 객체

7.8.4.2 집합 객체
.................

이 절에서는 *note set: 5d3.과 *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체에 대한 공용
API에 대해 자세히 설명합니다.  아래 나열되지 않은 기능은 추상 객체 프로
토콜 (*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399, *note
PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19aa, *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd, *note
PyObject_Repr(): 1025, *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 4a67, *note
PyObject_Print(): 15f9. 및 *note PyObject_GetIter(): 4a66.를 포함합니다
)이나 추상 숫자 프로토콜 (*note PyNumber_And(): 4a3a, *note
PyNumber_Subtract(): 4a53, *note PyNumber_Or(): 4a4e, *note
PyNumber_Xor(): 4a55, *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4a3f, *note
PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4a47, *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4a43. 및
*note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 4a49.을 포함합니다).

 -- C 자료형: type PySetObject

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 *note set: 5d3.과 *note
     frozenset: 5d4. 객체 모두의 내부 데이터를 담는 데 사용됩니다.  이것
     은 작은 집합은 고정 크기(튜플 저장과 매우 흡사함)이고, 중형과 대형
     집합은 별도의 가변 크기 메모리 블록(리스트 저장소처럼)을 가리킨다는
     점에서 *note PyDictObject: 3bb.와 비슷합니다.  이 구조체의 필드는 아
     무것도 공개되지 않은 것으로 취급되어야 하며, 모두 변경될 수 있습니
     다.  모든 액세스는 구조체의 값을 조작하기보다는 설명된 API를 통해 수
     행해야 합니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PySet_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 파이썬 *note set: 5d3.
     형을 나타내는 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.의 인스턴스입니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyFrozenSet_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 파이썬 *note frozenset:
     5d4. 형을 나타내는 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.의 인스턴스입니다.

다음 형 검사 매크로는 모든 파이썬 객체에 대한 포인터에서 작동합니다.  마
찬가지로, 생성자 함수는 모든 이터러블 파이썬 객체에서 작동합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 *note set: 5d3. 객체나 서브 형의 인스턴스면 참을 반환합니다.
     이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFrozenSet_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체나 서브 형의 인스턴스면 참을 반환합
     니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyAnySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 *note set: 5d3. 객체, *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체 또는 서브 형
     의 인스턴스면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 *note set: 5d3. 객체이지만, 서브 형의 인스턴스는 아니면 참을
     반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int PyAnySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 *note set: 5d3. 객체나 *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체이지만, 서브
     형의 인스턴스는 아니면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체이지만, 서브 형의 인스턴스는 아니면
     참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'iterable'에
     의해 반환된 객체를 포함하는 새로운 *note set: 5d3.을 반환합니다.
     'iterable'은 새로운 빈 집합을 만들기 위해 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.  성
     공하면 새 집합을, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  'iterable'이 실제
     로 이터러블이 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  생성자
     는 집합을 복사할 때도 유용합니다 (‘c=set(s)’).

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrozenSet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'iterable'에
     의해 반환된 객체를 포함한 새로운 *note frozenset: 5d4.을 반환합니다
     .  'iterable'은 새로운 빈 frozenset을 만들기 위해 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습
     니다.  성공하면 새 집합을, 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.
     'iterable'이 실제로 이터러블이 아니면 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생
     시킵니다.

*note set: 5d3. 이나 *note frozenset: 5d4.의 인스턴스 또는 그들의 서브 형
의 인스턴스에 대해 다음 함수와 매크로를 사용할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySet_Size (PyObject *anyset)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     *note set: 5d3. 이나 *note frozenset: 5d4. 객체의 길이를 반환합니다
     .  ‘len(anyset)’와 동등합니다.  'anyset'이 *note set: 5d3, *note
     frozenset: 5d4. 또는 서브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 *note SystemError:
     570.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySet_GET_SIZE (PyObject *anyset)

     에러 검사 없는 *note PySet_Size(): 1412.의 매크로 형식.

 -- C 함수: int PySet_Contains (PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  발견되면 ‘1’을, 발견되지 않으
     면 ‘0’을, 에러가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  파이썬 *note
     __contains__(): 1f66. 메서드와는 달리, 이 함수는 해시 불가능한 집합
     을 임시 frozenset으로 자동 변환하지 않습니다.  'key'가 해시 불가능
     하면, *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  'anyset'이 *note set:
     5d3, *note frozenset: 5d4. 또는 서브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 *note
     SystemError: 570.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySet_Add (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'key'를 *note set: 5d3. 인스턴
     스에 추가합니다.  또한 *note frozenset: 5d4. 인스턴스에도 작동합니
     다 (*note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d6.처럼 다른 코드에 노출되기 전에 새
     로운 frozenset의 값을 채우는 데 사용할 수 있습니다).  성공하면 ‘0’을
     , 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  'key'가 해시 불가능하면, *note
     TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  성장할 공간이 없다면 *note
     MemoryError: 157e.를 발생시킵니다.  'set'이 *note set: 5d3. 이나 그
     서브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시킵니다.

다음 함수는 *note set: 5d3. 이나 그것의 서브 형의 인스턴스에는 사용할 수
있지만, *note frozenset: 5d4. 이나 그 서브 형의 인스턴스에는 사용할 수 없
습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySet_Discard (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  발견되고 제거되면 ‘1’을 반환하
     고, 발견되지 않으면(아무런 일도 하지 않습니다) ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러
     가 발생하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  발견할 수 없는 키에 대해 *note
     KeyError: 33d.를 발생시키지 않습니다.  'key'가 해시 불가능하면
     *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.  파이썬 *note discard():
     2245. 메서드와는 달리, 이 함수는 해시 불가능한 집합을 임시
     frozenset으로 자동 변환하지 않습니다.  'set'이 *note set: 5d3. 이나
     그 서브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시킵니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySet_Pop (PyObject *set)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'set'에 들
     어있는 임의의 객체에 대한 새 참조를 반환하고, 'set'에서 객체를 제거
     합니다.  실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  집합이 비어 있으면, *note
     KeyError: 33d.를 발생시킵니다.  'set'이 *note set: 5d3. 이나 그 서
     브 형의 인스턴스가 아니면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySet_Clear (PyObject *set)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  기존의 모든 요소 집합을 비웁니
     다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  'set'이 *note set: 5d3.이나 그 서
     브타입의 인스턴스가 아니면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시키고
     ‘-1’을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 객체,  Next: 기타 객체<2>,  Prev: 컨테이너 객체,  Up: 구상 객체 계층

7.8.5 함수 객체
---------------

* Menu:

* 함수 객체: 함수 객체<2>.
* 인스턴스 메서드 객체::
* 메서드 객체: 메서드 객체<2>.
* 셀 객체::
* 코드 객체: 코드 객체<2>.
* Code Object Flags::
* Extra information::


File: python.info,  Node: 함수 객체<2>,  Next: 인스턴스 메서드 객체,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.1 함수 객체
.................

파이썬 함수와 관련된 몇 가지 함수가 있습니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyFunctionObject

     함수에 사용되는 C 구조체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyFunction_Type

     이것은 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.의 인스턴스이며 파이썬 함수 형을 나
     타냅니다.  파이썬 프로그래머에게 ‘types.FunctionType’으로 노출됩니
     다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFunction_Check (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 함수 객체(*note PyFunction_Type: 4cb6. 형)면 참을 반환합니다.
     매개 변수는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_New (PyObject *code,
          PyObject *globals)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  코드 객체 'code'와 연관된 새 함수 객체를 반환합
     니다.  'globals'는 함수에서 액세스할 수 있는 전역 변수가 있는 딕셔
     너리이어야 합니다.

     함수의 독스트링과 이름은 코드 객체에서 가져옵니다.  *note
     __module__: 1f06.은 'globals'에서 가져옵니다.  인자 기본값, 어노테
     이션 및 클로저는 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다.  *note __qualname__: 1f05.은
     코드 객체의 *note co_qualname: 1f3f. 필드와 같은 값으로 설정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_NewWithQualName (PyObject
          *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  *note PyFunction_New(): 4cb8.와 비슷하지만, 함
     수 객체의 *note __qualname__: 1f05. 어트리뷰트를 설정할 수도 있도록
     합니다.  'qualname'는 유니코드 객체나 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다; ‘NULL’이
     면, ‘__qualname__’ 어트리뷰트는 코드 객체의 *note co_qualname:
     1f3f. 필드와 같은 값으로 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetCode (PyObject *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  함수 객체 'op'와 연관된 코드 객체를 반환합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetGlobals (PyObject *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  함수 객체 'op'와 연관된 전역 딕셔너리를 반환
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetModule (PyObject *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  *note 함수 객체: 299. 'op'의 *note
     __module__: 1f06. 어트리뷰트에 대한 *note 빌린 참조: 337.를 반환합
     니다.  'NULL'일 수 있습니다.

     이것은 일반적으로 모듈 이름을 포함하는 *note 문자열: 445.이지만, 파
     이썬 코드로 다른 객체로 설정할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetDefaults (PyObject *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  함수 객체 'op'의 인자 기본값을 반환합니다.  이
     는 인자의 튜플이나 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFunction_SetDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *defaults)

     함수 객체 'op'의 인자 기본값을 설정합니다.  'defaults'는 ‘Py_None’
     이나 튜플이어야 합니다.

     실패하면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyFunction_SetVectorcall (PyFunctionObject *func,
          vectorcallfunc vectorcall)

     Set the vectorcall field of a given function object 'func'.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered (default) vectorcall function!

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetKwDefaults (PyObject
          *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  Return the keyword-only argument default
     values of the function object 'op'.  This can be a dictionary of
     arguments or ‘NULL’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetClosure (PyObject *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  함수 객체 'op'와 연관된 클로저를 반환합니다.
     이것은 ‘NULL’ 이나 셀 객체의 튜플일 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFunction_SetClosure (PyObject *op, PyObject *closure)

     함수 객체 'op'와 연관된 클로저를 설정합니다.  'closure'는 ‘Py_None’
     이나 셀 객체의 튜플이어야 합니다.

     실패하면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GetAnnotations (PyObject
          *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  함수 객체 'op'의 어노테이션을 반환합니다.  이
     것은 가변 딕셔너리나 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *annotations)

     함수 객체 'op'의 어노테이션을 설정합니다.  'annotations'은 딕셔너리
     나 ‘Py_None’ 이어야 합니다.

     실패하면 *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_CODE (PyObject *op)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS (PyObject *op)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_MODULE (PyObject *op)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS (PyObject *op)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS (PyObject
          *op)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE (PyObject *op)
 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS (PyObject
          *op)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  These functions are similar to their
     ‘PyFunction_Get*’ counterparts, but do not do type checking.
     Passing anything other than an instance of *note PyFunction_Type:
     4cb6. is undefined behavior.

 -- C 함수: int PyFunction_AddWatcher (PyFunction_WatchCallback
          callback)

     Register 'callback' as a function watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyFunction_ClearWatcher(): 4ccb.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyFunction_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyFunction_AddWatcher(): 4cca. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: type PyFunction_WatchEvent

          Enumeration of possible function watcher events:

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS’

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyFunction_WatchEvent: 4ccc. event, *note PyFunctionObject:
          55c. *func, *note PyObject: 332. *new_value)

     Type of a function watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ or
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ then 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.
     Otherwise, 'new_value' will hold a *note borrowed reference: 337.
     to the new value that is about to be stored in 'func' for the
     attribute that is being modified.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'func'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is
     invoked after 'func' has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the
     callback is invoked before the modification to 'func' takes place,
     so the prior state of 'func' can be inspected.  The runtime is
     permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when
     possible.  In such cases no event will be emitted.  Although this
     creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime
     behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change
     the semantics of the Python code being executed.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’, Taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it,
     preventing it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: 인스턴스 메서드 객체,  Next: 메서드 객체<2>,  Prev: 함수 객체<2>,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.2 인스턴스 메서드 객체
............................

인스턴스 메서드는 *note PyCFunction: 143d.에 대한 래퍼이며 *note
PyCFunction: 143d.를 클래스 객체에 연결하는 새로운 방법입니다.  이전의
‘PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)’ 호출을 대체합니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyInstanceMethod_Type

     이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인스턴스는 파이썬 인스턴스 메서드 형을
     나타냅니다.  파이썬 프로그램에는 노출되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyInstanceMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 인스턴스 메서드 객체면 참을 반환합니다 (*note
     PyInstanceMethod_Type: 4cd1. 형입니다).  매개 변수는 ‘NULL’이 아니
     어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyInstanceMethod_New (PyObject *func)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  새 인스턴스 메서드 객체를 반환합니다.  'func'는
     임의의 콜러블 객체입니다.  'func'는 인스턴스 메서드가 호출될 때 호
     출될 함수입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyInstanceMethod_Function (PyObject
          *im)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  인스턴스 메서드 'im'과 연관된 함수 객체를 반
     환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION
          (PyObject *im)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  오류 검사를 피하는 *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Function(): 4cd4.의 매크로 버전.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드 객체<2>,  Next: 셀 객체,  Prev: 인스턴스 메서드 객체,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.3 메서드 객체
...................

메서드는 연결된(bound) 함수 객체입니다.  메서드는 항상 사용자 정의 클래
스의 인스턴스에 연결됩니다.  연결되지 않은(unbound) 메서드(클래스 객체에
연결된 메서드)는 더는 사용할 수 없습니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyMethod_Type

     이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인스턴스는 파이썬 메서드 형을 나타냅니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 프로그램에 ‘types.MethodType’로 노출됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 메서드 객체면 참을 반환합니다 (*note PyMethod_Type: 4cd8. 형
     입니다).  매개 변수는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성
     공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMethod_New (PyObject *func, PyObject
          *self)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  새로운 메서드 객체를 돌려줍니다.  'func'는 임의
     의 콜러블 객체이며, 'self'는 메서드가 연결되어야 할 인스턴스입니다.
     'func'는 메서드가 호출될 때 호출될 함수입니다.  'self'는 ‘NULL’이 아
     니어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMethod_Function (PyObject *meth)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  'meth' 메서드와 연관된 함수 객체를 반환합니다
     .

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject *meth)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  오류 검사를 피하는 *note PyMethod_Function():
     4cdb.의 매크로 버전.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMethod_Self (PyObject *meth)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  'meth' 메서드와 연관된 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMethod_GET_SELF (PyObject *meth)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  오류 검사를 피하는 *note PyMethod_Self():
     4cdd.의 매크로 버전.


File: python.info,  Node: 셀 객체,  Next: 코드 객체<2>,  Prev: 메서드 객체<2>,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.4 셀 객체
...............

“셀” 객체는 여러 스코프에서 참조하는 변수를 구현하는 데 사용됩니다.  이
러한 변수마다, 값을 저장하기 위해 셀 객체가 만들어집니다; 값을 참조하는
각 스택 프레임의 지역 변수에는 해당 변수를 사용하는 외부 스코프의 셀에 대
한 참조가 포함됩니다.  값에 액세스하면, 셀 객체 자체 대신 셀에 포함된 값
이 사용됩니다.  이러한 셀 객체의 역참조(de-referencing)는 생성된 바이트
코드로부터의 지원이 필요합니다; 액세스 시 자동으로 역참조되지 않습니다.
셀 객체는 다른 곳에 유용하지는 않습니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyCellObject

     셀 객체에 사용되는 C 구조체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyCell_Type

     셀 객체에 해당하는 형 객체.

 -- C 함수: int PyCell_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 셀 객체면 참을 반환합니다; 'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.
     이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCell_New (PyObject *ob)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'ob' 값을 포함하는 새 셀 객체를 만들고 반환합니
     다.  매개 변수는 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCell_Get (PyObject *cell)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  셀 'cell'의 내용을 반환합니다.  'cell'은
     ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.  'cell'이 셀 객체가 아니면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고
     예외를 설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCell_GET (PyObject *cell)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  셀 'cell'의 내용을 반환하지만, 'cell'이
     ‘NULL’이 아닌지와 셀 객체인지를 확인하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCell_Set (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     셀 객체 'cell'의 내용을 'value'로 설정합니다.  이렇게 하면 셀의 현
     재 내용에 대한 참조를 해제합니다.  'value'는 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다.
     'cell'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.

     성공하면, ‘0’을 반환합니다.  'cell'이 셀 객체가 아니면, 예외를 설정
     하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyCell_SET (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     셀 객체 'cell'의 값을 'value'로 설정합니다.  참조 횟수는 조정되지 않
     고, 안전을 위한 검사가 이루어지지 않습니다; 'cell'은 ‘NULL’이 아니
     어야 하고 셀 객체여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 코드 객체<2>,  Next: Code Object Flags,  Prev: 셀 객체,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.5 코드 객체
.................

코드 객체는 CPython 구현의 저수준 세부 사항입니다.  각 객체는 아직 함수
에 묶여 있지 않은 실행 가능한 코드 덩어리를 나타냅니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyCodeObject

     코드 객체를 설명하는 데 사용되는 객체의 C 구조체.  이 형의 필드는 언
     제든지 변경될 수 있습니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyCode_Type

     이것은 파이썬 *note 코드 객체: 1d2.를 나타내는 *note PyTypeObject:
     aa2.의 인스턴스입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCode_Check (PyObject *co)

     'co'가 *note 코드 객체: 1d2.면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성
     공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyCode_GetNumFree (PyCodeObject *co)

     코드 객체에 있는 *note 자유 (클로저) 변수: 1f47.의 개수를 반환합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (PyCodeObject *co)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return the position of the first *note free (closure) variable:
     1f47. in a code object.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Renamed from ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree’ as part of
     *note Unstable C API: 542.  The old name is deprecated, but will
     remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C 함수: *note PyCodeObject: 770. *PyUnstable_Code_New (int argcount,
          int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags,
          PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject
          *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject
          *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int
          firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     새 코드 객체를 반환합니다.  프레임을 만들기 위해 더미 코드 객체가 필
     요하면, 대신 *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 1341.를 사용하십시오.

     Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling *note
     PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4ced. directly can bind you to a precise
     Python version.

     The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex
     ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in
     incorrect execution or VM crashes.  Use this function only with
     extreme care.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Renamed from ‘PyCode_New’ as part of *note
     Unstable C API: 542.  The old name is deprecated, but will remain
     available until the signature changes again.

 -- C 함수: *note PyCodeObject: 770. *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs
          (int argcount, int posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int
          nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject
          *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject
          *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject
          *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject
          *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4ced.와 비슷하지만, 위치 전용 인자를 위
     한 추가 “posonlyargcount”가 있습니다.  ‘PyUnstable_Code_New’에 적용
     되는 것과 같은 주의 사항이 이 함수에도 적용됩니다.

     Added in version 3.8: as ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’.  The old name is deprecated,
     but will remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C 함수: *note PyCodeObject: 770. *PyCode_NewEmpty (const char
          *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 파일명, 함수명 및 첫 번째 줄 번호를 갖는
     새 빈 코드 객체를 반환합니다.  결과 코드 객체를 실행하면
     ‘Exception’을 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCode_Addr2Line (PyCodeObject *co, int byte_offset)

     Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before
     ‘byte_offset’ and ends after it.  If you just need the line number
     of a frame, use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 784. instead.

     For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object,
     use the API described in PEP 626(1).

 -- C 함수: int PyCode_Addr2Location (PyObject *co, int byte_offset, int
          *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int
          *end_column)

     Sets the passed ‘int’ pointers to the source code line and column
     numbers for the instruction at ‘byte_offset’.  Sets the value to
     ‘0’ when information is not available for any particular element.

     Returns ‘1’ if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCode_GetCode (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_code')’.  Returns a
     strong reference to a *note PyBytesObject: 78b. representing the
     bytecode in a code object.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an
     exception is raised.

     This ‘PyBytesObject’ may be created on-demand by the interpreter
     and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed
     by CPython.  The primary use case for this function is debuggers
     and profilers.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCode_GetVarnames (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_varnames')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4b55. containing
     the names of the local variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCode_GetCellvars (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_cellvars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4b55. containing
     the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested
     functions.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is
     raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCode_GetFreevars (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_freevars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4b55. containing
     the names of the *note free (closure) variables: 1f47.  On error,
     ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: int PyCode_AddWatcher (PyCode_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a code object watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 562.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyCode_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 561. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: type PyCodeEvent

     Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: -
     ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(*note PyCodeEvent:
          4cef. event, *note PyCodeObject: 770. *co)

     Type of a code object watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked
     after 'co' has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the callback is
     invoked before the destruction of 'co' takes place, so the prior
     state of 'co' can be inspected.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it
     and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime
     implementation details.  Such details may include, but are not
     limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction
     of code objects.  While changes in these details may result in
     differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is
     invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python
     code being executed.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 348.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers


File: python.info,  Node: Code Object Flags,  Next: Extra information,  Prev: 코드 객체<2>,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.6 Code Object Flags
.........................

Code objects contain a bit-field of flags, which can be retrieved as the
*note co_flags: 1f4c. Python attribute (for example using *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 345.), and set using a 'flags' argument to
*note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4ced. and similar functions.

Flags whose names start with ‘CO_FUTURE_’ correspond to features
normally selectable by *note future statements: 189.  These flags can be
used in *note PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags: 4b26.  Note that many
‘CO_FUTURE_’ flags are mandatory in current versions of Python, and
setting them has no effect.

The following flags are available.  For their meaning, see the linked
documentation of their Python equivalents.

Flag                                                   Meaning
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_OPTIMIZED                             *note inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED: 44ae.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_NEWLOCALS                             *note inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS: 44af.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_VARARGS                               *note inspect.CO_VARARGS: 44b0.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_VARKEYWORDS                           *note inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS: 44b1.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_NESTED                                *note inspect.CO_NESTED: 44b2.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_GENERATOR                             *note inspect.CO_GENERATOR: 44b3.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_COROUTINE                             *note inspect.CO_COROUTINE: 44b4.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE                    *note inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 44b5.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR                       *note inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR: 44b6.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_DIVISION                       no effect (*note __future__.division: 4459.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT                no effect (*note __future__.absolute_import: 445a.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT                 no effect (*note __future__.with_statement: 445b.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION                 no effect (*note __future__.print_function: 445c.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS               no effect (*note __future__.unicode_literals: 445d.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP                 no effect (*note __future__.generator_stop: 445e.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C 매크로: CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS                    *note __future__.annotations: 445f.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Extra information,  Prev: Code Object Flags,  Up: 함수 객체

7.8.5.7 Extra information
.........................

To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external
just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to
code objects.

These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality
is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without
deprecation warnings.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex
          (freefunc free)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return a new an opaque index value used to adding data to code
     objects.

     You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the
     result with ‘PyCode_GetExtra’ and ‘PyCode_SetExtra’ to manipulate
     data on individual code objects.

     If 'free' is not ‘NULL’: when a code object is deallocated, 'free'
     will be called on non-‘NULL’ data stored under the new index.  Use
     *note Py_DecRef(): 4ae2. when storing *note PyObject: 332.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’.  The old private name is
     deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void **extra)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Set 'extra' to the extra data stored under the given index.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     If no data was set under the index, set 'extra' to ‘NULL’ and
     return 0 without setting an exception.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra’.  The old
     private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
     changes.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void *extra)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Set the extra data stored under the given index to 'extra'.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra’.  The old
     private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
     changes.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 객체<2>,  Prev: 함수 객체,  Up: 구상 객체 계층

7.8.6 기타 객체
---------------

* Menu:

* 파일 객체::
* 모듈 객체::
* 이터레이터 객체::
* 디스크립터 객체::
* 슬라이스 객체::
* MemoryView 객체::
* 약한 참조 객체: 약한 참조 객체<2>.
* 캡슐::
* Frame Objects::
* 제너레이터 객체::
* 코루틴 객체::
* 컨텍스트 변수 객체::
* DateTime 객체: DateTime 객체<2>.
* Objects for Type Hinting::


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 객체,  Next: 모듈 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.1 파일 객체
.................

이 API는 C 표준 라이브러리의 버퍼링 된 I/O (FILE*) 지원에 의존하는 내장
파일 객체에 대한 파이썬 2 C API의 최소 에뮬레이션입니다.  파이썬 3에서,
파일과 스트림은 새로운 *note io: 7f. 모듈을 사용합니다.  이 모듈은 운영
체제의 저수준 버퍼링 되지 않은 I/O 위에 여러 계층을 정의합니다.  아래에
서 설명하는 함수는 이러한 새로운 API에 대한 편리한 C 래퍼이며, 주로 인터
프리터의 내부 오류 보고를 위한 것입니다; 제삼자 코드는 대신 *note io:
7f. API에 액세스하는 것이 좋습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFile_FromFd (int fd, const char
          *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding,
          const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이미 열려있
     는 파일의 파일 기술자 'fd'로 파이썬 파일 객체를 만듭니다.  인자
     'name', 'encoding', 'errors' 및 'newline'은 기본값을 사용하기 위해
     ‘NULL’ 일 수 있습니다; 'buffering'은 기본값을 사용하기 위해 '-1' 일
     수 있습니다.  'name'은 무시되고, 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 유지됩
     니다.  실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  인자에 대한 더 자세한 설명은
     *note io.open(): 516. 함수 설명서를 참조하십시오.

          경고: 파이썬 스트림이 자체적인 버퍼링 계층을 가지고 있으므로,
          OS 수준의 파일 기술자와 혼합하면 여러 예기치 못한 문제가 발생
          할 수 있습니다 (가령 데이터의 예상치 못한 순서).

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 'name' 어트리뷰트를 무시합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'와 관련된 파일 기술자를
     int로 반환합니다.  객체가 정수면, 값이 반환됩니다.  그렇지 않으면 객
     체의 *note fileno(): 285e. 메서드가 있으면 호출됩니다; 메서드는 반
     드시 정수를 반환해야 하고, 그 값이 파일 기술자 값으로 반환됩니다.  실
     패하면 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFile_GetLine (PyObject *p, int n)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     ‘p.readline([n])’과 동등합니다.  이 함수는 객체 'p'에서 한 줄을 읽
     습니다.  'p'는 파일 객체나 *note readline(): 1319. 메서드가 있는 임
     의의 객체일 수 있습니다.  'n'이 ‘0’이면, 줄의 길이와 관계없이 정확
     히 한 줄을 읽습니다.  'n'이 ‘0’보다 크면, 'n' 바이트 이상을 파일에
     서 읽지 않습니다; 불완전한 줄이 반환될 수 있습니다.  두 경우 모두,
     파일 끝에 즉시 도달하면 빈 문자열이 반환됩니다.  그러나 'n'이 ‘0’보
     다 작으면, 길이와 관계없이 한 줄을 읽지만, 파일 끝에 즉시 도달하면
     *note EOFError: 12c9.가 발생합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (Py_OpenCodeHookFunction handler)

     제공된 handler를 통해 매개 변수를 전달하도록 *note io.open_code():
     172e.의 일반적인 동작을 재정의합니다.

     'handler'는 다음과 같은 형의 함수입니다:

      -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332.
               *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(*note PyObject: 332.*, void*)

          *note PyObject: 332. *(*)(*note PyObject: 332. *path, void
          *userData)와 동등합니다.  여기서 'path'는 *note
          PyUnicodeObject: 78d. 임이 보장됩니다.

     'userData' 포인터는 훅 함수로 전달됩니다.  훅 함수는 다른 런타임에
     서 호출될 수 있으므로, 이 포인터는 파이썬 상태를 직접 참조하면 안 됩
     니다.

     이 훅은 의도적으로 임포트 중에 사용되므로, 고정되었거나(frozen)
     ‘sys.modules’에 있다고 알려진 경우가 아니라면 훅 실행 중에 새로운 모
     듈을 임포트하는 것을 피하십시오.

     일단 훅이 설정되면, 제거하거나 교체할 수 없으며, 이후의 *note
     PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1730.에 대한 호출은 실패합니다.  실패 시,
     함수는 -1을 반환하고 인터프리터가 초기화되었으면 예외를 설정합니다.

     이 함수는 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 전에 호출해도 안전합니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘setopencodehook’을 발생시킵니다
     .

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C 함수: int PyFile_WriteObject (PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int
          flags)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     객체 'obj'를 파일 객체 'p'에 씁니다.  'flags'에서 지원되는 유일한 플
     래그는 *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4ba0.입니다; 주어지면, *note repr():
     7f7. 대신 객체의 *note str(): 445.이 기록됩니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을, 실
     패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다; 적절한 예외가 설정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyFile_WriteString (const char *s, PyObject *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  문자열 's'를 파일 객체 'p'에 씁
     니다.  성공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고, 실패하면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다; 적절한
     예외가 설정됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 객체,  Next: 이터레이터 객체,  Prev: 파일 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.2 모듈 객체
.................

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyModule_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     이 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. 인스턴스는 파이썬 모듈 형을 나타냅니다.
     이것은 ‘types.ModuleType’으로 파이썬 프로그램에 노출됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_Check (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 모듈 객체이거나 모듈 객체의 서브 형이면 참을 반환합니다.  이
     함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     'p'가 모듈 객체이지만, *note PyModule_Type: 4a37.의 서브 형이 아니
     면 참을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_NewObject (PyObject *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'

     *note module.__name__: 1371.이 'name'으로 설정된 새 모듈 객체를 반
     환합니다.  모듈의 ‘__name__’, *note __doc__: 1859, *note
     __package__: 2d9. 및 *note __loader__: 2e4. 어트리뷰트가 채워집니다
     (‘__name__’을 제외하고 모두 ‘None’으로 설정됩니다).  *note
     __file__: 1f25. 어트리뷰트를 설정하는 것은 호출자의 책임입니다.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

     Added in version 3.3.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: *note __package__: 2d9.와 *note __loader__:
     2e4.가 이제 ‘None’으로 설정됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_New (const char *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyModule_NewObject(): 4a35.와 비슷하지만, name이 유니코드 객체 대신
     UTF-8로 인코딩된 문자열입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_GetDict (PyObject *module)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'module'의 이름 공간을 구현하는 딕셔너리 객체를 반환합니다; 이 객체
     는 모듈 객체의 *note __dict__: 556. 어트리뷰트와 같습니다.
     'module'이 모듈 객체(또는 모듈 객체의 서브 형)가 아니면, *note
     SystemError: 570.가 발생하고 ‘NULL’이 반환됩니다.

     확장은 모듈의 *note __dict__: 556.를 직접 조작하지 말고 다른
     ‘PyModule_*’과 ‘PyObject_*’ 함수를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_GetNameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'

     'module'의 *note __name__: 1371. 값을 반환합니다.  모듈이 제공하지
     않거나, 문자열이 아니면, *note SystemError: 570.가 발생하고 ‘NULL’이
     반환됩니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyModule_GetName (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4a33.와 비슷하지만 ‘'utf-8'’로 인코딩된 이
     름을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyModule_GetState (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  모듈의 “상태”, 즉 모듈 생성 시
     할당된 메모리 블록을 가리키는 포인터나 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.  *note
     PyModuleDef.m_size: 1994.를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyModuleDef: 978. *PyModule_GetDef (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  모듈이 만들어진 *note
     PyModuleDef: 978. 구조체에 대한 포인터나 모듈이 정의에서 만들어지지
     않았으면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_GetFilenameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     'module'의 *note __file__: 1f25. 어트리뷰트를 사용하여 'module'이 로
     드된 파일 이름을 반환합니다.  정의되지 않았거나 문자열이 아니면,
     *note SystemError: 570.를 발생시키고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다; 그렇지 않
     으면 유니코드 객체에 대한 참조를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyModule_GetFilename (PyObject *module)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f3.와 비슷하지만 ‘utf-8’로 인코딩된
     파일명을 반환합니다.

     버전 3.2부터 폐지됨: *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f2.은 인코딩할
     수 없는 파일명에 대해 *note UnicodeEncodeError: 671.를 발생시킵니다
     , 대신 *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f3.를 사용하십시오.

* Menu:

* C 모듈 초기화::
* 모듈 조회::


File: python.info,  Node: C 모듈 초기화,  Next: 모듈 조회,  Up: 모듈 객체

7.8.6.3 C 모듈 초기화
.....................

모듈 객체는 일반적으로 확장 모듈(초기화 함수를 내보내는 공유 라이브러리
)이나 컴파일된 모듈(초기화 함수가 *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa.을
사용하여 추가된)에서 만들어집니다.  자세한 내용은 *note C와 C++ 확장
빌드하기: 48c5.나 *note 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기: 4930.를 참조하십시오.

초기화 함수는 모듈 정의 인스턴스를 *note PyModule_Create(): 4d10.에 전달
하고 결과 모듈 객체를 반환하거나, 정의 구조체 자체를 반환하여 “다단계 초
기화”를 요청할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyModuleDef
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  모듈
     객체를 만드는 데 필요한 모든 정보를 담고 있는 모듈 정의 구조체.  일
     반적으로 각 모듈에 대해 이 형의 정적으로 초기화된 변수가 하나만 있
     습니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: PyModuleDef_Base m_base

          이 멤버를 항상 ‘PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT’로 초기화하십시오.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *m_name

          새 모듈의 이름.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *m_doc

          모듈의 독스트링; 일반적으로 *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1978.로 만들어
          진 독스트링 변수가 사용됩니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. m_size

          모듈 상태는 정적 전역이 아닌 *note PyModule_GetState(): 97d.로
          조회할 수 있는 모듈별 메모리 영역에 유지될 수 있습니다.  이것
          은 여러 서브 인터프리터에서 모듈을 사용하는 것을 안전하게 만듭
          니다.

          이 메모리 영역은 모듈 생성 시 'm_size'를 기준으로 할당되며, 모
          듈 객체가 할당 해제될 때 (있다면 *note m_free: 97b. 함수가 호
          출된 후에) 해제됩니다.

          ‘m_size’를 ‘-1’로 설정하면 모듈이 전역 상태를 갖기 때문에 서브
          인터프리터를 지원하지 않는다는 뜻입니다.

          음수가 아닌 값으로 설정하면 모듈을 다시 초기화 할 수 있다는 뜻
          이며 상태에 필요한 추가 메모리양을 지정합니다.  다단계 초기화
          에는 음이 아닌 ‘m_size’가 필요합니다.

          자세한 내용은 PEP 3121(1)을 참조하십시오.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyMethodDef: 149f. *m_methods

          *note PyMethodDef: 149f. 값으로 기술되는 모듈 수준 함수 테이블
          에 대한 포인터.  함수가 없으면 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 4d16. *m_slots

          다단계 초기화를 위한 슬롯 정의 배열, ‘{0, NULL}’ 항목으로 종료
          됩니다.  단단계 초기화를 사용할 때, 'm_slots'는 ‘NULL’이어야 합
          니다.

          버전 3.5에서 변경: 버전 3.5 이전에는, 이 멤버가 항상 ‘NULL’로
          설정되었으며, 다음과 같이 정의되었습니다:

                -- C 멤버 변수: *note inquiry: 4afb. m_reload

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note traverseproc: 4b0a. m_traverse

          모듈 객체의 GC 탐색 중 호출할 탐색 함수나, 필요하지 않으면
          ‘NULL’.

          모듈 상태가 요청되었지만, 아직 할당되지 않았으면 이 함수가 호
          출되지 않습니다.  이것은 모듈이 만들이진 직후, 모듈이 실행되기
          직전의 경우입니다 (*note Py_mod_exec: 97c. 함수).  더 정확하게
          는, *note m_size: 1994.가 0보다 크고 모듈 상태(*note
          PyModule_GetState(): 97d.가 반환하는)가 ‘NULL’이면 이 함수가 호
          출되지 않습니다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 모듈 상태가 할당되기 전에 더는 호출되지 않
          습니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note inquiry: 4afb. m_clear

          모듈 객체의 GC 정리 중에 호출할 정리(clear) 함수나, 필요하지 않
          으면 ‘NULL’.

          모듈 상태가 요청되었지만, 아직 할당되지 않았으면 이 함수가 호
          출되지 않습니다.  이것은 모듈이 만들이진 직후, 모듈이 실행되기
          직전의 경우입니다 (*note Py_mod_exec: 97c. 함수).  더 정확하게
          는, *note m_size: 1994.가 0보다 크고 모듈 상태(*note
          PyModule_GetState(): 97d.가 반환하는)가 ‘NULL’이면 이 함수가 호
          출되지 않습니다.

          Like *note PyTypeObject.tp_clear: 48fe, this function is not
          'always' called before a module is deallocated.  For example,
          when reference counting is enough to determine that an object
          is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not
          involved and *note m_free: 97b. is called directly.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 모듈 상태가 할당되기 전에 더는 호출되지 않
          습니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note freefunc: 4d18. m_free

          모듈 객체 할당 해제 중에 호출할 함수나, 필요하지 않으면
          ‘NULL’.

          모듈 상태가 요청되었지만, 아직 할당되지 않았으면 이 함수가 호
          출되지 않습니다.  이것은 모듈이 만들이진 직후, 모듈이 실행되기
          직전의 경우입니다 (*note Py_mod_exec: 97c. 함수).  더 정확하게
          는, *note m_size: 1994.가 0보다 크고 모듈 상태(*note
          PyModule_GetState(): 97d.가 반환하는)가 ‘NULL’이면 이 함수가 호
          출되지 않습니다.

          버전 3.9에서 변경: 모듈 상태가 할당되기 전에 더는 호출되지 않
          습니다.

* Menu:

* 단단계 초기화::
* 다단계 초기화::
* 저수준 모듈 생성 함수::
* 지원 함수::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/


File: python.info,  Node: 단단계 초기화,  Next: 다단계 초기화,  Up: C 모듈 초기화

7.8.6.4 단단계 초기화
.....................

모듈 초기화 함수는 모듈 객체를 직접 만들고 반환할 수 있습니다.  이것을
“단단계 초기화”라고 하며, 다음 두 모듈 생성 함수 중 하나를 사용합니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_Create (PyModuleDef *def)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'def'의 정의에 따라, 새 모듈 객체를 만듭니다.  이
     것은 'module_api_version'이 ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’으로 설정된 *note
     PyModule_Create2(): 4a2f.처럼 동작합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_Create2 (PyModuleDef *def,
          int module_api_version)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'def'의 정
     의에 따라, API 버전 'module_api_version'을 가정하여 새 모듈 객체를
     만듭니다.  해당 버전이 실행 중인 인터프리터 버전과 일치하지 않으면,
     *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.을 발생시킵니다.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

          참고: 이 함수는 대부분 *note PyModule_Create(): 4d10.를 대신 사
          용해야 합니다; 확실히 필요할 때만 사용하십시오.

초기화 함수에서 반환되기 전에, 결과 모듈 객체는 일반적으로 *note
PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e.와 같은 함수를 사용하여 채워집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다단계 초기화,  Next: 저수준 모듈 생성 함수,  Prev: 단단계 초기화,  Up: C 모듈 초기화

7.8.6.5 다단계 초기화
.....................

An alternate way to specify extensions is to request “multi-phase
initialization”.  Extension modules created this way behave more like
Python modules: the initialization is split between the 'creation
phase', when the module object is created, and the 'execution phase',
when it is populated.  The distinction is similar to the *note
__new__(): 57b. and *note __init__(): 6aa. methods of classes.

Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules
are not singletons.  For example, if the *note sys.modules: 1558. entry
is removed and the module is re-imported, a new module object is
created, and typically populated with fresh method and type objects.
The old module is subject to normal garbage collection.  This mirrors
the behavior of pure-Python modules.

Additional module instances may be created in *note sub-interpreters:
582. or after after Python runtime reinitialization (*note
Py_Finalize(): 1342. and *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.).  In these cases,
sharing Python objects between module instances would likely cause
crashes or undefined behavior.

To avoid such issues, each instance of an extension module should be
'isolated': changes to one instance should not implicitly affect the
others, and all state, including references to Python objects, should be
specific to a particular module instance.  See *note Isolating Extension
Modules: 48c1. for more details and a practical guide.

A simpler way to avoid these issues is *note raising an error on
repeated initialization: 4d1b.

All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to
support *note sub-interpreters: 582, or otherwise explicitly signal a
lack of support.  This is usually achieved by isolation or blocking
repeated initialization, as above.  A module may also be limited to the
main interpreter using the *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters: 4d1c.
slot.

다단계 초기화를 요청하기 위해, 초기화 함수(PyInit_modulename)는 비어 있
지 않은 *note m_slots: 4d15.를 가진 *note PyModuleDef: 978. 인스턴스를 반
환합니다.  반환되기 전에, ‘PyModuleDef’ 인스턴스를 다음 함수를 사용하여
초기화해야 합니다:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModuleDef_Init (PyModuleDef *def)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.5 이
     후로.'  모듈 정의가 형과 참조 횟수를 올바르게 보고하는 올바르게 초
     기화된 파이썬 객체이게 합니다.

     'def'를 ‘PyObject*’로 캐스트 하거나, 에러가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

모듈 정의의 'm_slots' 멤버는 ‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ 구조체의 배열을 가리켜야
합니다:

 -- C 자료형: type PyModuleDef_Slot

      -- C 멤버 변수: int slot

          아래 설명된 사용 가능한 값 중에서 선택된, 슬롯 ID.

      -- C 멤버 변수: void *value

          슬롯 ID에 따라 그 의미가 달라지는, 슬롯의 값.

     Added in version 3.5.

'm_slots' 배열은 id가 0인 슬롯으로 종료해야 합니다.

사용 가능한 슬롯 형은 다음과 같습니다:

 -- C 매크로: Py_mod_create

     모듈 객체 자체를 만들기 위해 호출되는 함수를 지정합니다.  이 슬롯의
     'value' 포인터는 다음과 같은 서명을 갖는 함수를 가리켜야 합니다:

      -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *create_module (PyObject *spec,
               PyModuleDef *def)

     이 함수는 PEP 451(1)에 정의된 대로, *note ModuleSpec: 1e6c. 인스턴
     스와 모듈 정의를 받습니다.  새 모듈 객체를 반환하거나, 에러를 설정
     하고 ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.

     이 함수는 최소한으로 유지해야 합니다.  특히 같은 모듈을 다시 임포트
     하려고 시도하면 무한 루프가 발생할 수 있어서, 임의의 파이썬 코드를
     호출하면 안 됩니다.

     하나의 모듈 정의에서 여러 ‘Py_mod_create’ 슬롯을 지정할 수 없습니다
     .

     ‘Py_mod_create’를 지정하지 않으면, 임포트 절차는 *note
     PyModule_New(): 4a34.를 사용하여 일반 모듈 객체를 만듭니다.  이름은
     정의가 아니라 'spec'에서 취합니다, 확장 모듈이 단일 모듈 정의를 공
     유하면서 모듈 계층 구조에서 해당 위치에 동적으로 조정되고 심볼릭 링
     크를 통해 다른 이름으로 임포트 될 수 있도록 하기 위함입니다.

     반환된 객체가 *note PyModule_Type: 4a37.의 인스턴스 일 필요는 없습
     니다.  임포트 관련 어트리뷰트 설정과 읽기를 지원하는 한 모든 형을 사
     용할 수 있습니다.  그러나, ‘PyModuleDef’에 ‘NULL’이 아닌
     ‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’, ‘m_free’; 0이 아닌 ‘m_size’; 또는
     ‘Py_mod_create’ 이외의 슬롯이 있으면, ‘PyModule_Type’ 인스턴스 만 반
     환될 수 있습니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_mod_exec

     모듈을 '실행'하기 위해 호출되는 함수를 지정합니다.  이것은 파이썬 모
     듈의 코드를 실행하는 것과 동등합니다: 일반적으로, 이 함수는 클래스
     와 상수를 모듈에 추가합니다.  함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

      -- C 함수: int exec_module (PyObject *module)

     여러 개의 ‘Py_mod_exec’ 슬롯이 지정되면, 'm_slots' 배열에 나타나는
     순서대로 처리됩니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters

     Specifies one of the following values:

      -- C 매크로: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED

          The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters.

      -- C 매크로: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but
          only when they share the main interpreter’s GIL. (See *note
          Isolating Extension Modules: 48c1.)

      -- C 매크로: Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even
          when they have their own GIL. (See *note Isolating Extension
          Modules: 48c1.)

     This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a
     subinterpreter will fail.

     하나의 모듈 정의에서 여러 ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ 슬롯을 지
     정할 수 없습니다.

     If ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ is not specified, the import
     machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 매크로: Py_mod_gil

     Specifies one of the following values:

      -- C 매크로: Py_MOD_GIL_USED

          The module depends on the presence of the global interpreter
          lock (GIL), and may access global state without
          synchronization.

      -- C 매크로: Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED

          The module is safe to run without an active GIL.

     This slot is ignored by Python builds not configured with *note
     -disable-gil: 174.  Otherwise, it determines whether or not
     importing this module will cause the GIL to be automatically
     enabled.  See *note Free-threaded CPython: 13f. for more detail.

     하나의 모듈 정의에서 여러 ‘Py_mod_gil’ 슬롯을 지정할 수 없습니다.

     If ‘Py_mod_gil’ is not specified, the import machinery defaults to
     ‘Py_MOD_GIL_USED’.

     Added in version 3.13.

다단계 초기화에 대한 자세한 내용은 PEP 489(2)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: 저수준 모듈 생성 함수,  Next: 지원 함수,  Prev: 다단계 초기화,  Up: C 모듈 초기화

7.8.6.6 저수준 모듈 생성 함수
.............................

다단계 초기화를 사용할 때 수면 아래에서는 다음 함수가 호출됩니다.  이들
은 직접 사용할 수 있는데, 예를 들어 모듈 객체를 동적으로 생성할 때 그렇
습니다.  모듈을 완전히 초기화하려면 ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’과
‘PyModule_ExecDef’를 모두 호출해야 함에 유의하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (PyModuleDef
          *def, PyObject *spec)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  주어진 'def'의 정의와 ModuleSpec 'spec'으로 새
     모듈 객체를 만듭니다.  이것은 'module_api_version'이
     ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’으로 설정된 *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2():
     eaa.처럼 동작합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (PyModuleDef
          *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  API 버전 'module_api_version'을 가정하여, 주어진 'def'의 정의
     와 ModuleSpec 'spec'으로 새 모듈 객체를 만듭니다.  해당 버전이 실행
     중인 인터프리터 버전과 일치하지 않으면, *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd.을
     발생시킵니다.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

          참고: 이 함수는 대부분 *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): ea9.을
          대신 사용해야 합니다; 확실히 필요할 때만 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_ExecDef (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  'def'에 지정
     된 모든 실행 슬롯(*note Py_mod_exec: 97c.)을 처리합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_SetDocString (PyObject *module, const char
          *docstring)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  'module'의 독
     스트링을 'docstring'으로 설정합니다.  이 함수는 ‘PyModule_Create’나
     ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’을 사용하여 ‘PyModuleDef’에서 모듈을 만들
     때 자동으로 호출됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_AddFunctions (PyObject *module, PyMethodDef
          *functions)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  ‘NULL’ 종료
     'functions' 배열의 함수를 'module'에 추가합니다.  개별 항목에 대한
     자세한 내용은 *note PyMethodDef: 149f. 설명서를 참조하십시오 (공유
     모듈 이름 공간이 없기 때문에, C로 구현된 모듈 수준 “함수
     (functions)”는 일반적으로 첫 번째 매개 변수로 모듈을 수신하여, 파이
     썬 클래스의 인스턴스 메서드와 유사하게 만듭니다).  이 함수는
     ‘PyModule_Create’나 ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’을 사용하여
     ‘PyModuleDef’에서 모듈을 만들 때 자동으로 호출됩니다.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: 지원 함수,  Prev: 저수준 모듈 생성 함수,  Up: C 모듈 초기화

7.8.6.7 지원 함수
.................

모듈 초기화 함수(단단계 초기화를 사용하는 경우)나 모듈 실행 슬롯에서 호
출되는 함수(다단계 초기화를 사용하는 경우)는, 모듈 상태 초기화를 도우려
고 다음 함수를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_AddObjectRef (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  'module'에 객
     체를 'name'으로 추가합니다.  모듈의 초기화 함수에서 사용할 수 있는
     편의 함수입니다.

     성공하면, ‘0’을 반환합니다.  에러 시, 예외를 발생시키고 ‘-1’을 반환
     합니다.

     사용 예:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_DECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     To be convenient, the function accepts ‘NULL’ 'value' with an
     exception set.  In this case, return ‘-1’ and just leave the raised
     exception unchanged.

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

     The number of different 'name' strings passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated
     strings as 'name'.  For names that aren’t known at compile time,
     prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad4. and *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a6b. directly.  For more details, see *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1607, which may be used internally to
     create a key object.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_Add (PyObject *module, const char *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Similar to
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e, but “steals” a reference to
     'value'.  It can be called with a result of function that returns a
     new reference without bothering to check its result or even saving
     it to a variable.

     사용 예:

          if (PyModule_Add(module, "spam", PyBytes_FromString(value)) < 0) {
              goto error;
          }

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_AddObject (PyObject *module, const char *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e, but steals a reference to 'value' on
     success (if it returns ‘0’).

     The new *note PyModule_Add(): 35d. or *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e. functions are recommended, since it
     is easy to introduce reference leaks by misusing the *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 35f. function.

          참고: 참조를 훔치는 다른 함수와 달리, ‘PyModule_AddObject()’는
          '성공 시'에만 'value'에 대한 참조를 해제합니다.

          이는 반환 값을 확인해야 하며, 에러 시 호출하는 코드가 수동으로
          'value'를 *note Py_XDECREF(): 788. 해야 함을 뜻합니다.

     사용 예:

          PyObject *obj = PyBytes_FromString(value);
          if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
              // 'obj' 가 NULL 이 아니고 PyModule_AddObject() 가 실패하면,
              // 'obj' 강한 참조는 Py_XDECREF() 로 삭제해야 합니다.
              // 'obj' 가 NULL 이면, Py_XDECREF() 는 아무것도 하지 않습니다.
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              goto error;
          }
          // PyModule_AddObject() 는 obj 에 대한 참조를 훔칩니다:
          // 여기에서 Py_XDECREF(obj) 는 필요 없습니다.

     버전 3.13부터 폐지됨: *note PyModule_AddObject(): 35f. is *note
     soft deprecated: 209.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_AddIntConstant (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, long value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'module'에 정수 상수를 'name'으
     로 추가합니다.  이 편의 함수는 모듈의 초기화 함수에서 사용할 수 있
     습니다.  에러 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note PyLong_FromLong():
     1840. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e.; see their
     documentation for details.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_AddStringConstant (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, const char *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'module'에 문자열 상수를
     'name'으로 추가합니다.  이 편의 함수는 모듈의 초기화 함수에서 사용
     할 수 있습니다.  문자열 'value'는 ‘NULL’로 끝나야 합니다.  에러 시
     예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공 시 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1607. and *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 35e.; see their documentation for details.

 -- C 매크로: PyModule_AddIntMacro (module, macro)

     'module'에 int 상수를 추가합니다.  이름과 값은 'macro'에서 취합니다
     .  예를 들어 ‘PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)’은 'AF_INET' 값
     을 가진 int 상수 'AF_INET'을 'module'에 추가합니다.  에러 시 예외를
     설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 매크로: PyModule_AddStringMacro (module, macro)

     'module'에 문자열 상수를 추가합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyModule_AddType (PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  'module'에 형
     객체를 추가합니다.  내부적으로 *note PyType_Ready(): 775.를 호출하
     여 형 객체를 파이널라이즈합니다.  형 객체의 이름은 점 뒤 *note
     tp_name: 18f9.의 마지막 구성 요소에서 가져옵니다.  에러가 발생하면
     예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (PyObject *module, void *gil)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Indicate that 'module' does or does not support running without the
     global interpreter lock (GIL), using one of the values from *note
     Py_mod_gil: 158.  It must be called during 'module'’s
     initialization function.  If this function is not called during
     module initialization, the import machinery assumes the module does
     not support running without the GIL. This function is only
     available in Python builds configured with *note -disable-gil: 174.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 조회,  Prev: C 모듈 초기화,  Up: 모듈 객체

7.8.6.8 모듈 조회
.................

단단계 초기화는 현재 인터프리터의 컨텍스트에서 조회할 수 있는 싱글톤 모
듈을 만듭니다.  이는 나중에 모듈 정의에 대한 참조만으로 모듈 객체를 검색
할 수 있도록 합니다.

이 함수들은 다단계 초기화를 사용하여 만들어진 모듈에서는 작동하지 않습니
다.  단일 정의에서 그러한 모듈이 여러 개 만들어질 수 있기 때문입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyState_FindModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 인터
     프리터에 대해 'def'에서 만들어진 모듈 객체를 반환합니다.  이 메서드
     를 사용하려면 먼저 모듈 객체가 *note PyState_AddModule(): 4a86.로 인
     터프리터 상태에 연결되어 있어야 합니다.  해당 모듈 객체를 찾을 수 없
     거나 인터프리터 상태에 아직 연결되지 않았으면, ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyState_AddModule (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.3 이후로.'  함수에 전달된
     모듈 객체를 인터프리터 상태에 연결합니다.  이는 *note
     PyState_FindModule(): 4a87.을 통해 모듈 객체에 액세스 할 수 있도록
     합니다.

     단단계 초기화를 사용하여 만든 모듈에만 효과가 있습니다.

     파이썬은 모듈을 임포트 한 후 자동으로 ‘PyState_AddModule’을 호출하
     므로, 모듈 초기화 코드에서 호출하는 것은 불필요합니다 (하지만 무해
     합니다).  모듈의 자체 초기화 코드가 추후 ‘PyState_FindModule’을 호
     출하는 경우에만 명시적인 호출이 필요합니다.  이 함수는 주로 대안 임
     포트 메커니즘을 구현하기 위한 것입니다 (직접 호출하거나, 필요한 상
     태 갱신에 대한 자세한 내용에 대해 해당 구현을 참조함으로써).

     호출자는 GIL을 보유해야 합니다.

     에러 시 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공 시 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: int PyState_RemoveModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.3 이후로.'  'def'에서 만
     들어진 모듈 객체를 인터프리터 상태에서 제거합니다.  에러 시 예외를
     설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공 시 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     호출자는 GIL을 보유해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이터 객체,  Next: 디스크립터 객체,  Prev: 모듈 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.9 이터레이터 객체
.......................

파이썬은 두 개의 범용 이터레이터 객체를 제공합니다.  첫째, 시퀀스 이터레
이터는 *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드를 지원하는 임의의 시퀀스와 작동
합니다.  둘째는 콜러블 객체와 종료 신호(sentinel) 값을 사용하고, 시퀀스
의 각 항목에 대해 콜러블을 호출하고, 종료 신호 값이 반환될 때 이터레이션
을 종료합니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PySeqIter_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PySeqIter_New(): 4a6f.와
     내장 시퀀스 형에 대한 *note iter(): 7d0. 내장 함수의 단일 인자 형식
     에 의해 반환된 이터레이터 객체에 대한 형 객체.

 -- C 함수: int PySeqIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     'op'의 형이 *note PySeqIter_Type: 4a70.이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  이 함
     수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySeqIter_New (PyObject *seq)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  일반 시퀀스
     객체 'seq'와 함께 작동하는 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  시퀀스가 서브
     스크립션 연산에서 *note IndexError: 14fc.를 일으키면 이터레이션이 끝
     납니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyCallIter_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PyCallIter_New(): 497a.와
     *note iter(): 7d0. 내장 함수의 두 인자 형식에 의해 반환된 이터레이
     터 객체에 대한 형 객체.

 -- C 함수: int PyCallIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     'op'의 형이 *note PyCallIter_Type: 497b.이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  이 함
     수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCallIter_New (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *sentinel)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  새로운 이터
     레이터를 돌려줍니다.  첫 번째 매개 변수 'callable'은 매개 변수 없이
     호출할 수 있는 모든 파이썬 콜러블 객체일 수 있습니다; 각 호출은 이
     터레이션의 다음 항목을 반환해야 합니다.  'callable'이 'sentinel'와
     같은 값을 반환하면 이터레이션이 종료됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 디스크립터 객체,  Next: 슬라이스 객체,  Prev: 이터레이터 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.10 디스크립터 객체
........................

“디스크립터”는 객체의 일부 어트리뷰트를 기술하는 객체입니다.  그것들은 형
객체의 딕셔너리에 있습니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyProperty_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  내장 디스크립터 형들을 위한 형
     객체.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDescr_NewGetSet (PyTypeObject *type,
          struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDescr_NewMember (PyTypeObject *type,
          struct PyMemberDef *meth)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDescr_NewMethod (PyTypeObject *type,
          struct PyMethodDef *meth)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDescr_NewWrapper (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDescr_NewClassMethod (PyTypeObject
          *type, PyMethodDef *method)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: int PyDescr_IsData (PyObject *descr)

     디스크립터 객체 'descr'가 데이터 어트리뷰트를 기술하고 있으면 0이 아
     닌 값을 반환하고, 메서드를 기술하면 ‘0’을 돌려줍니다.  'descr'는 디
     스크립터 객체여야 합니다; 오류 검사는 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyWrapper_New (PyObject*, PyObject*)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'


File: python.info,  Node: 슬라이스 객체,  Next: MemoryView 객체,  Prev: 디스크립터 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.11 슬라이스 객체
......................

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PySlice_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  슬라이스 객체의 형 객체.  이것
     은 파이썬 계층의 *note slice: 463.와 같습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySlice_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 슬라이스 객체면 참을 반환합니다.  'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합
     니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PySlice_New (PyObject *start, PyObject
          *stop, PyObject *step)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  지정된 값으
     로 새로운 슬라이스 객체를 반환합니다.  'start', 'stop' 및 'step' 매
     개 변수는 같은 이름의 슬라이스 객체 어트리뷰트의 값으로 사용됩니다.
     모든 값은 ‘NULL’ 일 수 있으며, 이 경우 ‘None’이 해당 어트리뷰트에 사
     용됩니다.

     새 객체를 할당할 수 없으면 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySlice_GetIndices (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  길이가 'length'인 시퀀스를 가
     정하여, 슬라이스 객체 'slice'에서 start, stop 및 step 인덱스를 가져
     옵니다.  'length'보다 큰 인덱스를 에러로 처리합니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러면 예외 설정 없이 ‘-1’을 반환합니다 (인
     덱스 중 하나가 ‘None’이 아니고 정수로 변환되지 않는 한, 이때는 예외
     를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다).

     이 기능을 사용하고 싶지는 않을 것입니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 전에는 'slice' 매개 변수의 매개 변수 형이
     ‘PySliceObject*’였습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step,
          Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PySlice_GetIndices():
     4a83.를 쓸만하게 대체합니다.  길이가 'length'인 시퀀스를 가정하여,
     슬라이스 객체 'slice'에서 start, stop 및 step 인덱스를 가져오고,
     'slicelength'에 슬라이스의 길이를 저장합니다.  범위를 벗어난 인덱스
     는 일반 슬라이스의 처리와 일관된 방식으로 잘립니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러면 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 크기를 조정할 수 있는 시퀀스에는 안전하지 않은
          것으로 간주합니다.  호출은 *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f7.와
          *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8.의 조합으로 대체되어야 합니
          다.  즉

               if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
                   // 에러 반환
               }

          은 다음으로 대체됩니다

               if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
                   // 에러 반환
               }
               slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 전에는 'slice' 매개 변수의 매개 변수 형이
     ‘PySliceObject*’였습니다.

     버전 3.6.1에서 변경: ‘Py_LIMITED_API’가 설정되어 있지 않거나
     ‘0x03050400’과 ‘0x03060000’ (포함하지 않음) 사이나 ‘0x03060100’ 이
     상의 값으로 설정되었으면, ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’는
     ‘PySlice_Unpack()’과 ‘PySlice_AdjustIndices()’를 사용하는 매크로로
     구현됩니다.  인자 'start', 'stop' 및 'step'는 여러 번 평가됩니다.

     버전 3.6.1부터 폐지됨: ‘Py_LIMITED_API’가 ‘0x03050400’보다 작거나
     ‘0x03060000’과 ‘0x03060100’ (포함하지 않음) 사이의 값으로 설정되었
     으면 ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’는 폐지된 함수입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PySlice_Unpack (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start,
          Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  슬라이스 객체
     의 start, stop 및 step 데이터 멤버를 C 정수로 추출합니다.
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’보다 큰 값을 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’로 조용히 줄이고,
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’보다 작은 start 와 stop 값을 ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’로 조
     용히 높이고, ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’보다 작은 step 값을
     ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’로 조용히 높입니다.

     에러면 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을, 성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PySlice_AdjustIndices (Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  지정된 length
     길이의 시퀀스를 가정하여 start/stop 슬라이스 인덱스를 조정합니다.  범
     위를 벗어난 인덱스는 일반 슬라이스의 처리와 일관된 방식으로 잘립니
     다.

     슬라이스의 길이를 반환합니다.  항상 성공합니다.  파이썬 코드를 호출
     하지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

* Menu:

* Ellipsis 객체: Ellipsis 객체<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis 객체<2>,  Up: 슬라이스 객체

7.8.6.12 Ellipsis 객체
......................

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyEllipsis_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬 *note Ellipsis: 218d. 객
     체의 형.  파이썬 계층의 *note types.EllipsisType: 84b.과 같습니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_Ellipsis

     파이썬 ‘Ellipsis’ 객체.  이 객체에는 메서드가 없습니다.  *note
     Py_None: 48bc.과 마찬가지로, *note 불멸: 437c. 싱글톤 객체입니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: *note Py_Ellipsis: 4d37.는 불멸입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryView 객체,  Next: 약한 참조 객체<2>,  Prev: 슬라이스 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.13 MemoryView 객체
........................

*note memoryview: 462. 객체는 C 수준 *note 버퍼 인터페이스: 391.를 다른
객체와 마찬가지로 전달될 수 있는 파이썬 객체로 노출합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMemoryView_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  버퍼 인터페
     이스를 제공하는 객체에서 memoryview 객체를 만듭니다.  'obj'가 쓰기
     가능한 버퍼 제공을 지원하면, memoryview 객체는 읽기/쓰기가 되고, 그
     렇지 않으면 읽기 전용이거나 제공자의 재량에 따라 읽기/쓰기가 될 수
     있습니다.

 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_READ

     읽기 전용 버퍼를 요청하는 플래그

 -- C 매크로: PyBUF_WRITE

     쓰기 가능한 버퍼를 요청하는 플래그

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMemoryView_FromMemory (char *mem,
          Py_ssize_t size, int flags)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후
     로.'  'mem'를 하부 버퍼로 사용하여 memoryview 객체를 만듭니다.
     'flags'는 *note PyBUF_READ: 1697. 나 *note PyBUF_WRITE: 1698. 중 하
     나일 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (const
          Py_buffer *view)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이
     후로.'  주어진 버퍼 구조체 'view'를 감싸는 memoryview 객체를 만듭니
     다.  간단한 바이트 버퍼의 경우는, *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory():
     1161.가 선호되는 함수입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (PyObject
          *obj, int buffertype, char order)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  버퍼 인터페
     이스를 정의하는 객체로부터 메모리의 *note 연속: 222f. 청크(‘C’ 나
     ‘F’ortran 'order'로)로 memoryview 객체를 만듭니다.  메모리가 연속적
     이면 memoryview 객체는 원래 메모리를 가리킵니다.  그렇지 않으면, 복
     사본이 만들어지고 memoryview는 새 바이트열 객체를 가리킵니다.

     'buffertype'은 *note PyBUF_READ: 1697. 나 *note PyBUF_WRITE: 1698.
     중 하나일 수 있습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyMemoryView_Check (PyObject *obj)

     객체 'obj'가 memoryview 객체면 참을 반환합니다.  현재는 *note
     memoryview: 462.의 서브 클래스를 만들 수 없습니다.  이 함수는 항상
     성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_buffer: 751. *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (PyObject
          *mview)

     제공자 버퍼의 memoryview의 비공개 복사본의 포인터를 돌려줍니다.
     'mview'는 '반드시' memoryview 인스턴스여야 합니다; 이 매크로는 형을
     확인하지 않으므로 직접 검사해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 충돌 위험이 있
     습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (PyObject
          *mview)

     memoryview가 기반으로 하는 제공자 객체에 대한 포인터나 memoryview가
     *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1161. 나 *note
     PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75a. 함수 중 하나로 만들어졌으면 ‘NULL’을
     반환합니다.  'mview'는 '반드시' memoryview 인스턴스여야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 약한 참조 객체<2>,  Next: 캡슐,  Prev: MemoryView 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.14 약한 참조 객체
.......................

파이썬은 '약한 참조'를 1급 객체로 지원합니다.  약한 참조를 직접 구현하는
두 가지 구체적인 객체 형이 있습니다.  첫 번째는 간단한 참조 객체이며, 두
번째는 가능한 한 원래 객체의 프락시 역할을 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyWeakref_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 참조 객체나 프락시 객체면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  이 함수
     는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyWeakref_CheckRef (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 참조 객체면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합
     니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 프락시 객체면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyWeakref_NewRef (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'ob' 객체에
     대한 약한 참조 객체를 반환합니다.  이것은 항상 새로운 참조를 돌려주
     지만, 새로운 객체를 생성하는 것이 보장되지는 않습니다; 기존 참조 객
     체가 반환될 수 있습니다.  두 번째 매개 변수인 'callback'은 'ob'가 가
     비지 수집될 때 알림을 받는 콜러블 객체가 될 수 있습니다; 하나의 매
     개 변수를 받아들여야 하는데, 약한 참조 객체 자체입니다.  'callback'은
     ‘None’ 이나 ‘NULL’ 일 수도 있습니다.  'ob'가 약하게 참조할 수 있는
     객체가 아니거나, 'callback'이 콜러블, ‘None’ 또는 ‘NULL’이 아니면,
     ‘NULL’을 반환하고 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyWeakref_NewProxy (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'ob' 객체에
     대한 약한 참조 프락시 객체를 반환합니다.  이것은 항상 새로운 참조를
     돌려주지만, 새로운 객체를 생성하는 것이 보장되지는 않습니다; 기존 프
     락시 객체가 반환될 수 있습니다.  두 번째 매개 변수인 'callback'은
     'ob'가 가비지 수집될 때 알림을 받는 콜러블 객체가 될 수 있습니다; 하
     나의 매개 변수를 받아들여야 하는데, 약한 참조 객체 자체입니다.
     'callback'은 ‘None’ 이나 ‘NULL’ 일 수도 있습니다.  'ob'가 약하게 참
     조할 수 있는 객체가 아니거나, 'callback'이 콜러블, ‘None’ 또는
     ‘NULL’이 아니면, ‘NULL’을 반환하고 *note TypeError: 532.를 발생시킵
     니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyWeakref_GetRef (PyObject *ref, PyObject **pobj)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Get a *note
     strong reference: 336. to the referenced object from a weak
     reference, 'ref', into '*pobj'.

        * On success, set '*pobj' to a new *note strong reference: 336.
          to the referenced object and return 1.

        * If the reference is dead, set '*pobj' to ‘NULL’ and return 0.

        * On error, raise an exception and return -1.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyWeakref_GetObject (PyObject *ref)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  약한 참조
     ('ref')로부터 참조된 객체에 대한 *note 빌린 참조: 337.를 반환합니다
     .  참조가 더는 살아있지 않으면, ‘Py_None’을 반환합니다.

          참고: 이 함수는 참조된 객체에 대한 *note 빌린 참조: 337.를 반
          환합니다.  이는 빌린 참조의 마지막 사용 전에 파괴될 수 없을 때
          를 제외하고, 객체에 대해 항상 *note Py_INCREF(): 569.를 호출해
          야 함을 뜻합니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: 대
     신 *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (PyObject *ref)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372.와 유사하지
     만, 에러 검사를 수행하지 않습니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: 대
     신 *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371.를 사용하십시오.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (PyObject *object)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This function is called by the
     *note tp_dealloc: 48da. handler to clear weak references.

     This iterates through the weak references for 'object' and calls
     callbacks for those references which have one.  It returns when all
     callbacks have been attempted.

 -- C 함수: void PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks (PyObject
          *object)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Clears the weakrefs for 'object' without calling the callbacks.

     This function is called by the *note tp_dealloc: 48da. handler for
     types with finalizers (i.e., *note __del__(): 1f69.).  The handler
     for those objects first calls *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 571.
     to clear weakrefs and call their callbacks, then the finalizer, and
     finally this function to clear any weakrefs that may have been
     created by the finalizer.

     In most circumstances, it’s more appropriate to use *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 571. to clear weakrefs instead of this
     function.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 캡슐,  Next: Frame Objects,  Prev: 약한 참조 객체<2>,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.15 캡슐
.............

이 객체 사용에 대한 자세한 정보는 *note 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기:
1346.를 참조하십시오.

Added in version 3.1.

 -- C 자료형: type PyCapsule

     이 *note PyObject: 332.의 서브 형은 불투명한 값을 나타내며, 파이썬
     코드를 통해 다른 C 코드로 불투명한 값(void* 포인터로)을 전달해야 하
     는 C 확장 모듈에 유용합니다.  이것은 한 모듈에서 정의된 C 함수 포인
     터를 다른 모듈에서 사용할 수 있게 만드는 데 종종 사용되므로, 일반 임
     포트 메커니즘을 사용하여 동적으로 로드된 모듈에 정의된 C API에 액세
     스할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyCapsule_Destructor
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  캡슐에 대한 파괴자(destructor)
     콜백 형.  이렇게 정의됩니다:

          typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);

     PyCapsule_Destructor 콜백의 의미는 *note PyCapsule_New(): 48e1.를 참
     조하십시오.

 -- C 함수: int PyCapsule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     인자가 *note PyCapsule: 1263.이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  이 함수는 항상
     성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCapsule_New (void *pointer, const
          char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'pointer'를
     캡슐화하는 *note PyCapsule: 1263.을 만듭니다.  'pointer' 인자는
     ‘NULL’이 아닐 수도 있습니다.

     실패하면, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     'name' 문자열은 ‘NULL’ 이나 유효한 C 문자열에 대한 포인터일 수 있습
     니다.  ‘NULL’이 아니면, 이 문자열은 캡슐보다 오래 유지되어야 합니다
     .  ('destructor' 내부에서 해제할 수는 있습니다.)

     'destructor' 인자가 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 캡슐이 파괴될 때 캡슐을 인자로
     호출됩니다.

     이 캡슐을 모듈의 어트리뷰트로 저장하려면, 'name'을
     ‘modulename.attributename’로 지정해야 합니다.  이렇게 하면 다른 모
     듈이 *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1874.를 사용하여 캡슐을 임포트 할 수
     있습니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyCapsule_GetPointer (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  캡슐에 저장된 'pointer'를 가져
     옵니다.  실패하면, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     'name' 매개 변수는 캡슐에 저장된 이름과 정확하게 비교되어야 합니다.
     캡슐에 저장된 이름이 ‘NULL’이면, 전달된 'name'도 ‘NULL’ 이어야 합니
     다.  파이썬은 C 함수 ‘strcmp()’를 사용하여 캡슐 이름을 비교합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 497d. PyCapsule_GetDestructor
          (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  캡슐에 저장된 현재 파괴자를 반
     환합니다.  실패하면, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     캡슐이 ‘NULL’ 파괴자를 갖는 것은 합법적입니다.  이것은 ‘NULL’ 반환
     코드를 다소 모호하게 만듭니다; 명확히 하려면 *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1345. 나 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용
     하십시오.

 -- C 함수: void *PyCapsule_GetContext (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  캡슐에 저장된 현재 컨텍스트를
     반환합니다.  실패하면, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     캡슐이 ‘NULL’ 컨텍스트를 갖는 것은 합법적입니다.  이것은 ‘NULL’ 반
     환 코드를 다소 모호하게 만듭니다; 명확히 하려면 *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1345. 나 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용
     하십시오.

 -- C 함수: const char *PyCapsule_GetName (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  캡슐에 저장된 현재 이름을 반환
     합니다.  실패하면, 예외를 설정하고 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     캡슐이 ‘NULL’ 이름을 갖는 것은 합법적입니다.  이것은 ‘NULL’ 반환 코
     드를 다소 모호하게 만듭니다; 명확히 하려면 *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1345. 나 *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f8.를 사용
     하십시오.

 -- C 함수: void *PyCapsule_Import (const char *name, int no_block)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  모듈의 캡슐 어트리뷰트에서 C 객
     체에 대한 포인터를 임포트 합니다.  'name' 매개 변수는
     ‘module.attribute’ 처럼 어트리뷰트의 전체 이름을 지정해야 합니다.  캡
     슐에 저장된 'name'은, 이 문자열과 정확히 일치해야 합니다.

     This function splits 'name' on the ‘.’ character, and imports the
     first element.  It then processes further elements using attribute
     lookups.

     성공하면 캡슐의 내부 'pointer'를 반환합니다.  실패하면, 예외를 설정
     하고 ‘NULL’를 반환합니다.

          참고: If 'name' points to an attribute of some submodule or
          subpackage, this submodule or subpackage must be previously
          imported using other means (for example, by using *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8.) for the attribute lookups to
          succeed.

     버전 3.3에서 변경: 'no_block'은 더는 효과가 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCapsule_IsValid (PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'capsule'이 유효한 캡슐인지를
     판단합니다.  유효한 캡슐은 ‘NULL’이 아니며, *note
     PyCapsule_CheckExact(): 4d45.를 통과하고, ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터가 저
     장되며, 내부 이름이 'name' 매개 변수와 일치합니다.  (캡슐 이름을 비
     교하는 방법에 대한 정보는 *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 4981.를 참
     조하십시오.)

     즉, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1345.가 참값을 반환하면, 모든 접근자
     (‘PyCapsule_Get’으로 시작하는 모든 함수)에 대한 호출이 성공함이 보
     장됩니다.

     객체가 유효하고 전달된 이름과 일치하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  그
     렇지 않으면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 실패하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCapsule_SetContext (PyObject *capsule, void *context)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'capsule' 내부의 컨텍스트 포인
     터를 'context'로 설정합니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  실패하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환하고 예외를
     설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor (PyObject *capsule,
          PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'capsule' 내부의 파괴자를
     'destructor'로 설정합니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  실패하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환하고 예외를
     설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCapsule_SetName (PyObject *capsule, const char *name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'capsule' 내부의 이름을
     'name'으로 설정합니다.  ‘NULL’이 아니면, 이름은 캡슐보다 오래 유지
     되어야 합니다.  캡슐에 저장된 이전 'name'이 ‘NULL’이 아니면, 이를 해
     제하려고 시도하지 않습니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  실패하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환하고 예외를
     설정합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyCapsule_SetPointer (PyObject *capsule, void *pointer)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'capsule' 내부의 void 포인터를
     'pointer'로 설정합니다.  포인터는 ‘NULL’이 아닐 수 있습니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환합니다.  실패하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환하고 예외를
     설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame Objects,  Next: 제너레이터 객체,  Prev: 캡슐,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.16 Frame Objects
......................

 -- C 자료형: type PyFrameObject
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e. (as an opaque struct).'  The C
     structure of the objects used to describe frame objects.

     There are no public members in this structure.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The members of this structure were removed from
     the public C API. Refer to the *note What’s New entry: 781. for
     details.

The *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17c3. and *note PyThreadState_GetFrame():
787. functions can be used to get a frame object.

See also *note Reflection: 4b81.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyFrame_Type

     The type of frame objects.  It is the same object as *note
     types.FrameType: 1858. in the Python layer.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this type was only available after
     including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C 함수: int PyFrame_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame object.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: Previously, this function was only available
     after including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyFrameObject: 782. *PyFrame_GetBack (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Get the 'frame' next outer frame.

     Return a *note strong reference: 336, or ‘NULL’ if 'frame' has no
     outer frame.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrame_GetBuiltins (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Get the 'frame'’s *note f_builtins: 1f55.
     attribute.

     Return a *note strong reference: 336.  The result cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyCodeObject: 770. *PyFrame_GetCode (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이
     후로.'  Get the 'frame' code.

     Return a *note strong reference: 336.

     The result (frame code) cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrame_GetGenerator (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Get the generator, coroutine, or async
     generator that owns this frame, or ‘NULL’ if this frame is not
     owned by a generator.  Does not raise an exception, even if the
     return value is ‘NULL’.

     Return a *note strong reference: 336, or ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrame_GetGlobals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Get the 'frame'’s *note f_globals: 1f54.
     attribute.

     Return a *note strong reference: 336.  The result cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: int PyFrame_GetLasti (PyFrameObject *frame)

     Get the 'frame'’s *note f_lasti: 884. attribute.

     Returns -1 if ‘frame.f_lasti’ is ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrame_GetVar (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Get the variable 'name' of 'frame'.

        * Return a *note strong reference: 336. to the variable value on
          success.

        * Raise *note NameError: 438. and return ‘NULL’ if the variable
          does not exist.

        * Raise an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     'name' type must be a *note str: 445.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrame_GetVarString (PyFrameObject
          *frame, const char *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Similar to *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 563, but the
     variable name is a C string encoded in UTF-8.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyFrame_GetLocals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  Get the 'frame'’s *note f_locals: 182.
     attribute.  If the frame refers to an *note optimized scope: 17e,
     this returns a write-through proxy object that allows modifying the
     locals.  In all other cases (classes, modules, *note exec(): 17f,
     *note eval(): 180.) it returns the mapping representing the frame
     locals directly (as described for *note locals(): 141.).

     Return a *note strong reference: 336.

     Added in version 3.11.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: As part of PEP 667(1), return an instance of
     *note PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type: 4d48.

 -- C 함수: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber (PyFrameObject *frame)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Return the
     line number that 'frame' is currently executing.

* Menu:

* Frame Locals Proxies::
* Internal Frames::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Frame Locals Proxies,  Next: Internal Frames,  Up: Frame Objects

7.8.6.17 Frame Locals Proxies
.............................

Added in version 3.13.

The *note f_locals: 182. attribute on a *note frame object: 6d9. is an
instance of a “frame-locals proxy”.  The proxy object exposes a
write-through view of the underlying locals dictionary for the frame.
This ensures that the variables exposed by ‘f_locals’ are always up to
date with the live local variables in the frame itself.

See PEP 667(1) for more information.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type

     The type of frame *note locals(): 141. proxy objects.

 -- C 함수: int PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame *note locals(): 141. proxy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Internal Frames,  Prev: Frame Locals Proxies,  Up: Frame Objects

7.8.6.18 Internal Frames
........................

Unless using PEP 523(1), you will not need this.

 -- C 구조체: struct _PyInterpreterFrame

     The interpreter’s internal frame representation.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode
          (struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
          Return a *note strong reference: 336. to the code object for
          the frame.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no
     line number.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 객체,  Next: 코루틴 객체,  Prev: Frame Objects,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.19 제너레이터 객체
........................

제너레이터 객체는 파이썬이 제너레이터 이터레이터를 구현하기 위해 사용하
는 객체입니다.  일반적으로 *note PyGen_New(): 4d53. 또는 *note
PyGen_NewWithQualName(): 4d54.를 명시적으로 호출하는 것이 아니라, 값을 일
드(yield)하는 함수를 이터레이트하여 만들어집니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyGenObject

     제너레이터 객체에 사용되는 C 구조체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyGen_Type

     제너레이터 객체에 해당하는 형 객체

 -- C 함수: int PyGen_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 제너레이터 객체면 참을 돌려줍니다; 'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야
     합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyGen_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'의 형이 *note PyGen_Type: 4d56.이면 참을 돌려줍니다; 'ob'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyGen_New (PyFrameObject *frame)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'frame' 객체에 기반한 새 제너레이터 객체를 만들
     어 반환합니다.  이 함수는 'frame'에 대한 참조를 훔칩니다.  인자는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyGen_NewWithQualName (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'frame' 객체에 기반한 새 제너레이터 객체를 만들
     어 반환하는데, ‘__name__’ 과 ‘__qualname__’를 'name' 및 'qualname'로
     설정합니다.  이 함수는 'frame'에 대한 참조를 훔칩니다.  'frame' 인
     자는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 코루틴 객체,  Next: 컨텍스트 변수 객체,  Prev: 제너레이터 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.20 코루틴 객체
....................

Added in version 3.5.

코루틴 객체는 ‘async’ 키워드로 선언된 함수가 반환하는 것입니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyCoroObject

     코루틴 객체에 사용되는 C 구조체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyCoro_Type

     코루틴 객체에 해당하는 형 객체.

 -- C 함수: int PyCoro_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'의 형이 *note PyCoro_Type: 4d5c.이면 참을 반환합니다.  'ob'는
     ‘NULL’일 수 없습니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCoro_New (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'frame' 객체를 기반으로 새 코루틴 객체를 만들어
     서 반환합니다.  ‘__name__’ 과 ‘__qualname__’은 'name' 과
     'qualname'로 설정합니다.  이 함수는 'frame'에 대한 참조를 훔칩니다.
     'frame' 인자는 ‘NULL’일 수 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 컨텍스트 변수 객체,  Next: DateTime 객체<2>,  Prev: 코루틴 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.21 컨텍스트 변수 객체
...........................

Added in version 3.7.

버전 3.7.1에서 변경:

     참고: 파이썬 3.7.1에서 모든 컨텍스트 변수 C API의 서명이 *note
     PyContext: 4d61, *note PyContextVar: 4d62. 및 *note PyContextToken:
     4d63. 대신 *note PyObject: 332. 포인터를 사용하도록 '변경되었습니다
     ', 예를 들어:

          // in 3.7.0:
          PyContext *PyContext_New(void);

          // in 3.7.1+:
          PyObject *PyContext_New(void);

     자세한 내용은 bpo-34762(1)를 참조하십시오.

이 절에서는 *note contextvars: 24. 모듈을 위한 공용 C API에 대해 자세히
설명합니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyContext

     *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. 객체를 나타내는 데 사용되는 C 구조
     체.

 -- C 자료형: type PyContextVar

     *note contextvars.ContextVar: 1565. 객체를 나타내는 데 사용되는 C 구
     조체.

 -- C 자료형: type PyContextToken

     *note contextvars.Token: 327f. 객체를 나타내는 데 사용되는 C 구조체
     .

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyContext_Type

     'context' 형을 나타내는 형 객체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyContextVar_Type

     '컨텍스트 변수' 형을 나타내는 형 객체.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyContextToken_Type

     '컨텍스트 변수 토큰' 형을 나타내는 형 객체.

형 검사 매크로:

 -- C 함수: int PyContext_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 *note PyContext_Type: 4d64. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'o'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyContextVar_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 *note PyContextVar_Type: 4d65. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'o'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyContextToken_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     'o'가 *note PyContextToken_Type: 4d66. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'o'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

컨텍스트 객체 관리 함수:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyContext_New (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  새로운 빈 컨텍스트 객체를 만듭니다.  에러가 발
     생하면 ‘NULL’를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyContext_Copy (PyObject *ctx)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  전달된 'ctx' 컨텍스트 객체의 얕은 복사본을 만듭
     니다.  에러가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyContext_CopyCurrent (void)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  현재 스레드 컨텍스트의 얕은 복사본을 만듭니다.
     에러가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyContext_Enter (PyObject *ctx)

     현재 스레드의 현재 컨텍스트로 'ctx'를 설정합니다.  성공 시 ‘0’을 반
     환하고, 에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyContext_Exit (PyObject *ctx)

     'ctx' 컨텍스트를 비활성화하고 이전 컨텍스트를 현재 스레드의 현재 컨
     텍스트로 복원합니다.  성공 시 ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합
     니다.

컨텍스트 변수 함수:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyContextVar_New (const char *name,
          PyObject *def)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  새 ‘ContextVar’ 객체를 만듭니다.  'name' 매개 변
     수는 인트로스펙션과 디버그 목적으로 사용됩니다.  'def' 매개 변수는
     컨텍스트 변수의 기본값을 지정할 수 있습니다.  ‘NULL’은 기본값 없음
     입니다.  에러가 발생하면, 이 함수는 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyContextVar_Get (PyObject *var, PyObject
          *default_value, PyObject **value)

     컨텍스트 변수의 값을 가져옵니다.  조회하는 동안 에러가 발생하면
     ‘-1’을 반환하고, 값이 있는지와 상관없이 에러가 발생하지 않으면 ‘0’을
     반환합니다.

     컨텍스트 변수가 발견되면, 'value'는 그것을 가리키는 포인터가 됩니다
     .  컨텍스트 변수가 발견되지 '않으면', 'value'는 다음을 가리 킵니다:

        - 'default_value', ‘NULL’이 아니면;

        - 'var'의 기본값, ‘NULL’이 아니면;

        - ‘NULL’

     ‘NULL’일 때를 제외하고, 이 함수는 새 참조를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyContextVar_Set (PyObject *var,
          PyObject *value)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  현재 컨텍스트에서 'var'의 값을 'value'로 설정합
     니다.  이 변경에 대한 새 토큰 객체를 반환하거나, 에러가 발생하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyContextVar_Reset (PyObject *var, PyObject *token)

     'var' 컨텍스트 변수의 상태를 'token'을 반환한 *note
     PyContextVar_Set(): 4d71. 호출 전의 상태로 재설정합니다.  이 함수는
     성공 시 ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러 시 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime 객체<2>,  Next: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: 컨텍스트 변수 객체,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.22 DateTime 객체
......................

다양한 날짜와 시간 객체가 *note datetime: 30. 모듈에서 제공됩니다.  이 함
수를 사용하기 전에, 헤더 파일 ‘datetime.h’가 소스에 포함되어야 하고
(‘Python.h’가 포함하지 않음에 유의하십시오), 일반적으로 모듈 초기화 함수
의 일부로 ‘PyDateTime_IMPORT’ 매크로를 호출해야 합니다.  매크로는 C 구조
체에 대한 포인터를 다음 매크로에서 사용되는 static 변수 ‘PyDateTimeAPI’에
넣습니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyDateTime_Date

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 332. represents a Python date
     object.

 -- C 자료형: type PyDateTime_DateTime

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 332. represents a Python datetime
     object.

 -- C 자료형: type PyDateTime_Time

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 332. represents a Python time
     object.

 -- C 자료형: type PyDateTime_Delta

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 332. represents the difference
     between two datetime values.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyDateTime_DateType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python
     date type; it is the same object as *note datetime.date: 1cd. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyDateTime_DateTimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python
     datetime type; it is the same object as *note datetime.datetime:
     1cc. in the Python layer.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyDateTime_TimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python
     time type; it is the same object as *note datetime.time: 1ce. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyDateTime_DeltaType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa2. represents Python type
     for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same
     object as *note datetime.timedelta: 9cc. in the Python layer.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyDateTime_TZInfoType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa2. represents the Python
     time zone info type; it is the same object as *note
     datetime.tzinfo: 5d8. in the Python layer.

UTC 싱글톤에 액세스하기 위한 매크로:

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC

     UTC를 나타내는 시간대 싱글톤을 반환합니다, *note
     datetime.timezone.utc: 60e.와 같은 객체입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

형 검사 매크로:

 -- C 함수: int PyDate_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4d79. 형이거나
     ‘PyDateTime_DateType’의 서브 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'ob'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDate_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4d79. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.
     'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4d7a. 형이거나
     ‘PyDateTime_DateTimeType’의 서브 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'ob'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4d7a. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.
     'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4d7b. 형이거나
     ‘PyDateTime_TimeType’의 서브 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'ob'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4d7b. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.
     'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDelta_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4d7c. 형이거나
     ‘PyDateTime_DeltaType’의 서브 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'ob'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDelta_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4d7c. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.
     'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTZInfo_Check (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4d7d. 형이거나
     ‘PyDateTime_TZInfoType’의 서브 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.  'ob'는
     ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     'ob'가 *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4d7d. 형이면 참을 돌려줍니다.
     'ob'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  이 함수는 항상 성공합니다.

객체를 만드는 매크로:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDate_FromDate (int year, int month,
          int day)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 년, 월, 일의 *note datetime.date: 1cd. 객
     체를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (int year,
          int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int
          usecond)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 년, 월, 일, 시, 분, 초 및 마이크로초의
     *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (int
          year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second,
          int usecond, int fold)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 년, 월, 일, 시, 분, 초, 마이크로초 및
     fold의 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. 객체를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTime_FromTime (int hour, int minute,
          int second, int usecond)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 시, 분, 초 및 마이크로초의 *note
     datetime.time: 1ce. 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (int hour, int
          minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 시, 분, 초, 마이크로초 및 fold의 *note
     datetime.time: 1ce. 객체를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDelta_FromDSU (int days, int
          seconds, int useconds)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  지정된 일, 초 및 마이크로초 수를 나타내는 *note
     datetime.timedelta: 9cc. 객체를 반환합니다.  결과 마이크로초와 초가
     *note datetime.timedelta: 9cc. 객체에 관해 설명된 범위에 있도록 정
     규화가 수행됩니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTimeZone_FromOffset (PyObject
          *offset)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'offset' 인자로 나타내지는 이름이 없는 고정 오
     프셋의 *note datetime.timezone: 10b2. 객체를 돌려줍니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (PyObject
          *offset, PyObject *name)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  'offset' 인자와 tzname 'name'으로 나타내지는 고
     정 오프셋의 *note datetime.timezone: 10b2. 객체를 돌려줍니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

날짜 객체에서 필드를 추출하는 매크로.  인자는 서브 클래스(가령 *note
PyDateTime_DateTime: 4d76.)를 포함하여 *note PyDateTime_Date: 4d75.의 인
스턴스여야 합니다.  인자는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 하며, 형은 검사하지 않습니
다:

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     양의 int로, 년을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     1에서 12까지의 int로, 월을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     1에서 31까지의 int로, 일을 반환합니다.

날짜 시간 객체에서 필드를 추출하는 매크로.  인자는 서브 클래스를 포함하
여 *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4d76.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.  인자는
‘NULL’이 아니어야 하며, 형은 검사하지 않습니다.:

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     0부터 23까지의 int로, 시를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     0부터 59까지의 int로, 분을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     0부터 59까지의 int로, 초를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     0부터 999999까지의 int로, 마이크로초를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     0에서 1까지의 int로, 폴드를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Added in version 3.10.

시간 객체에서 필드를 추출하는 매크로.  인자는 서브 클래스를 포함하여
*note PyDateTime_Time: 4d77.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.  인자는 ‘NULL’이 아
니어야 하며 형은 검사하지 않습니다:

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     0부터 23까지의 int로, 시를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     0부터 59까지의 int로, 분을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     0부터 59까지의 int로, 초를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     0부터 999999까지의 int로, 마이크로초를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     0에서 1까지의 int로, 폴드를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Added in version 3.10.

시간 델타 객체에서 필드를 추출하는 매크로.  인자는 서브 클래스를 포함하
여 *note PyDateTime_Delta: 4d78.의 인스턴스여야 합니다.  인자는 ‘NULL’이
아니어야 하며 형은 검사하지 않습니다.:

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     -999999999에서 999999999까지의 int로, 일 수를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     0부터 86399까지의 int로, 초 수를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C 함수: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     0에서 999999까지의 int로, 마이크로초 수를 반환합니다.

     Added in version 3.3.

DB API를 구현하는 모듈의 편의를 위한 매크로:

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  *note datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4e7.에
     전달하는 데 적합한 인자 튜플로 새 *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. 객
     체를 만들고 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyDate_FromTimestamp (PyObject *args)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'  *note datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 1611.에 전
     달하는 데 적합한 인자 튜플로 새 *note datetime.date: 1cd. 객체를 만
     들고 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: DateTime 객체<2>,  Up: 기타 객체<2>

7.8.6.23 Objects for Type Hinting
.................................

Various built-in types for type hinting are provided.  Currently, two
types exist – *note GenericAlias: 6ac. and *note Union: 7bb.  Only
‘GenericAlias’ is exposed to C.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *Py_GenericAlias (PyObject *origin,
          PyObject *args)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  Create a
     *note GenericAlias: 6ac. object.  Equivalent to calling the Python
     class *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4.  The 'origin' and 'args'
     arguments set the ‘GenericAlias’‘s ‘__origin__’ and ‘__args__’
     attributes respectively.  'origin' should be a *note PyTypeObject:
     aa2.*, and 'args' can be a *note PyTupleObject: 4b55.* or any
     ‘PyObject*’.  If 'args' passed is not a tuple, a 1-tuple is
     automatically constructed and ‘__args__’ is set to ‘(args,)’.
     Minimal checking is done for the arguments, so the function will
     succeed even if 'origin' is not a type.  The ‘GenericAlias’‘s
     ‘__parameters__’ attribute is constructed lazily from ‘__args__’.
     On failure, an exception is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Here’s an example of how to make an extension type generic:

          ...
          static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
              // Other methods.
              ...
              {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
              ...
          }

     더 보기
     .......

     The data model method *note __class_getitem__(): 734.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. Py_GenericAliasType
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  The C type of
     the object returned by *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4ae3.  Equivalent
     to *note types.GenericAlias: 7e4. in Python.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드,  Next: 파이썬 초기화 구성,  Prev: 구상 객체 계층,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.9 초기화, 파이널리제이션 및 스레드
====================================

See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1. for details on how
to configure the interpreter prior to initialization.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 초기화 전::
* 전역 구성 변수::
* 인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션::
* 프로세스 전체 매개 변수::
* 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록::
* 서브 인터프리터 지원::
* 비동기 알림::
* 프로파일링과 추적::
* Reference tracing::
* 고급 디버거 지원::
* 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원::
* Synchronization Primitives::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 초기화 전,  Next: 전역 구성 변수,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.1 파이썬 초기화 전
----------------------

파이썬을 내장한 응용 프로그램에서는, 다른 파이썬/C API 함수를 사용하기 전
에 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 함수를 호출해야 합니다; 몇 가지 함수와
*note 전역 구성 변수: 4da6.는 예외입니다.

파이썬이 초기화되기 전에 다음 함수를 안전하게 호출할 수 있습니다:

   * Functions that initialize the interpreter:

        * *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

        * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4aea.

        * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf.

        * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9be.

        * *note Py_Main(): c22.

        * the runtime pre-initialization functions covered in *note
          파이썬 초기화 구성: 3a1.

   * 구성 함수:

        * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa.

        * *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17ab.

        * ‘PyInitFrozenExtensions()’

        * *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 586.

        * *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67.

        * *note PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(): 4da7.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 1645.

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 1644.

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.

        * the configuration functions covered in *note 파이썬 초기화
          구성: 3a1.

   * 정보 함수:

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4953.

        * *note PyMem_GetAllocator(): 4da8.

        * *note PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(): 4da9.

        * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fa.

        * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4ae5.

        * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4ae6.

        * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4ae7.

        * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4ae8.

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4953.

   * 유틸리티:

        * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4.

        * the status reporting and utility functions covered in *note
          파이썬 초기화 구성: 3a1.

   * 메모리 할당자:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38c.

   * Synchronization:

        * *note PyMutex_Lock(): 323.

        * *note PyMutex_Unlock(): 324.

     참고: Despite their apparent similarity to some of the functions
     listed above, the following functions 'should not be called' before
     the interpreter has been initialized: *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc5,
     *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4, *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3, *note
     PyEval_InitThreads(): 1648, and *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2.


File: python.info,  Node: 전역 구성 변수,  Next: 인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션,  Prev: 파이썬 초기화 전,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.2 전역 구성 변수
--------------------

파이썬에는 다양한 기능과 옵션을 제어하기 위한 전역 구성 변수가 있습니다.
기본적으로, 이러한 플래그는 *note 명령 줄 옵션: 1d31.에 의해 제어됩니다.

옵션에 의해 플래그가 설정되면, 플래그 값은 옵션이 설정된 횟수입니다.  예
를 들어, ‘-b’는 *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce. 를 1로 설정하고 ‘-bb’는
*note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce. 를 2로 설정합니다.

 -- C 변수: int Py_BytesWarningFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cf. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     *note bytes: 1c2.나 *note bytearray: 538.와 *note str: 445.을, 또는
     *note bytes: 1c2.를 *note int: 257.와 비교할 때 경고를 발행합니다.
     ‘2’보다 크거나 같으면 에러를 발행합니다.

     *note -b: 5dd. 옵션으로 설정합니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_DebugFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.parser_debug: 3c1. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     구문 분석기 디버깅 출력을 켭니다 (전문가 전용, 컴파일 옵션에 의존합
     니다).

     *note -d: 1d39. 옵션과 *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1d3a. 환경 변수로 설정됩
     니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d5. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     0이 아닌 값으로 설정하면, 파이썬은 소스 모듈을 임포트 할 때 ‘.pyc’
     파일을 쓰려고 하지 않습니다.

     *note -B: 1396. 옵션과 *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. 환경 변
     수로 설정됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_FrozenFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d1. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.에서 모듈 검색 경로를 계산할 때 에러 메시지
     를 표시하지 않습니다.

     Private flag used by ‘_freeze_module’ and ‘frozenmain’ programs.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_HashRandomizationFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.hash_seed: 3dc. and *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3db.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 3a1.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문자열로 설
     정되면 ‘1’로 설정합니다.

     플래그가 0이 아니면, *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. 환경 변수를 읽어 비
     밀 해시 시드를 초기화합니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     1013. and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6, that might be set.

     *note -E: 95a.와 *note -I: 95b. 옵션으로 설정됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_InspectFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.inspect: 3c9. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     스크립트가 첫 번째 인자로 전달되거나 *note -c: 5da. 옵션을 사용할 때
     , *note sys.stdin: 537.가 터미널로 보이지 않더라도 스크립트나 명령
     을 실행한 후 대화 형 모드로 들어갑니다.

     *note -i: 14a3. 옵션과 *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a2. 환경 변수로 설정
     됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_InteractiveFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 3c7. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     *note -i: 14a3. 옵션으로 설정됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- C 변수: int Py_IsolatedFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.isolated: 3de. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     격리 모드로 파이썬을 실행합니다.  격리 모드에서 *note sys.path:
     3ae.는 스크립트의 디렉터리도 사용자의 site-packages 디렉터리도 포함
     하지 않습니다.

     *note -I: 95b. 옵션으로 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     If the flag is non-zero, use the ‘mbcs’ encoding with ‘replace’
     error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with ‘surrogatepass’
     error handler, for the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     535.

     *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않
     은 문자열로 설정되면 ‘1’로 설정합니다.

     자세한 내용은 PEP 529(1)를 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     If the flag is non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 1300. instead of
     ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys: d9. standard streams.

     *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c58. 환경 변수가 비어 있지 않은 문
     자열로 설정되면 ‘1’로 설정합니다.

     자세한 내용은 PEP 528(2)을 참조하십시오.

     *note 가용성: 1d5c.: Windows.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_NoSiteFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.site_import: 3cd. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     모듈 *note site: c7. 임포트와 이에 수반되는 *note sys.path: 3ae.의
     사이트 종속적인 조작을 비활성화합니다.  또한 나중에 *note site:
     c7.를 명시적으로 임포트 할 때도 이러한 조작을 비활성화합니다 (트리
     거 하려면 *note site.main(): 1d3e.을 호출하십시오).

     *note -S: 1198. 옵션으로 설정됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d7. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     *note 사용자 site-packages 디렉터리: 1d3d.를 *note sys.path: 3ae.에
     추가하지 않습니다.

     *note -s: 1374.와 *note -I: 95b. 옵션, 그리고 *note
     PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1375. 환경 변수로 설정됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_OptimizeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cb. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     *note -O: db1. 옵션과 *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1d3b. 환경 변수로 설정
     됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_QuietFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.quiet: 3c5. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     대화형 모드에서도 저작권과 버전 메시지를 표시하지 않습니다.

     *note -q: 1d3c. 옵션으로 설정됩니다.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d9. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     stdout과 stderr 스트림을 버퍼링 해제하도록 강제합니다.

     *note -u: 19ab. 옵션과 *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19ac. 환경 변수로 설
     정됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

 -- C 변수: int Py_VerboseFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.verbose: 3c3. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     모듈이 초기화될 때마다, 로드된 위치(파일명이나 내장 모듈)를 표시하
     는 메시지를 인쇄합니다.  ‘2’보다 크거나 같으면, 모듈을 검색할 때 검
     사되는 각 파일에 대한 메시지를 인쇄합니다.  또한 종료 시 모듈 정리
     에 대한 정보를 제공합니다.

     *note -v: 13ed. 옵션과 *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1d3f. 환경 변수로 설정
     됩니다.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: 인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션,  Next: 프로세스 전체 매개 변수,  Prev: 전역 구성 변수,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.3 인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션
----------------------------------------

 -- C 함수: void Py_Initialize ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     파이썬 인터프리터를 초기화합니다.  파이썬을 내장하는 응용 프로그램
     에서는, 다른 파이썬/C API 함수를 사용하기 전에 호출해야 합니다; 몇
     가지 예외는 *note 파이썬 초기화 전: bc2.을 참조하십시오.

     This initializes the table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’), and
     creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__:
     1. and *note sys: d9.  It also initializes the module search path
     (‘sys.path’).  It does not set ‘sys.argv’; use the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1. API for that.  This is a no-op
     when called for a second time (without calling *note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. first).  There is no return value; it is a
     fatal error if the initialization fails.

     Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. to customize the *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

          참고: 윈도우에서, 콘솔 모드를 ‘O_TEXT’에서 ‘O_BINARY’로 변경합
          니다, C 런타임을 사용하는 콘솔의 비 파이썬 사용에도 영향을 미
          칩니다.

 -- C 함수: void Py_InitializeEx (int initsigs)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This function works like *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9. if 'initsigs' is ‘1’.  If 'initsigs' is ‘0’,
     it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which may
     be useful when CPython is embedded as part of a larger application.

     Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. to customize the *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

 -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. Py_InitializeFromConfig (const PyConfig
          *config)

     Initialize Python from 'config' configuration, as described in
     *note PyConfig를 사용한 초기화: 4dac.

     See the *note 파이썬 초기화 구성: 3a1. section for details on
     pre-initializing the interpreter, populating the runtime
     configuration structure, and querying the returned status
     structure.

 -- C 함수: int Py_IsInitialized ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  파이썬 인터프리터가 초기화되었
     으면 참(0이 아님)을 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 거짓(0)을 반환합니다.
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. 가 호출된 후, *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9.가 다시 호출될 때까지 거짓을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_IsFinalizing ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  Return true
     (non-zero) if the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down:
     14e.  Return false (zero) otherwise.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: int Py_FinalizeEx ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.6 이후로.'  Undo all
     initializations made by *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. and subsequent
     use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters
     (see *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17bd. below) that were created and
     not yet destroyed since the last call to *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9.  Ideally, this frees all memory allocated by the Python
     interpreter.  This is a no-op when called for a second time
     (without calling *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. again first).

     Since this is the reverse of *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9, it should
     be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active.
     That means the main thread and the main interpreter.  This should
     never be called while *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2. is running.

     Normally the return value is ‘0’.  If there were errors during
     finalization (flushing buffered data), ‘-1’ is returned.

     이 함수는 여러 가지 이유로 제공됩니다.  내장 응용 프로그램이 응용 프
     로그램 자체를 다시 시작하지 않고 파이썬을 다시 시작하고 싶을 수 있
     습니다.  동적으로 로드할 수 있는 라이브러리(또는 DLL)에서 파이썬 인
     터프리터를 로드한 응용 프로그램은 DLL을 언로드 하기 전에 파이썬이 할
     당한 모든 메모리를 해제하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  응용 프로그램에서 메
     모리 누수를 찾는 동안 개발자는 응용 프로그램을 종료하기 전에 파이썬
     에서 할당한 모든 메모리를 해제하고 싶을 것입니다.

     'Bugs and caveats:' The destruction of modules and objects in
     modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (*note
     __del__(): 1f69. methods) to fail when they depend on other objects
     (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically loaded extension modules
     loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of memory
     allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a
     leak, please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references
     between objects is not freed.  Some memory allocated by extension
     modules may not be freed.  Some extensions may not work properly if
     their initialization routine is called more than once; this can
     happen if an application calls *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. and
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. more than once.  *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     d12. must not be called recursively from within itself.  Therefore,
     it must not be called by any code that may be run as part of the
     interpreter shutdown process, such as *note atexit: c. handlers,
     object finalizers, or any code that may be run while flushing the
     stdout and stderr files.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1. ‘cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks’
     를 발생시킵니다.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C 함수: void Py_Finalize ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     d12.의 이전 버전과 호환되는 반환 값을 무시하는 버전입니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_BytesMain (int argc, char **argv)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.8 이후로.'  Similar to
     *note Py_Main(): c22. but 'argv' is an array of bytes strings,
     allowing the calling application to delegate the text decoding step
     to the CPython runtime.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C 함수: int Py_Main (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  The main program for the
     standard interpreter, encapsulating a full
     initialization/finalization cycle, as well as additional behaviour
     to implement reading configurations settings from the environment
     and command line, and then executing ‘__main__’ in accordance with
     *note 명령 줄: ffd.

     This is made available for programs which wish to support the full
     CPython command line interface, rather than just embedding a Python
     runtime in a larger application.

     The 'argc' and 'argv' parameters are similar to those which are
     passed to a C program’s ‘main()’ function, except that the 'argv'
     entries are first converted to ‘wchar_t’ using *note
     Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4.  It is also important to note that the
     argument list entries may be modified to point to strings other
     than those passed in (however, the contents of the strings pointed
     to by the argument list are not modified).

     The return value is ‘2’ if the argument list does not represent a
     valid Python command line, and otherwise the same as *note
     Py_RunMain(): 9c2.

     In terms of the CPython runtime configuration APIs documented in
     the *note runtime configuration: 3a1. section (and without
     accounting for error handling), ‘Py_Main’ is approximately
     equivalent to:

          PyConfig config;
          PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
          PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv);
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);

          Py_RunMain();

     In normal usage, an embedding application will call this function
     'instead' of calling *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9, *note
     Py_InitializeEx(): 4aea. or *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf.
     directly, and all settings will be applied as described elsewhere
     in this documentation.  If this function is instead called 'after'
     a preceding runtime initialization API call, then exactly which
     environmental and command line configuration settings will be
     updated is version dependent (as it depends on which settings
     correctly support being modified after they have already been set
     once when the runtime was first initialized).

 -- C 함수: int Py_RunMain (void)

     Executes the main module in a fully configured CPython runtime.

     Executes the command (*note PyConfig.run_command: 4dad.), the
     script (*note PyConfig.run_filename: 4dae.) or the module (*note
     PyConfig.run_module: 4daf.) specified on the command line or in the
     configuration.  If none of these values are set, runs the
     interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module’s
     global namespace.

     If *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c9. is not set (the default), the
     return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits normally (that
     is, without raising an exception), the exit status of an unhandled
     *note SystemExit: d3d, or ‘1’ for any other unhandled exception.

     If *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c9. is set (such as when the *note -i:
     14a3. option is used), rather than returning when the interpreter
     exits, execution will instead resume in an interactive Python
     prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module’s global namespace.  If
     the interpreter exited with an exception, it is immediately raised
     in the REPL session.  The function return value is then determined
     by the way the 'REPL session' terminates: ‘0’, ‘1’, or the status
     of a *note SystemExit: d3d, as specified above.

     This function always finalizes the Python interpreter before it
     returns.

     See *note Python Configuration: 4db0. for an example of a
     customized Python that always runs in isolated mode using *note
     Py_RunMain(): 9c2.

 -- C 함수: int PyUnstable_AtExit (PyInterpreterState *interp, void
          (*func)(void*), void *data)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Register an *note atexit: c. callback for the target interpreter
     'interp'.  This is similar to *note Py_AtExit(): 4ae0, but takes an
     explicit interpreter and data pointer for the callback.

     The *note GIL: 159. must be held for 'interp'.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로세스 전체 매개 변수,  Next: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록,  Prev: 인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.4 프로세스 전체 매개 변수
-----------------------------

 -- C 함수: void Py_SetProgramName (const wchar_t *name)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 3be. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     (호출된다면) 이 함수는 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.가 처음으로 호출
     되기 전에 호출되어야 합니다.  인터프리터에게 프로그램의 ‘main()’ 함
     수에 대한 ‘argv[0]’ 인자의 값을 알려줍니다 (와이드 문자로 변환됩니
     다).  이것은 *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.와 아래의 다른 함수에서 인터프
     리터 실행 파일과 관련된 파이썬 런타임 라이브러리를 찾는 데 사용됩니
     다.  기본값은 ‘'python'’입니다.  인자는 프로그램을 실행하는 동안 내
     용이 변경되지 않는 정적 저장소의 0으로 끝나는 와이드 문자열을 가리
     켜야 합니다.  파이썬 인터프리터의 코드는 이 저장소의 내용을 변경하
     지 않습니다.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     버전 3.11부터 폐지됨.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramName ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Return the program name set
     with *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be, or the default.  The
     returned string points into static storage; the caller should not
     modify its value.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.executable: 3b2. instead.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_GetPrefix ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Return the 'prefix' for
     installed platform-independent files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 3be. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into static
     storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This corresponds
     to the ‘prefix’ variable in the top-level ‘Makefile’ and the *note
     -prefix: 1d6a. argument to the ‘configure’ script at build time.
     The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.base_prefix’.  It is
     only useful on Unix.  See also the next function.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.base_prefix: 3e9. instead, or *note sys.prefix: 3b0. if
     *note virtual environments: 4319. need to be handled.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_GetExecPrefix ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Return the 'exec-prefix' for
     installed platform-'dependent' files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 3be. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     exec-prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This
     corresponds to the ‘exec_prefix’ variable in the top-level
     ‘Makefile’ and the ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’
     script at build time.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.base_exec_prefix’.  It is only useful on Unix.

     배경: exec-prefix는 플랫폼 종속적 파일(가령 실행 파일과 공유 라이브
     러리)이 다른 디렉터리 트리에 설치될 때 prefix와 다릅니다.  일반 설
     치에서, 플랫폼 종속적 파일은 ‘/usr/local/plat’ 서브 트리에 설치되고
     플랫폼 독립적 파일은 ‘/usr/local’에 설치될 수 있습니다.

     일반적으로 말해서, 플랫폼은 하드웨어와 소프트웨어 제품군의 조합입니
     다, 예를 들어 Solaris 2.x 운영 체제를 실행하는 Sparc 기계들은 같은
     플랫폼으로 간주하지만, Solaris 2.x를 실행하는 Intel 기계는 다른 플
     랫폼이며, 리눅스를 실행하는 Intel 기계는 또 다른 플랫폼입니다.  같
     은 운영 체제의 서로 다른 주 개정판도 일반적으로 다른 플랫폼을 형성
     합니다.  비 유닉스 운영 체제는 다른 이야기입니다; 이러한 시스템의 설
     치 전략이 너무 다르기 때문에 prefix와 exec-prefix는 의미가 없으며,
     빈 문자열로 설정됩니다.  컴파일된 파이썬 바이트 코드 파일은 플랫폼
     독립적임에 유의하십시오 (그러나 이들을 컴파일하는데 사용된 파이썬 버
     전에는 종속적입니다!).

     시스템 관리자는 ‘/usr/local/plat’을 각 플랫폼에 대해 다른 파일 시스
     템으로 사용하면서 플랫폼 간에 ‘/usr/local’을 공유하도록 ‘mount’나
     ‘automount’ 프로그램을 구성하는 방법을 알 것입니다.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e8. instead, or *note sys.exec_prefix:
     3ac. if *note virtual environments: 4319. need to be handled.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramFullPath ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is
     computed as a side-effect of deriving the default module search
     path from the program name (set by *note PyConfig.program_name:
     3be.).  The returned string points into static storage; the caller
     should not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code
     as ‘sys.executable’.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.executable: 3b2. instead.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_GetPath ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     Return the default module search path; this is computed from the
     program name (set by *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be.) and some
     environment variables.  The returned string consists of a series of
     directory names separated by a platform dependent delimiter
     character.  The delimiter character is ‘':'’ on Unix and macOS,
     ‘';'’ on Windows.  The returned string points into static storage;
     the caller should not modify its value.  The list *note sys.path:
     3ae. is initialized with this value on interpreter startup; it can
     be (and usually is) modified later to change the search path for
     loading modules.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note sys.path: 3ae. instead.

 -- C 함수: const char *Py_GetVersion ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 파이썬 인터프리터의 버전을
     반환합니다.  이것은 다음과 같은 문자열입니다

          "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"

     The first word (up to the first space character) is the current
     Python version; the first characters are the major and minor
     version separated by a period.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value
     is available to Python code as *note sys.version: 178.

     See also the *note Py_Version: 74f. constant.

 -- C 함수: const char *Py_GetPlatform ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix,
     this is formed from the “official” name of the operating system,
     converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number;
     e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value
     is ‘'sunos5'’.  On macOS, it is ‘'darwin'’.  On Windows, it is
     ‘'win'’.  The returned string points into static storage; the
     caller should not modify its value.  The value is available to
     Python code as ‘sys.platform’.

 -- C 함수: const char *Py_GetCopyright ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 파이썬 버전에 대한 공식 저
     작권 문자열을 반환합니다, 예를 들어

     ‘'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'’

     반환된 문자열은 정적 저장소를 가리킵니다; 호출자는 값을 수정해서는
     안 됩니다.  이 값은 파이썬 코드에서 ‘sys.copyright’로 사용할 수 있
     습니다.

 -- C 함수: const char *Py_GetCompiler ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 파이썬 버전을 빌드하는 데
     사용된 컴파일러 표시를 대괄호 감싸서 반환합니다, 예를 들면:

          "[GCC 2.7.2.2]"

     반환된 문자열은 정적 저장소를 가리킵니다; 호출자는 값을 수정해서는
     안 됩니다.  이 값은 파이썬 코드에서 변수 ‘sys.version’의 일부로 제
     공됩니다.

 -- C 함수: const char *Py_GetBuildInfo ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 파이썬 인터프리터 인스턴
     스의 시퀀스 번호와 빌드 날짜 및 시간에 대한 정보를 반환합니다, 예를
     들어

          "#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"

     반환된 문자열은 정적 저장소를 가리킵니다; 호출자는 값을 수정해서는
     안 됩니다.  이 값은 파이썬 코드에서 변수 ‘sys.version’의 일부로 제
     공됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_SetArgvEx (int argc, wchar_t **argv, int
          updatepath)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.argv: 3bd, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f. and *note
     PyConfig.safe_path: 76c. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     'argc' 및 'argv'에 기반해서 *note sys.argv: 1255.를 설정합니다.  이
     매개 변수는 프로그램의 ‘main()’ 함수에 전달된 것과 유사하지만, 첫 번
     째 항목이 파이썬 인터프리터를 호스팅하는 실행 파일이 아니라 실행될
     스크립트 파일을 참조해야 한다는 차이점이 있습니다.  실행할 스크립트
     가 없으면, 'argv'의 첫 번째 항목은 빈 문자열일 수 있습니다.  이 함
     수가 *note sys.argv: 1255. 초기화에 실패하면, *note
     Py_FatalError(): 980.를 사용하여 치명적인 조건을 표시합니다.

     'updatepath'가 0이면, 여기까지가 이 함수가 하는 모든 일입니다.
     'updatepath'가 0이 아니면, 함수는 다음 알고리즘에 따라 *note
     sys.path: 3ae.도 수정합니다:

        - 기존 스크립트의 이름이 ‘argv[0]’으로 전달되면, 스크립트가 있는
          디렉터리의 절대 경로가 *note sys.path: 3ae. 앞에 추가됩니다.

        - 그렇지 않으면 (즉, 'argc'가 ‘0’이거나 ‘argv[0]’이 기존 파일 이
          름을 가리키지 않으면), *note sys.path: 3ae. 앞에 빈 문자열이 추
          가됩니다, 이는 현재 작업 디렉터리(‘"."’)를 앞에 추가하는 것과
          같습니다.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 890. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     3bd. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

          참고: It is recommended that applications embedding the Python
          interpreter for purposes other than executing a single script
          pass ‘0’ as 'updatepath', and update *note sys.path: 3ae.
          themselves if desired.  See CVE 2008-5983(1).

          3.1.3 이전 버전에서는, *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1647.를 호출한 후
          첫 번째 *note sys.path: 3ae. 요소를 수동으로 제거하여 같은 효
          과를 얻을 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 다음을 사용하여:

               PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");

     Added in version 3.1.3.

     버전 3.11부터 폐지됨.

 -- C 함수: void PySys_SetArgv (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. and *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     이 함수는 ‘python’ 인터프리터가 *note -I: 95b.로 시작되지 않는 한
     'updatepath'가 ‘1’로 설정된 *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 1646.처럼 작동
     합니다.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 890. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     3bd. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     버전 3.4에서 변경: 'updatepath' 값은 *note -I: 95b.에 따라 다릅니다
     .

     버전 3.11부터 폐지됨.

 -- C 함수: void Py_SetPythonHome (const wchar_t *home)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.home: 3b5. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a1.

     기본 “홈” 디렉터리, 즉 표준 파이썬 라이브러리의 위치를 설정합니다.
     인자 문자열의 의미는 *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. 을 참조하십시오.

     인자는 프로그램을 실행하는 동안 내용이 변경되지 않는 정적 저장소에
     있는 0으로 끝나는 문자열을 가리켜야 합니다.  파이썬 인터프리터의 코
     드는 이 저장소의 내용을 변경하지 않습니다.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     버전 3.11부터 폐지됨.

 -- C 함수: wchar_t *Py_GetPythonHome ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Return the default “home”,
     that is, the value set by *note PyConfig.home: 3b5, or the value of
     the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable if it is set.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     8a9, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 8a9.

     Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get
     *note PyConfig.home: 3b5. or *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment
     variable instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983


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7.9.5 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록
--------------------------------------

파이썬 인터프리터는 완전히 스레드 안전하지 않습니다.  다중 스레드 파이썬
프로그램을 지원하기 위해, 파이썬 객체에 안전하게 액세스하기 전에 현재 스
레드가 보유해야 하는 *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148. 혹은 *note GIL:
159.이라고 하는 전역 록이 있습니다.  록 없이는, 가장 간단한 연산조차도 다
중 스레드 프로그램에서 문제를 일으킬 수 있습니다: 예를 들어, 두 스레드가
동시에 같은 객체의 참조 횟수를 증가시키면, 참조 횟수가 두 번이 아닌 한 번
만 증가할 수 있습니다.

따라서, *note GIL: 159.을 획득한 스레드만 파이썬 객체에서 작동하거나 파
이썬/C API 함수를 호출할 수 있다는 규칙이 있습니다.  동시 실행을 모방하
기 위해 인터프리터는 정기적으로 스레드 전환을 시도합니다 (*note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 948.을 참조하십시오).  록은 파일 읽기나 쓰기와
같은 잠재적인 블로킹 I/O 연산에 대해서도 해제되므로, 그동안 다른 파이썬
스레드가 실행될 수 있습니다.

파이썬 인터프리터는 *note PyThreadState: 786. 라는 데이터 구조체 내에 스
레드 별 부기(bookkeeping) 정보를 보관합니다.  현재 *note PyThreadState:
786. 를 가리키는 하나의 전역 변수도 있습니다: *note PyThreadState_Get():
36b.을 사용하여 얻을 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기::
* 파이썬이 만들지 않은 스레드::
* fork()에 대한 주의 사항: fork 에 대한 주의 사항.
* Cautions regarding runtime finalization::
* 고수준 API::
* 저수준 API::


File: python.info,  Node: 확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기,  Next: 파이썬이 만들지 않은 스레드,  Up: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

7.9.5.1 확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기
..................................

*note GIL: 159.을 조작하는 대부분의 확장 코드는 다음과 같은 간단한 구조
로 되어 있습니다:

     Save the thread state in a local variable.
     Release the global interpreter lock.
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Reacquire the global interpreter lock.
     Restore the thread state from the local variable.

이것은 매우 일반적이어서 이를 단순화하기 위해 한 쌍의 매크로가 존재합니
다:

     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

*note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db. 매크로는 새 블록을 열고 숨겨진 지역
변수를 선언합니다; *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8b. 매크로는 블록을 닫습
니다.

위의 블록은 다음 코드로 확장됩니다:

     PyThreadState *_save;

     _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

이 함수들의 작동 방식은 다음과 같습니다: 전역 인터프리터 록이 현재 스레
드 상태에 대한 포인터를 보호하는 데 사용됩니다.  록을 해제하고 스레드 상
태를 저장할 때, 록이 해제되기 전에 현재 스레드 상태 포인터를 가져와야 합
니다 (다른 스레드가 즉시 록을 획득하고 전역 변수에 자신의 스레드 상태를
저장할 수 있기 때문입니다).  반대로, 록을 획득하고 스레드 상태를 복원할
때, 스레드 상태 포인터를 저장하기 전에 록을 획득해야 합니다.

     참고: 시스템 I/O 함수 호출은 GIL을 릴리스하는 가장 일반적인 사용 사
     례이지만, 메모리 버퍼를 통해 작동하는 압축이나 암호화 함수와 같이,
     파이썬 객체에 액세스할 필요가 없는 장기 실행 계산을 호출하기 전에도
     유용할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 표준 *note zlib: 133.와 *note
     hashlib: 68. 모듈은 데이터를 압축하거나 해싱할 때 GIL을 해제합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬이 만들지 않은 스레드,  Next: fork 에 대한 주의 사항,  Prev: 확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기,  Up: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

7.9.5.2 파이썬이 만들지 않은 스레드
...................................

전용 파이썬 API(가령 *note threading: ed. 모듈)를 사용하여 스레드를 만들
면, 스레드 상태가 자동으로 연결되므로 위에 표시된 코드가 올바릅니다.  그
러나, 스레드가 C에서 만들어질 때 (예를 들어 자체 스레드 관리 기능이 있는
제삼자 라이브러리에 의해), GIL을 보유하지 않고, 그들을 위한 스레드 상태
구조도 없습니다.

이러한 스레드에서 파이썬 코드를 호출해야 하면 (종종 앞서 언급한 제삼자 라
이브러리에서 제공하는 콜백 API의 일부가 됩니다), 먼저 스레드 상태 자료 구
조를 만들어서 인터프리터에 이러한 스레드를 등록한 다음, GIL을 획득하고,
마지막으로 파이썬/C API 사용을 시작하기 전에 스레드 상태 포인터를 저장합
니다.  완료되면, 스레드 상태 포인터를 재설정하고, GIL을 해제한 다음, 마
지막으로 스레드 상태 자료 구조를 해제해야 합니다.

*note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.와 *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a6. 함수
는 위의 모든 작업을 자동으로 수행합니다.  C 스레드에서 파이썬을 호출하는
일반적인 관용구는 다음과 같습니다:

     PyGILState_STATE gstate;
     gstate = PyGILState_Ensure();

     /* Perform Python actions here. */
     result = CallSomeFunction();
     /* evaluate result or handle exception */

     /* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
     PyGILState_Release(gstate);

Note that the ‘PyGILState_*’ functions assume there is only one global
interpreter (created automatically by *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.).
Python supports the creation of additional interpreters (using *note
Py_NewInterpreter(): 17bd.), but mixing multiple interpreters and the
‘PyGILState_*’ API is unsupported.


File: python.info,  Node: fork 에 대한 주의 사항,  Next: Cautions regarding runtime finalization,  Prev: 파이썬이 만들지 않은 스레드,  Up: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

7.9.5.3 fork()에 대한 주의 사항
...............................

스레드에 대해 주목해야 할 또 다른 중요한 점은 C ‘fork()’ 호출 시 스레드
의 동작입니다.  ‘fork()’를 사용하는 대부분의 시스템에서는, 프로세스가 포
크한 후에 포크를 발행한 스레드만 존재합니다.  이는 록을 처리해야 하는 방
법과 CPython 런타임에 저장된 모든 상태 모두에 구체적인 영향을 미칩니다.

The fact that only the “current” thread remains means any locks held by
other threads will never be released.  Python solves this for *note
os.fork(): 197. by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the
fork, and releasing them afterwards.  In addition, it resets any *note
Lock objects: 312e. in the child.  When extending or embedding Python,
there is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that
need to be acquired before or reset after a fork.  OS facilities such as
‘pthread_atfork()’ would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling ‘fork()’
directly rather than through *note os.fork(): 197. (and returning to or
calling into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python’s
internal locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
*note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f5. tries to reset the necessary locks,
but is not always able to.

다른 모든 스레드가 사라진다는 사실은 또한 CPython의 런타임 상태가 *note
os.fork(): 197.와 마찬가지로 적절하게 정리되어야 함을 의미합니다.  이것
은 현재 인터프리터와 다른 모든 *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. 객체에 속
하는 다른 모든 *note PyThreadState: 786. 객체를 파이널리제이션 하는 것을
의미합니다.  이것과 *note “메인” 인터프리터: 582.의 특수한 특성으로 인해
, ‘fork()’는 CPython 전역 런타임이 원래 초기화된 인터프리터의 “메인” 스
레드에서만 호출되어야 합니다.  유일한 예외는 ‘exec()’가 그 후에 즉시 호
출되는 경우입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Cautions regarding runtime finalization,  Next: 고수준 API,  Prev: fork 에 대한 주의 사항,  Up: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

7.9.5.4 Cautions regarding runtime finalization
...............................................

In the late stage of *note interpreter shutdown: 14e, after attempting
to wait for non-daemon threads to exit (though this can be interrupted
by *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce.) and running the *note atexit: c.
functions, the runtime is marked as 'finalizing': *note
Py_IsFinalizing(): 353. and *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8c. return true.
At this point, only the 'finalization thread' that initiated
finalization (typically the main thread) is allowed to acquire the *note
GIL: 159.

If any thread, other than the finalization thread, attempts to acquire
the GIL during finalization, either explicitly via *note
PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8b, *note
PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a4, or ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’, or implicitly
when the interpreter attempts to reacquire it after having yielded it,
the thread enters 'a permanently blocked state' where it remains until
the program exits.  In most cases this is harmless, but this can result
in deadlock if a later stage of finalization attempts to acquire a lock
owned by the blocked thread, or otherwise waits on the blocked thread.

Gross?  Yes.  This prevents random crashes and/or unexpectedly skipped
C++ finalizations further up the call stack when such threads were
forcibly exited here in CPython 3.13.7 and earlier.  The CPython runtime
GIL acquiring C APIs have never had any error reporting or handling
expectations at GIL acquisition time that would’ve allowed for graceful
exit from this situation.  Changing that would require new stable C APIs
and rewriting the majority of C code in the CPython ecosystem to use
those with error handling.


File: python.info,  Node: 고수준 API,  Next: 저수준 API,  Prev: Cautions regarding runtime finalization,  Up: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

7.9.5.5 고수준 API
..................

다음은 C 확장 코드를 작성하거나 파이썬 인터프리터를 내장할 때 가장 일반
적으로 사용되는 형과 함수입니다:

 -- C 자료형: type PyInterpreterState
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e. (as an opaque struct).'  이 자
     료 구조는 여러 협력 스레드가 공유하는 상태를 나타냅니다.  같은 인터
     프리터에 속하는 스레드는 모듈 관리와 몇 가지 다른 내부 항목을 공유
     합니다.  이 구조체에는 공개 멤버가 없습니다.

     다른 인터프리터에 속한 스레드는 사용 가능한 메모리, 열린 파일 기술
     자 등과 같은 프로세스 상태를 제외하고는, 처음에는 아무것도 공유하지
     않습니다.  전역 인터프리터 록은 어떤 인터프리터에 속해 있는지에 관
     계없이 모든 스레드에서 공유됩니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyThreadState
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e. (as an opaque struct).'  This
     data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The only
     public data member is:

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *interp

          This thread’s interpreter state.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_InitThreads ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     아무것도 하지 않는 폐지된 함수.

     파이썬 3.6과 이전 버전에서는, 이 함수가 존재하지 않으면 GIL을 만들
     었습니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이제 이 함수는 아무 작업도 수행하지 않습니다.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.에 의
     해 호출되어서, 여러분은 더는 직접 호출할 필요가 없습니다.

     버전 3.2에서 변경: 이 함수는 더는 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 전에
     호출할 수 없습니다.

     버전 3.9부터 폐지됨.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyEval_SaveThread ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  (만들었다면) 전역 인터프리터 록
     을 해제하고 스레드 상태를 ‘NULL’로 재설정하고, 이전 스레드 상태
     (‘NULL’이 아닙니다)를 반환합니다.  록이 만들어졌다면, 현재 스레드가
     록을 획득했어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_RestoreThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  (만들었다면) 전역 인터프리터 록
     을 획득하고 스레드 상태를 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 하는 'tstate'로 설정합
     니다.  록이 만들어졌다면, 현재 스레드가 이를 획득하지 않았어야 합니
     다, 그렇지 않으면 교착 상태가 발생합니다.

          참고: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even
          if the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to *note
          Cautions regarding runtime finalization: 4db8. for more
          details.

     버전 3.13.7 (unreleased)에서 변경: Hangs the current thread, rather
     than terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyThreadState_Get ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 스레드 상태를 반환합니다.
     전역 인터프리터 록을 보유해야 합니다.  현재 스레드 상태가 ‘NULL’이
     면 치명적인 에러가 발생합니다 (그래서 호출자가 ‘NULL’을 확인할 필요
     가 없습니다).

     See also *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36a.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyThreadState_GetUnchecked ()

     Similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36b, but don’t kill the
     process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible
     to check if the result is NULL.

     Added in version 3.13: In Python 3.5 to 3.12, the function was
     private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyThreadState_Swap (PyThreadState
          *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Swap the current thread state
     with the thread state given by the argument 'tstate', which may be
     ‘NULL’.

     The *note GIL: 159. does not need to be held, but will be held upon
     returning if 'tstate' is non-‘NULL’.

다음 함수는 스레드 로컬 저장소를 사용하며, 서브 인터프리터와 호환되지 않
습니다:

 -- C 함수: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 스레드가 파이썬의 현재 상
     태나 전역 인터프리터 록과 관계없이 파이썬 C API를 호출할 준비가 되
     었는지 확인합니다.  이것은 각 호출이 *note PyGILState_Release():
     3a6.에 대한 호출과 쌍을 이루는 한 스레드에서 원하는 만큼 여러 번 호
     출될 수 있습니다.  일반적으로, 스레드 상태가 Release() 전에 이전 상
     태로 복원되는 한 *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.와 *note
     PyGILState_Release(): 3a6. 호출 간에 다른 스레드 관련 API를 사용할
     수 있습니다.  예를 들어, *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db.와
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8b. 매크로의 정상적인 사용은 허용됩니
     다.

     반환 값은 *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.가 호출되었을 때의 스레드
     상태에 대한 불투명한 “핸들”이며, 파이썬이 같은 상태에 있도록 하려면
     *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a6.로 전달되어야 합니다.  재귀 호출이
     허용되더라도, 이 핸들들은 공유할 수 '없습니다' - *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.에 대한 각 고유 호출은 자신의 *note
     PyGILState_Release(): 3a6.에 대한 호출을 위해 핸들을 저장해야 합니
     다.

     함수가 반환할 때, 현재 스레드는 GIL을 보유하고 임의의 파이썬 코드를
     호출할 수 있습니다.  실패는 치명적인 에러입니다.

          참고: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even
          if the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to *note
          Cautions regarding runtime finalization: 4db8. for more
          details.

     버전 3.13.7 (unreleased)에서 변경: Hangs the current thread, rather
     than terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

 -- C 함수: void PyGILState_Release (PyGILState_STATE)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이전에 획득 한 모든 자원을 해
     제합니다.  이 호출 후에, 파이썬의 상태는 해당 *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5. 호출 이전과 같습니다 (그러나 일반적으로 이
     상태는 호출자에게 알려지지 않아서, GILState API를 사용합니다).

     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.에 대한 모든 호출은 같은 스레드에서
     *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a6.에 대한 호출과 쌍을 이뤄야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 스레드의 현재 스레드 상태를
     가져옵니다.  현재 스레드에서 GILState API가 사용되지 않았으면
     ‘NULL’을 반환할 수 있습니다.  메인 스레드에서 자동 스레드 상태 호출
     (auto-thread-state call)이 수행되지 않은 경우에도, 메인 스레드에는
     항상 이러한 스레드 상태가 있음에 유의하십시오.  이것은 주로 도우미
     /진단 함수입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyGILState_Check ()

     현재 스레드가 GIL을 보유하고 있으면 ‘1’을 반환하고 그렇지 않으면
     ‘0’을 반환합니다.  이 함수는 아무 때나 모든 스레드에서 호출할 수 있
     습니다.  파이썬 스레드 상태가 초기화되었고 현재 GIL을 보유하고 있을
     때만 ‘1’을 반환합니다.  이것은 주로 도우미/진단 함수입니다.  예를 들
     어 콜백 컨텍스트나 메모리 할당 함수에서 유용할 수 있는데, GIL이 잠
     겨 있다는 것을 알면 호출자가 민감한 작업을 수행하거나 그렇지 않으면
     다르게 동작하도록 할 수 있습니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

다음 매크로는 일반적으로 후행 세미콜론 없이 사용됩니다; 파이썬 소스 배포
에서 사용 예를 찾으십시오.

 -- C 매크로: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 매크로는 ‘{ PyThreadState
     *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();’ 로 확장됩니다.  여는 중괄호가
     포함되어 있음에 유의하십시오; 뒤따르는 *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS:
     a8b. 매크로와 일치해야 합니다.  이 매크로에 대한 자세한 내용은 위를
     참조하십시오.

 -- C 매크로: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 매크로는
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }’로 확장됩니다.  닫는 중괄호가 포함
     되어 있음에 유의하십시오; 이전 *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db.
     매크로와 일치해야 합니다.  이 매크로에 대한 자세한 내용은 위를 참조
     하십시오.

 -- C 매크로: Py_BLOCK_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 매크로는
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);’ 로 확장됩니다: 닫는 중괄호가 없는
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8b.와 동등합니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이 매크로는 ‘_save =
     PyEval_SaveThread();’ 로 확장됩니다: 여는 중괄호와 변수 선언이 없는
     *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db.와 동등합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 저수준 API,  Prev: 고수준 API,  Up: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록

7.9.5.6 저수준 API
..................

다음 함수는 모두 *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9. 이후에 호출되어야 합니다.

버전 3.7에서 변경: *note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.는 이제 *note GIL: 159.을
초기화합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *PyInterpreterState_New ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  새 인터프리터 상태 객체를 만듭
     니다.  전역 인터프리터 록을 보유할 필요는 없지만, 이 함수에 대한 호
     출을 직렬화해야 하면 보유할 수 있습니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyInterpreterState_Clear (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  인터프리터 상태 객체의 모든 정
     보를 재설정합니다.  전역 인터프리터 록을 보유해야 합니다.

     인자 없이 *note 감사 이벤트: 18c1.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear’를 발생시킵니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyInterpreterState_Delete (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  인터프리터 상태 객체를 파괴합
     니다.  전역 인터프리터 록은 보유할 필요 없습니다.  인터프리터 상태
     는 *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 41cc.에 대한 이전 호출로 재설
     정되었어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyThreadState_New
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  주어진 인터프리터 객체에 속하
     는 새 스레드 상태 객체를 만듭니다.  전역 인터프리터 록을 보유할 필
     요는 없지만, 이 함수에 대한 호출을 직렬화해야 하면 보유할 수 있습니
     다.

 -- C 함수: void PyThreadState_Clear (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  스레드 상태 객체의 모든 정보를
     재설정합니다.  전역 인터프리터 록을 보유해야 합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수는 이제 ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ 콜백을
     호출합니다.  이전에는, *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 19a7.에서 호출
     했습니다.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: The ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback was
     removed.

 -- C 함수: void PyThreadState_Delete (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  스레드 상태 객체를 파괴합니다.
     전역 인터프리터 록은 보유할 필요 없습니다.  스레드 상태는 *note
     PyThreadState_Clear(): 1628.에 대한 이전 호출로 재설정되었어야 합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (void)

     Destroy the current thread state and release the global interpreter
     lock.  Like *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 19a7, the global
     interpreter lock must be held.  The thread state must have been
     reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1628.

 -- C 함수: *note PyFrameObject: 782. *PyThreadState_GetFrame
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  파이썬 스레
     드 상태 'tstate'의 현재 프레임을 가져옵니다.

     Return a *note strong reference: 336.  Return ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.

     *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17c3.도 참조하십시오.

     'tstate'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  파이썬 스레
     드 상태 'tstate'의 고유한 스레드 상태 식별자를 가져옵니다.

     'tstate'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  파이썬 스레
     드 상태 'tstate'의 인터프리터를 가져옵니다.

     'tstate'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: void PyThreadState_EnterTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Resume them using the *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 74e.
     function.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'
     suspended by the *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 74d. function.

     See also *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b. and *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5. functions.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C 함수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *PyInterpreterState_Get
          (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  현재 인터프리
     터를 가져옵니다.

     현재 파이썬 스레드 상태가 없거나 현재 인터프리터가 없으면 치명적인
     에러를 발행합니다.  NULL을 반환할 수 없습니다.

     호출자는 GIL을 보유해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  인터프리터의
     고유 ID를 반환합니다.  그렇게 하는데 에러가 발생하면 ‘-1’이 반환되
     고 에러가 설정됩니다.

     호출자는 GIL을 보유해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyInterpreterState_GetDict
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.8 이후로.'  인터프리터별
     데이터가 저장될 수 있는 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  이 함수가 ‘NULL’을
     반환하면 예외는 발생하지 않았고 호출자는 인터프리터별 딕셔너리를 사
     용할 수 없다고 가정해야 합니다.

     이것은 확장이 인터프리터별 상태 정보를 저장하는 데 사용해야 하는
     *note PyModule_GetState(): 97d.를 대체하는 것이 아닙니다.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332.
          *PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Return a *note strong reference: 336. to the ‘__main__’ *note
     module object: 4d0c. for the given interpreter.

     호출자는 GIL을 보유해야 합니다.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332.
          *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(*note PyThreadState: 786. *tstate,
          *note _PyInterpreterFrame: 4d4c. *frame, int throwflag)

     프레임 평가 함수의 형.

     'throwflag' 매개 변수는 제너레이터의 ‘throw()’ 메서드에서 사용됩니
     다: 0이 아니면, 현재 예외를 처리합니다.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이제 함수는 'tstate' 매개 변수를 취합니다.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: The 'frame' parameter changed from
     ‘PyFrameObject*’ to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’.

 -- C 함수: *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 76f.
          _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

     프레임 평가 함수를 가져옵니다.

     PEP 523(1) “CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가”를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc
          (PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame)

     프레임 평가 함수를 설정합니다.

     PEP 523(2) “CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가”를 참조하십시오.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyThreadState_GetDict ()
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  확장이 스
     레드별 상태 정보를 저장할 수 있는 딕셔너리를 반환합니다.  각 확장은
     딕셔너리에 상태를 저장하는 데 사용할 고유 키를 사용해야 합니다.  현
     재 스레드 상태를 사용할 수 없을 때 이 함수를 호출해도 됩니다.  이 함
     수가 ‘NULL’을 반환하면, 예외는 발생하지 않았고 호출자는 현재 스레드
     상태를 사용할 수 없다고 가정해야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (unsigned long id, PyObject
          *exc)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Asynchronously raise an
     exception in a thread.  The 'id' argument is the thread id of the
     target thread; 'exc' is the exception object to be raised.  This
     function does not steal any references to 'exc'.  To prevent naive
     misuse, you must write your own C extension to call this.  Must be
     called with the GIL held.  Returns the number of thread states
     modified; this is normally one, but will be zero if the thread id
     isn’t found.  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, the pending exception (if any)
     for the thread is cleared.  This raises no exceptions.

     버전 3.7에서 변경: The type of the 'id' parameter changed from long
     to unsigned long.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_AcquireThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  전역 인터프리터 록을 획득하고
     현재 스레드 상태를 'tstate'로 설정합니다.  'tstate'는 ‘NULL’이 아니
     어야 합니다.  록은 이전에 만들어진 것이어야 합니다.  이 스레드에 이
     미 록이 있으면, 교착 상태가 발생합니다.

          참고: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even
          if the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to *note
          Cautions regarding runtime finalization: 4db8. for more
          details.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3, *note
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a8b. 및 *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5.와 일
     관되도록 갱신되었으며, 인터프리터가 파이널리제이션 하는 동안 호출되
     면 현재 스레드를 종료합니다.

     버전 3.13.7 (unreleased)에서 변경: Hangs the current thread, rather
     than terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a3.는 (스레드가 초기화되지 않았을 때
     조차) 항상 사용할 수 있는 고수준 함수입니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_ReleaseThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  현재 스레드 상태를 ‘NULL’로 재
     설정하고 전역 인터프리터 록을 해제합니다.  록은 이전에 만들어졌어야
     하고 현재 스레드가 보유해야 합니다.  ‘NULL’이 아니어야 하는
     'tstate' 인자는 현재 스레드 상태를 나타내는지 확인하는 데만 사용됩
     니다 — 그렇지 않으면, 치명적인 에러가 보고됩니다.

     *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2.는 (스레드가 초기화되지 않은 경우에
     조차) 항상 사용할 수 있는 고수준 함수입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 인터프리터 지원,  Next: 비동기 알림,  Prev: 스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.6 서브 인터프리터 지원
--------------------------

대부분의 경우, 단일 파이썬 인터프리터만 내장할 것입니다만, 같은 프로세스
, 어쩌면 같은 스레드에서 여러 독립 인터프리터를 만들어야 하는 경우가 있
습니다.  서브 인터프리터는 그렇게 할 수 있도록 합니다.

“메인” 인터프리터는 런타임이 초기화될 때 만들어지는 첫 번째 인터프리터입
니다.  보통은 프로세스에서 유일한 파이썬 인터프리터입니다.  서브 인터프
리터와 달리, 메인 인터프리터는 시그널 처리와 같은 고유한 프로세스 전역 책
임을 갖습니다.  또한 런타임 초기화 동안 실행을 담당하며 일반적으로 런타
임 파이널리제이션 동안 활성 인터프리터입니다.  *note
PyInterpreterState_Main(): 4dc0. 함수는 그것의 상태에 대한 포인터를 반환
합니다.

*note PyThreadState_Swap(): 4a95. 함수를 사용하여 서브 인터프리터 간에 전
환할 수 있습니다.  다음 함수를 사용하여 만들고 파괴할 수 있습니다:

 -- C 자료형: type PyInterpreterConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure a
     sub-interpreter.  Its values are used only in *note
     Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 455. and never modified by the
     runtime.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Structure fields:

      -- C 멤버 변수: int use_main_obmalloc

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter will use its own
          “object” allocator state.  Otherwise it will use (share) the
          main interpreter’s.

          If this is ‘0’ then *note check_multi_interp_extensions: 4dc1.
          must be ‘1’ (non-zero).  If this is ‘1’ then *note gil: 4dc2.
          must not be *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4dc3.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int allow_fork

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support forking the
          process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently
          active.  Otherwise fork is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d6. module still works when
          fork is disallowed.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int allow_exec

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support replacing the
          current process via exec (e.g.  *note os.execv(): 2b2d.) in
          any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active.
          Otherwise exec is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d6. module still works when
          exec is disallowed.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int allow_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: ed.
          module won’t create threads.  Otherwise threads are allowed.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int allow_daemon_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: ed.
          module won’t create daemon threads.  Otherwise daemon threads
          are allowed (as long as *note allow_threads: 4dc6. is
          non-zero).

      -- C 멤버 변수: int check_multi_interp_extensions

          If this is ‘0’ then all extension modules may be imported,
          including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread
          where the sub-interpreter is currently active.  Otherwise only
          multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489(1)) may be
          imported.  (Also see *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters:
          4d1c.)

          This must be ‘1’ (non-zero) if *note use_main_obmalloc: 437d.
          is ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int gil

          This determines the operation of the GIL for the
          sub-interpreter.  It may be one of the following:

           -- C 매크로: PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL

               Use the default selection (*note
               PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL: 4dc9.).

           -- C 매크로: PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL

               Use (share) the main interpreter’s GIL.

           -- C 매크로: PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL

               Use the sub-interpreter’s own GIL.

          If this is *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4dc3. then *note
          PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 437d. must be ‘0’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig
          (PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config)

     새 서브 인터프리터를 만듭니다.  이것은 파이썬 코드 실행을 위한 (거
     의) 완전히 분리된 환경입니다.  특히, 새 인터프리터에는 기본 모듈
     *note builtins: 12, *note __main__: 1. 및 *note sys: d9.를 포함하여
     , 모든 임포트 된 모듈의 개별, 독립 버전을 갖습니다.  로드된 모듈 테
     이블(‘sys.modules’)과 모듈 검색 경로(‘sys.path’)도 별개입니다.  새
     환경에는 ‘sys.argv’ 변수가 없습니다.  새로운 표준 I/O 스트림 파일 객
     체 ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ 및 ‘sys.stderr’을 갖습니다 (단, 같은 하
     부 파일 기술자를 참조합니다).

     The given 'config' controls the options with which the interpreter
     is initialized.

     Upon success, 'tstate_p' will be set to the first thread state
     created in the new sub-interpreter.  This thread state is made in
     the current thread state.  Note that no actual thread is created;
     see the discussion of thread states below.  If creation of the new
     interpreter is unsuccessful, 'tstate_p' is set to ‘NULL’; no
     exception is set since the exception state is stored in the current
     thread state and there may not be a current thread state.

     Like all other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock
     must be held before calling this function and is still held when it
     returns.  Likewise a current thread state must be set on entry.  On
     success, the returned thread state will be set as current.  If the
     sub-interpreter is created with its own GIL then the GIL of the
     calling interpreter will be released.  When the function returns,
     the new interpreter’s GIL will be held by the current thread and
     the previously interpreter’s GIL will remain released here.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other,
     with certain functionality restricted:

          PyInterpreterConfig config = {
              .use_main_obmalloc = 0,
              .allow_fork = 0,
              .allow_exec = 0,
              .allow_threads = 1,
              .allow_daemon_threads = 0,
              .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
              .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
          };
          PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
          PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
          if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
              Py_ExitStatusException(status);
          }

     Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get
     modified.  During initialization the config’s values are converted
     into various *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. values.  A read-only
     copy of the config may be stored internally on the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 8ba.

     확장 모듈은 다음과 같이 (서브) 인터프리터 간에 공유됩니다:

        * 다단계 초기화를 사용하는 모듈의 경우, 예를 들어 *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): ea9, 각 인터프리터에 대해 별도의 모
          듈 객체가 만들어지고 초기화됩니다.  C 수준 정적과 전역 변수만
          이러한 모듈 객체 간에 공유됩니다.

        * 단단계 초기화를 사용하는 모듈의 경우, 예를 들어 *note
          PyModule_Create(): 4d10, 특정 확장이 처음 임포트 될 때, 정상적
          으로 초기화되고, 모듈 딕셔너리의 (얕은) 사본이 저장됩니다.  다
          른 (서브) 인터프리터가 같은 확장을 임포트 할 때, 새 모듈이 초
          기화되고 이 복사본의 내용으로 채워집니다; 확장의 ‘init’ 함수는
          호출되지 않습니다.  따라서 모듈 딕셔너리의 객체는 (서브) 인터
          프리터 간에 공유되어, 원치 않는 동작을 일으킬 수 있습니다 (아
          래 *note 버그와 주의 사항: 4dca.을 참조하십시오).

          이것은 인터프리터가 *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.와 *note
          Py_Initialize(): 8a9.를 호출하여 완전히 다시 초기화된 후 확장
          을 임포트 할 때 일어나는 것과 다름에 유의하십시오; 이 경우, 확
          장의 ‘initmodule’ 함수가 다시 '호출됩니다'.  다단계 초기화와 마
          찬가지로, 이는 C 수준의 정적과 전역 변수만 이러한 모듈 간에 공
          유됨을 의미합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *Py_NewInterpreter (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is essentially just a wrapper
     around *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 455. with a config that
     preserves the existing behavior.  The result is an unisolated
     sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter’s GIL, allows
     fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init
     modules.

 -- C 함수: void Py_EndInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

     Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread
     state.  The given thread state must be the current thread state.
     See the discussion of thread states below.  When the call returns,
     the current thread state is ‘NULL’.  All thread states associated
     with this interpreter are destroyed.  The global interpreter lock
     used by the target interpreter must be held before calling this
     function.  No GIL is held when it returns.

     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. will destroy all sub-interpreters that
     haven’t been explicitly destroyed at that point.

* Menu:

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* 버그와 주의 사항::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: 버그와 주의 사항,  Up: 서브 인터프리터 지원

7.9.6.1 A Per-Interpreter GIL
.............................

Using *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 455. you can create a
sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters,
including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this
isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without
being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others.  Thus a
single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores
when running Python code.  The isolation also encourages a different
approach to concurrency than that of just using threads.  (See PEP
554(1).)

Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that
isolation.  That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable
state without guarantees about thread-safety.  Even objects that are
otherwise immutable (e.g.  ‘None’, ‘(1, 5)’) can’t normally be shared
because of the refcount.  One simple but less-efficient approach around
this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object).
Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings)
can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them *note
immortal: 437c.  In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons,
small integers, and a number of other builtin objects.

If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core
computing without the complications that come with free-threading.
Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences
of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes.

Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated
interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break
isolation) and efficiently.  The runtime and stdlib do not provide any
standard approach to this yet.  A future stdlib module would help
mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools
for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters.

Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/


File: python.info,  Node: 버그와 주의 사항,  Prev: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: 서브 인터프리터 지원

7.9.6.2 버그와 주의 사항
........................

서브 인터프리터(및 메인 인터프리터)는 같은 프로세스의 일부이기 때문에, 그
들 간의 절연이 완벽하지 않습니다 — 예를 들어, *note os.close(): b71.와 같
은 저수준 파일 연산을 사용하면 서로의 열린 파일에 (실수로 혹은 악의적으
로) 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다.  (서브) 인터프리터 간에 확장이 공유되는 방
식 때문에, 일부 확장이 제대로 작동하지 않을 수 있습니다; 이것은 특히 단
단계 초기화나 (정적) 전역 변수를 사용할 때 특히 그렇습니다.  한 서브 인
터프리터에서 만든 객체를 다른 (서브) 인터프리터의 이름 공간에 삽입할 수
있습니다; 가능하면 피해야 합니다.

서브 인터프리터 간에 사용자 정의 함수, 메서드, 인스턴스 또는 클래스를 공
유하지 않도록 특별한 주의를 기울여야 합니다.  이러한 객체에 의해 실행되
는 임포트 연산은 잘못된 (서브) 인터프리터의 로드된 모듈 딕셔너리에 영향
을 미칠 수 있기 때문입니다.  위의 것들에서 접근할 수 있는 객체를 공유하
지 않는 것도 마찬가지로 중요합니다.

Also note that combining this functionality with ‘PyGILState_*’ APIs is
delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread
states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of
sub-interpreters.  It is highly recommended that you don’t switch
sub-interpreters between a pair of matching *note PyGILState_Ensure():
3a5. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a6. calls.  Furthermore,
extensions (such as *note ctypes: 2a.) using these APIs to allow calling
of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken
when using sub-interpreters.


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 알림,  Next: 프로파일링과 추적,  Prev: 서브 인터프리터 지원,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.7 비동기 알림
-----------------

메인 인터프리터 스레드에 비동기 알림을 보내는 메커니즘이 제공됩니다.  이
러한 알림은 함수 포인터와 void 포인터 인자의 형태를 취합니다.

 -- C 함수: int Py_AddPendingCall (int (*func)(void*), void *arg)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  메인 인터프리터 스레드에서 호
     출할 함수를 예약합니다.  성공하면 ‘0’이 반환되고 'func'는 메인 스레
     드에서 호출되기 위해 큐에 추가됩니다.  실패 시, 예외 설정 없이
     ‘-1’이 반환됩니다.

     성공적으로 큐에 넣으면, 'func'는 'arg' 인자를 사용하여 '결국' 메인
     인터프리터 스레드에서 호출됩니다.  정상적으로 실행되는 파이썬 코드
     와 비교할 때 비동기적으로 호출되지만, 다음 두 조건이 모두 충족됩니
     다:

        * *note 바이트 코드: 187. 경계에서;

        * 메인 스레드가 *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148.을 보유하면서 (따
          라서 'func'는 전체 C API를 사용할 수 있습니다).

     'func'는 성공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 예외 설정과 함께 ‘-1’을 반환해야
     합니다.  'func'는 다른 비동기 알림을 재귀적으로 수행하기 위해 중단
     되지 않지만, 전역 인터프리터 록이 해제되면 스레드를 전환하기 위해 여
     전히 중단될 수 있습니다.

     이 함수는 실행하는 데 현재 스레드 상태가 필요하지 않으며, 전역 인터
     프리터 록이 필요하지 않습니다.

     서브 인터프리터에서 이 함수를 호출하려면 호출자가 GIL을 보유해야 합
     니다.  그렇지 않으면, 함수 'func'가 잘못된 인터프리터에서 호출되도
     록 예약될 수 있습니다.

          경고: 이것은 매우 특별한 경우에만 유용한, 저수준 함수입니다.
          'func'가 가능한 한 빨리 호출된다는 보장은 없습니다.  메인 스레
          드가 시스템 호출을 실행 중이라 바쁘면, 시스템 호출이 반환되기
          전에 'func'가 호출되지 않습니다.  이 함수는 일반적으로 임의의
          C 스레드에서 파이썬 코드를 호출하는 데 적합하지 '않습니다'.  대
          신, *note PyGILState API: 4db5.를 사용하십시오.

     Added in version 3.1.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 이 함수가 서브 인터프리터에서 호출되면, 'func' 함
     수는 이제 메인 인터프리터에서 호출되지 않고 서브 인터프리터에서 호
     출되도록 예약됩니다.  이제 각 서브 인터프리터는 자체 예약된 호출 목
     록을 갖습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 프로파일링과 추적,  Next: Reference tracing,  Prev: 비동기 알림,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.8 프로파일링과 추적
-----------------------

파이썬 인터프리터는 프로파일링과 실행 추적 기능을 연결하기 위한 몇 가지
저수준 지원을 제공합니다.  프로파일링, 디버깅 및 커버리지 분석 도구에 사
용됩니다.

이 C 인터페이스를 사용하면 프로파일링이나 추적 코드가 파이썬 수준의 콜러
블 객체를 통해 호출하는 오버헤드를 피하고, 대신 직접 C 함수를 호출할 수
있습니다.  시설의 필수 어트리뷰트는 변경되지 않았습니다; 인터페이스는 추
적 함수를 스레드별로 설치할 수 있도록 하며, 추적 함수에 보고되는 기본 이
벤트는 이전 버전의 파이썬 수준 추적 함수에 보고된 것과 같습니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(*note PyObject: 332. *obj,
          *note PyFrameObject: 782. *frame, int what, *note PyObject:
          332. *arg)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b.  The
     first parameter is the object passed to the registration function
     as 'obj', 'frame' is the frame object to which the event pertains,
     'what' is one of the constants *note PyTrace_CALL: 4dd0, *note
     PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4dd1, *note PyTrace_LINE: 4dd2, *note
     PyTrace_RETURN: 4dd3, *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4dd4, *note
     PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4dd5, *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4dd6, or *note
     PyTrace_OPCODE: 4dd7, and 'arg' depends on the value of 'what':

     'what'의 값                         'arg'의 의미
                                         
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         
     *note PyTrace_CALL: 4dd0.           항상 *note Py_None: 48bc.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4dd1.      *note sys.exc_info(): 684.에서 반환된 예외
                                         정보.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_LINE: 4dd2.           항상 *note Py_None: 48bc.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_RETURN: 4dd3.         호출자에게 반환되는 값, 또는 예외로 인한 것
                                         이면 ‘NULL’.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4dd4.         호출되는 함수 객체.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4dd5.    호출되는 함수 객체.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4dd6.       호출되는 함수 객체.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4dd7.         항상 *note Py_None: 48bc.
                                         

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_CALL

     함수나 메서드에 대한 새 호출이 보고되거나, 제너레이터에 대한 새 항
     목이 보고될 때 *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf. 함수에 대한 'what' 매개 변
     수의 값.  제너레이터 함수에 대한 이터레이터의 생성은 해당 프레임의
     파이썬 바이트 코드로의 제어 전송이 없기 때문에 보고되지 않음에 유의
     하십시오.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION

     예외가 발생했을 때 *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf. 함수에 대한 'what' 매
     개 변수의 값.  콜백 함수는 실행되는 프레임 내에서 바이트 코드가 처
     리된 후 예외가 설정될 때 'what'에 대해 이 값으로 호출됩니다.  이것
     의 효과는 예외 전파로 인해 파이썬 스택이 되감기는 것입니다, 예외가
     전파되어 각 프레임으로 반환할 때 콜백이 호출됩니다.  추적 함수만 이
     러한 이벤트를 수신합니다; 프로파일러에는 필요하지 않습니다.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_LINE

     The value passed as the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc:
     4dcf. function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number
     event is being reported.  It may be disabled for a frame by setting
     *note f_trace_lines: bd8. to '0' on that frame.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_RETURN

     호출이 반환되려고 할 때 *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf. 함수에 대한
     'what' 매개 변수의 값.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_C_CALL

     C 함수가 호출되려고 할 때 *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf. 함수에 대한
     'what' 매개 변수의 값.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

     C 함수에서 예외가 발생했을 때 *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf. 함수에 대한
     'what' 매개 변수의 값.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_C_RETURN

     C 함수가 반환했을 때 *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf. 함수에 대한 'what' 매
     개 변수의 값.

 -- C 변수: int PyTrace_OPCODE

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4dcf.
     functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about
     to be executed.  This event is not emitted by default: it must be
     explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: bd9. to '1'
     on the frame.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_SetProfile (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the profiler function to 'func'.  The 'obj' parameter is passed
     to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python
     object, or ‘NULL’.  If the profile function needs to maintain
     state, using a different value for 'obj' for each thread provides a
     convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The profile function
     is called for all monitored events except *note PyTrace_LINE: 4dd2.
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4dd7. and *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4dd1.

     See also the *note sys.setprofile(): 14c6. function.

     호출자는 *note GIL: 159.을 보유하고 있어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5. but sets the profile function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     호출자는 *note GIL: 159.을 보유하고 있어야 합니다.

     As *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all
     threads.

Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_SetTrace (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the tracing function to 'func'.  This is similar to *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c5, except the tracing function does receive
     line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any
     event related to C function objects being called.  Any trace
     function registered using *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b. will not
     receive *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4dd4, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION:
     4dd5. or *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4dd6. as a value for the 'what'
     parameter.

     See also the *note sys.settrace(): 14c7. function.

     호출자는 *note GIL: 159.을 보유하고 있어야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject
          *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b. but sets the tracing function in
     all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of
     the setting it only on the current thread.

     호출자는 *note GIL: 159.을 보유하고 있어야 합니다.

     As *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41b, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference tracing,  Next: 고급 디버거 지원,  Prev: 프로파일링과 추적,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.9 Reference tracing
-----------------------

Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*PyRefTracer)(*note PyObject: 332.*, int
          event, void *data)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 365.  The first parameter is a Python
     object that has been just created (when 'event' is set to *note
     PyRefTracer_CREATE: 4dda.) or about to be destroyed (when 'event'
     is set to *note PyRefTracer_DESTROY: 4ddb.).  The 'data' argument
     is the opaque pointer that was provided when *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 365. was called.

Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 변수: int PyRefTracer_CREATE

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 4dd9.
     functions when a Python object has been created.

 -- C 변수: int PyRefTracer_DESTROY

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 4dd9.
     functions when a Python object has been destroyed.

 -- C 함수: int PyRefTracer_SetTracer (PyRefTracer tracer, void *data)

     Register a reference tracer function.  The function will be called
     when a new Python has been created or when an object is going to be
     destroyed.  If 'data' is provided it must be an opaque pointer that
     will be provided when the tracer function is called.  Return ‘0’ on
     success.  Set an exception and return ‘-1’ on error.

     Not that tracer functions 'must not' create Python objects inside
     or otherwise the call will be re-entrant.  The tracer also 'must
     not' clear any existing exception or set an exception.  The GIL
     will be held every time the tracer function is called.

     The GIL must be held when calling this function.

Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: *note PyRefTracer: 4dd9. PyRefTracer_GetTracer (void **data)

     Get the registered reference tracer function and the value of the
     opaque data pointer that was registered when *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 365. was called.  If no tracer was
     registered this function will return NULL and will set the 'data'
     pointer to NULL.

     The GIL must be held when calling this function.

Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 고급 디버거 지원,  Next: 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원,  Prev: Reference tracing,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.10 고급 디버거 지원
-----------------------

이 함수들은 고급 디버깅 도구에서만 사용하기 위한 것입니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *PyInterpreterState_Head ()

     인터프리터 상태 객체들의 리스트의 머리에 있는 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *PyInterpreterState_Main ()

     메인 인터프리터 상태 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. *PyInterpreterState_Next
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     인터프리터 상태 객체들의 리스트에서 'interp' 이후의 다음 인터프리터
     상태 객체를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     인터프리터 'interp'와 관련된 스레드 리스트에서 첫 번째 *note
     PyThreadState: 786. 객체에 대한 포인터를 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyThreadState: 786. *PyThreadState_Next (PyThreadState
          *tstate)

     같은 *note PyInterpreterState: 8ba. 객체에 속하는 모든 스레드 객체
     리스트에서 'tstate' 이후의 다음 스레드 상태 객체를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원,  Next: Synchronization Primitives,  Prev: 고급 디버거 지원,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.11 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원
------------------------------

The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local
storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to
support the Python-level thread local storage API (*note
threading.local: 1556.).  The CPython C level APIs are similar to those
offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to
associate a void* value per thread.

이러한 함수를 호출할 때 GIL을 보유할 필요는 '없습니다'; 그들은 자체 록을
제공합니다.

‘Python.h’에는 TLS API 선언이 포함되어 있지 않음에 유의하십시오, 스레드
로컬 저장소를 사용하려면 ‘pythread.h’를 포함해야 합니다.

     참고: None of these API functions handle memory management on
     behalf of the void* values.  You need to allocate and deallocate
     them yourself.  If the void* values happen to be *note PyObject:
     332.*, these functions don’t do refcount operations on them either.

* Menu:

* 스레드별 저장소 (TSS - Thread Specific Storage) API: 스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API.
* 스레드 로컬 저장소 (TLS) API: 스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API,  Next: 스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API,  Up: 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원

7.9.11.1 스레드별 저장소 (TSS - Thread Specific Storage) API
............................................................

TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter.  This API uses a new type *note
Py_tss_t: adc. instead of int to represent thread keys.

Added in version 3.7.

더 보기
.......

“CPython의 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C-API” ( PEP 539(1))

 -- C 자료형: type Py_tss_t

     이 자료 구조는 스레드 키의 상태를 나타내며, 정의는 하부 TLS 구현에
     따라 달라질 수 있으며, 키의 초기화 상태를 나타내는 내부 필드가 있습
     니다.  이 구조체에는 공개 멤버가 없습니다.

     *note Py_LIMITED_API: 54e.가 정의되지 않을 때, *note
     Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4de1.로 이 형의 정적 할당이 허용됩니다.

 -- C 매크로: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT

     이 매크로는 *note Py_tss_t: adc. 변수의 초기화자(initializer)로 확
     장됩니다.  이 매크로는 *note Py_LIMITED_API: 54e.에서 정의되지 않음
     에 유의하십시오.

* Menu:

* 동적 할당::
* 메서드: 메서드<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: 동적 할당,  Next: 메서드<2>,  Up: 스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API

7.9.11.2 동적 할당
..................

*note Py_LIMITED_API: 54e.로 빌드된 확장 모듈에 필요한, 빌드 시점에 구현
이 불투명해서 형의 정적 할당이 불가능한 *note Py_tss_t: adc.의 동적 할당
.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_tss_t: adc. *PyThread_tss_alloc ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  *note
     Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4de1.로 초기화된 값과 같은 상태의 값을 반환하거
     나, 동적 할당 실패 시 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyThread_tss_free (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  Free the
     given 'key' allocated by *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3ff, after
     first calling *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 407. to ensure any
     associated thread locals have been unassigned.  This is a no-op if
     the 'key' argument is ‘NULL’.

          참고: A freed key becomes a dangling pointer.  You should
          reset the key to ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드<2>,  Prev: 동적 할당,  Up: 스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API

7.9.11.3 메서드
...............

이 함수들의 매개 변수 'key'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  또한, 주어진
*note Py_tss_t: adc.가 *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a96.로 초기화되지 않
았으면, *note PyThread_tss_set(): 403.과 *note PyThread_tss_get(): 405.의
동작은 정의되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyThread_tss_is_created (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  주어진 *note
     Py_tss_t: adc.가 *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a96.로 초기화되었으
     면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyThread_tss_create (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  TSS 키 초기화
     에 성공하면 0 값을 반환합니다.  'key' 인자가 가리키는 값이 *note
     Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4de1.로 초기화되지 않으면 동작이 정의되지 않습니
     다.  이 함수는 같은 키에서 반복적으로 호출될 수 있습니다 – 이미 초
     기화된 키에 대해 호출하면 아무런 일도 하지 않으며 즉시 성공을 반환
     합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyThread_tss_delete (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  TSS 키를 삭제
     하여 모든 스레드에서 키와 관련된 값을 잊게 하고, 키의 초기화 상태를
     초기화되지 않음으로 변경합니다.  파괴된 키는 *note
     PyThread_tss_create(): 4a96.로 다시 초기화할 수 있습니다.  이 함수
     는 같은 키에서 반복적으로 호출될 수 있습니다 – 이미 파괴된 키에 대
     해 호출하면 아무런 일도 하지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyThread_tss_set (Py_tss_t *key, void *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  Return a zero
     value to indicate successfully associating a void* value with a TSS
     key in the current thread.  Each thread has a distinct mapping of
     the key to a void* value.

 -- C 함수: void *PyThread_tss_get (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  Return the
     void* value associated with a TSS key in the current thread.  This
     returns ‘NULL’ if no value is associated with the key in the
     current thread.


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API,  Prev: 스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API,  Up: 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원

7.9.11.4 스레드 로컬 저장소 (TLS) API
.....................................

버전 3.7부터 폐지됨: 이 API는 *note 스레드별 저장소 (TSS) API: adb.로 대
체됩니다.

     참고: 이 버전의 API는 ‘int’로 안전하게 캐스트 할 수 없는 방식으로 네
     이티브 TLS 키가 정의된 플랫폼을 지원하지 않습니다.  이러한 플랫폼에
     서, *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fe.는 실패 상태로 즉시 반환되며,
     다른 TLS 함수는 이러한 플랫폼에서 모두 아무런 일도 하지 않습니다.

위에서 언급한 호환성 문제로 인해, 이 버전의 API를 새 코드에서 사용해서는
안 됩니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyThread_create_key ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: void PyThread_delete_key (int key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: int PyThread_set_key_value (int key, void *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: void *PyThread_get_key_value (int key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: void PyThread_delete_key_value (int key)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 함수: void PyThread_ReInitTLS ()
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization Primitives,  Prev: 스레드 로컬 저장소 지원,  Up: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드

7.9.12 Synchronization Primitives
---------------------------------

The C-API provides a basic mutual exclusion lock.

 -- C 자료형: type PyMutex

     A mutual exclusion lock.  The ‘PyMutex’ should be initialized to
     zero to represent the unlocked state.  For example:

          PyMutex mutex = {0};

     Instances of ‘PyMutex’ should not be copied or moved.  Both the
     contents and address of a ‘PyMutex’ are meaningful, and it must
     remain at a fixed, writable location in memory.

          참고: A ‘PyMutex’ currently occupies one byte, but the size
          should be considered unstable.  The size may change in future
          Python releases without a deprecation period.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: void PyMutex_Lock (PyMutex *m)

     Lock mutex 'm'.  If another thread has already locked it, the
     calling thread will block until the mutex is unlocked.  While
     blocked, the thread will temporarily release the *note GIL: 159. if
     it is held.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 함수: void PyMutex_Unlock (PyMutex *m)

     Unlock mutex 'm'.  The mutex must be locked — otherwise, the
     function will issue a fatal error.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Python Critical Section API::


File: python.info,  Node: Python Critical Section API,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

7.9.12.1 Python Critical Section API
....................................

The critical section API provides a deadlock avoidance layer on top of
per-object locks for *note free-threaded: 152a. CPython.  They are
intended to replace reliance on the *note global interpreter lock: 148,
and are no-ops in versions of Python with the global interpreter lock.

Critical sections are intended to be used for custom types implemented
in C-API extensions.  They should generally not be used with built-in
types like *note list: 60b. and *note dict: 256. because their public
C-APIs already use critical sections internally, with the notable
exception of *note PyDict_Next(): 1619, which requires critical section
to be acquired externally.

Critical sections avoid deadlocks by implicitly suspending active
critical sections, hence, they do not provide exclusive access such as
provided by traditional locks like *note PyMutex: 15b.  When a critical
section is started, the per-object lock for the object is acquired.  If
the code executed inside the critical section calls C-API functions then
it can suspend the critical section thereby releasing the per-object
lock, so other threads can acquire the per-object lock for the same
object.

The functions and structs used by the macros are exposed for cases where
C macros are not available.  They should only be used as in the given
macro expansions.  Note that the sizes and contents of the structures
may change in future Python versions.

     참고: Operations that need to lock two objects at once must use
     *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 4de8.  You 'cannot' use nested
     critical sections to lock more than one object at once, because the
     inner critical section may suspend the outer critical sections.
     This API does not provide a way to lock more than two objects at
     once.

Example usage:

     static PyObject *
     set_field(MyObject *self, PyObject *value)
     {
        Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self);
        Py_SETREF(self->field, Py_XNewRef(value));
        Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
        Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

In the above example, *note Py_SETREF: 574. calls *note Py_DECREF: 56a,
which can call arbitrary code through an object’s deallocation function.
The critical section API avoids potential deadlocks due to reentrancy
and lock ordering by allowing the runtime to temporarily suspend the
critical section if the code triggered by the finalizer blocks and calls
*note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2.

 -- C 매크로: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (op)

     Acquires the per-object lock for the object 'op' and begins a
     critical section.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

          {
              PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
              PyCriticalSection_Begin(&_py_cs, (PyObject*)(op))

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION ()

     Ends the critical section and releases the per-object lock.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

              PyCriticalSection_End(&_py_cs);
          }

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (a, b)

     Acquires the per-objects locks for the objects 'a' and 'b' and
     begins a critical section.  The locks are acquired in a consistent
     order (lowest address first) to avoid lock ordering deadlocks.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

          {
              PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
              PyCriticalSection2_Begin(&_py_cs2, (PyObject*)(a), (PyObject*)(b))

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C 매크로: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 ()

     Ends the critical section and releases the per-object locks.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

              PyCriticalSection2_End(&_py_cs2);
          }

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 초기화 구성,  Next: 메모리 관리,  Prev: 초기화 파이널리제이션 및 스레드,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.10 파이썬 초기화 구성
=======================

Added in version 3.8.

Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. and
the *note PyConfig: 3a0. structure.  It can be preinitialized with *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5. and the *note PyPreConfig: 9a9. structure.

There are two kinds of configuration:

   * The *note Python Configuration: 4db0. can be used to build a
     customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.  For
     example, environment variables and command line arguments are used
     to configure Python.

   * The *note Isolated Configuration: 4ded. can be used to embed Python
     into an application.  It isolates Python from the system.  For
     example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is
     left unchanged and no signal handler is registered.

The *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2. function can be used to write a customized
Python program.

*note 초기화, 파이널리제이션 및 스레드: 4da3.도 참조하십시오.

더 보기
.......

PEP 587(1) “파이썬 초기화 구성”.

* Menu:

* Example::
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* PyConfig를 사용한 초기화::
* 격리된 구성::
* 파이썬 구성::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* 다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/


File: python.info,  Node: Example,  Next: PyWideStringList,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.1 Example
--------------

항상 격리 모드에서 실행되는 사용자 정의 파이썬의 예:

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config.isolated = 1;

         /* Decode command line arguments.
            Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         return Py_RunMain();

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) {
             return status.exitcode;
         }
         /* Display the error message and exit the process with
            non-zero exit code */
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyWideStringList,  Next: PyStatus,  Prev: Example,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.2 PyWideStringList
-----------------------

 -- C 자료형: type PyWideStringList

     ‘wchar_t*’ 문자열의 리스트.

     'length'가 0이 아니면, 'items'는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 하고 모든 문자열
     은 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.

     메서드:

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyWideStringList_Append
               (PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item)

          'item'을 'list'에 추가합니다.

          이 함수를 호출하려면 파이썬을 사전 초기화해야 합니다.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyWideStringList_Insert
               (PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t
               *item)

          'item'을 'list'의 'index'에 삽입합니다.

          'index'가 'list' 길이보다 크거나 같으면, 'item'을 'list'에 추
          가(append)합니다.

          'index' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

          이 함수를 호출하려면 파이썬을 사전 초기화해야 합니다.

     구조체 필드:

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. length

          리스트 길이.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t **items

          리스트 항목들.


File: python.info,  Node: PyStatus,  Next: PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyWideStringList,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.3 PyStatus
---------------

 -- C 자료형: type PyStatus

     초기화 함수 상태를 저장하는 구조체: 성공, 에러 또는 종료.

     에러의 경우, 에러를 만든 C 함수 이름을 저장할 수 있습니다.

     구조체 필드:

      -- C 멤버 변수: int exitcode

          종료 코드.  ‘exit()’에 전달된 인자.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *err_msg

          에러 메시지.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *func

          에러를 만든 함수의 이름, ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.

     상태를 만드는 함수:

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyStatus_Ok (void)

          성공.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyStatus_Error (const char
               *err_msg)

          메시지가 포함된 초기화 에러.

          'err_msg' must not be ‘NULL’.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyStatus_NoMemory (void)

          메모리 할당 실패 (메모리 부족).

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyStatus_Exit (int exitcode)

          지정된 종료 코드로 파이썬을 종료합니다.

     상태를 처리하는 함수:

      -- C 함수: int PyStatus_Exception (PyStatus status)

          상태가 에러입니까?  아니면 종료입니까?  참이면, 예외를 처리해
          야 합니다; 예를 들어 *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9bf. 을 호
          출하여.

      -- C 함수: int PyStatus_IsError (PyStatus status)

          결과가 에러입니까?

      -- C 함수: int PyStatus_IsExit (PyStatus status)

          결과가 종료입니까?

      -- C 함수: void Py_ExitStatusException (PyStatus status)

          'status'가 종료이면 ‘exit(exitcode)’를 호출합니다.  'status'가
          에러이면 에러 메시지를 인쇄하고 0이 아닌 종료 코드로 종료합니
          다.  ‘PyStatus_Exception(status)’가 0이 아닐 때만 호출해야 합
          니다.

     참고: 내부적으로, 파이썬은 ‘PyStatus.func’를 설정하는 데는 매크로를
     사용하는 반면, ‘func’가 ‘NULL’로 설정된 상태를 만드는 데는 함수를 사
     용합니다.

예:

     PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size)
     {
         *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size);
         if (*ptr == NULL) {
             return PyStatus_NoMemory();
         }
         return PyStatus_Ok();
     }

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         void *ptr;
         PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
         PyMem_Free(ptr);
         return 0;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyPreConfig,  Next: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyStatus,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.4 PyPreConfig
------------------

 -- C 자료형: type PyPreConfig

     Structure used to preinitialize Python.

     사전 구성을 초기화하는 함수:

      -- C 함수: void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          *note 파이썬 구성: 4db0.으로 사전 구성을 초기화합니다.

      -- C 함수: void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          *note 격리된 구성: 4ded.으로 사전 구성을 초기화합니다.

     구조체 필드:

      -- C 멤버 변수: int allocator

          Name of the Python memory allocators:

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’ (‘0’): don’t change memory
               allocators (use defaults).

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT’ (‘1’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1d58.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG’ (‘2’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1d58. with *note debug hooks: 1d5b.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC’ (‘3’): use ‘malloc()’ of the C
               library.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘4’): force usage of
               ‘malloc()’ with *note debug hooks: 1d5b.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ (‘5’): *note Python pymalloc
               memory allocator: d0c.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘6’): *note Python
               pymalloc memory allocator: d0c. with *note debug hooks:
               1d5b.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ (‘6’): use ‘mimalloc’, a fast
               malloc replacement.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘7’): use ‘mimalloc’, a
               fast malloc replacement with *note debug hooks: 1d5b.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-pymalloc: 1db8.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-mimalloc: 1db7. or if the
          underlying atomic support isn’t available.

          *note 메모리 관리: 4df8.를 참조하십시오.

          Default: ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int configure_locale

          Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale.

          If equals to ‘0’, set *note coerce_c_locale: 4dfa. and *note
          coerce_c_locale_warn: 4dfb. members to ‘0’.

          See the *note locale encoding: 242.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int coerce_c_locale

          If equals to ‘2’, coerce the C locale.

          If equals to ‘1’, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it
          should be coerced.

          See the *note locale encoding: 242.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int coerce_c_locale_warn

          0이 아니면, C 로케일이 강제될 때 경고가 발생합니다.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int dev_mode

          *note Python Development Mode: 1f8.: see *note
          PyConfig.dev_mode: 4dfd.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int isolated

          Isolated mode: see *note PyConfig.isolated: 3de.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int legacy_windows_fs_encoding

          If non-zero:

             * Set *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. to ‘0’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. to ‘"mbcs"’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e3. to
               ‘"replace"’.

          Initialized from the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af.
          environment variable value.

          윈도우에서만 사용 가능합니다.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ 매크로는 윈
          도우 특정 코드에 사용할 수 있습니다.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int parse_argv

          0이 아니면, *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 9c0.와 *note
          Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 9c1.는 일반 파이썬이 명령 줄
          인자를 구문 분석하는 것과 같은 방식으로 ‘argv’ 인자를 구문 분
          석합니다.  *note 명령 줄 인자: ffd.를 참조하십시오.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 5eb.?  See *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int utf8_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.

          Set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ by the *note -X utf8: 176. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: ad5. environment variable.

          Also set to ‘1’ if the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.


File: python.info,  Node: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Next: PyConfig,  Prev: PyPreConfig,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.5 Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig
--------------------------------------------

The preinitialization of Python:

   * Set the Python memory allocators (*note PyPreConfig.allocator:
     4df7.)

   * Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (*note locale encoding: 242.)

   * Set the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650. (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode:
     3e4.)

The current preconfiguration (‘PyPreConfig’ type) is stored in
‘_PyRuntime.preconfig’.

파이썬을 사전 초기화하는 함수:

 -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. Py_PreInitialize (const PyPreConfig
          *preconfig)

     'preconfig' 사전 구성에서 파이썬을 사전 초기화합니다.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv)

     'preconfig' 사전 구성에서 파이썬을 사전 초기화합니다.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (bytes strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4dff. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

     'preconfig' 사전 구성에서 파이썬을 사전 초기화합니다.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (wide strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4dff. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

호출자는 *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9b6.과 *note
Py_ExitStatusException(): 9bf. 을 사용하여 예외(에러나 종료)를 처리해야
합니다.

For *note Python Configuration: 4db0. (*note
PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b4.), if Python is initialized with
command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed
to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the
pre-configuration like encodings.  For example, the *note -X utf8: 176.
command line option enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 650.

‘PyMem_SetAllocator()’는 *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5. 이후에 *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. 이전에 호출하여 사용자 정의 메모리 할당
자를 설치할 수 있습니다.  *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4df7.가
‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’으로 설정되면 *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5. 전
에 호출할 수 있습니다.

Python memory allocation functions like *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.
must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling
directly ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ is always safe.  *note
Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. must not be called before the Python
preinitialization.

Example using the preinitialization to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 650.:

     PyStatus status;
     PyPreConfig preconfig;
     PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig);

     preconfig.utf8_mode = 1;

     status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     /* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */

     Py_Initialize();
     /* ... use Python API here ... */
     Py_Finalize();


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig,  Next: PyConfig를 사용한 초기화,  Prev: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.6 PyConfig
---------------

 -- C 자료형: type PyConfig

     파이썬을 구성하기 위한 대부분의 파라미터를 포함하는 구조체.

     When done, the *note PyConfig_Clear(): 9ac. function must be used
     to release the configuration memory.

     구조체 메서드:

      -- C 함수: void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Python Configuration:
          4db0.

      -- C 함수: void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4ded.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyConfig_SetString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str)

          와이드 문자열 'str'을 ‘*config_str’로 복사합니다.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3d61. if needed.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyConfig_SetBytesString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char *str)

          Decode 'str' using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4. and set the
          result into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3d61. if needed.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyConfig_SetArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 3bd. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of wide character strings.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3d61. if needed.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, char *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 3bd. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of bytes strings.  Decode bytes
          using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc4.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3d61. if needed.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyConfig_SetWideStringList
               (PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t
               length, wchar_t **items)

          와이드 문자열 리스트 'list'를 'length'와 'items'로 설정합니다.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3d61. if needed.

      -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. PyConfig_Read (PyConfig *config)

          모든 파이썬 구성을 읽습니다.

          이미 초기화된 필드는 변경되지 않습니다.

          Fields for *note path configuration: 8aa. are no longer
          calculated or modified when calling this function, as of
          Python 3.11.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 789. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 3bd. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          192f. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3d61. if needed.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: The *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. arguments
          are now only parsed once, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f. is
          set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed, and arguments are only
          parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f. equals ‘1’.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: *note PyConfig_Read(): 789. no longer
          calculates all paths, and so fields listed under *note Python
          Path Configuration: 8aa. may no longer be updated until *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. is called.

      -- C 함수: void PyConfig_Clear (PyConfig *config)

          구성 메모리를 해제합니다.

     Most ‘PyConfig’ methods *note preinitialize Python: 3d61. if
     needed.  In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration
     (*note PyPreConfig: 9a9.) in based on the *note PyConfig: 3a0.  If
     configuration fields which are in common with *note PyPreConfig:
     9a9. are tuned, they must be set before calling a *note PyConfig:
     3a0. method:

        * *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 4dfd.

        * *note PyConfig.isolated: 3de.

        * *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f.

        * *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3.

     Moreover, if *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 9af. or *note
     PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 9b0. is used, this method must be called
     before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration
     depends on command line arguments (if *note parse_argv: 192f. is
     non-zero).

     이 메서드의 호출자는 ‘PyStatus_Exception()’과
     ‘Py_ExitStatusException()’ 을 사용하여 예외(에러나 종료)를 처리해야
     합니다.

     구조체 필드:

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyWideStringList: 9ab. argv

          Set *note sys.argv: 1255. command line arguments based on
          *note argv: 3bd.  These parameters are similar to those passed
          to the program’s ‘main()’ function with the difference that
          the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed
          rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter.  If
          there isn’t a script that will be run, the first entry in
          *note argv: 3bd. can be an empty string.

          Set *note parse_argv: 192f. to ‘1’ to parse *note argv: 3bd.
          the same way the regular Python parses Python command line
          arguments and then to strip Python arguments from *note argv:
          3bd.

          If *note argv: 3bd. is empty, an empty string is added to
          ensure that *note sys.argv: 1255. always exists and is never
          empty.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          See also the *note orig_argv: 890. member.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int safe_path

          If equals to zero, ‘Py_RunMain()’ prepends a potentially
          unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ae. at startup:

             * If *note argv[0]: 3bd. is equal to ‘L"-m"’ (‘python -m
               module’), prepend the current working directory.

             * If running a script (‘python script.py’), prepend the
               script’s directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve
               symbolic links.

             * Otherwise (‘python -c code’ and ‘python’), prepend an
               empty string, which means the current working directory.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -P: 59e. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 59f. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python config, ‘1’ in isolated config.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *base_exec_prefix

          *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e8.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4e04.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *base_executable

          Python base executable: ‘sys._base_executable’.

          Set by the ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable.

          Set from *note PyConfig.executable: 39f. if ‘NULL’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.executable: 39f.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *base_prefix

          *note sys.base_prefix: 3e9.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.prefix: 4e07.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int buffered_stdio

          If equals to ‘0’ and *note configure_c_stdio: 4e08. is
          non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and
          stderr.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -u: 19ab. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19ac. environment variable.

          stdin은 항상 버퍼링 모드로 열립니다.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int bytes_warning

          If equals to ‘1’, issue a warning when comparing *note bytes:
          1c2. or *note bytearray: 538. with *note str: 445, or
          comparing *note bytes: 1c2. with *note int: 257.

          If equal or greater to ‘2’, raise a *note BytesWarning: c20.
          exception in these cases.

          Incremented by the *note -b: 5dd. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int warn_default_encoding

          If non-zero, emit a *note EncodingWarning: 1d45. warning when
          *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b4. uses its default encoding.  See
          *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d5d. for details.

          Default: ‘0’.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int code_debug_ranges

          If equals to ‘0’, disables the inclusion of the end line and
          column mappings in code objects.  Also disables traceback
          printing carets to specific error locations.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5b0. environment
          variable and by the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 176. command
          line option.

          Default: ‘1’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode

          Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files:
          value of the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1d38. command line
          option.

          Valid values:

             - ‘L"always"’: Hash the source file for invalidation
               regardless of value of the ‘check_source’ flag.

             - ‘L"never"’: Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid.

             - ‘L"default"’: The ‘check_source’ flag in hash-based pycs
               determines invalidation.

          Default: ‘L"default"’.

          See also PEP 552(1) “Deterministic pycs”.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int configure_c_stdio

          If non-zero, configure C standard streams:

             * On Windows, set the binary mode (‘O_BINARY’) on stdin,
               stdout and stderr.

             * If *note buffered_stdio: 3d9. equals zero, disable
               buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams.

             * If *note interactive: 3c7. is non-zero, enable stream
               buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows).

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int dev_mode

          0이 아니면, *note 파이썬 개발 모드: 1f8.를 활성화합니다.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -X dev: 176. option and the *note
          PYTHONDEVMODE: aea. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int dump_refs

          Dump Python references?

          0이 아니면, 종료 시 여전히 활성 상태인 모든 객체를 덤프합니다.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a3. environment
          variable.

          Needs a special build of Python with the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro
          defined: see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 38e.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *exec_prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the
          platform-dependent Python files are installed: *note
          sys.exec_prefix: 3ac.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4e03.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *executable

          The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
          interpreter: *note sys.executable: 3b2.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4e05.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int faulthandler

          Enable faulthandler?

          0이 아니면, 시작 시 *note faulthandler.enable(): c9b.을 호출합
          니다.

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X faulthandler: 176. and the *note
          PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1076. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *filesystem_encoding

          *note Filesystem encoding: 535.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56.

          On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default.

          On Windows: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default, or ‘"mbcs"’ if *note
          legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0. of *note PyPreConfig: 9a9. is
          non-zero.

          Default encoding on other platforms:

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. is
               non-zero.

             * ‘"ascii"’ if Python detects that ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
               announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the ‘mbstowcs()’
               function decodes from a different encoding (usually
               Latin1).

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty
               string.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 242.:
               ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ result.

          At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the
          Python codec name.  For example, ‘"ANSI_X3.4-1968"’ is
          replaced with ‘"ascii"’.

          See also the *note filesystem_errors: 3e3. member.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *filesystem_errors

          *note Filesystem error handler: 535.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce3.

          On Windows: use ‘"surrogatepass"’ by default, or ‘"replace"’
          if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0. of *note
          PyPreConfig: 9a9. is non-zero.

          On other platforms: use ‘"surrogateescape"’ by default.

          Supported error handlers:

             * ‘"strict"’

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’

             * ‘"surrogatepass"’ (only supported with the UTF-8
               encoding)

          See also the *note filesystem_encoding: 3e2. member.

      -- C 멤버 변수: unsigned long hash_seed

      -- C 멤버 변수: int use_hash_seed

          무작위 해시 함수 시드.

          If *note use_hash_seed: 3db. is zero, a seed is chosen
          randomly at Python startup, and *note hash_seed: 3dc. is
          ignored.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1073. environment variable.

          Default 'use_hash_seed' value: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in
          isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *home

          Set the default Python “home” directory, that is, the location
          of the standard Python libraries (see *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. input.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int import_time

          0이 아니면, 임포트 시간을 프로파일 합니다.

          Set the ‘1’ by the *note -X importtime: 176. option and the
          *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: af2. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int inspect

          스크립트나 명령을 실행한 후 대화식 모드로 들어갑니다.

          If greater than ‘0’, enable inspect: when a script is passed
          as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive
          mode after executing the script or the command, even when
          *note sys.stdin: 537. does not appear to be a terminal.

          Incremented by the *note -i: 14a3. command line option.  Set
          to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a2. environment variable
          is non-empty.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int install_signal_handlers

          Install Python signal handlers?

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int interactive

          If greater than ‘0’, enable the interactive mode (REPL).

          Incremented by the *note -i: 14a3. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int int_max_str_digits

          Configures the *note integer string conversion length
          limitation: 5ef.  An initial value of ‘-1’ means the value
          will be taken from the command line or environment or
          otherwise default to 4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2283.).  A value of ‘0’
          disables the limitation.  Values greater than zero but less
          than 640 (*note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold:
          438a.) are unsupported and will produce an error.

          Configured by the *note -X int_max_str_digits: 176. command
          line flag or the *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17c4.
          environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode.  4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 2283.) in isolated mode.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int cpu_count

          If the value of *note cpu_count: 4e10. is not ‘-1’ then it
          will override the return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5,
          *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4, and *note
          multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f67.

          Configured by the ‘-X cpu_count=N|DEFAULT’ command line flag
          or the *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 210. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int isolated

          If greater than ‘0’, enable isolated mode:

             * Set *note safe_path: 76c. to ‘1’: don’t prepend a
               potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3ae. at Python
               startup, such as the current directory, the script’s
               directory or an empty string.

             * Set *note use_environment: 3d3. to ‘0’: ignore ‘PYTHON’
               environment variables.

             * Set *note user_site_directory: 3d7. to ‘0’: don’t add the
               user site directory to *note sys.path: 3ae.

             * 파이썬 REPL은 대화식 프롬프트에서 *note readline: ba.을 임
               포트 하지도 기본 readline 구성을 활성화하지도 않습니다.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -I: 95b. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

          See also the *note Isolated Configuration: 4ded. and *note
          PyPreConfig.isolated: 4dfe.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int legacy_windows_stdio

          If non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 1300. instead of
          ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys.stdin: 537, *note
          sys.stdout: ad3. and *note sys.stderr: 937.

          Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c58.
          environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

          윈도우에서만 사용 가능합니다.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ 매크로는 윈
          도우 특정 코드에 사용할 수 있습니다.

          Default: ‘0’.

          See also the PEP 528(2) (Change Windows console encoding to
          UTF-8).

      -- C 멤버 변수: int malloc_stats

          0이 아니면, 종료 시 *note 파이썬 pymalloc 메모리 할당자: d0c.에
          대한 통계를 덤프합니다.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b5d. environment
          variable.

          The option is ignored if Python is *note configured using the
          -without-pymalloc option: 1db8.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *platlibdir

          Platform library directory name: *note sys.platlibdir: 936.

          Set by the *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1947. environment variable.

          Default: value of the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ macro which is set by the
          *note configure -with-platlibdir option: 1d80. (default:
          ‘"lib"’, or ‘"DLLs"’ on Windows).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. input.

          Added in version 3.9.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: This macro is now used on Windows to
          locate the standard library extension modules, typically under
          ‘DLLs’.  However, for compatibility, note that this value is
          ignored for any non-standard layouts, including in-tree builds
          and virtual environments.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *pythonpath_env

          Module search paths (*note sys.path: 3ae.) as a string
          separated by ‘DELIM’ (*note os.pathsep: 1d4c.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONPATH: 1013. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. input.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyWideStringList: 9ab. module_search_paths

      -- C 멤버 변수: int module_search_paths_set

          Module search paths: *note sys.path: 3ae.

          If *note module_search_paths_set: 5e9. is equal to ‘0’, *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. will replace *note
          module_search_paths: 39c. and sets *note
          module_search_paths_set: 5e9. to ‘1’.

          Default: empty list (‘module_search_paths’) and ‘0’
          (‘module_search_paths_set’).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int optimization_level

          컴파일 최적화 수준:

             * ‘0’: Peephole optimizer, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘True’.

             * ‘1’: Level 0, remove assertions, set ‘__debug__’ to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘2’: Level 1, strip docstrings.

          Incremented by the *note -O: db1. command line option.  Set to
          the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1d3b. environment variable value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyWideStringList: 9ab. orig_argv

          The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
          Python executable: *note sys.orig_argv: 83a.

          If *note orig_argv: 890. list is empty and *note argv: 3bd. is
          not a list only containing an empty string, *note
          PyConfig_Read(): 789. copies *note argv: 3bd. into *note
          orig_argv: 890. before modifying *note argv: 3bd. (if *note
          parse_argv: 192f. is non-zero).

          See also the *note argv: 3bd. member and the *note
          Py_GetArgcArgv(): 195d. function.

          Default: empty list.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int parse_argv

          Parse command line arguments?

          If equals to ‘1’, parse *note argv: 3bd. the same way the
          regular Python parses *note command line arguments: ffd, and
          strip Python arguments from *note argv: 3bd.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 789. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 3bd. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          192f. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          버전 3.10에서 변경: The *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. arguments
          are now only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 192f. equals
          to ‘1’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int parser_debug

          Parser debug mode.  If greater than ‘0’, turn on parser
          debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
          options).

          Incremented by the *note -d: 1d39. command line option.  Set
          to the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1d3a. environment variable value.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1f9. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int pathconfig_warnings

          If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to
          log warnings into ‘stderr’.  If equals to ‘0’, suppress these
          warnings.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. input.

          버전 3.11에서 변경: Now also applies on Windows.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the platform
          independent Python files are installed: *note sys.prefix: 3b0.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4e06.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *program_name

          Program name used to initialize *note executable: 39f. and in
          early error messages during Python initialization.

             * On macOS, use *note PYTHONEXECUTABLE: 1d50. environment
               variable if set.

             * If the ‘WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK’ macro is defined, use
               ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable if set.

             * Use ‘argv[0]’ of *note argv: 3bd. if available and
               non-empty.

             * Otherwise, use ‘L"python"’ on Windows, or ‘L"python3"’ on
               other platforms.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8aa. input.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *pycache_prefix

          Directory where cached ‘.pyc’ files are written: *note
          sys.pycache_prefix: 9a1.

          Set by the *note -X pycache_prefix=PATH: 176. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a0. environment
          variable.  The command-line option takes precedence.

          ‘NULL’이면, *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a1.는 ‘None’으로 설정됩
          니다.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int quiet

          Quiet mode.  If greater than ‘0’, don’t display the copyright
          and version at Python startup in interactive mode.

          Incremented by the *note -q: 1d3c. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *run_command

          Value of the *note -c: 5da. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *run_filename

          Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line
          argument without *note -c: 5da. or *note -m: 5db.  It is used
          by the *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2. function.

          For example, it is set to ‘script.py’ by the ‘python3
          script.py arg’ command line.

          See also the *note PyConfig.skip_source_first_line: 4e14.
          option.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *run_module

          Value of the *note -m: 5db. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 9c2.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *run_presite

          ‘package.module’ path to module that should be imported before
          ‘site.py’ is run.

          Set by the *note -X presite=package.module: 176. command-line
          option and the *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 1d46. environment
          variable.  The command-line option takes precedence.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1f9. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int show_ref_count

          Show total reference count at exit (excluding *note immortal:
          437c. objects)?

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X showrefcount: 176. command line option.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1f9. (the ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int site_import

          시작할 때 *note site: c7. 모듈을 임포트 합니까?

          If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and
          the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 3ae. that
          it entails.

          Also disable these manipulations if the *note site: c7. module
          is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1d3e. if
          you want them to be triggered).

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -S: 1198. command line option.

          *note sys.flags.no_site: 686. is set to the inverted value of
          *note site_import: 3cd.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int skip_source_first_line

          If non-zero, skip the first line of the *note
          PyConfig.run_filename: 4dae. source.

          It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of ‘#!cmd’.  This is
          intended for a DOS specific hack only.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -x: 1d42. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *stdio_encoding

      -- C 멤버 변수: wchar_t *stdio_errors

          Encoding and encoding errors of *note sys.stdin: 537, *note
          sys.stdout: ad3. and *note sys.stderr: 937. (but *note
          sys.stderr: 937. always uses ‘"backslashreplace"’ error
          handler).

          Use the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1000. environment variable if
          it is non-empty.

          Default encoding:

             * ‘"UTF-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. is
               non-zero.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 242.

          Default error handler:

             * On Windows: use ‘"surrogateescape"’.

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4.
               is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C” or “POSIX”.

             * ‘"strict"’ otherwise.

          See also *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int tracemalloc

          Enable tracemalloc?

          0이 아니면, 시작 시 *note tracemalloc.start(): 1d43.를 호출합
          니다.

          Set by *note -X tracemalloc=N: 176. command line option and by
          the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d44. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int perf_profiling

          Enable compatibility mode with the perf profiler?

          If non-zero, initialize the perf trampoline.  See *note Python
          support for the Linux perf profiler: 18f. for more
          information.

          Set by *note -X perf: 176. command-line option and by the
          *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. environment variable for
          perf support with stack pointers and *note -X perf_jit: 176.
          command-line option and by the *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT:
          190. environment variable for perf support with DWARF JIT
          information.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 5eb.?

          If equals to zero, ignore the *note environment variables:
          5eb.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -E: 95a. environment variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int user_site_directory

          If non-zero, add the user site directory to *note sys.path:
          3ae.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -s: 1374. and *note -I: 95b. command
          line options.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1375. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int verbose

          Verbose mode.  If greater than ‘0’, print a message each time
          a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in
          module) from which it is loaded.

          If greater than or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file
          that is checked for when searching for a module.  Also
          provides information on module cleanup at exit.

          Incremented by the *note -v: 13ed. command line option.

          Set by the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1d3f. environment variable
          value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyWideStringList: 9ab. warnoptions

          Options of the *note warnings: 112. module to build warnings
          filters, lowest to highest priority: *note sys.warnoptions:
          3aa.

          *note warnings: 112. 모듈은 *note sys.warnoptions: 3aa.를 역순
          으로 추가합니다: 마지막 *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 39a. 항목
          은 가장 먼저 검사되는 ‘warnings.filters’의 첫 번째 항목이 됩니
          다 (가장 높은 우선순위).

          The *note -W: 8c4. command line options adds its value to
          *note warnoptions: 39a, it can be used multiple times.

          The *note PYTHONWARNINGS: ba7. environment variable can also
          be used to add warning options.  Multiple options can be
          specified, separated by commas (‘,’).

          Default: empty list.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int write_bytecode

          If equal to ‘0’, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
          import of source modules.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -B: 1396. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. environment variable.

          *note sys.dont_write_bytecode: 4355.는 *note write_bytecode:
          3d5.의 반전된 값으로 초기화됩니다.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyWideStringList: 9ab. xoptions

          Values of the *note -X: 176. command line options: *note
          sys._xoptions: 1d47.

          Default: empty list.

If *note parse_argv: 192f. is non-zero, *note argv: 3bd. arguments are
parsed the same way the regular Python parses *note command line
arguments: ffd, and Python arguments are stripped from *note argv: 3bd.

The *note xoptions: 39b. options are parsed to set other options: see
the *note -X: 176. command line option.

버전 3.9에서 변경: ‘show_alloc_count’ 필드가 제거되었습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig를 사용한 초기화,  Next: 격리된 구성,  Prev: PyConfig,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.7 PyConfig를 사용한 초기화
-------------------------------

Initializing the interpreter from a populated configuration struct is
handled by calling *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf.

호출자는 *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9b6.과 *note
Py_ExitStatusException(): 9bf. 을 사용하여 예외(에러나 종료)를 처리해야
합니다.

If *note PyImport_FrozenModules(): 2e33, *note PyImport_AppendInittab():
17aa. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17ab. are used, they must be
set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python
initialization.  If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17aa. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17ab.
must be called before each Python initialization.

The current configuration (‘PyConfig’ type) is stored in
‘PyInterpreterState.config’.

프로그램 이름을 설정하는 예:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                     L"/path/to/my_program");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return;

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the
configuration, and then override some parameters.  Note that since 3.11,
many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values
cannot be read from the configuration structure.  Any values set before
initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization:

     PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name before reading the configuration
            (decode byte string from the locale encoding).

            Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                          program_name);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Read all configuration at once */
         status = PyConfig_Read(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Specify sys.path explicitly */
         /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish
            initialization first and then use PySys_GetObject("path") */
         config.module_search_paths_set = 1;
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/stdlib");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/more/modules");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable,
                                     L"/path/to/my_executable");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);

     done:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return status;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: 격리된 구성,  Next: 파이썬 구성,  Prev: PyConfig를 사용한 초기화,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.8 격리된 구성
------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9b3.와 *note
PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9ad. 함수는 시스템에서 파이썬을 격리하는
구성을 만듭니다.  예를 들어, 파이썬을 응용 프로그램에 내장하기 위해.

This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment
variables, command line arguments (*note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. is not
parsed) and user site directory.  The C standard streams (ex: ‘stdout’)
and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged.  Signal handlers are not
installed.

Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine
paths that are unspecified.  Ensure *note PyConfig.home: 3b5. is
specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 구성,  Next: Python Path Configuration,  Prev: 격리된 구성,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.9 파이썬 구성
------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b4.와 *note
PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9ae. 함수는 일반 파이썬처럼 동작하는 사용자
정의된 파이썬을 빌드하기 위한 구성을 만듭니다.

환경 변수와 명령 줄 인자는 파이썬을 구성하는 데 사용되는 반면, 전역 구성
변수는 무시됩니다.

This function enables C locale coercion ( PEP 538(1)) and *note Python
UTF-8 Mode: 650. ( PEP 540(2)) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, *note
PYTHONUTF8: ad5. and *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ad2. environment
variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Path Configuration,  Next: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Prev: 파이썬 구성,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.10 Python Path Configuration
---------------------------------

*note PyConfig: 3a0.에는 경로 구성을 위한 여러 필드가 포함되어 있습니다:

   * 경로 구성 입력:

        * *note PyConfig.home: 3b5.

        * *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1945.

        * *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d1.

        * *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be.

        * *note PyConfig.pythonpath_env: 4e12.

        * 현재 작업 디렉터리: 절대 경로를 얻기 위해

        * (*note PyConfig.program_name: 3be.에서) 프로그램 전체 경로를 얻
          기 위한 ‘PATH’ 환경 변수

        * ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ 환경 변수

        * (윈도우 전용) HKEY_CURRENT_USER와 HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE의
          “SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath” 아래에 있는 레지스트리
          의 응용 프로그램 경로 (여기서 X.Y는 파이썬 버전입니다).

   * 경로 구성 출력 필드:

        * *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4e03.

        * *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4e05.

        * *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4e06.

        * *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4e04.

        * *note PyConfig.executable: 39f.

        * *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5e9, *note
          PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39c.

        * *note PyConfig.prefix: 4e07.

If at least one “output field” is not set, Python calculates the path
configuration to fill unset fields.  If *note module_search_paths_set:
5e9. is equal to ‘0’, *note module_search_paths: 39c. is overridden and
*note module_search_paths_set: 5e9. is set to ‘1’.

It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default
path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output
fields listed above.  A string is considered as set even if it is
non-empty.  ‘module_search_paths’ is considered as set if
‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’.  In this case,
‘module_search_paths’ will be used without modification.

Set *note pathconfig_warnings: 3d1. to ‘0’ to suppress warnings when
calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any
warning).

*note base_prefix: 4e06.나 *note base_exec_prefix: 4e03. 필드가 설정되지
않으면, 각각 *note prefix: 4e07.와 *note exec_prefix: 4e04.의 값을 상속
합니다.

*note Py_RunMain(): 9c2.과 *note Py_Main(): c22.은 *note sys.path: 3ae.를
수정합니다:

   * *note run_filename: 4dae.이 설정되고 ‘__main__.py’ 스크립트를 포함
     하는 디렉터리이면, *note run_filename: 4dae.을 *note sys.path: 3ae.
     앞에 추가합니다.

   * *note isolated: 3de.가 0이면:

        * *note run_module: 4daf.이 설정되면, 현재 디렉터리를 *note
          sys.path: 3ae. 앞에 추가합니다.  현재 디렉터리를 읽을 수 없으
          면 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

        * *note run_filename: 4dae.이 설정되면, 파일명의 디렉터리를
          *note sys.path: 3ae. 앞에 추가합니다.

        * 그렇지 않으면, 빈 문자열을 *note sys.path: 3ae. 앞에 추가합니
          다.

*note site_import: 3cd.가 0이 아니면, *note site: c7. 모듈이 *note
sys.path: 3ae.를 수정할 수 있습니다.  *note user_site_directory: 3d7.가
0이 아니고 사용자의 site-package 디렉터리가 존재하면, *note site: c7. 모
듈은 사용자의 site-package 디렉터리를 *note sys.path: 3ae.에 추가합니다.

다음과 같은 구성 파일이 경로 구성에 사용됩니다:

   * ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   * ‘._pth’ file (ex: ‘python._pth’)

   * ‘pybuilddir.txt’ (유닉스 전용)

If a ‘._pth’ file is present:

   * Set *note isolated: 3de. to ‘1’.

   * Set *note use_environment: 3d3. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note site_import: 3cd. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note safe_path: 76c. to ‘1’.

The ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable is used to set *note
PyConfig.base_executable: 4e05.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Next: 다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API,  Prev: Python Path Configuration,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.11 Py_GetArgcArgv()
------------------------

 -- C 함수: void Py_GetArgcArgv (int *argc, wchar_t ***argv)

     파이썬이 수정하기 전의, 원래 명령 줄 인자를 가져옵니다.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 890. member.


File: python.info,  Node: 다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API,  Prev: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Up: 파이썬 초기화 구성

7.10.12 다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API
---------------------------------------

This section is a private provisional API introducing multi-phase
initialization, the core feature of PEP 432(1):

   * “핵심(Core)” 초기화 단계, “최소한의 파이썬”:

        * 내장형;

        * 내장 예외;

        * 내장과 프로즌 모듈(frozen modules);

        * *note sys: d9. 모듈은 부분적으로만 초기화됩니다 (예를 들어:
          *note sys.path: 3ae.는 아직 존재하지 않습니다).

   * “주(Main)” 초기화 단계, 파이썬이 완전히 초기화됩니다:

        * *note importlib: 77.를 설치하고 구성합니다;

        * *note 경로 구성: 8aa.을 적용합니다;

        * 시그널 처리기를 설치합니다;

        * *note sys: d9. 모듈 초기화를 완료합니다 (예를 들어: *note
          sys.stdout: ad3.과 *note sys.path: 3ae.를 만듭니다);

        * *note faulthandler: 58.와 *note tracemalloc: ff.과 같은 선택적
          기능을 활성화합니다;

        * *note site: c7. 모듈을 임포트 합니다;

        * 등등

비공개 잠정적 API:

   * ‘PyConfig._init_main’: if set to ‘0’, *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. stops at the “Core” initialization
     phase.

 -- C 함수: *note PyStatus: 9aa. _Py_InitializeMain (void)

     “주” 초기화 단계로 이동하여, 파이썬 초기화를 완료합니다.

“핵심” 단계에서는 아무런 모듈도 임포트 하지 않고 ‘importlib’ 모듈이 구성
되지 않습니다: *note 경로 구성: 8aa.은 “주” 단계에서만 적용됩니다.
*note 경로 구성: 8aa.을 재정의하거나 조정하기 위해 파이썬에서 파이썬을 사
용자 정의할 수 있으며, 사용자 정의 *note sys.meta_path: d28. 임포터
(importer)나 임포트 훅 등을 설치할 수 있습니다.

It may become possible to calculate the *note Path Configuration: 8aa.
in Python, after the Core phase and before the Main phase, which is one
of the PEP 432(2) motivation.

“핵심” 단계가 제대로 정의되지 않았습니다: 이 단계에서 무엇을 사용할 수 있
고, 무엇이 그렇지 않아야 하는지는 아직 지정되지 않았습니다.  API는 비공
개이자 잠정적인 것으로 표시됩니다: 적절한 공개 API가 설계될 때까지 언제
든지 API를 수정하거나 제거할 수 있습니다.

“핵심”과 “주” 초기화 단계 사이에서 파이썬 코드를 실행하는 예제:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config._init_main = 0;

         /* ... customize 'config' configuration ... */

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }

         /* Use sys.stderr because sys.stdout is only created
            by _Py_InitializeMain() */
         int res = PyRun_SimpleString(
             "import sys; "
             "print('Run Python code before _Py_InitializeMain', "
                    "file=sys.stderr)");
         if (res < 0) {
             exit(1);
         }

         /* ... put more configuration code here ... */

         status = _Py_InitializeMain();
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 관리,  Next: 객체 구현 지원,  Prev: 파이썬 초기화 구성,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.11 메모리 관리
================

* Menu:

* 개요: 개요<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* 원시 메모리 인터페이스::
* 메모리 인터페이스::
* 객체 할당자::
* 기본 메모리 할당자::
* 메모리 할당자 사용자 정의::
* 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅::
* pymalloc 할당자::
* mimalloc 할당자::
* tracemalloc C API::
* 예: 예<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: 개요<4>,  Next: Allocator Domains,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.1 개요
-----------

파이썬의 메모리 관리에는 모든 파이썬 객체와 데이터 구조를 포함하는 비공
개 힙(private heap)을 수반합니다.  이 비공개 힙의 관리는 '파이썬 메모리
관리자'에 의해 내부적으로 이루어집니다.  파이썬 메모리 관리자는 공유, 세
그먼트 화, 사전 할당 또는 캐싱과 같은 동적 스토리지 관리의 다양한 측면을
처리하는 서로 다른 구성 요소를 가지고 있습니다.

가장 낮은 수준에서, 원시 메모리 할당자는 운영 체제의 메모리 관리자와 상
호 작용하여 비공개 힙에 모든 파이썬 관련 데이터를 저장하기에 충분한 공간
이 있는지 확인합니다.  원시 메모리 할당자 위에, 여러 개의 객체별 할당자
가 같은 힙에서 작동하며 각 객체 형의 특성에 맞는 고유한 메모리 관리 정책
을 구현합니다.  예를 들어, 정수는 다른 스토리지 요구 사항과 속도/공간 절
충을 의미하므로, 정수 객체는 힙 내에서 문자열, 튜플 또는 딕셔너리와는 다
르게 관리됩니다.  따라서 파이썬 메모리 관리자는 일부 작업을 객체별 할당
자에게 위임하지만, 후자가 비공개 힙의 경계 내에서 작동하도록 합니다.

파이썬 힙의 관리는 인터프리터 자체에 의해 수행되며, 사용자는 힙 내부의 메
모리 블록에 대한 객체 포인터를 규칙적으로 조작하더라도, 사용자가 제어할
수 없다는 것을 이해하는 것이 중요합니다.  파이썬 객체와 기타 내부 버퍼를
위한 힙 공간 할당은 이 설명서에 나열된 파이썬/C API 함수를 통해 파이썬 메
모리 관리자의 요청에 따라 수행됩니다.

메모리 손상을 피하고자, 확장 작성자는 C 라이브러리에서 내보낸 함수를 파
이썬 객체에 대해 실행하지 않아야 합니다: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’,
‘realloc()’ 및 ‘free()’.  그렇게 한다면, 서로 다른 알고리즘을 구현하고 다
른 힘에 작동하기 때문에, C 할당자와 파이썬 메모리 관리자 간에 혼합 호출
이 발생하여 치명적인 결과를 초래합니다.  그러나, 다음 예제와 같이 개별 목
적으로 C 라이브러리 할당자를 사용하여 메모리 블록을 안전하게 할당하고 해
제할 수 있습니다:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* I/O 용 */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     ...buf 를 사용하는 I/O 연산을 수행합니다...
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     free(buf); /* malloc 으로 할당했습니다 */
     return res;

이 예에서, I/O 버퍼에 대한 메모리 요청은 C 라이브러리 할당자에 의해 처리
됩니다.  파이썬 메모리 관리자는 결과로 반환되는 바이트열 객체의 할당에만
관여합니다.

그러나 대부분의 경우, 파이썬 힙에서 메모리를 할당하는 것이 좋습니다.  파
이썬 힙은 파이썬 메모리 관리자가 제어하기 때문입니다.  예를 들어, 인터프
리터가 C로 작성된 새로운 객체 형으로 확장될 때 필요합니다.  파이썬 힙을
사용하는 또 다른 이유는 확장 모듈의 메모리 요구에 대해 파이썬 메모리 관
리자에게 '알리고자' 하는 것입니다.  요청된 메모리가 내부적이고 매우 특정
한 목적으로만 사용될 때도, 모든 메모리 요청을 파이썬 메모리 관리자에 위
임하면 인터프리터가 전체 메모리 요구량에 대한 더 정확한 이미지를 갖게 됩
니다.  결과적으로, 특정 상황에서, 파이썬 메모리 관리자는 가비지 수집, 메
모리 압축 또는 기타 예방 절차와 같은 적절한 작업을 트리거 하거나 그러지
않을 수 있습니다.  앞의 예에서와같이 C 라이브러리 할당자를 사용하면, I/O
버퍼에 할당된 메모리가 파이썬 메모리 관리자를 완전히 우회하게 됨에 유의
하십시오.

더 보기
.......

*note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수를 사용하여 파이썬에서 사용하는 메모리
할당자를 구성할 수 있습니다.

*note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b5d. 환경 변수는 새로운 pymalloc 객체 아레나
(arena)가 만들어질 때마다 그리고 종료 시 *note pymalloc 메모리 할당자:
d0c.의 통계를 인쇄하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Allocator Domains,  Next: 원시 메모리 인터페이스,  Prev: 개요<4>,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.2 Allocator Domains
------------------------

All allocating functions belong to one of three different “domains” (see
also *note PyMemAllocatorDomain: 4e26.).  These domains represent
different allocation strategies and are optimized for different
purposes.  The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or
what internal functions each domain calls is considered an
implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can
be found at *note here: 1d58.  The APIs used to allocate and free a
block of memory must be from the same domain.  For example, *note
PyMem_Free(): 140b. must be used to free memory allocated using *note
PyMem_Malloc(): c62.

The three allocation domains are:

   * Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose
     memory buffers where the allocation 'must' go to the system
     allocator or where the allocator can operate without the *note GIL:
     159.  The memory is requested directly from the system.  See *note
     Raw Memory Interface: 4e27.

   * “Mem” domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
     general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be
     performed with the *note GIL: 159. held.  The memory is taken from
     the Python private heap.  See *note Memory Interface: 4e28.

   * Object domain: intended for allocating memory for Python objects.
     The memory is taken from the Python private heap.  See *note Object
     allocators: 4e29.

     참고: The *note free-threaded: 152a. build requires that only
     Python objects are allocated using the “object” domain and that all
     Python objects are allocated using that domain.  This differs from
     the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and
     not a hard requirement.

     For example, buffers (non-Python objects) should be allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62, *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389, or
     ‘malloc()’, but not *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.

     See *note Memory Allocation APIs: 4e2a.


File: python.info,  Node: 원시 메모리 인터페이스,  Next: 메모리 인터페이스,  Prev: Allocator Domains,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.3 원시 메모리 인터페이스
-----------------------------

다음 함수 집합은 시스템 할당자에 대한 래퍼입니다.  이러한 함수는 스레드
안전해서, *note GIL: 148.을 유지할 필요는 없습니다.

*note 기본 원시 메모리 할당자: 1d58.는 다음 함수를 사용합니다:
‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ 및 ‘free()’; 0바이트를 요청할 때
‘malloc(1)’(또는 ‘calloc(1, 1)’)을 호출합니다.

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 함수: void *PyMem_RawMalloc (size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  'n' 바이트를
     할당하고 할당된 메모리를 가리키는 void* 형의 포인터를 반환하거나, 요
     청이 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     0바이트를 요청하면 가능하면 ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(1)’이 대신 호출된 것처
     럼 가능하면 고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반환합니다.  메모리는 어
     떤 식으로든 초기화되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyMem_RawCalloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  크기가 각각
     'elsize' 바이트인 'nelem' 개의 요소를 할당하고 할당된 메모리를 가리
     키는 void* 형의 포인터를 반환하거나, 요청이 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  메모리는 0으로 초기화됩니다.

     0개의 요소나 0바이트 크기의 요소를 요청하면 ‘PyMem_RawCalloc(1,
     1)’이 대신 호출된 것처럼 가능하면 고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반
     환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: void *PyMem_RawRealloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  'p'가 가리키
     는 메모리 블록의 크기를 'n' 바이트로 조정합니다.  내용은 이전과 새
     로운 크기의 최솟값 내에서는 변경되지 않습니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이면, 호출은 ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(n)’과 동등합니다; 'n'이
     0과 같으면, 메모리 블록의 크기는 조정되지만 해제되지는 않고, 반환된
     포인터는 ‘NULL’이 아닙니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이 아닌 한, *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389, *note
     PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b. 또는 *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a.에 대한
     이전 호출에 의해 반환된 것이어야 합니다.

     요청이 실패하면, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.은 ‘NULL’을 반환하고
     'p'는 이전 메모리 영역에 대한 유효한 포인터로 유지됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyMem_RawFree (void *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  'p'가 가리키
     는 메모리 블록을 해제합니다.  'p'는 *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389,
     *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b. 또는 *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a.에
     대한 이전 호출로 반환된 것이어야 합니다.  그렇지 않거나
     ‘PyMem_RawFree(p)’가 앞서 호출되었으면, 정의되지 않은 동작이 일어납
     니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이면, 아무 작업도 수행되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 인터페이스,  Next: 객체 할당자,  Prev: 원시 메모리 인터페이스,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.4 메모리 인터페이스
------------------------

ANSI C 표준에 따라 모델링 되었지만 0바이트를 요청할 때의 동작을 지정한 다
음 함수 집합은 파이썬 힙에서 메모리를 할당하고 해제하는 데 사용할 수 있
습니다.

*note 기본 메모리 할당자: 1d58.는 *note pymalloc 메모리 할당자: d0c.를 사
용합니다.

     경고: 이 함수를 사용할 때는 *note GIL: 148.을 유지해야 합니다.

버전 3.6에서 변경: 기본 할당자는 이제 시스템 ‘malloc()’ 대신 pymalloc 입
니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyMem_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'n' 바이트를 할당하고 할당된 메
     모리를 가리키는 void* 형의 포인터를 반환하거나, 요청이 실패하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     0바이트를 요청하면 ‘PyMem_Malloc(1)’이 대신 호출된 것처럼 가능하면
     고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반환합니다.  메모리는 어떤 식으로든 초
     기화되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyMem_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  크기가 각각
     'elsize' 바이트인 'nelem' 개의 요소를 할당하고 할당된 메모리를 가리
     키는 void* 형의 포인터를 반환하거나, 요청이 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  메모리는 0으로 초기화됩니다.

     0개의 요소나 0바이트 크기의 요소를 요청하면 ‘PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)’이
     대신 호출된 것처럼 가능하면 고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반환합니
     다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: void *PyMem_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가리키는 메모리 블록의 크
     기를 'n' 바이트로 조정합니다.  내용은 이전과 새로운 크기의 최솟값 내
     에서는 변경되지 않습니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이면, 호출은 ‘PyMem_Malloc(n)’과 동등합니다; 그렇지 않
     고 'n'이 0과 같으면, 메모리 블록의 크기는 조정되지만 해제되지는 않
     으며, 반환된 포인터는 ‘NULL’이 아닙니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이 아닌 한, *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62, *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 1028. 또는 *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea3.에 대한 이전
     호출이 반환한 것이어야 합니다.

     요청이 실패하면, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 1028.은 ‘NULL’을 반환하고
     'p'는 이전 메모리 영역에 대한 유효한 포인터로 유지됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyMem_Free (void *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가리키는 메모리 블록을 해
     제합니다.  'p'는 *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62, *note PyMem_Realloc():
     1028. 또는 *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea3.에 대한 이전 호출이 반환한 것
     이어야 합니다.  그렇지 않거나 ‘PyMem_Free(p)’가 앞서 호출되었으면 정
     의되지 않은 동작이 일어납니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이면, 아무 작업도 수행되지 않습니다.

편의를 위해 다음과 같은 형 지향 매크로가 제공됩니다.  'TYPE'이 모든 C형
을 나타냄에 유의하십시오.

 -- C 매크로: PyMem_New (TYPE, n)

     *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.과 같지만, ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ 바이트의
     메모리를 할당합니다.  ‘TYPE*’로 캐스트 된 포인터를 반환합니다.  메
     모리는 어떤 식으로든 초기화되지 않습니다.

 -- C 매크로: PyMem_Resize (p, TYPE, n)

     *note PyMem_Realloc(): 1028.과 같지만, 메모리 블록의 크기는 ‘(n *
     sizeof(TYPE))’ 바이트로 조정됩니다.  ‘TYPE*’로 캐스트 된 포인터를 반
     환합니다.  반환한 후에, 'p'는 새로운 메모리 영역에 대한 포인터이거
     나, 실패하면 ‘NULL’이 됩니다.

     이것은 C 전처리기 매크로입니다; 'p'는 항상 다시 대입됩니다.  에러를
     처리할 때 메모리 손실을 피하려면 'p'의 원래 값을 보관하십시오.

 -- C 함수: void PyMem_Del (void *p)

     *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.와 같습니다.

또한, 위에 나열된 C API 함수를 사용하지 않고, 파이썬 메모리 할당자를 직
접 호출하기 위해 다음 매크로 집합이 제공됩니다.  그러나, 이들을 사용하면
파이썬 버전을 가로지르는 바이너리 호환성이 유지되지 않아서 확장 모듈에서
는 폐지되었습니다.

   * ‘PyMem_MALLOC(size)’

   * ‘PyMem_NEW(type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_FREE(ptr)’

   * ‘PyMem_DEL(ptr)’


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 할당자,  Next: 기본 메모리 할당자,  Prev: 메모리 인터페이스,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.5 객체 할당자
------------------

ANSI C 표준에 따라 모델링 되었지만 0바이트를 요청할 때의 동작을 지정한 다
음 함수 집합은 파이썬 힙에서 메모리를 할당하고 해제하는 데 사용할 수 있
습니다.

     참고: There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these
     allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when
     intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods
     described in the *note Customize Memory Allocators: 4e2f. section.

*note 기본 객체 할당자: 1d58.는 *note pymalloc 메모리 할당자: d0c.를 사
용합니다.

     경고: 이 함수를 사용할 때는 *note GIL: 148.을 유지해야 합니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyObject_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'n' 바이트를 할당하고 할당된 메
     모리를 가리키는 void* 형의 포인터를 반환하거나, 요청이 실패하면
     ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     0바이트를 요청하면 ‘PyObject_Malloc(1)’이 대신 호출된 것처럼 가능하
     면 고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반환합니다.  메모리는 어떤 식으로
     든 초기화되지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: void *PyObject_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.7 이후로.'  크기가 각각
     'elsize' 바이트인 'nelem' 개의 요소를 할당하고 할당된 메모리를 가리
     키는 void* 형의 포인터를 반환하거나, 요청이 실패하면 ‘NULL’을 반환
     합니다.  메모리는 0으로 초기화됩니다.

     0개의 요소나 0바이트 크기의 요소를 요청하면 ‘PyObject_Calloc(1,
     1)’이 대신 호출된 것처럼 가능하면 고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반
     환합니다.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 함수: void *PyObject_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가리키는 메모리 블록의 크
     기를 'n' 바이트로 조정합니다.  내용은 이전과 새로운 크기의 최솟값 내
     에서는 변경되지 않습니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이면, 호출은 ‘PyObject_Malloc(n)’과 동등합니다; 그렇지
     않고 'n'이 0과 같으면, 메모리 블록의 크기는 조정되지만 해제되지 않
     고, 반환된 포인터는 ‘NULL’이 아닙니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이 아닌 한, *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 140c. 또는 *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea4.에 대한
     이전 호출에 의해 반환된 것이어야 합니다.

     요청이 실패하면, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140c.은 ‘NULL’을 반환하
     고 'p'는 이전 메모리 영역에 대한 유효한 포인터로 유지됩니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_Free (void *p)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  'p'가 가리키는 메모리 블록을 해
     제합니다.  이 블록은 *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 140c. 또는 *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea4.에 대한
     이전 호출에 의해 반환된 것이어야 합니다.  그렇지 않거나
     ‘PyObject_Free(p)’가 이전에 호출되었으면 정의되지 않은 동작이 일어
     납니다.

     'p'가 ‘NULL’이면, 아무 작업도 수행되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 메모리 할당자,  Next: 메모리 할당자 사용자 정의,  Prev: 객체 할당자,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.6 기본 메모리 할당자
-------------------------

기본 메모리 할당자:

구성                                이름                     PyMem_RawMalloc        PyMem_Malloc              PyObject_Malloc
                                                                                                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
릴리스 빌드                         ‘"pymalloc"’             ‘malloc’               ‘pymalloc’                ‘pymalloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
디버그 빌드                         ‘"pymalloc_debug"’       ‘malloc’ + 디버그      ‘pymalloc’ + 디버그       ‘pymalloc’ + 디버그
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
pymalloc 없는 배포 빌드             ‘"malloc"’               ‘malloc’               ‘malloc’                  ‘malloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
pymalloc 없는 디버그 빌드           ‘"malloc_debug"’         ‘malloc’ + 디버그      ‘malloc’ + 디버그         ‘malloc’ + 디버그
                                                                                                              

범례:

   * 이름: *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수의 값.

   * ‘malloc’: 표준 C 라이브러리의 시스템 할당자, C 함수: ‘malloc()’,
     ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ 및 ‘free()’.

   * ‘pymalloc’: *note pymalloc 메모리 할당자: d0c.

   * ‘mimalloc’: *note mimalloc memory allocator: 1d5a.  The pymalloc
     allocator will be used if mimalloc support isn’t available.

   * “+ 디버그”: *note 파이썬 메모리 할당기의 디버그 훅: 1d5b. 포함.

   * “Debug build”: *note Python build in debug mode: 1f9.


File: python.info,  Node: 메모리 할당자 사용자 정의,  Next: 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅,  Prev: 기본 메모리 할당자,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.7 메모리 할당자 사용자 정의
--------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 자료형: type PyMemAllocatorEx

     메모리 블록 할당자를 기술하는 데 사용되는 구조체.  구조체에는 다음
     과 같은 필드가 있습니다:

     필드                                                           의미
                                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
     ‘void *ctx’                                                    첫 번째 인자로 전달된 사용자 컨텍스트
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                         메모리 블록을 할당합니다
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)’         0으로 초기화된 메모리 블록을 할당합니다
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)’         메모리 블록을 할당하거나 크기 조정합니다
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)’                              메모리 블록을 해제합니다
                                                                    

     버전 3.5에서 변경: ‘PyMemAllocator’ 구조체의 이름이 *note
     PyMemAllocatorEx: ec4.로 바뀌고 새로운 ‘calloc’ 필드가 추가되었습니
     다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyMemAllocatorDomain

     할당자 도메인을 식별하는 데 사용되는 열거형.  도메인:

      -- C 매크로: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

          함수:

             * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.

             * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.

             * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38a.

             * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38c.

      -- C 매크로: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

          함수:

             * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62,

             * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 1028.

             * *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea3.

             * *note PyMem_Free(): 140b.

      -- C 매크로: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

          함수:

             * *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.

             * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140c.

             * *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea4.

             * *note PyObject_Free(): c63.

 -- C 함수: void PyMem_GetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     지정된 도메인의 메모리 블록 할당자를 가져옵니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyMem_SetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     지정된 도메인의 메모리 블록 할당자를 설정합니다.

     새 할당자는 0바이트를 요청할 때 고유한 ‘NULL’이 아닌 포인터를 반환
     해야 합니다.

     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d59. 도메인의 경우, 할당자는 스레드 안전해
     야 합니다: 할당자가 호출될 때 *note GIL: 148.을 잡지 않습니다.

     For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe:
     the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not
     share a ‘GIL’.

     새 할당자가 훅이 아니면 (이전 할당자를 호출하지 않으면), *note
     PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. 함수를 호출하여 새 할당자 위에 디버그
     훅을 다시 설치해야 합니다.

     See also *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4df7. and *note Preinitialize
     Python with PyPreConfig: 3d61.

          경고: *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 586. does have the following
          contract:

             * It can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5. and
               before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. to install a
               custom memory allocator.  There are no restrictions over
               the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by
               the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the
               allocator to be called without the GIL held).  See *note
               the section on allocator domains: 4e25. for more
               information.

             * If called after Python has finish initializing (after
               *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. has been called)
               the allocator 'must' wrap the existing allocator.
               Substituting the current allocator for some other
               arbitrary one is 'not supported'.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: All allocators must be thread-safe.

 -- C 함수: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (void)

     Setup *note debug hooks in the Python memory allocators: 1d5b. to
     detect memory errors.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅,  Next: pymalloc 할당자,  Prev: 메모리 할당자 사용자 정의,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.8 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅
---------------------------------------

When *note Python is built in debug mode: 1f9, the *note
PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. function is called at the *note Python
preinitialization: 3d61. to setup debug hooks on Python memory
allocators to detect memory errors.

*note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. 환경 변수를 사용하여 릴리스 모드에서 컴파일된 파
이썬에 디버그 훅을 설치할 수 있습니다 (예: ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’).

The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. function can be used to set
debug hooks after calling *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 586.

이 디버그 훅은 동적으로 할당된 메모리 블록을 특수하고, 인식 가능한 비트
패턴으로 채웁니다.  새로 할당된 메모리는 바이트
‘0xCD’(‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’)로 채워지고, 해제된 메모리는 바이트
‘0xDD’(‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’)로 채워집니다.  메모리 블록은 바이트 ‘0xFD’
(‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’)로 채워진 “금지된 바이트”로 둘러싸입니다.  이 바
이트들의 문자열은 유효한 주소, 부동 소수점 또는 ASCII 문자열일 가능성이
낮습니다.

실행 시간 검사:

   - API 위반 탐지.  예를 들어, *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.이 할당한 메모
     리 블록에 *note PyObject_Free(): c63.가 호출되었는지 탐지합니다.

   - 버퍼 시작 전에 쓰기 감지 (버퍼 언더플로).

   - 버퍼 끝 뒤에 쓰기 감지 (버퍼 오버플로).

   - *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64.(예: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.)와
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.(예: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62.) 도메인
     의 할당자 함수가 호출될 때 *note GIL: 148.이 유지되는지 확인.

에러가 발생하면, 디버그 훅은 *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈을 사용하여 메모
리 블록이 할당된 곳의 트레이스백을 가져옵니다.  *note tracemalloc: ff.이
파이썬 메모리 할당을 추적 중이고 메모리 블록이 추적될 때만 트레이스백이
표시됩니다.

Let 'S' = ‘sizeof(size_t)’.  ‘2*S’ bytes are added at each end of each
block of 'N' bytes requested.  The memory layout is like so, where p
represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like
function (‘p[i:j]’ means the slice of bytes from ‘*(p+i)’ inclusive up
to ‘*(p+j)’ exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices
differs from a Python slice):

‘p[-2*S:-S]’

     Number of bytes originally asked for.  This is a size_t, big-endian
     (easier to read in a memory dump).

‘p[-S]’

     API identifier (ASCII character):

        * ‘'r'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d59.

        * ‘'m'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.

        * ‘'o'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64.

‘p[-S+1:0]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and
     reads.

‘p[0:N]’

     The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used
     to catch reference to uninitialized memory.  When a realloc-like
     function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess
     bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like
     function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to
     catch reference to freed memory.  When a realloc- like function is
     called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are
     also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

‘p[N:N+S]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and
     reads.

‘p[N+S:N+2*S]’

     Only used if the ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ macro is defined (not
     defined by default).

     A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or
     realloc-like function.  Big-endian ‘size_t’.  If “bad memory” is
     detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a
     breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this
     block was passed out.  The static function bumpserialno() in
     obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and
     exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the
PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact.  If they’ve been
altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is
aborted via Py_FatalError().  The other main failure mode is provoking a
memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and
tries to use it as an address.  If you get in a debugger then and look
at the object, you’re likely to see that it’s entirely filled with
PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE
(meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

버전 3.6에서 변경: *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c67. 함수는 이제 릴리
스 모드에서 컴파일된 파이썬에서도 작동합니다.  에러가 발생하면, 디버그 훅
은 이제 *note tracemalloc: ff.을 사용하여 메모리 블록이 할당된 곳의 트레
이스백을 가져옵니다.  또한 디버그 훅은 이제 *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ:
c64.와 *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66. 도메인의 함수가 호출될 때 GIL을 잡는
지 확인합니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: 바이트 패턴 ‘0xCB’(‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’),
‘0xDB’(‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’) 및 ‘0xFB’(‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’)는 윈도우 CRT 디
버그 ‘malloc()’ 및 ‘free()’와 같은 값을 사용하도록 ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ 및
‘0xFD’로 대체되었습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: pymalloc 할당자,  Next: mimalloc 할당자,  Prev: 파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.9 pymalloc 할당자
----------------------

파이썬에는 수명이 짧은 작은 (512바이트 이하) 객체에 최적화된 'pymalloc'
할당자가 있습니다.  32-비트 플랫폼에서는 256 KiB, 64-비트 플랫폼에서는 1
MiB의 고정 크기를 갖는 “아레나(arena)”라는 메모리 매핑을 사용합니다.
512 바이트보다 큰 할당의 경우 *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 389.과 *note
PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38b.으로 대체됩니다.

'pymalloc'은 *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c66.(예: *note PyMem_Malloc():
c62.)과 *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c64.(예: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.)
도메인의 *note 기본 할당자: 1d58.입니다.

아레나 할당자는 다음 함수를 사용합니다:

   * 윈도우에서 ‘VirtualAlloc()’과 ‘VirtualFree()’,

   * 사용할 수 있으면 ‘mmap()’과 ‘munmap()’

   * 그렇지 않으면 ‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the *note
-without-pymalloc: 1db8. option.  It can also be disabled at runtime
using the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c61. environment variable (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’).

Typically, it makes sense to disable the pymalloc allocator when
building Python with AddressSanitizer (*note -with-address-sanitizer:
1dc0.) which helps uncover low level bugs within the C code.

* Menu:

* pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의::


File: python.info,  Node: pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의,  Up: pymalloc 할당자

7.11.9.1 pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의
...........................................

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C 자료형: type PyObjectArenaAllocator

     아레나 할당자를 기술하는 데 사용되는 구조체.  이 구조체에는 세 개의
     필드가 있습니다:

     필드                                                   의미
                                                            
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
     ‘void *ctx’                                            첫 번째 인자로 전달된 사용자 컨텍스트
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                  size 바이트의 아레나를 할당합니다
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)’         아레나를 해제합니다
                                                            

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     아레나 할당자를 얻습니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     아레나 할당자를 설정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: mimalloc 할당자,  Next: tracemalloc C API,  Prev: pymalloc 할당자,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.10 mimalloc 할당자
-----------------------

Added in version 3.13.

Python supports the mimalloc allocator when the underlying platform
support is available.  mimalloc “is a general purpose allocator with
excellent performance characteristics.  Initially developed by Daan
Leijen for the runtime systems of the Koka and Lean languages.”


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc C API,  Next: 예<18>,  Prev: mimalloc 할당자,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.11 tracemalloc C API
-------------------------

Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 함수: int PyTraceMalloc_Track (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr,
          size_t size)

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈에서 할당된 메모리 블록을 추적합니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러가 발생하면 (추적을 저장하기 위한 메모
     리를 할당하지 못했습니다) ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  tracemalloc이 비활성
     화되었으면 ‘-2’를 반환합니다.

     메모리 블록이 이미 추적되면, 기존 추적을 갱신합니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t
          ptr)

     *note tracemalloc: ff. 모듈에서 할당된 메모리 블록을 추적 해제합니
     다.  블록이 추적되지 않으면 아무것도 하지 않습니다.

     tracemalloc이 비활성화되었으면 ‘-2’를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘0’을
     반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예<18>,  Prev: tracemalloc C API,  Up: 메모리 관리

7.11.12 예
----------

다음은 *note 개요: 4e22. 섹션에서 따온 예제입니다.  I/O 버퍼가 첫 번째 함
수 집합을 사용하여 파이썬 힙에서 할당되도록 다시 작성되었습니다:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* I/O 용 */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...buf 를 사용하는 I/O 연산을 수행합니다... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Free(buf); /* PyMem_Malloc 으로 할당했습니다 */
     return res;

형 지향 함수 집합을 사용하는 같은 코드입니다:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* I/O 용 */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...buf 를 사용하는 I/O 연산을 수행합니다... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Del(buf); /* PyMem_New 로 할당했습니다 */
     return res;

위의 두 가지 예에서, 버퍼는 항상 같은 집합에 속하는 함수를 통해 조작됨에
유의하십시오.  실제로, 서로 다른 할당자를 혼합할 위험이 최소로 줄어들도
록, 주어진 메모리 블록에 대해 같은 메모리 API 패밀리를 사용하는 것은 필
수입니다 .  다음 코드 시퀀스에는 두 개의 에러가 있으며, 그중 하나는 서로
다른 힙에서 작동하는 두 개의 다른 할당자를 혼합하기 때문에 '치명적
(fatal)'인 것으로 표시됩니다.

     char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
     char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
     char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
     ...
     PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* 잘못되었습니다 -- PyMem_Free() 이어야 합니다 */
     free(buf2);       /* 올바릅니다 -- malloc() 으로 할당되었습니다 */
     free(buf1);       /* 치명적입니다 -- PyMem_Del() 이어야 합니다 */

파이썬 힙에서 원시 메모리 블록을 처리하기 위한 함수 외에도, 파이썬의 객
체는 *note PyObject_New: 982, *note PyObject_NewVar: 983. 및 *note
PyObject_Del(): 1499.로 할당되고 해제됩니다.

이것들은 C로 새로운 객체 형을 정의하고 구현하는 것에 대한 다음 장에서 설
명될 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 구현 지원,  Next: API와 ABI 버전 붙이기,  Prev: 메모리 관리,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.12 객체 구현 지원
===================

이 장에서는 새 객체 형을 정의할 때 사용되는 함수, 형 및 매크로에 관해 설
명합니다.

* Menu:

* 힙에 객체 할당하기::
* 공통 객체 구조체::
* Type Object Structures::
* 순환 가비지 수집 지원::


File: python.info,  Node: 힙에 객체 할당하기,  Next: 공통 객체 구조체,  Up: 객체 구현 지원

7.12.1 힙에 객체 할당하기
-------------------------

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *_PyObject_New (PyTypeObject *type)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyVarObject: 4152. *_PyObject_NewVar (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     '반환값: 새 참조.'

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyObject_Init (PyObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  새로 할당
     된 객체 'op'를 형과 초기 참조로 초기화합니다.  초기화된 객체를 반환
     합니다.  객체의 다른 필드는 영향을 받지 않습니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyVarObject: 4152. *PyObject_InitVar (PyVarObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은
     *note PyObject_Init(): a68.가 수행하는 모든 작업을 수행하고, 가변 크
     기 객체의 길이 정보도 초기화합니다.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     C 구조체 형 'TYPE'과 파이썬 형 객체 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’) 를
     사용하여 새로운 파이썬 객체를 할당합니다.  파이썬 객체 헤더로 정의
     되지 않은 필드는 초기화되지 않습니다.  호출자는 객체에 대한 유일한
     참조를 소유하게 됩니다 (즉, 객체의 참조 횟수는 1이 됩니다).  메모리
     할당의 크기는 형 객체의 *note tp_basicsize: 984. 필드에서 결정됩니
     다.

     Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. set.  For such objects, use *note
     PyObject_GC_New(): a9f. instead.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     C 구조체 형 'TYPE'과 파이썬 타입 형 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’) 를
     사용하여 새로운 파이썬 객체를 할당합니다.  파이썬 객체 헤더로 정의
     되지 않은 필드는 초기화되지 않습니다.  할당된 메모리는 'TYPE' 구조
     체에 더해 'typeobj'의 *note tp_itemsize: 1f78. 필드에 의해 주어진 크
     기의 'size' (‘Py_ssize_t’) 필드를 허용합니다.  이는 튜플과 같은 객
     체를 구현할 때 유용합니다.  튜플은 만들 때 크기를 결정할 수 있습니
     다.  같은 할당에 필드 배열을 포함 시키면, 할당 횟수가 줄어들어, 메
     모리 관리 효율성이 향상됩니다.

     Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. set.  For such objects, use *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa0. instead.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_Del (void *op)

     *note PyObject_New: 982. 나 *note PyObject_NewVar: 983.를 사용한 객
     체에 할당된 메모리를 해제합니다.  이것은 일반적으로 객체의 형에 지
     정된 *note tp_dealloc: 48da. 처리기에서 호출됩니다.  메모리가 더는
     유효한 파이썬 객체가 아니므로, 이 호출 후에는 객체의 필드에 액세스
     해서는 안 됩니다.

 -- C 변수: *note PyObject: 332. _Py_NoneStruct

     파이썬에서 ‘None’으로 노출되는 객체.  이 객체에 대한 포인터로 평가
     되는 *note Py_None: 48bc. 매크로를 사용해서 액세스해야 합니다.

더 보기
.......

*note 모듈 객체: 4d0c.

     확장 모듈을 할당하고 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 공통 객체 구조체,  Next: Type Object Structures,  Prev: 힙에 객체 할당하기,  Up: 객체 구현 지원

7.12.2 공통 객체 구조체
-----------------------

파이썬의 객체 형 정의에 사용되는 많은 구조체가 있습니다.  이 섹션에서는
이러한 구조체와 사용 방법에 관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 기본 객체 형과 매크로::
* 함수와 메서드 구현::
* 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스::


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 객체 형과 매크로,  Next: 함수와 메서드 구현,  Up: 공통 객체 구조체

7.12.2.1 기본 객체 형과 매크로
..............................

모든 파이썬 객체는 궁극적으로 객체의 메모리 표현의 처음에서 적은 수의 필
드를 공유합니다.  이들은 *note PyObject: 332.와 *note PyVarObject: 4152.
형으로 표시되며, 다른 모든 파이썬 객체의 정의에서, 직접 또는 간접적으로,
사용되는 일부 매크로의 확장을 통해 정의됩니다.  추가 매크로는 *note 참조
횟수: 4b2f.에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyObject
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e.  (Only some members are part
     of the stable ABI.)' 모든 객체 형은 이 형의 확장입니다.  이것은 파
     이썬이 객체에 대한 포인터를 객체로 취급하는 데 필요한 정보를 포함하
     는 형입니다.  일반적인 “릴리스” 빌드에는, 객체의 참조 횟수와 해당 형
     객체에 대한 포인터만 포함됩니다.  실제로 *note PyObject: 332.로 선
     언된 것은 없지만, 파이썬 객체에 대한 모든 포인터를 *note PyObject:
     332.*로 캐스트 할 수 있습니다.  *note Py_REFCNT: 8a6.와 *note
     Py_TYPE: 779. 매크로를 사용하여 멤버에 액세스해야 합니다.

 -- C 자료형: type PyVarObject
     ' Part of the *note 제한된 API: 54e.  (Only some members are part
     of the stable ABI.)' 이것은 *note ob_size: 4add. 필드를 추가하는
     *note PyObject: 332.의 확장입니다.  이것은 '길이'라는 개념을 가진 객
     체에만 사용됩니다.  이 형은 종종 파이썬/C API에 나타나지 않습니다.
     *note Py_REFCNT: 8a6, *note Py_TYPE: 779. 및 *note Py_SIZE: 77b. 매
     크로를 사용하여 멤버에 액세스해야 합니다.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_HEAD

     길이가 변하지 않는 객체를 나타내는 새로운 형을 선언할 때 사용되는 매
     크로입니다.  PyObject_HEAD 매크로는 다음과 같이 확장됩니다:

          PyObject ob_base;

     위의 *note PyObject: 332. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_VAR_HEAD

     인스턴스마다 길이가 다른 객체를 나타내는 새로운 형을 선언할 때 사용
     되는 매크로입니다.  PyObject_VAR_HEAD 매크로는 다음과 같이 확장됩니
     다:

          PyVarObject ob_base;

     위의 *note PyVarObject: 4152. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. PyBaseObject_Type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  The base class of all other
     objects, the same as *note object: a89. in Python.

 -- C 함수: int Py_Is (PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Test if the
     'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int Py_IsNone (PyObject *x)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Test if an
     object is the ‘None’ singleton, the same as ‘x is None’ in Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int Py_IsTrue (PyObject *x)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Test if an
     object is the ‘True’ singleton, the same as ‘x is True’ in Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int Py_IsFalse (PyObject *x)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Test if an
     object is the ‘False’ singleton, the same as ‘x is False’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. *Py_TYPE (PyObject *o)
     '반환값: 빌린 참조.'  Get the type of the Python object 'o'.

     Return a *note borrowed reference: 337.

     Use the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 77a. function to set an object type.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note Py_TYPE(): 779. is changed to an inline
     static function.  The parameter type is no longer const *note
     PyObject: 332.*.

 -- C 함수: int Py_IS_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     객체 'o'의 형이 'type'이면 0이 아닌 값을 반환합니다.  그렇지 않으면
     0을 반환합니다.  ‘Py_TYPE(o) == type’과 동등합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: void Py_SET_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     객체 'o'의 형을 'type'으로 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. Py_SIZE (PyVarObject *o)

     Get the size of the Python object 'o'.

     Use the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c. function to set an object size.

     버전 3.11에서 변경: *note Py_SIZE(): 77b. is changed to an inline
     static function.  The parameter type is no longer const *note
     PyVarObject: 4152.*.

 -- C 함수: void Py_SET_SIZE (PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)

     객체 'o'의 크기를 'size'로 설정합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_HEAD_INIT (type)

     이것은 새로운 *note PyObject: 332. 형의 초기화 값으로 확장되는 매크
     로입니다.  이 매크로는 다음으로 확장됩니다:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type,

 -- C 매크로: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (type, size)

     이것은 *note ob_size: 4add. 필드를 포함하여, 새로운 *note
     PyVarObject: 4152. 형의 초기화 값으로 확장되는 매크로입니다.  이 매
     크로는 다음으로 확장됩니다:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type, size,


File: python.info,  Node: 함수와 메서드 구현,  Next: 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스,  Prev: 기본 객체 형과 매크로,  Up: 공통 객체 구조체

7.12.2.2 함수와 메서드 구현
...........................

 -- C 자료형: type PyCFunction
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  대부분 파이썬 콜러블을 C로 구
     현하는 데 사용되는 함수 형.  이 형의 함수는 두 개의 *note PyObject:
     332.* 매개 변수를 취하고 하나의 값을 반환합니다.  반환 값이 'NULL'이
     면, 예외가 설정되어 있어야 합니다.  ‘NULL’이 아니면, 반환 값은 파이
     썬에 노출된 함수의 반환 값으로 해석됩니다.  함수는 새로운 참조를 반
     환해야 합니다.

     함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                                PyObject *args);

 -- C 자료형: type PyCFunctionWithKeywords
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  서명이 *note METH_VARARGS |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 4e4b. 인 파이썬 콜러블을 C로 구현하는 데 사용되는 함
     수 형.  함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                            PyObject *args,
                                            PyObject *kwargs);

 -- C 자료형: type PyCFunctionFast
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  서명이 *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 162e. 인 파이썬 콜러블을 C로 구현하는 데 사용되는 함
     수 형.  함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                                    PyObject *const *args,
                                    Py_ssize_t nargs);

 -- C 자료형: type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.13 이후로.'  서명이 *note
     METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e4c. 인 파이썬 콜러블을 C로 구현하
     는 데 사용되는 함수 형.  함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                                PyObject *const *args,
                                                Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                                PyObject *kwnames);

 -- C 자료형: type PyCMethod

     서명이 *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1695. 인
     파이썬 콜러블을 C로 구현하는 데 사용되는 함수 형.  함수 서명은 다음
     과 같습니다:

          PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                              PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                              PyObject *const *args,
                              Py_ssize_t nargs,
                              PyObject *kwnames)

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 자료형: type PyMethodDef
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  확장
     형의 메서드를 기술하는 데 사용되는 구조체.  이 구조체에는 네 개의 필
     드가 있습니다:

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *ml_name

          메서드의 이름.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyCFunction: 143d. ml_meth

          C 구현에 대한 포인터.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int ml_flags

          호출 구성 방법을 나타내는 플래그 비트.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *ml_doc

          독스트링의 내용을 가리킵니다.

*note ml_meth: 4e4d.는 C 함수 포인터입니다.  함수는 형이 다를 수 있지만,
항상 *note PyObject: 332.*를 반환합니다.  함수가 *note PyCFunction:
143d.이 아니면, 컴파일러는 메서드 테이블에서 캐스트를 요구합니다.  *note
PyCFunction: 143d.이 첫 번째 매개 변수를 *note PyObject: 332.*로 정의하
더라도, 일반적으로 메서드 구현은 'self' 객체의 특정 C 형을 사용합니다.

*note ml_flags: 4e4e. 필드는 다음 플래그를 포함 할 수 있는 비트 필드입니
다.  개별 플래그는 호출 규칙이나 바인딩 규칙을 나타냅니다.

다음과 같은 호출 규칙이 있습니다:

 -- C 매크로: METH_VARARGS

     이는 메서드가 *note PyCFunction: 143d. 형인 일반적인 호출 규칙입니
     다.  함수는 두 개의 *note PyObject: 332.* 값을 기대합니다.  첫 번째
     는 메서드의 'self' 객체입니다; 모듈 함수의 경우, 모듈 객체입니다.  두
     번째 매개 변수(종종 'args'라고 합니다)는 모든 인자를 나타내는 튜플
     객체입니다.  이 매개 변수는 일반적으로 *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     56c.이나 *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14cf.을 사용하여 처리됩니다.

 -- C 매크로: METH_KEYWORDS

     Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e4b, *note METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 4e4c. and *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 1695.

*note METH_VARARGS: 14d1. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bf.

     이러한 플래그가 있는 메서드는 *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 4979.
     형이어야 합니다.  이 함수는 세 개의 매개 변수를 기대합니다: 'self',
     'args', 'kwargs'.  여기서 'kwargs'는 모든 키워드 인자의 딕셔너리이
     거나 키워드 인자가 없으면 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.  매개 변수는 일반적
     으로 *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37c.를 사용하여 처리됩니
     다.

 -- C 매크로: METH_FASTCALL

     위치 인자만 지원하는 빠른 호출 규칙.  메서드의 형은 *note
     PyCFunctionFast: 4977. 입니다.  첫 번째 매개 변수는 'self'이고, 두
     번째 매개 변수는 인자를 나타내는 *note PyObject: 332.* 값의 C 배열
     이며, 세 번째 매개 변수는 인자 수(배열의 길이)입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

     버전 3.10에서 변경: ‘METH_FASTCALL’은 이제 *note 안정 API: 495e.의
     일부입니다.

*note METH_FASTCALL: 162e. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bf.

     *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords: 4978. 형의 메서드를 사용하여, 키
     워드 인자도 지원하는 *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e.의 확장.  키워드 인
     자는 *note 벡터콜(vectorcall) 프로토콜: 54d.과 같은 방식으로 전달됩
     니다: 추가의 네 번째 *note PyObject: 332.* 매개 변수가 있는데, 키워
     드 인자의 이름(문자열임이 보장됩니다)을 나타내는 튜플이거나 키워드
     가 없으면 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.  키워드 인자의 값은 위치 인자 다음
     에 'args' 배열에 저장됩니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C 매크로: METH_METHOD

     Can only be used in the combination with other flags: *note
     METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1695.

*note METH_METHOD: 96e. | *note METH_FASTCALL: 162e. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bf.

     '정의하는 클래스(defining class)', 즉, 문제의 메서드를 포함하는 클
     래스를 지원하는 *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e4c.의 확장.
     정의하는 클래스는 ‘Py_TYPE(self)’의 슈퍼 클래스일 수 있습니다.

     메서드는 *note PyCMethod: 75d. 형이어야 하는데, ‘self’ 뒤에
     ‘defining_class’ 인자가 추가된 ‘METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS’와 같
     습니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 매크로: METH_NOARGS

     매개 변수가 없는 메서드는 *note METH_NOARGS: 149c. 플래그로 나열되
     어 있으면, 인자가 주어졌는지 확인할 필요가 없습니다.  *note
     PyCFunction: 143d. 형이어야 합니다.  첫 번째 매개 변수의 이름은 일
     반적으로 'self'이며 모듈이나 객체 인스턴스에 대한 참조를 보유합니다
     .  모든 경우에 두 번째 매개 변수는 ‘NULL’입니다.

     The function must have 2 parameters.  Since the second parameter is
     unused, *note Py_UNUSED: 1723. can be used to prevent a compiler
     warning.

 -- C 매크로: METH_O

     ‘"O"’ 인자로 *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.을 호출하는 대신, 단일 객
     체 인자가 있는 메서드는 *note METH_O: 14d0. 플래그로 나열 할 수 있
     습니다.  *note PyCFunction: 143d. 형이고, 'self' 매개 변수와 단일 인
     자를 나타내는 *note PyObject: 332.* 매개 변수를 갖습니다.

이 두 상수는 호출 규칙을 나타내는 데 사용되지 않고 클래스의 메서드와 함
께 사용할 때 바인딩을 나타냅니다.  모듈에 정의된 함수에는 사용할 수 없습
니다.  이러한 플래그 중 최대 하나를 주어진 메서드에 대해 설정할 수 있습
니다.

 -- C 매크로: METH_CLASS

     메서드로 형의 인스턴스가 아닌 형 객체가 첫 번째 매개 변수로 전달됩
     니다.  *note classmethod(): 166. 내장 함수를 사용할 때 만들어지는 것
     과 유사한 '클래스 메서드(class methods)'를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

 -- C 매크로: METH_STATIC

     메서드로 형의 인스턴스가 아닌 ‘NULL’이 첫 번째 매개 변수로 전달됩니
     다.  *note staticmethod(): 410. 내장 함수를 사용할 때 만들어지는 것
     과 유사한 '정적 메서드(static methods)'를 만드는 데 사용됩니다.

하나의 다른 상수는 같은 메서드 이름을 가진 다른 정의 대신 메서드가 로드
되는지를 제어합니다.

 -- C 매크로: METH_COEXIST

     기존 정의 대신 메서드가 로드됩니다.  'METH_COEXIST'가 없으면, 기본
     값은 반복되는 정의를 건너뛰는 것입니다.  슬롯 래퍼가 메서드 테이블
     전에 로드되므로, 예를 들어 'sq_contains' 슬롯의 존재는 *note
     __contains__(): 1f66.라는 래핑 된 메서드를 생성하고 같은 이름의 해
     당 PyCFunction을 로드하지 않습니다.  플래그가 정의되면,
     PyCFunction이 래퍼 객체 자리에 로드되고 슬롯과 공존합니다.  이는
     PyCFunction에 대한 호출이 래퍼 객체 호출보다 최적화되어 있기 때문에
     유용합니다.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCMethod_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후
     로.'  Turn 'ml' into a Python *note callable: 2900. object.  The
     caller must ensure that 'ml' outlives the *note callable: 2900.
     Typically, 'ml' is defined as a static variable.

     The 'self' parameter will be passed as the 'self' argument to the C
     function in ‘ml->ml_meth’ when invoked.  'self' can be ‘NULL’.

     The *note callable: 2900. object’s ‘__module__’ attribute can be
     set from the given 'module' argument.  'module' should be a Python
     string, which will be used as name of the module the function is
     defined in.  If unavailable, it can be set to *note None: 66f. or
     ‘NULL’.

     더 보기
     .......

     *note function.__module__: 1f06.

     The 'cls' parameter will be passed as the 'defining_class' argument
     to the C function.  Must be set if *note METH_METHOD: 96e. is set
     on ‘ml->ml_flags’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCFunction_NewEx (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Equivalent
     to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyCFunction_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self)
     '반환값: 새 참조.''  Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.4 이후
     로.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, NULL, NULL)’.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스,  Prev: 함수와 메서드 구현,  Up: 공통 객체 구조체

7.12.2.3 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스
...................................

 -- C 자료형: type PyMemberDef
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  C 구
     조체 멤버에 해당하는 형의 어트리뷰트를 기술하는 구조체.  클래스를 정
     의할 때, 이 구조체들의 NULL-종료 배열을 *note tp_members: 48ee. 슬
     롯에 넣습니다.

     필드는 순서대로 다음과 같습니다:

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          Name of the member.  A NULL value marks the end of a
          ‘PyMemberDef[]’ array.

          The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int type

          The type of the member in the C struct.  See *note Member
          types: 167a. for the possible values.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. offset

          멤버가 형의 객체 구조체에 위치하는 바이트 단위의 오프셋.

      -- C 멤버 변수: int flags

          Zero or more of the *note Member flags: 4e53, combined using
          bitwise OR.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *doc

          The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy
          is made of it.  Typically, it is defined using *note
          PyDoc_STR: 1811.

     By default (when *note flags: 4907. is ‘0’), members allow both
     read and write access.  Use the *note Py_READONLY: 58c. flag for
     read-only access.  Certain types, like *note Py_T_STRING: 4e55,
     imply *note Py_READONLY: 58c.  Only *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 58f. (and
     legacy *note T_OBJECT: 58e.) members can be deleted.  힙 할당형
     (*note PyType_FromSpec(): 578.이나 유사한 것을 사용하여 만들어진)의
     경우, ‘PyMemberDef’는 형 객체의 *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4bad.에
     해당하는 특수 멤버 ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’에 대한 정의를 포함할 수
     있습니다.  ‘Py_T_PYSSIZET’과 ‘Py_READONLY’로 정의해야 합니다, 예를
     들면:

          static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
              {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
               offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
              {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
          };

     (You may need to ‘#include <stddef.h>’ for ‘offsetof()’.)

     The legacy offsets *note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b. and *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 985. can be defined similarly using
     ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’ members, but
     extensions are strongly encouraged to use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     555. instead.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘PyMemberDef’ is always available.  Previously,
     it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyMember_GetOne (const char *obj_addr,
          struct PyMemberDef *m)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Get an attribute belonging to
     the object at address 'obj_addr'.  The attribute is described by
     ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘NULL’ on error.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘PyMember_GetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C 함수: int PyMember_SetOne (char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m,
          PyObject *o)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Set an attribute belonging to
     the object at address 'obj_addr' to object 'o'.  The attribute to
     set is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘0’ if successful
     and a negative value on failure.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: ‘PyMember_SetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

* Menu:

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::


File: python.info,  Node: Member flags,  Next: Member types,  Up: 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스

7.12.2.4 Member flags
.....................

The following flags can be used with *note PyMemberDef.flags: 4907.:

 -- C 매크로: Py_READONLY

     Not writable.

 -- C 매크로: Py_AUDIT_READ

     Emit an ‘object.__getattr__’ *note audit event: 1877. before
     reading.

 -- C 매크로: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

     Indicates that the *note offset: 4e52. of this ‘PyMemberDef’ entry
     indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than
     from ‘PyObject’.

     Can only be used as part of *note Py_tp_members: 48ee. *note slot:
     4a9e. when creating a class using negative *note basicsize: 543.
     It is mandatory in that case.

     This flag is only used in *note PyType_Slot: 4a9e.  When setting
     *note tp_members: 48ee. during class creation, Python clears it and
     sets *note PyMemberDef.offset: 4e52. to the offset from the
     ‘PyObject’ struct.

버전 3.10에서 변경: The ‘RESTRICTED’, ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and
‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ macros available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ are
deprecated.  ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘RESTRICTED’ are equivalent to *note
Py_AUDIT_READ: 58d.; ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ does nothing.

버전 3.12에서 변경: The ‘READONLY’ macro was renamed to *note
Py_READONLY: 58c.  The ‘PY_AUDIT_READ’ macro was renamed with the ‘Py_’
prefix.  The new names are now always available.  Previously, these
required ‘#include "structmember.h"’.  The header is still available and
it provides the old names.


File: python.info,  Node: Member types,  Next: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member flags,  Up: 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스

7.12.2.5 Member types
.....................

*note PyMemberDef.type: 4906. can be one of the following macros
corresponding to various C types.  When the member is accessed in
Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type.  When it is
set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type.  If that is
not possible, an exception such as *note TypeError: 532. or *note
ValueError: 202. is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using
e.g.  *note del: 17ad. or *note delattr(): 215c.

매크로 이름                          C 형                              Python type
                                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_BYTE              char                              *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_SHORT             short                             *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_INT               int                               *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_LONG              long                              *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_LONGLONG          long long                         *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_UBYTE             unsigned char                     *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_UINT              unsigned int                      *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_USHORT            unsigned short                    *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_ULONG             unsigned long                     *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_ULONGLONG         unsigned long long                *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_PYSSIZET          *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.            *note int: 257.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_FLOAT             float                             *note float: 2ef.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_DOUBLE            double                            *note float: 2ef.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_BOOL              char (written as 0 or 1)          *note bool: 461.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_STRING            const char* (*)                   *note str: 445. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_STRING_INPLACE    const char[] (*)                  *note str: 445. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_CHAR              char (0-127)                      *note str: 445. (**)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C 매크로: Py_T_OBJECT_EX         *note PyObject: 332.*             *note object: a89. (D)
                                                                       

     (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string.  With ‘Py_T_STRING’
     the C representation is a pointer; with ‘Py_T_STRING_INPLACE’ the
     string is stored directly in the structure.

     (**): String of length 1.  Only ASCII is accepted.

     (RO): Implies *note Py_READONLY: 58c.

     (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to ‘NULL’.
     Reading a ‘NULL’ pointer raises *note AttributeError: 346.

Added in version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only
available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ and were named without the
‘Py_’ prefix (e.g.  as ‘T_INT’).  The header is still available and
contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types:

 -- C 매크로: T_OBJECT

     Like ‘Py_T_OBJECT_EX’, but ‘NULL’ is converted to ‘None’.  This
     results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute
     effectively sets it to ‘None’.

 -- C 매크로: T_NONE

     Always ‘None’.  Must be used with *note Py_READONLY: 58c.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member types,  Up: 확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스

7.12.2.6 Defining Getters and Setters
.....................................

 -- C 자료형: type PyGetSetDef
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. (including all members).'  형에
     대한 프로퍼티 같은 액세스를 정의하는 구조체.  *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_getset: 48f3. 슬롯에 대한 설명도 참조하십시오.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *name

          어트리뷰트 이름

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note getter: 4af8. get

          어트리뷰트를 얻는 C 함수.

      -- C 멤버 변수: *note setter: 4b06. set

          어트리뷰트를 설정하거나 삭제하는 선택적 C 함수.  ‘NULL’이면, 어
          트리뷰트는 읽기 전용입니다.

      -- C 멤버 변수: const char *doc

          선택적 독스트링

      -- C 멤버 변수: void *closure

          선택적 사용자 데이터 포인터, getter와 setter에 추가 데이터를 제
          공합니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*getter)(*note PyObject:
          332.*, void*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘get’ 함수는 하나의 *note
     PyObject: 332.* 매개 변수(인스턴스)와 사용자 데이터 포인터(연관된
     ‘closure’)를 받아들입니다:

     성공하면 새 참조를 반환하고, 실패하면 설정된 예외와 함께 ‘NULL’을 반
     환해야 합니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*setter)(*note PyObject: 332.*, *note
          PyObject: 332.*, void*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  ‘set’ 함수는 두 개의 *note
     PyObject: 332.* 매개 변수(인스턴스와 설정할 값)와 사용자 데이터 포
     인터(연관된 ‘closure’)를 받아들입니다:

     어트리뷰트를 삭제해야 하는 경우 두 번째 매개 변수는 ‘NULL’입니다.  성
     공하면 ‘0’을, 실패하면 설정된 예외와 함께 ‘-1’을 반환해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Object Structures,  Next: 순환 가비지 수집 지원,  Prev: 공통 객체 구조체,  Up: 객체 구현 지원

7.12.3 Type Object Structures
-----------------------------

Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system
is the structure that defines a new type: the *note PyTypeObject: aa2.
structure.  Type objects can be handled using any of the ‘PyObject_*’ or
‘PyType_*’ functions, but do not offer much that’s interesting to most
Python applications.  These objects are fundamental to how objects
behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any
extension module that implements new types.

형 객체는 대부분 표준형보다 상당히 큽니다.  크기가 큰 이유는 각 형 객체
가 많은 수의 값을 저장하기 때문인데, 주로 C 함수 포인터이고 각기 형의 기
능 중 작은 부분을 구현합니다.  이 섹션에서는 형 객체의 필드를 자세히 살
펴봅니다.  필드는 구조체에서 나타나는 순서대로 설명됩니다.

다음의 간략 참조 외에도, *note 예: 4e6e. 섹션은 *note PyTypeObject:
aa2.의 의미와 사용에 대한 통찰을 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 간략 참조::
* PyTypeObject 정의::
* PyObject 슬롯::
* PyVarObject 슬롯::
* PyTypeObject 슬롯::
* Static Types::
* 힙 형::
* 숫자 객체 구조체::
* 매핑 객체 구조체::
* 시퀀스 객체 구조체::
* 버퍼 객체 구조체::
* 비동기 객체 구조체::
* 슬롯 형 typedef::
* 예: 예<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: 간략 참조,  Next: PyTypeObject 정의,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.1 간략 참조
..................

* Menu:

* “tp 슬롯”::
* 서브 슬롯::
* 슬롯 typedef::


File: python.info,  Node: “tp 슬롯”,  Next: 서브 슬롯,  Up: 간략 참조

7.12.3.2 “tp 슬롯”
..................

PyTypeObject 슬롯      *note 형: 4e72.        특수 메서드/어트리뷰   정
(1)                                           트                     보
                                                                     (2)
                                                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     
O                      T                      D                      I
                                                                     
                                                                                       
<R>                    const char *           __name__               X     X
*note tp_name: 18f9.                                                       

*note tp_basicsize: 984.*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_itemsize: 1f78.*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.                             X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dealloc: 48da.*note destructor: 4af3.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4bad.*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_getattr: 4909.)*note getattrfunc: 4af4.__getattribute__,                     G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_setattr: 490a.)*note setattrfunc: 4b04.__setattr__,                          G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_async: ec5.*note PyAsyncMethods: 4c09.*note 서브 슬롯: 4e73.               %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_repr: 4900.   *note reprfunc: 4b02.  __repr__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_number: 988.*note PyNumberMethods: 13e6.*note 서브 슬롯: 4e73.             %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_sequence: 4e74.*note PySequenceMethods: 4910.*note 서브 슬롯: 4e73.        %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_mapping: 4e75.*note PyMappingMethods: 4911.*note 서브 슬롯: 4e73.          %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_hash: 4912.   *note hashfunc: 4af9.  __hash__               X                 G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_call: 554.    *note ternaryfunc: 4b09.__call__                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_str: 4901.    *note reprfunc: 4b02.  __str__                X                 X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getattro: 16f9.*note getattrofunc: 4af5.__getattribute__,   X     X           G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_setattro: 4904.*note setattrofunc: 4b05.__setattr__,        X     X           G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_buffer: 986.*note PyBufferProcs: 4c11.*note 서브 슬롯: 4e73.               %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_flags: 18c4.  unsigned long                                 X     X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_doc: 48e8.    const char *           __doc__                X     X
                                                                           
                                                                                       
*note tp_traverse: 777.*note traverseproc: 4b0a.                           X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_clear: 48fe.  *note inquiry: 4afb.                                X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_richcompare: 490c.*note richcmpfunc: 4b03.__lt__, __le__,   X                 G
                                              __eq__, __ne__,                          
                                              __gt__, __ge__
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_weaklistoffset: 985.)*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.                      X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iter: 14b6.   *note getiterfunc: 4af7.__iter__                                X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iternext: 14b7.*note iternextfunc: 4afc.__next__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_methods: 48f0.*note PyMethodDef: 149f.                      X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_members: 48ee.*note PyMemberDef: 54a.                             X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getset: 48f3. *note PyGetSetDef: bb5.                       X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_base: 48f7.   *note PyTypeObject: aa2.__base__                          X
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dict: 1725.   *note PyObject: 332.   __dict__                           ?
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_get: 4e76.*note descrgetfunc: 4af1.__get__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_set: 18fd.*note descrsetfunc: 4af2.__set__, __delete__                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b.)*note Py_ssize_t: a5c.                         X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_init: 57c.    *note initproc: 4afa.  __init__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_alloc: 48ed.  *note allocfunc: 4aef.                        X           ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_new: 57a.     *note newfunc: 4afe.   __new__                X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_free: 48ec.   *note freefunc: 4d18.                         X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_is_gc: 4e77.  *note inquiry: 4afb.                                X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_bases: 4e78.>*note PyObject: 332.   __bases__                          ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_mro: 4c0e.>  *note PyObject: 332.   __mro__                            ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_cache: 4c0f.]*note PyObject: 332.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_subclasses: 56d.]void *             __subclasses__
                                              
                                                                                       
[*note tp_weaklist: 4c10.]*note PyObject: 332.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_del: 4e79.)  *note destructor: 4af3.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_version_tag: 4e7a.]unsigned int
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_finalize: aa3.*note destructor: 4af3.__del__                                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall: 4c0d.*note vectorcallfunc: 552.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_watched: 4e7b.]unsigned char
                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) '()': A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively)
deprecated.

'<>': Names in angle brackets should be initially set to ‘NULL’ and
treated as read-only.

'[]': Names in square brackets are for internal use only.

'<R>' (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-‘NULL’).

   (2) 열:

'“O”': set on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967.

'“T”': set on *note PyType_Type: 548.

'“D”': 기본값 (슬롯이 ‘NULL’로 설정된 경우)

     X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL
     ~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL)
     ? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots

     Also see the inheritance column ("I").

'“I”': 상속

     X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value
     % - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually
     G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description
     ? - it's complicated; see the slot's description

일부 슬롯은 일반 어트리뷰트 조회 체인을 통해 효과적으로 상속됨에 유의하
십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 서브 슬롯,  Next: 슬롯 typedef,  Prev: “tp 슬롯”,  Up: 간략 참조

7.12.3.3 서브 슬롯
..................

슬롯                           *note 형: 4e72.       특수 메서드
                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
*note am_await: 4e7d.          *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__await__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_aiter: 4e7e.          *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__aiter__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_anext: 4e7f.          *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__anext__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_send: 4e80.           *note sendfunc: 4e81.
                               
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_add: 4c02.            *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__add__
                                                     __radd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_add: 4e82.    *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_subtract: 4e83.       *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__sub__
                                                     __rsub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_subtract: 4e84.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__isub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_multiply: 4e85.       *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__mul__
                                                     __rmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_multiply: 4e86.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_remainder: 4e87.      *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__mod__
                                                     __rmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_remainder: 4e88.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__imod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_divmod: 4e89.         *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__divmod__
                                                     __rdivmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_power: 4e8a.          *note ternaryfunc: 4b09.__pow__
                                                     __rpow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_power: 4e8b.  *note ternaryfunc: 4b09.__ipow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_negative: 4e8c.       *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__neg__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_positive: 4e8d.       *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__pos__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_absolute: 4e8e.       *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__abs__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_bool: 4e8f.           *note inquiry: 4afb.  __bool__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_invert: 4e90.         *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__invert__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_lshift: 4e91.         *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__lshift__
                                                     __rlshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_lshift: 4e92. *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__ilshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_rshift: 4e93.         *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__rshift__
                                                     __rrshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_rshift: 4e94. *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__irshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_and: 4e95.            *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__and__
                                                     __rand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_and: 4e96.    *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__iand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_xor: 4e97.            *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__xor__
                                                     __rxor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_xor: 4e98.    *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__ixor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_or: 4e99.             *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__or__ __ror__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_or: 4e9a.     *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__ior__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_int: 4e9b.            *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__int__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_reserved: 4e9c.       void *
                               
                                                     
*note nb_float: 4e9d.          *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__float__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_floor_divide: 4e9e.   *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__floordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_floor_divide: 4e9f.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__ifloordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_true_divide: 4ea0.    *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__truediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_true_divide: 4ea1.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__itruediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_index: 13e5.          *note unaryfunc: 4b0b.__index__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_matrix_multiply: 4ea2.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__matmul__
                                                     __rmatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 4ea3.*note binaryfunc: 4af0.__imatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_length: 4ea4.         *note lenfunc: 4afd.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_subscript: 1934.      *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_ass_subscript: 4ea5.  *note objobjargproc: 4aff.__setitem__,
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_length: 4c0a.         *note lenfunc: 4afd.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_concat: 4ea6.         *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__add__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_repeat: 4ea7.         *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07.__mul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_item: 1933.           *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_ass_item: 4ea8.       *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b08.__setitem__
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_contains: 4ea9.       *note objobjproc: 4b00.__contains__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_concat: 4eaa. *note binaryfunc: 4af0.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_repeat: 4eab. *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_getbuffer: 75b.       *note getbufferproc(): 4af6.__buffer__
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_releasebuffer: 75c.   *note releasebufferproc(): 4b01.__release_buffer__
                                                     


File: python.info,  Node: 슬롯 typedef,  Prev: 서브 슬롯,  Up: 간략 참조

7.12.3.4 슬롯 typedef
.....................

typedef                           매개 변수 형                      반환형
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
*note allocfunc: 4aef.                 *note PyTypeObject: aa2. *   *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note destructor: 4af3.           *note PyObject: 332. *            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note freefunc: 4d18.             void *                            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note traverseproc: 4b0a.              *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note visitproc: 4b0c.       
                                       void *
                                  
                                                                    
*note newfunc: 4afe.                   *note PyTypeObject: aa2. *   *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note initproc: 4afa.                  *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note reprfunc: 4b02.             *note PyObject: 332. *            *note PyObject: 332. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getattrfunc: 4af4.               *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       const char *                 
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrfunc: 4b04.               *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       const char *                 
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note getattrofunc: 4af5.              *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrofunc: 4b05.              *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrgetfunc: 4af1.              *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrsetfunc: 4af2.              *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note hashfunc: 4af9.             *note PyObject: 332. *            Py_hash_t
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note richcmpfunc: 4b03.               *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note getiterfunc: 4af7.          *note PyObject: 332. *            *note PyObject: 332. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note iternextfunc: 4afc.         *note PyObject: 332. *            *note PyObject: 332. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note lenfunc: 4afd.              *note PyObject: 332. *            *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getbufferproc: 4af6.             *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note Py_buffer: 751. *      
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note releasebufferproc: 4b01.         *note PyObject: 332. *       void
                                       *note Py_buffer: 751. *      
                                  
                                                                    
*note inquiry: 4afb.              *note PyObject: 332. *            int
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note unaryfunc: 4b0b.                 *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note binaryfunc: 4af0.                *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ternaryfunc: 4b09.               *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeargfunc: 4b07.              *note PyObject: 332. *       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeobjargproc: 4b08.           *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjproc: 4b00.                *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjargproc: 4aff.             *note PyObject: 332. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 332. *
                                  

자세한 내용은 아래 *note 슬롯 형 typedef: 4ead.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject 정의,  Next: PyObject 슬롯,  Prev: 간략 참조,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.5 PyTypeObject 정의
..........................

The structure definition for *note PyTypeObject: aa2. can be found in
‘Include/cpython/object.h’.  For convenience of reference, this repeats
the definition found there:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;


File: python.info,  Node: PyObject 슬롯,  Next: PyVarObject 슬롯,  Prev: PyTypeObject 정의,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.6 PyObject 슬롯
......................

The type object structure extends the *note PyVarObject: 4152.
structure.  The *note ob_size: 4add. field is used for dynamic types
(created by ‘type_new()’, usually called from a class statement).  Note
that *note PyType_Type: 548. (the metatype) initializes *note
tp_itemsize: 1f78, which means that its instances (i.e.  type objects)
'must' have the *note ob_size: 4add. field.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyObject: 332.ob_refcnt
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  This is the type object’s
     reference count, initialized to ‘1’ by the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’
     macro.  Note that for *note statically allocated type objects: 778,
     the type’s instances (objects whose *note ob_type: 48ea. points
     back to the type) do 'not' count as references.  But for *note
     dynamically allocated type objects: 963, the instances 'do' count
     as references.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. **note PyObject: 332.ob_type
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  이것은 형의 형, 즉 메타 형
     (metatype)입니다.  ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ 매크로에 대한 인자로 초기화
     되며, 값은 일반적으로 ‘&PyType_Type’이어야 합니다.  그러나, (적어도
     ) 윈도우에서 사용 가능해야 하는 동적으로 로드 가능한 확장 모듈의 경
     우, 컴파일러는 유효한 초기화자가 아니라고 불평합니다.  따라서, 규칙
     은 ‘NULL’을 ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ 매크로로 전달하고, 다른 작업을 수
     행하기 전에 모듈의 초기화 함수 시작에서 필드를 명시적으로 초기화하
     는 것입니다.  이것은 일반적으로 다음과 같이 수행됩니다:

          Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;

     This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
     *note PyType_Ready(): 775. checks if *note ob_type: 48ea. is
     ‘NULL’, and if so, initializes it to the *note ob_type: 48ea. field
     of the base class.  *note PyType_Ready(): 775. will not change this
     field if it is non-zero.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: PyVarObject 슬롯,  Next: PyTypeObject 슬롯,  Prev: PyObject 슬롯,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.7 PyVarObject 슬롯
.........................

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyVarObject: 4152.ob_size
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  For *note statically allocated
     type objects: 778, this should be initialized to zero.  For *note
     dynamically allocated type objects: 963, this field has a special
     internal meaning.

     This field should be accessed using the *note Py_SIZE(): 77b. and
     *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c. macros.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject 슬롯,  Next: Static Types,  Prev: PyVarObject 슬롯,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.8 PyTypeObject 슬롯
..........................

Each slot has a section describing inheritance.  If *note
PyType_Ready(): 775. may set a value when the field is set to ‘NULL’
then there will also be a “Default” section.  (Note that many fields set
on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. and *note PyType_Type: 548.
effectively act as defaults.)

 -- C 멤버 변수: const char **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_name

     Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type.
     For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should
     be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type
     name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name.  If the
     module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part
     of the full module name.  For example, a type named ‘T’ defined in
     module ‘M’ in subpackage ‘Q’ in package ‘P’ should have the *note
     tp_name: 18f9. initializer ‘"P.Q.M.T"’.

     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 963, this should just
     be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type
     dict as the value for key ‘'__module__'’.

     For *note statically allocated type objects: 778, the 'tp_name'
     field should contain a dot.  Everything before the last dot is made
     accessible as the *note __module__: 36d. attribute, and everything
     after the last dot is made accessible as the *note __name__: 1471.
     attribute.

     If no dot is present, the entire *note tp_name: 18f9. field is made
     accessible as the *note __name__: 1471. attribute, and the *note
     __module__: 36d. attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in
     the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your type will be
     impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
     module documentations created with pydoc.

     이 필드는 ‘NULL’이 아니어야 합니다.  *note PyTypeObject(): aa2.에서
     유일하게 필요한 필드입니다 (잠재적인 *note tp_itemsize: 1f78.를 제
     외하고).

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_basicsize
 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_itemsize

     이 필드를 사용하면 형 인스턴스의 크기를 바이트 단위로 계산할 수 있
     습니다.

     There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances
     have a zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field, types with variable-length
     instances have a non-zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field.  For a type with
     fixed-length instances, all instances have the same size, given in
     ‘tp_basicsize’.  (Exceptions to this rule can be made using *note
     PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData(): 173f.)

     For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have
     an *note ob_size: 4add. field, and the instance size is
     ‘tp_basicsize’ plus N times ‘tp_itemsize’, where N is the “length”
     of the object.

     Functions like *note PyObject_NewVar(): 983. will take the value of
     N as an argument, and store in the instance’s *note ob_size: 4add.
     field.  Note that the *note ob_size: 4add. field may later be used
     for other purposes.  For example, *note int: 257. instances use the
     bits of *note ob_size: 4add. in an implementation-defined way; the
     underlying storage and its size should be accessed using
     ‘PyLong_Export()’.

          참고: The *note ob_size: 4add. field should be accessed using
          the *note Py_SIZE(): 77b. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77c.
          macros.

     Also, the presence of an *note ob_size: 4add. field in the instance
     layout doesn’t mean that the instance structure is variable-length.
     For example, the *note list: 60b. type has fixed-length instances,
     yet those instances have a *note ob_size: 4add. field.  (As with
     *note int: 257, avoid reading lists’ ‘ob_size’ directly.  Call
     *note PyList_Size(): 13e2. instead.)

     The ‘tp_basicsize’ includes size needed for data of the type’s
     *note tp_base: 48f7, plus any extra data needed by each instance.

     The correct way to set ‘tp_basicsize’ is to use the ‘sizeof’
     operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.  This
     struct must include the struct used to declare the base type.  In
     other words, ‘tp_basicsize’ must be greater than or equal to the
     base’s ‘tp_basicsize’.

     Since every type is a subtype of *note object: a89, this struct
     must include *note PyObject: 332. or *note PyVarObject: 4152.
     (depending on whether *note ob_size: 4add. should be included).
     These are usually defined by the macro *note PyObject_HEAD: 12ce.
     or *note PyObject_VAR_HEAD: 4e47, respectively.

     The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header
     is not part of *note PyObject_HEAD: 12ce.

     For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown,
     see *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 543. and *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54b.

     Notes about alignment:

        - ‘tp_basicsize’ must be a multiple of ‘_Alignof(PyObject)’.
          When using ‘sizeof’ on a ‘struct’ that includes *note
          PyObject_HEAD: 12ce, as recommended, the compiler ensures
          this.  When not using a C ‘struct’, or when using compiler
          extensions like ‘__attribute__((packed))’, it is up to you.

        - If the variable items require a particular alignment,
          ‘tp_basicsize’ and ‘tp_itemsize’ must each be a multiple of
          that alignment.  For example, if a type’s variable part stores
          a ‘double’, it is your responsibility that both fields are a
          multiple of ‘_Alignof(double)’.

     '계승:'

     These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  (That is, if
     the field is set to zero, *note PyType_Ready(): 775. will copy the
     value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not need
     additional storage.)

     If the base type has a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1f78, it is
     generally not safe to set *note tp_itemsize: 1f78. to a different
     non-zero value in a subtype (though this depends on the
     implementation of the base type).

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note destructor: 4af3. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_dealloc

     인스턴스 파괴자(destructor) 함수에 대한 포인터.  (싱글톤 ‘None’과
     ‘Ellipsis’의 경우처럼) 형이 해당 인스턴스가 할당 해제되지 않도록 보
     장하지 않는 한, 이 함수를 정의해야 합니다.  함수 서명은 다음과 같습
     니다:

          void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self);

     The destructor function is called by the *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.
     and *note Py_XDECREF(): 788. macros when the new reference count is
     zero.  At this point, the instance is still in existence, but there
     are no references to it.  The destructor function should free all
     references which the instance owns, free all memory buffers owned
     by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding to the
     allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and call the
     type’s *note tp_free: 48ec. function.  If the type is not
     subtypable (doesn’t have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 48f1. flag
     bit set), it is permissible to call the object deallocator directly
     instead of via *note tp_free: 48ec.  The object deallocator should
     be the one used to allocate the instance; this is normally *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1499. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_New: 982. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 983, or *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: a9f. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: aa0.

     If the type supports garbage collection (has the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit set), the destructor should call
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce. before clearing any member
     fields.

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
              Py_CLEAR(self->ref);
              Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *)self);
          }

     Finally, if the type is heap allocated (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     8ac.), the deallocator should release the owned reference to its
     type object (via *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.) after calling the type
     deallocator.  In order to avoid dangling pointers, the recommended
     way to achieve this is:

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self);
              // free references and buffers here
              tp->tp_free(self);
              Py_DECREF(tp);
          }

          경고: In a garbage collected Python, ‘tp_dealloc’ may be
          called from any Python thread, not just the thread which
          created the object (if the object becomes part of a refcount
          cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage collection
          on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API calls,
          since the thread on which ‘tp_dealloc’ is called will own the
          Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). However, if the object being
          destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C or C++
          library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
          objects on the thread which called ‘tp_dealloc’ will not
          violate any assumptions of the library.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_vectorcall_offset

     간단한 *note tp_call: 554.의 더 효율적인 대안인 *note
     벡터콜(vectorcall) 프로토콜: 54d.을 사용하여 객체를 호출하는 것을 구
     현하는 인스턴스별 함수에 대한 선택적 오프셋입니다.

     This field is only used if the flag *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. is set.  If so, this must be a
     positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a *note
     vectorcallfunc: 552. pointer.

     The 'vectorcallfunc' pointer may be ‘NULL’, in which case the
     instance behaves as if *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. was
     not set: calling the instance falls back to *note tp_call: 554.

     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’을 설정하는 모든 클래스는 *note
     tp_call: 554.도 설정해야 하고, 해당 동작이 'vectorcallfunc' 함수와
     일관되도록 만들어야 합니다.  'tp_call'을 *note PyVectorcall_Call():
     551.로 설정하면 됩니다:

     버전 3.8에서 변경: 버전 3.8 이전에는, 이 슬롯의 이름이 ‘tp_print’였
     습니다.  파이썬 2.x에서는, 파일로 인쇄하는 데 사용되었습니다.  파이
     썬 3.0에서 3.7까지는, 사용되지 않았습니다.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Before version 3.12, it was not recommended for
     *note mutable heap types: 963. to implement the vectorcall
     protocol.  When a user sets *note __call__: 553. in Python code,
     only 'tp_call' is updated, likely making it inconsistent with the
     vectorcall function.  Since 3.12, setting ‘__call__’ will disable
     vectorcall optimization by clearing the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. flag.

     '계승:'

     This field is always inherited.  However, the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 54f. flag is not always inherited.  If
     it’s not set, then the subclass won’t use *note vectorcall: 54d,
     except when *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 551. is explicitly called.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note getattrfunc: 4af4. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_getattr

     get-attribute-string 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     이 필드는 폐지되었습니다.  정의될 때, *note tp_getattro: 16f9. 함수
     와 같게 작동하지만, 어트리뷰트 이름을 제공하기 위해 파이썬 문자열 객
     체 대신 C 문자열을 받아들이는 함수를 가리켜야 합니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 4909, *note tp_getattro: 16f9.

     이 필드는 *note tp_getattro: 16f9.와 함께 서브 형에 의해 상속됩니다
     : 서브 형은 서브 형의 *note tp_getattr: 4909.과 *note tp_getattro:
     16f9.가 모두 ‘NULL’일 때 베이스형에서 *note tp_getattr: 4909.과
     *note tp_getattro: 16f9.를 모두 상속합니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note setattrfunc: 4b04. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_setattr

     어트리뷰트 설정과 삭제를 위한 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     이 필드는 폐지되었습니다.  정의될 때, *note tp_setattro: 4904. 함수
     와 같게 작동하지만, 어트리뷰트 이름을 제공하기 위해 파이썬 문자열 객
     체 대신 C 문자열을 받아들이는 함수를 가리켜야 합니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 490a, *note tp_setattro: 4904.

     이 필드는 *note tp_setattro: 4904.와 함께 서브 형에 의해 상속됩니다
     .  서브 형은 서브 형의 *note tp_setattr: 490a.과 *note tp_setattro:
     4904.가 모두 ‘NULL’일 때 베이스형에서 *note tp_setattr: 490a.과
     *note tp_setattro: 4904.를 모두 상속합니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c09. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_as_async

     C 수준에서 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad.과 *note 비동기 이터레이터: 1ab. 프
     로토콜을 구현하는 객체에만 관련된 필드를 포함하는 추가 구조체에 대
     한 포인터.  자세한 내용은 *note 비동기 객체 구조체: 4eb2.를 참조하
     십시오.

     Added in version 3.5: 이전에는 ‘tp_compare’와 ‘tp_reserved’라고 했
     습니다.

     '계승:'

     *note tp_as_async: ec5. 필드는 상속되지 않지만, 포함된 필드는 개별
     적으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note reprfunc: 4b02. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_repr

     내장 함수 *note repr(): 7f7.을 구현하는 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     서명은 *note PyObject_Repr(): 1025.과 같습니다:

          PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self);

     함수는 문자열이나 유니코드 객체를 반환해야 합니다.  이상적으로, 이
     함수는 *note eval(): 180.에 전달될 때 적합한 환경이 주어지면 같은 값
     을 가진 객체를 반환하는 문자열을 반환해야 합니다.  이것이 가능하지
     않으면, ‘'<'’로 시작하고 ‘'>'’로 끝나는 문자열을 반환해야 하는데, 이
     문자열에서 객체의 형과 값을 모두 추론할 수 있어야 합니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

     '기본값:'

     이 필드를 설정하지 않으면, ‘<%s object at %p>’ 형식의 문자열이 반환
     됩니다.  여기서 ‘%s’는 형 이름으로, ‘%p’는 객체의 메모리 주소로 치
     환됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyNumberMethods: 13e6. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_as_number

     숫자 프로토콜을 구현하는 객체에만 관련된 필드를 포함하는 추가 구조
     체에 대한 포인터.  이 필드는 *note 숫자 객체 구조체: 4eb3.에서 설명
     합니다.

     '계승:'

     *note tp_as_number: 988. 필드는 상속되지 않지만, 포함된 필드는 개별
     적으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PySequenceMethods: 4910. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_as_sequence

     시퀀스 프로토콜을 구현하는 객체에만 관련된 필드를 포함하는 추가 구
     조체에 대한 포인터.  이 필드는 *note 시퀀스 객체 구조체: 4eb4.에서
     설명합니다.

     '계승:'

     *note tp_as_sequence: 4e74. 필드는 상속되지 않지만, 포함된 필드는 개
     별적으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyMappingMethods: 4911. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_as_mapping

     매핑 프로토콜을 구현하는 객체에만 관련된 필드를 포함하는 추가 구조
     체에 대한 포인터.  이 필드는 *note 매핑 객체 구조체: 4eb5.에서 설명
     합니다.

     '계승:'

     *note tp_as_mapping: 4e75. 필드는 상속되지 않지만, 포함된 필드는 개
     별적으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note hashfunc: 4af9. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_hash

     내장 함수 *note hash(): 5e5.를 구현하는 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     서명은 *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd.와 같습니다:

          Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *);

     ‘-1’ 값은 정상적인 반환 값으로 반환되지 않아야 합니다; 해시값을 계
     산하는 동안 에러가 발생하면 함수는 예외를 설정하고 ‘-1’을 반환해야
     합니다.

     When this field is not set ('and' *note tp_richcompare: 490c. is
     not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises *note
     TypeError: 532.  This is the same as setting it to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 138f.

     이 필드는 부모 형에서 해시 메서드의 상속을 차단하기 위해 *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 138f.로 명시적으로 설정할 수 있습니
     다.  이것은 파이썬 수준에서의 ‘__hash__ = None’과 동등한 것으로 해
     석되어, ‘isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)’이 ‘False’를 올바르게
     반환하게 합니다.  반대의 경우도 마찬가지입니다 - 파이썬 수준의 클래
     스에서 ‘__hash__ = None’을 설정하면 ‘tp_hash’ 슬롯이 *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 138f.로 설정됩니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 4912, *note tp_richcompare: 490c.

     이 필드는 *note tp_richcompare: 490c.와 함께 서브 형에 의해 상속됩
     니다: 서브 형의 *note tp_richcompare: 490c.와 *note tp_hash: 4912.가
     모두 ‘NULL’일 때, 서브 형은 *note tp_richcompare: 490c.와 *note
     tp_hash: 4912.를 모두 상속합니다.

     '기본값:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. uses *note PyObject_GenericHash():
     360.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ternaryfunc: 4b09. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_call

     객체 호출을 구현하는 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.  객체가 콜러블이 아
     니면 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다.  서명은 *note PyObject_Call(): 396.과 같
     습니다:

          PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note reprfunc: 4b02. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_str

     내장 연산 *note str(): 445.을 구현하는 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.
     (*note str: 445.는 이제 형이며, *note str(): 445.은 그 형의 생성자
     를 호출함에 유의하십시오.  이 생성자는 *note PyObject_Str(): 1026.를
     호출하여 실제 작업을 수행하고, *note PyObject_Str(): 1026.은 이 처
     리기를 호출합니다.)

     서명은 *note PyObject_Str(): 1026.과 같습니다:

          PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self);

     함수는 문자열이나 유니코드 객체를 반환해야 합니다.  다른 것 중에서
     도, *note print(): f6d. 함수에 의해 사용될 표현이기 때문에, 객체의
     “친숙한” 문자열 표현이어야 합니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

     '기본값:'

     이 필드를 설정하지 않으면, 문자열 표현을 반환하기 위해 *note
     PyObject_Repr(): 1025.이 호출됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note getattrofunc: 4af5. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_getattro

     어트리뷰트 읽기(get-attribute) 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     서명은 *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 344.과 같습니다:

          PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr);

     일반적으로 이 필드를 *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a62.로 설정
     하는 것이 편리합니다, 객체 어트리뷰트를 찾는 일반적인 방법을 구현합
     니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 4909, *note tp_getattro: 16f9.

     이 필드는 *note tp_getattr: 4909.과 함께 서브 형에 의해 상속됩니다:
     서브 형의 *note tp_getattr: 4909.과 *note tp_getattro: 16f9.가 모두
     ‘NULL’일 때 서브 형은 베이스형에서 *note tp_getattr: 4909.과 *note
     tp_getattro: 16f9.를 모두 상속합니다.

     '기본값:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a62.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note setattrofunc: 4b05. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_setattro

     어트리뷰트 설정과 삭제를 위한 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     서명은 *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a6b.과 같습니다:

          int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value);

     또한, 'value'를 ‘NULL’로 설정하여 어트리뷰트를 삭제하는 것을 반드시
     지원해야 합니다.  일반적으로 이 필드를 *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4a63.로 설정하는 것이 편리합니다, 객체 어
     트리뷰트를 설정하는 일반적인 방법을 구현합니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 490a, *note tp_setattro: 4904.

     이 필드는 *note tp_setattr: 490a.과 함께 서브 형에 의해 상속됩니다:
     서브 형의 *note tp_setattr: 490a.과 *note tp_setattro: 4904.가 모두
     ‘NULL’일 때, 서브 형은 베이스형에서 *note tp_setattr: 490a.과 *note
     tp_setattro: 4904.를 모두 상속합니다.

     '기본값:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4a63.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyBufferProcs: 4c11. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_as_buffer

     버퍼 인터페이스를 구현하는 객체에만 관련된 필드를 포함하는 추가 구
     조체에 대한 포인터.  이 필드는 *note 버퍼 객체 구조체: 4bcd.에서 설
     명합니다.

     '계승:'

     *note tp_as_buffer: 986. 필드는 상속되지 않지만, 포함된 필드는 개별
     적으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: unsigned long *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_flags

     이 필드는 다양한 플래그의 비트 마스크입니다.  일부 플래그는 특정 상
     황에 대한 변형 의미론을 나타냅니다; 다른 것들은 역사적으로 항상 존
     재하지는 않았던 형 객체(또는 *note tp_as_number: 988, *note
     tp_as_sequence: 4e74, *note tp_as_mapping: 4e75. 및 *note
     tp_as_buffer: 986.를 통해 참조되는 확장 구조체)의 특정 필드가 유효
     함을 나타내는 데 사용됩니다; 이러한 플래그 비트가 없으면, 이것이 보
     호하는 형 필드에 액세스하지 말아야 하며 대신 0이나 ‘NULL’ 값을 갖는
     것으로 간주해야 합니다.

     '계승:'

     Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are
     inherited individually, i.e.  if the base type has a flag bit set,
     the subtype inherits this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to
     extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension
     structure is inherited, i.e.  the base type’s value of the flag bit
     is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
     structure.  The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit is
     inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 777. and *note
     tp_clear: 48fe. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776.
     flag bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 777.
     and *note tp_clear: 48fe. fields in the subtype exist and have
     ‘NULL’ values.  ..  XXX are most flag bits 'really' inherited
     individually?

     '기본값:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. uses ‘Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT |
     Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE’.

     '비트 마스크:'

     다음 비트 마스크가 현재 정의되어 있습니다; 이들은 ‘|’ 연산자로 함께
     OR 하여 *note tp_flags: 18c4. 필드의 값을 형성할 수 있습니다.  매크
     로 *note PyType_HasFeature(): 195a.는 형과 플래그 값 'tp'와 'f'를 취
     하고 ‘tp->tp_flags & f’가 0이 아닌지 확인합니다.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE

          This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on
          the heap, for example, types created dynamically using *note
          PyType_FromSpec(): 578.  In this case, the *note ob_type:
          48ea. field of its instances is considered a reference to the
          type, and the type object is INCREF’ed when a new instance is
          created, and DECREF’ed when an instance is destroyed (this
          does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type
          referenced by the instance’s ob_type gets INCREF’ed or
          DECREF’ed).  Heap types should also *note support garbage
          collection: 4eb6. as they can form a reference cycle with
          their own module object.

          '계승:'

          ???

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE

          이 비트는 형을 다른 형의 베이스형으로 사용할 수 있을 때 설정됩
          니다.  이 비트가 설정되지 않으면 이 형으로 서브 형을 만들 수 없
          습니다 (Java의 “final” 클래스와 유사합니다).

          '계승:'

          ???

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_READY

          이 비트는 *note PyType_Ready(): 775.에 의해 형 객체가 완전히 초
          기화될 때 설정됩니다.

          '계승:'

          ???

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING

          이 비트는 *note PyType_Ready(): 775.가 형 객체를 초기화하는 동
          안 설정됩니다.

          '계승:'

          ???

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

          This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection.
          If this bit is set, instances must be created using *note
          PyObject_GC_New: a9f. and destroyed using *note
          PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc.  More information in section *note
          순환 가비지 수집 지원: 4eb6.  This bit also implies that the
          GC-related fields *note tp_traverse: 777. and *note tp_clear:
          48fe. are present in the type object.

          '계승:'

          Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776, *note tp_traverse: 777,
          *note tp_clear: 48fe.

          The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit is inherited
          together with the *note tp_traverse: 777. and *note tp_clear:
          48fe. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag
          bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 777.
          and *note tp_clear: 48fe. fields in the subtype exist and have
          ‘NULL’ values.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT

          This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the
          existence of certain fields in the type object and its
          extension structures.  Currently, it includes the following
          bits: ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION’.

          '계승:'

          ???

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR

          이 비트는 객체가 연결되지 않은 메서드(unbound method)처럼 동작
          함을 나타냅니다.

          이 플래그가 ‘type(meth)’에 설정되면:

             - ‘meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds)’(‘obj’가 None이 아
               닐 때)는 ‘meth(obj, *args, **kwds)’와 동등해야 합니다.

             - ‘meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds)’는 ‘meth(*args,
               **kwds)’와 동등해야 합니다.

          이 플래그는 ‘obj.meth()’와 같은 일반적인 메서드 호출에 대한 최
          적화를 가능하게 합니다: ‘obj.meth’에 대한 임시 “연결된 메서드
          (bound method)” 객체를 만들지 않습니다.

          Added in version 3.8.

          '계승:'

          This flag is never inherited by types without the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. flag set.  For extension types,
          it is inherited whenever *note tp_descr_get: 4e76. is
          inherited.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT

          This bit indicates that instances of the class have a *note
          __dict__: 556. attribute, and that the space for the
          dictionary is managed by the VM.

          If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. should
          also be set.

          The type traverse function must call *note
          PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 362. and its clear function must
          call *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 363.

          Added in version 3.12.

          '계승:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b.
          field is set in a superclass.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF

          This bit indicates that instances of the class should be
          weakly referenceable.

          Added in version 3.12.

          '계승:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_weaklistoffset:
          985. field is set in a superclass.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END

          Only usable with variable-size types, i.e.  ones with non-zero
          *note tp_itemsize: 1f78.

          Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of
          this type is at the end of the instance’s memory area, at an
          offset of ‘Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize’ (which may be different
          in each subclass).

          When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either
          use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized.  Python
          does not check this.

          Added in version 3.12.

          '계승:'

          This flag is inherited.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS

          이 플래그는 *note PyLong_Check(): 4c1b. 와 같은 함수에서 형이
          내장형의 서브 클래스인지 신속하게 판별하는 데 사용됩니다; 이러
          한 특정 검사는 *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e9c.와 같은 일반 검
          사보다 빠릅니다.  내장에서 상속된 사용자 정의 형은 *note
          tp_flags: 18c4.를 적절하게 설정해야 합니다, 그렇지 않으면 그러
          한 형과 상호 작용하는 코드가 사용되는 검사의 유형에 따라 다르
          게 작동합니다.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE

          이 비트는 *note tp_finalize: aa3. 슬롯이 형 구조체에 있을 때 설
          정됩니다.

          Added in version 3.4.

          버전 3.8부터 폐지됨: 인터프리터는 *note tp_finalize: aa3. 슬롯
          이 항상 형 구조체에 있다고 가정하기 때문에, 이 플래그는 더는 필
          요하지 않습니다.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

          이 비트는 클래스가 *note 벡터콜 프로토콜: 54d.을 구현할 때 설
          정됩니다.  자세한 내용은 *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4bad.을 참
          조하십시오.

          '계승:'

          This bit is inherited if *note tp_call: 554. is also
          inherited.

          Added in version 3.9.

          버전 3.12에서 변경: This flag is now removed from a class when
          the class’s *note __call__(): 553. method is reassigned.

          This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE

          This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type
          attributes cannot be set nor deleted.

          *note PyType_Ready(): 775. automatically applies this flag to
          *note static types: 778.

          '계승:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION

          Disallow creating instances of the type: set *note tp_new:
          57a. to NULL and don’t create the ‘__new__’ key in the type
          dictionary.

          The flag must be set before creating the type, not after.  For
          example, it must be set before *note PyType_Ready(): 775. is
          called on the type.

          The flag is set automatically on *note static types: 778. if
          *note tp_base: 48f7. is NULL or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note
          tp_new: 57a. is NULL.

          '계승:'

          This flag is not inherited.  However, subclasses will not be
          instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL *note tp_new: 57a.
          (which is only possible via the C API).

               참고: To disallow instantiating a class directly but
               allow instantiating its subclasses (e.g.  for an *note
               abstract base class: 11a5.), do not use this flag.
               Instead, make *note tp_new: 57a. only succeed for
               subclasses.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          mapping patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          807. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7, and unset when
          registering *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3.

               참고: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18aa. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18ab. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          '계승:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18ab.

          더 보기
          .......

          PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          sequence patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          807. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3, and unset
          when registering *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7.

               참고: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18aa. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18ab. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          '계승:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18aa.

          더 보기
          .......

          PEP 634(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C 매크로: Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG

          Internal.  Do not set or unset this flag.  To indicate that a
          class has changed call *note PyType_Modified(): 17f8.

               경고: This flag is present in header files, but is not be
               used.  It will be removed in a future version of CPython

 -- C 멤버 변수: const char **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_doc

     An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the
     docstring for this type object.  This is exposed as the *note
     __doc__: 1cb4. attribute on the type and instances of the type.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 '않습니다'.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note traverseproc: 4b0a. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_traverse

     An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage
     collector.  This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776.
     flag bit is set.  The signature is:

          int tp_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg);

     파이썬의 가비지 수집 체계에 대한 자세한 정보는 섹션 *note 순환
     가비지 수집 지원: 4eb6.에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

     The *note tp_traverse: 777. pointer is used by the garbage
     collector to detect reference cycles.  A typical implementation of
     a *note tp_traverse: 777. function simply calls *note Py_VISIT():
     48f5. on each of the instance’s members that are Python objects
     that the instance owns.  For example, this is function
     ‘local_traverse()’ from the ‘_thread’ extension module:

          static int
          local_traverse(localobject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->args);
              Py_VISIT(self->kw);
              Py_VISIT(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     *note Py_VISIT(): 48f5.는 참조 순환에 참여할 수 있는 멤버에 대해서
     만 호출됨에 유의하십시오.  ‘self->key’ 멤버도 있지만, ‘NULL’이나 파
     이썬 문자열만 가능해서 참조 순환의 일부가 될 수 없습니다.

     반면에, 멤버가 사이클의 일부가 될 수 없다는 것을 알고 있더라도, 디
     버깅 지원을 위해 *note gc: 60. 모듈의 *note get_referents(): 7ff. 함
     수가 그것을 포함하도록 어쨌거나 방문하고 싶을 수 있습니다.

     Heap types (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ac.) must visit their type
     with:

          Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));

     It is only needed since Python 3.9.  To support Python 3.8 and
     older, this line must be conditional:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
              Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
          #endif

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 18c4. field, the traverse function must call *note
     PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 362. like this:

          PyObject_VisitManagedDict((PyObject*)self, visit, arg);

          경고: When implementing *note tp_traverse: 777, only the
          members that the instance 'owns' (by having *note strong
          references: 336. to them) must be visited.  For instance, if
          an object supports weak references via the *note tp_weaklist:
          4c10. slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what
          'tp_weaklist' points to) must 'not' be visited as the instance
          does not directly own the weak references to itself (the
          weakreference list is there to support the weak reference
          machinery, but the instance has no strong reference to the
          elements inside it, as they are allowed to be removed even if
          the instance is still alive).

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 48f5. requires the 'visit' and 'arg'
     parameters to ‘local_traverse()’ to have these specific names;
     don’t name them just anything.

     Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 963. hold a reference to
     their type.  Their traversal function must therefore either visit
     *note Py_TYPE(self): 779, or delegate this responsibility by
     calling ‘tp_traverse’ of another heap-allocated type (such as a
     heap-allocated superclass).  If they do not, the type object may
     not be garbage-collected.

     버전 3.9에서 변경: 힙 할당 형은 ‘tp_traverse’에서 ‘Py_TYPE(self)’를
     방문할 것으로 기대됩니다.  이전 버전의 파이썬에서는, 버그 40217(3)로
     인해, 이렇게 하면 서브 클래스에서 충돌이 발생할 수 있습니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776, *note tp_traverse: 777, *note
     tp_clear: 48fe.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_clear:
     48fe. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit: the flag
     bit, *note tp_traverse: 777, and *note tp_clear: 48fe. are all
     inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note inquiry: 4afb. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_clear

     An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector.
     This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit is
     set.  The signature is:

          int tp_clear(PyObject *);

     *note tp_clear: 48fe. 멤버 함수는 가비지 수집기에서 감지한 순환 가
     비지에서 참조 순환을 끊는 데 사용됩니다.  종합하여, 시스템의 모든
     *note tp_clear: 48fe. 함수가 결합하여 모든 참조 순환을 끊어야 합니
     다.  이것은 미묘합니다, 확신이 서지 않으면 *note tp_clear: 48fe. 함
     수를 제공하십시오.  예를 들어, 튜플 형은 *note tp_clear: 48fe. 함수
     를 구현하지 않습니다.  튜플만으로는 참조 순환이 구성될 수 없음을 증
     명할 수 있기 때문입니다.  따라서 다른 형의 *note tp_clear: 48fe. 함
     수만으로 튜플을 포함하는 순환을 끊기에 충분해야 합니다.  이것은 그
     리 자명하지 않으며, *note tp_clear: 48fe.를 구현하지 않아도 좋을 만
     한 이유는 거의 없습니다.

     *note tp_clear: 48fe.의 구현은 다음 예제와 같이 파이썬 객체일 수 있
     는 자신의 멤버에 대한 인스턴스의 참조를 삭제하고 해당 멤버에 대한 포
     인터를 ‘NULL’로 설정해야 합니다:

          static int
          local_clear(localobject *self)
          {
              Py_CLEAR(self->key);
              Py_CLEAR(self->args);
              Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
              Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     The *note Py_CLEAR(): 573. macro should be used, because clearing
     references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must
     not be released (via *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.) until after the
     pointer to the contained object is set to ‘NULL’.  This is because
     releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become
     trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include
     invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref
     callbacks, associated with the contained object).  If it’s possible
     for such code to reference 'self' again, it’s important that the
     pointer to the contained object be ‘NULL’ at that time, so that
     'self' knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The *note
     Py_CLEAR(): 573. macro performs the operations in a safe order.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 18c4. field, the traverse function must call *note
     PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 363. like this:

          PyObject_ClearManagedDict((PyObject*)self);

     Note that *note tp_clear: 48fe. is not 'always' called before an
     instance is deallocated.  For example, when reference counting is
     enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic
     garbage collector is not involved and *note tp_dealloc: 48da. is
     called directly.

     *note tp_clear: 48fe. 함수의 목표는 참조 순환을 끊는 것이기 때문에,
     참조 순환에 참여할 수 없는 파이썬 문자열이나 파이썬 정수와 같은 포
     함된 객체를 정리할 필요는 없습니다.  반면에, 포함된 모든 파이썬 객
     체를 정리하고, 형의 *note tp_dealloc: 48da. 함수가 *note tp_clear:
     48fe.를 호출하도록 작성하는 것이 편리할 수 있습니다.

     파이썬의 가비지 수집 체계에 대한 자세한 정보는 섹션 *note 순환
     가비지 수집 지원: 4eb6.에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776, *note tp_traverse: 777, *note
     tp_clear: 48fe.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_traverse: 777. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit:
     the flag bit, *note tp_traverse: 777, and *note tp_clear: 48fe. are
     all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the
     subtype.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note richcmpfunc: 4b03. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_richcompare

     풍부한 비교 함수(rich comparison function)에 대한 선택적 포인터.  서
     명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);

     첫 번째 매개 변수는 *note PyTypeObject: aa2.에 의해 정의된 형의 인
     스턴스임이 보장됩니다.

     이 함수는 비교 결과(일반적으로 ‘Py_True’나 ‘Py_False’)를 반환해야 합
     니다.  비교가 정의되어 있지 않으면, ‘Py_NotImplemented’를 반환하고,
     다른 에러가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외 조건을 설정해야 합니다.

     다음 상수는 *note tp_richcompare: 490c.와 *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 490d.의 세 번째 인자로 사용되도록 정의됩니
     다:

     상수                     비교
                              
     ------------------------------------------
                              
      -- C 매크로: Py_LT      ‘<’
                              
                              
      -- C 매크로: Py_LE      ‘<=’
                              
                              
      -- C 매크로: Py_EQ      ‘==’
                              
                              
      -- C 매크로: Py_NE      ‘!=’
                              
                              
      -- C 매크로: Py_GT      ‘>’
                              
                              
      -- C 매크로: Py_GE      ‘>=’
                              

     풍부한 비교 함수를 쉽게 작성할 수 있도록 다음 매크로가 정의됩니다:

      -- C 매크로: Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (VAL_A, VAL_B, op)

          비교 결과에 따라, 함수에서 ‘Py_True’나 ‘Py_False’를 반환합니다
          .  VAL_A와 VAL_B는 C 비교 연산자로 순서를 정할 수 있어야 합니
          다 (예를 들어, C int나 float일 수 있습니다).  세 번째 인자는
          *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490d.에서처럼 요청된 연산을 지정
          합니다.

          The returned value is a new *note strong reference: 336.

          에러가 발생하면, 예외를 설정하고 함수에서 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

          Added in version 3.7.

     '계승:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 4912, *note tp_richcompare: 490c.

     이 필드는 *note tp_hash: 4912.와 함께 서브 형에 의해 상속됩니다.  서
     브 형의 *note tp_richcompare: 490c.와 *note tp_hash: 4912.가 모두
     ‘NULL’이면 서브 형은 *note tp_richcompare: 490c.와 *note tp_hash:
     4912.를 상속합니다.

     '기본값:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. provides a *note tp_richcompare:
     490c. implementation, which may be inherited.  However, if only
     *note tp_hash: 4912. is defined, not even the inherited function is
     used and instances of the type will not be able to participate in
     any comparisons.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_weaklistoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 555. should be used instead, if at all
     possible.

     If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field
     is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance
     structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header,
     if present); this offset is used by *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs():
     571. and the ‘PyWeakref_*’ functions.  The instance structure needs
     to include a field of type *note PyObject: 332.* which is
     initialized to ‘NULL’.

     이 필드를 *note tp_weaklist: 4c10.와 혼동하지 마십시오; 그것은 형 객
     체 자체에 대한 약한 참조의 리스트 헤드입니다.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     555. bit and *note tp_weaklistoffset: 985.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지만, 아래 나열된 규칙을 참조하십시
     오.  서브 형이 이 오프셋을 재정의할 수 있습니다; 이는 서브 형이 베
     이스형과 다른 약한 참조 리스트 헤드를 사용함을 의미합니다.  리스트
     헤드는 항상 *note tp_weaklistoffset: 985.을 통해 발견되므로, 문제가
     되지 않습니다.

     '기본값:'

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 555. bit is set in the
     *note tp_flags: 18c4. field, then *note tp_weaklistoffset: 985.
     will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to
     use this field.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note getiterfunc: 4af7. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_iter

     An optional pointer to a function that returns an *note iterator:
     1ac. for the object.  Its presence normally signals that the
     instances of this type are *note iterable: 1217. (although
     sequences may be iterable without this function).

     이 함수는 *note PyObject_GetIter(): 4a66.와 같은 서명을 갖습니다:

          PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self);

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note iternextfunc: 4afc. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_iternext

     An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an
     *note iterator: 1ac.  The signature is:

          PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self);

     이터레이터가 소진되면 ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다; *note
     StopIteration: bf7. 예외가 설정될 수도, 그렇지 않을 수도 있습니다.
     다른 에러가 발생하면, 역시 ‘NULL’을 반환해야 합니다.  그 존재는 이
     형의 인스턴스가 이터레이터라는 신호입니다.

     이터레이터 형은 *note tp_iter: 14b6. 함수도 정의해야 하며, 해당 함
     수는 (새 이터레이터 인스턴스가 아닌) 이터레이터 인스턴스 자체를 반
     환해야 합니다.

     이 함수는 *note PyIter_Next(): 4a16.와 같은 서명을 갖습니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: struct *note PyMethodDef: 149f. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_methods

     이 형의 일반 메서드를 선언하는 *note PyMethodDef: 149f. 구조체의 정
     적 ‘NULL’-종료 배열에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     배열의 항목마다, 메서드 디스크립터를 포함하는 형의 딕셔너리(아래
     *note tp_dict: 1725.를 참조하십시오)에 항목이 추가됩니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다 (메서드는 다른 메커니즘
     을 통해 상속됩니다).

 -- C 멤버 변수: struct *note PyMemberDef: 54a. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_members

     이 형의 인스턴스의 일반 데이터 멤버(필드나 슬롯)를 선언하는 *note
     PyMemberDef: 54a. 구조체의 정적 ‘NULL’-종료 배열에 대한 선택적 포인
     터.

     배열의 항목마다, 멤버 디스크립터를 포함하는 형의 딕셔너리(아래
     *note tp_dict: 1725.를 참조하십시오)에 항목이 추가됩니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다 (멤버는 다른 메커니즘을
     통해 상속됩니다).

 -- C 멤버 변수: struct *note PyGetSetDef: bb5. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_getset

     이 형의 인스턴스의 계산된 어트리뷰트를 선언하는 *note PyGetSetDef:
     bb5. 구조체의 정적 ‘NULL’-종료 배열에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     배열의 항목마다, getset 디스크립터를 포함하는 형의 딕셔너리(아래
     *note tp_dict: 1725.를 참조하십시오)에 항목이 추가됩니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다 (계산된 어트리뷰트는 다
     른 메커니즘을 통해 상속됩니다).

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyTypeObject: aa2. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_base

     형 속성이 상속되는 베이스형에 대한 선택적 포인터.  이 수준에서는, 단
     일 상속만 지원됩니다; 다중 상속은 메타 형을 호출하여 형 객체를 동적
     으로 작성해야 합니다.

          참고: 
          슬롯 초기화에는 전역 초기화 규칙이 적용됩니다.  C99에서는 초기
          화자가 “주소 상수(address constants)”여야 합니다.  포인터로 묵
          시적으로 변환되는 *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e9.와 같은 함수
          지정자는 유효한 C99 주소 상수입니다.

          However, the unary ‘&’ operator applied to a non-static
          variable like *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. is not required
          to produce an address constant.  Compilers may support this
          (gcc does), MSVC does not.  Both compilers are strictly
          standard conforming in this particular behavior.

          결과적으로, *note tp_base: 48f7.는 확장 모듈의 초기화 함수에서
          설정되어야 합니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다 (명백히).

     '기본값:'

     이 필드의 기본값은 ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’입니다 (파이썬 프로그래머에
     게는 *note object: a89. 형으로 알려져 있습니다).

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_dict

     형의 딕셔너리는 *note PyType_Ready(): 775.에 의해 여기에 저장됩니다
     .

     This field should normally be initialized to ‘NULL’ before
     PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary
     containing initial attributes for the type.  Once *note
     PyType_Ready(): 775. has initialized the type, extra attributes for
     the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don’t
     correspond to overloaded operations (like *note __add__(): 1f94.).
     Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be
     treated as read-only.

     Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot.  Use *note
     PyType_GetDict(): 1724. to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary
     type.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Internals detail: For static builtin types,
     this is always ‘NULL’.  Instead, the dict for such types is stored
     on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 1724. to get
     the dict for an arbitrary type.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형에 의해 상속되지 않습니다 (여기에 정의된 어트리뷰
     트는 다른 메커니즘을 통해 상속됩니다).

     '기본값:'

     이 필드가 ‘NULL’이면, *note PyType_Ready(): 775.는 새 딕셔너리를 할
     당합니다.

          경고: *note PyDict_SetItem(): 48d7.을 사용하거나 다른 식으로 딕
          셔너리 C-API로 *note tp_dict: 1725.를 수정하는 것은 안전하지 않
          습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note descrgetfunc: 4af1. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_descr_get

     “디스크립터 get” 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note descrsetfunc: 4af2. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_descr_set

     디스크립터 값을 설정하고 삭제하기 위한 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);

     'value' 인자는 값을 삭제하기 위해 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_dictoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT:
     364. should be used instead, if at all possible.

     이 형의 인스턴스에 인스턴스 변수를 포함하는 딕셔너리가 있으면, 이 필
     드는 0이 아니며 인스턴스 변수 딕셔너리 형의 인스턴스에서의 오프셋을
     포함합니다; 이 오프셋은 *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a62.에서
     사용됩니다.

     이 필드를 *note tp_dict: 1725.와 혼동하지 마십시오; 그것은 형 객체
     자체의 어트리뷰트에 대한 딕셔너리입니다.

     The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of
     the instance structure.

     The *note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b. should be regarded as write-only.
     To get the pointer to the dictionary call *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1941.  Calling *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1941. may need to allocate memory for
     the dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call *note
     PyObject_GetAttr(): 344. when accessing an attribute on the object.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364.
     bit and *note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b.

     '계승:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.  A subtype should not override
     this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access
     the dictionary at the previous offset.  To properly support
     inheritance, use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364.

     '기본값:'

     This slot has no default.  For *note static types: 778, if the
     field is ‘NULL’ then no *note __dict__: 556. gets created for
     instances.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 364. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 18c4. field, then *note tp_dictoffset: 4c0b. will be set
     to ‘-1’, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note initproc: 4afa. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_init

     인스턴스 초기화 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     This function corresponds to the *note __init__(): 6aa. method of
     classes.  Like ‘__init__()’, it is possible to create an instance
     without calling ‘__init__()’, and it is possible to reinitialize an
     instance by calling its ‘__init__()’ method again.

     함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the 'args' and
     'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the
     call to *note __init__(): 6aa.

     ‘NULL’이 아닐 때, *note tp_init: 57c. 함수는 형을 호출하여 인스턴스
     를 정상적으로 만들 때, 형의 *note tp_new: 57a. 함수가 형의 인스턴스
     를 반환한 후 호출됩니다.  *note tp_new: 57a. 함수가 원래 형의 서브
     형이 아닌 다른 형의 인스턴스를 반환하면, 아무런 *note tp_init: 57c.
     함수도 호출되지 않습니다; *note tp_new: 57a.가 원래 형의 서브 형 인
     스턴스를 반환하면, 서브 형의 *note tp_init: 57c.가 호출됩니다.

     성공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고, 에러 시에는 ‘-1’을 반환하고 예외를 설정합
     니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

     '기본값:'

     For *note static types: 778. this field does not have a default.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note allocfunc: 4aef. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_alloc

     인스턴스 할당 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems);

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 정적 서브 형에 의해 상속되지만, 동적 서브 형(클래스 문으
     로 만들어진 서브 형)에는 상속되지 않습니다.

     '기본값:'

     동적 서브 형의 경우, 이 필드는 표준 힙 할당 전략을 강제하기 위해 항
     상 *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a67.으로 설정됩니다.

     For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. uses *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): a67.  That is the recommended value for all
     statically defined types.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note newfunc: 4afe. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_new

     인스턴스 생성 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     함수 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     'subtype' 인자는 만들어지고 있는 객체의 형입니다; 'args'와 'kwds' 인
     자는 형 호출의 위치와 키워드 인자를 나타냅니다.  'subtype'이 *note
     tp_new: 57a. 함수가 호출되는 형과 같을 필요는 없음에 유의하십시오;
     이 형의 서브 형일 수 있습니다 (하지만 관련이 없는 형은 아닙니다).

     *note tp_new: 57a. 함수는 객체에 공간을 할당하기 위해
     ‘subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)’를 호출해야 하고, 그런 다음 꼭
     필요한 만큼만 추가 초기화를 수행해야 합니다.  안전하게 무시하거나 반
     복할 수 있는 초기화는 *note tp_init: 57c. 처리기에 배치해야 합니다.
     간단한 규칙은, 불변 형의 경우 모든 초기화가 *note tp_new: 57a.에서
     수행되어야 하고, 가변형의 경우 대부분 초기화는 *note tp_init: 57c.로
     미뤄져야 합니다.

     Set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57d. flag to
     disallow creating instances of the type in Python.

     '계승:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by
     *note static types: 778. whose *note tp_base: 48f7. is ‘NULL’ or
     ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’.

     '기본값:'

     For *note static types: 778. this field has no default.  This means
     if the slot is defined as ‘NULL’, the type cannot be called to
     create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create
     instances, like a factory function.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note freefunc: 4d18. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_free

     인스턴스 할당 해제 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.  서명은 다음과 같습니
     다:

          void tp_free(void *self);

     이 서명과 호환되는 초기화자는 *note PyObject_Free(): c63.입니다.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 정적 서브 형에 의해 상속되지만, 동적 서브 형(클래스 문으
     로 만들어진 서브 형)에는 상속되지 않습니다.

     '기본값:'

     In dynamic subtypes, this field is set to a deallocator suitable to
     match *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a67. and the value of the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit.

     For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4967. uses *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1499.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note inquiry: 4afb. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_is_gc

     가비지 수집기에서 호출되는 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.

     The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is
     collectible or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the
     object’s type’s *note tp_flags: 18c4. field, and check the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag bit.  But some types have a mixture
     of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the
     statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types
     should define this function; it should return ‘1’ for a collectible
     instance, and ‘0’ for a non-collectible instance.  The signature
     is:

          int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self);

     (The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
     *note PyType_Type: 548, defines this function to distinguish
     between statically and *note dynamically allocated types: 963.)

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

     '기본값:'

     This slot has no default.  If this field is ‘NULL’, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. is used as the functional equivalent.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_bases

     베이스형의 튜플.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 775.

     For dynamically created classes, the ‘Py_tp_bases’ *note slot:
     4a9e. can be used instead of the 'bases' argument of *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579.  The argument form is preferred.

          경고: Multiple inheritance does not work well for statically
          defined types.  If you set ‘tp_bases’ to a tuple, Python will
          not raise an error, but some slots will only be inherited from
          the first base.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_mro

     형 자체에서 시작하여 *note object: a89.로 끝나는 확장된 베이스형 집
     합을 포함하는 튜플.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 775.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다; *note PyType_Ready(): 775.에 의해 새로
     계산됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_cache

     사용되지 않습니다.  내부 전용.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: void **note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_subclasses

     A collection of subclasses.  Internal use only.  May be an invalid
     pointer.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 56e.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: For some types, this field does not hold a
     valid *note PyObject: 332.*.  The type was changed to void* to
     indicate this.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note PyObject: 332. **note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_weaklist

     이 형 객체에 대한 약한 참조를 위한 약한 참조 리스트 헤드.  상속되지
     않습니다.  내부 전용.

     버전 3.12에서 변경: Internals detail: For the static builtin types
     this is always ‘NULL’, even if weakrefs are added.  Instead, the
     weakrefs for each are stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use the
     public C-API or the internal ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’
     macro to avoid the distinction.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note destructor: 4af3. *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_del

     이 필드는 폐지되었습니다.  대신 *note tp_finalize: aa3.를 사용하십
     시오.

 -- C 멤버 변수: unsigned int *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_version_tag

     메서드 캐시에 인덱싱하는 데 사용됩니다.  내부 전용.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note destructor: 4af3. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_finalize

     인스턴스 파이널리제이션 함수에 대한 선택적 포인터.  서명은 다음과 같
     습니다:

          void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);

     *note tp_finalize: aa3.가 설정되면, 인터프리터는 인스턴스를 파이널
     라이즈 할 때 이를 한 번 호출합니다.  가비지 수집기(인스턴스가 격리
     된 참조 순환의 일부인 경우)나 객체가 할당 해제되기 직전에 호출됩니
     다.  어느 쪽이든, 참조 순환을 끊기 전에 호출되어 정상 상태에 있는 객
     체를 보도록 보장합니다.

     *note tp_finalize: aa3.는 현재 예외 상태를 변경하지 않아야 합니다;
     따라서 사소하지 않은 파이널라이저를 작성하는 권장 방법은 다음과 같
     습니다:

          static void
          local_finalize(PyObject *self)
          {
              /* Save the current exception, if any. */
              PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

              /* ... */

              /* Restore the saved exception. */
              PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 서브 형으로 상속됩니다.

     Added in version 3.4.

     버전 3.8에서 변경: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to set the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ec. flags bit in order for this
     field to be used.  This is no longer required.

     더 보기
     .......

     “안전한 객체 파이널리제이션” ( PEP 442(4))

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note vectorcallfunc: 552. *note PyTypeObject:
          aa2.tp_vectorcall

     Vectorcall function to use for calls of this type object.  In other
     words, it is used to implement *note vectorcall: 54d. for
     ‘type.__call__’.  If ‘tp_vectorcall’ is ‘NULL’, the default call
     implementation using *note __new__(): 57b. and *note __init__():
     6aa. is used.

     '계승:'

     이 필드는 상속되지 않습니다.

     Added in version 3.9: (필드는 3.8부터 존재하지만 3.9부터 사용됩니다
     )

 -- C 멤버 변수: unsigned char *note PyTypeObject: aa2.tp_watched

     Internal.  Do not use.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue40217

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Static Types,  Next: 힙 형,  Prev: PyTypeObject 슬롯,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.9 Static Types
.....................

전통적으로, C 코드에서 정의된 형은 '정적(static)'입니다.  즉 정적 *note
PyTypeObject: aa2. 구조체는 코드에서 직접 정의되고 *note PyType_Ready():
775.를 사용하여 초기화됩니다.

결과적으로 파이썬에서 정의된 형에 비해 형이 제한됩니다:

   * 정적 형은 하나의 베이스로 제한됩니다.  즉, 다중 상속을 사용할 수 없
     습니다.

   * 정적 형 객체(그러나 이들의 인스턴스는 아닙니다)는 불변입니다.  파이
     썬에서 형 객체의 어트리뷰트를 추가하거나 수정할 수 없습니다.

   * 정적 형 객체는 *note 서브 인터프리터: 582.에서 공유되므로, 서브 인
     터프리터 관련 상태를 포함하지 않아야 합니다.

Also, since *note PyTypeObject: aa2. is only part of the *note Limited
API: 38f. as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types
must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.


File: python.info,  Node: 힙 형,  Next: 숫자 객체 구조체,  Prev: Static Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.10 힙 형
...............

An alternative to *note static types: 778. is 'heap-allocated types', or
'heap types' for short, which correspond closely to classes created by
Python’s ‘class’ statement.  Heap types have the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ac. flag set.

This is done by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 1722. structure and calling
*note PyType_FromSpec(): 578, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 579,
*note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c, or *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
54b.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자 객체 구조체,  Next: 매핑 객체 구조체,  Prev: 힙 형,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.11 숫자 객체 구조체
..........................

 -- C 자료형: type PyNumberMethods

     이 구조체는 객체가 숫자 프로토콜을 구현하는 데 사용하는 함수에 대한
     포인터를 담습니다.  각 함수는 *note 숫자 프로토콜: 4bb8. 섹션에서 설
     명하는 유사한 이름의 함수가 사용합니다.

     구조체 정의는 다음과 같습니다:

          typedef struct {
               binaryfunc nb_add;
               binaryfunc nb_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_remainder;
               binaryfunc nb_divmod;
               ternaryfunc nb_power;
               unaryfunc nb_negative;
               unaryfunc nb_positive;
               unaryfunc nb_absolute;
               inquiry nb_bool;
               unaryfunc nb_invert;
               binaryfunc nb_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_and;
               binaryfunc nb_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_or;
               unaryfunc nb_int;
               void *nb_reserved;
               unaryfunc nb_float;

               binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
               ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;

               binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;

               unaryfunc nb_index;

               binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
          } PyNumberMethods;

          참고: 이항과 삼항 함수는 모든 피연산자의 형을 확인하고, 필요한
          변환을 구현해야합니다 (적어도 피연산자 중 하나는 정의된 형의 인
          스턴스입니다).  주어진 피연산자에 대해 연산이 정의되지 않으면,
          이항과 삼항 함수는 ‘Py_NotImplemented’를 반환해야하며, 다른 에
          러가 발생하면 ‘NULL’을 반환하고 예외를 설정해야 합니다.

          참고: The *note nb_reserved: 4e9c. field should always be
          ‘NULL’.  It was previously called ‘nb_long’, and was renamed
          in Python 3.0.1.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_add

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_subtract

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_multiply

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_remainder

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_divmod

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ternaryfunc: 4b09. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_power

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_negative

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_positive

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_absolute

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note inquiry: 4afb. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_bool

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_invert

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_lshift

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_rshift

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_and

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_xor

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_or

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_int

 -- C 멤버 변수: void **note PyNumberMethods: 13e6.nb_reserved

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_float

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_add

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_subtract

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_multiply

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_remainder

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ternaryfunc: 4b09. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_power

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_lshift

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_rshift

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_and

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_xor

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_or

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_floor_divide

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_true_divide

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_floor_divide

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_true_divide

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_index

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_matrix_multiply

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyNumberMethods:
          13e6.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply


File: python.info,  Node: 매핑 객체 구조체,  Next: 시퀀스 객체 구조체,  Prev: 숫자 객체 구조체,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.12 매핑 객체 구조체
..........................

 -- C 자료형: type PyMappingMethods

     이 구조체에는 객체가 매핑 프로토콜을 구현하는 데 사용하는 함수에 대
     한 포인터를 담습니다.  세 개의 멤버가 있습니다:

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note lenfunc: 4afd. *note PyMappingMethods:
          4911.mp_length

     이 함수는 *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a5d.와 *note PyObject_Size():
     4a6c.에서 사용되며, 같은 서명을 갖습니다.  객체에 길이가 정의되어 있
     지 않으면 이 슬롯을 ‘NULL’로 설정할 수 있습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PyMappingMethods:
          4911.mp_subscript

     이 함수는 *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340.과 *note
     PySequence_GetSlice(): 4a77.에서 사용되며, ‘PyObject_GetItem()’과 같
     은 서명을 갖습니다.  *note PyMapping_Check(): 4a29. 함수가 ‘1’을 반
     환하려면, 이 슬롯을 채워야합니다, 그렇지 않으면 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니
     다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note objobjargproc: 4aff. *note PyMappingMethods:
          4911.mp_ass_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 494a, *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e, *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 4a7e. and
     *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 4a75.  It has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_SetItem()’, but 'v' can also be set to ‘NULL’ to delete
     an item.  If this slot is ‘NULL’, the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스 객체 구조체,  Next: 버퍼 객체 구조체,  Prev: 매핑 객체 구조체,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.13 시퀀스 객체 구조체
............................

 -- C 자료형: type PySequenceMethods

     이 구조체는 객체가 시퀀스 프로토콜을 구현하는 데 사용하는 함수에 대
     한 포인터를 담습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note lenfunc: 4afd. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_length

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_Size(): 1a59.와 *note PyObject_Size():
     4a6c.에서 사용되며, 같은 서명을 갖습니다.  또한 *note sq_item:
     1933.과 *note sq_ass_item: 4ea8. 슬롯을 통해 음수 인덱스를 처리하는
     데 사용됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_concat

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_Concat(): 4a72.에서 사용되며 같은 서명을
     갖습니다.  *note nb_add: 4c02. 슬롯을 통해 숫자 덧셈을 시도한 후,
     ‘+’ 연산자에서도 사용됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_repeat

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4a7d.에서 사용되며 같은 서명을
     갖습니다.  *note nb_multiply: 4e85. 슬롯을 통해 숫자 곱셈을 시도한
     후, ‘*’ 연산자에서도 사용됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_item

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a.에서 사용되며 같은 서명
     을 갖습니다.  *note mp_subscript: 1934. 슬롯을 통해 서브스크립션
     (subscription)을 시도한 후, *note PyObject_GetItem(): 340.에서도 사
     용됩니다.  *note PySequence_Check(): 4a71. 함수가 ‘1’을 반환하려면,
     이 슬롯을 채워야합니다, 그렇지 않으면 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.

     Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the *note sq_length:
     4c0a. slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used
     to compute a positive index which is passed to *note sq_item: 1933.
     If ‘sq_length’ is ‘NULL’, the index is passed as is to the
     function.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b08. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_ass_item

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a5b.에서 사용되며 같은 서명
     을 갖습니다.  *note mp_ass_subscript: 4ea5. 슬롯을 통해 항목 대입과
     삭제를 시도한 후, *note PyObject_SetItem(): 494a.과 *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5e.에서도 사용됩니다.  객체가 항목 대입과 삭
     제를 지원하지 않으면 이 슬롯은 ‘NULL’로 남겨 둘 수 있습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note objobjproc: 4b00. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_contains

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_Contains(): 4a73.에서 사용될 수 있으며 같
     은 서명을 갖습니다.  이 슬롯은 ‘NULL’로 남겨 둘 수 있습니다, 이때
     ‘PySequence_Contains()’는 일치하는 것을 찾을 때까지 시퀀스를 단순히
     탐색합니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note binaryfunc: 4af0. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_inplace_concat

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 4a78.에서 사용되며 같은
     서명을 갖습니다.  첫 번째 피연산자를 수정하고 그것을 반환해야 합니
     다.  이 슬롯은 ‘NULL’로 남겨 둘 수 있으며, 이때
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceConcat()’은 *note PySequence_Concat(): 4a72.으로
     폴백 됩니다.  *note nb_inplace_add: 4e82. 슬롯을 통해 숫자 제자리 덧
     셈을 시도한 후, 증분 대입 ‘+=’에서 사용됩니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note ssizeargfunc: 4b07. *note PySequenceMethods:
          4910.sq_inplace_repeat

     이 함수는 *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 4a79.에서 사용되며 같은
     서명을 갖습니다.  첫 번째 피연산자를 수정하고 그것을 반환해야 합니
     다.  이 슬롯은 ‘NULL’로 남겨 둘 수 있으며, 이때
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()’는 *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4a7d.로 폴
     백 됩니다.  *note nb_inplace_multiply: 4e86. 슬롯을 통해 숫자 제자
     리 곱셈을 시도한 후, 증분 대입 ‘*=’에서도 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 버퍼 객체 구조체,  Next: 비동기 객체 구조체,  Prev: 시퀀스 객체 구조체,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.14 버퍼 객체 구조체
..........................

 -- C 자료형: type PyBufferProcs

     이 구조체는 *note 버퍼 프로토콜: 391.에 필요한 함수에 대한 포인터를
     담습니다.  프로토콜은 제공자(exporter) 객체가 내부 데이터를 소비자
     객체에 노출하는 방법을 정의합니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note getbufferproc: 4af6. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4c11.bf_getbuffer

     이 함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);

     'view'를 채우기 위해 'exporter'에 대한 'flags'에 지정된 요청을 처리
     합니다.  포인트 (3) 을 제외하고, 이 함수의 구현은 다음 단계를 반드
     시 수행해야 합니다:

       1. Check if the request can be met.  If not, raise *note
          BufferError: 182b, set view->obj to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’.

       2. 요청된 필드를 채웁니다.

       3. 내보내기 횟수에 대한 내부 카운터를 증가시킵니다.

       4. Set view->obj to 'exporter' and increment view->obj.

       5. ‘0’을 반환합니다.

     'exporter'가 버퍼 공급자의 체인이나 트리의 일부이면, 두 가지 주요 체
     계를 사용할 수 있습니다:

        * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting
          object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself.

        * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object
          of the tree.  Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the
          root object.

     'view'의 개별 필드는 섹션 *note 버퍼 구조체: 4bce.에 설명되어 있으
     며, 제공자가 특정 요청에 응답해야 하는 규칙은 섹션 *note 버퍼 요청
     유형: 44b8.에 있습니다.

     *note Py_buffer: 751. 구조체에서 가리키는 모든 메모리는 제공자에게
     속하며 남은 소비자가 없어질 때까지 유효해야 합니다.  *note format:
     4bd8, *note shape: 4bda, *note strides: 4bd2, *note suboffsets:
     4bdc. 및 *note internal: 4bdf.은 소비자에게는 읽기 전용입니다.

     *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 759.는 모든 요청 유형을 올바르게 처리하
     면서 간단한 바이트열 버퍼를 쉽게 노출 할 수 있는 방법을 제공합니다.

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 393.는 이 함수를 감싸는 소비자 용 인터
     페이스입니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note releasebufferproc: 4b01. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4c11.bf_releasebuffer

     이 함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);

     버퍼 자원 해제 요청을 처리합니다.  자원을 해제할 필요가 없으면,
     *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 75c.는 ‘NULL’일 수 있습니다.
     그렇지 않으면, 이 함수의 표준 구현은 다음과 같은 선택적 단계를 수행
     합니다:

       1. 내보내기 횟수에 대한 내부 카운터를 줄입니다.

       2. 카운터가 ‘0’이면, 'view'와 관련된 모든 메모리를 해제합니다.

     제공자는 반드시 *note internal: 4bdf. 필드를 사용하여 버퍼 특정 자
     원을 추적해야 합니다.  이 필드는 변경되지 않고 유지됨이 보장되지만,
     소비자는 원래 버퍼의 사본을 'view' 인자로 전달할 수 있습니다.

     This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done
     automatically in *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394. (this scheme is
     useful for breaking reference cycles).

     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 394.는 이 기능을 감싸는 소비자 용 인터페
     이스입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 비동기 객체 구조체,  Next: 슬롯 형 typedef,  Prev: 버퍼 객체 구조체,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.15 비동기 객체 구조체
............................

Added in version 3.5.

 -- C 자료형: type PyAsyncMethods

     이 구조체는 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad.와 *note 비동기 이터레이터: 1ab.
     객체를 구현하는 데 필요한 함수에 대한 포인터를 담습니다.

     구조체 정의는 다음과 같습니다:

          typedef struct {
              unaryfunc am_await;
              unaryfunc am_aiter;
              unaryfunc am_anext;
              sendfunc am_send;
          } PyAsyncMethods;

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4c09.am_await

     이 함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);

     The returned object must be an *note iterator: 1ac, i.e.  *note
     PyIter_Check(): 18fb. must return ‘1’ for it.

     객체가 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad.이 아니면 이 슬롯을 ‘NULL’로 설정할 수
     있습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4c09.am_aiter

     이 함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 157b. for details.

     객체가 비동기 이터레이션 프로토콜을 구현하지 않으면 이 슬롯은
     ‘NULL’로 설정될 수 있습니다.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note unaryfunc: 4b0b. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4c09.am_anext

     이 함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note awaitable: 1ad. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 157b. for details.  This slot may be set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C 멤버 변수: *note sendfunc: 4e81. *note PyAsyncMethods:
          4c09.am_send

     이 함수의 서명은 다음과 같습니다:

          PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);

     See *note PyIter_Send(): 894. for details.  This slot may be set to
     ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: 슬롯 형 typedef,  Next: 예<19>,  Prev: 비동기 객체 구조체,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.16 슬롯 형 typedef
.........................

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*allocfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: aa2. *cls, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. nitems)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  The purpose of this function
     is to separate memory allocation from memory initialization.  It
     should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate length for
     the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with
     *note ob_refcnt: 89b. set to ‘1’ and *note ob_type: 48ea. set to
     the type argument.  If the type’s *note tp_itemsize: 1f78. is
     non-zero, the object’s *note ob_size: 4add. field should be
     initialized to 'nitems' and the length of the allocated memory
     block should be ‘tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize’, rounded up to
     a multiple of ‘sizeof(void*)’; otherwise, 'nitems' is not used and
     the length of the block should be *note tp_basicsize: 984.

     이 함수는 다른 인스턴스 초기화를 수행하지 않아야 합니다, 추가 메모
     리를 할당도 안 됩니다; 그것은 *note tp_new: 57a.에 의해 수행되어야
     합니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef void (*destructor)(*note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef void (*freefunc)(void*)

     *note tp_free: 48ec.를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*newfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: aa2.*, *note PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject:
          332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_new: 57a.를 참조하십
     시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*initproc)(*note PyObject: 332.*, *note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_init: 57c.를 참조하십
     시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*reprfunc)(*note PyObject:
          332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_repr: 4900.을 참조하
     십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*getattrfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332. *self, char *attr)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체의 명명된 어트리뷰트 값을
     반환합니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*setattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 332. *self,
          char *attr, *note PyObject: 332. *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체의 명명된 어트리뷰트 값을
     설정합니다.  어트리뷰트를 삭제하려면 value 인자가 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니
     다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*getattrofunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332. *self, *note PyObject: 332. *attr)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체의 명명된 어트리뷰트 값을
     반환합니다.

     *note tp_getattro: 16f9.를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*setattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 332. *self,
          *note PyObject: 332. *attr, *note PyObject: 332. *value)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  객체의 명명된 어트리뷰트 값을
     설정합니다.  어트리뷰트를 삭제하려면 value 인자가 ‘NULL’로 설정됩니
     다.

     *note tp_setattro: 4904.를 참조하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*descrgetfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  See *note tp_descr_get: 4e76.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(*note PyObject: 332.*, *note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  See *note tp_descr_set: 18fd.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note Py_hash_t: 1254. (*hashfunc)(*note PyObject:
          332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_hash: 4912.를 참조하
     십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*richcmpfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*, int)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_richcompare: 490c.를
     참조하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*getiterfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_iter: 14b6.를 참조하
     십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*iternextfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_iternext: 14b7.를 참
     조하십시오.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. (*lenfunc)(*note PyObject:
          332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*getbufferproc)(*note PyObject: 332.*, *note
          Py_buffer: 751.*, int)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(*note PyObject: 332.*,
          *note Py_buffer: 751.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.12 이후로.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*unaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*binaryfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PySendResult: 4bca. (*sendfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject:
          332.**)

     See *note am_send: 4e80.

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*ternaryfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef *note PyObject: 332. *(*ssizeargfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 332.*,
          *note Py_ssize_t: a5c, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*objobjproc)(*note PyObject: 332.*, *note
          PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*objobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 332.*, *note
          PyObject: 332.*, *note PyObject: 332.*)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'


File: python.info,  Node: 예<19>,  Prev: 슬롯 형 typedef,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.17 예
............

다음은 파이썬 형 정의의 간단한 예입니다.  여기에는 여러분이 만날 수 있는
일반적인 사용법이 포함됩니다.  일부는 까다로운 코너 사례를 보여줍니다.  더
많은 예제, 실용 정보 및 자습서는 *note 확장형 정의하기; 자습서: 48e3.와
*note 확장형 정의하기; 여러 가지 주제: 48fb.를 참조하십시오.

A basic *note static type: 778.:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

더 상세한 초기화자를 사용하는 이전 코드(특히 CPython 코드 베이스에서)를
찾을 수도 있습니다:

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         "mymod.MyObject",               /* tp_name */
         sizeof(MyObject),               /* tp_basicsize */
         0,                              /* tp_itemsize */
         (destructor)myobj_dealloc,      /* tp_dealloc */
         0,                              /* tp_vectorcall_offset */
         0,                              /* tp_getattr */
         0,                              /* tp_setattr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_async */
         (reprfunc)myobj_repr,           /* tp_repr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_number */
         0,                              /* tp_as_sequence */
         0,                              /* tp_as_mapping */
         0,                              /* tp_hash */
         0,                              /* tp_call */
         0,                              /* tp_str */
         0,                              /* tp_getattro */
         0,                              /* tp_setattro */
         0,                              /* tp_as_buffer */
         0,                              /* tp_flags */
         PyDoc_STR("My objects"),        /* tp_doc */
         0,                              /* tp_traverse */
         0,                              /* tp_clear */
         0,                              /* tp_richcompare */
         0,                              /* tp_weaklistoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_iter */
         0,                              /* tp_iternext */
         0,                              /* tp_methods */
         0,                              /* tp_members */
         0,                              /* tp_getset */
         0,                              /* tp_base */
         0,                              /* tp_dict */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_get */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_set */
         0,                              /* tp_dictoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_init */
         0,                              /* tp_alloc */
         myobj_new,                      /* tp_new */
     };

약한 참조, 인스턴스 딕셔너리 및 해싱을 지원하는 형:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
              Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT |
              Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF,
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear,
         .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
         .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash,
         .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare,
     };

A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create
instances (e.g.  uses a separate factory func) using *note
Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57d. flag:

     typedef struct {
         PyUnicodeObject raw;
         char *extra;
     } MyStr;

     static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr),
         .tp_base = NULL,  // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

The simplest *note static type: 778. with fixed-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
     };

The simplest *note static type: 778. with variable-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *data[1];
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *),
         .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *),
     };


File: python.info,  Node: 순환 가비지 수집 지원,  Prev: Type Object Structures,  Up: 객체 구현 지원

7.12.4 순환 가비지 수집 지원
----------------------------

순환 참조를 포함하는 가비지를 탐지하고 수집하는 파이썬의 지원은 역시 컨
테이너일 수 있는 다른 객체의 “컨테이너” 인 객체 형의 지원이 필요합니다.
다른 객체에 대한 참조를 저장하지 않거나, 원자 형(가령 숫자나 문자열)에 대
한 참조만 저장하는 형은 가비지 수집에 대한 어떤 명시적인 지원을 제공할 필
요가 없습니다.

컨테이너형을 만들려면, 형 객체의 *note tp_flags: 18c4. 필드가 *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776.를 포함해야 하고 *note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기
구현을 제공해야 합니다.  형의 인스턴스가 가변이면, *note tp_clear: 48fe.
구현도 제공해야 합니다.

*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776.

     이 플래그가 설정된 형의 객체는 여기에 설명된 규칙을 준수해야 합니다
     .  편의를 위해 이러한 객체를 컨테이너 객체라고 하겠습니다.

컨테이너형의 생성자는 두 가지 규칙을 준수해야 합니다:

  1. 객체의 메모리는 *note PyObject_GC_New: a9f. 나 *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar: aa0.를 사용하여 할당해야 합니다.

  2. 다른 컨테이너에 대한 참조를 포함할 수 있는 모든 필드가 초기화되면,
     *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14cd.를 호출해야 합니다.

마찬가지로, 객체의 할당해제자(deallocator)는 비슷한 규칙 쌍을 준수해야 합
니다:

  1. 다른 컨테이너를 참조하는 필드가 무효화 되기 전에, *note
     PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce.를 호출해야 합니다.

  2. 객체의 메모리는 *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc.를 사용하여 할당 해제
     되어야 합니다.

          경고: If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it 'must'
          implement at least a *note tp_traverse: 777. handler or
          explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses.

          When calling *note PyType_Ready(): 775. or some of the APIs
          that indirectly call it like *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases():
          579. or *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578. the interpreter will
          automatically populate the *note tp_flags: 18c4, *note
          tp_traverse: 777. and *note tp_clear: 48fe. fields if the type
          inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector
          protocol and the child class does 'not' include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_GC_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     *note PyObject_New: 982.와 유사하지만, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     776. 플래그가 설정된 컨테이너 객체를 위한 것.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_GC_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     *note PyObject_NewVar: 983.와 유사하지만, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     776. 플래그가 설정된 컨테이너 객체를 위한 것.

 -- C 함수: *note PyObject: 332. *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData
          (PyTypeObject *type, size_t extra_size)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Analogous to *note PyObject_GC_New: a9f. but allocates 'extra_size'
     bytes at the end of the object (at offset *note tp_basicsize:
     984.).  The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for
     the *note Python object header: 332.

     The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise
     it is not managed by Python.

          경고: The function is marked as unstable because the final
          mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is not
          yet decided.  For allocating a variable number of fields,
          prefer using *note PyVarObject: 4152. and *note tp_itemsize:
          1f78. instead.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 매크로: PyObject_GC_Resize (TYPE, op, newsize)

     *note PyObject_NewVar: 983.에 의해 할당된 객체의 크기를 변경합니다.
     형 ‘TYPE*’ (모든 C 형을 나타냅니다) 의 크기가 조정된 객체나 실패하
     면 ‘NULL’을 반환합니다.

     'op'는 형 *note PyVarObject: 4152.*이어야 하고 아직 수거기가 추적하
     지 않아야 합니다.  'newsize'는 형 *note Py_ssize_t: a5c.이어야 합니
     다.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_GC_Track (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  수거기가 추적하는 컨테이너 객
     체 집합에 객체 'op'를 추가합니다.  수거기는 예기치 않은 시간에 실행
     될 수 있으므로 추적되는 동안 객체가 유효해야 합니다.  *note
     tp_traverse: 777. 처리기가 탐색하는 모든 필드가 유효해지면 호출해야
     합니다, 보통 생성자의 끝부분 근처입니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_IS_GC (PyObject *obj)

     객체가 가비지 수거기 프로토콜을 구현하면 0이 아닌 값을 반환하고, 그
     렇지 않으면 0을 반환합니다.

     이 함수가 0을 반환하면 가비지 수거기가 객체를 추적할 수 없습니다.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GC_IsTracked (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  'op'의 객체 형
     이 GC 프로토콜을 구현하고 'op'가 현재 가비지 수거기가 추적 중이면
     1을 반환하고 그렇지 않으면 0을 반환합니다.

     이것은 파이썬 함수 *note gc.is_tracked(): 12fe.에 해당합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (PyObject *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.9 이후로.'  'op'의 객체 형
     이 GC 프로토콜을 구현하고 가비지 수거기가 'op'를 이미 파이널라이즈
     했으면 1을 반환하고 그렇지 않으면 0을 반환합니다.

     이것은 파이썬 함수 *note gc.is_finalized(): 8fa.에 해당합니다.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_GC_Del (void *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note PyObject_GC_New: a9f. 나
     *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: aa0.를 사용하여 객체에 할당된 메모리를 해
     제합니다.

 -- C 함수: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack (void *op)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  수거기가 추적하는 컨테이너 객
     체 집합에서 'op' 객체를 제거합니다.  *note PyObject_GC_Track():
     14cd.를 이 객체에 대해 다시 호출하여 추적 객체 집합에 다시 추가할 수
     있음에 유의하십시오.  할당해제자(*note tp_dealloc: 48da. 처리기)는
     *note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기에서 사용하는 필드가 무효화 되기 전에
     객체에 대해 이 함수를 호출해야 합니다.

버전 3.8에서 변경: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’과 ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ 매
크로는 공용 C API에서 제거되었습니다.

*note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기는 다음과 같은 형의 함수 매개 변수를 받아
들입니다:

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*visitproc)(*note PyObject: 332. *object,
          void *arg)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  *note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기
     에 전달되는 방문자 함수의 형.  이 함수는 탐색하는 객체를 'object'로
     , *note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기의 세 번째 매개 변수를 'arg'로 호출
     되어야 합니다.  파이썬 코어는 순환 가비지 탐지를 구현하기 위해 여러
     방문자 함수를 사용합니다; 사용자가 자신의 방문자 함수를 작성해야 할
     필요는 없습니다.

*note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기는 다음 형이어야 합니다:

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*traverseproc)(*note PyObject: 332. *self,
          *note visitproc: 4b0c. visit, void *arg)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  컨테이너 객체의 탐색 함수입니
     다.  구현은 'self'에 직접 포함된 각 객체에 대해 'visit' 함수를 호출
     해야 하며, 'visit'에 대한 매개 변수는 포함된 객체와 처리기로 전달된
     'arg' 값입니다.  'visit' 함수는 ‘NULL’ object 인자로 호출하면 안 됩
     니다.  'visit'가 0이 아닌 값을 반환하면 그 값이 즉시 반환되어야 합
     니다.

*note tp_traverse: 777. 처리기 작성을 단순화하기 위해, *note Py_VISIT():
48f5. 매크로가 제공됩니다.  이 매크로를 사용하려면, *note tp_traverse:
777. 구현은 인자의 이름을 정확히 'visit' 와 'arg'로 지정해야 합니다:

 -- C 매크로: Py_VISIT (o)

     If the *note PyObject: 332.* 'o' is not ‘NULL’, call the 'visit'
     callback, with arguments 'o' and 'arg'.  If 'visit' returns a
     non-zero value, then return it.  Using this macro, *note
     tp_traverse: 777. handlers look like:

          static int
          my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->foo);
              Py_VISIT(self->bar);
              return 0;
          }

*note tp_clear: 48fe. 처리기는 *note inquiry: 4afb. 형이거나 객체가 불변
이면 ‘NULL’이어야 합니다.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*inquiry)(*note PyObject: 332. *self)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  참조 순환을 생성했을 수 있는 참
     조를 삭제합니다.  불변 객체는 참조 순환을 직접 생성할 수 없으므로,
     이 메서드를 정의 할 필요가 없습니다.  이 메서드를 호출한 후에도 객
     체가 유효해야 합니다 (단지 참조에 대해 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.를 호
     출하지 마십시오).  이 객체가 참조 순환에 참여하고 있음을 수거기가 감
     지하면 이 메서드를 호출합니다.

* Menu:

* 가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기::
* 가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기,  Next: 가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기,  Up: 순환 가비지 수집 지원

7.12.4.1 가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기
....................................

The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage
collection runs.

 -- C 함수: *note Py_ssize_t: a5c. PyGC_Collect (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e.'  Perform a full garbage
     collection, if the garbage collector is enabled.  (Note that *note
     gc.collect(): a36. runs it unconditionally.)

     Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot
     be collected.  If the garbage collector is disabled or already
     collecting, returns ‘0’ immediately.  Errors during garbage
     collection are passed to *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f7.  This
     function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C 함수: int PyGC_Enable (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Enable the
     garbage collector: similar to *note gc.enable(): 4465.  Returns the
     previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int PyGC_Disable (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Disable the
     garbage collector: similar to *note gc.disable(): 4466.  Returns
     the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C 함수: int PyGC_IsEnabled (void)
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.10 이후로.'  Query the
     state of the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.isenabled():
     4467.  Returns the current state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: 가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기,  Prev: 가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기,  Up: 순환 가비지 수집 지원

7.12.4.2 가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기
....................................

The C-API provides the following interface for querying information
about the garbage collector.

 -- C 함수: void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (gcvisitobjects_t callback,
          void *arg)

          이것은 불안정 API. It may change without warning in minor releases. '이것은 *note 불안정 API: 542. It may change without warning in minor releases.': 
     Run supplied 'callback' on all live GC-capable objects.  'arg' is
     passed through to all invocations of 'callback'.

          경고: If new objects are (de)allocated by the callback it is
          undefined if they will be visited.

          Garbage collection is disabled during operation.  Explicitly
          running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined
          behaviour e.g.  visiting the same objects multiple times or
          not at all.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C 자료형: typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(*note PyObject: 332.
          *object, void *arg)

     Type of the visitor function to be passed to *note
     PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(): 4ecf.  'arg' is the same as the 'arg'
     passed to ‘PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects’.  Return ‘1’ to continue
     iteration, return ‘0’ to stop iteration.  Other return values are
     reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is
     undefined.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: API와 ABI 버전 붙이기,  Next: Monitoring C API,  Prev: 객체 구현 지원,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.13 API와 ABI 버전 붙이기
==========================

CPython exposes its version number in the following macros.  Note that
these correspond to the version code is 'built' with, not necessarily
the version used at 'run time'.

See *note C API Stability: 54e. for a discussion of API and ABI
stability across versions.

 -- C 매크로: PY_MAJOR_VERSION

     ‘3.4.1a2’의 ‘3’.

 -- C 매크로: PY_MINOR_VERSION

     ‘3.4.1a2’의 ‘4’.

 -- C 매크로: PY_MICRO_VERSION

     ‘3.4.1a2’의 ‘1’.

 -- C 매크로: PY_RELEASE_LEVEL

     ‘3.4.1a2’의 ‘a’.  알파는 ‘0xA’, 베타는 ‘0xB’, 배포 후보는 ‘0xC’, 최
     종은 ‘0xF’ 가 될 수 있습니다.

 -- C 매크로: PY_RELEASE_SERIAL

     ‘3.4.1a2’의 ‘2’.  최종 배포는 0.

 -- C 매크로: PY_VERSION_HEX

     단일 정수로 인코딩된 파이썬 버전 번호.

     기본 버전 정보는 다음과 같은 방식으로 32비트 숫자로 처리하여 찾을 수
     있습니다:

     바이트      비트 (빅 엔디안 순서)         뜻                            ‘3.4.1a2’ 일 때의 값
                                                                             
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
     1           1-8                           ‘PY_MAJOR_VERSION’            ‘0x03’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     2           9-16                          ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’            ‘0x04’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     3           17-24                         ‘PY_MICRO_VERSION’            ‘0x01’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     4           25-28                         ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL’            ‘0xA’
                                                                             
                                               
     29-32       ‘PY_RELEASE_SERIAL’           ‘0x2’
                                               

     따라서 ‘3.4.1a2’는 16진수 버전 ‘0x030401a2’이고 ‘3.10.0’은 16진수 버
     전 ‘0x030a00f0’입니다.

     Use this for numeric comparisons, e.g.  ‘#if PY_VERSION_HEX >=
     ...’.

     This version is also available via the symbol *note Py_Version:
     74f.

 -- C 변수: const unsigned long Py_Version
     ' Part of the *note 안정 ABI: 54e. 버전 3.11 이후로.'  The Python
     runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer, with
     the same format as the *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 750. macro.  This
     contains the Python version used at run time.

     Added in version 3.11.

모든 주어진 매크로는 Include/patchlevel.h(1)에 정의됩니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Include/patchlevel.h


File: python.info,  Node: Monitoring C API,  Next: Generating Execution Events,  Prev: API와 ABI 버전 붙이기,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.14 Monitoring C API
=====================

Added in version 3.13.

An extension may need to interact with the event monitoring system.
Subscribing to events and registering callbacks can be done via the
Python API exposed in *note sys.monitoring: da.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating Execution Events,  Prev: Monitoring C API,  Up: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서

7.15 Generating Execution Events
================================

The functions below make it possible for an extension to fire monitoring
events as it emulates the execution of Python code.  Each of these
functions accepts a ‘PyMonitoringState’ struct which contains concise
information about the activation state of events, as well as the event
arguments, which include a ‘PyObject*’ representing the code object, the
instruction offset and sometimes additional, event-specific arguments
(see *note sys.monitoring: da. for details about the signatures of the
different event callbacks).  The ‘codelike’ argument should be an
instance of *note types.CodeType: 2e1. or of a type that emulates it.

The VM disables tracing when firing an event, so there is no need for
user code to do that.

Monitoring functions should not be called with an exception set, except
those listed below as working with the current exception.

 -- C 자료형: type PyMonitoringState

     Representation of the state of an event type.  It is allocated by
     the user while its contents are maintained by the monitoring API
     functions described below.

All of the functions below return 0 on success and -1 (with an exception
set) on error.

See *note sys.monitoring: da. for descriptions of the events.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_START’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_RESUME’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘PY_RETURN’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘PY_YIELD’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *arg0)

     Fire a ‘CALL’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, int lineno)

     Fire a ‘LINE’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘JUMP’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘BRANCH’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘C_RETURN’ event.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_THROW’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.).

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.).

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘C_RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.).

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (PyMonitoringState *state,
          PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘RERAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.).

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent
          (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire an ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ event with the current exception (as
     returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.).

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_UNWIND’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee.).

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *value)

     Fire a ‘STOP_ITERATION’ event.  If ‘value’ is an instance of *note
     StopIteration: bf7, it is used.  Otherwise, a new *note
     StopIteration: bf7. instance is created with ‘value’ as its
     argument.

* Menu:

* Managing the Monitoring State::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing the Monitoring State,  Up: Generating Execution Events

7.15.1 Managing the Monitoring State
------------------------------------

Monitoring states can be managed with the help of monitoring scopes.  A
scope would typically correspond to a python function.

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_EnterScope (PyMonitoringState *state_array,
          uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types, Py_ssize_t
          length)

     Enter a monitored scope.  ‘event_types’ is an array of the event
     IDs for events that may be fired from the scope.  For example, the
     ID of a ‘PY_START’ event is the value
     ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START’, which is numerically equal to the
     base-2 logarithm of ‘sys.monitoring.events.PY_START’.
     ‘state_array’ is an array with a monitoring state entry for each
     event in ‘event_types’, it is allocated by the user but populated
     by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ with information about the
     activation state of the event.  The size of ‘event_types’ (and
     hence also of ‘state_array’) is given in ‘length’.

     The ‘version’ argument is a pointer to a value which should be
     allocated by the user together with ‘state_array’ and initialized
     to 0, and then set only by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ itself.  It
     allows this function to determine whether event states have changed
     since the previous call, and to return quickly if they have not.

     The scopes referred to here are lexical scopes: a function, class
     or method.  ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ should be called whenever
     the lexical scope is entered.  Scopes can be reentered, reusing the
     same 'state_array' and 'version', in situations like when emulating
     a recursive Python function.  When a code-like’s execution is
     paused, such as when emulating a generator, the scope needs to be
     exited and re-entered.

     The macros for 'event_types' are:

     Macro                                                  Event
                                                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH               *note BRANCH: 439c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL                 *note CALL: 164d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE              *note C_RAISE: 439d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN             *note C_RETURN: 439e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED    *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 439f.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION          *note INSTRUCTION: 43a0.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP                 *note JUMP: 43a1.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE                 *note LINE: 43a2.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME            *note PY_RESUME: 43a3.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN            *note PY_RETURN: 43a4.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START             *note PY_START: 43a5.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW             *note PY_THROW: 43a6.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND            *note PY_UNWIND: 43a7.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD             *note PY_YIELD: 43a8.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE                *note RAISE: 15f7.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE              *note RERAISE: 43aa.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C 매크로: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION       *note STOP_ITERATION: 43a9.
                                                            

 -- C 함수: int PyMonitoring_ExitScope (void)

     Exit the last scope that was entered with
     ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’.

 -- C 함수: int PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (uint8_t ev)

     Return true if the event corresponding to the event ID 'ev' is a
     *note local event: 43ae.

     Added in version 3.13.

     버전 3.13.3부터 폐지됨: This function is *note soft deprecated:
     209.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기,  Next: 파이썬 HOWTO,  Prev: 파이썬/C API 레퍼런스 설명서,  Up: Top

8 파이썬 모듈 설치하기
**********************


전자 우편: <distutils-sig@python.org>

널리 사용되는 공개 소스 개발 프로젝트로서, 파이썬에는 적극적으로 지원하
는 기여자와 사용자의 커뮤니티가 있어, 자신들의 소프트웨어를 공개 소스 라
이센스 계약에 따라 다른 파이썬 개발자가 사용할 수 있도록 합니다.

이를 통해 파이썬 사용자는 효과적으로 공유하고 공동 작업할 수 있으며, 다
른 사람들이 공통 (심지어 때로는 희귀한) 문제에 대해 이미 만든 솔루션의 이
점을 누릴 수 있을 뿐 아니라, 자체 솔루션을 공동 풀에 잠재적으로 제공할 수
있습니다.

이 지침서는 이 절차의 설치 부분을 다룹니다.  자신의 파이썬 프로젝트를 만
들고 공유하는 지침은 Python packaging user guide(1)를 참조하십시오.

     참고: 기업 및 기타 기관 사용자의 경우, 많은 조직에서 공개 소스 소프
     트웨어를 사용하고 공헌하는 데 대한 자체 정책을 시행하고 있음을 알고
     있어야 합니다.  파이썬과 함께 제공되는 배포 및 설치 도구를 사용할 때
     이러한 정책을 고려하십시오.

* Menu:

* 핵심 용어::
* 기본 사용법: 기본 사용법<2>.
* 어떻게 …?::
* 흔히 만나는 설치 문제::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: 핵심 용어,  Next: 기본 사용법<2>,  Up: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기

8.1 핵심 용어
=============

   * ‘pip’ 는 선호되는 설치 프로그램입니다.  파이썬 3.4부터, 기본적으로
     파이썬 바이너리 설치 프로그램에 포함되어 있습니다.

   * '가상 환경' 은 패키지가 시스템 전체에 설치되는 것이 아니라, 특정 응
     용 프로그램에 사용되도록 설치될 수 있도록 하는 반 격리 된 파이썬 환
     경입니다.

   * ‘venv’ 는 가상 환경을 만들기 위한 표준 도구이며, 파이썬 3.3 이후로
     파이썬의 일부입니다.  파이썬 3.4부터, 생성되는 모든 가상 환경에 기
     본적으로 ‘pip’ 를 설치합니다.

   * ‘virtualenv’ 는 ‘venv’ 에 대한 제삼자 대안(그리고 전임자)입니다.
     ‘venv’ 를 아예 제공하지 않거나, 생성되는 환경에 ‘pip’ 를 자동으로 설
     치할 수 없는, 3.4 이전의 파이썬 버전에서 가상 환경을 사용할 수 있도
     록 합니다.

   * 파이썬 패키지 색인(1) 은 다른 파이썬 사용자가 사용할 수 있도록 만들
     어진 공개 소스 라이선스 패키지의 공용 저장소입니다.

   * 파이썬 패키징 위원회(2) 는 표준 패키징 도구와 관련 메타 데이터 및 파
     일 형식 표준의 유지 보수 및 발전을 담당하는 개발자 및 문서 작성자 모
     임입니다.  그들은 GitHub(3) 에 다양한 도구, 문서, 이슈 추적기를 유
     지합니다.

   * ‘distutils’ 는 1998년에 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 처음 추가된 최초의
     빌드 및 배포 시스템입니다.  ‘distutils’ 의 직접 사용이 단계적으로 폐
     지되고 있지만, 여전히 현재의 패키징 및 배포 기반 시설의 기초를 이루
     고 있고, 표준 라이브러리의 일부로 남아있을 뿐만 아니라, 그 이름은 다
     른 방식으로도 (가령 파이썬 패키징 표준 개발을 조정하는 데 사용되는
     메일링 리스트의 이름으로) 남아있습니다.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 이제 가상 환경을 만드는데 ‘venv’ 사용을 권장합니다.

더 보기
.......

파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침서: 가상 환경 생성과 사용(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.pypa.io/

   (3) https://github.com/pypa

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 사용법<2>,  Next: 어떻게 …?,  Prev: 핵심 용어,  Up: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기

8.2 기본 사용법
===============

표준 패키징 도구는 모두 명령 줄에서 사용하도록 설계되었습니다.

다음 명령은 파이썬 패키지 색인에서 최신 버전의 모듈과 그 의존성을 설치합
니다:

     python -m pip install SomePackage

     참고: POSIX 사용자(맥 OS 와 리눅스 사용자를 포함합니다)의 경우, 이
     지침서의의 예제는 *note 가상 환경: 1d09. 을 사용한다고 가정합니다.

     윈도우 사용자의 경우, 이 지침서의 예제는 파이썬을 설치할 때 시스템
     PATH 환경 변수를 조정하는 옵션이 선택되었다고 가정합니다.

정확한 버전이나 최소 버전을 명령 줄에서 직접 지정할 수도 있습니다.  ‘>’,
‘<’ 와 같은 비교 연산자나 셸에서 해석되는 다른 특수 문자를 사용할 때는,
패키지 이름과 버전을 큰따옴표로 묶어야 합니다:

     python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # 특정 버전
     python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # 최소 버전

일반적으로, 적절한 모듈이 이미 설치되어있으면, 다시 설치하려고 해도 아무
런 효과가 없습니다.  기존 모듈을 업그레이드하려면 명시적으로 요청해야 합
니다:

     python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage

‘pip’ 와 그 기능에 관한 더 많은 정보와 자원은 파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침
서(1) 에서 찾을 수 있습니다.

가상 환경의 생성은 *note venv: 111. 모듈을 통해 수행됩니다.  활성 가상 환
경에 패키지를 설치하려면 위에 표시된 명령을 사용합니다.

더 보기
.......

파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침서: 파이썬 배포 패키지 설치하기(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/installing/


File: python.info,  Node: 어떻게 …?,  Next: 흔히 만나는 설치 문제,  Prev: 기본 사용법<2>,  Up: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기

8.3 어떻게 …?
=============

이것들은 몇 가지 일반적인 작업에 대한 빠른 답변 또는 링크입니다.

* Menu:

* … 파이썬 3.4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?: … 파이썬 3 4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?.
* … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?::
* … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?::
* … 병렬로 설치된 여러 버전의 파이썬으로 작업합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: … 파이썬 3 4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?,  Next: … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?,  Up: 어떻게 …?

8.3.1 … 파이썬 3.4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 ‘pip’ 를 설치합니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------

파이썬은 ‘pip’ 를 파이썬 3.4에 와서야 포함하기 시작했습니다.  이전 버전
의 경우, ‘pip’ 는 파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침서에 설명된 대로 “부트스트랩
(bootstrapped)” 될 필요가 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침서: 패키지 설치 요구 사항(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages


File: python.info,  Node: … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?,  Next: … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?,  Prev: … 파이썬 3 4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?,  Up: 어떻게 …?

8.3.2 … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?
-------------------------------------------------

‘--user’ 옵션을 ‘python -m pip install’ 에 넘겨주면 시스템의 모든 사용자
가 아닌 현재 사용자를 위해서만 패키지를 설치합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?,  Next: … 병렬로 설치된 여러 버전의 파이썬으로 작업합니까?,  Prev: … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?,  Up: 어떻게 …?

8.3.3 … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?
-----------------------------------------------

많은 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지는 복잡한 바이너리 의존성을 가지고 있고, 현
재 ‘pip’ 를 사용하여 직접 설치하기가 쉽지 않습니다.  이 시점에서, 사용자
가 이 패키지들을 ‘pip’ 로 설치하려고 시도하는 것보다 다른 방법(1) 으로 설
치하는 것이 더 쉬운 경우가 종종 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침서: 과학 계산용 패키지 설치하기(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/science/


File: python.info,  Node: … 병렬로 설치된 여러 버전의 파이썬으로 작업합니까?,  Prev: … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?,  Up: 어떻게 …?

8.3.4 … 병렬로 설치된 여러 버전의 파이썬으로 작업합니까?
--------------------------------------------------------

리눅스, 맥 OS 및 다른 POSIX 시스템에서는, 버전이 지정된 파이썬 명령을
‘-m’ 스위치와 조합하여 적절한 ‘pip’ 사본을 실행하십시오:

     python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # 기본 파이썬 2
     python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # 특정하여 파이썬 2.7
     python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # 기본 파이썬 3
     python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # 특정하여 파이썬 3.4

적절히 버전이 지정된 ‘pip’ 명령도 제공될 수 있습니다.

윈도우에서는 ‘py’ 파이썬 실행기를 ‘-m’ 스위치와 조합해서 사용하십시오:

     py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # 기본 파이썬 2
     py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # 특정하여 파이썬 2.7
     py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # 기본 파이썬 3
     py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # 특정하여 파이썬 3.4


File: python.info,  Node: 흔히 만나는 설치 문제,  Prev: 어떻게 …?,  Up: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기

8.4 흔히 만나는 설치 문제
=========================

* Menu:

* 리눅스에 시스템 파이썬 설치하기::
* Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다.: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다.
* 바이너리 확장 설치하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 리눅스에 시스템 파이썬 설치하기,  Next: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다,  Up: 흔히 만나는 설치 문제

8.4.1 리눅스에 시스템 파이썬 설치하기
-------------------------------------

리눅스 시스템에서, 보통 파이썬 설치가 배포 일부로 포함됩니다.  이 파이썬
설치에 설치하려면 시스템에 대한 루트 액세스가 필요하며, ‘pip’ 를 사용하
여 구성 요소가 예기치 않게 업그레이드되면 시스템 패키지 관리자와 시스템
의 다른 구성 요소의 작동을 방해할 수 있습니다.

이러한 시스템에서는, ‘pip’ 로 패키지를 설치할 때 가상 환경이나 사용자별
설치를 사용하는 것이 더 좋습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다,  Next: 바이너리 확장 설치하기,  Prev: 리눅스에 시스템 파이썬 설치하기,  Up: 흔히 만나는 설치 문제

8.4.2 Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다.
--------------------------------

‘pip’ 가 기본적으로 설치되지 않았을 수도 있습니다.  한가지 가능한 해결법
은 다음과 같습니다:

     python -m ensurepip --default-pip

pip 설치(1) 에 대한 추가 자원도 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 확장 설치하기,  Prev: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다,  Up: 흔히 만나는 설치 문제

8.4.3 바이너리 확장 설치하기
----------------------------

파이썬은 일반적으로 소스 기반 배포에 크게 의존하고 있으며, 최종 사용자가
설치 프로세스의 일부로 소스로부터 확장 모듈을 컴파일할 것으로 기대합니다
.

바이너리 ‘wheel’ 형식에 대한 지원의 도입과 파이썬 패키지 색인을 통해 적
어도 윈도우와 맥 OS 용의 휠을 게시할 수 있게 됨에 따라, 사용자가 스스로
빌드하기 보다는 점차 사전 빌드된 확장들을 설치할 수 있게 되어, 이 문제는
시간이 지날수록 줄어들 것으로 예상합니다.

‘wheel’ 파일로 아직 사용할 수 없는 과학 계산용 소프트웨어(1) 설치를 위한
어떤 해결책들은 로컬에서 빌드할 필요 없이 다른 바이너리 확장을 얻는 데 도
움이 될 수 있습니다.

더 보기
.......

파이썬 패키징 사용자 지침서: 바이너리 확장(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 HOWTO,  Next: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들,  Prev: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기,  Up: Top

9 파이썬 HOWTO
**************

파이썬 HOWTO 는 구체적인 주제를 심도 있게 다루는 문서입니다.  리눅스 설
명서 프로젝트의 HOWTO 컬렉션을 모델로 삼아, 이 컬렉션은 파이썬 라이브러
리 레퍼런스보다 자세한 문서를 작성하기 위한 노력입니다.

* Menu:

* A Conceptual Overview of asyncio::
* 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기::
* 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Enum HOWTO::
* 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO::
* 로깅 HOWTO::
* 로깅 요리책::
* 정규식 HOWTO::
* 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO::
* 정렬 기법::
* 유니코드 HOWTO::
* urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법::
* ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개::
* DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기::
* Python support for the Linux perf profiler::
* Annotations Best Practices::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* timer file descriptor HOWTO::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.
* Python experimental support for free threading::
* C API Extension Support for Free Threading::


File: python.info,  Node: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio,  Next: 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.1 A Conceptual Overview of ‘asyncio’
======================================

This *note HOWTO: 4efc. article seeks to help you build a sturdy mental
model of how *note asyncio: a. fundamentally works, helping you
understand the how and why behind the recommended patterns.

You might be curious about some key ‘asyncio’ concepts.  You’ll be
comfortably able to answer these questions by the end of this article:

   - What’s happening behind the scenes when an object is awaited?

   - How does ‘asyncio’ differentiate between a task which doesn’t need
     CPU-time (such as a network request or file read) as opposed to a
     task that does (such as computing n-factorial)?

   - How to write an asynchronous variant of an operation, such as an
     async sleep or database request.

더 보기
.......

   * The guide(1) that inspired this HOWTO article, by Alexander Nordin.

   * This in-depth YouTube tutorial series(2) on ‘asyncio’ created by
     Python core team member, Łukasz Langa.

   * 500 Lines or Less: A Web Crawler With asyncio Coroutines(3) by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis and Guido van Rossum.

* Menu:

* A conceptual overview part 1; the high-level: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level.
* A conceptual overview part 2; the nuts and bolts: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/anordin95/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio/tree/main

   (2) 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xbl7XjFYsN4&list=PLhNSoGM2ik6SIkVGXWBwerucXjgP1rHmB

   (3) 
https://aosabook.org/en/500L/a-web-crawler-with-asyncio-coroutines.html


File: python.info,  Node: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level,  Next: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts,  Up: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio

9.1.1 A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level
--------------------------------------------------

In part 1, we’ll cover the main, high-level building blocks of
‘asyncio’: the event loop, coroutine functions, coroutine objects, tasks
and ‘await’.

* Menu:

* Event Loop::
* Asynchronous functions and coroutines::
* Tasks::
* await::


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop,  Next: Asynchronous functions and coroutines,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.1 Event Loop
..................

Everything in ‘asyncio’ happens relative to the event loop.  It’s the
star of the show.  It’s like an orchestra conductor.  It’s behind the
scenes managing resources.  Some power is explicitly granted to it, but
a lot of its ability to get things done comes from the respect and
cooperation of its worker bees.

In more technical terms, the event loop contains a collection of jobs to
be run.  Some jobs are added directly by you, and some indirectly by
‘asyncio’.  The event loop takes a job from its backlog of work and
invokes it (or “gives it control”), similar to calling a function, and
then that job runs.  Once it pauses or completes, it returns control to
the event loop.  The event loop will then select another job from its
pool and invoke it.  You can 'roughly' think of the collection of jobs
as a queue: jobs are added and then processed one at a time, generally
(but not always) in order.  This process repeats indefinitely with the
event loop cycling endlessly onwards.  If there are no more jobs pending
execution, the event loop is smart enough to rest and avoid needlessly
wasting CPU cycles, and will come back when there’s more work to be
done.

Effective execution relies on jobs sharing well and cooperating; a
greedy job could hog control and leave the other jobs to starve,
rendering the overall event loop approach rather useless.

     import asyncio

     # This creates an event loop and indefinitely cycles through
     # its collection of jobs.
     event_loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     event_loop.run_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous functions and coroutines,  Next: Tasks,  Prev: Event Loop,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.2 Asynchronous functions and coroutines
.............................................

This is a basic, boring Python function:

     def hello_printer():
         print(
             "Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I "
             "need in life -- \nfresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus "
             "partner in crime."
         )

Calling a regular function invokes its logic or body:

     >>> hello_printer()
     Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I need in life --
     fresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus partner in crime.

The *note async def: 5cb, as opposed to just a plain ‘def’, makes this
an asynchronous function (or “coroutine function”).  Calling it creates
and returns a *note coroutine: 329d. object.

     async def loudmouth_penguin(magic_number: int):
         print(
          "I am a super special talking penguin. Far cooler than that printer. "
          f"By the way, my lucky number is: {magic_number}."
         )

Calling the async function, ‘loudmouth_penguin’, does not execute the
print statement; instead, it creates a coroutine object:

     >>> loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=3)
     <coroutine object loudmouth_penguin at 0x104ed2740>

The terms “coroutine function” and “coroutine object” are often
conflated as coroutine.  That can be confusing!  In this article,
coroutine specifically refers to a coroutine object, or more precisely,
an instance of *note types.CoroutineType: e81. (native coroutine).  Note
that coroutines can also exist as instances of *note
collections.abc.Coroutine: dd9. – a distinction that matters for type
checking.

A coroutine represents the function’s body or logic.  A coroutine has to
be explicitly started; again, merely creating the coroutine does not
start it.  Notably, the coroutine can be paused and resumed at various
points within the function’s body.  That pausing and resuming ability is
what allows for asynchronous behavior!

Coroutines and coroutine functions were built by leveraging the
functionality of *note generators: bdb. and *note generator functions:
1057.  Recall, a generator function is a function that *note yield:
9ca.s, like this one:

     def get_random_number():
         # This would be a bad random number generator!
         print("Hi")
         yield 1
         print("Hello")
         yield 7
         print("Howdy")
         yield 4
         ...

Similar to a coroutine function, calling a generator function does not
run it.  Instead, it creates a generator object:

     >>> get_random_number()
     <generator object get_random_number at 0x1048671c0>

You can proceed to the next ‘yield’ of a generator by using the built-in
function *note next(): 7d1.  In other words, the generator runs, then
pauses.  For example:

     >>> generator = get_random_number()
     >>> next(generator)
     Hi
     1
     >>> next(generator)
     Hello
     7


File: python.info,  Node: Tasks,  Next: await,  Prev: Asynchronous functions and coroutines,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.3 Tasks
.............

Roughly speaking, *note tasks: 32ce. are coroutines (not coroutine
functions) tied to an event loop.  A task also maintains a list of
callback functions whose importance will become clear in a moment when
we discuss *note await: 1b9.  The recommended way to create tasks is via
*note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf.

Creating a task automatically schedules it for execution (by adding a
callback to run it in the event loop’s to-do list, that is, collection
of jobs).

Since there’s only one event loop (in each thread), ‘asyncio’ takes care
of associating the task with the event loop for you.  As such, there’s
no need to specify the event loop.

     coroutine = loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=5)
     # This creates a Task object and schedules its execution via the event loop.
     task = asyncio.create_task(coroutine)

Earlier, we manually created the event loop and set it to run forever.
In practice, it’s recommended to use (and common to see) *note
asyncio.run(): 476, which takes care of managing the event loop and
ensuring the provided coroutine finishes before advancing.  For example,
many async programs follow this setup:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         # Perform all sorts of wacky, wild asynchronous things...
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         asyncio.run(main())
         # The program will not reach the following print statement until the
         # coroutine main() finishes.
         print("coroutine main() is done!")

It’s important to be aware that the task itself is not added to the
event loop, only a callback to the task is.  This matters if the task
object you created is garbage collected before it’s called by the event
loop.  For example, consider this program:

     async def hello():
         print("hello!")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(hello())
         # Other asynchronous instructions which run for a while
         # and cede control to the event loop...
         ...

     asyncio.run(main())

Because there’s no reference to the task object created on line 5, it
'might' be garbage collected before the event loop invokes it.  Later
instructions in the coroutine ‘main()’ hand control back to the event
loop so it can invoke other jobs.  When the event loop eventually tries
to run the task, it might fail and discover the task object does not
exist!  This can also happen even if a coroutine keeps a reference to a
task but completes before that task finishes.  When the coroutine exits,
local variables go out of scope and may be subject to garbage
collection.  In practice, ‘asyncio’ and Python’s garbage collector work
pretty hard to ensure this sort of thing doesn’t happen.  But that’s no
reason to be reckless!


File: python.info,  Node: await,  Prev: Tasks,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.4 await
.............

*note await: 1b9. is a Python keyword that’s commonly used in one of two
different ways:

     await task
     await coroutine

In a crucial way, the behavior of ‘await’ depends on the type of object
being awaited.

Awaiting a task will cede control from the current task or coroutine to
the event loop.  In the process of relinquishing control, a few
important things happen.  We’ll use the following code example to
illustrate:

     async def plant_a_tree():
         dig_the_hole_task = asyncio.create_task(dig_the_hole())
         await dig_the_hole_task

         # Other instructions associated with planting a tree.
         ...

In this example, imagine the event loop has passed control to the start
of the coroutine ‘plant_a_tree()’.  As seen above, the coroutine creates
a task and then awaits it.  The ‘await dig_the_hole_task’ instruction
adds a callback (which will resume ‘plant_a_tree()’) to the
‘dig_the_hole_task’ object’s list of callbacks.  And then, the
instruction cedes control to the event loop.  Some time later, the event
loop will pass control to ‘dig_the_hole_task’ and the task will finish
whatever it needs to do.  Once the task finishes, it will add its
various callbacks to the event loop, in this case, a call to resume
‘plant_a_tree()’.

Generally speaking, when the awaited task finishes
(‘dig_the_hole_task’), the original task or coroutine (‘plant_a_tree()’)
is added back to the event loops to-do list to be resumed.

This is a basic, yet reliable mental model.  In practice, the control
handoffs are slightly more complex, but not by much.  In part 2, we’ll
walk through the details that make this possible.

'Unlike tasks, awaiting a coroutine does not hand control back to the
event loop!'  Wrapping a coroutine in a task first, then awaiting that
would cede control.  The behavior of ‘await coroutine’ is effectively
the same as invoking a regular, synchronous Python function.  Consider
this program:

     import asyncio

     async def coro_a():
        print("I am coro_a(). Hi!")

     async def coro_b():
        print("I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...")

     async def main():
        task_b = asyncio.create_task(coro_b())
        num_repeats = 3
        for _ in range(num_repeats):
           await coro_a()
        await task_b

     asyncio.run(main())

The first statement in the coroutine ‘main()’ creates ‘task_b’ and
schedules it for execution via the event loop.  Then, ‘coro_a()’ is
repeatedly awaited.  Control never cedes to the event loop which is why
we see the output of all three ‘coro_a()’ invocations before
‘coro_b()’’s output:

     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...

If we change ‘await coro_a()’ to ‘await asyncio.create_task(coro_a())’,
the behavior changes.  The coroutine ‘main()’ cedes control to the event
loop with that statement.  The event loop then proceeds through its
backlog of work, calling ‘task_b’ and then the task which wraps
‘coro_a()’ before resuming the coroutine ‘main()’.

     I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!

This behavior of ‘await coroutine’ can trip a lot of people up!  That
example highlights how using only ‘await coroutine’ could
unintentionally hog control from other tasks and effectively stall the
event loop.  *note asyncio.run(): 476. can help you detect such
occurences via the ‘debug=True’ flag which accordingly enables *note
debug mode: 1d57.  Among other things, it will log any coroutines that
monopolize execution for 100ms or longer.

The design intentionally trades off some conceptual clarity around usage
of ‘await’ for improved performance.  Each time a task is awaited,
control needs to be passed all the way up the call stack to the event
loop.  That might sound minor, but in a large program with many
‘await’’s and a deep callstack that overhead can add up to a meaningful
performance drag.


File: python.info,  Node: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts,  Prev: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level,  Up: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio

9.1.2 A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts
------------------------------------------------------

Part 2 goes into detail on the mechanisms ‘asyncio’ uses to manage
control flow.  This is where the magic happens.  You’ll come away from
this section knowing what ‘await’ does behind the scenes and how to make
your own asynchronous operators.

* Menu:

* The inner workings of coroutines::
* Futures::
* A homemade asyncio.sleep: A homemade asyncio sleep.


File: python.info,  Node: The inner workings of coroutines,  Next: Futures,  Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts

9.1.2.1 The inner workings of coroutines
........................................

‘asyncio’ leverages four components to pass around control.

*note coroutine.send(arg): 1fd4. is the method used to start or resume a
coroutine.  If the coroutine was paused and is now being resumed, the
argument ‘arg’ will be sent in as the return value of the ‘yield’
statement which originally paused it.  If the coroutine is being used
for the first time (as opposed to being resumed) ‘arg’ must be ‘None’.

     class Rock:
         def __await__(self):
             value_sent_in = yield 7
             print(f"Rock.__await__ resuming with value: {value_sent_in}.")
             return value_sent_in

     async def main():
         print("Beginning coroutine main().")
         rock = Rock()
         print("Awaiting rock...")
         value_from_rock = await rock
         print(f"Coroutine received value: {value_from_rock} from rock.")
         return 23

     coroutine = main()
     intermediate_result = coroutine.send(None)
     print(f"Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: {intermediate_result}.")

     print(f"Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.")
     try:
         coroutine.send(42)
     except StopIteration as e:
         returned_value = e.value
     print(f"Coroutine main() finished and provided value: {returned_value}.")

*note yield: 2043, like usual, pauses execution and returns control to
the caller.  In the example above, the ‘yield’, on line 3, is called by
‘... = await rock’ on line 11.  More broadly speaking, ‘await’ calls the
*note __await__(): 1fcf. method of the given object.  ‘await’ also does
one more very special thing: it propagates (or “passes along”) any
‘yield’s it receives up the call-chain.  In this case, that’s back to
‘... = coroutine.send(None)’ on line 16.

The coroutine is resumed via the ‘coroutine.send(42)’ call on line 21.
The coroutine picks back up from where it ‘yield’ed (or paused) on line
3 and executes the remaining statements in its body.  When a coroutine
finishes, it raises a *note StopIteration: bf7. exception with the
return value attached in the *note value: 1fd1. attribute.

That snippet produces this output:

     Beginning coroutine main().
     Awaiting rock...
     Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: 7.
     Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.
     Rock.__await__ resuming with value: 42.
     Coroutine received value: 42 from rock.
     Coroutine main() finished and provided value: 23.

It’s worth pausing for a moment here and making sure you followed the
various ways that control flow and values were passed.  A lot of
important ideas were covered and it’s worth ensuring your understanding
is firm.

The only way to yield (or effectively cede control) from a coroutine is
to ‘await’ an object that ‘yield’s in its ‘__await__’ method.  That
might sound odd to you.  You might be thinking:

     1.  What about a ‘yield’ directly within the coroutine function?
     The coroutine function becomes an *note async generator function:
     2047, a different beast entirely.

     2.  What about a *note yield from: 2043. within the coroutine
     function to a (plain) generator?  That causes the error:
     ‘SyntaxError: yield from not allowed in a coroutine.’ This was
     intentionally designed for the sake of simplicity – mandating only
     one way of using coroutines.  Initially ‘yield’ was barred as well,
     but was re-accepted to allow for async generators.  Despite that,
     ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ effectively do the same thing.


File: python.info,  Node: Futures,  Next: A homemade asyncio sleep,  Prev: The inner workings of coroutines,  Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts

9.1.2.2 Futures
...............

A *note future: 339e. is an object meant to represent a computation’s
status and result.  The term is a nod to the idea of something still to
come or not yet happened, and the object is a way to keep an eye on that
something.

A future has a few important attributes.  One is its state which can be
either “pending”, “cancelled” or “done”.  Another is its result, which
is set when the state transitions to done.  Unlike a coroutine, a future
does not represent the actual computation to be done; instead, it
represents the status and result of that computation, kind of like a
status light (red, yellow or green) or indicator.

*note asyncio.Task: 1be. subclasses *note asyncio.Future: bca. in order
to gain these various capabilities.  The prior section said tasks store
a list of callbacks, which wasn’t entirely accurate.  It’s actually the
‘Future’ class that implements this logic, which ‘Task’ inherits.

Futures may also be used directly (not via tasks).  Tasks mark
themselves as done when their coroutine is complete.  Futures are much
more versatile and will be marked as done when you say so.  In this way,
they’re the flexible interface for you to make your own conditions for
waiting and resuming.


File: python.info,  Node: A homemade asyncio sleep,  Prev: Futures,  Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts

9.1.2.3 A homemade asyncio.sleep
................................

We’ll go through an example of how you could leverage a future to create
your own variant of asynchronous sleep (‘async_sleep’) which mimics
*note asyncio.sleep(): a6c.

This snippet registers a few tasks with the event loop and then awaits a
coroutine wrapped in a task: ‘async_sleep(3)’.  We want that task to
finish only after three seconds have elapsed, but without preventing
other tasks from running.

     async def other_work():
         print("I like work. Work work.")

     async def main():
         # Add a few other tasks to the event loop, so there's something
         # to do while asynchronously sleeping.
         work_tasks = [
             asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
             asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
             asyncio.create_task(other_work())
         ]
         print(
             "Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: "
             f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
         )
         await asyncio.create_task(async_sleep(3))
         print(
             "Done asynchronous sleep at time: "
             f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
         )
         # asyncio.gather effectively awaits each task in the collection.
         await asyncio.gather(*work_tasks)

Below, we use a future to enable custom control over when that task will
be marked as done.  If *note future.set_result(): 32d1. (the method
responsible for marking that future as done) is never called, then this
task will never finish.  We’ve also enlisted the help of another task,
which we’ll see in a moment, that will monitor how much time has elapsed
and, accordingly, call ‘future.set_result()’.

     async def async_sleep(seconds: float):
         future = asyncio.Future()
         time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
         # Add the watcher-task to the event loop.
         watcher_task = asyncio.create_task(_sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake))
         # Block until the future is marked as done.
         await future

Below, we’ll use a rather bare object, ‘YieldToEventLoop()’, to ‘yield’
from ‘__await__’ in order to cede control to the event loop.  This is
effectively the same as calling ‘asyncio.sleep(0)’, but this approach
offers more clarity, not to mention it’s somewhat cheating to use
‘asyncio.sleep’ when showcasing how to implement it!

As usual, the event loop cycles through its tasks, giving them control
and receiving control back when they pause or finish.  The
‘watcher_task’, which runs the coroutine ‘_sleep_watcher(...)’, will be
invoked once per full cycle of the event loop.  On each resumption,
it’ll check the time and if not enough has elapsed, then it’ll pause
once again and hand control back to the event loop.  Eventually, enough
time will have elapsed, and ‘_sleep_watcher(...)’ will mark the future
as done, and then itself finish too by breaking out of the infinite
‘while’ loop.  Given this helper task is only invoked once per cycle of
the event loop, you’d be correct to note that this asynchronous sleep
will sleep 'at least' three seconds, rather than exactly three seconds.
Note this is also of true of ‘asyncio.sleep’.

     class YieldToEventLoop:
         def __await__(self):
             yield

     async def _sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake):
         while True:
             if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
                 # This marks the future as done.
                 future.set_result(None)
                 break
             else:
                 await YieldToEventLoop()

Here is the full program’s output:

     $ python custom-async-sleep.py
     Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:22.
     I like work. Work work.
     I like work. Work work.
     I like work. Work work.
     Done asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:25.

You might feel this implementation of asynchronous sleep was
unnecessarily convoluted.  And, well, it was.  The example was meant to
showcase the versatility of futures with a simple example that could be
mimicked for more complex needs.  For reference, you could implement it
without futures, like so:

     async def simpler_async_sleep(seconds):
         time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
         while True:
             if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
                 return
             else:
                 await YieldToEventLoop()

But, that’s all for now.  Hopefully you’re ready to more confidently
dive into some async programming or check out advanced topics in the
*note rest of the documentation: a.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기,  Next: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍,  Prev: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.2 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기
===================================

확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하는 것에 관해서는 다음과 같은 리소스를 추천
합니다:

   * 파이썬 2에서 파이썬 3으로 옮겨가는 것에 관한 일반적인 책인
     'Supporting Python 3: An in-depth guide'의 Migrating C
     extensions(1) 장은 독자에게 확장 모듈을 이식하는 과정을 안내합니다.

   * 'py3c' 프로젝트의 Porting guide(2)는 지원 코드와 함께 전문적인 제안
     을 제공합니다.

   * *note Recommended third party tools: 48ab. offer abstractions over
     the Python’s C API. Extensions generally need to be re-written to
     use one of them, but the library then handles differences between
     various Python versions and implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html

   (2) https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍,  Next: Descriptor Guide,  Prev: 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.3 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍
============================


저자: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond


버전: 2.04

요약
....

이 문서는 *note curses: 2b. 확장 모듈을 사용하여 텍스트 모드 디스플레이
를 제어하는 방법을 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* curses란 무엇입니까?::
* curses 응용 프로그램 시작과 종료::
* 창과 패드::
* 텍스트 표시::
* 사용자 입력::
* 추가 정보::


File: python.info,  Node: curses란 무엇입니까?,  Next: curses 응용 프로그램 시작과 종료,  Up: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍

9.3.1 curses란 무엇입니까?
--------------------------

curses 라이브러리는 텍스트 기반 터미널을 위한 터미널 독립적인 스크린 페
인팅과 키보드 처리 기능을 제공합니다; 이러한 터미널에는 VT100, 리눅스 콘
솔 및 다양한 프로그램에서 제공하는 시뮬레이트 된 터미널이 포함됩니다.  디
스플레이 터미널은 커서 이동, 화면 스크롤 및 영역 지우기와 같은 일반적인
작업을 수행하기 위해 다양한 제어 코드를 지원합니다.  터미널마다 서로 다
른 코드를 사용하며 종종 자신만의 사소한 문제가 있습니다.

그래픽 디스플레이의 세계에서, 이렇게 물을 수 있습니다.  “왜 신경 써야 하
나요”?  문자 셀 디스플레이 터미널은 한물간 기술이지만, 사실 여전히 가치
있는 멋진 작업을 수행할 수 있는 틈새가 존재합니다.  한가지 틈새는 X 서버
를 실행하지 않는 작은 크기 혹은 내장 유닉스입니다.  다른 것으로는 그래픽
지원을 사용할 수 있기 전에 실행해야 할 OS 설치 프로그램과 커널 구성기와
같은 도구가 있습니다.

curses 라이브러리는 상당히 기본적인 기능을 제공하여, 프로그래머에게 겹치
지 않는 여러 개의 텍스트 창을 포함하는 디스플레이의 추상화를 제공합니다.
창의 내용은 텍스트 추가, 삭제, 모양 변경 등 다양한 방법으로 변경될 수 있
으며 curses 라이브러리는 올바른 출력을 생성하기 위해 터미널에 어떤 제어
코드를 보내야 하는지 파악합니다.  curses는 버튼, 체크 박스 또는 대화 상
자와 같은 많은 사용자 인터페이스 개념을 제공하지 않습니다; 이러한 기능이
필요하면 Urwid(1)와 같은 사용자 인터페이스 라이브러리를 고려하십시오.

curses 라이브러리는 원래 BSD 유닉스용으로 작성되었습니다; 그 이후 AT&T의
유닉스 시스템 V 버전에는 많은 개선 사항과 새로운 기능이 추가되었습니다.
BSD curses는 더는 유지되지 않고, AT&T 인터페이스의 오픈 소스 구현인
ncurses로 대체되었습니다.  리눅스나 FreeBSD 와 같은 오픈 소스 유닉스를 사
용하고 있다면, 시스템은 거의 확실히 ncurses를 사용합니다.  최신 상용 유
닉스 버전은 대부분 시스템 V 코드를 기반으로 하므로, 여기에 설명된 모든 기
능을 아마도 사용할 수 있을 것입니다.  그러나 일부 독점적 유닉스가 제공하
는 이전 버전의 curses는 모든 것을 지원하지 않을 수 있습니다.

윈도우 버전의 파이썬은 *note curses: 2b. 모듈을 포함하지 않습니다.  이식
된 버전인 UniCurses(2)를 사용할 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 curses 모듈::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 curses 모듈,  Up: curses란 무엇입니까?

9.3.1.1 파이썬 curses 모듈
..........................

파이썬 모듈은 curses가 제공하는 C 함수에 대한 상당히 간단한 래퍼입니다;
C의 curses 프로그래밍에 이미 익숙하다면 이 지식을 파이썬으로 쉽게 옮길 수
있습니다.  가장 큰 차이점은 파이썬 인터페이스가 ‘addstr()’, ‘mvaddstr()’
및 ‘mvwaddstr()’와 같은 다른 C 함수를 단일 *note addstr(): 2f7f. 메서드
로 병합하여 작업을 단순화한다는 것입니다.  나중에 자세히 다루겠습니다.

이 HOWTO는 curses와 파이썬으로 텍스트 모드 프로그램을 작성하는 방법을 소
개합니다.  curses API에 대한 완전한 안내서가 되려는 것은 아닙니다; 그것
을 위해서는 ncurses에 대한 파이썬 라이브러리 안내서 섹션과 ncurses에 대
한 C 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.  그러나 기본 아이디어는 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: curses 응용 프로그램 시작과 종료,  Next: 창과 패드,  Prev: curses란 무엇입니까?,  Up: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍

9.3.2 curses 응용 프로그램 시작과 종료
--------------------------------------

무언가를 하기 전에 curses를 초기화해야 합니다.  이것은 *note initscr():
15aa. 함수를 호출함으로써 수행되는데, 터미널 유형을 결정하고, 필요한 설
정 코드를 터미널에 보내고, 다양한 내부 데이터 구조를 만듭니다.  성공하면
‘initscr()’은 전체 화면을 나타내는 창 객체를 반환합니다; 이를 일반적으로
해당 C 변수 이름을 따라 ‘stdscr’이라고 합니다.

     import curses
     stdscr = curses.initscr()

일반적으로 curses 응용 프로그램은 키를 읽고 특정 상황에서만 표시할 수 있
도록 화면으로 키를 자동 에코 하는 기능을 끕니다.  이를 위해서는 *note
noecho(): 2fa9. 함수를 호출해야 합니다.

     curses.noecho()

응용 프로그램은 또한 일반적으로 Enter 키를 누르지 않아도 즉시 키에 반응
해야 합니다; 이것을 일반적인 버퍼 입력 모드와 대비하여 cbreak 모드라고 합
니다.

     curses.cbreak()

터미널은 일반적으로 커서 키나 Page Up, Home 등의 탐색 키와 같은 특수 키
를 멀티 바이트 이스케이프 시퀀스로 반환합니다.  이러한 시퀀스를 예상하고
적절하게 처리하도록 응용 프로그램을 작성할 수는 있지만, curses가 이를 수
행하여 *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 3023.와 같은 특수 값을 반환할 수 있습니다.
curses가 이런 일을 하도록 하려면, 키패드 모드를 활성화해야 합니다.

     stdscr.keypad(True)

curses 응용 프로그램을 종료하는 것은 시작하기보다 훨씬 쉽습니다.  다음과
같이 호출합니다:

     curses.nocbreak()
     stdscr.keypad(False)
     curses.echo()

curses 친화적인 터미널 설정을 되돌립니다.  그런 다음 *note endwin():
2f83. 함수를 호출하여 터미널을 원래 작동 모드로 복원하십시오.

     curses.endwin()

curses 응용 프로그램을 디버깅할 때 일반적인 문제점은 터미널을 이전 상태
로 복원하지 않고 응용 프로그램이 죽을 때 터미널이 엉망이 되는 것입니다.
파이썬에서 코드에 버그가 있고 잡히지 않는 예외를 일으킬 때 흔히 일어납니
다.  예를 들어, 키를 입력해도 키가 더는 화면에 표시되지 않아 셸 사용이 어
려워집니다.

파이썬에서는 *note curses.wrapper(): a7d. 함수를 임포트하고 다음과 같이
사용하여 이러한 복잡성을 피하고 디버깅을 훨씬 쉽게 할 수 있습니다:

     from curses import wrapper

     def main(stdscr):
         # 화면을 지웁니다
         stdscr.clear()

         # i == 10일 때 ZeroDivisionError를 발생시킵니다.
         for i in range(0, 11):
             v = i-10
             stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))

             stdscr.refresh()
             stdscr.getkey()

     wrapper(main)

*note wrapper(): a7d. 함수는 콜러블 객체를 취하고 위에서 설명한 초기화를
수행합니다, 색상 지원이 있으면 색상도 초기화합니다.  그런 다음
‘wrapper()’는 제공된 콜러블을 실행합니다.  일단 콜러블이 반환되면,
‘wrapper()’는 터미널의 원래 상태를 복원합니다.  콜러블은 예외를 잡는
*note try: 6e2.…*note except: 18b. 내에서 호출되고, 터미널의 상태를 복원
한 다음 예외를 다시 발생시킵니다.  따라서 터미널은 예외 상황에서 망가진
상태로 남지 않고 예외 메시지와 트레이스백을 읽을 수 있습니다.


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9.3.3 창과 패드
---------------

창은 curses의 기본 추상화입니다.  창 객체는 화면의 사각형 영역을 나타내
며, 텍스트를 표시하고, 지우고, 사용자가 문자열을 입력할 수 있도록 하는 등
의 메서드를 지원합니다.

*note initscr(): 15aa. 함수가 반환한 ‘stdscr’ 객체는 전체 화면을 덮는 창
객체입니다.  많은 프로그램에서 이 창 하나만 필요할 수도 있지만, 따로 다
시 그리거나 지우기 위해 화면을 작은 창으로 나누고 싶을 수 있습니다.
*note newwin(): 2fa7. 함수는 지정된 크기의 새 창을 만들어 새 창 객체를 반
환합니다.

     begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
     height = 5; width = 40
     win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)

curses에 사용된 좌표계는 일반적이지 않음에 주의하십시오.  좌표는 항상
'y,x' 순서로 전달되며, 창의 왼쪽 상단 모서리는 좌표 (0,0) 입니다.  이것
은 'x' 좌표가 먼저 오는, 좌표를 다루는 일반적인 규칙을 위반합니다.  이것
은 대부분 다른 컴퓨터 응용 프로그램과의 불행한 차이점이지만, 처음 작성된
이후로 curses 일부였으며, 지금 되돌리기에는 너무 늦었습니다.

응용 프로그램은 'y'와 'x' 크기를 얻기 위해 *note curses.LINES: 1712.와
*note curses.COLS: 1713. 변수를 사용하여 화면 크기를 결정할 수 있습니다.
그러면 유효한 좌표는 ‘(0,0)’에서 ‘(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)’에
이릅니다.

텍스트를 표시하거나 지우기 위해 메서드를 호출할 때, 효과는 즉시 디스플레
이에 나타나지 않습니다.  대신 화면을 갱신하기 위해 창 객체의 *note
refresh(): 2f81. 메서드를 호출해야 합니다.

curses는 원래 300-baud 터미널 연결을 염두에 두고 작성되었기 때문입니다;
이러한 터미널에서는 화면을 다시 그리는 데 필요한 시간을 최소화하는 것이
매우 중요했습니다.  대신 curses는 화면의 변경 사항을 누적하고
‘refresh()’를 호출할 때 가장 효율적인 방식으로 표시합니다.  예를 들어, 프
로그램이 창에 일부 텍스트를 표시한 다음 창을 지우면, 원래 텍스트가 표시
되지 않기 때문에 보낼 필요가 없습니다.

실제로는, 창을 다시 그리도록 명시적으로 curses에 지시한다고 해서 curses
프로그래밍이 실제로 복잡해지는 것은 아닙니다.  대부분 프로그램은 복잡한
행동을 한 다음 키 입력이나 사용자의 다른 동작을 기다리기 위해 일시 중지
합니다.  여러분이 해야 할 것은 사용자 입력을 기다리기 위해 일시 중지하기
전에 ‘stdscr.refresh()’나 다른 적절한 창의 ‘refresh()’ 메서드를 먼저 호
출하여 화면을 다시 그리도록 하는 것뿐입니다.

패드(pad)는 창의 특별한 경우입니다; 실제 디스플레이 화면보다 클 수 있으
며, 한 번에 패드의 일부만 표시될 수 있습니다.  패드를 만들려면 패드의 높
이와 너비가 필요하지만, 패드를 새로 고치려면 패드의 서브 섹션이 표시될 화
면 영역의 좌표를 지정해야 합니다.

     pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
     # 이 루프는 패드를 글자로 채웁니다; addch()는
     # 다음 섹션에서 설명합니다
     for y in range(0, 99):
         for x in range(0, 99):
             pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)

     # 화면 중간에 패드의 섹션을 표시합니다.
     # (0,0) : 표시할 패드 영역의 왼쪽 위 모서리 좌표.
     # (5,5) : 패드 내용으로 채울 창 영역의 왼쪽 위
     #         모서리 좌표.
     # (20, 75) : 패드 내용으로 채울 창 영역의 오른쪽 아래
     #          : 모서리 좌표.
     pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)

‘refresh()’ 호출은 화면의 좌표 (5,5)에서 좌표 (20,75) 까지 확장된 사각형
에 패드 섹션을 표시합니다; 표시된 섹션의 왼쪽 위 모서리는 패드의 좌표
(0,0) 입니다.  이 차이를 제외하고, 패드는 일반 창과 똑같으며 같은 메서드
를 지원합니다.

화면에 여러 개의 창과 패드가 있으면, 화면을 갱신하고 화면의 각 부분이 갱
신될 때 성가신 화면 깜박임을 방지하는 더 효율적인 방법이 있습니다.
‘refresh()’는 실제로 두 가지 작업을 수행합니다:

  1. 각 창의 *note noutrefresh(): 2f80. 메서드를 호출하여 원하는 화면 상
     태를 나타내는 하부 데이터 구조를 갱신합니다.

  2. *note doupdate(): 2f7e. 함수를 호출하여 데이터 구조에 기록된 원하는
     상태와 일치하도록 물리적 화면을 변경합니다.

대신 여러 창에서 ‘noutrefresh()’를 호출하여 데이터 구조를 갱신한 다음,
‘doupdate()’를 호출하여 화면을 갱신할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 텍스트 표시,  Next: 사용자 입력,  Prev: 창과 패드,  Up: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍

9.3.4 텍스트 표시
-----------------

C 프로그래머의 관점에서 보면, curses는 때때로 모두 조금씩 다른 함수의 미
로처럼 보일 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘addstr()’은 ‘stdscr’ 창의 현재 커
서 위치에 문자열을 표시하고, ‘mvaddstr()’은 문자열을 표시하기 전에 주어
진 y,x 좌표로 먼저 이동합니다.  ‘waddstr()’은 ‘addstr()’과 비슷하지만, 기
본적으로 ‘stdscr’을 사용하는 대신 사용할 창을 지정할 수 있습니다.
‘mvwaddstr()’은 창과 좌표를 모두 지정할 수 있습니다.

다행히 파이썬 인터페이스는 이러한 모든 세부 사항을 숨깁니다.  ‘stdscr’은
다른 것과 마찬가지로 창 객체이며, *note addstr(): 2f7f.과 같은 메서드는
여러 인자 형식을 허용합니다.  일반적으로 네 가지 형식이 있습니다.

형식                                  설명
                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
'str' 또는 'ch'                       현재 위치에 문자열 'str'이나 문자 'ch'를 표시합니
                                      다
                                      
                                      
'str' 또는 'ch', 'attr'               현재 위치에 속성 'attr'을 사용하여 문자열 'str'이
                                      나 문자 'ch'를 표시합니다
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' 또는 'ch'             창에서 'y,x' 위치로 이동하고, 'str'이나 'ch'를 표
                                      시합니다
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' 또는 'ch', 'attr'     창에서 'y,x' 위치로 이동하고, 'attr' 속성을 사용
                                      하여 'str'이나 'ch'를 표시합니다
                                      

속성을 사용하면 굵은 체, 밑줄, 반전 코드 또는 색상과 같은 강조 표시된 형
태로 텍스트를 표시할 수 있습니다.  이에 대해서는 다음 서브 섹션에서 자세
히 설명합니다.

*note addstr(): 2f7f. 메서드는 표시할 값으로 파이썬 문자열이나 바이트열
을 추합니다.  바이트열의 내용은 그대로 터미널로 전송됩니다.  문자열은 창
의 *note encoding: 108c. 어트리뷰트 값을 사용하여 바이트열로 인코딩됩니
다; 이 어트리뷰트의 기본값은 *note locale.getencoding(): 2de. 에 의해 반
환되는 기본 시스템 인코딩입니다.

*note addch(): 2fc2. 메서드는 길이가 1인 문자열, 길이가 1인 바이트열 또
는 정수일 수 있는 문자를 취합니다.

확장 문자를 위한 상수가 제공됩니다; 이 상수는 255보다 큰 정수입니다.  예
를 들어, *note ACS_PLMINUS: 3090.는 +/- 기호이고, *note ACS_ULCORNER:
2fcc.는 상자의 왼쪽 위 모서리입니다 (경계를 그리기에 편리합니다).  적절
한 유니코드 문자를 사용할 수도 있습니다.

창은 마지막 조작 후 커서가 있던 위치를 기억하므로, 'y,x' 좌표를 생략하면
마지막 조작이 중단된 위치에 문자열이나 문자가 표시됩니다.  ‘move(y,x)’ 메
서드로 커서를 이동할 수도 있습니다.  일부 터미널은 항상 깜빡이는 커서를
표시하기 때문에, 방해받지 않는 위치에 커서를 놓아야 합니다; 임의의 위치
에서 커서가 깜박이는 것은 혼란스러울 수 있습니다.

응용 프로그램에 깜박이는 커서가 전혀 필요하지 않으면, ‘curs_set(False)’를
호출하여 보이지 않게 할 수 있습니다.  이전 curses 버전과의 호환성을 위해
, *note curs_set(): 2f78.과 동의어인 ‘leaveok(bool)’ 함수가 있습니다.
'bool' 이 참이면, curses 라이브러리는 깜박이는 커서를 억제하려고 시도하
고, 커서를 부적절한 위치에 두는 것에 대해 걱정할 필요가 없습니다.

* Menu:

* 속성과 색상::


File: python.info,  Node: 속성과 색상,  Up: 텍스트 표시

9.3.4.1 속성과 색상
...................

문자는 다른 방식으로 표시될 수 있습니다.  텍스트 기반 응용 프로그램의 상
태 줄(status line)은 일반적으로 반전 비디오로 표시되거나 텍스트 뷰어에서
특정 단어를 강조 표시해야 할 수 있습니다.  curses는 화면에 있는 각 셀의
속성을 지정할 수 있도록 하여 이를 지원합니다.

속성은 정수이며, 각 비트는 다른 속성을 나타냅니다.  여러 속성 비트가 설
정된 텍스트를 표시하려고 시도 할 수 있지만, curses는 가능한 모든 조합을
사용할 수 있거나 시각적으로 구별됨을 보증하지 않습니다.  사용하는 터미널
의 기능에 따라 다르므로, 여기에 나열된 가장 일반적으로 사용 가능한 속성
을 고수하는 것이 가장 안전합니다.

속성                       설명
                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
*note A_BLINK: 300f.       깜박거리는 텍스트
                           
                           
*note A_BOLD: 3010.        매우 밝거나 굵은 텍스트
                           
                           
*note A_DIM: 3011.         절반 밝기의 텍스트
                           
                           
*note A_REVERSE: 2f76.     반전 비디오 텍스트
                           
                           
*note A_STANDOUT: 2f75.    사용 가능한 최고 강조 표시 모드
                           
                           
*note A_UNDERLINE: 3015.   밑줄이 그어진 텍스트
                           

따라서 화면 상단 줄에 반전 비디오 상태 줄을 표시하려면, 다음과 같이 코딩
할 수 있습니다:

     stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
                   curses.A_REVERSE)
     stdscr.refresh()

curses 라이브러리는 또한 색상을 제공하는 터미널에서 색상을 지원합니다.  이
러한 터미널 중 가장 일반적인 터미널은 리눅스 콘솔이고, 그다음은 컬러
xterm입니다.

색상을 사용하려면, *note initscr(): 15aa.을 호출한 직후 *note
start_color(): 2fb3. 함수를 호출하여, 기본 색상 집합을 초기화해야 합니다
(*note curses.wrapper(): a7d. 함수는 이것을 자동으로 수행합니다).  일단
이렇게 하면, *note has_colors(): 2f96. 함수는 사용 중인 터미널이 실제로
색상을 표시할 수 있으면 True를 반환합니다.  (참고: curses는 캐나다/영국
철자법 ‘colour’ 대신 미국식 철자법 ‘color’를 사용합니다.  영국 철자법에
익숙하다면 이러한 함수를 위해 철자법을 바꾸는 것을 감수해야 합니다.)

curses 라이브러리는 전경(또는 텍스트)색과 배경색을 포함하여 유한한 수의
색 쌍을 유지합니다.  *note color_pair(): 2f74. 함수를 사용하여 색상 쌍에
해당하는 속성값을 얻을 수 있습니다; 이것은 *note A_REVERSE: 2f76.와 같은
다른 속성과 비트별 OR 될 수 있지만, 다시 한번, 이러한 조합이 모든 터미널
에서 작동하는 것은 아닙니다.

색상 쌍 1을 사용하여 텍스트 줄을 표시하는 예:

     stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
     stdscr.refresh()

앞에서 말했듯이, 색상 쌍은 전경색과 배경색으로 구성됩니다.
‘init_pair(n, f, b)’ 함수는 색상 쌍 'n'의 정의를 전경색 f와 배경색 b로 변
경합니다.  색상 쌍 0은 검은 배경에 흰 전경으로 강제되어 있으며 변경할 수
없습니다.

색상은 번호가 매겨지며, *note start_color(): 2fb3.는 색상 모드를 활성화
할 때 8가지 기본 색상을 초기화합니다.  0:검정(black), 1:빨강(red), 2:녹
색(green), 3:노랑(yellow), 4:파랑(blue), 5:자홍색(magenta), 6:청록색
(cyan) 및 7:하양(white) 입니다.  *note curses: 2b. 모듈은 *note
curses.COLOR_BLACK: 30a2, *note curses.COLOR_RED: 30a7. 등 각 색상에 대
해 이름 붙인 상수를 정의합니다.

이 모든 것을 써봅시다.  색상 1을 흰색 배경의 빨간색 텍스트로 변경하려면,
다음과 같이 호출할 수 있습니다:

     curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)

색상 쌍을 변경할 때, 해당 색상 쌍을 사용하여 이미 표시된 텍스트가 새 색
상으로 변경됩니다.  이 색상으로 새 텍스트를 표시 할 수도 있습니다:

     stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))

매우 멋진 터미널은 실제 색상의 정의를 주어진 RGB 값으로 변경할 수 있습니
다.  이를 통해 일반적으로 빨간색인 색상 1을 보라색이나 파란색 또는 원하
는 어떤 색상으로도 변경할 수 있습니다.  불행히도, 리눅스 콘솔은 이것을 지
원하지 않아서, 저는 시도해 볼 수 없고 예제를 제공할 수 없습니다.  *note
can_change_color(): 2f71.를 호출하여 여러분의 터미널이 이를 수행 할 수 있
는지를 확인할 수 있습니다.  기능이 있으면 ‘True’를 반환합니다.  이러한 재
능있는 터미널을 보유할 만큼 운이 좋다면, 자세한 내용은 시스템 매뉴얼 페
이지를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 입력,  Next: 추가 정보,  Prev: 텍스트 표시,  Up: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍

9.3.5 사용자 입력
-----------------

C curses 라이브러리는 매우 간단한 입력 메커니즘만 제공합니다.  파이썬의
*note curses: 2b. 모듈은 기본 텍스트 입력 위젯을 추가합니다.  (Urwid(1)와
같은 다른 라이브러리에는 더 광범위한 위젯 모음이 있습니다.)

창에서 입력을 얻는 메서드는 두 가지가 있습니다.:

   * *note getch(): 1548.는 화면을 새로 고친 다음 사용자가 키를 누를 때
     까지 기다립니다.  *note echo(): 2f82.가 이전에 호출되었으면 키를 표
     시합니다.  일시 정지하기 전에 커서를 이동시킬 좌표를 선택적으로 지
     정할 수 있습니다.

   * *note getkey(): 2fe0.는 같은 작업을 수행하지만, 정수를 문자열로 변
     환합니다.  개별 문자는 1-문자 문자열로 반환되며, 기능 키와 같은 특
     수키는 ‘KEY_UP’이나 ‘^G’와 같은 키 이름을 포함하는 더 긴 문자열을 반
     환합니다.

*note nodelay(): 2ff6. 창 메서드를 사용하여 사용자를 기다리지 않을 수 있
습니다.  ‘nodelay(True)’ 이후에는, 창의 ‘getch()’와 ‘getkey()’가 블로킹
되지 않습니다.  입력이 준비되지 않았다는 신호를 보내기 위해 ‘getch()’는
‘curses.ERR’(-1 값)을 반환하고 ‘getkey()’는 예외를 발생시킵니다.  *note
halfdelay(): 2f9a. 함수도 있는데, 각 ‘getch()’에 (효과적으로) 타이머를 설
정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다; 지정된 지연 시간 (10분의 1초로 측정됩니다)
내에 입력이 없으면 curses는 예외를 발생시킵니다.

‘getch()’ 메서드는 정수를 반환합니다; 0에서 255 사이이면, 누른 키의
ASCII 코드를 나타냅니다.  255보다 큰 값은 Page Up, Home 또는 커서 키와 같
은 특수 키입니다.  반환 값을 *note curses.KEY_PPAGE: 3034, *note
curses.KEY_HOME: 3025. 또는 *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 3023.와 같은 상수와 비
교할 수 있습니다.  프로그램의 메인 루프는 이런 식입니다:

     while True:
         c = stdscr.getch()
         if c == ord('p'):
             PrintDocument()
         elif c == ord('q'):
             break  # while 루프를 종료합니다
         elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
             x = y = 0

*note curses.ascii: 2c. 모듈은 정수나 1문자 문자열 인자를 취하는 ASCII 클
래스 멤버십 함수를 제공합니다; 이러한 루프에서 더 읽기 쉬운 검사를 작성
하는 데 유용 할 수 있습니다.  이것은 또한 정수나 1문자 문자열 인자를 취
하고 같은 유형을 반환하는 변환 함수를 제공합니다.  예를 들어, *note
curses.ascii.ctrl(): 30e9.은 인자에 해당하는 제어 문자를 반환합니다.

전체 문자열을 꺼내는 메서드도 있습니다, *note getstr(): 2fe3.  기능이 상
당히 제한되어 있기 때문에 자주 사용되지 않습니다; 사용 가능한 편집 키는
백스페이스키와 문자열을 종료하는 Enter 키뿐입니다.  고정된 수의 문자로 선
택적으로 제한될 수 있습니다.

     curses.echo()            # 문자 에코를 활성화합니다

     # 커서를 맨 윗줄에 놓고 15자 문자열을 가져옵니다
     s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)

*note curses.textpad: 2e. 모듈은 Emacs와 같은 키 바인딩 집합을 지원하는
텍스트 상자를 제공합니다.  *note Textbox: 30ab. 클래스의 다양한 메서드는
입력 유효성 검증을 사용한 편집과 후행 공백이 있거나 없는 편집 결과 수집
을 지원합니다.  예를 들면 다음과 같습니다:

     import curses
     from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle

     def main(stdscr):
         stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")

         editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
         rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
         stdscr.refresh()

         box = Textbox(editwin)

         # Ctrl-G를 칠 때까지 사용자가 편집하도록 합니다.
         box.edit()

         # 결과 내용물을 얻습니다
         message = box.gather()

자세한 내용은 *note curses.textpad: 2e.의 라이브러리 설명서를 참조하십시
오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/


File: python.info,  Node: 추가 정보,  Prev: 사용자 입력,  Up: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍

9.3.6 추가 정보
---------------

이 HOWTO는 화면의 내용을 읽거나 xterm 인스턴스에서 마우스 이벤트를 캡처
하는 등의 고급 주제를 다루지 않지만, *note curses: 2b. 모듈의 파이썬 라
이브러리 페이지는 이제 어느 정도 완전합니다.  다음으로 그 페이지를 보십
시오.

curses 함수의 자세한 동작에 대해 확신이 없으면, curses 구현(ncurses이건
독점 유닉스 벤더의 것이건)에 대한 매뉴얼 페이지를 참조하십시오.  매뉴얼
페이지는 모든 뒤틀림(quirks)을 문서화하고, 사용 가능한 모든 함수, 속성 및
*note ACS_*: 307c. 문자의 전체 목록을 제공합니다.

curses API가 아주 크기 때문에, 일부 함수는 파이썬 인터페이스에서 지원되
지 않습니다.  종종 구현하기가 어렵기 때문이 아니라, 아직 아무도 원하지 않
았기 때문입니다.  또한, 파이썬은 ncurses와 관련된 메뉴 라이브러리를 아직
지원하지 않습니다.  이들에 대한 지원을 추가하는 패치를 환영합니다; 파이
썬에 패치를 제출하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 파이썬 개발자 지침서(1)를
참조하십시오.

   * Writing Programs with NCURSES(2): C 프로그래머를 위한 긴 자습서.

   * ncurses 매뉴얼 페이지(3)

   * The ncurses FAQ(4)

   * "Use curses...  don't swear"(5): curses나 Urwid를 사용하여 터미널을
     제어하는 PyCon 2013 발표 비디오.

   * "Console Applications with Urwid"(6): Urwid를 사용하여 작성된 몇몇
     응용 프로그램을 보여주는 PyCon CA 2012 발표 비디오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html

   (3) https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses

   (4) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html

   (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU

   (6) https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor Guide,  Next: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Prev: 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.4 Descriptor Guide
====================


저자: Raymond Hettinger


연락처: <python at rcn dot com>

*note 디스크립터: 157a.는 객체가 어트리뷰트 조회, 저장 및 삭제를 사용자
정의 할 수 있도록 합니다.

이 지침서는 네 개의 주요 섹션으로 구성됩니다:

  1. “입문”은 간단한 예제에서 부드럽게 이동하여 한 번에 하나의 기능을 추
     가하는 기본 개요를 제공합니다.  디스크립터를 처음 사용하면 여기에서
     시작하세요.

  2. 두 번째 섹션은 완전하고 실용적인 디스크립터 예제를 보여줍니다.  이
     미 기본 사항을 알고 있다면, 여기에서 시작하십시오.

  3. 세 번째 섹션에서는 디스크립터가 작동하는 방식에 대한 자세한 메커니
     즘에 관해 설명하는 더 기술적인 자습서를 제공합니다.  대부분의 사람
     은 이러한 수준의 세부 정보가 필요하지 않습니다.

  4. 마지막 섹션에는 C로 작성된 내장 디스크립터에 대한 순수한 파이썬 등
     가물이 있습니다.  함수가 연결된 메서드로 바뀌는 방법이나 *note
     classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 410, *note property():
     194. 및 *note __slots__: 5d9.와 같은 일반적인 도구의 구현에 대해 궁
     금하면 이 문서를 읽으십시오.

* Menu:

* 입문::
* 완전한 실용적인 예::
* 기술적인 자습서::
* 순수한 파이썬 등가물::


File: python.info,  Node: 입문,  Next: 완전한 실용적인 예,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.1 입문
----------

이 입문서에서는, 가능한 가장 기본적인 예제로 시작한 다음 새로운 기능을 하
나씩 추가할 것입니다.

* Menu:

* 간단한 예; 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터: 간단한 예 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터.
* 동적 조회::
* 관리되는 어트리뷰트::
* 사용자 정의 이름::
* 마무리 생각::


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 예 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터,  Next: 동적 조회,  Up: 입문

9.4.1.1 간단한 예: 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터
.............................................

The ‘Ten’ class is a descriptor whose *note __get__(): 14af. method
always returns the constant ‘10’:

     class Ten:
         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return 10

디스크립터를 사용하려면, 다른 클래스에 클래스 변수로 저장해야 합니다:

     class A:
         x = 5                       # Regular class attribute
         y = Ten()                   # Descriptor instance

대화 형 세션은 일반 어트리뷰트 조회와 디스크립터 조회의 차이점을 보여줍
니다:

     >>> a = A()                     # Make an instance of class A
     >>> a.x                         # Normal attribute lookup
     5
     >>> a.y                         # Descriptor lookup
     10

In the ‘a.x’ attribute lookup, the dot operator finds ‘'x': 5’ in the
class dictionary.  In the ‘a.y’ lookup, the dot operator finds a
descriptor instance, recognized by its ‘__get__’ method.  Calling that
method returns ‘10’.

‘10’ 값이 클래스 딕셔너리나 인스턴스 딕셔너리에 저장되지 않음에 유의하십
시오.  대신, ‘10’ 값은 요청 시 계산됩니다.

이 예는 간단한 디스크립터가 어떻게 작동하는지 보여 주지만, 그다지 유용하
지는 않습니다.  상수를 꺼내려면, 일반 어트리뷰트 조회가 더 좋습니다.

다음 섹션에서는, 좀 더 유용한 동적 조회를 만들 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 동적 조회,  Next: 관리되는 어트리뷰트,  Prev: 간단한 예 상수를 반환하는 디스크립터,  Up: 입문

9.4.1.2 동적 조회
.................

흥미로운 디스크립터는 보통 상수를 반환하는 대신 계산을 실행합니다:

     import os

     class DirectorySize:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname))

     class Directory:

         size = DirectorySize()              # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, dirname):
             self.dirname = dirname          # Regular instance attribute

대화 형 세션은 조회가 동적임을 보여줍니다 - 매번 다른 갱신된 답변을 계산
합니다:

     >>> s = Directory('songs')
     >>> g = Directory('games')
     >>> s.size                              # The songs directory has twenty files
     20
     >>> g.size                              # The games directory has three files
     3
     >>> os.remove('games/chess')            # Delete a game
     >>> g.size                              # File count is automatically updated
     2

Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also
reveals the purpose of the parameters to *note __get__(): 14af.  The
'self' parameter is 'size', an instance of 'DirectorySize'.  The 'obj'
parameter is either 'g' or 's', an instance of 'Directory'.  It is the
'obj' parameter that lets the *note __get__(): 14af. method learn the
target directory.  The 'objtype' parameter is the class 'Directory'.


File: python.info,  Node: 관리되는 어트리뷰트,  Next: 사용자 정의 이름,  Prev: 동적 조회,  Up: 입문

9.4.1.3 관리되는 어트리뷰트
...........................

A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data.  The
descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary
while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance
dictionary.  The descriptor’s *note __get__(): 14af. and *note
__set__(): 1f72. methods are triggered when the public attribute is
accessed.

다음 예에서, 'age'는 공용 어트리뷰트이고 '_age'는 개인 어트리뷰트입니다.
공용 어트리뷰트에 액세스하면, 디스크립터는 조회나 갱신을 로그 합니다:

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAgeAccess:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = obj._age
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value)
             obj._age = value

     class Person:

         age = LoggedAgeAccess()             # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                # Regular instance attribute
             self.age = age                  # Calls __set__()

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1                   # Calls both __get__() and __set__()

대화 형 세션은 관리되는 어트리뷰트 'age'에 대한 모든 액세스가 로그 되지
만, 일반 어트리뷰트 'name'은 로그 되지 않음을 보여줍니다:

     >>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30)         # The initial age update is logged
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30
     >>> dave = Person('David D', 40)
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40

     >>> vars(mary)                          # The actual data is in a private attribute
     {'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30}
     >>> vars(dave)
     {'name': 'David D', '_age': 40}

     >>> mary.age                            # Access the data and log the lookup
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     30
     >>> mary.birthday()                     # Updates are logged as well
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31

     >>> dave.name                           # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged
     'David D'
     >>> dave.age                            # Only the managed attribute is logged
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40
     40

이 예제의 한 가지 주요 문제는 개인 이름 '_age'가 'LoggedAgeAccess' 클래
스에 고정되어 있다는 것입니다.  즉, 각 인스턴스는 하나의 로그 되는 어트
리뷰트 만 가질 수 있으며 해당 이름을 변경할 수 없습니다.  다음 예에서는,
이 문제를 수정합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 이름,  Next: 마무리 생각,  Prev: 관리되는 어트리뷰트,  Up: 입문

9.4.1.4 사용자 정의 이름
........................

클래스가 디스크립터를 사용할 때, 어떤 변수 이름이 사용되었는지 각 디스크
립터에 알릴 수 있습니다.

In this example, the ‘Person’ class has two descriptor instances, 'name'
and 'age'.  When the ‘Person’ class is defined, it makes a callback to
*note __set_name__(): c4b. in 'LoggedAccess' so that the field names can
be recorded, giving each descriptor its own 'public_name' and
'private_name':

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAccess:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.public_name = name
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = getattr(obj, self.private_name)
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

     class Person:

         name = LoggedAccess()                # First descriptor instance
         age = LoggedAccess()                 # Second descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                 # Calls the first descriptor
             self.age = age                   # Calls the second descriptor

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1

An interactive session shows that the ‘Person’ class has called *note
__set_name__(): c4b. so that the field names would be recorded.  Here we
call *note vars(): 1a49. to look up the descriptor without triggering
it:

     >>> vars(vars(Person)['name'])
     {'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'}
     >>> vars(vars(Person)['age'])
     {'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'}

이제 새 클래스는 'name'과 'age' 모두에 대한 액세스를 로그 합니다:

     >>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10
     >>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20

두 개의 'Person' 인스턴스에는 개인 이름만 포함됩니다:

     >>> vars(pete)
     {'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10}
     >>> vars(kate)
     {'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}


File: python.info,  Node: 마무리 생각,  Prev: 사용자 정의 이름,  Up: 입문

9.4.1.5 마무리 생각
...................

A *note descriptor: 157a. is what we call any object that defines *note
__get__(): 14af, *note __set__(): 1f72, or *note __delete__(): 1610.

Optionally, descriptors can have a *note __set_name__(): c4b. method.
This is only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the
class where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned
to.  (This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a
descriptor.)

Descriptors get invoked by the dot operator during attribute lookup.  If
a descriptor is accessed indirectly with
‘vars(some_class)[descriptor_name]’, the descriptor instance is returned
without invoking it.

디스크립터는 클래스 변수로 사용될 때만 작동합니다.  인스턴스에 넣으면, 효
과가 없습니다.

디스크립터의 주요 동기는 클래스 변수에 저장된 객체가 어트리뷰트 조회 중
에 발생하는 일을 제어 할 수 있도록 하는 훅을 제공하는 것입니다.

전통적으로, 호출하는 클래스가 조회 중에 어떤 일이 일어날지 제어합니다.  디
스크립터는 그 관계를 역전시키고 조회 중인 데이터가 발언권을 갖도록 합니
다.

디스크립터는 언어 전체에서 사용됩니다.  함수가 연결된 메서드로 바뀌는 방
법입니다.  *note classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 410, *note
property(): 194. 및 *note functools.cached_property(): 53c.와 같은 일반
적인 도구는 모두 디스크립터로 구현됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 완전한 실용적인 예,  Next: 기술적인 자습서,  Prev: 입문,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.2 완전한 실용적인 예
------------------------

이 예에서는, 찾기가 매우 어려운 것으로 악명 높은 데이터 손상 버그의 위치
를 찾기 위한 실용적이고 강력한 도구를 만듭니다.

* Menu:

* 유효성 검사기 클래스::
* 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기::
* 실용적인 응용::


File: python.info,  Node: 유효성 검사기 클래스,  Next: 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기,  Up: 완전한 실용적인 예

9.4.2.1 유효성 검사기 클래스
............................

유효성 검사기는 관리되는 어트리뷰트 액세스를 위한 디스크립터입니다.  데
이터를 저장하기 전에, 새 값이 다양한 형과 범위 제한을 충족하는지 확인합
니다.  이러한 제한 사항이 충족되지 않으면, 데이터 손상을 방지하기 위해 원
천에서 예외가 발생합니다.

This ‘Validator’ class is both an *note abstract base class: 11a5. and a
managed attribute descriptor:

     from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

     class Validator(ABC):

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return getattr(obj, self.private_name)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             self.validate(value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

         @abstractmethod
         def validate(self, value):
             pass

Custom validators need to inherit from ‘Validator’ and must supply a
‘validate()’ method to test various restrictions as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기,  Next: 실용적인 응용,  Prev: 유효성 검사기 클래스,  Up: 완전한 실용적인 예

9.4.2.2 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기
.................................

다음은 세 가지 실용적인 데이터 유효성 검사 유틸리티입니다:

  1. ‘OneOf’ verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of
     options.

  2. ‘Number’ verifies that a value is either an *note int: 257. or
     *note float: 2ef.  Optionally, it verifies that a value is between
     a given minimum or maximum.

  3. ‘String’ verifies that a value is a *note str: 445.  Optionally, it
     validates a given minimum or maximum length.  It can validate a
     user-defined predicate(1) as well.

     class OneOf(Validator):

         def __init__(self, *options):
             self.options = set(options)

         def validate(self, value):
             if value not in self.options:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}'
                 )

     class Number(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None):
             self.minvalue = minvalue
             self.maxvalue = maxvalue

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, (int, float)):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float')
             if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}'
                 )

     class String(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None):
             self.minsize = minsize
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.predicate = predicate

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, str):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be a str')
             if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value):
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}'
                 )

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)


File: python.info,  Node: 실용적인 응용,  Prev: 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기,  Up: 완전한 실용적인 예

9.4.2.3 실용적인 응용
.....................

실제 클래스에서 데이터 유효성 검사기를 사용하는 방법은 다음과 같습니다:

     class Component:

         name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper)
         kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic')
         quantity = Number(minvalue=0)

         def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity):
             self.name = name
             self.kind = kind
             self.quantity = quantity

디스크립터는 잘못된 인스턴스가 만들어지는 것을 방지합니다:

     >>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5)      # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget'

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5)      # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'}

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5)     # Blocked: -5 is negative
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V')    # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float

     >>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5)  # Allowed:  The inputs are valid


File: python.info,  Node: 기술적인 자습서,  Next: 순수한 파이썬 등가물,  Prev: 완전한 실용적인 예,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.3 기술적인 자습서
---------------------

다음은 디스크립터의 작동 원리와 세부 사항에 대한 더 기술적인 자습서입니
다.

* Menu:

* 요약::
* 정의와 소개::
* 디스크립터 프로토콜::
* 디스크립터 호출의 개요::
* 인스턴스에서 호출::
* 클래스에서 호출::
* super에서 호출::
* 호출 로직 요약::
* 자동 이름 알림::
* ORM 예제::


File: python.info,  Node: 요약,  Next: 정의와 소개,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.1 요약
............

디스크립터를 정의하고, 프로토콜을 요약하며 디스크립터를 호출하는 방법을
보여줍니다.  객체 관계형 매핑(object relational mappings)이 작동하는 방
식을 보여주는 예를 제공합니다.

디스크립터에 대한 학습은 더 큰 도구 집합에 대한 액세스를 제공할 뿐만 아
니라, 파이썬의 작동 방식에 대한 심층적인 이해를 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정의와 소개,  Next: 디스크립터 프로토콜,  Prev: 요약,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.2 정의와 소개
...................

In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the
methods in the descriptor protocol.  Those methods are *note __get__():
14af, *note __set__(): 1f72, and *note __delete__(): 1610.  If any of
those methods are defined for an attribute, it is said to be a *note
descriptor: 157a.

어트리뷰트 액세스의 기본 동작은 객체의 딕셔너리에서 어트리뷰트를 가져오
거나(get) 설정하거나(set) 삭제하는(delete) 것입니다.  예를 들어, ‘a.x’는
‘a.__dict__['x']’로 시작한 다음 ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’를 거쳐,
‘type(a)’의 메서드 결정 순서로 계속되는 조회 체인을 갖습니다.  조회된 값
이 디스크립터 메서드 중 하나를 정의하는 객체이면, 파이썬은 기본 동작을 대
체하고 대신 디스크립터 메서드를 호출 할 수 있습니다.  우선순위 체인에서
이것이 어디쯤 등장하는지는 어떤 디스크립터 메서드가 정의되었는지에 따라
다릅니다.

Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the
mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and
*note super(): 4d5.  They are used throughout Python itself.
Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of
new tools for everyday Python programs.


File: python.info,  Node: 디스크립터 프로토콜,  Next: 디스크립터 호출의 개요,  Prev: 정의와 소개,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.3 디스크립터 프로토콜
...........................

‘descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)’

‘descr.__set__(self, obj, value)’

‘descr.__delete__(self, obj)’

이것이 전부입니다.  이러한 메서드 중 하나를 정의하십시오, 그러면 객체를
디스크립터로 간주하고 어트리뷰트로 조회될 때 기본 동작을 재정의할 수 있
습니다.

If an object defines *note __set__(): 1f72. or *note __delete__(): 1610,
it is considered a data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define *note
__get__(): 14af. are called non-data descriptors (they are often used
for methods but other uses are possible).

데이터와 비 데이터 디스크립터는 인스턴스 딕셔너리의 항목과 관련하여 재정
의가 계산되는 방식이 다릅니다.  인스턴스 딕셔너리에 데이터 디스크립터와
이름이 같은 항목이 있으면, 데이터 디스크립터가 우선합니다.  인스턴스의 딕
셔너리에 비 데이터 디스크립터와 이름이 같은 항목이 있으면, 딕셔너리 항목
이 우선합니다.

To make a read-only data descriptor, define both *note __get__(): 14af.
and *note __set__(): 1f72. with the *note __set__(): 1f72. raising an
*note AttributeError: 346. when called.  Defining the *note __set__():
1f72. method with an exception raising placeholder is enough to make it
a data descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: 디스크립터 호출의 개요,  Next: 인스턴스에서 호출,  Prev: 디스크립터 프로토콜,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.4 디스크립터 호출의 개요
..............................

디스크립터는 ‘desc.__get__(obj)’나 ‘desc.__get__(None, cls)’로 직접 호출
할 수 있습니다.

하지만 어트리뷰트 액세스 시 디스크립터가 자동으로 호출되는 것이 더 일반
적입니다.

The expression ‘obj.x’ looks up the attribute ‘x’ in the chain of
namespaces for ‘obj’.  If the search finds a descriptor outside of the
instance *note __dict__: 556, its *note __get__(): 14af. method is
invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.

호출 세부 사항은 ‘obj’가 객체, 클래스 혹은 super의 인스턴스인지에 따라 다
릅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 인스턴스에서 호출,  Next: 클래스에서 호출,  Prev: 디스크립터 호출의 개요,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.5 인스턴스에서 호출
.........................

Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data
descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then
non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly *note
__getattr__(): 4cd. if it is provided.

‘a.x’에 대한 디스크립터가 발견되면, ‘desc.__get__(a, type(a))’로 호출됩
니다.

점 조회의 로직은 *note object.__getattribute__(): bcf.에 있습니다.  다음
은 순수한 파이썬 등가물입니다:

     def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default):
         "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         for base in cls.__mro__:
             if name in vars(base):
                 return vars(base)[name]
         return default

     def object_getattribute(obj, name):
         "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c"
         null = object()
         objtype = type(obj)
         cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null)
         descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null)
         if descr_get is not null:
             if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__')
                 or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')):
                 return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)     # data descriptor
         if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj):
             return vars(obj)[name]                          # instance variable
         if descr_get is not null:
             return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)         # non-data descriptor
         if cls_var is not null:
             return cls_var                                  # class variable
         raise AttributeError(name)

Note, there is no *note __getattr__(): 4cd. hook in the *note
__getattribute__(): bcf. code.  That is why calling *note
__getattribute__(): bcf. directly or with ‘super().__getattribute__’
will bypass *note __getattr__(): 4cd. entirely.

Instead, it is the dot operator and the *note getattr(): bce. function
that are responsible for invoking *note __getattr__(): 4cd. whenever
*note __getattribute__(): bcf. raises an *note AttributeError: 346.
Their logic is encapsulated in a helper function:

     def getattr_hook(obj, name):
         "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         try:
             return obj.__getattribute__(name)
         except AttributeError:
             if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'):
                 raise
         return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name)             # __getattr__


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스에서 호출,  Next: super에서 호출,  Prev: 인스턴스에서 호출,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.6 클래스에서 호출
.......................

The logic for a dotted lookup such as ‘A.x’ is in
‘type.__getattribute__()’.  The steps are similar to those for
‘object.__getattribute__()’ but the instance dictionary lookup is
replaced by a search through the class’s *note method resolution order:
2188.

디스크립터가 발견되면, ‘desc.__get__(None, A)’로 호출됩니다.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘type_getattro()’ and
‘_PyType_Lookup()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: super에서 호출,  Next: 호출 로직 요약,  Prev: 클래스에서 호출,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.7 super에서 호출
......................

The logic for super’s dotted lookup is in the *note __getattribute__():
bcf. method for object returned by *note super(): 4d5.

점 조회 ‘super(A, obj).m’은 ‘obj.__class__.__mro__’에서 ‘A’ 바로 다음에
오는 베이스 클래스 ‘B’를 검색한 다음 ‘B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)’를
반환합니다.  디스크립터가 아니면, ‘m’이 변경되지 않은 상태로 반환됩니다.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘super_getattro()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).  A pure Python equivalent can be found in
Guido's Tutorial(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c

   (2) 
https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation


File: python.info,  Node: 호출 로직 요약,  Next: 자동 이름 알림,  Prev: super에서 호출,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.8 호출 로직 요약
......................

The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the *note
__getattribute__(): bcf. methods for *note object: a89, *note type: d45,
and *note super(): 4d5.

기억해야 할 중요한 사항은 다음과 같습니다:

   * Descriptors are invoked by the *note __getattribute__(): bcf.
     method.

   * 클래스는 *note object: a89, *note type: d45. 또는 *note super():
     4d5.로부터 이 절차를 상속합니다.

   * Overriding *note __getattribute__(): bcf. prevents automatic
     descriptor calls because all the descriptor logic is in that
     method.

   * ‘object.__getattribute__()’ and ‘type.__getattribute__()’ make
     different calls to *note __get__(): 14af.  The first includes the
     instance and may include the class.  The second puts in ‘None’ for
     the instance and always includes the class.

   * 데이터 디스크립터는 항상 인스턴스 딕셔너리를 대체합니다.

   * 비 데이터 디스크립터는 인스턴스 딕셔너리로 대체될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 자동 이름 알림,  Next: ORM 예제,  Prev: 호출 로직 요약,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.9 자동 이름 알림
......................

Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable
name it was assigned to.  When a new class is created, the *note type:
d45. metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class.  If any of the
entries are descriptors and if they define *note __set_name__(): c4b,
that method is called with two arguments.  The 'owner' is the class
where the descriptor is used, and the 'name' is the class variable the
descriptor was assigned to.

The implementation details are in ‘type_new()’ and ‘set_names()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).

Since the update logic is in ‘type.__new__()’, notifications only take
place at the time of class creation.  If descriptors are added to the
class afterwards, *note __set_name__(): c4b. will need to be called
manually.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: ORM 예제,  Prev: 자동 이름 알림,  Up: 기술적인 자습서

9.4.3.10 ORM 예제
.................

The following code is a simplified skeleton showing how data descriptors
could be used to implement an object relational mapping(1).

핵심 아이디어는 데이터가 외부 데이터베이스에 저장된다는 것입니다.  파이
썬 인스턴스는 데이터베이스 테이블에 대한 키만 보유합니다.  디스크립터가
조회나 갱신을 처리합니다:

     class Field:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;'
             self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;'

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0]

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
             conn.commit()

We can use the ‘Field’ class to define models(2) that describe the
schema for each table in a database:

     class Movie:
         table = 'Movies'                    # Table name
         key = 'title'                       # Primary key
         director = Field()
         year = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

     class Song:
         table = 'Music'
         key = 'title'
         artist = Field()
         year = Field()
         genre = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

모델을 사용하려면, 먼저 데이터베이스에 연결하십시오:

     >>> import sqlite3
     >>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db')

대화 형 세션은 데이터베이스에서 데이터를 꺼내는 방법과 데이터를 갱신하는
방법을 보여줍니다:

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'George Lucas'
     >>> jaws = Movie('Jaws')
     >>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}'
     'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg'

     >>> Song('Country Roads').artist
     'John Denver'

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams'
     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'J.J. Abrams'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_mapping

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model


File: python.info,  Node: 순수한 파이썬 등가물,  Prev: 기술적인 자습서,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.4 순수한 파이썬 등가물
--------------------------

디스트립터 프로토콜은 간단하고 흥미로운 가능성을 제공합니다.  몇 가지 유
스 케이스는 아주 흔해서 내장 도구에 미리 패키징되었습니다.  프로퍼티, 연
결된 메서드, 정적 메서드, 클래스 메서드 및 __slots__는 모두 디스크립터 프
로토콜을 기반으로 합니다.

* Menu:

* 프로퍼티::
* 함수와 메서드::
* 메서드의 종류::
* 정적 메서드::
* 클래스 메서드::
* 멤버 객체와 __slots__::


File: python.info,  Node: 프로퍼티,  Next: 함수와 메서드,  Up: 순수한 파이썬 등가물

9.4.4.1 프로퍼티
................

*note property(): 194. 호출은 어트리뷰트에 액세스할 때 함수 호출을 트리
거 하는 데이터 디스크립터를 작성하는 간결한 방법입니다.  서명은 다음과 같
습니다:

     property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property

설명(doc)은 관리되는 어트리뷰트 ‘x’를 정의하는 일반적인 사용법을 보여줍
니다:

     class C:
         def getx(self): return self.__x
         def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
         def delx(self): del self.__x
         x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

To see how *note property(): 194. is implemented in terms of the
descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent that implements
most of the core functionality:

     class Property:
         "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

         def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
             self.fget = fget
             self.fset = fset
             self.fdel = fdel
             if doc is None and fget is not None:
                 doc = fget.__doc__
             self.__doc__ = doc

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.__name__ = name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             if self.fget is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             return self.fget(obj)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             if self.fset is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             self.fset(obj, value)

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             if self.fdel is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             self.fdel(obj)

         def getter(self, fget):
             return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

         def setter(self, fset):
             return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

         def deleter(self, fdel):
             return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)

*note property(): 194. 내장은 사용자 인터페이스가 어트리뷰트 액세스를 허
가한 후 후속 변경이 메서드의 개입을 요구할 때 도움을 줍니다.

예를 들어, 스프레드시트 클래스는 ‘Cell('b10').value’를 통해 셀 값에 대한
액세스를 허가할 수 있습니다.  프로그램에 대한 후속 개선은 액세스할 때마
다 셀이 재계산될 것을 요구합니다; 하지만, 프로그래머는 어트리뷰트에 직접
액세스하는 기존 클라이언트 코드에 영향을 미치고 싶지 않습니다.  해결책은
프로퍼티 데이터 디스크립터로 value 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스를 감싸는 것
입니다:

     class Cell:
         ...

         @property
         def value(self):
             "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
             self.recalc()
             return self._value

Either the built-in *note property(): 194. or our ‘Property()’
equivalent would work in this example.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수와 메서드,  Next: 메서드의 종류,  Prev: 프로퍼티,  Up: 순수한 파이썬 등가물

9.4.4.2 함수와 메서드
.....................

파이썬의 객체 지향 기능은 함수 기반 환경을 기반으로 합니다.  비 데이터 디
스크립터를 사용하면, 두 개가 매끄럽게 병합됩니다.

클래스 딕셔너리에 저장된 함수는 호출될 때 메서드로 바뀝니다.  객체 인스
턴스가 다른 인자들 앞에 추가된다는 점에서만 메서드가 일반 함수와 다릅니
다.  관례에 따라, 이 인스턴스는 'self'라고 하지만 'this'나 다른 어떤 변
수 이름도 될 수 있습니다.

대략 다음과 동등한 *note types.MethodType: 17ff.을 사용하여 메서드를 수
동으로 만들 수 있습니다:

     class MethodType:
         "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c"

         def __init__(self, func, obj):
             self.__func__ = func
             self.__self__ = obj

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             func = self.__func__
             obj = self.__self__
             return func(obj, *args, **kwargs)

         def __getattribute__(self, name):
             "Emulate method_getset() in Objects/classobject.c"
             if name == '__doc__':
                 return self.__func__.__doc__
             return object.__getattribute__(self, name)

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             "Emulate method_getattro() in Objects/classobject.c"
             return getattr(self.__func__, name)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Emulate method_descr_get() in Objects/classobject.c"
             return self

To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the *note
__get__(): 14af. method for binding methods during attribute access.
This means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound
methods during dotted lookup from an instance.  Here’s how it works:

     class Function:
         ...

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             return MethodType(self, obj)

인터프리터에서 다음 클래스를 실행하면 실제로 함수 디스크립터가 작동하는
방식을 보여줍니다:

     class D:
         def f(self):
              return self

     class D2:
         pass

함수에는 내부 검사를 지원하는 *note 정규화된 이름: 1948. 어트리뷰트가 있
습니다:

     >>> D.f.__qualname__
     'D.f'

Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke
*note __get__(): 14af.  Instead, it just returns the underlying function
object:

     >>> D.__dict__['f']
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

Dotted access from a class calls *note __get__(): 14af. which just
returns the underlying function unchanged:

     >>> D.f
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance.
The dotted lookup calls *note __get__(): 14af. which returns a bound
method object:

     >>> d = D()
     >>> d.f
     <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>

내부적으로, 연결된 메서드는 하부 함수와 연결된 인스턴스를 저장합니다.

     >>> d.f.__func__
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

     >>> d.f.__self__
     <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>

일반 메서드에서 'self'가 어디에서 오는지 또는 클래스 메서드에서 'cls'가
어디에서 오는지 궁금한 적이 있다면, 바로 이겁니다!


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드의 종류,  Next: 정적 메서드,  Prev: 함수와 메서드,  Up: 순수한 파이썬 등가물

9.4.4.3 메서드의 종류
.....................

비 데이터 디스크립터는 함수에 메서드를 바인딩하는 일반적인 패턴을 변형하
는 간단한 메커니즘을 제공합니다.

To recap, functions have a *note __get__(): 14af. method so that they
can be converted to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data
descriptor transforms an ‘obj.f(*args)’ call into ‘f(obj, *args)’.
Calling ‘cls.f(*args)’ becomes ‘f(*args)’.

이 표는 연결과 가장 유용한 두 가지 변형을 요약합니다:

     변환                  객체에서 호출              클래스에서 호출
                                                      
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
     함수                  f(obj, *args)              f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     staticmethod          f(*args)                   f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     classmethod           f(type(obj), *args)        f(cls, *args)
                                                      


File: python.info,  Node: 정적 메서드,  Next: 클래스 메서드,  Prev: 메서드의 종류,  Up: 순수한 파이썬 등가물

9.4.4.4 정적 메서드
...................

정적 메서드는 변경 없이 하부 함수를 반환합니다.  ‘c.f’나 ‘C.f’ 호출은
‘object.__getattribute__(c, "f")’나 ‘object.__getattribute__(C, "f")’를
직접 조회하는 것과 동등합니다.  결과적으로, 함수는 객체나 클래스에서 동
일하게 액세스 할 수 있습니다.

정적 메서드에 적합한 후보는 ‘self’ 변수를 참조하지 않는 메서드입니다.

For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the
average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on
the data.  However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually
related but do not depend on the data.  For instance, ‘erf(x)’ is handy
conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not
directly depend on a particular dataset.  It can be called either from
an object or the class: ‘s.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332’ or ‘Sample.erf(1.5) -->
0.9332’.

정적 메서드는 변경 없이 하부 함수를 반환하므로, 예제 호출은 흥미롭지 않
습니다:

     class E:
         @staticmethod
         def f(x):
             return x * 10

     >>> E.f(3)
     30
     >>> E().f(3)
     30

비 데이터 디스크립터 프로토콜을 사용하면, 순수 파이썬 버전의 *note
staticmethod(): 410.는 다음과 같습니다:

     import functools

     class StaticMethod:
         "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return self.f

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwds):
             return self.f(*args, **kwds)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 1018. call adds a ‘__wrapped__’
attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it carries
forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the
wrapped function: *note __name__: 12c4, *note __qualname__: 1f05, *note
__doc__: 11c8, and *note __annotations__: 11c7.


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스 메서드,  Next: 멤버 객체와 __slots__,  Prev: 정적 메서드,  Up: 순수한 파이썬 등가물

9.4.4.5 클래스 메서드
.....................

정적 메서드와 달리, 클래스 메서드는 함수를 호출하기 전에 클래스 참조를 인
자 목록 앞에 추가합니다.  이 형식은 호출자가 객체나 클래스일 때 같습니다
:

     class F:
         @classmethod
         def f(cls, x):
             return cls.__name__, x

     >>> F.f(3)
     ('F', 3)
     >>> F().f(3)
     ('F', 3)

이 동작은 함수가 클래스 참조 만 필요하고 특정 인스턴스에 저장된 데이터에
의존하지 않을 때 유용합니다.  클래스 메서드의 한 가지 용도는 대체 클래스
생성자를 만드는 것입니다.  예를 들어, 클래스 메서드 *note
dict.fromkeys(): 1559.는 키 리스트에서 새 딕셔너리를 만듭니다.  순수한 파
이썬 동등 물은 다음과 같습니다:

     class Dict(dict):
         @classmethod
         def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
             "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
             d = cls()
             for key in iterable:
                 d[key] = value
             return d

이제 고유 키의 새로운 딕셔너리를 다음과 같이 구성 할 수 있습니다:

     >>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
     >>> type(d) is Dict
     True
     >>> d
     {'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}

비 데이터 디스크립터 프로토콜을 사용하면, 순수 파이썬 버전의 *note
classmethod(): 166.는 다음과 같습니다:

     import functools

     class ClassMethod:
         "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, cls=None):
             if cls is None:
                 cls = type(obj)
             return MethodType(self.f, cls)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 1018. call in ‘ClassMethod’ adds a
‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it
carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like
the wrapped function: *note __name__: 12c4, *note __qualname__: 1f05,
*note __doc__: 11c8, and *note __annotations__: 11c7.


File: python.info,  Node: 멤버 객체와 __slots__,  Prev: 클래스 메서드,  Up: 순수한 파이썬 등가물

9.4.4.6 멤버 객체와 __slots__
.............................

클래스가 ‘__slots__’를 정의하면, 인스턴스 딕셔너리를 슬롯값의 고정 길이
배열로 바꿉니다.  사용자 관점에서 여러 가지 효과가 있습니다:

1 - 철자가 잘못된 어트리뷰트 대입으로 인한 버그를 즉시 감지합니다.
‘__slots__’에 지정된 어트리뷰트 이름 만 허용됩니다:

     class Vehicle:
         __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model')

     >>> auto = Vehicle()
     >>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer'

2 - 디스크립터가 ‘__slots__’에 저장된 개인 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스를 관
리하는 불변 객체를 만드는 데 도움이 됩니다:

     class Immutable:

         __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name')          # Replace the instance dictionary

         def __init__(self, dept, name):
             self._dept = dept                   # Store to private attribute
             self._name = name                   # Store to private attribute

         @property                               # Read-only descriptor
         def dept(self):
             return self._dept

         @property
         def name(self):                         # Read-only descriptor
             return self._name

     >>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney')
     >>> mark.dept
     'Botany'
     >>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter
     >>> mark.location = 'Mars'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location'

3 - 메모리를 절약합니다.  64비트 리눅스 빌드에서 두 개의 어트리뷰트가 있
는 인스턴스는 ‘__slots__’가 있으면 48바이트, 없으면 152바이트를 사용합니
다.  이 플라이웨이트(flyweight) 디자인 패턴(1)은 많은 수의 인스턴스가 만
들어질 때만 중요합니다.

4.  Improves speed.  Reading instance variables is 35% faster with
‘__slots__’ (as measured with Python 3.10 on an Apple M1 processor).

5.  Blocks tools like *note functools.cached_property(): 53c. which
require an instance dictionary to function correctly:

     from functools import cached_property

     class CP:
         __slots__ = ()                          # Eliminates the instance dict

         @cached_property                        # Requires an instance dict
         def pi(self):
             return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0)
                            for n in reversed(range(100_000)))

     >>> CP().pi
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property.

‘__slots__’의 정확한 순수 파이썬 드롭인 버전을 만드는 것은 불가능합니다.
C 구조체에 직접 액세스하고 객체 메모리 할당을 제어해야 하기 때문입니다.
그러나, 슬롯에 대한 실제 C 구조체가 개인 ‘_slotvalues’ 리스트에 의해 모
사되는 가장 충실한 시뮬레이션을 구축 할 수 있습니다.  해당 개인 구조체에
대한 읽기와 쓰기는 멤버 디스크립터에 의해 관리됩니다:

     null = object()

     class Member:

         def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
             'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h'
             # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
             self.name = name
             self.clsname = clsname
             self.offset = offset

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null

         def __repr__(self):
             'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'

The ‘type.__new__()’ method takes care of adding member objects to class
variables:

     class Type(type):
         'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots'

         def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs):
             'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods()
             slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', [])
             for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names):
                 mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset)
             return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs)

*note object.__new__(): 57b. 메서드는 인스턴스 딕셔너리 대신 슬롯이 있는
인스턴스를 만드는 것을 관장합니다.  다음은 순수 파이썬의 대략적인 시뮬레
이션입니다:

     class Object:
         'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__'

         def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
             'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             inst = super().__new__(cls)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'):
                 empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names)
                 object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots)
             return inst

         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__setattr__(name, value)

         def __delattr__(self, name):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__delattr__(name)

To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from ‘Object’ and
set the *note metaclass: 1f8e. to ‘Type’:

     class H(Object, metaclass=Type):
         'Instance variables stored in slots'

         slot_names = ['x', 'y']

         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

이 시점에서, 메타 클래스는 'x' 와 'y'에 대한 멤버 객체를 로드했습니다:

     >>> from pprint import pp
     >>> pp(dict(vars(H)))
     {'__module__': '__main__',
      '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots',
      'slot_names': ['x', 'y'],
      '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>,
      'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>,
      'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>}

인스턴스가 만들어질 때, 어트리뷰트가 저장되는 ‘slot_values’ 리스트를 갖
습니다:

     >>> h = H(10, 20)
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [10, 20]}
     >>> h.x = 55
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [55, 20]}

철자가 틀리거나 지정되지 않은 어트리뷰트는 예외를 발생시킵니다:

     >>> h.xz
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyweight_pattern


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Next: Enum HOWTO,  Prev: Descriptor Guide,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.5 Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB
=============================================================

This document explains how the Python GDB extension, ‘python-gdb.py’,
can be used with the GDB debugger to debug CPython extensions and the
CPython interpreter itself.

When debugging low-level problems such as crashes or deadlocks, a
low-level debugger, such as GDB, is useful to diagnose and correct the
issue.  By default, GDB (or any of its front-ends) doesn’t support
high-level information specific to the CPython interpreter.

The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension adds CPython interpreter information to
GDB. The extension helps introspect the stack of currently executing
Python functions.  Given a Python object represented by a *note
PyObject: 332.* pointer, the extension surfaces the type and value of
the object.

Developers who are working on CPython extensions or tinkering with parts
of CPython that are written in C can use this document to learn how to
use the ‘python-gdb.py’ extension with GDB.

     참고: This document assumes that you are familiar with the basics
     of GDB and the CPython C API. It consolidates guidance from the
     devguide(1) and the Python wiki(2).

* Menu:

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb


File: python.info,  Node: Prerequisites,  Next: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.1 Prerequisites
-------------------

You need to have:

   - GDB 7 or later.  (For earlier versions of GDB, see ‘Misc/gdbinit’
     in the sources of Python 3.11 or earlier.)

   - GDB-compatible debugging information for Python and any extension
     you are debugging.

   - The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension.

The extension is built with Python, but might be distributed separately
or not at all.  Below, we include tips for a few common systems as
examples.  Note that even if the instructions match your system, they
might be outdated.

* Menu:

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::


File: python.info,  Node: Setup with Python built from source,  Next: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Up: Prerequisites

9.5.1.1 Setup with Python built from source
...........................................

When you build CPython from source, debugging information should be
available, and the build should add a ‘python-gdb.py’ file to the root
directory of your repository.

To activate support, you must add the directory containing
‘python-gdb.py’ to GDB’s “auto-load-safe-path”.  If you haven’t done
this, recent versions of GDB will print out a warning with instructions
on how to do this.

     참고: If you do not see instructions for your version of GDB, put
     this in your configuration file (‘~/.gdbinit’ or
     ‘~/.config/gdb/gdbinit’):

          add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython

     You can also add multiple paths, separated by ‘:’.


File: python.info,  Node: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Prev: Setup with Python built from source,  Up: Prerequisites

9.5.1.2 Setup for Python from a Linux distro
............................................

Most Linux systems provide debug information for the system Python in a
package called ‘python-debuginfo’, ‘python-dbg’ or similar.  For
example:

   - Fedora:

               sudo dnf install gdb
               sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3

   - Ubuntu:

               sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg

On several recent Linux systems, GDB can download debugging symbols
automatically using 'debuginfod'.  However, this will not install the
‘python-gdb.py’ extension; you generally do need to install the debug
info package separately.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Next: Using the python-gdb extension,  Prev: Prerequisites,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.2 Using the Debug build and Development mode
------------------------------------------------

For easier debugging, you might want to:

   - Use a *note debug build: 1f9. of Python.  (When building from
     source, use ‘configure --with-pydebug’.  On Linux distros, install
     and run a package like ‘python-debug’ or ‘python-dbg’, if
     available.)

   - Use the runtime *note development mode: 1f8. (‘-X dev’).

Both enable extra assertions and disable some optimizations.  Sometimes
this hides the bug you are trying to find, but in most cases they make
the process easier.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the python-gdb extension,  Next: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.3 Using the ‘python-gdb’ extension
--------------------------------------

When the extension is loaded, it provides two main features: pretty
printers for Python values, and additional commands.

* Menu:

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty-printers,  Next: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.1 Pretty-printers
.......................

This is what a GDB backtrace looks like (truncated) when this extension
is enabled:

     #0  0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8
     ) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748
     #1  0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445
     #2  0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412
     #3  0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346
     #4  0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed=
         0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531
     #5  0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495
     #6  0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551
     #7  0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569
     #8  0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v=
         {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__cached__': None, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key=
         0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171

Notice how the dictionary argument to ‘PyDict_GetItemString’ is
displayed as its ‘repr()’, rather than an opaque ‘PyObject *’ pointer.

The extension works by supplying a custom printing routine for values of
type ‘PyObject *’.  If you need to access lower-level details of an
object, then cast the value to a pointer of the appropriate type.  For
example:

     (gdb) p globals
     $1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__':
     '__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None,
     '__package__': None}

     (gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals
     $2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5,
     ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70
     <lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912,
     me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>},
     {me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__',
     me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes',
     me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>},
     {me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {
       me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}}

Note that the pretty-printers do not actually call ‘repr()’.  For basic
types, they try to match its result closely.

An area that can be confusing is that the custom printer for some types
look a lot like GDB’s built-in printer for standard types.  For example,
the pretty-printer for a Python ‘int’ (*note PyLongObject: 583.*) gives
a representation that is not distinguishable from one of a regular
machine-level integer:

     (gdb) p some_machine_integer
     $3 = 42

     (gdb) p some_python_integer
     $4 = 42

The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyLongObject: 583.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer
     $5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
     ob_digit = {42}}

A similar confusion can arise with the ‘str’ type, where the output
looks a lot like gdb’s built-in printer for ‘char *’:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_python_str
     $6 = '__builtins__'

The pretty-printer for ‘str’ instances defaults to using single-quotes
(as does Python’s ‘repr’ for strings) whereas the standard printer for
‘char *’ values uses double-quotes and contains a hexadecimal address:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_char_star
     $7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world"

Again, the implementation details can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyUnicodeObject: 78d.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6
     $8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12,
     str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}


File: python.info,  Node: py-list,  Next: py-up and py-down,  Prev: Pretty-printers,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.2 ‘py-list’
.................

     The extension adds a ‘py-list’ command, which lists the Python
     source code (if any) for the current frame in the selected thread.
     The current line is marked with a “>”:

          (gdb) py-list
           901        if options.profile:
           902            options.profile = False
           903            profile_me()
           904            return
           905
          >906        u = UI()
           907        if not u.quit:
           908            try:
           909                gtk.main()
           910            except KeyboardInterrupt:
           911                # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt...

     Use ‘py-list START’ to list at a different line number within the
     Python source, and ‘py-list START,END’ to list a specific range of
     lines within the Python source.


File: python.info,  Node: py-up and py-down,  Next: py-bt,  Prev: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.3 ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’
.............................

     The ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ commands are analogous to GDB’s regular
     ‘up’ and ‘down’ commands, but try to move at the level of CPython
     frames, rather than C frames.

     GDB is not always able to read the relevant frame information,
     depending on the optimization level with which CPython was
     compiled.  Internally, the commands look for C frames that are
     executing the default frame evaluation function (that is, the core
     bytecode interpreter loop within CPython) and look up the value of
     the related ‘PyFrameObject *’.

     They emit the frame number (at the C level) within the thread.

     For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-up
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame

     so we’re at the top of the Python stack.

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.  The command skips C frames which are not
     executing Python code.

     Going back down:

          (gdb) py-down
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-down
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          (gdb) py-down
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          (gdb) py-down
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          Unable to find a newer python frame

     and we’re at the bottom of the Python stack.

     Note that in Python 3.12 and newer, the same C stack frame can be
     used for multiple Python stack frames.  This means that ‘py-up’ and
     ‘py-down’ may move multiple Python frames at once.  For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0)
             time.sleep(5)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> ()
             recursive_function(5)
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame


File: python.info,  Node: py-bt,  Next: py-print,  Prev: py-up and py-down,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.4 ‘py-bt’
...............

     The ‘py-bt’ command attempts to display a Python-level backtrace of
     the current thread.

     For example:

          (gdb) py-bt
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.


File: python.info,  Node: py-print,  Next: py-locals,  Prev: py-bt,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.5 ‘py-print’
..................

     The ‘py-print’ command looks up a Python name and tries to print
     it.  It looks in locals within the current thread, then globals,
     then finally builtins:

          (gdb) py-print self
          local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          (gdb) py-print __name__
          global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower'
          (gdb) py-print len
          builtin 'len' = <built-in function len>
          (gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel
          'scarlet_pimpernel' not found

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     ‘py-print’ only considers the first one.


File: python.info,  Node: py-locals,  Prev: py-print,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.6 ‘py-locals’
...................

     The ‘py-locals’ command looks up all Python locals within the
     current Python frame in the selected thread, and prints their
     representations:

          (gdb) py-locals
          self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     locals from all of them will be shown:

          (gdb) py-locals
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 0
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 1
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 2
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 3
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 4
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 5
          Locals for <module>


File: python.info,  Node: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the python-gdb extension,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.4 Use with GDB commands
---------------------------

The extension commands complement GDB’s built-in commands.  For example,
you can use a frame numbers shown by ‘py-bt’ with the ‘frame’ command to
go a specific frame within the selected thread, like this:

     (gdb) py-bt
     (output snipped)
     #68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> ()
             main()
     (gdb) frame 68
     #68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665
     2665                            x = call_function(&sp, oparg);
     (gdb) py-list
     1543        # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a
     1544        # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or
     1545        # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is
     1546        # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD.
     1547        with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True):
     >1548            main()

The ‘info threads’ command will give you a list of the threads within
the process, and you can use the ‘thread’ command to select a different
one:

     (gdb) info threads
       105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
       104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
     * 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)  0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82

You can use ‘thread apply all COMMAND’ or (‘t a a COMMAND’ for short) to
run a command on all threads.  With ‘py-bt’, this lets you see what
every thread is doing at the Python level:

     (gdb) t a a py-bt

     Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528)
                     f()

     Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272)
                     f()

     Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)):
     #5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait ()
         time.sleep(0.01)
     #8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated)
             _wait()


File: python.info,  Node: Enum HOWTO,  Next: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO,  Prev: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.6 Enum HOWTO
==============

An *note Enum: 62a. is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values.
They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful *note
repr(): 7f7, grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.

They are most useful when you have a variable that can take one of a
limited selection of values.  For example, the days of the week:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7

Or perhaps the RGB primary colors:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

As you can see, creating an *note Enum: 62a. is as simple as writing a
class that inherits from *note Enum: 62a. itself.

     참고: Case of Enum Members

     Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid
     issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and
     enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for
     members, and will be using that style in our examples.

Depending on the nature of the enum a member’s value may or may not be
important, but either way that value can be used to get the
corresponding member:

     >>> Weekday(3)
     <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3>

As you can see, the ‘repr()’ of a member shows the enum name, the member
name, and the value.  The ‘str()’ of a member shows only the enum name
and member name:

     >>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY)
     Weekday.THURSDAY

The 'type' of an enumeration member is the enum it belongs to:

     >>> type(Weekday.MONDAY)
     <enum 'Weekday'>
     >>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
     True

Enum members have an attribute that contains just their ‘name’:

     >>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
     TUESDAY

Likewise, they have an attribute for their ‘value’:

     >>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
     3

Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value
pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added.  For example, *note
datetime.date: 1cd. has two methods for returning the weekday: *note
weekday(): 245d. and *note isoweekday(): 245e.  The difference is that
one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7.  Rather than keep
track of that ourselves we can add a method to the ‘Weekday’ enum to
extract the day from the *note date: 1cd. instance and return the
matching enum member:

     @classmethod
     def from_date(cls, date):
         return cls(date.isoweekday())

The complete ‘Weekday’ enum now looks like this:

     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7
     ...     #
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def from_date(cls, date):
     ...         return cls(date.isoweekday())

Now we can find out what today is!  Observe:

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> Weekday.from_date(date.today())
     <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>

Of course, if you’re reading this on some other day, you’ll see that day
instead.

This ‘Weekday’ enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
what if we need several?  Maybe we’re writing a function to plot chores
during a week, and don’t want to use a *note list: 60b. – we could use a
different type of *note Enum: 62a.:

     >>> from enum import Flag
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 4
     ...     THURSDAY = 8
     ...     FRIDAY = 16
     ...     SATURDAY = 32
     ...     SUNDAY = 64

We’ve changed two things: we’re inherited from *note Flag: 61d, and the
values are all powers of 2.

Just like the original ‘Weekday’ enum above, we can have a single
selection:

     >>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
     >>> first_week_day
     <Weekday.MONDAY: 1>

But *note Flag: 61d. also allows us to combine several members into a
single variable:

     >>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY
     >>> weekend
     <Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96>

You can even iterate over a *note Flag: 61d. variable:

     >>> for day in weekend:
     ...     print(day)
     Weekday.SATURDAY
     Weekday.SUNDAY

Okay, let’s get some chores set up:

     >>> chores_for_ethan = {
     ...     'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY,
     ...     'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY,
     ...     'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY,
     ...     }

And a function to display the chores for a given day:

     >>> def show_chores(chores, day):
     ...     for chore, days in chores.items():
     ...         if day in days:
     ...             print(chore)
     ...
     >>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY)
     answer SO questions

In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can
save yourself some work and use *note auto(): c99. for the values:

     >>> from enum import auto
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = auto()
     ...     TUESDAY = auto()
     ...     WEDNESDAY = auto()
     ...     THURSDAY = auto()
     ...     FRIDAY = auto()
     ...     SATURDAY = auto()
     ...     SUNDAY = auto()
     ...     WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY

* Menu:

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration::
* Comparisons::
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Next: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.1 Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes it’s useful to access members in enumerations programmatically
(i.e.  situations where ‘Color.RED’ won’t do because the exact color is
not known at program-writing time).  ‘Enum’ allows such access:

     >>> Color(1)
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color(3)
     <Color.BLUE: 3>

If you want to access enum members by 'name', use item access:

     >>> Color['RED']
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color['GREEN']
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

If you have an enum member and need its ‘name’ or ‘value’:

     >>> member = Color.RED
     >>> member.name
     'RED'
     >>> member.value
     1


File: python.info,  Node: Duplicating enum members and values,  Next: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Prev: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.2 Duplicating enum members and values
-----------------------------------------

Having two enum members with the same name is invalid:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     SQUARE = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2

However, an enum member can have other names associated with it.  Given
two entries ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the same value (and ‘A’ defined first), ‘B’
is an alias for the member ‘A’.  By-value lookup of the value of ‘A’
will return the member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘A’ will return the
member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘B’ will also return the member ‘A’:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     DIAMOND = 1
     ...     CIRCLE = 3
     ...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape(2)
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>

     참고: Attempting to create a member with the same name as an
     already defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.)  or
     attempting to create an attribute with the same name as a member is
     not allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Next: Using automatic values,  Prev: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.3 Ensuring unique enumeration values
----------------------------------------

By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same
value.  When this behavior isn’t desired, you can use the *note
unique(): 25c3. decorator:

     >>> from enum import Enum, unique
     >>> @unique
     ... class Mistake(Enum):
     ...     ONE = 1
     ...     TWO = 2
     ...     THREE = 3
     ...     FOUR = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE


File: python.info,  Node: Using automatic values,  Next: Iteration,  Prev: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.4 Using automatic values
----------------------------

If the exact value is unimportant you can use *note auto: c99.:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Color]
     [1, 2, 3]

The values are chosen by *note _generate_next_value_(): 25d7, which can
be overridden:

     >>> class AutoName(Enum):
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
     ...         return name
     ...
     >>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
     ...     NORTH = auto()
     ...     SOUTH = auto()
     ...     EAST = auto()
     ...     WEST = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Ordinal]
     ['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST']

     참고: The *note _generate_next_value_(): 25d7. method must be
     defined before any members.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration,  Next: Comparisons,  Prev: Using automatic values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.5 Iteration
---------------

Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases:

     >>> list(Shape)
     [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
     >>> list(Weekday)
     [<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>]

Note that the aliases ‘Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE’ and ‘Weekday.WEEKEND’
aren’t shown.

The special attribute ‘__members__’ is a read-only ordered mapping of
names to members.  It includes all names defined in the enumeration,
including the aliases:

     >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
     ...     name, member
     ...
     ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
     ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
     ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
     ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)

The ‘__members__’ attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access
to the enumeration members.  For example, finding all the aliases:

     >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
     ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']

     참고: Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set,
     such as ‘3’, and no flags set, i.e.  ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons,  Next: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Prev: Iteration,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.6 Comparisons
-----------------

Enumeration members are compared by identity:

     >>> Color.RED is Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
     False
     >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
     True

Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are 'not' supported.
Enum members are not integers (but see *note IntEnum: 4f4b. below):

     >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'

Equality comparisons are defined though:

     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
     False
     >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
     True

Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal
(again, *note IntEnum: cdc. was explicitly designed to behave
differently, see below):

     >>> Color.BLUE == 2
     False

     경고: It is possible to reload modules – if a reloaded module
     contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members may not
     compare identical/equal to the original members.


File: python.info,  Node: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Next: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Prev: Comparisons,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.7 Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
----------------------------------------------------

Most of the examples above use integers for enumeration values.  Using
integers is short and handy (and provided by default by the *note
Functional API: 4f4d.), but not strictly enforced.  In the vast majority
of use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an enumeration
is.  But if the value 'is' important, enumerations can have arbitrary
values.

Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special
methods as usual.  If we have this enumeration:

     >>> class Mood(Enum):
     ...     FUNKY = 1
     ...     HAPPY = 3
     ...
     ...     def describe(self):
     ...         # self is the member here
     ...         return self.name, self.value
     ...
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
     ...
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def favorite_mood(cls):
     ...         # cls here is the enumeration
     ...         return cls.HAPPY
     ...

Then:

     >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
     <Mood.HAPPY: 3>
     >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
     ('HAPPY', 3)
     >>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
     'my custom str! 1'

The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end
with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all
other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of
this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (*note
__str__(): 617, *note __add__(): 1f94, etc.), descriptors (methods are
also descriptors), and variable names listed in *note _ignore_: 25d5.

Note: if your enumeration defines *note __new__(): 57b. and/or *note
__init__(): 6aa, any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed
into those methods.  See *note Planet: 4f4e. for an example.

     참고: The *note __new__(): 57b. method, if defined, is used during
     creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s *note
     __new__(): 57b. which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.  See *note When to use __new__() vs.  __init__():
     4f4f. for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Next: Dataclass support,  Prev: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.8 Restricted Enum subclassing
---------------------------------

A new *note Enum: 62a. class must have one base enum class, up to one
concrete data type, and as many *note object: a89.-based mixin classes
as needed.  The order of these base classes is:

     class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
         pass

Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does
not define any members.  So this is forbidden:

     >>> class MoreColor(Color):
     ...     PINK = 17
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'>

But this is allowed:

     >>> class Foo(Enum):
     ...     def some_behavior(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> class Bar(Foo):
     ...     HAPPY = 1
     ...     SAD = 2
     ...

Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a
violation of some important invariants of types and instances.  On the
other hand, it makes sense to allow sharing some common behavior between
a group of enumerations.  (See *note OrderedEnum: 4f51. for an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Dataclass support,  Next: Pickling,  Prev: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.9 Dataclass support
-----------------------

When inheriting from a *note dataclass: 1cb, the *note __repr__(): 178b.
omits the inherited class’ name.  For example:

     >>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     >>> @dataclass
     ... class CreatureDataMixin:
     ...     size: str
     ...     legs: int
     ...     tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True)
     ...
     >>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum):
     ...     BEETLE = 'small', 6
     ...     DOG = 'medium', 4
     ...
     >>> Creature.DOG
     <Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4>

Use the *note dataclass(): 1cb. argument ‘repr=False’ to use the
standard *note repr(): 7f7.

버전 3.12에서 변경: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the value
area, not the dataclass’ name.

     참고: Adding *note dataclass(): 1cb. decorator to *note Enum: 62a.
     and its subclasses is not supported.  It will not raise any errors,
     but it will produce very strange results at runtime, such as
     members being equal to each other:

          >>> @dataclass               # don't do this: it does not make any sense
          ... class Color(Enum):
          ...    RED = 1
          ...    BLUE = 2
          ...
          >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
          False
          >>> Color.RED == Color.BLUE  # problem is here: they should not be equal
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling,  Next: Functional API<2>,  Prev: Dataclass support,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.10 Pickling
---------------

Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled:

     >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
     >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
     >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
     True

The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be
defined in the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to
be importable from that module.

     참고: With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily
     pickle enums nested in other classes.

It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by
defining *note __reduce_ex__(): 15c2. in the enumeration class.  The
default method is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want
to use by-name:

     >>> import enum
     >>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
     ...     __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name

     참고: Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed
     aliases will not unpickle.


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API<2>,  Next: Derived Enumerations,  Prev: Pickling,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.11 Functional API
---------------------

The *note Enum: 62a. class is callable, providing the following
functional API:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
     >>> Animal
     <enum 'Animal'>
     >>> Animal.ANT
     <Animal.ANT: 1>
     >>> list(Animal)
     [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]

The semantics of this API resemble *note namedtuple: 1ca.  The first
argument of the call to *note Enum: 62a. is the name of the enumeration.

The second argument is the 'source' of enumeration member names.  It can
be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a
sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g.
dictionary) of names to values.  The last two options enable assigning
arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing
integers starting with 1 (use the ‘start’ parameter to specify a
different starting value).  A new class derived from *note Enum: 62a. is
returned.  In other words, the above assignment to ‘Animal’ is
equivalent to:

     >>> class Animal(Enum):
     ...     ANT = 1
     ...     BEE = 2
     ...     CAT = 3
     ...     DOG = 4
     ...

The reason for defaulting to ‘1’ as the starting number and not ‘0’ is
that ‘0’ is ‘False’ in a boolean sense, but by default enum members all
evaluate to ‘True’.

Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame
stack implementation details are used to try and figure out which module
the enumeration is being created in (e.g.  it will fail if you use a
utility function in a separate module, and also may not work on
IronPython or Jython).  The solution is to specify the module name
explicitly as follows:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)

     경고: If ‘module’ is not supplied, and Enum cannot determine what
     it is, the new Enum members will not be unpicklable; to keep errors
     closer to the source, pickling will be disabled.

The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on *note
__qualname__: 1f2e. being set to the location where pickle will be able
to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in
class SomeData in the global scope:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')

The complete signature is:

     Enum(
         value='NewEnumName',
         names=<...>,
         *,
         module='...',
         qualname='...',
         type=<mixed-in class>,
         start=1,
         )

   * 'value': What the new enum class will record as its name.

   * 'names': The enum members.  This can be a whitespace- or
     comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise
     specified):

          'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'

     or an iterator of names:

          ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     or an iterator of (name, value) pairs:

          [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]

     or a mapping:

          {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}

   * 'module': name of module where new enum class can be found.

   * 'qualname': where in module new enum class can be found.

   * 'type': type to mix in to new enum class.

   * 'start': number to start counting at if only names are passed in.

버전 3.5에서 변경: The 'start' parameter was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Derived Enumerations,  Next: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Prev: Functional API<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.12 Derived Enumerations
---------------------------

* Menu:

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Others: Others<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: IntEnum,  Next: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.1 IntEnum
................

The first variation of *note Enum: 62a. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note int: 257.  Members of an *note IntEnum: cdc. can be
compared to integers; by extension, integer enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other:

     >>> from enum import IntEnum
     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Request(IntEnum):
     ...     POST = 1
     ...     GET = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape == 1
     False
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
     True
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
     True

However, they still can’t be compared to standard *note Enum: 62a.
enumerations:

     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
     False

*note IntEnum: cdc. values behave like integers in other ways you’d
expect:

     >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
     1
     >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
     'b'
     >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
     [0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: StrEnum,  Next: IntFlag,  Prev: IntEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.2 StrEnum
................

The second variation of *note Enum: 62a. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note str: 445.  Members of a *note StrEnum: 614. can be
compared to strings; by extension, string enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other.

Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: IntFlag,  Next: Flag,  Prev: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.3 IntFlag
................

The next variation of *note Enum: 62a. provided, *note IntFlag: 2302, is
also based on *note int: 257.  The difference being *note IntFlag: 2302.
members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~) and the
result is still an *note IntFlag: 2302. member, if possible.  Like *note
IntEnum: cdc, *note IntFlag: 2302. members are also integers and can be
used wherever an *note int: 257. is used.

     참고: Any operation on an *note IntFlag: 2302. member besides the
     bit-wise operations will lose the *note IntFlag: 2302. membership.

     Bit-wise operations that result in invalid *note IntFlag: 2302.
     values will lose the *note IntFlag: 2302. membership.  See *note
     FlagBoundary: 61e. for details.

Added in version 3.6.

버전 3.11에서 변경.

Sample *note IntFlag: 2302. class:

     >>> from enum import IntFlag
     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...
     >>> Perm.R | Perm.W
     <Perm.R|W: 6>
     >>> Perm.R + Perm.W
     6
     >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
     >>> Perm.R in RW
     True

It is also possible to name the combinations:

     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...     RWX = 7
     ...
     >>> Perm.RWX
     <Perm.RWX: 7>
     >>> ~Perm.RWX
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> Perm(7)
     <Perm.RWX: 7>

     참고: Named combinations are considered aliases.  Aliases do not
     show up during iteration, but can be returned from by-value
     lookups.

버전 3.11에서 변경.

Another important difference between *note IntFlag: 2302. and *note
Enum: 62a. is that if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean
evaluation is *note False: b34.:

     >>> Perm.R & Perm.X
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
     False

Because *note IntFlag: 2302. members are also subclasses of *note int:
257. they can be combined with them (but may lose *note IntFlag: 2302.
membership:

     >>> Perm.X | 4
     <Perm.R|X: 5>

     >>> Perm.X + 8
     9

     참고: The negation operator, ‘~’, always returns an *note IntFlag:
     2302. member with a positive value:

          >>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6
          True

*note IntFlag: 2302. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> list(RW)
     [<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>]

Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag,  Next: Others<2>,  Prev: IntFlag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.4 Flag
.............

The last variation is *note Flag: 61d.  Like *note IntFlag: 2302, *note
Flag: 61d. members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^,
~).  Unlike *note IntFlag: 2302, they cannot be combined with, nor
compared against, any other *note Flag: 61d. enumeration, nor *note int:
257.  While it is possible to specify the values directly it is
recommended to use *note auto: c99. as the value and let *note Flag:
61d. select an appropriate value.

Added in version 3.6.

Like *note IntFlag: 2302, if a combination of *note Flag: 61d. members
results in no flags being set, the boolean evaluation is *note False:
b34.:

     >>> from enum import Flag, auto
     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
     <Color: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
     False

Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8,
…), while combinations of flags will not:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
     ...
     >>> Color.WHITE
     <Color.WHITE: 7>

Giving a name to the “no flags set” condition does not change its
boolean value:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.BLACK
     <Color.BLACK: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.BLACK)
     False

*note Flag: 61d. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
     >>> list(purple)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>]

Added in version 3.11.

     참고: For the majority of new code, *note Enum: 62a. and *note
     Flag: 61d. are strongly recommended, since *note IntEnum: cdc. and
     *note IntFlag: 2302. break some semantic promises of an enumeration
     (by being comparable to integers, and thus by transitivity to other
     unrelated enumerations).  *note IntEnum: cdc. and *note IntFlag:
     2302. should be used only in cases where *note Enum: 62a. and *note
     Flag: 61d. will not do; for example, when integer constants are
     replaced with enumerations, or for interoperability with other
     systems.


File: python.info,  Node: Others<2>,  Prev: Flag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.5 Others
...............

While *note IntEnum: cdc. is part of the *note enum: 56. module, it
would be very simple to implement independently:

     class IntEnum(int, ReprEnum):   # or Enum instead of ReprEnum
         pass

This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for
example a ‘FloatEnum’ that mixes in *note float: 2ef. instead of *note
int: 257.

Some rules:

  1. When subclassing *note Enum: 62a, mix-in types must appear before
     the *note Enum: 62a. class itself in the sequence of bases, as in
     the *note IntEnum: cdc. example above.

  2. Mix-in types must be subclassable.  For example, *note bool: 461.
     and *note range: 941. are not subclassable and will throw an error
     during Enum creation if used as the mix-in type.

  3. While *note Enum: 62a. can have members of any type, once you mix
     in an additional type, all the members must have values of that
     type, e.g.  *note int: 257. above.  This restriction does not apply
     to mix-ins which only add methods and don’t specify another type.

  4. When another data type is mixed in, the *note value: 25d0.
     attribute is 'not the same' as the enum member itself, although it
     is equivalent and will compare equal.

  5. A ‘data type’ is a mixin that defines *note __new__(): 57b, or a
     *note dataclass: 1cb.

  6. %-style formatting: ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ call the *note Enum: 62a. class’s
     *note __str__(): 617. and *note __repr__(): 616. respectively;
     other codes (such as ‘%i’ or ‘%h’ for IntEnum) treat the enum
     member as its mixed-in type.

  7. *note Formatted string literals: 9a6, *note str.format(): 61b, and
     *note format(): 619. will use the enum’s *note __str__(): 617.
     method.

     참고: Because *note IntEnum: cdc, *note IntFlag: 2302, and *note
     StrEnum: 614. are designed to be drop-in replacements for existing
     constants, their *note __str__(): 617. method has been reset to
     their data types’ *note __str__(): 617. method.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Next: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Prev: Derived Enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.13 When to use ‘__new__()’ vs. ‘__init__()’
-----------------------------------------------

*note __new__(): 57b. must be used whenever you want to customize the
actual value of the *note Enum: 62a. member.  Any other modifications
may go in either *note __new__(): 57b. or *note __init__(): 6aa, with
*note __init__(): 6aa. being preferred.

For example, if you want to pass several items to the constructor, but
only want one of them to be the value:

     >>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum):
     ...     """
     ...     Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code.
     ...     """
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, label, unit):
     ...         obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value])
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         obj.label = label
     ...         obj.unit = unit
     ...         return obj
     ...     PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km')
     ...     PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km')
     ...     VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s')
     ...     VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s')
     ...

     >>> print(Coordinate['PY'])
     Coordinate.PY

     >>> print(Coordinate(3))
     Coordinate.VY

     경고: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only
     ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type
     directly.

* Menu:

* Finer Points::


File: python.info,  Node: Finer Points,  Up: When to use __new__ vs __init__

9.6.13.1 Finer Points
.....................

* Menu:

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::


File: python.info,  Node: Supported __dunder__ names,  Next: Supported _sunder_ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.2 Supported ‘__dunder__’ names
.....................................

*note __members__: 25cd. is a read-only ordered mapping of
‘member_name’:‘member’ items.  It is only available on the class.

*note __new__(): 57b, if specified, must create and return the enum
members; it is also a very good idea to set the member’s *note _value_:
25d3. appropriately.  Once all the members are created it is no longer
used.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported _sunder_ names,  Next: _Private__names,  Prev: Supported __dunder__ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.3 Supported ‘_sunder_’ names
...................................

   - *note _name_: 25d2. – name of the member

   - *note _value_: 25d3. – value of the member; can be set in ‘__new__’

   - *note _missing_(): 25da. – a lookup function used when a value is
     not found; may be overridden

   - *note _ignore_: 25d5. – a list of names, either as a *note list:
     60b. or a *note str: 445, that will not be transformed into
     members, and will be removed from the final class

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 25d7. – used to get an appropriate
     value for an enum member; may be overridden

   - *note _add_alias_(): 25db. – adds a new name as an alias to an
     existing member.

   - *note _add_value_alias_(): 25dc. – adds a new value as an alias to
     an existing member.  See *note MultiValueEnum: 4f5d. for an
     example.

          참고: For standard *note Enum: 62a. classes the next value
          chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one.

          For *note Flag: 61d. classes the next value chosen will be the
          next highest power-of-two.

     버전 3.13에서 변경: Prior versions would use the last seen value
     instead of the highest value.

Added in version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’, ‘_generate_next_value_’

Added in version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

Added in version 3.13: ‘_add_alias_’, ‘_add_value_alias_’

To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an *note _order_: 25d4.
attribute can be provided.  It will be checked against the actual order
of the enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
       ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
       ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     참고: In Python 2 code the *note _order_: 25d4. attribute is
     necessary as definition order is lost before it can be recorded.


File: python.info,  Node: _Private__names,  Next: Enum member type,  Prev: Supported _sunder_ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.4 _Private__names
........................

*note Private names: 1cc2. are not converted to enum members, but remain
normal attributes.

버전 3.11에서 변경.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum member type,  Next: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Prev: _Private__names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.5 ‘Enum’ member type
...........................

Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally
accessed as ‘EnumClass.member’.  In certain situations, such as writing
custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from
another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name
clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in
classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended.

버전 3.5에서 변경.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Next: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Prev: Enum member type,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.6 Creating members that are mixed with other data types
..............................................................

When subclassing other data types, such as *note int: 257. or *note str:
445, with an *note Enum: 62a, all values after the ‘=’ are passed to
that data type’s constructor.  For example:

     >>> class MyEnum(IntEnum):      # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer
     ...     example = '11', 16      # so x='11' and base=16
     ...
     >>> MyEnum.example.value        # and hex(11) is...
     17


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Next: Enum classes with methods,  Prev: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.7 Boolean value of ‘Enum’ classes and members
....................................................

Enum classes that are mixed with non-*note Enum: 62a. types (such as
*note int: 257, *note str: 445, etc.)  are evaluated according to the
mixed-in type’s rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as *note True:
c0a.  To make your own enum’s boolean evaluation depend on the member’s
value add the following to your class:

     def __bool__(self):
         return bool(self.value)

Plain *note Enum: 62a. classes always evaluate as *note True: c0a.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum classes with methods,  Next: Combining members of Flag,  Prev: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.8 ‘Enum’ classes with methods
....................................

If you give your enum subclass extra methods, like the *note Planet:
4f4e. class below, those methods will show up in a *note dir(): 62c. of
the member, but not of the class:

     >>> dir(Planet)
     ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
     >>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
     ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']


File: python.info,  Node: Combining members of Flag,  Next: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Enum classes with methods,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.9 Combining members of ‘Flag’
....................................

Iterating over a combination of *note Flag: 61d. members will only
return the members that are comprised of a single bit:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
     ...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
     ...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
     ...
     >>> Color(3)  # named combination
     <Color.YELLOW: 3>
     >>> Color(7)      # not named combination
     <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>


File: python.info,  Node: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Combining members of Flag,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.13.10 ‘Flag’ and ‘IntFlag’ minutia
......................................

Using the following snippet for our examples:

     >>> class Color(IntFlag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 4
     ...     PURPLE = RED | BLUE
     ...     WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE
     ...

the following are true:

   - single-bit flags are canonical

   - multi-bit and zero-bit flags are aliases

   - only canonical flags are returned during iteration:

          >>> list(Color.WHITE)
          [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

   - negating a flag or flag set returns a new flag/flag set with the
     corresponding positive integer value:

          >>> Color.BLUE
          <Color.BLUE: 4>

          >>> ~Color.BLUE
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

   - names of pseudo-flags are constructed from their members’ names:

          >>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
          'RED|GREEN'

          >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
          ...     R = 4
          ...     W = 2
          ...     X = 1
          ...
          >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None  # effectively Perm(0)
          True

   - multi-bit flags, aka aliases, can be returned from operations:

          >>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
          <Color.PURPLE: 5>

          >>> Color(7)  # or Color(-1)
          <Color.WHITE: 7>

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color.BLACK: 0>

   - membership / containment checking: zero-valued flags are always
     considered to be contained:

          >>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE
          True

     otherwise, only if all bits of one flag are in the other flag will
     True be returned:

          >>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE
          True

          >>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE
          False

There is a new boundary mechanism that controls how out-of-range /
invalid bits are handled: ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’, and ‘KEEP’:

   * STRICT –> raises an exception when presented with invalid values

   * CONFORM –> discards any invalid bits

   * EJECT –> lose Flag status and become a normal int with the given
     value

   * KEEP –> keep the extra bits

        - keeps Flag status and extra bits

        - extra bits do not show up in iteration

        - extra bits do show up in repr() and str()

The default for Flag is ‘STRICT’, the default for ‘IntFlag’ is ‘EJECT’,
and the default for ‘_convert_’ is ‘KEEP’ (see ‘ssl.Options’ for an
example of when ‘KEEP’ is needed).


File: python.info,  Node: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Next: Enum Cookbook,  Prev: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.14 How are Enums and Flags different?
-----------------------------------------

Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived
*note Enum: 62a. classes and their instances (members).

* Menu:

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Classes,  Next: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.14.1 Enum Classes
.....................

The *note EnumType: 1e5. metaclass is responsible for providing the
*note __contains__(): 1f66, *note __dir__(): 1f6f, *note __iter__():
1f64. and other methods that allow one to do things with an *note Enum:
62a. class that fail on a typical class, such as ‘list(Color)’ or
‘some_enum_var in Color’.  *note EnumType: 1e5. is responsible for
ensuring that various other methods on the final *note Enum: 62a. class
are correct (such as *note __new__(): 57b, *note __getnewargs__(): 146b,
*note __str__(): 617. and *note __repr__(): 616.).


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Classes,  Next: Enum Members aka instances,  Prev: Enum Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.14.2 Flag Classes
.....................

Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a
flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name.  So, in
addition to the *note Enum: 62a. definition of alias, a flag with no
value (a.k.a.  ‘0’) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g.  ‘3’)
is considered an alias.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Members aka instances,  Next: Flag Members,  Prev: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.14.3 Enum Members (aka instances)
.....................................

The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are
singletons.  *note EnumType: 1e5. creates them all while it is creating
the enum class itself, and then puts a custom *note __new__(): 57b. in
place to ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only
the existing member instances.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Members,  Prev: Enum Members aka instances,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.14.4 Flag Members
.....................

Flag members can be iterated over just like the *note Flag: 61d. class,
and only the canonical members will be returned.  For example:

     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

(Note that ‘BLACK’, ‘PURPLE’, and ‘WHITE’ do not show up.)

Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather
than a negative value — for example:

     >>> ~Color.RED
     <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two
values they contain.  For example:

     >>> len(Color.PURPLE)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Cookbook,  Next: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.15 Enum Cookbook
--------------------

While *note Enum: 62a, *note IntEnum: cdc, *note StrEnum: 614, *note
Flag: 61d, and *note IntFlag: 2302. are expected to cover the majority
of use-cases, they cannot cover them all.  Here are recipes for some
different types of enumerations that can be used directly, or as
examples for creating one’s own.

* Menu:

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* MultiValueEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::


File: python.info,  Node: Omitting values,  Next: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.15.1 Omitting values
........................

In many use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an
enumeration is.  There are several ways to define this type of simple
enumeration:

   - use instances of *note auto: c99. for the value

   - use instances of *note object: a89. as the value

   - use a descriptive string as the value

   - use a tuple as the value and a custom *note __new__(): 57b. to
     replace the tuple with an *note int: 257. value

Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are
not important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members
without having to renumber the remaining members.

* Menu:

* Using auto::
* Using object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.


File: python.info,  Node: Using auto,  Next: Using object,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.15.2 Using ‘auto’
.....................

Using *note auto: c99. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 3>


File: python.info,  Node: Using object,  Next: Using a descriptive string,  Prev: Using auto,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.15.3 Using ‘object’
.......................

Using *note object: a89. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>

This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own
*note __repr__(): 616.:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_)
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a descriptive string,  Next: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using object,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.15.4 Using a descriptive string
...................................

Using a string as the value would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 'stop'
     ...     GREEN = 'go'
     ...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 'go'>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using a descriptive string,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.15.5 Using a custom ‘__new__()’
...................................

Using an auto-numbering *note __new__(): 57b. would look like:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls):
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...
     >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
     ...     RED = ()
     ...     GREEN = ()
     ...     BLUE = ()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

To make a more general purpose ‘AutoNumber’, add ‘*args’ to the
signature:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, *args):      # this is the only change from above
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...

Then when you inherit from ‘AutoNumber’ you can write your own
‘__init__’ to handle any extra arguments:

     >>> class Swatch(AutoNumber):
     ...     def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'):
     ...         self.pantone = pantone
     ...     AUBURN = '3497'
     ...     SEA_GREEN = '1246'
     ...     BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet!
     ...
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN
     <Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2>
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone
     '1246'
     >>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone
     'unknown'

     참고: The *note __new__(): 57b. method, if defined, is used during
     creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s *note
     __new__(): 57b. which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.

     경고: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only
     ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type
     directly – e.g.:

          obj = int.__new__(cls, value)


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedEnum,  Next: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Prev: Omitting values,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.15.6 OrderedEnum
....................

An ordered enumeration that is not based on *note IntEnum: cdc. and so
maintains the normal *note Enum: 62a. invariants (such as not being
comparable to other enumerations):

     >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __ge__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value >= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __gt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value > other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __le__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value <= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __lt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value < other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...
     >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
     ...     A = 5
     ...     B = 4
     ...     C = 3
     ...     D = 2
     ...     F = 1
     ...
     >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
     True


File: python.info,  Node: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Next: MultiValueEnum,  Prev: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.15.7 DuplicateFreeEnum
..........................

Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating
an alias:

     >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __init__(self, *args):
     ...         cls = self.__class__
     ...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
     ...             a = self.name
     ...             e = cls(self.value).name
     ...             raise ValueError(
     ...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
     ...                 % (a, e))
     ...
     >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GRENE = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'

     참고: This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or
     change other behaviors as well as disallowing aliases.  If the only
     desired change is disallowing aliases, the *note unique(): 25c3.
     decorator can be used instead.


File: python.info,  Node: MultiValueEnum,  Next: Planet,  Prev: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.15.8 MultiValueEnum
.......................

Supports having more than one value per member:

     >>> class MultiValueEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, *values):
     ...         self = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         self._value_ = value
     ...         for v in values:
     ...             self._add_value_alias_(v)
     ...         return self
     ...
     >>> class DType(MultiValueEnum):
     ...     float32 = 'f', 8
     ...     double64 = 'd', 9
     ...
     >>> DType('f')
     <DType.float32: 'f'>
     >>> DType(9)
     <DType.double64: 'd'>


File: python.info,  Node: Planet,  Next: TimePeriod,  Prev: MultiValueEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.15.9 Planet
...............

If *note __new__(): 57b. or *note __init__(): 6aa. is defined, the value
of the enum member will be passed to those methods:

     >>> class Planet(Enum):
     ...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
     ...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
     ...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
     ...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
     ...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
     ...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
     ...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
     ...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
     ...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
     ...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
     ...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
     ...     @property
     ...     def surface_gravity(self):
     ...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
     ...         G = 6.67300E-11
     ...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
     ...
     >>> Planet.EARTH.value
     (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
     >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
     9.802652743337129


File: python.info,  Node: TimePeriod,  Prev: Planet,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.15.10 TimePeriod
....................

An example to show the *note _ignore_: 25d5. attribute in use:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum):
     ...     "different lengths of time"
     ...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
     ...     Period = vars()
     ...     for i in range(367):
     ...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
     ...
     >>> list(Period)[:2]
     [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
     >>> list(Period)[-2:]
     [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: Enum Cookbook,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.16 Subclassing EnumType
---------------------------

While most enum needs can be met by customizing *note Enum: 62a.
subclasses, either with class decorators or custom functions, *note
EnumType: 1e5. can be subclassed to provide a different Enum experience.


File: python.info,  Node: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO,  Next: 로깅 HOWTO,  Prev: Enum HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.7 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO
===========================


저자: A. M. Kuchling


버전: 0.32

이 문서에서는, 함수형 방식으로 프로그램을 구현하는데 적합한 파이썬의 특
성에 대해 알아볼 것입니다.  함수형 프로그래밍의 개념을 소개한 뒤에,
*note 이터레이터: 1ac. , *note 제너레이터: 1057. 와 같은 언어의 특성과
*note itertools: 81. , *note functools: 5f. 와 같은 관련 라이브러리 모듈
을 살펴볼 것입니다.

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<8>.
* 이터레이터: 이터레이터<2>.
* 제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션::
* 제너레이터: 제너레이터<2>.
* 내장 함수: 내장 함수<2>.
* itertools 모듈::
* functools 모듈::
* 작은 함수와 람다 표현식::
* 개정내역 및 감사의 글::
* 참고 문헌::


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<8>,  Next: 이터레이터<2>,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.1 소개
----------

이 절에서는 함수형 프로그래밍의 기본적인 개념을 설명합니다; 만약 단순히
파이썬의 언어적 특성에 관해서만 관심이 있으시다면, *note 이터레이터:
4f77. 절로 건너뛰세요.

프로그래밍 언어들은 다음과 같이 각각 다른 방식으로 문제를 더 작은 부분으
로 분할하는 방법을 지원합니다:

   * 대부분의 프로그래밍 언어들은 '절차적' 입니다: 프로그램은 컴퓨터에 프
     로그램의 입력을 어떻게 할지 알려주는 명령 목록입니다.  C, 파스칼, 유
     닉스 셸과 같은 것들은 절차적 언어입니다.

   * '선언적' 언어에서는 해결해야 할 문제를 설명하는 명세서를 작성하고,
     언어 구현은 계산을 효과적으로 수행하는 방법을 파악합니다.  SQL은 가
     장 친숙한 선언적 언어입니다; SQL 질의는 검색하고 싶은 데이터 세트를
     설명하고, SQL 엔진은 테이블을 스캔하거나 인덱스를 사용할 것인지, 어
     떤 하위 구문을 먼저 수행해야 하는지 등을 결정합니다.

   * '객체지향' 프로그램은 객체들의 컬렉션을 다룹니다.  객체는 내부적인
     상태를 갖고 있으며 이 내부적인 상태를 어떤 방식으로 가져오거나 수정
     하는 메서드를 제공합니다.  스몰토크와 자바는 객체지향 언어입니다.
     C++ 와 파이썬은 객체지향 프로그래밍을 지원하는 언어이지만, 객체 지
     향적인 특성들을 사용하도록 강제하지는 않습니다.

   * '함수형' 프로그래밍은 함수들의 세트로 문제를 분해합니다.  이상적으
     로 말하면, 함수들은 입력을 받아서 출력을 만들어내기만 하며, 주어진
     입력에 대해 생성된 출력에 영향을 끼칠만한 어떠한 내부적인 상태도 가
     지지 않습니다.  잘 알려진 함수형 언어로는 ML 계열(Standard ML,
     OCaml 및 다른 변형)과 하스켈이 있습니다.

일부 컴퓨터 언어의 설계자들은 프로그래밍에 대한 한 가지의 특별한 접근 방
식을 강조합니다.  이것은 종종 다른 접근 방식으로 프로그램을 작성하는 것
을 어렵게 만듭니다.  다른 언어들은 다양한 접근 방법을 지원하는 다중 패러
다임 언어입니다.  Lisp, C++, 파이썬 등은 다중 패러다임 언어입니다; 이러
한 언어에서는 절차적, 객체 지향적 혹은 함수형으로 프로그램이나 라이브러
리를 작성할 수 있습니다.  거대한 프로그램에서, 각 구역은 서로 다른 접근
방법을 사용하여 작성될 수 있습니다; 예를 들어 처리 로직이 절차적 혹은 함
수형으로 작성되었을 때, GUI는 객체 지향적으로 작성될 수 있습니다.

함수형 프로그램에서, 입력은 여러 함수의 세트를 통해 흘러 다닙니다.  각 함
수는 입력으로부터 동작해서 출력을 만들어냅니다.  함수형 방식은 내부 상태
를 수정하거나 함수의 반환 값에서 보이지 않는 다른 변경사항들을 만드는 부
작용이 있는 함수를 사용하지 않습니다.  부작용이 전혀 없는 함수를 '순수 함
수' 라고 합니다.  부작용을 피한다는 것은 프로그램이 실행될 때 수정될 수
있는 자료 구조를 사용하지 않는다는 의미입니다; 모든 함수의 출력은 입력에
만 의존해야 합니다.

어떤 언어는 순수성에 대해 매우 엄격하며, ‘a=3’ 혹은 ‘c = a + b’ 와 같은
대입문조차 없지만, 화면에 출력하거나 디스크 파일에 쓰는 작업과 같은, 모
든 부작용을 피하는 것은 어렵습니다.  다른 예로, *note print(): f6d. 혹은
*note time.sleep(): 697. 함수를 호출하면 쓸모 있는 값을 반환하지 않습니
다.  이 함수들은 화면에 문자열을 보내거나 잠시 동안 실행을 일시 중지하는
작업과 같은 부작용을 위해 호출합니다.

함수형 방식으로 작성된 파이썬 프로그램은 보통 극단적으로 모든 I/O 혹은 대
입문을 회피하는 방식으로 나아가지는 않습니다; 대신 함수형처럼 보이는 인
터페이스를 제공하며 내부적으로는 함수형이 아닌 기능들을 사용합니다.  예
를 들어 함수의 구현은 여전히 지역 변수에 값을 대입하는 방식이 사용되지만
전역 변수를 수정하거나 다른 부작용을 발생시키지는 않습니다.

함수형 프로그래밍은 객체 지향 프로그래밍의 반대라고 생각할 수 있습니다.
객체는 내부 상태들을 갖고 있으며 이 상태들을 수정할 수 있는 메서드의 호
출 모음이 포함된 작은 캡슐이며, 프로그램은 올바른 상태 변경 집합을 구성
합니다.  함수형 프로그래밍은 가능한 한 상태 변경을 피하고자 하며 함수 간
의 데이터 흐름을 사용합니다.  파이썬에서는 응용 프로그램의 객체를 나타내
는 인스턴스(전자 우편 메시지, 트랜잭션 등)를 가져와서 반환하는 함수를 작
성함으로써 두 가지 접근 방식을 결합할 수 있습니다.

함수형 설계는 동작 방식에 이상한 제약이 있는 것처럼 보일 수 있습니다.  왜
객체와 부작용을 피해야만 할까요?  함수형 방식은 이론적으로도, 실질적으로
도 다음과 같은 장점이 있습니다:

   * 형식적 증명 가능성.

   * 모듈성.

   * 결합성.

   * 디버깅과 테스트 용이성.

* Menu:

* 형식적 증명 가능성::
* 모듈성::
* 디버깅과 테스트 용이성::
* 결합성::


File: python.info,  Node: 형식적 증명 가능성,  Next: 모듈성,  Up: 소개<8>

9.7.1.1 형식적 증명 가능성
..........................

이론적인 장점은 함수형 프로그램이 정확하다는 수학적 증명을 만드는 것이 더
쉽다는 것입니다.

오랫동안 연구자들은 수학적으로 프로그램이 정확하다는 것을 증명하는 방법
을 찾는 데 관심을 보여왔습니다.  이것은 수많은 입력에 대해 프로그램을 테
스트하고 출력이 정확하다고 결론짓거나, 프로그램의 소스코드를 읽어보고 코
드가 올바르다고 결론짓는 것과는 다릅니다; 그들의 목표는 입력 가능한 모든
것에 대해 프로그램이 올바른 결과를 산출한다는 엄격한 증거를 찾는 것입니
다.

프로그램이 올바른지 증명하기 위해 사용하는 기술은 항상 참인 입력 데이터
와 프로그램의 변수라는 특성을 지닌 '불변자' 를 작성하는 것입니다.  각 코
드 행에 대해, 그 행이 실행되기 '전에' 불변자 X와 Y가 참이라면, 그 행이 실
행된 '후에' 약간 다른 불변자 X’ 및 Y’가 참이라는 것을 보여줍니다.  이 작
업은 프로그램이 종료될 때까지 계속되며, 종료 시점에서 불변자는 프로그램
의 출력으로써 원하는 조건과 일치해야만 합니다.

함수형 프로그래밍에서 값 대입을 피하려는 이유는 값 대입이 이러한 기법을
활용하는 것을 어렵게 만들기 때문입니다; 대입은 다음 단계로 나아갈 수 있
는 새 불변자를 만들지 않은 채로, 대입전에 참이었던 불변자를 무너뜨릴 수
있습니다.

불행하게도, 정확한 프로그램임을 증명하는 것은 실제로는 비실용적이며 파이
썬 소프트웨어와 관련이 없습니다.  사소한 프로그램일지라도 여러 페이지 분
량의 증명이 필요합니다; 적당히 복잡한 프로그램에 대한 정확성의 증명은 엄
청난 양일 것이며, 매일 사용하는 프로그램 (파이썬 인터프리터, XML 파서, 웹
브라우저)의 정확성은 거의 증명이 불가능할 수도 있습니다.  만약 증명을 작
성하거나 만들었더라도, 그 증명이 검증된 것인지 의구심이 들 것입니다; 어
쩌면 그 증명에 오류가 있을 수도 있고, 프로그램의 정확성이 증명되었다고 잘
못 믿고 있을 수도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈성,  Next: 디버깅과 테스트 용이성,  Prev: 형식적 증명 가능성,  Up: 소개<8>

9.7.1.2 모듈성
..............

함수형 프로그래밍의 실질적인 이점은 문제를 작은 조각으로 분해하도록 강제
한다는 점입니다.  결과적으로 프로그램은 더욱 모듈화가 됩니다.  복잡한 변
환을 수행하는 거대한 함수보다, 한 가지 작업을 수행하는 작은 함수를 명시
하고 작성하기가 더 쉽습니다.  작은 함수는 읽기에도 더 쉽고 오류를 확인하
기도 쉽습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 디버깅과 테스트 용이성,  Next: 결합성,  Prev: 모듈성,  Up: 소개<8>

9.7.1.3 디버깅과 테스트 용이성
..............................

함수형 방식 프로그램은 테스트하고 디버깅하는 것이 더 쉽습니다.

일반적으로 함수가 작고 분명하게 명시되기 때문에 디버깅이 단순화됩니다.  프
로그램이 동작하지 않는다면, 각 함수는 데이터가 올바른지 확인할 수 있는 접
점이 됩니다.  중간 지점의 입력과 출력을 살펴보면 버그가 있는 함수를 빠르
게 분간할 수 있습니다.

각 함수는 잠재적으로 단위 테스트의 대상이기 때문에 테스트가 더 쉽습니다.
함수는 테스트를 실행하기 전에 복제해야 하는 시스템 상태에 의존하지 않습
니다; 올바른 입력을 만들고 결과가 예상과 일치하는지 확인만 하면 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 결합성,  Prev: 디버깅과 테스트 용이성,  Up: 소개<8>

9.7.1.4 결합성
..............

함수형 방식의 프로그램을 만들 때, 다양한 입력과 출력으로 여러 가지 함수
를 작성하게 됩니다.  이러한 함수 중 일부는 불가피하게 특정 응용 프로그램
에 특화될 수 있지만, 대체로 다양한 프로그램에서 유용하게 사용할 수 있습
니다.  예를 들어 디렉터리 경로를 받아서 그 디렉터리 내의 모든 XML 파일을
반환하는 함수나, 혹은 파일명을 받아서 그 내용을 반환하는 함수는 다양한 상
황에 적용할 수 있습니다.

시간이 흐르면, 여러분은 개인적인 유틸리티 라이브러리를 구성하게 될 것입
니다.  보통, 새로운 구성으로 기존 함수를 배치하고 현재 작업에 특화된 몇
가지 함수만을 작성해서 새로운 프로그램을 구성하게 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이터<2>,  Next: 제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Prev: 소개<8>,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.2 이터레이터
----------------

함수형 방식의 프로그램을 작성하는 중요한 토대가 되는 파이썬 언어의 기능
을 살펴보겠습니다: 이터레이터.

이터레이터는 데이터 스트림을 나타내는 객체입니다; 이 객체는 한 번에 한 요
소씩 데이터를 반환합니다.  파이썬 이터레이터는 반드시 *note __next__():
12bd. 라는 메서드를 지원해야 합니다.  이 메서드는 인자를 취하지 않고 항
상 스트림의 다음 요소를 반환합니다.  만약 스트림에 더는 요소가 없다면,
*note __next__(): 12bd. 는 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 발생시켜야 합
니다.  이터레이터가 유한할 필요는 없습니다; 무한한 데이터 스트림을 생성
하는 이터레이터를 작성하는 것도 합리적인 방법입니다.

내장 함수 *note iter(): 7d0. 는 임의의 객체를 취하여 객체의 내용이나 요
소를 반환하는 이터레이터를 반환합니다.  객체가 이터레이션을 지원하지 않
으면 *note TypeError: 532. 를 발생시킵니다.  파이썬의 내장 데이터형 중 몇
가지가 이터레이션을 지원하는데, 가장 일반적인 것은 리스트와 딕셔너리입니
다.  이터레이터를 얻을 수 있는 객체는 *note 이터러블: 1217. 이라고 불립
니다.

수동으로 이터레이션 인터페이스를 실험해볼 수 있습니다:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> it = iter(L)
     >>> it
     <...iterator object at ...>
     >>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
     1
     >>> next(it)
     2
     >>> next(it)
     3
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     StopIteration
     >>>

파이썬은 여러 다른 컨텍스트에서 이터러블 객체를 기대하며, 가장 중요한 것
은 *note for: 2ea. 문입니다.  ‘for X in Y’ 문에서 Y는 반드시 이터레이터
혹은 *note iter(): 7d0. 가 이터레이터를 생성할 수 있는 객체이어야 합니다
.  다음 두 문장은 같은 의미입니다:

     for i in iter(obj):
         print(i)

     for i in obj:
         print(i)

이터레이터는 *note list(): 60b. 또는 *note tuple(): 369. 생성자 함수를 사
용하여 리스트나 튜플로 나타낼 수 있습니다:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> t = tuple(iterator)
     >>> t
     (1, 2, 3)

시퀀스 언 패킹 또한 이터레이터를 지원합니다: 이터레이터가 N개의 요소를 반
환한다는 것을 알고 있다면, 그것들을 N-튜플로 언 패킹할 수 있습니다:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> a, b, c = iterator
     >>> a, b, c
     (1, 2, 3)

*note max(): f01. 및 *note min(): f00. 과 같은 내장 함수는 하나의 이터레
이터 인자를 취할 수 있으며 가장 큰 혹은 가장 작은 요소를 반환합니다.
‘"in"’ 과 ‘"not in"’ 연산자 또한 이터레이터를 지원합니다: 이터레이터가 반
환한 스트림에서 X가 발견되면 ‘X in iterator’ 는 참입니다.  이터레이터가
무한하다면 명백한 문제에 부딪힙니다; *note max(): f01. 와 *note min():
f00. 는 영원히 결과를 반환하지 않으며, 요소 X가 스트림에서 나타나지 않으
면 ‘"in"’ 과 ‘"not in"’ 연산자 역시 영원히 결과를 반환하지 않을 것입니다
.

이터레이터에서는 오직 앞으로만 나아갈 수 있다는 점에 유의하세요; 이전 요
소를 가져오거나, 이터레이터를 재설정하거나, 사본을 만들 방법은 없습니다.
이터레이터 객체는 선택적으로 이러한 추가 기능을 제공할 수 있지만, 이터레
이터 프로토콜은 *note __next__(): 12bd. 메서드만 명시해두었습니다.  함수
는 모든 이터레이터의 출력을 소비할 수 있으므로 같은 스트림에서 다른 작업
을 수행해야 하는 경우 새로운 이터레이터를 만들어야 합니다.

* Menu:

* 이터레이터를 지원하는 데이터형::


File: python.info,  Node: 이터레이터를 지원하는 데이터형,  Up: 이터레이터<2>

9.7.2.1 이터레이터를 지원하는 데이터형
......................................

리스트와 튜플이 이터레이터를 어떻게 지원하는지 이미 살펴보았습니다.  실
제로 문자열과 같은 파이썬 시퀀스형은 이터레이터의 생성을 자동으로 지원합
니다.

*note iter(): 7d0. 를 딕셔너리에 적용하면 딕셔너리의 키를 반복하는 이터
레이터를 반환합니다:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m:
     ...     print(key, m[key])
     Jan 1
     Feb 2
     Mar 3
     Apr 4
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     Oct 10
     Nov 11
     Dec 12

파이썬 3.7부터는, 딕셔너리 이터레이션 순서가 삽입 순서와 같음을 보장합니
다.  이전 버전에서는, 동작이 지정되지 않았고 구현마다 다를 수 있었습니다
.

*note iter(): 7d0. 를 딕셔너리에 적용하는 것은 항상 키를 반복하지만, 딕
셔너리에는 다른 이터레이터를 반환하는 메서드가 있습니다.  값이나 키/값 쌍
을 반복하는 경우에는 명시적으로 *note values(): 7c7. 혹은 *note items():
7c8. 메서드를 사용하여 적절한 이터레이터를 얻을 수 있습니다.

*note dict(): 256. 생성자는 ‘(키, 값)’ 튜플의 유한한 스트림을 반환하는 이
터레이터를 받을 수 있습니다:

     >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
     >>> dict(iter(L))
     {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}

또한 파일은 더는 새로운 줄이 없을 때까지 *note readline(): 1cc5. 메서드
를 호출하여 이터레이션을 지원합니다.  즉, 다음과 같이 파일의 각 행을 읽
을 수 있습니다:

     for line in file:
         # 각 줄마다 뭔가 합니다
         ...

집합은 이터러블에서 내용을 가져와서 집합의 원소를 반복할 수 있습니다:

     >>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
     >>> for i in S:
     ...     print(i)
     2
     3
     5
     7
     11
     13


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Next: 제너레이터<2>,  Prev: 이터레이터<2>,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.3 제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션
-------------------------------------------

이터레이터의 출력에 대한 두 가지 일반적인 연산은 1) 모든 요소에 대해 어
떤 연산을 수행하고, 2) 어떤 조건을 만족하는 요소의 부분 집합을 선택하는
것입니다.  예를 들어 문자열 리스트가 있으면 각 줄에서 후미 공백을 제거하
거나, 주어진 부분 문자열을 포함하는 모든 문자열을 추출할 수 있습니다.

리스트 컴프리헨션과 제너레이터 표현식(줄임말: “listcomps” 및 “genexps”)은
함수형 프로그래밍 언어 하스켈(‘https://www.haskell.org/’)에서 빌린 이러
한 작업을 위한 간결한 표기법입니다.  다음 코드를 사용하여 문자열 스트림
에서 모든 공백을 제거할 수 있습니다:

     >>> line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ' \n', '']

     >>> # 제너레이터 표현식 -- 이터레이터를 돌려줍니다
     >>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)

     >>> # 리스트 컴프리헨션 -- 리스트를 돌려줍니다
     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]

‘"if"’ 조건을 추가하여 특정 요소만 선택할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
     ...                  if line != ""]

리스트 컴프리헨션을 사용하면 파이썬 리스트를 얻을 수 있습니다;
‘stripped_list’ 는 이터레이터가 아니라 결과 행을 담고 있는 리스트입니다.
제너레이터 표현식은 필요에 따라 값을 계산하는 이터레이터를 반환하며 모든
값을 한 번에 구체화할 필요가 없습니다.  즉, 무한 스트림이나 매우 많은 양
의 데이터를 반환하는 이터레이터로 작업하는 경우 리스트 컴프리헨션은 유용
하지 않습니다.  제너레이터 표현식은 이러한 상황에서 유용합니다.

제너레이터 표현식은 괄호(“()”)로 묶여 있으며 리스트 컴프리헨션은 대괄호
(“[]”)로 묶여 있습니다.  제너레이터 표현식은 다음과 같은 형식입니다:

     ( expression for expr in sequence1
                  if condition1
                  for expr2 in sequence2
                  if condition2
                  for expr3 in sequence3
                  ...
                  if condition3
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if conditionN )

다시 말하면, 리스트 컴프리헨션을 위해서는 바깥쪽 괄호만 다릅니다(괄호 대
신 대괄호).

생성된 출력의 요소는 ‘expression’ 의 연속적인 값이 될 것입니다.  ‘if’ 절
은 모두 선택적입니다; if 절이 존재한다면, ‘expression’ 은 ‘condition’ 이
참일 때만 평가되고 결과에 추가됩니다.

제너레이터 표현식은 항상 괄호 안에 작성해야 하지만 함수 호출을 알리는 괄
호도 포함됩니다.  함수에 즉시 전달되는 이터레이터를 만들고 싶다면 다음과
같이 작성할 수 있습니다:

     obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

‘for...in’ 절은 반복할 시퀀스를 포함합니다.  시퀀스는 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으
로 반복되며 병렬로 처리되지 '않기' 때문에 같은 길이일 필요는 없습니다.
‘sequence1’ 의 각 요소에 대해 ‘sequence2’ 는 처음부터 반복됩니다.
‘sequence3’ 은 ‘sequence1’ 과 ‘sequence2’ 의 각각 모든 결과에 대해 반복
됩니다.

다른 식으로 표현하면, 리스트 컴프리헨션 혹은 제너레이터 표현식은 다음 파
이썬 코드와 같습니다:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         if not (condition1):
             continue   # 이 요소를 건너뜁니다
         for expr2 in sequence2:
             if not (condition2):
                 continue   # 이 요소를 건너뜁니다
             ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                 if not (conditionN):
                     continue   # 이 요소를 건너뜁니다

                 # expression 의 값을
                 # 출력합니다.

이것은 여러 개의 ‘for...in’ 절이 있지만 ‘if’ 절이 없을 때 결과 출력의 길
이가 모든 시퀀스 길이의 곱과 같음을 의미합니다.  길이가 3인 두 개의 리스
트가 있는 경우 출력 목록의 길이는 9개입니다:

     >>> seq1 = 'abc'
     >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
     >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
      ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
      ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

파이썬 문법의 모호함을 피하고자, ‘expression’ 이 튜플을 생성하고 있다면,
괄호로 묶어야 합니다.  아래의 첫 번째 리스트 컴프리헨션은 구문 오류이며,
두 번째는 올바릅니다:

     # 문법 에러
     [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # 올바릅니다
     [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터<2>,  Next: 내장 함수<2>,  Prev: 제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.4 제너레이터
----------------

제너레이터는 이터레이터를 작성하는 작업을 단순화하는 특별한 클래스의 함
수입니다.  일반 함수는 값을 계산하여 반환하지만, 제너레이터는 값의 스트
림을 반환하는 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

파이썬이나 C에서 정규 함수 호출이 어떻게 작동하는지 잘 알고 있을 것입니
다.  함수를 호출하면 지역 변수가 생성되는 비공개 이름 공간이 생깁니다.  함
수가 ‘return’ 문에 도달하면 지역 변수가 소멸하고 그 값이 호출자에게 반환
됩니다.  같은 함수를 나중에 호출하면 새로운 비공개 이름 공간과 새로운 지
역 변수 집합이 만들어집니다.  그러나 지역 변수가 함수를 빠져나갈 때 버려
지지 않으면 어떻게 될까요?  나중에 중단했던 곳에서 함수를 다시 시작할 수
있다면 어떨까요?  이것이 제너레이터가 제공하는 것입니다; 그들은 재개 가
능한 함수라고 생각할 수 있습니다.

다음은 제너레이터 함수의 가장 간단한 예입니다:

     >>> def generate_ints(N):
     ...    for i in range(N):
     ...        yield i

*note yield: 9ca. 키워드를 포함하는 함수는 제너레이터 함수입니다; 이것은
파이썬의 *note 바이트 코드: 187. 컴파일러에 의해 감지됩니다.  결과적으로
컴파일러는 특별하게 함수를 컴파일합니다.

제너레이터 함수를 호출하면 단일 값을 반환하지 않습니다; 대신 이터레이터
프로토콜을 지원하는 제너레이터 객체를 반환합니다.  ‘yield’ 표현식을 실행
하면 제너레이터는 ‘return’ 문과 비슷하게 ‘i’ 의 값을 출력합니다.
‘yield’ 와 ‘return’ 의 큰 차이점은 ‘yield’ 에 도달하면 제너레이터의 실행
상태가 일시 중단되고 지역 변수가 보존된다는 것입니다.  제너레이터의
*note __next__(): 1ccd. 메서드가 다음에 실행될 때, 함수가 다시 실행됩니
다.

다음은 ‘generate_ints()’ 제너레이터의 사용 예입니다:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object generate_ints at ...>
     >>> next(gen)
     0
     >>> next(gen)
     1
     >>> next(gen)
     2
     >>> next(gen)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

여러분은 똑같이 ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’ 또는 ‘a, b, c =
generate_ints(3)’ 라고 쓸 수 있습니다.

제너레이터 함수 내에서, ‘return value’ 는 *note __next__(): 1ccd. 메서드
에서 ‘StopIteration(value)’ 를 발생시킵니다.  이런 일이 발생하거나 함수
의 맨 아래에 도달하면 값의 행렬이 끝나고 제너레이터는 더는 값을 산출할 수
없습니다.

직접 클래스를 작성하고 제너레이터의 모든 지역 변수를 인스턴스 변수로 저
장하여 제너레이터의 효과를 수동으로 얻을 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 정수 리
스트를 반환하는 것은 ‘self.count’ 를 0으로 설정하고 *note __next__():
12bd. 메서드로 ‘self.count’ 를 증가시켜 반환하는 식으로 수행할 수 있습니
다.  그러나, 다소 복잡한 제너레이터의 경우에는 해당 클래스를 작성하는 것
이 훨씬 더 복잡할 수 있습니다.

파이썬의 라이브러리인 Lib/test/test_generators.py(1) 에 포함된 테스트 묶
음에는 더 많은 흥미로운 예제들이 있습니다.  제너레이터를 재귀적으로 사용
하여 트리를 중위 순회하는 것을 구현하는 하나의 제너레이터가 있습니다.

     # 트리 노드를 중위(in-order) 순회 순으로 생성하는 재귀적 제너레이터
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x

             yield t.label

             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

‘test_generators.py’ 의 다른 두 가지 예는, N-여왕 문제(NxN 체스판에 서로
다른 왕비를 위협할 수 없도록 N개의 왕비를 배치하는 문제)와 기사의 여행
(기사가 NxN 체스판의 모든 칸을 정확히 한 번씩 갈 수 있도록 하는 방법을 찾
는 문제)입니다.

* Menu:

* 제너레이터에 값 전달하기::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/test/test_generators.py


File: python.info,  Node: 제너레이터에 값 전달하기,  Up: 제너레이터<2>

9.7.4.1 제너레이터에 값 전달하기
................................

파이썬 2.4 및 그 이전 버전에서 제너레이터는 출력만 생성했습니다.  제너레
이터의 코드가 이터레이터를 만들기 위해 호출된 후에는 그 실행이 다시 시작
될 때 함수에 새로운 정보를 전달할 방법이 없었습니다.  제너레이터가 전역
변수를 보거나 호출자가 수정할 수 있는 변경 가능한 객체를 전달함으로써 이
기능을 해킹할 수 있지만, 이러한 접근법은 지저분한 방식입니다.

파이썬 2.5에서는 제너레이터에 값을 전달하는 간단한 방법이 있습니다.
*note yield: 9ca. 는 표현식이 되어 변수에 대입하거나 다른 식으로 조작할
수 있는 값을 반환합니다:

     val = (yield i)

위 예제처럼 반환 값으로 무엇인가를 할 때 ‘yield’ 표현식 주위에 '항상' 괄
호를 넣는 것이 좋습니다.  괄호는 항상 필요한 것은 아니지만 필요한 시점을
기억하지 않고 항상 추가하기가 더 쉽습니다.

( PEP 342(1) 는 정확한 규칙을 설명합니다.  이것은 대입의 오른쪽에 있는 최
상위 표현식에서 발생하는 경우를 제외하고 항상 ‘yield’ 표현식을 괄호로 묶
어야 한다는 것입니다.  ‘val = yield i’ 라고 쓸 수도 있지만, ‘val =
(yield i) + 12’ 처럼 연산이 있을 때는 괄호를 써야합니다.)

값은 *note send(value): 1fd4. 메서드를 호출하여 제너레이터로 보내집니다.
이 메서드는 제너레이터의 코드를 다시 시작하고 ‘yield’ 표현식은 지정된 값
을 반환합니다.  만약 정규 *note __next__(): 1ccd. 메서드가 호출되면
‘yield’ 는 ‘None’ 을 반환합니다.

다음은 1씩 증가하며 내부 카운터값을 변경할 수 있는 간단한 카운터입니다.

     def counter(maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # 값이 제공되면, 카운터를 변경합니다
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

다음은 카운터 변경의 예시입니다:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> next(it)
     0
     >>> next(it)
     1
     >>> it.send(8)
     8
     >>> next(it)
     9
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
         it.next()
     StopIteration

‘yield’ 가 종종 ‘None’ 을 반환할 것이므로, 항상 이 경우를 확인해야 합니
다.  *note send(): 1fd4. 메서드가 제너레이터 함수를 다시 시작하는데 사용
되는 유일한 메서드가 아니라면, 표현식의 결괏값을 확인없이 사용하지 마세
요.

*note send(): 1fd4. 외에도 제너레이터에 대한 두 가지 다른 메서드가 있습
니다:

   * *note throw(value): 4f2. 는 제너레이터 내에서 예외를 발생시키는 데
     사용됩니다; 예외는 제너레이터의 실행이 일시 중지된 ‘yield’ 표현식에
     의해 발생합니다.

   * *note close(): 16fb. sends a *note GeneratorExit: 1390. exception
     to the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator’s code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 1390. or *note StopIteration: bf7.; catching the
     exception and doing anything else is illegal and will trigger a
     *note RuntimeError: 195.  *note close(): 16fb. will also be called
     by Python’s garbage collector when the generator is
     garbage-collected.

     *note GeneratorExit: 1390. 이 발생할 때 정리 작업을 위한 코드를 실
     행해야 한다면 *note GeneratorExit: 1390. 를 잡는 대신 ‘try: ...
     finally:’ 를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

이러한 변화의 누적 효과는 제너레이터를 일방적인 정보 생산자에서 생산자와
소비자 모두로 전환하는 것입니다.

제너레이터는 '코루틴' 이 되어 더 일반적인 형태의 서브루틴이 됩니다.  서
브루틴은 한 지점에서 시작되고 다른 한 지점(함수의 맨 위와 ‘return’ 문)에
서 빠져나옵니다.  그러나 여러 다른 지점에서 코루틴을 시작하고 빠져나오고
다시 시작할 수 있습니다(‘yield’ 문).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: 내장 함수<2>,  Next: itertools 모듈,  Prev: 제너레이터<2>,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.5 내장 함수
---------------

이터레이터에서 자주 사용되는 내장 함수를 자세히 살펴보겠습니다.

파이썬의 두 가지 내장 함수인 *note map(): 85e. 와 *note filter(): 85f. 는
제너레이터 표현식의 기능을 복제합니다:

*note map(f, iterA, iterB, ...): 85e. 은 다음과 같은 시퀀스에 대한 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

     ‘f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2],
     iterB[2]), ...’.

          >>> def upper(s):
          ...     return s.upper()

          >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
          >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']

물론 리스트 컴프리헨션으로 같은 효과를 얻을 수 있습니다.

*note filter(predicate, iter): 85f. 는 특정 조건을 만족하는 모든 시퀀스
요소에 대한 이터레이터를 반환하며, 마찬가지로 리스트 컴프리헨션에 의해 복
제됩니다.  'predicate' 는 어떤 조건의 진릿값을 반환하는 함수입니다;
*note filter(): 85f. 와 함께 사용하는 경우, predicate는 단일 값을 받아들
여야 합니다.

     >>> def is_even(x):
     ...     return (x % 2) == 0

     >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

또한 이것은 리스트 컴프리헨션으로 작성될 수 있습니다:

     >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

*note enumerate(iter, start=0): 1445. 는 카운트('start' 부터)와 각 요소
를 포함하는 2-튜플을 반환하는 이터러블의 요소를 계산합니다.

     >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
     ...     print(item)
     (0, 'subject')
     (1, 'verb')
     (2, 'object')

*note enumerate(): 1445. 는 리스트를 반복하고 특정 조건이 충족되는 인덱
스를 기록할 때 자주 사용됩니다:

     f = open('data.txt', 'r')
     for i, line in enumerate(f):
         if line.strip() == '':
             print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)

*note sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False): bcb. 는 이터러블의 모든
요소를 리스트로 모으고, 리스트를 정렬하고, 정렬된 결과를 반환합니다.
'key' 와 'reverse' 인자는 생성된 리스트의 *note sort(): bcc. 메서드로 전
달됩니다.

     >>> import random
     >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
     >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
     >>> rand_list
     [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
     >>> sorted(rand_list)
     [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
     >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)
     [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]

(정렬에 대한 자세한 설명은 *note 정렬 기법: 2186. 를 참고하세요.)

*note any(iter): 13e9. 및 *note all(iter): 13ea. 내장 함수는 이터러블의
진릿값을 봅니다.  *note any(): 13e9. 는 이터러블의 어떤 요소가 참이면
‘True’ 를 반환하고, *note all(): 13ea. 은 모든 요소가 참이면 ‘True’ 를 반
환합니다:

     >>> any([0, 1, 0])
     True
     >>> any([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> any([1, 1, 1])
     True
     >>> all([0, 1, 0])
     False
     >>> all([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> all([1, 1, 1])
     True

*note zip(iterA, iterB, ...): 7c9. 은 각 이터러블에서 하나의 요소를 취하
여 튜플로 반환합니다:

     zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)

이 함수는 결과를 반환하기 전에 메모리 내의 리스트를 구성하거나 모든 입력
이터레이터를 처리하지 않습니다; 대신 튜플은 요청된 경우에만 생성하여 반
환합니다.  (이 동작의 전문 용어는 느긋한 평가(1) 입니다.)

이 이터레이터는 모두 같은 길이의 이터러블과 함께 사용하기 위한 것입니다.
이터러블의 길이가 다른 경우 결과 스트림은 가장 짧은 이터러블과 같은 길이
가 됩니다.

     zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2)

더 긴 이터레이터에서 나머지 요소는 버려질 수 있기 때문에 이런 방식은 피
해야 합니다.  즉, 삭제된 요소를 건너뛸 위험이 있으므로 이터레이터를 계속
사용할 수 없습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation


File: python.info,  Node: itertools 모듈,  Next: functools 모듈,  Prev: 내장 함수<2>,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.6 itertools 모듈
--------------------

*note itertools: 81. 모듈은 공통적으로 사용되는 많은 이터레이터와 몇몇 이
터레이터를 결합하기 위한 함수를 포함합니다.  이 절에서는 작은 예제를 보
여줌으로써 모듈의 내용을 소개합니다.

모듈의 기능은 몇 가지 광범위한 클래스로 분류됩니다:

   * 기존 이터레이터를 기반으로 새로운 이터레이터를 만드는 함수.

   * 이터레이터의 요소를 함수 인자로 처리하는 함수.

   * 이터레이터의 출력 부분을 선택하는 함수.

   * 이터레이터의 출력을 분류하는 함수.

* Menu:

* 새로운 이터레이터 만들기::
* 요소에 대한 함수 호출::
* 요소 선택하기::
* 조합 함수::
* 요소 분류::


File: python.info,  Node: 새로운 이터레이터 만들기,  Next: 요소에 대한 함수 호출,  Up: itertools 모듈

9.7.6.1 새로운 이터레이터 만들기
................................

*note itertools.count(start, step): 1273. 는 균등하게 간격을 둔 값들의 무
한한 스트림을 반환합니다.  선택적으로 기본값이 0인 시작 번호와 기본값이
1인 숫자 사이의 간격을 제공할 수 있습니다:

     itertools.count() =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
     itertools.count(10) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
     itertools.count(10, 5) =>
       10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...

*note itertools.cycle(iter): 2739. 은 제공된 이터러블의 내용 사본을 저장
하고 처음부터 마지막까지 요소를 반환하는 새로운 이터레이터를 반환합니다.
새로운 이터레이터는 이러한 요소를 무한히 반복합니다.

     itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

*note itertools.repeat(elem, [n]): 273a. 는 제공된 요소를 'n' 번 반환하
거나, 'n' 이 제공되지 않으면 끝없이 요소를 반환합니다.

     itertools.repeat('abc') =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
     itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc

*note itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...): 2187. 은 임의의 수의 이터러블
을 입력으로 취하여, 첫 번째 이터러블의 모든 요소를 반환한 다음 두 번째 요
소의 모든 요소를 반환하고, 모든 이터러블이 다 소모될 때까지 이 동작을 반
복합니다.

     itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       a, b, c, 1, 2, 3

*note itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]): b49. 는 이터레이터
의 조각 스트림을 반환합니다.  단일 'stop' 인자를 사용하면 처음 'stop'개
요소가 반환됩니다.  시작 인덱스를 지정하면 'stop-start' 요소가 생기고,
'step' 에 값을 지정하면 요소는 그에 따라 생략됩니다.  파이썬의 문자열 및
리스트 슬라이싱과 달리, 'start', 'stop', 'step' 에 음수값을 사용할 수 없
습니다.

     itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
       2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
       2, 4, 6

*note itertools.tee(iter, [n]): 273f. 는 이터레이터를 복제합니다; 원본 이
터레이터의 내용을 모두 반환하는 'n' 개의 독립적인 이터레이터를 반환합니
다.  'n' 에 대한 값을 제공하지 않으면 기본값은 2입니다.  이터레이터를 복
제하려면 원본 이터레이터의 일부 내용을 저장해야 하므로 이터레이터가 크고
새로운 이터레이터 중 하나가 다른 것보다 많이 소비된다면 이것은 상당한 메
모리를 소비할 수 있습니다.

     itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
        iterA, iterB

     where iterA ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

     and   iterB ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...


File: python.info,  Node: 요소에 대한 함수 호출,  Next: 요소 선택하기,  Prev: 새로운 이터레이터 만들기,  Up: itertools 모듈

9.7.6.2 요소에 대한 함수 호출
.............................

*note operator: 9f. 모듈은 파이썬의 연산자에 대응하는 함수 집합을 포함합
니다.  예를 들어 *note operator.add(a, b): 2765. (두 개의 값을 더하기),
*note operator.ne(a, b): 2755. (‘a != b’ 와 동일) 및 *note
operator.attrgetter('id'): e2f. (‘.id’ 어트리뷰트를 가져오는 콜러블을 반
환)와 같은 함수가 있습니다.

*note itertools.starmap(func, iter): 10d6. 은 이터러블이 튜플의 스트림을
반환할 것이라고 가정하고, 이 튜플을 인자로 사용하여 'func' 를 호출합니다
:

     itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
                       [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
                        ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
     =>
       /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby


File: python.info,  Node: 요소 선택하기,  Next: 조합 함수,  Prev: 요소에 대한 함수 호출,  Up: itertools 모듈

9.7.6.3 요소 선택하기
.....................

또 다른 함수 모음은 서술자에 기초하여 이터러블 요소의 부분 집합을 선택합
니다.

*note itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter): 2173. 는 *note filter():
85f. 의 반대이며, predicate가 거짓을 반환하는 모든 요소를 반환합니다:

     itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

*note itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter): 273e. 은 predicate가 참을 반
환하는 한, 요소를 반환합니다.  predicate가 거짓을 반환하면 이터레이터는
결과의 종료를 알립니다.

     def less_than_10(x):
         return x < 10

     itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

     itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       0

*note itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter): 273c. 은 predicate가 참을 반
환하는 동안 요소를 버리고, 나머지 이터러블의 결과를 반환합니다.

     itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...

     itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...

*note itertools.compress(data, selectors): 1272. 는 두 개의 이터레이터를
취하고 'selectors' 의 해당 요소가 참인 'data' 의 요소만을 반환하고, 한쪽
이 고갈될 때마다 중단합니다:

     itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
        1, 2, 5


File: python.info,  Node: 조합 함수,  Next: 요소 분류,  Prev: 요소 선택하기,  Up: itertools 모듈

9.7.6.4 조합 함수
.................

*note itertools.combinations(iterable, r): 1302. 는 'iterable' 에 포함된
모든 요소의 가능한 'r'-튜플 조합을 제공하는 이터레이터를 반환합니다.

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 5)

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
       (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
       (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
       (3, 4, 5)

각 튜플 내의 원소들은 'iterable' 이 반환한 것과 같은 순서로 유지됩니다.
예를 들어 위의 예시에서 숫자 1은 항상 2, 3, 4 또는 5 앞에 옵니다.  비슷
한 함수인 *note itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None): 1921. 은 제약
조건을 제거하여 길이 'r' 의 가능한 모든 순열을 반환합니다:

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
       (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
       ...
       (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

'r' 에 값을 지정하지 않으면 이터러블의 길이가 사용됩니다.  즉, 모든 요소
가 치환됩니다.

이 함수는 위치별로 가능한 모든 조합을 생성하며 'iterable' 의 내용이 고유
해야 할 필요는 없습니다:

     itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
       ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
       ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')

같은 튜플 ‘('a', 'a', 'b')’ 가 두 번 발생하지만, 두 개의 ‘a’ 문자열은 다
른 위치에서 왔습니다.

*note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r): 1271. 함수는
다른 제약을 완화합니다: 요소는 단일 튜플 내에서 반복될 수 있습니다.  개
념적으로 요소는 각 튜플의 첫 번째 위치에 대해 선택되고 두 번째 요소가 선
택되기 전에 대체됩니다.

     itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 4), (4, 5),
       (5, 5)


File: python.info,  Node: 요소 분류,  Prev: 조합 함수,  Up: itertools 모듈

9.7.6.5 요소 분류
.................

마지막으로 소개할 *note itertools.groupby(iter, key_func=None): 273d. 함
수는 가장 복잡합니다.  ‘key_func(elem)’ 는 이터러블에 의해 반환된 각 요
소에 대한 키값을 계산할 수 있는 함수입니다.  키 함수를 제공하지 않으면 키
는 단순히 각 요소 자체입니다.

*note groupby(): 273d. 는 이터러블 내부에서 키값이 같은 연속된 모든 요소
를 수집하여 키값과 해당 키를 가진 요소의 이터러블을 포함하는 2-튜플의 스
트림을 반환합니다.

     city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
                  ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
                  ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
                  ...
                 ]

     def get_state(city_state):
         return city_state[1]

     itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
       ('AL', iterator-1),
       ('AK', iterator-2),
       ('AZ', iterator-3), ...

     where
     iterator-1 =>
       ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
     iterator-2 =>
       ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
     iterator-3 =>
       ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')

*note groupby(): 273d. 는 이터러블 내부의 내용이 키에 따라 이미 정렬되었
다고 가정합니다.  반환된 이터레이터 역시 이터러블 내부를 사용하므로 이터
레이터-2와 해당 키를 요청하기 전에 이터레이터-1의 결과를 소진해야 합니다
.


File: python.info,  Node: functools 모듈,  Next: 작은 함수와 람다 표현식,  Prev: itertools 모듈,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.7 functools 모듈
--------------------

*note functools: 5f. 모듈은 고차 함수를 포함하고 있습니다.  '고차 함수'
는 하나 이상의 함수를 입력으로 사용하고 새로운 함수를 반환합니다.  이 모
듈에서 가장 유용한 도구는 *note functools.partial(): 40e. 함수입니다.

함수형 방식으로 작성된 프로그램의 경우, 일부 매개 변수가 채워진 기존 함
수의 변형이 필요한 경우가 있습니다.  파이썬 함수 ‘f(a, b, c)’ 를 고려해
보세요; 파이썬 함수인 ‘f(1, b, c)’ 에 해당하는 새로운 함수 ‘g(b, c)’ 를
만들 수 있습니다; 이를 “부분적 함수 적용” 이라고 합니다.

*note partial(): 40e. 의 생성자는 ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ...,
kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’ 와 같은 인자를 취합니다.  결과 객체는 콜
러블이므로, 채워진 인자로 ‘function’ 을 실행하기 위해서는 결과 객체를 호
출하면 됩니다.

작지만 현실적인 예가 있습니다:

     import functools

     def log(message, subsystem):
         """'message' 의 내용을 주어진 subsystem 으로 출력합니다."""
         print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

*note functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]): 12cc. 는 모든 이터
러블 요소에 대해 누적 연산을 수행하므로 무한 이터러블에 적용할 수 없습니
다.  'func' 는 두 요소를 사용하여 하나의 값을 반환하는 함수이어야 합니다
.  *note functools.reduce(): 12cc. 는 이터레이터가 반환한 처음 두 요소
A와 B를 취해 ‘func(A, B)’ 를 계산합니다.  그다음 세 번째 요소인 C를 취해
‘func(func(A, B), C)’ 를 계산하고, 이 결과를 반환된 네 번째 요소와 결합
해 이터러블이 소진될 때까지 계속합니다.  이터러블이 전혀 값을 반환하지 않
으면 *note TypeError: 532. 예외가 발생합니다.  초기값이 제공되면 시작점
으로 사용되며 ‘func(initial_value, A)’ 가 첫 번째로 계산됩니다.

     >>> import operator, functools
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
     'ABBC'
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
     6
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
     1

*note operator.add(): 2765. 를 *note functools.reduce(): 12cc. 와 함께 사
용하면 이터러블의 모든 요소를 합합니다.  이 경우는 매우 일반적이어서 이
를 계산하기 위해 *note sum(): 464. 이라는 특수 내장 함수가 제공됩니다:

     >>> import functools, operator
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
     10
     >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
     10
     >>> sum([])
     0

그렇지만 *note functools.reduce(): 12cc. 를 사용하는 많은 경우에 명백하
게 *note for: 2ea. 루프만 작성하는 것이 더 명확할 수 있습니다:

     import functools
     # 다음 문장 대신에:
     product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)

     # 이렇게 쓸 수 있습니다:
     product = 1
     for i in [1, 2, 3]:
         product *= i

관련 함수는 *note itertools.accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add):
9f9. 입니다.  같은 계산을 수행하지만, 최종 결과만 반환하는 대신 *note
accumulate(): 9f9. 는 각 부분 결과를 반환하는 이터레이터를 반환합니다:

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 3, 6, 10, 15

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
       1, 2, 6, 24, 120

* Menu:

* operator 모듈::


File: python.info,  Node: operator 모듈,  Up: functools 모듈

9.7.7.1 operator 모듈
.....................

*note operator: 9f. 모듈은 이전에 언급되었습니다.  여기에는 파이썬 연산
자에 해당하는 함수 집합이 포함되어 있습니다.  단일 연산을 수행하는 사소
한 함수를 작성하지 않아도 되므로 이러한 함수는 함수형 방식 코드에서 유용
합니다.

이 모듈의 몇몇 함수는 다음과 같습니다:

   * 수학 연산: ‘add()’, ‘sub()’, ‘mul()’, ‘floordiv()’, ‘abs()’, …

   * 논리 연산: ‘not_()’, ‘truth()’.

   * 비트 연산: ‘and_()’, ‘or_()’, ‘invert()’.

   * 비교: ‘eq()’, ‘ne()’, ‘lt()’, ‘le()’, ‘gt()’, ‘ge()’.

   * 객체 아이덴티티: ‘is_()’, ‘is_not()’.

전체 목록은 연산자 모듈의 문서를 참고하세요.


File: python.info,  Node: 작은 함수와 람다 표현식,  Next: 개정내역 및 감사의 글,  Prev: functools 모듈,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.8 작은 함수와 람다 표현식
-----------------------------

함수형 방식의 프로그램을 작성할 때, 서술자로 동작하거나 어떤 식으로든 요
소를 결합하는 작은 함수가 필요할 것입니다.

파이썬 내장 함수나 적당한 모듈 함수가 있다면, 새로운 함수를 정의할 필요
가 전혀 없습니다:

     stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
     existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)

필요한 기능이 없다면 작성해야 합니다.  작은 함수를 작성하는 한 가지 방법
은 *note lambda: 128c. 표현식을 사용하는 것입니다.  ‘lambda’ 는 여러 매
개 변수와 이들 매개 변수를 결합하는 표현식을 취해 표현식의 값을 반환하는
익명의 함수를 만듭니다:

     adder = lambda x, y: x+y

     print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)

다른 방법은 ‘def’ 문을 사용하고 일반적인 방식으로 함수를 정의하는 것입니
다:

     def adder(x, y):
         return x + y

     def print_assign(name, value):
         return name + '=' + str(value)

어떤 대안이 바람직할까요?  이것은 스타일에 대한 질문입니다; 필자가 평소
에 사용하는 방법은 ‘lambda’ 사용을 피하는 것입니다.

필자가 선호하는 방식에 대한 이유 중 하나는 ‘lambda’ 가 정의할 수 있는 함
수가 상당히 제한적이기 때문입니다.  결과는 단일 표현식으로 계산할 수 있
어야 합니다.  즉, ‘if... elif... else’ 비교 또는 ‘try... except’ 문을 가
질 수 없습니다.  ‘lambda’ 문에서 너무 많은 것을 하려고 하면, 읽기 어려운
복잡한 표현으로 끝날 것입니다.  다음 코드가 무엇을 하는지 빠르게 알아보
세요.

     import functools
     total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]

여러분은 이해할 수 있지만, 어떻게 동작하는지 이해하기 위해 표현식을 풀어
내는 데 시간이 걸립니다.  짧게 중첩된 ‘def’ 문을 사용하면 좀 더 나은 것
을 만들 수 있습니다:

     import functools
     def combine(a, b):
         return 0, a[1] + b[1]

     total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]

그러나 단순히 ‘for’ 루프를 사용했다면 가장 좋았을 것입니다:

     total = 0
     for a, b in items:
         total += b

혹은 *note sum(): 464. 내장 함수와 제너레이터 표현식이었어도 좋았을 것입
니다:

     total = sum(b for a, b in items)

*note functools.reduce(): 12cc. 를 사용하는 많은 경우, ‘for’ 루프로 작성
했을 때 더 명확합니다.

Fredrik Lundh는 한때 ‘lambda’ 사용법의 리팩토링을 위해 다음과 같은 규칙
집합을 제안했습니다:

  1. 람다 함수를 작성하세요.

  2. 람다가 하는 일에 관해 설명하는 글을 쓰세요.

  3. 잠깐 설명을 검토하고 설명의 본질을 포착하는 이름을 생각해보세요.

  4. 해당 이름을 사용하여 람다를 def 문으로 변환합니다.

  5. 설명을 삭제하세요.

필자는 이 규칙을 정말 좋아하지만, 여러분은 이렇게 람다가 없는 방식이 더
나은지에 대해 동의하지 않을 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 개정내역 및 감사의 글,  Next: 참고 문헌,  Prev: 작은 함수와 람다 표현식,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.9 개정내역 및 감사의 글
---------------------------

필자는 이 글의 다양한 초안을 제안하고 수정하고 도와준 다음 사람들에게 감
사하고 싶습니다: Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond
Hettinger, Jim Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela,
Collin Winter, Blake Winton.

버전 0.1: 2006년 6월 30일 게시.

버전 0.11: 2006년 7월 1일 게시.  오타 수정.

버전 0.2: 2006년 7월 10일 게시.  제너레이터 표현식과 리스트 컴프리헨션 섹
션을 하나로 통합.  오타 수정.

버전 0.21: 튜터 메일링 리스트에서 추천된 참고 문헌을 추가.

버전 0.30: Collin Winter가 작성한 ‘functional’ 모듈에 대한 섹션 추가; 연
산자 모듈에 대한 짧은 섹션 추가; 몇 가지 다른 편집.


File: python.info,  Node: 참고 문헌,  Prev: 개정내역 및 감사의 글,  Up: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.7.10 참고 문헌
----------------

* Menu:

* 일반::
* 파이썬 특정::
* 파이썬 설명서::


File: python.info,  Node: 일반,  Next: 파이썬 특정,  Up: 참고 문헌

9.7.10.1 일반
.............

Harold Abelson과 Gerald Jay Sussman, Julie Sussman의 'Structure and
Interpretation of Computer Programs'.  책은
‘https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp’ 에서 찾을 수 있습니다.  이 고전적인 컴퓨
터 과학 교과서에서 2장과 3장은 프로그램 내에서 데이터 흐름을 구성하기 위
해 시퀀스와 스트림을 사용하는 방법을 설명합니다.  이 책은 스킴(Scheme)을
예제로 사용하지만, 이 장에서 설명한 디자인 방식 중 상당수는 함수형 방식
파이썬 코드에 적용할 수 있습니다.

‘https://defmacro.org/2006/06/19/fp.html’: A general introduction to
functional programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy
historical introduction.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming’: 함수형 프로그래
밍을 설명하는 일반 위키피디아 항목.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’: 코루틴에 대한 항목.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_application’: 부분 함수 적용 개념
에 대한 항목.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying’: 커링 개념에 대한 항목.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 특정,  Next: 파이썬 설명서,  Prev: 일반,  Up: 참고 문헌

9.7.10.2 파이썬 특정
....................

‘https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/’: David Mertz의 책 ‘Text Processing in Python’
의 첫 번째 장에서는 “Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in Text
Processing” 절에서 텍스트 처리를 위한 함수형 프로그래밍에 관해 설명합니
다.

Mertz는 또한 IBM의 DeveloperWorks 사이트에서 함수형 프로그래밍 기사 시리
즈 3부작을 작성했습니다; part 1(1), part 2(2), part 3(3),

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/

   (2) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/

   (3) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 설명서,  Prev: 파이썬 특정,  Up: 참고 문헌

9.7.10.3 파이썬 설명서
......................

*note itertools: 81. 모듈에 대한 설명서

*note functools: 5f. 모듈에 대한 설명서

*note operator: 9f. 모듈에 대한 설명서

PEP 289(1): “제너레이터 표현식”

PEP 342(2): “개선된 제너레이터를 통한 코루틴” 은 파이썬 2.5의 새로운 제
너레이터 기능을 설명합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 HOWTO,  Next: 로깅 요리책,  Prev: 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.8 로깅 HOWTO
==============


저자: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains tutorial information.  For links to reference
information and a logging cookbook, please see *note 기타 자료: 4f93.

* Menu:

* 기초 로깅 자습서::
* 고급 로깅 자습서::
* 로깅 수준: 로깅 수준<2>.
* 유용한 처리기::
* 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외::
* 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기::
* 최적화: 최적화<6>.
* 기타 자료::


File: python.info,  Node: 기초 로깅 자습서,  Next: 고급 로깅 자습서,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.1 기초 로깅 자습서
----------------------

로깅은 어떤 소프트웨어가 실행될 때 발생하는 이벤트를 추적하는 수단입니다
.  소프트웨어 개발자는 코드에 로깅 호출을 추가하여 특정 이벤트가 발생했
음을 나타냅니다.  이벤트는 선택적으로 가변 데이터 (즉, 이벤트 발생마다 잠
재적으로 다른 데이터)를 포함할 수 있는 설명 메시지로 기술됩니다.  이벤트
는 또한 개발자가 이벤트에 부여한 중요도를 가지고 있습니다; 중요도는 '수
준(level)' 또는 '심각도(severity)' 라고도 부를 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 로깅을 사용할 때::
* 간단한 예: 간단한 예<2>.
* 파일에 로깅 하기::
* 변수 데이터 로깅::
* 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경::
* 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시::
* 다음 단계::


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅을 사용할 때,  Next: 간단한 예<2>,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.1 로깅을 사용할 때
........................

You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ‘logger =
getLogger(__name__)’, and then calling the logger’s *note debug(): e26,
*note info(): 2c77, *note warning(): 170a, *note error(): 2c79. and
*note critical(): e25. methods.  To determine when to use logging, and
to see which logger methods to use when, see the table below.  It
states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for that
task.

수행하려는 작업                           작업을 위한 최상의 도구
                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
명령행 스크립트 또는 프로그램의 일반적    *note print(): f6d.
인 사용을 위한 콘솔 출력 표시             

프로그램의 정상 작동 중에 발생하는 이벤   로거의 *note info(): 2c77. (또는 진단 목
트 보고 (가령 상태 모니터링이나 결함 조   적의 아주 자세한 출력의 경우
사)                                       *note debug(): e26. 메서드)
                                          
                                          
특정 실행시간 이벤트와 관련하여 경고를    라이브러리 코드에서
발행                                      *note warnings.warn(): 14e1.: 문제를 피
                                          할 수 있고 경고를 제거하기 위해 클라이언
                                          트 응용 프로그램이 수정되어야 하는 경우
                                          
                                          로거의 *note warning(): 170a. 메서드: 클
                                          라이언트 응용 프로그램이 할 수 있는 일이
                                          없는 상황이지만 이벤트를 계속 주목해야 하
                                          는 경우
                                          
                                          
특정 실행시간 이벤트와 관련하여 에러를    예외를 일으킵니다
보고                                      

예외를 발생시키지 않고 에러의 억제를 보   구체적인 에러와 응용 프로그램 영역에 적
고 (가령 장기 실행 서버 프로세스의 에러   절한 로거의 *note error(): 2c79,
처리기)                                   *note exception(): e24,
                                          *note critical(): e25. 메서드
                                          

로거 메서드는 추적되는 이벤트의 수준 또는 심각도를 따라 명명됩니다.  표
준 수준과 그 용도는 아래에 설명되어 있습니다 (심각도가 높아지는 순서대로
).:

수준               사용할 때
                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
‘DEBUG’            상세한 정보.  보통 문제를 진단할 때만 필요합니
                   다.
                   
                   
‘INFO’             예상대로 작동하는지에 대한 확인.
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          예상치 못한 일이 발생했거나 가까운 미래에 발생
                   할 문제(예를 들어 ‘디스크 공간 부족’)에 대한 표
                   시.  소프트웨어는 여전히 예상대로 작동합니다.
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            더욱 심각한 문제로 인해, 소프트웨어가 일부 기능
                   을 수행하지 못했습니다.
                   
                   
‘CRITICAL’         심각한 에러.  프로그램 자체가 계속 실행되지 않
                   을 수 있음을 나타냅니다.
                   

기본 수준은 ‘WARNING’ 입니다.  이는 logging 패키지가 달리 구성되지 않는
한, 이 심각도 이상의 이벤트만 추적된다는 것을 의미합니다.

추적되는 이벤트는 여러 방식으로 처리될 수 있습니다.  추적된 이벤트를 처
리하는 가장 간단한 방법은 콘솔에 인쇄하는 것입니다.  또 다른 일반적인 방
법은 디스크 파일에 기록하는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 예<2>,  Next: 파일에 로깅 하기,  Prev: 로깅을 사용할 때,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.2 간단한 예
.................

아주 간단한 예는 이렇습니다:

     import logging
     logging.warning('Watch out!')  # 콘솔에 메시지를 인쇄합니다
     logging.info('I told you so')  # 아무것도 인쇄하지 않습니다

이 줄들을 스크립트에 입력하고 실행하면:

     WARNING:root:Watch out!

이 콘솔에 출력됩니다.  기본 수준이 ‘WARNING’ 이므로, ‘INFO’ 메시지는 나
타나지 않습니다.  인쇄된 메시지에는 수준 표시와 로깅 호출에 제공된 이벤
트의 설명(즉, ‘Watch out!’)이 포함됩니다.  필요한 경우 실제 출력을 매우
유연하게 포맷 할 수 있습니다; 포매팅 옵션도 나중에 설명합니다.

Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the ‘logging’
module, like ‘logging.debug’, rather than creating a logger and calling
functions on it.  These functions operation on the root logger, but can
be useful as they will call *note basicConfig(): 9fc. for you if it has
not been called yet, like in this example.  In larger programs you’ll
usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however -
so for that reason as well as others, it’s better to create loggers and
call their methods.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일에 로깅 하기,  Next: 변수 데이터 로깅,  Prev: 간단한 예<2>,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.3 파일에 로깅 하기
........................

매우 일반적인 상황은 로깅 이벤트를 파일에 기록하는 것이므로, 다음으로 살
펴보겠습니다.  새로 시작된 파이썬 인터프리터에서 다음을 시도해보고, 위에
서 설명한 세션을 계속 진행하지는 마십시오:

     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logger.debug('This message should go to the log file')
     logger.info('So should this')
     logger.warning('And this, too')
     logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö')

버전 3.9에서 변경: 'encoding' 인자가 추가되었습니다.  이전 파이썬 버전에
서, 또는 지정되지 않으면, 사용된 인코딩은 *note open(): 515.에서 사용되
는 기본값입니다.  위의 예제에는 표시되지 않았지만, 이제 'errors' 인자를
전달하여 인코딩 에러 처리 방법을 결정할 수 있습니다.  사용 가능한 값과 기
본값은, *note open(): 515. 설명서를 참조하십시오.

이제 파일을 열고 내용을 살펴본다면, 로그 메시지를 찾을 수 있습니다:

     DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file
     INFO:__main__:So should this
     WARNING:__main__:And this, too
     ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö

이 예제는 추적 임곗값 역할을 하는 로깅 수준을 설정하는 방법도 보여줍니다
.  이 경우 임곗값을 ‘DEBUG’ 로 설정했기 때문에 모든 메시지가 출력되었습
니다.

다음과 같은 방식으로 명령행 옵션에서 로깅 수준을 설정하려고 하고:

     --log=INFO

어떤 변수 'loglevel' 에 ‘--log’ 로 전달된 매개 변수의 값이 들어있다면, 이
런 방법으로:

     getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())

'level' 인자를 통해 *note basicConfig(): 9fc. 에게 전달할 값을 얻습니다.
아마 다음 예제에서와같이, 사용자 입력 값을 오류 검사 하고 싶을 겁니다:

     # loglevel이 명령행 인자에서 얻은 문자열 값에 연결되어
     # 있다고 가정합니다. 사용자가 --log=DEBUG 또는
     # --log=debug를 지정할 수 있도록 대문자로 변환합니다.
     numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
     if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
         raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
     logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)

The call to *note basicConfig(): 9fc. should come 'before' any calls to
a logger’s methods such as *note debug(): e26, *note info(): 2c77, etc.
Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner.

위의 스크립트를 여러 번 실행하면, 후속 실행의 메시지가 'example.log' 파
일에 추가됩니다.  이전 실행의 메시지를 기억하지 않고, 각 실행이 새로 시
작하게 하려면, 위 예제에서 호출이 'filemode' 인자를 지정하도록 다음과 같
이 변경할 수 있습니다:

     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)

출력은 이전과 같지만, 더는 로그 파일에 덧붙여지지 않으므로 이전 실행의 메
시지는 손실됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 변수 데이터 로깅,  Next: 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경,  Prev: 파일에 로깅 하기,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.4 변수 데이터 로깅
........................

변수 데이터를 기록하려면, 이벤트 설명 메시지에 포맷 문자열을 사용하고 변
수 데이터를 인자로 추가하십시오.  예를 들면:

     import logging
     logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')

이것은 다음과 같이 출력합니다:

     WARNING:root:Look before you leap!

보시다시피, 이벤트 설명 메시지에 가변 데이터를 병합하는데 이전 %-스타일
의 문자열 포매팅을 사용합니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 위한 것입니다:
logging 패키지는 *note str.format(): 61b. 과 *note string.Template: 681.
과 같은 새로운 포매팅 옵션 이전부터 존재해왔습니다.  이 새로운 포매팅 옵
션 '역시' 지원되지만, 이 자습서의 범위를 벗어납니다: 좀 더 자세한 정보는
*note 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기: 2c96.를 참조하세
요.


File: python.info,  Node: 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경,  Next: 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시,  Prev: 변수 데이터 로깅,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.5 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경
.................................

메시지를 표시하는 데 사용되는 포맷을 변경하려면 사용할 format을 지정해야
합니다:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
     logging.info('So should this')
     logging.warning('And this, too')

이것은 다음과 같이 인쇄합니다:

     DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
     INFO:So should this
     WARNING:And this, too

앞의 예제에서 나타난 ‘root’ 가 사라졌음에 주목하십시오.  포맷 문자열에 나
타날 수 있는 모든 것은 *note LogRecord 어트리뷰트: 2c76. 문서를 참고하게
요.  하지만, 간단한 사용을 위해서는 'levelname' (심각도), 'message' (이
벤트 설명, 변수 데이터 포함) 와 아마도 발생 시각을 표시해야 할 것입니다.
이것은 다음 섹션에서 설명합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시,  Next: 다음 단계,  Prev: 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.6 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시
...............................

이벤트의 날짜와 시간을 표시하려면, 포맷 문자열에 ‘%(asctime)s’ 을 넣으십
시오:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

이것은 이런 식으로 인쇄합니다:

     2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.

(위에 나온) 날짜/시간 표시의 기본 포맷은 ISO8601 또는 RFC 3339(1)와 같습
니다.  날짜/시간의 포맷을 좀 더 제어해야 하는 경우, 이 예제에서와같이
‘basicConfig’ 에 'datefmt' 인자를 제공하십시오:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

그러면 다음과 같이 표시됩니다:

     12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.

'datefmt' 인자의 형식은 *note time.strftime(): 11d8. 에 의해 지원되는 것
과 같습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html


File: python.info,  Node: 다음 단계,  Prev: 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시,  Up: 기초 로깅 자습서

9.8.1.7 다음 단계
.................

이것으로 기본 자습서를 마칩니다.  여러분이 로깅을 시작하고 사용하는데 충
분할 겁니다.  logging 패키지가 더 많은 것들을 제공하지만, 최선의 결과를
얻으려면 다음 섹션을 읽는 데 시간을 조금 더 투자하시기 바랍니다.  준비되
었다면, 좋아하는 음료 한잔 준비하시고 계속합시다.

If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to
incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems
or don’t understand something, please post a question in the Help
category of the Python discussion forum(1) and you should receive help
before too long.

아직 계신가요?  위의 기본 섹션보다 약간 더 고급/심층적인 자습서를 제공하
는 다음 몇 섹션을 계속 읽을 수 있습니다.  그 후에, *note 로깅 요리책:
11e6.을 살펴볼 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/help/7


File: python.info,  Node: 고급 로깅 자습서,  Next: 로깅 수준<2>,  Prev: 기초 로깅 자습서,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.2 고급 로깅 자습서
----------------------

logging 라이브러리는 모듈 방식으로 구성되며, 로거, 처리기, 필터 및 포매
터와 같은 여러 범주의 구성 요소를 제공합니다.

   * 로거는 응용 프로그램 코드가 직접 사용하는 인터페이스를 노출합니다.

   * 처리기는 (로거에 의해 만들어진) 로그 레코드를 적절한 목적지로 보냅
     니다.

   * 필터는 출력할 로그 레코드를 결정하기 위한 보다 정밀한 기능을 제공합
     니다.

   * 포매터는 최종 출력에서 로그 레코드의 배치를 지정합니다.

로그 이벤트 정보는 *note LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스를 통해 로거, 처리기, 필
터 및 포매터 간에 전달됩니다.

로깅은 *note Logger: b4c. 클래스(이하 '로거 (loggers)' 라고 합니다) 인스
턴스의 메서드를 호출하여 수행됩니다.  각 인스턴스에는 이름이 있으며, 점
(마침표)을 구분 기호로 사용하여 개념적으로는 이름 공간 계층 구조로 배열
됩니다.  예를 들어, ‘scan’이라는 로거는 ‘scan.text’, ‘scan.html’ 및
‘scan.pdf’ 로거의 부모입니다.  로거 이름은 원하는 어떤 것이건 될 수 있으
며, 로그 된 메시지가 시작된 응용 프로그램 영역을 나타냅니다.

로거의 이름을 지을 때 사용할 좋은 규칙은 다음과 같이 로깅을 사용하는 각
모듈에서 모듈 수준 로거를 사용하는 것입니다:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

이것은 로거 이름이 패키지/모듈 계층을 추적한다는 것을 의미하며, 로거 이
름으로부터 이벤트가 기록되는 위치를 직관적으로 명확히 알 수 있습니다.

로거 계층의 뿌리를 루트 로거라고 합니다.  이것이 *note debug(): 2c78,
*note info(): 2ca1, *note warning(): 2f7, *note error(): 2cb5. 그리고
*note critical(): 2cb6. 함수에 의해 사용되는 로거인데, 루트 로거의 같은
이름의 메서드들 호출합니다.  함수와 메서드는 같은 서명을 가집니다.  루트
로거의 이름은 로그 된 출력에 ‘root’ 로 인쇄됩니다.

물론 로그 메시지를 다른 대상에 기록하는 것도 가능합니다.  로그 메시지를
파일, HTTP GET/POST 위치, SMTP를 통한 전자 메일, 일반 소켓, 큐 또는
syslog 나 윈도우 NT 이벤트 로그와 같은 OS 특정 로깅 메커니즘에 쓰는 지원
이 패키지에 포함되어 있습니다.  목적지는 '처리기 (handler)' 클래스에 의
해 제공됩니다.  내장된 처리기 클래스에 의해 충족되지 않는 특별한 요구 사
항이 있는 경우, 자체 로그 대상 클래스를 작성할 수 있습니다.

기본적으로, 로그 메시지에는 대상이 설정되지 않습니다.  자습서 예제에서와
같이 *note basicConfig(): 9fc.를 사용하여 대상(가령 콘솔 또는 파일)을 지
정할 수 있습니다.  *note debug(): 2c78, *note info(): 2ca1, *note
warning(): 2f7, *note error(): 2cb5. 및 *note critical(): 2cb6. 함수를 호
출하면 목적지가 설정되어 있지 않은지 확인합니다; 설정되지 않았다면, 실제
메시지 출력을 하기 위해 루트 로거에 위임하기 전에, 콘솔(‘sys.stderr’)을
대상으로 설정하고 표시되는 메시지의 기본 포맷을 설정합니다.

메시지에 대해 *note basicConfig(): 9fc. 에 의해 설정된 기본 포맷은 다음
과 같습니다:

     severity:logger name:message

포맷 문자열을 'format' 키워드 인자로 *note basicConfig(): 9fc. 에 전달하
여 이를 변경할 수 있습니다.  포맷 문자열 작성 방법과 관련된 모든 옵션은
*note Formatter 객체: 2c93.를 참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* 로깅 흐름::
* 로거::
* 처리기::
* 포매터::
* 로깅 구성::
* 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가::
* 라이브러리 로깅 구성::


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 흐름,  Next: 로거,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.1 로깅 흐름
.................

로거 및 처리기에서 로그 이벤트 정보의 흐름은 다음 도표에 설명되어 있습니
다.

[image src="python-figures/logging_flow.png"]



File: python.info,  Node: 로거,  Next: 처리기,  Prev: 로깅 흐름,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.2 로거
............

*note Logger: b4c. 객체는 세 가지 작업을 합니다.  첫째, 응용 프로그램이
실행시간에 메시지를 기록 할 수 있도록 여러 메서드를 응용 프로그램 코드에
노출합니다.  둘째, 로거 객체는 심각도 (기본 필터링 장치) 또는 필터 객체
에 따라 어떤 로그 메시지를 처리할지 결정합니다.  셋째, 로거 객체는 관련
로그 메시지를 관심 있는 모든 로그 처리기로 전달합니다.

로거 객체에서 가장 널리 사용되는 메서드는 두 가지 범주로 분류됩니다: 구
성 및 메시지 전송

다음은 가장 일반적인 구성 메서드입니다:

   * *note Logger.setLevel(): 1457.은 로거가 처리할 가장 낮은 심각도의 로
     그 메시지를 지정합니다.  debug은 가장 낮은 내장 심각도 수준이고
     critical은 가장 높은 내장 심각도입니다.  예를 들어, 심각도 수준이
     INFO이면 로거는 INFO, WARNING, ERROR 및 CRITICAL 메시지만 처리하고
     DEBUG 메시지는 무시합니다.

   * *note Logger.addHandler(): 2c71. 와 *note Logger.removeHandler():
     2c72. 는 로거 객체에서 처리기 객체를 추가하고 제거합니다.  처리기는
     *note 처리기: 4fa0.에서 더욱 자세히 다룹니다.

   * *note Logger.addFilter(): 2c7a. 와 *note Logger.removeFilter():
     2c7b. 는 로거 객체에서 필터 객체를 추가하고 제거합니다.  필터는
     *note Filter 객체: 2c9e.에서 더욱 자세히 다룹니다.

생성 한 모든 로거에서 항상 이 메서드를 호출할 필요는 없습니다.  이 섹션
의 마지막 두 단락을 참조하십시오.

로거 객체가 구성된 상태에서 다음 메서드는 로그 메시지를 만듭니다:

   * *note Logger.debug(): e26, *note Logger.info(): 2c77, *note
     Logger.warning(): 170a, *note Logger.error(): 2c79. 그리고 *note
     Logger.critical(): e25.은 모두 메시지 와 메서드 이름에 해당하는 수
     준으로 로그 레코드를 만듭니다.  메시지는 실제로는 포맷 문자열이며,
     ‘%s’, ‘%d’, ‘%f’ 등의 표준 문자열 치환 문법을 포함 할 수 있습니다.
     나머지 인자들은 메시지의 치환 필드에 해당하는 객체 목록입니다.
     ‘**kwargs’ 의 경우, 로깅 메서드는 ‘exc_info’ 라는 키워드에 대해서만
     신경을 쓰고 예외 정보를 로깅 할지를 결정할 때 사용합니다.

   * *note Logger.exception(): e24. 은 *note Logger.error(): 2c79. 와 비
     슷한 로그 메시지를 생성합니다.  차이점은 *note Logger.exception():
     e24. 가 스택 트레이스를 덤프한다는 것입니다.  예외 처리기에서만 이
     메서드를 호출하십시오.

   * *note Logger.log(): e23. 는 명시적 인자로 로그 수준을 받아들입니다.
     위에 나열된 로그 수준 편의 메서드를 사용하는 것보다 로깅 메시지를 만
     들 때 더 장황해지지만, 사용자 정의 로그 수준으로 로깅 하는 방법입니
     다.

*note getLogger(): 95e. 는 이름이 제공되는 경우 지정된 이름을 가진 로거
인스턴스에 대한 참조를 반환하고, 그렇지 않으면 ‘root’ 를 반환합니다.  이
름은 마침표로 구분된 계층적 구조입니다.  같은 이름으로 *note
getLogger(): 95e. 를 여러 번 호출하면 같은 로거 객체에 대한 참조를 반환
합니다.  계층적 목록에서 더 아래쪽에 있는 로거는 목록에서 상위에 있는 로
거의 자식입니다.  예를 들어, 이름이 ‘foo’ 인 로거가 주어지면, ‘foo.bar’,
‘foo.bar.baz’, 그리고 ‘foo.bam’ 의 이름을 가진 로거는 모두 ‘foo’ 의 자손
입니다.

로거에는 '실효 수준' 이라는 개념이 있습니다.  수준이 로거에 명시적으로 설
정되지 않은 경우, 부모 수준을 실효 수준으로 대신 사용합니다.  부모가 명
시적 수준 집합을 가지고 있지 않으면, 다시 그것의 부모가 검사되고, 등등 -
명시적으로 설정된 수준이 발견될 때까지 모든 조상이 검색됩니다.  루트 로
거는 항상 명시적인 수준 집합(기본적으로 ‘WARNING’)을 가지고 있습니다.  이
벤트 처리 여부를 결정할 때, 로거의 실효 수준이 이벤트가 로거 처리기로 전
달되는지를 판별하는 데 사용됩니다.

자식 로거는 조상 로거와 연관된 처리기로 메시지를 전달합니다.  이 때문에
응용 프로그램에서 사용하는 모든 로거에 대해 처리기를 정의하고 구성할 필
요가 없습니다.  최상위 수준 로거에 대한 처리기를 구성하고 필요에 따라 자
식 로거를 만드는 것으로 충분합니다.  (그러나, 로거의 'propagate' 어트리
뷰트를 ‘False’ 로 설정하여 전파를 끌 수 있습니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 처리기,  Next: 포매터,  Prev: 로거,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.3 처리기
..............

*note Handler: 145a. 객체는 (로그 메시지의 심각도를 기반으로) 적절한 로
그 메시지를 처리기의 지정된 대상으로 전달하는 역할을 합니다.  *note
Logger: b4c. 객체는 *note addHandler(): 2c71. 메서드를 사용하여 0개 이상
의 처리기 객체를 자신에게 추가 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 응용 프로그램
은 모든 로그 메시지를 로그 파일로 보내고, 에러(error)와 그 이상의 모든 로
그 메시지를 표준 출력으로 보내고, 모든 심각한 에러(critical) 메시지를 전
자 메일 주소로 보낼 수 있습니다.  이 시나리오에서는 각 처리기가 특정 심
각도의 메시지를 특정 위치로 보내는 3개의 개별 처리기가 필요합니다.

표준 라이브러리에는 꽤 많은 처리기형이 포함되어있습니다 (*note 유용한
처리기: 4fa2. 참조).  자습서는 주로 *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 와 *note
FileHandler: 18a5. 를 예제에서 사용합니다.

처리기에는 응용 프로그램 개발자가 직접 신경 써야 할 메서드가 거의 없습니
다.  기본 제공 처리기 객체를 사용하는 (즉, 사용자 정의 처리기를 만들지 않
는) 응용 프로그램 개발자와 관련이 있는 처리기 메서드는 다음과 같은 구성
메서드뿐입니다:

   * *note setLevel(): 2c88. 메서드는 로거 객체에서와 마찬가지로 적절한
     목적지로 보내지는 가장 낮은 심각도를 지정합니다.  왜 두 개의 *note
     setLevel(): 2c88. 메서드가 있어야 할까요?  로거에 설정된 수준은 처
     리기에 전달할 메시지의 심각도를 판별합니다.  각 처리기에 설정된 수
     준은 처리기가 전송할 메시지를 결정합니다.

   * *note setFormatter(): 2c89. 는 처리기가 사용할 포매터 객체를 선택합
     니다.

   * *note addFilter(): 2c8a. 와 *note removeFilter(): 2c8b. 는 각각 처
     리기에서 필터 객체를 구성하고 해제합니다.

응용 프로그램 코드는 *note Handler: 145a. 의 인스턴스를 직접 인스턴스화
해서 사용해서는 안 됩니다.  대신, *note Handler: 145a. 클래스는 모든 처
리기가 가져야 하는 인터페이스를 정의하고 자식 클래스가 사용할 수 있는 (또
는 재정의할 수 있는) 기본 동작을 설정하는 베이스 클래스입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 포매터,  Next: 로깅 구성,  Prev: 처리기,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.4 포매터
..............

포매터 객체는 로그 메시지의 최종 순서, 구조 및 내용을 구성합니다.  베이
스 *note logging.Handler: 145a. 클래스와는 달리, 응용 프로그램 코드는 포
매터 클래스를 인스턴스화 할 수 있습니다.  응용 프로그램에 특별한 동작이
필요한 경우 포매터의 서브 클래스를 만들 수도 있습니다.  생성자는 세 가지
선택적 인자를 취합니다 – 메시지 포맷 문자열, 날짜 포맷 문자열 및 스타일
지시자.

 -- 메서드: logging.Formatter.__init__ (fmt=None, datefmt=None,
          style='%')

메시지 포맷 문자열이 없으면, 기본값은 날 메시지를 사용하는 것입니다.  날
짜 포맷 문자열이 없으면, 기본 날짜 형식은 다음과 같습니다:

     %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S

끝에 밀리 초가 기록됩니다.  ‘style’ 은 ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ 또는 ‘'$'’ 중 하나입
니다.  이 중 하나가 지정되지 않으면, ‘'%'’ 가 사용됩니다.

‘style’ 이 ‘'%'’ 이면, 메시지 포맷 문자열은 ‘%(<dictionary key>)s’ 스타
일의 문자열 치환을 사용합니다; 가능한 키는 *note LogRecord 어트리뷰트:
2c76. 에 문서로 만들어져 있습니다.  style이 ‘'{'’ 인 경우 메시지 포맷 문
자열은 *note str.format(): 61b.(키워드 인자 사용)과 호환되는 것으로 가정
하고, 스타일이 ‘'$'’ 이면 메시지 포맷 문자열은 *note
string.Template.substitute(): 1cf2. 가 기대하는 것과 일치해야 합니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: ‘style’ 매개 변수를 추가했습니다.

다음 메시지 포맷 문자열은 사람이 읽을 수 있는 형식의 시간, 메시지의 심각
도 및 메시지의 내용을 순서대로 기록합니다:

     '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'

포매터는 사용자가 구성 할 수 있는 함수를 사용하여 레코드의 생성 시간을 튜
플로 변환합니다.  기본적으로, *note time.localtime(): 14c1. 이 사용됩니
다; 특정 포매터 인스턴스에 대해 이를 변경하려면, 인스턴스의 ‘converter’
어트리뷰트를 *note time.localtime(): 14c1. 또는 *note time.gmtime():
11af. 과 같은 서명을 가진 함수로 설정하십시오.  모든 포매터를 변경하려면
, 예를 들어 모든 로깅 시간을 GMT로 표시하려면, Formatter 클래스의
‘converter’ 어트리뷰트를 설정하십시오 (GMT 표시를 위해 ‘time.gmtime’ 으
로).


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 구성,  Next: 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가,  Prev: 포매터,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.5 로깅 구성
.................

프로그래머는 세 가지 방법으로 로깅을 구성 할 수 있습니다:

  1. 위에 나열된 구성 메서드를 호출하는 파이썬 코드를 사용하여 로거, 처
     리기 및 포매터를 명시적으로 만듭니다.

  2. 로깅 구성 파일을 만들고, *note fileConfig(): b4e. 함수를 사용하여 그
     것을 읽습니다.

  3. 구성 정보의 딕셔너리를 만들고, *note dictConfig(): 119f. 함수에 전
     달합니다.

마지막 두 옵션에 대한 참조 설명서는 *note 구성 함수: 12e1.를 참조하십시
오.  다음 예제는 파이썬 코드를 사용하여 매우 단순한 로거, 콘솔 처리기 및
간단한 포매터를 구성합니다:

     import logging

     # 로거를 만듭니다
     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # 콘솔 처리기를 만들고 수준을 DEBUG 로 설정합니다
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # 포매터를 만듭니다
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')

     # 포매터를 ch 에 추가합니다
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)

     # ch 를 로거에 추가합니다
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     # '응용 프로그램' 코드
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

명령행에서 이 모듈을 실행하면 다음과 같이 출력됩니다:

     $ python simple_logging_module.py
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message

다음의 파이썬 모듈은 위에 열거된 예제와 거의 같고 객체의 이름 만 다른 로
거, 처리기 및 포매터를 생성합니다:

     import logging
     import logging.config

     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # 로거를 만듭니다
     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     # '응용 프로그램' 코드
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

logging.conf 파일은 이렇습니다:

     [loggers]
     keys=root,simpleExample

     [handlers]
     keys=consoleHandler

     [formatters]
     keys=simpleFormatter

     [logger_root]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler

     [logger_simpleExample]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler
     qualname=simpleExample
     propagate=0

     [handler_consoleHandler]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=simpleFormatter
     args=(sys.stdout,)

     [formatter_simpleFormatter]
     format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s

출력은 구성 파일 기반이 아닌 예제와 거의 같습니다:

     $ python simple_logging_config.py
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message

구성 파일 접근법이 파이썬 코드 접근법보다 몇 가지 장점이 있음을 알 수 있
습니다.  주로 구성과 코드의 분리와 코더가 아니라도 로깅 속성을 쉽게 수정
할 수 있다는 것입니다.

     경고: *note fileConfig(): b4e. 함수는 기본 매개 변수
     ‘disable_existing_loggers’ 를 취하는데, 하위 호환성을 위해 기본값은
     ‘True’ 입니다.  이것들은 여러분이 원하는 것일 수도 있고 아닐 수도 있
     습니다.  왜냐하면 *note fileConfig(): b4e. 호출 전에 존재하는 모든
     비 루트 로거들이, 구성에서 명시적으로 명명되지 않는 한, 비활성화되
     기 때문입니다.  자세한 내용은 참조 설명서를 참조하고, 원한다면 이 매
     개 변수에 ‘False’ 를 지정하십시오.

     *note dictConfig(): 119f. 에 전달된 딕셔너리 또한
     ‘disable_existing_loggers’ 키로 논리값을 지정할 수 있습니다.  딕셔
     너리에 명시적으로 지정되지 않으면 기본적으로 ‘True’ 로 해석됩니다.
     이것은 위에서 설명한 로거 비활성화 동작으로 이어지는데, 여러분이 원
     하는 것이 아닐 수도 있습니다.  이 경우 키에 명시적으로 ‘False’ 값을
     제공하십시오.

구성 파일에서 참조되는 클래스 이름은 logging 모듈에 상대적이거나, 일반적
인 임포트 메커니즘을 사용하여 결정할 수 있는 절댓값이어야 합니다.  따라
서, *note WatchedFileHandler: 2cf4. (logging 모듈에 상대적) 또는
‘mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler’ (패키지 ‘mypackage’ 와 모듈 ‘mymodule’ 에
정의된 클래스, 여기서 ‘mypackage’ 는 파이썬 임포트 경로에서 사용 가능해
야 합니다).

파이썬 3.2에서는 구성 정보를 보관하는 딕셔너리를 사용하여 로깅을 구성하
는 새로운 방법이 도입되었습니다.  이는 위에 설명된 구성 파일 기반 접근 방
식의 기능을 제공하며, 새로운 응용 프로그램 및 배포에 권장되는 구성 방법
입니다.  파이썬 딕셔너리가 구성 정보를 저장하는 데 사용되고, 다른 방법을
사용하여 해당 딕셔너리를 채울 수 있으므로 더 많은 구성 옵션을 갖게 됩니
다.  예를 들어, 구성 딕셔너리를 채우는데 JSON 형식의 구성 파일이나, YAML
처리 기능에 액세스할 수 있는 경우, YAML 형식의 파일을 사용할 수 있습니다
.  물론, 파이썬 코드로 딕셔너리를 만들거나, 소켓을 통해 피클 된 형태로 수
신하거나, 그 밖의 응용 프로그램에 적합한 어떤 방식도 사용할 수 있습니다.

다음은 새로운 딕셔너리 기반 접근 방식으로 YAML 형식으로 위와 같이 구성한
예입니다:

     version: 1
     formatters:
       simple:
         format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
     handlers:
       console:
         class: logging.StreamHandler
         level: DEBUG
         formatter: simple
         stream: ext://sys.stdout
     loggers:
       simpleExample:
         level: DEBUG
         handlers: [console]
         propagate: no
     root:
       level: DEBUG
       handlers: [console]

딕셔너리를 사용하여 로깅 하는 방법에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 구성 함수:
12e1.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가,  Next: 라이브러리 로깅 구성,  Prev: 로깅 구성,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.6 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가
............................................

로깅 구성이 제공되지 않으면, 로깅 이벤트를 출력해야 하지만 이벤트를 출력
하는 처리기를 찾을 수 없는 상황이 발생할 수 있습니다.

이 이벤트는 *note lastResort: 11e9. 에 저장된 ‘최후 수단 처리기’를 사용
하여 출력됩니다.  이 내부 처리기는 어떤 로거와도 연관되어 있지 않고, 이
벤트 설명 메시지를 ‘sys.stderr’ 의 현재 값으로 쓰는 (따라서 현재 효과를
발휘하고 있는 모든 리디렉션을 존중합니다) *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 처
럼 동작합니다.  메시지에는 어떤 포매팅도 적용되지 않습니다 - 이벤트 설명
메시지가 그대로 인쇄됩니다.  처리기의 수준은 ‘WARNING’ 으로 설정되어 있
으므로, 이보다 크거나 같은 심각도의 모든 이벤트가 출력됩니다.

버전 3.2에서 변경: 3.2 이전의 파이썬 버전의 경우 동작은 다음과 같습니다:

   * *note raiseExceptions: 11e8. 가 ‘False’ (프로덕션 모드)이면, 이벤트
     가 조용히 무시됩니다.

   * *note raiseExceptions: 11e8. 가 ‘True’ (개발 모드) 이면, ‘No
     handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z’ 라는 메시지가 한 번 인쇄
     됩니다.

3.2 이전의 동작을 얻으려면, *note lastResort: 11e9. 를 ‘None’ 으로 설정
할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 라이브러리 로깅 구성,  Prev: 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가,  Up: 고급 로깅 자습서

9.8.2.7 라이브러리 로깅 구성
............................

로깅을 사용하는 라이브러리를 개발할 때, 라이브러리에서 로깅을 사용하는 방
법을 문서로 만들어야 합니다 - 예를 들어, 사용된 로거의 이름.  또한, 로깅
구성에 대한 고려가 필요합니다.  사용하는 응용 프로그램이 로깅을 사용하지
않고 라이브러리 코드가 로깅을 호출하면, (앞 절에서 설명했듯이) 심각도가
‘WARNING’ 이상인 이벤트는 ‘sys.stderr’ 에 출력됩니다.  이것이 최상의 기
본 동작인 것으로 간주합니다.

어떤 이유로 로깅 구성이 없을 때 이 메시지가 인쇄되는 것을 원하지 '않는
'다면, 라이브러리의 최상위 로거에 아무것도 하지 않는 처리기를 연결할 수
있습니다.  이렇게 하면 메시지가 인쇄되는 것을 피할 수 있습니다.  라이브
러리의 이벤트를 위한 처리기가 항상 존재하기 때문입니다: 단지 아무런 출력
도 만들지 않을 뿐입니다.  라이브러리 사용자가 응용 프로그램이 사용하기 위
해 로깅을 구성하면, 아마도 그 구성이 어떤 처리기를 추가할 것이고, 수준이
적절하게 구성된 경우 라이브러리에서 이루어진 로깅 호출은 그 처리기로 정
상적으로 출력을 보낼 것입니다.

아무것도 하지 않는 처리기가 logging 패키지에 포함되어 있습니다: *note
NullHandler: 1274. (파이썬 3.1부터).  이 처리기의 인스턴스는 라이브러리
가 사용하는 로깅 이름 공간의 최상위 로거에 추가될 수 있습니다 ('만약' 로
깅 구성이 없는 경우 라이브러리가 로깅한 이벤트가 ‘sys.stderr’ 에 출력되
는 것을 막으려면).  라이브러리 'foo' 에 의한 모든 로깅이 ‘foo.x’,
‘foo.x.y’ 등과 일치하는 이름을 가진 로거들만 사용한다면, 다음과 같은 코
드가:

     import logging
     logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

원하는 효과를 주어야 합니다.  만약 조직이 여러 라이브러리를 만든다면, 지
정된 로거 이름으로 단순한 ‘foo’ 대신에 ‘orgname.foo’를 사용할 수 있습니
다.

     참고: It is strongly advised that you 'do not log to the root
     logger' in your library.  Instead, use a logger with a unique and
     easily identifiable name, such as the ‘__name__’ for your library’s
     top-level package or module.  Logging to the root logger will make
     it difficult or impossible for the application developer to
     configure the logging verbosity or handlers of your library as they
     wish.

     참고: *note NullHandler: 1274. '이외의 처리기를 라이브러리의 로거에
     추가하지 않는 것이' 좋습니다.  이것은 처리기 구성이 라이브러리를 사
     용하는 응용 프로그램 개발자의 특권이기 때문입니다.  응용 프로그램 개
     발자는 사용자와 응용 프로그램에 가장 적합한 처리기가 무엇인지 알고
     있습니다.  여러분이 처리기를 ‘이면에서’ 추가하면, 단위 테스트를 수
     행하고 그들의 요구사항에 맞는 로그를 전달하는 작업을 방해할 수 있습
     니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 수준<2>,  Next: 유용한 처리기,  Prev: 고급 로깅 자습서,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.3 로깅 수준
---------------

로깅 수준의 숫자 값은 다음 표에 나와 있습니다.  이것은 주로 여러분 자신
의 수준을 정의하고 사전 정의된 수준에 상대적인 특정 값을 갖도록 하려는 경
우 관심의 대상입니다.  같은 숫자 값을 가진 수준을 정의하면 미리 정의된 값
을 덮어씁니다; 사전 정의된 이름이 유실됩니다.

수준               숫자 값
                   
---------------------------------------
                   
‘CRITICAL’         50
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            40
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          30
                   
                   
‘INFO’             20
                   
                   
‘DEBUG’            10
                   
                   
‘NOTSET’           0
                   

또한, 수준은 개발자가 설정하거나 저장된 로깅 구성을 로드하여 로거와 연관
될 수 있습니다.  로깅 메서드가 로거에 호출되면, 로거는 자체 수준을 메서
드 호출과 연관된 수준과 비교합니다.  로거 수준이 메서드 호출보다 높으면
실제로 로깅 메시지가 생성되지 않습니다.  이것은 로그 출력의 상세도를 제
어하는 기본 메커니즘입니다.

로깅 메시지는 *note LogRecord: fde. 클래스의 인스턴스로 인코딩됩니다.  로
거가 실제로 이벤트를 로그 하기로 하면, *note LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스가
로깅 메시지로부터 만들어집니다.

로깅 메시지는 *note Handler: 145a. 클래스의 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인 '처
리기 (handlers)' 를 통한 전달 메커니즘을 적용받게 됩니다.  처리기는 로그
된 메시지(*note LogRecord: fde. 형식)가 대상 독자(가령 최종 사용자, 지원
데스크 직원, 시스템 관리자, 개발자)에게 유용한 특정 위치(또는 위치 집합
)에 도달하도록 할 책임이 있습니다.  처리기로는 특정 목적지를 위한 *note
LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스가 전달됩니다.  각 로거에는 0개 이상의 처리기가
연관될 수 있습니다 (*note Logger: b4c. 의 *note addHandler(): 2c71. 메서
드를 통해).  로거에 직접 연관된 모든 처리기뿐만 아니라, (로거의
'propagate' 플래그가 거짓 값으로 설정되어 있지 않은 한, 그 지점에서 부모
처리기로의 전달이 멈춥니다) '로거의 모든 조상과 연관된 모든 처리기'가 메
시지를 전달하도록 호출됩니다.

로거와 마찬가지로, 처리기도 연관된 수준을 가질 수 있습니다.  처리기의 수
준은 로거의 수준과 같은 방식으로 필터의 역할을 합니다.  처리기가 실제로
이벤트를 전달하기로 하면, *note emit(): 2c91. 메서드가 목적지로 메시지를
보내기 위해 사용됩니다.  *note Handler: 145a. 의 대부분의 사용자 정의 서
브 클래스는 이 *note emit(): 2c91. 를 재정의해야 합니다.

* Menu:

* 사용자 정의 수준::


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 수준,  Up: 로깅 수준<2>

9.8.3.1 사용자 정의 수준
........................

여러분 자신의 수준을 정의하는 것이 가능하지만 필요하지는 않은데, 현재의
수준이 실무 경험에 근거하여 선택되었기 때문입니다.  하지만, 사용자 정의
수준이 필요하다고 확신하는 경우, 이를 수행할 때 많은 주의를 기울여야 합
니다.  '라이브러리를 개발하고 있다면 사용자 지정 수준을 정의하는 것은 매
우 나쁜 생각'일 수 있습니다.  왜냐하면, 여러 라이브러리 작성자가 모두 자
신의 사용자 정의 수준을 정의하면, 주어진 숫자 값이 라이브러리마다 각기 다
른 것을 의미 할 수 있으므로, 사용 중인 개발자가 함께 사용하는 여러 라이
브러리의 로깅 결과를 제어하거나 해석하는 것이 어려울 수 있기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유용한 처리기,  Next: 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외,  Prev: 로깅 수준<2>,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.4 유용한 처리기
-------------------

베이스 *note Handler: 145a. 클래스 외에도 많은 유용한 서브 클래스가 제공
됩니다:

  1. *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 인스턴스는 스트림(파일류 객체)에 메시지
     를 보냅니다.

  2. *note FileHandler: 18a5. 인스턴스는 디스크 파일에 메시지를 보냅니다
     .

  3. *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2cf8. 는 특정 지점에서 로그 파일을 회전
     시키는 처리기의 베이스 클래스입니다.  직접 인스턴스화하는 것은 아닙
     니다.  대신 *note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0. 또는 *note
     TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59. 를 사용하십시오.

  4. *note RotatingFileHandler: 15e0. 인스턴스는 디스크 파일에 메시지를
     보내는데, 최대 로그 파일 크기와 로그 파일 회전을 지원합니다.

  5. *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f59. 인스턴스는 디스크 파일에 메시
     지를 보내는데, 일정한 시간 간격으로 로그 파일을 회전시킵니다.

  6. *note SocketHandler: f5a. 인스턴스는 TCP/IP 소켓에 메시지를 보냅니
     다.  3.4부터, 유닉스 도메인 소켓도 지원됩니다.

  7. *note DatagramHandler: f5b. 인스턴스는 UDP 소켓에 메시지를 보냅니다
     .  3.4부터, 유닉스 도메인 소켓도 지원됩니다.

  8. *note SMTPHandler: 1570. 인스턴스는 지정된 전자 우편 주소로 메시지
     를 보냅니다.

  9. *note SysLogHandler: 656. 인스턴스는 유닉스 syslog 데몬(원격 기계에
     있는 것도 가능합니다)에 메시지를 보냅니다.

  10. *note NTEventLogHandler: 2d1e. 인스턴스는 윈도우 NT/2000/XP 이벤트
     로그에 메시지를 보냅니다.

  11. *note MemoryHandler: 2cd8. 인스턴스는 메모리에 있는 버퍼에 메시지
     를 보내는데, 특정 기준이 만족 될 때마다 플러시 됩니다.

  12. *note HTTPHandler: e27. 인스턴스는 ‘GET’ 또는 ‘POST’ 을 사용해서
     HTTP 서버에 메시지를 보냅니다.

  13. *note WatchedFileHandler: 2cf4. 인스턴스는 그들이 로깅하고 있는 파
     일을 감시합니다.  파일이 변경되면 닫히고 파일 이름을 사용하여 다시
     열립니다.  이 처리기는 유닉스 계열 시스템에서만 유용합니다; 윈도우
     는 사용된 하부 메커니즘을 지원하지 않습니다.

  14. *note QueueHandler: 17de. 인스턴스는 *note queue: b6. 또는 *note
     multiprocessing: 94. 모듈에 구현된 것과 같은 큐로 메시지를 보냅니다
     .

  15. *note NullHandler: 1274. 인스턴스는 에러 메시지로 아무것도 하지 않
     습니다.  라이브러리 개발자가 로깅을 사용하지만, 라이브러리 사용자가
     로깅을 구성하지 않으면 표시될 수 있는 ‘No handlers could be found
     for logger 'XXX'’ 라는 메시지를 피하려고 할 때 사용합니다.  자세한
     정보는 *note 라이브러리 로깅 구성: 2cf1. 를 보십시오.

Added in version 3.1: *note NullHandler: 1274. 클래스.

Added in version 3.2: *note QueueHandler: 17de. 클래스.

*note NullHandler: 1274, *note StreamHandler: 11e7. 와 *note
FileHandler: 18a5. 클래스는 코어 logging 패키지에 정의되어 있습니다.  다
른 처리기는 하위 모듈인 *note logging.handlers: 89. 에 정의되어 있습니다
.  (구성 기능을 위한, 또 다른 하위 모듈 *note logging.config: 88. 도 있
습니다.)

로그된 메시지는 *note Formatter: 145b. 클래스의 인스턴스를 통해 표시를 위
해 포맷됩니다.  % 연산자와 딕셔너리와 함께 사용하기에 적합한 포맷 문자열
로 초기화됩니다.

일괄 처리로 여러 개의 메시지를 포맷하려면, *note BufferingFormatter:
2c9a. 의 인스턴스를 사용할 수 있습니다.  포맷 문자열(일괄 처리 때 각 메
시지에 적용됩니다)에 더해, 헤더와 트레일러 포맷 문자열에 대한 고려가 있
습니다.

로거 수준과 처리기 수준을 기반으로 필터링하는 것만으로는 충분하지 않은 경
우, *note Logger: b4c. 및 *note Handler: 145a. 인스턴스에 (*note
addFilter(): 2c8a. 메서드를 통해) *note Filter: 11ea. 인스턴스를 추가 할
수 있습니다.  메시지를 더 처리하기로 하기 전에, 로거와 처리기는 모든 필
터에 허락을 요청합니다.  한 필터라도 거짓 값을 반환하면 메시지는 더 처리
되지 않습니다.

기본적인 *note Filter: 11ea. 기능은 특정 로거 이름으로 필터링하는 것을 지
원합니다.  이 기능을 사용하면, 명명된 로거와 그 자식으로 보낸 메시지는 필
터를 통과하도록 허용되고, 다른 모든 메시지는 삭제됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외,  Next: 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기,  Prev: 유용한 처리기,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.5 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외
-----------------------------

logging 패키지는 프로덕션에서 로깅 하는 동안 발생하는 예외를 삼키도록 설
계되었습니다.  이는 로깅 이벤트를 처리하는 동안 발생하는 에러(가령 잘못
된 로깅 구성, 네트워크 또는 기타 유사한 에러)가 로깅을 사용하는 응용 프
로그램을 조기에 종료시키지 않도록 하기 위한 것입니다.

*note SystemExit: d3d. 과 *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9ce. 예외는 절대 삼켜
지지 않습니다.  *note Handler: 145a. 서브 클래스의 *note emit(): 2c91. 메
서드가 실행되는 동안 발생하는 다른 예외는 *note handleError(): 2c90. 메
서드에 전달됩니다.

*note Handler: 145a. 에 있는 *note handleError(): 2c90. 의 기본 구현은 모
듈 수준 변수 *note raiseExceptions: 11e8. 가 설정되어 있는지를 검사합니
다.  설정되어있으면, 트레이스백이 *note sys.stderr: 937. 에 인쇄됩니다.
설정되지 않았으면 예외를 삼킵니다.

     참고: *note raiseExceptions: 11e8. 의 기본값은 ‘True’ 입니다.  개발
     중에는, 보통 발생하는 예외에 대한 알림을 받기를 원하기 때문입니다.
     프로덕션 용도로는 *note raiseExceptions: 11e8. 를 ‘False’ 로 설정하
     는 것이 좋습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기,  Next: 최적화<6>,  Prev: 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.6 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기
-------------------------------------

앞의 절과 예제에서 이벤트를 로깅할 때 전달되는 메시지는 문자열이라고 가
정했습니다.  그러나 이것만 가능한 것은 아닙니다.  임의의 객체를 메시지로
전달할 수 있으며, 로깅 시스템이 이를 문자열 표현으로 변환해야 할 때
*note __str__(): 617. 메서드가 호출됩니다.  사실, 원한다면, 문자열 표현
을 계산하는 것을 완전히 피할 수 있습니다 - 예를 들어, *note
SocketHandler: f5a. 는 이벤트를 피클링해서 와이어를 통해 전송하는 방식으
로 이벤트를 보냅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 최적화<6>,  Next: 기타 자료,  Prev: 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.7 최적화
------------

메시지 인자의 포매팅은 피할 수 없을 때까지 연기됩니다.  하지만, 로깅 메
서드에 전달된 인자를 계산하는 것 또한 비용이 많이들 수 있고, 로거가 이벤
트를 버리는 경우에는 수행하지 않고 싶을 수 있습니다.  꼭 해야 할 것을 결
정하기 위해서, level 인자를 취하고 해당 수준의 호출이 로거에 의해 이벤트
가 생성되면 참을 반환하는 *note isEnabledFor(): 12e6. 메서드를 호출 할 수
있습니다.  다음과 같은 코드를 작성할 수 있습니다:

     if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
         logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
                                             expensive_func2())

그러면, 로거의 수준이 ‘DEBUG’ 보다 높게 설정된 경우, ‘expensive_func1’ 과
‘expensive_func2’ 호출은 절대 일어나지 않습니다.

     참고: 때에 따라, *note isEnabledFor(): 12e6. 자체가 원하는 것보다 더
     비쌀 수 있습니다 (예를 들어, 명시적 수준이 로거 계층의 상단에서만 설
     정된 깊이 중첩된 로거의 경우).  그러한 경우 (또는 꽉 짜인 루프 내에
     서 메서드를 호출하지 않으려는 경우) 지역이나 인스턴스 변수에 *note
     isEnabledFor(): 12e6. 의 호출 결과를 캐시하고, 매번 메서드를 호출하
     는 대신 그 값을 사용할 수 있습니다.  이러한 캐시 된 값은 응용 프로
     그램이 실행되는 동안 로깅 구성이 동적으로 변경될 때(그리 흔한 경우
     는 아닙니다)만 재계산될 필요가 있습니다.

로깅 정보를 수집하는 방법을 보다 정밀하게 제어해야 하는 특정 응용 프로그
램에 대해 수행할 수 있는 다른 최적화가 있습니다.  다음은 필요하지 않은 로
깅 처리를 피하고자 수행할 수 있는 작업 목록입니다:

수집하고 싶지 않은 것                                     수집하는 것을 피하는 방법
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
호출이 이루어진 위치에 관한 정보.                         ‘logging._srcfile’ 을 ‘None’ 으로 설정하십시오.  이렇
                                                          게 하면 *note sys._getframe(): 6da. 호출을 피할 수 있
                                                          는데, PyPy(*note sys._getframe(): 6da. 을 사용하는 코
                                                          드의 속도를 높일 수 없습니다)와 같은 환경에서 코드 속
                                                          도를 높이는 데 도움이 됩니다.
                                                          
                                                          
스레딩 정보.                                              ‘logging.logThreads’ 를 ‘False’ 으로 설정하십시오.
                                                          
                                                          
Current process ID (*note os.getpid(): 2b15.)             ‘logging.logProcesses’ 를 ‘False’ 으로 설정하십시오.
                                                          
                                                          
Current process name when using ‘multiprocessing’ to      ‘logging.logMultiprocessing’ 를 ‘False’ 으로 설정하십
manage multiple processes.                                시오.
                                                          
                                                          
Current *note asyncio.Task: 1be. name when using          ‘logging.logAsyncioTasks’ 를 ‘False’ 으로 설정하십시
‘asyncio’.                                                오.
                                                          

또한, 코어 logging 모듈에는 기본 처리기만 포함됩니다.  *note
logging.handlers: 89. 와 *note logging.config: 88. 를 임포트 하지 않으면
메모리를 차지하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기타 자료,  Prev: 최적화<6>,  Up: 로깅 HOWTO

9.8.8 기타 자료
---------------

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note logging: 87.

     logging 모듈에 관한 API 레퍼런스.

모듈 *note logging.config: 88.

     logging 모듈용 구성 API.

모듈 *note logging.handlers: 89.

     logging 모듈에 포함된 유용한 처리기.

*note 로깅 요리책: 11e6.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 요리책,  Next: 정규식 HOWTO,  Prev: 로깅 HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.9 로깅 요리책
===============


저자: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have
been found useful in the past.  For links to tutorial and reference
information, please see *note Other resources: 4fb2.

* Menu:

* 여러 모듈에서 로깅 사용하기::
* 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기::
* 다중 처리기 및 포매터::
* 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기::
* Custom handling of levels::
* 구성 서버 예제::
* 블록 하는 처리기 다루기::
* 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기::
* 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기::
* 파일 회전 사용하기::
* 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기::
* 사용자 정의 LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예::
* rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기::
* 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제::
* SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기::
* 구조적 로깅 구현::
* dictConfig()로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기: dictConfig 로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기.
* 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기::
* dictConfig()로 필터 구성하기: dictConfig 로 필터 구성하기.
* 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅::
* 로깅 메시지 말하기::
* 로깅 메시지를 버퍼링하고 조건부 출력하기::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* 구성을 통해 UTC(GMT)로 시간을 포맷하기: 구성을 통해 UTC GMT 로 시간을 포맷하기.
* 선택적 로깅을 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기::
* CLI 응용 프로그램 시작 템플릿::
* 로깅을 위한 Qt GUI::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources::


File: python.info,  Node: 여러 모듈에서 로깅 사용하기,  Next: 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.1 여러 모듈에서 로깅 사용하기
---------------------------------

‘logging.getLogger('someLogger')’ 를 여러 번 호출하면 같은 로거 객체에 대
한 참조가 반환됩니다.  같은 모듈 내에서뿐만 아니라, 같은 파이썬 인터프리
터 프로세스에 있는 한, 여러 모듈에서도 마찬가지입니다.  참조가 같은 객체
를 가리킨다는 것에 더해, 응용 프로그램 코드는 하나의 모듈에서 부모 로거
를 정의 및 구성하고 별도의 모듈에서 자식 로거를 생성 (구성하지 않음) 할
수 있으며, 자식에 대한 모든 로거 호출은 부모로 전달됩니다.  다음은 메인
모듈입니다:

     import logging
     import auxiliary_module

     # create logger with 'spam_application'
     logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to the logger
     logger.addHandler(fh)
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
     logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     a.do_something()
     logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
     auxiliary_module.some_function()
     logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')

다음은 보조 모듈입니다:

     import logging

     # create logger
     module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')

     class Auxiliary:
         def __init__(self):
             self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
             self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')

         def do_something(self):
             self.logger.info('doing something')
             a = 1 + 1
             self.logger.info('done doing something')

     def some_function():
         module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')

출력은 이렇게 됩니다:

     2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
        creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        creating an instance of Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
        created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        done doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
        finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
        received a call to 'some_function'
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
        done with auxiliary_module.some_function()


File: python.info,  Node: 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기,  Next: 다중 처리기 및 포매터,  Prev: 여러 모듈에서 로깅 사용하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.2 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기
-------------------------------

여러 스레드에서 로깅 하는데 특별한 노력이 필요하지는 않습니다.  다음 예
제에서는 메인 (최초) 스레드와 다른 스레드에서의 로깅을 보여줍니다:

     import logging
     import threading
     import time

     def worker(arg):
         while not arg['stop']:
             logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
             time.sleep(0.5)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
         info = {'stop': False}
         thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
         thread.start()
         while True:
             try:
                 logging.debug('Hello from main')
                 time.sleep(0.75)
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 info['stop'] = True
                 break
         thread.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

실행하면 스크립트는 다음과 같이 인쇄합니다:

        0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
        3 MainThread Hello from main
      505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
      755 MainThread Hello from main
     1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     1507 MainThread Hello from main
     1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2258 MainThread Hello from main
     2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3009 MainThread Hello from main
     3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3761 MainThread Hello from main
     4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     4513 MainThread Hello from main
     4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc

예상대로 로그 출력이 산재해 있음을 볼 수 있습니다.  물론, 이 방법은 여기
에 표시된 것보다 많은 스레드에서도 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다중 처리기 및 포매터,  Next: 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기,  Prev: 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.3 다중 처리기 및 포매터
---------------------------

로거는 일반 파이썬 객체입니다.  *note addHandler(): 2c71. 메서드에는 추
가할 수 있는 처리기의 수에 대한 최소 또는 최대 할당량이 없습니다.  때로
는 응용 프로그램이 모든 심각도의 모든 메시지를 텍스트 파일에 기록하는 동
시에, 에러 또는 그 이상을 콘솔에 기록하는 것이 유용 할 수 있습니다.  이
렇게 설정하려면, 적절한 처리기를 구성하기만 하면 됩니다.  응용 프로그램
코드의 로깅 호출은 변경되지 않습니다.  다음은 앞의 간단한 모듈 기반 구성
예제를 약간 수정 한 것입니다:

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)
     logger.addHandler(fh)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

‘응용 프로그램’ 코드는 여러 처리기에 신경 쓰지 않습니다.  변경된 것은
'fh' 라는 새로운 처리기의 추가 및 구성뿐입니다.

중요도가 높거나 낮은 필터를 사용하여 새 처리기를 만드는 기능은 응용 프로
그램을 작성하고 테스트할 때 매우 유용합니다.  디버깅을 위해 많은 ‘print’
문을 사용하는 대신에 ‘logger.debug’ 를 사용하십시오: 나중에 삭제하거나 주
석 처리해야 할 print 문과 달리, logger.debug 문은 소스 코드에서 그대로 유
지될 수 있고, 그들을 다시 필요로 할 때까지 휴면 상태로 남아 있습니다.  그
때, 필요한 유일한 변경은 로거 또는 처리기의 심각도 수준을 DEBUG로 수정하
는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기,  Next: Custom handling of levels,  Prev: 다중 처리기 및 포매터,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.4 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기
-----------------------------

다른 메시지 포맷으로 다른 상황에서 콘솔과 파일에 기록하려고 한다고 가정
해 봅시다.  DEBUG 이상 수준의 메시지를 파일에 기록하고, 수준 INFO 이상인
메시지를 콘솔에 기록하려고 한다고 가정 해보십시오.  또한, 타임스탬프가 파
일에는 포함되어야 하지만, 콘솔 메시지에는 없어야 한다고 가정합시다.  이
렇게 하면 됩니다:

     import logging

     # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
                         datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
                         filename='/tmp/myapp.log',
                         filemode='w')
     # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
     console = logging.StreamHandler()
     console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     # set a format which is simpler for console use
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
     # tell the handler to use this format
     console.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handler to the root logger
     logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

실행하면 콘솔에는 다음과 같이 출력됩니다.

     root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

파일에는 이렇게 기록됩니다.

     10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

보시다시피 DEBUG 메시지는 파일에만 표시됩니다.  다른 메시지는 두 목적지
로 전송됩니다.

이 예제는 콘솔과 파일 처리기를 사용하지만, 여러분이 선택하는 처리기의 수
나 조합에 제약이 없습니다.

Note that the above choice of log filename ‘/tmp/myapp.log’ implies use
of a standard location for temporary files on POSIX systems.  On
Windows, you may need to choose a different directory name for the log -
just ensure that the directory exists and that you have the permissions
to create and update files in it.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom handling of levels,  Next: 구성 서버 예제,  Prev: 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.5 Custom handling of levels
-------------------------------

Sometimes, you might want to do something slightly different from the
standard handling of levels in handlers, where all levels above a
threshold get processed by a handler.  To do this, you need to use
filters.  Let’s look at a scenario where you want to arrange things as
follows:

   * Send messages of severity ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ to ‘sys.stdout’

   * Send messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above to ‘sys.stderr’

   * Send messages of severity ‘DEBUG’ and above to file ‘app.log’

Suppose you configure logging with the following JSON:

     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }

This configuration does 'almost' what we want, except that ‘sys.stdout’
would show messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and only events of this severity
and higher will be tracked as well as ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ messages.  To
prevent this, we can set up a filter which excludes those messages and
add it to the relevant handler.  This can be configured by adding a
‘filters’ section parallel to ‘formatters’ and ‘handlers’:

     {
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         }
     }

and changing the section on the ‘stdout’ handler to add it:

     {
         "stdout": {
             "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
             "level": "INFO",
             "formatter": "simple",
             "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
             "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
         }
     }

A filter is just a function, so we can define the ‘filter_maker’ (a
factory function) as follows:

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

This converts the string argument passed in to a numeric level, and
returns a function which only returns ‘True’ if the level of the passed
in record is at or below the specified level.  Note that in this example
I have defined the ‘filter_maker’ in a test script ‘main.py’ that I run
from the command line, so its module will be ‘__main__’ - hence the
‘__main__.filter_maker’ in the filter configuration.  You will need to
change that if you define it in a different module.

With the filter added, we can run ‘main.py’, which in full is:

     import json
     import logging
     import logging.config

     CONFIG = '''
     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
                 "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }
     '''

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

     logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG))
     logging.debug('A DEBUG message')
     logging.info('An INFO message')
     logging.warning('A WARNING message')
     logging.error('An ERROR message')
     logging.critical('A CRITICAL message')

And after running it like this:

     python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log

We can see the results are as expected:

     $ more *.log
     ::::::::::::::
     app.log
     ::::::::::::::
     DEBUG    - A DEBUG message
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stderr.log
     ::::::::::::::
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stdout.log
     ::::::::::::::
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message


File: python.info,  Node: 구성 서버 예제,  Next: 블록 하는 처리기 다루기,  Prev: Custom handling of levels,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.6 구성 서버 예제
--------------------

다음은 로깅 구성 서버를 사용하는 모듈의 예입니다:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time
     import os

     # read initial config file
     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create and start listener on port 9999
     t = logging.config.listen(9999)
     t.start()

     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     try:
         # loop through logging calls to see the difference
         # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
         while True:
             logger.debug('debug message')
             logger.info('info message')
             logger.warning('warn message')
             logger.error('error message')
             logger.critical('critical message')
             time.sleep(5)
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         # cleanup
         logging.config.stopListening()
         t.join()

다음은 파일 이름을 받아서, 그 파일을 새 로깅 구성으로 (이진 인코딩된 길
이를 적절하게 앞에 붙여서) 서버로 보내는 스크립트입니다:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import socket, sys, struct

     with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
         data_to_send = f.read()

     HOST = 'localhost'
     PORT = 9999
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     print('connecting...')
     s.connect((HOST, PORT))
     print('sending config...')
     s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
     s.send(data_to_send)
     s.close()
     print('complete')


File: python.info,  Node: 블록 하는 처리기 다루기,  Next: 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기,  Prev: 구성 서버 예제,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.7 블록 하는 처리기 다루기
-----------------------------

Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without
blocking the thread you’re logging from.  This is common in web
applications, though of course it also occurs in other scenarios.

흔히 느린 행동을 보이는 범인은 *note SMTPHandler: 1570. 입니다: 개발자의
통제 밖에 있는 여러 가지 이유로, 전자 우편을 보내는 데 오랜 시간이 걸릴
수 있습니다 (예를 들어, 잘 동작하지 않는 메일 또는 네트워크 인프라).  그
러나 거의 모든 네트워크 기반 처리기는 블록 할 수 있습니다.  *note
SocketHandler: f5a. 작업도 너무 느린 DNS 질의를 이면에서 수행 할 수 있습
니다 (그리고 이 질의는 여러분의 통제 밖에 있는, 파이썬 계층 아래의 소켓
라이브러리 코드 깊숙이 있을 수 있습니다).

한 가지 해결책은 두 부분으로 된 접근법을 사용하는 것입니다.  첫 번째 부
분에서는, 성능이 중요한 스레드에서 액세스하는 로거에 *note QueueHandler:
17de. 만 붙입니다.  그들은 단순히 큐에 씁니다.  충분한 용량으로 큐의 크
기를 조정하거나, 크기의 상한이 없도록 초기화 할 수 있습니다.  큐에 대한
쓰기는 일반적으로 신속하게 받아들여지지만, 코드에서 예방책으로 *note
queue.Full: 317b. 예외를 잡아야 할 것입니다.  코드에 성능이 중요한 스레
드가 있는 라이브러리 개발자인 경우, 코드를 사용할 다른 개발자의 이익을 위
해 이것을 (여러분의 로거에 ‘QueueHandlers’ 만 붙이라는 제안과 함께) 문서
로 만들어야 합니다.

해결책의 두 번째 부분은 *note QueueListener: e28.며, 이는 *note
QueueHandler: 17de. 에 상응하여 설계되었습니다.  *note QueueListener:
e28. 는 매우 간단합니다: 큐와 처리기를 넘겨주면 ‘QueueHandlers’ (또는
‘LogRecords’ 의 다른 소스)에서 보낸 LogRecord를 큐에서 수신하는 내부 스
레드를 시작합니다.  ‘LogRecords’ 는 큐에서 제거되고 처리를 위해 처리기로
전달됩니다.

별도의 *note QueueListener: e28. 클래스를 사용하면 같은 인스턴스를 사용
하여 여러 개의 ‘QueueHandlers’ 를 처리할 수 있다는 장점이 있습니다.  이
것은 특별한 이점 없이 처리기당 하나의 스레드를 먹게 되는 기존의 처리기 클
래스의 스레드 버전을 만드는 것보다 자원 친화적입니다.

이 두 클래스를 사용하는 예제는 다음과 같습니다 (임포트 생략):

     que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
     queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
     handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.addHandler(queue_handler)
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
     handler.setFormatter(formatter)
     listener.start()
     # The log output will display the thread which generated
     # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
     # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
     # you want to happen.
     root.warning('Look out!')
     listener.stop()

실행하면, 다음과 같은 결과를 만듭니다:

     MainThread: Look out!

     참고: Although the earlier discussion wasn’t specifically talking
     about async code, but rather about slow logging handlers, it should
     be noted that when logging from async code, network and even file
     handlers could lead to problems (blocking the event loop) because
     some logging is done from *note asyncio: a. internals.  It might be
     best, if any async code is used in an application, to use the above
     approach for logging, so that any blocking code runs only in the
     ‘QueueListener’ thread.

버전 3.5에서 변경: 파이썬 3.5 이전 버전에서는, *note QueueListener: e28.
는 항상 큐에서 받은 모든 메시지를 초기화될 때 제공된 모든 처리기로 전달
했습니다.  (이것은 큐가 채워질 때 수준 필터링이 모두 반대편에서 행해졌다
고 가정했기 때문입니다.)  3.5 이후부터, 이 동작은 키워드 인자
‘respect_handler_level=True’ 를 리스너의 생성자에 전달함으로써 변경될 수
있습니다.  이렇게 할 때, 리스너는 각 메시지의 수준을 처리기의 수준과 비
교하여, 적절한 메시지만 처리기에 전달되도록 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기,  Next: 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가,  Prev: 블록 하는 처리기 다루기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.8 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기
------------------------------------------

네트워크를 통해 로깅 이벤트를 보내고, 받는 쪽에서 처리하려고 한다고 합시
다.  이렇게 하는 간단한 방법은 *note SocketHandler: f5a. 인스턴스를 보내
는 쪽의 루트 로거에 연결하는 것입니다:

     import logging, logging.handlers

     rootLogger = logging.getLogger('')
     rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
                         logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
     # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
     # an unformatted pickle
     rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

수신 측에서는 *note socketserver: cd. 모듈을 사용하여 수신기를 구성할 수
있습니다.  기본적인 작업 예제는 다음과 같습니다:

     import pickle
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import socketserver
     import struct


     class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
         """Handler for a streaming logging request.

         This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
         configured locally.
         """

         def handle(self):
             """
             Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
             followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
             according to whatever policy is configured locally.
             """
             while True:
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
                 if len(chunk) < 4:
                     break
                 slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
                 while len(chunk) < slen:
                     chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
                 obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
                 record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
                 self.handleLogRecord(record)

         def unPickle(self, data):
             return pickle.loads(data)

         def handleLogRecord(self, record):
             # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
             # implied by the record.
             if self.server.logname is not None:
                 name = self.server.logname
             else:
                 name = record.name
             logger = logging.getLogger(name)
             # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
             # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
             # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
             # cycles and network bandwidth!
             logger.handle(record)

     class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
         """
         Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
         """

         allow_reuse_address = True

         def __init__(self, host='localhost',
                      port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
                      handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
             socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
             self.abort = 0
             self.timeout = 1
             self.logname = None

         def serve_until_stopped(self):
             import select
             abort = 0
             while not abort:
                 rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
                                            [], [],
                                            self.timeout)
                 if rd:
                     self.handle_request()
                 abort = self.abort

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(
             format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
         print('About to start TCP server...')
         tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

먼저 서버를 실행한 다음 클라이언트를 실행합니다.  클라이언트 쪽에서는 콘
솔에 아무것도 인쇄되지 않습니다.  서버 측에서 다음과 같은 내용이 보여야
합니다.:

     About to start TCP server...
        59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
        59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
        69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
        69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
        69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios.
If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by
overriding the *note makePickle(): 2d0f. method and implementing your
alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your
alternative serialization.

* Menu:

* Running a logging socket listener in production::


File: python.info,  Node: Running a logging socket listener in production,  Up: 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기

9.9.8.1 Running a logging socket listener in production
.......................................................

To run a logging listener in production, you may need to use a
process-management tool such as Supervisor(1).  Here is a Gist(2) which
provides the bare-bones files to run the above functionality using
Supervisor.  It consists of the following files:

File                          Purpose
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘prepare.sh’                  A Bash script to prepare the environment for testing
                              
                              
‘supervisor.conf’             The Supervisor configuration file, which has entries
                              for the listener and a multi-process web application
                              
                              
‘ensure_app.sh’               A Bash script to ensure that Supervisor is running
                              with the above configuration
                              
                              
‘log_listener.py’             The socket listener program which receives log events
                              and records them to a file
                              
                              
‘main.py’                     A simple web application which performs logging via a
                              socket connected to the listener
                              
                              
‘webapp.json’                 A JSON configuration file for the web application
                              
                              
‘client.py’                   A Python script to exercise the web application
                              

The web application uses Gunicorn(3), which is a popular web application
server that starts multiple worker processes to handle requests.  This
example setup shows how the workers can write to the same log file
without conflicting with one another — they all go through the socket
listener.

To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment:

  1. Download the Gist(4) as a ZIP archive using the Download ZIP
     button.

  2. Unzip the above files from the archive into a scratch directory.

  3. In the scratch directory, run ‘bash prepare.sh’ to get things
     ready.  This creates a ‘run’ subdirectory to contain
     Supervisor-related and log files, and a ‘venv’ subdirectory to
     contain a virtual environment into which ‘bottle’, ‘gunicorn’ and
     ‘supervisor’ are installed.

  4. Run ‘bash ensure_app.sh’ to ensure that Supervisor is running with
     the above configuration.

  5. Run ‘venv/bin/python client.py’ to exercise the web application,
     which will lead to records being written to the log.

  6. Inspect the log files in the ‘run’ subdirectory.  You should see
     the most recent log lines in files matching the pattern ‘app.log*’.
     They won’t be in any particular order, since they have been handled
     concurrently by different worker processes in a non-deterministic
     way.

  7. You can shut down the listener and the web application by running
     ‘venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown’.

You may need to tweak the configuration files in the unlikely event that
the configured ports clash with something else in your test environment.

The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020.  You can use a
Unix Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following:

  1. In ‘listener.json’, add a ‘socket’ key with the path to the domain
     socket you want to use.  If this key is present, the listener
     listens on the corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket
     (the ‘port’ key is ignored).

  2. In ‘webapp.json’, change the socket handler configuration
     dictionary so that the ‘host’ value is the path to the domain
     socket, and set the ‘port’ value to ‘null’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://supervisord.org/

   (2) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b

   (3) https://gunicorn.org/

   (4) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b


File: python.info,  Node: 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가,  Next: Use of contextvars,  Prev: 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.9 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가
--------------------------------

로깅 호출에 전달된 매개 변수 외에도 로깅 출력에 문맥 정보가 포함되기 원
하는 경우가 있습니다.  예를 들어, 네트워크 응용 프로그램에서, (원격 클라
이언트의 사용자 이름 또는 IP 주소와 같은) 클라이언트별 정보를 로그에 기
록하는 것이 바람직 할 수 있습니다.  이를 달성하기 위해 'extra' 매개 변수
를 사용할 수는 있지만, 이러한 방식으로 정보를 전달하는 것이 항상 편리하
지는 않습니다.  연결마다 *note Logger: b4c. 인스턴스를 만들고 싶을지 모
르지만, 이러한 인스턴스는 가비지 수집되지 않기 때문에 좋지 않습니다.
*note Logger: b4c. 인스턴스의 수가 응용 프로그램 로깅에 사용하고자 하는
세분성 수준에 의존적일 때 이것이 실제로 문제가 되지는 않지만, *note
Logger: b4c. 인스턴스의 수가 실질적으로 무제한이 되면 관리하기 어려울 수
있습니다.

* Menu:

* 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기::
* 문맥 정보 전달에 필터 사용하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기,  Next: 문맥 정보 전달에 필터 사용하기,  Up: 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가

9.9.9.1 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기
................................................

로깅 이벤트 정보와 함께 출력되는 문맥 정보를 전달하는 쉬운 방법은 *note
LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 클래스를 사용하는 것입니다.  이 클래스는 *note
Logger: b4c.처럼 보이도록 설계되어 있어서, *note debug(): 2c78, *note
info(): 2ca1, *note warning(): 2f7, *note error(): 2cb5, *note
exception(): 1458, *note critical(): 2cb6. 및 *note log(): 2cb7.를 호출
할 수 있습니다.  이 메서드들은 *note Logger: b4c. 에 있는 것과 똑같은 서
명을 가지므로, 두 형의 인스턴스를 같은 의미로 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 의 인스턴스를 생성할 때, *note Logger: b4c. 인
스턴스와 문맥 정보가 포함된 딕셔너리류 객체를 전달합니다.  *note
LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 의 인스턴스에서 로깅 메서드 중 하나를 호출하면, 생
성자에 전달된 하위 *note Logger: b4c. 인스턴스에 호출을 위임하고, 이 호
출에 문맥 정보를 전달하도록 배치합니다.  다음은 *note LoggerAdapter:
12e5. 코드에서 발췌한 내용입니다:

     def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs):
         """
         Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
         contextual information from this adapter instance.
         """
         msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
         self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

*note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 의 *note process(): 2cae. 메서드는 문맥 정보
가 로그 출력에 추가되는 곳입니다.  로깅 호출의 메시지 및 키워드 인자를 받
아서, 하부 로거에 대한 호출에서 사용될 (대체로) 수정된 버전을 돌려줍니다
.  이 메서드의 기본 구현은 메시지는 그대로 두고, 키워드 인자에 생성자로
전달된 딕셔너리류 객체를 값으로 갖는 ‘extra’ 키를 삽입합니다.  물론, 어
댑터에 대한 호출에서 ‘extra’ 키워드 인자를 전달한 경우 자동으로 덮어씁니
다.

‘extra’를 사용하는 장점은, 딕셔너리류 객체에 들어있는 값이 *note
LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스의 __dict__에 병합되어, 키에 대해 알고 있는
*note Formatter: 145b. 인스턴스로 사용자 정의된 문자열을 사용할 수 있게
된다는 것입니다.  다른 방법이 필요한 경우, 가령 메시지 문자열의 앞이나 뒤
에 문맥 정보를 덧붙이려는 경우, *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 의 서브 클래
스를 만들고, 필요한 작업을 수행하기 위해 *note process(): 2cae. 를 재정
의해야 합니다.  다음은 간단한 예제입니다:

     class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         """
         This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
         'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
         """
         def process(self, msg, kwargs):
             return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs

이런 식으로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})

그러면 어댑터에 로그 하는 모든 이벤트는 로그 메시지 앞에 ‘some_conn_id’
값이 붙습니다.

* Menu:

* 딕셔너리 이외의 객체를 사용하여 문맥 정보 전달하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 이외의 객체를 사용하여 문맥 정보 전달하기,  Up: 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기

9.9.9.2 딕셔너리 이외의 객체를 사용하여 문맥 정보 전달하기
..........................................................

실제 딕셔너리를 *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 에 전달할 필요는 없습니다 - 로
깅에 딕셔너리처럼 보일 수 있도록, ‘__getitem__’ 과 ‘__iter__’ 를 구현하
는 클래스의 인스턴스를 전달할 수 있습니다.  값을 동적으로 생성하려는 경
우 (반면에 딕셔너리에 들어있는 값은 바뀌지 않습니다) 유용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 문맥 정보 전달에 필터 사용하기,  Prev: 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기,  Up: 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가

9.9.9.3 문맥 정보 전달에 필터 사용하기
......................................

사용자 정의 *note Filter: 11ea.를 사용하여 로그 출력에 문맥 정보를 추가
할 수도 있습니다.  ‘Filter’ 인스턴스는 전달된 ‘LogRecords’ 를 수정할 수
있는데, 어트리뷰트를 추가해서 적절한 포맷 문자열이나 필요하다면 사용자 정
의 *note Formatter: 145b.를 사용해서 출력되도록 할 수 있습니다.

예를 들어 웹 응용 프로그램에서, 처리 중인 요청(또는 적어도 그것의 흥미로
운 부분)을 스레드 로컬 (*note threading.local: 1556.) 변수에 저장한 다음
, ‘Filter’ 에서 액세스해서, 요청에서 온 정보를 - 원격 IP 주소와 원격 사
용자의 사용자 이름이라고 합시다 - 위의 ‘LoggerAdapter’ 예제에서와같이 어
트리뷰트 이름 ‘ip’와 ‘user’를 사용하여 ‘LogRecord’ 에 추가할 수 있습니다
.  이 경우 같은 포맷 문자열을 사용하여 위에 표시된 것과 비슷한 출력을 얻
을 수 있습니다.  다음은 스크립트 예입니다:

     import logging
     from random import choice

     class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.

         Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
         data in this demo.
         """

         USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
         IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']

         def filter(self, record):

             record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
             record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
             return True

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                             format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
         a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
         a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')

         f = ContextFilter()
         a1.addFilter(f)
         a2.addFilter(f)
         a1.debug('A debug message')
         a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
         for x in range(10):
             lvl = choice(levels)
             lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
             a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')

실행하면 다음과 같은 결과가 나옵니다:

     2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters


File: python.info,  Node: Use of contextvars,  Next: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Prev: 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.10 Use of ‘contextvars’
---------------------------

Since Python 3.7, the *note contextvars: 24. module has provided
context-local storage which works for both *note threading: ed. and
*note asyncio: a. processing needs.  This type of storage may thus be
generally preferable to thread-locals.  The following example shows how,
in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual
information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web
applications.

For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web
applications, each independent of the other but running in the same
Python process and using a library common to them.  How can each of
these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from
the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the
appropriate application’s log file, while including in the log
additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method
and client username?

Let’s assume that the library can be simulated by the following code:

     # webapplib.py
     import logging
     import time

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def useful():
         # Just a representative event logged from the library
         logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!')
         # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run
         time.sleep(0.01)

We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple
classes, ‘Request’ and ‘WebApp’.  These simulate how real threaded web
applications work - each request is handled by a thread:

     # main.py
     import argparse
     from contextvars import ContextVar
     import logging
     import os
     from random import choice
     import threading
     import webapplib

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     class Request:
         """
         A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method,
         client IP address and client username
         """
         def __init__(self, method, ip, user):
             self.method = method
             self.ip = ip
             self.user = user

     # A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick
     # from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX
     # addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users
     # are represented in the sample requests.

     REQUESTS = [
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'),
     ]

     # Note that the format string includes references to request context information
     # such as HTTP method, client IP and username

     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s')

     # Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request
     # processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing

     ctx_request = ContextVar('request')
     ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname')

     class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures
         that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log
         """
         def __init__(self, app):
             self.app = app

         def filter(self, record):
             request = ctx_request.get()
             record.method = request.method
             record.ip = request.ip
             record.user = request.user
             record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get()
             return appName == self.app.name

     class WebApp:
         """
         A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a
         webapp-specific log.
         """
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w')
             f = InjectingFilter(self)
             handler.setFormatter(formatter)
             handler.addFilter(f)
             root.addHandler(handler)
             self.num_requests = 0

         def process_request(self, request):
             """
             This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a
             different thread for every request. We store the context information into
             the context vars before doing anything else.
             """
             ctx_request.set(request)
             ctx_appname.set(self.name)
             self.num_requests += 1
             logger.debug('Request processing started')
             webapplib.useful()
             logger.debug('Request processing finished')

     def main():
         fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0]
         adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn,
                                      description='Simulate a couple of web '
                                                  'applications handling some '
                                                  'requests, showing how request '
                                                  'context can be used to '
                                                  'populate logs')
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate')
         options = ap.parse_args()

         # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select
         # from randomly
         app1 = WebApp('app1')
         app2 = WebApp('app2')
         apps = [app1, app2]
         threads = []
         # Add a common handler which will capture all events
         handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         root.addHandler(handler)

         # Generate calls to process requests
         for i in range(options.count):
             try:
                 # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process
                 app = choice(apps)
                 request = choice(REQUESTS)
                 # Process the request in its own thread
                 t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,))
                 threads.append(t)
                 t.start()
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 break

         # Wait for the threads to terminate
         for t in threads:
             t.join()

         for app in apps:
             print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go
into ‘app1.log’ and the rest into ‘app2.log’, and the all the requests
are logged to ‘app.log’.  Each webapp-specific log will contain only log
entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be
displayed consistently in the log (i.e.  the information in each dummy
request will always appear together in a log line).  This is illustrated
by the following shell output:

     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py
     app1 processed 51 requests
     app2 processed 49 requests
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log
       153 app1.log
       147 app2.log
       300 app.log
       600 total
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__  fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l
     147
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l
     147


File: python.info,  Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Next: 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기,  Prev: Use of contextvars,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.11 Imparting contextual information in handlers
---------------------------------------------------

Each *note Handler: 145a. has its own chain of filters.  If you want to
add contextual information to a *note LogRecord: fde. without leaking it
to other handlers, you can use a filter that returns a new *note
LogRecord: fde. instead of modifying it in-place, as shown in the
following script:

     import copy
     import logging

     def filter(record: logging.LogRecord):
         record = copy.copy(record)
         record.user = 'jim'
         return record

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         handler.addFilter(filter)
         logger.addHandler(handler)

         logger.info('A log message')


File: python.info,  Node: 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기,  Next: 파일 회전 사용하기,  Prev: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.12 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기
----------------------------------------------

logging 이 스레드-안전하고, 단일 프로세스의 여러 스레드에서 단일 파일로
로깅 하는 것이 '지원되지만', 파이썬에서 여러 프로세스가 단일 파일에 액세
스하는 것을 직렬화하는 표준적인 방법이 없으므로, '여러 프로세스'에서 단
일 파일로 로깅 하는 것은 지원되지 '않습니다'.  여러 프로세스에서 하나의
파일에 로그 해야 하는 경우, 이 작업을 수행하는 한 가지 방법은 모든 프로
세스가 로그를 *note SocketHandler: f5a. 에 기록하고, 소켓에서 읽어서 파
일로 로그 하는 소켓 서버를 구현하는 별도의 프로세스를 사용하는 것입니다.
(원한다면, 기존 프로세스 중 하나에서 한 스레드가 이 기능을 전담하도록 할
수 있습니다.)  *note 이 섹션: 4fbc.에서 이 접근법을 더 자세하게 설명하고
, 여러분의 응용 프로그램에 적용하기 위한 출발점으로 사용할 수 있는 작동
하는 소켓 수신기를 제공합니다.

You could also write your own handler which uses the *note Lock: 15a4.
class from the *note multiprocessing: 94. module to serialize access to
the file from your processes.  The stdlib *note FileHandler: 18a5. and
subclasses do not make use of *note multiprocessing: 94.

또는, ‘Queue’ 와 *note QueueHandler: 17de. 를 사용하여, 모든 로깅 이벤트
를 다중 프로세스 응용 프로그램의 프로세스 중 하나에 보낼 수 있습니다.  다
음 예제 스크립트는 이렇게 하는 방법을 보여줍니다; 예제에서 별도의 리스너
프로세스가 다른 프로세스가 보낸 이벤트를 수신하고 자체 로깅 구성에 따라
이벤트를 기록합니다.  이 예제가 한 가지 방법만을 보여 주지만 (예를 들어,
별도의 리스너 프로세스 대신 리스너 스레드를 사용할 수도 있습니다 – 구현
은 비슷할 것입니다), 리스너와 응용 프로그램의 다른 프로세스가 완전히 다
른 로깅 구성을 사용하도록 허용하고, 여러분 자신의 특별한 요구 사항을 충
족하는 코드의 기초로 사용할 수 있습니다:

     # You'll need these imports in your own code
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import multiprocessing

     # Next two import lines for this demo only
     from random import choice, random
     import time

     #
     # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
     # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
     # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
     # which they use for communication.
     #
     # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
     # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
     # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
     # sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
     #
     # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
     def listener_configurer():
         root = logging.getLogger()
         h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
         f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         h.setFormatter(f)
         root.addHandler(h)

     # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
     # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
     # LogRecord.
     def listener_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer()
         while True:
             try:
                 record = queue.get()
                 if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
                     break
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
                 logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
             except Exception:
                 import sys, traceback
                 print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
                 traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)

     # Arrays used for random selections in this demo

     LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
               logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]

     LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']

     MESSAGES = [
         'Random message #1',
         'Random message #2',
         'Random message #3',
     ]

     # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
     # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
     # will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
     def worker_configurer(queue):
         h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
     # random intervening delays before terminating.
     # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
     def worker_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer(queue)
         name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
         print('Worker started: %s' % name)
         for i in range(10):
             time.sleep(random())
             logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
             level = choice(LEVELS)
             message = choice(MESSAGES)
             logger.log(level, message)
         print('Worker finished: %s' % name)

     # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
     # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
     # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
     def main():
         queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
         listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
                                            args=(queue, listener_configurer))
         listener.start()
         workers = []
         for i in range(10):
             worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                              args=(queue, worker_configurer))
             workers.append(worker)
             worker.start()
         for w in workers:
             w.join()
         queue.put_nowait(None)
         listener.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

위의 스크립트 변형은 로깅을 메인 프로세스의 별도의 스레드에서 유지합니다
:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     import random
     import threading
     import time

     def logger_thread(q):
         while True:
             record = q.get()
             if record is None:
                 break
             logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
             logger.handle(record)


     def worker_process(q):
         qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(qh)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         q = Queue()
         d = {
             'version': 1,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO',
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'level': 'ERROR',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'level': 'DEBUG',
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
             },
         }
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
         logging.config.dictConfig(d)
         lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
         lp.start()
         # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
         # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
         q.put(None)
         lp.join()

이 변형은 특정 로거에 대한 구성을 적용하는 방법을 보여줍니다 - 예를 들어
, ‘foo’ 로거는 ‘foo’ 서브 시스템의 모든 이벤트를 ‘mplog-foo.log’ 파일에
저장하는 특별한 처리기를 갖고 있습니다.  이것은 메인 프로세스의 로깅 시
스템이 ( 로깅 이벤트가 작업자 프로세스에서 만들어졌다 하더라도) 메시지를
적절한 대상으로 전달하는 데 사용됩니다.

* Menu:

* concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기: concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기.
* Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기,  Next: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Up: 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기

9.9.12.1 concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기
........................................................

*note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb.를 사용하여 작업자 프
로세스를 시작하려면, 약간 다른 방법으로 큐를 만들어야 합니다.

     queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)

대신에, 다음을 사용해야 합니다

     queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1)  # also works with the examples above

그런 다음 작업자 생성을:

     workers = []
     for i in range(10):
         worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                          args=(queue, worker_configurer))
         workers.append(worker)
         worker.start()
     for w in workers:
         w.join()

에서 다음과 같이 대체할 수 있습니다 (먼저 *note concurrent.futures: 21.를
임포트 하는 것을 기억하십시오):

     with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
         for i in range(10):
             executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)


File: python.info,  Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Prev: concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기,  Up: 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기

9.9.12.2 Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI
............................................................

When deploying Web applications using Gunicorn(1) or uWSGI(2) (or
similar), multiple worker processes are created to handle client
requests.  In such environments, avoid creating file-based handlers
directly in your web application.  Instead, use a *note SocketHandler:
f5a. to log from the web application to a listener in a separate
process.  This can be set up using a process management tool such as
Supervisor - see *note Running a logging socket listener in production:
4fbe. for more details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gunicorn.org/

   (2) https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 회전 사용하기,  Next: 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기,  Prev: 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.13 파일 회전 사용하기
-------------------------

Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a
new file and log to that.  You may want to keep a certain number of
these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the
files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain
bounded.  For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a *note
RotatingFileHandler: 15e0.:

     import glob
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'

     # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
     my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
     my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # Add the log message handler to the logger
     handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
                   LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)

     my_logger.addHandler(handler)

     # Log some messages
     for i in range(20):
         my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)

     # See what files are created
     logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)

     for filename in logfiles:
         print(filename)

결과는 6개의 파일이어야 하고, 각기 응용 프로그램에 대한 로그 기록의 일부
입니다:

     logging_rotatingfile_example.out
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5

가장 최근의 파일은 항상 ‘logging_rotatingfile_example.out’ 이며, 크기 제
한에 도달할 때마다 접미사 ‘.1’ 이 붙은 이름으로 변경됩니다.  기존 백업 파
일 각각의 이름이 변경되어 접미사가 증가하고 ( ‘.1’ 이 ‘.2’ 가 되는 등)
‘.6’ 파일이 지워집니다.

분명, 이 예제는 로그 길이를 극단적으로 작게 설정합니다.  'maxBytes' 를 적
절한 값으로 설정하고 싶을 겁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기,  Next: 사용자 정의 LogRecord,  Prev: 파일 회전 사용하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.14 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기
----------------------------------

logging이 파이썬 표준 라이브러리에 추가되었을 때, 가변 내용으로 메시지를
포맷하는 유일한 방법은 %-포매팅 방법을 사용하는 것이었습니다.  그 이후로
, 파이썬은 두 개의 새로운 포매팅 접근법을 얻었습니다: *note
string.Template: 681.(파이썬 2.4에 추가됨)과 *note str.format(): 61b.(파
이썬 2.6에 추가됨).

로깅은 (3.2부터) 이 두 가지 추가 포매팅 스타일에 대해 개선된 지원을 제공
합니다.  *note Formatter: 145b. 클래스는 ‘style’ 이라는 추가적인 키워드
매개 변수를 취하도록 개선되었습니다.  기본값은 ‘'%'’ 이지만, 다른 두 가
지 포매팅 스타일에 해당하는 ‘'{'’ 및 ‘'$'’ 를 사용할 수 있습니다.  (여러
분이 기대하듯이) 이전 버전과의 호환성은 기본적으로 유지되지만, style 매
개변수를 명시적으로 지정하면 *note str.format(): 61b. 또는 *note
string.Template: 681. 과 함께 작동하는 포맷 문자열을 지정할 수 있습니다.
다음은 가능성을 보여주기 위한 예제 콘솔 세션입니다:

     >>> import logging
     >>> root = logging.getLogger()
     >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
     ...                        style='{')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
     >>> root.addHandler(handler)
     >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
     ...                        style='$')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(df)
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>>

로그로 최종 출력하기 위해 로깅 메시지를 포매팅하는 것은 개별 로깅 메시지
가 구성되는 방식과 완전히 별개입니다.  개별 메시지에는 다음과 같이 %-포
매팅을 사용할 수 있습니다:

     >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
     2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
     >>>

로깅 호출(‘logger.debug()’, ‘logger.info()’ 등)은 실제 로깅 메시지 자체
를 위해서는 위치 매개 변수만을 취하고, 키워드 매개 변수는 실제 로깅 호출
을 어떻게 다뤄야 하는지를 지정하는 옵션을 결정하는 용도로만 사용됩니다
(예를 들어, 트레이스백 정보를 로그 해야 할지를 가리키는 ‘exc_info’ 키워
드 매개 변수나 로그에 추가되는 문맥 정보를 나타내는 ‘extra’ 키워드 매개
변수).  그래서 여러분은 *note str.format(): 61b. 또는 *note
string.Template: 681. 문법을 사용하여 직접 로깅 호출을 할 수 없습니다, 내
부적으로 logging 패키지가 %-포매팅을 사용하여 포맷 문자열과 변수 인자를
병합하기 때문입니다.  이전 버전과의 호환성을 유지하는 동안은 이 상황이 바
뀌지 않을 것입니다.  기존 코드에 있는 모든 로깅 호출이 %-포맷 문자열을 사
용하기 때문입니다.

그러나 {}- 및 $- 포매팅을 사용하여 개별 로그 메시지를 구성하는 방법이 있
습니다.  메시지의 경우, 메시지 포맷 문자열로 임의의 객체를 사용할 수 있
으며, logging 패키지는 실제 형식 문자열을 얻기 위해 그 객체에 대해
‘str()’ 을 호출한다는 것을 상기하십시오.  다음 두 가지 클래스를 고려하십
시오:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

이 중 하나를 포맷 문자열 대신 사용하면, {}- 또는 $-포매팅을 사용하여 포
맷된 로그 출력의 “%(message)s”, “{message}” 또는 “$message” 자리에 나타
나는 실제 “message” 부분을 만들 수 있습니다.  어떤 것을 로그 하고 싶을 때
마다 클래스 이름을 사용하는 것은 다소 꼴사납지만, __(두 개의 밑줄 —-
*note gettext.gettext(): 142f. 나 그 형제들의 동의어/별칭으로 사용되는 _
과 혼동하지 마세요)와 같은 별칭을 사용하면 꽤 쓸만합니다.

위의 클래스가 파이썬에 포함되어 있지는 않지만, 아주 쉽게 여러분의 코드에
복사하여 붙여넣을 수 있습니다.  다음과 같이 사용될 수 있습니다
(‘wherever’ 라는 모듈에서 선언되었다고 가정합니다):

     >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
     ...       point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
     >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

위의 예제는 ‘print()’ 를 사용하여 포매팅이 어떻게 작동하는지 보여주고 있
지만, 물론 이 접근법으로 실제 로깅 할 때는 ‘logger.debug()’ 나 그와 유사
한 것을 사용해야 합니다.

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes.

원한다면, *note LoggerAdapter: 12e5. 를 사용하여 다음 예제와 같이 위와 유
사한 효과를 얻을 수 있습니다:

     import logging

     class Message:
         def __init__(self, fmt, args):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args)

     class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs):
             if self.isEnabledFor(level):
                 msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
                 self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs,
                                 stacklevel=stacklevel+1)

     logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))

     def main():
         logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         main()

The above script should log the message ‘Hello, world!’ when run with
Python 3.8 or later.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 LogRecord,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Prev: 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.15 사용자 정의 ‘LogRecord’
------------------------------

모든 로깅 이벤트는 *note LogRecord: fde. 인스턴스로 표현됩니다.  이벤트
가 로그 되고 로거 수준에 의해 필터링 되지 않으면, *note LogRecord: fde.
가 생성되고 이벤트에 대한 정보로 채워진 다음 해당 로거(와 그 조상들, 계
층 상위로의 전파가 비활성화된 지점의 로거까지)의 처리기로 전달됩니다.  파
이썬 3.2 이전에는, 이 생성이 일어나는 곳이 두 곳밖에 없었습니다:

   * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2c7f, 이벤트 로깅의 일반적인 프로세스에
     서 호출됩니다.  인스턴스를 생성하기 위해 *note LogRecord: fde. 를 직
     접 호출합니다.

   * *note makeLogRecord(): 2ca5, LogRecord에 추가될 어트리뷰트를 포함하
     는 딕셔너리와 함께 호출됩니다.  보통 적절한 딕셔너리가 네트워크를 통
     해 (예를 들어, *note SocketHandler: f5a. 를 통해 피클 형태로, 또는
     *note HTTPHandler: e27. 를 통해 JSON 형식으로) 수신될 때 호출됩니다
     .

이것은 보통 *note LogRecord: fde. 로 특별한 것을 할 필요가 있다면, 다음
중 하나를 해야 한다는 것을 의미합니다.

   * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2c7f. 를 재정의하는 자신만의 *note
     Logger: b4c. 서브 클래스를 만들고, 관심 있는 로거의 인스턴스가 만들
     어지기 전에 *note setLoggerClass(): 2cb4. 를 사용하여 설정하십시오.

   * 로거나 처리기에 *note Filter: 11ea.를 추가해서 *note filter():
     2ca0. 메서드가 호출될 때 필요한 특별한 조작을 하십시오.

첫 번째 접근법은 여러 라이브러리가 서로 다른 일을 하고 싶어 하는 시나리
오에서는 다루기 힘들 것입니다.  각자 자신의 *note Logger: b4c. 서브 클래
스를 설정하려고 시도할 것이고, 마지막 것이 이기게 될 것입니다.

두 번째 접근법은 많은 경우에 합리적으로 잘 작동하지만, *note LogRecord:
fde. 의 특별한 서브 클래스를 사용할 수는 없습니다.  라이브러리 개발자는
로거에 적절한 필터를 설정할 수 있지만, 새로운 로거를 도입할 때마다 이를
수행해야 한다는 것을 기억해야 합니다.  이를 고려하지 않는다면 새 패키지
나 모듈을 추가하고 모듈 수준에서 단순히 다음과 같이 합니다:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

이것은 아마도 고려해야 할 많은 것 중 하나일 뿐입니다.  개발자는 자신의 최
상위 로거에 첨부된 *note NullHandler: 1274. 에도 필터를 추가 할 수 있지
만, 응용 프로그램 개발자가 하위 수준 라이브러리 로거에 처리기를 연결하면
호출되지 않습니다 — 그래서 그 처리기로부터의 출력은 라이브러리 개발자의
의도를 반영하지 못합니다.

파이썬 3.2 이상에서는, *note LogRecord: fde. 생성이 사용자가 지정할 수 있
는 팩토리를 통해 수행됩니다.  팩토리는 *note setLogRecordFactory():
2ca9. 로 설정할 수 있고, *note getLogRecordFactory(): 2ca8. 로 조회할 수
있는 콜러블입니다.  팩토리는 *note LogRecord: fde. 생성자와 같은 서명으
로 호출되고, 기본 설정은 *note LogRecord: fde. 입니다.

이 방법을 사용하면 사용자 정의 팩토리가 LogRecord 생성의 모든 측면을 제
어 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 서브 클래스를 반환하거나, 다음과 같은 방
법으로 생성된 레코드에 어트리뷰트를 추가 할 수 있습니다:

     old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

     def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
         record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
         record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
         return record

     logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

이 패턴은 서로 다른 라이브러리가 팩토리를 체인으로 연결할 수 있도록 하며
, 서로의 어트리뷰트를 덮어쓰거나 의도하지 않게 표준으로 제공된 어트리뷰
트를 덮어쓰지 않는 한, 놀랄 일은 없어야 합니다.  그러나 체인의 각 고리는
모든 로깅 작업에 실행시간 오버헤드를 추가하므로, *note Filter: 11ea.를 사
용해서 원하는 결과를 얻을 수 없을 때만 이 기법을 사용해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Prev: 사용자 정의 LogRecord,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.16 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example
-------------------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler,  Next: Subclass QueueListener,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.9.16.1 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

*note QueueHandler: 17de. 서브 클래스를 사용하여 다른 유형의 큐에 메시지
를 보낼 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 ZeroMQ ‘publish’ 소켓.  아래 예제에서, 소
켓은 별도로 생성되어 처리기로 (‘queue’로) 전달됩니다:

     import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
     import json  # for serializing records portably

     ctx = zmq.Context()
     sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
     sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)


     handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)

물론 구성하는 다른 방법이 있습니다.  예를 들어 처리기가 소켓을 만드는데
필요한 데이터를 전달하는 것입니다:

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
             self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
             socket.bind(uri)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener,  Prev: Subclass QueueHandler,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.9.16.2 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

다른 유형의 큐에서 메시지를 받기 위해 *note QueueListener: e28. 의 서브
클래스를 만들 수도 있습니다, 예를 들어 ZeroMQ ‘subscribe’ 소켓.  다음은
그 예입니다:

     class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
             socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
             socket.connect(uri)
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self):
             msg = self.queue.recv_json()
             return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Next: 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.17 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ‘pynng’ example
--------------------------------------------------------------------

In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and
handler using pynng(1), which is a Python binding to NNG(2), billed as a
spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate – you
can test them in an environment which has ‘pynng’ installed.  Just for
variety, we present the listener first.

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pynng/

   (2) https://nng.nanomsg.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Next: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.9.17.1 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

     # listener.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     interrupted = False

     class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):

         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
             # subscriber socket
             socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
             # The b'' subscription matches all topics
             topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b''
             socket.subscribe(topics)
             # We treat the socket as a queue
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self, block):
             data = None
             # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the
             # socket
             while not interrupted:
                 try:
                     data = self.queue.recv(block=block)
                     break
                 except pynng.Timeout:
                     pass
                 except pynng.Closed:  # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C
                     break
             if data is None:
                 return None
             # Get the logging event sent from a publisher
             event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8'))
             return logging.makeLogRecord(event)

         def enqueue_sentinel(self):
             # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a
             # queue
             pass

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'')
     listener.start()
     print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.')
     try:
         while True:
             pass
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         interrupted = True
     finally:
         listener.stop()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Prev: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.9.17.2 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

     # sender.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import time
     import random

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler):

         def __init__(self, uri):
             socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON
             d = dict(record.__dict__)
             data = json.dumps(d)
             self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8'))

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR)
     # Make sure the process ID is in the output
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler],
                         format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s')
     levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)
     logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2')
     msgno = 1
     while True:
         # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away
         level = random.choice(levels)
         logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names))
         logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno)
         msgno += 1
         delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5
         time.sleep(delay)

You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells.  If we
run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells,
we should see something like the following.  In the first sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the second sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the listener shell:

     $ python listener.py
     Press Ctrl-C to stop.
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved
in the listener’s output.


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예,  Next: rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.18 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예
------------------------------

다음은 로깅 구성 딕셔너리의 예입니다 - 장고 프로젝트 설명서(1) 에서 가져
왔습니다.  이 딕셔너리를 *note dictConfig(): 119f. 로 전달하여 구성을 적
용합니다:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'verbose': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
             'simple': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
         },
         'filters': {
             'special': {
                 '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
                 'foo': 'bar',
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'simple',
             },
             'mail_admins': {
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         },
         'loggers': {
             'django': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'propagate': True,
             },
             'django.request': {
                 'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'propagate': False,
             },
             'myproject.custom': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         }
     }

이 구성에 대한 더 자세한 정보는 장고 설명서의 관련 섹션(2) 을 참조하세요
.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging

   (2) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging


File: python.info,  Node: rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기,  Next: 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제,  Prev: 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.19 rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기
----------------------------------------------------

An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the
following runnable script, which shows gzip compression of the log file:

     import gzip
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import os
     import shutil

     def namer(name):
         return name + ".gz"

     def rotator(source, dest):
         with open(source, 'rb') as f_in:
             with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out:
                 shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
         os.remove(source)


     rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5)
     rh.rotator = rotator
     rh.namer = namer

     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     root.addHandler(rh)
     f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     rh.setFormatter(f)
     for i in range(1000):
         root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}')

After running this, you will see six new files, five of which are
compressed:

     $ ls rotated.log*
     rotated.log       rotated.log.2.gz  rotated.log.4.gz
     rotated.log.1.gz  rotated.log.3.gz  rotated.log.5.gz
     $ zcat rotated.log.1.gz
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998


File: python.info,  Node: 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제,  Next: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기,  Prev: rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.20 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제
----------------------------------------

다음 동작하는 예제에서는 구성 파일을 사용하여 로깅을 multiprocessing과 함
께 사용하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  구성은 매우 간단하지만, 실제
multiprocessing 시나리오에서 더 복잡한 구성을 구현할 수 있음을 예시합니
다.

이 예에서, 주 프로세스는 리스너 프로세스와 몇 개의 작업자 프로세스를 생
성합니다.  주 프로세스, 리스너 및 작업자를 위한 세 가지 구성이 있습니다
(모든 작업자는 같은 구성을 공유합니다).  주 프로세스에서의 로깅, 작업자
가 QueueHandler에 로그 하는 방법, 그리고 리스너가 QueueListener 및 더욱
복잡한 로깅 구성을 구현하고 큐를 통해 수신한 이벤트를 구성에서 지정된 처
리기로 전달하도록 배치하는 는 방법을 볼 수 있습니다.  이러한 구성은 설명
을 위한 것이지만, 이 예제를 여러분 자신의 시나리오에 적용할 수 있어야 합
니다.

스크립트는 다음과 같습니다 - 독스트링과 주석이 어떻게 작동하는지 잘 설명
하기를 바랍니다:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
     import os
     import random
     import time

     class MyHandler:
         """
         A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
         dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
         which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
         configured for those loggers.
         """

         def handle(self, record):
             if record.name == "root":
                 logger = logging.getLogger()
             else:
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)

             if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno):
                 # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
                 # doing the logging to files and console
                 record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
                 logger.handle(record)

     def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
         """
         This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
         process for illustrative purposes.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
         via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
         listener.start()
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         stop_event.wait()
         listener.stop()

     def worker_process(config):
         """
         A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
         practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
         ones which are identical to each other.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
         loggers.

         A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
         is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
         processes a bit more than if it's left out.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
             time.sleep(0.01)

     def main():
         q = Queue()
         # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
         config_initial = {
             'version': 1,
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
         # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_worker = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'handlers': {
                 'queue': {
                     'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
                     'queue': q
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['queue'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
         # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
         # you want.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_listener = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 },
                 'simple': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'formatter': 'simple',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                     'level': 'ERROR'
                 }
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
         # normally.
         logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
         logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
         logger.info('About to create workers ...')
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
                          args=(config_worker,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
             logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
         logger.info('About to create listener ...')
         stop_event = Event()
         lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
                      args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
         lp.start()
         logger.info('Started listener')
         # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
         # Logging in the parent still works normally.
         logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
         stop_event.set()
         lp.join()
         logger.info('All done.')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기,  Next: 구조적 로깅 구현,  Prev: 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.21 SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기
---------------------------------------------------

RFC 5424(1) 는 유니코드 메시지가 다음 구조를 갖는 바이트들로 syslog 데몬
에 전송되어야 함을 요구합니다: 선택적인 순수 ASCII 구성 요소, 그 뒤를 이
어 UTF-8 바이트 순서 표식 (BOM), 그 뒤를 이어 UTF-8으로 인코딩된 유니코
드.  ( 이 규격의 관련 절(2) 을 참조하십시오.)

파이썬 3.1에서, BOM을 메시지에 삽입하는 코드가 *note SysLogHandler: 656.
에 추가되었지만, 유감스럽게도, BOM이 메시지의 시작 부분에 나타나서 그 앞
에 순수 ASCII 구성 요소를 허락하지 않도록 잘못 구현되었습니다.

이 동작이 잘못됨에 따라, 잘못된 BOM 삽입 코드가 파이썬 3.2.4 이상에서 제
거되었습니다.  그러나, 올바른 코드로 대체되지는 않았고, BOM을 포함하고,
그 앞에 순수 ASCII 시퀀스, 그 뒤에 UTF-8으로 인코딩된 임의의 유니코드로
구성된 RFC 5424(3)-호환 메시지를 생성하려는 경우 다음과 같이 해야 합니다
:

  1. *note Formatter: 145b. 인스턴스를 *note SysLogHandler: 656. 인스턴
     스에 다음과 같은 포맷 문자열과 함께 첨부하십시오:

          'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'

     유니코드 코드 포인트 U+FEFF는, UTF-8을 사용하여 인코딩될 때, UTF-8
     BOM으로 인코딩됩니다 – 바이트열 ‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’.

  2. ASCII section을 원하는 자리 표시기로 바꾸십시오.  그러나 치환 후 나
     타나는 데이터가 항상 ASCII임미 보장되어야 합니다 (그렇게 되면,
     UTF-8 인코딩 이후에는 변경되지 않은 채로 유지됩니다).

  3. Unidcode section을 원하는 자리 표시기로 바꾸십시오; 치환 후 나타나
     는 데이터에 ASCII 범위를 벗어나는 문자가 포함되어 있어도 괜찮습니다
     – UTF-8을 사용하여 인코딩됩니다.

포맷된 된 메시지는 ‘SysLogHandler’ 에 의해 UTF-8 인코딩을 사용하여 인코
딩*됩니다*.  위의 규칙을 따르는 경우, RFC 5424(4)-호환 메시지를 생성할 수
있어야 합니다.  그렇지 않으면, logging이 불평하지 않을 수도 있지만, 메시
지가 RFC 5424와 호환되지 않고 syslog 데몬이 불평 할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html


File: python.info,  Node: 구조적 로깅 구현,  Next: dictConfig 로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기,  Prev: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.22 구조적 로깅 구현
-----------------------

대부분의 로깅 메시지는 사람이 읽을 수 있도록 만들어졌기 때문에 쉽게 기계
에서 파싱 할 수 없지만, 프로그램에서 (복잡한 정규식을 사용하지 않고도) 구
문 분석할 수 '있는' 구조화된 포맷으로 메시지를 출력하려는 상황이 있을 수
있습니다.  이것은 logging 패키지를 사용하여 쉽게 달성 할 수 있습니다.  이
것이 달성될 수 있는 여러 가지 방법이 있지만, 다음은 JSON을 사용하여 기계
가 파싱할 수 있는 방식으로 이벤트를 직렬화하는 간단한 접근법입니다:

     import json
     import logging

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
     logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))

위의 스크립트가 실행되면 다음과 같이 인쇄됩니다:

     message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}

항목의 순서는 사용된 파이썬 버전에 따라 다를 수 있습니다.

좀 더 특별한 처리가 필요한 경우, 다음 예제와 같이 사용자 정의 JSON 인코
더를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     import json
     import logging


     class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
         def default(self, o):
             if isinstance(o, set):
                 return tuple(o)
             elif isinstance(o, str):
                 return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
             return super().default(o)

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
         logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

위의 스크립트를 실행하면 다음과 같이 인쇄합니다:

     message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}

항목의 순서는 사용된 파이썬 버전에 따라 다를 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: dictConfig 로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기,  Next: 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기,  Prev: 구조적 로깅 구현,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.23 ‘dictConfig()’로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기
------------------------------------------------

특정 상황에서 로깅 처리기를 사용자 정의하고 싶을 때가 있고, *note
dictConfig(): 119f.를 사용하고 있다면 서브 클래스를 만들지 않고도 이 작
업을 수행 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 로그 파일의 소유권을 설정하고 싶다
고 합시다.  POSIX에서, *note shutil.chown(): 240. 을 사용하면 쉽게 할 수
있지만, 표준 라이브러리의 파일 처리기는 내장된 지원을 제공하지 않습니다.
다음과 같은 일반 함수를 사용하여 처리기 생성을 사용자 정의 할 수 있습니
다:

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

그런 다음, *note dictConfig(): 119f. 에 전달되는 로깅 구성에서, 이 함수
를 호출하여 로깅 처리기를 생성하도록 지정할 수 있습니다:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

이 예제에서는 단지 예를 들기 위해 ‘pulse’ 라는 사용자와 그룹을 사용하여
소유권을 설정합니다.  작동하는 스크립트 ‘chowntest.py’ 로 정리하면:

     import logging, logging.config, os, shutil

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

     logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
     logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
     logger.debug('A debug message')

이것을 실행하기 위해서는, 아마도 ‘root’ 로 실행해야 할 것입니다:

     $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
     $ cat chowntest.log
     2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
     $ ls -l chowntest.log
     -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log

이 예제는 *note shutil.chown(): 240. 이 등장한 파이썬 3.3을 사용합니다.
이 접근법은 *note dictConfig(): 119f.를 지원하는 모든 파이썬 버전에서 작
동합니다 - 파이썬 2.7, 3.2 이상.  3.3 이전 버전의 경우, (예를 들어)
*note os.chown(): 10e0. 을 사용하여 실제 소유권 변경을 구현해야 합니다.

실제로는, 처리기 생성 함수가 프로젝트 어딘가에 있는 유틸리티 모듈에 있을
수 있습니다.  구성에 있는 다음과 같은 줄 대신:

     '()': owned_file_handler,

예를 들면 이렇게 쓸 수 있습니다:

     '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',

여기서 ‘project.util’ 은 함수가 있는 패키지의 실제 이름으로 바꿀 수 있습
니다.  위의 작업 스크립트에서 ‘'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'’ 를 사
용해도 됩니다.  여기서, 실제 콜러블은 ‘ext://’ 스펙으로부터 *note
dictConfig(): 119f. 에 의해 결정됩니다.

이 예제는 희망하건대 다른 형태의 파일 변경을 - 예를 들어 특정 POSIX 권한
비트 설정 - 같은 방법으로 (*note os.chmod(): 21b. 를 사용해서) 구현하는
방법도 알려줍니다.

물론 이 접근법은 *note FileHandler: 18a5. 이외의 처리기 유형으로도 확장
될 수 있습니다 - 예를 들어, 회전 파일 처리기 중 하나 또는 다른 유형의 처
리기 모두.


File: python.info,  Node: 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기,  Next: dictConfig 로 필터 구성하기,  Prev: dictConfig 로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.24 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기
-------------------------------------------------------

파이썬 3.2에서, *note Formatter: 145b. 는 ‘style’ 키워드 매개변수를 얻었
는데, 이전 버전과의 호환성을 위해 ‘%’ 를 기본값으로 사용하면서 ‘{’ 또는
‘$’ 를 지정하면 *note str.format(): 61b. 과 *note string.Template: 681.
에 의해 지원되는 포매팅 접근법을 사용할 수 있도록 합니다.  이것은 로그 되
는 최종 출력으로 로깅 메시지를 포매팅하는 것과 관계된 것이고, 개별 로깅
메시지가 만들어지는 방법과는 무관함에 주의하십시오.

Logging calls (*note debug(): e26, *note info(): 2c77. etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate
that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword
parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to
the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note
str.format(): 61b. or *note string.Template: 681. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

포맷 스타일을 특정 로거와 연관시키는 제안이 있었지만, 이전 버전과의 호환
성 문제가 있는데, 기존 코드가 그 로거 이름으로 %-포매팅을 사용할 수 있기
때문입니다.

제삼자 라이브러리와 여러분의 코드 간에 상호 운용이 가능하도록 로깅 하려
면, 개별 로깅 호출 수준에서 포매팅을 결정해야 합니다.  이렇게 할 때 대체
포매팅 스타일을 수용 할 수 있는 몇 가지 길이 열립니다.

* Menu:

* LogRecord 팩토리 사용::
* 사용자 정의 메시지 객체 사용::


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord 팩토리 사용,  Next: 사용자 정의 메시지 객체 사용,  Up: 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기

9.9.24.1 LogRecord 팩토리 사용
..............................

파이썬 3.2에서, 위에서 언급 한 *note Formatter: 145b. 변경 사항과 함께,
logging 패키지는 *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca9. 함수를 사용하여 사용
자가 자신의 *note LogRecord: fde. 서브 클래스를 설정할 수 있는 기능을 얻
었습니다.  이것을 사용하면, 원하는 일을 하도록 *note getMessage(): 2ca7.
메서드를 재정의하는 여러분 자신의 *note LogRecord: fde. 서브 클래스를 설
정할 수 있습니다.  이 메서드의 베이스 클래스 구현이 ‘msg % args’ 포매팅
이 일어나는 곳이며, 여러분이 대체 포매팅으로 치환할 수 있는 곳입니다; 그
러나, 모든 포매팅 스타일을 지원하면서 다른 코드와의 상호 운용성을 보장하
기 위해 %-포매팅을 기본값으로 사용하도록 주의해야 합니다.  또한, 베이스
구현과 마찬가지로 ‘str(self.msg)’ 를 호출하도록 주의해야 합니다.

자세한 정보는 *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca9.와 *note LogRecord: fde.
에 대한 레퍼런스 설명서를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의 메시지 객체 사용,  Prev: LogRecord 팩토리 사용,  Up: 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기

9.9.24.2 사용자 정의 메시지 객체 사용
.....................................

{}- 및 $-포매팅을 사용하여 개별 로그 메시지를 작성할 수 있는 또 다른, 아
마도 더 간단한 방법이 있습니다.  (*note 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기:
2ca6.에서) 로깅 할 때 임의의 객체를 메시지 포맷 문자열로 사용할 수 있고,
logging 패키지는 그 객체에 대해 *note str(): 445. 을 호출하여 실제 형식
문자열을 얻는다고 했던 것을 기억하실 수 있을 겁니다.  다음 두 클래스를 생
각해봅시다:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

이 중 하나를 포맷 문자열 대신 사용하면, {}- 또는 $-포매팅을 사용하여 포
맷된 로그 출력의 “%(message)s”, “{message}” 또는 “$message” 자리에 나타
나는 실제 “message” 부분을 만들 수 있습니다.  어떤 것을 로그 하고 싶을 때
마다 클래스 이름을 사용하는 것이 다소 꼴사납다면, 메시지에 ‘M’ 이나 ‘_’
과 같은 별칭을 사용해서 더 쓸만하게 만들 수 있습니다 (또는 지역화에 ‘_’
를 사용하고 있다면, 아마도 ‘__’).

이 접근법의 예가 아래에 나와 있습니다.  먼저, *note str.format(): 61b. 를
사용하는 포매팅입니다:

     >>> __ = BraceMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)

두 번째로, *note string.Template: 681. 를 사용하는 포매팅입니다:

     >>> __ = DollarMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes shown above.


File: python.info,  Node: dictConfig 로 필터 구성하기,  Next: 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅,  Prev: 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.25 ‘dictConfig()’로 필터 구성하기
-------------------------------------

*note dictConfig(): 119f. 를 사용하여 필터를 구성할 수 '있습니다'.  하지
만 처음에는 어떻게 해야 할지 명확하지 않을 수 있습니다 (그래서 이 조리법
을 제공합니다).  *note Filter: 11ea. 가 표준 라이브러리에 포함된 유일한
필터 클래스이고, 많은 요구 사항을 충족시키지는 않을 것이기 때문에 (오직
베이스 클래스로 제공됩니다), 일반적으로 *note filter(): 2ca0. 메서드를 재
정의하는 여러분 자신의 *note Filter: 11ea. 서브 클래스를 정의할 필요가 있
습니다.  이렇게 하려면, 필터를 생성하는 데 사용될 콜러블을 필터의 구성 딕
셔너리에 ‘()’ 키로 지정하십시오 (클래스가 가장 분명하지만 *note Filter:
11ea. 인스턴스를 반환하는 콜러블은 모두 가능합니다).  다음은 완전한 예입
니다:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import sys

     class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
         def __init__(self, param=None):
             self.param = param

         def filter(self, record):
             if self.param is None:
                 allow = True
             else:
                 allow = self.param not in record.msg
             if allow:
                 record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
             return allow

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'filters': {
             'myfilter': {
                 '()': MyFilter,
                 'param': 'noshow',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'filters': ['myfilter']
             }
         },
         'root': {
             'level': 'DEBUG',
             'handlers': ['console']
         },
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.debug('hello')
         logging.debug('hello - noshow')

이 예제는 인스턴스를 만드는 콜러블로 키워드 매개 변수 형식으로 구성 데이
터를 전달하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  실행하면, 위의 스크립트는 다음을 인쇄
합니다:

     changed: hello

필터가 구성된 대로 작동하고 있음을 보여줍니다.

주목해야 할 몇 가지 추가 사항:

   * 구성에서 직접 참조할 수 없는 경우 (예를 들어, 다른 모듈에 있고 구성
     딕셔너리가 있는 곳에서 직접 임포트 할 수 없는 경우), *note 외부
     객체에 대한 액세스: 2cd5. 에 설명된 대로 ‘ext://...’ 형식을 사용할
     수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 위의 예에서 ‘MyFilter’ 대신
     ‘'ext://__main__.MyFilter'’ 를 사용할 수 있습니다.

   * 필터뿐만 아니라, 이 기술을 사용자 정의 처리기 및 포매터를 구성하는
     데 사용할 수도 있습니다.  logging이 구성에서 사용자 정의 객체를 어
     떻게 지원하는지에 대한 더 많은 정보는 *note 사용자 정의 객체: 2cc9.
     를 보시고, 위의 다른 요리책 조리법 *note dictConfig()로 처리기를
     사용자 정의하기: 4fdb. 도 보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅,  Next: 로깅 메시지 말하기,  Prev: dictConfig 로 필터 구성하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.26 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅
--------------------------------

예외 포매팅을 사용자 정의하고 싶을 때가 있습니다 - 논쟁의 여지는 있지만,
예외 정보가 포함된 경우에도 이벤트 당 정확히 한 줄이 기록되기 원한다고 합
시다.  다음 예제처럼, 사용자 정의 포매터 클래스를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     import logging

     class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def formatException(self, exc_info):
             """
             Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
             """
             result = super().formatException(exc_info)
             return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to

         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             if record.exc_text:
                 s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
             return s

     def configure_logging():
         fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
         f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
                                       '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
         fh.setFormatter(f)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(fh)

     def main():
         configure_logging()
         logging.info('Sample message')
         try:
             x = 1 / 0
         except ZeroDivisionError as e:
             logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

실행하면, 정확하게 두 줄의 파일이 생성됩니다:

     28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
     28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero'|

위의 처리는 단순하지만, 예외 정보를 원하는 대로 포맷하는 방법을 알려줍니
다.  *note traceback: fe. 모듈은 더욱 전문화된 요구에 도움이 될 수 있습
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 메시지 말하기,  Next: 로깅 메시지를 버퍼링하고 조건부 출력하기,  Prev: 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.27 로깅 메시지 말하기
-------------------------

로깅 메시지를 보여주는 대신 들려주는 것이 바람직한 상황이 있을 수 있습니
다.  여러분의 시스템에 텍스트-음성 변환 (TTS) 기능이 있다면 쉽습니다, 파
이썬 바인딩이 없어도 됩니다.  대부분의 TTS 시스템에는 실행할 수 있는 명
령행 프로그램이 있으며, 이것을 *note subprocess: d6. 를 사용하여 처리기
에서 호출 할 수 있습니다.  여기서 TTS 명령행 프로그램이 사용자와 상호 작
용하거나, 완료하는 데 오랜 시간이 걸릴 것으로 기대되지 않으며, 로그 되는
메시지의 빈도가 메시지로 사용자를 압도할 정도로 높지 않으며, 메시지는 동
시에 처리되지 않고 한 번에 하나씩 읽어도 된다고 가정합니다.  아래의 예제
구현은 다음 메시지가 처리되기 전에 하나의 메시지를 다 읽을 때까지 대기하
고, 이 때문에 다른 처리기가 대기 상태로 유지될 수 있습니다.  다음은
‘espeak’ TTS 패키지가 사용 가능하다고 가정하는 접근법을 보여주는 간단한
예입니다:

     import logging
     import subprocess
     import sys

     class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
         def emit(self, record):
             msg = self.format(record)
             # Speak slowly in a female English voice
             cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
             p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
                                  stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
             # wait for the program to finish
             p.communicate()

     def configure_logging():
         h = TTSHandler()
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # the default formatter just returns the message
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     def main():
         logging.info('Hello')
         logging.debug('Goodbye')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         configure_logging()
         sys.exit(main())

실행하면, 이 스크립트는 여성 음성으로 “Hello”와 “Goodbye”를 차례대로 말
합니다.

물론 위의 접근법은 다른 TTS 시스템과 명령행에서 실행되는 외부 프로그램을
통해 메시지를 처리 할 수 있는 전혀 다른 시스템에도 적용될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅 메시지를 버퍼링하고 조건부 출력하기,  Next: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Prev: 로깅 메시지 말하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.28 로깅 메시지를 버퍼링하고 조건부 출력하기
-----------------------------------------------

임시 영역에 메시지를 기록하고 특정 조건이 발생할 때만 메시지를 출력하려
는 상황이 있을 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 함수에서 디버그 이벤트를 로깅 하
기를 원할 수 있습니다.  함수가 에러 없이 완료되면 수집된 디버그 정보로 로
그를 어지럽히고 싶지 않지만, 에러가 있으면 에러뿐만 아니라 모든 디버그 정
보를 출력하고 싶습니다.

다음은 로깅이 이러한 방식으로 작동하기 원하는 함수에 데코레이터를 사용하
여 이를 수행할 방법을 보여주는 예제입니다.  *note
logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2cd8. 를 사용하는데, 어떤 상황이 발생할
때까지 로그 된 이벤트를 버퍼링할 수 있도록 하고, 때가 되면 버퍼링 된 이
벤트들이 ‘flush’ 됩니다 - 처리를 위해 다른 처리기(‘target’ 처리기)로 전
달됩니다.  기본적으로, ‘MemoryHandler’ 는 버퍼가 다 차거나 수준이 지정된
임계값보다 크거나 같은 이벤트가 발생하면 플러시 됩니다.  사용자 정의 플
러시 동작을 원할 경우, 이 조리법을 ‘MemoryHandler’ 의 더 특수한 서브 클
래스와 함께 사용할 수 있습니다.

예제 스크립트에는 간단한 함수 ‘foo’ 가 있는데, 모든 로그 수준을 순회하면
서, 어떤 수준으로 로그 할지를 ‘sys.stderr’ 에 쓴 다음, 그 수준으로 실제
메시지를 로깅 합니다.  매개 변수를 ‘foo’ 에 전달할 수 있는데, 참이면
ERROR 및 CRITICAL 수준으로 로그 합니다 - 그렇지 않으면 DEBUG, INFO 및
WARNING 수준에서만 로그 합니다.

이 스크립트는 필요한 조건부 로깅을 수행할 데코레이터로 ‘foo’ 를 데코레이
트 하기만 합니다.  데코레이터는 로거를 매개 변수로 받고 데코레이트 된 함
수가 호출되는 동안 메모리 처리기를 연결합니다.  데코레이터는 target 처리
기, 플러싱이 발생해야 하는 수준 및 버퍼 용량(버퍼 된 레코드의 수)을 추가
로 매개 변수로 받을 수 있습니다.  이것들은 각각 ‘sys.stderr’ 로 쓰는
*note StreamHandler: 11e7, ‘logging.ERROR’, ‘100’ 을 기본값으로 합니다.

스크립트는 다음과 같습니다:

     import logging
     from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
     import sys

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

     def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
         if target_handler is None:
             target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         if flush_level is None:
             flush_level = logging.ERROR
         if capacity is None:
             capacity = 100
         handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)

         def decorator(fn):
             def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
                 logger.addHandler(handler)
                 try:
                     return fn(*args, **kwargs)
                 except Exception:
                     logger.exception('call failed')
                     raise
                 finally:
                     super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
                     logger.removeHandler(handler)
             return wrapper

         return decorator

     def write_line(s):
         sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)

     def foo(fail=False):
         write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
         logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
         write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
         logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
         write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
         logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
         if fail:
             write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
             logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
             write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
             logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
         return fail

     decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
         assert not foo(False)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
         assert foo(True)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
         assert not decorated_foo(False)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
         assert decorated_foo(True)

이 스크립트를 실행하면 다음과 같은 출력이 나타납니다.:

     Calling undecorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling undecorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Calling decorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling decorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     Actually logged at DEBUG
     Actually logged at INFO
     Actually logged at WARNING
     Actually logged at ERROR
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Actually logged at CRITICAL

보시다시피, 실제 로깅 출력은 심각도가 ERROR 이상인 이벤트가 기록될 때만
발생하지만, 이 경우 심각도가 낮은 이전 이벤트도 기록됩니다.

물론 전통적인 데코레이션 수단을 쓸 수 있습니다.:

     @log_if_errors(logger)
     def foo(fail=False):
         ...


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9.9.29 Sending logging messages to email, with buffering
--------------------------------------------------------

To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set
number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass *note
BufferingHandler: 2d2a.  In the following example, which you can adapt
to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which
allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what
you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script
with the ‘-h’ argument to see the required and optional arguments.)

     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import smtplib

     class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler):
         def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs,
                      subject, capacity):
             logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity)
             self.mailhost = mailhost
             self.mailport = port
             self.username = username
             self.password = password
             self.fromaddr = fromaddr
             if isinstance(toaddrs, str):
                 toaddrs = [toaddrs]
             self.toaddrs = toaddrs
             self.subject = subject
             self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s"))

         def flush(self):
             if len(self.buffer) > 0:
                 try:
                     smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport)
                     smtp.starttls()
                     smtp.login(self.username, self.password)
                     msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject)
                     for record in self.buffer:
                         s = self.format(record)
                         msg = msg + s + "\r\n"
                     smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg)
                     smtp.quit()
                 except Exception:
                     if logging.raiseExceptions:
                         raise
                 self.buffer = []

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import argparse

         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server')
         aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port')
         aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username')
         aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password')
         aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails')
         aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address')
         aa('--subject', '-s',
            default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)',
            help='Subject of email')
         options = ap.parse_args()
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user,
                                  options.password, options.sender,
                                  options.to, options.subject, 10)
         logger.addHandler(h)
         for i in range(102):
             logger.info("Info index = %d", i)
         h.flush()
         h.close()

If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you
should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify.
The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh
will have two messages.  That makes up 102 messages as specified in the
script.


File: python.info,  Node: 구성을 통해 UTC GMT 로 시간을 포맷하기,  Next: 선택적 로깅을 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기,  Prev: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.30 구성을 통해 UTC(GMT)로 시간을 포맷하기
---------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a
class such as ‘UTCFormatter’, shown below:

     import logging
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

이제 *note Formatter: 145b. 대신 코드에서 ‘UTCFormatter’ 를 사용할 수 있
습니다.  구성을 통해 이를 수행하려면, 다음에 나오는 완전한 예제에 의해 설
명된 접근법으로 *note dictConfig(): 119f. API를 사용할 수 있습니다:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'utc': {
                 '()': UTCFormatter,
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             },
             'local': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console1': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'utc',
             },
             'console2': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'local',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
        }
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())

이 스크립트를 실행하면, 다음과 같은 내용을 인쇄합니다:

     2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
     2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015

시간이 한 처리기에서는 UTC로, 다른 처리기에서는 지역 시간으로 포맷되는 것
을 보여줍니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 선택적 로깅을 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기,  Next: CLI 응용 프로그램 시작 템플릿,  Prev: 구성을 통해 UTC GMT 로 시간을 포맷하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.31 선택적 로깅을 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기
--------------------------------------------------

로깅 구성을 일시적으로 변경하고 무언가를 한 후에 되돌리는 것이 유용할 때
가 있습니다.  이를 위해, 컨텍스트 관리자는 로깅 컨텍스트를 저장하고 복원
하는 가장 분명한 방법입니다.  다음은 그러한 컨텍스트 관리자의 간단한 예
입니다.  컨텍스트 관리자의 범위 안에서 선택적으로 로깅 수준을 변경하고 로
깅 처리기를 추가 할 수 있습니다:

     import logging
     import sys

     class LoggingContext:
         def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level
             self.handler = handler
             self.close = close

         def __enter__(self):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.old_level = self.logger.level
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)

         def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
             if self.handler and self.close:
                 self.handler.close()
             # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions

수준 값을 지정하면, 로거의 수준은 컨텍스트 관리자가 적용되는 with 블록의
범위 안에서 해당 값으로 설정됩니다.  처리기를 지정하면, 블록 진입 시 로
거에 추가되고 블록에서 빠져나갈 때 제거됩니다.  블록을 빠져나갈 때 처리
기를 닫도록 관리자에게 요청할 수도 있습니다 - 더는 처리기가 필요하지 않
으면 이렇게 할 수 있습니다.

작동 원리를 보여주기 위해, 다음 코드 블록을 위에 추가 할 수 있습니다:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
         logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
             logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
         h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
             logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
         logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')

우리는 초기에 로거 수준을 ‘INFO’ 로 설정합니다.  그래서 메시지 #1은 나타
나고 메시지 #2는 나타나지 않습니다.  그다음에 ‘with’ 블록에서 수준을
‘DEBUG’ 로 임시 변경하면, 메시지 #3이 나타납니다.  블록이 종료되면 로거
수준이 ‘INFO’ 로 복원되므로, 메시지 #4가 표시되지 않습니다.  그다음
‘with’ 블록에서 수준을 다시 ‘DEBUG’ 로 다시 설정하지만, ‘sys.stdout’ 으
로 쓰는 처리기도 추가합니다.  따라서 메시지 #5는 콘솔에 두 번 표시됩니다
(‘stderr’ 를 통해 한 번, ‘stdout’ 을 통해 한 번).  ‘with’ 문장이 완료된
후에 상태는 이전과 같으므로, (메시지 #1처럼) 메시지 #6이 나타나고, (메시
지 #2처럼) 메시지 #7은 보이지 않습니다.

이렇게 만든 스크립트를 실행하면, 결과는 다음과 같습니다:

     $ python logctx.py
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

다시 실행하면서 ‘stderr’ 를 ‘/dev/null’ 로 리디렉트하면, 다음과 같이
‘stdout’ 으로 출력된 메시지만 나타납니다:

     $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.

다시 한번, 하지만 ‘stdout’ 을 ‘/dev/null’ 로 리디렉트하면, 이렇게 됩니다
:

     $ python logctx.py >/dev/null
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

이 경우, ‘stdout’ 에 인쇄된 메시지 #5는 예상대로 나타나지 않습니다.

물론 여기서 설명한 방법을 일반화 할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 로깅 필터를
임시로 첨부 할 수 있습니다.  위의 코드는 파이썬 2와 파이썬 3에서 모두 작
동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: CLI 응용 프로그램 시작 템플릿,  Next: 로깅을 위한 Qt GUI,  Prev: 선택적 로깅을 위해 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.32 CLI 응용 프로그램 시작 템플릿
------------------------------------

다음과 같은 것들을 하는 방법을 보여주는 예입니다:

   * 명령 줄 인자에 기반한 로깅 수준 사용하기

   * 별도의 파일에 있는 여러 부속 명령으로 분기하고, 모두 일관된 방식으
     로 같은 수준에서 로깅 하기

   * 간단하고 최소의 구성을 사용하기

어떤 서비스를 중지, 시작 또는 다시 시작하는 작업을 위한 명령 줄 응용 프
로그램이 있다고 가정합니다.  이것은 예시의 목적을 위해 ‘start.py’,
‘stop.py’ 및 ‘restart.py’에 개별 명령이 구현되고, 응용 프로그램의 메인 스
크립트는 ‘app.py’ 파일이 되도록 구성할 수 있습니다.  명령 줄 인자를 통해
응용 프로그램의 상세도를 제어하려고 하고, ‘logging.INFO’를 기본값으로 한
다고 더 가정해 봅시다.  ‘app.py’를 작성할 수 있는 한 가지 방법은 다음과
같습니다:

     import argparse
     import importlib
     import logging
     import os
     import sys

     def main(args=None):
         scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__)
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname)
         levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL')
         parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels)
         subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command',
                                            help='Available commands:')
         start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service')
         start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME',
                                help='Name of service to start')
         stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop',
                                          help='Stop one or more services')
         stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                               help='Name of service to stop')
         restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart',
                                             help='Restart one or more services')
         restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                                  help='Name of service to restart')
         options = parser.parse_args()
         # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes
         # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module.
         try:
             mod = importlib.import_module(options.command)
             cmd = getattr(mod, 'command')
         except (ImportError, AttributeError):
             print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command)
             return 1
         # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary
         logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level,
                             format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s')
         cmd(options)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())

그리고 ‘start’, ‘stop’ 및 ‘restart’ 명령은 별도의 모듈로 구현할 수 있습
니다, 가령 시작하려면:

     # start.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name)

그리고 멈추려면:

     # stop.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to stop %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural)

비슷하게, 다시 시작하려면:

     # restart.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to restart %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural)

이 응용 프로그램을 기본 로그 수준으로 실행하면, 이런 출력을 얻습니다:

     $ python app.py start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py stop foo bar
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py restart foo bar baz
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

첫 번째 단어는 로깅 수준이고, 두 번째 단어는 이벤트가 로그 된 장소의 모
듈이나 패키지 이름입니다.

로깅 수준을 변경하면, 로그로 전송되는 정보를 변경할 수 있습니다.  예를 들
어, 우리가 더 많은 정보를 원한다면:

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo
     DEBUG start About to start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar
     DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar'
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz
     DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz'
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

그리고 덜 원한다면:

     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz

이 경우, ‘WARNING’ 수준 이상으로 아무것도 로그 하지 않았으므로, 명령은 콘
솔에 아무것도 인쇄하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 로깅을 위한 Qt GUI,  Next: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Prev: CLI 응용 프로그램 시작 템플릿,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.33 로깅을 위한 Qt GUI
-------------------------

A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI
application.  The Qt(1) framework is a popular cross-platform UI
framework with Python bindings using PySide2(2) or PyQt5(3) libraries.

다음 예는 Qt GUI에 로그 하는 방법을 보여줍니다.  이것은 콜러블을 취하는
간단한 ‘QtHandler’ 클래스를 소개합니다.  이 클래스는 GUI 업데이트를 하는
메인 스레드의 슬롯이어야 합니다.  또한 UI 자체 (수동 로깅을 위한 버튼을
통해) 뿐만 아니라 백그라운드에서 작업하는 작업자 스레드에서 GUI에 로그 하
는 방법을 보여주기 위해 작업자 스레드도 만듭니다 (여기서는, 단지 임의의
짧은 지연을 주고 임의의 수준으로 메시지를 로깅 합니다).

작업자 스레드는 *note threading: ed. 모듈 대신 Qt의 ‘QThread’ 클래스를 사
용하여 구현되는데, 다른 ‘Qt’ 구성 요소와 더 잘 통합되는 ‘QThread’를 사용
해야 하는 상황이 있기 때문입니다.

The code should work with recent releases of any of ‘PySide6’, ‘PyQt6’,
‘PySide2’ or ‘PyQt5’.  You should be able to adapt the approach to
earlier versions of Qt.  Please refer to the comments in the code
snippet for more detailed information.

     import datetime
     import logging
     import random
     import sys
     import time

     # Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages
     try:
         from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
         Signal = QtCore.Signal
         Slot = QtCore.Slot
     except ImportError:
         try:
             from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
             Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
             Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot
         except ImportError:
             try:
                 from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.Signal
                 Slot = QtCore.Slot
             except ImportError:
                 from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
                 Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)


     #
     # Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly
     # initialized.
     #
     class Signaller(QtCore.QObject):
         signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord)

     #
     # Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this
     # handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main
     # thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a
     # formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted
     # string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way
     # you like in the slot function itself.
     #
     # You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler
     # doesn't know or care about specific UI elements.
     #
     class QtHandler(logging.Handler):
         def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs):
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
             self.signaller = Signaller()
             self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc)

         def emit(self, record):
             s = self.format(record)
             self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record)

     #
     # This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level
     # are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the
     # current thread.
     #
     def ctname():
         return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName()


     #
     # Used to generate random levels for logging.
     #
     LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)

     #
     # This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the
     # main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press
     # that connects to a slot in the worker.
     #
     # Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add
     # a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that
     # value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the
     # QThread name.
     #
     # This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with
     # random delays of the order of a few seconds.
     #
     class Worker(QtCore.QObject):
         @Slot()
         def start(self):
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra)
             i = 1
             # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean
             # thread termination.
             while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested():
                 delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2
                 time.sleep(delay)
                 try:
                     if random.random() < 0.1:
                         raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i)
                     else:
                         level = random.choice(LEVELS)
                         logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra)
                 except ValueError as e:
                     logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra)
                 i += 1

     #
     # Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains:
     #
     # * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages
     # * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread
     # * A button to log something from the main thread
     # * A button to clear the log window
     #
     class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget):

         COLORS = {
             logging.DEBUG: 'black',
             logging.INFO: 'blue',
             logging.WARNING: 'orange',
             logging.ERROR: 'red',
             logging.CRITICAL: 'purple',
         }

         def __init__(self, app):
             super().__init__()
             self.app = app
             self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self)
             # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform
             f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont')
             if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'):
                 f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace)
             else:
                 f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace)  # for Qt6
             te.setFont(f)
             te.setReadOnly(True)
             PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton
             self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self)
             self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self)
             self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self)
             self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status)
             # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string.
             fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s'
             formatter = logging.Formatter(fs)
             h.setFormatter(formatter)
             logger.addHandler(h)
             # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit
             app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit)

             # Lay out all the widgets
             layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self)
             layout.addWidget(te)
             layout.addWidget(self.work_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.log_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.clear_button)
             self.setFixedSize(900, 400)

             # Connect the non-worker slots and signals
             self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update)
             self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display)

             # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker
             self.start_thread()
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start)
             # Once started, the button should be disabled
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False))

         def start_thread(self):
             self.worker = Worker()
             self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread()
             self.worker.setObjectName('Worker')
             self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread')  # for qThreadName
             self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread)
             # This will start an event loop in the worker thread
             self.worker_thread.start()

         def kill_thread(self):
             # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that
             # to happen
             self.worker_thread.requestInterruption()
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.worker_thread.quit()
                 self.worker_thread.wait()
             else:
                 print('worker has already exited.')

         def force_quit(self):
             # For use when the window is closed
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.kill_thread()

         # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because
         # that's where the slots are set up

         @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord)
         def update_status(self, status, record):
             color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black')
             s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status)
             self.textedit.appendHtml(s)

         @Slot()
         def manual_update(self):
             # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses
             # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate
             # color according to its severity (level).
             level = random.choice(LEVELS)
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra)

         @Slot()
         def clear_display(self):
             self.textedit.clear()


     def main():
         QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread')
         logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv)
         example = Window(app)
         example.show()
         if hasattr(app, 'exec'):
             rc = app.exec()
         else:
             rc = app.exec_()
         sys.exit(rc)

     if __name__=='__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.qt.io/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Next: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Prev: 로깅을 위한 Qt GUI,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.34 Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support
---------------------------------------------

Although RFC 5424(1) dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured
by default to use the older RFC 3164(2), which hails from 2001.  When
‘logging’ was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and
only existing) protocol at the time.  Since RFC5424 came out, as there
has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the *note
SysLogHandler: 656. functionality has not been updated.

RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured
data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support
for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something
like this:

     import datetime
     import logging.handlers
     import re
     import socket
     import time

     class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler):

         tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$')
         escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])')

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None)
             self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def format(self, record):
             version = 1
             asctime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
             m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z'))
             has_offset = False
             if m and time.timezone:
                 hrs, mins = m.groups()
                 if int(hrs) or int(mins):
                     has_offset = True
             if not has_offset:
                 asctime += 'Z'
             else:
                 asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}'
             try:
                 hostname = socket.gethostname()
             except Exception:
                 hostname = '-'
             appname = self.appname or '-'
             procid = record.process
             msgid = '-'
             msg = super().format(record)
             sdata = '-'
             if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'):
                 sd = record.structured_data
                 # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a
                 # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these
                 # mean)
                 # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you
                 # can adapt this code for use in production environments
                 parts = []

                 def replacer(m):
                     g = m.groups()
                     return '\\' + g[0]

                 for sdid, dv in sd.items():
                     part = f'[{sdid}'
                     for k, v in dv.items():
                         s = str(v)
                         s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s)
                         part += f' {k}="{s}"'
                     part += ']'
                     parts.append(part)
                 sdata = ''.join(parts)
             return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}'

You’ll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above
code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g.  for
how you pass structural data to the log).  Nevertheless, the above
should be adaptable to your speciric needs.  With the above handler,
you’d pass structured data using something like this:

     sd = {
         'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'},
         'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'}
     }
     extra = {'structured_data': sd}
     i = 1
     logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Next: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output,  Prev: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.35 How to treat a logger like an output stream
--------------------------------------------------

Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a
file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API’s output to
a logger.  You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a
file-like API. Here’s a short script illustrating such a class:

     import logging

     class LoggerWriter:
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level

         def write(self, message):
             if message != '\n':  # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like
                 self.logger.log(self.level, message)

         def flush(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation
             pass

         def close(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want
             # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception
             pass

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         logger = logging.getLogger('demo')
         info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
         debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG)
         print('An INFO message', file=info_fp)
         print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

When this script is run, it prints

     INFO:demo:An INFO message
     DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message

You could also use ‘LoggerWriter’ to redirect ‘sys.stdout’ and
‘sys.stderr’ by doing something like this:

     import sys

     sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)

You should do this 'after' configuring logging for your needs.  In the
above example, the *note basicConfig(): 9fc. call does this (using the
‘sys.stderr’ value 'before' it is overwritten by a ‘LoggerWriter’
instance).  Then, you’d get this kind of result:

     >>> print('Foo')
     INFO:demo:Foo
     >>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr)
     WARNING:demo:Bar
     >>>

Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used
by *note basicConfig(): 9fc, but you can use a different formatter when
you configure logging.

Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of
buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting.
For example, with the definition of ‘LoggerWriter’ above, if you have
the snippet

     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)
     1 / 0

then running the script results in

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):

     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module>

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:1 / 0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError
     WARNING:demo::
     WARNING:demo:division by zero

As you can see, this output isn’t ideal.  That’s because the underlying
code which writes to ‘sys.stderr’ makes multiple writes, each of which
results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines
above).  To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only
output log lines when newlines are seen.  Let’s use a slightly better
implementation of ‘LoggerWriter’:

     class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter):
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             super().__init__(logger, level)
             self.buffer = ''

         def write(self, message):
             if '\n' not in message:
                 self.buffer += message
             else:
                 parts = message.split('\n')
                 if self.buffer:
                     s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0)
                     self.logger.log(self.level, s)
                 self.buffer = parts.pop()
                 for part in parts:
                     self.logger.log(self.level, part)

This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs
complete lines.  With this approach, you get better output:

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module>
     WARNING:demo:    main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main
     WARNING:demo:    1/0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output,  Next: Patterns to avoid,  Prev: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.36 How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output
---------------------------------------------------------

Usually, messages that are logged (say to console or file) consist of a
single line of text.  However, sometimes there is a need to handle
messages with multiple lines - whether because a logging format string
contains newlines, or logged data contains newlines.  If you want to
handle such messages uniformly, so that each line in the logged message
appears uniformly formatted as if it was logged separately, you can do
this using a handler mixin, as in the following snippet:

     # Assume this is in a module mymixins.py
     import copy

     class MultilineMixin:
         def emit(self, record):
             s = record.getMessage()
             if '\n' not in s:
                 super().emit(record)
             else:
                 lines = s.splitlines()
                 rec = copy.copy(record)
                 rec.args = None
                 for line in lines:
                     rec.msg = line
                     super().emit(rec)

You can use the mixin as in the following script:

     import logging

     from mymixins import MultilineMixin

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     class StreamHandler(MultilineMixin, logging.StreamHandler):
         pass

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s',
                             handlers = [StreamHandler()])
         logger.debug('Single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
         logger.debug('Another single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')

The script, when run, prints something like:

     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Single line
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Multiple lines:
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     fool me once ...
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Another single line
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Multiple lines:
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     fool me ...
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     can't get fooled again

If, on the other hand, you are concerned about log injection(1), you can
use a formatter which escapes newlines, as per the following example:

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     class EscapingFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             return s.replace('\n', r'\n')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         h = logging.StreamHandler()
         h.setFormatter(EscapingFormatter('%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s'))
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, handlers = [h])
         logger.debug('Single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
         logger.debug('Another single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')

You can, of course, use whatever escaping scheme makes the most sense
for you.  The script, when run, should produce output like this:

     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Single line
     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...
     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Another single line
     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Multiple lines:\nfool me ...\ncan't get fooled again

Escaping behaviour can’t be the stdlib default , as it would break
backwards compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://owasp.org/www-community/attacks/Log_Injection


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns to avoid,  Next: Other resources,  Prev: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.37 Patterns to avoid
------------------------

Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you
might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage
patterns which are 'unhelpful', and which should therefore be avoided in
most cases.  The following sections are in no particular order.

* Menu:

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::


File: python.info,  Node: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Next: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.1 Opening the same log file multiple times
.................................................

On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file
multiple times as this will lead to a “file is in use by another
process” error.  However, on POSIX platforms you’ll not get any errors
if you open the same file multiple times.  This could be done
accidentally, for example by:

   * Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file
     (e.g.  by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error).

   * Opening two files that look different, as they have different
     names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the
     other.

   * Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a
     reference to the same file.  This might be through use of the *note
     multiprocessing: 94. module, for example.

Opening a file multiple times might 'appear' to work most of the time,
but can lead to a number of problems in practice:

   * Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes
     try to write to the same file.  Although logging guards against
     concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads,
     there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by
     two different threads using two different handler instances which
     happen to point to the same file.

   * An attempt to delete a file (e.g.  during file rotation) silently
     fails, because there is another reference pointing to it.  This can
     lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in
     unexpected places, or are lost altogether.  Or a file that was
     supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size
     unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place.

Use the techniques outlined in *note 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅
하기: 4fc6. to circumvent such issues.


File: python.info,  Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Next: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Prev: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.2 Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters
.............................................................................

While there might be unusual cases where you’ll need to do this, in
general there is no point because loggers are singletons.  Code can
always access a given logger instance by name using
‘logging.getLogger(name)’, so passing instances around and holding them
as instance attributes is pointless.  Note that in other languages such
as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes.  However,
this pattern doesn’t make sense in Python, where the module (and not the
class) is the unit of software decomposition.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Next: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.3 Adding handlers other than ‘NullHandler’ to a logger in a library
..........................................................................

Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the
responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer.
If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don’t add handlers to
any of your loggers other than a *note NullHandler: 1274. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.4 Creating a lot of loggers
..................................

Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution,
and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can’t then be
freed.  Rather than create a logger per e.g.  file processed or network
connection made, use the *note existing mechanisms: 2cad. for passing
contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created
to those describing areas within your application (generally modules,
but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).


File: python.info,  Node: Other resources,  Prev: Patterns to avoid,  Up: 로깅 요리책

9.9.38 Other resources
----------------------

더 보기
.......

모듈 *note logging: 87.

     logging 모듈에 대한 API 레퍼런스

모듈 *note logging.config: 88.

     logging 모듈용 구성 API.

모듈 *note logging.handlers: 89.

     logging 모듈에 포함된 유용한 처리기.

*note Basic Tutorial: 11e4.

*note Advanced Tutorial: 11e5.


File: python.info,  Node: 정규식 HOWTO,  Next: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO,  Prev: 로깅 요리책,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.10 정규식 HOWTO
=================


저자: A.M. Kuchling <<amk@amk.ca>>

요약
....

이 설명서는 파이썬에서 *note re: b9. 모듈로 정규식을 사용하는 방법을 소
개하는 입문서입니다.  라이브러리 레퍼런스의 해당 절보다 더 부드러운 소개
를 제공합니다.

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<9>.
* 단순한 패턴::
* 정규식 사용하기::
* 더 많은 패턴 기능::
* 문자열 수정하기::
* 일반적인 문제들::
* 피드백::


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<9>,  Next: 단순한 패턴,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.1 소개
-----------

정규식(RE, regexes 또는 regex 패턴이라고 불립니다)은 본질적으로 파이썬에
내장된 매우 작고 고도로 특수화된 프로그래밍 언어이며, *note re: b9. 모듈
을 통해 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 작은 언어를 사용하여, 일치시키려는 가능
한 문자열 집합에 대한 규칙을 지정합니다; 이 집합은 영어 문장, 전자 메일
주소, TeX 명령 또는 원하는 어떤 것이건 포함 할 수 있습니다.  그런 다음
“이 문자열이 패턴과 일치합니까?”, 또는 “이 문자열의 어느 부분에 패턴과 일
치하는 것이 있습니까?”와 같은 질문을 할 수 있습니다.  또한 RE를 사용하여
문자열을 수정하거나 여러 방법으로 분할할 수 있습니다.

정규식 패턴은 일련의 바이트 코드로 컴파일된 다음 C로 작성된 일치 엔진에
의해 실행됩니다.  고급 사용을 위해서는, 엔진이 지정된 RE를 실행하는 방법
에 주의를 기울이고, 더 빠르게 실행되는 바이트 코드를 생성하기 위해 특정
한 방법으로 RE를 작성하는 것이 필요할 수 있습니다.  최적화는 일치 엔진의
내부를 잘 이해하고 있어야 하므로 이 설명서에서 다루지 않습니다.

정규식 언어는 비교적 작고 제한적이므로, 정규식을 사용하여 가능한 모든 문
자열 처리 작업을 수행할 수 있는 것은 아닙니다.  정규식으로 수행할 '수'는
있지만, 표현이 아주 복잡해지는 작업도 있습니다.  이럴 때, 처리하기 위한
파이썬 코드를 작성하는 것이 더 나을 수 있습니다; 파이썬 코드는 정교한 정
규식보다 느리겠지만, 아마도 더 이해하기 쉬울 겁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 단순한 패턴,  Next: 정규식 사용하기,  Prev: 소개<9>,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.2 단순한 패턴
------------------

우리는 가능한 가장 단순한 정규식에 대해 배우는 것으로 시작합니다.  정규
식은 문자열에 대한 연산에 사용되므로, 가장 일반적인 작업으로 시작하겠습
니다: 문자 일치.

정규식의 기초가 되는 컴퓨터 과학(결정적인 혹은 비결정적인 유한 오토마타
)에 대한 자세한 설명은, 컴파일러 작성에 관한 거의 모든 교과서를 참조 할
수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 문자 일치::
* 반복하기::


File: python.info,  Node: 문자 일치,  Next: 반복하기,  Up: 단순한 패턴

9.10.2.1 문자 일치
..................

대부분 글자와 문자는 단순히 자신과 일치합니다.  예를 들어, 정규식
‘test’는 문자열 ‘test’와 정확히 일치합니다.  (이 RE가 ‘Test’나 ‘TEST’와
일치하도록 대/소문자를 구분하지 않는 모드를 활성화할 수 있습니다; 나중에
자세히 설명합니다.)

이 규칙에는 예외가 있습니다; 일부 문자는 특수한 '메타 문자
(metacharacters)'이며, 자신과 일치하지 않습니다.  그 대신, 그들은 일반적
이지 않은 것을 일치시켜야 한다는 신호를 보냅니다.  또는 반복하거나 의미
를 바꾸어 RE의 다른 부분에 영향을 줍니다.  이 설명서의 많은 부분은 다양
한 메타 문자와 그 기능에 대해 논의하는데 할애하고 있습니다.

다음은 메타 문자의 전체 목록입니다; 이것들의 의미는 이 HOWTO의 나머지 부
분에서 논의될 것입니다.

     . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )

우리가 살펴볼 첫 번째 메타 문자는 ‘[’와 ‘]’입니다.  일치시키려는 문자 집
합인 문자 클래스를 지정하는 데 사용됩니다.  문자는 개별적으로 나열되거나
, 두 문자를 주고 ‘'-'’로 구분하여 문자의 범위를 나타낼 수 있습니다.  예
를 들어, ‘[abc]’ 는 ‘a’, ‘b’ 또는 ‘c’ 문자와 일치합니다; 이것은 ‘[a-c]’와
같은데, 같은 문자 집합을 표현하기 위해 범위를 사용합니다.  소문자들만 일
치시키려면, RE가 ‘[a-z]’가 됩니다.

메타 문자(‘\’ 제외)는 클래스 내부에서는 활성화되지 않습니다.  예를 들어,
‘[akm$]’는 ‘'a'’, ‘'k'’, ‘'m'’ 또는 ‘'$'’ 문자와 일치합니다; ‘'$'’는 대
개 메타 문자이지만, 문자 클래스 안에서는 특수한 특성이 없어집니다.

'여집합 (complement set)'을 사용해서 클래스에 나열되지 않은 문자를 일치
시킬 수 있습니다.  이것은 클래스의 첫 번째 문자로 ‘'^'’를 포함하는 것으
로 나타냅니다.  예를 들어, ‘[^5]’ 는 ‘'5'’를 제외한 모든 문자와 일치합니
다.  캐럿이 문자 클래스의 다른 곳에 나타나면, 특별한 의미가 없습니다.  예
를 들어, ‘[5^]’ 는 ‘'5'’나 ‘'^'’와 일치합니다.

아마도 가장 중요한 메타 문자는 백 슬래시(‘\’)입니다.  파이썬 문자열 리터
럴에서와 같이, 백 슬래시 다음에 다양한 특수 시퀀스를 알리는 다양한 문자
가 따라올 수 있습니다.  또한, 모든 메타 문자를 이스케이프 처리하여 패턴
으로 일치시킬 수 있도록 합니다.  예를 들어, ‘[’나 ‘\’와 일치시켜야 할 때
, 특별한 의미를 제거하기 위해 앞에 백 슬래시를 붙일 수 있습니다: ‘\[’나
‘\\’.

‘'\'’로 시작하는 특수 시퀀스 중 일부는 숫자(digit) 집합, 글자(letter) 집
합 또는 공백이 아닌 모든 것의 집합과 같이 종종 유용한 미리 정의된 문자 집
합을 나타냅니다.

예를 들어 보겠습니다: ‘\w’는 모든 영숫자(alphanumeric character)와 일치
합니다.  정규식 패턴을 바이트열로 표현하면, 이것은 ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ 클래스
와 동등합니다.  정규식 패턴이 문자열이면, ‘\w’는 *note unicodedata: 105.
모듈이 제공하는 유니코드 데이터베이스에서 글자(letter)로 표시된 모든 문
자를 일치시킵니다.  정규식을 컴파일할 때 *note re.ASCII: 626. 플래그를 제
공하여 문자열 패턴에서 ‘\w’의 더 제한된 정의를 사용할 수 있습니다.

다음 특수 시퀀스 목록은 완전하지 않습니다.  유니코드 문자열 패턴에 대한
시퀀스와 확장 클래스 정의의 전체 목록은, 표준 라이브러리 레퍼런스에서
*note 정규식 문법: 71d.의 마지막 부분을 참조하십시오.  일반적으로, 유니
코드 버전은 유니코드 데이터베이스의 적절한 범주에 있는 모든 문자와 일치
합니다.

‘\d’

     모든 십진 숫자와 일치합니다; 이것은 클래스 ‘[0-9]’와 동등합니다.

‘\D’

     모든 비 숫자 문자와 일치합니다; 이것은 클래스 ‘[^0-9]’와 동등합니다
     .

‘\s’

     모든 공백 문자와 일치합니다; 이것은 클래스 ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’ 와 동등
     합니다.

‘\S’

     모든 비 공백 문자와 일치합니다; 이것은 클래스 ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’ 와 동
     등합니다.

‘\w’

     모든 영숫자(alphanumeric character)와 일치합니다; 이것은 클래스
     ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’와 동등합니다.

‘\W’

     모든 비 영숫자와 일치합니다; 이것은 클래스 ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’와 동등합
     니다.

이 시퀀스들은 문자 클래스 내에 포함될 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘[\s,.]’
는 모든 공백 문자, ‘','’ 또는 ‘'.'’와 일치하는 문자 클래스입니다.

이 절의 마지막 메타 문자는 ‘.’입니다.  개행 문자를 제외한 모든 문자와 일
치하며, 개행 문자와도 일치하는 대체 모드(*note re.DOTALL: 22f5.)가 있습
니다.  ‘.’ 은 “모든 문자”와 일치시키려고 할 때 자주 사용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 반복하기,  Prev: 문자 일치,  Up: 단순한 패턴

9.10.2.2 반복하기
.................

다양한 문자 집합을 일치시킬 수 있다는 것이 문자열에서 사용할 수 있는 메
서드로 이미 가능하지 않은 것을 정규식이 수행할 수 있는 첫 번째 것입니다.
그러나, 이것이 정규식의 유일한 추가 기능이라면, 그다지 진보했다고 할 수
없습니다.  또 다른 기능은 RE의 일부가 특정 횟수만큼 반복되어야 한다고 지
정할 수 있다는 것입니다.

우리가 살펴볼 반복을 위한 첫 번째 메타 문자는 ‘*’입니다.  ‘*’는 리터럴 문
자 ‘'*'’와 일치하지 않습니다; 대신 이전 문자를 정확히 한 번이 아닌 0번 이
상 일치시킬 수 있도록 지정합니다.

예를 들어, ‘ca*t’는 ‘'ct'’ (0개의 ‘'a'’ 문자), ‘'cat'’ (1개의 ‘'a'’),
‘'caaat'’ (3개의 ‘'a'’ 문자) 등과 일치합니다.

‘*’와 같은 반복은 '탐욕스럽습니다 (greedy)'; RE를 반복할 때, 일치 엔진은
가능한 한 여러 번 반복하려고 시도합니다.  패턴의 뒷부분이 일치하지 않으
면, 일치 엔진은 되돌아가서 더 작은 반복으로 다시 시도합니다.

단계별 예제를 통해 더 명확하게 알 수 있습니다.  정규식 ‘a[bcd]*b’를 생각
해 봅시다.  이 문자는 ‘'a'’ 문자와 일치하고, 0개 이상의 ‘[bcd]’ 클래스 문
자가 뒤따르고, 마지막에 ‘'b'’로 끝납니다.  이제 이 RE를 문자열
‘'abcbd'’와 일치시킨다고 상상해보십시오.

단계       일치된 것       설명
                           
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                           
1          ‘a’             RE의 ‘a’가 일치합니다.
                           
                           
2          ‘abcbd’         엔진은 가능한 한 길게 ‘[bcd]*’와 일
                           치시키려고 문자열의 끝까지 갑니다.
                           
                           
3          '실패'          엔진은 ‘b’를 일치하려고 시도하지만,
                           현재 위치가 문자열의 끝이므로 실패
                           합니다.
                           
                           
4          ‘abcb’          물러서서, ‘[bcd]*’가 하나 적은 문자
                           와 일치합니다.
                           
                           
5          '실패'          ‘b’를 다시 시도하지만, 현재 위치는
                           ‘'d'’ 인 마지막 문자에 있습니다.
                           
                           
6          ‘abc’           다시 물러서서, ‘[bcd]*’가 ‘bc’하고
                           만 일치합니다.
                           
                           
6          ‘abcb’          ‘b’를 다시 시도합니다.  이번에는 현
                           재 위치의 문자가 ‘'b'’이므로 성공합
                           니다.
                           

RE의 끝에 도달했으며, ‘'abcb'’와 일치했습니다.  이것은 일치 엔진이 처음
에는 갈 수 있는 데까지 가본 다음, 일치하는 것이 발견되지 않으면 점진적으
로 물러서고, 나머지 RE의 나머지 부분을 반복해서 다시 시도하는 것을 보여
줍니다.  ‘[bcd]*’에 대한 일치 항목의 길이가 0이 될 때까지 물러서고, 그것
마저도 실패하면, 엔진은 문자열이 RE와 전혀 일치하지 않는다고 결론을 내립
니다.

또 다른 반복 메타 문자는 ‘+’인 데, 하나 이상과 일치합니다.  ‘*’와 ‘+’의
차이점에 주의하십시오; ‘*’는 '0' 이상과 일치하므로, 반복되는 내용이 전혀
표시되지 않을 수 있습니다.  반면 ‘+’는 적어도 '1'번 이상 나타날 것을 요
구합니다.  비슷한 예제를 사용하면, ‘ca+t’는 ‘'cat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’
(3 ‘'a'’)와 일치하지만 ‘'ct'’와 일치하지는 않습니다.

반복 연산자나 한정자가 두 개 더 있습니다.  물음표 문자 ‘?’는 한 번이나
0번 일치합니다; 무언가를 선택적이라고 표시한다고 생각해도 좋습니다.  예
를 들어, ‘home-?brew’는 ‘'homebrew'’나 ‘'home-brew'’와 일치합니다.

가장 복잡한 한정자는 ‘{m,n}’입니다.  여기서 'm'과 'n'은 십진수입니다.  이
한정자는 적어도 'm' 반복, 최대 'n' 반복이 있어야 함을 의미합니다.  예를
들어, ‘a/{1,3}b’는 ‘'a/b'’, ‘'a//b'’ 및 ‘'a///b'’와 일치합니다.  ‘'ab'’에
는 슬래시가 없어서 일치하지 않고, ‘'a////b'’에는 4개 있어서 일치하지 않
습니다.

'm'이나 'n'을 생략 할 수 있습니다; 이때, 빠진 값에 대해 합리적인 값이 가
정됩니다.  'm'을 생략하면 0 하한으로 해석하는 반면, 'm'을 생략하면 무한
대의 상한을 뜻합니다.

가장 간단한 경우 ‘{m}’은 앞의 항목을 정확히 'm' 번 일치시킵니다.  예를 들
어, ‘a/{2}b’는 ‘'a//b'’와만 일치합니다.

환원주의로 기울어진 독자는 다른 세 한정자들을 이 표기법을 사용하여 표현
할 수 있음을 알아챌 수 있을 겁니다.  ‘{0,}’은 ‘*’와 같고, ‘{1,}’은 ‘+’와
같으며, ‘{0,1}’은 ‘?’와 같습니다.  그럴 수 있다면 ‘*’, ‘+’ 또는 ‘?’를 사
용하는 것이 좋은데, 더 짧고 읽기 쉽기 때문입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정규식 사용하기,  Next: 더 많은 패턴 기능,  Prev: 단순한 패턴,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.3 정규식 사용하기
----------------------

이제 간단한 정규식을 살펴보았습니다.  실제로 파이썬에서 어떻게 사용해야
할까요?  *note re: b9. 모듈은 정규식 엔진에 대한 인터페이스를 제공해서,
RE를 객체로 컴파일한 다음 일치를 수행 할 수 있도록 합니다.

* Menu:

* 정규식 컴파일하기::
* 백 슬래시 전염병::
* 일치 수행하기::
* 모듈 수준 함수: 모듈 수준 함수<3>.
* 컴파일 플래그::


File: python.info,  Node: 정규식 컴파일하기,  Next: 백 슬래시 전염병,  Up: 정규식 사용하기

9.10.3.1 정규식 컴파일하기
..........................

정규식은 패턴 객체로 컴파일되는데, 패턴 일치를 검색하거나 문자열 치환을
수행하는 등의 다양한 작업을 위한 메서드를 갖고 있습니다.

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('ab*')
     >>> p
     re.compile('ab*')

*note re.compile(): bd0.은 다양한 특수 기능과 문법 변형을 가능하게 하는
선택적 'flags' 인자도 받아들입니다.  나중에 사용할 수 있는 설정을 살펴보
도록 하겠지만, 지금은 한 가지 예 만 보겠습니다:

     >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)

RE는 문자열로 *note re.compile(): bd0.에 전달됩니다.  정규식이 핵심 파이
썬 언어의 일부가 아니고, 정규식을 표현하기 위한 특수 문법이 만들어지지 않
았기 때문에 RE는 문자열로 다뤄집니다.  (RE를 전혀 필요로하지 않는 응용 프
로그램이 있기 때문에, 이를 포함해서 언어 사양을 부풀릴 필요가 없습니다.)
대신, *note re: b9. 모듈은 *note socket: cc.이나 *note zlib: 133. 모듈과
마찬가지로 파이썬에 포함된 C 확장 모듈일 뿐입니다.

RE를 문자열에 넣는 것은 파이썬 언어가 더 간단하게 유지되도록 하지만, 다
음 절의 주제인 한 가지 단점이 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 백 슬래시 전염병,  Next: 일치 수행하기,  Prev: 정규식 컴파일하기,  Up: 정규식 사용하기

9.10.3.2 백 슬래시 전염병
.........................

앞에서 언급한 것처럼, 정규식은 백 슬래시 문자(‘'\'’)를 사용하여 특수 형
식을 나타내거나 특수 문자 특별한 의미를 갖지 않고 사용되도록 합니다.  이
것은 파이썬이 문자열 리터럴에서 같은 목적으로 같은 문자를 사용하는 것과
충돌합니다.

LaTeX 파일에서 발견되는 문자열 ‘\section’과 일치하는 RE를 작성한다고 가
정해 봅시다.  프로그램 코드에 무엇을 쓸지 알아내기 위해, 일치시키고자 하
는 문자열로 시작하십시오.  그런 다음, 백 슬래시와 다른 메타 문자 앞에 백
슬래시를 붙여 이스케이프 처리하면, 문자열 ‘\\section’을 얻게 됩니다.
*note re.compile(): bd0.에 전달되어야 하는 결과 문자열은 ‘\\section’이어
야 합니다.  그러나, 이를 파이썬 문자열 리터럴로 표현하려면, 두 개의 백 슬
래시를 모두 '다시' 이스케이프 처리해야 합니다.

문자                    단계
                        
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
‘\section’              일치시킬 텍스트 문자열
                        
                        
‘\\section’             *note re.compile(): bd0.을 위해 이스케이프 처
                        리된 백 슬래시
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         문자열 리터럴을 위해 이스케이프 처리된 백 슬
                        래시
                        

즉, 리터럴 백 슬래시와 일치시키려면, RE 문자열로 ‘'\\\\'’을 작성해야 하
는데, 정규식은 ‘\\’이어야하고, 일반 파이썬 문자열 리터럴 안에서 각 백 슬
래시를 ‘\\’로 표현해야 하기 때문입니다.  백 슬래시를 반복적으로 사용하는
RE에서는, 수없이 반복되는 백 슬래시로 이어져, 결과 문자열을 이해하기 어
렵게 만듭니다.

해결책은 정규식에 파이썬의 날 문자열 표기법을 사용하는 것입니다; 백 슬래
시는 ‘'r'’ 접두사가 붙은 문자열 리터럴에서 특별한 방법으로 처리되지 않아
서, ‘r"\n"’는 ‘'\'’과 ‘'n'’을 포함하는 두 문자 문자열이지만, ‘"\n"’는 줄
넘김을 포함하는 한 문자 문자열입니다.  정규식은 종종 이 날 문자열 표기법
을 사용하여 파이썬 코드로 작성됩니다.

또한, 정규식에서는 유효하지만, 파이썬 문자열 리터럴에서는 유효하지 않은
특수 이스케이프 시퀀스는 이제 *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 발생시키
고 결국에는 *note SyntaxError: 18d.가 될 것입니다.  이는 날 문자열 표기
법이나 백 슬래시 이스케이핑이 사용되지 않으면 시퀀스가 유효하지 않게 됨
을 뜻합니다.

일반 문자열             날 문자열
                        
-----------------------------------------------
                        
‘"ab*"’                 ‘r"ab*"’
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         ‘r"\\section"’
                        
                        
‘"\\w+\\s+\\1"’         ‘r"\w+\s+\1"’
                        


File: python.info,  Node: 일치 수행하기,  Next: 모듈 수준 함수<3>,  Prev: 백 슬래시 전염병,  Up: 정규식 사용하기

9.10.3.3 일치 수행하기
......................

일단 컴파일된 정규식을 나타내는 객체가 있으면, 이것으로 무엇을 할까요?  패
턴 객체에는 여러 가지 메서드와 어트리뷰트가 있습니다.  가장 중요한 것만
여기서 다루어집니다; 전체 목록을 보려면 *note re: b9. 설명서를 참조하십
시오.

메서드/어트리뷰트      목적
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘match()’              문자열의 시작 부분에서 RE가 일치하는지 판단합니다
                       .
                       
                       
‘search()’             이 RE가 일치하는 위치를 찾으면서, 문자열을 훑습니
                       다.
                       
                       
‘findall()’            RE가 일치하는 모든 부분 문자열을 찾아 리스트로 반
                       환합니다.
                       
                       
‘finditer()’           RE가 일치하는 모든 부분 문자열을 찾아
                       *note 이터레이터: 1ac.로 반환합니다.
                       

*note match(): 2307.와 *note search(): 2308.는 일치하는 항목이 없으면
‘None’을 반환합니다.  성공하면, *note 일치 객체: f7f. 인스턴스가 반환되
고, 일치에 대한 정보가 들어 있습니다: 어디에서 시작하고 끝나는지, 일치하
는 부분 문자열 등입니다.

*note re: b9. 모듈로 대화식으로 실험해보면 알 수 있습니다.

이 HOWTO는 예제에 표준 파이썬 인터프리터를 사용합니다.  먼저, 파이썬 인
터프리터를 실행하고, *note re: b9. 모듈을 임포트 한 다음, RE를 컴파일하
십시오:

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
     >>> p
     re.compile('[a-z]+')

이제, 다양한 문자열을 RE ‘[a-z]+’와 일치시켜볼 수 있습니다.  ‘+’는 ‘하나
이상의 반복’을 의미하므로, 빈 문자열은 전혀 일치하지 않아야 합니다.  이
때 *note match(): 2307.는 ‘None’을 반환해야 하며, 인터프리터는 출력을 인
쇄하지 않습니다.  분명하게 하기 위해 ‘match()’의 결과를 명시적으로 인쇄
할 수 있습니다.

     >>> p.match("")
     >>> print(p.match(""))
     None

이제, 일치해야 하는 문자열을 시도해 봅시다, 가령 ‘tempo’.  이때, *note
match(): 2307.는 *note 일치 객체: f7f.를 반환하므로, 나중에 사용할 수 있
도록 결과를 변수에 저장해야 합니다.

     >>> m = p.match('tempo')
     >>> m
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>

이제 *note match object: f7f.를 조회하여 일치하는 문자열에 대한 정보를 얻
을 수 있습니다.  일치 객체 인스턴스에는 여러 메서드와 어트리뷰트가 있습
니다; 가장 중요한 것들은 다음과 같습니다:

메서드/어트리뷰트      목적
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘group()’              RE와 일치하는 문자열을 반환합니다.
                       
                       
‘start()’              일치의 시작 위치를 반환합니다
                       
                       
‘end()’                일치의 끝 위치를 반환합니다
                       
                       
‘span()’               일치의 (시작, 끝) 위치를 포함하는 튜플을 반환
                       합니다.
                       

이 메서드를 실험해보면 곧 그 의미가 분명해질 것입니다:

     >>> m.group()
     'tempo'
     >>> m.start(), m.end()
     (0, 5)
     >>> m.span()
     (0, 5)

*note group(): 231d.은 RE에 의해 일치된 부분 문자열을 반환합니다.  *note
start(): 2321.와 *note end(): 2322.는 일치의 시작과 끝 인덱스를 반환합니
다.  *note span(): 2323.은 시작과 끝 인덱스를 단일 튜플로 반환합니다.
*note match(): 2307. 메서드는 문자열의 시작 부분에서 RE가 일치하는지 검
사하므로, ‘start()’는 항상 0입니다.  그러나, 패턴의 *note search():
2308. 메서드는 문자열을 훑기 때문에, 일치가 0에서 시작하지 않을 수 있습
니다.

     >>> print(p.match('::: message'))
     None
     >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
     >>> m.group()
     'message'
     >>> m.span()
     (4, 11)

실제 프로그램에서, 가장 일반적인 스타일은 *note 일치 객체: f7f.를 변수에
저장한 다음, ‘None’인지 확인하는 것입니다.  보통 이런 식입니다:

     p = re.compile( ... )
     m = p.match( 'string goes here' )
     if m:
         print('Match found: ', m.group())
     else:
         print('No match')

두 패턴 메서드는 패턴에 대한 모든 일치를 반환합니다.  *note findall():
2313.은 일치하는 문자열 리스트를 반환합니다:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
     ['12', '11', '10']

이 예제에서는 리터럴을 날 문자열 리터럴로 만드는 ‘r’ 접두어가 필요한데,
일반적인 “요리된(cooked)” 문자열 리터럴에 있는, 정규식에서는 허락되지만,
파이썬에서 인식하지 못하는, 이스케이프 시퀀스가 이제 *note
DeprecationWarning: 1a5.을 발생시키고, 결국에는 결국 *note SyntaxError:
18d.가 될 것이기 때문입니다.  *note 백 슬래시 전염병: 5004.를 참조하십시
오.

*note findall(): 2313.은 결과로 반환하기 전에 전체 리스트를 만들어야 합
니다.  *note finditer(): 2314. 메서드는 *note 매치 객체: f7f. 인스턴스의
시퀀스를 *note 이터레이터: 1ac.로 반환합니다:

     >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
     >>> iterator
     <callable_iterator object at 0x...>
     >>> for match in iterator:
     ...     print(match.span())
     ...
     (0, 2)
     (22, 24)
     (29, 31)


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 수준 함수<3>,  Next: 컴파일 플래그,  Prev: 일치 수행하기,  Up: 정규식 사용하기

9.10.3.4 모듈 수준 함수
.......................

패턴 객체를 생성하고 메서드를 호출해야만 하는 것은 아닙니다; *note re:
b9. 모듈은 *note match(): 121d, *note search(): 121c, *note findall():
1020, *note sub(): 2a3. 등의 최상위 수준 함수도 제공합니다.  이 함수들은
첫 번째 인자로 RE 문자열이 추가된 해당 패턴 메서드와 같은 인자를 취하고,
여전히 ‘None’이나 *note 일치 객체: f7f. 인스턴스를 반환합니다.

     >>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
     None
     >>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>

내부적으로, 이 함수는 단순히 패턴 객체를 만들고 적절한 메서드를 호출합니
다.  또한 컴파일된 객체를 캐시에 저장하므로, 같은 RE를 사용하는 이후의 호
출에서는 패턴을 반복해서 구문 분석할 필요가 없습니다.

이러한 모듈 수준의 함수를 사용해야 할까요, 아니면 패턴을 얻어서 메서드를
직접 호출해야 할까요?  루프 내에서 정규식에 액세스하고 있다면, 사전 컴파
일이 몇 번의 함수 호출을 절약할 수 있습니다.  루프 바깥에서는, 내부 캐시
덕분에 큰 차이가 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 컴파일 플래그,  Prev: 모듈 수준 함수<3>,  Up: 정규식 사용하기

9.10.3.5 컴파일 플래그
......................

컴파일 플래그를 사용하면 정규식의 작동 방식을 수정할 수 있습니다.  플래
그는 *note re: b9. 모듈에서 *note IGNORECASE: 172c.와 같은 긴 이름과
*note I: 22f8.와 같은 간단한 한 글자 형식의 두 가지 이름으로 사용 가능합
니다.  (Perl의 패턴 수정자에 익숙하다면, 한 글자 형식은 같은 글자를 사용
합니다; 예를 들어, *note re.VERBOSE: 2305.의 짧은 형식은 *note re.X:
22fd.입니다.)  다중 플래그는 비트별 OR 하여 지정할 수 있습니다; 예를 들
어, ‘re.I | re.M’은 *note I: 22f8.와 *note M: 22fa. 플래그를 모두 설정합
니다.

다음은 사용 가능한 플래그와 각 플래그에 대한 자세한 설명입니다.

플래그                                의미
                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
*note ASCII: 626, *note A: 22f7.      ‘\w’, ‘\b’, ‘\s’ 및 ‘\d’와 같은 여러 이스케이
                                      프가 해당 속성이 있는 ASCII 문자에만 일치하도
                                      록 합니다.
                                      
                                      
*note DOTALL: 22f5, *note S: 22fb.    ‘.’가 개행 문자를 포함한 모든 문자와 일치하도
                                      록 합니다.
                                      
                                      
*note IGNORECASE: 172c,               대소 문자 구분 없는 일치를 수행합니다.
*note I: 22f8.                        

*note LOCALE: b69, *note L: 22f9.     로케일을 고려하는 일치를 수행합니다.
                                      
                                      
*note MULTILINE: 22f6,                다중 행 일치, ‘^’와 ‘$’에 영향을 줍니다.
*note M: 22fa.                        

*note VERBOSE: 2305, *note X: 22fd.   더 명확하고 이해하기 쉽게 정리될 수 있는 상세
(‘확장’ 용)                           한 RE를 활성화합니다.
                                      

 -- 데이터: re.I

 -- 데이터: re.IGNORECASE

     대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 일치를 수행합니다; 문자 클래스와 리터럴 문
     자열은 대소 문자를 무시하여 문자와 일치합니다.  예를 들어 ‘[A-Z]’는
     소문자와도 일치합니다.  *note ASCII: 626. 플래그로 ASCII가 아닌 일
     치를 막지 않는 한, 전체 유니코드 일치도 작동합니다.  유니코드 패턴
     ‘[a-z]’나 ‘[A-Z]’가 *note IGNORECASE: 172c. 플래그와 함께 사용되면,
     52 ASCII 문자와 4개의 추가 비 ASCII 문자와 일치합니다: ‘İ’ (U+0130,
     위에 점이 있는 라틴 대문자 I), ‘ı’ (U+0131, 라틴 소문자 점 없는 i),
     ‘ſ’ (U+017F, 라틴 소문자 긴 s) 및 ‘K’ (U+212A, 켈빈 기호).  ‘Spam’은
     ‘'Spam'’, ‘'spam'’, ‘'spAM'’ 또는 ‘'ſpam'’과 일치합니다 (마지막은 유
     니코드 모드에서만 일치합니다).  이 소문자화는 현재 로케일을 고려하
     지 않습니다; 고려하려면 *note LOCALE: b69. 플래그를 설정하면 됩니다
     .

 -- 데이터: re.L

 -- 데이터: re.LOCALE

     ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ 및 대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 일치를 유니코드
     데이터베이스 대신 현재 로케일에 의존하도록 만듭니다.

     로케일은 언어 차이를 고려한 프로그램을 작성하는 데 도움이 되는 C 라
     이브러리의 기능입니다.  예를 들어, 인코딩된 프랑스어 텍스트를 처리
     할 때, 단어와 일치하도록 ‘\w+’를 쓰고 싶습니다, 하지만 ‘\w’는 바이
     트열 패턴에서 ‘[A-Za-z]’ 문자 클래스하고만 일치합니다; ‘é’나 ‘ç’에
     해당하는 바이트는 일치하지 않습니다.  시스템이 올바르게 구성되고 프
     랑스어 로케일이 선택되면, 특정 C 함수는 ‘é’에 해당하는 바이트도 문
     자로 간주하여야 함을 프로그램에 알립니다.  정규식을 컴파일할 때
     *note LOCALE: b69. 플래그를 설정하면, 컴파일된 결과 객체가 ‘\w’에 대
     해 이러한 C 함수를 사용하게 됩니다; 더 느리기는 하지만, 기대하는 대
     로 ‘\w+’가 프랑스어 단어를 일치시킬 수 있습니다.  이 플래그의 사용
     은 파이썬 3에서는 권장하지 않는데, 로케일 메커니즘이 매우 신뢰성이
     떨어지고, 한 번에 하나의 “컬처(culture)” 만 처리하고, 8비트 로케일
     에서 만 작동하기 때문입니다.  파이썬 3에서 유니코드 (str) 패턴에 대
     해 유니코드 일치가 기본적으로 이미 활성화되어 있으며, 다른 로케일
     /언어를 처리할 수 있습니다.

 -- 데이터: re.M

 -- 데이터: re.MULTILINE

     (‘^’과 ‘$’는 아직 설명되지 않았습니다; *note 메타 문자 더 보기:
     5008. 절에서 소개될 예정입니다.)

     보통 ‘^’는 문자열의 시작 부분에서만 일치하고, ‘$’는 문자열의 끝부분
     과 문자열 끝에 있는 줄 바꿈 (있다면) 바로 앞에서 일치합니다.  이 플
     래그를 지정하면 ‘^’는 문자열 시작 부분과 문자열 내의 각 줄 시작 부
     분(각 줄 바꿈의 바로 뒤)에서 일치합니다.  비슷하게, ‘$’ 메타 문자는
     문자열 끝과 각 줄의 끝(각 줄 바꿈 바로 앞)에서 일치합니다.

 -- 데이터: re.S

 -- 데이터: re.DOTALL

     ‘'.'’ 특수 문자가 개행 문자를 포함하는 모든 문자와 일치하도록 만듭
     니다; 이 플래그가 없으면, ‘'.'’는 개행 문자를 '제외한' 모든 문자와
     일치합니다.

 -- 데이터: re.A

 -- 데이터: re.ASCII

     ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\s’ 및 ‘\S’가 전체 유니코드 일치 대신
     ASCII 전용 일치를 수행하도록 만듭니다.  유니코드 패턴에서만 의미가
     있으며, 바이트열 패턴에서는 무시됩니다.

 -- 데이터: re.X

 -- 데이터: re.VERBOSE

     이 플래그는 정규식을 포매팅하는 더 유연한 방법을 제공해서 더 가독성
     있는 정규식을 작성할 수 있도록 합니다.  이 플래그가 지정되면, 문자
     클래스에 있거나 이스케이프 되지 않은 백 슬래시 뒤에 있을 때를 제외
     하고, RE 문자열 내의 공백을 무시합니다; 이것은 RE를 보다 명확하게 구
     성하고 들여쓰기 할 수 있도록 합니다.  이 플래그는 RE 내에 엔진이 무
     시하는 주석을 넣을 수도 있게 합니다; 주석은 문자 클래스나 이스케이
     프 처리되지 않은 백 슬래시 뒤에 있지 않은 ‘'#'’로 표시됩니다.

     예를 들어, 여기에 *note re.VERBOSE: 2305.를 사용하는 RE가 있습니다;
     얼마다 더 읽기 쉬워지는지 보이십니까?

          charref = re.compile(r"""
           &[#]                # 숫자 엔티티 참조의 시작
           (
               0[0-7]+         # 8진수 형식
             | [0-9]+          # 십진수 형식
             | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # 16진수 형식
           )
           ;                   # 후행 세미콜론
          """, re.VERBOSE)

     상세 설정이 없으면, RE는 이렇게 됩니다:

          charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
                               "|[0-9]+"
                               "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")

     위의 예에서, 파이썬의 문자열 리터럴 자동 이어붙이기를 사용해서 RE를
     더 작은 조각으로 나누었지만, *note re.VERBOSE: 2305.를 사용하는 버
     전보다 여전히 이해하기가 어렵습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 더 많은 패턴 기능,  Next: 문자열 수정하기,  Prev: 정규식 사용하기,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.4 더 많은 패턴 기능
------------------------

지금까지 정규식의 일부 기능에 관해서만 설명했습니다.  이 절에서는, 몇 가
지 새로운 메타 문자와 그룹을 사용하여 일치하는 텍스트의 부분을 꺼내는 방
법을 다룹니다.

* Menu:

* 메타 문자 더 보기::
* 그룹::
* 비 포착 그룹과 이름 있는 그룹::
* 미리 보기 어서션::


File: python.info,  Node: 메타 문자 더 보기,  Next: 그룹,  Up: 더 많은 패턴 기능

9.10.4.1 메타 문자 더 보기
..........................

우리가 아직 다루지 않은 몇 가지 메타 문자가 있습니다.  대부분 이 절에서
다룰 것입니다.

논의할 나머지 메타 문자 중 일부는 '폭이 없는 어서션(zero-width
assertions)'입니다.  이들은 엔진이 문자열을 통해 앞으로 나아가도록 하지
않습니다; 대신, 문자를 전혀 소비하지 않고, 단순히 성공하거나 실패합니다.
예를 들어, ‘\b’는 현재 위치가 단어 경계에 위치한다는 어서션입니다; 위치
는 ‘\b’에 의해 전혀 변경되지 않습니다.  이것은 폭이 없는 어서션을 반복해
서는 안 된다는 뜻인데, 주어진 위치에서 일단 일치하면 명백히 무한한 횟수
만큼 일치 할 수 있기 때문입니다.

‘|’

     대안, 또는 “or” 연산자.  'A'와 'B'가 정규식이면, ‘A|B’는 'A'나 'B'와
     일치하는 문자열과 일치합니다.  ‘|’는 여러 문자로 된 문자열의 대안을
     사용할 때 합리적으로 작동하도록 하기 위해 우선순위가 매우 낮습니다.
     ‘Crow|Servo’는 ‘'Crow'’나 ‘'Servo'’와 일치합니다, ‘'Cro'’, ‘'w'’나
     ‘'S'’ 그리고 ‘'ervo'’가 아닙니다.

     리터럴 ‘'|'’를 일치시키려면, ‘\|’를 사용하거나 ‘[|]’ 처럼 문자 클래
     스 안에 넣으십시오.

‘^’

     줄의 시작 부분에 일치합니다.  *note MULTILINE: 22f6. 플래그가 설정
     되어 있지 않은 한, 문자열 시작 부분에서만 일치합니다.  *note
     MULTILINE: 22f6. 모드에서는, 문자열 내의 각 줄 바꿈 바로 뒤에서도 일
     치합니다.

     예를 들어, ‘From’이라는 단어를 줄의 시작 부분에서만 일치시키려면, 사
     용할 RE는 ‘^From’입니다.

          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
          None

     리터럴 ‘'^'’를 일치시키려면, ‘\^’를 사용하십시오.

‘$’

     줄의 끝부분과 일치하는데, 문자열의 끝이나 줄 바꿈 문자 다음에 오는
     모든 위치로 정의됩니다.

          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
          None
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>

     리터럴 ‘'$'’를 일치시키려면, ‘\$’를 사용하거나 ‘[$]’ 처럼 문자 클래
     스 안에 넣으십시오.

‘\A’

     문자열의 시작 부분에서만 일치합니다.  *note MULTILINE: 22f6. 모드가
     아닐 때, ‘\A’와 ‘^’는 실질적으로 같습니다.  *note MULTILINE: 22f6.
     모드에서는, 다릅니다: ‘\A’는 여전히 문자열의 시작 부분에서만 일치하
     지만, ‘^’는 문자열 내의 줄 바꿈 문자 뒤에 오는 모든 위치에서 일치 할
     수 있습니다.

‘\Z’

     문자열 끝부분에서만 일치합니다.

‘\b’

     단어 경계.  이것은 단어(word)의 시작이니 끝부분에서만 일치하는 폭이
     없는 어서션입니다.  단어는 영숫자 문자의 시퀀스로 정의되므로, 단어
     의 끝은 공백이나 영숫자가 아닌 문자로 표시됩니다.

     다음 예제는 완전한 단어일 때만 ‘class’와 일치합니다.  다른 단어 안
     에 포함되어 있으면 일치하지 않습니다.

          >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
          >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
          None

     이 특수 시퀀스를 사용할 때 기억해야 할 두 가지 미묘한 점이 있습니다
     .  첫째, 이것은 파이썬의 문자열 리터럴과 정규식 시퀀스 간의 최악의
     충돌입니다.  파이썬의 문자열 리터럴에서 ‘\b’는 ASCII 값 8을 갖는 백
     스페이스 문자입니다.  날 문자열을 사용하지 않으면, 파이썬이 ‘\b’를
     백스페이스로 변환하고, 여러분의 RE는 예상대로 일치하지 않습니다.  다
     음 예제는 앞의 RE와 같아 보이지만, RE 문자열 앞의 ‘'r'’가 빠졌습니
     다.

          >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>

     둘째, 이 어서선이 사용되지 않는 문자 클래스 내에서, ‘\b’는 파이썬의
     문자열 리터럴과의 호환성을 위해 백스페이스 문자를 나타냅니다.

‘\B’

     또 다른 폭이 없는 어서션, 이것은 ‘\b’의 반대이며, 현재 위치가 단어
     경계에 있지 않을 때만 일치합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 그룹,  Next: 비 포착 그룹과 이름 있는 그룹,  Prev: 메타 문자 더 보기,  Up: 더 많은 패턴 기능

9.10.4.2 그룹
.............

종종 단지 RE가 일치하는지보다 많은 정보를 얻을 필요가 있습니다.  정규식
은 종종 관심 있는 다른 구성 요소와 일치하는 몇 개의 서브 그룹으로 나누어
진 RE를 작성하여 문자열을 해부하는 데 사용됩니다.  예를 들어, RFC-822 헤
더 행은 다음과 같이 ‘':'’로 구분된 헤더 이름과 값으로 나뉩니다:

     From: author@example.com
     User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
     MIME-Version: 1.0
     To: editor@example.com

이것은 전체 헤더 행과 일치하는 정규식을 작성하고, 헤더 이름과 일치하는 그
룹 하나와 헤더 값과 일치하는 다른 그룹을 가짐으로써 처리 할 수 있습니다.

그룹은 ‘'('’, ‘')'’ 메타 문자로 표시됩니다.  ‘'('’와 ‘')'’는 수학적 표현
에서와 거의 같은 의미가 있습니다; 내부에 포함된 표현식을 함께 묶고, ‘*’,
‘+’, ‘?’ 또는 ‘{m,n}’과 같은 한정자로 그룹의 내용을 반복 할 수 있습니다.
예를 들어, ‘(ab)*’는 ‘ab’를 0번 이상 반복한 것에 일치합니다.

     >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
     >>> print(p.match('ababababab').span())
     (0, 10)

‘'('’, ‘')'’로 표시된 그룹은 일치하는 텍스트의 시작과 끝 인덱스도 포착합
니다; 이것은 *note group(): 231d, *note start(): 2321, *note end():
2322. 및 *note span(): 2323.에 인자를 전달하여 꺼낼 수 있습니다.  그룹은
0부터 시작하여 번호가 매겨집니다.  그룹 0은 항상 존재합니다; 이것은 전체
RE이므로 *note 일치 객체: f7f. 메서드는 모두 그룹 0을 기본 인자로 사용합
니다.  나중에 일치하는 텍스트 범위를 포착하지 않는 그룹을 표현하는 방법
을 살펴보겠습니다.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
     >>> m = p.match('ab')
     >>> m.group()
     'ab'
     >>> m.group(0)
     'ab'

서브 그룹은 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 1부터 위로 번호가 매겨집니다.  그룹은 중
첩될 수 있습니다; 숫자를 결정하려면, 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 가면서 여는 괄
호 문자를 세십시오.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
     >>> m = p.match('abcd')
     >>> m.group(0)
     'abcd'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'abc'
     >>> m.group(2)
     'b'

*note group(): 231d.으로는 한 번에 여러 개의 그룹 번호를 전달할 수 있으
며, 이때 해당 그룹에 해당하는 값을 포함하는 튜플을 반환합니다.

     >>> m.group(2,1,2)
     ('b', 'abc', 'b')

*note groups(): 231f. 메서드는 모든 서브 그룹에 대한 문자열을 포함하는 튜
플을 반환합니다, 1에서 최대까지.

     >>> m.groups()
     ('abc', 'b')

패턴의 역참조를 사용하면 이전 포착 그룹의 내용이 문자열의 현재 위치에서
도 발견되어야 한다고 지정할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘\1’은 그룹 1의 정
확한 내용이 현재 위치에서 발견되면 성공하고, 그렇지 않으면 실패합니다.  파
이썬의 문자열 리터럴은 백 슬래시 뒤에 숫자를 붙여 문자열에 임의의 문자를
포함할 수 있기 때문에, RE에 역참조를 포함할 때 날 문자열을 사용해야 합니
다.

예를 들어, 다음 RE는 문자열에서 중복 단어를 감지합니다.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'

이와 같은 역참조는 단순히 문자열을 검색하는 데는 별로 유용하지 않습니다
— 이런 식으로 데이터를 반복하는 텍스트 형식은 거의 없습니다 — 하지만 곧
문자열 치환을 수행할 때 '아주' 유용하다는 것을 알게 될 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 비 포착 그룹과 이름 있는 그룹,  Next: 미리 보기 어서션,  Prev: 그룹,  Up: 더 많은 패턴 기능

9.10.4.3 비 포착 그룹과 이름 있는 그룹
......................................

정교한 RE는 관심 있는 부분 문자열을 포착하고 RE 자체를 그룹화하고 구조화
하기 위해 많은 그룹을 사용할 수 있습니다.  복잡한 RE에서는, 그룹 번호를
추적하기가 어려워집니다.  이 문제를 해결하는 데 도움이 되는 두 가지 기능
이 있습니다.  둘 다 정규식 확장에 같은 문법을 사용하므로, 그것부터 살펴
보겠습니다.

Perl 5는 표준 정규식에 대한 강력한 추가 기능으로 유명합니다.  이러한 새
로운 기능을 위해 Perl 개발자는 Perl의 정규식을 표준 RE와 혼란스러울 만큼
다르게 만들지 않으면서 한 글자 메타 문자나 ‘\’로 시작하는 새로운 특수 시
퀀스를 선택할 수 없었습니다.  예를 들어, ‘&’를 새로운 메타 문자로 선택하
면, 예전 정규식은 ‘&’가 일반 문자라고 가정하고 ‘\&’나 ‘[&]’로 작성하여 이
스케이프 하지 않을 것입니다.

Perl 개발자가 선택한 해법은 ‘(?...)’를 확장 문법으로 사용하는 것입니다.
괄호 바로 뒤에 있는 ‘?’는 ‘?’가 반복할 것이 없기 때문에 문법 에러였습니
다.  따라서 이것은 어떤 호환성 문제도 일으키지 않습니다.  ‘?’ 다음에 나
오는 문자는 어떤 확장이 사용되는지 나타내므로, ‘(?=foo)’ 는 한가지 확장
이고 (긍정적인 미리 보기 어서션), ‘(?:foo)’ 는 또 다른 것입니다 (서브 정
규식 ‘foo’를 포함하는 비 포착 그룹).

파이썬은 여러 Perl의 확장을 지원하고 Perl의 확장 문법에 확장 문법을 추가
합니다.  물음표 뒤의 첫 번째 문자가 ‘P’이면, 파이썬에 특유한 확장임을 알
수 있습니다.

이제 일반적인 확장 문법을 살펴보았으므로, 복잡한 RE에서 그룹 작업을 단순
화하는 기능으로 돌아갈 수 있습니다.

때로 그룹을 사용하여 정규식의 일부를 나타내고 싶지만, 그룹의 내용을 꺼내
는 데는 관심이 없습니다.  이 사실을 비 포착 그룹을 사용해서 명시적으로 만
들 수 있습니다: ‘(?:...)’, 여기서 ‘...’을 다른 정규식으로 바꿀 수 있습니
다.

     >>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ('c',)
     >>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ()

그룹과 일치하는 내용을 꺼낼 수 없다는 점을 제외하면, 비 포착 그룹은 포착
그룹과 정확히 같게 작동합니다; 안에 어떤 것이든 넣을 수 있고, ‘*’와 같은
반복 메타 문자로 반복할 수 있고, 다른 그룹(포착이나 비 포착) 내에 중첩할
수 있습니다.  ‘(?:...)’는 기존 패턴을 수정할 때 특히 유용합니다.  다른 모
든 그룹의 번호가 매겨지는 방식을 변경하지 않고 새 그룹을 추가 할 수 있기
때문입니다.  포착 그룹과 비 포착 그룹을 검색할 때 성능 차이가 없다는 점
을 짚고 넘어가야 할 것 같습니다; 두 형태 중 어느 것도 다른 것보다 빠르지
않습니다.

더 중요한 기능은 이름 있는 그룹입니다: 번호로 참조하는 대신, 이름으로 그
룹을 참조 할 수 있습니다.

이름 있는 그룹의 문법은 파이썬 특정 확장 중 하나입니다: ‘(?P<name>...)’.
'name'은, 당연히, 그룹의 이름입니다.  이름 있는 그룹은 포착 그룹과 똑같
이 동작하며, 추가로 이름을 그룹과 연관시킵니다.  포착 그룹을 다루는
*note 일치 객체: f7f. 메서드는 모두 숫자로 그룹을 가리키는 정수나 원하는
그룹의 이름을 포함하는 문자열을 받아들입니다.  이름 있는 그룹에는 여전히
번호가 매겨지므로, 두 가지 방법으로 그룹에 대한 정보를 꺼낼 수 있습니다:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
     >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
     >>> m.group('word')
     'Lots'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'Lots'

또한, *note groupdict(): 2320.로 이름 있는 그룹을 딕셔너리로 꺼낼 수 있
습니다:

     >>> m = re.match(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe')
     >>> m.groupdict()
     {'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'}

이름 있는 그룹은 숫자를 기억하는 대신 쉽게 기억할 수 있는 이름을 사용할
수 있어서 편리합니다.  다음은 *note imaplib: 74. 모듈에서 온 예제 RE입니
다:

     InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
             r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
             r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
             r'"')

그룹 9를 꺼내는 것을 기억하는 대신, ‘m.group('zonem')’을 꺼내기가 훨씬 쉽
습니다.

‘(...)\1’과 같은 정규식에서 역참조 문법은 그룹 번호를 나타냅니다.  자연
스럽게 번호 대신 그룹 이름을 사용하는 변형이 있습니다.  이것은 다른 파이
썬 확장입니다: ‘(?P=name)’은 'name'이라는 그룹의 내용이 현재 위치에서 다
시 일치해야 함을 나타냅니다.  중복된 단어를 찾는 정규식인
‘\b(\w+)\s+\1\b’는 ‘\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b’로 표현할 수도 있습니
다:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'


File: python.info,  Node: 미리 보기 어서션,  Prev: 비 포착 그룹과 이름 있는 그룹,  Up: 더 많은 패턴 기능

9.10.4.4 미리 보기 어서션
.........................

또 다른 폭이 없는 어서션은 미리 보기 어서션(lookahead assertion)입니다.
미리 보기 어서션은 긍정과 부정 형식 모두 제공되며, 다음과 같이 표시됩니
다:

‘(?=...)’

     긍정적인 미리 보기 어서션.  포함된 정규식(여기에서는 ‘...’로 표시되
     었습니다)이 현재 위치에서 성공적으로 일치하면 성공하고, 그렇지 않으
     면 실패합니다.  그러나, 일단 포함된 정규식이 시도되면, 일치 엔진은
     전혀 앞으로 나아가지 않습니다; 어서선이 시작한 곳에서 나머지 패턴을
     시도합니다.

‘(?!...)’

     부정적인 미리 보기 어서션.  이것은 긍정적인 어서션의 반대입니다; 포
     함된 정규식이 문자열의 현재 위치에서 일치하지 '않으면' 성공합니다.

이를 구체적으로 설명하기 위해, 미리 보기가 유용한 경우를 살펴보겠습니다.
파일 이름을 일치시키고 ‘.’로 구분된 기본 이름과 확장자로 분리하는 간단한
패턴을 생각해봅시다.  예를 들어, ‘news.rc’에서, ‘news’는 기본 이름이고
‘rc’는 파일명의 확장자입니다.

이것과 일치하는 패턴은 매우 간단합니다:

‘.*[.].*$’

‘.’는 메타 문자이므로 특수하게 처리해야 하므로, 해당 문자에만 일치하기 위
해 문자 클래스 내에 있습니다.  또한 후행 ‘$’도 유의하십시오; 나머지 문자
열이 확장에 포함되어야 함을 보장하기 위해 추가됩니다.  이 정규식은
‘foo.bar’와 ‘autoexec.bat’와 ‘sendmail.cf’와 ‘printers.conf’와 일치합니
다.

자, 문제를 조금 복잡하게 생각해보십시오; 확장자가 ‘bat’이 아닌 파일명을
일치시키려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?  몇 가지 잘못된 시도:

‘.*[.][^b].*$’

The first attempt above tries to exclude ‘bat’ by requiring that the
first character of the extension is not a ‘b’.  This is wrong, because
the pattern also doesn’t match ‘foo.bar’.

‘.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$’

다음에서 하나를 요구하여 첫 번째 해결 방법을 패치할 때 정규식이 더 복잡
해집니다: 확장자의 첫 번째 문자가 ‘b’가 아닙니다; 두 번째 문자가 ‘a’가 아
닙니다; 또는 세 번째 문자가 ‘t’가 아닙니다.  이것은 ‘foo.bar’를 받아들이
고 ‘autoexec.bat’를 거부하지만, 세 문자 확장자를 요구하고 ‘sendmail.cf’와
같은 두 문자로 된 확장자를 가진 파일명을 허용하지 않습니다.  문제를 해결
하기 위해 패턴을 다시 복잡하게 만들 것입니다.

‘.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$’

세 번째 시도에서, ‘sendmail.cf’와 같이 세 문자보다 짧은 확장자를 허용하
기 위해 두 번째와 세 번째 문자는 모두 선택적입니다.

이제 패턴이 정말 복잡해져서, 읽고 이해하기 어렵습니다.  더욱이, 문제가 변
경되어 확장자 ‘bat’와 ‘exe’를 모두 제외하려면, 패턴이 훨씬 복잡하고 혼란
스러워집니다.

부정적인 미리 보기는 이 모든 혼란을 제거합니다:

‘.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$’

The negative lookahead means: if the expression ‘bat’ doesn’t match at
this point, try the rest of the pattern; if ‘bat$’ does match, the whole
pattern will fail.  The trailing ‘$’ is required to ensure that
something like ‘sample.batch’, where the extension only starts with
‘bat’, will be allowed.  The ‘[^.]*’ makes sure that the pattern works
when there are multiple dots in the filename.

다른 파일명 확장자를 제외하는 것이 이제는 쉽습니다; 단순히 어서션 안에 대
안으로 추가하십시오.  다음 패턴은 ‘bat’나 ‘exe’로 끝나는 파일명을 제외합
니다:

‘.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$’


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 수정하기,  Next: 일반적인 문제들,  Prev: 더 많은 패턴 기능,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.5 문자열 수정하기
----------------------

지금까지는, 정적 문자열에 대한 검색만 수행했습니다.  정규식은 다음과 같
은 패턴 메서드를 사용하여 다양한 방법으로 문자열을 수정하는 데 흔히 사용
됩니다:

메서드/어트리뷰트      목적
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘split()’              RE가 일치하는 모든 곳에서 분할하여, 문자열을 리스
                       트로 분할합니다
                       
                       
‘sub()’                RE가 일치하는 모든 부분 문자열을 찾고, 다른 문자
                       열로 대체합니다.
                       
                       
‘subn()’               ‘sub()’와 같은 일을 하지만, 새로운 문자열과 치환
                       횟수를 반환합니다
                       

* Menu:

* 문자열 분할하기::
* 검색과 치환: 검색과 치환<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 분할하기,  Next: 검색과 치환<2>,  Up: 문자열 수정하기

9.10.5.1 문자열 분할하기
........................

패턴의 *note split(): 2312. 메서드는 RE가 일치하는 모든 곳에서 문자열을
분할하여, 조각의 리스트를 반환합니다.  이것은 *note split(): ea0. 문자열
메서드와 비슷하지만 분리하는 데 사용되는 구분자에 훨씬 더 일반성을 제공
합니다; 문자열 ‘split()’는 공백이나 고정 문자열로의 분할 만 지원합니다.
예상대로, 모듈 수준의 *note re.split(): 2a2. 함수도 있습니다.

 -- 메서드: .split (string[, maxsplit=0])

     정규식과 일치하는 것으로 'string'을 분할합니다.  RE에서 포착하는 괄
     호가 사용되면, 해당 내용도 결과 리스트의 일부로 반환됩니다.
     'maxsplit'가 0이 아니면, 최대 'maxsplit' 번 분할만 수행됩니다.

'maxsplit' 값을 전달하여, 분할 수를 제한 할 수 있습니다.  'maxsplit'가
0이 아니면, 최대 'maxsplit' 번 분할만 이루어지고, 나머지 문자열은 리스트
의 마지막 요소로 반환됩니다.  다음 예제에서, 구분자는 영숫자가 아닌 문자
시퀀스입니다.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']

때로는 구분자 사이의 텍스트가 무엇인지에 관심이 있을 뿐만 아니라, 구분자
가 무엇인지도 알아야 할 필요가 있습니다.  RE에서 포착하는 괄호가 사용되
면, 해당 값도 리스트의 일부로 반환됩니다.  다음 호출을 비교하십시오:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
     >>> p.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
     >>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']

모듈 수준 함수 *note re.split(): 2a2.는 첫 번째 인자로 사용할 RE를 추가
하지만, 이를 제외하고는 같습니다.

     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
     >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
     ['Words', 'words, words.']


File: python.info,  Node: 검색과 치환<2>,  Prev: 문자열 분할하기,  Up: 문자열 수정하기

9.10.5.2 검색과 치환
....................

또 다른 흔한 작업은 패턴에 대한 모든 일치를 찾아 다른 문자열로 치환하는
것입니다.  *note sub(): 2315. 메서드는 치환 값(문자열이나 함수일 수 있습
니다)과 처리할 문자열을 취합니다.

 -- 메서드: .sub (replacement, string[, count=0])

     'string'에서 가장 왼쪽에 나타나는 겹쳐지지 않은 RE의 일치를
     'replacement'로 치환한 문자열을 반환합니다.  패턴이 없으면,
     'string'이 변경 없이 반환됩니다.

     선택적 인자 'count'는 치환될 패턴 일치의 최대 수입니다; 'count'는 음
     수가 아닌 정수여야 합니다.  기본값 0은 모든 일치를 치환하는 것을 의
     미합니다.

다음은 *note sub(): 2315. 메서드를 사용하는 간단한 예제입니다.  색상 이
름을 ‘colour’라는 단어로 바꿉니다:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     'colour socks and colour shoes'
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
     'colour socks and red shoes'

*note subn(): 2316. 메서드는 같은 작업을 수행하지만, 새 문자열 값과 수행
된 치환 수가 포함된 2-튜플을 반환합니다:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
     ('no colours at all', 0)

빈 일치는 이전의 빈 일치와 인접하지 않은 경우에만 치환됩니다.

     >>> p = re.compile('x*')
     >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
     '-a-b--d-'

'replacement'가 문자열이면, 그 안에 있는 모든 역 슬래시 이스케이프가 처
리됩니다.  즉, ‘\n’은 단일 개행 문자로 변환되고, ‘\r’은 캐리지 리턴으로
변환되고, 나머지도 마찬가지입니다.  ‘\&’와 같은 알 수 없는 이스케이프는
그대로 남습니다.  ‘\6’과 같은 역참조는 RE의 해당 그룹과 일치하는 부분 문
자열로 치환됩니다.  이렇게 하면 결과 치환 문자열에 원본 텍스트의 일부를
통합할 수 있습니다.

이 예제는 뒤에 ‘{’, ‘}’로 묶인 문자열이 오는 단어 ‘section’과 일치하고,
‘section’을 ‘subsection’으로 변경합니다:

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
     'subsection{First} subsection{second}'

또한 ‘(?P<name>...)’ 문법으로 정의된 이름 있는 그룹을 참조하기 위한 문법
이 있습니다.  ‘\g<name>’은 ‘name’ 그룹과 일치하는 부분 문자열을 사용하고
, ‘\g<number>’는 해당 그룹 번호를 사용합니다.  따라서 ‘\g<2>’는 ‘\2’와 동
등하지만, ‘\g<2>0’과 같은 치환 문자열에서 모호하지 않습니다.  (‘\20’은
‘'0'’이 뒤에 오는 그룹 2에 대한 참조가 아닌, 그룹 20에 대한 참조로 해석
됩니다.)  다음 치환은 모두 동등하지만, 치환 문자열의 세 가지 변형을 모두
사용합니다.

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'

'replacement'는 함수일 수도 있는데, 더 많은 제어를 제공합니다.
'replacement'가 함수면, 'pattern'의 겹쳐지지 않는 모든 일치에 대해 함수
가 호출됩니다.  각 호출에서, 함수는 그 일치에 대한 *note 일치 객체: f7f.
인자를 전달받고, 이 정보를 사용하여 원하는 치환 문자열을 계산하고 이를 반
환 할 수 있습니다.

다음 예제에서, 치환 함수는 십진수를 16진수로 변환합니다:

     >>> def hexrepl(match):
     ...     "십진수의 16진수 문자열을 반환합니다"
     ...     value = int(match.group())
     ...     return hex(value)
     ...
     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
     'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'

모듈 수준의 *note re.sub(): 2a3. 함수를 사용할 때, 패턴은 첫 번째 인자로
전달됩니다.  패턴은 객체나 문자열로 제공될 수 있습니다; 정규식 플래그를
지정해야 하면, 패턴 객체를 첫 번째 매개 변수로 사용하거나 패턴 문자열에
포함된 수정자를 사용해야 합니다, 예를 들어 ‘sub("(?i)b+", "x", "bbbb
BBBB")’는 ‘'x x'’를 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 일반적인 문제들,  Next: 피드백,  Prev: 문자열 수정하기,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.6 일반적인 문제들
----------------------

정규식은 일부 응용을 위한 강력한 도구이지만, 어떤 면에서는 동작이 직관적
이지 않고 때때로 예상대로 동작하지 않을 수도 있습니다.  이 절에서는 가장
일반적인 함정 중 일부를 지적합니다.

* Menu:

* 문자열 메서드를 사용하십시오::
* match()와 search() 비교: match 와 search 비교.
* 탐욕적 과 비 탐욕적 비교::
* re.VERBOSE 사용하기: re VERBOSE 사용하기.


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 메서드를 사용하십시오,  Next: match 와 search 비교,  Up: 일반적인 문제들

9.10.6.1 문자열 메서드를 사용하십시오
.....................................

때때로 *note re: b9. 모듈을 사용하는 것은 실수입니다.  고정된 문자열이나
단일 문자 클래스와 일치시키려고 하고, *note IGNORECASE: 172c. 플래그와 같
은 *note re: b9. 기능을 사용하지 않는다면, 정규식의 모든 기능이 필요하지
않을 수 있습니다.  문자열은 고정 문자열을 사용하는 연산을 수행하는 몇 가
지 메서드를 가지고 있으며, 대개 훨씬 빠릅니다.  더 크고, 더 일반화된 정
규식 엔진 대신, 구현이 목적에 맞게 최적화된 단일하고 작은 C 루프이기 때
문입니다.

한가지 예는 하나의 고정 된 문자열을 다른 것으로 치환하는 것일 수 있습니
다; 예를 들어, ‘word’를 ‘deed’로 바꿀 수 있습니다.  *note re.sub():
2a3.가 이를 위한 함수인 것처럼 보이지만, *note replace(): 19a. 메서드를
고려하십시오.  ‘replace()’는 또한 단어 안에 있는 ‘word’를 치환해서,
‘swordfish’를 ‘sdeedfish’로 바꾸지만, 나이브한 RE ‘word’도 그렇게 했을 것
입니다.  (단어의 일부에 대한 치환을 수행하는 것을 피하고자, 패턴은
‘word’ 양쪽에 단어 경계가 있도록 ‘\bword\b’여야 합니다.  이 작업은
‘replace()’의 능력을 넘어섭니다.)

또 다른 일반적인 작업은 문자열에서 단일 문자를 모두 삭제하거나 다른 단일
문자로 바꾸는 것입니다.  ‘re.sub('\n', ' ', S)’와 같은 방식으로 이 작업
을 수행 할 수 있지만, *note translate(): 21d0.는 두 가지 작업을 모두 수
행 할 수 있으며 정규식 연산보다 빠릅니다.

정리하면, *note re: b9. 모듈을 사용하기 전에, 더 빠르고 간단한 문자열 메
서드로 문제를 해결할 수 있는지 고려하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: match 와 search 비교,  Next: 탐욕적 과 비 탐욕적 비교,  Prev: 문자열 메서드를 사용하십시오,  Up: 일반적인 문제들

9.10.6.2 match()와 search() 비교
................................

*note match(): 121d. 함수는 문자열 시작 부분에서 RE가 일치하는지만 확인
하는 반면, *note search(): 121c.는 일치를 찾기 위해 문자열을 정방향으로
검색합니다.  이 차이를 염두에 두는 것이 중요합니다.  기억하십시오,
‘match()’는 0에서 시작하는 성공적인 일치만을 보고합니다; 일치가 0에서 시
작하지 않으면, ‘match()’는 이를 보고하지 '않습니다'.

     >>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable'))
     None

반면에, *note search(): 121c.는 문자열을 정방향으로 검색하여, 발견된 첫
번째 일치를 보고합니다.

     >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
     (2, 7)

때로 *note re.match(): 121d.를 계속 사용하면서, 단지 ‘.*’를 RE 앞에 추가
하고 싶을 수 있습니다.  이 유혹에 저항하고, 대신 *note re.search():
121c.를 사용하십시오.  정규식 컴파일러는 일치를 찾는 프로세스의 속도를 높
이기 위해 RE에 대한 분석을 수행합니다.  그러한 분석의 하나는 일치의 첫 번
째 문자가 무엇인지 알아내는 것입니다; 예를 들어, ‘Crow’로 시작하는 패턴
은 ‘'C'’로 시작하는 것과 일치해야 합니다.  이 분석을 통해 엔진은 시작 문
자를 찾기 위해 문자열을 빠르게 검색하고, ‘'C'’가 발견될 때만 전체 일치를
시도합니다.

‘.*’를 추가하면 이 최적화가 실패하고, 문자열의 끝부분까지 스캔한 다음,
RE의 나머지에 대한 일치를 찾기 위해 역 추적합니다.  대신 *note
re.search(): 121c.를 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 탐욕적 과 비 탐욕적 비교,  Next: re VERBOSE 사용하기,  Prev: match 와 search 비교,  Up: 일반적인 문제들

9.10.6.3 탐욕적 과 비 탐욕적 비교
.................................

‘a*’에서와같이 정규식을 반복할 때, 결과 동작은 가능한 한 많은 패턴을 소
비하는 것입니다.  이 사실은 HTML 태그를 둘러싼 화살 괄호(angle
brackets)와 같이 쌍을 이루는 구분 기호 쌍을 일치시키려고 할 때 여러분을
물어뜯을 수 있습니다.  하나의 HTML 태그를 일치하는 나이브한 패턴은 ‘.*’의
탐욕스러운 성격 때문에 작동하지 않습니다.

     >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
     >>> len(s)
     32
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span())
     (0, 32)
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group())
     <html><head><title>Title</title>

RE는 ‘'<html>'’의 ‘'<'’와 일치하고, ‘.*’는 나머지 문자열을 소비합니다.
RE에는 여전히 남아있는 것이 있고, ‘>’는 문자열의 끝에서 일치할 수 없기 때
문에, 정규식 엔진은 ‘>’와 일치하는 것을 찾을 때까지 문자 단위로 역 추적
해야 합니다.  최종 일치는 ‘'<html>'’의 ‘'<'’에서 ‘'</title>'’의 ‘'>'’까
지 확장되는데, 이는 여러분이 원하는 것이 아닙니다.

이 경우, 해결 방법은 가능한 한 '적은' 텍스트에 일치하는 비 탐욕적 한정자
‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’ 또는 ‘{m,n}?’를 사용하는 것입니다.  위의 예에서, 첫 번
째 ‘'<'’가 일치하면 ‘'>'’가 즉시 시도되고, 실패하면 엔진은 한 번에 한 문
자씩 앞으로 이동하여 단계마다 ‘'>'’를 다시 시도합니다.  이렇게 하면 올바
른 결과를 얻을 수 있습니다:

     >>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group())
     <html>

(정규식으로 HTML이나 XML을 구문 분석하기는 쉽지 않습니다.  빠르지만 지저
분한 패턴은 일반적인 경우를 처리할 것이지만, HTML과 XML에는 명확한 정규
식을 깨뜨릴 특수 사례가 있습니다; 모든 가능한 경우를 처리하도록 정규식을
작성하면, 패턴이 '아주' 복잡해질 수 있습니다.  이러한 작업에는 HTML이나
XML 구문 분석 모듈을 사용하십시오.)


File: python.info,  Node: re VERBOSE 사용하기,  Prev: 탐욕적 과 비 탐욕적 비교,  Up: 일반적인 문제들

9.10.6.4 re.VERBOSE 사용하기
............................

지금까지 정규식이 매우 콤팩트한 표기법이라는 사실을 눈치챘을 것입니다만,
극단적으로 읽기 어렵지는 않았습니다.  중간 정도의 복잡성을 가진 RE는 역
슬래시, 괄호 및 메타 문자의 긴 모음이 되어 읽고 이해하기 어려울 수 있습
니다.

이러한 RE의 경우, 정규식을 컴파일할 때 *note re.VERBOSE: 2305. 플래그를
지정하면 정규식을 보다 명확하게 포맷할 수 있어서 도움이 됩니다.

‘re.VERBOSE’ 플래그는 여러 가지 효과가 있습니다.  문자 클래스 안에 '있지
않은' 공백이 무시됩니다.  이것은, ‘dog | cat’과 같은 정규식은 가독성이 떨
어지는 ‘dog|cat’과 동등하지만, ‘[a b]’는 여전히 ‘'a'’, ‘'b'’ 또는 스페이
스 문자와 일치함을 뜻합니다.  또한, 주석을 RE에 넣을 수도 있습니다; 주석
은 ‘#’ 문자에서 다음 줄 바꿈까지 확장됩니다.  삼중 따옴표로 묶은 문자열
과 함께 사용하면, RE를 더 깔끔하게 포맷할 수 있습니다:

     pat = re.compile(r"""
      \s*                 # 선행 공백을 건너뜁니다
      (?P<header>[^:]+)   # 헤더 이름
      \s* :               # 공백과 콜론
      (?P<value>.*?)      # 헤더의 값 -- *? 을 사용해서
                          # 뒤에 오는 공백을 버립니다
      \s*$                # 줄 끝까지의 후행 공백
     """, re.VERBOSE)

이것이 다음보다 훨씬 읽기 쉽습니다:

     pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")


File: python.info,  Node: 피드백,  Prev: 일반적인 문제들,  Up: 정규식 HOWTO

9.10.7 피드백
-------------

정규식은 복잡한 주제입니다.  이 문서가 도움이 되었습니까?  불분명 한 부
분이 있거나, 여기에서 다루지 않은 문제가 있습니까?  그렇다면 저자에게 개
선을 위한 제안을 보내주십시오.

정규식에 대한 가장 완벽한 책은 거의 확실히 O’Reilly가 출판한 Jeffrey
Friedl의 Mastering Regular Expressions 입니다.  불행히도, 이 책은 Perl과
Java의 정규식에만 집중하고, 파이썬 자료를 전혀 포함하지 않아서 파이썬 프
로그래밍에 대한 참조로는 유용하지 않습니다.  (첫 번째 판은 지금은 제거된
파이썬의 ‘regex’ 모듈을 다뤘습니다만, 큰 도움은 되지 못합니다.)  여러분
의 도서관에서 확인해보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO,  Next: 정렬 기법,  Prev: 정규식 HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.11 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO
==========================


저자: Gordon McMillan

개요
....

소켓은 거의 모든 곳에서 사용되지만, 가장 심하게 오해된 기술 중 하나입니
다.  이것은 10,000피트 상공에서 본 소켓 개요입니다.  진짜 자습서는 아닙
니다 - 여러분은 여전히 작동하도록 만들기 위해 해야 할 일이 있습니다.  세
부 사항을 다루지는 않습니다만 (그것 것들이 많이 있습니다), 그것들을 적당
히 사용하기에 충분한 배경을 줄 수 있기를 바랍니다.

* Menu:

* 소켓::
* 소켓 만들기: 소켓 만들기<2>.
* 소켓 사용하기::
* 연결 끊기::
* 비 블로킹 소켓::


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓,  Next: 소켓 만들기<2>,  Up: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.11.1 소켓
-----------

INET (즉, IPv4) 소켓에 관해서만 이야기할 것이지만, 사용 중인 소켓의 99%
이상을 차지합니다.  또한, STREAM (즉, TCP) 소켓에 관해서만 이야기할 것입
니다 - 여러분이 무엇을 하고 있는지 정말로 알고 있지 (그럴 때 이 HOWTO는
필요 없습니다!)  않다면, 다른 모든 것보다 STREAM 소켓으로 더 나은 동작과
성능을 얻을 수 있습니다.  소켓이 무엇인지에 대한 수수께끼뿐만 아니라 블
로킹과 비 블로킹 소켓으로 작업하는 방법에 대한 힌트를 분명하게 하려고 합
니다.  하지만 블로킹 소켓에 관해 이야기하는 것으로 시작할 것입니다.  비
블로킹 소켓을 다루기 전에 이것이 어떻게 작동하는지 알아야 합니다.

이러한 것들을 이해하는데 어려움을 주는 한 부분은 문맥에 따라 “소켓”이 여
러 가지 미묘하게 다른 것을 뜻할 수 있다는 것입니다.  그래서 먼저, 대화의
끝점인 “클라이언트” 소켓과, 배전반 운영자와 비슷한 “서버” 소켓을 구별해
보겠습니다.  클라이언트 응용 프로그램(예를 들어, 여러분의 브라우저)은 “클
라이언트” 소켓만 사용합니다; 이것이 대화하는 웹 서버는 “서버” 소켓과 “클
라이언트” 소켓을 모두 사용합니다.

* Menu:

* 역사::


File: python.info,  Node: 역사,  Up: 소켓

9.11.1.1 역사
.............

IPC (Inter Process Communication, 프로세스 간 통신)의 다양한 형태 중에서
, 소켓이 가장 많이 사용됩니다.  특정 플랫폼에서 다른 형태의 IPC가 더 빠
를 가능성이 있지만, 크로스 플랫폼 통신의 경우 소켓이 유일한 게임의 법칙
입니다.

BSD 계열 유닉스의 일부로 버클리에서 발명되었습니다.  인터넷과 함께 산불
처럼 퍼졌습니다.  좋은 의미에서 — INET과 소켓의 조합은 전 세계의 임의의
기계와 믿을 수 없을 만큼 쉽게 대화를 나눌 수 있도록 합니다 (적어도 다른
체계와 비교할 때).


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 만들기<2>,  Next: 소켓 사용하기,  Prev: 소켓,  Up: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.11.2 소켓 만들기
------------------

대충 말하면, 이 페이지로 연결되는 링크를 클릭하면 브라우저가 다음과 같은
작업을 수행합니다:

     # INET, STREAMing 소켓을 만듭니다
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # 이제 포트 80의 웹 서버에 연결합니다 - 일반적인 http 포트
     s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))

‘connect’가 완료되면, 소켓 ‘s’를 사용하여 페이지의 텍스트 요청을 보낼 수
있습니다.  같은 소켓으로 응답을 읽은 다음 파괴됩니다.  그렇습니다, 파괴
됩니다.  클라이언트 소켓은 일반적으로 하나의 교환(또는 일련의 작은 교환
집합)에서만 사용됩니다.

웹 서버에서 일어나는 일은 좀 더 복잡합니다.  첫째, 웹 서버는 “서버 소켓
”을 만듭니다:

     # INET, STREAMing 소켓을 만듭니다
     serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # 소켓을 공개 호스트와 잘 알려진 포트에 바인드 합니다
     serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
     # 서버 소켓이 됩니다
     serversocket.listen(5)

알아 두어야 할 몇 가지 사항: 소켓을 외부 세계에서 볼 수 있도록
‘socket.gethostname()’를 사용했습니다.  ‘s.bind(('localhost', 80))’ 이나
‘s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))’을 사용했다면, 여전히 “서버” 소켓을 가지게 되
지만 같은 기계 내에서만 볼 수 있는 소켓을 갖게 됩니다.  ‘s.bind(('',
80))’은 시스템에 있는 모든 주소로 소켓에 연결할 수 있음을 나타냅니다.

두 번째로 주목해야 할 점: 낮은 번호의 포트는 일반적으로 “잘 알려진” 서비
스(HTTP, SNMP 등)를 위해 예약되어 있습니다.  연습 중이라면 적당히 높은 번
호(4 자릿수)를 사용하십시오.

마지막으로, ‘listen’에 대한 인자는 외부 연결을 거부하기 전에 최대 5개의
연결 요청을 큐에 넣기를 원한다는 것을 소켓 라이브러리에 알립니다.  코드
의 나머지 부분이 제대로 작성되었다면, 이것으로 충분합니다.

이제 우리는 포트 80에서 대기하는 “서버” 소켓을 가지고 있고, 웹 서버의 메
인 루프를 입력할 수 있습니다:

     while True:
         # 외부로부터의 연결을 받아들입니다
         (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
         # 이제 clientsocket으로 뭔가 합니다
         # 이 경우, 스레딩 서버인 것처럼 취급합니다
         ct = client_thread(clientsocket)
         ct.run()

실제로 이 루프가 작동할 수 있는 3가지 일반적인 방법이 있습니다 -
‘clientsocket’를 처리하기 위해 스레드로 보내거나, ‘clientsocket’를 처리
할 새 프로세스를 만들거나, 비 블로킹 소켓을 사용하도록 이 응용 프로그램
을 재구성하고, ‘select’를 사용하여 “서버” 소켓과 활성 ‘clientsocket’들 간
에 다중화(multiplexing)합니다.  나중에 자세히 다룹니다.  지금 이해해야 할
중요한 점: 이것이 “서버” 소켓이 하는 '전부'입니다.  어떤 데이터도 보내지
않습니다.  어떤 데이터도 수신하지 않습니다.  단지 “클라이언트” 소켓을 생
성할 뿐입니다.  각 ‘clientsocket’은 우리가 바인드 한 호스트와 포트로
‘connect()’를 수행하는 '다른' “클라이언트” 소켓에 대한 응답으로 만들어집
니다.  ‘clientsocket’를 만들자마자, 더 많은 연결을 기다리는 것으로 돌아
갑니다.  두 개의 “클라이언트” 는 자유롭게 대화를 나눌 수 있습니다 - 그들
은 대화를 끝낼 때 재활용되는 어떤 동적으로 할당된 포트를 사용합니다.

* Menu:

* IPC::


File: python.info,  Node: IPC,  Up: 소켓 만들기<2>

9.11.2.1 IPC
............

한 기계의 두 프로세스 간에 빠른 IPC가 필요하다면, 파이프나 공유 메모리를
살펴야 합니다.  AF_INET 소켓을 사용하기로 했다면, “서버” 소켓을
‘'localhost'’에 바인드 하십시오.  대부분 플랫폼에서, 이것은 네트워크 코
드의 두어 개의 계층을 건너뛰는 지름길을 취할 것이고, 꽤 빨라집니다.

더 보기
.......

*note multiprocessing: 94.은 교차 플랫폼 IPC를 고수준 API로 통합합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓 사용하기,  Next: 연결 끊기,  Prev: 소켓 만들기<2>,  Up: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.11.3 소켓 사용하기
--------------------

첫 번째로 주목해야 할 점은 웹 브라우저의 “클라이언트” 소켓과 웹 서버의
“클라이언트” 소켓은 같은 녀석이라는 것입니다.  즉, 이것은 “피어 투 피어
(peer to peer)” 대화입니다.  또는 다른 방식으로 표현하면, '설계자로서, 대
화를 위한 예절의 규칙이 무엇인지 결정해야 합니다'.  일반적으로,
‘connect’하는 소켓이 요청이나 로그인을 보내 대화를 시작합니다.  그러나 이
것은 설계상의 결정입니다 - 소켓의 규칙이 아닙니다.

이제 통신에 사용할 두 벌의 동사가 있습니다.  ‘send’와 ‘recv’를 사용하거
나, 클라이언트 소켓을 파일류로 변환한 후 ‘read’와 ‘write’를 사용할 수 있
습니다.  후자는 자바가 소켓을 제공하는 방식입니다.  ‘flush’를 소켓에 사
용해야 한다고 경고하는 것 외에는, 여기에 대해서는 언급하지 않을 것입니다
.  이것들은 버퍼 된 “파일”이며, 일반적인 실수는 어떤 것을 ‘write’하고는
응답을 ‘read’하는 것입니다.  ‘flush’가 없으면, 요청이 여전히 출력 버퍼에
남아있을 수 있으므로 응답을 영원히 기다리게 될 수 있습니다.

이제 소켓의 주요 걸림돌에 도달했습니다 - ‘send’와 ‘recv’는 네트워크 버퍼
에서 작동합니다.  이것들은 여러분이 넘겨준 모든 바이트를 처리하지 않을 수
있습니다, 그들의 주 관심사는 네트워크 버퍼를 처리하는 것이기 때문입니다.
일반적으로, 연관된 네트워크 버퍼가 채워지거나(‘send’) 비워지면(‘recv’) 반
환됩니다.  그런 다음 처리 한 바이트 수를 알려줍니다.  메시지가 완전히 처
리될 때까지 다시 호출하는 것은 '여러분'의 책임입니다.

‘recv’가 0바이트를 반환하면, 다른 쪽이 연결을 닫았거나 닫고 있다는 뜻입
니다.  이 연결에서 더는 데이터를 받지 못합니다.  영원히.  데이터를 성공
적으로 보낼 수는 있습니다; 나중에 이것에 대해 더 이야기하겠습니다.

HTTP와 같은 프로토콜은 하나의 전송에만 소켓을 사용합니다.  클라이언트는
요청을 보낸 다음 응답을 읽습니다.  그게 전부입니다.  소켓은 버려집니다.
이는 클라이언트가 0바이트를 수신하여 응답의 끝을 감지할 수 있음을 뜻합니
다.

그러나 추가 전송을 위해 소켓을 재사용할 계획이라면, '소켓에는' EOT (End
of Transfer, 전송의 끝) '가 없다'는 것을 알아야 합니다.  반복합니다: 소
켓 ‘send’ 또는 ‘recv’가 0바이트를 처리한 후 반환되면 연결이 끊어진 것입
니다.  연결이 끊어진 것이 '아니라면', 소켓은 (당분간) 읽을 것이 아무것도
없다는 것을 알려주지 '않을' 것이므로, ‘recv’에서 영원히 기다릴 수 있습니
다.  이것에 대해 조금 더 생각해보면, 소켓의 근본적인 진실을 깨닫게 될 것
입니다: '메시지는 고정 길이거나' (억), '구분자로 표시되거나' (어깨를 으
쓱), '얼마나 긴지 표시하거나' (훨씬 낫다), '연결을 닫아서 끝내야 합니다
'.  선택은 전적으로 여러분의 것입니다, (하지만 어떤 방법이 다른 것보다 올
바릅니다).

연결을 끝내기를 원하지 않는다고 가정하면, 가장 간단한 해결책은 고정 길이
메시지입니다:

     class MySocket:
         """시연용 클래스
           - 효율성이 아니라 명확성을 위해 코드 되었습니다
         """

         def __init__(self, sock=None):
             if sock is None:
                 self.sock = socket.socket(
                                 socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
             else:
                 self.sock = sock

         def connect(self, host, port):
             self.sock.connect((host, port))

         def mysend(self, msg):
             totalsent = 0
             while totalsent < MSGLEN:
                 sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
                 if sent == 0:
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 totalsent = totalsent + sent

         def myreceive(self):
             chunks = []
             bytes_recd = 0
             while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
                 chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
                 if chunk == b'':
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 chunks.append(chunk)
                 bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
             return b''.join(chunks)

여기에 있는 전송 코드는 거의 모든 메시지전달 체계에서 사용할 수 있습니다
- 파이썬에서는 문자열을 보내고 ‘len()’를 사용하여 길이를 파악할 수 있습
니다 (‘\0’ 문자가 포함되어 있어도).  더 복잡한 부분은 대부분 수신 코드입
니다.  (그리고 C에서도, 메시지가 ‘\0’을 포함하고 있을 때 ‘strlen’을 사용
할 수 없다는 점을 제외하면 몹시 나쁘지는 않습니다.)

가장 쉬운 개선은 메시지의 첫 번째 문자를 메시지 유형의 표시자로 만들고,
유형이 길이를 결정하도록 하는 것입니다.  이제 두 개의 ‘recv’가 있습니다
- (적어도) 첫 번째 문자를 가져와서 길이를 조회할 수 있도록 하는 첫 번째
와 나머지를 얻는 루프로 구성된 두 번째입니다.  구분자로 가기로 했다면, 임
의의 청크 크기(4096이나 8192는 네트워크 버퍼 크기와 종종 잘 맞습니다)로
수신하고 받은 내용에서 구분자를 검색하게 될 것입니다.

하나의 복잡성을 알아 두어야 합니다: 여러분의 대화형 프로토콜이 (어떤 종
류의 응답 없이) 여러 메시지를 연속적으로 보내는 것을 허락하고, ‘recv’에
임의의 청크 크기를 전달하면 다음 메시지의 시작 부분도 함께 읽는 일이 일
어날 수 있습니다.  필요할 때까지 보관해 두어야 합니다.

메시지의 길이를 앞에 붙이면 (5자리 숫자라고 합시다) 더 복잡해집니다, (믿
거나 말거나) 한 번의 ‘recv’로 5문자를 모두 얻을 수 없을 수 있기 때문입니
다.  연습 중에는 이런 일이 일어나지 않을 것입니다; 하지만 네트워크 로드
가 높으면, 두 개의 ‘recv’ 루프를 사용하지 않는 한 여러분의 코드는 금방 망
가지게 됩니다 - 길이를 결정하는 첫 번째와 메시지의 데이터 부분을 가져오
는 두 번째입니다.  지저분합니다.  또한 ‘send’가 항상 한 번에 모든 것을 처
리하지 못하는 것을 발견하게 될 것입니다.  그리고 이 단락을 읽었음에도, 결
국 당신은 이 문제에 당하게 될 것입니다!

공간을 절약하고, 여러분의 성격을 단련하고, (그리고 제 경쟁적 지위를 유지
하기 위해) 이러한 향상은 독자를 위한 연습으로 남겨둡니다.  이제 정리해봅
시다.

* Menu:

* 바이너리 데이터::


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 데이터,  Up: 소켓 사용하기

9.11.3.1 바이너리 데이터
........................

바이너리 데이터를 소켓을 통해 전송하는 것은 완벽히 가능합니다.  가장 큰
문제점은 모든 기계가 바이너리 데이터에 대해 같은 형식을 사용하는 것은 아
니라는 점입니다.  예를 들어, 네트워크 바이트 순서(1)는 빅 엔디안이며, 가
장 높은 자리가 먼저와서, 값이 ‘1’인 16비트 정수는, 두 개의 16진수 바이트
‘00 01’이 됩니다.  그러나, 대부분의 일반적인 프로세서들(x86/AMD64, ARM,
RISC-V)은 리틀 엔디안미며, 가장 낮은 자리가 먼저와서, 같은 ‘1’은 ‘01
00’이 됩니다.

소켓 라이브러리에는 16과 32비트 정수 변환을 위한 호출이 있습니다 -
‘ntohl, htonl, ntohs, htons’ 여기서 “n”은 'network'을 의미하고, “h”는
'host'를 의미하고, “s”는 'short'를 의미하고, “l”은 'long'를 의미합니다.
네트워크 순서가 호스트 순서인 곳에서는 아무것도 수행하지 않지만, 바이트
반전되는 기계에서는 바이트가 적절히 스와프됩니다.

오늘날의 64비트 기계에서는, 바이너리 데이터의 ASCII 표현이 바이너리 표현
보다 작은 경우가 많습니다.  놀라울 정도로 많은 경우에, 대부분의 정수는 값
0이나 1을 갖기 때문입니다.  문자열 ‘"0"’ 은 2바이트지만, 완전한 64비트 정
수는 8바이트입니다.  물론, 이것은 고정 길이 메시지에는 적합하지 않습니다
.  결정, 결정.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness#Networking


File: python.info,  Node: 연결 끊기,  Next: 비 블로킹 소켓,  Prev: 소켓 사용하기,  Up: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.11.4 연결 끊기
----------------

엄밀히 말하면, ‘close’를 사용하기 전에 소켓에 ‘shutdown’을 사용해야 합니
다.  ‘shutdown’은 반대편 소켓에 대한 권고입니다.  전달하는 인자에 따라,
“더는 보내지 않을 것이지만, 여전히 들을 겁니다” 나 “듣고 있지 않습니다,
즐거웠습니다!”를 뜻할 수 있습니다.  그러나, 대부분 소켓 라이브러리는 프
로그래머가 이 예절을 무시하는 방식으로 사용되었고 일반적으로 ‘close’가
‘shutdown(); close()’와 같습니다.  따라서 대부분 상황에서 명시적인
‘shutdown’은 필요하지 않습니다.

‘shutdown’을 효과적으로 사용하는 한 가지 방법은 HTTP와 비슷한 교환에서입
니다.  클라이언트는 요청을 보낸 다음 ‘shutdown(1)’을 수행합니다.  그러면
서버에 “이 클라이언트는 전송을 완료했지만 계속 받을 수 있습니다.”라고 말
하게 됩니다.  서버는 0바이트의 수신으로 “EOF”를 감지할 수 있습니다.  요
청을 완료했다고 가정할 수 있습니다.  서버가 응답을 보냅니다.  ‘send’가 성
공적으로 완료되면, 클라이언트는 여전히 수신 중입니다.

파이썬은 자동 shutdown을 한 걸음 더 나아가서, 소켓이 가비지 수집될 때 필
요하면 자동으로 ‘close’를 수행한다고 말합니다.  그러나 이것에 의존하는 것
은 매우 나쁜 습관입니다.  ‘close’를 하지 않고 소켓이 사라지면, 반대편 끝
은 여러분이 단지 느려지고 있다고 생각하면서 무한정 멈출 수 있습니다.  '제
발' 완료되면 소켓을 ‘close’해 주세요.

* Menu:

* 소켓이 죽을 때::


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓이 죽을 때,  Up: 연결 끊기

9.11.4.1 소켓이 죽을 때
.......................

아마도 블로킹 소켓 사용에 관한 최악의 경우는 상대방이 (‘close’를 수행하
지 않고) 갑자기 다운되었을 때 일어나는 일입니다.  소켓이 멈출 수 있습니
다.  TCP는 신뢰성 있는 프로토콜이며, 연결을 포기하기 전에 아주 오랜 시간
동안 기다립니다.  스레드를 사용하고 있다면, 스레드 전체가 실질적으로 죽
습니다.  이것에 대해 당신이 할 수 있는 일이 별로 없습니다.  블로킹 읽기
를 수행하는 동안 록을 잡는 것과 같은 어리석은 짓을 하지 않는 한, 스레드
는 자원을 많이 소비하지 않습니다.  스레드를 죽이려고 하지 '마십시오' - 스
레드가 프로세스보다 효율적인 부분적인 이유는 자원 재활용과 관련된 오버헤
드를 회피한다는 것입니다.  즉, 스레드를 죽이면 전체 프로세스가 엉망이 될
가능성이 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 비 블로킹 소켓,  Prev: 연결 끊기,  Up: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO

9.11.5 비 블로킹 소켓
---------------------

앞의 내용을 이해했다면 소켓을 사용하는 방법에 대해 알아야 할 대부분을 이
미 알고 있습니다.  거의 같은 방식으로 같은 호출을 계속 사용합니다.  여러
분이 올바르게 사용하기만 한다면, 여러분의 앱을 거의 완전해질 겁니다.

파이썬에서, ‘socket.setblocking(False)’를 사용하여 비 블로킹으로 만듭니
다.  C에서는, 더 복잡하지만 (한가지 예를 들면, BSD 계열의 ‘O_NONBLOCK’과
POSIX 계열의 거의 같은 ‘O_NDELAY’ 중에서 선택해야 합니다; ‘O_NDELAY’는
‘TCP_NODELAY’와는 완전히 다른 것입니다) 똑같은 아이디어입니다.  소켓을 만
든 후에, 하지만 사용하기 전에 이것을 수행합니다.  (실제로는, 여러분이 괴
짜라면, 계속 변경할 수 있습니다.)

동작의 주요 차이점은 ‘send’, ‘recv’, ‘connect’ 및 ‘accept’가 아무것도 하
지 않고 반환될 수 있다는 것입니다.  여러분에게는 (물론) 많은 선택지가 있
습니다.  반환 코드와 에러 코드를 확인하면서 일반적으로 자신을 미치게 만
들 수 있습니다.  믿기지 않는다면, 한번 시도해보십시오.  여러분의 앱은 커
지고, 버그가 많으며 CPU를 소진할 겁니다.  그러니 뇌사에 이르게 할 해결책
은 건너뛰고 올바르게 해 봅시다.

‘select’를 사용하십시오.

C에서, ‘select’ 코딩은 상당히 복잡합니다.  파이썬에서, 이것은 달콤한 조
각이지만, 여러분이 파이썬에서 ‘select’를 이해한다면 C에서도 거의 문제가
없을 만큼 C 버전에 아주 가깝습니다:

     ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
                    select.select(
                       potential_readers,
                       potential_writers,
                       potential_errs,
                       timeout)

‘select’로 세 개의 리스트를 전달합니다: 첫 번째는 읽으려는 모든 소켓을 포
함합니다; 두 번째는 쓰려는 모든 소켓, 그리고 마지막으로 (보통 비어있는데
) 에러를 검사하려는 소켓들입니다.  소켓이 둘 이상의 리스트에 들어갈 수 있
음에 유의해야 합니다.  ‘select’ 호출은 블로킹이지만, 시간제한을 지정할 수
있습니다.  이것은 일반적으로 민감한 작업입니다 - 달리할 좋은 이유가 없다
면 긴 제한 시간(가령 1분)을 주십시오.

반환 값으로, 세 개의 리스트를 얻게 됩니다.  실제로 읽을 수 있고, 쓸 수 있
고, 에러가 있는 소켓이 들어있습니다.  이 리스트는 각기 여러분이 전달한 해
당 목록의 부분집합(비어있는 것도 가능합니다)입니다.

소켓이 반환된 읽기 가능한 리스트에 있다면, 그 소켓에 대한 ‘recv’가 '무언
가를' 반환하리라는 것을 알 수 있습니다.  쓰기 가능한 리스트도 마찬가지입
니다.  '무언가를' 보낼 수 있습니다.  아마 당신이 원하는 전부는 아니겠지
만, '무언가'는 아무것도 아닌 것보다 낫습니다.  (사실, 합리적으로 건강한
소켓은 쓰기 가능 상태로 반환될 것입니다 - 단지 네트워크 송신 버퍼 공간을
사용할 수 있음을 뜻합니다.)

“서버” 소켓이 있다면, potential_readers 리스트에 넣으십시오.  읽기 가능
한 리스트에 등장하면, ‘accept’가 (거의 확실하게) 작동합니다.  다른 곳으
로 ‘connect’하는 새 소켓을 만들었으면, potential_writers 리스트에 넣으십
시오.  쓰기 가능한 리스트에 등장하면, 연결되었을 확률이 높습니다.

사실, ‘select’는 블로킹 소켓에서도 편리할 수 있습니다.  블록 할지 판단하
는 한 가지 방법입니다 - 소켓은 버퍼에 무엇인가가 있으면 읽기 가능으로 반
환됩니다.  그러나, 이것은 상대방이 완료했는지 아니면 단지 다른 일로 바쁜
것인지를 결정하는 문제에는 여전히 도움이 되지 않습니다.

'이식성 경고': 유닉스에서, ‘select’는 소켓과 파일 모두에서 작동합니다.  윈
도우에서 이런 시도를 하지 마십시오.  윈도우에서 ‘select’는 소켓에서만 작
동합니다.  또한, C에서 많은 고급 소켓 옵션은 윈도우에서 다르게 동작함에
유의하십시오.  사실, 윈도우에서 저는 보통 소켓에 스레드를 사용합니다 (아
주 잘 작동합니다).


File: python.info,  Node: 정렬 기법,  Next: 유니코드 HOWTO,  Prev: 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.12 정렬 기법
==============


저자: Andrew Dalke와 Raymond Hettinger

파이썬 리스트에는 리스트를 제자리에서(in-place) 수정하는 내장 *note
list.sort(): bcc. 메서드가 있습니다.  또한, 이터러블로부터 새로운 정렬된
리스트를 만드는 *note sorted(): bcb. 내장 함수가 있습니다.

이 문서에서는, 파이썬을 사용하여 데이터를 정렬하는 다양한 기술을 살펴봅
니다.

* Menu:

* 정렬 기초::
* 키 함수::
* operator 모듈 함수와 부분 함수 평가::
* 오름차순과 내림차순::
* 정렬 안정성과 복잡한 정렬::
* 장식-정렬-복원::
* 비교 함수::
* 잡동사니: 잡동사니<4>.
* Partial Sorts::


File: python.info,  Node: 정렬 기초,  Next: 키 함수,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.1 정렬 기초
----------------

간단한 오름차순 정렬은 매우 쉽습니다; 그저 *note sorted(): bcb. 함수를 호
출하면 됩니다.  새로운 정렬된 리스트를 반환합니다:

     >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

*note list.sort(): bcc. 메서드를 사용할 수도 있습니다.  리스트를 제자리
에서 수정합니다 (그리고 혼동을 피하고자 ‘None’을 반환합니다).  일반적으
로 *note sorted(): bcb.보다 덜 편리합니다 - 하지만 원래 목록이 필요하지
않다면, 이것이 약간 더 효율적입니다.

     >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
     >>> a.sort()
     >>> a
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

또 다른 점은 *note list.sort(): bcc. 메서드가 리스트에게만 정의된다는 것
입니다.  이와 달리, *note sorted(): bcb. 함수는 모든 이터러블을 받아들입
니다.

     >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]


File: python.info,  Node: 키 함수,  Next: operator 모듈 함수와 부분 함수 평가,  Prev: 정렬 기초,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.2 키 함수
--------------

*note list.sort(): bcc.와 *note sorted(): bcb.는 모두 비교하기 전에 각 리
스트 요소에 대해 호출할 함수(또는 다른 콜러블)를 지정하는 'key' 매개 변
수를 가지고 있습니다.

예를 들어, 다음은 대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 문자열 비교입니다:

     >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold)
     ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']

'key' 매개 변수의 값은 단일 인자를 취하고 정렬 목적으로 사용할 키를 반환
하는 함수(또는 다른 콜러블)여야 합니다.  키 함수가 각 입력 레코드에 대해
정확히 한 번 호출되기 때문에 이 기법은 빠릅니다.

일반적인 패턴은 객체의 인덱스 중 일부를 키로 사용하여 복잡한 객체를 정렬
하는 것입니다.  예를 들어:

     >>> student_tuples = [
     ...     ('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # 나이로 정렬합니다
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

같은 기법이 이름있는 어트리뷰트를 갖는 객체에서도 작동합니다.  예를 들어
:

     >>> class Student:
     ...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
     ...         self.name = name
     ...         self.grade = grade
     ...         self.age = age
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))

     >>> student_objects = [
     ...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # 나이로 정렬합니다
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown
above, or they can be instances of *note dataclass: 1cb. or a *note
named tuple: 648.


File: python.info,  Node: operator 모듈 함수와 부분 함수 평가,  Next: 오름차순과 내림차순,  Prev: 키 함수,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.3 operator 모듈 함수와 부분 함수 평가
------------------------------------------

위에서 보여준 *note 키 함수: e01. 패턴은 매우 일반적이므로, 파이썬은 액
세스 함수를 더 쉽고 빠르게 만드는 편리 함수를 제공합니다.  *note
operator: 9f. 모듈에는 *note itemgetter(): a5e, *note attrgetter(): e2f.
및 *note methodcaller(): e30. 함수가 있습니다.

이러한 함수를 사용하면, 위의 예제가 더 간단 해지고 빨라집니다:

     >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

operator 모듈 함수는 다중 수준의 정렬을 허용합니다.  예를 들어, 먼저
'grade'로 정렬한 다음 'age'로 정렬하려면, 이렇게 합니다:

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

The *note functools: 5f. module provides another helpful tool for making
key-functions.  The *note partial(): 40e. function can reduce the
arity(1) of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a
key-function.

     >>> from functools import partial
     >>> from unicodedata import normalize

     >>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split()

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD'))
     ['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë']

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC'))
     ['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity


File: python.info,  Node: 오름차순과 내림차순,  Next: 정렬 안정성과 복잡한 정렬,  Prev: operator 모듈 함수와 부분 함수 평가,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.4 오름차순과 내림차순
--------------------------

*note list.sort(): bcc.와 *note sorted(): bcb.는 모두 불리언 값을 갖는
'reverse' 매개 변수를 받아들입니다.  내림차순 정렬을 지정하는 데 사용됩
니다.  예를 들어, 학생 데이터를 역 'age' 순서로 얻으려면, 이렇게 합니다:

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]


File: python.info,  Node: 정렬 안정성과 복잡한 정렬,  Next: 장식-정렬-복원,  Prev: 오름차순과 내림차순,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.5 정렬 안정성과 복잡한 정렬
--------------------------------

정렬은 안정적(1)임이 보장됩니다.  즉, 여러 레코드가 같은 키를 가질 때, 원
래의 순서가 유지됩니다.

     >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
     >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
     [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]

'blue'에 대한 두 레코드가 원래 순서를 유지해서 ‘('blue', 1)’이 ‘('blue',
2)’보다 앞에 나옴이 보장됨에 유의하십시오.

이 멋진 속성은 일련의 정렬 단계로 복잡한 정렬을 만들 수 있도록 합니다.  예
를 들어, 학생 데이터를 'grade'의 내림차순으로 정렬한 다음, 'age'의 오름
차순으로 정렬하려면, 먼저 'age' 정렬을 수행한 다음 'grade'를 사용하여 다
시 정렬합니다:

     >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # 두 번째 키로 정렬합니다
     >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # 이제 첫 번째 키로 내림차순 정렬합니다
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

이것은 다중 패스로 정렬하기 위해 필드와 순서의 튜플 리스트를 받을 수 있
는 래퍼 함수로 추상화할 수 있습니다.

     >>> def multisort(xs, specs):
     ...     for key, reverse in reversed(specs):
     ...         xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse)
     ...     return xs

     >>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False)))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

파이썬에서 사용된 Timsort(2) 알고리즘은 데이터 집합에 이미 존재하는 순서
를 활용할 수 있으므로 효율적으로 여러 번의 정렬을 수행합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort


File: python.info,  Node: 장식-정렬-복원,  Next: 비교 함수,  Prev: 정렬 안정성과 복잡한 정렬,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.6 장식-정렬-복원
---------------------

이 관용구는 그것의 세 단계를 따라 장식-정렬-복원
(Decorate-Sort-Undecorate)이라고 합니다:

   * 첫째, 초기 리스트가 정렬 순서를 제어하는 새로운 값으로 장식됩니다.

   * 둘째, 장식된 리스트를 정렬합니다.

   * 마지막으로, 장식을 제거하여, 새 순서로 초깃값만 포함하는 리스트를 만
     듭니다.

예를 들어, DSU 방식을 사용하여 'grade'로 학생 데이터를 정렬하려면 다음과
같이 합니다:

     >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
     >>> decorated.sort()
     >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # 복원
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

이 관용구는 튜플이 사전식으로 비교되기 때문에 작동합니다; 첫 번째 항목이
비교됩니다; 그들이 같으면 두 번째 항목이 비교되고, 이런 식으로 계속됩니
다.

모든 경우에 장식된 리스트에 인덱스 'i'를 포함할 필요는 없지만, 두 가지 이
점이 있습니다:

   * 정렬이 안정적입니다 – 두 항목이 같은 키를 가지면, 그 들의 순서가 정
     렬된 리스트에 유지됩니다.

   * 장식된 튜플의 순서는 최대 처음 두 항목에 의해 결정되므로 원래 항목
     은 비교 가능할 필요가 없습니다.  그래서 예를 들어, 원래 리스트에는
     직접 정렬될 수 없는 복소수가 포함될 수 있습니다.

이 관용구의 또 다른 이름은 펄 프로그래머들 사이에서 이것을 대중화한
Randal L. Schwartz의 이름을 딴 Schwartzian 변환(1)입니다.

이제 파이썬 정렬이 키 함수를 제공하기 때문에, 이 기법은 자주 필요하지 않
습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform


File: python.info,  Node: 비교 함수,  Next: 잡동사니<4>,  Prev: 장식-정렬-복원,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.7 비교 함수
----------------

Unlike key functions that return an absolute value for sorting, a
comparison function computes the relative ordering for two inputs.

For example, a balance scale(1) compares two samples giving a relative
ordering: lighter, equal, or heavier.  Likewise, a comparison function
such as ‘cmp(a, b)’ will return a negative value for less-than, zero if
the inputs are equal, or a positive value for greater-than.

It is common to encounter comparison functions when translating
algorithms from other languages.  Also, some libraries provide
comparison functions as part of their API. For example, *note
locale.strcoll(): 3d63. is a comparison function.

To accommodate those situations, Python provides *note
functools.cmp_to_key: 11c9. to wrap the comparison function to make it
usable as a key function:

     sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll))  # 로케일 인식 정렬 순서

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG


File: python.info,  Node: 잡동사니<4>,  Next: Partial Sorts,  Prev: 비교 함수,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.8 잡동사니
---------------

   * 로케일 인식 정렬의 경우, 키 함수로는 *note locale.strxfrm(): 3d65.를
     , 비교 함수로는 *note locale.strcoll(): 3d63.을 사용하십시오.  이는
     하부 알파벳이 같더라도 문화권마다 “알파벳순” 정렬 순서가 다를 수 있
     기 때문에 필요합니다.

   * 'reverse' 매개 변수는 여전히 정렬 안정성을 유지합니다 (그래서 같은
     키를 갖는 레코드는 원래 순서를 유지합니다).  흥미롭게도, 그 효과는
     내장 *note reversed(): 860. 함수를 두 번 사용하여 매개 변수 없이 흉
     내 낼 수 있습니다:

          >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
          >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
          >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
          >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
          >>> standard_way
          [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]

   * 정렬 루틴은 두 객체를 비교할 때 ‘<’를 사용합니다.  따라서 *note
     __lt__(): 128f. 메서드를 정의하여, 표준 정렬 순서를 클래스에 추가하
     기는 쉽습니다:

          >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
          >>> sorted(student_objects)
          [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     However, note that ‘<’ can fall back to using *note __gt__(): 12fc.
     if *note __lt__(): 128f. is not implemented (see *note
     object.__lt__(): 128f. for details on the mechanics).  To avoid
     surprises, PEP 8(1) recommends that all six comparison methods be
     implemented.  The *note total_ordering(): f3a. decorator is
     provided to make that task easier.

   * 키 함수는 정렬되는 객체에 직접 의존할 필요가 없습니다.  키 함수는 외
     부 자원에 액세스할 수도 있습니다.  예를 들어, 학생 성적이 딕셔너리
     에 저장되어 있다면, 학생 이름의 별도 리스트를 정렬하는 데 사용할 수
     있습니다:

          >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
          >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
          >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
          ['jane', 'dave', 'john']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Partial Sorts,  Prev: 잡동사니<4>,  Up: 정렬 기법

9.12.9 Partial Sorts
--------------------

Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered.  The
standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full
sort:

   * *note min(): f00. and *note max(): f01. return the smallest and
     largest values, respectively.  These functions make a single pass
     over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory.

   * *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2544. and *note heapq.nlargest(): 2543.
     return the 'n' smallest and largest values, respectively.  These
     functions make a single pass over the data keeping only 'n'
     elements in memory at a time.  For values of 'n' that are small
     relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer
     comparisons than a full sort.

   * *note heapq.heappush(): 1482. and *note heapq.heappop(): 1483.
     create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that
     keeps the smallest element at position ‘0’.  These functions are
     suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used
     for task scheduling.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 HOWTO,  Next: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법,  Prev: 정렬 기법,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.13 유니코드 HOWTO
===================


버전: 1.12

이 HOWTO는 텍스트 데이터를 나타내기 위한 유니코드 명세를 지원하는 파이썬
에 대한 설명과 유니코드로 작업할 때 일반적으로 마주하는 다양한 문제들에
관해 설명합니다.

* Menu:

* 유니코드 소개::
* 파이썬의 유니코드 지원::
* 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기::
* 감사 인사::


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 소개,  Next: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원,  Up: 유니코드 HOWTO

9.13.1 유니코드 소개
--------------------

* Menu:

* 정의::
* 인코딩::
* 참조::


File: python.info,  Node: 정의,  Next: 인코딩,  Up: 유니코드 소개

9.13.1.1 정의
.............

오늘날의 프로그램은 다양한 문자를 처리할 수 있어야 합니다.  응용 프로그
램은 종종 국제화되어 다양한 사용자 선택 가능한 언어로 메시지를 표시하고
출력합니다; 같은 프로그램이 영어, 프랑스어, 일본어, 히브리어 또는 러시아
어로 에러 메시지를 출력해야 할 수 있습니다.  웹 콘텐츠는 이러한 언어로 작
성될 수 있으며 다양한 이모티콘 기호를 포함할 수도 있습니다.  파이썬의 문
자열형은 문자를 표현하기 위해 유니코드 표준을 사용하므로, 파이썬 프로그
램은 가능한 모든 다른 문자로 작업 할 수 있습니다.

유니코드(‘https://www.unicode.org/’)는 인간 언어에서 사용하는 모든 문자
를 나열하고 각 문자에 고유한 코드를 부여하고자 하는 명세입니다.  새로운
언어와 기호를 추가하기 위해 유니코드 명세가 계속 개정되고 갱신됩니다.

'문자'는 텍스트의 가능한 최소 구성요소입니다.  ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ 등은 전부 다
른 문자입니다.  ‘È’와 ‘Í’ 역시 그렇습니다.  문자는 언어나 문맥에 따라 다
릅니다.  예를 들어 대문자 ‘I’와는 별개로, “로마 숫자 하나(Roman Numeral
One)”를 위한 문자 ‘Ⅰ’가 있습니다.  이들은 보통 똑같아 보이지만, 서로 다
른 의미를 가진 두 개의 다른 문자입니다.

유니코드 표준은 문자를 어떻게 '코드 포인트'로 표현하는지 서술하고 있습니
다.  코드 포인트 값은 0에서 0x10FFFF 사이의 정수입니다 (약 110만 개의 값
입니다, 할당된 실제 수(1)는 이보다 적습니다).  표준과 이 문서에서 코드 포
인트는 ‘U+265E’ 표기법을 사용하며, 이는 값 ‘0x265e’(10진수로는 9,822)인
문자를 의미합니다.

유니코드 표준은 문자와 그에 상응하는 코드 포인트를 나열한 수많은 표를 포
함하고 있습니다:

     0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
     0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
     0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
     ...
     007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
     ...
     2167    'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
     2168    'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
     ...
     265E    '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
     265F    '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN
     ...
     1F600   '😀'; GRINNING FACE
     1F609   '😉'; WINKING FACE
     ...

엄밀히 말하자면, 이러한 정의는 ‘이것이 문자 ‘U+265E’’라고 말하는 것은 의
미가 없음을 뜻합니다.  ‘U+265E’는 어떤 특정 문자를 표현하는 코드 포인트
일 뿐입니다; 이 경우에는 ‘BLACK CHESS KNIGHT’(’♞’)를 나타냅니다.  일상적
인 문맥에서 코드 포인트와 문자 사이의 구분은 때때로 잊힐 겁니다.

문자는 화면이나 종이에 '글리프'라 불리는 그래픽 요소의 집합으로 표시됩니
다.  예를 들어 대문자 A의 글리프는 두 개의 대각 획과 한 개의 수평 획이지
만, 정확한 세부사항은 글꼴에 따라 다릅니다.  대부분의 파이썬 코드는 글리
프를 걱정할 필요가 없습니다; 표시할 올바른 글리프를 찾는 것은 일반적으로
GUI 툴킷이나 터미널의 글꼴 렌더러의 일입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary


File: python.info,  Node: 인코딩,  Next: 참조,  Prev: 정의,  Up: 유니코드 소개

9.13.1.2 인코딩
...............

이전 섹션 요약: 유니코드 문자열은 코드 포인트의 시퀀스이며, 0부터
‘0x10FFFF’ (십진수 1,114,111)의 범위를 갖는 수입니다.  이 코드 포인트의
시퀀스는 메모리에서 '코드 단위(code units)'의 집합으로 표현될 필요가 있
고, 그런 다음 '코드 단위'는 8비트 바이트로 매핑됩니다.  유니코드 문자열
을 바이트 시퀀스로 변환하는 규칙을 '문자 인코딩(character encoding)', 또
는 단지 '인코딩(encoding)'이라고 부릅니다.

생각할 수 있는 첫 번째 인코딩은 코드 단위로 32비트 정수를 사용한 다음
32비트 정수의 CPU 표현을 사용하는 것입니다.  이 표현에서 문자열
“Python”은 다음과 같습니다:

     P           y           t           h           o           n
     0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
        0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

이 표현은 간단하지만 여러 문제를 가지고 있습니다.

  1. 이식성이 없습니다; 다른 프로세서는 바이트를 다르게 정렬합니다.

  2. 이는 공간을 매우 낭비하는 겁니다.  대부분 텍스트에서 주요 코드 포인
     트는 127 또는 255보다 작으므로 많은 공간이 ‘0x00’으로 채워집니다.  위
     의 문자열은 ASCII 표현에 필요한 6 바이트와 비교하여 24 바이트를 사
     용합니다.  늘어난 RAM 사용은 중요하지 않지만(데스크톱 컴퓨터는 기가
     바이트 단위의 RAM을 갖고 있고, 문자열은 대개 그 정도로 크지 않습니
     다), 디스크와 네트워크 대역폭 사용을 4배로 확장하는 것은 용납할 수
     없습니다.

  3. ‘strlen()’과 같은 기존의 C 함수와 호환이 안 되기 때문에 새로운 와이
     드 문자열 함수 계열을 사용해야 합니다.

따라서 이 인코딩은 많이 사용되지 않으며, 사람들은 UTF-8과 같은 더 효율적
이고 편리한 다른 인코딩을 선택합니다.

UTF-8은 일반적으로 가장 많이 사용되는 인코딩 중 하나이고, 파이썬은 종종
기본적으로 이것을 사용합니다.  UTF는 “Unicode Transformation Format”의 약
자이며 ‘8’은 8비트 값이 인코딩에 사용됨을 뜻합니다.  (UTF-16과 UTF-32 인
코딩도 있지만, UTF-8보다 낮은 빈도로 사용됩니다.)  UTF-8은 다음의 규칙을
따릅니다:

  1. 만약 코드 포인트가 128보다 작다면, 해당 바이트 값으로 표현됩니다.

  2. 만약 코드 포인트가 128보다 크거나 같다면, 시퀀스의 각 바이트가 128에
     서 255 사이인 둘, 셋 또는 네 개의 바이트 시퀀스로 바뀝니다.

UTF-8은 몇 가지 편리한 특징이 있습니다:

  1. 모든 유니코드 코드 포인트를 처리 할 수 있습니다.

  2. 유니코드 문자열은 널 문자를 표현하는 곳에만 내장된 0바이트를 포함하
     는 바이트 시퀀스로 변환됩니다.  이는 UTF-8 문자열을 ‘strcpy()’와 같
     은 C 함수로 처리하고 문자열 끝 표시 이외의 0바이트를 처리하지 못하
     는 프로토콜을 통해 전송할 수 있음을 의미합니다.

  3. ASCII 텍스트의 문자열 역시 유효한 UTF-8 텍스트입니다.

  4. UTF-8은 꽤 알찹니다; 일반적으로 사용되는 문자 대부분을 한두 개의 바
     이트로 표현할 수 있습니다.

  5. 만약 바이트가 손상 또는 손실되었다면, 다음 UTF-8 인코딩 코드 포인트
     의 시작을 결정하고 다시 동기화할 수 있습니다.  무작위 8비트 데이터
     가 유효한 UTF-8처럼 보일 가능성은 낮습니다.

  6. UTF-8은 바이트 지향 인코딩입니다.  인코딩은 각 문자가 하나 이상의 바
     이트의 특정 시퀀스로 표시되도록 지정합니다.  이렇게 하면 UTF-16과
     UTF-32와 같이 바이트의 시퀀스가 문자열이 인코딩된 하드웨어에 따라 달
     라지는 정수와 워드(word) 지향 인코딩에서 발생할 수 있는 바이트 순서
     문제를 피할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 참조,  Prev: 인코딩,  Up: 유니코드 소개

9.13.1.3 참조
.............

유니코드 컨소시엄 사이트(1)는 유니코드 사양의 문자 차트, 용어집 그리고
PDF 버전의 유니코드 명세를 갖고 있습니다.  어려운 읽기를 준비하세요.  유
니코드의 기원과 개발의 연대기(2) 역시 이 사이트에서 볼 수 있습니다.

Computerphile 유튜브 채널에서, Tom Scott가 간략하게 유니코드와 UTF-8의 역
사를 논의합니다(3) (9분 36초).

Jukka Korpela는 표준을 이해할 수 있도록 유니코드 문자표 읽기에 대한 입문
안내서(4)를 작성했습니다.

또 다른 좋은 입문 글(5)을 Joel Spolsky가 썼습니다.  이 입문서로도 명확하
지 않은 경우 계속하기 전에 이 대체 문서를 읽으세요.

위키피디아 항목은 때때로 도움이 됩니다; 예를 들어, “문자 인코딩(6)”과
UTF-8(7) 항목을 보세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/history/

   (3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4

   (4) https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html

   (5) 
https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원,  Next: 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기,  Prev: 유니코드 소개,  Up: 유니코드 HOWTO

9.13.2 파이썬의 유니코드 지원
-----------------------------

이제 유니코드의 기초를 배웠으므로 파이썬의 유니코드 기능을 살펴볼 수 있
습니다.

* Menu:

* 문자열 형::
* 바이트열로 변환::
* 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴::
* 유니코드 속성::
* 문자열 비교::
* 유니코드 정규식::
* 참조: 참조<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열 형,  Next: 바이트열로 변환,  Up: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원

9.13.2.1 문자열 형
..................

파이썬 3.0부터는 언어의 *note str: 445. 형은 유니코드 문자를 포함하고, 이
는 어떤 문자열이든 ‘"unicode rocks!"’, ‘'unicode rocks!'’ 또는 삼중 따옴
표로 묶인 문자열 문법을 사용한다면 유니코드로 저장됨을 뜻합니다.

파이썬 소스 코드의 기본 인코딩은 UTF-8이므로 문자열 리터럴에 유니코드 문
자를 쉽게 포함할 수 있습니다:

     try:
         with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
             ...
     except OSError:
         # 'File not found' error message.
         print("Fichier non trouvé")

사이드 노트: 파이썬 3은 유니코드 문자를 식별자에서도 지원합니다:

     répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
     with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
         f.write("test\n")

편집기에서 특정 문자를 입력 할수 없거나 어떤 이유에서 ASCII만으로 소스 코
드를 작성하고자 한다면, 문자열 리터럴에 이스케이프 시퀀스를 사용할 수 있
습니다.  (시스템에 따라 다르지만, u 이스케이프 대신에 진짜 대문자 델타 글
리프가 나타날 수 있습니다.)

     >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # 문자 이름 사용
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\u0394"                          # 16비트 16진수 값 사용
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\U00000394"                      # 32비트 16진수 값 사용
     '\u0394'

추가로, 문자열을 *note bytes: 1c2.의 *note decode(): 8d3. 메서드를 사용
하여 만들 수 있습니다.  이 메서드는 ‘UTF-8’과 같은 'encoding' 인자와 선
택적으로 'erros' 인자를 받습니다.

'errors' 인자는 인코딩의 규칙에 따라 입력 문자열을 변환할 수 없는 경우의
응답을 지정합니다.  이 인자의 유효한 값은 ‘'strict'’ (*note
UnicodeDecodeError: a0f. 예외 발생), ‘'replace'’ (‘U+FFFD’, ‘REPLACEMENT
CHARACTER’ 사용), ‘'ignore'’ (유니코드 결과에서 문자를 그냥 생략), 또는
‘'backslashreplace'’ (‘\xNN’ 이스케이프 시퀀스를 삽입)입니다.  다음 에제
는 그 차이점을 보여줍니다:

     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
       invalid start byte
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
     '\ufffdabc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
     '\\x80abc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
     'abc'

인코딩은 인코딩의 이름을 포함하는 문자열로 지정됩니다.  파이썬에는 대략
100개의 서로 다른 인코딩이 있습니다.  리스트는 *note 표준 인코딩: db5.에
서 파이썬 라이브러리 레퍼런스를 보세요.  어떤 인코딩은 다양한 이름을 갖
습니다; 예를 들어, ‘'latin-1'’, ‘'iso_8859_1'’ 그리고 ‘'8859’’ 는 전부 같
은 인코딩의 동의어입니다.

한 문자 유니코드 문자열은 정수를 받고 해당 코드 포인트를 포함하는 길이
1인 유니코드 문자열을 반환하는 *note chr(): 1679. 내장 함수로도 만들 수
있습니다.  반대 작업은 한 문자 유니코드 문자열을 받고 코드 포인트 값을 반
환하는 *note ord(): 1efa. 내장 함수입니다:

     >>> chr(57344)
     '\ue000'
     >>> ord('\ue000')
     57344


File: python.info,  Node: 바이트열로 변환,  Next: 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴,  Prev: 문자열 형,  Up: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원

9.13.2.2 바이트열로 변환
........................

*note bytes.decode(): 8d3.의 반대 메서드는 요청된 'encoding'으로 인코딩
된 유니코드 문자열의 *note bytes: 1c2.를 반환하는 *note str.encode():
8d2.입니다.

'errors' 매개변수는 *note decode(): 8d3. 메서드의 매개변수와 같지만 가능
한 핸들러를 조금 더 제공합니다.  ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’ (이
경우 인코딩할 수 없는 문자 대신에 물음표를 삽입)뿐만 아니라
‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ (XML 문자 참조 삽입), ‘backslashreplace’ (‘\uNNNN’
이스케이프 시퀀스 삽입) 그리고 ‘namereplace’ (‘\N{...}’ 이스케이프 시퀀
스 삽입)도 있습니다.

아래 예제에서 서로 다른 결과를 보여줍니다:

     >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
     >>> u.encode('utf-8')
     b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
       position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
     b'abcd'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
     b'?abcd?'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
     b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
     b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'

사용 가능한 인코딩을 등록하고 접근할 수 있도록 하는 저수준 루틴은 *note
codecs: 1b. 모듈에서 찾을 수 있습니다.  새로운 인코딩을 구현하는 것도
*note codecs: 1b. 모듈의 이해가 필요합니다.  하지만 이 모듈에 의해서 반
환되는 인코딩과 디코딩 함수는 대체로 편안한 것보다는 저수준이며, 새로운
인코딩을 작성하는 것은 전문적인 작업이므로 HOWTO에서 이 모듈을 다루지는
않겠습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴,  Next: 유니코드 속성,  Prev: 바이트열로 변환,  Up: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원

9.13.2.3 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴
.............................................

파이썬 소스 코드에서 특정한 유니코드 코드 포인트는 ‘\u’ 이스케이프 시퀀
스로 쓸 수 있으며, 코드 포인트를 의미하는 네 개의 16진수가 뒤따릅니다.
‘\U’ 이스케이프 시퀀스와 비슷하지만 네 개가 아닌 여덟 개의 숫자여야 합니
다:

     >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
     ... #     ^^^^ 두 자리 16진수 이스케이프
     ... #         ^^^^^^ 네 자리 유ㅣ니코드 이스케이프
     ... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ 8자리 유니코드 이스케이프
     >>> [ord(c) for c in s]
     [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]

127보다 큰 코드 포인트에 대해 이스케이프 시퀀스를 사용하는 것은 양이 적
을 때 괜찮지만, 프랑스어나 다른 악센트를 사용하는 언어로 작성된 프로그램
메시지 같이 악센트가 있는 문자를 사용할 경우 성가십니다.  *note chr():
1679. 내장 함수를 이용하여 문자열을 조립할 수는 있지만 더 짜증납니다.

사용하는 언어의 자연스러운 인코딩으로 리터럴을 쓸 수 있어야 이상적입니다
.  그래야 악센트가 있는 문자를 자연스럽게 표시하는 사용자가 가장 좋아하
는 편집기로 파이썬 소스 코드를 편집할 수 있고, 실행시점에 올바른 문자를
가질 수 있습니다.

파이썬은 소스 코드를 UTF-8로 작성하는 것을 기본으로 지원하지만, 원하는 인
코딩을 선언한다면 거의 모든 인코딩을 쓸 수 있습니다.  이는 소스 파일의 첫
번째 또는 두 번째 줄에 특별한 주석을 포함해 작동합니다:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: latin-1 -*-

     u = 'abcdé'
     print(ord(u[-1]))

이 문법은 파일에 지역적인 변수를 명시하는데 사용되는 이맥스 표기법에서 영
감을 받았습니다.  이맥스는 수많은 서로 다른 변수를 지원하지만 파이썬은 오
직 ‘coding’만을 지원합니다.  ‘-*-’ 기호는 이맥스에게 주석이 특별함을 나
타냅니다; 파이썬에게 아무 의미도 없지만 그저 관례를 따르는 것뿐입니다.  파
이썬은 주석에서 ‘coding: name’이나 ‘coding=name’을 찾습니다.

이러한 주석을 포함하지 않는다면, 이미 언급한 것처럼 기본 인코딩으로
UTF-8이 사용됩니다.  PEP 263(1)에서 정보를 더 보시기 바랍니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 속성,  Next: 문자열 비교,  Prev: 파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴,  Up: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원

9.13.2.4 유니코드 속성
......................

유니코드 사양은 코드 포인트에 대한 정보 데이터베이스를 포함합니다.  각각
정의한 코드 포인트에 대해서, 정보는 문자의 이름, 카테고리, 적용 가능한 숫
자 값(로마 숫자와 같은 숫자 개념을 나타내는 문자, 3분의 1이나 5분의 4와
같은 분수를 표현하는 문자 등)을 포함합니다.  양방향 텍스트에서 코드 포인
트를 사용하는 방법과 같은 디스플레이 관련 속성도 있습니다.

아래의 프로그램은 몇몇 개의 문자에 대한 정보를 표시하고 특정한 문자의 숫
자 값을 출력합니다:

     import unicodedata

     u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)

     for i, c in enumerate(u):
         print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
         print(unicodedata.name(c))

     # 두 번째 문자의 숫자 값을 가져옵니다
     print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))

실행했을 때 다음을 출력합니다:

     0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
     1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
     2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
     3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
     4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
     1000.0

카테고리 코드는 문자의 유형을 설명하는 약어입니다.  이것들은 “Letter”,
“Number”, “Punctuation”, 또는 “Symbol”과 같은 카테고리로 묶여 있고, 이는
하위 카테고리로 나누어 집니다.  위 결과물에서 코드를 가져와 보면,
‘'Ll'’는 ‘Letter, lowercase’, ‘'No'’는 “Number, other”, ‘'Mn'’은 “Mark,
nonspacing”, 그리고 ‘'So'’는 “Symbol, other”를 뜻합니다.  카테고리 코드
목록에 대해서는 유니코드 문자 데이터베이스 문서의 일반 카테고리값 섹션
(1)을 보세요.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values


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9.13.2.5 문자열 비교
....................

유니코드는 문자열 비교를 약간 복잡하게 만듭니다, 같은 문자 집합이 다른 코
드 포인트 시퀀스로 표시될 수 있기 때문입니다.  예를 들어, ‘ê’와 같은 문
자는 단일 코드 포인트 U+00EA로 표시되거나, ‘e’의 코드 포인트 다음에
‘COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT’의 코드 포인트가 오는 U+0065 U+0302로 표시
될 수 있습니다.  인쇄될 때 같은 출력을 생성하지만, 하나는 길이 1의 문자
열이고 다른 하나는 길이 2입니다.

대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 비교를 위한 한 가지 도구는 문자열을 유니코드 표
준에 설명된 알고리즘에 따라 대소 문자를 구분하지 않는 형식으로 변환하는
*note casefold(): dd2. 문자열 메서드입니다.  이 알고리즘은 독일어 문자
‘ß’(코드 포인트 U+00DF)를 소문자 ‘ss’ 쌍이 되도록 하는 것과 같이 문자를
특수하게 처리합니다.

     >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
     >>> street.casefold()
     'gürzenichstrasse'

두 번째 도구는 *note unicodedata: 105. 모듈의 *note normalize(): 6ce. 함
수인데, 문자열을 여러 정규 형식 중 하나로 변환합니다.  여기서 뒤에 결합
문자가 오는 문자는 단일 문자로 바뀝니다.  *note normalize(): 6ce.를 사용
하면 두 문자열이 문자 결합을 다르게 사용할 때 같지 않다고 잘못 보고하지
않는 문자열 비교를 수행할 수 있습니다:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_strs(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)

     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
     print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
     print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
     print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))

실행했을 때 다음을 출력합니다:

     $ python compare-strs.py
     length of first string= 1
     length of second string= 2
     True

*note normalize(): 6ce. 함수의 첫 번째 인자는 원하는 정규화 형식을 제공
하는 문자열입니다.  ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’ 및 ‘NFKD’ 중 하나일 수 있습니다
.

유니코드 표준은 또한 대소 문자를 구별하지 않고 비교하지 않는 방법을 지정
합니다:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())

     # Example usage
     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'

     print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))

이것은 ‘True’를 인쇄합니다.  (왜 ‘NFD()’가 두 번 호출될까요?  *note
casefold(): dd2.가 정규화되지 않은 문자열을 반환하도록 하는 문자가 몇 개
있기 때문입니다, 그래서 결과를 다시 정규화해야 합니다.  토론과 예제는 유
니코드 표준의 3.13 절을 참조하십시오.)


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 정규식,  Next: 참조<2>,  Prev: 문자열 비교,  Up: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원

9.13.2.6 유니코드 정규식
........................

*note re: b9. 모듈이 지원하는 정규식은 바이트열 또는 문자열로 제공됩니다
.  ‘\d’와 ‘\w’ 같은 특별한 문자 시퀀스 몇몇은 패턴이 바이트열 또는 문자
열에 의해 지원되는지 여부에 따라 다른 의미가 있습니다.  예를 들어, 바이
트열에서 ‘\d’는 ‘[0-9]’와 일치하지만, 문자열에서는 ‘'Nd'’ 카테고리에 속
하는 아무 문자와 일치합니다.

이 예제의 문자열은 태국과 아라비아 숫자로 쓰인 숫자 57을 갖고 있습니다:

     import re
     p = re.compile(r'\d+')

     s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
     m = p.search(s)
     print(repr(m.group()))

실행했을 때, ‘\d+’은 태국 숫자와 일치하고 출력합니다.  *note re.ASCII:
626. 플래그를 *note compile(): bd0.에 제공했을 경우, ‘\d+’는 부분 문자열
“57”을 대신 일치시킵니다.

비슷하게, ‘\w’는 매우 다양한 유니코드와 일치하지만, 바이트열이거나 *note
re.ASCII: 626.가 제공되면 오직 ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’과 일치하고, ‘\s’는 유니코
드 공백 문자나 ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’와 일치합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 참조<2>,  Prev: 유니코드 정규식,  Up: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원

9.13.2.7 참조
.............

파이썬 유니코드 지원에 대한 몇 개의 좋은 대안 토론은 다음과 같습니다:

   * Nick Coghlan의 파이썬 3의 텍스트 파일 처리(1).

   * Ned Batchelder가 PyCon 2012에서 발표한 실용 유니코드(2).

*note str: 445. 타입은 파이썬 라이브러리 레퍼런스 *note 텍스트 시퀀스 형
— str: 1c04.에 설명되어 있습니다.

*note unicodedata: 105. 모듈에 대한 문서입니다.

*note codecs: 1b. 모듈에 대한 문서입니다.

Marc-André Lemburg는 EuroPython 2002에서 발표한 "파이썬과 유니코드"라는
제목의 프레젠테이션 (PDF 슬라이드)(3)을 주었습니다.  이 슬라이드는 파이
썬 2의 유니코드 기능(유니코드 문자열 타입을 ‘unicode’라 부르고 리터럴
‘u’로 시작하는) 디자인에 대한 훌륭한 개요서입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html

   (2) https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html

   (3) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기,  Next: 감사 인사,  Prev: 파이썬의 유니코드 지원,  Up: 유니코드 HOWTO

9.13.3 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기
--------------------------------

유니코드 데이터로 동작하는 코드를 작성했다면, 다음은 입출력이 문제입니다
.  프로그램에 유니코드 문자열을 어떻게 집어넣을 것인가, 그리고 유니코드
를 어떻게 저장 또는 전송에 적합한 형식으로 유니코드를 전환할 것인가?

입력 소스 및 출력 대상에 따라 아무것도 할 필요 없을 수도 있습니다; 응용
프로그램에서 사용되는 라이브러리가 유니코드를 기본 지원하는지 확인해야 됩
니다.  예를 들어, XML 파서는 종종 유니코드 데이터를 반환합니다.  많은 관
계형 데이터베이스 역시 유니코드 값 칼럼을 지원하고, SQL 질의로부터 유니
코드 값을 반환받을 수 있습니다.

유니코드 데이터는 디스크에 쓰이거나 소켓에 전달되기 전에 보통 특정 인코
딩으로 변경됩니다.  다음의 모든 작업을 직접 할 수 있습니다: 파일 열기,
8-bit 바이트열 객체 읽기, 그리고 ‘bytes.decode(encoding)’로 바이트열 전
환하기.  하지만 이러한 수동 접근은 권장하지 않습니다.

한 가지 문제는 인코딩의 멀티 바이트 특성입니다; 하나의 유니코드 문자는 여
러 바이트로 표현됩니다.  임의의 크기의 청크로 파일을 읽으려면 (1024 또는
4096바이트라 할 때), 단일 유니코드 문자를 인코딩하는 바이트 일부만 청크
끝에 읽는 경우를 잡기 위해 에러 처리 코드를 작성해야 합니다.  한 가지 해
결책은 파일 전체를 메모리에 읽고 디코딩을 수행하는 것이지만, 극도로 큰 파
일로 작업하는 것을 방해합니다; 2기가바이트 파일을 읽어야만 한다면, 2기가
바이트 메모리가 필요합니다.  (인코딩된 문자열과 유니코드 버전을 잠깐 메
모리에 가지고 있어야 하므로 실제로는 더 필요합니다.)

부분 코딩 시퀀스의 경우를 잡기 위해 저수준 디코딩 인터페이스를 사용하는
것이 해결방법입니다.  이를 구현하는 작업은 이미 수행되었습니다: 내장
*note open(): 515. 함수는 파일 내용물이 지정된 인코딩이라고 가정하고,
*note read(): 1c8d. 또는 *note write(): 1c7c.와 같은 메서드에서 유니코드
매개변수를 받아들이는 파일 객체를 반환할 수 있습니다.  이는 *note
str.encode(): 8d2.와 *note bytes.decode(): 8d3.에서처럼 해석되는 *note
open(): 515.의 'encoding'과 'errors' 매개변수를 통해 작동합니다.

그러므로 파일에서 유니코드를 읽는 것은 간단합니다:

     with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         for line in f:
             print(repr(line))

업데이트 모드로 파일을 열어 읽기 또는 쓰기를 할 수도 있습니다:

     with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
         f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
         f.seek(0)
         print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))

유니코드 문자 ‘U+FEFF’는 바이트 순서 표시(BOM)로 사용되고, 파일의 바이트
순서를 자동감지하기 위해 파일의 맨 처음 문자로 쓰이기도 합니다.  UTF-16과
같은 일부 인코딩에서는 파일 시작 부분에 BOM이 있어야합니다; 이러한 인코
딩이 쓰일 때, BOM이 자동으로 첫번째 문자로 작성되고 파일을 읽을 때 조용
히 없어집니다.  리틀 엔디안과 빅 엔디안을 위해 특정 바이트 순서를 지정하
고 BOM을 생략하지 않는 ‘utf-16-le’와 ‘utf-16-be’ 같은 인코딩의 변종들이
있습니다.

일부 영역에서는 UTF-8로 인코딩된 파일의 시작 부분에 “BOM”을 사용하는 것
이 관례이기도 합니다; UTF-8은 바이트 순서에 의존하지 않으므로 이 이름은
오해의 소지가 있습니다.  이 표시는 이 파일이 UTF-8로 인코딩했음을 단순히
알립니다.  그런 파일을 읽으려면 자동으로 이 표시를 건너뛰기 위해
‘utf-8-sig’ 코덱을 사용하세요.

* Menu:

* 유니코드 파일 이름::
* 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁::
* 참조: 참조<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 파일 이름,  Next: 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁,  Up: 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기

9.13.3.1 유니코드 파일 이름
...........................

오늘날 자주 쓰이는 대부분의 운영체제는 임의의 유니코드 문자를 갖는 파일
이름을 지원합니다.  이는 보통 유니코드 문자열을 시스템에 의존적인 인코딩
으로 변환하여 구현합니다.  오늘날의 파이썬은 UTF-8을 사용하는 것으로 수
렴하고 있습니다: 맥 OS X의 파이썬은 여러 버전에서 UTF-8을 사용했으며, 파
이썬 3.6은 윈도우에서도 UTF-8을 사용하도록 전환했습니다.  유닉스 시스템
에서 ‘LANG’ 또는 ‘LC_CTYPE’ 환경변수를 설정했다면, *note 파일 시스템
인코딩: 535.만을 사용합니다; 그렇지 않은 경우, 기본 인코딩은 다시 UTF-8입
니다.

인코딩을 수동으로 하고 싶을 때를 대비하여 *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. 함수는 현재 사용하고 있는 시스템의 인
코딩을 반환하지만, 귀찮게 그럴 이유는 없습니다.  읽기 또는 쓰기를 위해 파
일을 열 때, 보통 파일 이름으로 유니코드 문자열을 제공하기만 하면 되고, 자
동으로 올바른 인코딩으로 변환됩니다:

     filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
     with open(filename, 'w') as f:
         f.write('blah\n')

*note os: a1. 모듈 안의 *note os.stat(): 49a.과 같은 함수 역시 유니코드
파일 이름을 수용합니다.

*note os.listdir(): 10eb. 함수는 파일 이름을 반환하는데, 문제를 일으킵니
다: 이 함수가 파일 이름의 유니코드 버전을 반환해야 할까요?  아니면 인코
딩 버전을 포함한 바이트열을 반환해야 할까요?  *note os.listdir(): 10eb.은
디렉터리 경로를 바이트열이나 유니코드 문자열로 제공했는지에 따라 둘 모두
를 수행할 수 있습니다.  경로를 유니코드 문자열로 넘겨주었을 때 파일 이름
은 파일 시스템의 인코딩으로 디코딩되고 유니코드 문자열의 목록이 반환되는
반면, 바이트를 넘겨주었을 때 파일 이름을 바이트열로 반환합니다.  예를 들
어, 기본 *note 파일 시스템 인코딩: 535.이 UTF-8이라 가정할 때, 다음의 프
로그램을 실행할 시:

     fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
     f = open(fn, 'w')
     f.close()

     import os
     print(os.listdir(b'.'))
     print(os.listdir('.'))

아래의 출력을 만들 것입니다:

     $ python listdir-test.py
     [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
     ['filename\u4500abc', ...]

첫번째 리스트는 UTF-8로 인코딩된 파일 이름을 갖고, 두 번째 리스트는 유니
코드 버전을 갖습니다.

대부분의 경우, 이러한 API로 유니코드만 사용할 수 있음에 유의하십시오.  바
이트열 API는 디코딩할 수 없는 파일 이름이 존재하는 시스템에서만 사용해야
합니다; 지금은 유닉스 시스템에 불과합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁,  Next: 참조<3>,  Prev: 유니코드 파일 이름,  Up: 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기

9.13.3.2 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁
.......................................

이 섹션은 유니코드를 다루는 소프트웨어를 작성할 때의 몇 가지 제안을 제공
합니다.

가장 중요한 팁은:

     소프트웨어는 가능한 한 빨리 입력 데이터를 디코딩하고 마지막에만 출
     력을 인코딩하여 내부적으로는 유니코드 문자열에서만 작동하는 것이 좋
     습니다.

유니코드와 바이트 문자열을 수용하는 처리 함수를 작성하려고 시도한다면, 두
가지 다른 종류의 문자열을 결합할 때마다 프로그램이 버그에 취약하다는 것
을 알 수 있습니다.  자동 인코딩이나 디코딩은 없습니다: ‘str + bytes’을 수
행한다면 *note TypeError: 532.가 발생합니다.

웹 브라우저나 다른 신뢰할 수 없는 소스로부터 온 데이터를 사용할 때, 일반
적인 기법은 생성된 명령행에서 문자열을 사용하거나 데이터베이스에 저장하
기 전에 문자열에서 잘못된 문자를 검사하는 것입니다.  이렇게 하고 있다면,
인코딩된 바이트열 데이터가 아닌 디코딩 된 문자열을 검사하도록 조심하기 바
랍니다; 어떤 인코딩은 일대일 대응되지 않거나 ASCII와 완전히 호환되지 않
는 흥미로운 속성을 가지고 있습니다.  입력 데이터가 인코딩을 지정하는 경
우 특히 그러한데, 공격자가 인코딩한 바이트 스트림 안에 악의적인 텍스트를
숨기는 방법을 택할 수 있기 때문입니다.

* Menu:

* 파일 인코딩끼리 변환::
* 알 수 없는 인코딩의 파일::


File: python.info,  Node: 파일 인코딩끼리 변환,  Next: 알 수 없는 인코딩의 파일,  Up: 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁

9.13.3.3 파일 인코딩끼리 변환
.............................

*note StreamRecoder: 19f8. 클래스는 인코딩 #1으로 데이터를 반환하는 스트
림을 받아서 인코딩 #2로 데이터를 반환하는 스트림처럼 동작하여 인코딩 간
에 투명하게 변환할 수 있습니다.

예를 들어, Latin-1을 사용하는 'f' 입력 파일을 가지고 있다면, 이를 UTF-8로
인코딩한 바이트열을 반환하기 위해 *note StreamRecoder: 19f8.로 감쌀 수 있
습니다:

     new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
         # en/decoder: read() 가 결과를 인코딩하고
         # write() 가 입력을 디코딩하는 데 사용됩니다.
         codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),

         # reader/writer: 스트림을 읽고 쓰는데 사용됩니다.
         codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )


File: python.info,  Node: 알 수 없는 인코딩의 파일,  Prev: 파일 인코딩끼리 변환,  Up: 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁

9.13.3.4 알 수 없는 인코딩의 파일
.................................

파일을 변경해야 하지만 파일의 인코딩을 모를 때 할 수 있는 일은 무엇일까
요?  인코딩이 ASCII 호환이라는 것을 알고 있고 ASCII 일부분을 검토 또는 수
정만 하고자 한다면, ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 핸들러와 함께 파일을 열 수 있
습니다:

     with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         data = f.read()

     # 문자열 'data' 를 변경합니다

     with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
               encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         f.write(data)

‘surrogateescape’ 에러 핸들러는 비 ASCII 바이트들을 U+DC80부터 U+DCFF까
지의 특수한 범위에 있는 코드 포인트로 디코딩합니다.  이러한 코드 포인트
는 ‘surrogateescape’ 에러 핸들러가 데이터를 인코딩하고 다시 쓰는 경우에
사용될 때 같은 바이트열로 다시 되돌려집니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 참조<3>,  Prev: 유니코드 인식 프로그램 작성 팁,  Up: 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기

9.13.3.5 참조
.............

David Beazley가 PyCon 2010에서 발표한 파이썬3 입출력 마스터하기(1)의 한
섹션은 텍스트 처리와 바이너리 데이터 처리에 대해 논의합니다.

Marc-André Lemburg의 프레젠테이션 PDF 슬라이드 "파이썬에서 유니코드 인식
프로그램 작성"(2)은 문자 인코딩에 관한 질문은 물론 응용 프로그램을 국제
화하고 지역화하는 방법에 관해 설명합니다.  이 슬라이드는 파이썬 2.x만을
다룹니다.

PyCon 2013에서 Benjamin Peterson이 발표한 파이썬에서 유니코드의 내부
(3)은 파이썬 3.3에서 내부 유니코드 표현에 대해 논의합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010-mastering-python-3-i-o

   (2) 
https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf

   (3) https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python


File: python.info,  Node: 감사 인사,  Prev: 유니코드 데이터 읽고 쓰기,  Up: 유니코드 HOWTO

9.13.4 감사 인사
----------------

이 문서의 초안은 Andrew Kuchling이 썼습니다.  이후 Alexander Belopolsky,
Georg Brandl, Andrew Kuchling, 그리고 Ezio Melotti에 의해 개정되었습니다
.

이 문서에 오류를 알려주거나 제안을 해주신 아래의 사람들에게 감사를 전합
니다: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick Coghlan, Marius Gedminas, Kent
Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Terry J.
Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre, Graham Wideman.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법,  Next: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개,  Prev: 유니코드 HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.14 urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법
===========================================================


저자: Michael Foord(1)

* Menu:

* 소개: 소개<10>.
* URL을 가져오기::
* 예외 처리: 예외 처리<2>.
* info와 geturl::
* 오프너와 처리기::
* 기본 인증::
* 프락시::
* 소켓과 계층::
* 각주::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://agileabstractions.com/


File: python.info,  Node: 소개<10>,  Next: URL을 가져오기,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.1 소개
-----------

Related Articles
................

파이썬으로 웹 리소스를 가져오는 방법에 대한 다음 기사도 유용합니다:

   * Basic Authentication(1)

          파이썬 예제가 있는 '기본 인증(Basic Authentication)'에 대한 자
          습서.

'urllib.request'는 URL(Uniform Resource Locator)을 가져오기 위한 파이썬
모듈입니다.  'urlopen' 함수의 형태로, 매우 간단한 인터페이스를 제공합니
다.  다양한 프로토콜을 사용하여 URL을 가져올 수 있습니다.  또한 기본 인
증(basic authentication), 쿠키, 프락시 등과 같은 일반적인 상황을 처리하
기 위한 약간 더 복잡한 인터페이스도 제공합니다.  이들은 처리기와 오프너
라는 객체에 의해 제공됩니다.

urllib.request는 관련 네트워크 프로토콜(예를 들어 FTP, HTTP)을 사용하여
많은 “URL 스킴(scheme)” (URL에서 ‘":"’ 앞의 문자열로 식별됩니다 - 예를 들
어 ‘"ftp"’는 ‘"ftp://python.org/"’의 URL 스킴입니다)에 대해 URL을 가져오
는 것을 지원합니다.  이 자습서는 가장 흔한 경우인 HTTP에 초점을 맞춥니다
.

간단한 상황에서 'urlopen'은 사용하기가 매우 쉽습니다.  그러나 HTTP URL을
열 때 에러나 사소하지 않은 사례를 만나자마자, HTTP(HyperText Transfer
Protocol)에 대한 이해가 필요합니다.  HTTP에 대한 가장 포괄적이고 권위 있
는 레퍼런스는 RFC 2616(2)입니다.  이것은 기술 문서이며 읽기 쉽지 않습니
다.  이 HOWTO에서는 'urllib'를 사용하는 방법을 설명하고, HTTP에 대해 충
분히 자세하게 설명합니다.  *note urllib.request: 10b. 문서를 대체하려는
것이 아니라, 보조하려는 것입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL을 가져오기,  Next: 예외 처리<2>,  Prev: 소개<10>,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.2 URL을 가져오기
---------------------

urllib.request를 사용하는 가장 간단한 방법은 다음과 같습니다:

     import urllib.request
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
        html = response.read()

URL을 통해 리소스를 가져와서 임시 위치에 저장하려면, *note
shutil.copyfileobj(): a59.와 *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 4c0. 함
수를 통해 수행할 수 있습니다:

     import shutil
     import tempfile
     import urllib.request

     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
         with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
             shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)

     with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
         pass

urllib의 많은 용도는 이렇게 간단합니다 (‘http:’ URL 대신 ‘ftp:’, ‘file:’
등으로 시작하는 URL을 사용할 수 있음에 유의하십시오).  그러나, 이 자습서
의 목적은 HTTP에 집중하여 더 복잡한 경우를 설명하는 것입니다.

HTTP는 요청과 응답을 기반으로 합니다 - 클라이언트는 요청하고 서버는 응답
을 보냅니다.  urllib.request는 HTTP 요청을 나타내는 ‘Request’ 객체로 이
것을 반영합니다.  가장 간단한 형식에서 가져오려는 URL을 지정하는 Request
객체를 만듭니다.  이 Request 객체로 ‘urlopen’을 호출하면 요청된 URL에 대
한 응답 객체를 반환합니다.  이 응답은 파일류 객체입니다, 응답에서 예를 들
어 ‘.read()’를 호출할 수 있다는 뜻입니다:

     import urllib.request

     req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

urllib.request는 모든 URL 스킴을 처리하기 위해 같은 Request 인터페이스를
사용합니다.  예를 들어, 다음과 같이 FTP 요청을 할 수 있습니다:

     req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')

HTTP의 경우, Request 객체로 수행할 수 있는 추가 작업이 두 가지 있습니다:
첫째, 서버로 보낼 데이터를 전달할 수 있습니다.  둘째, 데이터나 요청 자체
에 '관한' 추가 정보(“메타 데이터”)를 서버에 전달할 수 있습니다 - 이 정보
는 HTTP “헤더”로 전송됩니다.  이들을 차례로 살펴봅시다.

* Menu:

* 데이터::
* 헤더::


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터,  Next: 헤더,  Up: URL을 가져오기

9.14.2.1 데이터
...............

URL로 데이터를 보내려고 할 때도 있습니다 (종종 URL은 CGI (Common Gateway
Interface) 스크립트나 다른 웹 응용 프로그램을 가리킵니다).  HTTP에서, 이
것은 종종 'POST' 요청이라고 알려진 것을 사용하여 수행됩니다.  이것은 종
종 웹에서 채워 넣은 HTML 폼(form)을 제출할 때 브라우저가 수행하는 것입니
다.  모든 POST가 폼에서 비롯될 필요는 없습니다: POST를 사용하여 임의의 데
이터를 여러분 자신의 응용 프로그램으로 전송할 수 있습니다.  일반적인
HTML 폼의 경우, 데이터를 표준 방식으로 인코딩할 필요가 있고, 그런 다음
‘data’ 인자로 Request 객체에 전달합니다.  인코딩은 *note urllib.parse:
10a. 라이브러리의 함수를 사용하여 수행됩니다.

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
               'location' : 'Northampton',
               'language' : 'Python' }

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii') # data는 바이트열이어야 합니다
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

다른 인코딩이 필요한 경우도 있음에 유의하십시오 (예를 들어 HTML 폼에서 파
일을 업로드하는 경우 자세한 내용은 HTML Specification, Form
Submission(1)을 참조하십시오).

‘data’ 인자를 전달하지 않으면, urllib는 'GET' 요청을 사용합니다.  GET과
POST 요청이 다른 한 가지는 POST 요청에 종종 “부작용”이 있다는 것입니다:
어떤 방식으로든 시스템의 상태를 변경합니다 (예를 들어 캔에 담긴 스팸이 여
러분의 문 앞에 배달되도록 주문을 넣습니다).  HTTP 표준이 POST는 '항상' 부
작용을 일으키려는 것이고, GET은 '절대' 부작용을 일으키지 않는다고 분명히
하고 있지만, GET 요청이 부작용을 일으키거나 POST 요청에 부작용이 없는 것
을 막을 수는 없습니다.  URL 자체에 인코딩하여 HTTP GET 요청에 데이터를 전
달할 수도 있습니다.

다음과 같이 수행됩니다:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = {}
     >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
     >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
     >>> data['language'] = 'Python'
     >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
     >>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.
     name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
     >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
     >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
     >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)

전체 URL은 URL에 ‘?’를 추가한 다음 인코딩된 값을 추가하여 만들어짐에 유
의하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13


File: python.info,  Node: 헤더,  Prev: 데이터,  Up: URL을 가져오기

9.14.2.2 헤더
.............

여기서는 HTTP 요청에 헤더를 추가하는 방법을 설명하기 위해 한 가지 특정
HTTP 헤더에 관해 설명합니다.

일부 웹 사이트는 (1) 프로그램이 브라우징하는 것을 싫어하거나, 브라우저에
따라 다른 버전을 보냅니다 (2).  기본적으로, urllib는 자신을
‘Python-urllib/x.y’(여기서 ‘x’ 와 ‘y’는 파이썬 배포의 주 버전과 부 버전
번호입니다, 예를 들어 ‘Python-urllib/2.5’)로 식별하는데, 이는 사이트를 혼
동시키거나, 단지 작동하지 않을 수 있습니다.  브라우저가 자신을 식별하는
방식은 ‘User-Agent’ 헤더를 (3) 통하는 것입니다.  Request 객체를 만들 때
헤더가 담긴 딕셔너리를 전달할 수 있습니다.  다음 예제는 위와 같은 요청을
하지만, 자신을 Internet Explorer의 한 버전으로 식별합니다 (4).

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
     values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
               'location': 'Northampton',
               'language': 'Python' }
     headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii')
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

응답에는 두 가지 유용한 메서드도 있습니다.  문제가 발생했을 때 어떤 일이
발생했는지 살펴본 후에 나오는 *note info와 geturl: 5048. 섹션을 참조하십
시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 예를 들어 구글.

   (2) 브라우저 스니핑(browser sniffing)은 웹 사이트 디자인에 매우 나쁜
습관입니다 - 웹 표준을 사용하여 사이트를 구축하는 것이 훨씬 합리적입니다
.  불행히도 많은 사이트가 여전히 브라우저마다 다른 버전을 보냅니다.

   (3) MSIE 6의 사용자 에이전트(user agent)는 '‘Mozilla/4.0 (compatible;
MSIE 6.0; Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)’'입니다.

   (4) 더 많은 HTTP 요청 헤더에 대한 자세한 내용은 Quick Reference to
HTTP Headers (https://jkorpela.fi/http.html)를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외 처리<2>,  Next: info와 geturl,  Prev: URL을 가져오기,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.3 예외 처리
----------------

'urlopen'은 응답을 처리할 수 없을 때 *note URLError: 39bf.를 발생시킵니
다 (하지만 파이썬 API에서 일상적으로 발생하는 *note ValueError: 202,
*note TypeError: 532. 등과 같은 내장 예외도 발생할 수 있습니다).

*note HTTPError: fd6.는 HTTP URL의 특정 경우에 발생하는 *note URLError:
39bf.의 서브 클래스입니다.

예외 클래스는 *note urllib.error: 109. 모듈이 내보냅니다.

* Menu:

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* 마무리::


File: python.info,  Node: URLError,  Next: HTTPError,  Up: 예외 처리<2>

9.14.3.1 URLError
.................

종종, 네트워크 연결이 없거나 (지정된 서버로의 경로가 없거나), 지정된 서
버가 없기 때문에 URLError가 발생합니다.  이 경우, 발생한 예외에는
‘reason’ 어트리뷰트가 있으며, 이는 에러 코드와 텍스트 에러 메시지를 포함
하는 튜플입니다.

예를 들어

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
     >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
     ...     print(e.reason)
     ...
     (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPError,  Next: 마무리,  Prev: URLError,  Up: 예외 처리<2>

9.14.3.2 HTTPError
..................

서버의 모든 HTTP 응답에는 숫자 “상태 코드”가 포함됩니다.  때때로 상태 코
드는 서버가 요청을 이행할 수 없음을 나타냅니다.  기본 처리기는 이러한 응
답 중 일부를 처리합니다 (예를 들어, 응답이 클라이언트가 다른 URL에서 문
서를 가져오도록 요청하는 “리디렉션”인 경우, urllib가 이를 처리합니다).  처
리할 수 없는 것들의 경우, urlopen은 *note HTTPError: fd6.를 발생시킵니다
.  일반적인 에러에는 ‘404’ (page not found - 페이지를 찾을 수 없음),
‘403’ (request forbidden - 요청이 금지됨) 및 ‘401’ (authentication
required - 인증이 필요함)이 있습니다.

모든 HTTP 에러 코드에 대한 레퍼런스는 RFC 2616(1)의 섹션 10을 참조하십시
오.

발생한 *note HTTPError: fd6. 인스턴스는 서버에서 전송된 에러에 해당하는
정수 ‘code’ 어트리뷰트를 갖습니다.

* Menu:

* 에러 코드::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: 에러 코드,  Up: HTTPError

9.14.3.3 에러 코드
..................

기본 처리기는 리디렉션(300 범위의 코드)을 처리하고, 100–299 범위의 코드
는 성공을 나타내므로, 보통 400–599 범위의 에러 코드만 보게 됩니다.

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 3a5d. is a useful
dictionary of response codes that shows all the response codes used by
RFC 2616(1).  An excerpt from the dictionary is shown below

     responses = {
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.OK: 200>: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.FORBIDDEN: 403>: ('Forbidden',
                                       'Request forbidden -- authorization will '
                                       'not help'),
         <HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND: 404>: ('Not Found',
                                       'Nothing matches the given URI'),
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.IM_A_TEAPOT: 418>: ("I'm a Teapot",
                                         'Server refuses to brew coffee because '
                                         'it is a teapot'),
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE: 503>: ('Service Unavailable',
                                                 'The server cannot process the '
                                                 'request due to a high load'),
         ...
         }

에러가 발생할 때 서버는 HTTP 에러 코드*와* 에러 페이지를 반환하여 응답합
니다.  *note HTTPError: fd6. 인스턴스를 반환된 페이지의 응답으로 사용할
수 있습니다.  이것은 code 어트리뷰트뿐만 아니라, ‘urllib.response’ 모듈
이 반환하는 것처럼 read, geturl 및 info 메서드도 가지고 있음을 의미합니
다:

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
     >>> try:
     ...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
     ...     print(e.code)
     ...     print(e.read())
     ...
     404
     b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
       "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
       ...
       <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
       ...

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: 마무리,  Prev: HTTPError,  Up: 예외 처리<2>

9.14.3.4 마무리
...............

따라서 *note HTTPError: fd6. '또는' *note URLError: 39bf.를 대비하려면 두
가지 기본적인 접근법이 있습니다.  저는 두 번째 접근법을 선호합니다.

* Menu:

* 1번::
* 2번::


File: python.info,  Node: 1번,  Next: 2번,  Up: 마무리

9.14.3.5 1번
............

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except HTTPError as e:
         print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
         print('Error code: ', e.code)
     except URLError as e:
         print('We failed to reach a server.')
         print('Reason: ', e.reason)
     else:
         # 문제없습니다

     참고: ‘except HTTPError’가 '반드시' 먼저 나와야 합니다.  그렇지 않
     으면 ‘except URLError’가 *note HTTPError: fd6. '도' 잡습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 2번,  Prev: 1번,  Up: 마무리

9.14.3.6 2번
............

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except URLError as e:
         if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
             print('We failed to reach a server.')
             print('Reason: ', e.reason)
         elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
             print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
             print('Error code: ', e.code)
     else:
         # 문제없습니다


File: python.info,  Node: info와 geturl,  Next: 오프너와 처리기,  Prev: 예외 처리<2>,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.4 info와 geturl
--------------------

urlopen에 의해 반환된 응답(또는 *note HTTPError: fd6. 인스턴스)에는 두 가
지 유용한 메서드 ‘info()’와 ‘geturl()’이 있으며 *note urllib.response:
10c. 모듈에 정의되어 있습니다.

   * 'geturl' - 가져온 페이지의 실제 URL을 반환합니다.  이는 ‘urlopen’(또
     는 사용된 오프너 객체)이 리디렉션을 수행했을 수 있기 때문에 유용합
     니다.  가져온 페이지의 URL은 요청한 URL과 같지 않을 수 있습니다.

   * 'info' - 가져온 페이지를 설명하는 딕셔너리류 객체, 특히 서버가 보낸
     헤더.  현재 *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a74. 인스턴스입니다.

일반적인 헤더에는 ‘Content-length’, ‘Content-type’ 등이 있습니다.  의미
와 용도에 대한 간단한 설명이 붙은 유용한 HTTP 헤더 목록은 Quick
Reference to HTTP Headers(1)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://jkorpela.fi/http.html


File: python.info,  Node: 오프너와 처리기,  Next: 기본 인증,  Prev: info와 geturl,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.5 오프너와 처리기
----------------------

URL을 가져올 때 오프너(아마도 혼란스럽게 이름 붙여진 *note
urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 39c0.의 인스턴스)를 사용합니다.  일반적으
로 ‘urlopen’을 통해 기본 오프너를 사용했지만, 사용자 정의 오프너를 만들
수 있습니다.  오프너는 처리기를 사용합니다.  모든 “어려운 일은”은 처리기
가 수행합니다.  각 처리기는 특정 URL 스킴(http, ftp 등)에 대한 URL을 여
는 방법이나 URL 열기의 한 측면(예를 들어 HTTP 리디렉션이나 HTTP 쿠키)을
처리하는 방법을 알고 있습니다.

특정 처리기가 설치된 상태로 URL을 가져오려면 오프너를 만듭니다, 예를 들
면 쿠키를 처리하는 오프너를 얻거나, 리디렉션을 처리하지 않는 오프너를 얻
는 것이 있습니다.

오프너를 만들려면, ‘OpenerDirector’를 인스턴스화 한 다음,
‘.add_handler(some_handler_instance)’를 반복적으로 호출합니다.

또는, 단일 함수 호출로 오프너 객체를 만드는 편의 함수인 ‘build_opener’를
사용할 수 있습니다.  ‘build_opener’는 기본적으로 여러 처리기를 추가하지
만, 더 추가하거나 기본 처리기를 재정의하는 빠른 방법을 제공합니다.

여러분이 원할 수도 있는 다른 유형의 처리기는 프락시, 인증 및 다른 흔하지
만 약간 특수한 상황을 처리할 수 있습니다.

‘install_opener’를 사용하여 ‘opener’ 객체를 (전역) 기본 오프너로 만들 수
있습니다.  즉, ‘urlopen’을 호출하면 설치한 오프너가 사용됩니다.

오프너 객체에는 ‘urlopen’ 함수와 같은 방식으로 URL을 가져오기 위해 직접
호출할 수 있는 ‘open’ 메서드가 있습니다: 편의 이외에, ‘install_opener’를
호출할 필요는 없습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 기본 인증,  Next: 프락시,  Prev: 오프너와 처리기,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.6 기본 인증
----------------

처리기를 만들고 설치하는 것을 설명하기 위해 ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’를 사
용합니다.  기본 인증(Basic Authentication) 작동 방식에 대한 설명을 포함
하여 이 주제에 대한 자세한 설명은 Basic Authentication Tutorial(1)을 참
조하십시오.

인증이 필요할 때, 서버는 (401 에러 코드와 함께) 인증을 요청하는 헤더를 보
냅니다.  이것은 인증 스킴과 ‘영역(realm)’을 지정합니다.  헤더는 이렇게 생
겼습니다: ‘WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM"’.

예를 들어

     WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"

그러면 클라이언트는 영역에 적절한 이름과 비밀번호를 요청의 헤더로 포함해
요청을 다시 시도해야 합니다.  이것이 ‘기본 인증(basic authentication)’입
니다.  이 프로세스를 단순화하기 위해 ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ 인스턴스와 이
처리기를 사용할 오프너를 만들 수 있습니다.

‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’는 비밀번호 관리자(password manager)라는 객체를 사
용하여 URL과 영역에서 비밀번호(password)와 사용자 이름(username)으로의 매
핑을 처리합니다.  (서버가 보낸 인증 헤더로부터) 영역이 무엇인지 안다면,
‘HTTPPasswordMgr’를 사용할 수 있습니다.  종종 영역이 무엇인지 상관하지 않
습니다.  이 경우, ‘HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm’를 사용하는 것이 편리
합니다.  이것은 URL의 기본 사용자 이름과 비밀번호를 지정할 수 있습니다.
특정 영역에 대한 대체 조합을 제공하지 않으면 이것이 제공됩니다.  ‘None’을
‘add_password’ 메서드에 대한 realm 인자로 제공하여 이를 나타냅니다.

최상위 URL은 인증이 필요한 첫 번째 URL입니다.  .add_password()에 전달한
URL보다 “더 깊은” URL도 일치합니다.

     # 비밀번호 관리자를 만듭니다
     password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()

     # 사용자 이름과 비밀번호를 추가합니다.
     # 영역을 알면, None 대신 사용할 수 있습니다.
     top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
     password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)

     handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)

     # "오프너(opener)" (OpenerDirector 인스턴스)를 만듭니다
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)

     # 오프너를 사용해서 URL을 가져옵니다
     opener.open(a_url)

     # 오프너를 설치합니다.
     # 이제 모든 urllib.request.urlopen 호출은 이 오프너를 사용합니다.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     참고: 위의 예에서 ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ 만 ‘build_opener’에 제공했
     습니다.  기본적으로 오프너에는 일반적인 상황을 위한 처리기가 있습니
     다 – ‘ProxyHandler’ (‘http_proxy’ 환경 변수와 같은 프락시 설정이 설
     정된 경우), ‘UnknownHandler’, ‘HTTPHandler’,
     ‘HTTPDefaultErrorHandler’, ‘HTTPRedirectHandler’, ‘FTPHandler’,
     ‘FileHandler’, ‘DataHandler’, ‘HTTPErrorProcessor’.

‘top_level_url’은 실제로 (‘http:’ 스킴 구성 요소와 호스트 이름 및 선택적
인 포트 번호를 포함하는) 전체 URL, 예를 들어 ‘"http://example.com/"’ '이
거나' “주체(authority)” (즉, 선택적으로 포트 번호를 포함하는 호스트명),
예를 들어 ‘"example.com"’이나 ‘"example.com:8080"’ (후자의 예는 포트 번
호를 포함합니다)입니다.  주체가 있다면 “userinfo” 구성 요소를 포함하지 않
아야 합니다 - 예를 들어 ‘"joe:password@example.com"’은 올바르지 않습니다
.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: 프락시,  Next: 소켓과 계층,  Prev: 기본 인증,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.7 프락시
-------------

'urllib'는 프락시 설정을 자동 감지하여 사용합니다.  이는 프락시 설정이 감
지될 때 일반 처리기 체인의 일부가 되는 ‘ProxyHandler’를 통해 이루어집니
다.  일반적으로 좋은 일이지만, 도움이 되지 않는 경우가 있습니다 (1).  이
를 위한 한 가지 방법은 프락시가 정의되지 않은 자체 ‘ProxyHandler’를 설정
하는 것입니다.  이것은 Basic Authentication(2) 처리기 설정과 비슷한 단계
를 사용하여 수행됩니다:

     >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
     >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     참고: 현재 ‘urllib.request’는 프락시를 통한 ‘https’ 위치를 가져오는
     것을 지원하지 '않습니다'.  그러나, 조리법에 표시된 대로
     urllib.request를 확장하여 활성화할 수 있습니다 (3).

     참고: 변수 ‘REQUEST_METHOD’가 설정되면 ‘HTTP_PROXY’는 무시됩니다;
     *note getproxies(): 39bc.의 설명서를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 제 경우에는 직장에서 인터넷에 액세스하려면 프락시를 사용해야 합니
다.  이 프락시를 통해 'localhost' URL을 가져오려고 시도하면 차단됩니다.
IE는 프락시를 사용하도록 설정되어 있고, urllib는 이것을 선택합니다.
localhost 서버로 스크립트를 테스트하려면, urllib가 프락시를 사용하지 못
하게 해야 합니다.

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (3) SSL 프락시용 urllib 오프너 (CONNECT 메서드): ASPN Cookbook Recipe
(https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/).


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓과 계층,  Next: 각주,  Prev: 프락시,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.8 소켓과 계층
------------------

웹에서 리소스를 가져오기 위한 파이썬 지원은 계층화되어 있습니다.  urllib는
*note http.client: 6f. 라이브러리를 사용하고, 이것은 다시 socket 라이브
러리를 사용합니다.

파이썬 2.3부터 시간제한으로 중단되기 전에 소켓이 응답을 기다리는 시간을
지정할 수 있습니다.  웹 페이지를 가져와야 하는 응용 프로그램에서 유용 할
수 있습니다.  기본적으로 소켓 모듈에는 '시간제한이 없고' 멈출(hang) 수 있
습니다.  현재, 소켓 시간제한은 http.client나 urllib.request 수준에서 노
출되지 않습니다.  그러나, 다음과 같이 모든 소켓에 대해 기본 시간제한을 전
역적으로 설정할 수 있습니다

     import socket
     import urllib.request

     # 초 단위 시간제한
     timeout = 10
     socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

     # 이 urllib.request.urlopen 호출은 이제 우리가 socket 모듈에 설정한 기본
     # 시간제한을 사용합니다
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
     response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: 각주,  Prev: 소켓과 계층,  Up: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법

9.14.9 각주
-----------

이 문서는 John Lee가 검토하고 수정했습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개,  Next: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기,  Prev: urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.15 ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개
===============================


저자: Peter Moody


저자: Nick Coghlan

개요
....

이 문서에서는 *note ipaddress: 80. 모듈을 간략하게 소개하고자 합니다.  주
로 IP 네트워킹 용어에 익숙하지 않은 사용자를 대상으로 하지만, *note
ipaddress: 80.가 IP 네트워크 주소 개념을 나타내는 방식에 대한 개요를 원
하는 네트워크 엔지니어에게 유용할 수도 있습니다.

* Menu:

* 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기::
* 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 검사::
* 주소 리스트로서의 네트워크::
* 비교: 비교<3>.
* 다른 모듈과 함께 IP 주소 사용하기::
* 인스턴스 생성 실패 시 세부 사항 가져오기::


File: python.info,  Node: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기,  Next: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 검사,  Up: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

9.15.1 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기
-------------------------------------------

*note ipaddress: 80.는 IP 주소를 검사하고 조작하는 모듈이기 때문에, 가장
먼저 하고 싶어 할 일은 몇몇 객체를 만드는 것입니다.  *note ipaddress:
80.를 사용하여 문자열과 정수로 객체를 만들 수 있습니다.

* Menu:

* IP 버전에 대한 참고 사항::
* IP 호스트 주소::
* 네트워크 정의::
* 호스트 인터페이스::


File: python.info,  Node: IP 버전에 대한 참고 사항,  Next: IP 호스트 주소,  Up: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기

9.15.1.1 IP 버전에 대한 참고 사항
.................................

특히 IP 주소 지정에 익숙하지 않은 독자는, 인터넷 프로토콜(IP)이 현재 프
로토콜 버전 4에서 버전 6으로 이동하는 과정에 있음을 아는 것이 중요합니다
.  이러한 전환은 주로 프로토콜 버전 4가 전 세계의 요구 사항을 처리할 수
있는 충분한 주소를 제공하지 못하기 때문에 발생하고 있습니다.  특히 인터
넷에 직접 연결되는 장치의 수가 증가함에 따라 더욱더 그렇습니다.

프로토콜의 두 버전 간의 차이점에 대한 자세한 설명은 이 소개의 범위를 벗
어나지만, 독자는 최소한 이 두 버전이 존재한다는 사실을 알고 있어야 하며,
때로는 한 버전이나 다른 버전을 강제로 사용해야 할 필요가 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: IP 호스트 주소,  Next: 네트워크 정의,  Prev: IP 버전에 대한 참고 사항,  Up: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기

9.15.1.2 IP 호스트 주소
.......................

주소, 종종 “호스트 주소” 라고 하는 것은 IP 주소 지정으로 작업할 때 가장
기본 단위입니다.  주소를 만드는 가장 간단한 방법은 *note
ipaddress.ip_address(): 3c62. 팩토리 함수를 사용하는 것인데, 전달된 값을
기반으로 IPv4나 IPv6 주소 중 어느 것을 만들지 자동으로 결정합니다:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

주소는 정수에서 직접 만들 수도 있습니다.  32비트에 들어맞는 값은 IPv4 주
소로 간주합니다:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

IPv4나 IPv6 주소를 강제로 사용하려면, 해당 클래스를 직접 호출할 수 있습
니다.  이것은 작은 정수를 위한 IPv6 주소 생성을 강제하는 데 특히 유용합
니다:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
     IPv6Address('::1')


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워크 정의,  Next: 호스트 인터페이스,  Prev: IP 호스트 주소,  Up: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기

9.15.1.3 네트워크 정의
......................

호스트 주소는 대개 IP 네트워크로 그룹화되므로, *note ipaddress: 80.는 네
트워크 정의를 만들고, 검사하고, 조작할 방법을 제공합니다.  IP 네트워크 객
체는 해당 네트워크의 일부인 호스트 주소의 범위를 정의하는 문자열로 만들
어집니다.  이 정보의 가장 간단한 형식은 “네트워크 주소/네트워크 접두사”
쌍입니다.  접두어는 주소가 네트워크 일부인지 판별하기 위해 비교되는 선행
비트 수를 정의하고, 네트워크 주소는 그 비트들의 기대되는 값을 정의합니다
.

주소의 경우, 정확한 IP 버전을 자동으로 결정하는 팩토리 함수가 제공됩니다
:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

네트워크 객체는 호스트 비트가 설정될 수 없습니다.  이것의 실제 효과는
‘192.0.2.1/24’가 네트워크를 설명하지 않는다는 것입니다.  이러한 정의는 인
터페이스 객체라고 불리는데, 그 이유는 주어진 네트워크상의 컴퓨터의 네트
워크 인터페이스를 기술하기 위해 네트워크상의 IP(ip-on-a-network) 표기법
이 일반적으로 사용되기 때문입니다.  자세한 내용은 다음 절에서 설명합니다
.

기본적으로, 호스트 비트가 설정된 네트워크 객체를 만들려고 하면 *note
ValueError: 202.가 발생합니다.  추가 비트를 강제로 0으로 변환하도록 요청
하려면, 플래그 ‘strict=False’를 생성자에 전달할 수 있습니다:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

문자열 형식은 유연성이 훨씬 뛰어나지만, 호스트 주소와 마찬가지로 정수로
네트워크를 정의할 수도 있습니다.  이 경우, 네트워크는 정수로 식별되는 단
일 주소만 포함하는 것으로 간주하므로, 네트워크 접두사는 전체 네트워크 주
소를 포함합니다:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')

주소와 마찬가지로, 팩토리 함수를 사용하는 대신 클래스 생성자를 직접 호출
하여 특정 종류의 네트워크를 만들 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 호스트 인터페이스,  Prev: 네트워크 정의,  Up: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기

9.15.1.4 호스트 인터페이스
..........................

위에서 언급했듯이, 특정 네트워크상의 주소를 설명해야 하는 경우, 주소로도
네트워크 클래스로도 충분하지 않습니다.  ‘192.0.2.1/24’와 같은 표기법은 네
트워크 엔지니어와 방화벽과 라우터 용 도구를 작성하는 사람들이 “네트워크
‘192.0.2.0/24’ 상의 호스트 ‘192.0.2.1’" 의 줄임말로 많이 사용합니다.  따
라서, *note ipaddress: 80.는 주소를 특정 네트워크와 결합하는 혼성 클래스
집합을 제공합니다.  생성을 위한 인터페이스는 주소 부분이 네트워크 주소로
제한되지 않는 것을 제외하고는 네트워크 객체를 정의하는 것과 같습니다.

     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')

정수 입력이 받아들여지고 (네트워크처럼), 특정 IP 버전의 사용은 관련 생성
자를 직접 호출함으로써 강제될 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 검사,  Next: 주소 리스트로서의 네트워크,  Prev: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 만들기,  Up: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

9.15.2 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 검사
-----------------------------------------

여러분은 IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface) 객체를 만드는 데 어려움을 겪
었다면, 아마도 이에 대한 정보를 얻고 자 할 것입니다.  *note ipaddress:
80.는 이 작업을 쉽고 직관적으로 만들려고 합니다.

IP 버전 추출하기:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> addr6.version
     6
     >>> addr4.version
     4

인터페이스에서 네트워크 얻기:

     >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> host4.network
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     >>> host6.network
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

네트워크에 있는 개별 주소의 개수 찾기:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.num_addresses
     256
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.num_addresses
     4294967296

네트워크에서 “사용 가능한” 주소 이터레이트하기:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> for x in net4.hosts():
     ...     print(x)
     192.0.2.1
     192.0.2.2
     192.0.2.3
     192.0.2.4
     ...
     192.0.2.252
     192.0.2.253
     192.0.2.254

넷 마스크(netmask)(즉, 네트워크 접두사에 해당하는 비트들)나 호스트 마스
크(hostmask)(넷 마스크에 포함되지 않은 비트들) 얻기:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.netmask
     IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
     >>> net4.hostmask
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.netmask
     IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
     >>> net6.hostmask
     IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')

주소를 펼치거나 압축하기:

     >>> addr6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
     >>> addr6.compressed
     '2001:db8::1'
     >>> net6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
     >>> net6.compressed
     '2001:db8::/96'

IPv4는 펼치기와 압축을 지원하지 않지만, 연관된 객체는 여전히 관련 프로퍼
티를 제공하므로 버전 중립적인 코드가 IPv4 주소를 올바르게 처리하면서도
IPv6 주소에 대해 가장 간결하거나 가장 자세한 형식을 쉽게 사용할 수 있습
니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 주소 리스트로서의 네트워크,  Next: 비교<3>,  Prev: 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객체 검사,  Up: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

9.15.3 주소 리스트로서의 네트워크
---------------------------------

네트워크를 리스트로 취급하는 것이 때로 유용합니다.  즉, 다음과 같이 인덱
싱할 수 있습니다:

     >>> net4[1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> net4[-1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
     >>> net6[1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> net6[-1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')

이것은 또한 네트워크 객체가 다음과 같은 리스트 멤버십 테스트 문법을 사용
하는 데 적합하다는 것을 의미합니다:

     if address in network:
         # 뭔가 합니다

포함 테스트는 네트워크 접두어를 기반으로 효율적으로 수행됩니다:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     True
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: 비교<3>,  Next: 다른 모듈과 함께 IP 주소 사용하기,  Prev: 주소 리스트로서의 네트워크,  Up: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

9.15.4 비교
-----------

*note ipaddress: 80.는 의미가 있는 곳에서 객체를 비교하는 간단하고 직관
적인 방법을 제공합니다:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
     True

다른 버전이나 다른 형의 객체를 비교하려고 하면 *note TypeError: 532. 예
외가 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 모듈과 함께 IP 주소 사용하기,  Next: 인스턴스 생성 실패 시 세부 사항 가져오기,  Prev: 비교<3>,  Up: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

9.15.5 다른 모듈과 함께 IP 주소 사용하기
----------------------------------------

IP 주소를 사용하는 다른 모듈(가령 *note socket: cc.)은 일반적으로 이 모
듈의 객체를 직접 받아들이지 않습니다.  대신, 다른 모듈이 받아들일 수 있
는 정수나 문자열로 강제 변환되어야 합니다:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> str(addr4)
     '192.0.2.1'
     >>> int(addr4)
     3221225985


File: python.info,  Node: 인스턴스 생성 실패 시 세부 사항 가져오기,  Prev: 다른 모듈과 함께 IP 주소 사용하기,  Up: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개

9.15.6 인스턴스 생성 실패 시 세부 사항 가져오기
-----------------------------------------------

버전에 구애받지 않는 팩토리 함수를 사용하여 주소/네트워크/인터페이스 객
체를 만들 때, 단순히 전달된 값이 해당 형의 객체로 인식되지 않는다는 일반
에러 메시지와 함께 에러가 *note ValueError: 202.로 보고됩니다.  구체적인
에러가 없는 이유는 거부된 이유에 대한 자세한 정보를 제공하기 위해서는 값
이 IPv4나 IPv6 중 어는 것으로 '가정되는지'를 알아야 하기 때문입니다.

이 추가 세부 정보를 액세스하는 것이 유용한 사용 사례를 지원하기 위해, 개
별 클래스 생성자는 실제로 *note ValueError: 202. 서브 클래스 *note
ipaddress.AddressValueError: 3c67.와 *note ipaddress.NetmaskValueError:
3c89.를 발생시켜 정의의 어느 부분에서 구문 분석하는 데 실패했는지 정확히
가리킵니다.

에러 메시지는 클래스 생성자를 직접 사용할 때 훨씬 자세해집니다.  예를 들
어:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask

그러나, 두 모듈 특정 예외 모두 부모 클래스로 *note ValueError: 202.를 가
지므로, 특정 유형의 에러에 관심이 없다면, 여전히 다음과 같은 코드를 작성
할 수 있습니다:

     try:
         network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
     except ValueError:
         print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)


File: python.info,  Node: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기,  Next: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Prev: ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.16 DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기
============================================


저자: David Malcolm


저자: Łukasz Langa

DTrace와 SystemTap은 컴퓨터 시스템의 프로세스가 하는 일을 검사할 수 있는
모니터링 도구입니다.  둘 다 도메인 특정 언어를 사용하여 다음과 같은 작업
을 하는 스크립트를 작성할 수 있도록 합니다:

   - 관찰할 프로세스를 걸러내기

   - 관심 있는 프로세스에서 자료를 수집하기

   - 데이터에 대한 보고서를 생성하기

파이썬 3.6부터, CPython은 DTrace나 SystemTap 스크립트에서 볼 수 있는 “마
커(markers)”(“프로브(probes)”라고도 합니다)를 내장하도록 빌드할 수 있어
서, 시스템에서 CPython 프로세스가 수행하고 있는 작업을 쉽게 관찰할 수 있
습니다.

DTrace 마커는 CPython 인터프리터의 구현 세부 사항입니다.  CPython 버전 간
의 프로브 호환성에 대한 보장은 없습니다.  CPython 버전을 변경할 때 경고
없이 DTrace 스크립트가 작동하지 않거나 올바르게 작동하지 않을 수 있습니
다.

* Menu:

* 정적 마커 활성화하기::
* 정적 DTrace 프로브::
* 정적 SystemTap 마커::
* 사용 가능한 정적 마커::
* SystemTap 탭셋::
* 예제: 예제<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: 정적 마커 활성화하기,  Next: 정적 DTrace 프로브,  Up: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

9.16.1 정적 마커 활성화하기
---------------------------

macOS는 DTrace를 기본적으로 지원합니다.  리눅스에서는, SystemTap을 위한
마커를 내장하도록 CPython을 빌드하려면, SystemTap 개발 도구를 설치해야 합
니다.

리눅스 기계에서, 이렇게 하면 됩니다:

     $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel

또는:

     $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev

그런 다음 CPython은 *note -with-dtrace 옵션으로 구성: 1dbf.되어야 합니다
:

     checking for --with-dtrace... yes

macOS에서, 배경에서 파이썬 프로세스를 실행하고 파이썬 공급자가 제공 한 모
든 프로브를 나열하여 사용 가능한 DTrace 프로브를 나열할 수 있습니다:

     $ python3.6 -q &
     $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6

        ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
     29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
     29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
     29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
     29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
     29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
     29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
     29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
     29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line

리눅스에서, “.note.stapsdt” 섹션이 있는지 확인하여 빌드 된 바이너리에
SystemTap 정적 마커가 있는지 확인할 수 있습니다.

     $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
     [30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78

파이썬을 (*note -enable-shared: 85d. 구성 옵션으로) 공유 라이브러리로 빌
드했다면, 공유 라이브러리 내에서 대신 찾아야 합니다.  예를 들면:

     $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
     [29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68

충분히 최신의 readelf는 메타 데이터를 인쇄할 수 있습니다:

     $ readelf -n ./python

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
             OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
             Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__start
             Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
             Arguments: -4@%ebx
         stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__done
             Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
             Arguments: -8@%rax
         stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__entry
             Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
         stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__return
             Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax

위의 메타 데이터에는 SystemTap 스크립트에서 사용되는 추적 훅을 활성화하
도록 전략적으로 배치된 기계 코드 명령어를 패치하는 방법을 설명하는
SystemTap에 대한 정보가 포함되어 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 정적 DTrace 프로브,  Next: 정적 SystemTap 마커,  Prev: 정적 마커 활성화하기,  Up: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

9.16.2 정적 DTrace 프로브
-------------------------

다음 예제 DTrace 스크립트는 파이썬 스크립트의 호출/반환 계층 구조를 표시
하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.  “start”라는 함수의 호출 내부에서만 추적합니
다.  즉, 임포트 시점의 함수 호출은 나열되지 않습니다:

     self int indent;

     python$target:::function-entry
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 1;
     }

     python$target:::function-entry
     /self->trace/
     {
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
             self->indent++;
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /self->trace/
     {
             self->indent--;
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 0;
     }

다음과 같은 식으로 호출할 수 있습니다:

     $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"

출력은 이런 식입니다:

     156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
     156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
     156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
     156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
     156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
     156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
     156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
     156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28


File: python.info,  Node: 정적 SystemTap 마커,  Next: 사용 가능한 정적 마커,  Prev: 정적 DTrace 프로브,  Up: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

9.16.3 정적 SystemTap 마커
--------------------------

SystemTap 통합을 사용하는 저수준의 방법은 정적 마커를 직접 사용하는 것입
니다.  이를 포함하는 바이너리 파일을 명시적으로 지정해야 합니다.

예를 들어, 이 SystemTap 스크립트는 파이썬 스크립트의 호출/반환 계층 구조
를 표시하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다:

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
          filename = user_string($arg1);
          funcname = user_string($arg2);
          lineno = $arg3;

          printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
                 thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;

         printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
                thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

다음과 같은 식으로 호출할 수 있습니다:

     $ stap \
       show-call-hierarchy.stp \
       -c "./python test.py"

출력은 이런 식입니다:

     11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
     11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
     11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
     11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
     11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
     11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366

이때 열은 다음과 같습니다:

   - 스크립트 시작으로부터 마이크로초 단위의 시간

   - 실행 파일의 이름

   - 프로세스의 PID

나머지는 스크립트가 실행될 때 호출/반환 계층 구조를 나타냅니다.

CPython의 *note -enable-shared: 85d. 빌드의 경우, 마커는 libpython 공유
라이브러리 내에 포함되어 있으며, 프로브의 점으로 구분된 경로는 이를 반영
해야 합니다.  예를 들어, 위의 예제에서 다음과 같은 줄은:

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {

대신 이렇게 되어야 합니다:

     probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {

(CPython 3.6의 *note 디버그 빌드: 1f9.를 가정하고 있습니다)


File: python.info,  Node: 사용 가능한 정적 마커,  Next: SystemTap 탭셋,  Prev: 정적 SystemTap 마커,  Up: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

9.16.4 사용 가능한 정적 마커
----------------------------

 -- Object: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     이 마커는 파이썬 함수의 실행이 시작되었음을 나타냅니다.  순수 파이
     썬 (바이트 코드) 함수에서만 트리거 됩니다.

     파일명, 함수 이름 및 줄 번호가 위치 인자로 추적 스크립트에 제공됩니
     다.  ‘$arg1’, ‘$arg2’, ‘$arg3’를 사용하여 액세스해야 합니다:

             * ‘$arg1’ : ‘(const char *)’ 파일명, ‘user_string($arg1)’를
               사용하여 액세스할 수 있습니다

             * ‘$arg2’ : ‘(const char *)’ 함수 이름,
               ‘user_string($arg2)’를 사용하여 액세스할 수 있습니다

             * ‘$arg3’ : ‘int’ 줄 번호

 -- Object: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     이 마커는 ‘function__entry()’의 반대이며, 파이썬 함수의 실행이 종료
     되었음을 나타냅니다 (‘return’를 통해서나 예외를 통해).  순수 파이썬
     (바이트 코드) 함수에서만 트리거 됩니다.

     인자는 ‘function__entry()’와 같습니다.

 -- Object: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     이 마커는 파이썬 줄이 실행되려고 함을 나타냅니다.  파이썬 프로파일
     러를 사용하는 줄 단위 추적과 동등합니다.  C 함수 내에서는 트리거 되
     지 않습니다.

     인자는 ‘function__entry()’와 같습니다.

 -- Object: gc__start(int generation)

     파이썬 인터프리터가 가비지 수집 사이클을 시작할 때 발생합니다.
     ‘arg0’은 *note gc.collect(): a36.처럼 스캔할 세대(generation)입니다
     .

 -- Object: gc__done(long collected)

     파이썬 인터프리터가 가비지 수집 사이클을 끝낼 때 발생합니다.
     ‘arg0’은 수집된 객체 수입니다.

 -- Object: import__find__load__start(str modulename)

     *note importlib: 77.가 모듈을 찾고 로드하기 전에 발생합니다.
     ‘arg0’은 모듈 이름입니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Object: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)

     *note importlib: 77.의 모듈을 찾고 로드하는 함수가 호출 된 후에 발
     생합니다.  ‘arg0’은 모듈 이름이고, ‘arg1’은 모듈이 성공적으로 로드
     되었는지를 나타냅니다.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Object: audit(str event, void *tuple)

     *note sys.audit(): 15c1.나 *note PySys_Audit(): 368.가 호출될 때 발
     생합니다.  ‘arg0’는 C 문자열로 된 이벤트 이름이고, ‘arg1’은 튜플 객
     체를 가리키는 *note PyObject: 332. 포인터입니다.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: SystemTap 탭셋,  Next: 예제<34>,  Prev: 사용 가능한 정적 마커,  Up: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

9.16.5 SystemTap 탭셋
---------------------

SystemTap 통합을 사용하는 고수준의 방법은 “탭셋(tapset)”을 사용하는 것입
니다: SystemTap의 라이브러리에 해당하는 것입니다, 정적 마커의 저수준 세
부 정보를 숨깁니다.

다음은 CPython의 비공유 빌드에 기반한 탭셋 파일입니다:

     /*
        function__entry 와 function__return 마커를 감싸는
        고수준 래핑을 제공합니다:
      \*/
     probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }
     probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }

이 파일을 SystemTap의 tapset 디렉터리(예를 들어,
‘/usr/share/systemtap/tapset’)에 설치하면, 다음과 같은 추가 프로브 포인
트를 사용할 수 있습니다:

 -- Object: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     이 프로브 포인트는 파이썬 함수의 실행이 시작되었음을 나타냅니다.  순
     수 파이썬 (바이트 코드) 함수에서만 트리거 됩니다.

 -- Object: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     이 프로브 포인트는 ‘python.function.return’의 반대이며, 파이썬 함수
     의 실행이 종료되었음을 나타냅니다 (‘return’를 통해서나 예외를 통해
     ).  순수 파이썬 (바이트 코드) 함수에서만 트리거 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예제<34>,  Prev: SystemTap 탭셋,  Up: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기

9.16.6 예제
-----------

이 SystemTap 스크립트는 위의 탭셋을 사용하여, 정적 마커의 이름을 직접 지
정하지 않고도, 파이썬 함수 호출 계층 구조를 추적하는 위의 예제를 보다 명
확하게 구현합니다.:

     probe python.function.entry
     {
       printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe python.function.return
     {
       printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

다음 스크립트는 위의 탭셋을 사용하여 실행 중인 모든 CPython 코드의 top과
비슷한 보기를 제공합니다.  전체 시스템에서 1초마다 가장 자주 진입하는 바
이트 코드 프레임 20개를 표시합니다:

     global fn_calls;

     probe python.function.entry
     {
         fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
     }

     probe timer.ms(1000) {
         printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
         printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
                "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
         foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
             printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
                 pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
                 fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
         }
         delete fn_calls;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Next: Annotations Best Practices,  Prev: DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.17 Python support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
=================================================


author: Pablo Galindo

The Linux perf profiler(1) is a very powerful tool that allows you to
profile and obtain information about the performance of your
application.  ‘perf’ also has a very vibrant ecosystem of tools that aid
with the analysis of the data that it produces.

The main problem with using the ‘perf’ profiler with Python applications
is that ‘perf’ only gets information about native symbols, that is, the
names of functions and procedures written in C. This means that the
names and file names of Python functions in your code will not appear in
the output of ‘perf’.

Since Python 3.12, the interpreter can run in a special mode that allows
Python functions to appear in the output of the ‘perf’ profiler.  When
this mode is enabled, the interpreter will interpose a small piece of
code compiled on the fly before the execution of every Python function
and it will teach ‘perf’ the relationship between this piece of code and
the associated Python function using *note perf map files: 4b8c.

     참고: Support for the ‘perf’ profiler is currently only available
     for Linux on select architectures.  Check the output of the
     ‘configure’ build step or check the output of ‘python -m sysconfig
     | grep HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE’ to see if your system is supported.

For example, consider the following script:

     def foo(n):
         result = 0
         for _ in range(n):
             result += 1
         return result

     def bar(n):
         foo(n)

     def baz(n):
         bar(n)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         baz(1000000)

We can run ‘perf’ to sample CPU stack traces at 9999 hertz:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py

Then we can use ‘perf report’ to analyze the data:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  ..........................................
     #
         91.08%     0.00%             0  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --90.71%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--55.02%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--11.52%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc
     ...

As you can see, the Python functions are not shown in the output, only
‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault’ (the function that evaluates the Python
bytecode) shows up.  Unfortunately that’s not very useful because all
Python functions use the same C function to evaluate bytecode so we
cannot know which Python function corresponds to which
bytecode-evaluating function.

Instead, if we run the same experiment with ‘perf’ support enabled we
get:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  .....................................................................
     #
         90.58%     0.36%             1  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --89.86%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--53.62%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     py::<module>:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::baz:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::bar:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::foo:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--13.77%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc

* Menu:

* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::
* How to work without frame pointers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org


File: python.info,  Node: How to enable perf profiling support,  Next: How to obtain the best results,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.17.1 How to enable ‘perf’ profiling support
---------------------------------------------

‘perf’ profiling support can be enabled either from the start using the
environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 468. or the *note -X perf:
176. option, or dynamically using *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline():
469. and *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46a.

The ‘sys’ functions take precedence over the ‘-X’ option, the ‘-X’
option takes precedence over the environment variable.

Example, using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the ‘-X’ option:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf my_script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the *note sys: d9. APIs in file ‘example.py’:

     import sys

     sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf")
     do_profiled_stuff()
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

     non_profiled_stuff()

…then:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python ./example.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data


File: python.info,  Node: How to obtain the best results,  Next: How to work without frame pointers,  Prev: How to enable perf profiling support,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.17.2 How to obtain the best results
-------------------------------------

For best results, Python should be compiled with
‘CFLAGS="-fno-omit-frame-pointer -mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer"’ as this
allows profilers to unwind using only the frame pointer and not on DWARF
debug information.  This is because as the code that is interposed to
allow ‘perf’ support is dynamically generated it doesn’t have any DWARF
debugging information available.

You can check if your system has been compiled with this flag by
running:

     $ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer'

If you don’t see any output it means that your interpreter has not been
compiled with frame pointers and therefore it may not be able to show
Python functions in the output of ‘perf’.


File: python.info,  Node: How to work without frame pointers,  Prev: How to obtain the best results,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.17.3 How to work without frame pointers
-----------------------------------------

If you are working with a Python interpreter that has been compiled
without frame pointers, you can still use the ‘perf’ profiler, but the
overhead will be a bit higher because Python needs to generate unwinding
information for every Python function call on the fly.  Additionally,
‘perf’ will take more time to process the data because it will need to
use the DWARF debugging information to unwind the stack and this is a
slow process.

To enable this mode, you can use the environment variable *note
PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. or the *note -X perf_jit: 176. option,
which will enable the JIT mode for the ‘perf’ profiler.

     참고: Due to a bug in the ‘perf’ tool, only ‘perf’ versions higher
     than v6.8 will work with the JIT mode.  The fix was also backported
     to the v6.7.2 version of the tool.

     Note that when checking the version of the ‘perf’ tool (which can
     be done by running ‘perf version’) you must take into account that
     some distros add some custom version numbers including a ‘-’
     character.  This means that ‘perf 6.7-3’ is not necessarily ‘perf
     6.7.3’.

When using the perf JIT mode, you need an extra step before you can run
‘perf report’.  You need to call the ‘perf inject’ command to inject the
JIT information into the ‘perf.data’ file.:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
     $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
     $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

or using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python my_script.py
     $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
     $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

‘perf inject --jit’ command will read ‘perf.data’, automatically pick up
the perf dump file that Python creates (in ‘/tmp/perf-$PID.dump’), and
then create ‘perf.jit.data’ which merges all the JIT information
together.  It should also create a lot of ‘jitted-XXXX-N.so’ files in
the current directory which are ELF images for all the JIT trampolines
that were created by Python.

     경고: When using ‘--call-graph dwarf’, the ‘perf’ tool will take
     snapshots of the stack of the process being profiled and save the
     information in the ‘perf.data’ file.  By default, the size of the
     stack dump is 8192 bytes, but you can change the size by passing it
     after a comma like ‘--call-graph dwarf,16384’.

     The size of the stack dump is important because if the size is too
     small ‘perf’ will not be able to unwind the stack and the output
     will be incomplete.  On the other hand, if the size is too big,
     then ‘perf’ won’t be able to sample the process as frequently as it
     would like as the overhead will be higher.

     The stack size is particularly important when profiling Python code
     compiled with low optimization levels (like ‘-O0’), as these builds
     tend to have larger stack frames.  If you are compiling Python with
     ‘-O0’ and not seeing Python functions in your profiling output, try
     increasing the stack dump size to 65528 bytes (the maximum):

          $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf,65528 -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py

     Different compilation flags can significantly impact stack sizes:

        - Builds with ‘-O0’ typically have much larger stack frames than
          those with ‘-O1’ or higher

        - Adding optimizations (‘-O1’, ‘-O2’, etc.)  typically reduces
          stack size

        - Frame pointers (‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’) generally provide
          more reliable stack unwinding


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations Best Practices,  Next: Isolating Extension Modules,  Prev: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.18 Annotations Best Practices
===============================


author: Larry Hastings

Abstract
........

This document is designed to encapsulate the best practices for working
with annotations dicts.  If you write Python code that examines
‘__annotations__’ on Python objects, we encourage you to follow the
guidelines described below.

The document is organized into four sections: best practices for
accessing the annotations of an object in Python versions 3.10 and
newer, best practices for accessing the annotations of an object in
Python versions 3.9 and older, other best practices for
‘__annotations__’ that apply to any Python version, and quirks of
‘__annotations__’.

Note that this document is specifically about working with
‘__annotations__’, not uses 'for' annotations.  If you’re looking for
information on how to use “type hints” in your code, please see the
*note typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer.
* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older.
* Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations::
* Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version::
* __annotations__ Quirks::


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer,  Next: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.1 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python 3.10 adds a new function to the standard library: *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 80d.  In Python versions 3.10 and newer,
calling this function is the best practice for accessing the annotations
dict of any object that supports annotations.  This function can also
“un-stringize” stringized annotations for you.

If for some reason *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. isn’t viable
for your use case, you may access the ‘__annotations__’ data member
manually.  Best practice for this changed in Python 3.10 as well: as of
Python 3.10, ‘o.__annotations__’ is guaranteed to 'always' work on
Python functions, classes, and modules.  If you’re certain the object
you’re examining is one of these three 'specific' objects, you may
simply use ‘o.__annotations__’ to get at the object’s annotations dict.

However, other types of callables–for example, callables created by
*note functools.partial(): 40e.–may not have an ‘__annotations__’
attribute defined.  When accessing the ‘__annotations__’ of a possibly
unknown object, best practice in Python versions 3.10 and newer is to
call *note getattr(): bce. with three arguments, for example ‘getattr(o,
'__annotations__', None)’.

Before Python 3.10, accessing ‘__annotations__’ on a class that defines
no annotations but that has a parent class with annotations would return
the parent’s ‘__annotations__’.  In Python 3.10 and newer, the child
class’s annotations will be an empty dict instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Next: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.2 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.9 and older, accessing the annotations dict of an object is
much more complicated than in newer versions.  The problem is a design
flaw in these older versions of Python, specifically to do with class
annotations.

Best practice for accessing the annotations dict of other
objects–functions, other callables, and modules–is the same as best
practice for 3.10, assuming you aren’t calling *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 80d.: you should use three-argument *note
getattr(): bce. to access the object’s ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

Unfortunately, this isn’t best practice for classes.  The problem is
that, since ‘__annotations__’ is optional on classes, and because
classes can inherit attributes from their base classes, accessing the
‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class may inadvertently return the
annotations dict of a 'base class.'  As an example:

     class Base:
         a: int = 3
         b: str = 'abc'

     class Derived(Base):
         pass

     print(Derived.__annotations__)

This will print the annotations dict from ‘Base’, not ‘Derived’.

Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you’re
examining is a class (‘isinstance(o, type)’).  In that case, best
practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if
a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class’s *note
__dict__: c5a. dictionary.  Since the class may or may not have
annotations defined, best practice is to call the *note get(): 224a.
method on the class dict.

To put it all together, here is some sample code that safely accesses
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute on an arbitrary object in Python 3.9 and
before:

     if isinstance(o, type):
         ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)
     else:
         ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)

After running this code, ‘ann’ should be either a dictionary or ‘None’.
You’re encouraged to double-check the type of ‘ann’ using *note
isinstance(): 43b. before further examination.

Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a *note
__dict__: c5a. attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use
*note getattr(): bce. to access ‘__dict__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Next: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.3 Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations
-----------------------------------------------------

In situations where some annotations may be “stringized”, and you wish
to evaluate those strings to produce the Python values they represent,
it really is best to call *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. to do
this work for you.

If you’re using Python 3.9 or older, or if for some reason you can’t use
*note inspect.get_annotations(): 80d, you’ll need to duplicate its
logic.  You’re encouraged to examine the implementation of *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 80d. in the current Python version and follow
a similar approach.

In a nutshell, if you wish to evaluate a stringized annotation on an
arbitrary object ‘o’:

   * If ‘o’ is a module, use ‘o.__dict__’ as the ‘globals’ when calling
     *note eval(): 180.

   * If ‘o’ is a class, use ‘sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__’ as the
     ‘globals’, and ‘dict(vars(o))’ as the ‘locals’, when calling *note
     eval(): 180.

   * If ‘o’ is a wrapped callable using *note
     functools.update_wrapper(): 1018, *note functools.wraps(): f55, or
     *note functools.partial(): 40e, iteratively unwrap it by accessing
     either ‘o.__wrapped__’ or ‘o.func’ as appropriate, until you have
     found the root unwrapped function.

   * If ‘o’ is a callable (but not a class), use *note o.__globals__:
     12c3. as the globals when calling *note eval(): 180.

However, not all string values used as annotations can be successfully
turned into Python values by *note eval(): 180.  String values could
theoretically contain any valid string, and in practice there are valid
use cases for type hints that require annotating with string values that
specifically 'can’t' be evaluated.  For example:

   * PEP 604(1) union types using ‘|’, before support for this was added
     to Python 3.10.

   * Definitions that aren’t needed at runtime, only imported when *note
     typing.TYPE_CHECKING: cf1. is true.

If *note eval(): 180. attempts to evaluate such values, it will fail and
raise an exception.  So, when designing a library API that works with
annotations, it’s recommended to only attempt to evaluate string values
when explicitly requested to by the caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Next: __annotations__ Quirks,  Prev: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.4 Best Practices For ‘__annotations__’ In Any Python Version
-----------------------------------------------------------------

   * You should avoid assigning to the ‘__annotations__’ member of
     objects directly.  Let Python manage setting ‘__annotations__’.

   * If you do assign directly to the ‘__annotations__’ member of an
     object, you should always set it to a ‘dict’ object.

   * If you directly access the ‘__annotations__’ member of an object,
     you should ensure that it’s a dictionary before attempting to
     examine its contents.

   * You should avoid modifying ‘__annotations__’ dicts.

   * You should avoid deleting the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of an
     object.


File: python.info,  Node: __annotations__ Quirks,  Prev: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.5 ‘__annotations__’ Quirks
-------------------------------

In all versions of Python 3, function objects lazy-create an annotations
dict if no annotations are defined on that object.  You can delete the
‘__annotations__’ attribute using ‘del fn.__annotations__’, but if you
then access ‘fn.__annotations__’ the object will create a new empty dict
that it will store and return as its annotations.  Deleting the
annotations on a function before it has lazily created its annotations
dict will throw an ‘AttributeError’; using ‘del fn.__annotations__’
twice in a row is guaranteed to always throw an ‘AttributeError’.

Everything in the above paragraph also applies to class and module
objects in Python 3.10 and newer.

In all versions of Python 3, you can set ‘__annotations__’ on a function
object to ‘None’.  However, subsequently accessing the annotations on
that object using ‘fn.__annotations__’ will lazy-create an empty
dictionary as per the first paragraph of this section.  This is 'not'
true of modules and classes, in any Python version; those objects permit
setting ‘__annotations__’ to any Python value, and will retain whatever
value is set.

If Python stringizes your annotations for you (using ‘from __future__
import annotations’), and you specify a string as an annotation, the
string will itself be quoted.  In effect the annotation is quoted
'twice.'  For example:

     from __future__ import annotations
     def foo(a: "str"): pass

     print(foo.__annotations__)

This prints ‘{'a': "'str'"}’.  This shouldn’t really be considered a
“quirk”; it’s mentioned here simply because it might be surprising.


File: python.info,  Node: Isolating Extension Modules,  Next: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Prev: Annotations Best Practices,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.19 Isolating Extension Modules
================================

Abstract
........

Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C
‘static’ variables, which have process-wide scope.  This document
describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way:
per-module state.

The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where
possible.  This transition involves allocating space for that state,
potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most
importantly—accessing per-module state from code.

* Menu:

* Who should read this::
* Background::
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types::
* Open Issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Who should read this,  Next: Background,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.1 Who should read this
---------------------------

This guide is written for maintainers of *note C-API: 1be3. extensions
who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where
Python itself is used as a library.


File: python.info,  Node: Background,  Next: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Prev: Who should read this,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.2 Background
-----------------

An 'interpreter' is the context in which Python code runs.  It contains
configuration (e.g.  the import path) and runtime state (e.g.  the set
of imported modules).

Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process.  There are
two cases to think about—users may run interpreters:

   - in sequence, with several *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4aea./*note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): d12. cycles, and

   - in parallel, managing “sub-interpreters” using *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 17bd./*note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1866.

Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when
embedding Python within a library.  Libraries generally shouldn’t make
assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming
a process-wide “main Python interpreter”.

Historically, Python extension modules don’t handle this use case well.
Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use 'per-process'
global state, because C ‘static’ variables are extremely easy to use.
Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being
shared between interpreters.  Unless the extension developer is careful,
it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a
module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process.

Unfortunately, 'per-interpreter' state is not easy to achieve.
Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when
developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior.

* Menu:

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::


File: python.info,  Node: Enter Per-Module State,  Next: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background

9.19.2.1 Enter Per-Module State
...............................

Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python’s C API is evolving
to better support the more granular 'per-module' state.  This means that
C-level data should be attached to a 'module object'.  Each interpreter
creates its own module object, keeping the data separate.  For testing
the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single
extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter.

Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and
resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module
object is created, and clean up when it’s freed.  In this regard, a
module is just like any other *note PyObject: 332.*; there are no “on
interpreter shutdown” hooks to think—or forget—about.

Note that there are use cases for different kinds of “globals”:
per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state.  With
per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you
should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should
give them additional care and testing.  (Note that this guide does not
cover them.)


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Module Objects,  Next: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Enter Per-Module State,  Up: Background

9.19.2.2 Isolated Module Objects
................................

The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is
that several module objects can be created from a single shared library.
For example:

     >>> import sys
     >>> import binascii
     >>> old_binascii = binascii
     >>> del sys.modules['binascii']
     >>> import binascii  # create a new module object
     >>> old_binascii == binascii
     False

As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent.
All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated
within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and
cleaned up when the module object is deallocated.  Since this just is a
rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see *note Managing Global State:
507a.), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases.

While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated
modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that
work across a variety of use cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background

9.19.2.3 Surprising Edge Cases
..............................

Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases.  Most
notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and
exceptions with other similar modules.  Continuing from the *note
example above: 5079, note that ‘old_binascii.Error’ and ‘binascii.Error’
are separate objects.  In the following code, the exception is 'not'
caught:

     >>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error
     False
     >>> try:
     ...     old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop')
     ... except binascii.Error:
     ...     print('boo')
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

This is expected.  Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way:
it is a part of how Python works.

The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make
hacks behave intuitively.  Mutating ‘sys.modules’ “manually” counts as a
hack.


File: python.info,  Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Next: Heap Types,  Prev: Background,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.3 Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters
-----------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Global State,  Next: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.1 Managing Global State
..............................

Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to
that module, but to the entire process (or something else “more global”
than a module).  For example:

   - The ‘readline’ module manages 'the' terminal.

   - A module running on a circuit board wants to control 'the' on-board
     LED.

In these cases, the Python module should provide 'access' to the global
state, rather than 'own' it.  If possible, write the module so that
multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with
other libraries, whether for Python or other languages).  If that is not
possible, consider explicit locking.

If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to
avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a
module from being loaded more than once per process—see *note Opt-Out;
Limiting to One Module Object per Process: 4d1b.


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Per-Module State,  Next: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Prev: Managing Global State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.2 Managing Per-Module State
..................................

To use per-module state, use *note multi-phase extension module
initialization: 4919.  This signals that your module supports multiple
interpreters correctly.

Set ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ to a positive number to request that many bytes
of storage local to the module.  Usually, this will be set to the size
of some module-specific ‘struct’, which can store all of the module’s
C-level state.  In particular, it is where you should put pointers to
classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings
(e.g.  ‘csv’’s *note field_size_limit: 180c.) which the C code needs to
function.

     참고: Another option is to store state in the module’s ‘__dict__’,
     but you must avoid crashing when users modify ‘__dict__’ from
     Python code.  This usually means error- and type-checking at the C
     level, which is easy to get wrong and hard to test sufficiently.

     However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in
     ‘__dict__’ only is a good idea.

If the module state includes ‘PyObject’ pointers, the module object must
hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks
‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’ and ‘m_free’.  These work like ‘tp_traverse’,
‘tp_clear’ and ‘tp_free’ of a class.  Adding them will require some work
and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be
unloaded cleanly.

An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as
xxlimited(1); example module initialization shown at the bottom of the
file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Next: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.3 Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process
...........................................................

A non-negative ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ signals that a module supports
multiple interpreters correctly.  If this is not yet the case for your
module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per
process.  For example:

     // A process-wide flag
     static int loaded = 0;

     // Mutex to provide thread safety (only needed for free-threaded Python)
     static PyMutex modinit_mutex = {0};

     static int
     exec_module(PyObject* module)
     {
         PyMutex_Lock(&modinit_mutex);
         if (loaded) {
             PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot load module more than once per process");
             return -1;
         }
         loaded = 1;
         PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
         // ... rest of initialization
     }

If your module’s *note PyModuleDef.m_clear: 97a. function is able to
prepare for future re-initialization, it should clear the ‘loaded’ flag.
In this case, your module won’t support multiple instances existing
'concurrently', but it will, for example, support being loaded after
Python runtime shutdown (*note Py_FinalizeEx(): d12.) and
re-initialization (*note Py_Initialize(): 8a9.).


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.4 Module State Access from Functions
...........................................

Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward.
Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting
the state, you can use ‘PyModule_GetState’:

     static PyObject *
     func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         // ... rest of logic
     }

     참고: ‘PyModule_GetState’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
     exception if there is no module state, i.e.  ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’
     was zero.  In your own module, you’re in control of ‘m_size’, so
     this is easy to prevent.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types,  Next: Open Issues,  Prev: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.4 Heap Types
-----------------

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static'; that is, ‘static
PyTypeObject’ structures defined directly in code and initialized using
‘PyType_Ready()’.

Such types are necessarily shared across the process.  Sharing them
between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own
or access.  To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at
the Python level: for example, you can’t set ‘str.myattribute = 123’.

'CPython 구현 상세:' Sharing truly immutable objects between
interpreters is fine, as long as they don’t provide access to mutable
objects.  However, in CPython, every Python object has a mutable
implementation detail: the reference count.  Changes to the refcount are
guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python objects across
interpreters implicitly depends on CPython’s current, process-wide GIL.

Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot
access “their” module state.  If any method of such a type requires
access to module state, the type must be converted to a 'heap-allocated
type', or 'heap type' for short.  These correspond more closely to
classes created by Python’s ‘class’ statement.

For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb.

* Menu:

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::


File: python.info,  Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Next: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.1 Changing Static Types to Heap Types
............................................

Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type
API was not designed for “lossless” conversion from static types—that
is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.  So,
when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to
unintentionally change a few details (e.g.  pickleability or inherited
slots).  Always test the details that are important to you.

Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this
is not a comprehensive list):

   * Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default.  Use
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3bc. flag to prevent
     mutability.

   * Heap types inherit *note tp_new: 57a. by default, so it may become
     possible to instantiate them from Python code.  You can prevent
     this with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57d. flag.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Heap Types,  Next: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Prev: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.2 Defining Heap Types
............................

Heap types can be created by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 1722.
structure, a description or “blueprint” of a class, and calling *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c. to construct a new class object.

     참고: Other functions, like *note PyType_FromSpec(): 578, can also
     create heap types, but *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c.
     associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module
     state from methods.

The class should generally be stored in 'both' the module state (for
safe access from C) and the module’s ‘__dict__’ (for access from Python
code).


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Next: Module State Access from Classes,  Prev: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.3 Garbage-Collection Protocol
....................................

Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type.  This ensures
that the type isn’t destroyed before all its instances are, but may
result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage
collector.

To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the
garbage collection protocol.  That is, heap types should:

   - Have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. flag.

   - Define a traverse function using ‘Py_tp_traverse’, which visits the
     type (e.g.  using ‘Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))’).

Please refer to the documentation of *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 776. and
*note tp_traverse: 777. for additional considerations.

The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat
awkward to use in its current state.  The following sections will guide
you through common issues.

* Menu:

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::


File: python.info,  Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Next: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.4 ‘tp_traverse’ in Python 3.8 and lower
..............................................

The requirement to visit the type from ‘tp_traverse’ was added in Python
3.9.  If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must
'not' visit the type, so it must be more complicated:

     static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
         return 0;
     }

Unfortunately, *note Py_Version: 74f. was only added in Python 3.11.  As
a replacement, use:

   * *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 750, if not using the stable ABI, or

   * *note sys.version_info: 69a. (via *note PySys_GetObject(): 382. and
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56c.).


File: python.info,  Node: Delegating tp_traverse,  Next: Defining tp_dealloc,  Prev: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.5 Delegating ‘tp_traverse’
.................................

If your traverse function delegates to the *note tp_traverse: 777. of
its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
only once.  Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in
‘tp_traverse’.

For example, if your traverse function includes:

     base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

…and ‘base’ may be a static type, then it should also include:

     if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
         // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
     } else {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
     }

It is not necessary to handle the type’s reference count in *note
tp_new: 57a. and *note tp_clear: 48fe.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining tp_dealloc,  Next: Not overriding tp_free,  Prev: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.6 Defining ‘tp_dealloc’
..............................

If your type has a custom *note tp_dealloc: 48da. function, it needs to:

   - call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14ce. before any fields are
     invalidated, and

   - decrement the reference count of the type.

To keep the type valid while ‘tp_free’ is called, the type’s refcount
needs to be decremented 'after' the instance is deallocated.  For
example:

     static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         ...
         PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self);
         type->tp_free(self);
         Py_DECREF(type);
     }

The default ‘tp_dealloc’ function does this, so if your type does 'not'
override ‘tp_dealloc’ you don’t need to add it.


File: python.info,  Node: Not overriding tp_free,  Next: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Defining tp_dealloc,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.7 Not overriding ‘tp_free’
.................................

The *note tp_free: 48ec. slot of a heap type must be set to *note
PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cc.  This is the default; do not override it.


File: python.info,  Node: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Not overriding tp_free,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.8 Avoiding ‘PyObject_New’
................................

GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.

If you use *note PyObject_New(): 982. or *note PyObject_NewVar(): 983.:

   - Get and call type’s *note tp_alloc: 48ed. slot, if possible.  That
     is, replace ‘TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)’ with:

          TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0);

     Replace ‘o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)’ with the same,
     but use size instead of the 0.

   - If the above is not possible (e.g.  inside a custom ‘tp_alloc’),
     call *note PyObject_GC_New(): a9f. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar():
     aa0.:

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj);

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Classes,  Next: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Prev: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.9 Module State Access from Classes
.........................................

If you have a type object defined with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec():
54c, you can call *note PyType_GetModule(): 96c. to get the associated
module, and then *note PyModule_GetState(): 97d. to get the module’s
state.

To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine
these two steps with *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96d, resulting in:

     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Next: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Prev: Module State Access from Classes,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.10 Module State Access from Regular Methods
..................................................

Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat
more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python
3.9.  To get the state, you need to first get the 'defining class', and
then get the module state from it.

The largest roadblock is getting 'the class a method was defined in', or
that method’s “defining class” for short.  The defining class can have a
reference to the module it is part of.

Do not confuse the defining class with ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.  If the method
is called on a 'subclass' of your type, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ will refer to
that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours.

     참고: The following Python code can illustrate the concept.
     ‘Base.get_defining_class’ returns ‘Base’ even if ‘type(self) ==
     Sub’:

          class Base:
              def get_type_of_self(self):
                  return type(self)

              def get_defining_class(self):
                  return __class__

          class Sub(Base):
              pass

For a method to get its “defining class”, it must use the *note
METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1695. *note calling
convention: 149f. and the corresponding *note PyCMethod: 75d. signature:

     PyObject *PyCMethod(
         PyObject *self,               // object the method was called on
         PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class
         PyObject *const *args,        // C array of arguments
         Py_ssize_t nargs,             // length of "args"
         PyObject *kwnames)            // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments

Once you have the defining class, call *note PyType_GetModuleState():
96d. to get the state of its associated module.

For example:

     static PyObject *
     example_method(PyObject *self,
             PyTypeObject *defining_class,
             PyObject *const *args,
             Py_ssize_t nargs,
             PyObject *kwnames)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         ... // rest of logic
     }

     PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "...");

     static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = {
         {"example_method",
           (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method,
           METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS,
           example_method_doc}
         {NULL},
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Next: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.11 Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters
....................................................................

     참고: This is new in Python 3.11.

Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as *note
nb_add: 4c02. for *note __add__: 1f94. or *note tp_new: 57a. for
initialization—have a very simple API that doesn’t allow passing in the
defining class, unlike with *note PyCMethod: 75d.  The same goes for
getters and setters defined with *note PyGetSetDef: bb5.

To access the module state in these cases, use the *note
PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38d. function, and pass in the module
definition.  Once you have the module, call *note PyModule_GetState():
97d. to get the state:

     PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def);
     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }

‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ works by searching the *note method resolution
order: 2188. (i.e.  all superclasses) for the first superclass that has
a corresponding module.

     참고: In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning multiple
     modules created from the same definition),
     ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ might not return the module of the true
     defining class.  However, it will always return a module with the
     same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.


File: python.info,  Node: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Up: Heap Types

9.19.4.12 Lifetime of the Module State
......................................

When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed.
For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a
reference to the module object.

Usually this is not an issue, because types created with *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54c, and their instances, hold a reference
to the module.  However, you must be careful in reference counting when
you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for
external libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Open Issues,  Prev: Heap Types,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.5 Open Issues
------------------

Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.

Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the discuss
forum under c-api tag(1).

* Menu:

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: Per-Class Scope,  Next: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Up: Open Issues

9.19.5.1 Per-Class Scope
........................

It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to
individual 'types' without relying on CPython implementation details
(which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper
solution for per-class scope).


File: python.info,  Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Prev: Per-Class Scope,  Up: Open Issues

9.19.5.2 Lossless Conversion to Heap Types
..........................................

The heap type API was not designed for “lossless” conversion from static
types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static
type.


File: python.info,  Node: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Next: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: Isolating Extension Modules,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.20 timer file descriptor HOWTO
================================


Release: 1.13

This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the linux timer file
descriptor.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<2>,  Up: timer file descriptor HOWTO

9.20.1 Examples
---------------

The following example shows how to use a timer file descriptor to
execute a function twice a second:

     # Practical scripts should use really use a non-blocking timer,
     # we use a blocking timer here for simplicity.
     import os, time

     # Create the timer file descriptor
     fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME)

     # Start the timer in 1 second, with an interval of half a second
     os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=1, interval=0.5)

     try:
         # Process timer events four times.
         for _ in range(4):
             # read() will block until the timer expires
             _ = os.read(fd, 8)
             print("Timer expired")
     finally:
         # Remember to close the timer file descriptor!
         os.close(fd)

To avoid the precision loss caused by the *note float: 2ef. type, timer
file descriptors allow specifying initial expiration and interval in
integer nanoseconds with ‘_ns’ variants of the functions.

This example shows how *note epoll(): f8b. can be used with timer file
descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

     import os, time, select, socket, sys

     # Create an epoll object
     ep = select.epoll()

     # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
     #
     # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
     # Trying 127.0.0.1...
     # Connected to 127.0.0.1.
     # Escape character is '^]'.
     # stop
     # Connection closed by foreign host.
     #
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sock.listen(1)
     ep.register(sock, select.EPOLLIN)

     # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
     num = 3
     fds = []
     for _ in range(num):
         fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
         fds.append(fd)
         # Register the timer file descriptor for read events
         ep.register(fd, select.EPOLLIN)

     # Start the timer with os.timerfd_settime_ns() in nanoseconds.
     # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
     for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
         one_sec_in_nsec = 10**9
         i = i * one_sec_in_nsec
         os.timerfd_settime_ns(fd, initial=i//4, interval=i//4)

     timeout = 3
     try:
         conn = None
         is_active = True
         while is_active:
             # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
             # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
             # fd is a file descriptor.
             # sock and conn[=returned value of socket.accept()] are socket objects, not file descriptors.
             # So use sock.fileno() and conn.fileno() to get the file descriptors.
             events = ep.poll(timeout)

             # If more than one timer file descriptors are ready for reading at once,
             # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
             #
             # In this example settings,
             #    1st timer fires every 0.25 seconds in 0.25 seconds. (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, ...)
             #    2nd timer every 0.5 seconds in 0.5 seconds. (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, ...)
             #    3rd timer every 0.75 seconds in 0.75 seconds. (0.75, 1.5, 2.25, 3.0, ...)
             #
             #    In 0.25 seconds, only 1st timer fires.
             #    In 0.5 seconds, 1st timer and 2nd timer fires at once.
             #    In 0.75 seconds, 1st timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
             #    In 1.5 seconds, 1st timer, 2nd timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
             #
             # If a timer file descriptor is signaled more than once since
             # the last os.read() call, os.read() returns the number of signaled
             # as host order of class bytes.
             print(f"Signaled events={events}")
             for fd, event in events:
                 if event & select.EPOLLIN:
                     if fd == sock.fileno():
                         # Check if there is a connection request.
                         print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                         conn, addr = sock.accept()
                         conn.setblocking(False)
                         print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                         ep.register(conn, select.EPOLLIN)
                     elif conn and fd == conn.fileno():
                         # Check if there is data to read.
                         print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                         data = conn.recv(1024)
                         if data:
                             # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                             cmd = data.decode()
                             if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                                 print(f"Stopping server")
                                 is_active = False
                             else:
                                 print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                         else:
                             # No more data, close connection
                             print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                             ep.unregister(conn)
                             conn.close()
                             conn = None
                     elif fd in fds:
                         print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                         count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                         print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                     else:
                         print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
     finally:
         for fd in fds:
             ep.unregister(fd)
             os.close(fd)
         ep.close()

This example shows how *note select(): d9c. can be used with timer file
descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

     import os, time, select, socket, sys

     # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
     #
     # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
     # Trying 127.0.0.1...
     # Connected to 127.0.0.1.
     # Escape character is '^]'.
     # stop
     # Connection closed by foreign host.
     #
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sock.listen(1)

     # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
     num = 3
     fds = [os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
            for _ in range(num)]
     select_fds = fds + [sock]

     # Start the timers with os.timerfd_settime() in seconds.
     # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
     for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
        os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=i/4, interval=i/4)

     timeout = 3
     try:
         conn = None
         is_active = True
         while is_active:
            # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
            # select.select() returns a list of file descriptors or objects.
            rfd, wfd, xfd = select.select(select_fds, select_fds, select_fds, timeout)
            for fd in rfd:
                if fd == sock:
                    # Check if there is a connection request.
                    print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                    conn, addr = sock.accept()
                    conn.setblocking(False)
                    print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                    select_fds.append(conn)
                elif conn and fd == conn:
                    # Check if there is data to read.
                    print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                    data = conn.recv(1024)
                    if data:
                        # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                        cmd = data.decode()
                        if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                            print(f"Stopping server")
                            is_active = False
                        else:
                            print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                    else:
                        # No more data, close connection
                        print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                        select_fds.remove(conn)
                        conn.close()
                        conn = None
                elif fd in fds:
                    print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                    count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                    print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                else:
                    print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
     finally:
         for fd in fds:
            os.close(fd)
         sock.close()
         sock = None


File: python.info,  Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Python experimental support for free threading,  Prev: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.21 The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
===========================================

     참고: This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to the
     official documentation.  The Method Resolution Order discussed here
     was 'introduced' in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later
     versions – including Python 3.

By Michele Simionato(1).


Abstract: 'This document is intended for Python programmers who want to
understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3.  Although
it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked
out examples.  I am not aware of other publicly available documents with
the same scope, therefore it should be useful.'

Disclaimer:

     'I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under
     the Python 2.3 license.  As usual in these circumstances, I warn
     the reader that what follows' should 'be correct, but I don’t give
     any warranty.  Use it at your own risk and peril!'

Acknowledgments:

     'All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their
     support.  Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made
     me to add the part on local precedence ordering.  David Goodger for
     help with the formatting in reStructuredText.  David Mertz for help
     with the editing.  Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically
     added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.'

* Menu:

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Examples: Examples<3>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/


File: python.info,  Node: The beginning,  Next: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.1 The beginning
--------------------

     'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas' – Virgilius

Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python
development mailing list (1).  In his post, Samuele showed that the
Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to
replace it with the C3 method resolution order.  Guido agreed with his
arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3.  The C3 method itself
has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working
on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers (2).  The
present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3
algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the
change.

First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies
to the 'new style classes' introduced in Python 2.2: 'classic classes'
maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to
right.  Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes;
and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2
new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution
order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare
that no real breaking of code is expected.  Therefore:

     'Don’t be scared!'

Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you
have non-trivial hierarchies, you don’t need to understand the C3
algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper.  On the other hand, if
you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper
is for you.  The good news is that things are not as complicated as you
might expect.

Let me begin with some basic definitions.

  1. Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it
     is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are
     overridden, i.e.  to specify the order of the ancestors of C.

  2. The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself,
     ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the
     class precedence list or the 'linearization' of C.

  3. The 'Method Resolution Order' (MRO) is the set of rules that
     construct the linearization.  In the Python literature, the idiom
     “the MRO of C” is also used as a synonymous for the linearization
     of the class C.

  4. For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is
     a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the
     linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2].  However, with
     multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the
     linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to
     construct a linearization that respects 'local precedence ordering'
     and 'monotonicity'.

  5. I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give
     the definition of monotonicity here.  A MRO is monotonic when the
     following is true: 'if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C,
     then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C'.
     Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could
     change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing
     very subtle bugs.  Examples where this happens will be shown later.

  6. Not all classes admit a linearization.  There are cases, in
     complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class
     such that its linearization respects all the desired properties.

Here I give an example of this situation.  Consider the hierarchy

     >>> O = object
     >>> class X(O): pass
     >>> class Y(O): pass
     >>> class A(X,Y): pass
     >>> class B(Y,X): pass

which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I
have denoted with O the ‘object’ class, which is the beginning of any
hierarchy for new style classes:

           -----------
          |           |
          |    O      |
          |  /   \    |
           - X    Y  /
             |  / | /
             | /  |/
             A    B
             \   /
               ?

In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B,
since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method
resolution order would be ambiguous in C.

Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO
conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating
ambiguous hierarchies.  Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception,
but chooses an 'ad hoc' ordering (CABXYO in this case).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni:
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’

   (2) The paper 'A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan':
‘https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343’


File: python.info,  Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Examples<3>,  Prev: The beginning,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.2 The C3 Method Resolution Order
-------------------------------------

Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the
following discussion.  I will use the shortcut notation:

     C1 C2 ... CN

to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, … , CN].

The 'head' of the list is its first element:

     head = C1

whereas the 'tail' is the rest of the list:

     tail = C2 ... CN.

I shall also use the notation:

     C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN

to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, … ,CN].

Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3.

Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C
inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, … , BN. We want to compute the
linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following:

     'the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the
     linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.'

In symbolic notation:

     L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN)

In particular, if C is the ‘object’ class, which has no parents, the
linearization is trivial:

     L[object] = object.

However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the
following prescription:

     'take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not
     in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the
     linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge,
     otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a
     good head.  Then repeat the operation until all the class are
     removed or it is impossible to find good heads.  In this case, it
     is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to
     create the class C and will raise an exception.'

This prescription ensures that the merge operation 'preserves' the
ordering, if the ordering can be preserved.  On the other hand, if the
order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order
disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed.

The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single
inheritance); in this case:

     L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B]

However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome
and I don’t expect you can understand the rule without a couple of
examples ;-)


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<3>,  Next: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Prev: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.3 Examples
---------------

First example.  Consider the following hierarchy:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(D,E): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as:

                                    6
                                   ---
          Level 3                 | O |                  (more general)
                                /  ---  \
                               /    |    \                      |
                              /     |     \                     |
                             /      |      \                    |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
          Level 2        3 | D | 4| E |  | F | 5                |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
                             \  \ _ /       |                   |
                              \    / \ _    |                   |
                               \  /      \  |                   |
                                ---      ---                    |
          Level 1            1 | B |    | C | 2                 |
                                ---      ---                    |
                                  \      /                      |
                                   \    /                      \ /
                                     ---
          Level 0                 0 | A |                (more specialized)
                                     ---

The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial:

     L[O] = O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[F] = F O

The linearization of B can be computed as:

     L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE)

We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to
compute ‘merge(O,EO,E)’.  Now O is not a good head, since it is in the
tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip
to the next sequence.  Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and
we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,O)’ which gives O. Therefore:

     L[B] =  B D E O

Using the same procedure one finds:

     L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF)
          = C + D + merge(O,FO,F)
          = C + D + F + merge(O,O)
          = C D F O

Now we can compute:

     L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
          = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
          = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO)
          = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O)
          = A B C D E F O

In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way
according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e.
more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance
graph).  However, this is not the general case.

I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for
my second example:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(E,D): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) –>
B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the
ordering of the hierarchy:

                                     6
                                    ---
          Level 3                  | O |
                                 /  ---  \
                                /    |    \
                               /     |     \
                              /      |      \
                            ---     ---    ---
          Level 2        2 | E | 4 | D |  | F | 5
                            ---     ---    ---
                             \      / \     /
                              \    /   \   /
                               \  /     \ /
                                ---     ---
          Level 1            1 | B |   | C | 3
                                ---     ---
                                 \       /
                                  \     /
                                    ---
          Level 0                0 | A |
                                    ---

Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy,
precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e.
E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.

A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in
this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization.  It is enough
to invoke the *note mro(): 1f33. method of class A:

     >>> A.mro()
     [<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
     <class 'C'>, <class 'D'>, <class 'F'>,
     <class 'object'>]

Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section,
involving a serious order disagreement.  In this case, it is
straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B:

          L[O] = 0
          L[X] = X O
          L[Y] = Y O
          L[A] = A X Y O
          L[B] = B Y X O

However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C
that inherits from A and B:

     L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB)
          = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B)
          = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO)

At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the
tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good
heads and the C3 algorithm stops.  Python 2.3 raises an error and
refuses to create the class C.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Next: The end,  Prev: Examples<3>,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.4 Bad Method Resolution Orders
-----------------------------------

A MRO is 'bad' when it breaks such fundamental properties as local
precedence ordering and monotonicity.  In this section, I will show that
both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in
Python 2.2 are bad.

It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering.  Consider the
following example:

     >>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'})
     >>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'})
     >>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error!

with inheritance diagram

                       O
                       |
          (buy spam)   F
                       | \
                       | E   (buy eggs)
                       | /
                       G

                (buy eggs or spam ?)

We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F 'before' E: therefore
we would expect the attribute 'G.remember2buy' to be inherited by
'F.remember2buy' and not by 'E.remember2buy': nevertheless Python 2.2
gives

     >>> G.remember2buy
     'eggs'

This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the
local precedence list, i.e.  the list of the parents of G, is not
preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G:

     L[G,P22]= G E F object   # F *follows* E

One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2
linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the
superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering
is quite non-intuitive and error prone.  This is particularly true since
it is a different from old style classes:

     >>> class F: remember2buy='spam'
     >>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs'
     >>> class G(F,E): pass
     >>> G.remember2buy
     'spam'

In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is
preserved.

As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be
avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa.
Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation
of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating
ambiguous hierarchies.  The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm
fails when the merge:

     merge(FO,EFO,FE)

cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail
of FE.

The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e.  to
derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in
this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt.

                     O
                     |
                     F (spam)
                   / |
          (eggs)   E |
                   \ |
                     G
                       (eggs, no doubt)

Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at
least, less error-prone ones).

On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is
smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of
classes in the list of parents:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class C(A,A): pass # error
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     TypeError: duplicate base class A

Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this
situation, would not raise any exception.

Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this
example:

  1. despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of
     attributes, not only of methods;

  2. the default food for Pythonistas is spam !  (but you already knew
     that ;-)

Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now
consider the issue of monotonicity.  My goal is to show that neither the
MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is
monotonic.

To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather
trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram:

             C
            / \
           /   \
          A     B
           \   /
            \ /
             D

One easily discerns the inconsistency:

     L[B,P21] = B C        # B precedes C : B's methods win
     L[D,P21] = D A C B C  # B follows C  : C's methods win!

On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3
MROs, they give both:

     L[D] = D A B C

Guido points out in his essay (1) that the classic MRO is not so bad in
practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes.
But all new style classes inherit from ‘object’, therefore diamonds are
unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance
graph.

The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not
impossible.  The following example, originally provided by Samuele
Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class B(object): pass
     >>> class C(object): pass
     >>> class D(object): pass
     >>> class E(object): pass
     >>> class K1(A,B,C): pass
     >>> class K2(D,B,E): pass
     >>> class K3(D,A):   pass
     >>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should
verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance
diagram ;-)

     L[A] = A O
     L[B] = B O
     L[C] = C O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[K1]= K1 A B C O
     L[K2]= K2 D B E O
     L[K3]= K3 D A O
     L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O

Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1,
K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z:

     L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O

It is clear that this linearization is 'wrong', since A comes before D
whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes 'after' D. In other words, in
K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which
still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived
by D! This is a violation of monotonicity.  Moreover, the Python 2.2
linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering,
since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2
precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 'follows' K3.  These
problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3
rule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Guido van Rossum’s essay, 'Unifying types and classes in Python
2.2':
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro’


File: python.info,  Node: The end,  Next: Resources,  Prev: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.5 The end
--------------

This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous
sections and jumped immediately to the end.  This section is for the
lazy programmer too, who didn’t want to exercise her/his brain.
Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would
not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple
inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and
'not' separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2
script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your
brain.  Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I
have discussed in this paper.:

     #<mro.py>

     """C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me)."""

     class __metaclass__(type):
         "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed"
         __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__

     class ex_2:
         "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido
         class O: pass
         class X(O): pass
         class Y(O): pass
         class A(X,Y): pass
         class B(Y,X): pass
         try:
             class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2
         except TypeError:
             pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3

     class ex_5:
         "My first example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(D,E): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_6:
         "My second example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(E,D): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_9:
         "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele
         class O: pass
         class A(O): pass
         class B(O): pass
         class C(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class K1(A,B,C): pass
         class K2(D,B,E): pass
         class K3(D,A): pass
         class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

     def merge(seqs):
         print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs),
         res = []; i=0
         while 1:
           nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq]
           if not nonemptyseqs: return res
           i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...',
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads
               cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand,
               nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]]
               if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate
               else: break
           if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy"
           res.append(cand)
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand
               if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0]

     def mro(C):
         "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3"
         return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)])

     def print_mro(C):
         print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C))
         print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro())

     print_mro(ex_9.Z)

     #</mro.py>

That’s all folks,

     enjoy !


File: python.info,  Node: Resources,  Prev: The end,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.6 Resources
----------------


File: python.info,  Node: Python experimental support for free threading,  Next: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Prev: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.22 Python experimental support for free threading
===================================================

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for a
build of Python called *note free threading: 152a. where the *note
global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) is disabled.  Free-threaded
execution allows for full utilization of the available processing power
by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.  While not all
software will benefit from this automatically, programs designed with
threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.

'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve
it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.

This document describes the implications of free threading for Python
code.  See *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 509f. for
information on how to write C extensions that support the free-threaded
build.

더 보기
.......

PEP 703(1) – Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython for
an overall description of free-threaded Python.

* Menu:

* Installation::
* Identifying free-threaded Python::
* The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python::
* Thread safety::
* Known limitations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Installation,  Next: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.22.1 Installation
-------------------

Starting with Python 3.13, the official macOS and Windows installers
optionally support installing free-threaded Python binaries.  The
installers are available at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.

For information on other platforms, see the Installing a Free-Threaded
Python(1), a community-maintained installation guide for installing
free-threaded Python.

When building CPython from source, the *note -disable-gil: 174.
configure option should be used to build a free-threaded Python
interpreter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/installing-cpython/


File: python.info,  Node: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Next: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Prev: Installation,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.22.2 Identifying free-threaded Python
---------------------------------------

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note
python -VV: 177. and *note sys.version: 178. contain “experimental
free-threading build”.  The new *note sys._is_gil_enabled(): 438b.
function can be used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in
the running process.

The ‘sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ configuration variable
can be used to determine whether the build supports free threading.  If
the variable is set to ‘1’, then the build supports free threading.
This is the recommended mechanism for decisions related to the build
configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Next: Thread safety,  Prev: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.22.3 The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python
----------------------------------------------------------

Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 175.
or the command-line option *note -X gil: 176.

The GIL may also automatically be enabled when importing a C-API
extension module that is not explicitly marked as supporting free
threading.  A warning will be printed in this case.

In addition to individual package documentation, the following websites
track the status of popular packages support for free threading:

   * ‘https://py-free-threading.github.io/tracking/’

   * ‘https://hugovk.github.io/free-threaded-wheels/’


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety,  Next: Known limitations,  Prev: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.22.4 Thread safety
--------------------

The free-threaded build of CPython aims to provide similar thread-safety
behavior at the Python level to the default GIL-enabled build.  Built-in
types like *note dict: 256, *note list: 60b, and *note set: 5d3. use
internal locks to protect against concurrent modifications in ways that
behave similarly to the GIL. However, Python has not historically
guaranteed specific behavior for concurrent modifications to these
built-in types, so this should be treated as a description of the
current implementation, not a guarantee of current or future behavior.

     참고: It’s recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 167e. or
     other synchronization primitives instead of relying on the internal
     locks of built-in types, when possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Known limitations,  Prev: Thread safety,  Up: Python experimental support for free threading

9.22.5 Known limitations
------------------------

This section describes known limitations of the free-threaded CPython
build.

* Menu:

* Immortalization::
* Frame objects::
* Iterators::
* Single-threaded performance::


File: python.info,  Node: Immortalization,  Next: Frame objects,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.1 Immortalization
........................

The free-threaded build of the 3.13 release makes some objects *note
immortal: 437c.  Immortal objects are not deallocated and have reference
counts that are never modified.  This is done to avoid reference count
contention that would prevent efficient multi-threaded scaling.

An object will be made immortal when a new thread is started for the
first time after the main thread is running.  The following objects are
immortalized:

   * *note function: 299. objects declared at the module level

   * *note method: 1cc6. descriptors

   * *note code: 1d2. objects

   * *note module: 1666. objects and their dictionaries

   * *note classes: 1f16. (type objects)

Because immortal objects are never deallocated, applications that create
many objects of these types may see increased memory usage.  This is
expected to be addressed in the 3.14 release.

Additionally, numeric and string literals in the code as well as strings
returned by *note sys.intern(): 12cb. are also immortalized.  This
behavior is expected to remain in the 3.14 free-threaded build.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame objects,  Next: Iterators,  Prev: Immortalization,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.2 Frame objects
......................

It is not safe to access *note frame: 6d9. objects from other threads
and doing so may cause your program to crash .  This means that *note
sys._current_frames(): 13fb. is generally not safe to use in a
free-threaded build.  Functions like *note inspect.currentframe(): 6db.
and *note sys._getframe(): 6da. are generally safe as long as the
resulting frame object is not passed to another thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterators,  Next: Single-threaded performance,  Prev: Frame objects,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.3 Iterators
..................

Sharing the same iterator object between multiple threads is generally
not safe and threads may see duplicate or missing elements when
iterating or crash the interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Single-threaded performance,  Prev: Iterators,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.4 Single-threaded performance
....................................

The free-threaded build has additional overhead when executing Python
code compared to the default GIL-enabled build.  In 3.13, this overhead
is about 40% on the pyperformance(1) suite.  Programs that spend most of
their time in C extensions or I/O will see less of an impact.  The
largest impact is because the specializing adaptive interpreter ( PEP
659(2)) is disabled in the free-threaded build.  We expect to re-enable
it in a thread-safe way in the 3.14 release.  This overhead is expected
to be reduced in upcoming Python release.  We are aiming for an overhead
of 10% or less on the pyperformance suite compared to the default
GIL-enabled build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/


File: python.info,  Node: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Prev: Python experimental support for free threading,  Up: 파이썬 HOWTO

9.23 C API Extension Support for Free Threading
===============================================

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for
running with the *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) disabled in a
configuration called *note free threading: 152a.  This document
describes how to adapt C API extensions to support free threading.

* Menu:

* Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C::
* Module Initialization::
* General API Guidelines::
* Borrowed References::
* Memory Allocation APIs::
* Thread State and GIL APIs::
* Protecting Internal Extension State::
* Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::


File: python.info,  Node: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C,  Next: Module Initialization,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.1 Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C
-----------------------------------------------

The CPython C API exposes the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro: in the
free-threaded build it’s defined to ‘1’, and in the regular build it’s
not defined.  You can use it to enable code that only runs under the
free-threaded build:

     #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
     /* code that only runs in the free-threaded build */
     #endif

     참고: On Windows, this macro is not defined automatically, but must
     be specified to the compiler when building.  The *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1021. function can be used to determine
     whether the current running interpreter had the macro defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Initialization,  Next: General API Guidelines,  Prev: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.2 Module Initialization
----------------------------

Extension modules need to explicitly indicate that they support running
with the GIL disabled; otherwise importing the extension will raise a
warning and enable the GIL at runtime.

There are two ways to indicate that an extension module supports running
with the GIL disabled depending on whether the extension uses
multi-phase or single-phase initialization.

* Menu:

* Multi-Phase Initialization::
* Single-Phase Initialization::


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization,  Next: Single-Phase Initialization,  Up: Module Initialization

9.23.2.1 Multi-Phase Initialization
...................................

Extensions that use multi-phase initialization (i.e., *note
PyModuleDef_Init(): 48c0.) should add a *note Py_mod_gil: 158. slot in
the module definition.  If your extension supports older versions of
CPython, you should guard the slot with a *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 750.
check.

     static struct PyModuleDef_Slot module_slots[] = {
         ...
     #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030D0000
         {Py_mod_gil, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED},
     #endif
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_slots = module_slots,
         ...
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Single-Phase Initialization,  Prev: Multi-Phase Initialization,  Up: Module Initialization

9.23.2.2 Single-Phase Initialization
....................................

Extensions that use single-phase initialization (i.e., *note
PyModule_Create(): 4d10.) should call *note PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL():
179. to indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled.  The
function is only defined in the free-threaded build, so you should guard
the call with ‘#ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED’ to avoid compilation errors in
the regular build.

     static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         ...
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_mymodule(void)
     {
         PyObject *m = PyModule_Create(&moduledef);
         if (m == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
     #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
         PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(m, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED);
     #endif
         return m;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: General API Guidelines,  Next: Borrowed References,  Prev: Module Initialization,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.3 General API Guidelines
-----------------------------

Most of the C API is thread-safe, but there are some exceptions.

   * 'Struct Fields': Accessing fields in Python C API objects or
     structs directly is not thread-safe if the field may be
     concurrently modified.

   * 'Macros': Accessor macros like *note PyList_GET_ITEM: 4960. and
     *note PyList_SET_ITEM: 387. do not perform any error checking or
     locking.  These macros are not thread-safe if the container object
     may be modified concurrently.

   * 'Borrowed References': C API functions that return *note borrowed
     references: 337. may not be thread-safe if the containing object is
     modified concurrently.  See the section on *note borrowed
     references: 50b0. for more information.

* Menu:

* Container Thread Safety::


File: python.info,  Node: Container Thread Safety,  Up: General API Guidelines

9.23.3.1 Container Thread Safety
................................

Containers like *note PyListObject: 4bbd, *note PyDictObject: 3bb, and
*note PySetObject: 4caa. perform internal locking in the free-threaded
build.  For example, the *note PyList_Append(): 4a17. will lock the list
before appending an item.

* Menu:

* PyDict_Next::


File: python.info,  Node: PyDict_Next,  Up: Container Thread Safety

9.23.3.2 ‘PyDict_Next’
......................

A notable exception is *note PyDict_Next(): 1619, which does not lock
the dictionary.  You should use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 4ca2.
to protect the dictionary while iterating over it if the dictionary may
be concurrently modified:

     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(dict);
     PyObject *key, *value;
     Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
     while (PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();


File: python.info,  Node: Borrowed References,  Next: Memory Allocation APIs,  Prev: General API Guidelines,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.4 Borrowed References
--------------------------

Some C API functions return *note borrowed references: 337.  These APIs
are not thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently.
For example, it’s not safe to use *note PyList_GetItem(): 355. if the
list may be modified concurrently.

The following table lists some borrowed reference APIs and their
replacements that return *note strong references: 336.

Borrowed reference API                  Strong reference API
                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
*note PyList_GetItem(): 355.            *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 354.
                                        
                                        
*note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 4960.          *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 354.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItem(): 380.            *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 335.   *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 333.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItemString(): 381.      *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 334.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_SetDefault(): 339.         *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 338.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_Next(): 1619.              none (see *note PyDict_Next: 50b3.)
                                        
                                        
*note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372.       *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371.
                                        
                                        
*note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3b9.      *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371.
                                        
                                        
*note PyImport_AddModule(): 352.        *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 351.
                                        

Not all APIs that return borrowed references are problematic.  For
example, *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d5. is safe because tuples are
immutable.  Similarly, not all uses of the above APIs are problematic.
For example, *note PyDict_GetItem(): 380. is often used for parsing
keyword argument dictionaries in function calls; those keyword argument
dictionaries are effectively private (not accessible by other threads),
so using borrowed references in that context is safe.

Some of these functions were added in Python 3.13.  You can use the
pythoncapi-compat(1) package to provide implementations of these
functions for older Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Allocation APIs,  Next: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Prev: Borrowed References,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.5 Memory Allocation APIs
-----------------------------

Python’s memory management C API provides functions in three different
*note allocation domains: 4e25.: “raw”, “mem”, and “object”.  For
thread-safety, the free-threaded build requires that only Python objects
are allocated using the object domain, and that all Python object are
allocated using that domain.  This differs from the prior Python
versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard
requirement.

     참고: Search for uses of *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65. in your
     extension and check that the allocated memory is used for Python
     objects.  Use *note PyMem_Malloc(): c62. to allocate buffers
     instead of *note PyObject_Malloc(): c65.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Next: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Prev: Memory Allocation APIs,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.6 Thread State and GIL APIs
--------------------------------

Python provides a set of functions and macros to manage thread state and
the GIL, such as:

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5. and *note PyGILState_Release():
     3a6.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread():
     3a3.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS:
     a8b.

These functions should still be used in the free-threaded build to
manage thread state even when the *note GIL: 159. is disabled.  For
example, if you create a thread outside of Python, you must call *note
PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a5. before calling into the Python API to ensure
that the thread has a valid Python thread state.

You should continue to call *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a2. or *note
Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48db. around blocking operations, such as I/O or
lock acquisitions, to allow other threads to run the *note cyclic
garbage collector: 1920.


File: python.info,  Node: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Next: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build,  Prev: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.7 Protecting Internal Extension State
------------------------------------------

Your extension may have internal state that was previously protected by
the GIL. You may need to add locking to protect this state.  The
approach will depend on your extension, but some common patterns
include:

   * 'Caches': global caches are a common source of shared state.
     Consider using a lock to protect the cache or disabling it in the
     free-threaded build if the cache is not critical for performance.

   * 'Global State': global state may need to be protected by a lock or
     moved to thread local storage.  C11 and C++11 provide the
     ‘thread_local’ or ‘_Thread_local’ for thread-local storage(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/language/storage_duration


File: python.info,  Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build,  Prev: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.8 Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build
------------------------------------------------------

C API extensions need to be built specifically for the free-threaded
build.  The wheels, shared libraries, and binaries are indicated by a
‘t’ suffix.

   * pypa/manylinux(1) supports the free-threaded build, with the ‘t’
     suffix, such as ‘python3.13t’.

   * pypa/cibuildwheel(2) supports the free-threaded build if you set
     CIBW_ENABLE to cpython-freethreading(3).

* Menu:

* Limited C API and Stable ABI::
* Windows: Windows<79>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pypa/manylinux

   (2) https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel

   (3) https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#enable


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI,  Next: Windows<79>,  Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

9.23.8.1 Limited C API and Stable ABI
.....................................

The free-threaded build does not currently support the *note Limited C
API: 38f. or the stable ABI. If you use setuptools(1) to build your
extension and currently set ‘py_limited_api=True’ you can use
‘py_limited_api=not sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ to opt
out of the limited API when building with the free-threaded build.

     참고: You will need to build separate wheels specifically for the
     free-threaded build.  If you currently use the stable ABI, you can
     continue to build a single wheel for multiple non-free-threaded
     Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<79>,  Prev: Limited C API and Stable ABI,  Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

9.23.8.2 Windows
................

Due to a limitation of the official Windows installer, you will need to
manually define ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED=1’ when building extensions from
source.

더 보기
.......

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(1): A
community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

General:

   * *note A Conceptual Overview of asyncio: 329c.

   * *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.

   * *note Argparse 자습서: 2e77.

   * *note Descriptor Guide: 14b4.

   * *note Enum HOWTO: 4f43.

   * *note 함수형 프로그래밍 HOWTO: 4f74.

   * *note ipaddress 모듈에 대한 소개: 3c60.

   * *note 로깅 HOWTO: 4f92.

   * *note 로깅 요리책: 11e6.

   * *note 정규식 HOWTO: 22f4.

   * *note 정렬 기법: 2186.

   * *note 유니코드 HOWTO: 1294.

   * *note urllib 패키지를 사용하여 인터넷 리소스를 가져오는 방법: 3a34.

Advanced development:

   * *note 파이썬 curses 프로그래밍: 2f6a.

   * *note Python experimental support for free threading: 509d.

   * *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 509f.

   * *note Isolating Extension Modules: 48c1.

   * *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1470.

   * *note 소켓 프로그래밍 HOWTO: 346f.

   * *note timer file descriptor HOWTO: 5092.

   * *note 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기: 12d1.

Debugging and profiling:

   * *note Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB:
     4f35.

   * *note DTrace와 SystemTap으로 CPython 계측하기: c69.

   * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들,  Next: Deprecations,  Prev: 파이썬 HOWTO,  Up: Top

10 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들
****************************

* Menu:

* 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ::
* 프로그래밍 FAQ::
* 설계와 역사 FAQ::
* 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ::
* 확장/내장 FAQ::
* 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ::
* 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ::
* “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ::


File: python.info,  Node: 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ,  Next: 프로그래밍 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.1 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ
========================

* Menu:

* 일반적인 정보::
* 현실 속의 파이썬::


File: python.info,  Node: 일반적인 정보,  Next: 현실 속의 파이썬,  Up: 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ

10.1.1 일반적인 정보
--------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬이 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬을 사용할 때 저작권 관련 제한이 있습니까?::
* 파이썬은 애초에 왜 만들어졌습니까?::
* 파이썬의 강점은 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬 소스를 어떻게 얻을 수 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?::
* 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다. 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?.
* 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?::
* 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?::
* 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 관련 책이 있습니까?::
* 도대체 www.python.org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?.
* 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?::
* “몬티 파이튼의 플라잉 서커스”를 좋아해야합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이 무엇입니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.1 파이썬이 무엇입니까?
.............................

파이썬은 인터프리터 방식의, 해석되고 상호작용이 가능한, 객체 지향적 프로
그래밍 언어입니다.  모듈, 예외, 동적 타이핑, 굉장히 높은 수준의 동적 데
이터 타입, 그리고 클래스를 내포하고 있습니다.  절차적이나 함수형 프로그
래밍과 같은 객체 지향 프로그래밍 이외의 여러 프로그래밍 패러다임을 지원
합니다.  파이썬은 굉장히 깔끔한 구문으로 놀랄만한 힘을 결합합니다.  이 언
어는 다양한 시스템 호출과 라이브러리 뿐만 아니라 다양한 윈도우 시스템 관
련 인터페이스를 갖고 있으며, C 언어와 C++ 언어로 확장이 가능합니다.  또
한 프로그래밍 인터페이스가 필요한 애플리케이션의 확장 언어로도 사용할 수
있습니다.  마지막으로, 파이썬은 리눅스와 macOS를 포함하는 많은 유닉스 변
종과 윈도우에서 돌아가는 포터블 언어입니다.

추가 정보는 *note 파이썬 자습서: 1be1.에 있습니다.  파이썬 초보자 가이드
(1)에서 다른 기초 자습서와 파이썬을 배우기 위한 자료들을 볼 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


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10.1.1.2 파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이 무엇입니까?
.............................................

파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이란 파이썬 2.1과 그 윗 버전의 저작권을 소유하고 있
는 독립적이고 비영리적인 단체입니다.  이 재단의 사명은 파이썬의 사용을 대
중화 시키고 파이썬 관련 오픈소스 기술을 발전시키는 것입니다.  파이썬 소
프트웨어 재단의 홈페이지: ‘https://www.python.org/psf/’.

파이썬 소프트웨어 재단으로의 기부는 미국에서 세액공제 적용 대상입니다.  파
이썬을 사용하고 도움이 된다고 생각한다면 PSF 기부 페이지(1)를 통해 기여
해 주십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/psf/donations/


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10.1.1.3 파이썬을 사용할 때 저작권 관련 제한이 있습니까?
........................................................

본인이 생성한 파이썬에 대해 저작권을 명시하고, 이와 관련된 정보를 어떠한
형태로든 설명서에 표시하면 본인의 소스로 무엇이든 할 수 있습니다.  저작
권 관련 규칙을 따르면 파이썬을 상업 목적으로 사용해도 괜찮으며, 소스코드
나 (수정된 또는 수정되지 않은) 이진형태의 파이썬을 팔거나, 파이썬을 내장
하는 상품을 팔아도 괜찮습니다.  그럼에도 저희는 파이썬이 사용된 모든 상
업 활동을 알고 싶습니다.

PSF 라이선스에 관한 구체적인 설명과 원본은 라이선스 페이지(1)에서 확인할
수 있습니다.

파이썬 로고는 상표로 등록되어 있으며, 일부 경우에는 사용하기 위한 허가가
필요합니다.  더 많은 정보를 원하시면 상표 사용 정책(2)을 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3/license.html

   (2) https://www.python.org/psf/trademakrs/


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10.1.1.4 파이썬은 애초에 왜 만들어졌습니까?
...........................................

여기 Guido van Rossum 씨가 작성한 '굉장히' 요약된 파이썬의 탄생 계기입니
다:

     저는 CWI(Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica)의 ABC 그룹에서 인터프리터
     언어를 도입하며 광범위한 경험을 해봤고, 그 그룹과 일하며 언어의 디
     자인에 대해 많은 것을 배웠습니다.  들여쓰기로 문단 묶기나 매우-상위
     -레벨 자료형을 포함한 것과 같은 파이썬의 다양한 기능들이 이 당시 경
     험을 바탕으로 만들어졌습니다.

     ABC 언어에 있어서 저는 불만도 있었지만, 마음에 드는 기능도 많았습니
     다.  ABC 언어(그리고 언어의 이행과정)는 제 불만을 극복할 만큼 확장
     할 방법이 없었죠.  –사실 확장성이 떨어지는 것이 이 언어의 가장 큰 문
     제점 중 하나였습니다.  저는 Modula-2+를 사용하는데 약간의 경험이 있
     었고 Modula-3의 디자이너 분들과 대화도 나눠보았으며 Modula-3 관련 레
     포트도 읽어본 상태였습니다.  Modula-3은 예외에서 쓰인 문법과 의미론
     을 비롯한 일부 파이썬 기능들의 기원입니다.

     저는 CWI에서 Amoeba 분산 운영체제 그룹에 속해 일하고 있었습니다.
     Amoeba는 Bourne 셸로는 쉽게 접근하지 못하는 고유의 시스템 호출 인터
     페이스를 내장하고 있었기 때문에 저희는 C 프로그램이나 Bourne 셸 스
     크립트를 작성하는 것이 아닌 더 좋은 시스템 관리 방법이 필요했습니다
     .  Amoeba에서 에러 처리를 해본 경험 덕분에 저는 프로그래밍 언어의 기
     능에 있어서 예외의 중요성을 인지하고 있었습니다.

     ABC의 문법을 지키면서 Amoeba 시스템 호출에 접근 가능한 스크립트 언
     어가 필요하다는 것을 깨달았죠.  Amoeba 특유의 언어를 만드는 건 어리
     석은 행동이라고 느껴서 대체로 확장 가능한 언어가 필요한 상황이라고
     판단했습니다.

     1989년 크리스마스 연휴에 저는 많은 시간이 있었고, 그 참에 도전해보
     기로 했습니다.  다음 해에도 제 개인적인 시간을 투자하며 언어를 완성
     시켜 가는 와중에 Python은 Amoeba 프로젝트에서 날이 갈수록 성공적으
     로 사용되고 있었습니다.  그리고 제 동료들의 피드백을 통해 저는 초기
     개선사항들을 추가할 수 있었죠.

     1991년 2월, 1년이 조금 넘는 개발 기간 후, 저는 USENET에 올리기로 했
     습니다.  나머지는 ‘Misc/HSTORY’ 파일에 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬의 강점은 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬은 애초에 왜 만들어졌습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.5 파이썬의 강점은 무엇입니까?
....................................

파이썬은 다양한 상황에 적용 가능한, 범용성 있는 고급언어입니다.

언어와 함께 오는 표준 라이브러리는 문자열 처리 (정규 표현식, 유니코드, 파
일 간의 차이 계산), 인터넷 프로토콜 (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, POP,
IMAP), 소프트웨어 공학 (유닛 테스트, 로깅, 프로파일링, 파이썬 코드 파싱
), 그리고 운영체제 인터페이스 (시스템콜, 파일 시스템, TCP/IP 소켓) 등 넓
은 영역을 아우릅니다.  구체적인 목차를 보고싶다면 *note 파이썬 표준
라이브러리: 144.을 확인하십시오.  다양한 제삼자 확장도 가능합니다.  파이
썬 패키지 인덱스(1)에서 당신이 필요한 패키지를 찾을 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


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10.1.1.6 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?
............................................

Python versions are numbered “A.B.C” or “A.B”:

   * 'A' is the major version number – it is only incremented for really
     major changes in the language.

   * 'B' is the minor version number – it is incremented for less
     earth-shattering changes.

   * 'C' is the micro version number – it is incremented for each bugfix
     release.

모든 배포판이 버그 수정 배포판은 아닙니다.  새로운 기능 배포판을 만드는
과정에서 알파, 베타, 또는 배포판 후보라 불리는 개발 배포판이 만들어집니
다.  알파버전은 이른 배포판으로, 인터페이스들이 확정되지 않은 배포이므로
두 알파버전 사이에 인터페이스의 변경이 생기곤 합니다.  베타버전은 더 안
정적이며 기존의 인터페이스는 유지하지만 새로운 모듈을 추가할 수 있고, 배
포판 후보들은 치명적인 버그 수정 외에는 변경사항을 포함하지 않습니다.

Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix:

   * The suffix for an alpha version is “aN” for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a beta version is “bN” for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a release candidate version is “rcN” for some small
     number 'N'.

In other words, all versions labeled '2.0aN' precede the versions
labeled '2.0bN', which precede versions labeled '2.0rcN', and 'those'
precede 2.0.

또한 “+” 접미사가 붙은 버전을 마주할 수도 있습니다.  예) “2.2+”.  이는
CPython 개발 저장소에서 바로 빌드된, 배포되지 않은 버전입니다.  실제는 이
버전의 최종 소규모 배포가 이루어질 때 다음 소규모 버전으로 증가하여 “a0”
버전이 됩니다.  예) “2.4a0”.

See the Developer's Guide(1) for more information about the development
cycle, and PEP 387(2) to learn more about Python’s backward
compatibility policy.  See also the documentation for *note sys.version:
178, *note sys.hexversion: 4386, and *note sys.version_info: 69a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


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10.1.1.7 파이썬 소스를 어떻게 얻을 수 있습니까?
...............................................

최신 파이썬 소스는 python.org 또는 ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’ 에
서 항상 구할 수 있고, 최신 개발 소스는
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/’ 에서 구할 수 있습니다.

소스 배포판은 모든 C 언어 코드, 스핑크스 형식의 문서, 파이썬 라이브러리
모듈, 예제 프로그램들, 그리고 일부 유용한 무료 배포 소프트웨어를 포함합
니다.  소스는 대부분의 유닉스 플랫폼에서 추가 설정 없이 컴파일되고 실행
가능합니다.

소스 코드를 받고 컴파일하는 부분에서 추가 정보를 원하시면 파이썬 개발자
가이드의 개요(1)를 참고하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/setup/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?,  Next: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 소스를 어떻게 얻을 수 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.8 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?
............................................

현재 파이썬의 안정화 버전에 관련된 표준 문서는
‘https://docs.python.org/3’/에서 확인할 수 있습니다.  PDF, 텍스트 문서,
그리고 다운로드 가능한 HTML 버전들은
‘https://docs.python.org/3/download.html’ 에서 구할 수 있습니다.

문서는 reStructuredText로 쓰여졌으며 스핑크스 문서화 툴(1)로 프로세스되
어 있습니다.  문서의 reStructuredText 소스는파이썬 배포 소스의 일부입니
다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.9 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다. 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?
..........................................................................

다양한 튜토리얼과 책이 존재합니다.  표준 문서로는 *note 파이썬 자습서:
1be1.가 있습니다.

초보자 가이드(1)에서 튜토리얼 목록과 같은 초보 파이썬 개발자를 위한 정보
를 확인하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?,  Prev: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.10 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?
.................................................................

뉴스 그룹은 ‘comp.lang.python’, 그리고 메일링 리스트는 python-list(1)에
서 확인 할 수 있습니다.  뉴스 그룹과 메일링 리스트는 서로 연동되어 있어
서 뉴스를 읽는다면 메일을 구독할 필요가 없습니다.  ‘comp.lang.python’은
활발하고 하루에도 수백 개의 포스팅이 올라오기 때문에 Usenet 독자들은 이
매체를 통해 더 원활하게 소통할 수 있을 것입니다.

새로운 소프트웨어의 배포와 이벤트에 관련된 공지는 하루 다섯 개 정도의 포
스팅이 올라오는 comp.lang.python.announce 에서 확인할 수 있습니다.  이는
the python-announce mailing list(2)라는 메일링 리스트에서도 얻을 수 있습
니다.

‘https://www.python.org/community/lists/’ 에서 다른 메일링 리스트와 뉴스
그룹에 대한 정보를 확인할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?,  Next: 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.11 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?
....................................................

알파와 베타 배포판은 ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’ 에서 확인할 수
있습니다.  모든 배포는 comp.lang.python 과 comp.lang.python.announce 뉴
스그룹, 그리고 파이썬 홈페이지 ‘https://www.python.org/’ 에서 공지됩니다
.  뉴스의 RSS 피드가 제공됩니다.

Git을 통해 파이썬의 개발 버전을 사용할 수 있습니다.  파이썬 개발자 가이
드(1)를 확인하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?,  Next: 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.12 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?
........................................................

버그 리포트나 패치 제출은 ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’ 의
문제 추적기를 사용하십시오.

파이썬이 어떻게 개발되는지 더 알고 싶으시다면 파이썬 개발자 가이드(1)를
참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬 관련 책이 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.13 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?
......................................................

당신이 가장 좋아하는 파이썬 책을 인용하는 것이 제일 좋을 것 같습니다.

파이썬에 관련된 최초의 기사(1)는 1991년에 작성되어서 이제는 구식입니다.

     Guido van Rossum and Jelke de Boer, “Interactively Testing Remote
     Servers Using the Python Programming Language”, CWI Quearterly,
     Volume 4, Issue 4 (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283–303.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 관련 책이 있습니까?,  Next: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?,  Prev: 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.14 파이썬 관련 책이 있습니까?
....................................

예, 많이 있고 현재 출판되는 책들도 있습니다.  리스트를 원한다면
‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks’ 에서 파이썬 위키를 확인하십시
오.

아니면 온라인 서점에서 “파이썬”을 검색하고 몬티 파이썬 관련 항목을 필터
링해도 괜찮습니다; 검색할 때 “파이썬”과 “언어”를 검색해도 좋습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?,  Next: 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 관련 책이 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.15 도대체 www.python.org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?
.....................................................

파이썬 프로젝트의 기반 시설은 전 세계 각지에 존재하며 Python
Infrastructure Team에 의해 관리되고 있습니다.  추가 정보는 여기(1)있습니
다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://infra.psf.io


File: python.info,  Node: 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?,  Next: “몬티 파이튼의 플라잉 서커스”를 좋아해야합니까?,  Prev: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.16 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?
...........................................

Guido van Rossum 씨가 파이썬을 구현할 당시 그는 1970년대에 BBC에서 방영
된 코미디 시리즈인 "몬티 파이튼의 플라잉 서커스"(1)대본을 읽고 있었습니
다.  판 로쉼은 자신이 만든 언어가 짧고 독창적이면서도 약간 신비한 느낌의
이름이 필요하다고 생각했기에 언어를 파이썬이라고 부르기로 결정했습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/몬티_파이튼


File: python.info,  Node: “몬티 파이튼의 플라잉 서커스”를 좋아해야합니까?,  Prev: 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?,  Up: 일반적인 정보

10.1.1.17 “몬티 파이튼의 플라잉 서커스”를 좋아해야합니까?
.........................................................

아니요, 하지만 도움은 됩니다.  :)


File: python.info,  Node: 현실 속의 파이썬,  Prev: 일반적인 정보,  Up: 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ

10.1.2 현실 속의 파이썬
-----------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?::
* 얼마나 많은 사람이 파이썬을 씁니까?::
* 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?::
* 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?::
* 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?::
* 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?,  Next: 얼마나 많은 사람이 파이썬을 씁니까?,  Up: 현실 속의 파이썬

10.1.2.1 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?
................................................

굉장히 안정적입니다.  새롭고 안정적인 배포판을 1991년부터 대략 6개월에서
18개월 사이에 계속해서 출시하고 있고, 이는 앞으로도 계속될 것 같습니다.
버전 3.9부터, 파이썬은 12개월마다 새로운 기능 배포판을 제공합니다 ( PEP
602(1)).

개발자분들이 옛 버전의 버그 수정 배포판들을 공개하기 때문에 기존에 배포
된 버전의 안정성은 서서히 증가합니다.  버그 수정 배포판은 버전의 세 번쨰
숫자로 표시하며 (예: 3.5.3, 3.6.2), 안정성을 위해 관리됩니다.  버그 수정
배포판은 현재까지 알려진 버그만을 수정하며, 인터페이스는 절대 변하지 않
습니다.

최신 안정적인 배포판은 파이썬 다운로드 페이지(2)에서 확인할 수 있습니다.
파이썬 3.x 가 권장 버전이고 광범위하게 사용되는 대부분의 라이브러리가 지
원합니다.  파이썬 2.x 는 더는 유지 보수되지 않습니다(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/


File: python.info,  Node: 얼마나 많은 사람이 파이썬을 씁니까?,  Next: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?,  Up: 현실 속의 파이썬

10.1.2.2 얼마나 많은 사람이 파이썬을 씁니까?
............................................

아마 수백만의 사용자가 있을 텐데, 정확한 수를 얻기는 힘듭니다.

파이썬은 무료로 다운로드받을 수 있기 때문에 판매액이 없습니다.  그리고 파
이썬은 다양한 사이트에서, 다양한 리눅스 배포판과 패키지로 제공되므로 다
운로드 통계치 역시 모든 것을 알려주지 못합니다.

활발하게 활동하는 comp.lang.python이라는 뉴스그룹이 있지만 모든 파이썬 유
저들이 그곳에 글을 올리지 않으며 심지어 읽는 것도 아닙니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?,  Next: 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?,  Prev: 얼마나 많은 사람이 파이썬을 씁니까?,  Up: 현실 속의 파이썬

10.1.2.3 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?
........................................................

‘https://www.python.org/about/success’ 에서 파이썬을 사용한 프로젝트를 확
인할 수 있습니다.  과거 파이썬 회의들(1)을 통해 파이썬의 성장에 기여한 다
양한 기업들과 단체들을 확인할 수 있습니다.

세간의 이목을 끈 프로젝트로는 Mailman 메일링 리스트 매니저(2)와 Zope 애
플리케이션 서버(3)가 있습니다.  레드햇(4)으로 대표되는 리눅스 배포판들은
시스템 관리 소프트웨어와 설치 프로그램의 일부 또는 전부를 파이썬으로 만
들었습니다.  구글, 야휴, 그리고 루카스필름과 같은 회사들이 사내 개발 환
경에서 파이썬을 사용합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/community/workshops/

   (2) https://www.list.org

   (3) https://www.zope.dev

   (4) https://www.redhat.com


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?,  Next: 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?,  Up: 현실 속의 파이썬

10.1.2.4 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?
.............................................................

‘https://peps.python.org/’ 에서 Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs) 를 확
인하십시오.  PEPs 는 파이썬의 새로운 기능을 제안하는 디자인 문서로, 간결
한 기술 사양과 제안 이유를 적는 곳입니다.  “Python X.Y Release
Schedule”이라고 적힌 PEP를 확인하시면 됩니다.  X.Y 는 아직 배포되지 않은
버전을 의미합니다.

신규 개발요소들은 python-dev 메일링 리스트(1)에서 논의되고 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?,  Next: 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?,  Up: 현실 속의 파이썬

10.1.2.5 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?
.........................................................................

일반적으로, 아니요.  현재 전 세계에 수 없이 많은 파이썬 코드들이 작성되
어 있으며, 이미 존재하는 프로그램의 아주 작은 부분이라도 무효화한다면 그
변경안은 눈살을 찌푸리고 봐야합니다.  당신이 변환 프로그램을 제공한다고
해도 설명서를 전부 업데이트 해야하는 문제가 남아있습니다.  뿐만 아니라 수
많은 책들이 파이썬에 관련해서 쓰여져 있는데, 저희는 한 순간에 그 모든 책
들을 무효화 시키고 싶지 않습니다.

만약 기능이 바뀌어야 한다면 점차적인 업그레이드 방안의 제시를 필요로 합
니다.  PEP 5(1)에서 하위호환 불가능한 변경을 도입할 때 사용자의 불편함을
최소화 하는 절차를 확인할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?,  Prev: 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?,  Up: 현실 속의 파이썬

10.1.2.6 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?
........................................................

예.

파스칼, C, 또는 C++나 Java의 일부처럼 절차적이고 정적인 언어를 학생들의
첫 언어로 가르치는 것은 아직 흔한 교육 방식입니다.  하지만 그들이 파이썬
을 첫 언어로 배우는 것이 더 이로울 수도 있습니다.  파이썬은 굉장히 간단
하면서도 일관된 문법과 방대한 표준 라이브러리를 가지고 있으며, 무엇보다
초기 프로그래밍 교육에서 파이썬을 이용하면 학생들이 자료형 디자인, 그리
고 문제 분석과 같은 중요한 프로그래밍 능력에 집중할 수 있도록 해줍니다.
학생들은 파이썬을 통해 반복문과 절차 같은 기초적인 콘셉트를 빠르게 접할
수 있습니다.  더 나아가 그들은 첫 강의에서 사용자 정의 객체를 활용하여 작
업을 할 수도 있을 것입니다.

프로그래밍을 한 번도 해본 적이 없는 학생이라면 정적인 프로그래밍 언어를
사용하는 것은 자연스럽게 느껴지지 않을 것입니다.  그 과정을 해결하기 위
해서는 부가적인 요소를 익혀야하며, 이는 강의 속도를 낮춥니다.  학생들은
컴퓨터처럼 사고하는 방식, 문제를 분석하는 방법, 일정한 인터페이스를 디자
인하는 방법, 그리고 정보를 캡슐화하는 것을 배우려 합니다.  장기적으로 본
다면 정적인 언어를 배우는 것이 중요할 수도 있지만, 학생들의 첫 프로그래
밍 언어로 보았을 때는 좋다고 볼 수 없습니다.

파이썬이 첫 개발 언어로 좋은 이유로 다양한 요소들을 뽑습니다.  파이썬은
자바처럼 방대한 표준 라이브러리를 가지고 있어서 학생들이 수업의 극 초반
에 '뭔가 진짜 하는' 프로그래밍 프로젝트를 경험할 수 있습니다.  네 개의 함
수로 만들어보는 계산기나 가계부 프로그램이 과제의 전부가 아닙니다.  표준
라이브러리를 사용하므로써 학생들은 프로그래밍의 기본을 배우며 그럴싸한 애
플리케이션을 만들어 볼 수 있습니다.  표준 라이브러리를 사용하면서 학생들
에게 코드의 재활용 역시 가르쳐 줄 수 있습니다.  뿐만 아니라 PyGame 같은
제삼자 모듈 역시 학생들의 시야를 넓히는데 도움이 됩니다.

파이썬의 상호작용 가능한 인터프리터는 학생들이 코딩하며 언어의 기능을 테
스트해 볼 수 있게 해줍니다.  학생들은 하나의 창에서 코드를 수정하며 다른
창에서 인터프리터를 돌려볼 수 있습니다.  만약 그들이 리스트에 대한 메서
드가 기억나지 않는다면, 이와 같은 시도를 해볼 수 있습니다:

     >>> L = []
     >>> dir(L)
     ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
     '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
     '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
     '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
     '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
     '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
     '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
     'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
     'reverse', 'sort']
     >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
     ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']

     >>> help(L.append)
     Help on built-in function append:

     append(...)
         L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end

     >>> L.append(1)
     >>> L
     [1]

인터프리터가 있다면, 학생들이 코딩하면서 설명서를 열람하기 쉽습니다.

파이썬을 위한 좋은 IDE들이 있습니다.  IDLE은 Tkinter를 사용하여 파이썬으
로 만들어진, 파이썬을 위한 크로스-플랫폼 IDE입니다.  Emacs 유저들은
Emacs에 굉장히 좋은 파이썬 모드가 있다는 사실을 알게 되면 기뻐할 것입니
다.  이 모든 개발 환경이 구문 강조, 자동 들여쓰기, 그리고 코딩하면서 상
호작용이 가능한 인터프리터를 지원합니다.  파이썬 개발 환경의 전체 리스트
는 파이썬 위키(1)를 참조하십시오.

만약 파이썬이 교육 분야에서 어떻게 사용되는지에 대해 논의하고 싶으시면
the edu-sig mailing list(2)에 들어와 주십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig


File: python.info,  Node: 프로그래밍 FAQ,  Next: 설계와 역사 FAQ,  Prev: 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.2 프로그래밍 FAQ
===================

* Menu:

* 일반적인 질문::
* 핵심 언어::
* 숫자와 문자열::
* 성능: 성능<3>.
* 시퀀스 (튜플/리스트): 시퀀스 튜플/리스트.
* 객체::
* 모듈: 모듈<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: 일반적인 질문,  Next: 핵심 언어,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.1 일반적인 질문
--------------------

* Menu:

* 중단점, 단일 스테핑(single-stepping) 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?.
* 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?,  Next: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 질문

10.2.1.1 중단점, 단일 스테핑(single-stepping) 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?
.............................................................................................

예.

파이썬을 위한 여러 디버거가 아래에 설명되어 있으며, 내장 함수 *note
breakpoint(): 234.를 사용하면 이들 중 하나로 들어갈 수 있습니다.

pdb 모듈은 간단하지만 적절한 파이썬 용 콘솔 모드 디버거입니다.  표준 파
이썬 라이브러리의 일부이며, *note 라이브러리 레퍼런스 매뉴얼에서 설명:
a5.하고 있습니다.  pdb의 코드를 예로 사용하여 자체 디버거를 작성할 수도
있습니다.

The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the
standard Python distribution (normally available as
Tools/scripts/idle3(1)), includes a graphical debugger.

PythonWin is a Python IDE that includes a GUI debugger based on pdb.
The PythonWin debugger colors breakpoints and has quite a few cool
features such as debugging non-PythonWin programs.  PythonWin is
available as part of pywin32(2) project and as a part of the
ActivePython(3) distribution.

Eric(4) is an IDE built on PyQt and the Scintilla editing component.

trepan3k(5) is a gdb-like debugger.

Visual Studio Code(6) is an IDE with debugging tools that integrates
with version-control software.

그래픽 디버거를 포함하는 많은 상용 파이썬 IDE가 있습니다.  다음을 포함합
니다:

   * Wing IDE(7)

   * Komodo IDE(8)

   * PyCharm(9)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/scripts/idle3

   (2) https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32

   (3) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (4) https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/

   (5) https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/

   (6) https://code.visualstudio.com/

   (7) https://wingware.com/

   (8) https://www.activestate.com/products/komodo-ide/

   (9) https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/


File: python.info,  Node: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 질문

10.2.1.2 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?
...........................................................................

예.

Pylint(1) and Pyflakes(2) do basic checking that will help you catch
bugs sooner.

Static type checkers such as Mypy(3), Pyre(4), and Pytype(5) can check
type hints in Python source code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pylint.pycqa.org/en/latest/index.html

   (2) https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://pyre-check.org/

   (5) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?,  Prev: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?,  Up: 일반적인 질문

10.2.1.3 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
..............................................................................

사용자가 파이썬 배포를 먼저 설치하지 않고도 다운로드하여 실행할 수 있는
독립 실행형 프로그램을 원하는 것이 전부라면 파이썬을 C 코드로 컴파일하는
기능이 필요하지는 않습니다.  프로그램에 필요한 모듈 집합을 파악하고 이러
한 모듈들을 파이썬 바이너리와 결합하여 단일 실행 파일을 생성하는 많은 도
구가 있습니다.

One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source
tree as Tools/freeze(1).  It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with
a C compiler you can embed all your modules into a new program, which is
then linked with the standard Python modules.

소스를 재귀적으로 검색하여 import 문(두 형식 모두)을 찾고 표준 파이썬 경
로뿐만 아니라 소스 디렉터리에서 모듈을 찾습니다 (내장할 모듈을 위해).  그
런 다음 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈의 바이트 코드를 C 코드 (marshal 모듈을 사
용하여 코드 객체로 변환할 수 있는 배열 초기화기)로 바꾸고 프로그램에서 실
제로 사용되는 내장 모듈만 포함하는 특별한 구성 파일을 만듭니다.  그런 다
음 생성된 C 코드를 컴파일하고 이를 나머지 파이썬 인터프리터와 링크하여 스
크립트와 똑같게 작동하는 자체 포함 바이너리를 형성합니다.

The following packages can help with the creation of console and GUI
executables:

   * Nuitka(2) (Cross-platform)

   * PyInstaller(3) (Cross-platform)

   * PyOxidizer(4) (Cross-platform)

   * cx_Freeze(5) (Cross-platform)

   * py2app(6) (macOS only)

   * py2exe(7) (Windows only)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze

   (2) https://nuitka.net/

   (3) https://pyinstaller.org/

   (4) https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (5) https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/

   (6) https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app

   (7) https://www.py2exe.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 일반적인 질문

10.2.1.4 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?
.......................................................................

예.  표준 라이브러리 모듈에 요구되는 코딩 스타일은 PEP 8(1)에서 설명합니
다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 핵심 언어,  Next: 숫자와 문자열,  Prev: 일반적인 질문,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.2 핵심 언어
----------------

* Menu:

* 변수에 값이 있을 때 UnboundLocalError 가 발생하는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬에서 지역과 전역 변수에 대한 규칙은 무엇입니까?::
* 다른 값으로 루프에서 정의된 람다는 왜 모두 같은 결과를 반환합니까?::
* 모듈 간에 전역 변수를 공유하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 모듈에서 임포트를 사용하는 “모범 사례”는 무엇입니까?::
* 객체 간에 기본값이 공유되는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 인자와 매개변수의 차이점은 무엇입니까?::
* 리스트 ‘y’를 변경할 때 리스트 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 (참조에 의한 호출)?: 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 참조에 의한 호출 ?.
* 파이썬에서 고차 함수(higher order function)를 어떻게 만드나요?: 파이썬에서 고차 함수 higher order function 를 어떻게 만드나요?.
* 파이썬에서 객체를 어떻게 복사합니까?::
* 객체의 메서드나 어트리뷰트를 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?::
* 코드에서 객체 이름을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?::
* 쉼표 연산자의 우선순위는 어떻게 되나요?::
* C의 “?;” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?: C의 “? ” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?.
* 파이썬에서 난독화된 한 줄 코드를 작성할 수 있습니까?::
* 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시(/)는 무엇을 의미합니까?: 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시 / 는 무엇을 의미합니까?.


File: python.info,  Node: 변수에 값이 있을 때 UnboundLocalError 가 발생하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 지역과 전역 변수에 대한 규칙은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.1 변수에 값이 있을 때 UnboundLocalError 가 발생하는 이유는 무엇입니까?
.............................................................................

It can be a surprise to get the *note UnboundLocalError: 14fd. in
previously working code when it is modified by adding an assignment
statement somewhere in the body of a function.

이 코드는:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def bar():
     ...     print(x)
     ...
     >>> bar()
     10

작동하지만, 이 코드는:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1

results in an ‘UnboundLocalError’:

     >>> foo()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment

이는 스코프에서 변수에 대입할 때, 해당 변수가 그 스코프에 대해 지역
(local)이 되고 외부 스코프에서 비슷한 이름의 변수를 가리기 때문입니다.
foo의 마지막 문장은 ‘x’에 새 값을 대입하므로, 컴파일러는 이 값을 지역 변
수로 인식합니다.  결과적으로 앞의 ‘print(x)’가 초기화되지 않은 지역 변수
를 인쇄하려고 할 때 에러가 발생합니다.

위의 예에서 변수를 전역(global)으로 선언하여 외부 스코프 변수에 액세스 할
수 있습니다:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foobar():
     ...     global x
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1
     ...
     >>> foobar()
     10

이 명시적 선언은 (클래스와 인스턴스 변수의 표면적으로 유사한 상황과 달리
) 실제로 외부 스코프에 있는 변수의 값을 수정하고 있음을 상기시키기 위해
필요합니다:

     >>> print(x)
     11

*note nonlocal: 1297. 키워드를 사용하여 중첩된 스코프에서 비슷한 일을 할
수 있습니다:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    x = 10
     ...    def bar():
     ...        nonlocal x
     ...        print(x)
     ...        x += 1
     ...    bar()
     ...    print(x)
     ...
     >>> foo()
     10
     11


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 지역과 전역 변수에 대한 규칙은 무엇입니까?,  Next: 다른 값으로 루프에서 정의된 람다는 왜 모두 같은 결과를 반환합니까?,  Prev: 변수에 값이 있을 때 UnboundLocalError 가 발생하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.2 파이썬에서 지역과 전역 변수에 대한 규칙은 무엇입니까?
..............................................................

파이썬에서, 함수 내에서 참조되기만 하는 변수는 묵시적으로 전역입니다.  변
수가 함수 본문 내 어디에서건 값을 대입하면, 명시적으로 전역으로 선언되지
않는 한 지역으로 간주합니다.

처음에는 조금 의외지만, 잠시 생각해보면 이해가 됩니다.  한편으로, 대입된
변수에 *note global: 18a.을 요구하면 의도하지 않은 부작용에 대한 저지선
을 제공합니다.  반면에, 모든 전역 참조에 ‘global’이 요구된다면, 항상
‘global’을 사용하게 됩니다.  내장 함수나 임포트 한 모듈의 구성 요소에 대
한 모든 참조를 전역으로 선언해야 합니다.  이 혼란은 부작용을 식별하기 위
한 ‘global’ 선언의 유용성을 무효로 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 다른 값으로 루프에서 정의된 람다는 왜 모두 같은 결과를 반환합니까?,  Next: 모듈 간에 전역 변수를 공유하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 지역과 전역 변수에 대한 규칙은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.3 다른 값으로 루프에서 정의된 람다는 왜 모두 같은 결과를 반환합니까?
...........................................................................

for 루프를 사용하여 몇 가지 다른 람다(또는 일반 함수조차)를 정의한다고 가
정하십시오, 예를 들어:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)

이것은 ‘x**2’를 계산하는 5개의 람다가 포함된 리스트를 제공합니다.  호출
되면, 각각 ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘4’, ‘9’ 및 ‘16’을 반환할 것으로 예상할 수 있습니다
.  그러나, 실제로 시도하면 모두 ‘16’을 반환한다는 것을 알 수 있습니다:

     >>> squares[2]()
     16
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

이는 ‘x’가 람다에 지역(local)이 아니라 외부 스코프에 정의되어 있기 때문
에 발생하며, 람다가 호출될 때 액세스 됩니다 — 정의될 때가 아닙니다.  루
프의 끝에서, ‘x’의 값은 ‘4’이므로, 모든 함수는 이제 ‘4**2’, 즉 ‘16’을 반
환합니다.  ‘x’의 값을 변경하고 람다의 결과가 어떻게 변경되는지 봄으로써
이를 확인할 수도 있습니다:

     >>> x = 8
     >>> squares[2]()
     64

이를 피하려면, 람다에 대해 지역인 변수에 값을 저장하여, 전역 ‘x’의 값에
의존하지 않도록 할 필요가 있습니다:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)

여기서 ‘n=x’는 람다에 지역인 새 변수 ‘n’을 만들고, 루프의 해당 시점에서
‘x’ 와 같은 값을 갖도록 람다가 정의될 때 계산됩니다.  이는 ‘n’의 값이 첫
번째 람다에서 ‘0’, 두 번째에서 ‘1’, 세 번째에서 ‘2’ 등이 됨을 의미합니다
.  따라서 각 람다는 이제 올바른 결과를 반환합니다:

     >>> squares[2]()
     4
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

이 동작은 람다에만 국한된 것이 아니라 일반 함수에도 적용됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈 간에 전역 변수를 공유하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 모듈에서 임포트를 사용하는 “모범 사례”는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 다른 값으로 루프에서 정의된 람다는 왜 모두 같은 결과를 반환합니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.4 모듈 간에 전역 변수를 공유하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
.............................................................

단일 프로그램 내에서 모듈 간에 정보를 공유하는 규범적인 방법은 특별한 모
듈(종종 config나 cfg라고 불립니다)을 만드는 것입니다.  응용 프로그램의 모
든 모듈에서 config 모듈을 임포트 하기만 하면 됩니다; 그러면 모듈이 전역
이름으로 사용 가능해집니다.  각 모듈의 인스턴스는 오직 하나이기 때문에,
모듈 객체에 대한 변경 사항은 모든 곳에 반영됩니다.  예를 들면 다음과 같
습니다:

config.py:

     x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting

mod.py:

     import config
     config.x = 1

main.py:

     import config
     import mod
     print(config.x)

Note that using a module is also the basis for implementing the
singleton design pattern, for the same reason.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈에서 임포트를 사용하는 “모범 사례”는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 객체 간에 기본값이 공유되는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 모듈 간에 전역 변수를 공유하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.5 모듈에서 임포트를 사용하는 “모범 사례”는 무엇입니까?
.............................................................

일반적으로, ‘from modulename import *’를 사용하지 마십시오.  그렇게 하면
임포트 하는 곳의 이름 공간이 어수선해지고, 린터(linter)가 정의되지 않은
이름을 감지하기가 훨씬 어려워집니다.

파일 맨 위에서 모듈을 임포트 하십시오.  그렇게 하면 코드에 필요한 다른 모
듈을 명확하게 하고 모듈 이름이 스코프에 있는지에 대한 질문을 피할 수 있
습니다.  한 줄에 하나의 임포트를 사용하면 모듈 임포트를 쉽게 추가하고 삭
제할 수 있지만, 한 줄에 여러 임포트를 사용하면 화면 공간을 덜 사용합니다
.

다음 순서로 모듈을 임포트 하는 것이 좋습니다:

  1. standard library modules – e.g.  *note sys: d9, *note os: a1, *note
     argparse: 6, *note re: b9.

  2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python’s
     site-packages directory) – e.g.  ‘dateutil’, ‘requests’,
     ‘PIL.Image’

  3. locally developed modules

순환 임포트 관련 문제를 피하고자 임포트를 함수나 클래스로 이동해야 하는
경우가 있습니다.  Gordon McMillan은 다음과 같이 말했습니다:

     두 모듈 모두 “import <module>” 형식의 임포트를 사용하면 순환 임포트
     는 괜찮습니다.  두 번째 모듈이 첫 번째 모듈의 이름(name)을 붙잡으려
     고 하고 (“from module import name”) 임포트가 최상위 수준에 있으면 실
     패합니다.  첫 번째 모듈이 두 번째 모듈을 임포트 하는 중이라서 첫 번
     째 모듈에 있는 이름을 아직 사용할 수 없기 때문입니다.

이 경우, 두 번째 모듈이 하나의 함수에서만 사용된다면, 임포트를 해당 함수
로 쉽게 이동할 수 있습니다.  임포트가 호출될 때, 첫 번째 모듈의 초기화가
완료되었고, 두 번째 모듈은 임포트를 수행할 수 있습니다.

일부 모듈이 플랫폼 특정이면 임포트를 코드의 최상위 수준에서 다른 곳으로
이동해야 할 수도 있습니다.  이 경우, 파일 맨 위에서 모든 모듈을 임포트 하
는 것이 가능하지 않을 수도 있습니다.  이 경우, 해당 플랫폼 특정 코드에서
올바른 모듈을 임포트 하는 것이 좋은 선택입니다.

순환 임포트를 피하거나 모듈의 초기화 시간을 줄이려는 등의 문제를 해결하
는 데 필요할 때만, 함수 정의 내부와 같은 지역 스코프로 임포트를 옮기십시
오.  이 기법은 프로그램 실행 방법에 따라 많은 임포트가 필요하지 않을 때
특히 유용합니다.  모듈이 해당 함수에서만 사용될 때 임포트를 함수로 옮기
고 싶을 수도 있습니다.  모듈의 일회성 초기화 때문에 모듈을 처음 로드하는
데 비용이 많이들 수 있지만, 모듈을 여러 번 로드하는 것은 사실상 무료임에
유의하십시오, 두 번의 딕셔너리 조회만 발생합니다.  모듈 이름이 스코프를
벗어난 경우에도, 모듈은 아마도 *note sys.modules: 1558.에 있을 겁니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체 간에 기본값이 공유되는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 모듈에서 임포트를 사용하는 “모범 사례”는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.6 객체 간에 기본값이 공유되는 이유는 무엇입니까?
.......................................................

이 유형의 버그는 흔히 신참 프로그래머들을 깨뭅니다.  이 함수를 생각해보
십시오:

     def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
         ... compute something ...
         mydict[key] = value
         return mydict

이 함수를 처음 호출하면, ‘mydict’에 단일 항목이 포함됩니다.  두 번째는,
‘foo()’가 실행되기 시작할 때, ‘mydict’가 이미 항목에 들어 있는 상태로 시
작하기 때문에, ‘mydict’가 두 개의 항목을 포함합니다.

종종 함수 호출이 기본값으로 새 객체를 만들 것으로 기대합니다.  그렇게 되
지 않습니다.  함수가 정의될 때, 기본값은 정확히 한 번 만들어집니다.  이
예제의 딕셔너리와 같이, 해당 객체가 변경되면, 함수에 대한 후속 호출은 이
변경된 객체를 참조합니다.

정의에 따라, 숫자, 문자열, 튜플 및 ‘None’과 같은 불변 객체는 변경에 안전
합니다.  딕셔너리, 리스트 및 클래스 인스턴스와 같은 가변 객체를 변경하면
혼란스러울 수 있습니다.

이 기능으로 인해, 가변 객체를 기본값으로 사용하지 않는 것이 좋습니다.  대
신, ‘None’을 기본값으로 사용하고 함수 내부에서 매개변수가 ‘None’인지 확
인한 다음 새 리스트/딕셔너리/무엇이든 새로 만드십시오.  예를 들어, 다음
과 같이 쓰지 마십시오:

     def foo(mydict={}):
         ...

대신 이렇게 쓰십시오:

     def foo(mydict=None):
         if mydict is None:
             mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace

이 기능은 유용할 수 있습니다.  계산하는 데 시간이 걸리는 함수가 있을 때,
일반적인 기법은 각 함수 호출의 매개변수와 결괏값을 캐시하고, 같은 값이 다
시 요청되면 캐시 된 값을 반환하는 것입니다.  이것을 “memoizing” 이라고 하
며, 다음과 같이 구현할 수 있습니다:

     # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
     def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
         if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
             return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]

         # Calculate the value
         result = ... expensive computation ...
         _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
         return result

기본값 대신 딕셔너리를 포함하는 전역 변수를 사용할 수 있습니다; 취향의 문
제입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 인자와 매개변수의 차이점은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 객체 간에 기본값이 공유되는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.7 한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
............................................................................................

함수의 매개변수 목록에 ‘*’와 ‘**’ 지정자를 사용하여 인자를 수집하십시오;
이것은 위치 인자를 튜플로, 키워드 인자를 딕셔너리로 제공합니다.  그런 다
음 ‘*’와 ‘**’를 사용하여 다른 함수를 호출할 때 이러한 인자를 전달할 수 있
습니다:

     def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
         ...
         kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
         ...
         g(x, *args, **kwargs)


File: python.info,  Node: 인자와 매개변수의 차이점은 무엇입니까?,  Next: 리스트 ‘y’를 변경할 때 리스트 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.8 인자와 매개변수의 차이점은 무엇입니까?
...............................................

*note Parameters: 1f07. are defined by the names that appear in a
function definition, whereas *note arguments: 442. are the values
actually passed to a function when calling it.  Parameters define what
*note kind of arguments: 1f07. a function can accept.  For example,
given the function definition:

     def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
         pass

'foo', 'bar' 및 'kwargs'는 ‘func’의 매개변수입니다.  그러나, ‘func’를 호
출할 때, 예를 들면:

     func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)

‘42’, ‘314’ 및 ‘somevar’ 값은 인자입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트 ‘y’를 변경할 때 리스트 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 참조에 의한 호출 ?,  Prev: 인자와 매개변수의 차이점은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.9 리스트 ‘y’를 변경할 때 리스트 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유는 무엇입니까?
........................................................................

다음과 같은 코드를 작성하면:

     >>> x = []
     >>> y = x
     >>> y.append(10)
     >>> y
     [10]
     >>> x
     [10]

‘y’에 요소를 추가하면 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유가 궁금할 것입니다.

이 결과를 만드는 두 가지 요소가 있습니다:

  1. 변수는 단순히 객체를 가리키는 이름입니다.  ‘y = x’를 수행하면 리스
     트의 사본을 만들지 않습니다 – ‘x’가 참조하는 것과 같은 객체를 참조
     하는 새 변수 ‘y’를 만듭니다.  이는 하나의 객체(리스트)만 있고, ‘x’
     와 ‘y’ 모두 그 객체를 참조함을 의미합니다.

  2. 리스트는 *note 가변: 1c08.입니다, 내용을 변경할 수 있다는 뜻입니다.

After the call to ‘append()’, the content of the mutable object has
changed from ‘[]’ to ‘[10]’.  Since both the variables refer to the same
object, using either name accesses the modified value ‘[10]’.

대신 불변 객체를 ‘x’에 대입하면:

     >>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
     >>> y = x
     >>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
     >>> x
     6
     >>> y
     5

이 경우 ‘x’ 와 ‘y’가 더는 같지 않다는 것을 알 수 있습니다.  이는 정수가
*note 불변: 1c03.이기 때문이고, ‘x = x + 1’을 수행할 때 값을 증가시켜서
정수 ‘5’를 변경하는 것이 아닙니다; 대신 새 객체(정수 ‘6’)를 만들어 ‘x’에
대입합니다 (즉, ‘x’가 참조하는 객체를 바꿉니다).  이 대입 후에는 두 개의
객체(정수 ‘6’과 ‘5’)와 이를 참조하는 두 개의 변수를 갖게 됩니다 (‘x’는 이
제 ‘6’을 참조하지만, ‘y’는 여전히 ‘5’를 참조합니다).

Some operations (for example ‘y.append(10)’ and ‘y.sort()’) mutate the
object, whereas superficially similar operations (for example ‘y = y +
[10]’ and *note sorted(y): bcb.) create a new object.  In general in
Python (and in all cases in the standard library) a method that mutates
an object will return ‘None’ to help avoid getting the two types of
operations confused.  So if you mistakenly write ‘y.sort()’ thinking it
will give you a sorted copy of ‘y’, you’ll instead end up with ‘None’,
which will likely cause your program to generate an easily diagnosed
error.

그러나, 같은 연산이 때때로 형에 따라 다른 동작을 갖는 한 가지 연산 클래
스가 있습니다: 증분 대입 연산자.  예를 들어, ‘+=’는 리스트를 변경하지만,
튜플이나 정수는 변경하지 않습니다 (‘a_list += [1, 2, 3]’은
‘a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])’과 동등하고 ‘a_list’를 변경하지만, ‘some_tuple
+= (1, 2, 3)’과 ‘some_int += 1’은 새 객체를 만듭니다).

달리 표현하면:

   * 가변 객체(*note list: 60b, *note dict: 256, *note set: 5d3. 등)가 있
     으면, 일부 특정 연산을 사용하여 객체를 변경하면 해당 객체를 참조하
     는 모든 변수가 변경을 보게 됩니다.

   * 불변 객체(*note str: 445, *note int: 257, *note tuple: 369. 등)가 있
     으면, 이를 참조하는 모든 변수는 항상 같은 값을 보게 되지만, 해당 값
     을 새로운 값으로 변환하는 연산은 항상 새로운 객체를 반환합니다.

두 변수가 같은 객체를 참조하는지를 알고 싶다면, *note is: 2ed. 연산자나
내장 함수 *note id(): 13eb.를 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 참조에 의한 호출 ?,  Next: 파이썬에서 고차 함수 higher order function 를 어떻게 만드나요?,  Prev: 리스트 ‘y’를 변경할 때 리스트 ‘x’도 변경되는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.10 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 (참조에 의한 호출)?
.......................................................................................

파이썬에서 인자는 대입으로 전달됨을 기억하십시오.  대입은 단지 객체에 대
한 참조를 만들기 때문에, 호출자와 피호출자의 인자 이름 간에 에일리어스가
없고, 참조에 의한 호출도 없습니다.  여러 가지 방법으로 원하는 효과를 얻
을 수 있습니다.

  1. 결과의 튜플을 반환하여:

          >>> def func1(a, b):
          ...     a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
          ...     b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
          ...     return a, b            # return new values
          ...
          >>> x, y = 'old-value', 99
          >>> func1(x, y)
          ('new-value', 100)

     이것은 거의 항상 가장 명확한 해법입니다.

  2. 전역 변수를 사용하여.  이것은 스레드 안전하지 않고, 권장하지 않습니
     다.

  3. 가변 (제자리에서 변경할 수 있는) 객체를 전달하여:

          >>> def func2(a):
          ...     a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
          ...     a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
          ...
          >>> args = ['old-value', 99]
          >>> func2(args)
          >>> args
          ['new-value', 100]

  4. 변경되는 딕셔너리를 전달하여:

          >>> def func3(args):
          ...     args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
          ...     args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
          ...
          >>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
          >>> func3(args)
          >>> args
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

  5. 또는 클래스 인스턴스에 값을 묶어서:

          >>> class Namespace:
          ...     def __init__(self, /, **args):
          ...         for key, value in args.items():
          ...             setattr(self, key, value)
          ...
          >>> def func4(args):
          ...     args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable Namespace
          ...     args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
          ...
          >>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99)
          >>> func4(args)
          >>> vars(args)
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

     이렇게 복잡하게 만들어야 할 좋은 이유는 거의 없습니다.

최선의 선택은 여러 결과가 포함된 튜플을 반환하는 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 고차 함수 higher order function 를 어떻게 만드나요?,  Next: 파이썬에서 객체를 어떻게 복사합니까?,  Prev: 출력 매개변수가 있는 함수를 작성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까 참조에 의한 호출 ?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.11 파이썬에서 고차 함수(higher order function)를 어떻게 만드나요?
........................................................................

두 가지 선택이 있습니다: 중첩된 스코프를 사용하거나 콜러블 객체를 사용할
수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 값 ‘a*x+b’를 계산하는 함수 ‘f(x)’를 반환하는
‘linear(a,b)’를 정의하려고 한다고 가정하십시오.  중첩된 스코프를 사용해
서:

     def linear(a, b):
         def result(x):
             return a * x + b
         return result

또는 콜러블 객체를 사용해서:

     class linear:

         def __init__(self, a, b):
             self.a, self.b = a, b

         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * x + self.b

두 경우 모두,

     taxes = linear(0.3, 2)

‘taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2’가 되도록 하는 콜러블 객체를 제공합니다.

콜러블 객체 접근 방식은 약간 느리고 코드가 약간 길어진다는 단점이 있습니
다.  그러나, 콜러블 컬렉션은 상속을 통해 서명을 공유할 수 있습니다:

     class exponential(linear):
         # __init__ inherited
         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * (x ** self.b)

객체는 여러 메서드의 상태를 캡슐화 할 수 있습니다:

     class counter:

         value = 0

         def set(self, x):
             self.value = x

         def up(self):
             self.value = self.value + 1

         def down(self):
             self.value = self.value - 1

     count = counter()
     inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set

여기서 ‘inc()’, ‘dec()’ 및 ‘reset()’은 같은 계수 변수를 공유하는 함수처
럼 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 객체를 어떻게 복사합니까?,  Next: 객체의 메서드나 어트리뷰트를 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 고차 함수 higher order function 를 어떻게 만드나요?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.12 파이썬에서 객체를 어떻게 복사합니까?
..............................................

일반적으로, 일반적일 때 *note copy.copy(): 52d.나 *note copy.deepcopy():
b6b.를 시도하십시오.  모든 객체를 복사할 수는 없지만, 대부분 가능합니다.

일부 객체는 더 쉽게 복사할 수 있습니다.  딕셔너리에는 *note copy(): bcd.
메서드가 있습니다:

     newdict = olddict.copy()

시퀀스는 슬라이싱으로 복사할 수 있습니다:

     new_l = l[:]


File: python.info,  Node: 객체의 메서드나 어트리뷰트를 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Next: 코드에서 객체 이름을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 객체를 어떻게 복사합니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.13 객체의 메서드나 어트리뷰트를 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?
...............................................................

For an instance ‘x’ of a user-defined class, *note dir(x): 62c. returns
an alphabetized list of the names containing the instance attributes and
methods and attributes defined by its class.


File: python.info,  Node: 코드에서 객체 이름을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Next: 쉼표 연산자의 우선순위는 어떻게 되나요?,  Prev: 객체의 메서드나 어트리뷰트를 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.14 코드에서 객체 이름을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?
.......................................................

일반적으로 말하자면, 객체에는 실제로 이름이 없기 때문에 그럴 수 없습니다
.  기본적으로, 대입은 항상 이름을 값에 연결합니다; ‘def’와 ‘class’ 문의
경우도 마찬가지이지만, 이 경우 값은 콜러블입니다.  다음 코드를 고려하십
시오:

     >>> class A:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> B = A
     >>> a = B()
     >>> b = a
     >>> print(b)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
     >>> print(a)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>

Arguably the class has a name: even though it is bound to two names and
invoked through the name ‘B’ the created instance is still reported as
an instance of class ‘A’.  However, it is impossible to say whether the
instance’s name is ‘a’ or ‘b’, since both names are bound to the same
value.

일반적으로 말해 코드가 특정 값의 “이름을 알아야” 할 필요는 없습니다.  의
도적으로 내성적인(introspective) 프로그램을 작성하지 않는 한, 이는 일반
적으로 접근 방식의 변경이 도움이 될 수 있다는 신호입니다.

comp.lang.python에서, Fredrik Lundh는 언젠가 이 질문에 대해 훌륭한 비유
를 했습니다:

     여러분이 현관에서 발견한 고양이의 이름을 얻는 것과 같은 방법: 고양
     이(객체) 자체는 여러분에게 자신의 이름을 말할 수 없고, 전혀 신경 쓰
     지도 않습니다 – 따라서 그것이 어떻게 불리는지 알아내는 유일한 방법
     은 여러분 이웃 모두(이름 공간)에게 자신의 고양이(객체)인지 묻는 것
     입니다…

     ….  여러 이름으로 알려져 있거나 전혀 이름이 없다는 것을 알게 되더라
     도 놀라지 마십시오!


File: python.info,  Node: 쉼표 연산자의 우선순위는 어떻게 되나요?,  Next: C의 “? ” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?,  Prev: 코드에서 객체 이름을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.15 쉼표 연산자의 우선순위는 어떻게 되나요?
.................................................

쉼표는 파이썬에서 연산자가 아닙니다.  이 세션을 고려하십시오:

     >>> "a" in "b", "a"
     (False, 'a')

쉼표는 연산자가 아니라 표현식 사이의 구분자이기 때문에 위는 다음과 같이
입력한 것처럼 평가됩니다:

     ("a" in "b"), "a"

다음과 같이 평가되지 않습니다:

     "a" in ("b", "a")

다양한 대입 연산자(‘=’, ‘+=’ 등)도 마찬가지입니다.  이들은 실제로 연산자
가 아니라 대입 문의 문법 구분자입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: C의 “? ” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 난독화된 한 줄 코드를 작성할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 쉼표 연산자의 우선순위는 어떻게 되나요?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.16 C의 “?:” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?
......................................................

예, 있습니다.  문법은 다음과 같습니다:

     [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

     x, y = 50, 25
     small = x if x < y else y

이 문법이 파이썬 2.5에서 소개되기 전에, 일반적인 관용구는 논리 연산자를
사용하는 것이었습니다:

     [expression] and [on_true] or [on_false]

그러나, 이 관용구는 안전하지 않습니다.  'on_true'가 거짓 불리언 값을 가
질 때 잘못된 결과가 나올 수 있습니다.  따라서, 항상 ‘... if ... else
...’ 형식을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 난독화된 한 줄 코드를 작성할 수 있습니까?,  Next: 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시 / 는 무엇을 의미합니까?,  Prev: C의 “? ” 삼항 연산자와 동등한 것이 있습니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.17 파이썬에서 난독화된 한 줄 코드를 작성할 수 있습니까?
..............................................................

Yes.  Usually this is done by nesting *note lambda: 128c. within
‘lambda’.  See the following three examples, slightly adapted from Ulf
Bartelt:

     from functools import reduce

     # Primes < 1000
     print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
     map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))

     # First 10 Fibonacci numbers
     print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
     f(x,f), range(10))))

     # Mandelbrot set
     print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y,
     Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
     Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
     i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
     >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
     64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
     ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
     #    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
     #        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
     #        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
     #        |          |_________________ range on y axis
     #        |____________________________ range on x axis

집에서 이것을 시도하지 마십시오, 어린이들!


File: python.info,  Node: 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시 / 는 무엇을 의미합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 난독화된 한 줄 코드를 작성할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 핵심 언어

10.2.2.18 함수의 매개변수 목록에서 슬래시(/)는 무엇을 의미합니까?
.................................................................

A slash in the argument list of a function denotes that the parameters
prior to it are positional-only.  Positional-only parameters are the
ones without an externally usable name.  Upon calling a function that
accepts positional-only parameters, arguments are mapped to parameters
based solely on their position.  For example, *note divmod(): 99e. is a
function that accepts positional-only parameters.  Its documentation
looks like this:

     >>> help(divmod)
     Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins:

     divmod(x, y, /)
         Return the tuple (x//y, x%y).  Invariant: div*y + mod == x.

매개변수 목록 끝의 슬래시는 두 매개변수가 위치 전용임을 의미합니다.  따
라서, 키워드 인자로 *note divmod(): 99e.를 호출하면 에러가 발생합니다:

     >>> divmod(x=3, y=4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자와 문자열,  Next: 성능<3>,  Prev: 핵심 언어,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.3 숫자와 문자열
--------------------

* Menu:

* 16진수와 8진수 정수는 어떻게 지정합니까?::
* 왜 -22 // 10 이 -3을 반환합니까?::
* How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?::
* 문자열을 숫자로 어떻게 변환합니까?::
* 숫자를 문자열로 어떻게 변환합니까?::
* 제자리에서 문자열을 어떻게 수정합니까?::
* 문자열을 사용하여 어떻게 함수/메서드를 호출합니까?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::


File: python.info,  Node: 16진수와 8진수 정수는 어떻게 지정합니까?,  Next: 왜 -22 // 10 이 -3을 반환합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.1 16진수와 8진수 정수는 어떻게 지정합니까?
.................................................

8진수를 지정하려면, 8진수 값 앞에 0을 붙이고, 소문자나 대문자 “o”를 붙입
니다.  예를 들어, 변수 “a”를 8진수 값 “10”(10진수 8)으로 설정하려면, 이
렇게 입력하십시오:

     >>> a = 0o10
     >>> a
     8

16진수도 쉽습니다.  16진수 앞에 0을 붙이고, 소문자나 대문자 “x”를 붙이기
만 하면 됩니다.  16진 숫자는 소문자나 대문자로 지정할 수 있습니다.  예를
들어, 파이썬 인터프리터에서:

     >>> a = 0xa5
     >>> a
     165
     >>> b = 0XB2
     >>> b
     178


File: python.info,  Node: 왜 -22 // 10 이 -3을 반환합니까?,  Next: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Prev: 16진수와 8진수 정수는 어떻게 지정합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.2 왜 -22 // 10 이 -3을 반환합니까?
.........................................

주로 ‘i % j’가 ‘j’와 같은 부호를 갖도록 하려는 것입니다.  여러분이 이것
을 원하고, 다음과 같은 것도 원한다면:

     i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)

정수 나누기는 floor를 반환해야 합니다.  C 또한 이 항등식을 만족하도록 요
구하고, ‘i // j’를 자르는(truncate) 컴파일러는 ‘i % j’가 ‘i’ 와 같은 부
호를 갖도록 할 필요가 있습니다.

‘j’가 음수인 경우 ‘i % j’에 대한 실제 사용 사례는 거의 없습니다.  ‘j’가
양수이면, 많은 사례가 있으며, 사실상 모든 경우에 ‘i % j’가 ‘>= 0’인 것이
더 유용합니다.  시계가 지금 10을 가리킨다면, 200시간 전에는 어디를 가리
키겠습니까?  ‘-190 % 12 == 2’가 유용합니다; ‘-190 % 12 == -10’은 물기를
기다리는 버그입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Next: 문자열을 숫자로 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Prev: 왜 -22 // 10 이 -3을 반환합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.3 How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?
...................................................................

Trying to lookup an ‘int’ literal attribute in the normal manner gives a
*note SyntaxError: 18d. because the period is seen as a decimal point:

     >>> 1.__class__
       File "<stdin>", line 1
       1.__class__
        ^
     SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

The solution is to separate the literal from the period with either a
space or parentheses.

     >>> 1 .__class__
     <class 'int'>
     >>> (1).__class__
     <class 'int'>


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열을 숫자로 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Next: 숫자를 문자열로 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Prev: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.4 문자열을 숫자로 어떻게 변환합니까?
...........................................

For integers, use the built-in *note int(): 257. type constructor, e.g.
‘int('144') == 144’.  Similarly, *note float(): 2ef. converts to a
floating-point number, e.g.  ‘float('144') == 144.0’.

기본적으로 이것은 숫자를 심진수로 해석합니다.  그래서 ‘int('0144') ==
144’는 참이고 ‘int('0x144')’는 *note ValueError: 202.를 발생시킵니다.
‘int(string, base)’는 두 번째 선택적 인자로 변환에 사용할 진수(base)를 받
아들여서, ‘int( '0x144', 16) == 324’입니다.  base가 0으로 지정되면, 숫자
는 파이썬의 규칙을 사용하여 해석됩니다: 선행 ‘0o’는 8진수를 나타내고,
‘0x’는 16진수를 나타냅니다.

필요한 것이 문자열을 숫자로 변환하는 것뿐이라면 내장 함수 *note eval():
180.을 사용하지 마십시오.  *note eval(): 180.은 상당히 느리며 보안 위험
을 초래할 수 있습니다: 누군가 원하지 않는 부작용이 있는 파이썬 표현식을
전달할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 누군가 여러분의 홈 디렉터리를 지우는
‘__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")’을 전달할 수 있습니다.

*note eval(): 180.은 또한 숫자를 파이썬 표현식으로 해석하는 효과가 있어
서, 예를 들어 ‘eval('09')’는 파이썬이 (‘0’을 제외한 )십진수에서 선행
‘0’을 허용하지 않기 때문에 구문 에러가 발생합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 숫자를 문자열로 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Next: 제자리에서 문자열을 어떻게 수정합니까?,  Prev: 문자열을 숫자로 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.5 숫자를 문자열로 어떻게 변환합니까?
...........................................

To convert, e.g., the number ‘144’ to the string ‘'144'’, use the
built-in type constructor *note str(): 445.  If you want a hexadecimal
or octal representation, use the built-in functions *note hex(): 12bf.
or *note oct(): 12be.  For fancy formatting, see the *note 포맷 문자열
리터럴: 9a6. and *note 포맷 문자열 문법: 1379. sections, e.g.
‘"{:04d}".format(144)’ yields ‘'0144'’ and ‘"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)’
yields ‘'0.333'’.


File: python.info,  Node: 제자리에서 문자열을 어떻게 수정합니까?,  Next: 문자열을 사용하여 어떻게 함수/메서드를 호출합니까?,  Prev: 숫자를 문자열로 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.6 제자리에서 문자열을 어떻게 수정합니까?
...............................................

그럴 수 없습니다.  문자열은 불변이기 때문입니다.  대부분의 경우, 조립하
려는 다양한 부분으로 새 문자열을 구성해야 합니다.  그러나 제자리에서 유
니코드 데이터를 수정할 수 있는 객체가 필요하면, *note io.StringIO: f1f.
객체나 *note array: 7. 모듈을 사용해보십시오:

     >>> import io
     >>> s = "Hello, world"
     >>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, world'
     >>> sio.seek(7)
     7
     >>> sio.write("there!")
     6
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, there!'

     >>> import array
     >>> a = array.array('w', s)
     >>> print(a)
     array('w', 'Hello, world')
     >>> a[0] = 'y'
     >>> print(a)
     array('w', 'yello, world')
     >>> a.tounicode()
     'yello, world'


File: python.info,  Node: 문자열을 사용하여 어떻게 함수/메서드를 호출합니까?,  Next: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Prev: 제자리에서 문자열을 어떻게 수정합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.7 문자열을 사용하여 어떻게 함수/메서드를 호출합니까?
...........................................................

다양한 기법이 있습니다.

   * 문자열을 함수로 매핑하는 딕셔너리를 사용하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.  이
     기법의 주요 장점은 문자열이 함수 이름과 일치할 필요가 없다는 것입니
     다.  이것은 또한 case 구문을 흉내 내는 데 사용되는 기본 기법입니다:

          def a():
              pass

          def b():
              pass

          dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs

          dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function

   * 내장 함수 *note getattr(): bce.을 사용하십시오:

          import foo
          getattr(foo, 'bar')()

     *note getattr(): bce.은 클래스, 클래스 인스턴스, 모듈 등을 포함하는
     모든 객체에서 작동함에 유의하십시오.

     이것은 다음과 같이 표준 라이브러리의 여러 곳에서 사용됩니다:

          class Foo:
              def do_foo(self):
                  ...

              def do_bar(self):
                  ...

          f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
          f()

   * 함수 이름을 해석(resolve)하려면 *note locals(): 141.를 사용하십시오
     :

          def myFunc():
              print("hello")

          fname = "myFunc"

          f = locals()[fname]
          f()


File: python.info,  Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Next: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Prev: 문자열을 사용하여 어떻게 함수/메서드를 호출합니까?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.8 Is there an equivalent to Perl’s ‘chomp()’ for removing trailing newlines from strings?
................................................................................................

‘S.rstrip("\r\n")’을 사용하면 다른 후행 공백을 제거하지 않고 문자열 ‘S’의
끝에 있는 모든 줄 종결자를 제거 할 수 있습니다.  문자열 ‘S’가 끝에 빈 줄
이 여러 개 붙어 한 줄 이상을 나타내면, 모든 빈 줄의 줄 종결자가 제거됩니
다:

     >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
     ...          "\r\n"
     ...          "\r\n")
     >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
     'line 1 '

일반적으로 한 번에 한 줄씩 텍스트를 읽을 때만 필요하기 때문에,
‘S.rstrip()’을 이런 식으로 사용하면 잘 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Next: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Prev: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.9 Is there a ‘scanf()’ or ‘sscanf()’ equivalent?
.......................................................

그런 식으로는 없습니다.

For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the
line into whitespace-delimited words using the *note split(): ea0.
method of string objects and then convert decimal strings to numeric
values using *note int(): 257. or *note float(): 2ef.  ‘split()’
supports an optional “sep” parameter which is useful if the line uses
something other than whitespace as a separator.

For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more
powerful than C’s ‘sscanf’ and better suited for the task.


File: python.info,  Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Next: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.10 What does ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or ‘UnicodeEncodeError’ error mean?
............................................................................

*note 유니코드 HOWTO: 1294.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Up: 숫자와 문자열

10.2.3.11 Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?
...................................................................

A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the
string’s quote:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
         ^
     SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)

There are several workarounds for this.  One is to use regular strings
and double the backslashes:

     >>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Another is to concatenate a regular string containing an escaped
backslash to the raw string:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

It is also possible to use *note os.path.join(): 163a. to append a
backslash on Windows:

     >>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '')
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Note that while a backslash will “escape” a quote for the purposes of
determining where the raw string ends, no escaping occurs when
interpreting the value of the raw string.  That is, the backslash
remains present in the value of the raw string:

     >>> r'backslash\'preserved'
     "backslash\\'preserved"

Also see the specification in the *note language reference: 1eac.


File: python.info,  Node: 성능<3>,  Next: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트,  Prev: 숫자와 문자열,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.4 성능
-----------

* Menu:

* 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다. 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?: 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
* 많은 문자열을 함께 이어붙이는 가장 효율적인 방법은 무엇입니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 많은 문자열을 함께 이어붙이는 가장 효율적인 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 성능<3>

10.2.4.1 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다. 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
.........................................................................

그것은 일반적으로 힘든 일입니다.  먼저, 더 뛰어들기 전에 기억해야 할 사
항이 있습니다:

   * 성능 특성은 파이썬 구현마다 다릅니다.  이 FAQ는 *note CPython:
     6ef.에 중점을 둡니다.

   * 동작은 운영 체제마다 다를 수 있습니다, 특히 I/O 나 다중 스레드에 관
     해 이야기할 때 그렇습니다.

   * 코드를 최적화하려고 시도하기 '전에' 프로그램에서 항상 핫스팟을 찾아
     야 합니다 (*note profile: af. 모듈을 참조하십시오).

   * 벤치마크 스크립트를 작성하면 개선 사항을 탐색할 때 빠르게 반복할 수
     있습니다 (*note timeit: ef. 모듈 참조).

   * 정교한 최적화에 숨겨진 회귀(regressions)를 잠재적으로 도입하기 전에
     (단위 테스트나 기타 기법을 통해) 우수한 코드 커버리지를 갖는 것이 좋
     습니다.

이것을 전제로, 파이썬 코드 속도를 높이는 많은 트릭이 있습니다.  다음은 수
용 가능한 성능 수준에 도달하기 위해 먼 길을 갈 때 도움이 되는 몇 가지 일
반적인 원칙입니다:

   * 알고리즘을 더 빠르게 만들면 (또는 더 빠른 알고리즘으로 변경하면) 코
     드 전체에 미세 최적화 트릭을 뿌리는 것보다 훨씬 큰 이점을 얻을 수 있
     습니다.

   * 올바른 데이터 구조를 사용하십시오.  *note 내장형: 2196.과 *note
     collections: 1d. 모듈에 대한 설명서를 연구하십시오.

   * 표준 라이브러리가 무언가를 하기 위한 프리미티브를 제공할 때, 여러분
     이 떠올린 다른 대안보다 빠를 가능성이 높습니다 (보장되지는 않습니다
     ).  이것은 내장과 일부 확장형과 같이 C로 작성된 프리미티브의 경우에
     는 두 배로 그렇습니다.  예를 들어, 정렬하려면 *note list.sort():
     bcc. 내장 메서드나 관련 *note sorted(): bcb. 함수를 사용하십시오 (그
     리고 약간 고급 사용법의 예는 *note 정렬 기법: 2186.를 참조하십시오
     ).

   * 추상화는 간접(indirections)을 만드는 경향이 있고 인터프리터가 더 많
     은 일을 하도록 강요합니다.  간접의 수준이 유용한 작업의 양을 초과하
     면, 프로그램 속도가 느려집니다.  과도한 추상화를 피해야 합니다, 특
     히 작은 함수나 메서드의 형태에서 그렇습니다 (종종 가독성에도 해롭습
     니다).

If you have reached the limit of what pure Python can allow, there are
tools to take you further away.  For example, Cython(1) can compile a
slightly modified version of Python code into a C extension, and can be
used on many different platforms.  Cython can take advantage of
compilation (and optional type annotations) to make your code
significantly faster than when interpreted.  If you are confident in
your C programming skills, you can also *note write a C extension
module: 1be2. yourself.

더 보기
.......

성능 팁(2)에 할당된 위키 페이지.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips


File: python.info,  Node: 많은 문자열을 함께 이어붙이는 가장 효율적인 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 성능<3>

10.2.4.2 많은 문자열을 함께 이어붙이는 가장 효율적인 방법은 무엇입니까?
.......................................................................

*note str: 445.과 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체는 불변이므로, 많은 문자열을 함
께 이어붙이면 각 이어붙이기가 새 객체를 생성하기 때문에 비효율적입니다.
일반적일 때, 총 실행 시간 비용은 전체 문자열 길이의 제곱에 비례합니다.

많은 *note str: 445. 객체를 누적하기 위해, 권장되는 관용구는 객체를 리스
트에 배치하고 마지막에 *note str.join(): 21b3.을 호출하는 것입니다:

     chunks = []
     for s in my_strings:
         chunks.append(s)
     result = ''.join(chunks)

(또 다른 합리적으로 효율적인 관용구는 *note io.StringIO: f1f.를 사용하는
것입니다)

많은 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체를 누적하기 위해, 권장되는 관용구는 제자리 이
어붙이기(‘+=’ 연산자)을 사용하여 *note bytearray: 538. 객체를 확장하는 것
입니다:

     result = bytearray()
     for b in my_bytes_objects:
         result += b


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트,  Next: 객체,  Prev: 성능<3>,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.5 시퀀스 (튜플/리스트)
---------------------------

* Menu:

* 튜플과 리스트를 어떻게 변환합니까?::
* 음수 인덱스는 무엇입니까?::
* 시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트 하려면 어떻게 합니까?::
* 리스트에서 중복을 어떻게 제거합니까?::
* 리스트에서 여러 항목을 어떻게 제거합니까?::
* 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?::
* 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?::
* How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?::
* 덧셈은 작동하는데, 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?: 덧셈은 작동하는데 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?.
* 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다; 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?: 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?.
* 한 리스트를 다른 리스트의 값으로 정렬하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 튜플과 리스트를 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Next: 음수 인덱스는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.1 튜플과 리스트를 어떻게 변환합니까?
...........................................

형 생성자 ‘tuple(seq)’는 임의의 시퀀스(실제로는, 모든 이터러블)를 같은 순
서로 같은 항목을 가진 튜플로 변환합니다.

예를 들어, ‘tuple([1, 2, 3])’은 ‘(1, 2, 3)’을 산출하고 ‘tuple('abc')’는
‘('a', 'b', 'c')’를 산출합니다.  인자가 튜플이면 사본을 만들지 않고 같은
객체를 반환하므로, 객체가 이미 튜플인지 확실하지 않을 때 *note tuple():
369.을 호출하는 것이 저렴합니다.

형 생성자 ‘list(seq)’는 임의의 시퀀스나 이터러블을 같은 순서로 같은 항목
이 있는 리스트로 변환합니다.  예를 들어, ‘list((1, 2, 3))’은 ‘[1, 2,
3]’을 산출하고 ‘list('abc')’는 ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’를 산출합니다.  인자가 리
스트이면, ‘seq[:]’와 같이 사본을 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 음수 인덱스는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트 하려면 어떻게 합니까?,  Prev: 튜플과 리스트를 어떻게 변환합니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.2 음수 인덱스는 무엇입니까?
..................................

파이썬 시퀀스는 양수와 음수로 인덱싱됩니다.  양수의 경우 0은 첫 번째 인
덱스이고 1은 두 번째 인덱스이고 이런 식으로 계속됩니다.  음수 인덱스의 경
우 -1은 마지막 인덱스이고 -2는 끝에서 두 번째 인덱스이고 이런 식으로 계
속됩니다.  ‘seq[-n]’을 ‘seq[len(seq)-n]’과 같다고 생각하십시오.

음수 인덱스를 사용하면 매우 편리할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어 ‘S[:-1]’은 마
지막 문자를 제외한 문자열의 모든 것인데, 문자열에서 후행 줄 바꿈을 제거
하는 데 유용합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트 하려면 어떻게 합니까?,  Next: 리스트에서 중복을 어떻게 제거합니까?,  Prev: 음수 인덱스는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.3 시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트 하려면 어떻게 합니까?
...........................................................

*note reversed(): 860. 내장 함수를 사용하십시오:

     for x in reversed(sequence):
         ...  # do something with x ...

이것은 원본 시퀀스에는 영향을 미치지 않지만, 이터레이트 할 뒤집힌 순서의
새 사본을 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트에서 중복을 어떻게 제거합니까?,  Next: 리스트에서 여러 항목을 어떻게 제거합니까?,  Prev: 시퀀스를 역순으로 이터레이트 하려면 어떻게 합니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.4 리스트에서 중복을 어떻게 제거합니까?
.............................................

이 작업을 수행하는 여러 가지 방법에 대한 긴 논의는 파이썬 요리책을 참조
하십시오:

     ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/’

리스트 순서를 바꿔도 상관없다면, 리스트를 정렬한 다음 리스트 끝에서 스캔
하면서 중복 항목을 삭제하십시오:

     if mylist:
         mylist.sort()
         last = mylist[-1]
         for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
             if last == mylist[i]:
                 del mylist[i]
             else:
                 last = mylist[i]

리스트의 모든 요소가 집합 키로 사용될 수 있다면 (즉, 모두 *note 해시
가능: 60a.이면) 이것이 종종 더 빠릅니다

     mylist = list(set(mylist))

이것은 리스트를 집합으로 변환하여, 중복을 제거한 다음, 리스트로 되돌립니
다.


File: python.info,  Node: 리스트에서 여러 항목을 어떻게 제거합니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?,  Prev: 리스트에서 중복을 어떻게 제거합니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.5 리스트에서 여러 항목을 어떻게 제거합니까?
..................................................

중복 제거와 마찬가지로, 삭제 조건을 사용하여 명시적으로 역순으로 이터레
이션 하는 것도 한 가지 가능성입니다.  그러나, 묵시적이나 명시적 순방향 이
터레이션으로 슬라이스 치환을 사용하기가 더 쉽고 빠릅니다.  다음은 세 가
지 변형입니다.:

     mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
     mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
     mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition]

리스트 컴프리헨션이 아마 가장 빠릅니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?,  Next: 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Prev: 리스트에서 여러 항목을 어떻게 제거합니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.6 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?
...........................................

리스트를 사용하십시오:

     ["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"]

리스트는 시간 복잡성 면에서 C나 파스칼(Pascal) 배열과 동등합니다; 가장 큰
차이점은 파이썬 리스트에 다양한 형의 객체가 포함될 수 있다는 것입니다.

The ‘array’ module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed
types with compact representations, but they are slower to index than
lists.  Also note that NumPy(1) and other third party packages define
array-like structures with various characteristics as well.

To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate 'cons cells' using
tuples:

     lisp_list = ("like",  ("this",  ("example", None) ) )

If mutability is desired, you could use lists instead of tuples.  Here
the analogue of a Lisp 'car' is ‘lisp_list[0]’ and the analogue of 'cdr'
is ‘lisp_list[1]’.  Only do this if you’re sure you really need to,
because it’s usually a lot slower than using Python lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Next: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.7 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?
.........................................

다음과 같이 다차원 배열을 만들려고 했을 것입니다:

     >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3

인쇄하면 올바르게 보입니다:

     >>> A
     [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]

그러나 값을 대입하면, 여러 위치에 나타납니다:

     >>> A[0][0] = 5
     >>> A
     [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]

그 이유는 ‘*’로 리스트를 복제해도 복사본을 만들지 않고 기존 객체에 대한
참조만 만들기 때문입니다.  ‘*3’은 길이 2의 같은 리스트에 대한 3개의 참조
를 포함하는 리스트를 만듭니다.  한 행에 대한 변경 사항은 모든 행에 나타
나는데, 거의 확실히 여러분이 원하는 것은 아닙니다.

제안된 방법은 원하는 길이의 리스트를 먼저 만든 다음 새로 만든 리스트로 각
요소를 채우는 것입니다:

     A = [None] * 3
     for i in range(3):
         A[i] = [None] * 2

그러면 길이가 2인 3개의 다른 리스트를 포함하는 리스트가 생성됩니다.  리
스트 컴프리헨션도 사용할 수 있습니다:

     w, h = 2, 3
     A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]

Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; NumPy(1)
is the best known.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Next: 덧셈은 작동하는데 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?,  Prev: 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.8 How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?
......................................................................

To call a method or function and accumulate the return values is a list,
a *note list comprehension: 6c7. is an elegant solution:

     result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]

     result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist]

To just run the method or function without saving the return values, a
plain *note for: 2ea. loop will suffice:

     for obj in mylist:
         obj.method()

     for obj in mylist:
         function(obj)


File: python.info,  Node: 덧셈은 작동하는데 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?,  Next: 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.9 덧셈은 작동하는데, 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?
..........................................................................

이는 증분 대입 연산자가 '대입' 연산자라는 사실과 파이썬에서 가변 객체와
불변 객체의 차이점이 결합하기 때문입니다.

이 논의는 증분 대입 연산자가 가변 객체를 가리키는 튜플의 요소에 적용될 때
일반적으로 적용되지만, 우리는 ‘list’와 ‘+=’를 예제로 사용합니다.

다음과 같이 작성한다면:

     >>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
     >>> a_tuple[0] += 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

예외의 이유는 명확합니다: ‘1’이 ‘a_tuple[0]’이 가리키는 객체(‘1’)에 더해
져서, 결과 객체 ‘2’를 생성하지만, 계산 결과 ‘2’를 튜플의 요소 ‘0’에 대입
하려고 하면, 튜플의 요소가 가리키는 것을 변경할 수 없기 때문에 에러가 발
생합니다.

수면 아래에서, 이 증분 대입문이 하는 일은 대략 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

튜플은 불변이므로, 연산의 대입 부분이 에러를 발생시킵니다.

다음과 같이 작성하면:

     >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
     >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

예외는 조금 더 놀랍습니다, 더 놀라운 것은 에러가 있었지만 더하기가 동작
했다는 사실입니다:

     >>> a_tuple[0]
     ['foo', 'item']

To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object
implements an *note __iadd__(): 1f96. magic method, it gets called when
the ‘+=’ augmented assignment is executed, and its return value is what
gets used in the assignment statement; and (b) for lists, ‘__iadd__()’
is equivalent to calling ‘extend()’ on the list and returning the list.
That’s why we say that for lists, ‘+=’ is a “shorthand” for
‘list.extend()’:

     >>> a_list = []
     >>> a_list += [1]
     >>> a_list
     [1]

이것은 다음과 동등합니다:

     >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
     >>> a_list = result

a_list가 가리키는 객체가 변경되었고, 변경된 객체에 대한 포인터가 다시
‘a_list’에 대입됩니다.  대입의 최종 결과는 no-op인데, ‘a_list’가 이전에
가리키고 있던 것과 같은 객체에 대한 포인터이기 때문입니다, 하지만 대입은
여전히 일어납니다.

따라서, 우리의 튜플 예제에서 일어나는 일은 다음과 동등합니다:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The ‘__iadd__()’ succeeds, and thus the list is extended, but even
though ‘result’ points to the same object that ‘a_tuple[0]’ already
points to, that final assignment still results in an error, because
tuples are immutable.


File: python.info,  Node: 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?,  Next: 한 리스트를 다른 리스트의 값으로 정렬하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 덧셈은 작동하는데 왜 a_tuple[i] += [‘item’]이 예외를 일으킵니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.10 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다: 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?
....................................................................................

Perl 커뮤니티의 Randal Schwartz에 의한 이 기법은 리스트의 각 요소를 각 요
소를 “정렬 값”에 매핑하는 메트릭으로 정렬합니다.  파이썬에서는, *note
list.sort(): bcc. 메서드의 ‘key’ 인자를 사용하십시오:

     Isorted = L[:]
     Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))


File: python.info,  Node: 한 리스트를 다른 리스트의 값으로 정렬하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 복잡한 정렬을 하고 싶습니다 파이썬에서 Schwartzian 변환을 할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트

10.2.5.11 한 리스트를 다른 리스트의 값으로 정렬하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
.........................................................................

그것들을 튜플의 이터레이터로 병합하고, 결과 리스트를 정렬한 다음, 원하는
요소를 선택하십시오.

     >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
     >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
     >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
     >>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
     >>> pairs
     [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
     >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
     >>> result
     ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']


File: python.info,  Node: 객체,  Next: 모듈<3>,  Prev: 시퀀스 튜플/리스트,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.6 객체
-----------

* Menu:

* 클래스는 무엇입니까?::
* 메서드는 무엇입니까?::
* self는 무엇입니까?::
* 객체가 주어진 클래스나 그 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인지 어떻게 확인합니까?::
* 위임이란 무엇입니까?::
* How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?::
* 베이스 클래스를 쉽게 변경할 수 있도록 코드를 구성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 정적 클래스 데이터와 정적 클래스 메서드를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬에서 생성자(또는 메서드)를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?: 파이썬에서 생성자 또는 메서드 를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?.
* __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다.: __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다.
* 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다.: 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다.
* 주어진 클래스의 모든 인스턴스 목록을 어떻게 얻습니까?::
* id()의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?: id 의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?::
* How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?::
* How do I cache method calls?::


File: python.info,  Node: 클래스는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 메서드는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.1 클래스는 무엇입니까?
.............................

클래스는 class 문을 실행하여 만든 특정 객체 형입니다.  클래스 객체는 인
스턴스 객체를 만들기 위한 주형으로 사용되며, 데이터형과 관련된 데이터(어
트리뷰트)와 코드(메서드)를 모두 내장합니다.

클래스는 베이스 클래스라고 하는 하나 이상의 다른 클래스를 기반으로 할 수
있습니다.  그러면 베이스 클래스의 어트리뷰트와 메서드를 상속합니다.  이
는 상속을 통해 객체 모델을 점진적으로 재정의할 수 있도록 합니다.  우편함
에 대한 기본 접근자 메서드를 제공하는 일반 ‘Mailbox’ 클래스와 다양한 특
정 사서함 형식을 처리하는 ‘MboxMailbox’, ‘MaildirMailbox’,
‘OutlookMailbox’와 같은 서브 클래스가 있을 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드는 무엇입니까?,  Next: self는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 클래스는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.2 메서드는 무엇입니까?
.............................

메서드는 일반적으로 ‘x.name(arguments...)’로 호출하는 어떤 객체 ‘x’의 함
수입니다.  메서드는 클래스 정의 내에서 함수로 정의됩니다:

     class C:
         def meth(self, arg):
             return arg * 2 + self.attribute


File: python.info,  Node: self는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 객체가 주어진 클래스나 그 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인지 어떻게 확인합니까?,  Prev: 메서드는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.3 self는 무엇입니까?
...........................

self는 단지 메서드의 첫 번째 인자를 위한 관례적 이름입니다.  ‘meth(self,
a, b, c)’로 정의된 메서드는 정의가 등장한 클래스의 어떤 인스턴스 ‘x’에 대
해 ‘x.meth(a, b, c)’로 호출되어야 합니다; 호출된 메서드는 ‘meth(x, a, b,
c)’처럼 호출되었다고 생각합니다.

*note 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는
무엇입니까?: 5115. 도 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 객체가 주어진 클래스나 그 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인지 어떻게 확인합니까?,  Next: 위임이란 무엇입니까?,  Prev: self는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.4 객체가 주어진 클래스나 그 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인지 어떻게 확인합니까?
................................................................................

Use the built-in function *note isinstance(obj, cls): 43b.  You can
check if an object is an instance of any of a number of classes by
providing a tuple instead of a single class, e.g.  ‘isinstance(obj,
(class1, class2, ...))’, and can also check whether an object is one of
Python’s built-in types, e.g.  ‘isinstance(obj, str)’ or
‘isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))’.

Note that *note isinstance(): 43b. also checks for virtual inheritance
from an *note abstract base class: 11a5.  So, the test will return
‘True’ for a registered class even if hasn’t directly or indirectly
inherited from it.  To test for “true inheritance”, scan the *note MRO:
362e. of the class:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class P:
          pass

     class C(P):
         pass

     Mapping.register(P)

     >>> c = C()
     >>> isinstance(c, C)        # direct
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, P)        # indirect
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, Mapping)  # virtual
     True

     # Actual inheritance chain
     >>> type(c).__mro__
     (<class 'C'>, <class 'P'>, <class 'object'>)

     # Test for "true inheritance"
     >>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__
     False

대부분의 프로그램은 사용자 정의 클래스에서 *note isinstance(): 43b.를 자
주 사용하지 않음에 유의하십시오.  클래스를 직접 개발하고 있다면, 더 적절
한 객체 지향 스타일은 객체의 클래스를 확인하고 클래스에 따라 다른 작업을
수행하는 대신 특정 동작을 캡슐화하는 클래스의 메서드를 정의하는 것입니다
.  예를 들어, 무언가를 수행하는 함수가 있다면:

     def search(obj):
         if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox
         elif isinstance(obj, Document):
             ...  # code to search a document
         elif ...

더 나은 접근법은 모든 클래스에서 ‘search()’ 메서드를 정의하고 단지 그것
을 호출하는 것입니다:

     class Mailbox:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox

     class Document:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a document

     obj.search()


File: python.info,  Node: 위임이란 무엇입니까?,  Next: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Prev: 객체가 주어진 클래스나 그 서브 클래스의 인스턴스인지 어떻게 확인합니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.5 위임이란 무엇입니까?
.............................

위임(delegation)은 객체 지향 기법(디자인 패턴이라고도 합니다)입니다.
‘x’ 객체가 있고 메서드 중 하나의 동작을 변경하고 싶다고 가정해 봅시다.  변
경하려는 메서드의 새로운 구현을 제공하고 다른 모든 메서드를 ‘x’의 해당 메
서드에 위임하는 새 클래스를 만들 수 있습니다.

파이썬 프로그래머는 쉽게 위임을 구현할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음 클
래스는 파일처럼 동작하지만, 기록되는 모든 데이터를 대문자로 변환하는 클
래스를 구현합니다:

     class UpperOut:

         def __init__(self, outfile):
             self._outfile = outfile

         def write(self, s):
             self._outfile.write(s.upper())

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             return getattr(self._outfile, name)

Here the ‘UpperOut’ class redefines the ‘write()’ method to convert the
argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying
‘self._outfile.write()’ method.  All other methods are delegated to the
underlying ‘self._outfile’ object.  The delegation is accomplished via
the *note __getattr__(): 4cd. method; consult *note the language
reference: 1f6c. for more information about controlling attribute
access.

Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier.  When
attributes must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a
*note __setattr__(): 1f35. method too, and it must do so carefully.  The
basic implementation of ‘__setattr__()’ is roughly equivalent to the
following:

     class X:
         ...
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             self.__dict__[name] = value
         ...

Many *note __setattr__(): 1f35. implementations call
‘object.__setattr__()’ to set an attribute on self without causing
infinite recursion:

     class X:
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             # Custom logic here...
             object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting entries
into *note self.__dict__: 556. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Next: 베이스 클래스를 쉽게 변경할 수 있도록 코드를 구성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 위임이란 무엇입니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.6 How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?
.............................................................................................

내장 *note super(): 4d5. 함수를 사용하십시오:

     class Derived(Base):
         def meth(self):
             super().meth()  # calls Base.meth

In the example, *note super(): 4d5. will automatically determine the
instance from which it was called (the ‘self’ value), look up the *note
method resolution order: 2188. (MRO) with ‘type(self).__mro__’, and
return the next in line after ‘Derived’ in the MRO: ‘Base’.


File: python.info,  Node: 베이스 클래스를 쉽게 변경할 수 있도록 코드를 구성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 정적 클래스 데이터와 정적 클래스 메서드를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.7 베이스 클래스를 쉽게 변경할 수 있도록 코드를 구성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
....................................................................................

베이스 클래스를 별칭에 대입하고 별칭에서 파생할 수 있습니다.  그러면 별
칭에 대입된 값만 변경하면 됩니다.  또한 이 트릭은 사용할 베이스 클래스를
동적으로 (예를 들어 자원의 가용성에 따라) 결정하려는 경우에도 유용합니다
.  예:

     class Base:
         ...

     BaseAlias = Base

     class Derived(BaseAlias):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: 정적 클래스 데이터와 정적 클래스 메서드를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 생성자 또는 메서드 를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 베이스 클래스를 쉽게 변경할 수 있도록 코드를 구성하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.8 정적 클래스 데이터와 정적 클래스 메서드를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
...............................................................................

(C++나 Java의 의미에서) 정적 데이터와 정적 메서드 모두 파이썬에서 지원됩
니다.

정적 데이터의 경우, 단순히 클래스 어트리뷰트를 정의하십시오.  어트리뷰트
에 새 값을 대입하려면, 대입에서 클래스 이름을 명시적으로 사용해야 합니다
:

     class C:
         count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called

         def __init__(self):
             C.count = C.count + 1

         def getcount(self):
             return C.count  # or return self.count

‘c’ 자체나 ‘c.__class__’에서 ‘C’로 돌아가는 베이스 클래스 검색 경로에 놓
인 일부 클래스에 의해 재정의되지 않는 한, ‘c.count’는 ‘isinstance(c,
C)’가 성립하는 모든 ‘c’에 대해 ‘C.count’를 참조합니다.

주의: C의 메서드 내에서, ‘self.count = 42’와 같은 대입은 ‘self’의 자체 딕
셔너리에 “count”라는 새롭고 관련이 없는 인스턴스를 만듭니다.  클래스 정
적 데이터 이름의 재연결은 항상 메서드 내부에 있는지에 관계없이 클래스를
지정해야 합니다:

     C.count = 314

정적 메서드도 가능합니다:

     class C:
         @staticmethod
         def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
             # No 'self' parameter!
             ...

그러나, 정적 메서드의 효과를 얻는 훨씬 간단한 방법은 단순한 모듈 수준 함
수를 사용하는 것입니다:

     def getcount():
         return C.count

여러분의 코드가 모듈 당 하나의 클래스 (또는 밀접하게 관련된 클래스 계층
구조)를 정의하도록 구조화되었다면, 이것이 원하는 캡슐화를 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 생성자 또는 메서드 를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?,  Next: __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다,  Prev: 정적 클래스 데이터와 정적 클래스 메서드를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.9 파이썬에서 생성자(또는 메서드)를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?
......................................................................

이 답변은 실제로 모든 메서드에 적용되지만, 질문은 일반적으로 생성자 문맥
에서 가장 먼저 나옵니다.

C++에서는 다음과 같이 작성합니다

     class C {
         C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
         C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
     }

파이썬에서는 기본 인자를 사용하여 모든 경우를 다루는 단일 생성자를 작성
해야 합니다.  예를 들면:

     class C:
         def __init__(self, i=None):
             if i is None:
                 print("No arguments")
             else:
                 print("Argument is", i)

이것은 완전히 동등하지는 않지만, 실제로는 아주 가깝습니다.

가변 길이 인자 목록을 시도할 수도 있습니다, 예를 들어:

     def __init__(self, *args):
         ...

같은 접근법이 모든 메서드 정의에서도 동작합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다,  Next: 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다,  Prev: 파이썬에서 생성자 또는 메서드 를 어떻게 재정의할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.10 __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다.
...................................................................................

이중 선행 밑줄이 있는 변수 이름은 클래스 비공개(private) 변수를 정의하는
간단하지만, 효과적인 방법을 제공하기 위해 “뒤섞입니다(mangled)”.
‘__spam’ 형식(적어도 두 개의 선행 밑줄, 최대 하나의 후행 밑줄)의 모든 식
별자는 ‘_classname__spam’으로 텍스트 대체되는데, 여기서 ‘classname’ 은 모
든 선행 밑줄이 제거된 현재 클래스 이름입니다.

The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it
outside the class, the mangled name must be used:

     class A:
         def __one(self):
             return 1
         def two(self):
             return 2 * self.__one()

     class B(A):
         def three(self):
             return 3 * self._A__one()

     four = 4 * A()._A__one()

In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can
still deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers
never bother to use private variable names at all.

더 보기
.......

The *note private name mangling specifications: 1cc2. for details and
special cases.


File: python.info,  Node: 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다,  Next: 주어진 클래스의 모든 인스턴스 목록을 어떻게 얻습니까?,  Prev: __spam을 사용하려고 하는데 _SomeClassName__spam에 대한 에러가 발생합니다,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.11 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다.
..............................................................................

몇 가지 가능한 이유가 있습니다.

The *note del: 17ad. statement does not necessarily call *note
__del__(): 1f69. – it simply decrements the object’s reference count,
and if this reaches zero ‘__del__()’ is called.

If your data structures contain circular links (e.g.  a tree where each
child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the
reference counts will never go back to zero.  Once in a while Python
runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage collector might
run some time after the last reference to your data structure vanishes,
so your ‘__del__()’ method may be called at an inconvenient and random
time.  This is inconvenient if you’re trying to reproduce a problem.
Worse, the order in which object’s ‘__del__()’ methods are executed is
arbitrary.  You can run *note gc.collect(): a36. to force a collection,
but there 'are' pathological cases where objects will never be
collected.

Despite the cycle collector, it’s still a good idea to define an
explicit ‘close()’ method on objects to be called whenever you’re done
with them.  The ‘close()’ method can then remove attributes that refer
to subobjects.  Don’t call ‘__del__()’ directly – ‘__del__()’ should
call ‘close()’ and ‘close()’ should make sure that it can be called more
than once for the same object.

순환 참조를 피하는 또 다른 방법은 *note weakref: 114. 모듈을 사용하는 것
입니다.  이 모듈은 참조 횟수를 늘리지 않고 객체를 가리킬 수 있도록 합니
다.  예를 들어, 트리 자료 구조는 부모와 형제 참조에 대해 약한 참조를 사
용해야 합니다 (이런 것들이 필요하다면!).

Finally, if your ‘__del__()’ method raises an exception, a warning
message is printed to *note sys.stderr: 937.


File: python.info,  Node: 주어진 클래스의 모든 인스턴스 목록을 어떻게 얻습니까?,  Next: id 의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 내 클래스는 __del__을 정의하지만 객체를 삭제할 때 호출되지 않습니다,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.12 주어진 클래스의 모든 인스턴스 목록을 어떻게 얻습니까?
...............................................................

파이썬은 클래스(또는 내장형)의 모든 인스턴스를 추적하지 않습니다.  클래
스 생성자가 각 인스턴스에 대한 약한 참조 리스트를 유지하여 모든 인스턴스
를 추적하도록 프로그래밍 할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: id 의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 주어진 클래스의 모든 인스턴스 목록을 어떻게 얻습니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.13 ‘id()’의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?
........................................................................

*note id(): 13eb. 내장은 객체 수명 동안 고유하도록 보장되는 정수를 반환
합니다.  CPython에서는 이것이 객체의 메모리 주소이므로, 객체가 메모리에
서 삭제된 후 새로 만들어진 다음 객체가 메모리의 같은 위치에 할당되는 경
우가 자주 발생합니다.  다음과 같이 예시할 수 있습니다:

     >>> id(1000)
     13901272
     >>> id(2000)
     13901272

두 개의 id는 다른 정수 객체에 속하는데, ‘id()’ 호출 실행 앞에 만들어지고
, 호출 직후 삭제됩니다.  id를 검사하려는 객체가 여전히 살아 있도록 하려
면, 그 객체에 대한 다른 참조를 만드십시오:

     >>> a = 1000; b = 2000
     >>> id(a)
     13901272
     >>> id(b)
     13891296


File: python.info,  Node: is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?,  Next: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?,  Prev: id 의 결과가 고유하지 않은 것처럼 보이는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.14 'is' 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?
.........................................................................

‘is’ 연산자는 객체 아이덴티티를 검사합니다.  검사 ‘a is b’는 ‘id(a) ==
id(b)’와 동등합니다.

아이덴티티 검사의 가장 중요한 속성은 객체가 항상 자신과 동일하고 ‘a is
a’는 항상 ‘True’를 반환한다는 것입니다.  아이덴티티 검사는 일반적으로 동
등성 검사보다 빠릅니다.  동등성 검사와 달리, 아이덴티티 테스트는 불리언
‘True’나 ‘False’를 반환함이 보장됩니다.

그러나, 객체 아이덴티티가 보장될 때 아이덴티티 검사가 동등성 검사를 대체
할 수 있습니다.  일반적으로, 아이덴티티가 보장되는 세 가지 상황이 있습니
다:

  1. Assignments create new names but do not change object identity.
     After the assignment ‘new = old’, it is guaranteed that ‘new is
     old’.

  2. Putting an object in a container that stores object references does
     not change object identity.  After the list assignment ‘s[0] = x’,
     it is guaranteed that ‘s[0] is x’.

  3. If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of
     that object can exist.  After the assignments ‘a = None’ and ‘b =
     None’, it is guaranteed that ‘a is b’ because ‘None’ is a
     singleton.

대부분의 다른 상황에서는 아이덴티티 검사가 권장되지 않으며 동등성 테스트
가 선호됩니다.  특히, 싱글톤이 보장되지 않는 *note int: 257.와 *note
str: 445.과 같은 상수를 확인하는 데 아이덴티티 검사를 사용해서는 안 됩니
다:

     >>> a = 1000
     >>> b = 500
     >>> c = b + 500
     >>> a is c
     False

     >>> a = 'Python'
     >>> b = 'Py'
     >>> c = b + 'thon'
     >>> a is c
     False

마찬가지로, 가변 컨테이너의 새 인스턴스는 절대 동일하지 않습니다:

     >>> a = []
     >>> b = []
     >>> a is b
     False

표준 라이브러리 코드에서, 아이덴티티 검사를 올바르게 사용하는 몇 가지 일
반적인 패턴을 볼 수 있습니다:

  1. As recommended by PEP 8(1), an identity test is the preferred way
     to check for ‘None’.  This reads like plain English in code and
     avoids confusion with other objects that may have boolean values
     that evaluate to false.

  2. Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when ‘None’ is a valid
     input value.  In those situations, you can create a singleton
     sentinel object guaranteed to be distinct from other objects.  For
     example, here is how to implement a method that behaves like *note
     dict.pop(): 33c.:

          _sentinel = object()

          def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
              if key in self:
                  value = self[key]
                  del self[key]
                  return value
              if default is _sentinel:
                  raise KeyError(key)
              return default

  3. Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests
     with identity tests.  This prevents the code from being confused by
     objects such as ‘float('NaN')’ that are not equal to themselves.

For example, here is the implementation of
‘collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__()’:

     def __contains__(self, value):
         for v in self:
             if v is value or v == value:
                 return True
         return False

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?,  Next: How do I cache method calls?,  Prev: is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.15 How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?
..................................................................................

When subclassing an immutable type, override the *note __new__(): 57b.
method instead of the *note __init__(): 6aa. method.  The latter only
runs 'after' an instance is created, which is too late to alter data in
an immutable instance.

All of these immutable classes have a different signature than their
parent class:

     from datetime import date

     class FirstOfMonthDate(date):
         "Always choose the first day of the month"
         def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
             return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)

     class NamedInt(int):
         "Allow text names for some numbers"
         xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10}
         def __new__(cls, value):
             value = cls.xlat.get(value, value)
             return super().__new__(cls, value)

     class TitleStr(str):
         "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path"
         def __new__(cls, s):
             s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-')
             s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-'])
             return super().__new__(cls, s)

The classes can be used like this:

     >>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14)
     FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1)
     >>> NamedInt('ten')
     10
     >>> NamedInt(20)
     20
     >>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks')
     'blog-why-python-rocks'


File: python.info,  Node: How do I cache method calls?,  Prev: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?,  Up: 객체

10.2.6.16 How do I cache method calls?
......................................

The two principal tools for caching methods are *note
functools.cached_property(): 53c. and *note functools.lru_cache(): 9eb.
The former stores results at the instance level and the latter at the
class level.

The 'cached_property' approach only works with methods that do not take
any arguments.  It does not create a reference to the instance.  The
cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive.

The advantage is that when an instance is no longer used, the cached
method result will be released right away.  The disadvantage is that if
instances accumulate, so too will the accumulated method results.  They
can grow without bound.

The 'lru_cache' approach works with methods that have *note hashable:
60a. arguments.  It creates a reference to the instance unless special
efforts are made to pass in weak references.

The advantage of the least recently used algorithm is that the cache is
bounded by the specified 'maxsize'.  The disadvantage is that instances
are kept alive until they age out of the cache or until the cache is
cleared.

This example shows the various techniques:

     class Weather:
         "Lookup weather information on a government website"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self._station_id = station_id
             # The _station_id is private and immutable

         def current_temperature(self):
             "Latest hourly observation"
             # Do not cache this because old results
             # can be out of date.

         @cached_property
         def location(self):
             "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station"
             # Result only depends on the station_id

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'):
             "Rainfall on a given date"
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

The above example assumes that the 'station_id' never changes.  If the
relevant instance attributes are mutable, the 'cached_property' approach
can’t be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the
attributes.

To make the 'lru_cache' approach work when the 'station_id' is mutable,
the class needs to define the *note __eq__(): af7. and *note __hash__():
af8. methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates:

     class Weather:
         "Example with a mutable station identifier"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def change_station(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.station_id == other.station_id

         def __hash__(self):
             return hash(self.station_id)

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'):
             'Rainfall on a given date'
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.


File: python.info,  Node: 모듈<3>,  Prev: 객체,  Up: 프로그래밍 FAQ

10.2.7 모듈
-----------

* Menu:

* .pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?: pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?.
* 현재 모듈 이름을 어떻게 찾습니까?::
* 서로 임포트 하는 모듈을 어떻게 만들 수 있습니까?::
* __import__(‘x.y.z’)는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?: __import__ ‘x y z’ 는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?.
* 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때, 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다. 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?: 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?.


File: python.info,  Node: pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Next: 현재 모듈 이름을 어떻게 찾습니까?,  Up: 모듈<3>

10.2.7.1 .pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?
.....................................

모듈이 처음 임포트 될 때 (또는 현재 컴파일된 파일이 만들어진 후 소스 파
일이 변경되었을 때) 컴파일된 코드를 포함하는 ‘.pyc’ 파일은 ‘.py’ 파일을
포함하는 디렉터리의 ‘__pycache__’ 서브 디렉터리에 만들어져야 합니다.
‘.pyc’ 파일은 ‘.py’ 파일과 같은 이름으로 시작하고, ‘.pyc’로 끝나며, 파일
을 만든 특정 ‘python’ 바이너리 파일에 종속되는 중간 구성 요소를 갖는 파
일명을 갖습니다.  (자세한 내용은 PEP 3147(1)을 참조하십시오.)

‘.pyc’ 파일이 만들어지지 않을 수 있는 한 가지 이유는 소스 파일이 포함된
디렉터리의 권한 문제입니다.  즉, ‘__pycache__’ 서브 디렉터리를 만들 수 없
다는 뜻입니다.  예를 들어, 한 사용자로 개발했지만 다른 사용자로 실행하는
경우에 이런 일이 일어날 수 있습니다, 가령 웹 서버로 테스트하고 있을 때입
니다.

*note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1397. 환경 변수가 설정되어 있지 않은 한,
모듈을 임포트 하고 파이썬이 ‘__pycache__’ 서브 디렉터리를 만들고 컴파일
된 모듈을 그 서브 디렉터리에 쓸 수 있는 능력(권한, 여유 공간 등)이 있으
면 .pyc 파일의 생성은 자동입니다.

최상위 스크립트에서 파이썬을 실행하는 것은 임포트로 간주하지 않으며
‘.pyc’가 만들어지지 않습니다.  예를 들어, 다른 모듈 ‘xyz.py’를 임포트 하
는 최상위 모듈 ‘foo.py’가 있을 때, (‘python foo.py’를 셸 명령으로 입력하
여) ‘foo’를 실행하면, ‘xyz’를 임포트 하기 때문에 ‘xyz’에 대해 ‘.pyc’가 만
들어지지만, ‘foo.py’를 임포트 하지 않기 때문에 ‘foo’에 대해서는 ‘.pyc’ 파
일이 만들어지지 않습니다.

‘foo’에 대한 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 만들 필요가 있으면 – 즉, 임포트 되지 않는 모
듈에 대한 ‘.pyc’ 파일을 만들려면 – *note py_compile: b3.과 *note
compileall: 20. 모듈을 사용할 수 있습니다.

*note py_compile: b3. 모듈은 임의의 모듈을 수동으로 컴파일할 수 있습니다
.  한 가지 방법은 해당 모듈에서 ‘compile()’ 함수를 대화식으로 사용하는 것
입니다:

     >>> import py_compile
     >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')

이것은 ‘.pyc’를 ‘foo.py’와 같은 위치에 있는 ‘__pycache__’ 서브 디렉터리
에 기록합니다 (또는 선택적 매개변수 ‘cfile’로 이를 재정의할 수 있습니다
).

*note compileall: 20. 모듈을 사용하여 디렉터리의 모든 파일을 자동으로 컴
파일할 수도 있습니다.  ‘compileall.py’를 실행하고 컴파일할 파이썬 파일이
포함된 디렉터리의 경로를 제공하여 셸 프롬프트에서 이를 수행할 수 있습니
다:

     python -m compileall .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: 현재 모듈 이름을 어떻게 찾습니까?,  Next: 서로 임포트 하는 모듈을 어떻게 만들 수 있습니까?,  Prev: pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Up: 모듈<3>

10.2.7.2 현재 모듈 이름을 어떻게 찾습니까?
..........................................

모듈은 사전 정의된 전역 변수 ‘__name__’을 봄으로써 모듈 자신의 이름을 찾
을 수 있습니다.  값이 ‘'__main__'’이면, 프로그램이 스크립트로 실행 중입
니다.  일반적으로 모듈을 임포트 해서 사용하는 많은 모듈은 명령 줄 인터페
이스나 자체 테스트를 제공하며, ‘__name__’을 확인한 후에 만 이 코드를 실
행합니다:

     def main():
         print('Running test...')
         ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: 서로 임포트 하는 모듈을 어떻게 만들 수 있습니까?,  Next: __import__ ‘x y z’ 는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?,  Prev: 현재 모듈 이름을 어떻게 찾습니까?,  Up: 모듈<3>

10.2.7.3 서로 임포트 하는 모듈을 어떻게 만들 수 있습니까?
.........................................................

다음 모듈이 있다고 가정하십시오:

‘foo.py’:

     from bar import bar_var
     foo_var = 1

‘bar.py’:

     from foo import foo_var
     bar_var = 2

문제는 인터프리터가 다음 단계를 수행한다는 것입니다:

   * main imports ‘foo’

   * Empty globals for ‘foo’ are created

   * ‘foo’ is compiled and starts executing

   * ‘foo’ imports ‘bar’

   * Empty globals for ‘bar’ are created

   * ‘bar’ is compiled and starts executing

   * ‘bar’ imports ‘foo’ (which is a no-op since there already is a
     module named ‘foo’)

   * The import mechanism tries to read ‘foo_var’ from ‘foo’ globals, to
     set ‘bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var’

마지막 단계가 실패합니다.  파이썬이 아직 ‘foo’를 인터프리트 하는 것을 완
료하지 않았고 ‘foo’의 전역 기호 딕셔너리가 여전히 비어 있기 때문입니다.

‘import foo’를 사용하고 전역 코드에서 ‘foo.foo_var’에 액세스하려고 할 때
도 같은 일이 일어납니다.

이 문제에 대해 가능한 (최소한) 세 가지 해결 방법이 있습니다.

Guido van Rossum은 ‘from <module> import ...’을 아예 사용하지 말고, 모든
코드를 함수 내에 배치할 것을 권장합니다.  전역 변수와 클래스 변수의 초기
화는 상수나 내장 함수만 사용해야 합니다.  이것은 임포트 된 모듈의 모든 것
이 ‘<module>.<name>’으로 참조됨을 의미합니다.

Jim Roskind는 각 모듈에서 다음 순서로 단계를 수행할 것을 제안합니다:

   * 내보내기 (전역, 함수 및 베이스 클래스를 임포트 할 필요가 없는 클래
     스)

   * ‘import’ 문

   * 활성 코드 (임포트 된 값에서 초기화된 전역 포함).

Van Rossum doesn’t like this approach much because the imports appear in
a strange place, but it does work.

Matthias Urlichs는 처음부터 재귀 임포트가 필요하지 않도록 코드를 재구성
할 것을 권합니다.

이 해결 방법들은 상호 배타적이지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: __import__ ‘x y z’ 는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?,  Next: 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?,  Prev: 서로 임포트 하는 모듈을 어떻게 만들 수 있습니까?,  Up: 모듈<3>

10.2.7.4 __import__(‘x.y.z’)는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?
..............................................................................

*note importlib: 77.의 편의 함수 *note import_module(): 511.을 대신 사용
하는 곳을 고려하십시오:

     z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')


File: python.info,  Node: 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?,  Prev: __import__ ‘x y z’ 는 <module ‘x’>를 반환합니다; z를 어떻게 얻습니까?,  Up: 모듈<3>

10.2.7.5 임포트 된 모듈을 편집하고 다시 임포트 할 때, 변경 사항이 표시되지 않습니다. 왜 이런 일이 발생합니까?
.............................................................................................................

효율성뿐만 아니라 일관성의 이유로, 파이썬은 모듈을 처음 임포트 할 때만 모
듈 파일을 읽습니다.  그렇지 않으면, 각 모듈이 같은 기본 모듈을 임포트 하
는 많은 모듈로 구성된 프로그램에서, 기본 모듈을 여러 번 구문 분석하고 다
시 구문 분석하게 됩니다.  변경된 모듈을 강제로 다시 읽으려면, 다음과 같
이 하십시오:

     import importlib
     import modname
     importlib.reload(modname)

경고: 이 기법은 100% 확실하지 않습니다.  특히, 다음과 같은 문장을 포함하
는 모듈은

     from modname import some_objects

임포트 된 객체의 이전 버전으로 계속 작업합니다.  모듈에 클래스 정의가 포
함되면, 새 클래스 정의를 사용하도록 기존 클래스 인스턴스가 갱신되지 '않
습니다'.  이것은 다음과 같은 역설적인 동작으로 이어집니다:

     >>> import importlib
     >>> import cls
     >>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
     >>> importlib.reload(cls)
     <module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
     >>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
     False

클래스 객체의 “아이덴티티”를 인쇄하면 문제의 본질이 분명해집니다:

     >>> hex(id(c.__class__))
     '0x7352a0'
     >>> hex(id(cls.C))
     '0x4198d0'


File: python.info,  Node: 설계와 역사 FAQ,  Next: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ,  Prev: 프로그래밍 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.3 설계와 역사 FAQ
====================

* Menu:

* 파이썬은 왜 문장의 그룹화에 들여쓰기를 사용합니까?::
* 간단한 산술 연산으로 이상한 결과가 나오는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 부동 소수점 계산이 왜 그렇게 부정확합니까?::
* 파이썬 문자열이 불변인 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능(예를 들어 list.index())에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능(예를 들어 len(list))에는 함수를 사용합니까?: 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능 예를 들어 list index 에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능 예를 들어 len list 에는 함수를 사용합니까?.
* join()이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?: join 이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?::
* 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?::
* 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬을 기계 코드, C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?.
* 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?::
* CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?::
* CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?::
* 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* list.sort()가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?: list sort 가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?::
* goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 날 문자열(r-strings)이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?: 날 문자열 r-strings 이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
* 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?::
* Why don’t generators support the with statement?::
* if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬은 왜 리스트와 튜플 끝에 쉼표를 허용합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬은 왜 문장의 그룹화에 들여쓰기를 사용합니까?,  Next: 간단한 산술 연산으로 이상한 결과가 나오는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.1 파이썬은 왜 문장의 그룹화에 들여쓰기를 사용합니까?
---------------------------------------------------------

Guido van Rossum은 그룹화에 들여쓰기를 사용하는 것이 매우 우아하고 일반
적인 파이썬 프로그램의 명확성에 크게 기여한다고 믿습니다.  대부분의 사람
은 시간이 좀 흐른 후에 이 기능을 사랑하는 법을 배웁니다.

시작/끝 괄호가 없기 때문에 구문 분석기와 사람 독자가 인식하는 그룹 간에
불일치가 있을 수 없습니다.  때때로 C 프로그래머는 다음과 같은 코드 조각
을 만나게 됩니다:

     if (x <= y)
             x++;
             y--;
     z++;

조건이 참이면 ‘x++’ 문만 실행되지만, 들여쓰기는 많은 사람이 그렇지 않다
고 믿게 만듭니다.  경험 많은 C 프로그래머조차도 ‘x > y’일 때도 ‘y’가 감
소하는 이유를 궁금해하면서 오래 들여다볼 때가 있습니다.

시작/끝 괄호가 없기 때문에, 파이썬은 코딩 스타일 충돌이 훨씬 적습니다.
C에서는 중괄호를 배치하는 여러 가지 방법이 있습니다.  특정 스타일을 사용
하여 코드를 읽고 쓰는 데 익숙해지면, 다른 스타일로 읽을 (또는 작성해야 할
) 때 다소 불편함을 느끼는 것은 정상입니다.

많은 코딩 스타일은 시작/끝 괄호를 그 자신만의 줄에 배치합니다.  이로 인
해 프로그램이 상당히 길어지고 귀중한 화면 공간이 낭비되어, 프로그램을 조
망하기가 더 어려워집니다.  이상적으로는, 함수가 한 화면에 맞아야 합니다
(가령, 20–30줄).  20줄의 파이썬은 C의 20줄보다 훨씬 더 많은 작업을 수행
할 수 있습니다.  이것은 시작/끝 괄호가 필요 없기 때문 만은 아닙니다만 –
선언이 없는 것과 고수준의 데이터형도 기여합니다 – 들여쓰기 기반 문법은 확
실히 도움이 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 간단한 산술 연산으로 이상한 결과가 나오는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 부동 소수점 계산이 왜 그렇게 부정확합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬은 왜 문장의 그룹화에 들여쓰기를 사용합니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.2 간단한 산술 연산으로 이상한 결과가 나오는 이유는 무엇입니까?
-------------------------------------------------------------------

다음 질문을 보십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 부동 소수점 계산이 왜 그렇게 부정확합니까?,  Next: 파이썬 문자열이 불변인 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 간단한 산술 연산으로 이상한 결과가 나오는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.3 부동 소수점 계산이 왜 그렇게 부정확합니까?
-------------------------------------------------

사용자는 종종 다음과 같은 결과에 놀라게 됩니다:

     >>> 1.2 - 1.0
     0.19999999999999996

그리고 이것을 파이썬의 버그라고 생각합니다.  그렇지 않습니다.  이것은 파
이썬과 거의 관련이 없으며, 하부 플랫폼이 부동 소수점 숫자를 처리하는 방
법과 훨씬 더 관련이 있습니다.

CPython의 *note float: 2ef. 형은 저장을 위해 C ‘double’을 사용합니다.
*note float: 2ef. 객체의 값은 고정 정밀도(일반적으로 53비트)의 이진 부동
소수점에 저장되고 파이썬은 부동 소수점 연산을 수행하는 데 C 연산을 사용
하며, 이는 다시 프로세서의 하드웨어 구현에 의존합니다.  즉, 부동 소수점
연산에 관한 한, 파이썬은 C와 Java를 포함한 많은 널리 알려진 언어들처럼 작
동합니다.

십진 표기법으로 쉽게 쓸 수 있는 많은 숫자가 이진 부동 소수점으로는 정확
하게 표현할 수 없습니다.  예를 들어,:

     >>> x = 1.2

이후에, ‘x’에 대해 저장된 값은 10진수 값 ‘1.2’에 대한 (매우 좋은) 근사치
이지만, 정확히 같지는 않습니다.  일반적인 기계에서 실제 저장되는 값은 다
음과 같습니다:

     1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (이진수)

이것은 정확하게는 다음과 같습니다:

     1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (십진수)

53비트의 일반적인 정밀도는 파이썬 부동 소수점에 15–16자리의 10진수 정확
도를 제공합니다.

자세한 설명은, 파이썬 자습서의 *note 부동 소수점 산술: 1d19. 장을 참조하
십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 문자열이 불변인 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 부동 소수점 계산이 왜 그렇게 부정확합니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.4 파이썬 문자열이 불변인 이유는 무엇입니까?
------------------------------------------------

몇 가지 장점이 있습니다.

하나는 성능입니다: 문자열이 불변임을 안다는 것은 만들 때 이를 위한 공간
을 할당할 수 있다는 것을 의미하며, 스토리지 요구 사항은 고정되고 변경되
지 않습니다.  이것은 또한 튜플과 리스트를 구분하는 이유 중 하나입니다.

또 다른 장점은 파이썬의 문자열을 숫자만큼 “기본적”으로 간주한다는 것입니
다.  어떤 방법도 값 8을 다른 것으로 변경하지 않으며, 파이썬에서는 어떤 방
법도 문자열 “eight”을 다른 것으로 변경하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 문자열이 불변인 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.5 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

아이디어는 Modula-3에서 빌렸습니다.  여러 가지 이유로 매우 유용합니다.

첫째, 로컬 변수 대신 메서드나 인스턴스 어트리뷰트를 사용하고 있다는 것이
더 분명합니다.  ‘self.x’나 ‘self.meth()’를 읽으면 클래스 정의를 기억하지
못하더라도 인스턴스 변수나 메서드가 사용된다는 것을 분명히 알 수 있습니
다.  C++에서는, 지역 변수 선언이 없는 것으로 구분할 수 있습니다 (전역은
드물거나 쉽게 인식할 수 있다고 가정할 때) – 하지만 파이썬에서는, 지역 변
수 선언이 없어서, 확실히 하려면 클래스 정의를 찾아야 합니다.  일부 C++와
Java 코딩 표준에서는 인스턴스 어트리뷰트에 ‘m_’ 접두어를 요청합니다, 따
라서 이러한 명시성은 이런 언어들에서도 여전히 유용합니다.

둘째, 특정 클래스에서 메서드를 명시적으로 참조하거나 호출하려고 할 때 특
별한 문법이 필요하지 않음을 의미합니다.  C++에서, 파생 클래스에서 재정의
된 베이스 클래스의 메서드를 사용하려면, ‘::’ 연산자를 사용해야 합니다 –
파이썬에서는 ‘baseclass.methodname(self, <argument list>)’라고 쓸 수 있
습니다.  이것은 *note __init__(): 6aa. 메서드에, 일반적으로 파생 클래스
메서드가 같은 이름의 베이스 클래스 메서드를 확장하려고 해서 어떻게든 베
이스 클래스 메서드를 호출해야 하는 경우에 특히 유용합니다.

마지막으로, 인스턴스 변수의 경우 대입과 관련된 문법 문제를 해결합니다: 파
이썬의 지역 변수는 (정의상!)  함수 본문에서 값이 대입되는 (그리고 전역으
로 명시적으로 선언되지 않은) 변수이기 때문에, 인터프리터에게 대입이 지역
변수가 아니라 인스턴스 변수에 대한 대입이라는 것을 알릴 방법이 있어야 하
고, (효율성의 측면에서) 구문적이면 좋습니다.  C++는 선언을 통해 이 작업
을 수행하지만, 파이썬에는 선언이 없어서 이러한 목적으로만 문법을 도입해
야 하는 것은 유감입니다.  명시적 ‘self.var’를 사용하면 이 문제가 잘 해결
됩니다.  마찬가지로, 인스턴스 변수를 사용하는 경우, ‘self.var’라고 써야
한다는 것은, 메서드 내에서 정규화되지 않은 이름에 대한 참조가 인스턴스의
디렉터리를 검색할 필요가 없음을 의미합니다.  다시 말해, 지역 변수와 인스
턴스 변수는 두 개의 서로 다른 이름 공간에 있으며, 사용할 이름 공간을 파
이썬에 알려야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능 예를 들어 list index 에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능 예를 들어 len list 에는 함수를 사용합니까?,  Prev: 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.6 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?
----------------------------------------------------------

파이썬 3.8부터, 가능합니다!

바다코끼리(walrus) 연산자 ‘:=’를 사용하는 대입 표현식은 표현식에 있는 변
수를 대입합니다:

     while chunk := fp.read(200):
        print(chunk)

자세한 정보는 PEP 572(1)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능 예를 들어 list index 에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능 예를 들어 len list 에는 함수를 사용합니까?,  Next: join 이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.7 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능(예를 들어 list.index())에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능(예를 들어 len(list))에는 함수를 사용합니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Guido가 말했듯이:

     (a) 일부 연산의 경우, 전위 표기법(prefix notation)이 후위(postfix)
     표기법보다 더 잘 읽힙니다 – 전위 (그리고 중위(infix)!)  연산은 수학
     에서 오랜 전통을 가지고 있는데, 수학자가 문제에 대해 생각하는 데 시
     각적으로 도움이 되는 표기법을 좋아하는 곳입니다.  x*(a+b) 와 같은 공
     식을 x*a + x*b 로 다시 작성하기 쉬운 것과 원시 OO 표기법을 사용하여
     같은 작업을 수행할 때의 어색함을 비교해 보십시오.

     (b) len(x) 라는 코드를 읽을 때 저는 무언가의 길이를 요구하고 있다는
     것을 '압니다'.  이것은 저에게 두 가지를 알려줍니다: 결과는 정수이고
     , 인자는 일종의 컨테이너입니다.  반대로, x.len() 을 읽을 때, x가 인
     터페이스를 구현하거나 표준 len() 이 있는 클래스에서 상속하는 일종의
     컨테이너라는 것을 이미 알고 있어야 합니다.  매핑을 구현하지 않는 클
     래스에 get() 이나 keys() 메서드가 있거나, 파일이 아닌 것에 write()
     메서드가 있을 때 때때로 겪는 혼란을 보십시오.

-- ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html’


File: python.info,  Node: join 이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?,  Prev: 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능 예를 들어 list index 에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능 예를 들어 len list 에는 함수를 사용합니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.8 join()이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

항상 string 모듈의 함수를 사용하여 제공되었던 것과 같은 기능을 제공하는
메서드가 추가된, 파이썬 1.6부터 문자열은 다른 표준형과 훨씬 더 비슷해졌
습니다.  이러한 새로운 메서드의 대부분은 널리 받아들여졌지만, 일부 프로
그래머가 불편해하는 것은 다음과 같습니다:

     ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])

이것은 다음과 같은 결과를 제공합니다:

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16"

이 사용법에 대해 두 가지 자주 나오는 반론이 있습니다.

첫 번째는 “문자열 리터럴(문자열 상수)의 메서드를 사용하는 것이 정말 보기
흉합니다”라는 줄이 따라옵니다.  이에 대한 대답은 그럴 수 있지만, 문자열
리터럴은 그저 고정된 값일 뿐이라는 것입니다.  메서드가 문자열에 연결된 이
름에 허용된다면, 리터럴에서 사용할 수 없게 만드는 논리적 이유가 없습니다
.

두 번째 이의는 보통 다음과 같이 표현됩니다: “나는 시퀀스가 멤버를 문자열
상수로 연결하라고 말하고 있습니다”.  슬프게도, 당신은 그렇지 않습니다.  어
떤 이유로 *note split(): ea0.를 문자열 메서드로 사용하는 데 훨씬 덜 어려
움을 겪는 것 같습니다, 그럴 때 다음과 같은 표현이

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")

문자열 리터럴에게 주어진 구분자(또는, 기본적으로, 임의의 공백 연속)로 구
분된 하위 문자열을 반환하도록 하는 명령임을 쉽게 알 수 있기 때문입니다.

*note join(): 21b3.은 문자열 메서드입니다.  사용 시 구분자 문자열에게 문
자열 시퀀스를 이터레이트 하고 인접한 요소 사이에 자신을 삽입하도록 지시
하기 때문입니다.  이 메서드는 사용자가 직접 정의할 수 있는 새 클래스를 포
함하여, 시퀀스 객체에 대한 규칙을 따르는 모든 인자와 함께 사용할 수 있습
니다.  바이트열과 bytearray 객체에 대해 유사한 메서드가 존재합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?,  Next: 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: join 이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.9 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?
------------------------------

예외가 발생하지 않으면 *note try: 6e2./*note except: 18b. 블록은 매우 효
율적입니다.  실제로 예외를 잡는 것은 비용이 많이 듭니다.  2.0 이전의 파
이썬 버전에서는 다음 관용구를 사용하는 것이 일반적이었습니다:

     try:
         value = mydict[key]
     except KeyError:
         mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
         value = mydict[key]

이것은 딕셔너리에 거의 항상 키가 있을 것으로 예상했을 때만 의미가 있습니
다.  그렇지 않으면, 다음과 같이 코딩했습니다:

     if key in mydict:
         value = mydict[key]
     else:
         value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

이 특정 경우에, ‘value = dict.setdefault(key, getvalue(key))’를 사용할 수
도 있지만, ‘getvalue()’ 호출이 모든 경우에 평가되기 때문에 충분히 저렴한
경우에만 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?,  Prev: 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.10 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?
------------------------------------------------------------

In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when
an expression has a particular value or set of values.  Since Python
3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a
namespace, with a ‘match ... case’ statement.  An older alternative is a
sequence of ‘if... elif... elif... else’.

매우 많은 가능성 중에서 선택해야 하는 경우에는, case 값을 호출할 함수에
매핑하는 딕셔너리를 만들 수 있습니다.  예를 들면:

     functions = {'a': function_1,
                  'b': function_2,
                  'c': self.method_1}

     func = functions[value]
     func()

객체에 대한 메서드 호출의 경우, *note getattr(): bce. 내장 함수를 사용하
여 특정 이름을 가진 메서드를 꺼내어 더욱 단순화 할 수 있습니다:

     class MyVisitor:
         def visit_a(self):
             ...

         def dispatch(self, value):
             method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
             method = getattr(self, method_name)
             method()

이 예제의 ‘visit_’와 같이 메서드 이름에 접두사를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.
이러한 접두사가 없으면, 값이 신뢰할 수 없는 소스에서 오는 경우, 공격자가
객체의 모든 메서드를 호출할 수 있습니다.

Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C’s switch-case-default, is
possible, much harder, and less needed.


File: python.info,  Node: OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?,  Next: 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.11 OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

답변 1: 불행히도, 인터프리터는 각 파이썬 스택 프레임에 대해 적어도 하나
의 C 스택 프레임을 푸시합니다.  또한, 확장은 거의 임의의 순간에 파이썬으
로 콜백 할 수 있습니다.  따라서, 전체 스레드 구현에는 C에 대한 스레드 지
원이 필요합니다.

답변 2: 다행히, C 스택을 피하도록 완전히 재설계된 인터프리터 루프가 있는
Stackless Python(1)이 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki


File: python.info,  Node: 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.12 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------

파이썬의 구문 프레임워크는 표현식 내부에 중첩된 문장을 처리할 수 없기 때
문에 파이썬 람다 표현식은 문장을 포함할 수 없습니다.  그러나, 파이썬에서
, 이것은 심각한 문제가 아닙니다.  기능을 추가하는 다른 언어의 람다 형식
과 달리, 파이썬 람다는 함수를 정의하기에 너무 게으른 경우를 위한 줄임 표
기법일 뿐입니다.

함수는 이미 파이썬의 일급 객체이며, 지역 스코프에서 선언할 수 있습니다.
따라서 지역에 정의된 함수 대신 람다를 사용하는 유일한 이점은 함수의 이름
을 만들 필요가 없다는 것입니다 – 하지만 그것은 단지 함수 객체(람다 표현
식이 산출하는 것과 정확히 같은 형의 객체)가 대입되는 지역 변수일 뿐입니
다!


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?,  Prev: 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.13 파이썬을 기계 코드, C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Cython(1)은 수정된 버전의 파이썬을 선택적 주석이 있는 C 확장으로 컴파일
합니다.  Nuitka(2)는 완전한 파이썬 언어 지원을 목표로 하는 파이썬을 C++
코드로 변환하는 유망한 컴파일러입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://nuitka.net/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?,  Next: CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.14 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?
--------------------------------------------

파이썬 메모리 관리의 세부 사항은 구현에 따라 다릅니다.  파이썬의 표준 구
현인 *note CPython: 6ef.은 참조 카운팅을 사용하여 액세스할 수 없는 객체
를 감지하고, 또 다른 메커니즘을 사용하여 참조 순환을 수집하고, 액세스할
수 없는 순환을 찾고 관련된 객체를 삭제하는 순환 감지 알고리즘을 주기적으
로 실행합니다.  *note gc: 60. 모듈은 가비지 수집을 수행하고, 디버깅 통계
를 얻고, 수거기의 매개 변수를 조정하는 함수를 제공합니다.

그러나, 다른 구현(가령 Jython(1)이나 PyPy(2))은 완전한 가비지 수거기와 같
은 다른 메커니즘에 의존할 수 있습니다.  이 차이는 파이썬 코드가 참조 카
운팅 구현의 동작에 의존하는 경우 미묘한 이식 문제를 일으킬 수 있습니다.

일부 파이썬 구현에서, 다음 코드(CPython에서는 괜찮습니다)는 아마도 파일
기술자의 소진을 일으킵니다:

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         f = open(file)
         c = f.read(1)

실제로, CPython의 참조 카운팅과 파괴자 체계를 사용할 때, ‘f’에 대한 각각
의 새로운 대입은 이전 파일을 닫습니다.  그러나 전통적인 GC를 사용하면, 이
러한 파일 객체는 다양하고 어쩌면 긴 간격으로만 수집(그리고 닫히게)됩니다
.

모든 파이썬 구현에서 작동하는 코드를 작성하려면, 명시적으로 파일을 닫거
나 *note with: 5cc. 문을 사용해야 합니다; 다음은 메모리 관리 체계와 관계
없이 작동합니다:

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         with open(file) as f:
             c = f.read(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org

   (2) https://pypy.org


File: python.info,  Node: CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.15 CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

우선, 이것은 C 표준 기능이 아니라서 이식성이 없습니다.  (예, 우리는
Boehm GC 라이브러리에 대해 알고 있습니다.  '대부분의' 일반 플랫폼용 (그
들 전부는 아닙니다) 어셈블러 코드가 있고, 대체로 투명하지만, 완전히 투명
하지는 않습니다; 파이썬이 이것으로 작동하도록 하려면 패치가 필요합니다.)

전통적인 GC는 파이썬이 다른 응용 프로그램에 내장될 때도 문제가 됩니다.  독
립형 파이썬에서는 표준 ‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’를 GC 라이브러리에서 제공하
는 버전으로 대체해도 상관없지만, 파이썬을 내장하는 응용 프로그램은
‘malloc()’과 ‘free()’에 대한 '자신만의' 대체를 원할 수 있습니다, 그리고
파이썬의 것을 원하지 않을 수 있습니다.  현재, CPython은 ‘malloc()’과
‘free()’를 올바르게 구현하는 모든 것과 동작합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.16 CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

파이썬 모듈의 전역 이름 공간에서 참조된 객체는 파이썬이 종료될 때 항상 할
당 해제되지는 않습니다.  순환 참조가 있으면 발생할 수 있습니다.  C 라이
브러리에 의해 할당된 해제가 불가능한 특정 메모리도 있습니다 (예를 들어
Purify와 같은 도구는 이에 대해 불평합니다).  그러나, 파이썬은 종료 시 메
모리 정리에 적극적이며 모든 단일 객체를 파괴하려고 시도합니다.

할당 해제 시 파이썬이 특정 항목을 삭제하도록 강제하려면 *note atexit: c.
모듈을 사용하여 해당 삭제를 강제하는 함수를 실행하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?,  Prev: CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.17 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?
---------------------------------------------------------------

리스트와 튜플은, 여러 면에서 비슷하지만, 일반적으로 근본적으로 다른 방식
으로 사용됩니다.  튜플은 파스칼 ‘레코드(record)’나 C ‘구조체(struct)’와
유사하다고 생각할 수 있습니다; 그룹으로 다뤄지는 다양한 형을 갖는 관련 데
이터의 작은 모음입니다.  예를 들어, 직교 좌표는 2개나 3개의 숫자로 구성
된 튜플로 적절하게 표시됩니다.

반면에, 리스트는 다른 언어의 배열과 더 비슷합니다.  이들은 모두 같은 형
을 가지고 하나씩 다뤄지는 다양한 수의 객체를 보유하는 경향이 있습니다.  예
를 들어, *note os.listdir('.'): 10eb.은 현재 디렉터리의 파일을 나타내는
문자열 리스트를 반환합니다.  이 출력에 작동하는 함수는 디렉터리에 다른 파
일 한두 개를 추가해도 일반적으로 오동작하지 않습니다.

튜플은 불변입니다.  즉, 일단 튜플이 만들어지면, 어느 요소도 새 값으로 바
꿀 수 없습니다.  리스트는 가변이라서, 언제든지 리스트의 요소를 변경할 수
있습니다.  불변인 요소만 딕셔너리 키로 사용할 수 있어서, 리스트가 아니라
튜플만 키로 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?,  Next: CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?,  Prev: 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.18 CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?
-----------------------------------------------

CPython의 리스트는 실제로는 가변 길이 배열입니다, Lisp 스타일의 연결 리
스트(linked lists)가 아닙니다.  구현은 다른 객체에 대한 참조의 연속적인
배열을 사용하고, 이 배열에 대한 포인터와 배열의 길이를 리스트 헤드 구조
체에 유지합니다.

이것은 리스트 인덱싱 ‘a[i]’의 비용이 리스트의 크기나 인덱스의 값과 무관
한 연산으로 만듭니다.

항목이 추가되거나 삽입되면, 참조 배열의 크기가 조정됩니다.  항목을 반복
적으로 추가하는 성능을 향상하기 위해 약간 영리하게 처리합니다; 배열을 확
장해야 할 때, 추가 공간이 할당되어 다음 몇 번에는 실제 크기 조정이 필요
하지 않습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?,  Next: 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.19 CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?
-------------------------------------------------

CPython의 딕셔너리는 크기 조정 가능한 해시 테이블로 구현됩니다.  B-트리
와 비교해, 대부분의 상황에서 조회(지금까지 가장 흔한 연산) 성능이 향상되
고, 구현이 더 간단합니다.

딕셔너리는 *note hash(): 5e5. 내장 함수를 사용하여 딕셔너리에 저장된 각
키에 대한 해시 코드를 계산하여 작동합니다.  해시 코드는 키와 프로세스별
시드에 따라 크게 다릅니다; 예를 들어, ‘'Python'’은 ‘-539294296’으로 해시
할 수 있는 반면, 한 글자만 다른 문자열인 ‘'python'’은 ‘1142331976’로 해
시 할 수 있습니다.  그런 다음 해시 코드는 값이 저장될 내부 배열의 위치를
계산하는 데 사용됩니다.  모든 해시값이 다른 키를 저장한다고 가정하면, 딕
셔너리가 키를 검색하는 데 상수 시간이 걸린다는 뜻입니다 – Big-O 표기법으
로 'O'(1).


File: python.info,  Node: 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: list sort 가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.20 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?
--------------------------------------------------------

딕셔너리의 해시 테이블 구현은 키값에서 계산된 해시값을 사용하여 키를 찾
습니다.  키가 가변 객체이면, 값이 변경될 수 있어서, 해시도 변경될 수 있
습니다.  그러나 키 객체를 변경하는 주체는 그것이 딕셔너리 키로 사용되고
있음을 알 수 없기 때문에, 딕셔너리에서 항목을 이동할 수 없습니다.  그런
다음, 딕셔너리에서 같은 객체를 찾으려고 하면 해시값이 다르기 때문에 찾을
수 없습니다.  이전 값을 찾으려고 해도 해당 해시 저장소에서 발견된 객체의
값이 다르기 때문에 역시 찾을 수 없습니다.

딕셔너리를 리스트로 인덱싱하려면, 먼저 리스트를 튜플로 변환하십시오;
‘tuple(L)’ 함수는 리스트 ‘L’과 같은 항목을 가진 튜플을 만듭니다.  튜플은
불변이므로 딕셔너리 키로 사용할 수 있습니다.

제안되었지만 받아들여지지 않은 몇 가지 해법:

   - 주소(객체 ID)로 리스트를 해시 합니다.  같은 값으로 새 리스트를 생성
     하면 찾을 수 없기 때문에 작동하지 않습니다; 예를 들어:

          mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
          print(mydict[[1, 2]])

     는 두 번째 줄에 사용된 ‘[1, 2]’의 id가 첫 번째 줄의 것과 다르기 때
     문에 *note KeyError: 33d. 예외가 발생합니다.  즉, 딕셔너리 키는
     *note is: 2ed.가 아니라 ‘==’를 사용하여 비교해야 합니다.

   - 리스트를 키로 사용할 때 사본을 만듭니다.  가변 객체인 리스트가 자신
     에 대한 참조를 포함할 수 있고, 복사 코드가 무한 루프에 빠질 수 있기
     때문에 작동하지 않습니다.

   - 리스트를 키로 허용하지만, 사용자에게 수정하지 않도록 지시합니다.  이
     것은 잊거나 실수로 리스트를 수정했을 때 프로그램에 추적하기 어려운
     버그를 만듭니다.  또한 딕셔너리의 중요한 불변성을 깨뜨립니다;
     ‘d.keys()’의 모든 값은 딕셔너리의 키로 사용할 수 있다.

   - 딕셔너리 키로 사용되면 리스트를 읽기 전용으로 표시합니다.  문제는 그
     값을 변경할 수 있는 것은 최상위 객체만이 아니라는 것입니다; 리스트
     를 포함하는 튜플을 키로 사용할 수 있습니다.  무엇이든 키로 딕셔너리
     에 입력하면 거기에서 도달할 수 있는 모든 객체를 읽기 전용으로 표시
     해야 합니다 – 그리고 다시, 자기 참조 객체는 무한 루프를 일으킬 수 있
     습니다.

필요하면 이 문제를 회피하는 트릭이 있지만, 위험을 감수하고 사용하십시오:
*note __eq__(): af7.와 *note __hash__(): af8. 메서드를 모두 가진 클래스
인스턴스 내부에 가변 구조를 래핑할 수 있습니다.  그런 다음 딕셔너리(또는
다른 해시 기반 구조)에 상주하는 모든 래퍼 객체의 해시값이 객체가 딕셔너
리(또는 다른 구조)에 있는 동안 고정되도록 해야 합니다.

     class ListWrapper:
         def __init__(self, the_list):
             self.the_list = the_list

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.the_list == other.the_list

         def __hash__(self):
             l = self.the_list
             result = 98767 - len(l)*555
             for i, el in enumerate(l):
                 try:
                     result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
                 except Exception:
                     result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
             return result

해시 계산은 리스트의 일부 멤버가 해시 불가능할 가능성과 산술 오버플로의
가능성으로 인해 복잡함에 유의하십시오.

또한 객체가 딕셔너리에 있는지에 관계없이, 항상 ‘o1 == o2’(즉
‘o1.__eq__(o2) is True’)이면 ‘hash(o1) == hash(o2)’(즉 ‘o1.__hash__() ==
o2.__hash__()’) 여야 합니다.  이러한 제한 사항을 충족하지 못하면 딕셔너
리와 다른 해시 기반 구조가 오작동합니다.

‘ListWrapper’의 경우, 래퍼 객체가 딕셔너리에 있을 때마다 래핑 된 리스트
는 이상 동작을 피하려면 변경되지 않아야 합니다.  요구 사항과 이를 올바르
게 충족하지 못한 결과에 대해 충분히 생각할 준비가 되어 있지 않은 한 이 작
업을 수행하지 마십시오.  경고받았다고 생각하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: list sort 가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?,  Prev: 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.21 list.sort()가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?
----------------------------------------------------------------------

성능이 중요한 상황에서, 단지 정렬하기 위해 리스트를 복사하는 것은 낭비입
니다.  따라서, *note list.sort(): bcc.는 리스트를 제자리에서 정렬합니다.
이 사실을 상기시키기 위해, 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않습니다.  이렇게 하
면, 정렬된 복사본이 필요하지만 정렬되지 않은 버전을 유지해야 할 때 실수
로 리스트를 덮어쓰지 않도록 합니다.

새 리스트를 반환하려면, 대신 내장 *note sorted(): bcb. 함수를 사용하십시
오.  이 함수는 제공된 이터러블에서 새 리스트를 만들고, 정렬한 다음 반환
합니다.  예를 들어, 정렬된 순서로 딕셔너리의 키를 이터레이트 하는 방법은
다음과 같습니다:

     for key in sorted(mydict):
         ...  # mydict[key]로 뭔가 합니다...


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?,  Next: goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: list sort 가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.22 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?
----------------------------------------------------------------

C++와 Java와 같은 언어에서 제공하는 모듈에 대한 인터페이스 명세는 모듈의
메서드와 함수에 대한 프로토타입을 설명합니다.  많은 사람은 컴파일 타임에
인터페이스 명세를 적용하는 것이 대규모 프로그램을 구축하는 데 도움이 된
다고 생각합니다.

파이썬 2.6은 추상 베이스 클래스(ABC)를 정의할 수 있는 *note abc: 4. 모듈
을 추가합니다.  그런 다음 *note isinstance(): 43b.와 *note issubclass():
7ba.를 사용하여 인스턴스나 클래스가 특정 ABC를 구현하는지 확인할 수 있습
니다.  *note collections.abc: 1e. 모듈은 *note Iterable: 2255, *note
Container: 2257. 및 *note MutableMapping: 109f.과 같은 유용한 ABC 집합을
정의합니다.

파이썬의 경우, 구성 요소에 대한 적절한 테스트 규율을 통해 인터페이스 명
세의 많은 이점을 얻을 수 있습니다.

모듈에 대한 좋은 테스트 스위트는 회귀 테스트를 제공함과 동시에 모듈 인터
페이스 명세와 예제 집합으로 사용할 수 있습니다.  많은 파이썬 모듈은 스크
립트로 실행하여 간단한 “자체 테스트”를 제공할 수 있습니다.  복잡한 외부
인터페이스를 사용하는 모듈조차도 외부 인터페이스의 간단한 “스텁(stub)” 에
뮬레이션을 사용하여 종종 격리 테스트 할 수 있습니다.  *note doctest:
3a.와 *note unittest: 106. 모듈 또는 제삼자 테스트 프레임워크를 사용하여
모듈의 모든 코드 줄을 실행하는 포괄적인 테스트 스위트를 구축할 수 있습니
다.

인터페이스 명세를 갖는 것뿐만 아니라 적절한 테스트 규율은 파이썬으로 복
잡한 대규모 응용 프로그램을 빌드하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.  실제로,
인터페이스 명세는 프로그램의 특정 속성을 테스트할 수 없기 때문에 이것이
더 좋을 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, ‘list.append()’ 메서드는 일부 내부 리스
트 끝에 새 요소를 추가해야 합니다; 인터페이스 명세는 ‘list.append()’ 구
현이 실제로 이를 올바르게 수행하는지 테스트할 수 없지만, 테스트 스위트에
서 이 속성을 확인하는 것은 간단합니다.

테스트 스위트를 작성하는 것은 매우 도움이 되며, 쉽게 테스트 할 수 있도록
코드를 설계할 수 있습니다.  점점 더 많이 사용되는 기술인 테스트 기반 개
발(test-driven development)에서는, 실제 코드를 작성하기 전에 먼저 테스트
스위트의 일부를 작성해야 합니다.  물론 파이썬은 여러분이 지저분해지거나
테스트 케이스를 전혀 작성하지 않을 수 있도록 허락합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 날 문자열 r-strings 이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.23 goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?
--------------------------------------

1970년대에 사람들은 무제한 goto가 이해하고 수정하기 어려운 지저분한 “스
파게티” 코드로 이어질 수 있다는 것을 깨달았습니다.  고수준 언어에서는, 분
기(파이썬에서 *note if: 2eb. 문, *note or: 2ee, *note and: 2e9. 및 *note
if: 2eb./*note else: 18c. 표현식)와 루프(*note while: 1c0c.과 *note for:
2ea. 문, *note continue: 9c6.와 *note break: aa6.를 포함할 수 있습니다
)가 있는 한 필요하지 않습니다.

예외를 사용하여 함수 호출 간에도 작동하는 “구조적 goto”를 제공할 수 있습
니다.  많은 사람은 예외가 C, Fortran 및 기타 언어의 ‘go’나 ‘goto’ 구조의
모든 합리적 사용을 편리하게 에뮬레이트 할 수 있다고 생각합니다.  예를 들
면:

     class label(Exception): pass  # label을 선언합니다

     try:
         ...
         if condition: raise label()  # label로 goto 합니다
         ...
     except label:  # goto 할 곳
         pass
     ...

이것은 당신이 루프의 중간으로 점프하는 것을 허용하지 않지만, 어쨌든 그것
은 일반적으로 ‘goto’의 남용으로 간주합니다.  아껴서 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 날 문자열 r-strings 이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?,  Prev: goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.24 날 문자열(r-strings)이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

더 정확하게는, 홀수 개의 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없습니다: 끝의 쌍이 없는 역
슬래시는 닫는 따옴표 문자를 이스케이프 하여, 끝나지 않은 문자열을 남깁니
다.

날 문자열은 자체 역 슬래시 이스케이프 처리를 수행하려는 프로세서(주로 정
규식 엔진)에 대한 입력을 쉽게 만들 수 있도록 설계되었습니다.  이러한 프
로세서는 일치하지 않는 후행 역 슬래시를 에러로 간주하므로, 날 문자열은 이
를 허용하지 않습니다.  그 대가로, 역 슬래시로 이스케이프 하여 문자열 따
옴표 문자를 전달할 수 있습니다.  이 규칙은 r-문자열이 의도된 목적으로 사
용될 때 잘 작동합니다.

윈도우 경로명을 빌드하려는 경우, 모든 윈도우 시스템 호출은 슬래시도 허용
함에 유의하십시오:

     f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # 잘 동작합니다!

DOS 명령에 대한 경로명을 빌드하려는 경우, 예를 들어, 다음 중 하나를 시도
하십시오

     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
     dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"


File: python.info,  Node: 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?,  Next: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Prev: 날 문자열 r-strings 이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.25 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?
------------------------------------------------------------------

파이썬에는 블록에 진입하고 탈출할 때 코드를 호출하면서 블록 실행을 감싸
는 *note with: 5cc. 문이 있습니다.  일부 언어에는 다음과 같은 구조가 있
습니다:

     with obj:
         a = 1               # obj.a = 1 과 동등합니다
         total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1

파이썬에서는, 이러한 구조가 모호해집니다.

오브젝트 파스칼, 델파이 및 C++와 같은 다른 언어는 정적 형을 사용하므로,
어떤 멤버가 대입되고 있는지 명확하게 알 수 있습니다.  이것이 정적 타이핑
의 요점입니다 – 컴파일러는 '항상' 컴파일 시점에 모든 변수의 스코프를 알
고 있습니다.

파이썬은 동적 형을 사용합니다.  실행 시간에 어떤 어트리뷰트가 참조되는지
미리 알 수 없습니다.  멤버 어트리뷰트는 실행 중에 객체에 추가하거나 제거
할 수 있습니다.  이로 인해 단순한 읽기만으로는 어떤 어트리뷰트가 참조되
는 중인지 알 수 없습니다: 지역 변수, 전역 변수 또는 멤버 어트리뷰트?

예를 들어, 다음과 같은 불완전한 스니펫을 보십시오:

     def foo(a):
         with a:
             print(x)

스니펫은 ‘a’ 에 ‘x’ 라는 멤버 어트리뷰트가 있어야 한다고 가정합니다.  그
러나, 파이썬에는 인터프리터에게 이것을 알려주는 것이 없습니다.  가령,
‘a’가 정수이면 어떻게 됩니까?  ‘x’ 라는 전역 변수가 있으면, *note with:
5cc. 블록 내에서 사용됩니까?  보시다시피, 파이썬의 동적 특성은 이런 선택
을 훨씬 더 어렵게 만듭니다.

그러나, *note with: 5cc.와 유사한 언어 기능의 주요 이점(코드 볼륨 감소
)은 대입을 통해 파이썬에서 쉽게 달성할 수 있습니다.  다음과 같이 하는 대
신에:

     function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
     function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
     function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63

이렇게 작성하십시오:

     ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
     ref.a = 21
     ref.b = 42
     ref.c = 63

이름 연결은 파이썬에서 실행 시간에 결정되는데, 두 번째 버전은 확인을 한
번만 수행하면 되므로 실행 속도를 높이는 부작용도 있습니다.

Similar proposals that would introduce syntax to further reduce code
volume, such as using a ‘leading dot’, have been rejected in favour of
explicitness (see
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html’).


File: python.info,  Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Next: if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.26 Why don’t generators support the with statement?
--------------------------------------------------------

For technical reasons, a generator used directly as a context manager
would not work correctly.  When, as is most common, a generator is used
as an iterator run to completion, no closing is needed.  When it is,
wrap it as *note contextlib.closing(generator): 2955. in the *note with:
5cc. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬은 왜 리스트와 튜플 끝에 쉼표를 허용합니까?,  Prev: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.27 if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?
----------------------------------------------------------------

콜론은 주로 가독성을 높이기 위해 필요합니다 (실험적 ABC 언어의 결과 중 하
나입니다).  이걸 고려해보십시오:

     if a == b
         print(a)

와

     if a == b:
         print(a)

두 번째 것이 어떻게 약간 더 읽기 쉬운지 주목하십시오.  이 FAQ 답변에서 콜
론이 어떻게 예제를 시작하는지도 주목하십시오; 영어의 표준 사용법입니다.

또 다른 사소한 이유는 콜론이 구문 강조 표시가 있는 편집기를 도와준다는 것
입니다: 들여쓰기를 늘려야 하는 때를 결정하기 위해, 프로그램 텍스트를 더
정교하게 구문 분석하는 대신 콜론을 찾을 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬은 왜 리스트와 튜플 끝에 쉼표를 허용합니까?,  Prev: if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: 설계와 역사 FAQ

10.3.28 파이썬은 왜 리스트와 튜플 끝에 쉼표를 허용합니까?
---------------------------------------------------------

파이썬은 리스트, 튜플 및 딕셔너리 끝에 후행 쉼표를 추가할 수 있도록 합니
다:

     [1, 2, 3,]
     ('a', 'b', 'c',)
     d = {
         "A": [1, 5],
         "B": [6, 7],  # 마지막 후행 쉼표는 선택적이지만 좋은 스타일입니다
     }

이를 허용하는 데에는 몇 가지 이유가 있습니다.

리스트, 튜플 또는 딕셔너리에 대한 리터럴 값이 여러 줄에 걸쳐 있는 경우,
이전 줄에 쉼표를 추가할 필요가 없기 때문에 요소를 추가하기가 더 쉽습니다
.  문법 에러를 만들지 않고 줄을 재정렬할 수도 있습니다.

실수로 쉼표를 누락하면 진단하기 어려운 에러가 발생할 수 있습니다.  예를
들면:

     x = [
       "fee",
       "fie"
       "foo",
       "fum"
     ]

이 리스트에는 네 개의 요소가 있는 것처럼 보이지만, 실제로는 세 가지 요소
만 있습니다: “fee”, “fiefoo” 및 “fum”.  항상 쉼표를 추가하면 이러한 에러
원인을 피할 수 있습니다.

후행 쉼표를 허용하면 프로그래밍적인 코드 생성이 더 쉬워질 수도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ,  Next: 확장/내장 FAQ,  Prev: 설계와 역사 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.4 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ
==========================

* Menu:

* 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문::
* 일반적인 작업::
* 스레드::
* 입력과 출력: 입력과 출력<2>.
* 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍::
* 데이터베이스::
* 수학과 숫자::


File: python.info,  Node: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문,  Next: 일반적인 작업,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.1 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?::
* math.py (socket.py, regex.py 등) 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?: math py socket py regex py 등 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?.
* 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬에 C의 onexit()와 동등한 것이 있습니까?: 파이썬에 C의 onexit 와 동등한 것이 있습니까?.
* 시그널 처리기가 작동하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?,  Next: math py socket py regex py 등 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?,  Up: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

10.4.1.1 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?
..................................................................

관련 표준 라이브러리 모듈이 있는지 *note 라이브러리 레퍼런스: 144.를 확
인하십시오.  (결국에는 표준 라이브러리에 있는 내용을 배우고 이 단계를 건
너뛸 수 있게 됩니다.)

제삼자 패키지의 경우 파이썬 패키지 색인(1)을 검색하거나 구글(2) 또는 다
른 웹 검색 엔진을 사용해보십시오.  “Python”에 관심 있는 주제에 관한 한두
개의 키워드를 더해 검색하면 보통 도움이 될만한 것을 찾게 될 것입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.google.com


File: python.info,  Node: math py socket py regex py 등 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?,  Next: 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?,  Up: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

10.4.1.2 math.py (socket.py, regex.py 등) 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?
......................................................................

모듈의 소스 파일을 찾을 수 없으면 C, C++ 또는 기타 컴파일된 언어로 구현
된 내장이나 동적으로 로드된 모듈일 수 있습니다.  이 경우 소스 파일이 없
거나 C 소스 디렉터리(파이썬 경로에 없는)의 ‘mathmodule.c’와 같은 파일일
수 있습니다.

파이썬에는 (적어도) 세 가지 종류의 모듈이 있습니다:

  1. 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈 (.py);

  2. C로 작성되고 동적으로 로드되는 모듈 (.dll, .pyd, .so, .sl 등);

  3. C로 작성되고 인터프리터와 링크된 모듈; 이 목록을 얻으려면, 다음을 입
     력하십시오:

          import sys
          print(sys.builtin_module_names)


File: python.info,  Node: 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?,  Prev: math py socket py regex py 등 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?,  Up: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

10.4.1.3 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
..............................................................................

두 가지를 해야 합니다: 스크립트 파일의 모드는 실행 가능해야 하고 첫 번째
줄은 ‘#!’로 시작하고 그 뒤에 파이썬 인터프리터 경로가 있어야 합니다.

첫 번째는 ‘chmod +x scriptfile’이나 아마도 ‘chmod 755 scriptfile’을 실행
하여 수행됩니다.

두 번째는 여러 가지 방법으로 수행 할 수 있습니다.  가장 간단한 방법은 다
음과 같은 줄을

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

파이썬 인터프리터가 플랫폼에 설치된 경로 이름을 사용하여 파일의 첫 번째
줄로 작성하는 것입니다.

스크립트가 파이썬 인터프리터가 있는 위치와 독립적으로 되도록 하려면,
‘env’ 프로그램을 사용할 수 있습니다.  파이썬 인터프리터가 사용자 ‘PATH’의
디렉터리에 있다고 가정하면, 거의 모든 유닉스 변형이 다음을 지원합니다:

     #!/usr/bin/env python

이것을 CGI 스크립트에 적용하지 '마십시오'.  CGI 스크립트의 ‘PATH’ 변수는
종종 최소한이라서, 인터프리터의 실제 절대 경로명을 사용해야 합니다.

때때로, 사용자 환경이 가득 차서 ‘/usr/bin/env’ 프로그램이 실패합니다; 또
는 env 프로그램이 아예 없습니다.  이 경우, 다음과 같은 핵을 시도할 수 있
습니다 (Alex Rezinsky의 기법입니다):

     #! /bin/sh
     """:"
     exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
     """

작은 단점은 이것이 스크립트의 __doc__ 문자열을 정의한다는 것입니다.  그
러나, 다음을 추가하여 문제를 해결할 수 있습니다

     __doc__ = """...Whatever..."""


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬에 C의 onexit 와 동등한 것이 있습니까?,  Prev: 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

10.4.1.4 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?
....................................................

유닉스 변형의 경우: 표준 파이썬 소스 배포판은 기본적으로 컴파일되지는 않
지만, Modules(1) 서브 디렉터리에 curses 모듈을 포함합니다.  (윈도우 배포
판에서는 사용할 수 없습니다 – 윈도우용 curses 모듈은 없습니다.)

*note curses: 2b. 모듈은 기본 curses 기능뿐만 아니라 색상, 대체 문자 집
합 지원, 패드 및 마우스 지원과 같은 ncurses와 SYSV curses의 많은 추가 기
능을 지원합니다.  이는 모듈이 BSD curses만 있는 운영 체제와 호환되지 않
음을 뜻하지만, 현재 유지 보수되는 OS들은 어느 것도 이 범주에 속하지 않는
것 같습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Modules


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에 C의 onexit 와 동등한 것이 있습니까?,  Next: 시그널 처리기가 작동하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?,  Up: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

10.4.1.5 파이썬에 C의 onexit()와 동등한 것이 있습니까?
......................................................

*note atexit: c. 모듈은 C의 ‘onexit()’와 유사한 등록 함수를 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 시그널 처리기가 작동하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에 C의 onexit 와 동등한 것이 있습니까?,  Up: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문

10.4.1.6 시그널 처리기가 작동하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?
.........................................................

가장 흔한 문제점은 시그널 처리기가 잘못된 인자 목록으로 선언되는 것입니
다.  이렇게 호출됩니다

     handler(signum, frame)

따라서 두 개의 매개 변수로 선언해야 합니다:

     def handler(signum, frame):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: 일반적인 작업,  Next: 스레드,  Prev: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.2 일반적인 작업
--------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬 프로그램이나 컴포넌트를 어떻게 테스트합니까?::
* 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?::
* 한 번에 하나의 키 입력을 받는 방법은 무엇입니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 프로그램이나 컴포넌트를 어떻게 테스트합니까?,  Next: 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Up: 일반적인 작업

10.4.2.1 파이썬 프로그램이나 컴포넌트를 어떻게 테스트합니까?
............................................................

파이썬에는 두 가지 테스트 프레임워크가 있습니다.  *note doctest: 3a. 모
듈은 모듈의 독스트링에 있는 예제를 찾고 실행한 후, 출력을 독스트링에 제
공된 예상 출력과 비교합니다.

*note unittest: 106. 모듈은 Java와 Smalltalk 테스트 프레임 워크에서 모델
링 된 더 멋진 테스트 프레임워크입니다.

테스트를 더 쉽게 하려면, 여러분의 프로그램에 좋은 모듈식 디자인을 사용해
야 합니다.  프로그램은 거의 모든 기능을 함수나 클래스 메서드로 캡슐화해
야 합니다 – 그리고 이는 때로 프로그램을 더 빠르게 실행하는 놀라운 효과가
있습니다 (지역 변수 액세스가 전역 액세스보다 빠르기 때문에).  또한 프로
그램은 전역 변수를 변경하는 것에 의존하지 않아야 합니다, 이렇게 하면 테
스트하기가 훨씬 어렵기 때문입니다.

프로그램의 “전역 메인 논리”는 다음과 같은 코드를

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main_logic()

프로그램의 메인 모듈 하단에 넣는 것처럼 간단할 수 있습니다.

일단 프로그램이 다루기 쉬운 함수와 클래스 동작의 모음으로 구성되면, 이 동
작을 검사하는 테스트 함수를 작성해야 합니다.  일련의 테스트를 자동화하는
테스트 스위트는 각 모듈과 연관될 수 있습니다.  이것은 많은 작업처럼 들리
지만, 파이썬이 아주 간결하고 유연하기 때문에 놀랍도록 쉽습니다.  “프로덕
션 코드”와 함께 테스트 함수를 작성하여 코딩을 훨씬 더 즐겁고 재미있게 만
들 수 있습니다.  버그를 쉽게 찾고 결함을 조기에 발견할 수 있기 때문입니
다.

프로그램의 메인 모듈이 아닌 “지원 모듈”에는 모듈의 자체 테스트가 포함될
수 있습니다.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         self_test()

복잡한 외부 인터페이스와 상호 작용하는 프로그램조차도 파이썬으로 구현된
“가짜” 인터페이스를 사용하여 외부 인터페이스를 사용할 수 없을 때 테스트
할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Next: 한 번에 하나의 키 입력을 받는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 프로그램이나 컴포넌트를 어떻게 테스트합니까?,  Up: 일반적인 작업

10.4.2.2 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?
...............................................

*note pydoc: b5. 모듈은 파이썬 소스 코드의 독스트링에서 HTML을 만들 수 있
습니다.  순수하게 독스트링에서 API 설명서를 만드는 대안은 epydoc(1)입니
다.  Sphinx(2)도 독스트링 내용을 포함할 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org


File: python.info,  Node: 한 번에 하나의 키 입력을 받는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?,  Up: 일반적인 작업

10.4.2.3 한 번에 하나의 키 입력을 받는 방법은 무엇입니까?
.........................................................

유닉스 변형에는 몇 가지 해결책이 있습니다.  curses를 사용하여 이 작업을
수행하는 것은 간단하지만, curses는 배우기에 상당히 큰 모듈입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드,  Next: 입력과 출력<2>,  Prev: 일반적인 작업,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.3 스레드
-------------

* Menu:

* 스레드를 사용하여 어떻게 프로그래밍합니까?::
* 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다; 왜 그런가요?: 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다 왜 그런가요?.
* 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?::
* 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?::
* 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 스레드를 사용하여 어떻게 프로그래밍합니까?,  Next: 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다 왜 그런가요?,  Up: 스레드

10.4.3.1 스레드를 사용하여 어떻게 프로그래밍합니까?
...................................................

*note _thread: 2. 모듈이 아닌 *note threading: ed. 모듈을 사용하십시오.
*note threading: ed. 모듈은 *note _thread: 2. 모듈이 제공하는 저수준 프
리미티브 위에 편리한 추상화를 구축합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다 왜 그런가요?,  Next: 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?,  Prev: 스레드를 사용하여 어떻게 프로그래밍합니까?,  Up: 스레드

10.4.3.2 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다: 왜 그런가요?
.....................................................................

메인 스레드가 종료되자마자, 모든 스레드가 죽습니다.  메인 스레드가 너무
빨리 실행되어, 스레드가 작업을 수행할 시간이 없습니다.

간단한 수정은 프로그램 끝에 모든 스레드가 완료될 만큼 충분히 긴 휴면을 추
가하는 것입니다:

     import threading, time

     def thread_task(name, n):
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!

그러나 이제 (많은 플랫폼에서) 스레드는 병렬로 실행되지 않고, 한 번에 하
나씩 순차적으로 실행되는 것처럼 보입니다!  그 이유는 OS 스레드 스케줄러
가 이전 스레드가 블록 될 때까지 새 스레드를 시작하지 않기 때문입니다.

간단한 수정은 실행 함수의 시작 부분에 작은 휴면을 추가하는 것입니다:

     def thread_task(name, n):
         time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)

*note time.sleep(): 697.을 위한 좋은 지연 값을 추측하는 대신, 일종의 세
마포어 메커니즘을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.  한 가지 아이디어는 *note
queue: b6. 모듈을 사용하여 큐 객체를 만들고, 각 스레드가 완료될 때 큐에
토큰을 추가하게 하고, 메인 스레드가 스레드 수 만큼의 토큰을 읽도록 하는
것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?,  Next: 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?,  Prev: 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다 왜 그런가요?,  Up: 스레드

10.4.3.3 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?
..........................................................

가장 쉬운 방법은 *note concurrent.futures: 21. 모듈, 특히 *note
ThreadPoolExecutor: 73b. 클래스를 사용하는 것입니다.

또는, 디스패치 알고리즘을 세밀하게 제어하려면, 직접 논리를 작성할 수 있
습니다.  *note queue: b6. 모듈을 사용하여 작업 목록을 포함하는 큐를 만드
십시오.  *note Queue: 1377. 클래스는 객체 목록을 유지하고 큐에 항목을 추
가하는 ‘.put(obj)’ 메서드와 이를 반환하는 ‘.get()’ 메서드를 갖습니다.  클
래스는 각 작업이 정확히 한 번만 전달되도록 하는 데 필요한 록을 관리합니
다.

간단한 예를 들면 다음과 같습니다:

     import threading, queue, time

     # 작업자 스레드는 큐에서 작업을 가져옵니다.
     # 큐가 비어 있으면, 더는 작업이 없다고 가정하고 종료합니다.
     # (실제 상황에서는 작업자가 종료할 때까지 실행합니다.)
     def worker():
         print('Running worker')
         time.sleep(0.1)
         while True:
             try:
                 arg = q.get(block=False)
             except queue.Empty:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('queue empty')
                 break
             else:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('running with argument', arg)
                 time.sleep(0.5)

     # 큐를 만듭니다
     q = queue.Queue()

     # 5 작업자의 풀을 시작합니다
     for i in range(5):
         t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
         t.start()

     # 큐에 작업을 추가하기 시작합니다
     for i in range(50):
         q.put(i)

     # 스레드가 실행할 시간을 줍니다
     print('Main thread sleeping')
     time.sleep(5)

실행하면 다음과 같은 출력이 생성됩니다:

     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Main thread sleeping
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
     Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
     Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
     Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
     Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
     ...

자세한 내용은 모듈 설명서를 참조하십시오.  *note Queue: 1377. 클래스는 기
능이 풍부한 인터페이스를 제공합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?,  Next: 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?,  Prev: 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?,  Up: 스레드

10.4.3.4 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?
......................................................

내부적으로 *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148.(GIL)이 사용되어 한 번에 하나의
스레드 만 파이썬 VM에서 실행되도록 합니다.  일반적으로, 파이썬은 바이트
코드 명령어들 사이에서만 스레드 간 전환을 제공합니다; *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 948.을 통해 얼마나 자주 전환할지를 설정할 수 있
습니다.  따라서 각 바이트 코드 명령어와 각 명령어에서 도달하는 모든 C 구
현 코드는 파이썬 프로그램의 관점에서 원자 적입니다.

이론적으로, 이것은 정확하게 따지기 위해서는 PVM 바이트 코드 구현에 대한
정확한 이해가 필요하다는 것을 의미합니다.  경험적으로는, 이것은 “원자 적
으로 보이는” 내장 데이터형(정수, 리스트, 딕셔너리 등)의 공유 변수에 대한
조작이 실제로 원자 적임을 의미합니다.

예를 들어, 다음 연산은 모두 원자 적입니다 (L, L1, L2는 리스트, D, D1,
D2는 딕셔너리, x, y는 객체, i, j는 정수입니다):

     L.append(x)
     L1.extend(L2)
     x = L[i]
     x = L.pop()
     L1[i:j] = L2
     L.sort()
     x = y
     x.field = y
     D[x] = y
     D1.update(D2)
     D.keys()

이것들은 아닙니다:

     i = i+1
     L.append(L[-1])
     L[i] = L[j]
     D[x] = D[x] + 1

다른 객체를 대체하는 연산은 객체의 참조 횟수가 0에 도달할 때 그들의
*note __del__(): 1f69. 메서드를 호출할 수 있으며, 이는 영향을 줄 수 있습
니다.  이것은 딕셔너리와 리스트의 대량 갱신 때 특히 그렇습니다.  의심스
러우면, 뮤텍스를 사용하십시오!


File: python.info,  Node: 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?,  Prev: 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?,  Up: 스레드

10.4.3.5 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?
.................................................

*note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148.(GIL)은 종종 하이 엔드 다중 프로세서 서버
기계에 파이썬을 배치하는 데 방해가 된다고 여겨집니다, (거의) 모든 파이썬
코드가 GIL을 잡고 있는 동안에만 실행하려고 해서, 다중 스레드 파이썬 프로
그램이 사실상 오직 하나의 CPU만 사용하기 때문입니다.

With the approval of PEP 703(1) work is now underway to remove the GIL
from the CPython implementation of Python.  Initially it will be
implemented as an optional compiler flag when building the interpreter,
and so separate builds will be available with and without the GIL.
Long-term, the hope is to settle on a single build, once the performance
implications of removing the GIL are fully understood.  Python 3.13 is
likely to be the first release containing this work, although it may not
be completely functional in this release.

현재 GIL을 제거하는 작업은 Sam Gross의 GIL이 제거된 파이썬 3.9 포크(2)를
기반으로 합니다.  그 이전에는, 파이썬 1.5 시절에, Greg Stein은 실제로
GIL을 제거하고 세밀한 록으로 대체한 포괄적인 패치 모음(“자유로운 스레딩”
패치)을 구현했습니다.  Adam Olsen은 그의 python-safethread(3) 프로젝트에
서 유사한 실험을 수행했습니다.  불행히도, 이 두 초기 실험 모두 GIL 제거
를 보상하는 데 필요한 세밀한 록의 양으로 인해 단일 스레드 성능이 급격히
떨어졌습니다 (적어도 30% 더 느립니다).  파이썬 3.9 포크는 성능에 영향을
미치지 않으면서 GIL을 제거하려는 첫 번째 시도입니다.

현재 파이썬 배포판에 GIL이 있다는 것이 다중 CPU 기계에서 파이썬을 제대로
사용할 수는 없다는 뜻은 아닙니다!  여러 '스레드' 대신에 여러 '프로세스
'로 작업을 분할하는 창의력을 발휘해야 합니다.  새로운 *note
concurrent.futures: 21. 모듈의 *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8eb. 클래스는
그렇게 하는 쉬운 방법을 제공합니다; *note multiprocessing: 94. 모듈은 작
업 디스패치에 대한 제어를 더 원할 때를 위한 저수준 API를 제공합니다.

C 확장을 신중하게 사용하는 것도 도움이 됩니다; C 확장을 사용하여 시간이
오래 걸리는 작업을 수행하면, 확장은 실행 스레드가 C 코드에 있는 동안
GIL을 해제하고 다른 스레드가 어떤 작업을 수행할 수 있도록 할 수 있습니다
.  *note zlib: 133.와 *note hashlib: 68.와 같은 일부 표준 라이브러리 모
듈은 이미 이렇게 합니다.

An alternative approach to reducing the impact of the GIL is to make the
GIL a per-interpreter-state lock rather than truly global.  This was
*note first implemented in Python 3.12: 435. and is available in the C
API. A Python interface to it is expected in Python 3.13.  The main
limitation to it at the moment is likely to be 3rd party extension
modules, since these must be written with multiple interpreters in mind
in order to be usable, so many older extension modules will not be
usable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://github.ckom/colesbury/nogil

   (3) https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread


File: python.info,  Node: 입력과 출력<2>,  Next: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍,  Prev: 스레드,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.4 입력과 출력
------------------

* Menu:

* 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? (그리고 다른 파일 질문들…): 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? 그리고 다른 파일 질문들….
* 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?::
* 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 (또는 쓰는) 방법은 무엇입니까?: 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 또는 쓰는 방법은 무엇입니까?.
* os.popen()으로 만든 파이프에서 os.read()를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?: os popen 으로 만든 파이프에서 os read 를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?.
* 직렬 (RS232) 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?.
* 왜 sys.stdout(stdin, stderr)을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?: 왜 sys stdout stdin stderr 을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? 그리고 다른 파일 질문들…,  Next: 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?,  Up: 입력과 출력<2>

10.4.4.1 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? (그리고 다른 파일 질문들…)
.............................................................

‘os.remove(filename)’이나 ‘os.unlink(filename)’을 사용하십시오; 설명서는
*note os: a1. 모듈을 참조하십시오.  두 함수는 동일합니다; *note
unlink(): 10e7.는 단순히 이 함수에 대한 유닉스 시스템 호출의 이름입니다.

디렉터리를 제거하려면, *note os.rmdir(): 10e5.을 사용하십시오; 만들려면
*note os.mkdir(): 21d.을 사용하십시오.  ‘os.makedirs(path)’는 존재하지 않
는 ‘path’의 중간 디렉터리를 만듭니다.  ‘os.removedirs(path)’는 비어있는
한, 중간 디렉터리를 제거합니다; 전체 디렉터리 트리와 그 내용을 삭제하려
면 *note shutil.rmtree(): 2f9.를 사용하십시오.

파일 이름을 바꾸려면 ‘os.rename(old_path, new_path)’를 사용하십시오.

파일을 자르려면, ‘f = open(filename, "rb+")’를 사용하여 열고
‘f.truncate(offset)’을 사용하십시오; offset의 기본값은 현재 탐색(seek) 위
치입니다.  *note os.open(): d8e.으로 열린 파일의 경우 ‘os.ftruncate(fd,
offset)’도 있습니다.  여기서 'fd'는 파일 기술자(작은 정수)입니다.

*note shutil: c5. 모듈에도 *note copyfile(): a55, *note copytree(): a25.
및 *note rmtree(): 2f9.를 포함한 파일에서 작동하는 많은 함수가 포함되어
있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?,  Next: 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 또는 쓰는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? 그리고 다른 파일 질문들…,  Up: 입력과 출력<2>

10.4.4.2 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?
..................................

The *note shutil: c5. module contains a *note copyfile(): a55. function.
Note that on Windows NTFS volumes, it does not copy alternate data
streams(1) nor resource forks(2) on macOS HFS+ volumes, though both are
now rarely used.  It also doesn’t copy file permissions and metadata,
though using *note shutil.copy2(): a57. instead will preserve most
(though not all) of it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork


File: python.info,  Node: 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 또는 쓰는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Next: os popen 으로 만든 파이프에서 os read 를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?,  Prev: 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?,  Up: 입력과 출력<2>

10.4.4.3 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 (또는 쓰는) 방법은 무엇입니까?
..............................................................

복잡한 바이너리 데이터 형식을 읽거나 쓰려면, *note struct: d5. 모듈을 사
용하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.  바이너리 데이터(보통 숫자)를 포함하는 문자열
을 취해서 파이썬 객체로 변환할 수 있도록 합니다; 그리고 그 반대도 가능합
니다.

예를 들어, 다음 코드는 파일에서 빅 엔디안 형식의 두 개의 2-바이트 정수와
하나의 4-바이트 정수를 읽습니다:

     import struct

     with open(filename, "rb") as f:
         s = f.read(8)
         x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)

포맷 문자열의 ‘>’는 빅 엔디안 데이터를 강제합니다; 문자 ‘h’는 하나의 “짧
은(short) 정수”(2바이트)를 읽고, ‘l’은 문자열에서 하나의 “긴(long) 정수
”(4바이트)를 읽습니다.

더욱 규칙적인 데이터(예를 들어 int나 float의 동종 리스트)의 경우, *note
array: 7. 모듈을 사용할 수도 있습니다.

     참고: 바이너리 데이터를 읽고 쓰려면, 바이너리 모드로 파일을 열어야
     합니다 (여기서는, ‘"rb"’를 *note open(): 515.으로 전달합니다).  대
     신 ‘"r"’(기본값)을 사용하면, 파일이 텍스트 모드로 열리고
     ‘f.read()’는 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체 대신 *note str: 445. 객체를 반
     환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: os popen 으로 만든 파이프에서 os read 를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?,  Next: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?,  Prev: 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 또는 쓰는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 입력과 출력<2>

10.4.4.4 os.popen()으로 만든 파이프에서 os.read()를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?
.............................................................................................

*note os.read(): d91.는 열린 파일을 나타내는 작은 정수인 파일 기술자를 취
하는 저수준 함수입니다.  *note os.popen(): a84.은 내장 *note open():
515. 함수에서 반환하는 것과 같은 형의 고수준 파일 객체를 만듭니다.  따라
서, *note os.popen(): a84.으로 만들어진 파이프 'p'에서 'n' 바이트를 읽으
려면, ‘p.read(n)’을 사용해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?,  Next: 왜 sys stdout stdin stderr 을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?,  Prev: os popen 으로 만든 파이프에서 os read 를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?,  Up: 입력과 출력<2>

10.4.4.5 직렬 (RS232) 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?
.................................................

Win32, OSX, Linux, BSD, Jython, IronPython의 경우:

     pyserial(1)

유닉스의 경우, Mitch Chapman의 유즈넷 게시물을 참조하십시오:

     ‘https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/


File: python.info,  Node: 왜 sys stdout stdin stderr 을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?,  Prev: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?,  Up: 입력과 출력<2>

10.4.4.6 왜 sys.stdout(stdin, stderr)을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?
...............................................................

파이썬 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.는 저수준 C 파일 기술자의 고수준 추상화 계
층입니다.

내장 *note open(): 515. 함수를 통해 파이썬에서 만드는 대부분 파일 객체의
경우, ‘f.close()’는 파이썬 파일 객체를 파이썬의 관점에서 닫은 것으로 표
시하고 하부 C 파일 기술자를 닫도록 합니다.  이것은 ‘f’가 가비지가 될 때
‘f’의 파괴자에서 자동으로 일어나기도 합니다.

그러나 stdin, stdout 및 stderr은 파이썬에서 특별하게 처리되는데, C 역시
이들에게 특수한 상태를 부여하기 때문입니다.  ‘sys.stdout.close()’를 실행
하면 파이썬 수준 파일 객체가 닫힌 것으로 표시되지만, 연관된 C 파일 기술
자를 닫지 '않습니다'.

이 세 가지 중 하나에 대한 하부 C 파일 기술자를 닫으려면, 먼저 이것이 정
말로 여러분이 하고 싶은 것인지 확인해야 합니다 (예를 들어, I/O를 수행하
려는 확장 모듈이 혼동할 수 있습니다).  그렇다면, *note os.close(): b71.를
사용하십시오:

     os.close(stdin.fileno())
     os.close(stdout.fileno())
     os.close(stderr.fileno())

또는 숫자 상수 0, 1 및 2를 각각 사용할 수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍,  Next: 데이터베이스,  Prev: 입력과 출력<2>,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.5 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬에는 어떤 WWW 도구가 있습니까?::
* HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 소켓의 connect() 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?: 소켓의 connect 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에는 어떤 WWW 도구가 있습니까?,  Next: HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?,  Up: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍

10.4.5.1 파이썬에는 어떤 WWW 도구가 있습니까?
.............................................

라이브러리 레퍼런스 매뉴얼의 *note 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원: 3969.과 *note
인터넷 데이터 처리: 3576. 장을 참조하십시오.  파이썬에는 서버 측과 클라
이언트 측 웹 시스템을 구축하는 데 도움이 되는 많은 모듈이 있습니다.

사용 가능한 프레임워크 요약은 Paul Boddie가
‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming’에서 유지 관리합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?,  Next: 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에는 어떤 WWW 도구가 있습니까?,  Up: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍

10.4.5.2 HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?
......................................................

Web Programming wiki page(1)에서 유용한 링크 모음을 찾을 수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 소켓의 connect 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?,  Up: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍

10.4.5.3 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
................................................................

표준 라이브러리 모듈 *note smtplib: ca.를 사용하십시오.

다음은 이를 사용하는 매우 간단한 대화식 메일 발신기입니다.  이 방법은
SMTP 리스너를 지원하는 모든 호스트에서 작동합니다.

     import sys, smtplib

     fromaddr = input("From: ")
     toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
     print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
     msg = ''
     while True:
         line = sys.stdin.readline()
         if not line:
             break
         msg += line

     # 실제 우편 전송
     server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
     server.quit()

유닉스 전용 대안은 sendmail을 사용합니다.  sendmail 프로그램의 위치는 시
스템마다 다릅니다; 때로는 ‘/usr/lib/sendmail’, 때로는
‘/usr/sbin/sendmail’.  sendmail 매뉴얼 페이지가 도움이 될 것입니다.  샘
플 코드는 다음과 같습니다:

     import os

     SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
     p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
     p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
     p.write("Subject: test\n")
     p.write("\n")  # 헤더와 본문을 구분하는 빈 줄
     p.write("Some text\n")
     p.write("some more text\n")
     sts = p.close()
     if sts != 0:
         print("Sendmail exit status", sts)


File: python.info,  Node: 소켓의 connect 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍

10.4.5.4 소켓의 connect() 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
..........................................................................

*note select: c1. 모듈이 소켓의 비동기 I/O를 지원하는 데 흔히 사용됩니다
.

TCP 연결이 블록 되지 않도록 하기 위해, 소켓을 비 블로킹 모드로 설정할 수
있습니다.  그런 다음 *note connect(): d9f.를 수행하면, 즉시 연결되거나
(그다지 가능성이 없습니다) 에러 번호를 ‘.errno’에 포함하는 예외가 발생합
니다.  ‘errno.EINPROGRESS’는 연결이 진행 중이지만, 아직 완료되지 않았음
을 나타냅니다.  OS마다 다른 값을 반환해서, 여러분의 시스템에서 무엇이 반
환되는지 확인해야 합니다.

예외를 피하려면 *note connect_ex(): 1500. 메서드를 사용할 수 있습니다.
errno 값만 반환합니다.  폴링하려면, 나중에 *note connect_ex(): 1500.를 다
시 호출할 수 있습니다 – ‘0’이나 ‘errno.EISCONN’은 연결되었음을 나타냅니
다 – 또는 이 소켓을 *note select.select(): d9c.로 전달하여 쓸 수 있는지
확인할 수 있습니다.

     참고: *note asyncio: a. 모듈은 비 블로킹 네트워크 코드를 작성하는 데
     사용할 수 있는 범용 단일 스레드 및 동시성 비동기 라이브러리를 제공
     합니다.  제삼자 Twisted(1) 라이브러리는 널리 사용되는 기능이 풍부한
     대안입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://twisted.org/


File: python.info,  Node: 데이터베이스,  Next: 수학과 숫자,  Prev: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.6 데이터베이스
-------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?::
* 파이썬에서 영속 객체를 어떻게 구현합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 영속 객체를 어떻게 구현합니까?,  Up: 데이터베이스

10.4.6.1 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?
...................................................................

예.

*note DBM: 34.과 *note GDBM: 33.같은 디스크 기반 해시에 대한 인터페이스
도 표준 파이썬에 포함되어 있습니다.  경량 디스크 기반 관계형 데이터베이
스를 제공하는 *note sqlite3: cf. 모듈도 있습니다.

대부분 관계형 데이터베이스에 대한 지원이 제공됩니다.  자세한 내용은
DatabaseProgramming wiki page(1)를 참조하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 영속 객체를 어떻게 구현합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?,  Up: 데이터베이스

10.4.6.2 파이썬에서 영속 객체를 어떻게 구현합니까?
..................................................

*note pickle: a6. 라이브러리 모듈은 이것을 매우 일반적인 방식으로 해결하
고 (여전히 열린 파일, 소켓 또는 창과 같은 것을 저장할 수는 없지만),
*note shelve: c3. 라이브러리 모듈은 pickle과 (g)dbm을 사용하여 임의의 파
이썬 객체를 포함하는 영속적(persistent) 매핑을 만듭니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 수학과 숫자,  Prev: 데이터베이스,  Up: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ

10.4.7 수학과 숫자
------------------

* Menu:

* 파이썬에서 난수를 어떻게 생성합니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 난수를 어떻게 생성합니까?,  Up: 수학과 숫자

10.4.7.1 파이썬에서 난수를 어떻게 생성합니까?
.............................................

표준 모듈 *note random: b8.은 난수 생성기를 구현합니다.  사용법은 간단합
니다:

     import random
     random.random()

이것은 [0, 1) 범위의 무작위 부동 소수점 숫자를 반환합니다.

이 모듈에는 다른 많은 특수 생성기가 있습니다, 가령:

   * ‘randrange(a, b)’는 [a, b) 범위의 정수를 선택합니다.

   * ‘uniform(a, b)’는 [a, b) 범위의 부동 소수점 숫자를 선택합니다.

   * ‘normalvariate(mean, sdev)’는 정규 (가우시안) 분포를 샘플링합니다.

일부 고수준 함수는 시퀀스에서 직접 작동합니다, 가령:

   * ‘choice(S)’는 주어진 시퀀스에서 무작위 요소 하나를 선택합니다.

   * ‘shuffle(L)’은 리스트를 제자리에서 섞습니다, 즉 무작위로 순서를 바
     꿉니다.

독립적인 여러 개의 난수 생성기를 만들기 위해 인스턴스 화 할 수 있는
‘Random’ 클래스도 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 확장/내장 FAQ,  Next: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ,  Prev: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.5 확장/내장 FAQ
==================

* Menu:

* C로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?::
* C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?::
* C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?::
* C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?::
* C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?::
* 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?::
* Py_BuildValue()를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?: Py_BuildValue 를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?.
* C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?::
* PyErr_Print()의 출력(또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것)을 어떻게 잡습니까?: PyErr_Print 의 출력 또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것 을 어떻게 잡습니까?.
* C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?::
* 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?::
* Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?::
* 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?::
* 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만, 일부 파일이 없습니다. 왜 그렇습니까?: 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만 일부 파일이 없습니다 왜 그렇습니까?.
* “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?::
* 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?::
* 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 (예를 들어 상속을 통해) 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?: 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 예를 들어 상속을 통해 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?.


File: python.info,  Node: C로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Next: C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.1 C로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?
------------------------------------------

그렇습니다.  함수, 변수, 예외 및 심지어 새로운 형을 포함하는 내장 모듈을
C로 만들 수 있습니다.  *note 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장: 1be2. 문서
에 설명되어 있습니다.

대부분의 중급이나 고급 파이썬 서적에서도 이 주제를 다룰 것입니다.


File: python.info,  Node: C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Next: C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?,  Prev: C로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.2 C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?
--------------------------------------------

그렇습니다, C++에 있는 C 호환성 기능을 사용합니다.  파이썬 인클루드
(include) 파일 주위에 ‘extern "C" { ... }’를 배치하고 파이썬 인터프리터
가 호출할 각 함수 앞에 ‘extern "C"’를 배치하십시오.  생성자를 가진 전역
이나 정적(static) C++ 객체는 대개 좋은 생각이 아닙니다.


File: python.info,  Node: C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?,  Next: C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.3 C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?
-------------------------------------------------

There are a number of alternatives to writing your own C extensions,
depending on what you’re trying to do.  *note Recommended third party
tools: 48ab. offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to
creating C and C++ extensions for Python.


File: python.info,  Node: C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?,  Next: C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.4 C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?
------------------------------------------------------------

이를 수행하는 최상위 수준 함수는 *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4926.이며,
이는 모듈 ‘__main__’의 컨텍스트에서 실행될 단일 문자열 인자를 취하고 성
공하면 ‘0’을 반환하고 (*note SyntaxError: 18d.를 포함하는) 예외가 발생하
면 ‘-1’을 반환합니다.  더 많은 제어를 원하면, *note PyRun_String():
19e2.을 사용하십시오; ‘Python/pythonrun.c’에 있는 *note
PyRun_SimpleString(): 4926. 소스를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?,  Next: 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?,  Prev: C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.5 C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------

이전 질문에서 나온 *note PyRun_String(): 19e2. 함수를 start 기호 *note
Py_eval_input: 4b10.을 사용하여 호출하십시오; 표현식을 구문 분석하고, 평
가하고 값을 반환합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?,  Next: Py_BuildValue 를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.6 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?
-----------------------------------------------

이는 객체의 형에 따라 다릅니다.  튜플이면, *note PyTuple_Size(): 4a9a.는
길이를 반환하고 *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d5.은 지정된 인덱스의 항목을
반환합니다.  리스트는 비슷한 함수를 가지고 있습니다, *note
PyList_Size(): 13e2.와 *note PyList_GetItem(): 355.

바이트열에서는, *note PyBytes_Size(): 4975.는 길이를 반환하고 *note
PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 496f.는 값과 길이에 대한 포인터를 제공합니다.
파이썬 바이트열 객체는 널(null) 바이트를 포함할 수 있어서 C의
‘strlen()’을 사용할 수 없음에 유의하십시오.

객체의 형을 검사하려면, 먼저 ‘NULL’이 아닌지 확인한 다음 *note
PyBytes_Check(): 137d, *note PyTuple_Check(): 4c89, *note
PyList_Check(): 4c99. 등을 사용하십시오.

소위 ‘추상’ 인터페이스가 제공하는 파이썬 객체에 대한 고수준 API도 있습니
다 – 자세한 내용은 ‘Include/abstract.h’를 읽으십시오.  *note
PySequence_Length(): 4a7b, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a5a. 등과 같은 호
출로 모든 종류의 파이썬 시퀀스와 인터페이스 할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라 숫자
(*note PyNumber_Index(): 88f. 등)와 PyMapping API의 매핑과 같은 다른 많
은 유용한 프로토콜을 지원합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_BuildValue 를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Next: C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.7 Py_BuildValue()를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

그럴 수 없습니다.  대신 *note PyTuple_Pack(): 4a99.을 사용하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?,  Next: PyErr_Print 의 출력 또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것 을 어떻게 잡습니까?,  Prev: Py_BuildValue 를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.8 C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?
-----------------------------------------------

*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 399. 함수는 객체의 임의의 메서드를 호출하는
데 사용할 수 있습니다.  매개 변수는 객체, 호출할 메서드의 이름, *note
Py_BuildValue(): 8a4.에 사용되는 것과 같은 포맷 문자열 및 인자 값입니다:

     PyObject *
     PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
                         const char *arg_format, ...);

메서드가 있는 모든 객체에서 작동합니다 – 내장이나 사용자 정의 모두 작동
합니다.  반환 값을 *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.할 책임은 여러분에게 있습니다.

예를 들어, 인자 10, 0으로 파일 객체의 “seek” 메서드를 호출하려면 (파일 객
체 포인터가 “f”라고 가정합니다):

     res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
     if (res == NULL) {
             ... an exception occurred ...
     }
     else {
             Py_DECREF(res);
     }

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 48ca.는 '항상' 인자 목록에 대한 튜플을 원하
므로, 인자 없이 함수를 호출하려면, format으로 “()”를 전달하고, 하나의 인
자로 함수를 호출하려면, 인자를 괄호로 묶습니다, 예를 들어 “(i)”.


File: python.info,  Node: PyErr_Print 의 출력 또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것 을 어떻게 잡습니까?,  Next: C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?,  Prev: C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.9 PyErr_Print()의 출력(또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것)을 어떻게 잡습니까?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

파이썬 코드에서, ‘write()’ 메서드를 지원하는 객체를 정의하십시오.  이 객
체를 *note sys.stdout: ad3.과 *note sys.stderr: 937.에 대입하십시오.
print_error를 호출하거나 표준 트레이스백 메커니즘이 작동하도록 두십시오.
그러면 출력은 여러분의 ‘write()’ 메서드가 보내는 곳으로 갑니다.

이렇게 하는 가장 쉬운 방법은 *note io.StringIO: f1f. 클래스를 사용하는 것
입니다:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
     foo
     hello world!

같은 작업을 수행하는 사용자 정의 객체는 다음과 같습니다:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.data = []
     ...     def write(self, stuff):
     ...         self.data.append(stuff)
     ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
     foo
     hello world!


File: python.info,  Node: C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?,  Next: 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?,  Prev: PyErr_Print 의 출력 또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것 을 어떻게 잡습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.10 C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?
-----------------------------------------------------------

다음과 같이 모듈 객체에 대한 포인터를 얻을 수 있습니다:

     module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");

모듈을 아직 임포트 하지 않았으면 (즉, *note sys.modules: 1558.에 아직 없
으면), 이것은 모듈을 초기화합니다; 그렇지 않으면 단순히
‘sys.modules["<modulename>"]’의 값을 반환합니다.  이것은 모듈을 어떤 이
름 공간에도 넣지 않음에 유의하십시오 – 단지 초기화되도록 하고 *note
sys.modules: 1558.에 저장되도록 합니다.

그런 다음, 다음과 같이 모듈의 어트리뷰트(즉 모듈에 정의된 모든 이름)에 액
세스할 수 있습니다:

     attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");

모듈에 있는 변수에 대입하기 위해 *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1609.을
호출하는 것도 작동합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?,  Next: Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?,  Prev: C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.11 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?
-------------------------------------------------------

요구 사항에 따라 여러 가지 접근 방식이 있습니다.  이 작업을 수동으로 수
행하려면, *note “확장 및 내장” 문서: 1be2.를 읽는 것으로 시작하십시오.  파
이썬 런타임 시스템의 경우 C와 C++ 사이에는 큰 차이가 없다는 것을 상기하
십시오 – 따라서 C 구조체 (포인터) 형을 중심으로 새로운 파이썬 형을 작성
하는 전략이 C++ 객체에도 적용됩니다.

C++ 라이브러리의 경우, *note C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?:
516f.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?,  Next: 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.12 Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Setup은 개행으로 끝나야 하며, 개행이 없으면 빌드 프로세스가 실패합니다.
(이 문제를 해결하려면 지저분한 셸 스크립트 해킹이 필요하며, 이 버그는 너
무 사소해서 그런 노력을 들일만 한 가치가 없는 것 같습니다.)


File: python.info,  Node: 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?,  Next: 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만 일부 파일이 없습니다 왜 그렇습니까?,  Prev: Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.13 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?
-----------------------------------

동적으로 로드된 확장에 GDB를 사용할 때, 확장이 로드될 때까지 확장에 중단
점을 설정할 수 없습니다.

‘.gdbinit’ 파일에서 (또는 대화식으로) 다음 명령을 추가하십시오:

     br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule

그런 다음, GDB를 실행할 때:

     $ gdb /local/bin/python
     gdb) run myscript.py
     gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
     gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
     gdb) br myfunction.c:50
     gdb) continue


File: python.info,  Node: 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만 일부 파일이 없습니다 왜 그렇습니까?,  Next: “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.14 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만, 일부 파일이 없습니다. 왜 그렇습니까?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

대부분의 포장된 버전의 파이썬은 파이썬 확장을 컴파일하는 데 필요한 일부
파일을 생략하고 있습니다.

레드햇의 경우, 필요한 파일을 얻으려면 python3-devel RPM을 설치하십시오.

데비안의 경우, ‘apt-get install python3-dev’를 실행하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?,  Next: 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만 일부 파일이 없습니다 왜 그렇습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.15 “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

때로 파이썬 대화식 인터프리터의 동작을 흉내 내고 싶을 때가 있습니다.  이
것은 입력이 불완전할 때 (예를 들어, “if” 문의 시작을 입력했거나 괄호나 삼
중 문자열 따옴표를 닫지 않았을 때) 계속 프롬프트를 표시하지만, 입력이 유
효하지 않으면 즉시 문법 에러 메시지를 표시합니다.

파이썬에서는 *note codeop: 1c. 모듈을 사용할 수 있습니다.  이 모듈은 구
문 분석기의 동작을 충분히 근사합니다.  예를 들어, IDLE은 이것을 사용합니
다.

C에서 이렇게 하는 가장 쉬운 방법은 *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4b17.를
호출하고 (아마 별도의 스레드에서), 파이썬 인터프리터가 입력을 처리하도록
하는 것입니다.  *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 581. 가 여러분의 사
용자 정의 입력 함수를 가리 키도록 설정할 수도 있습니다.  자세한 힌트는
‘Modules/readline.c’와 ‘Parser/myreadline.c’를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Next: 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 예를 들어 상속을 통해 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Prev: “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.16 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

g++ 확장 모듈을 동적으로 로드하려면, 파이썬을 다시 컴파일하고, g++를 사
용하여 다시 링크하고 (파이썬 Modules Makefile에서 LINKCC를 변경하십시오
), g++를 사용하여 여러분의 확장 모듈을 링크해야 합니다 (예를 들어, ‘g++
-shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o’).


File: python.info,  Node: 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 예를 들어 상속을 통해 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?,  Up: 확장/내장 FAQ

10.5.17 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 (예를 들어 상속을 통해) 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

그렇습니다, *note int: 257, *note list: 60b, *note dict: 256. 등과 같은
내장 클래스를 상속할 수 있습니다.

Boost 파이썬 라이브러리(BPL,
‘https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html’)는 C++에서 이를 수행
하는 방법을 제공합니다 (즉, BPL을 사용하여 C++로 작성된 확장 클래스를 상
속할 수 있습니다).


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ,  Next: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ,  Prev: 확장/내장 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.6 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ
======================

* Menu:

* 윈도우에서 파이썬 프로그램을 실행하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?::
* 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?::
* *.pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?: * pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?.
* 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?::
* How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?.


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우에서 파이썬 프로그램을 실행하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.1 윈도우에서 파이썬 프로그램을 실행하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
------------------------------------------------------------------

이 질문은 명확한 질문이 아닙니다.  이미 윈도우 명령 줄에서 프로그램을 실
행하는 것에 익숙 하다면 이 모든 것이 분명할 것입니다.  그렇지 않으면, 좀
더 지침이 필요할 수 있습니다.

당신이 어떤 통합 개발 환경을 쓰지 않는 이상, 결국 “명령 프롬프트 창”이라
불리는 것에 윈도우 명령어를 '입력' 할 것입니다.  보통 윈도우 검색 창에서
‘cmd’ 를 입력하여 이 창을 띄울 수 있습니다.  일반적으로 다음과 같은 윈도
우의 “명령 프롬프트”가 표시되기 때문에 이러한 창이 언제 시작했는지 인지
할 수 있어야 합니다:

     C:\>

아마 글자가 다르고, 그 뒤에 다른 것들이 있을 수 있습니다.  그러므로 다음
과 같은 것을 쉽게 볼 수 있습니다:

     D:\YourName\Projects\Python>

컴퓨터 설정 방법과 최근에 끝낸 그 밖의 것에 의존적입니다.  일단 이런 창
을 시작했다면, 파이썬 프로그램을 실행할 준비가 된 것입니다.

파이썬 스크립트는 파이썬 '인터프리터' 라는 다른 프로그램에서 진행할 필요
가 있다는 것을 알고 있어야 합니다.  인터프리터는 스크립트를 읽고, 바이트
코드로 컴파일하고, 바이트 코드를 실행하여 프로그램을 구동합니다.  그렇다
면, 인터프리터를 통해 파이썬을 처리하려면 어떻게 준비해야 하겠습니까?

먼저, 명령 창이 “py”라는 단어를 해석기를 시작하는 지시로 인식하는지 확인
해야합니다.  명령 창을 열고 있으면, 명령 ‘py’ 를 입력하고 return 키를 눌
러야 합니다:

     C:\Users\YourName> py

다음과 같이 표시됩니다:

     Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

인터프리터를 “대화형 모드”로 시작했습니다.  즉, 파이썬 문장이나 표현식을
대화식으로 입력하여 대기하는 중에 실행 혹은 평가시킬 수 있습니다.  이것
은 파이썬의 가장 강력한 기능 중 하나입니다.  선택한 몇 가지 수식을 입력
하여 확인하고 그 결과를 확인하십시오:

     >>> print("Hello")
     Hello
     >>> "Hello" * 3
     'HelloHelloHello'

많은 사람이 대화형 모드를 편리하면서도 프로그래밍이 가능한 계산기로 사용
합니다.  대화형 파이썬 세션을 종료하려면, *note exit(): 2191. 함수를 호
출하거나 ‘Z’ 를 입력하면서 ‘Ctrl’ 키를 누르고 나서 “‘Enter’” 키를 눌러 윈
도우 명령 프롬프트로 돌아갑니다.

또한, 시작 ‣ 프로그램 ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python(명령 줄) 메뉴 선택과 같은 시
작 메뉴 항목을 찾아볼 수 있으며, 그 결과 새 창에서 ‘>>>’ 프롬프트를 볼 수
있습니다.  이 경우, *note exit(): 2191. 함수를 호출하거나 ‘Ctrl’-‘Z’ 를
입력하면 창이 사라집니다.  윈도우에서 단일 “python” 명령을 실행하는 중이
고, 인터프리터를 종료하면 창을 닫습니다.

이제 ‘py’ 명령이 인식되었으므로, 당신은 당신의 파이썬 스크립트를 줄 수 있
습니다.  파이썬 스크립트에 절대 경로나 상대 경로를 지정해야 할 것입니다.
당신의 파이썬 스크립트가 ‘hello.py’ 라는 이름으로 당신의 데스크톱에 위치
한다고 하면, 명령 프롬프트가 홈 디렉토리에 잘 열려있으므로 다음과 같이 내
용이 표시됩니다:

     C:\Users\YourName>

그래서 이제 스크립트 경로 뒤에 ‘py’ 를 입력하여 파이썬 스크립트를 제공하
기 위해 ‘py’ 명령을 요청할 것입니다:

     C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
     hello


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?,  Prev: 윈도우에서 파이썬 프로그램을 실행하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.2 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
---------------------------------------------------------------

윈도우에서 표준 파이썬 설치관리자는 이미 .py 확장자와 파일 유형
(Python.File)을 연결했고, 인터프리터(‘D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe
"%1" %*’)를 실행하는 open 명령의 파일 유형을 제공합니다.  이것은 명령 프
롬프트에서 ‘foo.py’ 과 같은 스크립트 실행파일을 만들기에 충분합니다.  확
장자명 없이 ‘foo’ 를 입력하여 스크립트를 실행하려면 PATHEXT 환경 변수에
.py를 추가해야 합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?,  Next: 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.3 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?
-----------------------------------------------------------

일반적으로 파이썬은 윈도우에서 매우 빠르게 시작되지만, 때때로 파이썬을 시
작하는 데 갑자기 오랜 시간이 걸린다는 버그 보고서가 있습니다.  이러한 것
은 파이썬이 동일하게 구성된 것으로 보이는 다른 윈도우 시스템에서 잘 작동
하기 때문에 더욱 더 곤혹스럽게 만듭니다.

이 문제는 해당 컴퓨터의 바이러스 검사 소프트웨어의 잘못된 설정으로 발생
하는 것일 수 있습니다.  일부 바이러스 스캐너는 파일 시스템으로부터 읽은
모든 것을 모니터링하도록 스캐너를 구성할 때 두 자릿수 규모의 시동 오버헤
드를 도입하는 것으로 알려져 있습니다.  시스템에서 바이러스 검사 소프트웨
어의 구성을 확인하여 실제로 동일하게 구성되었는지 확인하십시오.  모든 파
일 시스템 읽기 작업을 검색하도록 구성된 경우, McAfee는 특히 문제를 일으
킵니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Next: * pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?,  Prev: 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.4 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?
----------------------------------------------------------------

See *note 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야
합니까?: 50de. for a list of tools that can be used to make executables.


File: python.info,  Node: * pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?,  Next: 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.5 ‘*.pyd’ 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?
---------------------------------------

예, .pyd 파일은 dll 이지만, 몇 가지 차이점이 있습니다.  만약 당신이
‘foo.pyd’ 라는 이름의 DLL을 가지고 있다면, ‘PyInit_foo()’ 함수를 반드시
가지고 있어야 합니다.  당신은 파이썬 “import foo”를 쓸 수 있으며, 파이썬
은 (foo.py, foo.pyc 뿐만 아니라) foo.pyd 를 검색할 것이고, 이를 발견하면
초기화하기 위해 ‘PyInit_foo()’ 호출을 시도할 것입니다.  윈도우에서 DLL 의
존재를 요구할 것이기 때문에 .exe를 foo.lib와 링크하면 안 됩니다.

foo.pyd에 대한 검색 경로는 윈도우에서 foo.dll을 검색하는 데 사용하는 경
로가 아닌 PYTHONPATH임을 유의하십시오.  또한, 프로그램을 실행하기 위해
foo.pyd가 있을 필요는 없지만, 프로그램을 dll과 링크한 경우에는 dll이 필
요합니다.  물론, ‘import foo’ 를 하기 위해서는 foo.pyd가 필요합니다.
DLL에서 링키지는 소스 코드에서 ‘__declspec(dllexport)’ 로 선언됩니다.
.pyd에서 링키지는 사용 가능한 함수 목록에 정의됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: * pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.6 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

윈도우 앱에서 파이썬 인터프리터를 포함하려면 다음과 같이 요약할 수 있습
니다:

  1. .exe 파일에 직접 파이썬을 빌드하면 '안' 됩니다.  윈도우에서 파이썬
     은 그 자신이 DLL인 모듈의 임포트를 처리하기 위해서는 DLL이어야 합니
     다.  (이것이 문서화되지 않은 첫 번째 사실입니다) 대신에,
     ‘python`NN'.dll’ 에 링크하면 됩니다.  일반적으로
     ‘C:\Windows\System’ 에 설치됩니다.  'NN'은 파이썬 버전이고, Python
     3.3의 경우 “33”과 같은 숫자입니다.

     두 가지 방법으로 파이썬에 링크할 수 있습니다.  로드 타임 링크는
     ‘python`NN'.lib’ 에 대한 링크를 의미하고, 런타임 링크는
     ‘python`NN'.dll’ 에 대한 링크를 의미합니다.  (일반 참고:
     ‘python`NN'.lib’ 는 ‘python`NN'.dll’ 에 해당하는 소위 “import lib”입
     니다.  오직 링커를 위해 기호만 정의합니다)

     런타임 링크는 링크 옵션을 크게 단순화합니다.  모든 것은 런타임 중에
     발생합니다.  당신의 코드는 윈도우 ‘LoadLibraryEx()’ 루틴을 사용하여
     ‘python`NN'.dll’ 을 로드해야 합니다.  그 코드는 윈도우
     ‘GetProcAddress()’ 루틴에서 얻은 포인터를 사용하여 ‘python`NN'.dll’
     (파이썬의 C API)의 엑세스 루틴 및 데이터를 사용해야 합니다.  매크로
     는 이러한 포인터를 파이썬 C API에서 루틴을 호출하는 모든 C 코드에 투
     명하게 사용할 수 있습니다.

  2. SWIG를 사용할 경우, 앱의 데이터와 메서드를 파이썬에서 사용할 수 있
     게 만드는 파이썬 “확장 모듈”을 생성하는 것이 쉽습니다.  SWIG는 당신
     을 위해 모든 성가신 세부사항들을 처리할 것입니다.  그 결과로 .exe 파
     일에 링크한 C 코드가 생성됩니다!  DLL 파일을 만들 필요가 '없으며',
     만들지 않으면 링크하는 것도 간단해집니다.

  3. SWIG는 확장 모듈의 이름에 따라 이름이 달라지는 초기화 함수(C 함수
     )를 생성합니다.  예를 들어, 모듈의 이름이 leo인 경우, 초기화 함수를
     initleo()로 합니다.  SWIG 섀도 클래스를 사용하면 initleoc()로 합니
     다.  이것은 섀도 클래스가 사용하는 대부분 숨겨진 조력자 클래스를 초
     기화합니다.

     2단계에서 C 코드를 .exe 파일에 링크할 수 있는 이유는 초기화 함수를
     호출하는 것이 모듈을 파이썬으로 임포트하는 것과 동일하기 때문입니다
     !  (이것이 문서화되지 않은 두 번째 사실입니다)

  4. 간단히 말해서, 당신은 당신의 확장 모듈로 파이썬 인터프리터를 초기화
     하기 위해 다음 코드를 사용할 수 있습니다.

          #include <Python.h>
          ...
          Py_Initialize();  // 파이썬을 초기화합니다.
          initmyAppc();  // 헬퍼 클래스를 초기화(임포트)합니다.
          PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // 섀도 클래스를 임포트합니다.

  5. 파이썬의 C API에는 두 가지 문제가 있는데, 이것은 당신이
     PythonNN.dll을 만드는 데 사용되는 컴파일러인 MSVC 이외의 컴파일러를
     사용하면 명백해집니다.

     문제 1: ‘FILE *’ 인자를 취하는 소위 “매우 높은 수준”의 함수는 각 컴
     파일러의 구조체 FILE 개념이 다르기 때문에 멀티 컴파일러 환경에서는
     작동하지 않습니다.  구현 관점에서 볼 때 이들은 매우 낮은 수준의 함
     수입니다.

     문제 2: 반환값이 void인 C 함수의 래퍼를 생성할 때 SWIG는 다음과 같
     은 코드를 생성합니다:

          Py_INCREF(Py_None);
          _resultobj = Py_None;
          return _resultobj;

     아아, Py_None은 pythonNN.dll 내부의 _Py_NoneStruct라는 복잡한 데이
     터 구조에 대한 참조로 확장하는 매크로입니다.  다시 말하자면, 이 코
     드는 멀티 컴파일러 환경에서 실패할 것입니다.  다음과 같은 코드로 바
     꾸십시오:

          return Py_BuildValue("");

     저는 이것을 작동시키지는 못했지만, SWIG의 ‘%typemap’ 명령을 사용하
     여 자동으로 변경하는 것이 가능할지도 모릅니다(저는 완전 SWIG 초보자
     입니다).

  6. 윈도우 앱 내부에서 파이썬 셸 스크립트를 사용하여 파이썬 인터프리터
     창을 설치하는 것은 좋은 생각이 아닙니다.  결과 창은 앱의 창 시스템
     과는 독립적일 것입니다.  오히려, 당신(또는 wxPythonWindow 클래스)은
     “native” 인터프리터 창을 만들어야 합니다.  이 창은 파이썬 인터프리
     터와 연결하기 쉽습니다.  당신은 파이썬의 i/o를 읽기 및 쓰기를 지원
     하는 모든 객체로 리디렉션할 수 있으므로 read() 와 write() 메서드를
     포함하는 파이썬 객체(확장 모듈에 정의됨)만 있으면 됩니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Prev: 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.7 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FAQ는 탭을 사용하는 것을 권장하지 않으며, 파이썬 스타일 안내서( PEP 8(1)
)는 분산된 파이썬 코드에 대해 4 개의 스페이스를 권장합니다.  이 또한
Emacs python-mode의 기본값입니다.

모든 편집기에서 탭과 스페이스를 혼용하는 것은 좋은 생각이 아닙니다.  이
점에서 MSVC는 다르지 않으며 스페이스를 사용하기 쉽게 구성됩니다: 다음 행
동을 따라 해보십시오 Tools ‣ Options ‣ Tabs, 그리고 파일 유형은
“”Default”로 하고 “Tab size”와 “Indent size”는 4로 설정하고, “Insert
spaces”를 라디오 버튼으로 선택합니다.

만일 혼용된 탭과 스페이스로 인해 선행 공백에 문제가 발생하는 경우, 파이
썬이 *note IndentationError: 7a1. 나 *note TabError: 53e. 를 발생시킵니
다.  또한, *note tabnanny: dd. 모듈을 실행하여 배치 모드에서 디렉터리 트
리를 확인할 수도 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Next: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?,  Prev: 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.8 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?
-----------------------------------------------------------

*note msvcrt: 93. 모듈을 사용합니다.  이것은 표준 윈도우-특정 확장 모듈
입니다.  이것은 키보드 히트가 존재하는지를 확인하는 ‘kbhit()’ 와 에코 없
이 문자를 얻는 ‘getch()’ 를 정의합니다.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?,  Prev: 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?,  Up: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ

10.6.9 How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

This can occur on Python 3.5 and later when using Windows 8.1 or earlier
without all updates having been installed.  First ensure your operating
system is supported and is up to date, and if that does not resolve the
issue, visit the Microsoft support page(1) for guidance on manually
installing the C Runtime update.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/


File: python.info,  Node: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ,  Next: “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ,  Prev: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.7 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ
=================================

* Menu:

* 일반적인 GUI 질문::
* 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?::
* Tkinter 질문::


File: python.info,  Node: 일반적인 GUI 질문,  Next: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?,  Up: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ

10.7.1 일반적인 GUI 질문
------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?,  Next: Tkinter 질문,  Prev: 일반적인 GUI 질문,  Up: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ

10.7.2 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?
-----------------------------------------

파이썬의 표준 빌드에는 Tcl/Tk 위젯 집합에 대한 객체 지향 인터페이스가 포
함되는데, *note tkinter: 3d7b.라고 불립니다.  이것이 아마도 가장 (파이썬
의 대부분 바이너리 배포(1)에 포함되어 있으므로) 설치하고 사용하기 쉽습니
다.  소스에 대한 안내를 포함하는 Tk에 대한 자세한 내용은 Tcl/Tk 홈페이지
(2)를 참조하십시오.  Tcl/Tk는 맥 OS, 윈도우 및 유닉스 플랫폼에 완벽하게
호환됩니다.

여러분이 목표로 하는 플랫폼에 따라, 몇 가지 대안이 있습니다.  크로스 플
랫폼(3) 및 플랫폼 특정(4) GUI 프레임워크의 목록을 파이썬 위키에서 확인할
수 있습니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk

   (3) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks

   (4) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 질문,  Prev: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?,  Up: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ

10.7.3 Tkinter 질문
-------------------

* Menu:

* Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정(freeze)합니까?: Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정 freeze 합니까?.
* I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?::
* Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다; 이유가 무엇입니까?: Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다 이유가 무엇입니까?.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정 freeze 합니까?,  Next: I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?,  Up: Tkinter 질문

10.7.3.1 Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정(freeze)합니까?
...........................................................

Freeze는 독립 실행형 응용 프로그램을 만드는 도구입니다.  Tkinter 응용 프
로그램을 고정할 때, 응용 프로그램은 여전히 Tcl과 Tk 라이브러리가 필요하
므로 진정한 독립 실행형이 아닙니다.

한 가지 해결책은 응용 프로그램을 Tcl과 Tk 라이브러리와 함께 제공하고, 그
것들을 실행 시간에 ‘TCL_LIBRARY’와 ‘TK_LIBRARY’ 환경 변수를 사용하여 가
리키는 것입니다.

Various third-party freeze libraries such as py2exe and cx_Freeze have
handling for Tkinter applications built-in.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?,  Next: Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다 이유가 무엇입니까?,  Prev: Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정 freeze 합니까?,  Up: Tkinter 질문

10.7.3.2 I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?
...................................................................

윈도우 이외의 다른 플랫폼에서라면, 그렇습니다, 그리고 스레드가 필요하지
도 않습니다!  그러나 I/O 코드를 약간 재구성해야 합니다.  Tk는 Xt의
‘XtAddInput()’ 호출과 동등한 것을 갖고 있는데, 파일 기술자에서 I/O가 가
능할 때 Tk 메인 루프에서 호출할 콜백 함수를 등록할 수 있도록 합니다.
*note 파일 처리기: 3d98.를 참조하십시오.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다 이유가 무엇입니까?,  Prev: I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?,  Up: Tkinter 질문

10.7.3.3 Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다: 이유가 무엇입니까?
......................................................................

자주 들리는 불만은 적절한 키를 눌러도 ‘bind()’ 메서드로 이벤트에 *note
연결된: 3d93. 이벤트 처리기가 처리되지 않는다는 것입니다.

가장 흔한 원인은 바인딩이 적용되는 위젯에 “키보드 포커스”가 없는 것입니
다.  focus 명령에 대한 Tk 설명서를 확인하십시오.  보통 위젯은 그것을 클
릭할 때 키보드 포커스를 받습니다 (레이블은 그렇지 않습니다; takefocus 옵
션을 보십시오).


File: python.info,  Node: “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ,  Prev: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ,  Up: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들

10.8 “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ
=====================================================

* Menu:

* 파이썬이 무엇입니까?: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?<2>.
* 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?::
* 파이썬을 삭제할 수 있습니까?::


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?<2>,  Next: 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ

10.8.1 파이썬이 무엇입니까?
---------------------------

파이썬은 프로그래밍 언어입니다.  많은 다른 응용 프로그램에 사용됩니다.  파
이썬은 배우기 쉬우므로 일부 고등학교와 대학에서는 입문 프로그래밍 언어로
사용되지만, Google, NASA 및 Lucasfilm Ltd.와 같은 곳에서 전문 소프트웨어
개발자가 사용하기도 합니다.

파이썬에 대해 더 알고 싶다면, 파이썬 입문자 지침서(1)부터 시작하십시오.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Next: 파이썬을 삭제할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?<2>,  Up: “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ

10.8.2 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?
-----------------------------------------------------

파이썬이 시스템에 설치되어 있지만 설치한 기억이 없다면, 그렇게 될 수 있
는 몇 가지 가능한 방법이 있습니다.

   * 아마도 컴퓨터의 다른 사용자가 프로그래밍을 배우고 싶어 하고 그것을
     설치했을 것입니다; 당신은 누가 컴퓨터를 사용했고 설치했는지 추측해
     야 합니다.

   * 컴퓨터에 설치된 제삼자 응용 프로그램이 파이썬으로 작성되었으며, 파
     이썬 설치를 포함할 수 있습니다.  GUI 프로그램에서 네트워크 서버와 관
     리 스크립트에 이르기까지 그런 응용 프로그램이 많이 있습니다.

   * 일부 윈도우 컴퓨터에는 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니다.  이 글을 쓰는 시
     점에, 우리는 파이썬이 포함된 Hewlett-Packard와 Compaq의 컴퓨터에 대
     해 알고 있습니다.  분명히 HP/Compaq의 관리 도구 중 일부가 파이썬으
     로 작성되었을 겁니다.

   * 맥 OS 및 일부 리눅스 배포판과 같은 많은 유닉스 호환 운영 체제에는 기
     본적으로 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니다; 기본 설치에 포함되어 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬을 삭제할 수 있습니까?,  Prev: 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?,  Up: “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ

10.8.3 파이썬을 삭제할 수 있습니까?
-----------------------------------

파이썬이 어디서 왔는지에 달려 있습니다.

누군가 의도적으로 설치했으면, 아무 문제도 일으키지 않고 제거할 수 있습니
다.  윈도우에서는, 제어판의 프로그램 추가/제거 아이콘을 사용하십시오.

제삼자 응용 프로그램에서 파이썬을 설치했다면, 제거할 수도 있지만, 해당 응
용 프로그램이 더는 작동하지 않게 됩니다.  파이썬을 직접 제거하는 대신 해
당 응용 프로그램의 제거 프로그램을 사용해야 합니다.

파이썬이 운영체제와 함께 제공되었다면, 제거하는 것은 바람직하지 않습니다
.  제거하면, 파이썬으로 작성된 모든 도구가 더는 실행되지 않으며, 그중 일
부는 중요할 수 있습니다.  문제를 해결하려면 다시 시스템을 재설치해야 할
수 있습니다.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations,  Next: 용어집,  Prev: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들,  Up: Top

11 Deprecations
***************

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>.
* C API Deprecations::


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
===================================

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 2b9. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2ba,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 2bb, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2bc.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bd. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2be, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2bf, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c0. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          2c1. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c2. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c3.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c4.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     2c4.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 2c5.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 78. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f3.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c6.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(8).)

   * *note itertools: 81. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 94.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 2c7. or *note set_start_method(): 2c8. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     컨텍스트 및 시작 방법: 2c9.

   * *note pathlib: a4.: *note is_relative_to(): 2ca. and *note
     relative_to(): 2cb.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note find_loader(): 2cc. and *note
     get_loader(): 2cd. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2ce. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).)

   * *note pty: b1.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cf.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2cf.

   * *note sqlite3: cf.:

        * *note version: 2d0. and *note version_info: 2d1.

        * *note execute(): 2d2. and *note executemany(): 2d3. if *note
          named placeholders: 2d4. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 256.

   * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 2d5, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __cached__: 2d7. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.cached: 2d8. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 2d9. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 2da. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2a.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 72.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a1.
          has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement
          exists.  'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web
          server with a request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 77.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 86.:

        * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2db. function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.11.  Its removal was originally
          planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed
          to Python 3.15.  Use *note getlocale(): 2dc, *note
          setlocale(): 2dd, and *note getencoding(): 2de. instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).)

   * *note pathlib: a4.:

        * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a6. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 223. to detect
          reserved paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: aa.:

        * *note java_ver(): 2a7. has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: db.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2df. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ed.:

        * *note RLock(): 2e0. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 103.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e2.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2b0. classes (e.g.  ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
          x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use
          the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 162.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b1. decorator
          function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight
          years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be
          supported by any major type checker.

   * *note wave: 113.:

        * The *note getmark(): 2b4, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers():
          2b5. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b6. and *note
          Wave_write: 2b7. classes have been deprecated since Python
          3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2e4. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 2e5. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29b.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16, use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e6. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note shutil: c5.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 195.

   * *note symtable: d8.:

        * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e7. method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: d9.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2ae. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2af. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note tarfile: de.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>,  Next: C API Deprecations,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.4 Pending Removal in Future Versions
=======================================

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          2e9, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ea, *note if: 2eb, *note in:
          2ec, *note is: 2ed. and *note or: 2ee.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 257.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 2ef.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 2ef.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 2f0.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 2f0.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 2f0. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     2f1. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f2.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2e2.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 2f3. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 2f4.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f5.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 63.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 77.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 2f6. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7a.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 87.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f7. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8b.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a1.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2f8. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b9.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(4).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c5.: *note rmtree(): 2f9.’s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d0. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 294. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 294.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2fa.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ed. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          2fb.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2fc.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2fd.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 2fe. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 2ff.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 300. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 301.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          302.

   * *note typing.Text: 303. (gh-92332(5)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 304.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     305. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 306. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 307. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 293. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 308. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 309. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 30a. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: C API Deprecations,  Prev: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.5 C API Deprecations
=======================

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.5.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
-------------------------------------

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bb. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 3bc. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bd. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3be.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b5. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c0.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          3c1. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c2.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c3.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c4.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c5.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c6.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 3c7. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3c8.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3c9.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3ca.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cb. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3cc.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          3cd. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3ce.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3cf. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d0.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d1. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d2.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 3d3. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d4.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d5. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d6.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d7. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3d8.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3d9. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3da.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3db. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          3dc. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3dd.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3de.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3df.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e0. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e1.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 39e. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e2. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e3. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e4. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e5.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3bf. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 3a0. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.5.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
-------------------------------------

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b7.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3b8. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 372. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     3b9.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 371. instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e7. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3a9.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 3aa. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ab.: Get *note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3e8. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ac.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.path: 3ae. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3af.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3e9.
          and *note sys.prefix: 3b0. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable:
          3b2. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b4.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b5.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b6. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.5.3 Pending Removal in Future Versions
-----------------------------------------

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ec.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ed.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     3ee. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3ef.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3ee. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f0.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     3f1. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f2.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f3. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f4.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     3f5. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f6.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     3f7. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3f8. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3f9.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fa.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fb.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fc.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3fd.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 3fe.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 3ff. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 400.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 401. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 402.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 403. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 404.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 405. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 406.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 407. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 408.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: 용어집,  Next: 이 설명서에 관하여,  Prev: Deprecations,  Up: Top

12 용어집
*********

‘>>>’

     *note 대화형: 169. 셸의 기본 파이썬 프롬프트.  인터프리터에서 대화
     형으로 실행될 수 있는 코드 예에서 자주 볼 수 있습니다.

‘...’

     다음과 같은 것들을 가리킬 수 있습니다:

        * 들여쓰기 된 코드 블록의 코드를 입력할 때, 쌍을 이루는 구분자
          (괄호, 대괄호, 중괄호) 안에 코드를 입력할 때, 데코레이터 지정
          후의 *note 대화형: 169. 셸의 기본 파이썬 프롬프트.

        * *note Ellipsis: 218d. 내장 상수.

abstract base class (추상 베이스 클래스)

     추상 베이스 클래스는 *note hasattr(): 4cc. 같은 다른 테크닉들이 불
     편하거나 미묘하게 잘못된 (예를 들어, *note 매직 메서드: 1f6e.) 경우
     , 인터페이스를 정의하는 방법을 제공함으로써 *note 덕 타이핑: 51a5.
     을 보완합니다.  ABC는 가상 서브 클래스를 도입하는데, 클래스를 계승
     하지 않으면서도 *note isinstance(): 43b. 와 *note issubclass():
     7ba. 에 의해 감지될 수 있는 클래스들입니다; *note abc: 4. 모듈 설명
     서를 보세요.  파이썬에는 많은 내장 ABC 들이 따라오는데 다음과 같은
     것들이 있습니다: 자료 구조 (*note collections.abc: 1e. 모듈에서), 숫
     자 (*note numbers: 9e. 모듈에서), 스트림 (*note io: 7f. 모듈에서),
     임포트 파인더와 로더 (*note importlib.abc: 78. 모듈에서).  *note
     abc: 4. 모듈을 사용해서 자신만의 ABC를 만들 수도 있습니다.

annotation (어노테이션)

     관습에 따라 *note 형 힌트: 1f89. 로 사용되는 변수, 클래스 어트리뷰
     트 또는 함수 매개변수 나 반환 값과 연결된 레이블입니다.

     지역 변수의 어노테이션은 실행 시간에 액세스할 수 없지만, 전역 변수,
     클래스 속성 및 함수의 어노테이션은 각각 모듈, 클래스, 함수의
     ‘__annotations__’ 특수 어트리뷰트에 저장됩니다.

     이 기능을 설명하는 *note 변수 어노테이션: d51, *note 함수
     어노테이션: 1c3f, PEP 484(1), PEP 526(2)을 참조하세요.  어노테이션
     작업에 대한 모범 사례는 *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.를 참
     조하세요.

argument (인자)

     함수를 호출할 때 *note 함수: 2061. (또는 *note 메서드: 155a.) 로 전
     달되는 값.  두 종류의 인자가 있습니다:

        * '키워드 인자 (keyword argument)': 함수 호출 때 식별자가 앞에 붙
          은 인자 (예를 들어, ‘name=’) 또는 ‘**’ 를 앞에 붙인 딕셔너리로
          전달되는 인자.  예를 들어, 다음과 같은 *note complex(): 2f0. 호
          출에서 ‘3’ 과 ‘5’ 는 모두 키워드 인자입니다:

               complex(real=3, imag=5)
               complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})

        * '위치 인자 (positional argument)': 키워드 인자가 아닌 인자.  위
          치 인자들은 인자 목록의 처음에 나오거나 *note 이터러블: 1217.
          의 앞에 ‘*’ 를 붙여 전달할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음과 같
          은 호출에서 ‘3’ 과 ‘5’ 는 모두 위치 인자입니다.

               complex(3, 5)
               complex(*(3, 5))

     인자는 함수 바디의 이름 붙은 지역 변수에 대입됩니다.  이 대입에 적
     용되는 규칙들에 대해서는 *note 호출: d79. 절을 보세요.  문법적으로,
     어떤 표현식이건 인자로 사용될 수 있습니다; 구해진 값이 지역 변수에
     대입됩니다.

     용어집의 *note 매개변수: 1f07. 항목과 FAQ 질문 *note 인자와
     매개변수의 차이: 50e9. 와 PEP 362(3)도 보세요.

asynchronous context manager (비동기 컨텍스트 관리자)

     *note __aenter__(): 1fd8. 와 *note __aexit__(): 1631. 메서드를 정의
     함으로써 *note async with: 5cf. 문에서 보이는 환경을 제어하는 객체.
     PEP 492(4)로 도입되었습니다.

asynchronous generator (비동기 제너레이터)

     *note 비동기 제너레이터 이터레이터: 437e. 를 돌려주는 함수.  *note
     async def: 5cb. 로 정의되는 코루틴 함수처럼 보이는데, *note async
     for: aa7. 루프가 사용할 수 있는 일련의 값들을 만드는 *note yield:
     9ca. 표현식을 포함한다는 점이 다릅니다.

     보통 비동기 제너레이터 함수를 가리키지만, 어떤 문맥에서는 '비동기 제
     너레이터 이터레이터' 를 가리킵니다.  의도하는 의미가 명확하지 않은
     경우는, 완전한 용어를 써서 모호함을 없앱니다.

     비동기 제너레이터 함수는 *note await: 1b9. 표현식과, *note async
     for: aa7. 문과, *note async with: 5cf. 문을 포함할 수 있습니다.

asynchronous generator iterator (비동기 제너레이터 이터레이터)

     An object created by an *note asynchronous generator: 2046.
     function.

     *note 비동기 이터레이터: 1ab. 인데 *note __anext__(): 157b. 를 호출
     하면 어웨이터블 객체를 돌려주고, 이것은 다음 *note yield: 9ca. 표현
     식 까지 비동기 제너레이터 함수의 바디를 실행합니다.

     각 *note yield: 9ca.는 일시적으로 처리를 중단하고, (지역 변수들과 대
     기 중인 try-문들을 포함하는) 실행 상태를 기억합니다.  '비동기 제너
     레이터 이터레이터' 가 *note __anext__(): 157b. 가 돌려주는 또 하나
     의 어웨이터블로 재개되면, 떠난 곳으로 복귀합니다.  PEP 492(5)와 PEP
     525(6)를 보세요.

asynchronous iterable (비동기 이터러블)

     *note async for: aa7. 문에서 사용될 수 있는 객체.  *note
     __aiter__(): bf8. 메서드는 *note 비동기 이터레이터: 1ab. 를 돌려줘
     야 합니다.  PEP 492(7) 로 도입되었습니다.

asynchronous iterator (비동기 이터레이터)

     *note __aiter__(): bf8. 와 *note __anext__(): 157b. 메서드를 구현하
     는 객체.  *note __anext__(): 157b. 는 *note 어웨이터블: 1ad. 객체를
     돌려줘야 합니다.  *note async for: aa7.는 *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1a34. 예외가 발생할 때까지 비동기 이터레이터의 *note __anext__():
     157b. 메서드가 돌려주는 어웨이터블을 풉니다.  PEP 492(8)로 도입되었
     습니다.

attribute (어트리뷰트)

     흔히 점표현식을 사용하는 이름으로 참조되는 객체와 결합한 값.  예를
     들어, 객체 'o'가 어트리뷰트 'a'를 가지면, 'o.a'처럼 참조됩니다.

     It is possible to give an object an attribute whose name is not an
     identifier as defined by *note 식별자와 키워드: 1e9c, for example
     using *note setattr(): 2163, if the object allows it.  Such an
     attribute will not be accessible using a dotted expression, and
     would instead need to be retrieved with *note getattr(): bce.

awaitable (어웨이터블)

     *note await: 1b9. 표현식에 사용할 수 있는 객체.  *note 코루틴: 48b.
     이나 *note __await__(): 1fcf. 메서드를 가진 객체가 될 수 있습니다.
     PEP 492(9)를 보세요.

BDFL

     자비로운 종신 독재자 (Benevolent Dictator For Life), 즉 Guido van
     Rossum(10), 파이썬의 창시자.

binary file (바이너리 파일)

     *note 바이트열류 객체들: d2a.을 읽고 쓸 수 있는 *note 파일 객체:
     11b2.  바이너리 파일의 예로는 바이너리 모드 (‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’ 또는
     ‘'rb+'’) 로 열린 파일, *note sys.stdin.buffer: 537, *note
     sys.stdout.buffer: ad3, *note io.BytesIO: e9a. 와 *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 414. 의 인스턴스를 들 수 있습니다.

     *note str: 445. 객체를 읽고 쓸 수 있는 파일 객체에 대해서는 *note
     텍스트 파일: 1c8e. 도 참조하세요.

borrowed reference (빌린 참조)

     In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an
     object, where the code using the object does not own the reference.
     It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed.  For
     example, a garbage collection can remove the last *note strong
     reference: 336. to the object and so destroy it.

     Calling *note Py_INCREF(): 569. on the *note borrowed reference:
     337. is recommended to convert it to a *note strong reference: 336.
     in-place, except when the object cannot be destroyed before the
     last usage of the borrowed reference.  The *note Py_NewRef(): 896.
     function can be used to create a new *note strong reference: 336.

bytes-like object (바이트열류 객체)

     *note 버퍼 프로토콜: 391. 를 지원하고 C-*note 연속: 222f. 버퍼를 익
     스포트 할 수 있습니다.  여러 공통 *note memoryview: 462. 객체들은 물
     론이고 *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 538, *note array.array:
     1a0. 객체들을 포함합니다.  바이트열류 객체들은 바이너리 데이터를 다
     루는 여러 가지 연산들에 사용될 수 있습니다; 압축, 바이너리 파일로 저
     장, 소켓을 통한 전송 같은 것들이 있습니다.

     어떤 연산들은 바이너리 데이터가 가변적일 필요가 있습니다.  이런 경
     우에 설명서는 종종 “읽고-쓰기 바이트열류 객체”라고 표현합니다.  가
     변 버퍼 객체의 예로는 *note bytearray: 538. 와 *note bytearray:
     538. 의 *note memoryview: 462. 가 있습니다.  다른 연산들은 바이너리
     데이터가 불변 객체 (“읽기 전용 바이트열류 객체”)에 저장되도록 요구
     합니다; 이런 것들의 예로는 *note bytes: 1c2.와 *note bytes: 1c2. 객
     체의 *note memoryview: 462. 가 있습니다.

bytecode (바이트 코드)

     파이썬 소스 코드는 바이트 코드로 컴파일되는데, CPython 인터프리터에
     서 파이썬 프로그램의 내부 표현입니다.  바이트 코드는 ‘.pyc’ 파일에
     캐시 되어, 같은 파일을 두 번째 실행할 때 더 빨라지게 만듭니다 (소스
     에서 바이트 코드로의 재컴파일을 피할 수 있습니다).  이 “중간 언어”
     는 각 바이트 코드에 대응하는 기계를 실행하는 *note 가상 기계: 3525.
     에서 실행된다고 말합니다.  바이트 코드는 서로 다른 파이썬 가상 기계
     에서 작동할 것으로 기대하지도, 파이썬 배포 간에 안정적이지도 않다는
     것에 주의해야 합니다.

     바이트 코드 명령어들의 목록은 *note dis 모듈: 5ac. 설명서에 나옵니
     다.

callable (콜러블)

     A callable is an object that can be called, possibly with a set of
     arguments (see *note argument: 442.), with the following syntax:

          callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN)

     A *note function: 2061, and by extension a *note method: 155a, is a
     callable.  An instance of a class that implements the *note
     __call__(): 553. method is also a callable.

callback (콜백)

     인자로 전달되는 미래의 어느 시점에서 실행될 서브 루틴 함수.

class (클래스)

     사용자 정의 객체들을 만들기 위한 주형.  클래스 정의는 보통 클래스의
     인스턴스를 대상으로 연산하는 메서드 정의들을 포함합니다.

class variable (클래스 변수)

     클래스에서 정의되고 클래스 수준 (즉, 클래스의 인스턴스에서가 아니라
     ) 에서만 수정되는 변수.

closure variable (클로저 변수)

     A *note free variable: 1fe2. referenced from a *note nested scope:
     1f46. that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved
     at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces.  May be
     explicitly defined with the *note nonlocal: 1297. keyword to allow
     write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being
     read.

     For example, in the ‘inner’ function in the following code, both
     ‘x’ and ‘print’ are *note free variables: 1fe2, but only ‘x’ is a
     'closure variable':

          def outer():
              x = 0
              def inner():
                  nonlocal x
                  x += 1
                  print(x)
              return inner

     Due to the *note codeobject.co_freevars: 1f03. attribute (which,
     despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables
     rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more
     general *note free variable: 1fe2. term is sometimes used even when
     the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables.

complex number (복소수)

     익숙한 실수 시스템의 확장인데, 모든 숫자가 실수부와 허수부의 합으로
     표현됩니다.  허수부는 실수에 허수 단위(‘-1’의 제곱근)를 곱한 것인데
     , 종종 수학에서는 ‘i’로, 공학에서는 ‘j’로 표기합니다.  파이썬은 후
     자의 표기법을 쓰는 복소수를 기본 지원합니다; 허수부는 ‘j’ 접미사를
     붙여서 표기합니다, 예를 들어, ‘3+1j’.  *note math: 8e. 모듈의 복소
     수 버전이 필요하면, *note cmath: 18.를 사용합니다.  복소수의 활용은
     꽤 수준 높은 수학적 기능입니다.  필요하다고 느끼지 못한다면, 거의 확
     실히 무시해도 좋습니다.

context (컨텍스트)

     This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is
     used.  Some common meanings:

        * The temporary state or environment established by a *note
          context manager: 5ce. via a *note with: 5cc. statement.

        * The collection of key­value bindings associated with a
          particular *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. object and
          accessed via *note ContextVar: 1565. objects.  Also see *note
          context variable: 51a9.

        * A *note contextvars.Context: 15b1. object.  Also see *note
          current context: 15ba.

context management protocol (컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜)

     The *note __enter__(): 5c2. and *note __exit__(): 12f0. methods
     called by the *note with: 5cc. statement.  See PEP 343(11).

context manager (컨텍스트 관리자)

     *note 컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜: 15bb.을 구현하고 *note with: 5cc. 문
     에서 보이는 환경을 제어하는 객체.  PEP 343(12)을 참조하십시오.

context variable (컨텍스트 변수)

     A variable whose value depends on which context is the *note
     current context: 15ba.  Values are accessed via *note
     contextvars.ContextVar: 1565. objects.  Context variables are
     primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous
     tasks.

contiguous (연속)

     버퍼는 정확히 'C-연속(C-contiguous)'이거나 '포트란 연속(Fortran
     contiguous)'일 때 연속이라고 여겨집니다.  영차원 버퍼는 C-연속이면
     서 포트란 연속입니다.  일차원 배열에서, 항목들은 서로에 인접하고,
     0에서 시작하는 오름차순 인덱스의 순서대로 메모리에 배치되어야 합니
     다.  다차원 C-연속 배열에서, 메모리 주소의 순서대로 항목들을 방문할
     때 마지막 인덱스가 가장 빨리 변합니다.  하지만, 포트란 연속 배열에
     서는, 첫 번째 인덱스가 가장 빨리 변합니다.

coroutine (코루틴)

     코루틴은 서브루틴의 더 일반화된 형태입니다.  서브루틴은 한 지점에서
     진입하고 다른 지점에서 탈출합니다.  코루틴은 여러 다른 지점에서 진
     입하고, 탈출하고, 재개할 수 있습니다.  이것들은 *note async def:
     5cb. 문으로 구현할 수 있습니다.  PEP 492(13)를 보세요.

coroutine function (코루틴 함수)

     *note 코루틴: 48b. 객체를 돌려주는 함수.  코루틴 함수는 *note async
     def: 5cb. 문으로 정의될 수 있고, *note await: 1b9. 와 *note async
     for: aa7.와 *note async with: 5cf. 키워드를 포함할 수 있습니다.  이
     것들은 PEP 492(14) 에 의해 도입되었습니다.

CPython

     파이썬 프로그래밍 언어의 규범적인 구현인데, python.org(15)에서 배포
     됩니다.  이 구현을 Jython 이나 IronPython 과 같은 다른 것들과 구별
     할 필요가 있을 때 용어 “CPython” 이 사용됩니다.

current context (현재 컨텍스트)

     The *note context: 15b9. (*note contextvars.Context: 15b1. object)
     that is currently used by *note ContextVar: 1565. objects to access
     (get or set) the values of *note context variables: 51a9.  Each
     thread has its own current context.  Frameworks for executing
     asynchronous tasks (see *note asyncio: a.) associate each task with
     a context which becomes the current context whenever the task
     starts or resumes execution.

decorator (데코레이터)

     다른 함수를 돌려주는 함수인데, 보통 ‘@wrapper’ 문법을 사용한 함수 변
     환으로 적용됩니다.  데코레이터의 흔한 예는 *note classmethod():
     166. 과 *note staticmethod(): 410. 입니다.

     데코레이터 문법은 단지 편의 문법일 뿐입니다.  다음 두 함수 정의는 의
     미상으로 동등합니다:

          def f(arg):
              ...
          f = staticmethod(f)

          @staticmethod
          def f(arg):
              ...

     같은 개념이 클래스에도 존재하지만, 덜 자주 쓰입니다.  데코레이터에
     대한 더 자세한 내용은 *note 함수 정의: 1c3e. 와 *note 클래스 정의:
     12c7. 의 설명서를 보면 됩니다.

descriptor (디스크립터)

     메서드 *note __get__(): 14af. 이나 *note __set__(): 1f72. 이나
     *note __delete__(): 1610.를 정의하는 객체.  클래스 어트리뷰트가 디
     스크립터일 때, 어트리뷰트 조회는 특별한 연결 작용을 일으킵니다.  보
     통, 'a.b'를 읽거나, 쓰거나, 삭제하는데 사용할 때, 'a'의 클래스 딕셔
     너리에서 'b' 라고 이름 붙여진 객체를 찾습니다.  하지만 'b'가 디스크
     립터면, 해당하는 디스크립터 메서드가 호출됩니다.  디스크립터를 이해
     하는 것은 파이썬에 대한 깊은 이해의 열쇠인데, 함수, 메서드, 프로퍼
     티, 클래스 메서드, 스태틱 메서드, 슈퍼 클래스 참조 등의 많은 기능의
     기초를 이루고 있기 때문입니다.

     디스크립터의 메서드들에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 디스크립터
     구현하기: c4c.나 *note 디스크립터 사용법 안내서: 14b4.에 나옵니다.

dictionary (딕셔너리)

     임의의 키를 값에 대응시키는 연관 배열 (associative array).  키는
     *note __hash__(): af8. 와 *note __eq__(): af7. 메서드를 갖는 모든 객
     체가 될 수 있습니다.  펄에서 해시라고 부릅니다.

dictionary comprehension (딕셔너리 컴프리헨션)

     이터러블에 있는 요소 전체나 일부를 처리하고 결과를 담은 딕셔너리를
     반환하는 간결한 방법.  ‘results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)}’은
     값 ‘n ** 2’에 매핑된 키 ‘n’을 포함하는 딕셔너리를 생성합니다.
     *note 리스트, 집합, 딕셔너리의 디스플레이(display): 5ca.을 참조하십
     시오.

dictionary view (딕셔너리 뷰)

     *note dict.keys(): 7c6, *note dict.values(): 7c7, *note
     dict.items(): 7c8. 메서드가 돌려주는 객체들을 딕셔너리 뷰라고 부릅
     니다.  이것들은 딕셔너리 항목들에 대한 동적인 뷰를 제공하는데, 딕셔
     너리가 변경될 때, 뷰가 이 변화를 반영한다는 뜻입니다.  딕셔너리 뷰
     를 완전한 리스트로 바꾸려면 ‘list(dictview)’를 사용하면 됩니다.
     *note 딕셔너리 뷰 객체: 224b.를 보세요.

docstring (독스트링)

     클래스, 함수, 모듈에서 첫 번째 표현식으로 나타나는 문자열 리터럴.  스
     위트가 실행될 때는 무시되지만, 컴파일러에 의해 인지되어 둘러싼 클래
     스, 함수, 모듈의 *note __doc__: 925. 어트리뷰트로 삽입됩니다.  인트
     로스펙션을 통해 사용할 수 있으므로, 객체의 설명서를 위한 규범적인 장
     소입니다.

duck-typing (덕 타이핑)

     올바른 인터페이스를 가졌는지 판단하는데 객체의 형을 보지 않는 프로
     그래밍 스타일; 대신, 단순히 메서드나 어트리뷰트가 호출되거나 사용됩
     니다 (“오리처럼 보이고 오리처럼 꽥꽥댄다면, 그것은 오리다.”) 특정한
     형 대신에 인터페이스를 강조함으로써, 잘 설계된 코드는 다형적인 치환
     을 허락함으로써 유연성을 개선할 수 있습니다.  덕 타이핑은 *note
     type(): d45. 이나 *note isinstance(): 43b. 을 사용한 검사를 피합니
     다.  (하지만, 덕 타이핑이 *note 추상 베이스 클래스: 11a5. 로 보완될
     수 있음에 유의해야 합니다.)  대신에, *note hasattr(): 4cc. 검사나
     *note EAFP: 2b8e. 프로그래밍을 씁니다.

dunder

     An informal short-hand for “double underscore”, used when talking
     about a *note special method: 18b2.  For example, ‘__init__’ is
     often pronounced “dunder init”.

EAFP

     허락보다는 용서를 구하기가 쉽다 (Easier to ask for forgiveness than
     permission).  이 흔히 볼 수 있는 파이썬 코딩 스타일은, 올바른 키나
     어트리뷰트의 존재를 가정하고, 그 가정이 틀리면 예외를 잡습니다.  이
     깔끔하고 빠른 스타일은 많은 *note try: 6e2.와 *note except: 18b. 문
     의 존재로 특징지어집니다.  이 테크닉은 C와 같은 다른 많은 언어에서
     자주 사용되는 *note LBYL: 51ac. 스타일과 대비됩니다.

expression (표현식)

     어떤 값으로 구해질 수 있는 문법적인 조각.  다른 말로 표현하면, 표현
     식은 리터럴, 이름, 어트리뷰트 액세스, 연산자, 함수들과 같은 값을 돌
     려주는 표현 요소들을 쌓아 올린 것입니다.  다른 많은 언어와 대조적으
     로, 모든 언어 구성물들이 표현식인 것은 아닙니다.  *note while:
     1c0c.처럼, 표현식으로 사용할 수 없는 *note 문장: 2793. 들이 있습니
     다.  대입 또한 문장이고, 표현식이 아닙니다.

extension module (확장 모듈)

     C 나 C++로 작성된 모듈인데, 파이썬의 C API를 사용해서 핵심이나 사용
     자 코드와 상호 작용합니다.

f-string (f-문자열)

     ‘'f'’ 나 ‘'F'’ 를 앞에 붙인 문자열 리터럴들을 흔히 “f-문자열”이라고
     부르는데, *note 포맷 문자열 리터럴: 9a6. 의 줄임말입니다.  PEP
     498(16) 을 보세요.

file object (파일 객체)

     하부 자원에 대해 파일 지향적 API(‘read()’ 나 ‘write()’ 같은 메서드
     들)를 드러내는 객체.  만들어진 방법에 따라, 파일 객체는 실제 디스크
     상의 파일이나 다른 저장 장치나 통신 장치 (예를 들어, 표준 입출력, 인
     -메모리 버퍼, 소켓, 파이프, 등등)에 대한 액세스를 중계할 수 있습니
     다.  파일 객체는 '파일류 객체 (file-like objects)'나 '스트림
     (streams)' 이라고도 불립니다.

     실제로는 세 부류의 파일 객체들이 있습니다.  날(raw) *note 바이너리
     파일: 1c8f, 버퍼드(buffered) *note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f, *note 텍스트
     파일: 1c8e.  이들의 인터페이스는 *note io: 7f. 모듈에서 정의됩니다.
     파일 객체를 만드는 규범적인 방법은 *note open(): 515. 함수를 쓰는 것
     입니다.

file-like object (파일류 객체)

     *note 파일 객체: 11b2. 의 비슷한 말.

filesystem encoding and error handler (파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기)

     Encoding and error handler used by Python to decode bytes from the
     operating system and encode Unicode to the operating system.

     The filesystem encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all
     bytes below 128.  If the file system encoding fails to provide this
     guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError: 1293.

     The *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c56. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce3. functions can be used to get
     the filesystem encoding and error handler.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 789.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e2. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 3e3. members of *note PyConfig: 3a0.

     *note 로케일 인코딩: 242. 도 보세요.

finder (파인더)

     임포트될 모듈을 위한 *note 로더: 16b7. 를 찾으려고 시도하는 객체.

     두 종류의 파인더가 있습니다: *note sys.meta_path: d28. 와 함께 사용
     하는 *note 메타 경로 파인더: 1066. 와 *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. 과
     함께 사용하는 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067.

     더 자세한 내용은 *note 파인더(finder)와 로더(loader): 1ffb. 와
     *note importlib: 77.를 참조하십시오.

floor division (정수 나눗셈)

     가장 가까운 정수로 내림하는 수학적 나눗셈.  정수 나눗셈 연산자는
     ‘//’ 다.  예를 들어, 표현식 ‘11 // 4’ 의 값은 ‘2’가 되지만, 실수 나
     눗셈은 ‘2.75’를 돌려줍니다.  ‘(-11) // 4’ 가 ‘-2.75’를 '내림' 한
     ‘-3’이 됨에 유의해야 합니다.  PEP 238(17)을 보세요.

free threading (자유 스레딩)

     A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode
     simultaneously within the same interpreter.  This is in contrast to
     the *note global interpreter lock: 148. which allows only one
     thread to execute Python bytecode at a time.  See PEP 703(18).

free variable (자유 변수)

     Formally, as defined in the *note language execution model: 1fdf, a
     free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a
     local variable in that namespace.  See *note closure variable:
     1f47. for an example.  Pragmatically, due to the name of the *note
     codeobject.co_freevars: 1f03. attribute, the term is also sometimes
     used as a synonym for *note closure variable: 1f47.

function (함수)

     호출자에게 어떤 값을 돌려주는 일련의 문장들.  없거나 그 이상의
     *note 인자: 442. 가 전달될 수 있는데, 바디의 실행에 사용될 수 있습
     니다.  *note 매개변수: 1f07. 와 *note 메서드: 155a. 와 *note 함수
     정의: 1c3e. 섹션도 보세요.

function annotation (함수 어노테이션)

     함수 매개변수나 반환 값의 *note 어노테이션: 451.

     함수 어노테이션은 일반적으로 *note 형 힌트: 1f89. 로 사용됩니다: 예
     를 들어, 이 함수는 두 개의 *note int: 257. 인자를 받아들일 것으로 기
     대되고, 동시에 *note int: 257. 반환 값을 줄 것으로 기대됩니다:

          def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
             return a + b

     함수 어노테이션 문법은 *note 함수 정의: 1c3e. 절에서 설명합니다.

     이 기능을 설명하는 *note 변수 어노테이션: d51. 과 PEP 484(19)를 참
     조하세요.  또한 어노테이션에 대한 모범 사례는 *note Annotations
     Best Practices: 7d2.를 참조하세요.

__future__

     A *note future statement: 189, ‘from __future__ import <feature>’,
     directs the compiler to compile the current module using syntax or
     semantics that will become standard in a future release of Python.
     The *note __future__: 0. module documents the possible values of
     'feature'.  By importing this module and evaluating its variables,
     you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and
     when it will (or did) become the default:

          >>> import __future__
          >>> __future__.division
          _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)

garbage collection (가비지 수거)

     더 사용되지 않는 메모리를 반납하는 절차.  파이썬은 참조 횟수 추적과
     참조 순환을 감지하고 끊을 수 있는 순환 가비지 수거기를 통해 가비지
     수거를 수행합니다.  가비지 수거기는 *note gc: 60. 모듈을 사용해서 제
     어할 수 있습니다.

generator (제너레이터)

     *note 제너레이터 이터레이터: bdb. 를 돌려주는 함수.  일반 함수처럼
     보이는데, 일련의 값들을 만드는 *note yield: 9ca. 표현식을 포함한다
     는 점이 다릅니다.  이 값들은 for-루프로 사용하거나 *note next():
     7d1. 함수로 한 번에 하나씩 꺼낼 수 있습니다.

     보통 제너레이터 함수를 가리키지만, 어떤 문맥에서는 '제너레이터 이터
     레이터' 를 가리킵니다.  의도하는 의미가 명확하지 않은 경우는, 완전
     한 용어를 써서 모호함을 없앱니다.

generator iterator (제너레이터 이터레이터)

     *note 제너레이터: 1057. 함수가 만드는 객체.

     각 *note yield: 9ca.는 일시적으로 처리를 중단하고, (지역 변수들과 대
     기 중인 try-문들을 포함하는) 실행 상태를 기억합니다.  '제너레이터 이
     터레이터' 가 재개되면, 떠난 곳으로 복귀합니다 (호출마다 새로 시작하
     는 함수와 대비됩니다).

generator expression (제너레이터 표현식)

     *note 이터레이터: 1ac.를 돌려주는 *note 표현식: 1f8d.  루프 변수와
     범위를 정의하는 ‘for’ 절과 생략 가능한 ‘if’ 절이 뒤에 붙는 일반 표
     현식 처럼 보입니다.  결합한 표현식은 둘러싼 함수를 위한 값들을 만들
     어냅니다:

          >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
          285

generic function (제네릭 함수)

     같은 연산을 서로 다른 형들에 대해 구현한 여러 함수로 구성된 함수.  호
     출 때 어떤 구현이 사용될지는 디스패치 알고리즘에 의해 결정됩니다.

     *note 싱글 디스패치: 9ec. 용어집 항목과 *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 633. 데코레이터와 PEP 443(20)도 보세요.

generic type (제네릭 형)

     매개 변수화 할 수 있는 *note 형: 193a.; 일반적으로 *note list: 60b.
     나 *note dict: 256.와 같은 *note 컨테이너 클래스: 1f92.  *note 형
     힌트: 1f89.와 *note 어노테이션: 451.에 사용됩니다.

     For more details, see *note generic alias types: 6ac, PEP 483(21),
     PEP 484(22), PEP 585(23), and the *note typing: 104. module.

GIL

     *note 전역 인터프리터 록: 148. 을 보세요.

global interpreter lock (전역 인터프리터 록)

     한 번에 오직 하나의 스레드가 파이썬 *note 바이트 코드: 187. 를 실행
     하도록 보장하기 위해 *note CPython: 6ef. 인터프리터가 사용하는 메커
     니즘.  (*note dict: 256.와 같은 중요한 내장형들을 포함하는) 객체 모
     델이 묵시적으로 동시 액세스에 대해 안전하도록 만들어서 CPython 구현
     을 단순하게 만듭니다.  인터프리터 전체를 잠그는 것은 인터프리터를 다
     중스레드화하기 쉽게 만드는 대신, 다중 프로세서 기계가 제공하는 병렬
     성의 많은 부분을 희생합니다.

     하지만, 어떤 확장 모듈들은, 표준이나 제삼자 모두, 압축이나 해싱 같
     은 계산 집약적인 작업을 수행할 때는 GIL을 반납하도록 설계되었습니다
     .  또한, I/O를 할 때는 항상 GIL을 반납합니다.

     As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the *note
     -disable-gil: 174. build configuration.  After building Python with
     this option, code must be run with *note -X gil=0: 176. or after
     setting the *note PYTHON_GIL=0: 175. environment variable.  This
     feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded
     applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs
     efficiently.  For more details, see PEP 703(24).

hash-based pyc (해시 기반 pyc)

     유효성을 판별하기 위해 해당 소스 파일의 최종 수정 시간이 아닌 해시
     를 사용하는 바이트 코드 캐시 파일.  *note 캐시된 바이트 코드
     무효화: 5e6.을 참조하세요.

hashable (해시 가능)

     객체가 일생 그 값이 변하지 않는 해시값을 갖고 (*note __hash__():
     af8. 메서드가 필요합니다), 다른 객체와 비교될 수 있으면 (*note
     __eq__(): af7. 메서드가 필요합니다), '해시 가능'하다고 합니다.  같
     다고 비교되는 해시 가능한 객체들의 해시값은 같아야 합니다.

     해시 가능성은 객체를 딕셔너리의 키나 집합의 멤버로 사용할 수 있게 하
     는데, 이 자료 구조들이 내부적으로 해시값을 사용하기 때문입니다.

     대부분 파이썬의 불변 내장 객체들은 해시 가능합니다; (리스트나 딕셔
     너리 같은) 가변 컨테이너들은 그렇지 않습니다; (튜플이나 frozenset 같
     은) 불변 컨테이너들은 그들의 요소들이 해시 가능할 때만 해시 가능합
     니다.  사용자 정의 클래스의 인스턴스 객체들은 기본적으로 해시 가능
     합니다.  (자기 자신을 제외하고는) 모두 다르다고 비교되고, 해시값은
     *note id(): 13eb.로 부터 만들어집니다.

IDLE

     파이썬을 위한 통합 개발 및 학습 환경 (Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment).  *note IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸: 100b.은 파
     이썬의 표준 배포판에 따라오는 기초적인 편집기와 인터프리터 환경입니
     다.

immortal (불멸)

     'Immortal objects' are a CPython implementation detail introduced
     in PEP 683(25).

     If an object is immortal, its *note reference count: 48e6. is never
     modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the
     interpreter is running.  For example, *note True: c0a. and *note
     None: 66f. are immortal in CPython.

immutable (불변)

     고정된 값을 갖는 객체.  불변 객체는 숫자, 문자열, 튜플을 포함합니다
     .  이런 객체들은 변경될 수 없습니다.  새 값을 저장하려면 새 객체를
     만들어야 합니다.  변하지 않는 해시값이 있어야 하는 곳에서 중요한 역
     할을 합니다, 예를 들어, 딕셔너리의 키.

import path (임포트 경로)

     *note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. 가 임포트 할 모듈을 찾기 위해 검색하
     는 장소들 (또는 *note 경로 엔트리: 200c.) 의 목록.  임포트 하는 동
     안, 이 장소들의 목록은 보통 *note sys.path: 3ae. 로부터 옵니다, 하
     지만 서브 패키지의 경우 부모 패키지의 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트로부터 올
     수도 있습니다.

importing (임포팅)

     한 모듈의 파이썬 코드가 다른 모듈의 파이썬 코드에서 사용될 수 있도
     록 하는 절차.

importer (임포터)

     모듈을 찾기도 하고 로드 하기도 하는 객체; 동시에 *note 파인더:
     1f26. 이자 *note 로더: 16b7. 객체입니다.

interactive (대화형)

     파이썬은 대화형 인터프리터를 갖고 있는데, 인터프리터 프롬프트에서 문
     장과 표현식을 입력할 수 있고, 즉각 실행된 결과를 볼 수 있다는 뜻입
     니다.  인자 없이 단지 ‘python’을 실행하세요 (컴퓨터의 주메뉴에서 선
     택하는 것도 가능할 수 있습니다).  새 아이디어를 검사하거나 모듈과 패
     키지를 들여다보는 매우 강력한 방법입니다 (‘help(x)’를 기억하세요).
     대화형 모드에 대한 자세한 내용은 *note 대화형 모드: 16f.를 보세요.

interpreted (인터프리티드)

     바이트 코드 컴파일러의 존재 때문에 그 구분이 흐릿해지기는 하지만, 파
     이썬은 컴파일 언어가 아니라 인터프리터 언어입니다.  이것은 명시적으
     로 실행 파일을 만들지 않고도, 소스 파일을 직접 실행할 수 있다는 뜻
     입니다.  그 프로그램이 좀 더 천천히 실행되기는 하지만, 인터프리터 언
     어는 보통 컴파일 언어보다 짧은 개발/디버깅 주기를 갖습니다.  *note
     대화형: 169. 도 보세요.

interpreter shutdown (인터프리터 종료)

     종료하라는 요청을 받을 때, 파이썬 인터프리터는 특별한 시기에 진입하
     는데, 모듈이나 여러 가지 중요한 내부 구조들과 같은 모든 할당된 자원
     들을 단계적으로 반납합니다.  또한, *note 가비지 수거기: 1920. 를 여
     러 번 호출합니다.  사용자 정의 파괴자나 weakref 콜백에 있는 코드들
     의 실행을 시작시킬 수 있습니다.  종료 시기 동안 실행되는 코드는 다
     양한 예외들을 만날 수 있는데, 그것이 의존하는 자원들이 더 기능하지
     않을 수 있기 때문입니다 (흔한 예는 라이브러리 모듈이나 경고 장치들
     입니다).

     인터프리터 종료의 주된 원인은 실행되는 ‘__main__’ 모듈이나 스크립트
     가 실행을 끝내는 것입니다.

iterable (이터러블)

     멤버들을 한 번에 하나씩 돌려줄 수 있는 객체.  이터러블의 예로는 모
     든 (*note list: 60b, *note str: 445, *note tuple: 369. 같은) 시퀀스
     형들, *note dict: 256. 같은 몇몇 비 시퀀스 형들, *note 파일 객체들:
     11b2, *note __iter__(): 1f64. 나 *note 시퀀스: 4eb. 개념을 구현하는
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 메서드를 써서 정의한 모든 클래스의 객체들
     이 있습니다.

     이터러블은 *note for: 2ea. 루프에 사용될 수 있고, 시퀀스를 필요로 하
     는 다른 많은 곳 (*note zip(): 7c9, *note map(): 85e, …) 에 사용될 수
     있습니다.  이터러블 객체가 내장 함수 *note iter(): 7d0. 에 인자로 전
     달되면, 그 객체의 이터레이터를 돌려줍니다.  이 이터레이터는 값들의
     집합을 한 번 거치는 동안 유효합니다.  이터러블을 사용할 때, 보통은
     *note iter(): 7d0. 를 호출하거나, 이터레이터 객체를 직접 다룰 필요
     는 없습니다.  *note for: 2ea. 문은 이것들을 여러분을 대신해서 자동
     으로 해주는데, 루프를 도는 동안 이터레이터를 잡아둘 이름 없는 변수
     를 만듭니다.  *note 이터레이터: 1ac, *note 시퀀스: 4eb, *note
     제너레이터: 1057. 도 보세요.

iterator (이터레이터)

     데이터의 스트림을 표현하는 객체.  이터레이터의 *note __next__():
     12bd. 메서드를 반복적으로 호출하면 (또는 내장 함수 *note next():
     7d1. 로 전달하면) 스트림에 있는 항목들을 차례대로 돌려줍니다.  더 이
     상의 데이터가 없을 때는 대신 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 일으
     킵니다.  이 지점에서, 이터레이터 객체는 소진되고, 이후의 모든
     ‘__next__()’ 메서드 호출은 *note StopIteration: bf7. 예외를 다시 일
     으키기만 합니다.  이터레이터는 이터레이터 객체 자신을 돌려주는
     *note __iter__(): 1ccc. 메서드를 가질 것이 요구되기 때문에, 이터레
     이터는 이터러블이기도 하고 다른 이터러블들을 받아들이는 대부분의 곳
     에서 사용될 수 있습니다.  중요한 예외는 여러 번의 이터레이션을 시도
     하는 코드입니다.  (*note list: 60b. 같은) 컨테이너 객체는 *note
     iter(): 7d0. 함수로 전달하거나 *note for: 2ea. 루프에 사용할 때마다
     새 이터레이터를 만듭니다.  이런 것을 이터레이터에 대해서 수행하려고
     하면, 지난 이터레이션에 사용된 이미 소진된 이터레이터를 돌려줘서, 빈
     컨테이너처럼 보이게 만듭니다.

     *note 이터레이터 형: 217d. 에 더 자세한 내용이 있습니다.

     'CPython 구현 상세:' CPython does not consistently apply the
     requirement that an iterator define *note __iter__(): 1ccc.  And
     also please note that the free-threading CPython does not guarantee
     the thread-safety of iterator operations.

key function (키 함수)

     키 함수 또는 콜레이션(collation) 함수는 정렬(sorting)이나 배열
     (ordering)에 사용되는 값을 돌려주는 콜러블입니다.  예를 들어, *note
     locale.strxfrm(): 3d65. 은 로케일 특정 방식을 따르는 정렬 키를 만드
     는 데 사용됩니다.

     파이썬의 많은 도구가 요소들이 어떻게 순서 지어지고 묶이는지를 제어
     하기 위해 키 함수를 받아들입니다.  이런 것들에는 *note min(): f00,
     *note max(): f01, *note sorted(): bcb, *note list.sort(): bcc,
     *note heapq.merge(): e00, *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2544, *note
     heapq.nlargest(): 2543, *note itertools.groupby(): 273d. 이 있습니
     다.

     키 함수를 만드는 데는 여러 방법이 있습니다.  예를 들어, *note
     str.lower(): 17f3. 메서드는 케이스 구분 없는 정렬을 위한 키 함수로
     사용될 수 있습니다.  대안적으로, 키 함수는 *note lambda: 128c. 표현
     식으로 만들 수도 있는데, 이런 식입니다: ‘lambda r: (r[0], r[2])’.  또
     한, *note operator.attrgetter(): e2f, *note operator.itemgetter():
     a5e, *note operator.methodcaller(): e30. 가 세 개의 키 함수 생성자
     입니다.  키 함수를 만들고 사용하는 법에 대한 예로 *note Sorting HOW
     TO: 2186. 를 보세요.

keyword argument (키워드 인자)

     *note 인자: 442. 를 보세요.

lambda (람다)

     호출될 때 값이 구해지는 하나의 *note 표현식: 1f8d. 으로 구성된 이름
     없는 인라인 함수.  람다 함수를 만드는 문법은 ‘lambda [parameters]:
     expression’ 입니다.

LBYL

     뛰기 전에 보라 (Look before you leap).  이 코딩 스타일은 호출이나 조
     회를 하기 전에 명시적으로 사전 조건들을 검사합니다.  이 스타일은
     *note EAFP: 2b8e. 접근법과 대비되고, 많은 *note if: 2eb. 문의 존재
     로 특징지어집니다.

     다중 스레드 환경에서, LBYL 접근법은 “보기”와 “뛰기” 간에 경쟁 조건
     을 만들게 될 위험이 있습니다.  예를 들어, 코드 ‘if key in mapping:
     return mapping[key]’ 는 검사 후에, 하지만 조회 전에, 다른 스레드가
     'key'를 'mapping'에서 제거하면 실패할 수 있습니다.  이런 이슈는 록
     이나 EAFP 접근법을 사용함으로써 해결될 수 있습니다.

lexical analyzer (어휘 분석기)

     Formal name for the 'tokenizer'; see *note token: 1e85.

list (리스트)

     내장 파이썬 *note 시퀀스: 4eb.  그 이름에도 불구하고, 원소에 대한 액
     세스가 'O'(1)이기 때문에, 연결 리스트(linked list)보다는 다른 언어
     의 배열과 유사합니다.

list comprehension (리스트 컴프리헨션)

     시퀀스의 요소들 전부 또는 일부를 처리하고 그 결과를 리스트로 돌려주
     는 간결한 방법.  ‘result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256)
     if x % 2 == 0]’ 는 0에서 255 사이에 있는 짝수들의 16진수 (0x..)  들
     을 포함하는 문자열의 리스트를 만듭니다.  *note if: 2eb. 절은 생략할
     수 있습니다.  생략하면, ‘range(256)’에 있는 모든 요소가 처리됩니다.

loader (로더)

     An object that loads a module.  It must define the ‘exec_module()’
     and ‘create_module()’ methods to implement the *note Loader: ebd.
     interface.  A loader is typically returned by a *note finder: 1f26.
     See also:

        * *note 파인더(finder)와 로더(loader): 1ffb.

        * *note importlib.abc.Loader: ebd.

        * PEP 302(26)

locale encoding (로케일 인코딩)

     On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale.  It can be set
     with *note locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale): 2dd.

     On Windows, it is the ANSI code page (ex: ‘"cp1252"’).

     On Android and VxWorks, Python uses ‘"utf-8"’ as the locale
     encoding.

     *note locale.getencoding(): 2de. can be used to get the locale
     encoding.

     See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 535.

magic method (매직 메서드)

     *note 특수 메서드: 18b2. 의 비공식적인 비슷한 말.

mapping (매핑)

     임의의 키 조회를 지원하고 *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c7. 이나
     *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 109f. *note 추상 베이스
     클래스: 873. 에 지정된 메서드들을 구현하는 컨테이너 객체.  예로는
     *note dict: 256, *note collections.defaultdict: 11ac, *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 5d5, *note collections.Counter: 1088. 를 들
     수 있습니다.

meta path finder (메타 경로 파인더)

     *note sys.meta_path: d28. 의 검색이 돌려주는 *note 파인더: 1f26.  메
     타 경로 파인더는 *note 경로 엔트리 파인더: 1067. 와 관련되어 있기는
     하지만 다릅니다.

     메타 경로 파인더가 구현하는 메서드들에 대해서는 *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 869. 를 보면 됩니다.

metaclass (메타 클래스)

     클래스의 클래스.  클래스 정의는 클래스 이름, 클래스 딕셔너리, 베이
     스 클래스들의 목록을 만듭니다.  메타 클래스는 이 세 인자를 받아서 클
     래스를 만드는 책임을 집니다.  대부분의 객체 지향형 프로그래밍 언어
     들은 기본 구현을 제공합니다.  파이썬을 특별하게 만드는 것은 커스텀
     메타 클래스를 만들 수 있다는 것입니다.  대부분 사용자에게는 이 도구
     가 전혀 필요 없지만, 필요가 생길 때, 메타 클래스는 강력하고 우아한
     해법을 제공합니다.  어트리뷰트 액세스의 로깅(logging), 스레드 안전
     성의 추가, 객체 생성 추적, 싱글톤 구현과 많은 다른 작업에 사용됐습
     니다.

     *note 메타 클래스: 1f7b. 에서 더 자세한 내용을 찾을 수 있습니다.

method (메서드)

     클래스 바디 안에서 정의되는 함수.  그 클래스의 인스턴스의 어트리뷰
     트로서 호출되면, 그 메서드는 첫 번째 *note 인자: 442. (보통 ‘self’
     라고 불린다) 로 인스턴스 객체를 받습니다.  *note 함수: 2061. 와
     *note 중첩된 스코프: 1f46. 를 보세요.

method resolution order (메서드 결정 순서)

     메서드 결정 순서는 조회하는 동안 멤버를 검색하는 베이스 클래스들의
     순서입니다.  2.3 릴리스부터 파이썬 인터프리터에 사용된 알고리즘의 상
     세한 내용은 *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1470.를 보
     세요.

module (모듈)

     파이썬 코드의 조직화 단위를 담당하는 객체.  모듈은 임의의 파이썬 객
     체들을 담는 이름 공간을 갖습니다.  모듈은 *note 임포팅: 1ff1. 절차
     에 의해 파이썬으로 로드됩니다.

     *note 패키지: 1f22. 도 보세요.

module spec (모듈 스펙)

     모듈을 로드하는데 사용되는 임포트 관련 정보들을 담고 있는 이름 공간
     .  *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e6c. 의 인스턴스.

     *note 모듈 스펙: 1f21. 도 보세요.

MRO

     *note 메서드 결정 순서: 2188. 를 보세요.

mutable (가변)

     가변 객체는 값이 변할 수 있지만 *note id(): 13eb. 는 일정하게 유지
     합니다.  *note 불변: 1c03. 도 보세요.

named tuple (네임드 튜플)

     “named tuple(네임드 튜플)”이라는 용어는 튜플에서 상속하고 이름 붙은
     어트리뷰트를 사용하여 인덱스 할 수 있는 요소에 액세스 할 수 있는 모
     든 형이나 클래스에 적용됩니다.  형이나 클래스에는 다른 기능도 있을
     수 있습니다.

     *note time.localtime(): 14c1.과 *note os.stat(): 49a.가 반환한 값을
     포함하여, 여러 내장형이 네임드 튜플입니다.  또 다른 예는 *note
     sys.float_info: 19f2.입니다:

          >>> sys.float_info[1]                   # indexed access
          1024
          >>> sys.float_info.max_exp              # named field access
          1024
          >>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple)   # kind of tuple
          True

     일부 네임드 튜플은 내장형(위의 예)입니다.  또는, *note tuple: 369.에
     서 상속하고 이름 붙은 필드를 정의하는 일반 클래스 정의로 네임드 튜
     플을 만들 수 있습니다.  이러한 클래스는 직접 작성하거나, *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2b0.를 계승하거나 팩토리 함수 *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 1ca.로 만들 수 있습니다.  후자의 기법은 직
     접 작성하거나 내장 네임드 튜플에서는 찾을 수 없는 몇 가지 추가 메서
     드를 추가하기도 합니다.

namespace (이름 공간)

     변수가 저장되는 장소.  이름 공간은 딕셔너리로 구현됩니다.  객체에 중
     첩된 이름 공간 (메서드 에서) 뿐만 아니라 지역, 전역, 내장 이름 공간
     이 있습니다.  이름 공간은 이름 충돌을 방지해서 모듈성을 지원합니다.
     예를 들어, 함수 *note builtins.open: 515. 과 *note os.open(): d8e.
     은 그들의 이름 공간에 의해 구별됩니다.  또한, 이름 공간은 어떤 모듈
     이 함수를 구현하는지를 분명하게 만들어서 가독성과 유지 보수성에 도
     움을 줍니다.  예를 들어, *note random.seed(): 1264. 또는 *note
     itertools.islice(): b49. 라고 쓰면 그 함수들이 각각 *note random:
     b8. 과 *note itertools: 81. 모듈에 의해 구현되었음이 명확해집니다.

namespace package (이름 공간 패키지)

     오직 서브 패키지들의 컨테이너로만 기능하는 *note 패키지: 1f22.  이
     름 공간 패키지는 물리적인 실체가 없을 수도 있고, 특히 ‘__init__.py’
     파일이 없으므로 *note 정규 패키지: 1ff5. 와는 다릅니다.

     Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages
     to have a common parent package.  Otherwise, it is recommended to
     use a *note regular package: 1ff5.

     For more information, see PEP 420(27) and *note 이름 공간 패키지:
     1ff7.

     *note 모듈: 1666. 도 보세요.

nested scope (중첩된 스코프)

     둘러싼 정의에서 변수를 참조하는 능력.  예를 들어, 다른 함수 내부에
     서 정의된 함수는 바깥 함수에 있는 변수들을 참조할 수 있습니다.  중
     첩된 스코프는 기본적으로는 참조만 가능할 뿐, 대입은 되지 않는다는 것
     에 주의해야 합니다.  지역 변수들은 가장 내부의 스코프에서 읽고 씁니
     다.  마찬가지로, 전역 변수들은 전역 이름 공간에서 읽고 씁니다.
     *note nonlocal: 1297. 은 바깥 스코프에 쓰는 것을 허락합니다.

new-style class (뉴스타일 클래스)

     지금은 모든 클래스 객체에 사용되고 있는 클래스 버전의 예전 이름.  초
     기의 파이썬 버전에서는, 오직 뉴스타일 클래스만 *note __slots__:
     14b2, 디스크립터, 프라퍼티, *note __getattribute__(): bcf, 클래스 메
     서드, 스태틱 메서드와 같은 파이썬의 새롭고 다양한 기능들을 사용할 수
     있었습니다.

object (객체)

     상태 (어트리뷰트나 값) 를 갖고 동작 (메서드) 이 정의된 모든 데이터.
     또한, 모든 *note 뉴스타일 클래스: 2898. 의 최종적인 베이스 클래스입
     니다.

optimized scope (최적화된 스코프)

     A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the
     compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read
     and write access to these names.  The local namespaces for
     functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator
     expressions are optimized in this fashion.  Note: most interpreter
     optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a
     known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to
     optimized scopes.

package (패키지)

     서브 모듈들이나, 재귀적으로 서브 패키지들을 포함할 수 있는 파이썬
     *note 모듈: 1666.  기술적으로, 패키지는 ‘__path__’ 어트리뷰트가 있
     는 파이썬 모듈입니다.

     *note 정규 패키지: 1ff5. 와 *note 이름 공간 패키지: 1c70. 도 보세요
     .

parameter (매개변수)

     *note 함수: 2061. (또는 메서드) 정의에서 함수가 받을 수 있는 *note
     인자: 442. (또는 어떤 경우 인자들) 를 지정하는 이름 붙은 엔티티.  다
     섯 종류의 매개변수가 있습니다:

        * '위치-키워드 (positional-or-keyword)': *note 위치 인자: d10. 나
          *note 키워드 인자: d0f. 로 전달될 수 있는 인자를 지정합니다.  이
          것이 기본 형태의 매개변수입니다, 예를 들어 다음에서 'foo' 와
          'bar':

               def func(foo, bar=None): ...

        * '위치-전용 (positional-only)': 위치로만 제공될 수 있는 인자를
          지정합니다.  위치 전용 매개변수는 함수 정의의 매개변수 목록에
          ‘/’ 문자를 포함하고 그 뒤에 정의할 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 다음
          에서 'posonly1'과 'posonly2':

               def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ...

        * '키워드-전용 (keyword-only)': 키워드로만 제공될 수 있는 인자를
          지정합니다.  키워드-전용 매개변수는 함수 정의의 매개변수 목록
          에서 앞에 하나의 가변-위치 매개변수나 ‘*’를 그대로 포함해서 정
          의할 수 있습니다.  예를 들어, 다음에서 'kw_only1' 와
          'kw_only2':

               def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...

        * '가변-위치 (var-positional)': (다른 매개변수들에 의해서 이미 받
          아들여진 위치 인자들에 더해) 제공될 수 있는 위치 인자들의 임의
          의 시퀀스를 지정합니다.  이런 매개변수는 매개변수 이름에 ‘*’ 를
          앞에 붙여서 정의될 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 다음에서 'args':

               def func(*args, **kwargs): ...

        * '가변-키워드 (var-keyword)': (다른 매개변수들에 의해서 이미 받
          아들여진 키워드 인자들에 더해) 제공될 수 있는 임의의 개수 키워
          드 인자들을 지정합니다.  이런 매개변수는 매개변수 이름에 ‘**’를
          앞에 붙여서 정의될 수 있습니다, 예를 들어 위의 예에서
          'kwargs'.

     매개변수는 선택적 인자들을 위한 기본값뿐만 아니라 선택적이거나 필수
     인자들을 지정할 수 있습니다.

     *note 인자: 442. 용어집 항목, *note 인자와 매개변수의 차이: 50e9.에
     나오는 FAQ 질문, *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0. 클래스, *note 함수
     정의: 1c3e. 절, PEP 362(28)도 보세요.

path entry (경로 엔트리)

     *note 경로 기반 파인더: 2001. 가 임포트 할 모듈들을 찾기 위해 참고
     하는 *note 임포트 경로: 1ffe. 상의 하나의 장소.

path entry finder (경로 엔트리 파인더)

     *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. 에 있는 콜러블 (즉, *note 경로 엔트리
     훅: 200e.) 이 돌려주는 *note 파인더: 1f26. 인데, 주어진 *note 경로
     엔트리: 200c. 로 모듈을 찾는 방법을 알고 있습니다.

     경로 엔트리 파인더들이 구현하는 메서드들은 *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86a. 에 나옵니다.

path entry hook (경로 엔트리 훅)

     *note sys.path_hooks: 101a. 리스트에 있는 콜러블인데, 특정 *note
     경로 엔트리: 200c. 에서 모듈을 찾는 법을 알고 있다면 *note 경로
     엔트리 파인더: 1067. 를 돌려줍니다.

path based finder (경로 기반 파인더)

     기본 *note 메타 경로 파인더들: 1066. 중 하나인데, *note 임포트
     경로: 1ffe. 에서 모듈을 찾습니다.

path-like object (경로류 객체)

     파일 시스템 경로를 나타내는 객체.  경로류 객체는 경로를 나타내는
     *note str: 445. 나 *note bytes: 1c2. 객체이거나 *note os.PathLike:
     c4e. 프로토콜을 구현하는 객체입니다.  *note os.PathLike: c4e. 프로
     토콜을 지원하는 객체는 *note os.fspath(): c50. 함수를 호출해서
     *note str: 445. 나 *note bytes: 1c2. 파일 시스템 경로로 변환될 수 있
     습니다; 대신 *note os.fsdecode(): c51. 와 *note os.fsencode(): c52.
     는 각각 *note str: 445. 나 *note bytes: 1c2. 결과를 보장하는데 사용
     될 수 있습니다.  PEP 519(29)로 도입되었습니다.

PEP

     파이썬 개선 제안.  PEP는 파이썬 커뮤니티에 정보를 제공하거나 파이썬
     또는 그 프로세스 또는 환경에 대한 새로운 기능을 설명하는 설계 문서
     입니다.  PEP는 제안된 기능에 대한 간결한 기술 사양 및 근거를 제공해
     야 합니다.

     PEP는 주요 새로운 기능을 제안하고 문제에 대한 커뮤니티 입력을 수집
     하며 파이썬에 들어간 설계 결정을 문서로 만들기 위한 기본 메커니즘입
     니다.  PEP 작성자는 커뮤니티 내에서 합의를 구축하고 반대 의견을 문
     서화 할 책임이 있습니다.

     PEP 1(30) 참조하세요.

portion (포션)

     PEP 420(31) 에서 정의한 것처럼, 이름 공간 패키지에 이바지하는 하나
     의 디렉터리에 들어있는 파일들의 집합 (zip 파일에 저장되는 것도 가능
     합니다).

positional argument (위치 인자)

     *note 인자: 442. 를 보세요.

provisional API (잠정 API)

     잠정 API는 표준 라이브러리의 과거 호환성 보장으로부터 신중히 제외된
     것입니다.  인터페이스의 큰 변화가 예상되지는 않지만, 잠정적이라고 표
     시되는 한, 코어 개발자들이 필요하다고 생각한다면 과거 호환성이 유지
     되지 않는 변경이 일어날 수 있습니다.  그런 변경은 불필요한 방식으로
     일어나지는 않을 것입니다 — API를 포함하기 전에 놓친 중대하고 근본적
     인 결함이 발견된 경우에만 일어날 것입니다.

     잠정 API에서조차도, 과거 호환성이 유지되지 않는 변경은 “최후의 수단
     ”으로 여겨집니다 - 모든 식별된 문제들에 대해 과거 호환성을 유지하는
     해법을 찾으려는 모든 시도가 선행됩니다.

     이 절차는 표준 라이브러리가 오랜 시간 동안 잘못된 설계 오류에 발목
     잡히지 않고 발전할 수 있도록 만듭니다.  더 자세한 내용은 PEP
     411(32)을 보면 됩니다.

provisional package (잠정 패키지)

     *note 잠정 API: b00. 를 보세요.

Python 3000 (파이썬 3000)

     파이썬 3.x 배포 라인의 별명 (버전 3의 배포가 먼 미래의 이야기던 시
     절에 만들어진 이름이다.)  이것을 “Py3k” 로 줄여 쓰기도 합니다.

Pythonic (파이썬다운)

     다른 언어들에서 일반적인 개념들을 사용해서 코드를 구현하는 대신, 파
     이썬 언어에서 가장 자주 사용되는 이디엄들을 가까이 따르는 아이디어
     나 코드 조각.  예를 들어, 파이썬에서 자주 쓰는 이디엄은 *note for:
     2ea. 문을 사용해서 이터러블의 모든 요소로 루핑하는 것입니다.  다른
     많은 언어에는 이런 종류의 구성물이 없으므로, 파이썬에 익숙하지 않은
     사람들은 대신에 숫자 카운터를 사용하기도 합니다:

          for i in range(len(food)):
              print(food[i])

     더 깔끔한, 파이썬다운 방법은 이렇습니다:

          for piece in food:
              print(piece)

qualified name (정규화된 이름)

     모듈의 전역 스코프에서 모듈에 정의된 클래스, 함수, 메서드에 이르는
     “경로”를 보여주는 점으로 구분된 이름.  PEP 3155(33) 에서 정의됩니다
     .  최상위 함수와 클래스의 경우에, 정규화된 이름은 객체의 이름과 같
     습니다:

          >>> class C:
          ...     class D:
          ...         def meth(self):
          ...             pass
          ...
          >>> C.__qualname__
          'C'
          >>> C.D.__qualname__
          'C.D'
          >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
          'C.D.meth'

     모듈을 가리키는데 사용될 때, '완전히 정규화된 이름(fully qualified
     name)'은 모든 부모 패키지들을 포함해서 모듈로 가는 점으로 분리된 이
     름을 의미합니다, 예를 들어, ‘email.mime.text’:

          >>> import email.mime.text
          >>> email.mime.text.__name__
          'email.mime.text'

reference count (참조 횟수)

     객체에 대한 참조의 개수.  객체의 참조 횟수가 0으로 떨어지면, 메모리
     가 반납됩니다.  일부 객체는 *note 불멸: 437c.이며 참조 횟수가 수정
     되지 않아서, 객체가 할당 해제되지 않습니다.  참조 횟수 추적은 일반
     적으로 파이썬 코드에 노출되지는 않지만, *note CPython: 6ef. 구현의
     핵심 요소입니다.  프로그래머는 특정 객체의 참조 횟수를 돌려주는
     *note sys.getrefcount(): 437b. 함수를 호출할 수 있습니다.

     In *note CPython: 6ef, reference counts are not considered to be
     stable or well-defined values; the number of references to an
     object, and how that number is affected by Python code, may be
     different between versions.

regular package (정규 패키지)

     ‘__init__.py’ 파일을 포함하는 디렉터리와 같은 전통적인 *note
     패키지: 1f22.

     *note 이름 공간 패키지: 1c70. 도 보세요.

REPL

     An acronym for the “read–eval–print loop”, another name for the
     *note interactive: 169. interpreter shell.

__slots__

     클래스 내부의 선언인데, 인스턴스 어트리뷰트들을 위한 공간을 미리 선
     언하고 인스턴스 딕셔너리를 제거함으로써 메모리를 절감하는 효과를 줍
     니다.  인기 있기는 하지만, 이 테크닉은 올바르게 사용하기가 좀 까다
     로운 편이라서, 메모리에 민감한 응용 프로그램에서 많은 수의 인스턴스
     가 있는 특별한 경우로 한정하는 것이 좋습니다.

sequence (시퀀스)

     *note __getitem__(): 283. 특수 메서드를 통해 정수 인덱스를 사용한 빠
     른 요소 액세스를 지원하고, 시퀀스의 길이를 돌려주는 *note
     __len__(): 1f6b. 메서드를 정의하는 *note 이터러블: 1217.  몇몇 내장
     시퀀스들을 나열해보면, *note list: 60b, *note str: 445, *note
     tuple: 369, *note bytes: 1c2. 가 있습니다.  *note dict: 256. 또한
     *note __getitem__(): 283. 과 ‘__len__()’ 을 지원하지만, 조회에 정수
     대신 임의의 *note 해시 가능: 60a. 키를 사용하기 때문에 시퀀스가 아
     니라 매핑으로 취급된다는 것에 주의해야 합니다.

     *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b3. 추상 베이스 클래스는 *note
     __getitem__(): 283. 과 *note __len__(): 1f6b.을 넘어서 훨씬 풍부한
     인터페이스를 정의하는데, ‘count()’, ‘index()’, *note
     __contains__(): 1f66, *note __reversed__(): 1f65.를 추가합니다.  이
     확장된 인터페이스를 구현한 형을 *note register(): 107f.를 사용해서
     명시적으로 등록할 수 있습니다.  시퀀스 메서드 일반에 대한 자세한 문
     서는, *note 공통 시퀀스 연산: 21b1.을 참조하세요.

set comprehension (집합 컴프리헨션)

     이터러블에 있는 요소 전체나 일부를 처리하고 결과를 담은 집합을 반환
     하는 간결한 방법.  ‘results = {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in
     'abc'}’는 문자열의 집합 ‘{'r', 'd'}’를 생성합니다.  *note 리스트,
     집합, 딕셔너리의 디스플레이(display): 5ca.을 참조하십시오.

single dispatch (싱글 디스패치)

     구현이 하나의 인자의 형에 기초해서 결정되는 *note 제네릭 함수: 9ed.
     디스패치의 한 형태.

slice (슬라이스)

     보통 *note 시퀀스: 4eb. 의 일부를 포함하는 객체.  슬라이스는 서브 스
     크립트 표기법을 사용해서 만듭니다.  ‘variable_name[1:3:5]’ 처럼,
     ‘[]’ 안에서 여러 개의 숫자를 콜론으로 분리합니다.  대괄호 (서브 스
     크립트) 표기법은 내부적으로 *note slice: 463. 객체를 사용합니다.

soft deprecated (약하게 폐지된)

     A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code, but it is
     safe for already existing code to use it.  The API remains
     documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further.

     Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on
     removing the API and will not emit warnings.

     See PEP 387: Soft Deprecation(34).

special method (특수 메서드)

     파이썬이 형에 어떤 연산을, 덧셈 같은, 실행할 때 묵시적으로 호출되는
     메서드.  이런 메서드는 두 개의 밑줄로 시작하고 끝나는 이름을 갖고 있
     습니다.  특수 메서드는 *note 특수 메서드 이름들: c6b. 에 문서로 만
     들어져 있습니다.

standard library

     The collection of *note packages: 1f22, *note modules: 1666. and
     *note extension modules: 4593. distributed as a part of the
     official Python interpreter package.  The exact membership of the
     collection may vary based on platform, available system libraries,
     or other criteria.  Documentation can be found at *note 파이썬 표준
     라이브러리: 144.

     See also *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83b. for a list of all
     possible standard library module names.

statement (문장)

     문장은 스위트 (코드의 “블록(block)”) 를 구성하는 부분입니다.  문장
     은 *note 표현식: 1f8d. 이거나 키워드를 사용하는 여러 가지 구조물 중
     의 하나입니다.  가령 *note if: 2eb, *note while: 1c0c, *note for:
     2ea.

static type checker (정적 형 검사기)

     An external tool that reads Python code and analyzes it, looking
     for issues such as incorrect types.  See also *note type hints:
     1f89. and the *note typing: 104. module.

stdlib

     An abbreviation of *note standard library: 51b8.

strong reference (강한 참조)

     In Python’s C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object
     which is owned by the code holding the reference.  The strong
     reference is taken by calling *note Py_INCREF(): 569. when the
     reference is created and released with *note Py_DECREF(): 56a. when
     the reference is deleted.

     The *note Py_NewRef(): 896. function can be used to create a strong
     reference to an object.  Usually, the *note Py_DECREF(): 56a.
     function must be called on the strong reference before exiting the
     scope of the strong reference, to avoid leaking one reference.

     *note 빌린 참조: 337. 도 보세요.

text encoding (텍스트 인코딩)

     A string in Python is a sequence of Unicode code points (in range
     ‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’).  To store or transfer a string, it needs to
     be serialized as a sequence of bytes.

     Serializing a string into a sequence of bytes is known as
     “encoding”, and recreating the string from the sequence of bytes is
     known as “decoding”.

     There are a variety of different text serialization *note codecs:
     db5, which are collectively referred to as “text encodings”.

text file (텍스트 파일)

     *note str: 445. 객체를 읽고 쓸 수 있는 *note 파일 객체: 11b2.  종종
     , 텍스트 파일은 실제로는 바이트 지향 데이터스트림을 액세스하고
     *note 텍스트 인코딩: 2182. 을 자동 처리합니다.  텍스트 파일의 예로
     는 텍스트 모드 (‘'r'’ 또는 ‘'w'’) 로 열린 파일, *note sys.stdin:
     537, *note sys.stdout: ad3, *note io.StringIO: f1f. 의 인스턴스를 들
     수 있습니다.

     *note 바이트열류 객체: d2a. 를 읽고 쓸 수 있는 파일 객체에 대해서는
     *note 바이너리 파일: 1c8f. 도 참조하세요.

token (토큰)

     A small unit of source code, generated by the *note lexical
     analyzer: 1e83. (also called the 'tokenizer').  Names, numbers,
     strings, operators, newlines and similar are represented by tokens.

     The *note tokenize: fb. module exposes Python’s lexical analyzer.
     The *note token: fa. module contains information on the various
     types of tokens.

triple-quoted string (삼중 따옴표 된 문자열)

     따옴표 (”) 나 작은따옴표 (’) 세 개로 둘러싸인 문자열.  그냥 따옴표
     하나로 둘러싸인 문자열에 없는 기능을 제공하지는 않지만, 여러 가지 이
     유에서 쓸모가 있습니다.  이스케이프 되지 않은 작은따옴표나 큰따옴표
     를 문자열 안에 포함할 수 있도록 하고, 연결 문자를 쓰지 않고도 여러
     줄에 걸칠 수 있는데, 독스트링을 쓸 때 특히 쓸모 있습니다.

type (형)

     파이썬 객체의 형은 그것이 어떤 종류의 객체인지를 결정합니다; 모든 객
     체는 형이 있습니다.  객체의 형은 *note __class__: 1473. 어트리뷰트
     로 액세스할 수 있거나 ‘type(obj)’로 얻을 수 있습니다.

type alias (형 에일리어스)

     형을 식별자에 대입하여 만들어지는 형의 동의어.

     형 에일리어스는 *note 형 힌트: 1f89.를 단순화하는 데 유용합니다.  예
     를 들면:

          def remove_gray_shades(
                  colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]:
              pass

     는 다음과 같이 더 읽기 쉽게 만들 수 있습니다:

          Color = tuple[int, int, int]

          def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]:
              pass

     이 기능을 설명하는 *note typing: 104.과 PEP 484(35)를 참조하세요.

type hint (형 힌트)

     변수, 클래스 어트리뷰트 및 함수 매개변수 나 반환 값의 기대되는 형을
     지정하는 *note 어노테이션: 451.

     형 힌트는 선택 사항이고 파이썬에서 강제되지는 않지만, *note 정적 형
     검사기: 26d.에 유용합니다.  또한 IDE의 코드 완성 및 리팩토링을 돕습
     니다.

     지역 변수를 제외하고, 전역 변수, 클래스 어트리뷰트 및 함수의 형 힌
     트는 *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ab.를 사용하여 액세스할 수 있
     습니다.

     이 기능을 설명하는 *note typing: 104.과 PEP 484(36)를 참조하세요.

universal newlines (유니버설 줄 넘김)

     다음과 같은 것들을 모두 줄의 끝으로 인식하는, 텍스트 스트림을 해석
     하는 태도: 유닉스 개행 문자 관례 ‘'\n'’, 윈도우즈 관례 ‘'\r\n'’, 예
     전의 매킨토시 관례 ‘'\r'’.  추가적인 사용에 관해서는 *note
     bytes.splitlines(): 221d. 뿐만 아니라 PEP 278(37) 와 PEP 3116(38) 도
     보세요.

variable annotation (변수 어노테이션)

     변수 또는 클래스 어트리뷰트의 *note 어노테이션: 451.

     변수 또는 클래스 어트리뷰트에 어노테이션을 달 때 대입은 선택 사항입
     니다:

          class C:
              field: 'annotation'

     변수 어노테이션은 일반적으로 *note 형 힌트: 1f89.로 사용됩니다: 예
     를 들어, 이 변수는 *note int: 257. 값을 가질 것으로 기대됩니다:

          count: int = 0

     변수 어노테이션 문법은 섹션 *note 어노테이트된 대입문(Annotated
     assignment statements): 20b7. 에서 설명합니다.

     이 기능을 설명하는 *note 함수 어노테이션: 1c3f, PEP 484(39) 및 PEP
     526(40)을 참조하세요.  또한 어노테이션 작업에 대한 모범 사례는
     *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d2.를 참조하세요.

virtual environment (가상 환경)

     파이썬 사용자와 응용 프로그램이, 같은 시스템에서 실행되는 다른 파이
     썬 응용 프로그램들의 동작에 영향을 주지 않으면서, 파이썬 배포 패키
     지들을 설치하거나 업그레이드하는 것을 가능하게 하는, 협력적으로 격
     리된 실행 환경.

     *note venv: 111. 도 보세요.

virtual machine (가상 기계)

     소프트웨어만으로 정의된 컴퓨터.  파이썬의 가상 기계는 바이트 코드 컴
     파일러가 출력하는 *note 바이트 코드: 187.를 실행합니다.

walrus operator

     A light-hearted way to refer to the *note assignment expression:
     2089. operator ‘:=’ because it looks a bit like a walrus if you
     turn your head.

Zen of Python (파이썬 젠)

     파이썬 디자인 원리와 철학들의 목록인데, 언어를 이해하고 사용하는 데
     도움이 됩니다.  이 목록은 대화형 프롬프트에서 “‘import this’” 를 입
     력하면 보입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (10) https://gvanrossum.github.io/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (15) https://www.python.org

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/

   (38) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: 이 설명서에 관하여,  Next: 버그 다루기,  Prev: 용어집,  Up: Top

13 이 설명서에 관하여
*********************

파이썬 설명서는 reStructuredText(1) 소스에서 만들어진 것으로, 원래 파이
썬을 위해 제작되었고 이제는 독립 프로젝트로 유지 관리되는 설명서 생성기
인 Sphinx(2) 를 사용했습니다.

설명서와 이를 위한 툴체인 개발은 파이썬 자체와 마찬가지로 전적으로 자원
봉사자의 노력입니다.  기여하고 싶다면, 참여 방법에 대한 정보는 *note 버그
다루기: 4934. 페이지를 참고하십시오.  새로운 자원봉사자는 언제나 환영합
니다!

다음 분들에게 많은 감사를 드립니다:

   * Fred L. Drake, Jr., 원래 파이썬 설명서 도구 집합의 작성자이자 많은
     콘텐츠의 저자;

   * reStructuredText와 Docutils 스위트를 만드는 Docutils(3) 프로젝트.

   * Fredrik Lundh, 그의 대안 파이썬 참조(Alternative Python Reference)
     프로젝트에서 Sphinx가 많은 아이디어를 얻었습니다.

* Menu:

* 파이썬 설명서의 공헌자들::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (3) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/


File: python.info,  Node: 파이썬 설명서의 공헌자들,  Up: 이 설명서에 관하여

13.1 파이썬 설명서의 공헌자들
=============================

많은 사람이 파이썬 언어, 파이썬 표준 라이브러리 및 파이썬 설명서에 기여
했습니다.  기여자의 부분적인 목록은 파이썬 소스 배포판의 Misc/ACKS(1) 를
참조하십시오.

파이썬이 이런 멋진 설명서를 갖게 된 것은 파이썬 커뮤니티의 입력과 기여 때
문입니다 – 감사합니다!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Misc/ACKS


File: python.info,  Node: 버그 다루기,  Next: 저작권,  Prev: 이 설명서에 관하여,  Up: Top

14 버그 다루기
**************

파이썬은 안정성에 대해 명성을 쌓아온 성숙한 프로그래밍 언어입니다.  이 평
판을 유지하기 위해, 개발자는 파이썬에서 여러분이 발견한 결함을 알고 싶어
합니다.

때로는 버그를 직접 수정하고 패치를 파이썬에 제공하는 것이 프로세스를 간
소화하고 인력을 덜 요구하기 때문에 더 빠를 수 있습니다.  *note
이바지하는: 51c2. 방법을 배우세요.

* Menu:

* 설명서 버그::
* 파이썬 문제 추적기 사용하기::
* 파이썬에 직접 이바지하기 입문::


File: python.info,  Node: 설명서 버그,  Next: 파이썬 문제 추적기 사용하기,  Up: 버그 다루기

14.1 설명서 버그
================

이 설명서에서 버그를 발견하거나 개선 제안을 하고 싶다면, 버그 보고서를
*note 추적기: 24e. 에 등록해 주세요.  문제가 한국어 번역에만 존재한다면,
‘https://github.com/python/python-docs-ko/issues’ 에 등록해야 합니다.  수
정하는 방법에 대한 제안이 있다면, 포함 시켜 주세요.

You can also open a discussion item on our Documentation Discourse
forum(1).

If you find a bug in the theme (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) of the
documentation, please submit a bug report on the python-doc-theme bug
tracker(2).

시간이 부족하다면, 설명서 버그 보고서를 <docs@python.org> 로 전자 메일로
보낼 수도 있습니다 (동작 버그는 <python-list@python.org> 로 보낼 수 있습
니다).  ‘docs@’ 는 자원 봉사자가 운영하는 메일링리스트입니다; 처리되는 데
다소 시간이 걸릴 수 있지만, 여러분의 요청에 대한 통지가 있을 것입니다.

더 보기
.......

설명서 버그(3)

     파이썬 문제 추적기에 제출된 설명서 버그 목록.

이슈 추적(4)

     추적기에 개선을 보고하는 것과 관련된 절차 개요.

설명서에 도움 주기(5)

     파이썬 설명서에 기여하는 데 관심이 있는 개인을 위한 종합 지침서.

설명서 번역(6)

     A list of GitHub pages for documentation translation and their
     primary contacts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26

   (2) https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/issues?q=is%3Aissue+is%3Aopen+label%3Adocs

   (4) https://devguide.python.org/tracker/

   (5) 
https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation

   (6) https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translating/


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14.2 파이썬 문제 추적기 사용하기
================================

파이썬 자체의 문제 보고서는 GitHub 문제 추적기
(‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’)에 제출해야 합니다.  GitHub
문제 추적기는 관련 정보를 입력하여 개발자에게 제출할 수 있는 웹 양식을 제
공합니다.

보고서를 작성하는 첫 번째 단계는 문제가 이미 보고되었는지를 확인하는 것
입니다.  개발자가 시간을 절약하는 것 외에도, 이렇게 하는 것의 이점은 문
제를 해결하기 위해 수행된 작업을 배우게 되는 것입니다.  다음 배포에 포함
될 이미 해결된 문제이거나, 추가 정보가 필요할 수 있습니다 (이 경우 가능
하다면 직접 제공하는 것을 환영합니다!).  이렇게 하려면, 페이지 상단의 검
색 상자를 사용하여 추적기를 검색해야 합니다.

보고하는 문제가 아직 목록에 없다면, GitHub 에 로그인해야 합니다.  아직
GitHub 계정이 없다면, “Sign up” 링크를 사용하여 계정을 만듭니다.  익명으
로 버그 보고서를 제출할 수는 없습니다.

지금 로그인되어있다면, 문제를 제출할 수 있습니다.  상단 바에서 “New
issue” 버튼을 클릭하여 새 문제를 보고해주세요.

The submission form has two fields, “Title” and “Comment”.

For the “Title” field, enter a 'very' short description of the problem;
fewer than ten words is good.

“Comment” 입력란에, 문제를 자세히 설명하는데, 기대한 것과 실제로 일어난
것을 포함합니다.  확장 모듈이 개입하고 있는지, 그리고 사용 중인 하드웨어
및 소프트웨어 플랫폼 (적절한 버전 정보 포함)을 포함해야 합니다.

각 문제 보고서는 문제를 해결하기 위해 수행해야 할 작업을 결정하는 개발자
가 검토합니다.  여러분은 문제에 액션이 취해질 때마다 업데이트를 받게 됩
니다.

더 보기
.......

버그를 효과적으로 보고하는 방법(1)

     유용한 버그 보고서를 작성하는 방법에 대해 자세히 설명하는 기사.  이
     것은 어떤 종류의 정보가 유용하고 왜 유용한지를 설명합니다.

버그 작성 지침(2)

     좋은 버그 리포트 작성에 관한 정보.  이 중 일부는 모질라(Mozilla) 프
     로젝트에만 적용되지만, 일반적인 우수 사례를 설명합니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html

   (2) https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html


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14.3 파이썬에 직접 이바지하기 입문
==================================

발견한 버그를 보고하는 것 외에도, 패치를 제출하여 문제를 해결할 수 있습
니다.  파이썬을 패치하는 방법에 대한 더 많은 정보는 Python Developer's
Guide(1) 에서 찾을 수 있습니다.  질문이 있으면, core-mentorship mailing
list(2) 는 파이썬에서 문제를 수정하는 과정에 관한 모든 질문에 대한 답변
을 얻을 수 있는 친근한 곳입니다.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/


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15 저작권
*********

파이썬과 이 설명서는:

Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation.  All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com.  All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives.
All rights reserved.

Copyright © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum.  All rights
reserved.

__________________________________________________________________

전체 라이센스 및 사용 권한 정보는 *note 역사와 라이센스: 51c8. 에서 제공
합니다.


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16 역사와 라이센스
******************

* Menu:

* 소프트웨어의 역사::
* 파이썬에 액세스하거나 사용하기 위한 이용 약관::
* 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인::


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16.1 소프트웨어의 역사
======================

Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting
Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see ‘https://www.cwi.nl’) in the Netherlands
as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s
principal author, although it includes many contributions from others.

In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for
National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see
‘https://www.cnri.reston.va.us’) in Reston, Virginia where he released
several versions of the software.

In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to
BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team.  In October of the same
year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope
Corporation.  In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
‘https://www.python.org/psf/’) was formed, a non-profit organization
created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property.  Zope
Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF.

All Python releases are Open Source (see ‘https://opensource.org’ for
the Open Source Definition).  Historically, most, but not all, Python
releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the
various releases.

배포판               파생된 곳          해               소유자           GPL-compatible?  (1)
                                                                          
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
0.9.0 ~ 1.2          n/a                1991-1995        CWI              yes
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.3 ~ 1.5.2          1.2                1995-1999        CNRI             yes
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6                  1.5.2              2000             CNRI             no
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0                  1.6                2000             BeOpen.com       no
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6.1                1.6                2001             CNRI             yes (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1                  2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              no
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0.1                2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              yes
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.1                2.1+2.0.1          2001             PSF              yes
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.2                2.1.1              2002             PSF              yes
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.3                2.1.2              2002             PSF              yes
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.2 이상             2.1.1              2001-현재        PSF              yes
                                                                          

     참고: 
       1. GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python
          under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you
          distribute a modified version without making your changes open
          source.  The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to
          combine Python with other software that is released under the
          GPL; the others don’t.

       2. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible,
          because its license has a choice of law clause.  According to
          CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that
          1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL.

Guido의 지도하에 이 배포를 가능하게 만든 많은 외부 자원봉사자들에게 감사
드립니다.


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16.2 파이썬에 액세스하거나 사용하기 위한 이용 약관
==================================================

Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software
Foundation License Version 2.

Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the
documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the
*note Zero-Clause BSD license: 51cd.

파이썬에 통합된 일부 소프트웨어에는 다른 라이센스가 적용됩니다.  라이센
스는 해당 라이센스에 해당하는 코드와 함께 나열됩니다.  이러한 라이센스의
불완전한 목록은 *note 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인: 51ce.를
참조하십시오.

* Menu:

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0: BEOPEN COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2 0.
* CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1: CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1 6 1.
* CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 2.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::


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16.2.1 PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2
---------------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
        the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this
        software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
        copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
        Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the
        derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
        agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python.

     4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON
        FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
        of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.

     8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees
        to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


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16.2.2 BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0
--------------------------------------------------

BEOPEN PYTHON OPEN SOURCE LICENSE AGREEMENT VERSION 1

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
        160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
        ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
        form and its associated documentation ("the Software").

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
        BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
        to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
        works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
        Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.

     3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
        MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
        ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
        by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
        Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
        agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
        ‘http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html’ may be used according to the permissions
        granted on that web page.

     7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
        bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


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16.2.3 CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1
----------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
        Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
        ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
        otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
        associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
        provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
        i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
        Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
        Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
        is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
        Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
        internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
        1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
        internet using the following URL: ‘http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013’".

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
        work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
        include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.

     4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
        MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
        BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
        OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
        PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
        law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
        law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
        Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
        Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
        1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
        under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
        Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
        with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
        this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
        partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
        does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
        sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
        party.

     8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
        or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
        conditions of this License Agreement.


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16.2.4 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2
---------------------------------------------------------

     Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
     Netherlands.  All rights reserved.

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
     the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
     notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
     the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
     publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
     EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
     OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
     DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE.


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16.2.5 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION
-------------------------------------------------------------------

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
     purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
     REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
     INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM
     LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR
     OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인,  Prev: 파이썬에 액세스하거나 사용하기 위한 이용 약관,  Up: 역사와 라이센스

16.3 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인
==============================================

이 섹션은 파이썬 배포판에 포함된 제삼자 소프트웨어에 대한 불완전하지만 늘
어나고 있는 라이센스와 승인의 목록입니다.

* Menu:

* 메르센 트위스터::
* 소켓: 소켓<2>.
* 비동기 소켓 서비스::
* 쿠키 관리::
* 실행 추적::
* UUencode 및 UUdecode 함수::
* XML 원격 프로시저 호출::
* test_epoll::
* Select kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod 와 dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N 테스트 스위트::
* mimalloc::
* asyncio: asyncio<12>.
* Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS): Global Unbounded Sequences GUS.


File: python.info,  Node: 메르센 트위스터,  Next: 소켓<2>,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.1 메르센 트위스터
----------------------

The ‘_random’ C extension underlying the *note random: b8. module
includes code based on a download from
‘http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html’.
The following are the verbatim comments from the original code:

     A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
     Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.

     Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
     or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).

     Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

      1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

      2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
         documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

      3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
         products derived from this software without specific prior written
         permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
     CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
     EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
     PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
     PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


     Any feedback is very welcome.
     http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
     email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)


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16.3.2 소켓
-----------

The *note socket: cc. module uses the functions, ‘getaddrinfo()’, and
‘getnameinfo()’, which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE
Project, ‘https://www.wide.ad.jp/’.

     Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
        may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
        without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


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16.3.3 비동기 소켓 서비스
-------------------------

The ‘test.support.asynchat’ and ‘test.support.asyncore’ modules contain
the following notice:

     Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing

                             All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
     Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior
     permission.

     SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
     INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
     NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
     CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
     OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
     CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


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16.3.4 쿠키 관리
----------------

*note http.cookies: 71. 모듈은 다음과 같은 주의 사항을 포함합니다:

     Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>

                    All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
     and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
     ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


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16.3.5 실행 추적
----------------

*note trace: fd. 모듈은 다음과 같은 주의 사항을 포함합니다:

     portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
     err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
     Python 2.2 license.
     Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
     http://zooko.com/
     mailto:zooko@zooko.com

     Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Andrew Dalke

     Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.


     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
     and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
     Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.


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16.3.6 UUencode 및 UUdecode 함수
--------------------------------

The ‘uu’ codec contains the following notice:

     Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
     Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
                            All Rights Reserved
     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
     provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
     both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
     not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
     of the software without specific, written prior permission.
     LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
     THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
     ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
     OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

     Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
     - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
       between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
       version is still 5 times faster, though.
     - Arguments more compliant with Python standard


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16.3.7 XML 원격 프로시저 호출
-----------------------------

*note xmlrpc.client: 12e. 모듈은 다음과 같은 주의 사항을 포함합니다:

         The XML-RPC client interface is

     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh

     By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
     associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
     and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
     hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
     all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
     TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
     ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
     BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
     DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE.


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16.3.8 test_epoll
-----------------

The ‘test.test_epoll’ module contains the following notice:

     Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


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16.3.9 Select kqueue
--------------------

*note select: c1. 모듈은 kqueue 인터페이스에 대해 다음과 같은 주의 사항
을 포함합니다:

     Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


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16.3.10 SipHash24
-----------------

파일 ‘Python/pyhash.c’ 에는 Dan Bernstein의 SipHash24 알고리즘의 Marek
Majkowski의 구현이 포함되어 있습니다.  여기에는 다음과 같은 내용이 포함
되어 있습니다:

     <MIT License>
     Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
     all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
     </MIT License>

     Original location:
        https://github.com/majek/csiphash/

     Solution inspired by code from:
        Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
        djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
        Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)


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16.3.11 strtod 와 dtoa
----------------------

The file ‘Python/dtoa.c’, which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for
conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of
the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c’.
The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the
following copyright and licensing notice:

     /****************************************************************
      *
      * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
      *
      * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
      *
      * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
      * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
      * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
      * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
      * documentation for such software.
      *
      * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
      * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
      * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
      * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
      *
      ***************************************************************/


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL<2>,  Next: expat,  Prev: strtod 와 dtoa,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.12 OpenSSL
---------------

The modules *note hashlib: 68, *note posix: ad. and *note ssl: d0. use
the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the
operating system.  Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for
Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy
of the OpenSSL license here.  For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later
releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies:

                                   Apache License
                             Version 2.0, January 2004
                          https://www.apache.org/licenses/

     TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION

     1. Definitions.

        "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
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        unless required by applicable law (such as deliberate and grossly
        negligent acts) or agreed to in writing, shall any Contributor be
        liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
        incidental, or consequential damages of any character arising as a
        result of this License or out of the use or inability to use the
        Work (including but not limited to damages for loss of goodwill,
        work stoppage, computer failure or malfunction, or any and all
        other commercial damages or losses), even if such Contributor
        has been advised of the possibility of such damages.

     9. Accepting Warranty or Additional Liability. While redistributing
        the Work or Derivative Works thereof, You may choose to offer,
        and charge a fee for, acceptance of support, warranty, indemnity,
        or other liability obligations and/or rights consistent with this
        License. However, in accepting such obligations, You may act only
        on Your own behalf and on Your sole responsibility, not on behalf
        of any other Contributor, and only if You agree to indemnify,
        defend, and hold each Contributor harmless for any liability
        incurred by, or claims asserted against, such Contributor by reason
        of your accepting any such warranty or additional liability.

     END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS


File: python.info,  Node: expat,  Next: libffi,  Prev: OpenSSL<2>,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.13 expat
-------------

The *note pyexpat: 126. extension is built using an included copy of the
expat sources unless the build is configured ‘--with-system-expat’:

     Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
                                    and Clark Cooper

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
     CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
     SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: libffi,  Next: zlib<3>,  Prev: expat,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.14 libffi
--------------

The ‘_ctypes’ C extension underlying the *note ctypes: 2a. module is
built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is
configured ‘--with-system-libffi’:

     Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
     HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
     DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<3>,  Next: cfuhash,  Prev: libffi,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.15 zlib
------------

*note zlib: 133. 확장은 시스템에서 발견된 zlib 버전이 너무 오래되어서 빌
드에 사용될 수 없으면, 포함된 zlib 소스 사본을 사용하여 빌드됩니다:

     Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler

     This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
     warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
     arising from the use of this software.

     Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
     including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
     freely, subject to the following restrictions:

     1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
        claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
        in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
        appreciated but is not required.

     2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
        misrepresented as being the original software.

     3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.

     Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
     jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu


File: python.info,  Node: cfuhash,  Next: libmpdec,  Prev: zlib<3>,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.16 cfuhash
---------------

*note tracemalloc: ff. 에 의해 사용되는 해시 테이블의 구현은 cfuhash 프
로젝트를 기반으로 합니다:

     Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
     All rights reserved.

     This code is released under the BSD license:

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

       * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

       * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
         copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
         disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
         with the distribution.

       * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
         contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
         from this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
     FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
     (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
     STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
     ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
     OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: libmpdec,  Next: W3C C14N 테스트 스위트,  Prev: cfuhash,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.17 libmpdec
----------------

The ‘_decimal’ C extension underlying the *note decimal: 36. module is
built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is
configured ‘--with-system-libmpdec’:

     Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: W3C C14N 테스트 스위트,  Next: mimalloc,  Prev: libmpdec,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.18 W3C C14N 테스트 스위트
------------------------------

The C14N 2.0 test suite in the *note test: e2. package
(‘Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/’) was retrieved from the W3C website at
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/’ and is distributed under
the 3-clause BSD license:

     Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang),
     All Rights Reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice,
       this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright
       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be
       used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without
       specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
     OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
     SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: mimalloc,  Next: asyncio<12>,  Prev: W3C C14N 테스트 스위트,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.19 mimalloc
----------------

MIT License:

     Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
     copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
     IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
     FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<12>,  Next: Global Unbounded Sequences GUS,  Prev: mimalloc,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.20 asyncio
---------------

Parts of the *note asyncio: a. module are incorporated from uvloop
0.16(1), which is distributed under the MIT license:

     Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc.  http://magic.io

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Global Unbounded Sequences GUS,  Prev: asyncio<12>,  Up: 포함된 소프트웨어에 대한 라이센스 및 승인

16.3.21 Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS)
----------------------------------------

The file ‘Python/qsbr.c’ is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded
Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c(1).  The file is
distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License:

     Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org>

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice unmodified, this list of conditions, and the following
        disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
     OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
     NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF
     THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd-src/blob/main/sys/kern/subr_smr.c


File: python.info,  Node: Python 모듈 목록,  Next: 색인,  Prev: 역사와 라이센스,  Up: Top

Python 모듈 목록
****************

* Menu:

* __future__: 0. Future statement definitions
* __main__: 1. The environment where top-level code is run. Covers
                        command-line interfaces, import-time
                        behavior, and ''__name__ ==
                        '__main__'''.
* _thread: 2. Low-level threading API.
* _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface
                        to Tcl/Tk.
* abc: 4. Abstract base classes according to :pep:'3119'.
* aifc: 5. Removed in 3.13.
* argparse: 6. Command-line option and argument parsing library.
* array: 7. Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric
                        values.
* ast: 8. Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
* asynchat: 9. Removed in 3.12.
* asyncio: a. Asynchronous I/O.
* asyncore: b. Removed in 3.12.
* atexit: c. Register and execute cleanup functions.
* audioop: d. Removed in 3.13.
* base64: e. RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data
                        Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85
* bdb: f. Debugger framework.
* binascii: 10. Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-
                        encoded binary representations.
* bisect: 11. Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
* builtins: 12. The module that provides the built-in namespace.
* bz2: 13. Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
* calendar: 14. Functions for working with calendars, including
                        some emulation of the Unix cal program.
* cgi: 15. Removed in 3.13.
* cgitb: 16. Removed in 3.13.
* chunk: 17. Removed in 3.13.
* cmath: 18. Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
* cmd: 19. Build line-oriented command interpreters.
* code: 1a. Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
* codecs: 1b. Encode and decode data and streams.
* codeop: 1c. Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
* collections: 1d. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: 1e. Abstract base classes for containers
* colorsys: 1f. Conversion functions between RGB and other color
                        systems.
* compileall: 20. Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a
                        directory tree.
* concurrent.futures: 21. Execute computations concurrently using threads or
                        processes.
* configparser: 22. Configuration file parser.
* contextlib: 23. Utilities for with-statement contexts.
* contextvars: 24. Context Variables
* copy: 25. Shallow and deep copy operations.
* copyreg: 26. Register pickle support functions.
* cProfile: 27.
* crypt: 28. Removed in 3.13.
* csv: 29. Write and read tabular data to and from delimited
                        files.
* ctypes: 2a. A foreign function library for Python.
* curses: 2b. An interface to the curses library, providing
                        portable terminal handling.
* curses.ascii: 2c. Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII
                        characters.
* curses.panel: 2d. A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses
                        windows.
* curses.textpad: 2e. Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
* dataclasses: 2f. Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
* datetime: 30. Basic date and time types.
* dbm: 31. Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
* dbm.dumb: 32. Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
* dbm.gnu: 33. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: 34. The New Database Manager
* dbm.sqlite3: 35. SQLite backend for dbm
* decimal: 36. Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic
                        Specification.
* difflib: 37. Helpers for computing differences between objects.
* dis: 38. Disassembler for Python bytecode.
* distutils: 39. Removed in 3.12.
* doctest: 3a. Test pieces of code within docstrings.
* email: 3b. Package supporting the parsing,
                        manipulating, and generating email messages.
* email.charset: 3c. Character Sets
* email.contentmanager: 3d. Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
* email.encoders: 3e. Encoders for email message payloads.
* email.errors: 3f. The exception classes used by the email package.
* email.generator: 40. Generate flat text email messages from a message
                        structure.
* email.header: 41. Representing non-ASCII headers
* email.headerregistry: 42. Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
* email.iterators: 43. Iterate over a message object tree.
* email.message: 44. The base class representing email messages.
* email.mime: 45. Build MIME messages.
* email.mime.application: 46.
* email.mime.audio: 47.
* email.mime.base: 48.
* email.mime.image: 49.
* email.mime.message: 4a.
* email.mime.multipart: 4b.
* email.mime.nonmultipart: 4c.
* email.mime.text: 4d.
* email.parser: 4e. Parse flat text email messages to produce a message
                        object structure.
* email.policy: 4f. Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
* email.utils: 50. Miscellaneous email package utilities.
* encodings: 51. Encodings package
* encodings.idna: 52. Internationalized Domain Names implementation
* encodings.mbcs: 53. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: 54. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
* ensurepip: 55. Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing
                        Python installation or virtual environment.
* enum: 56. Implementation of an enumeration class.
* errno: 57. Standard errno system symbols.
* faulthandler: 58. Dump the Python traceback.
* fcntl: 59. The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
* filecmp: 5a. Compare files efficiently.
* fileinput: 5b. Loop over standard input or a list of files.
* fnmatch: 5c. Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
* fractions: 5d. Rational numbers.
* ftplib: 5e. FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* functools: 5f. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects.
* gc: 60. Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
* getopt: 61. Portable parser for command line options; support both
                        short and long option names.
* getpass: 62. Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the
                        userid.
* gettext: 63. Multilingual internationalization services.
* glob: 64. Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
* graphlib: 65. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
* grp: 66. The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
* gzip: 67. Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression
                        using file objects.
* hashlib: 68. Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
* heapq: 69. Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
* hmac: 6a. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC)
                        implementation
* html: 6b. Helpers for manipulating HTML.
* html.entities: 6c. Definitions of HTML general entities.
* html.parser: 6d. A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
* http: 6e. HTTP status codes and messages
* http.client: 6f. HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
* http.cookiejar: 70. Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
* http.cookies: 71. Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
* http.server: 72. HTTP server and request handlers.
* idlelib: 73. Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
* imaplib: 74. IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
* imghdr: 75. Removed in 3.13.
* imp: 76. Removed in 3.12.
* importlib: 77. The implementation of the import machinery.
* importlib.abc: 78. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: 79. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.metadata: 7a. Accessing package metadata
* importlib.resources: 7b. Package resource reading, opening, and
                        access
* importlib.resources.abc: 7c. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.util: 7d. Utility code for importers
* inspect: 7e. Extract information and source code from live objects.
* io: 7f. Core tools for working with streams.
* ipaddress: 80. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
* itertools: 81. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
* json: 82. Encode and decode the JSON format.
* json.tool: 83. A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON.
* keyword: 84. Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
* linecache: 85. Provides random access to individual lines from text
                        files.
* locale: 86. Internationalization services.
* logging: 87. Flexible event logging system for applications.
* logging.config: 88. Configuration of the logging module.
* logging.handlers: 89. Handlers for the logging module.
* lzma: 8a. A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
* mailbox: 8b. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mailcap: 8c. Removed in 3.13.
* marshal: 8d. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back
                        (with different constraints).
* math: 8e. Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
* mimetypes: 8f. Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
* mmap: 90. Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
* modulefinder: 91. Find modules used by a script.
* msilib: 92. Removed in 3.13.
* msvcrt: 93. Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++
                        runtime.
* multiprocessing: 94. Process-based parallelism.
* multiprocessing.connection: 95. API for dealing with sockets.
* multiprocessing.dummy: 96. Dumb wrapper around threading.
* multiprocessing.managers: 97. Share data between process with shared objects.
* multiprocessing.pool: 98. Create pools of processes.
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: 99. Provides shared memory for direct access
                                 across processes.
* multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 9a. Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
* netrc: 9b. Loading of .netrc files.
* nis: 9c. Removed in 3.13.
* nntplib: 9d. Removed in 3.13.
* numbers: 9e. Numeric abstract base classes (Complex,
                        Real, Integral, etc.).
* operator: 9f. Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
* optparse: a0. Command-line option parsing library.
* os: a1. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
* os.path: a2. Operations on pathnames.
* ossaudiodev: a3. Removed in 3.13.
* pathlib: a4. Object-oriented filesystem paths
* pdb: a5. The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
* pickle: a6. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
* pickletools: a7. Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols
                        and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some
                        useful functions.
* pipes: a8. Removed in 3.13.
* pkgutil: a9. Utilities for the import system.
* platform: aa. Retrieves as much platform identifying data as
                        possible.
* plistlib: ab. Generate and parse Apple plist files.
* poplib: ac. POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
* posix: ad. The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via
                        module os).
* pprint: ae. Data pretty printer.
* profile: af. Python source profiler.
* pstats: b0. Statistics object for use with the profiler.
* pty: b1. Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
* pwd: b2. The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
* py_compile: b3. Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
* pyclbr: b4. Supports information extraction for a Python module
                        browser.
* pydoc: b5. Documentation generator and online help system.
* queue: b6. A synchronized queue class.
* quopri: b7. Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-
                        printable encoding.
* random: b8. Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common
                        distributions.
* re: b9. Regular expression operations.
* readline: ba. GNU readline support for Python.
* reprlib: bb. Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
* resource: bc. An interface to provide resource usage information on
                        the current process.
* rlcompleter: bd. Python identifier completion, suitable for the
                        GNU readline library.
* runpy: be. Locate and run Python modules without importing them
                        first.
* sched: bf. General purpose event scheduler.
* secrets: c0. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
* select: c1. Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
* selectors: c2. High-level I/O multiplexing.
* shelve: c3. Python object persistence.
* shlex: c4. Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
* shutil: c5. High-level file operations, including copying.
* signal: c6. Set handlers for asynchronous events.
* site: c7. Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
* sitecustomize: c8.
* smtpd: c9. Removed in 3.12.
* smtplib: ca. SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* sndhdr: cb. Removed in 3.13.
* socket: cc. Low-level networking interface.
* socketserver: cd. A framework for network servers.
* spwd: ce. Removed in 3.13.
* sqlite3: cf. A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
* ssl: d0. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* stat: d1. Utilities for interpreting the results of
                        os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat().
* statistics: d2. Mathematical statistics functions
* string: d3. Common string operations.
* stringprep: d4. String preparation, as per RFC 3453
* struct: d5. Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
* subprocess: d6. Subprocess management.
* sunau: d7. Removed in 3.13.
* symtable: d8. Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
* sys: d9. Access system-specific parameters and functions.
* sys.monitoring: da. Access and control event monitoring
* sysconfig: db. Python's configuration information
* syslog: dc. An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
* tabnanny: dd. Tool for detecting white space related problems in
                        Python source files in a directory tree.
* tarfile: de. Read and write tar-format archive files.
* telnetlib: df. Removed in 3.13.
* tempfile: e0. Generate temporary files and directories.
* termios: e1. POSIX style tty control.
* test: e2. Regression tests package containing the testing suite
                        for Python.
* test.regrtest: e3. Drives the regression test suite.
* test.support: e4. Support for Python's regression test suite.
* test.support.bytecode_helper: e5. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation.
* test.support.import_helper: e6. Support for import tests.
* test.support.os_helper: e7. Support for os tests.
* test.support.script_helper: e8. Support for Python's script execution tests.
* test.support.socket_helper: e9. Support for socket tests.
* test.support.threading_helper: ea. Support for threading tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper: eb. Support for warnings tests.
* textwrap: ec. Text wrapping and filling
* threading: ed. Thread-based parallelism.
* time: ee. Time access and conversions.
* timeit: ef. Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
* tkinter: f0. Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
* tkinter.colorchooser: f1. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.commondialog: f2. Tkinter base class for dialogs
* tkinter.dnd: f3. Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
* tkinter.filedialog: f4. Dialog classes for file selection
* tkinter.font: f5. Tkinter font-wrapping class
* tkinter.messagebox: f6. Various types of alert dialogs
* tkinter.scrolledtext: f7. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
* tkinter.simpledialog: f8. Simple dialog windows
* tkinter.ttk: f9. Tk themed widget set
* token: fa. Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse
                        tree.
* tokenize: fb. Lexical scanner for Python source code.
* tomllib: fc. Parse TOML files.
* trace: fd. Trace or track Python statement execution.
* traceback: fe. Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
* tracemalloc: ff. Trace memory allocations.
* tty: 100. Utility functions that perform common terminal control
                        operations.
* turtle: 101. An educational framework for simple graphics
                        applications
* turtledemo: 102. A viewer for example turtle scripts
* types: 103. Names for built-in types.
* typing: 104. Support for type hints (see :pep:'484').
* unicodedata: 105. Access the Unicode Database.
* unittest: 106. Unit testing framework for Python.
* unittest.mock: 107. Mock object library.
* urllib: 108.
* urllib.error: 109. Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
* urllib.parse: 10a. Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
* urllib.request: 10b. Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response: 10c. Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.robotparser: 10d. Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
                        fetchability of other URLs.
* usercustomize: 10e.
* uu: 10f. Removed in 3.13.
* uuid: 110. UUID objects (universally unique identifiers)
                        according to RFC 4122
* venv: 111. Creation of virtual environments.
* warnings: 112. Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
* wave: 113. Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
* weakref: 114. Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
* webbrowser: 115. Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
* winreg: 116. Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows
                        registry.
* winsound: 117. Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
* wsgiref: 118. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
* wsgiref.handlers: 119. WSGI server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.headers: 11a. WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server: 11b. A simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.types: 11c. WSGI types for static type checking
* wsgiref.util: 11d. WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.validate: 11e. WSGI conformance checker.
* xdrlib: 11f. Removed in 3.13.
* xml: 120. Package containing XML processing modules
* xml.dom: 121. Document Object Model API for Python.
* xml.dom.minidom: 122. Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom: 123. Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX
                        events.
* xml.etree.ElementInclude: 124.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. Implementation of the ElementTree API.
* xml.parsers.expat: 126. An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
* xml.parsers.expat.errors: 127.
* xml.parsers.expat.model: 128.
* xml.sax: 129. Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience
                        functions.
* xml.sax.handler: 12a. Base classes for SAX event handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
* xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c. Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must
                        implement.
* xmlrpc: 12d. Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC.
* xmlrpc.client: 12e. XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server: 12f. Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
* zipapp: 130. Manage executable Python zip archives
* zipfile: 131. Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
* zipimport: 132. Support for importing Python modules from ZIP
                        archives.
* zlib: 133. Low-level interface to compression and decompression
                        routines compatible with gzip.
* zoneinfo: 134. IANA time zone support


File: python.info,  Node: 색인,  Prev: Python 모듈 목록,  Up: Top

색인
****

[index]
* Menu:

* _ (밑줄);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line  114)
* _ (밑줄);숫자 리터럴에서:              숫자 리터럴.        (line   11)
* _ (밑줄);숫자 리터럴에서 <1>:          정수 리터럴.        (line   39)
* _ (언더스코어);gettext:                GNU gettext API.    (line   31)
* __, 식별자:                            소프트 키워드.      (line   21)
* __abs__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  108)
* __abs__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   70)
* __add__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __add__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   75)
* __aenter__() (object 메서드):          비동기 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   15)
* __aexit__() (object 메서드):           비동기 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   20)
* __aiter__() (object 메서드):           비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators.
                                                             (line   13)
* __all__:                               패키지에서 * 임포트 하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* __all__ (선택적 모듈 어트리뷰트):      임포트 import 문.   (line   75)
* __all__ (패키지 변수):                 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* __and__() (enum.Flag 메서드):          Data Types.         (line  497)
* __and__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __and__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   80)
* __anext__() (agen 메서드):             비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line    9)
* __anext__() (object 메서드):           비동기 이터레이터 Asynchronous Iterators.
                                                             (line   17)
* __annotations__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __annotations__ (function attribute):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __annotations__ (function의 속성):     Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   44)
* __annotations__ (module attribute):    모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __annotations__ (module의 속성):       Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* __annotations__ (type의 속성):         Special attributes. (line   37)
* __args__ (genericalias의 속성):        Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* __await__() (object 메서드):           어웨이터블 객체 Awaitable Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* __bases__ (class attribute):           Special attributes. (line    6)
* __bases__ (type의 속성):               Special attributes. (line   27)
* __bool__() (object method):            컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   41)
* __bool__() (object 메서드):            기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  309)
* __bound__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성):     Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  175)
* __breakpointhook__ (sys 모듈):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  397)
* __buffer__() (object 메서드):          Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   15)
* __bytes__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  115)
* __bytes__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  125)
* __bytes__() (object 메서드):           기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  139)
* __cached__ (module attribute):         모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __cached__ (module의 속성):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  137)
* __call__() (argparse.Action 메서드):   Action 클래스.      (line   28)
* __call__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry 메서드): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  361)
* __call__() (enum.EnumType 메서드):     Data Types.         (line   20)
* __call__() (object method):            호출.               (line  148)
* __call__() (object 메서드):            콜러블 객체 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line    6)
* __call__() (operator 모듈):            operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  215)
* __call__() (weakref.finalize 메서드):  weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  267)
* __callback__ (weakref.ref의 속성):     weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  111)
* __cause__ (BaseException의 속성):      예외 컨텍스트.      (line    9)
* __cause__ (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* __cause__ (예외 어트리뷰트):           raise 문.           (line   28)
* __cause__ (예외 어트리뷰트) <1>:       예외 컨텍스트.      (line    6)
* __ceil__() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  179)
* __ceil__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  136)
* __class__ (instance attribute):        Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (method cell):               클래스 객체 만들기. (line    6)
* __class__ (module attribute):          모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (object의 속성):             Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.        (line  542)
* __class_getitem__() (object의 클래스 메서드): 제네릭 형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   32)
* __classcell__ (class namespace entry): 클래스 객체 만들기. (line    6)
* __closure__ (function attribute):      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __closure__ (function의 속성):         Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* __code__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __code__ (function object attribute):  코드 객체.          (line    6)
* __code__ (function의 속성):            Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   35)
* __complex__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  116)
* __concat__() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  171)
* __constraints__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  184)
* __contains__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  162)
* __contains__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  277)
* __contains__() (enum.EnumType 메서드): Data Types.         (line   63)
* __contains__() (enum.Flag 메서드):     Data Types.         (line  435)
* __contains__() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.     (line  180)
* __contains__() (object 메서드):        컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line  146)
* __contains__() (operator 모듈):        operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  176)
* __context__ (BaseException의 속성):    예외 컨텍스트.      (line    9)
* __context__ (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   47)
* __context__ (예외 어트리뷰트):         raise 문.           (line   28)
* __context__ (예외 어트리뷰트) <1>:     예외 컨텍스트.      (line    6)
* __contravariant__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  163)
* __copy__() (복사 프로토콜):            copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   76)
* __covariant__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  159)
* __debug__:                             assert 문.          (line   21)
* __debug__ (내장 변수):                 내장 상수.          (line   60)
* __deepcopy__() (복사 프로토콜):        copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   76)
* __default__ (typing.ParamSpec의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  426)
* __default__ (typing.TypeVarTuple의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  326)
* __default__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성):   Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  194)
* __defaults__ (function attribute):     Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __defaults__ (function의 속성):        Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   29)
* __del__() (io.IOBase 메서드):          I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  155)
* __del__() (object 메서드):             기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   51)
* __delattr__() (object 메서드):         어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   66)
* __delete__() (object 메서드):          디스크립터 구현하기.
                                                             (line   42)
* __delitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  205)
* __delitem__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  311)
* __delitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.      (line   67)
* __delitem__() (mailbox.MH 메서드):     MH 객체.            (line   78)
* __delitem__() (object 메서드):         컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line  108)
* __delitem__() (operator 모듈):         operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  186)
* __dict__ (class attribute):            Special attributes. (line    6)
* __dict__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (function의 속성):            Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   39)
* __dict__ (instance attribute):         Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (module attribute):           Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (module의 속성):              Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (object의 속성):              Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* __dict__ (type의 속성):                Special attributes. (line   22)
* __dict__ (모듈 어트리뷰트):            모듈 객체.          (line   45)
* __dir__ (module attribute):            모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__() (enum.Enum 메서드):          Data Types.         (line  173)
* __dir__() (enum.EnumType 메서드):      Data Types.         (line   76)
* __dir__() (object 메서드):             어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   75)
* __dir__() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.        (line  290)
* __displayhook__ (sys 모듈):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  397)
* __divmod__() (object 메서드):          숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __doc__ (class attribute):             Special attributes. (line    6)
* __doc__ (definition의 속성):           특수 어트리뷰트.    (line   25)
* __doc__ (function attribute):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __doc__ (function의 속성):             Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   12)
* __doc__ (method attribute):            인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* __doc__ (method의 속성):               인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line   18)
* __doc__ (module attribute):            모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __doc__ (module의 속성):               Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* __doc__ (type의 속성):                 Special attributes. (line   33)
* __doc__ (모듈 어트리뷰트):             모듈 객체.          (line   24)
* __enter__() (contextmanager 메서드):   컨텍스트 관리자 형. (line   11)
* __enter__() (object 메서드):           with 문 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   21)
* __enter__() (winreg.PyHKEY 메서드):    레지스트리 핸들 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* __eq__() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  143)
* __eq__() (email.header.Header 메서드): email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  154)
* __eq__() (instance method):            비교<2>.            (line   48)
* __eq__() (memoryview 메서드):          메모리 뷰.          (line  110)
* __eq__() (object 메서드):              기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  172)
* __eq__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* __excepthook__ (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  397)
* __excepthook__ (threading 모듈):       Reference<2>.       (line   65)
* __exit__() (contextmanager 메서드):    컨텍스트 관리자 형. (line   30)
* __exit__() (object 메서드):            with 문 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   27)
* __exit__() (winreg.PyHKEY 메서드):     레지스트리 핸들 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* __file__ (module attribute):           모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __file__ (module의 속성):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  135)
* __file__ (모듈 어트리뷰트):            모듈 객체.          (line   24)
* __file__ (모듈 어트리뷰트) <1>:        모듈 객체.          (line   83)
* __firstlineno__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __firstlineno__ (type의 속성):         Special attributes. (line   66)
* __float__() (object 메서드):           숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  116)
* __floor__() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  170)
* __floor__() (object 메서드):           숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  136)
* __floordiv__() (object 메서드):        숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __floordiv__() (operator 모듈):        operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   85)
* __format__:                            내장 함수.          (line  763)
* __format__() (datetime.date 메서드):   date 객체.          (line  296)
* __format__() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.    (line  743)
* __format__() (datetime.time 메서드):   time 객체.          (line  224)
* __format__() (enum.Enum 메서드):       Data Types.         (line  314)
* __format__() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  195)
* __format__() (ipaddress.IPv4Address 메서드): 주소 객체.    (line  190)
* __format__() (ipaddress.IPv6Address 메서드): 주소 객체.    (line  315)
* __format__() (object 메서드):          기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  146)
* __fspath__() (os.PathLike 메서드):     프로세스 매개 변수. (line  125)
* __func__ (method attribute):           인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* __func__ (method의 속성):              인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* __future__:                            용어집.             (line  552)
* __future__;퓨처 문:                    퓨처 문.            (line    6)
* __ge__() (instance method):            비교<2>.            (line   48)
* __ge__() (object 메서드):              기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  172)
* __ge__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* __get__() (object 메서드):             디스크립터 구현하기.
                                                             (line   15)
* __getattr__ (module attribute):        모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getattr__() (object 메서드):         어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line    9)
* __getattribute__() (object 메서드):    어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   32)
* __getitem__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry 메서드): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  357)
* __getitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  171)
* __getitem__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  287)
* __getitem__() (enum.EnumType 메서드):  Data Types.         (line   84)
* __getitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.      (line  132)
* __getitem__() (mapping object method): 특수 메서드 이름들. (line    6)
* __getitem__() (object 메서드):         컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   78)
* __getitem__() (operator 모듈):         operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  191)
* __getitem__() (re.Match 메서드):       일치 객체.          (line   82)
* __getnewargs__() (object 메서드):      클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line   43)
* __getnewargs_ex__() (object 메서드):   클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line   27)
* __getstate__() (object 메서드):        클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line   56)
* __getstate__() (복사 프로토콜):        상태 저장 객체 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* __globals__ (function attribute):      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __globals__ (function의 속성):         Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line   10)
* __gt__() (instance method):            비교<2>.            (line   48)
* __gt__() (object 메서드):              기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  172)
* __gt__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* __hash__() (object 메서드):            기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  232)
* __iadd__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __iadd__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   35)
* __iand__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __iand__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   40)
* __iconcat__() (operator 모듈):         제자리 연산자.      (line   45)
* __ifloordiv__() (object 메서드):       숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __ifloordiv__() (operator 모듈):       제자리 연산자.      (line   51)
* __ilshift__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __ilshift__() (operator 모듈):         제자리 연산자.      (line   56)
* __imatmul__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __imatmul__() (operator 모듈):         제자리 연산자.      (line   71)
* __imod__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __imod__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   61)
* __import__() (importlib 모듈):         함수<11>.           (line    6)
* __imul__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __imul__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   66)
* __index__() (object 메서드):           숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  123)
* __index__() (operator 모듈):           operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   90)
* __infer_variance__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  168)
* __init__() (asyncio.Future 메서드):    Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   17)
* __init__() (asyncio.Task 메서드):      Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   23)
* __init__() (difflib.HtmlDiff 메서드):  difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line   85)
* __init__() (enum.Enum 메서드):         Data Types.         (line  223)
* __init__() (logging.Handler 메서드):   Handler 객체.       (line   14)
* __init__() (logging.logging.Formatter 메서드): 포매터.     (line   13)
* __init__() (object 메서드):            기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   35)
* __init_subclass__() (enum.Enum 메서드): Data Types.        (line  236)
* __init_subclass__() (object의 클래스 메서드): 클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   13)
* __instancecheck__() (type 메서드):     인스턴스 및 서브 클래스 검사 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   14)
* __int__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  116)
* __interactivehook__ (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1128)
* __inv__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   99)
* __invert__() (object 메서드):          숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  108)
* __invert__() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   99)
* __ior__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __ior__() (operator 모듈):             제자리 연산자.      (line   78)
* __ipow__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __ipow__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   83)
* __irshift__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __irshift__() (operator 모듈):         제자리 연산자.      (line   88)
* __isub__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __isub__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   93)
* __iter__() (container 메서드):         이터레이터 형.      (line   14)
* __iter__() (enum.EnumType 메서드):     Data Types.         (line   92)
* __iter__() (iterator 메서드):          이터레이터 형.      (line   29)
* __iter__() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):   Mailbox 객체.       (line  102)
* __iter__() (object 메서드):            컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line  121)
* __iter__() (unittest.TestSuite 메서드): 테스트 분류.       (line   59)
* __itruediv__() (object 메서드):        숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __itruediv__() (operator 모듈):        제자리 연산자.      (line   98)
* __ixor__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   77)
* __ixor__() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line  103)
* __kwdefaults__ (function attribute):   Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __kwdefaults__ (function의 속성):      Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   51)
* __le__() (instance method):            비교<2>.            (line   48)
* __le__() (object 메서드):              기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  172)
* __le__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* __len__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  158)
* __len__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  273)
* __len__() (enum.EnumType 메서드):      Data Types.         (line   99)
* __len__() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):    Mailbox 객체.       (line  185)
* __len__() (mapping object method):     기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  311)
* __len__() (object 메서드):             컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   39)
* __length_hint__() (object 메서드):     컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   54)
* __loader__ (module attribute):         모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __loader__ (module의 속성):            Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* __loader__ (모듈 어트리뷰트):          모듈 객체.          (line   24)
* __lshift__() (object 메서드):          숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __lshift__() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  106)
* __lt__() (instance method):            비교<2>.            (line   48)
* __lt__() (object 메서드):              기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  172)
* __lt__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* __matmul__() (object 메서드):          숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __matmul__() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  121)
* __members__ (enum.EnumType의 속성):    Data Types.         (line  106)
* __missing__():                         매핑 형 — dict.     (line  115)
* __missing__() (collections.defaultdict 메서드): defaultdict 객체.
                                                             (line   21)
* __missing__() (object 메서드):         컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line  116)
* __mod__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __mod__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  111)
* __module__ (class attribute):          Special attributes. (line    6)
* __module__ (definition의 속성):        특수 어트리뷰트.    (line   21)
* __module__ (function attribute):       Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __module__ (function의 속성):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   26)
* __module__ (method attribute):         인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* __module__ (method의 속성):            인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line   28)
* __module__ (type의 속성):              Special attributes. (line   18)
* __module__ (typing.NewType의 속성):    기타 특수 지시자.   (line  112)
* __module__ (typing.TypeAliasType의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  512)
* __mro__ (type의 속성):                 Special attributes. (line   74)
* __mro_entries__() (object 메서드):     MRO 항목 결정하기.  (line    6)
* __mul__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __mul__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  116)
* __mutable_keys__ (typing.TypedDict의 속성): 기타 특수 지시자.
                                                             (line  449)
* __name__ (class attribute):            Special attributes. (line    6)
* __name__ (definition의 속성):          특수 어트리뷰트.    (line   10)
* __name__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __name__ (function의 속성):            Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* __name__ (method attribute):           인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* __name__ (method의 속성):              인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line   24)
* __name__ (module attribute):           모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __name__ (module의 속성):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* __name__ (property의 속성):            내장 함수.          (line 1627)
* __name__ (type의 속성):                Special attributes. (line   10)
* __name__ (typing.NewType의 속성):      기타 특수 지시자.   (line  116)
* __name__ (typing.ParamSpec의 속성):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  422)
* __name__ (typing.TypeAliasType의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  504)
* __name__ (typing.TypeVarTuple의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  322)
* __name__ (typing.TypeVar의 속성):      Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  155)
* __name__ (모듈 어트리뷰트):            모듈 객체.          (line   24)
* __name__ (모듈 어트리뷰트) <1>:        모듈 객체.          (line   58)
* __ne__() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  148)
* __ne__() (email.header.Header 메서드): email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  159)
* __ne__() (instance method):            비교<2>.            (line   48)
* __ne__() (object 메서드):              기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  172)
* __ne__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* __neg__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  108)
* __neg__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  128)
* __new__() (enum.Enum 메서드):          Data Types.         (line  264)
* __new__() (object 메서드):             기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line    6)
* __next__() (csv.csvreader 메서드):     판독기 객체.        (line    9)
* __next__() (generator 메서드):         제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   12)
* __next__() (iterator 메서드):          이터레이터 형.      (line   37)
* __not__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   46)
* __notes__ (BaseException의 속성):      베이스 클래스.      (line   56)
* __notes__ (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   63)
* __objclass__ (object의 속성):          디스크립터 구현하기.
                                                             (line   50)
* __optional_keys__ (typing.TypedDict의 속성): 기타 특수 지시자.
                                                             (line  400)
* __or__() (enum.Flag 메서드):           Data Types.         (line  490)
* __or__() (object 메서드):              숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __or__() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  133)
* __origin__ (genericalias의 속성):      Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* __package__ (module attribute):        모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __package__ (module의 속성):           Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* __package__ (모듈 어트리뷰트):         모듈 객체.          (line   24)
* __parameters__ (genericalias의 속성):  Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* __path__ (module attribute):           모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __path__ (module의 속성):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* __pos__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  108)
* __pos__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  138)
* __post_init__() (dataclasses 모듈):    초기화 후처리.      (line    6)
* __pow__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __pow__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  143)
* __prepare__ (metaclass method):        클래스 이름 공간 준비하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:                   PyConfig.           (line  184)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:               PyConfig.           (line  702)
* __qualname__ (definition의 속성):      특수 어트리뷰트.    (line   14)
* __qualname__ (function의 속성):        Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   20)
* __qualname__ (type의 속성):            Special attributes. (line   14)
* __radd__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rand__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rdivmod__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __readonly_keys__ (typing.TypedDict의 속성): 기타 특수 지시자.
                                                             (line  441)
* __reduce__() (object 메서드):          클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line  117)
* __reduce_ex__() (object 메서드):       클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line  167)
* __release_buffer__() (object 메서드):  Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   25)
* __replace__() (치환 프로토콜):         copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   92)
* __repr__() (enum.Enum 메서드):         Data Types.         (line  281)
* __repr__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 메서드): 프락시 객체.
                                                             (line  134)
* __repr__() (netrc.netrc 메서드):       netrc 객체.         (line   15)
* __repr__() (object 메서드):            기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  109)
* __required_keys__ (typing.TypedDict의 속성): 기타 특수 지시자.
                                                             (line  396)
* __reversed__() (enum.EnumType 메서드): Data Types.         (line  111)
* __reversed__() (object 메서드):        컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line  128)
* __rfloordiv__() (object 메서드):       숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rlshift__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rmatmul__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rmod__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rmul__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __ror__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __round__() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  184)
* __round__() (object 메서드):           숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  136)
* __rpow__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rrshift__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rshift__() (object 메서드):          숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __rshift__() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  148)
* __rsub__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rtruediv__() (object 메서드):        숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __rxor__() (object 메서드):            숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   41)
* __self__ (method attribute):           인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    9)
* __self__ (method의 속성):              인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line   11)
* __set__() (object 메서드):             디스크립터 구현하기.
                                                             (line   32)
* __set_name__() (object 메서드):        클래스 생성 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   46)
* __setattr__() (object 메서드):         어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   53)
* __setitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  186)
* __setitem__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  298)
* __setitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.      (line   79)
* __setitem__() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드): Maildir 객체.      (line  188)
* __setitem__() (object 메서드):         컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   99)
* __setitem__() (operator 모듈):         operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  200)
* __setstate__() (object 메서드):        클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line   83)
* __setstate__() (복사 프로토콜):        상태 저장 객체 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* __slots__:                             용어집.             (line 1254)
* __spec__ (module attribute):           모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* __spec__ (module의 속성):              Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* __static_attributes__ (class attribute): Special attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __static_attributes__ (type의 속성):   Special attributes. (line   59)
* __stderr__ (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1805)
* __stdin__ (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1805)
* __stdout__ (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1805)
* __str__() (datetime.date 메서드):      date 객체.          (line  269)
* __str__() (datetime.datetime 메서드):  datetime 객체.      (line  713)
* __str__() (datetime.time 메서드):      time 객체.          (line  214)
* __str__() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  138)
* __str__() (email.header.Header 메서드): email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  143)
* __str__() (email.headerregistry.Address 메서드): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  414)
* __str__() (email.headerregistry.Group 메서드): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  448)
* __str__() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   85)
* __str__() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line   91)
* __str__() (enum.Enum 메서드):          Data Types.         (line  298)
* __str__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 메서드): 프락시 객체.
                                                             (line  138)
* __str__() (object 메서드):             기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  125)
* __sub__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __sub__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  153)
* __subclasscheck__() (type 메서드):     인스턴스 및 서브 클래스 검사 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   20)
* __subclasses__() (type 메서드):        Special methods.    (line   15)
* __subclasshook__() (abc.ABCMeta 메서드): abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   90)
* __supertype__ (typing.NewType의 속성): 기타 특수 지시자.   (line  120)
* __suppress_context__ (BaseException의 속성): 예외 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line    9)
* __suppress_context__ (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* __suppress_context__ (예외 어트리뷰트): 예외 컨텍스트.     (line    6)
* __test__ (module의 속성):              어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?.
                                                             (line    9)
* __total__ (typing.TypedDict의 속성):   기타 특수 지시자.   (line  371)
* __traceback__ (BaseException의 속성):  베이스 클래스.      (line   42)
* __traceback__ (예외 어트리뷰트):       raise 문.           (line    6)
* __truediv__() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  514)
* __truediv__() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  136)
* __truediv__() (object 메서드):         숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __truediv__() (operator 모듈):         operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  158)
* __trunc__() (object 메서드):           숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  136)
* __type_params__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __type_params__ (definition의 속성):   특수 어트리뷰트.    (line   30)
* __type_params__ (function attribute):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __type_params__ (function의 속성):     Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   55)
* __type_params__ (type의 속성):         Special attributes. (line   52)
* __type_params__ (typing.TypeAliasType의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  520)
* __unpacked__ (genericalias의 속성):    Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* __unraisablehook__ (sys 모듈):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  397)
* __value__ (typing.TypeAliasType의 속성): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  532)
* __version__ (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line   20)
* __xor__() (enum.Flag 메서드):          Data Types.         (line  506)
* __xor__() (object 메서드):             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   11)
* __xor__() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  164)
* _, 식별자:                             소프트 키워드.      (line   22)
* _add_alias_() (enum.Enum 메서드):      Data Types.         (line  335)
* _add_value_alias_() (enum.Enum 메서드): Data Types.        (line  348)
* _align_ (ctypes.Structure의 속성):     구조화된 데이터형.  (line   86)
* _anonymous_ (ctypes.Structure의 속성): 구조화된 데이터형.  (line   95)
* _asdict() (collections.somenamedtuple 메서드): 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
                                                             (line  105)
* _b_base_ (ctypes._CData의 속성):       데이터형<2>.        (line   70)
* _b_needsfree_ (ctypes._CData의 속성):  데이터형<2>.        (line   77)
* _callmethod() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 메서드): 프락시 객체.
                                                             (line   91)
* _CData (ctypes 클래스):                데이터형<2>.        (line    6)
* _CFuncPtr (ctypes 클래스):             외부 함수.          (line   22)
* _clear_internal_caches() (sys 모듈):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  179)
* _clear_type_cache() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  168)
* _current_exceptions() (sys 모듈):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  205)
* _current_frames() (sys 모듈):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  187)
* _debugmallocstats() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  257)
* _emscripten_info (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  321)
* _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1717)
* _enter_task() (asyncio 모듈):          Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   22)
* _exit() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  118)
* _Feature (__future__ 클래스):          Module Contents.    (line   50)
* _field_defaults (collections.somenamedtuple의 속성): 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
                                                             (line  153)
* _field_types (ast.AST의 속성):         노드 클래스.        (line   35)
* _fields (ast.AST의 속성):              노드 클래스.        (line   20)
* _fields (collections.somenamedtuple의 속성): 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
                                                             (line  140)
* _fields_ (ctypes.Structure의 속성):    구조화된 데이터형.  (line   44)
* _flush() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  108)
* _frozen (C struct):                    모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  253)
* _generate_next_value_() (enum.Enum 메서드): Data Types.    (line  194)
* _get_child_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  299)
* _get_preferred_schemes() (sysconfig 모듈): 설치 경로 함수. (line   41)
* _getframe() (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  848)
* _getframemodulename() (sys 모듈):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  862)
* _getvalue() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy 메서드): 프락시 객체.
                                                             (line  128)
* _handle (ctypes.PyDLL의 속성):         공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line  152)
* _ignore_ (enum.Enum의 속성):           Data Types.         (line  164)
* _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  162)
* _inittab (C struct):                   모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  286)
* _inittab.initfunc (C member):          모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  297)
* _inittab.name (C member):              모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  293)
* _is_gil_enabled() (sys 모듈):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1156)
* _is_interned() (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1188)
* _leave_task() (asyncio 모듈):          Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   30)
* _length_ (ctypes.Array의 속성):        배열과 포인터.      (line   18)
* _log (logging.LoggerAdapter의 속성):   LoggerAdapter 객체. (line   32)
* _make() (collections.somenamedtuple의 클래스 메서드): 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
                                                             (line   97)
* _makeResult() (unittest.TextTestRunner 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  476)
* _missing_() (enum.Enum 메서드):        Data Types.         (line  241)
* _name (ctypes.PyDLL의 속성):           공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line  156)
* _name_ (enum.Enum의 속성):             Data Types.         (line  151)
* _numeric_repr_() (enum.Flag 메서드):   Data Types.         (line  526)
* _objects (ctypes._CData의 속성):       데이터형<2>.        (line   82)
* _order_ (enum.Enum의 속성):            Data Types.         (line  159)
* _pack_ (ctypes.Structure의 속성):      구조화된 데이터형.  (line   78)
* _parse() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   20)
* _Pointer (ctypes 클래스):              배열과 포인터.      (line   39)
* _Py_c_diff (C function):               C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   31)
* _Py_c_neg (C function):                C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   37)
* _Py_c_pow (C function):                C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   57)
* _Py_c_prod (C function):               C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   42)
* _Py_c_quot (C function):               C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   48)
* _Py_c_sum (C function):                C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   25)
* _Py_InitializeMain (C function):       다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API.
                                                             (line   44)
* _Py_NoneStruct (C var):                힙에 객체 할당하기. (line   61)
* _PyBytes_Resize (C function):          바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  164)
* _PyCode_GetExtra (C 함수):             Extra information.  (line   45)
* _PyCode_SetExtra (C 함수):             Extra information.  (line   58)
* _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C 함수): Extra information. (line   29)
* _PyFrameEvalFunction (C type):         저수준 API.         (line  159)
* _PyInterpreterFrame (C struct):        Internal Frames.    (line    8)
* _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (C function): 저수준 API.
                                                             (line  173)
* _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (C function): 저수준 API.
                                                             (line  183)
* _PyObject_GetDictPtr (C function):     객체 프로토콜.      (line  281)
* _PyObject_New (C function):            힙에 객체 할당하기. (line    6)
* _PyObject_NewVar (C function):         힙에 객체 할당하기. (line    9)
* _PyTuple_Resize (C function):          튜플 객체.          (line   96)
* _register_task() (asyncio 모듈):       Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   10)
* _replace() (collections.somenamedtuple 메서드): 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
                                                             (line  122)
* _setroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* _SimpleCData (ctypes 클래스):          기본 데이터형<2>.   (line    6)
* _structure() (email.iterators 모듈):   email iterators 이터레이터.
                                                             (line   41)
* _type_ (ctypes._Pointer의 속성):       배열과 포인터.      (line   54)
* _type_ (ctypes.Array의 속성):          배열과 포인터.      (line   24)
* _unregister_task() (asyncio 모듈):     Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   16)
* _value_ (enum.Enum의 속성):            Data Types.         (line  155)
* _write() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  101)
* _xoptions (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1981)
* - (minus);binary operator:             이항 산술 연산.     (line   78)
* - (minus);binary operator <1>:         숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* - (minus);in printf-style formatting:  printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   64)
* - (minus);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   58)
* - (minus);in regular expressions:      정규식 문법.        (line  169)
* - (minus);unary operator:              일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (minus);unary operator <1>:          숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* - (마이너스);doctest 에서:             옵션 플래그.        (line  151)
* - (마이너스);glob 스타일 와일드카드:   glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (마이너스);glob 스타일 와일드카드 <1>: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   14)
* - (마이너스);문자열 포매팅에서:        포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   68)
* -=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations:               함수 정의.          (line  105)
* ->;함수 어노테이션:                    함수 어노테이션.    (line    6)
* , (comma):                             괄호 안에 넣은 형.  (line   18)
* , (comma);argument list:               슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   37)
* , (comma);expression list:             리스트 디스플레이.  (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <1>:         집합 디스플레이.    (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <2>:         표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <3>:         클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* , (comma);in dictionary displays:      딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);parameter list:              함수 정의.          (line    6)
* , (comma);slicing:                     슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* , (comma);with statement:              with 문.            (line    6)
* , (쉼표);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line  114)
* , (쉼표);식별자 목록:                  global 문.          (line    6)
* , (쉼표);식별자 목록 <1>:              nonlocal 문.        (line    6)
* , (쉼표);임포트 문:                    임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* , (쉼표);타깃 목록에서:                대입문.             (line   34)
* , (쉼표);표현식 목록:                  assert 문.          (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement:          if 문<2>.           (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <1>:      while 문.           (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <2>:      for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <3>:      try 문.             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <4>:      with 문.            (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <5>:      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <6>:      함수 정의.          (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <7>:      클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations:        함수 정의.          (line  105)
* ; (colon);in dictionary expressions:   딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);in formatted string literal: 문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* ; (colon);in SQL statements:           Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* ; (colon);lambda expression:           람다 Lambdas.       (line    6)
* ; (colon);path separator (POSIX):      기타 시스템 정보.   (line  129)
* ; (colon);slicing:                     슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* ; (semicolon):                         복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   16)
* ; (semicolon) <1>:                     기타 시스템 정보.   (line  129)
* ; (콜론);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 문자열 문법.   (line   12)
* ; (콜론);어노테이트된 변수:            어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (콜론);포맷 문자열 리터럴에서:       문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* ; (콜론);함수 어노테이션:              함수 어노테이션.    (line    6)
* ;= (colon equals):                     논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   35)
* ! (exclamation mark);in formatted string literal: 문자열 메서드.
                                                             (line  733)
* ! (pdb command):                       디버거 명령들.      (line  381)
* ! (느낌표);curses 모듈:                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  224)
* ! (느낌표);glob 스타일 와일드카드:     glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   10)
* ! (느낌표);glob 스타일 와일드카드 <1>: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   14)
* ! (느낌표);struct 포맷 문자열:         바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
                                                             (line   12)
* ! (느낌표);명령 인터프리터에서:        Cmd 객체.           (line   25)
* ! (느낌표);문자열 포매팅에서:          포맷 문자열 문법.   (line   12)
* ! (느낌표);포맷 문자열 리터럴에서:     문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* ! f-string:                            문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* ! formatted string literal:            문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* ! patterns:                            Patterns.           (line    6)
* ? (question mark);in argparse module:  nargs.              (line   24)
* ? (question mark);in AST grammar:      노드 클래스.        (line   20)
* ? (question mark);in regular expressions: 정규식 문법.     (line   75)
* ? (question mark);in SQL statements:   Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* ? (물음표);glob 스타일 와일드카드:     glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   10)
* ? (물음표);glob 스타일 와일드카드 <1>: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   14)
* ? (물음표);struct 포맷 문자열:         포맷 문자.          (line   85)
* ? (물음표);struct 포맷 문자열 <1>:     포맷 문자.          (line  157)
* ? (물음표);명령 인터프리터에서:        Cmd 객체.           (line   25)
* ? (물음표);치환 문자:                  에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* ??;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line   80)
* ?+;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line   90)
* . (dot);attribute reference:           어트리뷰트 참조.    (line    6)
* . (dot);in pathnames:                  기타 시스템 정보.   (line   97)
* . (dot);in pathnames <1>:              기타 시스템 정보.   (line  124)
* . (dot);in printf-style formatting:    printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   28)
* . (dot);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   22)
* . (dot);in regular expressions:        정규식 문법.        (line   41)
* . (마침표);문자열 포매팅에서:          포맷 문자열 문법.   (line   12)
* . (마침표);숫자 리터럴에서:            정수 리터럴.        (line   40)
* . (점);glob 스타일 와일드카드:         glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   10)
* ..;in pathnames:                       기타 시스템 정보.   (line  103)
* ...:                                   용어집.             (line    9)
* ...;doctest 에서:                      옵션 플래그.        (line   41)
* ...;ellipsis literal:                  Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* ...;ellipsis literal <1>:              널 객체.            (line   11)
* ...;interpreter prompt:                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* ...;인터프리터 프롬프트:               독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?.
                                                             (line   25)
* ...;자리 표시자:                       textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  264)
* ...;자리 표시자 <1>:                   PrettyPrinter 객체. (line    6)
* ...;자리 표시자 <2>:                   reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
                                                             (line   58)
* ...;줄임표 리터럴:                     내장 상수.          (line   54)
* .ini;파일:                             configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* .pdbrc;파일:                           디버거 명령들.      (line   54)
* ' (작은따옴표);문자열 리터럴:          리터럴.             (line    8)
* ''';문자열 리터럴:                     문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   35)
* " (큰따옴표);문자열 리터럴:            리터럴.             (line    8)
* """;문자열 리터럴:                     문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   35)
* (?;;in regular expressions:            정규식 문법.        (line  272)
* (?;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  234)
* (?!;in regular expressions:            정규식 문법.        (line  388)
* (?(;in regular expressions:            정규식 문법.        (line  431)
* (?#;in regular expressions:            정규식 문법.        (line  377)
* (?<!;in regular expressions:           정규식 문법.        (line  422)
* (?<=;in regular expressions:           정규식 문법.        (line  395)
* (?=;in regular expressions:            정규식 문법.        (line  381)
* (?P<;in regular expressions:           정규식 문법.        (line  334)
* (?P=;in regular expressions:           정규식 문법.        (line  372)
* () (parentheses);call:                 슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   37)
* () (parentheses);class definition:     클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* () (parentheses);function definition:  함수 정의.          (line    6)
* () (parentheses);generator expression: 제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);in printf-style formatting: printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   28)
* () (parentheses);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   22)
* () (parentheses);in regular expressions: 정규식 문법.      (line  226)
* () (parentheses);tuple display:        괄호 안에 넣은 형.  (line    6)
* () (괄호);대입 타깃 목록에서:          대입문.             (line   34)
* [] (square brackets);in regular expressions: 정규식 문법.  (line  162)
* [] (square brackets);list expression:  리스트 디스플레이.  (line    6)
* [] (square brackets);subscription:     서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* [] (대괄호);glob 스타일 와일드카드:    glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   10)
* [] (대괄호);glob 스타일 와일드카드 <1>: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   14)
* [] (대괄호);대입 타깃 목록에서:        대입문.             (line   34)
* [] (대괄호);문자열 포매팅에서:         포맷 문자열 문법.   (line   12)
* {} (curly brackets);dictionary expression: 딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* {} (curly brackets);in formatted string literal: 문자열 메서드.
                                                             (line  733)
* {} (curly brackets);in regular expressions: 정규식 문법.   (line  109)
* {} (curly brackets);set expression:    집합 디스플레이.    (line    6)
* {} (중괄호);문자열 포매팅에서:         포맷 문자열 문법.   (line   12)
* {} (중괄호);포맷 문자열 리터럴에서:    문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* @ (at);class definition:               클래스 정의.        (line   44)
* @ (at);function definition:            함수 정의.          (line   34)
* @ (at);struct 포맷 문자열:             바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
                                                             (line   12)
* * (asterisk);function definition:      함수 정의.          (line   89)
* * (asterisk);in argparse module:       nargs.              (line   56)
* * (asterisk);in AST grammar:           노드 클래스.        (line   20)
* * (asterisk);in expression lists:      표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line   17)
* * (asterisk);in function calls:        호출.               (line   66)
* * (asterisk);in printf-style formatting: printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   28)
* * (asterisk);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   22)
* * (asterisk);in regular expressions:   정규식 문법.        (line   63)
* * (애스터리스크);glob 스타일 와일드카드: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   10)
* * (애스터리스크);glob 스타일 와일드카드 <1>: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   14)
* * (애스터리스크);대입 타깃 목록에서:   대입문.             (line   34)
* * (애스터리스크);임포트 문:            임포트 import 문.   (line   72)
* * (애스터리스크);함수 호출에서:        임의의 인자 목록.   (line    6)
* *?;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line   80)
* **;function definition:                함수 정의.          (line   89)
* **;glob 스타일 와일드카드:             glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   48)
* **;in dictionary displays:             딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line   23)
* **;in function calls:                  호출.               (line   93)
* **;함수 호출에서:                      인자 목록 언 패킹.  (line   18)
* **=;증분 대입:                         증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* *+;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line   90)
* *=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* / (slash);function definition:         함수 정의.          (line   89)
* / (slash);in pathnames:                기타 시스템 정보.   (line  109)
* / (slash);in pathnames <1>:            기타 시스템 정보.   (line  117)
* //=;증분 대입:                         증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* /=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* \ (backslash);in pathnames (Windows):  기타 시스템 정보.   (line  109)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions:  정규식 문법.        (line  148)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <1>: 정규식 문법.     (line  181)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <2>: 정규식 문법.     (line  448)
* \ (역 슬래시);이스케이프 시퀀스:       문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \ (역 슬래시);이스케이프 시퀀스 <1>:   에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* \\;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \\;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \A;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  459)
* \a;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \a;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \b;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  463)
* \B;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  481)
* \b;in regular expressions <1>:         정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \b;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \d;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  497)
* \D;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  512)
* \f;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \f;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \g;in regular expressions:             Functions.          (line  206)
* \n;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \N;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \n;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \N;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \N;이스케이프 시퀀스 <1>:              에러 처리기.        (line   53)
* \r;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \r;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \s;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  519)
* \S;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  535)
* \t;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \t;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \u;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \U;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \u;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \U;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \u;이스케이프 시퀀스 <1>:              에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* \U;이스케이프 시퀀스 <1>:              에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* \v;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \v;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \w;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  542)
* \W;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  559)
* \x;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  574)
* \x;이스케이프 시퀀스:                  문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* \x;이스케이프 시퀀스 <1>:              에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* \Z;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line  570)
* &=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (hash);in printf-style formatting:   printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   64)
* # (hash);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   58)
* # (hash);in regular expressions:       Flags.              (line  130)
* # (해시);doctest 에서:                 옵션 플래그.        (line  152)
* # (해시);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   89)
* # (해시);소스 인코딩 선언:             인코딩 선언.        (line    6)
* # (해시);주석:                         파이썬의 간략한 소개.
                                                             (line   13)
* # (해시);주석 <1>:                     주석.               (line    6)
* # (해시);주석 <2>:                     site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   46)
* % (percent);datetime format:           timezone 객체.      (line   66)
* % (percent);printf-style formatting:   printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* % (percent);printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* % (퍼센트);구성 파일의 보간:           값의 보간.          (line   10)
* % (퍼센트);날짜/시간 형식:             함수<4>.            (line  311)
* % (퍼센트);날짜/시간 형식 <1>:         함수<4>.            (line  463)
* % (퍼센트);환경 변수 확장 (윈도우):    os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  147)
* % (퍼센트);환경 변수 확장 (윈도우) <1>: 함수<12>.          (line  217)
* %=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* %APPDATA%:                             Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line   12)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions:      정규식 문법.        (line   48)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions <1>:  정규식 문법.        (line  191)
* ^ (캐럿);curses 모듈:                  curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  224)
* ^ (캐럿);마커:                         예외는 어떻게 됩니까?.
                                                             (line   87)
* ^ (캐럿);마커 <1>:                     모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   36)
* ^ (캐럿);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   41)
* ^=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* + (plus);binary operator:              이항 산술 연산.     (line   71)
* + (plus);binary operator <1>:          숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* + (plus);in argparse module:           nargs.              (line   68)
* + (plus);in printf-style formatting:   printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   64)
* + (plus);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   58)
* + (plus);in regular expressions:       정규식 문법.        (line   69)
* + (plus);unary operator:               일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   14)
* + (plus);unary operator <1>:           숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* + (플러스);doctest 에서:               옵션 플래그.        (line  152)
* + (플러스);문자열 포매팅에서:          포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   68)
* +?;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line   80)
* ++;in regular expressions:             정규식 문법.        (line   90)
* +=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* < (작다);struct 포맷 문자열:           바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
                                                             (line   12)
* < (작다);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   41)
* <<=;증분 대입:                         증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* <BLANKLINE>:                           옵션 플래그.        (line   25)
* = (equals);class definition:           메타 클래스.        (line    6)
* = (equals);for help in debugging using string literals: 문자열 메서드.
                                                             (line  732)
* = (equals);function definition:        함수 정의.          (line   65)
* = (equals);in function calls:          슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   36)
* = (등호);struct 포맷 문자열:           바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
                                                             (line   12)
* = (등호);대입문:                       대입문.             (line    6)
* = (등호);문자열 리터럴을 사용한 디버깅을 도울 목적으로: 문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* = (등호);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   41)
* > (크다);struct 포맷 문자열:           바이트 순서 크기 및 정렬.
                                                             (line   12)
* > (크다);문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   41)
* >>=;증분 대입:                         증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* >>>:                                   용어집.             (line    6)
* >>>;interpreter prompt:                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* >>>;인터프리터 프롬프트:               독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?.
                                                             (line   25)
* | (vertical bar);in regular expressions: 정규식 문법.      (line  214)
* |=;증분 대입:                          증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ~ (물결표);홈 디렉터리 확장:           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  125)
* $ (dollar);in regular expressions:     정규식 문법.        (line   53)
* $ (달러);구성 파일의 보간:             값의 보간.          (line   39)
* $ (달러);템플릿 문자열에서:            템플릿 문자열.      (line   12)
* $ (달러);환경 변수 확장:               os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  147)
* 0b;정수 리터럴:                        숫자 리터럴.        (line   12)
* 0o;정수 리터럴:                        숫자 리터럴.        (line   12)
* 0x;정수 리터럴:                        숫자 리터럴.        (line   12)
* 16진수 리터럴:                         숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 2038년:                                time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   25)
* 2자리 숫자 연도:                       time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   29)
* 8진수 리터럴:                          숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* A (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line   16)
* A_ALTCHARSET (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line   66)
* A_ATTRIBUTES (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  126)
* A_BLINK (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line   69)
* A_BOLD (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line   72)
* A_CHARTEXT (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  129)
* A_COLOR (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  132)
* A_DIM (curses 모듈):                   상수<6>.            (line   75)
* A_HORIZONTAL (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line   99)
* A_INVIS (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line   78)
* A_ITALIC (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line   81)
* A_LEFT (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  102)
* A_LOW (curses 모듈):                   상수<6>.            (line  105)
* A_NORMAL (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line   84)
* A_PROTECT (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line   87)
* A_REVERSE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line   90)
* A_RIGHT (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  108)
* A_STANDOUT (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line   93)
* A_TOP (curses 모듈):                   상수<6>.            (line  111)
* A_UNDERLINE (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line   96)
* A_VERTICAL (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  114)
* a2b_base64() (binascii 모듈):          binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   39)
* a2b_hex() (binascii 모듈):             binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line  138)
* a2b_qp() (binascii 모듈):              binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   68)
* a2b_uu() (binascii 모듈):              binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   24)
* a85decode() (base64 모듈):             Base85 Encodings.   (line   50)
* a85encode() (base64 모듈):             Base85 Encodings.   (line   28)
* ABC (abc 클래스):                      abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   26)
* ABCMeta (abc 클래스):                  abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   51)
* ABDAY_1 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* ABDAY_2 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* ABDAY_3 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* ABDAY_4 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* ABDAY_5 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* ABDAY_6 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* ABDAY_7 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  207)
* abiflags (sys 모듈):                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* ABMON_1 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_10 (locale 모듈):                locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_11 (locale 모듈):                locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_12 (locale 모듈):                locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_2 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_3 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_4 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_5 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_6 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_7 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_8 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* ABMON_9 (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  232)
* abort (C 함수):                        프로세스 제어.      (line    7)
* ABORT (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):       tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  146)
* abort_clients() (asyncio.Server 메서드): 서버 객체.        (line   55)
* abort() (asyncio.Barrier 메서드):      Barrier.            (line   87)
* abort() (asyncio.DatagramTransport 메서드): 데이터 그램 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   20)
* abort() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line    6)
* abort() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):           FTP 객체.           (line  146)
* abort() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line   15)
* abort() (threading.Barrier 메서드):    Barrier objects.    (line   75)
* ABORTRETRYIGNORE (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  161)
* ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.
                                                             (line   64)
* above() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):   Panel 객체.         (line   12)
* abs() (decimal.Context 메서드):        Context 객체.       (line  251)
* abs() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   70)
* absolute_import (__future__ 모듈):     Module Contents.    (line   26)
* absolute() (pathlib.Path 메서드):      Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   38)
* AbsoluteLinkError:                     tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  244)
* AbsolutePathError:                     tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  230)
* abspath() (os.path 모듈):              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line   46)
* abstract base class (추상 베이스 클래스): 용어집.          (line   20)
* AbstractAsyncContextManager (contextlib 클래스): 유틸리티. (line   18)
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  320)
* AbstractChildWatcher (asyncio 클래스): 프로세스 감시자.    (line   42)
* abstractclassmethod() (abc 모듈):      abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  230)
* AbstractContextManager (contextlib 클래스): 유틸리티.      (line    8)
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  354)
* AbstractEventLoop (asyncio 클래스):    이벤트 루프 구현.   (line   54)
* AbstractEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 클래스): 정책 객체.       (line    8)
* abstractmethod() (abc 모듈):           abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  157)
* abstractproperty() (abc 모듈):         abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  273)
* AbstractSet (typing 클래스):           Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* abstractstaticmethod() (abc 모듈):     abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  251)
* accept() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener 메서드): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   83)
* accept() (socket.socket 메서드):       소켓 객체.          (line   14)
* access() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line   45)
* accumulate() (itertools 모듈):         Itertool Functions. (line   10)
* ACK (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   37)
* aclose() (agen 메서드):                비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   58)
* aclose() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.     (line  622)
* aclosing() (contextlib 모듈):          유틸리티.           (line  179)
* acos() (cmath 모듈):                   삼각 함수<2>.       (line    6)
* acos() (math 모듈):                    삼각 함수.          (line    6)
* acosh() (cmath 모듈):                  쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (math 모듈):                   쌍곡선 함수.        (line    9)
* acquire() (_thread.lock 메서드):       _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line  136)
* acquire() (asyncio.Condition 메서드):  Condition.          (line   43)
* acquire() (asyncio.Lock 메서드):       Lock.               (line   35)
* acquire() (asyncio.Semaphore 메서드):  Semaphore.          (line   42)
* acquire() (logging.Handler 메서드):    Handler 객체.       (line   26)
* acquire() (multiprocessing.Lock 메서드): 동기화 프리미티브.
                                                             (line   62)
* acquire() (multiprocessing.RLock 메서드): 동기화 프리미티브.
                                                             (line  110)
* acquire() (threading.Condition 메서드): Condition objects. (line   79)
* acquire() (threading.Lock 메서드):     Lock objects.       (line   40)
* acquire() (threading.RLock 메서드):    RLock objects.      (line   42)
* acquire() (threading.Semaphore 메서드): Semaphore objects. (line   33)
* ACS_BBSS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  469)
* ACS_BLOCK (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  472)
* ACS_BOARD (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  475)
* ACS_BSBS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  478)
* ACS_BSSB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  481)
* ACS_BSSS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  484)
* ACS_BTEE (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  487)
* ACS_BULLET (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  490)
* ACS_CKBOARD (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  493)
* ACS_DARROW (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  496)
* ACS_DEGREE (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  499)
* ACS_DIAMOND (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  502)
* ACS_GEQUAL (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  505)
* ACS_HLINE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  508)
* ACS_LANTERN (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  511)
* ACS_LARROW (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  514)
* ACS_LEQUAL (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  517)
* ACS_LLCORNER (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  520)
* ACS_LRCORNER (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  523)
* ACS_LTEE (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  526)
* ACS_NEQUAL (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  529)
* ACS_PI (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  532)
* ACS_PLMINUS (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  535)
* ACS_PLUS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  538)
* ACS_RARROW (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  541)
* ACS_RTEE (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  544)
* ACS_S1 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  547)
* ACS_S3 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  550)
* ACS_S7 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  553)
* ACS_S9 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  556)
* ACS_SBBS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  559)
* ACS_SBSB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  562)
* ACS_SBSS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  565)
* ACS_SSBB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  568)
* ACS_SSBS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  571)
* ACS_SSSB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  574)
* ACS_SSSS (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  577)
* ACS_STERLING (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  581)
* ACS_TTEE (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  584)
* ACS_UARROW (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  587)
* ACS_ULCORNER (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  590)
* ACS_URCORNER (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  593)
* ACS_VLINE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  596)
* Action (argparse 클래스):              Action 클래스.      (line   11)
* action (optparse.Option의 속성):       옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   19)
* ACTIONS (optparse.Option의 속성):      새로운 액션 추가하기.
                                                             (line   28)
* activate_stack_trampoline() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1683)
* active_children() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.     (line    6)
* active_count() (threading 모듈):       Reference<2>.       (line    8)
* actual() (tkinter.font.Font 메서드):   tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   46)
* Add (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* add_alias() (email.charset 모듈):      email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  184)
* add_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  591)
* add_argument_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 인자 그룹.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_argument() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): add_argument 메서드.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  602)
* add_cgi_vars() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  124)
* add_charset() (email.charset 모듈):    email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  156)
* add_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 메서드): 프로세스 감시자.
                                                             (line   44)
* add_codec() (email.charset 모듈):      email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  193)
* add_cookie_header() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   11)
* add_dll_directory() (os 모듈):         프로세스 관리.      (line   23)
* add_done_callback() (asyncio.Future 메서드): Future 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_done_callback() (asyncio.Task 메서드): Task 객체.      (line   97)
* add_done_callback() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.
                                                             (line   64)
* add_fallback() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   27)
* add_flag() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):   Maildir 객체.       (line  124)
* add_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage 메서드): mboxMessage 객체. (line   72)
* add_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 메서드): MMDFMessage 객체. (line   72)
* add_folder() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드): Maildir 객체.       (line   70)
* add_folder() (mailbox.MH 메서드):      MH 객체.            (line   45)
* add_get_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 메서드): email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
                                                             (line   70)
* add_handler() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector 메서드): OpenerDirector 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* add_header() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  237)
* add_header() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  343)
* add_header() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_header() (wsgiref.headers.Headers 메서드): wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
                                                             (line   54)
* add_history() (readline 모듈):         히스토리 목록.      (line   38)
* add_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* add_mutually_exclusive_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 상호 배제.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_note() (BaseException 메서드):     베이스 클래스.      (line   48)
* add_option() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 정의하기.
                                                             (line   13)
* add_parent() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 메서드): BaseHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr 메서드): HTTPPasswordMgr 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 메서드): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* add_reader() (asyncio.loop 메서드):    파일 기술자 관찰하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_related() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  578)
* add_section() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  113)
* add_section() (configparser.RawConfigParser 메서드): RawConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line   34)
* add_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage 메서드): MHMessage 객체. (line   39)
* add_set_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 메서드): email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 유닉스 시그널. (line    6)
* add_subparsers() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 부속 명령.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_type() (mimetypes 모듈):           mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  112)
* add_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체.   (line  100)
* add_unredirected_header() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   86)
* add_writer() (asyncio.loop 메서드):    파일 기술자 관찰하기.
                                                             (line   19)
* add() (decimal.Context 메서드):        Context 객체.       (line  255)
* add() (frozenset 메서드):              집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  192)
* add() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 메서드): graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line   75)
* add() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):        Mailbox 객체.       (line   52)
* add() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):        Maildir 객체.       (line  188)
* add() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   75)
* add() (pstats.Stats 메서드):           Stats 클래스.       (line   43)
* add() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):        TarFile 객체.       (line  259)
* add() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드):   ttk Notebook.       (line    8)
* addAsyncCleanup() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  861)
* addaudithook() (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* addch() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line    9)
* addClassCleanup() (unittest.TestCase의 클래스 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  784)
* addCleanup() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.    (line  745)
* addcomponent() (turtle.Shape 메서드):  공개 클래스.        (line   65)
* addDuration() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  423)
* addError() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  356)
* addExpectedFailure() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  390)
* addFailure() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  366)
* addfile() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):    TarFile 객체.       (line  276)
* addFilter() (logging.Handler 메서드):  Handler 객체.       (line   52)
* addFilter() (logging.Logger 메서드):   Logger 객체.        (line  298)
* addHandler() (logging.Logger 메서드):  Logger 객체.        (line  315)
* addinfourl (urllib.response 클래스):   urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   12)
* addition:                              이항 산술 연산.     (line   71)
* addLevelName() (logging 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수.     (line  116)
* addModuleCleanup() (unittest 모듈):    setUpModule 과 tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   21)
* addnstr() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line   21)
* AddPackagePath() (modulefinder 모듈):  modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line   15)
* addr_spec (email.headerregistry.Address의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  408)
* Address (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  373)
* address (email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  202)
* address (multiprocessing.connection.Listener의 속성): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   98)
* address (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager의 속성): 관리자.
                                                             (line  135)
* address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  145)
* address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  321)
* address_family (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* address_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  309)
* addresses (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  179)
* addresses (email.headerregistry.Group의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  443)
* AddressHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  164)
* addressof() (ctypes 모듈):             유틸리티 함수.      (line    6)
* AddressValueError:                     맞춤 예외.          (line    9)
* addshape() (turtle 모듈):              설정과 특수 메서드. (line   69)
* addsitedir() (site 모듈):              모듈 내용<8>.       (line   48)
* addSkip() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  382)
* addstr() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line   28)
* addSubTest() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  407)
* addSuccess() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  376)
* addTest() (unittest.TestSuite 메서드): 테스트 분류.        (line   25)
* addTests() (unittest.TestSuite 메서드): 테스트 분류.       (line   30)
* addTypeEqualityFunc() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  568)
* addUnexpectedSuccess() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  399)
* adjust_int_max_str_digits() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  720)
* adjusted() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):   Decimal 객체.       (line  110)
* adler32() (zlib 모듈):                 zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line   26)
* AF_ALG (socket 모듈):                  상수<8>.            (line  264)
* AF_CAN (socket 모듈):                  상수<8>.            (line  127)
* AF_DIVERT (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  203)
* AF_HYPERV (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  345)
* AF_INET (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line   11)
* AF_INET6 (socket 모듈):                상수<8>.            (line   11)
* AF_LINK (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line  288)
* AF_PACKET (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  213)
* AF_QIPCRTR (socket 모듈):              상수<8>.            (line  315)
* AF_RDS (socket 모듈):                  상수<8>.            (line  235)
* AF_UNIX (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line   11)
* AF_UNSPEC (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line   21)
* AF_VSOCK (socket 모듈):                상수<8>.            (line  275)
* alarm() (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  263)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (ssl 모듈): 상수<9>.   (line  496)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (ssl 모듈): 상수<9>.      (line  496)
* AlertDescription (ssl 클래스):         상수<9>.            (line  509)
* algorithm (sys.hash_info의 속성):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1019)
* algorithms_available (hashlib 모듈):   어트리뷰트.         (line   17)
* algorithms_guaranteed (hashlib 모듈):  어트리뷰트.         (line    8)
* alias (ast 클래스):                    임포트.             (line   37)
* alias (pdb command):                   디버거 명령들.      (line  354)
* alignment() (ctypes 모듈):             유틸리티 함수.      (line   14)
* alive (weakref.finalize의 속성):       weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  284)
* ALL_COMPLETED (asyncio 모듈):          대기 프리미티브.    (line   45)
* ALL_COMPLETED (concurrent.futures 모듈): 모듈 함수.        (line   38)
* all_errors (ftplib 모듈):              모듈 변수.          (line   25)
* all_features (xml.sax.handler 모듈):   xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   92)
* all_frames (tracemalloc.Filter의 속성): Filter.            (line   57)
* all_properties (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  124)
* all_suffixes() (importlib.machinery 모듈): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   53)
* all_tasks() (asyncio 모듈):            인트로스펙션.       (line   16)
* allocate_lock() (_thread 모듈):        _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   78)
* allocfunc (C type):                    슬롯 형 typedef.    (line    6)
* ALLOW_MISSING (os.path 모듈):          os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  387)
* allow_reuse_address (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   91)
* allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 메서드): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* ALT_DIGITS (locale 모듈):              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  306)
* alt() (curses.ascii 모듈):             curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  217)
* altsep (os 모듈):                      기타 시스템 정보.   (line  117)
* altzone (time 모듈):                   시간대 상수.        (line    6)
* ALWAYS_EQ (test.support 모듈):         test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  175)
* ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option의 속성): 새로운 액션 추가하기.
                                                             (line   40)
* AmbiguousOptionError:                  예외<7>.            (line   25)
* AMPER (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  208)
* AMPEREQUAL (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  274)
* Anchor (importlib.resources 클래스):   importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   46)
* anchor (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):      메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line   65)
* And (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   86)
* and_() (operator 모듈):                operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   80)
* android_ver() (platform 모듈):         Android platform.   (line    6)
* AnnAssign (ast 클래스):                문장.               (line   40)
* Annotated (typing 모듈):               특수 형태.          (line  287)
* annotation (inspect.Parameter의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  214)
* ANNOTATION (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   26)
* annotation (어노테이션):               용어집.             (line   33)
* annotation;type annotation; type hint: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union.
                                                             (line    6)
* annotations (__future__ 모듈):         Module Contents.    (line   46)
* anonymous;function:                    람다 Lambdas.       (line    6)
* answer_challenge() (multiprocessing.connection 모듈): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   25)
* anticipate_failure() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  445)
* Any (typing 모듈):                     특수형.             (line    9)
* ANY (unittest.mock 모듈):              ANY.                (line    6)
* ANY_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags. (line   29)
* AnyStr (typing 모듈):                  특수형.             (line   21)
* api_version (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1941)
* apilevel (sqlite3 모듈):               Module constants.   (line   65)
* apop() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   39)
* APPDATA:                               PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* append_history_file() (readline 모듈): 히스토리 파일.      (line   20)
* append() (array.array 메서드):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  117)
* append() (collections.deque 메서드):   deque 객체.         (line   31)
* append() (email.header.Header 메서드): email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   87)
* append() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line   29)
* append() (sequence method):            가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* append() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   86)
* appendChild() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):   Node 객체.          (line  109)
* appendleft() (collections.deque 메서드): deque 객체.       (line   35)
* AppleFrameworkLoader (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  425)
* application_uri() (wsgiref.util 모듈): wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   32)
* apply_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line   70)
* apply_defaults() (inspect.BoundArguments 메서드): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  351)
* apply() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.   (line   62)
* APRIL (calendar 모듈):                 calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* architecture() (platform 모듈):        Cross platform.     (line    6)
* archive (zipimport.zipimporter의 속성): zipimporter 객체.  (line   93)
* AREGTYPE (tarfile 모듈):               tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  269)
* aRepr (reprlib 모듈):                  reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
                                                             (line   42)
* arg (ast 클래스):                      함수와 클래스 정의. (line   64)
* args (BaseException의 속성):           베이스 클래스.      (line   16)
* args (functools.partial의 속성):       partial 객체.       (line   14)
* args (inspect.BoundArguments의 속성):  Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  336)
* args (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line  245)
* args (subprocess.CompletedProcess의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line   97)
* args (subprocess.Popen의 속성):        Popen 객체.         (line  101)
* args (typing.ParamSpec의 속성):        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  407)
* args_from_interpreter_flags() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  316)
* argtypes (ctypes._CFuncPtr의 속성):    외부 함수.          (line   46)
* argument (인자):                       용어집.             (line   47)
* argument;call semantics:               슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   37)
* argument;difference from parameter:    한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line   17)
* argument;function definition:          함수 정의.          (line   65)
* ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (argparse 클래스): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* ArgumentError:                         외부 함수.          (line   90)
* ArgumentError <1>:                     Exceptions<3>.      (line    6)
* ArgumentParser (argparse 클래스):      ArgumentParser 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* arguments (ast 클래스):                함수와 클래스 정의. (line   47)
* arguments (inspect.BoundArguments의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  317)
* ArgumentTypeError:                     Exceptions<3>.      (line   14)
* argv (in module sys):                  프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  210)
* argv (in module sys) <1>:              PyConfig.           (line  127)
* argv (sys 모듈):                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* arithmetic:                            숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* arithmetic;conversion:                 산술 변환.          (line    6)
* ArithmeticError:                       베이스 클래스.      (line   69)
* array (array 클래스):                  array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line   86)
* Array (ctypes 클래스):                 배열과 포인터.      (line    6)
* ARRAY() (ctypes 모듈):                 배열과 포인터.      (line   31)
* Array() (multiprocessing 모듈):        공유 ctypes 객체.   (line   41)
* Array() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  211)
* Array() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈): multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line   48)
* arraysize (sqlite3.Cursor의 속성):     Cursor objects.     (line  167)
* AS pattern, OR pattern, capture pattern, wildcard pattern: Patterns.
                                                             (line    6)
* as_bytes() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   95)
* as_bytes() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line   96)
* as_completed() (asyncio 모듈):         대기 프리미티브.    (line   58)
* as_completed() (concurrent.futures 모듈): 모듈 함수.       (line   41)
* as_file() (importlib.resources 모듈):  importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   74)
* as_integer_ratio() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체. (line  117)
* as_integer_ratio() (float 메서드):     실수에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line    9)
* as_integer_ratio() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  119)
* as_integer_ratio() (int 메서드):       정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line  161)
* as_posix() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드):  메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  171)
* as_string() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   54)
* as_string() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line   54)
* as_tuple() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):   Decimal 객체.       (line  130)
* as_uri() (pathlib.Path 메서드):        Parsing and generating URIs.
                                                             (line   42)
* as;except clause:                      except clause.      (line   30)
* as;match statement:                    The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* as;with statement:                     with 문.            (line    6)
* as;임포트 문:                          임포트 import 문.   (line   33)
* ASCII:                                 표기법.             (line   29)
* ASCII <1>:                             리터럴.             (line    8)
* ASCII (re 모듈):                       Flags.              (line   16)
* ascii_letters (string 모듈):           문자열 상수.        (line    8)
* ascii_lowercase (string 모듈):         문자열 상수.        (line   14)
* ascii_uppercase (string 모듈):         문자열 상수.        (line   19)
* ascii() (curses.ascii 모듈):           curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  208)
* asctime() (time 모듈):                 함수<4>.            (line    6)
* asdict() (dataclasses 모듈):           Module contents.    (line  327)
* asend() (agen 메서드):                 비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   27)
* asin() (cmath 모듈):                   삼각 함수<2>.       (line   12)
* asin() (math 모듈):                    삼각 함수.          (line   11)
* asinh() (cmath 모듈):                  쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (math 모듈):                   쌍곡선 함수.        (line   13)
* askcolor() (tkinter.colorchooser 모듈): tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   17)
* askdirectory() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   50)
* askfloat() (tkinter.simpledialog 모듈): tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   13)
* askinteger() (tkinter.simpledialog 모듈): tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   13)
* askokcancel() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  118)
* askopenfile() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   29)
* askopenfilename() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   40)
* askopenfilenames() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   40)
* askopenfiles() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   29)
* askquestion() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  112)
* askretrycancel() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  125)
* asksaveasfile() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   35)
* asksaveasfilename() (tkinter.filedialog 모듈): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   46)
* askstring() (tkinter.simpledialog 모듈): tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   13)
* askyesno() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):  tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  132)
* askyesnocancel() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  138)
* Assert (ast 클래스):                   문장.               (line  124)
* assert_any_await() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  818)
* assert_any_call() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  142)
* assert_awaited_once_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  801)
* assert_awaited_once() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  768)
* assert_awaited_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  784)
* assert_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  748)
* assert_called_once_with() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  127)
* assert_called_once() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line   99)
* assert_called_with() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  117)
* assert_called() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.  (line   88)
* assert_has_awaits() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  835)
* assert_has_calls() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  157)
* assert_never() (typing 모듈):          함수와 데코레이터.  (line   43)
* assert_not_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  862)
* assert_not_called() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  178)
* assert_python_failure() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   54)
* assert_python_ok() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   38)
* assert_type() (typing 모듈):           함수와 데코레이터.  (line   14)
* assertAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  495)
* assertCountEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  549)
* assertDictEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  654)
* assertEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.   (line  171)
* assertFalse() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.   (line  195)
* assertGreater() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스. (line  518)
* assertGreaterEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  518)
* assertIn() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.      (line  221)
* assertInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase 메서드): test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
                                                             (line   23)
* AssertionError:                        구체적인 예외.      (line    8)
* assertIs() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.      (line  207)
* assertIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  228)
* assertIsNone() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.  (line  214)
* assertIsNot() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.   (line  207)
* assertIsNotNone() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  214)
* assertLess() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.    (line  518)
* assertLessEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  518)
* assertListEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  631)
* assertLogs() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.    (line  398)
* assertMultiLineEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  608)
* assertNoLogs() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.  (line  441)
* assertNotAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  495)
* assertNotEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  190)
* assertNotIn() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.   (line  221)
* assertNotInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase 메서드): test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
                                                             (line   29)
* assertNotIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  228)
* assertNotRegex() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  532)
* assertRaises() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.  (line  269)
* assertRaisesRegex() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  308)
* assertRegex() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.   (line  532)
* assertSequenceEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  617)
* assertSetEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  642)
* assertTrue() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.    (line  195)
* assertTupleEqual() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  631)
* assertWarns() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.   (line  335)
* assertWarnsRegex() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  374)
* Assign (ast 클래스):                   문장.               (line    6)
* assignment expression:                 논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   35)
* assignment;expression:                 논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* assignment;statement:                  가변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* AST (ast 클래스):                      노드 클래스.        (line    6)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -a:                   명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   29)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -h:                   명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   15)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -help:                명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   15)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -i:                   명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   33)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -include-attributes:  명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   29)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -indent:              명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   33)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -m:                   명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   19)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -mode:                명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   19)
* ast 명령줄 옵션; -no-type-comments:    명령 줄 사용법<3>.  (line   25)
* astimezone() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.    (line  466)
* astuple() (dataclasses 모듈):          Module contents.    (line  359)
* async for;in comprehensions:           리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
                                                             (line   14)
* AsyncContextDecorator (contextlib 클래스): 유틸리티.       (line  448)
* AsyncContextManager (typing 클래스):   Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   24)
* asynccontextmanager() (contextlib 모듈): 유틸리티.         (line   88)
* AsyncExitStack (contextlib 클래스):    유틸리티.           (line  594)
* AsyncFor (ast 클래스):                 Async와 await.      (line   34)
* AsyncFunctionDef (ast 클래스):         Async와 await.      (line    6)
* AsyncGenerator (collections.abc 클래스): Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  158)
* AsyncGenerator (typing 클래스):        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   21)
* AsyncGeneratorType (types 모듈):       표준 인터프리터 형. (line   46)
* asynchronous context manager (비동기 컨텍스트 관리자): 용어집.
                                                             (line   76)
* asynchronous generator (비동기 제너레이터): 용어집.        (line   82)
* asynchronous generator iterator (비동기 제너레이터 이터레이터): 용어집.
                                                             (line   96)
* asynchronous generator;asynchronous iterator: 비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* asynchronous generator;function:       비동기 제너레이터 함수 Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* asynchronous iterable (비동기 이터러블): 용어집.           (line  111)
* asynchronous iterator (비동기 이터레이터): 용어집.         (line  117)
* asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (내장 변수): 상수<7>.           (line   22)
* asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (내장 변수):   상수<7>.            (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.Process (내장 클래스): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line   10)
* asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (내장 변수): 상수<7>.            (line   17)
* AsyncIterable (collections.abc 클래스): Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  144)
* AsyncIterable (typing 클래스):         Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   38)
* AsyncIterator (collections.abc 클래스): Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  151)
* AsyncIterator (typing 클래스):         Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   48)
* AsyncMock (unittest.mock 클래스):      Mock 클래스.        (line  681)
* AsyncResult (multiprocessing.pool 클래스): 프로세스 풀.    (line  183)
* asyncSetUp() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  839)
* asyncTearDown() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  848)
* AsyncWith (ast 클래스):                Async와 await.      (line   34)
* AT (token 모듈):                       token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  298)
* at_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader.      (line   82)
* atan() (cmath 모듈):                   삼각 함수<2>.       (line   17)
* atan() (math 모듈):                    삼각 함수.          (line   16)
* atan2() (math 모듈):                   삼각 함수.          (line   21)
* atanh() (cmath 모듈):                  쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
                                                             (line   17)
* atanh() (math 모듈):                   쌍곡선 함수.        (line   17)
* ATEQUAL (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  301)
* atexit (weakref.finalize의 속성):      weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  289)
* athrow() (agen 메서드):                비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   42)
* atof() (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  464)
* atoi() (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  470)
* atom:                                  아톰 Atoms.         (line    6)
* attach_loop() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 메서드): 프로세스 감시자.
                                                             (line   61)
* attach_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.    (line  249)
* attach() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  154)
* attempted (doctest.TestResults의 속성): TestResults 객체.  (line   12)
* AttlistDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  231)
* attrgetter() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  227)
* attrib (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element의 속성): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* attribute:                             표준형 계층.        (line   12)
* Attribute (ast 클래스):                표현식<2>.          (line  167)
* attribute (어트리뷰트):                용어집.             (line  126)
* attribute;reference:                   어트리뷰트 참조.    (line    6)
* AttributeError:                        구체적인 예외.      (line   12)
* attributes (xml.dom.Node의 속성):      Node 객체.          (line   24)
* AttributesImpl (xml.sax.xmlreader 클래스): xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   62)
* AttributesNSImpl (xml.sax.xmlreader 클래스): xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   72)
* attroff() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line   48)
* attron() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line   53)
* attrset() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line   58)
* audit() (sys 모듈):                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   85)
* auditing:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   87)
* AugAssign (ast 클래스):                문장.               (line   94)
* AUGUST (calendar 모듈):                calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* auth() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 메서드):        FTP_TLS 객체.       (line   86)
* auth() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):          SMTP 객체.          (line  132)
* authenticate() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드): IMAP4 객체.         (line   33)
* AuthenticationError:                   Process와 예외.     (line  265)
* authenticators() (netrc.netrc 메서드): netrc 객체.         (line    8)
* authkey (multiprocessing.Process의 속성): Process와 예외.  (line  170)
* auto (enum 클래스):                    Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line    6)
* autocommit (sqlite3.Connection의 속성): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  730)
* autorange() (timeit.Timer 메서드):     파이썬 인터페이스.  (line   82)
* available_timezones() (zoneinfo 모듈): 함수<2>.            (line    6)
* avoids_symlink_attacks (shutil.rmtree의 속성): 디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  307)
* Await (ast 클래스):                    Async와 await.      (line   14)
* await_args (unittest.mock.AsyncMock의 속성): Mock 클래스.  (line  890)
* await_args_list (unittest.mock.AsyncMock의 속성): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  908)
* await_count (unittest.mock.AsyncMock의 속성): Mock 클래스. (line  875)
* await;in comprehensions:               리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
                                                             (line   40)
* Awaitable (collections.abc 클래스):    Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  104)
* Awaitable (typing 클래스):             Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   58)
* awaitable (어웨이터블):                용어집.             (line  137)
* b';바이트열 리터럴:                    문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   44)
* b";바이트열 리터럴:                    문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   44)
* b16decode() (base64 모듈):             RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  118)
* b16encode() (base64 모듈):             RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  113)
* b2a_base64() (binascii 모듈):          binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   60)
* b2a_hex() (binascii 모듈):             binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line  110)
* b2a_qp() (binascii 모듈):              binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   75)
* b2a_uu() (binascii 모듈):              binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   31)
* b32decode() (base64 모듈):             RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   76)
* b32encode() (base64 모듈):             RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   71)
* b32hexdecode() (base64 모듈):          RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  101)
* b32hexencode() (base64 모듈):          RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   94)
* b64decode() (base64 모듈):             RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   24)
* b64encode() (base64 모듈):             RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   10)
* b85decode() (base64 모듈):             Base85 Encodings.   (line   80)
* b85encode() (base64 모듈):             Base85 Encodings.   (line   69)
* Babyl (mailbox 클래스):                Babyl 객체.         (line    6)
* BabylMessage (mailbox 클래스):         BabylMessage 객체.  (line    6)
* back() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line   24)
* backend (readline 모듈):               readline — GNU readline 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   44)
* backslashreplace_errors() (codecs 모듈): 에러 처리기.      (line  154)
* backslashreplace;에러 처리기의 이름:   에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* backup() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드):  Connection objects. (line  528)
* backward() (turtle 모듈):              거북이 움직임.      (line   24)
* BadGzipFile:                           gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line   60)
* BadOptionError:                        예외<7>.            (line   21)
* BadStatusLine:                         http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  172)
* BadZipFile:                            zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   23)
* BadZipfile:                            zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   29)
* Barrier (asyncio 클래스):              Barrier.            (line    6)
* Barrier (multiprocessing 클래스):      동기화 프리미티브.  (line   13)
* Barrier (threading 클래스):            Barrier objects.    (line   34)
* Barrier() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  158)
* base_exec_prefix (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  113)
* base_prefix (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  125)
* base64;인코딩:                         base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line    8)
* BaseCGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers 클래스): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   50)
* BaseCookie (http.cookies 클래스):      http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   36)
* BaseException:                         베이스 클래스.      (line    8)
* BaseExceptionGroup:                    예외 그룹.          (line   14)
* BaseHandler (urllib.request 클래스):   urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  264)
* BaseHandler (wsgiref.handlers 클래스): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   82)
* BaseHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   35)
* BaseHTTPRequestHandler (http.server 클래스): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   50)
* BaseManager (multiprocessing.managers 클래스): 관리자.     (line   23)
* basename() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line   54)
* BaseProtocol (asyncio 클래스):         베이스 프로토콜.    (line    6)
* BaseProxy (multiprocessing.managers 클래스): 프락시 객체.  (line   86)
* BaseRequestHandler (socketserver 클래스): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* BaseRotatingHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   12)
* BaseSelector (selectors 클래스):       클래스<3>.          (line   52)
* BaseServer (socketserver 클래스):      서버 객체<2>.       (line    6)
* BaseTransport (asyncio 클래스):        트랜스포트 계층 구조.
                                                             (line    6)
* basicConfig() (logging 모듈):          모듈 수준 함수.     (line  185)
* BasicContext (decimal 모듈):           Context 객체.       (line   63)
* BasicInterpolation (configparser 클래스): 값의 보간.       (line   10)
* batched() (itertools 모듈):            Itertool Functions. (line   70)
* baudrate() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line   18)
* bbox() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):  ttk Treeview.       (line    8)
* BDADDR_ANY (socket 모듈):              상수<8>.            (line  299)
* BDADDR_LOCAL (socket 모듈):            상수<8>.            (line  299)
* Bdb (bdb 클래스):                      bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  128)
* BdbQuit:                               bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   15)
* BDFL:                                  용어집.             (line  143)
* beep() (curses 모듈):                  함수<5>.            (line   25)
* Beep() (winsound 모듈):                winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   11)
* BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode):            파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  359)
* BEFORE_WITH (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  509)
* begin_fill() (turtle 모듈):            채우기.             (line   17)
* begin_poly() (turtle 모듈):            특수 Turtle 메서드. (line    6)
* BEL (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   40)
* BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.
                                                             (line   71)
* below() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):   Panel 객체.         (line   16)
* betavariate() (random 모듈):           실수 분포.          (line   29)
* bgcolor() (turtle 모듈):               창 제어.            (line    6)
* bgpic() (turtle 모듈):                 창 제어.            (line   21)
* bidirectional() (unicodedata 모듈):    unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   89)
* bigaddrspacetest() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  555)
* BigEndianStructure (ctypes 클래스):    구조화된 데이터형.  (line   22)
* BigEndianUnion (ctypes 클래스):        구조화된 데이터형.  (line   10)
* bigmemtest() (test.support 모듈):      test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  541)
* Binary (xmlrpc.client 클래스):         Binary 객체.        (line    6)
* binary file (바이너리 파일):           용어집.             (line  148)
* BINARY_OP (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  240)
* BINARY_SLICE (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  276)
* BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  251)
* binary;arithmetic;operation:           이항 산술 연산.     (line    6)
* binary;bitwise;operation:              이항 비트 연산.     (line    6)
* binary;literals:                       숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* binaryfunc (C type):                   슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  117)
* BinaryIO (typing 클래스):              ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind (위젯):                           바인딩과 이벤트.    (line    6)
* bind_partial() (inspect.Signature 메서드): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  122)
* bind_port() (test.support.socket_helper 모듈): test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   35)
* bind_textdomain_codeset() (locale 모듈): 메시지 카탈로그에 액세스.
                                                             (line   16)
* bind_unix_socket() (test.support.socket_helper 모듈): test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   51)
* bind() (inspect.Signature 메서드):     Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  116)
* bind() (socket.socket 메서드):         소켓 객체.          (line   30)
* bindtextdomain() (gettext 모듈):       GNU gettext API.    (line   13)
* bindtextdomain() (locale 모듈):        메시지 카탈로그에 액세스.
                                                             (line   14)
* binomialvariate() (random 모듈):       이산 분포.          (line    8)
* BinOp (ast 클래스):                    표현식<2>.          (line   41)
* bisect_left() (bisect 모듈):           bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   31)
* bisect_right() (bisect 모듈):          bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   55)
* bisect() (bisect 모듈):                bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   55)
* bit_count() (int 메서드):              정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line   35)
* bit_length() (int 메서드):             정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line    9)
* BitAnd (ast 클래스):                   표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* BitOr (ast 클래스):                    표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* bits_per_digit (sys.int_info의 속성):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1102)
* bitwise;and:                           이항 비트 연산.     (line   12)
* bitwise;operations:                    정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* bitwise;or:                            이항 비트 연산.     (line   20)
* bitwise;xor:                           이항 비트 연산.     (line   16)
* BitXor (ast 클래스):                   표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* bk() (turtle 모듈):                    거북이 움직임.      (line   24)
* bkgd() (curses.window 메서드):         창 객체.            (line   63)
* bkgdset() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line   72)
* blake2b, blake2s:                      BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (hashlib 모듈): 상수<5>.           (line   24)
* blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (hashlib 모듈):   상수<5>.            (line   18)
* blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (hashlib 모듈):    상수<5>.            (line   12)
* blake2b.SALT_SIZE (hashlib 모듈):      상수<5>.            (line    6)
* blake2b() (hashlib 모듈):              해시 객체 만들기.   (line    8)
* blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (hashlib 모듈): 상수<5>.           (line   26)
* blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (hashlib 모듈):   상수<5>.            (line   20)
* blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (hashlib 모듈):    상수<5>.            (line   14)
* blake2s.SALT_SIZE (hashlib 모듈):      상수<5>.            (line    8)
* blake2s() (hashlib 모듈):              해시 객체 만들기.   (line   13)
* BLKTYPE (tarfile 모듈):                tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  286)
* Blob (sqlite3 클래스):                 Blob objects.       (line    6)
* blobopen() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* block_on_close (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn의 속성): 서버 생성 노트.
                                                             (line   44)
* block_size (hmac.HMAC의 속성):         hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   92)
* blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 메서드): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   49)
* BlockingIOError:                       OS 예외.            (line    9)
* BlockingIOError <1>:                   고수준 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   65)
* blocksize (http.client.HTTPConnection의 속성): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  147)
* BNF:                                   표기법.             (line    6)
* BNF <1>:                               표현식.             (line    6)
* body_encode() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  128)
* body_encoding (email.charset.Charset의 속성): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   63)
* body_line_iterator() (email.iterators 모듈): email iterators 이터레이터.
                                                             (line   14)
* body() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog 메서드): tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   24)
* BOLD (tkinter.font 모듈):              tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   15)
* BOM (codecs 모듈):                     codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_BE (codecs 모듈):                  codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_LE (codecs 모듈):                  codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF16 (codecs 모듈):               codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF16_BE (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF16_LE (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF32 (codecs 모듈):               codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF32_BE (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF32_LE (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* BOM_UTF8 (codecs 모듈):                codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  255)
* bool (내장 클래스):                    내장 함수.          (line  131)
* BOOLEAN_STATES (configparser.ConfigParser의 속성): 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line  233)
* Boolean;operation:                     논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;operations:                    논리값 검사.        (line    6)
* Boolean;operations <1>:                논리 연산 — and or not.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;type:                          내장 함수.          (line  142)
* Boolean;values:                        Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* BooleanOptionalAction (argparse 클래스): Action 클래스.    (line   64)
* BoolOp (ast 클래스):                   표현식<2>.          (line   69)
* bootstrap() (ensurepip 모듈):          모듈 API.           (line   14)
* border() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line   80)
* borrowed reference (빌린 참조):        용어집.             (line  159)
* bottom_panel() (curses.panel 모듈):    함수<6>.            (line    8)
* bottom() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):  Panel 객체.         (line   20)
* BoundArguments (inspect 클래스):       Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  311)
* BoundaryError:                         email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   37)
* BoundedSemaphore (asyncio 클래스):     BoundedSemaphore.   (line    6)
* BoundedSemaphore (multiprocessing 클래스): 동기화 프리미티브.
                                                             (line   19)
* BoundedSemaphore (threading 클래스):   Semaphore objects.  (line   69)
* BoundedSemaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  165)
* box() (curses.window 메서드):          창 객체.            (line  119)
* bpbynumber (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):    bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  109)
* bpformat() (bdb.Breakpoint 메서드):    bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   54)
* bplist (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):        bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  114)
* bpprint() (bdb.Breakpoint 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   73)
* BRANCH (monitoring event):             Events.             (line    8)
* Break (ast 클래스):                    제어 흐름.          (line   97)
* break (pdb command):                   디버거 명령들.      (line   91)
* break_anywhere() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  253)
* break_here() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):         bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  244)
* break_long_words (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  240)
* break_on_hyphens (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  248)
* Breakpoint (bdb 클래스):               bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   21)
* breakpointhook() (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  223)
* broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   82)
* broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  290)
* broken (asyncio.Barrier의 속성):       Barrier.            (line  103)
* broken (threading.Barrier의 속성):     Barrier objects.    (line   93)
* BrokenBarrierError:                    Barrier objects.    (line   97)
* BrokenBarrierError <1>:                Barrier.            (line  108)
* BrokenExecutor:                        예외 클래스.        (line   18)
* BrokenPipeError:                       OS 예외.            (line   37)
* BrokenProcessPool:                     예외 클래스.        (line   40)
* BrokenThreadPool:                      예외 클래스.        (line   32)
* BROWSER:                               webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   19)
* BROWSER <1>:                           webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   31)
* BROWSER <2>:                           webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line  117)
* BS (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   43)
* BsdDbShelf (shelve 클래스):            제약 사항.          (line   55)
* buf (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory의 속성): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  109)
* Buffer (collections.abc 클래스):       Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  168)
* buffer (io.TextIOBase의 속성):         텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   30)
* buffer (unittest.TestResult의 속성):   테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  286)
* buffer protocol;binary sequence types: printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line  181)
* buffer protocol;str (built-in class):  텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str.
                                                             (line   62)
* buffer size, I/O:                      내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* buffer_info() (array.array 메서드):    array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  121)
* buffer_size (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  116)
* buffer_text (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  122)
* buffer_updated() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol 메서드): 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   31)
* buffer_used (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  132)
* BufferedIOBase (io 클래스):            I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  211)
* BufferedProtocol (asyncio 클래스):     베이스 프로토콜.    (line   15)
* BufferedRandom (io 클래스):            버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line  132)
* BufferedReader (io 클래스):            버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   56)
* BufferedRWPair (io 클래스):            버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line  147)
* BufferedWriter (io 클래스):            버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   92)
* BufferError:                           베이스 클래스.      (line   75)
* BufferFlags (inspect 클래스):          Buffer flags.       (line    6)
* BufferingFormatter (logging 클래스):   Formatter 객체.     (line  121)
* BufferingHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): MemoryHandler. (line   17)
* BufferTooShort:                        Process와 예외.     (line  257)
* BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode):          파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  688)
* BUILD_LIST (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  671)
* BUILD_MAP (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  679)
* build_opener() (urllib.request 모듈):  urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  118)
* BUILD_SET (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  675)
* BUILD_SLICE (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1131)
* BUILD_STRING (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  697)
* BUILD_TUPLE (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  658)
* built-in function; __import__():       내장 함수.          (line 2119)
* built-in function; abs():              내장 함수.          (line   43)
* built-in function; aiter():            내장 함수.          (line   50)
* built-in function; all():              내장 함수.          (line   60)
* built-in function; anext():            내장 함수.          (line   71)
* built-in function; any():              내장 함수.          (line   90)
* built-in function; ascii():            내장 함수.          (line  101)
* built-in function; bin():              내장 함수.          (line  109)
* built-in function; breakpoint():       내장 함수.          (line  144)
* built-in function; callable():         내장 함수.          (line  219)
* built-in function; chr():              내장 함수.          (line  231)
* built-in function; classmethod():      내장 함수.          (line  242)
* built-in function; compile():          내장 함수.          (line  278)
* built-in function; delattr():          내장 함수.          (line  424)
* built-in function; dir():              내장 함수.          (line  446)
* built-in function; divmod():           내장 함수.          (line  504)
* built-in function; enumerate():        내장 함수.          (line  516)
* built-in function; eval():             내장 함수.          (line  538)
* built-in function; exec():             내장 함수.          (line  613)
* built-in function; filter():           내장 함수.          (line  680)
* built-in function; format():           내장 함수.          (line  763)
* built-in function; getattr():          내장 함수.          (line  797)
* built-in function; globals():          내장 함수.          (line  814)
* built-in function; hasattr():          내장 함수.          (line  820)
* built-in function; hash():             내장 함수.          (line  827)
* built-in function; help():             내장 함수.          (line  838)
* built-in function; hex():              내장 함수.          (line  860)
* built-in function; id():               내장 함수.          (line  890)
* built-in function; input():            내장 함수.          (line  901)
* built-in function; isinstance():       내장 함수.          (line  999)
* built-in function; issubclass():       내장 함수.          (line 1014)
* built-in function; iter():             내장 함수.          (line 1026)
* built-in function; len():              내장 함수.          (line 1056)
* built-in function; locals():           내장 함수.          (line 1071)
* built-in function; map():              내장 함수.          (line 1123)
* built-in function; max():              내장 함수.          (line 1133)
* built-in function; min():              내장 함수.          (line 1166)
* built-in function; multiprocessing.Manager(): 관리자.      (line   12)
* built-in function; next():             내장 함수.          (line 1194)
* built-in function; oct():              내장 함수.          (line 1214)
* built-in function; open():             내장 함수.          (line 1239)
* built-in function; ord():              내장 함수.          (line 1469)
* built-in function; pow():              내장 함수.          (line 1482)
* built-in function; print():            내장 함수.          (line 1522)
* built-in function; property.deleter(): 내장 함수.          (line 1595)
* built-in function; property.getter():  내장 함수.          (line 1591)
* built-in function; property.setter():  내장 함수.          (line 1593)
* built-in function; repr():             내장 함수.          (line 1642)
* built-in function; reversed():         내장 함수.          (line 1665)
* built-in function; round():            내장 함수.          (line 1673)
* built-in function; setattr():          내장 함수.          (line 1709)
* built-in function; sorted():           내장 함수.          (line 1758)
* built-in function; staticmethod():     내장 함수.          (line 1790)
* built-in function; sum():              내장 함수.          (line 1847)
* built-in function; vars():             내장 함수.          (line 1998)
* built-in function; zip():              내장 함수.          (line 2022)
* built-in function;abs:                 숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  113)
* built-in function;bytes:               기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  141)
* built-in function;call:                호출.               (line  134)
* built-in function;chr:                 불변 시퀀스.        (line   15)
* built-in function;compile:             코드 객체.          (line    6)
* built-in function;complex:             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  120)
* built-in function;complex <1>:         숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;divmod:              숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   26)
* built-in function;divmod <1>:          숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   56)
* built-in function;eval:                코드 객체.          (line   17)
* built-in function;exec:                내장 함수.          (line  613)
* built-in function;exec <1>:            코드 객체.          (line   17)
* built-in function;float:               숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  120)
* built-in function;float <1>:           숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;hash:                기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  234)
* built-in function;hash <1>:            불변 시퀀스 형.     (line    6)
* built-in function;hash <2>:            PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  356)
* built-in function;id:                  객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* built-in function;int:                 숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  120)
* built-in function;int <1>:             숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;len:                 시퀀스들.           (line    6)
* built-in function;len <1>:             집합 형들 Set types.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;len <2>:             매핑 Mappings.      (line    6)
* built-in function;len <3>:             컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   41)
* built-in function;len <4>:             공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* built-in function;len <5>:             매핑 형 — dict.     (line    6)
* built-in function;max:                 공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* built-in function;min:                 공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* built-in function;open:                I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;ord:                 불변 시퀀스.        (line   15)
* built-in function;pow:                 숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   26)
* built-in function;pow <1>:             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   26)
* built-in function;pow <2>:             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   56)
* built-in function;pow <3>:             숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line   67)
* built-in function;print:               기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  146)
* built-in function;range:               for 문<2>.          (line   34)
* built-in function;repr:                PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  296)
* built-in function;round:               숫자 형 흉내 내기.  (line  141)
* built-in function;slice:               슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;slice <1>:           파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1133)
* built-in function;type:                객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* built-in function;type <1>:            메타 클래스.        (line    6)
* built-in function;type <2>:            형 객체.            (line    6)
* built-in method;call:                  호출.               (line  134)
* built-in;method:                       내장 메서드 Built-in methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in;types:                        내장형.             (line    8)
* builtin_module_names (sys 모듈):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  143)
* BuiltinFunctionType (types 모듈):      표준 인터프리터 형. (line   77)
* BuiltinImporter (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   63)
* BuiltinMethodType (types 모듈):        표준 인터프리터 형. (line   77)
* busy_retry() (test.support 모듈):      test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  196)
* BUTTON_ALT (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  627)
* BUTTON_CTRL (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  624)
* BUTTON_SHIFT (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  621)
* buttonbox() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog 메서드): tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   29)
* BUTTONn_CLICKED (curses 모듈):         상수<6>.            (line  612)
* BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED (curses 모듈):  상수<6>.            (line  615)
* BUTTONn_PRESSED (curses 모듈):         상수<6>.            (line  606)
* BUTTONn_RELEASED (curses 모듈):        상수<6>.            (line  609)
* BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED (curses 모듈):  상수<6>.            (line  618)
* bye() (turtle 모듈):                   TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드.
                                                             (line    6)
* byref() (ctypes 모듈):                 유틸리티 함수.      (line   19)
* byte:                                  불변 시퀀스.        (line   38)
* bytearray:                             가변 시퀀스.        (line   24)
* bytearray (내장 클래스):               바이트 배열 객체.   (line    8)
* bytearray;formatting:                  printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;interpolation:               printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;methods:                     바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytecode:                              코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Bytecode (dis 클래스):                 바이트 코드 분석.   (line   12)
* bytecode (바이트 코드):                용어집.             (line  190)
* BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery 모듈): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   38)
* Bytecode.codeobj (dis 모듈):           바이트 코드 분석.   (line   46)
* Bytecode.first_line (dis 모듈):        바이트 코드 분석.   (line   50)
* BytecodeTestCase (test.support.bytecode_helper 클래스): test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
                                                             (line   13)
* byteorder (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  137)
* bytes:                                 불변 시퀀스.        (line   38)
* bytes (uuid.UUID의 속성):              uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   81)
* bytes (내장 클래스):                   바이트열 객체.      (line   11)
* bytes_le (uuid.UUID의 속성):           uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   85)
* bytes_warning (sys.flags의 속성):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  527)
* bytes-like object (바이트열류 객체):   용어집.             (line  173)
* bytes;formatting:                      printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;interpolation:                   printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;methods:                         바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;str (built-in class):            텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str.
                                                             (line   62)
* BytesFeedParser (email.parser 클래스): FeedParser API.     (line   25)
* BytesGenerator (email.generator 클래스): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line   39)
* BytesHeaderParser (email.parser 클래스): Parser API.       (line   63)
* BytesIO (io 클래스):                   버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line    9)
* BytesParser (email.parser 클래스):     Parser API.         (line   16)
* ByteString (collections.abc 클래스):   Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   64)
* ByteString (typing 클래스):            Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* byteswap() (array.array 메서드):       array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  139)
* BytesWarning:                          경고.               (line   78)
* BZ2Compressor (bz2 클래스):            증분 압축 해제.     (line    6)
* BZ2Decompressor (bz2 클래스):          증분 압축 해제.     (line   31)
* BZ2File (bz2 클래스):                  파일 압축 해제.     (line   39)
* C:                                     문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* c_bool (ctypes 클래스):                기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  205)
* c_byte (ctypes 클래스):                기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   44)
* c_char (ctypes 클래스):                기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   50)
* c_char_p (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   57)
* C_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.   (line   25)
* c_contiguous (memoryview의 속성):      메모리 뷰.          (line  466)
* c_double (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   64)
* c_float (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   75)
* c_int (ctypes 클래스):                 기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   80)
* c_int16 (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   92)
* c_int32 (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   97)
* c_int64 (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  102)
* c_int8 (ctypes 클래스):                기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   87)
* c_long (ctypes 클래스):                기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  107)
* c_longdouble (ctypes 클래스):          기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   69)
* c_longlong (ctypes 클래스):            기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  112)
* C_RAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   16)
* C_RETURN (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   21)
* c_short (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  118)
* c_size_t (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  123)
* c_ssize_t (ctypes 클래스):             기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  127)
* c_time_t (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  133)
* c_ubyte (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  139)
* c_uint (ctypes 클래스):                기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  145)
* c_uint16 (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  157)
* c_uint32 (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  162)
* c_uint64 (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  167)
* c_uint8 (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  152)
* c_ulong (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  172)
* c_ulonglong (ctypes 클래스):           기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  177)
* c_ushort (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  183)
* c_void_p (ctypes 클래스):              기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  188)
* c_wchar (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  193)
* c_wchar_p (ctypes 클래스):             기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  199)
* C-contiguous:                          용어집.             (line  305)
* C-연속:                                shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   25)
* C;language:                            표준형 계층.        (line    6)
* C;language <1>:                        numbers Real float. (line    6)
* C;language <2>:                        내장 함수 Built-in functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;language <3>:                        비교.               (line    6)
* C;language <4>:                        숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;구조체:                              struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석.
                                                             (line    8)
* C14NWriterTarget (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   89)
* CACHE (opcode):                        파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  175)
* cache_clear() (functools.lru_cache 메서드): functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  192)
* cache_from_source() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   21)
* cache_info() (functools.lru_cache 메서드): functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  187)
* cache() (functools 모듈):              functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line   16)
* cached (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  404)
* cached_property() (functools 모듈):    functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line   48)
* CacheFTPHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  408)
* calcobjsize() (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  428)
* calcsize() (struct 모듈):              함수와 예외.        (line   53)
* calcvobjsize() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  434)
* Calendar (calendar 클래스):            calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   25)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -c:              Command-Line Usage. (line  117)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -css:            Command-Line Usage. (line  117)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -e:              Command-Line Usage. (line   66)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -encoding:       Command-Line Usage. (line   66)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -f:              Command-Line Usage. (line   75)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -first-weekday:  Command-Line Usage. (line   75)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -h:              Command-Line Usage. (line   57)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -help:           Command-Line Usage. (line   57)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -L:              Command-Line Usage. (line   61)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -l:              Command-Line Usage. (line  100)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -lines:          Command-Line Usage. (line  100)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -locale:         Command-Line Usage. (line   61)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -m:              Command-Line Usage. (line  111)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -months:         Command-Line Usage. (line  111)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -s:              Command-Line Usage. (line  106)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -spacing:        Command-Line Usage. (line  106)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -t:              Command-Line Usage. (line   71)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -type:           Command-Line Usage. (line   71)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -w:              Command-Line Usage. (line   94)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; -width:          Command-Line Usage. (line   94)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; month:           Command-Line Usage. (line   86)
* calendar 명령줄 옵션; year:            Command-Line Usage. (line   82)
* calendar() (calendar 모듈):            calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  389)
* call:                                  슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   37)
* Call (ast 클래스):                     표현식<2>.          (line  121)
* CALL (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   12)
* CALL (opcode):                         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1028)
* call_args (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.        (line  423)
* call_args_list (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.   (line  466)
* call_at() (asyncio.loop 메서드):       지연된 콜백 예약.   (line   40)
* call_count (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.       (line  320)
* call_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 에러 처리 API.
                                                             (line   43)
* CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1080)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_1 (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1280)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_2 (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1341)
* CALL_KW (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1053)
* call_later() (asyncio.loop 메서드):    지연된 콜백 예약.   (line   10)
* call_list() (unittest.mock.call 메서드): call.             (line   20)
* call_soon_threadsafe() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 콜백 예약하기.
                                                             (line   24)
* call_soon() (asyncio.loop 메서드):     콜백 예약하기.      (line    6)
* call_tracing() (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  152)
* call;instance:                         콜러블 객체 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line    8)
* call() (operator 모듈):                operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  215)
* call() (subprocess 모듈):              오래된 고수준 API.  (line   10)
* call() (unittest.mock 모듈):           call.               (line    6)
* Callable (collections.abc 클래스):     Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   18)
* Callable (typing 모듈):                Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   22)
* callable (콜러블):                     용어집.             (line  204)
* CallableProxyType (weakref 모듈):      weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  311)
* callback (optparse.Option의 속성):     옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   64)
* callback (콜백):                       용어집.             (line  215)
* callback_args (optparse.Option의 속성): 옵션 어트리뷰트.   (line   70)
* callback_kwargs (optparse.Option의 속성): 옵션 어트리뷰트. (line   70)
* callback() (contextlib.ExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.        (line  559)
* callbacks (gc 모듈):                   gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  239)
* called (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성):    Mock 클래스.        (line  309)
* CalledProcessError:                    subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  195)
* calloc (C 함수):                       개요<4>.            (line   27)
* CAN (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   98)
* CAN_BCM (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line  146)
* can_change_color() (curses 모듈):      함수<5>.            (line   29)
* can_fetch() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   32)
* CAN_ISOTP (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  185)
* CAN_J1939 (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  194)
* CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (socket 모듈):       상수<8>.            (line  161)
* CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS (socket 모듈):    상수<8>.            (line  174)
* can_symlink() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   71)
* can_write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   50)
* can_write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   13)
* can_xattr() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   76)
* CANCEL (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):      tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  154)
* cancel_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   78)
* cancel_dump_traceback_later() (faulthandler 모듈): 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기.
                                                             (line   28)
* cancel_join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.
                                                             (line  188)
* cancel() (asyncio.Future 메서드):      Future 객체<2>.     (line  109)
* cancel() (asyncio.Handle 메서드):      콜백 핸들.          (line   18)
* cancel() (asyncio.Task 메서드):        Task 객체.          (line  188)
* cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.  (line   16)
* cancel() (sched.scheduler 메서드):     스케줄러 객체.      (line   39)
* cancel() (threading.Timer 메서드):     Timer objects.      (line   32)
* cancel() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 메서드): tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line   47)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Future 메서드):   Future 객체<2>.     (line   69)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Handle 메서드):   콜백 핸들.          (line   23)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Task 메서드):     Task 객체.          (line  251)
* cancelled() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.
                                                             (line   22)
* CancelledError:                        예외 클래스.        (line    6)
* CancelledError <1>:                    예외<10>.           (line   18)
* cancelling() (asyncio.Task 메서드):    Task 객체.          (line  308)
* CannotSendHeader:                      http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  164)
* CannotSendRequest:                     http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  160)
* canonic() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):            bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  147)
* canonical() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  259)
* canonical() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  135)
* canonicalize() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.      (line    6)
* capa() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   23)
* capitalize() (bytearray 메서드):       바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  445)
* capitalize() (bytes 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  445)
* capitalize() (str 메서드):             문자열 메서드.      (line   20)
* capitals (decimal.Context의 속성):     Context 객체.       (line  140)
* CapsuleType (types 클래스):            표준 인터프리터 형. (line  281)
* captured_stderr() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  326)
* captured_stdin() (test.support 모듈):  test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  326)
* captured_stdout() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  326)
* captureWarnings() (logging 모듈):      warnings 모듈과의 통합.
                                                             (line    9)
* capwords() (string 모듈):              도움 함수.          (line    6)
* case block:                            Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* casefold() (str 메서드):               문자열 메서드.      (line   29)
* cast() (ctypes 모듈):                  유틸리티 함수.      (line   32)
* cast() (memoryview 메서드):            메모리 뷰.          (line  268)
* cast() (typing 모듈):                  함수와 데코레이터.  (line    6)
* catch_threading_exception() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   47)
* catch_unraisable_exception() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  584)
* catch_warnings (warnings 클래스):      사용 가능한 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line    6)
* category() (unicodedata 모듈):         unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   79)
* cbreak() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line   34)
* cbrt() (math 모듈):                    거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* CC:                                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* ccc() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 메서드):         FTP_TLS 객체.       (line   96)
* cdf() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드):  NormalDist 객체.    (line   79)
* CDLL (ctypes 클래스):                  공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* ceil() (in module math):               숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line  106)
* ceil() (math 모듈):                    부동 소수점 산술.   (line    6)
* CellType (types 모듈):                 표준 인터프리터 형. (line   66)
* center() (bytearray 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  277)
* center() (bytes 메서드):               바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  277)
* center() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line   45)
* CERT_NONE (ssl 모듈):                  상수<9>.            (line   11)
* CERT_OPTIONAL (ssl 모듈):              상수<9>.            (line   24)
* CERT_REQUIRED (ssl 모듈):              상수<9>.            (line   40)
* cert_store_stats() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.  (line   85)
* cert_time_to_seconds() (ssl 모듈):     인증서 처리.        (line    6)
* CertificateError:                      예외<13>.           (line   88)
* certificates:                          SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  737)
* CFLAGS:                                New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CFLAGS <1>:                            Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* CFLAGS <2>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* CFLAGS <3>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* CFLAGS <4>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* CFLAGS <5>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* CFLAGS <6>:                            Linker flags.       (line   18)
* CFLAGS_NODIST:                         Compiler flags.     (line   24)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                     Compiler flags.     (line   61)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:                     Linker flags.       (line   26)
* cfmakecbreak() (tty 모듈):             tty — 터미널 제어 함수.
                                                             (line   27)
* cfmakeraw() (tty 모듈):                tty — 터미널 제어 함수.
                                                             (line   19)
* CFUNCTYPE() (ctypes 모듈):             함수 프로토타입.    (line   13)
* cget() (tkinter.font.Font 메서드):     tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   50)
* cgi_directories (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  435)
* CGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers 클래스):  wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   11)
* CGIHTTPRequestHandler (http.server 클래스): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  411)
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 클래스): xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버.
                                                             (line   48)
* chain() (itertools 모듈):              Itertool Functions. (line  104)
* chaining;comparisons:                  비교.               (line   18)
* chaining;comparisons <1>:              비교<2>.            (line    6)
* ChainMap (collections 클래스):         ChainMap 객체.      (line   15)
* ChainMap (typing 클래스):              Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   28)
* change_cwd() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   80)
* CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (ssl 모듈):      상수<9>.            (line  459)
* CHAR_MAX (locale 모듈):                locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  528)
* character:                             불변 시퀀스.        (line   15)
* character <1>:                         서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* CharacterDataHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  261)
* characters_written (BlockingIOError의 속성): OS 예외.      (line   18)
* characters() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line  123)
* charmap_build() (codecs 모듈):         codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   43)
* Charset (email.charset 클래스):        email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   22)
* charset() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   66)
* chdir() (contextlib 모듈):             유틸리티.           (line  353)
* chdir() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  109)
* check (lzma.LZMADecompressor의 속성):  메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  144)
* check__all__() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  662)
* check_call() (subprocess 모듈):        오래된 고수준 API.  (line   43)
* check_disallow_instantiation() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  712)
* CHECK_EG_MATCH (opcode):               파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  472)
* CHECK_EXC_MATCH (opcode):              파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  464)
* check_free_after_iterating() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  651)
* check_hostname (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.      (line  471)
* check_impl_detail() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  291)
* check_no_resource_warning() (test.support.warnings_helper 모듈): test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   25)
* check_output() (doctest.OutputChecker 메서드): OutputChecker 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* check_output() (subprocess 모듈):      오래된 고수준 API.  (line   80)
* check_returncode() (subprocess.CompletedProcess 메서드): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  126)
* check_syntax_error() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  559)
* check_syntax_warning() (test.support.warnings_helper 모듈): test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   32)
* check_unused_args() (string.Formatter 메서드): 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   85)
* check_warnings() (test.support.warnings_helper 모듈): test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   46)
* check() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):        IMAP4 객체.         (line   52)
* check() (tabnanny 모듈):               tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지.
                                                             (line   16)
* checkcache() (linecache 모듈):         linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line   39)
* CHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode의 속성): py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line  101)
* checkfuncname() (bdb 모듈):            bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  441)
* checksizeof() (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  440)
* chflags() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  128)
* chgat() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  125)
* childNodes (xml.dom.Node의 속성):      Node 객체.          (line   46)
* ChildProcessError:                     OS 예외.            (line   24)
* children (pyclbr.Class의 속성):        Class 객체.         (line   34)
* children (pyclbr.Function의 속성):     Function 객체.      (line   33)
* children (tkinter.Tk의 속성):          Tkinter 모듈.       (line   88)
* chksum (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):       TarInfo 객체.       (line  134)
* chmod() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  170)
* chmod() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   36)
* choice() (random 모듈):                시퀀스 함수.        (line    6)
* choice() (secrets 모듈):               난수.               (line   15)
* choices (optparse.Option의 속성):      옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   59)
* choices() (random 모듈):               시퀀스 함수.        (line   11)
* Chooser (tkinter.colorchooser 클래스): tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   15)
* chown() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  238)
* chown() (shutil 모듈):                 디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  376)
* chroot() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  264)
* CHRTYPE (tarfile 모듈):                tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  282)
* cipher() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):       SSL 소켓.           (line  221)
* circle() (turtle 모듈):                거북이 움직임.      (line  211)
* CIRCUMFLEX (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  247)
* CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (token 모듈):          token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  280)
* clamp (decimal.Context의 속성):        Context 객체.       (line  146)
* Clamped (decimal 클래스):              신호.               (line   18)
* Class (pyclbr 클래스):                 Class 객체.         (line    6)
* Class (symtable 클래스):               심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  149)
* CLASS (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   19)
* class (클래스):                        용어집.             (line  219)
* class instance;attribute:              클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* class instance;attribute;assignment:   클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line   21)
* class instance;call:                   호출.               (line  143)
* class object;call:                     사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* class object;call <1>:                 사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   31)
* class object;call <2>:                 호출.               (line  139)
* class variable (클래스 변수):          용어집.             (line  224)
* class;attribute:                       사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* class;attribute;assignment:            사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* class;body:                            클래스 바디 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;constructor:                     기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   37)
* class;definition:                      클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* class;instance:                        클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;name:                            클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* ClassDef (ast 클래스):                 함수와 클래스 정의. (line  164)
* ClassMethodDescriptorType (types 모듈): 표준 인터프리터 형.
                                                             (line  110)
* ClassVar (typing 모듈):                특수 형태.          (line  191)
* clause:                                복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   16)
* CLD_CONTINUED (os 모듈):               프로세스 관리.      (line 1024)
* CLD_DUMPED (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line 1024)
* CLD_EXITED (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line 1024)
* CLD_KILLED (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line 1024)
* CLD_STOPPED (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line 1024)
* CLD_TRAPPED (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line 1024)
* clean() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):      Maildir 객체.       (line   81)
* cleandoc() (inspect 모듈):             소스 코드 가져오기. (line   62)
* CleanImport (test.support.import_helper 클래스): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   83)
* CLEANUP_THROW (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  349)
* cleanup() (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory 메서드): tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  190)
* clear (pdb command):                   디버거 명령들.      (line  118)
* Clear Breakpoint:                      Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   29)
* clear_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):   bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  357)
* clear_all_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 메서드): bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  352)
* clear_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):   bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  346)
* clear_break() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):        bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  341)
* clear_cache() (filecmp 모듈):          filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교.
                                                             (line   52)
* clear_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo의 클래스 메서드): ZoneInfo 클래스.
                                                             (line   54)
* clear_content() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  621)
* clear_flags() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  177)
* clear_frames() (traceback 모듈):       모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  170)
* clear_history() (readline 모듈):       히스토리 목록.      (line    8)
* clear_overloads() (typing 모듈):       함수와 데코레이터.  (line  302)
* clear_session_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   86)
* clear_traces() (tracemalloc 모듈):     함수<10>.           (line    6)
* clear_traps() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  181)
* clear() (array.array 메서드):          array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  214)
* clear() (asyncio.Event 메서드):        Event.              (line   56)
* clear() (collections.deque 메서드):    deque 객체.         (line   39)
* clear() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  139)
* clear() (dict 메서드):                 매핑 형 — dict.     (line  162)
* clear() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  617)
* clear() (frame 메서드):                Frame object methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* clear() (frozenset 메서드):            집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  210)
* clear() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   74)
* clear() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):      Mailbox 객체.       (line  189)
* clear() (sequence method):             가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* clear() (threading.Event 메서드):      Event objects.      (line   35)
* clear() (turtle 모듈):                 더 많은 그리기 제어.
                                                             (line   23)
* clear() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* clearcache() (linecache 모듈):         linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line   34)
* clearok() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  144)
* clearscreen() (turtle 모듈):           창 제어.            (line   45)
* clearstamp() (turtle 모듈):            거북이 움직임.      (line  279)
* clearstamps() (turtle 모듈):           거북이 움직임.      (line  298)
* client_address (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   68)
* client_address (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler의 속성): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* Client() (multiprocessing.connection 모듈): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   34)
* CLOCK_BOOTTIME (time 모듈):            시계 ID 상수.       (line    9)
* clock_getres() (time 모듈):            함수<4>.            (line   41)
* clock_gettime_ns() (time 모듈):        함수<4>.            (line   62)
* clock_gettime() (time 모듈):           함수<4>.            (line   50)
* CLOCK_HIGHRES (time 모듈):             시계 ID 상수.       (line   23)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC (time 모듈):           시계 ID 상수.       (line   33)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (time 모듈):       시계 ID 상수.       (line   42)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX (time 모듈): 시계 ID 상수.      (line   51)
* CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (time 모듈):  시계 ID 상수.       (line   60)
* CLOCK_PROF (time 모듈):                시계 ID 상수.       (line   68)
* CLOCK_REALTIME (time 모듈):            시계 ID 상수.       (line  125)
* clock_seq (uuid.UUID의 속성):          uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  119)
* clock_seq_hi_variant (uuid.UUID의 속성): uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  107)
* clock_seq_low (uuid.UUID의 속성):      uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  110)
* clock_settime_ns() (time 모듈):        함수<4>.            (line   83)
* clock_settime() (time 모듈):           함수<4>.            (line   71)
* CLOCK_TAI (time 모듈):                 시계 ID 상수.       (line   76)
* CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (time 모듈):   시계 ID 상수.       (line   87)
* CLOCK_UPTIME (time 모듈):              시계 ID 상수.       (line   95)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW (time 모듈):          시계 ID 상수.       (line  104)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX (time 모듈):   시계 ID 상수.       (line  113)
* CLONE_FILES (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_FS (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWCGROUP (os 모듈):             프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWIPC (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWNET (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWNS (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWPID (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWTIME (os 모듈):               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWUSER (os 모듈):               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_NEWUTS (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_SIGHAND (os 모듈):               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_SYSVSEM (os 모듈):               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_THREAD (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* CLONE_VM (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  617)
* clone() (email.generator.BytesGenerator 메서드): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  105)
* clone() (email.generator.Generator 메서드): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  193)
* clone() (email.policy.Policy 메서드):  email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  204)
* clone() (turtle 모듈):                 특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   31)
* cloneNode() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):     Node 객체.          (line  139)
* close (in module os):                  서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  187)
* close_clients() (asyncio.Server 메서드): 서버 객체.        (line   43)
* close_connection (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   77)
* close() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 메서드): 프로세스 감시자.
                                                             (line   79)
* close() (asyncio.BaseTransport 메서드): 베이스 트랜스포트. (line    6)
* close() (asyncio.loop 메서드):         루프 실행 및 중지.  (line   42)
* close() (asyncio.Runner 메서드):       Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   49)
* close() (asyncio.Server 메서드):       서버 객체.          (line   31)
* close() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.       (line   40)
* close() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   59)
* close() (contextlib.ExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.           (line  588)
* close() (coroutine 메서드):            코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* close() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm 메서드):     dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.
                                                             (line   80)
* close() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 메서드):         dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line   92)
* close() (dbm.ndbm.ndbm 메서드):        dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   79)
* close() (dbm.sqlite3.sqlite3 메서드):  dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드.
                                                             (line   54)
* close() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser 메서드): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   60)
* close() (fileinput 모듈):              fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  121)
* close() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):           FTP 객체.           (line  349)
* close() (generator 메서드):            제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   64)
* close() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   15)
* close() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  143)
* close() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):        IMAP4 객체.         (line   56)
* close() (io.IOBase 메서드):            I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   44)
* close() (logging.FileHandler 메서드):  FileHandler.        (line   26)
* close() (logging.Handler 메서드):      Handler 객체.       (line   73)
* close() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   52)
* close() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 메서드): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* close() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* close() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 메서드): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* close() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):      Mailbox 객체.       (line  242)
* close() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):      Maildir 객체.       (line  209)
* close() (mailbox.MH 메서드):           MH 객체.            (line  104)
* close() (mmap.mmap 메서드):            mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  172)
* close() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   33)
* close() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener 메서드): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   90)
* close() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.   (line  161)
* close() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.  (line  222)
* close() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.       (line  165)
* close() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 메서드): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line   86)
* close() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 메서드): 파이프와 큐. (line  213)
* close() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line   19)
* close() (os.scandir 메서드):           파일과 디렉터리.    (line  852)
* close() (select.devpoll 메서드):       /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* close() (select.epoll 메서드):         에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   64)
* close() (select.kqueue 메서드):        Kqueue 객체.        (line    6)
* close() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.        (line  131)
* close() (shelve.Shelf 메서드):         shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성.
                                                             (line   71)
* close() (socket 모듈):                 기타 함수<2>.       (line    8)
* close() (socket.socket 메서드):        소켓 객체.          (line   41)
* close() (sqlite3.Blob 메서드):         Blob objects.       (line   37)
* close() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드):   Connection objects. (line   88)
* close() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드):       Cursor objects.     (line  152)
* close() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):      TarFile 객체.       (line  307)
* close() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 메서드): BaseHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* close() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):       Wave_read 객체.     (line   13)
* close() (wave.Wave_write 메서드):      Wave_write 객체.    (line   28)
* Close() (winreg.PyHKEY 메서드):        레지스트리 핸들 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   27)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser 메서드): XMLParser 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 메서드): XMLPullParser 객체.
                                                             (line   40)
* close() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser 메서드): IncrementalParser 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* close() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):      ZipFile 객체.       (line  103)
* CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   81)
* closed (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* closed (io.IOBase의 속성):             I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   54)
* closed (mmap.mmap의 속성):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  177)
* closed (select.devpoll의 속성):        /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* closed (select.epoll의 속성):          에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   68)
* closed (select.kqueue의 속성):         Kqueue 객체.        (line   10)
* CloseKey() (winreg 모듈):              함수<12>.           (line    8)
* closelog() (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line   74)
* closerange() (os 모듈):                파일 기술자 연산.   (line   29)
* closing() (contextlib 모듈):           유틸리티.           (line  145)
* closure variable (클로저 변수):        용어집.             (line  229)
* clrtobot() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  149)
* clrtoeol() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  154)
* Cmd (cmd 클래스):                      cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   14)
* cmd (subprocess.CalledProcessError의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  207)
* cmd (subprocess.TimeoutExpired의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  163)
* cmdloop() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):            Cmd 객체.           (line    8)
* cmdqueue (cmd.Cmd의 속성):             Cmd 객체.           (line  129)
* cmp_op (dis 모듈):                     옵코드 모음.        (line   20)
* cmp_to_key() (functools 모듈):         functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  114)
* cmp() (filecmp 모듈):                  filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교.
                                                             (line   16)
* cmpfiles() (filecmp 모듈):             filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교.
                                                             (line   33)
* CMSG_LEN() (socket 모듈):              기타 함수<2>.       (line  331)
* CMSG_SPACE() (socket 모듈):            기타 함수<2>.       (line  347)
* co_argcount (code object attribute):   코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_argcount (codeobject의 속성):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (C macro):          Code Object Flags.  (line   48)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (inspect 모듈):     코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   52)
* co_cellvars (code object attribute):   코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_cellvars (codeobject의 속성):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* co_code (code object attribute):       코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_code (codeobject의 속성):           Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* co_consts (code object attribute):     코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_consts (codeobject의 속성):         Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* CO_COROUTINE (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   42)
* CO_COROUTINE (inspect 모듈):           코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   35)
* co_filename (code object attribute):   코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_filename (codeobject의 속성):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* co_firstlineno (code object attribute): 코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_firstlineno (codeobject의 속성):    Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* co_flags (code object attribute):      코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_flags (codeobject의 속성):          Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* co_freevars (code object attribute):   코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_freevars (codeobject의 속성):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT (C macro):   Code Object Flags.  (line   54)
* CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS (C macro):       Code Object Flags.  (line   69)
* CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C macro):          Code Object Flags.  (line   51)
* CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP (C macro):    Code Object Flags.  (line   66)
* CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION (C macro):    Code Object Flags.  (line   60)
* CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS (C macro):  Code Object Flags.  (line   63)
* CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT (C macro):    Code Object Flags.  (line   57)
* CO_GENERATOR (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   39)
* CO_GENERATOR (inspect 모듈):           코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   30)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (C macro):       Code Object Flags.  (line   45)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (inspect 모듈):  코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_kwonlyargcount (code object attribute): 코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_kwonlyargcount (codeobject의 속성): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* co_lines() (codeobject 메서드):        Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_lnotab (code object attribute):     코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_lnotab (codeobject의 속성):         Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* co_name (code object attribute):       코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_name (codeobject의 속성):           Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_names (code object attribute):      코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_names (codeobject의 속성):          Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* CO_NESTED (C macro):                   Code Object Flags.  (line   36)
* CO_NESTED (inspect 모듈):              코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   26)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   27)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (inspect 모듈):           코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   13)
* co_nlocals (code object attribute):    코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_nlocals (codeobject의 속성):        Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   24)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (inspect 모듈):           코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_positions() (codeobject 메서드):    Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_posonlyargcount (code object attribute): 코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_posonlyargcount (codeobject의 속성): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* co_qualname (code object attribute):   코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_qualname (codeobject의 속성):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_stacksize (code object attribute):  코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_stacksize (codeobject의 속성):      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* CO_VARARGS (C macro):                  Code Object Flags.  (line   30)
* CO_VARARGS (inspect 모듈):             코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (C macro):              Code Object Flags.  (line   33)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (inspect 모듈):         코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   22)
* co_varnames (code object attribute):   코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* co_varnames (codeobject의 속성):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* code (SystemExit의 속성):              구체적인 예외.      (line  382)
* code (urllib.error.HTTPError의 속성):  urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   42)
* code (urllib.response.addinfourl의 속성): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   40)
* code (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError의 속성): 예외<16>.  (line   13)
* code (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError의 속성): ExpatError 예외.
                                                             (line    9)
* code object:                           코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* code object <1>:                       메서드.             (line   43)
* code_context (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성): 인터프리터 스택.  (line   32)
* code_context (inspect.Traceback의 속성): 인터프리터 스택.  (line   72)
* code_info() (dis 모듈):                분석 함수.          (line   10)
* Codec (codecs 클래스):                 상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    9)
* CodecInfo (codecs 클래스):             codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   64)
* CodecRegistryError:                    encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line   41)
* codecs.escape_decode() (codecs 모듈):  Standalone Codec Functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* codecs.escape_encode() (codecs 모듈):  Standalone Codec Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* coded_value (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성): Morsel 객체.     (line   52)
* codepoint2name (html.entities 모듈):   html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
                                                             (line   33)
* codes (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.    (line   14)
* CODESET (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  165)
* CodeType (types 클래스):               표준 인터프리터 형. (line   53)
* col_offset (ast.AST의 속성):           노드 클래스.        (line   46)
* collapse_addresses() (ipaddress 모듈): 다른 모듈 수준 함수.
                                                             (line   42)
* collapse_rfc2231_value() (email.utils 모듈): email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  189)
* collect() (gc 모듈):                   gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   33)
* collectedDurations (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  270)
* Collection (collections.abc 클래스):   Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   35)
* Collection (typing 클래스):            Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   23)
* colno (json.JSONDecodeError의 속성):   예외<14>.           (line   26)
* colno (re.PatternError의 속성):        Exceptions.         (line   32)
* colno (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성): FrameSummary 객체.  (line   56)
* colon (mailbox.Maildir의 속성):        Maildir 객체.       (line   41)
* COLON (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  184)
* COLONEQUAL (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  310)
* COLOR_BLACK (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  639)
* COLOR_BLUE (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  642)
* color_content() (curses 모듈):         함수<5>.            (line   44)
* COLOR_CYAN (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  645)
* COLOR_GREEN (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  649)
* COLOR_MAGENTA (curses 모듈):           상수<6>.            (line  652)
* color_pair() (curses 모듈):            함수<5>.            (line   51)
* COLOR_PAIRS (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line   40)
* COLOR_RED (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  655)
* COLOR_WHITE (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  658)
* COLOR_YELLOW (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  661)
* color() (turtle 모듈):                 색상 제어.          (line  101)
* colormode() (turtle 모듈):             설정과 특수 메서드. (line   33)
* COLORS (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line   35)
* COLS (curses 모듈):                    상수<6>.            (line   45)
* column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.      (line   32)
* columnize() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):          Cmd 객체.           (line   77)
* COLUMNS:                               함수<5>.            (line  553)
* COLUMNS <1>:                           함수<5>.            (line  555)
* columns (os.terminal_size의 속성):     터미널의 크기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   28)
* comb() (math 모듈):                    수론적 함수.        (line    6)
* combinations_with_replacement() (itertools 모듈): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  167)
* combinations() (itertools 모듈):       Itertool Functions. (line  126)
* combine() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line  170)
* combining() (unicodedata 모듈):        unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  100)
* Combobox (tkinter.ttk 클래스):         ttk Combobox.       (line    6)
* comma:                                 괄호 안에 넣은 형.  (line   18)
* COMMA (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  187)
* command (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   90)
* CommandCompiler (codeop 클래스):       codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일.
                                                             (line   62)
* commands (pdb command):                디버거 명령들.      (line  149)
* comment (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.       (line   59)
* comment (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):  Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* COMMENT (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   69)
* comment (zipfile.ZipFile의 속성):      ZipFile 객체.       (line  351)
* comment (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):      ZipInfo 객체.       (line  100)
* comment_url (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.   (line   63)
* Comment() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.           (line   69)
* comment() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   48)
* comment() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 메서드): LexicalHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* commenters (shlex.shlex의 속성):       shlex 객체.         (line   78)
* CommentHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  316)
* commit() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드):  Connection objects. (line   72)
* common (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):        dircmp 클래스.      (line   59)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983: Build and C API Changes<5>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <1>: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <2>: 프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  246)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <1>: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <2>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-0340: Security<22>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-1753: Library<102>.
                                                             (line  193)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-0224: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   30)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-4616: Library<102>.
                                                             (line 1122)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283: Security<48>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283 <1>: Security<53>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <1>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <2>: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <3>: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <4>: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <5>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <6>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <7>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <8>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772: Security<48>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772 <1>: Security<53>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110: Library<81>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110 <1>: Library<88>.
                                                             (line  267)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183: Library<80>.
                                                             (line  178)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183 <1>: Library<88>.
                                                             (line  205)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-3189: Windows<26>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <2>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <1>: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <2>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <1>: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <2>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-1000158: Security<50>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233: Security<42>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <1>: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <2>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   48)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <1>: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <2>: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <1>: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <2>: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-14647: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-25032: Windows<26>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970: Security<39>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970 <1>: Security<40>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-12900: Windows<26>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-15903: Security<35>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-18348: Security<32>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-20907: Library<45>.
                                                             (line  186)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-5010: Security<39>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9740: Security<37>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9948: Security<36>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735: Other CPython Implementation Changes.
                                                             (line   56)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <1>: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <2>: 3 9 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <3>: 3 8 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <4>: 파이썬 3 7 14의 주목할만한 보안 기능.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <5>: Integer string conversion length limitation.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15523: Security<29>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15801: Security<29>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-8492: Security<31>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2021-3426: Security<24>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-26488: Windows<26>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-37434: Windows<23>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-42919: Security<20>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303: Security<16>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303 <1>: Security<16>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-0286: Security<16>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-24329: Security<15>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043: email.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043 <1>: Library<19>.
                                                             (line  429)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-40217: Security<14>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425: xml. (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <1>: Security<11>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <2>: Documentation<12>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <3>: XML security.
                                                             (line   45)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718: tarfile.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <1>: tarfile.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <2>: Security<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030: os.   (line   38)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <1>: tempfile.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <2>: Security<9>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138: tarfile.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138 <1>: Security<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330: tarfile.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330 <1>: Security<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4435: tarfile.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517: os path<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517 <1>: Security<3>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 257:  조리법과 모범 사례. (line   16)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295:  ssl<2>.             (line   21)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295 <1>: Library<29>.     (line  516)
* common_dirs (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):   dircmp 클래스.      (line   71)
* common_files (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):  dircmp 클래스.      (line   75)
* common_funny (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):  dircmp 클래스.      (line   79)
* common_types (mimetypes 모듈):         mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  146)
* commonpath() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line   64)
* commonprefix() (os.path 모듈):         os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line   79)
* communicate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 메서드): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line   49)
* communicate() (subprocess.Popen 메서드): Popen 객체.       (line   36)
* Compare (ast 클래스):                  표현식<2>.          (line   91)
* compare_digest() (hmac 모듈):          hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line  109)
* compare_digest() (secrets 모듈):       기타 함수.          (line    6)
* compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  220)
* compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  331)
* COMPARE_OP (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  792)
* compare_signal() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.   (line  267)
* compare_signal() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.   (line  152)
* compare_to() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 메서드): Snapshot.      (line   12)
* compare_total_mag() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.
                                                             (line  275)
* compare_total_mag() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.
                                                             (line  182)
* compare_total() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.    (line  271)
* compare_total() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.    (line  159)
* compare() (decimal.Context 메서드):    Context 객체.       (line  263)
* compare() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):    Decimal 객체.       (line  141)
* compare() (difflib.Differ 메서드):     Differ 객체.        (line   35)
* comparison:                            비교.               (line    6)
* COMPARISON_FLAGS (doctest 모듈):       옵션 플래그.        (line   93)
* comparisons:                           기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  179)
* compat32 (email.policy 모듈):          email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  566)
* Compat32 (email.policy 클래스):        email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  515)
* Compile (codeop 클래스):               codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일.
                                                             (line   54)
* compile_command() (code 모듈):         code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   57)
* compile_command() (codeop 모듈):       codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일.
                                                             (line   28)
* compile_dir() (compileall 모듈):       공용 함수.          (line    6)
* compile_file() (compileall 모듈):      공용 함수.          (line   87)
* compile_path() (compileall 모듈):      공용 함수.          (line  145)
* compile() (py_compile 모듈):           py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   22)
* compile() (re 모듈):                   Functions.          (line    6)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -b:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   63)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -d:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   31)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -e:            명령 줄 사용.       (line  100)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -f:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   21)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -hardlink-dupes: 명령 줄 사용.     (line  104)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -i:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   58)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -invalidation-mode: 명령 줄 사용.  (line   82)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -j:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   76)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -l:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   16)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -o:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   94)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -p:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   45)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -q:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   25)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -r:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   70)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -s:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   38)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; -x:            명령 줄 사용.       (line   52)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; directory:     명령 줄 사용.       (line    9)
* compileall 명령줄 옵션; file:          명령 줄 사용.       (line    9)
* compiler_flag (__future__._Feature의 속성): Module Contents.
                                                             (line   84)
* complete_statement() (sqlite3 모듈):   Module functions.   (line  104)
* complete() (rlcompleter.Completer 메서드): rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수.
                                                             (line   42)
* completedefault() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):    Cmd 객체.           (line   72)
* CompletedProcess (subprocess 클래스):  subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line   93)
* Completer (rlcompleter 클래스):        rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수.
                                                             (line   38)
* Complex (numbers 클래스):              숫자 계층.          (line    6)
* complex (내장 클래스):                 내장 함수.          (line  351)
* complex number (복소수):               용어집.             (line  257)
* complex number;literals:               숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* complex;number:                        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* compound;statement:                    복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* comprehension (ast 클래스):            컴프리헨션.         (line   58)
* comprehensions:                        리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress_size (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.      (line  149)
* compress_type (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.      (line   96)
* compress() (bz2 모듈):                 일괄 압축 해제.     (line    6)
* compress() (bz2.BZ2Compressor 메서드): 증분 압축 해제.     (line   16)
* compress() (gzip 모듈):                gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  182)
* compress() (itertools 모듈):           Itertool Functions. (line  208)
* compress() (lzma 모듈):                메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  167)
* compress() (lzma.LZMACompressor 메서드): 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line   73)
* compress() (zlib 모듈):                zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line   40)
* compress() (zlib.Compress 메서드):     zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  186)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.      (line   55)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.  (line   97)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.      (line  243)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.  (line  298)
* compression() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):  SSL 소켓.           (line  238)
* CompressionError:                      tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  200)
* compressobj() (zlib 모듈):             zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line   74)
* COMSPEC:                               프로세스 관리.      (line  757)
* COMSPEC <1>:                           Popen 생성자.       (line  104)
* concat() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  171)
* Concatenate (typing 모듈):             특수 형태.          (line   72)
* concatenation;operation:               공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* cond (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   95)
* Condition (asyncio 클래스):            Condition.          (line    6)
* Condition (multiprocessing 클래스):    동기화 프리미티브.  (line   32)
* condition (pdb command):               디버거 명령들.      (line  143)
* Condition (threading 클래스):          Condition objects.  (line   67)
* Condition() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  170)
* Conditional;expression:                논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* conditional;expression:                조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* config() (tkinter.font.Font 메서드):   tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   54)
* ConfigParser (configparser 클래스):    ConfigParser 객체.  (line    6)
* configure_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스. (line  256)
* configure() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링.      (line   23)
* CONFORM (enum.FlagBoundary의 속성):    Data Types.         (line  687)
* confstr_names (os 모듈):               기타 시스템 정보.   (line   25)
* confstr() (os 모듈):                   기타 시스템 정보.   (line    6)
* conjugate() (complex number method):   숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   93)
* conjugate() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  194)
* conjugate() (numbers.Complex 메서드):  숫자 계층.          (line   23)
* connect_accepted_socket() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 네트워크 서버 만들기.
                                                             (line  140)
* connect_ex() (socket.socket 메서드):   소켓 객체.          (line   85)
* connect_read_pipe() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 파이프로 작업하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* connect_write_pipe() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 파이프로 작업하기.
                                                             (line   22)
* connect() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):         FTP 객체.           (line   86)
* connect() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  135)
* connect() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line   76)
* connect() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):       SMTP 객체.          (line   31)
* connect() (socket.socket 메서드):      소켓 객체.          (line   61)
* connect() (sqlite3 모듈):              Module functions.   (line    6)
* Connection (multiprocessing.connection 클래스): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* Connection (sqlite3 클래스):           Connection objects. (line    6)
* connection (sqlite3.Cursor의 속성):    Cursor objects.     (line  173)
* connection_lost() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 메서드): 베이스 프로토콜<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* connection_made() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 메서드): 베이스 프로토콜<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* ConnectionAbortedError:                OS 예외.            (line   43)
* ConnectionError:                       OS 예외.            (line   29)
* ConnectionRefusedError:                OS 예외.            (line   49)
* ConnectionResetError:                  OS 예외.            (line   55)
* ConnectRegistry() (winreg 모듈):       함수<12>.           (line   17)
* const (optparse.Option의 속성):        옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   55)
* Constant (ast 클래스):                 리터럴<2>.          (line    6)
* constructor() (copyreg 모듈):          copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록.
                                                             (line   16)
* consumed (asyncio.LimitOverrunError의 속성): 예외<10>.     (line   67)
* container:                             객체 값 형.         (line   63)
* container <1>:                         사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* Container (collections.abc 클래스):    Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line    6)
* Container (typing 클래스):             Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* container;iteration over:              이터레이터 형.      (line    6)
* CONTAINS_OP (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  807)
* contains() (operator 모듈):            operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  176)
* content (urllib.error.ContentTooShortError의 속성): urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   70)
* content_disposition (email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  260)
* content_manager (email.policy.EmailPolicy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  382)
* content_type (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  247)
* ContentDispositionHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  255)
* ContentHandler (xml.sax.handler 클래스): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   17)
* ContentManager (email.contentmanager 클래스): email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
                                                             (line   12)
* contents (ctypes._Pointer의 속성):     배열과 포인터.      (line   58)
* contents() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  464)
* contents() (importlib.resources 모듈): Functional API.     (line  150)
* contents() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   68)
* ContentTooShortError:                  urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   64)
* ContentTransferEncoding (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  265)
* ContentTypeHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  242)
* Context (contextvars 클래스):          수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line   20)
* Context (decimal 클래스):              Context 객체.       (line  109)
* context (ssl.SSLSocket의 속성):        SSL 소켓.           (line  327)
* context (컨텍스트):                    용어집.             (line  267)
* context management protocol:           컨텍스트 관리자 형. (line    6)
* context management protocol (컨텍스트 관리 프로토콜): 용어집.
                                                             (line  284)
* context manager:                       with 문 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   13)
* context manager <1>:                   컨텍스트 관리자 형. (line    6)
* context manager (컨텍스트 관리자):     용어집.             (line  288)
* context variable (컨텍스트 변수):      용어집.             (line  293)
* context_diff() (difflib 모듈):         difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  142)
* ContextDecorator (contextlib 클래스):  유틸리티.           (line  371)
* ContextManager (typing 클래스):        Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line    6)
* contextmanager() (contextlib 모듈):    유틸리티.           (line   29)
* ContextVar (contextvars 클래스):       컨텍스트 변수.      (line    6)
* CONTIG (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):   Buffer flags.       (line   33)
* CONTIG_RO (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.      (line   35)
* contiguous (memoryview의 속성):        메모리 뷰.          (line  478)
* contiguous (연속):                     용어집.             (line  301)
* Continue (ast 클래스):                 제어 흐름.          (line   97)
* continue (pdb command):                디버거 명령들.      (line  209)
* CONTINUOUS (enum.EnumCheck의 속성):    Data Types.         (line  626)
* control() (select.kqueue 메서드):      Kqueue 객체.        (line   22)
* controlnames (curses.ascii 모듈):      curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  233)
* CONTTYPE (tarfile 모듈):               tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  298)
* convert_arg_line_to_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 파일 파싱 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line    6)
* convert_field() (string.Formatter 메서드): 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line  101)
* CONVERT_VALUE (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1156)
* Cookie (http.cookiejar 클래스):        http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  106)
* CookieError:                           http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   31)
* CookieJar (http.cookiejar 클래스):     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   44)
* cookiejar (urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor의 속성): HTTPCookieProcessor 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* CookiePolicy (http.cookiejar 클래스):  http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   73)
* Copy:                                  Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   29)
* COPY (opcode):                         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  157)
* copy_abs() (decimal.Context 메서드):   Context 객체.       (line  280)
* copy_abs() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):   Decimal 객체.       (line  199)
* copy_context() (contextvars 모듈):     수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line    6)
* copy_decimal() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.     (line  191)
* copy_file_range() (os 모듈):           파일 기술자 연산.   (line   40)
* COPY_FREE_VARS (opcode):               파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1007)
* copy_location() (ast 모듈):            ast 도우미.         (line  159)
* copy_negate() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  284)
* copy_negate() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.      (line  205)
* copy_sign() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  288)
* copy_sign() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  211)
* copy() (collections.deque 메서드):     deque 객체.         (line   43)
* copy() (contextvars.Context 메서드):   수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line  101)
* copy() (copy 모듈):                    copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   18)
* copy() (decimal.Context 메서드):       Context 객체.       (line  187)
* copy() (dict 메서드):                  매핑 형 — dict.     (line  166)
* copy() (frozenset 메서드):             집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  121)
* copy() (hashlib.hash 메서드):          해시 객체.          (line   47)
* copy() (hmac.HMAC 메서드):             hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   80)
* copy() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드):   Morsel 객체.        (line   97)
* copy() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line   61)
* copy() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈): multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line   78)
* copy() (sequence method):              가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* copy() (shutil 모듈):                  디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  118)
* copy() (tkinter.font.Font 메서드):     tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   58)
* copy() (types.MappingProxyType 메서드): 표준 인터프리터 형.
                                                             (line  245)
* copy() (zlib.Compress 메서드):         zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  206)
* copy() (zlib.Decompress 메서드):       zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  266)
* copy2() (shutil 모듈):                 디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  148)
* copyfile() (shutil 모듈):              디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line   16)
* copyfileobj() (shutil 모듈):           디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* copymode() (shutil 모듈):              디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line   57)
* copyright (in module sys):             프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  183)
* copyright (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  164)
* copyright (내장 변수):                 site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들.
                                                             (line   26)
* copysign() (math 모듈):                부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* copystat() (shutil 모듈):              디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line   74)
* copytree() (shutil 모듈):              디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  186)
* coroutine:                             특수 메서드 조회.   (line   73)
* coroutine <1>:                         일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   52)
* Coroutine (collections.abc 클래스):    Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  122)
* Coroutine (typing 클래스):             Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine (코루틴):                    용어집.             (line  311)
* coroutine function (코루틴 함수):      용어집.             (line  318)
* coroutine;function:                    코루틴 함수 Coroutine functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine() (types 모듈):              코루틴 유틸리티 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* CoroutineType (types 모듈):            표준 인터프리터 형. (line   40)
* correlation() (statistics 모듈):       함수 세부 사항.     (line  554)
* cos() (cmath 모듈):                    삼각 함수<2>.       (line   23)
* cos() (math 모듈):                     삼각 함수.          (line   30)
* cosh() (cmath 모듈):                   쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
                                                             (line   23)
* cosh() (math 모듈):                    쌍곡선 함수.        (line   21)
* count (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff의 속성): StatisticDiff.   (line   15)
* count (tracemalloc.Statistic의 속성):  Statistic.          (line   15)
* count_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff의 속성): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   20)
* count() (array.array 메서드):          array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  146)
* count() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   34)
* count() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   34)
* count() (collections.deque 메서드):    deque 객체.         (line   49)
* count() (itertools 모듈):              Itertool Functions. (line  221)
* count() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList 메서드): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  321)
* count() (sequence method):             공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* count() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line   59)
* Counter (collections 클래스):          Counter 객체.       (line   24)
* Counter (typing 클래스):               Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   39)
* countOf() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  182)
* countTestCases() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  712)
* countTestCases() (unittest.TestSuite 메서드): 테스트 분류. (line   54)
* covariance() (statistics 모듈):        함수 세부 사항.     (line  532)
* CoverageResults (trace 클래스):        프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   45)
* CPPFLAGS:                              New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CPPFLAGS <1>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* CPPFLAGS <2>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* CPPFLAGS <3>:                          Linker flags.       (line   50)
* cProfile 명령줄 옵션; -m:              즉석 사용자 설명서. (line   94)
* cProfile 명령줄 옵션; -o:              즉석 사용자 설명서. (line   85)
* cProfile 명령줄 옵션; -s:              즉석 사용자 설명서. (line   89)
* CPU 시간:                              함수<4>.            (line  240)
* CPU 시간 <1>:                          함수<4>.            (line  595)
* cpu_count() (multiprocessing 모듈):    잡동사니<3>.        (line   13)
* cpu_count() (os 모듈):                 기타 시스템 정보.   (line   33)
* CPython:                               용어집.             (line  325)
* cpython_only() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  521)
* CR (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   65)
* crawl_delay() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   48)
* CRC (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):          ZipInfo 객체.       (line  145)
* crc_hqx() (binascii 모듈):             binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   87)
* crc32() (binascii 모듈):               binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   94)
* crc32() (zlib 모듈):                   zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  110)
* create_aggregate() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  157)
* create_archive() (zipapp 모듈):        파이썬 API.         (line    8)
* create_autospec() (unittest.mock 모듈): create_autospec.   (line    6)
* CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.  (line  135)
* create_collation() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  301)
* create_configuration() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.   (line  141)
* create_connection() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 네트워크 연결 열기.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_connection() (socket 모듈):     소켓 만들기.        (line   80)
* create_datagram_endpoint() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 네트워크 연결 열기.
                                                             (line  149)
* create_decimal_from_float() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.
                                                             (line  217)
* create_decimal() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.   (line  195)
* create_default_context() (ssl 모듈):   컨텍스트 생성.      (line    9)
* CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.  (line  125)
* create_eager_task_factory() (asyncio 모듈): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line   32)
* create_empty_file() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   89)
* create_function() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* create_future() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 퓨처와 태스크 만들기.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_git_ignore_file() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>. (line  201)
* create_module() (importlib.abc.Loader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   99)
* create_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  300)
* create_module() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   22)
* CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (subprocess 모듈):  윈도우 상수.        (line   51)
* CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.   (line   56)
* CREATE_NO_WINDOW (subprocess 모듈):    윈도우 상수.        (line  110)
* create_server() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 네트워크 서버 만들기.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_server() (socket 모듈):         소켓 만들기.        (line  110)
* create_stats() (profile.Profile 메서드): profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line   84)
* create_string_buffer() (ctypes 모듈):  유틸리티 함수.      (line   38)
* create_subprocess_exec() (asyncio 모듈): 서브 프로세스 만들기.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_subprocess_shell() (asyncio 모듈): 서브 프로세스 만들기.
                                                             (line   22)
* create_system (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.      (line  109)
* create_task() (asyncio 모듈):          태스크 만들기.      (line   10)
* create_task() (asyncio.loop 메서드):   퓨처와 태스크 만들기.
                                                             (line   16)
* create_task() (asyncio.TaskGroup 메서드): Task Groups.     (line   17)
* create_unicode_buffer() (ctypes 모듈): 유틸리티 함수.      (line   79)
* create_unix_connection() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 네트워크 연결 열기.
                                                             (line  230)
* create_unix_server() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 네트워크 서버 만들기.
                                                             (line  110)
* create_version (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.     (line  113)
* create_window_function() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  212)
* create() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line   65)
* create() (venv 모듈):                  API<2>.             (line  221)
* create() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드):     API<2>.             (line   58)
* createAttribute() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.
                                                             (line   45)
* createAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* createComment() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.  (line   33)
* createDocument() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation 메서드): DOMImplementation 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* createDocumentType() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation 메서드): DOMImplementation 객체.
                                                             (line   25)
* createElement() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.  (line   14)
* createElementNS() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* createfilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk 메서드): 파일 처리기.
                                                             (line   26)
* CreateKey() (winreg 모듈):             함수<12>.           (line   35)
* CreateKeyEx() (winreg 모듈):           함수<12>.           (line   61)
* createLock() (logging.Handler 메서드): Handler 객체.       (line   21)
* createLock() (logging.NullHandler 메서드): NullHandler.    (line   24)
* createProcessingInstruction() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* createSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   66)
* createSocket() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 메서드): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   47)
* createTextNode() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체. (line   27)
* credits (내장 변수):                   site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들.
                                                             (line   26)
* CRITICAL (logging 모듈):               로깅 수준.          (line   44)
* critical() (logging 모듈):             모듈 수준 함수.     (line   80)
* critical() (logging.Logger 메서드):    Logger 객체.        (line  281)
* CRNCYSTR (locale 모듈):                locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  270)
* CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION (msvcrt 모듈):    기타 함수<4>.       (line   89)
* CRT_ASSERT (msvcrt 모듈):              기타 함수<4>.       (line   66)
* CRT_ERROR (msvcrt 모듈):               기타 함수<4>.       (line   61)
* CRT_WARN (msvcrt 모듈):                기타 함수<4>.       (line   56)
* CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG (msvcrt 모듈):       기타 함수<4>.       (line   70)
* CRTDBG_MODE_FILE (msvcrt 모듈):        기타 함수<4>.       (line   74)
* CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW (msvcrt 모듈):        기타 함수<4>.       (line   80)
* CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE (msvcrt 모듈):      기타 함수<4>.       (line   85)
* CrtSetReportFile() (msvcrt 모듈):      기타 함수<4>.       (line   48)
* CrtSetReportMode() (msvcrt 모듈):      기타 함수<4>.       (line   40)
* cssclass_month (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  274)
* cssclass_month_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  267)
* cssclass_noday (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  254)
* cssclass_year (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  281)
* cssclass_year_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  288)
* cssclasses (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  241)
* cssclasses_weekday_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  260)
* csv:                                   csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line    8)
* cte (email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  269)
* cte_type (email.policy.Policy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  141)
* ctermid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line    9)
* ctime() (datetime.date 메서드):        date 객체.          (line  273)
* ctime() (datetime.datetime 메서드):    datetime 객체.      (line  718)
* ctime() (time 모듈):                   함수<4>.            (line   92)
* CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (signal 모듈):        모듈 내용<5>.       (line  196)
* CTRL_C_EVENT (signal 모듈):            모듈 내용<5>.       (line  187)
* ctrl() (curses.ascii 모듈):            curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  212)
* curdir (os 모듈):                      기타 시스템 정보.   (line   97)
* currency() (locale 모듈):              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  432)
* current context (현재 컨텍스트):       용어집.             (line  331)
* current_process() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.     (line   35)
* current_task() (asyncio 모듈):         인트로스펙션.       (line    6)
* current_thread() (threading 모듈):     Reference<2>.       (line   15)
* current() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox 메서드): ttk Combobox.     (line    8)
* CurrentByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  185)
* CurrentColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  189)
* currentframe() (inspect 모듈):         인터프리터 스택.    (line  157)
* CurrentLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  193)
* curs_set() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line   58)
* Cursor (sqlite3 클래스):               Cursor objects.     (line   19)
* cursor() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드):  Connection objects. (line   27)
* cursyncup() (curses.window 메서드):    창 객체.            (line  158)
* Cut:                                   Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   29)
* cwd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):             FTP 객체.           (line  318)
* cwd() (pathlib.Path의 클래스 메서드):  Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   30)
* cycle() (itertools 모듈):              Itertool Functions. (line  243)
* CycleError:                            예외<3>.            (line    8)
* D_FMT (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  176)
* D_T_FMT (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  170)
* daemon (multiprocessing.Process의 속성): Process와 예외.   (line  130)
* daemon (threading.Thread의 속성):      Thread objects.     (line  193)
* daemon_threads (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn의 속성): 서버 생성 노트.
                                                             (line   54)
* dangling;else:                         복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   51)
* data:                                  객체 값 형.         (line    6)
* data (collections.UserDict의 속성):    UserDict 객체.      (line   23)
* data (collections.UserList의 속성):    UserList 객체.      (line   27)
* data (collections.UserString의 속성):  UserString 객체.    (line   23)
* data (plistlib.UID의 속성):            plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line  141)
* data (select.kevent의 속성):           Kevent 객체.        (line  176)
* data (selectors.SelectorKey의 속성):   클래스<3>.          (line   47)
* data (urllib.request.Request의 속성):  Request 객체.       (line   38)
* data (xml.dom.Comment의 속성):         Comment 객체.       (line    9)
* data (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction의 속성): ProcessingInstruction 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* data (xml.dom.Text의 속성):            Text와 CDATASection 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* data (xmlrpc.client.Binary의 속성):    Binary 객체.        (line   12)
* data_filter() (tarfile 모듈):          Default named filters.
                                                             (line   36)
* data_open() (urllib.request.DataHandler 메서드): DataHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* data_received() (asyncio.Protocol 메서드): 스트리밍 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   13)
* data;type:                             표준형 계층.        (line    6)
* data() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* DatabaseError:                         예외<5>.            (line   44)
* dataclass_transform() (typing 모듈):   함수와 데코레이터.  (line  113)
* dataclass() (dataclasses 모듈):        Module contents.    (line    6)
* DataError:                             예외<5>.            (line   51)
* datagram_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol 메서드): 데이터 그램 프로토콜.
                                                             (line    9)
* DatagramHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* DatagramProtocol (asyncio 클래스):     베이스 프로토콜.    (line   20)
* DatagramRequestHandler (socketserver 클래스): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* DatagramTransport (asyncio 클래스):    트랜스포트 계층 구조.
                                                             (line   41)
* DataHandler (urllib.request 클래스):   urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  398)
* date (datetime 클래스):                date 객체.          (line   12)
* date_time (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):    ZipInfo 객체.       (line   52)
* date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  296)
* date() (datetime.datetime 메서드):     datetime 객체.      (line  429)
* DateHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  124)
* datetime (datetime 클래스):            datetime 객체.      (line   16)
* datetime (email.headerregistry.DateHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  132)
* DateTime (xmlrpc.client 클래스):       DateTime 객체.      (line    6)
* Day (calendar 클래스):                 calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  435)
* day (datetime.datetime의 속성):        datetime 객체.      (line  302)
* day (datetime.date의 속성):            date 객체.          (line  119)
* DAY_1 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* DAY_2 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* DAY_3 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* DAY_4 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* DAY_5 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* DAY_6 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* DAY_7 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  193)
* day_abbr (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  413)
* day_name (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  404)
* daylight (time 모듈):                  시간대 상수.        (line   13)
* days (datetime.timedelta의 속성):      timedelta 객체.     (line  104)
* DbfilenameShelf (shelve 클래스):       제약 사항.          (line   67)
* DC1 (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   77)
* DC2 (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   80)
* DC3 (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   83)
* DC4 (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   86)
* dcgettext() (locale 모듈):             메시지 카탈로그에 액세스.
                                                             (line   10)
* deactivate_stack_trampoline() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1699)
* debug (imaplib.IMAP4의 속성):          IMAP4 객체.         (line  385)
* DEBUG (logging 모듈):                  로깅 수준.          (line   23)
* debug (pdb command):                   디버거 명령들.      (line  408)
* DEBUG (re 모듈):                       Flags.              (line   32)
* debug (shlex.shlex의 속성):            shlex 객체.         (line  144)
* debug (sys.flags의 속성):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  497)
* debug (zipfile.ZipFile의 속성):        ZipFile 객체.       (line  345)
* DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery 모듈): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   19)
* DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (gc 모듈):           gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  278)
* DEBUG_LEAK (gc 모듈):                  gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  297)
* DEBUG_SAVEALL (gc 모듈):               gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  291)
* debug_src() (doctest 모듈):            디버깅.             (line  140)
* DEBUG_STATS (gc 모듈):                 gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  273)
* DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (gc 모듈):         gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  282)
* debug() (doctest 모듈):                디버깅.             (line  120)
* debug() (logging 모듈):                모듈 수준 함수.     (line   43)
* debug() (logging.Logger 메서드):       Logger 객체.        (line  170)
* debug() (unittest.TestCase 메서드):    테스트 케이스.      (line  115)
* debug() (unittest.TestSuite 메서드):   테스트 분류.        (line   48)
* debugger:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  909)
* debugger <1>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1543)
* debuglevel (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   67)
* DebugRunner (doctest 클래스):          디버깅.             (line  159)
* DECEMBER (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* Decimal (decimal 클래스):              Decimal 객체.       (line    6)
* decimal() (unicodedata 모듈):          unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   50)
* DecimalException (decimal 클래스):     신호.               (line   27)
* decode (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성):      codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   75)
* decode_header() (email.header 모듈):   email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  166)
* decode_params() (email.utils 모듈):    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  204)
* decode_rfc2231() (email.utils 모듈):   email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  177)
* decode_source() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   68)
* decode() (base64 모듈):                Legacy Interface.   (line    6)
* decode() (bytearray 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   88)
* decode() (bytes 메서드):               바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   88)
* decode() (codecs 모듈):                codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   32)
* decode() (codecs.Codec 메서드):        상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   28)
* decode() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 메서드): IncrementalDecoder 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* decode() (json.JSONDecoder 메서드):    인코더와 디코더.    (line   83)
* decode() (quopri 모듈):                quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   18)
* decode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary 메서드): Binary 객체.       (line   20)
* decode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime 메서드): DateTime 객체.   (line   13)
* decodebytes() (base64 모듈):           Legacy Interface.   (line   13)
* DecodedGenerator (email.generator 클래스): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  215)
* decodestring() (quopri 모듈):          quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   39)
* decomposition() (unicodedata 모듈):    unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  123)
* decompress() (bz2 모듈):               일괄 압축 해제.     (line   15)
* decompress() (bz2.BZ2Decompressor 메서드): 증분 압축 해제. (line   43)
* decompress() (gzip 모듈):              gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  204)
* decompress() (lzma 모듈):              메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  176)
* decompress() (lzma.LZMADecompressor 메서드): 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  119)
* decompress() (zlib 모듈):              zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  123)
* decompress() (zlib.Decompress 메서드): zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  240)
* decompressobj() (zlib 모듈):           zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  164)
* decorator (데코레이터):                용어집.             (line  341)
* DEDENT (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   89)
* DEDENT token:                          복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   51)
* DEDENT 토큰:                           들여쓰기.           (line   31)
* dedent() (textwrap 모듈):              textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line   75)
* deepcopy() (copy 모듈):                copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   22)
* def_prog_mode() (curses 모듈):         함수<5>.            (line   67)
* def_shell_mode() (curses 모듈):        함수<5>.            (line   75)
* default (email.policy 모듈):           email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  459)
* default (inspect.Parameter의 속성):    Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  209)
* default (optparse.Option의 속성):      옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   42)
* DEFAULT (unittest.mock 모듈):          DEFAULT.            (line    6)
* DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (io 모듈):         고수준 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_bufsize (xml.dom.pulldom 모듈): xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
                                                             (line   99)
* default_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 에러 처리 API.
                                                             (line   33)
* default_factory (collections.defaultdict의 속성): defaultdict 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* DEFAULT_FORMAT (tarfile 모듈):         tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  330)
* DEFAULT_IGNORES (filecmp 모듈):        dircmp 클래스.      (line  108)
* default_loader() (xml.etree.ElementInclude 모듈): 함수<9>. (line    6)
* default_max_str_digits (sys.int_info의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1111)
* default_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 메서드): BaseHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (pickle 모듈):        모듈 인터페이스.    (line   20)
* DEFAULT_TIMEOUT (unittest.mock.ThreadingMock의 속성): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  971)
* default_timer() (timeit 모듈):         파이썬 인터페이스.  (line   30)
* default;parameter;value:               함수 정의.          (line   65)
* default() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):            Cmd 객체.           (line   67)
* default() (json.JSONEncoder 메서드):   인코더와 디코더.    (line  189)
* DefaultContext (decimal 모듈):         Context 객체.       (line   86)
* DefaultCookiePolicy (http.cookiejar 클래스): http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   78)
* defaultdict (collections 클래스):      defaultdict 객체.   (line    6)
* DefaultDict (typing 클래스):           Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 클래스): 정책 객체.        (line   54)
* DefaultHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  331)
* DefaultHandlerExpand() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  337)
* defaults() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  104)
* DefaultSelector (selectors 클래스):    클래스<3>.          (line  153)
* defaultTestLoader (unittest 모듈):     테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  442)
* defaultTestResult() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  717)
* defects (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   49)
* defects (email.message.EmailMessage의 속성): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  658)
* defects (email.message.Message의 속성): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  679)
* defpath (os 모듈):                     기타 시스템 정보.   (line  135)
* DefragResult (urllib.parse 클래스):    구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   37)
* DefragResultBytes (urllib.parse 클래스): 구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   62)
* degrees() (math 모듈):                 각도 변환.          (line    6)
* degrees() (turtle 모듈):               측정 설정.          (line    6)
* Del (ast 클래스):                      변수.               (line   11)
* DEL (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  126)
* del_param() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  353)
* del_param() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  508)
* delay_output() (curses 모듈):          함수<5>.            (line   83)
* delay() (turtle 모듈):                 애니메이션 제어.    (line    6)
* delayload (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar의 속성): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line  152)
* delch() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  163)
* dele() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   64)
* Delete (ast 클래스):                   문장.               (line  136)
* DELETE_ATTR (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  611)
* DELETE_DEREF (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  997)
* DELETE_FAST (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  958)
* DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  625)
* DELETE_NAME (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  565)
* DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  268)
* delete() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):          FTP 객체.           (line  312)
* delete() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line   69)
* delete() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.      (line   67)
* deleteacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):    IMAP4 객체.         (line   73)
* deletefilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk 메서드): 파일 처리기.
                                                             (line   35)
* DeleteKey() (winreg 모듈):             함수<12>.           (line   96)
* DeleteKeyEx() (winreg 모듈):           함수<12>.           (line  117)
* deleteln() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  167)
* deleteMe() (bdb.Breakpoint 메서드):    bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   41)
* DeleteValue() (winreg 모듈):           함수<12>.           (line  151)
* delimiter (csv.Dialect의 속성):        방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   17)
* delitem() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  186)
* deliver_challenge() (multiprocessing.connection 모듈): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   15)
* delocalize() (locale 모듈):            locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  450)
* demo_app() (wsgiref.simple_server 모듈): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   35)
* denominator (fractions.Fraction의 속성): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  114)
* denominator (numbers.Rational의 속성): 숫자 계층.          (line   55)
* deprecated() (warnings 모듈):          사용 가능한 함수.   (line  127)
* DeprecationWarning:                    경고.               (line   17)
* deque (collections 클래스):            deque 객체.         (line    6)
* Deque (typing 클래스):                 Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   49)
* dequeue() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 메서드): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   44)
* DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (ssl 모듈):     인증서 처리.        (line   52)
* derive() (BaseExceptionGroup 메서드):  예외 그룹.          (line   76)
* derwin() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  172)
* descrgetfunc (C type):                 슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   73)
* description (inspect.Parameter.kind의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  266)
* description (sqlite3.Cursor의 속성):   Cursor objects.     (line  186)
* descriptor (디스크립터):               용어집.             (line  362)
* descrsetfunc (C type):                 슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   77)
* deserialize() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  696)
* dest (optparse.Option의 속성):         옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   33)
* destructor:                            기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   53)
* destructor (C type):                   슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   24)
* detach() (io.BufferedIOBase 메서드):   I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  243)
* detach() (io.TextIOBase 메서드):       텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   37)
* detach() (socket.socket 메서드):       소켓 객체.          (line   99)
* detach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.      (line   73)
* detach() (weakref.finalize 메서드):    weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  273)
* Detach() (winreg.PyHKEY 메서드):       레지스트리 핸들 객체.
                                                             (line   37)
* DETACHED_PROCESS (subprocess 모듈):    윈도우 상수.        (line  117)
* detect_api_mismatch() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  625)
* detect_encoding() (tokenize 모듈):     입력 토큰화하기.    (line   69)
* dev_mode (sys.flags의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  536)
* device_encoding() (os 모듈):           파일 기술자 연산.   (line   77)
* devmajor (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):     TarInfo 객체.       (line  138)
* devminor (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):     TarInfo 객체.       (line  142)
* devnull (os 모듈):                     기타 시스템 정보.   (line  149)
* DEVNULL (subprocess 모듈):             subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  133)
* devpoll() (select 모듈):               select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line   35)
* DevpollSelector (selectors 클래스):    클래스<3>.          (line  176)
* dgettext() (gettext 모듈):             GNU gettext API.    (line   37)
* dgettext() (locale 모듈):              메시지 카탈로그에 액세스.
                                                             (line    8)
* Dialect (csv 클래스):                  모듈 내용<3>.       (line  174)
* dialect (csv.csvreader의 속성):        판독기 객체.        (line   18)
* dialect (csv.csvwriter의 속성):        기록기 객체.        (line   30)
* Dialog (tkinter.commondialog 클래스):  tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿.
                                                             (line   13)
* Dialog (tkinter.simpledialog 클래스):  tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   20)
* Dict (ast 클래스):                     리터럴<2>.          (line  101)
* Dict (typing 클래스):                  Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line    6)
* dict (내장 클래스):                    매핑 형 — dict.     (line   19)
* DICT_MERGE (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  737)
* DICT_UPDATE (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  726)
* dict() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  220)
* DictComp (ast 클래스):                 컴프리헨션.         (line    6)
* dictConfig() (logging.config 모듈):    구성 함수.          (line   12)
* dictionary (딕셔너리):                 용어집.             (line  378)
* dictionary comprehension (딕셔너리 컴프리헨션): 용어집.    (line  383)
* dictionary view (딕셔너리 뷰):         용어집.             (line  391)
* dictionary;comprehensions:             딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictionary;display:                    딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* DictReader (csv 클래스):               모듈 내용<3>.       (line   98)
* DictWriter (csv 클래스):               모듈 내용<3>.       (line  140)
* diff_bytes() (difflib 모듈):           difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  318)
* diff_files (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):    dircmp 클래스.      (line   89)
* Differ (difflib 클래스):               difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line   47)
* difference_update() (frozenset 메서드): 집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  179)
* difference() (frozenset 메서드):       집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  107)
* dig (sys.float_info의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  596)
* digest_size (hmac.HMAC의 속성):        hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   88)
* digest() (hashlib.hash 메서드):        해시 객체.          (line   35)
* digest() (hashlib.shake 메서드):       SHAKE 가변 길이 요약.
                                                             (line   15)
* digest() (hmac 모듈):                  hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   32)
* digest() (hmac.HMAC 메서드):           hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   56)
* digit() (unicodedata 모듈):            unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   61)
* digits (string 모듈):                  문자열 상수.        (line   24)
* dir() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):             FTP 객체.           (line  295)
* dircmp (filecmp 클래스):               dircmp 클래스.      (line    6)
* Directory (tkinter.filedialog 클래스): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   67)
* directory;changing:                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  111)
* directory;creating:                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  530)
* directory;deleting:                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  711)
* directory;traversal:                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1591)
* directory;traversal <1>:               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1687)
* directory;walking:                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1591)
* directory;walking <1>:                 파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1687)
* DirEntry (os 클래스):                  파일과 디렉터리.    (line  889)
* dirname() (os.path 모듈):              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line   97)
* dirs_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   82)
* dirs_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   86)
* DirsOnSysPath (test.support.import_helper 클래스): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   92)
* DIRTYPE (tarfile 모듈):                tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  290)
* dis 명령줄 옵션; -C:                   Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   17)
* dis 명령줄 옵션; -h:                   Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* dis 명령줄 옵션; -help:                Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* dis 명령줄 옵션; -O:                   Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* dis 명령줄 옵션; -show-caches:         Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   17)
* dis 명령줄 옵션; -show-offsets:        Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* dis() (dis 모듈):                      분석 함수.          (line   37)
* dis() (dis.Bytecode 메서드):           바이트 코드 분석.   (line   54)
* dis() (pickletools 모듈):              프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* disable (pdb command):                 디버거 명령들.      (line  125)
* DISABLE (sys.monitoring 모듈):         Disabling events.   (line    6)
* disable_faulthandler() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  350)
* disable_gc() (test.support 모듈):      test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  361)
* disable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기.
                                                             (line   10)
* disable() (bdb.Breakpoint 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   50)
* disable() (faulthandler 모듈):         결함 처리기 상태.   (line   26)
* disable() (gc 모듈):                   gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   25)
* disable() (logging 모듈):              모듈 수준 함수.     (line   96)
* disable() (profile.Profile 메서드):    profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line   79)
* disabled (logging.Logger의 속성):      Logger 객체.        (line   91)
* DisableReflectionKey() (winreg 모듈):  함수<12>.           (line  458)
* disassemble() (dis 모듈):              분석 함수.          (line   95)
* discard (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.       (line   55)
* discard() (frozenset 메서드):          집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  201)
* discard() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):    Mailbox 객체.       (line   67)
* discard() (mailbox.MH 메서드):         MH 객체.            (line   78)
* discover() (unittest.TestLoader 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  114)
* disk_usage() (shutil 모듈):            디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  357)
* dispatch_call() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):      bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  205)
* dispatch_exception() (bdb.Bdb 메서드): bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  223)
* dispatch_line() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):      bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  196)
* dispatch_return() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):    bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  214)
* dispatch_table (pickle.Pickler의 속성): 모듈 인터페이스.   (line  168)
* DISPLAY:                               Tkinter 모듈.       (line   27)
* display (pdb command):                 디버거 명령들.      (line  271)
* display_name (email.headerregistry.Address의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  395)
* display_name (email.headerregistry.Group의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  437)
* displayhook() (sys 모듈):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  277)
* dist() (math 모듈):                    합과 곱 함수.       (line    6)
* distance() (turtle 모듈):              거북이의 상태 보고. (line   65)
* Distribution (importlib.metadata 클래스): 배포.            (line   14)
* distribution() (importlib.metadata 모듈): 배포.            (line    6)
* Div (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* divide_int() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.       (line  296)
* divide() (decimal.Context 메서드):     Context 객체.       (line  292)
* division:                              이항 산술 연산.     (line   32)
* division (__future__ 모듈):            Module Contents.    (line   22)
* DivisionByZero (decimal 클래스):       신호.               (line   32)
* divmod() (decimal.Context 메서드):     Context 객체.       (line  300)
* DLE (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   74)
* DllCanUnloadNow() (ctypes 모듈):       유틸리티 함수.      (line   93)
* DllGetClassObject() (ctypes 모듈):     유틸리티 함수.      (line  101)
* dllhandle (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  271)
* dnd_start() (tkinter.dnd 모듈):        tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line   63)
* DndHandler (tkinter.dnd 클래스):       tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line   42)
* dngettext() (gettext 모듈):            GNU gettext API.    (line   55)
* dnpgettext() (gettext 모듈):           GNU gettext API.    (line   66)
* do_clear() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):           bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  283)
* do_command() (curses.textpad.Textbox 메서드): Textbox 객체.
                                                             (line   27)
* do_GET() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  359)
* do_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.           (line  123)
* do_HEAD() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  353)
* do_help() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):            Cmd 객체.           (line   43)
* do_POST() (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  442)
* doc (json.JSONDecodeError의 속성):     예외<14>.           (line   14)
* doc_header (cmd.Cmd의 속성):           Cmd 객체.           (line  140)
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 클래스): XMLRPC 서버 문서화.
                                                             (line   22)
* DocFileSuite() (doctest 모듈):         Unittest API.       (line   23)
* doClassCleanups() (unittest.TestCase의 클래스 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  808)
* doCleanups() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.    (line  768)
* docmd() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):         SMTP 객체.          (line   16)
* docstring:                             클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* docstring (doctest.DocTest의 속성):    DocTest 객체.       (line   44)
* docstring (독스트링):                  용어집.             (line  400)
* DocTest (doctest 클래스):              DocTest 객체.       (line    6)
* doctest 명령줄 옵션; -f:               명령줄 사용법<2>.   (line   35)
* doctest 명령줄 옵션; -fail-fast:       명령줄 사용법<2>.   (line   35)
* doctest 명령줄 옵션; -o:               명령줄 사용법<2>.   (line   28)
* doctest 명령줄 옵션; -option:          명령줄 사용법<2>.   (line   28)
* doctest 명령줄 옵션; -v:               명령줄 사용법<2>.   (line   11)
* doctest 명령줄 옵션; -verbose:         명령줄 사용법<2>.   (line   11)
* DocTestFailure:                        디버깅.             (line  174)
* DocTestFinder (doctest 클래스):        DocTestFinder 객체. (line    6)
* DocTestParser (doctest 클래스):        DocTestParser 객체. (line    6)
* DocTestRunner (doctest 클래스):        DocTestRunner 객체. (line    6)
* DocTestSuite() (doctest 모듈):         Unittest API.       (line   94)
* doctype() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* documentation string:                  Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* documentElement (xml.dom.Document의 속성): Document 객체.  (line   10)
* DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 클래스): XMLRPC 서버 문서화.
                                                             (line   26)
* DocXMLRPCServer (xmlrpc.server 클래스): XMLRPC 서버 문서화.
                                                             (line   11)
* domain (email.headerregistry.Address의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  404)
* domain (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.        (line   38)
* domain (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):   Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* domain (tracemalloc.DomainFilter의 속성): DomainFilter.    (line   20)
* domain (tracemalloc.Filter의 속성):    Filter.             (line   30)
* domain (tracemalloc.Trace의 속성):     Trace.              (line   15)
* domain_initial_dot (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.
                                                             (line   85)
* domain_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 메서드): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   25)
* domain_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.
                                                             (line   81)
* DomainFilter (tracemalloc 클래스):     DomainFilter.       (line    6)
* DomainLiberal (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  151)
* DomainRFC2965Match (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  144)
* DomainStrict (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  156)
* DomainStrictNoDots (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  131)
* DomainStrictNonDomain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  137)
* DOMEventStream (xml.dom.pulldom 클래스): DOMEventStream 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* DOMException:                          예외<17>.           (line   16)
* doModuleCleanups() (unittest 모듈):    setUpModule 과 tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   42)
* DomstringSizeErr:                      예외<17>.           (line   21)
* done() (asyncio.Future 메서드):        Future 객체<2>.     (line   61)
* done() (asyncio.Task 메서드):          Task 객체.          (line   64)
* done() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.    (line   31)
* done() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 메서드): graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line  125)
* done() (turtle 모듈):                  화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line  104)
* DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (doctest 모듈):  옵션 플래그.        (line   25)
* DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (doctest 모듈): 옵션 플래그.        (line   15)
* dont_write_bytecode (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  313)
* dont_write_bytecode (sys.flags의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  512)
* doRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler 메서드): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* doRollover() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 메서드): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   98)
* DOT (token 모듈):                      token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  220)
* dot() (turtle 모듈):                   거북이 움직임.      (line  249)
* DOTALL (re 모듈):                      Flags.              (line  108)
* doublequote (csv.Dialect의 속성):      방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   22)
* DOUBLESLASH (token 모듈):              token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  292)
* DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (token 모듈):         token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  295)
* DOUBLESTAR (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  256)
* DOUBLESTAREQUAL (token 모듈):          token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  289)
* doupdate() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line   87)
* down (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line   81)
* down() (turtle 모듈):                  그리기 상태.        (line    6)
* dpgettext() (gettext 모듈):            GNU gettext API.    (line   62)
* drain() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.       (line   69)
* drive (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):       메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line   15)
* drop_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  197)
* dropwhile() (itertools 모듈):          Itertool Functions. (line  264)
* dst() (datetime.datetime 메서드):      datetime 객체.      (line  524)
* dst() (datetime.time 메서드):          time 객체.          (line  241)
* dst() (datetime.timezone 메서드):      timezone 객체.      (line   52)
* dst() (datetime.tzinfo 메서드):        tzinfo 객체.        (line   63)
* DTDHandler (xml.sax.handler 클래스):   xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   23)
* duck-typing (덕 타이핑):               용어집.             (line  408)
* dump_stats() (profile.Profile 메서드): profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line  102)
* dump_stats() (pstats.Stats 메서드):    Stats 클래스.       (line   51)
* dump_traceback_later() (faulthandler 모듈): 시간 초과 후에 트레이스백 덤프하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump_traceback() (faulthandler 모듈):  트레이스백 덤프하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump() (ast 모듈):                     ast 도우미.         (line  263)
* dump() (json 모듈):                    기본 사용법.        (line    6)
* dump() (marshal 모듈):                 marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   45)
* dump() (pickle 모듈):                  모듈 인터페이스.    (line   34)
* dump() (pickle.Pickler 메서드):        모듈 인터페이스.    (line  145)
* dump() (plistlib 모듈):                plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   90)
* dump() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 메서드):  Snapshot.           (line   28)
* dump() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈):   함수<8>.            (line   80)
* dumps() (json 모듈):                   기본 사용법.        (line   85)
* dumps() (marshal 모듈):                marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   87)
* dumps() (pickle 모듈):                 모듈 인터페이스.    (line   45)
* dumps() (plistlib 모듈):               plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line  125)
* dumps() (xmlrpc.client 모듈):          편의 함수.          (line    6)
* dunder:                                용어집.             (line  420)
* dup() (os 모듈):                       파일 기술자 연산.   (line   88)
* dup() (socket.socket 메서드):          소켓 객체.          (line  106)
* dup2() (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  100)
* DuplicateOptionError:                  예외<6>.            (line   23)
* DuplicateSectionError:                 예외<6>.            (line   14)
* dwFlags (subprocess.STARTUPINFO의 속성): 윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line   19)
* DynamicClassAttribute() (types 모듈):  추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수.
                                                             (line   55)
* e (cmath 모듈):                        상수<3>.            (line   10)
* e (math 모듈):                         상수<2>.            (line   10)
* e;숫자 리터럴에서:                     정수 리터럴.        (line   40)
* E2BIG (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   53)
* EACCES (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   79)
* EADDRINUSE (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  443)
* EADDRNOTAVAIL (errno 모듈):            errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  447)
* EADV (errno 모듈):                     errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  308)
* EAFNOSUPPORT (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  438)
* EAFP:                                  용어집.             (line  426)
* EAGAIN (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   70)
* eager_task_factory() (asyncio 모듈):   Eager Task Factory. (line    6)
* EALREADY (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  518)
* east_asian_width() (unicodedata 모듈): unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  107)
* EAUTH (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  599)
* EBADARCH (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  605)
* EBADE (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  244)
* EBADEXEC (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  611)
* EBADF (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   61)
* EBADFD (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  345)
* EBADMACHO (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  617)
* EBADMSG (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  332)
* EBADR (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  248)
* EBADRPC (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  683)
* EBADRQC (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  260)
* EBADSLT (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  264)
* EBFONT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  272)
* EBUSY (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   92)
* ECANCELED (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  710)
* ECHILD (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   65)
* echo() (curses 모듈):                  함수<5>.            (line  102)
* echochar() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  181)
* ECHRNG (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  211)
* ECOMM (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  316)
* ECONNABORTED (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  464)
* ECONNREFUSED (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  505)
* ECONNRESET (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  470)
* EDEADLK (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  173)
* EDEADLOCK (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  268)
* EDESTADDRREQ (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  398)
* EDEVERR (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  623)
* edit() (curses.textpad.Textbox 메서드): Textbox 객체.      (line   17)
* EDOM (errno 모듈):                     errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  164)
* EDOTDOT (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  328)
* EDQUOT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  553)
* EEXIST (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   96)
* EFAULT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   84)
* EFBIG (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  139)
* EFD_CLOEXEC (os 모듈):                 파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1858)
* EFD_NONBLOCK (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1867)
* EFD_SEMAPHORE (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1876)
* effective() (bdb 모듈):                bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  451)
* EFTYPE (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  629)
* ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드): SMTP 객체. (line   69)
* ehlo() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):          SMTP 객체.          (line   53)
* EHOSTDOWN (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  510)
* EHOSTUNREACH (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  514)
* EIDRM (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  207)
* EILSEQ (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  377)
* EINPROGRESS (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  523)
* EINTR (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   40)
* EINVAL (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  119)
* EIO (errno 모듈):                      errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   45)
* EISCONN (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  479)
* EISDIR (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  114)
* EISNAM (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  545)
* EJECT (enum.FlagBoundary의 속성):      Data Types.         (line  701)
* EKEYEXPIRED (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  575)
* EKEYREJECTED (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  583)
* EKEYREVOKED (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  579)
* EL2HLT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  240)
* EL2NSYNC (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  215)
* EL3HLT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  219)
* EL3RST (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  223)
* Element (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): Element 객체.      (line    6)
* element_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링. (line  126)
* element_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링.  (line  246)
* element_options() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링.
                                                             (line  250)
* ElementDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  226)
* elements() (collections.Counter 메서드): Counter 객체.     (line   64)
* ElementTree (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* ELIBACC (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  353)
* ELIBBAD (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  358)
* ELIBEXEC (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  372)
* ELIBMAX (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  367)
* ELIBSCN (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  363)
* ELLIPSIS (doctest 모듈):               옵션 플래그.        (line   41)
* ELLIPSIS (token 모듈):                 token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  307)
* Ellipsis (내장 변수):                  내장 상수.          (line   54)
* EllipsisType (types 모듈):             표준 인터프리터 형. (line  138)
* ELNRNG (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  227)
* ELOCKUNMAPPED (errno 모듈):            errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  591)
* ELOOP (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  193)
* else;conditional expression:           조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* EM (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  101)
* EmailMessage (email.message 클래스):   email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   46)
* EmailPolicy (email.policy 클래스):     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  326)
* Emax (decimal.Context의 속성):         Context 객체.       (line  133)
* EMEDIUMTYPE (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  567)
* EMFILE (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  127)
* Emin (decimal.Context의 속성):         Context 객체.       (line  133)
* emit() (logging.FileHandler 메서드):   FileHandler.        (line   30)
* emit() (logging.Handler 메서드):       Handler 객체.       (line  105)
* emit() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   22)
* emit() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler 메서드): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   28)
* emit() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler 메서드): HTTPHandler. (line   33)
* emit() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 메서드): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* emit() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 메서드): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   40)
* emit() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler 메서드): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler 메서드): SMTPHandler. (line   31)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   23)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 메서드): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   58)
* emit() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 메서드): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  102)
* emit() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler 메서드): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* emit() (logging.NullHandler 메서드):   NullHandler.        (line   16)
* emit() (logging.StreamHandler 메서드): StreamHandler.      (line   17)
* EMLINK (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  155)
* Empty:                                 queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   74)
* empty (inspect.Parameter의 속성):      Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  193)
* empty (inspect.Signature의 속성):      Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   95)
* EMPTY_NAMESPACE (xml.dom 모듈):        모듈 내용<6>.       (line   32)
* empty;list:                            리스트 디스플레이.  (line    6)
* empty;tuple:                           불변 시퀀스.        (line   29)
* empty;tuple <1>:                       괄호 안에 넣은 형.  (line   14)
* empty() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):        Queue.              (line   26)
* empty() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.       (line  110)
* empty() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 메서드): 파이프와 큐. (line  223)
* empty() (queue.Queue 메서드):          큐 객체.            (line   15)
* empty() (queue.SimpleQueue 메서드):    SimpleQueue 객체.   (line   14)
* empty() (sched.scheduler 메서드):      스케줄러 객체.      (line   44)
* emptyline() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):          Cmd 객체.           (line   62)
* emscripten_version (sys._emscripten_info의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  327)
* EMSGSIZE (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  402)
* EMULTIHOP (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  324)
* enable (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  132)
* enable_callback_tracebacks() (sqlite3 모듈): Module functions.
                                                             (line  125)
* enable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기.
                                                             (line   30)
* enable_load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  424)
* enable_traversal() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드): ttk Notebook.
                                                             (line   70)
* ENABLE_USER_SITE (site 모듈):          모듈 내용<8>.       (line   10)
* enable() (bdb.Breakpoint 메서드):      bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   46)
* enable() (faulthandler 모듈):          결함 처리기 상태.   (line    6)
* enable() (gc 모듈):                    gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   21)
* enable() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line   78)
* enable() (profile.Profile 메서드):     profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line   74)
* EnableControlFlowGuard:                Build<35>.          (line   47)
* enabled (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):       bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  105)
* EnableReflectionKey() (winreg 모듈):   함수<12>.           (line  476)
* ENAMETOOLONG (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  177)
* ENAVAIL (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  540)
* enclose() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  186)
* encode (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성):      codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   75)
* encode_7or8bit() (email.encoders 모듈): email encoders 인코더.
                                                             (line   54)
* encode_base64() (email.encoders 모듈): email encoders 인코더.
                                                             (line   46)
* encode_noop() (email.encoders 모듈):   email encoders 인코더.
                                                             (line   60)
* encode_quopri() (email.encoders 모듈): email encoders 인코더.
                                                             (line   39)
* encode_rfc2231() (email.utils 모듈):   email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  181)
* encode() (base64 모듈):                Legacy Interface.   (line   21)
* encode() (codecs 모듈):                codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   21)
* encode() (codecs.Codec 메서드):        상태 없는 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   11)
* encode() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 메서드): IncrementalEncoder 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* encode() (email.header.Header 메서드): email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  113)
* encode() (json.JSONEncoder 메서드):    인코더와 디코더.    (line  208)
* encode() (quopri 모듈):                quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   28)
* encode() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line   80)
* encode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary 메서드): Binary 객체.       (line   25)
* encode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime 메서드): DateTime 객체.   (line   17)
* encodebytes() (base64 모듈):           Legacy Interface.   (line   30)
* EncodedFile() (codecs 모듈):           codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  196)
* encodePriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 메서드): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   87)
* encodestring() (quopri 모듈):          quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   44)
* encoding (curses.window의 속성):       창 객체.            (line  195)
* encoding (io.TextIOBase의 속성):       텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   15)
* ENCODING (tarfile 모듈):               tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  264)
* ENCODING (token 모듈):                 token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  123)
* encoding (UnicodeError의 속성):        구체적인 예외.      (line  418)
* encodings_map (mimetypes 모듈):        mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  138)
* encodings_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes의 속성): MimeTypes 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* EncodingWarning:                       경고.               (line   70)
* end (UnicodeError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line  434)
* END_ASYNC_FOR (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  336)
* end_col_offset (ast.AST의 속성):       노드 클래스.        (line   46)
* end_colno (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성): FrameSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   61)
* end_fill() (turtle 모듈):              채우기.             (line   21)
* END_FOR (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  143)
* end_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  255)
* end_lineno (ast.AST의 속성):           노드 클래스.        (line   46)
* end_lineno (SyntaxError의 속성):       구체적인 예외.      (line  317)
* end_lineno (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성): FrameSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   48)
* end_lineno (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   96)
* end_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   82)
* end_offset (SyntaxError의 속성):       구체적인 예외.      (line  322)
* end_offset (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  111)
* end_poly() (turtle 모듈):              특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   11)
* END_SEND (opcode):                     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  150)
* end() (re.Match 메서드):               일치 객체.          (line  137)
* end() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   37)
* endCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 메서드): LexicalHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* EndCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  327)
* EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  221)
* endDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* endDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 메서드): LexicalHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   28)
* endElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   91)
* EndElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  253)
* endElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line  116)
* endheaders() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  171)
* ENDMARKER (token 모듈):                token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  119)
* EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  307)
* endpos (re.Match의 속성):              일치 객체.          (line  173)
* endPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   69)
* endswith() (bytearray 메서드):         바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  117)
* endswith() (bytes 메서드):             바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  117)
* endswith() (str 메서드):               문자열 메서드.      (line  111)
* endwin() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  107)
* ENEEDAUTH (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  635)
* ENETDOWN (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  451)
* ENETRESET (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  459)
* ENETUNREACH (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  455)
* ENFILE (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  123)
* ENOANO (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  256)
* ENOATTR (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  641)
* ENOBUFS (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  475)
* ENOCSI (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  236)
* ENODATA (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  280)
* ENODEV (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  105)
* ENOENT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   30)
* ENOEXEC (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   57)
* ENOKEY (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  571)
* ENOLCK (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  181)
* ENOLINK (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  304)
* ENOMEDIUM (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  563)
* ENOMEM (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   75)
* ENOMSG (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  203)
* ENONET (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  292)
* ENOPKG (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  296)
* ENOPOLICY (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  647)
* ENOPROTOOPT (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  411)
* ENOSPC (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  143)
* ENOSR (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  288)
* ENOSTR (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  276)
* ENOSYS (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  185)
* ENOTACTIVE (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  595)
* ENOTBLK (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   88)
* ENOTCAPABLE (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  701)
* ENOTCONN (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  484)
* ENOTDIR (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  109)
* ENOTEMPTY (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  189)
* ENOTNAM (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  536)
* ENOTRECOVERABLE (errno 모듈):          errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  722)
* ENOTSOCK (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  394)
* ENOTSUP (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  428)
* ENOTTY (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  131)
* ENOTUNIQ (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  341)
* ENQ (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   33)
* enqueue_sentinel() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 메서드): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   84)
* enqueue() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 메서드): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   82)
* ensure_directories() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.     (line   84)
* ensure_future() (asyncio 모듈):        퓨처 함수.          (line   18)
* ensurepip 명령줄 옵션; -altinstall:    명령 줄 인터페이스<6>.
                                                             (line   37)
* ensurepip 명령줄 옵션; -default-pip:   명령 줄 인터페이스<6>.
                                                             (line   41)
* ensurepip 명령줄 옵션; -root:          명령 줄 인터페이스<6>.
                                                             (line   22)
* ensurepip 명령줄 옵션; -user:          명령 줄 인터페이스<6>.
                                                             (line   27)
* enter_async_context() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  603)
* enter_context() (contextlib.ExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.   (line  525)
* enter() (sched.scheduler 메서드):      스케줄러 객체.      (line   29)
* enterabs() (sched.scheduler 메서드):   스케줄러 객체.      (line    9)
* enterAsyncContext() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  865)
* enterClassContext() (unittest.TestCase의 클래스 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  799)
* enterContext() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.  (line  759)
* enterModuleContext() (unittest 모듈):  setUpModule 과 tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   33)
* entities (xml.dom.DocumentType의 속성): DocumentType 객체. (line   36)
* EntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  281)
* entitydefs (html.entities 모듈):       html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
                                                             (line   24)
* EntityResolver (xml.sax.handler 클래스): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   30)
* entry_points() (importlib.metadata 모듈): 진입 지점.       (line    6)
* EntryPoint (importlib.metadata 클래스): 진입 지점.         (line   26)
* EntryPoints (importlib.metadata 클래스): 진입 지점.        (line   18)
* Enum (enum 클래스):                    Data Types.         (line  118)
* enum_certificates() (ssl 모듈):        인증서 처리.        (line   85)
* enum_crls() (ssl 모듈):                인증서 처리.        (line  107)
* EnumCheck (enum 클래스):               Data Types.         (line  605)
* EnumDict (enum 클래스):                Data Types.         (line  732)
* enumerate() (threading 모듈):          Reference<2>.       (line   97)
* EnumKey() (winreg 모듈):               함수<12>.           (line  163)
* EnumType (enum 클래스):                Data Types.         (line    6)
* EnumValue() (winreg 모듈):             함수<12>.           (line  181)
* EnvBuilder (venv 클래스):              API<2>.             (line   10)
* environ (os 모듈):                     프로세스 매개 변수. (line   15)
* environ (posix 모듈):                  주목할만한 모듈 내용.
                                                             (line    9)
* environb (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line   57)
* environment variables;deleting:        프로세스 매개 변수. (line  577)
* environment variables;setting:         프로세스 매개 변수. (line  343)
* EnvironmentError:                      구체적인 예외.      (line  468)
* EnvironmentVarGuard (test.support.os_helper 클래스): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   47)
* ENXIO (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   49)
* eof (bz2.BZ2Decompressor의 속성):      증분 압축 해제.     (line   68)
* eof (lzma.LZMADecompressor의 속성):    메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  150)
* eof (shlex.shlex의 속성):              shlex 객체.         (line  158)
* eof (ssl.MemoryBIO의 속성):            메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line  138)
* eof (zlib.Decompress의 속성):          zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  231)
* eof_received() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol 메서드): 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   37)
* eof_received() (asyncio.Protocol 메서드): 스트리밍 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   30)
* EOFError:                              구체적인 예외.      (line   32)
* EOFError (내장 예외):                  파일 객체.          (line   39)
* EOPNOTSUPP (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  423)
* EOT (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   30)
* EOVERFLOW (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  336)
* EOWNERDEAD (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  716)
* EPERM (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   25)
* EPFNOSUPPORT (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  434)
* epilogue (email.message.EmailMessage의 속성): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  651)
* epilogue (email.message.Message의 속성): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  670)
* EPIPE (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  159)
* epoll() (select 모듈):                 select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line   52)
* EpollSelector (selectors 클래스):      클래스<3>.          (line  167)
* EPROCLIM (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  653)
* EPROCUNAVAIL (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  659)
* EPROGMISMATCH (errno 모듈):            errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  665)
* EPROGUNAVAIL (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  671)
* EPROTO (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  320)
* EPROTONOSUPPORT (errno 모듈):          errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  415)
* EPROTOTYPE (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  406)
* epsilon (sys.float_info의 속성):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  588)
* EPWROFF (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  677)
* Eq (ast 클래스):                       표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* eq() (operator 모듈):                  operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* EQEQUAL (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  232)
* EQFULL (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  557)
* EQUAL (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  217)
* ERA (locale 모듈):                     locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  276)
* ERA_D_FMT (locale 모듈):               locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  296)
* ERA_D_T_FMT (locale 모듈):             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  291)
* ERA_T_FMT (locale 모듈):               locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  301)
* ERANGE (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  169)
* erase() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  205)
* erasechar() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  111)
* EREMCHG (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  349)
* EREMOTE (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  300)
* EREMOTEIO (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  549)
* ERESTART (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  381)
* erf() (math 모듈):                     특수 함수.          (line    6)
* erfc() (math 모듈):                    특수 함수.          (line   19)
* ERFKILL (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  587)
* EROFS (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  151)
* ERPCMISMATCH (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  689)
* ERR (curses 모듈):                     상수<6>.            (line    8)
* errcheck (ctypes._CFuncPtr의 속성):    외부 함수.          (line   68)
* errcode (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError의 속성): ProtocolError 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* errmsg (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError의 속성): ProtocolError 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* errno (OSError의 속성):                구체적인 예외.      (line  164)
* error:                                 함수와 예외.        (line    8)
* Error:                                 copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   33)
* Error <1>:                             디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  449)
* error <1>:                             dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   22)
* error <2>:                             dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line   22)
* error <3>:                             dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   28)
* error <4>:                             dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.
                                                             (line   22)
* Error <2>:                             예외<5>.            (line   15)
* error <5>:                             zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line   22)
* Error <3>:                             모듈 내용<3>.       (line  318)
* Error <4>:                             예외<6>.            (line    6)
* error <6>:                             os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   46)
* error <7>:                             함수<5>.            (line    8)
* error <8>:                             _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   20)
* error <9>:                             예외<12>.           (line    6)
* error <10>:                            select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line   28)
* Error <5>:                             예외<15>.           (line    8)
* Error <6>:                             binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line  150)
* error <11>:                            xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   29)
* Error <7>:                             webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   58)
* Error <8>:                             wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line   49)
* Error <9>:                             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line   20)
* error <12>:                            resource — 자원 사용 정보.
                                                             (line   18)
* error <13>:                            getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   85)
* ERROR (logging 모듈):                  로깅 수준.          (line   39)
* ERROR (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):       tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  191)
* error_body (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  241)
* error_content_type (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  150)
* error_headers (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  235)
* error_leader() (shlex.shlex 메서드):   shlex 객체.         (line   64)
* error_message_format (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  143)
* error_output() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  208)
* error_perm:                            모듈 변수.          (line   15)
* error_proto:                           모듈 변수.          (line   20)
* error_proto <1>:                       poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   83)
* error_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol 메서드): 데이터 그램 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   15)
* error_reply:                           모듈 변수.          (line    6)
* error_status (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  230)
* error_temp:                            모듈 변수.          (line   10)
* error() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 종료 메서드.     (line   19)
* error() (logging 모듈):                모듈 수준 함수.     (line   75)
* error() (logging.Logger 메서드):       Logger 객체.        (line  276)
* error() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector 메서드): OpenerDirector 객체.
                                                             (line   55)
* error() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler 메서드): ErrorHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* ErrorByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  161)
* errorcode (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   12)
* ErrorCode (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  165)
* ErrorColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  171)
* ErrorHandler (xml.sax.handler 클래스): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   36)
* errorlevel (tarfile.TarFile의 속성):   TarFile 객체.       (line  211)
* ErrorLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  175)
* errors (io.TextIOBase의 속성):         텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   20)
* errors (unittest.TestLoader의 속성):   테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line   17)
* errors (unittest.TestResult의 속성):   테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  239)
* ErrorStream (wsgiref.types 클래스):    wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   28)
* ErrorString() (xml.parsers.expat 모듈): xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   39)
* ERRORTOKEN (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  155)
* ESC (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  107)
* escape (shlex.shlex의 속성):           shlex 객체.         (line   98)
* escape() (glob 모듈):                  glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   99)
* escape() (html 모듈):                  html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원.
                                                             (line   12)
* escape() (re 모듈):                    Functions.          (line  246)
* escape() (xml.sax.saxutils 모듈):      xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   14)
* escapechar (csv.Dialect의 속성):       방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   33)
* escapedquotes (shlex.shlex의 속성):    shlex 객체.         (line  109)
* ESHLIBVERS (errno 모듈):               errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  695)
* ESHUTDOWN (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  489)
* ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (errno 모듈):          errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  419)
* ESPIPE (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  147)
* ESRCH (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line   35)
* ESRMNT (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  312)
* ESTALE (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  528)
* ESTRPIPE (errno 모듈):                 errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  386)
* ETB (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   95)
* ETH_P_ALL (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  223)
* ETHERTYPE_ARP (socket 모듈):           상수<8>.            (line  365)
* ETHERTYPE_IP (socket 모듈):            상수<8>.            (line  365)
* ETHERTYPE_IPV6 (socket 모듈):          상수<8>.            (line  365)
* ETHERTYPE_VLAN (socket 모듈):          상수<8>.            (line  365)
* ETIME (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  284)
* ETIMEDOUT (errno 모듈):                errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  500)
* Etiny() (decimal.Context 메서드):      Context 객체.       (line  235)
* ETOOMANYREFS (errno 모듈):             errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  495)
* Etop() (decimal.Context 메서드):       Context 객체.       (line  241)
* ETX (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   27)
* ETXTBSY (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  135)
* EUCLEAN (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  532)
* EUNATCH (errno 모듈):                  errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  231)
* EUSERS (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  390)
* evaluation;order:                      값을 구하는 순서.   (line    6)
* Event (asyncio 클래스):                Event.              (line    6)
* Event (multiprocessing 클래스):        동기화 프리미티브.  (line   41)
* Event (threading 클래스):              Event objects.      (line   14)
* EVENT_READ (selectors 모듈):           클래스<3>.          (line   22)
* EVENT_WRITE (selectors 모듈):          클래스<3>.          (line   25)
* Event() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  181)
* eventfd_read() (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1838)
* eventfd_write() (os 모듈):             파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1848)
* eventfd() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1785)
* EventLoop (asyncio 클래스):            이벤트 루프 구현.   (line   44)
* events (selectors.SelectorKey의 속성): 클래스<3>.          (line   43)
* EWOULDBLOCK (errno 모듈):              errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  198)
* EX_CANTCREAT (os 모듈):                프로세스 관리.      (line  200)
* EX_CONFIG (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  235)
* EX_DATAERR (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line  150)
* EX_IOERR (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  206)
* EX_NOHOST (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  168)
* EX_NOINPUT (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line  156)
* EX_NOPERM (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  228)
* EX_NOTFOUND (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line  241)
* EX_NOUSER (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  162)
* EX_OK (os 모듈):                       프로세스 관리.      (line  135)
* EX_OSERR (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  186)
* EX_OSFILE (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  193)
* EX_PROTOCOL (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line  221)
* EX_SOFTWARE (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line  180)
* EX_TEMPFAIL (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line  213)
* EX_UNAVAILABLE (os 모듈):              프로세스 관리.      (line  174)
* EX_USAGE (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  143)
* EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES (token 모듈):        token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  322)
* Example (doctest 클래스):              Example 객체.       (line    6)
* example (doctest.DocTestFailure의 속성): 디버깅.           (line  186)
* example (doctest.UnexpectedException의 속성): 디버깅.      (line  206)
* examples (doctest.DocTest의 속성):     DocTest 객체.       (line   15)
* exc_info (doctest.UnexpectedException의 속성): 디버깅.     (line  210)
* exc_info (in module sys):              트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* exc_info (모듈 sys 에서):              예외<18>.           (line   38)
* exc_info() (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  423)
* exc_msg (doctest.Example의 속성):      Example 객체.       (line   28)
* exc_type (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   76)
* exc_type_str (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   82)
* excel (csv 클래스):                    모듈 내용<3>.       (line  193)
* excel_tab (csv 클래스):                모듈 내용<3>.       (line  198)
* ExceptHandler (ast 클래스):            제어 흐름.          (line  198)
* excepthook() (sys 모듈):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  368)
* excepthook() (threading 모듈):         Reference<2>.       (line   25)
* Exception:                             베이스 클래스.      (line   64)
* EXCEPTION (_tkinter 모듈):             파일 처리기.        (line   39)
* EXCEPTION_HANDLED (monitoring event):  Events.             (line   26)
* exception;AttributeError:              어트리뷰트 참조.    (line   10)
* exception;GeneratorExit:               제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   64)
* exception;GeneratorExit <1>:           비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   58)
* exception;handler:                     트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;NameError:                   식별자 이름.        (line   10)
* exception;StopAsyncIteration:          비동기 제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line    9)
* exception;StopIteration:               제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   12)
* exception;TypeError:                   일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   23)
* exception;ValueError:                  시프트 연산.        (line   18)
* exception;ZeroDivisionError:           이항 산술 연산.     (line   32)
* exception() (asyncio.Future 메서드):   Future 객체<2>.     (line  120)
* exception() (asyncio.Task 메서드):     Task 객체.          (line   84)
* exception() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.
                                                             (line   50)
* exception() (logging 모듈):            모듈 수준 함수.     (line   85)
* exception() (logging.Logger 메서드):   Logger 객체.        (line  291)
* exception() (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  411)
* ExceptionGroup:                        예외 그룹.          (line   12)
* exceptions (BaseExceptionGroup의 속성): 예외 그룹.         (line   38)
* exceptions (pdb command):              디버거 명령들.      (line  417)
* exceptions (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* EXCLAMATION (token 모듈):              token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  313)
* exclusive;or:                          이항 비트 연산.     (line   16)
* EXDEV (errno 모듈):                    errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  101)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  246)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.Loader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  110)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  383)
* exec_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  306)
* exec_module() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* exec_prefix (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  443)
* execl() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* execle() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* execlp() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* execlpe() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* executable (in module sys):            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  110)
* executable (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  458)
* execute() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects. (line   97)
* execute() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드):     Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* executemany() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* executemany() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드): Cursor objects.     (line   59)
* executescript() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* executescript() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드): Cursor objects.   (line  100)
* execution;frame:                       클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* execution;stack:                       트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* ExecutionLoader (importlib.abc 클래스): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  259)
* Executor (concurrent.futures 클래스):  Executor 객체.      (line    6)
* execv() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* execve() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* execvp() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* execvpe() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line   51)
* EXFULL (errno 모듈):                   errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line  252)
* exists() (os.path 모듈):               os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  104)
* exists() (pathlib.Path 메서드):        Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   35)
* exists() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.      (line   82)
* exists() (zipfile.Path 메서드):        Path 객체.          (line   72)
* exit (C 함수):                         프로세스 제어.      (line   21)
* exit (내장 변수):                      site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들.
                                                             (line   11)
* exit() (_thread 모듈):                 _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   73)
* exit() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 종료 메서드.      (line    6)
* exit() (sys 모듈):                     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  465)
* exitcode (multiprocessing.Process의 속성): Process와 예외. (line  155)
* exitonclick() (turtle 모듈):           TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드.
                                                             (line   10)
* ExitStack (contextlib 클래스):         유틸리티.           (line  488)
* exp() (cmath 모듈):                    거듭제곱과 로그 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* exp() (decimal.Context 메서드):        Context 객체.       (line  304)
* exp() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):        Decimal 객체.       (line  224)
* exp() (math 모듈):                     거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   12)
* exp2() (math 모듈):                    거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   18)
* expand_tabs (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  166)
* expand() (re.Match 메서드):            일치 객체.          (line   21)
* ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (winreg 모듈): 함수<12>.        (line  217)
* expandNode() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream 메서드): DOMEventStream 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* expandtabs() (bytearray 메서드):       바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  455)
* expandtabs() (bytes 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  455)
* expandtabs() (str 메서드):             문자열 메서드.      (line  131)
* expanduser() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  125)
* expanduser() (pathlib.Path 메서드):    Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   18)
* expandvars() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  147)
* Expat:                                 xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   11)
* ExpatError:                            xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   24)
* expected (asyncio.IncompleteReadError의 속성): 예외<10>.   (line   53)
* expectedFailure() (unittest 모듈):     테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패.
                                                             (line   97)
* expectedFailures (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  259)
* expired() (asyncio.Timeout 메서드):    시간제한.           (line   72)
* expires (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.       (line   50)
* expires (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):  Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.        (line   57)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.    (line   99)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.        (line  250)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.    (line  300)
* expm1() (math 모듈):                   거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   24)
* expovariate() (random 모듈):           실수 분포.          (line   34)
* Expr (ast 클래스):                     표현식<2>.          (line    6)
* expression:                            표현식.             (line    6)
* Expression (ast 클래스):               Root nodes.         (line   25)
* expression (표현식):                   용어집.             (line  435)
* expression;list:                       표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line    6)
* expunge() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):      IMAP4 객체.         (line   87)
* extend_path() (pkgutil 모듈):          pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   18)
* extend() (array.array 메서드):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  150)
* extend() (collections.deque 메서드):   deque 객체.         (line   55)
* extend() (sequence method):            가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* extend() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   92)
* EXTENDED_ARG (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1149)
* ExtendedContext (decimal 모듈):        Context 객체.       (line   73)
* ExtendedInterpolation (configparser 클래스): 값의 보간.    (line   39)
* extendleft() (collections.deque 메서드): deque 객체.       (line   60)
* extension module (확장 모듈):          용어집.             (line  444)
* EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery 모듈): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   47)
* extension;module:                      표준형 계층.        (line    6)
* ExtensionFileLoader (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  275)
* extensions_map (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  341)
* external_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.      (line  137)
* ExternalClashError:                    예외<15>.           (line   24)
* ExternalEntityParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* ExternalEntityRefHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  351)
* extra (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):        ZipInfo 객체.       (line  104)
* extract_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   29)
* extract_stack() (traceback 모듈):      모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   90)
* extract_tb() (traceback 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   79)
* extract_version (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.    (line  117)
* extract() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):    TarFile 객체.       (line  165)
* extract() (traceback.StackSummary의 클래스 메서드): StackSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* extract() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):    ZipFile 객체.       (line  183)
* extractall() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드): TarFile 객체.       (line  129)
* extractall() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드): ZipFile 객체.       (line  210)
* ExtractError:                          tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  210)
* extractfile() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드): TarFile 객체.      (line  197)
* extraction_filter (tarfile.TarFile의 속성): TarFile 객체.  (line  230)
* extsep (os 모듈):                      기타 시스템 정보.   (line  124)
* f_back (frame attribute):              프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_back (frame의 속성):                 Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_builtins (frame attribute):          프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_builtins (frame의 속성):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   29)
* f_code (frame attribute):              프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_code (frame의 속성):                 Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* F_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.   (line   27)
* f_contiguous (memoryview의 속성):      메모리 뷰.          (line  472)
* f_globals (frame attribute):           프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_globals (frame의 속성):              Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   25)
* f_lasti (frame attribute):             프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_lasti (frame의 속성):                Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* f_lineno (frame attribute):            Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* f_lineno (frame의 속성):               Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* f_locals (frame attribute):            프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_locals (frame의 속성):               Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* F_LOCK (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  267)
* F_OK (os 모듈):                        파일과 디렉터리.    (line  100)
* F_TEST (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  267)
* F_TLOCK (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  267)
* f_trace (frame attribute):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* f_trace (frame의 속성):                Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_trace_lines (frame attribute):       Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* f_trace_lines (frame의 속성):          Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute):     Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* f_trace_opcodes (frame의 속성):        Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* F_ULOCK (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  267)
* f-string (f-문자열):                   용어집.             (line  449)
* f-strings:                             문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* f-문자열:                              장식적인 출력 포매팅.
                                                             (line   90)
* f';포맷 문자열 리터럴:                 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   62)
* f";포맷 문자열 리터럴:                 문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   62)
* fabs() (math 모듈):                    부동 소수점 산술.   (line   12)
* factorial() (math 모듈):               수론적 함수.        (line   23)
* factory() (importlib.util.LazyLoader의 클래스 메서드): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  213)
* FAIL_FAST (doctest 모듈):              옵션 플래그.        (line  127)
* fail() (unittest.TestCase 메서드):     테스트 케이스.      (line  666)
* failed (doctest.TestResults의 속성):   TestResults 객체.   (line    8)
* failfast (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  296)
* failureException (unittest.TestCase의 속성): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  671)
* failures (doctest.DocTestRunner의 속성): DocTestRunner 객체.
                                                             (line  128)
* failures (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  245)
* FakePath (test.support.os_helper 클래스): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   57)
* False:                                 numbers Integral.   (line   23)
* false:                                 논리값 검사.        (line    6)
* False <1>:                             논리값 검사.        (line   22)
* False <2>:                             Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* False (Built-in object):               논리값 검사.        (line   15)
* False (내장 변수):                     내장 상수.          (line    8)
* families() (tkinter.font 모듈):        tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   86)
* family (socket.socket의 속성):         소켓 객체.          (line  589)
* FancyURLopener (urllib.request 클래스): 레거시 인터페이스. (line  135)
* fast (pickle.Pickler의 속성):          모듈 인터페이스.    (line  204)
* FastChildWatcher (asyncio 클래스):     프로세스 감시자.    (line  138)
* fatalError() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler 메서드): ErrorHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   21)
* Fault (xmlrpc.client 클래스):          Fault 객체.         (line    6)
* faultCode (xmlrpc.client.Fault의 속성): Fault 객체.        (line   11)
* faultString (xmlrpc.client.Fault의 속성): Fault 객체.      (line   15)
* fchdir() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  272)
* fchmod() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  113)
* fchown() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  129)
* fcntl() (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line   65)
* fd (selectors.SelectorKey의 속성):     클래스<3>.          (line   39)
* fd_count() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   93)
* fd() (turtle 모듈):                    거북이 움직임.      (line    6)
* fdatasync() (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  144)
* fdopen() (os 모듈):                    파일 객체 생성.     (line    9)
* feature_external_ges (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   78)
* feature_external_pes (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   85)
* feature_namespace_prefixes (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   57)
* feature_namespaces (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   50)
* feature_string_interning (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   64)
* feature_validation (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   71)
* FEBRUARY (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* feed_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader.    (line   16)
* feed() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser 메서드): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   51)
* feed() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드. (line    8)
* feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser 메서드): XMLParser 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 메서드): XMLPullParser 객체.
                                                             (line   17)
* feed() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser 메서드): IncrementalParser 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* FeedParser (email.parser 클래스):      FeedParser API.     (line   66)
* fetch() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):        IMAP4 객체.         (line   93)
* fetchall() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드):    Cursor objects.     (line  145)
* fetchmany() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드):   Cursor objects.     (line  129)
* fetchone() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드):    Cursor objects.     (line  122)
* FF (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   62)
* fflags (select.kevent의 속성):         Kevent 객체.        (line   90)
* Field (dataclasses 클래스):            Module contents.    (line  292)
* field_size_limit() (csv 모듈):         모듈 내용<3>.       (line   89)
* field() (dataclasses 모듈):            Module contents.    (line  201)
* fieldnames (csv.DictReader의 속성):    판독기 객체.        (line   29)
* fields (uuid.UUID의 속성):             uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   90)
* fields() (dataclasses 모듈):           Module contents.    (line  319)
* FIFOTYPE (tarfile 모듈):               tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  294)
* file (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   81)
* file (pyclbr.Class의 속성):            Class 객체.         (line   12)
* file (pyclbr.Function의 속성):         Function 객체.      (line   11)
* file object (파일 객체):               용어집.             (line  455)
* file object;open() built-in function:  내장 함수.          (line 1239)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (stat 모듈):    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (stat 모듈):     stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (stat 모듈):  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (stat 모듈):  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (stat 모듈):     stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (stat 모듈):     stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (stat 모듈):    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (stat 모듈):   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (stat 모듈):     stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (stat 모듈):  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (stat 모듈):    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  446)
* file_digest() (hashlib 모듈):          파일 해싱.          (line    9)
* file_open() (urllib.request.FileHandler 메서드): FileHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* file_size (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):    ZipInfo 객체.       (line  153)
* file-like object (파일류 객체):        용어집.             (line  470)
* file;modes:                            내장 함수.          (line 1265)
* fileConfig() (logging.config 모듈):    구성 함수.          (line   58)
* FileCookieJar (http.cookiejar 클래스): http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   55)
* FileDialog (tkinter.filedialog 클래스): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   74)
* FileExistsError:                       OS 예외.            (line   61)
* FileFinder (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  146)
* FileHandler (logging 클래스):          FileHandler.        (line   10)
* FileHandler (urllib.request 클래스):   urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  394)
* FileInput (fileinput 클래스):          fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  128)
* FileIO (io 클래스):                    원시 파일 I/O.      (line    6)
* filelineno() (fileinput 모듈):         fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line   96)
* FileLoader (importlib.abc 클래스):     importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  278)
* filemode() (stat 모듈):                stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  121)
* filename (doctest.DocTest의 속성):     DocTest 객체.       (line   32)
* filename (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar의 속성): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line  147)
* filename (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성):   인터프리터 스택.    (line   17)
* filename (inspect.Traceback의 속성):   인터프리터 스택.    (line   57)
* filename (netrc.NetrcParseError의 속성): netrc — netrc 파일 처리.
                                                             (line   57)
* filename (OSError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line  185)
* filename (SyntaxError의 속성):         구체적인 예외.      (line  299)
* filename (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성): FrameSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   27)
* filename (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   88)
* filename (tracemalloc.Frame의 속성):   Frame.              (line   13)
* filename (zipfile.ZipFile의 속성):     ZipFile 객체.       (line  341)
* filename (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):     ZipInfo 객체.       (line   48)
* filename_only (tabnanny 모듈):         tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지.
                                                             (line   29)
* filename_pattern (tracemalloc.Filter의 속성): Filter.      (line   53)
* filename() (fileinput 모듈):           fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line   80)
* filename2 (OSError의 속성):            구체적인 예외.      (line  185)
* fileno() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):         파일 압축 해제.     (line   81)
* fileno() (fileinput 모듈):             fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line   85)
* fileno() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   35)
* fileno() (io.IOBase 메서드):           I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   58)
* fileno() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   29)
* fileno() (select.devpoll 메서드):      /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   24)
* fileno() (select.epoll 메서드):        에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* fileno() (select.kqueue 메서드):       Kqueue 객체.        (line   14)
* fileno() (selectors.DevpollSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.    (line  180)
* fileno() (selectors.EpollSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.      (line  171)
* fileno() (selectors.KqueueSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.     (line  191)
* fileno() (socket.socket 메서드):       소켓 객체.          (line  116)
* fileno() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.   (line   15)
* FileNotFoundError:                     OS 예외.            (line   66)
* fileobj (selectors.SelectorKey의 속성): 클래스<3>.         (line   35)
* files_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   90)
* files_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   94)
* files() (importlib.abc.TraversableResources 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  554)
* files() (importlib.metadata 모듈):     배포 파일.          (line    6)
* files() (importlib.resources 모듈):    importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   52)
* files() (importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  169)
* filesystem encoding and error handler (파일시스템 인코딩과 에러 처리기): 용어집.
                                                             (line  474)
* FileType (argparse 클래스):            FileType 객체.      (line    6)
* FileWrapper (wsgiref.types 클래스):    wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   32)
* FileWrapper (wsgiref.util 클래스):     wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  111)
* fill() (textwrap 모듈):                textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line   33)
* fill() (textwrap.TextWrapper 메서드):  textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  282)
* fillcolor() (turtle 모듈):             색상 제어.          (line   56)
* filling() (turtle 모듈):               채우기.             (line    6)
* fillvalue (reprlib.Repr의 속성):       Repr 객체.          (line    9)
* Filter (logging 클래스):               Filter 객체.        (line   13)
* filter (select.kevent의 속성):         Kevent 객체.        (line   15)
* Filter (tracemalloc 클래스):           Filter.             (line    6)
* filter_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   98)
* FILTER_DIR (unittest.mock 모듈):       FILTER_DIR.         (line    6)
* filter_traces() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 메서드): Snapshot.   (line   34)
* filter() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  117)
* filter() (fnmatch 모듈):               fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   73)
* filter() (logging.Filter 메서드):      Filter 객체.        (line   19)
* filter() (logging.Handler 메서드):     Handler 객체.       (line   60)
* filter() (logging.Logger 메서드):      Logger 객체.        (line  306)
* FilterError:                           tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  221)
* filterfalse() (itertools 모듈):        Itertool Functions. (line  285)
* filterwarnings() (warnings 모듈):      사용 가능한 함수.   (line  103)
* Final (typing 모듈):                   특수 형태.          (line  221)
* final() (typing 모듈):                 함수와 데코레이터.  (line  310)
* finalize (weakref 클래스):             weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  244)
* finalizer:                             기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   53)
* find_class() (pickle.Unpickler 메서드): 모듈 인터페이스.   (line  273)
* find_class() (피클 프로토콜):          전역 제한하기.      (line    6)
* find_library() (ctypes.util 모듈):     유틸리티 함수.      (line  109)
* find_loader() (pkgutil 모듈):          pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   48)
* find_longest_match() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line   63)
* find_msvcrt() (ctypes.util 모듈):      유틸리티 함수.      (line  118)
* find_spec() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   34)
* find_spec() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   68)
* find_spec() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  173)
* find_spec() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder의 클래스 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  111)
* find_spec() (importlib.util 모듈):     importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   97)
* find_spec() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   37)
* find_unused_port() (test.support.socket_helper 모듈): test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   15)
* find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr 메서드): HTTPPasswordMgr 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 메서드): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* find() (bytearray 메서드):             바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  129)
* find() (bytes 메서드):                 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  129)
* find() (doctest.DocTestFinder 메서드): DocTestFinder 객체. (line   29)
* find() (gettext 모듈):                 클래스 기반 API.    (line   13)
* find() (mmap.mmap 메서드):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  183)
* find() (str 메서드):                   문자열 메서드.      (line  155)
* find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  100)
* find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* findall() (re 모듈):                   Functions.          (line  126)
* findall() (re.Pattern 메서드):         정규식 객체.        (line   82)
* findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  109)
* findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   25)
* findCaller() (logging.Logger 메서드):  Logger 객체.        (line  323)
* finder (파인더):                       용어집.             (line  494)
* findfile() (test.support 모듈):        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  270)
* finditer() (re 모듈):                  Functions.          (line  152)
* finditer() (re.Pattern 메서드):        정규식 객체.        (line   88)
* findlabels() (dis 모듈):               분석 함수.          (line  176)
* findlinestarts() (dis 모듈):           분석 함수.          (line  159)
* findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  118)
* findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* finish_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  122)
* finish() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 메서드): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* finish() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 메서드): tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line   51)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (asyncio 모듈):        대기 프리미티브.    (line   35)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (concurrent.futures 모듈): 모듈 함수.      (line   29)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (asyncio 모듈):        대기 프리미티브.    (line   39)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (concurrent.futures 모듈): 모듈 함수.      (line   33)
* firstChild (xml.dom.Node의 속성):      Node 객체.          (line   50)
* FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect:   email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   87)
* firstkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 메서드):      dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line   96)
* firstweekday (calendar.Calendar의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   38)
* firstweekday() (calendar 모듈):        calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  339)
* fix_missing_locations() (ast 모듈):    ast 도우미.         (line  143)
* fix_sentence_endings (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  216)
* Flag (enum 클래스):                    Data Types.         (line  428)
* flag_bits (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):    ZipInfo 객체.       (line  125)
* FlagBoundary (enum 클래스):            Data Types.         (line  664)
* flags (decimal.Context의 속성):        Context 객체.       (line  127)
* flags (re.Pattern의 속성):             정규식 객체.        (line  102)
* flags (select.kevent의 속성):          Kevent 객체.        (line   52)
* flags (sys 모듈):                      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  492)
* flash() (curses 모듈):                 함수<5>.            (line  127)
* flatten() (email.generator.BytesGenerator 메서드): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line   75)
* flatten() (email.generator.Generator 메서드): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  162)
* float (내장 클래스):                   내장 함수.          (line  697)
* float_info (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  575)
* float_repr_style (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  683)
* floating-point;literals:               숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* floating-point;number:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* FloatingPointError:                    구체적인 예외.      (line   39)
* FloatOperation (decimal 클래스):       신호.               (line  100)
* flock() (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  157)
* floor division (정수 나눗셈):          용어집.             (line  505)
* floor() (in module math):              숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line  106)
* floor() (math 모듈):                   부동 소수점 산술.   (line   16)
* FloorDiv (ast 클래스):                 표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* floordiv() (operator 모듈):            operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   85)
* flush_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  262)
* flush_std_streams() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  398)
* flush() (bz2.BZ2Compressor 메서드):    증분 압축 해제.     (line   24)
* flush() (io.BufferedWriter 메서드):    버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line  118)
* flush() (io.IOBase 메서드):            I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   64)
* flush() (logging.Handler 메서드):      Handler 객체.       (line   68)
* flush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* flush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   57)
* flush() (logging.StreamHandler 메서드): StreamHandler.     (line   24)
* flush() (lzma.LZMACompressor 메서드):  메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line   82)
* flush() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):      Mailbox 객체.       (line  223)
* flush() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):      Maildir 객체.       (line  198)
* flush() (mailbox.MH 메서드):           MH 객체.            (line   99)
* flush() (mmap.mmap 메서드):            mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  193)
* flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser 메서드): XMLParser 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 메서드): XMLPullParser 객체.
                                                             (line   21)
* flush() (zlib.Compress 메서드):        zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  194)
* flush() (zlib.Decompress 메서드):      zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  257)
* flushinp() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  133)
* FlushKey() (winreg 모듈):              함수<12>.           (line  228)
* fma() (decimal.Context 메서드):        Context 객체.       (line  308)
* fma() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):        Decimal 객체.       (line  261)
* fma() (math 모듈):                     부동 소수점 산술.   (line   22)
* fmean() (statistics 모듈):             함수 세부 사항.     (line   45)
* fmod() (math 모듈):                    부동 소수점 산술.   (line   37)
* FMT_BINARY (plistlib 모듈):            plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line  156)
* FMT_XML (plistlib 모듈):               plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line  150)
* fnmatch() (fnmatch 모듈):              fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   49)
* fnmatchcase() (fnmatch 모듈):          fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   67)
* focus() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.       (line   86)
* fold (datetime.datetime의 속성):       datetime 객체.      (line  327)
* fold (datetime.time의 속성):           time 객체.          (line   70)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.Compat32 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  556)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  443)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  317)
* fold() (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader 메서드): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   66)
* fold() (email.policy.Compat32 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  549)
* fold() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  426)
* fold() (email.policy.Policy 메서드):   email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  304)
* Font (tkinter.font 클래스):            tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   20)
* For (ast 클래스):                      제어 흐름.          (line   42)
* FOR_ITER (opcode):                     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  891)
* for;in comprehensions:                 리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
                                                             (line   14)
* forget() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   10)
* forget() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드): ttk Notebook.      (line   17)
* fork() (os 모듈):                      프로세스 관리.      (line  247)
* fork() (pty 모듈):                     pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   22)
* ForkingMixIn (socketserver 클래스):    서버 생성 노트.     (line   27)
* ForkingTCPServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.    (line   66)
* ForkingUDPServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.    (line   66)
* ForkingUnixDatagramServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.
                                                             (line   66)
* ForkingUnixStreamServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.
                                                             (line   66)
* forkpty() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  292)
* FORMAT (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):   Buffer flags.       (line   19)
* format (memoryview의 속성):            메모리 뷰.          (line  417)
* format (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList의 속성): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  330)
* format (struct.Struct의 속성):         클래스<2>.          (line   52)
* format_datetime() (email.utils 모듈):  email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  165)
* format_exc() (traceback 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  157)
* format_exception_only() (traceback 모듈): 모듈 수준 함수<2>.
                                                             (line  112)
* format_exception_only() (traceback.TracebackException 메서드): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  149)
* format_exception() (traceback 모듈):   모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  142)
* format_field() (string.Formatter 메서드): 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   95)
* format_frame_summary() (traceback.StackSummary 메서드): StackSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* format_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 도움말 인쇄.
                                                             (line   29)
* format_list() (traceback 모듈):        모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  103)
* format_map() (str 메서드):             문자열 메서드.      (line  203)
* FORMAT_SIMPLE (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1174)
* format_stack_entry() (bdb.Bdb 메서드): bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  401)
* format_stack() (traceback 모듈):       모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  166)
* format_string() (locale 모듈):         locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  416)
* format_tb() (traceback 모듈):          모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  162)
* format_usage() (argparse.Action 메서드): Action 클래스.    (line   57)
* format_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 도움말 인쇄.
                                                             (line   24)
* FORMAT_WITH_SPEC (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1186)
* format() (built-in function);__str__() (object method): 기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  125)
* format() (inspect.Signature 메서드):   Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  150)
* format() (logging.BufferingFormatter 메서드): Formatter 객체.
                                                             (line  144)
* format() (logging.Formatter 메서드):   Formatter 객체.     (line   51)
* format() (logging.Handler 메서드):     Handler 객체.       (line  100)
* format() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 메서드): PrettyPrinter 객체.
                                                             (line   80)
* format() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line  176)
* format() (string.Formatter 메서드):    사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   17)
* format() (traceback.StackSummary 메서드): StackSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   38)
* format() (traceback.TracebackException 메서드): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  138)
* format() (tracemalloc.Traceback 메서드): Traceback.        (line   36)
* formataddr() (email.utils 모듈):       email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   66)
* formatargvalues() (inspect 모듈):      클래스와 함수<2>.   (line   67)
* formatdate() (email.utils 모듈):       email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  144)
* formatday() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  146)
* FormatError:                           예외<15>.           (line   30)
* FormatError() (ctypes 모듈):           유틸리티 함수.      (line  130)
* formatException() (logging.Formatter 메서드): Formatter 객체.
                                                             (line  108)
* formatFooter() (logging.BufferingFormatter 메서드): Formatter 객체.
                                                             (line  137)
* formatHeader() (logging.BufferingFormatter 메서드): Formatter 객체.
                                                             (line  130)
* formatmonth() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  214)
* formatmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  174)
* formatmonthname() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  233)
* formatmonthname() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  182)
* formatStack() (logging.Formatter 메서드): Formatter 객체.  (line  115)
* formatted string literals:             문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* FormattedValue (ast 클래스):           리터럴<2>.          (line   18)
* Formatter (logging 클래스):            Formatter 객체.     (line    6)
* Formatter (string 클래스):             사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   12)
* formatTime() (logging.Formatter 메서드): Formatter 객체.   (line   72)
* formatting, string (%):                printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting;bytearray (%):              printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting;bytes (%):                  printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatwarning() (warnings 모듈):       사용 가능한 함수.   (line   94)
* formatweek() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  153)
* formatweekday() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  160)
* formatweekheader() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  167)
* formatyear() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  219)
* formatyear() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  195)
* formatyearpage() (calendar.HTMLCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  224)
* Fortran contiguous:                    용어집.             (line  305)
* forward() (turtle 모듈):               거북이 움직임.      (line    6)
* ForwardRef (typing 클래스):            인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line  148)
* fp (urllib.error.HTTPError의 속성):    urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   60)
* fpathconf() (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  153)
* Fraction (fractions 클래스):           fractions — 유리수. (line   15)
* frame (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성):      인터프리터 스택.    (line   13)
* frame (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText의 속성): tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯.
                                                             (line   24)
* Frame (tracemalloc 클래스):            Frame.              (line    6)
* FrameInfo (inspect 클래스):            인터프리터 스택.    (line   11)
* FrameSummary (traceback 클래스):       FrameSummary 객체.  (line   11)
* FrameType (types 모듈):                표준 인터프리터 형. (line  189)
* free (C 함수):                         개요<4>.            (line   27)
* free threading (자유 스레딩):          용어집.             (line  512)
* free variable (자유 변수):             용어집.             (line  519)
* free_tool_id() (sys.monitoring 모듈):  Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   13)
* freedesktop_os_release() (platform 모듈): Linux platforms. (line    6)
* freefunc (C type):                     슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   27)
* freeze 유틸리티:                       모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  255)
* freeze_support() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.      (line   49)
* freeze() (gc 모듈):                    gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  187)
* frexp() (math 모듈):                   부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   12)
* FRIDAY (calendar 모듈):                calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* from_address() (ctypes._CData 메서드): 데이터형<2>.        (line   41)
* from_buffer_copy() (ctypes._CData 메서드): 데이터형<2>.    (line   30)
* from_buffer() (ctypes._CData 메서드):  데이터형<2>.        (line   19)
* from_bytes() (int의 클래스 메서드):    정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line  111)
* from_callable() (inspect.Signature의 클래스 메서드): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  161)
* from_decimal() (fractions.Fraction의 클래스 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  141)
* from_exception() (traceback.TracebackException의 클래스 메서드): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  122)
* from_file() (zipfile.ZipInfo의 클래스 메서드): ZipInfo 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* from_file() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo의 클래스 메서드): ZoneInfo 클래스.
                                                             (line   27)
* from_float() (decimal.Decimal의 클래스 메서드): Decimal 객체.
                                                             (line  235)
* from_float() (fractions.Fraction의 클래스 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  132)
* from_iterable() (itertools.chain의 클래스 메서드): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  116)
* from_list() (traceback.StackSummary의 클래스 메서드): StackSummary 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_param() (ctypes._CData 메서드):   데이터형<2>.        (line   50)
* from_samples() (statistics.NormalDist의 클래스 메서드): NormalDist 객체.
                                                             (line   41)
* from_traceback() (dis.Bytecode의 클래스 메서드): 바이트 코드 분석.
                                                             (line   41)
* from_uri() (pathlib.Path의 클래스 메서드): Parsing and generating URIs.
                                                             (line   12)
* from;yield from expression:            일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   64)
* from;임포트 문:                        이름의 연결.        (line    9)
* from;임포트 문 <1>:                    임포트 import 문.   (line   45)
* frombuf() (tarfile.TarInfo의 클래스 메서드): TarInfo 객체. (line   36)
* frombytes() (array.array 메서드):      array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  158)
* fromfd() (select.epoll 메서드):        에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   76)
* fromfd() (select.kqueue 메서드):       Kqueue 객체.        (line   18)
* fromfd() (socket 모듈):                소켓 만들기.        (line  155)
* fromfile() (array.array 메서드):       array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  167)
* fromhex() (bytearray의 클래스 메서드): 바이트 배열 객체.   (line   35)
* fromhex() (bytes의 클래스 메서드):     바이트열 객체.      (line   61)
* fromhex() (float의 클래스 메서드):     실수에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line   38)
* fromisocalendar() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line  236)
* fromisocalendar() (datetime.date의 클래스 메서드): date 객체.
                                                             (line   87)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line  187)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.date의 클래스 메서드): date 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.time의 클래스 메서드): time 객체.
                                                             (line  105)
* fromkeys() (collections.Counter 메서드): Counter 객체.     (line  112)
* fromkeys() (dict의 클래스 메서드):     매핑 형 — dict.     (line  170)
* fromlist() (array.array 메서드):       array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  174)
* fromordinal() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line  162)
* fromordinal() (datetime.date의 클래스 메서드): date 객체.  (line   50)
* fromshare() (socket 모듈):             소켓 만들기.        (line  172)
* fromstring() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.        (line   93)
* fromstringlist() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.    (line  101)
* fromtarfile() (tarfile.TarInfo의 클래스 메서드): TarInfo 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* fromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line   96)
* fromtimestamp() (datetime.date의 클래스 메서드): date 객체.
                                                             (line   33)
* fromunicode() (array.array 메서드):    array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  180)
* fromutc() (datetime.timezone 메서드):  timezone 객체.      (line   56)
* fromutc() (datetime.tzinfo 메서드):    tzinfo 객체.        (line  158)
* FrozenImporter (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   76)
* FrozenInstanceError:                   Module contents.    (line  490)
* FrozenSet (typing 클래스):             Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   42)
* frozenset (내장 클래스):               집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   31)
* FS (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  110)
* fs_is_case_insensitive() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   97)
* FS_NONASCII (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   10)
* fsdecode() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line   94)
* fsencode() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line   81)
* fspath() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  107)
* fstat() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  172)
* fstatvfs() (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  184)
* fstring:                               문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* FSTRING_END (token 모듈):              token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  112)
* FSTRING_MIDDLE (token 모듈):           token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  102)
* FSTRING_START (token 모듈):            token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   94)
* fsum() (math 모듈):                    합과 곱 함수.       (line   18)
* fsync() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  192)
* FTP:                                   urllib request 제약 사항.
                                                             (line   33)
* FTP (ftplib 클래스):                   FTP 객체.           (line    6)
* ftp_open() (urllib.request.FTPHandler 메서드): FTPHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP_TLS (ftplib 클래스):               FTP_TLS 객체.       (line    6)
* FTP;ftplib (표준 모듈):                ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTP;프로토콜:                          urllib request 제약 사항.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP;프로토콜 <1>:                      ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTPHandler (urllib.request 클래스):    urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  404)
* ftruncate() (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  204)
* Full:                                  queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   79)
* FULL (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):     Buffer flags.       (line   45)
* full_match() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티. (line  252)
* FULL_RO (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):  Buffer flags.       (line   47)
* full_url (urllib.request.Request의 속성): Request 객체.    (line   10)
* full() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):         Queue.              (line   31)
* full() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.        (line  119)
* full() (queue.Queue 메서드):           큐 객체.            (line   23)
* fullmatch() (re 모듈):                 Functions.          (line   65)
* fullmatch() (re.Pattern 메서드):       정규식 객체.        (line   60)
* fully_trusted_filter() (tarfile 모듈): Default named filters.
                                                             (line    9)
* func (functools.partial의 속성):       partial 객체.       (line    9)
* funcname (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):      bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  100)
* function (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성):   인터프리터 스택.    (line   27)
* function (inspect.Traceback의 속성):   인터프리터 스택.    (line   67)
* Function (pyclbr 클래스):              Function 객체.      (line    6)
* Function (symtable 클래스):            심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  122)
* FUNCTION (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   15)
* function (함수):                       용어집.             (line  528)
* function annotation (함수 어노테이션): 용어집.             (line  535)
* function;annotations:                  함수 정의.          (line  105)
* function;argument:                     콜러블 Callable types.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;call:                         콜러블 Callable types.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;call <1>:                     호출.               (line  123)
* function;call <2>:                     호출.               (line  134)
* function;definition:                   함수 정의.          (line    6)
* function;name:                         함수 정의.          (line    6)
* function;name <1>:                     함수 정의.          (line    6)
* FunctionDef (ast 클래스):              함수와 클래스 정의. (line    6)
* FunctionTestCase (unittest 클래스):    테스트 케이스.      (line  923)
* FunctionType (ast 클래스):             Root nodes.         (line   56)
* FunctionType (types 모듈):             표준 인터프리터 형. (line   24)
* funny_files (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):   dircmp 클래스.      (line   94)
* Future (asyncio 클래스):               Future 객체<2>.     (line    6)
* Future (concurrent.futures 클래스):    Future 객체.        (line   10)
* FutureWarning:                         경고.               (line   54)
* fwalk() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1684)
* f문자열:                               장식적인 출력 포매팅.
                                                             (line   90)
* gaierror:                              예외<12>.           (line   25)
* gamma() (math 모듈):                   특수 함수.          (line   27)
* gammavariate() (random 모듈):          실수 분포.          (line   43)
* garbage (gc 모듈):                     gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  221)
* garbage collection:                    객체 값 형.         (line   34)
* garbage collection (가비지 수거):      용어집.             (line  567)
* gather() (asyncio 모듈):               동시에 태스크 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* gather() (curses.textpad.Textbox 메서드): Textbox 객체.    (line  106)
* gauss() (random 모듈):                 실수 분포.          (line   56)
* gc_collect() (test.support 모듈):      test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  354)
* gcd() (math 모듈):                     수론적 함수.        (line   30)
* gcvisitobjects_t (C type):             가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기.
                                                             (line   26)
* ge() (operator 모듈):                  operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* generate_tokens() (tokenize 모듈):     입력 토큰화하기.    (line   34)
* Generator (collections.abc 클래스):    Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   53)
* Generator (email.generator 클래스):    email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  129)
* Generator (typing 클래스):             Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   37)
* generator (제너레이터):                용어집.             (line  575)
* generator (제너레이터) <1>:            용어집.             (line  575)
* generator expression (제너레이터 표현식): 용어집.          (line  595)
* generator expression (제너레이터 표현식) <1>: 용어집.      (line  595)
* generator iterator (제너레이터 이터레이터): 용어집.        (line  584)
* generator_stop (__future__ 모듈):      Module Contents.    (line   42)
* generator;expression:                  제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function:                    제너레이터 함수 Generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function <1>:                일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;iterator:                    제너레이터 함수 Generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* GeneratorExit:                         구체적인 예외.      (line   43)
* GeneratorExp (ast 클래스):             컴프리헨션.         (line    6)
* generators (__future__ 모듈):          Module Contents.    (line   18)
* GeneratorType (types 모듈):            표준 인터프리터 형. (line   35)
* Generic (typing 클래스):               Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   15)
* generic function (제네릭 함수):        용어집.             (line  604)
* generic type (제네릭 형):              용어집.             (line  612)
* generic_visit() (ast.NodeVisitor 메서드): ast 도우미.      (line  197)
* Generic;Alias:                         제네릭 에일리어스 형.
                                                             (line    6)
* generic;special;attribute:             표준형 계층.        (line   12)
* GenericAlias (types 클래스):           표준 인터프리터 형. (line  144)
* genops() (pickletools 모듈):           프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* geometric_mean() (statistics 모듈):    함수 세부 사항.     (line   72)
* GET_AITER (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  320)
* get_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  385)
* get_all_start_methods() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.
                                                             (line   75)
* get_all() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  231)
* get_all() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  337)
* get_all() (wsgiref.headers.Headers 메서드): wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
                                                             (line   45)
* GET_ANEXT (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  329)
* get_annotations() (inspect 모듈):      클래스와 함수<2>.   (line  145)
* get_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer 메서드): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   67)
* get_archive_formats() (shutil 모듈):   아카이브 연산.      (line   64)
* get_args() (typing 모듈):              인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line   81)
* get_asyncgen_hooks() (sys 모듈):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  968)
* get_attribute() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  579)
* GET_AWAITABLE (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  301)
* get_begidx() (readline 모듈):          완성.               (line   35)
* get_blocking() (os 모듈):              파일 기술자 연산.   (line  217)
* get_body_encoding() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   90)
* get_body() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  481)
* get_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  371)
* get_boundary() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  543)
* get_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  362)
* get_break() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  371)
* get_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):         bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  375)
* get_buffer() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol 메서드): 버퍼 된 스트리밍 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):  Mailbox 객체.       (line  148)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.mbox 메서드):     mbox 객체.          (line   29)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.MMDF 메서드):     MMDF 객체.          (line   27)
* get_ca_certs() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.      (line  169)
* get_cache_token() (abc 모듈):          abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  316)
* get_channel_binding() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.    (line  249)
* get_charset() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  246)
* get_charsets() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  397)
* get_charsets() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  574)
* get_child_watcher() (asyncio 모듈):    프로세스 감시자.    (line   24)
* get_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 메서드): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   33)
* get_children() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   17)
* get_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  183)
* get_clock_info() (time 모듈):          함수<4>.            (line  104)
* get_close_matches() (difflib 모듈):    difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  190)
* get_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  197)
* get_code() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  379)
* get_code() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  317)
* get_code() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  257)
* get_code() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* get_completer_delims() (readline 모듈): 완성.              (line   44)
* get_completer() (readline 모듈):       완성.               (line   26)
* get_completion_type() (readline 모듈): 완성.               (line   30)
* get_config_h_filename() (sysconfig 모듈): 기타 함수<3>.    (line   68)
* get_config_var() (sysconfig 모듈):     구성 변수.          (line   26)
* get_config_vars() (sysconfig 모듈):    구성 변수.          (line   16)
* get_content_charset() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  391)
* get_content_charset() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  564)
* get_content_disposition() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  419)
* get_content_disposition() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  587)
* get_content_maintype() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  296)
* get_content_maintype() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  403)
* get_content_subtype() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  302)
* get_content_subtype() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  409)
* get_content_type() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  280)
* get_content_type() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  388)
* get_content() (email.contentmanager 모듈): 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 메서드): email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
                                                             (line   18)
* get_content() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  538)
* get_context() (asyncio.Handle 메서드): 콜백 핸들.          (line   11)
* get_context() (asyncio.Task 메서드):   Task 객체.          (line  161)
* get_context() (multiprocessing 모듈):  잡동사니<3>.        (line   84)
* get_coro() (asyncio.Task 메서드):      Task 객체.          (line  148)
* get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  982)
* get_count() (gc 모듈):                 gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_current_history_length() (readline 모듈): 히스토리 목록.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_data() (importlib.abc.FileLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  309)
* get_data() (importlib.abc.ResourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  178)
* get_data() (pkgutil 모듈):             pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  167)
* get_data() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   49)
* get_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   90)
* get_debug() (asyncio.loop 메서드):     디버그 모드 활성화. (line    6)
* get_debug() (gc 모듈):                 gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   54)
* get_default_scheme() (sysconfig 모듈): 설치 경로 함수.     (line   14)
* get_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  308)
* get_default_type() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  415)
* get_default_verify_paths() (ssl 모듈): 인증서 처리.        (line   62)
* get_default() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 파서 기본값.
                                                             (line   31)
* get_dialect() (csv 모듈):              모듈 내용<3>.       (line   79)
* get_disassembly_as_string() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase 메서드): test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_docstring() (ast 모듈):            ast 도우미.         (line  120)
* get_doctest() (doctest.DocTestParser 메서드): DocTestParser 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* get_endidx() (readline 모듈):          완성.               (line   35)
* get_environ() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler 메서드): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   89)
* get_errno() (ctypes 모듈):             유틸리티 함수.      (line  146)
* get_escdelay() (curses 모듈):          함수<5>.            (line  417)
* get_event_loop_policy() (asyncio 모듈): 정책을 얻고 설정하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_event_loop() (asyncio 모듈):       이벤트 루프.        (line   40)
* get_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 메서드): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_events() (sys.monitoring 모듈):    Setting events globally.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_examples() (doctest.DocTestParser 메서드): DocTestParser 객체.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 에러 처리 API.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_exec_path() (os 모듈):             프로세스 매개 변수. (line  163)
* get_extra_info() (asyncio.BaseTransport 메서드): 베이스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   20)
* get_extra_info() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_field() (string.Formatter 메서드): 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   52)
* get_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):    bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  380)
* get_file() (mailbox.Babyl 메서드):     Babyl 객체.         (line   44)
* get_file() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):   Mailbox 객체.       (line  162)
* get_file() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):   Maildir 객체.       (line  215)
* get_file() (mailbox.mbox 메서드):      mbox 객체.          (line   36)
* get_file() (mailbox.MH 메서드):        MH 객체.            (line   94)
* get_file() (mailbox.MMDF 메서드):      MMDF 객체.          (line   34)
* get_filename() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  362)
* get_filename() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  534)
* get_filename() (importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  265)
* get_filename() (importlib.abc.FileLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  305)
* get_filename() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  325)
* get_filename() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_flags() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):  Maildir 객체.       (line   87)
* get_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage 메서드): mboxMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* get_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 메서드): MMDFMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* get_folder() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드): Maildir 객체.       (line   64)
* get_folder() (mailbox.MH 메서드):      MH 객체.            (line   39)
* get_frees() (symtable.Function 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  144)
* get_freeze_count() (gc 모듈):          gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  212)
* get_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage 메서드): mboxMessage 객체. (line   45)
* get_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 메서드): MMDFMessage 객체. (line   45)
* get_full_url() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_globals() (symtable.Function 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  135)
* get_grouped_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line  162)
* get_handle_inheritable() (os 모듈):    파일 기술자의 상속. (line   32)
* get_header() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line  116)
* get_history_item() (readline 모듈):    히스토리 목록.      (line   20)
* get_history_length() (readline 모듈):  히스토리 파일.      (line   29)
* get_id() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_ident() (_thread 모듈):            _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   83)
* get_ident() (threading 모듈):          Reference<2>.       (line   73)
* get_identifiers() (string.Template 메서드): 템플릿 문자열. (line   69)
* get_identifiers() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_importer() (pkgutil 모듈):         pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   65)
* get_info() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):   Maildir 객체.       (line  150)
* get_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line  100)
* get_inheritable() (os 모듈):           파일 기술자의 상속. (line   24)
* get_inheritable() (socket.socket 메서드): 소켓 객체.       (line  125)
* get_instructions() (dis 모듈):         분석 함수.          (line  133)
* get_int_max_str_digits() (sys 모듈):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  789)
* get_interpreter() (zipapp 모듈):       파이썬 API.         (line   75)
* GET_ITER (opcode):                     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  212)
* get_key() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.      (line  138)
* get_labels() (mailbox.Babyl 메서드):   Babyl 객체.         (line   32)
* get_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   45)
* get_last_error() (ctypes 모듈):        유틸리티 함수.      (line  154)
* GET_LEN (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  520)
* get_line_buffer() (readline 모듈):     줄 버퍼.            (line    8)
* get_lineno() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   85)
* get_loader() (pkgutil 모듈):           pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   78)
* get_local_events() (sys.monitoring 모듈): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_locals() (symtable.Function 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  131)
* get_logger() (multiprocessing 모듈):   로깅<2>.            (line   10)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Future 메서드):    Future 객체<2>.     (line  133)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Runner 메서드):    Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Server 메서드):    서버 객체.          (line   68)
* get_makefile_filename() (sysconfig 모듈): 기타 함수<3>.    (line   72)
* get_map() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.      (line  146)
* get_matching_blocks() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_message() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.      (line  142)
* get_method() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_methods() (symtable.Class 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  154)
* get_mixed_type_key() (ipaddress 모듈): 다른 모듈 수준 함수.
                                                             (line   55)
* get_name() (asyncio.Task 메서드):      Task 객체.          (line  168)
* get_name() (symtable.Symbol 메서드):   심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  195)
* get_name() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_namespace() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  263)
* get_namespaces() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  259)
* get_native_id() (_thread 모듈):        _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   91)
* get_native_id() (threading 모듈):      Reference<2>.       (line   83)
* get_nonlocals() (symtable.Function 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  139)
* get_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 메서드): Cookie 객체.
                                                             (line   96)
* get_nowait() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):   Queue.              (line   47)
* get_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.  (line  157)
* get_nowait() (queue.Queue 메서드):     큐 객체.            (line   66)
* get_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue 메서드): SimpleQueue 객체. (line   49)
* get_object_traceback() (tracemalloc 모듈): 함수<10>.       (line   12)
* get_objects() (gc 모듈):               gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line  120)
* get_option_group() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 그룹화하기.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_option() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기.
                                                             (line   36)
* get_origin() (typing 모듈):            인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_original_bases() (types 모듈):     동적 형 생성.       (line   63)
* get_original_stdout() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  311)
* get_osfhandle() (msvcrt 모듈):         파일 연산.          (line   55)
* get_output_charset() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  105)
* get_overloads() (typing 모듈):         함수와 데코레이터.  (line  285)
* get_pagesize() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  279)
* get_param() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  447)
* get_parameters() (symtable.Function 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  127)
* get_params() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  428)
* get_path_names() (sysconfig 모듈):     설치 경로 함수.     (line   57)
* get_path() (sysconfig 모듈):           설치 경로 함수.     (line   62)
* get_paths() (sysconfig 모듈):          설치 경로 함수.     (line   91)
* get_payload() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  166)
* get_pid() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_pipe_transport() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   10)
* get_platform() (sysconfig 모듈):       기타 함수<3>.       (line   11)
* get_poly() (turtle 모듈):              특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   16)
* get_preferred_scheme() (sysconfig 모듈): 설치 경로 함수.   (line   24)
* get_protocol_members() (typing 모듈):  인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line   99)
* get_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport 메서드): 베이스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   83)
* get_proxy_response_headers() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  126)
* get_python_version() (sysconfig 모듈): 기타 함수<3>.       (line    6)
* get_ready() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 메서드): graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line  139)
* get_referents() (gc 모듈):             gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  130)
* get_referrers() (gc 모듈):             gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  111)
* get_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  127)
* get_returncode() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_running_loop() (asyncio 모듈):     이벤트 루프.        (line   29)
* get_scheme_names() (sysconfig 모듈):   설치 경로 함수.     (line    9)
* get_scheme() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  174)
* get_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_sequences() (mailbox.MH 메서드):   MH 객체.            (line   56)
* get_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage 메서드): MHMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* get_server_certificate() (ssl 모듈):   인증서 처리.        (line   29)
* get_server() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_shapepoly() (turtle 모듈):         외관.               (line  163)
* get_source_segment() (ast 모듈):       ast 도우미.         (line  131)
* get_source() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  209)
* get_source() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  396)
* get_source() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  321)
* get_source() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  262)
* get_source() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* get_stack() (asyncio.Task 메서드):     Task 객체.          (line  115)
* get_stack() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  392)
* get_start_method() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.    (line   98)
* get_starttag_text() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_stats_profile() (pstats.Stats 메서드): Stats 클래스.   (line  203)
* get_stats() (gc 모듈):                 gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_stderr() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  119)
* get_stderr() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler 메서드): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   98)
* get_stdin() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  114)
* get_string() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.       (line  155)
* get_string() (mailbox.mbox 메서드):    mbox 객체.          (line   47)
* get_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* get_symbols() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  113)
* get_tabsize() (curses 모듈):           함수<5>.            (line  431)
* get_task_factory() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 퓨처와 태스크 만들기.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_terminal_size() (os 모듈):         터미널의 크기 조회하기.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_terminal_size() (shutil 모듈):     출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_threshold() (gc 모듈):             gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_token() (shlex.shlex 메서드):      shlex 객체.         (line    8)
* get_tool() (sys.monitoring 모듈):      Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traceback_limit() (tracemalloc 모듈): 함수<10>.        (line   22)
* get_traced_memory() (tracemalloc 모듈): 함수<10>.          (line   31)
* get_tracemalloc_memory() (tracemalloc 모듈): 함수<10>.     (line   53)
* get_type_hints() (typing 모듈):        인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_type() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   53)
* get_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  138)
* get_unixfrom() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  149)
* get_unpack_formats() (shutil 모듈):    아카이브 연산.      (line  182)
* get_unverified_chain() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.   (line  214)
* get_usage() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 기타 메서드.   (line   22)
* get_value() (string.Formatter 메서드): 사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_verified_chain() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.     (line  205)
* get_version() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 버전 문자열 인쇄하기.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   61)
* get_wch() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  224)
* get_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_write_buffer_size() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   18)
* GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode):          파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  216)
* get() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):          Queue.              (line   38)
* get() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  214)
* get() (contextvars.Context 메서드):    수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line  116)
* get() (contextvars.ContextVar 메서드): 컨텍스트 변수.      (line   29)
* get() (dict 메서드):                   매핑 형 — dict.     (line  181)
* get() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  223)
* get() (email.message.Message 메서드):  email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  329)
* get() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):        Mailbox 객체.       (line  132)
* get() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  188)
* get() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드):  파이프와 큐.        (line  143)
* get() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.   (line  231)
* get() (queue.Queue 메서드):            큐 객체.            (line   47)
* get() (queue.SimpleQueue 메서드):      SimpleQueue 객체.   (line   39)
* get() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox 메서드):   ttk Combobox.       (line   14)
* get() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox 메서드):    ttk Spinbox.        (line    8)
* get() (types.MappingProxyType 메서드): 표준 인터프리터 형. (line  249)
* get() (webbrowser 모듈):               webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   99)
* get() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   63)
* getacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line   99)
* getaddresses() (email.utils 모듈):     email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   80)
* getaddrinfo() (asyncio.loop 메서드):   DNS.                (line    6)
* getaddrinfo() (socket 모듈):           기타 함수<2>.       (line   17)
* getallocatedblocks() (sys 모듈):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  695)
* getandroidapilevel() (sys 모듈):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  716)
* getannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드): IMAP4 객체.        (line  104)
* getargvalues() (inspect 모듈):         클래스와 함수<2>.   (line   56)
* getasyncgenlocals() (inspect 모듈):    제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
                                                             (line   96)
* getasyncgenstate() (inspect 모듈):     제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
                                                             (line   48)
* getatime() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  157)
* getattr_static() (inspect 모듈):       정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기.
                                                             (line   15)
* getattrfunc (C type):                  슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   47)
* getAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.  (line   31)
* getAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* getAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* getAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* getattrofunc (C type):                 슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   58)
* GetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* getbegyx() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  209)
* getbkgd() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  213)
* getblocking() (socket.socket 메서드):  소켓 객체.          (line  161)
* getboolean() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  244)
* getbuffer() (io.BytesIO 메서드):       버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   21)
* getbufferproc (C type):                슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  105)
* getByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   47)
* getcallargs() (inspect 모듈):          클래스와 함수<2>.   (line   85)
* getcanvas() (turtle 모듈):             설정과 특수 메서드. (line   53)
* getch() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  217)
* getch() (msvcrt 모듈):                 콘솔 I/O.           (line   11)
* getCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* getche() (msvcrt 모듈):                콘솔 I/O.           (line   24)
* getChild() (logging.Logger 메서드):    Logger 객체.        (line  148)
* getChildren() (logging.Logger 메서드): Logger 객체.        (line  158)
* getclasstree() (inspect 모듈):         클래스와 함수<2>.   (line    6)
* getclosurevars() (inspect 모듈):       클래스와 함수<2>.   (line  114)
* getcode() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   85)
* getcode() (urllib.response.addinfourl 메서드): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   45)
* getColumnNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 메서드): Locator 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* getcomments() (inspect 모듈):          소스 코드 가져오기. (line   15)
* getcompname() (wave.Wave_read 메서드): Wave_read 객체.     (line   39)
* getcomptype() (wave.Wave_read 메서드): Wave_read 객체.     (line   35)
* getconfig() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  646)
* getContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   21)
* getcontext() (decimal 모듈):           Context 객체.       (line   13)
* getcoroutinelocals() (inspect 모듈):   제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
                                                             (line   89)
* getcoroutinestate() (inspect 모듈):    제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
                                                             (line   28)
* getctime() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  173)
* getcwd() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  283)
* getcwdb() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  287)
* getdecoder() (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  109)
* getdefaultencoding() (sys 모듈):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  727)
* getdefaultlocale() (locale 모듈):      locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  312)
* getdefaulttimeout() (socket 모듈):     기타 함수<2>.       (line  368)
* getdlopenflags() (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  732)
* getdoc() (inspect 모듈):               소스 코드 가져오기. (line    6)
* getDOMImplementation() (xml.dom 모듈): 모듈 내용<6>.       (line   16)
* getDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* getEffectiveLevel() (logging.Logger 메서드): Logger 객체.  (line  139)
* getegid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  172)
* getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.
                                                             (line   60)
* getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Document 메서드): Document 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* getencoder() (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  103)
* getencoding() (locale 모듈):           locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  372)
* getEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* getEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* getenv() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  132)
* getenvb() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  147)
* getErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   50)
* geteuid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  179)
* getEvent() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream 메서드): DOMEventStream 객체.
                                                             (line   11)
* getEventCategory() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 메서드): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   40)
* getEventType() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 메서드): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* getException() (xml.sax.SAXException 메서드): SAXException 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* getFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   68)
* getfile() (inspect 모듈):              소스 코드 가져오기. (line   22)
* getFilesToDelete() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 메서드): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  107)
* getfilesystemencodeerrors() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  772)
* getfilesystemencoding() (sys 모듈):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  741)
* getfirstweekday() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   46)
* getfloat() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  237)
* getfqdn() (socket 모듈):               기타 함수<2>.       (line   97)
* getframeinfo() (inspect 모듈):         인터프리터 스택.    (line  120)
* getframerate() (wave.Wave_read 메서드): Wave_read 객체.    (line   27)
* getfullargspec() (inspect 모듈):       클래스와 함수<2>.   (line   16)
* getgeneratorlocals() (inspect 모듈):   제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
                                                             (line   72)
* getgeneratorstate() (inspect 모듈):    제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태.
                                                             (line   11)
* getgid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  185)
* getgrall() (grp 모듈):                 grp — 그룹 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   56)
* getgrgid() (grp 모듈):                 grp — 그룹 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   43)
* getgrnam() (grp 모듈):                 grp — 그룹 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   51)
* getgrouplist() (os 모듈):              프로세스 매개 변수. (line  194)
* getgroups() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  205)
* getHandlerByName() (logging 모듈):     모듈 수준 함수.     (line  165)
* getHandlerNames() (logging 모듈):      모듈 수준 함수.     (line  172)
* getheader() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   24)
* getheaders() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* gethostbyaddr() (in module socket):    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  544)
* gethostbyaddr() (socket 모듈):         기타 함수<2>.       (line  154)
* gethostbyname_ex() (socket 모듈):      기타 함수<2>.       (line  123)
* gethostbyname() (socket 모듈):         기타 함수<2>.       (line  109)
* gethostname() (in module socket):      프로세스 매개 변수. (line  544)
* gethostname() (socket 모듈):           기타 함수<2>.       (line  140)
* getincrementaldecoder() (codecs 모듈): codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  123)
* getincrementalencoder() (codecs 모듈): codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  115)
* getinfo() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):    ZipFile 객체.       (line  109)
* getinnerframes() (inspect 모듈):       인터프리터 스택.    (line  142)
* GetInputContext() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* getint() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  230)
* getitem() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  191)
* getiterfunc (C type):                  슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   91)
* getitimer() (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  424)
* getkey() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  233)
* GetLastError() (ctypes 모듈):          유틸리티 함수.      (line  138)
* getLength() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 메서드): Attributes 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   10)
* getLevelName() (logging 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수.     (line  137)
* getLevelNamesMapping() (logging 모듈): 모듈 수준 함수.     (line  128)
* getlimit() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  590)
* getline() (linecache 모듈):            linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line   21)
* getLineNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 메서드): Locator 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* getloadavg() (os 모듈):                기타 시스템 정보.   (line   48)
* getlocale() (locale 모듈):             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  337)
* getLogger() (logging 모듈):            모듈 수준 함수.     (line    8)
* getLoggerClass() (logging 모듈):       모듈 수준 함수.     (line   21)
* getlogin() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  228)
* getLogRecordFactory() (logging 모듈):  모듈 수준 함수.     (line   32)
* getMandatoryRelease() (__future__._Feature 메서드): Module Contents.
                                                             (line   71)
* getmark() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):     Wave_read 객체.     (line   70)
* getmarkers() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):  Wave_read 객체.     (line   62)
* getmaxyx() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  240)
* getmember() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):  TarFile 객체.       (line   96)
* getmembers_static() (inspect 모듈):    형과 멤버.          (line  309)
* getmembers() (inspect 모듈):           형과 멤버.          (line  297)
* getmembers() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드): TarFile 객체.       (line  104)
* getMessage() (logging.LogRecord 메서드): LogRecord 객체.   (line   59)
* getMessage() (xml.sax.SAXException 메서드): SAXException 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* getMessageID() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler 메서드): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   55)
* getmodule() (inspect 모듈):            소스 코드 가져오기. (line   27)
* getmodulename() (inspect 모듈):        형과 멤버.          (line  325)
* getmouse() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  139)
* getmro() (inspect 모듈):               클래스와 함수<2>.   (line   77)
* getmtime() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  164)
* getName() (threading.Thread 메서드):   Thread objects.     (line  151)
* getNameByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 메서드): AttributesNS 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   16)
* getnameinfo() (asyncio.loop 메서드):   DNS.                (line   11)
* getnameinfo() (socket 모듈):           기타 함수<2>.       (line  170)
* getnames() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):   TarFile 객체.       (line  109)
* getNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 메서드): Attributes 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   14)
* getnchannels() (wave.Wave_read 메서드): Wave_read 객체.    (line   19)
* getnframes() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):  Wave_read 객체.     (line   31)
* getnode() (uuid 모듈):                 uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  154)
* getobjects() (sys 모듈):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  878)
* getopt() (getopt 모듈):                getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   32)
* GetoptError:                           getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   76)
* getOptionalRelease() (__future__._Feature 메서드): Module Contents.
                                                             (line   67)
* getouterframes() (inspect 모듈):       인터프리터 스택.    (line  128)
* getoutput() (subprocess 모듈):         레거시 셸 호출 함수.
                                                             (line   42)
* getpagesize() (resource 모듈):         자원 사용량.        (line  100)
* getparams() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):   Wave_read 객체.     (line   44)
* getparyx() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  244)
* getpass() (getpass 모듈):              getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   17)
* GetPassWarning:                        getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   33)
* getpeercert() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):  SSL 소켓.           (line  141)
* getpeername() (socket.socket 메서드):  소켓 객체.          (line  133)
* getpen() (turtle 모듈):                특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   39)
* getpgid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  238)
* getpgrp() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  245)
* getpid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  251)
* getpos() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   28)
* getppid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  258)
* getpreferredencoding() (locale 모듈):  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  349)
* getpriority() (os 모듈):               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  268)
* getprofile() (sys 모듈):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  903)
* getprofile() (threading 모듈):         Reference<2>.       (line  150)
* getProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   81)
* getprotobyname() (socket 모듈):        기타 함수<2>.       (line  189)
* getproxies() (urllib.request 모듈):    urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  162)
* getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 메서드): Locator 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* getpwall() (pwd 모듈):                 pwd — 암호 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   63)
* getpwnam() (pwd 모듈):                 pwd — 암호 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   59)
* getpwuid() (pwd 모듈):                 pwd — 암호 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   55)
* getQNameByName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 메서드): AttributesNS 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   20)
* getQNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 메서드): AttributesNS 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   24)
* getquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  109)
* getquotaroot() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드): IMAP4 객체.         (line  114)
* getrandbits() (random 모듈):           정수 함수.          (line   36)
* getrandbits() (random.Random 메서드):  대체 생성기.        (line   42)
* getrandom() (os 모듈):                 난수<2>.            (line    6)
* getreader() (codecs 모듈):             codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  131)
* getrecursionlimit() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  813)
* getrefcount() (sys 모듈):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  797)
* GetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  107)
* getresgid() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  314)
* getresponse() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line   70)
* getresuid() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  305)
* getrlimit() (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line   23)
* getroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   35)
* getrusage() (resource 모듈):           자원 사용량.        (line    8)
* getsampwidth() (wave.Wave_read 메서드): Wave_read 객체.    (line   23)
* getscreen() (turtle 모듈):             특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   50)
* getservbyname() (socket 모듈):         기타 함수<2>.       (line  200)
* getservbyport() (socket 모듈):         기타 함수<2>.       (line  211)
* GetSetDescriptorType (types 모듈):     표준 인터프리터 형. (line  194)
* getshapes() (turtle 모듈):             설정과 특수 메서드. (line   62)
* getsid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  502)
* getsignal() (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  276)
* getsitepackages() (site 모듈):         모듈 내용<8>.       (line   54)
* getsize() (os.path 모듈):              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  183)
* getsizeof() (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  820)
* getsockname() (socket.socket 메서드):  소켓 객체.          (line  140)
* getsockopt() (socket.socket 메서드):   소켓 객체.          (line  146)
* getsource() (inspect 모듈):            소스 코드 가져오기. (line   51)
* getsourcefile() (inspect 모듈):        소스 코드 가져오기. (line   32)
* getsourcelines() (inspect 모듈):       소스 코드 가져오기. (line   38)
* getstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 메서드): IncrementalDecoder 객체.
                                                             (line   40)
* getstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 메서드): IncrementalEncoder 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* getstate() (random 모듈):              관리 함수.          (line   32)
* getstate() (random.Random 메서드):     대체 생성기.        (line   24)
* getstatusoutput() (subprocess 모듈):   레거시 셸 호출 함수.
                                                             (line   10)
* getstr() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  249)
* getSubject() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler 메서드): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* getswitchinterval() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  841)
* getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator 메서드): Locator 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* getsyx() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  156)
* gettarinfo() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드): TarFile 객체.       (line  287)
* gettempdir() (tempfile 모듈):          tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  300)
* gettempdirb() (tempfile 모듈):         tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  331)
* gettempprefix() (tempfile 모듈):       tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  337)
* gettempprefixb() (tempfile 모듈):      tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  342)
* getter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   33)
* getTestCaseNames() (unittest.TestLoader 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  108)
* gettext() (gettext 모듈):              GNU gettext API.    (line   31)
* gettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 메서드): GNUTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   35)
* gettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   33)
* gettext() (locale 모듈):               메시지 카탈로그에 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* gettimeout() (socket.socket 메서드):   소켓 객체.          (line  170)
* gettrace() (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  907)
* gettrace() (threading 모듈):           Reference<2>.       (line  128)
* getturtle() (turtle 모듈):             특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   39)
* getType() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 메서드): Attributes 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   18)
* getuid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  323)
* getunicodeinternedsize() (sys 모듈):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  710)
* geturl() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   76)
* geturl() (urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult 메서드): 구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   11)
* geturl() (urllib.response.addinfourl 메서드): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   30)
* getuser() (getpass 모듈):              getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   38)
* getuserbase() (site 모듈):             모듈 내용<8>.       (line   60)
* getusersitepackages() (site 모듈):     모듈 내용<8>.       (line   68)
* getvalue() (io.BytesIO 메서드):        버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   38)
* getvalue() (io.StringIO 메서드):       텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line  249)
* getValue() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes 메서드): Attributes 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   22)
* getValueByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS 메서드): AttributesNS 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   12)
* getwch() (msvcrt 모듈):                콘솔 I/O.           (line   20)
* getwche() (msvcrt 모듈):               콘솔 I/O.           (line   29)
* getweakrefcount() (weakref 모듈):      weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  137)
* getweakrefs() (weakref 모듈):          weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  141)
* getwelcome() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):      FTP 객체.           (line  117)
* getwelcome() (poplib.POP3 메서드):     POP3 객체.          (line   19)
* getwin() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  161)
* getwindowsversion() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  916)
* getwriter() (codecs 모듈):             codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  138)
* getxattr() (os 모듈):                  리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   10)
* getyx() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  259)
* gid (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):          TarInfo 객체.       (line  110)
* GIL:                                   용어집.             (line  620)
* glob() (glob 모듈):                    glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   27)
* glob() (pathlib.Path 메서드):          Reading directories.
                                                             (line   30)
* Global (ast 클래스):                   함수와 클래스 정의. (line  141)
* global interpreter lock:               스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록.
                                                             (line    6)
* global interpreter lock (전역 인터프리터 록): 용어집.      (line  624)
* global_enum() (enum 모듈):             Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   91)
* global;namespace:                      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* globs (doctest.DocTest의 속성):        DocTest 객체.       (line   20)
* gmtime() (time 모듈):                  함수<4>.            (line  135)
* gname (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):        TarInfo 객체.       (line  126)
* GNOME:                                 Catalog 생성자.     (line    6)
* GNU_FORMAT (tarfile 모듈):             tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  322)
* gnu_getopt() (getopt 모듈):            getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   65)
* GNUTranslations (gettext 클래스):      GNUTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   31)
* GNUTYPE_LONGLINK (tarfile 모듈):       tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  306)
* GNUTYPE_LONGNAME (tarfile 모듈):       tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  302)
* GNUTYPE_SPARSE (tarfile 모듈):         tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  310)
* go() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  110)
* got (doctest.DocTestFailure의 속성):   디버깅.             (line  190)
* goto() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line   74)
* grantpt() (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  236)
* GREATER (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  214)
* GREATEREQUAL (token 모듈):             token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  241)
* GRND_NONBLOCK (os 모듈):               난수<2>.            (line   74)
* GRND_RANDOM (os 모듈):                 난수<2>.            (line   86)
* Group (email.headerregistry 클래스):   email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  424)
* group() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   21)
* group() (re.Match 메서드):             일치 객체.          (line   33)
* groupby() (itertools 모듈):            Itertool Functions. (line  302)
* groupdict() (re.Match 메서드):         일치 객체.          (line  127)
* groupindex (re.Pattern의 속성):        정규식 객체.        (line  113)
* groups (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  172)
* groups (re.Pattern의 속성):            정규식 객체.        (line  109)
* groups() (re.Match 메서드):            일치 객체.          (line  105)
* GS (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  113)
* Gt (ast 클래스):                       표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* gt() (operator 모듈):                  operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* GtE (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* guard:                                 Guards.             (line    6)
* guess_all_extensions() (mimetypes 모듈): mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   60)
* guess_all_extensions() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체.
                                                             (line   68)
* guess_extension() (mimetypes 모듈):    mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   71)
* guess_extension() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* guess_file_type() (mimetypes 모듈):    mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   51)
* guess_file_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체.
                                                             (line   61)
* guess_scheme() (wsgiref.util 모듈):    wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   13)
* guess_type() (mimetypes 모듈):         mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   23)
* guess_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체. (line   56)
* GUI:                                   Graphical user interfaces with Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; -best:               명령 줄 옵션.       (line   14)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; -d:                  명령 줄 옵션.       (line   18)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; -decompress:         명령 줄 옵션.       (line   18)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; -fast:               명령 줄 옵션.       (line   10)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; -h:                  명령 줄 옵션.       (line   22)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; -help:               명령 줄 옵션.       (line   22)
* gzip 명령줄 옵션; file:                명령 줄 옵션.       (line    6)
* GzipFile (gzip 클래스):                gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line   68)
* halfdelay() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  201)
* Handle (asyncio 클래스):               콜백 핸들.          (line    6)
* handle_charref() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   88)
* handle_comment() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   96)
* handle_data() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   75)
* handle_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line  108)
* handle_defect() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  214)
* handle_endtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   60)
* handle_entityref() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   81)
* handle_error() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  133)
* handle_expect_100() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  195)
* handle_one_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  190)
* handle_pi() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line  116)
* handle_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* handle_request() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   47)
* handle_startendtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   67)
* handle_starttag() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   43)
* handle_timeout() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* handle() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  183)
* handle() (logging.Handler 메서드):     Handler 객체.       (line   82)
* handle() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 메서드): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   59)
* handle() (logging.Logger 메서드):      Logger 객체.        (line  336)
* handle() (logging.NullHandler 메서드): NullHandler.        (line   20)
* handle() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 메서드): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* handle() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler 메서드): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  103)
* handleError() (logging.Handler 메서드): Handler 객체.      (line   88)
* handleError() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   31)
* Handler (logging 클래스):              Handler 객체.       (line   12)
* handlers (logging.Logger의 속성):      Logger 객체.        (line   81)
* Handlers (signal 클래스):              모듈 내용<5>.       (line   24)
* hardlink_to() (pathlib.Path 메서드):   Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   72)
* harmonic_mean() (statistics 모듈):     함수 세부 사항.     (line   92)
* HAS_ALPN (ssl 모듈):                   상수<9>.            (line  377)
* has_children() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   98)
* has_colors() (curses 모듈):            함수<5>.            (line  167)
* has_default() (typing.ParamSpec 메서드): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  433)
* has_default() (typing.TypeVar 메서드): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  201)
* has_default() (typing.TypeVarTuple 메서드): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  333)
* has_dualstack_ipv6() (socket 모듈):    소켓 만들기.        (line  148)
* HAS_ECDH (ssl 모듈):                   상수<9>.            (line  393)
* has_extended_color_support() (curses 모듈): 함수<5>.       (line  172)
* has_extn() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):      SMTP 객체.          (line   79)
* has_header() (csv.Sniffer 메서드):     모듈 내용<3>.       (line  225)
* has_header() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   90)
* has_ic() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  183)
* has_il() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  189)
* has_ipv6 (socket 모듈):                상수<8>.            (line  294)
* has_key() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  196)
* has_location (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  418)
* HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (ssl 모듈): 상수<9>.           (line  385)
* has_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 메서드): Cookie 객체.
                                                             (line   92)
* HAS_NPN (ssl 모듈):                    상수<9>.            (line  408)
* has_option() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  133)
* has_option() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기.
                                                             (line   41)
* HAS_PSK (ssl 모듈):                    상수<9>.            (line  453)
* has_section() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  124)
* HAS_SNI (ssl 모듈):                    상수<9>.            (line  401)
* HAS_SSLv2 (ssl 모듈):                  상수<9>.            (line  417)
* HAS_SSLv3 (ssl 모듈):                  상수<9>.            (line  423)
* has_ticket (ssl.SSLSession의 속성):    SSL 세션.           (line   20)
* HAS_TLSv1 (ssl 모듈):                  상수<9>.            (line  429)
* HAS_TLSv1_1 (ssl 모듈):                상수<9>.            (line  435)
* HAS_TLSv1_2 (ssl 모듈):                상수<9>.            (line  441)
* HAS_TLSv1_3 (ssl 모듈):                상수<9>.            (line  447)
* hasarg (dis 모듈):                     옵코드 모음.        (line   24)
* hasAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.  (line   21)
* hasAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* hasAttributes() (xml.dom.Node 메서드): Node 객체.          (line   89)
* hasChildNodes() (xml.dom.Node 메서드): Node 객체.          (line   93)
* hascompare (dis 모듈):                 옵코드 모음.        (line   57)
* hasconst (dis 모듈):                   옵코드 모음.        (line   30)
* hasexc (dis 모듈):                     옵코드 모음.        (line   61)
* hasFeature() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation 메서드): DOMImplementation 객체.
                                                             (line   11)
* hasfree (dis 모듈):                    옵코드 모음.        (line   34)
* hash_bits (sys.hash_info의 속성):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1024)
* hash_info (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  993)
* hash_randomization (sys.flags의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  533)
* hash-based pyc (해시 기반 pyc):        용어집.             (line  646)
* hash.block_size (hashlib 모듈):        해시 객체.          (line   12)
* hash.digest_size (hashlib 모듈):       해시 객체.          (line    8)
* hashable:                              딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line   36)
* Hashable (collections.abc 클래스):     Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   10)
* Hashable (typing 클래스):              Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   53)
* hashable (해시 가능):                  용어집.             (line  652)
* hasHandlers() (logging.Logger 메서드): Logger 객체.        (line  350)
* hashfunc (C type):                     슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   81)
* hasjabs (dis 모듈):                    옵코드 모음.        (line   74)
* hasjrel (dis 모듈):                    옵코드 모음.        (line   67)
* hasjump (dis 모듈):                    옵코드 모음.        (line   46)
* haslocal (dis 모듈):                   옵코드 모음.        (line   53)
* hasname (dis 모듈):                    옵코드 모음.        (line   42)
* HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1260)
* HAVE_CONTEXTVAR (decimal 모듈):        상수<4>.            (line   32)
* HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  163)
* HAVE_THREADS (decimal 모듈):           상수<4>.            (line   25)
* HCI_DATA_DIR (socket 모듈):            상수<8>.            (line  307)
* HCI_FILTER (socket 모듈):              상수<8>.            (line  307)
* HCI_TIME_STAMP (socket 모듈):          상수<8>.            (line  307)
* Header (email.header 클래스):          email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   55)
* header_encode_lines() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  119)
* header_encode() (email.charset.Charset 메서드): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line  112)
* header_encoding (email.charset.Charset의 속성): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   55)
* header_factory (email.policy.EmailPolicy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  371)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  543)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  418)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  289)
* header_items() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line  121)
* header_max_count() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  397)
* header_max_count() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  238)
* header_offset (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.      (line  141)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  532)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  402)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  256)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  539)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  409)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  275)
* HeaderDefect:                          email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   59)
* HeaderError:                           tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  216)
* HeaderParseError:                      email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   26)
* HeaderParser (email.parser 클래스):    Parser API.         (line  101)
* HeaderRegistry (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  274)
* headers (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   55)
* headers (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  105)
* headers (urllib.error.HTTPError의 속성): urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   53)
* headers (urllib.response.addinfourl의 속성): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   19)
* Headers (wsgiref.headers 클래스):      wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
                                                             (line    9)
* headers (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError의 속성): ProtocolError 객체.
                                                             (line   24)
* HeaderWriteError:                      email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   49)
* heading() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.     (line   92)
* heading() (turtle 모듈):               거북이의 상태 보고. (line   55)
* heapify() (heapq 모듈):                heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   55)
* heapmin() (msvcrt 모듈):               기타 함수<4>.       (line    6)
* heappop() (heapq 모듈):                heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   43)
* heappush() (heapq 모듈):               heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   39)
* heappushpop() (heapq 모듈):            heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   49)
* heapreplace() (heapq 모듈):            heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   59)
* helo() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):          SMTP 객체.          (line   43)
* help (optparse.Option의 속성):         옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   76)
* help (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line   67)
* herror:                                예외<12>.           (line   13)
* hex (uuid.UUID의 속성):                uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  122)
* hex() (bytearray 메서드):              바이트 배열 객체.   (line   50)
* hex() (bytes 메서드):                  바이트열 객체.      (line   76)
* hex() (float 메서드):                  실수에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line   32)
* hex() (memoryview 메서드):             메모리 뷰.          (line  182)
* hexadecimal;literals:                  숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* hexdigest() (hashlib.hash 메서드):     해시 객체.          (line   41)
* hexdigest() (hashlib.shake 메서드):    SHAKE 가변 길이 요약.
                                                             (line   21)
* hexdigest() (hmac.HMAC 메서드):        hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   68)
* hexdigits (string 모듈):               문자열 상수.        (line   28)
* hexlify() (binascii 모듈):             binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line  110)
* hexversion (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1037)
* hidden() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):  Panel 객체.         (line   24)
* hide_cookie2 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy의 속성): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   71)
* hide() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):    Panel 객체.         (line   29)
* hide() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드):  ttk Notebook.       (line   22)
* hideturtle() (turtle 모듈):            가시성.             (line    6)
* HierarchyRequestErr:                   예외<17>.           (line   27)
* HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.        (line   78)
* HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (pickle 모듈):        모듈 인터페이스.    (line   14)
* hits (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  123)
* HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (winreg 모듈):       HKEY_* 상수.        (line    6)
* HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (winreg 모듈):     HKEY_* 상수.        (line   36)
* HKEY_CURRENT_USER (winreg 모듈):       HKEY_* 상수.        (line   12)
* HKEY_DYN_DATA (winreg 모듈):           HKEY_* 상수.        (line   41)
* HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (winreg 모듈):      HKEY_* 상수.        (line   19)
* HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (winreg 모듈):   HKEY_* 상수.        (line   30)
* HKEY_USERS (winreg 모듈):              HKEY_* 상수.        (line   25)
* hline() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  264)
* hls_to_rgb() (colorsys 모듈):          colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   39)
* HOME:                                  os path<5>.         (line   15)
* HOME <1>:                              파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* HOME <2>:                              Windows<43>.        (line   15)
* HOME <3>:                              Windows<43>.        (line   18)
* HOME <4>:                              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  130)
* HOME <5>:                              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  145)
* HOME <6>:                              Tkinter 모듈.       (line   66)
* home() (pathlib.Path의 클래스 메서드): Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* home() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line  195)
* HOMEDRIVE:                             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  136)
* HOMEPATH:                              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  136)
* hook_compressed() (fileinput 모듈):    fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  180)
* hook_encoded() (fileinput 모듈):       fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  199)
* host (urllib.request.Request의 속성):  Request 객체.       (line   24)
* hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.    (line   87)
* hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.    (line  292)
* hostname_checks_common_name (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  589)
* hosts (netrc.netrc의 속성):            netrc 객체.         (line   22)
* hosts() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.     (line  122)
* hosts() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.     (line  310)
* hour (datetime.datetime의 속성):       datetime 객체.      (line  306)
* hour (datetime.time의 속성):           time 객체.          (line   49)
* HRESULT (ctypes 클래스):               기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  211)
* hStdError (subprocess.STARTUPINFO의 속성): 윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line   41)
* hStdInput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO의 속성): 윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line   27)
* hStdOutput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO의 속성): 윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line   34)
* hsv_to_rgb() (colorsys 모듈):          colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   47)
* HT (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   49)
* ht() (turtle 모듈):                    가시성.             (line    6)
* HTML:                                  html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTML <1>:                              urllib request 제약 사항.
                                                             (line   26)
* html5 (html.entities 모듈):            html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
                                                             (line   14)
* HTMLCalendar (calendar 클래스):        calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  208)
* HtmlDiff (difflib 클래스):             difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line   76)
* HTMLParser (html.parser 클래스):       html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   14)
* htonl() (socket 모듈):                 기타 함수<2>.       (line  239)
* htons() (socket 모듈):                 기타 함수<2>.       (line  246)
* HTTP (email.policy 모듈):              email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  479)
* http_error_301() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 메서드): HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   33)
* http_error_302() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 메서드): HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   40)
* http_error_303() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 메서드): HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* http_error_307() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 메서드): HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* http_error_308() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 메서드): HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler 메서드): HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler 메서드): HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler 메서드): ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler 메서드): ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler 메서드): AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler 메서드): AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_default() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 메서드): BaseHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* http_open() (urllib.request.HTTPHandler 메서드): HTTPHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP_PORT (http.client 모듈):          http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  194)
* http_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor 메서드): HTTPErrorProcessor 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_version (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  279)
* HTTP;http (표준 모듈):                 http — HTTP 모듈.   (line    8)
* HTTP;http.client (표준 모듈):          http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;프로토콜:                         urllib request 제약 사항.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP;프로토콜 <1>:                     urllib request 제약 사항.
                                                             (line   26)
* HTTP;프로토콜 <2>:                     http — HTTP 모듈.   (line    8)
* HTTP;프로토콜 <3>:                     http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;프로토콜 <4>:                     http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line    8)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -b:           Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -bind:        Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -cgi:         Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   53)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -d:           Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -directory:   Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -p:           Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; -protocol:    Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* http.server 명령줄 옵션; port:         Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* http.server;보안:                      Security considerations.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  339)
* HTTPConnection (http.client 클래스):   http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTPCookieProcessor (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  278)
* httpd:                                 http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  269)
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  361)
* HTTPError:                             urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   31)
* HTTPErrorProcessor (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  417)
* HTTPException:                         http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  126)
* HTTPHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): HTTPHandler.        (line   10)
* HTTPHandler (urllib.request 클래스):   urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  382)
* HTTPMessage (http.client 클래스):      HTTPMessage 객체.   (line    6)
* HTTPMethod (http 클래스):              HTTP 상태 범주.     (line   38)
* httponly (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성): Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* HTTPPasswordMgr (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  301)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  305)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  311)
* HTTPRedirectHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  274)
* HTTPResponse (http.client 클래스):     http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   95)
* https_open() (urllib.request.HTTPSHandler 메서드): HTTPSHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPS_PORT (http.client 모듈):         http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  198)
* https_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor 메서드): HTTPErrorProcessor 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* HTTPSConnection (http.client 클래스):  http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   59)
* HTTPServer (http.server 클래스):       http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTPSHandler (urllib.request 클래스):  urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  386)
* HTTPStatus (http 클래스):              http — HTTP 모듈.   (line   27)
* HV_GUID_BROADCAST (socket 모듈):       상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HV_GUID_CHILDREN (socket 모듈):        상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HV_GUID_LOOPBACK (socket 모듈):        상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HV_GUID_PARENT (socket 모듈):          상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HV_GUID_WILDCARD (socket 모듈):        상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HV_GUID_ZERO (socket 모듈):            상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HV_PROTOCOL_RAW (socket 모듈):         상수<8>.            (line  345)
* HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU (socket 모듈): 상수<8>.     (line  345)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT (socket 모듈): 상수<8>.           (line  345)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX (socket 모듈): 상수<8>.       (line  345)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND (socket 모듈): 상수<8>.         (line  345)
* hypot() (math 모듈):                   합과 곱 함수.       (line   32)
* I (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line   38)
* I/O control;buffering:                 내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* I/O control;buffering <1>:             소켓 객체.          (line  208)
* iadd() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line   35)
* iand() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line   40)
* iconcat() (operator 모듈):             제자리 연산자.      (line   45)
* id (ssl.SSLSession의 속성):            SSL 세션.           (line   12)
* id() (unittest.TestCase 메서드):       테스트 케이스.      (line  727)
* idcok() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  271)
* ident (select.kevent의 속성):          Kevent 객체.        (line    8)
* ident (threading.Thread의 속성):       Thread objects.     (line  159)
* identchars (cmd.Cmd의 속성):           Cmd 객체.           (line  121)
* identifier:                            식별자 이름.        (line    6)
* identify_column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  132)
* identify_element() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  160)
* identify_region() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  138)
* identify_row() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  128)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드): ttk Notebook.    (line   30)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.    (line  122)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Widget 메서드): ttk Widget.        (line   11)
* identity of an object:                 객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* identity;test:                         멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   39)
* IDLE:                                  IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸.
                                                             (line    8)
* IDLE <1>:                              용어집.             (line  669)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -:                   명령 줄 사용법.     (line   49)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -c:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   13)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -d:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   19)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -e:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   23)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -h:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   27)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -i:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   31)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -r:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   35)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -s:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   39)
* idle 명령줄 옵션; -t:                  명령 줄 사용법.     (line   45)
* IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.        (line   85)
* IDLESTARTUP:                           IDLE<39>.           (line  176)
* IDLESTARTUP <1>:                       IDLE<43>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <2>:                       IDLE<49>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <3>:                       시작과 코드 실행.   (line    6)
* IDLESTARTUP <4>:                       명령 줄 사용법.     (line   41)
* idlok() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  278)
* If (ast 클래스):                       제어 흐름.          (line    9)
* if_indextoname() (socket 모듈):        기타 함수<2>.       (line  433)
* if_nameindex() (socket 모듈):          기타 함수<2>.       (line  392)
* if_nametoindex() (socket 모듈):        기타 함수<2>.       (line  417)
* if;conditional expression:             조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* if;in comprehensions:                  리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
                                                             (line   14)
* IfExp (ast 클래스):                    표현식<2>.          (line  155)
* ifloordiv() (operator 모듈):           제자리 연산자.      (line   51)
* iglob() (glob 모듈):                   glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line   76)
* ignorableWhitespace() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line  144)
* ignore (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):        bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  119)
* ignore (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  136)
* IGNORE (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):      tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  150)
* ignore_environment (sys.flags의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  521)
* ignore_errors() (codecs 모듈):         에러 처리기.        (line  140)
* IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (doctest 모듈): 옵션 플래그.       (line   49)
* ignore_patterns() (shutil 모듈):       디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  179)
* ignore_warnings() (test.support.warnings_helper 모듈): test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   11)
* ignore;에러 처리기의 이름:             에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* IGNORECASE (re 모듈):                  Flags.              (line   38)
* IISCGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers 클래스): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   23)
* IllegalMonthError:                     calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  491)
* IllegalWeekdayError:                   calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  500)
* ilshift() (operator 모듈):             제자리 연산자.      (line   56)
* imag (numbers.Complex의 속성):         숫자 계층.          (line   19)
* imag (sys.hash_info의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1015)
* imap_unordered() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  135)
* imap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.    (line  120)
* IMAP4 (imaplib 클래스):                imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   24)
* IMAP4_SSL (imaplib 클래스):            imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   71)
* IMAP4_SSL;프로토콜:                    imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4_stream (imaplib 클래스):         imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  101)
* IMAP4_stream;프로토콜:                 imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4;프로토콜:                        imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4.abort:                           imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   56)
* IMAP4.error:                           imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   51)
* IMAP4.readonly:                        imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   62)
* imatmul() (operator 모듈):             제자리 연산자.      (line   71)
* immedok() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  283)
* immortal (불멸):                       용어집.             (line  676)
* immutable (불변):                      용어집.             (line  686)
* immutable object:                      객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* immutable;data;type:                   리터럴 Literals.    (line   18)
* immutable;object:                      리터럴 Literals.    (line   18)
* immutable;object <1>:                  딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line   36)
* immutable;sequence;types:              불변 시퀀스 형.     (line    6)
* imod() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line   61)
* impl_detail() (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  525)
* implementation (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1059)
* Import (ast 클래스):                   임포트.             (line    6)
* import path (임포트 경로):             용어집.             (line  693)
* import_fresh_module() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   15)
* IMPORT_FROM (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  822)
* import_module() (importlib 모듈):      함수<11>.           (line   14)
* import_module() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   49)
* IMPORT_NAME (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  813)
* importer (임포터):                     용어집.             (line  706)
* ImportError:                           구체적인 예외.      (line   50)
* ImportFrom (ast 클래스):               임포트.             (line   19)
* importing (임포팅):                    용어집.             (line  701)
* ImportWarning:                         경고.               (line   59)
* ImproperConnectionState:               http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  156)
* imul() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line   66)
* In (ast 클래스):                       표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* in_dll() (ctypes._CData 메서드):       데이터형<2>.        (line   62)
* in_table_a1() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   36)
* in_table_b1() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   41)
* in_table_c11_c12() (stringprep 모듈):  stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   64)
* in_table_c11() (stringprep 모듈):      stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   56)
* in_table_c12() (stringprep 모듈):      stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   60)
* in_table_c21_c22() (stringprep 모듈):  stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   77)
* in_table_c21() (stringprep 모듈):      stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   69)
* in_table_c22() (stringprep 모듈):      stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   73)
* in_table_c3() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   82)
* in_table_c4() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   86)
* in_table_c5() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   90)
* in_table_c6() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   94)
* in_table_c7() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   98)
* in_table_c8() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line  102)
* in_table_c9() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line  106)
* in_table_d1() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line  110)
* in_table_d2() (stringprep 모듈):       stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line  115)
* in_transaction (sqlite3.Connection의 속성): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  764)
* inch() (curses.window 메서드):         창 객체.            (line  290)
* include() (xml.etree.ElementInclude 모듈): 함수<9>.        (line   17)
* inclusive (tracemalloc.DomainFilter의 속성): DomainFilter. (line   12)
* inclusive (tracemalloc.Filter의 속성): Filter.             (line   38)
* inclusive;or:                          이항 비트 연산.     (line   20)
* Incomplete:                            binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line  154)
* IncompleteRead:                        http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  152)
* IncompleteReadError:                   예외<10>.           (line   45)
* incr_item():                           예외<18>.           (line   67)
* incr_item() <1>:                       예외<18>.           (line  112)
* increment_lineno() (ast 모듈):         ast 도우미.         (line  153)
* IncrementalDecoder (codecs 클래스):    IncrementalDecoder 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* incrementaldecoder (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성): codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   84)
* IncrementalEncoder (codecs 클래스):    IncrementalEncoder 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* incrementalencoder (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성): codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   84)
* IncrementalNewlineDecoder (io 클래스): 텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line  270)
* IncrementalParser (xml.sax.xmlreader 클래스): xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   19)
* indent (doctest.Example의 속성):       Example 객체.       (line   42)
* indent (reprlib.Repr의 속성):          Repr 객체.          (line   48)
* INDENT (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   84)
* INDENT 토큰:                           들여쓰기.           (line   31)
* indent() (textwrap 모듈):              textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  101)
* indent() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.            (line  111)
* IndentationError:                      구체적인 예외.      (line  336)
* index (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성):      인터프리터 스택.    (line   37)
* index (inspect.Traceback의 속성):      인터프리터 스택.    (line   77)
* index operation:                       시퀀스들.           (line    6)
* index() (array.array 메서드):          array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  188)
* index() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  149)
* index() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  149)
* index() (collections.deque 메서드):    deque 객체.         (line   66)
* index() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList 메서드): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  325)
* index() (operator 모듈):               operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   90)
* index() (sequence method):             공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* index() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  218)
* index() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드): ttk Notebook.       (line   35)
* index() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.       (line  166)
* IndexError:                            구체적인 예외.      (line   78)
* indexOf() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  196)
* IndexSizeErr:                          예외<17>.           (line   31)
* indices() (slice 메서드):              슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* INDIRECT (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.       (line   31)
* inet_aton() (socket 모듈):             기타 함수<2>.       (line  256)
* inet_ntoa() (socket 모듈):             기타 함수<2>.       (line  275)
* inet_ntop() (socket 모듈):             기타 함수<2>.       (line  309)
* inet_pton() (socket 모듈):             기타 함수<2>.       (line  292)
* Inexact (decimal 클래스):              신호.               (line   41)
* inf (cmath 모듈):                      상수<3>.            (line   20)
* inf (math 모듈):                       상수<2>.            (line   24)
* inf (sys.hash_info의 속성):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1007)
* infile (shlex.shlex의 속성):           shlex 객체.         (line  125)
* Infinity:                              내장 함수.          (line  701)
* infj (cmath 모듈):                     상수<3>.            (line   26)
* INFO (logging 모듈):                   로깅 수준.          (line   28)
* INFO (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):        tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  193)
* info() (dis.Bytecode 메서드):          바이트 코드 분석.   (line   59)
* info() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   61)
* info() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   80)
* info() (logging 모듈):                 모듈 수준 함수.     (line   61)
* info() (logging.Logger 메서드):        Logger 객체.        (line  262)
* info() (urllib.response.addinfourl 메서드): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   35)
* infolist() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):   ZipFile 객체.       (line  115)
* inheritance:                           클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* ini 파일:                              configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* init_color() (curses 모듈):            함수<5>.            (line  209)
* init_pair() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  219)
* init() (mimetypes 모듈):               mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   86)
* inited (mimetypes 모듈):               mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  121)
* initgroups() (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  332)
* initial_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  204)
* initproc (C type):                     슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   37)
* initscr() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  229)
* InitVar (dataclasses 클래스):          Module contents.    (line  310)
* inode() (os.DirEntry 메서드):          파일과 디렉터리.    (line  937)
* input_charset (email.charset.Charset의 속성): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   49)
* input_codec (email.charset.Charset의 속성): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   76)
* input() (fileinput 모듈):              fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line   53)
* InputSource (xml.sax.xmlreader 클래스): xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   46)
* InputStream (wsgiref.types 클래스):    wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   24)
* inquiry (C type):                      순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  185)
* insch() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  295)
* insdelln() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  302)
* insert_text() (readline 모듈):         줄 버퍼.            (line   13)
* insert() (array.array 메서드):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  199)
* insert() (collections.deque 메서드):   deque 객체.         (line   74)
* insert() (sequence method):            가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* insert() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드): ttk Notebook.      (line   40)
* insert() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.      (line  170)
* insert() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  129)
* insertBefore() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):  Node 객체.          (line  114)
* insertln() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  309)
* insnstr() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  314)
* insort_left() (bisect 모듈):           bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   68)
* insort_right() (bisect 모듈):          bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   85)
* insort() (bisect 모듈):                bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   85)
* inspect (sys.flags의 속성):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  500)
* inspect 명령줄 옵션; -details:         명령 줄 인터페이스<8>.
                                                             (line   13)
* InspectLoader (importlib.abc 클래스):  importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  192)
* insstr() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  324)
* install_opener() (urllib.request 모듈): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  109)
* install_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.        (line  172)
* install() (gettext 모듈):              클래스 기반 API.    (line   64)
* install() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   70)
* installHandler() (unittest 모듈):      시그널 처리하기.    (line   27)
* instance;call:                         호출.               (line  148)
* instate() (tkinter.ttk.Widget 메서드): ttk Widget.         (line   18)
* instr() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  333)
* instream (shlex.shlex의 속성):         shlex 객체.         (line  131)
* Instruction (dis 클래스):              파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   10)
* INSTRUCTION (monitoring event):        Events.             (line   30)
* Instruction.arg (dis 모듈):            파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   33)
* Instruction.argrepr (dis 모듈):        파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   45)
* Instruction.argval (dis 모듈):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   41)
* Instruction.baseopcode (dis 모듈):     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   23)
* Instruction.baseopname (dis 모듈):     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   28)
* Instruction.cache_info (dis 모듈):     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   91)
* Instruction.cache_offset (dis 모듈):   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   60)
* Instruction.end_offset (dis 모듈):     파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   64)
* Instruction.is_jump_target (dis 모듈): 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   77)
* Instruction.jump_target (dis 모듈):    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   81)
* Instruction.line_number (dis 모듈):    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   72)
* Instruction.offset (dis 모듈):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   50)
* Instruction.oparg (dis 모듈):          파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   37)
* Instruction.opcode (dis 모듈):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   14)
* Instruction.opname (dis 모듈):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   19)
* Instruction.positions (dis 모듈):      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   86)
* Instruction.start_offset (dis 모듈):   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   54)
* Instruction.starts_line (dis 모듈):    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line   68)
* int (uuid.UUID의 속성):                uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  126)
* int (내장 클래스):                     내장 함수.          (line  924)
* int_info (sys 모듈):                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1097)
* int_max_str_digits (sys.flags의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  545)
* Int2AP() (imaplib 모듈):               imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  115)
* integer:                               불변 시퀀스.        (line   15)
* integer;literals:                      숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* integer;representation:                numbers Integral.   (line    8)
* Integral (numbers 클래스):             숫자 계층.          (line   59)
* IntegrityError:                        예외<5>.            (line   65)
* IntEnum (enum 클래스):                 Data Types.         (line  361)
* interact (pdb command):                디버거 명령들.      (line  333)
* interact() (code 모듈):                code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   39)
* interact() (code.InteractiveConsole 메서드): 대화형 콘솔 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* Interactive (ast 클래스):              Root nodes.         (line   36)
* interactive (sys.flags의 속성):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  503)
* interactive (대화형):                  용어집.             (line  711)
* InteractiveConsole (code 클래스):      code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   28)
* InteractiveInterpreter (code 클래스):  code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   14)
* InterfaceError:                        예외<5>.            (line   37)
* intern() (sys 모듈):                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1141)
* internal type:                         내부 형 Internal types.
                                                             (line    6)
* internal_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성): ZipInfo 객체.      (line  133)
* Internaldate2tuple() (imaplib 모듈):   imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  109)
* InternalError:                         예외<5>.            (line   71)
* internalSubset (xml.dom.DocumentType의 속성): DocumentType 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* INTERNET_TIMEOUT (test.support 모듈):  test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   64)
* interpolated string literal:           문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* interpolation, string (%):             printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation;bytearray (%):           printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation;bytes (%):               printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* InterpolationDepthError:               예외<6>.            (line   39)
* InterpolationError:                    예외<6>.            (line   35)
* InterpolationMissingOptionError:       예외<6>.            (line   45)
* InterpolationSyntaxError:              예외<6>.            (line   50)
* interpreted (인터프리티드):            용어집.             (line  721)
* interpreter lock:                      스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter prompts:                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* interpreter shutdown (인터프리터 종료): 용어집.            (line  729)
* interpreter_requires_environment() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    9)
* interrupt_main() (_thread 모듈):       _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   52)
* interrupt() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  338)
* InterruptedError:                      OS 예외.            (line   71)
* intersection_update() (frozenset 메서드): 집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  172)
* intersection() (frozenset 메서드):     집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  100)
* IntFlag (enum 클래스):                 Data Types.         (line  541)
* intro (cmd.Cmd의 속성):                Cmd 객체.           (line  135)
* InuseAttributeErr:                     예외<17>.           (line   36)
* inv_cdf() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드): NormalDist 객체. (line   85)
* inv() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   99)
* InvalidAccessErr:                      예외<17>.           (line   41)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib 모듈):  함수<11>.           (line   38)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   47)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   80)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  180)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder의 클래스 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  132)
* invalidate_caches() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   86)
* InvalidBase64CharactersDefect:         email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line  123)
* InvalidBase64LengthDefect:             email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line  129)
* InvalidBase64PaddingDefect:            email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line  117)
* InvalidCharacterErr:                   예외<17>.           (line   45)
* InvalidDateDefect:                     email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line  135)
* InvalidFileException:                  plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line  164)
* InvalidModificationErr:                예외<17>.           (line   52)
* InvalidOperation (decimal 클래스):     신호.               (line   49)
* InvalidStateErr:                       예외<17>.           (line   56)
* InvalidStateError:                     예외 클래스.        (line   26)
* InvalidStateError <1>:                 예외<10>.           (line   30)
* InvalidTZPathWarning:                  예외와 경고.        (line   12)
* InvalidURL:                            http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  135)
* inversion:                             일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   18)
* Invert (ast 클래스):                   표현식<2>.          (line   27)
* invert() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   99)
* invocation:                            콜러블 Callable types.
                                                             (line    6)
* IO (typing 클래스):                    ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  470)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT (stat 모듈): stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  470)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK (stat 모듈):    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  470)
* IOBase (io 클래스):                    I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line    6)
* IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (socket 모듈): 상수<8>.     (line  275)
* ioctl() (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  101)
* ioctl() (socket.socket 메서드):        소켓 객체.          (line  177)
* IOError:                               구체적인 예외.      (line  470)
* ior() (operator 모듈):                 제자리 연산자.      (line   78)
* ios_ver() (platform 모듈):             iOS platform.       (line    6)
* ip (ipaddress.IPv4Interface의 속성):   인터페이스 객체.    (line   19)
* ip (ipaddress.IPv6Interface의 속성):   인터페이스 객체.    (line   69)
* ip_address() (ipaddress 모듈):         편의 팩토리 함수.   (line    9)
* ip_interface() (ipaddress 모듈):       편의 팩토리 함수.   (line   36)
* ip_network() (ipaddress 모듈):         편의 팩토리 함수.   (line   22)
* ipow() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line   83)
* ipv4_mapped (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.     (line  289)
* IPv4Address (ipaddress 클래스):        주소 객체.          (line   12)
* IPv4Interface (ipaddress 클래스):      인터페이스 객체.    (line    9)
* IPv4Network (ipaddress 클래스):        네트워크 객체.      (line   12)
* IPV6_ENABLED (test.support.socket_helper 모듈): test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   10)
* ipv6_mapped (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.     (line  183)
* IPv6Address (ipaddress 클래스):        주소 객체.          (line  213)
* IPv6Interface (ipaddress 클래스):      인터페이스 객체.    (line   59)
* IPv6Network (ipaddress 클래스):        네트워크 객체.      (line  236)
* irrefutable case block:                Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* irshift() (operator 모듈):             제자리 연산자.      (line   88)
* Is (ast 클래스):                       표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* is_() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   60)
* is_absolute() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.
                                                             (line  181)
* is_active() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 메서드): 프로세스 감시자.
                                                             (line   70)
* is_active() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 메서드): graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line  101)
* is_alive() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.
                                                             (line  123)
* is_alive() (threading.Thread 메서드):  Thread objects.     (line  184)
* is_android (test.support 모듈):        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   39)
* is_annotated() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  227)
* is_assigned() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  238)
* is_async (pyclbr.Function의 속성):     Function 객체.      (line   40)
* is_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  410)
* is_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 메서드): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체.
                                                             (line   29)
* is_block_device() (pathlib.Path 메서드): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  125)
* is_blocked() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 메서드): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* is_canonical() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.     (line  312)
* is_canonical() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.     (line  269)
* is_char_device() (pathlib.Path 메서드): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  133)
* IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (difflib 모듈):    difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  343)
* is_check_supported() (lzma 모듈):      기타.               (line    6)
* is_closed() (asyncio.loop 메서드):     루프 실행 및 중지.  (line   38)
* is_closing() (asyncio.BaseTransport 메서드): 베이스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   16)
* is_closing() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.  (line  109)
* is_dataclass() (dataclasses 모듈):     Module contents.    (line  448)
* is_declared_global() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  219)
* is_dir() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  502)
* is_dir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  103)
* is_dir() (os.DirEntry 메서드):         파일과 디렉터리.    (line  948)
* is_dir() (pathlib.Path 메서드):        Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   66)
* is_dir() (zipfile.Path 메서드):        Path 객체.          (line   55)
* is_dir() (zipfile.ZipInfo 메서드):     ZipInfo 객체.       (line   40)
* is_enabled() (faulthandler 모듈):      결함 처리기 상태.   (line   31)
* is_expired() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 메서드): Cookie 객체.  (line  107)
* is_fifo() (pathlib.Path 메서드):       Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  117)
* is_file() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  506)
* is_file() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  107)
* is_file() (os.DirEntry 메서드):        파일과 디렉터리.    (line  976)
* is_file() (pathlib.Path 메서드):       Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   53)
* is_file() (zipfile.Path 메서드):       Path 객체.          (line   59)
* is_finalized() (gc 모듈):              gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  167)
* is_finalizing() (sys 모듈):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1166)
* is_finite() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  317)
* is_finite() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  276)
* is_free() (symtable.Symbol 메서드):    심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  233)
* is_global (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.       (line  131)
* is_global (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.       (line  270)
* is_global() (symtable.Symbol 메서드):  심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  211)
* is_hop_by_hop() (wsgiref.util 모듈):   wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  106)
* is_imported() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  203)
* is_infinite() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  322)
* is_infinite() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.      (line  281)
* is_integer() (float 메서드):           실수에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line   16)
* is_integer() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  126)
* is_integer() (int 메서드):             정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line  170)
* is_junction() (os.DirEntry 메서드):    파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1008)
* is_junction() (pathlib.Path 메서드):   Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   87)
* is_jython (test.support 모듈):         test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   35)
* IS_LINE_JUNK() (difflib 모듈):         difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  336)
* is_linetouched() (curses.window 메서드): 창 객체.          (line  342)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.   (line  178)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.   (line  280)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  286)
* is_local() (symtable.Symbol 메서드):   심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  223)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.     (line  173)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체. (line   70)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.     (line  278)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체. (line  284)
* is_mount() (pathlib.Path 메서드):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   94)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.    (line   88)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.    (line  266)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  276)
* is_multipart() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  120)
* is_multipart() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  132)
* is_namespace() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  242)
* is_nan() (decimal.Context 메서드):     Context 객체.       (line  327)
* is_nan() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):     Decimal 객체.       (line  286)
* is_nested() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   94)
* is_nonlocal() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  215)
* is_normal() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  332)
* is_normal() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  291)
* is_normalized() (unicodedata 모듈):    unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  167)
* is_not_allowed() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 메서드): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   70)
* is_not() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   64)
* IS_OP (opcode):                        파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  801)
* is_optimized() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   89)
* is_package() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  221)
* is_package() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  400)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  312)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  210)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  253)
* is_package() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   71)
* is_parameter() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  207)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.      (line   94)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.  (line   64)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.      (line  268)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.  (line  278)
* is_protocol() (typing 모듈):           인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line  114)
* is_python_build() (sysconfig 모듈):    기타 함수<3>.       (line   51)
* is_qnan() (decimal.Context 메서드):    Context 객체.       (line  337)
* is_qnan() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):    Decimal 객체.       (line  297)
* is_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport 메서드): 읽기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line    6)
* is_referenced() (symtable.Symbol 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  199)
* is_relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.
                                                             (line  200)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.     (line  158)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체. (line   68)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.     (line  276)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체. (line  282)
* is_reserved() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.
                                                             (line  224)
* is_resource_enabled() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  244)
* is_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  458)
* is_resource() (importlib.resources 모듈): Functional API.  (line  136)
* is_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   62)
* is_running() (asyncio.loop 메서드):    루프 실행 및 중지.  (line   34)
* is_safe (uuid.UUID의 속성):            uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  145)
* is_serving() (asyncio.Server 메서드):  서버 객체.          (line  115)
* is_set() (asyncio.Event 메서드):       Event.              (line   63)
* is_set() (threading.Event 메서드):     Event objects.      (line   23)
* is_signed() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  342)
* is_signed() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  302)
* is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.   (line  282)
* is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  336)
* is_skipped_line() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):    bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  235)
* is_snan() (decimal.Context 메서드):    Context 객체.       (line  347)
* is_snan() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):    Decimal 객체.       (line  308)
* is_socket() (pathlib.Path 메서드):     Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  109)
* is_stack_trampoline_active() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1709)
* is_subnormal() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.     (line  352)
* is_subnormal() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.     (line  313)
* is_symlink() (os.DirEntry 메서드):     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  990)
* is_symlink() (pathlib.Path 메서드):    Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   79)
* is_symlink() (zipfile.Path 메서드):    Path 객체.          (line   63)
* is_tarfile() (tarfile 모듈):           tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  181)
* is_term_resized() (curses 모듈):       함수<5>.            (line  237)
* is_tracing() (tracemalloc 모듈):       함수<10>.           (line   59)
* is_tracked() (gc 모듈):                gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  143)
* is_typeddict() (typing 모듈):          인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line  129)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.  (line  153)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   66)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.  (line  274)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  280)
* is_valid() (string.Template 메서드):   템플릿 문자열.      (line   61)
* is_wintouched() (curses.window 메서드): 창 객체.           (line  349)
* is_zero() (decimal.Context 메서드):    Context 객체.       (line  357)
* is_zero() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):    Decimal 객체.       (line  318)
* is_zipfile() (zipfile 모듈):           zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   74)
* isabs() (os.path 모듈):                os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  190)
* isabstract() (inspect 모듈):           형과 멤버.          (line  498)
* IsADirectoryError:                     OS 예외.            (line   81)
* isalnum() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  478)
* isalnum() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  478)
* isalnum() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  135)
* isalnum() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  223)
* isalpha() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  495)
* isalpha() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  495)
* isalpha() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  139)
* isalpha() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  230)
* isascii() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  511)
* isascii() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  511)
* isascii() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  144)
* isascii() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  240)
* isasyncgen() (inspect 모듈):           형과 멤버.          (line  460)
* isasyncgenfunction() (inspect 모듈):   형과 멤버.          (line  439)
* isatty() (io.IOBase 메서드):           I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   69)
* isatty() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  248)
* isawaitable() (inspect 모듈):          형과 멤버.          (line  418)
* isblank() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  148)
* isblk() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  205)
* isbuiltin() (inspect 모듈):            형과 멤버.          (line  479)
* ischr() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  201)
* isclass() (inspect 모듈):              형과 멤버.          (line  344)
* isclose() (cmath 모듈):                분류 함수.          (line   23)
* isclose() (math 모듈):                 부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   25)
* iscntrl() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  152)
* iscode() (inspect 모듈):               형과 멤버.          (line  475)
* iscoroutine() (asyncio 모듈):          인트로스펙션.       (line   26)
* iscoroutine() (inspect 모듈):          형과 멤버.          (line  411)
* iscoroutinefunction() (inspect 모듈):  형과 멤버.          (line  375)
* isctrl() (curses.ascii 모듈):          curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  191)
* isDaemon() (threading.Thread 메서드):  Thread objects.     (line  205)
* isdatadescriptor() (inspect 모듈):     형과 멤버.          (line  526)
* isdecimal() (str 메서드):              문자열 메서드.      (line  248)
* isdev() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  213)
* isdevdrive() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  253)
* isdigit() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  520)
* isdigit() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  520)
* isdigit() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  156)
* isdigit() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  256)
* isdir() (os.path 모듈):                os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  209)
* isdir() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  189)
* isdisjoint() (frozenset 메서드):       집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   65)
* isdown() (turtle 모듈):                그리기 상태.        (line   86)
* iselement() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.         (line  122)
* isenabled() (gc 모듈):                 gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   29)
* isEnabledFor() (logging.Logger 메서드): Logger 객체.       (line  132)
* isendwin() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  242)
* ISEOF() (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   37)
* isfifo() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):     TarInfo 객체.       (line  209)
* isfile() (os.path 모듈):               os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  201)
* isfile() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):     TarInfo 객체.       (line  180)
* isfinite() (cmath 모듈):               분류 함수.          (line    6)
* isfinite() (math 모듈):                부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   58)
* isfirstline() (fileinput 모듈):        fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  102)
* isframe() (inspect 모듈):              형과 멤버.          (line  471)
* isfunction() (inspect 모듈):           형과 멤버.          (line  354)
* isfuture() (asyncio 모듈):             퓨처 함수.          (line    6)
* isgenerator() (inspect 모듈):          형과 멤버.          (line  371)
* isgeneratorfunction() (inspect 모듈):  형과 멤버.          (line  359)
* isgetsetdescriptor() (inspect 모듈):   형과 멤버.          (line  538)
* isgraph() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  161)
* isidentifier() (str 메서드):           문자열 메서드.      (line  265)
* isinf() (cmath 모듈):                  분류 함수.          (line   13)
* isinf() (math 모듈):                   부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   65)
* isjunction() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  217)
* iskeyword() (keyword 모듈):            keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사.
                                                             (line   13)
* isleap() (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  343)
* islice() (itertools 모듈):             Itertool Functions. (line  362)
* islink() (os.path 모듈):               os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  225)
* islnk() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  197)
* islower() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  534)
* islower() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  534)
* islower() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  165)
* islower() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  283)
* ismemberdescriptor() (inspect 모듈):   형과 멤버.          (line  546)
* ismeta() (curses.ascii 모듈):          curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  195)
* ismethod() (inspect 모듈):             형과 멤버.          (line  349)
* ismethoddescriptor() (inspect 모듈):   형과 멤버.          (line  502)
* ismethodwrapper() (inspect 모듈):      형과 멤버.          (line  484)
* ismodule() (inspect 모듈):             형과 멤버.          (line  340)
* ismount() (os.path 모듈):              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  233)
* isnan() (cmath 모듈):                  분류 함수.          (line   18)
* isnan() (math 모듈):                   부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   70)
* ISNONTERMINAL() (token 모듈):          token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   33)
* IsNot (ast 클래스):                    표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* isnumeric() (str 메서드):              문자열 메서드.      (line  289)
* isocalendar() (datetime.date 메서드):  date 객체.          (line  235)
* isocalendar() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.   (line  633)
* isoformat() (datetime.date 메서드):    date 객체.          (line  260)
* isoformat() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.     (line  639)
* isoformat() (datetime.time 메서드):    time 객체.          (line  161)
* isolated (sys.flags의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  506)
* IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (unittest 클래스): 테스트 케이스.  (line  824)
* isolation_level (sqlite3.Connection의 속성): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  774)
* isoweekday() (datetime.date 메서드):   date 객체.          (line  229)
* isoweekday() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.    (line  627)
* isprint() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  169)
* isprintable() (str 메서드):            문자열 메서드.      (line  298)
* ispunct() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  173)
* isqrt() (math 모듈):                   수론적 함수.        (line   42)
* isreadable() (pprint 모듈):            함수<3>.            (line   84)
* isreadable() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 메서드): PrettyPrinter 객체.
                                                             (line   64)
* isrecursive() (pprint 모듈):           함수<3>.            (line   93)
* isrecursive() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 메서드): PrettyPrinter 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* isreg() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  185)
* isreserved() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  272)
* isReservedKey() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드): Morsel 객체. (line   64)
* isroutine() (inspect 모듈):            형과 멤버.          (line  493)
* isSameNode() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):    Node 객체.          (line   97)
* issoftkeyword() (keyword 모듈):        keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사.
                                                             (line   23)
* isspace() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  551)
* isspace() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  551)
* isspace() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  177)
* isspace() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  315)
* isstdin() (fileinput 모듈):            fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  107)
* issubset() (frozenset 메서드):         집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   71)
* issuperset() (frozenset 메서드):       집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   82)
* issym() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line  193)
* ISTERMINAL() (token 모듈):             token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   29)
* istitle() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  559)
* istitle() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  559)
* istitle() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  325)
* istraceback() (inspect 모듈):          형과 멤버.          (line  467)
* isub() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line   93)
* isupper() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  573)
* isupper() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  573)
* isupper() (curses.ascii 모듈):         curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  182)
* isupper() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  332)
* isvisible() (turtle 모듈):             가시성.             (line   21)
* isxdigit() (curses.ascii 모듈):        curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  186)
* ITALIC (tkinter.font 모듈):            tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   15)
* item selection:                        시퀀스들.           (line    6)
* item() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):  ttk Treeview.       (line  186)
* item() (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap 메서드):  NamedNodeMap 객체.  (line   12)
* item() (xml.dom.NodeList 메서드):      NodeList 객체.      (line   15)
* itemgetter() (operator 모듈):          operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  263)
* items() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  255)
* items() (contextvars.Context 메서드):  수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line  138)
* items() (dict 메서드):                 매핑 형 — dict.     (line  188)
* items() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  218)
* items() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  324)
* items() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):      Mailbox 객체.       (line  126)
* items() (types.MappingProxyType 메서드): 표준 인터프리터 형.
                                                             (line  256)
* items() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   70)
* itemsize (array.array의 속성):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  113)
* itemsize (memoryview의 속성):          메모리 뷰.          (line  428)
* ItemsView (collections.abc 클래스):    Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   97)
* ItemsView (typing 클래스):             Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   41)
* iter_attachments() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  518)
* iter_child_nodes() (ast 모듈):         ast 도우미.         (line  170)
* iter_fields() (ast 모듈):              ast 도우미.         (line  165)
* iter_importers() (pkgutil 모듈):       pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   96)
* iter_modules() (pkgutil 모듈):         pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  114)
* iter_parts() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  532)
* iter_unpack() (struct 모듈):           함수와 예외.        (line   41)
* iter_unpack() (struct.Struct 메서드):  클래스<2>.          (line   44)
* iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  135)
* iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* Iterable (collections.abc 클래스):     Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   25)
* Iterable (typing 클래스):              Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterable (이터러블):                   용어집.             (line  743)
* iterable;unpacking:                    표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line   17)
* Iterator (collections.abc 클래스):     Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   41)
* Iterator (typing 클래스):              Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* iterator (이터레이터):                 용어집.             (line  763)
* iterator protocol:                     이터레이터 형.      (line    6)
* iterdecode() (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  227)
* iterdir() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  498)
* iterdir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   99)
* iterdir() (pathlib.Path 메서드):       Reading directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterdir() (zipfile.Path 메서드):       Path 객체.          (line   51)
* iterdump() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  499)
* iterencode() (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  214)
* iterencode() (json.JSONEncoder 메서드): 인코더와 디코더.   (line  216)
* iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  146)
* iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* iteritems() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):  Mailbox 객체.       (line  118)
* iterkeys() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):   Mailbox 객체.       (line   93)
* itermonthdates() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   65)
* itermonthdays() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   72)
* itermonthdays2() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   79)
* itermonthdays3() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   86)
* itermonthdays4() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   95)
* iternextfunc (C type):                 슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   96)
* iterparse() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.         (line  128)
* itertext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  155)
* itervalues() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드): Mailbox 객체.       (line  102)
* iterweekdays() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   59)
* ITIMER_PROF (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  220)
* ITIMER_REAL (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  210)
* ITIMER_VIRTUAL (signal 모듈):          모듈 내용<5>.       (line  215)
* ItimerError:                           모듈 내용<5>.       (line  251)
* itruediv() (operator 모듈):            제자리 연산자.      (line   98)
* ixor() (operator 모듈):                제자리 연산자.      (line  103)
* j;숫자 리터럴에서:                     실수 리터럴.        (line   26)
* JANUARY (calendar 모듈):               calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* java_ver() (platform 모듈):            Java platform.      (line    6)
* Java;language:                         numbers Real float. (line    6)
* join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐. (line  177)
* join_thread() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   11)
* join() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):         Queue.              (line   52)
* join() (bytearray 메서드):             바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  161)
* join() (bytes 메서드):                 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  161)
* join() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.
                                                             (line  260)
* join() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.    (line  172)
* join() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.   (line   98)
* join() (os.path 모듈):                 os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  294)
* join() (queue.Queue 메서드):           큐 객체.            (line   87)
* join() (shlex 모듈):                   shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석.
                                                             (line   29)
* join() (str 메서드):                   문자열 메서드.      (line  347)
* join() (threading.Thread 메서드):      Thread objects.     (line  121)
* JoinableQueue (multiprocessing 클래스): 파이프와 큐.       (line  239)
* JoinedStr (ast 클래스):                리터럴<2>.          (line   41)
* joinpath() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  510)
* joinpath() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  111)
* joinpath() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드):  메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  238)
* joinpath() (zipfile.Path 메서드):      Path 객체.          (line  112)
* js_output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 메서드): 쿠키 객체.   (line   31)
* js_output() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드): Morsel 객체.     (line   75)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -compact:       명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   48)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -h:             명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   54)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -help:          명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   54)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -indent:        명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   48)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -json-lines:    명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   42)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -no-ensure-ascii: 명령 줄 옵션<4>.  (line   35)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -no-indent:     명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   48)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -sort-keys:     명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   29)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; -tab:           명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   48)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; infile:         명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line    6)
* json.tool 명령줄 옵션; outfile:        명령 줄 옵션<4>.    (line   24)
* JSONDecodeError:                       예외<14>.           (line    6)
* JSONDecoder (json 클래스):             인코더와 디코더.    (line    6)
* JSONEncoder (json 클래스):             인코더와 디코더.    (line  100)
* JULY (calendar 모듈):                  calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* JUMP (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   34)
* JUMP (opcode):                         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1415)
* jump (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line  213)
* JUMP_BACKWARD (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  832)
* JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  838)
* JUMP_FORWARD (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  828)
* JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):            파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1417)
* JUNE (calendar 모듈):                  calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* kbhit() (msvcrt 모듈):                 콘솔 I/O.           (line    6)
* kde_random() (statistics 모듈):        함수 세부 사항.     (line  177)
* kde() (statistics 모듈):               함수 세부 사항.     (line  130)
* KEEP (enum.FlagBoundary의 속성):       Data Types.         (line  715)
* kevent() (select 모듈):                select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  102)
* key:                                   딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* key (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):      Morsel 객체.        (line   56)
* key (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo의 속성):        ZoneInfo 클래스.    (line   71)
* key function (키 함수):                용어집.             (line  788)
* KEY_A1 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  235)
* KEY_A3 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  238)
* KEY_ALL_ACCESS (winreg 모듈):          액세스 권한.        (line    8)
* KEY_B2 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  241)
* KEY_BACKSPACE (curses 모듈):           상수<6>.            (line  164)
* KEY_BEG (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  253)
* KEY_BREAK (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  146)
* KEY_BTAB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  250)
* KEY_C1 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  244)
* KEY_C3 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  247)
* KEY_CANCEL (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  256)
* KEY_CATAB (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  215)
* KEY_CLEAR (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  188)
* KEY_CLOSE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  259)
* KEY_COMMAND (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  262)
* KEY_COPY (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  265)
* KEY_CREATE (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  268)
* KEY_CREATE_LINK (winreg 모듈):         액세스 권한.        (line   51)
* KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (winreg 모듈):      액세스 권한.        (line   38)
* KEY_CTAB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  212)
* KEY_DC (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  179)
* KEY_DL (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  173)
* KEY_DOWN (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  149)
* KEY_EIC (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  185)
* KEY_END (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  271)
* KEY_ENTER (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  218)
* KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (winreg 모듈):  액세스 권한.        (line   42)
* KEY_EOL (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  194)
* KEY_EOS (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  191)
* KEY_EXECUTE (winreg 모듈):             액세스 권한.        (line   26)
* KEY_EXIT (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  274)
* KEY_F0 (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  167)
* KEY_FIND (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  277)
* KEY_Fn (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  170)
* KEY_HELP (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  280)
* KEY_HOME (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  161)
* KEY_IC (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  182)
* KEY_IL (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  176)
* KEY_LEFT (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  155)
* KEY_LL (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  232)
* KEY_MARK (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  283)
* KEY_MAX (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  424)
* KEY_MESSAGE (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  286)
* KEY_MIN (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  143)
* KEY_MOUSE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  418)
* KEY_MOVE (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  289)
* KEY_NEXT (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  292)
* KEY_NOTIFY (winreg 모듈):              액세스 권한.        (line   46)
* KEY_NPAGE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  203)
* KEY_OPEN (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  295)
* KEY_OPTIONS (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  298)
* KEY_PPAGE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  206)
* KEY_PREVIOUS (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  301)
* KEY_PRINT (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  229)
* KEY_QUERY_VALUE (winreg 모듈):         액세스 권한.        (line   30)
* KEY_READ (winreg 모듈):                액세스 권한.        (line   20)
* KEY_REDO (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  304)
* KEY_REFERENCE (curses 모듈):           상수<6>.            (line  307)
* KEY_REFRESH (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  310)
* KEY_REPLACE (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  313)
* KEY_RESET (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  225)
* KEY_RESIZE (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  421)
* KEY_RESTART (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  316)
* KEY_RESUME (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  319)
* KEY_RIGHT (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  158)
* KEY_SAVE (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  322)
* KEY_SBEG (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  325)
* KEY_SCANCEL (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  328)
* KEY_SCOMMAND (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  331)
* KEY_SCOPY (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  334)
* KEY_SCREATE (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  337)
* KEY_SDC (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  340)
* KEY_SDL (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  343)
* KEY_SELECT (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  346)
* KEY_SEND (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  349)
* KEY_SEOL (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  352)
* KEY_SET_VALUE (winreg 모듈):           액세스 권한.        (line   34)
* KEY_SEXIT (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  355)
* KEY_SF (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  197)
* KEY_SFIND (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  358)
* KEY_SHELP (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  361)
* KEY_SHOME (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  364)
* KEY_SIC (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line  367)
* KEY_SLEFT (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  370)
* KEY_SMESSAGE (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  373)
* KEY_SMOVE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  376)
* KEY_SNEXT (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  379)
* KEY_SOPTIONS (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  382)
* KEY_SPREVIOUS (curses 모듈):           상수<6>.            (line  385)
* KEY_SPRINT (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  388)
* KEY_SR (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  200)
* KEY_SREDO (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  391)
* KEY_SREPLACE (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  394)
* KEY_SRESET (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  221)
* KEY_SRIGHT (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  397)
* KEY_SRSUME (curses 모듈):              상수<6>.            (line  400)
* KEY_SSAVE (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  403)
* KEY_SSUSPEND (curses 모듈):            상수<6>.            (line  406)
* KEY_STAB (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  209)
* KEY_SUNDO (curses 모듈):               상수<6>.            (line  409)
* KEY_SUSPEND (curses 모듈):             상수<6>.            (line  412)
* KEY_UNDO (curses 모듈):                상수<6>.            (line  415)
* KEY_UP (curses 모듈):                  상수<6>.            (line  152)
* KEY_WOW64_32KEY (winreg 모듈):         64비트 특정.        (line   13)
* KEY_WOW64_64KEY (winreg 모듈):         64비트 특정.        (line    8)
* KEY_WRITE (winreg 모듈):               액세스 권한.        (line   15)
* key/value pair:                        딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* KeyboardInterrupt:                     구체적인 예외.      (line   88)
* KeyboardInterrupt (내장 예외):         시그널 처리하기<2>. (line    7)
* KeyboardInterrupt (내장 예외) <1>:     시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   34)
* KeyboardInterrupt (내장 예외) <2>:     시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   43)
* KeyError:                              구체적인 예외.      (line   84)
* keylog_filename (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.     (line  505)
* keyname() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  247)
* keypad() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  354)
* keyrefs() (weakref.WeakKeyDictionary 메서드): weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  188)
* keys() (contextvars.Context 메서드):   수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line  130)
* keys() (dict 메서드):                  매핑 형 — dict.     (line  193)
* keys() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  210)
* keys() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  316)
* keys() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):       Mailbox 객체.       (line   97)
* keys() (sqlite3.Row 메서드):           Row objects.        (line   19)
* keys() (types.MappingProxyType 메서드): 표준 인터프리터 형.
                                                             (line  261)
* keys() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   75)
* KeysView (collections.abc 클래스):     Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   97)
* KeysView (typing 클래스):              Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   50)
* keyword (ast 클래스):                  표현식<2>.          (line  150)
* keyword argument (키워드 인자):        용어집.             (line  811)
* keyword;as:                            try 문.             (line    6)
* keyword;as <1>:                        with 문.            (line    6)
* keyword;as <2>:                        The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;async:                         코루틴 함수 정의.   (line    9)
* keyword;await:                         호출.               (line  150)
* keyword;await <1>:                     코루틴 함수 정의.   (line    9)
* keyword;case:                          The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;elif:                          if 문<2>.           (line    6)
* keyword;else:                          if 문<2>.           (line    6)
* keyword;else <1>:                      while 문.           (line    6)
* keyword;else <2>:                      for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* keyword;else <3>:                      try 문.             (line    6)
* keyword;else <4>:                      except* clause.     (line   57)
* keyword;except:                        try 문.             (line    6)
* keyword;except_star:                   except clause.      (line   82)
* keyword;finally:                       try 문.             (line    6)
* keyword;finally <1>:                   else clause.        (line   10)
* keyword;from:                          일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;if:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;in:                            for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* keyword;yield:                         일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* keywords (functools.partial의 속성):   partial 객체.       (line   19)
* kill_python() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   74)
* kill() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 메서드): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line  103)
* kill() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   35)
* kill() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.   (line  215)
* kill() (os 모듈):                      프로세스 관리.      (line  317)
* kill() (subprocess.Popen 메서드):      Popen 객체.         (line   92)
* killchar() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  256)
* killpg() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  339)
* kind (inspect.Parameter의 속성):       Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  219)
* knownfiles (mimetypes 모듈):           mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  126)
* kqueue() (select 모듈):                select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line   92)
* KqueueSelector (selectors 클래스):     클래스<3>.          (line  187)
* KW_ONLY (dataclasses 모듈):            Module contents.    (line  463)
* kwargs (inspect.BoundArguments의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  341)
* kwargs (typing.ParamSpec의 속성):      Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  409)
* kwlist (keyword 모듈):                 keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사.
                                                             (line   17)
* L (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line   58)
* Lambda (ast 클래스):                   함수와 클래스 정의. (line   31)
* lambda (람다):                         용어집.             (line  815)
* lambda;expression:                     람다 Lambdas.       (line    6)
* lambda;expression <1>:                 함수 정의.          (line  124)
* lambda;form:                           람다 Lambdas.       (line    6)
* LambdaType (types 모듈):               표준 인터프리터 형. (line   24)
* LANG:                                  GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* LANG <1>:                              클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* LANG <2>:                              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line   49)
* LANG <3>:                              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  319)
* LANG <4>:                              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  323)
* LANGUAGE:                              GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* LANGUAGE <1>:                          클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* LARGEST (test.support 모듈):           test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  184)
* LargeZipFile:                          zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   35)
* last_accepted (multiprocessing.connection.Listener의 속성): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  102)
* last_exc (sys 모듈):                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1175)
* last_traceback (in module sys):        트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* last_traceback (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1198)
* last_type (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1198)
* last_value (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1198)
* lastChild (xml.dom.Node의 속성):       Node 객체.          (line   55)
* lastcmd (cmd.Cmd의 속성):              Cmd 객체.           (line  125)
* lastgroup (re.Match의 속성):           일치 객체.          (line  187)
* lastindex (re.Match의 속성):           일치 객체.          (line  179)
* lastResort (logging 모듈):             모듈 수준 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line    6)
* lastrowid (sqlite3.Cursor의 속성):     Cursor objects.     (line  195)
* layout() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드):   Ttk 스타일링.       (line   91)
* lazycache() (linecache 모듈):          linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line   45)
* LazyLoader (importlib.util 클래스):    importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  186)
* LBRACE (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  226)
* LBYL:                                  용어집.             (line  821)
* LC_ALL:                                GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* LC_ALL <1>:                            클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* LC_ALL (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  520)
* LC_COLLATE (locale 모듈):              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  488)
* LC_CTYPE (locale 모듈):                locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  474)
* LC_MESSAGES:                           GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* LC_MESSAGES <1>:                       클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* LC_MESSAGES (locale 모듈):             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  503)
* LC_MONETARY (locale 모듈):             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  498)
* LC_NUMERIC (locale 모듈):              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  513)
* LC_TIME (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  493)
* lchflags() (os 모듈):                  파일과 디렉터리.    (line  295)
* lchmod() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  308)
* lchmod() (pathlib.Path 메서드):        Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   54)
* lchown() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  328)
* lcm() (math 모듈):                     수론적 함수.        (line   55)
* LDCXXSHARED:                           Build and C API Changes<5>.
                                                             (line  153)
* ldexp() (math 모듈):                   부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   75)
* LDFLAGS:                               New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* LDFLAGS <1>:                           Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <2>:                           Linker flags.       (line   15)
* LDFLAGS <3>:                           Linker flags.       (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <4>:                           Linker flags.       (line   28)
* LDFLAGS <5>:                           Linker flags.       (line   31)
* LDFLAGS <6>:                           Linker flags.       (line   35)
* LDFLAGS <7>:                           Linker flags.       (line   50)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST:                        Linker flags.       (line   26)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                    Linker flags.       (line   40)
* le() (operator 모듈):                  operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* leapdays() (calendar 모듈):            calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  348)
* leaveok() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  360)
* left (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):          dircmp 클래스.      (line   43)
* left_list (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):     dircmp 클래스.      (line   51)
* left_only (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):     dircmp 클래스.      (line   63)
* left() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line   57)
* LEFTSHIFT (token 모듈):                token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  250)
* LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (token 모듈):           token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  283)
* LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* lenfunc (C type):                      슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  101)
* length (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap의 속성):  NamedNodeMap 객체.  (line    8)
* length (xml.dom.NodeList의 속성):      NodeList 객체.      (line   20)
* length_hint() (operator 모듈):         operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  205)
* LESS (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  211)
* LESSEQUAL (token 모듈):                token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  238)
* level (logging.Logger의 속성):         Logger 객체.        (line   31)
* lexical analyzer (어휘 분석기):        용어집.             (line  834)
* LexicalHandler (xml.sax.handler 클래스): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   42)
* lexists() (os.path 모듈):              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  117)
* LF (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   53)
* lgamma() (math 모듈):                  특수 함수.          (line   33)
* libc_ver() (platform 모듈):            Unix platforms.     (line    6)
* LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX (msvcrt 모듈): 기타 함수<4>.
                                                             (line   98)
* library (dbm.ndbm 모듈):               dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   34)
* library (ssl.SSLError의 속성):         예외<13>.           (line   17)
* LibraryLoader (ctypes 클래스):         공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line  165)
* license (내장 변수):                   site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들.
                                                             (line   32)
* LifoQueue (asyncio 클래스):            LIFO 큐.            (line    6)
* LifoQueue (queue 클래스):              queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   38)
* limit_denominator() (fractions.Fraction 메서드): fractions — 유리수.
                                                             (line  150)
* LimitOverrunError:                     예외<10>.           (line   61)
* line (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   85)
* LINE (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   38)
* line (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성):  FrameSummary 객체.  (line   42)
* line_buffering (io.TextIOWrapper의 속성): 텍스트 I/O<2>.   (line  159)
* line_num (csv.csvreader의 속성):       판독기 객체.        (line   22)
* line-buffered I/O:                     내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* linear_regression() (statistics 모듈): 함수 세부 사항.     (line  602)
* lineno (ast.AST의 속성):               노드 클래스.        (line   46)
* lineno (doctest.DocTest의 속성):       DocTest 객체.       (line   38)
* lineno (doctest.Example의 속성):       Example 객체.       (line   36)
* lineno (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성):     인터프리터 스택.    (line   22)
* lineno (inspect.Traceback의 속성):     인터프리터 스택.    (line   62)
* lineno (json.JSONDecodeError의 속성):  예외<14>.           (line   22)
* lineno (netrc.NetrcParseError의 속성): netrc — netrc 파일 처리.
                                                             (line   61)
* lineno (pyclbr.Class의 속성):          Class 객체.         (line   24)
* lineno (pyclbr.Function의 속성):       Function 객체.      (line   23)
* lineno (re.PatternError의 속성):       Exceptions.         (line   28)
* lineno (shlex.shlex의 속성):           shlex 객체.         (line  150)
* lineno (SyntaxError의 속성):           구체적인 예외.      (line  303)
* lineno (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성): FrameSummary 객체. (line   33)
* lineno (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   92)
* lineno (tracemalloc.Filter의 속성):    Filter.             (line   48)
* lineno (tracemalloc.Frame의 속성):     Frame.              (line   17)
* lineno (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError의 속성): ExpatError 예외.
                                                             (line   27)
* lineno() (fileinput 모듈):             fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line   90)
* LINES:                                 함수<5>.            (line  120)
* LINES <1>:                             함수<5>.            (line  553)
* LINES <2>:                             함수<5>.            (line  555)
* LINES (curses 모듈):                   상수<6>.            (line   52)
* lines (os.terminal_size의 속성):       터미널의 크기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   32)
* linesep (email.policy.Policy의 속성):  email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  135)
* linesep (os 모듈):                     기타 시스템 정보.   (line  141)
* lineterminator (csv.Dialect의 속성):   방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   53)
* LineTooLong:                           http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  177)
* link() (os 모듈):                      파일과 디렉터리.    (line  341)
* LinkFallbackError:                     tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  253)
* linkname (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):     TarInfo 객체.       (line   93)
* LinkOutsideDestinationError:           tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  248)
* List (ast 클래스):                     리터럴<2>.          (line   65)
* list (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line  223)
* List (typing 클래스):                  Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   18)
* list (내장 클래스):                    리스트<2>.          (line    9)
* list (리스트):                         용어집.             (line  838)
* list comprehension (리스트 컴프리헨션): 용어집.            (line  844)
* LIST_APPEND (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  379)
* list_dialects() (csv 모듈):            모듈 내용<3>.       (line   85)
* LIST_EXTEND (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  704)
* list_folders() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드): Maildir 객체.     (line   60)
* list_folders() (mailbox.MH 메서드):    MH 객체.            (line   35)
* list;comprehensions:                   리스트 디스플레이.  (line    6)
* list;display:                          리스트 디스플레이.  (line    6)
* list() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  119)
* list() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  228)
* list() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   53)
* list() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):       TarFile 객체.       (line  114)
* ListComp (ast 클래스):                 컴프리헨션.         (line    6)
* listdir() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  363)
* listdrives() (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line  399)
* listen() (logging.config 모듈):        구성 함수.          (line  111)
* listen() (socket.socket 메서드):       소켓 객체.          (line  194)
* listen() (turtle 모듈):                화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* listener (logging.handlers.QueueHandler의 속성): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   88)
* Listener (multiprocessing.connection 클래스): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   50)
* listMethods() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system 메서드): ServerProxy 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* listmounts() (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line  418)
* listvolumes() (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line  442)
* listxattr() (os 모듈):                 리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   26)
* literal:                               리터럴 Literals.    (line    6)
* Literal (typing 모듈):                 특수 형태.          (line  130)
* literal_eval() (ast 모듈):             ast 도우미.         (line   82)
* LiteralString (typing 모듈):           특수형.             (line   67)
* LittleEndianStructure (ctypes 클래스): 구조화된 데이터형.  (line   27)
* LittleEndianUnion (ctypes 클래스):     구조화된 데이터형.  (line   16)
* ljust() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  288)
* ljust() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  288)
* ljust() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  354)
* LK_LOCK (msvcrt 모듈):                 파일 연산.          (line   18)
* LK_NBLCK (msvcrt 모듈):                파일 연산.          (line   25)
* LK_NBRLCK (msvcrt 모듈):               파일 연산.          (line   25)
* LK_RLCK (msvcrt 모듈):                 파일 연산.          (line   18)
* LK_UNLCK (msvcrt 모듈):                파일 연산.          (line   31)
* ll (pdb command):                      디버거 명령들.      (line  238)
* LMTP (smtplib 클래스):                 smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  100)
* ln() (decimal.Context 메서드):         Context 객체.       (line  362)
* ln() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):         Decimal 객체.       (line  323)
* LNKTYPE (tarfile 모듈):                tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  274)
* Load (ast 클래스):                     변수.               (line   11)
* LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR (opcode):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  497)
* LOAD_ATTR (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  744)
* LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  504)
* load_cert_chain() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.   (line   97)
* LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1422)
* LOAD_CONST (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  629)
* load_default_certs() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  126)
* LOAD_DEREF (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  969)
* load_dh_params() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.    (line  335)
* load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  472)
* LOAD_FAST (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  908)
* LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (opcode):          파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  931)
* LOAD_FAST_CHECK (opcode):              파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  923)
* LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode):          파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  916)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (opcode):      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  977)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (opcode):    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  648)
* LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  901)
* LOAD_LOCALS (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  639)
* LOAD_METHOD (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1432)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.FileLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  298)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  252)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.Loader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  122)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  389)
* load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  225)
* load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  267)
* load_module() (zipimport.zipimporter 메서드): zipimporter 객체.
                                                             (line   77)
* LOAD_NAME (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  633)
* load_package_tests() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  610)
* LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (opcode):              파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  762)
* load_verify_locations() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  143)
* load() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line  120)
* load() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 메서드): 쿠키 객체.        (line   38)
* load() (json 모듈):                    기본 사용법.        (line  100)
* load() (marshal 모듈):                 marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   65)
* load() (pickle 모듈):                  모듈 인터페이스.    (line   56)
* load() (pickle.Unpickler 메서드):      모듈 인터페이스.    (line  253)
* load() (plistlib 모듈):                plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   46)
* load() (tomllib 모듈):                 tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   32)
* load() (tracemalloc.Snapshot의 클래스 메서드): Snapshot.   (line   49)
* Loader (importlib.abc 클래스):         importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   87)
* loader (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  369)
* loader (로더):                         용어집.             (line  853)
* loader_state (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  398)
* LoadError:                             http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   32)
* LoadFileDialog (tkinter.filedialog 클래스): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  131)
* LoadKey() (winreg 모듈):               함수<12>.           (line  246)
* LoadLibrary() (ctypes.LibraryLoader 메서드): 공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line  176)
* loads() (json 모듈):                   기본 사용법.        (line  180)
* loads() (marshal 모듈):                marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line  103)
* loads() (pickle 모듈):                 모듈 인터페이스.    (line   71)
* loads() (plistlib 모듈):               plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   79)
* loads() (tomllib 모듈):                tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   48)
* loads() (xmlrpc.client 모듈):          편의 함수.          (line   18)
* loadTestsFromModule() (unittest.TestLoader 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line   42)
* loadTestsFromName() (unittest.TestLoader 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line   70)
* loadTestsFromNames() (unittest.TestLoader 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  102)
* loadTestsFromTestCase() (unittest.TestLoader 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line   30)
* local (threading 클래스):              Thread-local data.  (line  127)
* LOCAL_CREDS (socket 모듈):             상수<8>.            (line  322)
* LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT (socket 모듈):  상수<8>.            (line  322)
* localcontext() (decimal 모듈):         Context 객체.       (line   24)
* LOCALE (re 모듈):                      Flags.              (line   58)
* locale encoding (로케일 인코딩):       용어집.             (line  866)
* localeconv() (locale 모듈):            locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line   53)
* LocaleHTMLCalendar (calendar 클래스):  calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  316)
* LocaleTextCalendar (calendar 클래스):  calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  311)
* localize() (locale 모듈):              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  457)
* localName (xml.dom.Attr의 속성):       Attr 객체.          (line   13)
* localName (xml.dom.Node의 속성):       Node 객체.          (line   60)
* localtime() (email.utils 모듈):        email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   13)
* localtime() (time 모듈):               함수<4>.            (line  144)
* Locator (xml.sax.xmlreader 클래스):    xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   39)
* Lock (asyncio 클래스):                 Lock.               (line    6)
* Lock (multiprocessing 클래스):         동기화 프리미티브.  (line   45)
* lock (sys.thread_info의 속성):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1860)
* Lock (threading 클래스):               Lock objects.       (line   30)
* LOCK_EX (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  184)
* LOCK_NB (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  188)
* LOCK_SH (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  180)
* LOCK_UN (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  176)
* lock, interpreter:                     스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록.
                                                             (line    6)
* lock() (mailbox.Babyl 메서드):         Babyl 객체.         (line   52)
* lock() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):       Mailbox 객체.       (line  230)
* lock() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):       Maildir 객체.       (line  203)
* lock() (mailbox.mbox 메서드):          mbox 객체.          (line   54)
* lock() (mailbox.MH 메서드):            MH 객체.            (line   85)
* lock() (mailbox.MMDF 메서드):          MMDF 객체.          (line   45)
* Lock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  186)
* locked() (_thread.lock 메서드):        _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line  164)
* locked() (asyncio.Condition 메서드):   Condition.          (line   59)
* locked() (asyncio.Lock 메서드):        Lock.               (line   58)
* locked() (asyncio.Semaphore 메서드):   Semaphore.          (line   50)
* locked() (threading.Lock 메서드):      Lock objects.       (line   81)
* lockf() (fcntl 모듈):                  fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line  169)
* lockf() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  253)
* locking() (msvcrt 모듈):               파일 연산.          (line    6)
* LockType (_thread 모듈):               _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   27)
* LOG_ALERT (syslog 모듈):               syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* LOG_AUTH (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_AUTHPRIV (syslog 모듈):            syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_CONS (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  153)
* LOG_CRIT (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* LOG_CRON (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_DAEMON (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* log_date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  305)
* LOG_DEBUG (syslog 모듈):               syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* LOG_EMERG (syslog 모듈):               syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* LOG_ERR (syslog 모듈):                 syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* log_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  275)
* log_exception() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  193)
* LOG_FTP (syslog 모듈):                 syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_INFO (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* LOG_INSTALL (syslog 모듈):             syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_KERN (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LAUNCHD (syslog 모듈):             syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL0 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL1 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL2 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL3 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL4 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL5 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL6 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LOCAL7 (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_LPR (syslog 모듈):                 syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_MAIL (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* log_message() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  281)
* LOG_NDELAY (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  153)
* LOG_NETINFO (syslog 모듈):             syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_NEWS (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_NOTICE (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* LOG_NOWAIT (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  153)
* LOG_ODELAY (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  153)
* LOG_PERROR (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  153)
* LOG_PID (syslog 모듈):                 syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  153)
* LOG_RAS (syslog 모듈):                 syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_REMOTEAUTH (syslog 모듈):          syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* log_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  269)
* LOG_SYSLOG (syslog 모듈):              syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* log_to_stderr() (multiprocessing 모듈): 로깅<2>.           (line   22)
* LOG_USER (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_UUCP (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  118)
* LOG_WARNING (syslog 모듈):             syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line  107)
* log() (cmath 모듈):                    거듭제곱과 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   11)
* log() (logging 모듈):                  모듈 수준 함수.     (line   91)
* log() (logging.Logger 메서드):         Logger 객체.        (line  286)
* log() (math 모듈):                     거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   39)
* log10() (cmath 모듈):                  거듭제곱과 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   17)
* log10() (decimal.Context 메서드):      Context 객체.       (line  366)
* log10() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):      Decimal 객체.       (line  329)
* log10() (math 모듈):                   거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   64)
* log1p() (math 모듈):                   거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   46)
* log2() (math 모듈):                    거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   51)
* logb() (decimal.Context 메서드):       Context 객체.       (line  370)
* logb() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):       Decimal 객체.       (line  335)
* Logger (logging 클래스):               Logger 객체.        (line   22)
* LoggerAdapter (logging 클래스):        LoggerAdapter 객체. (line   10)
* logical_and() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  374)
* logical_and() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.      (line  343)
* logical_invert() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.   (line  378)
* logical_invert() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.   (line  349)
* logical_or() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.       (line  382)
* logical_or() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.       (line  354)
* logical_xor() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  386)
* logical_xor() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.      (line  360)
* login_cram_md5() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드): IMAP4 객체.       (line  131)
* login_tty() (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  278)
* login() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):           FTP 객체.           (line  123)
* login() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):        IMAP4 객체.         (line  126)
* login() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):         SMTP 객체.          (line   95)
* LOGNAME:                               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  232)
* LOGNAME <1>:                           getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   42)
* lognormvariate() (random 모듈):        실수 분포.          (line   70)
* logout() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  140)
* LogRecord (logging 클래스):            LogRecord 객체.     (line   11)
* LONG_MAX (C 매크로):                   정수 객체.          (line  137)
* LONG_TIMEOUT (test.support 모듈):      test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   92)
* longMessage (unittest.TestCase의 속성): 테스트 케이스.     (line  679)
* longname() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  262)
* lookup_error() (codecs 모듈):          에러 처리기.        (line  125)
* lookup() (codecs 모듈):                codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   54)
* lookup() (symtable.SymbolTable 메서드): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  108)
* lookup() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드):   Ttk 스타일링.       (line   77)
* lookup() (unicodedata 모듈):           unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   21)
* LookupError:                           베이스 클래스.      (line   79)
* loop_factory (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase의 속성): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  831)
* loop;over mutable sequence:            공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   71)
* loop;statement:                        while 문.           (line    6)
* loop;statement <1>:                    for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT (test.support 모듈):  test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   47)
* lower() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  590)
* lower() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  590)
* lower() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  360)
* LPAR (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  172)
* lpAttributeList (subprocess.STARTUPINFO의 속성): 윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line   59)
* lru_cache() (functools 모듈):          functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  136)
* lseek() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  289)
* LShift (ast 클래스):                   표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* lshift() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  106)
* LSQB (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  178)
* lstat() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  463)
* lstat() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   30)
* lstrip() (bytearray 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  299)
* lstrip() (bytes 메서드):               바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  299)
* lstrip() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line  368)
* lsub() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  147)
* Lt (ast 클래스):                       표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* lt() (operator 모듈):                  operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* lt() (turtle 모듈):                    거북이 움직임.      (line   57)
* LtE (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* LWPCookieJar (http.cookiejar 클래스):  FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력.
                                                             (line   25)
* LZMACompressor (lzma 클래스):          메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line    6)
* LZMADecompressor (lzma 클래스):        메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line   89)
* LZMAError:                             lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축.
                                                             (line   22)
* LZMAFile (lzma 클래스):                압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   41)
* M (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line   82)
* mac_ver() (platform 모듈):             macOS platform.     (line    6)
* machine() (platform 모듈):             Cross platform.     (line   35)
* macros (netrc.netrc의 속성):           netrc 객체.         (line   27)
* MADV_AUTOSYNC (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_CORE (mmap 모듈):                 MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_DODUMP (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_DOFORK (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_DONTDUMP (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_DONTFORK (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_DONTNEED (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_FREE (mmap 모듈):                 MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSABLE (mmap 모듈):        MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSE (mmap 모듈):           MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_HUGEPAGE (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_HWPOISON (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_MERGEABLE (mmap 모듈):            MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_NOCORE (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_NOHUGEPAGE (mmap 모듈):           MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_NORMAL (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_NOSYNC (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_PROTECT (mmap 모듈):              MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_RANDOM (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_REMOVE (mmap 모듈):               MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_SEQUENTIAL (mmap 모듈):           MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE (mmap 모듈):         MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_UNMERGEABLE (mmap 모듈):          MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* MADV_WILLNEED (mmap 모듈):             MADV_* 상수.        (line    6)
* madvise() (mmap.mmap 메서드):          mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  209)
* magic method (매직 메서드):            용어집.             (line  880)
* MAGIC_NUMBER (importlib.util 모듈):    importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   13)
* magic;method (메서드):                 용어집.             (line  884)
* MagicMock (unittest.mock 클래스):      매직 모의 객체.     (line    9)
* Mailbox (mailbox 클래스):              Mailbox 객체.       (line    6)
* Maildir (mailbox 클래스):              Maildir 객체.       (line    6)
* MaildirMessage (mailbox 클래스):       MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* main_thread() (threading 모듈):        Reference<2>.       (line  105)
* main():                                프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line    7)
* main() <1>:                            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  210)
* main() <2>:                            PyConfig.           (line  127)
* main() (site 모듈):                    모듈 내용<8>.       (line   40)
* main() (unittest 모듈):                테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  499)
* mainloop() (turtle 모듈):              화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line  104)
* maintype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  251)
* major (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  223)
* major() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  606)
* make_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  560)
* make_archive() (shutil 모듈):          아카이브 연산.      (line   13)
* make_bad_fd() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  102)
* MAKE_CELL (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  962)
* make_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* make_dataclass() (dataclasses 모듈):   Module contents.    (line  379)
* make_file() (difflib.HtmlDiff 메서드): difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  104)
* MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1099)
* make_header() (email.header 모듈):     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  203)
* make_legacy_pyc() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   76)
* make_mixed() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  569)
* make_msgid() (email.utils 모듈):       email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   26)
* make_parser() (xml.sax 모듈):          xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line   26)
* make_pkg() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   94)
* make_related() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  552)
* make_script() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   79)
* make_server() (wsgiref.simple_server 모듈): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_table() (difflib.HtmlDiff 메서드): difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  132)
* make_zip_pkg() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   99)
* make_zip_script() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   86)
* makedev() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  616)
* makedirs() (os 모듈):                  파일과 디렉터리.    (line  528)
* makeelement() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  163)
* makefile() (socket method):            I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* makefile() (socket.socket 메서드):     소켓 객체.          (line  205)
* makeLogRecord() (logging 모듈):        모듈 수준 함수.     (line  178)
* makePickle() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* makeRecord() (logging.Logger 메서드):  Logger 객체.        (line  344)
* makeSocket() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler 메서드): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* makeSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   37)
* maketrans() (bytearray의 정적 메서드): 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  170)
* maketrans() (bytes의 정적 메서드):     바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  170)
* maketrans() (str의 정적 메서드):       문자열 메서드.      (line  388)
* MalformedHeaderDefect:                 email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line  103)
* malloc (C 함수):                       개요<4>.            (line   27)
* manager (logging.LoggerAdapter의 속성): LoggerAdapter 객체.
                                                             (line   28)
* mangle_from_ (email.policy.Compat32의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  525)
* mangle_from_ (email.policy.Policy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  168)
* MANPAGER:                              pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line   42)
* MANPAGER <1>:                          pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line   43)
* mant_dig (sys.float_info의 속성):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  601)
* MAP_32BIT (mmap 모듈):                 MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_ADD (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  388)
* MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER (mmap 모듈):         MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_ANON (mmap 모듈):                  MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_ANONYMOUS (mmap 모듈):             MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* map_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  103)
* MAP_CONCEAL (mmap 모듈):               MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_DENYWRITE (mmap 모듈):             MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_EXECUTABLE (mmap 모듈):            MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_HASSEMAPHORE (mmap 모듈):          MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_JIT (mmap 모듈):                   MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_NOCACHE (mmap 모듈):               MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_NOEXTEND (mmap 모듈):              MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_NORESERVE (mmap 모듈):             MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_POPULATE (mmap 모듈):              MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_PRIVATE (mmap 모듈):               MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN (mmap 모듈):    MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA (mmap 모듈):       MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_SHARED (mmap 모듈):                MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_STACK (mmap 모듈):                 MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* map_table_b2() (stringprep 모듈):      stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   46)
* map_table_b3() (stringprep 모듈):      stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   51)
* map_to_type() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry 메서드): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  350)
* MAP_TPRO (mmap 모듈):                  MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE (mmap 모듈): MAP_* 상수.      (line    6)
* MAP_UNIX03 (mmap 모듈):                MAP_* 상수.         (line    6)
* map() (concurrent.futures.Executor 메서드): Executor 객체. (line   21)
* map() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.     (line   87)
* map() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드):      Ttk 스타일링.       (line   46)
* mapLogRecord() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler 메서드): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   25)
* Mapping (collections.abc 클래스):      Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   92)
* Mapping (typing 클래스):               Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   58)
* mapping (매핑):                        용어집.             (line  884)
* MappingProxyType (types 클래스):       표준 인터프리터 형. (line  216)
* MappingView (collections.abc 클래스):  Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   97)
* MappingView (typing 클래스):           Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   66)
* mapPriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler 메서드): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line  192)
* maps (collections.ChainMap의 속성):    ChainMap 객체.      (line   36)
* MARCH (calendar 모듈):                 calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* markcoroutinefunction() (inspect 모듈): 형과 멤버.         (line  395)
* masking;operations:                    정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* master (tkinter.Tk의 속성):            Tkinter 모듈.       (line   77)
* Match (ast 클래스):                    Pattern matching.   (line    6)
* Match (re 클래스):                     일치 객체.          (line   14)
* Match (typing 클래스):                 Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line    6)
* match_case (ast 클래스):               Pattern matching.   (line   15)
* MATCH_CLASS (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1199)
* MATCH_KEYS (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  546)
* MATCH_MAPPING (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  527)
* MATCH_SEQUENCE (opcode):               파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  536)
* match_value() (test.support.Matcher 메서드): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  768)
* match;case:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* match() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드):     메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  284)
* match() (re 모듈):                     Functions.          (line   46)
* match() (re.Pattern 메서드):           정규식 객체.        (line   41)
* MatchAs (ast 클래스):                  Pattern matching.   (line  293)
* MatchClass (ast 클래스):               Pattern matching.   (line  230)
* Matcher (test.support 클래스):         test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  762)
* matches() (test.support.Matcher 메서드): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  764)
* MatchMapping (ast 클래스):             Pattern matching.   (line  184)
* MatchOr (ast 클래스):                  Pattern matching.   (line  333)
* MatchSequence (ast 클래스):            Pattern matching.   (line  114)
* MatchSingleton (ast 클래스):           Pattern matching.   (line   90)
* MatchStar (ast 클래스):                Pattern matching.   (line  144)
* MatchValue (ast 클래스):               Pattern matching.   (line   63)
* matmul() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  121)
* MatMult (ast 클래스):                  표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* matrix multiplication:                 이항 산술 연산.     (line   24)
* max (datetime.datetime의 속성):        datetime 객체.      (line  282)
* max (datetime.date의 속성):            date 객체.          (line  100)
* max (datetime.timedelta의 속성):       timedelta 객체.     (line   88)
* max (datetime.time의 속성):            time 객체.          (line   37)
* max (sys.float_info의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  606)
* max_10_exp (sys.float_info의 속성):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  615)
* max_count (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   56)
* MAX_EMAX (decimal 모듈):               상수<4>.            (line   16)
* max_exp (sys.float_info의 속성):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  610)
* MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (configparser 모듈): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  326)
* max_line_length (email.policy.Policy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  129)
* max_lines (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  257)
* max_mag() (decimal.Context 메서드):    Context 객체.       (line  394)
* max_mag() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):    Decimal 객체.       (line  373)
* max_memuse (test.support 모듈):        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  143)
* MAX_PREC (decimal 모듈):               상수<4>.            (line   13)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.   (line   47)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.   (line  264)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  274)
* MAX_Py_ssize_t (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  139)
* max() (decimal.Context 메서드):        Context 객체.       (line  390)
* max() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):        Decimal 객체.       (line  366)
* maxarray (reprlib.Repr의 속성):        Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* maxdeque (reprlib.Repr의 속성):        Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* maxdict (reprlib.Repr의 속성):         Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* maxDiff (unittest.TestCase의 속성):    테스트 케이스.      (line  695)
* maxfrozenset (reprlib.Repr의 속성):    Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성): 상수<9>.        (line  549)
* maximum_version (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.     (line  515)
* maxlen (collections.deque의 속성):     deque 객체.         (line  115)
* maxlevel (reprlib.Repr의 속성):        Repr 객체.          (line   16)
* maxlist (reprlib.Repr의 속성):         Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* maxlong (reprlib.Repr의 속성):         Repr 객체.          (line   31)
* maxother (reprlib.Repr의 속성):        Repr 객체.          (line   42)
* maxset (reprlib.Repr의 속성):          Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* maxsize (asyncio.Queue의 속성):        Queue.              (line   22)
* maxsize (sys 모듈):                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1206)
* maxstring (reprlib.Repr의 속성):       Repr 객체.          (line   36)
* maxtuple (reprlib.Repr의 속성):        Repr 객체.          (line   20)
* maxunicode (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1212)
* MAXYEAR (datetime 모듈):               상수.               (line   13)
* MAY (calendar 모듈):                   calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* MB_ICONASTERISK (winsound 모듈):       winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  131)
* MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (winsound 모듈):    winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  135)
* MB_ICONHAND (winsound 모듈):           winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  139)
* MB_ICONQUESTION (winsound 모듈):       winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  143)
* MB_OK (winsound 모듈):                 winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  147)
* mbox (mailbox 클래스):                 mbox 객체.          (line    6)
* mboxMessage (mailbox 클래스):          mboxMessage 객체.   (line    6)
* md5() (hashlib 모듈):                  생성자.             (line   20)
* mean (statistics.NormalDist의 속성):   NormalDist 객체.    (line   20)
* mean() (statistics 모듈):              함수 세부 사항.     (line    9)
* measure() (tkinter.font.Font 메서드):  tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   62)
* median (statistics.NormalDist의 속성): NormalDist 객체.    (line   24)
* median_grouped() (statistics 모듈):    함수 세부 사항.     (line  264)
* median_high() (statistics 모듈):       함수 세부 사항.     (line  246)
* median_low() (statistics 모듈):        함수 세부 사항.     (line  228)
* median() (statistics 모듈):            함수 세부 사항.     (line  202)
* member_names (enum.EnumDict의 속성):   Data Types.         (line  747)
* member() (enum 모듈):                  Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   79)
* MemberDescriptorType (types 모듈):     표준 인터프리터 형. (line  201)
* membership;test:                       멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   36)
* memfd_create() (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1742)
* memmove() (ctypes 모듈):               유틸리티 함수.      (line  164)
* MemoryBIO (ssl 클래스):                메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line  129)
* MemoryError:                           구체적인 예외.      (line  104)
* MemoryHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): MemoryHandler.    (line   38)
* memoryview (내장 클래스):              메모리 뷰.          (line    9)
* memset() (ctypes 모듈):                유틸리티 함수.      (line  170)
* merge() (heapq 모듈):                  heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line   76)
* message (BaseExceptionGroup의 속성):   예외 그룹.          (line   33)
* Message (email.message 클래스):        email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line   44)
* Message (mailbox 클래스):              Message 객체.       (line    6)
* Message (tkinter.messagebox 클래스):   tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line   21)
* message_factory (email.policy.Policy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  177)
* message_from_binary_file() (email 모듈): Parser API.       (line  124)
* message_from_bytes() (email 모듈):     Parser API.         (line  111)
* message_from_file() (email 모듈):      Parser API.         (line  147)
* message_from_string() (email 모듈):    Parser API.         (line  137)
* MessageBeep() (winsound 모듈):         winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   29)
* MessageClass (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  165)
* MessageDefect:                         email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   54)
* MessageError:                          email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   13)
* MessageParseError:                     email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   19)
* messages (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수. (line   20)
* meta path finder (메타 경로 파인더):   용어집.             (line  893)
* meta_path (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1221)
* meta() (curses 모듈):                  함수<5>.            (line  268)
* metaclass:                             메타 클래스.        (line    6)
* metaclass (메타 클래스):               용어집.             (line  902)
* metaclass hint:                        적절한 메타 클래스 선택하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* metadata() (importlib.metadata 모듈):  배포 메타데이터.    (line    6)
* MetaPathFinder (importlib.abc 클래스): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   26)
* metavar (optparse.Option의 속성):      옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   84)
* MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (argparse 클래스): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* METH_CLASS (C macro):                  함수와 메서드 구현. (line  183)
* METH_COEXIST (C macro):                함수와 메서드 구현. (line  198)
* METH_FASTCALL (C macro):               함수와 메서드 구현. (line  118)
* METH_KEYWORDS (C macro):               함수와 메서드 구현. (line  102)
* METH_METHOD (C macro):                 함수와 메서드 구현. (line  142)
* METH_NOARGS (C macro):                 함수와 메서드 구현. (line  159)
* METH_O (C macro):                      함수와 메서드 구현. (line  171)
* METH_STATIC (C macro):                 함수와 메서드 구현. (line  189)
* METH_VARARGS (C macro):                함수와 메서드 구현. (line   93)
* method (urllib.request.Request의 속성): Request 객체.      (line   50)
* method (메서드):                       용어집.             (line  916)
* method resolution order (메서드 결정 순서): 용어집.        (line  923)
* method_calls (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.     (line  488)
* method;call:                           호출.               (line  134)
* methodcaller() (operator 모듈):        operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  313)
* MethodDescriptorType (types 모듈):     표준 인터프리터 형. (line  104)
* methodHelp() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system 메서드): ServerProxy 객체.
                                                             (line   40)
* methods (pyclbr.Class의 속성):         Class 객체.         (line   47)
* methodSignature() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system 메서드): ServerProxy 객체.
                                                             (line   21)
* MethodType (types 모듈):               표준 인터프리터 형. (line   73)
* MethodType (types 모듈) <1>:           함수 객체<2>.       (line   14)
* MethodType (types 모듈) <2>:           메서드 객체<2>.     (line   12)
* MethodWrapperType (types 모듈):        표준 인터프리터 형. (line   91)
* metrics() (tkinter.font.Font 메서드):  tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   68)
* MFD_ALLOW_SEALING (os 모듈):           파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_CLOEXEC (os 모듈):                 파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_16GB (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_16MB (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_1GB (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_1MB (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_256MB (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_2GB (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_2MB (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_32MB (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_512KB (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_512MB (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_64KB (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_8MB (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_MASK (os 모듈):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGE_SHIFT (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MFD_HUGETLB (os 모듈):                 파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1759)
* MH (mailbox 클래스):                   MH 객체.            (line    6)
* MHMessage (mailbox 클래스):            MHMessage 객체.     (line    6)
* microsecond (datetime.datetime의 속성): datetime 객체.     (line  318)
* microsecond (datetime.time의 속성):    time 객체.          (line   61)
* microseconds (datetime.timedelta의 속성): timedelta 객체.  (line  123)
* MIME;base64 인코딩:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;quoted-printable 인코딩:          quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;콘텐츠 유형:                      mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;헤더:                             mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   25)
* MIME;헤더 <1>:                         mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line   53)
* MIMEApplication (email.mime.application 클래스): email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   89)
* MIMEAudio (email.mime.audio 클래스):   email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  117)
* MIMEBase (email.mime.base 클래스):     email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   30)
* MIMEImage (email.mime.image 클래스):   email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  147)
* MIMEMessage (email.mime.message 클래스): email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  178)
* MIMEMultipart (email.mime.multipart 클래스): email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   64)
* MIMENonMultipart (email.mime.nonmultipart 클래스): email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   54)
* MIMEPart (email.message 클래스):       email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  664)
* MIMEText (email.mime.text 클래스):     email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  196)
* MimeTypes (mimetypes 클래스):          MimeTypes 객체.     (line   10)
* MIMEVersionHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  212)
* min (datetime.datetime의 속성):        datetime 객체.      (line  277)
* min (datetime.date의 속성):            date 객체.          (line   96)
* min (datetime.timedelta의 속성):       timedelta 객체.     (line   84)
* min (datetime.time의 속성):            time 객체.          (line   33)
* min (sys.float_info의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  620)
* min_10_exp (sys.float_info의 속성):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  634)
* MIN_EMIN (decimal 모듈):               상수<4>.            (line   19)
* MIN_ETINY (decimal 모듈):              상수<4>.            (line   22)
* min_exp (sys.float_info의 속성):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  629)
* min_mag() (decimal.Context 메서드):    Context 객체.       (line  402)
* min_mag() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):    Decimal 객체.       (line  385)
* min() (decimal.Context 메서드):        Context 객체.       (line  398)
* min() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):        Decimal 객체.       (line  378)
* MINEQUAL (token 모듈):                 token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  262)
* MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성): 상수<9>.        (line  547)
* minimum_version (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.     (line  532)
* minor (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  227)
* minor() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  611)
* minus:                                 일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   10)
* MINUS (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  196)
* minus() (decimal.Context 메서드):      Context 객체.       (line  406)
* minute (datetime.datetime의 속성):     datetime 객체.      (line  310)
* minute (datetime.time의 속성):         time 객체.          (line   53)
* MINYEAR (datetime 모듈):               상수.               (line    8)
* mirrored() (unicodedata 모듈):         unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  113)
* misc_header (cmd.Cmd의 속성):          Cmd 객체.           (line  144)
* MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect:         email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   91)
* MISSING (contextvars.Token의 속성):    컨텍스트 변수.      (line   86)
* MISSING (dataclasses 모듈):            Module contents.    (line  459)
* MISSING (sys.monitoring 모듈):         Callback function arguments.
                                                             (line    6)
* MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  155)
* missing_compiler_executable() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  656)
* MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect:      email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   95)
* MissingSectionHeaderError:             예외<6>.            (line   55)
* mkd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):             FTP 객체.           (line  322)
* mkdir() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  495)
* mkdir() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   21)
* mkdir() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):      ZipFile 객체.       (line  327)
* mkdtemp() (tempfile 모듈):             tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  272)
* mkfifo() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  565)
* mknod() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  586)
* mkstemp() (tempfile 모듈):             tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  218)
* mktemp() (tempfile 모듈):              폐지된 함수와 변수. (line   14)
* mktime_tz() (email.utils 모듈):        email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  138)
* mktime() (time 모듈):                  함수<4>.            (line  157)
* mlsd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):            FTP 객체.           (line  271)
* mmap (mmap 클래스):                    mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line   48)
* MMDF (mailbox 클래스):                 MMDF 객체.          (line    6)
* MMDFMessage (mailbox 클래스):          MMDFMessage 객체.   (line    6)
* Mock (unittest.mock 클래스):           Mock 클래스.        (line   24)
* mock_add_spec() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.  (line  240)
* mock_calls (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.       (line  506)
* mock_open() (unittest.mock 모듈):      mock_open.          (line    6)
* Mod (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* mod() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  111)
* mode (bz2.BZ2File의 속성):             파일 압축 해제.     (line  123)
* mode (gzip.GzipFile의 속성):           gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  137)
* mode (io.FileIO의 속성):               원시 파일 I/O.      (line   52)
* mode (lzma.LZMAFile의 속성):           압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   90)
* mode (statistics.NormalDist의 속성):   NormalDist 객체.    (line   28)
* mode (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):         TarInfo 객체.       (line   76)
* mode() (statistics 모듈):              함수 세부 사항.     (line  313)
* mode() (turtle 모듈):                  설정과 특수 메서드. (line    6)
* modf() (math 모듈):                    부동 소수점 산술.   (line   52)
* modified() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   43)
* modify() (select.devpoll 메서드):      /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   47)
* modify() (select.epoll 메서드):        에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   84)
* modify() (select.poll 메서드):         폴링 객체.          (line   56)
* modify() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.       (line   90)
* Module (ast 클래스):                   Root nodes.         (line    6)
* module (pyclbr.Class의 속성):          Class 객체.         (line   16)
* module (pyclbr.Function의 속성):       Function 객체.      (line   15)
* MODULE (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   11)
* module (모듈):                         용어집.             (line  930)
* module spec (모듈 스펙):               용어집.             (line  938)
* module_from_spec() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  117)
* module; __future__:                    __future__ — 퓨처 문 정의.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; __main__:                      __main__ — 최상위 코드 환경.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _thread:                       _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _tkinter:                      Tkinter 모듈.       (line  148)
* module; abc:                           abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; aifc:                          aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; argparse:                      argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; array:                         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ast:                           ast — Abstract Syntax Trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asynchat:                      asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncio:                       asyncio — 비동기 I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncore:                      asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; atexit:                        atexit — 종료 처리기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; audioop:                       audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; base64:                        base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bdb:                           bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; binascii:                      binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bisect:                        bisect — 배열 이진 분할 알고리즘.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; builtins:                      builtins — 내장 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bz2:                           bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; calendar:                      calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgi:                           cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgitb:                         cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; chunk:                         chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmath:                         cmath — 복소수를 위한 수학 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmd:                           cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; code:                          code — 인터프리터 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codecs:                        codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codeop:                        codeop — 파이썬 코드 컴파일.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections:                   collections — 컨테이너 데이터형.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections.abc:               collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; colorsys:                      colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compileall:                    compileall — 파이썬 라이브러리 바이트 컴파일하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; concurrent.futures:            concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; configparser:                  configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextlib:                    contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextvars:                   contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copy:                          copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copyreg:                       copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cProfile:                      profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; crypt:                         crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; csv:                           csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ctypes:                        ctypes — A foreign function library for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses:                        curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.ascii:                  curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.panel:                  curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.textpad:                curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dataclasses:                   dataclasses — 데이터 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; datetime:                      datetime — Basic date and time types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm:                           dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.dumb:                      dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.gnu:                       dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.ndbm:                      dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.sqlite3:                   dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; decimal:                       decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; difflib:                       difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dis:                           dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; distutils:                     distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; doctest:                       doctest — 대화형 파이썬 예제 테스트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email:                         email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.charset:                 email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.contentmanager:          email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.encoders:                email encoders 인코더.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.errors:                  email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.generator:               email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.header:                  email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.headerregistry:          email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.iterators:               email iterators 이터레이터.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.message:                 email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime:                    email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime.application:        email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   89)
* module; email.mime.audio:              email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  117)
* module; email.mime.base:               email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   30)
* module; email.mime.image:              email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  147)
* module; email.mime.message:            email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  178)
* module; email.mime.multipart:          email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   64)
* module; email.mime.nonmultipart:       email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line   54)
* module; email.mime.text:               email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기.
                                                             (line  196)
* module; email.parser:                  email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.policy:                  email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.utils:                   email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings:                     encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.idna:                encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.mbcs:                encodings mbcs — 윈도우 ANSI 코드 페이지.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.utf_8_sig:           encodings utf_8_sig — BOM 서명이 있는 UTF-8 코덱.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ensurepip:                     ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; enum:                          enum — 열거형 지원. (line    6)
* module; errno:                         errno — 표준 errno 시스템 기호.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; faulthandler:                  faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fcntl:                         fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; filecmp:                       filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fileinput:                     fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fnmatch:                       fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fractions:                     fractions — 유리수. (line    6)
* module; ftplib:                        ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; functools:                     functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gc:                            gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getopt:                        getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getpass:                       getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gettext:                       gettext — 다국어 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; glob:                          glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; graphlib:                      graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; grp:                           grp — 그룹 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gzip:                          gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hashlib:                       hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; heapq:                         heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hmac:                          hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html:                          html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.entities:                 html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.parser:                   html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http:                          http — HTTP 모듈.   (line    6)
* module; http.client:                   http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookiejar:                http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookies:                  http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.server:                   http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; idlelib:                       idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imaplib:                       imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imghdr:                        imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imp:                           imp — 임포트 내부 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib:                     importlib — import의 구현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.abc:                 importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.machinery:           importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.metadata:            importlib metadata – 패키지 메타데이터 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources:           importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources.abc:       importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.util:                importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; inspect:                       inspect — 라이브 객체 검사.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; io:                            io — 스트림 작업을 위한 핵심 도구.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ipaddress:                     ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 조작 라이브러리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; itertools:                     itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json:                          json — JSON 인코더와 디코더.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json.tool:                     명령 줄 인터페이스<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; keyword:                       keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; linecache:                     linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; locale:                        locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging:                       logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.config:                logging config — 로깅 구성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.handlers:              logging handlers — 로깅 처리기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lzma:                          lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailbox:                       mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailcap:                       mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; marshal:                       marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; math:                          math — 수학 함수.   (line    6)
* module; mimetypes:                     mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mmap:                          mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; modulefinder:                  modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msilib:                        msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msvcrt:                        msvcrt — MS VC++ 런타임의 유용한 루틴.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing:               multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.connection:    리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.dummy:         multiprocessing dummy 모듈.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.managers:      관리자.             (line   19)
* module; multiprocessing.pool:          프로세스 풀.        (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.sharedctypes:  multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; netrc:                         netrc — netrc 파일 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nis:                           nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nntplib:                       nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; numbers:                       numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; operator:                      operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; optparse:                      optparse — 명령 줄 옵션용 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os:                            os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os.path:                       os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ossaudiodev:                   ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pathlib:                       pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pdb:                           pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickle:                        pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickletools:                   pickletools — 피클 개발자를 위한 도구.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pipes:                         pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pkgutil:                       pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; platform:                      platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; plistlib:                      plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; poplib:                        poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; posix:                         posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pprint:                        pprint — 예쁜 데이터 인쇄기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profile:                       profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pstats:                        Stats 클래스.       (line    9)
* module; pty:                           pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pwd:                           pwd — 암호 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; py_compile:                    py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pyclbr:                        pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pydoc:                         pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; queue:                         queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; quopri:                        quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; random:                        random — 의사 난수 생성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; re:                            re — Regular expression operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; readline:                      readline — GNU readline 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; reprlib:                       reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; resource:                      resource — 자원 사용 정보.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; rlcompleter:                   rlcompleter — GNU readline을 위한 완성 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; runpy:                         runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sched:                         sched — 이벤트 스케줄러.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; secrets:                       secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; select:                        select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; selectors:                     selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shelve:                        shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shlex:                         shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shutil:                        shutil — 고수준 파일 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; signal:                        signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; site:                          site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sitecustomize:                 sitecustomize.      (line    6)
* module; smtpd:                         smtpd — SMTP 서버.  (line    6)
* module; smtplib:                       smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sndhdr:                        sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socket:                        socket — Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socketserver:                  socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; spwd:                          spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sqlite3:                       sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ssl:                           ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stat:                          stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; statistics:                    statistics — 수학 통계 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; string:                        string — 일반적인 문자열 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stringprep:                    stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; struct:                        struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; subprocess:                    subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sunau:                         sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; symtable:                      symtable — 컴파일러 심볼 테이블 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys:                           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys.monitoring:                sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sysconfig:                     sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; syslog:                        syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tabnanny:                      tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tarfile:                       tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; telnetlib:                     telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tempfile:                      tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; termios:                       termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test:                          test — 파이썬 용 회귀 테스트 패키지.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.regrtest:                 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support:                  test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.bytecode_helper:  test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.import_helper:    test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.os_helper:        test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.script_helper:    test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.socket_helper:    test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.warnings_helper:  test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; textwrap:                      textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; threading:                     threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; time:                          time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; timeit:                        timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter:                       tkinter — Tcl/Tk 파이썬 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.colorchooser:          tkinter colorchooser — 색상 선택 대화 상자.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.commondialog:          tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.dnd:                   tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.filedialog:            tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.font:                  tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.messagebox:            tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.scrolledtext:          tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.simpledialog:          tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.ttk:                   tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; token:                         token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tokenize:                      tokenize — 파이썬 소스를 위한 토크나이저.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tomllib:                       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; trace:                         trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; traceback:                     traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tracemalloc:                   tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tty:                           tty — 터미널 제어 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtle:                        turtle — Turtle graphics.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtledemo:                    turtledemo — 데모 스크립트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; types:                         types — 동적 형 생성과 내장형 이름.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; typing:                        typing — Support for type hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unicodedata:                   unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest:                      unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest.mock:                 unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib:                        urllib — URL 처리 모듈.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.error:                  urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.parse:                  urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.request:                urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.response:               urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.robotparser:            urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; usercustomize:                 usercustomize.      (line    6)
* module; uu:                            uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; uuid:                          uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* module; venv:                          venv — 가상 환경 생성.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; warnings:                      warnings — 경고 제어.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wave:                          wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; weakref:                       weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; webbrowser:                    webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winreg:                        winreg — 윈도우 레지스트리 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winsound:                      winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref:                       wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.handlers:              wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.headers:               wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.simple_server:         wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.types:                 wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.util:                  wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.validate:              wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xdrlib:                        xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml:                           XML 처리 모듈.      (line    6)
* module; xml.dom:                       xml dom — 문서 객체 모델 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.minidom:               xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.pulldom:               xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementInclude:      함수<9>.            (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementTree:         xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat:             xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.errors:      Expat 에러 상수.    (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.model:       콘텐츠 모델 기술.   (line    6)
* module; xml.sax:                       xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.handler:               xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.saxutils:              xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.xmlreader:             xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc:                        xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.client:                 xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.server:                 xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipapp:                        zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipfile:                       zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipimport:                     zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zlib:                          zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zoneinfo:                      zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__:                       인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;__main__ <1>:                   서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  109)
* module;__main__ <2>:                   서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  188)
* module;_thread:                        고수준 API.         (line   47)
* module;array:                          가변 시퀀스.        (line   10)
* module;array <1>:                      바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;builtins:                       내장 함수.          (line 2122)
* module;builtins <1>:                   인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;builtins <2>:                   서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  109)
* module;builtins <3>:                   서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  188)
* module;collections:                    가변 시퀀스.        (line   11)
* module;dbm.gnu:                        딕셔너리 Dictionaries.
                                                             (line   23)
* module;dbm.ndbm:                       딕셔너리 Dictionaries.
                                                             (line   23)
* module;io:                             I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;math:                           숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line  106)
* module;namespace:                      모듈 Modules.       (line   21)
* module;pty:                            파일 기술자 연산.   (line  462)
* module;re:                             문자열 메서드.      (line    6)
* module;search;path:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1281)
* module;search;path <1>:                인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;search;path <2>:                프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  129)
* module;stat:                           파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1081)
* module;struct:                         소켓 객체.          (line  542)
* module;sys:                            except clause.      (line   59)
* module;sys <1>:                        내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* module;sys <2>:                        인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;sys <3>:                        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  109)
* module;sys <4>:                        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  188)
* module;types:                          형 객체.            (line    6)
* ModuleFinder (modulefinder 클래스):    modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line   24)
* ModuleInfo (pkgutil 클래스):           pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   12)
* ModuleNotFoundError:                   구체적인 예외.      (line   70)
* modules (in module sys):               인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* modules (modulefinder.ModuleFinder의 속성): modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line   46)
* modules (sys 모듈):                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1254)
* modules (sys 모듈) <1>:                모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* modules_cleanup() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   67)
* modules_setup() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   63)
* ModuleSpec (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  349)
* ModuleType (types 클래스):             표준 인터프리터 형. (line  117)
* ModuleType (모듈 types):               모듈 객체.          (line    7)
* modulo:                                이항 산술 연산.     (line   43)
* modulus (sys.hash_info의 속성):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1003)
* MON_1 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_10 (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_11 (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_12 (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_2 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_3 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_4 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_5 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_6 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_7 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_8 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MON_9 (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  217)
* MONDAY (calendar 모듈):                calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* monotonic_ns() (time 모듈):            함수<4>.            (line  201)
* monotonic() (time 모듈):               함수<4>.            (line  169)
* Month (calendar 클래스):               calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  481)
* month (calendar.IllegalMonthError의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  496)
* month (datetime.datetime의 속성):      datetime 객체.      (line  298)
* month (datetime.date의 속성):          date 객체.          (line  115)
* month_abbr (calendar 모듈):            calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  453)
* month_name (calendar 모듈):            calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  443)
* month() (calendar 모듈):               calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  380)
* monthcalendar() (calendar 모듈):       calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  370)
* monthdatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  104)
* monthdays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  109)
* monthdayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  114)
* monthrange() (calendar 모듈):          calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  365)
* Morsel (http.cookies 클래스):          Morsel 객체.        (line    6)
* most_common() (collections.Counter 메서드): Counter 객체.  (line   74)
* mouseinterval() (curses 모듈):         함수<5>.            (line  273)
* mousemask() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  279)
* move_to_end() (collections.OrderedDict 메서드): OrderedDict 객체.
                                                             (line   71)
* move() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):    Panel 객체.         (line   34)
* move() (curses.window 메서드):         창 객체.            (line  369)
* move() (mmap.mmap 메서드):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  222)
* move() (shutil 모듈):                  디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  315)
* move() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):  ttk Treeview.       (line  194)
* MozillaCookieJar (http.cookiejar 클래스): FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력.
                                                             (line    8)
* MRO:                                   용어집.             (line  945)
* mro() (type 메서드):                   Special methods.    (line    9)
* msg (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.  (line   39)
* msg (json.JSONDecodeError의 속성):     예외<14>.           (line   10)
* msg (netrc.NetrcParseError의 속성):    netrc — netrc 파일 처리.
                                                             (line   53)
* msg (re.PatternError의 속성):          Exceptions.         (line   15)
* msg (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  118)
* mtime (gzip.GzipFile의 속성):          gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  144)
* mtime (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):        TarInfo 객체.       (line   67)
* mtime() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   37)
* mul() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  116)
* Mult (ast 클래스):                     표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* MultiCall (xmlrpc.client 클래스):      MultiCall 객체.     (line    9)
* MULTILINE (re 모듈):                   Flags.              (line   82)
* MultilineContinuationError:            예외<6>.            (line   67)
* MultiLoopChildWatcher (asyncio 클래스): 프로세스 감시자.   (line  103)
* multimode() (statistics 모듈):         함수 세부 사항.     (line  347)
* MultipartConversionError:              email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   41)
* MultipartInvariantViolationDefect:     email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line  110)
* multiplication:                        이항 산술 연산.     (line   16)
* multiply() (decimal.Context 메서드):   Context 객체.       (line  410)
* mutable (가변):                        용어집.             (line  949)
* mutable object:                        객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* mutable sequence;loop over:            공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   71)
* mutable;sequence;types:                가변 시퀀스 형.     (line    6)
* MutableMapping (collections.abc 클래스): Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   92)
* MutableMapping (typing 클래스):        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   74)
* MutableSequence (collections.abc 클래스): Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   64)
* MutableSequence (typing 클래스):       Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   82)
* MutableSet (collections.abc 클래스):   Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   87)
* MutableSet (typing 클래스):            Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   90)
* mvderwin() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  373)
* mvwin() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  379)
* myrights() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  154)
* N_TOKENS (token 모듈):                 token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  318)
* n_waiting (asyncio.Barrier의 속성):    Barrier.            (line   98)
* n_waiting (threading.Barrier의 속성):  Barrier objects.    (line   89)
* NAK (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   89)
* name:                                  식별자 이름.        (line    6)
* Name (ast 클래스):                     변수.               (line    6)
* name (AttributeError의 속성):          구체적인 예외.      (line   21)
* name (bz2.BZ2File의 속성):             파일 압축 해제.     (line  129)
* name (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성):        codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   71)
* name (contextvars.ContextVar의 속성):  컨텍스트 변수.      (line   23)
* name (doctest.DocTest의 속성):         DocTest 객체.       (line   27)
* name (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* name (enum.Enum의 속성):               Data Types.         (line  122)
* name (gzip.GzipFile의 속성):           gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  151)
* name (hashlib.hash의 속성):            해시 객체.          (line   18)
* name (hmac.HMAC의 속성):               hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   98)
* name (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성):   Cookie 객체.        (line   25)
* name (ImportError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line   59)
* name (importlib.abc.FileLoader의 속성): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  290)
* name (importlib.abc.Traversable의 속성): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  493)
* name (importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  483)
* name (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  292)
* name (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  363)
* name (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  202)
* name (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  245)
* name (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable의 속성): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   94)
* name (inspect.Parameter의 속성):       Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  197)
* name (io.FileIO의 속성):               원시 파일 I/O.      (line   56)
* name (logging.Logger의 속성):          Logger 객체.        (line   24)
* name (lzma.LZMAFile의 속성):           압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   96)
* name (multiprocessing.Process의 속성): Process와 예외.     (line  113)
* name (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory의 속성): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  113)
* name (NameError의 속성):               구체적인 예외.      (line  122)
* name (os 모듈):                        os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   50)
* name (os.DirEntry의 속성):             파일과 디렉터리.    (line  913)
* name (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):        메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  121)
* name (pyclbr.Class의 속성):            Class 객체.         (line   20)
* name (pyclbr.Function의 속성):         Function 객체.      (line   19)
* name (sys.thread_info의 속성):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1847)
* name (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):         TarInfo 객체.       (line   59)
* name (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory의 속성): tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  183)
* name (threading.Thread의 속성):        Thread objects.     (line  145)
* NAME (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   43)
* name (traceback.FrameSummary의 속성):  FrameSummary 객체.  (line   37)
* name (webbrowser.controller의 속성):   브라우저 제어기 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* name (xml.dom.Attr의 속성):            Attr 객체.          (line    8)
* name (xml.dom.DocumentType의 속성):    DocumentType 객체.  (line   32)
* name (zipfile.Path의 속성):            Path 객체.          (line   30)
* name;binding:                          함수 정의.          (line    6)
* name;binding <1>:                      함수 정의.          (line    6)
* name;binding <2>:                      클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* name;mangling:                         식별자 이름.        (line   14)
* name() (unicodedata 모듈):             unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   39)
* name2codepoint (html.entities 모듈):   html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의.
                                                             (line   29)
* named expression:                      논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   35)
* named tuple (네임드 튜플):             용어집.             (line  954)
* NAMED_FLAGS (enum.EnumCheck의 속성):   Data Types.         (line  641)
* NamedExpr (ast 클래스):                표현식<2>.          (line  181)
* NamedTemporaryFile() (tempfile 모듈):  tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line   69)
* NamedTuple (typing 클래스):            기타 특수 지시자.   (line   10)
* namedtuple() (collections 모듈):       이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수.
                                                             (line   11)
* NameError:                             구체적인 예외.      (line  114)
* NameError (내장 예외):                 이름의 검색 resolution.
                                                             (line   16)
* namelist() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):   ZipFile 객체.       (line  121)
* nameprep() (encodings.idna 모듈):      encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   45)
* namer (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler의 속성): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* namereplace_errors() (codecs 모듈):    에러 처리기.        (line  173)
* namereplace;에러 처리기의 이름:        에러 처리기.        (line   53)
* names() (tkinter.font 모듈):           tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   90)
* Namespace (argparse 클래스):           Namespace 객체.     (line    6)
* Namespace (multiprocessing.managers 클래스): 관리자.       (line  238)
* namespace (이름 공간):                 용어집.             (line  980)
* namespace package (이름 공간 패키지):  용어집.             (line  993)
* NAMESPACE_DNS (uuid 모듈):             uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  194)
* NAMESPACE_OID (uuid 모듈):             uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  203)
* NAMESPACE_URL (uuid 모듈):             uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  199)
* NAMESPACE_X500 (uuid 모듈):            uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  207)
* namespace() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):    IMAP4 객체.         (line  159)
* Namespace() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  191)
* NamespaceErr:                          예외<17>.           (line   61)
* NamespaceLoader (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  331)
* namespaceURI (xml.dom.Node의 속성):    Node 객체.          (line   70)
* nametofont() (tkinter.font 모듈):      tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   94)
* NaN:                                   내장 함수.          (line  701)
* nan (cmath 모듈):                      상수<3>.            (line   33)
* nan (math 모듈):                       상수<2>.            (line   31)
* nan (sys.hash_info의 속성):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1011)
* nanj (cmath 모듈):                     상수<3>.            (line   39)
* NannyNag:                              tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지.
                                                             (line   34)
* napms() (curses 모듈):                 함수<5>.            (line  287)
* nargs (optparse.Option의 속성):        옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   47)
* native_id (threading.Thread의 속성):   Thread objects.     (line  167)
* nbytes (memoryview의 속성):            메모리 뷰.          (line  377)
* ncurses_version (curses 모듈):         상수<6>.            (line   24)
* ND (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):       Buffer flags.       (line   21)
* ndiff() (difflib 모듈):                difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  217)
* ndim (memoryview의 속성):              메모리 뷰.          (line  441)
* ne() (operator 모듈):                  operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   22)
* needs_input (bz2.BZ2Decompressor의 속성): 증분 압축 해제.  (line   81)
* needs_input (lzma.LZMADecompressor의 속성): 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  160)
* neg() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  128)
* negation:                              일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   10)
* nested scope (중첩된 스코프):          용어집.             (line 1007)
* nested_scopes (__future__ 모듈):       Module Contents.    (line   14)
* netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.     (line   91)
* netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.     (line  294)
* NetmaskValueError:                     맞춤 예외.          (line   13)
* netrc (netrc 클래스):                  netrc — netrc 파일 처리.
                                                             (line   13)
* NetrcParseError:                       netrc — netrc 파일 처리.
                                                             (line   47)
* netscape (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy의 속성): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   63)
* network (ipaddress.IPv4Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체. (line   27)
* network (ipaddress.IPv6Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체. (line   71)
* network_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   77)
* network_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  288)
* Never (typing 모듈):                   특수형.             (line   99)
* NEVER_EQ (test.support 모듈):          test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  179)
* new_child() (collections.ChainMap 메서드): ChainMap 객체.  (line   43)
* new_class() (types 모듈):              동적 형 생성.       (line    6)
* new_event_loop() (asyncio 모듈):       이벤트 루프.        (line   67)
* new_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 메서드): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   27)
* new_panel() (curses.panel 모듈):       함수<6>.            (line   12)
* new-style class (뉴스타일 클래스):     용어집.             (line 1016)
* new() (hashlib 모듈):                  생성자.             (line    6)
* new() (hmac 모듈):                     hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   15)
* newfunc (C type):                      슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   31)
* NEWLINE (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   74)
* NEWLINE token:                         복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   51)
* NEWLINE 토큰:                          논리적인 줄.        (line    6)
* newlines (io.TextIOBase의 속성):       텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   24)
* newpad() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  291)
* NewType (typing 클래스):               기타 특수 지시자.   (line   99)
* newwin() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  307)
* next (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line  187)
* next_minus() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.       (line  414)
* next_minus() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.       (line  390)
* next_plus() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  418)
* next_plus() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  396)
* next_toward() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.      (line  422)
* next_toward() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.      (line  402)
* next() (tarfile.TarFile 메서드):       TarFile 객체.       (line  123)
* next() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):  ttk Treeview.       (line  203)
* nextafter() (math 모듈):               부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   80)
* nextfile() (fileinput 모듈):           fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기.
                                                             (line  112)
* nextkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 메서드):       dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line  103)
* nextSibling (xml.dom.Node의 속성):     Node 객체.          (line   39)
* ngettext() (gettext 모듈):             GNU gettext API.    (line   42)
* ngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 메서드): GNUTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   43)
* ngettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   39)
* nice() (os 모듈):                      프로세스 관리.      (line  348)
* NL (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   56)
* NL (token 모듈):                       token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   78)
* nl_langinfo() (locale 모듈):           locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  155)
* nl() (curses 모듈):                    함수<5>.            (line  316)
* nlargest() (heapq 모듈):               heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line  100)
* nlst() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):            FTP 객체.           (line  285)
* NO (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):          tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  158)
* no_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo의 클래스 메서드): ZoneInfo 클래스.
                                                             (line   39)
* NO_EVENTS (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   94)
* no_proxy:                              urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  293)
* no_site (sys.flags의 속성):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  518)
* no_tracing() (test.support 모듈):      test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  530)
* no_type_check_decorator() (typing 모듈): 함수와 데코레이터.
                                                             (line  359)
* no_type_check() (typing 모듈):         함수와 데코레이터.  (line  347)
* no_user_site (sys.flags의 속성):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  515)
* NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect:           email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   73)
* nocbreak() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  322)
* NoDataAllowedErr:                      예외<17>.           (line   76)
* node (uuid.UUID의 속성):               uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  113)
* node() (platform 모듈):                Cross platform.     (line   40)
* NoDefault (typing 모듈):               인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line  164)
* nodelay() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  383)
* nodeName (xml.dom.Node의 속성):        Node 객체.          (line   75)
* NodeTransformer (ast 클래스):          ast 도우미.         (line  220)
* nodeType (xml.dom.Node의 속성):        Node 객체.          (line    8)
* nodeValue (xml.dom.Node의 속성):       Node 객체.          (line   83)
* NodeVisitor (ast 클래스):              ast 도우미.         (line  181)
* noecho() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  327)
* NOEXPR (locale 모듈):                  locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  260)
* NOFLAG (re 모듈):                      Flags.              (line   96)
* NoModificationAllowedErr:              예외<17>.           (line   80)
* NonCallableMagicMock (unittest.mock 클래스): 매직 모의 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* NonCallableMock (unittest.mock 클래스): Mock 클래스.       (line  563)
* None (Built-in object):                논리값 검사.        (line   15)
* None (내장 변수):                      내장 상수.          (line   18)
* NoneType (types 모듈):                 표준 인터프리터 형. (line   18)
* nonl() (curses 모듈):                  함수<5>.            (line  331)
* Nonlocal (ast 클래스):                 함수와 클래스 정의. (line  141)
* nonmember() (enum 모듈):               Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   85)
* noop() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  163)
* noop() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   75)
* NoOptionError:                         예외<6>.            (line   31)
* NOP (opcode):                          파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  132)
* noqiflush() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  341)
* noraw() (curses 모듈):                 함수<5>.            (line  348)
* NoReturn (typing 모듈):                특수형.             (line   99)
* NORMAL (tkinter.font 모듈):            tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   15)
* NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.      (line   92)
* NormalDist (statistics 클래스):        NormalDist 객체.    (line   13)
* normalize_encoding() (encodings 모듈): encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line    8)
* NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (doctest 모듈):   옵션 플래그.        (line   33)
* normalize() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  426)
* normalize() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):  Decimal 객체.       (line  409)
* normalize() (locale 모듈):             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  394)
* normalize() (unicodedata 모듈):        unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  132)
* normalize() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):     Node 객체.          (line  133)
* normalvariate() (random 모듈):         실수 분포.          (line   76)
* normcase() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  314)
* normpath() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  322)
* NoSectionError:                        예외<6>.            (line   10)
* NoSuchMailboxError:                    예외<15>.           (line   12)
* Not (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   27)
* not_() (operator 모듈):                operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   46)
* NotADirectoryError:                    OS 예외.            (line   86)
* notationDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler 메서드): DTDHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* NotationDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  294)
* notations (xml.dom.DocumentType의 속성): DocumentType 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* NotConnected:                          http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  131)
* Notebook (tkinter.ttk 클래스):         ttk Notebook.       (line    6)
* NotEmptyError:                         예외<15>.           (line   19)
* NotEq (ast 클래스):                    표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* NOTEQUAL (token 모듈):                 token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  235)
* NotFoundErr:                           예외<17>.           (line   66)
* notify_all() (asyncio.Condition 메서드): Condition.        (line   63)
* notify_all() (threading.Condition 메서드): Condition objects.
                                                             (line  159)
* notify() (asyncio.Condition 메서드):   Condition.          (line   50)
* notify() (threading.Condition 메서드): Condition objects.  (line  141)
* notimeout() (curses.window 메서드):    창 객체.            (line  387)
* NotImplemented (내장 변수):            내장 상수.          (line   25)
* NotImplementedError:                   구체적인 예외.      (line  128)
* NotImplementedType (types 모듈):       표준 인터프리터 형. (line   98)
* NotIn (ast 클래스):                    표현식<2>.          (line  108)
* NotRequired (typing 모듈):             특수 형태.          (line  257)
* NOTSET (logging 모듈):                 로깅 수준.          (line   15)
* NotStandaloneHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  342)
* NotSupportedErr:                       예외<17>.           (line   72)
* NotSupportedError:                     예외<5>.            (line   85)
* noutrefresh() (curses.window 메서드):  창 객체.            (line  394)
* NOVEMBER (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* now() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.  (line   60)
* npgettext() (gettext 모듈):            GNU gettext API.    (line   64)
* npgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 메서드): GNUTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   74)
* npgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   53)
* NSIG (signal 모듈):                    모듈 내용<5>.       (line  205)
* nsmallest() (heapq 모듈):              heapq — 힙 큐 알고리즘.
                                                             (line  108)
* NTEventLogHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   11)
* ntohl() (socket 모듈):                 기타 함수<2>.       (line  222)
* ntohs() (socket 모듈):                 기타 함수<2>.       (line  229)
* ntransfercmd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):    FTP 객체.           (line  264)
* NUL (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   18)
* nullcontext() (contextlib 모듈):       유틸리티.           (line  211)
* NullHandler (logging 클래스):          NullHandler.        (line   12)
* NullTranslations (gettext 클래스):     NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   12)
* num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  114)
* num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  306)
* num_tickets (ssl.SSLContext의 속성):   SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  540)
* Number (numbers 클래스):               numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   15)
* NUMBER (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   48)
* number_class() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.     (line  430)
* number_class() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.     (line  432)
* numerator (fractions.Fraction의 속성): fractions — 유리수. (line  110)
* numerator (numbers.Rational의 속성):   숫자 계층.          (line   51)
* numeric;conversions:                   숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line  106)
* numeric;literals:                      숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* numeric() (unicodedata 모듈):          unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line   70)
* numinput() (turtle 모듈):              입력 메서드.        (line   22)
* O_APPEND (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* O_ASYNC (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_BINARY (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_CLOEXEC (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_CREAT (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* O_DIRECT (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_DIRECTORY (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_DSYNC (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_EVTONLY (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  433)
* O_EXCL (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* O_EXLOCK (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_FSYNC (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  433)
* O_NDELAY (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_NOATIME (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_NOCTTY (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_NOFOLLOW (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_NOFOLLOW_ANY (os 모듈):              파일 기술자 연산.   (line  433)
* O_NOINHERIT (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_NONBLOCK (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_PATH (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_RANDOM (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_RDONLY (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* O_RDWR (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* O_RSYNC (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_SEQUENTIAL (os 모듈):                파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_SHLOCK (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_SHORT_LIVED (os 모듈):               파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_SYMLINK (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  433)
* O_SYNC (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  411)
* O_TEMPORARY (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_TEXT (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  423)
* O_TMPFILE (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  443)
* O_TRUNC (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* O_WRONLY (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  401)
* obj (AttributeError의 속성):           구체적인 예외.      (line   25)
* obj (memoryview의 속성):               메모리 뷰.          (line  366)
* object:                                객체 값 형.         (line    6)
* object (UnicodeError의 속성):          구체적인 예외.      (line  426)
* object (객체):                         용어집.             (line 1024)
* object (내장 클래스):                  내장 함수.          (line 1203)
* object;asynchronous-generator:         비동기 제너레이터 함수.
                                                             (line   62)
* object;Boolean:                        numbers Integral.   (line   23)
* object;Boolean <1>:                    숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;built-in function:              내장 함수 Built-in functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;built-in function <1>:          호출.               (line  134)
* object;built-in method:                내장 메서드 Built-in methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;built-in method <1>:            호출.               (line  134)
* object;bytearray:                      가변 시퀀스 형.     (line    6)
* object;bytearray <1>:                  바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytearray <2>:                  바이트 배열 객체.   (line    6)
* object;bytes:                          바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytes <1>:                      바이트열 객체.      (line    6)
* object;callable:                       콜러블 Callable types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;callable <1>:                   슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   37)
* object;class:                          사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;class <1>:                      호출.               (line  139)
* object;class <2>:                      클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* object;class instance:                 사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;class instance <1>:             클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;class instance <2>:             호출.               (line  143)
* object;code:                           코드 객체 Code objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;code <1>:                       메서드.             (line   44)
* object;complex:                        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;complex number:                 숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary:                     딕셔너리 Dictionaries.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <1>:                 사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;dictionary <2>:                 기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  234)
* object;dictionary <3>:                 딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <4>:                 서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <5>:                 매핑 형 — dict.     (line    6)
* object;Ellipsis:                       Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* object;floating-point:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* object;floating-point <1>:             숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;frame:                          프레임 객체 Frame objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;frozenset:                      집합 형들 Set types.
                                                             (line   28)
* object;function:                       사용자 정의 함수.   (line    6)
* object;function <1>:                   내장 함수 Built-in functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;function <2>:                   호출.               (line  123)
* object;function <3>:                   호출.               (line  134)
* object;function <4>:                   함수 정의.          (line    6)
* object;generator:                      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* object;generator <1>:                  제너레이터 표현식 Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;generator <2>:                  일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  104)
* object;GenericAlias:                   제네릭 에일리어스 형.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;immutable:                      불변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* object;immutable sequence:             불변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* object;instance:                       사용자 정의 클래스 Custom classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;instance <1>:                   클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;instance <2>:                   호출.               (line  143)
* object;integer:                        numbers Integral.   (line    6)
* object;integer <1>:                    숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;io.StringIO:                    텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str.
                                                             (line   34)
* object;list:                           가변 시퀀스.        (line   18)
* object;list <1>:                       리스트 디스플레이.  (line    6)
* object;list <2>:                       어트리뷰트 참조.    (line   10)
* object;list <3>:                       서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;list <4>:                       슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* object;list <5>:                       가변 시퀀스 형.     (line    6)
* object;list <6>:                       리스트<2>.          (line    6)
* object;mapping:                        매핑 Mappings.      (line    6)
* object;mapping <1>:                    클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line   26)
* object;mapping <2>:                    서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mapping <3>:                    매핑 형 — dict.     (line    6)
* object;mapping <4>:                    컨테이너 객체.      (line    6)
* object;memoryview:                     바이너리 시퀀스 형 — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;method:                         인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;method <1>:                     내장 메서드 Built-in methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;method <2>:                     호출.               (line  134)
* object;method <3>:                     메서드.             (line    6)
* object;module:                         모듈 Modules.       (line    6)
* object;module <1>:                     어트리뷰트 참조.    (line   10)
* object;mutable:                        가변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* object;mutable sequence:               가변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* object;None:                           None.               (line    6)
* object;NotImplemented:                 NotImplemented.     (line    6)
* object;numeric:                        numbers Number.     (line    6)
* object;numeric <1>:                    클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line   26)
* object;numeric <2>:                    비교<2>.            (line   42)
* object;numeric <3>:                    숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;numeric <4>:                    숫자 객체.          (line    6)
* object;range:                          범위.               (line    6)
* object;sequence:                       시퀀스들.           (line    6)
* object;sequence <1>:                   클래스 인스턴스 Class instances.
                                                             (line   26)
* object;sequence <2>:                   서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;sequence <3>:                   슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* object;sequence <4>:                   멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   36)
* object;sequence <5>:                   for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* object;sequence <6>:                   공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line    6)
* object;sequence <7>:                   시퀀스 객체.        (line    6)
* object;set:                            집합 형들 Set types.
                                                             (line   22)
* object;set <1>:                        집합 디스플레이.    (line    6)
* object;set <2>:                        집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;set type:                       집합 형들 Set types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;slice:                          컨테이너형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   66)
* object;socket:                         socket — Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* object;string:                         서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;string <1>:                     슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* object;string <2>:                     범위.               (line  115)
* object;traceback:                      트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;traceback <1>:                  except clause.      (line   59)
* object;traceback <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  434)
* object;tuple:                          불변 시퀀스.        (line   29)
* object;tuple <1>:                      서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;tuple <2>:                      슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* object;tuple <3>:                      표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line   13)
* object;tuple <4>:                      불변 시퀀스 형.     (line    6)
* object;tuple <5>:                      튜플.               (line    6)
* object;type:                           내장 함수.          (line 1958)
* object;Union:                          Union Type.         (line    6)
* object;user-defined function:          사용자 정의 함수.   (line    6)
* object;user-defined function <1>:      호출.               (line  123)
* object;user-defined function <2>:      함수 정의.          (line    6)
* object;user-defined method:            인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* object.__match_args__ (내장 변수):     Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching.
                                                             (line   12)
* object.__slots__ (내장 변수):          __slots__<2>.       (line   14)
* objects;comparing:                     비교<2>.            (line   42)
* objobjargproc (C type):                슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  143)
* objobjproc (C type):                   슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  139)
* octal;literals:                        숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* octdigits (string 모듈):               문자열 상수.        (line   32)
* OCTOBER (calendar 모듈):               calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* offset (SyntaxError의 속성):           구체적인 예외.      (line  308)
* offset (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):       TarInfo 객체.       (line  146)
* offset (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  107)
* offset (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError의 속성): ExpatError 예외.
                                                             (line   31)
* offset_data (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):  TarInfo 객체.       (line  150)
* OK (curses 모듈):                      상수<6>.            (line   13)
* OK (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):          tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  152)
* ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  136)
* ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  146)
* ok_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  115)
* OKCANCEL (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):    tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  170)
* old_value (contextvars.Token의 속성):  컨텍스트 변수.      (line   80)
* OleDLL (ctypes 클래스):                공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line   33)
* on_motion() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 메서드): tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line   55)
* on_release() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler 메서드): tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원.
                                                             (line   59)
* onclick() (turtle 모듈):               화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line   56)
* ondrag() (turtle 모듈):                이벤트 사용하기.    (line   55)
* onecmd() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):             Cmd 객체.           (line   52)
* onkey() (turtle 모듈):                 화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line   12)
* onkeypress() (turtle 모듈):            화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line   35)
* onkeyrelease() (turtle 모듈):          화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line   12)
* onrelease() (turtle 모듈):             이벤트 사용하기.    (line   29)
* onscreenclick() (turtle 모듈):         화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line   56)
* ontimer() (turtle 모듈):               화면 이벤트 사용하기.
                                                             (line   84)
* OP (token 모듈):                       token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   60)
* OP_ALL (ssl 모듈):                     상수<9>.            (line  209)
* OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (ssl 모듈): 상수<9>.           (line  295)
* OP_ENABLE_KTLS (ssl 모듈):             상수<9>.            (line  353)
* OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (ssl 모듈): 상수<9>.            (line  318)
* OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF (ssl 모듈):   상수<9>.            (line  345)
* OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT (ssl 모듈):   상수<9>.            (line  370)
* OP_NO_COMPRESSION (ssl 모듈):          상수<9>.            (line  328)
* OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (ssl 모듈):        상수<9>.            (line  285)
* OP_NO_SSLv2 (ssl 모듈):                상수<9>.            (line  217)
* OP_NO_SSLv3 (ssl 모듈):                상수<9>.            (line  227)
* OP_NO_TICKET (ssl 모듈):               상수<9>.            (line  339)
* OP_NO_TLSv1 (ssl 모듈):                상수<9>.            (line  237)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (ssl 모듈):              상수<9>.            (line  249)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (ssl 모듈):              상수<9>.            (line  260)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (ssl 모듈):              상수<9>.            (line  271)
* OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (ssl 모듈):           상수<9>.            (line  302)
* OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (ssl 모듈):         상수<9>.            (line  310)
* Open (tkinter.filedialog 클래스):      네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   56)
* open_binary() (importlib.resources 모듈): Functional API.  (line   35)
* open_code() (io 모듈):                 고수준 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   21)
* open_connection() (asyncio 모듈):      스트림.             (line   41)
* open_flags (dbm.gnu 모듈):             dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line   28)
* open_new_tab() (webbrowser 모듈):      webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   91)
* open_new_tab() (webbrowser.controller 메서드): 브라우저 제어기 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* open_new() (webbrowser 모듈):          webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   83)
* open_new() (webbrowser.controller 메서드): 브라우저 제어기 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* open_osfhandle() (msvcrt 모듈):        파일 연산.          (line   41)
* open_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  443)
* open_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   47)
* open_text() (importlib.resources 모듈): Functional API.    (line   51)
* open_unix_connection() (asyncio 모듈): 스트림.             (line  112)
* open_unknown() (urllib.request.URLopener 메서드): 레거시 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  100)
* open_urlresource() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  568)
* open() (bz2 모듈):                     파일 압축 해제.     (line    6)
* open() (codecs 모듈):                  codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  169)
* open() (dbm 모듈):                     dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   48)
* open() (dbm.dumb 모듈):                dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.
                                                             (line   28)
* open() (dbm.gnu 모듈):                 dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line   33)
* open() (dbm.ndbm 모듈):                dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   38)
* open() (dbm.sqlite3 모듈):             dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드.
                                                             (line   22)
* open() (gzip 모듈):                    gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line   27)
* open() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  167)
* open() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  518)
* open() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  141)
* open() (io 모듈):                      고수준 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   12)
* open() (lzma 모듈):                    압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  361)
* open() (pathlib.Path 메서드):          Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (shelve 모듈):                  shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성.
                                                             (line   16)
* open() (tarfile 모듈):                 tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   40)
* open() (tarfile.TarFile의 클래스 메서드): TarFile 객체.    (line   91)
* open() (tokenize 모듈):                입력 토큰화하기.    (line   88)
* open() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector 메서드): OpenerDirector 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* open() (urllib.request.URLopener 메서드): 레거시 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   89)
* open() (wave 모듈):                    wave — WAV 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line   19)
* open() (webbrowser 모듈):              webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   64)
* open() (webbrowser.controller 메서드): 브라우저 제어기 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* open() (zipfile.Path 메서드):          Path 객체.          (line   34)
* open() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):       ZipFile 객체.       (line  125)
* OpenerDirector (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  259)
* OpenKey() (winreg 모듈):               함수<12>.           (line  273)
* OpenKeyEx() (winreg 모듈):             함수<12>.           (line  273)
* openlog() (syslog 모듈):               syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line   49)
* openpty() (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  460)
* openpty() (pty 모듈):                  pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   34)
* OPENSSL_VERSION (ssl 모듈):            상수<9>.            (line  467)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (ssl 모듈):       상수<9>.            (line  476)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (ssl 모듈):     상수<9>.            (line  485)
* OpenSSL;(use in module ssl):           ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* OpenSSL;(모듈 hashlib 에서의 사용):    해시 알고리즘.      (line   18)
* OperationalError:                      예외<5>.            (line   57)
* operations on;dictionary;type:         매핑 형 — dict.     (line    6)
* operations on;integer;types:           정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;list;type:               가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* operations on;mapping;types:           매핑 형 — dict.     (line    6)
* operations on;numeric;types:           숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   93)
* operations on;sequence;types:          공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* operations on;sequence;types <1>:      가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* operator;- (minus):                    일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   10)
* operator;- (minus) <1>:                이항 산술 연산.     (line   78)
* operator;- (minus) <2>:                숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;!=:                           비교.               (line    6)
* operator;!= <1>:                       비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;@ (at):                       이항 산술 연산.     (line   24)
* operator;* (asterisk):                 이항 산술 연산.     (line   16)
* operator;* (asterisk) <1>:             숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;**:                           거듭제곱 연산자.    (line    6)
* operator;** <1>:                       숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;/ (slash):                    이항 산술 연산.     (line   32)
* operator;/ (slash) <1>:                숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;//:                           이항 산술 연산.     (line   32)
* operator;// <1>:                       숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;& (ampersand):                이항 비트 연산.     (line   12)
* operator;& (ampersand) <1>:            정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;% (percent):                  이항 산술 연산.     (line   43)
* operator;% (percent) <1>:              숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;^ (caret):                    이항 비트 연산.     (line   16)
* operator;^ (caret) <1>:                정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;+ (plus):                     일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   14)
* operator;+ (plus) <1>:                 이항 산술 연산.     (line   71)
* operator;+ (plus) <2>:                 숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;< (less):                     비교.               (line    6)
* operator;< (less) <1>:                 비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;<<:                           시프트 연산.        (line    6)
* operator;<< <1>:                       정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;<=:                           비교.               (line    6)
* operator;<= <1>:                       비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;==:                           비교.               (line    6)
* operator;== <1>:                       비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;> (greater):                  비교.               (line    6)
* operator;> (greater) <1>:              비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;>=:                           비교.               (line    6)
* operator;>= <1>:                       비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;>>:                           시프트 연산.        (line    6)
* operator;>> <1>:                       정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;| (vertical bar):             이항 비트 연산.     (line   20)
* operator;| (vertical bar) <1>:         정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;~ (tilde):                    일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator;~ (tilde) <1>:                정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;and:                          논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* operator;and <1>:                      논리값 검사.        (line   22)
* operator;and <2>:                      논리 연산 — and or not.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;comparison:                   비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;in:                           멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   36)
* operator;in <1>:                       비교<2>.            (line   62)
* operator;in <2>:                       공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* operator;is:                           멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   39)
* operator;is <1>:                       비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;is not:                       멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   39)
* operator;is not <1>:                   비교<2>.            (line    6)
* operator;not:                          논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator;not <1>:                      논리 연산 — and or not.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;not in:                       멤버십 검사 연산.   (line   36)
* operator;not in <1>:                   비교<2>.            (line   62)
* operator;not in <2>:                   공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* operator;or:                           논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   24)
* operator;or <1>:                       논리값 검사.        (line   22)
* operator;or <2>:                       논리 연산 — and or not.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;overloading:                  특수 메서드 이름들. (line    6)
* operator;precedence:                   연산자 우선순위.    (line    6)
* opmap (dis 모듈):                      옵코드 모음.        (line   16)
* opname (dis 모듈):                     옵코드 모음.        (line   12)
* OPT:                                   Debug options.      (line   39)
* optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  321)
* optimize (sys.flags의 속성):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  509)
* optimize() (pickletools 모듈):         프로그래밍 인터페이스<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* optimized scope (최적화된 스코프):     용어집.             (line 1030)
* OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery 모듈): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   29)
* Option (optparse 클래스):              옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line    6)
* Optional (typing 모듈):                특수 형태.          (line   52)
* OptionConflictError:                   예외<7>.            (line   11)
* OptionError:                           예외<7>.            (line    6)
* OptionGroup (optparse 클래스):         옵션 그룹화하기.    (line   12)
* OptionParser (optparse 클래스):        구문 분석기 만들기. (line    9)
* options (doctest.Example의 속성):      Example 객체.       (line   47)
* Options (ssl 클래스):                  상수<9>.            (line  335)
* options (ssl.SSLContext의 속성):       SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  548)
* options() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  129)
* OptionValueError:                      예외<7>.            (line   16)
* optionxform() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  302)
* Or (ast 클래스):                       표현식<2>.          (line   86)
* or_() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  133)
* ordered_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  138)
* OrderedDict (collections 클래스):      OrderedDict 객체.   (line   57)
* OrderedDict (typing 클래스):           Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   17)
* orig_argv (sys 모듈):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1266)
* origin (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  375)
* origin_req_host (urllib.request.Request의 속성): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   29)
* origin_server (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  267)
* os_environ (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  154)
* OSError:                               구체적인 예외.      (line  144)
* OUT_TO_DEFAULT (msvcrt 모듈):          기타 함수<4>.       (line   20)
* OUT_TO_MSGBOX (msvcrt 모듈):           기타 함수<4>.       (line   30)
* OUT_TO_STDERR (msvcrt 모듈):           기타 함수<4>.       (line   25)
* output (subprocess.CalledProcessError의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  211)
* output (subprocess.TimeoutExpired의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  171)
* output (unittest.TestCase의 속성):     테스트 케이스.      (line  426)
* output_charset (email.charset.Charset의 속성): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   69)
* output_codec (email.charset.Charset의 속성): email charset 문자 집합 표현.
                                                             (line   82)
* output_difference() (doctest.OutputChecker 메서드): OutputChecker 객체.
                                                             (line   24)
* output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 메서드): 쿠키 객체.      (line   23)
* output() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드): Morsel 객체.        (line   68)
* OutputChecker (doctest 클래스):        OutputChecker 객체. (line    6)
* OutputString() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드): Morsel 객체.  (line   82)
* OutsideDestinationError:               tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  234)
* Overflow (decimal 클래스):             신호.               (line   66)
* OverflowError:                         구체적인 예외.      (line  204)
* OverflowError (내장 예외):             정수 객체.          (line  137)
* OverflowError (내장 예외) <1>:         정수 객체.          (line  191)
* OverflowError (내장 예외) <2>:         정수 객체.          (line  233)
* OverflowError (내장 예외) <3>:         정수 객체.          (line  245)
* OverflowError (내장 예외) <4>:         정수 객체.          (line  257)
* OverflowError (내장 예외) <5>:         정수 객체.          (line  270)
* overlap() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드): NormalDist 객체. (line   94)
* overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.  (line  140)
* overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.  (line  319)
* overlay() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  400)
* overload() (typing 모듈):              함수와 데코레이터.  (line  246)
* override() (typing 모듈):              함수와 데코레이터.  (line  371)
* overwrite() (curses.window 메서드):    창 객체.            (line  411)
* owner() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line    6)
* p (pdb command):                       디버거 명령들.      (line  249)
* P_ALL (os 모듈):                       프로세스 관리.      (line  937)
* P_DETACH (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  675)
* P_NOWAIT (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  655)
* P_NOWAITO (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  655)
* P_OVERLAY (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  675)
* P_PGID (os 모듈):                      프로세스 관리.      (line  937)
* P_PID (os 모듈):                       프로세스 관리.      (line  937)
* P_PIDFD (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  937)
* P_WAIT (os 모듈):                      프로세스 관리.      (line  665)
* pack_into() (struct 모듈):             함수와 예외.        (line   19)
* pack_into() (struct.Struct 메서드):    클래스<2>.          (line   27)
* pack() (mailbox.MH 메서드):            MH 객체.            (line   67)
* pack() (struct 모듈):                  함수와 예외.        (line   13)
* pack() (struct.Struct 메서드):         클래스<2>.          (line   22)
* package (패키지):                      용어집.             (line 1041)
* PackageMetadata (importlib.metadata 클래스): 배포 메타데이터.
                                                             (line   14)
* PackageNotFoundError:                  개요<3>.            (line   33)
* PackagePath (importlib.metadata 클래스): 배포 파일.        (line   18)
* packages_distributions() (importlib.metadata 모듈): Mapping import to distribution packages.
                                                             (line    6)
* packed (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.          (line   68)
* packed (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.          (line  258)
* PAGER:                                 pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line   42)
* pair_content() (curses 모듈):          함수<5>.            (line  353)
* pair_number() (curses 모듈):           함수<5>.            (line  358)
* pairwise() (itertools 모듈):           Itertool Functions. (line  407)
* Parameter (inspect 클래스):            Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  183)
* parameter (매개변수):                  용어집.             (line 1050)
* parameter;call semantics:              호출.               (line   25)
* parameter;difference from argument:    한 함수에서 다른 함수로 선택적이나 키워드 매개변수를 전달하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line   16)
* parameter;function definition:         Class Patterns.     (line  140)
* ParameterizedMIMEHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  231)
* parameters (inspect.Signature의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  100)
* params (email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  238)
* ParamSpec (ast 클래스):                Type parameters.    (line   36)
* ParamSpec (typing 클래스):             Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  350)
* ParamSpecArgs (typing 모듈):           Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  470)
* ParamSpecKwargs (typing 모듈):         Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  470)
* paramstyle (sqlite3 모듈):             Module constants.   (line   70)
* pardir (os 모듈):                      기타 시스템 정보.   (line  103)
* parent (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  411)
* parent (logging.Logger의 속성):        Logger 객체.        (line   40)
* parent (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):      메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line   93)
* parent (pyclbr.Class의 속성):          Class 객체.         (line   28)
* parent (pyclbr.Function의 속성):       Function 객체.      (line   27)
* parent (urllib.request.BaseHandler의 속성): BaseHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   25)
* parent_process() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.      (line   41)
* parent() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.      (line  208)
* parenthesized form:                    괄호 안에 넣은 형.  (line    6)
* parentNode (xml.dom.Node의 속성):      Node 객체.          (line   16)
* parents (collections.ChainMap의 속성): ChainMap 객체.      (line   58)
* parents (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):     메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line   78)
* paretovariate() (random 모듈):         실수 분포.          (line   89)
* parse_and_bind() (readline 모듈):      초기화 파일.        (line    8)
* parse_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): parse_args 메서드.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_args() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 인자 구문 분석하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* PARSE_COLNAMES (sqlite3 모듈):         Module constants.   (line   35)
* parse_config_h() (sysconfig 모듈):     기타 함수<3>.       (line   58)
* PARSE_DECLTYPES (sqlite3 모듈):        Module constants.   (line   13)
* parse_headers() (http.client 모듈):    http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  106)
* parse_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 혼합 파싱.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 부분 파싱.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 혼합 파싱.
                                                             (line    9)
* parse_qs() (urllib.parse 모듈):        URL 구문 분석.      (line  145)
* parse_qsl() (urllib.parse 모듈):       URL 구문 분석.      (line  187)
* parse() (ast 모듈):                    ast 도우미.         (line    9)
* parse() (doctest.DocTestParser 메서드): DocTestParser 객체.
                                                             (line   29)
* parse() (email.parser.BytesParser 메서드): Parser API.     (line   32)
* parse() (email.parser.Parser 메서드):  Parser API.         (line   82)
* parse() (string.Formatter 메서드):     사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   38)
* parse() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   28)
* parse() (xml.dom.minidom 모듈):        xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현.
                                                             (line   34)
* parse() (xml.dom.pulldom 모듈):        xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
                                                             (line   81)
* parse() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈):  함수<8>.            (line  167)
* parse() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* Parse() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (xml.sax 모듈):                xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line   37)
* parse() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* parseaddr() (email.utils 모듈):        email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   53)
* parsebytes() (email.parser.BytesParser 메서드): Parser API.
                                                             (line   51)
* parsedate_to_datetime() (email.utils 모듈): email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  123)
* parsedate_tz() (email.utils 모듈):     email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  113)
* parsedate() (email.utils 모듈):        email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  102)
* ParseError (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): 예외<16>.       (line    6)
* ParseFile() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* ParseFlags() (imaplib 모듈):           imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  120)
* Parser (email.parser 클래스):          Parser API.         (line   71)
* parser (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):      메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line    8)
* ParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat 모듈): xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   43)
* ParseResult (urllib.parse 클래스):     구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   45)
* ParseResultBytes (urllib.parse 클래스): 구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   70)
* parsestr() (email.parser.Parser 메서드): Parser API.       (line   92)
* parseString() (xml.dom.minidom 모듈):  xml dom minidom — 최소 DOM 구현.
                                                             (line   46)
* parseString() (xml.dom.pulldom 모듈):  xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
                                                             (line   94)
* parseString() (xml.sax 모듈):          xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line   48)
* ParsingError:                          예외<6>.            (line   59)
* partial (asyncio.IncompleteReadError의 속성): 예외<10>.    (line   57)
* partial() (functools 모듈):            functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  305)
* partial() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):      IMAP4 객체.         (line  184)
* partialmethod (functools 클래스):      functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  334)
* parties (asyncio.Barrier의 속성):      Barrier.            (line   94)
* parties (threading.Barrier의 속성):    Barrier objects.    (line   85)
* partition() (bytearray 메서드):        바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  180)
* partition() (bytes 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  180)
* partition() (str 메서드):              문자열 메서드.      (line  405)
* parts (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):       개별 부분에 액세스하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Pass (ast 클래스):                     문장.               (line  151)
* pass_() (poplib.POP3 메서드):          POP3 객체.          (line   34)
* Paste:                                 Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   29)
* patch.dict() (unittest.mock 모듈):     patch dict.         (line    6)
* patch.multiple() (unittest.mock 모듈): patch multiple.     (line    6)
* patch.object() (unittest.mock 모듈):   patch object.       (line    6)
* patch.stopall() (unittest.mock 모듈):  패처 메서드 start와 stop.
                                                             (line   69)
* patch() (test.support 모듈):           test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  638)
* patch() (unittest.mock 모듈):          patch.              (line    9)
* PATH:                                  파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  136)
* PATH <1>:                              Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line    6)
* PATH <2>:                              Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <3>:                              Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line   12)
* PATH <4>:                              macOS<7>.           (line   14)
* PATH <5>:                              Windows<24>.        (line   55)
* PATH <6>:                              Windows<28>.        (line   14)
* PATH <7>:                              Security<37>.       (line   16)
* PATH <8>:                              Security<37>.       (line   20)
* PATH <9>:                              모듈 검색 경로.     (line   15)
* PATH <10>:                             실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <11>:                             환경 변수.          (line   25)
* PATH <12>:                             잡동사니<2>.        (line   16)
* PATH <13>:                             설치 단계.          (line   32)
* PATH <14>:                             설치 단계.          (line   53)
* PATH <15>:                             UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   75)
* PATH <16>:                             UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   79)
* PATH <17>:                             보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
                                                             (line   21)
* PATH <18>:                             보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
                                                             (line   30)
* PATH <19>:                             파이썬 실행 파일 찾기.
                                                             (line   13)
* PATH <20>:                             파이썬 실행 파일 찾기.
                                                             (line   21)
* PATH <21>:                             파이썬 실행 파일 찾기.
                                                             (line   22)
* PATH <22>:                             윈도우 용 파이썬 런처.
                                                             (line   12)
* PATH <23>:                             명령 줄에서.        (line    8)
* PATH <24>:                             셔뱅 줄.            (line   49)
* PATH <25>:                             셔뱅 줄.            (line   55)
* PATH <26>:                             셔뱅 줄.            (line   55)
* PATH <27>:                             셔뱅 줄.            (line   59)
* PATH <28>:                             Comparison to the os and os path modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* PATH <29>:                             디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  406)
* PATH <30>:                             디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  411)
* PATH <31>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line   43)
* PATH <32>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line   83)
* PATH <33>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line   86)
* PATH <34>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line   89)
* PATH <35>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line  531)
* PATH <36>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line  615)
* PATH <37>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line  617)
* PATH <38>:                             프로세스 관리.      (line  619)
* PATH <39>:                             기타 시스템 정보.   (line  131)
* PATH <40>:                             Popen 생성자.       (line   33)
* PATH <41>:                             webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line  234)
* PATH <42>:                             How venvs work.     (line   16)
* PATH <43>:                             How venvs work.     (line   61)
* PATH <44>:                             How venvs work.     (line   66)
* PATH <45>:                             site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   56)
* PATH <46>:                             파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   25)
* PATH <47>:                             파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   31)
* PATH <48>:                             유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line   21)
* PATH <49>:                             유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line   26)
* path (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성):   Cookie 객체.        (line   42)
* path (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):     Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* path (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   94)
* path (ImportError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line   63)
* path (importlib.abc.FileLoader의 속성): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  294)
* path (importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  487)
* path (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  296)
* path (importlib.machinery.FileFinder의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  169)
* path (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  206)
* path (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  249)
* path (in module sys):                  인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* path (in module sys) <1>:              프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  129)
* path (os.DirEntry의 속성):             파일과 디렉터리.    (line  923)
* Path (pathlib 클래스):                 구상 경로.          (line   10)
* path (sys 모듈):                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1279)
* Path (zipfile 클래스):                 Path 객체.          (line    6)
* path (모듈 sys 에서):                  파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   11)
* path based finder (경로 기반 파인더):  용어집.             (line 1118)
* path entry (경로 엔트리):              용어집.             (line 1098)
* path entry finder (경로 엔트리 파인더): 용어집.            (line 1103)
* path entry hook (경로 엔트리 훅):      용어집.             (line 1112)
* path_hook() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder의 클래스 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  184)
* path_hooks (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1311)
* path_importer_cache (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1319)
* path_mtime() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  355)
* path_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 메서드): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* path_stats() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  336)
* path_stats() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  215)
* path-like object (경로류 객체):        용어집.             (line 1123)
* path;operations:                       pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line   10)
* Path.stem (zipfile 모듈):              Path 객체.          (line   84)
* Path.suffix (zipfile 모듈):            Path 객체.          (line   77)
* Path.suffixes (zipfile 모듈):          Path 객체.          (line   90)
* path() (importlib.resources 모듈):     Functional API.     (line  110)
* pathconf_names (os 모듈):              파일과 디렉터리.    (line  641)
* pathconf() (os 모듈):                  파일과 디렉터리.    (line  620)
* PathEntryFinder (importlib.abc 클래스): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   57)
* PATHEXT:                               Other Improvements. (line   30)
* PATHEXT <1>:                           Library<44>.        (line  138)
* PATHEXT <2>:                           UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   76)
* PATHEXT <3>:                           UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   80)
* PATHEXT <4>:                           디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  421)
* PathFinder (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  102)
* PathLike (os 클래스):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  118)
* pathname2url() (urllib.request 모듈):  urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  138)
* pathsep (os 모듈):                     기타 시스템 정보.   (line  129)
* Pattern (re 클래스):                   정규식 객체.        (line    6)
* pattern (re.PatternError의 속성):      Exceptions.         (line   19)
* pattern (re.Pattern의 속성):           정규식 객체.        (line  118)
* Pattern (typing 클래스):               Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line    6)
* pattern matching:                      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* PatternError:                          Exceptions.         (line    6)
* pause_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport 메서드): 읽기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   12)
* pause_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 메서드): 베이스 프로토콜<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* pause() (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  303)
* PAX_FORMAT (tarfile 모듈):             tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  326)
* pax_headers (tarfile.TarFile의 속성):  TarFile 객체.       (line  312)
* pax_headers (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):  TarInfo 객체.       (line  158)
* pbkdf2_hmac() (hashlib 모듈):          키 파생.            (line   11)
* pd() (turtle 모듈):                    그리기 상태.        (line    6)
* Pdb (pdb 의 클래스):                   pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line   17)
* Pdb (pdb 클래스):                      pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  186)
* pdb 명령줄 옵션; -c:                   pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line   82)
* pdb 명령줄 옵션; -command:             pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line   82)
* pdb 명령줄 옵션; -m:                   pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line   89)
* pdf() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드):  NormalDist 객체.    (line   68)
* peek() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):           파일 압축 해제.     (line   68)
* peek() (gzip.GzipFile 메서드):         gzip — gzip 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  125)
* peek() (io.BufferedReader 메서드):     버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   73)
* peek() (lzma.LZMAFile 메서드):         압축 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   78)
* peek() (weakref.finalize 메서드):      weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  279)
* PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (ssl 모듈):     인증서 처리.        (line   57)
* pen() (turtle 모듈):                   그리기 상태.        (line   33)
* pencolor() (turtle 모듈):              색상 제어.          (line    6)
* pending (ssl.MemoryBIO의 속성):        메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line  134)
* pending() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):      SSL 소켓.           (line  322)
* PendingDeprecationWarning:             경고.               (line   28)
* pendown() (turtle 모듈):               그리기 상태.        (line    6)
* pensize() (turtle 모듈):               그리기 상태.        (line   18)
* penup() (turtle 모듈):                 그리기 상태.        (line   12)
* PEP:                                   용어집.             (line 1134)
* PERCENT (token 모듈):                  token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  223)
* PERCENTEQUAL (token 모듈):             token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  271)
* perf_counter_ns() (time 모듈):         함수<4>.            (line  231)
* perf_counter() (time 모듈):            함수<4>.            (line  207)
* perm() (math 모듈):                    수론적 함수.        (line   64)
* PermissionError:                       OS 예외.            (line   93)
* permutations() (itertools 모듈):       Itertool Functions. (line  430)
* persistent_id (피클 프로토콜):         외부 객체의 지속성. (line    6)
* persistent_id() (pickle.Pickler 메서드): 모듈 인터페이스.  (line  150)
* persistent_load (피클 프로토콜):       외부 객체의 지속성. (line    6)
* persistent_load() (pickle.Unpickler 메서드): 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  259)
* PF_CAN (socket 모듈):                  상수<8>.            (line  127)
* PF_DIVERT (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  203)
* PF_PACKET (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  213)
* PF_RDS (socket 모듈):                  상수<8>.            (line  235)
* pformat() (pprint 모듈):               함수<3>.            (line   76)
* pformat() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 메서드): PrettyPrinter 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* pgettext() (gettext 모듈):             GNU gettext API.    (line   60)
* pgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations 메서드): GNUTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   64)
* pgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations 메서드): NullTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   45)
* PGO (test.support 모듈):               test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  106)
* phase() (cmath 모듈):                  극좌표 변환.        (line   18)
* Philbrick, Geoff:                      확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수.
                                                             (line   22)
* pi (cmath 모듈):                       상수<3>.            (line    6)
* pi (math 모듈):                        상수<2>.            (line    6)
* pi() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   55)
* pickle() (copyreg 모듈):               copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록.
                                                             (line   22)
* PickleBuffer (pickle 클래스):          모듈 인터페이스.    (line  288)
* PickleError:                           모듈 인터페이스.    (line   87)
* Pickler (pickle 클래스):               모듈 인터페이스.    (line  112)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -a:           명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line    6)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -annotate:    명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line    6)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -indentlevel: 명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   14)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -l:           명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   14)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -m:           명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   18)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -memo:        명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   18)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -o:           명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   10)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -output:      명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   10)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -p:           명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   22)
* pickletools 명령줄 옵션; -preamble:    명령 줄 옵션<5>.    (line   22)
* PicklingError:                         모듈 인터페이스.    (line   92)
* pid (asyncio.subprocess.Process의 속성): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line  134)
* pid (multiprocessing.Process의 속성):  Process와 예외.     (line  150)
* pid (subprocess.Popen의 속성):         Popen 객체.         (line  141)
* PIDFD_NONBLOCK (os 모듈):              프로세스 관리.      (line  368)
* pidfd_open() (os 모듈):                프로세스 관리.      (line  355)
* pidfd_send_signal() (signal 모듈):     모듈 내용<5>.       (line  321)
* PidfdChildWatcher (asyncio 클래스):    프로세스 감시자.    (line  152)
* PIP_USER:                              Windows<45>.        (line  102)
* PIPE (subprocess 모듈):                subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  141)
* PIPE_BUF (select 모듈):                select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  152)
* pipe_connection_lost() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol 메서드): 서브 프로세스 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   20)
* pipe_data_received() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol 메서드): 서브 프로세스 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   10)
* PIPE_MAX_SIZE (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  110)
* Pipe() (multiprocessing 모듈):         파이프와 큐.        (line   74)
* pipe() (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  471)
* pipe2() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  481)
* placeholder (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  264)
* platform (in module sys):              프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  166)
* platform (sys 모듈):                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1328)
* platform 명령줄 옵션; -nonaliased:     Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* platform 명령줄 옵션; -terse:          Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* platform() (platform 모듈):            Cross platform.     (line   45)
* platlibdir (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1393)
* PlaySound() (winsound 모듈):           winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   19)
* plist;파일:                            plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* plock() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  380)
* plus:                                  일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line   14)
* PLUS (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  193)
* plus() (decimal.Context 메서드):       Context 객체.       (line  434)
* PLUSEQUAL (token 모듈):                token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  259)
* pm() (pdb 모듈):                       pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  177)
* POINTER() (ctypes 모듈):               유틸리티 함수.      (line  176)
* pointer() (ctypes 모듈):               유틸리티 함수.      (line  182)
* polar() (cmath 모듈):                  극좌표 변환.        (line   35)
* Policy (email.policy 클래스):          email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  115)
* poll() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* poll() (select 모듈):                  select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line   85)
* poll() (select.devpoll 메서드):        /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   61)
* poll() (select.epoll 메서드):          에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   95)
* poll() (select.poll 메서드):           폴링 객체.          (line   71)
* poll() (subprocess.Popen 메서드):      Popen 객체.         (line    8)
* PollSelector (selectors 클래스):       클래스<3>.          (line  163)
* Pool (multiprocessing.pool 클래스):    프로세스 풀.        (line    9)
* pop_all() (contextlib.ExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.         (line  569)
* POP_BLOCK (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1410)
* POP_EXCEPT (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  437)
* POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode):            파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  859)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  882)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (opcode):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  873)
* POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  845)
* pop_source() (shlex.shlex 메서드):     shlex 객체.         (line   58)
* POP_TOP (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  137)
* pop() (array.array 메서드):            array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  204)
* pop() (collections.deque 메서드):      deque 객체.         (line   83)
* pop() (dict 메서드):                   매핑 형 — dict.     (line  198)
* pop() (frozenset 메서드):              집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  205)
* pop() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):        Mailbox 객체.       (line  193)
* pop() (sequence method):               가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* POP3 (poplib 클래스):                  poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   32)
* POP3_SSL (poplib 클래스):              poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   50)
* POP3;프로토콜:                         poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* Popen (subprocess 클래스):             Popen 생성자.       (line   10)
* popen() (in module os):                I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* popen() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  387)
* popen() (os 모듈) <1>:                 select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  135)
* popitem() (collections.OrderedDict 메서드): OrderedDict 객체.
                                                             (line   64)
* popitem() (dict 메서드):               매핑 형 — dict.     (line  206)
* popitem() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):    Mailbox 객체.       (line  201)
* popleft() (collections.deque 메서드):  deque 객체.         (line   88)
* port (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성):   Cookie 객체.        (line   33)
* port_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.
                                                             (line   76)
* portion (포션):                        용어집.             (line 1148)
* pos (json.JSONDecodeError의 속성):     예외<14>.           (line   18)
* pos (re.Match의 속성):                 일치 객체.          (line  167)
* pos (re.PatternError의 속성):          Exceptions.         (line   23)
* pos() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  138)
* pos() (turtle 모듈):                   거북이의 상태 보고. (line    6)
* position (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError의 속성): 예외<16>.
                                                             (line   18)
* position() (turtle 모듈):              거북이의 상태 보고. (line    6)
* positional argument (위치 인자):       용어집.             (line 1154)
* Positions (dis 클래스):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  109)
* positions (inspect.FrameInfo의 속성):  인터프리터 스택.    (line   42)
* positions (inspect.Traceback의 속성):  인터프리터 스택.    (line   82)
* Positions.col_offset (dis 모듈):       파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  118)
* Positions.end_col_offset (dis 모듈):   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  120)
* Positions.end_lineno (dis 모듈):       파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  116)
* Positions.lineno (dis 모듈):           파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  114)
* POSIX 공유 메모리:                     multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line   10)
* POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (os 모듈):         파일 기술자 연산.   (line  515)
* POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (os 모듈):          파일 기술자 연산.   (line  515)
* POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (os 모듈):           파일 기술자 연산.   (line  515)
* POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (os 모듈):           파일 기술자 연산.   (line  515)
* POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (os 모듈):       파일 기술자 연산.   (line  515)
* POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (os 모듈):         파일 기술자 연산.   (line  515)
* posix_fadvise() (os 모듈):             파일 기술자 연산.   (line  501)
* posix_fallocate() (os 모듈):           파일 기술자 연산.   (line  492)
* posix_openpt() (os 모듈):              파일 기술자 연산.   (line  541)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE (os 모듈):           프로세스 관리.      (line  452)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM (os 모듈):       프로세스 관리.      (line  464)
* POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2 (os 모듈):            프로세스 관리.      (line  458)
* POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN (os 모듈):            프로세스 관리.      (line  446)
* posix_spawn() (os 모듈):               프로세스 관리.      (line  424)
* posix_spawnp() (os 모듈):              프로세스 관리.      (line  525)
* POSIX;I/O 제어:                        termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line    6)
* PosixPath (pathlib 클래스):            구상 경로.          (line   21)
* post_handshake_auth (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트. (line  565)
* post_mortem() (pdb 모듈):              pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  168)
* post_setup() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.             (line  167)
* postcmd() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):            Cmd 객체.           (line   92)
* postloop() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):           Cmd 객체.           (line  108)
* Pow (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* pow() (math 모듈):                     거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   69)
* pow() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  143)
* power;operation:                       거듭제곱 연산자.    (line    6)
* power() (decimal.Context 메서드):      Context 객체.       (line  440)
* pp (pdb command):                      디버거 명령들.      (line  256)
* pp() (pprint 모듈):                    함수<3>.            (line    6)
* pprint() (pprint 모듈):                함수<3>.            (line   67)
* pprint() (pprint.PrettyPrinter 메서드): PrettyPrinter 객체.
                                                             (line   56)
* prcal() (calendar 모듈):               calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  385)
* pread() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  529)
* preadv() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  559)
* preamble (email.message.EmailMessage의 속성): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  629)
* preamble (email.message.Message의 속성): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  649)
* prec (decimal.Context의 속성):         Context 객체.       (line  117)
* precmd() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):             Cmd 객체.           (line   83)
* prefix (sys 모듈):                     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1417)
* prefix (xml.dom.Attr의 속성):          Attr 객체.          (line   18)
* prefix (xml.dom.Node의 속성):          Node 객체.          (line   65)
* prefix (zipimport.zipimporter의 속성): zipimporter 객체.   (line   98)
* PREFIXES (site 모듈):                  모듈 내용<8>.       (line    6)
* prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.   (line  118)
* prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.   (line  308)
* preloop() (cmd.Cmd 메서드):            Cmd 객체.           (line  102)
* prepare_class() (types 모듈):          동적 형 생성.       (line   20)
* prepare_input_source() (xml.sax.saxutils 모듈): xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   75)
* prepare() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 메서드): graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line   92)
* prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler 메서드): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 메서드): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   51)
* PrepareProtocol (sqlite3 클래스):      PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PrettyPrinter (pprint 클래스):         PrettyPrinter 객체. (line    6)
* prev() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):  ttk Treeview.       (line  213)
* previousSibling (xml.dom.Node의 속성): Node 객체.          (line   30)
* primary:                               프라이머리.         (line    6)
* print_callees() (pstats.Stats 메서드): Stats 클래스.       (line  196)
* print_callers() (pstats.Stats 메서드): Stats 클래스.       (line  179)
* print_exc() (timeit.Timer 메서드):     파이썬 인터페이스.  (line  120)
* print_exc() (traceback 모듈):          모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   56)
* print_exception() (traceback 모듈):    모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   24)
* print_function (__future__ 모듈):      Module Contents.    (line   34)
* print_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 도움말 인쇄.
                                                             (line   16)
* print_last() (traceback 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   61)
* print_list() (traceback 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   96)
* print_stack() (asyncio.Task 메서드):   Task 객체.          (line  135)
* print_stack() (traceback 모듈):        모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line   68)
* print_stats() (profile.Profile 메서드): profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line   89)
* print_stats() (pstats.Stats 메서드):   Stats 클래스.       (line  150)
* print_tb() (traceback 모듈):           모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line    6)
* print_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 도움말 인쇄.
                                                             (line   10)
* print_usage() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 기타 메서드. (line   15)
* print_version() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 버전 문자열 인쇄하기.
                                                             (line   26)
* print_warning() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  406)
* print() (built-in function);__str__() (object method): 기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  125)
* print() (traceback.TracebackException 메서드): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  131)
* printable (string 모듈):               문자열 상수.        (line   41)
* printdir() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):   ZipFile 객체.       (line  230)
* printf-style formatting:               printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* printf-style formatting <1>:           printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* PRIO_DARWIN_BG (os 모듈):              프로세스 매개 변수. (line  293)
* PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI (os 모듈):           프로세스 매개 변수. (line  293)
* PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS (os 모듈):         프로세스 매개 변수. (line  293)
* PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD (os 모듈):          프로세스 매개 변수. (line  293)
* PRIO_PGRP (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  282)
* PRIO_PROCESS (os 모듈):                프로세스 매개 변수. (line  282)
* PRIO_USER (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  282)
* PriorityQueue (asyncio 클래스):        우선순위 큐.        (line    6)
* PriorityQueue (queue 클래스):          queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   45)
* private;names:                         식별자 이름.        (line   14)
* prlimit() (resource 모듈):             자원 제한<2>.       (line   54)
* prmonth() (calendar 모듈):             calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  376)
* prmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  191)
* ProactorEventLoop (asyncio 클래스):    이벤트 루프 구현.   (line   32)
* Process (multiprocessing 클래스):      Process와 예외.     (line    6)
* process_cpu_count() (os 모듈):         기타 시스템 정보.   (line   56)
* process_exited() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol 메서드): 서브 프로세스 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   26)
* process_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  151)
* process_time_ns() (time 모듈):         함수<4>.            (line  250)
* process_time() (time 모듈):            함수<4>.            (line  238)
* process_tokens() (tabnanny 모듈):      tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지.
                                                             (line   39)
* process;group:                         프로세스 매개 변수. (line  187)
* process;group <1>:                     프로세스 매개 변수. (line  247)
* process;id:                            프로세스 매개 변수. (line  253)
* process;id of parent:                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  260)
* process;killing:                       프로세스 관리.      (line  319)
* process;killing <1>:                   프로세스 관리.      (line  341)
* process;scheduling priority:           프로세스 매개 변수. (line  270)
* process;scheduling priority <1>:       프로세스 매개 변수. (line  456)
* process;signalling:                    프로세스 관리.      (line  319)
* process;signalling <1>:                프로세스 관리.      (line  341)
* process() (logging.LoggerAdapter 메서드): LoggerAdapter 객체.
                                                             (line   20)
* ProcessError:                          Process와 예외.     (line  253)
* ProcessingInstruction() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.
                                                             (line  175)
* processingInstruction() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line  157)
* ProcessingInstructionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  257)
* ProcessLookupError:                    OS 예외.            (line  102)
* processor() (platform 모듈):           Cross platform.     (line   65)
* ProcessPoolExecutor (concurrent.futures 클래스): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   25)
* prod() (math 모듈):                    합과 곱 함수.       (line   48)
* product() (itertools 모듈):            Itertool Functions. (line  481)
* Profile (profile 클래스):              profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line   33)
* profile function:                      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  905)
* profile function <1>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1462)
* PROFILE_TASK:                          Build<19>.          (line   13)
* PROFILE_TASK <1>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiler:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  905)
* profiler <1>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1462)
* ProgrammingError:                      예외<5>.            (line   78)
* Progressbar (tkinter.ttk 클래스):      ttk Progressbar.    (line    6)
* prompt (cmd.Cmd의 속성):               Cmd 객체.           (line  117)
* prompt_user_passwd() (urllib.request.FancyURLopener 메서드): 레거시 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  168)
* prompts, interpreter:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* propagate (logging.Logger의 속성):     Logger 객체.        (line   48)
* property (내장 클래스):                내장 함수.          (line 1545)
* property_declaration_handler (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  103)
* property_dom_node (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  110)
* property_lexical_handler (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   96)
* property_xml_string (xml.sax.handler 모듈): xml sax handler — SAX 처리기의 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  117)
* property() (enum 모듈):                Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   39)
* PropertyMock (unittest.mock 클래스):   Mock 클래스.        (line  629)
* prot_c() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 메서드):      FTP_TLS 객체.       (line  108)
* prot_p() (ftplib.FTP_TLS 메서드):      FTP_TLS 객체.       (line  104)
* proto (socket.socket의 속성):          소켓 객체.          (line  597)
* Protocol (asyncio 클래스):             베이스 프로토콜.    (line   10)
* protocol (ssl.SSLContext의 속성):      SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  584)
* Protocol (typing 클래스):              기타 특수 지시자.   (line  129)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (ssl 모듈):            상수<9>.            (line  160)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (ssl 모듈):             상수<9>.            (line  166)
* PROTOCOL_TLS (ssl 모듈):               상수<9>.            (line  130)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (ssl 모듈):        상수<9>.            (line  143)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (ssl 모듈):        상수<9>.            (line  152)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (ssl 모듈):             상수<9>.            (line  182)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (ssl 모듈):           상수<9>.            (line  189)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (ssl 모듈):           상수<9>.            (line  199)
* protocol_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  155)
* PROTOCOL_VERSION (imaplib.IMAP4의 속성): IMAP4 객체.       (line  381)
* protocol;context management:           컨텍스트 관리자 형. (line    6)
* protocol;iterator:                     이터레이터 형.      (line    6)
* ProtocolError (xmlrpc.client 클래스):  ProtocolError 객체. (line    6)
* provisional API (잠정 API):            용어집.             (line 1158)
* provisional package (잠정 패키지):     용어집.             (line 1175)
* proxy() (weakref 모듈):                weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  120)
* proxyauth() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):    IMAP4 객체.         (line  189)
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  347)
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  375)
* ProxyHandler (urllib.request 클래스):  urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  282)
* ProxyType (weakref 모듈):              weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  307)
* ProxyTypes (weakref 모듈):             weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  315)
* pryear() (calendar.TextCalendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  204)
* ps1 (sys 모듈):                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1429)
* ps2 (sys 모듈):                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1429)
* pstdev() (statistics 모듈):            함수 세부 사항.     (line  360)
* pthread_getcpuclockid() (time 모듈):   함수<4>.            (line   21)
* pthread_kill() (signal 모듈):          모듈 내용<5>.       (line  336)
* pthread_sigmask() (signal 모듈):       모듈 내용<5>.       (line  365)
* pthreads:                              _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   15)
* pthreads (sys._emscripten_info의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  337)
* ptsname() (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  616)
* pu() (turtle 모듈):                    그리기 상태.        (line   12)
* publicId (xml.dom.DocumentType의 속성): DocumentType 객체. (line   16)
* PullDom (xml.dom.pulldom 클래스):      xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
                                                             (line   73)
* punctuation (string 모듈):             문자열 상수.        (line   36)
* punctuation_chars (shlex.shlex의 속성): shlex 객체.        (line  163)
* PurePath (pathlib 클래스):             순수한 경로.        (line   10)
* PurePosixPath (pathlib 클래스):        순수한 경로.        (line   72)
* PureWindowsPath (pathlib 클래스):      순수한 경로.        (line   82)
* purge() (re 모듈):                     Functions.          (line  278)
* Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (ssl 모듈):        상수<9>.            (line  524)
* Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (ssl 모듈):        상수<9>.            (line  515)
* push_async_callback() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  617)
* push_async_exit() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack 메서드): 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  612)
* PUSH_EXC_INFO (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  456)
* PUSH_NULL (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1092)
* push_source() (shlex.shlex 메서드):    shlex 객체.         (line   51)
* push_token() (shlex.shlex 메서드):     shlex 객체.         (line   16)
* push() (code.InteractiveConsole 메서드): 대화형 콘솔 객체. (line   27)
* push() (contextlib.ExitStack 메서드):  유틸리티.           (line  538)
* put_nowait() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):   Queue.              (line   70)
* put_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.  (line  139)
* put_nowait() (queue.Queue 메서드):     큐 객체.            (line   43)
* put_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue 메서드): SimpleQueue 객체. (line   34)
* put() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):          Queue.              (line   62)
* put() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드):  파이프와 큐.        (line  125)
* put() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.   (line  235)
* put() (queue.Queue 메서드):            큐 객체.            (line   31)
* put() (queue.SimpleQueue 메서드):      SimpleQueue 객체.   (line   20)
* putch() (msvcrt 모듈):                 콘솔 I/O.           (line   33)
* putenv() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  341)
* putheader() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  165)
* putp() (curses 모듈):                  함수<5>.            (line  363)
* putrequest() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  156)
* putwch() (msvcrt 모듈):                콘솔 I/O.           (line   37)
* putwin() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  422)
* pvariance() (statistics 모듈):         함수 세부 사항.     (line  368)
* pwd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):             FTP 객체.           (line  326)
* pwrite() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  630)
* pwritev() (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  641)
* Py_ABS (C macro):                      유용한 매크로들.    (line   34)
* Py_AddPendingCall (C function):        비동기 알림.        (line    9)
* Py_ALWAYS_INLINE (C macro):            유용한 매크로들.    (line   40)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX (C macro): 정수 객체.         (line  457)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN (C macro): 정수 객체.          (line  442)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS (C macro):   정수 객체.          (line  439)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN (C macro): 정수 객체.       (line  445)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN (C macro): 정수 객체.       (line  448)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE (C macro): 정수 객체.     (line  454)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER (C macro): 정수 객체.     (line  451)
* Py_AtExit (C function):                프로세스 제어.      (line   31)
* Py_AUDIT_READ (C macro):               Member flags.       (line   12)
* Py_AuditHookFunction (C type):         시스템 함수.        (line  136)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):      확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기.
                                                             (line   22)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:  고수준 API.         (line  161)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro):   Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro):  Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   85)
* Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro):            고수준 API.         (line  175)
* Py_buffer (C type):                    버퍼 구조체.        (line   24)
* Py_buffer.buf (C member):              버퍼 구조체.        (line   26)
* Py_buffer.format (C member):           버퍼 구조체.        (line   83)
* Py_buffer.internal (C member):         버퍼 구조체.        (line  141)
* Py_buffer.itemsize (C member):         버퍼 구조체.        (line   65)
* Py_buffer.len (C member):              버퍼 구조체.        (line   49)
* Py_buffer.ndim (C member):             버퍼 구조체.        (line   91)
* Py_buffer.obj (C member):              버퍼 구조체.        (line   37)
* Py_buffer.readonly (C member):         버퍼 구조체.        (line   60)
* Py_buffer.shape (C member):            버퍼 구조체.        (line   99)
* Py_buffer.strides (C member):          버퍼 구조체.        (line  111)
* Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member):       버퍼 구조체.        (line  123)
* Py_BuildValue (C function):            값 구축.            (line    6)
* Py_BytesMain (C function):             인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_BytesWarningFlag (C var):           전역 구성 변수.     (line   13)
* Py_CHARMASK (C macro):                 유용한 매크로들.    (line   65)
* Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED (C macro):        기타 객체.          (line   36)
* Py_CLEAR (C function):                 참조 횟수<3>.       (line  143)
* Py_CompileString (C function):         매우 고수준 계층.   (line  207)
* Py_CompileString (C 함수):             매우 고수준 계층.   (line  290)
* Py_CompileString (C 함수) <1>:         매우 고수준 계층.   (line  295)
* Py_CompileString (C 함수) <2>:         매우 고수준 계층.   (line  301)
* Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function):  매우 고수준 계층.   (line  239)
* Py_CompileStringFlags (C function):    매우 고수준 계층.   (line  213)
* Py_CompileStringObject (C function):   매우 고수준 계층.   (line  219)
* Py_complex (C type):                   C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line    9)
* Py_complex.imag (C member):            C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_complex.real (C member):            C 구조체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS (C macro):        객체 프로토콜.      (line   28)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES (C macro):     객체 프로토콜.      (line   43)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR (C macro):       객체 프로토콜.      (line   40)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE (C macro):     객체 프로토콜.      (line   46)
* Py_CONSTANT_FALSE (C macro):           객체 프로토콜.      (line   22)
* Py_CONSTANT_NONE (C macro):            객체 프로토콜.      (line   19)
* Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED (C macro): 객체 프로토콜.      (line   31)
* Py_CONSTANT_ONE (C macro):             객체 프로토콜.      (line   37)
* Py_CONSTANT_TRUE (C macro):            객체 프로토콜.      (line   25)
* Py_CONSTANT_ZERO (C macro):            객체 프로토콜.      (line   34)
* PY_CXX_CONST (C macro):                API 함수.           (line  107)
* Py_DEBUG (C macro):                    디버깅 빌드.        (line   15)
* Py_DEBUG (test.support 모듈):          test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_DebugFlag (C var):                  전역 구성 변수.     (line   27)
* Py_DecodeLocale (C function):          운영 체제 유틸리티. (line  108)
* Py_DECREF (C function):                참조 횟수<3>.       (line  104)
* Py_DecRef (C function):                참조 횟수<3>.       (line  164)
* Py_DECREF (C 함수):                    참조 횟수<2>.       (line   17)
* Py_DEPRECATED (C macro):               유용한 매크로들.    (line   70)
* Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C var):      전역 구성 변수.     (line   41)
* Py_Ellipsis (C var):                   Ellipsis 객체<2>.   (line   10)
* Py_EncodeLocale (C function):          운영 체제 유틸리티. (line  160)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):        확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기.
                                                             (line   22)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:    고수준 API.         (line  168)
* Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro):     Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line   72)
* Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro):    Python Critical Section API.
                                                             (line  101)
* Py_EndInterpreter (C function):        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  197)
* Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function):    재귀 제어.          (line   12)
* Py_EQ (C macro):                       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1053)
* Py_eval_input (C var):                 매우 고수준 계층.   (line  288)
* Py_Exit (C function):                  프로세스 제어.      (line   20)
* Py_ExitStatusException (C function):   PyStatus.           (line   63)
* Py_False (C var):                      불리언 객체.        (line   21)
* Py_FatalError (C function):            프로세스 제어.      (line    6)
* Py_FatalError():                       프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  210)
* Py_FdIsInteractive (C function):       운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   17)
* Py_file_input (C var):                 매우 고수준 계층.   (line  293)
* Py_Finalize (C function):              인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line  111)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function):            인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <1>:        인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line   62)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <2>:        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  164)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <3>:        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  198)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C 함수):                프로세스 제어.      (line   21)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C 함수) <1>:            프로세스 제어.      (line   32)
* Py_FrozenFlag (C var):                 전역 구성 변수.     (line   55)
* Py_GE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1062)
* Py_GenericAlias (C function):          Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_GenericAliasType (C var):           Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetArgcArgv (C function):           Py_GetArgcArgv.     (line    6)
* Py_GetBuildInfo (C function):          프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  197)
* Py_GetCompiler (C function):           프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  187)
* Py_GetConstant (C function):           객체 프로토콜.      (line    6)
* Py_GetConstantBorrowed (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line   57)
* Py_GetCopyright (C function):          프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  177)
* Py_GETENV (C macro):                   유용한 매크로들.    (line   81)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C function):         프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C 함수):             파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   37)
* Py_GetPath (C function):               프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  128)
* Py_GetPath (C 함수):                   파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   37)
* Py_GetPath():                          프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_GetPlatform (C function):           프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  165)
* Py_GetPrefix (C function):             프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_GetPrefix (C 함수):                 파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   37)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function):    프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C 함수):        파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   37)
* Py_GetProgramName (C function):        프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_GetPythonHome (C function):         프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  296)
* Py_GetVersion (C function):            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  151)
* Py_GT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1059)
* Py_hash_t (C type):                    PyHash API.         (line    9)
* Py_HashPointer (C function):           PyHash API.         (line   85)
* Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C var):      전역 구성 변수.     (line   68)
* Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C var):      전역 구성 변수.     (line   83)
* Py_INCREF (C function):                참조 횟수<3>.       (line   42)
* Py_IncRef (C function):                참조 횟수<3>.       (line  158)
* Py_INCREF (C 함수):                    참조 횟수<2>.       (line   17)
* Py_Initialize (C function):            인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <1>:        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  164)
* Py_Initialize (C 함수):                파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   11)
* Py_Initialize():                       프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_InitializeEx (C function):          인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_InitializeFromConfig (C function):  인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_InspectFlag (C var):                전역 구성 변수.     (line   96)
* Py_InteractiveFlag (C var):            전역 구성 변수.     (line  111)
* Py_Is (C function):                    기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   53)
* Py_IS_TYPE (C function):               기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   89)
* Py_IsFalse (C function):               기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   71)
* Py_IsFinalizing (C function):          인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line   55)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function):         인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line   49)
* Py_IsInitialized (C 함수):             파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   46)
* Py_IsNone (C function):                기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   59)
* Py_IsolatedFlag (C var):               전역 구성 변수.     (line  121)
* Py_IsTrue (C function):                기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   65)
* Py_LE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1050)
* Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function):    재귀 제어.          (line   31)
* Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C var): 전역 구성 변수.    (line  137)
* Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C var):     전역 구성 변수.     (line  157)
* Py_LIMITED_API (C macro):              Limited C API.      (line   11)
* Py_LT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1047)
* Py_Main (C function):                  인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line  123)
* PY_MAJOR_VERSION (C macro):            API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   13)
* Py_MAX (C macro):                      유용한 매크로들.    (line   87)
* Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro):              유용한 매크로들.    (line   93)
* PY_MICRO_VERSION (C macro):            API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_MIN (C macro):                      유용한 매크로들.    (line   99)
* PY_MINOR_VERSION (C macro):            API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_mod_create (C macro):               다단계 초기화.      (line   76)
* Py_mod_exec (C macro):                 다단계 초기화.      (line  108)
* Py_mod_gil (C macro):                  다단계 초기화.      (line  150)
* Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED (C macro):         다단계 초기화.      (line  160)
* Py_MOD_GIL_USED (C macro):             다단계 초기화.      (line  154)
* Py_mod_multiple_interpreters (C macro): 다단계 초기화.     (line  119)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED (C macro): 다단계 초기화.
                                                             (line  123)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED (C macro): 다단계 초기화.
                                                             (line  127)
* Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED (C macro): 다단계 초기화.
                                                             (line  133)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH (C macro):  Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   44)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   50)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   53)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   47)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   56)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   59)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   62)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   65)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   68)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   71)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   74)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   77)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   80)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   83)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE (C macro):   Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   86)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   89)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   92)
* PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (C function): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line  100)
* Py_NE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1056)
* Py_NewInterpreter (C function):        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  187)
* Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (C function): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  106)
* Py_NewRef (C function):                참조 횟수<3>.       (line   72)
* Py_NO_INLINE (C macro):                유용한 매크로들.    (line  105)
* Py_None (C var):                       None 객체.          (line   11)
* Py_NoSiteFlag (C var):                 전역 구성 변수.     (line  175)
* Py_NotImplemented (C var):             객체 프로토콜.      (line   71)
* Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C var):        전역 구성 변수.     (line  190)
* py_object (ctypes 클래스):             기본 데이터형<2>.   (line  218)
* Py_OpenCodeHookFunction (C type):      파일 객체.          (line   57)
* Py_OptimizeFlag (C var):               전역 구성 변수.     (line  204)
* Py_PreInitialize (C function):         Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro):                객체 프로토콜.      (line   82)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C 매크로):               파일 객체.          (line   85)
* PY_PYTHON:                             기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   14)
* Py_QuietFlag (C var):                  전역 구성 변수.     (line  215)
* Py_READONLY (C macro):                 Member flags.       (line    8)
* Py_REFCNT (C function):                참조 횟수<3>.       (line    9)
* Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET (C macro):          Member flags.       (line   17)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL (C macro):            API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   25)
* PY_RELEASE_SERIAL (C macro):           API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_ReprEnter (C function):             재귀 제어.          (line   46)
* Py_ReprLeave (C function):             재귀 제어.          (line   61)
* PY_RESUME (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   43)
* PY_RETURN (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   48)
* Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro):             불리언 객체.        (line   36)
* Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro):              None 객체.          (line   18)
* Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro):    객체 프로토콜.      (line   76)
* Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C macro):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1067)
* Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro):              불리언 객체.        (line   40)
* Py_RunMain (C function):               인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line  171)
* Py_SET_REFCNT (C function):            참조 횟수<3>.       (line   29)
* Py_SET_SIZE (C function):              기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line  112)
* Py_SET_TYPE (C function):              기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   96)
* Py_SetProgramName (C function):        프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_SetPythonHome (C function):         프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  279)
* Py_SETREF (C macro):                   참조 횟수<3>.       (line  170)
* Py_single_input (C var):               매우 고수준 계층.   (line  299)
* Py_SIZE (C function):                  기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line  102)
* Py_ssize_t (C type):                   형.                 (line   13)
* PY_SSIZE_T_MAX (C 매크로):             정수 객체.          (line  233)
* PY_START (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   53)
* Py_STRINGIFY (C macro):                유용한 매크로들.    (line  117)
* Py_T_BOOL (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   59)
* Py_T_BYTE (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   20)
* Py_T_CHAR (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   68)
* Py_T_DOUBLE (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   56)
* Py_T_FLOAT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   53)
* Py_T_INT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   26)
* Py_T_LONG (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   29)
* Py_T_LONGLONG (C macro):               Member types.       (line   32)
* Py_T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):              Member types.       (line   71)
* Py_T_PYSSIZET (C macro):               Member types.       (line   50)
* Py_T_SHORT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   23)
* Py_T_STRING (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   62)
* Py_T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):         Member types.       (line   65)
* Py_T_UBYTE (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   35)
* Py_T_UINT (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   38)
* Py_T_ULONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   44)
* Py_T_ULONGLONG (C macro):              Member types.       (line   47)
* Py_T_USHORT (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   41)
* PY_THROW (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   58)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject 슬롯. (line  706)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  555)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  700)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (C macro):          PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  605)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  704)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION (C macro): PyTypeObject 슬롯.
                                                             (line  761)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (C macro):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  718)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (C macro):          PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  583)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  729)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  537)
* Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE (C macro):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  747)
* Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END (C macro):     PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  674)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  696)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  694)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT (C macro):     PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  642)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF (C macro):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  662)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING (C macro):          PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  789)
* Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR (C macro): PyTypeObject 슬롯. (line  616)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READY (C macro):            PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  565)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (C macro):         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  574)
* Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE (C macro):         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  813)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  698)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  708)
* Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  702)
* Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject 슬롯. (line  837)
* Py_tracefunc (C type):                 프로파일링과 추적.  (line   16)
* Py_True (C var):                       불리언 객체.        (line   29)
* Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro):           스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API.
                                                             (line   26)
* Py_tss_t (C type):                     스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_TYPE (C function):                  기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   78)
* Py_UCS1 (C type):                      유니코드 형.        (line    8)
* Py_UCS2 (C type):                      유니코드 형.        (line    8)
* Py_UCS4 (C type):                      유니코드 형.        (line    8)
* Py_uhash_t (C type):                   PyHash API.         (line   15)
* Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro):          고수준 API.         (line  180)
* Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C var):        전역 구성 변수.     (line  229)
* Py_UNICODE (C type):                   유니코드 형.        (line   18)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): 유니코드 문자 속성.
                                                             (line   89)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): 유니코드 문자 속성.
                                                             (line   93)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C function):  유니코드 문자 속성. (line   85)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   45)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   41)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function):     유니코드 문자 속성. (line   29)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   33)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function):   유니코드 문자 속성. (line   25)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   13)
* Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function):     유니코드 문자 속성. (line   37)
* Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function):   유니코드 문자 속성. (line   49)
* Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line    9)
* Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   21)
* Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   17)
* Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C function): 유니코드 문자 속성.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function):     유니코드 문자 속성. (line   68)
* Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   73)
* Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   56)
* Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function):     유니코드 문자 속성. (line   78)
* Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   64)
* Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function):       유니코드 문자 속성. (line   60)
* Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro):              유용한 매크로들.    (line  124)
* Py_UNUSED (C macro):                   유용한 매크로들.    (line  147)
* PY_UNWIND (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   62)
* Py_VaBuildValue (C function):          값 구축.            (line  196)
* PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET (C macro): 벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   65)
* Py_VerboseFlag (C var):                전역 구성 변수.     (line  242)
* Py_Version (C var):                    API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   69)
* PY_VERSION_HEX (C macro):              API와 ABI 버전 붙이기.
                                                             (line   34)
* Py_VISIT (C macro):                    순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  167)
* Py_XDECREF (C function):               참조 횟수<3>.       (line  137)
* Py_XDECREF (C 함수):                   예외<18>.           (line  112)
* Py_XINCREF (C function):               참조 횟수<3>.       (line   65)
* Py_XNewRef (C function):               참조 횟수<3>.       (line   96)
* Py_XSETREF (C macro):                  참조 횟수<3>.       (line  196)
* PY_YIELD (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   66)
* PyAIter_Check (C function):            이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyAnySet_Check (C function):           집합 객체.          (line   50)
* PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function):      집합 객체.          (line   62)
* PyArg_Parse (C function):              API 함수.           (line   52)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function):         API 함수.           (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C 함수):             확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API 함수.        (line   18)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C 함수):  확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function):        API 함수.           (line   70)
* PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function): API 함수.     (line   44)
* PyArg_VaParse (C function):            API 함수.           (line   12)
* PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API 함수.      (line   38)
* PyASCIIObject (C type):                유니코드 형.        (line   29)
* PyAsyncMethods (C type):               비동기 객체 구조체. (line    8)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member):    비동기 객체 구조체. (line   35)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member):    비동기 객체 구조체. (line   48)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member):    비동기 객체 구조체. (line   22)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_send (C member):     비동기 객체 구조체. (line   58)
* PyBaseObject_Type (C var):             기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyBool_Check (C function):             불리언 객체.        (line   16)
* PyBool_FromLong (C function):          불리언 객체.        (line   44)
* PyBool_Type (C var):                   불리언 객체.        (line   11)
* PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):        연속성 요청.        (line   20)
* PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          연속성 요청.        (line   14)
* PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro):                복합 요청.          (line   34)
* PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro):             복합 요청.          (line   37)
* PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          연속성 요청.        (line   17)
* PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro):                readonly format.    (line   15)
* PyBUF_FULL (C macro):                  복합 요청.          (line   16)
* PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro):               복합 요청.          (line   19)
* PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro):              shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyBUF_MAX_NDIM (C macro):              버퍼 구조체.        (line  151)
* PyBUF_ND (C macro):                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyBUF_READ (C macro):                  MemoryView 객체.    (line   17)
* PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro):               복합 요청.          (line   22)
* PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro):            복합 요청.          (line   25)
* PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro):                shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro):               복합 요청.          (line   28)
* PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro):            복합 요청.          (line   31)
* PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro):               shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro):              readonly format.    (line    6)
* PyBUF_WRITE (C macro):                 MemoryView 객체.    (line   21)
* PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function): 버퍼 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function):        버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   94)
* PyBuffer_FromContiguous (C function):  버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   63)
* PyBuffer_GetPointer (C function):      버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   57)
* PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function):    버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   49)
* PyBuffer_Release (C function):         버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   31)
* PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function):  버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   41)
* PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function):    버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   70)
* PyBufferProcs (C type):                버퍼 객체 구조체.   (line    6)
* PyBufferProcs (C 형):                  버퍼 프로토콜.      (line   19)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member): 버퍼 객체 구조체.   (line   12)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member): 버퍼 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function):    매크로.             (line    8)
* PyByteArray_AsString (C function):     직접 API 함수.      (line   32)
* PyByteArray_Check (C function):        형 검사 매크로.     (line    6)
* PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function):   형 검사 매크로.     (line   11)
* PyByteArray_Concat (C function):       직접 API 함수.      (line   20)
* PyByteArray_FromObject (C function):   직접 API 함수.      (line    6)
* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function): 직접 API 함수. (line   13)
* PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function):     매크로.             (line   13)
* PyByteArray_Resize (C function):       직접 API 함수.      (line   37)
* PyByteArray_Size (C function):         직접 API 함수.      (line   27)
* PyByteArray_Type (C var):              바이트 배열 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyByteArrayObject (C type):            바이트 배열 객체<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function):        바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  126)
* PyBytes_AsString (C function):         바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  116)
* PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function):  바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  130)
* PyBytes_Check (C function):            바이트열 객체<2>.   (line   19)
* PyBytes_CheckExact (C function):       바이트열 객체<2>.   (line   24)
* PyBytes_Concat (C function):           바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  150)
* PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function):     바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  157)
* PyBytes_FromFormat (C function):       바이트열 객체<2>.   (line   42)
* PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function):      바이트열 객체<2>.   (line   98)
* PyBytes_FromObject (C function):       바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  104)
* PyBytes_FromString (C function):       바이트열 객체<2>.   (line   29)
* PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function): 바이트열 객체<2>.  (line   35)
* PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function):         바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  112)
* PyBytes_Size (C function):             바이트열 객체<2>.   (line  108)
* PyBytes_Type (C var):                  바이트열 객체<2>.   (line   14)
* PyBytesObject (C type):                바이트열 객체<2>.   (line    9)
* pycache_prefix (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  349)
* PyCallable_Check (C function):         호출 지원 API.      (line    6)
* PyCallIter_Check (C function):         이터레이터 객체.    (line   33)
* PyCallIter_New (C function):           이터레이터 객체.    (line   38)
* PyCallIter_Type (C var):               이터레이터 객체.    (line   28)
* PyCapsule (C type):                    캡슐.               (line   11)
* PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function):     캡슐.               (line   29)
* PyCapsule_Destructor (C type):         캡슐.               (line   20)
* PyCapsule_GetContext (C function):     캡슐.               (line   73)
* PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function):  캡슐.               (line   63)
* PyCapsule_GetName (C function):        캡슐.               (line   82)
* PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function):     캡슐.               (line   54)
* PyCapsule_Import (C function):         캡슐.               (line   91)
* PyCapsule_IsValid (C function):        캡슐.               (line  112)
* PyCapsule_New (C function):            캡슐.               (line   34)
* PyCapsule_SetContext (C function):     캡슐.               (line  127)
* PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function):  캡슐.               (line  134)
* PyCapsule_SetName (C function):        캡슐.               (line  142)
* PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function):     캡슐.               (line  151)
* PyCell_Check (C function):             셀 객체.            (line   22)
* PyCell_Get (C function):               셀 객체.            (line   31)
* PyCell_GET (C function):               셀 객체.            (line   36)
* PyCell_New (C function):               셀 객체.            (line   27)
* PyCell_Set (C function):               셀 객체.            (line   40)
* PyCell_SET (C function):               셀 객체.            (line   49)
* PyCell_Type (C var):                   셀 객체.            (line   18)
* PyCellObject (C type):                 셀 객체.            (line   14)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (ast 모듈): 컴파일러 플래그.    (line    9)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (C macro):  매우 고수준 계층.   (line  332)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (ast 모듈):              컴파일러 플래그.    (line   16)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (C macro):               매우 고수준 계층.   (line  332)
* PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (ast 모듈):         컴파일러 플래그.    (line   21)
* PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (C macro):          매우 고수준 계층.   (line  332)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (ast 모듈):         컴파일러 플래그.    (line   28)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (C macro):          매우 고수준 계층.   (line  332)
* PyCFunction (C type):                  함수와 메서드 구현. (line    6)
* PyCFunction_New (C function):          함수와 메서드 구현. (line  241)
* PyCFunction_NewEx (C function):        함수와 메서드 구현. (line  236)
* PyCFunctionFast (C type):              함수와 메서드 구현. (line   28)
* PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type):  함수와 메서드 구현. (line   37)
* PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type):      함수와 메서드 구현. (line   19)
* PycInvalidationMode (py_compile 클래스): py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyCMethod (C type):                    함수와 메서드 구현. (line   47)
* PyCMethod_New (C function):            함수와 메서드 구현. (line  209)
* PyCode_Addr2Line (C function):         코드 객체<2>.       (line   94)
* PyCode_Addr2Location (C function):     코드 객체<2>.       (line  103)
* PyCode_AddWatcher (C function):        코드 객체<2>.       (line  157)
* PyCode_Check (C function):             코드 객체<2>.       (line   19)
* PyCode_ClearWatcher (C function):      코드 객체<2>.       (line  166)
* PyCode_GetCellvars (C function):       코드 객체<2>.       (line  138)
* PyCode_GetCode (C function):           코드 객체<2>.       (line  115)
* PyCode_GetFreevars (C function):       코드 객체<2>.       (line  148)
* PyCode_GetNumFree (C function):        코드 객체<2>.       (line   24)
* PyCode_GetVarnames (C function):       코드 객체<2>.       (line  129)
* PyCode_New (C 함수):                   코드 객체<2>.       (line   62)
* PyCode_NewEmpty (C function):          코드 객체<2>.       (line   88)
* PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C 함수):    코드 객체<2>.       (line   79)
* PyCode_Type (C var):                   코드 객체<2>.       (line   14)
* PyCode_WatchCallback (C type):         코드 객체<2>.       (line  182)
* PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function): 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyCodec_Decode (C function):           코덱 등록소와 지원 함수.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyCodec_Decoder (C function):          코덱 조회 API.      (line   14)
* PyCodec_Encode (C function):           코덱 등록소와 지원 함수.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyCodec_Encoder (C function):          코덱 조회 API.      (line   10)
* PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function):     유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function): 코덱 조회 API.    (line   24)
* PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function): 코덱 조회 API.    (line   18)
* PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function):    코덱 등록소와 지원 함수.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyCodec_LookupError (C function):      유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function): 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyCodec_Register (C function):         코덱 등록소와 지원 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_RegisterError (C function):    유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function):    유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyCodec_StreamReader (C function):     코덱 조회 API.      (line   30)
* PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function):     코덱 조회 API.      (line   36)
* PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function):     유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyCodec_Unregister (C function):       코덱 등록소와 지원 함수.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function): 유니코드 인코딩 에러 처리기용 등록소 API.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyCodeEvent (C type):                  코드 객체<2>.       (line  175)
* PyCodeObject (C type):                 코드 객체<2>.       (line    9)
* PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type):       유니코드 형.        (line   29)
* PyCompileError:                        py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyCompilerFlags (C struct):            매우 고수준 계층.   (line  305)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_feature_version (C member): 매우 고수준 계층.
                                                             (line  320)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags (C member):   매우 고수준 계층.   (line  316)
* PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function):     파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyComplex_Check (C function):          파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyComplex_CheckExact (C function):     파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function):   파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function):    파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function):   파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function):   파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyComplex_Type (C var):                파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyComplexObject (C type):              파이썬 객체로서의 복소수.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyConfig (C type):                     PyConfig.           (line    6)
* PyConfig_Clear (C function):           PyConfig.           (line   94)
* PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyConfig.        (line   20)
* PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyConfig.          (line   15)
* PyConfig_Read (C function):            PyConfig.           (line   65)
* PyConfig_SetArgv (C function):         PyConfig.           (line   40)
* PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (C function):    PyConfig.           (line   48)
* PyConfig_SetBytesString (C function):  PyConfig.           (line   32)
* PyConfig_SetString (C function):       PyConfig.           (line   25)
* PyConfig_SetWideStringList (C function): PyConfig.         (line   57)
* PyConfig.argv (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  125)
* PyConfig.base_exec_prefix (C member):  PyConfig.           (line  170)
* PyConfig.base_executable (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  180)
* PyConfig.base_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  194)
* PyConfig.buffered_stdio (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  204)
* PyConfig.bytes_warning (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  217)
* PyConfig.check_hash_pycs_mode (C member): PyConfig.        (line  254)
* PyConfig.code_debug_ranges (C member): PyConfig.           (line  240)
* PyConfig.configure_c_stdio (C member): PyConfig.           (line  274)
* PyConfig.cpu_count (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  486)
* PyConfig.dev_mode (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  289)
* PyConfig.dump_refs (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  298)
* PyConfig.exec_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  312)
* PyConfig.executable (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  324)
* PyConfig.faulthandler (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  335)
* PyConfig.filesystem_encoding (C member): PyConfig.         (line  347)
* PyConfig.filesystem_errors (C member): PyConfig.           (line  380)
* PyConfig.hash_seed (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  402)
* PyConfig.home (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  417)
* PyConfig.import_time (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  428)
* PyConfig.inspect (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  437)
* PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (C member): PyConfig.     (line  452)
* PyConfig.int_max_str_digits (C member): PyConfig.          (line  466)
* PyConfig.interactive (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  458)
* PyConfig.isolated (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  500)
* PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (C member): PyConfig.        (line  525)
* PyConfig.malloc_stats (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  542)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths (C member): PyConfig.         (line  586)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths_set (C member): PyConfig.     (line  588)
* PyConfig.optimization_level (C member): PyConfig.          (line  602)
* PyConfig.orig_argv (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  618)
* PyConfig.parse_argv (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  636)
* PyConfig.parser_debug (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  657)
* PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings (C member): PyConfig.         (line  671)
* PyConfig.perf_profiling (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  867)
* PyConfig.platlibdir (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  555)
* PyConfig.prefix (C member):            PyConfig.           (line  683)
* PyConfig.program_name (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  694)
* PyConfig.pycache_prefix (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  715)
* PyConfig.pythonpath_env (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  575)
* PyConfig.quiet (C member):             PyConfig.           (line  729)
* PyConfig.run_command (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  738)
* PyConfig.run_filename (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  746)
* PyConfig.run_module (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  760)
* PyConfig.run_presite (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  768)
* PyConfig.safe_path (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  148)
* PyConfig.show_ref_count (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  782)
* PyConfig.site_import (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  794)
* PyConfig.skip_source_first_line (C member): PyConfig.      (line  813)
* PyConfig.stdio_encoding (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  825)
* PyConfig.stdio_errors (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  827)
* PyConfig.tracemalloc (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  855)
* PyConfig.use_environment (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  886)
* PyConfig.use_hash_seed (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  404)
* PyConfig.user_site_directory (C member): PyConfig.         (line  897)
* PyConfig.verbose (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  910)
* PyConfig.warn_default_encoding (C member): PyConfig.       (line  230)
* PyConfig.warnoptions (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  927)
* PyConfig.write_bytecode (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  947)
* PyConfig.xoptions (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  960)
* PyContext (C type):                    컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   26)
* PyContext_CheckExact (C function):     컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   55)
* PyContext_Copy (C function):           컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   76)
* PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function):    컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   80)
* PyContext_Enter (C function):          컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   84)
* PyContext_Exit (C function):           컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   89)
* PyContext_New (C function):            컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   72)
* PyContext_Type (C var):                컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   41)
* PyContextToken (C type):               컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   36)
* PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function): 컨텍스트 변수 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyContextToken_Type (C var):           컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   49)
* PyContextVar (C type):                 컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   31)
* PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function):  컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   60)
* PyContextVar_Get (C function):         컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line  104)
* PyContextVar_New (C function):         컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   97)
* PyContextVar_Reset (C function):       컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line  128)
* PyContextVar_Set (C function):         컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line  122)
* PyContextVar_Type (C var):             컨텍스트 변수 객체. (line   45)
* PyCoro_CheckExact (C function):        코루틴 객체.        (line   18)
* PyCoro_New (C function):               코루틴 객체.        (line   23)
* PyCoro_Type (C var):                   코루틴 객체.        (line   14)
* PyCoroObject (C type):                 코루틴 객체.        (line   10)
* PyDate_Check (C function):             DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   74)
* PyDate_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   80)
* PyDate_FromDate (C function):          DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  131)
* PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function):     DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  296)
* PyDateTime_Check (C function):         DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   85)
* PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function):    DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   91)
* PyDateTime_Date (C type):              DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   13)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  220)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  204)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  216)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  208)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  212)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  226)
* PyDateTime_DateTime (C type):          DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   18)
* PyDateTime_DateTimeType (C var):       DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   39)
* PyDateTime_DateType (C var):           DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   33)
* PyDateTime_Delta (C type):             DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   28)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.  (line  270)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  282)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  276)
* PyDateTime_DeltaType (C var):          DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   51)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  136)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  142)
* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  290)
* PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function):       DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  196)
* PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function):     DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  192)
* PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function):      DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  188)
* PyDateTime_Time (C type):              DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   23)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  253)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  237)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  249)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  241)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  245)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime 객체<2>. (line  259)
* PyDateTime_TimeType (C var):           DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   45)
* PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C var):       DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   65)
* PyDateTime_TZInfoType (C var):         DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   57)
* PyDelta_Check (C function):            DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  107)
* PyDelta_CheckExact (C function):       DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  113)
* PyDelta_FromDSU (C function):          DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  162)
* PyDescr_IsData (C function):           디스크립터 객체.    (line   33)
* PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function):   디스크립터 객체.    (line   29)
* PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function):        디스크립터 객체.    (line   13)
* PyDescr_NewMember (C function):        디스크립터 객체.    (line   17)
* PyDescr_NewMethod (C function):        디스크립터 객체.    (line   21)
* PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function):       디스크립터 객체.    (line   25)
* PyDict_AddWatcher (C function):        딕셔너리 객체.      (line  306)
* PyDict_Check (C function):             딕셔너리 객체.      (line   16)
* PyDict_CheckExact (C function):        딕셔너리 객체.      (line   21)
* PyDict_Clear (C function):             딕셔너리 객체.      (line   36)
* PyDict_ClearWatcher (C function):      딕셔너리 객체.      (line  315)
* PyDict_Contains (C function):          딕셔너리 객체.      (line   40)
* PyDict_ContainsString (C function):    딕셔너리 객체.      (line   46)
* PyDict_Copy (C function):              딕셔너리 객체.      (line   54)
* PyDict_DelItem (C function):           딕셔너리 객체.      (line   72)
* PyDict_DelItemString (C function):     딕셔너리 객체.      (line   79)
* PyDict_GetItem (C function):           딕셔너리 객체.      (line  101)
* PyDict_GetItemRef (C function):        딕셔너리 객체.      (line   84)
* PyDict_GetItemString (C function):     딕셔너리 객체.      (line  121)
* PyDict_GetItemStringRef (C function):  딕셔너리 객체.      (line  134)
* PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function):  딕셔너리 객체.      (line  114)
* PyDict_Items (C function):             딕셔너리 객체.      (line  202)
* PyDict_Keys (C function):              딕셔너리 객체.      (line  206)
* PyDict_Merge (C function):             딕셔너리 객체.      (line  276)
* PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function):     딕셔너리 객체.      (line  292)
* PyDict_New (C function):               딕셔너리 객체.      (line   26)
* PyDict_Next (C function):              딕셔너리 객체.      (line  220)
* PyDict_Pop (C function):               딕셔너리 객체.      (line  174)
* PyDict_PopString (C function):         딕셔너리 객체.      (line  193)
* PyDict_SetDefault (C function):        딕셔너리 객체.      (line  143)
* PyDict_SetDefaultRef (C function):     딕셔너리 객체.      (line  153)
* PyDict_SetItem (C function):           딕셔너리 객체.      (line   58)
* PyDict_SetItemString (C function):     딕셔너리 객체.      (line   66)
* PyDict_Size (C function):              딕셔너리 객체.      (line  214)
* PyDict_Type (C var):                   딕셔너리 객체.      (line   11)
* PyDict_Unwatch (C function):           딕셔너리 객체.      (line  332)
* PyDict_Update (C function):            딕셔너리 객체.      (line  285)
* PyDict_Values (C function):            딕셔너리 객체.      (line  210)
* PyDict_Watch (C function):             딕셔너리 객체.      (line  323)
* PyDict_WatchCallback (C type):         딕셔너리 객체.      (line  351)
* PyDict_WatchEvent (C type):            딕셔너리 객체.      (line  342)
* PyDictObject (C type):                 딕셔너리 객체.      (line    6)
* PyDictProxy_New (C function):          딕셔너리 객체.      (line   30)
* PyDLL (ctypes 클래스):                 공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyDoc_STR (C macro):                   유용한 매크로들.    (line  172)
* PyDoc_STRVAR (C macro):                유용한 매크로들.    (line  154)
* PyEllipsis_Type (C var):               Ellipsis 객체<2>.   (line    6)
* PyErr_BadArgument (C function):        예외 발생시키기.    (line   43)
* PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function):    예외 발생시키기.    (line  201)
* PyErr_CheckSignals (C function):       시그널 처리하기<2>. (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear (C function):              인쇄와 지우기.      (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear (C 함수):                  예외<18>.           (line   20)
* PyErr_Clear (C 함수) <1>:              예외<18>.           (line  112)
* PyErr_DisplayException (C function):   인쇄와 지우기.      (line   63)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function):   에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C 함수):       예외<18>.           (line  112)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function):              에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyErr_Fetch (C 함수):                  파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyErr_Format (C function):             예외 발생시키기.    (line   23)
* PyErr_FormatUnraisable (C function):   인쇄와 지우기.      (line   52)
* PyErr_FormatV (C function):            예외 발생시키기.    (line   31)
* PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function):         에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyErr_GetHandledException (C function): 에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line  143)
* PyErr_GetRaisedException (C function): 에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function): 에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyErr_NewException (C function):       예외 클래스<2>.     (line    6)
* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function): 예외 클래스<2>.    (line   22)
* PyErr_NoMemory (C function):           예외 발생시키기.    (line   49)
* PyErr_NormalizeException (C function): 에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function):           에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Occurred (C 함수):               예외<18>.           (line   10)
* PyErr_Print (C function):              인쇄와 지우기.      (line   29)
* PyErr_PrintEx (C function):            인쇄와 지우기.      (line   10)
* PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function):    경고 발행하기.      (line   63)
* PyErr_Restore (C function):            에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line  100)
* PyErr_Restore (C 함수):                파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function): 예외 발생시키기.  (line  107)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function):         에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line  187)
* PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function):       예외 발생시키기.    (line   55)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function):  예외 발생시키기.    (line   93)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyErr_SetHandledException (C function): 에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line  157)
* PyErr_SetImportError (C function):     예외 발생시키기.    (line  158)
* PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function): 예외 발생시키기.
                                                             (line  168)
* PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function):       시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   33)
* PyErr_SetInterruptEx (C function):     시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   42)
* PyErr_SetNone (C function):            예외 발생시키기.    (line   39)
* PyErr_SetObject (C function):          예외 발생시키기.    (line   18)
* PyErr_SetRaisedException (C function): 에러 표시기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyErr_SetString (C function):          예외 발생시키기.    (line   10)
* PyErr_SetString (C 함수):              예외<18>.           (line   20)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function):     예외 발생시키기.    (line  196)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function):   예외 발생시키기.    (line  187)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function): 예외 발생시키기.  (line  177)
* PyErr_WarnEx (C function):             경고 발행하기.      (line   16)
* PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function):       경고 발행하기.      (line   47)
* PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function): 경고 발행하기.      (line   35)
* PyErr_WarnFormat (C function):         경고 발행하기.      (line   55)
* PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function):    인쇄와 지우기.      (line   32)
* PyEval_AcquireThread (C function):     저수준 API.         (line  215)
* PyEval_AcquireThread():                고수준 API.         (line   30)
* PyEval_EvalCode (C function):          매우 고수준 계층.   (line  248)
* PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function):        매우 고수준 계층.   (line  255)
* PyEval_EvalFrame (C function):         매우 고수준 계층.   (line  266)
* PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function):       매우 고수준 계층.   (line  271)
* PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function):       리플렉션.           (line    6)
* PyEval_GetFrame (C function):          리플렉션.           (line   54)
* PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (C function):  리플렉션.           (line   61)
* PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (C function):   리플렉션.           (line   81)
* PyEval_GetFrameLocals (C function):    리플렉션.           (line   68)
* PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function):       리플렉션.           (line   94)
* PyEval_GetFuncName (C function):       리플렉션.           (line   89)
* PyEval_GetGlobals (C function):        리플렉션.           (line   45)
* PyEval_GetLocals (C function):         리플렉션.           (line   15)
* PyEval_InitThreads (C function):       고수준 API.         (line   29)
* PyEval_InitThreads():                  인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line    7)
* PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function): 매우 고수준 계층.  (line  283)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function):     저수준 API.         (line  238)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread():                고수준 API.         (line   30)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function):     확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function) <1>: 고수준 API.         (line   53)
* PyEval_RestoreThread():                고수준 API.         (line   30)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function):        확장 코드에서 GIL 해제하기.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function) <1>:    고수준 API.         (line   47)
* PyEval_SaveThread():                   고수준 API.         (line   30)
* PyEval_SetProfile (C function):        프로파일링과 추적.  (line  112)
* PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (C function): 프로파일링과 추적.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyEval_SetTrace (C function):          프로파일링과 추적.  (line  141)
* PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (C function): 프로파일링과 추적. (line  156)
* PyExc_ArithmeticError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   22)
* PyExc_AssertionError (C var):          Exception types.    (line   26)
* PyExc_AttributeError (C var):          Exception types.    (line   30)
* PyExc_BaseException (C var):           Exception types.    (line   10)
* PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup (C var):      Exception types.    (line   14)
* PyExc_BlockingIOError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   34)
* PyExc_BrokenPipeError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   39)
* PyExc_BufferError (C var):             Exception types.    (line   44)
* PyExc_BytesWarning (C var):            Warning types.      (line   13)
* PyExc_ChildProcessError (C var):       Exception types.    (line   47)
* PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError (C var):  Exception types.    (line   52)
* PyExc_ConnectionError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   57)
* PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError (C var):  Exception types.    (line   62)
* PyExc_ConnectionResetError (C var):    Exception types.    (line   67)
* PyExc_DeprecationWarning (C var):      Warning types.      (line   16)
* PyExc_EncodingWarning (C var):         Warning types.      (line   20)
* PyExc_EnvironmentError (C var):        OSError aliases.    (line   14)
* PyExc_EOFError (C var):                Exception types.    (line   72)
* PyExc_Exception (C var):               Exception types.    (line   19)
* PyExc_FileExistsError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   75)
* PyExc_FileNotFoundError (C var):       Exception types.    (line   80)
* PyExc_FloatingPointError (C var):      Exception types.    (line   85)
* PyExc_FutureWarning (C var):           Warning types.      (line   25)
* PyExc_GeneratorExit (C var):           Exception types.    (line   89)
* PyExc_ImportError (C var):             Exception types.    (line   93)
* PyExc_ImportWarning (C var):           Warning types.      (line   29)
* PyExc_IndentationError (C var):        Exception types.    (line   96)
* PyExc_IndexError (C var):              Exception types.    (line  100)
* PyExc_InterruptedError (C var):        Exception types.    (line  103)
* PyExc_IOError (C var):                 OSError aliases.    (line   19)
* PyExc_IsADirectoryError (C var):       Exception types.    (line  108)
* PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt (C var):       Exception types.    (line  116)
* PyExc_KeyError (C var):                Exception types.    (line  113)
* PyExc_LookupError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  120)
* PyExc_MemoryError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  123)
* PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError (C var):     Exception types.    (line  126)
* PyExc_NameError (C var):               Exception types.    (line  131)
* PyExc_NotADirectoryError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  134)
* PyExc_NotImplementedError (C var):     Exception types.    (line  139)
* PyExc_OSError (C var):                 Exception types.    (line  143)
* PyExc_OverflowError (C var):           Exception types.    (line  146)
* PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning (C var): Warning types.    (line   33)
* PyExc_PermissionError (C var):         Exception types.    (line  150)
* PyExc_ProcessLookupError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  155)
* PyExc_PythonFinalizationError (C var): Exception types.    (line  160)
* PyExc_RecursionError (C var):          Exception types.    (line  163)
* PyExc_ReferenceError (C var):          Exception types.    (line  168)
* PyExc_ResourceWarning (C var):         Warning types.      (line   37)
* PyExc_RuntimeError (C var):            Exception types.    (line  172)
* PyExc_RuntimeWarning (C var):          Warning types.      (line   42)
* PyExc_StopAsyncIteration (C var):      Exception types.    (line  175)
* PyExc_StopIteration (C var):           Exception types.    (line  180)
* PyExc_SyntaxError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  184)
* PyExc_SyntaxWarning (C var):           Warning types.      (line   46)
* PyExc_SystemError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  187)
* PyExc_SystemExit (C var):              Exception types.    (line  190)
* PyExc_TabError (C var):                Exception types.    (line  193)
* PyExc_TimeoutError (C var):            Exception types.    (line  196)
* PyExc_TypeError (C var):               Exception types.    (line  200)
* PyExc_UnboundLocalError (C var):       Exception types.    (line  203)
* PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  207)
* PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  211)
* PyExc_UnicodeError (C var):            Exception types.    (line  215)
* PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError (C var):   Exception types.    (line  218)
* PyExc_UnicodeWarning (C var):          Warning types.      (line   50)
* PyExc_UserWarning (C var):             Warning types.      (line   54)
* PyExc_ValueError (C var):              Exception types.    (line  222)
* PyExc_Warning (C var):                 Warning types.      (line   10)
* PyExc_WindowsError (C var):            OSError aliases.    (line   24)
* PyExc_ZeroDivisionError (C var):       Exception types.    (line  225)
* PyException_GetArgs (C function):      예외 객체.          (line   45)
* PyException_GetCause (C function):     예외 객체.          (line   30)
* PyException_GetContext (C function):   예외 객체.          (line   17)
* PyException_GetTraceback (C function): 예외 객체.          (line    6)
* PyException_SetArgs (C function):      예외 객체.          (line   49)
* PyException_SetCause (C function):     예외 객체.          (line   36)
* PyException_SetContext (C function):   예외 객체.          (line   24)
* PyException_SetTraceback (C function): 예외 객체.          (line   13)
* PyExceptionClass_Check (C function):   예외 클래스<2>.     (line   31)
* PyExceptionClass_Name (C function):    예외 클래스<2>.     (line   36)
* PyFile_FromFd (C function):            파일 객체.          (line   14)
* PyFile_GetLine (C function):           파일 객체.          (line   38)
* PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (C function):   파일 객체.          (line   50)
* PyFile_WriteObject (C function):       파일 객체.          (line   83)
* PyFile_WriteString (C function):       파일 객체.          (line   92)
* PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function):        부동 소수점 객체.   (line   47)
* PyFloat_AsDouble (C function):         부동 소수점 객체.   (line   35)
* PyFloat_Check (C function):            부동 소수점 객체.   (line   16)
* PyFloat_CheckExact (C function):       부동 소수점 객체.   (line   21)
* PyFloat_FromDouble (C function):       부동 소수점 객체.   (line   31)
* PyFloat_FromString (C function):       부동 소수점 객체.   (line   26)
* PyFloat_GetInfo (C function):          부동 소수점 객체.   (line   51)
* PyFloat_GetMax (C function):           부동 소수점 객체.   (line   56)
* PyFloat_GetMin (C function):           부동 소수점 객체.   (line   60)
* PyFloat_Pack2 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   22)
* PyFloat_Pack4 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   26)
* PyFloat_Pack8 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   30)
* PyFloat_Type (C var):                  부동 소수점 객체.   (line   11)
* PyFloat_Unpack2 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   20)
* PyFloat_Unpack4 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   24)
* PyFloat_Unpack8 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   28)
* PyFloatObject (C type):                부동 소수점 객체.   (line    6)
* PyFrame_Check (C function):            Frame Objects.      (line   29)
* PyFrame_GetBack (C function):          Frame Objects.      (line   36)
* PyFrame_GetBuiltins (C function):      Frame Objects.      (line   45)
* PyFrame_GetCode (C function):          Frame Objects.      (line   54)
* PyFrame_GetGenerator (C function):     Frame Objects.      (line   65)
* PyFrame_GetGlobals (C function):       Frame Objects.      (line   76)
* PyFrame_GetLasti (C function):         Frame Objects.      (line   85)
* PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function):    Frame Objects.      (line  132)
* PyFrame_GetLocals (C function):        Frame Objects.      (line  116)
* PyFrame_GetVar (C function):           Frame Objects.      (line   93)
* PyFrame_GetVarString (C function):     Frame Objects.      (line  109)
* PyFrame_Type (C var):                  Frame Objects.      (line   21)
* PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (C function): Frame Locals Proxies.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type (C var):       Frame Locals Proxies.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFrameObject (C type):                Frame Objects.      (line    6)
* PyFrozenSet_Check (C function):        집합 객체.          (line   45)
* PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function):   집합 객체.          (line   67)
* PyFrozenSet_New (C function):          집합 객체.          (line   80)
* PyFrozenSet_Type (C var):              집합 객체.          (line   33)
* PyFunction_AddWatcher (C function):    함수 객체<2>.       (line  126)
* PyFunction_Check (C function):         함수 객체<2>.       (line   18)
* PyFunction_ClearWatcher (C function):  함수 객체<2>.       (line  136)
* PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS (C function): 함수 객체<2>.     (line  112)
* PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE (C function):   함수 객체<2>.       (line  112)
* PyFunction_GET_CODE (C function):      함수 객체<2>.       (line  112)
* PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS (C function):  함수 객체<2>.       (line  112)
* PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS (C function):   함수 객체<2>.       (line  112)
* PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS (C function): 함수 객체<2>.     (line  112)
* PyFunction_GET_MODULE (C function):    함수 객체<2>.       (line  112)
* PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function): 함수 객체<2>.      (line   99)
* PyFunction_GetClosure (C function):    함수 객체<2>.       (line   88)
* PyFunction_GetCode (C function):       함수 객체<2>.       (line   44)
* PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function):   함수 객체<2>.       (line   60)
* PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function):    함수 객체<2>.       (line   48)
* PyFunction_GetKwDefaults (C function): 함수 객체<2>.       (line   82)
* PyFunction_GetModule (C function):     함수 객체<2>.       (line   52)
* PyFunction_New (C function):           함수 객체<2>.       (line   23)
* PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function): 함수 객체<2>.     (line   34)
* PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function): 함수 객체<2>.      (line  104)
* PyFunction_SetClosure (C function):    함수 객체<2>.       (line   92)
* PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function):   함수 객체<2>.       (line   64)
* PyFunction_SetVectorcall (C function): 함수 객체<2>.       (line   72)
* PyFunction_Type (C var):               함수 객체<2>.       (line   12)
* PyFunction_WatchCallback (C type):     함수 객체<2>.       (line  161)
* PyFunction_WatchEvent (C type):        함수 객체<2>.       (line  145)
* PyFunctionObject (C type):             함수 객체<2>.       (line    8)
* PYFUNCTYPE() (ctypes 모듈):            함수 프로토타입.    (line   32)
* PyGC_Collect (C function):             가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyGC_Disable (C function):             가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyGC_Enable (C function):              가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyGC_IsEnabled (C function):           가비지 수거기 상태 제어하기.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyGen_Check (C function):              제너레이터 객체.    (line   19)
* PyGen_CheckExact (C function):         제너레이터 객체.    (line   24)
* PyGen_New (C function):                제너레이터 객체.    (line   29)
* PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function):    제너레이터 객체.    (line   34)
* PyGen_Type (C var):                    제너레이터 객체.    (line   15)
* PyGenObject (C type):                  제너레이터 객체.    (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef (C type):                  Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyGetSetDef.closure (C member):        Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyGetSetDef.doc (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyGetSetDef.get (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyGetSetDef.name (C member):           Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef.set (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyGILState_Check (C function):         고수준 API.         (line  146)
* PyGILState_Ensure (C function):        고수준 API.         (line   97)
* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function): 고수준 API.    (line  138)
* PyGILState_Release (C function):       고수준 API.         (line  129)
* PyHASH_BITS (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   27)
* PyHash_FuncDef (C type):               PyHash API.         (line   51)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash (C member):        PyHash API.         (line   55)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   64)
* PyHash_FuncDef.name (C member):        PyHash API.         (line   60)
* PyHash_FuncDef.seed_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   68)
* PyHash_GetFuncDef (C function):        PyHash API.         (line   74)
* PyHASH_IMAG (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   45)
* PyHASH_INF (C macro):                  PyHash API.         (line   39)
* PyHASH_MODULUS (C macro):              PyHash API.         (line   21)
* PyHASH_MULTIPLIER (C macro):           PyHash API.         (line   33)
* PyImport_AddModule (C function):       모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  112)
* PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyImport_AddModuleRef (C function):    모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyImport_AppendInittab (C function):   모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  277)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function):  모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  156)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function):   모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  301)
* PyImport_FrozenModules (C var):        모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* PyImport_GetImporter (C function):     모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  224)
* PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function):  모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  195)
* PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function):     모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* PyImport_GetModule (C function):       모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  216)
* PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function):   모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  211)
* PyImport_Import (C function):          모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  248)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* PyImport_ImportModule (C function):    모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function):  모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function): 모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyImport_ReloadModule (C function):    모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyIndex_Check (C function):            숫자 프로토콜.      (line  272)
* PyInit_modulename (C function):        C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function):   인스턴스 메서드 객체.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function): 인스턴스 메서드 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): 인스턴스 메서드 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyInstanceMethod_New (C function):     인스턴스 메서드 객체.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyInstanceMethod_Type (C var):         인스턴스 메서드 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyInterpreterConfig (C type):          서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL (C macro): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL (C macro): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL (C macro): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_daemon_threads (C member): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_exec (C member): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_fork (C member): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_threads (C member): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyInterpreterConfig.check_multi_interp_extensions (C member): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyInterpreterConfig.gil (C member):    서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc (C member): 서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyInterpreterState (C type):           고수준 API.         (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function): 저수준 API.         (line   19)
* PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function): 저수준 API.        (line   26)
* PyInterpreterState_Get (C function):   저수준 API.         (line  113)
* PyInterpreterState_GetDict (C function): 저수준 API.       (line  135)
* PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function): 저수준 API.         (line  125)
* PyInterpreterState_Head (C function):  고급 디버거 지원.   (line    8)
* PyInterpreterState_Main (C function):  고급 디버거 지원.   (line   12)
* PyInterpreterState_New (C function):   저수준 API.         (line   11)
* PyInterpreterState_Next (C function):  고급 디버거 지원.   (line   16)
* PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function): 고급 디버거 지원.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyIter_Check (C function):             이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyIter_Next (C function):              이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyIter_Send (C function):              이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   61)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:              Windows<12>.        (line   24)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>:          Windows<26>.        (line   15)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>:          필요 시 설치.       (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL:             필요 시 설치.       (line   12)
* PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:                      진단.               (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:                     Dry Run.            (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>:                 필요 시 설치.       (line   14)
* PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH:             셔뱅 줄.            (line   59)
* PyList_Append (C function):            리스트 객체.        (line  101)
* PyList_AsTuple (C function):           리스트 객체.        (line  153)
* PyList_Check (C function):             리스트 객체.        (line   16)
* PyList_CheckExact (C function):        리스트 객체.        (line   21)
* PyList_Clear (C function):             리스트 객체.        (line  132)
* PyList_Extend (C function):            리스트 객체.        (line  121)
* PyList_GET_ITEM (C function):          리스트 객체.        (line   65)
* PyList_GET_SIZE (C function):          리스트 객체.        (line   44)
* PyList_GetItem (C function):           리스트 객체.        (line   59)
* PyList_GetItem (C 함수):               참조 횟수 상세.     (line  105)
* PyList_GetItemRef (C function):        리스트 객체.        (line   48)
* PyList_GetSlice (C function):          리스트 객체.        (line  106)
* PyList_Insert (C function):            리스트 객체.        (line   94)
* PyList_New (C function):               리스트 객체.        (line   26)
* PyList_Reverse (C function):           리스트 객체.        (line  148)
* PyList_SET_ITEM (C function):          리스트 객체.        (line   80)
* PyList_SetItem (C function):           리스트 객체.        (line   70)
* PyList_SetItem (C 함수):               참조 횟수 상세.     (line   23)
* PyList_SetSlice (C function):          리스트 객체.        (line  113)
* PyList_Size (C function):              리스트 객체.        (line   38)
* PyList_Sort (C function):              리스트 객체.        (line  143)
* PyList_Type (C var):                   리스트 객체.        (line   11)
* PyListObject (C type):                 리스트 객체.        (line    6)
* PyLong_AS_LONG (C function):           정수 객체.          (line  155)
* PyLong_AsDouble (C function):          정수 객체.          (line  321)
* PyLong_AsInt (C function):             정수 객체.          (line  163)
* PyLong_AsLong (C function):            정수 객체.          (line  136)
* PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function): 정수 객체.          (line  170)
* PyLong_AsLongLong (C function):        정수 객체.          (line  190)
* PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function): 정수 객체.      (line  209)
* PyLong_AsNativeBytes (C function):     정수 객체.          (line  342)
* PyLong_AsSize_t (C function):          정수 객체.          (line  256)
* PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function):         정수 객체.          (line  232)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function):    정수 객체.          (line  244)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function): 정수 객체.         (line  268)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function): 정수 객체.     (line  302)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function): 정수 객체.         (line  284)
* PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function):         정수 객체.          (line  332)
* PyLong_Check (C function):             정수 객체.          (line   21)
* PyLong_CheckExact (C function):        정수 객체.          (line   26)
* PyLong_FromDouble (C function):        정수 객체.          (line   67)
* PyLong_FromLong (C function):          정수 객체.          (line   31)
* PyLong_FromLongLong (C function):      정수 객체.          (line   56)
* PyLong_FromNativeBytes (C function):   정수 객체.          (line  107)
* PyLong_FromSize_t (C function):        정수 객체.          (line   51)
* PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function):       정수 객체.          (line   46)
* PyLong_FromString (C function):        정수 객체.          (line   72)
* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function): 정수 객체.          (line   95)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function):  정수 객체.          (line   40)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function): 정수 객체.       (line   61)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes (C function): 정수 객체.    (line  123)
* PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function):       정수 객체.          (line  102)
* PyLong_GetInfo (C function):           정수 객체.          (line  495)
* PyLong_Type (C var):                   정수 객체.          (line   16)
* PyLongObject (C type):                 정수 객체.          (line   12)
* PyMapping_Check (C function):          매핑 프로토콜.      (line    9)
* PyMapping_DelItem (C function):        매핑 프로토콜.      (line   59)
* PyMapping_DelItemString (C function):  매핑 프로토콜.      (line   63)
* PyMapping_GetItemString (C function):  매핑 프로토콜.      (line   23)
* PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (C function): 매핑 프로토콜.     (line   30)
* PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (C function): 매핑 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyMapping_HasKey (C function):         매핑 프로토콜.      (line   86)
* PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function):   매핑 프로토콜.      (line   97)
* PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (C function): 매핑 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (C function): 매핑 프로토콜.     (line   69)
* PyMapping_Items (C function):          매핑 프로토콜.      (line  121)
* PyMapping_Keys (C function):           매핑 프로토콜.      (line  109)
* PyMapping_Length (C function):         매핑 프로토콜.      (line   16)
* PyMapping_SetItemString (C function):  매핑 프로토콜.      (line   53)
* PyMapping_Size (C function):           매핑 프로토콜.      (line   16)
* PyMapping_Values (C function):         매핑 프로토콜.      (line  115)
* PyMappingMethods (C type):             매핑 객체 구조체.   (line    6)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member): 매핑 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_length (C member): 매핑 객체 구조체.   (line   11)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript (C member): 매핑 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   84)
* PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (C function): 데이터 마샬링 지원.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyMem_Calloc (C function):             메모리 인터페이스.  (line   27)
* PyMem_Del (C function):                메모리 인터페이스.  (line   83)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (C macro):            메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C macro):            메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   64)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C macro):            메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyMem_Free (C function):               메모리 인터페이스.  (line   55)
* PyMem_GetAllocator (C function):       메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMem_Malloc (C function):             메모리 인터페이스.  (line   18)
* PyMem_New (C macro):                   메모리 인터페이스.  (line   67)
* PyMem_RawCalloc (C function):          원시 메모리 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyMem_RawFree (C function):            원시 메모리 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyMem_RawMalloc (C function):          원시 메모리 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyMem_RawRealloc (C function):         원시 메모리 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMem_Realloc (C function):            메모리 인터페이스.  (line   39)
* PyMem_Resize (C macro):                메모리 인터페이스.  (line   73)
* PyMem_SetAllocator (C function):       메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (C function):    메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyMemAllocatorDomain (C type):         메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMemAllocatorEx (C type):             메모리 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMember_GetOne (C function):          확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyMember_SetOne (C function):          확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyMemberDef (C type):                  확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMemberDef.doc (C member):            확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyMemberDef.flags (C member):          확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyMemberDef.name (C member):           확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyMemberDef.offset (C member):         확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyMemberDef.type (C member):           확장형의 어트리뷰트 액세스.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyMemoryView_Check (C function):       MemoryView 객체.    (line   52)
* PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (C function):  MemoryView 객체.    (line   34)
* PyMemoryView_FromMemory (C function):  MemoryView 객체.    (line   25)
* PyMemoryView_FromObject (C function):  MemoryView 객체.    (line    9)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (C function):    MemoryView 객체.    (line   66)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (C function):  MemoryView 객체.    (line   58)
* PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (C function): MemoryView 객체.  (line   41)
* PyMethod_Check (C function):           메서드 객체<2>.     (line   15)
* PyMethod_Function (C function):        메서드 객체<2>.     (line   28)
* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function):    메서드 객체<2>.     (line   32)
* PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function):        메서드 객체<2>.     (line   39)
* PyMethod_New (C function):             메서드 객체<2>.     (line   21)
* PyMethod_Self (C function):            메서드 객체<2>.     (line   36)
* PyMethod_Type (C var):                 메서드 객체<2>.     (line   10)
* PyMethodDef (C type):                  함수와 메서드 구현. (line   61)
* PyMethodDef.ml_doc (C member):         함수와 메서드 구현. (line   78)
* PyMethodDef.ml_flags (C member):       함수와 메서드 구현. (line   74)
* PyMethodDef.ml_meth (C member):        함수와 메서드 구현. (line   70)
* PyMethodDef.ml_name (C member):        함수와 메서드 구현. (line   66)
* PyMODINIT_FUNC (C macro):              유용한 매크로들.    (line   11)
* PyModule_Add (C function):             지원 함수.          (line   62)
* PyModule_AddFunctions (C function):    저수준 모듈 생성 함수.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyModule_AddIntConstant (C function):  지원 함수.          (line  111)
* PyModule_AddIntMacro (C macro):        지원 함수.          (line  132)
* PyModule_AddObject (C function):       지원 함수.          (line   78)
* PyModule_AddObjectRef (C function):    지원 함수.          (line   10)
* PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function): 지원 함수.        (line  121)
* PyModule_AddStringMacro (C macro):     지원 함수.          (line  139)
* PyModule_AddType (C function):         지원 함수.          (line  143)
* PyModule_Check (C function):           모듈 객체.          (line   12)
* PyModule_CheckExact (C function):      모듈 객체.          (line   17)
* PyModule_Create (C function):          단단계 초기화.      (line    9)
* PyModule_Create2 (C function):         단단계 초기화.      (line   14)
* PyModule_ExecDef (C function):         저수준 모듈 생성 함수.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function):  저수준 모듈 생성 함수.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function): 저수준 모듈 생성 함수.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyModule_GetDef (C function):          모듈 객체.          (line   76)
* PyModule_GetDict (C function):         모듈 객체.          (line   44)
* PyModule_GetFilename (C function):     모듈 객체.          (line   92)
* PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function): 모듈 객체.        (line   81)
* PyModule_GetName (C function):         모듈 객체.          (line   66)
* PyModule_GetNameObject (C function):   모듈 객체.          (line   55)
* PyModule_GetState (C function):        모듈 객체.          (line   71)
* PyModule_New (C function):             모듈 객체.          (line   39)
* PyModule_NewObject (C function):       모듈 객체.          (line   22)
* PyModule_SetDocString (C function):    저수준 모듈 생성 함수.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyModule_Type (C var):                 모듈 객체.          (line    6)
* PyModuleDef (C type):                  C 모듈 초기화.      (line   15)
* PyModuleDef_Init (C function):         다단계 초기화.      (line   47)
* PyModuleDef_Slot (C type):             다단계 초기화.      (line   60)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member):      다단계 초기화.      (line   62)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member):     다단계 초기화.      (line   66)
* PyModuleDef.m_base (C member):         C 모듈 초기화.      (line   21)
* PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member):        C 모듈 초기화.      (line   85)
* PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member):          C 모듈 초기화.      (line   29)
* PyModuleDef.m_free (C member):         C 모듈 초기화.      (line  106)
* PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member):      C 모듈 초기화.      (line   54)
* PyModuleDef.m_name (C member):         C 모듈 초기화.      (line   25)
* PyModuleDef.m_size (C member):         C 모듈 초기화.      (line   34)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member):        C 모듈 초기화.      (line   59)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots.m_reload (C member): C 모듈 초기화.    (line   68)
* PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member):     C 모듈 초기화.      (line   70)
* PyMonitoring_EnterScope (C function):  Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyMonitoring_ExitScope (C function):   Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyMonitoringState (C type):            Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyMutex (C type):                      Synchronization Primitives.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMutex_Lock (C function):             Synchronization Primitives.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyMutex_Unlock (C function):           Synchronization Primitives.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyNumber_Absolute (C function):        숫자 프로토콜.      (line   86)
* PyNumber_Add (C function):             숫자 프로토콜.      (line   13)
* PyNumber_And (C function):             숫자 프로토콜.      (line  109)
* PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function):       숫자 프로토콜.      (line  259)
* PyNumber_Check (C function):           숫자 프로토콜.      (line    6)
* PyNumber_Divmod (C function):          숫자 프로토콜.      (line   59)
* PyNumber_Float (C function):           숫자 프로토콜.      (line  235)
* PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function):     숫자 프로토콜.      (line   39)
* PyNumber_Index (C function):           숫자 프로토콜.      (line  241)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function):      숫자 프로토콜.      (line  128)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function):      숫자 프로토콜.      (line  207)
* PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function): 숫자 프로토콜.   (line  158)
* PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function):   숫자 프로토콜.      (line  193)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function): 숫자 프로토콜.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function): 숫자 프로토콜.      (line  142)
* PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function):       숫자 프로토콜.      (line  222)
* PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function):    숫자 프로토콜.      (line  182)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function): 숫자 프로토콜.     (line  175)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function):   숫자 프로토콜.      (line  200)
* PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function): 숫자 프로토콜.      (line  135)
* PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function): 숫자 프로토콜.    (line  165)
* PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function):      숫자 프로토콜.      (line  214)
* PyNumber_Invert (C function):          숫자 프로토콜.      (line   92)
* PyNumber_Long (C function):            숫자 프로토콜.      (line  229)
* PyNumber_Lshift (C function):          숫자 프로토콜.      (line   97)
* PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function):  숫자 프로토콜.      (line   31)
* PyNumber_Multiply (C function):        숫자 프로토콜.      (line   25)
* PyNumber_Negative (C function):        숫자 프로토콜.      (line   76)
* PyNumber_Or (C function):              숫자 프로토콜.      (line  122)
* PyNumber_Positive (C function):        숫자 프로토콜.      (line   81)
* PyNumber_Power (C function):           숫자 프로토콜.      (line   66)
* PyNumber_Remainder (C function):       숫자 프로토콜.      (line   53)
* PyNumber_Rshift (C function):          숫자 프로토콜.      (line  103)
* PyNumber_Subtract (C function):        숫자 프로토콜.      (line   19)
* PyNumber_ToBase (C function):          숫자 프로토콜.      (line  250)
* PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function):      숫자 프로토콜.      (line   45)
* PyNumber_Xor (C function):             숫자 프로토콜.      (line  115)
* PyNumberMethods (C type):              숫자 객체 구조체.   (line    6)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.  (line   91)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_add (C member):     숫자 객체 구조체.   (line   67)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_and (C member):     숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  106)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_bool (C member):    숫자 객체 구조체.   (line   94)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod (C member):  숫자 객체 구조체.   (line   79)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_float (C member):   숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  120)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_index (C member):   숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  165)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  144)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  159)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  138)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  171)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  129)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  147)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_int (C member):     숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  115)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_invert (C member):  숫자 객체 구조체.   (line   97)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift (C member):  숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  100)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  168)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.  (line   73)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_negative (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.  (line   85)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_or (C member):      숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  112)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_positive (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.  (line   88)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_power (C member):   숫자 객체 구조체.   (line   82)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체. (line   76)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.  (line  118)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift (C member):  숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  103)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.  (line   70)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide (C member): 숫자 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line  156)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_xor (C member):     숫자 객체 구조체.   (line  109)
* PyObject (C type):                     기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyObject_ASCII (C function):           객체 프로토콜.      (line  331)
* PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function): 파일 객체.         (line   31)
* PyObject_Bytes (C function):           객체 프로토콜.      (line  351)
* PyObject_Call (C function):            객체 호출 API.      (line   57)
* PyObject_CallFunction (C function):    객체 호출 API.      (line  105)
* PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function): 객체 호출 API.  (line  146)
* PyObject_CallMethod (C function):      객체 호출 API.      (line  124)
* PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (C function): 객체 호출 API.     (line  169)
* PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function): 객체 호출 API.    (line  158)
* PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (C function): 객체 호출 API.     (line  180)
* PyObject_CallNoArgs (C function):      객체 호출 API.      (line   73)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function):      객체 호출 API.      (line   94)
* PyObject_CallObject (C 함수):          C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyObject_Calloc (C function):          객체 할당자.        (line   29)
* PyObject_CallOneArg (C function):      객체 호출 API.      (line   84)
* PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function):     버퍼 관련 함수.     (line    6)
* PyObject_ClearManagedDict (C function): 객체 프로토콜.     (line  566)
* PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (C function):   약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   84)
* PyObject_CopyData (C function):        버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   80)
* PyObject_Del (C function):             힙에 객체 할당하기. (line   53)
* PyObject_DelAttr (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  236)
* PyObject_DelAttrString (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line  242)
* PyObject_DelItem (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  474)
* PyObject_DelItemString (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line  479)
* PyObject_Dir (C function):             객체 프로토콜.      (line  484)
* PyObject_Format (C function):          객체 프로토콜.      (line  311)
* PyObject_Free (C function):            객체 할당자.        (line   57)
* PyObject_GC_Del (C function):          순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (C function):  순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyObject_GC_IsTracked (C function):    순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  106)
* PyObject_GC_New (C macro):             순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyObject_GC_NewVar (C macro):          순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyObject_GC_Resize (C macro):          순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyObject_GC_Track (C function):        순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function):      순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  129)
* PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function):  객체 프로토콜.      (line  185)
* PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function):  객체 프로토콜.      (line  257)
* PyObject_GenericHash (C function):     PyHash API.         (line   94)
* PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function):  객체 프로토콜.      (line  225)
* PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function):  객체 프로토콜.      (line  273)
* PyObject_GetAIter (C function):        객체 프로토콜.      (line  506)
* PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function): pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyObject_GetAttr (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  141)
* PyObject_GetAttrString (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line  151)
* PyObject_GetBuffer (C function):       버퍼 관련 함수.     (line   12)
* PyObject_GetItem (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  461)
* PyObject_GetItemData (C function):     객체 프로토콜.      (line  545)
* PyObject_GetIter (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  493)
* PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (C function): 객체 프로토콜.      (line  161)
* PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (C function): 객체 프로토콜.
                                                             (line  176)
* PyObject_GetTypeData (C function):     객체 프로토콜.      (line  516)
* PyObject_HasAttr (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  114)
* PyObject_HasAttrString (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line  127)
* PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (C function): 객체 프로토콜.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyObject_HasAttrWithError (C function): 객체 프로토콜.     (line   96)
* PyObject_Hash (C function):            객체 프로토콜.      (line  399)
* PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function): 객체 프로토콜.   (line  408)
* PyObject_HEAD (C macro):               기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):          기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line  118)
* PyObject_Init (C function):            힙에 객체 할당하기. (line   13)
* PyObject_InitVar (C function):         힙에 객체 할당하기. (line   19)
* PyObject_IS_GC (C function):           순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyObject_IsInstance (C function):      객체 프로토콜.      (line  378)
* PyObject_IsSubclass (C function):      객체 프로토콜.      (line  359)
* PyObject_IsTrue (C function):          객체 프로토콜.      (line  415)
* PyObject_Length (C function):          객체 프로토콜.      (line  442)
* PyObject_LengthHint (C function):      객체 프로토콜.      (line  450)
* PyObject_Malloc (C function):          객체 할당자.        (line   20)
* PyObject_New (C macro):                힙에 객체 할당하기. (line   25)
* PyObject_NewVar (C macro):             힙에 객체 할당하기. (line   38)
* PyObject_Not (C function):             객체 프로토콜.      (line  420)
* PyObject_Print (C function):           객체 프로토콜.      (line   89)
* PyObject_Realloc (C function):         객체 할당자.        (line   41)
* PyObject_Repr (C function):            객체 프로토콜.      (line  321)
* PyObject_RichCompare (C function):     객체 프로토콜.      (line  290)
* PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function): 객체 프로토콜.      (line  300)
* PyObject_SelfIter (C function):        객체 프로토콜.      (line  500)
* PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function): pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyObject_SetAttr (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  196)
* PyObject_SetAttrString (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line  207)
* PyObject_SetItem (C function):         객체 프로토콜.      (line  467)
* PyObject_Size (C function):            객체 프로토콜.      (line  442)
* PyObject_Str (C function):             객체 프로토콜.      (line  341)
* PyObject_Type (C function):            객체 프로토콜.      (line  425)
* PyObject_TypeCheck (C function):       객체 프로토콜.      (line  436)
* PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro):           기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyObject_Vectorcall (C function):      객체 호출 API.      (line  191)
* PyObject_VectorcallDict (C function):  객체 호출 API.      (line  204)
* PyObject_VectorcallMethod (C function): 객체 호출 API.     (line  218)
* PyObject_VisitManagedDict (C function): 객체 프로토콜.     (line  556)
* PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member):         PyObject 슬롯.      (line   13)
* PyObject.ob_type (C member):           PyObject 슬롯.      (line   26)
* PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type):       pymalloc 아레나 할당자 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_AfterFork (C function):           운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   74)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function):     운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   52)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function):    운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   39)
* PyOS_BeforeFork (C function):          운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   27)
* PyOS_CheckStack (C function):          운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   83)
* PyOS_double_to_string (C function):    문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyOS_FSPath (C function):              운영 체제 유틸리티. (line    6)
* PyOS_getsig (C function):              운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   96)
* PyOS_InputHook (C var):                매우 고수준 계층.   (line  128)
* PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C var):  매우 고수준 계층.   (line  139)
* PyOS_setsig (C function):              운영 체제 유틸리티. (line  101)
* PyOS_sighandler_t (C type):            운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   93)
* PyOS_snprintf (C function):            문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_stricmp (C function):             문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line  145)
* PyOS_string_to_double (C function):    문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyOS_strnicmp (C function):            문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyOS_strtol (C function):              문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyOS_strtoul (C function):             문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyOS_vsnprintf (C function):           문자열 변환과 포매팅.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyPreConfig (C type):                  PyPreConfig.        (line    6)
* PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.  (line   17)
* PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.    (line   12)
* PyPreConfig.allocator (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line   24)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line   80)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale_warn (C member): PyPreConfig.  (line   91)
* PyPreConfig.configure_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.      (line   69)
* PyPreConfig.dev_mode (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   97)
* PyPreConfig.isolated (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line  104)
* PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding (C member): PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyPreConfig.parse_argv (C member):     PyPreConfig.        (line  129)
* PyPreConfig.use_environment (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line  138)
* PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line  145)
* PyProperty_Type (C var):               디스크립터 객체.    (line    9)
* PyRefTracer (C type):                  Reference tracing.  (line    8)
* PyRefTracer_CREATE (C var):            Reference tracing.  (line   21)
* PyRefTracer_DESTROY (C var):           Reference tracing.  (line   26)
* PyRefTracer_GetTracer (C function):    Reference tracing.  (line   48)
* PyRefTracer_SetTracer (C function):    Reference tracing.  (line   31)
* PyRun_AnyFile (C function):            매우 고수준 계층.   (line   22)
* PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function):          매우 고수준 계층.   (line   34)
* PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function):     매우 고수준 계층.   (line   40)
* PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function):       매우 고수준 계층.   (line   28)
* PyRun_File (C function):               매우 고수준 계층.   (line  180)
* PyRun_FileEx (C function):             매우 고수준 계층.   (line  186)
* PyRun_FileExFlags (C function):        매우 고수준 계층.   (line  198)
* PyRun_FileFlags (C function):          매우 고수준 계층.   (line  192)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function):    매우 고수준 계층.   (line  115)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function): 매우 고수준 계층. (line  120)
* PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function):     매우 고수준 계층.   (line   96)
* PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function): 매우 고수준 계층.  (line  101)
* PyRun_SimpleFile (C function):         매우 고수준 계층.   (line   71)
* PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function):       매우 고수준 계층.   (line   77)
* PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function):  매우 고수준 계층.   (line   83)
* PyRun_SimpleString (C function):       매우 고수준 계층.   (line   52)
* PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function):  매우 고수준 계층.   (line   58)
* PyRun_String (C function):             매우 고수준 계층.   (line  161)
* PyRun_StringFlags (C function):        매우 고수준 계층.   (line  167)
* PySendResult (C type):                 이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   54)
* PySeqIter_Check (C function):          이터레이터 객체.    (line   17)
* PySeqIter_New (C function):            이터레이터 객체.    (line   22)
* PySeqIter_Type (C var):                이터레이터 객체.    (line   12)
* PySequence_Check (C function):         시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line    6)
* PySequence_Concat (C function):        시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   21)
* PySequence_Contains (C function):      시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   93)
* PySequence_Count (C function):         시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   86)
* PySequence_DelItem (C function):       시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   69)
* PySequence_DelSlice (C function):      시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   80)
* PySequence_Fast (C function):          시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  119)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function): 시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  143)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function): 시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  134)
* PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function):    시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  149)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function):       시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   47)
* PySequence_GetItem (C 함수):           참조 횟수 상세.     (line  105)
* PySequence_GetSlice (C function):      시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   53)
* PySequence_Index (C function):         시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   99)
* PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function): 시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   33)
* PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function): 시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   40)
* PySequence_ITEM (C function):          시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  159)
* PySequence_Length (C function):        시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   14)
* PySequence_List (C function):          시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  105)
* PySequence_Repeat (C function):        시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   27)
* PySequence_SetItem (C function):       시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   59)
* PySequence_SetSlice (C function):      시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   74)
* PySequence_Size (C function):          시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   14)
* PySequence_Tuple (C function):         시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  111)
* PySequenceMethods (C type):            시퀀스 객체 구조체. (line    6)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   48)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   19)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   57)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   65)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   75)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member):  시퀀스 객체 구조체. (line   33)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member): 시퀀스 객체 구조체.
                                                             (line   26)
* PySet_Add (C function):                집합 객체.          (line  112)
* PySet_Check (C function):              집합 객체.          (line   40)
* PySet_CheckExact (C function):         집합 객체.          (line   55)
* PySet_Clear (C function):              집합 객체.          (line  144)
* PySet_Contains (C function):           집합 객체.          (line  103)
* PySet_Discard (C function):            집합 객체.          (line  126)
* PySet_GET_SIZE (C function):           집합 객체.          (line   99)
* PySet_New (C function):                집합 객체.          (line   72)
* PySet_Pop (C function):                집합 객체.          (line  137)
* PySet_Size (C function):               집합 객체.          (line   91)
* PySet_Type (C var):                    집합 객체.          (line   29)
* PySetObject (C type):                  집합 객체.          (line   18)
* PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function):     시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   66)
* PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function):    슬라이스 객체.      (line   93)
* PySlice_Check (C function):            슬라이스 객체.      (line   10)
* PySlice_GetIndices (C function):       슬라이스 객체.      (line   25)
* PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function):     슬라이스 객체.      (line   40)
* PySlice_New (C function):              슬라이스 객체.      (line   15)
* PySlice_Type (C var):                  슬라이스 객체.      (line    6)
* PySlice_Unpack (C function):           슬라이스 객체.      (line   80)
* PyState_AddModule (C function):        모듈 조회.          (line   20)
* PyState_FindModule (C function):       모듈 조회.          (line   13)
* PyState_RemoveModule (C function):     모듈 조회.          (line   41)
* PyStatus (C type):                     PyStatus.           (line    6)
* PyStatus_Error (C function):           PyStatus.           (line   32)
* PyStatus_Exception (C function):       PyStatus.           (line   49)
* PyStatus_Exit (C function):            PyStatus.           (line   43)
* PyStatus_IsError (C function):         PyStatus.           (line   55)
* PyStatus_IsExit (C function):          PyStatus.           (line   59)
* PyStatus_NoMemory (C function):        PyStatus.           (line   39)
* PyStatus_Ok (C function):              PyStatus.           (line   28)
* PyStatus.err_msg (C member):           PyStatus.           (line   18)
* PyStatus.exitcode (C member):          PyStatus.           (line   14)
* PyStatus.func (C member):              PyStatus.           (line   22)
* PyStructSequence_Desc (C type):        구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   31)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.doc (C member):  구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   40)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.fields (C member): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.n_in_sequence (C member): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.name (C member): 구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   35)
* PyStructSequence_Field (C type):       구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   53)
* PyStructSequence_Field.doc (C member): 구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   66)
* PyStructSequence_Field.name (C member): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   84)
* PyStructSequence_InitType (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyStructSequence_New (C function):     구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   76)
* PyStructSequence_NewType (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   10)
* PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체.
                                                             (line  112)
* PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function): 구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line  100)
* PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C var): 구조체 시퀀스 객체. (line   70)
* PySys_AddAuditHook (C function):       시스템 함수.        (line  105)
* PySys_Audit (C function):              시스템 함수.        (line   69)
* PySys_AuditTuple (C function):         시스템 함수.        (line   97)
* PySys_FormatStderr (C function):       시스템 함수.        (line   55)
* PySys_FormatStdout (C function):       시스템 함수.        (line   48)
* PySys_GetObject (C function):          시스템 함수.        (line   10)
* PySys_GetXOptions (C function):        시스템 함수.        (line   61)
* PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function):   시스템 함수.        (line   20)
* PySys_SetArgv (C function):            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  258)
* PySys_SetArgvEx (C function):          프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  208)
* PySys_SetObject (C function):          시스템 함수.        (line   15)
* PySys_WriteStderr (C function):        시스템 함수.        (line   44)
* PySys_WriteStdout (C function):        시스템 함수.        (line   28)
* Python 3000 (파이썬 3000):             용어집.             (line 1179)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0007#documentation-strings: Documentation<24>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0249#threadsafety: Module constants. (line  108)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0453#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0564#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python: PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers: 코드 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0632#migration-advice: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 0683:            참조 횟수<3>.       (line   61)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 1:               New Development Process.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 1 <1>:           New Development Process.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 1 <2>:           용어집.             (line 1148)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 100:             Unicode<2>.         (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11:              Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <1>:          Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <2>:          Build Changes.      (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <3>:          Build Changes.      (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <4>:          Build Changes.      (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <5>:          Build Changes.      (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <6>:          Build Changes<3>.   (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <7>:          PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <8>:          지원되지 않는 운영 체제.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <9>:          Library Changes.    (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <10>:         Build<27>.          (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <11>:         Build<27>.          (line  107)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <12>:         Build<63>.          (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <13>:         Build Requirements. (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <14>:         윈도우에서 파이썬 사용하기.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11 <15>:         기타 플랫폼.        (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11#tier-2:       Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11#tier-3:       Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11#tier-3 <1>:   Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  137)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 11#tier-3 <2>:   Build Changes<3>.   (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 201:             New Development Process.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 205:             PEP 205 Weak References.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 205 <1>:         weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  324)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 207:             PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 207 <1>:         PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 208:             PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 217:             PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 218:             PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 218 <1>:         Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 218 <2>:         PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 227:             PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 227 <1>:         PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 227 <2>:         Module Contents.    (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 229:             PEP 229 New Build System.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 230:             PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 232:             PEP 232 Function Attributes.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 234:             PEP 234 Iterators.  (line  124)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 235:             소개<6>.            (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 236:             PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 236 <1>:         PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 236 <2>:         PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 236 <3>:         퓨처 문.            (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 236 <4>:         Module Contents.    (line   99)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 237:             Integers.           (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 237 <1>:         PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 237 <2>:         Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 237 <3>:         PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 237 <4>:         printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line  174)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 237 <5>:         printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line  180)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 238:             Integers.           (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 238 <1>:         PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 238 <2>:         PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 238 <3>:         PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 238 <4>:         Module Contents.    (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 238 <5>:         용어집.             (line  512)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 241:             PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 241 <1>:         PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 241 <2>:         PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 243:             PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 246:             Documentation<23>.  (line   48)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 246 <1>:         PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 247:             hmac<3>.            (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249:             sqlite3<2>.         (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <1>:         The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <2>:         The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <3>:         Library<28>.        (line  121)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <4>:         Library<31>.        (line  296)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <5>:         sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <6>:         sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <7>:         Module functions.   (line   72)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <8>:         Connection objects. (line  732)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <9>:         Connection objects. (line  735)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <10>:        Connection objects. (line  747)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <11>:        예외<5>.            (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <12>:        How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <13>:        Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 249 <14>:        Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 252:             Related Links.      (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 252 <1>:         Related Links.      (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 252 <2>:         디스크립터 구현하기.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 253:             Old and New Classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 253 <1>:         Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 253 <2>:         Related Links.      (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 253 <3>:         Related Links.      (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 253 <4>:         Related Links.      (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 255:             PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 255 <1>:         PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 255 <2>:         PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 255 <3>:         PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 255 <4>:         일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 255 <5>:         Module Contents.    (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 261:             Unicode Changes.    (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 261 <1>:         Unicode Changes.    (line   61)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263:             Other Language Changes<11>.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263 <1>:         PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263 <2>:         Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263 <3>:         소개<6>.            (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263 <4>:         입력 토큰화하기.    (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263 <5>:         입력 토큰화하기.    (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 263 <6>:         파이썬 소스 코드에서 유니코드 리터럴.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 264:             Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 273:             PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 273 <1>:         PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 273 <2>:         zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 273 <3>:         zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 274:             New Syntax.         (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 277:             PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 278:             PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 278 <1>:         용어집.             (line 1453)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 279:             PEP 279 enumerate.  (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 282:             PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 282 <1>:         PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 282 <2>:         아카이브 연산.      (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 282 <3>:         warnings 모듈과의 통합.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 285:             PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 285 <1>:         PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 288:             PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 289:             PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 289 <1>:         Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 289 <2>:         파이썬 설명서.      (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 292:             PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 292 <1>:         템플릿 문자열.      (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 293:             PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3000:            Python 3 0.         (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 301:             PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302:             Using importlib as the Implementation of Import.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <1>:         Visible Changes.    (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <2>:         Porting Python code.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <3>:         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <4>:         New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  289)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <5>:         PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <6>:         PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <7>:         PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <8>:         PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <9>:         임포트 시스템.      (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <10>:        참고문헌.           (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <11>:        내장 함수.          (line 2129)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <12>:        linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <13>:        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1317)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <14>:        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1326)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <15>:        zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <16>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <17>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <18>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <19>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <20>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <21>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  164)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <22>:        runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <23>:        소개<6>.            (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <24>:        importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <25>:        importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <26>:        importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  194)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <27>:        importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  262)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 302 <28>:        용어집.             (line  865)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 305:             PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 305 <1>:         csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 307:             PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 307 <1>:         PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 307 <2>:         PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 307 <3>:         데이터 스트림 형식. (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 308:             PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 308 <1>:         PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 308 <2>:         조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 309:             PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3100:            Python 3 0.         (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3101:            PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3101 <1>:        PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3101 <2>:        PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
                                                             (line  161)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3101 <3>:        사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3101 <4>:        사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3102:            New Syntax.         (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3104:            New Syntax.         (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3104 <1>:        nonlocal 문.        (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3105:            Print Is A Function.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3105 <1>:        PEP 3105 print As a Function.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3105 <2>:        Module Contents.    (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3106:            PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3107:            PEP 563 어노테이션의 지연된 평가.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3107 <1>:        PEP 484 - 형 힌트.  (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3107 <2>:        New Syntax.         (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3107 <3>:        함수 어노테이션.    (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3107 <4>:        함수 정의.          (line  141)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3108:            Library Changes.    (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3108 <1>:        Library Changes.    (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3108 <2>:        Library Changes.    (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3109:            Changed Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3109 <1>:        Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3110:            Changed Syntax.     (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3110 <1>:        Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3110 <2>:        PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3111:            Builtins.           (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3112:            PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3112 <1>:        Module Contents.    (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3113:            Removed Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3114:            Operators And Special Methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3115:            types<7>.           (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3115 <1>:        Changed Syntax.     (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3115 <2>:        클래스 이름 공간 준비하기.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3115 <3>:        클래스 정의.        (line   83)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3115 <4>:        동적 형 생성.       (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3115 <5>:        함수와 클래스 정의. (line  175)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3116:            Optimizations<7>.   (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3116 <1>:        PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3116 <2>:        용어집.             (line 1453)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118:            아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <1>:        PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <2>:        API changes.        (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <3>:        Build and C API Changes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <4>:        Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <5>:        PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <6>:        Library<68>.        (line   99)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <7>:        Library<73>.        (line   61)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <8>:        Library<102>.       (line  958)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3118 <9>:        메모리 뷰.          (line  112)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3119:            PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3119 <1>:        인스턴스 및 서브 클래스 검사 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3119 <2>:        예제와 조리법.      (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3119 <3>:        abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3119 <4>:        객체 프로토콜.      (line  368)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3119 <5>:        객체 프로토콜.      (line  387)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3120:            Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3120 <1>:        어휘 분석.          (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3120 <2>:        소개<6>.            (line   87)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3121:            Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3121 <1>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line  230)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3121 <2>:        C 모듈 초기화.      (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3123:            Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3127:            PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3129:            PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3129 <1>:        함수 정의.          (line  162)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3129 <2>:        클래스 정의.        (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3131:            Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3131 <1>:        Library<57>.        (line  599)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3131 <2>:        식별자와 키워드.    (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3131 <3>:        식별자와 키워드.    (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3132:            New Syntax.         (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3132 <1>:        대입문.             (line  142)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3134:            Changed Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3134 <1>:        Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3134 <2>:        Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3134 <3>:        Library<31>.        (line   48)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3134 <4>:        베이스 클래스.      (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3135:            Builtins.           (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3135 <1>:        클래스 객체 만들기. (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3137:            PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3138:            Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 314:             PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3141:            PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3141 <1>:        numbers — 숫자 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3141 <2>:        abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3144:            ipaddress<6>.       (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147:            PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <1>:        PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <2>:        “컴파일된” 파이썬 파일.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <3>:        Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <4>:        test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <5>:        runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <6>:        소개<6>.            (line   91)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <7>:        importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <8>:        importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <9>:        importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <10>:       py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <11>:       py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <12>:       명령 줄 사용.       (line   67)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <13>:       공용 함수.          (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <14>:       공용 함수.          (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <15>:       모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  204)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3147 <16>:       pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3148:            PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3148 <1>:        모듈 함수.          (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3149:            PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3149 <1>:        Core and Builtins<100>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3149 <2>:        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3151:            PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3151 <1>:        OS 예외.            (line  118)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3151 <2>:        예외<12>.           (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3151 <3>:        select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3151 <4>:        resource — 자원 사용 정보.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3151 <5>:        Exception types.    (line  237)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3154:            Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3154 <1>:        pickle<4>.          (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3154 <2>:        Library<57>.        (line 1279)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3154 <3>:        데이터 스트림 형식. (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3155:            PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3155 <1>:        용어집.             (line 1206)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3156:            Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3156 <1>:        Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3156 <2>:        asyncio<11>.        (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3156 <3>:        asyncio<11>.        (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3156 <4>:        selectors<2>.       (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 318:             PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 318 <1>:         PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 318 <2>:         Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 318 <3>:         함수 정의.          (line  159)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 318 <4>:         클래스 정의.        (line   90)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 322:             PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 322 <1>:         Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 324:             PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 324 <1>:         subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 325:             PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 327:             The Context type.   (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328:             Porting Python code.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <1>:         Removed Syntax.     (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <2>:         PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <3>:         PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <4>:         PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <5>:         Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <6>:         참고문헌.           (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <7>:         내장 함수.          (line 2145)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <8>:         Module Contents.    (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 328 <9>:         소개<6>.            (line   59)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 331:             PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 333:             The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 333 <1>:         The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333:            New Modules<3>.     (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <1>:        PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <2>:        wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <3>:        wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <4>:        wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <5>:        wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <6>:        wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <7>:        wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <8>:        wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <9>:        wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <10>:       wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <11>:       wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <12>:       wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  216)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <13>:       wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  232)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <14>:       wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  237)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <15>:       wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  247)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <16>:       wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  287)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <17>:       wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333 <18>:       wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams <1>: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 3333#the-start-response-callable: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 338:             PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 338 <1>:         인터페이스 옵션.    (line   94)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 338 <2>:         참고문헌.           (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 338 <3>:         runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 339:             Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 341:             PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342:             PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342 <1>:         PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  140)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342 <2>:         Porting to Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342 <3>:         일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342 <4>:         Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342 <5>:         제너레이터에 값 전달하기.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 342 <6>:         파이썬 설명서.      (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343:             The contextlib module.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <1>:         PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <2>:         The contextlib module<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <3>:         with 문 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <4>:         with 문.            (line  110)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <5>:         함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <6>:         Module Contents.    (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <7>:         용어집.             (line  288)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 343 <8>:         용어집.             (line  293)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 347:             Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 352:             Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 352 <1>:         Deprecations and Removals.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 352 <2>:         PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 353:             Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 353 <1>:         PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 353 <2>:         PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 353 <3>:         Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 353 <4>:         C API<42>.          (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 353 <5>:         형.                 (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 356:             What’s New in Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 357:             PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 361:             What’s New in Python 2 6.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 362:             PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 362 <1>:         Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  381)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 362 <2>:         용어집.             (line   76)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 362 <3>:         용어집.             (line 1098)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 366:             Visible Changes.    (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 366 <1>:         Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 366 <2>:         참고문헌.           (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 366 <3>:         참고문헌.           (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 366 <4>:         runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 366 <5>:         소개<6>.            (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 370:             PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 370 <1>:         Library<29>.        (line  605)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 370 <2>:         기타 옵션.          (line  157)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 370 <3>:         환경 변수.          (line  198)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 370 <4>:         환경 변수.          (line  210)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 370 <5>:         명령 줄 인터페이스<9>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 371:             PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 372:             PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 372 <1>:         PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 373:             The Future for Python 2 x.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 373 <1>:         파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 378:             PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 378 <1>:         PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 378 <2>:         포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 380:             PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 380 <1>:         일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 380#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values: The STOP_ITERATION event.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 383:             Documentation<24>.  (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 383 <1>:         에러 처리기.        (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 383 <2>:         소켓 패밀리.        (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 383 <3>:         로케일 인코딩.      (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 383 <4>:         로케일 인코딩.      (line   48)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 383 <5>:         파일 시스템 인코딩. (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 384:             Removed<6>.         (line   53)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 384 <1>:         PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 384 <2>:         C API<36>.          (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 385:             Code Repository.    (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 387:             경고.               (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 387 <1>:         경고.               (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 387 <2>:         C API Stability.    (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 387 <3>:         Stable ABI.         (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 387 <4>:         파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 389:             PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 389 <1>:         PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 391:             PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 391 <1>:         PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 392:             What’s New In Python 3 2.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393:             Removed<6>.         (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <1>:         파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <2>:         제거<2>.            (line   96)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <3>:         PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <4>:         Functionality.      (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <5>:         Performance and resource usage.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <6>:         Optimizations<5>.   (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <7>:         Build and C API Changes.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <8>:         Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <9>:         Deprecated functions and types of the C API.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <10>:        Porting C code.     (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <11>:        C API<34>.          (line  143)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <12>:        인코딩과 유니코드.  (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <13>:        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1217)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 393 <14>:        유니코드 객체.      (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 397:             PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 397 <1>:         PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 397 <2>:         윈도우 용 파이썬 런처.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 398:             What’s New In Python 3 3.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 4:               Library Changes.    (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 405:             PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 405 <1>:         venv — 가상 환경 생성.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 409:             PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 411:             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  980)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 411 <1>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  990)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 411 <2>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1660)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 411 <3>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1680)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 411 <4>:         용어집.             (line 1174)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 412:             PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 412 <1>:         functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 414:             PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 414 <1>:         문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 418:             time<8>.            (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420:             PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <1>:         PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <2>:         Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <3>:         Core and Builtins<90>.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <4>:         임포트 시스템.      (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <5>:         이름 공간 패키지.   (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <6>:         모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <7>:         모듈의 __path__ 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <8>:         참고문헌.           (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <9>:         참고문헌.           (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <10>:        소개<6>.            (line   67)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <11>:        용어집.             (line 1004)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 420 <12>:        용어집.             (line 1152)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 421:             SimpleNamespace.    (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 421 <1>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1090)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 421 <2>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1095)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 424:             Other Language Changes<5>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 424 <1>:         operator<3>.        (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 428:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 428 <1>:         pathlib<11>.        (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 428 <2>:         pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 429:             What’s New In Python 3 4.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 432:             기타 CPython 구현 변경<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 432 <1>:         Core and Builtins<68>.
                                                             (line  312)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 432 <2>:         다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 432 <3>:         다단계 초기화 비공개 잠정적 API.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 434:             PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 434 <1>:         idlelib — IDLE 응용 프로그램의 구현.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 435:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 435 <1>:         enum<9>.            (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 435 <2>:         enum<9>.            (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 436:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 436 <1>:         PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 436 <2>:         PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 441:             zipapp<2>.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 441 <1>:         zipapp<2>.          (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442:             제거.               (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <1>:         Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <2>:         Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <3>:         PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <4>:         PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <5>:         C API<49>.          (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <6>:         gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  236)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <7>:         살얼음.             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <8>:         파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 442 <9>:         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1631)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 443:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 443 <1>:         functools<5>.       (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 443 <2>:         용어집.             (line  611)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 445:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 445 <1>:         PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 445 <2>:         PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 445 <3>:         Other Improvements. (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 446:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 446 <1>:         Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 446 <2>:         PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 446 <3>:         PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 446 <4>:         Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448:             PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <1>:         PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <2>:         Documentation<71>.  (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <3>:         Documentation<75>.  (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <4>:         Core and Builtins<93>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <5>:         Core and Builtins<96>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <6>:         딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <7>:         호출.               (line  113)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 448 <8>:         표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 450:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 450 <1>:         statistics<6>.      (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 450 <2>:         statistics<6>.      (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451:             zipimport<2>.       (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <1>:         zipimport<3>.       (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <2>:         PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <3>:         Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <4>:         PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <5>:         Library<29>.        (line  457)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <6>:         Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <7>:         참고문헌.           (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <8>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1248)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <9>:         pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <10>:        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <11>:        runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <12>:        runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line  155)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <13>:        runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line  174)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <14>:        소개<6>.            (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 451 <15>:        다단계 초기화.      (line   84)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <1>:         Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <2>:         Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <3>:         Documentation Changes.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <4>:         ensurepip<2>.       (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <5>:         venv<7>.            (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <6>:         Other Improvements. (line   73)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <7>:         PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <8>:         Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <9>:         Documentation Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 453 <10>:        ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 454:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 454 <1>:         tracemalloc<4>.     (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 454 <2>:         tracemalloc<4>.     (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 456:             Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 456 <1>:         PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 456 <2>:         PyHash API.         (line   81)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 461:             PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 461 <1>:         PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 461 <2>:         printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line  188)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 465:             PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 465 <1>:         PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 465 <2>:         빌드와 C API 변경<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 465 <3>:         Tools/Demos<52>.    (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 466:             PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 466 <1>:         PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 466 <2>:         PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 466 <3>:         PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 468:             PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 468 <1>:         Library<75>.        (line   87)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 468 <2>:         OrderedDict 객체.   (line  102)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 471:             PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 471 <1>:         PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 471 <2>:         Library<101>.       (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475:             PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <1>:         PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <2>:         파이썬 API의 변경<5>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <3>:         Library<66>.        (line  228)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <4>:         Library<99>.        (line  143)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <5>:         내장 함수.          (line 1454)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <6>:         OS 예외.            (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <7>:         파일 기술자 연산.   (line  391)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <8>:         파일 기술자 연산.   (line  722)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <9>:         파일 기술자 연산.   (line  903)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <10>:        프로세스 관리.      (line  906)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <11>:        I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  265)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <12>:        I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  283)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <13>:        함수<4>.            (line  303)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <14>:        소켓 객체.          (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <15>:        소켓 객체.          (line   80)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <16>:        소켓 객체.          (line  238)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <17>:        소켓 객체.          (line  252)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <18>:        소켓 객체.          (line  323)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <19>:        소켓 객체.          (line  391)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <20>:        소켓 객체.          (line  409)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <21>:        소켓 객체.          (line  427)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <22>:        소켓 객체.          (line  467)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <23>:        select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  148)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <24>:        /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <25>:        에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <26>:        폴링 객체.          (line   85)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <27>:        Kqueue 객체.        (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <28>:        클래스<3>.          (line  129)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <29>:        모듈 내용<5>.       (line  567)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 475 <30>:        모듈 내용<5>.       (line  586)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 476:             PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 477:             PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 478:             파이썬 3 5의 새로운 기능.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479:             파이썬 동작의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <1>:         PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <2>:         PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <3>:         Library<57>.        (line 1267)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <4>:         Library<61>.        (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <5>:         Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <6>:         Library<69>.        (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <7>:         Library<82>.        (line   80)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <8>:         Library<88>.        (line  326)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <9>:         구체적인 예외.      (line  276)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <10>:        구체적인 예외.      (line  278)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 479 <11>:        Module Contents.    (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 483:             PEP 484 - 형 힌트.  (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 483 <1>:         용어집.             (line  619)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484:             PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <1>:         New Features Related to Type Hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <2>:         PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <3>:         New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <4>:         PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <5>:         New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <6>:         PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <7>:         PEP 613 TypeAlias.  (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <8>:         ast<3>.             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <9>:         ast<3>.             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <10>:        PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <11>:        PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <12>:        PEP 484 - 형 힌트.  (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <13>:        PEP 484 - 형 힌트.  (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <14>:        함수 어노테이션.    (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <15>:        제네릭 형 흉내 내기.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <16>:        어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <17>:        함수 정의.          (line  145)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <18>:        Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <19>:        NewType.            (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <20>:        명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <21>:        명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <22>:        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <23>:        함수와 데코레이터.  (line  279)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <24>:        Root nodes.         (line   59)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <25>:        ast 도우미.         (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <26>:        ast 도우미.         (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <27>:        컴파일러 플래그.    (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <28>:        용어집.             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <29>:        용어집.             (line  550)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <30>:        용어집.             (line  619)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <31>:        용어집.             (line 1431)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <32>:        용어집.             (line 1446)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484 <33>:        용어집.             (line 1474)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 484#annotating-instance-and-class-methods: PEP 673 Self type.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 485:             PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 485 <1>:         PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 485 <2>:         Library<97>.        (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 485 <3>:         부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 485 <4>:         분류 함수.          (line   53)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 486:             PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 486 <1>:         PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 486 <2>:         Windows<77>.        (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487:             PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487 <1>:         PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487 <2>:         PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487 <3>:         파이썬 API의 변경 사항.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487 <4>:         Documentation<61>.  (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487 <5>:         Documentation<68>.  (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 487 <6>:         Core and Builtins<82>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488:             PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <1>:         PEP 488 PYO 파일 제거.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <2>:         파이썬 API의 변경<5>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <3>:         Core and Builtins<100>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <4>:         기타 옵션.          (line   85)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <5>:         기타 옵션.          (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <6>:         기타 옵션.          (line   94)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <7>:         기타 옵션.          (line   96)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <8>:         test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <9>:         소개<6>.            (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <10>:        importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <11>:        importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 488 <12>:        py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489:             PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <1>:         PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <2>:         빌드와 C API 변경<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <3>:         Library<15>.        (line  254)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <4>:         Library<25>.        (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <5>:         Library<41>.        (line   64)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <6>:         Library<41>.        (line   79)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <7>:         Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <8>:         Library<42>.        (line   68)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <9>:         Library<42>.        (line  177)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <10>:        Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <11>:        Library<43>.        (line  103)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <12>:        C API<40>.          (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <13>:        C API<40>.          (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <14>:        C API<40>.          (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <15>:        C API<40>.          (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <16>:        C API<40>.          (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <17>:        C API<40>.          (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <18>:        C API<40>.          (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <19>:        C API<40>.          (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <20>:        C API<40>.          (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <21>:        C API<40>.          (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <22>:        C API<40>.          (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <23>:        Library<44>.        (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <24>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <25>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <26>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <27>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <28>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <29>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <30>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <31>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <32>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <33>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <34>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <35>:        Library<45>.        (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <36>:        Library<45>.        (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <37>:        Library<45>.        (line  423)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <38>:        Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <39>:        Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <40>:        Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <41>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <42>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <43>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <44>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <45>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <46>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <47>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <48>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <49>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <50>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <51>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <52>:        Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <53>:        Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <54>:        Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <55>:        Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <56>:        Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <57>:        Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <58>:        소개<6>.            (line   79)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <59>:        importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <60>:        importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  284)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <61>:        importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  302)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <62>:        importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  308)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <63>:        importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  177)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <64>:        제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <65>:        C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <66>:        다단계 초기화.      (line  176)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 489 <67>:        서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492:             PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <1>:         새 키워드.          (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <2>:         PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <3>:         PEP 492 - async와 await 구문을 사용하는 코루틴.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <4>:         새 키워드<2>.       (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <5>:         C API의 변경<4>.    (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <6>:         Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <7>:         Library<83>.        (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <8>:         Library<89>.        (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <9>:         Core and Builtins<97>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <10>:        어웨이터블 객체 Awaitable Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <11>:        일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <12>:        async with 문.      (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <13>:        Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <14>:        코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <15>:        코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <16>:        용어집.             (line   82)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <17>:        용어집.             (line  110)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <18>:        용어집.             (line  117)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <19>:        용어집.             (line  125)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <20>:        용어집.             (line  143)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <21>:        용어집.             (line  318)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 492 <22>:        용어집.             (line  325)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 493:             PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 494:             파이썬 3 6의 새로운 기능.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 495:             PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 495 <1>:         PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 495 <2>:         Library<81>.        (line   96)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 495 <3>:         ZoneInfo 사용하기.  (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 498:             PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 498 <1>:         PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 498 <2>:         Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line  283)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 498 <3>:         포맷 문자열 리터럴<2>.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 498 <4>:         용어집.             (line  454)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 5:               PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 5 <1>:           기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 506:             secrets.            (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 506 <1>:         Library<84>.        (line   60)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 506 <2>:         secrets — 비밀 관리를 위한 안전한 난수 생성.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 511:             파이썬 API의 변경 사항.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 514:             Windows py exe launcher improvements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 514 <1>:         Windows<26>.        (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 514 <2>:         Windows<69>.        (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 514 <3>:         명령 줄에서.        (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515:             fractions<3>.       (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515 <1>:         PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515 <2>:         PEP 515 숫자 리터럴의 밑줄.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515 <3>:         Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515 <4>:         Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515 <5>:         포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line  133)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 515 <6>:         fractions — 유리수. (line   93)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519:             PEP 519 파일 시스템 경로 프로토콜 추가.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <1>:         Library<81>.        (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <2>:         Core and Builtins<84>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <3>:         Library<83>.        (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <4>:         Library<83>.        (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <5>:         Library<83>.        (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <6>:         C API<70>.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 519 <7>:         용어집.             (line 1134)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 520:             PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523:             New Features<4>.    (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <1>:         Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <2>:         파이썬 3 9로 이식하기<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <3>:         PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <4>:         PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <5>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <6>:         Tools/Demos<34>.    (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <7>:         Tools/Demos<38>.    (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <8>:         Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <9>:         Internal Frames.    (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <10>:        저수준 API.         (line  179)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 523 <11>:        저수준 API.         (line  188)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 524:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항<4>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 524 <1>:         os<8>.              (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 524 <2>:         os<8>.              (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 524 <3>:         Library<80>.        (line  150)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 524 <4>:         Library<80>.        (line  154)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 524 <5>:         난수<2>.            (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525:             PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <1>:         Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <2>:         일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <3>:         Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <4>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  977)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <5>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1655)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <6>:         코드 객체 비트 플래그.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 525 <7>:         용어집.             (line  110)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526:             Other Language Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <1>:         ast<3>.             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <2>:         PEP 563 어노테이션의 지연된 평가.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <3>:         PEP 526 변수 어노테이션 문법.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <4>:         typing<9>.          (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <5>:         Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <6>:         어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <7>:         함수 정의.          (line  149)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <8>:         특수 형태.          (line  195)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <9>:         기타 특수 지시자.   (line   70)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <10>:        dataclasses — 데이터 클래스.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <11>:        클래스 변수.        (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <12>:        ast 도우미.         (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <13>:        컴파일러 플래그.    (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <14>:        용어집.             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 526 <15>:        용어집.             (line 1474)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 528:             PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 528 <1>:         UTF-8 모드.         (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 528 <2>:         전역 구성 변수.     (line  169)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 528 <3>:         PyConfig.           (line  539)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529:             파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <1>:         PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <2>:         Documentation<24>.  (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <3>:         Library<52>.        (line  619)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <4>:         Windows<64>.        (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <5>:         환경 변수.          (line  338)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <6>:         UTF-8 모드.         (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <7>:         파일과 디렉터리.    (line  292)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <8>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  766)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <9>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1736)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <10>:        파일 시스템 인코딩. (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 529 <11>:        전역 구성 변수.     (line  151)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 530:             PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 530 <1>:         PEP 530 비동기 컴프리헨션.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 530 <2>:         Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 530 <3>:         리스트 집합 딕셔너리의 디스플레이 display.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538:             PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <1>:         PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <2>:         PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <3>:         PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <4>:         Documentation<51>.  (line   68)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <5>:         Documentation<52>.  (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <6>:         Core and Builtins<68>.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <7>:         환경 변수.          (line  401)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <8>:         General Options.    (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <9>:         locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  478)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 538 <10>:        파이썬 구성.        (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 539:             PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 539 <1>:         PEP 539 스레드-로컬 저장소를 위한 새로운 C API.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 539 <2>:         C API<59>.          (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 539 <3>:         스레드별 저장소 TSS - Thread Specific Storage API.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 540:             PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 540 <1>:         PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 540 <2>:         Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 540 <3>:         Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 540 <4>:         locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  478)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 540 <5>:         파이썬 구성.        (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 544:             typing<8>.          (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 544 <1>:         명목적 대 구조적 서브 타이핑.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 544 <2>:         기타 특수 지시자.   (line  151)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 545:             PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 545 <1>:         PEP 545 파이썬 설명서 번역.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552:             Other CPython Implementation Changes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <1>:         PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <2>:         PEP 552 해시 기반 pyc 파일.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <3>:         Library<57>.        (line  794)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <4>:         Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <5>:         소개<6>.            (line   83)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <6>:         py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 552 <7>:         PyConfig.           (line  272)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 553:             PEP 553 내장 breakpoint.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 553 <1>:         Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 554:             PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 554 <1>:         A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 557:             dataclasses<3>.     (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 557 <1>:         dataclasses — 데이터 클래스.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560:             PEP 560 typing 모듈과 제네릭 형에 대한 코어 지원.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <1>:         types<4>.           (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <2>:         Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <3>:         MRO 항목 결정하기.  (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <4>:         __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <5>:         동적 형 생성.       (line   53)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <6>:         동적 형 생성.       (line   67)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 560 <7>:         동적 형 생성.       (line  105)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 562:             PEP 562 모듈 어트리뷰트에 대한 액세스 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 562 <1>:         Library<64>.        (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 562 <2>:         Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 562 <3>:         모듈 어트리뷰트 액세스 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563:             PEP 563 may not be the future.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <1>:         PEP 563 어노테이션의 지연된 평가.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <2>:         Library<38>.        (line  300)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <3>:         Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <4>:         퓨처 문.            (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <5>:         함수 정의.          (line  154)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <6>:         상수<10>.           (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <7>:         Module Contents.    (line  127)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 563 <8>:         Module Contents.    (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 564:             PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 564 <1>:         PEP 564 나노초 해상도의 새로운 시간 함수.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 564 <2>:         time<5>.            (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 564 <3>:         Library<66>.        (line  299)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 565:             PEP 565 __main__ 의 DeprecationWarning 표시.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 565 <1>:         경고.               (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 566:             배포 메타데이터.    (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567:             contextvars.        (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <1>:         asyncio<7>.         (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <2>:         Documentation<51>.  (line   86)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <3>:         Documentation<53>.  (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <4>:         Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <5>:         contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <6>:         콜백 예약하기.      (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <7>:         지연된 콜백 예약.   (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <8>:         지연된 콜백 예약.   (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 567 <9>:         Future 객체<2>.     (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 570:             위치 전용 매개 변수.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 570 <1>:         파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 570 <2>:         Core and Builtins<55>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 570 <3>:         함수 정의.          (line  103)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572:             Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <1>:         대입 표현식.        (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <2>:         CPython 바이트 코드 변경<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <3>:         Core and Builtins<27>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <4>:         Documentation<42>.  (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <5>:         Core and Builtins<53>.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <6>:         Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <7>:         딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <8>:         대입 표현식<2>.     (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <9>:         Capture Patterns.   (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 572 <10>:        표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 573:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 573 <1>:         새로운 기능<2>.     (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 573 <2>:         Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 573 <3>:         C API<43>.          (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 574:             아웃 오브 밴드 데이터 버퍼를 사용하는 피클 프로토콜 5.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 574 <1>:         데이터 스트림 형식. (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 574 <2>:         예제<6>.            (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 578:             PEP 578 파이썬 런타임 감사 훅.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 578 <1>:         감사 이벤트 표.     (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 578 <2>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 578 <3>:         시스템 함수.        (line  125)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <1>:         딕셔너리 병합과 업데이트 연산자.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <2>:         Library<47>.        (line  193)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <3>:         Library<47>.        (line  196)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <4>:         Library<47>.        (line  210)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <5>:         Library<48>.        (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <6>:         Library<48>.        (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <7>:         Library<48>.        (line  120)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <8>:         Library<48>.        (line  142)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <9>:         ChainMap 객체.      (line   84)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <10>:        defaultdict 객체.   (line   52)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <11>:        OrderedDict 객체.   (line  106)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <12>:        weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <13>:        weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  197)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <14>:        표준 인터프리터 형. (line  223)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <15>:        프로세스 매개 변수. (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 584 <16>:        프로세스 매개 변수. (line   70)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <1>:         표준 컬렉션의 형 힌트 제네릭.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <2>:         Library<26>.        (line  158)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <3>:         Library<35>.        (line  124)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <4>:         Documentation<30>.  (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <5>:         Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <6>:         collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <7>:         표준 인터프리터 형. (line  170)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <8>:         인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line  157)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <9>:         Deprecated aliases. (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <10>:        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <11>:        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <12>:        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <13>:        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <14>:        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <15>:        Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <16>:        Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <17>:        Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <18>:        Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <19>:        Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <20>:        Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <21>:        Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <22>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <23>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <24>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <25>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <26>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <27>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <28>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <29>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <30>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <31>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <32>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <33>:        Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <34>:        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <35>:        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <36>:        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <37>:        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <38>:        Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <39>:        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <40>:        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <41>:        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <42>:        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <43>:        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <44>:        Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <45>:        Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <46>:        Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 585 <47>:        용어집.             (line  620)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 586:             typing<5>.          (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 586 <1>:         typing<7>.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 586 <2>:         typing<8>.          (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 586 <3>:         특수 형태.          (line  152)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587:             Removed C APIs.     (line  104)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <1>:         Deprecated<4>.      (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <2>:         PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <3>:         PEP 587 파이썬 초기화 구성.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <4>:         C API<34>.          (line  125)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <5>:         Core and Builtins<53>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <6>:         C API<50>.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 587 <7>:         파이썬 초기화 구성. (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 589:             typing<8>.          (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 589 <1>:         기타 특수 지시자.   (line  457)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590:             Removed C APIs.     (line  135)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <1>:         Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <2>:         Optimizations<4>.   (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <3>:         요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <4>:         최적화.             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <5>:         PEP 590 벡터콜 CPython을 위한 빠른 호출 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <6>:         Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <7>:         Library<21>.        (line 1079)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <8>:         C API<19>.          (line  146)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <9>:         Core and Builtins<29>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <10>:        Library<31>.        (line   69)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <11>:        Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <12>:        Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <13>:        Core and Builtins<38>.
                                                             (line  348)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <14>:        Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <15>:        Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <16>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <17>:        Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <18>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <19>:        Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <20>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <21>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <22>:        Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <23>:        C API<50>.          (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 590 <24>:        벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 591:             typing<8>.          (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 591 <1>:         특수 형태.          (line  239)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 591 <2>:         함수와 데코레이터.  (line  334)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 593:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 593 <1>:         typing<6>.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 593 <2>:         Library<49>.        (line   91)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 593 <3>:         특수 형태.          (line  428)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 593 <4>:         인트로스펙션 도우미.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <1>:         PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <2>:         Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <3>:         asynchat and asyncore.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <4>:         smtpd.              (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <5>:         Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <6>:         Modules.            (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <7>:         Library<21>.        (line  845)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <8>:         Library<21>.        (line  848)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <9>:         Library<21>.        (line  851)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <10>:        Library<21>.        (line  859)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <11>:        Library<21>.        (line  863)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <12>:        Library<21>.        (line  869)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <13>:        Library<21>.        (line  872)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <14>:        Library<21>.        (line  887)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <15>:        Library<21>.        (line  890)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <16>:        Library<21>.        (line  897)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <17>:        Library<21>.        (line  900)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <18>:        Library<21>.        (line  903)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <19>:        Library<21>.        (line  906)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <20>:        Library<21>.        (line  909)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <21>:        Library<21>.        (line  964)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <22>:        Library<21>.        (line  967)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <23>:        Library<21>.        (line  970)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <24>:        Library<21>.        (line  973)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <25>:        Library<28>.        (line  102)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <26>:        Library<29>.        (line  684)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <27>:        Library<30>.        (line   94)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <28>:        Library<31>.        (line  124)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <29>:        Library<31>.        (line  150)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <30>:        Tests<27>.          (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <31>:        대체된 모듈.        (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <32>:        aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <33>:        asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <34>:        asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <35>:        audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <36>:        cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <37>:        cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <38>:        chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <39>:        crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <40>:        imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <41>:        mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <42>:        msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <43>:        nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <44>:        nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <45>:        ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <46>:        pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <47>:        smtpd — SMTP 서버.  (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <48>:        sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <49>:        spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <50>:        sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <51>:        telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <52>:        uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 594 <53>:        xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 596:             파이썬 3 9의 새로운 기능.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 597:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 597 <1>:         Library<39>.        (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 597 <2>:         Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 602:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  164)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 602 <1>:         요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 602 <2>:         파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 604:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 604 <1>:         PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 604 <2>:         Library<42>.        (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 604 <3>:         Documentation<39>.  (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 604 <4>:         Union Type.         (line  104)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 604 <5>:         Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 610:             배포.               (line   47)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <1>:         PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <2>:         Library<37>.        (line  691)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <3>:         Library<38>.        (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <4>:         Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <5>:         Library<42>.        (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <6>:         Library<42>.        (line  119)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <7>:         Annotating callable objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <8>:         사용자 정의 제네릭 형.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <9>:         특수 형태.          (line  123)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <10>:        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  463)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 612 <11>:        Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 613:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 613 <1>:         PEP 613 TypeAlias.  (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 613 <2>:         Library<44>.        (line   98)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 613 <3>:         특수형.             (line  228)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 614:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 614 <1>:         기타 언어 변경.     (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 614 <2>:         Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 614 <3>:         함수 정의.          (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 614 <4>:         클래스 정의.        (line   60)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 615:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 615 <1>:         zoneinfo.           (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 615 <2>:         Library<46>.        (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 615 <3>:         zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 616:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 616 <1>:         접두사와 접미사를 제거하는 새로운 문자열 메서드.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 616 <2>:         Core and Builtins<48>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617:             PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <1>:         Modules.            (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <2>:         Parenthesized context managers.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <3>:         요약 – 배포 주요 사항.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <4>:         새로운 구문 분석기. (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <5>:         폐지.               (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <6>:         Library<37>.        (line  178)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <7>:         Library<47>.        (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 617 <8>:         전체 문법 규격.     (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 618:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 618 <1>:         Other Language Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 618 <2>:         Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line  209)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623:             Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <1>:         Optimizations<2>.   (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <2>:         Removed<2>.         (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <3>:         Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <4>:         C API<27>.          (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <5>:         Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <6>:         Documentation<34>.  (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 623 <7>:         유니코드 객체.      (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 624:             Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 624 <1>:         Removed<4>.         (line   97)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 624 <2>:         Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 624 <3>:         C API<34>.          (line  143)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 624#alternative-apis: Removed<4>.    (line   97)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626:             Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <1>:         Deprecated.         (line  215)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <2>:         Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <3>:         Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <4>:         Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line  422)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <5>:         Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <6>:         분석 함수.          (line  169)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 626 <7>:         Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 628:             cmath.              (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 628 <1>:         math<7>.            (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 628 <2>:         Library<81>.        (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 632:             Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 632 <1>:         distutils.          (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 632 <2>:         Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 632 <3>:         distutils<2>.       (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 632 <4>:         Library<28>.        (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 632 <5>:         distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <1>:         Other Key Features. (line   53)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <2>:         Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <3>:         Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <4>:         Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <5>:         Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <6>:         The match statement.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <7>:         Class Patterns.     (line  136)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <8>:         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  809)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 634 <9>:         PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  833)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 635:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 635 <1>:         Other Key Features. (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 636:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 636 <1>:         Other Key Features. (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 636 <2>:         match 문.           (line  180)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 636 <3>:         The match statement.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 636 <4>:         Class Patterns.     (line  138)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644:             hashlib.            (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <1>:         Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <2>:         hashlib<3>.         (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <3>:         ssl<3>.             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <4>:         Build Changes<4>.   (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <5>:         Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line  167)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <6>:         Library<29>.        (line  525)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <7>:         Build<36>.          (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 644 <8>:         ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 646:             PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 646 <1>:         PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 646 <2>:         서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 646 <3>:         표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 646 <4>:         함수 정의.          (line  122)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 646 <5>:         Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  320)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 647:             Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 647 <1>:         PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 647 <2>:         Library<38>.        (line  182)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 647 <3>:         특수 형태.          (line  542)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 649:             Annotation scopes.  (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 649 <1>:         Module Contents.    (line  128)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 652:             PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 652 <1>:         C API<35>.          (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 654:             PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 654 <1>:         PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 654 <2>:         New opcodes.        (line   18)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 654 <3>:         Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line  174)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 654 <4>:         Core and Builtins<35>.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 654 <5>:         Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 655:             PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 655 <1>:         Library<30>.        (line  266)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 655 <2>:         특수 형태.          (line  253)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 655 <3>:         특수 형태.          (line  262)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 655 <4>:         기타 특수 지시자.   (line  463)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 657:             PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 657 <1>:         inspect<2>.         (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 657 <2>:         Library<30>.        (line  223)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 657 <3>:         Core and Builtins<38>.
                                                             (line  337)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 659:             PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 659 <1>:         PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 659 <2>:         Single-threaded performance.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <1>:         Defined mutation semantics for locals.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <2>:         Defined mutation semantics for locals.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <3>:         Deprecated C APIs.  (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <4>:         Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <5>:         Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <6>:         Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <7>:         내장 함수.          (line 1117)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <8>:         pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  124)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <9>:         리플렉션.           (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <10>:        Frame Objects.      (line  129)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 667 <11>:        Frame Locals Proxies.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 669:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 669 <1>:         New Features<2>.    (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 669 <2>:         PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 669 <3>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  203)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 670:             Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 670 <1>:         Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 673:             PEP 673 Self type.  (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 673 <1>:         Library<32>.        (line  134)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 673 <2>:         특수형.             (line  194)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 675:             PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 675 <1>:         Library<31>.        (line   59)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 675 <2>:         특수형.             (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 676:             Documentation<25>.  (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 678:             Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 678 <1>:         PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 678 <2>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 678 <3>:         Core and Builtins<24>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 678 <4>:         Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 680:             Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 680 <1>:         New Modules<3>.     (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 680 <2>:         Library<31>.        (line  205)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 681:             PEP 681 Data class transforms.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 681 <1>:         Library<30>.        (line  110)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 681 <2>:         함수와 데코레이터.  (line  242)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 682:             Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 682 <1>:         포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 683:             New Features<4>.    (line  147)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 683 <1>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 683 <2>:         참조 횟수<3>.       (line  122)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 683 <3>:         용어집.             (line  681)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 684:             PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 684 <1>:         New Features<4>.    (line  182)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 686:             Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   71)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 686 <1>:         텍스트 인코딩<2>.   (line   32)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687:             Library<17>.        (line  137)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <1>:         Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  326)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <2>:         Library<22>.        (line  290)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <3>:         Library<22>.        (line  297)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <4>:         Library<22>.        (line  330)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <5>:         Library<22>.        (line  333)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <6>:         Library<22>.        (line  343)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <7>:         Library<22>.        (line  400)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <8>:         Core and Builtins<24>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <9>:         Library<24>.        (line  111)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 687 <10>:        Library<24>.        (line  118)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 688:             PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 688 <1>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  211)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 688 <2>:         Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 688 <3>:         Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line  171)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 689:             C API<22>.          (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 692:             PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 692 <1>:         PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 692 <2>:         Library<22>.        (line  117)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 692 <3>:         Documentation<16>.  (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 692 <4>:         특수 형태.          (line  622)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 693:             What’s New In Python 3 12.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695:             PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <1>:         PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <2>:         CPython bytecode changes.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <3>:         Library<13>.        (line   76)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <4>:         Library<15>.        (line  123)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <5>:         Library<21>.        (line   95)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <6>:         Library<21>.        (line  661)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <7>:         Library<21>.        (line  856)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <8>:         Library<21>.        (line  949)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <9>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <10>:        Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <11>:        Library<22>.        (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <12>:        Annotation scopes.  (line   55)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <13>:        type 문.            (line   40)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <14>:        특수형.             (line   60)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <15>:        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <16>:        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  212)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <17>:        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  346)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <18>:        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  452)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 695 <19>:        Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 696:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 696 <1>:         Core and Builtins<16>.
                                                             (line  190)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 696 <2>:         Annotation scopes.  (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 696 <3>:         Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 697:             New Features<4>.    (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 697 <1>:         New Features<4>.    (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 697 <2>:         C API<20>.          (line   38)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 698:             PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 698 <1>:         Library<24>.        (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 698 <2>:         함수와 데코레이터.  (line  406)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 699:             Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 699 <1>:         Deprecated<2>.      (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 699 <2>:         Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 699 <3>:         Build<23>.          (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 699 <4>:         Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 7:               빌드와 C API 변경<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 7 <1>:           Build Requirements. (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 7 <2>:           코딩 표준.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 7 <3>:           유용한 매크로들.    (line  159)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 7 <4>:           유용한 매크로들.    (line  177)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701:             PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701 <1>:         PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701 <2>:         tokenize.           (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701 <3>:         Optimizations<2>.   (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701 <4>:         Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701 <5>:         Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 701 <6>:         Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 702:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  119)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 702 <1>:         warnings.           (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 702 <2>:         Library<19>.        (line  469)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 702 <3>:         사용 가능한 함수.   (line  173)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <1>:         Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <2>:         Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <3>:         Core and Builtins<18>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <4>:         C API<18>.          (line  137)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <5>:         자유 스레드 바이너리를 설치합니다.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <6>:         Installing Free-threaded Binaries.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <7>:         GIL and performance considerations.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <8>:         Python experimental support for free threading.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <9>:         전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <10>:        용어집.             (line  519)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 703 <11>:        용어집.             (line  646)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 705:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  123)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 705 <1>:         typing.             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 705 <2>:         Library<17>.        (line   17)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 705 <3>:         특수 형태.          (line  283)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 706:             Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 706 <1>:         tarfile<2>.         (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 706 <2>:         tarfile<3>.         (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 706 <3>:         tarfile<4>.         (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 706 <4>:         tarfile<6>.         (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 706 <5>:         Extraction filters. (line   22)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 709:             Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 709 <1>:         PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 709 <2>:         PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 709 <3>:         CPython bytecode changes.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 709 <4>:         Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line  213)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 709 <5>:         내장 함수.          (line 1115)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 719:             What’s New In Python 3 13.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 730:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  133)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 730 <1>:         Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 730 <2>:         Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 734:             Library<15>.        (line  161)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 737:             Changed C APIs.     (line   44)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 737 <1>:         C API<14>.          (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 737 <2>:         C API<14>.          (line   49)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 738:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  136)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 738 <1>:         Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 738 <2>:         Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 738 <3>:         Library<15>.        (line   54)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 742:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  127)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 742 <1>:         typing.             (line    9)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 742 <2>:         Library<15>.        (line  239)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 742 <3>:         특수 형태.          (line  520)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 744:             Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 744 <1>:         Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 744 <2>:         An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8:               Library Changes.    (line   26)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <1>:           Library<66>.        (line  124)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <2>:           IDLE<65>.           (line   81)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <3>:           막간극 코딩 스타일. (line   13)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <4>:           편집기와 IDE.       (line    7)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <5>:           값 비교.            (line   53)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <6>:           내장 함수.          (line 1780)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <7>:           잡동사니<4>.        (line   34)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <8>:           파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <9>:           is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python 향상 제안; PEP 8 <10>:          편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:                     A better interactive interpreter.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>:                 Library<8>.         (line  322)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>:                 Library<8>.         (line  326)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>:                 Core and Builtins<14>.
                                                             (line   55)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>:                 대화형 모드<2>.     (line   23)
* python_branch() (platform 모듈):       Cross platform.     (line   82)
* python_build() (platform 모듈):        Cross platform.     (line   73)
* PYTHON_COLORS:                         Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   57)
* PYTHON_COLORS <1>:                     Improved error messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHON_COLORS <2>:                     doctest.            (line    7)
* PYTHON_COLORS <3>:                     Controlling color.  (line   22)
* python_compiler() (platform 모듈):     Cross platform.     (line   78)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:                      os.                 (line   11)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>:                  기타 옵션.          (line  362)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>:                  기타 시스템 정보.   (line   44)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>:                  기타 시스템 정보.   (line   65)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>:                  잡동사니<3>.        (line   31)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>:                  PyConfig.           (line  494)
* PYTHON_DOM:                            모듈 내용<6>.       (line   21)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES:                 Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>:             Core and Builtins<21>.
                                                             (line  105)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>:             기타 옵션.          (line  333)
* PYTHON_GIL:                            Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHON_GIL <1>:                        Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHON_GIL <2>:                        Core and Builtins<11>.
                                                             (line   40)
* PYTHON_GIL <3>:                        기타 옵션.          (line  380)
* PYTHON_GIL <4>:                        The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHON_GIL <5>:                        용어집.             (line  643)
* PYTHON_HISTORY:                        Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   57)
* PYTHON_HISTORY <1>:                    Library<19>.        (line  544)
* python_implementation() (platform 모듈): Cross platform.   (line   86)
* python_is_optimized() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  250)
* PYTHON_JIT:                            An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHON_JIT <1>:                        An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   24)
* PYTHON_JIT <2>:                        An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   28)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT:               Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>:           기타 옵션.          (line  352)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>:           PyConfig.           (line  875)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  878)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>:           How to work without frame pointers.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHON_PRESITE:                        기타 옵션.          (line  374)
* PYTHON_PRESITE <1>:                    PyConfig.           (line  774)
* PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module:         Core and Builtins<21>.
                                                             (line  154)
* python_revision() (platform 모듈):     Cross platform.     (line   91)
* python_version_tuple() (platform 모듈): Cross platform.    (line  102)
* python_version() (platform 모듈):      Cross platform.     (line   95)
* python-m-py_compile 명령줄 옵션; -:    명령줄 인터페이스.  (line   12)
* python-m-py_compile 명령줄 옵션; -q:   명령줄 인터페이스.  (line   18)
* python-m-py_compile 명령줄 옵션; -quiet: 명령줄 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   18)
* python-m-py_compile 명령줄 옵션; <file>: 명령줄 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   12)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 명령줄 옵션; -h: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 명령줄 옵션; -help: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 명령줄 옵션; -v: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   18)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] 명령줄 옵션; -version: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:                    디버그 모드 활성화. (line   10)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:                디버그 모드.        (line   11)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:                파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   63)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT:                      PEP 553 내장 breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:                  내장 함수.          (line  159)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  236)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  248)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  252)
* PYTHONCASEOK:                          파이썬 API의 변경.  (line   29)
* PYTHONCASEOK <1>:                      PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONCASEOK <2>:                      Library<48>.        (line  144)
* PYTHONCASEOK <3>:                      내장 함수.          (line 2184)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:                   PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
                                                             (line   10)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:               General Options.    (line   88)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:               Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   57)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:               파이썬 구성.        (line   15)
* PYTHONDEBUG:                           기타 옵션.          (line   36)
* PYTHONDEBUG <1>:                       Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* PYTHONDEBUG <2>:                       전역 구성 변수.     (line   36)
* PYTHONDEBUG <3>:                       PyConfig.           (line  664)
* PYTHONDEVMODE:                         파이썬 개발 모드 -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:                     기타 옵션.          (line  292)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:                     파이썬 개발 모드.   (line   12)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  293)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:               Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>:           New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>:           기타 옵션.          (line   19)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>:           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  316)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>:           전역 구성 변수.     (line   50)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>:           PyConfig.           (line  952)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>:           pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS:                        디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:                    Build<52>.          (line   54)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:                    Debug options.      (line   22)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:                    Debug options.      (line   24)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:                    PyConfig.           (line  304)
* PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:                    Core and Builtins<38>.
                                                             (line  154)
* PYTHONEXECUTABLE:                      PyConfig.           (line  699)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:                    faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:                기타 옵션.          (line  256)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:                파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   55)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:                faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:                PyConfig.           (line  342)
* PythonFinalizationError:               구체적인 예외.      (line  213)
* PYTHONHASHSEED:                        Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:                    Porting Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:                    Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:                    기타 옵션.          (line  125)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:                    기타 옵션.          (line  140)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:                    환경 변수.          (line  153)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:                    기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  305)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:                    전역 구성 변수.     (line   75)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:                    전역 구성 변수.     (line   78)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:                    PyConfig.           (line  412)
* PYTHONHOME:                            Deprecated C APIs.  (line   26)
* PYTHONHOME <1>:                        Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* PYTHONHOME <2>:                        Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   36)
* PYTHONHOME <3>:                        요약 – 배포 주요 사항<4>.
                                                             (line   98)
* PYTHONHOME <4>:                        기타 옵션.          (line   45)
* PYTHONHOME <5>:                        환경 변수.          (line   18)
* PYTHONHOME <6>:                        환경 변수.          (line   20)
* PYTHONHOME <7>:                        환경 변수.          (line   35)
* PYTHONHOME <8>:                        모듈 찾기.          (line   27)
* PYTHONHOME <9>:                        모듈 찾기.          (line   42)
* PYTHONHOME <10>:                       모듈 찾기.          (line   73)
* PYTHONHOME <11>:                       Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  149)
* PYTHONHOME <12>:                       test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONHOME <13>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHOME <14>:                       Virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONHOME <15>:                       파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   33)
* PYTHONHOME <16>:                       파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   39)
* PYTHONHOME <17>:                       전역 구성 변수.     (line   90)
* PYTHONHOME <18>:                       프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  285)
* PYTHONHOME <19>:                       프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  299)
* PYTHONHOME <20>:                       프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  308)
* PYTHONHOME <21>:                       PyConfig.           (line  420)
* PYTHONHOME <22>:                       PyConfig.           (line  422)
* PYTHONHOME <23>:                       Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Pythonic (파이썬다운):                 용어집.             (line 1184)
* PYTHONINSPECT:                         Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONINSPECT <1>:                     기타 옵션.          (line   66)
* PYTHONINSPECT <2>:                     전역 구성 변수.     (line  106)
* PYTHONINSPECT <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  447)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:                 Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line  106)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:             기타 옵션.          (line  276)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:             Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:             Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1119)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:             PyConfig.           (line  478)
* PYTHONIOENCODING:                      Other Improvements. (line   75)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:                  Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:                  환경 변수.          (line  386)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:                  Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   29)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1778)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:                  PyConfig.           (line  834)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING:         New Deprecations.   (line  130)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>:     PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>:     Windows<14>.        (line   37)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1723)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1733)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1739)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>:     전역 구성 변수.     (line  148)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>:     PyPreConfig.        (line  121)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>:    Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:              PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>:          환경 변수.          (line  185)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>:          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1782)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>:          전역 구성 변수.     (line  166)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  531)
* PYTHONMALLOC:                          PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONMALLOC <1>:                      C API의 변경 사항.  (line    9)
* PYTHONMALLOC <2>:                      Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line   90)
* PYTHONMALLOC <3>:                      환경 변수.          (line  319)
* PYTHONMALLOC <4>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line  108)
* PYTHONMALLOC <5>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line  115)
* PYTHONMALLOC <6>:                      파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   43)
* PYTHONMALLOC <7>:                      파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONMALLOC <8>:                      개요<4>.            (line   65)
* PYTHONMALLOC <9>:                      기본 메모리 할당자. (line   26)
* PYTHONMALLOC <10>:                     파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅.
                                                             (line   11)
* PYTHONMALLOC <11>:                     pymalloc 할당자.    (line   26)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:                     Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line   96)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:                 PyConfig.           (line  547)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:                 개요<4>.            (line   68)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:                   PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   63)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:               기타 옵션.          (line  321)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:               Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:               PyConfig.           (line  246)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE:                      PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:                  기타 옵션.          (line  152)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:                  모듈 내용<8>.       (line   14)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:                  전역 구성 변수.     (line  199)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  905)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE:                        기타 옵션.          (line   86)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:                    전역 구성 변수.     (line  210)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:                    PyConfig.           (line  614)
* PYTHONPATH:                            Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONPATH <1>:                        Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <2>:                        모듈 검색 경로.     (line   15)
* PYTHONPATH <3>:                        표준 모듈들.        (line   30)
* PYTHONPATH <4>:                        표준 모듈들.        (line   30)
* PYTHONPATH <5>:                        기타 옵션.          (line   45)
* PYTHONPATH <6>:                        환경 변수.          (line   30)
* PYTHONPATH <7>:                        환경 변수.          (line   36)
* PYTHONPATH <8>:                        환경 변수.          (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <9>:                        보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
                                                             (line   33)
* PYTHONPATH <10>:                       모듈 찾기.          (line   14)
* PYTHONPATH <11>:                       모듈 찾기.          (line   35)
* PYTHONPATH <12>:                       모듈 찾기.          (line   72)
* PYTHONPATH <13>:                       Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  152)
* PYTHONPATH <14>:                       Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  183)
* PYTHONPATH <15>:                       Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  189)
* PYTHONPATH <16>:                       경로 엔트리 파인더. (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <17>:                       경로 엔트리 파인더. (line   23)
* PYTHONPATH <18>:                       test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   24)
* PYTHONPATH <19>:                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1281)
* PYTHONPATH <20>:                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1286)
* PYTHONPATH <21>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONPATH <22>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONPATH <23>:                       C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <24>:                       파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   33)
* PYTHONPATH <25>:                       파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   40)
* PYTHONPATH <26>:                       전역 구성 변수.     (line   89)
* PYTHONPATH <27>:                       PyConfig.           (line  580)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:                     Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:                 기타 옵션.          (line  341)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:                 How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:                      Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line  274)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:                  The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:                  PyConfig.           (line  559)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:               기타 언어 변경<3>.  (line   44)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>:           Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>:           기타 옵션.          (line  285)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  432)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:                   컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:               Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line  402)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:               기타 옵션.          (line  304)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  363)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:               PyConfig.           (line  721)
* PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD:          Tests<26>.          (line   13)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH:                        Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:                    Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:                    Security<21>.       (line    6)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:                    기타 옵션.          (line  112)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1298)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:                    Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:                    PyConfig.           (line  163)
* PYTHONSTARTUP:                         sys<12>.            (line   17)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:                     sys<12>.            (line   21)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:                     Core and Builtins.  (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:                     IDLE<39>.           (line  176)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:                     IDLE<43>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:                     IDLE<49>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:                     대화형 시작 파일.   (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:                     기타 옵션.          (line   63)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:                     환경 변수.          (line  114)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:                     예제.               (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:                    asyncio — 비동기 I/O.
                                                             (line   87)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:                    시작과 코드 실행.   (line    6)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <12>:                    명령 줄 사용법.     (line   42)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <13>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1131)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <14>:                    Readline 구성.      (line   11)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:                     기타 옵션.          (line  270)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:                 tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:                 tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:                 함수<10>.           (line   87)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:                 PyConfig.           (line  863)
* PYTHONTZPATH:                          예외와 경고.        (line   14)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED:                      Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:                  기타 옵션.          (line  171)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1788)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:                  전역 구성 변수.     (line  237)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  210)
* PYTHONUOPS:                            Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONUOPS <1>:                        Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  179)
* PYTHONUOPS <2>:                        Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  258)
* PYTHONUOPS <3>:                        Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  317)
* PYTHONUOPS <4>:                        Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  382)
* PYTHONUSERBASE:                        PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:                    모듈 내용<8>.       (line   38)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:                    모듈 내용<8>.       (line   63)
* PYTHONUSERSITE:                        test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   24)
* PYTHONUTF8:                            PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONUTF8 <1>:                        기타 옵션.          (line  298)
* PYTHONUTF8 <2>:                        환경 변수.          (line  394)
* PYTHONUTF8 <3>:                        UTF-8 모드.         (line   18)
* PYTHONUTF8 <4>:                        Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   52)
* PYTHONUTF8 <5>:                        Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   54)
* PYTHONUTF8 <6>:                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1780)
* PYTHONUTF8 <7>:                        PyPreConfig.        (line  150)
* PYTHONUTF8 <8>:                        파이썬 구성.        (line   14)
* PYTHONVERBOSE:                         기타 옵션.          (line  186)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:                     전역 구성 변수.     (line  253)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:                     PyConfig.           (line  922)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:             Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>:         Library<39>.        (line   45)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>:         기타 옵션.          (line  311)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>:         Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONWARNINGS:                        warnings<3>.        (line   19)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:                    Other Language Changes<7>.
                                                             (line  160)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:                    Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:                    Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:                    Documentation<23>.  (line   67)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:                    기타 옵션.          (line  237)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:                    파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:                    경고 필터.          (line   42)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:                    경고 필터.          (line   52)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:                    경고 필터 설명.     (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:                   경고 필터 설명.     (line   18)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:                   기본 경고 필터.     (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:                   PyConfig.           (line  941)
* PyThread_create_key (C function):      스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyThread_delete_key (C function):      스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyThread_delete_key_value (C function): 스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyThread_get_key_value (C function):   스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function):       스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyThread_set_key_value (C function):   스레드 로컬 저장소 TLS API.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyThread_tss_alloc (C function):       동적 할당.          (line   10)
* PyThread_tss_create (C function):      메서드<2>.          (line   16)
* PyThread_tss_delete (C function):      메서드<2>.          (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_free (C function):        동적 할당.          (line   15)
* PyThread_tss_get (C function):         메서드<2>.          (line   38)
* PyThread_tss_is_created (C function):  메서드<2>.          (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_set (C function):         메서드<2>.          (line   32)
* PyThreadState (C type):                스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyThreadState (C type) <1>:            고수준 API.         (line   20)
* PyThreadState_Clear (C function):      저수준 API.         (line   39)
* PyThreadState_Delete (C function):     저수준 API.         (line   50)
* PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (C function): 저수준 API.      (line   56)
* PyThreadState_EnterTracing (C function): 저수준 API.       (line   94)
* PyThreadState_Get (C function):        고수준 API.         (line   68)
* PyThreadState_GetDict (C function):    저수준 API.         (line  192)
* PyThreadState_GetFrame (C function):   저수준 API.         (line   63)
* PyThreadState_GetID (C function):      저수준 API.         (line   77)
* PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (C function): 저수준 API.     (line   85)
* PyThreadState_GetUnchecked (C function): 고수준 API.       (line   76)
* PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (C function): 저수준 API.       (line  103)
* PyThreadState_New (C function):        저수준 API.         (line   32)
* PyThreadState_Next (C function):       고급 디버거 지원.   (line   28)
* PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function): 저수준 API.        (line  200)
* PyThreadState_Swap (C function):       고수준 API.         (line   85)
* PyThreadState.interp (C member):       고수준 API.         (line   25)
* PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (C function):   Conversion functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyTime_Check (C function):             DateTime 객체<2>.   (line   96)
* PyTime_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  102)
* PyTime_FromTime (C function):          DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  150)
* PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function):   DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  155)
* PyTime_MAX (C var):                    Types.              (line   24)
* PyTime_MIN (C var):                    Types.              (line   20)
* PyTime_Monotonic (C function):         Clock Functions.    (line   21)
* PyTime_MonotonicRaw (C function):      Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyTime_PerfCounter (C function):       Clock Functions.    (line   26)
* PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (C function):    Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyTime_t (C type):                     Types.              (line    6)
* PyTime_Time (C function):              Clock Functions.    (line   31)
* PyTime_TimeRaw (C function):           Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function):    DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  169)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function): DateTime 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  176)
* PyTrace_C_CALL (C var):                프로파일링과 추적.  (line   89)
* PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C var):           프로파일링과 추적.  (line   94)
* PyTrace_C_RETURN (C var):              프로파일링과 추적.  (line   99)
* PyTrace_CALL (C var):                  프로파일링과 추적.  (line   60)
* PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C var):             프로파일링과 추적.  (line   68)
* PyTrace_LINE (C var):                  프로파일링과 추적.  (line   77)
* PyTrace_OPCODE (C var):                프로파일링과 추적.  (line  104)
* PyTrace_RETURN (C var):                프로파일링과 추적.  (line   84)
* PyTraceMalloc_Track (C function):      tracemalloc C API.  (line    8)
* PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (C function):    tracemalloc C API.  (line   19)
* PyTuple_Check (C function):            튜플 객체.          (line   15)
* PyTuple_CheckExact (C function):       튜플 객체.          (line   20)
* PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function):         튜플 객체.          (line   58)
* PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function):         튜플 객체.          (line   41)
* PyTuple_GetItem (C function):          튜플 객체.          (line   45)
* PyTuple_GetSlice (C function):         튜플 객체.          (line   63)
* PyTuple_New (C function):              튜플 객체.          (line   25)
* PyTuple_Pack (C function):             튜플 객체.          (line   29)
* PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function):         튜플 객체.          (line   82)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function):          튜플 객체.          (line   72)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C 함수):              참조 횟수 상세.     (line   23)
* PyTuple_Size (C function):             튜플 객체.          (line   36)
* PyTuple_Type (C var):                  튜플 객체.          (line   10)
* PyTupleObject (C type):                튜플 객체.          (line    6)
* PyType_AddWatcher (C function):        형 객체<2>.         (line   64)
* PyType_Check (C function):             형 객체<2>.         (line   14)
* PyType_CheckExact (C function):        형 객체<2>.         (line   20)
* PyType_ClearCache (C function):        형 객체<2>.         (line   26)
* PyType_ClearWatcher (C function):      형 객체<2>.         (line   77)
* PyType_FromMetaclass (C function):     힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (C function): 힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyType_FromSpec (C function):          힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function): 힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyType_GenericAlloc (C function):      형 객체<2>.         (line  135)
* PyType_GenericNew (C function):        형 객체<2>.         (line  142)
* PyType_GetDict (C function):           형 객체<2>.         (line   42)
* PyType_GetFlags (C function):          형 객체<2>.         (line   30)
* PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName (C function): 형 객체<2>.     (line  178)
* PyType_GetModule (C function):         형 객체<2>.         (line  210)
* PyType_GetModuleByDef (C function):    형 객체<2>.         (line  242)
* PyType_GetModuleName (C function):     형 객체<2>.         (line  188)
* PyType_GetModuleState (C function):    형 객체<2>.         (line  228)
* PyType_GetName (C function):           형 객체<2>.         (line  163)
* PyType_GetQualName (C function):       형 객체<2>.         (line  170)
* PyType_GetSlot (C function):           형 객체<2>.         (line  196)
* PyType_GetTypeDataSize (C function):   객체 프로토콜.      (line  528)
* PyType_HasFeature (C function):        형 객체<2>.         (line  116)
* PyType_IS_GC (C function):             형 객체<2>.         (line  121)
* PyType_IsSubtype (C function):         형 객체<2>.         (line  126)
* PyType_Modified (C function):          형 객체<2>.         (line   59)
* PyType_Ready (C function):             형 객체<2>.         (line  148)
* PyType_Slot (C type):                  힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  175)
* PyType_Slot.pfunc (C member):          힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  235)
* PyType_Slot.slot (C member):           힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyType_Spec (C type):                  힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  106)
* PyType_Spec.basicsize (C member):      힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyType_Spec.flags (C member):          힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  159)
* PyType_Spec.itemsize (C member):       힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  133)
* PyType_Spec.name (C member):           힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyType_Spec.slots (C member):          힙에 할당된 형 만들기.
                                                             (line  168)
* PyType_Type (C var):                   형 객체<2>.         (line   10)
* PyType_Watch (C function):             형 객체<2>.         (line   89)
* PyType_WatchCallback (C type):         형 객체<2>.         (line  105)
* PyTypeObject (C type):                 형 객체<2>.         (line    6)
* PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member):      PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1391)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_async (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  278)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  486)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  342)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_number (C member):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  318)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯. (line  330)
* PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1216)
* PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member):      PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1502)
* PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member):      PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1535)
* PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  393)
* PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member):      PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  946)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  135)
* PyTypeObject.tp_del (C member):        PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1575)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1284)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member):  PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1297)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1247)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1312)
* PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member):        PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  845)
* PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1588)
* PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member):      PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  498)
* PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1450)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  242)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  431)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member):     PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1202)
* PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  354)
* PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1356)
* PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member):      PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1473)
* PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1134)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1150)
* PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1187)
* PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1173)
* PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member):        PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1522)
* PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line   12)
* PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member):        PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1413)
* PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member):       PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  294)
* PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯. (line 1024)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  260)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  458)
* PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member):        PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  406)
* PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1543)
* PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line  855)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1633)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯.
                                                             (line  202)
* PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯. (line 1580)
* PyTypeObject.tp_watched (C member):    PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1649)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member):   PyTypeObject 슬롯.  (line 1559)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member): PyTypeObject 슬롯.
                                                             (line 1098)
* PyTZInfo_Check (C function):           DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  118)
* PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function):      DateTime 객체<2>.   (line  124)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function):     유니코드 형.        (line   81)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro):        유니코드 형.        (line   95)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function):     유니코드 형.        (line   81)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro):        유니코드 형.        (line   95)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function):     유니코드 형.        (line   81)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro):        유니코드 형.        (line   95)
* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function):  ASCII 코덱.         (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function): 문자 맵 코덱.      (line   29)
* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function): 일반 코덱.         (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function): Latin-1 코덱.       (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function):   윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function): 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function):         유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  371)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function):     유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  381)
* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function): 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function):  UTF-16 코덱.        (line   46)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function):  UTF-32 코덱.        (line   45)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function):         UTF-8 코덱.         (line   61)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function):  UTF-8 코덱.         (line   33)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function):   UTF-8 코덱.         (line   23)
* PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function):     wchar_t 지원.       (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function): wchar_t 지원.     (line   31)
* PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap (C function): 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  284)
* PyUnicode_Check (C function):          유니코드 형.        (line   53)
* PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function):     유니코드 형.        (line   58)
* PyUnicode_Compare (C function):        메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  128)
* PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function): 메서드와 슬롯 함수.
                                                             (line  157)
* PyUnicode_Concat (C function):         메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   11)
* PyUnicode_Contains (C function):       메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  188)
* PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function): 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  311)
* PyUnicode_Count (C function):          메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  115)
* PyUnicode_DATA (C function):           유니코드 형.        (line  114)
* PyUnicode_Decode (C function):         일반 코덱.          (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function):    ASCII 코덱.         (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function):  문자 맵 코덱.       (line   14)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (C function): 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function): 파일 시스템 인코딩.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function): 파일 시스템 인코딩.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function):   Latin-1 코덱.       (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function):   로케일 인코딩.      (line   35)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function): 로케일 인코딩. (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function):     윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function): 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function): 원시 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function): 유니코드 이스케이프 코덱.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function):    UTF-16 코덱.        (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function): UTF-16 코덱.   (line   35)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function):    UTF-32 코덱.        (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function): UTF-32 코덱.   (line   34)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function):     UTF-7 코덱.         (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function): UTF-7 코덱.     (line   14)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function):     UTF-8 코덱.         (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): UTF-8 코덱.     (line   14)
* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function): 윈도우 용 MBCS 코덱.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function): 파일 시스템 인코딩.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function):   로케일 인코딩.      (line   43)
* PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (C function):    메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  148)
* PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (C function): 메서드와 슬롯 함수.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyUnicode_Fill (C function):           유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  322)
* PyUnicode_Find (C function):           메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   90)
* PyUnicode_FindChar (C function):       메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  100)
* PyUnicode_Format (C function):         메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  182)
* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function): 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  267)
* PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function):     유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function):    유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  245)
* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function): 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicode_FromObject (C function):     유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  251)
* PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (C function):    유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  260)
* PyUnicode_FromString (C function):     유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function): 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function):   wchar_t 지원.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function):    파일 시스템 인코딩. (line   13)
* PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function):      파일 시스템 인코딩. (line   35)
* PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function):     유니코드 형.        (line   72)
* PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (C function): 유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  294)
* PyUnicode_GetLength (C function):      유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  302)
* PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function): 메서드와 슬롯 함수.
                                                             (line  220)
* PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function):  메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  195)
* PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (C function):   유니코드 형.        (line  161)
* PyUnicode_Join (C function):           메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   75)
* PyUnicode_KIND (C function):           유니코드 형.        (line  105)
* PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function): 유니코드 형.        (line  152)
* PyUnicode_New (C function):            유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_Partition (C function):      메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   46)
* PyUnicode_READ (C function):           유니코드 형.        (line  134)
* PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function):      유니코드 형.        (line  143)
* PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function):       유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  351)
* PyUnicode_READY (C function):          유니코드 형.        (line   63)
* PyUnicode_Replace (C function):        메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  121)
* PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function):    메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line  166)
* PyUnicode_RPartition (C function):     메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   61)
* PyUnicode_RSplit (C function):         메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   29)
* PyUnicode_Split (C function):          메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   16)
* PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function):     메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   39)
* PyUnicode_Substring (C function):      유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  362)
* PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function):      메서드와 슬롯 함수. (line   81)
* PyUnicode_Translate (C function):      문자 맵 코덱.       (line   43)
* PyUnicode_Type (C var):                유니코드 형.        (line   40)
* PyUnicode_WRITE (C function):          유니코드 형.        (line  122)
* PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function):      유니코드 문자열 생성과 액세스.
                                                             (line  336)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyUnicodeIter_Type (C var):            유니코드 형.        (line   45)
* PyUnicodeObject (C type):              유니코드 형.        (line   29)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function): 유니코드 예외 객체.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyUnstable:                            Unstable C API.     (line    6)
* PyUnstable_AtExit (C function):        인터프리터 초기화와 파이널리제이션.
                                                             (line  203)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   35)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (C function): 코드 객체<2>.   (line   29)
* PyUnstable_Code_New (C function):      코드 객체<2>.       (line   39)
* PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): 코드 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   51)
* PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (C function): 예외 객체.    (line   53)
* PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (C function): 가비지 수거기 상태 조회하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule (C function): 저수준 API.
                                                             (line  147)
* PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (C function): 정수 객체.      (line  523)
* PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (C function): 정수 객체.         (line  505)
* PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (C function): 지원 함수.          (line  152)
* PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks (C function): 약한 참조 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (C function): 순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (C function): 형 객체<2>. (line  263)
* PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyVarObject (C type):                  기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):       기본 객체 형과 매크로.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyVarObject.ob_size (C member):        PyVarObject 슬롯.   (line    6)
* PyVectorcall_Call (C function):        벡터콜 지원 API.    (line   31)
* PyVectorcall_Function (C function):    벡터콜 지원 API.    (line   18)
* PyVectorcall_NARGS (C function):       벡터콜 지원 API.    (line    6)
* PyWeakref_Check (C function):          약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   10)
* PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function):     약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   20)
* PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function):       약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   15)
* PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function):     약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   77)
* PyWeakref_GetObject (C function):      약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   64)
* PyWeakref_GetRef (C function):         약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   50)
* PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function):       약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   37)
* PyWeakref_NewRef (C function):         약한 참조 객체<2>.  (line   25)
* PyWideStringList (C type):             PyWideStringList.   (line    6)
* PyWideStringList_Append (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   15)
* PyWideStringList_Insert (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   22)
* PyWideStringList.items (C member):     PyWideStringList.   (line   41)
* PyWideStringList.length (C member):    PyWideStringList.   (line   37)
* PyWrapper_New (C function):            디스크립터 객체.    (line   39)
* PyZipFile (zipfile 클래스):            PyZipFile 객체.     (line    9)
* qiflush() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  369)
* QName (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스):  QName 객체.         (line    6)
* qsize() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):        Queue.              (line   76)
* qsize() (multiprocessing.Queue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.       (line  101)
* qsize() (queue.Queue 메서드):          큐 객체.            (line    9)
* qsize() (queue.SimpleQueue 메서드):    SimpleQueue 객체.   (line    9)
* qualified name (정규화된 이름):        용어집.             (line 1202)
* quantiles() (statistics 모듈):         함수 세부 사항.     (line  478)
* quantiles() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드): NormalDist 객체.
                                                             (line  100)
* quantize() (decimal.Context 메서드):   Context 객체.       (line  478)
* quantize() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):   Decimal 객체.       (line  458)
* QueryInfoKey() (winreg 모듈):          함수<12>.           (line  303)
* QueryReflectionKey() (winreg 모듈):    함수<12>.           (line  493)
* QueryValue() (winreg 모듈):            함수<12>.           (line  329)
* QueryValueEx() (winreg 모듈):          함수<12>.           (line  348)
* QUESTION (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):    tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  195)
* Queue (asyncio 클래스):                Queue.              (line    6)
* Queue (multiprocessing 클래스):        파이프와 큐.        (line   87)
* Queue (queue 클래스):                  queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   31)
* queue (sched.scheduler의 속성):        스케줄러 객체.      (line   70)
* Queue() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  196)
* QueueEmpty:                            예외<9>.            (line    6)
* QueueFull:                             예외<9>.            (line   11)
* QueueHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): QueueHandler.      (line   19)
* QueueListener (logging.handlers 클래스): QueueListener.    (line   22)
* QueueShutDown:                         예외<9>.            (line   16)
* quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line  195)
* quiet (sys.flags의 속성):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  530)
* quit (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line  404)
* quit (내장 변수):                      site 모듈에 의해 추가된 상수들.
                                                             (line   11)
* quit() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):            FTP 객체.           (line  341)
* quit() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   79)
* quit() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):          SMTP 객체.          (line  320)
* quit() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  119)
* quitting (bdb.Bdb 어트리뷰트):         bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  325)
* QUOTE_ALL (csv 모듈):                  모듈 내용<3>.       (line  254)
* quote_from_bytes() (urllib.parse 모듈): URL 인용.          (line   53)
* QUOTE_MINIMAL (csv 모듈):              모듈 내용<3>.       (line  258)
* QUOTE_NONE (csv 모듈):                 모듈 내용<3>.       (line  278)
* QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (csv 모듈):           모듈 내용<3>.       (line  264)
* QUOTE_NOTNULL (csv 모듈):              모듈 내용<3>.       (line  291)
* quote_plus() (urllib.parse 모듈):      URL 인용.           (line   41)
* QUOTE_STRINGS (csv 모듈):              모듈 내용<3>.       (line  303)
* quote() (email.utils 모듈):            email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   42)
* quote() (shlex 모듈):                  shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석.
                                                             (line   43)
* quote() (urllib.parse 모듈):           URL 인용.           (line   12)
* quoteattr() (xml.sax.saxutils 모듈):   xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   37)
* quotechar (csv.Dialect의 속성):        방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   62)
* quoted-printable;인코딩:               quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line    8)
* quotes (shlex.shlex의 속성):           shlex 객체.         (line  103)
* quoting (csv.Dialect의 속성):          방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   73)
* R_OK (os 모듈):                        파일과 디렉터리.    (line  100)
* r';날 문자열 리터럴:                   문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   49)
* r";날 문자열 리터럴:                   문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   49)
* radians() (math 모듈):                 각도 변환.          (line   10)
* radians() (turtle 모듈):               측정 설정.          (line   28)
* radix (sys.float_info의 속성):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  638)
* radix() (decimal.Context 메서드):      Context 객체.       (line  483)
* radix() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):      Decimal 객체.       (line  485)
* RADIXCHAR (locale 모듈):               locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  247)
* Raise (ast 클래스):                    문장.               (line  111)
* RAISE (monitoring event):              Events.             (line   71)
* raise_on_defect (email.policy.Policy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  162)
* raise_signal() (signal 모듈):          모듈 내용<5>.       (line  315)
* RAISE_VARARGS (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1015)
* raiseExceptions (logging 모듈):        모듈 수준 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   18)
* RAND_add() (ssl 모듈):                 난수 생성.          (line   30)
* RAND_bytes() (ssl 모듈):               난수 생성.          (line    6)
* RAND_status() (ssl 모듈):              난수 생성.          (line   23)
* randbelow() (secrets 모듈):            난수.               (line   19)
* randbits() (secrets 모듈):             난수.               (line   23)
* randbytes() (random 모듈):             바이트열 함수.      (line    6)
* randbytes() (random.Random 메서드):    대체 생성기.        (line   47)
* randint() (random 모듈):               정수 함수.          (line   31)
* Random (random 클래스):                대체 생성기.        (line    6)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -c:                Command-line usage. (line   18)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -choice:           Command-line usage. (line   18)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -f:                Command-line usage. (line   29)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -float:            Command-line usage. (line   29)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -h:                Command-line usage. (line   14)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -help:             Command-line usage. (line   14)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -i:                Command-line usage. (line   23)
* random 명령줄 옵션; -integer:          Command-line usage. (line   23)
* random() (random 모듈):                실수 분포.          (line   10)
* random() (random.Random 메서드):       대체 생성기.        (line   34)
* randrange() (random 모듈):             정수 함수.          (line    6)
* range (내장 클래스):                   범위.               (line    9)
* RARROW (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  304)
* ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line  173)
* Rational (numbers 클래스):             숫자 계층.          (line   41)
* raw (io.BufferedIOBase의 속성):        I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  237)
* raw_data_manager (email.contentmanager 모듈): 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스.
                                                             (line   11)
* raw_decode() (json.JSONDecoder 메서드): 인코더와 디코더.   (line   91)
* raw_input() (code.InteractiveConsole 메서드): 대화형 콘솔 객체.
                                                             (line   42)
* raw() (curses 모듈):                   함수<5>.            (line  375)
* raw() (pickle.PickleBuffer 메서드):    모듈 인터페이스.    (line  304)
* RawArray() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈): multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line   15)
* RawConfigParser (configparser 클래스): RawConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (argparse 클래스): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* RawIOBase (io 클래스):                 I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  161)
* RawPen (turtle 클래스):                공개 클래스.        (line    6)
* RawTextHelpFormatter (argparse 클래스): formatter_class.   (line   10)
* RawTurtle (turtle 클래스):             공개 클래스.        (line    6)
* RawValue() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈): multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line   31)
* RBRACE (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  229)
* re (re.Match의 속성):                  일치 객체.          (line  192)
* READ (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):     Buffer flags.       (line   49)
* read_binary() (importlib.resources 모듈): Functional API.  (line   75)
* read_byte() (mmap.mmap 메서드):        mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  237)
* read_bytes() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  527)
* read_bytes() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  150)
* read_bytes() (pathlib.Path 메서드):    Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   34)
* read_bytes() (zipfile.Path 메서드):    Path 객체.          (line  108)
* read_dict() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  198)
* read_environ() (wsgiref.handlers 모듈): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  285)
* read_events() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser 메서드): XMLPullParser 객체.
                                                             (line   47)
* read_file() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  176)
* read_history_file() (readline 모듈):   히스토리 파일.      (line    8)
* read_init_file() (readline 모듈):      초기화 파일.        (line   13)
* read_mime_types() (mimetypes 모듈):    mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  105)
* READ_RESTRICTED (C 매크로):            Member flags.       (line   32)
* read_string() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  188)
* read_text() (importlib.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  531)
* read_text() (importlib.resources 모듈): Functional API.    (line   89)
* read_text() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  154)
* read_text() (pathlib.Path 메서드):     Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   17)
* read_text() (zipfile.Path 메서드):     Path 객체.          (line   96)
* read_token() (shlex.shlex 메서드):     shlex 객체.         (line   20)
* read_windows_registry() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체.
                                                             (line   89)
* read() (asyncio.StreamReader 메서드):  StreamReader.       (line   20)
* read() (codecs.StreamReader 메서드):   StreamReader 객체.  (line   33)
* read() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  140)
* read() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* read() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  194)
* read() (io.BufferedIOBase 메서드):     I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  256)
* read() (io.BufferedReader 메서드):     버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   80)
* read() (io.RawIOBase 메서드):          I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  174)
* read() (io.TextIOBase 메서드):         텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   51)
* read() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드):   MimeTypes 객체.     (line   73)
* read() (mmap.mmap 메서드):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  228)
* read() (os 모듈):                      파일 기술자 연산.   (line  706)
* read() (sqlite3.Blob 메서드):          Blob objects.       (line   45)
* read() (ssl.MemoryBIO 메서드):         메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line  143)
* read() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):         SSL 소켓.           (line   75)
* read() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   24)
* read() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):       ZipFile 객체.       (line  239)
* read1() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):          파일 압축 해제.     (line  105)
* read1() (io.BufferedIOBase 메서드):    I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  280)
* read1() (io.BufferedReader 메서드):    버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   85)
* read1() (io.BytesIO 메서드):           버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   42)
* READABLE (_tkinter 모듈):              파일 처리기.        (line   39)
* readable() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):       파일 압축 해제.     (line   87)
* readable() (io.IOBase 메서드):         I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   74)
* readall() (io.RawIOBase 메서드):       I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  189)
* readbuffer_encode() (codecs 모듈):     codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  241)
* reader() (csv 모듈):                   모듈 내용<3>.       (line    8)
* ReadError:                             tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  195)
* readexactly() (asyncio.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader. (line   46)
* readfp() (mimetypes.MimeTypes 메서드): MimeTypes 객체.     (line   81)
* readframes() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):  Wave_read 객체.     (line   50)
* readinto() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):       파일 압축 해제.     (line  115)
* readinto() (http.client.HTTPResponse 메서드): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   17)
* readinto() (io.BufferedIOBase 메서드): I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  292)
* readinto() (io.RawIOBase 메서드):      I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  194)
* readinto1() (io.BufferedIOBase 메서드): I/O 베이스 클래스. (line  304)
* readinto1() (io.BytesIO 메서드):       버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line   49)
* readline() (asyncio.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader.    (line   35)
* readline() (codecs.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader 객체.
                                                             (line   56)
* readline() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  199)
* readline() (io.IOBase 메서드):         I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   79)
* readline() (io.TextIOBase 메서드):     텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   56)
* readline() (mmap.mmap 메서드):         mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  242)
* readlines() (codecs.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* readlines() (io.IOBase 메서드):        I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line   88)
* readlink() (os 모듈):                  파일과 디렉터리.    (line  650)
* readlink() (pathlib.Path 메서드):      Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   80)
* readmodule_ex() (pyclbr 모듈):         pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원.
                                                             (line   29)
* readmodule() (pyclbr 모듈):            pyclbr — 파이썬 모듈 브라우저 지원.
                                                             (line   17)
* READONLY (C 매크로):                   Member flags.       (line   37)
* readonly (memoryview의 속성):          메모리 뷰.          (line  413)
* ReadOnly (typing 모듈):                특수 형태.          (line  266)
* ReadTransport (asyncio 클래스):        트랜스포트 계층 구조.
                                                             (line   20)
* readuntil() (asyncio.StreamReader 메서드): StreamReader.   (line   55)
* readv() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  838)
* ready() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  201)
* Real (numbers 클래스):                 숫자 계층.          (line   28)
* real (numbers.Complex의 속성):         숫자 계층.          (line   15)
* real_max_memuse (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  149)
* real_quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line  199)
* realloc (C 함수):                      개요<4>.            (line   27)
* realpath() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  339)
* REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.    (line   99)
* reap_children() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  573)
* reap_threads() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   18)
* reason (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   63)
* reason (ssl.SSLError의 속성):          예외<13>.           (line   25)
* reason (UnicodeError의 속성):          구체적인 예외.      (line  422)
* reason (urllib.error.HTTPError의 속성): urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   48)
* reason (urllib.error.URLError의 속성): urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   22)
* reattach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.    (line  218)
* recent() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  203)
* reconfigure() (io.TextIOWrapper 메서드): 텍스트 I/O<2>.    (line  169)
* record_original_stdout() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  306)
* RECORDS (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):  Buffer flags.       (line   41)
* records (unittest.TestCase의 속성):    테스트 케이스.      (line  421)
* RECORDS_RO (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.     (line   43)
* rect() (cmath 모듈):                   극좌표 변환.        (line   41)
* rectangle() (curses.textpad 모듈):     curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯.
                                                             (line   14)
* RecursionError:                        구체적인 예외.      (line  231)
* recursive_repr() (reprlib 모듈):       reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
                                                             (line   58)
* recv_bytes_into() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   73)
* recv_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   60)
* recv_fds() (socket 모듈):              기타 함수<2>.       (line  463)
* recv_into() (socket.socket 메서드):    소켓 객체.          (line  372)
* recv() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* recv() (socket.socket 메서드):         소켓 객체.          (line  227)
* recvfrom_into() (socket.socket 메서드): 소켓 객체.         (line  363)
* recvfrom() (socket.socket 메서드):     소켓 객체.          (line  241)
* recvmsg_into() (socket.socket 메서드): 소켓 객체.          (line  326)
* recvmsg() (socket.socket 메서드):      소켓 객체.          (line  259)
* redirect_request() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler 메서드): HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   15)
* redirect_stderr() (contextlib 모듈):   유틸리티.           (line  344)
* redirect_stdout() (contextlib 모듈):   유틸리티.           (line  304)
* redisplay() (readline 모듈):           줄 버퍼.            (line   18)
* redrawln() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  427)
* redrawwin() (curses.window 메서드):    창 객체.            (line  432)
* reduce() (functools 모듈):             functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  377)
* reducer_override() (pickle.Pickler 메서드): 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  189)
* ref (weakref 클래스):                  weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line   81)
* refcount_test() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  534)
* reference count (참조 횟수):           용어집.             (line 1229)
* reference counting:                    객체 값 형.         (line   34)
* ReferenceError:                        구체적인 예외.      (line  240)
* ReferenceType (weakref 모듈):          weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  303)
* refold_source (email.policy.EmailPolicy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  353)
* refresh() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  437)
* REG_BINARY (winreg 모듈):              값 형.              (line    8)
* REG_DWORD (winreg 모듈):               값 형.              (line   12)
* REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (winreg 모듈):    값 형.              (line   21)
* REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (winreg 모듈): 값 형.              (line   16)
* REG_EXPAND_SZ (winreg 모듈):           값 형.              (line   25)
* REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (winreg 모듈): 값 형.         (line   59)
* REG_LINK (winreg 모듈):                값 형.              (line   29)
* REG_MULTI_SZ (winreg 모듈):            값 형.              (line   33)
* REG_NONE (winreg 모듈):                값 형.              (line   38)
* REG_QWORD (winreg 모듈):               값 형.              (line   42)
* REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (winreg 모듈): 값 형.              (line   48)
* REG_RESOURCE_LIST (winreg 모듈):       값 형.              (line   55)
* REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (winreg 모듈): 값 형.       (line   63)
* REG_SZ (winreg 모듈):                  값 형.              (line   67)
* RegexFlag (re 클래스):                 Flags.              (line    9)
* register_adapter() (sqlite3 모듈):     Module functions.   (line  138)
* register_archive_format() (shutil 모듈): 아카이브 연산.    (line   88)
* register_at_fork() (os 모듈):          프로세스 관리.      (line  544)
* register_callback() (sys.monitoring 모듈): Registering callback functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* register_converter() (sqlite3 모듈):   Module functions.   (line  145)
* register_defect() (email.policy.Policy 메서드): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  225)
* register_dialect() (csv 모듈):         모듈 내용<3>.       (line   66)
* register_error() (codecs 모듈):        에러 처리기.        (line  100)
* register_function() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* register_function() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 메서드): SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   26)
* register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 메서드): SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   27)
* register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 메서드): SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer 메서드): SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* register_namespace() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.
                                                             (line  188)
* register_optionflag() (doctest 모듈):  옵션 플래그.        (line  141)
* register_shape() (turtle 모듈):        설정과 특수 메서드. (line   69)
* register_unpack_format() (shutil 모듈): 아카이브 연산.     (line  155)
* register() (abc.ABCMeta 메서드):       abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   67)
* register() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): Registering custom types or actions.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (atexit 모듈):              atexit — 종료 처리기.
                                                             (line   23)
* register() (codecs 모듈):              codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  148)
* register() (faulthandler 모듈):        사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (functools.singledispatch 메서드): functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  421)
* register() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line   92)
* register() (select.devpoll 메서드):    /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* register() (select.epoll 메서드):      에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   80)
* register() (select.poll 메서드):       폴링 객체.          (line   14)
* register() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.     (line   64)
* register() (webbrowser 모듈):          webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line  105)
* registerDOMImplementation() (xml.dom 모듈): 모듈 내용<6>.  (line    8)
* registerResult() (unittest 모듈):      시그널 처리하기.    (line   33)
* REGTYPE (tarfile 모듈):                tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  269)
* regular package (정규 패키지):         용어집.             (line 1242)
* relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.
                                                             (line  308)
* release() (_thread.lock 메서드):       _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line  159)
* release() (asyncio.Condition 메서드):  Condition.          (line   74)
* release() (asyncio.Lock 메서드):       Lock.               (line   48)
* release() (asyncio.Semaphore 메서드):  Semaphore.          (line   54)
* release() (logging.Handler 메서드):    Handler 객체.       (line   30)
* release() (memoryview 메서드):         메모리 뷰.          (line  235)
* release() (multiprocessing.Lock 메서드): 동기화 프리미티브.
                                                             (line   86)
* release() (multiprocessing.RLock 메서드): 동기화 프리미티브.
                                                             (line  135)
* release() (pickle.PickleBuffer 메서드): 모듈 인터페이스.   (line  311)
* release() (platform 모듈):             Cross platform.     (line  110)
* release() (threading.Condition 메서드): Condition objects. (line   84)
* release() (threading.Lock 메서드):     Lock objects.       (line   67)
* release() (threading.RLock 메서드):    RLock objects.      (line   91)
* release() (threading.Semaphore 메서드): Semaphore objects. (line   60)
* releasebufferproc (C type):            슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  109)
* reload() (importlib 모듈):             함수<11>.           (line   52)
* relpath() (os.path 모듈):              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  394)
* remainder_near() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.   (line  493)
* remainder_near() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.   (line  491)
* remainder() (decimal.Context 메서드):  Context 객체.       (line  487)
* remainder() (math 모듈):               부동 소수점 산술.   (line   62)
* RemoteDisconnected:                    http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  182)
* remove_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher 메서드): 프로세스 감시자.
                                                             (line   54)
* remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Future 메서드): Future 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Task 메서드): Task 객체.   (line  106)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드): Maildir 객체.      (line  137)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   82)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage 메서드): mboxMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   78)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 메서드): MMDFMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   78)
* remove_folder() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드): Maildir 객체.    (line   75)
* remove_folder() (mailbox.MH 메서드):   MH 객체.            (line   50)
* remove_header() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   95)
* remove_history_item() (readline 모듈): 히스토리 목록.      (line   26)
* remove_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* remove_option() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  290)
* remove_option() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 옵션 구문 분석기를 조회하고 조작하기.
                                                             (line   46)
* remove_reader() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 파일 기술자 관찰하기.
                                                             (line   14)
* remove_section() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  297)
* remove_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage 메서드): MHMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* remove_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 유닉스 시그널.
                                                             (line   25)
* remove_writer() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 파일 기술자 관찰하기.
                                                             (line   30)
* remove() (array.array 메서드):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  210)
* remove() (collections.deque 메서드):   deque 객체.         (line   93)
* remove() (frozenset 메서드):           집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  196)
* remove() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):     Mailbox 객체.       (line   67)
* remove() (mailbox.MH 메서드):          MH 객체.            (line   78)
* remove() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  686)
* remove() (sequence method):            가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* remove() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line  169)
* removeAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* removeAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* removeChild() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):   Node 객체.          (line  121)
* removedirs() (os 모듈):                파일과 디렉터리.    (line  709)
* removeFilter() (logging.Handler 메서드): Handler 객체.     (line   56)
* removeFilter() (logging.Logger 메서드): Logger 객체.       (line  302)
* removeHandler() (logging.Logger 메서드): Logger 객체.      (line  319)
* removeHandler() (unittest 모듈):       시그널 처리하기.    (line   49)
* removeprefix() (bytearray 메서드):     바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   50)
* removeprefix() (bytes 메서드):         바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   50)
* removeprefix() (str 메서드):           문자열 메서드.      (line  412)
* removeResult() (unittest 모듈):        시그널 처리하기.    (line   44)
* removesuffix() (bytearray 메서드):     바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   69)
* removesuffix() (bytes 메서드):         바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line   69)
* removesuffix() (str 메서드):           문자열 메서드.      (line  424)
* removexattr() (os 모듈):               리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   41)
* rename() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):          FTP 객체.           (line  308)
* rename() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  208)
* rename() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line  726)
* rename() (pathlib.Path 메서드):        Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line    6)
* renames() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  763)
* reopenIfNeeded() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler 메서드): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* reorganize() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 메서드):    dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line  114)
* repeat() (itertools 모듈):             Itertool Functions. (line  520)
* repeat() (timeit 모듈):                파이썬 인터페이스.  (line   18)
* repeat() (timeit.Timer 메서드):        파이썬 인터페이스.  (line   97)
* repetition;operation:                  공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* REPL:                                  용어집.             (line 1249)
* replace_errors() (codecs 모듈):        에러 처리기.        (line  147)
* replace_header() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  273)
* replace_header() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  381)
* replace_history_item() (readline 모듈): 히스토리 목록.     (line   32)
* replace_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  180)
* replace;에러 처리기의 이름:            에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* replace() (bytearray 메서드):          바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  192)
* replace() (bytes 메서드):              바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  192)
* replace() (codeobject 메서드):         Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* replace() (copy 모듈):                 copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   26)
* replace() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드): Panel 객체.         (line   38)
* replace() (dataclasses 모듈):          Module contents.    (line  419)
* replace() (datetime.date 메서드):      date 객체.          (line  186)
* replace() (datetime.datetime 메서드):  datetime 객체.      (line  451)
* replace() (datetime.time 메서드):      time 객체.          (line  147)
* replace() (inspect.Parameter 메서드):  Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  285)
* replace() (inspect.Signature 메서드):  Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  130)
* replace() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  781)
* replace() (pathlib.Path 메서드):       Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   34)
* replace() (str 메서드):                문자열 메서드.      (line  437)
* replace() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):    TarInfo 객체.       (line  162)
* replaceChild() (xml.dom.Node 메서드):  Node 객체.          (line  128)
* ReplacePackage() (modulefinder 모듈):  modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line   19)
* REPORT_CDIFF (doctest 모듈):           옵션 플래그.        (line  104)
* REPORT_ERRMODE (msvcrt 모듈):          기타 함수<4>.       (line   35)
* report_failure() (doctest.DocTestRunner 메서드): DocTestRunner 객체.
                                                             (line   70)
* report_full_closure() (filecmp.dircmp 메서드): dircmp 클래스.
                                                             (line   30)
* REPORT_NDIFF (doctest 모듈):           옵션 플래그.        (line  109)
* REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (doctest 모듈): 옵션 플래그.     (line  118)
* report_partial_closure() (filecmp.dircmp 메서드): dircmp 클래스.
                                                             (line   26)
* report_start() (doctest.DocTestRunner 메서드): DocTestRunner 객체.
                                                             (line   50)
* report_success() (doctest.DocTestRunner 메서드): DocTestRunner 객체.
                                                             (line   60)
* REPORT_UDIFF (doctest 모듈):           옵션 플래그.        (line   99)
* report_unexpected_exception() (doctest.DocTestRunner 메서드): DocTestRunner 객체.
                                                             (line   80)
* report() (filecmp.dircmp 메서드):      dircmp 클래스.      (line   22)
* report() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder 메서드): modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line   36)
* REPORTING_FLAGS (doctest 모듈):        옵션 플래그.        (line  134)
* Repr (reprlib 클래스):                 reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
                                                             (line   16)
* repr() (built-in function);__repr__() (object method): 기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  109)
* repr() (reprlib 모듈):                 reprlib — 대안 repr 구현.
                                                             (line   49)
* repr() (reprlib.Repr 메서드):          Repr 객체.          (line  101)
* repr1() (reprlib.Repr 메서드):         Repr 객체.          (line  106)
* ReprEnum (enum 클래스):                Data Types.         (line  589)
* reprfunc (C type):                     슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   42)
* request (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler의 속성): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   39)
* Request (urllib.request 클래스):       urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  181)
* request_queue_size (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   97)
* request_rate() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   57)
* request_uri() (wsgiref.util 모듈):     wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   25)
* request_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  101)
* request() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* RequestHandlerClass (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* requestline (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   83)
* Required (typing 모듈):                특수 형태.          (line  247)
* requires_bz2() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  500)
* requires_docstrings() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  512)
* requires_freebsd_version() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  468)
* requires_gil_enabled() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  483)
* requires_gzip() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  496)
* requires_IEEE_754() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  488)
* requires_limited_api() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  516)
* requires_linux_version() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  473)
* requires_lzma() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  504)
* requires_mac_version() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  478)
* requires_resource() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  508)
* requires_zlib() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  492)
* requires() (importlib.metadata 모듈):  배포 요구 사항.     (line    6)
* requires() (test.support 모듈):        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  258)
* RERAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   76)
* RERAISE (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  445)
* reschedule() (asyncio.Timeout 메서드): 시간제한.           (line   68)
* reserved (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):     ZipInfo 객체.       (line  121)
* RESERVED_FUTURE (uuid 모듈):           uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  227)
* RESERVED_MICROSOFT (uuid 모듈):        uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  223)
* RESERVED_NCS (uuid 모듈):              uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  215)
* reset_mock() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  869)
* reset_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock 메서드): Mock 클래스.     (line  193)
* reset_peak() (tracemalloc 모듈):       함수<10>.           (line   36)
* reset_prog_mode() (curses 모듈):       함수<5>.            (line  381)
* reset_shell_mode() (curses 모듈):      함수<5>.            (line  386)
* reset_tzpath() (zoneinfo 모듈):        함수<2>.            (line   26)
* reset() (asyncio.Barrier 메서드):      Barrier.            (line   78)
* reset() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):              bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  157)
* reset() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 메서드): IncrementalDecoder 객체.
                                                             (line   36)
* reset() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 메서드): IncrementalEncoder 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* reset() (codecs.StreamReader 메서드):  StreamReader 객체.  (line   76)
* reset() (codecs.StreamWriter 메서드):  StreamWriter 객체.  (line   41)
* reset() (contextvars.ContextVar 메서드): 컨텍스트 변수.    (line   53)
* reset() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line   23)
* reset() (threading.Barrier 메서드):    Barrier objects.    (line   66)
* reset() (turtle 모듈):                 더 많은 그리기 제어.
                                                             (line    6)
* reset() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream 메서드): DOMEventStream 객체.
                                                             (line   36)
* reset() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser 메서드): IncrementalParser 객체.
                                                             (line   19)
* resetbuffer() (code.InteractiveConsole 메서드): 대화형 콘솔 객체.
                                                             (line   38)
* resetscreen() (turtle 모듈):           창 제어.            (line   57)
* resetty() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  391)
* resetwarnings() (warnings 모듈):       사용 가능한 함수.   (line  121)
* resize_term() (curses 모듈):           함수<5>.            (line  396)
* resize() (ctypes 모듈):                유틸리티 함수.      (line  190)
* resize() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  453)
* resize() (mmap.mmap 메서드):           mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  247)
* resizemode() (turtle 모듈):            외관.               (line   24)
* resizeterm() (curses 모듈):            함수<5>.            (line  406)
* resolution (datetime.datetime의 속성): datetime 객체.      (line  287)
* resolution (datetime.date의 속성):     date 객체.          (line  104)
* resolution (datetime.timedelta의 속성): timedelta 객체.    (line   93)
* resolution (datetime.time의 속성):     time 객체.          (line   41)
* resolve_bases() (types 모듈):          동적 형 생성.       (line   51)
* resolve_name() (importlib.util 모듈):  importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   76)
* resolve_name() (pkgutil 모듈):         pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  190)
* resolve() (pathlib.Path 메서드):       Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   49)
* resolveEntity() (xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver 메서드): EntityResolver 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* resource_path() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  451)
* resource_path() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 메서드): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   55)
* ResourceDenied:                        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   21)
* ResourceLoader (importlib.abc 클래스): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  166)
* ResourceReader (importlib.abc 클래스): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  408)
* ResourceReader (importlib.resources.abc 클래스): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   12)
* ResourceWarning:                       경고.               (line   83)
* response() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  212)
* ResponseNotReady:                      http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  168)
* responses (http.client 모듈):          http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  202)
* responses (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  171)
* restart (pdb command):                 디버거 명령들.      (line  396)
* restart_events() (sys.monitoring 모듈): Disabling events.  (line   21)
* restore() (difflib 모듈):              difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  253)
* restore() (test.support.SaveSignals 메서드): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  757)
* RESTRICTED (C 매크로):                 Member flags.       (line   32)
* restype (ctypes._CFuncPtr의 속성):     외부 함수.          (line   32)
* result() (asyncio.Future 메서드):      Future 객체<2>.     (line   31)
* result() (asyncio.Task 메서드):        Task 객체.          (line   71)
* result() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.  (line   36)
* results() (trace.Trace 메서드):        프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   38)
* RESUME (opcode):                       파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1215)
* resume_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport 메서드): 읽기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   21)
* resume_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol 메서드): 베이스 프로토콜<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* retr() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   59)
* retrbinary() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):      FTP 객체.           (line  167)
* retrieve() (urllib.request.URLopener 메서드): 레거시 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  104)
* retrlines() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):       FTP 객체.           (line  190)
* RETRY (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):       tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  148)
* RETRYCANCEL (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  175)
* Return (ast 클래스):                   함수와 클래스 정의. (line  110)
* return (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  205)
* return_annotation (inspect.Signature의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  110)
* RETURN_CONST (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  411)
* RETURN_GENERATOR (opcode):             파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1240)
* return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 메서드): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   17)
* RETURN_VALUE (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  407)
* return_value (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.     (line  332)
* returncode (asyncio.subprocess.Process의 속성): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line  141)
* returncode (subprocess.CalledProcessError의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  202)
* returncode (subprocess.CompletedProcess의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  102)
* returncode (subprocess.Popen의 속성):  Popen 객체.         (line  148)
* retval (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  413)
* reveal_type() (typing 모듈):           함수와 데코레이터.  (line   81)
* reverse_order() (pstats.Stats 메서드): Stats 클래스.       (line  144)
* reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체. (line   74)
* reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체. (line  260)
* reverse() (array.array 메서드):        array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  220)
* reverse() (collections.deque 메서드):  deque 객체.         (line   98)
* reverse() (sequence method):           가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* Reversible (collections.abc 클래스):   Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   46)
* Reversible (typing 클래스):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   60)
* revert() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line  136)
* rewind() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):      Wave_read 객체.     (line   55)
* RFC_4122 (uuid 모듈):                  uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  219)
* RFC; RFC 1123:                         함수<4>.            (line  722)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <1>:                     함수<4>.            (line  734)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <2>:                     함수<4>.            (line  750)
* RFC; RFC 1321:                         hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 1422:                         인증서.             (line   33)
* RFC; RFC 1422 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 1521:                         Security Considerations.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <1>:                     quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <2>:                     quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 1522:                         binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <1>:                     quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <2>:                     quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 1730:                         imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1738:                         URL 인용.           (line  180)
* RFC; RFC 1750:                         난수 생성.          (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 1808:                         urllib<2>.          (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <1>:                     urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   33)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <2>:                     URL 구문 분석.      (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <3>:                     URL 인용.           (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 1869:                         smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1869 <1>:                     smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 1870:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 1939:                         poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 1939 <1>:                     poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2033:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  568)
* RFC; RFC 2045:                         email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <1>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  288)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <2>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  289)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <3>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  293)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <4>:                     email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  216)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <5>:                     email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  272)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <6>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  393)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <7>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  397)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <8>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  400)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <9>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  490)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <10>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <11>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <12>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <13>:                    Legacy Interface.   (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <14>:                    Legacy Interface.   (line   33)
* RFC; RFC 2045 Section 6.8:             Binary 객체.        (line   30)
* RFC; RFC 2046:                         email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <1>:                     콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스.
                                                             (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <2>:                     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <1>:                     email<6>.           (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <2>:                     email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <3>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  329)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <4>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  334)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <5>:                     email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <6>:                     email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <7>:                     email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <8>:                     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <9>:                     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <10>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <11>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <12>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2060:                         imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2060 <1>:                     IMAP4 객체.         (line  307)
* RFC; RFC 2068:                         http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2104:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2104 <1>:                     hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2109:                         http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <1>:                     http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   33)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <2>:                     http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   60)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <3>:                     Morsel 객체.        (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <4>:                     Morsel 객체.        (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <5>:                     Morsel 객체.        (line   92)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <6>:                     Morsel 객체.        (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <7>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <8>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <9>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  108)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <10>:                    http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <11>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <12>:                    Cookie 객체.        (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <13>:                    Cookie 객체.        (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <14>:                    Cookie 객체.        (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 2183:                         email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <1>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  423)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <2>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  590)
* RFC; RFC 2231:                         Library<4>.         (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <1>:                     Library<15>.        (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <2>:                     email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <3>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  254)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <4>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  257)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <5>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  335)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <6>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  358)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <7>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  361)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <8>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  458)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <9>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  465)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <10>:                    email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  497)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <11>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <12>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  179)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <13>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  183)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <14>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  192)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <15>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  197)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <16>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  206)
* RFC; RFC 2295:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 2324:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2342:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 2342 <1>:                     IMAP4 객체.         (line  161)
* RFC; RFC 2368:                         URL 인용.           (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 2373:                         주소 객체.          (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <1>:                     주소 객체.          (line  155)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <2>:                     주소 객체.          (line  176)
* RFC; RFC 2396:                         urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <1>:                     urllib<2>.          (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <2>:                     URL 구문 분석.      (line  240)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <3>:                     URL 인용.           (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <4>:                     URL 인용.           (line  166)
* RFC; RFC 2397:                         DataHandler 객체.   (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2449:                         POP3 객체.          (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2487:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2518:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 2595:                         poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2595 <1>:                     POP3 객체.          (line  110)
* RFC; RFC 2616:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <1>:                     wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  108)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <2>:                     wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <3>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <4>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <5>:                     레거시 인터페이스.  (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <6>:                     urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   44)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <7>:                     소개<10>.           (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <8>:                     HTTPError.          (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <9>:                     에러 코드.          (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 14.23:           HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2:           HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2 <1>:       HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line   30)
* RFC; RFC 2640:                         파이썬 API의 변경.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <1>:                     Tests<43>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <2>:                     ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <3>:                     FTP 객체.           (line   63)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <4>:                     FTP_TLS 객체.       (line   63)
* RFC; RFC 2732:                         urllib parse<6>.    (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <1>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  643)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <2>:                     URL 인용.           (line  162)
* RFC; RFC 2774:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2818:                         ssl<12>.            (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2821:                         email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2822:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <1>:                     배터리가 포함됩니다.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <2>:                     함수<4>.            (line  724)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <3>:                     함수<4>.            (line  736)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <4>:                     함수<4>.            (line  447)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <5>:                     함수<4>.            (line  752)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <6>:                     email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  254)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <7>:                     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <8>:                     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <9>:                     email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <10>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <11>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <12>:                    email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line  121)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <13>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <14>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  104)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <15>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  107)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <16>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  223)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <17>:                    email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  147)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <18>:                    Message 객체.       (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <19>:                    http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  110)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <20>:                    http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  111)
* RFC; RFC 2964:                         http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  147)
* RFC; RFC 2965:                         urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  222)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <1>:                     urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  229)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <2>:                     Request 객체.       (line   47)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <3>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <4>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line   96)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <5>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  108)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <6>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <7>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <8>:                     http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리.
                                                             (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <9>:                     FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <10>:                    CookiePolicy 객체.  (line   69)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <11>:                    CookiePolicy 객체.  (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <12>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <13>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <14>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <15>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <16>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  111)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <17>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  146)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <18>:                    Cookie 객체.        (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <19>:                    예<14>.             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 3056:                         주소 객체.          (line  304)
* RFC; RFC 3164:                         Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3171:                         주소 객체.          (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 3207:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  573)
* RFC; RFC 3229:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 3280:                         SSL 소켓.           (line  152)
* RFC; RFC 3330:                         주소 객체.          (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 3339:                         메시지에 날짜/시간 표시.
                                                             (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3454:                         Security<19>.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <1>:                     stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <2>:                     stringprep — 인터넷 문자열 준비.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 3490:                         텍스트 인코딩.      (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <1>:                     encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <2>:                     encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <3>:                     encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 3490 Section 3.1:             encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3491:                         Security<19>.       (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 3492:                         텍스트 인코딩.      (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3492 <1>:                     encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3493:                         예제<18>.           (line  226)
* RFC; RFC 3501:                         IMAP4 객체.         (line  320)
* RFC; RFC 3542:                         Library<57>.        (line  351)
* RFC; RFC 3542 <1>:                     기타 함수<2>.       (line  336)
* RFC; RFC 3548:                         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <1>:                     binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <2>:                     binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 3596 Section 2.5:             Library<10>.        (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3659:                         FTP 객체.           (line  273)
* RFC; RFC 3879:                         주소 객체.          (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 3879 <1>:                     주소 객체.          (line  285)
* RFC; RFC 3927:                         주소 객체.          (line  180)
* RFC; RFC 3986:                         urllib parse.       (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <1>:                     urllib parse<3>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <2>:                     urllib parse<4>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <3>:                     urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <4>:                     urllib<2>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <5>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  622)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <6>:                     Porting to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <7>:                     urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <8>:                     URL 구문 분석.      (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <9>:                     URL 구문 분석.      (line  355)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <10>:                    URL 구문 분석 보안. (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <11>:                    URL 인용.           (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <12>:                    URL 인용.           (line  155)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <13>:                    http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 4007:                         주소 객체.          (line  230)
* RFC; RFC 4007 <1>:                     주소 객체.          (line  297)
* RFC; RFC 4086:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   44)
* RFC; RFC 4122:                         New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  416)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <1>:                     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  421)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <2>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <3>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <4>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   68)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <5>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  132)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <6>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  158)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <7>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  221)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <8>:                     uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  234)
* RFC; RFC 4180:                         csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 4193:                         주소 객체.          (line  286)
* RFC; RFC 4217:                         FTP_TLS 객체.       (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 4291:                         Library<21>.        (line 1075)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <1>:                     Library<37>.        (line  653)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <2>:                     주소 객체.          (line  186)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <3>:                     주소 객체.          (line  224)
* RFC; RFC 4380:                         주소 객체.          (line  310)
* RFC; RFC 4627:                         json — JSON 인코더와 디코더.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 4627 <1>:                     오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648:                         Documentation<31>.  (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <1>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <2>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <3>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <4>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   84)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <5>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <6>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  104)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <7>:                     Security Considerations.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <8>:                     Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 4918:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <1>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <2>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <3>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 4954:                         SMTP 객체.          (line  125)
* RFC; RFC 4954 <1>:                     SMTP 객체.          (line  146)
* RFC; RFC 5161:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5161 <1>:                     IMAP4 객체.         (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 5246:                         상수<9>.            (line  501)
* RFC; RFC 5246 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 5280:                         ssl.                (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <1>:                     기타 변경 사항.     (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <2>:                     파이썬 API의 변경<5>.
                                                             (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <3>:                     컨텍스트 생성.      (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <4>:                     컨텍스트 생성.      (line   62)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <5>:                     인증서 처리.        (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <6>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   48)
* RFC; RFC 5321:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5321 <1>:                     email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  420)
* RFC; RFC 5322:                         email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <1>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <2>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <4>:                     email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <5>:                     email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  179)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <6>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  132)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <7>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  311)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <8>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  329)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <9>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  335)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <10>:                    email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  347)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <11>:                    email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  376)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <12>:                    email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <13>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <14>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  107)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <15>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  111)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <16>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  113)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <17>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  126)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <18>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  144)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <19>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  385)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <20>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  416)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <21>:                    email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  450)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <22>:                    email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <23>:                    SMTP 객체.          (line  295)
* RFC; RFC 5424:                         SysLogHandler.      (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <1>:                     SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <2>:                     SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <3>:                     SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기.
                                                             (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <4>:                     Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 Section 6:               SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 5735:                         주소 객체.          (line  155)
* RFC; RFC 5789:                         HTTP 메서드.        (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 5842:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5842 <1>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  190)
* RFC; RFC 5891:                         encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5894:                         Security<19>.       (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5895:                         encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5929:                         SSL 소켓.           (line  257)
* RFC; RFC 6066:                         상수<9>.            (line  404)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <1>:                     SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  276)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <2>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   56)
* RFC; RFC 6152:                         smtpd<2>.           (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531:                         email<3>.           (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <1>:                     smtpd<2>.           (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <2>:                     smtplib<2>.         (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <3>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   92)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <4>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  350)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <5>:                     smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 6532:                         email<3>.           (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <1>:                     email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <2>:                     email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   39)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <4>:                     email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  348)
* RFC; RFC 6585:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <1>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <2>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <3>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  196)
* RFC; RFC 6855:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <1>:                     imaplib<2>.         (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <2>:                     IMAP4 객체.         (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <3>:                     IMAP4 객체.         (line   84)
* RFC; RFC 6856:                         poplib<2>.          (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 6856 <1>:                     POP3 객체.          (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 7159:                         json — JSON 인코더와 디코더.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <1>:                     표준 준수와 상호 운용성.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <2>:                     오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 7230:                         urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  196)
* RFC; RFC 7230 <1>:                     HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 7301:                         응용 프로그램 계층 프로토콜 협상 지원.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <1>:                     상수<9>.            (line  379)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <2>:                     SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  246)
* RFC; RFC 7525:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 7538:                         Library<36>.        (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 7693:                         BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7725:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 7914:                         키 파생.            (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 8089:                         Parsing and generating URIs.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 821:                          smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 821 <1>:                      smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  176)
* RFC; RFC 822:                          New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 822 <1>:                      함수<4>.            (line  717)
* RFC; RFC 822 <2>:                      함수<4>.            (line  720)
* RFC; RFC 822 <3>:                      함수<4>.            (line  729)
* RFC; RFC 822 <4>:                      함수<4>.            (line  732)
* RFC; RFC 822 <5>:                      함수<4>.            (line  745)
* RFC; RFC 822 <6>:                      함수<4>.            (line  748)
* RFC; RFC 822 <7>:                      email 예제.         (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 822 <8>:                      email header 국제화된 헤더.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 822 <9>:                      HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  167)
* RFC; RFC 822 <10>:                     SMTP 객체.          (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 822 <11>:                     SMTP 객체.          (line  217)
* RFC; RFC 822 <12>:                     SMTP 객체.          (line  217)
* RFC; RFC 822 <13>:                     SMTP 예.            (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 822 <14>:                     GNUTranslations 클래스.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 8297:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 8305:                         네트워크 연결 열기. (line   71)
* RFC; RFC 8305 <1>:                     네트워크 연결 열기. (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 8470:                         HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  148)
* RFC; RFC 850:                          Library<7>.         (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 9110:                         Library<7>.         (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <1>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <2>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <3>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <4>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <5>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <6>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <7>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <8>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <9>:                     HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <10>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <11>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   58)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <12>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <13>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <14>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <15>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <16>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <17>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <18>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <19>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <20>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <21>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <22>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <23>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <24>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <25>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  100)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <26>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <27>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <28>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <29>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <30>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <31>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <32>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  121)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <33>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  124)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <34>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <35>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  130)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <36>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  136)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <37>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  139)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <38>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <39>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  166)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <40>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <41>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <42>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <43>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <44>:                    HTTP 상태 코드.     (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <45>:                    HTTP 상태 범주.     (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <46>:                    HTTP 상태 범주.     (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <47>:                    HTTP 상태 범주.     (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <48>:                    HTTP 상태 범주.     (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <49>:                    HTTP 상태 범주.     (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <50>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <51>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <52>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <53>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <54>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <55>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <56>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <57>:                    HTTP 메서드.        (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 9239:                         Library<29>.        (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 6.10-3:          Library<3>.         (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 959:                          ftplib — FTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   15)
* rfc2109 (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.       (line   68)
* rfc2109_as_netscape (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   79)
* rfc2965 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy의 속성): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   67)
* rfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  114)
* rfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler의 속성): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   60)
* rfind() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  205)
* rfind() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  205)
* rfind() (mmap.mmap 메서드):            mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  266)
* rfind() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  446)
* rgb_to_hls() (colorsys 모듈):          colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   35)
* rgb_to_hsv() (colorsys 모듈):          colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   43)
* rgb_to_yiq() (colorsys 모듈):          colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   27)
* rglob() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Reading directories.
                                                             (line   77)
* richcmpfunc (C type):                  슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   86)
* right (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):         dircmp 클래스.      (line   47)
* right_list (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):    dircmp 클래스.      (line   55)
* right_only (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):    dircmp 클래스.      (line   67)
* right() (turtle 모듈):                 거북이 움직임.      (line   40)
* RIGHTSHIFT (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  253)
* RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (token 모듈):          token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  286)
* rindex() (bytearray 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  218)
* rindex() (bytes 메서드):               바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  218)
* rindex() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line  452)
* rjust() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  327)
* rjust() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  327)
* rjust() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  457)
* RLIM_INFINITY (resource 모듈):         자원 제한<2>.       (line   19)
* RLIMIT_AS (resource 모듈):             자원 제한<2>.       (line  141)
* RLIMIT_CORE (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line   87)
* RLIMIT_CPU (resource 모듈):            자원 제한<2>.       (line   93)
* RLIMIT_DATA (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line  105)
* RLIMIT_FSIZE (resource 모듈):          자원 제한<2>.       (line  101)
* RLIMIT_KQUEUES (resource 모듈):        자원 제한<2>.       (line  215)
* RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (resource 모듈):        자원 제한<2>.       (line  130)
* RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (resource 모듈):       자원 제한<2>.       (line  145)
* RLIMIT_NICE (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line  153)
* RLIMIT_NOFILE (resource 모듈):         자원 제한<2>.       (line  122)
* RLIMIT_NPROC (resource 모듈):          자원 제한<2>.       (line  118)
* RLIMIT_NPTS (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line  207)
* RLIMIT_OFILE (resource 모듈):          자원 제한<2>.       (line  126)
* RLIMIT_RSS (resource 모듈):            자원 제한<2>.       (line  114)
* RLIMIT_RTPRIO (resource 모듈):         자원 제한<2>.       (line  161)
* RLIMIT_RTTIME (resource 모듈):         자원 제한<2>.       (line  169)
* RLIMIT_SBSIZE (resource 모듈):         자원 제한<2>.       (line  186)
* RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (resource 모듈):     자원 제한<2>.       (line  178)
* RLIMIT_STACK (resource 모듈):          자원 제한<2>.       (line  109)
* RLIMIT_SWAP (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line  196)
* RLIMIT_VMEM (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line  134)
* RLock (multiprocessing 클래스):        동기화 프리미티브.  (line   95)
* RLock (threading 클래스):              RLock objects.      (line   32)
* RLock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  201)
* rmd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):             FTP 객체.           (line  330)
* rmdir() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line  802)
* rmdir() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   61)
* rmdir() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  107)
* rmtree() (shutil 모듈):                디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  249)
* rmtree() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  114)
* RobotFileParser (urllib.robotparser 클래스): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   15)
* robots.txt:                            urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* rollback() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* rollover() (tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile 메서드): tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  155)
* ROMAN (tkinter.font 모듈):             tkinter font — Tkinter 글꼴 래퍼.
                                                             (line   15)
* root (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):        메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line   31)
* rotate() (collections.deque 메서드):   deque 객체.         (line  104)
* rotate() (decimal.Context 메서드):     Context 객체.       (line  499)
* rotate() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):     Decimal 객체.       (line  509)
* rotate() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler 메서드): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   71)
* RotatingFileHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* rotation_filename() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler 메서드): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   56)
* rotator (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler의 속성): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   48)
* ROUND_05UP (decimal 모듈):             자리 올림 모드.     (line   35)
* ROUND_CEILING (decimal 모듈):          자리 올림 모드.     (line    6)
* ROUND_DOWN (decimal 모듈):             자리 올림 모드.     (line   10)
* ROUND_FLOOR (decimal 모듈):            자리 올림 모드.     (line   14)
* ROUND_HALF_DOWN (decimal 모듈):        자리 올림 모드.     (line   18)
* ROUND_HALF_EVEN (decimal 모듈):        자리 올림 모드.     (line   23)
* ROUND_HALF_UP (decimal 모듈):          자리 올림 모드.     (line   27)
* ROUND_UP (decimal 모듈):               자리 올림 모드.     (line   31)
* Rounded (decimal 클래스):              신호.               (line   77)
* rounding (decimal.Context의 속성):     Context 객체.       (line  122)
* rounds (sys.float_info의 속성):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  642)
* Row (sqlite3 클래스):                  Row objects.        (line    6)
* row_factory (sqlite3.Connection의 속성): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  793)
* row_factory (sqlite3.Cursor의 속성):   Cursor objects.     (line  221)
* rowcount (sqlite3.Cursor의 속성):      Cursor objects.     (line  210)
* RPAR (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  175)
* rpartition() (bytearray 메서드):       바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  230)
* rpartition() (bytes 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  230)
* rpartition() (str 메서드):             문자열 메서드.      (line  463)
* rpc_paths (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler의 속성): SimpleXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   61)
* rpop() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   43)
* RS (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  116)
* rset() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   71)
* RShift (ast 클래스):                   표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* rshift() (operator 모듈):              operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  148)
* rsplit() (bytearray 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  338)
* rsplit() (bytes 메서드):               바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  338)
* rsplit() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line  470)
* RSQB (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  181)
* rstrip() (bytearray 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  348)
* rstrip() (bytes 메서드):               바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  348)
* rstrip() (str 메서드):                 문자열 메서드.      (line  479)
* rt() (turtle 모듈):                    거북이 움직임.      (line   40)
* RTLD_DEEPBIND (os 모듈):               기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* RTLD_GLOBAL (os 모듈):                 기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* RTLD_LAZY (os 모듈):                   기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* RTLD_LOCAL (os 모듈):                  기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* RTLD_NODELETE (os 모듈):               기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* RTLD_NOLOAD (os 모듈):                 기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* RTLD_NOW (os 모듈):                    기타 시스템 정보.   (line  154)
* ruler (cmd.Cmd의 속성):                Cmd 객체.           (line  154)
* run (pdb command):                     디버거 명령들.      (line  396)
* run_coroutine_threadsafe() (asyncio 모듈): 다른 스레드에서 예약하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_docstring_examples() (doctest 모듈): 기본 API.         (line  121)
* run_forever() (asyncio.loop 메서드):   루프 실행 및 중지.  (line   15)
* run_in_executor() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_in_subinterp() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  646)
* run_module() (runpy 모듈):             runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   26)
* run_path() (runpy 모듈):               runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   91)
* run_python_until_end() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   28)
* run_script() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder 메서드): modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기.
                                                             (line   42)
* run_until_complete() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 루프 실행 및 중지.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_with_locale() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  456)
* run_with_tz() (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  463)
* run() (asyncio 모듈):                  Running an asyncio Program.
                                                             (line    6)
* run() (asyncio.Runner 메서드):         Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   36)
* run() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):                bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  419)
* run() (contextvars.Context 메서드):    수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line   63)
* run() (doctest.DocTestRunner 메서드):  DocTestRunner 객체. (line   93)
* run() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.    (line   68)
* run() (pdb 모듈):                      pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  131)
* run() (pdb.Pdb 메서드):                pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  222)
* run() (profile 모듈):                  profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line    9)
* run() (profile.Profile 메서드):        profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line  106)
* run() (sched.scheduler 메서드):        스케줄러 객체.      (line   48)
* run() (subprocess 모듈):               subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line   10)
* run() (threading.Thread 메서드):       Thread objects.     (line   99)
* run() (trace.Trace 메서드):            프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   21)
* run() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  874)
* run() (unittest.TestCase 메서드):      테스트 케이스.      (line   78)
* run() (unittest.TestSuite 메서드):     테스트 분류.        (line   41)
* run() (unittest.TextTestRunner 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  491)
* run() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   91)
* runcall() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):            bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  435)
* runcall() (pdb 모듈):                  pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  149)
* runcall() (pdb.Pdb 메서드):            pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  222)
* runcall() (profile.Profile 메서드):    profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line  115)
* runcode() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 메서드): 대화형 인터프리터 객체.
                                                             (line   33)
* runctx() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):             bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  430)
* runctx() (profile 모듈):               profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line   21)
* runctx() (profile.Profile 메서드):     profile과 cProfile 모듈 레퍼런스.
                                                             (line  110)
* runctx() (trace.Trace 메서드):         프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   27)
* runeval() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):            bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  425)
* runeval() (pdb 모듈):                  pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  142)
* runeval() (pdb.Pdb 메서드):            pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  222)
* runfunc() (trace.Trace 메서드):        프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   33)
* Runner (asyncio 클래스):               Runner context manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* running() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체. (line   26)
* runsource() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 메서드): 대화형 인터프리터 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* runtime (sys._emscripten_info의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  332)
* runtime_checkable() (typing 모듈):     기타 특수 지시자.   (line  175)
* RuntimeError:                          구체적인 예외.      (line  247)
* RuntimeWarning:                        경고.               (line   50)
* RUSAGE_BOTH (resource 모듈):           자원 사용량.        (line  119)
* RUSAGE_CHILDREN (resource 모듈):       자원 사용량.        (line  114)
* RUSAGE_SELF (resource 모듈):           자원 사용량.        (line  108)
* RUSAGE_THREAD (resource 모듈):         자원 사용량.        (line  125)
* RWF_APPEND (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  692)
* RWF_DSYNC (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  672)
* RWF_HIPRI (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  603)
* RWF_NOWAIT (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  589)
* RWF_SYNC (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  682)
* S (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line  108)
* S_ENFMT (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  311)
* S_IEXEC (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  325)
* S_IFBLK (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  202)
* S_IFCHR (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  210)
* S_IFDIR (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  206)
* S_IFDOOR (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  218)
* S_IFIFO (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  214)
* S_IFLNK (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  194)
* S_IFMT() (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   79)
* S_IFPORT (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  224)
* S_IFREG (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  198)
* S_IFSOCK (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  190)
* S_IFWHT (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  230)
* S_IMODE() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   73)
* S_IREAD (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  317)
* S_IRGRP (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  283)
* S_IROTH (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  299)
* S_IRUSR (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  267)
* S_IRWXG (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  279)
* S_IRWXO (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  295)
* S_IRWXU (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  263)
* S_ISBLK() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   29)
* S_ISCHR() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   24)
* S_ISDIR() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   20)
* S_ISDOOR() (stat 모듈):                stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   50)
* S_ISFIFO() (stat 모듈):                stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   38)
* S_ISGID (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  246)
* S_ISLNK() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   42)
* S_ISPORT() (stat 모듈):                stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   56)
* S_ISREG() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   34)
* S_ISSOCK() (stat 모듈):                stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   46)
* S_ISUID (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  242)
* S_ISVTX (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  256)
* S_ISWHT() (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line   63)
* S_IWGRP (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  287)
* S_IWOTH (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  303)
* S_IWRITE (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  321)
* S_IWUSR (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  271)
* S_IXGRP (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  291)
* S_IXOTH (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  307)
* S_IXUSR (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  275)
* safe (uuid.SafeUUID의 속성):           uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* safe_path (sys.flags의 속성):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  542)
* safe_substitute() (string.Template 메서드): 템플릿 문자열. (line   44)
* SafeChildWatcher (asyncio 클래스):     프로세스 감시자.    (line  122)
* saferepr() (pprint 모듈):              함수<3>.            (line  100)
* SafeUUID (uuid 클래스):                uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   28)
* same_files (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):    dircmp 클래스.      (line   84)
* same_quantum() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.     (line  503)
* same_quantum() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.     (line  519)
* samefile() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  406)
* samefile() (pathlib.Path 메서드):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  141)
* SameFileError:                         디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line   50)
* sameopenfile() (os.path 모듈):         os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  419)
* samesite (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성): Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* samestat() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  428)
* sample() (random 모듈):                시퀀스 함수.        (line   65)
* samples() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드): NormalDist 객체. (line   53)
* SATURDAY (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* save() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line  100)
* save() (test.support.SaveSignals 메서드): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  752)
* SaveAs (tkinter.filedialog 클래스):    네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line   56)
* SAVEDCWD (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   14)
* SaveFileDialog (tkinter.filedialog 클래스): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  141)
* SaveKey() (winreg 모듈):               함수<12>.           (line  375)
* SaveSignals (test.support 클래스):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  747)
* savetty() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  412)
* SAX2DOM (xml.dom.pulldom 클래스):      xml dom pulldom — 부분 DOM 트리 구축 지원.
                                                             (line   77)
* SAXException:                          xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line   84)
* SAXNotRecognizedException:             xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line  107)
* SAXNotSupportedException:              xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line  113)
* SAXParseException:                     xml sax — SAX2 구문 분석기 지원.
                                                             (line   99)
* scaleb() (decimal.Context 메서드):     Context 객체.       (line  507)
* scaleb() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):     Decimal 객체.       (line  529)
* scandir() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line  819)
* scanf (C function):                    scanf 시뮬레이션.   (line    6)
* SCHED_BATCH (os 모듈):                 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   18)
* SCHED_FIFO (os 모듈):                  스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   31)
* sched_get_priority_max() (os 모듈):    스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   62)
* sched_get_priority_min() (os 모듈):    스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   57)
* sched_getaffinity() (os 모듈):         스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  107)
* sched_getparam() (os 모듈):            스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   85)
* sched_getscheduler() (os 모듈):        스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   73)
* SCHED_IDLE (os 모듈):                  스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   23)
* SCHED_OTHER (os 모듈):                 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   14)
* sched_param (os 클래스):               스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   45)
* sched_priority (os.sched_param의 속성): 스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   53)
* SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (os 모듈):         스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   39)
* SCHED_RR (os 모듈):                    스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   35)
* sched_rr_get_interval() (os 모듈):     스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   91)
* sched_setaffinity() (os 모듈):         스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  101)
* sched_setparam() (os 모듈):            스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   79)
* sched_setscheduler() (os 모듈):        스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   67)
* SCHED_SPORADIC (os 모듈):              스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   27)
* sched_yield() (os 모듈):               스케줄러에 대한 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   96)
* scheduler (sched 클래스):              sched — 이벤트 스케줄러.
                                                             (line   13)
* SCM_CREDS2 (socket 모듈):              상수<8>.            (line  322)
* scope_id (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.        (line  295)
* Screen (turtle 클래스):                공개 클래스.        (line   29)
* screensize() (turtle 모듈):            창 제어.            (line   61)
* script_from_examples() (doctest 모듈): 디버깅.             (line   71)
* scroll() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  459)
* ScrolledCanvas (turtle 클래스):        공개 클래스.        (line   34)
* ScrolledText (tkinter.scrolledtext 클래스): tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯.
                                                             (line   22)
* scrollok() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  463)
* scrypt() (hashlib 모듈):               키 파생.            (line   49)
* seal() (unittest.mock 모듈):           실링 모의 객체 봉인하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* search_function() (encodings 모듈):    encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line   23)
* search() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  217)
* search() (re 모듈):                    Functions.          (line   34)
* search() (re.Pattern 메서드):          정규식 객체.        (line   15)
* second (datetime.datetime의 속성):     datetime 객체.      (line  314)
* second (datetime.time의 속성):         time 객체.          (line   57)
* seconds (datetime.timedelta의 속성):   timedelta 객체.     (line  108)
* SECTCRE (configparser.ConfigParser의 속성): 구문 분석기 동작 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line  286)
* sections() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  108)
* secure (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.        (line   46)
* secure (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):   Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA2, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, SHA3, Shake, Blake2: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약.
                                                             (line    8)
* Secure Sockets Layer:                  ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* security considerations:               xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩.
                                                             (line   14)
* security_level (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.      (line  601)
* see() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):   ttk Treeview.       (line  222)
* seed_bits (sys.hash_info의 속성):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1028)
* seed() (random 모듈):                  관리 함수.          (line    6)
* seed() (random.Random 메서드):         대체 생성기.        (line   19)
* SEEK_CUR (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  312)
* SEEK_DATA (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  336)
* SEEK_END (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  312)
* SEEK_HOLE (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  336)
* SEEK_SET (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  312)
* seek() (io.IOBase 메서드):             I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  100)
* seek() (io.TextIOBase 메서드):         텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   63)
* seek() (io.TextIOWrapper 메서드):      텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line  192)
* seek() (mmap.mmap 메서드):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  276)
* seek() (sqlite3.Blob 메서드):          Blob objects.       (line   63)
* seekable() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):       파일 압축 해제.     (line   93)
* seekable() (io.IOBase 메서드):         I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  122)
* seekable() (mmap.mmap 메서드):         mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  286)
* select() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  234)
* select() (select 모듈):                select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  109)
* select() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.       (line  105)
* select() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드): ttk Notebook.      (line   50)
* selected_alpn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓. (line  263)
* selected_npn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.  (line  273)
* selection_add() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  244)
* selection_remove() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  251)
* selection_set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  237)
* selection_toggle() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  258)
* selection() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.   (line  230)
* selector (urllib.request.Request의 속성): Request 객체.    (line   33)
* SelectorEventLoop (asyncio 클래스):    이벤트 루프 구현.   (line   11)
* SelectorKey (selectors 클래스):        클래스<3>.          (line   28)
* SelectSelector (selectors 클래스):     클래스<3>.          (line  159)
* Self (typing 모듈):                    특수형.             (line  138)
* Semaphore (asyncio 클래스):            Semaphore.          (line    6)
* Semaphore (multiprocessing 클래스):    동기화 프리미티브.  (line  152)
* Semaphore (threading 클래스):          Semaphore objects.  (line   19)
* Semaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  206)
* SEMI (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  190)
* SEND (opcode):                         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1249)
* send_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   50)
* send_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  206)
* send_fds() (socket 모듈):              기타 함수<2>.       (line  449)
* send_header() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  236)
* send_message() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):  SMTP 객체.          (line  286)
* send_response_only() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  246)
* send_response() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  223)
* send_signal() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 메서드): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line   83)
* send_signal() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   44)
* send_signal() (subprocess.Popen 메서드): Popen 객체.       (line   75)
* send() (coroutine 메서드):             코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* send() (generator 메서드):             제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   27)
* send() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line  195)
* send() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  240)
* send() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler 메서드): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* send() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler 메서드): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   58)
* send() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection 메서드): Connection 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* send() (socket.socket 메서드):         소켓 객체.          (line  380)
* sendall() (socket.socket 메서드):      소켓 객체.          (line  394)
* sendcmd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):         FTP 객체.           (line  151)
* sendfile() (asyncio.loop 메서드):      파일 전송.          (line    6)
* sendfile() (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  725)
* sendfile() (socket.socket 메서드):     소켓 객체.          (line  481)
* sendfile() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  256)
* SendfileNotAvailableError:             예외<10>.           (line   38)
* sendfunc (C type):                     슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  121)
* sendmail() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):      SMTP 객체.          (line  214)
* sendmsg_afalg() (socket.socket 메서드): 소켓 객체.         (line  470)
* sendmsg() (socket.socket 메서드):      소켓 객체.          (line  430)
* sendto() (asyncio.DatagramTransport 메서드): 데이터 그램 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line    6)
* sendto() (socket.socket 메서드):       소켓 객체.          (line  412)
* sentinel (multiprocessing.Process의 속성): Process와 예외. (line  184)
* sentinel (unittest.mock 모듈):         sentinel.           (line    6)
* sep (os 모듈):                         기타 시스템 정보.   (line  109)
* SEPTEMBER (calendar 모듈):             calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  463)
* Sequence (collections.abc 클래스):     Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   64)
* Sequence (typing 클래스):              Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   98)
* sequence (시퀀스):                     용어집.             (line 1262)
* sequence;item:                         서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* sequence;iteration:                    이터레이터 형.      (line    6)
* SequenceMatcher (difflib 클래스):      SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line    8)
* serialize() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  675)
* serve_forever() (asyncio.Server 메서드): 서버 객체.        (line   90)
* serve_forever() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Server (asyncio 클래스):               서버 객체.          (line   12)
* server (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   73)
* server (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler의 속성): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   49)
* server_activate() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  159)
* server_address (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* server_bind() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  165)
* server_close() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   61)
* server_hostname (ssl.SSLSocket의 속성): SSL 소켓.          (line  340)
* server_side (ssl.SSLSocket의 속성):    SSL 소켓.           (line  333)
* server_software (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  162)
* server_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  131)
* server_version (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  336)
* ServerProxy (xmlrpc.client 클래스):    xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스.
                                                             (line   29)
* service_actions() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* session (ssl.SSLSocket의 속성):        SSL 소켓.           (line  352)
* session_reused (ssl.SSLSocket의 속성): SSL 소켓.           (line  361)
* session_stats() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.     (line  459)
* Set (ast 클래스):                      리터럴<2>.          (line   89)
* Set (collections.abc 클래스):          Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   87)
* Set (typing 클래스):                   Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   30)
* set (내장 클래스):                     집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   31)
* Set Breakpoint:                        Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   29)
* set comprehension (집합 컴프리헨션):   용어집.             (line 1281)
* SET_ADD (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  370)
* set_all():                             참조 횟수 상세.     (line   90)
* set_allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 메서드): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   66)
* set_alpn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  242)
* set_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer 메서드): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   62)
* set_asyncgen_hooks() (sys 모듈):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1638)
* set_authorizer() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  344)
* set_auto_history() (readline 모듈):    히스토리 목록.      (line   43)
* set_blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy 메서드): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_blocking() (os 모듈):              파일 기술자 연산.   (line  785)
* set_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  378)
* set_boundary() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  550)
* set_break() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  333)
* set_charset() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  218)
* set_child_watcher() (asyncio 모듈):    프로세스 감시자.    (line   30)
* set_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 메서드): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   23)
* set_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  228)
* set_completer_delims() (readline 모듈): 완성.              (line   44)
* set_completer() (readline 모듈):       완성.               (line   13)
* set_completion_display_matches_hook() (readline 모듈): 완성.
                                                             (line   51)
* set_content() (email.contentmanager 모듈): 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스.
                                                             (line   33)
* set_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager 메서드): email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리.
                                                             (line   38)
* set_content() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  545)
* set_continue() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):       bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  318)
* set_cookie_if_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* set_cookie() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   69)
* set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (sys 모듈): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1662)
* set_data() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  367)
* set_data() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader 메서드): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  220)
* set_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   95)
* set_debug() (asyncio.loop 메서드):     디버그 모드 활성화. (line   13)
* set_debug() (gc 모듈):                 gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   48)
* set_debuglevel() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):  FTP 객체.           (line   72)
* set_debuglevel() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line   82)
* set_debuglevel() (poplib.POP3 메서드): POP3 객체.          (line   11)
* set_debuglevel() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드): SMTP 객체.         (line    8)
* set_default_executor() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 스레드 또는 프로세스 풀에서 코드를 실행하기.
                                                             (line   75)
* set_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  315)
* set_default_type() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  422)
* set_default_verify_paths() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  220)
* set_defaults() (argparse.ArgumentParser 메서드): 파서 기본값.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_defaults() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 기타 메서드.
                                                             (line   27)
* set_ecdh_curve() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.    (line  348)
* set_errno() (ctypes 모듈):             유틸리티 함수.      (line  197)
* set_error_mode() (msvcrt 모듈):        기타 함수<4>.       (line   12)
* set_escdelay() (curses 모듈):          함수<5>.            (line  423)
* set_event_loop_policy() (asyncio 모듈): 정책을 얻고 설정하기.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_event_loop() (asyncio 모듈):       이벤트 루프.        (line   63)
* set_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy 메서드): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* set_events() (sys.monitoring 모듈):    Setting events globally.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 에러 처리 API.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_exception() (asyncio.Future 메서드): Future 객체<2>.   (line   54)
* set_exception() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.
                                                             (line  112)
* set_executable() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.      (line  116)
* set_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  123)
* set_flags() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):  Maildir 객체.       (line  105)
* set_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   70)
* set_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage 메서드): mboxMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* set_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 메서드): MMDFMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* set_forkserver_preload() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.
                                                             (line  131)
* set_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage 메서드): mboxMessage 객체. (line   50)
* set_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage 메서드): MMDFMessage 객체. (line   50)
* SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (opcode):       파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1113)
* set_handle_inheritable() (os 모듈):    파일 기술자의 상속. (line   38)
* set_history_length() (readline 모듈):  히스토리 파일.      (line   29)
* set_info() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):   Maildir 객체.       (line  167)
* set_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line  106)
* set_inheritable() (os 모듈):           파일 기술자의 상속. (line   28)
* set_inheritable() (socket.socket 메서드): 소켓 객체.       (line  496)
* set_int_max_str_digits() (sys 모듈):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1452)
* set_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   49)
* set_last_error() (ctypes 모듈):        유틸리티 함수.      (line  205)
* set_local_events() (sys.monitoring 모듈): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   16)
* set_memlimit() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  301)
* set_name() (asyncio.Task 메서드):      Task 객체.          (line  177)
* set_next() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):           bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  296)
* set_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie 메서드): Cookie 객체.
                                                             (line  101)
* set_npn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트. (line  256)
* set_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy 메서드): CookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* set_param() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  323)
* set_param() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  484)
* set_pasv() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):        FTP 객체.           (line  201)
* set_payload() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  207)
* set_policy() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar 메서드): CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_pre_input_hook() (readline 모듈):  시동 훅.            (line   14)
* set_progress_handler() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  377)
* set_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport 메서드): 베이스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   76)
* set_proxy() (urllib.request.Request 메서드): Request 객체. (line  110)
* set_psk_client_callback() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  636)
* set_psk_server_callback() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  688)
* set_quit() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):           bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  323)
* set_result() (asyncio.Future 메서드):  Future 객체<2>.     (line   47)
* set_result() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.
                                                             (line  100)
* set_return() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):         bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  300)
* set_running_or_notify_cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future 메서드): Future 객체.
                                                             (line   80)
* set_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog 메서드): 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자.
                                                             (line  127)
* set_seq1() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_seq2() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line   58)
* set_seqs() (difflib.SequenceMatcher 메서드): SequenceMatcher 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* set_sequences() (mailbox.MH 메서드):   MH 객체.            (line   61)
* set_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage 메서드): MHMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   35)
* set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   23)
* set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer 메서드): DocXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   22)
* set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer 메서드): DocXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   17)
* set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler 메서드): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer 메서드): DocXMLRPCServer 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* set_servername_callback (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.
                                                             (line  321)
* set_start_method() (multiprocessing 모듈): 잡동사니<3>.    (line  148)
* set_startup_hook() (readline 모듈):    시동 훅.            (line    6)
* set_step() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):           bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  292)
* set_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage 메서드): MaildirMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   57)
* set_tabsize() (curses 모듈):           함수<5>.            (line  437)
* set_task_factory() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 퓨처와 태스크 만들기.
                                                             (line   50)
* set_threshold() (gc 모듈):             gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   85)
* set_trace_callback() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  395)
* set_trace() (bdb 모듈):                bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  467)
* set_trace() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  309)
* set_trace() (pdb 모듈):                pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  156)
* set_trace() (pdb.Pdb 메서드):          pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line  222)
* set_tunnel() (http.client.HTTPConnection 메서드): HTTPConnection 객체.
                                                             (line   91)
* set_type() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  516)
* set_unittest_reportflags() (doctest 모듈): Unittest API.   (line  160)
* set_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  132)
* set_unixfrom() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  144)
* set_until() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  304)
* SET_UPDATE (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  715)
* set_url() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   20)
* set_usage() (optparse.OptionParser 메서드): 기타 메서드.   (line    8)
* set_userptr() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드): Panel 객체.     (line   42)
* set_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   66)
* set_wakeup_fd() (signal 모듈):         모듈 내용<5>.       (line  430)
* set_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   33)
* set;comprehensions:                    집합 디스플레이.    (line    6)
* set;display:                           집합 디스플레이.    (line    6)
* set() (asyncio.Event 메서드):          Event.              (line   50)
* set() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  270)
* set() (configparser.RawConfigParser 메서드): RawConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line   45)
* set() (contextvars.ContextVar 메서드): 컨텍스트 변수.      (line   42)
* set() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드):    Morsel 객체.        (line   60)
* set() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard 메서드): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   63)
* set() (threading.Event 메서드):        Event objects.      (line   29)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox 메서드):   ttk Combobox.       (line   18)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox 메서드):    ttk Spinbox.        (line   12)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드):   ttk Treeview.       (line  265)
* set() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element 메서드): Element 객체.
                                                             (line   80)
* setacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  247)
* setannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드): IMAP4 객체.        (line  252)
* setattrfunc (C type):                  슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   52)
* setAttribute() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.  (line   68)
* setAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   72)
* setAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   79)
* setAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element 메서드): Element 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* setattrofunc (C type):                 슬롯 형 typedef.    (line   65)
* SetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* setblocking() (socket.socket 메서드):  소켓 객체.          (line  503)
* setByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   36)
* setcbreak() (tty 모듈):                tty — 터미널 제어 함수.
                                                             (line   53)
* setCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   54)
* SetComp (ast 클래스):                  컴프리헨션.         (line    6)
* setcomptype() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.   (line   56)
* setconfig() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  659)
* setContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   25)
* setcontext() (decimal 모듈):           Context 객체.       (line   17)
* setDaemon() (threading.Thread 메서드): Thread objects.     (line  205)
* setdefault() (dict 메서드):            매핑 형 — dict.     (line  226)
* setdefault() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드): Morsel 객체.    (line  103)
* setdefaulttimeout() (socket 모듈):     기타 함수<2>.       (line  374)
* setdlopenflags() (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1439)
* setDocumentLocator() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   10)
* setDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   34)
* setegid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  366)
* setEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   22)
* setEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* setErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   54)
* seteuid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  372)
* setFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   75)
* setfirstweekday() (calendar 모듈):     calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  328)
* setfirstweekday() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line   52)
* setFormatter() (logging.Handler 메서드): Handler 객체.     (line   47)
* setframerate() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.  (line   43)
* setgid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  378)
* setgroups() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  384)
* seth() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line  166)
* setheading() (turtle 모듈):            거북이 움직임.      (line  166)
* sethostname() (socket 모듈):           기타 함수<2>.       (line  380)
* setinputsizes() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드): Cursor objects.   (line  159)
* setitem() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  200)
* setitimer() (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  402)
* setLevel() (logging.Handler 메서드):   Handler 객체.       (line   34)
* setLevel() (logging.Logger 메서드):    Logger 객체.        (line   99)
* setlimit() (sqlite3.Connection 메서드): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  613)
* setlocale() (locale 모듈):             locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line   25)
* setLocale() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* setLoggerClass() (logging 모듈):       모듈 수준 함수.     (line  294)
* setlogmask() (syslog 모듈):            syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line   93)
* setLogRecordFactory() (logging 모듈):  모듈 수준 함수.     (line  305)
* setMaxConns() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler 메서드): CacheFTPHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* setmode() (msvcrt 모듈):               파일 연산.          (line   35)
* setName() (threading.Thread 메서드):   Thread objects.     (line  151)
* setnchannels() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.  (line   35)
* setnframes() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.    (line   50)
* setns() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 매개 변수. (line  399)
* setoutputsize() (sqlite3.Cursor 메서드): Cursor objects.   (line  163)
* SetParamEntityParsing() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* setparams() (wave.Wave_write 메서드):  Wave_write 객체.    (line   61)
* setpassword() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드): ZipFile 객체.      (line  234)
* setpgid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  446)
* setpgrp() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  438)
* setpos() (turtle 모듈):                거북이 움직임.      (line   74)
* setpos() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):      Wave_read 객체.     (line   81)
* setposition() (turtle 모듈):           거북이 움직임.      (line   74)
* setpriority() (os 모듈):               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  454)
* setprofile_all_threads() (threading 모듈): Reference<2>.   (line  140)
* setprofile() (sys 모듈):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1460)
* setprofile() (threading 모듈):         Reference<2>.       (line  134)
* setProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader 메서드): XMLReader 객체.
                                                             (line   87)
* setPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* setquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  257)
* setraw() (tty 모듈):                   tty — 터미널 제어 함수.
                                                             (line   42)
* setrecursionlimit() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1513)
* setregid() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  470)
* SetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* setresgid() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  477)
* setresuid() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 매개 변수. (line  486)
* setreuid() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  495)
* setrlimit() (resource 모듈):           자원 제한<2>.       (line   30)
* setsampwidth() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.  (line   39)
* setscrreg() (curses.window 메서드):    창 객체.            (line  472)
* setsid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  509)
* setsockopt() (socket.socket 메서드):   소켓 객체.          (line  536)
* setstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder 메서드): IncrementalDecoder 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* setstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder 메서드): IncrementalEncoder 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* setstate() (random 모듈):              관리 함수.          (line   37)
* setstate() (random.Random 메서드):     대체 생성기.        (line   29)
* setStream() (logging.StreamHandler 메서드): StreamHandler. (line   31)
* setswitchinterval (in module sys):     스레드 상태와 전역 인터프리터 록.
                                                             (line   14)
* setswitchinterval() (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1530)
* setswitchinterval() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  285)
* setSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource 메서드): InputSource 객체.
                                                             (line   14)
* setsyx() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  444)
* setTarget() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   64)
* setter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   42)
* settimeout() (socket.socket 메서드):   소켓 객체.          (line  520)
* setTimeout() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler 메서드): CacheFTPHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* settrace_all_threads() (threading 모듈): Reference<2>.     (line  118)
* settrace() (sys 모듈):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1541)
* settrace() (threading 모듈):           Reference<2>.       (line  112)
* setuid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  516)
* setundobuffer() (turtle 모듈):         특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   60)
* SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode):            파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  429)
* SETUP_CLEANUP (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1392)
* setup_environ() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler 메서드): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  181)
* SETUP_FINALLY (opcode):                파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1385)
* setup_python() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.           (line  145)
* setup_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.          (line  152)
* setup_testing_defaults() (wsgiref.util 모듈): wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   65)
* SETUP_WITH (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line 1400)
* setup() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler 메서드): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* setup() (turtle 모듈):                 TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드.
                                                             (line   19)
* setUp() (unittest.TestCase 메서드):    테스트 케이스.      (line   30)
* setUpClass() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.    (line   50)
* setupterm() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  449)
* SetValue() (winreg 모듈):              함수<12>.           (line  398)
* SetValueEx() (winreg 모듈):            함수<12>.           (line  427)
* setworldcoordinates() (turtle 모듈):   창 제어.            (line   86)
* setx() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line  138)
* setxattr() (os 모듈):                  리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   57)
* sety() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line  152)
* SF_APPEND (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  408)
* SF_ARCHIVED (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  400)
* SF_DATALESS (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  432)
* SF_FIRMLINK (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  426)
* SF_IMMUTABLE (stat 모듈):              stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  404)
* SF_MNOWAIT (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  764)
* SF_NOCACHE (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  775)
* SF_NODISKIO (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  764)
* SF_NOUNLINK (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  418)
* SF_RESTRICTED (stat 모듈):             stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  412)
* SF_SETTABLE (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  378)
* SF_SNAPSHOT (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  422)
* SF_SUPPORTED (stat 모듈):              stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  384)
* SF_SYNC (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  764)
* SF_SYNTHETIC (stat 모듈):              stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  392)
* sha1() (hashlib 모듈):                 생성자.             (line   22)
* sha224() (hashlib 모듈):               생성자.             (line   24)
* sha256() (hashlib 모듈):               생성자.             (line   26)
* sha3_224() (hashlib 모듈):             생성자.             (line   32)
* sha3_256() (hashlib 모듈):             생성자.             (line   34)
* sha3_384() (hashlib 모듈):             생성자.             (line   36)
* sha3_512() (hashlib 모듈):             생성자.             (line   38)
* sha384() (hashlib 모듈):               생성자.             (line   28)
* sha512() (hashlib 모듈):               생성자.             (line   30)
* shake_128() (hashlib 모듈):            SHAKE 가변 길이 요약.
                                                             (line    6)
* shake_256() (hashlib 모듈):            SHAKE 가변 길이 요약.
                                                             (line    8)
* shape (memoryview의 속성):             메모리 뷰.          (line  445)
* Shape (turtle 클래스):                 공개 클래스.        (line   43)
* shape() (turtle 모듈):                 외관.               (line    6)
* shapesize() (turtle 모듈):             외관.               (line   50)
* shapetransform() (turtle 모듈):        외관.               (line  133)
* share() (socket.socket 메서드):        소켓 객체.          (line  570)
* ShareableList (multiprocessing.shared_memory 클래스): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  261)
* ShareableList() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager 메서드): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  222)
* shared_ciphers() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.         (line  227)
* shared_memory (sys._emscripten_info의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  341)
* SharedMemory (multiprocessing.shared_memory 클래스): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line   30)
* SharedMemory() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager 메서드): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  217)
* SharedMemoryManager (multiprocessing.managers 클래스): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  192)
* shearfactor() (turtle 모듈):           외관.               (line   81)
* Shelf (shelve 클래스):                 제약 사항.          (line   25)
* shield() (asyncio 모듈):               취소로부터 보호하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* shift_path_info() (wsgiref.util 모듈): wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   38)
* shift() (decimal.Context 메서드):      Context 객체.       (line  511)
* shift() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):      Decimal 객체.       (line  535)
* shifting;operation:                    시프트 연산.        (line    6)
* shifting;operations:                   정수 형에 대한 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* shlex (shlex 클래스):                  shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석.
                                                             (line   90)
* shm (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList의 속성): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  335)
* SHORT_TIMEOUT (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   79)
* shortDescription() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.
                                                             (line  733)
* shorten() (textwrap 모듈):             textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line   48)
* shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler 메서드): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   68)
* shouldRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler 메서드): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* shouldRollover() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler 메서드): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  112)
* shouldStop (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  277)
* show_code() (dis 모듈):                분석 함수.          (line   24)
* show_flag_values() (enum 모듈):        Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line  101)
* show() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):    Panel 객체.         (line   47)
* show() (tkinter.commondialog.Dialog 메서드): tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿.
                                                             (line   15)
* show() (tkinter.messagebox.Message 메서드): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line   82)
* showerror() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  104)
* showinfo() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):  tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line   91)
* showsyntaxerror() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 메서드): 대화형 인터프리터 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* showtraceback() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 메서드): 대화형 인터프리터 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* showturtle() (turtle 모듈):            가시성.             (line   14)
* showwarning() (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line   98)
* showwarning() (warnings 모듈):         사용 가능한 함수.   (line   83)
* shuffle() (random 모듈):               시퀀스 함수.        (line   50)
* SHUT_RD (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line  376)
* SHUT_RDWR (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line  376)
* SHUT_WR (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line  376)
* ShutDown:                              queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   84)
* shutdown_asyncgens() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 루프 실행 및 중지.
                                                             (line   55)
* shutdown_default_executor() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 루프 실행 및 중지.
                                                             (line   76)
* shutdown() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):     Queue.              (line   80)
* shutdown() (concurrent.futures.Executor 메서드): Executor 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* shutdown() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  262)
* shutdown() (logging 모듈):             모듈 수준 함수.     (line  284)
* shutdown() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line   84)
* shutdown() (queue.Queue 메서드):       Terminating queues. (line    9)
* shutdown() (socket.socket 메서드):     소켓 객체.          (line  561)
* shutdown() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>. (line   54)
* SI (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   71)
* side_effect (unittest.mock.Mock의 속성): Mock 클래스.      (line  359)
* SIG_BLOCK (signal 모듈):               모듈 내용<5>.       (line  228)
* SIG_DFL (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line   45)
* SIG_IGN (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line   52)
* SIG_SETMASK (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  242)
* SIG_UNBLOCK (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  235)
* SIGABRT (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line   56)
* SIGALRM (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line   60)
* SIGBREAK (signal 모듈):                모듈 내용<5>.       (line   66)
* SIGBUS (signal 모듈):                  모듈 내용<5>.       (line   72)
* SIGCHLD (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line   78)
* SIGCLD (signal 모듈):                  모듈 내용<5>.       (line   84)
* SIGCONT (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line   90)
* SIGFPE (signal 모듈):                  모듈 내용<5>.       (line   96)
* SIGHUP (signal 모듈):                  모듈 내용<5>.       (line  106)
* SIGILL (signal 모듈):                  모듈 내용<5>.       (line  112)
* SIGINT (C 매크로):                     시그널 처리하기<2>. (line    7)
* SIGINT (C 매크로) <1>:                 시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   34)
* SIGINT (signal 모듈):                  모듈 내용<5>.       (line  116)
* siginterrupt() (signal 모듈):          모듈 내용<5>.       (line  471)
* SIGKILL (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  122)
* Sigmasks (signal 클래스):              모듈 내용<5>.       (line   31)
* signal() (signal 모듈):                모듈 내용<5>.       (line  486)
* Signals (signal 클래스):               모듈 내용<5>.       (line   17)
* Signature (inspect 클래스):            Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   73)
* signature (inspect.BoundArguments의 속성): Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  347)
* signature() (inspect 모듈):            Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   12)
* sigpending() (signal 모듈):            모듈 내용<5>.       (line  512)
* SIGPIPE (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  130)
* SIGSEGV (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  138)
* SIGSTKFLT (signal 모듈):               모듈 내용<5>.       (line  142)
* SIGTERM (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  154)
* sigtimedwait() (signal 모듈):          모듈 내용<5>.       (line  569)
* SIGUSR1 (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  158)
* SIGUSR2 (signal 모듈):                 모듈 내용<5>.       (line  164)
* sigwait() (signal 모듈):               모듈 내용<5>.       (line  526)
* sigwaitinfo() (signal 모듈):           모듈 내용<5>.       (line  542)
* SIGWINCH (signal 모듈):                모듈 내용<5>.       (line  170)
* SIMPLE (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):   Buffer flags.       (line   15)
* Simple Mail Transfer Protocol:         smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* SimpleCookie (http.cookies 클래스):    http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리.
                                                             (line   44)
* simplefilter() (warnings 모듈):        사용 가능한 함수.   (line  113)
* SimpleHandler (wsgiref.handlers 클래스): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   65)
* SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (http.server 클래스): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  317)
* SimpleNamespace (types 클래스):        추가 유틸리티 클래스와 함수.
                                                             (line    6)
* SimpleQueue (multiprocessing 클래스):  파이프와 큐.        (line  208)
* SimpleQueue (queue 클래스):            queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스.
                                                             (line   67)
* SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server 클래스): xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버.
                                                             (line   60)
* SimpleXMLRPCServer (xmlrpc.server 클래스): xmlrpc server — 기본 XML-RPC 서버.
                                                             (line   24)
* sin() (cmath 모듈):                    삼각 함수<2>.       (line   27)
* sin() (math 모듈):                     삼각 함수.          (line   34)
* single dispatch (싱글 디스패치):       용어집.             (line 1288)
* SingleAddressHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  197)
* singledispatch() (functools 모듈):     functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  405)
* singledispatchmethod (functools 클래스): functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  575)
* singleton;tuple:                       불변 시퀀스.        (line   29)
* sinh() (cmath 모듈):                   쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
                                                             (line   27)
* sinh() (math 모듈):                    쌍곡선 함수.        (line   25)
* SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (socket 모듈):      상수<8>.            (line  248)
* SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (socket 모듈):  상수<8>.            (line  248)
* SIO_RCVALL (socket 모듈):              상수<8>.            (line  248)
* site 명령줄 옵션; -user-base:          명령 줄 인터페이스<9>.
                                                             (line   17)
* site 명령줄 옵션; -user-site:          명령 줄 인터페이스<9>.
                                                             (line   21)
* site_maps() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser 메서드): urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line   67)
* site-packages;디렉터리:                site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   23)
* sitecustomize:                         커스터마이제이션 모듈.
                                                             (line    6)
* sitecustomize <1>:                     커스터마이제이션 모듈.
                                                             (line   19)
* sixtofour (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.       (line  302)
* size (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory의 속성): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line  117)
* size (struct.Struct의 속성):           클래스<2>.          (line   59)
* size (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):         TarInfo 객체.       (line   63)
* size (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff의 속성): StatisticDiff.    (line   25)
* size (tracemalloc.Statistic의 속성):   Statistic.          (line   19)
* size (tracemalloc.Trace의 속성):       Trace.              (line   23)
* size_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff의 속성): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   30)
* SIZE_MAX (C 매크로):                   정수 객체.          (line  257)
* size() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):            FTP 객체.           (line  334)
* size() (mmap.mmap 메서드):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  293)
* Sized (collections.abc 클래스):        Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   14)
* Sized (typing 클래스):                 Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   68)
* sizeof_digit (sys.int_info의 속성):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1107)
* sizeof() (ctypes 모듈):                유틸리티 함수.      (line  216)
* SKIP (doctest 모듈):                   옵션 플래그.        (line   82)
* skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  704)
* skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (test.support.socket_helper 모듈): test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   56)
* skip_unless_symlink() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  121)
* skip_unless_xattr() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  125)
* skip() (unittest 모듈):                테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패.
                                                             (line   84)
* skipIf() (unittest 모듈):              테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패.
                                                             (line   89)
* skipinitialspace (csv.Dialect의 속성): 방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   80)
* skipped (doctest.TestResults의 속성):  TestResults 객체.   (line   16)
* skipped (unittest.TestResult의 속성):  테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  252)
* skippedEntity() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line  168)
* skips (doctest.DocTestRunner의 속성):  DocTestRunner 객체. (line  132)
* SkipTest:                              테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패.
                                                             (line  104)
* skipTest() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.      (line   92)
* skipUnless() (unittest 모듈):          테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패.
                                                             (line   93)
* SLASH (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  202)
* SLASHEQUAL (token 모듈):               token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  268)
* sleep() (asyncio 모듈):                잠자기.             (line    6)
* sleep() (time 모듈):                   함수<4>.            (line  257)
* sleeping_retry() (test.support 모듈):  test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  218)
* slice:                                 슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* Slice (ast 클래스):                    서브스크립팅.       (line   27)
* slice (내장 클래스):                   내장 함수.          (line 1730)
* slice (슬라이스):                      용어집.             (line 1293)
* slice;assignment:                      가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* slice;operation:                       공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* slicing:                               시퀀스들.           (line   14)
* slicing <1>:                           가변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* slicing <2>:                           슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line    6)
* slow_callback_duration (asyncio.loop의 속성): 디버그 모드 활성화.
                                                             (line   20)
* SMALLEST (test.support 모듈):          test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  189)
* SMTP (email.policy 모듈):              email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  464)
* SMTP (smtplib 클래스):                 smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   21)
* SMTP_SSL (smtplib 클래스):             smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line   71)
* SMTP;프로토콜:                         smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* SMTPAuthenticationError:               smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  168)
* SMTPConnectError:                      smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  154)
* SMTPDataError:                         smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  150)
* SMTPException:                         smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  118)
* SMTPHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): SMTPHandler.        (line    9)
* SMTPHeloError:                         smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  158)
* SMTPNotSupportedError:                 smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  162)
* SMTPRecipientsRefused:                 smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  144)
* SMTPResponseException:                 smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  131)
* SMTPSenderRefused:                     smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  138)
* SMTPServerDisconnected:                smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  126)
* SMTPUTF8 (email.policy 모듈):          email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  470)
* Snapshot (tracemalloc 클래스):         Snapshot.           (line    6)
* SND_ALIAS (winsound 모듈):             winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   44)
* SND_APPLICATION (winsound 모듈):       winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  125)
* SND_ASYNC (winsound 모듈):             winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  106)
* SND_FILENAME (winsound 모듈):          winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   39)
* SND_LOOP (winsound 모듈):              winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   85)
* SND_MEMORY (winsound 모듈):            winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   91)
* SND_NODEFAULT (winsound 모듈):         winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  110)
* SND_NOSTOP (winsound 모듈):            winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  115)
* SND_NOWAIT (winsound 모듈):            winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  119)
* SND_PURGE (winsound 모듈):             winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  100)
* sni_callback (ssl.SSLContext의 속성):  SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  272)
* sniff() (csv.Sniffer 메서드):          모듈 내용<3>.       (line  218)
* Sniffer (csv 클래스):                  모듈 내용<3>.       (line  211)
* SO (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   68)
* SO_INCOMING_CPU (socket 모듈):         상수<8>.            (line  336)
* sock_accept() (asyncio.loop 메서드):   소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line  104)
* SOCK_CLOEXEC (socket 모듈):            상수<8>.            (line   38)
* sock_connect() (asyncio.loop 메서드):  소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   85)
* SOCK_DGRAM (socket 모듈):              상수<8>.            (line   27)
* SOCK_MAX_SIZE (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  122)
* SOCK_NONBLOCK (socket 모듈):           상수<8>.            (line   38)
* SOCK_RAW (socket 모듈):                상수<8>.            (line   27)
* SOCK_RDM (socket 모듈):                상수<8>.            (line   27)
* sock_recv_into() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   25)
* sock_recv() (asyncio.loop 메서드):     소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   12)
* sock_recvfrom_into() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   47)
* sock_recvfrom() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   36)
* sock_sendall() (asyncio.loop 메서드):  소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   58)
* sock_sendfile() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line  125)
* sock_sendto() (asyncio.loop 메서드):   소켓 객체로 직접 작업하기.
                                                             (line   74)
* SOCK_SEQPACKET (socket 모듈):          상수<8>.            (line   27)
* SOCK_STREAM (socket 모듈):             상수<8>.            (line   27)
* socket (socket 클래스):                소켓 만들기.        (line    8)
* socket (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.     (line   85)
* socket_type (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* socket() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  268)
* socket() (socket 모듈):                select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  135)
* SocketHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): SocketHandler.    (line   10)
* socketpair() (socket 모듈):            소켓 만들기.        (line   62)
* sockets (asyncio.Server의 속성):       서버 객체.          (line  126)
* SocketType (socket 모듈):              소켓 만들기.        (line  181)
* soft deprecated (약하게 폐지된):       용어집.             (line 1300)
* SOFT_KEYWORD (token 모듈):             token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  147)
* softkwlist (keyword 모듈):             keyword — 파이썬 키워드 검사.
                                                             (line   29)
* SOH (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   21)
* SOL_ALG (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line  264)
* SOL_RDS (socket 모듈):                 상수<8>.            (line  235)
* SOMAXCONN (socket 모듈):               상수<8>.            (line   54)
* sort_stats() (pstats.Stats 메서드):    Stats 클래스.       (line   59)
* sort() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):         IMAP4 객체.         (line  272)
* sort() (list 메서드):                  리스트<2>.          (line   36)
* sortdict() (test.support 모듈):        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  266)
* sortTestMethodsUsing (unittest.TestLoader의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  190)
* source (doctest.Example의 속성):       Example 객체.       (line   15)
* source (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  265)
* source (shlex.shlex의 속성):           shlex 객체.         (line  135)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:                     py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:                 Library<57>.        (line  452)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:                 Build<60>.          (line   15)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:                 py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   59)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:                 py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   75)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:                 py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   79)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:                 명령 줄 사용.       (line   90)
* source_from_cache() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line   54)
* source_hash() (importlib.util 모듈):   importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  154)
* SOURCE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery 모듈): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   13)
* source_to_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader의 정적 메서드): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  230)
* SourceFileLoader (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  194)
* sourcehook() (shlex.shlex 메서드):     shlex 객체.         (line   26)
* SourcelessFileLoader (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  234)
* SourceLoader (importlib.abc 클래스):   importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  313)
* SP (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  123)
* space;in printf-style formatting:      printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   64)
* space;in printf-style formatting <1>:  printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line   58)
* span() (re.Match 메서드):              일치 객체.          (line  161)
* sparse (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):       TarInfo 객체.       (line  154)
* spawn_python() (test.support.script_helper 모듈): test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   66)
* spawn() (pty 모듈):                    pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   41)
* spawnl() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnle() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnlp() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnlpe() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnv() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnve() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnvp() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spawnvpe() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line  578)
* spec_from_file_location() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  143)
* spec_from_loader() (importlib.util 모듈): importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드.
                                                             (line  133)
* special method (특수 메서드):          용어집.             (line 1311)
* special;attribute:                     표준형 계층.        (line   12)
* special;method (메서드):               용어집.             (line 1315)
* SpecialFileError:                      tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  239)
* specified_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser의 속성): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  147)
* speed() (turtle 모듈):                 거북이 움직임.      (line  325)
* Spinbox (tkinter.ttk 클래스):          ttk Spinbox.        (line    6)
* SPLICE_F_MORE (os 모듈):               파일 기술자 연산.   (line  832)
* SPLICE_F_MOVE (os 모듈):               파일 기술자 연산.   (line  832)
* SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK (os 모듈):           파일 기술자 연산.   (line  832)
* splice() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  805)
* split() (BaseExceptionGroup 메서드):   예외 그룹.          (line   70)
* split() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  376)
* split() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  376)
* split() (os.path 모듈):                os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  438)
* split() (re 모듈):                     Functions.          (line   78)
* split() (re.Pattern 메서드):           정규식 객체.        (line   78)
* split() (shlex 모듈):                  shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석.
                                                             (line   17)
* split() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  499)
* splitdrive() (os.path 모듈):           os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  453)
* splitext() (os.path 모듈):             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  508)
* splitlines() (bytearray 메서드):       바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  608)
* splitlines() (bytes 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  608)
* splitlines() (str 메서드):             문자열 메서드.      (line  552)
* SplitResult (urllib.parse 클래스):     구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   52)
* SplitResultBytes (urllib.parse 클래스): 구조화된 구문 분석 결과.
                                                             (line   79)
* splitroot() (os.path 모듈):            os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  477)
* SpooledTemporaryFile (tempfile 클래스): tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  145)
* sprintf-style formatting:              printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* sprintf-style formatting <1>:          printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.  (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.  (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA (sqlite3 모듈): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DENY (sqlite3 모듈):            Module constants.   (line   49)
* sqlite_errorcode (sqlite3.Error의 속성): 예외<5>.          (line   24)
* sqlite_errorname (sqlite3.Error의 속성): 예외<5>.          (line   30)
* SQLITE_IGNORE (sqlite3 모듈):          Module constants.   (line   49)
* SQLITE_OK (sqlite3 모듈):              Module constants.   (line   49)
* sqlite_version (sqlite3 모듈):         Module constants.   (line   78)
* sqlite_version_info (sqlite3 모듈):    Module constants.   (line   83)
* sqrt() (cmath 모듈):                   거듭제곱과 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   22)
* sqrt() (decimal.Context 메서드):       Context 객체.       (line  515)
* sqrt() (decimal.Decimal 메서드):       Decimal 객체.       (line  545)
* sqrt() (math 모듈):                    거듭제곱 지수 및 로그 함수.
                                                             (line   85)
* ssizeargfunc (C type):                 슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  131)
* ssizeobjargproc (C type):              슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  135)
* SSL:                                   ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* ssl_version (ftplib.FTP_TLS의 속성):   FTP_TLS 객체.       (line   81)
* SSLCertVerificationError:              예외<13>.           (line   73)
* SSLContext (ssl 클래스):               SSL 컨텍스트.       (line   12)
* SSLEOFError:                           예외<13>.           (line   65)
* SSLError:                              예외<13>.           (line    6)
* SSLErrorNumber (ssl 클래스):           상수<9>.            (line  533)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE:                         컨텍스트 생성.      (line   33)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:                     컨텍스트 생성.      (line   79)
* SSLObject (ssl 클래스):                메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line   28)
* sslobject_class (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.     (line  450)
* SSLSession (ssl 클래스):               SSL 세션.           (line    8)
* SSLSocket (ssl 클래스):                SSL 소켓.           (line    6)
* sslsocket_class (ssl.SSLContext의 속성): SSL 컨텍스트.     (line  424)
* SSLSyscallError:                       예외<13>.           (line   57)
* SSLv3 (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성):         상수<9>.            (line  555)
* SSLWantReadError:                      예외<13>.           (line   41)
* SSLWantWriteError:                     예외<13>.           (line   49)
* SSLZeroReturnError:                    예외<13>.           (line   33)
* st_atime (os.stat_result의 속성):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1154)
* ST_ATIME (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  163)
* st_atime_ns (os.stat_result의 속성):   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1171)
* st_birthtime (os.stat_result의 속성):  파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1195)
* st_birthtime_ns (os.stat_result의 속성): 파일과 디렉터리.  (line 1203)
* st_blksize (os.stat_result의 속성):    파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1240)
* st_blocks (os.stat_result의 속성):     파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1235)
* st_creator (os.stat_result의 속성):    파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1273)
* st_ctime (os.stat_result의 속성):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1162)
* ST_CTIME (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  171)
* st_ctime_ns (os.stat_result의 속성):   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1183)
* st_dev (os.stat_result의 속성):        파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1130)
* ST_DEV (stat 모듈):                    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  142)
* st_file_attributes (os.stat_result의 속성): 파일과 디렉터리.
                                                             (line 1283)
* st_flags (os.stat_result의 속성):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1250)
* st_fstype (os.stat_result의 속성):     파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1263)
* st_gen (os.stat_result의 속성):        파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1257)
* st_gid (os.stat_result의 속성):        파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1142)
* ST_GID (stat 모듈):                    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  154)
* st_ino (os.stat_result의 속성):        파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1121)
* ST_INO (stat 모듈):                    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  138)
* st_mode (os.stat_result의 속성):       파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1117)
* ST_MODE (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  134)
* st_mtime (os.stat_result의 속성):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1158)
* ST_MTIME (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  167)
* st_mtime_ns (os.stat_result의 속성):   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1177)
* st_nlink (os.stat_result의 속성):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1134)
* ST_NLINK (stat 모듈):                  stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  146)
* st_rdev (os.stat_result의 속성):       파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1246)
* st_reparse_tag (os.stat_result의 속성): 파일과 디렉터리.   (line 1293)
* st_rsize (os.stat_result의 속성):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1269)
* st_size (os.stat_result의 속성):       파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1146)
* ST_SIZE (stat 모듈):                   stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  158)
* st_type (os.stat_result의 속성):       파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1277)
* st_uid (os.stat_result의 속성):        파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1138)
* ST_UID (stat 모듈):                    stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  150)
* st() (turtle 모듈):                    가시성.             (line   14)
* stack (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   72)
* stack_effect() (dis 모듈):             분석 함수.          (line  181)
* stack_size() (_thread 모듈):           _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line  105)
* stack_size() (threading 모듈):         Reference<2>.       (line  156)
* stack;trace:                           트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stack() (inspect 모듈):                인터프리터 스택.    (line  165)
* stackable;스트림:                      codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    8)
* StackSummary (traceback 클래스):       StackSummary 객체.  (line   10)
* stamp() (turtle 모듈):                 거북이 움직임.      (line  269)
* standard library:                      용어집.             (line 1318)
* standard_b64decode() (base64 모듈):    RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   52)
* standard_b64encode() (base64 모듈):    RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   47)
* standend() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  477)
* standout() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  482)
* STAR (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  199)
* STAREQUAL (token 모듈):                token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  265)
* starmap_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  152)
* starmap() (itertools 모듈):            Itertool Functions. (line  542)
* starmap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀. (line  141)
* Starred (ast 클래스):                  변수.               (line   40)
* start (range의 속성):                  범위.               (line   57)
* start (slice object attribute):        슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* start (slice object attribute) <1>:    슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   25)
* start (slice의 속성):                  내장 함수.          (line 1743)
* start (UnicodeError의 속성):           구체적인 예외.      (line  430)
* start_color() (curses 모듈):           함수<5>.            (line  456)
* start_new_thread() (_thread 모듈):     _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   31)
* start_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   73)
* start_server() (asyncio 모듈):         스트림.             (line   73)
* start_serving() (asyncio.Server 메서드): 서버 객체.        (line   74)
* start_threads() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   22)
* start_tls() (asyncio.loop 메서드):     TLS 업그레이드.     (line    6)
* start_tls() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.   (line   83)
* start_unix_server() (asyncio 모듈):    스트림.             (line  138)
* start() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 메서드): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   66)
* start() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line   56)
* start() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.  (line   90)
* start() (re.Match 메서드):             일치 객체.          (line  137)
* start() (threading.Thread 메서드):     Thread objects.     (line   88)
* start() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar 메서드): ttk Progressbar. (line    8)
* start() (tracemalloc 모듈):            함수<10>.           (line   66)
* start() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder 메서드): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line   42)
* StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors 예외와 결함 클래스.
                                                             (line   77)
* startCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 메서드): LexicalHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   32)
* StartCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  321)
* StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  211)
* startDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   31)
* startDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler 메서드): LexicalHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* startElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   78)
* StartElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  245)
* startElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   98)
* STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.    (line   44)
* STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.     (line   35)
* STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.       (line   30)
* STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (subprocess 모듈): 윈도우 상수.       (line   24)
* startfile() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line  687)
* StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  301)
* startPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler 메서드): ContentHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   48)
* StartResponse (wsgiref.types 클래스):  wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   11)
* startswith() (bytearray 메서드):       바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  242)
* startswith() (bytes 메서드):           바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  242)
* startswith() (str 메서드):             문자열 메서드.      (line  622)
* startTest() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  335)
* startTestRun() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  344)
* starttls() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  288)
* starttls() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):      SMTP 객체.          (line  173)
* STARTUPINFO (subprocess 클래스):       윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line    9)
* stat_result (os 클래스):               파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1109)
* stat() (os 모듈):                      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1055)
* stat() (os.DirEntry 메서드):           파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1019)
* stat() (pathlib.Path 메서드):          Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   13)
* stat() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   48)
* state() (tkinter.ttk.Widget 메서드):   ttk Widget.         (line   25)
* statement (문장):                      용어집.             (line 1330)
* statement;async def:                   코루틴.             (line    8)
* statement;async for:                   코루틴 함수 정의.   (line   28)
* statement;async with:                  async for 문.       (line   42)
* statement;break:                       while 문.           (line   16)
* statement;break <1>:                   for 문<2>.          (line   20)
* statement;break <2>:                   except* clause.     (line   57)
* statement;break <3>:                   finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement;class:                       클래스 정의.        (line    6)
* statement;continue:                    while 문.           (line   16)
* statement;continue <1>:                for 문<2>.          (line   20)
* statement;continue <2>:                except* clause.     (line   56)
* statement;continue <3>:                finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement;def:                         함수 정의.          (line    6)
* statement;del:                         기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line   53)
* statement;del <1>:                     가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* statement;del <2>:                     매핑 형 — dict.     (line    6)
* statement;for:                         for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* statement;if:                          if 문<2>.           (line    6)
* statement;if <1>:                      논리값 검사.        (line    6)
* statement;import:                      모듈 Modules.       (line    6)
* statement;import <1>:                  내장 함수.          (line 2122)
* statement;match:                       The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;return:                      except* clause.     (line   57)
* statement;return <1>:                  finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement;try:                         트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* statement;try <1>:                     try 문.             (line    6)
* statement;while:                       while 문.           (line    6)
* statement;while <1>:                   논리값 검사.        (line    6)
* statement;with:                        with 문 컨텍스트 관리자.
                                                             (line   13)
* statement;with <1>:                    with 문.            (line    6)
* static type checker (정적 형 검사기):  용어집.             (line 1337)
* static_order() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter 메서드): graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line  150)
* Statistic (tracemalloc 클래스):        Statistic.          (line    6)
* StatisticDiff (tracemalloc 클래스):    StatisticDiff.      (line    6)
* statistics() (tracemalloc.Snapshot 메서드): Snapshot.      (line   55)
* StatisticsError:                       예외<4>.            (line    8)
* Stats (pstats 클래스):                 Stats 클래스.       (line    9)
* status (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   59)
* status (urllib.response.addinfourl의 속성): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   24)
* status() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  301)
* statvfs() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1344)
* STD_ERROR_HANDLE (subprocess 모듈):    윈도우 상수.        (line   16)
* STD_INPUT_HANDLE (subprocess 모듈):    윈도우 상수.        (line    8)
* STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (subprocess 모듈):   윈도우 상수.        (line   12)
* stderr (asyncio.subprocess.Process의 속성): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line  122)
* stderr (in module sys):                I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* stderr (in module sys) <1>:            서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  109)
* stderr (in module sys) <2>:            서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  188)
* stderr (subprocess.CalledProcessError의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  220)
* stderr (subprocess.CompletedProcess의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  120)
* stderr (subprocess.Popen의 속성):      Popen 객체.         (line  126)
* stderr (subprocess.TimeoutExpired의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  183)
* stderr (sys 모듈):                     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1741)
* stdev (statistics.NormalDist의 속성):  NormalDist 객체.    (line   32)
* stdev() (statistics 모듈):             함수 세부 사항.     (line  418)
* stdin (asyncio.subprocess.Process의 속성): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdin (in module sys):                 I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdin (in module sys) <1>:             서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  109)
* stdin (in module sys) <2>:             서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  188)
* stdin (subprocess.Popen의 속성):       Popen 객체.         (line  108)
* stdin (sys 모듈):                      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1741)
* stdio:                                 I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdlib:                                용어집.             (line 1343)
* stdlib_module_names (sys 모듈):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1824)
* stdout (asyncio.subprocess.Process의 속성): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line  117)
* stdout (in module sys):                I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdout (in module sys) <1>:            서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  109)
* stdout (in module sys) <2>:            서브 인터프리터 지원.
                                                             (line  188)
* STDOUT (subprocess 모듈):              subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  147)
* stdout (subprocess.CalledProcessError의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  216)
* stdout (subprocess.CompletedProcess의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  110)
* stdout (subprocess.Popen의 속성):      Popen 객체.         (line  117)
* stdout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  179)
* stdout (sys 모듈):                     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1741)
* stem (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):        메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  160)
* step (pdb command):                    디버거 명령들.      (line  182)
* step (range의 속성):                   범위.               (line   65)
* step (slice object attribute):         슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* step (slice object attribute) <1>:     슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   25)
* step (slice의 속성):                   내장 함수.          (line 1747)
* step() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar 메서드): ttk Progressbar.  (line   14)
* stls() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line  108)
* stop (range의 속성):                   범위.               (line   61)
* stop (slice object attribute):         슬라이스 객체 Slice objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* stop (slice object attribute) <1>:     슬라이싱 Slicings.  (line   25)
* stop (slice의 속성):                   내장 함수.          (line 1745)
* stop_here() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  239)
* STOP_ITERATION (monitoring event):     Events.             (line   81)
* stop() (asyncio.loop 메서드):          루프 실행 및 중지.  (line   30)
* stop() (logging.handlers.QueueListener 메서드): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   76)
* stop() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar 메서드): ttk Progressbar.  (line   20)
* stop() (tracemalloc 모듈):             함수<10>.           (line   94)
* stop() (unittest.TestResult 메서드):   테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  318)
* StopAsyncIteration:                    구체적인 예외.      (line  282)
* StopIteration:                         구체적인 예외.      (line  252)
* stopListening() (logging.config 모듈): 구성 함수.          (line  159)
* stopTest() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  339)
* stopTestRun() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  350)
* storbinary() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):      FTP 객체.           (line  207)
* Store (ast 클래스):                    변수.               (line   11)
* STORE_ACTIONS (optparse.Option의 속성): 새로운 액션 추가하기.
                                                             (line   32)
* STORE_ATTR (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  600)
* STORE_DEREF (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  989)
* STORE_FAST (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  939)
* STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode):         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  950)
* STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (opcode):        파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  943)
* STORE_GLOBAL (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  621)
* STORE_NAME (opcode):                   파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  558)
* STORE_SLICE (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  287)
* STORE_SUBSCR (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  259)
* store() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):        IMAP4 객체.         (line  305)
* storlines() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):       FTP 객체.           (line  236)
* str (built-in class);(see also string): 범위.              (line  116)
* str (내장 클래스):                     텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str.
                                                             (line   42)
* str_digits_check_threshold (sys.int_info의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1116)
* str() (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  445)
* strcoll() (locale 모듈):               locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  403)
* StreamError:                           tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  205)
* StreamHandler (logging 클래스):        StreamHandler.      (line   11)
* StreamReader (asyncio 클래스):         StreamReader.       (line    6)
* StreamReader (codecs 클래스):          StreamReader 객체.  (line   10)
* streamreader (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성): codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   92)
* StreamReaderWriter (codecs 클래스):    StreamReaderWriter 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* StreamRecoder (codecs 클래스):         StreamRecoder 객체. (line   12)
* StreamRequestHandler (socketserver 클래스): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* StreamWriter (asyncio 클래스):         StreamWriter.       (line    6)
* StreamWriter (codecs 클래스):          StreamWriter 객체.  (line   10)
* streamwriter (codecs.CodecInfo의 속성): codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line   92)
* StrEnum (enum 클래스):                 Data Types.         (line  391)
* strerror (C 함수):                     예외 발생시키기.    (line   56)
* strerror (OSError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line  179)
* strerror() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  522)
* strftime() (datetime.date 메서드):     date 객체.          (line  289)
* strftime() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.      (line  737)
* strftime() (datetime.time 메서드):     time 객체.          (line  218)
* strftime() (time 모듈):                함수<4>.            (line  311)
* strict (csv.Dialect의 속성):           방언과 포매팅 파라미터.
                                                             (line   85)
* strict (email.policy 모듈):            email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  485)
* STRICT (enum.FlagBoundary의 속성):     Data Types.         (line  669)
* strict_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   91)
* strict_errors() (codecs 모듈):         에러 처리기.        (line  133)
* strict_ns_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  114)
* strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  119)
* strict_ns_set_path (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  123)
* strict_ns_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line  109)
* strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy의 속성): DefaultCookiePolicy 객체.
                                                             (line   99)
* strict;에러 처리기의 이름:             에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* STRIDED (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):  Buffer flags.       (line   37)
* STRIDED_RO (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.     (line   39)
* STRIDES (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):  Buffer flags.       (line   23)
* strides (memoryview의 속성):           메모리 뷰.          (line  453)
* string (re.Match의 속성):              일치 객체.          (line  197)
* STRING (token 모듈):                   token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   52)
* string_at() (ctypes 모듈):             유틸리티 함수.      (line  221)
* string;__format__() (object method):   기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  146)
* string;__str__() (object method):      기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  125)
* string;conversion:                     기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  146)
* string;format() (built-in function):   내장 함수.          (line  763)
* string;formatted literal:              문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* string;formatting, printf:             printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;immutable sequences:            불변 시퀀스.        (line   13)
* string;interpolated literal:           문자열 메서드.      (line  733)
* string;interpolation, printf:          printf 스타일 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;item:                           서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* string;methods:                        텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str.
                                                             (line   86)
* string;str (built-in class):           텍스트 시퀀스 형 — str.
                                                             (line   42)
* string;str() (built-in function):      내장 함수.          (line 1833)
* string;text sequence type:             범위.               (line  116)
* StringIO (io 클래스):                  텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line  227)
* strip_dirs() (pstats.Stats 메서드):    Stats 클래스.       (line   31)
* strip() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  419)
* strip() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  419)
* strip() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  630)
* stripspaces (curses.textpad.Textbox의 속성): Textbox 객체. (line  111)
* strong reference (강한 참조):          용어집.             (line 1347)
* strptime() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line  245)
* strptime() (time 모듈):                함수<4>.            (line  463)
* strsignal() (signal 모듈):             모듈 내용<5>.       (line  286)
* Struct (struct 클래스):                클래스<2>.          (line    8)
* struct_time (time 클래스):             함수<4>.            (line  494)
* structmember.h:                        Member types.       (line   85)
* Structure (ctypes 클래스):             구조화된 데이터형.  (line   35)
* strxfrm() (locale 모듈):               locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  409)
* STX (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   24)
* Style (tkinter.ttk 클래스):            Ttk 스타일링.       (line   19)
* Sub (ast 클래스):                      표현식<2>.          (line   53)
* SUB (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  104)
* sub() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  153)
* sub() (re 모듈):                       Functions.          (line  166)
* sub() (re.Pattern 메서드):             정규식 객체.        (line   94)
* subclassing;immutable types:           기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line    8)
* subdirs (filecmp.dircmp의 속성):       dircmp 클래스.      (line   98)
* SubElement() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.        (line  197)
* subgroup() (BaseExceptionGroup 메서드): 예외 그룹.         (line   43)
* submit() (concurrent.futures.Executor 메서드): Executor 객체.
                                                             (line   11)
* submodule_search_locations (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec의 속성): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line  385)
* subn() (re 모듈):                      Functions.          (line  237)
* subn() (re.Pattern 메서드):            정규식 객체.        (line   98)
* subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체. (line  198)
* subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체. (line  327)
* subnets() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.   (line  158)
* subnets() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.   (line  323)
* Subnormal (decimal 클래스):            신호.               (line   86)
* suboffsets (memoryview의 속성):        메모리 뷰.          (line  461)
* subpad() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  486)
* subprocess_exec() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 자식 프로세스 실행하기.
                                                             (line   16)
* subprocess_shell() (asyncio.loop 메서드): 자식 프로세스 실행하기.
                                                             (line  111)
* SubprocessError:                       subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  152)
* SubprocessProtocol (asyncio 클래스):   베이스 프로토콜.    (line   24)
* SubprocessTransport (asyncio 클래스):  트랜스포트 계층 구조.
                                                             (line   49)
* subscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):    IMAP4 객체.         (line  329)
* Subscript (ast 클래스):                서브스크립팅.       (line    6)
* subscript;assignment:                  가변 시퀀스 형.     (line   15)
* subscript;operation:                   공통 시퀀스 연산.   (line   18)
* subscription:                          시퀀스들.           (line    6)
* subscription <1>:                      가변 시퀀스.        (line    6)
* subscription <2>:                      매핑 Mappings.      (line    6)
* subscription <3>:                      서브스크립션 Subscriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* subsequent_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  210)
* substitute() (string.Template 메서드): 템플릿 문자열.      (line   36)
* subTest() (unittest.TestCase 메서드):  테스트 케이스.      (line  100)
* subtract() (collections.Counter 메서드): Counter 객체.     (line   85)
* subtract() (decimal.Context 메서드):   Context 객체.       (line  519)
* subtraction:                           이항 산술 연산.     (line   78)
* subtype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  253)
* subwin() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  493)
* successful() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  205)
* suffix (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):      메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  136)
* suffix_map (mimetypes 모듈):           mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  131)
* suffix_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes의 속성): MimeTypes 객체.   (line   23)
* suffixes (pathlib.PurePath의 속성):    메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  149)
* suite:                                 복합문 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   16)
* suiteClass (unittest.TestLoader의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  195)
* sum_list():                            참조 횟수 상세.     (line  131)
* sum_sequence():                        참조 횟수 상세.     (line  158)
* sum_sequence() <1>:                    예외<18>.           (line   54)
* summarize_address_range() (ipaddress 모듈): 다른 모듈 수준 함수.
                                                             (line   27)
* summarize() (doctest.DocTestRunner 메서드): DocTestRunner 객체.
                                                             (line  113)
* sumprod() (math 모듈):                 합과 곱 함수.       (line   58)
* SUNDAY (calendar 모듈):                calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* super (pyclbr.Class의 속성):           Class 객체.         (line   40)
* super (내장 클래스):                   내장 함수.          (line 1866)
* supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  209)
* supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  329)
* supernet() (ipaddress.IPv4Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.  (line  183)
* supernet() (ipaddress.IPv6Network 메서드): 네트워크 객체.  (line  325)
* supports_bytes_environ (os 모듈):      프로세스 매개 변수. (line  528)
* supports_dir_fd (os 모듈):             파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1386)
* supports_effective_ids (os 모듈):      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1409)
* supports_fd (os 모듈):                 파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1427)
* supports_follow_symlinks (os 모듈):    파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1444)
* supports_unicode_filenames (os.path 모듈): os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  538)
* SupportsAbs (typing 클래스):           프로토콜<3>.        (line    9)
* SupportsBytes (typing 클래스):         프로토콜<3>.        (line   14)
* SupportsComplex (typing 클래스):       프로토콜<3>.        (line   18)
* SupportsFloat (typing 클래스):         프로토콜<3>.        (line   22)
* SupportsIndex (typing 클래스):         프로토콜<3>.        (line   26)
* SupportsInt (typing 클래스):           프로토콜<3>.        (line   32)
* SupportsRound (typing 클래스):         프로토콜<3>.        (line   36)
* suppress() (contextlib 모듈):          유틸리티.           (line  259)
* SuppressCrashReport (test.support 클래스): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  732)
* surrogateescape;에러 처리기의 이름:    에러 처리기.        (line   14)
* surrogatepass;에러 처리기의 이름:      에러 처리기.        (line   73)
* SW_HIDE (subprocess 모듈):             윈도우 상수.        (line   20)
* SWAP (opcode):                         파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  167)
* swap_attr() (test.support 모듈):       test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  366)
* swap_item() (test.support 모듈):       test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  382)
* swapcase() (bytearray 메서드):         바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  632)
* swapcase() (bytes 메서드):             바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  632)
* swapcase() (str 메서드):               문자열 메서드.      (line  651)
* Symbol (symtable 클래스):              심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line  190)
* SymbolTable (symtable 클래스):         심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   49)
* SymbolTableType (symtable 클래스):     심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* symlink_to() (pathlib.Path 메서드):    Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   44)
* symlink() (os 모듈):                   파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1465)
* symmetric_difference_update() (frozenset 메서드): 집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  185)
* symmetric_difference() (frozenset 메서드): 집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  114)
* symtable() (symtable 모듈):            심볼 테이블 생성하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* SYMTYPE (tarfile 모듈):                tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  278)
* SYN (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   92)
* sync() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm 메서드):      dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.
                                                             (line   84)
* sync() (dbm.gnu.gdbm 메서드):          dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자.
                                                             (line  122)
* sync() (os 모듈):                      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1509)
* sync() (shelve.Shelf 메서드):          shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성.
                                                             (line   64)
* syncdown() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  503)
* synchronized() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈): multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line   83)
* SyncManager (multiprocessing.managers 클래스): 관리자.     (line  148)
* syncok() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  509)
* syncup() (curses.window 메서드):       창 객체.            (line  514)
* SyntaxErr:                             예외<17>.           (line   85)
* SyntaxError:                           구체적인 예외.      (line  289)
* SyntaxWarning:                         경고.               (line   42)
* sys_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  137)
* sys.exc_info:                          트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.exception:                         트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.last_traceback:                    트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.meta_path:                         메타 경로 meta path.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.modules:                           모듈 캐시.          (line    6)
* sys.path:                              경로 엔트리 파인더. (line    6)
* sys.path_hooks:                        경로 엔트리 파인더. (line    6)
* sys.path_importer_cache:               경로 엔트리 파인더. (line    6)
* sys.stderr:                            I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdin:                             I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdout:                            I/O 객체 파일 객체라고도 알려져 있습니다.
                                                             (line    6)
* sysconf_names (os 모듈):               기타 시스템 정보.   (line   82)
* sysconf() (os 모듈):                   기타 시스템 정보.   (line   73)
* syslog() (syslog 모듈):                syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴.
                                                             (line   20)
* SysLogHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): SysLogHandler.    (line    9)
* system_alias() (platform 모듈):        Cross platform.     (line  124)
* system_must_validate_cert() (test.support 모듈): test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  451)
* system() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  742)
* system() (platform 모듈):              Cross platform.     (line  115)
* SystemError:                           구체적인 예외.      (line  346)
* SystemError (내장 예외):               모듈 객체.          (line   58)
* SystemError (내장 예외) <1>:           모듈 객체.          (line   83)
* SystemExit:                            구체적인 예외.      (line  360)
* SystemExit (내장 예외):                예외<2>.            (line   23)
* systemId (xml.dom.DocumentType의 속성): DocumentType 객체. (line   21)
* SystemRandom (random 클래스):          대체 생성기.        (line   52)
* SystemRandom (secrets 클래스):         난수.               (line    9)
* SystemRoot:                            Popen 생성자.       (line  287)
* T_BOOL (C 매크로):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_BYTE (C 매크로):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_CHAR (C 매크로):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_DOUBLE (C 매크로):                   Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FLOAT (C 매크로):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FMT (locale 모듈):                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  182)
* T_FMT_AMPM (locale 모듈):              locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  188)
* T_INT (C 매크로):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONG (C 매크로):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONGLONG (C 매크로):                 Member types.       (line   85)
* T_NONE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   96)
* T_OBJECT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   90)
* T_OBJECT_EX (C 매크로):                Member types.       (line   85)
* T_PYSSIZET (C 매크로):                 Member types.       (line   85)
* T_SHORT (C 매크로):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING (C 매크로):                   Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING_INPLACE (C 매크로):           Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UBYTE (C 매크로):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UINT (C 매크로):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONG (C 매크로):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONGULONG (C 매크로):               Member types.       (line   85)
* T_USHORT (C 매크로):                   Member types.       (line   85)
* TAB (curses.ascii 모듈):               curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   46)
* tab() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드):   ttk Notebook.       (line   58)
* TabError:                              구체적인 예외.      (line  341)
* tabs() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook 메서드):  ttk Notebook.       (line   66)
* tabsize (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성): textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  172)
* tag (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element의 속성): Element 객체.  (line   17)
* tag_bind() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.    (line  272)
* tag_configure() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  278)
* tag_has() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.     (line  287)
* tagName (xml.dom.Element의 속성):      Element 객체<2>.    (line    8)
* tail (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element의 속성): Element 객체. (line   22)
* take_snapshot() (tracemalloc 모듈):    함수<10>.           (line  106)
* takewhile() (itertools 모듈):          Itertool Functions. (line  558)
* tan() (cmath 모듈):                    삼각 함수<2>.       (line   31)
* tan() (math 모듈):                     삼각 함수.          (line   38)
* tanh() (cmath 모듈):                   쌍곡선 hyperbolic 함수.
                                                             (line   31)
* tanh() (math 모듈):                    쌍곡선 함수.        (line   29)
* tar_filter() (tarfile 모듈):           Default named filters.
                                                             (line   15)
* TarError:                              tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  191)
* TarFile (tarfile 클래스):              TarFile 객체.       (line   21)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -c:               명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   11)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -create:          명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   11)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -e:               명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   16)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -extract:         명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   16)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -filter:          명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   31)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -l:               명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line    6)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -list:            명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line    6)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -t:               명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   22)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -test:            명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   22)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -v:               명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   27)
* tarfile 명령줄 옵션; -verbose:         명령 줄 옵션<3>.    (line   27)
* target (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction의 속성): ProcessingInstruction 객체.
                                                             (line    9)
* target;list:                           for 문<2>.          (line    6)
* TarInfo (tarfile 클래스):              TarInfo 객체.       (line   32)
* tarinfo (tarfile.FilterError의 속성):  tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  225)
* Task (asyncio 클래스):                 Task 객체.          (line    6)
* task_done() (asyncio.Queue 메서드):    Queue.              (line  114)
* task_done() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue 메서드): 파이프와 큐.
                                                             (line  245)
* task_done() (queue.Queue 메서드):      큐 객체.            (line   73)
* TaskGroup (asyncio 클래스):            Task Groups.        (line    9)
* tau (cmath 모듈):                      상수<3>.            (line   14)
* tau (math 모듈):                       상수<2>.            (line   14)
* tb_frame (traceback attribute):        트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* tb_frame (traceback의 속성):           트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* tb_lasti (traceback attribute):        트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* tb_lasti (traceback의 속성):           트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* tb_lineno (traceback attribute):       트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* tb_lineno (traceback의 속성):          트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* tb_locals (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  303)
* tb_next (traceback attribute):         트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* tb_next (traceback의 속성):            트레이스백 객체 Traceback objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* tbreak (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  113)
* tcdrain() (termios 모듈):              termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   61)
* tcflow() (termios 모듈):               termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   71)
* tcflush() (termios 모듈):              termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   65)
* tcgetattr() (termios 모듈):            termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   25)
* tcgetpgrp() (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  855)
* tcgetwinsize() (termios 모듈):         termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   78)
* Tcl() (tkinter 모듈):                  Tkinter 모듈.       (line   94)
* TCPServer (socketserver 클래스):       socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   19)
* TCSADRAIN (termios 모듈):              termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   46)
* TCSAFLUSH (termios 모듈):              termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   50)
* TCSANOW (termios 모듈):                termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   42)
* tcsendbreak() (termios 모듈):          termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   55)
* tcsetattr() (termios 모듈):            termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   35)
* tcsetpgrp() (os 모듈):                 파일 기술자 연산.   (line  862)
* tcsetwinsize() (termios 모듈):         termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line   86)
* tearDown() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스.      (line   38)
* tearDownClass() (unittest.TestCase 메서드): 테스트 케이스. (line   64)
* tee() (itertools 모듈):                Itertool Functions. (line  577)
* teleport() (turtle 모듈):              거북이 움직임.      (line  104)
* tell() (io.IOBase 메서드):             I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  128)
* tell() (io.TextIOBase 메서드):         텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   85)
* tell() (io.TextIOWrapper 메서드):      텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line  221)
* tell() (mmap.mmap 메서드):             mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  298)
* tell() (sqlite3.Blob 메서드):          Blob objects.       (line   59)
* tell() (wave.Wave_read 메서드):        Wave_read 객체.     (line   85)
* tell() (wave.Wave_write 메서드):       Wave_write 객체.    (line   67)
* TEMP:                                  Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* TEMP <1>:                              tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  310)
* temp_cwd() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  129)
* temp_dir() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  142)
* temp_umask() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  152)
* tempdir (tempfile 모듈):               tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  355)
* Template (string 클래스):              템플릿 문자열.      (line   32)
* template (string.Template의 속성):     템플릿 문자열.      (line   79)
* temporary (bdb.Breakpoint의 속성):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   90)
* TemporaryDirectory (tempfile 클래스):  tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  174)
* TemporaryFile() (tempfile 모듈):       tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line   26)
* teredo (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.          (line  308)
* TERM:                                  함수<5>.            (line  452)
* TERM <1>:                              함수<5>.            (line  476)
* termattrs() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  468)
* terminal_size (os 클래스):             터미널의 크기 조회하기.
                                                             (line   24)
* terminate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 메서드): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line   93)
* terminate() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport 메서드): 서브 프로세스 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   49)
* terminate() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  166)
* terminate() (multiprocessing.Process 메서드): Process와 예외.
                                                             (line  199)
* terminate() (subprocess.Popen 메서드): Popen 객체.         (line   86)
* terminator (logging.StreamHandler의 속성): StreamHandler.  (line   45)
* termname() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  474)
* ternary;operator:                      조건 표현식 Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ternaryfunc (C type):                  슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  127)
* test (doctest.DocTestFailure의 속성):  디버깅.             (line  182)
* test (doctest.UnexpectedException의 속성): 디버깅.         (line  202)
* TEST_DATA_DIR (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  135)
* TEST_HOME_DIR (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  131)
* TEST_HTTP_URL (test.support 모듈):     test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  171)
* TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (test.support 모듈):  test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  127)
* TestCase (unittest 클래스):            테스트 케이스.      (line    6)
* TestFailed:                            test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   15)
* testfile() (doctest 모듈):             기본 API.           (line   12)
* TESTFN (test.support.os_helper 모듈):  test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   18)
* TESTFN_NONASCII (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   23)
* TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   37)
* TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   31)
* TESTFN_UNICODE (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   43)
* TestLoader (unittest 클래스):          테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* testMethodPrefix (unittest.TestLoader의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  182)
* testmod() (doctest 모듈):              기본 API.           (line   86)
* testNamePatterns (unittest.TestLoader의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  203)
* TestResult (unittest 클래스):          테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  221)
* TestResults (doctest 클래스):          TestResults 객체.   (line    6)
* testsource() (doctest 모듈):           디버깅.             (line  103)
* testsRun (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  282)
* TestSuite (unittest 클래스):           테스트 분류.        (line    6)
* testzip() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):    ZipFile 객체.       (line  256)
* text (SyntaxError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line  313)
* text (traceback.TracebackException의 속성): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line  103)
* Text (typing 클래스):                  Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   21)
* text (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element의 속성): Element 객체. (line   22)
* text encoding (텍스트 인코딩):         용어집.             (line 1362)
* text file (텍스트 파일):               용어집.             (line 1375)
* text mode:                             내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* text_encoding() (io 모듈):             고수준 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   36)
* text_factory (sqlite3.Connection의 속성): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  805)
* Textbox (curses.textpad 클래스):       Textbox 객체.       (line    8)
* TextCalendar (calendar 클래스):        calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  139)
* textdomain() (gettext 모듈):           GNU gettext API.    (line   25)
* textdomain() (locale 모듈):            메시지 카탈로그에 액세스.
                                                             (line   12)
* textinput() (turtle 모듈):             입력 메서드.        (line    6)
* TextIO (typing 클래스):                ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* TextIOBase (io 클래스):                텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line    6)
* TextIOWrapper (io 클래스):             텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   94)
* TextTestResult (unittest 클래스):      테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  431)
* TextTestRunner (unittest 클래스):      테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  448)
* TextWrapper (textwrap 클래스):         textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  139)
* TFD_CLOEXEC (os 모듈):                 Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  203)
* TFD_NONBLOCK (os 모듈):                Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  192)
* TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME (os 모듈):           Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  213)
* TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET (os 모듈):     Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  224)
* theme_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링.   (line  254)
* theme_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링.    (line  299)
* theme_settings() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링. (line  263)
* theme_use() (tkinter.ttk.Style 메서드): Ttk 스타일링.      (line  303)
* THOUSEP (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  251)
* Thread (threading 클래스):             Thread objects.     (line   54)
* thread_info (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1843)
* thread_time_ns() (time 모듈):          함수<4>.            (line  609)
* thread_time() (time 모듈):             함수<4>.            (line  593)
* thread() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):       IMAP4 객체.         (line  333)
* ThreadedChildWatcher (asyncio 클래스): 프로세스 감시자.    (line   87)
* threading_cleanup() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   31)
* threading_setup() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   38)
* ThreadingHTTPServer (http.server 클래스): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   36)
* ThreadingMixIn (socketserver 클래스):  서버 생성 노트.     (line   27)
* ThreadingMock (unittest.mock 클래스):  Mock 클래스.        (line  927)
* ThreadingTCPServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.  (line   66)
* ThreadingUDPServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.  (line   66)
* ThreadingUnixDatagramServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.
                                                             (line   66)
* ThreadingUnixStreamServer (socketserver 클래스): 서버 생성 노트.
                                                             (line   66)
* ThreadPool (multiprocessing.pool 클래스): multiprocessing dummy 모듈.
                                                             (line   14)
* ThreadPoolExecutor (concurrent.futures 클래스): ThreadPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   39)
* threadsafety (sqlite3 모듈):           Module constants.   (line   88)
* throw() (coroutine 메서드):            코루틴 객체 Coroutine Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* throw() (generator 메서드):            제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   37)
* THURSDAY (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* ticket_lifetime_hint (ssl.SSLSession의 속성): SSL 세션.    (line   18)
* tigetflag() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  478)
* tigetnum() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  484)
* tigetstr() (curses 모듈):              함수<5>.            (line  490)
* TILDE (token 모듈):                    token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  244)
* tilt() (turtle 모듈):                  외관.               (line   99)
* tiltangle() (turtle 모듈):             외관.               (line  115)
* time (datetime 클래스):                time 객체.          (line   10)
* time (ssl.SSLSession의 속성):          SSL 세션.           (line   14)
* time (uuid.UUID의 속성):               uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  116)
* time_hi_version (uuid.UUID의 속성):    uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  104)
* time_low (uuid.UUID의 속성):           uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   98)
* time_mid (uuid.UUID의 속성):           uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  101)
* time_ns() (time 모듈):                 함수<4>.            (line  586)
* time() (asyncio.loop 메서드):          지연된 콜백 예약.   (line   62)
* time() (datetime.datetime 메서드):     datetime 객체.      (line  433)
* time() (time 모듈):                    함수<4>.            (line  552)
* Time2Internaldate() (imaplib 모듈):    imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  124)
* timedelta (datetime 클래스):           timedelta 객체.     (line    9)
* TimedRotatingFileHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* timegm() (calendar 모듈):              calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  394)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -h:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   44)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -help:             명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   44)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -n:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   12)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -number:           명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   12)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -p:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   24)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -process:          명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   24)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -r:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   16)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -repeat:           명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   16)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -s:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   20)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -setup:            명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   20)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -u:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   32)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -unit:             명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   32)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -v:                명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   39)
* timeit 명령줄 옵션; -verbose:          명령 줄 인터페이스<5>.
                                                             (line   39)
* timeit() (timeit 모듈):                파이썬 인터페이스.  (line    8)
* timeit() (timeit.Timer 메서드):        파이썬 인터페이스.  (line   65)
* timeout:                               예외<12>.           (line   38)
* Timeout (asyncio 클래스):              시간제한.           (line   50)
* timeout (socketserver.BaseServer의 속성): 서버 객체<2>.    (line  111)
* timeout (ssl.SSLSession의 속성):       SSL 세션.           (line   16)
* timeout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired의 속성): subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  167)
* timeout_at() (asyncio 모듈):           시간제한.           (line   98)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (_thread 모듈):            _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line  126)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (threading 모듈):          Reference<2>.       (line  179)
* timeout() (asyncio 모듈):              시간제한.           (line    6)
* timeout() (curses.window 메서드):      창 객체.            (line  518)
* TimeoutError:                          OS 예외.            (line  107)
* TimeoutError <1>:                      Process와 예외.     (line  269)
* TimeoutError <2>:                      예외 클래스.        (line   10)
* TimeoutError <3>:                      예외<10>.           (line   10)
* TimeoutExpired:                        subprocess 모듈 사용하기.
                                                             (line  158)
* Timer (threading 클래스):              Timer objects.      (line   23)
* Timer (timeit 클래스):                 파이썬 인터페이스.  (line   39)
* timerfd_create() (os 모듈):            Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   11)
* timerfd_gettime_ns() (os 모듈):        Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  183)
* timerfd_gettime() (os 모듈):           Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  163)
* timerfd_settime_ns() (os 모듈):        Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  152)
* timerfd_settime() (os 모듈):           Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   84)
* TimerHandle (asyncio 클래스):          콜백 핸들.          (line   29)
* times() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  776)
* TIMESTAMP (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode의 속성): py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   95)
* timestamp() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.     (line  585)
* timetuple() (datetime.date 메서드):    date 객체.          (line  202)
* timetuple() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.     (line  539)
* timetz() (datetime.datetime 메서드):   datetime 객체.      (line  442)
* timezone (datetime 클래스):            timezone 객체.      (line   14)
* timezone (time 모듈):                  시간대 상수.        (line   17)
* title() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  655)
* title() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  655)
* title() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  657)
* title() (turtle 모듈):                 TurtleScreen에서 상속되지 않은 Screen만의 메서드.
                                                             (line   47)
* Tk:                                    Graphical user interfaces with Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* Tk (tkinter 클래스):                   Tkinter 모듈.       (line   14)
* tk (tkinter.Tk의 속성):                Tkinter 모듈.       (line   70)
* Tk 옵션 데이터형:                      Tk 옵션 데이터형.   (line    6)
* Tkinter:                               Graphical user interfaces with Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* TLS:                                   ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* TLSv1 (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성):         상수<9>.            (line  557)
* TLSv1_1 (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성):       상수<9>.            (line  559)
* TLSv1_2 (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성):       상수<9>.            (line  561)
* TLSv1_3 (ssl.TLSVersion의 속성):       상수<9>.            (line  563)
* TLSVersion (ssl 클래스):               상수<9>.            (line  539)
* tm_gmtoff (time.struct_time의 속성):   함수<4>.            (line  537)
* tm_hour (time.struct_time의 속성):     함수<4>.            (line  513)
* tm_isdst (time.struct_time의 속성):    함수<4>.            (line  531)
* tm_mday (time.struct_time의 속성):     함수<4>.            (line  510)
* tm_min (time.struct_time의 속성):      함수<4>.            (line  516)
* tm_mon (time.struct_time의 속성):      함수<4>.            (line  507)
* tm_sec (time.struct_time의 속성):      함수<4>.            (line  519)
* tm_wday (time.struct_time의 속성):     함수<4>.            (line  525)
* tm_yday (time.struct_time의 속성):     함수<4>.            (line  528)
* tm_year (time.struct_time의 속성):     함수<4>.            (line  504)
* tm_zone (time.struct_time의 속성):     함수<4>.            (line  534)
* TMP:                                   tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  312)
* TMPDIR:                                Library<3>.         (line  116)
* TMPDIR <1>:                            Tests<25>.          (line   68)
* TMPDIR <2>:                            tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  308)
* TO_BOOL (opcode):                      파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  224)
* to_bytes() (int 메서드):               정수 형에 대한 추가 메서드.
                                                             (line   56)
* to_eng_string() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.    (line  523)
* to_eng_string() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.    (line  549)
* to_integral_exact() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.
                                                             (line  532)
* to_integral_exact() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.
                                                             (line  567)
* to_integral_value() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.
                                                             (line  575)
* to_integral() (decimal.Decimal 메서드): Decimal 객체.      (line  561)
* to_sci_string() (decimal.Context 메서드): Context 객체.    (line  536)
* to_thread() (asyncio 모듈):            스레드에서 실행하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* ToASCII() (encodings.idna 모듈):       encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   50)
* tobuf() (tarfile.TarInfo 메서드):      TarInfo 객체.       (line   48)
* tobytes() (array.array 메서드):        array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  224)
* tobytes() (memoryview 메서드):         메모리 뷰.          (line  159)
* today() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line   46)
* today() (datetime.date의 클래스 메서드): date 객체.        (line   27)
* tofile() (array.array 메서드):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  233)
* tok_name (token 모듈):                 token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line   23)
* Token (contextvars 클래스):            컨텍스트 변수.      (line   69)
* token (shlex.shlex의 속성):            shlex 객체.         (line  154)
* token (토큰):                          용어집.             (line 1387)
* token_bytes() (secrets 모듈):          토큰 생성.          (line    9)
* token_hex() (secrets 모듈):            토큰 생성.          (line   17)
* token_urlsafe() (secrets 모듈):        토큰 생성.          (line   27)
* TokenError:                            입력 토큰화하기.    (line   95)
* tokenize 명령줄 옵션; -e:              명령 줄 사용법<4>.  (line   19)
* tokenize 명령줄 옵션; -exact:          명령 줄 사용법<4>.  (line   19)
* tokenize 명령줄 옵션; -h:              명령 줄 사용법<4>.  (line   15)
* tokenize 명령줄 옵션; -help:           명령 줄 사용법<4>.  (line   15)
* tokenize() (tokenize 모듈):            입력 토큰화하기.    (line    8)
* tolist() (array.array 메서드):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  237)
* tolist() (memoryview 메서드):          메모리 뷰.          (line  200)
* TOMLDecodeError:                       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   60)
* toordinal() (datetime.date 메서드):    date 객체.          (line  217)
* toordinal() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.     (line  580)
* top_panel() (curses.panel 모듈):       함수<6>.            (line   18)
* top() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):     Panel 객체.         (line   51)
* top() (poplib.POP3 메서드):            POP3 객체.          (line   83)
* TopologicalSorter (graphlib 클래스):   graphlib — 그래프와 유사한 구조에 작동하는 기능.
                                                             (line   10)
* toprettyxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 메서드): DOM 객체.     (line   67)
* toreadonly() (memoryview 메서드):      메모리 뷰.          (line  216)
* tostring() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.          (line  209)
* tostringlist() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈): 함수<8>.      (line  231)
* total_changes (sqlite3.Connection의 속성): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  815)
* total_nframe (tracemalloc.Traceback의 속성): Traceback.    (line   28)
* total_ordering() (functools 모듈):     functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  259)
* total_seconds() (datetime.timedelta 메서드): timedelta 객체.
                                                             (line  239)
* total() (collections.Counter 메서드):  Counter 객체.       (line   99)
* touch() (pathlib.Path 메서드):         Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* touchline() (curses.window 메서드):    창 객체.            (line  527)
* touchwin() (curses.window 메서드):     창 객체.            (line  534)
* tounicode() (array.array 메서드):      array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  241)
* ToUnicode() (encodings.idna 모듈):     encodings idna — 응용 프로그램에서의 국제화된 도메인 이름.
                                                             (line   55)
* towards() (turtle 모듈):               거북이의 상태 보고. (line   14)
* toxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 메서드): DOM 객체.           (line   49)
* tparm() (curses 모듈):                 함수<5>.            (line  496)
* Trace (trace 클래스):                  프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* Trace (tracemalloc 클래스):            Trace.              (line    6)
* trace function:                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  909)
* trace function <1>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1543)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -c:                 주요 옵션.          (line   12)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -C:                 수정자.             (line   11)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -count:             주요 옵션.          (line   12)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -coverdir:          수정자.             (line   11)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -f:                 수정자.             (line    6)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -file:              수정자.             (line    6)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -g:                 수정자.             (line   32)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -help:              명령 줄 사용법<2>.  (line   14)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -ignore-dir:        필터.               (line   13)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -ignore-module:     필터.               (line    8)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -l:                 주요 옵션.          (line   22)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -listfuncs:         주요 옵션.          (line   22)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -m:                 수정자.             (line   16)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -missing:           수정자.             (line   16)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -no-report:         수정자.             (line   26)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -r:                 주요 옵션.          (line   26)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -R:                 수정자.             (line   26)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -report:            주요 옵션.          (line   26)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -s:                 수정자.             (line   21)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -summary:           수정자.             (line   21)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -t:                 주요 옵션.          (line   18)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -T:                 주요 옵션.          (line   32)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -timing:            수정자.             (line   32)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -trace:             주요 옵션.          (line   18)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -trackcalls:        주요 옵션.          (line   32)
* trace 명령줄 옵션; -version:           명령 줄 사용법<2>.  (line   18)
* trace_dispatch() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  163)
* trace() (inspect 모듈):                인터프리터 스택.    (line  178)
* Traceback (inspect 클래스):            인터프리터 스택.    (line   55)
* Traceback (tracemalloc 클래스):        Traceback.          (line    6)
* traceback (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff의 속성): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   35)
* traceback (tracemalloc.Statistic의 속성): Statistic.       (line   23)
* traceback (tracemalloc.Trace의 속성):  Trace.              (line   27)
* traceback_limit (tracemalloc.Snapshot의 속성): Snapshot.   (line   82)
* traceback_limit (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  202)
* TracebackException (traceback 클래스): TracebackException 객체.
                                                             (line   15)
* tracebacklimit (sys 모듈):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1878)
* TracebackType (types 클래스):          표준 인터프리터 형. (line  180)
* tracer() (turtle 모듈):                애니메이션 제어.    (line   23)
* traces (tracemalloc.Snapshot의 속성):  Snapshot.           (line   87)
* trailing;comma:                        표현식 목록 Expression lists.
                                                             (line   28)
* transfercmd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):     FTP 객체.           (line  245)
* transient_internet() (test.support.socket_helper 모듈): test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   61)
* translate() (bytearray 메서드):        바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  254)
* translate() (bytes 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  254)
* translate() (fnmatch 모듈):            fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   79)
* translate() (glob 모듈):               glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line  109)
* translate() (str 메서드):              문자열 메서드.      (line  690)
* translation() (gettext 모듈):          클래스 기반 API.    (line   39)
* Transport (asyncio 클래스):            트랜스포트 계층 구조.
                                                             (line   28)
* transport (asyncio.StreamWriter의 속성): StreamWriter.     (line   60)
* Transport Layer Security:              ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* traps (decimal.Context의 속성):        Context 객체.       (line  127)
* Traversable (importlib.abc 클래스):    importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  480)
* Traversable (importlib.resources.abc 클래스): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   86)
* TraversableResources (importlib.abc 클래스): importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  535)
* TraversableResources (importlib.resources.abc 클래스): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  158)
* traverseproc (C type):                 순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  154)
* TreeBuilder (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): TreeBuilder 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* Treeview (tkinter.ttk 클래스):         ttk Treeview.       (line    6)
* triangular() (random 모듈):            실수 분포.          (line   22)
* tries (doctest.DocTestRunner의 속성):  DocTestRunner 객체. (line  124)
* triple-quoted string (삼중 따옴표 된 문자열): 용어집.      (line 1397)
* True:                                  numbers Integral.   (line   23)
* true:                                  논리값 검사.        (line   10)
* True <1>:                              논리값 검사.        (line   22)
* True <2>:                              Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* True (내장 변수):                      내장 상수.          (line   13)
* truediv() (operator 모듈):             operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  158)
* trunc() (in module math):              숫자 형 — int float complex.
                                                             (line  106)
* trunc() (math 모듈):                   부동 소수점 산술.   (line   82)
* truncate() (io.IOBase 메서드):         I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  132)
* truncate() (os 모듈):                  파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1517)
* truth;value:                           논리값 검사.        (line    6)
* truth() (operator 모듈):               operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line   54)
* Try (ast 클래스):                      제어 흐름.          (line  128)
* TryStar (ast 클래스):                  제어 흐름.          (line  170)
* ttk:                                   tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯.
                                                             (line    8)
* tty;I/O 제어:                          termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어.
                                                             (line    6)
* ttyname() (os 모듈):                   파일 기술자 연산.   (line  869)
* TUESDAY (calendar 모듈):               calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* Tuple (ast 클래스):                    리터럴<2>.          (line   65)
* Tuple (typing 모듈):                   Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   50)
* tuple (내장 클래스):                   튜플.               (line   12)
* Turtle (turtle 클래스):                공개 클래스.        (line   16)
* turtles() (turtle 모듈):               설정과 특수 메서드. (line   94)
* TurtleScreen (turtle 클래스):          공개 클래스.        (line   21)
* turtlesize() (turtle 모듈):            외관.               (line   50)
* type:                                  표준형 계층.        (line    6)
* type (optparse.Option의 속성):         옵션 어트리뷰트.    (line   26)
* type (socket.socket의 속성):           소켓 객체.          (line  593)
* type (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):         TarInfo 객체.       (line   84)
* Type (typing 클래스):                  Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   61)
* type (urllib.request.Request의 속성):  Request 객체.       (line   20)
* type (내장 클래스):                    내장 함수.          (line 1954)
* type (형):                             용어집.             (line 1405)
* type alias (형 에일리어스):            용어집.             (line 1411)
* type hint (형 힌트):                   용어집.             (line 1431)
* type of an object:                     객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* type parameters:                       Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line   11)
* TYPE_ALIAS (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   31)
* type_check_only() (typing 모듈):       함수와 데코레이터.  (line  410)
* TYPE_CHECKER (optparse.Option의 속성): 새로운 형 추가하기. (line   16)
* TYPE_CHECKING (typing 모듈):           상수<10>.           (line    6)
* type_comment (ast.arg의 속성):         함수와 클래스 정의. (line   70)
* type_comment (ast.Assign의 속성):      문장.               (line   14)
* type_comment (ast.For의 속성):         제어 흐름.          (line   52)
* type_comment (ast.FunctionDef의 속성): 함수와 클래스 정의. (line   24)
* type_comment (ast.With의 속성):        제어 흐름.          (line  232)
* TYPE_COMMENT (token 모듈):             token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  141)
* TYPE_IGNORE (token 모듈):              token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  135)
* TYPE_PARAMETERS (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   35)
* TYPE_VARIABLE (symtable.SymbolTableType의 속성): 심볼 테이블 검사하기.
                                                             (line   40)
* type;hierarchy:                        표준형 계층.        (line    6)
* typeahead() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  504)
* TypeAlias (ast 클래스):                문장.               (line  160)
* TypeAlias (typing 모듈):               특수형.             (line  198)
* TypeAliasType (typing 클래스):         Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  491)
* typecode (array.array의 속성):         array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line  109)
* typecodes (array 모듈):                array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line   80)
* TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option의 속성): 새로운 액션 추가하기.
                                                             (line   36)
* typed_subpart_iterator() (email.iterators 모듈): email iterators 이터레이터.
                                                             (line   25)
* TypedDict (typing 클래스):             기타 특수 지시자.   (line  234)
* TypeError:                             구체적인 예외.      (line  387)
* TypeGuard (typing 모듈):               특수 형태.          (line  524)
* TypeIgnore (ast 클래스):               Type annotations.   (line    6)
* TypeIs (typing 모듈):                  특수 형태.          (line  434)
* TYPES (optparse.Option의 속성):        새로운 형 추가하기. (line   11)
* types_map (mimetypes 모듈):            mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  142)
* types_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes의 속성): MimeTypes 객체.    (line   37)
* types_map_inv (mimetypes.MimeTypes의 속성): MimeTypes 객체.
                                                             (line   44)
* types, internal:                       내부 형 Internal types.
                                                             (line    6)
* TypeVar (ast 클래스):                  Type parameters.    (line    9)
* TypeVar (typing 클래스):               Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   54)
* TypeVarTuple (ast 클래스):             Type parameters.    (line   68)
* TypeVarTuple (typing 클래스):          Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  217)
* TZ:                                    함수<4>.            (line  618)
* TZ <1>:                                함수<4>.            (line  618)
* TZ <2>:                                함수<4>.            (line  626)
* TZ <3>:                                함수<4>.            (line  630)
* TZ <4>:                                함수<4>.            (line  632)
* TZ <5>:                                함수<4>.            (line  691)
* tzinfo (datetime 클래스):              tzinfo 객체.        (line    6)
* tzinfo (datetime.datetime의 속성):     datetime 객체.      (line  322)
* tzinfo (datetime.time의 속성):         time 객체.          (line   65)
* tzname (time 모듈):                    시간대 상수.        (line   23)
* tzname() (datetime.datetime 메서드):   datetime 객체.      (line  533)
* tzname() (datetime.time 메서드):       time 객체.          (line  250)
* tzname() (datetime.timezone 메서드):   timezone 객체.      (line   38)
* tzname() (datetime.tzinfo 메서드):     tzinfo 객체.        (line  120)
* TZPATH (zoneinfo 모듈):                전역.               (line    6)
* tzset() (time 모듈):                   함수<4>.            (line  615)
* U (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line  117)
* u';문자열 리터럴:                      리터럴.             (line    8)
* u";문자열 리터럴:                      리터럴.             (line    8)
* UAdd (ast 클래스):                     표현식<2>.          (line   27)
* ucd_3_2_0 (unicodedata 모듈):          unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  180)
* udata (select.kevent의 속성):          Kevent 객체.        (line  180)
* UDPServer (socketserver 클래스):       socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   28)
* UF_APPEND (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  346)
* UF_COMPRESSED (stat 모듈):             stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  358)
* UF_DATAVAULT (stat 모듈):              stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  368)
* UF_HIDDEN (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  374)
* UF_IMMUTABLE (stat 모듈):              stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  342)
* UF_NODUMP (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  338)
* UF_NOUNLINK (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  354)
* UF_OPAQUE (stat 모듈):                 stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  350)
* UF_SETTABLE (stat 모듈):               stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  332)
* UF_TRACKED (stat 모듈):                stat — stat 결과 해석하기.
                                                             (line  362)
* UID (plistlib 클래스):                 plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line  135)
* uid (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):          TarInfo 객체.       (line  102)
* uid() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):          IMAP4 객체.         (line  354)
* uidl() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   93)
* ULONG_MAX (C 매크로):                  정수 객체.          (line  245)
* ulp() (math 모듈):                     부동 소수점 조작 함수.
                                                             (line  106)
* umask() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 매개 변수. (line  535)
* unalias (pdb command):                 디버거 명령들.      (line  377)
* uname (tarfile.TarInfo의 속성):        TarInfo 객체.       (line  118)
* uname() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 매개 변수. (line  542)
* uname() (platform 모듈):               Cross platform.     (line  138)
* UNARY_INVERT (opcode):                 파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  208)
* UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode):               파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  197)
* UNARY_NOT (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  201)
* unary;arithmetic;operation:            일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* unary;bitwise;operation:               일 항 산술과 비트 연산.
                                                             (line    6)
* unaryfunc (C type):                    슬롯 형 typedef.    (line  113)
* UnaryOp (ast 클래스):                  표현식<2>.          (line   22)
* UnboundLocalError:                     이름의 검색 resolution.
                                                             (line   16)
* UnboundLocalError <1>:                 구체적인 예외.      (line  402)
* unbuffered I/O:                        내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* UNC paths;and os.makedirs():           파일과 디렉터리.    (line  530)
* uncancel() (asyncio.Task 메서드):      Task 객체.          (line  259)
* UNCHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode의 속성): py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line  107)
* unconsumed_tail (zlib.Decompress의 속성): zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  223)
* unctrl() (curses 모듈):                함수<5>.            (line  516)
* unctrl() (curses.ascii 모듈):          curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  224)
* Underflow (decimal 클래스):            신호.               (line   93)
* undisplay (pdb command):               디버거 명령들.      (line  325)
* undo() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이 움직임.      (line  314)
* undobufferentries() (turtle 모듈):     특수 Turtle 메서드. (line   72)
* undoc_header (cmd.Cmd의 속성):         Cmd 객체.           (line  149)
* unescape() (html 모듈):                html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원.
                                                             (line   22)
* unescape() (xml.sax.saxutils 모듈):    xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   27)
* UnexpectedException:                   디버깅.             (line  194)
* unexpectedSuccesses (unittest.TestResult의 속성): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  265)
* unfreeze() (gc 모듈):                  gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  205)
* unget_wch() (curses 모듈):             함수<5>.            (line  536)
* ungetch() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  522)
* ungetch() (msvcrt 모듈):               콘솔 I/O.           (line   41)
* ungetmouse() (curses 모듈):            함수<5>.            (line  545)
* ungetwch() (msvcrt 모듈):              콘솔 I/O.           (line   46)
* unhexlify() (binascii 모듈):           binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line  138)
* Unicode:                               불변 시퀀스.        (line   15)
* UNICODE (re 모듈):                     Flags.              (line  117)
* unicode_literals (__future__ 모듈):    Module Contents.    (line   38)
* UnicodeDecodeError:                    구체적인 예외.      (line  444)
* UnicodeEncodeError:                    구체적인 예외.      (line  439)
* UnicodeError:                          구체적인 예외.      (line  408)
* UnicodeTranslateError:                 구체적인 예외.      (line  449)
* UnicodeWarning:                        경고.               (line   66)
* unidata_version (unicodedata 모듈):    unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line  176)
* unified_diff() (difflib 모듈):         difflib — 델타 계산을 위한 도우미.
                                                             (line  275)
* uniform() (random 모듈):               실수 분포.          (line   14)
* UnimplementedFileMode:                 http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  148)
* Union (ctypes 클래스):                 구조화된 데이터형.  (line    6)
* Union (typing 모듈):                   특수 형태.          (line    9)
* union;type:                            Union Type.         (line    6)
* union() (frozenset 메서드):            집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   93)
* UnionType (types 클래스):              표준 인터프리터 형. (line  174)
* UNIQUE (enum.EnumCheck의 속성):        Data Types.         (line  611)
* unique() (enum 모듈):                  Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   53)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -b:              명령행 옵션.        (line    8)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -buffer:         명령행 옵션.        (line    8)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -c:              명령행 옵션.        (line   14)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -catch:          명령행 옵션.        (line   14)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -durations:      명령행 옵션.        (line   48)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -f:              명령행 옵션.        (line   23)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -failfast:       명령행 옵션.        (line   23)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -k:              명령행 옵션.        (line   27)
* unittest 명령줄 옵션; -locals:         명령행 옵션.        (line   44)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -p:     테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   34)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -pattern: 테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   34)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -s:     테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   30)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -start-directory: 테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   30)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -t:     테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   38)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -top-level-directory: 테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   38)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -v:     테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   26)
* unittest-discover 명령줄 옵션; -verbose: 테스트 탐색 Discovery.
                                                             (line   26)
* universal newlines (유니버설 줄 넘김): 용어집.             (line 1446)
* universal newlines;bytearray.splitlines method: 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  608)
* universal newlines;bytes.splitlines method: 바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  608)
* universal newlines;open() built-in function: 내장 함수.    (line 1367)
* universal newlines;str.splitlines method: 문자열 메서드.   (line  552)
* universal newlines;What's new:         PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   42)
* universal newlines;What's new <1>:     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  138)
* universal newlines;What's new <2>:     PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines;What's new <3>:     PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   36)
* UNIX:                                  완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line   22)
* unix_dialect (csv 클래스):             모듈 내용<3>.       (line  203)
* unix_shell (test.support 모듈):        test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   43)
* UNIX;I/O 제어:                         fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line    6)
* UNIX;파일 제어:                        fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnixDatagramServer (socketserver 클래스): socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   34)
* UnixStreamServer (socketserver 클래스): socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크.
                                                             (line   34)
* unknown (uuid.SafeUUID의 속성):        uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   40)
* unknown_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser 메서드): HTMLParser 메서드.
                                                             (line  128)
* unknown_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler 메서드): BaseHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   52)
* unknown_open() (urllib.request.UnknownHandler 메서드): UnknownHandler 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnknownHandler (urllib.request 클래스): urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  413)
* UnknownProtocol:                       http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  140)
* UnknownTransferEncoding:               http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  144)
* unlink() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory 메서드): multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line   96)
* unlink() (os 모듈):                    파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1534)
* unlink() (pathlib.Path 메서드):        Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   48)
* unlink() (test.support.os_helper 모듈): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  156)
* unlink() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 메서드): DOM 객체.          (line   10)
* unload() (test.support.import_helper 모듈): test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   72)
* unlock() (mailbox.Babyl 메서드):       Babyl 객체.         (line   52)
* unlock() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):     Mailbox 객체.       (line  238)
* unlock() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):     Maildir 객체.       (line  203)
* unlock() (mailbox.mbox 메서드):        mbox 객체.          (line   54)
* unlock() (mailbox.MH 메서드):          MH 객체.            (line   85)
* unlock() (mailbox.MMDF 메서드):        MMDF 객체.          (line   45)
* unlockpt() (os 모듈):                  파일 기술자 연산.   (line  876)
* UNNAMED_SECTION (configparser 모듈):   ConfigParser 객체.  (line  321)
* Unpack (typing 모듈):                  특수 형태.          (line  581)
* unpack_archive() (shutil 모듈):        아카이브 연산.      (line  119)
* UNPACK_EX (opcode):                    파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  579)
* unpack_from() (struct 모듈):           함수와 예외.        (line   33)
* unpack_from() (struct.Struct 메서드):  클래스<2>.          (line   38)
* UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode):              파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  570)
* unpack() (struct 모듈):                함수와 예외.        (line   25)
* unpack() (struct.Struct 메서드):       클래스<2>.          (line   32)
* unpacking;dictionary:                  딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line   23)
* unpacking;in function calls:           호출.               (line   66)
* unparse() (ast 모듈):                  ast 도우미.         (line   67)
* unparsedEntityDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler 메서드): DTDHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  273)
* Unpickler (pickle 클래스):             모듈 인터페이스.    (line  215)
* UnpicklingError:                       모듈 인터페이스.    (line  100)
* unquote_plus() (urllib.parse 모듈):    URL 인용.           (line   80)
* unquote_to_bytes() (urllib.parse 모듈): URL 인용.          (line   90)
* unquote() (email.utils 모듈):          email utils 기타 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   47)
* unquote() (urllib.parse 모듈):         URL 인용.           (line   60)
* unraisablehook() (sys 모듈):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1885)
* unreachable object:                    객체 값 형.         (line   34)
* unregister_archive_format() (shutil 모듈): 아카이브 연산.  (line  115)
* unregister_dialect() (csv 모듈):       모듈 내용<3>.       (line   74)
* unregister_unpack_format() (shutil 모듈): 아카이브 연산.   (line  178)
* unregister() (atexit 모듈):            atexit — 종료 처리기.
                                                             (line   52)
* unregister() (codecs 모듈):            codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  157)
* unregister() (faulthandler 모듈):      사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기.
                                                             (line   23)
* unregister() (select.devpoll 메서드):  /dev/poll 폴링 객체.
                                                             (line   53)
* unregister() (select.epoll 메서드):    에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체.
                                                             (line   88)
* unregister() (select.poll 메서드):     폴링 객체.          (line   62)
* unregister() (selectors.BaseSelector 메서드): 클래스<3>.   (line   77)
* unsafe (uuid.SafeUUID의 속성):         uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   36)
* unselect() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):     IMAP4 객체.         (line  365)
* unset() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard 메서드): test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   67)
* unsetenv() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 매개 변수. (line  575)
* unshare() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 매개 변수. (line  593)
* UnstructuredHeader (email.headerregistry 클래스): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  105)
* unsubscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):  IMAP4 객체.         (line  361)
* UnsupportedOperation:                  Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* UnsupportedOperation <1>:              고수준 모듈 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   70)
* until (pdb command):                   디버거 명령들.      (line  194)
* untokenize() (tokenize 모듈):          입력 토큰화하기.    (line   52)
* untouchwin() (curses.window 메서드):   창 객체.            (line  538)
* unused_data (bz2.BZ2Decompressor의 속성): 증분 압축 해제.  (line   74)
* unused_data (lzma.LZMADecompressor의 속성): 메모리에서의 데이터 압축과 압축 해제.
                                                             (line  154)
* unused_data (zlib.Decompress의 속성):  zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  216)
* unverifiable (urllib.request.Request의 속성): Request 객체.
                                                             (line   45)
* unwrap() (inspect 모듈):               클래스와 함수<2>.   (line  129)
* unwrap() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):       SSL 소켓.           (line  284)
* unwrap() (urllib.parse 모듈):          URL 구문 분석.      (line  383)
* up (pdb command):                      디버거 명령들.      (line   86)
* up() (turtle 모듈):                    그리기 상태.        (line   12)
* update_abstractmethods() (abc 모듈):   abc — 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  327)
* update_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 메서드): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체.
                                                             (line   23)
* update_lines_cols() (curses 모듈):     함수<5>.            (line  529)
* update_panels() (curses.panel 모듈):   함수<6>.            (line   22)
* update_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage 메서드): BabylMessage 객체.
                                                             (line   73)
* update_wrapper() (functools 모듈):     functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  625)
* update() (collections.Counter 메서드): Counter 객체.       (line  117)
* update() (dict 메서드):                매핑 형 — dict.     (line  232)
* update() (frozenset 메서드):           집합 형 — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  166)
* update() (hashlib.hash 메서드):        해시 객체.          (line   29)
* update() (hmac.HMAC 메서드):           hmac — 메시지 인증을 위한 키 해싱.
                                                             (line   47)
* update() (http.cookies.Morsel 메서드): Morsel 객체.        (line   89)
* update() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):     Mailbox 객체.       (line  210)
* update() (mailbox.Maildir 메서드):     Maildir 객체.       (line  188)
* update() (trace.CoverageResults 메서드): 프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   50)
* update() (turtle 모듈):                애니메이션 제어.    (line   45)
* upgrade_dependencies() (venv.EnvBuilder 메서드): API<2>.   (line  156)
* upper() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  695)
* upper() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  695)
* upper() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  708)
* urandom() (os 모듈):                   난수<2>.            (line   29)
* URL:                                   urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <1>:                               urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <2>:                               http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line    8)
* url (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.  (line   50)
* url (urllib.error.HTTPError의 속성):   urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   38)
* url (urllib.response.addinfourl의 속성): urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스.
                                                             (line   14)
* url (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError의 속성): ProtocolError 객체.
                                                             (line   12)
* URL;구문 분석:                         urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* url2pathname() (urllib.request 모듈):  urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  150)
* urlcleanup() (urllib.request 모듈):    레거시 인터페이스.  (line   56)
* urldefrag() (urllib.parse 모듈):       URL 구문 분석.      (line  358)
* urlencode() (urllib.parse 모듈):       URL 인용.           (line  103)
* URLError:                              urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스.
                                                             (line   16)
* urljoin() (urllib.parse 모듈):         URL 구문 분석.      (line  322)
* urlopen() (urllib.request 모듈):       urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line   32)
* URLopener (urllib.request 클래스):     레거시 인터페이스.  (line   61)
* urlparse() (urllib.parse 모듈):        URL 구문 분석.      (line    9)
* urlretrieve() (urllib.request 모듈):   레거시 인터페이스.  (line    9)
* urlsafe_b64decode() (base64 모듈):     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   64)
* urlsafe_b64encode() (base64 모듈):     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   57)
* urlsplit() (urllib.parse 모듈):        URL 구문 분석.      (line  235)
* urlunparse() (urllib.parse 모듈):      URL 구문 분석.      (line  227)
* urlunsplit() (urllib.parse 모듈):      URL 구문 분석.      (line  314)
* urn (uuid.UUID의 속성):                uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  130)
* US (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  120)
* use_default_colors() (curses 모듈):    함수<5>.            (line  559)
* use_env() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  550)
* use_rawinput (cmd.Cmd의 속성):         Cmd 객체.           (line  159)
* USE_STACKCHECK (C 매크로):             운영 체제 유틸리티. (line   85)
* use_tool_id() (sys.monitoring 모듈):   Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* UseForeignDTD() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line   60)
* USER:                                  getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   42)
* USER_BASE (site 모듈):                 모듈 내용<8>.       (line   30)
* user_call() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  260)
* user_exception() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):     bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  278)
* user_line() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):          bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  268)
* user_return() (bdb.Bdb 메서드):        bdb — 디버거 프레임워크.
                                                             (line  273)
* USER_SITE (site 모듈):                 모듈 내용<8>.       (line   19)
* user-defined;function:                 사용자 정의 함수.   (line    6)
* user-defined;function;call:            호출.               (line  123)
* user-defined;method:                   인스턴스 메서드 Instance methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* user;effective id:                     프로세스 매개 변수. (line  181)
* user;id:                               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  325)
* user;id, setting:                      프로세스 매개 변수. (line  518)
* user() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line   30)
* usercustomize:                         커스터마이제이션 모듈.
                                                             (line    7)
* usercustomize <1>:                     커스터마이제이션 모듈.
                                                             (line   20)
* UserDict (collections 클래스):         UserDict 객체.      (line   12)
* UserList (collections 클래스):         UserList 객체.      (line   15)
* USERNAME:                              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  137)
* USERNAME <1>:                          프로세스 매개 변수. (line  232)
* USERNAME <2>:                          getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   42)
* username (email.headerregistry.Address의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  400)
* USERPROFILE:                           os path<5>.         (line   14)
* USERPROFILE <1>:                       파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* USERPROFILE <2>:                       Windows<43>.        (line   15)
* USERPROFILE <3>:                       os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  135)
* userptr() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드): Panel 객체.         (line   55)
* UserString (collections 클래스):       UserString 객체.    (line   11)
* UserWarning:                           경고.               (line   13)
* USTAR_FORMAT (tarfile 모듈):           tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line  318)
* USub (ast 클래스):                     표현식<2>.          (line   27)
* UTC:                                   time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   34)
* UTC (datetime 모듈):                   상수.               (line   18)
* utc (datetime.timezone의 속성):        timezone 객체.      (line   63)
* utcfromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line  125)
* utcnow() (datetime.datetime의 클래스 메서드): datetime 객체.
                                                             (line   78)
* utcoffset() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.     (line  515)
* utcoffset() (datetime.time 메서드):    time 객체.          (line  232)
* utcoffset() (datetime.timezone 메서드): timezone 객체.     (line   28)
* utcoffset() (datetime.tzinfo 메서드):  tzinfo 객체.        (line   37)
* utctimetuple() (datetime.datetime 메서드): datetime 객체.  (line  558)
* utf8 (email.policy.EmailPolicy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  345)
* utf8_enabled (imaplib.IMAP4의 속성):   IMAP4 객체.         (line  390)
* utf8_mode (sys.flags의 속성):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  539)
* utf8() (poplib.POP3 메서드):           POP3 객체.          (line  100)
* utime() (os 모듈):                     파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1547)
* UUID (uuid 클래스):                    uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line   45)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -h:                  명령줄 사용법.      (line   15)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -help:               명령줄 사용법.      (line   15)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -n:                  명령줄 사용법.      (line   25)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -N:                  명령줄 사용법.      (line   33)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -name:               명령줄 사용법.      (line   33)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -namespace:          명령줄 사용법.      (line   25)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -u:                  명령줄 사용법.      (line   19)
* uuid 명령줄 옵션; -uuid:               명령줄 사용법.      (line   19)
* uuid1() (uuid 모듈):                   uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  170)
* uuid3() (uuid 모듈):                   uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  177)
* uuid4() (uuid 모듈):                   uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  182)
* uuid5() (uuid 모듈):                   uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  186)
* v4_int_to_packed() (ipaddress 모듈):   다른 모듈 수준 함수.
                                                             (line    8)
* v6_int_to_packed() (ipaddress 모듈):   다른 모듈 수준 함수.
                                                             (line   20)
* valid_signals() (signal 모듈):         모듈 내용<5>.       (line  295)
* validator() (wsgiref.validate 모듈):   wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기.
                                                             (line   20)
* value:                                 딕셔너리 디스플레이.
                                                             (line    6)
* value (ctypes._SimpleCData의 속성):    기본 데이터형<2>.   (line   17)
* value (enum.Enum의 속성):              Data Types.         (line  129)
* value (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성):  Cookie 객체.        (line   29)
* value (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):    Morsel 객체.        (line   48)
* value (StopIteration의 속성):          구체적인 예외.      (line  258)
* value (xml.dom.Attr의 속성):           Attr 객체.          (line   22)
* value of an object:                    객체 값 형.         (line   11)
* value_decode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 메서드): 쿠키 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* value_encode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie 메서드): 쿠키 객체.
                                                             (line   13)
* Value() (multiprocessing 모듈):        공유 ctypes 객체.   (line    9)
* Value() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager 메서드): 관리자.
                                                             (line  215)
* Value() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes 모듈): multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈.
                                                             (line   63)
* ValueError:                            구체적인 예외.      (line  454)
* valuerefs() (weakref.WeakValueDictionary 메서드): weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  204)
* Values (optparse 클래스):              옵션 정의하기.      (line   81)
* values() (contextvars.Context 메서드): 수동 컨텍스트 관리. (line  134)
* values() (dict 메서드):                매핑 형 — dict.     (line  250)
* values() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  214)
* values() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  320)
* values() (mailbox.Mailbox 메서드):     Mailbox 객체.       (line  113)
* values() (types.MappingProxyType 메서드): 표준 인터프리터 형.
                                                             (line  265)
* ValuesView (collections.abc 클래스):   Collections 추상 베이스 클래스 – 상세한 설명.
                                                             (line   97)
* ValuesView (typing 클래스):            Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  106)
* var (contextvars.Token의 속성):        컨텍스트 변수.      (line   75)
* variable annotation (변수 어노테이션): 용어집.             (line 1454)
* variance (statistics.NormalDist의 속성): NormalDist 객체.  (line   36)
* variance() (statistics 모듈):          함수 세부 사항.     (line  426)
* variant (uuid.UUID의 속성):            uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  134)
* vbar (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText의 속성): tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯.
                                                             (line   28)
* VBAR (token 모듈):                     token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  205)
* VBAREQUAL (token 모듈):                token — 파이썬 구문 분석 트리에 사용되는 상수.
                                                             (line  277)
* VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN (msvcrt 모듈): 기타 함수<4>.    (line   93)
* Vec2D (turtle 클래스):                 공개 클래스.        (line   85)
* vectorcallfunc (C type):               벡터콜 Vectorcall 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   39)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -clear:              가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   61)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -copies:             가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   56)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -prompt:             가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -symlinks:           가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -system-site-packages: 가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -upgrade:            가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -upgrade-deps:       가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   80)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -without-pip:        가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; -without-scm-ignore-files: 가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* venv 명령줄 옵션; ENV_DIR:             가상 환경 만들기<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* VERBOSE (re 모듈):                     Flags.              (line  127)
* verbose (sys.flags의 속성):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  524)
* verbose (tabnanny 모듈):               tabnanny — 모호한 들여쓰기 감지.
                                                             (line   24)
* verbose (test.support 모듈):           test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   29)
* VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS (ssl 모듈):   상수<9>.            (line   97)
* verify_client_post_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드): SSL 소켓.
                                                             (line  292)
* verify_code (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError의 속성): 예외<13>.
                                                             (line   80)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (ssl 모듈):     상수<9>.            (line   83)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (ssl 모듈):      상수<9>.            (line   73)
* VERIFY_DEFAULT (ssl 모듈):             상수<9>.            (line   65)
* verify_flags (ssl.SSLContext의 속성):  SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  608)
* verify_generated_headers (email.policy.Policy의 속성): email policy 정책 객체.
                                                             (line  185)
* verify_message (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError의 속성): 예외<13>.
                                                             (line   84)
* verify_mode (ssl.SSLContext의 속성):   SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  623)
* verify_request() (socketserver.BaseServer 메서드): 서버 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN (ssl 모듈):  상수<9>.            (line  113)
* VERIFY_X509_STRICT (ssl 모듈):         상수<9>.            (line   90)
* VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (ssl 모듈):  상수<9>.            (line  104)
* verify() (enum 모듈):                  Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   71)
* verify() (smtplib.SMTP 메서드):        SMTP 객체.          (line   85)
* VerifyFlags (ssl 클래스):              상수<9>.            (line  124)
* VerifyMode (ssl 클래스):               상수<9>.            (line   59)
* version (curses 모듈):                 상수<6>.            (line   18)
* version (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader의 속성): email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체.
                                                             (line  219)
* version (http.client.HTTPResponse의 속성): HTTPResponse 객체.
                                                             (line   45)
* version (http.cookiejar.Cookie의 속성): Cookie 객체.       (line   17)
* version (http.cookies.Morsel의 속성):  Morsel 객체.        (line   13)
* version (in module sys):               프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  157)
* version (in module sys) <1>:           프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  193)
* version (in module sys) <2>:           프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  204)
* version (ipaddress.IPv4Address의 속성): 주소 객체.         (line   43)
* version (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.     (line   55)
* version (ipaddress.IPv6Address의 속성): 주소 객체.         (line  262)
* version (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.     (line  272)
* version (marshal 모듈):                marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line  122)
* version (sqlite3 모듈):                Module constants.   (line  127)
* version (sys 모듈):                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1933)
* version (sys.thread_info의 속성):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1871)
* version (urllib.request.URLopener의 속성): 레거시 인터페이스.
                                                             (line  128)
* version (uuid.UUID의 속성):            uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체.
                                                             (line  140)
* version_info (sqlite3 모듈):           Module constants.   (line  137)
* version_info (sys 모듈):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1946)
* version_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler 메서드): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  290)
* version() (ensurepip 모듈):            모듈 API.           (line    9)
* version() (importlib.metadata 모듈):   배포 버전.          (line    6)
* version() (platform 모듈):             Cross platform.     (line  130)
* version() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):      SSL 소켓.           (line  312)
* vformat() (string.Formatter 메서드):   사용자 지정 문자열 포매팅.
                                                             (line   26)
* virtual environment (가상 환경):       용어집.             (line 1476)
* virtual machine (가상 기계):           용어집.             (line 1485)
* visit_Constant() (ast.NodeVisitor 메서드): ast 도우미.     (line  206)
* visit() (ast.NodeVisitor 메서드):      ast 도우미.         (line  190)
* visitproc (C type):                    순환 가비지 수집 지원.
                                                             (line  143)
* vline() (curses.window 메서드):        창 객체.            (line  543)
* voidcmd() (ftplib.FTP 메서드):         FTP 객체.           (line  158)
* volume (zipfile.ZipInfo의 속성):       ZipInfo 객체.       (line  129)
* vonmisesvariate() (random 모듈):       실수 분포.          (line   82)
* VT (curses.ascii 모듈):                curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   59)
* W_OK (os 모듈):                        파일과 디렉터리.    (line  100)
* wait_closed() (asyncio.Server 메서드): 서버 객체.          (line  121)
* wait_closed() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter. (line  115)
* wait_for() (asyncio 모듈):             시간제한.           (line  118)
* wait_for() (asyncio.Condition 메서드): Condition.          (line   97)
* wait_for() (threading.Condition 메서드): Condition objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* wait_process() (test.support 모듈):    test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  414)
* wait_threads_exit() (test.support.threading_helper 모듈): test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   42)
* wait_until_any_call_with() (unittest.mock.ThreadingMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  957)
* wait_until_called() (unittest.mock.ThreadingMock 메서드): Mock 클래스.
                                                             (line  942)
* wait() (asyncio 모듈):                 대기 프리미티브.    (line    6)
* wait() (asyncio.Barrier 메서드):       Barrier.            (line   52)
* wait() (asyncio.Condition 메서드):     Condition.          (line   80)
* wait() (asyncio.Event 메서드):         Event.              (line   43)
* wait() (asyncio.subprocess.Process 메서드): 서브 프로세스와 상호 작용하기.
                                                             (line   36)
* wait() (concurrent.futures 모듈):      모듈 함수.          (line    6)
* wait() (multiprocessing.connection 모듈): 리스너와 클라이언트.
                                                             (line  111)
* wait() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult 메서드): 프로세스 풀.
                                                             (line  196)
* wait() (os 모듈):                      프로세스 관리.      (line  804)
* wait() (subprocess.Popen 메서드):      Popen 객체.         (line   14)
* wait() (threading.Barrier 메서드):     Barrier objects.    (line   41)
* wait() (threading.Condition 메서드):   Condition objects.  (line   89)
* wait() (threading.Event 메서드):       Event objects.      (line   41)
* wait3() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  909)
* wait4() (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  923)
* waitid() (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  828)
* waitpid() (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  867)
* waitstatus_to_exitcode() (os 모듈):    프로세스 관리.      (line 1041)
* walk_packages() (pkgutil 모듈):        pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  132)
* walk_stack() (traceback 모듈):         모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  178)
* walk_tb() (traceback 모듈):            모듈 수준 함수<2>.  (line  187)
* walk() (ast 모듈):                     ast 도우미.         (line  175)
* walk() (email.message.EmailMessage 메서드): email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현.
                                                             (line  431)
* walk() (email.message.Message 메서드): email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기.
                                                             (line  596)
* walk() (os 모듈):                      파일과 디렉터리.    (line 1589)
* walk() (pathlib.Path 메서드):          Reading directories.
                                                             (line  100)
* walrus operator:                       논리 연산 Boolean operations.
                                                             (line   35)
* walrus operator <1>:                   용어집.             (line 1490)
* want (doctest.Example의 속성):         Example 객체.       (line   21)
* warn_default_encoding (sys.flags의 속성): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  549)
* warn_explicit() (warnings 모듈):       사용 가능한 함수.   (line   61)
* warn() (warnings 모듈):                사용 가능한 함수.   (line    6)
* Warning:                               경고.               (line    9)
* Warning <1>:                           예외<5>.            (line    8)
* WARNING (logging 모듈):                로깅 수준.          (line   32)
* WARNING (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):     tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  197)
* warning() (logging 모듈):              모듈 수준 함수.     (line   66)
* warning() (logging.Logger 메서드):     Logger 객체.        (line  267)
* warning() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler 메서드): ErrorHandler 객체.
                                                             (line   26)
* WarningsRecorder (test.support.warnings_helper 클래스): test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  108)
* warnoptions (sys 모듈):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1958)
* wasSuccessful() (unittest.TestResult 메서드): 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기.
                                                             (line  309)
* WatchedFileHandler (logging.handlers 클래스): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   22)
* Wave_read (wave 클래스):               Wave_read 객체.     (line    6)
* Wave_write (wave 클래스):              Wave_write 객체.    (line    6)
* WCONTINUED (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line  963)
* WCOREDUMP() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line 1080)
* WeakKeyDictionary (weakref 클래스):    weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  146)
* WeakMethod (weakref 클래스):           weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  213)
* WeakSet (weakref 클래스):              weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  208)
* WeakValueDictionary (weakref 클래스):  weakref — 약한 참조.
                                                             (line  192)
* webbrowser 명령줄 옵션; -n:            webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   42)
* webbrowser 명령줄 옵션; -new-tab:      webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   46)
* webbrowser 명령줄 옵션; -new-window:   webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   42)
* webbrowser 명령줄 옵션; -t:            webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   46)
* WEDNESDAY (calendar 모듈):             calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  422)
* weekday (calendar.IllegalWeekdayError의 속성): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  505)
* weekday() (calendar 모듈):             calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  355)
* weekday() (datetime.date 메서드):      date 객체.          (line  223)
* weekday() (datetime.datetime 메서드):  datetime 객체.      (line  621)
* weekheader() (calendar 모듈):          calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  360)
* weibullvariate() (random 모듈):        실수 분포.          (line   93)
* WEXITED (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line  972)
* WEXITSTATUS() (os 모듈):               프로세스 관리.      (line 1125)
* wfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler의 속성): http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line  119)
* wfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler의 속성): 요청 처리기 객체.
                                                             (line   65)
* whatis (pdb command):                  디버거 명령들.      (line  261)
* when() (asyncio.Timeout 메서드):       시간제한.           (line   63)
* when() (asyncio.TimerHandle 메서드):   콜백 핸들.          (line   36)
* where (pdb command):                   디버거 명령들.      (line   75)
* which() (shutil 모듈):                 디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  396)
* whichdb() (dbm 모듈):                  dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   29)
* While (ast 클래스):                    제어 흐름.          (line   75)
* whitespace (shlex.shlex의 속성):       shlex 객체.         (line   93)
* whitespace (string 모듈):              문자열 상수.        (line   51)
* whitespace_split (shlex.shlex의 속성): shlex 객체.         (line  115)
* Widget (tkinter.ttk 클래스):           ttk Widget.         (line    9)
* width (sys.hash_info의 속성):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  999)
* width (textwrap.TextWrapper의 속성):   textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  159)
* width() (turtle 모듈):                 그리기 상태.        (line   18)
* WIFCONTINUED() (os 모듈):              프로세스 관리.      (line 1089)
* WIFEXITED() (os 모듈):                 프로세스 관리.      (line 1117)
* WIFSIGNALED() (os 모듈):               프로세스 관리.      (line 1110)
* WIFSTOPPED() (os 모듈):                프로세스 관리.      (line 1099)
* win32_edition() (platform 모듈):       Windows platform.   (line   20)
* win32_is_iot() (platform 모듈):        Windows platform.   (line   29)
* win32_ver() (platform 모듈):           Windows platform.   (line    6)
* WinDLL (ctypes 클래스):                공유 라이브러리 로드하기.
                                                             (line   52)
* window_height() (turtle 모듈):         설정과 특수 메서드. (line  101)
* window_width() (turtle 모듈):          설정과 특수 메서드. (line  108)
* window() (curses.panel.Panel 메서드):  Panel 객체.         (line   60)
* Windows:                               완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line   22)
* WindowsError:                          구체적인 예외.      (line  472)
* WindowsPath (pathlib 클래스):          구상 경로.          (line   35)
* WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 클래스): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   77)
* WindowsRegistryFinder (importlib.machinery 클래스): importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅.
                                                             (line   88)
* WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy (asyncio 클래스): 정책 객체.
                                                             (line   70)
* winerror (OSError의 속성):             구체적인 예외.      (line  168)
* WinError() (ctypes 모듈):              유틸리티 함수.      (line  230)
* WINFUNCTYPE() (ctypes 모듈):           함수 프로토타입.    (line   22)
* WinSock:                               select — I/O 완료 대기.
                                                             (line  142)
* winver (sys 모듈):                     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1964)
* With (ast 클래스):                     제어 흐름.          (line  226)
* WITH_EXCEPT_START (opcode):            파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  484)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체.
                                                             (line   51)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  110)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체.
                                                             (line   77)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  304)
* with_name() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  352)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체.
                                                             (line   43)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  106)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체.
                                                             (line   75)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  302)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체.
                                                             (line   35)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line   95)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Interface의 속성): 인터페이스 객체.
                                                             (line   73)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network의 속성): 네트워크 객체.
                                                             (line  296)
* with_pymalloc() (test.support 모듈):   test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line  254)
* with_segments() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.
                                                             (line  407)
* with_statement (__future__ 모듈):      Module Contents.    (line   30)
* with_stem() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.  (line  368)
* with_suffix() (pathlib.PurePath 메서드): 메서드와 프로퍼티.
                                                             (line  391)
* with_traceback() (BaseException 메서드): 베이스 클래스.    (line   23)
* withitem (ast 클래스):                 제어 흐름.          (line  237)
* WNOHANG (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line 1006)
* WNOWAIT (os 모듈):                     프로세스 관리.      (line 1014)
* wordchars (shlex.shlex의 속성):        shlex 객체.         (line   83)
* wrap_bio() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드):    SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  433)
* wrap_future() (asyncio 모듈):          퓨처 함수.          (line   48)
* wrap_socket() (ssl.SSLContext 메서드): SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  371)
* wrap() (textwrap 모듈):                textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line   16)
* wrap() (textwrap.TextWrapper 메서드):  textwrap — 텍스트 래핑과 채우기.
                                                             (line  274)
* wrapper() (curses 모듈):               함수<5>.            (line  567)
* WrapperDescriptorType (types 모듈):    표준 인터프리터 형. (line   84)
* wraps() (functools 모듈):              functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산.
                                                             (line  668)
* WRITABLE (_tkinter 모듈):              파일 처리기.        (line   39)
* WRITABLE (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성): Buffer flags.       (line   17)
* writable() (bz2.BZ2File 메서드):       파일 압축 해제.     (line   99)
* writable() (io.IOBase 메서드):         I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  144)
* WRITE (inspect.BufferFlags의 속성):    Buffer flags.       (line   51)
* write_byte() (mmap.mmap 메서드):       mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  316)
* write_bytes() (pathlib.Path 메서드):   Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   65)
* write_docstringdict() (turtle 모듈):   독스트링을 다른 언어로 번역.
                                                             (line    9)
* write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.   (line   55)
* write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   72)
* write_eof() (ssl.MemoryBIO 메서드):    메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line  155)
* write_history_file() (readline 모듈):  히스토리 파일.      (line   14)
* WRITE_RESTRICTED (C 매크로):           Member flags.       (line   32)
* write_results() (trace.CoverageResults 메서드): 프로그래밍 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   54)
* write_text() (pathlib.Path 메서드):    Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   46)
* write_through (io.TextIOWrapper의 속성): 텍스트 I/O<2>.    (line  163)
* write() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.       (line   15)
* write() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   58)
* write() (code.InteractiveInterpreter 메서드): 대화형 인터프리터 객체.
                                                             (line   60)
* write() (codecs.StreamWriter 메서드):  StreamWriter 객체.  (line   30)
* write() (configparser.ConfigParser 메서드): ConfigParser 객체.
                                                             (line  277)
* write() (email.generator.BytesGenerator 메서드): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  110)
* write() (email.generator.Generator 메서드): email generator MIME 문서 생성.
                                                             (line  198)
* write() (io.BufferedIOBase 메서드):    I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  316)
* write() (io.BufferedWriter 메서드):    버퍼링 된 스트림.   (line  124)
* write() (io.RawIOBase 메서드):         I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  201)
* write() (io.TextIOBase 메서드):        텍스트 I/O<2>.      (line   90)
* write() (mmap.mmap 메서드):            mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원.
                                                             (line  302)
* write() (os 모듈):                     파일 기술자 연산.   (line  888)
* write() (sqlite3.Blob 메서드):         Blob objects.       (line   53)
* write() (ssl.MemoryBIO 메서드):        메모리 BIO 지원<2>. (line  148)
* write() (ssl.SSLSocket 메서드):        SSL 소켓.           (line   95)
* write() (turtle 모듈):                 더 많은 그리기 제어.
                                                             (line   29)
* write() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree 메서드): ElementTree 객체.
                                                             (line   61)
* write() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):      ZipFile 객체.       (line  265)
* writeframes() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.   (line   80)
* writeframesraw() (wave.Wave_write 메서드): Wave_write 객체.
                                                             (line   73)
* writeheader() (csv.DictWriter 메서드): 기록기 객체.        (line   36)
* writelines() (asyncio.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter.  (line   29)
* writelines() (asyncio.WriteTransport 메서드): 쓰기 전용 트랜스포트.
                                                             (line   65)
* writelines() (codecs.StreamWriter 메서드): StreamWriter 객체.
                                                             (line   34)
* writelines() (io.IOBase 메서드):       I/O 베이스 클래스.  (line  150)
* writepy() (zipfile.PyZipFile 메서드):  PyZipFile 객체.     (line   19)
* writer() (csv 모듈):                   모듈 내용<3>.       (line   38)
* writerow() (csv.csvwriter 메서드):     기록기 객체.        (line   15)
* writerows() (csv.csvwriter 메서드):    기록기 객체.        (line   23)
* writestr() (zipfile.ZipFile 메서드):   ZipFile 객체.       (line  299)
* WriteTransport (asyncio 클래스):       트랜스포트 계층 구조.
                                                             (line   11)
* writev() (os 모듈):                    파일 기술자 연산.   (line  906)
* writexml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node 메서드): DOM 객체.        (line   26)
* WrongDocumentErr:                      예외<17>.           (line   89)
* wsgi_file_wrapper (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  250)
* wsgi_multiprocess (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  142)
* wsgi_multithread (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  136)
* wsgi_run_once (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler의 속성): wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  148)
* WSGIApplication (wsgiref.types 모듈):  wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   20)
* WSGIEnvironment (wsgiref.types 모듈):  wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형.
                                                             (line   16)
* WSGIRequestHandler (wsgiref.simple_server 클래스): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   76)
* WSGIServer (wsgiref.simple_server 클래스): wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line   46)
* wShowWindow (subprocess.STARTUPINFO의 속성): 윈도우 Popen 도우미.
                                                             (line   48)
* WSTOPPED (os 모듈):                    프로세스 관리.      (line  984)
* WSTOPSIG() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line 1133)
* wstring_at() (ctypes 모듈):            유틸리티 함수.      (line  243)
* WTERMSIG() (os 모듈):                  프로세스 관리.      (line 1141)
* WUNTRACED (os 모듈):                   프로세스 관리.      (line  995)
* WWW:                                   인터넷 프로토콜과 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* WWW <1>:                               urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW <2>:                               urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;서버:                              http server — HTTP 서버.
                                                             (line    8)
* X (re 모듈):                           Flags.              (line  127)
* X_OK (os 모듈):                        파일과 디렉터리.    (line  100)
* X509 certificate:                      SSL 컨텍스트.       (line  736)
* xatom() (imaplib.IMAP4 메서드):        IMAP4 객체.         (line  374)
* XATTR_CREATE (os 모듈):                리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   88)
* XATTR_REPLACE (os 모듈):               리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   93)
* XATTR_SIZE_MAX (os 모듈):              리눅스 확장 어트리뷰트.
                                                             (line   83)
* xcor() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이의 상태 보고. (line   31)
* XHTML:                                 html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* XHTML_NAMESPACE (xml.dom 모듈):        모듈 내용<6>.       (line   48)
* XML_ERROR_ABORTED (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  172)
* XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  207)
* XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   26)
* XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   28)
* XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   34)
* XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   39)
* XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  128)
* XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   44)
* XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  120)
* XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  110)
* XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  122)
* XML_ERROR_FINISHED (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  176)
* XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  144)
* XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   48)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  199)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   50)
* XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   55)
* XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   59)
* XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  203)
* XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   63)
* XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   68)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  112)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  167)
* XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   72)
* XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   76)
* XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  157)
* XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   80)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  194)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  184)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  189)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  182)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  161)
* XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   85)
* XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   89)
* XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  152)
* XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  135)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  106)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   93)
* XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  140)
* XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line   98)
* XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  118)
* XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  102)
* XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (xml.parsers.expat.errors 모듈): Expat 에러 상수.
                                                             (line  148)
* XML_NAMESPACE (xml.dom 모듈):          모듈 내용<6>.       (line   38)
* XML() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈):    함수<8>.            (line  257)
* xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (codecs 모듈): 에러 처리기.     (line  165)
* xmlcharrefreplace;에러 처리기의 이름:  에러 처리기.        (line   53)
* XmlDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser 메서드): XMLParser 객체<2>.
                                                             (line  202)
* XMLFilterBase (xml.sax.saxutils 클래스): xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   67)
* XMLGenerator (xml.sax.saxutils 클래스): xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   53)
* XMLID() (xml.etree.ElementTree 모듈):  함수<8>.            (line  265)
* XMLNS_NAMESPACE (xml.dom 모듈):        모듈 내용<6>.       (line   43)
* XMLParser (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): XMLParser 객체.  (line    6)
* XMLParserType (xml.parsers.expat 모듈): xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   33)
* XMLPullParser (xml.etree.ElementTree 클래스): XMLPullParser 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLReader (xml.sax.xmlreader 클래스):  xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   15)
* xor() (operator 모듈):                 operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자.
                                                             (line  164)
* xview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.       (line  295)
* ycor() (turtle 모듈):                  거북이의 상태 보고. (line   43)
* year (datetime.datetime의 속성):       datetime 객체.      (line  294)
* year (datetime.date의 속성):           date 객체.          (line  111)
* yeardatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  119)
* yeardays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  126)
* yeardayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar 메서드): calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수.
                                                             (line  133)
* YES (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):         tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  156)
* YESEXPR (locale 모듈):                 locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  255)
* YESNO (tkinter.messagebox 모듈):       tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  180)
* YESNOCANCEL (tkinter.messagebox 모듈): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트.
                                                             (line  185)
* Yield (ast 클래스):                    함수와 클래스 정의. (line  120)
* YIELD_VALUE (opcode):                  파이썬 바이트 코드 명령어.
                                                             (line  417)
* yield;examples:                        제너레이터-이터레이터 메서드.
                                                             (line   82)
* yield;expression:                      일드 표현식 Yield expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* yield;yield from (in What's New):      PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   87)
* YieldFrom (ast 클래스):                함수와 클래스 정의. (line  120)
* yiq_to_rgb() (colorsys 모듈):          colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환.
                                                             (line   31)
* yview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview 메서드): ttk Treeview.       (line  299)
* z;문자열 포매팅에서:                   포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   83)
* z85decode() (base64 모듈):             Base85 Encodings.   (line   96)
* z85encode() (base64 모듈):             Base85 Encodings.   (line   88)
* Zen of Python (파이썬 젠):             용어집.             (line 1496)
* ZeroDivisionError:                     구체적인 예외.      (line  460)
* zfill() (bytearray 메서드):            바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  713)
* zfill() (bytes 메서드):                바이트열 과 바이트 배열 연산.
                                                             (line  713)
* zfill() (str 메서드):                  문자열 메서드.      (line  719)
* ZIP_BZIP2 (zipfile 모듈):              zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   91)
* ZIP_DEFLATED (zipfile 모듈):           zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   86)
* zip_longest() (itertools 모듈):        Itertool Functions. (line  650)
* ZIP_LZMA (zipfile 모듈):               zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   98)
* ZIP_STORED (zipfile 모듈):             zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   82)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -c:                명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   41)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -compress:         명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   41)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -h:                명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   56)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -help:             명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   56)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -info:             명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   51)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -m:                명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   32)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -main:             명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   32)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -o:                명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -output:           명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -p:                명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   26)
* zipapp 명령줄 옵션; -python:           명령 줄 인터페이스<7>.
                                                             (line   26)
* ZipFile (zipfile 클래스):              ZipFile 객체.       (line    6)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -c:               명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line   11)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -create:          명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line   11)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -e:               명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line   16)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -extract:         명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line   16)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -l:               명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line    6)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -list:            명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line    6)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -metadata-encoding: 명령 줄 옵션<2>.  (line   26)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -t:               명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line   21)
* zipfile 명령줄 옵션; -test:            명령 줄 옵션<2>.    (line   21)
* zipimporter (zipimport 클래스):        zipimporter 객체.   (line    8)
* ZipImportError:                        zipimport — Zip 저장소에서 모듈 임포트.
                                                             (line   56)
* ZipInfo (zipfile 클래스):              zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업.
                                                             (line   57)
* ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (zlib 모듈):      zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  284)
* ZLIB_VERSION (zlib 모듈):              zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  278)
* ZoneInfo (zoneinfo 클래스):            ZoneInfo 클래스.    (line    6)
* ZoneInfoNotFoundError:                 예외와 경고.        (line    6)
* zscore() (statistics.NormalDist 메서드): NormalDist 객체.  (line  111)
* 감사 이벤트:                           디버깅과 프로파일링.
                                                             (line   12)
* 객체;frozenset:                        집합 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;long 정수:                        정수 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;memoryview:                       Ellipsis 객체<2>.   (line   17)
* 객체;None:                             표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 객체;None <1>:                         None 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;set:                              집합 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;traceback:                        raise 문.           (line   20)
* 객체;가변:                             대입문.             (line    6)
* 객체;가변 <1>:                         대입문.             (line   94)
* 객체;딕셔너리:                         대입문.             (line  105)
* 객체;딕셔너리 <1>:                     딕셔너리 객체.      (line    6)
* 객체;리스트:                           대입문.             (line   98)
* 객체;리스트 <1>:                       리스트 객체.        (line    6)
* 객체;매핑:                             대입문.             (line  105)
* 객체;메서드:                           인스턴스 객체.      (line   25)
* 객체;메서드 <1>:                       메서드 객체<2>.     (line    6)
* 객체;모듈:                             모듈 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;바이트 배열:                      바이트 배열 객체<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* 객체;바이트열:                         바이트열 객체<2>.   (line    9)
* 객체;복소수:                           복소수 객체.        (line    6)
* 객체;부동 소수점:                      부동 소수점 객체.   (line    6)
* 객체;시퀀스:                           대입문.             (line   98)
* 객체;인스턴스 메서드:                  인스턴스 메서드 객체.
                                                             (line    6)
* 객체;정수:                             정수 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;캡슐:                             캡슐.               (line    6)
* 객체;코드:                             marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   30)
* 객체;코드 <1>:                         셀 객체.            (line   55)
* 객체;튜플:                             튜플 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;트레이스백:                       traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회.
                                                             (line   19)
* 객체;파이널리제이션:                   파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line    6)
* 객체;파일:                             파일을 읽고 쓰기.   (line    6)
* 객체;파일 <1>:                         파일 객체.          (line    6)
* 객체;할당 해제:                        파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line    6)
* 객체;함수:                             함수 객체<2>.       (line    6)
* 객체;형:                               객체 형 그리고 참조 횟수.
                                                             (line    6)
* 객체;형 <1>:                           형 객체<2>.         (line    6)
* 결정론적 프로파일링:                   프로파일러 소개.    (line    6)
* 경고:                                  warnings — 경고 제어.
                                                             (line    8)
* 경량 프로세스:                         _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* 경로 기반 파인더:                      경로 기반 파인더.   (line    6)
* 경로 브라우저:                         File 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   22)
* 경로 훅(path hooks):                   임포트 훅 import hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* 경로;구성;파일:                        site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   64)
* 경로;연산:                             os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line    9)
* 공유 메모리:                           multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line   10)
* 구문 분석기:                           어휘 분석.          (line    6)
* 구분자:                                구분자.             (line    6)
* 구성 정보:                             sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기.
                                                             (line   10)
* 구성;파일:                             configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스:              Graphical user interfaces with Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* 그리니치 표준시:                       time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   34)
* 날 문자열:                             문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   35)
* 내장 함수;__import__:                  모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* 내장 함수;abs:                         숫자 프로토콜.      (line   87)
* 내장 함수;classmethod:                 함수와 메서드 구현. (line  185)
* 내장 함수;divmod:                      숫자 프로토콜.      (line   61)
* 내장 함수;eval:                        global 문.          (line   17)
* 내장 함수;eval <1>:                    표현식 입력.        (line    6)
* 내장 함수;eval <2>:                    함수<3>.            (line   86)
* 내장 함수;eval <3>:                    PrettyPrinter 객체. (line   66)
* 내장 함수;exec:                        global 문.          (line   17)
* 내장 함수;float:                       숫자 프로토콜.      (line  236)
* 내장 함수;int:                         숫자 프로토콜.      (line  230)
* 내장 함수;len:                         객체 프로토콜.      (line  444)
* 내장 함수;len <1>:                     시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line   16)
* 내장 함수;len <2>:                     매핑 프로토콜.      (line   18)
* 내장 함수;len <3>:                     리스트 객체.        (line   39)
* 내장 함수;len <4>:                     딕셔너리 객체.      (line  215)
* 내장 함수;len <5>:                     집합 객체.          (line   92)
* 내장 함수;open:                        파일을 읽고 쓰기.   (line    6)
* 내장 함수;pow:                         숫자 프로토콜.      (line   68)
* 내장 함수;pow <1>:                     숫자 프로토콜.      (line  184)
* 내장 함수;repr:                        표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 내장 함수;repr <1>:                    파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line   86)
* 내장 함수;repr <2>:                    객체 프로토콜.      (line  322)
* 내장 함수;staticmethod:                함수와 메서드 구현. (line  191)
* 내장 함수;도움말:                      운영 체제 인터페이스.
                                                             (line   20)
* 내장 함수;바이트열:                    객체 프로토콜.      (line  352)
* 내장 함수;아스키:                      객체 프로토콜.      (line  332)
* 내장 함수;컴파일:                      global 문.          (line   17)
* 내장 함수;컴파일 <1>:                  표준 인터프리터 형. (line   55)
* 내장 함수;컴파일 <2>:                  모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line  119)
* 내장 함수;튜플:                        시퀀스 프로토콜.    (line  112)
* 내장 함수;튜플 <1>:                    리스트 객체.        (line  154)
* 내장 함수;해시:                        객체 프로토콜.      (line  400)
* 내장 함수;형:                          객체 프로토콜.      (line  426)
* 널;연산:                               pass 문<2>.         (line    6)
* 널;연산 <1>:                           pass 문<2>.         (line    6)
* 논리적인 줄:                           논리적인 줄.        (line    6)
* 단순;문장:                             단순문 Simple statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* 대용량 파일:                           대용량 파일 지원.   (line    6)
* 대입;문장:                             대입문.             (line    6)
* 대화형 모드:                           완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line   17)
* 데이터;표 형식:                        csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기.
                                                             (line    8)
* 데이터베이스:                          dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현.
                                                             (line    8)
* 도움말;온라인:                         pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line    8)
* 도큐멘테이션 문자열:                   함수 정의하기.      (line   20)
* 도큐멘테이션 문자열 <1>:               도큐멘테이션 문자열.
                                                             (line    6)
* 독스트링:                              함수 정의하기.      (line   20)
* 독스트링 <1>:                          도큐멘테이션 문자열.
                                                             (line    6)
* 들여쓰기:                              들여쓰기.           (line    6)
* 디렉터리;삭제하기:                     디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  252)
* 디버거:                                Reference<2>.       (line  130)
* 디버거 <1>:                            Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용.
                                                             (line   14)
* 디버거;구성;파일:                      디버거 명령들.      (line   54)
* 디버깅:                                pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line    8)
* 디버깅;어서션:                         assert 문.          (line    6)
* 로더:                                  파인더 finder 와 로더 loader.
                                                             (line    6)
* 루프 제어;타깃:                        break 문.           (line   12)
* 루프;문장:                             break 문.           (line    6)
* 루프;문장 <1>:                         continue 문.        (line    6)
* 리터럴:                                리터럴.             (line    6)
* 마샬링;객체:                           pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    8)
* 메시지 다이제스트, MD5:                hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약.
                                                             (line    8)
* 메타 훅(meta hooks):                   임포트 훅 import hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* 명령줄:                                완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line   22)
* 명령줄 옵션; -?:                       일반 옵션.          (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -b:                       기타 옵션.          (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -B:                       기타 옵션.          (line   16)
* 명령줄 옵션; -build:                   Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   12)
* 명령줄 옵션; -c:                       인터페이스 옵션.    (line   35)
* 명령줄 옵션; -check-hash-based-pycs:   기타 옵션.          (line   21)
* 명령줄 옵션; -d:                       기타 옵션.          (line   34)
* 명령줄 옵션; -disable-gil:             General Options.    (line  224)
* 명령줄 옵션; -disable-ipv6:            General Options.    (line   16)
* 명령줄 옵션; -disable-test-modules:    Install Options.    (line   24)
* 명령줄 옵션; -E:                       기타 옵션.          (line   42)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-big-digits:       General Options.    (line   21)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-bolt:             Performance options.
                                                             (line   61)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-experimental-jit: General Options.    (line  236)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-framework:        macOS Options.      (line   15)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-framework <1>:    macOS Options.      (line   17)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-framework <2>:    iOS Options.        (line    8)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: General Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-optimizations:    Performance options.
                                                             (line   10)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-profiling:        Performance options.
                                                             (line  127)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-pystats:          General Options.    (line  131)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-shared:           Linker options<2>.  (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-universalsdk:     macOS Options.      (line    8)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-universalsdk <1>: macOS Options.      (line   10)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* 명령줄 옵션; -enable-wasm-pthreads:    WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* 명령줄 옵션; -exec-prefix:             Install Options.    (line   16)
* 명령줄 옵션; -h:                       일반 옵션.          (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -help:                    일반 옵션.          (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -help-all:                일반 옵션.          (line   26)
* 명령줄 옵션; -help-env:                일반 옵션.          (line   13)
* 명령줄 옵션; -help-xoptions:           일반 옵션.          (line   19)
* 명령줄 옵션; -host:                    Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* 명령줄 옵션; -i:                       기타 옵션.          (line   49)
* 명령줄 옵션; -I:                       기타 옵션.          (line   69)
* 명령줄 옵션; -J:                       사용해서는 안 되는 옵션.
                                                             (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -m:                       인터페이스 옵션.    (line   48)
* 명령줄 옵션; -O:                       기타 옵션.          (line   81)
* 명령줄 옵션; -OO:                      기타 옵션.          (line   90)
* 명령줄 옵션; -P:                       기타 옵션.          (line   98)
* 명령줄 옵션; -prefix:                  Install Options.    (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -q:                       기타 옵션.          (line  117)
* 명령줄 옵션; -R:                       기타 옵션.          (line  123)
* 명령줄 옵션; -s:                       기타 옵션.          (line  147)
* 명령줄 옵션; -S:                       기타 옵션.          (line  159)
* 명령줄 옵션; -u:                       기타 옵션.          (line  166)
* 명령줄 옵션; -V:                       일반 옵션.          (line   32)
* 명령줄 옵션; -v:                       기타 옵션.          (line  176)
* 명령줄 옵션; -version:                 일반 옵션.          (line   32)
* 명령줄 옵션; -W:                       기타 옵션.          (line  188)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-address-sanitizer:  Debug options.      (line   59)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-app-store-compliance: macOS Options.    (line   56)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-app-store-compliance <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   58)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-assertions:         Debug options.      (line   34)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-build-python:       Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   20)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: Security Options.
                                                             (line   21)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-computed-gotos:     Performance options.
                                                             (line   98)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-dbmliborder:        General Options.    (line   68)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-dtrace:             Debug options.      (line   51)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-emscripten-target:  WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-ensurepip:          Install Options.    (line   32)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-framework-name:     macOS Options.      (line   51)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-framework-name <1>: iOS Options.        (line   13)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-hash-algorithm:     Security Options.   (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-libc:               Libraries options.  (line   58)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-libm:               Libraries options.  (line   53)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-libs:               Libraries options.  (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-lto:                Performance options.
                                                             (line   45)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-memory-sanitizer:   Debug options.      (line   69)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-openssl:            Libraries options.  (line   63)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-openssl-rpath:      Libraries options.  (line   69)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-pkg-config:         General Options.    (line  118)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-platlibdir:         General Options.    (line   96)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-pydebug:            Debug options.      (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-readline:           Libraries options.  (line   35)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-ssl-default-suites: Security Options.   (line   40)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-strict-overflow:    Performance options.
                                                             (line  131)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-suffix:             General Options.    (line   32)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-system-expat:       Libraries options.  (line   10)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-system-libmpdec:    Libraries options.  (line   15)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-thread-sanitizer:   Debug options.      (line   83)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-trace-refs:         Debug options.      (line   11)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-tzpath:             General Options.    (line   44)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   76)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-universal-archs:    macOS Options.      (line   23)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-valgrind:           Debug options.      (line   47)
* 명령줄 옵션; -with-wheel-pkg-dir:      General Options.    (line  106)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-c-locale-coercion: General Options.  (line   81)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-decimal-contextvar: General Options. (line   57)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-doc-strings:     Performance options.
                                                             (line  117)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-freelists:       General Options.    (line   90)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-mimalloc:        Performance options.
                                                             (line  103)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-pymalloc:        Performance options.
                                                             (line  110)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-readline:        Libraries options.  (line   45)
* 명령줄 옵션; -without-static-libpython: Linker options<2>. (line   11)
* 명령줄 옵션; -x:                       기타 옵션.          (line  245)
* 명령줄 옵션; -X:                       기타 옵션.          (line  250)
* 명령줄 옵션; BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS:         Performance options.
                                                             (line   86)
* 명령줄 옵션; BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS:    Performance options.
                                                             (line   92)
* 명령줄 옵션; BZIP2_CFLAGS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line    8)
* 명령줄 옵션; BZIP2_LIBS:               Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   10)
* 명령줄 옵션; CC:                       C compiler options. (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; CFLAGS:                   C compiler options. (line   10)
* 명령줄 옵션; CONFIG_SITE:              Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* 명령줄 옵션; CPP:                      C compiler options. (line   14)
* 명령줄 옵션; CPPFLAGS:                 C compiler options. (line   18)
* 명령줄 옵션; CURSES_CFLAGS:            Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   15)
* 명령줄 옵션; CURSES_LIBS:              Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   17)
* 명령줄 옵션; GDBM_CFLAGS:              Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   22)
* 명령줄 옵션; GDBM_LIBS:                Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   24)
* 명령줄 옵션; HOSTRUNNER:               Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   38)
* 명령줄 옵션; LDFLAGS:                  Linker options.     (line    6)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBB2_CFLAGS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   28)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBB2_LIBS:               Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   30)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBEDIT_CFLAGS:           Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   35)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBEDIT_LIBS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   37)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBFFI_CFLAGS:            Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   42)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBFFI_LIBS:              Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   44)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBLZMA_CFLAGS:           Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   59)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBLZMA_LIBS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   61)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS:          Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   49)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBMPDEC_LIBS:            Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   51)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS:       Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   66)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBREADLINE_LIBS:         Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   68)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBS:                     Linker options.     (line   10)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS:        Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   73)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBSQLITE3_LIBS:          Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   75)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBUUID_CFLAGS:           Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   80)
* 명령줄 옵션; LIBUUID_LIBS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   82)
* 명령줄 옵션; MACHDEP:                  Linker options.     (line   14)
* 명령줄 옵션; PANEL_CFLAGS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   87)
* 명령줄 옵션; PANEL_LIBS:               Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   89)
* 명령줄 옵션; PKG_CONFIG:               General Options.    (line  258)
* 명령줄 옵션; PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR:        General Options.    (line  262)
* 명령줄 옵션; PKG_CONFIG_PATH:          General Options.    (line  264)
* 명령줄 옵션; TCLTK_CFLAGS:             Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   96)
* 명령줄 옵션; TCLTK_LIBS:               Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   98)
* 명령줄 옵션; ZLIB_CFLAGS:              Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  102)
* 명령줄 옵션; ZLIB_LIBS:                Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  104)
* 모듈 브라우저:                         File 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   22)
* 모듈 스펙:                             파인더 finder 와 로더 loader.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;__main__:                         이름의 검색 resolution.
                                                             (line   50)
* 모듈;__main__ <1>:                     완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;__main__ <2>:                     완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line   17)
* 모듈;__main__ <3>:                     runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   29)
* 모듈;__main__ <4>:                     runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행.
                                                             (line   93)
* 모듈;__main__ <5>:                     파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   11)
* 모듈;_locale:                          locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line   15)
* 모듈;base64:                           binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;bdb:                              pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line   17)
* 모듈;builtins:                         dir 함수.           (line   46)
* 모듈;builtins <1>:                     완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;builtins <2>:                     파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   11)
* 모듈;cmd:                              pdb — 파이썬 디버거.
                                                             (line   17)
* 모듈;dbm.gnu:                          제약 사항.          (line    6)
* 모듈;dbm.ndbm:                         제약 사항.          (line    6)
* 모듈;errno:                            구체적인 예외.      (line  148)
* 모듈;glob:                             fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line   33)
* 모듈;json:                             json 으로 구조적인 데이터를 저장하기.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;pwd:                              os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  130)
* 모듈;pyexpat:                          xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석.
                                                             (line   19)
* 모듈;re:                               fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line    8)
* 모듈;sys:                              표준 모듈들.        (line    6)
* 모듈;sys <1>:                          완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;sys <2>:                          파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   11)
* 모듈;urllib.request:                   http client — HTTP 프로토콜 클라이언트.
                                                             (line    8)
* 모듈;검색;경로:                        모듈 검색 경로.     (line    6)
* 모듈;검색;경로 <1>:                    linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스.
                                                             (line   27)
* 모듈;검색;경로 <2>:                    site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   13)
* 모듈;검색;경로 <3>:                    파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   11)
* 모듈;복사:                             copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록.
                                                             (line    8)
* 모듈;소켓:                             인터넷 프로토콜과 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* 모듈;수학:                             상수<3>.            (line   46)
* 모듈;쉘프:                             marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   14)
* 모듈;시그널:                           _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line  181)
* 모듈;시그널 <1>:                       시그널 처리하기<2>. (line    7)
* 모듈;시그널 <2>:                       시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   34)
* 모듈;시그널 <3>:                       시그널 처리하기<2>. (line   43)
* 모듈;운영 체제:                        posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출.
                                                             (line   13)
* 모듈;임포트하기:                       임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* 모듈;피클:                             copy — 얕은 복사와 깊은 복사 연산.
                                                             (line   71)
* 모듈;피클 <1>:                         copyreg — pickle 지원 함수 등록.
                                                             (line    8)
* 모듈;피클 <2>:                         shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성.
                                                             (line    8)
* 모듈;피클 <3>:                         marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   14)
* 묶음:                                  들여쓰기.           (line    6)
* 문법 (grammar):                        표기법.             (line    6)
* 문법 (syntax):                         표기법.             (line    6)
* 문서화;생성:                           pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line    8)
* 문서화;온라인:                         pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line    8)
* 문자:                                  unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* 문자열 리터럴:                         리터럴.             (line    8)
* 문자열, 도큐멘테이션:                  함수 정의하기.      (line   20)
* 문자열, 도큐멘테이션 <1>:              도큐멘테이션 문자열.
                                                             (line    6)
* 문자열;PyObject_Str (C 함수):          객체 프로토콜.      (line  341)
* 문자열;객체 표현:                      파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line   87)
* 문자열;변환:                           표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 문자열;보간된 리터럴:                  장식적인 출력 포매팅.
                                                             (line   90)
* 문자열;보간된 리터럴 <1>:              문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* 문자열;포맷 리터럴:                    장식적인 출력 포매팅.
                                                             (line   90)
* 문자열;포맷 리터럴 <1>:                문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* 문장 묶음:                             들여쓰기.           (line    6)
* 문장;assert:                           assert 문.          (line    6)
* 문장;assert <1>:                       구체적인 예외.      (line   10)
* 문장;break:                            break 문.           (line    6)
* 문장;continue:                         continue 문.        (line    6)
* 문장;del:                              del 문<2>.          (line    6)
* 문장;except:                           내장 예외.          (line    6)
* 문장;for:                              for 문.             (line    6)
* 문장;for <1>:                          break 문.           (line    6)
* 문장;for <2>:                          continue 문.        (line    6)
* 문장;import:                           임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* 문장;nonlocal:                         nonlocal 문.        (line    6)
* 문장;pass:                             pass 문<2>.         (line    6)
* 문장;raise:                            raise 문.           (line    6)
* 문장;raise <1>:                        내장 예외.          (line   13)
* 문장;return:                           return 문.          (line    6)
* 문장;try:                              내장 예외.          (line    6)
* 문장;while:                            break 문.           (line    6)
* 문장;while <1>:                        continue 문.        (line    6)
* 문장;yield:                            yield 문.           (line    6)
* 문장;대입, 어노테이트된:               어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* 문장;대입, 증분:                       증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* 문장;임포트:                           site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   46)
* 문장;전역:                             del 문<2>.          (line   13)
* 문장;전역 <1>:                         global 문.          (line    6)
* 문장;형:                               type 문.            (line    6)
* 물리적인 줄:                           논리적인 줄.        (line    6)
* 물리적인 줄 <1>:                       명시적인 줄 결합.   (line    6)
* 물리적인 줄 <2>:                       문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* 바이너리 모드:                         내장 함수.          (line 1424)
* 바이트열 리터럴:                       리터럴.             (line    8)
* 배열:                                  array — 효율적인 숫자 배열.
                                                             (line    6)
* 버퍼 객체;(버퍼 프로토콜을 보십시오):  이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   76)
* 버퍼 인터페이스;(버퍼 프로토콜을 보십시오): 이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   77)
* 버퍼 프로토콜:                         이터레이터 프로토콜.
                                                             (line   77)
* 벤치마킹:                              함수<4>.            (line  209)
* 벤치마킹 <1>:                          함수<4>.            (line  240)
* 벤치마킹 <2>:                          함수<4>.            (line  595)
* 벤치마킹 <3>:                          timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정.
                                                             (line    8)
* 보간된 문자열 리터럴:                  장식적인 출력 포매팅.
                                                             (line   90)
* 보간된 문자열 리터럴 <1>:              문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* 복사;프로토콜:                         클래스 인스턴스 피클링.
                                                             (line  105)
* 복소수 리터럴:                         숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 블록:                                  프로그램의 구조.    (line    6)
* 빈 줄:                                 빈 줄.              (line    6)
* 삭제;타깃:                             del 문<2>.          (line    6)
* 삭제;타깃;리스트:                      del 문<2>.          (line    6)
* 삼중 따옴표 문자열:                    문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   35)
* 상대적;import:                         임포트 import 문.   (line   89)
* 상대적;URL:                            urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* 상수:                                  리터럴.             (line    6)
* 서브스크립션;대입:                     대입문.             (line   94)
* 선행 공백:                             들여쓰기.           (line    6)
* 성능:                                  timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정.
                                                             (line    8)
* 세마포어, 이진:                        _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* 소스 문자 집합:                        인코딩 선언.        (line    6)
* 소프트 키워드:                         소프트 키워드.      (line    6)
* 순환 중복 검사:                        zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  112)
* 숫자:                                  숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 숫자 리터럴:                           숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 스레드;POSIX:                          _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line   15)
* 스코프:                                이름과 연결 binding.
                                                             (line    6)
* 스코프 <1>:                            이름의 검색 resolution.
                                                             (line    6)
* 스크립트 실행:                         Format 메뉴 편집기 창 전용.
                                                             (line   53)
* 스택 뷰어:                             Debug 메뉴 셸 창 전용.
                                                             (line   14)
* 스트림:                                codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    8)
* 스페이스:                              들여쓰기.           (line    6)
* 스페이스;문자열 포매팅에서:            포맷 명세 미니 언어.
                                                             (line   68)
* 슬라이싱;대입:                         대입문.             (line  114)
* 식별자:                                식별자와 키워드.    (line    6)
* 실수 리터럴:                           숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 실행 가능한 Zip 파일:                  zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리.
                                                             (line   10)
* 실행 모델:                             실행 모델.          (line    6)
* 실행;프레임:                           프로그램의 구조.    (line   17)
* 십진수 리터럴:                         숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 쓰기;값:                               표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 암호화:                                암호화 서비스.      (line    6)
* 어노테이트된;대입:                     어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* 어트리뷰트;대입:                       대입문.             (line    6)
* 어트리뷰트;대입 <1>:                   대입문.             (line   72)
* 어트리뷰트;삭제:                       del 문<2>.          (line   17)
* 어휘 분석:                             어휘 분석.          (line    6)
* 어휘 정의:                             표기법.             (line   29)
* 에러:                                  예외<2>.            (line    6)
* 에러 처리:                             예외<2>.            (line    6)
* 에러;logging:                          logging — 파이썬 로깅 시설.
                                                             (line    8)
* 에포크:                                time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   18)
* 에포크 이후 초:                        time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   21)
* 역 슬래시 문자:                        명시적인 줄 결합.   (line    6)
* 연결 해제;이름:                        del 문<2>.          (line   13)
* 연결;이름:                             이름의 연결.        (line    6)
* 연결;이름 <1>:                         대입문.             (line    6)
* 연산자:                                연산자.             (line    6)
* 연속:                                  shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   25)
* 예약어:                                키워드.             (line    6)
* 예외:                                  예외<2>.            (line    6)
* 예외 <1>:                              raise 문.           (line    6)
* 예외 일으키기;예외:                    raise 문.           (line    6)
* 예외 처리기:                           예외<2>.            (line    6)
* 예외;AssertionError:                   assert 문.          (line   21)
* 예외;ImportError:                      임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* 예외;StopIteration:                    yield 문.           (line    6)
* 예외;연쇄:                             raise 문.           (line   28)
* 예외;연쇄 <1>:                         예외 컨텍스트.      (line    6)
* 예외를 발생시키다:                     예외<2>.            (line    6)
* 예외를 처리하다:                       예외<2>.            (line    6)
* 외부 데이터 표현:                      데이터 스트림 형식. (line    6)
* 월드 와이드 웹:                        인터넷 프로토콜과 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* 월드 와이드 웹 <1>:                    urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* 월드 와이드 웹 <2>:                    urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* 윈도우 ini 파일:                       configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기.
                                                             (line    8)
* 유니버설 줄 넘김;;mod;'subprocess' 모듈: 자주 사용되는 인자.
                                                             (line   30)
* 유니버설 줄 넘김;csv.reader 함수:      모듈 내용<3>.       (line    8)
* 유니버설 줄 넘김;importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source 메서드: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line  206)
* 유니버설 줄 넘김;io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder 클래스: 텍스트 I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* 유니버설 줄 넘김;io.TextIOWrapper 클래스: 텍스트 I/O<2>.   (line  120)
* 유니코드:                              unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* 유니코드 <1>:                          codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    8)
* 유니코드 컨소시엄:                     문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   35)
* 유니코드;데이터베이스:                 unicodedata — 유니코드 데이터베이스.
                                                             (line    6)
* 이름:                                  식별자와 키워드.    (line    6)
* 이름 <1>:                              이름의 연결.        (line    6)
* 이름 공간:                             이름과 연결 binding.
                                                             (line    6)
* 이름 지정 공유 메모리:                 multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리.
                                                             (line   10)
* 이름;뒤섞기:                           비공개 변수.        (line   12)
* 이름;연결:                             임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* 이름;연결 <1>:                         임포트 import 문.   (line   45)
* 이벤트 (위젯):                         바인딩과 이벤트.    (line    6)
* 이벤트 스케줄링:                       sched — 이벤트 스케줄러.
                                                             (line    8)
* 이스케이프 시퀀스:                     문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* 이진 세마포어:                         _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* 이진수 리터럴:                         숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 인식되지 않는 이스케이프 시퀀스:       이스케이프 시퀀스.  (line  105)
* 인코딩 선언 (소스 파일):               인코딩 선언.        (line    6)
* 인터넷:                                인터넷 프로토콜과 지원.
                                                             (line    6)
* 인터프리터:                            최상위 요소들.      (line    6)
* 일광 절약 시간:                        time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   40)
* 임시;파일:                             tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line    8)
* 임시;파일명:                           tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line    8)
* 임포트 절차:                           임포트 시스템.      (line    6)
* 임포트 훅(import hooks):               임포트 훅 import hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* 입력:                                  표현식 입력.        (line    6)
* 자유;변수:                             이름의 연결.        (line   46)
* 재연결;이름:                           대입문.             (line    6)
* 전역;이름;연결:                        global 문.          (line    6)
* 정리 함수:                             프로세스 제어.      (line   32)
* 정수 리터럴:                           숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 제너레이터;이터레이터:                 yield 문.           (line    6)
* 제너레이터;함수:                       yield 문.           (line    6)
* 제한된;실행:                           builtins 와 제한된 실행.
                                                             (line    6)
* 종료 모델:                             예외<2>.            (line   18)
* 주석:                                  주석.               (line    6)
* 줄 결합:                               논리적인 줄.        (line    6)
* 줄 결합 <1>:                           명시적인 줄 결합.   (line    6)
* 줄 결합 <2>:                           명시적인 줄 결합.   (line    6)
* 줄 구조(line structure):               줄 구조 Line structure.
                                                             (line    6)
* 중단점:                                Help 메뉴 셸과 편집기.
                                                             (line   28)
* 증분;대입:                             증분 대입문 Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* 지속성:                                pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    8)
* 지속적;객체:                           pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    8)
* 직렬화하기;객체:                       pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    8)
* 창 관리자 (위젯):                      창 관리자.          (line    6)
* 체크섬;순환 중복 검사:                 zlib — gzip 과 호환되는 압축.
                                                             (line  112)
* 추적 함수:                             Reference<2>.       (line  114)
* 추적 함수 <1>:                         Reference<2>.       (line  130)
* 출력:                                  표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 코덱:                                  codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    8)
* 코덱;decode:                           codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    8)
* 코덱;encode:                           codecs — 코덱 레지스트리와 베이스 클래스.
                                                             (line    8)
* 코드 객체:                             marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line   30)
* 코드 객체 <1>:                         셀 객체.            (line   54)
* 코드;블록:                             실행 모델.          (line    6)
* 코딩;스타일:                           막간극 코딩 스타일. (line    6)
* 클래스;정의:                           return 문.          (line    6)
* 키워드:                                키워드.             (line    6)
* 키워드 <1>:                            소프트 키워드.      (line    6)
* 키워드;as:                             임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* 키워드;else:                           break 문.           (line   12)
* 키워드;finally:                        return 문.          (line   16)
* 키워드;finally <1>:                    break 문.           (line   18)
* 키워드;finally <2>:                    continue 문.        (line    6)
* 키워드;from:                           임포트 import 문.   (line    6)
* 타깃:                                  대입문.             (line   27)
* 타깃;리스트:                           대입문.             (line   27)
* 타깃;리스트;대입:                      대입문.             (line   34)
* 탭:                                    들여쓰기.           (line    6)
* 토큰:                                  어휘 분석.          (line    6)
* 통합 개발 환경:                        IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸.
                                                             (line    8)
* 파괴자:                                대입문.             (line   67)
* 파이널리제이션, 객체의:                파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line    6)
* 파이썬 편집기:                         IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸.
                                                             (line    8)
* 파인더:                                파인더 finder 와 로더 loader.
                                                             (line    6)
* 파인더;find_spec:                      메타 경로 meta path.
                                                             (line    6)
* 파일 객체;io 모듈:                     개요<2>.            (line    6)
* 파일 복사하기:                         shutil — 고수준 파일 연산.
                                                             (line    8)
* 파일;mime.types:                       mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑.
                                                             (line  128)
* 파일;대용량 파일:                      대용량 파일 지원.   (line    6)
* 파일;바이트 코드:                      py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line    8)
* 파일;복사하기:                         shutil — 고수준 파일 연산.
                                                             (line    8)
* 파일명;경로명 확장:                    glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장.
                                                             (line    8)
* 파일명;와일드카드 확장:                fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치.
                                                             (line    8)
* 패키지:                                site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   64)
* 패키지 변수;__all__:                   모듈 임포트 하기<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* 패키지(package):                       패키지 package.     (line    6)
* 패키지(package);이름 공간:             이름 공간 패키지.   (line    6)
* 패키지(package);일반:                  정규 패키지.        (line    6)
* 패키지(package);포션:                  이름 공간 패키지.   (line    6)
* 패킹 (위젯):                           패커.               (line    6)
* 패킹;바이너리;데이터:                  struct — 패킹 된 바이너리 데이터로 바이트열을 해석.
                                                             (line    8)
* 평탄화;객체:                           pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    8)
* 포맷 문자열 리터럴:                    장식적인 출력 포매팅.
                                                             (line   90)
* 포맷 문자열 리터럴 <1>:                문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* 포맷 문자열 리터럴 <2>:                문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* 포맷 문자열 리터럴 <3>:                문자열 리터럴 이어붙이기.
                                                             (line   23)
* 포트란 연속:                           shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   24)
* 표기법:                                표기법.             (line    6)
* 표준 C:                                문자열과 바이트열 리터럴.
                                                             (line   73)
* 표준 입력:                             완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line   22)
* 표준;출력:                             표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 표현식;리스트:                         표현식 문.          (line    6)
* 표현식;리스트 <1>:                     표현식 문.          (line    6)
* 표현식;문장:                           표현식 문.          (line    6)
* 퓨처;문장:                             퓨처 문.            (line    6)
* 프로그램:                              완전한 파이썬 프로그램.
                                                             (line    6)
* 프로세서 시간:                         함수<4>.            (line  240)
* 프로세서 시간 <1>:                     함수<4>.            (line  595)
* 프로세스, 경량:                        _thread — 저수준 스레드 API.
                                                             (line    6)
* 프로시저;호출:                         표현식 문.          (line   15)
* 프로파일 함수:                         Reference<2>.       (line  136)
* 프로파일 함수 <1>:                     Reference<2>.       (line  152)
* 프로파일링, 결정론적:                  프로파일러 소개.    (line    6)
* 프로퍼티 리스트:                       plistlib — 애플 plist 파일 생성과 구문 분석.
                                                             (line    8)
* 피클링;객체:                           pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화.
                                                             (line    8)
* 할당 해제, 객체:                       파이널리제이션과 할당 해제.
                                                             (line    6)
* 함수;어노테이션:                       함수 어노테이션.    (line    6)
* 함수;정의:                             return 문.          (line    6)
* 함수;제너레이터:                       yield 문.           (line    6)
* 해시 문자:                             주석.               (line    6)
* 허수 리터럴:                           숫자 리터럴.        (line    6)
* 협정 세계시:                           time — 시간 액세스와 변환.
                                                             (line   34)
* 환경:                                  이름의 검색 resolution.
                                                             (line   12)
* 환경 변수; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:        PyConfig.           (line  184)
* 환경 변수; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:    PyConfig.           (line  702)
* 환경 변수; %APPDATA%:                  Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line   12)
* 환경 변수; APPDATA:                    PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* 환경 변수; BASECFLAGS:                 Compiler flags.     (line   66)
* 환경 변수; BASECPPFLAGS:               Preprocessor flags. (line   22)
* 환경 변수; BLDSHARED:                  Linker flags.       (line   67)
* 환경 변수; BROWSER:                    webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   19)
* 환경 변수; BROWSER <1>:                webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line   31)
* 환경 변수; BROWSER <2>:                webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line  117)
* 환경 변수; CC:                         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* 환경 변수; CC <1>:                     Compiler flags.     (line    6)
* 환경 변수; CCSHARED:                   Compiler flags.     (line   81)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS:                     New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <1>:                 Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <2>:                 Compiler flags.     (line   18)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <3>:                 Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <4>:                 Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <5>:                 Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <6>:                 Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS <7>:                 Linker flags.       (line   18)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS_ALIASING:            Compiler flags.     (line   74)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS_NODIST:              Compiler flags.     (line   22)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:          Compiler flags.     (line   24)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:          Compiler flags.     (line   61)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGS_NODIST <3>:          Linker flags.       (line   26)
* 환경 변수; CFLAGSFORSHARED:            Compiler flags.     (line   87)
* 환경 변수; COLUMNS:                    함수<5>.            (line  553)
* 환경 변수; COLUMNS <1>:                함수<5>.            (line  555)
* 환경 변수; COMPILEALL_OPTS:            Compiler flags.     (line   41)
* 환경 변수; COMSPEC:                    프로세스 관리.      (line  757)
* 환경 변수; COMSPEC <1>:                Popen 생성자.       (line  104)
* 환경 변수; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS:           Compiler flags.     (line   52)
* 환경 변수; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST:    Compiler flags.     (line   59)
* 환경 변수; CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS:         Preprocessor flags. (line    6)
* 환경 변수; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS:          Linker flags.       (line   13)
* 환경 변수; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST:   Linker flags.       (line   38)
* 환경 변수; CPPFLAGS:                   New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* 환경 변수; CPPFLAGS <1>:               Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* 환경 변수; CPPFLAGS <2>:               Preprocessor flags. (line   13)
* 환경 변수; CPPFLAGS <3>:               Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* 환경 변수; CPPFLAGS <4>:               Linker flags.       (line   50)
* 환경 변수; CXX:                        Compiler flags.     (line   12)
* 환경 변수; DISPLAY:                    Tkinter 모듈.       (line   27)
* 환경 변수; EnableControlFlowGuard:     Build<35>.          (line   47)
* 환경 변수; EXTRA_CFLAGS:               Compiler flags.     (line   48)
* 환경 변수; HOME:                       os path<5>.         (line   15)
* 환경 변수; HOME <1>:                   파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* 환경 변수; HOME <2>:                   Windows<43>.        (line   15)
* 환경 변수; HOME <3>:                   Windows<43>.        (line   18)
* 환경 변수; HOME <4>:                   os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  130)
* 환경 변수; HOME <5>:                   os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  145)
* 환경 변수; HOME <6>:                   Tkinter 모듈.       (line   66)
* 환경 변수; HOMEDRIVE:                  os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  136)
* 환경 변수; HOMEPATH:                   os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  136)
* 환경 변수; IDLESTARTUP:                IDLE<39>.           (line  176)
* 환경 변수; IDLESTARTUP <1>:            IDLE<43>.           (line    9)
* 환경 변수; IDLESTARTUP <2>:            IDLE<49>.           (line    9)
* 환경 변수; IDLESTARTUP <3>:            시작과 코드 실행.   (line    6)
* 환경 변수; IDLESTARTUP <4>:            명령 줄 사용법.     (line   41)
* 환경 변수; LANG:                       GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* 환경 변수; LANG <1>:                   클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* 환경 변수; LANG <2>:                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line   49)
* 환경 변수; LANG <3>:                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  319)
* 환경 변수; LANG <4>:                   locale — 국제화 서비스.
                                                             (line  323)
* 환경 변수; LANGUAGE:                   GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* 환경 변수; LANGUAGE <1>:               클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* 환경 변수; LC_ALL:                     GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* 환경 변수; LC_ALL <1>:                 클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* 환경 변수; LC_MESSAGES:                GNU gettext API.    (line   19)
* 환경 변수; LC_MESSAGES <1>:            클래스 기반 API.    (line   23)
* 환경 변수; LDCXXSHARED:                Build and C API Changes<5>.
                                                             (line  153)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS:                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <1>:                Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <2>:                Linker flags.       (line   15)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <3>:                Linker flags.       (line   18)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <4>:                Linker flags.       (line   28)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <5>:                Linker flags.       (line   31)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <6>:                Linker flags.       (line   35)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <7>:                Linker flags.       (line   45)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS <8>:                Linker flags.       (line   50)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS_NODIST:             Linker flags.       (line   24)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:         Linker flags.       (line   26)
* 환경 변수; LDFLAGS_NODIST <2>:         Linker flags.       (line   40)
* 환경 변수; LDSHARED:                   Linker flags.       (line   61)
* 환경 변수; LIBS:                       Linker flags.       (line   54)
* 환경 변수; LINES:                      함수<5>.            (line  120)
* 환경 변수; LINES <1>:                  함수<5>.            (line  553)
* 환경 변수; LINES <2>:                  함수<5>.            (line  555)
* 환경 변수; LINKCC:                     Linker flags.       (line    6)
* 환경 변수; LOGNAME:                    프로세스 매개 변수. (line  232)
* 환경 변수; LOGNAME <1>:                getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   42)
* 환경 변수; MANPAGER:                   pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line   42)
* 환경 변수; MANPAGER <1>:               pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line   43)
* 환경 변수; no_proxy:                   urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리.
                                                             (line  293)
* 환경 변수; OPT:                        Debug options.      (line   39)
* 환경 변수; OPT <1>:                    Compiler flags.     (line   70)
* 환경 변수; PAGER:                      pydoc — 설명서 생성과 온라인 도움말 시스템.
                                                             (line   42)
* 환경 변수; PATH:                       파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  136)
* 환경 변수; PATH <1>:                   Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PATH <2>:                   Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PATH <3>:                   Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line   12)
* 환경 변수; PATH <4>:                   macOS<7>.           (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PATH <5>:                   Windows<24>.        (line   55)
* 환경 변수; PATH <6>:                   Windows<28>.        (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PATH <7>:                   Security<37>.       (line   16)
* 환경 변수; PATH <8>:                   Security<37>.       (line   20)
* 환경 변수; PATH <9>:                   모듈 검색 경로.     (line   15)
* 환경 변수; PATH <10>:                  실행 가능한 파이썬 스크립트.
                                                             (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PATH <11>:                  환경 변수.          (line   25)
* 환경 변수; PATH <12>:                  잡동사니<2>.        (line   16)
* 환경 변수; PATH <13>:                  설치 단계.          (line   32)
* 환경 변수; PATH <14>:                  설치 단계.          (line   53)
* 환경 변수; PATH <15>:                  UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   75)
* 환경 변수; PATH <16>:                  UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   79)
* 환경 변수; PATH <17>:                  보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
                                                             (line   21)
* 환경 변수; PATH <18>:                  보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
                                                             (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PATH <19>:                  파이썬 실행 파일 찾기.
                                                             (line   13)
* 환경 변수; PATH <20>:                  파이썬 실행 파일 찾기.
                                                             (line   21)
* 환경 변수; PATH <21>:                  파이썬 실행 파일 찾기.
                                                             (line   22)
* 환경 변수; PATH <22>:                  윈도우 용 파이썬 런처.
                                                             (line   12)
* 환경 변수; PATH <23>:                  명령 줄에서.        (line    8)
* 환경 변수; PATH <24>:                  셔뱅 줄.            (line   49)
* 환경 변수; PATH <25>:                  셔뱅 줄.            (line   55)
* 환경 변수; PATH <26>:                  셔뱅 줄.            (line   55)
* 환경 변수; PATH <27>:                  셔뱅 줄.            (line   59)
* 환경 변수; PATH <28>:                  Comparison to the os and os path modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* 환경 변수; PATH <29>:                  디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  406)
* 환경 변수; PATH <30>:                  디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  411)
* 환경 변수; PATH <31>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line   43)
* 환경 변수; PATH <32>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line   83)
* 환경 변수; PATH <33>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line   86)
* 환경 변수; PATH <34>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line   89)
* 환경 변수; PATH <35>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line  531)
* 환경 변수; PATH <36>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line  615)
* 환경 변수; PATH <37>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line  617)
* 환경 변수; PATH <38>:                  프로세스 관리.      (line  619)
* 환경 변수; PATH <39>:                  기타 시스템 정보.   (line  131)
* 환경 변수; PATH <40>:                  Popen 생성자.       (line   33)
* 환경 변수; PATH <41>:                  webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기.
                                                             (line  234)
* 환경 변수; PATH <42>:                  How venvs work.     (line   16)
* 환경 변수; PATH <43>:                  How venvs work.     (line   61)
* 환경 변수; PATH <44>:                  How venvs work.     (line   66)
* 환경 변수; PATH <45>:                  site — 사이트별 구성 훅.
                                                             (line   56)
* 환경 변수; PATH <46>:                  파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   25)
* 환경 변수; PATH <47>:                  파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   31)
* 환경 변수; PATH <48>:                  유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line   21)
* 환경 변수; PATH <49>:                  유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?.
                                                             (line   26)
* 환경 변수; PATHEXT:                    Other Improvements. (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PATHEXT <1>:                Library<44>.        (line  138)
* 환경 변수; PATHEXT <2>:                UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   76)
* 환경 변수; PATHEXT <3>:                UI 없이 설치하기.   (line   80)
* 환경 변수; PATHEXT <4>:                디렉터리와 파일 연산.
                                                             (line  421)
* 환경 변수; PIP_USER:                   Windows<45>.        (line  102)
* 환경 변수; PROFILE_TASK:               Build<19>.          (line   13)
* 환경 변수; PROFILE_TASK <1>:           Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* 환경 변수; PROFILE_TASK <2>:           Performance options.
                                                             (line   34)
* 환경 변수; PURIFY:                     Compiler flags.     (line  130)
* 환경 변수; PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS:   Compiler flags.     (line  121)
* 환경 변수; PY_CFLAGS:                  Compiler flags.     (line   94)
* 환경 변수; PY_CFLAGS_NODIST:           Compiler flags.     (line   99)
* 환경 변수; PY_CORE_CFLAGS:             Compiler flags.     (line  115)
* 환경 변수; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS:            Linker flags.       (line   83)
* 환경 변수; PY_CPPFLAGS:                Preprocessor flags. (line   26)
* 환경 변수; PY_LDFLAGS:                 Linker flags.       (line   73)
* 환경 변수; PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST:          Linker flags.       (line   77)
* 환경 변수; PY_PYTHON:                  기본 파이썬 버전 사용자 정의.
                                                             (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS:        Compiler flags.     (line  106)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:   Windows<12>.        (line   24)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<26>.      (line   15)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>: 필요 시 설치.     (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL:  필요 시 설치.       (line   12)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:           진단.               (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:          Dry Run.            (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>:      필요 시 설치.       (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH:  셔뱅 줄.            (line   59)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:          A better interactive interpreter.
                                                             (line   27)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>:      Library<8>.         (line  322)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>:      Library<8>.         (line  326)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>:      Core and Builtins<14>.
                                                             (line   55)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>:      대화형 모드<2>.     (line   23)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <5>:      환경 변수.          (line  501)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_COLORS:              Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   57)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_COLORS <1>:          Improved error messages.
                                                             (line    8)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_COLORS <2>:          doctest.            (line    7)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_COLORS <3>:          Controlling color.  (line   22)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_COLORS <4>:          환경 변수.          (line  493)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:           os.                 (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>:       기타 옵션.          (line  362)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>:       환경 변수.          (line  469)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>:       기타 시스템 정보.   (line   44)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>:       기타 시스템 정보.   (line   65)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>:       잡동사니<3>.        (line   31)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <6>:       PyConfig.           (line  494)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_DOM:                 모듈 내용<6>.       (line   21)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES:      Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   46)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>:  Core and Builtins<21>.
                                                             (line  105)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>:  기타 옵션.          (line  333)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <3>:  환경 변수.          (line  479)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL:                 Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   22)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL <1>:             Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   38)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL <2>:             Core and Builtins<11>.
                                                             (line   40)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL <3>:             기타 옵션.          (line  380)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL <4>:             환경 변수.          (line  518)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL <5>:             The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python.
                                                             (line    7)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_GIL <6>:             용어집.             (line  643)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_HISTORY:             Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   57)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_HISTORY <1>:         Library<19>.        (line  544)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_HISTORY <2>:         환경 변수.          (line  510)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_JIT:                 An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   21)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_JIT <1>:             An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   24)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_JIT <2>:             An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   28)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_JIT <3>:             환경 변수.          (line  530)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT:    Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   52)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>: 기타 옵션.         (line  352)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>: 환경 변수.         (line  456)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>: PyConfig.          (line  875)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>: PyConfig.          (line  878)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <5>: How to work without frame pointers.
                                                             (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PRESITE:             기타 옵션.          (line  374)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PRESITE <1>:         디버그 모드 변수.   (line   24)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PRESITE <2>:         PyConfig.           (line  774)
* 환경 변수; PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module: Core and Builtins<21>.
                                                             (line  154)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:         환경 변수.          (line  267)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:     디버그 모드 활성화. (line   10)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:     디버그 모드.        (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <3>:     파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   63)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONBREAKPOINT:           PEP 553 내장 breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:       환경 변수.          (line   78)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:       내장 함수.          (line  159)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  236)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  248)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <5>:       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  252)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCASEOK:               파이썬 API의 변경.  (line   29)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCASEOK <1>:           PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCASEOK <2>:           Library<48>.        (line  144)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCASEOK <3>:           환경 변수.          (line  128)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCASEOK <4>:           내장 함수.          (line 2184)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:        PEP 538 레거시 C 로케일 강제 변경.
                                                             (line   10)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:    환경 변수.          (line  353)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:    General Options.    (line   88)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:    Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   57)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <4>:    파이썬 구성.        (line   15)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEBUG:                기타 옵션.          (line   36)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEBUG <1>:            환경 변수.          (line   90)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEBUG <2>:            Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEBUG <3>:            전역 구성 변수.     (line   36)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEBUG <4>:            PyConfig.           (line  664)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEVMODE:              파이썬 개발 모드 -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:          기타 옵션.          (line  292)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:          환경 변수.          (line  403)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:          파이썬 개발 모드.   (line   12)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDEVMODE <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  293)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:    Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: 기타 옵션.         (line   19)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: 환경 변수.         (line  133)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  316)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: 전역 구성 변수.    (line   50)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: PyConfig.          (line  952)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <7>: pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?.
                                                             (line   19)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFS:             디버그 빌드는 릴리스 빌드와 같은 ABI를 사용합니다.
                                                             (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:         Build<52>.          (line   54)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:         디버그 모드 변수.   (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:         Debug options.      (line   22)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:         Debug options.      (line   24)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFS <5>:         PyConfig.           (line  304)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:         Core and Builtins<38>.
                                                             (line  154)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE <1>:     디버그 모드 변수.   (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONEXECUTABLE:           환경 변수.          (line  212)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONEXECUTABLE <1>:       PyConfig.           (line  699)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:         faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:     기타 옵션.          (line  256)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:     환경 변수.          (line  237)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:     파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   55)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:     faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프.
                                                             (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <5>:     PyConfig.           (line  342)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED:             Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:         Porting Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:         Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:         기타 옵션.          (line  125)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:         기타 옵션.          (line  140)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:         환경 변수.          (line  148)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:         환경 변수.          (line  153)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:         기본적인 커스터마이제이션.
                                                             (line  305)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:         전역 구성 변수.     (line   75)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:         전역 구성 변수.     (line   78)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHASHSEED <10>:        PyConfig.           (line  412)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME:                 Deprecated C APIs.  (line   26)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <1>:             Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <2>:             Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   36)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <3>:             요약 – 배포 주요 사항<4>.
                                                             (line   98)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <4>:             기타 옵션.          (line   45)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <5>:             환경 변수.          (line   10)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <6>:             환경 변수.          (line   18)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <7>:             환경 변수.          (line   20)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <8>:             환경 변수.          (line   35)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <9>:             모듈 찾기.          (line   27)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <10>:            모듈 찾기.          (line   42)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <11>:            모듈 찾기.          (line   73)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <12>:            Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  149)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <13>:            test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   23)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <14>:            The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <15>:            Virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <16>:            파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   33)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <17>:            파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   39)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <18>:            전역 구성 변수.     (line   90)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <19>:            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  285)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <20>:            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  299)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <21>:            프로세스 전체 매개 변수.
                                                             (line  308)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <22>:            PyConfig.           (line  420)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <23>:            PyConfig.           (line  422)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONHOME <24>:            Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>.
                                                             (line   36)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINSPECT:              Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINSPECT <1>:          기타 옵션.          (line   66)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINSPECT <2>:          환경 변수.          (line   99)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINSPECT <3>:          전역 구성 변수.     (line  106)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINSPECT <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  447)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:      Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line  106)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:  기타 옵션.          (line  276)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:  환경 변수.          (line  165)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:  Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:  Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line   16)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1119)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <6>:  PyConfig.           (line  478)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING:           Other Improvements. (line   75)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:       Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:       환경 변수.          (line  173)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:       환경 변수.          (line  386)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:       Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   29)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1778)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONIOENCODING <6>:       PyConfig.           (line  834)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: New Deprecations.
                                                             (line  130)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
                                                             (line   50)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
                                                             (line   17)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: Windows<14>. (line   37)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>: 환경 변수.   (line  326)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1723)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1733)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1739)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>: 전역 구성 변수.
                                                             (line  148)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>: PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  121)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <11>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>.
                                                             (line   50)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:   PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경.
                                                             (line   12)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: 환경 변수.        (line  185)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: 환경 변수.        (line  340)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1782)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: 전역 구성 변수.   (line  166)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <5>: PyConfig.         (line  531)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC:               PYTHONMALLOC 환경 변수.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <1>:           C API의 변경 사항.  (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <2>:           Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line   90)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <3>:           환경 변수.          (line  274)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <4>:           환경 변수.          (line  319)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <5>:           Performance options.
                                                             (line  108)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <6>:           Performance options.
                                                             (line  115)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <7>:           파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   43)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <8>:           파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   47)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <9>:           개요<4>.            (line   65)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <10>:          기본 메모리 할당자. (line   26)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <11>:          파이썬 메모리 할당자의 디버그 훅.
                                                             (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOC <12>:          pymalloc 할당자.    (line   26)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:          Core and Builtins<85>.
                                                             (line   96)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:      환경 변수.          (line  313)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:      PyConfig.           (line  547)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <3>:      개요<4>.            (line   68)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:        PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   63)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:    기타 옵션.          (line  321)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:    환경 변수.          (line  433)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:    Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <4>:    PyConfig.           (line  246)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNOUSERSITE:           PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:       기타 옵션.          (line  152)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:       환경 변수.          (line  190)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:       모듈 내용<8>.       (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:       전역 구성 변수.     (line  199)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>:       PyConfig.           (line  905)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONOPTIMIZE:             기타 옵션.          (line   86)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:         환경 변수.          (line   72)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:         전역 구성 변수.     (line  210)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <3>:         PyConfig.           (line  614)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH:                 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line    8)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <1>:             Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior.
                                                             (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <2>:             모듈 검색 경로.     (line   15)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <3>:             표준 모듈들.        (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <4>:             표준 모듈들.        (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <5>:             기타 옵션.          (line   45)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <6>:             환경 변수.          (line   23)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <7>:             환경 변수.          (line   30)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <8>:             환경 변수.          (line   36)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <9>:             환경 변수.          (line   39)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <10>:            보충 설명 환경 변수 설정하기.
                                                             (line   33)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <11>:            모듈 찾기.          (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <12>:            모듈 찾기.          (line   35)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <13>:            모듈 찾기.          (line   72)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <14>:            Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  152)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <15>:            Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  183)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <16>:            Adding Python to an iOS project.
                                                             (line  189)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <17>:            경로 엔트리 파인더. (line   23)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <18>:            test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   24)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <19>:            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1281)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <20>:            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1286)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <21>:            The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <22>:            The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <23>:            C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기.
                                                             (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <24>:            파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   33)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <25>:            파이썬 임베딩하기.  (line   40)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <26>:            전역 구성 변수.     (line   89)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPATH <27>:            PyConfig.           (line  580)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:          Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:      기타 옵션.          (line  341)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:      환경 변수.          (line  444)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>:      How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:           Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line  274)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:       환경 변수.          (line   52)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <3>:       PyConfig.           (line  559)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:    기타 언어 변경<3>.  (line   44)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   66)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: 기타 옵션.         (line  285)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: 환경 변수.         (line  259)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <4>: PyConfig.          (line  432)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:        컴파일된 바이트 코드 파일을 위한 병렬 파일 시스템 캐시.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:    Core and Builtins<58>.
                                                             (line  402)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:    기타 옵션.          (line  304)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:    환경 변수.          (line  139)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  363)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <5>:    PyConfig.           (line  721)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<26>.        (line   13)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH:             Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:         Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:         Security<21>.       (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:         기타 옵션.          (line  112)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:         환경 변수.          (line   44)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1298)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:         Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSAFEPATH <7>:         PyConfig.           (line  163)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP:              sys<12>.            (line   17)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:          sys<12>.            (line   21)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:          Core and Builtins.  (line    7)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:          IDLE<39>.           (line  176)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:          IDLE<43>.           (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:          IDLE<49>.           (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:          대화형 시작 파일.   (line    7)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:          기타 옵션.          (line   63)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:          환경 변수.          (line   59)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:          환경 변수.          (line  114)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:         예제.               (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:         asyncio — 비동기 I/O.
                                                             (line   87)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <12>:         시작과 코드 실행.   (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <13>:         명령 줄 사용법.     (line   42)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <14>:         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1131)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONSTARTUP <15>:         Readline 구성.      (line   11)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:          기타 옵션.          (line  270)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:      환경 변수.          (line  248)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:      tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적.
                                                             (line   22)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:      tracemalloc — 메모리 할당 추적.
                                                             (line   29)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:      함수<10>.           (line   87)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <5>:      PyConfig.           (line  863)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTZPATH:               환경 구성.          (line   10)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONTZPATH <1>:           예외와 경고.        (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUNBUFFERED:           Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line  107)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:       기타 옵션.          (line  171)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:       환경 변수.          (line  117)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1788)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:       전역 구성 변수.     (line  237)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <5>:       PyConfig.           (line  210)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUOPS:                 Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line   27)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUOPS <1>:             Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  179)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUOPS <2>:             Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  258)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUOPS <3>:             Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  317)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUOPS <4>:             Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line  382)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUSERBASE:             PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:         환경 변수.          (line  200)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:         모듈 내용<8>.       (line   38)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUSERBASE <3>:         모듈 내용<8>.       (line   63)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUSERSITE:             test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티.
                                                             (line   24)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8:                 PEP 540 강제 UTF-8 실행시간 모드.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <1>:             기타 옵션.          (line  298)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <2>:             환경 변수.          (line  394)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <3>:             환경 변수.          (line  412)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <4>:             UTF-8 모드.         (line   18)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <5>:             Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   52)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <6>:             Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   54)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <7>:             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1780)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <8>:             PyPreConfig.        (line  150)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONUTF8 <9>:             파이썬 구성.        (line   14)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONVERBOSE:              기타 옵션.          (line  186)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:          환경 변수.          (line  122)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:          전역 구성 변수.     (line  253)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONVERBOSE <3>:          PyConfig.           (line  922)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:  Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option.
                                                             (line   19)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<39>.     (line   45)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: 기타 옵션.       (line  311)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: 환경 변수.       (line  423)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <4>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS:             warnings<3>.        (line   19)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:         Other Language Changes<7>.
                                                             (line  160)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:         Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:         Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:         Documentation<23>.  (line   67)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:         기타 옵션.          (line  237)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:         환경 변수.          (line  217)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:         파이썬 개발 모드의 효과.
                                                             (line   29)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:         경고 필터.          (line   42)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:         경고 필터.          (line   52)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:        경고 필터 설명.     (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:        경고 필터 설명.     (line   18)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:        기본 경고 필터.     (line    6)
* 환경 변수; PYTHONWARNINGS <13>:        PyConfig.           (line  941)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:          py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:      Library<57>.        (line  452)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:      Build<60>.          (line   15)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:      py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   59)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:      py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   75)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:      py_compile — 파이썬 소스 파일 컴파일.
                                                             (line   79)
* 환경 변수; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:      명령 줄 사용.       (line   90)
* 환경 변수; SSLKEYLOGFILE:              컨텍스트 생성.      (line   33)
* 환경 변수; SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:          컨텍스트 생성.      (line   79)
* 환경 변수; SystemRoot:                 Popen 생성자.       (line  287)
* 환경 변수; TEMP:                       Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* 환경 변수; TEMP <1>:                   tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  310)
* 환경 변수; TERM:                       함수<5>.            (line  452)
* 환경 변수; TERM <1>:                   함수<5>.            (line  476)
* 환경 변수; TMP:                        tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  312)
* 환경 변수; TMPDIR:                     Library<3>.         (line  116)
* 환경 변수; TMPDIR <1>:                 Tests<25>.          (line   68)
* 환경 변수; TMPDIR <2>:                 tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성.
                                                             (line  308)
* 환경 변수; TZ:                         함수<4>.            (line  618)
* 환경 변수; TZ <1>:                     함수<4>.            (line  618)
* 환경 변수; TZ <2>:                     함수<4>.            (line  626)
* 환경 변수; TZ <3>:                     함수<4>.            (line  630)
* 환경 변수; TZ <4>:                     함수<4>.            (line  632)
* 환경 변수; TZ <5>:                     함수<4>.            (line  691)
* 환경 변수; USER:                       getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   42)
* 환경 변수; USERNAME:                   os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  137)
* 환경 변수; USERNAME <1>:               프로세스 매개 변수. (line  232)
* 환경 변수; USERNAME <2>:               getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력.
                                                             (line   42)
* 환경 변수; USERPROFILE:                os path<5>.         (line   14)
* 환경 변수; USERPROFILE <1>:            파이썬 API의 변경<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* 환경 변수; USERPROFILE <2>:            Windows<43>.        (line   15)
* 환경 변수; USERPROFILE <3>:            os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작.
                                                             (line  135)
* 환경;가상:                             venv — 가상 환경 생성.
                                                             (line   10)
* 훅;경로:                               임포트 훅 import hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* 훅;메타:                               임포트 훅 import hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* 훅;임포트:                             임포트 훅 import hooks.
                                                             (line    6)

                       



Tag Table:
Node: Top352
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Node: 파이썬의 새로운 기능239695
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Ref: whatsnew/index python-documentation-contents239804
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Node: What’s New In Python 3 13241504
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Node: Summary – Release Highlights242498
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Node: New Features250259
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Node: A better interactive interpreter250750
Ref: whatsnew/3 13 a-better-interactive-interpreter250863
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Node: Improved error messages252263
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Node: Free-threaded CPython255080
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Node: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler258332
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Node: Defined mutation semantics for locals261249
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Node: Support for mobile platforms264174
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Node: Other Language Changes265709
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Node: New Modules271676
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Node: Improved Modules272087
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-features1278955
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Node: PEP 498 포맷 문자열 리터럴1280413
Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-498-formatted-string-literals1280549
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-526-syntax-for-variable-annotations1281850
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-515-underscores-in-numeric-literals1283556
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-525-asynchronous-generators1284893
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Ref: PEP 525 비동기 제너레이터-Footnote-11285817
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-530-asynchronous-comprehensions1286096
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-487-simpler-customization-of-class-creation1286980
Ref: c461286980
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Ref: c331286980
Ref: PEP 487 더 간단한 클래스 생성 사용자 정의-Footnote-11288185
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-487-descriptor-protocol-enhancements1288450
Ref: c491288450
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Ref: c4a1288450
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Ref: PEP 487 디스크립터 프로토콜 향상-Footnote-21289830
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-519-adding-a-file-system-path-protocol1290071
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Ref: c381290071
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-495-local-time-disambiguation1293528
Ref: c531293528
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Ref: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성-Footnote-11295014
Ref: PEP 495 현지 시간 명확성-Footnote-21295056
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-529-change-windows-filesystem-encoding-to-utf-81295319
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Ref: PEP 529 윈도우 파일 시스템 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경-Footnote-11296577
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-528-change-windows-console-encoding-to-utf-81296863
Ref: c571296863
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Ref: c3c1296863
Ref: PEP 528 윈도우 콘솔 인코딩을 UTF-8로 변경-Footnote-11297687
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-520-preserving-class-attribute-definition-order1297948
Ref: c591297948
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Ref: c341297948
Ref: PEP 520 클래스 어트리뷰트 정의 순서 유지-Footnote-11298632
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-468-preserving-keyword-argument-order1298861
Ref: c5c1298861
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Ref: c351298861
Ref: PEP 468 키워드 인자 순서 유지-Footnote-11299195
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-dict-implementation1299416
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Ref: 새로운 dict 구현-Footnote-41300714
Node: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가1300794
Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-523-adding-a-frame-evaluation-api-to-cpython1300961
Ref: c5e1300961
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Ref: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가-Footnote-11302268
Ref: PEP 523 CPython에 프레임 평가 API 추가-Footnote-21302310
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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pythonmalloc-environment-variable1302534
Ref: c601302534
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 new-features1422008
Ref: d711422008
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax1423427
Ref: d721423427
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-465-a-dedicated-infix-operator-for-matrix-multiplication1427157
Ref: d771427157
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4651427157
Ref: d601427157
Ref: PEP 465 - 행렬 곱셈을 위한 전용 중위 infix 연산자-Footnote-11428633
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-448-additional-unpacking-generalizations1428962
Ref: d781428962
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4481428962
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Ref: PEP 448 - 추가적인 언 패킹 일반화-Footnote-11430161
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-461-percent-formatting-support-for-bytes-and-bytearray1430447
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4611430447
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Ref: PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원-Footnote-11432062
Ref: PEP 461 - bytes와 bytearray를 위한 퍼센트 포매팅 지원-Footnote-21432104
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-484-type-hints1432390
Ref: d7e1432390
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4841432390
Ref: d621432390
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Ref: PEP 484 - 형 힌트-Footnote-31434287
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator1434633
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4711434633
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Ref: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터-Footnote-11436130
Ref: PEP 471 - os scandir 함수 – 더 빠르고 더 나은 디렉터리 이터레이터-Footnote-21436172
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr1436493
Ref: d811436493
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4751436493
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Ref: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도-Footnote-11439880
Ref: PEP 475 EINTR로 실패한 시스템 호출 재시도-Footnote-21439922
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators1440214
Ref: da81440214
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4791440214
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Ref: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경-Footnote-11442358
Ref: PEP 479 제너레이터 내부에서의 StopIteration 처리 변경-Footnote-21442400
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality1442709
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4851442709
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Ref: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수-Footnote-11443927
Ref: PEP 485 대략적인 동등성을 테스트하는 함수-Footnote-21443969
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-486-make-the-python-launcher-aware-of-virtual-environments1444236
Ref: dae1444236
Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4861444236
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Ref: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기-Footnote-11444826
Ref: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기-Footnote-21444868
Ref: PEP 486 파이썬 런처가 가상 환경을 인식하도록 만들기-Footnote-31444910
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files1445162
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization1446400
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Ref: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화-Footnote-11447202
Ref: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화-Footnote-21447244
Ref: PEP 489 다단계 확장 모듈 초기화-Footnote-31447286
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 other-language-changes1447477
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Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement2206767
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Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers2251887
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Node: The fractions Module2254506
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Node: The ast module2318030
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Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>2340986
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Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX2342496
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Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions2351631
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Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application2355339
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Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 12358427
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Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports2360508
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Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts2364609
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Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features2367726
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Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>2374782
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Node: The contextlib module<2>2382522
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Ref: 어노테이트된 대입문 Annotated assignment statements-Footnote-17009182
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Node: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅7476731
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Ref: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅-Footnote-17487022
Ref: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅-Footnote-27487153
Ref: printf 스타일 바이너리 포매팅-Footnote-37487195
Node: 메모리 뷰7487237
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Ref: 메모리 뷰-Footnote-17505228
Node: 집합 형 — set frozenset7505270
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Ref: c8f8008879
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisoformat8009704
Ref: 6118009704
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisocalendar8011806
Ref: 9e98011806
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strptime8012195
Ref: 16128012195
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime min8013678
Ref: 17e28013678
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime max8013811
Ref: 24698013811
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime resolution8013966
Ref: 246a8013966
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime year8014171
Ref: 24428014171
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime month8014272
Ref: 24438014272
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime day8014337
Ref: 24448014337
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime hour8014427
Ref: 24458014427
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime minute8014484
Ref: 24468014484
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime second8014543
Ref: 24478014543
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime microsecond8014602
Ref: 24488014602
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzinfo8014671
Ref: 24498014671
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fold8014839
Ref: c548014839
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime date8019932
Ref: 246b8019932
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime time8020042
Ref: 246c8020042
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetz8020393
Ref: 246d8020393
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime replace8020721
Ref: 14938020721
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime astimezone8021379
Ref: 9cd8021379
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcoffset8023938
Ref: 246e8023938
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime dst8024374
Ref: 246f8024374
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzname8024798
Ref: 24718024798
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetuple8025087
Ref: 24728025087
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utctimetuple8025966
Ref: 24748025966
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime toordinal8027137
Ref: 24758027137
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timestamp8027293
Ref: 10908027293
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime weekday8028922
Ref: 24768028922
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoweekday8029154
Ref: 24778029154
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isocalendar8029415
Ref: 8f38029415
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoformat8029647
Ref: b2d8029647
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __str__8032824
Ref: 24788032824
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime ctime8032970
Ref: 24798032970
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strftime8033655
Ref: c8d8033655
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __format__8033898
Ref: 247a8033898
Node: 사용 예 datetime8034325
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-datetime8034396
Ref: 247b8034396
Node: time 객체8038730
Ref: library/datetime datetime-time8038862
Ref: 247c8038862
Ref: library/datetime time-objects8038862
Ref: 247d8038862
Ref: library/datetime datetime time8039066
Ref: 1ce8039066
Ref: library/datetime datetime time min8039768
Ref: 247e8039768
Ref: library/datetime datetime time max8039868
Ref: 247f8039868
Ref: library/datetime datetime time resolution8039976
Ref: 24808039976
Ref: library/datetime datetime time hour8040260
Ref: 243d8040260
Ref: library/datetime datetime time minute8040313
Ref: 243e8040313
Ref: library/datetime datetime time second8040368
Ref: 243f8040368
Ref: library/datetime datetime time microsecond8040423
Ref: 24408040423
Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzinfo8040488
Ref: 24418040488
Ref: library/datetime datetime time fold8040648
Ref: 24818040648
Ref: library/datetime datetime time fromisoformat8042310
Ref: 6108042310
Ref: library/datetime datetime time replace8043909
Ref: 16858043909
Ref: library/datetime datetime time isoformat8044498
Ref: 24828044498
Ref: library/datetime datetime time __str__8046721
Ref: 24848046721
Ref: library/datetime datetime time strftime8046830
Ref: 17898046830
Ref: library/datetime datetime time __format__8047057
Ref: 24858047057
Ref: library/datetime datetime time utcoffset8047415
Ref: 24838047415
Ref: library/datetime datetime time dst8047847
Ref: 24868047847
Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzname8048267
Ref: 24878048267
Ref: time 객체-Footnote-18048635
Node: 사용 예 time8048700
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-time8048763
Ref: 24888048763
Node: tzinfo 객체8049624
Ref: library/datetime datetime-tzinfo8049756
Ref: 24898049756
Ref: library/datetime tzinfo-objects8049756
Ref: 248a8049756
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo8049809
Ref: 5d88049809
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo utcoffset8051540
Ref: 248b8051540
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo dst8052946
Ref: 248c8052946
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo tzname8055604
Ref: 248d8055604
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo fromutc8057905
Ref: 24708057905
Ref: tzinfo 객체-Footnote-18070669
Node: timezone 객체8070709
Ref: library/datetime datetime-timezone8070860
Ref: 248e8070860
Ref: library/datetime timezone-objects8070860
Ref: 248f8070860
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone8071279
Ref: 10b28071279
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utcoffset8071952
Ref: 24908071952
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone tzname8072333
Ref: 24918072333
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone dst8073058
Ref: 24928073058
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone fromutc8073136
Ref: 24938073136
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utc8073368
Ref: 60e8073368
Node: strftime and strptime Behavior8073449
Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-behavior8073578
Ref: 24948073578
Ref: library/datetime strftime-strptime-behavior8073578
Ref: 17d08073578
Ref: library/datetime format-codes8075679
Ref: 24338075679
Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes8075795
Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-format-codes8075928
Ref: 24958075928
Ref: strftime and strptime Format Codes-Footnote-18087092
Node: 기술적 세부 사항8087140
Ref: library/datetime technical-detail8087273
Ref: 24968087273
Ref: 기술적 세부 사항-Footnote-18094384
Ref: 기술적 세부 사항-Footnote-28094484
Node: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원8094539
Ref: library/zoneinfo doc8094718
Ref: 24978094718
Ref: library/zoneinfo module-zoneinfo8094718
Ref: 1348094718
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-iana-time-zone-support8094718
Ref: 24988094718
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원-Footnote-18096116
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원-Footnote-28096181
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원-Footnote-38096223
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA 시간대 지원-Footnote-48096264
Node: ZoneInfo 사용하기8096305
Ref: library/zoneinfo using-zoneinfo8096422
Ref: 24998096422
Ref: ZoneInfo 사용하기-Footnote-18098359
Node: 데이터 소스8098401
Ref: library/zoneinfo data-sources8098545
Ref: 249a8098545
Ref: 데이터 소스-Footnote-18099336
Node: 데이터 소스 구성8099377
Ref: library/zoneinfo configuring-the-data-sources8099453
Ref: 249b8099453
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-configuration8099453
Ref: 249c8099453
Node: 컴파일 시간 구성8100276
Ref: library/zoneinfo compile-time-configuration8100381
Ref: 24a08100381
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-compile-time-config8100381
Ref: 1d7b8100381
Node: 환경 구성8101236
Ref: library/zoneinfo environment-configuration8101370
Ref: 24a18101370
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-environment-var8101370
Ref: 249d8101370
Ref: library/zoneinfo envvar-PYTHONTZPATH8101661
Ref: 24a28101661
Node: 실행 시간 구성8102414
Ref: library/zoneinfo runtime-configuration8102516
Ref: 24a48102516
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-runtime-config8102516
Ref: 249e8102516
Node: ZoneInfo 클래스8102933
Ref: library/zoneinfo the-zoneinfo-class8103065
Ref: 24a58103065
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo8103125
Ref: 8dc8103125
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo from_file8104071
Ref: 24a78104071
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo no_cache8104687
Ref: 24a98104687
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo clear_cache8105462
Ref: 24a68105462
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo key8106403
Ref: 24aa8106403
Node: 문자열 표현8107362
Ref: library/zoneinfo string-representations8107458
Ref: 24ac8107458
Node: 피클 직렬화8108336
Ref: library/zoneinfo pickle-serialization8108432
Ref: 24ad8108432
Ref: library/zoneinfo pickling8108432
Ref: 24a88108432
Node: 함수<2>8110844
Ref: library/zoneinfo functions8110966
Ref: 24ae8110966
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo available_timezones8110997
Ref: 19638110997
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo reset_tzpath8112181
Ref: 249f8112181
Node: 전역8112931
Ref: library/zoneinfo globals8113051
Ref: 24af8113051
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo TZPATH8113082
Ref: 1d7a8113082
Node: 예외와 경고8113957
Ref: library/zoneinfo exceptions-and-warnings8114059
Ref: 24b08114059
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfoNotFoundError8114107
Ref: 15328114107
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo InvalidTZPathWarning8114354
Ref: 24a38114354
Node: calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수8114553
Ref: library/calendar doc8114735
Ref: 24b18114735
Ref: library/calendar calendar-general-calendar-related-functions8114735
Ref: 24b28114735
Ref: library/calendar module-calendar8114735
Ref: 148114735
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar8116018
Ref: 24b48116018
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar firstweekday8116695
Ref: 24b78116695
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar getfirstweekday8116934
Ref: 24b98116934
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar setfirstweekday8117122
Ref: 24b88117122
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar iterweekdays8117345
Ref: 24ba8117345
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdates8117591
Ref: c168117591
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays8117996
Ref: 24bb8117996
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays28118407
Ref: 24bc8118407
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays38118767
Ref: c178118767
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays48119159
Ref: c188119159
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdatescalendar8119559
Ref: 24bd8119559
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdays2calendar8119785
Ref: 24be8119785
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdayscalendar8120013
Ref: 24bf8120013
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardatescalendar8120216
Ref: 24c08120216
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardays2calendar8120632
Ref: 24c18120632
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardayscalendar8120970
Ref: 24c28120970
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar8121269
Ref: 24c38121269
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatday8121520
Ref: 24c48121520
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweek8121831
Ref: 24c58121831
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekday8122196
Ref: 24c68122196
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekheader8122503
Ref: 24c78122503
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonth8122780
Ref: 24c88122780
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonthname8123238
Ref: 24c98123238
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar prmonth8123645
Ref: 24ca8123645
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatyear8123792
Ref: 24cb8123792
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar pryear8124343
Ref: 24cc8124343
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar8124488
Ref: b208124488
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonth8124714
Ref: 24cd8124714
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyear8124967
Ref: 24ce8124967
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyearpage8125161
Ref: 24cf8125161
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonthname8125732
Ref: 24d08125732
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses8126173
Ref: 24d18126173
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_noday8126656
Ref: 24d28126656
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses_weekday_head8126801
Ref: 24d38126801
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month_head8127029
Ref: 24d48127029
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month8127242
Ref: 24d58127242
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year8127458
Ref: 24d68127458
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year_head8127668
Ref: 24d78127668
Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleTextCalendar8128662
Ref: 73d8128662
Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleHTMLCalendar8128924
Ref: 73e8128924
Ref: library/calendar calendar setfirstweekday8129564
Ref: 24b38129564
Ref: library/calendar calendar firstweekday8130076
Ref: 24dd8130076
Ref: library/calendar calendar isleap8130188
Ref: 24de8130188
Ref: library/calendar calendar leapdays8130337
Ref: 24df8130337
Ref: library/calendar calendar weekday8130609
Ref: 24e08130609
Ref: library/calendar calendar weekheader8130806
Ref: 24e18130806
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthrange8130976
Ref: 24e28130976
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthcalendar8131143
Ref: 24e38131143
Ref: library/calendar calendar prmonth8131457
Ref: 24e48131457
Ref: library/calendar calendar month8131594
Ref: 15a78131594
Ref: library/calendar calendar prcal8131809
Ref: 24e58131809
Ref: library/calendar calendar calendar8131950
Ref: 24e68131950
Ref: library/calendar calendar timegm8132175
Ref: 24e78132175
Ref: library/calendar calendar day_name8132679
Ref: 24e88132679
Ref: library/calendar calendar day_abbr8132984
Ref: 24e98132984
Ref: library/calendar calendar MONDAY8133263
Ref: 24b58133263
Ref: library/calendar calendar TUESDAY8133294
Ref: 24d88133294
Ref: library/calendar calendar WEDNESDAY8133326
Ref: 24d98133326
Ref: library/calendar calendar THURSDAY8133360
Ref: 24da8133360
Ref: library/calendar calendar FRIDAY8133393
Ref: 24db8133393
Ref: library/calendar calendar SATURDAY8133424
Ref: 24dc8133424
Ref: library/calendar calendar SUNDAY8133457
Ref: 24b68133457
Ref: library/calendar calendar Day8133622
Ref: 47c8133622
Ref: library/calendar calendar month_name8133873
Ref: 24ea8133873
Ref: library/calendar calendar month_abbr8134330
Ref: 24eb8134330
Ref: library/calendar calendar JANUARY8134756
Ref: 2f18134756
Ref: library/calendar calendar FEBRUARY8134788
Ref: 2f28134788
Ref: library/calendar calendar MARCH8134821
Ref: 24ec8134821
Ref: library/calendar calendar APRIL8134851
Ref: 24ed8134851
Ref: library/calendar calendar MAY8134881
Ref: 24ee8134881
Ref: library/calendar calendar JUNE8134909
Ref: 24ef8134909
Ref: library/calendar calendar JULY8134938
Ref: 24f08134938
Ref: library/calendar calendar AUGUST8134967
Ref: 24f18134967
Ref: library/calendar calendar SEPTEMBER8134998
Ref: 24f28134998
Ref: library/calendar calendar OCTOBER8135032
Ref: 24f38135032
Ref: library/calendar calendar NOVEMBER8135064
Ref: 24f48135064
Ref: library/calendar calendar DECEMBER8135097
Ref: 24f58135097
Ref: library/calendar calendar Month8135270
Ref: 47b8135270
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError8135592
Ref: 15a68135592
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError month8135765
Ref: 24f68135765
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError8135826
Ref: 24f78135826
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError weekday8136004
Ref: 24f88136004
Ref: calendar — 일반 달력 관련 함수-Footnote-18136371
Node: Command-Line Usage8136439
Ref: library/calendar calendar-cli8136534
Ref: 24f98136534
Ref: library/calendar command-line-usage8136534
Ref: 24fa8136534
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-help8139278
Ref: 24fb8139278
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-h8139278
Ref: 24fc8139278
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-locale8139340
Ref: 24fd8139340
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-L8139340
Ref: 24fe8139340
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-encoding8139460
Ref: 24ff8139460
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-e8139460
Ref: 25008139460
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-type8139617
Ref: 25018139617
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-t8139617
Ref: 25028139617
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-first-weekday8139739
Ref: 25038139739
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-f8139739
Ref: 25048139739
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-year8139941
Ref: 25058139941
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-month8140032
Ref: 25068140032
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-width8140284
Ref: 25078140284
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-w8140284
Ref: 25088140284
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-lines8140482
Ref: 25098140482
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-l8140482
Ref: 250a8140482
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-spacing8140673
Ref: 250b8140673
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-s8140673
Ref: 250c8140673
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-months8140816
Ref: 250d8140816
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-m8140816
Ref: 250e8140816
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-css8140938
Ref: 250f8140938
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-c8140938
Ref: 25108140938
Node: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형8141135
Ref: library/collections doc8141345
Ref: 25118141345
Ref: library/collections collections-container-datatypes8141345
Ref: 25128141345
Ref: library/collections module-collections8141345
Ref: 1d8141345
Ref: collections — 컨테이너 데이터형-Footnote-18143602
Node: ChainMap 객체8143683
Ref: library/collections chainmap-objects8143799
Ref: 25138143799
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap8144254
Ref: c198144254
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap maps8145409
Ref: 25148145409
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap new_child8145784
Ref: f1b8145784
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap parents8146692
Ref: 25158146692
Ref: ChainMap 객체-Footnote-18148897
Ref: ChainMap 객체-Footnote-28148939
Ref: ChainMap 객체-Footnote-38148986
Ref: ChainMap 객체-Footnote-48149081
Ref: ChainMap 객체-Footnote-58149160
Ref: ChainMap 객체-Footnote-68149257
Node: ChainMap 예제와 조리법8149310
Ref: library/collections chainmap-examples-and-recipes8149390
Ref: 25168149390
Node: Counter 객체8152834
Ref: library/collections counter-objects8152971
Ref: 25178152971
Ref: library/collections collections Counter8153734
Ref: 10888153734
Ref: library/collections collections Counter elements8155977
Ref: 12f48155977
Ref: library/collections collections Counter most_common8156410
Ref: 12f38156410
Ref: library/collections collections Counter subtract8156940
Ref: 11cd8156940
Ref: library/collections collections Counter total8157522
Ref: 25188157522
Ref: library/collections collections Counter fromkeys8157896
Ref: 25198157896
Ref: library/collections collections Counter update8158047
Ref: 251a8158047
Ref: Counter 객체-Footnote-18163616
Ref: Counter 객체-Footnote-28163695
Ref: Counter 객체-Footnote-38163742
Node: deque 객체8163835
Ref: library/collections deque-objects8163975
Ref: 251b8163975
Ref: library/collections collections deque8164024
Ref: 5d68164024
Ref: library/collections collections deque append8165641
Ref: 251c8165641
Ref: library/collections collections deque appendleft8165731
Ref: 251d8165731
Ref: library/collections collections deque clear8165822
Ref: 251e8165822
Ref: library/collections collections deque copy8165945
Ref: dd08165945
Ref: library/collections collections deque count8166062
Ref: 11cf8166062
Ref: library/collections collections deque extend8166187
Ref: 251f8166187
Ref: library/collections collections deque extendleft8166337
Ref: 25208166337
Ref: library/collections collections deque index8166599
Ref: dce8166599
Ref: library/collections collections deque insert8166942
Ref: dcf8166942
Ref: library/collections collections deque pop8167217
Ref: 25218167217
Ref: library/collections collections deque popleft8167401
Ref: 25228167401
Ref: library/collections collections deque remove8167586
Ref: 19128167586
Ref: library/collections collections deque reverse8167761
Ref: 11d08167761
Ref: library/collections collections deque rotate8167927
Ref: 18dd8167927
Ref: library/collections collections deque maxlen8168422
Ref: 12f58168422
Node: deque 조리법8171469
Ref: library/collections deque-recipes8171533
Ref: 25238171533
Ref: deque 조리법-Footnote-18174300
Node: defaultdict 객체8174361
Ref: library/collections defaultdict-objects8174561
Ref: 25248174561
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict8174622
Ref: 11ac8174622
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict __missing__8175482
Ref: 25268175482
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict default_factory8176856
Ref: 25258176856
Ref: defaultdict 객체-Footnote-18177315
Node: defaultdict 예8177357
Ref: library/collections defaultdict-examples8177427
Ref: 25278177427
Node: 이름있는 필드를 가진 튜플을 위한 namedtuple 팩토리 함수8180286
Ref: library/collections namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields8180492
Ref: 25288180492
Ref: library/collections collections namedtuple8180973
Ref: 1ca8180973
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _make8185516
Ref: 252a8185516
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _asdict8185754
Ref: 9dd8185754
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _replace8186486
Ref: 252b8186486
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _fields8187137
Ref: 252c8187137
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _field_defaults8187671
Ref: 25298187671
Node: OrderedDict 객체8190842
Ref: library/collections ordereddict-objects8191045
Ref: 252d8191045
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict8193682
Ref: 5d58193682
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict popitem8193905
Ref: 12dd8193905
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict move_to_end8194241
Ref: 11ce8194241
Ref: library/collections collections-ordereddict-eq8195040
Ref: 15cf8195040
Ref: OrderedDict 객체-Footnote-18196085
Ref: OrderedDict 객체-Footnote-28196127
Node: OrderedDict 예제와 조리법8196169
Ref: library/collections ordereddict-examples-and-recipes8196255
Ref: 252f8196255
Node: UserDict 객체8199368
Ref: library/collections userdict-objects8199512
Ref: 25308199512
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict8199974
Ref: 199b8199974
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict data8200638
Ref: 25318200638
Node: UserList 객체8200779
Ref: library/collections userlist-objects8200922
Ref: 25328200922
Ref: library/collections collections UserList8201626
Ref: 14ab8201626
Ref: library/collections collections UserList data8202333
Ref: 25338202333
Node: UserString 객체8203187
Ref: library/collections userstring-objects8203306
Ref: 25348203306
Ref: library/collections collections UserString8203765
Ref: dd18203765
Ref: library/collections collections UserString data8204463
Ref: 25358204463
Node: collections abc — 컨테이너의 추상 베이스 클래스8204782
Ref: library/collections abc doc8204982
Ref: 25368204982
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-containers8204982
Ref: 25378204982
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Ref: Itertools 조리법-Footnote-18724885
Ref: Itertools 조리법-Footnote-28724934
Node: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산8725005
Ref: library/functools doc8725265
Ref: 27448725265
Ref: library/functools functools-higher-order-functions-and-operations-on-callable-objects8725265
Ref: 27458725265
Ref: library/functools module-functools8725265
Ref: 5f8725265
Ref: library/functools functools cache8725823
Ref: 15278725823
Ref: library/functools functools cached_property8727156
Ref: 53c8727156
Ref: library/functools functools cmp_to_key8730817
Ref: 11c98730817
Ref: library/functools functools lru_cache8731872
Ref: 9eb8731872
Ref: library/functools functools lru_cache cache_info8734563
Ref: 27478734563
Ref: library/functools functools lru_cache cache_clear8734828
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Ref: library/functools functools total_ordering8737778
Ref: f3a8737778
Ref: library/functools functools partial8740166
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Ref: library/functools functools partialmethod8741560
Ref: a788741560
Ref: library/functools functools reduce8743366
Ref: 12cc8743366
Ref: library/functools functools singledispatch8744676
Ref: 6338744676
Ref: library/functools functools singledispatch register8745328
Ref: 274a8745328
Ref: library/functools functools singledispatchmethod8751323
Ref: 9ee8751323
Ref: library/functools functools update_wrapper8753206
Ref: 10188753206
Ref: library/functools functools wraps8755932
Ref: f558755932
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-18757230
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-28757299
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-38757349
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-48757391
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-58757483
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-68757541
Ref: functools — 고차 함수와 콜러블 객체에 대한 연산-Footnote-78757596
Node: partial 객체8757661
Ref: library/functools id18757776
Ref: 274c8757776
Ref: library/functools partial-objects8757776
Ref: 27498757776
Ref: library/functools functools partial func8757981
Ref: 274d8757981
Ref: library/functools functools partial args8758172
Ref: 274e8758172
Ref: library/functools functools partial keywords8758331
Ref: 274f8758331
Node: operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자8758995
Ref: library/operator doc8759182
Ref: 27508759182
Ref: library/operator module-operator8759182
Ref: 9f8759182
Ref: library/operator operator-standard-operators-as-functions8759182
Ref: 27518759182
Ref: library/operator operator lt8760159
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Ref: library/operator operator le8760190
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Ref: library/operator operator eq8760221
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Ref: library/operator operator ne8760252
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Ref: library/operator operator ge8760283
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Ref: library/operator operator gt8760314
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Ref: library/operator operator __lt__8760345
Ref: 27588760345
Ref: library/operator operator __le__8760380
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Ref: library/operator operator __eq__8760415
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Ref: library/operator operator __ne__8760450
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Ref: library/operator operator __ge__8760485
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Ref: library/operator operator __gt__8760520
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Ref: library/operator operator not_8761393
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Ref: library/operator operator __not__8761425
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Ref: library/operator operator truth8761784
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Ref: library/operator operator is_8762024
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Ref: library/operator operator is_not8762140
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Ref: library/operator operator abs8762319
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Ref: library/operator operator __abs__8762350
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Ref: library/operator operator add8762431
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Ref: library/operator operator __add__8762463
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Ref: library/operator operator and_8762567
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Ref: library/operator operator __and__8762600
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Ref: library/operator operator floordiv8762702
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Ref: library/operator operator __floordiv__8762739
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Ref: library/operator operator index8762820
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Ref: library/operator operator __index__8762851
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Ref: library/operator operator inv8763149
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Ref: library/operator operator invert8763180
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Ref: library/operator operator __inv__8763214
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Ref: library/operator operator __invert__8763249
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Ref: library/operator operator lshift8763389
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Ref: library/operator operator __lshift__8763424
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Ref: library/operator operator mod8763538
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Ref: library/operator operator __mod__8763570
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Ref: library/operator operator mul8763645
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Ref: library/operator operator __mul__8763677
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Ref: library/operator operator matmul8763781
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Ref: library/operator operator __matmul__8763816
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Ref: library/operator operator neg8763922
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Ref: library/operator operator __neg__8763953
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Ref: library/operator operator or_8764043
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Ref: library/operator operator __or__8764075
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Ref: library/operator operator pos8764175
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Ref: library/operator operator __pos__8764206
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Ref: library/operator operator pow8764293
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Ref: library/operator operator __pow__8764325
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Ref: library/operator operator rshift8764430
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Ref: library/operator operator __rshift__8764465
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Ref: library/operator operator sub8764582
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Ref: library/operator operator __sub__8764614
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Ref: library/operator operator truediv8764689
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Ref: library/operator operator __truediv__8764725
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Ref: library/operator operator xor8764916
Ref: 27848764916
Ref: library/operator operator __xor__8764948
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Ref: library/operator operator concat8765156
Ref: 27868765156
Ref: library/operator operator __concat__8765191
Ref: 27878765191
Ref: library/operator operator contains8765300
Ref: 8d78765300
Ref: library/operator operator __contains__8765337
Ref: 27888765337
Ref: library/operator operator countOf8765498
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Ref: library/operator operator delitem8765598
Ref: 27898765598
Ref: library/operator operator __delitem__8765634
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Ref: library/operator operator getitem8765732
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Ref: library/operator operator __getitem__8765768
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Ref: library/operator operator indexOf8765870
Ref: 8d88765870
Ref: library/operator operator setitem8765986
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Ref: library/operator operator __setitem__8766025
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Ref: library/operator operator length_hint8766130
Ref: f658766130
Ref: library/operator operator call8766523
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Ref: library/operator operator __call__8766575
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Ref: library/operator operator attrgetter8767043
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Ref: library/operator operator itemgetter8768456
Ref: a5e8768456
Ref: library/operator operator methodcaller8770393
Ref: e308770393
Ref: operator — 함수로서의 표준 연산자-Footnote-18771267
Node: 연산자를 함수에 매핑하기8771335
Ref: library/operator mapping-operators-to-functions8771480
Ref: 27908771480
Ref: library/operator operator-map8771480
Ref: 27918771480
Node: 제자리 연산자8778260
Ref: library/operator in-place-operators8778405
Ref: 27928778405
Ref: library/operator operator iadd8779860
Ref: 27948779860
Ref: library/operator operator __iadd__8779893
Ref: 27958779893
Ref: library/operator operator iand8779994
Ref: 27968779994
Ref: library/operator operator __iand__8780027
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Ref: library/operator operator iconcat8780128
Ref: 27988780128
Ref: library/operator operator __iconcat__8780164
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Ref: library/operator operator ifloordiv8780309
Ref: 279a8780309
Ref: library/operator operator __ifloordiv__8780347
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Ref: library/operator operator ilshift8780459
Ref: 279c8780459
Ref: library/operator operator __ilshift__8780495
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Ref: library/operator operator imod8780603
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Ref: library/operator operator __imod__8780636
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Ref: library/operator operator imul8780737
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Ref: library/operator operator __imul__8780770
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Ref: library/operator operator imatmul8780871
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Ref: library/operator operator __imatmul__8780907
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Ref: library/operator operator ior8781042
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Ref: library/operator operator __ior__8781074
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Ref: library/operator operator ipow8781173
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Ref: library/operator operator __ipow__8781206
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Ref: library/operator operator irshift8781308
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Ref: library/operator operator __irshift__8781344
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Ref: library/operator operator isub8781452
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Ref: library/operator operator __isub__8781485
Ref: 27aa8781485
Ref: library/operator operator itruediv8781586
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Ref: library/operator operator __itruediv__8781623
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Ref: library/operator operator ixor8781732
Ref: 27ad8781732
Ref: library/operator operator __ixor__8781765
Ref: 27ae8781765
Node: 파일과 디렉터리 액세스8781866
Ref: library/filesys doc8782036
Ref: 27af8782036
Ref: library/filesys file-and-directory-access8782036
Ref: 27b08782036
Ref: library/filesys filesys8782036
Ref: 27b18782036
Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths8782930
Ref: library/pathlib doc8783093
Ref: 27b28783093
Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib8783093
Ref: a48783093
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths8783093
Ref: 27b38783093
Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-18785476
Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-28785541
Node: 기본 사용8785583
Ref: library/pathlib basic-use8785699
Ref: 27b78785699
Node: Exceptions<2>8786697
Ref: library/pathlib exceptions8786838
Ref: 27b88786838
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib UnsupportedOperation8786879
Ref: 2278786879
Node: 순수한 경로8787090
Ref: library/pathlib id18787231
Ref: 27b98787231
Ref: library/pathlib pure-paths8787231
Ref: 27b48787231
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath8787522
Ref: 4a08787522
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePosixPath8790012
Ref: 27ba8790012
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PureWindowsPath8790370
Ref: 170b8790370
Ref: 순수한 경로-Footnote-18791183
Node: 일반 속성8791242
Ref: library/pathlib general-properties8791329
Ref: 27bb8791329
Node: 연산자<2>8792204
Ref: library/pathlib operators8792332
Ref: 27bc8792332
Node: 개별 부분에 액세스하기8794019
Ref: library/pathlib accessing-individual-parts8794159
Ref: 27bd8794159
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parts8794347
Ref: 27be8794347
Node: 메서드와 프로퍼티8794809
Ref: library/pathlib methods-and-properties8794928
Ref: 27bf8794928
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parser8795075
Ref: 22c8795075
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath drive8795281
Ref: 27c08795281
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath root8795721
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath anchor8796796
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parents8797163
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parent8797646
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath name8798489
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffix8798921
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffixes8799278
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath stem8799613
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_posix8799913
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_absolute8800177
Ref: 17328800177
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_relative_to8800816
Ref: 2ca8800816
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_reserved8801537
Ref: 2a68801537
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath joinpath8802182
Ref: 27c88802182
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath full_match8802772
Ref: 22b8802772
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath match8803737
Ref: 4a68803737
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath relative_to8804656
Ref: 2cb8804656
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_name8806858
Ref: 16fe8806858
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_stem8807592
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_suffix8808631
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_segments8809315
Ref: 4a18809315
Ref: 메서드와 프로퍼티-Footnote-18810254
Node: 구상 경로8810346
Ref: library/pathlib concrete-paths8810490
Ref: 27b58810490
Ref: library/pathlib id28810490
Ref: 27ca8810490
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path8810813
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PosixPath8811238
Ref: 27cb8811238
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib WindowsPath8811776
Ref: 27b68811776
Node: Parsing and generating URIs8813424
Ref: library/pathlib parsing-and-generating-uris8813539
Ref: 27cc8813539
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path from_uri8813832
Ref: 22a8813832
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path as_uri8814865
Ref: 27ce8814865
Ref: Parsing and generating URIs-Footnote-18815424
Node: Expanding and resolving paths8815483
Ref: library/pathlib expanding-and-resolving-paths8815636
Ref: 27cf8815636
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path home8815717
Ref: e3f8815717
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path expanduser8816090
Ref: e3e8816090
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path cwd8816498
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path absolute8816760
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path resolve8817057
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path readlink8818263
Ref: 91d8818263
Node: Querying file type and status8818790
Ref: library/pathlib querying-file-type-and-status8818941
Ref: 27d08818941
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path stat8819387
Ref: 81d8819387
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lstat8819979
Ref: 27d18819979
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path exists8820173
Ref: a128820173
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_file8820723
Ref: 22f8820723
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_dir8821254
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_symlink8821796
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_junction8822086
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_mount8822302
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_socket8823009
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_fifo8823410
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_block_device8823784
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_char_device8824184
Ref: a168824184
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path samefile8824583
Ref: e3c8824583
Node: Reading and writing files8825194
Ref: library/pathlib reading-and-writing-files8825335
Ref: 27d28825335
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path open8825408
Ref: 27d38825408
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_text8825753
Ref: e418825753
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_bytes8826291
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_text8826617
Ref: e408826617
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_bytes8827215
Ref: e428827215
Node: Reading directories8827623
Ref: library/pathlib reading-directories8827765
Ref: 27d48827765
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path iterdir8827826
Ref: 16388827826
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path glob8828700
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rglob8830673
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path walk8831423
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Node: Creating files and directories8836416
Ref: library/pathlib creating-files-and-directories8836554
Ref: 27d68836554
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path touch8836637
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path mkdir8837222
Ref: e3d8837222
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path symlink_to8838346
Ref: 81c8838346
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path hardlink_to8839436
Ref: 81b8839436
Node: Renaming and deleting8839876
Ref: library/pathlib renaming-and-deleting8840020
Ref: 27d88840020
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rename8840085
Ref: 27d98840085
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path replace8841110
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path unlink8841652
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rmdir8842208
Ref: 27d58842208
Node: Permissions and ownership8842326
Ref: library/pathlib permissions-and-ownership8842431
Ref: 27db8842431
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path owner8842504
Ref: 2318842504
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path group8843125
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Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path chmod8843748
Ref: 81e8843748
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lchmod8844347
Ref: 27dc8844347
Node: Pattern language8844547
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-pattern-language8844704
Ref: 27c98844704
Ref: library/pathlib pattern-language8844704
Ref: 27dd8844704
Node: Comparison to the glob module8847214
Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-glob-module8847398
Ref: 27de8847398
Node: Comparison to the os and os path modules8848848
Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-os-and-os-path-modules8849007
Ref: 27df8849007
Node: Corresponding tools8851194
Ref: library/pathlib corresponding-tools8851290
Ref: 27e08851290
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-18856558
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-28856872
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-38857053
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-48857283
Node: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작8857515
Ref: library/os path doc8857720
Ref: 27e48857720
Ref: library/os path module-os path8857720
Ref: a28857720
Ref: library/os path os-path-common-pathname-manipulations8857720
Ref: 27e58857720
Ref: library/os path os path abspath8859999
Ref: 130b8859999
Ref: library/os path os path basename8860370
Ref: 27e28860370
Ref: library/os path os path commonpath8860933
Ref: e398860933
Ref: library/os path os path commonprefix8861597
Ref: e3a8861597
Ref: library/os path os path dirname8862369
Ref: 27e18862369
Ref: library/os path os path exists8862672
Ref: a0a8862672
Ref: library/os path os path lexists8863395
Ref: a0b8863395
Ref: library/os path os path expanduser8863732
Ref: a108863732
Ref: library/os path os path expandvars8865021
Ref: 13a28865021
Ref: library/os path os path getatime8865536
Ref: 27e78865536
Ref: library/os path os path getmtime8865890
Ref: 27e88865890
Ref: library/os path os path getctime8866333
Ref: 27e98866333
Ref: library/os path os path getsize8866925
Ref: 27ea8866925
Ref: library/os path os path isabs8867206
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Ref: library/os path os path isfile8867723
Ref: a0d8867723
Ref: library/os path os path isdir8868093
Ref: a0c8868093
Ref: library/os path os path isjunction8868463
Ref: 49d8868463
Ref: library/os path os path islink8868767
Ref: a088868767
Ref: library/os path os path ismount8869124
Ref: a0e8869124
Ref: library/os path os path isdevdrive8870175
Ref: 164f8870175
Ref: library/os path os path isreserved8871010
Ref: 2238871010
Ref: library/os path os path join8871898
Ref: 163a8871898
Ref: library/os path os path normcase8873258
Ref: 27eb8873258
Ref: library/os path os path normpath8873652
Ref: 130a8873652
Ref: library/os path os path realpath8874649
Ref: 2258874649
Ref: library/os path os path ALLOW_MISSING8876967
Ref: 4248876967
Ref: library/os path os path relpath8877118
Ref: 4a48877118
Ref: library/os path os path samefile8877724
Ref: f698877724
Ref: library/os path os path sameopenfile8878332
Ref: 27ed8878332
Ref: library/os path os path samestat8878642
Ref: f688878642
Ref: library/os path os path split8879150
Ref: 27e68879150
Ref: library/os path os path splitdrive8880137
Ref: bf18880137
Ref: library/os path os path splitroot8881088
Ref: 49e8881088
Ref: library/os path os path splitext8882403
Ref: 27e38882403
Ref: library/os path os path supports_unicode_filenames8883406
Ref: 14528883406
Ref: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작-Footnote-18883653
Ref: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작-Footnote-28883724
Ref: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작-Footnote-38883793
Ref: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작-Footnote-48883859
Ref: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작-Footnote-58883914
Ref: os path — 일반적인 경로명 조작-Footnote-68884006
Node: stat — stat 결과 해석하기8884098
Ref: library/stat doc8884300
Ref: 27ee8884300
Ref: library/stat module-stat8884300
Ref: d18884300
Ref: library/stat stat-interpreting-stat-results8884300
Ref: 27ef8884300
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDIR8885012
Ref: 27f08885012
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISCHR8885127
Ref: 27f18885127
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISBLK8885288
Ref: 27f28885288
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISREG8885446
Ref: 27f38885446
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISFIFO8885562
Ref: 27f48885562
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISLNK8885691
Ref: 27f58885691
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISSOCK8885810
Ref: 27f68885810
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDOOR8885923
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Ref: library/stat stat ST_CTIME8889621
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IFSOCK8890828
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IFREG8890925
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IWGRP8893156
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Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXO8893308
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Ref: library/stat stat UF_OPAQUE8894631
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Ref: library/stat stat UF_NOUNLINK8894752
Ref: 28218894752
Ref: library/stat stat UF_COMPRESSED8894855
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Ref: library/stat stat UF_TRACKED8894951
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_SUPPORTED8895391
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_SYNTHETIC8895527
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_ARCHIVED8895673
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_IMMUTABLE8895759
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_APPEND8895837
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_RESTRICTED8895922
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_SNAPSHOT8896152
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_DATALESS8896344
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY8896997
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED8897042
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM8897129
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED8897223
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA8897278
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE8897327
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY8897370
Ref: 283c8897370
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT8897414
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE8897463
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM8897510
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY8897552
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL8897597
Ref: 28418897597
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK8897900
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Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT8897943
Ref: 28438897943
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK8897990
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Ref: stat — stat 결과 해석하기-Footnote-18898102
Ref: stat — stat 결과 해석하기-Footnote-28898166
Ref: stat — stat 결과 해석하기-Footnote-38898213
Node: filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교8898293
Ref: library/filecmp doc8898503
Ref: 28458898503
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons8898503
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Ref: library/filecmp module-filecmp8898503
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmp8898999
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmpfiles8899879
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp clear_cache8900939
Ref: f368900939
Ref: filecmp — 파일과 디렉터리 비교-Footnote-18901243
Node: dircmp 클래스8901310
Ref: library/filecmp dircmp-objects8901404
Ref: 28478901404
Ref: library/filecmp the-dircmp-class8901404
Ref: 28488901404
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp8901462
Ref: f388901462
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report8902245
Ref: 28498902245
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_partial_closure8902363
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_full_closure8902507
Ref: 284b8902507
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left8903102
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right8903154
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_list8903207
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_list8903322
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common8903438
Ref: 28508903438
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_only8903527
Ref: 28518903527
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_only8903614
Ref: 28528903614
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_dirs8903702
Ref: 28538903702
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_files8903786
Ref: 28548903786
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_funny8903858
Ref: 28558903858
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp same_files8904045
Ref: 28568904045
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp diff_files8904194
Ref: 28578904194
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp funny_files8904353
Ref: 28588904353
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp subdirs8904456
Ref: 19238904456
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp DEFAULT_IGNORES8904935
Ref: f378904935
Node: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성8905693
Ref: library/tempfile doc8905922
Ref: 28598905922
Ref: library/tempfile module-tempfile8905922
Ref: e08905922
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories8905922
Ref: 285a8905922
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryFile8907260
Ref: 285b8907260
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile NamedTemporaryFile8909691
Ref: 4c08909691
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile8913604
Ref: 68d8913604
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile rollover8914200
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory8915240
Ref: 12248915240
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory name8915828
Ref: 28608915828
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory cleanup8916163
Ref: 28618916163
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkstemp8917483
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkdtemp8920775
Ref: 21f8920775
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdir8922118
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdirb8923361
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefix8923509
Ref: 28638923509
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefixb8923705
Ref: 28648923705
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile tempdir8924364
Ref: 18df8924364
Ref: tempfile — 임시 파일과 디렉터리 생성-Footnote-18925483
Node: 예<3>8925551
Ref: library/tempfile examples8925678
Ref: 28658925678
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-examples8925678
Ref: 285d8925678
Node: 폐지된 함수와 변수8927265
Ref: library/tempfile deprecated-functions-and-variables8927392
Ref: 28668927392
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-mktemp-deprecated8927392
Ref: 28678927392
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mktemp8928047
Ref: 18948928047
Node: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장8929282
Ref: library/glob doc8929515
Ref: 28688929515
Ref: library/glob glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion8929515
Ref: 28698929515
Ref: library/glob module-glob8929515
Ref: 648929515
Ref: library/glob glob glob8930762
Ref: 29f8930762
Ref: library/glob glob iglob8933322
Ref: 8018933322
Ref: library/glob glob escape8934335
Ref: f3e8934335
Ref: library/glob glob translate8934868
Ref: 1ea8934868
Ref: glob — 유닉스 스타일 경로명 패턴 확장-Footnote-18936428
Node: 예제<5>8936492
Ref: library/glob examples8936590
Ref: 286a8936590
Node: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치8937817
Ref: library/fnmatch doc8938058
Ref: 286b8938058
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching8938058
Ref: 286c8938058
Ref: library/fnmatch module-fnmatch8938058
Ref: 5c8938058
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatch8940096
Ref: 18a68940096
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatchcase8940855
Ref: 18a78940855
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch filter8941155
Ref: 18a88941155
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch translate8941447
Ref: 1a4d8941447
Ref: fnmatch — 유닉스 파일명 패턴 일치-Footnote-18942117
Node: linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스8942184
Ref: library/linecache doc8942407
Ref: 286d8942407
Ref: library/linecache linecache-random-access-to-text-lines8942407
Ref: 286e8942407
Ref: library/linecache module-linecache8942407
Ref: 858942407
Ref: library/linecache linecache getline8943362
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Ref: library/linecache linecache checkcache8944403
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Ref: library/linecache linecache lazycache8944714
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Ref: linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스-Footnote-18945328
Ref: linecache — 텍스트 줄에 대한 무작위 액세스-Footnote-28945397
Node: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산8945439
Ref: library/shutil doc8945608
Ref: 28728945608
Ref: library/shutil module-shutil8945608
Ref: c58945608
Ref: library/shutil shutil-high-level-file-operations8945608
Ref: 28738945608
Ref: shutil — 고수준 파일 연산-Footnote-18946907
Node: 디렉터리와 파일 연산8946973
Ref: library/shutil directory-and-files-operations8947101
Ref: 28748947101
Ref: library/shutil file-operations8947101
Ref: 28758947101
Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfileobj8947171
Ref: a598947171
Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfile8947812
Ref: a558947812
Ref: library/shutil shutil SameFileError8949737
Ref: f958949737
Ref: library/shutil shutil copymode8949909
Ref: 16b28949909
Ref: library/shutil shutil copystat8950968
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copy8953474
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copy28955239
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Ref: library/shutil shutil ignore_patterns8957113
Ref: 28778957113
Ref: library/shutil shutil copytree8957474
Ref: a258957474
Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree8961391
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Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree avoids_symlink_attacks8964472
Ref: 28788964472
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Ref: a588964824
Ref: library/shutil shutil disk_usage8967204
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Ref: library/shutil shutil chown8968007
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Ref: library/shutil shutil which8968731
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Ref: library/shutil shutil Error8971477
Ref: f948971477
Node: 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산8971810
Ref: library/shutil platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8971943
Ref: 287a8971943
Ref: library/shutil shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8971943
Ref: a5a8971943
Ref: 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산-Footnote-18973278
Ref: 플랫폼 의존적 효율적인 복사 연산-Footnote-28973343
Node: copytree 예8973391
Ref: library/shutil copytree-example8973543
Ref: 287b8973543
Ref: library/shutil shutil-copytree-example8973543
Ref: 287c8973543
Node: rmtree 예8974249
Ref: library/shutil rmtree-example8974346
Ref: 287d8974346
Ref: library/shutil shutil-rmtree-example8974346
Ref: 28798974346
Node: 아카이브 연산8974936
Ref: library/shutil archiving-operations8975112
Ref: 12088975112
Ref: library/shutil id18975112
Ref: 287e8975112
Ref: library/shutil shutil make_archive8975452
Ref: 4ad8975452
Ref: library/shutil shutil get_archive_formats8978149
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Ref: library/shutil shutil register_archive_format8979135
Ref: 28808979135
Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_archive_format8980509
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Ref: library/shutil shutil unpack_archive8980651
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Ref: library/shutil shutil register_unpack_format8982600
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Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_unpack_format8983554
Ref: 28858983554
Ref: library/shutil shutil get_unpack_formats8983704
Ref: 28848983704
Ref: 아카이브 연산-Footnote-18984821
Node: 아카이브 예8984863
Ref: library/shutil archiving-example8984982
Ref: 28868984982
Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example8984982
Ref: 28878984982
Node: base_dir을 사용한 아카이브 예8986108
Ref: library/shutil archiving-example-with-base-dir8986227
Ref: 28888986227
Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example-with-basedir8986227
Ref: 287f8986227
Node: 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기8987425
Ref: library/shutil querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal8987563
Ref: 28898987563
Ref: library/shutil shutil get_terminal_size8987650
Ref: 10f48987650
Ref: 출력 터미널의 크기 조회하기-Footnote-18989381
Node: 데이터 지속성8989464
Ref: library/persistence doc8989629
Ref: 288c8989629
Ref: library/persistence data-persistence8989629
Ref: 288d8989629
Ref: library/persistence persistence8989629
Ref: 288e8989629
Node: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화8990591
Ref: library/pickle doc8990732
Ref: 288f8990732
Ref: library/pickle module-pickle8990732
Ref: a68990732
Ref: library/pickle pickle-python-object-serialization8990732
Ref: 28908990732
Ref: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화-Footnote-18992871
Ref: pickle — 파이썬 객체 직렬화-Footnote-28992937
Node: 다른 파이썬 모듈과의 관계8993011
Ref: library/pickle relationship-to-other-python-modules8993156
Ref: 28928993156
Node: marshal 과의 비교8993297
Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-marshal8993418
Ref: 28938993418
Node: json 과의 비교8995942
Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-json8996063
Ref: 28918996063
Ref: library/pickle id28996063
Ref: 28948996063
Ref: json 과의 비교-Footnote-18997440
Node: 데이터 스트림 형식8997465
Ref: library/pickle data-stream-format8997641
Ref: 28968997641
Ref: library/pickle pickle-protocols8997641
Ref: cbe8997641
Ref: 데이터 스트림 형식-Footnote-19001241
Ref: 데이터 스트림 형식-Footnote-29001283
Ref: 데이터 스트림 형식-Footnote-39001325
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Ref: library/pickle module-interface9001567
Ref: 28999001567
Ref: library/pickle pickle HIGHEST_PROTOCOL9002092
Ref: 14699002092
Ref: library/pickle pickle DEFAULT_PROTOCOL9002374
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Node: 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?9017571
Ref: library/pickle pickle-picklable9017777
Ref: 289d9017777
Ref: library/pickle what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled9017777
Ref: 28ab9017777
Ref: 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?-Footnote-19021045
Ref: 어떤 것이 피클 되고 역 피클 될 수 있을까요?-Footnote-29021212
Node: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링9021369
Ref: library/pickle pickle-inst9021615
Ref: 28959021615
Ref: library/pickle pickling-class-instances9021615
Ref: 28ac9021615
Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs_ex__9022730
Ref: 28ad9022730
Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs__9023692
Ref: 146b9023692
Ref: library/pickle object __getstate__9024310
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Ref: library/pickle object __setstate__9025722
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Ref: library/pickle object __reduce__9027981
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Ref: 15c29031189
Ref: 클래스 인스턴스 피클링-Footnote-19031924
Node: 외부 객체의 지속성9032030
Ref: library/pickle persistence-of-external-objects9032156
Ref: 28af9032156
Ref: library/pickle pickle-persistent9032156
Ref: 28a09032156
Ref: 외부 객체의 지속성-Footnote-19037242
Node: 디스패치 테이블9037482
Ref: library/pickle dispatch-tables9037644
Ref: 28b09037644
Ref: library/pickle pickle-dispatch9037644
Ref: 28a29037644
Node: 상태 저장 객체 처리9039101
Ref: library/pickle handling-stateful-objects9039228
Ref: 28b19039228
Ref: library/pickle pickle-state9039228
Ref: 28ae9039228
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Ref: 28b29041973
Ref: library/pickle reducer-override9041973
Ref: 28a39041973
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-oob9044489
Ref: 289f9044489
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Ref: library/pickle provider-api9045506
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Ref: library/pickle consumer-api9046297
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Ref: 예제<6>-Footnote-19050383
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Ref: library/copyreg module-copyreg9055633
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Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf sync9061872
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Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf close9062230
Ref: 28c39062230
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Ref: shelve — 파이썬 객체 지속성-Footnote-29062694
Node: 제약 사항9062799
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Ref: 28c59062904
Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf9064368
Ref: f929064368
Ref: library/shelve shelve BsdDbShelf9065921
Ref: 22609065921
Ref: library/shelve shelve DbfilenameShelf9066723
Ref: 22619066723
Ref: 제약 사항-Footnote-19067360
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Ref: library/shelve example9067518
Ref: 28c69067518
Ref: library/shelve shelve-example9067518
Ref: 28c19067518
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Ref: library/marshal doc9069812
Ref: 28c79069812
Ref: library/marshal marshal-internal-python-object-serialization9069812
Ref: 28c89069812
Ref: library/marshal module-marshal9069812
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Ref: library/marshal marshal dump9072794
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Ref: library/marshal marshal load9073769
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Ref: marshal — 내부 파이썬 객체 직렬화-Footnote-19076939
Node: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스9077415
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Ref: library/dbm dbm-interfaces-to-unix-databases9077645
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Ref: library/dbm module-dbm9077645
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Ref: library/dbm dbm whichdb9078587
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Ref: library/dbm dbm open9079328
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Ref: dbm — 유닉스 “데이터베이스” 인터페이스-Footnote-29083614
Node: dbm sqlite3 — dbm 의 SQLite 백엔드9083667
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Ref: library/dbm module-dbm sqlite39083855
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Ref: library/dbm dbm sqlite3 open9084559
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Ref: library/dbm dbm sqlite3 sqlite3 close9085719
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Ref: library/dbm module-dbm gnu9086165
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Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu error9086886
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Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu open_flags9087123
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Ref: 1a469087246
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Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm firstkey9089666
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Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm nextkey9090018
Ref: 28d79090018
Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm reorganize9090433
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Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm sync9090913
Ref: 28d99090913
Ref: dbm gnu — GNU 데이터베이스 관리자-Footnote-19091152
Node: dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager9091219
Ref: library/dbm dbm-ndbm-new-database-manager9091482
Ref: 28da9091482
Ref: library/dbm module-dbm ndbm9091482
Ref: 349091482
Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm error9092610
Ref: a989092610
Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm library9092849
Ref: 28db9092849
Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm open9092937
Ref: 1a479092937
Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm ndbm close9094551
Ref: 28dc9094551
Ref: dbm ndbm — 새 데이터베이스 관리자 New Database Manager-Footnote-19094674
Node: dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현9094742
Ref: library/dbm dbm-dumb-portable-dbm-implementation9094952
Ref: 28dd9094952
Ref: library/dbm module-dbm dumb9094952
Ref: 329094952
Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb error9095852
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb open9096091
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb dumbdbm close9098021
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb dumbdbm sync9098106
Ref: 28df9098106
Ref: dbm dumb — 이식성 있는 DBM 구현-Footnote-19098362
Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases9098430
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Ref: library/sqlite3 module-sqlite39098606
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-db-api-2-0-interface-for-sqlite-databases9098606
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Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-29100423
Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-39100465
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Ref: library/sqlite3 module-functions9107438
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-functions9107438
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 connect9107491
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 complete_statement9112302
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 register_adapter9113781
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 register_converter9114117
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Ref: Module functions-Footnote-29114807
Ref: Module functions-Footnote-39114849
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Ref: library/sqlite3 module-constants9115040
Ref: 29019115040
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-constants9115040
Ref: 29029115040
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL9115093
Ref: 28fb9115093
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PARSE_DECLTYPES9115372
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PARSE_COLNAMES9116360
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_OK9116960
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DENY9116993
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_IGNORE9117028
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 apilevel9117467
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 sqlite_version9117899
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Ref: 29099118018
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Ref: PrepareProtocol objects-Footnote-19169078
Node: 예외<5>9169120
Ref: library/sqlite3 exceptions9169240
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Ref: 29449171723
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Ref: 예외<5>-Footnote-19172731
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Node: Command-line interface9176413
Ref: library/sqlite3 command-line-interface9176532
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Node: How-to guides9177026
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howtos9177167
Ref: 28e59177167
Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries9177633
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Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-19180049
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-29180101
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Ref: 294e9180364
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Ref: 28ee9180364
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Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-write-adaptable-objects9181311
Ref: 294f9181311
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-conform9181311
Ref: 29409181311
Node: How to register adapter callables9182222
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-register-adapter-callables9182380
Ref: 29509182380
Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types9183024
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-convert-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types9183221
Ref: 29519183221
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-converters9183221
Ref: 28ef9183221
Node: Adapter and converter recipes9185794
Ref: library/sqlite3 adapter-and-converter-recipes9185980
Ref: 29529185980
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapter-converter-recipes9185980
Ref: 4ea9185980
Node: How to use connection shortcut methods9187437
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-connection-shortcut-methods9187613
Ref: 29539187613
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-shortcuts9187613
Ref: 291d9187613
Node: How to use the connection context manager9188897
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-the-connection-context-manager9189072
Ref: 29549189072
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-context-manager9189072
Ref: 17e99189072
Node: How to work with SQLite URIs9190825
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-work-with-sqlite-uris9190997
Ref: 29569190997
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-uri-tricks9190997
Ref: 28fc9190997
Ref: How to work with SQLite URIs-Footnote-19192300
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Node: bz2 — bzip2 압축 지원9233307
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Node: lzma — LZMA 알고리즘을 사용한 압축9249192
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Ref: library/lzma examples9269761
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Node: zipfile — ZIP 아카이브 작업9271136
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Ref: tarfile — tar 아카이브 파일 읽기와 쓰기-Footnote-19328241
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Ref: e709334190
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile next9334673
Ref: 2a249334673
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extractall9334911
Ref: 4289334911
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extract9336947
Ref: 4299336947
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extractfile9338512
Ref: 2a259338512
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile errorlevel9339251
Ref: 42b9339251
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extraction_filter9340221
Ref: 2a269340221
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile add9341527
Ref: bf09341527
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile addfile9342602
Ref: 16379342602
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile gettarinfo9343178
Ref: 2a289343178
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Ref: 2a2b9344516
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile pax_headers9344688
Ref: 2a2c9344688
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Ref: library/tarfile id29344961
Ref: 2a2d9344961
Ref: library/tarfile tarinfo-objects9344961
Ref: 2a089344961
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo9346256
Ref: 12009346256
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo frombuf9346349
Ref: 2a049346349
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo fromtarfile9346603
Ref: 2a2f9346603
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo tobuf9346788
Ref: 2a309346788
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo name9347281
Ref: 2a2a9347281
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo size9347360
Ref: 2a299347360
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo mtime9347437
Ref: 2a319347437
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo mode9347795
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo type9348065
Ref: 2a119348065
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo linkname9348548
Ref: 2a359348548
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo uid9348952
Ref: 2a369348952
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo gid9349232
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo uname9349509
Ref: 2a389349509
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo gname9349751
Ref: 2a399349751
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo chksum9349990
Ref: 2a3a9349990
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo devmajor9350058
Ref: 2a3b9350058
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo devminor9350132
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo offset9350206
Ref: 2a3d9350206
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo offset_data9350285
Ref: 2a3e9350285
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo sparse9350372
Ref: 2a3f9350372
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo pax_headers9350433
Ref: 2a409350433
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo replace9350563
Ref: 2a2e9350563
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isfile9351258
Ref: 2a419351258
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isreg9351392
Ref: 2a429351392
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isdir9351470
Ref: 2a439351470
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo issym9351565
Ref: 2a449351565
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Ref: library/tarfile extraction-filters9352348
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-extraction-filter9352348
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Ref: Extraction filters-Footnote-19355443
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Ref: library/tarfile default-named-filters9355583
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile fully_trusted_filter9355747
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Ref: library/tarfile filter-errors9358537
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Ref: library/tarfile hints-for-further-verification9359045
Ref: 2a4e9359045
Node: Supporting older Python versions9360774
Ref: library/tarfile supporting-older-python-versions9360943
Ref: 2a4f9360943
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Ref: library/tarfile stateful-extraction-filter-example9362636
Ref: 2a509362636
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Ref: library/tarfile command-line-interface9363591
Ref: 2a519363591
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-commandline9363591
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Ref: library/tarfile command-line-options9364715
Ref: 2a559364715
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-l9364767
Ref: 2a549364767
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-list9364792
Ref: 2a569364792
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-c9364873
Ref: 2a529364873
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-create9364922
Ref: 2a579364922
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-e9365029
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-extract9365069
Ref: 2a589365069
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Ref: 2a5b9365324
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-verbose9365324
Ref: 2a5c9365324
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-filter9365375
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Ref: library/tarfile examples9365775
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Ref: library/tarfile tar-examples9365775
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Ref: library/tarfile reading-examples9365939
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Node: Writing examples9367093
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Ref: library/tarfile tar-formats9368535
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Ref: library/tarfile unicode-issues9371264
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Ref: library/fileformats doc9373769
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Ref: library/fileformats file-formats9373769
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Ref: library/fileformats fileformats9373769
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Ref: library/csv doc9374383
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Ref: library/csv csv-csv-file-reading-and-writing9374383
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Ref: library/csv module-csv9374383
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Ref: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기-Footnote-19376641
Ref: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기-Footnote-29376704
Ref: csv — CSV 파일 읽기와 쓰기-Footnote-39376763
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Ref: library/csv module-contents9376934
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Ref: library/csv csv writer9378790
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Ref: library/csv csv register_dialect9380701
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Ref: library/csv csv unregister_dialect9381241
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Ref: library/csv csv get_dialect9381470
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Ref: library/csv csv list_dialects9381720
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Ref: library/csv csv field_size_limit9381814
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Ref: library/csv csv DictReader9382125
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Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter9384036
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect9385876
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Ref: library/csv csv excel9386703
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Ref: library/csv csv excel_tab9386898
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Ref: library/csv csv unix_dialect9387115
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Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer9387461
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Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer sniff9387674
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Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer has_header9388033
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Ref: library/csv csv-constants9389239
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Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NONNUMERIC9389671
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Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NOTNULL9390880
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Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_STRINGS9391323
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Ref: library/csv csv Error9391856
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Ref: 모듈 내용<3>-Footnote-19391982
Ref: 모듈 내용<3>-Footnote-29392388
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Ref: library/csv csv-fmt-params9392948
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Ref: library/csv dialects-and-formatting-parameters9392948
Ref: 2a779392948
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect delimiter9393839
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect doublequote9393985
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect escapechar9394530
Ref: 2a7a9394530
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect lineterminator9395237
Ref: 2a7b9395237
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect quotechar9395651
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect quoting9396139
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Ref: library/csv csv Dialect strict9396634
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Node: 판독기 객체9396805
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Ref: library/csv reader-objects9396959
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Ref: library/csv csv csvreader __next__9397174
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Ref: library/csv csv csvreader dialect9397631
Ref: 2a829397631
Ref: library/csv csv csvreader line_num9397734
Ref: 2a839397734
Ref: library/csv csv DictReader fieldnames9398023
Ref: 2a849398023
Node: 기록기 객체9398254
Ref: library/csv writer-objects9398386
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Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter writerow9399106
Ref: de69399106
Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter writerows9399440
Ref: 2a869399440
Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter dialect9399744
Ref: 2a879399744
Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter writeheader9399906
Ref: 11ee9399906
Node: 예제<10>9400434
Ref: library/csv csv-examples9400541
Ref: 2a889400541
Ref: library/csv examples9400541
Ref: 2a899400541
Node: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기9402635
Ref: library/configparser doc9402813
Ref: 2a8a9402813
Ref: library/configparser configparser-configuration-file-parser9402813
Ref: 2a8b9402813
Ref: library/configparser module-configparser9402813
Ref: 229402813
Ref: configparser — 구성 파일 구문 분석기-Footnote-19404446
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Ref: library/configparser quick-start9404649
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Ref: 빠른 시작-Footnote-19408561
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Ref: library/configparser supported-datatypes9409203
Ref: 2a909409203
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Ref: 지원되는 데이터형-Footnote-29411037
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Ref: library/configparser fallback-values9411450
Ref: 2a949411450
Node: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조9413107
Ref: library/configparser supported-ini-file-structure9413265
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Ref: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조-Footnote-29416468
Ref: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조-Footnote-39416714
Ref: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조-Footnote-49416960
Ref: 지원되는 INI 파일 구조-Footnote-59417206
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Ref: library/configparser id109417613
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Ref: library/configparser unnamed-sections9417613
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Ref: library/configparser interpolation-of-values9418253
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Ref: library/configparser configparser BasicInterpolation9418501
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ExtendedInterpolation9419876
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Ref: 값의 보간-Footnote-19421391
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Ref: library/configparser customizing-parser-behaviour9425534
Ref: 2a8f9425534
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser BOOLEAN_STATES9437329
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser SECTCRE9439705
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Node: 레거시 API 예제9441008
Ref: library/configparser legacy-api-examples9441189
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Node: ConfigParser 객체9445252
Ref: library/configparser configparser-objects9445415
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Ref: library/configparser id139445415
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser9445474
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser defaults9451256
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser sections9451379
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getboolean9458196
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Ref: library/configparser exceptions9466293
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Ref: 125f9466539
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Ref: library/configparser configparser NoOptionError9467453
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Ref: 2ab49467581
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Ref: 2ad39485397
Node: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약9485780
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Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-secure-hashes-and-message-digests9485936
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Ref: 689485936
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Ref: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약-Footnote-39486960
Ref: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약-Footnote-49487010
Ref: hashlib — 보안 해시와 메시지 요약-Footnote-59487080
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Ref: 2ad69487258
Ref: library/hashlib id19487258
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Ref: 해시 알고리즘-Footnote-19490403
Ref: 해시 알고리즘-Footnote-29490511
Node: 사용법9490558
Ref: library/hashlib usage9490695
Ref: 2ae19490695
Node: 생성자9491390
Ref: library/hashlib constructors9491523
Ref: 2ae29491523
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Ref: 파일과 디렉터리-Footnote-19699475
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Ref: library/logging logging setLogRecordFactory9970418
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Ref: 모듈 수준 함수-Footnote-19971779
Node: 모듈 수준 어트리뷰트9971844
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Ref: 2cbd9972011
Ref: library/logging logging lastResort9972083
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Ref: library/logging logging raiseExceptions9972766
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Node: warnings 모듈과의 통합9973170
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Ref: 2cbe9973308
Ref: library/logging logging captureWarnings9973520
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Ref: warnings 모듈과의 통합-Footnote-19974929
Ref: warnings 모듈과의 통합-Footnote-29974971
Node: logging config — 로깅 구성9975024
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-logging-configuration9975213
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Ref: library/logging config module-logging config9975213
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Ref: logging config — 로깅 구성-Footnote-19975872
Node: 구성 함수9975946
Ref: library/logging config configuration-functions9976057
Ref: 2cc29976057
Ref: library/logging config logging-config-api9976057
Ref: 12e19976057
Ref: library/logging config logging config dictConfig9976484
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Ref: library/logging config logging config fileConfig9978721
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Ref: library/logging config logging config listen9981715
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Ref: library/logging config logging-eval-security9983461
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Ref: library/logging config logging config stopListening9985271
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Node: 보안 고려 사항9985549
Ref: library/logging config security-considerations9985698
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Node: 구성 딕셔너리 스키마9986407
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dictschema9986563
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Node: 딕셔너리 스키마 세부사항9987679
Ref: library/logging config dictionary-schema-details9987802
Ref: 2ccc9987802
Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dictschema-formatters9988769
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Node: 증분 구성9993657
Ref: library/logging config incremental-configuration9993802
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-incremental9993802
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Node: 객체 연결9995287
Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-connections9995420
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Ref: library/logging config object-connections9995420
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Node: 사용자 정의 객체9997856
Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-userdef9997999
Ref: 2cc99997999
Ref: library/logging config user-defined-objects9997999
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Node: 처리기 구성 순서10002901
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Ref: library/logging config handler-configuration-order10003064
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Node: 외부 객체에 대한 액세스10004362
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-externalobj10004535
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Node: 내부 객체에 대한 액세스10005868
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Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-internalobj10006064
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Node: 임포트 결정과 사용자 정의 임포터10009730
Ref: library/logging config import-resolution-and-custom-importers10009935
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Ref: library/logging config logging-import-resolution10009935
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Ref: library/logging config configuring-queuehandler-and-queuelistener10011204
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Ref: library/logging handlers module-logging handlers10022519
Ref: 8910022519
Ref: logging handlers — 로깅 처리기-Footnote-110023620
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Ref: library/logging handlers streamhandler10023804
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler10024155
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler emit10024454
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler flush10024827
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler emit10028367
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler emit10051957
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler encodePriority10057925
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Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-110062583
Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-210062638
Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-310062703
Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-410062762
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler emit10069827
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler flush10071583
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler setTarget10071930
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler emit10077083
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler prepare10077624
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler listener10079907
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener10081450
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener dequeue10082763
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener prepare10083092
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener handle10083443
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener start10083710
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener stop10084033
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener enqueue_sentinel10084400
Ref: 2d4210084400
Node: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스10084959
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Ref: library/platform module-platform10085189
Ref: aa10085189
Ref: library/platform platform-access-to-underlying-platform-s-identifying-data10085189
Ref: 2d4410085189
Ref: platform — 하부 플랫폼의 식별 데이터에 대한 액세스-Footnote-110085800
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Ref: library/platform platform architecture10086059
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Node: Java platform10092928
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Node: Windows platform10093805
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Ref: library/platform platform win32_is_iot10095318
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Node: macOS platform10095532
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Ref: library/platform platform mac_ver10095747
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Node: iOS platform10096153
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Ref: library/platform platform freedesktop_os_release10098292
Ref: 82010098292
Ref: Linux platforms-Footnote-110099781
Node: Android platform10099854
Ref: library/platform android-platform10100030
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Ref: Android platform-Footnote-110101219
Ref: Android platform-Footnote-210101298
Ref: Android platform-Footnote-310101369
Ref: Android platform-Footnote-410101441
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Ref: library/platform cmdoption-platform-nonaliased10102128
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Ref: library/errno module-errno10102763
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Ref: library/errno errno errorcode10103150
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Ref: library/errno errno EPERM10103780
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOENT10103914
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Ref: library/errno errno ESRCH10104106
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Ref: library/errno errno ENXIO10104499
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Ref: library/errno errno EBADF10104772
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Ref: library/errno errno ECHILD10104850
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Ref: library/errno errno EAGAIN10105030
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEM10105182
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Ref: library/errno errno EACCES10105252
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Ref: library/errno errno EFAULT10105424
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOTBLK10105492
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Ref: library/errno errno EBUSY10105587
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Ref: library/errno errno EEXIST10105689
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOTDIR10106001
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Ref: library/errno errno EISDIR10106166
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Ref: library/errno errno EINVAL10106321
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Ref: library/errno errno ENFILE10106394
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Ref: library/errno errno EMFILE10106483
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOTTY10106585
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Ref: library/errno errno ETXTBSY10106667
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Ref: library/errno errno ESPIPE10106946
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Ref: library/errno errno EPIPE10107190
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Ref: library/errno errno EDOM10107334
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Ref: library/errno errno ERANGE10107457
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Ref: library/errno errno ENAMETOOLONG10107680
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOLCK10107778
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOSYS10107890
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOMSG10108398
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Ref: library/errno errno EIDRM10108510
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Ref: library/errno errno ECHRNG10108602
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Ref: library/errno errno EL2NSYNC10108715
Ref: 2d7f10108715
Ref: library/errno errno EL3HLT10108825
Ref: 2d8010108825
Ref: library/errno errno EL3RST10108913
Ref: 2d8110108913
Ref: library/errno errno ELNRNG10109003
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Ref: library/errno errno EUNATCH10109113
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOCSI10109246
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Ref: library/errno errno EL2HLT10109356
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Ref: library/errno errno EBADE10109444
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Ref: library/errno errno EBADR10109516
Ref: 2d8710109516
Ref: library/errno errno EXFULL10109608
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Ref: library/errno errno ENOANO10109675
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Ref: library/errno errno EBADRQC10109745
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Ref: library/errno errno EBADSLT10109840
Ref: 2d8b10109840
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLOCK10109920
Ref: 2d8c10109920
Ref: library/errno errno EBFONT10110025
Ref: 2d8d10110025
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSTR10110116
Ref: 2d8e10110116
Ref: library/errno errno ENODATA10110211
Ref: 2d8f10110211
Ref: library/errno errno ETIME10110295
Ref: 2d9010110295
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSR10110382
Ref: 2d9110110382
Ref: library/errno errno ENONET10110469
Ref: 2d9210110469
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPKG10110578
Ref: 2d9310110578
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTE10110681
Ref: 2d9410110681
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLINK10110764
Ref: 2d9510110764
Ref: library/errno errno EADV10110858
Ref: 2d9610110858
Ref: library/errno errno ESRMNT10110925
Ref: 2d9710110925
Ref: library/errno errno ECOMM10110993
Ref: 2d9810110993
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTO10111084
Ref: 2d9910111084
Ref: library/errno errno EMULTIHOP10111158
Ref: 2d9a10111158
Ref: library/errno errno EDOTDOT10111252
Ref: 2d9b10111252
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMSG10111329
Ref: 2d9c10111329
Ref: library/errno errno EOVERFLOW10111424
Ref: 2d9d10111424
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTUNIQ10111566
Ref: 2d9e10111566
Ref: library/errno errno EBADFD10111689
Ref: 2d9f10111689
Ref: library/errno errno EREMCHG10111794
Ref: 2da010111794
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBACC10111896
Ref: 2da110111896
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBBAD10112048
Ref: 2da210112048
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBSCN10112174
Ref: 2da310112174
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBMAX10112277
Ref: 2da410112277
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBEXEC10112422
Ref: 2da510112422
Ref: library/errno errno EILSEQ10112567
Ref: 2da610112567
Ref: library/errno errno ERESTART10112658
Ref: 2da710112658
Ref: library/errno errno ESTRPIPE10112808
Ref: 2da810112808
Ref: library/errno errno EUSERS10112895
Ref: 2da910112895
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSOCK10112982
Ref: 2daa10112982
Ref: library/errno errno EDESTADDRREQ10113089
Ref: 2dab10113089
Ref: library/errno errno EMSGSIZE10113199
Ref: 2dac10113199
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTOTYPE10113287
Ref: 2dad10113287
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPROTOOPT10113429
Ref: 2dae10113429
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTONOSUPPORT10113539
Ref: 2daf10113539
Ref: library/errno errno ESOCKTNOSUPPORT10113643
Ref: 2db010113643
Ref: library/errno errno EOPNOTSUPP10113751
Ref: 2db110113751
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSUP10113901
Ref: 2db210113901
Ref: library/errno errno EPFNOSUPPORT10114020
Ref: 2db310114020
Ref: library/errno errno EAFNOSUPPORT10114138
Ref: 2db410114138
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRINUSE10114282
Ref: 2db510114282
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRNOTAVAIL10114376
Ref: 2db610114376
Ref: library/errno errno ENETDOWN10114502
Ref: 2db710114502
Ref: library/errno errno ENETUNREACH10114597
Ref: 1a0e10114597
Ref: library/errno errno ENETRESET10114707
Ref: 2db810114707
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNABORTED10114861
Ref: 22ae10114861
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNRESET10115088
Ref: 22b010115088
Ref: library/errno errno ENOBUFS10115272
Ref: 17ee10115272
Ref: library/errno errno EISCONN10115386
Ref: 2db910115386
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCONN10115532
Ref: 2dba10115532
Ref: library/errno errno ESHUTDOWN10115675
Ref: 22ad10115675
Ref: library/errno errno ETOOMANYREFS10115907
Ref: 2dbb10115907
Ref: library/errno errno ETIMEDOUT10116050
Ref: 22b710116050
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNREFUSED10116225
Ref: 22af10116225
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTDOWN10116405
Ref: 2dbc10116405
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTUNREACH10116495
Ref: 2dbd10116495
Ref: library/errno errno EALREADY10116597
Ref: 22a710116597
Ref: library/errno errno EINPROGRESS10116774
Ref: 22a910116774
Ref: library/errno errno ESTALE10116959
Ref: 2dbe10116959
Ref: library/errno errno EUCLEAN10117048
Ref: 2dbf10117048
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTNAM10117134
Ref: 2dc010117134
Ref: library/errno errno ENAVAIL10117252
Ref: 2dc110117252
Ref: library/errno errno EISNAM10117384
Ref: 2dc210117384
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTEIO10117481
Ref: 2dc310117481
Ref: library/errno errno EDQUOT10117558
Ref: 2dc410117558
Ref: library/errno errno EQFULL10117629
Ref: 2dc510117629
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEDIUM10117724
Ref: 2dc610117724
Ref: library/errno errno EMEDIUMTYPE10117778
Ref: 2dc710117778
Ref: library/errno errno ENOKEY10117836
Ref: 2dc810117836
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYEXPIRED10117898
Ref: 2dc910117898
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREVOKED10117954
Ref: 2dca10117954
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREJECTED10118015
Ref: 2dcb10118015
Ref: library/errno errno ERFKILL10118084
Ref: 2dcc10118084
Ref: library/errno errno ELOCKUNMAPPED10118158
Ref: 2dcd10118158
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTACTIVE10118225
Ref: 2dce10118225
Ref: library/errno errno EAUTH10118287
Ref: 2dcf10118287
Ref: library/errno errno EBADARCH10118370
Ref: 2dd010118370
Ref: library/errno errno EBADEXEC10118462
Ref: 2dd110118462
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMACHO10118562
Ref: 2dd210118562
Ref: library/errno errno EDEVERR10118650
Ref: 2dd310118650
Ref: library/errno errno EFTYPE10118727
Ref: 2dd410118727
Ref: library/errno errno ENEEDAUTH10118824
Ref: 2dd510118824
Ref: library/errno errno ENOATTR10118909
Ref: 2dd610118909
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPOLICY10118993
Ref: 2dd710118993
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCLIM10119076
Ref: 2dd810119076
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCUNAVAIL10119160
Ref: 2dd910119160
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGMISMATCH10119255
Ref: 2dda10119255
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGUNAVAIL10119347
Ref: 2ddb10119347
Ref: library/errno errno EPWROFF10119437
Ref: 2ddc10119437
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRPC10119521
Ref: 2ddd10119521
Ref: library/errno errno ERPCMISMATCH10119603
Ref: 2dde10119603
Ref: library/errno errno ESHLIBVERS10119690
Ref: 2ddf10119690
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCAPABLE10119789
Ref: 17c610119789
Ref: library/errno errno ECANCELED10120003
Ref: 2de010120003
Ref: library/errno errno EOWNERDEAD10120088
Ref: 2de110120088
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTRECOVERABLE10120166
Ref: 2de210120166
Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python10120260
Ref: library/ctypes doc10120423
Ref: 2de310120423
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python10120423
Ref: 2de410120423
Ref: library/ctypes module-ctypes10120423
Ref: 2a10120423
Ref: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python-Footnote-110121039
Node: ctypes 자습서10121102
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-tutorial10121231
Ref: 2de510121231
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-tutorial10121231
Ref: 2de610121231
Node: 동적 링크 라이브러리 로드하기10122754
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries10122903
Ref: 2de910122903
Ref: library/ctypes loading-dynamic-link-libraries10122903
Ref: 2dea10122903
Node: 로드된 dll에서 함수에 액세스하기10125117
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls10125294
Ref: 2dec10125294
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls10125294
Ref: 2ded10125294
Node: 함수 호출하기10127655
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions10127809
Ref: 2dee10127809
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions10127809
Ref: 2def10127809
Node: 기본 데이터형10130371
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types10130506
Ref: 2df010130506
Ref: library/ctypes fundamental-data-types10130506
Ref: 2df110130506
Node: 함수 호출하기 계속10140639
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-continued10140781
Ref: 2e0610140781
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-continued10140781
Ref: 2e0710140781
Node: Calling variadic functions10141905
Ref: library/ctypes calling-variadic-functions10142093
Ref: 2e0810142093
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-variadic-functions10142093
Ref: 2e0910142093
Node: 사용자 정의 데이터형을 사용하여 함수 호출하기10142788
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types10143003
Ref: 2e0b10143003
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types10143003
Ref: 2e0c10143003
Node: 필수 인자 형 함수 프로토타입 지정하기10143932
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types10144130
Ref: 2e0d10144130
Ref: library/ctypes specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes10144130
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Node: 반환형10146028
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-return-types10146227
Ref: 2e1010146227
Ref: library/ctypes return-types10146227
Ref: 2e1110146227
Node: 포인터 전달하기 또는 참조로 매개 변수 전달하기10149393
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-passing-pointers10149561
Ref: 2e1510149561
Ref: library/ctypes passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference10149561
Ref: 2e1610149561
Node: 구조체와 공용체10150815
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structures-unions10151020
Ref: 2e1810151020
Ref: library/ctypes structures-and-unions10151020
Ref: 2e1910151020
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order10153226
Ref: 2e1b10153226
Node: 구조체/공용체 정렬과 바이트 순서10153601
Ref: library/ctypes structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order10153779
Ref: 2e1c10153779
Node: 구조체와 공용체의 비트 필드10154914
Ref: library/ctypes bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions10155076
Ref: 2e2010155076
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-bit-fields-in-structures-unions10155076
Ref: 2e2110155076
Node: 배열10155664
Ref: library/ctypes arrays10155789
Ref: 2e2210155789
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays10155789
Ref: 2e2310155789
Node: 포인터10157172
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Ref: 2e2410157268
Ref: library/ctypes pointers10157268
Ref: 2e2510157268
Node: 형 변환10160274
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-type-conversions10160380
Ref: 2e2710160380
Ref: library/ctypes type-conversions10160380
Ref: 2e2810160380
Node: 불완전한 형10163208
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-incomplete-types10163318
Ref: 2e2a10163318
Ref: library/ctypes incomplete-types10163318
Ref: 2e2b10163318
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Ref: library/ctypes callback-functions10165151
Ref: 2e2c10165151
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-callback-functions10165151
Ref: 2e2d10165151
Node: dll에서 내 보낸 값을 액세스하기10169232
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-values-exported-from-dlls10169375
Ref: 2e3010169375
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls10169375
Ref: 2e3110169375
Node: 의외의 것들10172203
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-surprises10172359
Ref: 2e3410172359
Ref: library/ctypes surprises10172359
Ref: 2e3510172359
Node: 가변 크기 데이터형10174805
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-variable-sized-data-types10174909
Ref: 2e3610174909
Ref: library/ctypes variable-sized-data-types10174909
Ref: 2e3710174909
Node: ctypes 레퍼런스10176456
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Ref: 2e3910176585
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-reference10176585
Ref: 2e3a10176585
Node: 공유 라이브러리 찾기10176929
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-finding-shared-libraries10177058
Ref: 2e3b10177058
Ref: library/ctypes finding-shared-libraries10177058
Ref: 2e3c10177058
Node: 공유 라이브러리 로드하기10179790
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-shared-libraries10179941
Ref: 2e3d10179941
Ref: library/ctypes loading-shared-libraries10179941
Ref: 2e3e10179941
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL10180227
Ref: 9e510180227
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes OleDLL10181445
Ref: 177810181445
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinDLL10182313
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL10182938
Ref: 177a10182938
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _handle10187184
Ref: 2e4410187184
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _name10187287
Ref: 2e4510187287
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader10187635
Ref: 2e4610187635
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader LoadLibrary10188122
Ref: 2deb10188122
Ref: 공유 라이브러리 로드하기-Footnote-110189996
Ref: 공유 라이브러리 로드하기-Footnote-210190062
Node: 외부 함수10190108
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-foreign-functions10190252
Ref: 2e4710190252
Ref: library/ctypes foreign-functions10190252
Ref: 2e4810190252
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr10190936
Ref: 2e4910190936
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr restype10191284
Ref: 2e1210191284
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr argtypes10191958
Ref: 2e0a10191958
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr errcheck10193214
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ArgumentError10194242
Ref: 2e4a10194242
Node: 함수 프로토타입10194910
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-function-prototypes10195038
Ref: 2e4b10195038
Ref: library/ctypes function-prototypes10195038
Ref: 2e4c10195038
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CFUNCTYPE10195638
Ref: 2e2e10195638
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WINFUNCTYPE10196168
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PYFUNCTYPE10196544
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Node: 유틸리티 함수10202305
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-utility-functions10202435
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Ref: library/ctypes utility-functions10202435
Ref: 2e4f10202435
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes addressof10202490
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes alignment10202757
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes byref10202933
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes cast10203482
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_string_buffer10203806
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_unicode_buffer10205315
Ref: 19d610205315
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllCanUnloadNow10205864
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllGetClassObject10206131
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_library10206408
Ref: d4610206408
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_msvcrt10206903
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes FormatError10207414
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes GetLastError10207675
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_errno10207965
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_last_error10208236
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memmove10208545
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memset10208831
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes POINTER10209113
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pointer10209338
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes resize10209660
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_errno10210007
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_last_error10210327
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes sizeof10210692
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes string_at10210896
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinError10211206
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes wstring_at10211767
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Node: 데이터형<2>10212123
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-data-types10212253
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Ref: library/ctypes data-types10212253
Ref: 2e5d10212253
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData10212296
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer10213086
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer_copy10213748
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_address10214362
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_param10214752
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData in_dll10215337
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_base_10215684
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_needsfree_10216021
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _objects10216231
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Node: 기본 데이터형<2>10216580
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types-210216716
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Ref: library/ctypes id110216716
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData10216771
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData value10217366
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_byte10218796
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char10219012
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longdouble10219687
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Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPE_CHECKER10464541
Ref: 2f5110464541
Node: 새로운 액션 추가하기10467941
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-actions10468063
Ref: 2f5210468063
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-actions10468063
Ref: 2f5310468063
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ACTIONS10469295
Ref: 2f5410469295
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option STORE_ACTIONS10469384
Ref: 2f5510469384
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPED_ACTIONS10469484
Ref: 2f5610469484
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS10469591
Ref: 2f5710469591
Node: 예외<7>10473210
Ref: library/optparse exceptions10473336
Ref: 2f5810473336
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionError10473369
Ref: 2ee310473369
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionConflictError10473507
Ref: 2f3310473507
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionValueError10473632
Ref: 2ee410473632
Ref: library/optparse optparse BadOptionError10473752
Ref: 2f5910473752
Ref: library/optparse optparse AmbiguousOptionError10473861
Ref: 2f5a10473861
Node: getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력10473971
Ref: library/getpass doc10474223
Ref: 2f5b10474223
Ref: library/getpass getpass-portable-password-input10474223
Ref: 2f5c10474223
Ref: library/getpass module-getpass10474223
Ref: 6210474223
Ref: library/getpass getpass getpass10474689
Ref: 2f5d10474689
Ref: library/getpass getpass GetPassWarning10475675
Ref: 2f5e10475675
Ref: library/getpass getpass getuser10475817
Ref: 41210475817
Ref: getpass — 이식성 있는 암호 입력-Footnote-110476593
Node: fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기10476660
Ref: library/fileinput doc10476926
Ref: 2f5f10476926
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams10476926
Ref: 2f6010476926
Ref: library/fileinput module-fileinput10476926
Ref: 5b10476926
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput input10479628
Ref: 7f910479628
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filename10480983
Ref: 2f6110480983
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput fileno10481155
Ref: 13f610481155
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput lineno10481372
Ref: 2f6210481372
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filelineno10481644
Ref: 2f6310481644
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isfirstline10481929
Ref: 2f6410481929
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isstdin10482097
Ref: 2f6510482097
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput nextfile10482261
Ref: 2f6610482261
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput close10482855
Ref: 2f6710482855
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput FileInput10483041
Ref: 73010483041
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_compressed10485982
Ref: 7fa10485982
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_encoded10486821
Ref: c9d10486821
Ref: fileinput — 여러 입력 스트림에서 줄을 이터레이트 하기-Footnote-110487454
Node: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리10487523
Ref: library/curses doc10487819
Ref: 2f6810487819
Ref: library/curses curses-terminal-handling-for-character-cell-displays10487819
Ref: 2f6910487819
Ref: library/curses module-curses10487819
Ref: 2b10487819
Ref: curses — 문자 셀 디스플레이를 위한 터미널 처리-Footnote-110489751
Node: 함수<5>10489814
Ref: library/curses curses-functions10489943
Ref: 2f6b10489943
Ref: library/curses functions10489943
Ref: 2f6c10489943
Ref: library/curses curses error10490037
Ref: 2f6d10490037
Ref: library/curses curses baudrate10490437
Ref: 2f6f10490437
Ref: library/curses curses beep10490859
Ref: 2f7010490859
Ref: library/curses curses can_change_color10490925
Ref: 2f7110490925
Ref: library/curses curses cbreak10491111
Ref: 2f7210491111
Ref: library/curses curses color_content10491727
Ref: 7ea10491727
Ref: library/curses curses color_pair10492134
Ref: 2f7410492134
Ref: library/curses curses curs_set10492516
Ref: 2f7810492516
Ref: library/curses curses def_prog_mode10493082
Ref: 2f7910493082
Ref: library/curses curses def_shell_mode10493515
Ref: 2f7b10493515
Ref: library/curses curses delay_output10493950
Ref: 2f7d10493950
Ref: library/curses curses doupdate10494053
Ref: 2f7e10494053
Ref: library/curses curses echo10495006
Ref: 2f8210495006
Ref: library/curses curses endwin10495189
Ref: 2f8310495189
Ref: library/curses curses erasechar10495315
Ref: 2f8410495315
Ref: library/curses curses filter10495629
Ref: 2f8510495629
Ref: library/curses curses flash10496299
Ref: 2f8610496299
Ref: library/curses curses flushinp10496581
Ref: 2f8710496581
Ref: library/curses curses getmouse10496826
Ref: 2f8810496826
Ref: library/curses curses getsyx10497924
Ref: 2f9210497924
Ref: library/curses curses getwin10498131
Ref: 2f9410498131
Ref: library/curses curses has_colors10498418
Ref: 2f9610498418
Ref: library/curses curses has_extended_color_support10498595
Ref: 7ee10498595
Ref: library/curses curses has_ic10498979
Ref: 2f9710498979
Ref: library/curses curses has_il10499276
Ref: 2f9810499276
Ref: library/curses curses has_key10499644
Ref: 2f9910499644
Ref: library/curses curses halfdelay10499813
Ref: 2f9a10499813
Ref: library/curses curses init_color10500329
Ref: 7eb10500329
Ref: library/curses curses init_pair10501008
Ref: 7ec10501008
Ref: library/curses curses initscr10501733
Ref: 15aa10501733
Ref: library/curses curses is_term_resized10502051
Ref: 2f9e10502051
Ref: library/curses curses isendwin10502241
Ref: 2f9f10502241
Ref: library/curses curses keyname10502422
Ref: 2fa010502422
Ref: library/curses curses killchar10502992
Ref: 2fa110502992
Ref: library/curses curses longname10503310
Ref: 2fa210503310
Ref: library/curses curses meta10503594
Ref: 2fa310503594
Ref: library/curses curses mouseinterval10503771
Ref: 2fa410503771
Ref: library/curses curses mousemask10504078
Ref: 2fa510504078
Ref: library/curses curses napms10504586
Ref: 15a910504586
Ref: library/curses curses newpad10504662
Ref: 2fa610504662
Ref: library/curses curses newwin10505759
Ref: 2fa710505759
Ref: library/curses curses nl10506109
Ref: 2fa810506109
Ref: library/curses curses nocbreak10506415
Ref: 2f9b10506415
Ref: library/curses curses noecho10506582
Ref: 2fa910506582
Ref: library/curses curses nonl10506691
Ref: 2faa10506691
Ref: library/curses curses noqiflush10507327
Ref: 2fab10507327
Ref: library/curses curses noraw10507731
Ref: 2fac10507731
Ref: library/curses curses pair_content10507900
Ref: 7ed10507900
Ref: library/curses curses pair_number10508125
Ref: 2f7710508125
Ref: library/curses curses putp10508304
Ref: 2fad10508304
Ref: library/curses curses qiflush10508568
Ref: 2fae10508568
Ref: library/curses curses raw10508855
Ref: 2f7310508855
Ref: library/curses curses reset_prog_mode10509142
Ref: 2f7a10509142
Ref: library/curses curses reset_shell_mode10509321
Ref: 2f7c10509321
Ref: library/curses curses resetty10509491
Ref: 2faf10509491
Ref: library/curses curses resize_term10509647
Ref: 15b410509647
Ref: library/curses curses resizeterm10510285
Ref: 15b310510285
Ref: library/curses curses savetty10510557
Ref: 2fb010510557
Ref: library/curses curses get_escdelay10510710
Ref: 8ed10510710
Ref: library/curses curses set_escdelay10510844
Ref: 8ee10510844
Ref: library/curses curses get_tabsize10511148
Ref: 8ef10511148
Ref: library/curses curses set_tabsize10511280
Ref: 8f010511280
Ref: library/curses curses setsyx10511497
Ref: 2fb110511497
Ref: library/curses curses setupterm10511688
Ref: 2fb210511688
Ref: library/curses curses start_color10512129
Ref: 2fb310512129
Ref: library/curses curses termattrs10512821
Ref: 2fb610512821
Ref: library/curses curses termname10513061
Ref: 2fb710513061
Ref: library/curses curses tigetflag10513190
Ref: 2fb810513190
Ref: library/curses curses tigetnum10513495
Ref: 2fb910513495
Ref: library/curses curses tigetstr10513794
Ref: 2fba10513794
Ref: library/curses curses tparm10514114
Ref: 2fbb10514114
Ref: library/curses curses typeahead10514547
Ref: 2fbc10514547
Ref: library/curses curses unctrl10515329
Ref: 2fbd10515329
Ref: library/curses curses ungetch10515610
Ref: 2fbe10515610
Ref: library/curses curses update_lines_cols10515835
Ref: de810515835
Ref: library/curses curses unget_wch10516056
Ref: 108e10516056
Ref: library/curses curses ungetmouse10516315
Ref: 2fbf10516315
Ref: library/curses curses use_env10516490
Ref: 2fc010516490
Ref: library/curses curses use_default_colors10517069
Ref: 2f9c10517069
Ref: library/curses curses wrapper10517552
Ref: a7d10517552
Node: 창 객체10518571
Ref: library/curses curses-window-objects10518718
Ref: 2f9d10518718
Ref: library/curses window-objects10518718
Ref: 2fc110518718
Ref: library/curses curses window addch10518913
Ref: 2fc210518913
Ref: library/curses curses window addnstr10519486
Ref: 2fc310519486
Ref: library/curses curses window addstr10519733
Ref: 2f7f10519733
Ref: library/curses curses window attroff10520788
Ref: 2fc410520788
Ref: library/curses curses window attron10520957
Ref: 2fc510520957
Ref: library/curses curses window attrset10521122
Ref: 2fc610521122
Ref: library/curses curses window bkgd10521303
Ref: 2fc710521303
Ref: library/curses curses window bkgdset10521700
Ref: 2fc810521700
Ref: library/curses curses window border10522178
Ref: 2fc910522178
Ref: library/curses curses window box10524307
Ref: 2fd010524307
Ref: library/curses curses window chgat10524556
Ref: 2fd110524556
Ref: library/curses curses window clear10525180
Ref: 2fd310525180
Ref: library/curses curses window clearok10525352
Ref: 2fd510525352
Ref: library/curses curses window clrtobot10525510
Ref: 2fd610525510
Ref: library/curses curses window clrtoeol10525706
Ref: 2fd710525706
Ref: library/curses curses window cursyncup10525788
Ref: 2fd810525788
Ref: library/curses curses window delch10525947
Ref: 2fd910525947
Ref: library/curses curses window deleteln10526037
Ref: 2fda10526037
Ref: library/curses curses window derwin10526182
Ref: 2fdb10526182
Ref: library/curses curses window echochar10526624
Ref: 2fdd10526624
Ref: library/curses curses window enclose10526793
Ref: 18de10526793
Ref: library/curses curses window encoding10527226
Ref: 108c10527226
Ref: library/curses curses window erase10527681
Ref: 2fd410527681
Ref: library/curses curses window getbegyx10527740
Ref: 2fde10527740
Ref: library/curses curses window getbkgd10527852
Ref: 2fdf10527852
Ref: library/curses curses window getch10527961
Ref: 154810527961
Ref: library/curses curses window get_wch10528344
Ref: 108d10528344
Ref: library/curses curses window getkey10528722
Ref: 2fe010528722
Ref: library/curses curses window getmaxyx10529107
Ref: 2fe110529107
Ref: library/curses curses window getparyx10529215
Ref: 2fe210529215
Ref: library/curses curses window getstr10529431
Ref: 2fe310529431
Ref: library/curses curses window getyx10529678
Ref: 2fe410529678
Ref: library/curses curses window hline10529830
Ref: 2fe510529830
Ref: library/curses curses window idcok10530023
Ref: 2fe610530023
Ref: library/curses curses window idlok10530404
Ref: 2fe710530404
Ref: library/curses curses window immedok10530631
Ref: 2fe810530631
Ref: library/curses curses window inch10531021
Ref: 2fe910531021
Ref: library/curses curses window insch10531197
Ref: 2fea10531197
Ref: library/curses curses window insdelln10531432
Ref: 2feb10531432
Ref: library/curses curses window insertln10531841
Ref: 2fec10531841
Ref: library/curses curses window insnstr10531993
Ref: 2fed10531993
Ref: library/curses curses window insstr10532518
Ref: 2fee10532518
Ref: library/curses curses window instr10532937
Ref: 2fef10532937
Ref: library/curses curses window is_linetouched10533360
Ref: 2ff010533360
Ref: library/curses curses window is_wintouched10533714
Ref: 2ff110533714
Ref: library/curses curses window keypad10533942
Ref: 2ff210533942
Ref: library/curses curses window leaveok10534248
Ref: 2f9310534248
Ref: library/curses curses window move10534630
Ref: 2ff310534630
Ref: library/curses curses window mvderwin10534730
Ref: 2ff410534730
Ref: library/curses curses window mvwin10535027
Ref: 2ff510535027
Ref: library/curses curses window nodelay10535159
Ref: 2ff610535159
Ref: library/curses curses window notimeout10535283
Ref: 2ff710535283
Ref: library/curses curses window noutrefresh10535583
Ref: 2f8010535583
Ref: library/curses curses window overlay10535910
Ref: 2ff810535910
Ref: library/curses curses window overwrite10536561
Ref: 2ff910536561
Ref: library/curses curses window putwin10537202
Ref: 2f9510537202
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawln10537429
Ref: 2ffa10537429
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawwin10537645
Ref: 2ffb10537645
Ref: library/curses curses window refresh10537808
Ref: 2f8110537808
Ref: library/curses curses window resize10538862
Ref: 2ffc10538862
Ref: library/curses curses window scroll10539189
Ref: 2ffd10539189
Ref: library/curses curses window scrollok10539310
Ref: 2ffe10539310
Ref: library/curses curses window setscrreg10539846
Ref: 2fff10539846
Ref: library/curses curses window standend10540036
Ref: 300010540036
Ref: library/curses curses window standout10540208
Ref: 300110540208
Ref: library/curses curses window subpad10540283
Ref: 300210540283
Ref: library/curses curses window subwin10540531
Ref: 2fdc10540531
Ref: library/curses curses window syncdown10540896
Ref: 300310540896
Ref: library/curses curses window syncok10541132
Ref: 300410541132
Ref: library/curses curses window syncup10541304
Ref: 300510541304
Ref: library/curses curses window timeout10541411
Ref: 300610541411
Ref: library/curses curses window touchline10541976
Ref: 2fd210541976
Ref: library/curses curses window touchwin10542320
Ref: 300710542320
Ref: library/curses curses window untouchwin10542443
Ref: 300810542443
Ref: library/curses curses window vline10542619
Ref: 178f10542619
Ref: 창 객체-Footnote-110542889
Node: 상수<6>10542932
Ref: library/curses constants10543061
Ref: 300910543061
Ref: library/curses curses ERR10543165
Ref: 300a10543165
Ref: library/curses curses OK10543328
Ref: 300b10543328
Ref: library/curses curses version10543489
Ref: 300c10543489
Ref: library/curses curses __version__10543520
Ref: 300d10543520
Ref: library/curses curses ncurses_version10543622
Ref: 9e310543622
Ref: library/curses curses COLORS10544081
Ref: 2fb410544081
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_PAIRS10544242
Ref: 2fb510544242
Ref: library/curses curses COLS10544413
Ref: 171310544413
Ref: library/curses curses LINES10544678
Ref: 171210544678
Ref: library/curses curses A_ALTCHARSET10545281
Ref: 300e10545281
Ref: library/curses curses A_BLINK10545387
Ref: 300f10545387
Ref: library/curses curses A_BOLD10545495
Ref: 301010545495
Ref: library/curses curses A_DIM10545600
Ref: 301110545600
Ref: library/curses curses A_INVIS10545711
Ref: 301210545711
Ref: library/curses curses A_ITALIC10545822
Ref: 301310545822
Ref: library/curses curses A_NORMAL10545906
Ref: 2f6e10545906
Ref: library/curses curses A_PROTECT10545983
Ref: 301410545983
Ref: library/curses curses A_REVERSE10546060
Ref: 2f7610546060
Ref: library/curses curses A_STANDOUT10546150
Ref: 2f7510546150
Ref: library/curses curses A_UNDERLINE10546234
Ref: 301510546234
Ref: library/curses curses A_HORIZONTAL10546311
Ref: 301610546311
Ref: library/curses curses A_LEFT10546411
Ref: 301710546411
Ref: library/curses curses A_LOW10546525
Ref: 301810546525
Ref: library/curses curses A_RIGHT10546642
Ref: 301910546642
Ref: library/curses curses A_TOP10546758
Ref: 301a10546758
Ref: library/curses curses A_VERTICAL10546860
Ref: 301b10546860
Ref: library/curses curses A_ATTRIBUTES10547298
Ref: 301c10547298
Ref: library/curses curses A_CHARTEXT10547403
Ref: 301d10547403
Ref: library/curses curses A_COLOR10547523
Ref: 301e10547523
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MIN10548017
Ref: 301f10548017
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BREAK10548111
Ref: 302010548111
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DOWN10548238
Ref: 302110548238
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UP10548351
Ref: 302210548351
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LEFT10548465
Ref: 302310548465
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RIGHT10548561
Ref: 302410548561
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HOME10548662
Ref: 302510548662
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BACKSPACE10548775
Ref: 302610548775
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_F010548899
Ref: 302710548899
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_Fn10549052
Ref: 302810549052
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DL10549168
Ref: 302910549168
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IL10549274
Ref: 302a10549274
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DC10549380
Ref: 302b10549380
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IC10549489
Ref: 302c10549489
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EIC10549635
Ref: 302d10549635
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLEAR10549743
Ref: 302e10549743
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOS10549840
Ref: 302f10549840
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOL10549962
Ref: 303010549962
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SF10550080
Ref: 303110550080
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SR10550203
Ref: 303210550203
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NPAGE10550315
Ref: 303310550315
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PPAGE10550397
Ref: 303410550397
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_STAB10550495
Ref: 303510550495
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CTAB10550601
Ref: 303610550601
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CATAB10550694
Ref: 303710550694
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_ENTER10550780
Ref: 303810550780
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRESET10550891
Ref: 303910550891
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESET10551081
Ref: 303a10551081
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PRINT10551275
Ref: 303b10551275
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LL10551361
Ref: 303c10551361
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A110551496
Ref: 303d10551496
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A310551615
Ref: 303e10551615
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_B210551737
Ref: 303f10551737
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C110551852
Ref: 304010551852
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C310551974
Ref: 304110551974
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BTAB10552101
Ref: 304210552101
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BEG10552203
Ref: 304310552203
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CANCEL10552296
Ref: 304410552296
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLOSE10552368
Ref: 304510552368
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COMMAND10552440
Ref: 304610552440
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COPY10552534
Ref: 304710552534
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CREATE10552620
Ref: 304810552620
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_END10552707
Ref: 304910552707
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EXIT10552807
Ref: 304a10552807
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_FIND10552909
Ref: 304b10552909
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HELP10553011
Ref: 304c10553011
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MARK10553116
Ref: 304d10553116
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MESSAGE10553202
Ref: 304e10553202
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOVE10553293
Ref: 304f10553293
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NEXT10553395
Ref: 305010553395
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPEN10553497
Ref: 305110553497
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPTIONS10553583
Ref: 305210553583
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PREVIOUS10553655
Ref: 305310553655
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REDO10553750
Ref: 305410553750
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFERENCE10553843
Ref: 305510553843
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFRESH10553921
Ref: 305610553921
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REPLACE10554000
Ref: 305710554000
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESTART10554072
Ref: 305810554072
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESUME10554147
Ref: 305910554147
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SAVE10554235
Ref: 305a10554235
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SBEG10554337
Ref: 305b10554337
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCANCEL10554439
Ref: 305c10554439
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOMMAND10554521
Ref: 305d10554521
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOPY10554603
Ref: 305e10554603
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCREATE10554685
Ref: 305f10554685
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDC10554782
Ref: 306010554782
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDL10554901
Ref: 306110554901
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SELECT10555002
Ref: 306210555002
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEND10555090
Ref: 306310555090
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEOL10555199
Ref: 306410555199
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEXIT10555302
Ref: 306510555302
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SFIND10555384
Ref: 306610555384
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHELP10555466
Ref: 306710555466
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHOME10555551
Ref: 306810555551
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SIC10555645
Ref: 306910555645
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SLEFT10555742
Ref: 306a10555742
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMESSAGE10555834
Ref: 306b10555834
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMOVE10555919
Ref: 306c10555919
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SNEXT10556001
Ref: 306d10556001
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SOPTIONS10556083
Ref: 306e10556083
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPREVIOUS10556165
Ref: 306f10556165
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPRINT10556245
Ref: 307010556245
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREDO10556327
Ref: 307110556327
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREPLACE10556416
Ref: 307210556416
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRIGHT10556498
Ref: 307310556498
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRSUME10556593
Ref: 307410556593
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSAVE10556675
Ref: 307510556675
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSUSPEND10556757
Ref: 307610556757
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUNDO10556846
Ref: 307710556846
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUSPEND10556935
Ref: 307810556935
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UNDO10557030
Ref: 307910557030
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOUSE10557123
Ref: 2f8910557123
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESIZE10557230
Ref: 307a10557230
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MAX10557344
Ref: 307b10557344
Ref: library/curses curses-acs-codes10558653
Ref: 307c10558653
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BBSS10559266
Ref: 307d10559266
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BLOCK10559370
Ref: 307e10559370
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BOARD10559460
Ref: 307f10559460
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSBS10559543
Ref: 308010559543
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSB10559633
Ref: 308110559633
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSS10559734
Ref: 308210559734
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BTEE10559834
Ref: 308310559834
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BULLET10559920
Ref: 308410559920
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_CKBOARD10559990
Ref: 308510559990
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DARROW10560076
Ref: 308610560076
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DEGREE10560175
Ref: 308710560175
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DIAMOND10560255
Ref: 308810560255
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_GEQUAL10560334
Ref: 308910560334
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_HLINE10560414
Ref: 2fcb10560414
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LANTERN10560487
Ref: 308a10560487
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LARROW10560564
Ref: 308b10560564
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LEQUAL10560644
Ref: 308c10560644
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LLCORNER10560724
Ref: 2fce10560724
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LRCORNER10560811
Ref: 2fcf10560811
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LTEE10560901
Ref: 308d10560901
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_NEQUAL10560985
Ref: 308e10560985
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PI10561083
Ref: 308f10561083
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLMINUS10561179
Ref: 309010561179
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLUS10561273
Ref: 309110561273
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RARROW10561357
Ref: 309210561357
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RTEE10561440
Ref: 309310561440
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S110561542
Ref: 309410561542
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S310561647
Ref: 309510561647
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S710561752
Ref: 309610561752
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S910561857
Ref: 309710561857
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBBS10561948
Ref: 309810561948
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSB10562055
Ref: 309910562055
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSS10562145
Ref: 309a10562145
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBB10562239
Ref: 309b10562239
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBS10562343
Ref: 309c10562343
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSB10562434
Ref: 309d10562434
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSS10562525
Ref: 309e10562525
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_STERLING10562712
Ref: 309f10562712
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_TTEE10562811
Ref: 30a010562811
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_UARROW10562894
Ref: 30a110562894
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_ULCORNER10562974
Ref: 2fcc10562974
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_URCORNER10563058
Ref: 2fcd10563058
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_VLINE10563145
Ref: 2fca10563145
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_PRESSED10563547
Ref: 2f8a10563547
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_RELEASED10563695
Ref: 2f8b10563695
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_CLICKED10563842
Ref: 2f8c10563842
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED10563966
Ref: 2f8d10563966
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED10564081
Ref: 2f8e10564081
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_SHIFT10564216
Ref: 2f8f10564216
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_CTRL10564379
Ref: 2f9010564379
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_ALT10564544
Ref: 2f9110564544
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLACK10565005
Ref: 30a210565005
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLUE10565080
Ref: 30a310565080
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_CYAN10565152
Ref: 30a410565152
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_GREEN10565330
Ref: 30a510565330
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_MAGENTA10565402
Ref: 30a610565402
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_RED10565489
Ref: 30a710565489
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_WHITE10565561
Ref: 30a810565561
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_YELLOW10565633
Ref: 30a910565633
Node: curses textpad — curses 프로그램을 위한 텍스트 입력 위젯10565691
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs10565959
Ref: 30aa10565959
Ref: library/curses module-curses textpad10565959
Ref: 2e10565959
Ref: library/curses curses textpad rectangle10566613
Ref: 30ac10566613
Node: Textbox 객체10567376
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-objects10567499
Ref: 30ad10567499
Ref: library/curses textbox-objects10567499
Ref: 30ae10567499
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox10567634
Ref: 30ab10567634
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox edit10568144
Ref: 30b010568144
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox do_command10568788
Ref: 30b110568788
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox gather10572904
Ref: 30b210572904
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox stripspaces10573095
Ref: 30af10573095
Node: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티10573470
Ref: library/curses ascii doc10573722
Ref: 30b310573722
Ref: library/curses ascii curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters10573722
Ref: 30b410573722
Ref: library/curses ascii module-curses ascii10573722
Ref: 2c10573722
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NUL10574334
Ref: 30b510574334
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SOH10574377
Ref: 30b610574377
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii STX10574484
Ref: 30b710574484
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETX10574570
Ref: 30b810574570
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EOT10574648
Ref: 30b910574648
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ENQ10574731
Ref: 30ba10574731
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ACK10574887
Ref: 30bb10574887
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BEL10574962
Ref: 30bc10574962
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BS10575023
Ref: 30bd10575023
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii TAB10575100
Ref: 30be10575100
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii HT10575160
Ref: 30bf10575160
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii LF10575311
Ref: 30c010575311
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NL10575383
Ref: 30c110575383
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii VT10575484
Ref: 30c210575484
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FF10575559
Ref: 30c310575559
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CR10575634
Ref: 30c410575634
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SO10575718
Ref: 30c510575718
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SI10575825
Ref: 30c610575825
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DLE10575928
Ref: 30c710575928
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC110576030
Ref: 30c810576030
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC210576103
Ref: 30c910576103
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC310576215
Ref: 30ca10576215
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC410576289
Ref: 30cb10576289
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NAK10576372
Ref: 30cc10576372
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SYN10576466
Ref: 30cd10576466
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETB10576549
Ref: 30ce10576549
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CAN10576645
Ref: 30cf10576645
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EM10576711
Ref: 30d010576711
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SUB10576790
Ref: 30d110576790
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ESC10576860
Ref: 30d210576860
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FS10576926
Ref: 30d310576926
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii GS10577009
Ref: 30d410577009
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii RS10577093
Ref: 30d510577093
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii US10577247
Ref: 30d610577247
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SP10577330
Ref: 30d710577330
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DEL10577400
Ref: 30d810577400
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalnum10577767
Ref: 30d910577767
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalpha10577898
Ref: 30da10577898
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isascii10578043
Ref: 30db10578043
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isblank10578149
Ref: 30dc10578149
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii iscntrl10578261
Ref: 30dd10578261
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isdigit10578388
Ref: 30de10578388
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isgraph10578561
Ref: 30df10578561
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii islower10578681
Ref: 30e010578681
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isprint10578761
Ref: 30e110578761
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ispunct10578884
Ref: 30e210578884
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isspace10579014
Ref: 30e310579014
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isupper10579186
Ref: 30e410579186
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isxdigit10579266
Ref: 30e510579266
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isctrl10579411
Ref: 30e610579411
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ismeta10579517
Ref: 30e710579517
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ascii10580137
Ref: 30e810580137
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ctrl10580247
Ref: 30e910580247
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii alt10580415
Ref: 30ea10580415
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii unctrl10580694
Ref: 30eb10580694
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii controlnames10581255
Ref: 30ec10581255
Ref: curses ascii — ASCII 문자용 유틸리티-Footnote-110581554
Node: curses panel — curses 용 패널 스택 확장10581626
Ref: library/curses panel doc10581854
Ref: 30ed10581854
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses10581854
Ref: 30ee10581854
Ref: library/curses panel module-curses panel10581854
Ref: 2d10581854
Node: 함수<6>10582315
Ref: library/curses panel cursespanel-functions10582430
Ref: 30ef10582430
Ref: library/curses panel functions10582430
Ref: 30f010582430
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel bottom_panel10582530
Ref: 30f110582530
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel new_panel10582635
Ref: 30f210582635
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel top_panel10582950
Ref: 30f310582950
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel update_panels10583049
Ref: 30f410583049
Node: Panel 객체10583281
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-objects10583396
Ref: 30f510583396
Ref: library/curses panel panel-objects10583396
Ref: 30f610583396
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel above10583765
Ref: 30f710583765
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel below10583850
Ref: 30f810583850
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel bottom10583938
Ref: 30f910583938
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hidden10584021
Ref: 30fa10584021
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hide10584183
Ref: 30fb10584183
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel move10584336
Ref: 30fc10584336
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel replace10584433
Ref: 30fd10584433
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel set_userptr10584535
Ref: 30fe10584535
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel show10584775
Ref: 30ff10584775
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel top10584864
Ref: 310010584864
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel userptr10584938
Ref: 310110584938
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel window10585091
Ref: 310210585091
Node: cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원10585180
Ref: library/cmd doc10585354
Ref: 310310585354
Ref: library/cmd cmd-support-for-line-oriented-command-interpreters10585354
Ref: 310410585354
Ref: library/cmd module-cmd10585354
Ref: 1910585354
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd10585861
Ref: 16cc10585861
Ref: cmd — 줄 지향 명령 인터프리터 지원-Footnote-110587696
Node: Cmd 객체10587759
Ref: library/cmd cmd-objects10587870
Ref: 310610587870
Ref: library/cmd id110587870
Ref: 310710587870
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdloop10587990
Ref: 310810587990
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd do_help10590299
Ref: 16bb10590299
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd onecmd10590887
Ref: 310b10590887
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd emptyline10591553
Ref: 310e10591553
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd default10591788
Ref: 310d10591788
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd completedefault10592012
Ref: 310f10592012
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd columnize10592253
Ref: 186d10592253
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd precmd10592492
Ref: 310c10592492
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postcmd10593056
Ref: 310a10593056
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd preloop10593702
Ref: 311010593702
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postloop10593960
Ref: 311110593960
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd prompt10594339
Ref: 311210594339
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd identchars10594406
Ref: 311310594406
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd lastcmd10594497
Ref: 311410594497
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdqueue10594577
Ref: 311510594577
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd intro10594873
Ref: 310910594873
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd doc_header10595040
Ref: 311610595040
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd misc_header10595159
Ref: 311710595159
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd undoc_header10595379
Ref: 311810595379
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd ruler10595602
Ref: 311910595602
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd use_rawinput10595828
Ref: 310510595828
Node: Cmd 예10596387
Ref: library/cmd cmd-example10596498
Ref: 311a10596498
Ref: library/cmd id210596498
Ref: 311b10596498
Node: 동시 실행10602008
Ref: library/concurrency doc10602179
Ref: 311d10602179
Ref: library/concurrency concurrency10602179
Ref: 311e10602179
Ref: library/concurrency concurrent-execution10602179
Ref: 311f10602179
Node: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리10603161
Ref: library/threading doc10603309
Ref: 312010603309
Ref: library/threading module-threading10603309
Ref: ed10603309
Ref: library/threading threading-thread-based-parallelism10603309
Ref: 312110603309
Ref: threading — 스레드 기반 병렬 처리-Footnote-110604095
Node: Introduction<5>10604164
Ref: library/threading introduction10604303
Ref: 312210604303
Ref: Introduction<5>-Footnote-110607254
Node: GIL and performance considerations10607311
Ref: library/threading gil-and-performance-considerations10607471
Ref: 312310607471
Ref: GIL and performance considerations-Footnote-110608276
Node: Reference<2>10608318
Ref: library/threading reference10608518
Ref: 312410608518
Ref: library/threading threading active_count10608606
Ref: 30210608606
Ref: library/threading threading current_thread10608897
Ref: 30110608897
Ref: library/threading threading excepthook10609292
Ref: 84510609292
Ref: library/threading threading __excepthook__10610954
Ref: 84410610954
Ref: library/threading threading get_ident10611231
Ref: 114b10611231
Ref: library/threading threading get_native_id10611751
Ref: a3a10611751
Ref: library/threading threading enumerate10612365
Ref: 18ac10612365
Ref: library/threading threading main_thread10612813
Ref: fca10612813
Ref: library/threading threading settrace10613050
Ref: 84210613050
Ref: library/threading threading settrace_all_threads10613305
Ref: 4c210613305
Ref: library/threading threading gettrace10613670
Ref: 84010613670
Ref: library/threading threading setprofile10613796
Ref: 84310613796
Ref: library/threading threading setprofile_all_threads10614057
Ref: 4c310614057
Ref: library/threading threading getprofile10614428
Ref: 84110614428
Ref: library/threading threading stack_size10614561
Ref: 312510614561
Ref: library/threading threading TIMEOUT_MAX10616038
Ref: 312610616038
Node: Thread-local data10617374
Ref: library/threading thread-local-data10617463
Ref: 312710617463
Ref: library/threading threading local10620577
Ref: 155610620577
Node: Thread objects10620669
Ref: library/threading id110620779
Ref: 312810620779
Ref: library/threading thread-objects10620779
Ref: 312910620779
Ref: library/threading threading Thread10623983
Ref: 94a10623983
Ref: library/threading threading Thread start10625662
Ref: 2cc510625662
Ref: library/threading threading Thread run10626088
Ref: a3910626088
Ref: library/threading meth-thread-join10626917
Ref: 312a10626917
Ref: library/threading threading Thread join10626917
Ref: 11d310626917
Ref: library/threading threading Thread name10628317
Ref: 30010628317
Ref: library/threading threading Thread getName10628559
Ref: 312b10628559
Ref: library/threading threading Thread setName10628590
Ref: 2ff10628590
Ref: library/threading threading Thread ident10628790
Ref: 2c5210628790
Ref: library/threading threading Thread native_id10629257
Ref: a3b10629257
Ref: library/threading threading Thread is_alive10630147
Ref: 94b10630147
Ref: library/threading threading Thread daemon10630545
Ref: 2fe10630545
Ref: library/threading threading Thread isDaemon10631235
Ref: 312c10631235
Ref: library/threading threading Thread setDaemon10631267
Ref: 2fd10631267
Node: Lock objects10631471
Ref: library/threading id210631577
Ref: 312d10631577
Ref: library/threading lock-objects10631577
Ref: 312e10631577
Ref: library/threading threading Lock10633276
Ref: 167e10633276
Ref: library/threading threading Lock acquire10633747
Ref: 69210633747
Ref: library/threading threading Lock release10635230
Ref: 12b210635230
Ref: library/threading threading Lock locked10635817
Ref: 313010635817
Node: RLock objects10635910
Ref: library/threading id310636019
Ref: 313110636019
Ref: library/threading rlock-objects10636019
Ref: 313210636019
Ref: library/threading threading RLock10637592
Ref: 2e010637592
Ref: library/threading threading RLock acquire10638176
Ref: e7310638176
Ref: library/threading threading RLock release10640199
Ref: 313310640199
Node: Condition objects10641024
Ref: library/threading condition-objects10641138
Ref: 313410641138
Ref: library/threading id410641138
Ref: 313510641138
Ref: library/threading threading Condition10644690
Ref: 114610644690
Ref: library/threading threading Condition acquire10645311
Ref: 313610645311
Ref: library/threading threading Condition release10645531
Ref: 313710645531
Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait10645716
Ref: 18b810645716
Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait_for10647458
Ref: 313810647458
Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify10648637
Ref: 17e310648637
Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify_all10649711
Ref: 2fb10649711
Node: Semaphore objects10650208
Ref: library/threading id510650326
Ref: 313910650326
Ref: library/threading semaphore-objects10650326
Ref: 313a10650326
Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore10651152
Ref: 114710651152
Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore acquire10651944
Ref: 124410651944
Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore release10653387
Ref: 313b10653387
Ref: library/threading threading BoundedSemaphore10653807
Ref: 114810653807
Node: Semaphore example10654412
Ref: library/threading semaphore-example10654526
Ref: 313c10654526
Ref: library/threading semaphore-examples10654526
Ref: 313d10654526
Node: Event objects10655493
Ref: library/threading event-objects10655603
Ref: 313e10655603
Ref: library/threading id610655603
Ref: 313f10655603
Ref: library/threading threading Event10656134
Ref: 114910656134
Ref: library/threading threading Event is_set10656623
Ref: 2fc10656623
Ref: library/threading threading Event set10656826
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Ref: library/threading threading Event clear10657125
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Ref: library/threading threading Event wait10657414
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Ref: library/threading threading Timer cancel10659565
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier reset10662515
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier abort10662960
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier parties10663525
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier broken10663702
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Ref: library/threading threading BrokenBarrierError10663796
Ref: 11d410663796
Node: with 문으로 록 조건 및 세마포어 사용하기10663993
Ref: library/threading using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement10664150
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Ref: library/threading with-locks10664150
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Node: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism10665018
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Ref: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism-Footnote-110665809
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Ref: 컨텍스트 및 시작 방법-Footnote-110675747
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Ref: library/multiprocessing exchanging-objects-between-processes10675962
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Ref: library/multiprocessing using-a-pool-of-workers10682546
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process name10691958
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process exitcode10693949
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process authkey10694548
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing ProcessError10698149
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BufferTooShort10698271
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing AuthenticationError10698583
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing TimeoutError10698686
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Ref: Process와 예외-Footnote-110698863
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Ref: 317410699034
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue qsize10704528
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue empty10704890
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue full10705229
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put10705472
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put_nowait10706373
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get10706462
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get_nowait10707351
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue close10707676
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue join_thread10708148
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue cancel_join_thread10708788
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue10709965
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue close10710133
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue get10710722
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue put10710811
Ref: 318410710811
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue10710886
Ref: 317510710886
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue task_done10711120
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue join10711888
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Ref: 파이프와 큐-Footnote-110712478
Node: 잡동사니<3>10712542
Ref: library/multiprocessing miscellaneous10712657
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing active_children10712700
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing cpu_count10712949
Ref: f6710712949
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing current_process10713691
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing parent_process10713913
Ref: 318910713913
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing freeze_support10714194
Ref: 154910714194
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_all_start_methods10715210
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_context10715567
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_executable10717067
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_forkserver_preload10717629
Ref: 15a210717629
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_start_method10718342
Ref: 2c810718342
Ref: 잡동사니<3>-Footnote-110719458
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Ref: 318a10719647
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection10720024
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv10720429
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection fileno10720726
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection close10720838
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection poll10720978
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send_bytes10721471
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes10721993
Ref: 319210721993
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes_into10722679
Ref: 319310722679
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-recv-pickle-security10724593
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Node: 동기화 프리미티브10725358
Ref: library/multiprocessing synchronization-primitives10725487
Ref: 319510725487
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Barrier10725924
Ref: 316210725924
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BoundedSemaphore10726102
Ref: 316010726102
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Condition10726659
Ref: 316110726659
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Event10727005
Ref: 186a10727005
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock10727093
Ref: 15a410727093
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock acquire10728064
Ref: 319610728064
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock release10729727
Ref: 319710729727
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock10730143
Ref: 15a510730143
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock acquire10730966
Ref: 319810730966
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock release10732663
Ref: 319910732663
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Semaphore10733813
Ref: 315f10733813
Ref: 동기화 프리미티브-Footnote-110734760
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared-ctypes-objects10734945
Ref: 319a10734945
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Value10735132
Ref: 315c10735132
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Array10736772
Ref: 315d10736772
Node: multiprocessing sharedctypes 모듈10738324
Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing sharedctypes10738416
Ref: 9a10738416
Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-sharedctypes-module10738416
Ref: 319b10738416
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawArray10739103
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawValue10739969
Ref: 319e10739969
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Array10740836
Ref: 319d10740836
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Value10741662
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes copy10742471
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes synchronized10742661
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Node: 관리자10745888
Ref: library/multiprocessing managers10746000
Ref: 31a110746000
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-managers10746000
Ref: 317910746000
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Manager10746472
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager10747039
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager start10748559
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager get_server10748856
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager shutdown10749750
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager address10752754
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager10753382
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Barrier10753922
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager BoundedSemaphore10754128
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Condition10754298
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Event10754711
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Lock10754852
Ref: 31b010754852
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Namespace10754991
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Queue10755130
Ref: 2cdf10755130
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager RLock10755276
Ref: 31b210755276
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Semaphore10755416
Ref: 31b310755416
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Array10755571
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Value10755680
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager dict10755854
Ref: 31b610755854
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager list10756044
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers Namespace10756484
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Ref: library/multiprocessing customized-managers10757536
Ref: 31b810757536
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Ref: library/multiprocessing using-a-remote-manager10758470
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-proxy-objects10760920
Ref: cb710760920
Ref: library/multiprocessing proxy-objects10760920
Ref: 31ba10760920
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy10764525
Ref: 31aa10764525
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _callmethod10764678
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _getvalue10766229
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __repr__10766406
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __str__10766497
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Ref: library/multiprocessing cleanup10766677
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Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing pool10767109
Ref: 9810767109
Ref: library/multiprocessing process-pools10767109
Ref: 31bf10767109
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool starmap10774573
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener last_accepted10783594
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection wait10784028
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Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-dummy-module10792570
Ref: 31d810792570
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Ref: library/multiprocessing programming-guidelines10795127
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Ref: 모든 시작 방법-Footnote-110802289
Ref: 모든 시작 방법-Footnote-210802353
Ref: 모든 시작 방법-Footnote-310802417
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Ref: 31db10802603
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Ref: 31dc10802603
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Node: 예제<12>10804806
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Ref: 31df10814106
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory module-multiprocessing shared_memory10814106
Ref: 9910814106
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing-shared-memory-shared-memory-for-direct-access-across-processes10814106
Ref: 31e010814106
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Ref: 166010815877
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory unlink10819936
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory buf10820559
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory name10820651
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory size10820764
Ref: 31e610820764
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager10824287
Ref: 31e110824287
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager SharedMemory10825939
Ref: 31e710825939
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager ShareableList10826114
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList10828102
Ref: 197510828102
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList count10830694
Ref: 31e910830694
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList index10830785
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList format10830968
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList shm10831138
Ref: 31ec10831138
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리-Footnote-110833754
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리-Footnote-210833844
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — 프로세스 간 직접 액세스를 위한 공유 메모리-Footnote-310833871
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Ref: 31ed10834158
Ref: library/concurrent the-concurrent-package10834158
Ref: 31ee10834158
Node: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기10834351
Ref: library/concurrent futures doc10834529
Ref: 31ef10834529
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent-futures-launching-parallel-tasks10834529
Ref: 31f010834529
Ref: library/concurrent futures module-concurrent futures10834529
Ref: 2110834529
Ref: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기-Footnote-110835633
Ref: concurrent futures — 병렬 작업 실행하기-Footnote-210835719
Node: Executor 객체10835806
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Ref: 31f210835934
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor10835983
Ref: 31f110835983
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor submit10836234
Ref: a7f10836234
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor map10836661
Ref: de010836661
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor shutdown10838400
Ref: 8ea10838400
Node: ThreadPoolExecutor10840675
Ref: library/concurrent futures threadpoolexecutor10840831
Ref: 31f310840831
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ThreadPoolExecutor10842005
Ref: 73b10842005
Node: ThreadPoolExecutor 예제10844688
Ref: library/concurrent futures id110844768
Ref: 31f510844768
Ref: library/concurrent futures threadpoolexecutor-example10844768
Ref: 11a210844768
Node: ProcessPoolExecutor10846010
Ref: library/concurrent futures processpoolexecutor10846164
Ref: 31f610846164
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor10847310
Ref: 8eb10847310
Node: ProcessPoolExecutor 예제10851267
Ref: library/concurrent futures id210851349
Ref: 31f810851349
Ref: library/concurrent futures processpoolexecutor-example10851349
Ref: 11a310851349
Node: Future 객체10852251
Ref: library/concurrent futures future-objects10852400
Ref: 31f910852400
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future10852634
Ref: 11a110852634
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future cancel10852915
Ref: 31fa10852915
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future cancelled10853238
Ref: 31fb10853238
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future running10853360
Ref: 31fc10853360
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future done10853508
Ref: 31fd10853508
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future result10853665
Ref: 31fe10853665
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future exception10854400
Ref: 31ff10854400
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future add_done_callback10855118
Ref: 320010855118
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_running_or_notify_cancel10855982
Ref: 320110855982
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_result10857102
Ref: 320210857102
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_exception10857563
Ref: 320310857563
Node: 모듈 함수10858057
Ref: library/concurrent futures module-functions10858203
Ref: 320410858203
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures wait10858246
Ref: 186910858246
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures FIRST_COMPLETED10859792
Ref: 320510859792
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures FIRST_EXCEPTION10860122
Ref: 320610860122
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ALL_COMPLETED10860605
Ref: 320710860605
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures as_completed10860748
Ref: 165410860748
Ref: 모듈 함수-Footnote-110861921
Node: 예외 클래스10861963
Ref: library/concurrent futures exception-classes10862087
Ref: 320810862087
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures CancelledError10862135
Ref: 9d710862135
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures TimeoutError10862229
Ref: 320910862229
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures BrokenExecutor10862500
Ref: 320a10862500
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures InvalidStateError10862781
Ref: 161310862781
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures thread BrokenThreadPool10862956
Ref: 31f410862956
Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures process BrokenProcessPool10863239
Ref: 31f710863239
Node: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리10863647
Ref: library/subprocess doc10863837
Ref: 320b10863837
Ref: library/subprocess module-subprocess10863837
Ref: d610863837
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-subprocess-management10863837
Ref: 320c10863837
Ref: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리-Footnote-110865059
Ref: subprocess — 서브 프로세스 관리-Footnote-210865129
Node: subprocess 모듈 사용하기10865171
Ref: library/subprocess using-the-subprocess-module10865311
Ref: 320d10865311
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess run10865663
Ref: b8310865663
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess10870726
Ref: e6b10870726
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess args10870849
Ref: 321110870849
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess returncode10870990
Ref: 321210870990
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess stdout10871302
Ref: 321310871302
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess stderr10871775
Ref: 321410871775
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess check_returncode10872042
Ref: 321510872042
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DEVNULL10872230
Ref: 113f10872230
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess PIPE10872482
Ref: b8410872482
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STDOUT10872761
Ref: 320f10872761
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SubprocessError10872957
Ref: 321610872957
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired10873097
Ref: 154d10873097
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired cmd10873283
Ref: 321710873283
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired timeout10873374
Ref: 321810873374
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired output10873439
Ref: 321910873439
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stdout10873819
Ref: 321a10873819
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stderr10873930
Ref: 321b10873930
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError10874418
Ref: 131410874418
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError returncode10874738
Ref: 321d10874738
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError cmd10874922
Ref: 321e10874922
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError output10875013
Ref: 321f10875013
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stdout10875205
Ref: 322010875205
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stderr10875316
Ref: 322110875316
Node: 자주 사용되는 인자10875657
Ref: library/subprocess frequently-used-arguments10875774
Ref: 320e10875774
Ref: library/subprocess id110875774
Ref: 322210875774
Node: Popen 생성자10880417
Ref: library/subprocess popen-constructor10880552
Ref: 322710880552
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen10880846
Ref: 19910880846
Ref: Popen 생성자-Footnote-110900601
Node: 예외<8>10900661
Ref: library/subprocess exceptions10900761
Ref: 323810900761
Node: 보안 고려 사항<2>10902131
Ref: library/subprocess security-considerations10902292
Ref: 322610902292
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-security10902292
Ref: 323910902292
Ref: 보안 고려 사항<2>-Footnote-110903478
Ref: 보안 고려 사항<2>-Footnote-210903548
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Ref: library/subprocess popen-objects10903760
Ref: 323b10903760
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen poll10903898
Ref: 323c10903898
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen wait10904132
Ref: ce110904132
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen communicate10905380
Ref: 321010905380
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen send_signal10907528
Ref: 13a710907528
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen terminate10907993
Ref: 13a510907993
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen kill10908265
Ref: 13a610908265
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen args10908608
Ref: 323d10908608
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdin10908781
Ref: 322310908781
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdout10909278
Ref: 322410909278
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stderr10909857
Ref: 322510909857
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen pid10910738
Ref: 323e10910738
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen returncode10910917
Ref: 19af10910917
Node: 윈도우 Popen 도우미10911436
Ref: library/subprocess windows-popen-helpers10911592
Ref: 323f10911592
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO10911757
Ref: 322b10911757
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO dwFlags10912224
Ref: 324010912224
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdInput10912544
Ref: 324110912544
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdOutput10912878
Ref: 324310912878
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdError10913214
Ref: 324410913214
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO wShowWindow10913549
Ref: 324510913549
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO lpAttributeList10914117
Ref: c0b10914117
Ref: 윈도우 Popen 도우미-Footnote-110915498
Ref: 윈도우 Popen 도우미-Footnote-210915570
Ref: 윈도우 Popen 도우미-Footnote-310915642
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Ref: library/subprocess windows-constants10915809
Ref: 324810915809
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_INPUT_HANDLE10915924
Ref: 324910915924
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE10916056
Ref: 324a10916056
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_ERROR_HANDLE10916197
Ref: 324b10916197
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SW_HIDE10916337
Ref: 324710916337
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESTDHANDLES10916434
Ref: 324210916434
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW10916681
Ref: 324610916681
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK10916850
Ref: 324c10916850
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK10917149
Ref: 324d10917149
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE10917364
Ref: 322c10917364
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP10917532
Ref: 322d10917532
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10917904
Ref: 322e10917904
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10918123
Ref: 322f10918123
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS10918339
Ref: 323010918339
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS10918553
Ref: 323110918553
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10918774
Ref: 323210918774
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS10918994
Ref: 323310918994
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NO_WINDOW10919618
Ref: 323410919618
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DETACHED_PROCESS10919814
Ref: 323510919814
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE10920100
Ref: 323610920100
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB10920578
Ref: 323710920578
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Ref: library/subprocess call-function-trio10920985
Ref: 324e10920985
Ref: library/subprocess older-high-level-api10920985
Ref: 324f10920985
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess call10921295
Ref: b8510921295
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_call10922858
Ref: 321c10922858
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_output10924724
Ref: fb910924724
Node: 이전 함수를 subprocess 모듈로 교체하기10927585
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module10927781
Ref: 325010927781
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-replacements10927781
Ref: 117910927781
Node: /bin/sh 셸 명령 치환 교체하기10928996
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-bin-sh-shell-command-substitution10929162
Ref: 325110929162
Node: 셸 파이프라인 교체하기10929365
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-shell-pipeline10929562
Ref: 325210929562
Node: os system 교체하기10930321
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-system10930511
Ref: 325310930511
Node: os spawn 패밀리 교체하기10931493
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-the-os-spawn-family10931692
Ref: 325410931692
Node: os popen os popen2 os popen3 교체하기10932299
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen310932512
Ref: 325510932512
Node: popen2 모듈의 함수 교체하기10933823
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module10933996
Ref: 325610933996
Node: 레거시 셸 호출 함수10935391
Ref: library/subprocess legacy-shell-invocation-functions10935570
Ref: 325710935570
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getstatusoutput10935948
Ref: fba10935948
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getoutput10937418
Ref: 180110937418
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Ref: library/subprocess notes10938150
Ref: 325810938150
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-timeout-behavior10938493
Ref: 325910938493
Ref: library/subprocess timeout-behavior10938493
Ref: 325a10938493
Node: 윈도우에서 인자 시퀀스를 문자열로 변환하기10939280
Ref: library/subprocess converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows10939455
Ref: 325b10939455
Ref: library/subprocess converting-argument-sequence10939455
Ref: 322810939455
Ref: library/subprocess disable-vfork10940631
Ref: 325c10940631
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Ref: library/subprocess disable-posix-spawn10940781
Ref: 325d10940781
Ref: library/subprocess disabling-use-of-vfork-or-posix-spawn10940781
Ref: 325e10940781
Node: sched — 이벤트 스케줄러10942196
Ref: library/sched doc10942373
Ref: 325f10942373
Ref: library/sched module-sched10942373
Ref: bf10942373
Ref: library/sched sched-event-scheduler10942373
Ref: 326010942373
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler10942660
Ref: 111810942660
Ref: sched — 이벤트 스케줄러-Footnote-110944935
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Ref: 326110945088
Ref: library/sched scheduler-objects10945088
Ref: 326210945088
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enterabs10945248
Ref: 111a10945248
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enter10946259
Ref: 111910946259
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler cancel10946686
Ref: 193710946686
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler empty10946879
Ref: 326310946879
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler run10946984
Ref: 111710946984
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler queue10948234
Ref: 326410948234
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Ref: library/queue doc10948703
Ref: 326510948703
Ref: library/queue module-queue10948703
Ref: b610948703
Ref: library/queue queue-a-synchronized-queue-class10948703
Ref: 326610948703
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Ref: 137710950209
Ref: library/queue queue LifoQueue10950571
Ref: 225e10950571
Ref: library/queue queue PriorityQueue10950937
Ref: 225f10950937
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue10951980
Ref: b6710951980
Ref: library/queue queue Empty10952164
Ref: 317a10952164
Ref: library/queue queue Full10952348
Ref: 317b10952348
Ref: library/queue queue ShutDown10952528
Ref: 23b10952528
Ref: queue — 동기화된 큐 클래스-Footnote-110952803
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Ref: library/queue queue-objects10952978
Ref: 326910952978
Ref: library/queue queueobjects10952978
Ref: 326a10952978
Ref: library/queue queue Queue qsize10953165
Ref: 326b10953165
Ref: library/queue queue Queue empty10953452
Ref: 326c10953452
Ref: library/queue queue Queue full10953887
Ref: 326d10953887
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put10954316
Ref: 326810954316
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put_nowait10955056
Ref: 2cdd10955056
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get10955151
Ref: 2cde10955151
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get_nowait10956342
Ref: 326710956342
Ref: library/queue queue Queue task_done10956590
Ref: 317610956590
Ref: library/queue queue Queue join10957286
Ref: 317710957286
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Ref: library/queue waiting-for-task-completion10957963
Ref: 326e10957963
Node: Terminating queues10958677
Ref: library/queue terminating-queues10958778
Ref: 326f10958778
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Ref: 23a10958964
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Ref: 327010960495
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Ref: 327110960649
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue empty10960855
Ref: 327210960855
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put10961137
Ref: 327310961137
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put_nowait10961927
Ref: 327410961927
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get10962108
Ref: 327510962108
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get_nowait10962781
Ref: 327610962781
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Ref: 327710963437
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars-context-variables10963437
Ref: 327810963437
Ref: library/contextvars module-contextvars10963437
Ref: 2410963437
Ref: contextvars — 컨텍스트 변수-Footnote-110964416
Node: 컨텍스트 변수10964458
Ref: library/contextvars context-variables10964584
Ref: 327a10964584
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar10964637
Ref: 156510964637
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar name10965488
Ref: 327c10965488
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Ref: 327b10965613
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar set10966110
Ref: 327d10966110
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar reset10966531
Ref: 327e10966531
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token10967096
Ref: 327f10967096
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token var10967369
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token MISSING10967811
Ref: 328210967811
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Ref: library/contextvars manual-context-management10968065
Ref: 328310968065
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Ref: 327910968130
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Ref: 328410972187
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Ref: 328510972697
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context keys10973222
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Ref: 328710973326
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Ref: 328810973439
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Ref: library/contextvars asyncio-support10973721
Ref: 328910973721
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Ref: 328a10975711
Ref: library/_thread module-_thread10975711
Ref: 210975711
Ref: library/_thread thread-low-level-threading-api10975711
Ref: 328b10975711
Ref: library/_thread thread error10976606
Ref: 328c10976606
Ref: library/_thread thread LockType10976795
Ref: 328d10976795
Ref: library/_thread thread start_new_thread10976872
Ref: 19610976872
Ref: library/_thread thread interrupt_main10978006
Ref: 83d10978006
Ref: library/_thread thread exit10979004
Ref: 328e10979004
Ref: library/_thread thread allocate_lock10979170
Ref: 328f10979170
Ref: library/_thread thread get_ident10979371
Ref: 329010979371
Ref: library/_thread thread get_native_id10979878
Ref: 329110979878
Ref: library/_thread thread stack_size10980514
Ref: 329210980514
Ref: library/_thread thread TIMEOUT_MAX10981963
Ref: 329310981963
Ref: library/_thread thread lock acquire10982274
Ref: 329410982274
Ref: library/_thread thread lock release10983489
Ref: 329510983489
Ref: library/_thread thread lock locked10983696
Ref: 329610983696
Node: 네트워킹과 프로세스 간 통신10985103
Ref: library/ipc doc10985268
Ref: 329710985268
Ref: library/ipc ipc10985268
Ref: 329810985268
Ref: library/ipc networking-and-interprocess-communication10985268
Ref: 329910985268
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Ref: 329a10986304
Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-asynchronous-i-o10986304
Ref: 329b10986304
Ref: library/asyncio module-asyncio10986304
Ref: a10986304
Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-cli10988410
Ref: 32a710988410
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Ref: 32a810989586
Ref: library/asyncio-runner runners10989586
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Ref: Runners-Footnote-110990004
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Ref: 32aa10990181
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Ref: 47610990254
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Ref: 32ac10992139
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Ref: 5fa10992204
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner run10993364
Ref: 16b410993364
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner close10993879
Ref: 32ad10993879
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner get_loop10994105
Ref: 32ae10994105
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner handling-keyboard-interruption10994657
Ref: 32af10994657
Node: 코루틴과 태스크10996167
Ref: library/asyncio-task doc10996285
Ref: 32b010996285
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines-and-tasks10996285
Ref: 32b110996285
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Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutine10996931
Ref: 329d10996931
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines10996931
Ref: 32b210996931
Ref: 코루틴<2>-Footnote-111000271
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Ref: 32b311000473
Ref: library/asyncio-task awaitables11000473
Ref: 32b411000473
Node: 태스크 만들기11003292
Ref: library/asyncio-task creating-tasks11003420
Ref: 32b511003420
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_task11003581
Ref: 1bf11003581
Ref: 태스크 만들기-Footnote-111005684
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Ref: 32b611005881
Node: Task Groups11006951
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Ref: 32b711007065
Ref: library/asyncio-task taskgroups11007065
Ref: 32b811007065
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup11007232
Ref: 1b511007232
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup create_task11007501
Ref: 1bc11007501
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Ref: library/asyncio-task terminating-a-task-group11011572
Ref: 32b911011572
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Ref: library/asyncio-task sleeping11013030
Ref: 32ba11013030
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio sleep11013068
Ref: a6c11013068
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-sleep11013601
Ref: 32bb11013601
Node: 동시에 태스크 실행하기11014250
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-tasks-concurrently11014386
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Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS11455526
Ref: 348011455526
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT11456088
Ref: 86d11456088
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER11456406
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Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv2311456626
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Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv311456795
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Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv111457419
Ref: 349611457419
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_111457622
Ref: f9f11457622
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_211457921
Ref: fa011457921
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ALL11458195
Ref: 349711458195
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv211458509
Ref: 83311458509
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv311458857
Ref: 83411458857
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv111459202
Ref: 349811459202
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_111459704
Ref: 349911459704
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_211460147
Ref: 349a11460147
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_311460590
Ref: 18ad11460590
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION11461233
Ref: 349b11461233
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE11461577
Ref: 113a11461577
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_DH_USE11461845
Ref: 349c11461845
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE11462105
Ref: 349d11462105
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT11462369
Ref: 349e11462369
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_COMPRESSION11462715
Ref: 113711462715
Ref: library/ssl ssl Options11462939
Ref: 349f11462939
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TICKET11463025
Ref: 34a011463025
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF11463169
Ref: 83111463169
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_KTLS11463362
Ref: 179e11463362
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT11464077
Ref: 178311464077
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ALPN11464242
Ref: e5e11464242
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME11464516
Ref: 34a111464516
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ECDH11464799
Ref: 34a211464799
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SNI11465113
Ref: 34a311465113
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NPN11465346
Ref: 34a411465346
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv211465730
Ref: 34a511465730
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv311465882
Ref: 34a611465882
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv111466034
Ref: 34a711466034
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_111466186
Ref: b8011466186
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_211466340
Ref: 34a811466340
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_311466494
Ref: 34a911466494
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_PSK11466648
Ref: 34aa11466648
Ref: library/ssl ssl CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES11466773
Ref: 34ab11466773
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION11467039
Ref: 120e11467039
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO11467265
Ref: 120f11467265
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER11467495
Ref: 121011467495
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE11467783
Ref: 34ac11467783
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR11467838
Ref: 34ad11467838
Ref: library/ssl ssl AlertDescription11468242
Ref: 34ae11468242
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose SERVER_AUTH11468379
Ref: faa11468379
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose CLIENT_AUTH11468699
Ref: fab11468699
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLErrorNumber11469019
Ref: 34af11469019
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion11469146
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MINIMUM_SUPPORTED11469363
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED11469405
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion SSLv311469682
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv111469712
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_111469742
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_211469774
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Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_311469806
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Ref: 상수<9>-Footnote-111470076
Ref: 상수<9>-Footnote-211470135
Ref: 상수<9>-Footnote-311470194
Ref: 상수<9>-Footnote-411470272
Ref: 상수<9>-Footnote-511470331
Node: SSL 소켓11470424
Ref: library/ssl ssl-sockets11470571
Ref: 34b811470571
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket11470610
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket read11473254
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket write11474163
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket do_handshake11475582
Ref: e6511475582
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket getpeercert11476370
Ref: faf11476370
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_verified_chain11480091
Ref: 15e411480091
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_unverified_chain11480403
Ref: 15e511480403
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket cipher11480600
Ref: 33b311480600
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket shared_ciphers11480900
Ref: e6411480900
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket compression11481382
Ref: 113611481382
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_channel_binding11481786
Ref: 113511481786
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_alpn_protocol11482532
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket unwrap11483473
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket verify_client_post_handshake11483928
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket version11485016
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket context11485579
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_side11485706
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_hostname11485888
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Ref: SSL 소켓-Footnote-211487014
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Ref: library/ssl ssl-contexts11487205
Ref: 34be11487205
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext11487576
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext cert_store_stats11492693
Ref: fa311492693
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_default_certs11494778
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_verify_locations11495605
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ca_certs11497039
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ciphers11497782
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_default_verify_paths11499141
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ciphers11499661
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sni_callback11501757
Ref: 18dc11501757
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_servername_callback11504502
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ecdh_curve11505826
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_socket11506698
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_bio11510191
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext session_stats11511327
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext check_hostname11511795
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext keylog_filename11513505
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext options11515421
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext post_handshake_auth11516186
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext hostname_checks_common_name11517348
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_flags11517988
Ref: fa511517988
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_mode11518541
Ref: 347d11518541
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_client_callback11519079
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Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_server_callback11521085
Ref: 34c811521085
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-111522974
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-211523149
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-311523258
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-411523370
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-511523545
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-611523654
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-711523766
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-811523843
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-911523897
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-1011523956
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-1111524035
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-1211524095
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-1311524172
Ref: SSL 컨텍스트-Footnote-1411524238
Node: 인증서11524312
Ref: library/ssl certificates11524444
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Ref: library/ssl ssl-certificates11524444
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Ref: 인증서-Footnote-111527264
Node: 인증서 체인11527323
Ref: library/ssl certificate-chains11527406
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Node: CA 인증서11528725
Ref: library/ssl ca-certificates11528843
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Node: 결합한 키와 인증서11529500
Ref: library/ssl combined-key-and-certificate11529625
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Node: 자체 서명 인증서11530229
Ref: library/ssl self-signed-certificates11530333
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Node: 예제<19>11532113
Ref: library/ssl examples11532273
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Node: SSL 지원 검사하기11532397
Ref: library/ssl testing-for-ssl-support11532502
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Node: 클라이언트 측 연산11532840
Ref: library/ssl client-side-operation11532971
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Node: 서버 측 연산11537965
Ref: library/ssl server-side-operation11538064
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Node: 비 블로킹 소켓에 대한 참고 사항11540222
Ref: library/ssl notes-on-non-blocking-sockets11540396
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Ref: library/ssl ssl-nonblocking11540396
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Node: 메모리 BIO 지원<2>11543661
Ref: library/ssl memory-bio-support11543835
Ref: 34d311543835
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLObject11545078
Ref: b7e11545078
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO11549097
Ref: e5a11549097
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO pending11549257
Ref: 34d411549257
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO eof11549365
Ref: 34d511549365
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO read11549506
Ref: 34d611549506
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write11549704
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Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write_eof11549982
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Node: SSL 세션11550308
Ref: library/ssl ssl-session11550461
Ref: 34d911550461
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession11550525
Ref: cda11550525
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession id11550617
Ref: 34da11550617
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession time11550638
Ref: 34db11550638
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession timeout11550661
Ref: 34dc11550661
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession ticket_lifetime_hint11550687
Ref: 34dd11550687
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession has_ticket11550726
Ref: 34de11550726
Node: 보안 고려 사항<3>11550755
Ref: library/ssl security-considerations11550892
Ref: 34df11550892
Ref: library/ssl ssl-security11550892
Ref: 336d11550892
Node: 가장 좋은 기본값11551029
Ref: library/ssl best-defaults11551134
Ref: 34e011551134
Node: 수동 설정11552431
Ref: library/ssl manual-settings11552564
Ref: 34e111552564
Node: 인증서 확인11552685
Ref: library/ssl verifying-certificates11552779
Ref: 34e211552779
Node: 프로토콜 버전11554017
Ref: library/ssl protocol-versions11554136
Ref: 34e311554136
Node: 사이퍼 선택11555023
Ref: library/ssl cipher-selection11555117
Ref: 34e411555117
Ref: 사이퍼 선택-Footnote-111555768
Node: 다중 프로세싱11555840
Ref: library/ssl multi-processing11555941
Ref: 34e511555941
Node: TLS 1 311556464
Ref: library/ssl ssl-tlsv1-311556582
Ref: b7d11556582
Ref: library/ssl tls-1-311556582
Ref: 34e611556582
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-111558892
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-211558958
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-311559017
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-411559076
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-511559135
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-611559194
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-711559253
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-811559329
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-911559388
Node: select — I/O 완료 대기11559446
Ref: library/select doc11559647
Ref: 34e711559647
Ref: library/select module-select11559647
Ref: c111559647
Ref: library/select select-waiting-for-i-o-completion11559647
Ref: 34e811559647
Ref: library/select select error11561066
Ref: 104c11561066
Ref: library/select select devpoll11561265
Ref: f8d11561265
Ref: library/select select epoll11562087
Ref: f8b11562087
Ref: library/select select poll11563848
Ref: 2bc111563848
Ref: library/select select kqueue11564227
Ref: 16d411564227
Ref: library/select select kevent11564627
Ref: 34ed11564627
Ref: library/select select select11564958
Ref: d9c11564958
Ref: library/select select PIPE_BUF11567732
Ref: 11f911567732
Ref: select — I/O 완료 대기-Footnote-111568436
Ref: select — I/O 완료 대기-Footnote-211568478
Node: /dev/poll 폴링 객체11568520
Ref: library/select dev-poll-polling-objects11568663
Ref: 34ef11568663
Ref: library/select devpoll-objects11568663
Ref: 34e911568663
Ref: library/select select devpoll close11569056
Ref: f8f11569056
Ref: library/select select devpoll closed11569174
Ref: f9011569174
Ref: library/select select devpoll fileno11569278
Ref: f8e11569278
Ref: library/select select devpoll register11569407
Ref: 34f011569407
Ref: library/select select devpoll modify11570454
Ref: 34f111570454
Ref: library/select select devpoll unregister11570704
Ref: 34f211570704
Ref: library/select select devpoll poll11571098
Ref: d9811571098
Ref: /dev/poll 폴링 객체-Footnote-111572445
Node: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체11572487
Ref: library/select edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects11572652
Ref: 34f311572652
Ref: library/select epoll-objects11572652
Ref: 34ea11572652
Ref: library/select select epoll close11575753
Ref: f8c11575753
Ref: library/select select epoll closed11575847
Ref: 34f411575847
Ref: library/select select epoll fileno11575920
Ref: 34f511575920
Ref: library/select select epoll fromfd11576015
Ref: 34f611576015
Ref: library/select select epoll register11576118
Ref: 34f711576118
Ref: library/select select epoll modify11576222
Ref: 34f811576222
Ref: library/select select epoll unregister11576320
Ref: 95811576320
Ref: library/select select epoll poll11576546
Ref: d9911576546
Ref: 에지와 레벨 트리거 폴링 epoll 객체-Footnote-111577051
Node: 폴링 객체11577093
Ref: library/select poll-objects11577248
Ref: 34eb11577248
Ref: library/select polling-objects11577248
Ref: 34f911577248
Ref: library/select select poll register11577913
Ref: 34fa11577913
Ref: library/select select poll modify11580070
Ref: 34fb11580070
Ref: library/select select poll unregister11580379
Ref: 34fc11580379
Ref: library/select select poll poll11580794
Ref: d9b11580794
Ref: 폴링 객체-Footnote-111582142
Node: Kqueue 객체11582184
Ref: library/select id111582306
Ref: 34fd11582306
Ref: library/select kqueue-objects11582306
Ref: 34ec11582306
Ref: library/select select kqueue close11582351
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Ref: library/select select kqueue closed11582447
Ref: 34ff11582447
Ref: library/select select kqueue fileno11582522
Ref: 350011582522
Ref: library/select select kqueue fromfd11582618
Ref: 350111582618
Ref: library/select select kqueue control11582723
Ref: d9a11582723
Ref: Kqueue 객체-Footnote-111583508
Node: Kevent 객체11583550
Ref: library/select id211583650
Ref: 350211583650
Ref: library/select kevent-objects11583650
Ref: 34ee11583650
Ref: library/select select kevent ident11583761
Ref: 350311583761
Ref: library/select select kevent filter11584110
Ref: 350411584110
Ref: library/select select kevent flags11586015
Ref: 350511586015
Ref: library/select select kevent fflags11587754
Ref: 350611587754
Ref: library/select select kevent data11591844
Ref: 350711591844
Ref: library/select select kevent udata11591900
Ref: 350811591900
Node: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화11591954
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Ref: 350911592170
Ref: library/selectors module-selectors11592170
Ref: c211592170
Ref: library/selectors selectors-high-level-i-o-multiplexing11592170
Ref: 350a11592170
Ref: selectors — 고수준 I/O 다중화-Footnote-111592506
Node: 소개<4>11592575
Ref: library/selectors introduction11592679
Ref: 350b11592679
Node: 클래스<3>11594270
Ref: library/selectors classes11594393
Ref: 350e11594393
Ref: library/selectors selectors EVENT_READ11595008
Ref: 350f11595008
Ref: library/selectors selectors EVENT_WRITE11595095
Ref: 351011595095
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey11595164
Ref: 351111595164
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fileobj11595496
Ref: 351211595496
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fd11595558
Ref: 351311595558
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey events11595615
Ref: 351411595615
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey data11595706
Ref: 351511595706
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector11595921
Ref: 350c11595921
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector register11596702
Ref: 351611596702
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector unregister11597447
Ref: 351711597447
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector modify11598173
Ref: bd411598173
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector select11598887
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector close11600376
Ref: 351911600376
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector get_key11600630
Ref: 351a11600630
Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector get_map11600950
Ref: 351b11600950
Ref: library/selectors selectors DefaultSelector11601236
Ref: 350d11601236
Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectSelector11601496
Ref: 33f811601496
Ref: library/selectors selectors PollSelector11601589
Ref: bd211601589
Ref: library/selectors selectors EpollSelector11601679
Ref: bd111601679
Ref: library/selectors selectors EpollSelector fileno11601770
Ref: 351c11601770
Ref: library/selectors selectors DevpollSelector11601920
Ref: bd311601920
Ref: library/selectors selectors DevpollSelector fileno11602015
Ref: 351d11602015
Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector11602195
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Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector fileno11602289
Ref: 351e11602289
Ref: 클래스<3>-Footnote-111602477
Node: 예제<20>11602519
Ref: library/selectors examples11602624
Ref: 351f11602624
Node: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정11603698
Ref: library/signal doc11603922
Ref: 352011603922
Ref: library/signal module-signal11603922
Ref: c611603922
Ref: library/signal signal-set-handlers-for-asynchronous-events11603922
Ref: 352111603922
Ref: signal — 비동기 이벤트에 대한 처리기 설정-Footnote-111604460
Node: 일반 규칙11604526
Ref: library/signal general-rules11604658
Ref: 352211604658
Node: 파이썬 시그널 처리기의 실행11605721
Ref: library/signal execution-of-python-signal-handlers11605841
Ref: 352411605841
Node: 시그널과 스레드11607266
Ref: library/signal id111607386
Ref: 352611607386
Ref: library/signal signals-and-threads11607386
Ref: 352711607386
Node: 모듈 내용<5>11607928
Ref: library/signal module-contents11608079
Ref: 352811608079
Ref: library/signal signal Signals11608749
Ref: 352c11608749
Ref: library/signal signal Handlers11608899
Ref: 352d11608899
Ref: library/signal signal Sigmasks11609066
Ref: 352e11609066
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_DFL11609502
Ref: 182711609502
Ref: library/signal signal SIG_IGN11609891
Ref: 182611609891
Ref: library/signal signal SIGABRT11610022
Ref: 1d5311610022
Ref: library/signal signal SIGALRM11610108
Ref: 352f11610108
Ref: library/signal signal SIGBREAK11610233
Ref: 353011610233
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Ref: library/signal signal CTRL_C_EVENT11613356
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Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-111632554
Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-211632605
Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-311632660
Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-411632705
Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-511632750
Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-611632796
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Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-811632888
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Ref: 모듈 내용<5>-Footnote-2111633545
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Ref: library/signal examples11633757
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Ref: SIGPIPE에 대한 참고 사항-Footnote-111636771
Node: 신호 처리기와 예외에 대한 참고 사항11636815
Ref: library/signal handlers-and-exceptions11636999
Ref: 229211636999
Ref: library/signal note-on-signal-handlers-and-exceptions11636999
Ref: 354211636999
Node: mmap — 메모리 맵 파일 지원11639663
Ref: library/mmap doc11639841
Ref: 354311639841
Ref: library/mmap mmap-memory-mapped-file-support11639841
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write_byte11656044
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Node: MADV_* 상수11656407
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Ref: library/mmap madvise-constants11656514
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSABLE11657296
Ref: 356c11657296
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSE11657335
Ref: 356d11657335
Node: MAP_* 상수11657624
Ref: library/mmap id111657731
Ref: 356e11657731
Ref: library/mmap map-constants11657731
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_SHARED11657774
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_PRIVATE11657805
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_32BIT11657837
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER11657867
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE11658408
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_UNIX0311658457
Ref: 16aa11658457
Node: 인터넷 데이터 처리11659479
Ref: library/netdata doc11659667
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Ref: library/netdata internet-data-handling11659667
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Ref: library/netdata netdata11659667
Ref: 357611659667
Node: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지11660326
Ref: library/email doc11660482
Ref: 357711660482
Ref: library/email email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package11660482
Ref: 357811660482
Ref: library/email module-email11660482
Ref: 3b11660482
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-111668115
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-211668189
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-311668248
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-411668307
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-511668366
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-611668425
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-711668484
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-811668543
Ref: email — 전자 메일과 MIME 처리 패키지-Footnote-911668602
Node: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현11668661
Ref: library/email message doc11668849
Ref: 357911668849
Ref: library/email message email-message-representing-an-email-message11668849
Ref: 357a11668849
Ref: library/email message module-email message11668849
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage11671608
Ref: 27b11671608
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_string11672147
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_bytes11674776
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __bytes__11676121
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_multipart11676338
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_unixfrom11677124
Ref: 358311677124
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_unixfrom11677399
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __len__11678647
Ref: 358711678647
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __contains__11678749
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __getitem__11679180
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __setitem__11680031
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage values11681465
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get11681716
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_type11684842
Ref: 359311684842
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_maintype11685814
Ref: 359511685814
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_subtype11686049
Ref: 359611686049
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_default_type11686282
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_default_type11686659
Ref: 359711686659
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_param11687129
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage del_param11688916
Ref: 359a11688916
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Ref: 359b11689404
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_charset11691081
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Ref: 35a111691398
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_attachment11692160
Ref: 35a211692160
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_disposition11692587
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage walk11693126
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_body11695298
Ref: 35a611695298
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_attachments11697504
Ref: 35a711697504
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_parts11698548
Ref: 35a811698548
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content11698800
Ref: 35a911698800
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_content11699224
Ref: 18af11699224
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_related11699648
Ref: 35ac11699648
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_alternative11700160
Ref: 35ad11700160
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_mixed11700695
Ref: 35ae11700695
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_related11701255
Ref: 35af11701255
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_alternative11702111
Ref: 35b111702111
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_attachment11702881
Ref: 35b211702881
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear11703951
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear_content11704043
Ref: 35b411704043
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage preamble11704343
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage epilogue11705751
Ref: 35b611705751
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage defects11706143
Ref: 35b711706143
Ref: library/email message email message MIMEPart11706437
Ref: f3211706437
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-111706863
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-211706936
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-311707187
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-411707246
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-511707305
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-611707364
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-711707423
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-811707482
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-911707541
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-1011707600
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-1111707660
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-1211707720
Ref: email message 전자 메일 메시지 표현-Footnote-1311707780
Node: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석11707840
Ref: library/email parser doc11708071
Ref: 35b811708071
Ref: library/email parser email-parser-parsing-email-messages11708071
Ref: 35b911708071
Ref: library/email parser module-email parser11708071
Ref: 4e11708071
Ref: email parser 전자 메일 메시지 구문 분석-Footnote-111710860
Node: FeedParser API11710932
Ref: library/email parser feedparser-api11711052
Ref: 35bb11711052
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser11712529
Ref: 11ba11712529
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser feed11713907
Ref: 35bc11713907
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser close11714497
Ref: 35bd11714497
Ref: library/email parser email parser FeedParser11714791
Ref: 35ba11714791
Node: Parser API11715275
Ref: library/email parser parser-api11715417
Ref: 35be11715417
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser11716232
Ref: 11bb11716232
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parse11716934
Ref: 35bf11716934
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parsebytes11718039
Ref: 35c011718039
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesHeaderParser11718614
Ref: 10ae11718614
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser11718873
Ref: 118d11718873
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parse11719283
Ref: 35c111719283
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parsestr11719790
Ref: 35c211719790
Ref: library/email parser email parser HeaderParser11720281
Ref: 10af11720281
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_bytes11720739
Ref: 11b811720739
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_binary_file11721262
Ref: 11b911721262
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_string11721795
Ref: 35c311721795
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_file11722244
Ref: 35c411722244
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-111723058
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-211723117
Node: 추가 사항11723176
Ref: library/email parser additional-notes11723295
Ref: 35c511723295
Node: email generator MIME 문서 생성11725108
Ref: library/email generator doc11725321
Ref: 35c711725321
Ref: library/email generator email-generator-generating-mime-documents11725321
Ref: 35c811725321
Ref: library/email generator module-email generator11725321
Ref: 4011725321
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator11727698
Ref: 11be11727698
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator flatten11729846
Ref: 35ca11729846
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator clone11731848
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Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator write11732057
Ref: 35cb11732057
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator11733206
Ref: 11bd11733206
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator flatten11735258
Ref: 35ce11735258
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator clone11737230
Ref: 35d011737230
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator write11737431
Ref: 35cf11737431
Ref: library/email generator email generator DecodedGenerator11738406
Ref: c9411738406
Ref: email generator MIME 문서 생성-Footnote-111739984
Ref: email generator MIME 문서 생성-Footnote-211740060
Ref: email generator MIME 문서 생성-Footnote-311740621
Ref: email generator MIME 문서 생성-Footnote-411740673
Ref: email generator MIME 문서 생성-Footnote-511740732
Ref: email generator MIME 문서 생성-Footnote-611740784
Node: email policy 정책 객체11740843
Ref: library/email policy doc11741045
Ref: 35d111741045
Ref: library/email policy email-policy-policy-objects11741045
Ref: 35d211741045
Ref: library/email policy module-email policy11741045
Ref: 4f11741045
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy11747518
Ref: 10a611747518
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy max_line_length11748362
Ref: 357e11748362
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy linesep11748674
Ref: 35d311748674
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy cte_type11748949
Ref: 35cc11748949
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy raise_on_defect11750224
Ref: 35d511750224
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy mangle_from_11750477
Ref: df211750477
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy message_factory11750836
Ref: c9511750836
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy verify_generated_headers11751151
Ref: 1e011751151
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy clone11752036
Ref: 10a811752036
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy handle_defect11752594
Ref: 35d811752594
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy register_defect11753129
Ref: 35d611753129
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_max_count11753973
Ref: 35da11753973
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_source_parse11755083
Ref: 35db11755083
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_store_parse11756213
Ref: 35dc11756213
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_fetch_parse11756987
Ref: 35dd11756987
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold11757886
Ref: 35de11757886
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold_binary11758704
Ref: 35d411758704
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy11759147
Ref: 10aa11759147
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy utf811760107
Ref: df411760107
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy refold_source11760567
Ref: 35c911760567
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_factory11761392
Ref: 35df11761392
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy content_manager11762099
Ref: f3311762099
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_max_count11762830
Ref: 35e111762830
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_source_parse11763045
Ref: 15ae11763045
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_store_parse11763459
Ref: 35e311763459
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_fetch_parse11764010
Ref: 35e411764010
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold11764506
Ref: 167c11764506
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold_binary11765737
Ref: 35e511765737
Ref: library/email policy email policy default11766698
Ref: 357c11766698
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTP11766925
Ref: 35e611766925
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTPUTF811767168
Ref: 35e711767168
Ref: library/email policy email policy HTTP11767661
Ref: 35e811767661
Ref: library/email policy email policy strict11767911
Ref: 35e911767911
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat3211769532
Ref: 10a711769532
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 mangle_from_11770079
Ref: 35ea11770079
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_source_parse11770278
Ref: 15af11770278
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_store_parse11770692
Ref: 35eb11770692
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_fetch_parse11770821
Ref: 35ec11770821
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold11771129
Ref: 35ed11771129
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold_binary11771534
Ref: 35ee11771534
Ref: library/email policy email policy compat3211772187
Ref: c9611772187
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-111772380
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-211772452
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-311772511
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-411772570
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-511772629
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-611772688
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-711772747
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-811772806
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-911772887
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-1011772946
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-1111773006
Ref: email policy 정책 객체-Footnote-1211773066
Node: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스11773126
Ref: library/email errors doc11773345
Ref: 35ef11773345
Ref: library/email errors email-errors-exception-and-defect-classes11773345
Ref: 35f011773345
Ref: library/email errors module-email errors11773345
Ref: 3f11773345
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageError11773658
Ref: 35f111773658
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageParseError11773932
Ref: 35f211773932
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderParseError11774269
Ref: 359f11774269
Ref: library/email errors email errors BoundaryError11774979
Ref: 35f311774979
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartConversionError11775075
Ref: 35f411775075
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderWriteError11775459
Ref: 35d711775459
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageDefect11775588
Ref: 35d911775588
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderDefect11775798
Ref: 35f711775798
Ref: library/email errors email errors NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect11776535
Ref: 35f811776535
Ref: library/email errors email errors StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect11776690
Ref: 35f911776690
Ref: library/email errors email errors CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect11776836
Ref: 35fa11776836
Ref: library/email errors email errors FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect11777021
Ref: 35fb11777021
Ref: library/email errors email errors MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect11777174
Ref: 35fc11777174
Ref: library/email errors email errors MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect11777300
Ref: 35fd11777300
Ref: library/email errors email errors MalformedHeaderDefect11777641
Ref: 35fe11777641
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartInvariantViolationDefect11777889
Ref: 35c611777889
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64PaddingDefect11778255
Ref: 35ff11778255
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64CharactersDefect11778574
Ref: 360011778574
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64LengthDefect11778876
Ref: 360111778876
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidDateDefect11779153
Ref: 360211779153
Ref: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스-Footnote-111779330
Ref: email errors 예외와 결함 클래스-Footnote-211779402
Node: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체11779461
Ref: library/email headerregistry doc11779696
Ref: 360311779696
Ref: library/email headerregistry email-headerregistry-custom-header-objects11779696
Ref: 360411779696
Ref: library/email headerregistry module-email headerregistry11779696
Ref: 4211779696
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader11781797
Ref: 358b11781797
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader name11782164
Ref: 360711782164
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader defects11782403
Ref: 360811782403
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader max_count11782773
Ref: 35e211782773
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader fold11783326
Ref: 360911783326
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry UnstructuredHeader11785797
Ref: 360611785797
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader11787099
Ref: 360a11787099
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader datetime11787521
Ref: 360b11787521
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader11789220
Ref: 360c11789220
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader groups11789564
Ref: 360d11789564
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader addresses11789871
Ref: 361011789871
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader11791047
Ref: 361211791047
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader address11791212
Ref: 361311791212
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader11791748
Ref: 361411791748
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader version11792193
Ref: 361511792193
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader major11792293
Ref: 361611792293
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader minor11792353
Ref: 361711792353
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader11792413
Ref: 361811792413
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader params11792845
Ref: 359911792845
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader11792953
Ref: 361911792953
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader content_type11793109
Ref: 361a11793109
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader maintype11793212
Ref: 361b11793212
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader subtype11793239
Ref: 361c11793239
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader11793265
Ref: 361d11793265
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader content_disposition11793435
Ref: 361e11793435
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding11793596
Ref: 361f11793596
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding cte11793722
Ref: 362011793722
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry11793914
Ref: 360511793914
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry map_to_type11795776
Ref: 362111795776
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __getitem__11796140
Ref: 362211796140
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __call__11796268
Ref: 362311796268
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address11796988
Ref: 361111796988
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address display_name11797976
Ref: 362411797976
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address username11798195
Ref: 362511798195
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address domain11798302
Ref: 362611798302
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address addr_spec11798369
Ref: 362711798369
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address __str__11798611
Ref: 362811798611
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group11799124
Ref: 360e11799124
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group display_name11799711
Ref: 360f11799711
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group addresses11799965
Ref: 362911799965
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group __str__11800118
Ref: 362a11800118
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-111800578
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-211800659
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-311800740
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-411800799
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-511800858
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-611800917
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-711800976
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-811801035
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-911801094
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1011801153
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1111801213
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1211801273
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1311801333
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1411801393
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1511801453
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1611801513
Ref: email headerregistry 사용자 정의 헤더 객체-Footnote-1711801573
Node: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리11801633
Ref: library/email contentmanager doc11801841
Ref: 362b11801841
Ref: library/email contentmanager email-contentmanager-managing-mime-content11801841
Ref: 362c11801841
Ref: library/email contentmanager module-email contentmanager11801841
Ref: 3d11801841
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager11802097
Ref: 362d11802097
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager get_content11802411
Ref: 35aa11802411
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager set_content11803354
Ref: 35ab11803354
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_get_handler11805132
Ref: 362f11805132
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_set_handler11805339
Ref: 363111805339
Ref: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리-Footnote-111805724
Ref: email contentmanager MIME 콘텐츠 관리-Footnote-211805805
Node: 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스11805886
Ref: library/email contentmanager content-manager-instances11805997
Ref: 363311805997
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager raw_data_manager11806371
Ref: 35e011806371
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager get_content11807173
Ref: 363011807173
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager set_content11807857
Ref: 363211807857
Ref: 콘텐츠 관리자 인스턴스-Footnote-111813275
Node: email 예제11813334
Ref: library/email examples doc11813574
Ref: 363411813574
Ref: library/email examples email-examples11813574
Ref: f3411813574
Ref: library/email examples id111813574
Ref: 363511813574
Ref: email 예제-Footnote-111829031
Ref: email 예제-Footnote-211829089
Node: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기11829168
Ref: library/email compat32-message doc11829424
Ref: 363611829424
Ref: library/email compat32-message compat32-message11829424
Ref: 357b11829424
Ref: library/email compat32-message email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api11829424
Ref: 363711829424
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message11832252
Ref: 27c11832252
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_string11832840
Ref: f2e11832840
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __str__11835191
Ref: 363811835191
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_bytes11835392
Ref: f2f11835392
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __bytes__11837101
Ref: f3011837101
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message is_multipart11837348
Ref: 35a311837348
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_unixfrom11838133
Ref: 363911838133
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_unixfrom11838292
Ref: 363a11838292
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message attach11838476
Ref: 35b011838476
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_payload11839175
Ref: 11bc11839175
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_payload11842027
Ref: 363b11842027
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_charset11842592
Ref: 363c11842592
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charset11844495
Ref: 363d11844495
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __len__11846039
Ref: 363f11846039
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __contains__11846141
Ref: 178511846141
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __getitem__11846600
Ref: 364011846600
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __setitem__11847242
Ref: 364211847242
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __delitem__11847845
Ref: 364311847845
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message keys11848062
Ref: 363e11848062
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message values11848176
Ref: 364411848176
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message items11848282
Ref: 364511848282
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get11848433
Ref: 364611848433
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_all11848797
Ref: 364111848797
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message add_header11849063
Ref: 364711849063
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message replace_header11851242
Ref: 364811851242
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_type11851598
Ref: 364911851598
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_maintype11852546
Ref: 364b11852546
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_subtype11852781
Ref: 364c11852781
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_default_type11853014
Ref: 364a11853014
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_default_type11853392
Ref: 364d11853392
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_params11853699
Ref: 364e11853699
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_param11854761
Ref: 364f11854761
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_param11856987
Ref: f3111856987
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message del_param11858359
Ref: 365111858359
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_type11858832
Ref: 365211858832
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_filename11859790
Ref: 365311859790
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_boundary11860334
Ref: 365411860334
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_boundary11860692
Ref: 365511860692
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_charset11861594
Ref: 365611861594
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charsets11862126
Ref: 365711862126
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_disposition11862892
Ref: df311862892
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message walk11863297
Ref: 365811863297
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message preamble11865626
Ref: 365911865626
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message epilogue11867014
Ref: 365a11867014
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message defects11867456
Ref: 365b11867456
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-111867783
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-211867842
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-311867901
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-411867960
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-511868019
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-611868078
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-711868137
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-811868196
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-911868255
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-1011868314
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-1111868374
Ref: email message Message compat32 API를 사용하여 이메일 메시지 표현하기-Footnote-1211868434
Node: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기11868494
Ref: library/email mime doc11868770
Ref: 365c11868770
Ref: library/email mime email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch11868770
Ref: 365d11868770
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime11868770
Ref: 4511868770
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime base11870267
Ref: 4811870267
Ref: library/email mime email mime base MIMEBase11870267
Ref: 365e11870267
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime nonmultipart11871563
Ref: 4c11871563
Ref: library/email mime email mime nonmultipart MIMENonMultipart11871563
Ref: 35f511871563
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime multipart11872072
Ref: 4b11872072
Ref: library/email mime email mime multipart MIMEMultipart11872072
Ref: 365f11872072
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime application11873500
Ref: 4611873500
Ref: library/email mime email mime application MIMEApplication11873500
Ref: 366011873500
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime audio11875039
Ref: 4711875039
Ref: library/email mime email mime audio MIMEAudio11875039
Ref: 366111875039
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime image11876825
Ref: 4911876825
Ref: library/email mime email mime image MIMEImage11876825
Ref: 35f611876825
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime message11878673
Ref: 4a11878673
Ref: library/email mime email mime message MIMEMessage11878673
Ref: 366211878673
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime text11879496
Ref: 4d11879496
Ref: library/email mime email mime text MIMEText11879496
Ref: df511879496
Ref: email mime 처음부터 이메일과 MIME 객체 만들기-Footnote-111881384
Node: email header 국제화된 헤더11881452
Ref: library/email header doc11881679
Ref: 366311881679
Ref: library/email header email-header-internationalized-headers11881679
Ref: 366411881679
Ref: library/email header module-email header11881679
Ref: 4111881679
Ref: library/email header email header Header11884632
Ref: 18b011884632
Ref: library/email header email header Header append11886680
Ref: 366511886680
Ref: library/email header email header Header encode11888123
Ref: 366611888123
Ref: library/email header email header Header __str__11889891
Ref: 366711889891
Ref: library/email header email header Header __eq__11890449
Ref: 366811890449
Ref: library/email header email header Header __ne__11890622
Ref: 366911890622
Ref: library/email header email header decode_header11890873
Ref: 10ab11890873
Ref: library/email header email header make_header11892360
Ref: 10ac11892360
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-111893262
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-211893334
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-311893393
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-411893451
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-511893510
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-611893569
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-711893628
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-811893687
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-911893746
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-1011893805
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-1111893865
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-1211893925
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-1311893985
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-1411894045
Ref: email header 국제화된 헤더-Footnote-1511894105
Node: email charset 문자 집합 표현11894165
Ref: library/email charset doc11894358
Ref: 366a11894358
Ref: library/email charset email-charset-representing-character-sets11894358
Ref: 366b11894358
Ref: library/email charset module-email charset11894358
Ref: 3c11894358
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset11895225
Ref: df611895225
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_charset11896943
Ref: 366c11896943
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encoding11897226
Ref: 366d11897226
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encoding11897652
Ref: 366e11897652
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_charset11897927
Ref: 366f11897927
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_codec11898278
Ref: 367011898278
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_codec11898520
Ref: 367111898520
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_body_encoding11898872
Ref: 367211898872
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_output_charset11899680
Ref: 367311899680
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode11899910
Ref: 367411899910
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode_lines11900145
Ref: 367511900145
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encode11900650
Ref: 367611900650
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __str__11901016
Ref: 367711901016
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __eq__11901204
Ref: 367811901204
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __ne__11901377
Ref: 367911901377
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_charset11901713
Ref: 367a11901713
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_alias11903228
Ref: 367c11903228
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_codec11903618
Ref: 367b11903618
Ref: email charset 문자 집합 표현-Footnote-111904022
Node: email encoders 인코더11904095
Ref: library/email encoders doc11904287
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Node: json — JSON 인코더와 디코더11923480
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Node: 오브젝트나 배열이 아닌 최상윗값11956395
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Node: mailbox — 다양한 형식의 사서함 조작하기11961282
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Node: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑12040156
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_type12041386
Ref: 20812041386
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_file_type12043105
Ref: 20712043105
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_all_extensions12043486
Ref: 189c12043486
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_extension12044118
Ref: 374212044118
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes init12044927
Ref: 374112044927
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes read_mime_types12046035
Ref: 194a12046035
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes add_type12046444
Ref: 374412046444
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes inited12046938
Ref: 374512046938
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes knownfiles12047130
Ref: 374312047130
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes suffix_map12047370
Ref: 374612047370
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes encodings_map12047738
Ref: 374712047738
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes types_map12047854
Ref: 374812047854
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes common_types12047961
Ref: 374912047961
Ref: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑-Footnote-112048524
Ref: mimetypes — 파일명을 MIME 유형에 매핑-Footnote-212048593
Node: MimeTypes 객체12048664
Ref: library/mimetypes id112048765
Ref: 374a12048765
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-objects12048765
Ref: 374b12048765
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes12049046
Ref: 14c312049046
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes suffix_map12049887
Ref: 374e12049887
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes encodings_map12050374
Ref: 374f12050374
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map12050607
Ref: 375012050607
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map_inv12050955
Ref: 375112050955
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_extension12051312
Ref: 375212051312
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_type12051505
Ref: 1a3f12051505
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_file_type12051686
Ref: 375312051686
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_all_extensions12051916
Ref: 375412051916
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read12052120
Ref: 374c12052120
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes readfp12052508
Ref: 374d12052508
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read_windows_registry12052881
Ref: 375512052881
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes add_type12053267
Ref: 375612053267
Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩12053797
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Ref: 375712054032
Ref: library/base64 base64-base16-base32-base64-base85-data-encodings12054032
Ref: 375812054032
Ref: library/base64 module-base6412054032
Ref: e12054032
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩-Footnote-112055888
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩-Footnote-212055954
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩-Footnote-312056013
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩-Footnote-412056072
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 데이터 인코딩-Footnote-512056131
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Ref: library/base64 base64-rfc-464812056328
Ref: 375912056328
Ref: library/base64 rfc-4648-encodings12056328
Ref: 375c12056328
Ref: library/base64 base64 b64encode12056558
Ref: 375d12056558
Ref: library/base64 base64 b64decode12057310
Ref: 19ae12057310
Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64encode12058354
Ref: 375e12058354
Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64decode12058558
Ref: 375f12058558
Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64encode12058781
Ref: 376012058781
Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64decode12059194
Ref: 376112059194
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32encode12059562
Ref: 376212059562
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32decode12059740
Ref: 101b12059740
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexencode12060817
Ref: 7dc12060817
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexdecode12060993
Ref: 7dd12060993
Ref: library/base64 base64 b16encode12061440
Ref: 376312061440
Ref: library/base64 base64 b16decode12061618
Ref: 376412061618
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-112062202
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-212062261
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-312062320
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-412062379
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Ref: library/base64 base64-base-8512062601
Ref: 375a12062601
Ref: library/base64 base85-encodings12062601
Ref: 376512062601
Ref: library/base64 base64 a85encode12063376
Ref: f1612063376
Ref: library/base64 base64 a85decode12064501
Ref: f1712064501
Ref: library/base64 base64 b85encode12065473
Ref: f1812065473
Ref: library/base64 base64 b85decode12065908
Ref: f1912065908
Ref: library/base64 base64 z85encode12066199
Ref: 14f12066199
Ref: library/base64 base64 z85decode12066494
Ref: 15012066494
Ref: Base85 Encodings-Footnote-112066817
Ref: Base85 Encodings-Footnote-212066857
Node: Legacy Interface12066897
Ref: library/base64 base64-legacy12067065
Ref: 375b12067065
Ref: library/base64 legacy-interface12067065
Ref: 376612067065
Ref: library/base64 base64 decode12067118
Ref: 376712067118
Ref: library/base64 base64 decodebytes12067470
Ref: 95212067470
Ref: library/base64 base64 encode12067733
Ref: 376812067733
Ref: library/base64 base64 encodebytes12068301
Ref: 95112068301
Ref: Legacy Interface-Footnote-112068978
Ref: Legacy Interface-Footnote-212069037
Node: Security Considerations12069096
Ref: library/base64 base64-security12069239
Ref: 376912069239
Ref: library/base64 security-considerations12069239
Ref: 376a12069239
Ref: Security Considerations-Footnote-112069922
Ref: Security Considerations-Footnote-212069981
Node: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환12070040
Ref: library/binascii doc12070292
Ref: 376b12070292
Ref: library/binascii binascii-convert-between-binary-and-ascii12070292
Ref: 376c12070292
Ref: library/binascii module-binascii12070292
Ref: 1012070292
Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_uu12071440
Ref: 376d12071440
Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_uu12071784
Ref: b1e12071784
Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_base6412072201
Ref: 163412072201
Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_base6412072927
Ref: c7c12072927
Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_qp12073310
Ref: 376e12073310
Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_qp12073655
Ref: 376f12073655
Ref: library/binascii binascii crc_hqx12074481
Ref: 72d12074481
Ref: library/binascii binascii crc3212074804
Ref: 169d12074804
Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_hex12075570
Ref: 241c12075570
Ref: library/binascii binascii hexlify12075632
Ref: 377012075632
Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_hex12076899
Ref: 241d12076899
Ref: library/binascii binascii unhexlify12076937
Ref: 1a4e12076937
Ref: library/binascii binascii Error12077524
Ref: 101c12077524
Ref: library/binascii binascii Incomplete12077641
Ref: 377112077641
Ref: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환-Footnote-112078193
Ref: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환-Footnote-212078252
Ref: binascii — 바이너리와 ASCII 간의 변환-Footnote-312078311
Node: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩12078370
Ref: library/quopri doc12078555
Ref: 377212078555
Ref: library/quopri module-quopri12078555
Ref: b712078555
Ref: library/quopri quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data12078555
Ref: 377312078555
Ref: library/quopri quopri decode12079363
Ref: 241f12079363
Ref: library/quopri quopri encode12079983
Ref: 241e12079983
Ref: library/quopri quopri decodestring12080732
Ref: 377412080732
Ref: library/quopri quopri encodestring12080936
Ref: 377512080936
Ref: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-112081414
Ref: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-212081480
Ref: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-312081539
Ref: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-412081598
Ref: quopri — MIME quoted-printable 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-512081657
Node: 구조화된 마크업 처리 도구12081716
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Ref: library/markup markup12081897
Ref: 377712081897
Ref: library/markup structured-markup-processing-tools12081897
Ref: 377812081897
Node: html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원12083515
Ref: library/html doc12083704
Ref: 377912083704
Ref: library/html html-hypertext-markup-language-support12083704
Ref: 377a12083704
Ref: library/html module-html12083704
Ref: 6b12083704
Ref: library/html html escape12083995
Ref: 100412083995
Ref: library/html html unescape12084508
Ref: 95512084508
Ref: html — 하이퍼텍스트 마크업 언어 지원-Footnote-112085269
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Ref: 377b12085589
Ref: library/html parser html-parser-simple-html-and-xhtml-parser12085589
Ref: 377c12085589
Ref: library/html parser module-html parser12085589
Ref: 6d12085589
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser12086014
Ref: 87212086014
Ref: html parser — 간단한 HTML과 XHTML 구문 분석기-Footnote-112087404
Node: HTML 구문 분석기 응용 프로그램 예제12087475
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Ref: 377d12087645
Node: HTMLParser 메서드12088881
Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-methods12089070
Ref: 377e12089070
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser feed12089223
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser close12089582
Ref: 155312089582
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser reset12090025
Ref: 378012090025
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser getpos12090235
Ref: 378112090235
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser get_starttag_text12090340
Ref: 378212090340
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_starttag12091030
Ref: 378412091030
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_endtag12091875
Ref: 378512091875
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_startendtag12092116
Ref: 378312092116
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_data12092602
Ref: 378612092602
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_entityref12092844
Ref: 378712092844
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_charref12093219
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_comment12093695
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_decl12094235
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_pi12094542
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser unknown_decl12095277
Ref: 378c12095277
Node: 예제<22>12095692
Ref: library/html parser examples12095824
Ref: 378d12095824
Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-examples12095824
Ref: 378e12095824
Node: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의12099374
Ref: library/html entities doc12099587
Ref: 378f12099587
Ref: library/html entities html-entities-definitions-of-html-general-entities12099587
Ref: 379012099587
Ref: library/html entities module-html entities12099587
Ref: 6c12099587
Ref: library/html entities html entities html512099973
Ref: 10c512099973
Ref: library/html entities html entities entitydefs12100510
Ref: 379312100510
Ref: library/html entities html entities name2codepoint12100655
Ref: 379112100655
Ref: library/html entities html entities codepoint2name12100792
Ref: 379212100792
Ref: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의-Footnote-112100965
Ref: html entities — HTML 일반 엔티티의 정의-Footnote-212101038
Node: XML 처리 모듈12101165
Ref: library/xml doc12101367
Ref: 379412101367
Ref: library/xml module-xml12101367
Ref: 12012101367
Ref: library/xml xml12101367
Ref: 379512101367
Ref: library/xml xml-processing-modules12101367
Ref: 379612101367
Ref: library/xml xml-security12102615
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Ref: XML 처리 모듈-Footnote-112102678
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Ref: library/xml id112102805
Ref: 379812102805
Ref: library/xml xml-vulnerabilities12102805
Ref: 379912102805
Ref: XML security-Footnote-112105029
Ref: XML security-Footnote-212105082
Ref: XML security-Footnote-312105135
Ref: XML security-Footnote-412105182
Node: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API12105238
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree doc12105427
Ref: 379a12105427
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree module-xml etree ElementTree12105427
Ref: 12512105427
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml-etree-elementtree-the-elementtree-xml-api12105427
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Ref: xml etree ElementTree — ElementTree XML API-Footnote-112106274
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree tutorial12106471
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml-tree-and-elements12107143
Ref: 379d12107143
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Ref: 379f12108028
Node: 비 블로킹 구문 분석을 위한 풀 pull API12110782
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing12110954
Ref: 37a112110954
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Ref: 37a412113539
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree modifying-an-xml-file12115036
Ref: 37a712115036
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Ref: 37aa12118406
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Ref: 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기-Footnote-112121515
Ref: 이름 공간이 있는 XML 구문 분석하기-Footnote-212121567
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Ref: 37da12167584
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Ref: library/xml sax utils doc12279156
Ref: 38c312279156
Ref: library/xml sax utils module-xml sax saxutils12279156
Ref: 12b12279156
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities12279156
Ref: 38c412279156
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils escape12279571
Ref: 38c512279571
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils unescape12280296
Ref: 38c612280296
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils quoteattr12280853
Ref: 38c712280853
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLGenerator12281860
Ref: 38c812281860
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLFilterBase12282796
Ref: 38c912282796
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils prepare_input_source12283321
Ref: 38ca12283321
Ref: xml sax saxutils — SAX 유틸리티-Footnote-112283894
Node: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스12283971
Ref: library/xml sax reader doc12284222
Ref: 38cc12284222
Ref: library/xml sax reader module-xml sax xmlreader12284222
Ref: 12c12284222
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers12284222
Ref: 38cd12284222
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader12284797
Ref: 387e12284797
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser12284913
Ref: 38ce12284913
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator12286200
Ref: 388b12286200
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource12286591
Ref: e9112286591
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesImpl12287424
Ref: 38cf12287424
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNSImpl12288112
Ref: 38d012288112
Ref: xml sax xmlreader — XML 구문 분석기 인터페이스-Footnote-112288954
Node: XMLReader 객체12289032
Ref: library/xml sax reader id112289176
Ref: 38d112289176
Ref: library/xml sax reader xmlreader-objects12289176
Ref: 38d212289176
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader parse12289319
Ref: 38cb12289319
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getContentHandler12290024
Ref: 38d312290024
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setContentHandler12290132
Ref: 38d412290132
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getDTDHandler12290345
Ref: 38d512290345
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setDTDHandler12290445
Ref: 38d612290445
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getEntityResolver12290643
Ref: 38d712290643
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setEntityResolver12290751
Ref: 38d812290751
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getErrorHandler12291084
Ref: 38d912291084
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setErrorHandler12291188
Ref: 38da12291188
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setLocale12291414
Ref: 38db12291414
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getFeature12291868
Ref: 38dc12291868
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setFeature12292198
Ref: 388812292198
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getProperty12292526
Ref: 38dd12292526
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setProperty12292838
Ref: 38de12292838
Node: IncrementalParser 객체12293168
Ref: library/xml sax reader incremental-parser-objects12293335
Ref: 38df12293335
Ref: library/xml sax reader incrementalparser-objects12293335
Ref: 38e012293335
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser feed12293507
Ref: 38e112293507
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser close12293593
Ref: 38e212293593
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser reset12293875
Ref: 38e312293875
Node: Locator 객체12294184
Ref: library/xml sax reader id212294353
Ref: 38e412294353
Ref: library/xml sax reader locator-objects12294353
Ref: 38e512294353
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getColumnNumber12294477
Ref: 38e612294477
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getLineNumber12294590
Ref: 38e712294590
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getPublicId12294701
Ref: 38e812294701
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getSystemId12294803
Ref: 38e912294803
Node: InputSource 객체12294908
Ref: library/xml sax reader input-source-objects12295079
Ref: 38ea12295079
Ref: library/xml sax reader inputsource-objects12295079
Ref: 38eb12295079
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setPublicId12295136
Ref: 38ec12295136
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getPublicId12295255
Ref: 38ed12295255
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setSystemId12295372
Ref: 38ee12295372
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getSystemId12295494
Ref: 38ef12295494
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setEncoding12295614
Ref: 38f012295614
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getEncoding12296040
Ref: 38f112296040
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setByteStream12296145
Ref: 38f212296145
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getByteStream12296639
Ref: 38f312296639
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setCharacterStream12296900
Ref: 38f412296900
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getCharacterStream12297259
Ref: 38f512297259
Node: Attributes 인터페이스12297373
Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-objects12297558
Ref: 38a912297558
Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributes-interface12297558
Ref: 38f612297558
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getLength12297903
Ref: 38f712297903
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getNames12297989
Ref: 38f812297989
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getType12298080
Ref: 38f912298080
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getValue12298222
Ref: 38fa12298222
Node: AttributesNS 인터페이스12298321
Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-ns-objects12298479
Ref: 38ab12298479
Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributesns-interface12298479
Ref: 38fb12298479
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getValueByQName12298878
Ref: 38fc12298878
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getNameByQName12298999
Ref: 38fd12298999
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNameByName12299139
Ref: 38fe12299139
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNames12299279
Ref: 38ff12299279
Node: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석12299393
Ref: library/pyexpat doc12299598
Ref: 390012299598
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat12299598
Ref: 12612299598
Ref: library/pyexpat xml-parsers-expat-fast-xml-parsing-using-expat12299598
Ref: 390112299598
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError12300754
Ref: 126912300754
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat error12300974
Ref: 390312300974
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat XMLParserType12301052
Ref: 390412301052
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ErrorString12301242
Ref: 390612301242
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ParserCreate12301378
Ref: 390512301378
Ref: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석-Footnote-112304041
Ref: xml parsers expat — Expat을 사용한 빠른 XML 구문 분석-Footnote-212304400
Node: XMLParser 객체<2>12304433
Ref: library/pyexpat id212304580
Ref: 390712304580
Ref: library/pyexpat xmlparser-objects12304580
Ref: 390812304580
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser Parse12304707
Ref: 390912304707
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ParseFile12305215
Ref: 390a12305215
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBase12305472
Ref: 390b12305472
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetBase12305898
Ref: 390f12305898
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetInputContext12306159
Ref: 391012306159
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityParserCreate12306492
Ref: 391112306492
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetParamEntityParsing12307120
Ref: 391412307120
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UseForeignDTD12307531
Ref: 391512307531
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetReparseDeferralEnabled12308600
Ref: 27212308600
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetReparseDeferralEnabled12310115
Ref: 27112310115
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_size12310381
Ref: 391812310381
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_text12310674
Ref: 148812310674
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_used12311320
Ref: 391a12311320
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ordered_attributes12311613
Ref: 391212311613
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser specified_attributes12312198
Ref: 391312312198
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorByteIndex12313065
Ref: 391b12313065
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorCode12313150
Ref: 391c12313150
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorColumnNumber12313387
Ref: 391d12313387
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorLineNumber12313466
Ref: 391e12313466
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentByteIndex12313968
Ref: 391f12313968
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentColumnNumber12314069
Ref: 392012314069
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentLineNumber12314164
Ref: 392112314164
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser XmlDeclHandler12314648
Ref: 392212314648
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartDoctypeDeclHandler12315279
Ref: 391612315279
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndDoctypeDeclHandler12315894
Ref: 391712315894
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ElementDeclHandler12316076
Ref: 392312316076
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser AttlistDeclHandler12316301
Ref: 392412316301
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartElementHandler12317299
Ref: 392512317299
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndElementHandler12317795
Ref: 392612317795
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ProcessingInstructionHandler12317902
Ref: 392712317902
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CharacterDataHandler12318049
Ref: 391912318049
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UnparsedEntityDeclHandler12318825
Ref: 390e12318825
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EntityDeclHandler12319297
Ref: 392a12319297
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotationDeclHandler12320149
Ref: 390d12320149
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartNamespaceDeclHandler12320467
Ref: 392b12320467
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndNamespaceDeclHandler12320771
Ref: 392c12320771
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CommentHandler12321325
Ref: 392d12321325
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartCdataSectionHandler12321530
Ref: 392812321530
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndCdataSectionHandler12321788
Ref: 392912321788
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandler12321889
Ref: 392e12321889
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandlerExpand12322176
Ref: 392f12322176
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotStandaloneHandler12322414
Ref: 393012322414
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityRefHandler12323010
Ref: 390c12323010
Node: ExpatError 예외12324222
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-exceptions12324385
Ref: 393112324385
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-objects12324385
Ref: 390212324385
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError code12324539
Ref: 393212324539
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError lineno12325241
Ref: 393512325241
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError offset12325367
Ref: 393612325367
Node: 예<10>12325502
Ref: library/pyexpat example12325669
Ref: 393712325669
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-example12325669
Ref: 393812325669
Node: 콘텐츠 모델 기술12326799
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Ref: 393912326968
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-content-models12326968
Ref: 393a12326968
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat model12326968
Ref: 12812326968
Node: Expat 에러 상수12329079
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-error-constants12329232
Ref: 393b12329232
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-errors12329232
Ref: 393c12329232
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat errors12329232
Ref: 12712329232
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors codes12329836
Ref: 393412329836
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors messages12329981
Ref: 393312329981
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY12330136
Ref: 393d12330136
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF12330200
Ref: 393e12330200
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF12330407
Ref: 393f12330407
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF12330603
Ref: 394012330603
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE12330792
Ref: 394112330792
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING12330946
Ref: 394212330946
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN12331016
Ref: 394312331016
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT12331247
Ref: 394412331247
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI12331401
Ref: 394512331401
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS12331559
Ref: 394612331559
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY12331784
Ref: 394712331784
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF12331919
Ref: 394812331919
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR12332082
Ref: 394912332082
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF12332211
Ref: 394a12332211
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SYNTAX12332451
Ref: 394b12332451
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH12332569
Ref: 394c12332569
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN12332724
Ref: 394d12332724
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY12332929
Ref: 394e12332929
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING12333056
Ref: 394f12333056
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION12333189
Ref: 395012333189
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING12333319
Ref: 395112333319
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Ref: 395212333395
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE12333690
Ref: 395312333690
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE12333758
Ref: 395412333758
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD12333831
Ref: 395512333831
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING12334156
Ref: 395612334156
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX12334477
Ref: 395712334477
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX12334658
Ref: 395812334658
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE12334821
Ref: 395912334821
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_XML_DECL12334971
Ref: 395a12334971
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL12335091
Ref: 395b12335091
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PUBLICID12335265
Ref: 395c12335265
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED12335400
Ref: 395d12335400
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED12335683
Ref: 395e12335683
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ABORTED12335864
Ref: 395f12335864
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FINISHED12336006
Ref: 396012336006
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE12336315
Ref: 396112336315
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML12336377
Ref: 396212336377
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS12336568
Ref: 396312336568
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI12336735
Ref: 396412336735
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT12336950
Ref: 396512336950
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER12337101
Ref: 396612337101
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH12337245
Ref: 396712337245
Node: 인터넷 프로토콜과 지원12337427
Ref: library/internet doc12337607
Ref: 396812337607
Ref: library/internet internet12337607
Ref: 396912337607
Ref: library/internet internet-protocols-and-support12337607
Ref: 396a12337607
Node: webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기12339808
Ref: library/webbrowser doc12339983
Ref: 396b12339983
Ref: library/webbrowser module-webbrowser12339983
Ref: 11512339983
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller12339983
Ref: 396c12339983
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-n12342413
Ref: 396e12342413
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Ref: 397012342510
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-tab12342510
Ref: 397112342510
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser Error12342795
Ref: 397212342795
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open12342931
Ref: 396d12342931
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new12343974
Ref: 397312343974
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new_tab12344266
Ref: 397412344266
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser get12344569
Ref: 397512344569
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser register12344832
Ref: 397612344832
Ref: webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기-Footnote-112351676
Ref: webbrowser — 편리한 웹 브라우저 제어기-Footnote-212351746
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Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controller-objects12352007
Ref: 397712352007
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controllers12352007
Ref: 397812352007
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller name12352221
Ref: 29712352221
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open12352295
Ref: 397912352295
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new12352621
Ref: 397a12352621
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new_tab12352876
Ref: 397b12352876
Node: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현12353108
Ref: library/wsgiref doc12353320
Ref: 397c12353320
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref12353320
Ref: 11812353320
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation12353320
Ref: 397d12353320
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현-Footnote-112355535
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현-Footnote-212355599
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI 유틸리티와 참조 구현-Footnote-312355641
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Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref util12355856
Ref: 11d12355856
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities12355856
Ref: 397e12355856
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util guess_scheme12356447
Ref: 398012356447
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util request_uri12357193
Ref: 398112357193
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util application_uri12357562
Ref: 398212357562
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util shift_path_info12357848
Ref: 398312357848
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util setup_testing_defaults12359731
Ref: 398412359731
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util is_hop_by_hop12361554
Ref: 16cb12361554
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util FileWrapper12361743
Ref: 72f12361743
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티-Footnote-112363074
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티-Footnote-212363116
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티-Footnote-312363158
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티-Footnote-412363200
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI 환경 유틸리티-Footnote-512363242
Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구12363301
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref headers12363540
Ref: 11a12363540
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools12363540
Ref: 398712363540
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers12363821
Ref: e8e12363821
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers get_all12366333
Ref: 398812366333
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers add_header12366847
Ref: 398912366847
Ref: wsgiref headers – WSGI 응답 헤더 도구-Footnote-112368142
Node: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버12368184
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref simple_server12368427
Ref: 11b12368427
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-simple-server-a-simple-wsgi-http-server12368427
Ref: 398a12368427
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server make_server12369133
Ref: 398b12369133
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server demo_app12370047
Ref: 398512370047
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer12370626
Ref: 398d12370626
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer set_app12371496
Ref: 398f12371496
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer get_app12371658
Ref: 399012371658
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler12372089
Ref: 399112372089
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_environ12372786
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_stderr12373310
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler handle12373510
Ref: 399412373510
Ref: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버-Footnote-112373818
Ref: wsgiref simple_server – 간단한 WSGI HTTP 서버-Footnote-212373860
Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기12373902
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref validate12374163
Ref: 11e12374163
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker12374163
Ref: 399512374163
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref validate validator12375230
Ref: 399612375230
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기-Footnote-112377607
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기-Footnote-212377649
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI 적합성 검사기-Footnote-312377708
Node: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스12377750
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref handlers12378016
Ref: 11912378016
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes12378016
Ref: 399712378016
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers CGIHandler12378479
Ref: 399812378479
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers IISCGIHandler12379225
Ref: 399a12379225
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseCGIHandler12380834
Ref: 399912380834
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers SimpleHandler12381804
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler12382832
Ref: 19f712382832
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler run12383271
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _write12383690
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _flush12384082
Ref: 39a012384082
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stdin12384361
Ref: 399c12384361
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stderr12384565
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler add_cgi_vars12384768
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multithread12385411
Ref: 39a412385411
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multiprocess12385723
Ref: 39a512385723
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_run_once12386037
Ref: 39a612386037
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler os_environ12386288
Ref: 39a712386288
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler server_software12386773
Ref: 39a812386773
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_scheme12387425
Ref: 39aa12387425
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler setup_environ12387794
Ref: 39ab12387794
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler log_exception12388500
Ref: 39ad12388500
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler traceback_limit12389085
Ref: 39ae12389085
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_output12389333
Ref: 39af12389333
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_status12390669
Ref: 39b012390669
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_headers12390875
Ref: 39b112390875
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_body12391189
Ref: 39b212391189
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_file_wrapper12391571
Ref: 39ac12391571
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler sendfile12391837
Ref: 39b312391837
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler origin_server12392442
Ref: 39a912392442
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler http_version12393049
Ref: 39b412393049
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers read_environ12393312
Ref: 11a812393312
Ref: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스-Footnote-112394365
Ref: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스-Footnote-212394407
Ref: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스-Footnote-312394449
Ref: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스-Footnote-412394491
Ref: wsgiref handlers – 서버/게이트웨이 베이스 클래스-Footnote-512394533
Node: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형12394575
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref types12394806
Ref: 11c12394806
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-types-wsgi-types-for-static-type-checking12394806
Ref: 39b512394806
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types StartResponse12395051
Ref: 398c12395051
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIEnvironment12395193
Ref: 397f12395193
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIApplication12395300
Ref: 39b612395300
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types InputStream12395424
Ref: 39a212395424
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types ErrorStream12395537
Ref: 39a312395537
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types FileWrapper12395650
Ref: 398612395650
Ref: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형-Footnote-112395894
Ref: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형-Footnote-212395936
Ref: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형-Footnote-312396006
Ref: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형-Footnote-412396048
Ref: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형-Footnote-512396114
Ref: wsgiref types — 정적 형 검사기를 위한 WSGI 형-Footnote-612396180
Node: 예제<23>12396264
Ref: library/wsgiref examples12396423
Ref: 39b712396423
Node: urllib — URL 처리 모듈12399512
Ref: library/urllib doc12399745
Ref: 39b812399745
Ref: library/urllib module-urllib12399745
Ref: 10812399745
Ref: library/urllib urllib-url-handling-modules12399745
Ref: 39b912399745
Ref: urllib — URL 처리 모듈-Footnote-112400365
Node: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리12400429
Ref: library/urllib request doc12400675
Ref: 39ba12400675
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib request12400675
Ref: 10b12400675
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls12400675
Ref: 39bb12400675
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlopen12401883
Ref: 29312401883
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request install_opener12405960
Ref: 39c212405960
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request build_opener12406503
Ref: 39c312406503
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request pathname2url12407752
Ref: 159d12407752
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request url2pathname12408253
Ref: 159e12408253
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request getproxies12408761
Ref: 39bc12408761
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request12410012
Ref: fd012410012
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector12415185
Ref: 39c012415185
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler12415411
Ref: 39c412415411
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDefaultErrorHandler12415586
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler12415788
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor12415885
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyHandler12415998
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr12417228
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm12417366
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth12417646
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler12418052
Ref: 18c212418052
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler12419489
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler12419998
Ref: 39d212419998
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler12420361
Ref: 198812420361
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler12420777
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler12421705
Ref: 39d412421705
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler12422069
Ref: 39c512422069
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler12422161
Ref: 121312422161
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler12422508
Ref: 39c912422508
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler12422585
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler12422690
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler12422760
Ref: 172f12422760
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler12422928
Ref: 39c112422928
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor12423057
Ref: 39ca12423057
Ref: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리-Footnote-112423930
Ref: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리-Footnote-212424004
Ref: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리-Footnote-312424055
Ref: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리-Footnote-412424114
Ref: urllib request — URL을 열기 위한 확장 가능한 라이브러리-Footnote-512424173
Node: Request 객체12424232
Ref: library/urllib request id112424385
Ref: 39d512424385
Ref: library/urllib request request-objects12424385
Ref: 39d612424385
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request full_url12424728
Ref: fd212424728
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request type12425037
Ref: 39d712425037
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request host12425081
Ref: 39d812425081
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request origin_req_host12425240
Ref: 39d912425240
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request selector12425329
Ref: 39da12425329
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request data12425497
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request unverifiable12425783
Ref: 39db12425783
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request method12425929
Ref: fd112425929
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_method12426701
Ref: 115a12426701
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_header12427231
Ref: 39cb12427231
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_unredirected_header12427991
Ref: 39dc12427991
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request has_header12428133
Ref: 39dd12428133
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request remove_header12428323
Ref: fd512428323
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_full_url12428525
Ref: 39de12428525
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request set_proxy12428703
Ref: 39df12428703
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_header12428961
Ref: 39e012428961
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request header_items12429134
Ref: 39e112429134
Ref: Request 객체-Footnote-112429491
Node: OpenerDirector 객체12429550
Ref: library/urllib request opener-director-objects12429730
Ref: 39e212429730
Ref: library/urllib request openerdirector-objects12429730
Ref: 39e312429730
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector add_handler12429883
Ref: 39e412429883
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector open12431697
Ref: fd412431697
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector error12432444
Ref: 39e912432444
Node: BaseHandler 객체12434536
Ref: library/urllib request base-handler-objects12434728
Ref: 39ec12434728
Ref: library/urllib request basehandler-objects12434728
Ref: 39ed12434728
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler add_parent12435001
Ref: 39ee12435001
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler close12435096
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler parent12435560
Ref: 39f012435560
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler default_open12435736
Ref: 39ea12435736
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-open12436538
Ref: 39e512436538
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler unknown_open12436946
Ref: 39eb12436946
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler http_error_default12437398
Ref: 39f112437398
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-nnn12438358
Ref: 39e612438358
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-request12438930
Ref: 39e712438930
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-response12439401
Ref: 39e812439401
Node: HTTPRedirectHandler 객체12440047
Ref: library/urllib request http-redirect-handler12440244
Ref: 39f212440244
Ref: library/urllib request httpredirecthandler-objects12440244
Ref: 39f312440244
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler redirect_request12440811
Ref: 39f412440811
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30112442040
Ref: 39f512442040
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30212442368
Ref: 39f612442368
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30312442568
Ref: 39f712442568
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30712442787
Ref: 39f812442787
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30812443115
Ref: 39f912443115
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler 객체-Footnote-112443508
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler 객체-Footnote-212443567
Node: HTTPCookieProcessor 객체12443626
Ref: library/urllib request http-cookie-processor12443824
Ref: 39fa12443824
Ref: library/urllib request httpcookieprocessor-objects12443824
Ref: 39fb12443824
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor cookiejar12443992
Ref: 39fc12443992
Node: ProxyHandler 객체12444102
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-handler12444296
Ref: 39fe12444296
Ref: library/urllib request proxyhandler-objects12444296
Ref: 39ff12444296
Node: HTTPPasswordMgr 객체12444822
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr12445025
Ref: 39cf12445025
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgr-objects12445025
Ref: 3a0012445025
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr add_password12445221
Ref: 3a0112445221
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr find_user_password12445615
Ref: 184612445615
Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth 객체12446053
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth12446268
Ref: 39d012446268
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects12446268
Ref: 3a0212446268
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth add_password12446535
Ref: 3a0312446535
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth find_user_password12446984
Ref: 3a0412446984
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth update_authenticated12447149
Ref: 3a0512447149
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth is_authenticated12447369
Ref: 184712447369
Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler 객체12447563
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-basic-auth-handler12447783
Ref: 3a0612447783
Ref: library/urllib request abstractbasicauthhandler-objects12447783
Ref: 3a0712447783
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed12447864
Ref: 3a0812447864
Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler 객체12448759
Ref: library/urllib request http-basic-auth-handler12448972
Ref: 3a0912448972
Ref: library/urllib request httpbasicauthhandler-objects12448972
Ref: 3a0a12448972
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler http_error_40112449047
Ref: 3a0b12449047
Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler 객체12449205
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-basic-auth-handler12449419
Ref: 3a0c12449419
Ref: library/urllib request proxybasicauthhandler-objects12449419
Ref: 3a0d12449419
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler http_error_40712449496
Ref: 3a0e12449496
Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler 객체12449655
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-digest-auth-handler12449870
Ref: 3a0f12449870
Ref: library/urllib request abstractdigestauthhandler-objects12449870
Ref: 3a1012449870
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed12449955
Ref: 3a1112449955
Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler 객체12450327
Ref: library/urllib request http-digest-auth-handler12450543
Ref: 3a1212450543
Ref: library/urllib request httpdigestauthhandler-objects12450543
Ref: 3a1312450543
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler http_error_40112450620
Ref: 3a1412450620
Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler 객체12450779
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-digest-auth-handler12450981
Ref: 3a1512450981
Ref: library/urllib request proxydigestauthhandler-objects12450981
Ref: 3a1612450981
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler http_error_40712451060
Ref: 3a1712451060
Node: HTTPHandler 객체12451220
Ref: library/urllib request http-handler-objects12451413
Ref: 3a1812451413
Ref: library/urllib request httphandler-objects12451413
Ref: 3a1912451413
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler http_open12451470
Ref: 3a1a12451470
Node: HTTPSHandler 객체12451609
Ref: library/urllib request https-handler-objects12451791
Ref: 3a1b12451791
Ref: library/urllib request httpshandler-objects12451791
Ref: 3a1c12451791
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler https_open12451850
Ref: 3a1d12451850
Node: FileHandler 객체12451992
Ref: library/urllib request file-handler-objects12452174
Ref: 3a1e12452174
Ref: library/urllib request filehandler-objects12452174
Ref: 3a1f12452174
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler file_open12452231
Ref: 3a2012452231
Node: DataHandler 객체12452599
Ref: library/urllib request data-handler-objects12452779
Ref: 3a2112452779
Ref: library/urllib request datahandler-objects12452779
Ref: 3a2212452779
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler data_open12452836
Ref: 3a2312452836
Ref: DataHandler 객체-Footnote-112453509
Node: FTPHandler 객체12453568
Ref: library/urllib request ftp-handler-objects12453752
Ref: 3a2412453752
Ref: library/urllib request ftphandler-objects12453752
Ref: 3a2512453752
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler ftp_open12453807
Ref: 3a2612453807
Node: CacheFTPHandler 객체12453977
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftp-handler-objects12454164
Ref: 3a2712454164
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftphandler-objects12454164
Ref: 3a2812454164
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setTimeout12454354
Ref: 3a2912454354
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setMaxConns12454458
Ref: 3a2a12454458
Node: UnknownHandler 객체12454571
Ref: library/urllib request unknown-handler-objects12454766
Ref: 3a2b12454766
Ref: library/urllib request unknownhandler-objects12454766
Ref: 3a2c12454766
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler unknown_open12454829
Ref: 3a2d12454829
Node: HTTPErrorProcessor 객체12454934
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-processor-objects12455114
Ref: 3a2e12455114
Ref: library/urllib request httperrorprocessor-objects12455114
Ref: 3a2f12455114
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor http_response12455185
Ref: 3a3012455185
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor https_response12455721
Ref: 3a3112455721
Node: 예<11>12455899
Ref: library/urllib request examples12456083
Ref: 3a3212456083
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-examples12456083
Ref: 3a3312456083
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-examples12462325
Ref: 3a3512462325
Node: 레거시 인터페이스12463906
Ref: library/urllib request legacy-interface12464093
Ref: 3a3612464093
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlretrieve12464322
Ref: 3a3712464322
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlcleanup12467281
Ref: 19de12467281
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener12467446
Ref: 30612467446
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open12469137
Ref: 3a3a12469137
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open_unknown12469707
Ref: 3a3b12469707
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener retrieve12469846
Ref: 19f512469846
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener version12471555
Ref: 3a3912471555
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener12471919
Ref: 30712471919
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener prompt_user_passwd12473850
Ref: 3a3c12473850
Ref: 레거시 인터페이스-Footnote-112474425
Node: urllib request 제약 사항12474484
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-restrictions12474655
Ref: 3a3d12474655
Node: urllib response — urllib가 사용하는 응답 클래스12477660
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib response12477932
Ref: 10c12477932
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-response-response-classes-used-by-urllib12477932
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Ref: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석-Footnote-112481897
Ref: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석-Footnote-212481969
Ref: urllib parse — URL을 구성 요소로 구문 분석-Footnote-312482028
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Ref: urllib error — urllib request에 의해 발생하는 예외 클래스-Footnote-212526657
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Ref: urllib robotparser — robots txt 구문 분석기-Footnote-112530576
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Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP close12603947
Ref: 3abe12603947
Ref: FTP 객체-Footnote-112604490
Ref: FTP 객체-Footnote-212604548
Ref: FTP 객체-Footnote-312604607
Ref: FTP 객체-Footnote-412604665
Node: FTP_TLS 객체12604724
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-tls-objects12604831
Ref: 3abf12604831
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS12604880
Ref: 8f812604880
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ssl_version12608812
Ref: 3ac112608812
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS auth12608943
Ref: 3ac212608943
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ccc12609408
Ref: 10b412609408
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_p12609703
Ref: 3ac012609703
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_c12609789
Ref: 3ac312609789
Ref: FTP_TLS 객체-Footnote-112609921
Ref: FTP_TLS 객체-Footnote-212609980
Ref: FTP_TLS 객체-Footnote-312610038
Node: 모듈 변수12610097
Ref: library/ftplib module-variables12610185
Ref: 3ac412610185
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_reply12610230
Ref: 3aae12610230
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_temp12610343
Ref: 3ac512610343
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_perm12610505
Ref: 3ab712610505
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_proto12610664
Ref: 3ac612610664
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib all_errors12610870
Ref: 3ac712610870
Node: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트12611527
Ref: library/poplib doc12611747
Ref: 3ac812611747
Ref: library/poplib module-poplib12611747
Ref: ac12611747
Ref: library/poplib poplib-pop3-protocol-client12611747
Ref: 3ac912611747
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP312613268
Ref: 92112613268
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3_SSL12614296
Ref: 92212614296
Ref: library/poplib poplib error_proto12616076
Ref: 118c12616076
Ref: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-112616787
Ref: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-212616853
Ref: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-312616912
Ref: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-412616971
Ref: poplib — POP3 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-512617030
Node: POP3 객체12617092
Ref: library/poplib id112617204
Ref: 3aca12617204
Ref: library/poplib pop3-objects12617204
Ref: 3acb12617204
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 set_debuglevel12617486
Ref: 3acc12617486
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 getwelcome12618001
Ref: 3acd12618001
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 capa12618104
Ref: f7412618104
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 user12618314
Ref: 3ace12618314
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 pass_12618443
Ref: 3acf12618443
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 apop12618673
Ref: 3ad012618673
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rpop12618804
Ref: 3ad112618804
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stat12618957
Ref: 3ad212618957
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 list12619117
Ref: 3ad312619117
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 retr12619351
Ref: 3ad412619351
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 dele12619566
Ref: 3ad512619566
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rset12619904
Ref: 3ad612619904
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 noop12620000
Ref: 3ad712620000
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 quit12620115
Ref: 118b12620115
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 top12620226
Ref: 3ad812620226
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 uidl12620847
Ref: 3ad912620847
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 utf812621199
Ref: e4612621199
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stls12621475
Ref: f7512621475
Ref: POP3 객체-Footnote-112622391
Ref: POP3 객체-Footnote-212622450
Ref: POP3 객체-Footnote-312622509
Node: POP3 예제12622568
Ref: library/poplib id212622680
Ref: 3ada12622680
Ref: library/poplib pop3-example12622680
Ref: 3adb12622680
Node: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트12623207
Ref: library/imaplib doc12623429
Ref: 3adc12623429
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib-imap4-protocol-client12623429
Ref: 3add12623429
Ref: library/imaplib module-imaplib12623429
Ref: 7412623429
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP412624408
Ref: 90012624408
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 error12625762
Ref: 151d12625762
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 abort12625908
Ref: 3ade12625908
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readonly12626188
Ref: 3adf12626188
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_SSL12626624
Ref: 90112626624
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_stream12628259
Ref: 90312628259
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Internaldate2tuple12628570
Ref: 3ae012628570
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Int2AP12628854
Ref: 3ae112628854
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib ParseFlags12629008
Ref: 3ae212629008
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Time2Internaldate12629131
Ref: 3ae312629131
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-112630712
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-212630779
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-312630838
Node: IMAP4 객체12630897
Ref: library/imaplib id112631010
Ref: 3ae412631010
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-objects12631010
Ref: 3ae512631010
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 append12632671
Ref: 3ae612632671
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 authenticate12632805
Ref: 3ae712632805
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 check12633699
Ref: 3ae812633699
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 close12633776
Ref: 90512633776
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 copy12633985
Ref: 3ae912633985
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 create12634110
Ref: 3aea12634110
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 delete12634212
Ref: 3aeb12634212
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 deleteacl12634320
Ref: 3aec12634320
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 enable12634494
Ref: e0912634494
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 expunge12634869
Ref: 3aed12634869
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 fetch12635182
Ref: 3aee12635182
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getacl12635512
Ref: 3aef12635512
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getannotation12635692
Ref: 3af012635692
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquota12635915
Ref: 3af112635915
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquotaroot12636111
Ref: 3af212636111
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 list12636330
Ref: 3af312636330
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login12636680
Ref: 3af412636680
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login_cram_md512636841
Ref: 151c12636841
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 logout12637256
Ref: 3af512637256
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 lsub12637501
Ref: 3af612637501
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 myrights12637892
Ref: 3af712637892
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 namespace12638047
Ref: 3af812638047
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 noop12638159
Ref: 3af912638159
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 open12638233
Ref: 90212638233
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 partial12639293
Ref: 3afe12639293
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 proxyauth12639506
Ref: 3aff12639506
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 read12639689
Ref: 3afa12639689
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readline12639838
Ref: 3afb12639838
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 recent12639972
Ref: 3b0012639972
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 rename12640184
Ref: 3b0112640184
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 response12640323
Ref: 3b0212640323
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 search12640549
Ref: 3b0312640549
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 select12641313
Ref: 3b0412641313
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 send12641637
Ref: 3afc12641637
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setacl12641888
Ref: 3b0512641888
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setannotation12642079
Ref: 3b0612642079
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setquota12642299
Ref: 3b0712642299
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 shutdown12642500
Ref: 3afd12642500
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 socket12642737
Ref: 3b0812642737
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 sort12642852
Ref: 3b0912642852
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 starttls12643849
Ref: 121512643849
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 status12644451
Ref: 3b0a12644451
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 store12644586
Ref: 3b0b12644586
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 subscribe12646002
Ref: 3b0c12646002
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 thread12646084
Ref: 3b0d12646084
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 uid12647293
Ref: 3b0e12647293
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unsubscribe12647660
Ref: 3b0f12647660
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unselect12647757
Ref: 90412647757
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 xatom12648187
Ref: 3b1012648187
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 PROTOCOL_VERSION12648431
Ref: 3b1112648431
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 debug12648557
Ref: 3b1212648557
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 utf8_enabled12648760
Ref: e0a12648760
Ref: IMAP4 객체-Footnote-112649042
Ref: IMAP4 객체-Footnote-212649101
Ref: IMAP4 객체-Footnote-312649160
Ref: IMAP4 객체-Footnote-412649219
Ref: IMAP4 객체-Footnote-512649278
Ref: IMAP4 객체-Footnote-612649337
Node: IMAP4 예12649396
Ref: library/imaplib id212649509
Ref: 3b1312649509
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-example12649509
Ref: 3b1412649509
Node: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트12650030
Ref: library/smtplib doc12650248
Ref: 3b1512650248
Ref: library/smtplib module-smtplib12650248
Ref: ca12650248
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib-smtp-protocol-client12650248
Ref: 3b1612650248
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP12651025
Ref: 92b12651025
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL12653855
Ref: 92c12653855
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib LMTP12655489
Ref: 92d12655489
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPException12656543
Ref: f9812656543
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPServerDisconnected12656835
Ref: 3b1912656835
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException12657066
Ref: 3b1a12657066
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPSenderRefused12657452
Ref: 3b1b12657452
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused12657728
Ref: 3b1c12657728
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPDataError12658034
Ref: 3b1d12658034
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPConnectError12658140
Ref: 3b1712658140
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPHeloError12658257
Ref: 3b1e12658257
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPNotSupportedError12658352
Ref: 19d012658352
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPAuthenticationError12658502
Ref: 3b1f12658502
Ref: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-112659273
Ref: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-212659340
Ref: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-312659398
Ref: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-412659457
Ref: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-512659516
Ref: smtplib — SMTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-612659574
Node: SMTP 객체12659633
Ref: library/smtplib id112659743
Ref: 3b2012659743
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-objects12659743
Ref: 3b2112659743
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP set_debuglevel12659867
Ref: e5012659867
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP docmd12660275
Ref: 3b2212660275
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP connect12660989
Ref: 19d112660989
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo12661745
Ref: 3b2312661745
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo12662288
Ref: 3b2412662288
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_or_helo_if_needed12663348
Ref: 3b2612663348
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP has_extn12663732
Ref: 3b2512663732
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP verify12663985
Ref: 3b2712663985
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP login12664493
Ref: 3b2812664493
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP auth12666195
Ref: e4f12666195
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP starttls12668672
Ref: 112912668672
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP sendmail12670380
Ref: e5112670380
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP send_message12674388
Ref: e5212674388
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP quit12676621
Ref: 3b1812676621
Ref: SMTP 객체-Footnote-112677130
Ref: SMTP 객체-Footnote-212677188
Ref: SMTP 객체-Footnote-312677247
Ref: SMTP 객체-Footnote-412677306
Ref: SMTP 객체-Footnote-512677364
Ref: SMTP 객체-Footnote-612677422
Node: SMTP 예12677481
Ref: library/smtplib id212677591
Ref: 3b2912677591
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-example12677591
Ref: 3b2a12677591
Ref: SMTP 예-Footnote-112679077
Node: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체12679135
Ref: library/uuid doc12679369
Ref: 3b2b12679369
Ref: library/uuid module-uuid12679369
Ref: 11012679369
Ref: library/uuid uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-412212679369
Ref: 3b2c12679369
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID12680615
Ref: 3b2d12680615
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID safe12680673
Ref: 3b2e12680673
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unsafe12680791
Ref: 3b2f12680791
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unknown12680900
Ref: 3b3012680900
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID12681048
Ref: a5d12681048
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes12683122
Ref: 3b3212683122
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes_le12683239
Ref: 3b3312683239
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID fields12683374
Ref: 3b3412683374
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_low12683768
Ref: 3b3512683768
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_mid12683959
Ref: 3b3612683959
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_hi_version12684157
Ref: 3b3712684157
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_hi_variant12684353
Ref: 3b3812684353
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_low12684536
Ref: 3b3912684536
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID node12684717
Ref: 3b3a12684717
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time12684911
Ref: 3b3b12684911
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq12685108
Ref: 3b3c12685108
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID hex12685220
Ref: 3b3d12685220
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID int12685292
Ref: 3b3112685292
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID urn12685339
Ref: 3b3e12685339
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID variant12685407
Ref: 3b3f12685407
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID version12685661
Ref: 3b4412685661
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID is_safe12685792
Ref: ba312685792
Ref: library/uuid uuid getnode12686070
Ref: ba412686070
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid112687164
Ref: ba512687164
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid312687562
Ref: 156712687562
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid412687761
Ref: 156812687761
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid512687817
Ref: 156912687817
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_DNS12688156
Ref: 3b4512688156
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_URL12688297
Ref: 3b4612688297
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_OID12688406
Ref: 3b4712688406
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_X50012688519
Ref: 3b4812688519
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_NCS12688812
Ref: 3b4012688812
Ref: library/uuid uuid RFC_412212688887
Ref: 3b4112688887
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_MICROSOFT12688965
Ref: 3b4212688965
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_FUTURE12689064
Ref: 3b4312689064
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-112689482
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-212689546
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-312689605
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-412689664
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-512689723
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-612689782
Ref: uuid — RFC 4122 에 따른 UUID 객체-Footnote-712689841
Node: 명령줄 사용법12689900
Ref: library/uuid command-line-usage12690015
Ref: 3b4912690015
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli12690015
Ref: 43d12690015
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-h12690293
Ref: 3b4a12690293
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-help12690293
Ref: 3b4b12690293
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-u12690355
Ref: 3b4c12690355
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-uuid12690377
Ref: 3b4d12690377
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-n12690512
Ref: 3b4e12690512
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-namespace12690539
Ref: 3b4f12690539
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-N12690853
Ref: 3b5012690853
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-name12690875
Ref: 3b5112690875
Node: 예제<24>12691033
Ref: library/uuid example12691173
Ref: 3b5212691173
Ref: library/uuid uuid-example12691173
Ref: 3b5312691173
Node: 명령줄 예제12692579
Ref: library/uuid command-line-example12692691
Ref: 3b5412692691
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli-example12692691
Ref: 3b5512692691
Node: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크12693130
Ref: library/socketserver doc12693346
Ref: 3b5612693346
Ref: library/socketserver module-socketserver12693346
Ref: cd12693346
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers12693346
Ref: 3b5712693346
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver TCPServer12693962
Ref: 130f12693962
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UDPServer12694477
Ref: 3b5a12694477
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixStreamServer12694779
Ref: 3b5b12694779
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixDatagramServer12694896
Ref: 3b5c12694896
Ref: socketserver — 네트워크 서버를 위한 프레임워크-Footnote-112697642
Node: 서버 생성 노트12697714
Ref: library/socketserver server-creation-notes12697858
Ref: 3b6012697858
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingMixIn12698666
Ref: b7412698666
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn12698707
Ref: b7512698707
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn block_on_close12699471
Ref: bfa12699471
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn daemon_threads12699957
Ref: 3b6212699957
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingTCPServer12700554
Ref: 3b6312700554
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUDPServer12700599
Ref: 3b6412700599
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingTCPServer12700644
Ref: 3b6512700644
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUDPServer12700691
Ref: 3b6112700691
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixStreamServer12700738
Ref: 3b6612700738
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixDatagramServer12700790
Ref: 3b6712700790
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixStreamServer12700844
Ref: 3b6812700844
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixDatagramServer12700898
Ref: 3b6912700898
Node: 서버 객체<2>12703662
Ref: library/socketserver server-objects12703838
Ref: 3b6b12703838
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer12703883
Ref: 112e12703883
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer fileno12704358
Ref: 3b6e12704358
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_request12704660
Ref: 131212704660
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer serve_forever12705307
Ref: 113012705307
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer service_actions12706112
Ref: 112f12706112
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer shutdown12706451
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer RequestHandlerClass12707351
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer allow_reuse_address12708110
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer request_queue_size12708362
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket_type12708882
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer timeout12709076
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer finish_request12709660
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer get_request12709886
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_error12710148
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_timeout12710652
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer process_request12711147
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_activate12711580
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_bind12711864
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer verify_request12712047
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Node: 요청 처리기 객체12712711
Ref: library/socketserver request-handler-objects12712874
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler12712936
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler setup12713373
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler finish12714467
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler request12714796
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler client_address12714929
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler server12715048
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver StreamRequestHandler12715146
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler12715195
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Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler rfile12715472
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Node: 예<13>12715944
Ref: library/socketserver examples12716082
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Node: socketserver UDPServer 예12720448
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Ref: library/socketserver asynchronous-mixins12722392
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Node: http server — HTTP 서버12724867
Ref: library/http server doc12725078
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Ref: library/http server module-http server12725078
Ref: 7212725078
Ref: library/http server http server HTTPServer12726167
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Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPServer12726570
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler12727193
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server_version12730805
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler sys_version12731116
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_message_format12731387
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_content_type12731774
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler protocol_version12731969
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_error12734695
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_header12736707
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler end_headers12737732
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_request12738224
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_message12738792
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler version_string12739348
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler date_time_string12739584
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_date_time_string12740028
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Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler address_string12740154
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Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler12740458
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Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler server_version12741339
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Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler extensions_map12741512
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Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_HEAD12742071
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Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_GET12742381
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Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler12744979
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Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler cgi_directories12746387
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Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler do_POST12746656
Ref: 3ba812746656
Ref: http server — HTTP 서버-Footnote-112747627
Ref: http server — HTTP 서버-Footnote-212747698
Ref: http server — HTTP 서버-Footnote-312747757
Ref: http server — HTTP 서버-Footnote-412747816
Node: Command-line interface<2>12747887
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Ref: library/http server http-server-cli12748008
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Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-arg-port12748388
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Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-d12749053
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Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-directory12749053
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Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-protocol12749378
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Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-cgi12749699
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Node: Security considerations12750327
Ref: library/http server http-server-security12750448
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Ref: library/http server security-considerations12750448
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Node: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리12751092
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Ref: library/http cookies http-cookies-http-state-management12751304
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Ref: library/http cookies module-http cookies12751304
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies CookieError12752895
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie12753062
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies SimpleCookie12753432
Ref: 1a4a12753432
Ref: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리-Footnote-112754358
Ref: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리-Footnote-212754430
Ref: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리-Footnote-312754489
Ref: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리-Footnote-412754548
Ref: http cookies — HTTP 상태 관리-Footnote-512754607
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Ref: library/http cookies cookie-objects12754773
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Ref: library/http cookies id112754773
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_decode12754818
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_encode12755171
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie output12755679
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie js_output12756083
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie load12756398
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Node: Morsel 객체12756699
Ref: library/http cookies id212756825
Ref: 3bbf12756825
Ref: library/http cookies morsel-objects12756825
Ref: 3bc012756825
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel12756872
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel expires12757146
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel path12757176
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel comment12757203
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel domain12757233
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel secure12757293
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel version12757322
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel httponly12757352
Ref: 139912757352
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel samesite12757383
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Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel value12758688
Ref: c0012758688
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel coded_value12758735
Ref: c0112758735
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel key12758838
Ref: bff12758838
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel set12758886
Ref: c0212758886
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel isReservedKey12759014
Ref: 3bc812759014
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel output12759140
Ref: 3bbd12759140
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel js_output12759536
Ref: 3bc912759536
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel OutputString12759847
Ref: 3bca12759847
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel update12760074
Ref: ebf12760074
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel copy12760433
Ref: ebe12760433
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel setdefault12760614
Ref: 3bcb12760614
Ref: Morsel 객체-Footnote-112760882
Ref: Morsel 객체-Footnote-212760941
Ref: Morsel 객체-Footnote-312761000
Ref: Morsel 객체-Footnote-412761059
Node: 예제<25>12761118
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-example12761222
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Ref: library/http cookies example12761222
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Node: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리12762918
Ref: library/http cookiejar doc12763153
Ref: 3bce12763153
Ref: library/http cookiejar http-cookiejar-cookie-handling-for-http-clients12763153
Ref: 3bcf12763153
Ref: library/http cookiejar module-http cookiejar12763153
Ref: 7012763153
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LoadError12764889
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar12765375
Ref: 39fd12765375
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar12765923
Ref: 3bd112765923
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy12766867
Ref: 3bd212766867
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy12767055
Ref: 1a1812767055
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie12769002
Ref: 3bd712769002
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-112770835
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-212770909
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-312770968
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-412771027
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-512771086
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-612771145
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-712771204
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-812771263
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-912771322
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-1012771381
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-1112771441
Ref: http cookiejar — HTTP 클라이언트를 위한 쿠키 처리-Footnote-1212771501
Node: CookieJar와 FileCookieJar 객체12771561
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-jar-objects12771766
Ref: 3bd812771766
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects12771766
Ref: 3bd912771766
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar add_cookie_header12772092
Ref: 3bda12772092
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar extract_cookies12773083
Ref: 3bdb12773083
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_policy12774440
Ref: 3bdd12774440
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar make_cookies12774561
Ref: 3bde12774561
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie_if_ok12774864
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie12775011
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear12775164
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear_session_cookies12775740
Ref: 3be212775740
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar save12776468
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar load12777517
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar revert12778203
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar filename12778681
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar delayload12778829
Ref: 3be512778829
Node: FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력12779396
Ref: library/http cookiejar file-cookie-jar-classes12779629
Ref: 3bd512779629
Ref: library/http cookiejar filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers12779629
Ref: 3be612779629
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar MozillaCookieJar12779858
Ref: 3be712779858
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LWPCookieJar12780717
Ref: 3be812780717
Ref: FileCookieJar 서브 클래스와 웹 브라우저와의 협력-Footnote-112781258
Node: CookiePolicy 객체12781317
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-policy-objects12781543
Ref: 3be912781543
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiepolicy-objects12781543
Ref: 3bea12781543
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy set_ok12781719
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy return_ok12782077
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy domain_return_ok12782436
Ref: 3bec12782436
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy path_return_ok12784069
Ref: 3bed12784069
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy netscape12784611
Ref: 3bee12784611
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy rfc296512784694
Ref: 3bef12784694
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy hide_cookie212784779
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Ref: CookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-112785455
Ref: CookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-212785514
Node: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체12785573
Ref: library/http cookiejar default-cookie-policy-objects12785749
Ref: 3bf112785749
Ref: library/http cookiejar defaultcookiepolicy-objects12785749
Ref: 3bf212785749
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy blocked_domains12788451
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_blocked_domains12788574
Ref: 3bf412788574
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_blocked12788704
Ref: 3bf512788704
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy allowed_domains12788879
Ref: 3bf612788879
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_allowed_domains12789020
Ref: 3bf712789020
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_not_allowed12789172
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy rfc2109_as_netscape12789579
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_domain12790238
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_rfc2965_unverifiable12790612
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_unverifiable12791125
Ref: 3bfb12791125
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_domain12791297
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_initial_dollar12791516
Ref: 3bfd12791516
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_path12791669
Ref: 3bfe12791669
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNoDots12792012
Ref: 3bff12792012
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNonDomain12792304
Ref: 3c0012792304
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainRFC2965Match12792704
Ref: 3c0112792704
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainLiberal12792953
Ref: 3c0212792953
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrict12793110
Ref: 3c0312793110
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-112793266
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-212793325
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-312793384
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-412793443
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-512793502
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-612793561
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy 객체-Footnote-712793620
Node: Cookie 객체12793679
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-objects12793843
Ref: 3c0412793843
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie version12794684
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie name12795095
Ref: 3c0612795095
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie value12795153
Ref: 3c0712795153
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port12795232
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain12795388
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie path12795451
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie secure12795555
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie expires12795663
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie discard12795839
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment12795905
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment_url12796028
Ref: 3c1012796028
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie rfc210912796171
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port_specified12796624
Ref: 3c1212796624
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_specified12796804
Ref: 3c1312796804
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_initial_dot12796914
Ref: 3c1412796914
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie has_nonstandard_attr12797209
Ref: 3c1512797209
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie get_nonstandard_attr12797363
Ref: 3c1612797363
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie set_nonstandard_attr12797584
Ref: 3c1712797584
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie is_expired12797789
Ref: 3c0d12797789
Ref: Cookie 객체-Footnote-112798100
Ref: Cookie 객체-Footnote-212798159
Ref: Cookie 객체-Footnote-312798218
Ref: Cookie 객체-Footnote-412798277
Node: 예<14>12798336
Ref: library/http cookiejar examples12798465
Ref: 3c1812798465
Ref: 예<14>-Footnote-112800020
Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC 서버와 클라이언트 모듈12800079
Ref: library/xmlrpc doc12800330
Ref: 3c1912800330
Ref: library/xmlrpc module-xmlrpc12800330
Ref: 12d12800330
Ref: library/xmlrpc xmlrpc-xmlrpc-server-and-client-modules12800330
Ref: 3c1a12800330
Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스12800970
Ref: library/xmlrpc client doc12801197
Ref: 3c1b12801197
Ref: library/xmlrpc client module-xmlrpc client12801197
Ref: 12e12801197
Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc-client-xml-rpc-client-access12801197
Ref: 3c1c12801197
Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy12802544
Ref: a5312802544
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스-Footnote-112811378
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스-Footnote-212811451
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스-Footnote-312811545
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스-Footnote-412811601
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC 클라이언트 액세스-Footnote-512811660
Node: ServerProxy 객체12811706
Ref: library/xmlrpc client id112811836
Ref: 3c2012811836
Ref: library/xmlrpc client serverproxy-objects12811836
Ref: 3c2112811836
Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system listMethods12812625
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Ref: colorsys — 색 체계 간의 변환-Footnote-112909749
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Node: tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자13036576
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter simpledialog13036753
Ref: f813036753
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-simpledialog-standard-tkinter-input-dialogs13036753
Ref: 3db313036753
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askfloat13037197
Ref: 3db413037197
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askinteger13037261
Ref: 191413037261
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askstring13037327
Ref: 3db513037327
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog13037528
Ref: 3db613037528
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog body13037654
Ref: 3db713037654
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog buttonbox13037838
Ref: 3db813037838
Ref: tkinter simpledialog — 표준 Tkinter 입력 대화 상자-Footnote-113038064
Node: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자13038145
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter filedialog13038375
Ref: f413038375
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-filedialog-file-selection-dialogs13038375
Ref: 3db913038375
Ref: tkinter filedialog — 파일 선택 대화 상자-Footnote-113038841
Node: 네이티브 로드/저장 대화 상자13038920
Ref: library/dialog native-load-save-dialogs13039047
Ref: 3dba13039047
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfile13040153
Ref: 3dbb13040153
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfiles13040218
Ref: 3dbc13040218
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfile13040428
Ref: 3dbe13040428
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilename13040620
Ref: 3dc013040620
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilenames13040679
Ref: 3dc113040679
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfilename13040897
Ref: 3dc213040897
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askdirectory13041052
Ref: 3dc313041052
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Open13041328
Ref: 3dbd13041328
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveAs13041392
Ref: 3dbf13041392
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Directory13041773
Ref: 3dc413041773
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog13042066
Ref: 3dc513042066
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog cancel_command13042191
Ref: 3dc613042191
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_double_event13042296
Ref: 3dc713042296
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_select_event13042432
Ref: 3dc813042432
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_double_event13042561
Ref: 3dc913042561
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_select_event13042692
Ref: 3dca13042692
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog filter_command13042823
Ref: 3dcb13042823
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_filter13042929
Ref: 3dcc13042929
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_selection13043030
Ref: 3dcd13043030
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog go13043123
Ref: 3dce13043123
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog ok_event13043302
Ref: 3dcf13043302
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog quit13043418
Ref: 3dd013043418
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_filter13043541
Ref: 3dd113043541
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_selection13043629
Ref: 3dd213043629
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog13043733
Ref: 3dd313043733
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog ok_command13043916
Ref: 3dd413043916
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog13044072
Ref: 3dd513044072
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog ok_command13044255
Ref: 3dd613044255
Node: tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿13044473
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter commondialog13044634
Ref: f213044634
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-commondialog-dialog-window-templates13044634
Ref: 3dd713044634
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog13045028
Ref: 3da113045028
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog show13045097
Ref: 3dd813045097
Ref: tkinter commondialog — 대화창 템플릿-Footnote-113045310
Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트13045391
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox doc13045606
Ref: 3dd913045606
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox module-tkinter messagebox13045606
Ref: f613045606
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter-messagebox-tkinter-message-prompts13045606
Ref: 3dda13045606
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message13046418
Ref: 3ddf13046418
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message show13048563
Ref: 3de413048563
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showinfo13048871
Ref: 3de513048871
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showwarning13049090
Ref: 3de613049090
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showerror13049274
Ref: 3de713049274
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askquestion13049482
Ref: 3de813049482
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askokcancel13049730
Ref: 3de913049730
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askretrycancel13049993
Ref: 3dea13049993
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesno13050265
Ref: 3dec13050265
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesnocancel13050500
Ref: 3ded13050500
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-buttons13050791
Ref: 3de013050791
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORT13050819
Ref: 3dee13050819
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRY13050870
Ref: 3deb13050870
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox IGNORE13050921
Ref: 3def13050921
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OK13050974
Ref: 3ddb13050974
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox CANCEL13051019
Ref: 3ddc13051019
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YES13051072
Ref: 3ddd13051072
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox NO13051119
Ref: 3dde13051119
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-types13051163
Ref: 3de313051163
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORTRETRYIGNORE13051192
Ref: 3df013051192
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OKCANCEL13051496
Ref: 3df113051496
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRYCANCEL13051650
Ref: 3df213051650
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNO13051813
Ref: 3df313051813
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNOCANCEL13051958
Ref: 3df413051958
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-icons13052136
Ref: 3de113052136
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ERROR13052150
Ref: 3df513052150
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox INFO13052201
Ref: 3de213052201
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox QUESTION13052250
Ref: 3df613052250
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox WARNING13052307
Ref: 3df713052307
Ref: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter 메시지 프롬프트-Footnote-113052398
Node: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯13052477
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext doc13052717
Ref: 3df813052717
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext module-tkinter scrolledtext13052717
Ref: f713052717
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter-scrolledtext-scrolled-text-widget13052717
Ref: 3df913052717
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText13053751
Ref: 3dfa13053751
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText frame13053821
Ref: 3dfb13053821
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText vbar13053918
Ref: 3dfc13053918
Ref: tkinter scrolledtext — 스크롤 되는 Text 위젯-Footnote-113054013
Node: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원13054094
Ref: library/tkinter dnd doc13054313
Ref: 3dfd13054313
Ref: library/tkinter dnd module-tkinter dnd13054313
Ref: f313054313
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter-dnd-drag-and-drop-support13054313
Ref: 3dfe13054313
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler13056109
Ref: 3e0013056109
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler cancel13056338
Ref: 3e0113056338
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler finish13056447
Ref: 3e0213056447
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_motion13056562
Ref: 3e0313056562
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_release13056699
Ref: 3e0413056699
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd dnd_start13056822
Ref: 3dff13056822
Ref: tkinter dnd — 드래그 앤드 드롭 지원-Footnote-113057037
Node: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯13057108
Ref: library/tkinter ttk doc13057309
Ref: 3e0513057309
Ref: library/tkinter ttk module-tkinter ttk13057309
Ref: f913057309
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter-ttk-tk-themed-widgets13057309
Ref: 3e0613057309
Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯-Footnote-113058273
Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk 테마 위젯-Footnote-213058344
Node: Ttk 사용하기13058397
Ref: library/tkinter ttk using-ttk13058501
Ref: 3e0713058501
Ref: Ttk 사용하기-Footnote-113059826
Node: Ttk 위젯13059890
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widgets13060009
Ref: 3e0813060009
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget13061341
Ref: 3e0e13061341
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk standard-options13061766
Ref: 3e0f13061766
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Ref: 3e1013063456
Node: 레이블 옵션13064528
Ref: library/tkinter ttk label-options13064654
Ref: 3e1113064654
Node: 호환성 옵션13067242
Ref: library/tkinter ttk compatibility-options13067348
Ref: 3e1213067348
Node: 위젯 상태13067899
Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget-states13067999
Ref: 3e1413067999
Node: ttk Widget13069647
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widget13069722
Ref: 3e1513069722
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget13069915
Ref: 3e0c13069915
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget identify13069950
Ref: 3e1613069950
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget instate13070209
Ref: 3e1713070209
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget state13070598
Ref: 3e1313070598
Node: Combobox13071044
Ref: library/tkinter ttk combobox13071152
Ref: 3e1813071152
Node: 옵션13071886
Ref: library/tkinter ttk options13071962
Ref: 3e1913071962
Node: 가상 이벤트13074307
Ref: library/tkinter ttk virtual-events13074404
Ref: 3e1a13074404
Node: ttk Combobox13074593
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-combobox13074675
Ref: 3e1b13074675
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox13074722
Ref: 3e0913074722
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox current13074759
Ref: 3e1c13074759
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox get13075057
Ref: 3e1d13075057
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox set13075144
Ref: 3e1e13075144
Node: Spinbox13075240
Ref: library/tkinter ttk spinbox13075350
Ref: 3e1f13075350
Node: 옵션<2>13076143
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id113076224
Ref: 3e2013076224
Node: 가상 이벤트<2>13078457
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id213078558
Ref: 3e2113078558
Node: ttk Spinbox13078789
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-spinbox13078872
Ref: 3e2213078872
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox13078917
Ref: b9113078917
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox get13078953
Ref: 3e2313078953
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox set13079040
Ref: 3e2413079040
Node: Notebook13079136
Ref: library/tkinter ttk notebook13079249
Ref: 3e2513079249
Node: 옵션<3>13079647
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id313079720
Ref: 3e2613079720
Node: 탭 옵션13080889
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-options13080984
Ref: 3e2713080984
Node: 탭 식별자13082974
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-identifiers13083079
Ref: 3e2913083079
Node: 가상 이벤트<3>13083571
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id413083678
Ref: 3e2b13083678
Node: ttk Notebook13083831
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-notebook13083916
Ref: 3e2c13083916
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook13083963
Ref: 3e0a13083963
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook add13084000
Ref: 3e2d13084000
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook forget13084313
Ref: 3e2e13084313
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook hide13084476
Ref: 3e2f13084476
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook identify13084788
Ref: 3e3013084788
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook index13084957
Ref: 3e2a13084957
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook insert13085151
Ref: 3e3113085151
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook select13085571
Ref: 3e3213085571
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tab13085888
Ref: 3e3313085888
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tabs13086262
Ref: 3e3413086262
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook enable_traversal13086368
Ref: 3e2813086368
Node: Progressbar13087316
Ref: library/tkinter ttk progressbar13087431
Ref: 3e3513087431
Node: 옵션<4>13087924
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id513088005
Ref: 3e3613088005
Node: ttk Progressbar13089752
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-progressbar13089833
Ref: 3e3713089833
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar13089886
Ref: 3e0b13089886
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar start13089926
Ref: 3e3813089926
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar step13090228
Ref: 3e3913090228
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar stop13090401
Ref: 3e3a13090401
Node: Separator13090624
Ref: library/tkinter ttk separator13090739
Ref: 3e3b13090739
Node: 옵션<5>13090972
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id613091027
Ref: 3e3c13091027
Node: Sizegrip13091424
Ref: library/tkinter ttk sizegrip13091536
Ref: 3e3d13091536
Node: 플랫폼별 노트13091929
Ref: library/tkinter ttk platform-specific-notes13092008
Ref: 3e3e13092008
Node: 버그13092288
Ref: library/tkinter ttk bugs13092367
Ref: 3e3f13092367
Node: Treeview13092687
Ref: library/tkinter ttk treeview13092806
Ref: 3e4013092806
Node: 옵션<6>13094327
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id713094403
Ref: 3e4413094403
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk item-options13096921
Ref: 3e4513096921
Node: 태그 옵션13097930
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tag-options13098032
Ref: 3e4613098032
Node: 열 식별자13098704
Ref: library/tkinter ttk column-identifiers13098812
Ref: 3e4113098812
Node: 가상 이벤트<4>13099703
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id813099810
Ref: 3e4713099810
Node: ttk Treeview13100689
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-treeview13100774
Ref: 3e4913100774
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview13100821
Ref: a9013100821
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview bbox13100858
Ref: 3e4a13100858
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview get_children13101302
Ref: 3e4b13101302
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set_children13101498
Ref: 3e4c13101498
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview column13101916
Ref: 3e4d13101916
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview delete13103221
Ref: 3e4e13103221
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview detach13103400
Ref: 3e4f13103400
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview exists13103753
Ref: 3e5013103753
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview focus13103870
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview heading13104120
Ref: 3e5113104120
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify13105149
Ref: 3e5213105149
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_row13105415
Ref: 3e5313105415
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_column13105525
Ref: 3e5413105525
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_region13105694
Ref: 3e5513105694
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_element13106355
Ref: 3e5613106355
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview index13106494
Ref: 3e5713106494
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview insert13106619
Ref: 3e5813106619
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview item13107558
Ref: 3e5913107558
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview move13107982
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview next13108460
Ref: 3e5b13108460
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview parent13108643
Ref: 3e5c13108643
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview prev13108810
Ref: 3e5d13108810
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview reattach13108994
Ref: 3e5e13108994
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview see13109097
Ref: 3e5f13109097
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection13109382
Ref: a9113109382
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_set13109664
Ref: a9213109664
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_add13109891
Ref: 3e6013109891
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_remove13110114
Ref: 3e6113110114
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_toggle13110343
Ref: 3e6213110343
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set13110598
Ref: 3e6313110598
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_bind13111006
Ref: 3e6413111006
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_configure13111302
Ref: 3e6513111302
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_has13111797
Ref: 3e6613111797
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview xview13112120
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview yview13112230
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Node: Ttk 스타일링13112340
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Ref: 3e6713112442
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttkstyling13112442
Ref: 3e0d13112442
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style13113094
Ref: 25913113094
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style configure13113217
Ref: 3e6813113217
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style map13113950
Ref: 192413113950
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style lookup13115316
Ref: 3e6913115316
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style layout13115863
Ref: 3e6a13115863
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_create13117255
Ref: 25813117255
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_names13122893
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_options13123003
Ref: 3e6d13123003
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_create13123119
Ref: 3e6e13123119
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_settings13123569
Ref: 3e6f13123569
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_names13125030
Ref: 3e7013125030
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_use13125134
Ref: 3e7113125134
Ref: Ttk 스타일링-Footnote-113125509
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Ref: IDLE — 파이썬 편집기와 셸-Footnote-113128297
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Ref: library/idle format-menu13134607
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Ref: library/idle format-menu-editor-window-only13134607
Ref: 3e7b13134607
Node: Run 메뉴 편집기 창 전용13136290
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Ref: library/idle run-module13136522
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Ref: library/idle run-custom13137112
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Ref: library/idle check-module13137449
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Ref: library/idle python-shell13137818
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Node: Shell 메뉴 셸 창 전용13137884
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Node: 어떤 독스트링을 검사합니까?13466472
Ref: library/doctest doctest-which-docstrings13466619
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Ref: library/doctest which-docstrings-are-examined13466619
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Node: 독스트링 예제는 어떻게 인식됩니까?13468650
Ref: library/doctest doctest-finding-examples13468845
Ref: 3fea13468845
Ref: library/doctest how-are-docstring-examples-recognized13468845
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Node: 실행 컨텍스트란 무엇입니까?13472247
Ref: library/doctest doctest-execution-context13472433
Ref: 3fef13472433
Ref: library/doctest what-s-the-execution-context13472433
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Node: 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?13473346
Ref: library/doctest doctest-exceptions13473499
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Ref: library/doctest what-about-exceptions13473499
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Ref: library/doctest option-flags-and-directives13478535
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Ref: 예외는 어떻게 됩니까?-Footnote-113478572
Node: 옵션 플래그13478858
Ref: library/doctest doctest-options13478981
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Ref: library/doctest option-flags13478981
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_113479612
Ref: 3ff513479612
Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE13480346
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Ref: library/doctest doctest NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE13480790
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Ref: library/doctest doctest ELLIPSIS13481279
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Ref: library/doctest doctest IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL13481784
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Ref: library/doctest doctest SKIP13483254
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Ref: library/doctest doctest COMPARISON_FLAGS13483870
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Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_UDIFF13484072
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Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE13485012
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Ref: library/doctest doctest FAIL_FAST13485624
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Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORTING_FLAGS13486011
Ref: 3ffa13486011
Ref: library/doctest doctest register_optionflag13486332
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Node: 지시자13486897
Ref: library/doctest directives13486999
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Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-directive13487247
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Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-directive_option_name13487552
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Node: 경고<2>13489957
Ref: library/doctest doctest-warnings13490034
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Node: 기본 API13492110
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Ref: library/doctest doctest testmod13497333
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Ref: library/doctest doctest run_docstring_examples13499344
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Node: Unittest API13500421
Ref: library/doctest doctest-unittest-api13500556
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Ref: library/doctest unittest-api13500556
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocFileSuite13501429
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Ref: library/doctest doctest set_unittest_reportflags13509203
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Node: 고급 API13510438
Ref: library/doctest advanced-api13510572
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Ref: library/doctest doctest-advanced-api13510572
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Node: DocTest 객체13512837
Ref: library/doctest doctest-doctest13512921
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest13512970
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest examples13513409
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest globs13513589
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest lineno13514333
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest docstring13514599
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Node: Example 객체13514780
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Ref: library/doctest doctest Example13514942
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Ref: library/doctest doctest Example indent13516739
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Node: DocTestFinder 객체13517389
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFinder13517569
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Node: DocTestParser 객체13521114
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestParser get_examples13521969
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Node: TestResults 객체13522749
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Ref: library/doctest doctest TestResults failed13522985
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Ref: library/doctest doctest TestResults attempted13523045
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Node: DocTestRunner 객체13523207
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Node: OutputChecker 객체13530342
Ref: library/doctest doctest-outputchecker13530438
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Ref: library/doctest doctest OutputChecker check_output13531043
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Node: 디버깅13531910
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Node: 맺음말<2>13540746
Ref: library/doctest doctest-soapbox13540861
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Ref: library/doctest soapbox13540861
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Node: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크13545516
Ref: library/unittest doc13545724
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Ref: library/unittest module-unittest13545724
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Ref: library/unittest unittest-unit-testing-framework13545724
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Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-113549813
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-213549891
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-313549984
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-413550017
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-513550081
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-613550139
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-713550169
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-813550201
Ref: unittest — 단위 테스트 프레임워크-Footnote-913550245
Node: 기본 예시13550279
Ref: library/unittest basic-example13550408
Ref: 404d13550408
Ref: library/unittest unittest-minimal-example13550408
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Node: 명령행 인터페이스13553798
Ref: library/unittest command-line-interface13553962
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Ref: library/unittest unittest-command-line-interface13553962
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Node: 명령행 옵션13555594
Ref: library/unittest command-line-options13555672
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-b13555793
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-locals13557545
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-durations13557640
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Node: 테스트 탐색 Discovery13558111
Ref: library/unittest test-discovery13558292
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Ref: library/unittest unittest-test-discovery13558292
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-v13559385
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-start-directory13559435
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Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-t13559642
Ref: 406213559642
Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-top-level-directory13559642
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Node: 테스트 코드 구조 잡기13562433
Ref: library/unittest organizing-test-code13562638
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Ref: library/unittest organizing-tests13562638
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Node: 이전의 테스트 코드를 다시 사용하기13568437
Ref: library/unittest legacy-unit-tests13568658
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Ref: library/unittest re-using-old-test-code13568658
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Node: 테스트 건너뛰기와 예상된 실패13570586
Ref: library/unittest skipping-tests-and-expected-failures13570849
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Ref: library/unittest unittest expectedFailure13574852
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Ref: library/unittest unittest SkipTest13575211
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Node: 부분 테스트 subtest 를 사용하여 테스트 반복 구별 짓기13575855
Ref: library/unittest distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests13576088
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Node: 클래스와 함수13578844
Ref: library/unittest classes-and-functions13579064
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Node: 테스트 케이스13579289
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Node: 테스트를 로드하고 실행하기13633945
Ref: library/unittest loading-and-running-tests13634064
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult expectedFailures13648109
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Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestRunner run13658594
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Ref: library/unittest unittest main13659001
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Node: load_tests 프로토콜13662543
Ref: library/unittest id113662641
Ref: 406413662641
Ref: library/unittest load-tests-protocol13662641
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Node: 클래스와 모듈 픽스쳐13665769
Ref: library/unittest class-and-module-fixtures13665939
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Node: setUpClass 와 tearDownClass13668267
Ref: library/unittest setupclass-and-teardownclass13668400
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Node: setUpModule 과 tearDownModule13669426
Ref: library/unittest setupmodule-and-teardownmodule13669559
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Ref: library/unittest unittest addModuleCleanup13670213
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Ref: library/unittest unittest enterModuleContext13670860
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Ref: library/unittest unittest doModuleCleanups13671180
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Node: 시그널 처리하기13671882
Ref: library/unittest signal-handling13672024
Ref: 405613672024
Ref: library/unittest unittest installHandler13673505
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Ref: library/unittest unittest removeResult13674361
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Node: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리13675034
Ref: library/unittest mock doc13675224
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Ref: library/unittest mock module-unittest mock13675224
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Ref: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리-Footnote-113677197
Ref: unittest mock — 모의 객체 라이브러리-Footnote-213677270
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Ref: library/unittest mock quick-guide13677429
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Node: Mock 클래스13683370
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ThreadingMock wait_until_any_call_with13723907
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ThreadingMock DEFAULT_TIMEOUT13724522
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Ref: Mock 클래스-Footnote-113724888
Node: 호출<2>13725380
Ref: library/unittest mock calling13725471
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Node: 어트리뷰트 삭제13728957
Ref: library/unittest mock deleting-attributes13729103
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Ref: library/unittest mock id213729103
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Node: 모의 객체 이름과 이름 어트리뷰트13730039
Ref: library/unittest mock mock-names-and-the-name-attribute13730224
Ref: 40d513730224
Node: 모의 객체를 어트리뷰트로 연결하기13730894
Ref: library/unittest mock attaching-mocks-as-attributes13731048
Ref: 40d613731048
Node: 패처13733115
Ref: library/unittest mock the-patchers13733273
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Node: patch13733955
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Node: patch object13744128
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Node: patch dict13745882
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Node: patch multiple13750506
Ref: library/unittest mock patch-multiple13750621
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Node: 패처 메서드 start와 stop13753586
Ref: library/unittest mock patch-methods-start-and-stop13753704
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Ref: library/unittest mock start-and-stop13753704
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch stopall13756684
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Node: 내장 패치13756814
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Ref: library/unittest mock patch-builtins13756929
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Node: TEST_PREFIX13757275
Ref: library/unittest mock id513757395
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Ref: library/unittest mock test-prefix13757395
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Node: 패치 데코레이터 중첩하기13758373
Ref: library/unittest mock nesting-patch-decorators13758493
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Node: 패치할 곳13759500
Ref: library/unittest mock id613759657
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Ref: library/unittest mock where-to-patch13759657
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Node: 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기13761694
Ref: library/unittest mock patching-descriptors-and-proxy-objects13761807
Ref: 40e613761807
Ref: 디스크립터와 프락시 객체 패치하기-Footnote-113762346
Node: MagicMock과 매직 메서드 지원13762471
Ref: library/unittest mock magicmock-and-magic-method-support13762624
Ref: 40e713762624
Node: 매직 메서드 모킹하기13762780
Ref: library/unittest mock magic-methods13762911
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Ref: library/unittest mock mocking-magic-methods13762911
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Ref: 매직 메서드 모킹하기-Footnote-113767100
Ref: 매직 메서드 모킹하기-Footnote-213767397
Node: 매직 모의 객체13767548
Ref: library/unittest mock magic-mock13767679
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock MagicMock13767847
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock NonCallableMagicMock13768359
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Node: 도우미13771916
Ref: library/unittest mock helpers13772120
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Node: sentinel13772315
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Node: DEFAULT13773835
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Node: call13774238
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock call call_list13774943
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Ref: library/unittest mock calls-as-tuples13776022
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Node: create_autospec13777668
Ref: library/unittest mock create-autospec13777754
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock create_autospec13777807
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Node: ANY13779241
Ref: library/unittest mock any13779333
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ANY13779362
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Node: FILTER_DIR13780618
Ref: library/unittest mock filter-dir13780704
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock FILTER_DIR13780747
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Node: mock_open13782897
Ref: library/unittest mock mock-open13782993
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock mock_open13783034
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Ref: mock_open-Footnote-113786259
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Ref: library/unittest mock auto-speccing13786403
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Ref: library/unittest mock autospeccing13786403
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Ref: 자동 사양-Footnote-113796322
Node: 실링 모의 객체 봉인하기13796627
Ref: library/unittest mock sealing-mocks13796728
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Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock seal13796807
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Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps13797741
Ref: library/unittest mock order-of-precedence-of-side-effect-return-value-and-wraps13797900
Ref: 40f613797900
Node: unittest mock — 시작하기13801983
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples doc13802177
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples unittest-mock-getting-started13802177
Ref: 40f813802177
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples getting-started13802279
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Node: 모의 객체 사용하기13802362
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples using-mock13802486
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Node: 메서드를 패치하는 모의 객체13803071
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-patching-methods13803232
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Node: 객체의 메서드 호출을 위한 모의 객체13804969
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object13805161
Ref: 40fc13805161
Node: 클래스 모킹하기13806482
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-classes13806665
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Node: 모의 객체 이름 붙이기13807833
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples naming-your-mocks13807992
Ref: 40fe13807992
Node: 모든 호출 추적하기13808518
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples tracking-all-calls13808697
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Node: 반환 값과 어트리뷰트 설정하기13810272
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples setting-return-values-and-attributes13810460
Ref: 410013810460
Node: 모의 객체로 예외 발생시키기13812085
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples raising-exceptions-with-mocks13812279
Ref: 410113812279
Node: 부작용 함수와 이터러블13812693
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples side-effect-functions-and-iterables13812883
Ref: 410213812883
Node: 비동기 이터레이터 모킹하기13814002
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-asynchronous-iterators13814198
Ref: 410313814198
Node: 비동기 컨텍스트 관리자 모킹하기13814855
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-asynchronous-context-manager13815062
Ref: 410413815062
Node: 기존 객체에서 모의 객체 만들기13816013
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object13816226
Ref: 410513816226
Node: Using side_effect to return per file content13818337
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples using-side-effect-to-return-per-file-content13818496
Ref: 410613818496
Node: 패치 데코레이터13819347
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples patch-decorators13819490
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Node: 추가 예13825308
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples further-examples13825416
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples id113825416
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Node: 연쇄 호출 모킹하기13826113
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-chained-calls13826208
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Node: 부분 모킹13829702
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples partial-mocking13829844
Ref: 410b13829844
Ref: 부분 모킹-Footnote-113832188
Node: 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기13832289
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-a-generator-method13832461
Ref: 410c13832461
Ref: 제너레이터 메서드 모킹하기-Footnote-113833761
Node: 모든 테스트 메서드에 같은 패치 적용하기13834095
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Node: 연결되지 않은 메서드 모킹하기13836791
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-unbound-methods13836997
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Ref: library/unittest mock-examples checking-multiple-calls-with-mock13839265
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Node: 가변 인자에 대처하기13841030
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples coping-with-mutable-arguments13841180
Ref: 411013841180
Node: 중첩 패치13845743
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples nesting-patches13845891
Ref: 411113845891
Node: MagicMock으로 딕셔너리 모킹하기13847768
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock13847931
Ref: 411213847931
Node: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트13850845
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes13851034
Ref: 411313851034
Ref: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트-Footnote-113853457
Ref: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트-Footnote-213853707
Ref: Mock 서브 클래스와 그 어트리뷰트-Footnote-313853765
Node: patch dict로 임포트를 모킹하기13853846
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-imports-with-patch-dict13854048
Ref: 411413854048
Node: 호출 순서 추적과 덜 상세한 호출 어서션13857136
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions13857321
Ref: 411513857321
Node: 더 복잡한 인자 일치13860965
Ref: library/unittest mock-examples more-complex-argument-matching13861102
Ref: 411613861102
Ref: 더 복잡한 인자 일치-Footnote-113864420
Ref: 더 복잡한 인자 일치-Footnote-213864463
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Ref: library/test doc13864794
Ref: 411713864794
Ref: library/test module-test13864794
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Ref: library/test test-regression-tests-package-for-python13864794
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Node: test 패키지를 위한 단위 테스트 작성하기13866476
Ref: library/test writing-tests13866690
Ref: 411913866690
Ref: library/test writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package13866690
Ref: 411a13866690
Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스를 사용하여 테스트 실행하기13871995
Ref: library/test module-test regrtest13872209
Ref: e313872209
Ref: library/test regrtest13872209
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Ref: library/test running-tests-using-the-command-line-interface13872209
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Node: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티13874522
Ref: library/test module-test support13874764
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Ref: library/test test-support-utilities-for-the-python-test-suite13874764
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Ref: library/test test support TestFailed13875349
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Ref: library/test test support ResourceDenied13875591
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Ref: library/test test support is_jython13876171
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Ref: library/test test support is_android13876274
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Ref: library/test test support unix_shell13876367
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Ref: library/test test support LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT13876480
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Ref: library/test test support INTERNET_TIMEOUT13877195
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Ref: library/test test support SHORT_TIMEOUT13877822
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Ref: library/test test support LONG_TIMEOUT13878302
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Ref: library/test test support PGO13878908
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Ref: library/test test support PIPE_MAX_SIZE13879029
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Ref: library/test test support Py_DEBUG13879197
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Ref: library/test test support SOCK_MAX_SIZE13879407
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Ref: library/test test support TEST_SUPPORT_DIR13879571
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Ref: library/test test support MAX_Py_ssize_t13879941
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Ref: library/test test support max_memuse13880076
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Ref: library/test test support MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS13880553
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Ref: library/test test support HAVE_DOCSTRINGS13880845
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Ref: library/test test support TEST_HTTP_URL13881125
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Ref: library/test test support ALWAYS_EQ13881253
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Ref: library/test test support NEVER_EQ13881385
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Ref: library/test test support LARGEST13881577
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Ref: library/test test support SMALLEST13881737
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Ref: library/test test support busy_retry13881970
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Ref: library/test test support sleeping_retry13882603
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Ref: test support — 파이썬 테스트 스위트용 유틸리티-Footnote-113905280
Node: test support socket_helper — 소켓 테스트용 유틸리티13905360
Ref: library/test module-test support socket_helper13905626
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Node: test support script_helper — 파이썬 실행 테스트용 유틸리티13909363
Ref: library/test module-test support script_helper13909667
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Node: test support bytecode_helper — 올바른 바이트 코드 생성 테스트를 위한 지원 도구13914787
Ref: library/test module-test support bytecode_helper13915097
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Node: test support threading_helper — threading 테스트용 유틸리티13916225
Ref: library/test module-test support threading_helper13916517
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Node: test support os_helper — os 테스트용 유틸리티13919365
Ref: library/test module-test support os_helper13919623
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Node: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티13926567
Ref: library/test module-test support import_helper13926823
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Ref: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티-Footnote-113931562
Ref: test support import_helper — 임포트 테스트용 유틸리티-Footnote-213931604
Node: test support warnings_helper — warnings 테스트용 유틸리티13931646
Ref: library/test module-test support warnings_helper13931838
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Node: 디버깅과 프로파일링13937311
Ref: library/debug doc13937475
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Ref: library/audit_events doc13938499
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Ref: library/audit_events audit-events-table13938499
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Ref: 감사 이벤트 표-Footnote-113997475
Node: bdb — 디버거 프레임워크13997517
Ref: library/bdb doc13997702
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Ref: bdb — 디버거 프레임워크-Footnote-114016369
Node: faulthandler — 파이썬 트레이스백 덤프14016432
Ref: library/faulthandler doc14016624
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-dump-the-python-traceback14016624
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Ref: library/faulthandler module-faulthandler14016624
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Node: 트레이스백 덤프하기14019445
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback14019591
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback14019659
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Node: 결함 처리기 상태14020132
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Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout14021928
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback_later14022032
Ref: dfb14022032
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler cancel_dump_traceback_later14023297
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Node: 사용자 시그널에 트레이스백 덤프하기14023432
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal14023666
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler register14023773
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler unregister14024543
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Node: 파일 기술자 관련 문제14024903
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-fd14025098
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Ref: library/faulthandler issue-with-file-descriptors14025098
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Node: 예제<26>14025597
Ref: library/faulthandler example14025732
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Node: pdb — 파이썬 디버거14026303
Ref: library/pdb doc14026487
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Ref: library/pdb debugger14026487
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Ref: library/pdb pdb-the-python-debugger14026487
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Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-c14029559
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Ref: library/pdb pdb runeval14031901
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Ref: library/pdb pdb set_trace14032611
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Ref: library/pdb pdb post_mortem14033265
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Ref: library/pdb pdb pm14033663
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb14034082
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb runcall14035959
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb set_trace14036013
Ref: 424014036013
Ref: pdb — 파이썬 디버거-Footnote-114036202
Ref: pdb — 파이썬 디버거-Footnote-214036265
Ref: pdb — 파이썬 디버거-Footnote-314036307
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Node: 결정론적 프로파일링이란 무엇입니까?14084740
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Ref: library/profile using-a-custom-timer14091653
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Ref: timeit — 작은 코드 조각의 실행 시간 측정-Footnote-114095466
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Node: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적14111146
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Ref: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적-Footnote-114112212
Ref: trace — 파이썬 문장 실행 추적-Footnote-214112277
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Ref: ensurepip — pip 설치 프로그램 부트스트랩-Footnote-114156820
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Node: venv — 가상 환경 생성14161433
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Ref: library/venv module-venv14161667
Ref: 11114161667
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Ref: 431b14164355
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Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-symlinks14166468
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Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-copies14166595
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Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-clear14166721
Ref: 432114166721
Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-upgrade14166853
Ref: 432214166853
Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-without-pip14166996
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Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-prompt14167129
Ref: 432414167129
Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-upgrade-deps14167226
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Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-without-scm-ignore-files14167323
Ref: 432614167323
Ref: 가상 환경 만들기<2>-Footnote-114169514
Node: How venvs work14169569
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Ref: library/venv venv-explanation14169699
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Node: API<2>14174283
Ref: library/venv api14174411
Ref: 432814174411
Ref: library/venv venv-api14174411
Ref: eea14174411
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder14174675
Ref: 26a14174675
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create14177067
Ref: 432a14177067
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder ensure_directories14178367
Ref: 432b14178367
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create_configuration14181112
Ref: 432c14181112
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder setup_python14181233
Ref: 432d14181233
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder setup_scripts14181652
Ref: 432e14181652
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder upgrade_dependencies14181791
Ref: 433114181791
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder post_setup14182185
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder install_scripts14182410
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create_git_ignore_file14183896
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Ref: library/venv venv create14184848
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Ref: API<2>-Footnote-114185520
Ref: API<2>-Footnote-214185558
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Ref: library/venv an-example-of-extending-envbuilder14185708
Ref: 433214185708
Ref: EnvBuilder 확장 예제-Footnote-114195751
Node: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리14195798
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Ref: library/zipapp module-zipapp14195970
Ref: 13014195970
Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-manage-executable-python-zip-archives14195970
Ref: 433414195970
Ref: zipapp — 실행 가능한 파이썬 zip 아카이브 관리-Footnote-114196838
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Ref: library/zipapp basic-example14197053
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-command-line-interface14197660
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Ref: library/zipapp python-api14200388
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-python-api14200388
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp create_archive14200492
Ref: bad14200492
Ref: library/zipapp zipapp get_interpreter14204631
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Ref: library/zipapp examples14205208
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-examples14205208
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Node: 인터프리터 지정하기14206781
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter14206984
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Node: zipapp으로 독립형 응용 프로그램 만들기14208483
Ref: library/zipapp creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp14208732
Ref: 434a14208732
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Ref: library/zipapp caveats14210881
Ref: 434b14210881
Node: 파이썬 Zip 응용 프로그램 아카이브 형식14211726
Ref: library/zipapp the-python-zip-application-archive-format14211938
Ref: 434c14211938
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Ref: library/python doc14214338
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Ref: library/python python14214338
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Ref: library/python python-runtime-services14214338
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Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions14215304
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Ref: library/sys module-sys14215475
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Ref: library/sys sys-system-specific-parameters-and-functions14215475
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Ref: library/sys sys abiflags14215899
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Ref: library/sys sys addaudithook14216325
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Ref: library/sys sys argv14218673
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Ref: library/sys auditing14219720
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Ref: library/sys sys audit14219720
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Ref: library/sys sys base_exec_prefix14221346
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Ref: library/sys sys base_prefix14221973
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Ref: library/sys sys byteorder14222590
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Ref: library/sys sys builtin_module_names14222859
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Ref: library/sys sys call_tracing14223197
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Ref: library/sys sys copyright14223718
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Ref: library/sys sys _clear_type_cache14223827
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Ref: library/sys sys _clear_internal_caches14224321
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Ref: library/sys sys _current_frames14224558
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Ref: library/sys sys _current_exceptions14225569
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Ref: library/sys sys breakpointhook14226272
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Ref: library/sys sys _debugmallocstats14228423
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Ref: library/sys sys dllhandle14228912
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Ref: library/sys sys displayhook14229035
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Ref: library/sys sys dont_write_bytecode14230666
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info14231110
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info emscripten_version14231330
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info runtime14231487
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info pthreads14231639
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info shared_memory14231761
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Ref: library/sys sys pycache_prefix14231953
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Ref: library/sys sys excepthook14232936
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Ref: library/sys sys __breakpointhook__14234452
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Ref: library/sys sys __displayhook__14234490
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Ref: library/sys sys __excepthook__14234525
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Ref: library/sys sys __unraisablehook__14234559
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Ref: library/sys sys exception14235051
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Ref: library/sys sys exc_info14235519
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Ref: library/sys sys exec_prefix14236524
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Ref: library/sys sys executable14237493
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Ref: library/sys sys exit14237828
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Ref: library/sys sys flags14239627
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Ref: library/sys sys flags debug14239828
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Ref: library/sys sys flags isolated14240431
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Ref: library/sys sys flags optimize14240630
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Ref: library/sys sys flags dont_write_bytecode14240863
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Ref: library/sys sys flags no_user_site14241056
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Ref: library/sys sys flags no_site14241251
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Ref: library/sys sys flags verbose14241650
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Ref: library/sys sys flags bytes_warning14241856
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Ref: library/sys sys flags quiet14242047
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Ref: library/sys sys flags hash_randomization14242260
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Ref: library/sys sys flags dev_mode14242450
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Ref: library/sys sys flags utf8_mode14242692
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Ref: library/sys sys flags safe_path14242896
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Ref: library/sys sys flags int_max_str_digits14243104
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Ref: library/sys sys flags warn_default_encoding14243443
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info14244591
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info epsilon14245547
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info dig14246341
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info mant_dig14246854
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max14247348
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_exp14247733
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_10_exp14248235
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min14248735
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_exp14249676
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_10_exp14250168
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info radix14250564
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info rounds14250935
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Ref: library/sys sys float_repr_style14253853
Ref: 12ea14253853
Ref: library/sys sys getallocatedblocks14254498
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Ref: library/sys sys getunicodeinternedsize14255140
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Ref: library/sys sys getandroidapilevel14255280
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Ref: library/sys sys getdefaultencoding14255620
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Ref: library/sys sys getdlopenflags14255788
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Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencoding14256096
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Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencodeerrors14257566
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Ref: library/sys sys getrefcount14258537
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Ref: library/sys sys getrecursionlimit14259321
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Ref: library/sys sys getsizeof14259679
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Ref: library/sys sys getswitchinterval14260737
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Ref: library/sys sys _getframe14260918
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Ref: library/sys sys getwindowsversion14263987
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Ref: library/sys sys get_asyncgen_hooks14266690
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info modulus14268107
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info inf14268203
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info nan14268294
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info algorithm14268479
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info seed_bits14268702
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Ref: library/sys sys hexversion14268926
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Ref: library/sys sys implementation14269925
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info default_max_str_digits14272730
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info str_digits_check_threshold14272913
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Ref: library/sys sys __interactivehook__14273304
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Ref: library/sys sys _is_gil_enabled14274814
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Ref: library/sys sys is_finalizing14275089
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Ref: library/sys sys last_exc14275349
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Ref: library/sys sys _is_interned14275927
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Ref: library/sys sys last_type14276198
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Ref: library/sys sys last_value14276227
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Ref: library/sys sys maxunicode14276750
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Ref: library/sys sys meta_path14277169
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Ref: library/sys sys modules14278523
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Ref: library/sys sys orig_argv14279136
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Ref: library/sys sys path14279617
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Ref: library/sys sys path_hooks14280925
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Ref: library/sys sys platlibdir14284071
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Ref: library/sys sys prefix14285166
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Ref: library/sys sys ps114285780
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Ref: library/sys sys setdlopenflags14286329
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Ref: library/sys sys setprofile14287160
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Ref: library/sys sys settrace14291474
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Ref: library/sys sys set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth14297869
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Ref: library/sys sys activate_stack_trampoline14298792
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Ref: library/sys sys deactivate_stack_trampoline14299162
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Ref: library/sys sys is_stack_trampoline_active14299410
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Ref: library/sys sys _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding14299589
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Ref: library/sys sys stdin14300587
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Ref: library/sys sys stdout14300612
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Ref: library/sys sys stderr14300638
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Ref: library/sys sys __stdout__14304114
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Ref: library/sys sys stdlib_module_names14305216
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info14305956
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info name14306067
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info lock14306418
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Ref: library/sys sys unraisablehook14307285
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Ref: library/sys sys api_version14309643
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Ref: library/sys sys warnoptions14310538
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Ref: library/sys sys winver14310797
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Ref: library/sys sys _xoptions14311445
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Ref: library/sys c9914312264
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Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-114312476
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Node: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring14313342
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Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-NO_EVENTS14319574
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Node: Local events14319902
Ref: library/sys monitoring local-events14319982
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Node: Ancillary events14320468
Ref: library/sys monitoring ancillary-events14320569
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Node: Other events14321012
Ref: library/sys monitoring other-events14321125
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Node: The STOP_ITERATION event14321448
Ref: library/sys monitoring the-stop-iteration-event14321536
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Ref: The STOP_ITERATION event-Footnote-114322179
Node: Turning events on and off14322260
Ref: library/sys monitoring turning-events-on-and-off14322421
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Node: Setting events globally14322782
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring get_events14323048
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Node: Per code object events14323424
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Node: Disabling events14324455
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring DISABLE14324619
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring restart_events14325237
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Node: Registering callback functions14325397
Ref: library/sys monitoring callbacks14325543
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring register_callback14325666
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Node: Callback function arguments14326389
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring MISSING14326560
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Node: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기14328223
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-provide-access-to-python-s-configuration-information14328437
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Ref: sysconfig — 파이썬의 구성 정보에 접근하기-Footnote-114329097
Node: 구성 변수14329163
Ref: library/sysconfig configuration-variables14329291
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Node: 설치 경로14330686
Ref: library/sysconfig id114330834
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Ref: library/sysconfig installation-paths14330834
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Node: User scheme14333460
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Node: posix_user14334135
Ref: library/sysconfig posix-user14334209
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Node: nt_user14335052
Ref: library/sysconfig nt-user14335153
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Node: osx_framework_user14335984
Ref: library/sysconfig osx-framework-user14336066
Ref: 43c514336066
Node: Home scheme14336905
Ref: library/sysconfig home-scheme14337051
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Node: posix_home14337532
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Node: posix_prefix14339934
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Node: nt14340935
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_default_scheme14342329
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_preferred_scheme14342699
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Node: 기타 함수<3>14346213
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_platform14346616
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig is_python_build14347840
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_makefile_filename14348716
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-cli14348815
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Node: __name__ == '__main__'14352912
Ref: library/__main__ name-equals-main14353046
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Ref: library/__main__ name-main14353046
Ref: 43dd14353046
Node: “최상위 코드 환경” 이란 무엇인가요?14353830
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Node: Idiomatic Usage14356039
Ref: library/__main__ idiomatic-usage14356208
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Node: Packaging Considerations14358238
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Ref: library/__main__ main-py-in-python-packages14360082
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Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>14361495
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Ref: library/warnings warning-disable14381054
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Node: 새 버전의 종속성에 대한 코드 갱신14386427
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Ref: library/warnings warning-ignored14386594
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Ref: library/warnings warning-functions14388472
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Ref: library/warnings warnings warn14388534
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Ref: 사용 가능한 함수-Footnote-114396989
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Ref: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스-Footnote-214401091
Ref: dataclasses — 데이터 클래스-Footnote-314401133
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses field14412132
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses Field14417202
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses InitVar14418048
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses fields14418459
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses asdict14418945
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses astuple14420127
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses make_dataclass14420981
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses replace14422903
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses is_dataclass14424666
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses MISSING14425201
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses KW_ONLY14425309
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses FrozenInstanceError14426257
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Ref: 클래스 변수-Footnote-114429542
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-init-only-variables14429732
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Ref: library/dataclasses init-only-variables14429732
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-frozen14431248
Ref: 43fd14431248
Ref: library/dataclasses frozen-instances14431248
Ref: 440814431248
Node: 계승14431975
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-inheritance14432140
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Ref: library/dataclasses inheritance14432140
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Ref: library/dataclasses re-ordering-of-keyword-only-parameters-in-init14433372
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Ref: library/dataclasses mutable-default-values14435617
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib-utilities-for-with-statement-contexts14440234
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Ref: library/contextlib module-contextlib14440234
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Ref: contextlib — with 문 컨텍스트를 위한 유틸리티-Footnote-114440983
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Ref: library/contextlib utilities14441192
Ref: 441114441192
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractContextManager14441268
Ref: c8a14441268
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractAsyncContextManager14441782
Ref: b2814441782
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib contextmanager14442317
Ref: 11f114442317
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib asynccontextmanager14445762
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib closing14447960
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib aclosing14449285
Ref: 7e614449285
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib nullcontext14450439
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib suppress14452360
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stdout14453985
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stderr14455678
Ref: de314455678
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib chdir14455986
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ContextDecorator14456738
Ref: 11f014456738
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncContextDecorator14459379
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack14460472
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack enter_context14462574
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack push14463229
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack callback14464296
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack pop_all14464779
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack close14465955
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack14466236
Ref: b2914466236
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack enter_async_context14466631
Ref: 5d014466631
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_exit14466988
Ref: 441814466988
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_callback14467177
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack aclose14467358
Ref: 441714467358
Node: 예제와 조리법<3>14468000
Ref: library/contextlib examples-and-recipes14468218
Ref: 441914468218
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Ref: library/contextlib supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers14468898
Ref: 441a14468898
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Ref: library/contextlib catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods14470259
Ref: 441b14470259
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Ref: library/contextlib cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation14471760
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Ref: 441d14473924
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Ref: 함수 데코레이터로 컨텍스트 관리자 사용하기-Footnote-114478699
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Ref: f2014478938
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Ref: 441f14478938
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Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-context-managers14480860
Ref: 442014480860
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Ref: 442114482746
Ref: library/contextlib reusable-context-managers14482746
Ref: 442214482746
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Ref: library/abc abc-abstract-base-classes14485911
Ref: 442414485911
Ref: library/abc module-abc14485911
Ref: 414485911
Ref: library/abc abc ABC14487128
Ref: f0f14487128
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta14488088
Ref: f1014488088
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta register14489064
Ref: 107f14489064
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta __subclasshook__14489830
Ref: 253914489830
Ref: library/abc abc abstractmethod14493088
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Ref: library/abc abc abstractclassmethod14496593
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Ref: library/abc abc abstractstaticmethod14497381
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Ref: library/abc abc abstractproperty14498176
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Ref: library/abc abc get_cache_token14499725
Ref: f0e14499725
Ref: library/abc abc update_abstractmethods14500166
Ref: 442514500166
Ref: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-114500849
Ref: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-214500912
Ref: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-314500954
Ref: abc — 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-414500996
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Ref: 442614501327
Ref: library/atexit atexit-exit-handlers14501327
Ref: 442714501327
Ref: library/atexit module-atexit14501327
Ref: c14501327
Ref: library/atexit atexit register14502430
Ref: 87914502430
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Ref: 442814504109
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Ref: 442914504920
Ref: library/atexit id114504920
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Ref: fe14506477
Ref: library/traceback traceback-print-or-retrieve-a-stack-traceback14506477
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Ref: traceback — 스택 트레이스백 인쇄와 조회-Footnote-114508482
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exception14509817
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exc14511386
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception_only14514486
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary lineno14529024
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_colno14529889
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Ref: 445314535951
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Ref: library/__future__ doc14538862
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Ref: library/__future__ future-future-statement-definitions14538862
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Ref: library/__future__ module-contents14540654
Ref: 445614540654
Ref: library/__future__ future__ nested_scopes14541348
Ref: 445714541348
Ref: library/__future__ future__ generators14541761
Ref: 445814541761
Ref: library/__future__ future__ division14542164
Ref: 445914542164
Ref: library/__future__ future__ absolute_import14542570
Ref: 445a14542570
Ref: library/__future__ future__ with_statement14542989
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ print_function14543393
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Ref: gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스-Footnote-114562049
Ref: gc — 가비지 수거기 인터페이스-Footnote-214562138
Node: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사14562180
Ref: library/inspect doc14562376
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Ref: inspect — 라이브 객체 검사-Footnote-114563787
Node: 형과 멤버14563854
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Node: 소스 코드 가져오기14591699
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Node: Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기14595448
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Ref: Signature 객체로 콜러블 검사하기-Footnote-114612421
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Node: 정적으로 어트리뷰트 가져오기14631469
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Node: 제너레이터 코루틴 및 비동기 제너레이터의 현재 상태14634421
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Ref: 코드 객체 비트 플래그-Footnote-114641644
Ref: 코드 객체 비트 플래그-Footnote-214641686
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Node: 명령 줄 인터페이스<8>14642827
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Node: site — 사이트별 구성 훅14643464
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Ref: site — 사이트별 구성 훅-Footnote-114649165
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Ref: library/zipimport examples14682226
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Node: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티14682922
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Ref: library/pkgutil module-pkgutil14683153
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil ModuleInfo14683456
Ref: d4814683456
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil extend_path14683630
Ref: 15ed14683630
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil find_loader14685561
Ref: 2cc14685561
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_importer14686365
Ref: 450214686365
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_loader14686949
Ref: 2cd14686949
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_importers14687924
Ref: 118914687924
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_modules14688753
Ref: d4714688753
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil walk_packages14689695
Ref: bfc14689695
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_data14691501
Ref: 450314691501
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil resolve_name14692752
Ref: 450514692752
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-114694871
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-214694938
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-314694980
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-414695022
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-514695064
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-614695106
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-714695148
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-814695190
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-914695232
Ref: pkgutil — 패키지 확장 유틸리티-Footnote-1014695274
Node: modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기14695340
Ref: library/modulefinder doc14695564
Ref: 450614695564
Ref: library/modulefinder module-modulefinder14695564
Ref: 9114695564
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script14695564
Ref: 450714695564
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder AddPackagePath14696158
Ref: 450814696158
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ReplacePackage14696307
Ref: 450914696307
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder14696513
Ref: 1a0a14696513
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder report14697276
Ref: 450b14697276
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder run_script14697530
Ref: 450a14697530
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder modules14697666
Ref: 450c14697666
Ref: modulefinder — 스크립트에서 사용되는 모듈 찾기-Footnote-114697908
Node: ModuleFinder의 사용 예14697980
Ref: library/modulefinder example-usage-of-modulefinder14698105
Ref: 450e14698105
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-example14698105
Ref: 450d14698105
Node: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행14699458
Ref: library/runpy doc14699671
Ref: 450f14699671
Ref: library/runpy module-runpy14699671
Ref: be14699671
Ref: library/runpy runpy-locating-and-executing-python-modules14699671
Ref: 451014699671
Ref: library/runpy runpy run_module14700809
Ref: 181214700809
Ref: library/runpy runpy run_path14704534
Ref: 18114704534
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-114709475
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-214709540
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-314709582
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-414709624
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-514709666
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-614709708
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-714709750
Ref: runpy — 파이썬 모듈 찾기와 실행-Footnote-814709792
Node: importlib — import의 구현14709834
Ref: library/importlib doc14710052
Ref: 451114710052
Ref: library/importlib importlib-the-implementation-of-import14710052
Ref: 451214710052
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib14710052
Ref: 7714710052
Ref: importlib — import의 구현-Footnote-114710739
Node: 소개<6>14710818
Ref: library/importlib introduction14710913
Ref: 451314710913
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-114713283
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-214713335
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-314713377
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-414713419
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-514713461
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-614713503
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-714713545
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-814713587
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-914713629
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-1014713671
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-1114713714
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-1214713757
Ref: 소개<6>-Footnote-1314713800
Node: 함수<11>14713843
Ref: library/importlib functions14714011
Ref: 451414714011
Ref: library/importlib importlib __import__14714042
Ref: 106314714042
Ref: library/importlib importlib import_module14714359
Ref: 51114714359
Ref: library/importlib importlib invalidate_caches14715844
Ref: c0d14715844
Ref: library/importlib importlib reload14716508
Ref: 51214716508
Node: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스14720524
Ref: library/importlib importlib-abc-abstract-base-classes-related-to-import14720730
Ref: 451514720730
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib abc14720730
Ref: 7814720730
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder14721578
Ref: 86914721578
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder find_spec14721808
Ref: 86314721808
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder invalidate_caches14722609
Ref: 451614722609
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder14723068
Ref: 86a14723068
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder find_spec14723541
Ref: 86714723541
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder invalidate_caches14724210
Ref: 451714724210
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader14724544
Ref: ebd14724544
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader create_module14725022
Ref: cab14725022
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader exec_module14725484
Ref: 86514725484
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader load_module14726007
Ref: 86414726007
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader14728244
Ref: be414728244
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader get_data14728757
Ref: 450414728757
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader14729650
Ref: f4c14729650
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_code14729856
Ref: f4d14729856
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_source14730453
Ref: f5014730453
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader is_package14731157
Ref: 451914731157
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader source_to_code14731582
Ref: e0d14731582
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader exec_module14732334
Ref: 100814732334
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader load_module14732464
Ref: 451a14732464
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader14732704
Ref: 451b14732704
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader get_filename14732966
Ref: 451c14732966
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader14733609
Ref: 106914733609
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader name14734112
Ref: 451d14734112
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader path14734195
Ref: 451e14734195
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader load_module14734254
Ref: 451f14734254
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_filename14734505
Ref: 452014734505
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_data14734614
Ref: 452114734614
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader14734760
Ref: 452214734760
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_stats14736104
Ref: 117b14736104
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_mtime14736907
Ref: 117a14736907
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader set_data14737475
Ref: 452314737475
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_code14738012
Ref: 452414738012
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader exec_module14738119
Ref: 100914738119
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader load_module14738256
Ref: 452514738256
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_source14738503
Ref: 101714738503
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader is_package14738614
Ref: 452614738614
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader14739047
Ref: afa14739047
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader open_resource14741196
Ref: 452714741196
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader resource_path14741506
Ref: 452814741506
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader is_resource14741803
Ref: 452914741803
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader contents14742054
Ref: 1a4b14742054
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable14743091
Ref: 188b14743091
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable name14743567
Ref: 452a14743567
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable iterdir14743682
Ref: 452b14743682
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_dir14743787
Ref: 452c14743787
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_file14743892
Ref: 452d14743892
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable joinpath14743993
Ref: 452e14743993
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable __truediv__14744097
Ref: 452f14744097
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable open14744210
Ref: 453014744210
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_bytes14744577
Ref: 453114744577
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_text14744661
Ref: 453214744661
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources14744756
Ref: 188914744756
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources files14745590
Ref: 453314745590
Ref: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-114745781
Ref: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-214745854
Ref: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-314745896
Ref: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-414745938
Ref: importlib abc – import와 관련된 추상 베이스 클래스-Footnote-514745980
Node: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅14746022
Ref: library/importlib importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks14746276
Ref: 453414746276
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib machinery14746276
Ref: 7914746276
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SOURCE_SUFFIXES14746645
Ref: 50d14746645
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14746815
Ref: 453514746815
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14747119
Ref: 453614747119
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14747411
Ref: 50f14747411
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery EXTENSION_SUFFIXES14747726
Ref: 50e14747726
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery all_suffixes14747899
Ref: 447414747899
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BuiltinImporter14748381
Ref: cac14748381
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FrozenImporter14749012
Ref: 101514749012
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery WindowsRegistryFinder14749503
Ref: d2714749503
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder14750081
Ref: 101914750081
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder find_spec14750441
Ref: 100714750441
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder invalidate_caches14751727
Ref: c0c14751727
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder14752417
Ref: 106814752417
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path14753735
Ref: 453714753735
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder find_spec14753800
Ref: ebc14753800
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder invalidate_caches14753996
Ref: 453814753996
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path_hook14754080
Ref: 453914754080
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader14754578
Ref: 106a14754578
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader name14754866
Ref: 453a14754866
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path14754942
Ref: 453b14754942
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader is_package14755001
Ref: 453c14755001
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path_stats14755161
Ref: 453d14755161
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader set_data14755293
Ref: 453e14755293
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader load_module14755427
Ref: d2514755427
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader14755790
Ref: 106b14755790
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader name14756310
Ref: 453f14756310
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader path14756382
Ref: 454014756382
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader is_package14756451
Ref: 454114756451
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_code14756582
Ref: 454214756582
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_source14756736
Ref: 454314756736
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader load_module14756909
Ref: d2614756909
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader14757241
Ref: cad14757241
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader name14757892
Ref: 454414757892
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader path14757967
Ref: 454514757967
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader create_module14758026
Ref: 454614758026
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader exec_module14758187
Ref: 454714758187
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader is_package14758341
Ref: 454814758341
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_code14758551
Ref: 454914758551
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_source14758681
Ref: 454a14758681
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_filename14758813
Ref: f5114758813
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespaceLoader14758940
Ref: f4e14758940
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec14759606
Ref: 1e6c14759606
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec name14760458
Ref: 1f2014760458
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader14760665
Ref: 2e514760665
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec origin14760914
Ref: 454b14760914
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec submodule_search_locations14761413
Ref: 1f2414761413
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader_state14762060
Ref: 454c14762060
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec cached14762301
Ref: 2d814762301
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec parent14762596
Ref: 2da14762596
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec has_location14762921
Ref: 454d14762921
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader14763205
Ref: 1e6b14763205
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader name14766505
Ref: 454e14766505
Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader path14766580
Ref: 454f14766580
Ref: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅-Footnote-114766695
Ref: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅-Footnote-214766775
Ref: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅-Footnote-314766817
Ref: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅-Footnote-414766859
Ref: importlib machinery – 임포터와 경로 훅-Footnote-514766901
Node: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드14766943
Ref: library/importlib importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers14767140
Ref: 455014767140
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib util14767140
Ref: 7d14767140
Ref: library/importlib importlib util MAGIC_NUMBER14767498
Ref: 50c14767498
Ref: library/importlib importlib util cache_from_source14767773
Ref: 2f614767773
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_from_cache14769870
Ref: 51314769870
Ref: library/importlib importlib util decode_source14770577
Ref: f4f14770577
Ref: library/importlib importlib util resolve_name14770893
Ref: 90714770893
Ref: library/importlib importlib util find_spec14771913
Ref: 2ce14771913
Ref: library/importlib importlib util module_from_spec14772962
Ref: e0e14772962
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_loader14773716
Ref: 86814773716
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_file_location14774193
Ref: cae14774193
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_hash14774690
Ref: 455114774690
Ref: library/importlib importlib util _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions14774976
Ref: 455214774976
Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader14776092
Ref: caa14776092
Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader factory14777703
Ref: 455314777703
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-114778306
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-214778380
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-314778422
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-414778464
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-514778506
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-614778548
Ref: importlib util – 임포터를 위한 유틸리티 코드-Footnote-714778590
Node: 예<17>14778632
Ref: library/importlib examples14778773
Ref: 455414778773
Ref: library/importlib importlib-examples14778773
Ref: 455514778773
Node: 프로그래밍 방식으로 임포트 하기14779096
Ref: library/importlib importing-programmatically14779244
Ref: 455614779244
Node: 모듈을 임포트 할 수 있는지 확인하기14779541
Ref: library/importlib checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported14779738
Ref: 455714779738
Node: 소스 파일을 직접 임포트 하기14780684
Ref: library/importlib importing-a-source-file-directly14780861
Ref: 455814780861
Node: Implementing lazy imports14782071
Ref: library/importlib implementing-lazy-imports14782220
Ref: 455914782220
Node: 임포터 설정하기14782973
Ref: library/importlib setting-up-an-importer14783118
Ref: 455a14783118
Node: importlib import_module 근사하기14784789
Ref: library/importlib approximating-importlib-import-module14784900
Ref: 455b14784900
Node: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access14786425
Ref: library/importlib resources doc14786663
Ref: 455c14786663
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-package-resource-reading-opening-and-access14786663
Ref: 455d14786663
Ref: library/importlib resources module-importlib resources14786663
Ref: 7b14786663
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Anchor14788700
Ref: 455e14788700
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources files14788902
Ref: 48814788902
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources as_file14789941
Ref: 48714789941
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-114790779
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-214790868
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-314790939
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-414791033
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-514791105
Node: Functional API14791182
Ref: library/importlib resources functional-api14791300
Ref: 455f14791300
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-functional14791300
Ref: 456014791300
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_binary14792542
Ref: 1ed14792542
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_text14793026
Ref: 1ee14793026
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_binary14793971
Ref: 1f014793971
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_text14794382
Ref: 1f114794382
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources path14795251
Ref: 1ef14795251
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources is_resource14796239
Ref: 1ec14796239
Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources contents14796707
Ref: 1f214796707
Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources14797406
Ref: library/importlib resources abc doc14797672
Ref: 456114797672
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib-resources-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-resources14797672
Ref: 456214797672
Ref: library/importlib resources abc module-importlib resources abc14797672
Ref: 7c14797672
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader14797963
Ref: 451814797963
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader open_resource14799763
Ref: 456314799763
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader resource_path14800027
Ref: 456414800027
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader is_resource14800266
Ref: 456514800266
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader contents14800483
Ref: 456614800483
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable14801355
Ref: 1f314801355
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable name14801645
Ref: 456714801645
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable iterdir14801760
Ref: 456814801760
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_dir14801853
Ref: 456914801853
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_file14801952
Ref: 456a14801952
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable joinpath14802047
Ref: 456b14802047
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable __truediv__14803165
Ref: 456c14803165
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable open14803314
Ref: 456d14803314
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_bytes14803681
Ref: 456e14803681
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_text14803759
Ref: 456f14803759
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources14803848
Ref: 2c614803848
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources files14804376
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Ref: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources-Footnote-114804567
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Node: winsound — 윈도우용 소리 재생 인터페이스15133991
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ALIAS15136434
Ref: 47d815136434
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_LOOP15138242
Ref: 47da15138242
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_MEMORY15138483
Ref: 47dc15138483
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_PURGE15138915
Ref: 47dd15138915
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ASYNC15139119
Ref: 47db15139119
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NODEFAULT15139238
Ref: 47d915139238
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOSTOP15139386
Ref: 47de15139386
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOWAIT15139486
Ref: 47df15139486
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_APPLICATION15139684
Ref: 47e015139684
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONASTERISK15139924
Ref: 47e115139924
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONEXCLAMATION15140018
Ref: 47e215140018
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONHAND15140119
Ref: 47e315140119
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONQUESTION15140206
Ref: 47e415140206
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_OK15140301
Ref: 47e515140301
Node: Unix-specific services15140385
Ref: library/unix doc15140557
Ref: 47e615140557
Ref: library/unix unix15140557
Ref: 47e715140557
Ref: library/unix unix-specific-services15140557
Ref: 47e815140557
Node: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석15141261
Ref: library/shlex doc15141414
Ref: 47e915141414
Ref: library/shlex module-shlex15141414
Ref: c415141414
Ref: library/shlex shlex-simple-lexical-analysis15141414
Ref: 47ea15141414
Ref: library/shlex shlex split15142005
Ref: 53615142005
Ref: library/shlex shlex join15142686
Ref: a2315142686
Ref: library/shlex shlex quote15143226
Ref: 27d15143226
Ref: library/shlex shlex-quote-warning15143487
Ref: 323a15143487
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex15145157
Ref: cca15145157
Ref: shlex — 간단한 어휘 분석-Footnote-115147627
Node: shlex 객체15147692
Ref: library/shlex id115147803
Ref: 47ee15147803
Ref: library/shlex shlex-objects15147803
Ref: 47ef15147803
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex get_token15147928
Ref: 47f015147928
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_token15148374
Ref: 47f115148374
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex read_token15148472
Ref: 47f315148472
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex sourcehook15148771
Ref: 47f415148771
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_source15150449
Ref: 47f615150449
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex pop_source15150807
Ref: 47f715150807
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex error_leader15151085
Ref: 47f815151085
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex commenters15151954
Ref: 47eb15151954
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex wordchars15152172
Ref: 47ed15152172
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace15152833
Ref: 47fa15152833
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escape15153056
Ref: 47fb15153056
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex quotes15153221
Ref: 47fc15153221
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escapedquotes15153539
Ref: 47fd15153539
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace_split15153789
Ref: 47f915153789
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex infile15154339
Ref: 47ec15154339
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex instream15154600
Ref: 47fe15154600
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex source15154714
Ref: 47f515154714
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex debug15155311
Ref: 47ff15155311
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex lineno15155630
Ref: 480015155630
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex token15155737
Ref: 480115155737
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex eof15155861
Ref: 47f215155861
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex punctuation_chars15156056
Ref: 19d815156056
Node: 구문 분석 규칙15156471
Ref: library/shlex parsing-rules15156617
Ref: 480215156617
Ref: library/shlex shlex-parsing-rules15156617
Ref: 480315156617
Node: 셸과의 호환성 향상15158865
Ref: library/shlex improved-compatibility-with-shells15158990
Ref: 480415158990
Ref: library/shlex improved-shell-compatibility15158990
Ref: ccb15158990
Node: posix — 가장 일반적인 POSIX 시스템 호출15161977
Ref: library/posix doc15162172
Ref: 480515162172
Ref: library/posix module-posix15162172
Ref: ad15162172
Ref: library/posix posix-the-most-common-posix-system-calls15162172
Ref: 480615162172
Node: 대용량 파일 지원15163573
Ref: library/posix large-file-support15163723
Ref: 480715163723
Ref: library/posix posix-large-files15163723
Ref: 480815163723
Node: 주목할만한 모듈 내용15164826
Ref: library/posix notable-module-contents15164976
Ref: 480915164976
Ref: library/posix posix-contents15164976
Ref: 480a15164976
Ref: library/posix posix environ15165183
Ref: 480b15165183
Node: pwd — 암호 데이터베이스15166485
Ref: library/pwd doc15166680
Ref: 480c15166680
Ref: library/pwd module-pwd15166680
Ref: b215166680
Ref: library/pwd pwd-the-password-database15166680
Ref: 480d15166680
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwuid15169095
Ref: 1a3715169095
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwnam15169226
Ref: 322a15169226
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwall15169355
Ref: 480e15169355
Node: grp — 그룹 데이터베이스15169635
Ref: library/grp doc15169816
Ref: 480f15169816
Ref: library/grp grp-the-group-database15169816
Ref: 481015169816
Ref: library/grp module-grp15169816
Ref: 6615169816
Ref: library/grp grp getgrgid15171597
Ref: d2315171597
Ref: library/grp grp getgrnam15171955
Ref: 322915171955
Ref: library/grp grp getgrall15172173
Ref: 159f15172173
Node: termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어15172427
Ref: library/termios doc15172606
Ref: 481115172606
Ref: library/termios module-termios15172606
Ref: e115172606
Ref: library/termios termios-posix-style-tty-control15172606
Ref: 481215172606
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetattr15173763
Ref: 167d15173763
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetattr15174388
Ref: 16ff15174388
Ref: library/termios termios TCSANOW15174728
Ref: 481315174728
Ref: library/termios termios TCSADRAIN15174819
Ref: 481415174819
Ref: library/termios termios TCSAFLUSH15174953
Ref: 481515174953
Ref: library/termios termios tcsendbreak15175138
Ref: 481615175138
Ref: library/termios termios tcdrain15175406
Ref: 481715175406
Ref: library/termios termios tcflush15175535
Ref: 481815175535
Ref: library/termios termios tcflow15175819
Ref: 481915175819
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetwinsize15176207
Ref: 481a15176207
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetwinsize15176449
Ref: 481b15176449
Ref: termios — POSIX 스타일 tty 제어-Footnote-115177049
Node: 예제<31>15177096
Ref: library/termios example15177181
Ref: 481c15177181
Ref: library/termios termios-example15177181
Ref: 481d15177181
Node: tty — 터미널 제어 함수15177958
Ref: library/tty doc15178141
Ref: 481e15178141
Ref: library/tty module-tty15178141
Ref: 10015178141
Ref: library/tty tty-terminal-control-functions15178141
Ref: 481f15178141
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakeraw15178601
Ref: 16d315178601
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakecbreak15178823
Ref: 168015178823
Ref: library/tty tty setraw15179391
Ref: 16d215179391
Ref: library/tty tty setcbreak15179909
Ref: 167f15179909
Ref: tty — 터미널 제어 함수-Footnote-115180960
Node: pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티15181023
Ref: library/pty doc15181209
Ref: 482015181209
Ref: library/pty module-pty15181209
Ref: b115181209
Ref: library/pty pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities15181209
Ref: 482115181209
Ref: library/pty pty fork15181975
Ref: 175f15181975
Ref: library/pty pty openpty15182576
Ref: 2cf15182576
Ref: library/pty pty spawn15182924
Ref: f7a15182924
Ref: pty — 의사 터미널 유틸리티-Footnote-115185409
Node: 예제<32>15185472
Ref: library/pty example15185556
Ref: 482215185556
Ref: 예제<32>-Footnote-115186812
Node: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출15186858
Ref: library/fcntl doc15187046
Ref: 482315187046
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls15187046
Ref: 482415187046
Ref: library/fcntl module-fcntl15187046
Ref: 5915187046
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl fcntl15190708
Ref: 346e15190708
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl ioctl15192621
Ref: 144015192621
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl flock15195220
Ref: 41d315195220
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl lockf15195842
Ref: 13b515195842
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_UN15196208
Ref: 482515196208
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_SH15196276
Ref: 482615196276
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_EX15196344
Ref: 482715196344
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_NB15196415
Ref: 482815196415
Ref: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출-Footnote-115198846
Ref: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출-Footnote-215198891
Ref: fcntl — fcntl과 ioctl 시스템 호출-Footnote-315198936
Node: resource — 자원 사용 정보15198981
Ref: library/resource doc15199182
Ref: 482915199182
Ref: library/resource module-resource15199182
Ref: bc15199182
Ref: library/resource resource-resource-usage-information15199182
Ref: 482a15199182
Ref: library/resource resource error15199749
Ref: 482b15199749
Ref: resource — 자원 사용 정보-Footnote-115200052
Node: 자원 제한<2>15200094
Ref: library/resource resource-limits15200205
Ref: 482c15200205
Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_INFINITY15201239
Ref: 152415201239
Ref: library/resource resource getrlimit15201352
Ref: 152315201352
Ref: library/resource resource setrlimit15201697
Ref: 152515201697
Ref: library/resource resource prlimit15203038
Ref: f8115203038
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CORE15204862
Ref: 417715204862
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CPU15205138
Ref: 482e15205138
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_FSIZE15205573
Ref: 482f15205573
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_DATA15205676
Ref: 483015205676
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_STACK15205772
Ref: 483115205772
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RSS15205997
Ref: 483215205997
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPROC15206122
Ref: 483315206122
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NOFILE15206232
Ref: 482d15206232
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_OFILE15206346
Ref: 483415206346
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MEMLOCK15206432
Ref: 483515206432
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_VMEM15206538
Ref: 483615206538
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_AS15206723
Ref: 483715206723
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE15206848
Ref: f8215206848
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NICE15207028
Ref: f8315207028
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTPRIO15207231
Ref: f8415207231
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTTIME15207385
Ref: f8515207385
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SIGPENDING15207660
Ref: f8615207660
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SBSIZE15207848
Ref: f8715207848
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SWAP15208173
Ref: f8815208173
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPTS15208598
Ref: f8915208598
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_KQUEUES15208790
Ref: 18ef15208790
Ref: 자원 제한<2>-Footnote-115209003
Ref: 자원 제한<2>-Footnote-215209052
Ref: 자원 제한<2>-Footnote-315209101
Node: 자원 사용량15209168
Ref: library/resource resource-usage15209279
Ref: 483815209279
Ref: library/resource resource getrusage15209403
Ref: 13f915209403
Ref: library/resource resource getpagesize15214306
Ref: 483915214306
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_SELF15214611
Ref: 483a15214611
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_CHILDREN15214862
Ref: 483b15214862
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_BOTH15215087
Ref: 483c15215087
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_THREAD15215343
Ref: 483d15215343
Ref: 자원 사용량-Footnote-115215624
Node: syslog — 유닉스 syslog 라이브러리 루틴15215673
Ref: library/syslog doc15215824
Ref: 483e15215824
Ref: library/syslog module-syslog15215824
Ref: dc15215824
Ref: library/syslog syslog-unix-syslog-library-routines15215824
Ref: 483f15215824
Ref: library/syslog syslog syslog15216552
Ref: 53b15216552
Ref: library/syslog syslog openlog15218109
Ref: 53915218109
Ref: library/syslog syslog closelog15219571
Ref: 53a15219571
Ref: library/syslog syslog setlogmask15220498
Ref: 41d815220498
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_EMERG15221203
Ref: 484215221203
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ALERT15221235
Ref: 484315221235
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CRIT15221267
Ref: 484415221267
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ERR15221298
Ref: 484515221298
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_WARNING15221328
Ref: 484615221328
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NOTICE15221362
Ref: 484715221362
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_INFO15221395
Ref: 484015221395
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_DEBUG15221426
Ref: 484815221426
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_AUTH15221515
Ref: 484915221515
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_AUTHPRIV15221546
Ref: 484a15221546
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CRON15221581
Ref: 484b15221581
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_DAEMON15221612
Ref: 484c15221612
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_FTP15221645
Ref: 484d15221645
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_INSTALL15221675
Ref: 484e15221675
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_KERN15221709
Ref: 484f15221709
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LAUNCHD15221740
Ref: 485015221740
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LPR15221774
Ref: 485115221774
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_MAIL15221804
Ref: 485215221804
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NETINFO15221835
Ref: 485315221835
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NEWS15221869
Ref: 485415221869
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_RAS15221900
Ref: 485515221900
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_REMOTEAUTH15221930
Ref: 485615221930
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_SYSLOG15221967
Ref: 485715221967
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_USER15222000
Ref: 484115222000
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_UUCP15222031
Ref: 485815222031
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL015222062
Ref: 485915222062
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL115222095
Ref: 485a15222095
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL215222128
Ref: 485b15222128
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL315222161
Ref: 485c15222161
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL415222194
Ref: 485d15222194
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL515222227
Ref: 485e15222227
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL615222260
Ref: 485f15222260
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL715222293
Ref: 486015222293
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_PID15222784
Ref: 486115222784
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CONS15222814
Ref: 486215222814
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NDELAY15222845
Ref: 486315222845
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ODELAY15222878
Ref: 486415222878
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NOWAIT15222911
Ref: 486515222911
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_PERROR15222944
Ref: 486615222944
Node: 예제<33>15223175
Ref: library/syslog examples15223272
Ref: 486715223272
Node: 간단한 예제15223336
Ref: library/syslog simple-example15223399
Ref: 486815223399
Node: Modules command-line interface CLI15223917
Ref: library/cmdline doc15224076
Ref: 486915224076
Ref: library/cmdline modules-command-line-interface-cli15224076
Ref: 486a15224076
Node: 대체된 모듈15225610
Ref: library/superseded doc15225762
Ref: 486b15225762
Ref: library/superseded superseded15225762
Ref: 486c15225762
Ref: library/superseded superseded-modules15225762
Ref: 486d15225762
Ref: 대체된 모듈-Footnote-115226874
Node: getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기15226916
Ref: library/getopt doc15227029
Ref: 486e15227029
Ref: library/getopt getopt-c-style-parser-for-command-line-options15227029
Ref: 486f15227029
Ref: library/getopt module-getopt15227029
Ref: 6115227029
Ref: library/getopt getopt getopt15228540
Ref: 148115228540
Ref: library/getopt getopt gnu_getopt15231027
Ref: 148015231027
Ref: library/getopt getopt GetoptError15231657
Ref: 487015231657
Ref: library/getopt getopt error15232250
Ref: 487115232250
Ref: getopt — 명령 줄 옵션용 C 스타일 구문 분석기-Footnote-115235601
Node: Removed Modules15235667
Ref: library/removed doc15235811
Ref: 487215235811
Ref: library/removed removed15235811
Ref: 487315235811
Ref: library/removed removed-modules15235811
Ref: 487415235811
Node: aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기15237266
Ref: library/aifc doc15237422
Ref: 487515237422
Ref: library/aifc aifc-read-and-write-aiff-and-aifc-files15237422
Ref: 487615237422
Ref: library/aifc module-aifc15237422
Ref: 515237422
Ref: aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기-Footnote-115237937
Ref: aifc — AIFF와 AIFC 파일 읽고 쓰기-Footnote-215237979
Node: asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기15238037
Ref: library/asynchat doc15238241
Ref: 487715238241
Ref: library/asynchat asynchat-asynchronous-socket-command-response-handler15238241
Ref: 487815238241
Ref: library/asynchat module-asynchat15238241
Ref: 915238241
Ref: asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기-Footnote-115238846
Ref: asynchat — 비동기 소켓 명령/응답 처리기-Footnote-215238888
Node: asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기15238950
Ref: library/asyncore doc15239157
Ref: 487915239157
Ref: library/asyncore asyncore-asynchronous-socket-handler15239157
Ref: 487a15239157
Ref: library/asyncore module-asyncore15239157
Ref: b15239157
Ref: asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기-Footnote-115239738
Ref: asyncore — 비동기 소켓 처리기-Footnote-215239780
Node: audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작15239842
Ref: library/audioop doc15240049
Ref: 487b15240049
Ref: library/audioop audioop-manipulate-raw-audio-data15240049
Ref: 487c15240049
Ref: library/audioop module-audioop15240049
Ref: d15240049
Ref: audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작-Footnote-115240570
Ref: audioop — 원시 오디오 데이터 조작-Footnote-215240612
Node: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원15240673
Ref: library/cgi doc15240903
Ref: 487d15240903
Ref: library/cgi cgi-common-gateway-interface-support15240903
Ref: 487e15240903
Ref: library/cgi module-cgi15240903
Ref: 1515240903
Ref: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원-Footnote-115241640
Ref: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원-Footnote-215241682
Ref: cgi — 공통 게이트웨이 인터페이스 지원-Footnote-315241727
Node: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자15241784
Ref: library/cgitb doc15242009
Ref: 487f15242009
Ref: library/cgitb cgitb-traceback-manager-for-cgi-scripts15242009
Ref: 488015242009
Ref: library/cgitb module-cgitb15242009
Ref: 1615242009
Ref: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자-Footnote-115242765
Ref: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자-Footnote-215242807
Ref: cgitb — CGI 스크립트를 위한 트레이스백 관리자-Footnote-315242852
Node: chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기15242911
Ref: library/chunk doc15243129
Ref: 488115243129
Ref: library/chunk chunk-read-iff-chunked-data15243129
Ref: 488215243129
Ref: library/chunk module-chunk15243129
Ref: 1715243129
Ref: chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기-Footnote-115243640
Ref: chunk — IFF 청크된 데이터 읽기-Footnote-215243682
Node: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수15243741
Ref: library/crypt doc15243944
Ref: 488315243944
Ref: library/crypt crypt-function-to-check-unix-passwords15243944
Ref: 488415243944
Ref: library/crypt module-crypt15243944
Ref: 2815243944
Ref: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수-Footnote-115244794
Ref: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수-Footnote-215244836
Ref: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수-Footnote-315244882
Ref: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수-Footnote-415244923
Ref: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수-Footnote-515244969
Ref: crypt — 유닉스 비밀번호 확인 함수-Footnote-615245011
Node: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치15245070
Ref: library/distutils doc15245267
Ref: 488515245267
Ref: library/distutils distutils-building-and-installing-python-modules15245267
Ref: 488615245267
Ref: library/distutils module-distutils15245267
Ref: 3915245267
Ref: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치-Footnote-115245834
Ref: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치-Footnote-215245876
Ref: distutils — 파이썬 모듈 빌드와 설치-Footnote-315245935
Node: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단15245998
Ref: library/imghdr doc15246183
Ref: 488715246183
Ref: library/imghdr imghdr-determine-the-type-of-an-image15246183
Ref: 488815246183
Ref: library/imghdr module-imghdr15246183
Ref: 7515246183
Ref: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단-Footnote-115246914
Ref: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단-Footnote-215246956
Ref: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단-Footnote-315246999
Ref: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단-Footnote-415247043
Ref: imghdr — 이미지 유형 판단-Footnote-515247090
Node: imp — 임포트 내부 액세스15247150
Ref: library/imp doc15247321
Ref: 488915247321
Ref: library/imp imp-access-the-import-internals15247321
Ref: 488a15247321
Ref: library/imp module-imp15247321
Ref: 7615247321
Ref: imp — 임포트 내부 액세스-Footnote-115247932
Node: mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리15247989
Ref: library/mailcap doc15248186
Ref: 488b15248186
Ref: library/mailcap mailcap-mailcap-file-handling15248186
Ref: 488c15248186
Ref: library/mailcap module-mailcap15248186
Ref: 8c15248186
Ref: mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리-Footnote-115248691
Ref: mailcap — Mailcap 파일 처리-Footnote-215248733
Node: msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기15248794
Ref: library/msilib doc15249019
Ref: 488d15249019
Ref: library/msilib module-msilib15249019
Ref: 9215249019
Ref: library/msilib msilib-read-and-write-microsoft-installer-files15249019
Ref: 488e15249019
Ref: msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기-Footnote-115249566
Ref: msilib — 마이크로소프트 설치 파일 읽고 쓰기-Footnote-215249608
Node: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스15249668
Ref: library/nis doc15249905
Ref: 488f15249905
Ref: library/nis module-nis15249905
Ref: 9c15249905
Ref: library/nis nis-interface-to-suns-nis-yellow-pages15249905
Ref: 489015249905
Ref: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스-Footnote-115250454
Ref: nis — Sun의 NIS 옐로 페이지 에 대한 인터페이스-Footnote-215250496
Node: nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트15250553
Ref: library/nntplib doc15250783
Ref: 489115250783
Ref: library/nntplib module-nntplib15250783
Ref: 9d15250783
Ref: library/nntplib nntplib-nntp-protocol-client15250783
Ref: 489215250783
Ref: nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-115251307
Ref: nntplib — NNTP 프로토콜 클라이언트-Footnote-215251349
Node: ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스15251410
Ref: library/ossaudiodev doc15251633
Ref: 489315251633
Ref: library/ossaudiodev module-ossaudiodev15251633
Ref: a315251633
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev-access-to-oss-compatible-audio-devices15251633
Ref: 489415251633
Ref: ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스-Footnote-115252176
Ref: ossaudiodev — OSS 호환 오디오 장치 액세스-Footnote-215252218
Node: pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스15252283
Ref: library/pipes doc15252482
Ref: 489515252482
Ref: library/pipes module-pipes15252482
Ref: a815252482
Ref: library/pipes pipes-interface-to-shell-pipelines15252482
Ref: 489615252482
Ref: pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스-Footnote-115253093
Ref: pipes — 셸 파이프라인에 대한 인터페이스-Footnote-215253135
Node: smtpd — SMTP 서버15253194
Ref: library/smtpd doc15253378
Ref: 489715253378
Ref: library/smtpd module-smtpd15253378
Ref: c915253378
Ref: library/smtpd smtpd-smtp-server15253378
Ref: 489815253378
Ref: smtpd — SMTP 서버-Footnote-115254029
Ref: smtpd — SMTP 서버-Footnote-215254071
Ref: smtpd — SMTP 서버-Footnote-315254114
Node: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단15254173
Ref: library/sndhdr doc15254343
Ref: 489915254343
Ref: library/sndhdr module-sndhdr15254343
Ref: cb15254343
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file15254343
Ref: 489a15254343
Ref: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단-Footnote-115255081
Ref: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단-Footnote-215255123
Ref: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단-Footnote-315255166
Ref: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단-Footnote-415255210
Ref: sndhdr — 음향 파일 유형 판단-Footnote-515255257
Node: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스15255317
Ref: library/spwd doc15255503
Ref: 489b15255503
Ref: library/spwd module-spwd15255503
Ref: ce15255503
Ref: library/spwd spwd-the-shadow-password-database15255503
Ref: 489c15255503
Ref: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스-Footnote-115256188
Ref: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스-Footnote-215256230
Ref: spwd — 섀도 암호 데이터베이스-Footnote-315256275
Node: sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기15256333
Ref: library/sunau doc15256517
Ref: 489d15256517
Ref: library/sunau module-sunau15256517
Ref: d715256517
Ref: library/sunau sunau-read-and-write-sun-au-files15256517
Ref: 489e15256517
Ref: sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기-Footnote-115257026
Ref: sunau — Sun AU 파일 읽고 쓰기-Footnote-215257068
Node: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트15257127
Ref: library/telnetlib doc15257315
Ref: 489f15257315
Ref: library/telnetlib module-telnetlib15257315
Ref: df15257315
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib-telnet-client15257315
Ref: 48a015257315
Ref: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트-Footnote-115258037
Ref: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트-Footnote-215258079
Ref: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트-Footnote-315258124
Ref: telnetlib — 텔넷 클라이언트-Footnote-415258167
Node: uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩15258230
Ref: library/uu doc15258428
Ref: 48a115258428
Ref: library/uu module-uu15258428
Ref: 10f15258428
Ref: library/uu uu-encode-and-decode-uuencode-files15258428
Ref: 48a215258428
Ref: uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-115258947
Ref: uu — uuencode 파일 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-215258989
Node: xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩15259045
Ref: library/xdrlib doc15259198
Ref: 48a315259198
Ref: library/xdrlib module-xdrlib15259198
Ref: 11f15259198
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib-encode-and-decode-xdr-data15259198
Ref: 48a415259198
Ref: library/security_warnings security-warnings15259688
Ref: 48a515259688
Ref: xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-115259724
Ref: xdrlib — XDR 데이터 인코딩과 디코딩-Footnote-215259766
Node: Security Considerations<2>15259826
Ref: library/security_warnings doc15259945
Ref: 48a615259945
Ref: library/security_warnings security-considerations15259945
Ref: 48a715259945
Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-115261724
Node: 파이썬 인터프리터 확장 및 내장15261783
Ref: extending/index doc15261954
Ref: 48a815261954
Ref: extending/index extending-and-embedding-the-python-interpreter15261954
Ref: 48a915261954
Ref: extending/index extending-index15261954
Ref: 1be215261954
Node: 권장 제삼자 도구15263486
Ref: extending/index recommended-third-party-tools15263638
Ref: 48aa15263638
Node: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기15263932
Ref: extending/index creating-extensions-without-third-party-tools15264157
Ref: 48ac15264157
Ref: 제삼자 도구 없이 확장 만들기-Footnote-115264933
Node: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기15264975
Ref: extending/extending doc15265127
Ref: 48ad15265127
Ref: extending/extending extending-intro15265127
Ref: 48ae15265127
Ref: extending/extending extending-python-with-c-or-c15265127
Ref: 48af15265127
Ref: C나 C++로 파이썬 확장하기-Footnote-115267354
Node: 간단한 예15267391
Ref: extending/extending a-simple-example15267510
Ref: 48b015267510
Ref: extending/extending extending-simpleexample15267510
Ref: 48b115267510
Ref: 간단한 예-Footnote-115272218
Node: 막간극 에러와 예외15272381
Ref: extending/extending extending-errors15272531
Ref: 48b215272531
Ref: extending/extending intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions15272531
Ref: 48b315272531
Node: 예제로 돌아가기15281374
Ref: extending/extending back-to-the-example15281560
Ref: 48ba15281560
Ref: extending/extending backtoexample15281560
Ref: 48bb15281560
Node: 모듈의 메서드 테이블과 초기화 함수15283382
Ref: extending/extending methodtable15283561
Ref: 48bd15283561
Ref: extending/extending the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function15283561
Ref: 48be15283561
Node: 컴파일과 링크15288963
Ref: extending/extending compilation15289157
Ref: 48c315289157
Ref: extending/extending compilation-and-linkage15289157
Ref: 48c415289157
Node: C에서 파이썬 함수 호출하기15290798
Ref: extending/extending calling-python-functions-from-c15290989
Ref: 48c615290989
Ref: extending/extending callingpython15290989
Ref: 48c715290989
Node: 확장 함수에서 매개 변수 추출하기15298513
Ref: extending/extending extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions15298732
Ref: 48cb15298732
Ref: extending/extending parsetuple15298732
Ref: 48c815298732
Node: 확장 함수를 위한 키워드 매개 변수15301502
Ref: extending/extending keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions15301713
Ref: 48cc15301713
Ref: extending/extending parsetupleandkeywords15301713
Ref: 48cd15301713
Node: 임의의 값을 구축하기15304502
Ref: extending/extending building-arbitrary-values15304680
Ref: 48ce15304680
Ref: extending/extending buildvalue15304680
Ref: 48cf15304680
Node: 참조 횟수15306966
Ref: extending/extending refcounts15307123
Ref: 48c915307123
Ref: extending/extending reference-counts15307123
Ref: 48d015307123
Node: 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기15312277
Ref: extending/extending refcountsinpython15312388
Ref: 48d115312388
Ref: extending/extending reference-counting-in-python15312388
Ref: 48d215312388
Ref: 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기-Footnote-115315074
Ref: 파이썬에서 참조 횟수 세기-Footnote-215315228
Node: 소유권 규칙15315438
Ref: extending/extending ownership-rules15315567
Ref: 48d315315567
Ref: extending/extending ownershiprules15315567
Ref: 48d415315567
Node: 살얼음15318258
Ref: extending/extending thin-ice15318365
Ref: 48d815318365
Ref: extending/extending thinice15318365
Ref: 48d915318365
Ref: 살얼음-Footnote-115322411
Node: NULL 포인터15322453
Ref: extending/extending null-pointers15322535
Ref: 48dc15322535
Ref: extending/extending nullpointers15322535
Ref: 48dd15322535
Ref: NULL 포인터-Footnote-115324369
Node: C++로 확장 작성하기15324549
Ref: extending/extending cplusplus15324719
Ref: 48de15324719
Ref: extending/extending writing-extensions-in-c15324719
Ref: 48df15324719
Node: 확장 모듈을 위한 C API 제공하기15325542
Ref: extending/extending providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module15325690
Ref: 48e015325690
Ref: extending/extending using-capsules15325690
Ref: 134615325690
Node: 확장형 정의하기 자습서15335001
Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial doc15335205
Ref: 183115335205
Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial defining-extension-types-tutorial15335205
Ref: 48e215335205
Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial defining-new-types15335205
Ref: 48e315335205
Node: 기초15335885
Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial dnt-basics15336021
Ref: 48e415336021
Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial the-basics15336021
Ref: 48e515336021
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Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example15345894
Ref: 48eb15345894
Ref: 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기-Footnote-115362738
Ref: 기초 예제에 데이터와 메서드 추가하기-Footnote-215362868
Node: 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기15363034
Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes15363267
Ref: 48f215363267
Ref: 데이터 어트리뷰트를 더 세밀하게 제어하기-Footnote-115373165
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Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection15373855
Ref: 48f415373855
Ref: 순환 가비지 수거 지원하기-Footnote-115384866
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Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial subclassing-other-types15385232
Ref: 48f615385232
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Ref: extending/newtypes doc15390748
Ref: 48f915390748
Ref: extending/newtypes defining-extension-types-assorted-topics15390748
Ref: 48fa15390748
Ref: extending/newtypes new-types-topics15390748
Ref: 48fb15390748
Ref: extending/newtypes dnt-type-methods15390838
Ref: 48fc15390838
Node: 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제15395901
Ref: extending/newtypes finalization-and-de-allocation15396041
Ref: 48fd15396041
Ref: 파이널리제이션과 할당 해제-Footnote-115399946
Node: 객체 표현15399988
Ref: extending/newtypes object-presentation15400159
Ref: 48ff15400159
Node: 어트리뷰트 관리15401904
Ref: extending/newtypes attribute-management15402050
Ref: 490215402050
Node: 범용 어트리뷰트 관리15403734
Ref: extending/newtypes generic-attribute-management15403860
Ref: 48ef15403860
Ref: extending/newtypes id115403860
Ref: 490315403860
Node: 형별 어트리뷰트 관리15408073
Ref: extending/newtypes type-specific-attribute-management15408199
Ref: 490815408199
Node: 객체 비교15410079
Ref: extending/newtypes object-comparison15410238
Ref: 490b15410238
Node: 추상 프로토콜 지원15412088
Ref: extending/newtypes abstract-protocol-support15412245
Ref: 490e15412245
Node: 약한 참조 지원15418597
Ref: extending/newtypes weak-reference-support15418754
Ref: 491315418754
Ref: extending/newtypes weakref-support15418754
Ref: 256915418754
Node: 추가 제안15420156
Ref: extending/newtypes more-suggestions15420278
Ref: 491415420278
Node: C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기15421275
Ref: extending/building doc15421485
Ref: 491515421485
Ref: extending/building building15421485
Ref: 48c515421485
Ref: extending/building building-c-and-c-extensions15421485
Ref: 491615421485
Ref: extending/building c PyInit_modulename15422043
Ref: 491715422043
Ref: extending/building install-index15423351
Ref: eee15423351
Ref: C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기-Footnote-115423445
Node: setuptools로 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기15423487
Ref: extending/building building-c-and-c-extensions-with-setuptools15423594
Ref: 491a15423594
Ref: extending/building setuptools-index15423594
Ref: eef15423594
Node: 윈도우에서 C와 C++ 확장 빌드하기15423943
Ref: extending/windows doc15424101
Ref: 491b15424101
Ref: extending/windows building-c-and-c-extensions-on-windows15424101
Ref: 491c15424101
Ref: extending/windows building-on-windows15424101
Ref: 1e4015424101
Node: 요리책 접근법15425560
Ref: extending/windows a-cookbook-approach15425704
Ref: 491d15425704
Ref: extending/windows win-cookbook15425704
Ref: 491e15425704
Ref: 요리책 접근법-Footnote-115426419
Node: 유닉스와 윈도우의 차이점15426497
Ref: extending/windows differences-between-unix-and-windows15426679
Ref: 491f15426679
Ref: extending/windows dynamic-linking15426679
Ref: 492015426679
Node: DLL을 실제로 사용하기15430394
Ref: extending/windows using-dlls-in-practice15430548
Ref: 492115430548
Ref: extending/windows win-dlls15430548
Ref: 492215430548
Node: 더 큰 응용 프로그램에 CPython 런타임을 내장하기15432382
Ref: extending/index embedding-the-cpython-runtime-in-a-larger-application15432575
Ref: 492315432575
Node: 다른 응용 프로그램에 파이썬 내장하기15433120
Ref: extending/embedding doc15433273
Ref: 492415433273
Ref: extending/embedding embedding15433273
Ref: 1e5c15433273
Ref: extending/embedding embedding-python-in-another-application15433273
Ref: 492515433273
Node: 매우 고수준의 내장15436126
Ref: extending/embedding high-level-embedding15436293
Ref: 492815436293
Ref: extending/embedding very-high-level-embedding15436293
Ref: 492915436293
Node: 매우 고수준 내장을 넘어서 개요15438881
Ref: extending/embedding beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview15439073
Ref: 492a15439073
Ref: extending/embedding lower-level-embedding15439073
Ref: 492b15439073
Node: 순수한 내장15441196
Ref: extending/embedding id115441397
Ref: 492c15441397
Ref: extending/embedding pure-embedding15441397
Ref: 492d15441397
Node: 내장된 파이썬을 확장하기15446464
Ref: extending/embedding extending-embedded-python15446651
Ref: 492f15446651
Ref: extending/embedding extending-with-embedding15446651
Ref: 493015446651
Node: C++로 파이썬 내장하기15448972
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Ref: Exception types-Footnote-115632479
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_EnvironmentError15633239
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Ref: 시스템 함수-Footnote-115655698
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Ref: 문자열 변환과 포매팅-Footnote-115725602
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Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry15747220
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Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_Resize15952139
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap15983429
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_GetLength15984305
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Ref: 98b16625590
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Enable16626155
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Disable16626428
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_IsEnabled16626704
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion apiabiversion16628757
Ref: 438716628757
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MAJOR_VERSION16629084
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MINOR_VERSION16629151
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Ref: API와 ABI 버전 붙이기-Footnote-116631989
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent16634065
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent16634224
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent16634934
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent16635288
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent16635708
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent16636191
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED16640542
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE16641158
Ref: 4ee316641158
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME16641366
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN16641574
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START16641781
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW16641988
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND16642196
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD16642403
Ref: 4ee916642403
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE16642607
Ref: 4eea16642607
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE16642813
Ref: 4eeb16642813
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION16643026
Ref: 4eec16643026
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_ExitScope16643123
Ref: 32216643123
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT16643258
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Ref: installing/index doc16643683
Ref: 4eee16643683
Ref: installing/index installing-index16643683
Ref: eed16643683
Ref: installing/index installing-python-modules16643683
Ref: 4eef16643683
Ref: 파이썬 모듈 설치하기-Footnote-116645105
Node: 핵심 용어16645183
Ref: installing/index key-terms16645290
Ref: 4ef016645290
Ref: 핵심 용어-Footnote-116647587
Ref: 핵심 용어-Footnote-216647612
Ref: 핵심 용어-Footnote-316647641
Ref: 핵심 용어-Footnote-416647673
Node: 기본 사용법<2>16647753
Ref: installing/index basic-usage16647883
Ref: 4ef116647883
Ref: 기본 사용법<2>-Footnote-116649680
Ref: 기본 사용법<2>-Footnote-216649717
Node: 어떻게 …?16649766
Ref: installing/index how-do-i16649913
Ref: 4ef216649913
Node: … 파이썬 3 4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?16650417
Ref: installing/index install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-416650615
Ref: 4ef316650615
Ref: … 파이썬 3 4 이전 버전의 파이썬에서 pip 를 설치합니까?-Footnote-116651153
Node: … 현재 사용자만을 위해 패키지를 설치합니까?16651240
Ref: installing/index install-packages-just-for-the-current-user16651507
Ref: 4ef416651507
Node: … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?16651801
Ref: installing/index install-scientific-python-packages16652066
Ref: 4ef516652066
Ref: … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?-Footnote-116652697
Ref: … 과학 계산용 파이썬 패키지를 설치합니까?-Footnote-216652743
Node: … 병렬로 설치된 여러 버전의 파이썬으로 작업합니까?16652789
Ref: installing/index work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel16652982
Ref: 4ef616652982
Node: 흔히 만나는 설치 문제16654025
Ref: installing/index common-installation-issues16654144
Ref: 4ef716654144
Node: 리눅스에 시스템 파이썬 설치하기16654380
Ref: installing/index installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux16654536
Ref: 4ef816654536
Node: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다16655157
Ref: installing/index pip-not-installed16655354
Ref: 4ef916655354
Ref: Pip가 설치되지 않았습니다-Footnote-116655698
Node: 바이너리 확장 설치하기16655824
Ref: installing/index installing-binary-extensions16655967
Ref: 4efa16655967
Ref: 바이너리 확장 설치하기-Footnote-116656974
Ref: 바이너리 확장 설치하기-Footnote-216657020
Node: 파이썬 HOWTO16657069
Ref: howto/index doc16657207
Ref: 4efb16657207
Ref: howto/index how-tos16657207
Ref: 4efc16657207
Ref: howto/index python-howtos16657207
Ref: 4efd16657207
Node: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio16658411
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio doc16658548
Ref: 4efe16658548
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio16658548
Ref: 329c16658548
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio id116658548
Ref: 4eff16658548
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Ref: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio-Footnote-216660007
Ref: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio-Footnote-316660100
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Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio event-loop16660835
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Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio tasks16665679
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Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio await16668568
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Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-part-2-the-nuts-and-bolts16672915
Ref: 4f0516672915
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Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio the-inner-workings-of-coroutines16673526
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Ref: howto/cporting doc16683567
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Ref: 12d116683567
Ref: howto/cporting porting-extension-modules-to-python-316683567
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Ref: 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기-Footnote-116684435
Ref: 확장 모듈을 파이썬 3에 이식하기-Footnote-216684486
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Ref: howto/curses curses-programming-with-python16684705
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Ref: curses란 무엇입니까?-Footnote-116688207
Ref: curses란 무엇입니까?-Footnote-216688247
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Ref: howto/curses the-python-curses-module16688377
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Node: curses 응용 프로그램 시작과 종료16689324
Ref: howto/curses starting-and-ending-a-curses-application16689493
Ref: 4f0f16689493
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Ref: howto/curses windows-and-pads16693327
Ref: 4f1016693327
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Ref: howto/curses displaying-text16698458
Ref: 4f1116698458
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Ref: howto/curses attributes-and-color16702713
Ref: 4f1216702713
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Ref: howto/curses user-input16708180
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Ref: 사용자 입력-Footnote-116712490
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Ref: howto/curses for-more-information16712637
Ref: 4f1416712637
Ref: 추가 정보-Footnote-116714333
Ref: 추가 정보-Footnote-216714370
Ref: 추가 정보-Footnote-316714434
Ref: 추가 정보-Footnote-416714478
Ref: 추가 정보-Footnote-516714540
Ref: 추가 정보-Footnote-616714592
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Ref: howto/descriptor doc16714838
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Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-guide16714838
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Ref: howto/descriptor descriptorhowto16714838
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Ref: howto/descriptor simple-example-a-descriptor-that-returns-a-constant16716935
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Ref: howto/descriptor custom-validators16729092
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Ref: 사용자 정의 유효성 검사기-Footnote-116731781
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Ref: howto/descriptor practical-application16731977
Ref: 4f2016731977
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Ref: howto/descriptor technical-tutorial16733567
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Ref: howto/descriptor abstract16734075
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Ref: 클래스에서 호출-Footnote-116741835
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Ref: super에서 호출-Footnote-216742790
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Ref: howto/descriptor summary-of-invocation-logic16743005
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Ref: 자동 이름 알림-Footnote-116745075
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Ref: howto/descriptor orm-example16745246
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Ref: ORM 예제-Footnote-116747380
Ref: ORM 예제-Footnote-216747452
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Ref: howto/descriptor pure-python-equivalents16747618
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Ref: howto/descriptor properties16748284
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Ref: 멤버 객체와 __slots__-Footnote-116769206
Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB16769262
Ref: howto/gdb_helpers doc16769415
Ref: 4f3316769415
Ref: howto/gdb_helpers debugging-c-api-extensions-and-cpython-internals-with-gdb16769415
Ref: 4f3416769415
Ref: howto/gdb_helpers gdb16769415
Ref: 4f3516769415
Ref: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB-Footnote-116770819
Ref: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB-Footnote-216770855
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers prerequisites16771067
Ref: 4f3616771067
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers setup-with-python-built-from-source16771838
Ref: 4f3716771838
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers setup-for-python-from-a-linux-distro16772743
Ref: 4f3816772743
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers using-the-debug-build-and-development-mode16773588
Ref: 4f3916773588
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers using-the-python-gdb-extension16774397
Ref: 4f3a16774397
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers pretty-printers16774801
Ref: 4f3b16774801
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-list16779456
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-up-and-py-down16780462
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-bt16785302
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-locals16788506
Ref: 4f4016788506
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers use-with-gdb-commands16789563
Ref: 4f4116789563
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Ref: howto/enum doc16795752
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Ref: howto/enum enum-howto16795752
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Ref: howto/enum id116795752
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Ref: 25bd16795783
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Ref: howto/enum programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes16801860
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Ref: howto/enum using-automatic-values16804879
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Ref: howto/enum allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations16808586
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Ref: howto/enum restricted-enum-subclassing16810891
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Node: Dataclass support16812005
Ref: howto/enum dataclass-support16812122
Ref: 4f5216812122
Ref: howto/enum enum-dataclass-support16812122
Ref: 178a16812122
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Ref: 4f4b16818392
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Ref: howto/enum strenum16819613
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Ref: howto/enum intflag16820013
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Ref: howto/enum flag16822484
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Ref: howto/enum others16824862
Ref: 4f5816824862
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Ref: howto/enum when-to-use-new-vs-init16827055
Ref: 4f5916827055
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Ref: howto/enum finer-points16828433
Ref: 4f5a16828433
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Ref: 4f5b16828890
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Ref: 4f5c16829457
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Ref: howto/enum private-names16831657
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Ref: howto/enum enum-member-type16831979
Ref: 4f5f16831979
Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types16832463
Ref: howto/enum creating-members-that-are-mixed-with-other-data-types16832640
Ref: 4f6016832640
Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members16833175
Ref: howto/enum boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members16833361
Ref: 4f6116833361
Node: Enum classes with methods16833926
Ref: howto/enum enum-classes-with-methods16834084
Ref: 4f6216834084
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Ref: howto/enum combining-members-of-flag16834765
Ref: 4f6316834765
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Ref: howto/enum flag-and-intflag-minutia16835434
Ref: 4f6416835434
Node: How are Enums and Flags different?16837970
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Ref: howto/enum how-are-enums-and-flags-different16838113
Ref: 4f6516838113
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Ref: howto/enum enum-classes16838552
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Node: Flag Classes16839144
Ref: howto/enum flag-classes16839283
Ref: 4f6716839283
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Ref: howto/enum enum-members-aka-instances16839788
Ref: 4f6816839788
Node: Flag Members16840176
Ref: howto/enum flag-members16840294
Ref: 4f6916840294
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Ref: 25bf16841061
Ref: howto/enum id216841061
Ref: 4f6a16841061
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Ref: howto/enum omitting-values16841612
Ref: 4f6b16841612
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Ref: howto/enum using-auto16842489
Ref: 4f6c16842489
Node: Using object16842741
Ref: howto/enum using-object16842859
Ref: 4f6d16842859
Node: Using a descriptive string16843512
Ref: howto/enum using-a-descriptive-string16843642
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Ref: howto/enum using-a-custom-new16844038
Ref: 4f6f16844038
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Ref: howto/enum orderedenum16846024
Ref: 4f5116846024
Node: DuplicateFreeEnum16847204
Ref: howto/enum duplicatefreeenum16847314
Ref: 4f7016847314
Node: MultiValueEnum16848396
Ref: howto/enum multivalueenum16848501
Ref: 4f5d16848501
Node: Planet16849084
Ref: howto/enum planet16849182
Ref: 4f4e16849182
Node: TimePeriod16850243
Ref: howto/enum enum-time-period16850318
Ref: 25d616850318
Ref: howto/enum timeperiod16850318
Ref: 4f7116850318
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Ref: howto/enum enumtype-examples16851029
Ref: 25c616851029
Ref: howto/enum subclassing-enumtype16851029
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Ref: howto/functional functional-howto16851416
Ref: 4f7416851416
Ref: howto/functional functional-programming-howto16851416
Ref: 4f7516851416
Node: 소개<8>16852260
Ref: howto/functional introduction16852364
Ref: 4f7616852364
Node: 형식적 증명 가능성16858105
Ref: howto/functional formal-provability16858195
Ref: 4f7816858195
Node: 모듈성16860581
Ref: howto/functional modularity16860712
Ref: 4f7916860712
Node: 디버깅과 테스트 용이성16861181
Ref: howto/functional ease-of-debugging-and-testing16861295
Ref: 4f7a16861295
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Ref: howto/functional composability16862213
Ref: 4f7b16862213
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Ref: howto/functional functional-howto-iterators16863251
Ref: 4f7716863251
Ref: howto/functional iterators16863251
Ref: 4f7c16863251
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Ref: howto/functional data-types-that-support-iterators16867437
Ref: 4f7d16867437
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Ref: howto/functional generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions16869801
Ref: 4f7e16869801
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Ref: howto/functional generators16875012
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Ref: 제너레이터<2>-Footnote-116879477
Node: 제너레이터에 값 전달하기16879558
Ref: howto/functional passing-values-into-a-generator16879648
Ref: 4f8016879648
Ref: 제너레이터에 값 전달하기-Footnote-116884039
Node: 내장 함수<2>16884081
Ref: howto/functional built-in-functions16884217
Ref: 4f8116884217
Ref: 내장 함수<2>-Footnote-116888581
Node: itertools 모듈16888635
Ref: howto/functional the-itertools-module16888769
Ref: 4f8216888769
Node: 새로운 이터레이터 만들기16889571
Ref: howto/functional creating-new-iterators16889698
Ref: 4f8316889698
Node: 요소에 대한 함수 호출16892710
Ref: howto/functional calling-functions-on-elements16892865
Ref: 4f8416892865
Node: 요소 선택하기16893760
Ref: howto/functional selecting-elements16893893
Ref: 4f8516893893
Node: 조합 함수16895442
Ref: howto/functional combinatoric-functions16895558
Ref: 4f8616895558
Node: 요소 분류16897944
Ref: howto/functional grouping-elements16898032
Ref: 4f8716898032
Node: functools 모듈16899615
Ref: howto/functional the-functools-module16899766
Ref: 4f8816899766
Node: operator 모듈16903621
Ref: howto/functional the-operator-module16903689
Ref: 4f8916903689
Node: 작은 함수와 람다 표현식16904523
Ref: howto/functional small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression16904688
Ref: 4f8a16904688
Node: 개정내역 및 감사의 글16908000
Ref: howto/functional revision-history-and-acknowledgements16908162
Ref: 4f8b16908162
Node: 참고 문헌16908986
Ref: howto/functional references16909106
Ref: 4f8c16909106
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Ref: howto/functional general16909292
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Ref: howto/functional python-specific16910554
Ref: 4f8e16910554
Ref: 파이썬 특정-Footnote-116911061
Ref: 파이썬 특정-Footnote-216911112
Ref: 파이썬 특정-Footnote-316911165
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Ref: 파이썬 설명서-Footnote-216911774
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Ref: howto/logging id116911945
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Ref: howto/logging logging-howto16911945
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Ref: howto/logging when-to-use-logging16913517
Ref: 4f9516913517
Node: 간단한 예<2>16917858
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Ref: howto/logging howto-minimal-example16917998
Ref: 4f9716917998
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Ref: howto/logging logging-to-a-file16919411
Ref: 4f9816919411
Node: 변수 데이터 로깅16922733
Ref: howto/logging logging-variable-data16922893
Ref: 4f9916922893
Node: 표시된 메시지의 포맷 변경16923873
Ref: howto/logging changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages16924043
Ref: 4f9a16924043
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Ref: howto/logging displaying-the-date-time-in-messages16925229
Ref: 4f9b16925229
Ref: 메시지에 날짜/시간 표시-Footnote-116926325
Node: 다음 단계16926384
Ref: howto/logging next-steps16926499
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Node: 고급 로깅 자습서16927526
Ref: howto/logging advanced-logging-tutorial16927655
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Ref: howto/logging logging-advanced-tutorial16927655
Ref: 11e516927655
Node: 로깅 흐름16931626
Ref: howto/logging logging-flow16931714
Ref: 4f9e16931714
Node: 로거16931917
Ref: howto/logging loggers16932023
Ref: 4f9f16932023
Node: 처리기16936996
Ref: howto/logging handler-basic16937098
Ref: 4fa016937098
Ref: howto/logging handlers16937098
Ref: 4fa116937098
Node: 포매터16939548
Ref: howto/logging formatters16939657
Ref: 4fa316939657
Ref: howto/logging logging logging Formatter __init__16940203
Ref: 4fa416940203
Node: 로깅 구성16942191
Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging16942343
Ref: 4fa516942343
Node: 구성이 제공되지 않으면 어떻게 되는가16949362
Ref: howto/logging what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided16949534
Ref: 4fa616949534
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Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging-for-a-library16951174
Ref: 4fa716951174
Ref: howto/logging library-config16951174
Ref: 2cf116951174
Node: 로깅 수준<2>16954502
Ref: howto/logging logging-levels16954627
Ref: 4fa816954627
Node: 사용자 정의 수준16957719
Ref: howto/logging custom-levels16957795
Ref: 2cba16957795
Ref: howto/logging id216957795
Ref: 4fa916957795
Node: 유용한 처리기16958676
Ref: howto/logging id316958811
Ref: 4faa16958811
Ref: howto/logging useful-handlers16958811
Ref: 4fa216958811
Node: 로깅 중에 발생하는 예외16963625
Ref: howto/logging exceptions-raised-during-logging16963789
Ref: 4fab16963789
Ref: howto/logging logging-exceptions16963789
Ref: 4fac16963789
Node: 임의의 객체를 메시지로 사용하기16965156
Ref: howto/logging arbitrary-object-messages16965313
Ref: 2ca616965313
Ref: howto/logging using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages16965313
Ref: 4fad16965313
Node: 최적화<6>16966007
Ref: howto/logging optimization16966144
Ref: 4fae16966144
Node: 기타 자료16970454
Ref: howto/logging other-resources16970537
Ref: 4faf16970537
Ref: howto/logging tutorial-ref-links16970537
Ref: 4f9316970537
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook doc16970975
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id116970975
Ref: 4fb116970975
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-cookbook16970975
Ref: 11e616970975
Node: 여러 모듈에서 로깅 사용하기16973155
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logging-in-multiple-modules16973292
Ref: 4fb316973292
Node: 여러 스레드에서 로깅 하기16976975
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-from-multiple-threads16977151
Ref: 4fb416977151
Node: 다중 처리기 및 포매터16978988
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-handlers-and-formatters16979158
Ref: 4fb516979158
Node: 여러 대상으로 로깅 하기16981528
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-multiple-destinations16981687
Ref: 4fb616981687
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-destinations16981687
Ref: 4fb716981687
Node: Custom handling of levels16984952
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handling-of-levels16985101
Ref: 4fb816985101
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-level-handling16985101
Ref: 4fb916985101
Node: 구성 서버 예제16990973
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuration-server-example16991122
Ref: 4fba16991122
Node: 블록 하는 처리기 다루기16992680
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook blocking-handlers16992856
Ref: 341e16992856
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook dealing-with-handlers-that-block16992856
Ref: 4fbb16992856
Node: 네트워크에서 로깅 이벤트 보내고 받기16997424
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook network-logging16997617
Ref: 4fbc16997617
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network16997617
Ref: 4fbd16997617
Node: Running a logging socket listener in production17003275
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook running-a-logging-socket-listener-in-production17003411
Ref: 4fbe17003411
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-117007522
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-217007554
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-317007626
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-417007656
Node: 로그 출력에 문맥 정보 추가17007728
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output17007906
Ref: 4fbf17007906
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-info17007906
Ref: 2cad17007906
Node: 문맥 정보 전달에 LoggerAdapters 사용하기17009099
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information17009276
Ref: 4fc017009276
Node: 딕셔너리 이외의 객체를 사용하여 문맥 정보 전달하기17012704
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information17012864
Ref: 4fc117012864
Node: 문맥 정보 전달에 필터 사용하기17013392
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-contextual17013569
Ref: 2ca217013569
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information17013569
Ref: 4fc217013569
Node: Use of contextvars17017543
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-contextvars17017713
Ref: 4fc317017713
Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers17027291
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook imparting-contextual-information-in-handlers17027480
Ref: 4fc417027480
Node: 여러 프로세스에서 단일 파일에 로깅 하기17028425
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes17028622
Ref: 4fc517028622
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-processes17028622
Ref: 4fc617028622
Node: concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor 사용하기17039303
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-concurrent-futures-processpoolexecutor17039507
Ref: 4fc717039507
Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI17040603
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook deploying-web-applications-using-gunicorn-and-uwsgi17040807
Ref: 4fc817040807
Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-117041467
Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-217041497
Node: 파일 회전 사용하기17041550
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-file-rotation17041742
Ref: 4fc917041742
Node: 대체 포매팅 스타일 사용하기17043726
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook format-styles17043888
Ref: 4fca17043888
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-alternative-formatting-styles17043888
Ref: 4fcb17043888
Node: 사용자 정의 LogRecord17051668
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-logrecord17051864
Ref: 4fcc17051864
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-logrecord17051864
Ref: 4fcd17051864
Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example17056293
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example17056509
Ref: 4fce17056509
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook zeromq-handlers17056509
Ref: 4fcf17056509
Node: Subclass QueueHandler17056709
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuehandler17056858
Ref: 4fd017056858
Node: Subclass QueueListener17058222
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuelistener17058371
Ref: 4fd117058371
Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example17059163
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook pynng-handlers17059386
Ref: 4fd217059386
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-pynng-example17059386
Ref: 4fd317059386
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-117060012
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-217060052
Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>17060085
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id317060239
Ref: 4fd417060239
Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>17062215
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id417062369
Ref: 4fd517062369
Node: 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예17066083
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook an-example-dictionary-based-configuration17066305
Ref: 4fd617066305
Ref: 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예-Footnote-117068197
Ref: 딕셔너리 기반 구성의 예-Footnote-217068283
Node: rotator와 namer를 사용해서 로그 회전 처리하기17068369
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-rotator-namer17068572
Ref: 2cfe17068572
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing17068572
Ref: 4fd717068572
Node: 좀 더 정교한 multiprocessing 예제17069953
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example17070179
Ref: 4fd817070179
Node: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기17079967
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler17080157
Ref: 4fd917080157
Ref: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기-Footnote-117082604
Ref: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기-Footnote-217082663
Ref: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기-Footnote-317082732
Ref: SysLogHandler로 전송된 메시지에 BOM 삽입하기-Footnote-417082791
Node: 구조적 로깅 구현17082850
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook implementing-structured-logging17083050
Ref: 4fda17083050
Node: dictConfig 로 처리기를 사용자 정의하기17085690
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handlers17085903
Ref: 4fdb17085903
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig17085903
Ref: 4fdc17085903
Node: 응용 프로그램 전체에서 특정 포맷 스타일 사용하기17091456
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-styles17091680
Ref: 2c9617091680
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application17091680
Ref: 4fdd17091680
Node: LogRecord 팩토리 사용17093799
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logrecord-factories17093980
Ref: 4fde17093980
Node: 사용자 정의 메시지 객체 사용17095142
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-custom-message-objects17095323
Ref: 4fdf17095323
Node: dictConfig 로 필터 구성하기17098260
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuring-filters-with-dictconfig17098470
Ref: 4fe017098470
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-dictconfig17098470
Ref: 4fe117098470
Node: 사용자 정의된 예외 포매팅17101739
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-format-exception17101906
Ref: 4fe217101906
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customized-exception-formatting17101906
Ref: 4fe317101906
Node: 로깅 메시지 말하기17104012
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook speaking-logging-messages17104203
Ref: 4fe417104203
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook spoken-messages17104203
Ref: 4fe517104203
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Ref: 507517402695
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolating-extensions-howto17402695
Ref: 48c117402695
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Ref: 507617403510
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolated-module-objects17406920
Ref: 507917406920
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions surprising-edge-cases17408057
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Ref: 507c17409221
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions managing-per-module-state17410834
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Ref: Managing Per-Module State-Footnote-117412512
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions opt-out-limiting-to-one-module-object-per-process17412795
Ref: 507e17412795
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Ref: 507f17414332
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Ref: 508017415265
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions changing-static-types-to-heap-types17417033
Ref: 508117417033
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Ref: 508217418159
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions garbage-collection-protocol17418961
Ref: 508317418961
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions tp-traverse-in-python-3-8-and-lower17420181
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions delegating-tp-traverse17421107
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions not-overriding-tp-free17422978
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-classes17424254
Ref: 508917424254
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-regular-methods17425021
Ref: 508a17425021
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-slot-methods-getters-and-setters17427726
Ref: 508b17427726
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Ref: 508c17429300
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions open-issues17429937
Ref: 508d17429937
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lossless-conversion-to-heap-types17430807
Ref: 508f17430807
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Ref: 509217431211
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Ref: howto/timerfd examples17431482
Ref: 509317431482
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Ref: howto/mro python-2-3-mro17440469
Ref: 147017440469
Ref: howto/mro the-python-2-3-method-resolution-order17440469
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Ref: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order-Footnote-117442083
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Ref: howto/mro the-beginning17442257
Ref: 509617442257
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-117446844
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-217446981
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Ref: howto/mro the-c3-method-resolution-order17447240
Ref: 509717447240
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Ref: howto/mro examples17449733
Ref: 509817449733
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Ref: howto/mro bad-method-resolution-orders17455423
Ref: 509917455423
Ref: Bad Method Resolution Orders-Footnote-117461671
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Ref: howto/mro the-end17461994
Ref: 509a17461994
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Ref: howto/mro resources17465273
Ref: 509b17465273
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python doc17465504
Ref: 509c17465504
Ref: howto/free-threading-python freethreading-python-howto17465504
Ref: 509d17465504
Ref: howto/free-threading-python python-experimental-support-for-free-threading17465504
Ref: 509e17465504
Ref: Python experimental support for free threading-Footnote-117466787
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python installation17466965
Ref: 50a017466965
Ref: Installation-Footnote-117467551
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python identifying-free-threaded-python17467811
Ref: 50a117467811
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python the-global-interpreter-lock-in-free-threaded-python17468692
Ref: 50a217468692
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python thread-safety17469624
Ref: 50a317469624
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python known-limitations17470540
Ref: 50a417470540
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python immortalization17470854
Ref: 50a517470854
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python frame-objects17472074
Ref: 50a617472074
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python iterators17472640
Ref: 50a717472640
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Ref: howto/free-threading-python single-threaded-performance17472950
Ref: 50a817472950
Ref: Single-threaded performance-Footnote-117473716
Ref: Single-threaded performance-Footnote-217473762
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Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions doc17473953
Ref: 50a917473953
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions c-api-extension-support-for-free-threading17473953
Ref: 50aa17473953
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions freethreading-extensions-howto17473953
Ref: 509f17473953
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Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions identifying-the-free-threaded-build-in-c17474754
Ref: 50ab17474754
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Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions module-initialization17475643
Ref: 50ac17475643
Node: Multi-Phase Initialization17476137
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions multi-phase-initialization17476257
Ref: 50ad17476257
Node: Single-Phase Initialization17476930
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions single-phase-initialization17477050
Ref: 50ae17477050
Node: General API Guidelines17477890
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions general-api-guidelines17478049
Ref: 50af17478049
Node: Container Thread Safety17478870
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions container-thread-safety17478952
Ref: 50b117478952
Node: PyDict_Next17479287
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions id117479358
Ref: 50b217479358
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions pydict-next17479358
Ref: 50b317479358
Node: Borrowed References17479846
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions borrowed-references17480006
Ref: 50b417480006
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions id217480061
Ref: 50b017480061
Ref: Borrowed References-Footnote-117482851
Node: Memory Allocation APIs17482903
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions free-threaded-memory-allocation17483066
Ref: 4e2a17483066
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions memory-allocation-apis17483066
Ref: 50b517483066
Node: Thread State and GIL APIs17483814
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions thread-state-and-gil-apis17483993
Ref: 50b617483993
Node: Protecting Internal Extension State17484959
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions protecting-internal-extension-state17485163
Ref: 50b717485163
Ref: Protecting Internal Extension State-Footnote-117485919
Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build17485985
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions building-extensions-for-the-free-threaded-build17486155
Ref: 50b817486155
Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-117486757
Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-217486799
Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-317486844
Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI17486907
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions limited-c-api-and-stable-abi17487039
Ref: 50b917487039
Ref: Limited C API and Stable ABI-Footnote-117487738
Node: Windows<79>17487799
Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions windows17487931
Ref: 50ba17487931
Ref: Windows<79>-Footnote-117489575
Node: 파이썬 자주 나오는 질문들17489628
Ref: faq/index doc17489749
Ref: 50bb17489749
Ref: faq/index faq-index17489749
Ref: 1d0f17489749
Ref: faq/index python-frequently-asked-questions17489749
Ref: 50bc17489749
Node: 일반적인 파이썬 FAQ17490112
Ref: faq/general doc17490239
Ref: 50bd17490239
Ref: faq/general general-python-faq17490239
Ref: 50be17490239
Node: 일반적인 정보17490359
Ref: faq/general general-information17490473
Ref: 50bf17490473
Node: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?17491727
Ref: faq/general what-is-python17491873
Ref: 50c017491873
Ref: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?-Footnote-117493166
Node: 파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이 무엇입니까?17493218
Ref: faq/general what-is-the-python-software-foundation17493440
Ref: 50c117493440
Ref: 파이썬 소프트웨어 재단이 무엇입니까?-Footnote-117494195
Node: 파이썬을 사용할 때 저작권 관련 제한이 있습니까?17494241
Ref: faq/general are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python17494483
Ref: 50c217494483
Ref: 파이썬을 사용할 때 저작권 관련 제한이 있습니까?-Footnote-117495530
Ref: 파이썬을 사용할 때 저작권 관련 제한이 있습니까?-Footnote-217495577
Node: 파이썬은 애초에 왜 만들어졌습니까?17495624
Ref: faq/general why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place17495853
Ref: 50c317495853
Node: 파이썬의 강점은 무엇입니까?17498648
Ref: faq/general what-is-python-good-for17498860
Ref: 50c417498860
Ref: 파이썬의 강점은 무엇입니까?-Footnote-117499744
Node: 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?17499769
Ref: faq/general faq-version-numbering-scheme17499986
Ref: 50c517499986
Ref: faq/general how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work17499986
Ref: 50c617499986
Ref: 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?-Footnote-117502192
Ref: 파이썬 버전 관리 규칙은 무엇입니까?-Footnote-217502266
Node: 파이썬 소스를 어떻게 얻을 수 있습니까?17502308
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source17502536
Ref: 50c717502536
Ref: 파이썬 소스를 어떻게 얻을 수 있습니까?-Footnote-117503375
Node: 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?17503418
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python17503688
Ref: 50c817503688
Ref: 파이썬 설명 문서는 어떻게 구합니까?-Footnote-117504314
Node: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?17504350
Ref: faq/general i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial17504645
Ref: 50c917504645
Ref: 저는 프로그래밍을 해본 적이 없습니다 파이썬 튜토리얼이 있습니까?-Footnote-117505110
Node: 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?17505162
Ref: faq/general is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python17505467
Ref: 50ca17505467
Ref: 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?-Footnote-117506561
Ref: 파이썬에 특화된 뉴스 그룹이나 메일링 리스트가 있습니까?-Footnote-217506622
Node: 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?17506703
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python17506982
Ref: 50cb17506982
Ref: 파이썬 베타 테스트 버전은 어떻게 구합니까?-Footnote-117507590
Node: 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?17507627
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python17507890
Ref: 50cc17507890
Ref: 파이썬 버그 리포트나 패치는 어떻게 제출합니까?-Footnote-117508313
Node: 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?17508350
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference17508590
Ref: 50cd17508590
Ref: 제가 참고할만한 파이썬 관련 기사가 있습니까?-Footnote-117509167
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Ref: faq/general are-there-any-books-on-python17509432
Ref: 50ce17509432
Node: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?17509914
Ref: faq/general where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located17510127
Ref: 50cf17510127
Ref: 도대체 www python org는 어디에 있는 겁니까?-Footnote-117510468
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Ref: faq/general why-is-it-called-python17510744
Ref: 50d017510744
Ref: 왜 이 언어는 파이썬이라 불립니까?-Footnote-117511284
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Ref: faq/general do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus17511522
Ref: 50d117511522
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Ref: faq/general python-in-the-real-world17511824
Ref: 50d217511824
Node: 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?17512329
Ref: faq/general how-stable-is-python17512504
Ref: 50d317512504
Ref: 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?-Footnote-117513668
Ref: 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?-Footnote-217513710
Ref: 파이썬은 어느 정도 안정화 되어있습니까?-Footnote-317513752
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Ref: faq/general how-many-people-are-using-python17514046
Ref: 50d417514046
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Ref: faq/general have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python17514975
Ref: 50d517514975
Ref: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?-Footnote-117515848
Ref: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?-Footnote-217515900
Ref: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?-Footnote-317515929
Ref: 파이썬으로 진행된 중요한 프로젝트가 존재합니까?-Footnote-417515958
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Ref: faq/general what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future17516302
Ref: 50d617516302
Ref: 파이썬에 어떤 새로운 개발요소들이 예정되어 있습니까?-Footnote-117516971
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Ref: faq/general is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python17517354
Ref: 50d717517354
Ref: 기존의 파이썬과 호환 가능하지 않은 변경안을 제시해도 괜찮습니까?-Footnote-117518391
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Ref: faq/general is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers17518662
Ref: 50d817518662
Ref: 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?-Footnote-117523328
Ref: 파이썬이 초보 프로그래머들에게 좋은 언어입니까?-Footnote-217523379
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Ref: faq/programming doc17523597
Ref: 50d917523597
Ref: faq/programming programming-faq17523597
Ref: 50da17523597
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Ref: faq/programming general-questions17523929
Ref: 50db17523929
Node: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?17524513
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc17524782
Ref: 50dc17524782
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-117526376
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-217526448
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-317526492
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-417526545
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-517526591
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-617526640
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-717526679
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-817526709
Ref: 중단점 단일 스테핑 single-stepping 등을 포함하는 소스 코드 수준 디버거가 있습니까?-Footnote-917526766
Node: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?17526809
Ref: faq/programming are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis17527186
Ref: 50dd17527186
Ref: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?-Footnote-117527598
Ref: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?-Footnote-217527652
Ref: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?-Footnote-317527694
Ref: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?-Footnote-417527725
Ref: 버그를 찾거나 정적 분석을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 도구가 있습니까?-Footnote-517527757
Node: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17527798
Ref: faq/programming faq-create-standalone-binary17528154
Ref: 50de17528154
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script17528154
Ref: 50df17528154
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-117530066
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-217530131
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-317530159
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-417530192
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-517530245
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-617530297
Ref: 파이썬 스크립트로 독립 실행형 바이너리를 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-717530346
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Ref: faq/programming are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs17530631
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Ref: 파이썬 프로그램을 위한 코딩 표준이나 스타일 지침서가 있습니까?-Footnote-117530945
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Ref: faq/programming core-language17531112
Ref: 50e117531112
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Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python17535590
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Ref: faq/programming why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result17536866
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Ref: faq/programming why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x17549199
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference17553284
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python17556186
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python17558230
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Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object17559021
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Ref: faq/programming how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object17559632
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Ref: faq/programming what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence17561799
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Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator17562709
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Ref: 50f517566694
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers17567721
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number17570667
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string17572452
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Ref: faq/programming faq-programming-raw-string-backslash17578633
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Ref: 510117580043
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Ref: faq/programming my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up17580595
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Ref: 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-117583920
Ref: 내 프로그램이 너무 느립니다 속도를 높이려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-217583947
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Ref: faq/programming efficient-string-concatenation17584246
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Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together17584246
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Ref: faq/programming sequences-tuples-lists17585505
Ref: 510517585505
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists17586680
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order17588828
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list17589504
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python17591609
Ref: 510b17591609
Ref: 파이썬에서 어떻게 배열을 만드나요?-Footnote-117592720
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Ref: faq/programming faq-multidimensional-list17592984
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Ref: 다차원 리스트를 어떻게 만듭니까?-Footnote-117594361
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Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects17594662
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Ref: is 연산자를 사용한 아이덴티티 검사는 언제 신뢰할 수 있습니까?-Footnote-117625281
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Ref: pyc 파일을 어떻게 만듭니까?-Footnote-117634223
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Ref: 512e17648459
Node: 메서드 정의와 호출에서 ‘self’를 명시적으로 사용해야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?17649205
Ref: faq/design why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls17649521
Ref: 512f17649521
Ref: faq/design why-self17649521
Ref: 511517649521
Node: 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?17652459
Ref: faq/design id217652875
Ref: 513017652875
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression17652875
Ref: 1c5917652875
Ref: 표현식에서 대입을 사용할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?-Footnote-117653330
Node: 파이썬은 왜 일부 기능 예를 들어 list index 에는 메서드를 사용하고 다른 기능 예를 들어 len list 에는 함수를 사용합니까?17653372
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list17653780
Ref: 513117653780
Node: join 이 리스트나 튜플 메서드가 아니라 문자열 메서드인 이유는 무엇입니까?17655399
Ref: faq/design why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method17655767
Ref: 513217655767
Node: 예외는 얼마나 빠릅니까?17658059
Ref: faq/design how-fast-are-exceptions17658337
Ref: 513317658337
Node: 파이썬에 switch 나 case 문이 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?17659327
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python17659621
Ref: 513417659621
Node: OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?17661202
Ref: faq/design can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation17661540
Ref: 513517661540
Ref: OS별 스레드 구현에 의존하는 대신 인터프리터에서 스레드를 에뮬레이션할 수 없습니까?-Footnote-117662263
Node: 람다 표현식이 문장을 포함할 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?17662319
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements17662672
Ref: 513617662672
Node: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?17663675
Ref: faq/design can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language17663963
Ref: 513717663963
Ref: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?-Footnote-117664415
Ref: 파이썬을 기계 코드 C 또는 다른 언어로 컴파일 할 수 있습니까?-Footnote-217664443
Node: 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?17664471
Ref: faq/design how-does-python-manage-memory17664783
Ref: 513817664783
Ref: 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?-Footnote-117666677
Ref: 파이썬은 메모리를 어떻게 관리합니까?-Footnote-217666708
Node: CPython이 더 전통적인 가비지 수거 체계를 사용하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?17666733
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme17667052
Ref: 513917667052
Node: CPython이 종료될 때 모든 메모리가 해제되지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?17668215
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits17668561
Ref: 513a17668561
Node: 별도의 튜플과 리스트 데이터형이 있는 이유는 무엇입니까?17669414
Ref: faq/design why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types17669712
Ref: 513b17669712
Node: CPython에서 리스트는 어떻게 구현됩니까?17671154
Ref: faq/design how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython17671417
Ref: 513c17671417
Node: CPython에서 딕셔너리는 어떻게 구현됩니까?17672313
Ref: faq/design how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython17672566
Ref: 513d17672566
Node: 딕셔너리 키가 불변이어야 하는 이유는 무엇입니까?17673638
Ref: faq/design why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable17673921
Ref: 513e17673921
Node: list sort 가 정렬된 리스트를 반환하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?17678614
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list17678922
Ref: 513f17678922
Node: 파이썬에서 인터페이스 명세를 어떻게 지정하고 강제합니까?17679949
Ref: faq/design how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python17680229
Ref: 514017680229
Node: goto가 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?17683185
Ref: faq/design why-is-there-no-goto17683471
Ref: 514117683471
Node: 날 문자열 r-strings 이 역 슬래시로 끝날 수 없는 이유는 무엇입니까?17684792
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash17685081
Ref: 514217685081
Node: 왜 파이썬에는 어트리뷰트 대입을 위한 “with” 문이 없습니까?17686439
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments17686737
Ref: 514317686737
Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?17689514
Ref: faq/design why-don-t-generators-support-the-with-statement17689795
Ref: 514417689795
Node: if/while/def/class 문에 콜론이 필요한 이유는 무엇입니까?17690213
Ref: faq/design why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements17690480
Ref: 514517690480
Node: 파이썬은 왜 리스트와 튜플 끝에 쉼표를 허용합니까?17691340
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples17691548
Ref: 514617691548
Node: 라이브러리와 확장 FAQ17692854
Ref: faq/library doc17693011
Ref: 514717693011
Ref: faq/library library-and-extension-faq17693011
Ref: 514817693011
Node: 일반 라이브러리 관련 질문17693291
Ref: faq/library general-library-questions17693421
Ref: 514917693421
Node: 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?17694109
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x17694343
Ref: 514a17694343
Ref: 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?-Footnote-117695073
Ref: 작업 X를 수행할 모듈이나 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 찾습니까?-Footnote-217695098
Node: math py socket py regex py 등 소스 파일은 어디에 있습니까?17695129
Ref: faq/library where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file17695471
Ref: 514b17695471
Node: 유닉스에서 파이썬 스크립트를 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17696339
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix17696655
Ref: 514c17696655
Node: 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?17698514
Ref: faq/library is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python17698818
Ref: 514d17698818
Ref: 파이썬 용 curses/termcap 패키지가 있습니까?-Footnote-117699665
Node: 파이썬에 C의 onexit 와 동등한 것이 있습니까?17699725
Ref: faq/library is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python17699999
Ref: 514e17699999
Node: 시그널 처리기가 작동하지 않는 이유는 무엇입니까?17700220
Ref: faq/library why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work17700430
Ref: 514f17700430
Node: 일반적인 작업17700843
Ref: faq/library common-tasks17700991
Ref: 515017700991
Node: 파이썬 프로그램이나 컴포넌트를 어떻게 테스트합니까?17701262
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component17701456
Ref: 515117701456
Node: 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?17703806
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings17704077
Ref: 515217704077
Ref: 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?-Footnote-117704491
Ref: 독스트링으로 설명서를 어떻게 만듭니까?-Footnote-217704531
Node: 한 번에 하나의 키 입력을 받는 방법은 무엇입니까?17704566
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time17704754
Ref: 515317704754
Node: 스레드17705082
Ref: faq/library threads17705213
Ref: 515417705213
Node: 스레드를 사용하여 어떻게 프로그래밍합니까?17705702
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-program-using-threads17705902
Ref: 515517705902
Node: 제 스레드가 아무것도 실행되지 않는 것 같습니다 왜 그런가요?17706259
Ref: faq/library none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why17706538
Ref: 515617706538
Node: 여러 작업자 스레드 간에 작업을 어떻게 배달합니까?17708374
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads17708656
Ref: 515717708656
Node: 어떤 종류의 전역 값 변경이 스레드 안전합니까?17711501
Ref: faq/library what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe17711756
Ref: 515817711756
Node: 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?17713565
Ref: faq/library can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock17713741
Ref: 515917713741
Ref: 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?-Footnote-117717029
Ref: 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?-Footnote-217717071
Ref: 전역 인터프리터 록을 제거할 수 없습니까?-Footnote-317717115
Node: 입력과 출력<2>17717175
Ref: faq/library input-and-output17717325
Ref: 515a17717325
Node: 파일을 어떻게 삭제합니까? 그리고 다른 파일 질문들…17718203
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions17718377
Ref: 515b17718377
Node: 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?17719866
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-copy-a-file17720122
Ref: 515c17720122
Ref: 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?-Footnote-117720616
Ref: 파일을 어떻게 복사합니까?-Footnote-217720687
Node: 바이너리 데이터를 읽는 또는 쓰는 방법은 무엇입니까?17720739
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data17721031
Ref: 515d17721031
Node: os popen 으로 만든 파이프에서 os read 를 사용할 수 없는 것처럼 보입니다; 왜입니까?17722541
Ref: faq/library i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why17722849
Ref: 515e17722849
Node: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?17723487
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port17723787
Ref: 515f17723787
Ref: 직렬 RS232 포트에 어떻게 액세스합니까?-Footnote-117724167
Node: 왜 sys stdout stdin stderr 을 닫아도 닫히지 않습니까?17724210
Ref: faq/library why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it17724392
Ref: 516017724392
Node: 네트워크/인터넷 프로그래밍17725815
Ref: faq/library network-internet-programming17725974
Ref: 516117725974
Node: 파이썬에는 어떤 WWW 도구가 있습니까?17726453
Ref: faq/library what-www-tools-are-there-for-python17726649
Ref: 516217726649
Node: HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?17727188
Ref: faq/library what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html17727472
Ref: 516317727472
Ref: HTML 생성을 위해 어떤 모듈을 사용해야 합니까?-Footnote-117727724
Node: 파이썬 스크립트에서 메일을 보내려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17727776
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script17728097
Ref: 516417728097
Node: 소켓의 connect 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17729603
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket17729853
Ref: 516517729853
Ref: 소켓의 connect 메서드에서 블로킹을 피하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-117731415
Node: 데이터베이스17731444
Ref: faq/library databases17731600
Ref: 516617731600
Node: 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?17731810
Ref: faq/library are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python17732017
Ref: 516717732017
Ref: 파이썬에 데이터베이스 패키지에 대한 인터페이스가 있습니까?-Footnote-117732632
Node: 파이썬에서 영속 객체를 어떻게 구현합니까?17732689
Ref: faq/library how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python17732896
Ref: 516817732896
Node: 수학과 숫자17733376
Ref: faq/library mathematics-and-numerics17733485
Ref: 516917733485
Node: 파이썬에서 난수를 어떻게 생성합니까?17733596
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python17733701
Ref: 516a17733701
Node: 확장/내장 FAQ17734794
Ref: faq/extending doc17734954
Ref: 516b17734954
Ref: faq/extending extending-embedding-faq17734954
Ref: 516c17734954
Node: C로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?17736940
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c17737103
Ref: 516d17737103
Node: C++로 나만의 함수를 만들 수 있습니까?17737528
Ref: faq/extending id217737759
Ref: 516e17737759
Node: C를 쓰는 것은 어렵습니다; 대안이 있습니까?17738227
Ref: faq/extending c-wrapper-software17738484
Ref: 516f17738484
Ref: faq/extending writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives17738484
Ref: 517017738484
Node: C에서 임의의 파이썬 문장을 어떻게 실행할 수 있습니까?17738855
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c17739139
Ref: 517117739139
Node: C에서 임의의 파이썬 표현식을 어떻게 평가할 수 있습니까?17739787
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c17740069
Ref: 517217740069
Node: 파이썬 객체에서 C값을 어떻게 추출합니까?17740433
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object17740734
Ref: 517317740734
Node: Py_BuildValue 를 사용하여 임의 길이의 튜플을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?17742179
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length17742459
Ref: 517417742459
Node: C에서 객체의 메서드를 어떻게 호출합니까?17742727
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c17743048
Ref: 517517743048
Node: PyErr_Print 의 출력 또는 stdout/stderr로 인쇄되는 모든 것 을 어떻게 잡습니까?17744398
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr17744698
Ref: 517617744698
Node: C에서 파이썬으로 작성된 모듈에 어떻게 액세스합니까?17746057
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c17746366
Ref: 517717746366
Node: 파이썬에서 C++ 객체에 어떻게 인터페이스 합니까?17747371
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python17747682
Ref: 517817747682
Node: Setup 파일을 사용하여 모듈을 추가했는데 make가 실패합니다; 왜 그렇습니까?17748400
Ref: faq/extending i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why17748677
Ref: 517917748677
Node: 확장을 어떻게 디버깅합니까?17749157
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-debug-an-extension17749490
Ref: 517a17749490
Node: 리눅스 시스템에서 파이썬 모듈을 컴파일하고 싶지만 일부 파일이 없습니다 왜 그렇습니까?17750096
Ref: faq/extending i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why17750421
Ref: 517b17750421
Node: “잘못된 입력”과 “불완전한 입력”을 어떻게 구별할 수 있습니까?17750967
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input17751353
Ref: 517c17751353
Node: 정의되지 않은 g++ 기호 __builtin_new나 __pure_virtual을 어떻게 찾을 수 있습니까?17752566
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual17752987
Ref: 517d17752987
Node: 일부 메서드는 C로 구현되고 그 밖의 것은 파이썬으로 구현된 예를 들어 상속을 통해 객체 클래스를 만들 수 있습니까?17753517
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance17753837
Ref: 517e17753837
Node: 윈도우 파이썬 FAQ17754505
Ref: faq/windows doc17754675
Ref: 517f17754675
Ref: faq/windows python-on-windows-faq17754675
Ref: 518017754675
Ref: faq/windows windows-faq17754675
Ref: 518117754675
Node: 윈도우에서 파이썬 프로그램을 실행하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17755584
Ref: faq/windows faq-run-program-under-windows17755818
Ref: 518217755818
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows17755818
Ref: 518317755818
Node: 파이썬 스크립트 실행 파일로 만들려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17759891
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable17760208
Ref: 518417760208
Node: 왜 때때로 파이썬은 시작하는 데 시간이 오래 걸립니까?17760872
Ref: faq/windows why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start17761186
Ref: 518517761186
Node: 파이썬 스크립트에서 실행 파일을 만드는 방법은 무엇입니까?17762329
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script17762602
Ref: 518617762602
Node: * pyd 파일은 DLL과 동일합니까?17762934
Ref: faq/windows is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll17763221
Ref: 518717763221
Node: 윈도우 응용프로그램에 파이썬을 포함하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17764434
Ref: faq/windows how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application17764743
Ref: 518817764743
Node: 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17770128
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source17770472
Ref: 518917770472
Ref: 편집기가 내 파이썬 소스에 탭을 삽입하지 않도록 하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?-Footnote-117771692
Node: 블로킹 없이 키 입력을 확인하려면 어떻게 해야 합니까?17771734
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking17772057
Ref: 518a17772057
Node: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?17772454
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-solve-the-missing-api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0-dll-error17772664
Ref: 518b17772664
Ref: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?-Footnote-117773170
Node: 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스 FAQ17773228
Ref: faq/gui doc17773451
Ref: 518c17773451
Ref: faq/gui graphic-user-interface-faq17773451
Ref: 518d17773451
Node: 일반적인 GUI 질문17773640
Ref: faq/gui general-gui-questions17773795
Ref: 518e17773795
Node: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?17773852
Ref: faq/gui what-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python17774030
Ref: 518f17774030
Ref: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?-Footnote-117774895
Ref: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?-Footnote-217774937
Ref: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?-Footnote-317774964
Ref: 파이썬에 어떤 GUI 툴킷이 있습니까?-Footnote-417775043
Node: Tkinter 질문17775125
Ref: faq/gui tkinter-questions17775271
Ref: 519017775271
Node: Tkinter 응용 프로그램을 어떻게 고정 freeze 합니까?17775718
Ref: faq/gui how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications17775923
Ref: 519117775923
Node: I/O를 기다리는 동안 Tk 이벤트를 처리하도록 할 수 있습니까?17776649
Ref: faq/gui can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o17776946
Ref: 519217776946
Node: Tkinter에서 키 바인딩이 동작하지 않습니다 이유가 무엇입니까?17777546
Ref: faq/gui i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why17777769
Ref: 519317777769
Node: “왜 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치되어 있습니까?” FAQ17778440
Ref: faq/installed doc17778631
Ref: 519417778631
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq17778631
Ref: 519517778631
Node: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?<2>17778955
Ref: faq/installed what-is-python17779169
Ref: 519617779169
Ref: 파이썬이 무엇입니까?<2>-Footnote-117779717
Node: 내 컴퓨터에 파이썬이 설치된 이유는 무엇입니까?17779769
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine17780032
Ref: 519717780032
Node: 파이썬을 삭제할 수 있습니까?17781360
Ref: faq/installed can-i-delete-python17781582
Ref: 519817781582
Node: Deprecations17782540
Ref: deprecations/index doc17782655
Ref: 519917782655
Ref: deprecations/index deprecations17782655
Ref: 519a17782655
Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>17783005
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1417783129
Ref: 519b17783129
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-117787819
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-217787874
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-317787929
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-417787984
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-517788039
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-617788095
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-717788150
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-817788205
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-917788260
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1017788316
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1117788372
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1217788428
Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>17788484
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1517788650
Ref: 519c17788650
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-117792972
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-217793027
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-317793082
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-417793137
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-517793193
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-617793235
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Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1617793461
Ref: 519d17793461
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Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>17795696
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-future-versions17795851
Ref: 519e17795851
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-117802688
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-217802743
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-317802799
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-417802855
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-517802910
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Ref: deprecations/index c-api-deprecations17803078
Ref: 519f17803078
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Ref: deprecations/index id117803482
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Ref: glossary doc17810759
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